Patent Publication Number: US-10787669-B2

Title: Antisense compounds targeting Leucine-Rich repeat kinase 2(LRRK2) for the treatment of Parkinsons disease

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/837,926, filed Dec. 11, 2017, now U.S Pat. No. 10,370,667, issued Aug. 6, 2019, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/349,840, filed Nov. 11, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,840,710, issued Dec. 12, 2017, which is a non-provisional application of U.S. Provisional Application 62/257,109, filed Nov. 18, 2015, the disclosures of each of which are incorporated by reference in their entirety. 
    
    
     SEQUENCE LISTING 
     The sequence listing submitted herewith is incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE 
     The present disclosure relates generally to compounds comprising oligonucleotides complementary to a Leucine-Rich-Repeat-Kinase (LRRK2) RNA transcript. Certain such compounds are useful for hybridizing to a LRRK2 transcript, including but not limited to a LRRK2 RNA transcript in a cell. In certain embodiments, such hybridization results in modulation of splicing of the LRRK2 transcript. In certain embodiments, such compounds are used to treat one or more symptoms associated with Parkinson&#39;s Disease (PD). 
     BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE 
     Parkinson&#39;s disease belongs to a group of conditions called motor system disorders, which are the result of the loss of dopamine-producing brain cells. The four primary symptoms of PD are tremor, or trembling in hands, arms, legs, jaw, and face; rigidity, or stiffness of the limbs and trunk; bradykinesia, or slowness of movement; and postural instability, or impaired balance and coordination. As these symptoms become more pronounced, patients may have difficulty walking, talking, or completing other simple tasks. Other symptoms may include depression and other emotional changes; difficulty in swallowing, chewing, and speaking; urinary problems or constipation; skin problems; and sleep disruptions. There are currently no blood or laboratory tests that have been proven to help in diagnosing sporadic PD, and diagnosis is based on medical history and a neurological examination. 
     Currently, there is no cure for PD, but a variety of medications provide relief from the symptoms. Usually, affected individuals are given levodopa combined with carbidopa, which delays the conversion of levodopa into dopamine until it reaches the brain. Nerve cells can use levodopa to make dopamine and replenish the brain&#39;s dwindling supply. Although levodopa helps at least three-quarters of parkinsonian cases, not all symptoms respond equally to the drug. Bradykinesia and rigidity respond best, while tremor may be only marginally reduced. Problems with balance and other symptoms may not be alleviated at all. Anticholinergics may help control tremor and rigidity. Other drugs, such as bromocriptine, pramipexole, and ropinirole, mimic the role of dopamine in the brain, causing the neurons to react as they would to dopamine. An antiviral drug, amantadine, also appears to reduce symptoms. 
     An estimated 53 million people have PD resulting in about 103,000 deaths globally. Parkinson&#39;s disease typically occurs in people over the age of 60, with males being affected more often than females. The average life expectancy following diagnosis is between 7 and 14 years. Parkinson&#39;s disease is typically idiopathic (having no specific known cause); however, a proportion of cases can be attributed to known genetic factors. For example, mutations in specific genes have been shown to cause PD (e.g., alpha-synuclein (SNCA), parkin (PRKN), leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1), DJ-1 and ATP13A2). Mutations in LRRK2 are the most common known cause of familial and sporadic PD, accounting for approximately 5% of individuals with a family history of the disease and 3% of sporadic cases. The LRRK2 G2019S gain of function gene mutation is one of the most prevalent mutations contributing to PD pathogenesis. While treatments for PD are available, more effective therapies are needed. 
     SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE 
     The present disclosure relates to general compounds and methods to treat Parkinson&#39;s disease in subjects using antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) that block specific pre-mRNA splicing events in LRRK2 gene transcripts resulting in non-sense mRNAs or mRNAs that code for LRRK2 proteins with lower kinase activity. 
     In one aspect, the disclosure provides a compound comprising a modified oligonucleotide having 8 to 30 linked nucleosides having a nucleobase sequence comprising a complementary region, wherein the complementary region comprises at least 8 contiguous nucleobases complementary to an equal-length portion of a target region of a leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) transcript. In certain embodiments, the target region of the LRRK2 transcript comprises at least a portion of exon 2, exon 4, exon 31 or exon 41 of the LRRK2 transcript. In an embodiment, the target region can be a splice site in the LRRK2 gene. In other embodiments, the nucleobase sequence of the antisense oligonucleotide comprises SEQ ID NO:01, SEQ ID NO:02, SEQ ID NO:06, SEQ ID NO:07, SEQ ID NO:08, or SEQ ID NO:09. 
     In another aspect, the disclosure provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least one compound as described herein and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. 
     In yet another aspect, the disclosure provides a method of modulating splicing or expression of a LRRK2 transcript in a cell comprising contacting the cell with at least one compound as described herein. 
     The yet another aspect, the disclosure provides a method of treating Parkinson&#39;s disease, comprising administering at least one compound as described herein to an animal in need thereof. 
     The present disclosure provides the following non-limiting numbered embodiments: 
     EMBODIMENT 1 
     A compound comprising a modified oligonucleotide consisting of 8 to 30 linked nucleosides and having a nucleobase sequence comprising a complementary region, wherein the complementary region comprises at least 8 contiguous nucleobases complementary to an equal-length portion of a target region of a leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) transcript. 
     EMBODIMENT 2 
     The compound of embodiment 1, wherein the target region of the LRRK2 transcript comprises at least a portion of exon 2, exon 4, exon 31 or exon 41 of the LRRK2 transcript. 
     EMBODIMENT 3a 
     The compound of embodiment 1, wherein the target region of the LRRK2 transcript comprises at least a portion of exon 2 of the LRRK2 transcript. 
     EMBODIMENT 3b 
     The compound of embodiment 1, wherein the target region of the LRRK2 transcript comprises at least a portion of exon 4 of the LRRK2 transcript. 
     EMBODIMENT 4 
     The compound of embodiment 1, wherein the target region of the LRRK2 transcript comprises at least a portion of exon 31 of the LRRK2 transcript. 
     EMBODIMENT 5 
     The compound of embodiment 1, wherein the target region of the LRRK2 transcript comprises at least a portion of exon 41 of the LRRK2 transcript. 
     EMBODIMENT 6 
     The compound of embodiment 1, wherein the target region of the LRRK2 transcript comprises a splice site. 
     EMBODIMENT 7 
     The compound of embodiment 1, wherein the LRRK2 transcript encodes a protein that has a G2019S mutation or a R1441C mutation. 
     EMBODIMENT 8 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 7, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide is at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95% or at least 100% complementary to the target region. 
     EMBODIMENT 9 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 8, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 10 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 10 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 8, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 12 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 11 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 8, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 14 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 12 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 8, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 15 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 13 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 8, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 16 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 14 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 8, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 17 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 15 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 8, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 18 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 16 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 8, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 19 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 17 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 8, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 20 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 18 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 17, wherein the nucleobase sequence of the oligonucleotide is at least 80% complementary to an equal-length region of the LRRK2 transcript, as measured over the entire length of the oligonucleotide. 
     EMBODIMENT 19 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 17, wherein the nucleobase sequence of the oligonucleotide is at least 90% complementary to an equal-length region of the LRRK2 transcript, as measured over the entire length of the oligonucleotide. 
     EMBODIMENT 20 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 17, wherein the nucleobase sequence of the oligonucleotide is 100% complementary to an equal-length region of the LRRK2 transcript, as measured over the entire length of the oligonucleotide. 
     EMBODIMENT 21 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 20, wherein the nucleobase sequence of the antisense oligonucleotide comprises any one of SEQ ID NO:01, SEQ ID NO:02, SEQ ID NO:06, SEQ ID NO:07, SEQ ID NO:08, or SEQ ID NO:09. 
     EMBODIMENT 22 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 21, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least one modified nucleoside. 
     EMBODIMENT 23 
     The compound of embodiment 22, wherein at least one modified nucleoside comprises a modified sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 24 
     The compound of embodiment 23, wherein at least one modified sugar moiety is a 2′-substituted sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 25 
     The compound of embodiment 24, wherein the 2′-substitutent of at least one 2′-substituted sugar moiety is selected from among: 2′-OMe, 2′-F, and 2′-MOE. 
     EMBODIMENT 26 
     The compound of any of embodiments 22 to 25, wherein the 2′-substituent of at least one 2′-substituted sugar moiety is a 2′-MOE. 
     EMBODIMENT 27 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 26, wherein at least one modified sugar moiety is a bicyclic sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 28 
     The compound of embodiment 27, wherein at least one bicyclic sugar moiety is LNA or cEt. 
     EMBODIMENT 29 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 28, wherein at least one sugar moiety is a sugar surrogate. 
     EMBODIMENT 30 
     The compound of embodiment 29, wherein at least one sugar surrogate is a morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 31 
     The compound of embodiment 29, wherein at least one sugar surrogate is a modified morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 32 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 31, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 5 modified nucleosides, each independently comprising a modified sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 33 
     The compound of embodiment 32, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 10 modified nucleosides, each independently comprising a modified sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 34 
     The compound of embodiment 32, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 15 modified nucleosides, each independently comprising a modified sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 35 
     The compound of embodiment 32, wherein each nucleoside of the modified oligonucleotide is a modified nucleoside, each independently comprising a modified sugar moiety 
     EMBODIMENT 36 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 35, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least two modified nucleosides comprising modified sugar moieties that are the same as one another. 
     EMBODIMENT 37 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 35, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least two modified nucleosides comprising modified sugar moieties that are different from one another. 
     EMBODIMENT 38 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 37, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises a modified region of at least 5 contiguous modified nucleosides. 
     EMBODIMENT 39 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 38, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises a modified region of at least 10 contiguous modified nucleosides. 
     EMBODIMENT 40 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 39, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises a modified region of at least 15 contiguous modified nucleosides. 
     EMBODIMENT 41 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 39, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises a modified region of at least 20 contiguous modified nucleosides. 
     EMBODIMENT 42 
     The compound of any of embodiments 36 to 41, wherein each modified nucleoside of the modified region has a modified sugar moiety independently selected from among: 2′-F, 2′-OMe, 2′-MOE, cEt, LNA, morpholino, and modified morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 43 
     The compound of any of embodiments 36 to 42 wherein the modified nucleosides of the modified region each comprise the same modification as one another. 
     EMBODIMENT 44 
     The compound of embodiment 43, wherein the modified nucleosides of the modified region each comprise the same 2′-substituted sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 45 
     The compound of embodiment 43, wherein the 2′-substituted sugar moiety of the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides is selected from 2′-F, 2′-OMe, and 2′-MOE. 
     EMBODIMENT 46 
     The compound of embodiment 45, wherein the 2′-substituted sugar moiety of the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides is 2′-MOE. 
     EMBODIMENT 47 
     The compound of embodiment 43, wherein the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides each comprise the same bicyclic sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 48 
     The compound of embodiment 47, wherein the bicyclic sugar moiety of the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides is selected from LNA and cEt. 
     EMBODIMENT 49 
     The compound of embodiment 41, wherein the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides each comprises a sugar surrogate. 
     EMBODIMENT 50 
     The compound of embodiment 49, wherein the sugar surrogate of the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides is a morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 51 
     The compound of embodiment 50, wherein the sugar surrogate of the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides is a modified morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 52 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 51, wherein the modified nucleotide comprises no more than 4 contiguous naturally occurring nucleosides. 
     EMBODIMENT 53 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 52, wherein each nucleoside of the modified oligonucleotide is a modified nucleoside. 
     EMBODIMENT 54 
     The compound of embodiment 53, wherein each modified nucleoside comprises a modified sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 55 
     The compound of embodiment 54, wherein the modified nucleosides of the modified oligonucleotide comprise the same modification as one another. 
     EMBODIMENT 56 
     The compound of embodiment 55, wherein the modified nucleosides of the modified oligonucleotide each comprise the same 2′-substituted sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 57 
     The compound of embodiment 56, wherein the 2′-substituted sugar moiety of the modified oligonucleotide is selected from 2′-F, 2′-OMe, and 2′-MOE. 
     EMBODIMENT 58 
     The compound of embodiment 56, wherein the 2′-substituted sugar moiety of the modified oligonucleotide is 2′-MOE. 
     EMBODIMENT 59 
     The compound of embodiment 55, wherein the modified nucleosides of the modified oligonucleotide each comprise the same bicyclic sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 60 
     The compound of embodiment 59, wherein the bicyclic sugar moiety of the modified oligonucleotide is selected from LNA and cEt. 
     EMBODIMENT 61 
     The compound of embodiment 55, wherein the modified nucleosides of the modified oligonucleotide each comprises a sugar surrogate. 
     EMBODIMENT 62 
     The compound of embodiment 61, wherein the sugar surrogate of the modified oligonucleotide is a morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 63 
     The compound of embodiment 61, wherein the sugar surrogate of the modified oligonucleotide is a modified morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 64 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 63, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least one modified internucleoside linkage. 
     EMBODIMENT 65 
     The compound of embodiment 64, wherein each internucleoside linkage is a modified internucleoside linkage. 
     EMBODIMENT 66 
     The compound of embodiment 64 or 65, comprising at least one phosphorothioate internucleoside linkage. 
     EMBODIMENT 67 
     The compound of embodiment 64, wherein each internucleoside linkage is a modified internucleoside linkage and wherein each internucleoside linkage comprises the same modification. 
     EMBODIMENT 68 
     The compound of embodiment 67, wherein each internucleoside linkage is a phosphorothioate internucleoside linkage. 
     EMBODIMENT 69 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 68, comprising at least one conjugate. 
     EMBODIMENT 70 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 69, consisting of the modified oligonucleotide. 
     EMBODIMENT 71 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 70, wherein the compound modulates splicing of the LRRK2 transcript. 
     EMBODIMENT 72 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 71, having a nucleobase sequence comprising any of the sequences as set forth in SEQ ID NO:02, SEQ ID NO:08, or SEQ ID NO:09. 
     EMBODIMENT 73 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 72, having a nucleobase sequence comprising any of the sequences as set forth in SEQ ID NO:01. 
     EMBODIMENT 74 
     The compound of any of embodiments 1 to 72, having a nucleobase sequence comprising any of the sequences as set forth in SEQ ID NO:06. 
     EMBODIMENT 73 
     The compound of any of embodiment 73, having a nucleobase sequence comprising SEQ ID NO:07. 
     EMBODIMENT 74 
     A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to any of embodiments 1 to 73 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. 
     EMBODIMENT 75 
     The pharmaceutical composition of embodiment 74, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent is sterile saline. 
     EMBODIMENT 76 
     A method of modulating splicing of a LRRK2 transcript in a cell comprising contacting the cell with a compound according to any of embodiments 1 to 75. 
     EMBODIMENT 77 
     The method of embodiment 76, wherein the cell is in vitro. 
     EMBODIMENT 78 
     The method of embodiment 76, wherein the cell is in an animal. 
     EMBODIMENT 79a 
     The method of any of embodiments 76 to 78, wherein the amount of LRRK2 mRNA without exon 2 is increased. 
     EMBODIMENT 79b 
     The method of any of embodiments 76 to 78, wherein the amount of LRRK2 mRNA without exon 4 is increased. 
     EMBODIMENT 80 
     The method of any of embodiments 76 to 78, wherein the amount of LRRK2 mRNA without exon 31 is increased. 
     EMBODIMENT 81 
     The method of any of embodiments 76 to 78, wherein the amount of LRRK2 mRNA without exon 41 is increased. 
     EMBODIMENT 82 
     The method of any of embodiments 76 to 81, wherein the LRRK2 transcript is transcribed from a LRRK2 gene. 
     EMBODIMENT 83 
     A method of modulating the expression of LRRK2 in a cell, comprising contacting the cell with a compound according to any of embodiments 1 to 75. 
     EMBODIMENT 84 
     The method of embodiment 83, wherein the cell is in vitro. 
     EMBODIMENT 85 
     The method of embodiment 83, wherein the cell is in an animal. 
     EMBODIMENT 86 
     A method comprising administering the compound according to any of embodiments 1 to 73 or the pharmaceutical composition of embodiments 74 or 75 to an animal. 
     EMBODIMENT 87 
     The method of embodiment 86, wherein the administering step comprises delivering to the animal by intracerebroventricular injection, inhalation, parenteral injection or infusion, oral, subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, buccal, transdermal, transmucosal and topical. 
     EMBODIMENT 88 
     The method of embodiment 87, wherein the administration is by intracerebroventricular injection. 
     EMBODIMENT 89 
     The method of any of embodiments 86 to 88, wherein the animal has one or more symptoms associated with Parkinson&#39;s disease. 
     EMBODIMENT 90 
     The method of any of embodiments 86 to 88, wherein the administration results in amelioration of at least one symptom of Parkinson&#39;s disease. 
     EMBODIMENT 91 
     The method of any of embodiments 86 to 90, wherein the animal is a human. 
     EMBODIMENT 92 
     A method of treating Parkinson&#39;s disease, comprising administering the compound according to any of embodiments 1 to 73 or the pharmaceutical composition of embodiments 74 or 75 to an animal in need thereof. 
     EMBODIMENT 93 
     Use of the compound according to any of embodiments 1 to 73 or the pharmaceutical composition of embodiments 74 or 75 for the preparation of a medicament for use in the treatment of Parkinson&#39;s disease. 
     EMBODIMENT 94 
     Use of the compound according to any of embodiments 1 to 73 or the pharmaceutical composition of embodiments 74 or 75 for the preparation of a medicament for use in the amelioration of one or more symptoms associated with Parkinson&#39;s disease. 
     EMBODIMENT 95 
     A compound comprising a modified oligonucleotide consisting of 8 to 30 linked nucleosides and having a nucleobase sequence comprising a complementary region, wherein the complementary region comprises at least 8 contiguous nucleobases complementary to an equal-length portion of a target region of a LRRK2 transcript. 
     EMBODIMENT 96 
     The compound of embodiment 95, wherein the LRRK2 transcript comprises the nucleobase sequence of SEQ ID NO:03. 
     EMBODIMENT 97 
     The compound of embodiment 95 or 96, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide is 100% complementary to the target region. 
     EMBODIMENT 98 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 97, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 10 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 99 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 97, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 12 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 100 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 97, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 14 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 101 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 97, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 15 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 102 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 97, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 16 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 103 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 97, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 17 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 104 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 97, wherein the complementary region of the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 18 contiguous nucleobases. 
     EMBODIMENT 105 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 104, wherein the nucleobase sequence of the modified oligonucleotide is at least 80% complementary to an equal-length region of the LRRK2 transcript, as measured over the entire length of the oligonucleotide. 
     EMBODIMENT 106 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 104, wherein the nucleobase sequence of the modified oligonucleotide is at least 90% complementary to an equal-length region of the LRRK2 transcript, as measured over the entire length of the oligonucleotide. 
     EMBODIMENT 107 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 104, wherein the nucleobase sequence of the modified oligonucleotide is 100% complementary to an equal-length region of the LRRK2 transcript, as measured over the entire length of the oligonucleotide. 
     EMBODIMENT 108 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 107, wherein the target region is within exon 2, exon 4, exon 31 or exon 41 of human LRRK2. 
     EMBODIMENT 109 
     The compound of embodiment 108, wherein the target region is within exon 31 of human LRRK2. 
     EMBODIMENT 110 
     The compound of embodiment 108, wherein the target region is within exon 41 of human LRRK2. 
     EMBODIMENT 111 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 107, wherein the modified oligonucleotide has a nucleobase sequence comprising any of the sequences as set forth in SEQ ID NO:02, SEQ ID NO:08, or SEQ ID NO:09. 
     EMBODIMENT 112 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 107, wherein the modified oligonucleotide has a nucleobase sequence consisting of the nucleobase sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:01. 
     EMBODIMENT 113 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 107, wherein the modified oligonucleotide has a nucleobase sequence comprising the nucleobase sequence of SEQ ID NO:06. 
     EMBODIMENT 114 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 107, wherein the modified oligonucleotide has a nucleobase sequence consisting of the nucleobase sequence of SEQ ID NO:07. 
     EMBODIMENT 115 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 107, wherein the modified oligonucleotide has a nucleobase sequence comprising the nucleobase sequence of SEQ ID NO:01 SEQ ID NO:02, SEQ ID NO:06, SEQ ID NO:07, SEQ ID NO:08, or SEQ ID NO:09. 
     EMBODIMENT 116 
     The compound of embodiment 115, wherein the modified oligonucleotide has a nucleobase sequence consisting of the nucleobase sequence of SEQ ID NO:09. 
     EMBODIMENT 117 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 116, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least one modified nucleoside. 
     EMBODIMENT 118 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 117, wherein each nucleoside of the modified oligonucleotide is a modified nucleoside selected from among: 2′-OMe, 2′-F, and 2′-MOE or a sugar surrogate. 
     EMBODIMENT 119 
     The compound of embodiment 118, wherein the modified nucleoside is 2′-MOE. 
     EMBODIMENT 120 
     The compound of embodiment 117, wherein the modified nucleoside is a morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 121 
     The compound of embodiment 117, wherein at least one modified nucleoside comprises a modified sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 122 
     The compound of embodiment 121, wherein at least one modified sugar moiety is a 2′-substituted sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 123 
     The compound of embodiment 122, wherein the 2′-substitutent of at least one 2′-substituted sugar moiety is selected from among: 2′-OMe, 2′-F, and 2′-MOE. 
     EMBODIMENT 124 
     The compound of any of embodiments 122 to 123, wherein the 2′-substiuent of at least one 2′-substituted sugar moiety is a 2′-MOE. 
     EMBODIMENT 125 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 124, wherein at least one modified sugar moiety is a bicyclic sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 126 
     The compound of embodiment 125, wherein at least one bicyclic sugar moiety is LNA or cEt. 
     EMBODIMENT 127 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 126, wherein at least one sugar moiety is a sugar surrogate. 
     EMBODIMENT 128 
     The compound of embodiment 127, wherein at least one sugar surrogate is a morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 129 
     The compound of embodiment 128, wherein at least one sugar surrogate is a modified morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 130 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 129, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 5 modified nucleosides, each independently comprising a modified sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 131 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 130, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 10 modified nucleosides, each independently comprising a modified sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 132 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 130, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least 15 modified nucleosides, each independently comprising a modified sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 133 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 130, wherein each nucleoside of the modified oligonucleotide is a modified nucleoside, each independently comprising a modified sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 134 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 133, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least two modified nucleosides comprising modified sugar moieties that are the same as one another. 
     EMBODIMENT 135 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 133, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least two modified nucleosides comprising modified sugar moieties that are different from one another. 
     EMBODIMENT 136 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 136, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises a modified region of at least 5 contiguous modified nucleosides. 
     EMBODIMENT 137 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 135, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises a modified region of at least 10 contiguous modified nucleosides. 
     EMBODIMENT 138 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 135, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises a modified region of at least 15 contiguous modified nucleosides. 
     EMBODIMENT 139 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 135, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises a modified region of at least 16 contiguous modified nucleosides. 
     EMBODIMENT 140 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 135, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises a modified region of at least 17 contiguous modified nucleosides. 
     EMBODIMENT 141 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 135, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises a modified region of at least 18 contiguous modified nucleosides. 
     EMBODIMENT 142 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 135, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises a modified region of at least 20 contiguous modified nucleosides. 
     EMBODIMENT 143 
     The compound of any of embodiments 136 to 142, wherein each modified nucleoside of the modified region has a modified sugar moiety independently selected from among: 2′-F, 2′-OMe, 2′-MOE, cEt, LNA, morpholino, and modified morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 144 
     The compound of any of embodiments 136 to 143, wherein the modified nucleosides of the modified region each comprise the same modification as one another. 
     EMBODIMENT 145 
     The compound of embodiment 144, wherein the modified nucleosides of the modified region each comprise the same 2′-substituted sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 146 
     The compound of embodiment 144, wherein the 2′-substituted sugar moiety of the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides is selected from 2′-F, 2′-OMe, and 2′-MOE. 
     EMBODIMENT 147 
     The compound of embodiment 144, wherein the 2′-substituted sugar moiety of the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides is 2′-MOE. 
     EMBODIMENT 148 
     The compound of embodiment 144, wherein the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides each comprise the same bicyclic sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 149 
     The compound of embodiment 148, wherein the bicyclic sugar moiety of the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides is selected from LNA and cEt. 
     EMBODIMENT 150 
     The compound of embodiment 144, wherein the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides each comprises a sugar surrogate. 
     EMBODIMENT 151 
     The compound of embodiment 150, wherein the sugar surrogate of the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides is a morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 152 
     The compound of embodiment 150, wherein the sugar surrogate of the modified nucleosides of the region of modified nucleosides is a modified morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 153 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 152, wherein the modified nucleotide comprises no more than 4 contiguous naturally occurring nucleosides. 
     EMBODIMENT 154 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 152, wherein each nucleoside of the modified oligonucleotide is a modified nucleoside. 
     EMBODIMENT 155 
     The compound of embodiment 154, wherein each modified nucleoside comprises a modified sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 156 
     The compound of embodiment 155, wherein the modified nucleosides of the modified oligonucleotide comprise the same modification as one another. 
     EMBODIMENT 157 
     The compound of embodiment 156, wherein the modified nucleosides of the modified oligonucleotide each comprise the same 2′-substituted sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 158 
     The compound of embodiment 157, wherein the 2′-substituted sugar moiety of the modified oligonucleotide is selected from 2′-F, 2′-OMe, and 2′-MOE. 
     EMBODIMENT 159 
     The compound of embodiment 157, wherein the 2′-substituted sugar moiety of the modified oligonucleotide is 2′-MOE. 
     EMBODIMENT 160 
     The compound of embodiment 158, wherein the modified nucleosides of the modified oligonucleotide each comprise the same bicyclic sugar moiety. 
     EMBODIMENT 161 
     The compound of embodiment 160, wherein the bicyclic sugar moiety of the modified oligonucleotide is selected from LNA and cEt. 
     EMBODIMENT 162 
     The compound of embodiment 156, wherein the modified nucleosides of the modified oligonucleotide each comprises a sugar surrogate. 
     EMBODIMENT 163 
     The compound of embodiment 162, wherein the sugar surrogate of the modified oligonucleotide is a morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 164 
     The compound of embodiment 162, wherein the sugar surrogate of the modified oligonucleotide is a modified morpholino. 
     EMBODIMENT 165 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 164, wherein the modified oligonucleotide comprises at least one modified internucleoside linkage. 
     EMBODIMENT 166 
     The compound of embodiment 165, wherein each internucleoside linkage is a modified internucleoside linkage. 
     EMBODIMENT 167 
     The compound of embodiment 165 or 166, comprising at least one phosphorothioate internucleoside linkage. 
     EMBODIMENT 168 
     The compound of embodiment 166, wherein each internucleoside linkage is a modified internucleoside linkage and wherein each internucleoside linkage comprises the same modification. 
     EMBODIMENT 169 
     The compound of embodiment 168, wherein each internucleoside linkage is a phosphorothioate internucleoside linkage. 
     EMBODIMENT 170 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 169, comprising at least one conjugate. 
     EMBODIMENT 171 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 170, consisting of the modified oligonucleotide. 
     EMBODIMENT 172 
     The compound of any of embodiments 95 to 171, wherein the compound modulates splicing of the LRRK2 transcript. 
     EMBODIMENT 173 
     A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to any of embodiments 95 to 172 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. 
     EMBODIMENT 174 
     The pharmaceutical composition of embodiment 173, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent is sterile saline. 
     EMBODIMENT 175 
     A method of modulating splicing of a LRRK2 transcript in a cell comprising contacting the cell with a compound according to any of embodiments 95 to 174. 
     EMBODIMENT 176 
     The method of embodiment 175, wherein the cell is in vitro. 
     EMBODIMENT 177 
     The method of embodiment 175, wherein the cell is in an animal. 
     EMBODIMENT 178 
     The method of any of embodiments 175 to 177, wherein the amount of LRRK2 mRNA without exon 2 is increased. 
     EMBODIMENT 179 
     The method of any of embodiments 175 to 177, wherein the amount of LRRK2 mRNA without exon 31 is increased. 
     EMBODIMENT 180 
     The method of any of embodiments 175 to 177, wherein the amount of LRRK2 mRNA with exon 41 is increased. 
     EMBODIMENT 181 
     The method of any of embodiments 175 to 180, wherein the LRRK2 transcript is transcribed from a LRRK2 gene. 
     EMBODIMENT 182 
     A method of modulating the expression of LRRK2 in a cell, comprising contacting the cell with a compound according to any of embodiments 95 to 174. 
     EMBODIMENT 183 
     The method of embodiment 182, wherein the cell is in vitro. 
     EMBODIMENT 184 
     The method of embodiment 182, wherein the cell is in an animal. 
     EMBODIMENT 185 
     A method comprising administering the compound of any of embodiments 95 to 172 to an animal. 
     EMBODIMENT 186 
     The method of embodiment 185, wherein the administering step comprises delivering to the animal by intracerebroventricular injection, inhalation, parenteral injection or infusion, oral, subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, buccal, transdermal, transmucosal and topical. 
     EMBODIMENT 187 
     The method of embodiment 185, wherein the administration is intracerebroventricular injection. 
     EMBODIMENT 188 
     The method of any of embodiments 185 to 187, wherein the animal has one or more symptoms associated with Parkinson&#39;s disease. 
     EMBODIMENT 189 
     The method of any of embodiments 185 to 187, wherein the administration results in amelioration of at least one symptom of Parkinson&#39;s disease. 
     EMBODIMENT 190 
     The method of any of embodiments 185 to 189, wherein the animal is a human. 
     EMBODIMENT 191 
     A method of preventing or slowing one or more symptoms associated with Parkinson&#39;s disease, comprising administering the compound according to any of embodiments 95 to 172 to an animal in need thereof. 
     EMBODIMENT 192 
     The method of embodiment 191, wherein the animal is a human. 
     EMBODIMENT 193 
     Use of the compound according to any of embodiments 95 to 172 for the preparation of a medicament for use in the treatment of Parkinson&#39;s disease. 
     EMBODIMENT 194 
     Use of the compound according to any of embodiments 95 to 172 for the preparation of a medicament for use in the amelioration of one or more symptoms associated with Parkinson&#39;s disease. 
     EMBODIMENT 195 
     Use of the compound according to any of embodiments 95 to 172 for the preparation of a medicament for use in the amelioration of one or more symptoms associated with Parkinson&#39;s disease. 
     These and other features and advantages of the present disclosure will be more fully understood from the following detailed description of the invention taken together with the accompanying claims. It is noted that the scope of the claims is defined by the recitations therein and not by the specific discussion of features and advantages set forth in the present description. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       A better understanding of the disclosure may be obtained in light of the following drawings which are set forth for illustrative purposes, and should not be construed as limiting the scope of the disclosure in any way. 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic of the antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) designed to block splicing to either exon 31 in patients with a LRRK2 R1441C mutation or exon 41 in patients with a G2019S mutation. ASOs that block splicing of exon 41 will result in a frame-shift in the LRRK2 mRNA and protein product, which will essentially eliminate LRRK2 expression. ASOs that block splicing of exon 31 will eliminate the R1441C mutation and result in the production of an alternative LRRK2 isoform predicted to have lower kinase activity. Both of the ASO-induced LRRK2 mRNA transcripts are predicted to mitigate disease symptoms by lessening the toxic effects of the mutated LRRK2 protein. 
         FIG. 2  demonstrates antisense oligonucleotides, ASO-31-1 (SEQ ID NO: 01) and ASO-41-1 (SEQ ID NO: 02) successfully reduce full-length LRRK2 expression by inducing skipping of LRRK2 exon 31 and 41 containing the R1441C and G2019S mutation, respectively, in fibroblast cells from Parkinson&#39;s patients. 
         FIG. 3A  demonstrates that antisense oligonucleotides (ASO-41-1) successfully induces skipping of LRRK2 exon 41 containing the G2019S mutation in neurons derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells. 
         FIG. 3B  demonstrates that antisense oligonucleotides (ASO-41-1) successfully induces skipping of LRRK2 exon 41 containing the G2019S mutation in neurons derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells. 
         FIG. 4A  shows an electrophoretic analysis of the full length LRRK2 RNA product containing exon 41 (top lane) and LRRK2 RNA product with exon 41 skipped (bottom lane) after ASO treatment. Treatment conditions: 41 1×-single treatment of cells with exon 41 ASO, 41 2×-double treatment of cells with exon 41 ASO, 41-FL 1×-single treatment of cells with exon 41 Fluorescent ASO, 41 2×-double treatment of cells with exon 41 Fluorescent ASO, Ctl-FL 2×-double treatment of cells with non-target Fluorescent ASO, Ctl 2×-double treatment of cells with non-target Fluorescent ASO. Results demonstrate that LRRK2 exon 41 skipping induced by antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) in iPS-derived neurons derived from healthy subject controls (CTRL 10A and 21.31) or PD patients carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation (G2019S 29F and PD28). 
         FIG. 4B  shows quantification of the percentage of exon 41 skipped when compared to the amount of the full length LRRK2 RNA product per treatment condition. Treatment conditions: 41 1×-single treatment of cells with exon 41 ASO, 41 2×-double treatment of cells with exon 41 ASO, 41-FL 1×-single treatment of cells with exon 41 Fluorescent ASO, 41 2×-double treatment of cells with exon 41 Fluorescent ASO, Ctl-FL 2×-double treatment of cells with non-target Fluorescent ASO, Ctl 2×-double treatment of cells with non-target Fluorescent ASO. Results demonstrate that LRRK2 exon 41 skipping induced by antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) in iPS-derived neurons derived from healthy subject controls (CTRL 10A and 21.31) or PD patients carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation (G2019S 29F and PD28). 
         FIG. 5A  shows intracellular calcium levels were not altered in human iPS neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation compared to healthy subject (HS) controls. Detailed analysis showed no differences in the 1st and the 2nd calcium peak amplitude upon KCl depolarization (arrows). Additionally, no difference was observed in calcium buffering upon a prolonged KCl depolarization indicating no difference in the binding and compartmentalization of the unbound calcium. Results demonstrate iPS-derived neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation show altered calcium homeostasis after ER calcium pump Serca inhibition, which can be rescued by LRRK2 G2019S antisense oligonucleotide. 
         FIG. 5B  shows intracellular calcium levels were not altered in human iPS neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation compared to healthy subject (HS) controls. Detailed analysis showed no differences in the 1st and the 2nd calcium peak amplitude upon KCl depolarization (arrows). Additionally, no difference was observed in calcium buffering upon a prolonged KCl depolarization indicating no difference in the binding and compartmentalization of the unbound calcium. Results demonstrate iPS-derived neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation show altered calcium homeostasis after ER calcium pump Serca inhibition, which can be rescued by LRRK2 G2019S antisense oligonucleotide. 
         FIG. 5C  shows that upon Serca inhibition with 10 nM thapsigargin (THP), intracellular calcium levels were significantly increased in human iPS neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation compared to HS control. Detailed analysis showed an increase in the 2nd calcium peak amplitude upon KCl depolarization and an increase in the unbound calcium levels indicating decreased calcium buffering. Results demonstrate iPS-derived neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation show altered calcium homeostasis after ER calcium pump Serca inhibition, which can be rescued by LRRK2 G2019S antisense oligonucleotide. 
         FIG. 5D  shows that upon Serca inhibition with 10 nM thapsigargin (THP), intracellular calcium levels were significantly increased in human iPS neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation compared to HS control. Detailed analysis showed an increase in the 2nd calcium peak amplitude upon KCl depolarization and an increase in the unbound calcium levels indicating decreased calcium buffering. Results demonstrate iPS-derived neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation show altered calcium homeostasis after ER calcium pump Serca inhibition, which can be rescued by LRRK2 G2019S antisense oligonucleotide. 
         FIG. 5E  shows LRRK2 exon 41 G2019S targeting antisense oligonucleotide (G2019S ASO) normalizes the intracellular calcium levels in Serca blocked iPS-derived neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation. Both the calcium amplitude during the 2nd KCl stimulation and the unbound calcium levels show equal levels when compared to the HS control neurons treated with non-target ASO (NT ASO). Data was collected from fluorescein positive ASO transfected 4 PD patient iPS-derived neuronal lines carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation and 3 healthy subject control lines; each line represents a pool of 3 technical replicates per condition per line. Statistical analysis was performed using unpaired student T-test. *p&lt;0.05). Results demonstrate rescue of the LRRK2 G2019S induced pathology in iPS-derived neurons using LRRK2 exon 41 skipping antisense oligonucleotide strategy functional validation studies. 
         FIG. 5F  shows LRRK2 exon 41 G2019S targeting antisense oligonucleotide (G2019S ASO) normalizes the intracellular calcium levels in Serca blocked iPS-derived neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation. Both the calcium amplitude during the 2nd KCl stimulation and the unbound calcium levels show equal levels when compared to the HS control neurons treated with non-target ASO (NT ASO). Data was collected from fluorescein positive ASO transfected 4 PD patient iPS-derived neuronal lines carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation and 3 healthy subject control lines; each line represents a pool of 3 technical replicates per condition per line. Statistical analysis was performed using unpaired student T-test. *p&lt;0.05). Results demonstrate rescue of the LRRK2 G2019S induced pathology in iPS-derived neurons using LRRK2 exon 41 skipping antisense oligonucleotide strategy functional validation studies. 
         FIG. 6A  shows total ER-calcium levels were significantly decreased in the iPS midbrain neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation compared to the healthy subject control at baseline. Neurons were treated with non-target negative control ASO (NT ASO). This decrease in the ER calcium levels in the LRRK2 midbrain neurons was rescued with the G2019S exon 41 antisense oligonucleotide (G2019S ASO). ER calcium levels were measured by total CEPIA-ER-GFP expression emission. Results demonstrate that iPS-derived midbrain neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation show decreased total ER-calcium levels, which can be partially rescued by antisense oligonucleotide induced exon 41 skipping. Statistical analysis was performed using unpaired student T-test. ****p&lt;0.0001 
         FIG. 6B  shows total ER-calcium levels were 20% significantly decreased in the NT ASO treated iPS midbrain neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation compared to the healthy subject control after 24 h of 10 nM thapsigargin induced Serca inhibition. Upon treatment with the G2019S ASO, total ER-calcium levels in the LRRK2 midbrain neurons were 11% significantly lowered compared to the NT treated HS neurons suggesting a partial rescue of the ER calcium levels by the G2019S ASO. Data was collected from one PD patient iPS-derived line carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation and one healthy subject control line with the direct control over the ASO treatment (NT vs G2019S); each neuronal genotype represents a pool of 3 technical replicates quantifying more than 100 neurons per each condition. ER calcium levels were measured by total CEPIA-ER-GFP expression emission. Results demonstrate that iPS-derived midbrain neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation show decreased total ER-calcium levels, which can be partially rescued by antisense oligonucleotide induced exon 41 skipping. Statistical analysis was performed using unpaired student T-test. ****p&lt;0.0001. 
         FIG. 6C  shows ER-calcium levels in the control ASO (SEQ ID NO:05) and exon 41 ASO (SEQ ID NO:02) treated iPS neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation compared to the healthy subject (HS) control. ER calcium levels were measured by total CEPIA-ER-GFP expression emission. Results demonstrate that iPS-derived neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation show decreased ER-calcium levels, which can be successfully rescued by antisense oligonucleotide induced exon 41 skipping. Statistical analysis was performed using One way ANOVA with Holm-Sidak&#39;s multiple testing correction. *p&lt;0.05. 
         FIG. 7A  shows that neurite length is shortened in LRRK2 G2019S neurons following treatment with ER calcium pump Serca inhibitor thapsigargin (THP) by 24 hours and 48 hours post 10 nM and 100 nM treatment (N=3). One way Repeated measure ANOVA with Dunnett&#39;s multiple testing correction, *p&lt;0.05, **p&lt;0.01. 
         FIG. 7B  shows that neurite length is unaffected in WT neurons (N=3) following treatment with a SERCA inhibitor, but rather, we observe an increase of the neurite length in the vehicle treated cells. One way Repeated measure ANOVA with Dunnett&#39;s multiple testing correction, **p&lt;0.01. 
         FIG. 7C  shows that neurite length is shortened in LRRK2 G2019S neurons following treatment with a SERCA inhibitor in an independent Parkinson&#39;s disease patient iPSC-derived neuronal cohort (N=4). One way Repeated measure ANOVA with Dunnett&#39; s multiple testing correction, *p&lt;0.05, **p&lt;0.01. 
         FIG. 7D  shows that neurite length is unaffected in gene corrected neurons following treatment with a SERCA inhibitor. One way Repeated measure ANOVA with Dunnett&#39;s multiple testing correction. 
         FIG. 7E  shows that neurite length is shortened in LRRK2 G2019S neurons following treatment with a non-specific control ASO following treatment with a SERCA inhibitor. One way Repeated measure ANOVA with Dunnett&#39;s multiple testing correction. *p&lt;0.05, ** p&lt;0.01. 
         FIG. 7F  shows that exon 41 LRRK2 ASO induced skipping rescues neurite outgrowth THP induced collapse in LRRK2 G2019S neurons. One way Repeated measure ANOVA with Dunnett&#39;s multiple testing correction. 
         FIG. 8A  shows the DAF-FM fluorescence confluence and the nitric oxide levels in LRRK2 G2019S iPS-derived neurons after valinomycin toxicity. Results demonstrate that an increase in RNS in LRRK2 G2019S neurons after mitochondrial depolarization induced through valinomycin toxicity. 
         FIG. 8B  shows the DAF-FM fluorescence intensity and the nitric oxide levels in LRRK2 G2019S iPS-derived neurons after valinomycin toxicity. Results demonstrate that an increase in RNS in LRRK2 G2019S neurons after mitochondrial depolarization induced through valinomycin toxicity. 
         FIG. 8C  shows the nitric oxide levels in LRRK2 G2019S iPS-derived neurons treated with exon 41 ASO (SEQ ID NO:02) and exon 31 ASO (SEQ ID NO:01). *p&lt;0.05. 
         FIG. 9A  shows the DAF-FM fluorescence intensity in T4.6 cell lines demonstrating that nitric oxide levels are lower in LRRK2 G2019S gene corrected iPS neurons. 
         FIG. 9B  shows the DAF-FM fluorescence intensity in T4.13 cell lines demonstrating that nitric oxide levels are lower in LRRK2 G2019S gene corrected iPS neurons. 
         FIG. 9C  shows the DAF-FM fluorescence intensity in IM1 cell lines demonstrating that nitric oxide levels are lower in LRRK2 G2019S gene corrected iPS neurons. 
         FIG. 10A  shows the MitoSOX™ fluorescence confluence and that super oxide levels in LRRK2 G2019 iPS-derived neurons after valinomycin toxicity. Results demonstrate no difference in the ROS levels in LRRK2 G2019S neurons compared to the healthy subject neurons after mitochondrial depolarization induced through valinomycin toxicity. 
         FIG. 10B  shows the MitoSOX™ fluorescence intensity and that super oxide levels in LRRK2 G2019 iPS-derived neurons after valinomycin toxicity. Results demonstrate no difference in the ROS levels in LRRK2 G2019S neurons compared to the healthy subject neurons after mitochondrial depolarization induced through valinomycin toxicity. 
         FIG. 11A  shows the MitoTracker® confluence in iPS control cells and that disruption of mitochondrial intracellular distribution in iPS-derived neurons after mitochondrial depolarization. 
         FIG. 11B  shows the MitoTracker® confluence in iPS LRRK2 G2019S cells and that disruption of mitochondrial intracellular distribution in iPS-derived neurons after mitochondrial depolarization. Demonstrates altered mitochondrial intracellular distribution in LRRK2 G2019S iPS-derived neurons after mitochondrial depolarization. 
         FIG. 12A  shows the MitoTracker® distribution in iPS LRRK2 G2019S neuron cells and healthy control cells after 2 uM valinomycin toxicity. Demonstrates altered mitochondrial intracellular distribution in LRRK2 G2019S iPS-derived neurons after mitochondrial depolarization induced by valinomycin toxicity compared to healthy control neurons. 
         FIG. 12B  shows the MitoTracker® distribution in iPS LRRK2 G2019S neuron cells and gene corrected neurons after 2 uM valinomycin toxicity. Demonstrates trend towards altered mitochondrial intracellular distribution in LRRK2 G2019S iPS-derived neurons after mitochondrial depolarization induced by valinomycin toxicity. 
         FIG. 13A  shows the intracellular MitoTracker® distribution in iPS LRRK2 G2019S neuron cells. 
         FIG. 13B  shows the ERSE transcriptional activity in control and PD LRRK2 G2019S cells and the decreased ER stress response in LRRK2 G2019S neurons. 2-way ANOVA indicates genotype significance for all comparisons. Results demonstrate that the ER stress response has lower activation threshold in LRRK2 G2019S human neurons compared to healthy subject neurons after calcium store depletion induced by thapsigargin (THP). 
         FIG. 13C  shows the ATF6 transcriptional activity in control and PD LRRK2 G2019S cells and the decreased ER stress response in LRRK2 G2019S neurons. 2-way ANOVA indicates genotype significance for all comparisons. Results demonstrate that the ER stress response has lower activation threshold in LRRK2 G2019S human neurons compared to healthy subject neurons after calcium store depletion induced by thapsigargin (THP). 
         FIG. 13D  shows gene expression levels of UPR activators. 2-way ANOVA indicates genotype significance for all comparisons. Results demonstrate that the ER stress response has lower activation threshold in LRRK2 G2019S human neurons compared to healthy subject neurons after calcium store depletion induced by thapsigargin (THP). 
         FIG. 14A  shows an image of Mitophagy Rosella bioprobe intracellular localization in the 293T Hek cells transfected with the LV-CMV-ATP3 Rosella bioprobe. In addition to the red and green expression of the Rosella bioprobe, cells were co-stained with Tom20 for mitochondrial detection (Purple) and Hoechst (Blue) for nuclear identification. 
         FIG. 14B  shows mitophagy measured with live cell imaging of the Rosella bioprobe in 293T HEK cells. Results demonstrate that the Rosella bioprobe can successfully indicate mitophagy in 293T cells, shown by lower levels of the Green/Red fluorescent ratio, after 1 μM rotenone treatment of cells. 
         FIG. 14C  shows mitophagy measured with Rosella bioprobe in healthy subject iPS-derived neurons. Results demonstrate that mitophagy can be successfully detected in healthy subject control human iPS neurons treated with 1 μM rotenone using live cell imaging of Rosella bioprobe (indicated by lower levels of the Green/Red fluorescent ratio). 
         FIG. 15  is a schematic of the antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) designed to block splicing to either exon 2 or exon 4 in patients carrying a LRRK2 R1441C and/or a LRRK2 G2019S mutation. ASOs that block splicing of exon 2 or exon 4 will result in a frame-shift in the LRRK2 mRNA and protein product, which will essentially eliminate LRRK2 expression. Both of the ASO-induced LRRK2 mRNA transcripts are predicted to mitigate disease symptoms by lessening the toxic effects of the mutated LRRK2 protein. 
         FIG. 16  demonstrates that antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs: ex4, exon 4 ASO, ATACACATATTACCTGAAGTTAGGA (SEQ ID NO:06); ex2, exon 2 ASO, AGTGAAAACAATGCCTTTACCTGCT (SEQ ID NO:07); and ex41-1, exon 41 ASO, AGACAGACCTGATCACCTACCTGGT (SEQ ID NO:02)) successfully induces skipping of LRRK2 exon 2, exon 4, and exon 41 containing either the R1441C mutation or the G2019S mutation in fibroblast cell lines derived from human patients carrying either the LRRK2 R1441C mutation or the LRRK2 G2019S mutation. 
         FIG. 17A  shows quantification of the percentage of exon 31, exon 4, and exon 2 skipped when compared to the amount of the full length LRRK2 RNA product per treatment condition. Fibroblast cells isolated from a patient having a LRRK2 R1441C mutation were treated with 7.5 μM, 22.5 μM or 45 μM of each ASO. ASO-5 (CTACCAGCCTACCATGTTACCTTGA; SEQ ID NO:01, targeting exon 31), ASO-23 (ATACACATATTACCTGAAGTTAGGA; SEQ ID NO:06, targeting exon 4), and ASO-45 (AGTGAAAACAATGCCTTTACCTGCT; SEQ ID NO:07, targeting exon 2). 
         FIG. 17B  shows quantification of the percentage of exon 41, exon 4, and exon 2 skipped when compared to the amount of the full length LRRK2 RNA product per treatment condition. Fibroblast cells isolated from a patient having a LRRK2 G2019S mutation were treated with 7.5 μM, 22.5 μM or 45 μM of each ASO. ASO-6 (AGACAGACCTGATCACCTACCTGGT; SEQ ID NO:02, targeting exon 41), ASO-46 (GGTATCTGCCAGAAAATGCACAGGA; SEQ ID NO:08, targeting exon 41), ASO-23 (ATACACATATTACCTGAAGTTAGGA; SEQ ID NO:06, targeting exon 4), and ASO-45 (AGTGAAAACAATGCCTTTACCTGCT; SEQ ID NO:07, targeting exon 2). 
         FIG. 18  shows that ASOs directed to exon 41 induce dose responsive exon 41 skipping in fibroblast cells isolated from a patient having a LRRK2 G2019S mutation. Cells were treated with 7.5 μM, 15 μM, 22.5 μM, or 45 μM of each ASO: ASO-6 (AGACAGACCTGATCACCTACCTGGT; SEQ ID NO:02, targeting exon 41), or ASO-46 (GGTATCTGCCAGAAAATGCACAGGA; SEQ ID NO:08, targeting exon 41). 
         FIG. 19  shows that an ASO directed to exon 31 induces exon skipping in fibroblast cells isolated from a patient having a LRRK2 R1441C mutation. Cells were treated with 22.5 μM of ASO-31-1 (CTACCAGCCTACCATGTTACCTTGA; SEQ ID NO:01). 
         FIG. 20A  shows quantification of the percentage of exon 31, exon 4, and exon 2 skipped when compared to the amount of the full length LRRK2 RNA product per treatment condition. Fibroblast cells isolated from a patient having a LRRK2 R1441C mutation were treated with 45 μM of each ASO: ASO-31-1 (CTACCAGCCTACCATGTTACCTTGA; SEQ ID NO:01), ASO-4-1 (ATACACATATTACCTGAAGTTAGGA; SEQ ID NO:06), and ASO-2-1 (AGTGAAAACAATGCCTTTACCTGCT; SEQ ID NO:07). 
         FIG. 20B  shows quantification of the percentage of exon 41, exon 4, and exon 2 skipped when compared to the amount of the full length LRRK2 RNA product per treatment condition. Fibroblast cells isolated from a patient having a LRRK2 G2019S mutation were treated with 45 μM of each ASO: ASO-41-2 (GGTATCTGCCAGAAAATGCACAGGA; SEQ ID NO:08), ASO-4-1 (ATACACATATTACCTGAAGTTAGGA; SEQ ID NO:06), and ASO-2-1 (AGTGAAAACAATGCCTTTACCTGCT; SEQ ID NO:07). 
         FIG. 21  shows that an ASO specific to the LRRK2 G2019S mutation can induce exon 41 skipping in fibroblast cells isolated from a patient having a LRRK2 G2019S mutation. Cells were treated with 7.5 μM of each ASO: ASO-284 ( AATGCTGTAGTCAGCAATCTTTGCA ; SEQ ID NO:09, targeting the LRRK2 G2019S mutation), ASO-6 (AGACAGACCTGATCACCTACCTGGT; SEQ ID NO:02, targeting exon 41). 
         FIG. 22A  shows a concentration curve for an ASO specific to exon 41. ASO-6 (AGACAGACCTGATCACCTACCTGGT; SEQ ID NO:02). 
         FIG. 22B  shows a concentration curve for an ASO specific to exon 41. ASO-46 (GGTATCTGCCAGAAAATGCACAGGA; SEQ ID NO:08). 
         FIG. 23A  shows that an ASO (ASO 41-1) targeting exon 41 (at 1 μM dose) in PD patient fibroblasts having the LRRK2 G2019S mutation decreases fibroblast cellular vulnerability to mitochondrial stress induced by membrane depolarization (valinomycin toxicity). One way repeated ANOVA with Dunnett&#39;s multiple testing correction; *p&lt;0.05, 
         FIG. 23B  shows quantification of the percentage of LRRK2 exon 41 skipped by ASO-41-1 in cells from healthy subjects (HS cells) and cells from PD patients carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation (PD cells). 
         FIG. 24  shows that an ASO (ASO-6 (AGACAGACCTGATCACCTACCTGGT SEQ ID NO:02) directed to exon 41 induces dose responsive exon 41 skipping in various human fibroblast cell lines. Cells were treated with 1 μM, 5 μM, or 15 μM of ASO-6. HS23 cells are healthy subject cells from donor 23; HS26 cells are healthy subject cells from donor 26; HS17 cells are healthy subject cells from donor 17; HS30 cells are healthy subject cells from donor 30; PD36 cells are Parkinson disease patient cells from donor 36 carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation; PD4 cells are Parkinson disease patient cells from donor 4 carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation; PD09 cells are Parkinson disease patient cells from donor 09 carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation; PD37 cells are Parkinson disease patient cells from donor 37 carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation. 
         FIG. 25  shows that LRRK2 exon 41 skipping increases the number of lysed mitochondria in human fibroblasts. Fibroblast cell lines isolated from patients carrying a LRRK2 G2019S mutation (LRRK2 G2019S) and healthy subject controls (HS) cells were treated with 1 μM, 5 μM, or 15 μM of ASO-41-1. 
         FIG. 26A  shows that an ASO (ASO-6) directed to exon 41 induces dose responsive exon 41 skipping in various cell lines. Cells were treated with 1 μM, 5 μM, or 15 μM of ASO-6. HS23 cells are healthy subject cells from donor 23; HS26 cells are healthy subject cells from donor 26; HS17 cells are healthy subject cells from donor 17; PD36 cells are Parkinson disease patient cells from donor 36 carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation; PD4 cells are Parkinson disease patient cells from donor 4 carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation; PD09 cells are Parkinson disease patient cells from donor 09 carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation; PD37 cells are Parkinson disease patient cells from donor 37 carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation. 
         FIG. 26B  shows quantification of the percentage of LRRK2 exon 41 skipped induced by ASO-6 in the HS cells and PD cells. 
         FIG. 27A  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation upon exon 41 skipping induced by treatment with 1 μM of ASO #6. 
         FIG. 27B  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation upon exon 41 skipping induced by treatment with 1 μM of ASO #6 imaged at 0.5 hours. One way ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s multiple testing correction; *p&lt;0.05, **p&lt;0.01, ***p&lt;0.001. 
         FIG. 27C  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation upon exon 41 skipping induced by treatment with 1 μM of ASO #6 imaged at 3 hours. One way ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s multiple testing correction; *p&lt;0.05, ****p&lt;0.0001. 
         FIG. 27D  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation upon exon 41 skipping induced by treatment with 1 μM of ASO #6 imaged at 18 hours. One way ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s multiple testing correction; **p&lt;0.01, ***p&lt;0.001, ****p&lt;0.0001. 
         FIG. 28A  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation upon exon 2 skipping induced by treatment with 1 μM of ASO #45. 
         FIG. 28B  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation upon exon 2 skipping induced by treatment with 1 μM of ASO #45 imaged at 0.5 hours. One way ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s multiple testing correction; **p&lt;0.01. 
         FIG. 28C  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation upon exon 2 skipping induced by treatment with 1 μM of ASO #45 imaged at 3 hours. One way ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s multiple testing correction; *p&lt;0.05, **p&lt;0.01, ****p&lt;0.0001. 
         FIG. 28D  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation upon exon 2 skipping induced by treatment with 1 μM of ASO #45 imaged at 18 hours. One way ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s multiple testing correction; *p&lt;0.05, **p&lt;0.01, ****p&lt;0.0001. 
         FIG. 29A  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation upon exon 31 skipping induced by treatment with 5 μM of ASO #5. 
         FIG. 29B  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation upon exon 31 skipping induced by treatment with 5 μM of ASO #5 imaged at 0.5 hours. One way ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s multiple testing correction; **p&lt;0.01. 
         FIG. 29C  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation upon exon 31 skipping induced by treatment with 5 μM of ASO #5 imaged at 3 hours. One way ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s multiple testing correction; *p&lt;0.05, **p&lt;0.01. 
         FIG. 29D  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation upon exon 31 skipping induced by treatment with 5 μM of ASO #5 imaged at 18 hours. One way ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s multiple testing correction; *p&lt;0.05, **p&lt;0.0, ***p&lt;0.001. 
         FIG. 30A  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation upon exon 2 skipping induced by treatment with 5 μM of ASO #45. 
         FIG. 30B  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation upon exon 2 skipping induced by treatment with 5 μM of ASO #45 imaged at 0.5 hours. One way ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s multiple testing correction; *p&lt;0.05. 
         FIG. 30C  shows mitochondrial acidification (an indication of rescue of mitophagic flux) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation upon exon 2 skipping induced by treatment with 5 μM of ASO #45 imaged at 3 hours. One way ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s multiple testing correction; *p&lt;0.05. 
         FIG. 31  shows a decrease in LRRK2 protein expression in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation when treated with an ASO targeting exon 41. Treatment with 15 μM of ASO #6 results in a decrease in LRRK2 protein levels. Paired t-test, * p&lt;0.05 
         FIG. 32A  shows a decrease in LRRK2 protein expression in HS fibroblasts and PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation when treated with ASOs targeting exon 41 or exon 2. Treatment with 1 μM or 15 μM of ASO #6, or 15 μM of ASO #45 results in a decrease in LRRK2 protein levels. One way ANOVA with Dunnett&#39;s multiple testing correction; *p&lt;0.05. 
         FIG. 32B  shows a decrease in LRRK2 protein expression in HS fibroblasts and PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation when treated with ASOs targeting exon 41 or exon 2. Treatment with 1 μM or 15 μM of ASO #6, or 15 μM of ASO #45 results in a decrease in LRRK2 protein levels. One way ANOVA with Dunnett&#39;s multiple testing correction; *p&lt;0.05. 
         FIG. 33  shows changes in phosphorylated LRRK2 protein levels (phosphorylation at Serine 935) in HS fibroblasts and PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation when treated with ASOs targeting exon 41 or exon 2. Treatment with 1 μM or 15 μM of ASO #6, or 15 μM of ASO #45 results in a change in phosphorylated LRRK2 protein levels. 
         FIG. 34A  shows a decrease in LRRK2 protein expression in HS fibroblasts and PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation when treated with an ASO targeting exon 31. Treatment with 15 μM of ASO #5 results in a decrease in LRRK2 protein levels. Paired t-test, *p&lt;0.05. 
         FIG. 34B  shows a decrease in LRRK2 protein expression in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation when treated with ASOs targeting exon 31. Treatment with 15 μM of ASO #5 or 15 μM of ASO #45 results in a decrease in LRRK2 protein levels. 
         FIG. 34C  shows a decrease in LRRK2 protein expression in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation when treated with an ASO targeting exon 31. Treatment with 15 μM of ASO #5 results in a trend of decrease in LRRK2 protein levels. 
         FIG. 34D  shows changes in phosphorylated LRRK2 protein levels (phosphorylation at Serine 935) in HS cells and PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation when treated with ASOs targeting exon 31 (treatment with 15 μM of ASO #5 or 15 μM of ASO #45). 
         FIG. 35  shows a decrease in LRRK2 protein expression in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation when treated with ASOs targeting exon 31 and exon 2. Treatment with 5 μM of ASO #5 or ASO #45 results in a decrease in LRRK2 protein levels. One way ANOVA with Dunnett&#39;s multiple testing correction &amp; Paired T-test; *p&lt;0.05. 
         FIG. 36  shows changes in phosphorylated LRRK2 protein levels (phosphorylation at Serine 935) in PD patient derived fibroblasts carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation when treated with ASOs targeting exon 31 or exon 2 (treatment with 5 μM of ASO #5 or 5 μM of ASO #45). 
         FIG. 37  shows a decrease in LRRK2 protein expression in human HS fibroblasts treated with ASOs targeting exon 31 and exon 2. Treatment with 5 μM of ASO #5 or ASO #45 results in a decrease in LRRK2 protein levels. One way ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s multiple testing correction &amp; Paired T-test; *p&lt;0.05. 
         FIG. 38A  shows that ASOs directed to exon 41 induce exon 41 skipping in iPS-derived neurons with WT LRRK2 or LRRK2 carrying the G2019S mutation. Cells were treated with 2×10 μM of an ASO specific to exon 41 (ASO #6; SEQ ID NO:02). 
         FIG. 38B  shows a decrease in LRRK2 protein expression in iPS-derived neurons from healthy subject and PD patient neurons carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation treated with an ASO targeting exon 41 (Ex41) compared to non-target ASO (Ctrl). Treatment with 2×10 μM of ASO #6 results in a decrease in LRRK2 protein levels. Ratio Paired t-test, *p&lt;0.05. 
         FIG. 38C  shows that ASOs directed to exon 41 induce exon 41 skipping in iPS-derived midbrain neurons with WT LRRK2 or LRRK2 carrying the G2019S mutation. Cells were treated with 2×10 μM of an ASO specific to exon 41 (ASO #6; SEQ ID NO:02). 
         FIG. 39A  shows that antisense oligonucleotides treatment of iPS-derived neurons with an ASO targeting exon 31 successfully induces skipping of LRRK2 exon 31. Cells were treated with 10 μM, 17.5 μM, or 25 μM of an ASO specific to exon 31 (ASO #5; SEQ ID NO:01). 
         FIG. 39B  shows quantification of the percentage of exon 31 skipped when treated with an ASO targeting exon 31. Cells were treated with 10 μM, 17.5 μM, or 25 μM of an ASO specific to exon 31 (ASO #5; SEQ ID NO:01). 
         FIG. 40  shows LRRK2 protein levels after exon 31 ASO induced skipping in iPS-derived neurons. ASO #5 decreases LRRK2 protein levels in iPS-derived neurons expressing WT or R1441C mutant LRRK2. 
     
    
    
     Skilled artisans will appreciate that elements in the figures are illustrated for simplicity and clarity and have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figures can be exaggerated relative to other elements to help improve understanding of the embodiment(s) of the present disclosure. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DISCLOSURE 
     The present disclosure relates to general compounds and methods to treat Parkinson&#39;s disease in subjects using antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) that induce specific pre-mRNA splicing events in LRRK2 gene transcripts that result in mRNAs that code for proteins that fully or partially restore the function of LRRK2 (i.e., resulting in increased levels of correctly localized LRRK2 protein at the plasma membrane and with increased function). For example, some ASOs can base-pair with the target RNA and correct aberrant splicing caused by mutations, and other ASOs can induce skipping of exons with mutations that cause open reading frame-shifts. In such instances, skipping of the mutated exon using ASOs can restore the reading frame and generate an mRNA that codes for a LRRK2 isoform with partial function. 
     ASOs have been effectively used to alter pre-mRNA splicing (for review, Aartsma-Rus &amp; van Ommen 2007; Smith et al., 2006). For example, ASOs targeted to cryptic splice sites created by mutations in the ATM gene were recently demonstrated to effectively redirect splicing to the correct splice site and improve protein expression (Du et al., 2007). The first clinical trials based on ASO-induced skipping of exons as a therapy for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) have shown success in increasing dystrophin protein levels in muscle cells surrounding the site of injection (van Deutekom et al., 2008). ASO-based therapies may provide a customizable approach to mutation-based treatments for disease. The effectiveness of ASOs in modulating splicing in a therapeutically beneficial manner has been demonstrated for a number of diseases. 
     In an embodiment, this disclosure provides a therapeutic treatment of human subjects having Parkinson&#39;s Disease by administering to the human subject an ASO oligonucleotide having 8 to 30 linked nucleosides having a nucleobase sequence comprising a complementary region comprising at least 8 contiguous nucleobases complementary to a target region of equal length within an LRRK2 transcript. In an embodiment, the ASO may target exon 2, exon 4, exon 31 or exon 41 of an LRRK2 transcript. More specifically, suitable ASOs will bind consecutive nucleotides of exon 31 or exon 41 of LRRK2 via complementary base-pairing interactions and have a length of 8 to 30 nucleotides, more preferably 15 to 30 nucleotides, even more preferably 15 to 27 nucleotides and most preferably 15-25 nucleotides or any range or combination of ranges therein. The ASOs targeting exon 2 or exon 4 induce exon 2 or exon 4 skipping, respectively, which will disrupt the LRRK2 reading frame and result in a truncated LRRK2 protein. Thus, exon 2 or exon 4 skipping induced by the ASO results in an overall reduction in LRRK2 protein. The ASOs successfully reduce full-length LRRK2 expression by inducing skipping of LRRK2 exon 31 and 41 containing LRRK2 with the R1441C or G2019S mutation, respectively. 
     The LRRK2 gene encodes a member of the leucine-rich repeat kinase family and encodes a protein with an ankryin repeat region, a leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domain, a kinase domain, a DFG-like motif, a RAS domain, a GTPase domain, a MLK-like domain, and a WD40 domain. The protein is present largely in the cytoplasm but also associates with the mitochondrial outer membrane. Mutations in LRRK2 are the most common known cause of familial and sporadic PD, accounting for approximately 5% of individuals with a family history of the disease and 3% of sporadic cases. It has been suggested that the G2019S mutation in LRRK2 results in stabilization of microtubules by tubulin-beta phosphorylation and may represent a physiologic function of LRRK2 in neurons. Phosphorylation of tubulin was enhanced 3-fold by the LRRK2 G2019S mutation (i.e., a gain of function mutation), which suggested that mutant LRRK2-induced neurodegeneration in PD may be partly mediated by increased phosphorylation of tubulin-beta, which may interfere with neurite outgrowth, axonal transport, and synapse formation. 
     Human ( Homo sapiens ) leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is located on chromosome 12 (genomic coordinates (GRCh38): 12:40, 224,894-40,369, 284). The gene is 9239 bp mRNA (RefSeq Gene ID: 120892; Official Symbol: LRRK2; Official Full Name: leucine rich repeat kinase 2) and is assigned NCBI Reference Sequence: NM_198578.3 (SEQ ID NO: 3); ACCESSION: NM_198578; Ensembl: ENSG00000188906. LRRK2 is also known as: PARK8; RIPK7; ROCO2; AURA17; DARDARIN; FLJ45829; DKFZp434H2111. Human LRRK2 protein is assigned NCBI Reference Sequence: NP_940980.3 (2527 aa; SEQ ID NO: 4). 
     Antisense compounds, (e.g. antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs)) have been used to modulate target nucleic acids. Antisense compounds comprising a variety of chemical modifications and motifs have been reported. In certain instances, such compounds are useful as research tools, diagnostic reagents, and as therapeutic agents. In certain instances, antisense compounds have been shown to modulate protein expression by binding to a target messenger RNA (mRNA) encoding the protein. In certain instances, such binding of an antisense compound to its target mRNA results in cleavage of the mRNA. Antisense compounds that modulate processing of a pre-mRNA have also been reported. Such antisense compounds alter splicing, interfere with polyadenlyation or prevent formation of the 5′-cap of a pre-mRNA. 
     Pre-mRNA splicing involves the precise and accurate removal of introns from the pre-messenger RNA and the ligation of exons together after intron removal to generate the mature mRNA which serves as the template for protein translation. Pre-mRNA splicing is a two-step reaction carried out by a spliceosome complex comprising protein and small RNA components which recognize conserved sequence elements within the introns and exons of the RNA. Recognition of these sequence elements, including the 5′ splice site, 3′ splice site and branch point sequence, is the primary mechanism directing the correct removal of introns. 
     Splicing requires direct base-pairing between small nuclear RNA (snRNA) components of the spliceosome and the splice site nucleotides of the mRNA. This interaction can be disrupted by gene mutations or by artificial blocking using short oligonucleotides complementary to the RNA. Such so called antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), when designed to be complementary to a splice sites, will compete for base-pairing with the snRNAs, thereby blocking an essential step in splicing at the site. In this way, antisense oligonucleotides can potently block unwanted splicing or redirect splicing to alternative splice sites, and can result in mRNAs that code for proteins that fully or partially restore the function to target transcripts. For example, antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) can be designed to block splicing to either exon 31 in patients with a LRRK2 R1441C mutation or exon 41 in patients with a G2019S mutation. ASOs that block splicing of exon 41 will result in a frame-shift in the LRRK2 mRNA and protein product, which will essentially eliminate LRRK2 expression. ASOs that block splicing of exon 31 will eliminate the R1441C mutation and result in the production of an alternative LRRK2 isoform predicted to have lower kinase activity. Both of the ASO-induced LRRK2 mRNA transcripts are predicted to mitigate disease symptoms by lessening the toxic effects of the mutated LRRK2 protein. 
     For example, ASOs can target the GLY2019SER (G2019S) mutation in exon 41 of the LRRK2 gene. This mutation in LRRK2 is the most common known cause of familial and sporadic PD, accounting for approximately 5% of individuals with a family history of the disease and 3% of sporadic cases. The G2019S mutation lies within the mixed-lineage kinase-like domain, and does not appear to alter the steady-state level, turnover, or intracellular localization of the LRRK2 protein, but the G2019S mutation appears to enhance protein kinase activity in a dominant negative fashion. ASOs that block splicing of exon 41 will result in a frame-shift in the LRRK2 mRNA and protein product, which will essentially eliminate LRRK2 expression and mitigate PD symptoms by lessening the toxic effects of mutated LRRK2 protein. Non-limiting examples of an ASO that prevents splicing of exon 41 are: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 SEQ ID NO: 02 
               
               
                   
                 (5′-AGACAGACCTGATCACCTACCTGGT-3′), 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 SEQ ID NO: 08 
               
               
                   
                 (5′-GGTATCTGCCAGAAAATGCACAGGA-3′), 
               
               
                   
                 or 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 SEQ ID NO: 09 
               
               
                   
                 (5′-AATGCTGTAGTCAGCAATCTTTGCA-3′). 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In another non-limiting example, ASOs can target the ILE2020THR (I2020T) mutation in exon 41 of the LRRK2 gene. The I2020T mutation in LRRK2 has been found in PD patients. The I2020T mutation mutant protein shows significantly increased (about 40%) autophosphorylation activity compared to wildtype LRRK2, consistent with a gain of function. ASOs that block splicing of exon 41 will result in a frame-shift in the LRRK2 mRNA and protein product, which will essentially eliminate LRRK2 expression and mitigate PD symptoms by lessening the toxic effects of mutated LRRK2 protein. 
     In yet another non-limiting example, antisense oligonucleotides can target the ARG1441CYS (R1441C) mutation in exon 31 of the LRRK2 gene. This mutation has been observed in patients with Parkinson&#39;s disease. The R1441C mutation lies within the GTPase domain of LRRK2, and does not appear to alter the steady-state level, turnover, or intracellular localization of the LRRK2 protein, but the R1441C mutation appears to enhance protein kinase activity. ASOs that block splicing of exon 31 will eliminate the R1441C mutation and result in the production of an alternative LRRK2 isoform predicted to have lower kinase activity, which should mitigate disease symptoms by lessening the toxic effects of the mutated LRRK2 protein. A non-limiting example of an ASO that prevents splicing of exon 31 is SEQ ID NO:01 (5′-CTACCAGCCTACCATGTTACCTTGA-3′). 
     In another non-limiting example, antisense oligonucleotides can target the ARG1441HIS (R1441H) mutation in exon 31 of the LRRK2 gene. The R1441H mutation was found in PD patients. ASOs that block splicing of exon 31 will eliminate the R1441H mutation and result in the production of an alternative LRRK2 isoform predicted to have lower kinase activity, which should mitigate disease symptoms by lessening the toxic effects of the mutated LRRK2 protein. 
     In another non-limiting example, antisense oligonucleotides can target the ARG1441GLY (R1441G) mutation in exon 31 of the LRRK2 gene. The R1441G mutation was found in 13.15% of 418 PD patients from the Basque region. ASOs that block splicing of exon 31 will eliminate the R1441G mutation and result in the production of an alternative LRRK2 isoform predicted to have lower kinase activity, which should mitigate disease symptoms by lessening the toxic effects of the mutated LRRK2 protein. 
     In yet another non-limiting example, the ASOs can target exon 2 or exon 4, and induce exon 2 or exon 4 skipping, respectively, which will disrupt the LRRK2 reading frame and result in a truncated LRRK2 protein. Thus, exon 2 or exon 4 skipping induced by the ASO results in an overall reduction in LRRK2 protein. A non-limiting example of an ASO targeting exon 2 is SEQ ID NO:07 (5′-AGTGAAAACAATGCCTTTACCTGCT-3′). A non-limiting example of an ASO targeting exon 4 is SEQ ID NO:06 (5′-ATACACATATTACCTGAAGTTAGGA-3′). Also see  FIG. 15 . 
     As used herein, “nucleoside” means a compound comprising a nucleobase moiety and a sugar moiety. Nucleosides include, but are not limited to, naturally occurring nucleosides (as found in DNA and RNA) and modified nucleosides. Nucleosides may be linked to a phosphate moiety. 
     As used herein, “antisense compound” or “antisense oligonucleotide (ASO)” means a compound comprising or consisting of an oligonucleotide at least a portion of which is complementary to a target nucleic acid to which it is capable of hybridizing, resulting in at least one antisense activity. 
     As used herein, “antisense activity” means any detectable and/or measurable change attributable to the hybridization of an antisense compound to its target nucleic acid. As used herein, “detecting” or “measuring” means that a test or assay for detecting or measuring is performed. Such detection and/or measuring may result in a value of zero. Thus, if a test for detection or measuring results in a finding of no activity (activity of zero), the step of detecting or measuring the activity has nevertheless been performed. 
     As used herein, “chemical modification” means a chemical difference in a compound when compared to a naturally occurring counterpart. In reference to an oligonucleotide, chemical modification does not include differences only in nucleobase sequence. Chemical modifications of oligonucleotides include nucleoside modifications (including sugar moiety modifications and nucleobase modifications) and internucleoside linkage modifications. 
     As used herein, “sugar moiety” means a naturally occurring sugar moiety or a modified sugar moiety of a nucleoside. 
     As used herein, “modified sugar moiety” means a substituted sugar moiety, a bicyclic or tricyclic sugar moiety, or a sugar surrogate. 
     As used herein, “substituted sugar moiety” means a furanosyl comprising at least one substituent group that differs from that of a naturally occurring sugar moiety. Substituted sugar moieties include, but are not limited to, furanosyls comprising substituents at the 2′-position, the 3′-position, the 5′-position and/or the 4′-position. 
     As used herein, “2′-substituted sugar moiety” means a furanosyl comprising a substituent at the 2′-position other than —H or —OH. Unless otherwise indicated, a 2′-substituted sugar moiety is not a bicyclic sugar moiety (i.e., the 2′-substituent of a 2′-substituted sugar moiety does not form a bridge to another atom of the furanosyl ring). 
     As used herein, “MOE” means —OCH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 . 
     As used herein, “bicyclic sugar moiety” means a modified sugar moiety comprising a 4 to 7 membered ring (including but not limited to a furanosyl) comprising a bridge connecting two atoms of the 4 to 7 membered ring to form a second ring, resulting in a bicyclic structure. In certain embodiments, the 4 to 7 membered ring is a sugar ring. In certain embodiments, the 4 to 7 membered ring is a furanosyl. In certain such embodiments, the bridge connects the 2′-carbon and the 4′-carbon of the furanosyl. 
     As used herein, the term “sugar surrogate” means a structure that does not comprise a furanosyl and that is capable of replacing the naturally occurring sugar moiety of a nucleoside, such that the resulting nucleoside is capable of: (1) incorporation into an oligonucleotide and (2) hybridization to a complementary nucleoside. Such structures include rings comprising a different number of atoms than furanosyl (e.g., 4, 6, or 7-membered rings); replacement of the oxygen of a furanosyl with a non-oxygen atom (e.g., carbon, sulfur, or nitrogen); or both a change in the number of atoms and a replacement of the oxygen. Such structures may also comprise substitutions corresponding to those described for substituted sugar moieties (e.g., 6-membered carbocyclic bicyclic sugar surrogates optionally comprising additional substituents). Sugar surrogates also include more complex sugar replacements (e.g., the non-ring systems of peptide nucleic acid). Sugar surrogates include without limitation morpholino, modified morpholinos, cyclohexenyls and cyclohexitols. 
     As used here, the term “morpholino” means a sugar surrogate having the following structure: 
                         
In certain embodiments, morpholinos may be modified, for example by adding or altering various substituent groups from the above morpholino structure. Such sugar surrogates are referred to herein as “modified morpholinos.” Morpholino comprising compositions are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,142,047 and 5,185,444, incorporated by reference in their entirety. In other embodiments, morpholinos may be unmodified. For example, the structure of an unmodified oligonucleotide is:
 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Combinations of modifications are also provided without limitation, such as 2′-F-5′-methyl substituted nucleosides (see WO 2008/101157 for other disclosed 5′,2′-bis substituted nucleosides) and replacement of the ribosyl ring oxygen atom with S and further substitution at the 2′-position (see U.S. Patent Application US2005-0130923) or alternatively 5′-substitution of a bicyclic nucleic acid (see WO 2007/134181, wherein a 4′-CH.sub.2-O-2′ bicyclic nucleoside is further substituted at the 5′ position with a 5′-methyl or a 5′-vinyl group). The synthesis and preparation of carbocyclic bicyclic nucleosides along with their oligomerization and biochemical studies have also been described (see, e.g., Srivastava et al.,  J. Am. Chem. Soc.  2007, 129(26), 8362-8379). 
     As used herein, “nucleotide” means a nucleoside further comprising a phosphate linking group. 
     As used herein, “linked nucleosides” may or may not be linked by phosphate linkages and thus includes, but is not limited to “linked nucleotides.” As used herein, “linked nucleosides” are nucleosides that are connected in a continuous sequence (i.e. no additional nucleosides are present between those that are linked). 
     As used herein, “nucleobase” means a group of atoms that can be linked to a sugar moiety to create a nucleoside that is capable of incorporation into an oligonucleotide, and wherein the group of atoms is capable of bonding with a complementary naturally occurring nucleobase of another oligonucleotide or nucleic acid. Nucleobases may be naturally occurring or may be modified. 
     As used herein, “heterocyclic base” or “heterocyclic nucleobase” means a nucleobase comprising a heterocyclic structure. 
     As used herein, the terms, “unmodified nucleobase” or “naturally occurring nucleobase” means the naturally occurring heterocyclic nucleobases of RNA or DNA: the purine bases adenine (A) and guanine (G), and the pyrimidine bases thymine (T), cytosine (C) (including 5-methyl C), and uracil (U). 
     As used herein, “modified nucleobase” means any nucleobase that is not a naturally occurring nucleobase. 
     As used herein, “modified nucleoside” means a nucleoside comprising at least one chemical modification compared to naturally occurring RNA or DNA nucleosides. Modified nucleosides comprise a modified sugar moiety and/or a modified nucleobase. 
     As used herein, “bicyclic nucleoside” or “BNA” means a nucleoside comprising a bicyclic sugar moiety. 
     As used herein, “constrained ethyl nucleoside” or “cEt” means a nucleoside comprising a bicyclic sugar moiety comprising a 4′-CH(CH 3 )-0-2′bridge. 
     As used herein, “locked nucleic acid nucleoside” or “LNA” means a nucleoside comprising a bicyclic sugar moiety comprising a 4′-CH 2 -0-2′bridge. 
     As used herein, “2′-substituted nucleoside” means a nucleoside comprising a substituent at the 2′-position other than H or OH. Unless otherwise indicated, a 2′-substituted nucleoside is not a bicyclic nucleoside. 
     As used herein, “2′-deoxynucleoside” means a nucleoside comprising 2′-H furanosyl sugar moiety, as found in naturally occurring deoxyribonucleosides (DNA). In certain embodiments, a 2′-deoxynucleoside may comprise a modified nucleobase or may comprise an RNA nucleobase (e.g., uracil). 
     As used herein, “oligonucleotide” means a compound comprising a plurality of linked nucleosides. In certain embodiments, an oligonucleotide comprises one or more unmodified ribonucleosides (RNA) and/or unmodified deoxyribonucleosides (DNA) and/or one or more modified nucleosides. 
     As used herein “oligonucleoside” means an oligonucleotide in which none of the internucleoside linkages contains a phosphorus atom. As used herein, oligonucleotides include oligonucleosides. 
     As used herein, “modified oligonucleotide” means an oligonucleotide comprising at least one modified nucleoside and/or at least one modified internucleoside linkage. 
     As used herein “internucleoside linkage” means a covalent linkage between adjacent nucleosides in an oligonucleotide. 
     As used herein “naturally occurring internucleoside linkage” means a 3′ to 5′ phosphodiester linkage. 
     As used herein, “modified internucleoside linkage” means any internucleoside linkage other than a naturally occurring internucleoside linkage. 
     As used herein, “oligomeric compound” means a polymeric structure comprising two or more substructures. In certain embodiments, an oligomeric compound comprises an oligonucleotide. In certain embodiments, an oligomeric compound comprises one or more conjugate groups and/or terminal groups. In certain embodiments, an oligomeric compound consists of an oligonucleotide. 
     As used herein, “terminal group” means one or more atom attached to either, or both, the 3′ end or the 5′ end of an oligonucleotide. In certain embodiments a terminal group is a conjugate group. In certain embodiments, a terminal group comprises one or more terminal group nucleosides. 
     As used herein, “conjugate” means an atom or group of atoms bound to an oligonucleotide or oligomeric compound. In general, conjugate groups modify one or more properties of the compound to which they are attached, including, but not limited to, pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic, binding, absorption, cellular distribution, cellular uptake, charge and/or clearance properties. 
     As used herein, “conjugate linking group” means any atom or group of atoms used to attach a conjugate to an oligonucleotide or oligomeric compound. 
     As used herein, “detectable and/or measureable activity” means a statistically significant activity that is not zero. 
     As used herein, “essentially unchanged” means little or no change in a particular parameter, particularly relative to another parameter which changes much more. In certain embodiments, a parameter is essentially unchanged when it changes less than 5%. In certain embodiments, a parameter is essentially unchanged if it changes less than two-fold while another parameter changes at least ten-fold. For example, in certain embodiments, an antisense activity is a change in the amount of a target nucleic acid. In certain such embodiments, the amount of a non-target nucleic acid is essentially unchanged if it changes much less than the target nucleic acid does, but the change need not be zero. 
     As used herein, “expression” means the process by which a gene ultimately results in a protein. Expression includes, but is not limited to, transcription, post-transcriptional modification (e.g., splicing, polyadenlyation, addition of 5′-cap), and translation. 
     As used herein, “target nucleic acid” means a nucleic acid molecule to which an antisense compound hybridizes. 
     As used herein, “mRNA” means an RNA molecule that encodes a protein. 
     As used herein, “pre-mRNA” means an RNA transcript that has not been fully processed into mRNA. Pre-RNA includes one or more intron. 
     As used herein, “transcript” means an RNA molecule transcribed from DNA. Transcripts include, but are not limited to mRNA, pre-mRNA, and partially processed RNA. 
     As used herein, “targeting” or “targeted to” means the association of an antisense compound to a particular target nucleic acid molecule or a particular region of a target nucleic acid molecule. An antisense compound targets a target nucleic acid if it is sufficiently complementary to the target nucleic acid to allow hybridization under physiological conditions. 
     As used herein, “nucleobase complementarity” or “complementarity” when in reference to nucleobases means a nucleobase that is capable of base pairing with another nucleobase. For example, in DNA, adenine (A) is complementary to thymine (T). For example, in RNA, adenine (A) is complementary to uracil (U). In certain embodiments, complementary nucleobase means a nucleobase of an antisense compound that is capable of base pairing with a nucleobase of its target nucleic acid. For example, if a nucleobase at a certain position of an antisense compound is capable of hydrogen bonding with a nucleobase at a certain position of a target nucleic acid, then the position of hydrogen bonding between the oligonucleotide and the target nucleic acid is considered to be complementary at that nucleobase pair. Nucleobases comprising certain modifications may maintain the ability to pair with a counterpart nucleobase and thus, are still capable of nucleobase complementarity. 
     As used herein, “non-complementary” in reference to nucleobases means a pair of nucleobases that do not form hydrogen bonds with one another. 
     As used herein, “complementary” in reference to oligomeric compounds (e.g., linked nucleosides, oligonucleotides, or nucleic acids) means the capacity of such oligomeric compounds or regions thereof to hybridize to another oligomeric compound or region thereof through nucleobase complementarity under stringent conditions. Complementary oligomeric compounds need not have nucleobase complementarity at each nucleoside. Rather, some mismatches are tolerated. In certain embodiments, complementary oligomeric compounds or regions are complementary at 70% of the nucleobases (70% complementary). In certain embodiments, complementary oligomeric compounds or regions are 80% complementary. In certain embodiments, complementary oligomeric compounds or regions are 90% complementary. In certain embodiments, complementary oligomeric compounds or regions are 95% complementary. In certain embodiments, complementary oligomeric compounds or regions are 100% complementary. 
     As used herein, “hybridization” means the pairing of complementary oligomeric compounds (e.g., an antisense compound and its target nucleic acid). While not limited to a particular mechanism, the most common mechanism of pairing involves hydrogen bonding, which may be Watson-Crick, Hoogsteen or reversed Hoogsteen hydrogen bonding, between complementary nucleobases. 
     As used herein, “specifically hybridizes” means the ability of an oligomeric compound to hybridize to one nucleic acid site with greater affinity than it hybridizes to another nucleic acid site. In certain embodiments, an antisense oligonucleotide specifically hybridizes to more than one target site. 
     As used herein, “percent complementarity” means the percentage of nucleobases of an oligomeric compound that are complementary to an equal-length portion of a target nucleic acid. Percent complementarity is calculated by dividing the number of nucleobases of the oligomeric compound that are complementary to nucleobases at corresponding positions in the target nucleic acid by the total length of the oligomeric compound. 
     As used herein, “percent identity” means the number of nucleobases in a first nucleic acid that are the same type (independent of chemical modification) as nucleobases at corresponding positions in a second nucleic acid, divided by the total number of nucleobases in the first nucleic acid. 
     As used herein, “modulation” means a change of amount or quality of a molecule, function, or activity when compared to the amount or quality of a molecule, function, or activity prior to modulation. For example, modulation includes the change, either an increase (stimulation or induction) or a decrease (inhibition or reduction) in gene expression. As a further example, modulation of expression can include a change in splice site selection of pre-mRNA processing, resulting in a change in the absolute or relative amount of a particular splice-variant compared to the amount in the absence of modulation. 
     As used herein, “motif” means a pattern of chemical modifications in an oligomeric compound or a region thereof. Motifs may be defined by modifications at certain nucleosides and/or at certain linking groups of an oligomeric compound. 
     As used herein, “nucleoside motif” means a pattern of nucleoside modifications in an oligomeric compound or a region thereof. The linkages of such an oligomeric compound may be modified or unmodified. Unless otherwise indicated, motifs herein describing only nucleosides are intended to be nucleoside motifs. Thus, in such instances, the linkages are not limited. 
     As used herein, “sugar motif” means a pattern of sugar modifications in an oligomeric compound or a region thereof. 
     As used herein, “linkage motif” means a pattern of linkage modifications in an oligomeric compound or region thereof. The nucleosides of such an oligomeric compound may be modified or unmodified. Unless otherwise indicated, motifs herein describing only linkages are intended to be linkage motifs. Thus, in such instances, the nucleosides are not limited. 
     As used herein, “nucleobase modification motif” means a pattern of modifications to nucleobases along an oligonucleotide. Unless otherwise indicated, a nucleobase modification motif is independent of the nucleobase sequence. 
     As used herein, “sequence motif” means a pattern of nucleobases arranged along an oligonucleotide or portion thereof. Unless otherwise indicated, a sequence motif is independent of chemical modifications and thus may have any combination of chemical modifications, including no chemical modifications. 
     As used herein, “type of modification” in reference to a nucleoside or a nucleoside of a “type” means the chemical modification of a nucleoside and includes modified and unmodified nucleosides. Accordingly, unless otherwise indicated, a “nucleoside having a modification of a first type” may be an unmodified nucleoside. 
     As used herein, “differently modified” mean chemical modifications or chemical substituents that are different from one another, including absence of modifications. Thus, for example, a MOE nucleoside and an unmodified DNA nucleoside are “differently modified,” even though the DNA nucleoside is unmodified. Likewise, DNA and RNA are “differently modified,” even though both are naturally-occurring unmodified nucleosides. Nucleosides that are the same but for comprising different nucleobases are not differently modified. For example, a nucleoside comprising a 2′-OMe modified sugar and an unmodified adenine nucleobase and a nucleoside comprising a 2′-OMe modified sugar and an unmodified thymine nucleobase are not differently modified. 
     As used herein, “the same type of modifications” refers to modifications that are the same as one another, including absence of modifications. Thus, for example, two unmodified DNA nucleoside have “the same type of modification,” even though the DNA nucleoside is unmodified. Such nucleosides having the same type modification may comprise different nucleobases. 
     As used herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent” means any substance suitable for use in administering to an animal. In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent is sterile saline. In certain embodiments, such sterile saline is pharmaceutical grade saline. 
     Certain Motifs 
     In certain embodiments, the present invention provides oligomeric compounds comprising oligonucleotides. In certain embodiments, such oligonucleotides comprise one or more chemical modification. In certain embodiments, chemically modified oligonucleotides comprise one or more modified nucleosides. In certain embodiments, chemically modified oligonucleotides comprise one or more modified nucleosides comprising modified sugars. In certain embodiments, chemically modified oligonucleotides comprise one or more modified nucleosides comprising one or more modified nucleobases. In certain embodiments, chemically modified oligonucleotides comprise one or more modified internucleoside linkages. In certain embodiments, the chemically modifications (sugar modifications, nucleobase modifications, and/or linkage modifications) define a pattern or motif. In certain embodiments, the patterns of chemical modifications of sugar moieties, internucleoside linkages, and nucleobases are each independent of one another. Thus, an oligonucleotide may be described by its sugar modification motif, internucleoside linkage motif and/or nucleobase modification motif (as used herein, nucleobase modification motif describes the chemical modifications to the nucleobases independent of the sequence of nucleobases). 
     Certain Sugar Motifs 
     In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides comprise one or more type of modified sugar moieties and/or naturally occurring sugar moieties arranged along an oligonucleotide or region thereof in a defined pattern or sugar modification motif. Such motifs may include any of the sugar modifications discussed herein and/or other known sugar modifications. 
     In certain embodiments, the oligonucleotides comprise or consist of a region having a gapmer sugar modification motif, which comprises two external regions or “wings” and an internal region or “gap.” The three regions of a gapmer motif (the 5′-wing, the gap, and the 3′-wing) form a contiguous sequence of nucleosides wherein at least some of the sugar moieties of the nucleosides of each of the wings differ from at least some of the sugar moieties of the nucleosides of the gap. Specifically, at least the sugar moieties of the nucleosides of each wing that are closest to the gap (the 3′-most nucleoside of the 5′-wing and the 5′-most nucleoside of the 3′-wing) differ from the sugar moiety of the neighboring gap nucleosides, thus defining the boundary between the wings and the gap. In certain embodiments, the sugar moieties within the gap are the same as one another. In certain embodiments, the gap includes one or more nucleoside having a sugar moiety that differs from the sugar moiety of one or more other nucleosides of the gap. In certain embodiments, the sugar modification motifs of the two wings are the same as one another (symmetric gapmer). In certain embodiments, the sugar modification motifs of the 5′-wing differs from the sugar modification motif of the 3′-wing (asymmetric gapmer). In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides comprise 2′-MOE modified nucleosides in the wings and 2′-F modified nucleosides in the gap. 
     In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides are fully modified. In certain such embodiments, oligonucleotides are uniformly modified. In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides are uniform 2′-MOE. In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides are uniform 2′-F. In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides are uniform morpholino. In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides are uniform BNA. In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides are uniform LNA. In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides are uniform cEt. 
     In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides comprise a uniformly modified region and additional nucleosides that are unmodified or differently modified. In certain embodiments, the uniformly modified region is at least 5, 10, 15, 20 or 25 nucleosides in length. In certain embodiments, the uniform region is a 2′-MOE region. In certain embodiments, the uniform region is a 2′-F region. In certain embodiments, the uniform region is a morpholino region. In certain embodiments, the uniform region is a BNA region. In certain embodiments, the uniform region is a LNA region. In certain embodiments, the uniform region is a cEt region. 
     In certain embodiments, the oligonucleotide does not comprise more than 4 contiguous unmodified 2′-deoxynucleosides. In certain circumstances, antisense oligonucleotides comprising more than 4 contiguous 2′-deoxynucleosides activate RNase H, resulting in cleavage of the target RNA. In certain embodiments, such cleavage is avoided by not having more than 4 contiguous 2′-deoxynucleosides, for example, where alteration of splicing and not cleavage of a target RNA is desired. 
     Certain Internucleoside Linkage Motifs 
     In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides comprise modified internucleoside linkages arranged along the oligonucleotide or region thereof in a defined pattern or modified internucleoside linkage motif. In certain embodiments, internucleoside linkages are arranged in a gapped motif, as described above for sugar modification motif. In such embodiments, the internucleoside linkages in each of two wing regions are different from the internucleoside linkages in the gap region. In certain embodiments the internucleoside linkages in the wings are phosphodiester and the internucleoside linkages in the gap are phosphorothioate. The sugar modification motif is independently selected, so such oligonucleotides having a gapped internucleoside linkage motif may or may not have a gapped sugar modification motif and if it does have a gapped sugar motif, the wing and gap lengths may or may not be the same. 
     In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides comprise a region having an alternating internucleoside linkage motif. In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides of the present invention comprise a region of uniformly modified internucleoside linkages. In certain such embodiments, the oligonucleotide comprises a region that is uniformly linked by phosphorothioate internucleoside linkages. In certain embodiments, the oligonucleotide is uniformly linked by phosphorothioate. In certain embodiments, each internucleoside linkage of the oligonucleotide is selected from phosphodiester and phosphorothioate. In certain embodiments, each internucleoside linkage of the oligonucleotide is selected from phosphodiester and phosphorothioate and at least one internucleoside linkage is phosphorothioate. 
     In certain embodiments, the oligonucleotide comprises at least 6 phosphorothioate internucleoside linkages. In certain embodiments, the oligonucleotide comprises at least 8 phosphorothioate internucleoside linkages. In certain embodiments, the oligonucleotide comprises at least 10 phosphorothioate internucleoside linkages. In certain embodiments, the oligonucleotide comprises at least one block of at least 6 consecutive phosphorothioate internucleoside linkages. In certain embodiments, the oligonucleotide comprises at least one block of at least 8 consecutive phosphorothioate internucleoside linkages. In certain embodiments, the oligonucleotide comprises at least one block of at least 10 consecutive phosphorothioate internucleoside linkages. In certain embodiments, the oligonucleotide comprises at least block of at least one 12 consecutive phosphorothioate internucleoside linkages. In certain such embodiments, at least one such block is located at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide. In certain such embodiments, at least one such block is located within 3 nucleosides of the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide. 
     Certain Nucleobase Modification Motifs 
     In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides comprise chemical modifications to nucleobases arranged along the oligonucleotide or region thereof in a defined pattern or nucleobases modification motif. In certain such embodiments, nucleobase modifications are arranged in a gapped motif. In certain embodiments, nucleobase modifications are arranged in an alternating motif. In certain embodiments, each nucleobase is modified. In certain embodiments, none of the nucleobases is chemically modified. 
     In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides comprise a block of modified nucleobases. In certain such embodiments, the block is at the 3′-end of the oligonucleotide. In certain embodiments the block is within 3 nucleotides of the 3′-end of the oligonucleotide. In certain such embodiments, the block is at the 5′-end of the oligonucleotide. In certain embodiments the block is within 3 nucleotides of the 5′-end of the oligonucleotide. 
     In certain embodiments, nucleobase modifications are a function of the natural base at a particular position of an oligonucleotide. For example, in certain embodiments each purine or each pyrimidine in an oligonucleotide is modified. In certain embodiments, each adenine is modified. In certain embodiments, each guanine is modified. In certain embodiments, each thymine is modified. In certain embodiments, each cytosine is modified. In certain embodiments, each uracil is modified. 
     In certain embodiments, some, all, or none of the cytosine moieties in an oligonucleotide are 5-methyl cytosine moieties. Herein, 5-methyl cytosine is not a “modified nucleobase.” Accordingly, unless otherwise indicated, unmodified nucleobases include both cytosine residues having a 5-methyl and those lacking a 5 methyl. In certain embodiments, the methylation state of all or some cytosine nucleobases is specified. 
     Certain Overall Lengths 
     In certain embodiments, the present invention provides oligomeric compounds including oligonucleotides of any of a variety of ranges of lengths. In certain embodiments, the invention provides oligomeric compounds or oligonucleotides consisting of X to Y linked nucleosides, where X represents the fewest number of nucleosides in the range and Y represents the largest number of nucleosides in the range. In certain such embodiments, X and Y are each independently selected from 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, and 50; provided that X&lt;Y. For example, in certain embodiments, the invention provides oligomeric compounds which comprise oligonucleotides consisting of 8 to 9, 8 to 10, 8 to 11, 8 to 12, 8 to 13, 8 to 14, 8 to 15, 8 to 16, 8 to 17, 8 to 18, 8 to 19, 8 to 20, 8 to 21, 8 to 22, 8 to 23, 8 to 24, 8 to 25, 8 to 26, 8 to 27, 8 to 28, 8 to 29, 8 to 30, 9 to 10, 9 to 11, 9 to 12, 9 to 13, 9 to 14, 9 to 15, 9 to 16, 9 to 17, 9 to 18, 9 to 19, 9 to 20, 9 to 21, 9 to 22, 9 to 23, 9 to 24, 9 to 25, 9 to 26, 9 to 27, 9 to 28, 9 to 29, 9 to 30, 10 to 11, 10 to 12, 10 to 13, 10 to 14, 10 to 15, 10 to 16, 10 to 17, 10 to 18, 10 to 19, 10 to 20, 10 to 21, 10 to 22, 10 to 23, 10 to 24, 10 to 25, 10 to 26, 10 to 27, 10 to 28, 10 to 29, 10 to 30, 11 to 12, 11 to 13, 11 to 14, 11 to 15, 11 to 16, 11 to 17, 11 to 18, 11 to 19, 11 to 20, 11 to 21, 11 to 22, 11 to 23, 11 to 24, 11 to 25, 11 to 26, 11 to 27, 11 to 28, 11 to 29, 11 to 30, 12 to 13, 12 to 14, 12 to 15, 12 to 16, 12 to 17, 12 to 18, 12 to 19, 12 to 20, 12 to 21, 12 to 22, 12 to 23, 12 to 24, 12 to 25, 12 to 26, 12 to 27, 12 to 28, 12 to 29, 12 to 30, 13 to 14, 13 to 15, 13 to 16, 13 to 17, 13 to 18, 13 to 19, 13 to 20, 13 to 21, 13 to 22, 13 to 23, 13 to 24, 13 to 25, 13 to 26, 13 to 27, 13 to 28, 13 to 29, 13 to 30, 14 to 15, 14 to 16, 14 to 17, 14 to 18, 14 to 19, 14 to 20, 14 to 21, 14 to 22, 14 to 23, 14 to 24, 14 to 25, 14 to 26, 14 to 27, 14 to 28, 14 to 29, 14 to 30, 15 to 16, 15 to 17, 15 to 18, 15 to 19, 15 to 20, 15 to 21, 15 to 22, 15 to 23, 15 to 24, 15 to 25, 15 to 26, 15 to 27, 15 to 28, 15 to 29, 15 to 30, 16 to 17, 16 to 18, 16 to 19, 16 to 20, 16 to 21, 16 to 22, 16 to 23, 16 to 24, 16 to 25, 16 to 26, 16 to 27, 16 to 28, 16 to 29, 16 to 30, 17 to 18, 17 to 19, 17 to 20, 17 to 21, 17 to 22, 17 to 23, 17 to 24, 17 to 25, 17 to 26, 17 to 27, 17 to 28, 17 to 29, 17 to 30, 18 to 19, 18 to 20, 18 to 21, 18 to 22, 18 to 23, 18 to 24, 18 to 25, 18 to 26, 18 to 27, 18 to 28, 18 to 29, 18 to 30, 19 to 20, 19 to 21, 19 to 22, 19 to 23, 19 to 24, 19 to 25, 19 to 26, 19 to 29, 19 to 28, 19 to 29, 19 to 30, 20 to 21, 20 to 22, 20 to 23, 20 to 24, 20 to 25, 20 to 26, 20 to 27, 20 to 28, 20 to 29, 20 to 30, 21 to 22, 21 to 23, 21 to 24, 21 to 25, 21 to 26, 21 to 27, 21 to 28, 21 to 29, 21 to 30, 22 to 23, 22 to 24, 22 to 25, 22 to 26, 22 to 27, 22 to 28, 22 to 29, 22 to 30, 23 to 24, 23 to 25, 23 to 26, 23 to 27, 23 to 28, 23 to 29, 23 to 30, 24 to 25, 24 to 26, 24 to 27, 24 to 28, 24 to 29, 24 to 30, 25 to 26, 25 to 27, 25 to 28, 25 to 29, 25 to 30, 26 to 27, 26 to 28, 26 to 29, 26 to 30, 27 to 28, 27 to 29, 27 to 30, 28 to 29, 28 to 30, or 29 to 30 linked nucleosides. In embodiments where the number of nucleosides of an oligomeric compound or oligonucleotide is limited, whether to a range or to a specific number, the oligomeric compound or oligonucleotide may, nonetheless further comprise additional other substituents. For example, an oligonucleotide comprising 8-30 nucleosides excludes oligonucleotides having 31 nucleosides, but, unless otherwise indicated, such an oligonucleotide may further comprise, for example one or more conjugates, terminal groups, or other substituents. In certain embodiments, a gapmer oligonucleotide has any of the above lengths. 
     One of skill in the art will appreciate that certain lengths may not be possible for certain motifs. For example: a gapmer having a 5′-wing region consisting of four nucleotides, a gap consisting of at least six nucleotides, and a 3′-wing region consisting of three nucleotides cannot have an overall length less than 13 nucleotides. Thus, one would understand that the lower length limit is 13 and that the limit of 10 in “10-20” has no effect in that embodiment. Further, where an oligonucleotide is described by an overall length range and by regions having specified lengths, and where the sum of specified lengths of the regions is less than the upper limit of the overall length range, the oligonucleotide may have additional nucleosides, beyond those of the specified regions, provided that the total number of nucleosides does not exceed the upper limit of the overall length range. For example, an oligonucleotide consisting of 20-25 linked nucleosides comprising a 5′-wing consisting of 5 linked nucleosides; a 3′-wing consisting of 5 linked nucleosides and a central gap consisting of 10 linked nucleosides (5+5+10=20) may have up to 5 nucleosides that are not part of the 5′-wing, the 3′-wing, or the gap (before reaching the overall length limitation of 25). Such additional nucleosides may be 5′ of the 5′-wing and/or 3′ of the 3′ wing. 
     Certain Oligonucleotides 
     In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides of the present invention are characterized by their sugar motif, internucleoside linkage motif, nucleobase modification motif and overall length. In certain embodiments, such parameters are each independent of one another. Thus, each internucleoside linkage of an oligonucleotide having a gapmer sugar motif may be modified or unmodified and may or may not follow the gapmer modification pattern of the sugar modifications. Thus, the internucleoside linkages within the wing regions of a sugar-gapmer may be the same or different from one another and may be the same or different from the internucleoside linkages of the gap region. Likewise, such sugar-gapmer oligonucleotides may comprise one or more modified nucleobase independent of the gapmer pattern of the sugar modifications. Herein if a description of an oligonucleotide or oligomeric compound is silent with respect to one or more parameter, such parameter is not limited. Thus, an oligomeric compound described only as having a gapmer sugar motif without further description may have any length, internucleoside linkage motif, and nucleobase modification motif. Unless otherwise indicated, all chemical modifications are independent of nucleobase sequence. 
     Certain Conjugate Groups 
     In certain embodiments, oligomeric compounds are modified by attachment of one or more conjugate groups. In general, conjugate groups modify one or more properties of the attached oligomeric compound including but not limited to pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, stability, binding, absorption, cellular distribution, cellular uptake, charge and clearance. Conjugate groups are routinely used in the chemical arts and are linked directly or via an optional conjugate linking moiety or conjugate linking group to a parent compound such as an oligomeric compound, such as an oligonucleotide. Conjugate groups includes without limitation, intercalators, reporter molecules, polyamines, polyamides, polyethylene glycols, thioethers, polyethers, cholesterols, thiocholesterols, cholic acid moieties, folate, lipids, phospholipids, biotin, phenazine, phenanthridine, anthraquinone, adamantane, acridine, fluoresceins, rhodamines, coumarins and dyes. Certain conjugate groups have been described previously, for example: cholesterol moiety (Letsinger et al.,  Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,  1989, 86, 6553-6556), cholic acid (Manoharan et al.,  Bioorg. Med. Chem. Let.,  1994, 4, 1053-1060), a thioether, e.g., hexyl-S-tritylthiol (Manoharan et al.,  Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.,  1992, 660, 306-309; Manoharan et al.,  Bioorg. Med. Chem. Let.,  1993, 3, 2765-2770), a thiocholesterol (Oberhauser et al.,  Nucl. Acids Res.,  1992, 20, 533-538), an aliphatic chain, e.g., do-decan-diol or undecyl residues (Saison-Behmoaras et al.,  EMBO J.,  1991, 10, 1111-1118; Kabanov et al.,  FEBS Lett,  1990, 259, 327-330; Svinarchuk et al.,  Biochimie,  1993, 75, 49-54), a phospholipid, e.g., di-hexadecyl-rac-glycerol or triethyl-ammonium 1,2-di-O-hexadecyl-rac-glycero-3-H-phosphonate (Manoharan et al.,  Tetrahedron Lett.,  1995, 36:3651-3654; Shea et al.,  Nucl. Acids Res.,  1990, 18, 3777-3783), a polyamine or a polyethylene glycol chain (Manoharan et al.,  Nucleosides  &amp;  Nucleotides,  1995, 14, 969-973), or adamantane acetic acid (Manoharan et al.,  Tetrahedron Lett.,  1995, 36:3651-3654), a palmityl moiety (Mishra et al.,  Biochim. Biophys. Acta,  1995, 1264, 229-237), or an octadecylamine or hexylamino-carbonyl-oxycholesterol moiety (Crooke et al.,  J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.,  1996, 277, 923-937). 
     In certain embodiments, a conjugate group comprises an active drug substance, for example, aspirin, warfarin, phenylbutazone, ibuprofen, suprofen, fen-bufen, ketoprofen, (S)-(+)-pranoprofen, carprofen, dansylsarcosine, 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid, flufenamic acid, folinic acid, a benzothiadiazide, chlorothiazide, a diazepine, indo-methicin, a barbiturate, a cephalosporin, a sulfa drug, an antidiabetic, an antibacterial or an antibiotic. 
     In certain embodiments, conjugate groups are directly attached to oligonucleotides in oligomeric compounds. In certain embodiments, conjugate groups are attached to oligonucleotides by a conjugate linking group. In certain such embodiments, conjugate linking groups, including, but not limited to, bifunctional linking moieties such as those known in the art are amenable to the compounds provided herein. Conjugate linking groups are useful for attachment of conjugate groups, such as chemical stabilizing groups, functional groups, reporter groups and other groups to selective sites in a parent compound such as for example an oligomeric compound. In general a bifunctional linking moiety comprises a hydrocarbyl moiety having two functional groups. One of the functional groups is selected to bind to a parent molecule or compound of interest and the other is selected to bind essentially any selected group such as chemical functional group or a conjugate group. In some embodiments, the conjugate linker comprises a chain structure or an oligomer of repeating units such as ethylene glycol or amino acid units. Examples of functional groups that are routinely used in a bifunctional linking moiety include, but are not limited to, electrophiles for reacting with nucleophilic groups and nucleophiles for reacting with electrophilic groups. In some embodiments, bifunctional linking moieties include amino, hydroxyl, carboxylic acid, thiol, unsaturations (e.g., double or triple bonds), and the like. 
     Some non-limiting examples of conjugate linking moieties include pyrrolidine, 8-amino-3,6-dioxaoctanoic acid (ADO), succinimidyl 4-(N-maleimidomethyl) cyclohexane-1-carboxylate (SMCC) and 6-aminohexanoic acid (AHEX or AHA). Other linking groups include, but are not limited to, substituted C 2 -C 10  alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C 2 -C 10  alkenyl or substituted or unsubstituted C 2 -C 10  alkynyl, wherein a nonlimiting list of preferred substituent groups includes hydroxyl, amino, alkoxy, carboxy, benzyl, phenyl, nitro, thiol, thioalkoxy, halogen, alkyl, aryl, alkenyl and alkynyl. 
     Conjugate groups may be attached to either or both ends of an oligonucleotide (terminal conjugate groups) and/or at any internal position. 
     In certain embodiments, conjugate groups are at the 3′-end of an oligonucleotide of an oligomeric compound. In certain embodiments, conjugate groups are near the 3′-end. In certain embodiments, conjugates are attached at the 3′end of an oligomeric compound, but before one or more terminal group nucleosides. In certain embodiments, conjugate groups are placed within a terminal group. 
     In certain embodiments, the present invention provides oligomeric compounds. In certain embodiments, oligomeric compounds comprise an oligonucleotide. In certain embodiments, an oligomeric compound comprises an oligonucleotide and one or more conjugate and/or terminal groups. Such conjugate and/or terminal groups may be added to oligonucleotides having any of the chemical motifs discussed above. Thus, for example, an oligomeric compound comprising an oligonucleotide having region of alternating nucleosides may comprise a terminal group. 
     Antisense Compounds 
     In certain embodiments, oligomeric compounds of the present invention are antisense compounds. Such antisense compounds are capable of hybridizing to a target nucleic acid, resulting in at least one antisense activity. In certain embodiments, antisense compounds specifically hybridize to one or more target nucleic acid. In certain embodiments, a specifically hybridizing antisense compound has a nucleobase sequence comprising a region having sufficient complementarity to a target nucleic acid to allow hybridization and result in antisense activity and insufficient complementarity to any non-target so as to avoid non-specific hybridization to any non-target nucleic acid sequences under conditions in which specific hybridization is desired (e.g., under physiological conditions for in vivo or therapeutic uses, and under conditions in which assays are performed in the case of in vitro assays). 
     In certain embodiments, the present invention provides antisense compounds comprising oligonucleotides that are fully complementary to the target nucleic acid over the entire length of the oligonucleotide. In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides are 99% complementary to the target nucleic acid. In certain embodiments, oligonucleotides are 95% complementary to the target nucleic acid. In certain embodiments, such oligonucleotides are 90% complementary to the target nucleic acid. In certain embodiments, such oligonucleotides are 85% complementary to the target nucleic acid. In certain embodiments, such oligonucleotides are 80% complementary to the target nucleic acid. In certain embodiments, an antisense compound comprises a region that is fully complementary to a target nucleic acid and is at least 80% complementary to the target nucleic acid over the entire length of the oligonucleotide. In certain such embodiments, the region of full complementarity is from 6 to 14 nucleobases in length. 
     In certain embodiments antisense compounds and antisense oligonucleotides comprise single-strand compounds. In certain embodiments antisense compounds and antisense oligonucleotides comprise double-strand compounds. 
     Pharmaceutical Compositions 
     In certain embodiments, the present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising one or more antisense compound. The pharmaceutical composition may comprise a cocktail of antisense compounds, wherein the cocktail comprises 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more antisense compounds. In certain embodiments, such pharmaceutical composition comprises a suitable pharmaceutically acceptable diluent or carrier. In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition comprises a sterile saline solution and one or more antisense compound. In certain embodiments, such pharmaceutical composition consists of a sterile saline solution and one or more antisense compound. In certain embodiments, the sterile saline is pharmaceutical grade saline. In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition comprises one or more antisense compound and sterile water. In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition consists of one or more antisense compound and sterile water. In certain embodiments, the sterile saline is pharmaceutical grade water. In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition comprises one or more antisense compound and phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition consists of one or more antisense compound and sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). In certain embodiments, the sterile saline is pharmaceutical grade PBS. 
     In certain embodiments, antisense compounds may be admixed with pharmaceutically acceptable active and/or inert substances for the preparation of pharmaceutical compositions or formulations. 
     Compositions and methods for the formulation of pharmaceutical compositions depend on a number of criteria, including, but not limited to, route of administration, extent of disease, or dose to be administered. 
     Pharmaceutical compositions comprising antisense compounds encompass any pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, or salts of such esters. In certain embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions comprising antisense compounds comprise one or more oligonucleotide which, upon administration to an animal, including a human, is capable of providing (directly or indirectly) the biologically active metabolite or residue thereof. Accordingly, for example, the disclosure is also drawn to pharmaceutically acceptable salts of antisense compounds, prodrugs, pharmaceutically acceptable salts of such prodrugs, and other bioequivalents. Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, but are not limited to, sodium and potassium salts. 
     A prodrug can include the incorporation of additional nucleosides at one or both ends of an oligomeric compound which are cleaved by endogenous nucleases within the body, to form the active antisense oligomeric compound. 
     Lipid moieties have been used in nucleic acid therapies in a variety of methods. In certain such methods, the nucleic acid is introduced into preformed liposomes or lipoplexes made of mixtures of cationic lipids and neutral lipids. In certain methods, DNA complexes with mono- or poly-cationic lipids are formed without the presence of a neutral lipid. In certain embodiments, a lipid moiety is selected to increase distribution of a pharmaceutical agent to a particular cell or tissue. In certain embodiments, a lipid moiety is selected to increase distribution of a pharmaceutical agent to fat tissue. In certain embodiments, a lipid moiety is selected to increase distribution of a pharmaceutical agent to muscle tissue. 
     In certain embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions provided herein comprise one or more modified oligonucleotides and one or more excipients. In certain such embodiments, excipients are selected from water, salt solutions, alcohol, polyethylene glycols, gelatin, lactose, amylase, magnesium stearate, talc, silicic acid, viscous paraffin, hydroxymethylcellulose and polyvinylpyrrolidone. 
     In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition provided herein comprises a delivery system. Examples of delivery systems include, but are not limited to, liposomes and emulsions. Certain delivery systems are useful for preparing certain pharmaceutical compositions including those comprising hydrophobic compounds. In certain embodiments, certain organic solvents such as dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) are used. 
     In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition provided herein comprises one or more tissue-specific delivery molecules designed to deliver the one or more pharmaceutical agents of the present invention to specific tissues or cell types. For example, in certain embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions include liposomes coated with a tissue-specific antibody. 
     In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition provided herein comprises a co-solvent system. Certain of such co-solvent systems comprise, for example, benzyl alcohol, a nonpolar surfactant, a water-miscible organic polymer, and an aqueous phase. In certain embodiments, such co-solvent systems are used for hydrophobic compounds. A non-limiting example of such a co-solvent system is the VPD co-solvent system, which is a solution of absolute ethanol comprising 3% w/v benzyl alcohol, 8% w/v of the nonpolar surfactant Polysorbate 80™ and 65% w/v polyethylene glycol 300. The proportions of such co-solvent systems may be varied considerably without significantly altering their solubility and toxicity characteristics. Furthermore, the identity of co-solvent components may be varied: for example, other surfactants may be used instead of Polysorbate 80™; the fraction size of polyethylene glycol may be varied; other biocompatible polymers may replace polyethylene glycol, e.g., polyvinyl pyrrolidone; and other sugars or polysaccharides may substitute for dextrose. 
     In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition provided herein is prepared for oral administration. In certain embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions are prepared for buccal administration. 
     In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition is prepared for administration by injection (e.g., intravenous, subcutaneous, intramuscular, etc.). In certain of such embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition comprises a carrier and is formulated in aqueous solution, such as water or physiologically compatible buffers such as Hanks&#39;s solution, Ringer&#39;s solution, or physiological saline buffer. In certain embodiments, other ingredients are included (e.g., ingredients that aid in solubility or serve as preservatives). In certain embodiments, injectable suspensions are prepared using appropriate liquid carriers, suspending agents and the like. Certain pharmaceutical compositions for injection are presented in unit dosage form, e.g., in ampoules or in multi-dose containers. Certain pharmaceutical compositions for injection are suspensions, solutions or emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles, and may contain formulatory agents such as suspending, stabilizing and/or dispersing agents. Certain solvents suitable for use in pharmaceutical compositions for injection include, but are not limited to, lipophilic solvents and fatty oils, such as sesame oil, synthetic fatty acid esters, such as ethyl oleate or triglycerides, and liposomes. Aqueous injection suspensions may contain substances that increase the viscosity of the suspension, such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, sorbitol, or dextran. Optionally, such suspensions may also contain suitable stabilizers or agents that increase the solubility of the pharmaceutical agents to allow for the preparation of highly concentrated solutions. 
     In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition provided herein comprises an oligonucleotide in a therapeutically effective amount. In certain embodiments, the therapeutically effective amount is sufficient to prevent, alleviate or ameliorate symptoms of a disease or to prolong the survival of the subject being treated. Determination of a therapeutically effective amount is well within the capability of those skilled in the art. 
     In certain embodiments, one or more modified oligonucleotide provided herein is formulated as a prodrug. In certain embodiments, upon in vivo administration, a prodrug is chemically converted to the biologically, pharmaceutically or therapeutically more active form of an oligonucleotide. In certain embodiments, prodrugs are useful because they are easier to administer than the corresponding active form. For example, in certain instances, a prodrug may be more bioavailable (e.g., through oral administration) than is the corresponding active form. In certain instances, a prodrug may have improved solubility compared to the corresponding active form. In certain embodiments, prodrugs are less water soluble than the corresponding active form. In certain instances, such prodrugs possess superior transmittal across cell membranes, where water solubility is detrimental to mobility. In certain embodiments, a prodrug is an ester. In certain such embodiments, the ester is metabolically hydrolyzed to carboxylic acid upon administration. In certain instances the carboxylic acid containing compound is the corresponding active form. In certain embodiments, a prodrug comprises a short peptide (polyaminoacid) bound to an acid group. In certain of such embodiments, the peptide is cleaved upon administration to form the corresponding active form. 
     In certain embodiments, the present invention provides compositions and methods for reducing the amount or activity of a target nucleic acid in a cell. In certain embodiments, the cell is in an animal. In certain embodiments, the animal is a mammal. In certain embodiments, the animal is a rodent. In certain embodiments, the animal is a primate. In certain embodiments, the animal is a non-human primate. In certain embodiments, the animal is a human. In certain embodiments, the animal is a mouse. 
     In certain embodiments, the present invention provides methods of administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising an oligomeric compound of the present invention to an animal. Suitable administration routes include, but are not limited to, oral, rectal, transmucosal, transdermal, intestinal, enteral, topical, suppository, through inhalation, intrathecal, intracerebroventricular, intraperitoneal, intranasal, intratumoral, and parenteral (e.g., intravenous, intramuscular, intramedullary, and subcutaneous). In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition is prepared for intracerebroventricular administration or intracerebroventricular injection. In such embodiments penetrants appropriate to the blood-brain barrier to be permeated are used in the formulation. Such penetrants are generally known in the art. In certain embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions are administered to achieve local rather than systemic exposures. 
     In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition is administered to an animal having at least one symptom associated with Parkinson&#39;s disease. In some embodiments, the animal has a mutation in the LRRK2 gene and protein encoded by the mutated gene. Non-limiting examples of such mutants include, but are not limited to, G2019S, I2020T, R1441C, R1441H, or R1141G. In other embodiments, the mutation can be any mutation in LRRK2 associated with Parkinson&#39;s disease. In certain embodiments, such administration results in amelioration of at least one symptom. In certain embodiments, administration of a pharmaceutical composition to an animal results in an increase in functional LRRK2 protein in a cell. In certain embodiments, the administration of certain antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) delays the onset of Parkinson&#39;s disease. In certain embodiments, the administration of certain antisense oligonucleotides prevents the onset of Parkinson&#39;s disease. In certain embodiments, the administration of certain antisense oligonucleotides rescues cellular phenotype. 
     While certain compounds, compositions and methods described herein have been described with specificity in accordance with certain embodiments, the following examples serve only to illustrate the compounds described herein and are not intended to limit the same. Each of the references, GenBank accession numbers, and the like recited in the present application is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Although the sequence listing accompanying this filing identifies each sequence as either “RNA” or “DNA” as required, in reality, those sequences may be modified with any combination of chemical modifications. One of skill in the art will readily appreciate that such designation as “RNA” or “DNA” to describe modified oligonucleotides is, in certain instances, arbitrary. For example, an oligonucleotide comprising a nucleoside comprising a 2′-OH sugar moiety and a thymine base could be described as a DNA having a modified sugar (2′-OH for the natural 2′-H of DNA) or as an RNA having a modified base (thymine (methylated uracil) for natural uracil of RNA). 
     Accordingly, nucleic acid sequences provided herein, including, but not limited to those in the sequence listing, are intended to encompass nucleic acids containing any combination of natural or modified RNA and/or DNA, including, but not limited to such nucleic acids having modified nucleobases. By way of further example and without limitation, an oligomeric compound having the nucleobase sequence 
     EXAMPLES 
     The Examples that follow are illustrative of specific embodiments of the invention, and various uses thereof. They are set forth for explanatory purposes only, and are not to be taken as limiting the invention. 
     Methods 
     Antisense Oligonucleotides (ASOs). 
     ASOs were filtered, selectively precipitated, resuspended in pure water, and freeze dried to remove all contaminants. No acids or salts were used in purification. ASOs with phosphorodiamidate morpholino (PMO) chemistries were generated by GeneTools LLC and were dissolved in 0.9% saline. 
     Cell Culture and Transfection. 
     Primary fibroblast cell lines established from non-disease (Healthy Subject (HS) Control; CTRL) or a Parkinson&#39;s disease patient (G2019S or R1441C) skin biopsy were transfected with ASOs (1.0 μM, 5 μM, 7.5 μM, 15 μM, 22.5 μM, or 45 μM final concentration) using Endo-Porter transfection reagent (GeneTools) according to manufacturer&#39;s protocol (see “Endo-Porter Delivery of Morpholino Oligos” from Gene Tools, LLC, 14 Sep. 2012, pages 1-4). RNA was collected 48 hours post-transfection. IPS-derived neurons were treated with the LRRK2 G2019S exon 41 anti-sense oligonucleotide with the sequence 5′-AGACAGACCTGATCACCTACCTGGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 2) and a non-sense control oligonucleotide sequence 5′-CCTCTTACCTCAGTTACAATTTATA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 5) either once (5 days post differentiation, DIV37) or two times (2 and 5 days post end of the differentiation (DIV37 and DIV41)). Each time neurons were treated with 10 μM LRRK2 ASOs using Endo-Porter delivery method according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocol (Gene Tools, 4 μl per 1 mL solution). Exon skipping efficiency was also assessed by comparing between the non-tag and the carboxyflourescein-3′ tag ASO sequences. RNA was collected 48 hours post the second transfection (DIV43). 
     RNA Isolation and Analysis. 
     RNA was isolated from cells using TRIZOL™ reagent (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocol, followed by reverse transcription with GoScript™ reverse transcription system (Promega, Madison, Wis.). Radiolabeled PCR was carried out using primers specific for human LRRK2 region encompassing the ASO target exon. PCR products were separated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and bands on gels were quantitated by densitometry analysis using Image J software or phosphorimage analysis using a TYPHOON™ phosphorimager. 
     Differentiation of Neurons from Human iPSCs. 
     Human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) cells derived from biopsied fibroblasts from Parkinson&#39;s patients and healthy subject controls (Cooper et al., 2012, “Pharmacological Rescue of Mitochondrial Deficits in iPSC-Derived Neural Cells from Patients with Familial Parkinson&#39;s Disease,”  Sci Transl Med.  2012, 4; 4(141):141ra90; see Table 1) were grown on a feeder layer of mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) (GlobalStem, GSC-6001G) in HESCM media consisting of DMEM/F-12 (Life Technologies, 11330-032), 20% Knockout Serum (Life Technologies, 10828-028), Penicillin-Streptomycin (Life Technologies, 15140-122), 1 mM L-Glutamine (Life Technologies, 25030-081), 55 μM β-Mercaptoethanol (Gibco, 21985-023), and MEM non-essential amino acids (Life Technologies, 11140-050). LRRK2 G2019S gene corrected iPSC lines were obtained from and previously characterized by Reinhardt et al., 2013, (“Genetic Correction of a LRRK2 Mutation in Human iPSCs Links Parkinsonian Neurodegeneration to ERK-Dependent Changes in Gene Expression.”  Cell Stem Cell  12, 354-367). Table 1 provides an overview of the iPS cell lines used. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 List of the human iPSC lines used in phenotypic assays 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Line Name 
                 Genotype 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 10A 
                 Control (CTRL) 
               
               
                   
                 21.31 
                 Control (CTRL) 
               
               
                   
                 21.35 
                 Control (CTRL) 
               
               
                   
                 9A 
                 LRRK2 G2019S 
               
               
                   
                 2F 
                 LRRK2 R1441C 
               
               
                   
                 3C 
                 LRRK2 R1441C 
               
               
                   
                 PD28 
                 LRRK2 G2019S 
               
               
                   
                 PD28 Nurr1:GFP 
                 LRRK2 G2019S 
               
               
                   
                 29F 
                 LRRK2 G2019S 
               
               
                   
                 T4.6Mut 
                 LRRK2 G2019S 
               
               
                   
                 T4.13Mut 
                 LRRK2 G2019S 
               
               
                   
                 IM1Mut 
                 LRRK2 G2019S 
               
               
                   
                 IM2Mut 
                 LRRK2 G2019S 
               
               
                   
                 T4.6.10GC 
                 LRRK2 gene correction 
               
               
                   
                 T4.6.43GC 
                 LRRK2 gene correction 
               
               
                   
                 T4.13.10GC 
                 LRRK2 gene correction 
               
               
                   
                 IM1GC 
                 LRRK2 gene correction 
               
               
                   
                 IM2GC 
                 LRRK2 gene correction 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Embryoid Bodies (EB) Protocol for Generation of Neural Cells. 
     Neuronal cells were differentiated from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), following the procedures and modified from Brennand et al. 2011 (“Modeling schizophrenia using human induced pluripotent stem cells,”  Nature,  2011 May 12; 473(7346):221-5). In brief, iPSC colonies were dissociated using lmg/mL Collagenase IV (Life Technologies, 17104-019), resuspended in N2 GlutaMAX medium (DMEM GlutaMAX™, Life Technologies, 10565-042; N2, Life Technologies, 17502-048) supplemented with 100 nM LDN (Stemgent, 04-0074-02), and plated on low attachment 6 well plates (Corning, 3471) to initiate suspension culture of embryoid bodies. On DIV7 the embryoid bodies were replated for rosette formation onto 6 well plates (Corning, 353046) coated with poly-L-ornithine (PLO, 15% in PBS, Sigma, P4957) and mouse laminin (1 g/mL in DMEM/F-12, Sigma, L2020) in the presence of N2 medium supplemented with 1 μg/mL laminin. On DIV 14, rosettes were cut manually and passaged onto new PLO-laminin coated plates for expansion in DMEM/F12 media supplemented with N2, B-27 (Life Technologies, 17504-044), 2 g/mL human recombinant bFGF (Life Technologies, 13256-029) and 1 μg/mL laminin. The final neural differentiation phase was started by rosettes dissociation on DIV 21. Rosettes were dissociated using Accutase® (Millipore, SCR005) and plated onto PLO-laminin coated 6 well plates at a density of 300,000 cells per well in neural differentiation media containing DMEM/F12, N2 and B27 supplement, 1 mM dibutyry cyclic AMP (cAMP) (Enzo Life Sciences, BML-CN125-0100), 20 ng/mL BDNF (PreproTech, 450-02) and 200 μM Ascorbic acid (Sigma, A4034) (Neural Differentiation media). Cells were harvested on DIV 35 by dissociation using Accutase® for phenotypic assays. 
     Generation of Ventral Midbrain Dopaminergic Neurons. 
     Midbrain dopaminergic neuron differentiation was initiated following previously published protocols by Cooper et al., 2010 (“Differentiation of human ES and Parkinson&#39;s disease iPS cells into ventral midbrain dopaminergic neurons requires a high activity form of SHH, FGF8a and specific regionalization by retinoic acid,”  Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience  45, 258-266) and Sunberg et al., 2013 (“Improved Cell Therapy Protocols for Parkinson&#39;s disease based on differentiation efficiency and safety of hESC-, hiPSC-, and non-human primate iPSC-derived dopaminergic neurons,”  Stem Cells.  2013 August; 31(8):1548-62). 
     LRRK2-Specific Anti-Sense Oligonucleotide Treatment. 
     LRRK2 G2019S exon 41 anti-sense oligonucleotide sequence 5′-AGACAGACCTGATCACCTACCTGGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 2) and a non-sense control oligo sequence 5′-CCTCTTACCTCAGTTACAATTTATA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 5) were administered to the neuronal culture at DIV 37 and 41. Each time neurons were treated with 10 μM LRRK2 ASOs using Endo-Porter delivery method according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocol (Gene Tools, 4 μl per ml). Depending on the experimental set up, ASOs with a carboxyflourescein tag were used when the visualization of the ASO in the cell was desired, emitting green-fluorescence at 524.5 nm. 
     Calcium Imaging 
     Total Intracellular Calcium Imaging Using Fura2. 
     iPS-derived neurons were grown on cover slips coated with 15% poly-L-ornithine/laminin in 24 well plates at 50,000 cells/well. Cell cultures were treated with ASOs at DIV 37 and DIV41 as described above. Cells were treated with 0 nM THP or 10 nM THP and imaged 24 hours later (either 7 days post-plating for 0 nM or 8 days post-plating for 10 nM treatment). iPS-neurons were incubated with 5 μM Fura2-AM (Molecular Probes, F1221) in differentiation medium for 30 minutes at room temperature (RT). Cells were imaged at RT in standard external solution (SES, Boston BioProducts, C-3030; 145 mM NaCl, 5 nM KCl, 2 nM CaCl2, 1 mM MgCl2, 10 mM Glucose, 10 mM HEPES, pH 7.4+0.15), using a Nikon Elipse Ti microscope with a Q-Imaging® CCD camera, at a 10× magnification (Plan Fluo objective, NA 0.30). To measure calcium regulation, influx was elicited with application of 50 mM KCl, according to the protocol described in Table 2. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Live cell calcium imaging KCl application protocol 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Time 
                 Solution applied 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 0-1 minute 
                 standard external solution (SES) 
               
               
                   
                 1-1 minute 15 seconds 
                 50 mM KCl 
               
               
                   
                 1 minute 15 seconds-5 minutes 
                 SES 
               
               
                   
                 5-11 minutes 
                 50 mM KCl 
               
               
                   
                 11-13 minutes 
                 SES 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Intracellular calcium levels were measured by taking the ratio of the Fura-2 emission wavelengths; 340 nm and 380 nm, with an exposure time of 600 ms and 300 ms respectively, acquiring images every 3 seconds. To identify ASO positive cells, one image in the first second was acquired at 525 nm (Tetramethylrhodamine; TRITC), with an exposure time of second. NIS Elements AR 3.2 imaging software (Nikon) was used to analyze the acquired images, outlining visually defined cells as regions of interest. The Fura-2 340 nm/380 nm ratio fluorescence was measured over time in the designated regions. The change in fluorescence was normalized to the baseline fluorescence prior to the first KCl stimulation. Cells with a minimum of 7% change from baseline during stimulation were considered active cells, and consequently included in further analyses. Two characteristics of calcium homeostasis were measured. Firstly, by analyzing the peak amplitude of intracellular calcium with the first and second KCl stimulation, representing immediate calcium influx through calcium channels and cytoplasmic calcium release from organelles such as the ER. Secondly, the area under the curve during prolonged depolarization, the second KCl application, was measured. During this state, unbound calcium is cleared by calcium-binding protein and ER calcium reuptake, allowing calcium levels reach an equilibrium. Buffering capacity is dependent on inactivation of calcium channels and reuptake of calcium by the ER and mitochondria. 
     ER-calcium imaging using the CEPIA-ER calcium indicator. To measure calcium levels specifically in the ER, a calcium-measuring organelle-entrapped protein indicator (CEPIA) was used (Suzuki et al. 2014, “Imaging intraorganellar Ca2+ at subcellular resolution using CEPIA,”  Nature Communications,  5:4153). This genetically encoded calcium indicator (GECI) contains an ER specific retention sequence, and has a binding affinity compatible with the sub-millimolar calcium levels detected in the ER with an emission wavelength of 511 nm. IPS-derived neurons were infected with the lentivirus encoding for CEPIA-ER-GFP under the synapsin promotor 24 hours post-plating, at an MOI of 20. Vehicle treated and 10 nM THP treated neurons where imaged at DIV 43 post-plating, 24 hours after the incubation with the vehicle/toxin. Images were acquired at 525 nm, with an exposure time of 800 milliseconds for mixed culture iPS-neurons and 1 second for midbrain iPS-neurons, with a second acquisition interval. To measure background bleaching, decay in GFP emission was measured in a non-stimulated trace, for every cell line. Change in fluorescence was corrected for bleaching by dividing the raw measurement point by the average fluorescence of non-stimulated cells for every individual acquired time point. ImageJ software was used to analyze the acquired images, where regions were determined and measured as stated earlier. Baseline ER levels were calculated based on the mean average of the GFP fluorescence levels between the first 15 and 55 seconds of imaging prior to the KCl. Only active neurons with a minimum of 2% change from baseline during KCl stimulation were considered active cells, and consequently included in the analyses. 
     Neurite Outgrowth. 
     After differentiation (DIV 35) EB iPS-derived neurons were replated into 96 well plates at 15,000 cells per well for live cell phase imaging of neurite outgrowth. If needed, on day 2 and day 5 post-plating, neurons were treated with 10 μM exon 41 ASO (SEQ ID NO:02) or non-target ASO (SEQ ID NO:05) conjugated to carboxyflourescein. Seven days post plating, on DIV 42, neurons were exposed to thapsigargin (THP) toxicity at 0 nM, 1 nM, 10 nM, and 100 nM concentration and the live cell imaging was started immediately using the IncuCyte® Zoom live imaging system (Essen BioScience) (see  FIG. 7 ). Neurite length per cell body cluster was measured using the IncuCyte® imaging system. To evaluate the exon 41 ASO induced rescue on neurite length, the IncuCyte® ZOOM images were exported as tiff files and neurites from ASO-carboxyflourescein positive neurons were manually traced in Fiji ImageJ NeuronJ plugin. Total neurite length was then corrected for the number of the ASO+ neurons in each image. Images were randomized and blinded to the investigator. 
     Statistical Analysis. 
     Statistical significance was tested using Graphpad Prism 6 software (Graphpad software). 1-way, 2-way ANOVA and student T-test were used depending on the dataset. Statistical analysis was specified for each experiment in the figure legend. 
     Other Phenotypic Assays: 
     Mitochondrial Dysfunction Assays. 
     It was previously shown that human LRRK2 G2019S iPSC-derived neurons and human fibroblasts exhibit increased vulnerability to PD associated cell stressors and modified mitochondrial dynamics, which can be rescued by LRRK2 inhibitors (Cooper et al., 2012, “Pharmacological Rescue of Mitochondrial Deficits in iPSC-Derived Neural Cells from Patients with Familial Parkinson&#39;s Disease”  Sci Transl Med.  2012, 4; 4(141): 141ra90; Smidt et al., “Fibroblast Biomarkers of sporadic parkinson&#39;s disease and LRRK2 kinase inhibition,”  Mol Neurobiol.  2016 October; 53(8):5161-77). 
     Nitric Oxide and Super Oxide Live Cell Imaging. 
     DAF-FM is a cell permeant molecule, which upon reaction with nitric oxide (NO) forms a fluorescent benzotriazole, emitting green fluorescence at 515 nm (Molecular Probes). On DIV 43, 24 hours post valinomycin treatment at 0 μM (vehicle control), 2 μM, and 10 μM valinomycin (Sigma, v0627) dissolved in DMSO (Sigma, D2650-5×5 ML), EB neurons were labeled with DAF-FM fluorescent probe (Molecular Probes, D-23844) at 5 μM in HBSS containing calcium and magnesium (Life Technologies, 14025-092) according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocol. The cells were immediately imaged using the IncuCyte® Zoom live imaging system and DAF-FM green fluorescence intensity was quantified. 
     MitoSOX™ is a molecule targeting mitochondria through triphenylphosphonium (Molecular Probes). MitoSOX™ is oxidized by super oxide, consequently emitting red fluorescence at 580 nm. 24 hours post valinomycin treatment EB neurons were labeled with the MitoSOX™ (Molecular Probes, M36008) fluorescent probe at 7.5 μM in HBSS for 30 minutes at 37° C. After three washes with HBSS, the cells were immediately imaged using the IncuCyte® Zoom live imaging system and MitoSox red fluorescence was quantified. 
     Mitochondrial Labeling with MitoTracker®. 
     At DIV 42 mitochondria of EB neurons were labeled with MitoTracker® Red (Molecular Probes, M-22425) at 250 nM concentration for 45 minutes at 37° C. Cells were then washed with fresh neural differentiation media and immediately imaged using the IncuCyte® Zoom live imaging system. Phase contrast as well as red fluorescence images were acquired every 3 hours for 4 days, starting 2 hours before the valinomycin treatment. 
     Mitophagy Assay. 
     ATP3-Rosella plasmid was acquired from and previously characterized by Rosado et al., 2008, (“Rosella: A fluorescent pH-biosensor for reporting vacuolar turnover of cytosol and organelles in yeast.”  Autophagy  4, 205-213). The ATP3-Rosella sequence was inserted into a lentivirus backbone with a CMV promotor. HEK 293T cells were transfected with 0.4 μg of the lenti-Rosella plasmid DNA using polyethylenimine (PEI). 48 hours post transfection cells were treated with 1 μM rotenone and 20 nM rapamycin and imaged every 3 hours for 3 days using the IncuCyte® Zoom live imaging system. Phase contrast, green fluorescence, and red fluorescence images were acquired. 
     Neurons differentiated using the EB protocol were infected with the lentivirus expressing the rosella bioprobe at MOI 10 on DIV 36. Valinomycin (2 μM) and Rotenone (1 μM) toxicities were applied to neurons on DIV 42, after which cells were imaged every 3 hours for 3 days using the IncuCyte® Zoom live imaging system. Phase contrast, green fluorescence, and red fluorescence images were acquired. The ratio of green/red fluorescence intensity was quantified. 
     Fibroblasts from healthy subject and Parkinson disease patients were infected with lentivirus expressing the rosella bioprobe at MOI 75 4 h post-plating into 12 well plates with 60,000 cells per well. Two days later, cells were replated into 96 well plates with 2,000 cells per well. On the following day, DIV4, fibroblasts were transfected with ASOs targeting exon 41 (SEQ ID NO:02), exon 31 (SEQ ID NO:01), exon 2 (SEQ ID NO:07), and control non-target ASO (SEQ ID NO:05). Two days later, live cell imaging of the mitophagic flux was performed using the IncuCyte® Zoom live imaging system. Phase contrast, green fluorescence, and red fluorescence images were acquired. The ratio of green/red fluorescence intensity was quantified. 
     Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Response. 
     After differentiation (DIV 35) EB iPSC-derived neurons were replated into 96 well plates at 15,000 cells per well. Five days post plating at DIV40, neurons were infected with ER stress Cignal™  Lenti  Reporter Assay ERSE and ATF6 (CLS-9032L-8, CLS-6031L-8, Qiagen), at MOI10. Seven days post plating, on DIV 42, neurons were exposed to 24 hours incubation with thapsigargin (THP) at 0 nM, InM, 10 nM, and 100 nM concentration. One day later luciferase activity was measured using the Dual-Glo® Luciferase Assay System (E2940, Promega) (see  FIG. 13B  and  FIG. 13C ). 
     For gene expression analysis, RNA was isolated from neurons cultured in a 96 well plates seeded at a density of 15,000 cells/well at DIV43 24 hours post THP treatment, using the QIAshredder™ spin columns and the RNeasy® spin column method (Qiagen, 74104). cDNA synthesis was performed according to the QuantiTect® Reverse Transcription procedure (Qiagen, 205311); QuanTitect® primer assays were used for detection of the ATF6A, ATF6B and YY1 genes (QT00083370, QT00009380, QT00052738, Qiagen), using SybrGreen detection method (Applied Biosystems, 4367659) and StepOnePlus Real-Time PCR system (Applied Biosystems) according to the manufacturer protocol. Gene expression levels were normalized to GAPDH (IDT) expression. 
     Cell Viability Assay: 
     In vitro toxicity was determined by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay (Roche) to measure the conversion of a tetrazolium substrate by LDH enzyme released through the cell plasma membrane during cell death. Fibroblasts were placed in a clear, flat-bottomed 96-well plate at a density of 2,000 cells per well. One day post-plating, cells were transfected with exon 41 ASO (SEQ ID NO:02) at 1 μM, 5 μM and 15 μM and non-target ASO (SEQ ID NO:05) at 15 μM. Forty-eight hours later, cells were incubated at 37° C. with 40 μM valinomycin for 24 hours. The substrate and catalyst were applied according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The LDH-based colorimetric change was analyzed according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions using the Spectra Max Plus 384 spectrophotometer and Soft Max Pro 5.4.4 software. The optical density of each line was subtracted from a lysed control for that same line and samples were run in three technical replicates. 
     LRRK2 Protein Analysis in Human Fibroblasts: 
     Healthy subject and Parkinson&#39;s disease patient fibroblasts were plated at 500,000 cells into 24 well plate. One day post plating, fibroblasts were transfected with exon 41 (SEQ ID NO:02), exon 31 (SEQ ID NO:01), exon 2 (SEQ ID NO:07), and non-target ASO (SEQ ID NO:05) with Endo-Porter as described above. Two days later, at DIV4, cells were lysed using ice-cold RIPA lysis buffer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, PI-89900) containing Halt Protease &amp; Phosphatase Inhibitor Cocktail (1:100, Thermo Fisher Scientific, 1861284) and 0.5M EDTA Solution (1:100, Thermo Fisher Scientific, 1861283). Samples were sonicated and protein content was quantified using the BCA Protein Assay Kit (BCA Assay, Thermo Scientific, 23227). Samples were prepared to a concentration of 40 μg in distilled water and Pierce™ Lane Marker Reducing Sample Buffer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, 39000) and boiled for 5 minutes at 100° C. Protein samples were then separated in 4-20% Tris-HCL (345-0032) Criterion precast gels (Bio-rad) and transferred onto Trans-Blot® Turbo™ 0.2 m PVDF membranes (Bio-rad, 170-4157) by applying an electrical charge of 21 V and 2.5 A for 7 minutes. Membranes were incubated in blocking buffer (TBS, 0.1% (v/v) Tween-20 (Fisher, BP337-500) and 5% blotting grade blocker (Bio-rad, 1706404)) for 1 hour at room-temperature. Membranes were then cut and incubated with Ser935 LRRK2 UDD2 antibody (1:250, Abcam) overnight on a shaker at 4° C. The next day, blots were incubated with a goat-anti-rabbit (1:5000, Bio-rad, 170-6515) conjugated secondary antibody for 1 hour at room-temperature. Blots were developed using the Advansta WesternBright Sirius kit (Advansta, Cat. # K-12043-D10) and imaged using ChemiDoc™ XRS+ system (Bio-rad). After imaging, blots were stripped with stripping buffer, block in 5% milk-TBST solution and incubated with LRRK2 (100-500) UDD3 antibody (1:250, MRC, University of Dundee, Monoclonal Rabbit 30-12) or anti-GAPDH antibody (1:10,000 AB2302, Millipore) in blocking buffer over the weekend on a shaker at 4° C. Next, blots were incubated with a goat-anti-rabbit (1:5000, Bio-rad, 170-6515) or anti-chicken IgY HRP (1:5000, G135A, Promega) conjugated secondary antibodies for 1 hour at room-temperature. Blots were developed using the Advansta WesternBright Sirius kit (Advansta, Cat. # K-12043-D10) and imaged using ChemiDoc™ XRS+ system (Bio-rad). Blot analysis was performed using Image Lab™ analysis software. 
     LRRK2 Protein Analysis in Human iPSC-Derived Neurons: 
     Post differentiation at DIV 35, iPSC-derived neurons were plated onto 12 well plates at 500,000 cells per well. Neurons were treated 2× with exon 41 (SEQ ID NO:02), exon 31 (SEQ ID NO:01), and non-target ASOs (SEQ ID NO:05) at 10 μM concentration with Endo-Porter as described above. On day 7 post-plating, neurons were lysed using ice-cold RIPA lysis buffer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, PI-89900) containing Halt Protease &amp; Phosphatase Inhibitor Cocktail (1:100, Thermo Fisher Scientific, 1861284) and 0.5M EDTA Solution, (1:100, Thermo Fisher Scientific, 1861283). Samples were sonicated and protein content was quantified using the BCA Protein Assay Kit (BCA Assay, Thermo Scientific, 23227). Samples were prepared to a concentration of g in distilled water and Pierce™ Lane Marker Reducing Sample Buffer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, 39000) and boiled for 5 minutes at 100° C. Protein samples were then separated in 4-20% Tris-HCL (345-0032) Criterion precast gels (Bio-rad) and transferred onto Trans-Blot® Turbo™ 0.2 m PVDF membranes (Bio-rad, 170-4157) by applying an electrical charge of 21 V and 2.5 A for 7 minutes. Membranes were incubated in blocking buffer (TBS, 0.1% (v/v) Tween-20 (Fisher, BP337-500) and 5% blotting grade blocker (Bio-rad, 1706404)) for 1 hour at room-temperature. Membranes were then cut and incubated with LRRK2 (100-500) UDD3 antibody (1:250, MRC, University of Dundee, Monoclonal Rabbit 30-12) or anti-GAPDH antibody (1:10,000 AB2302, Millipore) in blocking buffer over the weekend on a shaker at 4° C. Next, blots were incubated with goat-anti-rabbit (1:5000, Bio-rad, 170-6515) or anti-chicken IgY HRP (1:5000, G135A, Promega) conjugated secondary antibodies for 1 hour at room-temperature. Blots were developed using the Advansta WesternBright Sirius kit (Advansta, Cat. # K-12043-D10) and imaged using ChemiDoc™ XRS+ system (Bio-rad). Blot analysis was performed using Image Lab™ analysis software. 
     Example 1: Antisense Oligonucleotides Induce Skipping of Exon 41 and Exon 31 in Human LRRK2 Gene in Human iPS-Derived Neurons 
     ASO 41-1 (see Table 3; SEQ ID NO:02) was tested in the human iPS-derived neural cell line. ASO 41-1 (10 μM final concentration, one treatment at DIV41) was transfected into cells using Endo-Porter (GeneTools) according to manufacturer&#39;s protocol.  FIGS. 3A and 3B  demonstrate that ASO 41-1 induces skipping of targeted exon 41 of LRRK2 with or without the G2019S mutation (also see  FIG. 38A  and  FIG. 38C ). 
     ASO 41-1 and a non-sense control were tested in human iPS-derived neurons (ASO41-1 is 5′-AGACAGACCTGATCACCTACCTGGT-3′; SEQ ID NO: 2) and a non-sense control oligonucleotide sequence (Non-sense control is 5′-CCTCTTACCTCAGTTACAATTTATA-3′; SEQ ID NO: 5) either once (5 days post differentiation, DIV37) or two times (2 and 5 days post end of the differentiation (DIV37 and DIV41)). Each time neurons were treated with 10M LRRK2 ASOs using Endo-Porter delivery method according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocol (Gene Tools, 4 μl per 1 mL solution). Exon skipping efficiency was also assessed by comparing between the non-tag and the carboxyflourescein-3′ tag ASO sequences. RNA was collected 48 hours post the second transfection (DIV43). LRRK2 exon 41 skipping was induced by ASO 41-1 in iPS-derived neurons derived from healthy subject controls (CTRL 10A and 21.31) or PD patients carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation (G2019S 29F and PD28) (see  FIG. 4A  and  FIG. 4B ).  FIG. 39  shows exon 31 skipping by ASO #5 (SEQ ID NO:01) in iPSC-derived human neurons either from a control healthy subject (N=3) or PD patient carrying the LRRK2 R1441C mutation (N=1). LRRK2 protein levels were also decreased in iPS-derived neurons by ASOs targeting either exon 41 or exon 31 (see  FIG. 38B  and  FIG. 40 ) 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Antisense oligonucleotide targeting LRRK2 induce 
               
               
                 exon 41 skipping. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Tar- 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 get 
                   
                 % 
                 SEQ ID 
               
               
                 Name 
                 Exon 
                 Sequence 
                 skipped * 
                 NO. 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 41-1 
                 41 
                 AGACAGACCTGATCACCTACCTGGT 
                 62 
                 SEQ ID 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 NO. 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 * percent of the mRNA transcripts that skip out the targeted exon 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 2: Antisense Oligonucleotides Successfully Reduce Full-Length LRRK2 Expression of LRRK2 Exon 31 and 41 in Fibroblast Cells from Parkinson&#39;s Patients 
     Various ASOs (see Table 4; SEQ ID NOs: 1 and 2) were tested in human fibroblast cells from one healthy subject control and two patients with Parkinson&#39;s disease one carrying the R1441C mutation and one carrying the G2019S mutation. ASOs (7.5 μM final concentration of either ASO 31-1 or ASO 41-1) were transfected into cells using Endo-Porter (GeneTools) according to manufacturer&#39;s protocol.  FIG. 2  demonstrates that ASOs 31-1 and 41-1 induce skipping of targeted exons 31 and 41 in human LRRK2, respectively. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Antisense oligonucleotides targeting LRRK2 
               
               
                 induce exon skipping 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Tar- 
                   
                   
                 SEQ 
               
               
                   
                 get 
                   
                 % 
                 ID 
               
               
                 Name 
                 Exon 
                 Sequence 
                 skipped * 
                 NO. 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 31-1 
                 31 
                 CTACCAGCCTACCATGTTACCTTGA 
                 40 
                 SEQ ID 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 NO. 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 41-1 
                 41 
                 AGACAGACCTGATCACCTACCTGGT 
                 31 
                 SEQ ID 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 NO. 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 * percent of the mRNA transcripts that skip out the targeted exon 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The results provided in the examples and figures above demonstrate that: 1) human neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation show a decreased level of the UPR response after ER calcium depletion indicating a lower capacity to adapt to the ER stress; 2) LRRK2 G2019S iPS-derived neurons have a decreased neurite integrity during ER stress; 3) intracellular calcium homeostasis is dysregulated in iPS-derived PD patient neurons carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation during ER stress; and 4) ER calcium levels, intracellular calcium uptake (during ER stress) and neurite integrity (during ER stress) can be restored in LRRK2 G2019S neurons upon antisense oligonucleotide treatment targeting the G2019S mutation. 
     Example 3: Antisense Oligonucleotides Induced Exon Skipping in Fibroblast Cells from Parkinson&#39;s Patients 
     Various ASOs (see Table 5) were tested in human fibroblast cells from one healthy subject control and two patients with Parkinson&#39;s disease one carrying the R1441C mutation and one carrying the G2019S mutation. ASOs (at concentrations of 1.0 μM, 5 μM, 7.5 μM, 15 μM, 22.5 μM, or 45 μM) were transfected into cells using Endo-Porter (GeneTools) according to manufacturer&#39;s protocol.  FIGS. 16-26 and 38-39  demonstrate that the ASOs disclosed in Table 5 induce skipping of targeted exons in human LRRK2. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Antisense oligonucleotides targeting LRRK2. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 ASO 
                   
                 Sequence 
               
               
                 Name 
                 Exon 
                 (SEQ ID NO.) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ASO#23 or 
                 exon 4 
                 ATACACATATTACCTGAAGTTAGGA 
               
               
                 ASO 4-1 
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO: 06) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ASO#45 or 
                 exon 2 
                 AGTGAAAACAATGCCTTTACCTGCT 
               
               
                 ASO 2-1 
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO: 07) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ASO#46 
                 exon 41 
                 GGTATCTGCCAGAAAATGCACAGGA 
               
               
                 41-2 
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO: 08) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ASO#284 
                 exon 41 -  
                 AATGC t GTAGTCAGCAATCTTTGCA 
               
               
                   
                 G2019  
                 (SEQ ID NO: 09) 
               
               
                   
                 mutant 
                   
               
               
                   
                 specific 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ASO#6 or 
                 exon 41 
                 AGACAGACCTGATCACCTACCTGGT 
               
               
                 ASO 41-1 
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO: 02) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ASO#5 or 
                 exon 31 
                 CTACCAGCCTACCATGTTACCTTGA 
               
               
                 ASO 31-1 
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO: 01) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 4: Antisense Oligonucleotides Successfully Reduce Full-Length LRRK2 Expression in Fibroblast Cells from Parkinson&#39;s Patients 
     Various ASOs (see Table 5) were tested in human fibroblast cells from three healthy subject control and three patients with Parkinson&#39;s disease carrying either the R1441C mutation or the G2019S mutation. ASOs (at concentrations of 1.0 μM, 5 μM and 15 μM) were transfected into cells using Endo-Porter (GeneTools) according to manufacturer&#39;s protocol.  FIGS. 31-37  demonstrate that the ASOs disclosed in Table 5 induce skipping of targeted exons in human LRRK2 and can reduce LRRK2 protein levels in the patient derived cells. 
     Example 5: Mutant LRRK2 Dependent Dysregulation of Mitophagy 
     Various ASOs (see Table 5) were tested in human fibroblast cells from five healthy subject control and five patients with Parkinson&#39;s disease either carrying the R1441C mutation or the G2019S mutation. ASOs (at concentrations of 1.0 μM, or 5 μM) were transfected into cells using Endo-Porter (GeneTools) according to manufacturer&#39;s protocol.  FIGS. 25, and 27-30  demonstrate that the ASOs disclosed in Table 5 induce skipping of targeted exons in human LRRK2 and can successfully rescue of mitophagic flux in LRRK2 G2019C or LRRK2 R1441C fibroblasts upon LRRK2 exon skipping. 
     Example 6: Exon 41 LRRK2 ASO Skipping Rescues Neurite Outgrowth THP Induced Collapse in LRRK2 G2019S Neurons 
     After differentiation iPS-derived neurons were replated for live cell phase imaging of neurite outgrowth. Seven days post plating, neurons were exposed to thapsigargin (THP) toxicity at 0 nM, 10 nM, and 100 nM concentrations and the live cell imaging was started immediately using the IncuCyte® Zoom live imaging system (Essen BioScience). Neurite length per cell body cluster was measured using the IncuCyte® imaging system or ImageJ software.  FIG. 7  demonstrates that exon 41 LRRK2 ASO skipping rescues neurite outgrowth in LRRK2 G2019S neurons. 
     Example 7: Exon 41 LRRK2 ASO Skipping and Nitric Oxide Levels in LRRK2 G2019S Neurons 
     iPS-derived neurons carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation show a significant increase in nitric oxide levels after mitochondrial membrane depolarization induced by 24 hours low dose valinomycin treatment.  FIG. 8C  demonstrates that exon 41 LRRK2 ASO skipping appears to prevent an increase in nitric oxide levels in LRRK2 G2019S neurons following valinomycin treatment. 
     Having described the invention in detail and by reference to specific embodiments thereof, it will be apparent that modifications and variations are possible without departing from the scope of the invention defined in the appended claims. More specifically, although some aspects of the present invention are identified herein as particularly advantageous, it is contemplated that the present invention is not necessarily limited to these particular aspects of the invention.