Patent Publication Number: US-2017360861-A1

Title: Methods for extracting target compounds from cannabis

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This patent application claims the benefit of US Provisional Patent Application No. 62/091,452, filed Dec. 12, 2014, the entire contents of which is incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Methods and/or apparatus/instrumentation are disclosed herein for extracting and isolating target compounds, such as terpenes and terpenoids (e.g., cannabinoids such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), plant essential oils, etc.), alkaloids (e.g., nicotine), esters, amines, aromatics, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, lactones, thiols, and other volatile species found in, or derived from, botanical source materials, such as, for example compounds derived from hops, hemp,  cannabis,  tobacco, etc. (As used herein, “extract” refers to a substance obtained by extracting a raw material, using a solvent system.) 
     For example, cannabinoids are increasingly being used for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications. Cannabinoids are compounds derived from an annual plant in the Cannabaceae family. There have been identified about 400 cannabinoids. Although the relative percentage of cannabinoids in  Cannabis  plants varies greatly with genetic and environmental factors, major constituents typically include the tetrahydrocannabinols (collectively referred to as THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) along with minor constituents such as cannabichromene (CBC).  Cannabis sativa  has a higher level of THC compared to CBD, while  Cannabis indica  has a higher level of CBD compared to THC. It has been observed that  Cannabis  strains with relatively high CBD:THC ratios are less likely to induce anxiety than vice versa. This may be due to CBD&#39;s antagonistic effects at the cannabinoid receptors, compared to THC&#39;s partial agonist effect. CBD is also a 5-HT1A receptor (serotonin) agonist, which may also contribute to an anxiolytic-content effect. This likely means the high concentrations of CBD found in  Cannabis indica  mitigate the anxiogenic effect of THC significantly. The effects of  sativa  are well known for its cerebral high, while  indica  is well known for its sedative effects, which some prefer for night time use. Both types are used for medicinal purposes. For instance, THC and CBD are used for the treatment of a wide range of medical conditions, including glaucoma, AIDS wasting, neuropathic pain, treatment of spasticity associated with multiple sclerosis, fibromyalgia and chemotherapy-induced nausea. Additionally, THC has been reported to exhibit a therapeutic effect in the treatment of allergies, inflammation, infection, epilepsy, depression, migraine, bipolar disorders, anxiety disorder, and drug dependency and withdrawal syndromes. THC is particularly effective as an anti-emetic drug and is administered to curb emesis, a common side effect accompanying the use of opioid analgesics and anesthetics, highly active anti-retroviral therapy and cancer chemotherapy. 
     Cannabinoid compounds used in such applications are almost exclusively obtained from natural sources, for example, from plant tissue. Cannabinoid compounds are obtained from, for example, the trichomes of the  sativa  plant using various methods, including solvent extraction methodologies. Some draw backs associated with such methods include poor or inconsistent yields, high costs associated with growing and maintenance of the  cannabis  plant and costs associated with extraction and purification of extract and toxicity of such extraction solvents. Government regulations and security for  cannabis  plants are also an important consideration that adds to the overhead cost of producing extracts containing cannabinoid compounds. 
     Further, consumers of smoking or vaporizing articles are sensitive to a variety of characteristics that contribute to a pleasurable smoking or vaporizing experience, including among others the aroma of the smoking or vaporizing article itself, the aroma and flavour (“essences”) of the smoke or vapor generated by the smoking or vaporizing article upon ignition thereof, and the “mouthfeel” created by the smoke or vapor generated by the smoking or vaporizing article that has been inhaled. The term “mouthfeel” refers to the impact, body and other sensations (e.g., harshness, peppery, powdery, etc.) of the smoke or vapor produced upon ignition of the smoking article and inhalation of the smoke or vapor produced therefrom in the user&#39;s mouth. For example, the presence of undesirable plant constituents in a botanical extract of  cannabis,  tobacco, etc., such as chlorophyll, waxes, etc., is believed to impart a harsh or otherwise distasteful mouthfeel. As such, it will be advantageous for a botanical extraction method that is capable of isolating only desirable constituents or essences that impart a preferred mouthfeel or flavor without the above-mentioned undesirable constituents. 
     From a technical standpoint, conventional botanical extraction methods using non-aqueous solvents and the like are too crude or too complex, inefficient, time consuming, and/or expensive. Conventional methods of extraction that have been used to separate the above and other constituents of botanical materials, and to produce enriched extracts of same, include maceration, decoction, and extraction with aqueous and non-aqueous solvents, distillation and sublimation. 
     While there is a wide variety of extraction technologies to be applied to botanical materials, such extraction methodologies do not retain as many extracted target molecules once solvent is removed. In particular, no conventional extraction technology provides an optimum system where desirable target molecules are efficiently separated from a botanical material and dissolved into a solvent without concurrently extracting a high yield of undesirable wax and pigment molecules that decrease the purity and quality of the extract solution. Furthermore extraction solvents used in current methodologies are not effectively removed from the extracted materials without significant simultaneous loss of target molecules. 
     The “traditional” approach was to produce a decoction (by boiling the plant material in water) or to produce a solvent extract, e.g. an ethanolic extract (by, for example, reflux) and use either of those as a medicine. 
     Methods of extraction which have been used to separate constituents of plant medicines and to produce enriched extracts include maceration, decoction, and extraction with aqueous and non-aqueous solvents, distillation and sublimation. For example, maceration (softening by soaking) and decoction (concentrating by heating or boiling) methods rely on a short diffusion path. Constituents such as lecithins, flavonoids, glycosides and sugars are released and, in some cases, may act to solubilize other constituents which, in the pure state, are really soluble in the solvent. As such, a disadvantage of maceration and decoction with water or low concentrations of ethanol is that a large quantity of inert material that does not have medicinal value is extracted. Inert material may consist of plant cell constituents including, but not limited to, fats, waxes, carbohydrates, proteins and sugars, which may contribute to microbiological spoilage if the product is not administered promptly. If dried, the extracts so produced by these methods tend to be hygroscopic and difficult to formulate. The inner material may also affect the way in which the active constituents are absorbed by a patient. Maceration and decoction are still widely used in situations where the balance of convenience inherent in the “low” technology involved outweighs the lack of precision in such technology in the context of the more expensive pharmaceutical grade production. In the case of macerates and percolates, solvents are removed by evaporation at temperatures below 100° C. and usually below 60° C. 
     A wide range of processes based on the use of non-aqueous solvents to extract the constituents from plants have been employed. The non-aqueous solvents may be miscible with water or water immiscible and vary in solvating power. Traditionally, ethyl alcohol in various concentrations has been used to extract active substances from plant materials. Tinctures are alcoholic solutions produced in this way and tinctures of plant materials have been used for decades. Where the final concentration of alcohol is greater than approximately 20% by volume, the tincture remains microbiologically stable and such tinctures have been widely used in compounding prescriptions. However, extracting with ethanol pulls out substances such as glycosides, flavonoids and alkaloid salts which are examples of classes of compound known to be biologically active. It also extracts considerable amounts of plant pigments, such as chlorophyll and carotenoids. By using higher alcoholic strengths, lipid-soluble material may be extracted. Tinctures contain less inert material than macerates or decoctions, but are still complex mixtures of plant constituents. Where the presence of alcohol is not required the tincture can be evaporated to produce extracts. Liquid and solid extracts produced in this way are well known. 
     Moreover, in the so called Butane Hash Oil (BHO) extraction method, butane (a toxic solvent) is used to make a  cannabis  “red oil” commonly called hash oil, whereby raw  cannabis  is saturated in butane, which reduces the raw  cannabis  into an oil that is separated from the plant material. In this method, cooled butane is passed through a dried herbal material under pressure and allowed to expand as it is released from its storage vessel and cools into a liquid with a temperature below 0° C. One advantage of using butane in this manner is that it extracts a high percentage of botanical surface molecules such as cannabinoids. However, because of non-polar solvent properties, butane nonseletively extracts hydrophobic constituents having no known biological activity, such as plant waxes, in addition to desirable components such as terpenes; this is a disadvantage. The extraction of the terpenes could be improved by the maceration (soaking) of the dried botanical source material, however, it is believed that this would yield greater extraction of undesirable plant waxes and pigment molecules such as chlorophyll. 
     Of course other techniques such as supercritical fluid extraction are known for extracting plant materials, amongst them supercritical fluid CO 2  extraction. Extraction with supercritical fluid CO 2  has been used to remove active constituents from foods such as caffeine from coffee beans, and humulene and other flavours from hops ( Humulus lupulus ). In the supercritical carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) extraction method, CO 2  is used as solvent at a temperature and pressure above the critical point, 304.25K and 72.9 atm, respectively as a solvent. Above the critical point, carbon dioxide is a supercritical fluid having the properties midway between that of a gas and a liquid. The process allows for manipulation of solvate power by varying pressure and temperature and by the addition of accessory solvents (modifiers) such as alcohols. The advantage of supercritical extraction is that it can efficiently remove more of the constituent terpenes than the BHO extraction process, and the solvent is much safer to human health for products intended for human consumption. However, when using supercritical CO 2  at temperatures above 0° C., some of the more volatile constituent terpene compounds will be lost, destroyed, or otherwise unobtainable. In addition, because of the high pressures required to achieve a supercritical state CO 2 , more of the undesirable plant waxes and chlorophyll will be extracted in the final product. Thus, use of supercritical CO 2  is highly undesirable for selectively extracting constituents in a botanical materal. 
     In the Quick Wash Isopropyl Alcohol method (QWISO), isopropyl alcohol is utilized at subfreezing (&lt;0° C.) temperatures. However, this method is merely a simple quick wash to dissolve trichomes and their contents from the surface of dried botanical materials, such as the flowers of the  cannabis  plant. The solvent is then filtered to separate the dissolved target molecules from the spent botanical. The advantage of QWISO is the speed at which target compounds can be extracted from the trichomes of such flowers. The disadvantage is that the speed does not allow for sufficient extraction of the terpenes. Conversely, merely increasing the retention time of the isopropanol with the dried  cannabis  flowers would result in a high yield of undesirable plant waxes and pigment molecules such as chlorophyll due to the fact that the polar protic nature of the solvent would disrupt cell walls releasing the plant waxes and chlorophyll more readily. 
     It will also be appreciated that when extracting medicines from a botanical material for the purpose of obtaining a pharmeutically active ingredient, conventional approaches focus on extracting a single active ingredient. In contrast, there is an increasing demand to develop methodologies capable of maintaining the relative amounts of desirable consitutents (compounds) found in a starting botanical material. In particular, it has been found that with some botanical materials (e.g.,  cannabis,  tobacco, etc.) it is more desirable to obtain a substantially “whole plant extract.” As used herein, “whole plant extract” denotes an extract in which all of the desired constituents that are present in a botanical material (e.g., cannabinoids, nictotine, etc.) are extracted together with other plant fractions (e.g. terpenes, etc.) without any undesirable constituents (e.g., chlorophylls, waxes, fats, lipids, etc.). In other words, undesirable constituents are preferably left behind and not extracted. A “whole plant extract” may be formulated into a medicine or used in a smoking or vaporizing article. In some cases, a “whole plant extract” will exhibit an enhanced thereapeutic effect. In other cases, a “whole plant extract” will have an aesthetically pleasing bouquet or aroma of essences that are characteristic of its unadulterated native starting botanical material but without exhibiting any deleterious or otherwise undesirable effects that are experienced when undesirable constituents are still present the extracted botanical material. 
     It has also been found that certain components of a whole plant extract have the ability to effectively control or modulate the known effect of orther plant components. One example of this action is the exacerbated psychomimetic impact of THC by co-administration of the monoterpene β-myrcene. It is believed that bioactive plant components elicit a synergism determined by the specific mixture or proportion of one or more modulating compounds present in the natural state of the botanical substance, which can result in a characteristic effect. With specific regard to  Cannabis  spp., this modulation of the known effect of cannabinoids may be desirable and is unique to each  Cannabis  species. This modulatory effect is commonly referred to as the entourage effect or “strain character” of the plant. Examples of modulating compounds may include, but are not limited to, monoterpenes, diterpenes, sesquiterpenes, flavonoids, and the like. 
     Accordingly, there is a need to address the aforementioned and/or other problems currently associated with conventional botanical material extraction methods. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of the specification, illustrates the present invention and, together with the description, serve to exemplify the principles of the present invention. 
         FIG. 1  shows % Yield THC and THCA in resin samples resuspended in EtOH relative to theoretical values in dried  cannabis  flowers. 
         FIG. 2  shows % w/w of THCA and THC in  cannabis  extract resin. 
         FIG. 3  shows THCA: THC ratio in  cannabis  extract resin (EtOH samples) and dried  cannabis  flowers. 
         FIG. 4  shows % w/w terpenes in  cannabis  extract resin and dried  cannabis  flower starting material. 
         FIG. 5  shows % w/w of all terpene content in extracted  cannabis  resin resuspended in EtOH. 
         FIGS. 6 to 12  each show the amount of residual terpenes remaining 1× extracted (spent) dried  cannabis  flowers (WRB samples). 
         FIG. 13  shows % w/w of individual terpenes in input dried  cannabis  flowers and  cannabis  acetone extracts. 
         FIGS. 14 and 15  show % w/w amount of terpene and cannabinoid content, respectively, in a  cannabis  extract sample designated as 198842-1. 
         FIGS. 16 and 17  show % w/w amount of terpene and cannabinoid content in a  cannabis  extract sample designated as 198553-2. 
         FIGS. 18 and 19  show % w/w amount of terpene and cannabinoid content, respectively, in a  cannabis  extract sample designated as 198842-2. 
         FIGS. 20 and 21  show % w/w amount of terpene and cannabinoid content, respectively, in a  cannabis  extract sample designated as 198842-3. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS 
     The example embodiments described herein are believed to address one or more of the previously described or other problems associated with conventional botanical extraction methods whereby selectivity and/or yield of desirable volatile compounds, e.g., terpenes, terpenoids and other essential oils described herein, are deleteriously affected during extraction and/or purification steps. 
     It will be appreciated that the example embodiments disclosed in this written description relate, in part, to improvements in methods used to extract target compounds from botanical materials. In one example embodiment there is a two solvent extraction method that uses 2-propanone and carbon dioxide (provided by sublimating dry ice in the 2-propanone) to advantageously enhance desirable flavors and aromas in the resulting extract without significantly extracting waxes and pigment molecules that undesirably contaminate the final product and impart a reduced yield, quality, flavour, aroma, etc. The multi-step method can be carried out under various conditions that provide an optimum system for extracting only desirable molecules as well as removing the solvent in an effective manner that significantly reduces the loss of target molecules in the extract. 
     It is believed that an unexpected and superior advantage of the example embodiments described herein is the ability to extract/isolate at least target compound or profile of target compounds from a botanical material (e.g., cannabinoids, nicotine, aromatic or bioactive terpenes, essences, etc.) without extracting undesirable constituents such as waxes, chlorophyll, fats, lipids, pigments, etc. The resulting extract contains the desired compound(s) in a relatively high degree of purity, substantially free from pigments, chlorophyll, waxes, sterols, fats and other lipid-soluble components which characterize solvent extracts obtained via conventional methods. For instance, with respect to  cannabis  extracts, it is possible to obtain a high percentage of purity of the extract when comparing free cannabinoid to the corresponding carboxylic acids in extracts produced by other methods. In addition, the methods disclosed herein may provide an extract that is substantially free of inert plant materials and may be of sufficient quality to be processed directly into pharmaceutical dosage forms, if desired. Further, the example embodiments exhibit markedly increased selectivity for extraction of cannabinoids and other volatile compounds found in various botanical materials, thereby producing a terpene-rich extract, if desired. 
     In an example embodiment, the overall extraction method may be optimized by varying temperature, retention time, pH and/or strength and amount of the 2-propanone co-solvent in order to vary conditions to obtain, for example, a more complete extraction of total cannabinoid content or total terpene content. 
     It will be understood by all readers of this written description that the example embodiments described herein and claimed hereafter may be suitably practiced in the absence of any recited feature, element or step that is, or is not, specifically disclosed herein. For instance, references in this written description to “one embodiment,” “an embodiment,” “an example embodiment,” and the like, indicate that the embodiment described can include a particular feature, structure, or characteristic, but every embodiment may not necessarily include the particular feature, structure, or characteristic. Moreover, such phrases are not necessarily referring to the same embodiment. Further, when a particular feature, structure, or characteristic is described in connection with an embodiment, it is submitted that it is within the knowledge of one of ordinary skill in the art to affect such feature, structure, or characteristic in connection with other embodiments whether or not explicitly described. 
     All publications and references cited herein, including those in the Background section, are expressly incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. However, if there are any differences between any similar or identical terms found an incorporated publication or reference and those explicitly put forth or defined in this written description, then those terms definitions or meanings explicitly put forth in this written description shall control in all respects. Further, any reference to prior art in this specification is not, and should not be taken as, an acknowledgment or any form of suggestion that such prior art forms part of the common general knowledge in any country. 
     No language or terminology in this specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element as essential or critical. All methods described herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein. The use of any and all examples, or example language (e.g., “such as”) provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate example embodiments and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the claims appended hereto unless otherwise claimed. 
     Throughout this specification (i.e., the written description, drawings, claims and abstract), the word “comprise”, or variations such as “comprises” or “comprising,, “including,” “containing,” and the like will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated element or integer or group of elements or integers but not the exclusion of any other element or integer or group of elements or integers, unless the context requires otherwise. 
     To facilitate understanding of this example embodiments set forth herein, a number of terms are defined below. Generally, the nomenclature used herein and the laboratory procedures in biology, biochemistry, organic chemistry, medicinal chemistry, pharmacology, etc. described herein are generally well known and commonly employed in the art. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein generally have the same meaning as commonly understood in the art to which this disclosure belongs. In the event that there is a plurality of definitions for a term used herein, those in this written description shall prevail unless stated otherwise herein. 
     As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” may also refer to plural articles, i.e., “one or more,” “at least one,” “and/or” are open-ended expressions that are both conjunctive and disjunctive in operation. For example, the term “a cannabinoid” includes “one or more cannabinoids”. Further, each of the expressions “at least one of A, B and C”, “at least one of A, B, or C”, “one or more of A, B, and C”, “one or more of A, B, or C” and “A, B, and/or C” means A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, or A, B and C together. The terms “a” or “an” entity refers to one or more of that entity. As such, the terms “a” (or “an”), “one or more” and “at least one” can be used interchangeably herein. 
     Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within the range, unless otherwise indicated herein, and each separate value is incorporated into the specification as if it were individually recited herein. Where a specific range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lower limit of that range and any other stated or intervening value in that stated range, is included therein. All smaller subranges are also included. The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges are also included therein, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. For example, a range of “about 0.1% to about 5%” or “about 0.1% to 5%” may be interpreted to include not just about 0.1% to about 5%, but also the individual values (e.g., 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%) and the sub-ranges (e.g., 0.1% to 0.5%, 1.1% to 2.2%, 3.3% to 4.4%) within the indicated range. 
     The term “about” or “approximately” means an acceptable error for a particular recited value, which depends in part on how the value is measured or determined. In certain embodiments, “about” can mean 1 or more standard deviations. When the antecedent term “about” is applied to a recited range or value it denotes an approximation within the deviation in the range or value known or expected in the art from the measurements method. For removal of doubt, it shall be understood that any range stated in this written description that does not specifically recite the term “about” before the range or before any value within the stated range inherently includes such term to encompass the approximation within the deviation noted above. 
     The term “substantially” as used herein refers to a majority of, or mostly, as in at least about 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or at least about 99.999% or more. 
     The term “botanical” and “botanical material” is used herein to denote plants, plant parts (e.g., bark, leaves, stems, roots, flowers, fruits, seeds, berries), plant exudates, algae, and macroscopic fungus, depending on the context. 
     The term “ cannabis ” refers to whole  cannabis  plants and also parts thereof which contain the principal medically active constituents, for example the aerial parts of the plant or isolated leaves and/or flowering heads. The term also encompasses freshly harvested plant material, and also plant material which has been subjected to a pre-treatment step such as, for example, material which has been dried. This includes  cannabis  material which has been allowed to air dry after harvesting. 
     “Solvent” is used herein to denote a liquid or gas capable of dissolving a solid or another liquid or gas. Non-limiting examples of solvents include carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), n-butanol, 2-propanone (acetone), ethanol, acetic acid, isopropanol, n-propanol, methanol, formic acid, 1,4-dioxane, tetrahydrofuran, acetonitrile, dimethylformamide, and dimethyl sulfoxide. 
     As used herein, “solvent system” refers to one or more solvents that dissolve a solute (a chemically different liquid, solid or gas), resulting in a solution. The maximum quantity of solute that can dissolve in a specific volume of solvent system varies with temperature and pressure. The solvent system can have a specified polarity and proticity. As such, solvent system can be polar, nonpolar, protic, or aprotic, wherein each of these terms is used in a relative manner. 
     As used herein, “polarity” refers to a separation of electric charge leading to a molecule or its chemical groups having an electric dipole or multipole moment. Polar molecules interact through dipole-dipole intermolecular forces and hydrogen bonds. Molecular polarity is dependent on the difference in electronegativity between atoms in a compound and the asymmetry of the compound&#39;s structure. Polarity underlies a number of physical properties including surface tension, solubility, and melting- and boiling-points. 
     A “protic solvent” is used herein to denote a solvent that contains dissociable H+, for example a hydrogen atom bound to an oxygen atom as in a hydroxyl group or a nitrogen atom as in an amino group. A protic solvent is capable of donating a proton (H+). Conversely, an “aprotic” solvent cannot donate H+. 
     As used herein, “polar” or “polar solvent” refers to a molecule having a net dipole as a result of the opposing charges (i.e., having partial positive and partial negative charges) from polar bonds arranged asymmetrically. Water (H.sub.2O ) is an example of a polar molecule since it has a slight positive charge on one side and a slight negative charge on the other. The dipoles do not cancel out resulting in a net dipole. Due to the polar nature of the water molecule itself, polar molecules are generally able to dissolve in water. Another example includes sugars (like sucrose), which have many polar oxygen-hydrogen (—OH) groups and are overall highly polar. 
     As used herein, “nonpolar” or “nonpolar solvent” refers to a molecule having an equal sharing of electrons between the two atoms of a diatomic molecule or because of the symmetrical arrangement of polar bonds in a more complex molecule. For example, the boron trifluoride molecule (BF 3 ) has a trigonal planar arrangement of three polar bonds at 120°. This results in no overall dipole in the molecule. In methane, the bonds are arranged symmetrically (in a tetrahedral arrangement) so there is no overall dipole. In the methane molecule (CH 4 ) the four C—H bonds are arranged tetrahedrally around the carbon atom. Each bond has polarity (though not very strong). However, the bonds are arranged symmetrically so there is no overall dipole in the molecule. The diatomic oxygen molecule (O 2 ) does not have polarity in the covalent bond because of equal electronegativity, hence there is no polarity in the molecule 
     As used herein, “ Cannabis ” refers to a genus of flowering plants that includes a single species,  Cannabis sativa,  which is sometimes divided into two additional species,  Cannabis indica  and  Cannabis ruderalis.  These three taxa are indigenous to Central Asia, and South Asia.  Cannabis  has long been used for fiber (hemp), for seed and seed oils, for medicinal purposes, and as a recreational drug. Various extracts including hashish and hash oil are also produced from the plant. Suitable strains of  Cannabis  include, e.g., indica-dominant (e.g., Blueberry, BC Bud, Holland&#39;s Hope, Kush, Northern Lights, Purple, and White Widow), Pure  sativa  (e.g., Acapulco Gold and Malawi Gold (Chamba)), and  Sativa -dominant (e.g., Charlotte&#39;s Web, Diesel, Haze, Jack Herer, Shaman, Skunk, Sour, and Te Puke Thunder). The  Cannabis  can include any physical part of the plant material, including, e.g., the leaf, bud, flower, trichome, seed, or combination thereof. Likewise, the  Cannabis  can include any substance physically derived from  Cannabis  plant material, such as, e.g., kief and hashish. 
     As used herein, “cannabinoid” refers to a class of diverse chemical compounds that act on cannabinoid receptors on cells that repress neurotransmitter release in the brain. These receptor ligands include the endocannabinoids (produced naturally in the body by humans and animals), the phytocannabinoids (found in  Cannabis  and some other plants), and synthetic cannabinoids (manufactured chemically). The most notable cannabinoid is the phytocannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive compound of  Cannabis.  Cannabidiol (CBD) is another major constituent of the plant. CBD-rich strains can yield upwards of 80% CBD in extracted resins using the methods described herein, e.g., it has been made possible to extract a  cannabis  resin with &gt;70% CBD. 
     As used herein, “terpene,” “terpenoid” or “isoprenoid” refers to a large and diverse class of naturally occurring organic chemicals similar to terpenes, derived from five-carbon isoprene units assembled and modified in thousands of ways. Most are multicyclic structures that differ from one another not only in functional groups but also in their basic carbon skeletons. These lipids can be found in all classes of living things, and are the largest group of natural products. Plant terpenoids are used extensively for their aromatic qualities. They play a role in traditional herbal remedies and are under investigation for antibacterial, antineoplastic, and other pharmaceutical functions. Terpenoids contribute to the scent of eucalyptus, the flavors of cinnamon, cloves, and ginger, the yellow color in sunflowers, and the red color in tomatoes. Well-known terpenoids include citral, menthol, camphor, salvinorin A in the plant  Salvia divinorum,  the cannabinoids found in  Cannabis,  ginkgolide and bilobalide found in  Ginkgo biloba,  and the curcuminoids found in turmeric and mustard seed. 
     As used herein, “flavonoid” refers to a class of plant secondary metabolites. Flavonoids were referred to as Vitamin P (probably because of the effect they had on the permeability of vascular capillaries) from the mid-1930s to early 50s, but the term has since fallen out of use. According to the IUPAC nomenclature, they can be classified into: flavonoids or bioflavonoids; isoflavonoids, derived from 3-phenylchromen-4-one (3-phenyl-1,4-benzopyrone) structure; and neoflavonoids, derived from 4-phenylcoumarine (4-phenyl-1,2-benzopyrone) structure. 
     As used herein, “kief” refers to the resin glands (or trichomes) of  Cannabis  which may accumulate in containers or be sifted from loose dry  Cannabis  flower with a mesh screen or sieve. Kief typically contains a much higher concentration of psychoactive cannabinoids, such as THC, than that of the  Cannabis  flowers from which it is derived. Traditionally, kief has been pressed into cakes of hashish for convenience in storage, but can be vaporized or smoked in either form. 
     As used herein, “hashish” refers to a  Cannabis  product composed of compressed or purified preparations of stalked resin glands, called trichomes. It contains the same active ingredients—such as THC and other cannabinoids—but in higher concentrations than unsifted buds or leaves. 
     As used herein, “leaf” refers to an organ of a vascular plant, as defined in botanical terms, and in particular, in plant morphology. In reference to  Cannabis,  the first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine), depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite leaf arrangement and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant. 
     As used herein, “bud” refers to a flower-bearing stem or branch of the  Cannabis  plant, especially a stem or branch bearing a mass of female flowers with associated leaves. The stem or branch bearing the female flowers can be fresh, or can be dried. The pistils of the female  Cannabis  flower are surrounded by a mass of trichome-rich petals and leaves, and can contain higher concentrations of cannabinoids than do the plant leaves or stems. A bud, e.g., a mass of female flowers and associated leaves, usually covered with trichomes, can be further processed mechanically, i.e., “trimming” or “cleaning” the stem bearing the female flowers by removal of larger leaves and stem material. Buds, and cleaned buds, can be used as a  Cannabis  plant material in practice of a method of the invention. 
     As used herein, “trichome” refers to a fine outgrowth or appendage on plants and certain protists. Trichomes are of diverse structure and function. Examples are hairs, glandular hairs, scales, and papillae. In reference to  Cannabis,  the trichome is a glandular trichome that occurs most abundantly on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants. 
     As used herein, “seed” refers to an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is a characteristic of spermatophytes (gymnosperm and angiosperm plants) and the product of the ripened ovule which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant. The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination), with the embryo developed from the zygote and the seed coat from the integuments of the ovule. 
     As used herein, “tincture” refers to a solvent extract of plant or animal material, a solution of such, or of a low volatility substance. 
     As used herein, “hash oil” refers to a form of  Cannabis.  It is a resinous matrix of cannabinoids obtained from the  Cannabis  plant by solvent extraction, formed into a hardened or viscous mass. Hash oil can be the most potent of the main  Cannabis  products because of its high THC content which can vary depending on the plant. 
     As used herein, “concentrate” or “essential oil” refers to a substance obtained by extracting a raw material, using a solvent, wherein the solvent has substantially been removed. 
     The example embodiments disclosed herein are based, in part, on an unpredicted/unexpected discovery that 2-propanone (acetone) with or without the presence of subcritical CO 2 , under certain conditions described herein, may be used to selectively extract target compounds from botanical materials even though the use of 2-propanone has been avoided in conventional botanical extraction scenarios due to its strong polar (aprotic) nature and its unfavorable capability to indiscriminately remove undesirable amounts of plant wax and chlorophyll from botanical material. 
     According to the example embodiments, it will be appreciated that it is not necessary to use strong solvation (e.g., the use of supercritical conditions or strong solvents) to extract the desirable constituents of a botanical source material to obtain a whole plant extract of constituents having a profile relative to each that is substantially similar to the profile of the desirable constituents found in the naturally occruing botanical source material without undesirable waxes or chlorophyll. Thus, an advantage of the example embodiments is that a simpler and cheaper process has been achieved without the need for complex cleanup steps or further downstream extraction steps or solvents. 
     Other advantages of certain embodiments are disclosed below or may be realized and appreciated while practicing one or more example embodiments. The following are certain aspects of the example embodiments further described herein. 
     A method for producing an extract from a botanical material, wherein the extract contains at least one target compound, the method comprising:
         admixing the botanical material with acetone to obtain a mixture;   optionally adding dry ice to the mixture;   allowing the temperature of the mixture to reach about −78.5° C. to 0° C.;   optionally agitating the mixture;   filtering the mixture to remove to obtain a filtrate; and   removing the solvent from the filtrate to obtain the extract.       

     In a further example embodiment, there is provided a method for producing an extract from a botanical material, wherein the extract contains at least one target compound or a preferred profile of various target compounds or constituents, the method comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of:
         adding to a vessel (pressurized or unpressurized) the botanical material and a solvent comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of 2-propanone (acetone) and dry ice to obtain a mixture;   allowing the temperature of the mixture in the vessel to reach about −40° C. or less;   optionally agitating the mixture to optimize contact of botanical material with the carbon dioxide gas sublimating/eluting from the dry ice and the acetone co-solvent;   filtering the mixture to remove particle sizes of at least 100 microns to obtain a filtrate;   removing the solvent from the filtrate to obtain the extract.       

     The method as described above, wherein the botanical material is selected from a member of the group consisting of plants, plant parts (e.g., bark, leaves, stems, roots, flowers, fruits, seeds, nuts, berries), macerated or comminuted plant parts, plant exudates, and mixtures thereof. 
     The method as described above, wherein the vessel comprises stainless steel or glass. 
     The method as described above, wherein the amount (w/w) of 2-propanone to botanical material that is present in the vessel is about 15:1, 10:1, 5:1, 4:1, 3:1, 2:1, 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:10, 1:15 and all sub ranges therebetween. 
     The method as described above, wherein the amount (w/w) of dry ice to botanical material present in the vessel is about 15:1, 10:1, 5:1, 4:1, 3:1, 2:1, 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:10, 1:15 and all sub ranges therebetween. 
     The method as described above, wherein the agitating step is performed for 1 minute to 360 minutes or more, it being understood that shorter times will produce a lower yield, but higher purity, of cannabinoids and a lower yield of the terpenes, waxes, pigment molecules (e.g., chlorphyll), etc. 
     The method as described above, wherein the dry ice and 2-propanone are added to the vessel prior to adding the botanical material. 
     The method as describesd above, wherein the botanical material is added to the vessel prior to adding the dry ice and 2-propanone. 
     The method as described above, wherein the dry ice is added to the vessel prior to the botanical material and 2-propanone. 
     The method as described above, wherein the dry ice is not added to the vessel. 
     The method as described above, wherein the pressure in the vessel is maintained at about 1 bar. 
     The method as described above, wherein the vessel is configured to be pressurized in an amount of from about 1 bar to about 50 bar, and all sub ranges therebetween, using any suitable means including. 
     The method as described above, wherein the temperature of the mixture in the vessel is maintained at about −78.5° C., using any suitable means including, without limitation, controlling the amount of dry ice and/or 2-propanone in the vessel, ice bath, refrigerated jacket or column, etc. 
     The method as described above, wherein the temperature of the mixture in the vessel is maintained at about −76° C., using any suitable means including, without limitation, controlling the amount of dry ice and/or 2-propanone in the vessel, ice bath, refrigerated jacket or column, etc. 
     The method as described above, wherein during the agitating step, the temperature of the mixture in the vessel is maintained between −78° C. and −20° C. and all sub ranges therebetween, using any suitable means including, without limitation, controlling the amount of dry ice and/or 2-propanone in the vessel, ice bath, refrigerated jacket or column, etc. 
     The method as described above, wherein during the agitating step, the temperature of the mixture in the vessel is maintained between −78° C. and −10° C. and all sub ranges therebetween, using any suitable means including, without limitation, controlling the amount of dry ice and/or 2-propanone in the vessel, ice bath, refrigerated jacket or column, etc. 
     The method as described above, wherein during the agitating step, the temperature of the mixture in the vessel is maintained at about −78° C. and 0° C., and all sub ranges therebetween, using any suitable means including, without limitation, controlling the amount of dry ice and/or 2-propanone in the vessel, ice bath, refrigerated jacket or column, etc. 
     The method as described above, wherein the filtering step is performed at a temperature of between −78° C. and 0° C., and all sub ranges therebetween. 
     The method as described above, wherein the temperature of the mixture in the vessel is maintained at about 0° C., using any suitable means including, without limitation, controlling the amount of dry ice and/or 2-propanone in the vessel, bath, refrigerated jacket or column, etc. 
     The method as described above, wherein the solvent is removed from the filtrate by applying heat to the vessel at a temperature of about 60° C. or less. 
     The method as described above, wherein the solvent is removed from the filtrate by applying a vacuum. 
     The method as described above, wherein the extract comprises at least one compound selected from a member of the group consisting of terpenes, terpenoids, cannabinoids, alkaloids and mixtures thereof. 
     The method as described above, wherein the compound is isolated or purified from the extract by any suitable means including without limitation wiped film, distillation, flash chromatography, medium pressure liquid chromatography, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), distillation, sublimation, etc. 
     The method as described above, wherein the filtrate is a liquid or semi-solid. 
     The method as described above, wherein the botanical material has a high CBD content relative to THC content. 
     The method as described above, wherein the botanical material has a high THC content relative to CBD content. 
     An extract (including whole-plant extracts) obtained by an example embodiment as described herein. 
     A container comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of an extract (including whole-plant extracts) obtained by an example embodiment, as described herein. 
     A pharmaceutical composition, dietary supplement or food item, comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of an extract obtained by a method as described above and a therapeutically acceptable or inert carrier. 
     Without being bound by any theory of operation, it has been found that the nature of 2-propanone imparts an inability for 2-propanone to hydrogen bond with itself, yet retaining the ability to act as a hydrogen bond recipient in order to bond other species, thereby aiding in extraction. In accordance with an example embodiment, the high dipole moment of 2-propanone allows it to be desirable in extracting high quantities of target compounds contained in botanical materials, but with a lower dipole moment than a solvent like DMSO, which is known to be effective at extracting most components of a botanical. It has been found that polar aprotic solvents do not participate in chemical reactions that adversely affect yield, which leads to increased yields or more completely extracted material, some of which would be undesirable (in most cases such as, but not limited to, wax or chlorophyll). The physical properties of 2-propanone as an undesirably polar solvent do not allow one to predict that the resulting product of a botanical extraction method is unexpected as the temperature conditions of the reaction combined with the presence of a non-polar co-solvent significantly reduces the amount of undesired pigment and wax molecules that are removed from the botanical of interest. Thus, by utilizing 2-propanone in this way, one is able to control the amount of the various reactants in order to selectively extract the terpenes and terpenoids (e.g., cannabinoids), which are relatively more volatile and easily lost during conventional extraction processes using temperatures above −20° C., −10° C., 0° C. or more. 
       Cannabis  contains about 100 compounds believed to be responsible for, in part, a distinctive characteristic aroma. These compounds are mainly volatile compounds, such as terpenes, and sesquiterpenes. The predominately volatile compounds present in  cannabis,  which may be extracted using the methods disclosed herein, include α-Pinene, Myrcene, Linalool, Limonene, Trans-β-ocimene, α-Terpinolene, Trans-caryophyllene, α-Humulene, and Caryophyllene-oxide.  Cannabis sativa  contains about 61 compounds belonging to the class of cannabinoids. These are lipophilic, nitrogen-free, mostly phenolic compounds. The neutral cannabinoids are biogenetically derived from a monoterpene and a phenol, the acidic cannabinoids from a monoterpene and a phenolic acid. Among the most important cannabinoids there are, for example:
     Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol Δ9-THC   Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol Δ8-THC   cannabichromene CBC   cannabidiol CBD   cannabigerol CBG   cannabinidiol CBND   cannabinol CBN   

     These volatile compounds may be isolated or purified from the extract obtained by an example embodiment describe herein this writtend description. 
     In general, examples of the volatile compounds that may be extracted from botanical materials that are subjected to the extraction methods disclosed herein include, but are not limited to, members selected from the group consisting of: α- or β-pinene; α-campholenic aldehyde; α-citronellol; α-iso-amyl-cinnamic (e.g., amyl cinnamic aldehyde); α-pinene oxide; α-cinnamic terpinene; α-terpineol (e.g., 1-methyl-4-isopropyl-1-cyclohexen-8-ol; λ-terpinene; achillea; aldehyde C16 (pure); alpha-phellandrene; amyl cinnamic aldehyde; amyl salicylate; anethole; anise; aniseed; anisic aldehyde; basil; bay; benzyl acetate; benzyl alcohol; bergamot (e.g.,  Monardia fistulosa, Monarda didyma, Citrus bergamia, Monarda punctata ); bitter orange peel; black pepper; white pepper; borneol; calamus; camphor; cananga oil (e.g., java); cardamom; carnation (e.g., dianthus caryophyllus); carvacrol; carveol; cassia; castor; cedar (e.g., hinoki); cedarwood; chamomile; cineole; cinnamaldehyde; cinnamic alcohol; cinnamon; cis-pinane; citral (e.g., 3, 7-dimethyl-2, 6-octadienal); citronella; citronellal; citronellol dextro (e.g., 3-7-dimethyl-6-octen-1-ol); citronellol; citronellyl acetate; citronellyl nitrile; citrus unshiu; clary sage; clove (e.g., eugenia caryophyllus); clove bud; coriander; corn; cotton seed; 6-tert-butyl-m-cresol; d-dihydrocarvone; decyl aldehyde; diethyl phthalate; dihydroanethole; dihydrocarveol; dihydrocarvacrol; dihydrolinalool; dihydromyrcene; dihydromyrcenol; dihydromyrcenyl acetate; dihydroterpineol; dimethyl salicylate; dimethyloctanal; dimethyloctanol; dimethyloctanyl acetate; diphenyl oxide; dipropylene glycol; d-limonene; d-pulegone; estragole; ethyl vanillin (e.g., 3-ethoxy-4-hydrobenzaldehyde); eucalyptol (e.g., cineole); eucalyptus citriodora; eucalyptus globulus; eucalyptus; eugenol (e.g., 2-methoxy-4-allyl phenol); evening primrose; fenchol; fennel; ferniol.tm.; fish; florazon (e.g., 4-ethyl-α, α-dimethyl-benzenepropanal); galaxolide; geraniol (e.g., 2-trans-3, 7-dimethyl-2, 6-octadien-8-ol); geraniol; geranium; geranyl acetate; geranyl nitrile; ginger; grapefruit; guaiacol; guaiacwood; gurjun balsam; heliotropin; herbanate (e.g., 3-(1-methyl-ethyl) bicyclo (2, 2, 1) hept-5-ene-2-carboxylic acid ethyl ester); hiba; hydroxycitronellal; i-carvone; i-methyl acetate; ionone; isobutyl quinoleine (e.g., 6-secondary butyl quinoline); isobornyl acetate; isobornyl methylether; isoeugenol; isolongifolene; jasmine; jojoba; juniper berry; lavender; lavandin; lemon grass; lemon; lime; limonene; linallol oxide; linallol; linalool; linalyl acetate; linseed; litsea cubeba; I-methyl acetate; longifolene; mandarin; mentha; menthane hydroperoxide; menthol crystals; menthol laevo (e.g., 5-methyl-2-isopropyl cyclohexanol); menthol; menthone laevo (e.g., 4-isopropyl-1-methyl cyclohexan-3-one); methyl anthranilate; methyl cedryl ketone; methyl chavicol; methyl hexyl ether; methyl ionone; mineral; mint; musk ambrette; musk ketone; musk xylol; mustard (also known as allylisothio-cyanate); myrcene; nerol; neryl acetate; nonyl aldehyde; nutmeg (e.g., myristica fragrans); orange (e.g., citrus aurantium dulcis); orris (e.g., iris florentina) root; para-cymene; para-hydroxy phenyl butanone crystals (e.g., 4-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone); passion palmarosa oil (e.g., cymbopogon martini); patchouli (e.g., pogostemon cablin); p-cymene; pennyroyal oil; pepper; peppermint (e.g., mentha piperita); perillaldehyde; petitgrain (e.g., citrus aurantium amara); phenyl ethyl alcohol; phenyl ethyl propionate; phenyl ethyl-2-methylbutyrate; pimento berry; pimento leaf; pinane hydroperoxide; pinanol; pine ester; pine needle; pine; pinene; piperonal; piperonyl acetate; piperonyl alcohol; plinol; plinyl acetate; pseudo ionone; rhodinol; rhodinyl acetate; rosalin; rose; rosemary (e.g., rosmarinus officinalis);) ryu; sage; sandalwood (e.g., santalum album); sandenol; sassafras; sesame; soybean; spearmint; spice; spike lavender; spirantol; starflower; tangerine; tea seed; tea tree; terpenoid; terpineol; terpinolene; terpinyl acetate; tert-butylcyclohexyl acetate; tetrahydrolinalool; tetrahydrolinalyl acetate; tetrahydromyrcenol; thulasi; thyme; thymol; tomato; trans-2-hexenol; trans-anethole and metabolites thereof; turmeric; turpentine; vanillin (e.g., 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy benzaldehyde); vetiver; vitalizair; white cedar; white grapefruit; wintergreen (e.g., methyl salicylate), derivatives thereof, and mixtures thereof. 
     In another example embodiment, a quantity of wet or dried botanical material may be prepared before adding to the vessel by grinding or otherwise, comminuting the whole plant, roots, stems, flowers, and leaves to enhance total yield. To enhance purity of the extract, the botanical may be comminuted and/or macerated to various particle sizes it being understood that the larger the particle size of botanical material, the lower the yield of wax and chlorophyll will be observed, whereas the finer the grind the more of each desired target compound will be obtained in the final extract. 
     In a further example embodiment, the ratio of solvents to each other and to the amount of botanical material in the vessel may be varied to increase or lower the retention times, which shall be defined as the amount of time that the botanical material is in contact with the solvent system. The ratio of the solvents determines the operating temperature and therefore the relative extraction of terpenes versus waxes versus percentage yield of each. Lower temperatures will restrict the extraction of waxes, but also of a higher yield of total desired cannabinoids and terpenes. If one desires to complete the main extraction in one step, one balances these parameters in any suitable way to obtain the desired extract composition. 
     In another example embodiment, extraction method is carried out using two steps. A first step “pulls out” the majority of the cannabinoids and highly volatile terpenes. A second extraction pulls out the majority of the balance of the cannabinoids and terpenes, but also some of the undesirable wax and chlorophyll. 
     In a further example embodiment, the steps comprise:
         obtaining dried botanical and charge a round bottom flask with the filtrate from the extraction process.   attaching the round bottom flask to a reflux condenser with cold water circulation at ambient pressure.   heating the flask to extract the 2-propanone at or near 57° C. with refluxing in the cooled condenser. Watch for the temperature to begin rising above 57° C., once it does, allow the temperature to rise slowly to ˜105° C. Maintain 105° C. for 45 minutes and turn off the heat.       

     Below is a step-wise example embodiment of a two-solvent 2-propanone—dry ice (CO 2 ) extraction method:
         Measure out a certain mass of dried or fresh botanical material (e.g.,  cannabis  herb or other botanical).   In a stainless or glass vessel, measure out a mass of 2-propanone at least about 4-fold that of the botanical material for extraction.   Add an amount of dry ice to the 2-propanone-containing vessel equal to the mass of botanical material to be extracted.   Allow the temperature to equilibrate to about ˜40° C.   Grind and/or Macerate the herb to a desired particle size.   Add the macerated herb to the solvent.   Incubate the extraction mixture with gentle agitation at or below ˜40° C. for at least 10 minutes.   Filter the extraction mixture to remove all solid particles of 100 microns or larger.   Place the extraction mixture in a round-bottom flask to remove the solvent by either:   Applying gentle heating to a maximum of 60° C. with an attached water-jacketed refluxing column open to the environment (open system)   Attaching the round-bottom flask to a rotary evaporator device; apply a vacuum to reduce the pressure and heat to a minimum temperature appropriate to evaporate off the solvent mixture (boiling point of 2-propanone at a given pressure) (closed system).   The final product will be a liquid or semi-solid containing a mixture of desirable volatile compounds and other extract products. Further processes can be performed this extract to produce a purified or fractionated end product.       

     The method as described above, wherein the botanical material or plant is selected, without limitation, from a member of the group consisting of  cannabis,  hemp, hops, or tobacco. 
     The method as described above, may be used to treat, process or obtain extracts from botanical materials/flowering plants (Angiosperms family) selected from a member of the group consisting of Acanthaceae; Achariaceae; Achatocarpaceae; Acoraceae; Actinidiaceae; Adoxaceae; Aextoxicaceae; Aizoaceae; Akaniaceae; Alismataceae; Alseuosmiaceae; Alstroemeriaceae; Altingiaceae; Amaranthaceae; Amaryllidaceae; Amborellaceae; Anacampserotaceae; Anacardiaceae; Anarthriaceae; Ancistrocladaceae; Anisophylleaceae; Annonaceae; Aphanopetalaceae; Aphloiaceae; Apiaceae; Apocynaceae; Apodanthaceae; Aponogetonaceae; Aquifoliaceae; Araceae; Araliaceae; Arecaceae; Argophyllaceae; Aristolochiaceae; Asparagaceae; Asteliaceae; Asteropeiaceae; Atherospermataceae; Austrobaileyaceae; Balanopaceae; Balanophoraceae; Balsaminaceae; Barbeuiaceae; Barbeyaceae; Basellaceae; Bataceae; Begoniaceae; Berberidaceae; Berberidopsidaceae; Betulaceae; Biebersteiniaceae; Bignoniaceae; Bixaceae; Blandfordiaceae; Bonnetiaceae; Boraginaceae; Boryaceae; Brassicaceae; Bromeliaceae; Brunelliaceae; Bruniaceae; Burmanniaceae; Burseraceae; Butomaceae; Buxaceae; Byblidaceae; Cabombaceae; Cactaceae; Calceolariaceae; Calophyllaceae; Calycanthaceae; Calyceraceae; Campanulaceae; Campynemataceae; Canellaceae; Cannabaceae; Cannaceae; Capparaceae; Caprifoliaceae; Cardiopteridaceae; Caricaceae; Carlemanniaceae; Caryocaraceae; Caryophyllaceae; Casuarinaceae; Celastraceae; Centrolepidaceae; Centroplacaceae; Cephalotaceae; Ceratophyllaceae; Cercidiphyllaceae; Chloranthaceae; Chrysobalanaceae; Circaeasteraceae; Cistaceae; Cleomaceae; Clethraceae; Clusiaceae; Colchicaceae; Columelliaceae; Combretaceae; Commelinaceae; Compositae; Connaraceae; Convolvulaceae; Coriariaceae; Cornaceae; Corsiaceae; Corynocarpaceae; Costaceae; Crassulaceae; Crossosomataceae; Ctenolophonaceae; Cucurbitaceae; Cunoniaceae; Curtisiaceae; Cyclanthaceae; Cymodoceaceae; Cynomoriaceae; Cyperaceae; Cyrillaceae; Cytinaceae; Daphniphyllaceae; Dasypogonaceae; Datiscaceae; Degeneriaceae; Diapensiaceae; Dichapetalaceae; Didiereaceae; Dilleniaceae; Dioncophyllaceae; Dioscoreaceae; Dipentodontaceae; Dipterocarpaceae; Dirachmaceae; Doryanthaceae; Droseraceae; Drosophyllaceae; Ebenaceae; Ecdeiocoleaceae; Elaeagnaceae; Elaeocarpaceae; Elatinaceae; Emblingiaceae; Ericaceae; Eriocaulaceae; Erythroxylaceae; Escalloniaceae; Eucommiaceae; Euphorbiaceae; Euphroniaceae; Eupomatiaceae; Eupteleaceae; Fagaceae; Flacourtiaceae; Flagellariaceae; Fouquieriaceae; Frankeniaceae; Garryaceae; Geissolomataceae; Gelsemiaceae; Gentianaceae; Geraniaceae; Gerrardinaceae; Gesneriaceae; Gisekiaceae; Gomortegaceae; Goodeniaceae; Goupiaceae; Grossulariaceae; Grubbiaceae; Guamatelaceae; Gunneraceae; Gyrostemonaceae; Haemodoraceae; Halophytaceae; Haloragaceae; Hamamelidaceae; Hanguanaceae; Haptanthaceae; Heliconiaceae; Helwingiaceae; Hernandiaceae; Himantandraceae; Huaceae; Humiriaceae; Hydatellaceae; Hydnoraceae; Hydrangeaceae; Hydrocharitaceae; Hydroleaceae; Hydrostachyaceae; Hypericaceae; Hypoxidaceae; Icacinaceae; Iridaceae; Irvingiaceae; Iteaceae; Ixioliriaceae; Ixonanthaceae; Joinvilleaceae; Juglandaceae; Juncaceae; Juncaginaceae; Kirkiaceae; Koeberliniaceae; Krameriaceae; Lacistemataceae; Lactoridaceae; Lamiaceae; Lanariaceae; Lardizabalaceae; Lauraceae; Lecythidaceae; Leguminosae; Lentibulariaceae; Lepidobotryaceae; Liliaceae; Limeaceae; Limnanthaceae; Linaceae; Linderniaceae; Loasaceae; Loganiaceae; Lophiocarpaceae; Lophopyxidaceae; Loranthaceae; Lowiaceae; Lythraceae; Magnoliaceae; Malpighiaceae; Malvaceae; Marantaceae; Marcgraviaceae; Martyniaceae; Mayacaceae; Melanthiaceae; Melastomataceae; Meliaceae; Melianthaceae; Menispermaceae; Menyanthaceae; Metteniusaceae; Misodendraceae; Mitrastemonaceae; Molluginaceae; Monimiaceae; Montiaceae; Montiniaceae; Moraceae; Moringaceae; Muntingiaceae; Musaceae; Myodocarpaceae; Myricaceae; Myristicaceae; Myrothamnaceae; Myrtaceae; Nartheciaceae; Nelumbonaceae; Nepenthaceae; Neuradaceae; Nitrariaceae; Nothofagaceae; Nyctaginaceae; Nymphaeaceae; Ochnaceae; Olacaceae; Oleaceae; Onagraceae; Oncothecaceae; Opiliaceae; Orchidaceae; Orobanchaceae; Oxalidaceae; Paeoniaceae; Pandaceae; Pandanaceae; Papaveraceae; Paracryphiaceae; Passifloraceae; Paulowniaceae; Pedaliaceae; Penaeaceae; Pennantiaceae; Pentadiplandraceae; Pentaphragmataceae; Pentaphylacaceae; Penthoraceae; Peraceae; Peridiscaceae; Petenaeaceae; Petermanniaceae; Petrosaviaceae; Phellinaceae; Philesiaceae; Philydraceae; Phrymaceae; Phyllanthaceae; Phyllonomaceae; Physenaceae; Phytolaccaceae; Picramniaceae; Picrodendraceae; Piperaceae; Pittosporaceae; Plantaginaceae; Platanaceae; Plocospermataceae; Plumbaginaceae; Poaceae; Podostemaceae; Polemoniaceae; Polygalaceae; Polygonaceae; Pontederiaceae; Portulacaceae; Posidoniaceae; Potamogetonaceae; Primulaceae; Proteaceae; Putranjivaceae; Quillajaceae; Rafflesiaceae; Ranunculaceae; Rapateaceae; Resedaceae; Restionaceae; Rhabdodendraceae; Rhamnaceae; Rhipogonaceae; Rhizophoraceae; Roridulaceae; Rosaceae; Rousseaceae; Rubiaceae; Ruppiaceae; Rutaceae; Sabiaceae; Salicaceae; Salvadoraceae; Santalaceae; Sapindaceae; Sapotaceae; Sarcobataceae; Sarcolaenaceae; Sarraceniaceae; Saururaceae; Saxifragaceae; Scheuchzeriaceae; Schisandraceae; Schlegeliaceae; Schoepfiaceae; Scrophulariaceae; Setchellanthaceae; Simaroubaceae; Simmondsiaceae; Siparunaceae; Sladeniaceae; Smilacaceae; Solanaceae; Sphaerosepalaceae; Sphenocleaceae; Stachyuraceae; Staphyleaceae; Stegnospermataceae; Stemonaceae; Stemonuraceae; Stilbaceae; Strasburgeriaceae; Strelitziaceae; Stylidiaceae; Styracaceae; Surianaceae; Symplocaceae; Talinaceae; Tamaricaceae; Tapisciaceae; Tecophilaeaceae; Tetrachondraceae; Tetramelaceae; Tetrameristaceae; Theaceae; Thomandersiaceae; Thumiaceae; Thymelaeaceae; Ticodendraceae; Tofieldiaceae; Torricelliaceae; Tovariaceae; Trigoniaceae; Trimeniaceae; Triuridaceae; Trochodendraceae; Tropaeolaceae; Typhaceae; Ulmaceae; Urticaceae; Vahliaceae; Velloziaceae; Verbenaceae; Violaceae; Vitaceae; Vivianiaceae; Vochysiaceae; Winteraceae; Xanthorrhoeaceae; Xeronemataceae; Xyridaceae; Zingiberaceae; Zosteraceae; Zygophyllaceae; and all sub genera, lower classification and species thereof, including, without limitation those listed elsewhere in this written description. 
     The following are further non-limiting examples of the botanical gernera that may be subjected to example methods described herein. 
     FAMILY: SOLANACEAE; GENERA:  Acnistus; Anisodus; Anthocercis; Anthotroche; Archihyoscyamus; Archiphysalis; Athenaea; Atrichodendron; Atropa; Atropanthe; Aureliana; Benthamiella; Bouchetia; Brachistus; Browallia; Brugmansia; Brunfelsia; Calibrachoa; Capsicum; Cestrum; Chamaesaracha; Coeloneurum; Combera; Crenidium; Cuatresia; Cyphanthera; Cyphomandra; Datura; Deprea; Discopodium; Duboisia; Duckeodendron; Dunalia; Eriolarynx; Espadaea; Exodeconus; Fabiana; Goetzea; Grabowskia; Grammosolen; Habrothamnus; Hawkesiophyton; Herschelia; Hunzikeria; Hyoscyamus; Iochroma; Jaborosa; Jaltomata; Juanulloa; Larnax; Latua; Lehmannia; Leptoglossis; Leucophysalis; Lycianthes; Lycium; Lycopersicon; Lycopersicum; Mandragora; Markea; Melananthus; Merinthopodium; Meyenia; Nectouxia; Nicandra; Nicotiana; Nierembergia; Nolana; Normania; Nycterium; Pantacantha; Petunia; Phrodus; Physaliastrum; Physalis; Physochlaina; Pionandra; Plowmania; Protoschwenkia; Przewalskia; Quincula; Rahowardiana; Reyesia; Salpichroa; Salpichroma; Salpiglossis; Saracha; Schizanthus; Schultesianthus; Schwenckia; Schwenkia; Sclerophylax; Scopolia; Sessea; Solandra; Solanum; Streptosolen; Swartsia; Trianaea; Tubocapsicum; Tzeltalia; Vassobia; Vestia; Withania; Witheringia.    
     FAMILY: COMPOSITAE; GENERA:  Aaronsohnia; Abasoloa; Abrotanella; Absinthium; Acamptopappus; Acanthocephalus; Acanthocladium; Acanthodesmos; Acanthospermum; Acanthostyles; Acanthoxanthium; Acarna; Acarphaea; Achaetogeron; Achillea; Achnophora; Achnopogon; Achyrachaena; Achyrocline; Achyropappus; Achyrophorus; Acilepidopsis; Acilepis; Acmella; Acomis; Acosta; Acourtia; Acrisione; Acritopappus; Acrocentron; Acroclinium; Actinea; Actinella; Actinobole; Actinolepis; Actinomeris; Actinoseris; Actinospermum; Addisonia; Adelostigma; Adenachaena; Adenanthellum; Adenocaulon; Adenocritonia; Adenoglossa; Adenoon; Adenopappus; Adenophyllum; Adenosolen; Adenostemma; Adenostyles; Adenostylium; Adenothamnus; Adopogon; Aedesia; Aegialophila; Aequatorium; Aetheolaena; Aetheopappus; Aetheorhiza; Aganippea; Agathaea; Agathyrsus; Ageratella; Ageratina; Ageratinastrum; Ageratum; Agiabampoa; Agnorhiza; Agoseris; Agrianthus; Agriphyllum; Aimorra; Ainsliaea; Ainsliea; Ajania; Ajaniopsis; Akeassia; Alatoseta; Albertinia; Alboviodoxa; Aldama; Alepidocline; Alfredia; Aliconia; Aliella; Alkibias; Allagopappus; Allardia; Allittia; Allocarpus; Allocephalus; Alloispermum; Allopterigeron; Almutaster; Alomia; Alomiella; Alvordia; Amauria; Amauriopsis; Ambassa; Amberboa; Amblyocarpum; Amblyolepis; Amblyopappus; Amblyopogon; Amblysperma; Amboroa; Ambrosia; Ameghinoa; Amellus; Ammanthus; Ammobium; Ammoseris; Amolinia; Ampelaster; Ampherephis; Amphiachyris; Amphidoxa; Amphiglossa; Amphipappus; Amphirhapis; Amphoricarpos; Anacantha; Anacyclus; Anandria; Anaphalioides; Anaphalis; Anastraphia; Anaxeton; Ancathia; Ancistrocarphus; Anderbergia; Andryala; Anemocarpa; Angeldiazia; Angelphytum; Angianthus; Anisocarpus; Anisochaeta; Anisocoma; Anisopappus; Anisothrix; Anomostephium; Antennaria; Anteremanthus ; × Anthechamomilla ; × Anthechrysanthemum ; × Anthematricaria ; × Anthemimatricaria; Anthemiopsis; Anthemis; Antheropeas; Anthocerastes; Antillanthus; Antillia; Antiphiona; Antithrixia; Antrospermum; Anura; Anvillea; Aostea; Apalochlamys; Apargia; Aphanactis; Aphanopappus; Aphanostephus; Aphelexis; Aphyllocladus; Aplopappus; Aplotaxis; Apodocephala; Apogon; Apopyros; Aposeris; Apostates; Arachnopogon; Aracium; Arbelaezaster; Archibaccharis; Archiserratula; Arctanthemum; Arctium; Arctogeron; Arctotheca; Arctotis; Argentipallium; Argyranthemum ; × Argyrautia; Argyrautia; Argyrocome; Argyroglottis; Argyrophyton; Argyrotegium; Argyroxiphium; Arida; Aristeguietia; Armania; Amaldoa; Arnica; Arnicastrum; Amoglossum; Arnoseris; Aronicum; Arrhenechthites; Arrojadocharis; Arrowsmithia; Artanacetum; Artemisia; Artemisiella; Artemisiopsis; Asanthus; Ascaricida; Ascidiogyne; Askellia; Aspilia; Asplundianthus; Aster ; × Asterago; Asteridea; Asterigeron; Asteriscium; Asteriscus; Asteromoea; Asteropsis; Asterosperma; Asterothamnus; Astranthium; Athanasia; Atherotoma; Athrixia; Athroisma; Atractylis; Atractylodes; Atrichantha; Atrichoseris; Auchera; Aucklandia; Austrobrickellia; Austrocritonia; Austroeupatorium; Austrosynotis; Avellara; Axiniphyllum; Ayapana; Ayapanopsis; Aylacophora; Aynia; Aztecaster; Bacasia; Baccharidastrum; Baccharidiopsis; Baccharis; Baccharodes; Baccharoides; Badilloa; Baeria; Baeriopsis; Bafutia; Bahia; Bahianthus; Bahiopsis; Baileya; Baillieria; Bajacalia; Balbisia; Balduina; Balsamita; Balsamorhiza; Baltimora; Barkhausia; Barkleyanthus; Barnadesia; Barroetea; Barrosoa; Bartlettia; Bartlettina; Basedowia; Batopilasia; Bebbia; Bechium; Bedfordia; Bejaranoa; Bellida; Bellidastrum; Bellidiastrum; Belliopsis; Beffis; Bellium; Belloa; Bembycodium; Benitoa; Berardia; Berhardia; Berkheya; Berkheyopsis; Berlandiera; Berroa; Berthelotia; Berylsimpsonia; Bethencourtia; Bidens; Bigelowia; Billya; Biotia; Bishopalea; Bishopanthus; Bishopiella; Bishovia; Blainvillea; Blakeanthus; Blakiella; Blanchea; Blanchetia; Blennosperma; Blennospora; Blepharipappus; Blepharispermum; Blepharizonia; Blumea; Blumeopsis; Boeberastrum; Boeberoides; Bolandia; Bolanosa; Bolocephalus; Bolophyta; Boltonia; Bombycilaena; Borrichia; Bothriocline; Brachanthemum; Brachionostylum; Brachyactis; Brachyandra; Brachychaeta; Brachyclados; Brachycome; Brachyglottis; Brachylaena; Brachyrhynchos; Brachyris; Brachyscome; Brachythrix; Bradburia; Brasilia; Breea; Brenandendron; Breteuillia; Brickellia; Brickelliastrum; Brintonia; Brocchia; Broteroa; Bryomorphe; Bulbostylis; Bunioseris; Buphthalmum; Burkartia; Caatinganthus; Cabobanthus; Cabreriella; Cacalia; Cacaliopsis; Cacosmia; Cadiscus; Caelestina; Caesulia; Calais; Calanticaria; Calcitrapa; Calea; Calendula; Calimeris; Callicephalus; Callichroa; Callicornia; Callilepis; Calliopsis; Callistephus; Calocephalus; Calomeria; Calopappus; Calorezia; Calostephane; Calotesta; Calotis; Calycadenia; Calycoseris; Calyptocarpus; Camchaya; Campovassouria; Camptacra; Campuloclinium; Campylotheca; Canadanthus; Cancrinia; Cancriniella; Capelio; Caradesia; Caraea; Carbeni; Cardopatium; Carduncellus; Carduocirsium ; × Carduocirsium ; × Carduogalactites; Carduus; Carlina; Carlquistia; Carmelita; Carminatia; Carpesium; Carphephorus; Carphochaete; Carramboa; Carterothamnus; Carthamus; Cassinia; Castalis; Castanedia; Castrilanthemum; Castroviejoa; Catamixis; Catananche; Catatia; Catolesia; Caucasalia; Cavalcantia; Cavea; Caxamarca; ×Celmearia; Celmisia; Cenia; Cenocline; Centaurea; Centaureopappus; Centaurodendron; Centauropsis; Centaurothamnus ; × Centauserratula; Centipeda; Centrachena; Centrapalus; Centratherum; Centrocarpha; Centromadia; Centrospermum; Cephalipterum; Cephalopappus; Cephalophora; Cephalorrhynchus; Cephalosorus; Ceratogyne; Cercostylos; Ceruana; Chacoa; Chaenactis; Chaetadelpha; Chaetanthera; Chaetopappa; Chaetoseris; Chaetymenia; Chamaechaenactis; Chamaegeron; Chamaeleon; Chamaemelum; Chamaepeuce; Chamaepus; Chaptalia; Charadranaetes; Chardinia; Chartolepis; Cheirolophus; Cheliusia; Cherina; Chersodoma; Chevreulia; Chihuahuana; Childsia; Chiliadenus; Chiliocephalum; Chiliophyllum; Chiliotrichiopsis; Chiliotrichum; Chimantaea; Chionolaena; Chionopappus; Chlaenobolus; Chlamydophora; Chlamysperma; Chloracantha; Chondrilla; Chondropyxis; Chorisiva; Choristea; Chresta; Chromochiton; Chromolaena; Chromolepis; Chronopappus ; × Chrysaboltonia; Chrysactinia; Chrysactinium; Chrysanthellum ; × Chrysanthemoachillea; Chrysanthemoides; Chrysanthemum; Chrysanthoglossum; Chrysocephalum; Chrysocoma; Chrysocoryne; Chrysogonum; Chrysolaena; Chrysoma; Chrysophania; Chrysophthalmum; Chrysopsis; Chrysothamnus; Chthonia; Chthonocephalus; Chucoa; Chuquiraga; Cicerbita; Ciceronia; Cichorium; Cineraria ; × Cirsiocarduus; Cirsium; Cissampelopsis; Cladanthus; Cladochaeta; Cladopogon; Clappia; Clarionea; Clavigera; Clibadium; Clipteria; Cloiselia; Clomenocoma; Closia; Cnicothamnus; Cnicus; Codonocephalum; Coespeletia; Coleocoma; Coleosanthus; Coleostephus; Colobanthera; Cololobus; Columbiadoria ; × Colycea ; × Colymbacosta; Colymbada; Comaclinium; Comborhiza; Commidendrum; Condylidium; Condylopodium; Coniza; Conocliniopsis; Conoclinium; Constancea ; × Conygeron; Conyza ; × Conyzigeron; Coreocarpus; Coreopsis; Corethamnium; Corethrogyne; Coronidium; Corymbium; Cosmea; Cosmidium; Cosmophyllum; Cosmos; Cota; Cotula; Coulterella; Cousinia; Cousiniopsis; Craspedia; Crassocephalum; Cratystylis; Cremanthodium; Cremnothamnus ; × Crepi - Hieracium; Crepidiastrixeris; Crepidiastrum; Crepidifolium; Crepis; Crepula; Crinitaria; Criscia; Critonia; Critoniadelphus; Critoniella; Critoniopsis; Crocidium; Crocodilium; Crocodilodes; Cronquistia; Cronquistianthus; Croptilon; Crossolepis; Crossostephium; Crossothamnus; Crupina; Cryptopleura; Cryptostemma; Cuatrecasanthus; Cuatrecasasiella; Cuchumatanea; Culcitium; Cullumia; Cuniculotinus; Cupularia; Curio; Cuspidia; Cyanopis; Cyanopsis; Cyanthillium; Cyanus; Cyathocline; Cyathomone; Cyathopappus; Cyclolepis; Cylindrocline; Cymbolaena; Cymbonotus; Cymbopappus; Cymophora; Cynara; Cynaropsis; Cyrtocymura; Dacryotrichia; Dadia; Dahlia; Damnamenia; Damnxanthodium; Darwiniothamnus; Dasyandantha; Dasyanthina; Dasycondylus; Dasyphyllum; Dauresia; Daveaua; Decachaeta; Decaneuropsis; Decaneurum; Decastylocarpus; Decazesia; Deinandra; Delairea; Delamerea; Delilia; Delwiensia; Dendranthema; Dendrocacalia; Dendrophorbium; Dendrosenecio; Dendroseris; Dendroviguiera; Denekea; Denekia; Derderia; Desmanthodium; Detris; Dewildemania; Diacranthera; Diaperia; Diaphractanthus; Diaspananthus; Dicalymma; Dicercoclados; Dicerothamnus; Dichaetophora; Dichotoma; Dichrocephala; Dichromochlamys; Dicoma; Dicoria; Dicranocarpus; Dicrocephala; Didelta; Dielitzia; Dieteria; Digitacalia; Dilepis; Dillandia; Dimeresia; Dimerostemma; Dimorphocoma; Dimorphotheca; Dinoseris; Diodontium; Diplactis; Diplazoptilon; Diplemium; Diplopappus; Diplostephium; Dipterocome; Dipterocypsela; Disparago; Dissothrix; Distasis; Distegia; Distephanus; Disynaphia; Dithyrostegia; Ditrichum; Dittrichia; Doellia; Doellingeria; Dolichlasium; Dolichoglottis; Dolichogyne; Dolichorrhiza; Dolichothrix; Dolomiaea; Doniophyton; Doria; Dorobaea; Doronicum; Dresslerothamnus; Dubautia; Dubyaea; Dugaldia; Dugesia; Duhaldea; Duidaea; Dumerilia; Dusenia; Duseniella; Dymondia; Dyscritogyne; Dyscritothamnus; Dysodiopsis; Dyssodia; Eastwoodia; Eatonella; Echinacea; Echinocephalum; Echinocoryne; Echinops; Eclipta; Eclopes; Edmondia; Edwartiothamnus; Egania; Egletes; Eirmocephala; Eitenia; Eizaguirrea; Ekmania; Ekmaniopappus; Elachanthemum; Elachanthus; Elaphandra; Elekmania; Elephantopus; Elephantosis; Eleutheranthera; Ellenbergia; Elytropappus; Emilia; Emiliella; Enantiotrichum; Encelia; Enceliopsis; Endocellion; Endopappus; Endoptera; Engelmannia; Engleria; Enydra; Epallage; Epaltes; Epiclinastrum; Epilasia; Epitriche; Erato; Erechtites; Eremanthus; Eremosis; Eremothamnus; Eriachaenium; Ericameria; Ericentrodea; Erigeron; Eriocarpum; Eriocephalus; Eriochlamys; Eriocoryne; Eriolepis; Eriophyllum; Eriosphaera; Eriotrix; Erlangea; Erodiophyllum; Erymophyllum; Eryngiophyllum; Erythradenia; Erythrocephalum; Erythroseris; Eschenbachia; Espejoa; Espeletia; Espeletiopsis; Ethulia; Ethuliopsis; Eucephalus; Euchiton; Eumorphia; Eunoxis; Eupatoriastrum; Eupatorina; Eupatoriopsis; Eupatorium; Euphrosyne; Eurybia; Eurydochus; Euryops; Eutetras; Euthamia; Euthrixia; Eutrochium; Evacidium; Evax; Ewartia; Exomiocarpon; Faberia; Facelis; Farfugium; Farobaea; Faujasia; Faujasiopsis; Faxonia; Feddea; Feldstonia; Felicia; Fenixia; Ferreyranthus; Ferreyrella; Filaginella; Filaginopsis; Filago; ×Filfia; Filifolium; Fimbristima; Fingalia; Fitchia; Fitzwillia; Flaveria; Fleischmannia; Fleischmanniopsis; Florestina; Floscaldasia; Flosmutisia; Flotovia; Flourensia; Flyriella; Formania; Fornicium; Fougerouxia; Foveolina; Fragmosa; Franseria; Freemania; Freya; Frolovia; Fulcaldea; Gaillardia; Galactites; Galardia; Galatella; Galeana; Galeomma; Galinsoga; Gama; Gamochaeta; Gamochaetopsis; Gamolepis; Garberia; Garcibarrigoa; Garcilassa; Gardnerina; Garhadiolus; Garuleum; Gastrosulum; Gatyona; Gazania; Gazaniopsis; Geigeria; Geissolepis; Gelasia; Geraea; Gerbera; Geropogon; Gibbaria; Gifola; Gilberta; Gilruthia; Gladiopappus; Glebionis; Glossarion; Glossocardia; Glossogyne; Glossopappus; Glyphia; Glyptopleura; Gnaphaliothamnus; Gnaphalium; Gnephosis; Gnomophalium; Gochnatia; Goldmanella; Golionema; Gongrostylus; Gongrothamnus; Gongylolepis; Goniocaulon; Gonospermum; Gorceixia; Gorteria; Gossweilera; Goyazianthus; Grangea; Grangeopsis; Grantia; Graphistylis; Gratwickia; Grauanthus; Grazielia; Greenmaniella; Grindelia; Grisebachianthus; Grosvenoria; Guardiola; Guariruma; Guayania; Guayana; Guizotia; Gundelia; Gundlachia; Gutenbergia; Gutierrezia; Guynesomia; Gymnanthemum; Gymnarrhena; Gymnaster; Gymnocline; Gymnocondylus; Gymnocoronis; Gymnodiscus; Gymnolaena; Gymnolomia; Gymnopentzia; Gymnopsis; Gymnosperma; Gymnostephium; Gymnostyles; Gynema; Gynoxys; Gynura; Gypothamnium; Gyptidium; Gyptis; Gyrodoma; Haastia; Haeckeria; Haegiela; Haenelia; Hainanecio; Hamulium; Handelia; Hapalostephium; Haplocarpha; Haplodiscus; Haploesthes; Haplopappus; Haplostephium; Haptotrichion; Haradjania; Harleya; Harmonia; Harnackia; Harpaecarpus; Harpalium; Harpephora; Hartwrightia; Hasteola; Hatschbachiella; Havanella; Haxtonia; Hazardia; Hebeclinium; Hecastocleis; Hecatactis; Hectorea; Hedosyne; Hedypnois; Heleastrum; Helemonium; Helenia; Heleniastrum; Helenium; Helenomoium; Helepta; Heliantheae; Helianthella; Helianthopsis; Helianthus; Helichroa; Helichrysopsis; Helichrysum; Helicta; Heliocauta; Heliogenes; Heliomeris; Heliophthalmum; Heliopsis; Helioreos; Helipterum; Helminthia; Helminthotheca; Helogyne; Heloseris; Hemiambrosia; Hemilepis; Hemistepta; Hemisteptia; Hemixanthidium; Hemizonella; Hemizonia; Hemolepis; Henanthus; Henricksonia; Heptanthus; Heracantha; Heraclea; Herbichia; Herderia; Herodotia; Herreranthus; Herrickia; Hersilea; Hertia; Hesperevax; Hesperomannia; Hesperoseris; Heteracantha; Heteracia; Heteranthemis; Heterocoma; Heterocondylus; Heterocypsela; Heteroderis ; × Heterokalimeris; Heterolepis; Heteromera; Heteromma; Heteropappus; Heteropleura; Heteroplexis; Heterorachis; Heterorhachis; Heterosperma; Heterothalamulopsis; Heterothalamus; Heterotheca; Hidalgoa; Hierachium; Hieraciodes; Hieracioides; Hieracium; Hierapicra; Hilliardia; Hilliardiella; Himalaiella; Hingstonia; Hingtsha; Hinterhubera; Hiorthia; Hippia; Hippolytia; Hippophaestum; Himellia; Hirpicium; Hirtellina; Hispidella; Hoehnelia; Hoehnephytum; Hoffmanniella; Hofmeisteria; Hohenwartha; Holocarpha; Holocheilus; Hologymne; Hololeion; Hololepis; Holophyllum; Holoschkuhria; Holozonia; Homalotheca; Homogyne; Homoianthus; Homopappus; Homostylium; Hoorebekia; Hopkirkia; Hoplophyllum; Huarpea; Huberopappus; Hubertia; Huenefeldia; Hughesia; Hullsia; Hulsea; Hulteniella; Humbertacalia; Humea; Humeocline; Hutchinsonia; Hyalea; Hyalis; Hyalochaete; Hyalochlamys; Hyaloseris; Hyalosperma; Hybridella; Hydroidea; Hydropectis; Hylethale; Hymenatherum; Hymenocentron; Hymenocephalus; Hymenoclea; Hymenolepis; Hymenonema; Hymenopappus; Hymenostemma; Hymenostephium; Hymenothrix; Hymenoxys; Hyoseris; Hypacanthium; Hypericophyllum; Hypochaeris; Hypochoeris; Hysterionica; Hystrichophora; Ianthopappus; Ichthyothere; Ictinus; Idiopappus; Idiothamnus; Ifloga; Ignurbia; Iltisia; Imeria; Impia; Inezia; Infantea; Ingenhusia; Inkaliabum; Intybellia; Intybus; Inula; Inulanthera; Inulaster; Inuleae; Inuloides; Inulopsis; Inyonia; Io; Iocenes; Iodocephalopsis; Iodocephalus; Iogeton; Ionactis; Iostephane; Iotasperma; Iphiona; Iphionopsis; Iranecio; Irwinia; Ischnea; Ismelia; Isocarpha; Isocoma; Isoetopsis; Isomeria; Isostigma; Isotypus; Iteria; Iva; Ixauchenus; Ixeridium; Ixeris; Ixiochlamys; Ixiolaena; Ixodia ; × Ixyoungia; Jacea; Jaceacosta; Jaceitrapa; Jacmaia; Jacobaea; Jacobaeastrum; Jacobanthus; Jacosta; Jaegeria; Jalambica; Jalcophila; Jaliscoa; Jamesianthus; Jaramilloa; Jasonia; Jaumea; Jefea; Jeffreya; Jensia; Jessea; Joannea; Joannesia; Jobaphes; Johannia; Joseanthus; Jungia; Jurinea; Jurinella; Kaulfussia; Kalimares; Kalimeris; Kallias; Kanimia; Karelinia; Karvandarina; Kaschgaria; Kaulfussia; Kaunia; Keerlia; Kemulariella; Kentrophyllum; Keringa; Kerneria; Keysseria; Khasianthus; Kiliana; Kinghamia; Kingianthus; Kippistia; Klasea; Klaseopsis; Kleinia; Klenzea; Koanophyllon; Koechlea; Koehneola; Koelpinia; Kovalevskiella; Koyamacalia; Koyamasia; Krigia; Krylovia; Kuhnia; Kyhosia; Kymapleura; Kyrstenia; Kyrsteniopsis; Lachanodes; Lachnophyllum; Lachnorhiza; Lachnospermum; Lachnothalamus; Lacinaria; Lactuca; Lactucopsis; Laennecia; Laestadia; Lagascea; Lagenocypsela; Lagenopappus; Lagenophora; Laggera; Lagophylla; Lagoseriopsis; Lagoseris; Lagothamnus; Lagurostemon; Lalda; Lamprachaenium; Lamprocephalus; Lampropappus; Lampsana; Lamyra; Lamyropappus; Lamyropsis; Lancisia; Landtia; Langebergia; Lanipila; Lantanopsis; Laphamia; Laphangium; Lappa; Lapsana; Lapsanastrum; Lapsyoungia; Lasallea; Lasianthaea; Lasiocarphus; Lasiocephalus; Lasiolaena; Lasiopogon; Lasiorrhiza; Lasiospermum; Lasiospora; Lasthenia; Latreillea; Launaea; Launaya; Launea; Lavenia; Lawrencella; Laxanon; Laxmannia; Laxopetalum; Layia; Leachia; Lebetina; Lecocarpus; Leiachenis; Leibnitzia; Leiboldia; Leighia; Leiocarpa; Leiodon; Leioligo; Lemmatium; Lemooria; Leonis; Leontodon; Leontonyx; Leontopodium; Lepachis; Lepachys; Lepicaune; Lepidaploa; Lepidesmia; Lepidolopha; Lepidolopsis; Lepidonia; Lepidopappus; Lepidophorum; Lepidophyllum; Lepidopogon; Lepidoseris; Lepidospartum; Lepidostephanus; Lepidostephium; Lepidotheca; Lepiscline; Leptalea; Lepteranthus; Leptica; Leptilon; Leptinella; Leptocarpha; Leptoclinium; Leptogyne; Leptopoda; Leptorhynchos; Leptoseris; Leptostelma; Leptosyne; Leptotis; Leptotriche; Leria; Lescaillea; Lessingia; Lessingianthus; Leto; Leucacantha; Leucactinia ; × Leucantanacetum; Leucantha; Leucanthemella; Leucanthemopsis; Leucanthemum; Leucelene; Leuchaeria; Leucheria; Leuciva; Leucoblepharis; Leucochrysum; Leucogenes; Leucomeris; Leucopholis; Leucophyta; Leucopsidium; Leucopsis; Leucoptera; Leucoseris; Leunisia; Leuzea; Leveillea; Leysera; Liabellum; Liabum; Liatris; Libanothamnus; Lidbeckia; Lieberkuhna; Lifago; Ligularia; Ligulariopsis; Limbarda; Lindheimera; Linochilus; Linosyris; Linsecomia; Linzia; Lipochaeta; Lipotriche; Lipschitziella; Lipskyella; Litogyne; Litothamnus; Litrisa; Llerasia; Logfia; Lomanthus; Lomatozona; Lomaxeta; Lonas; Lophactis; Lophiolepis; Lophoclinium; Lopholaena; Lopholoma; Lophopappus; Lorandersonia; Lordhowea; Lorentea; Lorentzianthus; Loricaria; Lourteigia; Loxodon; Loxothysanus; Lucilia; Luciliocline; Luina; Lulia; Lundellianthus; Lundinia; Lupsia; Lycapsus; Lychnocephaliopsis; Lychnocephalus; Lychnophora; Lychnophoriopsis; Lycoseris; Lycotis; Lygodesmia; Lyonnetia; Lysistemma; Machaeranthera; Machlis; Macledium; Macowania; Macrachaenium; Macraea; Macroclinidium; Macronema; Macropertya; Macropodina; Macvaughiella; Madagaster; Madaractis; Madaria; Madaroglossa; Madea; Madia; Mairia; Malacocephalus; Malacothrix; Malmeanthus; Malperia; Mandonia; Mantagnaea; Mantisalca; Manyonia; Marasmodes; Marcelia; Margarita; Mariacantha; Mariana; Marizia; Marsea; Marshallia; Marshalljohnstonia; Marticorenia; Martrasia; Maruta; Mastrucium; Matricaria; Mattfeldanthus; Mattfeldia; Matudina; Mauranthemum; Mausolea; Mazzettia; Mecomischus; Medicusia; Medranoa; Megalodonta; Melampodium; Melananthera; Melanchrysum; Melanodendron; Melanoloma; Melanoseris; Melanthera; Melarhiza; Melissopsis; Menomphalus; Meratia; Merrittia; Mesadenia; Mesanthophora; Mesocentron; Mesodetra; Mesogramma; Mesoneuris; Metabasis; Metagnanthus; Metalasia; Metastevia; Meteorina; Mexerion; Mexianthus; Meyerafra; Meyeria; Micractis; Micrauchenia; Micrelium; Microbahia; Microcephala; Microcephalum; Microchaeta; Microchaete; Microcoecia; Microderis; Microglossa; Microgyne; Microlecane; Microliabum; Microlonchus; Microlophopsis; Microlophus; Micropsis; Micropus; Microrhynchus; Microseris; Microspermum; Mikania; Mikaniopsis; Millefolium; Miliaria; Millina; Millotia; Minasia; Minuria; Minythodes; Miradoria; Mirasolia; Miricacalia; Misbrookea; Mitina; Miyamayomena; Mnesiteon; Mniodes; Mocinia; Moerkensteinia; Molpadia; Monactis; Monarrhenus; Monencyanthes; Monenteles; Monoculus; Monogereion; Monolopia; Monopholis; Monoptilon; Monosis; Monothrix; Montagnaea; Montanoa; Monticalia; Moonia; Moquinia; Morithamnus; Morna; Morysia; Moscharia; Moschifera; Mosigia; Msuata; Mtonia; Mulgedium; Munnozia; Munzothamnus; Muschleria; Musilia; Mussinia; Musteron; Mutisia; Myanmaria; Myconia; Myctanthes; Myopordon; Myriactis; Myriocephalus; Myripnois; Myscolus; Myxopappus; Nabalus; Nablonium; Nacrea; Nananthea; Nannoglottis; Nanothamnus; Narbalia; Nardophyllum; Nardosmia; Narvalina; Nassauvia; Nauenburgia; Nauplius; Neactelis; Neblinaea; Neesia; Neja; Nemolepis; Nemosenecio; Neo - taraxacum; Neocabreria; Neoceis; Neocuatrecasia; Neohintonia; Neojeffreya; Neomirandea; Neomolina; Neonesomia; Neopallasia; Neosyris; Neotysonia; Nephrotheca; Nesampelos; Nesomia; Nestlera; Nestotus; Neurelmis; Neurolaena; Neurolakis; Nicolasia; Nicolletia; Nidorella; Nikitinia; Nipponanthemum; Nitelium; Nivellea; Nocca; Nolletia; Nordenstamia; Norlindhia; Nothobaccharis; Nothocalais; Noticastrum; Notobasis; Notonia; Notoseris; Nouelia; Novaguinea; Novenia; Novopokrovskia; Oaxacania; Obaejaca; Obefiscaria; Oblivia; Ochrocephala; Ochronelis; Oclemena; Ocneron; Odixia; Odoglossa; Odontocline; Odontolophus; Odontoptera; Odontospermum; Odontotrichum; Oedera; Oegroe; Ogiera; Oglifa; Oiospermum; Oldenburgia; Oldfeltia; Olearia; Olgaea; Ofigactis; Oligandra; Oliganthemum; Oliganthes; Oligocarpus; Ofigochaeta; Oligoglossa; Oligogyne; Oligolepis; Oligoneuron; Oligosporus; Oligothrix; Olivaea; Omalanthus; Omalocline; Omalotes; Omalotheca; Omphalopappus; Oncosiphon; Ondetia; Onobroma; Onopix; Onopordum; Onopyxus; Onoseris; Onotrophe; Oocephala; Ooclinium; Oonopsis; Oparanthus; Ophryosporus; Opicrina; Opisthopappus; Oporinia; Orbivestus; Oreochrysum; Oreoleysera; Oreophila; Oreoseris; Oreostemma; Oresbia; Oresigonia; Oriastrum; Oritrophium; Ormenis; Orochaenactis; Orsina; Orthocentron; Orthopappus; Osbertia; Osmadenia; Osmia; Osmiopsis; Osmites; Osmitiphyllum; Osmitopsis; Osteospermum; Oswalda; Otanthus; Oteiza; Othake; Othonna; Othonnopsis; Otochlamys; Otopappus; Otospermum; Oxiphoeria; Oxycarpha; Oxylaena; Oxylobus; Oxypappus; Oxyphyllum; Oxytenia; Oxyura; Oyedaea; Ozothamnus; Pachyderis; Pachylaena; Pachystegia; Pachythamnus; Pacifigeron; Packera; Pacourina; Paenula; Palafoxia; Paleaepappus; Paleista; Paleolaria; Paleya; Pallenis; Pamphalea; Panaetia; Panargyrus; Paneroa; Paniopsis; Panphalea; Pappobolus; Pappochroma; Papuacalia; Paquerina; Paracalia; Parachionolaena; Parafaujasia; Paragynoxys; Paralychnophora; Paramiflos; Paranephelius; Parantennaria; Paraphysis; Parapiqueria; Parapolydora; Paraprenanthes; Parasenecio; Parastrephia; Parasyncalathium; Pardisium; Parthenice; Parthenium; Parthenopsis; Pasaccardoa; Pascalia; Paurolepis; Pechuel - Ioeschea; Pectinastrum; Pectis; Pegolettia; Peltidium; Pelucha; Pembertonia; Pentacalia; Pentachaeta; Pentalepis; Pentanema; Pentaphorus; Pentataxis; Pentatrichia; Pentzia; Peramibus; Perdicium; Pereuphora; Perezia; Pericalia; Pericallis; Pericome; Peripleura; Peritris; Perkyle; Perplexia; Perralderia; Perralderiopsis; Personaria; Pertya; Perymeniopsis; Perymenium; Petalacte; Petalolepis; Petasites; Peteravenia; Petradoria; Petrobium; Peucephyllum; Phacellothrix; Phaenixopus; Phaenocoma; Phaeopappus; Phaethusa; Phagnalon; Phalacrachena; Phalacraea; Phalacrocarpum; Phalacrodiscus; Phalacroloma; Phalacromesus; Phalacroseris; Phalolepis; Phaneroglossa; Phanerostylis; Phania; Phialis; Philactis; Phileozera; Philoglossa; Philostizus; Philyrophyllum; Phitosia; Phoebanthus; Phonus; Phrygia; Phyllimena; Phyllocephalum; Phyllostefidium; Phymaspermum; Phyteumopsis; Picnomon; Picradenia; Picradeniopsis; Picridium; Picris; Picrosia; Picrothamnus; Pilosella; Pilostemon; Pinardia; Pinaropappus; Pingraea; Pinillosia: Piora; Pippenalia; Piptocarpha; Piptocephalum; Piptoceras; Piptocoma; Piptolepis; Piptopogon; Piptothrix; Piqueria; Piqueriella; Piqueriopsis; Pirarda; Pithecoseris; Pithocarpa; Pittocaulon; Pityopsis; Placus; Pladaroxylon; Plagiobasis; Plagiochellus; Plagiolophus; Plagius; Planaltoa; Planea; Plateilema; Platycarpha; Platychaete; Platycheilus; Platypodanthera; Platyraphium; Platyschkuhria; Platzchaeta; Plazia; Plecostachys; Plectocephalus; Pleiacanthus; Pleiogyne; Pleiotaxis; Pleocarphus; Pleurocarpaea; Pleurocoronis; Pleuropappus; Pleurophyllium; Pluchea; Plumosipappus; Podachaenium; Podanthus; Podocoma; Podolepis; Podosperma; Podospermum; Podotheca; Poecilolepis; Poecilotriche; Pogonolepis; Pojarkovia; Poljakanthema; Poljakovia; Pollalesta; Poloa; Polyacantha; Polyachyrus; Polyactidium; Polyactis; Polyanthina; Polyarrhena; Polycalymma; Polycantha; Polychaetia; Polychrysum; Polydora; Polymnia; Polymniastrum; Polypappus; Polypteris; Polytaxis; Pontesia; Pontia; Porcellites; Porophyllum; Porphyrostemma; Portalesia; Postia; Praxefiopsis; Praxefis; Prenanthella ; × Prenanthenia; Prenanthes; Prestelia; Prestinaria; Printzia; Prolobus; Prolongoa; Pronacron; Proteopsis; Proustia; Psacaliopsis; Psacalium; Psammoseris; Psanacetum; Psathyrotes; Psathyrotopsis; Psectra; Psednotrichia; Psephellus; Pseudelephantopus; Pseudobaccharis; Pseudobahia; Pseudoblepharispermum; Pseudobrickellia; Pseudoclappia; Pseudoglossanthis; Pseudognaphalium; Pseudogynoxys; Pseudohandelia; Pseudojacobaea; Pseudokyrsteniopsis; Pseudoligandra; Pseudolinosyris; Pseudonoseris; Pseudopiptocarpha; Pseudostifftia; Pseudoyoungia; Psiadia; Psiadiella; Psila; Psilactis; Psilocarphus; Psilostrophe; Psora; Psychrogeton; Ptarmica; Pterachaenia; Pterigeron; Pternix; Pterocaulon; Pterochaeta; Pterocladis; Pterocypsela; Pterolophus; Pteronia; Pterophorus; Pterophyton; Pteropogon; Pterosenecio; Pterostephanus; Pterotheca; Pterothrix; Pterygopappus; Ptilepida; Ptileris; Ptilomeris; Ptilonella; Ptiloria; Ptilosia; Ptilostemon; Ptilostephium; Ptosimopappus; Pugiopappus; Pulicaria; Punduana; Pycnocomus; Pycnosorus; Pyrethraria; Pyrethropsis; Pyrethrum; Pyropsis; Pyrrhopappus; Pyrrocoma; Pytinicarpa; Quechualia; Quelchia; Quinetia; Quinqueremulus; Rachelia; Radlkoferotoma; Rafinesquia; Raillardella; Raillardia; Railliardia; Rainiera; Rancagua; Raoulia; Raouliopsis; Rastrophyllum; Ratibida; Raulinoreitzia; Rayjacksonia; Reichardia; Relhania; Remya; Rennera; Rensonia; Resinocaulon; Revealia; Rhabdotheca; Rhacoma; Rhagadiolus; Rhamphogyne; Rhanteriopsis; Rhanterium; Rhapontica; Rhaponticoides; Rhaponticum; Rhetinocarpha; Rhetinodendron; Rhetinolepis; Rhinactina; Rhinactinidia; Rhodanthe; Rhodanthemum; Rhodogeron; Rhynchocarpus; Rhynchopappus; Rhynchopsidium; Rhynchospermum; Rhysolepis; Richardia; Richterago; Richteria; Ridan; Ridania; Riddellia; Riencourtia; Rigiopappus; Robinsonecio; Robinsonia; Roccardia; Rochonia; Rodigia; Rohria; Rojasianthe; Rolandra; Roldana; Roodebergia; Rosenia; Rothmaleria; Rudbeckia; Rugelia; Ruilopezia; Rumfordia; Russowia; Rutidosis; Rydbergia; Sabazia; Sabbata; Sachsia; Sagmen; Saintmorysia; Salcedoa; Saimaa; Salmeopsis; Santolina; Santonica; Santosia; Sanvitalia; Sarcanthemum; Sartorina; Sartwellia; Saubinetia; Saussurea; Saussuria; Scabrethia; Scalesia; Scalia; Scaliopsis; Scariola; Scepinia; Schaetzellia; Scherya; Scheuchleria; Schischkinia; Schistocarpha; Schistostephium; Schizogyne; Schizoptera; Schizotrichia; Schkuhria; Schlagintweitia; Schlechtendalia; Schmalhausenia; Schmidtia; Schoenia; Schortia; Schumeria; Sciadioseris; Sciadocephala; Sclerobasis; Sclerocarpus; Sclerolepis; Sclerorhachis; Scolospermum; Scolymanthus; Scolymus; Scorzonella; Scorzonera; Scorzoneroides; Scrobicaria; Scyphocoronis; Scyphopappus; Scytala; Sebastiania; Selleophytum; Selloa; Semiria; Senecillicacalia; Seneciffis; Senecio; Senecioneae; Seneciunculus; Sericocarpus; Seridia; Seriola; Seriphidium; Seriphium; Seris; Serpaea; Serratula; Seruneum; Setachna; Shafera; Shawia; Sheareria; Shinnersia; Shinnersoseris; Siapaea; Sideranthus; Siebera; Siemssenia; Sigesbeckia; Siloxerus; Silphion; Silphium; Silybum; Simlera; Simsia; Sinacalia; Sinclairia; Sinoleontopodium; Sinosenecio; Sipolisia; Skirrhophorus; Smallanthus; Soaresia; Sobreyra; Sogalgina; Solanecio; Soldevilla; Solenogyne; Solenotheca; Solidago; ×Solidaster; Sofiva; Solstitiaria; Sommerfeltia; Sonchella; Sonchoseris; Sonchus; Sonchustenia; Sondottia; Soroseris; Soyeria; Spadactis; Spadonia; Spaniopappus; Spanotrichum; Sparganophorus; Spathipappus; Sphacophyllum; Sphaeranthus; Sphaereupatorium; Sphaeromeria; Sphaeromorphaea; Sphagneticola; Sphenogyne; Spilacron; Spilanthes; Spiracantha; Spiralepis; Spiropodium; Spiroseris; Spitzelia; Spongotrichum; Sprunira; Sprunnera; Squamopappus; Stachycephalum; Staebe; Staehelina; Stammarium; Standleyanthus; Stanfieldia; Staurochlamys; Stechmannia; Stegonotus; Steiractinia; Steirodiscus; Steiroglossa; Stemmacantha; Stemmatella; Stemmodontia; Stenachaenium; Stenactis; Stenocarpha; Stenocephalum; Stenocline; Stenopadus; Stenophalium; Stenophyllum; Stenops; Stenoseris; Stenotheca; Stenotus; Stephanbeckia; Stephanochilus; Stephanocoma; Stephanodoria; Stephanomeria; Stephanopappus; Stephanopholis; Steptorhamphus; Stera; Stereosanthus; Steriphe; Stevia; Steviopsis; Steyermarkina; Sthaelina; Stifftia; Stigmatotheca; Stilpnogyne; Stilpnolepis; Stilpnopappus; Stizolophus; Stobaea; Stoebe; Stokesia; Stomatanthes; Stomatochaeta; Stramentopappus; Streckera; Streptoglossa; Strobocalyx; Strophopappus; Strotheria; Struchium; Stuartina; Stuckertiella; Stuessya; Stylimnus; Stylocline; Stylolepis; Styloncerus; Stylopappus; Stylotrichium; Succisocrepis; Swammerdamia; Symphipappus; Symphyllocarpus; Symphyochaeta; Symphyopappus; Symphyotrichum; Syncalathium; Syncarpha; Syncephalum; Synchaeta; Synchodendron; Syncretocarpus; Synedrella; Synedrellopsis; Syneilesis; Synosma; Synotis; Syntrichopappus; Synurus; Syreitschikovia; Tafalla; Tagetes; Takhtajaniantha; Talamancalia; Tamananthus; Tamania; Tamaulipa; Tanacetopsis; Tanacetum; Tanaxion; Taplinia; Taraxacum; Tarchonanthus; Tarlmounia; Tehuana; Teichostemma; Teixeiranthus; Telanthophora; Telekia; Telesia; Telmatophila; Tenrhynea; Tephroseris; Tepion; Terana; Tessaria; Tessenia; Tetracanthus; Tetracarpum; Tetrachyron; Tetradymia; Tetragonosperma; Tetragonotheca; Tetramolopium; Tetraneuris; Tetrantha; Tetranthus; Tetraotis; Tetraperone; Tetrodus; Thaminophyllum; Thamnoseris; Thelesperma; Therogeron; Therolepta; Thespidium; Thespis; Thevenotia; Thinobia; Thiseltonia; Thorelia; Thrincia; Thrixia; Thurovia; Thymophylla; Thymopsis; Thyopsis; Thyrsanthema; Tiarocarpus; Tibetoseris; Tietkensia; Tilesia; Tithonia; Toiyabea; Tolbonia; Tollatia; Tolpis; Tomanthea; Tomentaurum; Tonestus; Torrentia; Tostimontia; Tourneuxia; Townsendia; Toxanthes; Trachodes; Tracyina; Tragopogon; Tragopogonoides; Trallesia; Trattenikia; Traversia; Trepadonia; Triachne; Trichaetolepis; Trichanthemis; Trichanthodium; Trichocline; Trichocoronis; Trichocoryne; Trichocrepis; Trichogonia; Trichogoniopsis; Trichogyne; Tricholepis; Trichoptilium; Trichoseris; Trichospira; Trichostemma; Trichostephium; Trichymenia; Tridactylina; Tridax; Trigonopterum; Trigonospermum; Trilisa; Trimeranthes; Trimetra; Trimorpha; Triniteurybia; Trioncinia; xTripleurocota; Tripleurospermum ; × Tripleurothemis; Triplocentron; Triplocephalum; Triplotaxis; Tripolion; Tripolium; Tripteris; Triptilion; Triptilium; Triptilodiscus; Trixis; Trochoseris; Troglophyton; Tropidolepis; Troximon; Tuberculocarpus; Tuberostylis; Tubilium; Tuckermannia; Tugarinovia; Tulakenia; Tumionella; Turaniphytum; Turczaninowia; Tursenia; Tussilago; Tuxtla; Tyleropappus; Tylloma; Tyrimnus; Tzvelevopyrethrum; Ubiaea; Uechtritzia; Ugamia; Uhdea; Uleophytum; Ulina; Unamia; Unxia; Urbananthus; Urbanisol; Urbinella; Urmenetea; Urolepis; Uropappus; Urospermum; Urostylis; Ursinia; Vanillosma; Vanillosmopsis; Vargasia; Varilla; Varthemia; Vasquezia; Vellereophyton; Venatris; Vendredia; Venegasia; Venegazia; Venidium; Verbesina; Vernasolis; Vernonanthura; Vemonella; Vernonia; Vernoniastrum; Vernonieae; Vernoniopsis; Verutina; Vicoa; Vieraea; Viereckia; Vierhapperia; Vigethia; Vigolina; Viguiera; Villanova; Villasenoria; Vinicia; Virgaria; Virginea; Virgulaster; Virgulus; Vittadinia; Vittetia; Vladimiria; Volutarella; Volutaria; Wahlenbergia; Waitzia; Waldheimia; Wamalchitamia; Wardaster; Warionia; Wedelia; Welwitschiella; Werneria; Westoniella; Wettsteinia; Wiborgia; Wiestia; Wilkesia; Willemetia; Willoughbya; Willugbaeya; Wollastonia; Woodvillea; Wootonia; Wuerschmittia; Wulffia; Wunderlichia; Wyethia; Wyomingia; Xalkitis; Xanthidium; Xanthisma; Xanthium; Xantho; Xanthocephalum; Xanthochrysum; Xanthocoma; Xantholepis; Xanthopappus; Xanthophthalmum; Xanthopsis; Xenocarpus; Xenophontia; Xenophyllum; Xeranthemum; Xerobius; Xerochrysum; Xerolekia; Xeroloma; Xeropappus; Xerotium; Xerxes; Xetoligus; Ximenesia; Xiphochaeta; Xylanthemum; Xylorhiza; Xylothamia; Xylovirgata; Yermo; Youngia; Yunquea; Zacintha; Zaluzania; Zarabellia; Zemisia; Zexmenia; Zinnia; Zoegea; Zollikoferia; Zoutpansbergia; Zyrphelis; Zyzyxia.    
     FAMILY: COMPOSITAE; GENERA: HELIANTHUS; SPECIES:  Helianthus agrestis  Pollard—southeastern sunflower;  Helianthus ambiguus  Britt.—Ambiguous Sunflower;  Helianthus angustifolius  L.—swamp sunflower;  Helianthus annuus  L.—common sunflower, girasol (Spanish);  Helianthus anomalus  S. F. Blake—western sunflower;  Helianthus argophyllus  Torr. &amp; A. Gray—silverleaf sunflower;  Helianthus arizonensis  R. C. Jacks.—Arizona sunflower;  Helianthus atrorubens  L.—purpledisk sunflower;  Helianthus bolanderi  A. Gray—serpentine sunflower;  Helianthus×brevifolius  E. Watson—shortleaf sunflower;  Helianthus califomicus  DC.—California sunflower;  Helianthus carnosus  Small—lakeside sunflower;  Helianthus ciliaris  DC.—Texas blueweed;  Helianthus cinereus  Small;  Helianthus coloradensis  Cockerell—prairie sunflower;  Helianthus cusickii  A. Gray—Cusick&#39;s sunflower;  Helianthus debilis  Nutt.—cucumberleaf Sunflower;  Helianthus decapetalus  L.—thinleaf sunflower;  Helianthus deserticola  Heiser—desert sunflower; † Helianthus diffusus  Sims;  Helianthus dissectifolius  R. C. Jacks;  Helianthus divaricatus  L.—woodland sunflower or rough woodland sunflower;  Helianthus×divariserratus  R. W. Long;  Helianthus×doronicoides  Lam.;  Helianthus exilis  A. Gray;  Helianthus floridanus  A. Gray ex Chapm.—Florida sunflower;  Helianthus giganteus  L.—giant sunflower;  Helianthus glaucophyllus  D. M. Sm—whiteleaf sunflower;  Helianthus×glaucus  Small;  Helianthus gracilentus  A. Gray—slender sunflower;  Helianthus grosseserratus  M. Martens—sawtooth sunflower;  Helianthus heterophyllus  Nutt.—variableleaf sunflower;  Helianthus hirsutus  Raf.—hairy sunflower;  Helianthus×intermedius  R. W. Long—intermediate sunflower;  Helianthus Iaciniatus  A. Gray—alkali sunflower;  Helianthus×Iaetiflorus  Pers.—cheerful sunflower, mountain sunflower;  Helianthus laevigatus  Torr. &amp; A. Gray—smooth sunflower;  Helianthus lenticularis  Douglas ex Lindl.;  Helianthus longifolius  Pursh—longleaf sunflower;  Helianthus×Iuxurians  (E. Watson) E. Watson;  Helianthus maximiliani  Schrad.—Maximillian sunflower;  Helianthus membranifolius  Poir.;  Helianthus mollis  Lam.—downy sunflower, ashy sunflower;  Helianthus multiflorus  L.—manyflower sunflower;  Helianthus navarri  Phil.;  Helianthus neglectus  Heiser—neglected sunflower;  Helianthus niveus  (Benth.) Brandegee—showy sunflower;  Helianthus nuttallii  Torr. &amp; A. Gray;  Helianthus occidentalis  Riddell—fewleaf sunflower, western sunflower;  Helianthus×orgyaloides  Cockerell;  Helianthus paradoxus  Heiser—paradox sunflower;  Helianthus pauciflorus  Nutt.—stiff sunflower;  Helianthus petiolaris  Nutt.—prairie sunflower, lesser sunflower;  Helianthus porteri  (A. Gray) Pruski—Porter&#39;s sunflower;  Helianthus praecox  Engelm. &amp; A. Gray Texas sunflower; † Helianthus praetermissus —New Mexico sunflower;  Helianthus pumilus  Nutt.—little sunflower;  Helianthus radula  (Pursh) Torr. &amp; A.Gray—rayless sunflower;  Helianthus resinosus  Small—rescindot sunflower  Helianthus salicifolius  A. Dietr.—willowleaf sunflower;  Helianthus sarmentosus  Rich.—French Guiana;  Helianthus scaberrimus  Elliott;  Helianthus schweinitzii  Torr. &amp; A. Gray—Schweinitz&#39;s sunflower;  Helianthus silphioides  Nutt.—rosinweed sunflower;  Helianthus simulans  E. Watson—muck sunflower;  Helianthus smithii  Heiser—Smith&#39;s sunflower;  Helianthus speciosus  Hook.—Michoacan;  Helianthus subcanescens  (A. Gray) E. Watson;  Helianthus subtuberosus  Bourg.;  Helianthus tuberosus  L.—Jerusalem artichoke, sunchoke, earth-apple, topinambur;  Helianthus×verticillatus  Small—whorled sunflower. 
     FAMILY: ASTERACEAE; GENERA:  Aaronsohnia  Warb. &amp; Eig;  Abrotanella  Cass.;  Acamptopappus  (A. Gray) A. Gray—goldenhead;  Acanthocephalus  Kar. &amp; Kir.;  Acanthocladium  F. Muell.;  Acanthodesmos  C. D. Adams &amp; duQuesnay;  Acantholepis  Less.;  Acanthospermum  Schrank—starburr;  Acanthostyles  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Achaetogeron  A. Gray;  Achillea  L.—yarrow;  Achnophora  F. Muell.;  Achnopogon  Maguire, Steyerm. &amp; Wurdack;  Achyrachaena  Schauer—blow wives;  Achyrocline  (Less.) DC.;  Achyropappus  Kunth;  Achyrothalamus  O. Hoffm.;  Acmella  Rich.;  Acomis  F. Muell.;  Acourtia  D. Don—desert peony;  Acrisione  B. Nord.;  Acritopappus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Acroclinium  A. Gray;  Acroptilon  Cass—hardheads, Russian knapweed;  Actinobole  Endl.;  Actinoseris  (Endl.) Cabrera;  Actinospermum  Elliott;  Adelostigma  Steetz;  Adenanthellum  B. Nord.;  Adenocaulon  Hook—trailplant;  Adenocritonia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Adenoglossa  B. Nord.;  Adenoon  Dalzell;  Adenopappus  Benth;  Adenophyllum —dogweed;  Adenostemma  Pers.—medicineplant;  Adenostyles  A. Kern.;  Adenothamnus  D. D.Keck;  Aedesia  O.Hoffm.;  Aegopordon  Boiss.;  Aequatorium  B. Nord;  Aetheorhiza  Cass.;  Ageratella  A. Gray ex S.Watson;  Ageratina  Spach—snakeroot;  Ageratinastrum  Mattf.;  Ageratum  L.—whiteweed;  Agiabampoa  Rose ex O. Hoffm.;  Agnorhiza  (Jeps.) W. A. Weber;  Agoseris;  Raf.—mountain dandelion;  Agrianthus  Mart. ex DC.;  Ainsliaea  DC.;  Ajania  Poljakov;  Ajaniopsis  C. Shih;  Alatoseta  Compton;  Albertinia  Spreng.;  Alcantara  Glaz. ex G. M. Barroso;  Alciope  DC. ex Lindl.;  Aldama  La Llave;  Alepidocline  S. F. Blake;  Alfredia  Cass.;  Aliella  Qaiser &amp; Lack;  Allagopappus  Cass.;  Allardia  Decne.;  Alloispermum  Willd.;  Allopterigeron  Dunlop;  Almutaster —alkali marsh aster (synonym of  Aster  L.);  Alomia  Kunth;  Alomiella  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Alvordia  Brandegee;  Amauria  Benth;  Amberboa  (Pers.) Less.;  Amblyocarpum  Fisch. &amp; C. A. Mey.;  Amblyolepis  DC;  Amblyopappus  Hook. &amp; Am.;  Amboroa  Cabrera;  Ambrosia  L.—bursage, ragweed;  Ameghinoa  Speg.;  Amellus  L.;  Ammobium  R. Br. ex Sims;  Amolinia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Ampelaster —climbing aster;  Amphiachyris —broomweed;  Amphiglossa  DC;  Amphipappus —chaffbush;  Amphoricarpos  Vis.;  Anacantha  (Iljin) Sojak;  Anacyclus  L.;  Anaphalioides  (Benth.) Kirp.;  Anaphalis  DC—pearly everlasting;  Anastraphia  D. Don;  Anaxeton  Gaertn.;  Ancathia  DC.;  Ancistrocarphus; Ancistrophora  A. Gray;  Anderbergia; Andryala  L.;  Anemocarpa; Angelphytum  G.M. Barroso;  Angianthus  J. C. Wendl.;  Anisochaeta  DC.;  Anisocoma  Torr. &amp; A. Gray;  Anisopappus  Hook. &amp; Arn.;  Anisothrix  O. Hoffm. ex Kuntze;  Anomostephium  DC.;  Antennaria  Gaertn.—pussytoes;  Anthemis  L.—Roman chamomile;  Antheropeas  Rydb.—Easter bonnets;  Antillia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Antiphiona  Merxm.;  Antithrixia  DC.;  Anura  (Juz.) Tscherneva;  Anvillea  DC.;  Apalochlamys  (Cass.) Cass.;  Apargidium  Torr. &amp; A. Gray;  Aphanactis  Wedd.;  Aphanostephus  DC—doze daisy;  Aphyllocladus  Wedd.;  Apodocephala  Baker;  Aposeris  Neck. ex Cass.;  Apostates  Lander;  Arbelaezaster  Cuatrec.;  Archibaccharis  Heering;  Arctanthemum  (Tzvelev) Tzvelev;  Arctium  L.—burdock;  Arctogeron  DC.;  Arctotheca  J. C. Wendl.—capeweed;  Arctotis  L.;  Argentipallium  Paul G. Wilson;  Argyranthemum  Webb—dill daisy;  Argyroglottis  Turcz.;  Argyrophanes  Schltdl.;  Argyroxiphium  DC—silversword;  Arida; Aristeguietia  R.M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Amaldoa  Cabrera;  Arnica  L.—arnica;  Arnicastrum  Greenm.;  Arnoglossum  Raf.—Indian plantain;  Arnoseris  Gaertn.;  Arrhenechthites  Mattf.;  Arrojadocharis  Mattf.;  Arrowsmithia  DC.;  Artemisia  L.—tarragon, sagebrush, sagewort, wormwood, mugwort;  Artemisiopsis  S. Moore;  Asanthus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.—brickellbush;  Ascidiogyne  Cuatrec;  Aspilia  Thouars;  Asplundianthus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob;  Aster  L.—aster;  Asteridea  Lindl.;  Asteriscus  Mill.;  Asteromoea  Blume;  Astranthium  Nutt.—western daisy;  Athanasia  L.;  Athrixia  Ker Gawl.;  Athroisma  DC;  Atractylis  L.;  Atractylodes  DC.;  Atrichantha  Hilliard &amp; B. L. Burtt;  Atrichoseris  A. Gray;  Austrobrickellia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Austrocritonia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Austroeupatorium  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Austrosynotis  C. Jeffrey;  Avellara  Blanca &amp; C.Diaz;  Axiniphyllum  Benth;  Ayapana Spach; Ayapanopsis  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Aylacophora  Cabrera;  Baccharis  L.—baccharis;  Badilloa  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Baeriopsis  J. T. Howell;  Bafutia  C. D. Adams;  Bahia  Lach.—bahia;  Bahianthus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Baileya  Harv. &amp; A. Gray—desert marigold;  Bajacalia; Balduina  Nutt.—honeycombhead;  Balsamorhiza  Hook. ex Nutt.—balsamroot;  Baltimora  L.—baltimora;  Barkleyanthus  H. Rob. &amp; Brettell—willow ragwort;  Barnadesia  Mutis ex L.f.;  Barroetea  A. Gray;  Barrosoa  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Bartlettia  A. Gray;  Bartlettina  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Basedowia  E.Pritz.;  Bebbia  Greene—sweetbush;  Bedfordia  DC.;  Bejaranoa  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Bellida  Ewart;  Bellis  L.—daisy;  Bellium  L.;  Belloa  J. Remy;  Benitoa  D. D.Keck;  Berardia  Vill.;  Berkheya  Ehrh.;  Berlandiera  DC—greeneyes;  Berroa Beauverd; Bethencourtia; Bidens  L.—beggartick, devil&#39;s sticktight, Spanish needles;  Bigelowia  DC—rayless goldenrod;  Bishopanthus  H. Rob.;  Bishopiella  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Bishovia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Blainvillea  Cass.;  Blakeanthus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Blakiella  Cuatrec.;  Blanchetia  DC;  Blennosperma  Less.—stickyseed;  Blennospora  A. Gray;  Blepharipappus  Hook;  Blepharispermum  DC.;  Blepharizonia  (A. Gray) Greene;  Blumea  DC.—false oxtongue;  Blumeopsis  Gagnep.;  Boeberastrum  (A. Gray) Rydb.;  Boeberoides  (DC.) Strother;  Boltonia  L′Her.—doll&#39;s daisy;  Bombycilaena  (DC.) Smoljan.;  Borrichia  Adans.—seaside tansy;  Bothriocline  Oliv. ex Benth.;  Brachanthemum  DC.;  Brachionostylum  Mattf.;  Brachyactis —rayless aster;  Brachyglottis  J. R. Forst. &amp; G. Forst.;  Brachylaena  R. Br.;  Brachyscome  Cass.;  Brachythrix  Wild &amp; G. V. Pope;  Bracteantha  Anderb.;  Bradburia  Torr. &amp; A. Gray;  Brickellia  Elliott—brickellbush;  Brickelliastrum  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.—brickellbush;  Brintonia —mock goldenrod;  Bryomorphe  Harv.;  Buphthalmum  L.;  Burkartia  Crisci;  Cabreriella  Cuatrec.;  Cacalia  L.—Indian plantain;  Cacaliopsis  A. Gray;  Cacosmia  Kunth;  Caesulia  Roxb.;  Calea  L.; Calendula L.—marigold;  Callicephalus  C. A. Mey.;  Callilepis  DC.;  Callistephus  Cass.;  Calocephalus  R. Br.;  Calomeria  Vent.;  Calopappus  Meyen;  Calorezia  Panero;  Calostephane  Benth.;  Calotesta  P. O. Karis;  Calotis  R. Br.;  Calycadenia  DC—western rosinweed;  Calycocorsus  F. W. Schmidt;  Calycoseris  A. Gray—tackstem;  Calyptocarpus  Less.;  Camchaya  Gagnep.;  Campovassouria  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Camptacra  N. T. Burb.;  Campuloclinium  DC;  Canadanthus —mountain aster (?);  Cancrinia  Kar. &amp; Kir.;  Cancriniella  Tzvelev;  Cardopatium  Juss.;  Carduncellus  Adans.;  Carduus  L.—plumeless thistle;  Carlina  L.—carline thistle;  Carminatia  Moc. ex DC.;  Carpesium  L.;  Carphephorus  Cass.—chaffhead;  Carphochaete  A. Gray—bristlehead;  Carramboa  Cuatrec.;  Carterothamnus  R. M. King;  Carthamus  L.—distaff thistle;  Cassinia  R. Br.;  Castalis  Cass.;  Castenedia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Catamixis  Thomson;  Catananche  L.;  Catatia  Humbert;  Catolesia;  Caucasalia;  Cavalcantia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Cavea  W. W. Sm. &amp; Small;  Caxamarca; Celmisia  Cass.;  Centaurea  L.—knapweed, cornflower, star thistle;  Centaurodendron  Johow;  Centauropsis  Bojer ex DC.;  Centaurothamnus  Wagenitz &amp; Dittrich;  Centipeda  Lour;  Centratherum  Cass.;  Cephalipterum  A. Gray;  Cephalopappus  Nees &amp; Mart.;  Cephalorrhynchus  Boiss.;  Cephalosorus  A. Gray;  Ceratogyne  Turcz.;  Ceruana  Forssk.;  Chacoa  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Chaenactis  DC—pincushion;  chaetadelpha  A. Gray ex S.Watson—skeletonweed;  Chaetanthera  Ruiz &amp; Pav.;  Chaetopappa  DC—least daisy;  Chaetospira  S. F. Blake;  Chaetymenia  Hook. &amp; Am.;  Chamaechaenactis  Rydb.;  Chamaegeron  Schrenk;  Chamaeleon  Cass.;  Chamaemelum  Mill.—dogfennel;  Chamomilla —chamomilla, pineapple weed (synonym of  Matricaria  L.);  Chaptalia  Vent.—sunbonnetts;  Chardinia  Desf.;  Cheirolophus  Cass.;  Chersodoma  Phil.;  Chevreulia  Cass.;  Chiliadenus  Cass.;  Chiliocephalum  Benth.;  Chiliophyllum  Phil.;  Chiliotrichiopsis  Cabrera;  Chiliotrichum  Cass.;  Chimantaea  Maguire, Steyerm. &amp; Wurdack;  Chionolaena  DC.;  Chionopappus  Benth;  Chlamydophora  Ehrenb. ex Less.;  Chloracantha —G. L. Nesom;  Chondrilla  L.;  Chondropyxis  D. A. Cooke;  Chorisis  DC.;  Chresta  Veil. ex DC.;  Chromolaena  DC—thoroughwort;  Chromolepis  Benth.;  Chronopappus  DC.;  Chrysactinia  A. Gray;  Chrysactinium  (Kunth) Wedd.;  Chrysanthellum  Rich.;  Chrysanthemoides  Fabr.;  Chrysanthemum  L.;  Chrysocephalum  Walp.;  Chrysocoma  L.;  Chrysogonum  L.;  Chrysoma  Nutt.;  Chrysophthalmum  Sch.Bip. ex Walp.;  Chrysopsis  (Nutt.) Elliott—goldenaster;  Chrysothamnus  Nutt.—rabbitbrush;  Chthonocephalus  Steetz;  Chucoa  Cabrera;  Chuquiraga  Juss.;  Chyrsactinia; Cicerbita  Wallr.;  Ciceronia  Urb.;  Cichorium  L.—chicory;  Cineraria  L.;  Cirsium  Mill.—thistle;  Cissampelopsis  (DC.) Miq.;  Cladanthus  Cass.;  Cladochaeta  DC.;  Clappia  A. Gray—clapdaisy;  Clibadium  L.;  Cnicothamnus  Griseb.;  Cnicus  L.—blessed thistle;  Coespeletia  Cuatrec.;  Coleocoma  F.Muell.;  Coleostephus  Cass.;  Colobanthera  Humbert;  Columbiadoria  G. L. Nesom;  Comaclinium  Scheidw. &amp; Planch.;  Comborhiza; Commidendrum  DC.;  Complaya  Strother;  Condylidium; Conoclinium  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.—thoroughwort, mistflower;  Condylopodium  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Conocliniopsis  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Conoclinium  DC.;  Conyza  Less.—horseweed;  Coreocarpus  Benth.;  Coreopsis  L.—tickseed;  Corethamnium  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Corethrogyne  DC—sandaster;  Coronidium  Paul G. Wilson;  Correllia  A. M. Powell;  Corymbium  L.;  Cosmos  Cas.;  Cotula  L.—waterbuttons;  Coulterella  Vasey &amp; Rose;  Cousinia  Cass.;  Cousiniopsis  Nevski;  Craspedia  G. Forst.;  Crassocephalum  Moench—ragleaf;  Cratystylis  S.Moore;  Cremanthodium  Benth.;  Crepidiastrum  Nakai;  Crepis  L.—hawksbeard;  Crinitaria; Critonia  P.Browne—thoroughwort;  Critoniadelphus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Critoniella  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Critoniopsis  Sch.Bip.;  Crocidium  Hook—spring-gold;  Cronquistia  R. M. King;  Cronquistianthus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Croptilon  Raf.—scratchdaisy;  Crossostephium  Less.;  Crossothamnus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Crupina  (Pers.) DC.;  Cuatrecasanthus; Cuatrecasasiella  H. Rob.;  Cuchumatanea  Seid. &amp; Beaman;  Cullumia  R. Br.;  Cuniculotinus; Cuspidia  Gaertn.;  Cyanopsis —knapweed (synonym of  Volutaria  Cass.);  Cyanthillium —ironweed (plant) (synonym of  Vernonia  Schreb.);  Cyathocline  Cass.;  Cyathomone  S. F. Blake;  Cyclachaena  Fresen. ex Schltdl.;  Cyclolepis  Gillies ex D.Don;  Cylindrocline  Cass.;  Cymbolaena  Smoljan.;  Cymbonotus  Cass.;  Cymbopappus  B. Nord.;  Cymophora  B. L. Rob.;  Cynara  L.—artichoke;  Dacryotrichia  Wild;  Dahlia  Cav.;  Damnamenia; Damnxanthodium  Strother;  Darwiniothamnus  Harling;  Dasycondylus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Dasyphyllum  Kunth;  Daveaua  Willk. ex Mariz;  Decachaeta  DC.;  Decastylocarpus  Humbert;  Decazesia  F. Muell.;  Deinandra —often included in  Hemizona; Delairea  Lem.—capeivy;  Delamerea  S. Moore;  Delilia  Spreng.;  Dendranthema  (DC.) Des Moul.—arctic daisy;  Dendrocacalia  (Nakai) Tuyama;  Dendrophorbium  (Cuatrec.) C. Jeffrey;  Dendrosenecio  (Hauman ex Humbert) B.Nord.;  Dendroseris  D. Don;  Denekia  Thunb.;  Desmanthodium  Benth.;  Dewildemania  O. Hoffm.;  Diacranthera  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Dianthoseris  Sch.Bip.;  Diaperia  Nutt.;  Diaphractanthus  Humbert;  Dicercoclados  C. Jeffrey &amp; Y. L. Chen;  Dichaetophora  A. Gray;  Dichrocephala  L′Her. ex DC.;  Dichromochlamys  Dunlop;  Dicoma  Cass.;  Dicoria  Torr. &amp; A. Gray—twinbugs;  Dicranocarpus  A. Gray;  Didelta  L′Her.;  Dielitzia  P. S. Short;  Dieteria; Digitacalia  Pippen;  Dimeresia  A. Gray;  Dimerostemma  Cass.;  Dimorphocoma  F. Muell. &amp; Tate;  Dimorphotheca  Moench—cape marigold;  Dinoseris  Griseb.;  Diodontium  F. Muell.;  Diplazoptilon  Y. Ling;  Diplostephium  Kunth;  Dipterocome  Fisch. &amp; C. A. Mey.;  Dipterocypsela  S. F. Blake;  Disparago  Gaertn.;  Dissothrix  A. Gray;  Distephanus  (Cass.) Cass.;  Disynaphia  Hook. &amp; Am. ex DC.;  Dithyrostegia  A. Gray;  Dittrichia  Greuter;  Doellingeria  Ness.—whitetop;  Dolichlasium  Lag.;  Dolichoglottis  B. Nord.;  Dolichorrhiza  (Pojark.) Galushko;  Dolichothrix  Hilliard &amp; B. L. Burtt;  Dolomiaea  DC.;  Doniophyton  Wedd.;  Doronicum  L.—false leopardbane;  Dracopis —coneflower (synonym of  Rudbeckia  L.);  Dresslerothamnus  H. Rob.;  Dubautia  Gaudich.;  Dubyaea  DC.;  Dugaldia  (Cass.) Cass.;  Dugesia  A. Gray;  Duhaldea  DC.;  Duidaea  S. F. Blake;  Duseniella  K. Schum.;  Dymondia  Compton;  Dyscritogyne  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Dyscritothamnus  B. L. Rob;  Dysodiopsis  (A. Gray) Rydb.—dogfennel;  Dyssodia  Cay.—dogweed;  Eastwoodia  Brandegee;  Eatonella  A. Gray;  Echinacea  Moench—coneflower;  Echinops  L.—globethistle;  Eclipta  L.;  Edmondia  Cass.;  Egletes  Cass.—tropic daisy;  Eitenia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Ekmania  Gleason;  Elachanthus  F. Muell.;  Elaphandra  Strother;  Elephantopus  L.—elephantsfoot;  Eleutheranthera  Poit. ex Bosc;  Ellenbergia  Cuatrec.;  Elytropappus  Cass.;  Emilia  (Cass.) Cass.—tasselflower;  Emiliella  S. Moore;  Encelia  Adans.—brittlebush;  Enceliopsis  (A. Gray) A. Nelson—sunray;  Endocellion  Turcz. ex Herder;  Endopappus  Sch.Bip.;  Engelmannia  A. Gray ex Nutt.—Engelmann&#39;s daisy;  Engleria  O. Hoffm.;  Enydra  Lour—swampwort;  Epaltes  Cass.;  Epilasia  (Bunge) Benth.;  Episcothamnus  H. Rob.;  Epitriche  Turcz.;  Erato  DC.;  Erechtites  Raf—burnweed;  Eremanthus  Less;  Eremosis  (DC.) Gleason;  Eremothamnus  O. Hoffm.;  Eriachaenium  Sch.Bip.;  Ericameria  Nutt.—goldenbush, heath goldenrod;  Ericentrodea  S. F. Blake &amp; Sherff;  Erigeron  L.—daisy, fleabane;  Eriocephalus  L.;  Eriochlamys  Sond. &amp; F. Muell.;  Eriophyllum  Lag.—woolly sunflower;  Eriotrix  Cass.;  Erlangea  Sch.Bip.;  Erodiophyllum  F. Muell.;  Erymophyllum  Paul G.Wilson;  Eryngiophyllum  Greenm.;  Erythradenia  (B. L. Rob.) R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Erythrocephalum  Benth.;  Espejoa  DC.;  Espeletia  Mutis ex Humb. &amp; Bonpl.—frailejones, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador.;  Espeletiopsis  Cuatrec.;  Ethulia  L.f;  Eucephalus —Cascade Aster, eucephalus (?);  Euchiton  Cass.—cudweed;  Eumorphia  DC;  Eupatoriastrum  Greenm.;  Eupatorina  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Eupatoriopsis  Hieron.;  Eupatorium  L.—thoroughwort, snakeweed;  Euphrosyne  DC;  Eurybia —Nees aster (?);  Eurydochus  Maguire &amp; Wurdack;  Euryops  (Cass.) Cass.;  Eutetras  A. Gray;  Euthamia  (Nutt.) Elliott—goldentop;  Eutrochium —Joe-Pye weed;  Evacidium  Pomel;  Evax —pygmy cudweed (synonym of  Filago  L.);  Ewartia  Beauverd;  Ewartiothamnus  Anderb.;  Exomiocarpon  Lawalree;  Faberia  Hemsl.;  Facelis  Hemsl.—trampweed;  Farfugium  Lindl.;  Faujasia  Cass.;  Faxonia  Brandegee;  Feddea  Urb.;  Feldstonia  P. S. Short;  Felicia  Cass.;  Femeniasia  Susanna;  Fenixia  Merr.;  Ferreyranthus  H. Rob. &amp; Brettell;  Ferreyrella  S. F. Blake;  Filago  L.—cottonrose;  Filifolium  Kitam.;  Fitchia  Hook.f.;  Fitzwillia  P. S. Short;  Flaveria  Juss.—yellowtops;  Fleischmannia  Sch.Bip.—thoroughwort;  Fleischmanniopsis  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Florestina  Cass.;  Floscaldasia  Cuatrec.;  Flosmutisia  Cuatrec.;  Flourensia  DC—tarwort;  Flyriella  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.—brickellbush;  Formania  W. W. Sm. &amp; Small;  Foveolina  Kallersjo;  Fulcaldea  Poir.;  Gaillardia  Foug.—blanketflower;  Galactites  Moench;  Galatella; Galeana  La Llave;  Galeomma  Rauschert;  Galinsoga  Ruiz &amp; Pay.—gallant-soldier;  Gamochaeta  Wedd.—everlasting;  Gamochaetopsis  Anderb. &amp; Freire;  Garberia  A. Gray;  Garcibarrigoa  Cuatrec.;  Garcilassa  Poepp.;  Gardnerina  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Garuleum  Cass.;  Gazania  Gaertn.;  Geigeria  Griess.;  Geissolepis  B. L. Rob.;  Geissopappus  Benth.;  Geraea  Torr. &amp; A. Gray—desert sunflower;  Gerbera  L.—Gerbera or Transvaal daisy;  Geropogon  L.;  Gibbaria  Cass.;  Gilberta  Turcz.;  Gilruthia  Ewart;  Gladiopappus  Humbert;  Glossarion  Maguire &amp; Wurdack;  Glossocardia  Cass.;  Glossopappus  Kunze;  Glyptopleura  Eaton;  Gnaphaliothamnus  Kirp.;  Gnaphalium  L.—cudweed;  Gnephosis  Cass.;  Gochnatia  Kunth;  Goldmanella  Greenm.;  Gongrostylus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Gongylolepis  R. H. Schomb.;  Goniocaulon  Cass.;  Gonospermum  Less.;  Gorceixia  Baker;  Gorteria  L.;  Gossweilera  S.Moore;  Goyazianthus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Grangea  Adans.;  Grangeopsis  Humbert;  Graphistylis  B. Nord.;  Gratwickia  F. Muell.;  Grauanthus  Fayed;  Grazielia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Greenmaniella  W. M. Sharp;  Grindelia  Willd.—gumweed;  Grisebachianthus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Grosvenoria  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Guardiola  Cerv. ex Humb. &amp; Bonpl.;  Guayania  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Guevaria  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Guizotia  Cass.;  Gundelia  L.;  Gundlachia  A. Gray;  Gutenbergia  Sch.Bip.;  Gutierrezia  Lag.—snakeweed;  Gymnarrhena  Desf.;  Gymnocondylus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Gymnocoronis  DC.;  Gymnodiscus  Less.;  Gymnolaena (DC.) Rydb.;  Gymnosperma  Benth.;  Gymnostephium  Less.;  Gymnostyles  —burrweed (synonym of  Soliva  Ruiz &amp; Pay.);  Gynoxys  Cass.;  Gynura  Cass.;  Gypothamnium  Phil.;  Gyptidium  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Gyptis  (Cass.) Cass.;  Gyrodoma  Wild;  Haastia  Hook.f.;  Haeckeria  F. Muell.;  Haegiela  P. S. Short;  Handelia  Heimerl;  Haplocalymma  S. F. Blake;  Haplocarpha  Less.—onefruit;  Haploesthes  A. Gray—false broomweed;  Haplopappus  Cass.;  Haplostephium  Mart. ex DC.;  Harleya  S. F. Blake;  Harmonia; Harnackia  Urb.;  Hartwrightia  A. Gray ex S. Watson;  Hasteola  Raf.—false Indian plantain;  Hatschbachiella  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Hazardia Greene —bristleweed;  Hebeclinium  DC—thoroughwort;  Hecastocleis  A. Gray;  Hedypnois  Mill.;  Helenium  L.—sneezeweed;  Helianthella  Torr. &amp; A. Gray;  Helianthopsis  H. Rob.;  Helianthus  L.—sunflowers;  Helichrysopsis  Kirp.;  Helichrysum  Mill.—strawflower,everlasting;  Heliocauta  Humphries;  Heliomeris  Nutt.—false goldeneye;  Heliopsis  Pers.;  Helminthia  (synonym of  Picris  L.);  Helminthotheca  (obsolete);  Helogyne  Nutt.;  Hemisteptia  Fisch. &amp; C. A. Mey.;  Hemizonia  DC—tarweed;  Henricksonia  B. L.Turner;  Heptanthus  Griseb.;  Herderia  Cass.;  Herodotia  Urb. &amp; Ekman;  Herrickia  (synonym of  Aster  L.);  Hertia; Hesperevax —dwarf-cudweed (?);  Hesperodoria —glowweed (?);  Hesperomannia  A. Gray—island-aster;  Heteracia  Fisch. &amp; C. A. Mey.;  Heteranthemis  Schott—oxeye;  Heterocoma  DC.;  Heterocondylus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Heterocypsela  H. Rob.;  Heteroderis  (Bunge) Boiss.;  Heterolepis  Cass.;  Heteromera  Pomel;  Heteromma  Benth.;  Heteropappus  Less.;  Heteroplexis  C. C. Chang;  Heterorhachis  Sch.Bip. ex Walp.;  Heterosperma  Cay.;  Heterothalamus  Less.;  Heterotheca  Cass.—false goldenaster, telegraph plant;  Hidalgoa  La Llave;  Hieracium  L.—hawkweed;  Hilliardia  B. Nord.;  Hinterhubera  Sch.Bip. ex Wedd.;  Hippia  L.;  Hippolytia  Poljakov;  Hirpicium  Cass.;  Hispidella  Barnadez ex Lam.;  Hoehnephytum  Cabrera;  Hoffmanniella  Schltr. ex Lawalree;  Hofmeisteria  Walp.;  Holocarpha  Greene—tarweed;  Holocheilus  Cass.;  Hololeion  Kitam;  Holozonia  Greene;  Homogyne  Cass.;  Hoplophyllum  DC.;  Huarpea  Cabrera;  Hubertia  Bory;  Hughesia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Hulsea  Torr. &amp; A. Gray—alpinegold;  Humeocline  Anderb.;  Hyalis  D. Don ex Hook. &amp; Arn.;  Hyalochaete  Dittrich &amp; Rech.f.;  Hyalochlamys  A. Gray;  Hyaloseris  Griseb.;  Hyalosperma  Steetz;  Hybridella  Cass.;  Hydrodyssodia  B. L. Turner;  Hydroidea  P. O. Karis;  Hydropectis  Rydb.;  Hymenocephalus  Jaub. &amp; Spach;  Hymenoclea  Torr. &amp; A. Gray—burrobrush, burrobush;  Hymenolepis  Cass.;  Hymenonema  Cass.;  Hymenopappus  L′Her;  Hymenostemma  Kunze ex Willk.;  Hymenostephium  Benth.;  Hymenothrix  A. Gray—thimblehead;  Hymenoxys  Cass.—rubberweed;  Hyoseris L.;  Hypacanthium  Juz.;  Hypelichrysum  Kirp.;  Hypericophyllum  Steetz;  Hypochaeris  L.—catsear;  Hysterionica  Willd.;  Hystrichophora  Mattf.;  Ichthyothere  Mart.;  Idiothamnus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Ifloga  Cass.;  Ighermia  Wiklund;  Iltisia  S. F. Blake;  Imeria  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Inezia  E. Phillips;  Inula  L.—yellowhead;  Inulanthera  Kallersjo;  Ionactis —Stiff-leaved Asters (?.);  Iocenes  B. Nord.;  Iodocephalus  Thorel ex Gagnep.;  Iogeton  Strother;  Iostephane  Benth.;  Iphiona  Cass.;  Iphionopsis  Anderb.;  Iranecio  B. Nord.;  Irwinia  Barroso;  Ischnea  F. Muell.;  Isocarpha  R. Br.—pearlhead;  Isocoma  Nutt.—goldenbush, jimmyweed;  Isoetopsis  Turcz.;  Isopappus  Torr. &amp; A. Gray;  Isostigma  Less.;  Iva  L.—marshelder, sumpweed;  Ixeridium  (A. Gray) Tzvelev;  Ixeris  (Cass.) Cass.;  Ixiochlamys  F. Muell. &amp; Sond.;  Ixiolaena  Benth.;  Ixodia  R. Br.;  Jacmaia  B. Nord.;  Jaegeria  Kunth;  Jalcophila  Dillon &amp; Sagast.;  Jaliscoa  S. Watson;  Jamesianthus  S. F. Blake &amp; Sherff;  Jaramilloa  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Jasonia  (Cass.) Cass.;  Jaumea  Pers.;  Jefea  Strother;  Jeffreya  Wild;  Jensia; Joseanthus; Jungia  L.f.;  Jurinea  Cass.;  Kalimeris  (Cass.) Cass.—aster;  Karelinia  Less.;  Karvandarina  Rech.f.;  Kaschgaria  Poljakov;  Kaunia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Kemulariella; Keysseria  Lauterb.;  Kinghamia  C. Jeffrey;  Kingianthus  H. Rob.;  Kippistia  F. Muell.;  Kirkianella  Allan;  Kleinia  Mill.;  Koanophyllon  Arruda—thoroughwort;  Koehneola  Urb.;  Koelpinia  Pall.;  Koyamacalia  (?);  Krigia  Schreb—dwarf dandelion;  Kyrsteniopsis  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob;  Lachanodes  DC.;  Lachnophyllum  Bunge;  Lachnorhiza  A. Rich.;  Lachnospermum  Willd.;  Lactuca  L.—lettuce;  Lactucosonchus  (Sch.Bip.) Svent.;  Laennecia  Cass.—laennecia, laennicia;  Laestadia  Kunth ex Less.;  Lagascea  Cay.;  Lagenophora  Cass.—island-daisy;  Laggera  Sch.Bip. ex Benth.;  Lagophylla  Nutt.—hareleaf;  Lamprachaenium  Benth.;  Lamprocephalus  B. Nord.;  Lamyropappus  Knorring &amp; Tamamsch.;  Lamyropsis  (Kharadze) Dittrich;  Langebergia  Anderb.;  Lantanopsis  C. Wright;  Lapsana  L.—nipplewort;  Lapsanastrum; Lasianthaea  DC;  Lasiocephalus  Schltdl.;  Lasiolaena  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Lasiopogon  Cass.;  Lasiospermum  Lag.—cocoonhead;  Lasthenia Cass.—goldfield;  Launaea  Cass.—aulaga;  Lawrencella  Lindl.;  Layia  Hook. &amp; Am. ex DC—tidytips;  Lecocarpus  Decne.;  Leibnitzia  Cass.—sunbonnets;  Leiboldia  Schltdl. ex Gleason;  Leiocarpa; Lepidaploa; Lembertia  Greene;  Lemooria  P. S. Short;  Leontodon —hawkbit;  Leontopodium  (Pers.) R. Br. ex Cass.—edelweiss;  Lepidesmia  Klatt;  Lepidolopha  C. Winkl.;  Lepidolopsis  Poljakov;  Lepidonia  S. F. Blake;  Lepidophorum  Neck. ex DC.;  Lepidophyllum  Cass.;  Lepidospartum  (A. Gray) A. Gray—broomsage;  Lepidostephium  Oliv.;  Leptinella  Cass.—Brass Buttons, Creeping Cotula;  Leptocarpha  DC.;  Leptoclinium  (Nutt.) Benth.;  Leptorhynchos  Less.—scaly button;  Leptotriche  Turcz.;  Lescaillea  Griseb.;  Lessingia  Cham.—vinegarweed;  Leucactinia  Rydb.;  Leucanthemella  Tzvelev;  Leucanthemopsis  (Giroux) Heywood;  Leucanthemum  Mill.—daisy, Oxeye daisy;  Leucheria  Lag.;  Leucochrysum —sunray (?);  Leucomeris; Leucophyta; Leucopsis  (DC.) Baker;  Leucoptera  B. Nord;  Leunisia  Phil.;  Leuzea  DC.;  Leysera  L.;  Liabum  Adans.;  Liatris  Liabum Adans.—blazing star, gay feather;  Libanothamnus  Ernst;  Lidbeckia  Bergius;  Lifago  Schweinf. &amp; Muschl.;  Ligularia  Cass.;  Ligulariopsis; Limbarda  Adans.;  Lindheimera  A. Gray &amp; Engelm.;  Lipochaeta  DC—nehe;  Lipskyella  Juz.;  Litothamnus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Litrisa  Small;  Llerasia  Triana;  Logfia  Cass.—cottonrose;  Lomatozona  Baker;  Lonas  Adans.;  Lopholaena  DC.;  Lophopappus  Rusby;  Lorandersonia; Lordhowea  B. Nord.;  Lorentzianthus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Loricaria  Wedd.;  Lourteigia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Loxothysanus  B. L. Rob.;  Lucilia  Cass.;  Luciliocline  Anderb. &amp; Freire;  Lugoa  DC.;  Luina  Benth.—silverback;  Lulia  Zardini;  Lundeffianthus  H. Rob.;  Lycapsus  Phil.;  Lychnophora  Mart.;  Lycoseris Cass.;  Lygodesmia  D. Don—skeleton weed;  Macdougalia  A. Heller;  Machaeranthera  Nees—goldenweed, tansyaster;  Macowania  Oliv.;  Macrachaenium  Hook.f.;  Macraea  Hook.f.;  Macroclinidium  Maxim.;  Macronema  Nutt.=Ericameria Nutt.;  Macropodina  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Macvaughiella  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Madia  Molina—tarweed;  Mairia  Nees;  Malacothrix  DC—desert dandelion;  Malmeanthus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Malperia  S.Watson;  Mantisalca  Cass.;  Marasmodes  DC.;  Marshallia  Schreb.—Barbara&#39;s buttons;  Marshalljohnstonia  Henr.;  Marticorenia  Crisci;  Matricaria  L.—mayweed;  Mattfeldanthus  H. Rob. &amp; R. M. King;  Mattfeldia  Urb.;  Matudina  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Mauranthemum  Vogt &amp; Oberpr.;  Mausolea  Poljakov;  Mecomischus  Coss. ex Benth.;  Megalodonta  Greene—watermarigold;  Melampodium  L.—blackfoot;  Melanodendron  DC.;  Melanthera  Rohr—squarestem;  Metalasia  R. Br.;  Metastevia  Grashoff;  Mexerion  G. L. Nesom;  Mexianthus  B. L. Rob.;  Micractis  DC.;  Microcephala  Pobed.;  Microglossa  DC.;  Microgynella  Grau;  Microliabum  Cabrera;  Micropus  L.—cottonseed;  Microseris  D. Don—silverpuffs, yam daisy;  Microspermum  Lag.;  Mikania  Willd.—hempvine;  Mikaniopsis  Milne-Redh.;  Miliaria  L.;  Millotia  Cass.;  Minuria  DC.;  Miricacalia  Kitam.;  Misbrookia; Miyamayomena; Mniodes  (A. Gray) Benth.;  Monactis  Kunth;  Monoculus; Monarrhenus  Cass.;  Monenteles  Labill.;  Monogereion  G. M. Barroso &amp; R. M. King;  Monolopia  DC;  Monopholis  S. F.Blake;  Monoptilon  Torr. &amp; A. Gray—desertstar;  Montanoa  Cerv.;  Moonia  Arn.;  Moquinia  DC.;  Morithamnus  R. M. King, H. Rob. &amp; G. M.Barroso;  Moscharia  Ruiz &amp; Pay.;  Msuata  O. Hoffm.;  Mulgedium  Cass.;  Munnozia  Ruiz &amp; Pay.;  Munzothamnus  Raven;  Muschleria  S. Moore;  Mutisia  L.f.;  Mycelis  cass.;  Myopordon  Boiss.;  Myriactis  Less.;  Myriocephalus  Benth.;  Myripnois  Bunge;  Myxopappus  Kallersjo;  Nabalus  Cass.;  Nananthea  DC.;  Nannoglottis  Maxim.;  Nanothamnus  Thomson;  Nardophyllum  (Hook. &amp; Am.) Hook. &amp; Arn.;  Narvalina  Cass.;  Nassauvia  Comm. ex Juss.;  Nauplius  (Cass.) Cass.;  Neblinaea  Maguire &amp; Wurdack;  Nelsonianthus  H. Rob. &amp; Brettell;  Nemosenecio  (Kitam.) B. Nord.;  Neocabreria  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Neocuatrecasia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Neohintonia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Neojeffreya  Cabrera;  Neomirandea  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Neonesomia; Neopallasia  Poljakov;  Neotysonia  Dalla Torre &amp; Harms;  Nesomia; Nestlera; Nestotus; Neurolaena  R. Br.;  Neurolakis  Mattf.;  Nicolasia  S. Moore;  Nicolletia  A. Gray—hole-in-the-sand;  Nidorella  Cass.;  Nikitinia  Iljin;  Nipponanthemum  (Kitam.) Kitam.;  Nolletia  Cass.;  Nothobaccharis  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Nothocalais  Greene—prairie-dandelion;  Noticastrum  DC.;  Notobasis  (Cass.) Cass.—Syrian thistle;  Notoptera  Urb.;  Notoseris  C. Shih;  Nouelia  Franch.;  Novenia  Freire;  Oaxacania  B. L. Rob. &amp; Greenm.;  Oblivia  Strother;  Ochrocephala  Dittrich;  Oclemena —aster (synonym of  Aster  L.);  Odixia  Orchard;  Odontocline  B. Nord.;  Odixia  Orchard;  Odontocline  B. Nord.;  Oedera  L.;  Oldenburgia  Less.;  Olearia  Moench—daisy bush;  Olgaea  Iljin;  Oligactis  (Kunth) Cass.;  Oliganthes  Cass.;  Oligocarpus  Less.;  Oligochaeta  (DC.) K. Koch;  Oligoneuron  Small—goldenrod (?);  Oligothrix  DC.;  Olivaea  Sch.Bip. ex Benth.;  Omalotheca  Cass.—arctic cudweed;  Omphalopappus  O. Hoffm.;  Oncosiphon  Kallersjo;  Ondetia  Benth.;  Onopordum  L.—Cotton thistle;  Onoseris  Willd.;  Oonopsis  (Nutt.) Greene—false goldenweed;  Oparanthus  Sherff;  Ophryosporus  Meyen;  Opisthopappus  C. Shih;  Oreochrysum  Rydb.—goldenrod;  Oreoleysera  Bremer;  Oreostemma —aster (synonym of  Aster  L.);  Oritrophium  (Kunth) Cuatrec.;  Orochaenactis  Coville;  Osbertia  Greene;  Osmadenia  Nutt. (?);  Osmiopsis  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Osmitopsis  Cass.;  Osteospermum  L.—daisybush;  Otanthus  Hoffmanns. &amp; Link;  Oteiza  La Llave;  Othonna  L.;  Otopappus  Benth.;  Otospermum  Willk.;  Outreya  Jaub. &amp; Spach;  Oxycarpha  S. F. Blake;  Oxylaena  Benth. ex Anderb.;  Oxylobus  (Moq. ex DC.) A. Gray;  Oxypappus  Benth.;  Oxyphyllum  Phil.;  Oyedaea  DC.;  Ozothamnus  R. Br.;  Pachylaena  D. Don ex Hook. &amp; Am.;  Pachystegia  Cheeeseman;  Pachythamnus  (R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.) R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Packera  A. Love &amp; D. Love—(includes some plants formerly  Senecio );  Pacourina  Aubl.;  Palaeocyanus  Dostal;  Palafoxia  Lag.—palafox;  Paleaepappus  Cabrera;  Pallenis  Cass. (synonym of  Asteriscus );  Pamphalea  Lag.;  Pappobolus  S. F. Blake;  Papuacalia  Veldkamp;  Paracalia  Cuatrec.;  Paragynoxys  (Cuatrec.) Cuatrec.;  Paraixeris  Nakai;  Paranephelius  Poepp.;  Parantennaria  Beauverd;  Parapiqueria  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Paraprenanthes  C. C. Chang ex C. Shih;  Parasenecio  W. W. Sm. &amp; Small—Indian plantain;  Parastrephia  Nutt.;  Parthenice  A. Gray;  Parthenium  L.—feverfew, guayule;  Pasaccardoa  Kuntze;  Pascalia  Ortega (synonym of  Wedelia );  Pechuel - Ioeschea  O. Hoffm.;  Pectis  L.—cinchweed, fetid marigold;  Pegolettia  Cass.;  Pelucha  S. Watson;  Pentacalia  Cass.;  Pentachaeta  Nutt.—pygmy daisy;  Pentanema  Cass.;  Pentatrichia  Klatt;  Pentzia  Thunb.;  Perdicium  L.;  Perezia  Lag.;  Pericallis  D. Don—includes Florist&#39;s Cineraria;  Pericome  A. Gray;  Peripleura  Clifford &amp; Ludlow;  Perityle  Benth.—rock daisy;  Perralderia  Coss.;  Pertya  Sch.Bip.;  Perymeniopsis  H. Rob.;  Perymenium  Schrad.;  Petalacte  D. Don;  Petasites  Mill.—butterbur;  Peteravenia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Petradoria  Greene—rock goldenrod;  Petrobium  R. Br.;  Peucephyllum  A. Gray;  Peyrousea  DC.;  Phacellothrix  F. Muell.;  Phaenocoma  D. Don;  Phaeostigma  Muldashev;  Phagnalon  Cass.;  Phalacrachena  Iljin;  Phalacraea  DC.;  Phalacrocarpum  (DC.) Willk.;  Phalacroseris  A. Gray—mock dandelion;  Phaneroglossa  B. Nord.;  Phanerostylis  (A. Gray) R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Phania  DC.;  Philactis  Schrad.;  Philoglossa  DC.;  Philyrophyllum  O. Hoffm.;  Phoebanthus  S. F. Blake—false sunflower;  Phyllocephalum  Blume;  Phymaspermum  Less.;  Picnomon  Adans.;  Picradeniopsis —bahia (synonym of  Bahia  Lag.);  Picris  L.—oxtongue;  Picrosia  D. Don;  Picrothamnus  Nutt.—bud sagebrush;  Pilosella  Hill;  Pilostemon  Iljin;  Pinaropappus  Less.—rock lettuce;  Piora  J. Kost.;  Pippenalia  McVaugh;  Piptocarpha  R. Br.—ash daisy;  Piptocoma  Cass.—velvetshrub;  Piptolepis  Sch.Bip.;  Piptothrix  A. Gray;  Piqueria  Cay.;  Piqueriella  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Piqueriopsis  R. M. King;  Pithecoseris  Mart. ex DC.;  Pithocarpa  Lindl.;  Pittocaulon  H. Rob. &amp; Brettell;  Pityopsis  Nutt.—silkgrass;  Pladaroxylon  (Endl.) Hook.f.;  Plagiobasis  Schrenk;  Plagiocheilus  Arn. ex DC.;  Plagiolophus  Greenm.;  Plagius  L′Her. ex DC.;  Planaltoa  Taub.;  Planea  P. O. Karis;  Plateilema  (A. Gray) Cockerell;  Platycarpha  Less.;  Platypodanthera  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Platyschkuhria  (A. Gray) Rydb.—basin daisy;  Plazia  Ruiz &amp; Pay.;  Plecostachys  Hilliard &amp; B. L. Burtt;  Plectocephalus  D. Don;  Pleiotaxis  Steetz;  Pleurocarpaea  Benth.;  Pleurocoronis  Pleurocarpaea Benth.;  Pleuropappus  F. Muell.;  Pleurophyllum  Hook.f.;  Pluchea  Cass.—camphorweed, fleabane;  Plummera  A. Gray;  Podachaenium  Benth. ex Oerst.;  Podanthus  Lag.;  Podocoma  Cass.;  Podolepis  Labill.;  Podotheca  Cass.;  Poecilolepis  Grau;  Pogonolepis  Steetz;  Pojarkovia  Askerova;  Pollalesta  Kunth;  Polyachyrus  Lag.;  Polyanthina  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Polyarrhena  Cass.;  Polycalymma  F. Muell. &amp; Sond.;  Polychrysum  (Tzvelev) Kovalevsk.;  Polymnia  L.;  Porophyllum  Adans.—poreleaf;  Porphyrostemma  Benth. ex Oliv.;  Praxeliopsis  G. M. Barroso;  Praxelis  Cass.;  Prenanthella  Rydb.;  Prenanthes  L.—rattlesnakeroot;  Printzia  Cass.;  Prionopsis  Nutt.;  Prolobus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Prolongoa  Boiss.;  Proteopsis  Mart. &amp; Zucc. ex Sch.Bip.;  Proustia  Lag.;  Psacaliopsis  H. Rob. &amp; Brettell;  Psacalium  Cass.—Indianbush;  Psathyrotes  A. Gray—turtleback, i.e. turtleback (plant);  Pseudelephantopus  Rohr—dog&#39;s-tongue (synonym of  Elephantopus  L.);  Pseudobaccharis  Cabrera;  Pseudobahia  (A. Gray) Rydb.—sunburst;  Pseudoblepharispermum  J.-P.Lebrun &amp; Stork;  Pseudobrickellia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Pseudocadiscus  Lisowski;  Pseudoclappia  Rydb.—false clapdaisy;  Pseudognaphalium  Kirp.—false cudweed, cudweed;  Pseudogynoxys  (Greenm.) Cabrera;  Pseudohandelia  Tzvelev;  Pseudokyrsteniopsis  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Pseudonoseris  H. Rob. &amp; Brettell;  Pseudostifftia  H. Rob.;  Psiadia  Jacq.;  Psiadiella  Humbert;  Psilactis  A. Gray—tansyaster;  Psilocarphus  Nutt.—woollyheads;  Psilostrophe  DC—paperflower;  Psychrogeton  Boiss.;  Psychrophyton  Beauverd;  Pterachenia  (Benth.) Lipsch.;  Pterocaulon  Elliott—blackroot;  Pterocaulon  Elliott;  Pterocypsela  C. Shih;  Pteronia  L.;  Pterothrix  DC.;  Pterygopappus  Hook.f.;  Ptilostemon  Cass.;  Pulicaria  Gaertn.—false fleabane;  Pycnocephalum  (Less.) DC.;  Pyrrhopappus  DC—desert chicory;  Pyrrocoma  Hook—goldenweed;  Pycnosorus —billy buttons;  Quelchia  N. E. Br.;  Quinetia  Cass.;  Quinqueremulus  Paul G. Wilson;  Radlkoferotoma  Kuntze;  Rafinesquia  Nutt.—California chicory;  Raillardella —silvermat (?);  Raillardiopsis  Rydb.;  Rainiera  Greene;  Raoulia  Hook.f. ex Raoul—Vegetable Sheep, Mat Daisy;  Raouliopsis  S. F. Blake;  Rastrophyllum  Wild &amp; G. V. Pope;  Ratibida  Raf.—prairie coneflower;  Raulinoreitzia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Rayjacksonia —tansyaster (?);  Reichardia  Roth.—brighteyes;  Relhania  L′Her.;  Remya  W. F. Hillebr. ex Benth.;  Rennera  Merxm.;  Rensonia  S. F. Blake;  Revealia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Rhagadiolus  Scop.;  Rhamphogyne  S. Moore;  Rhanteriopsis  Rauschert;  Rhanterium  Desf.;  Rhodanthe  Lindl.—sunray;  Rhodogeron  Griseb.;  Rhynchopsidium; Rhynchospermum  Reinw.;  Rhysolepis  S. F. Blake;  Richteria  Kar. &amp; Kir.;  Riencourtia  Cass.;  Rigiopappus  A. Gray;  Robinsonia  DC.;  Rochonia  DC.;  Rojasianthe  Standl. &amp; Steyerm;  Rolandra  Rottb.—yerba de plata;  Roldana  La Llave—groundsel;  Rosenia  Thunb.;  Rothmaleria  Font Quer;  Rudbeckia  L.—coneflower;  Rugelia  Shuttlew. ex Chapm.—Rugel&#39;s Indian plantain;  Ruilopezia  Cuatrec.;  Rumfordia  DC.;  Russowia  C. Winkl.;  Rutidosis  DC.;  Sabazia  Cass.;  Sachsia  Griseb.;  Salmea  DC—bejuco de miel;  Salmeopsis  Benth.;  Santoline  L.—lavender cotton;  Santosia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Sanvitalia  Lam.—creeping zinnia;  Sartorina  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Sartwellia  A. Gray—glowwort;  Saussurea  DC—saw-wort;  Scalesia  Arn.;  Scariola  F. W. Schmidt;  Scherya  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Schischkinia  Iljin;  Schistocarpha  Less.;  Schistostephium  Less.;  Schizogyne  Cass.;  Schizoptera  Turcz.;  Schizotrichia  Benth.;  Schkuhria  Roth—false threadleaf;  Schlechtendalia  Less.;  Schmalhausenia  C. Winkl.;  Schoenia  Steetz;  Schumeria  Iljin;  Sciadocephala  Mattf.;  Sclerocarpus  Jacq.—bonebract;  Sclerolepis  Cass.—bogbutton;  Sclerorhachis  (Rech.f.) Rech.f.;  Sclerostephane  Chiov.;  Scolymus  L.—golden thistle;  Scorzonella  Nutt.;  Scorzonera  L.—[salsify];  Scrobicaria  Cass.;  Scyphocoronis  A. Gray;  Selleophytum  Urb.;  Selloa  Kunth;  Semiria; Senecio  L.—groundsel, ragwort;  Sericocarpus  Nees—whitetop aster;  Seriphidium  (Besser) Poljak.;  Serratula  L.—plumeless saw-wort;  Shafera  Greenm.;  Sheareria  S. Moore;  Shinnersia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Shinnersoseris  Tomb—beaked skeletonweed;  Siapaea; Siebera  J. Gay;  Sigesbeckia  L.—St. Paul&#39;s wort;  Siloxerus  Labill.;  Silphium  L.—rosinweed;  Silybum  Adans.—milk thistle;  Simsia  Pers.—bush sunflower;  Sinacalia  H. Rob. &amp; Brettell;  Sinclairia  Hook. &amp; Arn.;  Sinoleontopodium  Y. L. Chen;  Sinosenecio  B. Nord.;  Smallanthus  Mack.;  Soaresia  Sch.Bip.;  Solanecio  (Sch.Bip.) Walp.;  Solenogyne  Cass.;  Solidago  L.—goldenrod;  Soliva  Ruiz &amp; Pay.—burrweed;  Sommerfeltia  Less.;  Sonchus  L.—sow thistle, sowthistle;  Sondottia  P. S. Short;  Soroseris  Stebbins;  Spaniopappus  B. L. Rob.;  Sphaeranthus  L.;  Sphaereupatorium  (O. Hoffm.) Kuntze ex B. L. Rob.;  Sphaeroclinium  (DC.) Sch.Bip.;  Sphaeromeria  Nutt.—chickensage;  Sphaeromorphaea  DC.;  Sphagneticola  O. Hoffm.—“creeping-oxeye”;  Spilanthes  Jacq.—toothache flower;  Spiracantha  Kunth—dogwoodleaf;  Spiroseris  Rech.f.;  Squamopappus  Jansen, Harriman &amp; Urbatsch;  Stachycephalum  Sch.Bip. ex Benth.;  Staehefina  L.;  Standleyanthus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Stanfieldia  Small;  Staurochlamys  Baker;  Stebbinsoseris  K. L. Chambers—silverpuffs;  Steiractinia  S. F. Blake;  Steirodiscus  Less.;  Stenachaenium  Benth.;  Stenocarpha  S. F. Blake;  Stenocline  DC.;  Stenopadus  S. F. Blake;  Stenophalium  Anderb.;  Stenops  B. Nord.;  Stenotus  Nutt.—mock goldenweed;  Stephanochilus  Coss. &amp; Durieu ex Maire;  Stephanodoria  Greene;  Stephanomeria  Nutt.—wire lettuce;  Steptorhamphus  Bunge;  Stevie  Cay.—candyleaf;  Steviopsis  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Steyermarkina  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Stifftia  J. C. Mikan;  Stilpnogyne  DC.;  Stilpnolepis  Krasch.;  Stilpnopappus  Mart. ex DC.;  Stoebe  L.;  Stokesia  L′Her.;  Stomatanthes  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Stomatochaeta  (S. F. Blake) Maguire &amp; Wurdack;  Stramentopappus  H. Rob. &amp; V. A. Funk;  Streptoglossa  Steetz ex F.Muell.;  Strotheria  B. L. Turner;  Struchium  P.Browne;  Stuartina  Sond.;  Stuckertiella  Beauverd;  Stuessya  B. L. Turner &amp; F. G. Davies;  Stylocline  Nutt.—neststraw, woolly fishhooks;  Stylotrichium  Mattf.;  Sventenia  Font Quer;  Symphyliocarpus  Maxim.;  Symphyopappus  Turcz.;  Symphyotrichum —aster (?);  Syncalathium  Lipsch.;  Syncarpha  DC.;  Syncephalum  DC.;  Syncretocarpus  S. F. Blake;  Synedrella  Gaertn.;  Synedrellopsis  Hieron. &amp; Kuntze;  Syneilesis  Maxim.;  Synosma  (synonym of  Hasteola  Raf.);  Synotis  (C. B. Clarke) C. Jeffrey &amp; Y. L. Chen;  Syntrichopappus  A. Gray—Fremont&#39;s gold;  Synurus  Iljin;  Syreitschikovia  Pavlov;  Tagetes  L.—marigold;  Tamananthus  V. M. Badillo;  Tamania  Cuatrec.;  Tamaulipa  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.—boneset;  Tanacetum  L.—tansy, feverfew;  Taplinia  Lander;  Taraxacum  Weber ex F. H. Wigg.—dandelion;  Tarchonanthus  L.;  Tarlmounia  H. Rob., S. C. Keeley, Skvarla &amp; R. Chan;  Teixeiranthus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Telanthophora  H. Rob. &amp; Brettell;  Telekia  Baumg.;  Telmatophila  Mart. ex Baker;  Tenrhynea  Hilliard &amp; B. L. Burtt;  Tephroseris  (Rchb.) Rchb.—fleawort;  Tessaria  Ruiz &amp; Pav.;  Tetrachyron  Schltdl.;  Tetradymia  DC—horsebrush;  Tetragonotheca  L.—nerveray;  Tetramolopium  Ness;  Tetraneuris  Greene—four-nerve daisy;  Tetranthus  Sw.;  Tetraperone  Urb.;  Thaminophyllum  Harv.;  Thamnoseris  F. Phil.;  Thelesperma  Less.—greenthread;  Thespidium  F. Muell. ex Benth.;  Thespis  DC.;  Thevenotia  DC.;  Thiseltonia  Hemsl;  Thurovia  (synonym of  Gutierrezia  Lag.);  Thymophylla  Lag.—pricklyleaf;  Thymopsis  Benth.;  Tiarocarpus  Rech.f.;  Tietkensia  P. S. Short;  Tithonia  Desf. ex Juss.;  Tolpis  Adans.—umbrella milkwort;  Tonestus  A. Nelson—serpentweed;  Tourneuxia  Coss.;  Townsendia  Hook.—Townsend daisy;  Toxanthes  Turcz.;  Toiyabea; Tracyina  S. F. Blake—Indian headdress;  Tragopogon  L.—goat&#39;s beard, salsify;  Traversia  Hook.f.;  Trichanthemis  Regel &amp; Schmalh.;  Trichanthodium  Sond. &amp; F. Muell.;  Trichocline  Cass.;  Trichocoronis  A. Gray—bugheal;  Trichocoryne  S. F. Blake;  Trichogonia  (DC.) Gardner;  Trichogoniopsis  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Trichogyne  Less.;  Tricholepis  DC.;  Trichoptilium  A. Gray;  Trichospira  Kunth;  Tridactylina  (DC.) Sch.Bip.;  Tridax  L.;  Trigonospermum  Less.;  Trilisa  (Cass.) Cass.;  Trimorpha —boreal daisy (?);  Trioncinia  (F. Muell.) Veldkamp;  Tripleurospermum  Sch.Bip.—mayweed;  Triplocephalum  O. Hoffm.;  Tripolium —sea aster (?);  Tripteris; Triptilion  Ruiz &amp; Pay.;  Triptilodiscus  Turcz.;  Triniteurybia; Trixis  P. Browne—American threefold, threefold, American trixis, California trixis;  Troglophyton  Hilliard &amp; B. L. Burtt;  Tuberostylis  Steetz;  Tugarinovia  /trljin;  Turaniphytum  Poljakov;  Tussilago  L.—coltsfoot;  Tuxtla  Villasenor &amp; Strother;  Tyleropappus  Greenm.;  Tyrimnus  (Cass.) Cass.;  Uechtritzia  Freyn;  Ugamia  Pavlov;  Uleophytum  Hieron.;  Unxia  L.f.;  Urbananthus  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Urbinella  Greenm.;  Urmenetea  Phil.;  Urolepis  (DC.) R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Uropappus  Nutt.—silverpuffs;  Urospermum  Scop.;  Ursinia  Gaertn.;  Vanclevea  Greene;  Vanillosmopsis  Sch.Bip.;  Varilla  A. Gray;  Varthemia  DC.;  Vellereophyton  Hilliard &amp; B. L. Burtt;  Venegasia  DC;  Venidium  (synonym of  Arctotis  L.);  Verbesina  L.—crownbeard;  Vennonia  Schreb—“ironweed (plant)”;  Vernoniopsis  Humbert;  Vieraea  Sch.Bip.;  Viereckia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Vigethia  W. A. Weber;  Viguiera  Kunth—goldeneye;  Vilobia  Strother;  Virgulaster  Semple=Aster L.;  Vittadinia  A. Rich.;  Vittetia  R. M. King &amp; H. Rob.;  Volutaria  Cass.;  Wagenitzia  Dostal;  Waitzia  J. C. Wendl.;  Wamalchitamia  Strother;  Warionia  Benth. &amp; Coss.;  Wedelia  Jacq.—“creeping-oxeye”;  Willemetia; Welwitschiella  O. Hoffm.;  Werneria  Kunth;  Westoniella  Cuatrec.;  Whitneya  A. Gray;  Wilkesia  A. Gray—iliau;  Wollastonia  DC. ex Decne.;  Wulffia  Neck. ex Cass.;  Wunderlichia  Riedel ex Benth.;  Wyethia  Nutt.—mule-ears;  Xanthisma  DC—sleepydaisy;  Xanthium  L.—cocklebur;  Xanthocephalum  Willd.;  Xanthopappus  C. Winkl.;  Xeranthemum  L.;  Xerolekia  Anderb.;  Xerxes  J. R. Grant;  Xylanthemum  Tzvelev on ; will  Xylorhiza —woody aster;  Xylothamia  G. L. Nesom, Y. B. Suh, D. R. Morgan &amp; B. B. Simpson;  Yermo  Dorn—desert yellowhead;  Youngia  Cass.;  Zaluzania  Pers.;  Zandera  D. L. Schulz;  Zexmenia  La Llave;  Zinnia  L.;  Zoegea  L.;  Zyzyxia  Strother. 
     FAMILY: CANNABACEAE; GENERA:  Aphananthe  Planchon (syn.  Mirandaceltis  Sharp);  Cannabis  L.—Hemp;  Celtis  L. (syn.  Sparrea  Hunz. &amp; Dottori);  Gironniera  Gaudich. (syn.  Helminthospermum  Thwaites,  Nematostigma  Planchon);  Humulus  L. (syn.  Humulopsis  Grudz.)—Hop;  Lozanella  Greenman;  Parasponia  Miguel;  Pteroceltis  Maxim.;  Trema  Loureiro (syn.  Sponia  Decaisne) 
     FAMILY: RUTACEAE; GENERA:  Achuaria  Gereau;  Acmadenia  Bartl. &amp; H. L. Wendl.;  Acradenia  Kippist;  Acronychia  J. R. Forst. &amp; G. Forst—Lemon Aspen, et al.;  Adenandra  Willd.;  Adiscanthus  Ducke;  Aegle  Correa—Bael;  Aeglopsis  Swingle;  Afraegle  (Swingle) Engl.;  Agathosma  Willd.;  Almeidea  A. St.-Hil.;  Amyris  P. Browne—West Indian Sandalwood;  Angostura  Roem. &amp; Schult.;  Apocaulon  R. S. Cowan;  Araliopsis  Engl.;  Asterolasia  F. Muell.;  Atalantia  Correa;  Balfourodendron  Corr. Mello ex Oliv.;  Balsamocitrus  Stapf;  Boenninghausenia  Rchb. ex Meisn.;  Boninia  Planch.;  Boronella  Baill.;  Boronia  Sm.;  Bosistoa  F. Muell—Bonewoods;  Bouchardatia  Baill.;  Brombya  F. Muell.;  Burkillanthus  Swingle;  Calodendrum  Thunb.;  Casimiroa  La Llave;  Chloroxylon  DC Ceylon Satinwood;  Choisya  Kunth—Mexican orange;  Chorilaena  Endl.;  Citropsis  (Engl.) Swingle &amp; M. Kellerm—African orange cherry;  Citrus  L.—Citrus;  Clausena  Burm.f.;  Clymenia  Swingle; Cneoridium Hook.f.;  Cneorum  L. (formerly in Cneoraceae);  Coleonema  Bartl. &amp; H. L. Wendl.—Breath of Heaven;  Comptonella  Baker f.;  Coombea  P. Royen;  Correa  Andrews;  Crowea  Sm.;  Cyanothamnus  Lindl.;  Decagonocarpus  Engl.;  Decatropis  Hook.f.;  Decazyx  Pittier &amp; S. F. Blake;  Dendrosma  Pancher &amp; Sebert;  Dictamnus  L.—Burning-bush;  Dictyoloma  A.Juss.;  Diosma  L.;  Diphasia  Pierre;  Diphasiopsis  Mendonca;  Diplolaena  R. Br.;  Drummondita  Harv.;  Dutaillyea  Baill.;  Echinocitrus  Tanaka;  Empleuridium  Sond. &amp; Harv.;  Empleurum  Aiton;  Eremocitrus  Swingle;  Eriostemon  Sm.;  Erythrochiton  Nees &amp; Mart.;  Esenbeckia  Kunth;  Euchaetis  Bartl. &amp; H. L. Wendl.;  Euodia  J. R. Forst. &amp; G. Forst.;  Euxylophora  Huber;  Evodiella  Linden;  Fagaropsis  Mildbr. ex Siebenl.;  Feroniella  Swingle;  Flindersia  RBr. Crow Ash, Cudgerie;  Fortunella  Swingle—Kumquat;  Galipea  Aubl.;  Geijera  Schott—Wilga, Axebreakers;  Geleznowia  Turcz.;  Glycosmis  Correa;  Halfordia  F. Muell.;  Haplophyllum  A.Juss.;  Helietta  Tul.;  Hortia  Vand.;  Ivodea  Capuron;  Kodalyodendron  Borhidi &amp; Acuna;  Leionema  (F. Muell.) Paul G.Wilson.;  Leptothyrsa  Hook.f.;  Limnocitrus  Swingle;  Limonia  L.;  Lubaria  Pittier;  Lunasia  Blanco;  Luvunga  Buch.-Ham. ex Wight &amp; Arn.;  Maclurodendron  T. G. Hartley;  Macrostylis  Bartl. &amp; H. L. Wendl.;  Medicosma  Hook.f.;  Megastigma  Hook.f.;  Melicope  J. R. Forst. &amp; G. Forst—Corkwood, Alani;  Merope  M. Roem.;  Merrillia  Swingle;  Metrodorea  A. St.-Hil.;  Microcitrus  Swingle;  Microcybe  Turcz.;  Micromelum  Blume;  Monanthocitrus  Tanaka;  Monnieria  Loefl.;  Muiriantha  C. A. Gardner;  Murraya  L.—Curry tree;  Myrtopsis  Engl.;  Naringi  Adans.;  Naudinia  Planch. &amp; Linden;  Nematolepis  Turcz.;  Neobyrnesia  J. A. Armstr.;  Neoschmidia  T. G. Hartley, gen. nov.;  Nycticalanthus  Ducke;  Oricia  Pierre;  Oriciopsis  Engl.;  Orixa  Thunb.;  Oxanthera  Montrouz.;  Pamburus  Swingle;  Paramignya  Wight;  Peltostigma  Walp.;  Pentaceras  Hook.f.;  Phebalium  Vent.;  Phellodendron  Rupr.—Cork-tree;  Philotheca  Rudge;  Phyllosma  Bolus;  Pilocarpus  Vahl;  Pitavia  Molina;  Pitaviaster  T. G. Hartley;  Platydesma  H.Mann;  Pleiospermium  (Engl.) Swingle;  Plethadenia  Urb.;  Polyaster  Hook.f.;  Poncirus  Raf.—Trifoliate orange;  Psilopeganum  Hemsl.;  Ptelea  L.—Hoptree;  Raputia  Aubl.;  Rauia  Nees &amp; Mart.;  Raulinoa  R. S. Cowan;  Ravenia  Veil.;  Raveniopsis  Gleason;  Rhadinothamnus  Paul G.Wilson;  Ruta  L.—Rue;  Rutaneblina  Steyerm. &amp; Luteyn;  Sarcomelicope  Engl.;  Severinia  Ten.;  Sheilanthera  I. Williams;  Skimmia  Thunb.—Skimmia;  Spathelia  L.;  Spiranthera  A. St.-Hil.;  Stauranthus  Liebm.;  Swinglea  Merr.;  Teclea  Delile;  Tetractomia  Hook.f.;  Tetradium  Lour.—Euodia;  Thamnosma  Torr. &amp; Frem.;  Ticorea  Aubl.;  Toddalia  Juss.;  Toddaliopsis  Engl.;  Tractocopevodia  Raizada &amp; V.Naray.;  Triphasia  Lour.;  Urocarpus  J. Drumm. ex Harv.;  Vepris  Comm. ex A.Juss.;  Wenzelia  Merr.;  Zanthoxylum  L.—Toothache tree;  Zieria  Sm. 
     FAMILY: ROSACEAE; GENERA:  Acaena; Acomastylis; Adenostoma; Agrimonia; Amelanchier; ×Amelasorbus; Amygdalophora; Amygdalopsis; Amygdalus; Aphanes; Aria; Argentina; ×Ariosorbus; Aronia; Aruncus; Atomostigma; Batidaea; Bencomia; Brachycaulos; Brayera; Cerapadus; Ceraseidos; Cerasus; Cercocarpus; Chamaebatiaria; Chamaemeles; Chaenomeles; Chamaemespilus; Chaemaerhodos; Cliffortia; Coleogyne; Coluria; Comarella; Comarobatia; Comaropsis; Comarum; Cormus; Cotoneaster; Cowania; +Crataegomespilus; Crataegus;×Crataemespilus; Cydonia; Dalibarda; Dasiphora; Dendriopoterium; Dichotomanthes; Docynia; Dryadanthe; Dryas; Eriobotrya; Eriogynia; Eriolobus; Erythrocoma; Exochorda; Fallugia; Farinopsis; Filipendula; Fragaria; Geum; Gillenia; Hagenia; Hesperomeles; Heteromeles; Holodiscus; Horkelia; Horkeliella; Hulthemia  (synonym of  Rosa );× Hulthemosa  ( Hulthemia×Rosa );  Ivesia; Kageneckia; Kerria; Lachemilla; Laurocerasus; Leucosidea; Lindleya; Luetkea; Lyonothamnus; Maddenia; Malacomeles; ×Malosorbus; Malus; Marcetella; Mespilus; Micromeles; Nagelia; Neillia; Neviusia; Novoseiversia; Nutallia; Oemleria; Oncostylus; Oreogeum; Orthurus; Osteomeles; Padellus; Parageum; Pentactina; Pentaphylloides; Peraphyllum; Persica; Petrophyton; Photinia; Physocarpus; Polylepis; Porteranthus; Potentilla; Poteridium; Poterium; Pourthiaea; Prinsepia; Prunus; Pseudocydonia; Purshia; Pyracantha; Pygeum; ×Pyronia; Pyrus; ×Rhaphiobotyra; Rhaphiolepis; Rhodotypos; Rosa; Rub us; Sanguisorba; Sarcopoterium; Sibbaldia; Sibbaldiopsis; Sibiraea; Sorbaria; ×Sorbaronia; ×Sorbocotoneaster; ×Sorbopyrus; Sorbus; Spenceria; Spiraea; Stephanandra; Taihangia; Tetraglochin; Torminalia; Trichothalamus; Tylosperma; Ulmaria; Vauquelinia; Waldsteinia; Xerospiraea; Zygalchemilla.    
     FAMILY: LAMIACEAE; GENERA:  Acanthomintha; Achyrospermum; Acinos; Acrocephalus; Acrotome; Acrymia; Adelosa; Aegiphila; Aeollanthus; Agastache; Ajuga; Ajugoides; Alajja; Alvesia; Amasonia; Amethystea; Anisochilus; Anisomeles; Archboldia; Asterohyptis; Ballota; Basilicum; Becium; Benguellia; Blephilia; Bostrychanthera; Bovonia; Brachysola; Brazoria; Bystropogon; Calamintha; Callicarpa; Capitanopsis; Capitanya; Caryopteris; Catoferia; Cedronella; Ceratanthus; Chaiturus; Chamaesphacos; Chaunostoma; Chelonopsis; Chloanthes; Cleonia; Clerodendrum; Clinopodium; Colebrookea; Collinsonia; Colquhounia; Comanthosphace; Congea; Conradina; Coridothymus; Cornutia; Craniotome; Cryphia; Cuminia; Cunila; Cyanostegia; Cyclotrichium; Cymaria; Dauphinea; Dicerandra; Dicrastylis; Discretitheca; Dorystoechas; Dracocephalum; Drepanocaryum; Elsholtzia; Endostemon; Englerastrum; Eremostachys; Eriope; Eriophyton; Eriopidion; Eriothymus; Erythrochlamys; Euhesperida; Eurysolen; Faradaya; Fuerstia; Galeopsis; Garrettia; Geniosporum; Glechoma; Glechon; Glossocarya; Gmelina; Gomphostemma; Gontscharovia; Hanceola; Haplostachys; Haumaniastrum; Hedeoma; Hemiandra; Hemigenia; Hemiphora; Hemizygia; Hesperozygis; Heterolamium; Hoehnea; Holmskioldia; Holocheila; Holostylon; Horminum; Hosea; Hoslundia; Huxleya; Hymenocrater; Hymenopyramis; Hypenia; Hypogomphia; Hyptidendron; Hyptis; Hyssopus; Isodictyophorus; Isodon; Isoleucas; +Kalaharia; Karomia; Keiskea; Killickia; Kudrjaschevia; Kurzamra; Lachnostachys; Lagochilus; Lagopsis; Lallemantia; Lamiophlomis; Lamium; Lavandula; Leocus; Leonotis; Leonurus; Lepechinia; Leucas; Leucophae; Leucosceptrum; Limniboza; Lophanthus; Loxocalyx; Lycopus; Macbridea; Madlabium; Mallophora; Marmoritis; Marrubium; Marsypianthes; Matsumurella; Meehania; Melissa; Melittis; Mentha; Meriandra; Mesona; Metastachydium; Microcorys; Micromeria; Microtoena; Minthostachys; Moluccella; Monarda; Monardella; Monochilus; Mosla; Neoeplingia; Neohyptis; Neorapinia; Nepeta; Newcastelia; Nosema; Notochaete; Obtegomeria; Ocimum; Octomeron; Ombrocharis; Oncinocalyx; Origanum; Orthosiphon; Otostegia; +Ovieda; Oxera; Panzerina; Paralamium; Paraphlomis; Paravitex; Peltodon; Pentapleura; Perilla; Perillula; Peronema; Perovskia; Perrierastrum; Petitia; Petraeovitex; Phlomidoschema; Phlomis; Phyllostegia; Physopsis; Physostegia; Piloblephis; Pitardia; Pityrodia; Platostoma; Plectranthus; Pogogyne; Pogostemon; Poliomintha; Prasium; Premna; Prostanthera; Prunella; Pseudocarpidium; Pseudocaryopteris; Pseudoeremostachys; Pseudomarrubium; Puntia; Pycnanthemum; Pycnostachys; Rabdosiella; Renschia; Rhabdocaulon; Rhaphiodon; Rhododon; Rosmarinus; Rostrinucula; Rotheca; Roylea; Rubiteucris; +Rydingia; Sabaudia; Saccocalyx; Salazaria; Salvia; Satureja; Schizonepeta; Schnabelia; Scutellaria; Sideritis; Siphocranion; Solenostemon; Spartothamnella; Sphenodesme; Stachydeoma; Stachyopsis; Stachys; Stenogyne; Sulaimania; Suzukia; Symphorema; Symphostemon; Synandra; Syncolostemon; Tectona; Teijsmanniodendron; +Tetraclea; Tetradenia; Teucridium; Teucrium; Thorncroftia; Thuspeinanta; Thymbra; Thymus; Tinnea; Trichosterna; Tripora; Tsoongia; Vitex; Viticipremna; +Volkameria; Warnockia; Wenchengia; Westringia; Wiedemannia; Wrixonia; Xenopoma; Zataria; Zhumeria; Ziziphora.    
     For example, in addition to members of the group Cannanbaceae, the example embodiments may be used with members of the group Solanaceae, which include annually-grown herbaceous plants, such as,  Nicotiana tabacum,  or cultivated tobacco, which is found only in cultivation, and is considered the most commonly grown of all plants in the  Nicotiana  genus, and whose leaves are commercially grown in many countries to be processed into tobacco. In addition, other members of the group Solanacea include wild  Nicotiana  species, such as  Nicotiana sylvestris, Nicotiana tomentosiformis, Nicotiana otophora,  etc. 
     The example embodiments described herein will be further illustrated in the following, non-limiting Examples. The Examples are illustrative of various embodiments only and do not limit the claimed invention regarding the materials, conditions, weight ratios, process parameters and the like recited herein. 
     EXAMPLE 1 
     A comparison of extracts prepared according to the example embodiments described herein and other solvent systems was carried out. 
     Extract samples were prepared by weighing out a 7.0 gram aliquot of plant material (i.e., whole dried  cannabis  flowers) and removing all stems by hand. The flowers were separated and homogenized by hand into smaller pieces to form particles with a diameter in the range of about 0.5 mm to 3 mm. A desired solvent was added to a vessel such that about a 10:1 mass ratio of desired solvent to plant material will be achieved and this solvent was then cooled to a predetermined temperature (see Table 1, Sample Nos. 1-16) either by direct addition of dry ice to the solvent mixture or through the use of an external dry ice and acetone cooling bath in which the vessel was placed. Each homogenized sample was then added to the solvent in the vessel and allowed to be extracted by incubating for about 10 minutes with mixing on a magnetic stir plate. The plant material was then rapidly filtered through a metal mesh strainer to remove larger particles from the solvent. The extracted plant material was compressed with a spatula against the surface of the strainer to remove remaining solvent absorbed by the plant matter. A second filtration was then carried out under vacuum using a Whatman Grade 1 Filter paper to remove fine particles of 11 micron (μm) or larger. The solvent was then removed from each sample by rotary evaporation. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Sample ID No. 
                 Solvent System/Conditions 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 Acetone, CO 2 at about −78.5° C. 
               
               
                 2 
                 Acetone, bathat about −78.5° C. 
               
               
                 3 
                 Acetone, bath, 0.0° C. 
               
               
                 4 
                 Ethanol, CO 2 at about −78.5° C. 
               
               
                 5 
                 Ethanol, bathat about −78.5° C. 
               
               
                 6 
                 Diethyl Ether, CO 2 at about −78.5° C. 
               
               
                 7 
                 Diethyl Ether, bathat about −78.5° C. 
               
               
                 8 
                 MEK, CO 2 at about −78.5° C. 
               
               
                 9 
                 MEK, bathat about −78.5° C. 
               
               
                 10 
                 Ethyl Lactate, bath, −10.0° C. 
               
               
                 11 
                 Butyl Acetate, CO 2 , −60.0° C. 
               
               
                 12 
                 MTBE, CO 2 at about −78.5° C. 
               
               
                 13 
                 MTBE, bathat about −78.5° C. 
               
               
                 14 
                 Ethyl Acetate, CO 2 at about −78.5° C. 
               
               
                 15 
                 Ethyl Acetate, bathat about −78.5° C. 
               
               
                 16 
                 Pentane, CO 2 at about −78.5° C. 
               
               
                 17 
                 Butane Cylinder, −17.4° C. 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     For Sample ID No. 17, a butane extraction was carried out using a conventional butane honey oil (BHO) 30 mm extractor cylinder. A 7.0 gram aliquot of whole dried  cannabis  flowers was measured and all stems were removed by hand. The flowers were separated and homogenized into moderate uniform pieces known as ‘popcorn buds’ typically used in butane extraction with an average particle size diameter in the range of 5 mm to 8 mm. The entire dried  cannabis  flower sample was then placed in the BHO extractor cylinder, which was then assembled, held upright such that the perforated portion was facing down, then injected with approximately 150 g of butane through into the top of the cylinder. The extract and butane mixture was captured in a shallow 1L pyrex beaker. The beaker was then placed in a room temperature (20-24° C.) water bath in a fume hood until all solvent had evaporated. The resulting  cannabis  extract was then resuspended in 60 ml of HPLC grade liquid pentane, filtered under vacuum through a Whatman grade 1 filter paper to remove particles 11 μm in size or larger. The 1L pyrex beaker was then rinsed with an additional 25 ml of pentane and also filtered. The extract was then subjected rotary evaporation to remove solvent and collected. 
     EXAMPLE 2 
     After solvent removal, all extract resin samples collected were resuspended in 50 ml of anhydrous ethanol for further analysis. Cannabinoid content in each sample was determined using Agilent 1100 series HPLC/PDA with Luna 5μ C18 column 100A. Terpene content was determined in each sample using Agilent 6890 GC/5973MSD with RXI-35SilMS 30m×0.25 mm ID×0.25 μm d.f. 
     The data in  FIG. 1  show what the yield of THCA and THC extraction obtained compared to a relative 100% yield, as determined by the 9:1 Chloroform:Methanol validated extraction method.  FIG. 1  also exemplifies some of the issues known and considered unfavorable with high boiling-point solvents. For instance, because of the high heat and low pressure conditions required to evaporate ethyl lactate and butyl acetate, these conditions provide sufficient thermal energy to convert THCA into THC, thereby altering the natural profile found in the starting  cannabis  flowers. Yields of 161% and 484% THC when using ethyl lactate and butyl acetate, respectively, provide evidence of the thermally driven conversion of THCA to THC.  FIG. 1  further shows that THC yields were nearly equivalent to THCA yields when using our acetone solvent systems/methods for extraction, indicating that the natural ratio of THC and THCA in the  cannabis  resins produced by our acetone extraction system/method are unaltered by their differences in solubility in acetone. 
     Since THCA is found in much greater quantity compared to THC in the  cannabis  flowers, these data are important because creating a whole plant extract of  cannabis  that contains the same relative amounts of cannabinoids and terpenes without undesirable constituents (i.e., a representative profile of such desirable constituents in amounts or ratios similar to what is found in the starting input botanical material) is ideal for the solvent to be optimized for the greatest solubility of THCA.  Cannabis  extracts produced with the example embodiments (acetone system) contain a greater yield of THCA from the dried flowers when compared to common commercial extraction techniques (e.g., cold Ethanol, Butane, etc.) and these results demonstrate that the example embodiments are among the highest yielding solvents tested. 
     The data in  FIG. 2  show % w/w of THCA and THC in  Cannabis  extract resin. Of all the Samples,  cannabis  extract produced using diethyl ether as the solvent appeared to contain the highest concentration of cannabinoids (as exemplified by THCA and THC 96.27% w/w overall).  FIG. 5  also shows that diethyl ether produces the greatest yield of terpenes with 1.995% w/w overall. Diethyl ether is a non-polar solvent and as such would be expected to produce a high yield of non-polar cannabinoid and terpene compounds. 
     Acetone and ethanol, both polar solvents, are expected to produce a lower yield because of their chemical nature. However,  FIG. 5  shows that despite this polar nature shared by acetone and ethanol, under certain conditions acetone (i.e. acetone only at about −78.5° C.) is capable of extracting nearly equivalent amounts of terpenes as expected from non-polar solvents such as pentane and diethyl ether. 
     All acetone solvent systems tested are comparable (and in some cases equal in ability) to extract the non-polar terpene components relative to non-polar solvents such as pentane, butane and diethyl ether. 
       FIG. 3  shows THCA:THC ratio in  cannabis  extract resin and Dried Flowers. The ratio of THCA to THC contained in the the first column of this figure (Dried Flowers&#39;) represents the natural ratio (11.59) of THCA:THC found in the dried  cannabis  flowers as determined by 9:1 chloroform extraction and validated HPLC analysis.  FIG. 3  shows that extracts produced using: 
     (1) acetone with CO 2  at about −78.5° C.; 
     (2) acetone at 0° C.; or 
     (3) Methyl-tert butyl ether (MTBE) at about −78.5° C. produce an extract with this same 11.6 ratio of THCA:THC from the same strain of  cannabis.  This evidence indicates there are multiple systems that incorporate the use acetone as the extraction solvent to achieve the same natural profile of THCA and THC in a  cannabis  resin much more accurately than the common commercial extraction methods that use ethanol (8.06, 8.64 THCA:THC) or butane (11.08 THCA:THC) as the solvent. 
     Although it appears that acetone +CO 2  and acetone only at 0° C. are both equally capable of producing a  cannabis  extract that maintains the natural THCA:THC ratio, it was determined under further testing that acetone only at 0° C. produces a lower quality extract because of the detectable presence of chlorophyll in a sample prepared under these conditions. In contrast, a  cannabis  extraction prepared using acetone +CO 2  at about −78.5° C. had no detectable amount of chlorophyll. 
     Taken together with  FIG. 1 ,  FIG. 3  also shows that acetone +CO 2  extraction is able to produce a  cannabis  extract with a THCA:THC ratio representative of the natural profile found in  cannabis  flowers at the greatest yield (of cannabinoids and terpenes) compared to all other solvent systems tested. 
       FIG. 4  shows % w/w terpenes in  cannabis  extract resin and dried flower starting material. In particular,  FIG. 4  shows that by producing a  cannabis  extract resin from dried flowers, all terpene components of the mixture are concentrated, regardless of the solvent used.  FIG. 4  also shows that extraction with acetone only (i.e., no CO 2 ) at about −78.5° C. is an advantageous solvent system for the overall extraction of each individual terpenes analyzed. Pentane appears to be equal to or greater than acetone with respect to the yield of individual terpenes in a  cannabis  extract. However, the evidence from  FIG. 1  showing greater solubility of THC relative to THCA in pentane indicates that the natural THCA:THC ratio is altered when pentane is used to produce a  cannabis  extract and is therefore less favorable than acetone when a representative whole plant extraction is desired. Additionally, all acetone solvent extractions systems (‘acetone with CO 2  at about −78.5° C.’, ‘acetone only at about −78.5° C.’, and ‘acetone only at 0° C.’) produced a  cannabis  extract with % w/w terpene yields comparable to butane systems and also consistently greater yields for each terpene compared with  cannabis  extract produced using either cold ethanol systems tested, but without the undesirable constituents or features typically experienced with such systems. 
     Evidence from  FIGS. 1, 3 and 4  congruently provide evidence that  cannabis  extractions using acetone under the conditions of the example embodiments contain the best overall combination of cannabinoid fraction and terpene fraction % w/w yields relative to  cannabis  extracts produced by common commercial extraction methods (e.g., cold ethanol, butane). 
       FIG. 5  show % w/w of all terpene content in extracted  cannabis  resin resuspended in EtOH. Although only present in small quantities relative to cannabinoids, terpenes have known biological activity at very low concentrations.  Cannabis  extracts with relatively higher overall terpene content are considered to be of greater quality. Although  FIG. 5  appears to show that diethyl ether produces a  cannabis  extract with % w/w terpene fraction greater than the best acetone solvent system extraction (i.e., acetone bath, at about −78.5° C.), dietheyl ether&#39;s preferential THC solubility as indicated in  FIG. 1  and THCA:THC ratio of 8.9 (less than the natural profile indicated by the 9:1 chloroform:methanol extraction, ‘dried flowers’ sample) in  FIG. 3  indicates that diethyl ether&#39;s overall suitability for use as a whole plant  cannabis  extraction solvent system is less preferred than either acetone, butane or pentane. This figure also shows that all acetone extractions produce  cannabis  resins with greater terpene content than  cannabis  resins produced with ethanol. It is also noted that  FIG. 5  is consistent with  FIG. 4  because it shows that cold ‘acetone bath −78.5° C.’ solvent extraction is a superior solvent system for extracting the greatest possible quantity of total terpenes from starting  cannabis  flowers. 
       FIGS. 6-12  summarize the analysis results of residual terpene content remaining in the dried  cannabis  flowers (spent) after one extraction of the input  cannabis  flowers was carried out. Each dried  cannabis  sample (including the virgin input  cannabis  flowers baseline) was extracted via a validated protocol using 9:1 chloroform:methanol solvent system. The far right column (‘Bud from Bag #4’) shows the % w/w of terpenes in the non-extracted input  cannabis  flowers (i.e. relative 100%). Most preferred results are those which show no residual terpene remaining. 
     In particular,  FIG. 6  shows residual remaining alpha pinene in 1× extracted/spent dried  cannabis  flowers (i.e., WRB (spent) samples). It will be appreciated that when comparing each individual example embodiment (acetone solvent systems) to the corresponding ethanol solvent system (i.e. ‘Acetone+CO 2 at about −78.5° C.’ compared with ‘Ethanol+CO 2 at about −78.5° C’; ‘Acetone onlyat about −78.5° C.’ compared with ‘Ethanol onlyat about −78.5° C.’),  FIG. 6  shows that a greater amount of residual alpha pinene remains with butane and with pentane relative to all 3 acetone solvent system extractions tested.  FIG. 6  also shows that less residual alpha pinene remains in the extracted  cannabis  flowers when either ‘acetone only at about −78.5° C.’ or ‘acetone+CO 2  at about −78.5° C.’ system is used as the solvent compared to cold ethanol with CO 2  at about −78.5° C. 
       FIG. 7  shows residual beta pinene remaining in 1× extracted (spent) dried  cannabis  flowers (WRB samples). In particular,  FIG. 7  illustrates of all samples of  cannabis  flowers extracted with: acetone; butane; or ethanol, the ‘acetone+CO 2 at about −78.5° C.’ solvent system resulted in the lowest residual beta pinene remaining in the extracted  cannabis  flower. Butane and pentane appear to be the least efficient at extracting beta-pinene as indicated by the greatest residual beta pinene in extracted  cannabis  flowers relative to all solvent systems tested. 
       FIG. 8  shows residual myrcene remaining in 1× extracted (spent) dried  cannabis  flowers (WRB samples). Similar to alpha pinene, a comparison of equivalent acetone and ethanol solvent systems (i.e. ‘Acetone +CO 2 at about −78.5° C.’ compared with ‘Ethanol+CO 2 at about −78.5° C.’; ‘Acetone onlyat about −78° C.’ compared with ‘Ethanol onlyat about −78.5° C.’), indicating that acetone is more efficient at extracting myrcene relative to ethanol. All acetone systems (example embodiments) are more efficient at extracting myrcene relative to an extraction with butane solvent. 
       FIG. 9  shows the residual limonene remaiing in 1× Extracted (spent) Dried  Cannabis  flowers (WRB samples). As can be seen, ‘Ethanol+CO 2 at about −78.5° C.’ was less efficient than ‘pentane+CO 2 at about −78.5° C.’ with respect to limonene extraction. Butane appears to be the least efficient at extracting limonene relative to all other solvents systems. Equivalent acetone and ethanol solvent systems comparisons (i.e. ‘Acetone+CO 2 at about −78.5° C.’ compared with ‘Ethanol+CO 2 at about −78.5° C.’; ‘Acetone onlyat about −78° C.’ compared with ‘Ethanol onlyat about −78.5° C.’) show acetone to be more efficient at extracting limonene as indicated by lower relative residual limonene in extracted  cannabis  flowers. 
       FIG. 10  shows residual terpinolene remaining in 1× extracted dried  cannabis  flowers (WRB samples). No conclusions can be drawn for Terpinolene extraction efficiency from  FIG. 10 ; no terpinolene was detected in the input  cannabis  flowers (‘Bud from Bag #4’ i.e. the Relative 100% of any Terpinolene present in unadulterated  cannabis  flowers) or in the extracted  cannabis  flowers. It is noted that because of the analytical device&#39;s limit of detection, the residual quantity of terpinolene in extracted  cannabis  flowers after a single extraction cannot be determined. In addition,  FIG. 4  shows that all three example embodiment acetone extraction systems and diethyl ether+CO 2  at about −78.5° C. extractions were able to extract and concentrate terpinolene above the lower detection limit of the analytical device, thus indicating all acetone systems and diethyl ether are superior at extracting terpinolene compared with the 9:1 chloroform:methanol extraction system. 
       FIG. 11  shows residual terpineol remaining in 1× extracted dried  cannabis  flowers (WRB samples). The results suggest that all solvents, with the exception of ethyl lactate, are effectively equivalent in efficiency of terpineol extraction. 
       FIG. 12  shows residual caryophyllene remaining in 1× extracted dried  cannabis  flowers (WRB samples). Equivalent acetone and ethanol extraction solvent system comparisons (i.e. ‘Acetone+CO 2 at about −78.5° C.’ compared with ‘Ethanol+CO 2 at about −78.5° C.’; ‘Acetone onlyat about −78.5° C.’ compared with ‘Ethanol onlyat about −78.5° C.’), show that acetone is more efficient/effective at extracting caryophyllene as indicated by lower relative residual caryophyllene remaining in extracted  cannabis  flowers. ‘Acetone onlyat about −78.5° C.’ was more effective than all ethanol, butane and pentane extraction solvent systems. With the exception of terpinolene and terpineol ( FIGS. 10 and 11 ),  FIGS. 6-9, and 12  provide evidence that butane is the least efficient at extracting terpenes relative to all other solvent systems tested as indicated by the % w/w of all residual terpenes remaining in extracted  cannabis  flowers. 
     EXAMPLE 3 
     A comparison of dried virgin (unextracted/unadulterated)  cannabis  flowers and extracted  cannabis  flowers was carried out. Dried flowers, extracted (spent) flowers and What Remains Behind (a/k/a “WRB”) samples were prepared by extraction of approximately 100 mg of homogenized and sieved (2 mm screen size) dried  cannabis  flowers. The ground  cannabis  flower for each was then mixed with 30 ml of 9:1 chloroform methanol solution at room temperature and sonicated. After incubation, the extraction mixture was centrifuged and the liquid extract decanted into a GC sample vial. The solution was then analyzed by HPLC/FID for cannabinoid contents or GC/MS for terpene content. 
       FIG. 13  shows % w/w of individual terpenes content in input dried  cannabis  flowers and  cannabis  extracts samples using acetone solvent systems disclosed herein. The data presented in  FIG. 13  figure show the % w/w of individual terpenes compared between the dried  cannabis  flowers extracted with the validated 9:1 chloroform:Methanol method, and the extracted  cannabis  resins produced using acetone in the three example embodiment solvent systems tested (‘acetone+CO 2 at about −78.5° C.’; ‘acetone onlyat about −78.5° C.’; ‘acetone only, 0° C.’). As can be seen, the overall trend observed when comparing all acetone extract sample sets with the results produced by 9:1 chloroform:methanol extraction (‘acetone+CO 2 at about −78.5° C.’ vs. ‘acetone only −78.5° C.’ vs. ‘acetone only 0° C.’ vs. dried flower 9:1 chloroform:MeOH) indicates that concentration of all terpenes in acetone extracts relative to the 9:1 chloroform:methanol extract of dried flowers. Additionally, the % w/w of terpenes in each of the acetone extraction samples show minimal variation when compared to one another.  FIG. 13  demonstrates that all three of the example embodiment acetone solvent systems tested provide a superior result compared with the 9:1 chloroform:methanol extraction procedure used for validation. 
       FIG. 14  shows % w/w terpene content in a  cannabis  extract sample designated as 198842-1. The extract sample in  FIG. 14  was prepared with ‘acetone +CO 2  at about −78.5° C.’. The proportionality of terpenes identified in the dried  cannabis  flowers extract of sample 198842-1 appears to be maintained when extracted with acetone. Although the extract in acetone sample was dissolved in a volume of acetone that was 10-fold the mass of the dried  cannabis  flowers, the individual terpenes were detected at a concentration that was greater than the expected 10-fold dilution (ie. 0.0125% beta-pinene in dried flowers, would have been expected to yield a 0.00125% beta-pinene in the extract in acetone solvent). Thus, it will be appreciated that the example embodiment ‘acetone+CO2 at about −78.5° C.’ extraction system is superior at extracting terpenes relative to the ‘9:1 chloroform:methanol’ system. 
       FIG. 15  show % w/w cannabinoids content in a  cannabis  extract sample designated as 198842-1. Comparing extracted (spent) flowers with the input dried flowers, it can be calculated that 90.54% THCA and 82.88% of THC was extracted from the input dried flowers with an acetone+CO 2 at about −78.5° C.’ extraction. THCA and THC are found in approximately 10-fold diluted quantities as expected in the ‘extract in solvent’ sample and the ratio of THCA:THC (17.38) in the dried flowers is maintained in the Extract in solvent (17.75). This data shows a high yield of cannabinoid extraction with acetone, providing evidence that acetone works efficiently as a solvent for the extraction of non-polar cannabinoids while maintaining the natural ratios of the cannabinoids found in the  cannabis  flower. 
       FIG. 16  shows % w/w terpene content in a  cannabis  extract sample designated as 198553-2. The extract sample in  FIG. 16  was prepared with acetone +CO 2  at about −78.5° C.’. The proportionality of terpenes identified in the dried  cannabis  flowers extract of sample 198553-2 appears to be maintained when extracted with acetone. Although the  cannabis  extract has been diluted with a mass of acetone 10-fold that of the mass of input  cannabis  flowers that subjected to extraction, the % w/w of all terpenes (except for terpinolene) in acetone was greater relative to the ‘dried flowers’, indicating a high yield and high efficiency of terpene extraction. The result of 0.0033% terpineol in the extract in solvent further exemplifies the superior ability of the example embodiment extraction method(s) over the 9:1 chloroform:methanol method to efficiently concentrate terpenes such that the amount of terpineol present in the extraction solvent is above the detectable limit of the analytical device. 
       FIG. 17  shows % w/w cannabinoids content in a  cannabis  extract sample designated as 198553-2. It will be appreciated that 85.30% THCA and 75.32% of the available THC was extracted from the input dried flowers (calculated from a comparison of the cannabinoids in the input dried flowers and the remaining cannabinoids in the extracted flowers). Thus, these data indicate acetone&#39;s high capacity to extract non-polar cannabinoids. The THCA:THC ratio in the dried flower sample (11.53) was maintained without any significant change in the extract in acetone solvent sample (11.91). 
       FIG. 18  shows % w/w terpene content in a  cannabis  extract sample designated as 198842-2. Extract sample in  FIG. 18  was prepared using acetone +CO 2  at about −78.5° C.’. The proportionality of terpenes identified in the dried  cannabis  flowers extract of sample 198842-2 appears to be maintained when extracted with acetone. Although the  cannabis  extract has been diluted with a mass of acetone 10-fold that of the mass of input  cannabis  flowers that subjected to extraction, the % w/w of all terpenes in the solvent was greater than the expected amount from a 10-fold dilution, indicating a high yield and high efficiency of terpene extraction with the ‘acetone+CO 2  at about −78.5° C.’ system compared to the ‘9:1 chloroform:methanol extraction system’. Similar to terpineol results from  FIG. 16 , detectable amounts of terpinolene in the diluted extract in solvent sample exemplify the ability of the acetone extraction to extract and concentrate terpenes more efficiently than the validated extraction protocol using 9:1 chloroform:methanol that was used to prepared all samples identified as ‘dried flowers’. 
       FIG. 19  shows % w/w cannabinoids content in a  cannabis  extract sample designated as 198842-2. As can be seen, 85.95% THCA and 86.11% THC extracted from dried flowers (comparing input dried flowers vs extracted flowers), indicating acetone&#39;s high capacity to extract non-polar cannabinoids. 
       FIG. 20  shows % w/w terpene content in a  cannabis  extract sample designated as 198842-3, which was prepared using acetone+CO 2  at about −78.5° C.’. The proportionality of terpenes identified in the dried  cannabis  flowers extract of sample 198842-3 was substantially be maintained when extracted with acetone. Although the  cannabis  extract has been diluted with a mass of acetone 10-fold that of the mass of input  cannabis  flowers that subjected to extraction, the % w/w of all terpenes in the solvent was greater than the expected amount from a 10-fold dilution, indicating a high yield and high efficiency of terpene extraction. 
       FIG. 21  shows % w/w cannabinoid content in a  cannabis  extract sample designated as 198842-3. As can be seen, 85.36% THCA and 75.36% THC was extracted from dried flowers (comparing input dried flowers vs extracted flowers), indicating acetone&#39;s high capacity to extract non-polar cannabinoids. 
     To the extent necessary to provide descriptive support, it shall be understood that the subject matter and/or text of any appended claims are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. 
     It will be understood by all readers of this written description that the example embodiments described herein may be suitably practiced in the absence of any recited feature, element or step that is, or is not, specifically disclosed herein.