Patent Publication Number: US-10333319-B2

Title: Hybrid super-capacitor / rechargeable battery system

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a Continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/279,687 filed May 16, 2014, pending, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application 61/824,988 filed May 17, 2013 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Field of Invention 
     The present invention relates generally to the field of battery systems. More specifically, the present invention is related to a novel design for hybrid super-capacitor/battery systems in pulsed power applications. 
     Discussion of Related Art 
     Super-capacitors are specialized low voltage capacitors with very high capacitance in a relatively small size. These devices provide superior energy, power density and capability compared to standardly available capacitors based on older technologies. Several types of super-capacitors are commercially available including Electric Double Layer Capacitors (EDLCs) and Lithium Ion Capacitors (LiCs). Such devices are finding uses in automotive, power backup and consumer electronics applications, and are viable replacements for flywheels in energy-storage and bridge-power systems. 
     The key advantages of the super-capacitor technology over battery technology are the long lifetime, low leakage and high cycle life, along with much greater pulsed power capability for both charging and discharging. Battery technology still offers better energy storage density than super-capacitors but batteries can&#39;t compete with the power density, and lifetime advantages they provide. 
     Given the complementary capabilities of batteries and super-capacitors, there is a need in pulsed power applications for the incorporation of a hybrid approach using a combination of super-capacitors and batteries to offer the best performance while considering system cost and performance at the same time. 
     Embodiments of the present invention are an improvement over prior art systems and methods. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In one embodiment, the present invention provides a system comprising: a hybrid super-capacitor/battery system comprising a super-capacitor unit comprising one or more super-capacitors and a battery unit connected to a load, the battery unit comprising one or more battery cells rated at a battery output voltage; a DC/DC converter connected to said super-capacitor unit and said battery unit, the DC/DC converter allowing charging and discharging of said super-capacitors; and a hybrid algorithm comprising: a battery management system, a super-capacitor management system, a load management system, and a hybrid controller, the battery management system collecting a first set of data comprising voltage, current, and temperature measurements associated with the battery unit, and identifying a state and health of the battery unit based on the first set of data, the super-capacitor management system collecting a second set of data comprising voltage and temperature measurements associated with the super-capacitor, and determining a super-capacitor state and health based on the second set of data, the load management system collecting a third set of data comprising voltage and current data associated with the load, and determining a state of the load based on the third set of data, the hybrid controller sampling system measurements available through the battery management system, the super-capacitor management system, and the load management system, and manipulating the DC/DC converter to control power flow, wherein integration of the battery management system, the super-capacitor management, and the load management system with the hybrid controller routes bidirectional power and energy such that battery stress is reduced (the battery stress is reduced by keeping the charging and the discharging current within optimal range of the battery; the current levels are not necessarily the same for charging and discharging), and system performance is optimized, and wherein the system is effective whether it is supplying or absorbing energy. 
     In another embodiment, the present invention provides a system comprising: a hybrid super-capacitor/battery system comprising a super-capacitor unit comprising one or more super-capacitors and a battery unit connected to a load, the battery unit comprising one or more battery cells rated at a battery output voltage; a DC/DC converter connected to said super-capacitor unit and said battery unit, the DC/DC converter allowing charging and discharging of said super-capacitors; and a hybrid algorithm comprising: a battery management system, a super-capacitor management system, a load management system, and a hybrid controller, the battery management system collecting a first set of data comprising voltage, current, and temperature measurements associated with the battery unit, and identifying a state and health of the battery unit based on the first set of data, the super-capacitor management system collecting a second set of data comprising voltage and temperature measurements associated with the super-capacitor, determining a super-capacitor state and health based on the second set of data, and, based on collected second set of data, determining when energy should be sourced or sinked, the load management system collecting a third set of data comprising voltage and current data associated with to the load, and determining a state of the load based on the third set of data, the hybrid controller sampling system measurements available through the battery management system, the super-capacitor management system, and the load management system, and manipulating the DC/DC converter to control power flow, wherein integration of the battery management system, the super-capacitor management, and the load management system with the hybrid controller routes bidirectional power and energy such that battery stress is reduced (the battery stress is reduced by keeping the charging and the discharging current within optimal range of the battery; the current levels are not necessarily the same for charging and discharging), and system performance is optimized with regards to any of, or a combination of, the following parameters: cycle life, effective capacity, and reduced operating temperature, and wherein the system is effective whether it is supplying or absorbing energy. 
     In yet another embodiment, the present invention provides a system comprising: a hybrid super-capacitor/battery system comprising a super-capacitor unit comprising one or more super-capacitors and a battery unit connected to a load, the battery unit comprising one or more battery cells rated at a battery output voltage; a DC/DC converter connected to said super-capacitor unit and said battery unit, the DC/DC converter allowing charging and discharging of said super-capacitors; and a storage medium comprising computer readable program code which when executed by a processor implements a hybrid algorithm comprising: a battery management system, a super-capacitor management system, a load management system, and a hybrid controller, the storage medium comprising: computer readable program code which when executed by the processor implements the battery management system collecting a first set of data comprising voltage, current, and temperature measurements associated with the battery unit, and identifying a state and health of the battery unit based on the first set of data, computer readable program code which when executed by the processor implements the super-capacitor management system collecting a second set of data comprising voltage and temperature measurements associated with the super-capacitor, determining a super-capacitor state and health based on the second set of data, and, based on collected second set of data, determining when energy should be sourced or sinked, computer readable program code which when executed by the processor implements the load management system collecting a third set of data comprising voltage and current data associated with the load, and determining a state of the load based on the third set of data, computer readable program code which when executed by the processor implements the hybrid controller sampling system measurements available through the battery management system, the super-capacitor management system, and the load management system, and manipulating the DC/DC converter to control power flow, wherein integration of the battery management system, the super-capacitor management, and the load management system with the hybrid controller routes bidirectional power and energy such that battery stress is reduced (the battery stress is reduced by keeping the charging and the discharging current within optimal range of the battery; the current levels are not necessarily the same for charging and discharging), and system performance is optimized with regards to any of, or a combination of, the following parameters: cycle life, effective capacity, and reduced operating temperature, and wherein the system is effective whether it is supplying or absorbing energy. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The present disclosure, in accordance with one or more various examples, is described in detail with reference to the following figures. The drawings are provided for purposes of illustration only and merely depict examples of the disclosure. These drawings are provided to facilitate the reader&#39;s understanding of the disclosure and should not be considered limiting of the breadth, scope, or applicability of the disclosure. It should be noted that for clarity and ease of illustration these drawings are not necessarily made to scale. 
         FIG. 1  illustrates a non-limiting example of a hybrid system according to the teachings of the present invention. 
         FIG. 2  depicts an overview of the system feedback control model for forward boost, reverse buck converter. 
         FIG. 3  illustrates the bidirectional power converter circuitry according to one embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG. 4  illustrates the three-phase converter topology according to one embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG. 5  illustrates the three-phase converter current waveform with interleaved operation according to one embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG. 6  illustrates the switch controller with interleaved closed loop current controllers and PWM according to one embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG. 7  illustrates a second embodiment of a non-limiting example of a hybrid system according to the teachings of the present invention with output dc/dc converter that allows a range of output load voltages. 
         FIG. 8  depicts an overview of the system feedback control model for forward boost, reverse buck operation with outer current controller and without inner loop voltage controller. 
         FIGS. 9A-D  illustrate preferred embodiments of the hybrid super-capacitor/battery system for portable power application. The BA-5590 is battery-only standard portable power unit. Other power units can be applied in a similar way.  FIG. 9A  shows the standard BA-5590 connected to a load device.  FIG. 9B  illustrates a non-limiting example of the hybrid system taught here replacing the standard BA-5590 battery system. The super-capacitor/batteries are integrated into a portable power hybrid system.  FIG. 9C  illustrates the hybrid power system taught here but with the hybridization achieved with a standard BA-5590 connected to an external Hybrid Module, which in turn is connected to the load device.  FIG. 9D  illustrates the hybrid power system taught here but with the hybridization achieved with the standard BA-5590 connected to a load device, with such load device incorporating the hybridization module. 
         FIG. 10  illustrates the success of the hybrid super-capacitor/batteries system in extending the discharge lifetime of batteries during a pulsed power load. 
         FIG. 11  shows a preferred embodiment of the hybrid super-capacitor/batteries system that is the same form and fit replacement for a standard BA-5590 battery pack. 
         FIG. 12  depicts the basic elements of a hybrid system. 
         FIG. 13  shows the hybrid algorithm structure and interconnection within the hybrid system. 
         FIG. 14A-M  illustrate valid hybrid system energy flow states. 
         FIG. 15  shows the energy density distribution for the alkaline chemistry distribution as a function of discharge rate and ambient temperature. 
         FIG. 16  shows improved discharge capacity using they hybrid approach compared to the battery-only approach. 
         FIG. 17  depicts improvement of charge capacity using the hybrid approach compared to the battery-only approach. 
         FIG. 18  depicts improvement in temperature (battery cooler) using the hybrid approach compared to the battery-only approach. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     While this invention is illustrated and described in a preferred embodiment, the invention may be produced in many different configurations. There is depicted in the drawings, and will herein be described in detail, a preferred embodiment of the invention, with the understanding that the present disclosure is to be considered as an exemplification of the principles of the invention and the associated functional specifications for its construction and is not intended to limit the invention to the embodiment illustrated. Those skilled in the art will envision many other possible variations within the scope of the present invention. 
     Note that in this description, references to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” mean that the feature being referred to is included in at least one embodiment of the invention. Further, separate references to “one embodiment” in this description do not necessarily refer to the same embodiment; however, neither are such embodiments mutually exclusive, unless so stated and except as will be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. Thus, the present invention can include any variety of combinations and/or integrations of the embodiments described herein. 
     The Hybrid Super-Capacitor/Battery System Concept 
     The basic idea of the hybrid super-capacitor/battery (HSCB) concept is to use the power (and other) capabilities of the super-capacitors to augment the good energy capability of batteries, and provide system performance with the best of both devices. Essentially, high-power short-duration pulses would be supplied by capacitors, while batteries would supply the overall average power and energy demands of the load. In this way, thermal stresses and energy loss are minimized in the battery. This approach will always result in greater battery capacity, lifetime and number of charge/discharge cycles. This benefit comes with the addition of super-capacitors and support circuitry, which adds cost and complexity to the system. However, depending on the application, these factors can be offset by cost, weight and space savings when the number of battery cells can be substantially reduced, as well as the future cost savings due to longer battery life. In applications where cost and space/weight are not primary concerns, the hybrid approach provides a way to keep the same number of battery cells, which allows the batteries to provide even longer runtime (i.e. greater energy capacity), while providing overall better system specifications by enhancing the pulsed power capability. 
     The use of both super-capacitors and battery cells, with their very different voltage levels and discharge profiles, requires a DC/DC converter system capable of bidirectional energy flow to allow both charging and discharging of the super-capacitors. This allows efficient energy transfer between the super-capacitors and battery cells, in a suitably configured system. In pulsed power applications, the use of a hybrid approach (particularly under high pulsed power and low temperature conditions) allows the existing battery system to ride through transient loading and provide excellent energy density and power density under practical loading conditions. 
       FIG. 1  illustrates a block diagram of one design topology for the hybrid battery system. It should be noted that other design topologies are also possible, and that the setup depicted in  FIG. 1  is provided as a non-limiting example for discussion purposes. A feature of this topology is that the battery connection is directly available to the load. In this example, the system is controlled by a microprocessor or micro controller  108 , preferably an ultra-low power microprocessor or micro controller  108 , which allows low power monitoring modes without significantly draining the battery energy. Once a power load is applied to the battery  102 , the microprocessor or micro controller  108  quickly activates and enables an advance control mode. With monitoring of the energy states of the super-capacitor block  104  (which, in a non-limiting example, could be a Lithium Ion Capacitor (LIC) cell bank in series and/or parallel combination) and battery banks  102 , as well as the temperatures, load voltages and currents, the DC/DC converter  106  is able to provide the optimum power delivery from the battery  102  and the super-capacitor block  104 . When the power load-conditions are light enough, the capacitors in the super-capacitor block  104  automatically recharge, via the DC/DC converter  106  in a reverse energy flow mode. In this setup, the super-capacitor block  104  discharges in a forward energy flow mode. The microprocessor or micro controller  108  allows the incorporation of advanced decision making based on existing environmental and load conditions.  FIG. 7  illustrates a block diagram of another design topology for the hybrid battery system that adds an output dc/dc converter to the topology of  FIG. 1 . A feature of this topology is that the output voltage of the system is not constrained by the output voltage of the Battery Cell bank and can be set by the dc/dc converter as appropriate for varied load requirements. 
     Importance of Advanced Control Algorithms in HSCB Systems 
     Hybrid use of super-capacitors with batteries, along with proper system control, will provide much improved overall power performance in pulsed power applications. From a performance point of view, there are no real disadvantages to the hybrid approach since a properly configured and controlled system will disable the super-capacitor support in circumstances when it does not provide advantages. However, this leads to a key point that proper control requires its own innovations, and useful approaches are not obvious. 
     To highlight this point, consider a simple control scheme in which the battery current (or alternatively a power set-point could be used) is held to a constant value by the control system. The current-set-point (or power-set-point) would be tuned to a value optimized for a given power load profile for the particular load on the particular system. This is important to make sure that the average power or total energy from the batteries is sufficient to power the load over a long period. The reason this is important is that the batteries are the energy source and the super-capacitors are used to provide the power during the high power pulse periods. Thus, the battery output current (and power) is either used to drive the load, or to recharge the super-capacitors. If the load power is low and the super-capacitors are already fully charged, then that would be the only condition where the battery is not supplying the full current (or power) output specified by the control set-point. This approach will surely provide load leveling for the battery and give many benefits for lifetime and reliability of the system. However, if the power pulses are not large enough, then the hybrid system may waste energy (as heat in the DC/DC converter). This loss of capacity may not always be desirable, despite the other significant benefits offered. 
     The above effect can be explained in a simple way. Basically, the hybrid approach is able to relieve a significant amount of the heat loss in a battery (dissipated by the internal battery resistance). However, the DC/DC converter itself has its own heat loss (due to efficiency limits). In addition, the value of the peak power pulses is what determines whether the loss in the converter is less than the loss in the battery. Above a certain power pulse threshold, the hybrid approach gives more charge and energy capacity than the battery would provide on its own. However, below this threshold, the battery alone would have more charge and energy capacity. 
     This highlights why a more advanced control scheme can provide better overall performance when compared to a simple set-point based control scheme. The simple scheme will blindly charge and discharge the super-capacitors without regard to whether the power load profile is suitable to allow the hybrid approach to give all of the benefits, including increased charge capacity and energy capacity for the system. A more advanced control scheme would have the ability to disable the hybrid control function and allow the battery to run alone during periods where there are no power pulses or during periods where there are only low-power pulses that are not large enough to allow the hybrid approach to give the best system capacity. 
     Improved Control Algorithm for HSCB Systems 
     The hybrid battery system has two key requirements to be addressed by the system controller. First, there is a voltage specification that the output must maintain to be usable in the application. Second, there is the requirement to control and balance the battery current, while simultaneously providing the needed load current (and voltage). Due to these two requirements, the proposed control scheme is to use two feedback loops. An inner voltage control loop, operating at faster speed, provides control of the load voltage to maintain a commanded value in the required range, and (provided the limits are not violated) to further regulate the voltage near the battery output voltage, which varies in time as the battery drains. An outer current control loop, operating at slower speed provides the voltage command, when the limits are not violated, while controlling the battery current to a predetermined set-point based on the required operating conditions. It can be noted the two required functions of voltage regulation and current load leveling are both achieved with fast transient response. The current set-point is as described above, and allows the battery output to be load-leveled and allows the super-capacitors to provide the pulsed power needed by the load. If a simple constant value is used, then the system functions as described, although there is a possibility for small power pulses to cause the hybrid system to have lower charge- and energy-capacity than the battery operating alone. However, an to improvement to the control system can be made by having hysteresis in the current set-point. This means that two values are specified and the controller does not allow the super-capacitors to power the load unless the load current is above the higher set-point value. Then, the controller does not allow the super-capacitors to be recharged until the load power is below the lower set-point value. In this way, the hybrid system can only operate when it will provide improved charge-capacity and improved energy capacity in comparison to the battery operating alone. 
     Note that the system could be operated with a single control loop regulating the battery current only. This works and will (in principle) maintain both current and voltage to the proper levels. However, due to controller bandwidth limits and the greater difficulty in controlling current at high speed, there is significant risk of the single controller transient response allowing the voltage to violate the specified voltage limits, since this method provides no ability to monitor and control the voltage directly. Basically, a dual feedback loop offers advantages over a direct control of current with one feedback loop. The voltage control loop is easier to operate at faster speed, and there is a need to meet voltage specifications during transients, and this requirement overrides any longer term requirement to balance current loading. The super-capacitor energy is more than sufficient to handle short-term current surges to help keep voltage under control, and any voltage dip limit at the load defines an immediate failure of the system. If direct current control is used, there is no guarantee that transients won&#39;t allow the output voltage to go outside the allowed specifications The typical transient response time of the voltage control loop should be adequate to maintain the load voltage range. 
       FIG. 2  depicts a block diagram of the proposed dual voltage/current feedback loop. The diagram indicates that the controller is a digital discrete time system with discrete time indicated by n. A moderately high-speed PWM frequency is used to provide a good compromise between the size of magnetic components and conversion efficiency. The PWM generator allows a discrete number of steps (i.e. the quantizer) and drives MOSFET switches to control the system duty cycle. The diagram shows the separate control sections for voltage and current, and both feedback loops use PI controllers, although other types of controllers can also be applied. Referencing the PI Voltage Controller subsystem, the blocks labeled G PV , Integrator, and G IV  form the PI controller for the voltage control loop, with G PV  being the proportional gain and G IV  being the integral gain. Referencing the PI Current Controller subsystem, the blocks labeled G PC , Integrator, and G IC  form the PI controller for the current control loop, with G PC  being the proportional gain and G IC  being the integral gain. The blocks labeled LPF are low pass filters used prior to sampling the input signals. The ZOH blocks are zero order holds and are typical sample and hold operation of a digital controller. The Saturation with enable blocks are signal limiters that only allow the input signal to pass through the block if it is within the prescribed maximum and minimum values. Otherwise, the output of that block is limited to the maximum or minimum value allowed. The Switch Controller subsystem features a PWM generator which generates varying duty cycle switching commands based on the input signal D[n]. The switching commands operate the Switches in the Bi-directional Switching Converter subsystem. The switches control the flow of current between the battery, super-capacitors, and load. The system monitors the capacitor bank voltage and uses it to provide a feed forward signal into the voltage controller. The battery current is monitored and used as the input measurement for the current controller, while the load voltage is monitored and used as the input measurement for the voltage controller. Relevant filtering and sampling are as shown. 
     Typically, the controller sample frequency F control  would be at a multiple sub-division of the PWM frequency F switch . It can be seen that the controller must generate the PWM signal s(t) in order to drive the switches. However, the controller itself needs to only generate the duty cycle D[n], and a PWM generator can generate the actual analog signal. The duty cycle D[n] and switch control signal s(t) are related to each other by the following mathematical formulas, noting that n=└t·F control ┘, where the half bracket/bar notation means the floor function, or rounding down to the lower integer value. 
     
       
         
           
             
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     This system has a PWM generator that is capable of generating a particular quantization of discrete duty cycles in the range of 0 to 1. This resolution limit can introduce noticeable variation of the output control if the resolution in the quantizer is too low, hence some effort could be made to ensure adequate resolution, or allow the PWM generator to alter the duty cycle during the discrete time interval n, so that the average duty cycle takes on fraction values between the allowed resolution steps. 
     The command for the PWM generator is limited by a saturation-block. The limits are set at 0.05 and 0.95, but these limits are broader than needed and should actually be tuned as appropriate for the particular application. For example, a tolerance band around the feed forward value can be used. The saturation block generates an enable signal for the integrator, which halts integration if a limit is hit. The controller must also monitor several circuit variables by sampling with A/D converters at the controller rate, and each of the two controllers is digitally implemented as PI controllers, as shown. The inner voltage control loop monitors the load voltage to maintain the voltage at the value commanded by the outer current control loop. If the current control loop tries to command values outside the allowed voltage range, the saturation block limits the command (range is V low  to V high ) and disables the integrator. The outer current control loop monitors the battery current to maintain a level current draw from the battery. 
     Both PI controllers also utilize a feed forward signal to improve system response but the feed forward may be omitted in less demanding control applications. The inner voltage loop uses the commanded output voltage and the value of the input capacitor voltage to estimate the typical duty cycle that would be needed to generate that output voltage under those conditions. It can be seen that the calculation of estimated duty cycle is simply the ratio of output voltage to input voltage, as is typically expected in a boost converter. The outer current control loop uses an estimated value or typical value for the commanded voltage. In this implementation, the feed forward value is just a pre-stored constant V ff ; however, a real system could keep a record of the estimated remaining battery capacity (by monitoring and integrating battery current, with considerations for temperature etc.) and use measured battery temperature, along with a formula or look-up table to estimate the expected output voltage. The outer current loop also uses a commanded current value, which can be a pre-stored value based on the expected load profile, or could be an adjustable value by the user. Essentially, a real implementation can use the microcontroller to provide additional intelligence to aid the feedback loops in performing their functions. 
     It should be noted that the controller in  FIG. 2  has an input command value for the current-set-point indicated as i cmd . It is this input variable that is usable for more advanced control schemes. The first level of improvement for the control is to replace the simple constant value with a value that changes between a number of different values; for two conditions an example is: a low value i cmd-low  and a high value i cmd-high . The low value is used when recharging the super-capacitors and the high value is used when the super-capacitors are potentially going to provide power to the load. By proper setting of these two values for a given application, the controller ensures that there is never a condition where the super-capacitors are operating in conditions that will result in lower charge-capacity and/or lower energy-capacity. The value for i cmd  can even be used to effectively disable the converter operation under certain operating conditions in which that mode of operation can improve system efficiency. For instance, i cmd  can be set to disable current flow from the capacitors between the high and low current-set-point thresholds so that the battery supplies the load instead of the capacitors when it is more efficient to do so. Hence, the system designer is able to configure the system for efficient operation that provides all of the benefits of a hybrid system for load leveling, reduced stress and better reliability for the battery. And, it does this without needlessly wasting battery capacity. 
     Additional refinements on the control can then be added by making the i cmd-low  and i cmd-high  set-points functions of other system variables. For example, the low current set-point, which is relevant for charging the super-capacitors, can be made a function of the super-capacitor charge voltage and it may be desirable to increase the set-point level if the capacitor voltage gets too low. This will help prevent the super-capacitors from becoming fully discharged. Hence, battery energy capacity may be sacrificed a little bit to ensure that the hybrid system capability is available when needed. 
     Various other control refinements can be made by utilizing the above control structure, and these details may depend heavily on the application. For example, advanced algorithms can analyze the recent load profile history to either identify expected modes of operation, or to just classify the load type. The controller settings can then be automatically adjusted based on the result. For example, if an aggressive mode of operation is predicted, then the state of charge on the capacitors may be set at a higher level than under nominal operating conditions. 
     Power Converter 
     The Switch Controller in combination with the Switches in the Bi-directional Switching Converter subsystemr in  FIG. 2  form a bidirectional boost/buck dc/dc converter capable of moving energy back and forth between the internal high voltage bus and the internal low voltage bus. The converter allows maximum utilization of the stored energy in the capacitor by allowing the capacitor voltage to vary widely during discharge while maintaining a regulated bus voltage that will nominally match the battery stack voltage.  FIG. 3  shows that a typical topology consists of single half bridge switching module along with appropriate filter components. The capacitor module can be connected to the low voltage side of the converter, V LV , and the internal high voltage bus is connected to the high side of the converter, V HV , which is typically a battery voltage stack. It should be noted that it is also possible to connect the capacitors to the high voltage side of the converter and the bus to the low voltage side if enough capacitors are stacked in series to yield a voltage larger than the bus, without changing the validity of the approaches discussed here. Operating the switches at a duty cycle that is equal to the ratio between the high and low voltage sources is the nominal balanced operation. Increasing the duty cycle results in a buck operation where current is forced into the low voltage capacitor bank from V HV , thereby charging the capacitors. Decreasing the duty cycle will result in boost operation where current is supplied to the high voltage bus from the capacitor bank, thereby relieving load on the battery stack. 
     The controller can therefore alter the switch duty cycle as part of a closed loop control algorithm such that energy can be transferred to or from the high voltage bus (V HV ) and therefore it can compensate for transients on the high voltage bus. Typical efficiencies for such a converter are in the range of 94%. 
     The power electronics architecture is scalable in that multiple parallel phases can be added to increase power levels and distribute the capacitor output current so as not to overload a particular phase. This especially important as the capacitors discharge, since a decreasing voltage on the capacitor stack results in an increase of current through the converter for constant power internal dc bus loads. The controller can also use the parallel phases to increase the effective switching frequency of the system by synchronizing and interleaving the phases.  FIG. 4  shows a three phase, two level, converter and  FIG. 5  shows the interleaved and resulting total current waveforms. The total current waveform has significantly reduced current ripple and the ripple frequency has been increased by a factor of three. This reduces the amplitude of the harmonics and increases their frequency which is more easily removed by the filtering components in the converter. Further increasing the number of phases will further increase the effective switching frequency. In addition, the additional phases can be commanded independently by a high bandwidth controller, thereby increasing the response time of the system to transient loading. 
     Switch Controller 
     There are a number of switch control configurations that can be investigated for this application. One of the simplest methods is shown in  FIG. 2 . The output of the Voltage Controller, D[n], is input to a PWM block that quantizes the signal and pulse width modulates it to yield signal s(t) that is suitable to operate the switches in the Power Converter, thereby regulating the battery current and the bus voltage. The need for a fast response to transients is addressed by a combination of feed forward and feedback control found in the Voltage Controller and Current Controller systems. 
     Further improvement in performance can be achieved by modifying the Switch Controller to include closed loop controllers that regulate the phase current through each phase inductor, Iph n , as shown in  FIG. 4 . In addition, in the work here, the controller can be partitioned into synchronized time slices such that each phase of the inverter can immediately respond to commanded voltage changes. In this way, the overall inverter response time is not limited by the fundamental switching frequency of the component switch.  FIG. 6  is a block diagram of the control structure that illustrates the concept. 
     In developing the controller, for a specific application, there is a design tradeoff between the increased effective bandwidth versus the added hardware. This choice will also be affected by the type of inverter switching element, with IGBTs (about 20 kHz), and MOSFETs (&gt;100&#39;s kHz) the industry standards, and others possible. Another advantage of the individual phase control is robustness to a failed or unbalanced phase since the command synchronizer can skip a disabled phase or adjust its gains or voltage to compensate for an unbalanced phase. 
       FIG. 7 , as noted above, depicts a second embodiment of a non-limiting example of a hybrid system according to the teachings of the present invention with output DC/DC converter that allows a range of output load voltages.  FIG. 7  illustrates a block diagram of one design topology for the hybrid battery system. A feature of this topology is that the output voltage of the system is not constrained by the output voltage of the battery cell bank  202  and can be set by the output dc/dc converter  210  as appropriate for varied load requirements. 
     In this example, the system is controlled by a microprocessor or micro controller  208 , preferably an ultra-low power microprocessor or micro controller  208 , which allows low power monitoring modes without significantly draining the battery energy. Once a power load is applied to the battery  202 , the microprocessor or micro controller  208  quickly activates and enables an advance control mode. With monitoring of the energy states of the super-capacitor block  204  (which, in a non-limiting example, could be a Lithium Ion Capacitor (LIC) cell bank in series and/or parallel combination) and battery banks  202 , as well as the temperatures, load voltages and currents, the DC/DC converter  206  is able to provide the optimum power delivery from the battery  202  and the super-capacitor block  204 . The optimum power delivered from the super-capacitor and battery combination is input to an output DC/DC converter  210  that can boost or buck its input voltage such that its output voltage on the output terminals is adjusted to match the load. When the power load-conditions are light enough, the capacitors in the super-capacitor block  204  automatically recharge, via the DC/DC converter  206  in a reverse energy flow mode. In this setup, the super-capacitor block  204  discharges in a forward energy flow mode. The microprocessor or micro controller  208  allows the incorporation of advanced decision making based on existing environmental and load conditions. 
       FIG. 8  depicts an overview of the system feedback control model for forward boost, reverse buck operation with outer current controller and without inner loop voltage controller. The diagram indicates that the controller is a digital discrete time system with discrete time indicated by n. A moderately high-speed PWM frequency is used to provide a good compromise between the size of magnetic components and conversion efficiency. The PWM generator allows a discrete number of steps (i.e. the quantizer) and drives MOSFET switches to control the system duty cycle. The diagram shows the control section the current feedback loop using a PI controller, although other types of controllers can also be applied. Referencing the PI Current Controller subsystem, the blocks labeled G PC , Integrator, and G IC  form the PI controller for the current control loop, with G PC  being the proportional gain and G IC  being the integral gain. The block labeled LPF is a low pass filter used prior to sampling the input signals. The ZOH blocks are zero order holds and are typical sample and hold operations for a digital controller. The Saturation with enable block is a signal limiter that only allows the input signal to pass through the block if it is within the prescribed maximum and minimum values. Otherwise, the output of that block is limited to the maximum or minimum value allowed. The Switch Controller subsystem features a PWM generator which generates varying duty cycle switching commands based on the input signal D[n]. The switching commands operate the Switches in the Bi-directional Switching Converter subsystem. The switches control the flow of current between the battery, super-capacitors, and load. The system monitors the capacitor bank voltage and uses it to provide a feed forward signal into the voltage controller. The battery current is monitored and used as the input measurement for the current controller, while the load voltage is monitored and used as the input measurement for the voltage controller. Relevant filtering and sampling are as shown. 
     Typically, the controller sample frequency F control  would be at a multiple sub-division of the PWM frequency F switch . It can be seen that the controller must generate the PWM signal s(t) in order to drive the switches. However, the controller itself needs to only generate the duty cycle D[n], and a PWM generator can generate the actual analog signal. The duty cycle D[n] and switch control signal s(t) are related to each other by the following mathematical formulas, noting that n=└t·F control ┘, where the half bracket/bar notation means the floor function, or rounding down to the lower integer value. 
     
       
         
           
             
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     This system has a PWM generator that is capable of generating a particular quantization of discrete duty cycles in the range of 0 to 1. This resolution limit can introduce noticeable variation of the output control if the resolution in the quantizer is too low, hence some effort could be made to ensure adequate resolution, or allow the PWM generator to alter the duty cycle during the discrete time interval n, so that the average duty cycle takes on fraction values between the allowed resolution steps. 
     The command for the PWM generator is limited by a saturation-block. For example, a tolerance band around the feed forward value can be used. The saturation block generates an enable signal for the integrator, which halts integration if a limit is hit. The controller must also monitor several circuit variables by sampling with A/D converters at the controller rate, and the controller is digitally implemented as a PI controller, as shown. If the current control loop tries to command values outside the allowed duty cycle range, the saturation block limits the command (range is D low  to D high ) and disables the integrator. The outer current control loop monitors the battery current to maintain a level current draw from the battery. 
     The PI controller also utilizes a feed forward signal to improve system response but the feed forward may be omitted in less demanding control applications. The inner voltage feed forward uses the measured voltage and the value of the input capacitor voltage to estimate the typical duty cycle that would be needed to generate that output voltage under those conditions. It can be seen that the calculation of estimated duty cycle is simply the ratio of output voltage to input voltage, as is typically expected in a boost converter. The current control loop uses an estimated value or typical value for the commanded voltage. In this implementation, the feed forward value is just a pre-stored constant V ff ; however, a real system could keep a record of the estimated remaining battery capacity (by monitoring and integrating battery current, with considerations for temperature etc.) and use measured battery temperature, along with a formula or look-up table to estimate the expected output voltage. The current loop also uses a commanded current value, which can be a pre-stored value based on the expected load profile, or could be an adjustable value by the user. Essentially, a real implementation can use the microcontroller to provide additional intelligence to aid the feedback loops in performing their functions. 
     It should be noted that the controller in  FIG. 8  has an input command value for the current-set-point indicated as i cmd . It is this input variable that is usable for more advanced control schemes. The first level of improvement for the control is to replace the simple constant value with a value that changes between a number of different values; for two conditions an example is: a low value i cmd-low  and a high value i cmd-high . The low value is used when recharging the super-capacitors and the high value is used when the super-capacitors are potentially going to provide power to the load. By proper setting of these two values for a given application, the controller ensures that there is never a condition where the super-capacitors are operating in conditions that will result in lower charge-capacity and/or lower energy-capacity. The value for i cmd  can even be used to effectively disable the converter operation under certain operating conditions in which that mode of operation can improve system efficiency. For instance, i cmd  can be set to disable current flow from the capacitors between the high and low current-set-point thresholds so that the battery supplies the load instead of the capacitors when it is more efficient to do so. Hence, the system designer is able to configure the system for efficient operation that provides all of the benefits of a hybrid system for load leveling, reduced stress and better reliability for the battery. And, it does this without needlessly wasting battery capacity. 
     Additional refinements on the control can then be added by making the i cmd-low  and i cmd-high  set-points functions of other system variables. For example, the low current set-point, which is relevant for charging the super-capacitors, can be made a function of the super-capacitor charge voltage and it may be desirable to increase the set-point level if the capacitor voltage gets too low. This will help prevent the super-capacitors from becoming fully discharged. Hence, battery energy capacity may be sacrificed a little bit to ensure that the hybrid system capability is available when needed. 
     Various other control refinements can be made by utilizing the above control structure, and these details may depend heavily on the application. For example, advanced algorithms can analyze the recent load profile history to either identify expected modes of operation, or to just classify the load type. The controller settings can then be automatically adjusted based on the result. For example, if an aggressive mode of operation is predicted, then the state of charge on the capacitors may be set at a higher level than under nominal operating conditions. 
     An application of the hybrid system is to provide a high energy high power portable power source to replace and/or enhance the performance of a standard BA-5590 battery pack. This unit is typically carried by soldiers and used to power portable devices such as communications devices. The need for high power bursts during communications, for example, are well addressed by the hybrid super-capacitor battery system.  FIG. 9A  shows the typical interconnection between a standard BA-5590 and a Load Device.  FIG. 9B  illustrates the replacement of the standard BA-5590 with the Hybrid BA-5590. Notice that the Batteries are now supplemented by the DC/DC converter and super-capacitors as described above.  FIG. 9C  illustrates how the hybrid system here can be used as an external enhancement to a standard BA-5590. In this implementation, the Hybridization Module is externally connected in series with the BA-5590.  FIG. 9D  illustrates another embodiment of the hybrid system, but with the Hybridization Module incorporated into the Load Device. In each case, the physical location of the hybrid components is changed but the overall system is the same as described above. 
       FIG. 10  illustrates the discharge performance improvement that can be realized using the hybrid system with a pulsed power load. The light gray plot is the output voltage of a 5-cell battery stack as compared to the black plot output voltage of a hybrid super-capacitor/5 cell battery stack. The tests were performed operating at −20° C. with a nominal output voltage of 12V. This empirical data was measured for an operating system with a pulsing power load between 20 W (10% of the time) and 6 W (90% of the time), but is indicative of similar performance at higher power levels. The super-capacitor is effective in providing high pulse power and is recharged from the batteries during the time that the load requires 6 W. Over time, energy is drawn from the system and the output voltage diminishes. The test is considered to be completed when the output voltage reaches 10V. It can be seen that the battery-only system is discharged in about 5 hours while the hybrid system is discharged in approximately 14 hours. The hybrid system has reduced stress on the batteries and it operates almost 3× longer than with the batteries alone. 
       FIG. 11  illustrates a preferred embodiment of the hybrid super-capacitor/batteries system that is form and fit compatible with a standard BA-5590 battery pack. This configuration corresponds to the case shown in  FIG. 9B . A feature of this system is that the controller and super-capacitor are field separable from the battery compartment. Once spent, the batteries can be removed and discarded while the super-capacitor and control circuitry can be used again with a new set of batteries. This replacement can also be performed in the field. 
     It should be noted that as technology advances, the hybrid techniques and controls presented here can be applied to other combinations of sources when one source has high energy capability but lower power capability and the other source has higher power capability and lower energy capability (relative to each other). For example, another similar hybrid combination is fuel cell as the high energy source and the super-capacitors as the high power source. In the following discussion, the hybrid system consists of batteries as the high energy source and super-capacitors as the high power capability source. It should also be noted that the hybrid architecture is not limited to only two power sources but can be a hybrid of a multitude of power sources, each with different energy/power capabilities. 
     The various embodiments described above are provided by way of illustration only and should not be construed to limit the scope of the disclosure. Those skilled in the art will readily recognize various modifications and changes that may be made to the principles described herein without following the example embodiments and applications illustrated and described herein, and without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. 
     The development of a hybrid system featuring high energy density and high-power density for primary battery cells has been demonstrated by us in the prior patent entitled, “Design for Hybrid Super-Capacitor/Battery Systems in Pulsed Power Applications” (U.S. application Ser. No. 14/279,687 filed May 16, 2014). There, the hybrid technology utilizing lithium ion batteries and lithium ion super-capacitors featured a bidirectional dc/dc converter that controlled the battery current such that pulsed power loads are supplied by the super-capacitor to minimize stress on the batteries. That system excelled in significantly extending lifetime and performance over a battery-only system with loads requiring pulse power profiles. The hybrid approach demonstrated in testing the ability to support SATCOM military communications profiles where battery only approaches failed. 
     The current patent application extends that hybrid system by modifying the control algorithm such that the super-capacitor can not only supply pulsed power, but it now can also absorb pulsed power from the load while keeping the battery current constant such that the incoming pulsed power does not stress the battery. The absorbed energy is accumulated in the capacitor and then the control algorithm operates the dc/dc converter to recharge the battery with the energy from the capacitor at a rate that optimized battery performance. If the current from the load to the hybrid system is within the optimal operating range of the battery, then the hybrid system will allow the load to directly charge the battery. This hybrid system keeps the battery current operating in its most efficient range during both discharging and charging (the discharging and charging currents may be different values) by using the super-capacitor to supply or absorb pulsed in energy that would otherwise stress the rechargeable battery and result in reduced battery cycle life and/or reduced effective capacity over time. The applications for this hybrid system include quick charge and carry, regenerative energy from the load, and energy harvesting. Whereas the prior hybrid system was directly applicable to portable power such as the BA-5590 family of primary battery cell packs, this system is now also directly applicable to rechargeable portable power such as the BB-2590 family of rechargeable battery cell packs. 
     Our previous work in the development of the Hybrid system mainly considered primary cells and so power or energy was flowing out of the system to the load. Extending that focus to hybrid integration for a rechargeable battery cell system significantly increases complexity as another dimension of power or energy flow is introduced. The latest revision of the hybrid system has circuitry and algorithms that have been extended to allow for power flow into and out of each of the systems interfaces. These interfaces include the battery interface, super-capacitor interface, and the external load interface which is the point in the circuit in which either an external source or sink is connected. The DC/DC converter is a bidirectional converter that allows energy to flow into the super-capacitor or out of the super-capacitor.  FIG. 12  depicts the basic elements of the hybrid system as described above. Note that the battery can directly supply or absorb (recharge) energy from the load if that energy is at a low enough rate such that it does not stress the battery. This hybrid system for rechargeables does allow charging directly to the battery from the load. The capacitor keeps the battery current in an optimal operating range and the capacitor will absorb any additional energy (for example high pulsed current) as required. High power discharging and/or absorbing to/from the load is first routed to the super-capacitor via the bidirectional converter. The energy is then moved from/to the super-capacitor to/from the battery at a slower rate to optimize the battery&#39;s performance. 
     The hybrid controller may be organized into several separate software structures that promote optimization and allow for development of each aspect of the system separately and efficiently. The defined software structures as indicated in  FIG. 13  include the battery management system, LIC management system, load or external interface management system, and hybrid controller. The battery management system maintains voltage, current, and temperature measurements and uses these quantities to identify the state and health of the batteries. For example, battery&#39;s state of charge is monitored by its voltage and current load over time so that the system can determine when the battery can accept a recharge and when it can source energy. The optimum current to/from the battery can be temperature dependent and thus can be automatically adapted to changes in temperature. In addition, if the battery is composed of a number of series connected cells, charge balancing between the cells may be required and incorporated into this system. Likewise, the LIC management system collects voltage and temperature measurements and uses these to also determine LIC state and health. This component of the algorithm, then, indicates the state of charge of the capacitor and determines when it can source or sink energy. The load management system has the capability of collecting voltage and current data to determine the state of the external load. If the load requires energy, the hybrid will supply it, if it is regenerating energy, the hybrid will absorb it. Note that if the external load is supplying energy and the super-capacitor is fully charged and the battery is either fully charged or cannot accept the energy at a high enough rate, then the hybrid has switch hardware that can disconnect the load to prevent damage to the unit. Lastly, the hybrid controller structure is responsible for sampling the system measurements, available through each of the management systems, and using them to determine how to manipulate the DC/DC converter to control power flow. Development of this control was completed in our previous patent work (U.S. application Ser. No. 14/279,687 filed May 16, 2014); however, this controller is further advanced with the added implementation of the other structured management systems to handle each of the systems components and make decisions about their state and health. 
     A distinguishing feature of this hybrid controller is the integration of battery management, the capacitor management, and the load management with the hybrid controller to route bidirectional power and energy such that battery stress is reduced and system performance is optimized, especially in terms of cycle life, effective capacity, and reduced operating temperature. The system is effective whether it is supplying or absorbing energy. The integration of these subsystems and the decision making for routing power and energy is implemented in the software algorithm using a state machine. 
     Each element of the Hybrid system is capable of existing in one of the following power flow states: charging, discharging, isolated. All combinations result in a total of 27 possible hybrid states in which the system may exist. Of the 27 possible hybrid states, only 13 may exist due to the conservation of energy. Each of the states are discussed below in terms of each of the systems elements with the DC/DC converter omitted for simplification. Arrows  1402  indicate energy flowing out (discharge) of the element, arrows  1404  indicate energy flowing into (charge) the element, and the solid black line  1406  indicates no energy flow (isolated). The states are identified with a name describing the flow of energy in  FIGS. 14A-M . 
     Of the 13 possible hybrid states, there are three classifications as follows: Source, Harvest, and Idle. Source states supply energy through the hybrid system to an external load. Harvest states collect energy through the hybrid system from an external source or charger. Idle states isolate the Load interface from the outside world and are restricted to energy flow between the battery and super-capacitor internal to the hybrid system. This classification of states is known as the Hybrid mode. To determine the present state of the hybrid system, additional pieces of information about the conditions present in the system must be known. These conditions include detected energy flow, system energy priority, battery state of charge, and super-capacitor state of charge. Flow is defined by the direction energy is moving at the Load interface. Energy priority is given to either the battery or the super-capacitor. When in Source mode or Idle mode, priority is given to the super-capacitor by default; and when in Harvest mode, energy priority is given to the battery by default. The hybrid is also designed such that the user may manually select the energy priority of the system as the necessary priority may be situationally dependent for the user. This feature allows freedom for the user to maintain maximum energy in either the high power or high energy element of the system. Battery and super-capacitor state of charge are determined in the management systems and are classified as charged, discharged, or dynamic. From these conditions the hybrid state machine is developed, however it is fairly complicated to represent graphically and so a diagram is omitted. The state machine automatically transitions the hybrid system into the appropriate state such that all elements of the system are operated within their limits and are protected from dangerous conditions. The state machine transitions freely based on the defined conditions unless a fault condition is detected within management system in which case a specific state is forced that addresses the specific fault condition. The hybrid state machine has been implemented in software to ensure flawless transition between states as all combinations of the governing conditions are applied to the system. 
     The performance improvement using the hybrid system is evident in the following sections. In terms of physical arrangement and packing, the hybridization of a battery system can be achieved by an external or internal physical configuration, as shown in U.S patent application Ser. No. 14/279,687. With the external configuration, the battery pack is separate from the hybrid controller board and the super-capacitor. Interconnection with proper cabling allows hybridization to take place. With the internal configuration, the package is designed so the batteries, the hybrid control board, and the super-capacitor are all inside the same physical package. Connections between them are with internal cables. Both the internal and external configurations are supported in this extended work. In a preferred embodiment, the hybrid system developed for primary cells hybridizes the standard BA-x590 family power packs or equivalent and the hybrid system for rechargeable cells presented here hybridizes the standard BB-2590 family power packs or equivalent. 
     One method for visualizing the mechanism by which the hybrid enables benefit in the battery system is through the use of energy density distribution mappings for particular battery chemistries of interest.  FIG. 15  shows the energy density distribution for the alkaline chemistry distribution as a function of discharge rate and ambient temperature. Normalization of the data effectively yields the efficiency of the battery over the desired operating range. Propagation towards the region labeled  1502  indicates a decrease in battery efficiency while progression towards the region labeled  1504  indicates operation at high efficiency. In a battery only system, as is the case without the hybrid system, the battery is forced to operate at particular operating points dictated by the load since they are directly coupled. In the hybrid system, the super-capacitor, an element that is very efficient at high power, supports the peak power pulse of the load while maintaining the battery at lower power within its high efficiency region. The battery then recharges the super-capacitor while the load is drawing less power which also allows the battery to remain in an efficient region. This hybrid solution provides decoupling between the load and battery allowing flexibility to operate the battery within its more efficient region of operation. The same amount of energy is delivered to the load, however, the manner in which the energy is delivered allows for a more efficient transfer and less waste at the battery extending its lifetime. In addition to extending battery lifetime, improving battery efficiency and minimizing the peak to mean power or current demanded from the battery also reduces battery stress and heating. This lessens the likelihood of a catastrophic breakdown or instability within the battery as lithium batteries are known to demonstrate violent behavior under stressful conditions. Reducing stress and heating on the battery is also highly beneficial for rechargeable cells as the deterioration of its electrodes and depletion rate of its capacity may be slowed to improve cycle life. The demonstrated improvement using the hybrid system is a basis for the development of the hybrid algorithm with advanced control and system infrastructure presented in this work. 
     The Samsung ICR18650-26A rechargeable cells performance testing was repeated with increasing cycles. The two experimental test sets were the battery-only approach and the hybrid approach which placed two different representative load profiles on the cells under test. The battery-only approach featured a more dynamic profile with a higher peak current level while the hybrid approach exhibited a constant current profile. Each profile over a single cycle transferred the same amount of energy however the rate at which the energy was transferred is different. It is in the differences of the transfer rate in which benefit may be achieved. 
     Evidence to support the benefit achieved through use of the hybrid approach over the battery-only approach is evident in  FIG. 16 ,  FIG. 17 , and  FIG. 18 . The hybrid achieves greater discharge capacity as shown in  FIG. 16 , greater charge capacity as shown in  FIG. 17 , and cooler operating temperature as shown in  FIG. 18 . The difference in the charge capacity is indicative of greater degradation taking place in the battery-only approach cell as the charge method for each case is the same. As cycling continues the differences in the rate of degradation present in the two approaches are expected to become more evident further demonstrating the benefit achieved through the hybrid approach. 
     The study of the Samsung ICR18650-26A lithium ion rechargeable cells, which are present in the BB2590 rechargeable battery pack, has produced results that manifest hybrid benefit over battery-only approaches. Improvements were seen in achieved charge and discharge capacity on a cycle by cycle basis. Cell operating temperature was also seen to be reduced in the case of the hybrid which is an important factor in slowly the rate of battery degradation. The energy gained when using the hybrid system increases over the cycle life of the battery. 
     While this specification contains many specific implementation details, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of any invention or of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of features that may be specific to particular embodiments of particular inventions. Certain features that are described in this specification in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable subcombination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of a sub combination. 
     CONCLUSION 
     A system and method has been shown in the above embodiments for the effective implementation of a novel design for hybrid super-capacitor/rechargeable battery system. While various preferred embodiments have been shown and described, it will be understood that there is no intent to limit the invention by such disclosure, but rather, it is intended to cover all modifications falling within the spirit and scope of the invention, as defined in the appended claims. For example, the present invention should not be limited by specific hardware used to implement the various controllers described within this disclosure.