Patent Publication Number: US-10766927-B2

Title: Peptides that stimulate subcutaneous adipogenesis

Description:
REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Serial Nos. 61/778,084, filed on Mar. 12, 2013, and 61/729,626, filed on Nov. 25, 2012. The entire contents of the above applications are hereby incorporated by reference. 
    
    
     STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT 
     This invention was made with government support under Agreement No. LB09005060 and Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention generally relates to peptides for stimulating subcutaneous adipogenesis. The invention also relates to pharmaceutical and cosmetic compositions containing such peptides, and to various methods of using such peptides and compositions to reduce scarring, improve the appearance of skin, improve tissue volume, smooth skin, recruit stem cells to formation of subcutaneous fat, reconstruct tissue, and reduce heel pain. 
     BACKGROUND 
     RHAMM is an hyaluronan (HA)-binding protein that is either poorly expressed or not expressed in most normal adult tissues but is highly expressed in aggressive human tumors (Adamia et al. (2005)  Curr. Drug Targets Cardiovasc. Haematol. Disord.,  5: 3-14; Tammi et al. (2002)  J. Biol. Chem.  277: 4581-4584; Toole (2004)  Nat. Rev. Cancer,  4: 528-539). RHAMM (gene name HMMR) is the Receptor for Hyaluronic Acid Mediated Motility, also known as CD168. RHAMM is a non-integral cell surface protein (CD168) and an intracellular hyaluronan binding protein. Analyses of animal models suggest roles for RHAMM in tumorigenesis and in other disease processes such as arthritis, consistent with its well-documented in vitro functions in cell migration and proliferation and apoptosis (Turley et al. (2002)  J. Biol. Chem.,  277: 4589-4592). Although cell migration and proliferation and apoptosis are essential functions for morphogenesis and tissue homeostasis, genetic deletion of RHAMM does not appear to affect embryogenesis or adult homeostasis (Tolg et al. (2003)  Oncogene  22: 6873-6882). To date, a primary physiological function for RHAMM has remained elusive. 
     RHAMM was originally isolated from subconfluent migrating fibroblasts in vitro (Turley (1982)  Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.  108: 1016-1024) and subsequently cloned from mesenchymal cells (see, e.g., Hardwick et al. (1992) J. Cell Biol., 117: 1343-1350). Since antibodies prepared against a shed form of RHAMM blocked HA-stimulated-fibroblast motility, RHAMM was originally described as a cell surface protein that can transduce motogenic signaling pathways in culture (Turley et al. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277: 4589-4592). However, HA-bound RHAMM was later detected in intracellular compartments such as the actin and microtubule cytoskeletons, nucleus and cytoplasm (Adamia et al. (2005)  Curr. Drug Targets Cardiovasc. Haematol. Disord.,  5: 3-14). More recently, RHAMM has been shown to decorate centrosomes and mitotic spindles. RHAMM appears to be required for mitotic spindle formation in culture and acts on the BRCA1/BARD1 pathway to regulate mitotic spindle integrity (Joukov et al. (2006)  Cancer Cell,  127: 539-52). Collectively, these results suggest that RHAMM may have both extracellular and intracellular functions, (Nickel (2005)  Traffic  6: 607-614; Samuel et al. (1993)  J. Cell Biol.,  123: 749-758; Zhang et al. (1998)  J. Biol. Chem.,  273: 11342-11348) thus resembling a group of proteins including epimorphin/syntaxin-2, and autocrine motility factor/phosphoglucose isomerase that are also found at the cell surface where they transmit signals across the cell membrane even though, like RHAMM, they lack both Golgi-ER export peptides and membrane spanning sequences (Nickel (2005)  Traffic  6: 607-614). 
     Although the intracellular versus extracellular functions of RHAMM have not yet been clearly dissected, accumulating data suggest that both forms may contribute to mesenchymal phenotypes, at least during disease. For example, RHAMM expression in culture is increased in transformed fibroblasts by fibrogenic cytokines such as TGF-β (Samuel et al. (1993)  J. Cell Biol.,  123: 749-758). Cell surface RHAMM is required for activation through fibrogenic cytokines such as PDGF (Zhang et al. (1998)  J. Biol. Chem.,  273: 11342-11348). It has also been demonstrated that RHAMM expression is high in clinically aggressive mesenchymal tumors (fibromatoses or desmoid tumors) (see, e.g., Tolg et al. (2003)  Oncogene  22: 6873-6882). In a mouse model susceptible to desmoid and upper intestinal tract tumors, genetic deletion of RHAMM strongly reduces desmoid initiation and invasion but not upper intestinal tract tumors. Fibroproliferative processes such as aggressive fibromatosis resemble proliferative/migratory stages of wound healing (Cheon et al. (2002)  Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,  99: 6973-6978). Furthermore, the expression of RHAMM is modulated during wounding (Lovvorn et al. (1998)  J. Pediatr. Surg.,  33: 1062-1069; discussion 1069-1070). 
     It has been found that factors that regulate fibroblast function play dual roles in wound repair and tumorigenesis (Bissell (2001)  Exp. Mol. Med.,  33: 179-190; Park et al. (2000)  Mol. Med. Today,  6: 324-329) and mesenchymal stem cell trafficking/differentiation into wound sites has become a topic of study (see, e.g., Fu et al. (2006)  Wound Repair Regen.,  14: 325-35; Mansilla et al. (2006)  Transplant Proc.  38: 967-969; Shumakov (2003)  Bull. Exp. Biol. Med.,  136: 192-195). Mesenchymal stem cells and resident fibroblasts in wounds have immune-modulatory functions that affect the timing and extent of fibrosis during wound repair (Domaszewska and Oszewski (2006)  Ann. Transplnt.  11: 45-52). 
     Genetic loss of RHAMM or blocking RHAMM function using peptides mimicking its hyaluronan binding sequence or antibodies to this sequence have been shown to promote subcutaneous adipogenesis. One such peptide (STMMSRSHKTRSHHV (SEQ ID NO: 1), P-1 peptide, also referred to herein as peptide P15-1) isolated from a random phage library has been shown to bind to hyaluronan, is adipogenic and resembles the hyaluronan binding region of RHAMM, a mesenchymal factor involved in wound repair. Another peptide, peptide B (KLKDENSQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 2)), which contains several key residues required for an interaction of RHAMM with HA, is strongly adipogenic. It was reported in PCT Publication No. WO 2008/140586 that RHAMM displays an effect in modulation of adipose tissue development. In particular, histology analysis of tissue sections through unwounded skin of RHAMM −/− mice showed that the subcutaneous layer of fat was two to three times thicker than in wild-type littermate skin and fibroblasts grown from RHAMM −/− wounds incorporated high levels of fat droplets and reduced smooth muscle actin. Furthermore, RHAMM −/− dermal fibroblasts converted to adipocytes when grown in adipogenic medium. In contrast fibroblasts grown from litter matched wild-type wounds did not exhibit fat droplets, and expressed abundant smooth muscle actin. RHAMM-rescued dermal fibroblasts do not undergo adipogenic conversion when grown in adipogenic medium. Conversely, image analysis of RHAMM −/− mice showed that they have significantly less visceral fat and a lower bone density than wild-type litter mates. These data were said to indicate that RHAMM has a differential effect on visceral vs. subcutaneous adipogenesis. 
     It is also believed that RHAMM is selective in its regulation of subcutaneous vs. visceral fat, and that this regulation is associated with effects on bone marrow stem cells since bone density provides a measure of stem cell activity. This indicates that RHAMM affects subcutaneous fat deposition through its ability to regulate mesenchymal stem cell differentiation, a conclusion substantiated by the effect of RHAMM loss on another mesenchymal stem cell type, myofibroblasts. Furthermore, hyaluronan/RHAMM interactions play a role in this effect on mesenchymal differentiation since HA binding peptides also promote adipogenesis. In addition to these in vivo effects, RHAMM −/− dermal fibroblasts spontaneously develop into adipocytes when cultures become crowded while wild type dermal fibroblasts do not. 
     SUMMARY 
     An aspect of the present invention is directed to a peptide for stimulating subcutaneous adipogenesis, wherein the peptide has a length of 6 to 14 amino acids and comprises a motif having the sequence: X 1 -X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5 -X 6  wherein at least one of X 1  and X 6  is a positively charged amino acid; the other of X 1  and X 6  is a positively charged amino acid, leucine (L), or alanine (A); X 2  is serine (S), glutamine (Q), alanine (A), glutamate (E), asparagine (N), proline (P), cysteine (C), lysine (K), aspartate (D), tryptophan (W), methionine (M), or threonine (T); X 3  is a negatively charged amino acid, alanine (A), glutamine (Q), serine (S), lysine (K), asparagine (N), or threonine (T); X 4  is isoleucine (I), valine (V), leucine (L), asparagine (N), alanine (A), serine (S), proline (P), threonine (T), or glutamine (Q); and X 5  is serine (S), aspartate (D), threonine (T), leucine (L), alanine (A), phenylalanine (F), glutamate (E), asparagine (N), glycine (G), arginine (R), glutamine (Q), histidine (H), or isoleucine (I); provided that X 2  and X 5  are not both glutamine (Q) and provided that when X 1  is arginine (R), X 3  is not lysine (K). Preferably, the peptide is KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3), KQEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 4), KQEVDK (SEQ ID NO: 5), KQENTK (SEQ ID NO: 6), KSEVLK (SEQ ID NO: 7), KQDVSK (SEQ ID NO: 8), KQELDR (SEQ ID NO: 9), LEEIFK (SEQ ID NO: 10), LSELEK (SEQ ID NO: 11), KSEISK (SEQ ID NO: 12), KNEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 13), KSEVTK (SEQ ID NO: 14), KSEVNK (SEQ ID NO: 15), KSDVSK (SEQ ID NO: 16), KSQVSK (SEQ ID NO: 17), KPEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 18), KSEVGK (SEQ ID NO: 19), KSDSSK (SEQ ID NO: 20), KSSPSK (SEQ ID NO: 21), KSEASK (SEQ ID NO: 22), KSELRK (SEQ ID NO:23), KCEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 24), KSKPSK (SEQ ID NO: 25), KKEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 26), KEEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 27), KSETSK (SEQ ID NO: 28), KSNVSK (SEQ ID NO: 29), KDEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 30), KSEVEK (SEQ ID NO: 31), KSAVSK (SEQ ID NO: 32), KWEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 33), KMEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 34), KSEVQK (SEQ ID NO: 35), KSEVHK (SEQ ID NO: 36), KSSVSK (SEQ ID NO: 37), ASEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 38), KAEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 39), KSEVAK (SEQ ID NO: 40), KSEVSA (SEQ ID NO: 41), LKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 42), QLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 43), SQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 44), NSQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 45), ENSQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 46), DENSQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 47), KDENSQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 48), or LKDENSQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 49). 
     Another aspect of the invention is directed to a peptide for stimulating subcutaneous adipogenesis, wherein the peptide has a length of 5 to 14 amino acids and comprises a motif having the sequence: X 1 -X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5 -X 6  wherein at least one of X 1  and X 6  is a positively charged amino acid; the other of X 1  and X 6  is a positively charged amino acid, leucine (L) or a conservative substitution therefor, alanine (A) or a conservative substitution therefor, or absent; and X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5  is an amino acid sequence having at least 50% sequence identity with the amino acid sequence SEVS (SEQ ID NO: 50) and having a length of 4 to 8 amino acids. 
     Yet another aspect of the invention is directed to a peptide for stimulating subcutaneous adipogenesis, wherein the peptide has a length of 6 to 13 amino acids and comprises a motif having the sequence: X 1 —X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5 -X 6  wherein X 1  is serine (S) or a conservative substitution therefor; X 2  is a hydrophobic amino acid; X 3  is any amino acid; X 4  is a hydrophobic amino acid; X 5  is serine (S), arginine (R), or a conservative substitution therefor; and X 6  is a charged amino acid; provided that X 1 , X 2  and X 4  are not all glycine (G) and provided that X 1  is not glutamine (Q). 
     Preferably, the peptide is STMMSR (SEQ ID NO: 51), SIMMSR (SEQ ID NO: 52), STLMSR (SEQ ID NO: 53), STVMSR (SEQ ID NO: 54), STGLSR (SEQ ID NO: 55), STTMSR (SEQ ID NO: 56), STRMSR (SEQ ID NO: 57), STLMRR (SEQ ID NO: 58), STPVSR (SEQ ID NO: 59), STMMSRS (SEQ ID NO: 60), STMMSRSH (SEQ ID NO: 61), STMMSRSHK (SEQ ID NO: 62), STMMSRSHKT (SEQ ID NO: 63), STMMSRSHKTR (SEQ ID NO: 64), STMMSRSHKTRS (SEQ ID NO: 65), or STMMSRSHKTRSH (SEQ ID NO: 66). 
     Another aspect of the present invention is directed to a peptide for stimulating subcutaneous adipogenesis, wherein the peptide has a length of 6 to 13 amino acids and comprises a motif having the sequence: X 1 -X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5 -X 6 -X 5 -X 6  wherein X 1  is serine (S) or a conservative substitution therefor; X 6  is a charged amino acid; and X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5  is an amino acid sequence having at least 50% sequence identity with the amino acid sequence TMMS (SEQ ID NO: 67) and having a length of 2 to 8 amino acids. 
     A further aspect of the invention is directed to a pharmaceutical or cosmetic composition comprising any one or more of the above peptides and a pharmaceutically or cosmetically acceptable carrier. 
     Yet another aspect of the invention is directed to a method of reducing scarring comprising administering any one or more of the above peptides or the composition to a subject in an amount sufficient to reduce the area of scarring or improve the appearance of a scarred area. 
     An aspect of the invention is directed to a method of improving the appearance of skin comprising administering any one or more of the above peptides or the composition to a subject in an amount sufficient to improve the appearance of skin in an area of a subject. 
     Another aspect of the invention is directed to a method of improving tissue volume in an area of a subject, said method comprising administering any one or more of the above peptides or the composition to the subject in an amount sufficient to increase the tissue volume in the area. 
     Yet another aspect of the invention is directed to a method of smoothing skin in an area of a subject comprising administering any one or more of the above peptides or the composition to the subject in an amount sufficient to smooth skin in the area. 
     A further aspect of the invention is directed to a method of recruiting stem cells to formation of subcutaneous fat in a subject, the method comprising administering any one or more of the above peptides or the composition to the subject in an amount sufficient to recruit stem cells to the formation of subcutaneous fat in the subject. 
     Another aspect of the invention is directed to a method of reconstructing tissue of a subject comprising administering any one or more of the above peptides or the composition to the tissue of the subject in an amount sufficient to increase the volume of the tissue during or after a tissue reconstruction procedure. 
     Yet another aspect of the invention is directed to a method of reducing heel pain in a subject comprising administering any one or more of the above peptides or the composition to the subject in an amount sufficient to reduce heel pain in the subject during walking. 
     Definitions 
     The term “peptide” as used herein refers to a polymer of amino acid residues typically ranging in length from about 5 to about 14 amino acids. The amino acid residues of the peptide can be “L-form” amino acid residues, “D” amino acid residues, or a combination thereof. L-, D-, or β-amino acid versions of the peptide sequence as well as retro, inverso, and retro-inverso isoforms are included. “β-peptides” are comprised of “β amino acids”, which have their amino group bonded to the β carbon rather than the α-carbon as in the 20 standard biological amino acids. 
     The terms “standard” and “natural” as applied to peptides herein refer to peptides constructed only from the standard naturally-occurring amino acids: alanine (Ala, A), cysteine (Cys, C), aspartate (Asp, D), glutamate (Glu, E), phenylalanine (Phe, F), glycine (Gly, G), histidine (His, H), isoleucine (Ile, I), lysine (Lys, K), leucine (Leu, L), methionine (Met, M), asparagine (Asn, N), proline (Pro, P), glutamine (Gln, Q), arginine (Arg, R), serine (Ser, S), threonine (Thr, T), valine (Val, V), tryptophan (Trp, W), and tyrosine (Tyr, Y). A peptide of the invention “corresponds” to a natural peptide if it elicits a biological activity (e.g., adipogenic activity) related to the biological activity and/or specificity of the naturally occurring peptide. The elicited activity may be the same as, greater than or less than that of the natural peptide. 
     The terms “non-standard,” and “non-natural,” and “analogue” as applied to peptides herein refer to peptides which contain one or more amino acids which are not standard amino acids and/or which are not naturally-occurring amino acids. A skilled artisan would be familiar such non-standard and non-naturally occurring amino acids and would be able to select suitable non-standard and non-naturally occurring amino acids for use in the peptides of the present invention. Amino acid analogues include amino acids that occur in nature but which are non-standard (e.g., norvaline, norleucine), as well as synthetic amino acids that do not occur in nature. For example, various amino acid analogues include, but are not limited to 2-aminoadipic acid, 3-aminoadipic acid, beta-alanine (beta-aminopropionic acid), 2-aminobutyric acid, 4-aminobutyric acid, piperidinic acid, 6-aminocaproic acid, 2-aminoheptanoic acid, 2-aminoisobutyric acid, 3-aminoisobutyric acid, 2-aminopimelic acid, 2,4 diaminobutyric acid, desmosine, 2,2′-diaminopimelic acid, 2,3-diaminopropionic acid, n-ethylglycine, n-ethylasparagine, hydroxylysine, allo-hydroxylysine, 3-hydroxyproline, 4-hydroxyproline, isodesmosine, allo-isoleucine, n-methylglycine, sarcosine, n-methylisoleucine, 6-n-methyllysine, n-methylvaline, norvaline, norleucine, ornithine, and the like. These modified amino acids are illustrative and not intended to be limiting. 
     The term “conservative substitution” is used to refer to an amino acid substitution that does not substantially alter the activity (e.g., adipogenic activity and/or specificity) of the peptide. Conventional conservative amino acid substitutions involve substituting one amino acid for another amino acid with similar structure and chemical properties (e.g., charge or hydrophobicity). Such conventional substitutions include, but are not limited to, the following: 1) glycine (G)/alanine (A), 2) arginine (R)/lysine (K), 3) serine (S)/threonine (T)/tyrosine (Y), 4) leucine (L)/isoleucine (I)/valine (V), 5) aspartic acid (D)/glutamic acid (E), 6) glutamine (Q)/asparagine (N), and 7) phenylalanine (F)/tyrosine (Y)/tryptophan (W). Other functional conservative substitutions include, but are not limited to 8) glycine (G)/alanine (A)/proline (P), 9) tyrosine (Y)/histidine (H), 10) arginine (R)/lysine (K)/histidine (H), 11) serine (S)/threonine (T)/cysteine (C), 12) leucine (L)/isoleucine (I)/valine (V)/methionine (M), 13) alanine (A)/serine (S)/threonine (T)/methionine (M)/glycine (G), and 14) methionine (M)/lysine (K) (under hydrophobic conditions). Conservative substitutions also include “analog substitutions” where a standard amino acid is replaced by a non-standard (e.g., rare, synthetic, etc.) amino acid differing minimally from the standard amino acid. Such analog substitutions can be derived synthetically from the standard amino acids, are isomers, or are metabolite precursors. Examples of such “analog substitutions” include, but are not limited to, 1) Lys→ornithine (Orn), 2) Leu→Norleucine, 3) Lys→Lys[TFA], 4) Phe→phenylglycine, and 5) δ-amino butylglycine→δ-amino hexylglycine, where [TFA] refers to trifluoroacetyl. Conservative substitutions also include a replacement of an amino acid with another amino acid having shared properties as shown in  FIG. 1 . Such substitutions include substitutions of one amino acid in one of the following groups with another amino acid in the same group: 1) aromatic amino acids: phenylalanine (F)/tyrosine (Y)/histidine (H)/tryptophan (W); 2) aliphatic amino acids: isoleucine (I)/valine (V)/leucine(L)/alanine (A)/glycine (G); 3) positively charged amino acids: histidine (H)/lysine (K)/arginine (R); 4) negatively charged amino acids: aspartate (D)/glutamate (E); and 5) tiny amino acids: cysteine (C)/alanine (A)/glycine (G)/serine (S). Conservative substitutions also include substitutions of amino acids having uncharged polar side chains, i.e., serine (S)/threonine (T)/asparagine (N)/glutamine (Q)/tyrosine (Y)/cysteine(S). Where amino acid sequences are disclosed herein, amino acid sequences comprising one or more of the above-identified conservative substitutions are also contemplated. 
     The term percent “identity” refers to two or more sequences that have a specified percentage of amino acid residues that are the same, when compared and aligned for maximum correspondence, as measured using standard sequence comparison algorithms or by visual inspection. For sequence comparison, typically one sequence acts as a reference sequence, to which test sequences are compared. By a peptide having an amino acid sequence with at least, for example, 50% identity to a reference amino acid sequence, it is intended that up to 50% of the amino acid residues in the test sequence may be inserted, deleted, or substituted with another amino acid. These alterations of the test sequence may occur at the amino or carboxy terminal positions of the reference amino acid sequence or anywhere between those terminal positions, interspersed either individually among residues in the reference sequence or in one or more contiguous groups within the reference sequence. Sequence identity of a test sequence is determined over the full length of the reference peptide or over a specified portion of the reference peptide. For example, in considering the amino acid sequence TMMS (SEQ ID NO: 67) as the reference sequence of the full sequence STMMSR (SEQ ID NO: 51), some test sequences with amino acid substitutions (e.g., TMAQ (SEQ ID NO: 68), TRMW (SEQ ID NO: 69), TVLS (SEQ ID NO: 70), IGMS (SEQ ID NO: 71), and KMTS (SEQ ID NO: 72)) have 50% sequence identity with the reference sequence, as do some test sequences with amino acid deletions (e.g., MM, MS, TM, TS), and some test sequences with amino acid insertions (e.g., TMMAAAAS (SEQ ID NO: 73), TAAMMSAA(SEQ ID NO: 74), TMAAAMAS (SEQ ID NO: 75)). Some test sequences with insertions, deletions, and/or substitutions will also have 50% sequence identity with the reference sequence. For example, again considering the amino acid sequence TMMS (SEQ ID NO: 67) as the reference sequence, sequences such as TCS or AMS (having one deletion and one substitution as compared to the reference sequence), or TLLMMT (SEQ ID NO: 76) or AMLIMS (SEQ ID NO: 77) (having two insertions and one substitution as compared to the reference sequence), have 50% identity with the reference sequence, as can be seen from the following sequence alignments: 
                              T MM S                           T -C S                         TM MS                         -A MS                           T -- MM S                         T LL MM T                       T M -- MS                         A M LI MS              
By contrast, sequences such as TAAM (SEQ ID NO: 78) or FTMA (SEQ ID NO: 79) (having one substitution, one insertion, and one deletion as compared to the reference sequence), TCCRS (SEQ ID NO: 80) (having one insertion and two substitutions as compared to the reference sequence), or TLALM (SEQ ID NO: 81) (having two insertions, one substitution, and one deletion as compared to the reference sequence) have less than 50% sequence identity with the reference sequence TMMS (SEQ ID NO: 67), as can be seen in the following sequence alignments:
 
     
       
         
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                   T M- M S 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   T AA M - 
               
               
                   
                 (40% sequence identity) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 - TM MS 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 F TM A- 
               
               
                   
                 (40% sequence identity) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   T MM- S   
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   T CCR S   
               
               
                   
                 (40% sequence identity) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   T -M- M S 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   T LAL M - 
               
               
                   
                 (33% sequence identity) 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     When using a sequence comparison algorithm, test and reference sequences are entered into a computer, subsequence coordinates are designated, if necessary, and sequence algorithm program parameters are designated. The sequence comparison algorithm then calculates the percent sequence identity for the test sequence(s) relative to the reference sequence, based on the designated program parameters. Optimal alignment of sequences for comparison can be conducted, for example, by the local homology algorithm of Smith &amp; Waterman (1981)  Adv. Appl. Math.  2: 482, by the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman &amp; Wunsch (1970)  J. Mol. Biol.  48: 443, by the search for similarity method of Pearson &amp; Lipman (1988)  Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci ., USA, 85: 2444, by computerized implementations of these algorithms (GAP, BESTFIT, FASTA, and TFASTA in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package, Genetics Computer Group, 575 Science Dr., Madison, Wis.), or by visual inspection. 
     One illustrative but non-limiting method for determining a global sequence alignment is through use of the FASTDB computer program based on the algorithm of Brutlag et al. (1990)  Comp. App. Biosci.  6: 237-245. Use of such alignment algorithms is known to one of ordinary skill in the art. If the test sequence is shorter than the reference sequence due to N- or C-terminal deletions, not because of internal deletions, a manual correction is typically made to the results. This is because the FASTDB program does not account for N- and C-terminal truncations of the test sequence when calculating global percent identity. For test sequences truncated at the N- and C-termini, relative to the reference sequence, the percent identity is corrected by calculating the number of residues of the reference sequence that are N- and C-terminal of the test sequence, which are not matched/aligned with a corresponding test residue, as a percent of the total bases of the reference sequence. Whether a residue is matched/aligned is determined by results of the FASTDB sequence alignment. This percentage is then subtracted from the percent identity, calculated by the above FASTDB program using the specified parameters, to arrive at a final percent identity score. This final percent identity score is what is used for the purposes of the present invention. Only residues to the N- and C-termini of the test sequence, that are not matched/aligned with the reference sequence, are typically considered for the purposes of manually adjusting the percent identity score. That is, only reference residue positions outside the farthest N- and C-terminal residues of the test sequence. For example, a 3-amino acid residue test sequence is aligned with a 4-residue reference sequence to determine percent identity. The deletion occurs at the N-terminus of the test sequence and therefore, the FASTDB alignment does not show a matching/alignment of the first residue at the N-terminus. The unpaired residue represents 25% of the sequence (number of residues at the N and C-termini not matched/total number of residues in the reference sequence) so 25% is subtracted from the percent identity score calculated by the FASTDB program. If the remaining 3 residues were perfectly matched the final percent identity would be 75%. In another example, a 3 residue test sequence is compared with a 4 residue reference sequence. This time the deletions are internal deletions so there are no residues at the N- or C-termini of the test sequence which are not matched/aligned with the reference. In this case the percent identity calculated by FASTDB is not manually corrected. Once again, only residue positions outside the N- and C-terminal ends of the test sequence, as displayed in the FASTDB alignment, which are not matched/aligned with the reference sequence, are manually corrected for. No other manual corrections are typically made or necessary. 
     The term “variant” refers to a peptide differing from a peptide of the invention, but retaining essential properties thereof (e.g., the ability to inhibit RHAMM activity). Generally, variants are overall closely similar, and may be identical, in many regions, to a peptide sequence of the invention. Besides conservative amino acid substitution, a variant peptide can include (i) substitutions with one or more of non-conserved amino acid residues, where the substituted amino acid residues may or may not be a standard amino acid and may or may not be a naturally occurring amino acid, or (ii) conservative substitutions with one or more non-standard or non-naturally occurring amino acid residues, or (iii) fusion of the peptide with another compound, such as a compound to increase the stability and/or solubility of the peptide (for example, polyethylene glycol), or (iv) fusion of the peptide with additional amino acids, such as, for example, an IgG Fc fusion region peptide, or leader or secretory sequence, or a sequence facilitating purification. Methods of making such variant peptides are within the skill of one of ordinary skill in the art. For example, peptide variants containing amino acid substitutions of charged amino acids with other charged or neutral amino acids may produce peptides with improved characteristics, such as less aggregation. Aggregation of pharmaceutical formulations both reduces activity and increases clearance due to the aggregate&#39;s immunogenic activity (see, e.g., Pinckard et al. (1967)  Clin. Exp. Immunol.  2: 331340; Robbins et al. (1987)  Diabetes  36: 838-845; Cleland et al. (1993)  Crit. Rev. Therapeutic Drug Carrier Systems,  10: 307-377). 
     The terms “subject,” “individual,” and “patient” may be used interchangeably and refer to a mammal, preferably a human or a non-human primate, but also domesticated mammals (e.g., canine or feline), laboratory mammals (e.g., mouse, rat, rabbit, hamster, guinea pig) and agricultural mammals (e.g., equine, bovine, porcine, ovine). The subject can be a human (e.g., adult male, adult female, adolescent male, adolescent female, male child, female child) under the care of a physician or other health worker in a hospital, as an outpatient, or other clinical context. Alternatively, the subject may not be under the care or prescription of a physician or other health worker. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  illustrates the classification used herein for various naturally-occurring standard amino acids. It will be recognized that non-standard and/or non-naturally occurring amino acids can also fall into this classification. 
         FIG. 2  illustrates the RHAMM HA binding region and the adipogenic subdomain. 
         FIGS. 3A-3C  provide illustrative adipogenesis dose-response data for peptide B (SEQ ID NO: 2). 
         FIG. 4  shows illustrative micrographs showing lipid accumulation in cells in response to treatment with peptide B (SEQ ID NO: 2). 
         FIGS. 5A-5B  show illustrative results from experiments using peptide B (SEQ ID NO: 2; 25-50 μg/injection site) or an adipogenic antibody in a rat dermal skin model of adipogenesis. 
         FIG. 6  shows illustrative results of testing of peptide B (SEQ ID NO: 2) in nude guinea pigs. An increase in subcutaneous fat deposition was observed on the upper back of these animals and in the ear fat pad after injection of peptide B in both locations. Arrows point to subcutaneous fat layer. 
         FIG. 7  provides illustrative data showing the adipogenic activity of various peptides. 
         FIGS. 8A and 8B  show illustrative dose-response adipogenesis data for the 6-mer peptide KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3). 
         FIG. 9  provides illustrative micrographs showing lipid accumulation in cells in response to treatment with the 9-, 7-, and 6-mers (SEQ ID NOs: 44, 42, and 3, respectively). 
         FIG. 10  shows illustrative results of in vivo testing of the 6-mer KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3) for an adipogenic effect. 
         FIGS. 11 and 12  show illustrative adipogenic activity data for peptides in which flanking lysine residues have been mutated to alanine residues (ASEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 38) and KSEVSA (SEQ ID NO: 41)). 
         FIGS. 13A and 13B  illustrate the adipogenic activity of two five-mer peptides (KSEVS (SEQ ID NO. 82),  FIG. 13A ) and (SEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 83),  FIG. 13B ). 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Peptides and mimetics are identified that promote subcutaneous adipogenesis without inducing undesired visceral adipogenesis. These peptides are useful in a variety of cosmetic and therapeutic applications. Without being bound to a particular theory, it is believed that the peptides described herein achieve the adipogenic activity by inhibiting (fully or partially) RHAMM binding to hyaluronan and/or RHAMM biological activity (e.g., binding to CD44). The peptides of the invention are short in length having only about 5 to 14 amino acids as compared to other peptides known in the art to have adipogenic activity, such as the P-1 Peptide (peptide P15-1; SEQ ID NO: 1). The “short” peptides offer certain advantages such as reduced cost of production, reduced immunogenicity, increased activity, and increased penetration into skin when applied topically. 
     Peptide P15-1 (SEQ ID NO: 1) was isolated by screening a random phage library for peptides having the ability to bind to hyaluronan (HA). Alignments were performed to assess the similarity of the P15-1 (SEQ ID NO: 1) peptide to peptide B (SEQ ID NO: 2), a peptide derived from the HA-binding region of RHAMM. Since these peptides bind to hyaluronan and resemble a RHAMM sequence and have been shown to be adipogenic, it was possible to identify conserved motifs that are believed to be responsible for the adipogenic properties of the peptides. 
     It is also believed that the use of RHAMM-inhibiting peptides described herein provides signals that force differentiation into adipocytes. In addition, RHAMM −/− dermal fibroblasts express very low levels of smooth muscle actin indicating that RHAMM also regulates development of this mesenchymal stem cell lineage. 
     With respect to mesenchymal and other skin stem cells, a unique advantage of using the RHAMM-inhibiting peptides described herein for increasing subcutaneous fat is that its effects are selective. Thus, visceral fat, whose increased accumulation on body organs is associated with disease is decreased while subcutaneous fat is increased. This is an unusual effect and differentiates RHAMM&#39;s effects from other adipocyte promoting factors such as leptin that affect accumulation of both types of adipocytes. Accordingly, it is believed the peptides described herein will not increase visceral fat. 
     Another property of RHAMM is related to its very restricted expression in the adult human tissues. RHAMM is poorly expressed or not expressed physiologically but is increased following tissue injury or transformation to the neoplastic state. Therefore, the RHAMM-inhibitory peptides described herein should have low toxicity. In fact, it is believed that blocking RHAMM function can be beneficial to those with a tumor load or with inflammation-based diseases such as arthritis since RHAMM has pro-oncogenic, pro-inflammatory functions. 
     RHAMM Inhibiting Peptides. 
     Peptides are provided that inhibit RHAMM biological activity and thereby induce or stimulate subcutaneous adipogenesis. In one aspect of the invention, the peptide that stimulates subcutaneous adipogenesis has a length of 6 to 14 amino acids and comprises a motif having the sequence:
         X 1 -X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5 -X 6  
 
wherein at least one of X 1  and X 6  is a positively charged amino acid and the other of X 1  and X 6  is a positively charged amino acid, leucine (L), or alanine (A). X 2  is serine (S), glutamine (Q), alanine (A), glutamate (E), asparagine (N), proline (P), cysteine (C), lysine (K), aspartate (D), tryptophan (W), methionine (M), or threonine (T). X 3  is a negatively charged amino acid, alanine (A), glutamine (Q), serine (S), lysine (K), asparagine (N), or threonine (T). X 4  is isoleucine (I), valine (V), leucine (L), asparagine (N), alanine (A), serine (S), proline (P), threonine (T), or glutamine (Q); and X 5  is serine (S), aspartate (D), threonine (T), leucine (L), alanine (A), phenylalanine (F), glutamate (E), asparagine (N), glycine (G), arginine (R), glutamine (Q), histidine (H), or isoleucine (I); provided that X 2  and X 5  are not both glutamine (Q) and provided that when X 1  is arginine (R), X 3  is not lysine (K).
       

     The length of the peptide can be, for example, 13 amino acids, 12 amino acids, 11 amino acids, 10 amino acids, 9 amino acids, 8 amino acids, 7 amino acids, or 6 amino acids. 
     In certain aspects of the invention, both X 1  and X 6  are positively charged amino acids. 
     X 1  is preferably lysine (K). 
     X 6  is preferably lysine (K) or arginine (R), and is more preferably lysine (K). 
     In some aspects of the invention, X 2  is serine (S), glutamine (Q), alanine (A), glutamate (E), asparagine (N), proline (P), cysteine (C), lysine (K), aspartate (D), tryptophan (W), or methionine (M). X 2  is preferably serine (S) or glutamine (Q). More preferably, X 2  is serine (S). 
     X 3  can be a negatively charged amino acid, alanine (A), glutamine (Q), serine (S), lysine (K), or asparagine (N). For example, X 3  can be a negatively charged amino acid (e.g., glutamate (E), aspartate (D)). X 3  is preferably glutamate (E). 
     X 4  can be isoleucine (I), valine (V), leucine (L), asparagine (N), alanine (A), serine (S), proline (P), or threonine (T). For example, X 4  can be isoleucine (I), valine (V), or leucine (L). X 4  is preferably valine. 
     X 5  can be serine (S), aspartate (D), threonine (T), leucine (L), alanine (A), phenylalanine (F), glutamate (E), asparagine (N), glycine (G), arginine (R), glutamine (Q), or histidine (H). For example, X 5  can be serine (S), aspartate (D), threonine (T), or glutamate (E). X 5  is preferably serine (S). 
     For example, in certain peptides of the present invention, X 1  is lysine (K), X 2  is serine (S), X 3  is glutamate (E), X 4  is valine (V), X 5  is serine (S), and X 6  is lysine (K). 
     In certain peptides of the invention, the motif is KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3), KQEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 4), KQEVDK (SEQ ID NO: 5), KQENTK (SEQ ID NO: 6), KSEVLK (SEQ ID NO: 7), KQDVSK (SEQ ID NO: 8), KQELDR (SEQ ID NO: 9), LEEIFK (SEQ ID NO: 10), LSELEK (SEQ ID NO: 11), KSEISK (SEQ ID NO: 12), KNEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 13), KSEVTK (SEQ ID NO: 14), KSEVNK (SEQ ID NO: 15), KSDVSK (SEQ ID NO: 16), KSQVSK (SEQ ID NO: 17), KPEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 18), KSEVGK (SEQ ID NO: 19), KSDSSK (SEQ ID NO: 20), KSSPSK (SEQ ID NO: 21), KSEASK (SEQ ID NO: 22), KSELRK (SEQ ID NO:23), KCEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 24), KSKPSK (SEQ ID NO: 25), KKEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 26), KEEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 27), KSETSK (SEQ ID NO: 28), KSNVSK (SEQ ID NO: 29), KDEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 30), KSEVEK (SEQ ID NO: 31), KSAVSK (SEQ ID NO: 32), KWEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 33), KMEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 34), KSEVQK (SEQ ID NO: 35), KSEVHK (SEQ ID NO: 36), KSSVSK (SEQ ID NO: 37), ASEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 38), KAEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 39), KSEVAK (SEQ ID NO: 40), or KSEVSA (SEQ ID NO: 41). For example, the motif can be KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3). 
     In some aspects of the invention, the peptide for stimulating subcutaneous adipogenesis is KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3), KQEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 4), KQEVDK (SEQ ID NO: 5), KQENTK (SEQ ID NO: 6), KSEVLK (SEQ ID NO: 7), KQDVSK (SEQ ID NO: 8), KQELDR (SEQ ID NO: 9), LEEIFK (SEQ ID NO: 10), LSELEK (SEQ ID NO: 11), KSEISK (SEQ ID NO: 12), KNEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 13), KSEVTK (SEQ ID NO: 14), KSEVNK (SEQ ID NO: 15), KSDVSK (SEQ ID NO: 16), KSQVSK (SEQ ID NO: 17), KPEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 18), KSEVGK (SEQ ID NO: 19), KSDSSK (SEQ ID NO: 20), KSSPSK (SEQ ID NO: 21), KSEASK (SEQ ID NO: 22), KSELRK (SEQ ID NO:23), KCEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 24), KSKPSK (SEQ ID NO: 25), KKEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 26), KEEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 27), KSETSK (SEQ ID NO: 28), KSNVSK (SEQ ID NO: 29), KDEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 30), KSEVEK (SEQ ID NO: 31), KSAVSK (SEQ ID NO: 32), KWEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 33), KMEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 34), KSEVQK (SEQ ID NO: 35), KSEVHK (SEQ ID NO: 36), KSSVSK (SEQ ID NO: 37), ASEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 38), KAEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 39), KSEVAK (SEQ ID NO: 40), KSEVSA (SEQ ID NO: 41), LKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 42), QLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 43), SQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 44), NSQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 45), ENSQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 46), DENSQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 47), KDENSQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 48), or LKDENSQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 49). For example, the peptide can be KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3), LKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 42), QLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 43), or SQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 44). Preferred peptides include KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3), LKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 42), or SQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 44). KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3) is a more preferred peptide. 
     In certain aspects of the invention, the motif is not RQKVLK (SEQ ID NO: 84) or LQATQK (SEQ ID NO: 85). 
     Another aspect of the present invention relates to peptides for stimulating subcutaneous adipogenesis. The peptide has a length of 5 to 14 amino acids and comprises a motif having the sequence
         X 1 -X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5 -X 6  
 
wherein at least one of X 1  and X 6  is a positively charged amino acid, and the other of X 1  and X 6  is a positively charged amino acid, leucine (L) or a conservative substitution therefor, alanine (A) or a conservative substitution therefor, or absent. In such peptides, X 2 —X 3 -X 4 -X 5  is an amino acid sequence having at least 50% sequence identity with the amino acid sequence SEVS (SEQ ID NO: 50) and having a length of 4 to 8 amino acids.
       

     The length of the peptide can be 6 to 14 amino acids. For example, the length of the peptide can be 13 amino acids, 12 amino acids, 11 amino acids, 10 amino acids, 9 amino acids, 8 amino acids, 7 amino acids, or 6 amino acids. 
     In some aspects of the invention, the length of X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5  is 4 to 6 amino acids, or 4 amino acids. 
     X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5  can have at least about 75% sequence identity with the amino acid sequence SEVS (SEQ ID NO: 50). 
     In certain aspects, both X 1  and X 6  are positively charged amino acids. 
     X 1  is preferably lysine (K). 
     X 6  is preferably lysine (K) or arginine (R), and is more preferably lysine (K). 
     Yet another aspect of the present invention relates to peptides for stimulating subcutaneous adipogenesis, wherein the peptide has a length of 6 to 13 amino acids and comprises a motif having the sequence:
         X 1 -X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5 -X 6  
 
wherein X 1  is serine (S) or a conservative substitution therefor; X 2  is a hydrophobic amino acid; X 3  is any amino acid; X 4  is a hydrophobic amino acid; X 5  is serine (S), arginine (R), or a conservative substitution therefor; and X 6  is a charged amino acid; provided that X 1 , X 2  and X 4  are not all glycine (G) and provided that X 1  is not glutamine (Q).
       

     The length of the peptide can be, for example, 13 amino acids, 12 amino acids, 11 amino acids, 10 amino acids, 9 amino acids, 8 amino acids, 7 amino acids, or 6 amino acids. 
     In certain aspects of the invention, X 1  is serine (S), cysteine (C), alanine (A), glycine (G), threonine (T), tyrosine (Y), or methionine (M). X 1  is preferably serine (S). 
     X 2  can be a hydrophobic nonaromatic amino acid. For example, X 2  can be threonine (T), isoleucine (I), valine (V), leucine (L), alanine (A), glycine (G), cysteine (C), or methionine (M). X 2  is preferably threonine (T) or isoleucine (I), and is more preferably threonine (T). 
     X 3  can be a hydrophobic nonaromatic amino acid, a hydrophobic polar amino acid, a positively charged amino acid, or proline (P). For example, X 3  can be methionine (M), valine (V), glycine (G), threonine (T), arginine (R), leucine (L), proline (P), or a conservative substitution therefor. X 3  is preferably methionine (M), valine (V), glycine (G), threonine (T), arginine (R), leucine (L), or proline (P). X 3  is more preferably methionine (M), leucine (L), or a conservative substitution therefor, and is even more preferably methionine (M). 
     X 4  can be a hydrophobic nonaromatic amino acid or a hydrophobic nonpolar amino acid. In some aspects of the invention, X 4  is methionine (M), leucine (L), valine (V), or a conservative substitution therefor. X 4  is preferably methionine (M), leucine (L), or valine (V), and is more preferably methionine (M). 
     X 5  can be arginine (R) or a conservative substitution therefor. Alternatively, X 5  can be serine (S) or a conservative substitution therefor. X 5  is preferably serine (S). 
     X 6  can be arginine (R) or a conservative substitution therefor. X 6  is preferably arginine (R). 
     In certain of the peptides for stimulating subcutaneous adipogenesis, the motif is STMMSR (SEQ ID NO: 51), SIMMSR (SEQ ID NO: 52), STLMSR (SEQ ID NO: 53), STVMSR (SEQ ID NO: 54), STGLSR (SEQ ID NO: 55), STTMSR (SEQ ID NO: 56), STRMSR (SEQ ID NO: 57), STLMRR (SEQ ID NO: 58), or STPVSR (SEQ ID NO: 59). For example, the motif can be STMMSR (SEQ ID NO: 51). 
     For example, the peptide is STMMSR (SEQ ID NO: 51), SIMMSR (SEQ ID NO: 52), STLMSR (SEQ ID NO: 53), STVMSR (SEQ ID NO: 54), STGLSR (SEQ ID NO: 55), STTMSR (SEQ ID NO: 56), STRMSR (SEQ ID NO: 57), STLMRR (SEQ ID NO: 58), STPVSR (SEQ ID NO: 59), STMMSRS (SEQ ID NO: 60), STMMSRSH (SEQ ID NO: 61), STMMSRSHK (SEQ ID NO: 62), STMMSRSHKT (SEQ ID NO: 63), STMMSRSHKTR (SEQ ID NO: 64), STMMSRSHKTRS (SEQ ID NO: 65), or STMMSRSHKTRSH (SEQ ID NO: 66). For example, the peptide can be STMMSR (SEQ ID NO: 51) or STMMSRSHK (SEQ ID NO: 62). 
     In certain aspects of the invention, the motif is not QLVKRK (SEQ ID NO: 86), QKVLKR (SEQ ID NO: 87), GGRGRR (SEQ ID NO: 88), GGRGGR (SEQ ID NO: 89), or GGGGGR (SEQ ID NO: 90). 
     Still another aspect of the present invention relates to peptides for stimulating subcutaneous adipogenesis, wherein the peptide has a length of 6 to 13 amino acids and comprises a motif having the sequence
         X 1 -X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5 -X 6  
 
wherein X 1  is serine (S) or a conservative substitution therefor and X 6  is a charged amino acid. X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5  is an amino acid sequence having at least 50% sequence identity with the amino acid sequence TMMS (SEQ ID NO: 67) and having a length of 2 to 8 amino acids.
       

     The length of the peptide can be, for example, 12 amino acids, 11 amino acids, 10 amino acids, 9 amino acids, 8 amino acids, 7 amino acids, or 6 amino acids. 
     In some aspects, the length of X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5  is 3 to 7 amino acids, 3 to 6 amino acids, or 4 amino acids. 
     X 1  is preferably serine (S). 
     X 6  is preferably a positively charged amino acid, for example arginine (R), lysine (K), histidine (H), or a conservative substitution therefor. X 6  is more preferably arginine (R) or a conservative substitution therefor, and is even more preferably arginine (R). 
     X 2 -X 3 -X 4 -X 5  can have at least about 75% sequence identity with the amino acid sequence SEVS (SEQ ID NO: 50). 
     In any of the above-described peptides, the peptide can have a substantially alpha-helical conformation. 
     Any of the above-described peptides can be a beta-peptide. 
     Any of the above-described peptides can be in the retro form, the inverso form, or the retro-inverso form. 
     In any of the above-described peptides, all of the amino acids in the peptide can be L amino acids. Alternatively, the peptide can comprise one or more D amino acids, or all of the amino acids in the peptide can be D amino acids. Thus, the peptide can comprise a mixture of L amino acids and D amino acids. 
     Peptide Variants 
     The peptides described herein can be composed of amino acids joined to each other by peptide bonds or modified peptide bonds, i.e., peptide isosteres, and may contain amino acids other than the 20 gene-encoded standard amino acids. The peptides may be modified by either natural processes, such as posttranslational processing, or by chemical modification techniques that are well known in the art. Modifications can occur anywhere in a peptide, including the peptide backbone, the amino acid side-chains and the amino or carboxyl termini. The same type of modification may be present in the same or varying degrees at several sites in a peptide. Also, a peptide may contain many types of modifications. 
     In certain aspects of the invention, peptides may be branched, for example, as a result of ubiquitination, and they may be cyclic, with or without branching. Cyclic, branched, and branched cyclic peptides may result from posttranslation natural processes or may be made by synthetic methods. Modifications include acetylation, acylation, ADP-ribosylation, amidation, covalent attachment of flavin, covalent attachment of a heme moiety, covalent attachment of a nucleotide or nucleotide derivative, covalent attachment of a lipid or lipid derivative, covalent attachment of phosphotidylinositol, cross-linking, cyclization, disulfide bond formation, demethylation, formation of covalent cross-links, formation of cysteine-cysteine disulfide bonds, formation of pyroglutamate, formylation, gamma-carboxylation, glycosylation, GPI anchor formation, hydroxylation, iodination, methylation, myristoylation, oxidation, PEGylation, proteolytic processing, phosphorylation, prenylation, palmitoylation, racemization, selenoylation, sulfation, transfer-RNA mediated addition of amino acids to proteins such as arginylation, and ubiquitination. (see, e.g., Creighton et al. (1993)  Proteins—Structure and Molecular Properties,  2nd Ed., T. E. Creighton, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York; Johnson, ed. (1983)  Posttranslational Covalent Modification Of Proteins , Academic Press, New York; Seifter et al. (1990) Meth. Enzymol., 182: 626-646; Rattan et al. (1992)  Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.,  663: 48-62; and the like). 
     Using known methods of protein engineering and recombinant DNA technology, variants may be generated to improve or alter the characteristics of the peptides described herein. Such variants include deletions, insertions, inversions, repeats, and substitutions (e.g., conservative substitutions) selected according to general rules well known in the art so as have little effect on activity. 
     Peptoids are also contemplated wherein the peptoid has an essentially corresponding monomer sequence, where a natural amino acid is replaced by an N-substituted glycine derivative, if the N-substituted glycine derivative resembles the original amino acid in hydrophilicity, hydrophobicity, polarity, etc. The following are illustrative, but non-limiting N-substituted glycine replacements: N-(1-methylprop-1-yl)glycine→isoleucine (I), N-(prop-2-yl)glycine→valine (V), N-benzylglycine→phenylalanine (F), N-(2-hydroxyethyl)glycine→serine (S), and the like. In certain aspects of the invention, substitutions need not be “exact”. Thus for example, in certain aspects of the invention, N-(2-hydroxyethyl)glycine may substitute for S, T, C, and/or M; N-(2-methylprop-1-yl)glycine may substitute for V, L, and/or I; N-(2-hydroxyethyl)glycine can be used to substitute for T or S. In general, one may use an N-hydroxyalkyl-substituted glycine to substitute for any polar amino acid, an N-benzyl- or N-aralkyl-substituted glycine to replace any aromatic amino acid, an N-alkyl-substituted glycine such as N-butylglycine to replace any nonpolar amino acid (e.g., L, V, I, etc.), and an N-(aminoalkyl)glycine to replace any basic polar amino acid (e.g., L and R). 
     Functionalization and Protecting Groups. 
     While the various peptides described herein are shown without protecting groups, they can bear one or more protecting groups. The protecting groups can be coupled to the C- and/or N-terminus of the peptide and/or to one or more internal residues of the peptide. Thus, for example, any of the peptides described herein can bear, e.g., an acyl group protecting the amino terminus and/or an amide group protecting the carboxyl terminus. These blocking groups enhance the helix-forming tendencies of the peptides. 
     Without being bound by a particular theory, it is believed that blockage, particularly of the amino and/or carboxyl termini of the peptide can improve stability and/or skin penetration when administered topically. 
     Suitable protecting groups include, but are not limited to, acetyl, amide, and alkyl groups with acetyl and alkyl groups being particularly preferred for N-terminal protection and amide groups being preferred for carboxyl terminal protection. Alkyl protecting groups include, but are not limited to, alkyl chains as in fatty acids such as propionyl, formyl, and others. For example, the alkyl can be 3- to 20-carbon alkyl. Carboxyl protecting groups include amides, esters, and ether-forming protecting groups. Such blocking groups include alkyl groups of various lengths, e.g., groups having the formula: CH 3 —(CH 2 ) n —CO— where n ranges from about 1 to about 20, preferably from about 1 to about 16 or 18, more preferably from about 3 to about 13, and most preferably from about 3 to about 10. 
     Other suitable protecting groups include, but are not limited to, fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl (FMOC), t-butoxycarbonyl (t-BOC), 9-fluoreneacetyl, 1-fluorenecarboxylic, 9-florenecarboxylic, 9-fluorenone-1-carboxylic, benzyloxycarbonyl, xanthyl (Xan), trityl (Trt), 4-methyltrityl (Mtt), 4-methoxytrityl (Mmt), 4-methoxy-2,3,6-trimethyl-benzenesulphonyl (Mtr), mesitylene-2-sulphonyl (Mts), 4,4-dimethoxybenzhydryl (Mbh), tosyl (Tos), 2,2,5,7,8-pentamethyl chroman-6-sulphonyl (Pmc), 4-methylbenzyl (MeBz1), 4-methoxybenzyl (MeOBz1), benzyloxy (BzlO), benzyl (Bzl), benzoyl (Bz), 3-nitro-2-pyridinesulphenyl (Npys), 1-(4,4-dimentyl-2,6-diaxocyclohexylidene)ethyl (Dde), 2,6-dichlorobenzyl (2,6-DiC1-Bz1), 2-chlorobenzyloxycarbonyl (2-Cl-Z), 2-bromobenzyloxycarbonyl (2-Br-Z), benzyloxymethyl (Bom), cyclohexyloxy (cHxO), t-butoxymethyl (Bum), t-butoxy (tBuO), t-Butyl (tBu), acetyl (Ac), and trifluoroacetyl (TFA). 
     Protecting/blocking groups are well known to those of skill as are methods of coupling such groups to the appropriate residue of the peptide (see, e.g., Greene et al., (1991)  Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis,  2 nd ed ., John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc. Somerset, N.J.). For example, acetylation can be accomplished during synthesis when the peptide is on the resin using acetic anhydride. Amide protection can be achieved by the selection of a proper resin for the synthesis. During the synthesis of the peptide, rink amide resin can used. After the completion of the synthesis, the semipermanent protecting groups on acidic bifunctional amino acids such as Asp and Glu, the basic amino acid Lys, and the hydroxyl of Tyr are all simultaneously removed. The peptides released from such a resin using acidic treatment have the N-terminus protected with acetyl and the carboxy-terminus protected with NH 2  with the simultaneous removal of all of the other protecting groups. 
     The peptides may comprise one or more D-amino acids (dextro rather than levo). Every other, or even every amino acid (e.g., every enantiomeric amino acid) of the peptide can be a D-amino acid. For example, at least 50%, at least 80%, at least 90% or even all of the enantiomeric amino acids can be D-amino acids. 
     The peptides can also be functionalized with a polymer (e.g., polyethylene glycol and/or a cellulose or modified cellulose) to increase bioavailability. 
     Peptide Mimetics. 
     Peptide analogs are commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry as non-peptide drugs with properties analogous to those of the template peptide. These types of non-peptide compounds are termed “peptide mimetics” or “peptidomimetics” (Fauchere (1986)  Adv. Drug Res.  15: 29; Veber and Freidinger (1985) TINS p.392; and Evans et al. (1987)  J. Med. Chem.  30: 1229) and are usually developed with the aid of computerized molecular modeling. Peptide mimetics that are structurally similar to peptides of the invention may be used to produce an equivalent therapeutic or prophylactic effect. 
     Peptidomimetics are structurally similar to a peptide (e.g., KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3)), but have one or more peptide linkages optionally replaced by a linkage such as —CH 2 NH—, —CH 2 S—, —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —CH═CH— (cis and trans), —COCH 2 —, —CH(OH)CH 2 —, or —CH 2 SO— by methods known in the art and further described in the following references: Spatola (1983) p. 267 in  Chemistry and Biochemistry of Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins , B. Weinstein, eds., Marcel Dekker, New York; Spatola (1983)  Vega Data  1(3)  Peptide Backbone Modifications . (general review); Morley (1980)  Trends Pharm Sci  pp. 463-468 (general review); Hudson et al. (1979)  Int J Pept Prot Res  14:177-185 (—CH 2 NH—, —CH 2 —CH 2 —); Spatola et al. (1986)  Life Sci  38:1243-1249 (—CH 2 —S—); Hann, (1982)  J Chem Soc Perkin Trans I  307-314 (—CH═CH—, cis and trans); Almquist et al. (1980)  J Med Chem.  23: 1392-1398 (—COCH 2 —); Jennings-White et al. (1982)  Tetrahedron Lett.  23: 2533 (—COCH 2 —); Szelke et al. (1982) European Appin. EP 45665 (—CH(OH)CH 2 —); Holladay et al. (1983)  Tetrahedron Lett  24:4401-4404 (—C(OH)CH 2 —); and Hruby (1982)  Life Sci.,  31:189-199 (—CH 2 —S—)). 
     A particularly useful non-peptide linkage is —CH 2 NH—. Such peptide mimetics may have significant advantages over peptides, such as more economical production, greater chemical stability, enhanced pharmacological properties (half-life, absorption, potency, efficacy, etc.), and/or reduced antigenicity. 
     Circular permutations of the peptides described herein or constrained peptides (including cyclized peptides) comprising the motifs described herein or a substantially identical motif can be generated by methods known in the art (Rizo and Gierasch (1992)  Ann. Rev. Biochem.  61: 387), for example, by adding internal cysteine residues capable of forming intramolecular disulfide bridges which cyclize the peptide. 
     Peptide Preparation. 
     In various aspects of the invention, the peptides described herein can be chemically synthesized using standard chemical peptide synthesis techniques or, particularly where the peptide does not comprise D-amino acid residues, the peptide can be recombinantly expressed. Where polypeptides containing one or more D-amino acids are to be recombinantly expressed, a host organism (e.g. bacteria, plant, fungal cells, etc.) can be cultured in an environment where one or more of the amino acids is provided to the organism exclusively in a D-form. Recombinantly expressed peptides in such a system then incorporate those D-amino acids. Also, D-amino acids can be incorporated in recombinantly expressed peptides using modified amino acyl-tRNA synthetases that recognize D-amino acids. 
     The peptides (containing D- and/or L-amino acids) can be chemically synthesized by any of a number of fluid or solid phase peptide synthesis techniques known to those of skill in the art. Solid phase synthesis in which the C-terminal amino acid of the sequence is attached to an insoluble support followed by sequential addition of the remaining amino acids in the sequence is a preferred method for the chemical synthesis of the polypeptides of the invention. Techniques for solid phase synthesis are well known to those of skill in the art and are described, for example, by Barany and Merrifield (1963)  Solid - Phase Peptide Synthesis ; pp. 3-284  in The Peptides: Analysis, Synthesis, Biology. Vol.  2 : Special Methods in Peptide Synthesis, Part A .; Merrifield et al. (1963)  J. Am. Chem. Soc.,  85: 2149-2156, and Stewart et al. (1984)  Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis,  2nd ed. Pierce Chem. Co., Rockford, Ill. 
     The peptides can be synthesized by the solid phase peptide synthesis procedure using a benzhydrylamine resin (Beckman Bioproducts, 0.59 mmol of NH 2 /g of resin) as the solid support. The carboxy terminal amino acid (e.g., t-butylcarbonyl-Phe) is attached to the solid support through a 4-(oxymethyl)phenacetyl group. This is a more stable linkage than the conventional benzyl ester linkage, yet the finished peptide can still be cleaved by hydrogenation. Transfer hydrogenation using formic acid as the hydrogen donor can be used for this purpose. 
     It is noted that in the chemical synthesis of peptides, particularly peptides comprising D-amino acids, the synthesis usually produces a number of truncated peptides in addition to the desired full-length product. Thus, the peptides are typically purified using, e.g., HPLC. 
     D-amino acids, beta amino acids, non-natural amino acids, non-standard amino acids, and the like can be incorporated at one or more positions in the peptide simply by using the appropriately derivatized amino acid residue in the chemical synthesis. Modified residues for solid phase peptide synthesis are commercially available from a number of suppliers (see, e.g., Advanced Chem Tech, Louisville; Nova Biochem, San Diego; Sigma, St Louis; Bachem California Inc., Torrance, etc.). The D-form and/or otherwise modified amino acids can be completely omitted or incorporated at any position in the peptide as desired. 
     When the peptides are synthesized using recombinant expression systems, a DNA sequence that encodes the desired peptide is typically created, and placed in an expression cassette under the control of a promoter to express the peptide in a host cell. The expressed peptide is isolated and, if required, renatured. DNA encoding a peptide of the invention can be prepared by any suitable method, including, for example, cloning and restriction of appropriate sequences or direct chemical synthesis. This nucleic acid can be easily ligated into an appropriate vector containing appropriate expression control sequences (e.g. promoter, enhancer, etc.), and, optionally, containing one or more selectable markers (e.g. antibiotic resistance genes). 
     A nucleic acid sequence encoding a peptide described herein can be expressed in a variety of host cells, including, but not limited to,  E. coli , other bacterial hosts, yeast, fungus, and various higher eukaryotic cells such as insect cells (e.g. SF3), the COS, CHO and HeLa cells lines and myeloma cell lines. The recombinant protein gene will typically be operably linked to appropriate expression control sequences for each host. For  E. coli  this can include a promoter such as the T7, trp, or lambda promoters, a ribosome binding site and preferably a transcription termination signal. For eukaryotic cells, illustrative control sequences can include a promoter and often an enhancer (e.g., an enhancer derived from immunoglobulin genes, SV40, cytomegalovirus, etc.), and a polyadenylation sequence, and may include splice donor and acceptor sequences. 
     The plasmids can be transferred into the chosen host cell by well-known methods such as calcium chloride transformation for  E. coli  and calcium phosphate treatment or electroporation for mammalian cells. Cells transformed by the plasmids can be selected by resistance to antibiotics conferred by genes contained on the plasmids, such as the amp, gpt, neo and hyg genes. 
     Once expressed, the recombinant peptide(s) can be purified according to standard procedures of the art, including, but not limited to, ammonium sulfate precipitation, affinity columns, column chromatography, and gel electrophoresis (see, generally, R. Scopes, (1982)  Protein Purification , Springer-Verlag, N.Y.; Deutscher (1990)  Methods in Enzymology Vol.  182 : Guide to Protein Purification ., Academic Press, Inc. N.Y.). Substantially pure compositions of at least about 90 to 95% homogeneity are preferred, and 98 to 99% or more homogeneity are most preferred. 
     One of skill in the art would recognize that after chemical synthesis, biological expression, or purification, the peptide may possess a conformation substantially different than desired native conformation. In this case, it may be necessary to denature and reduce the peptide and then to cause the molecule to re-fold into the preferred conformation. Methods of reducing and denaturing proteins and inducing re-folding are well known to those of skill in the art (see, e.g., Debinski et al. (1993)  J. Biol. Chem.,  268: 14065-14070; Kreitman and Pastan (1993)  Bioconjug. Chem.,  4: 581-585; and Buchner, et al., (1992)  Anal. Biochem.,  205: 263-270). Debinski et al., for example, describes the denaturation and reduction of inclusion body proteins in guanidine-DTE. The protein is then refolded in a redox buffer containing oxidized glutathione and L-arginine. 
     One of skill would recognize that modifications can be made to the peptides of the invention without diminishing their biological activity. Some modifications may be made to facilitate the cloning, expression, or incorporation of the targeting molecule into a fusion protein. Such modifications are well known to those of skill in the art and include, for example, a methionine added at the amino terminus to provide an initiation site, or additional amino acids (e.g., poly His) placed on either terminus to create conveniently located restriction sites or termination codons or purification sequences. 
     Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Formulations 
     The peptide(s) described herein are administered to a subject (e.g., a mammal) in need thereof, e.g., to induce or potentiate subcutaneous adipocyte recruitment or formation (e.g., to induce subcutaneous adipogenesis). 
     These peptide(s) can be administered in the “native” form or, if desired, in the form of salts, esters, amides, prodrugs, derivatives, and the like, provided the salt, ester, amide, prodrug or derivative is suitable pharmacologically, i.e., effective in the present method(s). Salts, esters, amides, prodrugs and other derivatives of the peptide(s) can be prepared using standard procedures known to those skilled in the art of synthetic organic chemistry and described, for example, by March (1992)  Advanced Organic Chemistry; Reactions, Mechanisms and Structure,  4th Ed. N.Y. Wiley-Interscience. 
     Methods of formulating such derivatives are known to those of skill in the art. For example, the disulfide salts of a number of delivery agents are described in PCT Publication WO 2000/059863. Similarly, acid salts of therapeutic peptides, peptoids, or other mimetics, and can be prepared from the free base using conventional methodology that typically involves reaction with a suitable acid. Generally, the base form of the peptide is dissolved in a polar organic solvent such as methanol or ethanol and the acid is added thereto. The resulting salt either precipitates or can be brought out of solution by addition of a less polar solvent. Suitable acids for preparing acid addition salts include, but are not limited to, both organic acids, e.g., acetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, malic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid, or salicylic acid, as well as inorganic acids, e.g., hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, or phosphoric acid. An acid addition salt can be reconverted to the free base by treatment with a suitable base. Certain particularly preferred acid addition salts of the peptides described herein include halide salts, such as may be prepared using hydrochloric or hydrobromic acids. Conversely, preparation of basic salts of the peptides s described herein are prepared in a similar manner using a pharmaceutically acceptable base such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, or trimethylamine. Basic salts include alkali metal salts, e.g., the sodium salt, and copper salts. 
     For the preparation of salt forms of a peptide, the pKa of the counterion is preferably at least about 2 pH lower than the pKa of the agent. Similarly, for the preparation of salt forms of acidic agent, the pKa of the counterion is preferably at least about 2 pH greater than the pKa of the agent. This permits the counterion to bring the solution&#39;s pH to a level lower than the pH max  to reach the salt plateau, at which the solubility of salt prevails over the solubility of free acid or base. The generalized rule of difference in pKa units of the ionizable group in the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) and in the acid or base is meant to make the proton transfer energetically favorable. When the pKa of the API and counterion are not significantly different, a solid complex may form but may rapidly disproportionate (i.e., break down into the individual entities of peptide and counterion) in an aqueous environment. 
     Typically, the counterion is a pharmaceutically acceptable counterion. Suitable anionic salt forms include, but are not limited to, acetate, benzoate, benzylate, bitartrate, bromide, carbonate, chloride, citrate, edetate, edisylate, estolate, fumarate, gluceptate, gluconate, hydrobromide, hydrochloride, iodide, lactate, lactobionate, malate, maleate, mandelate, mesylate, methyl bromide, methyl sulfate, mucate, napsylate, nitrate, pamoate (embonate), phosphate and diphosphate, salicylate and disalicylate, stearate, succinate, sulfate, tartrate, tosylate, triethiodide, valerate, and the like, while suitable cationic salt forms include, but are not limited to aluminum, benzathine, calcium, ethylene diamine, lysine, magnesium, meglumine, potassium, procaine, sodium, tromethamine, zinc, and the like. 
     Preparation of peptide esters typically involves functionalization of hydroxyl and/or carboxyl groups that are present within the molecular structure of the peptide. For example, the esters are typically acyl-substituted derivatives of free alcohol groups, i.e., moieties that are derived from carboxylic acids of the formula RCOOH where R is alkyl, and preferably is lower alkyl. Esters can be reconverted to the free acids, if desired, by using conventional hydrogenolysis or hydrolysis procedures. 
     Amides of the peptides can also be prepared using techniques known to those skilled in the art. For example, amides can be prepared from esters, using suitable amine reactants, or they can be prepared from an anhydride or an acid chloride by reaction with ammonia or a lower alkyl amine. 
     The peptides can be formulated for subcutaneous, parenteral, topical, oral, nasal (or otherwise inhaled), rectal, or local administration, such as by aerosol or transdermally. The compositions can be administered in a variety of unit dosage forms depending upon the method of administration. Suitable unit dosage forms, include, but are not limited to powders, tablets, pills, capsules, lozenges, suppositories, patches, nasal sprays, injectables, implantable sustained-release formulations, lipid complexes, etc. 
     The peptides described herein can also be combined with a pharmaceutically or cosmetically acceptable carrier (excipient) to form a pharmacological or cosmetic composition. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include those approved by a regulatory agency of the Federal or a state government or listed in the U.S. Pharmacopeia or other generally recognized pharmacopeia for use in or on animals, and more particularly humans. A “carrier” refers to, for example, a diluent, adjuvant, excipient, auxiliary agent or vehicle with which one or more of the peptides described herein is administered. 
     Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers can contain one or more physiologically acceptable compounds that act, for example, to stabilize the composition or to increase or decrease the absorption of the peptide. Physiologically acceptable compounds can include, for example, carbohydrates, such as glucose, sucrose, or dextrans, antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid or glutathione, chelating agents, low molecular weight proteins, protection and uptake enhancers such as lipids, compounds that reduce the clearance or hydrolysis of the peptides, or other excipients, stabilizers and/or buffers. 
     Other physiologically acceptable compounds, particularly of use in the preparation of tablets, capsules, gel caps, and the like include, but are not limited to binders, diluent/fillers, disentegrants, lubricants, and suspending agents. 
     To manufacture an oral dosage form (e.g., a tablet), an excipient (e.g., lactose, sucrose, starch, mannitol, etc.), an optional disintegrator (e.g. calcium carbonate, carboxymethylcellulose calcium, sodium starch glycollate, crospovidone etc.), a binder (e.g. alpha-starch, gum arabic, microcrystalline cellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, hydroxypropylcellulose, cyclodextrin, etc.), and an optional lubricant (e.g., talc, magnesium stearate, polyethylene glycol 6000, etc.), for instance, are added to the peptide and the resulting composition is compressed. Where necessary, the compressed product is coated using known methods for masking taste or for enteric dissolution or sustained release. Suitable coating materials include, but are not limited to ethyl-cellulose, hydroxymethylcellulose, polyoxyethylene glycol, cellulose acetate phthalate, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose phthalate, and EUDRAGIT (Rohm &amp; Haas, Germany; methacrylic-acrylic copolymer). 
     Other physiologically acceptable compounds that can be formulated with the peptides include wetting agents, emulsifying agents, dispersing agents or preservatives that are particularly useful for preventing the growth or action of microorganisms. Various preservatives are well known and include, for example, phenol and ascorbic acid. One skilled in the art would appreciate that the choice of pharmaceutically acceptable carrier depends, for example, on the route of administration of the peptide and on the particular physio-chemical characteristics of the peptide. 
     Preferably, the excipients are sterile and generally free of contaminants. These compositions can be sterilized by conventional, well-known sterilization techniques. For various oral dosage form excipients, such as tablets and capsules, sterility is not required; the USP/NF standard is usually sufficient. 
     Nanoemulsion Formulations. 
     The peptides described herein can be formulated in a nanoemulsion. Nanoemulsions include, but are not limited to, oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsions, and water-in-oil (W/O) nanoemulsions. Nanoemulsions can be defined as emulsions with mean droplet diameters ranging from about 20 to about 1000 nm. Usually, the average droplet size is between about 20 nm or 50 nm and about 500 nm. The terms sub-micron emulsion (SME) and mini-emulsion are used as synonyms. 
     Illustrative oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsions include, but are not limited to: (1) surfactant micelles, which are micelles composed of small molecules, surfactants or detergents (e.g., SDS/PBS/2-propanol) which are suitable for predominantly hydrophobic peptides; (2) polymer micelles, which are micelles composed of polymer, copolymer, or block copolymer surfactants (e.g., Pluronic L64/PBS/2-propanol) which are suitable for predominantly hydrophobic peptides; (3) blended micelles, which are micelles in which there is more than one surfactant component or in which one of the liquid phases (generally an alcohol (e.g., ethanol) or fatty acid compound) participates in the formation of the micelle (e.g., octanoic acid/PBS/EtOH) which are suitable for predominantly hydrophobic peptides; (4) integral peptide micelles, which are blended micelles in which the peptide serves as an auxiliary surfactant, forming an integral part of the micelle (e.g., amphipathic peptide/PBS/mineral oil) which are suitable for amphipathic peptides; and (5) pickering (solid phase) emulsions, which are emulsions in which the peptides are associated with the exterior of a solid nanoparticle (e.g., polystyrene nanoparticles/PBS/no oil phase) which are suitable for amphipathic peptides. 
     Illustrative water-in-oil (W/O) nanoemulsions include, but are not limited to: (1) surfactant micelles, which are micelles composed of small molecules surfactants or detergents (e.g., dioctyl sulfosuccinate/PBS/2-propanol, isopropylmyristate/PBS/2-propanol, etc.) which are suitable for predominantly hydrophilic peptides; (2) polymer micelles, which are micelles composed of polymer, copolymer, or block copolymer surfactants (e.g., PLURONIC® L121/PBS/2-propanol), which are suitable for predominantly hydrophilic peptides; (3) blended micelles, which are micelles in which there is more than one surfactant component or in which one of the liquid phases (generally an alcohol (e.g., ethanol) or fatty acid compound) participates in the formation of the micelle (e.g., capric/caprylic diglyceride/PBS/EtOH) which are suitable for predominantly hydrophilic peptides; (4) integral peptide micelles, which are blended micelles in which the peptide serves as an auxiliary surfactant, forming an integral part of the micelle (e.g., amphipathic peptide/PBS/polypropylene glycol) which are suitable for amphipathic peptides; and (5) pickering (solid phase) emulsions, which are emulsions in which the peptides are associated with the exterior of a solid nanoparticle (e.g., chitosan nanoparticles/no aqueous phase/mineral oil) which are suitable for amphipathic peptides. 
     As indicated above, the nanoemulsions can comprise one or more surfactants or detergents. For example, the surfactant can be a non-anionic detergent (e.g., a polysorbate surfactant or a polyoxyethylene ether). Surfactants that find use in the present invention include, but are not limited to, surfactants such as the TWEEN®, TRITON®, and TYLOXAPOL® families of compounds. Preferably, the surfactant is a polysorbate surfactant (e.g., TWEEN 20®, TWEEN 40®, TWEEN 60®, and TWEEN 80®, a phenoxypolyethoxyethanol (e.g., TRITON® X-100, X-301, X-165, X-102, and X-200, and TYLOXAPOL®), or sodium dodecyl sulfate. 
     The nanoemulsion can further comprise an emulsifying agent to aid in the formation of the emulsion. Emulsifying agents include compounds that aggregate at the oil/water interface to form a kind of continuous membrane that prevents direct contact between two adjacent droplets. Some oil-in-water emulsion compositions can readily be diluted with water to a desired concentration without impairing their anti-pathogenic properties. 
     In addition to discrete oil droplets dispersed in an aqueous phase, oil-in-water emulsions can also contain other lipid structures, such as small lipid vesicles (e.g., lipid spheres that often consist of several substantially concentric lipid bilayers separated from each other by layers of aqueous phase), micelles (e.g., amphiphilic molecules in small clusters of 50-200 molecules arranged so that the polar head groups face outward toward the aqueous phase and the apolar tails are sequestered inward away from the aqueous phase), or lamellar phases (lipid dispersions in which each particle consists of parallel amphiphilic bilayers separated by thin films of water). These lipid structures are formed as a result of hydrophobic forces that drive apolar residues (e.g., long hydrocarbon chains) away from water. The lipid preparations can generally be described as surfactant lipid preparations (SLPs). SLPs are minimally toxic to mucous membranes and are believed to be metabolized within the small intestine (see e.g., Hamouda et al., (1998)  J. Infect. Disease  180: 1939). 
     The emulsion can comprise a discontinuous oil phase distributed in an aqueous phase, a first component comprising an alcohol (e.g., ethanol) and/or glycerol, and a second component comprising a surfactant or a halogen-containing compound. The aqueous phase can comprise any type of aqueous phase including, but not limited to, water (e.g., deionized water, distilled water, water-for-injection, tap water) and solutions (e.g., phosphate buffered saline solution, or other buffer systems). The oil phase can comprise any type of oil including, but not limited to, plant oils (e.g., soybean oil, avocado oil, flaxseed oil, coconut oil, cottonseed oil, squalene oil, olive oil, canola oil, corn oil, rapeseed oil, safflower oil, and sunflower oil), animal oils (e.g., fish oil), flavor oil, water insoluble vitamins, or mineral oil. Generally, the oil phase comprises about 30 to about 90 volume % of the oil-in-water emulsion (i.e., constitutes 30-90% of the total volume of the final emulsion), more preferably from about 50 to about 80 volume % of the emulsion. 
     The emulsion can also include a halogen-containing compound such as a chloride salt (e.g., NaCl, KCl, etc.), a cetylpyridinium halide, a cetyltrimethylammonium halide, a cetyldimethylethylammonium halide, a cetyldimethylbenzylammonium halide, a cetyltributylphosphonium halide, a dodecyltrimethylammonium halide, a tetradecyltrimethylammonium halide, cetylpyridinium chloride, cetyltrimethylammonium chloride, cetylbenzyldimethylammonium chloride, cetylpyridinium bromide, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, cetyldimethylethylammonium bromide, cetyltributylphosphonium bromide, dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide, or tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide. 
     The emulsion can also include a quaternary ammonium compound such as N-alkyldimethyl benzyl ammonium saccharinate; 1,3,5-Triazine-1,3,5(2H,4H,6H)-triethanol; 1-Decanaminium, N-decyl-N,N-dimethyl-, chloride (or) Didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride; 2-(2-(p-(Diisobuyl)cresosxy)ethoxy)ethyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride; 2-(2-(p-(Diisobutyl)phenoxy)ethoxy)ethyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride; alkyl-1- or 3-benzyl-1-(2-hydroxethyl)-2-imidazolinium chloride; alkyl bis(2-hydroxyethyl)benzyl ammonium chloride; alkyl demethyl benzyl ammonium chloride; alkyl dimethyl 3,4-dichlorobenzyl ammonium chloride (100% C12); alkyl dimethyl 3,4-dichlorobenzyl ammonium chloride (50% C14, 40% C12, 10% C16); alkyl dimethyl 3,4-dichlorobenzyl ammonium chloride (55% C14, 23% C12, 20% C16); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride; alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (100% C14); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (100% C16); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (41% C14, 28% C12); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (47% C12, 18% C14); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (55% C16, 20% C14); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (58% C14, 28% C16); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (60% C14, 25% C12); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (61% C11, 23% C14); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (61% C12, 23% C14); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (65% C12, 25% C14); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (67% C12, 24% C14); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (67% C12, 25% C14); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (90% C14, 5% C12); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (93% C14, 4% C12); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (95% C16, 5% C18); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (and) didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride; alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (as in fatty acids); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (C12-C16); alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (C12-C18); alkyl dimethyl benzyl and dialkyl dimethyl ammonium chloride; alkyl dimethyl dimethybenzyl ammonium chloride; alkyl dimethyl ethyl ammonium bromide (90% C14, 5% C16, 5% C12); alkyl dimethyl ethyl ammonium bromide (mixed alkyl and alkenyl groups as in the fatty acids of soybean oil); alkyl dimethyl ethylbenzyl ammonium chloride; alkyl dimethyl ethylbenzyl ammonium chloride (60% C14); alkyl dimethyl isoproylbenzyl ammonium chloride (50% C12, 30% C14, 17% C16, 3% C18); alkyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (58% C18, 40% C16, 1% C14, 1% C12); alkyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (90% C18, 10% C16); alkyldimethyl(ethylbenzyl) ammonium chloride (C12-18); Di-(C8-10)-alkyl dimethyl ammonium chlorides; dialkyl dimethyl ammonium chloride; dialkyl dimethyl ammonium chloride; dialkyl dimethyl ammonium chloride; dialkyl methyl benzyl ammonium chloride; didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride; diisodecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride; dioctyl dimethyl ammonium chloride; dodecyl bis(2-hydroxyethyl) octyl hydrogen ammonium chloride; dodecyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride; dodecylcarbamoyl methyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride; heptadecyl hydroxyethylimidazolinium chloride; hexahydro-1,3,5-tris(2-hydroxyethyl)-s-triazine; myristalkonium chloride and/or quaternium-14; N,N-dimethyl-2-hydroxypropylammonium chloride polymer; n-alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride; n-alkyl dimethyl ethylbenzyl ammonium chloride; n-tetradecyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride monohydrate; octyl decyl dimethyl ammonium chloride; octyl dodecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride; octyphenoxyethoxyethyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride; oxydiethylenebis (alkyl dimethyl ammonium chloride); dicoco alkyldimethyl, chloride; trimethoxysily propyl dimethyl octadecyl ammonium chloride; trimethoxysilyl quats, trimethyl dodecylbenzyl ammonium chloride; n-dodecyl dimethyl ethylbenzyl ammonium chloride; n-hexadecyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride; n-tetradecyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride; n-tetradecyl dimethyl ethylbenzyl ammonium chloride; or n-octadecyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride. 
     Nanoemulsion formulations and methods of making such are well known to those of skill in the art and described for example in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,476,393, 7,468,402, 7,314,624, 6,998,426, 6,902,737, 6,689,371, 6,541,018, 6,464,990, 6,461,625, 6,419,946, 6,413,527, 6,375,960, 6,335,022, 6,274,150, 6,120,778, 6,039,936, 5,925,341, 5,753,241, 5,698,219, an d5,152,923 and in Fanun et al. (2009)  Microemulsions: Properties and Applications  ( Surfactant Science ), CRC Press, Boca Raton Fl. 
     Cosmetic Formulations. 
     One or more of the peptides described herein can be incorporated into formulations for cosmetic use. Such cosmetic formulations can be for topical application and can be formulated as skin creams (e.g., face creams) or body lotions, wrinkle-removing creams, or incorporated into cosmetics, sunscreens, or moisturizers. 
     The peptides can be incorporated into formulations that optionally further include fillers, moisturizers, vitamins (e.g., vitamin E), and/or colorants/tints. 
     Suitable injectable cosmetic formulations include, but are not limited to, formulations incorporating one or more of the peptides in combination with one or more filler materials. Illustrative materials usable as injectable cosmetic wrinkle fillers include, but are not limited to, temporary (absorbable) fillers such as collagen (e.g., synthetic collagen, bovine collagen, porcine collagen, human collagen, etc.), hyaluronic acid gel, calcium hydroxylapatite (typically implanted in the form of a gel), or poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA). The peptides can also be incorporated into injectable cosmetic formulations containing permanent (non-absorbable) fillers. Illustrative “permanent” fillers include, but are not limited to, polymethylmethacrylate beads (PMMA microspheres). 
     The peptides described herein can be incorporated into or administered in conjunction with commercial dermal fillers (e.g., RADIESSE® volumizing filler (about 30% by volume calcium hydroxylapatite (CaHA) microspheres (diameter of 25 μm to 45 μm) suspended in a sodium carboxymethylcellulose gel carrier)), JUVEDERM® injectable gel (a crosslinked hyaluronic acid produced by  Streptococcus equi  bacteria, formulated to a concentration of 24 mg/mL, optionally with 0.3% w/w lidocaine, in a physiologic buffer), RESTYLANE® dermal filler (a gel of 20 mg/mL hyaluronic acid generated by  Streptococcus  species of bacteria, chemically crosslinked with BDDE, and suspended in phosphate buffered saline), SCULPTRA® Aesthetic injectable implant (suspension containing microparticles of poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA), carboxymethylcellulose, non-pyrogenic mannitol and sterile water for injection). 
     Such injectable formulations can additionally include an anesthetic (e.g., lidocaine or an analog thereof). 
     The injectable formulations are substantially sterile or sterile and/or meet regulatory agency guidelines for subcutaneous injectable fillers 
     Dose/Administration 
     The peptides described herein can be administered to a subject using any route known in the art, including e.g., by injection (e.g., intravenous, intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, intramuscular, or intradermal), inhalation, transdermal application, rectal administration, vaginal administration, or oral administration. Preferred routes of administration include subcutaneous, transdermal, or topical application. 
     An effective amount of the peptides can be administered via local (i.e., non-systemic) administration, such as by peripheral administration which includes, but is not limited to, peripheral intramuscular, intraglandular, and subcutaneous administration. 
     Administration of the peptide(s) can be in any convenient manner, e.g., by injection, intravenous and arterial stents (including eluting stents), catheter, oral administration, inhalation, transdermal application, rectal administration, and the like. 
     The peptides can be formulated with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, e.g., as described above, prior to administration. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers are determined in part by the particular composition being administered, as well as by the particular method used to administer the composition. Accordingly, there are a wide variety of suitable formulations for the peptides described herein (see, e.g.,  Remington&#39;s Pharmaceutical Sciences,  17th ed., 1989). 
     The dose administered to a subject, in the context of the methods described herein should be sufficient to effect a beneficial therapeutic response (e.g., increased subcutaneous adipogenesis) in the subject over time. The dose will be determined by the efficacy of the particular vehicle/delivery method employed, the site of administration, the route of administration, and the condition of the subject, as well as the body weight or surface area of the subject to be treated. The size of the dose also will be determined by the existence, nature, and extent of any adverse side-effects that accompany the administration of a particular peptide in a particular subject. 
     The terms “effective amount” or “amount effective to” or “therapeutically effective amount” refers to an amount sufficient to induce a detectable therapeutic (or cosmetic) response in the subject (e.g. an amount sufficient to induce or to potentiate adipogenesis). In determining the effective amount of peptide to be administered, the attending physician will decide the dosage with which to treat each individual patient, taking into consideration a variety of factors, such as age, body weight, general health, diet, sex, peptide and formulation to be administered, route of administration, the severity of the condition being treated and the response of the subject and any adverse effects (e.g., irritation or allergies). The peptides described herein can also be administered at a rate determined by the LD 50  of the peptide and/or the therapeutic efficacy/activity of the peptide, and the side-effects of the peptide at various concentrations, as applied to the mass and overall health of the subject. 
     The dose of peptide can vary widely, and will be selected primarily based on activity of the active ingredient, and body weight in accordance with the particular mode of administration selected and the subject&#39;s needs. Concentrations, however, will typically be selected to provide dosages ranging from about 0.1 to about 50 mg/kg/day or more. Typical dosages range from about 1 mg/kg/day to about 50 mg/kg/day, about 2 mg/kg/day to about 30 mg/kg/day, or about 3 mg/kg/day to about 20 mg/kg/day, such as about 3 mg/kg/day to about 3.5 mg/kg/day, preferably from about 3.5 mg/kg/day to about 7.2 mg/kg/day, more preferably from about 7.2 mg/kg/day to about 11.0 mg/kg/day, or most preferably from about 11.0 mg/kg/day to about 15.0 mg/kg/day. Dosages of peptides can range from about 10 mg/kg/day to about 50 mg/kg/day. Alternatively, the dosages can range from about 20 mg to about 50 mg given twice daily. It will be appreciated that such dosages may be varied to optimize a therapeutic and/or cosmetic regimen in a particular subject or group of subjects. 
     Administration can be accomplished via single or divided doses, e.g., doses administered on a regular basis (e.g., once daily or twice daily) for a period of time (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 days or 1-3 weeks or more). 
     The peptides described herein can be administered systemically (e.g., orally, or as an injectable) in accordance with standard methods well known to those of skill in the art. Peptides can be administered to the oral cavity in various forms such as lozenges, aerosol sprays, mouthwash, coated swabs, and the like. Various buccal, and sublingual formulations are also contemplated. The peptides can be administered in a depot formulation when formulated as an injectable to provide treatment over a period of time. 
     The peptides can be administered topically, e.g., to the skin surface, to a topical lesion or wound, to a surgical site, and the like. 
     The peptides can also be delivered through the skin using conventional transdermal drug delivery systems, i.e., transdermal “patches” wherein the peptides are typically contained within a laminated structure that serves as a drug delivery device to be affixed to the skin. In such a structure, the drug composition is typically contained in a layer, or “reservoir,” underlying an upper backing layer. The term “reservoir” in this context refers to a quantity of active ingredient that is ultimately available for delivery to the surface of the skin. Thus, for example, the “reservoir” may include the active ingredient peptide in an adhesive on a backing layer of the patch, or in any of a variety of different matrix formulations known to those of skill in the art. The patch may contain a single reservoir, or it may contain multiple reservoirs. For example, the reservoir can comprise a polymeric matrix of a pharmaceutically acceptable contact adhesive material that serves to affix the system to the skin during drug delivery. Examples of suitable skin contact adhesive materials include, but are not limited to, polyethylenes, polysiloxanes, polyisobutylenes, polyacrylates, polyurethanes, and the like. Alternatively, for example, the drug-containing reservoir and skin contact adhesive are present as separate and distinct layers, with the adhesive underlying the reservoir which, in this case, may be either a polymeric matrix as described above, or it may be a liquid or hydrogel reservoir, or may take some other form. The backing layer in these laminates, which serves as the upper surface of the device, preferably functions as a primary structural element of the “patch” and provides the device with much of its flexibility. The material selected for the backing layer is preferably substantially impermeable to the peptides and any other materials that are present. 
     Other formulations for topical delivery include, but are not limited to, ointments, gels, sprays, fluids, and creams. Ointments are semisolid preparations that are typically based on petrolatum or other petroleum derivatives. As with other carriers or vehicles, an ointment base should be inert, stable, nonirritating and nonsensitizing. Creams containing the selected peptide are typically viscous liquid or semisolid emulsions, often either oil-in-water or water-in-oil. Cream bases are typically water-washable, and contain an oil phase, an emulsifier and an aqueous phase. The oil phase, also sometimes called the “internal” phase, is generally comprised of petrolatum and a fatty alcohol such as cetyl or stearyl alcohol; the aqueous phase usually, although not necessarily, exceeds the oil phase in volume, and generally contains a humectant. The emulsifier in a cream formulation is generally a nonionic, anionic, cationic or amphoteric surfactant. The specific ointment or cream base to be used, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, is one that will provide for optimum drug delivery. 
     One or more peptides described herein can be provided as a “concentrate”, e.g., in a storage container (e.g., in a premeasured volume) ready for dilution, or in a soluble capsule ready for addition to a volume of water, alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, or other diluent. For example, the peptides can be lyophilized for later reconstitution. 
     Illustrative Uses 
     The adipogenic peptides (or mimetics thereof) described herein find use in a number of applications. For example, enhancing the formation of subcutaneous fat has use in plastic surgery procedures since subcutaneous fat provides plumpness and firmness to skin. Aging skin contains less subcutaneous fat. Therefore administering one or more peptides described herein to the desired area to promote subcutaneous fat formation results in plumper and more youthful appearing skin. This approach can replace current methods for transplanting adipocytes from other areas of the body (e.g., the thigh or buttocks), a procedure that often exhibits a low success rate. 
     The peptides described herein can be administered to selectively enhance subcutaneous adipose tissue (e.g., to enhance subcutaneous adipose tissue without substantially increasing visceral adipose and/or other adipose tissue). In response to administration of the peptides, adipocyte formation occurs in dermal fibroblasts and volume is added in a selected subcutaneous area in the subject. 
     The peptides described herein can be used to reducing scarring. This can be accomplished by administering one or more of the peptides in an amount sufficient to reduce the area of scarring, and/or to improve the appearance of a scarred area. The scarring, for example, can be scarring produced by a burn, scarring produced by surgery, scarring produced by acne, scarring produced by a biopsy, or scarring produced by an injury. 
     The peptides described herein can be used, e.g., in various cosmetic procedures, to improve the appearance of skin. This can be accomplished by administering one or more of the peptides in an amount sufficient to improve the appearance of skin in an area of a subject. Such administering can include subcutaneously administration to a region such as lips, eye lids, cheeks, forehead, chin, neck, and the like. The peptides can be used in these methods, or others to reduce wrinkles, reduce sagging skin, improve the surface texture of skin, diminish, remove or fill-in wrinkles, remove or diminish age spots, and/or remove dark circles under the eyes. These cosmetic applications are illustrative and not intended to be limiting. In view of the teachings provided herein, other cosmetic applications will be recognized by and available to one of skill in the art. 
     The peptides described herein can be used to improve tissue volume in an area of a subject. This can be accomplished by administering one or more of the peptides described herein in an amount sufficient to increase tissue volume in an area of a subject. For example, the increase of tissue volume can involve firming or augmenting breast tissue and/or firming or augmenting tissue in the buttocks or other regions of the body or face. 
     The peptides can also be used to smooth skin in an area of a subject. This can be accomplished by administering one or more of the peptides described herein in an amount sufficient to smooth skin in the desired area. The smoothing can include smoothing skin scarred by acne, smoothing areas of cellulite, smoothing or reducing stretch marks, and/or smoothing out wrinkles. 
     The peptides described herein can be used to recruit stem cells to the formation of subcutaneous fat in a subject. This can be accomplished by administering one or more of the peptides described herein in an amount sufficient to recruit stem cells to the formation of subcutaneous fat. This has utility, for example, in various reconstructive surgical procedures and the like. 
     The peptides described herein can be used to reconstructing tissue in a subject. Such reconstruction can include, for example, breast reconstruction (e.g. after surgery to remove tumors), or face or limb reconstruction (e.g. after car accident or burning). This can be accomplished by administering one or more of the peptides described herein in an amount to increase the volume of the tissue during or after a tissue reconstruction procedure. The peptides are optionally used in conjunction with tissue grafting material or other procedures that enhance youthful skin or repair of damaged tissues. 
     The peptides can also be used to reduce heel pain in a subject by administering one or more of the peptides described herein in an amount sufficient to reduce heel pain experienced by the subject when walking. 
     The peptides described herein can be administered for augmentation of subcutaneous fat to improve thermo regulation and/or improve immune function. The subject can be treated with the peptides to prevent disease or to treat ongoing disease associated with increased organ fat including but not limited to cardiovascular disease, and other obesity associated diseases. 
     The administration in any of these methods can be local or systemic, and can be by any route described herein, such as topical, subcutaneous, transdermal, oral, nasal, vaginal, and/or rectal administration. Preferably, the peptides are administered by subcutaneous injection. Alternatively, the peptides are preferably administered topically in the form of a skin cream such as a face cream, or transdermally via a transdermal patch. 
     While the uses and methods are described with respect to use in humans, they are also suitable for animal, e.g., veterinary use. Thus certain preferred organisms include, but are not limited to humans, non-human primates, canines, equines, felines, porcines, ungulates, largomorphs, and the like. 
     Having described the invention in detail, it will be apparent that modifications and variations are possible without departing from the scope of the invention defined in the appended claims. 
     EXAMPLES 
     The following examples are offered to illustrate, but not to limit the claimed invention. 
     Example 1: Assays to Measure Adipogenesis 
     The following assays were used to assess adipogenic activity of the peptides in the experiments described below in Example 2. 
     Assay 1 
     Reagents: (1) 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX) solution: 0.5M in DMSO; (2) Insulin solution: 10 mg/mL recombinant human insulin; (3) Dexamethasone solution in 10 mM in ethanol; (4) Oil Red 0 (0.36% in 60% isopropanol) or BODIPY dye (BODIPY 493/503 (4,4-difluoro-1,3,5,7-tetramethyl-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indacene-8-propionic acid, succinimidyl ester) from Invitrogen at 4-10 μM). 
     Preparation of Media: 
     Adipogenesis Initiation Media: mesenchymal stem cell expansion media/0.5 mM IBMX/1 μM dexamethasone. Mesenchymal stem cell expansion media is commercially available from Millipore. The IBMX Solution was diluted 1:1000 and the Dexamethasone Solution was diluted 1:10,000 in expansion media containing antibiotics and antimycotics. The prepared media was stored at 4° C. 
     Adipogenesis Progression Media for positive control: mesenchymal stem cell expansion media/10 μg/mL insulin. The Insulin Solution was diluted 1:1000 in the expansion media and stored at 4° C. 
     Experimental Adipogenesis Progression Media: mesenchymal stem cell expansion media/1-100 μg/mL RHAMM antagonist peptides. 
     Adipogenesis Maintenance Media: mesenchymal stem cell expansion media containing antibiotics and antimycotics. 
     Negative Control Media: DMEM/10% normal calf serum. 
     Assay Method: 
     Pre-adipocyte stem cells including bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and fibroblasts including reticular and papillary dermal fibroblasts were propagated using standard tissue culture methods. Cells were trypsinized to remove the cells from the substratum. The trypsin was neutralized and cells were counted using a hemocytometer. Cells were resuspended at 30,000 cells/mL in expansion media. 1 mL of cell suspension was plated per well of 24-well plate, with several wells left empty for blank well staining. 
     Cells were incubated for 1-2 days until they reached confluency. Approximately 1.8 mL of media was removed from each well and replaced with 2 mL Adipogenesis Initiation Media. For negative control wells, expansion media only was used at this step and for subsequent media changes. For all media changes, media was replaced as gently as possible to avoid disturbing the monolayer. 
     Cells were incubated for 48 hours at 37° C., 5% CO 2 . 2 mL media was removed from each well, and replaced with 2 mL either positive control or experimental Adipogenesis Progression Media per well. Cells were again incubated for 48 hours at 37° C., 5% CO 2 . 2 mL of media was removed from each well and replaced with 2 mL Adipogenesis Maintenance Media per well. In addition, media was added to the empty wells reserved for blank well staining Cells were incubated for at least 48 hours at 37° C., 5% CO 2 . Media was replaced every 48-72 hours. Accumulation of intracellular lipid droplets continued for at least 5 days. 
     Quantification of Adipogenesis: 
     Oil Red O Staining 
     For quantification of Oil Red 0 staining, media was removed and cells were washed twice with PBS, using care to gently add the PBS. 0.5 mL Oil Red 0 solution was added per well of 24-well plate, including to the wells lacking cells, but containing media. Cells were incubated for 15 minutes at room temperature. The staining solution was then removed and wells were washed three times with 1 mL of phosphate buffered saline (PBS). In some experiments, following removal of the last wash, stained plates were scanned or photographed. 
     Adipogenesis was quantified using a spectrophotometer or fluorometer. 0.25 mL Dye Extraction Solution (isopropyl alcohol) was added per well, and the plate was set on an orbital shaker or platform rocker for 15-30 minutes. Extracted dye was transferred into a cuvette and absorbance was read in a spectrophotometer at visible range for oil red 0 or transferred to a 96-well plate and quantified in a plate reader. 
     BODIPY Staining 
     For quantification of BODIPY dye uptake, media was removed and cells were washed twice with PBS, using care to gently add the PBS. Cells were then fixed in 3% paraformaldehyde, washed in PBS then incubated for 1 hour in the dark with the BODIPY solution, prepared in PBS. Monolayers were washed and then extracted for measurement of dye in a fluorometer or mounted on slides and examined in a confocal fluorescent microscope. 
     Blank Well Staining 
     The stain extracted from wells lacking cells represents non-specific binding of the dye to the plate. This value was subtracted from the absorbances of experimental wells to obtain a more accurate assessment of specific staining 
     Assay 2 
     Reagents: 
     The dexamethasone, insulin, and Oil Red 0 solutions were the same as described above for assay 1. Indomethacin Solution contained 10 mM indomethacin in methanol. The BODIPY 493/503 dye was used at a concentration of 4 μM. 
     Preparation of Media: 
     Adipogenesis Maintenance Media was prepared as described above. 
     Adipogenesis Induction Media: To prepare 501 mL of Adipogenesis Induction Media, 50 μL of the 10 mM stock solution of dexamethasone, 500 μL of the 10 mg/ml stock solution of insulin, 5 ml of a 10 mM stock solution of indomethacin, and 5 mL of a 100× stock solution of penicillin and streptomycin were added to 490 mL of mesenchymal stem cell expansion media. 
     Assay Method: 
     Pre-adipocyte stem cells, bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and fibroblasts such as dermal reticular and papillary fibroblasts were propagated using standard tissue culture methods. Cells were trypsinized to remove cells from the substratum, the trypsin was neutralized, and cells were counted using a hemocytometer. Cells were resuspended at 60,000 cells/ml in low glucose DMEM containing 10% calf serum. 1 mL of cell suspension per well was plated in a 24-well plate, with several wells left empty for blank well staining. 
     Cells were incubated overnight and had reached confluency at this point. Approximately 1.8 ml of media was removed from each well and replaced with 2 ml Adipogenesis Induction Media. For negative control wells, expansion medium only was used at this step and for subsequent media changes. For all media changes, media was replaced as gently as possible to avoid disturbing the monolayer. 
     Cells were incubated for 3 days at 37° C., 5% CO 2 , media was replaced with fresh Adipogenesis Induction Media, and cells were incubated for an additional three days, at which point adipogenesis could be observed in about 5-10% of cells. Media was removed and replaced with 2 ml of maintenance medium containing either RHAMM antagonist peptides (experimental group) or insulin (concentration as in the induction medium used as positive control). Cells were incubated for 3 days at 37° C., 5% CO 2 . 
     Media was removed and BODIPY or Oil Red O staining was performed as described above for assay 1. 
     Example 2: Identification and Testing of Adipogenic Peptides 
     We previously showed that ablation of RHAMM expression promoted adipogenesis (Tolg et al., 2006, J Cell Biol). We produced a RHAMM carboxy-terminal sequence [ AA681 LDAFEAEKQA LLNEHGATQE QLNKIRDSYA QLLGHQNLKQ KIKHVVKLKD ENSQLKSEVS KLRSQLVKRK QNELRLQGEL DKALGIRHFD PSKAFCHASK ENFTPLKEGN PNCC aa794  (SEQ ID NO: 91)] as a recombinant protein, prepared antibodies to this protein fragment, and showed that both the protein fragment and the antibody promoted adipogenesis using a commercially available mesenchymal stem cell kit. The results indicated that this 114 amino acid protein fragment contains adipogenic activity. 
     We hypothesized that the fragment and the antibody were blocking RHAMM function by competitive inhibition and by direct binding/blocking of RHAMM, respectively. Using truncation analyses, we further reduced the size of the peptide to 32 amino acids (LKQKIKHVVKLKDENSQLKSEVSKLRSQLVKR (SEQ ID NO: 92)) and showed that adipogenic activity is localized to a 15 amino acid peptide (KLKDENSQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 2); “peptide B” or “B-1” herein) shown in  FIG. 2 . We synthesized this peptide chemically to use as a competitive blocker and we prepared antibodies against this sequence tagged with keyhold lymphocyte hemacyanin (KLH) to directly bind/block RHAMM function. Both reagents effectively block RHAMM function and promote adipogenesis in tissue culture and in vivo. 
     We noted that the RHAMM sequence that contains adipogenic activity also contains the hyaluronan binding region of this protein. We therefore performed unbiased screening of a random phage library for peptides that bind to hyaluronan, and identified a hyaluronan binding peptide (SEQ ID NO: 1, peptide P15-1, also referred to as P-1) that similarly promotes adipogenesis in tissue culture and in vivo. The sequence of peptide P15-1 is shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     Examples of the adipogenic effects of RHAMM antagonists (peptide B (SEQ ID NO: 2), peptide P15-1 (SEQ ID NO. 1), and the antibody to peptide B) are summarized in Table 1. Peptide P15-1, peptide B, and a RHAMM antibody were assayed for their effects on pre-adipocyte stem cells in culture and when injected into the dermis of aged rats. Reagents were ranked on a scale of 0-5 with 5 representing the highest possible score and a completely filled in Harvey ball. “2D” refers to two-dimensional tissue culture. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 The adipogenic potential of peptide and antibody reagents. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 2D rat 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Pre-adipocytes (rat 
                 In vivo 
                 2D human 
               
               
                   
                 mesenchymal stem cells) 
                 Rat skin 
                 Pre-adipocytes 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 peptide P15-1 
                 2 
                 2 
                 2 
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 1) 
               
               
                 peptide B 
                 5 
                 5 
                 5 
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 2) 
               
               
                 Antibody 
                 4 
                 4 
                 4 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     All of these reagents can replace insulin in their ability to promote adipogenesis in mesenchymal stem cells or papillary fibroblasts. However, peptide B (SEQ ID NO: 2) was the most adipogenic of these reagents (Table 1) and was therefore further characterized in culture for dose range activity and several animal models in vivo. 
       FIG. 3A  shows the adipogenic effect of insulin in assays 1 and 2 in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. The negative controls in this experiment were cells cultured in maintenance medium only. 
     As shown in  FIGS. 3B and 3C , and the micrographs in  FIG. 4 , in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, a maximum adipogenic effect was obtained at 1-5 μg of peptide B (SEQ ID NO: 2), depending upon the screening assay used.  FIG. 4  shows the adipogenic effect of peptide B in rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells using assay 1. The arrows in  FIG. 4  indicate lipid droplets, and “priming stimulus” refers to the treatment of the cells with dexamethasone and IBMX. 
     In vivo, 25-50 μg of peptide B (SEQ ID NO: 2)/injection site in a rat dermal skin model of adipogenesis induced significant fat accumulation (fat pads shown in  FIG. 10 ). There was not an obvious difference between the two types of adipogenic reagents in vivo and both were most effective in old females (see,  FIGS. 5A and 5B ). In  FIGS. 5A and 5B , data are shown as a ratio of the area (“surface area”) of fat pads expressed as a ratio of experimental/control values.  FIG. 5A  shows the effect of the antibody to peptide B and  FIG. 5B  shows the effect of peptide B. 
     Peptide B (SEQ ID NO: 2) was also tested for its effect in nude guinea pigs since their skin structure resembles human facial skin. In particular, the skin of this animal model is more similar to human skin than is rat skin, in that it is hairless and the keratinocyte layer is thicker than in the rat model. As shown in  FIG. 6 , H and E staining revealed an increase in subcutaneous fat deposition was observed on the upper back of these animals and in the ear fat pad after injection of peptide B in both locations (control animals were injected with a collagen gel vehicle only). Thus, peptide B was effective in promoting adipogenesis in this nude guinea pig model. 
     In order to identify additional adipogenic peptides and to identify the key adipogenic sequences, two approaches were used. In the first, an unbiased screen was performed to identify hyaluronan-binding peptides using 15-mer random phage libraries. Peptide sequences identified in this screen were sorted for: (a) their alignment to the HA binding region of RHAMM, and (b) their lack of alignment to the HA binding region of CD44. Peptide P15-1 was identified in this manner. Peptide P15-1 has the sequence STMMSRSHKTRSHHV (SEQ ID NO: 1). 
     In the second approach, a series of truncations and alanine mutagenesis on peptide B (SEQ ID NO: 2) were performed in order to identify the smallest active sequence. Fragments of peptide B were prepared and assayed for adipogenesis. First, fragments corresponding to the two halves of peptide B were prepared (KLKDENS (SEQ ID NO:93) and SQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 44)). Only the SQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 44) fragment was found to be adipogenic. This fragment was then further shortened to LKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 42) and KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3), both of which were also found to be adipogenic. Thus, the truncation experiments identified a 9-mer (SQLKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 44)), a 7-mer (LKSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 42)) and a 6-mer (KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3)) that exhibited adipogenic activity (see  FIGS. 7, 8, and 9 ). In  FIG. 7 , the 7-mer is referred to as Fragment A and the 9-mer is referred to as Fragment C. In  FIGS. 8 and 9 , “−ve control” refers to the negative control, and “+ve control” refer so the positive control).  FIG. 8  shows the adipogenic effects of the 6-mer (KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3)) in assays 1 and 2. In  FIG. 9 , the upper panel of micrographs shows results from assays 1 and 2, and the lower panel of micrographs shows results from assay 1. In the upper panel of  FIG. 9 , the panels labeled “control” are a positive control (induction plus insulin). In the lower panel of  FIG. 9 , the cells in the untreated control were treated only with maintenance medium. 
     Peptide P15-1 (SEQ ID NO: 1) was also truncated to create a 9-mer having the sequence STMMSRSHK (“Fragment B”; SEQ ID NO: 62). As shown in  FIG. 7 , this 9-mer also has adipogenic activity. 
     As shown in  FIG. 7 , these fragments all had approximately the same adipogenic activity suggesting that the specific activity (activity per weight unit) is highest for the 6-mer KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3). Specific activities (Table 2) were calculated for peptide B (SEQ ID NO: 2) and the 9-mer, 7-mer and 6-mer fragments (SEQ ID NOs: 44, 42, and 3, respectively) using adipogenesis data obtained in assays 1 and 2 as described above, and it was unexpectedly found that the 6-mer had the highest specific activity. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Specific activity of peptide B and the 9-, 7-, and 6-mers. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Specific 
               
               
                   
                 Molecular 
                 Fold adipogenic 
                 activity 
               
               
                   
                 weight 
                 induction vs. 
                 (activity/ 
               
               
                   
                 (daltons) 
                 negative control 
                 1000 daltons) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Assay 1 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Peptide B (15mer) 
                 1839 
                 1.85 
                 1.0 
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 2) 
               
               
                 9mer (SEQ ID NO: 44) 
                 1135 
                 2.4 
                 2.1 
               
               
                 7mer (SEQ ID NO: 42) 
                 884 
                 2 
                 2.3 
               
               
                 6mer (SEQ ID NO: 3) 
                 753 
                 2.8 
                 3.7 
               
               
                 Assay 2 
               
               
                 15mer (SEQ ID NO: 2) 
                 1839 
                 3.1 
                 1.7 
               
               
                 9mer (SEQ ID NO: 44) 
                 1135 
                 3.0 
                 2.6 
               
               
                 7mer (SEQ ID NO: 42) 
                 884 
                 3.0 
                 3.4 
               
               
                 6mer (SEQ ID NO: 3) 
                 753 
                 4.2 
                 5.6 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     These results were surprising and unexpected and show that a shorter peptide is more active than longer peptides. In particular, the increased specific activity of the 6-mer (KSEVSK; SEQ ID NO: 3) as compared to peptide B (SEQ ID NO: 2; a 15-mer) was unexpected, since both the 6-mer and peptide B contain the same number key hyaluronan binding sequences. 
     The 6-mer (KSEVSK; SEQ ID NO: 3) was tested for adipogenic effect in rat skin in vivo. The results of this testing are shown in the photographs in  FIG. 10 . The 6-mer is able to induce large fat pads, possibly larger than peptide B. 
     To identify the key amino acids needed for an adipogenic effect, alanine mutagenesis of the 6-mer (KSEVSK; SEQ ID NO: 3) was performed. Since there appears to be a link between hyaluronan binding and adipogenesis and since hyaluronan binding requires basic residues, the flanking lysine (K) residues were first mutated. As shown in  FIGS. 11 and 12 , the peptides ASEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 38) and KSEVSA (SEQ ID NO: 41) both had reduced adipogenic effects as compared to the KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3) 6-mer when tested using assay 1 ( FIG. 11 ) or assay 2 ( FIG. 12 ). 
     In addition, shorter sequences were also examined and it was discovered that pentamers also exhibited adipogenic activity. Pentamers in which each of the flanking lysine residues were deleted were also synthesized. As shown in  FIG. 13 , these pentamers (KSEVS (SEQ ID NO. 82) and SEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 83)) were both much less active than the KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3) hexamer, further confirming the importance of the terminal lysine residues. However, both pentamers still exhibited a low level of adipogenic activity (in  FIG. 13 , A2-Ctrl(−)X10 is the negative control, A2-1X10 is a dose of 1 μg, A2-5X10 is a dose of 5 μg, and A2-25X10 is a dose of 25 μg; y-axes are absorbance at 520 nm). 
     The results of truncating the KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3) peptide to pentamer peptides and of the alanine mutation experiments show that the loss of the flanking lysine residues reduces but does not ablate adipogenic activity, and indicate that presence of the two lysine residues can produce a peptide that has a high level of adipogenic activity. 
     To identify a minimal motif sufficient to impart adipogenic activity to a peptide, the KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3) hexamer was used to query the BLAST database to identify evolutionarily conserved sequences in RHAMM proteins from other organisms. The results of this query are shown below in Table 3. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3  
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Evolutionary conservation of the KSEVSK 
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 3) sequence in RHAMM proteins 
               
               
                 from various species. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Human, mouse, rat, cow, 
                 KSEVSK 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 3) 
               
               
                 and maccaca 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Goat 
                 KSEVLK 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 7) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 
                   Xenopus laevis 
                 
                 KQEVSK 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 4) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 
                   Ciona intestinalis 
                 
                 KQENTK 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 6) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 
                   Taeniopygia guttata 
                 
                 KQDVSK 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 8) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 
                   Danio rerio* 
                 
                 KQELDR 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 9) 
               
               
                   
                 KQEVDK 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 5) 
               
               
                   
                 KQEVSK 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 4) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 
                   Thermatoga thermerum 
                 
                 LEEIFK 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 10) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 
                   Thermodesulfovibrio 
                 
                 LSELEK 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 11) 
               
               
                 
                   yellowstonii 
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *The BLAST database includes Danio rerio RHAMM proteins sequences including each of the three listed sequences. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In addition, a BLAST query of the KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3) sequence identified a number of similar sequences found in other proteins linked to both adipogenesis and hyaluronan, for example Sox 2, Sox 21, and upstream binding factor-1. These sequences are shown below in Table 4. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4  
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3)-like sequences found in proteins linked to 
               
               
                 adipogenesis and hyaluronan. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Sequence (SEQ ID NO) 
                 Source Protein(s) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSEISK (12) 
                 cJnk interacting protein 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KNEVSK (13) 
                 Salvador homologue 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSEVTK (14) 
                 interleukin1 receptor accessory protein 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSEVNK (15) 
                 FAM 111B 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSDVSK (16) 
                 casp8-associated protein 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSQVSK (17) 
                 zinc finger protein 432 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  SEVSK (83) 
                 myb binding protein 1A, leucine-rich repeat containing 
               
               
                   
                 protein 16B, TOPB1 interacting check point and replication 
               
               
                   
                 regulator 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSEVS  (82) 
                 rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor 5, YLP motif 
               
               
                   
                 containing 1, ASP, mucin 16 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KPEVSK (18) 
                 proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSEVGK (19) 
                 cysteine/serine rich nuclear protein 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSDSSK (20) 
                 nipped B homologue 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSSPSK (21) 
                 nipped B-like protein 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSEASK (22) 
                 galanin receptor 1, WD repeating protein, myosine VI 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSELRK (23) 
                 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KCEVSK (24) 
                 titin isoform novex 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSKPSK (25) 
                 titin isoform novex 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KKEVSK (26) 
                 actin binding Rho-activation protein, RFX4, regulator of 
               
               
                   
                 nonsense transcripts 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KEEVSK (27) 
                 glucocorticoid-induced transcript 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSETSK (28) 
                 ERI1 exoribonuclease family member, tubulin tyrosine ligase 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSNVSK (29) 
                 leucine-rich repeat containing protein 8c 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KDEVSK (30) 
                 trasnlocated promoter region, nuclear basket protein 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSEVEK (31) 
                 hect and RLD domain containing E3 ubiquitin ligase 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSAVSK (32) 
                 nesprin 1, spectrin repeat containing nuclear envelope 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KWEVSK (33) 
                 renalase, FAD-dependent amine oxidase 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KMEVSK (34) 
                 zinc transporter 5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSEVQK (35) 
                 kinectin 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSEVHK (36) 
                 uncharacterized protein C14orf28 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KSSVSK (37) 
                 upstream binding transcription factor RNA polymerase, zinc 
               
               
                   
                 finger and BTB domain containing protein 1 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The sequences from Tables 3 and 4 were aligned with one another and used to generate the motifs described herein. In view of the diversity of the amino acids at the second, third, fourth, and fifth positions of these sequences, it is expected that alanine mutagenesis at these positions will yield peptides having at least some adipogenic activity. Therefore, in generating the broadest motifs discussed herein, it was assumed that an alanine residue could be present at the second, third, fourth, or fifth position of the peptide. 
     In addition, as noted above, peptide P15-1 (SEQ ID NO: 1) was truncated to create a 9-mer having the sequence STMMSRSHK (“Fragment B”; SEQ ID NO: 62), and this 9-mer was shown to have adipogenic activity. Alignments of peptide P15-1 with the KSEVSK (SEQ ID NO: 3) hexamer using the COBALT and MUSCLE alignment tools revealed that the sequence KSEVSK aligns with the STMMSR portion of peptide P15-1, as shown below: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 KSEVSK--------- 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 STMMSRSHKTRSHHV 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Thus, it is expected that shorter fragments of peptide P15-1 (SEQ ID NO: 1), and in particular the hexamer sequence STMMSR (SEQ ID NO: 51), will also have adipogenic activity. A BLAST query of the STMMSR sequence identified a number of similar sequences found in other proteins linked to both adipogenesis and hyaluronan, for example calcium binding protein 1, ribonuclease P protein, ADP ribosylation factor protein 5, transmembrane protein 236, plasma serine protease inhibitor, CD80, lysophosphatidic acid receptor, plasma serine protease inhibitor, angiopoietin 2, ADP-ribosylation factor binding protein, ubiquitin protein 2, clathrin heavy chain 2, metastasis suppressor protein 1, polycystin 2, and tetratricopeptide repeat protein 17. These sequences are shown below in Table 5. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5  
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 STMMSR-like sequences found in proteins 
               
               
                 linked to adipogenesis and hyaluronan. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Sequence 
                   
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO) 
                 Source Protein(s) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SIMMSR (52) 
                 B-cell/CLL lymphoma protein 9 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 STLMSR (53) 
                 FAM 212B, olfactory receptor 5R1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 STVMSR (54) 
                 dipeptidyl peptidase 4, splicing 
               
               
                   
                 factor 3B 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 STGLSR (55) 
                 E3 ubiquitin ligase RFWD2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 STTMSR (56) 
                 metastasis suppressor 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 STRMSR (57) 
                 E3 ubiquitin ligase, RFWD2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 STLMRR (58) 
                 mucin 16 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 STPVSR (59) 
                 mucin 16 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The sequences in Table 5 were aligned with one another and with the STMMSR sequence (SEQ ID NO: 51) to generate the motifs described herein. 
     It is understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and scope of the appended claims. All publications, patents, and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. 
     When introducing elements of the present invention or the preferred embodiments(s) thereof, the articles “a”, “an”, “the” and “said” are intended to mean that there are one or more of the elements. The terms “comprising”, “comprises”, “including” and “having” are intended to be inclusive and mean that there may be additional elements other than the listed elements. 
     In view of the above, it will be seen that the several objects of the invention are achieved and other advantageous results attained. 
     As various changes could be made in the above methods without departing from the scope of the invention, it is intended that all matter contained in the above description and shown in the accompanying figures shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting sense. All publications, patents, and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes.