Patent Publication Number: US-2019185522-A1

Title: Fusion proteins with improved properties

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/373,072, filed on Aug. 10, 2016, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in the entirety for all purposes. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     In the industrial synthesis context many enzymes are useful for their capability of catalyzing various chemical reactions. The cost of such industrial applications can be very high, however, due to the constant need to replace used enzymes in order to ensure proper efficiency of the reactions. The present invention provides fusion enzymes with improved organic solvent tolerance and enhanced recyclability. These enzymes can be used as biocatalysts in industrial synthesis in an increased number of cycles. Organic tolerant and recyclable enzymes have strong commercial potentials in a variety of industrial applications ranging from synthesis of enantiomerically pure pharmaceutical compounds to production of alternative fuels such as biodiesel. 
     BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention provides a novel approach to improve the physical properties and therefore reusability of enzymes in various industrial applications. Thus, in a first aspect, this invention provides a fusion protein comprising (1) an enzyme; and (2) a Cry protein or a crystal-forming fragment thereof, such that the fusion protein is capable of self-crystalizing or spontaneously forming crystals once it is expressed within a cell. In some embodiments, the enzyme is a lipase, ligase, hydrolase, esterase, protease, glycosidase, or peptide deformylase. As a result of being fused to a Cry protein or a crystal-forming fragment of a Cry protein, the fusion protein exhibits substantially improved stability at an elevated temperature (e.g., at least 40, 50, 60, 70, 80° C. or higher) and/or in the presence of an organic solvent (e.g., alcohol such as methanol and ethanol, or acetonitrile), even after a prolonged time period (e.g., after at least 12 hours, 24 hours, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more days). For example, the enzymatic activity of the fusion protein is preserved at least 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 75, 70, 90, 95% or higher of the pre-treatment level after the solvent and/or heat treatment, which confers to the fusion protein a highly advantageous characteristic allowing for great recyclability in industrial applications. In addition to its enhanced thermostability and tolerance for organic solvents, the fusion protein typically retains at least a portion of the enzyme&#39;s natural level of activity, for example, at least 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or more of the activity possessed by the native enzyme (i.e., without being fused with any fusion partner). 
     In some embodiments, the Cry protein is the Cry3Aa protein. In some embodiments, the crystal-forming fragment is less than full length of a Cry protein, for example, a fragment of the Cry3Aa protein, e.g., a fragment comprising domain I of the protein, a fragment consisting of the first 290 amino acids of Cry3Aa protein (from the N-terminus), or a fragment consisting of the first 626 amino acids of Cry3Aa protein (from the N-terminus), or the 498-644 fragment of Cry3As protein. In some embodiments, a peptide linker is between the enzyme and the Cry protein or the crystal-forming fragment. In some embodiments, the fusion protein is in crystalline form, and it may be further crosslinked, e.g., by a chemical crosslinking agent such as glutaraldehyde or bis(sulfosuccinimidyl)suberate (BS3). In some embodiments, the fusion protein consists essentially of an enzyme, located at the N-terminus of the fusion protein, and the Cry protein or crystal-forming fragment thereof, located at the C-terminus of the fusion protein. Optionally, the fusion protein may include a peptide linker inserted between the enzyme and the Cry protein or the crystal-forming fragment thereof. Some exemplary fusion proteins of this invention include those provided in the Examples and Figures of this disclosure, e.g., a fusion resulted from any combination of (1) full length Cry3Aa, Cry3Aa(1-290), Cry3Aa(1-626), or Cry3Aa(498-644) with (2) a suitable enzyme such as a lipase (e.g., lipA), Dieselzyme (e.g., Dieselzyme 4, DLZM4), a peptide deformylase (PDF), or a p-nitrobenzyl esterase (pnbA). 
     In a second aspect, the present invention provides a polynucleotide sequence encoding the fusion protein described above and herein. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide sequence is present in an expression cassette, which is typically a recombinantly produced nucleotide structure comprising a promoter operably linked to the polynucleotide sequence encoding the fusion protein. In some embodiments, the expression cassette may be present in the form of a polynucleotide vector, such as a plasmid or a viral vector. In a related aspect, this invention provides a host cell comprising the fusion protein described above and herein, a host cell comprising the polynucleotide sequence encoding the fusion protein, and a host cell comprising the expression cassette or vector that contains the polynucleotide sequence encoding the fusion protein. In some cases, the host cell is a bacterial cell or one derived from a bacterium, especially a cell of a  Bacillus  sp. bacterium, such as  Bacillus subtilis  ( Bs ) or  Bacillus thuringiensis  ( Bt ) cell. In some embodiments, the bacterium is  E. coli.    
     In a third aspect, the present invention provides a method for recombinantly producing the fusion protein of this invention. The method includes the steps of (i) introducing the polynucleotide sequence encoding the fusion protein described above and herein into a host cell; and (ii) culturing the cell under conditions permissible for the expression of the fusion protein. The polynucleotide sequence encoding the fusion protein may be in the form of an expression cassette or a vector such as a plasmid. In some embodiments, the host cell expressing the fusion protein of this invention is a bacterial cell, especially of  Bacillus  sp. such as a  Bacillus subtilis  ( Bs ) cell or  Bacillus thuringiensis  ( Bt ) cell. Another bacterial strain, such as  E.coli,  may also be used. In some cases, the method of recombinantly producing the fusion protein further includes a step (iii) of purifying the fusion protein after it has been expressed by the host cell. Optionally, an additional step (iv) may be included in this method, where the fusion protein is then chemically crosslinked, for example, by a chemical crosslinking agent such as glutaraldehyde or bis(sulfosuccinimidyl)suberate (BS3). Typically, the fusion protein assumes a crystalline form or crystalized form upon its expression within the host cells. It may be purified and then crosslinked in the crystal form; or it may be purified and then solubilized if necessary. 
     In a fourth aspect, the present invention provides a composition comprising the fusion protein described above and herein, namely a self-crystalizing fusion protein comprising an enzyme fused to a Cry protein or a crystalizing fragment thereof, and a substrate to the enzyme. In some embodiments, the fusion protein is crystalized and optionally chemically crosslinked. In some embodiments, water and one or more organic solvents are further included in the composition. In some embodiments, a solid support is also included in the composition, with the fusion protein immobilized on the solid support. 
     In a fifth aspect, the present invention provides a method for performing a reaction using the fusion protein described above and herein, the reaction being one that is typically catalyzed by the native enzyme encompassed in the fusion protein. This method includes the step of incubating the fusion protein of this invention with a substrate to the enzyme under conditions permissible for the substrate to be catalyzed by the enzyme. In some cases, the fusion protein is in the crystalline form, and optionally crosslinked, such as by a chemical crosslinking agent glutaraldehyde or bis(sulfosuccinimidyl)suberate (BS3). In some embodiments, the method further comprises a cleaning step, performed after the reaction is completed to remove the reaction product(s) and cleaning the fusion protein for reuse in a second reaction. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1 . Electron micrograph of  Bacillus  sp. highlighting its crystal inclusion. 
         FIG. 2 . Fluorescence images (100×) of Cry3Aa-GFP crystals (reproduced from reference 19). 
         FIG. 3 . Electron micrographs of purified Cry3Aa protein crystals (a) and Cry3Aa-GFP fusion protein crystals (b) (reproduced from reference 19). 
         FIG. 4 . Hydrolysis of pNPA, the substrate for lipA and pnb stability studies. pNP absorbs light at 405 nm. Enzymatic hydrolysis by pnbA or lipA of 4-nitrophenylacetate (pNPA) yields the yellow product 4-nitrophenol (pNP). 
         FIG. 5 . Thermal stability of wild-type lipA protein (solid line) and Cry3Aa-lipA crystals (dashed line). Samples were heated at various temperatures in a PCR block and residual activity was measured in triplicate. 
         FIG. 6 . Cry3Aa-lipA (dashed) and free lipA (black) reaction rates against pNPA hydrolysis with increasing concentrations of acetonitrile (ACN) ( 6   a ) and ethanol (EtOH) ( 6   b ). These data illustrate that Cry3A-lipA crystals are more active than free lipA in these organic solvents. 
         FIG. 7 . Cry3Aa-lipA (dashed) and free lipA (black) were incubated in 50% indicated solvent, and analyzed for residual activity after 24 hours, Cry3Aa-lipA crystals are shown to be much more stable than the free lipA enzyme in nearly all organic solvents tested. 
         FIG. 8 . Activity of Cry3Aa-PMlip crystals against p-nitrophenyl palmitate (pNPP) compared to Cry3Aa crystal control. The Cry3Aa-PMlip crystals clearly have lipase activity against pNPP. 
         FIG. 9 . GC trace of  Burkholderia cepacia  lipase (Sigma), Cry3Aa-PMlip and Cry3Aa monitoring their transesterase activity against canola oil. The data clearly show that Cry3Aa-PMlip can act similarly to  Burkholderia cepacia  lipase, a known commercially available biodiesel lipase. 
         FIG. 10 . List of mutations in engineered dieselzymes, reproduced from reference 27. 
         FIG. 11 . Operational stability of covalently immobilized wild-type PMlip, DLZM4, and BClip. Each cycle represents the % conversion over 20 hrs, adapted from reference 27. 
         FIG. 12 . SDS-PAGE of purified and solubilized Cry3Aa-pnbA crystals. 
         FIG. 13 . SDS-PAGE of purified wild-type pnbA protein. 
         FIG. 14 . Free pnbA (black) and Cry3Aa-pnbA crystals (white) reaction rates against pNPA hydrolysis with increasing concentrations of ACN ( 14   a ) and EtOH ( 14   b ). 
         FIG. 15 . Free pnbA (black) and Cry3Aa-pnbA crystals (dashed) were incubated with increasing concentrations of 4-nitrophenyl acetate and rate curves and parameters were calculated using Prism. 
         FIG. 16 . Recyclability of Cry3Aa-pnbA (dashed) and Cry3Aa-lipA (black) crystals. Crystals were assayed for activity using 4npA, centrifuged and washed with phosphate buffer, and assayed again in subsequent reaction cycles. The activities were normalized to the activity in cycle 1. 
         FIG. 17 . Cry3Aa-lipA crystals were incubated with or without 1% glutaraldehyde for 6 hours, and then washed in Tris buffer. Crystals were then incubated in pH 11 buffer for 2 hours, centrifuged and the protein amount was determined in the supernatant by Bradford. 
         FIG. 18 . Cry3A-pnbA crystals were incubated with BS3 cross-linker and at various timepoints an aliquot was evaluated for its ability to solubilize at pH 11. 
         FIG. 19 . Recyclability of crosslinked Cry3Aa-pnbA (dashed) and cross-linked Cry3Aa-lipA (black) crystals. Crystals were assayed for activity using 4npA, centrifuged and washed with phosphate buffer, and assayed again in subsequent reaction cycles. 
         FIG. 20 . Free pnbA (black), and cross-linked Cry3A-pnbA (checkered) were assayed for activity in different concentration of ACN ( 20   a ) or EtOH ( 20   b ). 
         FIG. 21 . Free lipA (black), and cross-linked Cry3Aa-lipA (checkered) were assayed for activity in different concentration of ACN ( 21   a ) or EtOH ( 21   b ). 
         FIG. 22 . Free PDF (black) and Cry3Aa-PDF (white) were incubated with different concentrations of indicated solvent and fMAS substrate for 30 min, and the formate produced was analyzed in a subsequent reaction by a coupled reaction with formate dehydrogenase. The NADH produced was monitored at 340 nm on a Tecan M1000, and rates were normalized to the rate at 0% solvent. 
         FIG. 23 . SDS-PAGE of solubilized Cry3Aa(1-290)-lipA, Cry3Aa-lipA, and Cry3Aa. 
         FIG. 24 . Free lipA (black) and Cry3Aa(1-290)-lipA (dashed) were incubated in 50% ACN and at indicated time-points an aliqot was taken and diluted to 10% ACN and analyzed for residual activity against pNPA substrate. 
         FIG. 25 . Thermal stability of free lipA (black) and Cry3Aa(1-290)-lipA (dashed). Samples were heated at various temperatures in a PCR block and residual activity was measured in triplicate. 
         FIG. 27 . Table of all Cry3A truncations that are fused to lipA. 
         FIG. 28 . Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of Cry3Aa-lipA variants. All form uniform particles of approximately the same size. 
         FIG. 29 . Activity of Cry3Aa-lipA truncation variants in terms of rate (Absorbance at 405 nm over time) vs. enzyme concentration in (μg/ml). Cry3Aa(498-644)-lipA activity is significantly higher than the other constructs. 
         FIG. 30 . Thermal stability of all Cry-truncation lipA fusion constructs. Samples were heated at various temperatures in a PCR block for 1 hour and residual activity was measured in triplicate. 
         FIG. 31 . Free lipA (blue) and Cry3Aa(1-626)-lipA (red) were assayed in triplicate in various concentrations of ACN ( a ) or EtOH ( b ). 
         FIG. 32 . Free lipA (blue) and Cry3Aa(1-626)-lipA (red) were incubated in 50% indicated solvent, and analyzed for residual activity after 24 hours. Samples were diluted to 10% solvent prior to measuring residual activity in triplicate. 
         FIG. 33 . Thermal stability of Cry3Aa(1-626)-lipA (red) and his-lipA aggregates (purple). Samples were heated at various temperatures for 1 hour and residual activity was measured in triplicate. 
         FIG. 34 . Thermal stability of soluble Cry3Aa(1-626)-lipA (green) and his-lipA (pink) at pH 11. Cry3Aa(1-626)-lipA crystals were solubilized at pH 11 overnight to obtain soluble protein. Samples were heated for 1 hour at pH 11 at various temperatures and measured for residual activity in triplicate. 
         FIG. 35 . Recyclability of Cry3Aa(1-626)-lipA in the synthesis of biodiesel. The reaction for each cycle is as follows: 3:1 methanol:coconut oil, 30% water, 1.0% and 2.5% catalyst w/w of oil, 2,000 rpm, 30° C., 48 hours. 
         FIG. 36 . Cry3Aa-DLZM4 (red) and Cry3Aa(1-626)-DLZM4 (blue) activity against the substrate p-nitrophenyl-palmitate (pNPP). pNPP hydrolyzes to form p-nitrophenol which absorbs at 405 nm. 
         FIG. 37 . Free DLZM4 (blue) and Cry3Aa(1-626)-DLZM4 (orange) were incubated in 50% of MeOH and aliquots were taken at given time points for up to 50 hours, diluted to 10% solvent and analyzed for residual activity against pNPP. Activities were normalized to the activity at 0 hours. 
         FIG. 38 . Free DLZM4 (black) and Cry3Aa(1-626)-DLZM4 (striped) were incubated in 50% of MeOH and aliquots were taken at 0 and 5 days, diluted to 10% solvent and analyzed for residual activity against pNPP. Activities were normalized to the activity at 0 days. 
         FIG. 39 . Free DLZM4 (blue) and Cry3Aa(1-626)-DLZM4 (orange) were incubated in 50% of EtOH and aliquots were taken at given time points for up to 50 hours, diluted to 10% solvent and analyzed for residual activity against pNPP. Activities were normalized to the activity at 0 hours. 
         FIG. 40 . Free DLZM4 (black) and Cry3Aa(1-626)-DLZM4 (striped) were incubated in 50% of EtOH and aliquots were taken at 0 and 5 days, diluted to 10% solvent and analyzed for residual activity against pNPP. Activities were normalized to the activity at 0 days. 
         FIG. 41 . Free DLZM4 (blue) and Cry3Aa(1-626)-DLZM4 (orange) were diluted in 50% MeOH and heated at given temperatures for 1 hour. Residual activity was determined by pNPP hydrolysis, and rates were normalized to the rate at 30° C. 
         FIG. 42 . Biodiesel production: free BCL enzyme (blue) and Cry3Aa(1-626)-DLZM4 (orange) biodiesel conversion over the first 24 hours. 
         FIG. 43 . Recyclability of Cry3A(1-626)-DLZM4 biodiesel synthesis over five 24-hour reaction cycles. 
         FIG. 44 . SDS-PAGE of his-Cry3A-lipA protein production in  E. coli.  100 kDa purified band corresponds to full length his-Cry3A-lipA. 
         FIG. 45 . Activity of soluble his-Cry3A-lipA and insoluble his-Cry3A-lipA proteins produced from  E. coli.  Activity was measured using pNPA as a substrate. Data demonstrate that  E. coli  can produce active inclusions of Cry-enzymes. 
     
    
    
     DEFINITIONS 
     The term “Cry protein,” as used herein, refers to any one protein among a class of crystalline proteins produced by strains of  Bacillus thuringiensis.  Some examples of “Cry proteins” include, but are not limited to, Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab Cry2Aa, Cry3Aa, Cry4Aa, Cry4Ba, Cry11Aa, Cry11Ba, and Cry19Aa. Their amino acid sequences and polynucleotide coding sequences are known and can be found in publications such as U.S. Patent Application published as US2010/0322977. Their GenBank Accession Nos are:
         Cry1Aa AY197341.1   Cry1Ab AY847289.1   Cry2Aa AF273218.1   Cry3Aa AJ237900.1   Cry4Aa AB513706.1   Cry4Ba AB161456.1   Cry11Aa AL731825.1   Cry11Ba LC153032.1   Cry19Aa Y07603.1       

     In addition to the wild-type Cry proteins, the term “Cry protein” also encompasses functional variants, which (1) share an amino acid sequence identity of at least 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 99.5% to the polypeptide sequence of any one of the Cry proteins listed in US2010/0322977; and (2) retain the ability to spontaneously form crystals within host cells as can be confirmed by known methods such as electron micrograph (see description in, e.g., references 16-19). Similarly, a “crystal-forming fragment” of a Cry protein is a fragment of any of the known Cry proteins (i.e., less than full length of the wild-type Cry protein) that still retains the ability of self-crystalization, which is demonstrated both by crystallization by the fragment alone and by causing a fusion protein to self-crystalize when the fragment is present in the fusion protein with another protein of interest (e.g., an enzyme). In addition to being a truncated form of a Cry protein, a “crystal-forming fragment” may further contain one or more modifications to the native amino acid sequence such as insertions, deletions, or substitutions, especially conservative modifications, such that the resultant “crystal-forming fragment” shares an amino acid sequence identity of at least 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 99.5% to the polypeptide sequence of the corresponding fragment of a wild-type Cry protein. 
     The term “nucleic acid” or “polynucleotide” refers to deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) or ribonucleic acids (RNA) and polymers thereof in either single- or double-stranded form. Unless specifically limited, the term encompasses nucleic acids containing known analogues of natural nucleotides that have similar binding properties as the reference nucleic acid and are metabolized in a manner similar to naturally occurring nucleotides. Unless otherwise indicated, a particular nucleic acid sequence also implicitly encompasses conservatively modified variants thereof (e.g., degenerate codon substitutions), alleles, orthologs, SNPs, and complementary sequences as well as the sequence explicitly indicated. Specifically, degenerate codon substitutions may be achieved by generating sequences in which the third position of one or more selected (or all) codons is substituted with mixed-base and/or deoxyinosine residues (Batzer et al.,  Nucleic Acid Res.  19:5081 (1991); Ohtsuka et al.,  J. Biol. Chem.  260:2605-2608 (1985); and Rossolini et al.,  Mol. Cell. Probes  8:91-98 (1994)). The term nucleic acid is used interchangeably with gene, cDNA, and mRNA encoded by a gene. 
     The term “gene” means the segment of DNA involved in producing a polypeptide chain. It may include regions preceding and following the coding region (leader and trailer) as well as intervening sequences (introns) between individual coding segments (exons). 
     The term “amino acid” refers to naturally occurring and synthetic amino acids, as well as amino acid analogs and amino acid mimetics that function in a manner similar to the naturally occurring amino acids. Naturally occurring amino acids are those encoded by the genetic code, as well as those amino acids that are later modified, e.g., hydroxyproline, γ-carboxyglutamate, and O-phosphoserine. Amino acid analogs refers to compounds that have the same basic chemical structure as a naturally occurring amino acid, i.e., an α carbon that is bound to a hydrogen, a carboxyl group, an amino group, and an R group, e.g., homoserine, norleucine, methionine sulfoxide, methionine methyl sulfonium. Such analogs have modified R groups (e.g., norleucine) or modified peptide backbones, but retain the same basic chemical structure as a naturally occurring amino acid. “Amino acid mimetics” refers to chemical compounds having a structure that is different from the general chemical structure of an amino acid, but that functions in a manner similar to a naturally occurring amino acid. 
     There are various known methods in the art that permit the incorporation of an unnatural amino acid derivative or analog into a polypeptide chain in a site-specific manner, see, e.g., WO 02/086075. 
     Amino acids may be referred to herein by either the commonly known three letter symbols or by the one-letter symbols recommended by the IUPAC-IUB Biochemical Nomenclature Commission. Nucleotides, likewise, may be referred to by their commonly accepted single-letter codes. 
     “Conservatively modified variants” applies to both amino acid and nucleic acid sequences. With respect to particular nucleic acid sequences, “conservatively modified variants” refers to those nucleic acids that encode identical or essentially identical amino acid sequences, or where the nucleic acid does not encode an amino acid sequence, to essentially identical sequences. Because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, a large number of functionally identical nucleic acids encode any given protein. For instance, the codons GCA, GCC, GCG and GCU all encode the amino acid alanine. Thus, at every position where an alanine is specified by a codon, the codon can be altered to any of the corresponding codons described without altering the encoded polypeptide. Such nucleic acid variations are “silent variations,” which are one species of conservatively modified variations. Every nucleic acid sequence herein that encodes a polypeptide also describes every possible silent variation of the nucleic acid. One of skill will recognize that each codon in a nucleic acid (except AUG, which is ordinarily the only codon for methionine, and TGG, which is ordinarily the only codon for tryptophan) can be modified to yield a functionally identical molecule. Accordingly, each silent variation of a nucleic acid that encodes a polypeptide is implicit in each described sequence. 
     As to amino acid sequences, one of skill will recognize that individual substitutions, deletions or additions to a nucleic acid, peptide, polypeptide, or protein sequence which alters, adds or deletes a single amino acid or a small percentage of amino acids in the encoded sequence is a “conservatively modified variant” where the alteration results in the substitution of an amino acid with a chemically similar amino acid. Conservative substitution tables providing functionally similar amino acids are well known in the art. Such conservatively modified variants are in addition to and do not exclude polymorphic variants, interspecies homologs, and alleles of the invention. 
     The following eight groups each contain amino acids that are conservative substitutions for one another:
     1) Alanine (A), Glycine (G);   2) Aspartic acid (D), Glutamic acid (E);   3) Asparagine (N), Glutamine (Q);   4) Arginine (R), Lysine (K);   5) Isoleucine (I), Leucine (L), Methionine (M), Valine (V);   6) Phenylalanine (F), Tyrosine (Y), Tryptophan (W);   7) Serine (S), Threonine (T); and   8) Cysteine (C), Methionine (M)
 
(see, e.g., Creighton,  Proteins,  W . H. Freeman and Co., N.Y. (1984)).
   

     Amino acids may be referred to herein by either their commonly known three letter symbols or by the one-letter symbols recommended by the IUPAC-IUB Biochemical Nomenclature Commission. Nucleotides, likewise, may be referred to by their commonly accepted single-letter codes. 
     In the present application, amino acid residues are numbered according to their relative positions from the left most residue, which is numbered 1, in an unmodified wild-type polypeptide sequence. 
     As used in herein, the terms “identical” or percent “identity,” in the context of describing two or more polynucleotide or amino acid sequences, refer to two or more sequences or subsequences that are the same or have a specified percentage of amino acid residues or nucleotides that are the same (for example, a Cry protein or a crystal-forming fragment of a Cry protein sequence comprised in the fusion protein of this invention has at least 80% identity, preferably 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identity, to a reference sequence, e.g., the amino acid sequence of a corresponding wild-type Cry protein or fragment), when compared and aligned for maximum correspondence over a comparison window, or designated region as measured using one of the following sequence comparison algorithms or by manual alignment and visual inspection. Such sequences are then said to be “substantially identical.” With regard to polynucleotide sequences, this definition also refers to the complement of a test sequence. Preferably, the identity exists over a region that is at least about 50 amino acids or nucleotides in length, or more preferably over a region that is 75-100 amino acids or nucleotides in length. 
     For sequence comparison, typically one sequence acts as a reference sequence, to which test sequences are compared. When using a sequence comparison algorithm, test and reference sequences are entered into a computer, subsequence coordinates are designated, if necessary, and sequence algorithm program parameters are designated. Default program parameters can be used, or alternative parameters can be designated. The sequence comparison algorithm then calculates the percent sequence identities for the test sequences relative to the reference sequence, based on the program parameters. For sequence comparison of nucleic acids and proteins, the BLAST and BLAST 2.0 algorithms and the default parameters discussed below are used. 
     A “comparison window”, as used herein, includes reference to a segment of any one of the number of contiguous positions selected from the group consisting of from 20 to 600, usually about 50 to about 200, more usually about 100 to about 150 in which a sequence may be compared to a reference sequence of the same number of contiguous positions after the two sequences are optimally aligned. Methods of alignment of sequences for comparison are well-known in the art. Optimal alignment of sequences for comparison can be conducted, e.g., by the local homology algorithm of Smith &amp; Waterman,  Adv. Appl. Math.  2:482 (1981), by the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman &amp; Wunsch,  J. Mol. Biol.  48:443 (1970), by the search for similarity method of Pearson &amp; Lipman,  Proc. Nat&#39;l. Acad. Sci. USA  85:2444 (1988), by computerized implementations of these algorithms (GAP, BESTFIT, FASTA, and TFASTA in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package, Genetics Computer Group,  575  Science Dr., Madison, Wis.), or by manual alignment and visual inspection (see. e.g.,  Current Protocols in Molecular Biology  (Ausubel et al., eds. 1995 supplement)). 
     Examples of algorithms that are suitable for determining percent sequence identity and sequence similarity are the BLAST and BLAST 2.0 algorithms, which are described in Altschul et al., (1990) J. Mol. Biol. 215: 403-410 and Altschul et al. (1977) Nucleic Acids Res. 25: 3389-3402, respectively. Software for performing BLAST analyses is publicly available at the National Center for Biotechnology Information website, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. The algorithm involves first identifying high scoring sequence pairs (HSPs) by identifying short words of length W in the query sequence, which either match or satisfy some positive-valued threshold score T when aligned with a word of the same length in a database sequence. T is referred to as the neighborhood word score threshold (Altschul et al, supra). These initial neighborhood word hits acts as seeds for initiating searches to find longer HSPs containing them. The word hits are then extended in both directions along each sequence for as far as the cumulative alignment score can be increased. Cumulative scores are calculated using, for nucleotide sequences, the parameters M (reward score for a pair of matching residues; always &gt;0) and N (penalty score for mismatching residues; always &lt;0). For amino acid sequences, a scoring matrix is used to calculate the cumulative score. Extension of the word hits in each direction are halted when: the cumulative alignment score falls off by the quantity X from its maximum achieved value; the cumulative score goes to zero or below, due to the accumulation of one or more negative-scoring residue alignments; or the end of either sequence is reached. The BLAST algorithm parameters W, T, and X determine the sensitivity and speed of the alignment. The BLASTN program (for nucleotide sequences) uses as defaults a word size (W) of 28, an expectation (E) of 10, M=1, N=−2, and a comparison of both strands. For amino acid sequences, the BLASTP program uses as defaults a word size (W) of 3, an expectation (E) of 10, and the BLOSUM62 scoring matrix (see Henikoff &amp; Henikoff, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:10915 (1989)). 
     The BLAST algorithm also performs a statistical analysis of the similarity between two sequences (see, e.g., Karlin &amp; Altschul,  Proc. Nat&#39;l. Acad. Sci. USA  90:5873-5787 (1993)). One measure of similarity provided by the BLAST algorithm is the smallest sum probability (P(N)), which provides an indication of the probability by which a match between two nucleotide or amino acid sequences would occur by chance. For example, a nucleic acid is considered similar to a reference sequence if the smallest sum probability in a comparison of the test nucleic acid to the reference nucleic acid is less than about 0.2, more preferably less than about 0.01, and most preferably less than about 0.001. 
     An indication that two nucleic acid sequences or polypeptides are substantially identical is that the polypeptide encoded by the first nucleic acid is immunologically cross reactive with the antibodies raised against the polypeptide encoded by the second nucleic acid, as described below. Thus, a polypeptide is typically substantially identical to a second polypeptide, for example, where the two peptides differ only by conservative substitutions. Another indication that two nucleic acid sequences are substantially identical is that the two molecules or their complements hybridize to each other under stringent conditions, as described below. Yet another indication that two nucleic acid sequences are substantially identical is that the same primers can be used to amplify the sequence. 
     “Polypeptide,” “peptide,” and “protein” are used interchangeably herein to refer to a polymer of amino acid residues. All three terms apply to amino acid polymers in which one or more amino acid residue is an artificial chemical mimetic of a corresponding naturally occurring amino acid, as well as to naturally occurring amino acid polymers and non-naturally occurring amino acid polymers. As used herein, the terms encompass amino acid chains of any length, including full-length proteins, wherein the amino acid residues are linked by covalent peptide bonds. 
     A “fusion protein consisting essentially of an enzyme and a Cry protein or a crystal-forming fragment thereof” is a fusion protein that contains only an enzyme (such as lipase, ligase, hydrolase, esterase, protease, or glycosidase, etc.) and a Cry protein or a crystal-forming fragment thereof, but does not contain any other discernable elements such as any full-length proteins, functional domains of proteins, or tags providing any particular binding affinity of antigenicity. This fusion protein, however, may contain one or more amino acid sequences that (1) provide linkage and proper spatial separation between the enzyme and the Cry protein/crystal-forming fragment thereof to preserve functionality or (2) provide the correct reading frame and/or appropriate start/termination of the fusion protein. Such linkage amino acid sequences are relatively shorts and typically no longer than 100 or 50 amino acids, such as between 1 to 100, 1 or 2 to 50, 2 or 3 to 25, 3 or 4 to 10 amino acids. 
     An “expression cassette” is a nucleic acid construct, generated recombinantly or synthetically, with a series of specified nucleic acid elements that permit transcription of a particular polynucleotide sequence in a host cell. An expression cassette may be part of a plasmid, viral vector derived from a viral genome, or nucleic acid fragment/construct. Typically, an expression cassette includes a polynucleotide to be transcribed, operably linked to a promoter. Other elements that may be present in an expression cassette include those that enhance transcription (e.g., enhancers) and terminate transcription (e.g., terminators), as well as those that confer certain binding affinity or antigenicity to the recombinant protein produced from the expression cassette. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     I. Introduction 
     There has been growing interest in using enzymes to catalyze industrial reactions due to their high reactivity, excellent regio- and enantiospecificity, and low environmental toxicity. In order to financially compete with chemical catalysis, biocatalysts are optimized so they can be recycled multiple times. Additionally, biocatalysts are generally optimized so they can withstand high concentrations of organic solvents—conditions that can promote substrate solubility and enzyme activity. By generating novel fusion proteins capable of self-crystallization, the present inventors have developed an innovative and effective strategy to produce enzymes with enhanced recyclability and organic solvent tolerance. 
     Currently, generating organic solvent-tolerant enzymes such as lipases for industrial use requires laborious techniques such as directed evolution. The inventors devised a novel method to recombinantly generate enzymes that are highly tolerant to organic solvents. These enzymes can also be readily recycled for reuse in subsequent reaction cycles. These properties are highly desirable and advantageous in the context of optimizing biocatalysts for commercial applications. 
     II. Production of Cry Fusion Proteins 
     A. General Recombinant Technology 
     Basic texts disclosing general methods and techniques in the field of recombinant genetics include Sambrook and Russell,  Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual  (3rd ed. 2001); Kriegler,  Gene Transfer and Expression: A Laboratory Manual  (1990); and Ausubel et al., eds.,  Current Protocols in Molecular Biology  (1994). 
     For nucleic acids, sizes are given in either kilobases (kb) or base pairs (bp). These are estimates derived from agarose or acrylamide gel electrophoresis, from sequenced nucleic acids, or from published DNA sequences. For proteins, sizes are given in kilodaltons (kDa) or amino acid residue numbers. Proteins sizes are estimated from gel electrophoresis, from sequenced proteins, from derived amino acid sequences, or from published protein sequences. 
     Oligonucleotides that are not commercially available can be chemically synthesized, e.g., according to the solid phase phosphoramidite triester method first described by Beaucage &amp; Caruthers,  Tetrahedron Lett.  22: 1859-1862 (1981), using an automated synthesizer, as described in Van Devanter et. al.,  Nucleic Acids Res.  12: 6159-6168 (1984). Purification of oligonucleotides is performed using any art-recognized strategy, e.g., native acrylamide gel electrophoresis or anion-exchange HPLC as described in Pearson &amp; Reanier,  J. Chrom.  255: 137-149 (1983). 
     The sequence of a gene of interest, such as the polynucleotide sequence encoding a lipase or hydrolase, a polynucleotide encoding a Cry protein or fragment, and synthetic oligonucleotides can be verified after cloning or subcloning using, e.g., the chain termination method for sequencing double-stranded templates of Wallace et al.,  Gene  16: 21-26 (1981). 
     B. Coding Sequence for a Cry Fusion Protein 
     Polynucleotide sequences encoding Cry fusion proteins of this invention can be readily constructed by combining the coding sequences for the fusion partners, such as a Cry3Aa protein and  Bacillus subtilis  lipase A (lipA). The sequences for Cry proteins and enzymes are generally known and may be obtained from a commercial supplier. 
     In addition to the use of full length wild-type Cry proteins for constructing the Cry fusion proteins of this invention, fragments of Cry proteins and/or variants of Cry proteins may also be useful. A DNA sequence encoding a Cry protein can be modified to generate fragments or variants of the Cry protein. So long as the fragments and variants retain the ability to spontaneously form crystals when expressed in a host cell, especially a  Bacillus  bacterial cell, they can be used for producing the fusion proteins and render the fusion proteins the ability to undergo spontaneous crystallization. Typically, the variants bear a high percentage of sequence identity (e.g., at least 80, 85, 90, 95, 97, 98, 99% or higher) to the wild-type Cry protein sequence, whereas the fragments may be substantially shorter than the full length Cry protein, such as having some amino acids (e.g., 10-300 or 20-200 or 50-100 amino acids) removed from the N- or C-terminus of the full length Cry protein. For example, a useful Cry3Aa fragment may be as short as the first 290 amino acids from the N-terminus, encompassing Domain I of the protein. Other examples of such fragments include a Cry protein fragment having its first 57 amino acids from N-terminus removed and a Cry protein fragment having its C-terminal 18 amino acids removed. The ability of a fusion protein to undergo spontaneous crystallization can be verified by electron micrograph, whereas the fusion protein&#39;s enzymatic activity can be confirmed by established assays for each specific enzyme. Surprisingly, the present inventors discovered during their studies that the presence of a Cry protein in a fusion protein affords a significant increase to the enzyme in its ability to remain active when exposed to organic solvents. In other words, the fusion protein is far more tolerant to organic solvents, even at high concentrations, than the enzyme by itself. The inventors further revealed that a fragment of Cry3Aa comprising Domain I of the protein is able to confer to a fusion protein significantly enhanced tolerance, stability, and activity in the presence of high concentration of organic solvents, and the level of such enhancement is notably greater than the full length protein Cry3Aa. 
     In some cases, a peptide linker or spacer is used between the coding sequences for the Cry protein/fragment and the enzyme. One purpose is to ensure the proper reading frame for the fusion protein such that the coding sequences for both Cry protein/fragment and the enzyme are in frame. Another purpose is to provide appropriate spatial relationship between the Cry protein/fragment and the enzyme, such that each may retain its original functionality: the Cry protein/fragment is able to cause self-crystallization of the fusion protein, and the enzyme remains active in its catalytic capacity. Also, one or more linkers may be placed at the very beginning and/or the very end of the open reading frame, so as to facilitate proper start and termination of the coding sequence translation. Such linkage amino acid sequences are usually shorts and typically no longer than 100 or 50 amino acids, such as between 1 to 100, 1 or 2 to 50, 2 or 3 to 25, 3 or 4 to 10 amino acids. 
     C. Sequence Modification for Preferred Codon Usage in a Host Organism 
     The polynucleotide sequence encoding a Cry fusion protein of this invention can be further altered to coincide with the preferred codon usage of a particular host. For example, the preferred codon usage of one strain of bacterial cells can be used to derive a polynucleotide that encodes a recombinant polypeptide of the invention and includes the codons favored by this strain. The frequency of preferred codon usage exhibited by a host cell can be calculated by averaging frequency of preferred codon usage in a large number of genes expressed by the host cell (e.g., calculation service is available from web site of the Kazusa DNA Research Institute, Japan). This analysis is preferably limited to genes that are highly expressed by the host cell. 
     At the completion of modification, the coding sequences are verified by sequencing and are then subcloned into an appropriate expression vector for recombinant production of a Cry fusion protein. 
     III. Expression, Purification, and Crosslinking of Cry Fusion Proteins 
     Following verification of the coding sequence, a fusion protein of this invention can be produced using routine techniques in the field of recombinant genetics, relying on the polynucleotide sequences encoding the Cry fusion protein disclosed herein. 
     A. Expression Systems 
     To obtain high level expression of a nucleic acid encoding a fusion protein of this invention, one typically subclones a polynucleotide encoding the fusion protein in the correct reading frame into an expression vector that contains a strong promoter to direct transcription, a transcription/translation terminator and a ribosome binding site for translational initiation. Suitable bacterial promoters are well known in the art and described, e.g., in Sambrook and Russell, supra, and Ausubel et al., supra. Bacterial expression systems for expressing the polypeptide are available in, e.g.,  E. coli, Bacillus  sp.,  Salmonella,  and  Caulobacter.  Kits for such expression systems are commercially available. 
     The promoter used to direct expression of a heterologous nucleic acid depends on the particular application. The promoter is optionally positioned about the same distance from the heterologous transcription start site as it is from the transcription start site in its natural setting. As is known in the art, however, some variation in this distance can be accommodated without loss of promoter function. In some cases, a constitutive promoter is used, whereas in other cases an inducible promoter rather than a constitutive promoter is preferred. 
     In addition to the promoter, the expression vector typically includes a transcription unit or expression cassette that contains all the additional elements required for the expression of the fusion protein of this invention in host cells. A typical expression cassette thus contains a promoter operably linked to the nucleic acid sequence encoding the fusion protein and signals required for efficient polyadenylation of the transcript, ribosome binding sites, and translation termination. The nucleic acid sequence encoding the fusion protein may be linked to a cleavable signal peptide sequence to promote secretion of the polypeptide by the transformed cell. Such signal peptides include, among others, the signal peptides from tissue plasminogen activator, insulin, and neuron growth factor, and juvenile hormone esterase of  Heliothis virescens.  Additional elements of the cassette may include enhancers and, if genomic DNA is used as the structural gene, introns with functional splice donor and acceptor sites. 
     In addition to a promoter sequence, the expression cassette should also contain a transcription termination region downstream of the coding sequence to provide for efficient termination. The termination region may be obtained from the same gene as the promoter sequence or may be obtained from different genes. 
     The particular expression vector used to transport the genetic information into the cell is not particularly critical. Any of the conventional vectors used for expression in eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells may be used, especially those suitable for expression in cells of  Bacillus  sp, such as  Bt  and  Bs.  Standard bacterial expression vectors include plasmids such as pBR322 based plasmids, pSKF, pET23D, and fusion expression systems such as GST and LacZ. 
     The elements that are typically included in expression vectors also include a replicon that functions in bacteria such as  Bacillus  sp.and  E. coli,  a gene encoding antibiotic resistance to permit selection of bacteria that harbor recombinant plasmids, and unique restriction sites in nonessential regions of the plasmid to allow insertion of coding sequences. The particular antibiotic resistance gene chosen is not critical, any of the many resistance genes known in the art are suitable. Similar to antibiotic resistance selection markers, metabolic selection markers based on known metabolic pathways may also be used as a means for selecting transformed host cells. 
     B. Transfection Methods 
     Standard transfection methods are used to produce bacterial, mammalian, yeast, insect, or plant cell lines that express large quantities of a recombinant fusion protein of this invention, which are then purified using standard techniques (see, e.g., Colley et al.,  J. Biol. Chem.  264: 17619-17622 (1989);  Guide to Protein Purification,  in  Methods in Enzymology,  vol. 182 (Deutscher, ed., 1990)). Transformation of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells are performed according to standard techniques (see, e.g., Morrison,  J. Bact.  132: 349-351 (1977); Clark-Curtiss &amp; Curtiss,  Methods in Enzymology  101: 347-362 (Wu et al., eds, 1983). 
     Any of the well-known procedures for introducing foreign nucleotide sequences into host cells may be used. These include the use of calcium phosphate transfection, polybrene, protoplast fusion, electroporation, liposomes, microinjection, plasma vectors, viral vectors and any of the other well-known methods for introducing cloned genomic DNA, cDNA, synthetic DNA, or other foreign genetic material into a host cell (see, e.g., Sambrook and Russell, supra). It is only necessary that the particular genetic engineering procedure used be capable of successfully introducing at least one gene into the host cell capable of expressing the fusion protein of this invention. 
     C. Purification of Cry Fusion Proteins 
     Once the expression of a Cry fusion protein in transfected host cells is confirmed, e.g., via electron micrograph for detecting protein crystals or an immunoassay such as Western blotting analysis, the host cells are then cultured in an appropriate scale for the purpose of purifying the recombinant Cry fusion protein. 
     When the Cry fusion proteins of the present invention are produced recombinantly by transformed bacteria in large amounts, for example after promoter induction, the proteins are present in crystalline form or insoluble aggregates within the host cells. Thus, one can readily isolate the crystals from the cell lysate based on their distinct density by utilizing techniques such as centrifugation and density gradient separation followed by one or more rinsing steps to further remove contaminants from the protein crystals. 
     There are several protocols that are suitable for purification of protein inclusion bodies. For example, purification of aggregate proteins (hereinafter referred to as inclusion bodies) typically involves the extraction, separation and/or purification of inclusion bodies by disruption of bacterial cells, e.g., by incubation in a buffer of about 100-150 μg/ml lysozyme and 0.1% Nonidet P40, a non-ionic detergent. The cell suspension can be ground using a Polytron grinder (Brinkman Instruments, Westbury, N.Y.). Alternatively, the cells can be sonicated on ice. Additional methods of lysing bacteria are described in Ausubel et al. and Sambrook and Russell, both supra, and will be apparent to those of skill in the art. 
     The cell suspension is generally centrifuged and the pellet containing the inclusion bodies resuspended in buffer which does not dissolve but washes the inclusion bodies, e.g., 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.2), 1 mM EDTA, 150 mM NaCl and 2% Triton-X 100, a non-ionic detergent. It may be necessary to repeat the wash step to remove as much cellular debris as possible. The remaining pellet of inclusion bodies may be resuspended in an appropriate buffer (e.g., 20 mM sodium phosphate, pH 6.8, 150 mM NaCl). Other appropriate buffers will be apparent to those of skill in the art. 
     Following the washing step, the inclusion bodies are solubilized by the addition of a solvent that is both a strong hydrogen acceptor and a strong hydrogen donor (or a combination of solvents each having one of these properties). The proteins that formed the inclusion bodies may then be renatured by dilution or dialysis with a compatible buffer. Suitable solvents include, but are not limited to, urea (from about 4 M to about 8 M), formamide (at least about 80%, volume/volume basis), and guanidine hydrochloride (from about 4 M to about 8 M). Some solvents that are capable of solubilizing aggregate-forming proteins, such as SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) and 70% formic acid, may be inappropriate for use in this procedure due to the possibility of irreversible denaturation of the proteins, accompanied by a lack of immunogenicity and/or activity. Although guanidine hydrochloride and similar agents are denaturants, this denaturation is not irreversible and renaturation may occur upon removal (by dialysis, for example) or dilution of the denaturant, allowing re-formation of the immunologically and/or biologically active protein of interest. After solubilization, the protein can be separated from other bacterial proteins by standard separation techniques. For further description of purifying recombinant polypeptides from bacterial inclusion body, see, e.g., Patra et al.,  Protein Expression and Purification  18: 182-190 (2000). 
     While the Cry fusion protein crystals tend to remain insoluble at lower or neutral pHs, placing them in alkaline solutions with pH at or greater than 10 or 11 can often effectively dissolve the protein. Once dissolved, the protein can then be analyzed by gel separation (e.g., on an SDS gel) and immunoassays to confirm its identity based on the appropriate molecular weight and immunoreactivity. 
     D. Crosslinking Cry Fusion Proteins 
     Crosslinking is a commonly used technique for a broad ranges of goals, such as to stabilize protein tertiary and quaternary structure for analysis; to capture and identify unknown protein interactors or interaction domains; to conjugate an enzyme or tag to an antibody or other purified protein; to immobilize antibodies or other proteins for assays or affinity-purification; and to attach peptides to larger “carrier” proteins to facilitate handling/storage. The present inventors have observed that crosslinking tends to further enhance the desirable properties of the Cry fusion protein crystals such as thermostability and tolerance to organic solvents. Thus, in some cases there is a preference to further crosslink a Cry fusion protein upon its recombinant production and purification. 
     Despite the complexity of protein structure, including composition with 20 different amino acids, only a small number of protein functional groups comprise selectable targets for practical crosslinking methods. In fact, just four protein chemical targets account for the vast majority of crosslinking and chemical modification techniques: (1) primary amines (—NH2): this group exists at the N-terminus of each polypeptide chain and in the side chain of lysine (Lys, K) residues; (2) carboxyls (—COOH): this group exists at the C-terminus of each polypeptide chain and in the side chains of aspartic acid (Asp, D) and glutamic acid (Glu, E); (3) sulfhydryls (—SH): this group exists in the side chain of cysteine (Cys, C). Often, as part of a protein&#39;s secondary or tertiary structure, cysteines are joined together between their side chains via disulfide bonds (—S—S—); and (4) carbonyls (—CHO): these aldehyde groups can be created by oxidizing carbohydrate groups in glycoproteins. For each of these protein functional-group targets, there exist one to several types of reactive groups that are capable of targeting them and have been used as the basis for synthesizing crosslinking and modification reagents. Crosslinkers are selected on the basis of their chemical reactivities (i.e., specificity for particular function groups) and other chemical properties that facilitate their use in different specific applications. 
     After a fusion protein of the present invention, e.g., a Cry3Aa-lipA fusion protein, is recombinantly produced in host cells (such as  Bacillus subtilis  cells or  Bacillus thuringiensis  cells) in a crystalline form and then properly purified, it can then be chemically crosslinked to further increase the level of enhancement in the protein&#39;s properties such as thermosstability and tolerance to organic solvents. Well-known chemical crosslinking reagents can be used for this purpose in accordance with the established procedures. Some examples of suitable crosslinking reagents include glutaraldehyde, bis(sulfosuccinimidyl)suberate (BS3), phenol-formaldehyde, Lys to lys cross-linking:DSG (disuccinimidyl glutarate), Lys to cys cross-linking: Sulfo-EMCS (N-ε-maleimidocaproyl-oxysulfosuccinimide ester), Cys to cys cross-linking, BMH (bismaleimidohexane). 
     IV. Applications of Cry Fusion Proteins 
     Another aspect of the present invention relates to the use of a Cry fusion protein described herein to perform reactions typically catalyzed by the enzyme present in the fusion protein, such as hydrolysis, esterification, ligation, proteolysis, and the like. As organic solvents are often able to facilitate such reactions and the fusion protein of this invention is highly tolerant to the presence of organic solvents, a reaction performed using the Cry fusion protein of this invention often not only a water-based solvent but also one or more organic solvents, e.g., ethanol, methanol, acetonitrile, and dimethylformamide. 
     As the inventors discovered that chemical crosslinking of the crystalline Cry fusion proteins leads the proteins to have a higher level of resistance to organic solvents and a higher level of thermostability, potentially can retain enzymatic activity for use in more cycles of reactions, in some cases it is preferable that crosslinked crystalline fusion proteins (as opposed to uncrosslinked fusion proteins) are used. Furthermore, the fusion proteins may be immobilized to a solid surface, especially a surface within a reaction chamber where the reaction is to take place, such as the surface of a removable inner structure of the reaction chamber, for ease of cleaning, recycling, and reuse of the fusion proteins. In some cases, this reaction process includes a cleaning step, performed after the completion of one round of the reaction and removal of the reaction product(s) as well as any remaining substrate, during which the fusion protein is rinsed or washed in preparation of being used again with fresh substrate in a subsequent round of reaction. 
     EXAMPLES 
     The following examples are provided by way of illustration only and not by way of limitation. Those of skill in the art will readily recognize a variety of non-critical parameters that could be changed or modified to yield essentially the same or similar results. 
     Example 1: Production and Activity of Cry3Aa-lipA 
     Introduction 
     Background of Research 
     In recent years there has been growing interest in green chemistry, the development of novel processes that reduce the production of hazardous chemicals and waste that are harmful to the environment. Given this impetus, one direction that many chemical companies are exploring is the increased use of enzymes for industrial syntheses given their high reactivities, excellent regio- and enantio-specificities, and low toxicity to natural ecosystems. Enzyme biocatalysts are known to catalyze a diverse set of reactions allowing for their use in the synthesis of a wide range of compounds ranging from enantiomerically pure pharmaceuticals (1) to alternative fuels such as biodiesel (2). 
     One limitation of enzymes as biocatalysts, however, is their potential instability. Enzymes in their native form can be rendered catalytically inactive by organic solvents and high temperatures, limiting their scope of application. With the advent of recombinant DNA technology, biomolecular engineering techniques such as site directed mutagenesis (3), directed evolution (4) and library generation by gene shuffling (5) have contributed to the development of enzymes stable to high temperature and/or organic solvents. Many classes of enzymes including lipases (6), esterases (4), and proteases (7) have been subjected to directed evolution with large success in stability enhancement compared to their wild-type counterparts. 
     Immobilization of Biocatalysts 
     A major hurdle to the practical application of enzymes as industrial catalysts is the cost of production and useable lifetime. While biomolecular engineering techniques can be used to improve enzyme stability, these methods do not necessarily facilitate rapid production and isolation, particularly when high purities are required. A cost-effective biocatalyst should be able to be recycled over many reaction cycles, with minimal loss of activity. One common approach to resolve these issues is enzyme immobilization. This method allows enzymes to be filtered and reused in subsequent reaction cycles, and prevents the enzyme from mixing with the desired product. Immobilization can also augment the thermostability, and in some cases organic solvent tolerance, by limiting an enzyme&#39;s conformational flexibility that would otherwise occur in solution (8). This rigidity also contributes to mechanical stability, a requirement for use in large scale reactors where these enzymes would be constantly agitated (9). 
     Traditional enzyme immobilization techniques involve the covalent attachment of the enzyme biocatalyst to a solid support. This results in 90-99% of the biocatalyst composite being inactive thus lowering the catalytic productivity per weight (10). Furthermore, covalent attachment adds an additional production step, which translates to additional costs and can lead to a reduction in catalytic activity. As such, more advanced approaches to enzyme immobilization are being explored and developed—particularly those that do not involve a separate solid carrier. 
     Crosslinked Proteins as Immobilized Biocatalysts 
     Given this interest, one strategy that has been explored involves engineering the enzyme itself to be the particulate, such as the crosslinked enzyme crystals (CLECs) (11), CLECs are produced by isolating the desired enzyme biocatalyst, crystallizing it by addition of a precipitating agent (e.g. high salt, PEG), and then crosslinking it with an appropriate reagent (e.g. glutaraldehyde) to produce a stable and active composite. CLECs have been shown to exhibit enhancement in enzyme thermostability, and organic solvent tolerance for catalysis, as well as improved mechanical stability, rigidity and resistance to proteolytic degradation (12, 13). The major drawback that has limited the broad application of CLECs in industrial syntheses has been the laborious crystallization step that requires very pure protein, and multiple rounds of optimization with no guarantee of being able to crystallize the desired protein in question. 
     An alternate approach developed by Sheldon and coworkers involves skipping the crystallization step, and preparing the immobilized biocatalyst by aggregating the enzyme using a precipitant followed by successive crosslinking soaked with glutaraldehyde (14). They found that these crosslinked enzyme aggregates or CLEAs were active and stable in organic solvents during the synthesis of ampicillin by penicllin G acylase (14). This novel immobilization strategy was patented and later commercialized by CLEA Technologies. Today, CLEAs have been applied to many different types of enzymes including amidases, proteases, lipases, esterases, oxidoreductases and nitrilases (15). In recent years, the use of CLEAs in industrial biocatalysis has received increased attention, but there remain specific concerns. First, many conditions must be optimized to produce an active CLEA, including precipitant, crosslinker, and particle size. This process can be laborious and can lead to an inactive product after a tremendous time investment. CLEA particles normally range from 5 μm-50 μm and their sizes are often heterogeneous (8). The larger particles are enzymatically less efficient due to substrate diffusion limitations, limiting their potential activity, while filtering a heterogeneous population remains a challenge. 
     While the development of other “carrier free” immobilization strategies remains enticing, to the best of our knowledge there has been no new report of such a method in recent years. In this study, the present inventors developed a novel strategy to overcome various problematic issues with the previously known methods with a focused application on immobilizing lipases for biodiesel production. 
     Cry Proteins for Enzyme Immobilization 
     Crystal proteins (Cry) such as Cry3Aa are proteins that are directly crystallized within the bacterium  Bacillus thuringiensis  ( Bt ) ( FIG. 1 ) (16-18). It was previously illustrated that production of the Cry3Aa fused to GFP or mCherry reporter proteins in  Bt  would yield fluorescent protein crystals indicating that the reporter proteins are folded and functional ( FIG. 2 ) (19). Electron microscopy ( FIG. 3 ) performed on native Cry3Aa crystals and Cry3Aa-GFP crystals showed them to be of identical size, demonstrating that the fusion partner does not disrupt the crystal packing. Unlike typical protein crystals, which can dissolve under changes of condition, the Cry3Aa fusion crystals are stable to a variety of conditions. Most importantly, they remain as crystals around neutral pH 7—the pH optimum for most enzymes and would only begin to solubilize in extremely basic conditions (pH&gt;10). This eliminates the crosslinking step that is required for most enzyme immobilization approaches since Cry3Aa fusion protein crystals remain immobilized under normal reaction conditions. 
     It has been further established that enzymes like luciferase could be fused to Cry3Aa, with no loss of activity. Since Cry3Aa-luciferase crystals were active, and given that Cry3Aa crystals are very stable, it has been hypothesized that Cry3Aa would serve as a promising platform for enzyme immobilization. The most attractive features of this immobilization approach are the consolidation of the production and immobilization of the target enzyme into a single step, and based on previous fusion protein crystals, can be applied to a wide variety of proteins. 
     This study seeks to investigate the feasibility of this approach for the production and immobilization of lipases, a class of hydrolase enzymes that in nature hydrolyze mono-, di- and triacylglycerols to glycerol and free fatty acids. Lipases are popular in biotechnology because they can catalyze the hydrolysis or synthesis of ester bonds with high reactivities, and substrate selectivities and enantiospecificities making them attractive catalysts for the synthesis of therapeutics, agrochemicals and cosmetics (20-22). In addition to exploring the feasibility of the production methodology, the impact of Cry crystal incorporation on thermostability and organic solvent tolerance is also studied. 
     Results and Discussion 
     Production and Activity of Cry3Aa-lipA 
     The initial studies have focused on a construct comprised of Cry3Aa fused to  Bacillus subtilis  lipase A (lipA). This enzyme made an attractive first target because not only had lipA been used as a biocatalyst for the production of enantiopure cyclohexane-trans-1,2-diols (23), the lipA-producing bacteria,  Bacillus subtilis  ( Bs ), is a close relative of  Bacillus thuringiensis  ( Bt ). Thus it was expected that the  Bs  lipA would fold and function properly in  Bt  without codon optimization. Additionally, while previous reports have observed that the formation of insoluble aggregates in model organisms like  E. coli  can lead to decreased yields (24), this would not be a concern for the Cry3Aa-lipA fusion protein since it should form a solid crystal in  Bt,  which is insoluble but well-ordered. It was therefore hypothesized that there should be minimal loss of active enzyme during production. 
     The lipA gene was fused to the C-terminus of Cry3Aa using traditional molecular biology techniques. A plasmid containing this construct was transformed into  Bt,  and the Cry3Aa-lipA crystals could be produced and isolated as described previously (19). Of note was the high yield of Cry3Aa-lipA crystals—on average 100 milligrams per litre which made the production of the fusion protein crystals extremely robust. The Cry3Aa-lipA crystals were shown to be active according to an assay based on the substrate p-nitrophenyl acetate (pNPA) (Sigma), which upon hydrolysis forms the yellow product p-nitrophenol (pNP) with an absorption peak at 405 nm ( FIG. 4 ). All absorbance measurements were performed in a 96 well plate on a Tecan Infinite M1000 Pro. 
     Thermostability of Cry3Aa-lipA 
     With the lipase activity of the Cry3Aa-lipA established, the impact of Cry3Aa-derived immobilization on lipA&#39;s thermostability was then determined. Cry3Aa-lipA crystals were produced in high yield (˜100 mg/L) using the  Bt  expression system. For comparison, the wild-type lipA enzyme (free lipA) was expressed utilizing an N-terminal histag, or using the pETSUMO system to produce untagged enzyme. Both forms of free lipA have similar activities and stabilities (data not shown). It is worth noting that the yields of lipA protein were relatively low (2-5 mg/L) due in part to the protein precipitation. These data highlight one potential advantage of the Cry3Aa fusion immobilization approach—biocatalyst yield. 
     The thermostabilities of the Cry3Aa-lipA and free lipA were determined by heating for 1 hours in a PCR block at different temperatures and then measuring the residual activity in triplicate, and normalizing each to their respective activities at 30° C. The results, shown in ( FIG. 5 ), indicate that the Cry3Aa-lipA crystals are more thermostable than the wild-type enzyme. The Cry3Aa-lipA crystal T m  (temperature of residual 50% activity) of 52° C. is 5° C. higher than the free enzyme. 
     Organic Solvent Tolerance of Cry3Aa-lipA 
     One commonly observed feature of immobilized enzymes is their increased tolerance to organic solvents. To assess the robustness of the Cry3Aa-lipA crystals, its activity was tested and compared to that of the purified lipA protein under two scenarios: 1) at increasing concentrations of two common organic solvents, and 2) over a long incubation time in various 50:50 aqueous organic solvent mixtures. Under the former scenario, the lipase activity with pNPA was monitored in increasing concentrations of acetonitrile (ACN) and ethanol (EtOH) in triplicate and normalized to their activity at 0% solvent. The data confirm that Cry3Aa-lipA crystals exhibit higher-level organic solvent tolerance as a function of concentration than the free lipA enzyme for both organic solvents tested ( FIG. 6 ). Significant differences were observed under 30% solvent, where the Cry3aA-lipA crystals were 4.7-fold and 2.5-fold more active than free lipA in ACN and EtOH respectively. 
     The data in  FIG. 6  provide insight into the lipase activity as function of concentration after a fixed time, but does not describe the stability of the lipase in aqueous organic solvents over time. Since long-term stability of the biocatalyst is a key consideration in reaction cycles which take some time to reach completion, the long-term stability of lipA was studied in aqueous organic solvents over time by incubating Cry3Aa-lipA crystals and lipA enzyme in 50% various organic solvents and measuring the residual activity after 24 hours. The data provided in  FIG. 7  show that Cry3Aa-lipA crystals are much more stable than free lipA enzyme measured over a 24 h period for nearly all solvents tested. Based on these data, it is concluded that the Cry3Aa framework is well suited for stabilizing lipA for long-term stability in organic solvents. 
     Methods and Further Studies 
     Cry3Aa for Facile Immobilization of Biodiesel Lipases 
     Given the promising results obtained for Cry3Aa-lipA, further studies are to be conducted to determine whether this methodology would be suitable for industrial relevant lipases, such as those used for biodiesel production. Biodiesel is an alternative fuel that can be produced from the transesterification of common vegetable oils with methanol (2, 25). It is relevant to geographic areas where soybean, canola and related vegetable oils are common waste byproducts produced by the many restaurants and food factories. The recycling of these cooking oils to fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) would be beneficial as the resulting FAME biodiesel could be used to power medium- to heavy-sized vehicles and vessels in the commercial sector, while its recycling could help to reduce the disposal of waste oils in landfills. 
     Currently, the industrial recycling of vegetable oil to biodiesel is dominated by chemically mediated acid or base catalyzed reactions, but recently the use of lipase biocatalysts has gained increasing interest. Lipases from  Candida antarctica  ( Ca ) and  Proteus mirabilis  ( Pm ) have been demonstrated to produce FAMEs (26, 27). Thus it will be explored whether this Cry3Aa technology can produce the immobilized forms of these lipases that are active. The first step will be to fuse the  Ca  or  Pm  lipase genes to cry3Aa and express the resultant gene fusions in  Bt  for crystal production. The activity of each Cry3Aa-lipase fusion will be tested against the lipase substrate p-nitrophenyl palmitate (pNPP), which works similarly to pNPA ( FIG. 4 ) but has a longer fatty acid chain that better mimics the fatty acids found in biodiesel. 
     some preliminary experiments have been performed to confirm the general feasibility of this approach. The  Pm  lipase gene was successfully fused to Cry3Aa, and the resulting fusion construct Cry3Aa-PMlip was produced. Importantly, Cry3Aa-PMlip crystals were confirmed to exhibit activity against pNPP ( FIG. 8 ), while the incubation of canola oil with Cry3Aa-PMlip yielded a similar profile to that for the commercially available  Burkholderia cepacia  lipase (Sigma), a known biodiesel lipase ( FIG. 9 ). 
     Exploring the Impact of Cry3Aa Crystal Immobilization on the Thermostability of Biodiesel Lipases 
     As mentioned above, it has already been demonstrated that  Pm  lipase (PMlip) immobilization as a Cry3Aa fusion protein crystal results in an active catalyst. These experiments will be repeated for the  Candida antarctica  lipase (CAlip). The next step will be to examine their thermostabilities relative to the wild-type enzymes. The lipases from  Candida antarctica  ( Ca ) and  Proteus mirabilis  ( Pm ) will be expressed and purified as described in (24, 27), respectively. Cry3Aa fused  Ca  lipase (Cry3Aa-CAlip), free  Ca  lipase (CAlip), Cry3Aa fused  Pm  lipase (Cry3Aa-PMlip) and free  Pm  lipase (PMlip) with equivalent reaction rates will be heated in a PCR block at various temperatures (25° C.-90° C.) for 30 minutes and then assayed for their residual activity against pNPP. The experiment will be performed in triplicate in a 96-well plate and the activity will be monitored using a Tecan infinite M1000 Pro. It is expected that the Cry3Aa fused lipases will increase the T m  values relative to the free lipases. 
     Exploring the Ability of Cry3Aa Crystal Immobilization on the Ability of Biodiesel Lipases to Tolerate Organic Solvents 
     Lipases used in biodiesel production must be resistant to MeOH or EtOH, since they are the likely substrates in the transesterification reaction converting oil to FAME. Therefore, enhancing the MeOH or EtOH tolerance of biodiesel enzymes is advantageous as it can lead to decreased reaction times and increased recyclability. In this regard, the activity of Cry3Aa fused biodiesel lipases will be examined in increasing organic solvent concentrations (ACN, EtOH, MeOH) to ascertain how well these enzymes behave in a given organic solvent. Their activities in high concentrations of the aforementioned organic solvents will also be investigated as a function of time to gain insight into their stability over time. 
     The experimental design will be similar to the previous organic solvent tolerance studies with Cry3Aa-lipA except that the substrate used will be pNPP. To test activity, concentrations of Cry3Aa-CAlip and free CAlip as well as Cry3Aa-PMlip and free PMlip with equivalent rates of hydrolysis will be subjected to 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70% and 80% of either ACN, EtOH or MeOH. and analyzed for their ability to hydrolyze pNPP. Each experiment will be performed separately in triplicates and the free lipases will be compared to the Cry3Aa immobilized forms. The activities will be monitored in a 96-well plate on a Tecan infinite M1000 Pro. It is expected that the Cry3Aa fusion lipases will retain higher activity in higher concentrations of organic solvent than the free lipases. 
     To establish organic solvent stability over time, the Cry3Aa-CAlip, Cry3Aa-PMlip and free lipases will be incubated respectively in 0%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% and 100% of either ACN, EtOH or MeOH for up to 48 h. At specific time points aliquots will be taken, diluted to 5-10% given solvent, and analyzed for residual activity against the pNPP substrate. This experiment will be done in triplicates and the results averaged. The activity at each time point will be divided by the maximum activity at t0 (usually with 0% solvent but not always) to give a percentage of activity remaining. It is expected that the data will show the Cry3Aa-lipase fusion crystals retain higher activity than the free lipase enzyme in all organic solvents over time. 
     Once it is established that the Cry3Aa-mediated immobilization can enhance the organic solvent activity and stability of both biodiesel enzymes, the next step is to evaluate the ability of the Cry3Aa fusion lipases to produce biodiesel, and to maintain stability over multiple reaction cycles against that of the lipases immobilized by traditional techniques. To this end, free PMlip and free CAlip will be covalently immobilized onto hydrophobic oxirane beads as described previously (27). To produce biodiesel, Cry3Aa lipase fusions and oxirane bead immobilized lipases will be incubated with 1.5 ml canola oil and 0.625 ml of a 1:1 ratio of MeOH/EtOH: 0.1M NaH 2 PO 4  pH 7.0 buffer. The amount of each lipase added will be tailored such that less than 40% conversion occurs over 6 hours. This way the differences in conversion rates for each enzyme will be due to the exposure time to MeOH or EtOH, which is our intention for this aim. After 20 h, the reaction of all immobilized lipases will be washed with hexanes to remove residual fatty acids, followed by water to remove residual glycerol and MeOH/EtOH. The reaction will then be repeated up to 8 cycles. Gas chromatography (GC) will be used for biodiesel analysis. Aliquots of each reaction will be diluted in hexane containing 0.5 mg/ml heptadecanoate (internal standard) and analyzed by the GC HP 6890 series (Agilent, School of Life Sciences) with a flame ionized detector (FID) equipped with a Select Biodiesel column (30 m×0.32 mm, 0.25 μm, Agilent). The percent conversion will be determined by comparison to a biodiesel sample prepared from canola oil using an excess of  Burkholderia cepacia  lipase (Sigma) (2). It is expected that the Cry3Aa fusion lipases will behave as well as or better than the covalently-modified lipases in terms of maintaining high fatty acid conversion rates over long periods of incubation in MeOH. 
     Exploring the Ability of Cry3Aa Crystal Immobilization to Enhance the Organic Solvent Stability of Pre-Evolved Biodiesel Lipases 
     Directed evolution can produce very stable enzymes, and in combination with immobilization, can produce a biocatalyst with optimum industrial properties. In this last aim, it will be determined whether Cry3Aa-mediated immobilization of a pre-evolved enzyme can improve its stabilize and recyclability even further. Recently, PMlip has been evolved to be MeOH tolerant specifically for biodiesel production purposes (27). The evolved enzyme called Dieselzyme 4 (DLZM4) contains 13 mutations ( FIG. 10 ) and outperforms the wild-type PMlip (WT) and the methanol tolerant  Burkolderia cepacia  lipase (BClip) ( FIG. 11 ). It is expected that Cry3Aa-mediated immobilization of DLZM4 can further enhance its MeOH/EtOH tolerance and recyclability. To test this, the codon optimized PMlip gene will first be synthesized with the 13 mutations ( FIG. 10 ) previously reported (27). After cloning this gene into a  E.coli  expression vector for free lipase and the Cry3Aa fusion expression vector the inventors have developed for the Cry3Aa-lipase fusion crystal, the free DLZM4 enzyme and Cry3Aa-DLZM4 crystals will be produced and purified. Immobilization of the free DLZM4 will be performed as described in the last section. Cry3Aa-DLZM4 and the oxirane-immobilized DLZM4 will then be incubated with canola oil and MeOH/EtOH, and the percent conversion over eight 20-h reaction cycles will be evaluated by GC. It is expected that the Cry3Aa immobilized DLZM4 will be further enhanced in its ability to convert canola oil to FAME over the 8 reaction cycles when compared to oxirane immobilized DLZM4. Previous studies havw shown that oxirane immobilized DLZM4 conversion drops below 80% after the second cycle ( FIG. 11 ), it is expected that Cry3Aa-DLZM4 fusion crystals can maintain their 90-100% conversion rates into the third and fourth cycles. 
     Example 2: Esterase and Lipase Fusion Proteins 
     In this study, the present inventors successfully produced pnbA esterase crystals and lipA lipase crystals and demonstrated that both are more stable than the wild-type counterparts in organic solvents. Particularly, lipA lipase crystals are also more stable against thermal denaturation than the wild-type lipase. 
     Cry3A-pnbA Fusion Crystals 
     The first enzyme examined was p-nitrobenzyl esterase (pnbA) from  Bacillus subtilis  168. This enzyme was chosen because the reaction is easy to monitor, its production in Bt is straightforward since it is a native  Bacillus  enzyme, and it has been widely used as a biocatalyst for antibiotic production. The enzyme crystals could be easily expressed in Bt and purified via density gradient separation and washing. The crystals were solubilized at pH 11.0 and analyzed on an SDS-PAGE gel to check for purity and size comparison ( FIG. 12 ). In order to compare the stabilities of the crystal and soluble forms, the wild-type pnbA esterase was purified from  E. coli  using the pET-SUMO fusion system, generating native pnbA ( FIG. 13 ). 
     Organic solvents can increase reaction rates by increasing substrate solubility, can enhance substrate specificity and promote production of various products. However, enzymes are unstable in many organic solvents, especially water miscible solvents, and therefore are inactive. Thus the inventors first sought out to reconcile whether Cry3A-pnbA crystals had higher reaction rates in water miscible organic solvents. Some of the most widely used water miscible organic solvents in organic reactions are acetonitrile (ACN) and ethanol (EtOH) thus the stabilities of both crystalline and soluble pnbA esterase in these two solvents were tested. 
     The substrate used for this reaction was 4-nitrophenol acetate. Upon hydrolysis this substrate forms the product 4-nitrophenol which absorbs light at 405 nm ( FIG. 4 ). 
     Equivalent amounts of soluble and crystalline pnbA were subjected to increasing concentrations of organic solvent and the activities were monitored over a period of 10 minutes. In all organic solvents tested, the pnbA crystals have higher activity than the wild-type pnbA protein ( FIG. 14 ). The largest difference in activity was in 20% ACN where the pnbA crystals retain 56% activity and the wild-type only retains 19% activity ( FIG. 14 a   ). As such, the enzyme kinetics at this particular concentration of ACN was determined. Equivalent amounts of enzymes were subjected to increasing concentrations of 4-nitrophenol acetate in 20% ACN. The kcat/Km for the crystalline pnbA is about 2.3 fold higher than the soluble enzyme, further demonstrating the higher catalytic efficiency of enzyme crystals in organic solvents over the soluble form ( FIG. 15 ). 
     Cry3A-lipA Fusion Crystals Recyclability 
     An efficient biocatalyst should be able to be recycled and reused in subsequent reaction cycles while maintaining structural integrity and minimizing activity loss. To this end, the recyclability with the Cry3A crystals fused to the lipase A and pnbA enzymes was tested. It has been shown that lipA retains a relatively high reaction rate over 4 cycles ( FIG. 16 ). However, Cry3A-pnbA activity is lost drastically over the 4 reaction cycles. 
     One likely possibility for the reduction of activity after multiple reaction cycles could be due solubilization of the crystals during the reaction and wash steps. Normally, Cry3A solubilizes at alkaline pH (10-11), but it has been found that some Cry3A-pnbA solubilizes at neutral pH. To reduce the solubilization and thus increase the recyclability, lipA crystals were crosslinked with 1% glutaraldehyde, which should hold the Cry monomers together. It was shown that, after crosslinking the lipA crystals, solubilization of the crystals at pH 11 was almost completely abolished ( FIG. 17 ). For Cry3A-pnbA crystals bis(sulfosuccinimidyl)suberate (BS3) was used as the cross-linker, which prevented solubilization of Cry3A-pnbA crystals ( FIG. 18 ). In both cases nearly 100% of the enzymes activity was retained (data not shown). 
     Next, it was evaluated whether crosslinking could improve recyclability. As expected, crosslinking was shown to improve the recyclability of both enzymes, especially the more fragile Cry3A-pnbA enzyme ( FIG. 19 ). 
     Organic Solvent Tolerance of Crosslinked Crystals 
     Since the recyclability of both enzyme crystals was improved after cross-linking, it was then investigated whether the solvent stability of the cross-linked crystals was affected. The free enzyme and cross-linked Cry3A-enzymes were incubated with increasing amounts of ACN or EtOH. In both cases, cross-linked Cry3A-pnbA crystals ( FIG. 20 ) and cross-linked Cry3A-lipA crystals ( FIG. 21 ) were much more active in ACN or EtOH than the free enzymes respectively. These data demonstrate that cross-linking does not affect organic solvent stability, and in fact, may strengthen the tolerance. 
     Other Hydrolytic Enzymes 
     Another hydrolytic enzyme was fused to Cry3A to determine if this technology could be expanded to more than simples esterases. Peptide deformylase (PDF) is an enzyme that cleaves off the formyl group from the N terminal methionine, and can be used as a deprotection agent in peptide synthesis. The PDF from  Borrelia burgdorferi  was chosen for this study because it adopts Zn 2+ as the catalytic metal as opposed to the more easily oxidized Fe 2+ employed by many other PDFs (28). As illustrated in ( FIG. 22 ), Cry3A-PDF is more active in both ACN and EtOH than free PDF, supporting that the Cry3A framework can extend organic solvent tolerance to other enzymes. 
     Truncation of Cry3A 
     The inventors investigated the extent of truncation of Cry3Aa in the Cry3Aa fusion, which would still yield active and stable crystals. Cry3Aa is 644 amino acids long and contains 3 separately folded domains. They have previously demonstrated that domain I of Cry3A, the N-terminal 290 amino acids, while fused to GFP formed green fluorescent crystals. In this study, the lipA gene was fused to domain I of Cry3Aa (Cry3Aa (1-290)-lipA) and expressed in  Bt  and then the crystals were purified. The crystals were solubilized at pH 11.0 and ran on an SDS-PAGE gel to show the intact fusion at the correct size ( FIG. 23 ). These crystals were more active in terms of Units/mg than the full length Cry3Aa-lipA fusion crystals, and were similarly stable. Like Cry3Aa-lipA, Cry3Aa (1-290)-lipA activity in ACN and EtOH was much higher than free lipA ( FIG. 24 ), and Cry3Aa (1-290)-lipA was much more stable in ACN than free lipA over the long incubation period ( FIG. 25 ). Furthermore, Cry3Aa (1-290)-lipA was also more thermostable than free lipA ( FIG. 26 ). These data clearly illustrate that full length Cry3Aa is not necessary to successfully immobilize and stabilize the enzyme fusion, at least in the case of lipA protein. Since domain I of Cry3Aa fused to lipA yielded stable and active crystals, it was hypothesized that lipA fusion to other domains of Cry3A may give similar results. Therefore, several Cry3A truncation-lipA fusion constructs were made outlined in ( FIG. 27 ). Scanning electron microscopy revealed that all constructs form uniform crystals of similar size ( FIG. 28 ). All constructs were active against the substrate 4npA, and in terms of units/mg Cry3A (495-644)-lipA had the highest activity ( FIG. 29 ). To determine if these truncated Cry3A-lipA fusions retained their stability the thermal stability of each was measured. Except for Cry3A(1-301)-lipA-Cry3A(495-644), all constructs were more stable than free lipA with T m  values 5-8° C. higher than free lipA ( FIG. 30 ). 
     Further Characterization of Cry3A(1-626)-lipA 
     In terms of moles lipA, Cry(1-626)-lipA was among the most active truncated fusion constructs, the inventors thus set out to further characterize the organic solvent tolerance of this species. Cry(1-626)-lipA was much more active in ACN and EtOH than free lipA ( FIG. 31 ) as well as exhibited enhanced long-term stability in various organic solvents ( FIG. 32 ). Intriguingly, Cry3A(1-626)-lipA was more thermal stable than his-lipA aggregates supporting the notion that a well ordered packing is required to promote stability ( FIG. 33 ). However, when Cry3A(1-626)-lipA was solubilized at pH 11 and subsequently used in the thermal stability experiments all stability was lost ( FIG. 34 ), highlighting the fact that it is the crystalline nature of Cry3A(1-626)-lipA that promotes stability. 
     Cry3Aa(1-626)-lipA Synthesis of Biodiesel 
     Lipases are popular enzymes used to make biodiesel. In order to compete with chemical catalysis good recyclability of immobilized lipases is key. We tested the recyclability of Cry3Aa(1-626)-lipA in the synthesis of biodiesel from coconut oil and methanol over 5 reaction cycles. We tested two different enzyme loadings: 1.0% catalyst and 2.5% catalyst w/w of oil. The former is the minimum amount need to reach 100% and the latter is an amount more consistent with current % catalyst in the literature. Each cycle reaction contains 3:1 methanol:coconut oil, 30% water, and done at 2,000 rpm, 30° C. for 48 hours. The samples were subjected to gas chromatography (GC) and the % conversion was calculated by comparing to a 48 hour BCL reaction set as 100%. As displayed in ( FIG. 35 ), Cry3Aa(1-626)-lipA retains over 70% conversion and 94% conversion after 5 cycles for 1.0% and 2.5% w/w catalyst respectively. 
     Another Enzyme for the Production of Biodiesel 
     One potential application of using the Cry3A fusion crystals of this invention is the production of alternative fuels such as biodiesel. An enzyme was recently evolved for this purpose, termed Dieselzyme 4 (DLZM4). The inventors fused this enzyme to a truncated form of Cry3A(1-626) (Cry3A(1-626)-DLZM4) and evaluated its organic solvent stability compared to the free enzyme. This truncated form of Cry3A was used because it has been found to give a 4-fold higher activity compared to the full length Cry3A-DLZM4 ( FIG. 36 ). A flexible linker was included and the C terminal 18 residues of Cry3A was deleted to improve the flexibility of DLZM4 inside the crystal, which resulted in higher activity. 
     The long-term organic solvent stability was evaluated in the solvents methanol (MeOH) and ethanol (EtOH), which can both be used as substrates for biodiesel production. As shown in ( FIGS. 37-40 ), Cry3A(1-626)-DLZM4 is more stable in both solvents up to 5 days. 
     In addition, it was found that the Cry3A(1-626)-DLZM4 crystals were more resistant to heat while incubated in 50% MeOH ( FIG. 41 ). Future studies will examine the long-term thermal stability of the Cry3A(1-626)-DLZM4 fusion crystals as well as its recyclability when used for producing biodiesel from canola oil and MeoH/EtOH. 
     Cry3A(1-626)-DLZM4 Synthesis of Biodiesel 
     The inventors next sought to determine whether Cry3A(1-626)-DLZM4 crystals could produce biodiesel. The use of Dieselzyme 4 (DLZM) is described in, e.g., international patent application number PCT/US2013/067348, published as WO2014/074352. For the synthesis reaction 0.282 ml of canola oil was mixed with 0.118 ml of a 1:1 MeOH: 0.1M sodium phosphate solution and 1.8 mg of Cry3A*-DLZM. This corresponds to a 5:1 MeOH:oil w/w ratio in 25% water. As a positive control, a large excess of free  Burkholderia cepacia  lipase (BCL) was used in the same conditions (9). At 0, 2, 4, 8, 24 hours 10 μl of the oil layer was extracted and mixed with 0.3 ml of n-hexane spiked with methyl-heptadecanoate as the internal standard. The samples were subjected to gas chromatography (GC) and the % conversion was calculated by comparing to a 48 hour BCL reaction set as 100%. After 24 hours using 1.8 mg Cry3A(1-626)-DLZM4 the yield reached 80% biodiesel ( FIG. 42 ). Cry3A(1-626)-DLZM4 continued to produce biodiesel to at least 50% yield over five 24 hour reaction cycles ( FIG. 43 ). 
     All patents, patent applications, and other publications, including GenBank Accession Numbers, cited in this application are incorporated by reference in the entirety for all purposes. 
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