Patent Publication Number: US-2012033347-A1

Title: Electrochemical capacitors

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/303,734, filed Feb. 12, 2010, and entitled FOLDING STACKING MACHINE, the contents of which are incorporated by reference in their entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     The present invention relates to high voltage electrochemical double layer capacitors (EDLCs) and, more particularly, to manufacturing methods and equipment to create electrodes for a high voltage device (HVD), while maintaining high capacitance and low resistance thereof. 
     An electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC) is an energy storage device consisting of two electrodes arranged in such a manner that one acts as the cathode and the other the anode, creating a structure that can be modeled as two capacitors in series. The device is characterized by a high power density whose value can be dictated by the effective series resistance (ESR) of the device (i.e., the lower the ESR, the higher the power density). The capacitance of EDLCs can be large due to the effective surface of activated carbon used to fabricate an EDLC and the spacing between the electrode and the molecules of the electrolyte that form the double layers. The capacitance of an EDLC can be calculated using the formula C=kA/d, where k is a constant of proportionality, A is the effective surface area of the activated carbon, and d is the spacing between the electrode and the electrolyte molecules. 
     EDLC devices can be manufactured by encasing electrodes and separator material in a package which is wetted with electrolyte and sealed. The resulting device is a single cell EDLC device. These devices can be used in a wide variety of applications including but not limited to industrial power supplies, UPS (uninterrupted power supplies), electric vehicles, cell phones, and electronic appliances. 
     Known EDLCs operate with a nominal voltage rating of approximately 2.7 volts, a limitation imposed by virtue of the electrolyte. In some applications, more than a single EDLC cell is required to meet the needs of a particular application. For example, one or more EDLC devices can be coupled in series to provide a composite device that operates at a higher voltage. However, if the cells are not balanced as the number of cells in series increases premature failure of the composite device can occur. Additionally, the increase of the ESR of the cells in series can result in a decrease in power density. 
     SUMMARY 
     A method of manufacturing an electrode includes printing an electrode ink on a portion of a substrate using a rotary lithographic printer. The electrode ink is allowed to dry on the substrate. A separator material is printed on the portion of the substrate using the rotary lithographic printer. A sealant wall is printed around the portion of the substrate using the rotary lithographic printer. The substrates are then “stacked” and “folded” in appropriate configurations to obtain a desired capacitance and voltage standoff. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  illustrates the folding organization patterns used to complete each cell sequentially, according to an embodiment. 
         FIG. 1A  is a schematic illustration of a rotary lithographic printer, according to an embodiment. 
         FIGS. 1B-1D  are schematic illustrations of various electrode arrays printed using the rotary lithographic printer of  FIG. 1A . 
         FIG. 1E  is a flow chart illustrating a method of printing an electrode, according to an embodiment. 
         FIG. 2  shows a component selection and specific placement thereof, according to an embodiment. 
         FIG. 3  illustrates the folding organization patterns used to complete each cell sequentially, according to an embodiment. 
         FIG. 3A  is a schematic illustration of three stacks of electrodes connected in parallel, according to an embodiment. 
         FIGS. 4A-4R  are schematic illustrations of a machine performing a sequence of folding stacking steps, according to an embodiment. 
         FIGS. 5A-5C  are schematic illustrations of a folding stacking machine, according to an embodiment. 
         FIGS. 5D and 5E  are photographs of a folding stacking machine, according to an embodiment. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The development of a HVD requires that multiple single cell EDLCs be configured in series parallel configurations to produce a single monolithic device with a higher voltage rating than can be currently obtained using single cell construction. Embodiments of electrode materials and structures for EDLCs are generally described in pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/151,811, filed May 8, 2008, entitled “Electrode Structure for the Manufactures of an Electric Double Layer Capacitor,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The electrode material for production of HVDs is produced using a proprietary printing process that employs specialized materials that include the electrode materials, sealing surfaces to enclose individual single cells, and separator material. Embodiments of such printed electrodes are generally described in International Patent Application No. PCT/US09/55299, filed Aug. 28, 2009, entitled “High Voltage EDLC Cell and Method for the Manufacture thereof,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     In some embodiments, a method of manufacturing an electrode includes printing an electrode ink on a portion of a substrate using a rotary lithographic printer. The electrode ink is allowed to dry on the substrate. A separator material is printed on the portion of the substrate using the rotary lithographic printer. A sealant wall is printed around the portion of the substrate using the rotary lithographic printer. The substrates are then “stacked” and “folded” in appropriate configurations to obtain a desired capacitance and voltage standoff. 
       FIG. 1  illustrates an electrode (e.g., a half-cell) throughout various stages of the manufacturing process. Plan views of the manufacturing stages of the electrode are identified by reference numerals  10 ,  11 ,  12 ,  13 ,  14  and  15 , shown on the upper portion of  FIG. 1 , while the respective cross-sectional thickness of single and double layer electrodes are identified by reference numerals  16 ,  17 ,  18 ,  19 ,  20 ,  21 ,  22 ,  23  and  24 , shown on the lower portion of  FIG. 1 . 
     A current collector (e.g., a substrate)  10 ,  16  can be constructed of any suitable material. For example, in some embodiments, the current collector  10 ,  16  is constructed of capacitor grade aluminum (e.g., 99.99% pure aluminum). In other embodiments, the current collector can be constructed of tantalum and/or the like. The current collectors  10 ,  16  can be available in sheets. In some embodiments, for example, a sheet can have a thickness of 30 μm, a width of 50 mm and a length of 50 mm. In other embodiments, the sheets can be any suitable size. For example, in other embodiments the sheet can have a thickness of 40 p.m. The substrate material can be obtained in large rolls and can be slit to appropriate dimensions for the fabrication of a particular device. In some embodiments, stationary knives are used to slit the substrate material to the appropriate dimensions. Such stationary knives can be used to make a clean accurate cut that does not cause rolled edges on the substrate. The process, as mentioned above, can be used for virtually any size capacitor and the device capacitance is dependent upon the size of the half-cell structures, described in further detail herein. 
     In some embodiments, the current collector  10 ,  16  can be cleaned. Such cleaning can help prevent the current collector from forming contaminates that can reduce the strength of the bond between the electrode material and the current collector  10 ,  16  when the electrode material is formed on the current collector  10 ,  16 , as further described in detail herein. For example, aluminum, when exposed to an oxygen atmosphere, can quickly form contaminates (e.g., aluminum oxide) that can impede the electrode material from bonding with an aluminum current collector. In some embodiments, plasma etching can be used to clean the current collector  10 ,  16 . In such embodiments, plasma etching can be used as part of a printing process, as described in further detail herein. As such, an apparatus (such as apparatus  50  shown in  FIG. 1A ) can plasma etch the current collector  10 ,  16  prior to printing the electrode ink on the current collector  10 ,  16 . In other embodiments, high voltage corona discharge can be used to clean the current collector  10 ,  16 . In still other embodiments, chemical etchant baths can be used to remove such contaminates. In such embodiments, the electrode material can be printed on the current collector soon after the current collector is removed from the bath since an oxide layer can reform on an aluminum current collector in a matter of minutes. 
     A hole  11  is formed in the current collector  10 ,  16 . The hole  11  can be formed using any suitable technique. In some embodiments, for example, the hole  11  can be drilled, cut, and/or the like. The hole  11  can be aligned with the holes formed in other current collectors. An electrolyte can be inserted into a stack of cells via the holes, as described in further detail herein. 
     A sealant material  12  is formed around the perimeter of the current collector  13 . The sealant material  12  creates a sealant wall that will surround the carbonized material, as described in further detail herein. The sealant material  12  can be a polymer configured to adhere to the sealant material on another current collector  13  to form a hermetically sealed barrier between the cell and the external atmosphere. In such a manner, two half-cells are combined to make a full cell. In some embodiments, a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) material, such as, for example, Solef 1008 manufactured by Solvay-Solexis, can be used. Such a material can include desired properties such as operating temperature, surface adhesion, flexibility, and chemical solubility. In other embodiments, a CL-5-1 sealant material can be used. In some embodiments, the sealant material  12  can have a thickness of less than 100 μm for a single side  19  and less than 170 μm for a double sided component  20  (e.g., when the sealant material  12  is printed on both sides of the current collector  13 ). The application of the sealant material can be through a lamination process, screen printing and/or lithographic printing, as further described herein. The sealant material  12  forms a wall around the perimeter of the current collector  13  that is immune to decay from electrolyte exposure and prevents leakage of electrolyte from the cell. 
     In some embodiments, the portion of the current collector on which the sealant material is formed can be perforated with micro holes such that the sealant material formed on a first surface of the current collector can be coupled with the sealant material formed on a second surface of the current collector. In such embodiments, for example, the sealant material on the first surface of the current collector can be monolithically formed and/or fused with the sealant material on the second surface of the current collector. This can help stabilize the wall created by the sealant material on both surfaces of the current collector. 
     An electrode ink is applied to the current collector  14 . A side view  21  of the current collector  14  having electrode ink applied on a single side of the current collector  14  and a side view  22  of the current collector  14  having electrode ink applied to both sides of the current collector  14  are shown in  FIG. 1 . The electrode ink can be any suitable electrode ink. In some embodiments, for example, the electrode ink can be a carbon slurry similar to that described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/151,811, filed May 8, 2008, entitled “Electrode Structure for the Manufacture of an Electric Double Layer Capacitor,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The electrode ink can be composed primarily of activated carbon (e.g., MSP-20), smaller quantities of conductive carbon (e.g., Super P), rubberizers (e.g., BM-400-B), binders (e.g., polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)), fillers (e.g., Cab-o-sil), distilled water and/or other additives (e.g., carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)). In some embodiments the electrode ink can be formed by mixing proper proportions of the ingredients in a specific order, half mixing with itself and with a solvent. Once mixed, the electrode ink can be applied to the current collector (e.g., substrate). The electrode ink mixture has enhanced electrical properties that reduce the bonding resistance and increase the capacitance of the electrode ink promoting a unique cast component solution. In other embodiments, the electrode ink can include ceramics and/or the like. 
     Activated carbon, the predominant ingredient in an EDLC carbon electrode, provides massive exposed surface areas used to create the capacitive storage in high voltage EDLC applications. The capacitance of a cell is proportional to the volume of the activated carbon within the cell. In some embodiments, a specific value can be obtained by taking the product of the cell volume times the specific capacitance per unit volume with the latter being relatively constant up to a moderate thickness. In other embodiments, the capacitance can be obtained using the specific capacitance per unit area times the area of a cell. As discussed in further detail herein, arranging multiple cells in series and parallel can reduce the ESR of the electrode and thus increase the power density of the electrode. Such an arrangement can also increase the current carrying capability of the device. 
     Differing applications dictate the relative importance of power vs. energy density. The manufacturing process may be adjusted to prioritize either. In some embodiments, for example, the thickness of the electrode ink on the current collector and the adhesive thickness of the sealant material on the current collector can be increased to increase the energy provided by the cell. As further described in detail herein, the thickness of the electrode ink on the current collector can be varied by a thickness of a screen (e.g., a mesh) used in a lithographic printing process. As mentioned above controlling the thickness in turn changes the energy density of the individual half-cells. 
     In order to maximize the working voltage of the EDLC device, a proton conductor or separator  15  can be disposed between individual polarized half-cells in order to electrically isolate but not chemically separate the half-cells. The separator  15  can also be configured such that only specific charged ions can pass through the separator  15 . The separator  15  can also store a limited amount of free electrolyte not absorbed into the activated carbon. The separator  15  can be inserted or printed on one of the half-cell strips using lithographic techniques, described in further detail herein. 
     The separator  15  undergoes high mechanical stress, both in vertical and horizontal directions, as the EDLC is charged and discharged in operation. The separator  15  adds its own resistive quantities measured as a constant in one direction or the opposite direction, and as some reactive component as a frequency dependent quantity. In some embodiments, a lithographic printing process can be used to print the separator material onto the electrode ink, since precession location, material concentration, spacing, sizing and adaptability are important parameters and may be more easily attained using a lithographic printing process. 
     In some embodiments, the separator  15  can be constructed of a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), such as, for example, Solef 6020 manufactured by Solvay-Solexis. In other embodiments, the separator can be constructed of rubberizers (e.g., BM-440-B), binders (e.g., polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)), fillers (e.g., cab-o-sil), distilled water and/or other additives. In such embodiments, the cab-o-sil forms a permeable membrane configured to allow electrolyte ions to pass through the separator material. 
     The separator  15  can be screen and/or lithographically printed onto the prepared, dried electrode ink, as described in further detail herein. In some embodiments, for example, the separator  15  can have a maximum applied thickness of 25 μm, a pore size of 25 to 50 μm with an evenly distributed pore size distribution (PSD) and a homogenous separator matrix composition. The pore size can dictate the rate of electrolyte migration in the cells. A small pour size, for example, can reduce the rate of electrolyte migration in the cells which can slow the response of the capacitor. Depending on the power or energy requirements of the final high voltage EDLC, the screening application process can compensate for other material or manufactured defects. A single sided electrode  23  with a screened separator and a double-sided electrode  24  (e.g., a half-cell printed on both surfaces of a current collector) with screened separator are shown in  FIG. 1 . In some embodiments, the separator can be as thin as possible to provide sufficient isolation to prevent the two half-cells from shorting together. In some embodiments, only one separator  15  is required between each half-cell assembly, so alternate placement from the screening applicator may be possible. Accordingly, as described in further detail herein, a separator  15  is not printed on every current collector. After a completed half-cell is printed on a first surface of the current collector, a half-cell can be printed on a second surface of the current collector using a similar process. 
     In other embodiments, the separator can be placed onto the prepared, dried electrode ink using methods other than printing. For example, a premade separator sheet can be placed and/or laminated onto the dried electrode ink. Some separator materials used in such embodiments operate best when formed prior to being placed onto the dry electrode ink. Such materials are available from manufactures such as Celgard and NKK. The operation parameters of such separator materials can be predefined and tested by the manufacturer and, as such, the materials can operate as tested under various conditions. Such separators can be physically applied to the current collector over the electrode ink as the electrodes are manufactured or such separators can be laminated prior to assembly of the electrode. 
       FIG. 1A  is a schematic illustration of a rotary lithographic printer  50  used to manufacture an electrode, such as the half-cells shown and described in  FIGS. 1B-1D , according to an embodiment. The rotary lithographic printer  50  includes a first pair of rotating drums  57 , a second pair of rotating drums  58  and a third pair of rotating drums  59 . The first pair of rotating drums  57  includes a top drum  51  and a bottom drum  52 . The top drum  51  is a print head containing electrode ink. In some embodiments, an outer mesh layer (not shown in  FIG. 1A ) is coupled to the top drum  51 . The top drum is configured to press the electrode ink through the outer mesh layer and onto a current collector (e.g., a substrate) when the current collector is passed between the top drum  51  and the bottom drum  52 . 
     The top drum  51  is configured to rotate about a center axis in the direction shown by the arrow AA in  FIG. 1A . Similarly, the bottom drum  52  is configured to rotate about a center axis in the direction shown by the arrow BB in  FIG. 1A . Accordingly, when a substrate is passed between the top drum  51  and the bottom drum  52 , the substrate is moved in a direction shown by the arrow CC in  FIG. 1A . This allows the top drum  51  to print the electrode ink onto the substrate as the substrate is moved in the direction shown by the arrow CC. 
     In some embodiments, the top drum  51  prints the electrode ink in a pattern across the substrate. In such embodiments, for example, the top drum  51  can print an array of rectangles across a long strip of substrate. Such an array of rectangles can be similar to those shown in  FIGS. 1B-1D . In other embodiments, any other pattern can be printed, such as, for example, a pattern of triangles, circles, ovals and/or the like. 
     The thickness of the electrode ink printed onto the substrate can be varied by varying the outer mesh layer coupled to the top drum  51 . For example, if a thicker layer of electrode ink is desired, the thickness of the outer mesh layer can be increased. Further, if a thinner layer of electrode ink is desired, the thickness of the outer mesh layer can be decreased. Varying the thickness of the electrode ink varies the capacitance of the device. An optimal thickness of the electrode ink can be determined by printing samples and measuring the capacitance per unit volume of the samples. If the electrode ink is too thick, the electrode ink spaced far from the current collector does not function as intended and can reduce the migration of electrolyte ions and thus the conduction rate across the separator layer. If the electrode ink is too thin, the capacitance of the device can be less than the capacitance of an electrode having electrode ink layer with optimal thickness. 
     Similar to the first pair of rotating drums  57 , the second pair of rotating drums  58  includes a top drum  53  and a bottom drum  54 . The top drum  53  is configured to rotate about a center axis in the direction shown by the arrow AA in  FIG. 1A . Similarly, the bottom drum  54  is configured to rotate about a center axis in the direction shown by the arrow BB in  FIG. 1A . Accordingly, when a substrate is passed between the top drum  53  and the bottom drum  54 , the substrate is moved in a direction shown by the arrow CC in  FIG. 1A . 
     The top drum  53  is a print head containing separator material. In some embodiments, an outer mesh layer (not shown in  FIG. 1A ) is coupled to the top drum  53 . The top drum  53  is configured to press the separator material through the outer mesh layer and onto a substrate on which electrode ink has been printed when the substrate is passed between the top drum  53  and the bottom drum  54 . 
     In some embodiments, the top drum  53  prints the separator material onto the substrate in a pattern across the electrode ink. In such embodiments, for example, the top drum  51  can print an array of rectangular strips across a portion of a substrate on which electrode ink has been printed. Such an array of rectangular strips can be similar to those shown in  FIGS. 1B and 1D . In other embodiments, any other pattern can be printed. 
     As discussed above, in some embodiments, the separator material is not printed on every current collector. For example,  FIG. 1C  shows a strip of substrate  1020  with half-cells  1030  on which separator material is not printed. To achieve such a result, the top drum  53  can be configured to print the separator material on some current collectors and not others. 
     Similar to the first pair of rotating drums  57  and the second pair of rotating drums  59 , the third pair of rotating drums  59  includes a top drum  55  and a bottom drum  56 . The top drum  55  and the bottom drum  56  are configured to rotate similar to the top drum  51  and the bottom drum  52 , described above. The top drum  55  is a print head containing sealant material. In some embodiments, an outer mesh layer (not shown in  FIG. 1A ) is coupled to the top drum  55 . The top drum  55  is configured to press the sealant material through the outer mesh layer and onto a substrate when the substrate is passed between the top drum  53  and the bottom drum  54 . The sealant material can be printed such that sealant material surrounds the portion of the substrate on which the electrode ink is printed. 
     In use, a piece of substrate material (e.g., aluminum) is inserted into the apparatus  50  at point  60 . Because of the rotational motion of the rotating drum pairs  57 ,  58 ,  59 , the substrate material is moved in the direction shown by the arrow CC. As the substrate material passes through the first pair of rotating drums  57 , the top rotating drum  51  prints electrode ink on the substrate. As discussed above, in some embodiments, the top rotating drum  51  can print a pattern of electrode ink on the substrate, such as, for example, an array of rectangles. 
     The piece of substrate material then passes from the first pair of rotating drums  57  to the second pair of rotating drums  58 . The distance between the first pair of rotating drums  57  and the second pair of rotating drums  58  can be large enough to allow the electrode ink printed on the substrate by the first pair of rotating drums  57  to dry on the substrate before the substrate reaches the second pair of rotating drums  58 . In other embodiments, the electrode ink need not be dried prior to printing the separator material on the substrate. After the substrate contacts the second pair of rotating drums  58 , the top rotating drum  53  prints the separator material on the substrate in the desired pattern and location. In some embodiments, for example, the separator material is printed on only some of the half-cells. The piece of substrate material then passes from the second pair of rotating drums  58  to the third pair of rotating drums  59 . The top rotating drum  55  prints the sealant material around the perimeters of the portions of the substrate on which the electrode ink was printed. 
     The printed substrate (e.g., completed half-cell strip) can then exit the apparatus at point  62 . The piece of substrate material can then be turned over and inserted through the apparatus  50  such that the electrode ink, the sealant material and optionally, the separator material is printed on a second surface of the substrate. The positioning of the components already printed on the first surface of the substrate (e.g., the electrode ink, the separator material and the sealant material) as the components are printed onto the second surface of the substrate can be monitored using optical sensors (not shown) positioned on the apparatus  50 . Such optical sensors can help ensure that the half-cells printed on the second surface of the substrate are aligned with the half-cells printed on the first surface of the substrate. In other embodiments, any other suitable method and/or device is used to monitor the positioning of the components already printed on the first surface of the substrate as the components are printed onto the second surface of the substrate. In still other embodiments, half-cells are printed on the second surface of the substrate by the bottom rotating drums as the top rotating drums print the half-cells on the first surface of the substrate. In such embodiments, only a single pass through the apparatus  50  is necessary to print half-cells on both sides of the substrate. 
     In some embodiments, as each component (e.g., the electrode ink, the separator material and the sealant material) is applied, drying time can be modified (e.g., longer or shorter), as the substrate is wound onto a large round drum that may be oil heated to maintain a satisfactory drying temperature. The large drum may also be considered a storage vehicle to allow more substrate material in a smaller length of area and not condensing it into a compact reel thus possibly damaging the integrity of the sealant material and electrode ink. 
     While shown in  FIG. 1A  as printing the sealant material onto the substrate after printing the electrode ink and the separator onto the substrate, the sealant material can be printed onto the substrate at any point in the printing process. In some embodiments, for example, the sealant material is printed onto the substrate prior to printing the electrode ink and the separator material onto the substrate. In other embodiments, the sealant material is printed onto the substrate after printing the electrode ink onto the substrate but prior to printing the separator material onto the substrate. 
     While shown in  FIG. 1A  as having three rotating drum pairs  57 ,  58 ,  59 , in other embodiments the apparatus can include a single rotating drum pair. In such embodiments, the top rotating drum can be reconfigured at each stage of the printing process. For example, the top rotating drum can first be configured to print the electrode ink on the substrate. The substrate can then be passed between the rotating drum pair and the electrode ink can be printed on the substrate. The top rotating drum can then be reconfigured to print the separator material on the substrate and the substrate can be passed between the rotating drum pair a second time such that the separator material is printed on the substrate. The top rotating drum can then be reconfigured to print the sealant material on the substrate and the substrate can be passed between the rotating drum pair a third time such that the sealant material is printed on the substrate. 
       FIGS. 1B-1D  show examples of half-cell strips printed using the apparatus  50  of  FIG. 1A .  FIG. 1B , for example, shows a substrate  1000  with four half-cells  1010  printed thereon. The electrode ink, the separator material and the sealant material is printed on each of the four half-cells  1010 .  FIG. 1C  shows a substrate  1020  with four half-cells  1030  printed thereon. The separator material is not printed on the four half-cells  1030  of substrate  1020 . As described in further detail herein, the substrate  1000  can be coupled with the substrate  1020  to form multiple electrode cells connected in series. 
     While  FIGS. 1B and 1C  show a single row of half-cells printed on a substrate,  FIG. 1D  shows a substrate  1040  having two rows of half-cells  1050 ,  1060  printed thereon. The separator material is printed on some half-cells  1060  while not printed on other half-cells  1050 . In some embodiments, the substrate  1040  can be folded to provide a series connection between the electrodes in each row and a parallel connection between the electrodes in the two rows. In other embodiments, any number of rows and columns of any number of half-cells can be printed on the substrate. For example,  FIG. 3  shows two substrates having five half-cells each. 
       FIG. 1E  is a flow chart illustrating a method  1070  of printing half-cells of an electrode on a substrate. The method includes cleaning the substrate, at  1072 . The substrate can be cleaned by, for example, plasma etching. Such cleaning can help prevent the current collector from forming contaminates that can reduce the strength of the bond between the electrode material and the current collector when the electrode material is printed on the current collector. 
     An aperture is formed in the substrate, at  1074 . As discussed above, the aperture can be formed by any suitable method and electrolyte can be inserted into the aperture when the device is completed, as described in further detail below. An electrode ink is printed onto a portion of the substrate using a rotary lithographic printer, at  1076 . The electrode ink can include activated carbon and can be similar to the electrode ink shown and described above. Further, the rotary lithographic printer can be similar to the apparatus  50  shown and described with relation to  FIG. 1A . 
     The electrode ink is allowed to dry on the substrate, at  1078 . A separator material is printed onto the portion of the substrate using the rotary lithographic printer, at  1080 . The separator material can be similar to the separator material shown and described above. Moreover, the separator material can be printed onto the portion of the substrate in a specific pattern, such as, for example, the checkered pattern shown on the half-cells  1010  of substrate  1000  in  FIG. 1B . A sealant wall is printed around the portion of the substrate using the rotary lithographic printer, at  1082 . The sealant wall can be used to hermetically seal the half-cell with another half-cell to create a completed full cell. 
       FIG. 2  details lithographic component plates, showing front  105 ,  110 ,  115  and back  120 ,  125 ,  130  sides of a first substrate  100  and front  155 ,  160  and back  165 ,  170  sides of a second substrate  150  at different stages within the printing process. Each component of the printing process (e.g., the electrode ink, the separator material and the sealant material) is sequentially applied onto the substrates  100 ,  150  until the components are completed. The components can be applied to each side of the substrates  100 ,  150  as described above. As shown in  FIG. 2 , the separator material is not applied to the second substrate  150 . 
     Detailed information as to how the electrode components are assembled into the high voltage EDLC are referenced initially by the sample 90 degree lithographic component folding scheme shown in  FIG. 3 . A first half-cell strip  280  comprises elements  115  and  130  ( FIG. 2 ) and a second half-cell strip  290  comprises elements  160  and  170  ( FIG. 2 ) arranged 90 degrees offset from each other  200 , both half-cell strips  280 ,  290  having the respective front sides facing up. A separator material is printed on the half-cells of the first half-cell strip  280  while a separator material is not printed on the half-cells of the second half-cell strip  290 . As the half-cells of the first half-cell strip  280  are coupled to the half-cells of the second half-cell strip  290 , each full cell will have a separator material between the electrode ink. 
     The folding pattern demonstrates how individual components are aligned. Beginning with folding pattern  200  of half-cell strip  280 , the first bottom component  201  has bare aluminum ready for block assembly, described in further detail herein. Initially half-cell strip  290  slides down on top of half-cell strip  280  forming the first full cell component. The half-cell strip  290  is then folded over the half-cell strip  280  in the direction shown by the arrow  206 , at  205 . This fold forms a second full cell component. The half-cell strip  290  is then folded over the half-cell strip  280  in the direction shown by the arrow  211 , at  210 . This fold forms a third full cell component. This folding process is repeated at steps  215 ,  220 ,  225 ,  230  and  235  until the last folding pattern  240 , folds the half-cell strip  290  over the half-cell strip  280  in the direction shown by the arrow  241  and the operation is complete with the top end component  245  of half-cell strip  290  on top of the additive capacitive block. Such a folding process produces a stack of multiple full cells connected to each other in series. For example, in  FIG. 3 , the folding process results in a stack of nine full cells connected in series. 
     As each of these electrode assemblies is built, it is targeted for specific sections, being defined as block and block interface coupling areas. The most straightforward is the block area. In this area, the two electrodes are intertwined, coupling the carbon-to-carbon interface together with only one thin separator sandwiched between them. As each electrode is advanced, it is folded 90 degrees to the second electrode with each electrode being placed down in series to the other. Every second time an electrode is placed down, an additive capacitive component is created. As long as each electrode is interfacing in this series fashion with continuous lengths of current collector matching, the capacitance is additive. 
     At the beginning of the electrode, a carbon mass-free aluminum current collector component is provided (e.g., bottom component  201  in  FIG. 3 ). This also occurs at the very end of the completed EDLC block (e.g., component  245  in  FIG. 3 ). These bare aluminum segments, at least on one side, when the EDLC is first connected to a positive and negative power source, act as the terminal interface. 
     A stack produced by the folding process  200  of  FIG. 3  can be coupled to other similar stacks in parallel. For example,  FIG. 3A  shows four stacks  255  coupled to each other in parallel by a conductor  260  (e.g., a piece of aluminum). Specifically, the conductor  260  is coupled to the top bare component (e.g., component  245  in  FIG. 3 ) of each of the stacks  255 . Similarly, the bottom bare component (e.g., component  201 ) of each of the four stacks  255  is coupled to the bottom bare component of the other stacks by a conductor (not shown in  FIG. 3A ). Such a series/parallel configuration (e.g., cells coupled in series within each stack and cells coupled in parallel between each stack) can increase the power density of the device. Such configurations reduce the ESR and thus increase the power density and provide a device having a more robust current carrying capability than a single stack of cells. 
     Depending on the structural size and organization of these component areas, orienting length, width and thickness in parallel and/or series compartments provides greater capacitance and/or voltage standoff capability, respectively. To illustrate suppose multiple half-cell strips have been joined forming an EDLC device with n individual cells in series (e.g., the number of cells in each stack  255 ) and m in stacks in parallel (e.g., the number of stacks  255 ). The capacitance of each stack can be equal to the capacitance of each cell divided by the number of cells in each stack (C stack =C cell /n). The voltage standoff of each stack can be equal to 2.5 times the number of cells in each stack (V standoff =2.5×n). The capacitance of the device can be equal to the number of stacks times the capacitance of each cell divided by the number of cells in each stack (C total =(m×C cell )/n). The ESR of such a device can be the ESR of each stack divided by the number of stacks (ESR total =ESR strip /m). 
     Printing the electrode strips provides dimensional precision for long strips of electrode material that can then be folded and stacked to yield series connected strings. The series connection is required to obtain the voltage standoff, which may be determined by multiplying the number cells in series time the unit cell voltage, for example, 2.5 volts; thus a series string of six cells would have a voltage rating of 15 Volts. Once the strips have been printed in strips they must be folded and stacked to form the high voltage cell, and this is accomplished using the folding stacking machine that is described below. 
       FIGS. 4A-4R  are schematic illustrations of a folding stacking machine  600  used to manufacture an electrode stack according to an embodiment. The folding stacking machine  600  has several components including folding arms  610   a  and  610   b  (collectively  610 ), elevator  612  that holds the stack assembly, carriages  614   a ,  614   b ,  614   c ,  614   d  (collectively  614 ), an elevator  612 , and fingers  616   a ,  616   b ,  616   c ,  616   d  (collectively  616 ). Elevator  612  can support the finished electrode stack, and can move up and down to accommodate the change in height of the electrode stack. The carriages  614  hold the electrode material on rolls  618   a ,  618   b  (collectively  618 ). The fingers  616  can be stabilizing members configured to hold electrode strips from the electrode rolls in place while folding arm  610   a  and folding arm  610   b  move electrode roll  618   a  and electrode roll  618   b  from one carriage to another carriage. 
     As shown in  FIG. 4A , rolls  618   a ,  618   b  of electrode material are positioned on carriages  614   a ,  614   b  respectively. In  FIG. 4B , one finger  616   c  is deployed covering the elevator  612  and one of the folding arms  610   b  is moving from a retracted position to a deployed position.  FIGS. 4C and 4D  show the folding arm  610   b  retrieving an electrode roll  618   a  from a carriage  614   a  and beginning to retract.  FIG. 4E  shows the folding arm  610   b  fully retracted such that the electrode roll  618   a  is now resting on the opposite carriage  614   c  and the finger  616   c  has started to retract away from the elevator  612 .  FIG. 4F  shows the finger  616   c  fully retracted and a different finger  616   d  is starting to deploy, partially covering the elevator  612 . In  FIG. 4G , the finger  616   d  is fully deployed covering the elevator  612  and the other folding arm  610   a  is moving from a retracted position to a deployed position.  FIGS. 4H and 4I  show the folding arm  610   a  retrieving the second electrode roll  618   b  from the carriage  614   b  and beginning to retract.  FIG. 4J  shows the folding arm  610   a  fully retracted such that the electrode roll  618   b  is now resting on the opposite carriage  614   d  and the finger  616   d  has retracted away from the elevator  612 . In  FIG. 4K , the finger  616   a  is deployed covering the elevator  612  and the folding arm  610   b  is moving from a retracted position to a deployed position.  FIGS. 4L-4N  show the folding arm  610   b  moving the electrode roll  618   a  from one carriage  614   c  to the opposite carriage  614   a  and the finger  616   a  is beginning to retract.  FIG. 40  shows the finger  616   a  fully retracted and the finger  616   b  is starting to deploy partially covering the elevator  612 .  FIGS. 4P-4R  show the finger  616   b  fully deployed covering the elevator  612  and the folding arm  610   a  is moving the electrode roll  618   b  from one carriage  614   d  to the opposite carriage  614   b . The process is repeated until the desired number of folded layers are produced. 
       FIGS. 5A-5E  are schematic illustrations of a folding stacking machine  700  used to manufacture an electrode stack according to alternative embodiment. The folding stacking machine  700  has several components including the folding bail  710 , which is the hinged semi circular portion that executes the folding process, the elevator  712  that holds the finished stack, and the electrode carriages  718   a ,  718   b  (collectively  718 ). The machine can be manual, automatic, semi-automatic, or robotic. The elevator  712  moves up and down to accommodate the stack height. In some embodiments, the elevator  712  has a range of about one inch. 
     In operation, the folding bail  710  rotates to positions that are ninety degrees from one another and is equipped with a locking pin to ensure that it is in position. The folding bail  710  is shown in  FIG. 5A  mated to the electrode carriage  718   a  (the carriage is the device that carries the electrode material on a roll). The carriages  718  float and when the locking mechanism, which is part of the folding bail, is disengaged, the folding bail  710  may be rotated to the other carriage  718 . When the locking mechanism is engaged, the carriage  718  is locked in position and becomes rigidly attached to the folding bail  710 . The handle  720  ( FIG. 5B ) is part of the locking mechanism and doubles as a handle  720  that allows an operator to swing the folding bail  710  up and over the elevator  712 . The carriage  718  is completely free when disengaged from the folding bail  712  and in order to prevent it from rotating around the axes parallel to the electrode material aluminum angle is used to keep it more or less in an upright position. The carriage rolls  718  are also equipped with tensioning springs  722  ( FIG. 5E ). The springs are located in the gap between the roll of electrode material and the side of the carriage  718 . The springs  722  maintain light tension on the roll so that it does not dispense excess electrode material during the folding operation. 
     The machine  700 , as shown in  FIG. 5E , is positioned to fold the electrode material in carriage  718   b  over the electrode that is in place on the stacking table. Two fingers  716   b  capture the upper strip  724   a  (the strip with the pin  726  protruding through it on the stacking table) and the lower strip  724   b  that has been dispensed from the carriage  718   b . The fingers  718   b  define the crease line. As shown, there are four sets of alignment fingers  716  mounted on rails that allow them to be moved out of position when not in use. When the folding bail  710  is moved through 180 degrees the electrode in quadrant one will be folded over the material that is shown on the stacking table. An alignment anvil  728  mates with an alignment groove  730  on the carriage  718   b . This mating of alignment groove  730  and anvil  728  ensures the proper alignment of the mating electrode pieces. 
     The carriage  718   b  can then be disengaged from the folding bail  710  and the bail can be rotated clockwise to the carriage  718   a . It should be noted that the carriages  718  are fitted with take up reels  732  that are used to store the anti-stick material that will be used with the printed electrode strips. As shown, there is no anti-stick material and thus nothing on the take up reel  732 . The fingers  716   b  are backed out of position and other fingers  716  are engaged and a second fold takes place. The process described is repeated until the stack has accumulated the appropriate number of layers. 
     A stack can include as many cell components as needed to obtain the desired capacitance. The stack-to-stack interface between stacks can be kept as short as possible. In some embodiments, the stack-to-stack interface between the stacks can be no more than one component in length. There can be as many stack-to-stack interfaces as needed to supply the voltage standoff required for a particular application. 
     Since other modifications and changes varied to fit particular operating requirements and environments will be apparent to those skilled in the art, the invention is not considered limited to the examples chosen for purposes of disclosure, and covers all changes and modifications which do not constitute departures from the true spirit and scope of this invention. 
     While methods and apparatus are shown and described above as printing and assembling electrodes for EDLCs, in other embodiments, such methods and apparatus can be used to print and/or assemble electrodes for pseudocapacitors, batteries and/or any other device having an electrode. For example, pseudocapacitors have a similar structure and characteristics to EDLCs and can thus, be manufactured using the above described methods. Pseudocapacitors include cells with one electrode having metal oxide as the active material and the other electrode having activated carbon as the active material. The metal oxide can be printed onto a substrate using the methods and apparatus described above. The metal oxide electrode of a pseudocapacitor stores energy using a faradic reaction on the electrode surface (e.g., similar to battery technology) in addition to using surface area storage similar to EDLCs. Accordingly, in some embodiments, a pseudocapacitor can have a higher energy density than a similarly sized EDLC. Moreover, in some embodiments, the load of the metal oxide of a pseudocapacitor is three times the load of an EDLC having similar sized printed electrodes. Accordingly, pseudocapacitor cells can occupy a much smaller volume than an EDLC with the same capacitance. 
     While various embodiments have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not limitation. Where methods described above indicate certain events occurring in certain order, the ordering of certain events may be modified. Additionally, certain of the events can be performed concurrently in a parallel process when possible, as well as performed sequentially as described above. 
     Although various embodiments have been described as having particular features and/or combinations of components, other embodiments are possible having a combination of any features and/or components from any of embodiments where appropriate. For example, each stack of electrodes can include any number of cells.