Patent Publication Number: US-2022233191-A1

Title: Prediction of tissue irregularities based on biomarker monitoring

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is related to the following, filed contemporaneously, the contents of each of which are incorporated by reference herein:
         U.S. Patent Application, entitled METHOD OF ADJUSTING A SURGICAL PARAMETER BASED ON BIOMARKER MEASUREMENTS, with attorney docket number END9290USNP1.       

     BACKGROUND 
     Tissue irregularity may lead to complications in a surgical procedure. For example, a failure to account for a thicker-than-normal tissue may lead to complications in a transection step of a surgical procedure. For example, a surgical stapler may compress a thicker-than-normal tissue ineffectively by applying a normal compression force during tissue compression. A sub-optimal compression on the thicker-than-normal tissue may be reached if the surgical stapler waits a normal tissue creep time before firing. A staple line may be poorly formed on the thicker-than-normal tissue if the surgical stapler uses staples with a normal staple height during firing. The complications may include staple-line air leaks in a thoracic surgery or staple-line leaks in a colorectal surgery. For example, a failure to account for stiffer-than-normal tissue or a highly-variable-in-thickness tissue in a dissection, a transection, and/or an anastomosis step of a surgical procedure may lead to similar complications. 
     SUMMARY 
     Systems and techniques are disclosed for predicting a tissue irregularity complication based on biomarker measurements obtained before a surgery and/or during the surgery, and adjusting a surgical parameter of the surgery based on the predicted complication. 
     For example, a computing system may monitor a patient&#39;s biomarkers and predict a potential tissue irregularity complication. The computing system may include a processor configured to obtain pre-surgical and/or in-surgical measurement: data associated with one or more patient biomarkers via one or more sensing systems. The computing system may predict a tissue irregularity complication based on the biomarker measurement data. The patient biomarker(s) used for predicting a tissue irregularity complication may include one or more of the following: tissue perfusion pressure, lactate, oxygen saturation, VO2Max, respiration rate, autonomic tone, sweat rate, heart rate variability, skin conductance, GI motility, edema or hydration state. 
     For example, the computing system may determine a probability of a chronic inflammation response based on the biomarker measurement data on one or more of: tissue perfusion pressure, lactate, oxygen saturation, VO2Max, respiration rate, autonomic tone, sweat rate, heart rate variability, skin conductance, or GI motility. On the condition that the probability of a chronic inflammation response crosses a threshold, the computing system may predict a tissue irregularity complication. For example, the computing system may determine a probability of an irregular water retention level based on measurement data associated with edema and/or hydration state. On the condition that the probability of an irregular water retention level crosses a threshold, the computing system may predict a tissue irregularity complication. 
     Based on the predicted tissue irregularity complication, a control signal associated with a surgical procedure may be generated. For example, the generated control signal may be configured to control a surgical cutting and stapling device to perform prolonging a tissue creep wait time prior to stapling, reducing a clamping speed, reducing a stapler firing speed, and/or increasing a closure compression force. The generated control signal may be configured to control a surgical energy device to perform increasing an energy level, increasing an energy application duration, and/or increasing a threshold for an energy generation associated with a subsequent energy application. The generated control signal may be configured to perform displaying a probability of a tissue irregularity complication on a pre-surgery imaging, displaying a probability of a tissue irregularity complication via an augmented reality device, and/or displaying a probability of a tissue irregularity complication in a surgical procedure plan along with an indication of an adjustment to the surgical procedure plan. 
     This Summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in a simplified form that are further described herein in the Detailed Description. This Summary is not intended to identify key features or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used to limit the scope of the claimed subject matter. Other features are described herein. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1A  is a block diagram of a computer-implemented patient and surgeon monitoring system. 
         FIG. 1B  is a block diagram of an example relationship among sensing systems, biomarkers, and physiologic systems. 
         FIG. 2A  shows an example of a surgeon monitoring system in a surgical operating room. 
         FIG. 2B  shows an example of a patient monitoring system (e.g., a controlled patient monitoring system). 
         FIG. 2C  shows an example of a patient monitoring system (e.g., an uncontrolled patient monitoring system). 
         FIG. 3  illustrates an example surgical hub paired with various systems. 
         FIG. 4  illustrates a surgical data network having a set of communication surgical hubs configured to connect with a set of sensing systems, an environmental sensing system, a set of devices, etc. 
         FIG. 5  illustrates an example computer-implemented interactive surgical system that may be part of a surgeon monitoring system. 
         FIG. 6A  illustrates a surgical hub comprising a plurality of modules coupled to a modular control tower. 
         FIG. 6B  illustrates an example of a controlled patient monitoring system. 
         FIG. 6C  illustrates an example of an uncontrolled patient monitoring system. 
         FIG. 7A  illustrates a logic diagram of a control system of a surgical instrument or a tool. 
         FIG. 7B  shows an exemplary sensing system with a sensor unit and a data processing and communication unit. 
         FIG. 7C  shows an exemplary sensing system with a sensor unit and a data processing and communication unit. 
         FIG. 7D  shows an exemplary sensing system with a sensor unit and a data processing and communication unit. 
         FIG. 8  illustrates an exemplary timeline of an illustrative surgical procedure indicating adjusting operational parameters of a surgical device based on a surgeon biomarker level. 
         FIG. 9  is a block diagram of the computer-implemented interactive surgeon/patient monitoring system. 
         FIG. 10  shows an example surgical system that includes a handle having a controller and a motor, an adapter releasably coupled to the handle, and a loading unit releasably coupled to the adapter. 
         FIGS. 11A-11D  illustrate examples of sensing systems that may be used for monitoring surgeon biomarkers or patient biomarkers. 
         FIG. 12  is a block diagram of a patient monitoring system or a surgeon monitoring system. 
         FIG. 13  is a diagram of an example situationally aware surgical system. 
         FIG. 14  illustrates example planned procedure steps of a colorectal procedure using various surgical devices. 
         FIG. 15  illustrates an example process of predicting a tissue irregularity complication. 
         FIG. 16A-D  illustrates example procedure steps of a lung segmentectomy and example use of patient biomarker measurements. 
         FIG. 17A-E  illustrates example procedure steps of a sigmoid colectomy and example use of patient biomarker measurements. 
         FIG. 18A-E  illustrates example procedure steps of a sleeve gastrectomy and example use of patient biomarker measurements. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       FIG. 1A  is a block diagram of a computer-implemented patient and surgeon monitoring system  20000 . The patient and surgeon monitoring system  20000  may include one or more surgeon monitoring systems  20002  and a one or more patient monitoring systems (e.g., one or more controlled patient monitoring systems  20003  and one or more uncontrolled patient monitoring systems  20004 ). Each surgeon monitoring system  20002  may include a computer-implemented interactive surgical system. Each surgeon monitoring system  20002  may include at least one of the following: a surgical hub  20006  in communication with a cloud computing system  20008 , for example, as described in  FIG. 2A . Each of the patient monitoring systems may include at least one of the following: a surgical hub  20006  or a computing device  20016  in communication with a could computing system  20008 , for example, as further described in  FIG. 2B  and  FIG. 2C . The cloud computing system  20008  may include at least one remote cloud server  20009  and at least one remote cloud storage unit  20010 . Each of the surgeon monitoring systems  20002 , the controlled patient monitoring systems  20003 , or the uncontrolled patient monitoring systems  20004  may include a wearable sensing system  20011 , an environmental sensing system  20015 , a robotic system  20013 , one or more intelligent instruments  20014 , human interface system  20012 , etc. The human interface system is also referred herein as the human interface device. The wearable sensing system  20011  may include one or more surgeon sensing systems, and one or more patient sensing systems. The environmental sensing system  20015  may include one or more devices, for example, used for measuring one or more environmental attributes, for example, as further described in  FIG. 2A . The robotic system  20013  (same as  20034  in  FIG. 2A ) may include a plurality of devices used for performing a surgical procedure, for example, as further described in  FIG. 2A . 
     A surgical hub  20006  may have cooperative interactions with one of more means of displaying the image from the laparoscopic scope and information from one or more other smart devices and one or more sensing systems  20011 . The surgical hub  20006  may interact with one or more sensing systems  20011 , one or more smart devices, and multiple displays. The surgical hub  20006  may be configured to gather measurement data from the one or more sensing systems  20011  and send notifications or control messages to the one or more sensing systems  20011 . The surgical hub  20006  may send and/or receive information including notification information to and/or from the human interface system  20012 . The human interface system  20012  may include one or more human interface devices (HIDs). The surgical hub  20006  may send and/or receive notification information or control information to audio, display and/or control information to various devices that are in communication with the surgical hub. 
       FIG. 1B  is a block diagram of an example relationship among sensing systems  20001 , biomarkers  20005 , and physiologic systems  20007 . The relationship may be employed in the computer-implemented patient and surgeon monitoring system  20000  and in the systems, devices, and methods disclosed herein. For example, the sensing systems  20001  may include the wearable sensing system  20011  (which may include one or more surgeon sensing systems and one or more patient sensing systems) and the environmental sensing system  20015  as discussed in  FIG. 1A . The one or more sensing systems  20001  may measure data relating to various biomarkers  20005 . The one or more sensing systems  20001  may measure the biomarkers  20005  using one or more sensors, for example, photosensors (e.g., photodiodes, photoresistors), mechanical sensors (e.g., motion sensors), acoustic sensors, electrical sensors, electrochemical sensors, thermoelectric sensors, infrared sensors, etc. The one or more sensors may measure the biomarkers  20005  as described herein using one of more of the following sensing technologies: photoplethysmography, electrocardiography, electroencephalography, colorimetry impedimentary, potentiometry, amperometry, etc. 
     The biomarkers  20005  measured by the one or more sensing systems  20001  may include, but are not limited to, sleep, core body temperature, maximal oxygen consumption, physical activity, alcohol consumption, respiration rate, oxygen saturation, blood pressure, blood sugar, heart rate variability, blood potential of hydrogen, hydration state, heart rate, skin conductance, peripheral temperature, tissue perfusion pressure, coughing and sneezing, gastrointestinal motility, gastrointestinal tract imaging, respiratory tract bacteria, edema, mental aspects, sweat, circulating tumor cells, autonomic tone, circadian rhythm, and/or menstrual cycle. 
     The biomarkers  20005  may relate to physiologic systems  20007 , which may include, but are not limited to, behavior and psychology, cardiovascular system, renal system, skin system, nervous system, gastrointestinal system, respiratory system, endocrine system, immune system, tumor, musculoskeletal system, and/or reproductive system. Information from the biomarkers may be determined and/or used by the computer-implemented patient and surgeon monitoring system  20000  for example. The information from the biomarkers may be determined and/or used by the computer-implemented patient and surgeon monitoring system  20000  to improve said systems and/or to improve patient outcomes, for example. 
     The one or more sensing systems  20001 , biomarkers  20005 , and physiological systems  20007  are described in more detail below. 
     A sleep sensing system may measure sleep data, including heart rate, respiration rate, body temperature, movement, and/or brain signals. The sleep sensing system may measure sleep data using a photoplethysmogram (PPG), electrocardiogram (ECG), microphone, thermometer, accelerometer, electroencephalogram (EEG), and/or the like. The sleep sensing system may include a wearable device such as a wristband. 
     Based on the measured sleep data, the sleep sensing system may detect sleep biomarkers, including but not limited to, deep sleep quantifier, REM sleep quantifier, disrupted sleep quantifier, and/or sleep duration. The sleep sensing system may transmit the measured sleep data to a processing unit. The sleep sensing system and/or the processing unit may detect deep sleep when the sensing system senses sleep data, including reduced heart rate, reduced respiration rate, reduced body temperature, and/or reduced movement. The sleep sensing system may generate a sleep quality score based on the detected sleep physiology. 
     In an example, the sleep sensing system may send the sleep quality score to a computing system, such as a surgical hub. In an example, the sleep sensing system may send the detected sleep biomarkers to a computing system, such as a surgical hub. In an example, the sleep sensing system may send the measured sleep data to a computing system, such as a surgical hub. The computing system may derive sleep physiology based on the received measured data and generate one or more sleep biomarkers such as deep sleep quantifiers. The computing system may generate a treatment plan, including a pain management strategy, based on the sleep biomarkers. The surgical hub may detect potential risk factors or conditions, including systemic inflammation and/or reduced immune function, based on the sleep biomarkers. 
     A core body temperature sensing system may measure body temperature data including temperature, emitted frequency spectra, and/or the like. The core body temperature sensing system may measure body temperature data using some combination of thermometers and/or radio telemetry. The core body temperature sensing system may include an ingestible thermometer that measures the temperature of the digestive tract. The ingestible thermometer may wirelessly transmit measured temperature data. The core body temperature sensing system may include a wearable antenna that measures body emission spectra. The core body temperature sensing system may include a wearable patch that measures body temperature data. 
     The core body temperature sensing system may calculate body temperature using the body temperature data. The core body temperature sensing system may transmit the calculated body temperature to a monitoring device. The monitoring device may track the core body temperature data over time and display it to a user. 
     The core body temperature sensing system may process the core body temperature data locally or send the data to a processing unit and/or a computing system. Based on the measured temperature data, the core body temperature sensing system may detect body temperature-related biomarkers, complications and/or contextual information that may include abnormal temperature, characteristic fluctuations, infection, menstrual cycle, climate, physical activity, and/or sleep. 
     For example, the core body temperature sensing system may detect abnormal temperature based on temperature being outside the range of 36.5° C. and 37.5° C. For example, the core body temperature sensing system may detect post-operation infection or sepsis based on certain temperature fluctuations and/or when core body temperature reaches abnormal levels. For example, the core body temperature sensing system may detect physical activities using measured fluctuations in core body temperature. 
     For example, the body temperature sensing system may detect core body temperature data and trigger the sensing system to emit a cooling or heating element to raise or lower the body temperature in line with the measured ambient temperature. 
     In an example, the body temperature sensing system may send the body temperature-related biomarkers to a computing system, such as a surgical hub. In an example, the body temperature sensing system may send the measured body temperature data to the computing system. The computer system may derive the body temperature-related biomarkers based on the received body temperature data. 
     A maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) sensing system may measure VO2 max data, including oxygen uptake, heart rate, and/or movement speed. The VO2 max sensing system may measure VO2 max data during physical activities, including running and/or walking. The VO2 max sensing system may include a wearable device. The VO2 max sensing system may process the VO2 max data locally or transmit the data to a processing unit and/or a computing system. 
     Based on the measured VO2 max data, the sensing system and/or the computing system may derive, detect, and/or calculate biomarkers, including a VO2 max quantifier, VO2 max score, physical activity, and/or physical activity intensity. The VO2 max sensing system may select correct VO2 max data measurements during correct time segments to calculate accurate VO2 max information, Based on the VO2 max information, the sensing system may detect dominating cardio, vascular, and/or respiratory limiting factors. Based on the VO2 max information, risks may be predicted including adverse cardiovascular events in surgery and/or increased risk of in-hospital morbidity. For example, increased risk of in-hospital morbidity may be detected when the calculated VO2 max quantifier falls below a specific threshold, such as 18.2 ml kg−1 min−1. 
     In an example, the VO2 max sensing system may send the VO2 max-related biomarkers to a computing system, such as a surgical hub. In an example, the VO2 max sensing system may send the measured VO2 max data to the computing system. The computer system may derive the VO2 max-related biomarkers based on the received VO2 max data. 
     A physical activity sensing system may measure physical activity data, including heart rate, motion, location, posture, range-of-motion, movement speed, and/or cadence. The physical activity sensing system may measure physical activity data including accelerometer, magnetometer, gyroscope, global positioning system (GPS), PPG, and/or ECG. The physical activity sensing system may include a wearable device. The physical activity wearable device may include, but is not limited to, a watch, wrist band, vest, glove, belt, headband, shoe, and/or garment. The physical activity sensing system may locally process the physical activity data or transmit the data to a processing unit and/or a computing system. 
     Based on the measured physical activity data, the physical activity sensing system may detect physical activity-related biomarkers, including but not limited to exercise activity, physical activity intensity, physical activity frequency, and/or physical activity duration. The physical activity sensing system may generate physical activity summaries based on physical activity information. 
     For example, the physical activity sensing system may send physical activity information to a computing system. For example, the physical activity sensing system may send measured data to a computing system. The computing system may, based on the physical activity information, generate activity summaries, training plans, and/or recovery plans. The computing system may store the physical activity information in user profiles. The computing system may display the physical activity information .graphically. The computing system may select certain physical activity information and display the information together or separately. 
     An alcohol consumption sensing system may measure alcohol consumption data including alcohol and/or sweat. The alcohol consumption sensing system may use a pump to measure perspiration. The pump may use a fuel cell that reacts with ethanol to detect alcohol presence in perspiration. The alcohol consumption sensing system may include a wearable device, for example, a wristband. The alcohol consumption sensing system may use microfluidic applications to measure alcohol and/or sweat. The microfluidic applications may measure alcohol consumption data using sweat stimulation and wicking with commercial ethanol sensors. The alcohol consumption sensing system may include a wearable patch that adheres to skin. The alcohol consumption sensing system may include a breathalyzer. The sensing system may process the alcohol consumption data locally or transmit the data to a processing unit and/or computing system. 
     Based on the measured alcohol consumption data, the sensing system may calculate a blood alcohol concentration. The sensing system may detect alcohol consumption conditions and/or risk factors. The sensing system may detect alcohol consumption-related biomarkers including reduced immune capacity, cardiac insufficiency, and/or arrhythmia. Reduced immune capacity may occur when a patient consumes three or more alcohol units per day. The sensing system may detect risk factors for postoperative complications including infection, cardiopulmonary complication, and/or bleeding episodes. Healthcare providers may use the detected risk factors for predicting or detecting post-operative or post-surgical complications, for example, to affect decisions and precautions taken during post-surgical care. 
     In an example, the alcohol consumption sensing system may send the alcohol consumption-related biomarkers to a computing system, such as a surgical hub. In an example, the alcohol consumption sensing system may send the measured alcohol consumption data to the computing system. The computer system may derive the alcohol consumption-related biomarkers based on the received alcohol consumption data. 
     A respiration sensing system may measure respiration rate data, including inhalation, exhalation, chest cavity movement, and/or airflow. The respiration sensing system may measure respiration rate data mechanically and/or acoustically. The respiration sensing system may measure respiration rate data using a ventilator. The respiration sensing system may measure respiration data mechanically by detecting chest cavity movement. Two or more applied electrodes on a chest may measure the changing distance between the electrodes to detect chest cavity expansion and contraction during a breath. The respiration sensing system may include a wearable skin patch. The respiration sensing system may measure respiration data acoustically using a microphone to record airflow sounds. The respiration sensing system may locally process the respiration data or transmit the data to a processing unit and/or computing system. 
     Based on measured respiration data, the respiration sensing system may generate respiration-related biomarkers including breath frequency, breath pattern, and/or breath depth. Based on the respiratory rate data, the respiration sensing system may generate a respiration quality score. 
     Based on the respiration rate data, the respiration sensing system may detect respiration-related biomarkers including irregular breathing, pain, air leak, collapsed lung, lung tissue and strength, and/or shock. For example, the respiration sensing system may detect irregularities based on changes in breath frequency, breath pattern, and/or breath depth. For example, the respiration sensing system may detect post-operative pain based on short, sharp breaths. For example, the respiration sensing system may detect an air leak based on a volume difference between inspiration and expiration. For example, the respiration sensing system may detect a collapsed lung based on increased breath frequency combined with a constant volume inhalation. For example, the respiration sensing system may detect lung tissue strength and shock including systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) based on an increase in respiratory rate, including more than 2 standard deviations. In an example, the detection described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the respiration sensing system. 
     An oxygen saturation sensing system may measure oxygen saturation data, including light absorption, light transmission, and/or light reflectance. The oxygen saturation sensing system may use pulse oximetry. For example, the oxygen saturation sensing system may use pulse oximetry by measuring the absorption spectra of deoxygenated and oxygenated hemoglobin. The oxygen saturation sensing system may include one or more light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with predetermined wavelengths. The LEDs may impose light on hemoglobin. The oxygen saturation sensing system may measure the amount of imposed light absorbed by the hemoglobin. The oxygen saturation sensing system may measure the amount of transmitted light and/or reflected light from the imposed light wavelengths. The oxygen saturation sensing system may include a wearable device, including an earpiece and/or a watch. The oxygen saturation sensing system may process the measured oxygen saturation data locally or transmit the data. to a processing unit and/or computing system. 
     Based on the oxygen saturation data, the oxygen saturation sensing system may calculate oxygen saturation-related biomarkers including peripheral blood oxygen saturation (SpO2), hemoglobin oxygen concentration, and/or changes in oxygen saturation rates. For example, the oxygen saturation sensing system may calculate SpO2 using the ratio of measured light absorbances of each imposed light wavelength. 
     Based on the oxygen saturation data, the oxygen saturation sensing system may predict oxygen saturation-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including cardiothoracic performance, delirium, collapsed lung, and/or recovery rates. For example, the oxygen saturation sensing system may detect post-operation delirium when the sensing system measures pre-operation SpO2 values below 59.5%. For example, an oxygen saturation sensing system may help monitor post-operation patient recovery. Low SpO2 may reduce the repair capacity of tissues because low oxygen may reduce the amount of energy a cell can produce. For example, the oxygen saturation sensing system may detect a collapsed lung based on low post-operation oxygen saturation. In an example, the detection described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the oxygen saturation sensing system. 
     A blood pressure sensing system may measure blood pressure data including blood vessel diameter, tissue volume, and/or pulse transit time. The blood pressure sensing system may measure blood pressure data using oscillometric measurements, ultrasound patches. photoplethysmography, and/or arterial tonometry. The blood pressure sensing system using photoplethysmography may include a photodetector to sense light scattered by imposed light from an optical emitter. The blood pressure sensing system using arterial tonometry may use arterial wall applanation. The blood pressure sensing system may include an inflatable cuff, wristband, watch and/or ultrasound patch. 
     Based on the measured blood pressure data, a blood pressure sensing system may quantify blood pressure-related biomarkers including systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and/or pulse transit time. The blood pressure sensing system may use the blood pressure-related biomarkers to detect blood pressure-related conditions such as abnormal blood pressure. The blood pressure sensing system may detect abnormal blood pressure when the measured systolic and diastolic blood pressures fall outside the range of 90/60 to 120-90 (systolic/diastolic). For example, the blood pressure sensing system may detect post-operation septic or hypovolemic shock based on measured low blood pressure. For example, the blood pressure sensing system may detect a risk of edema based on detected high blood pressure. The blood pressure sensing system may predict the required seal strength of a harmonic seal based on measured blood pressure data. Higher blood pressure may require a stronger seal to overcome bursting. The blood pressure sensing system may display blood pressure information locally or transmit the data to a system. The sensing system may display blood pressure information graphically over a period of time. 
     A blood pressure sensing system may process the blood pressure data locally or transmit the data to a processing unit and/or a computing system. In an example, the detection, prediction and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the blood pressure sensing system. 
     A blood sugar sensing system may measure blood sugar data including blood glucose level and/or tissue glucose level. The blood sugar sensing system may measure blood sugar data non-invasively. The blood sugar sensing system may use an earlobe clip. The blood sugar sensing system may display the blood sugar data. 
     Based on tale measured blood sugar data, the blood sugar sensing system may infer blood sugar irregularity. Blood sugar irregularity may include blood sugar values falling outside a certain threshold of normally occurring values. A normal blood sugar value may include the range between 70 and 120 mg/dL while fasting. A normal blood sugar value may include the range between 90 and 160 mg/dL while not-fasting. 
     For example, the blood sugar sensing system may detect a low fasting blood sugar level when blood sugar values fall below 50 mg/dL. For example, the blood sugar sensing system may detect a high fasting blood sugar level when blood sugar values exceed 315 mg/dL. Based on the measured blood sugar levels, the blood sugar sensing system may, detect blood sugar-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including diabetes-associated peripheral arterial disease, stress, agitation, reduced blood flow, risk of infection, and/or reduced recovery times. 
     The blood sugar sensing system may process blood sugar data locally or transmit the data to a processing unit and/or computing system. In an example, the detection, prediction and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the blood sugar sensing system. 
     A heart rate variability (HRV) sensing system may measure HRV data including heartbeats and/or duration between consecutive heartbeats. The HRV sensing system may measure HRV data electrically or optically. The HRV sensing system may measure heart rate variability data electrically using ECG traces. The HRV sensing system may use ECG traces to measure the time period variation between R peaks in a QRS complex. An HRV sensing system may measure heart rate van ability optically using PPG traces. The HRV sensing system may use PPG traces to measure the time period variation of inter-beat intervals. The HRV sensing system may measure HRV data over a set time interval. The HRV sensing system may include a wearable device, including a ring, watch, wristband, and/or patch. 
     Based on the HRV data, an HRV sensing system may detect HRV-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including cardiovascular health, changes in HRV, menstrual cycle, meal monitoring, anxiety levels, and/or physical activity. For example, an HRV sensing system may detect: high cardiovascular health based on high HRV. For example, an HRV sensing system may predict pre-operative stress, and use pre-operative stress to predict post-operative pant. example, an HRV sensing system may indicate post-operative infection or sepsis based on a decrease in 
     The HRV sensing system may locally process HRV data or transmit the data to a processing unit and/or a computing system. In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the HRV sensing system. 
     A potential of hydrogen (pH) sensing system may measure pH data including blood pH and/or sweat H. The pH sensing system may measure pH data invasively and/or non-invasively. The pH sensing system may measure pH data non-invasively using a colorimetric approach and pH sensitive dyes in a microfluidic circuit. in a colorimetric approach, pH sensitive dyes may change color in response to sweat pH. The pH sensing system may measure pH using optical spectroscopy to match color change in pH sensitive dyes to a pH value. The pH sensing system may include a wearable patch. The pH sensing system may measure pH data during physical activity. 
     Based on the measured pH data, the pH sensing system may detect pH-related biomarkers, including normal blood pH, abnormal blood pH, and/or acidic blood pH. The pH sensing system may detect pH-related biomarkers, complications, and contextual information by comparing measured pH data to a standard pH scale. A standard pH scale may identify a healthy pH range to include values between 7.35 and 7.45. 
     The pH sensing system may use the pH-related biomarkers to indicate pH conditions including post-operative internal bleeding, acidosis, sepsis, lung collapse, and/or hemorrhage. For example, the pH sensing system may predict post-operative internal bleeding based on pre-operation acidic blood pH. Acidic blood may reduce blood clotting capacity by inhibiting thrombin generation. For example, the pH sensing system may predict sepsis and/or hemorrhage based on acidic pH. Lactic acidosis may cause acidic pH. The pH sensing system may continuously monitor blood pH data as acidosis may only occur during exercise. 
     The pH sensing system may locally process pH data or transmit pH data to a processing unit and/or computing system. In an example, the detection, prediction and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the pH sensing system. 
     A hydration state sensing system may measure hydration data including water light absorption, water light reflection, and/or sweat levels. The hydration state sensing system may use optical spectroscopy or sweat-based colorimetry. The hydration state sensing system may use optical spectroscopy by imposing emitted light onto skin and measuring the reflected light. Optical spectroscopy may measure water content by measuring amplitudes of the reflected light from certain wavelengths, including 1720 nm, 1750 nm, and/or 1770 nm. The hydration state sensing system may include a wearable device that may impose light onto skin. The wearable device may include a watch. The hydration state sensing system may use sweat based colorimetry to measure sweat levels. Sweat-based colorimetry may be processed in conjunction with user activity data and/or user water intake data. 
     Based on the hydration data, the hydration state sensing system may detect water content. Based on the water content, a hydration state sensing system may identify hydration related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including dehydration, risk of kidney injury, reduced blood flow, risk of hypovolemic shock during or after surgery, and/or decreased blood volume. 
     For example, the hydration state sensing system, based on identified hydration, may detect health risks. Dehydration may negatively impact overall health. For example, the hydration state sensing system may predict risk of post-operation acute kidney injury when it detects reduced blood flow resulting from low hydration levels. For example, the hydration state sensing system may calculate the risk of hypovolemic shock during or after surgery when the sensing system detects dehydration or decreased blood volume. The hydration state sensing system may use the hydration level information to provide context for other received biomarker data, which may include heart rate. The hydration state sensing system may measure hydration state data continuously. Continuous measurement may consider various factors, including exercise, fluid intake, and/or temperature which day influence the hydration state data. 
     The hydration state sensing system may locally process hydration data or transmit the data to a processing unit and/or computing system. In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the hydration state sensing system. 
     A heart rate sensing system may measure heart rate data including heart chamber expansion, heart chamber contraction, and/or reflected light. The heart rate sensing system may use ECG and/or PPG to measure heart rate data. For example, the heart rate sensing system using ECG may include a radio transmitter, receiver, and one or more electrodes. The radio transmitter and receiver may record voltages across electrodes positioned on the skin resulting from expansion and contraction of heart chambers. The heart rate sensing system may calculate heart rate using measured voltage. For example, the heart rate sensing system using PPG may impose green light on skin and record the reflected light in a photodetector. The heart rate sensing system may calculate heart rate using the measured light absorbed by the blood over a period of time. The heart rate sensing system may include a watch, a wearable elastic band, a skin patch, a bracelet, garments, a wrist strap, an earphone, and/or a headband. For example, the heart rate sensing system may include a wearable chest patch. The wearable chest patch may measure heart rate data and other vital signs or critical data including respiratory rate, skin temperature, body posture, fall detection, single-lead ECG, R-R intervals, and step counts. The wearable chest patch may locally process heart rate data or transmit the data to a processing unit. The processing unit may include a display. 
     Based on the measured heart rate data, the heart rate sensing system may calculate heart rate-related biomarkers including heart rate, heart rate variability, and/or average heart rate. Based on the heart rate data, the heart rate sensing system may detect biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including stress, pain, infection, and/or sepsis. The heart rate sensing system may detect heart rate conditions when heart rate exceeds a normal threshold. A nominal threshold for heartrate may include the range of 60 to 100 heartbeats per minute. The heart rate sensing system may diagnose post-operation infection, sepsis, or hypovolemic shock based on increased heart rate, including heart rate in excess of 90 beats per minute. 
     The heart rate sensing system may process heart rate data locally or transmit the data to a processing unit and/or computing system. In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the heart rate sensing system. A heart gate sensing system may transmit the heart rate information to a computing system, such as a surgical hub. The computing system may collect and display cardiovascular parameter information including heart rate, respiration, temperature, blood pressure, arrhythmia, and/or atrial fibrillation. Based on the cardiovascular parameter information, the computing system may generate a cardiovascular health score. 
     A skin conductance sensing system may measure skin conductance data including electrical conductivity. The skin conductance sensing system may include one or more electrodes. The skin conductance sensing system may measure electrical conductivity by applying a voltage across the electrodes. The electrodes may include silver or silver chloride. The skin conductance sensing system may be placed on one or more fingers. For example, the skin conductance sensing system may include a wearable device. The wearable device may include one or more sensors. The wearable device may attach to one or more fingers. Skin conductance data may vary based on sweat levels. 
     The skin conductance sensing system may locally process skin conductance data, or transmit the data to a computing system. Based on the skin conductance data, a skin conductance sensing system may calculate skin conductance-related biomarkers including sympathetic activity levels. For example, a skin conductance sensing system may detect high sympathetic activity levels based on high skin conductance. 
     A peripheral temperature sensing system may measure peripheral temperature data including extremity temperature. The peripheral temperature sensing system may include a thermistor, thermoelectric effect, or infrared thermometer to measure peripheral temperature data. For example, the peripheral temperature sensing system using a thermistor; may measure the resistance of the thermistor. The resistance may vary as a function of temperature. For example, the peripheral temperature sensing system using the thermoelectric effect may measure an output voltage. The output voltage may increase as a function of temperature. For example, the peripheral temperature sensing system using an infrared thermometer may measure the intensity of radiation emitted from a body&#39;s blackbody radiation. The intensity of radiation may increase as a function of temperature. 
     Based on peripheral temperature data, the peripheral temperature sensing system may determine peripheral temperature-related biomarkers including basal body temperature, extremity skin temperature, and/or patterns in peripheral temperature. Based on the peripheral temperature data, the peripheral temperature sensing system may detect conditions including diabetes. 
     The peripheral temperature sensing system may locally process peripheral temperature data and/or biomarkers or transmit the data to a processing unit. For example, the peripheral temperature sensing system may send peripheral temperature data and/or biomarkers to a computing system, such as a surgical hub. The computing system may analyze, the peripheral temperature information with other biomarkers, including core body temperature, sleep, and menstrual cycle. For example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the peripheral temperature sensing system. 
     A tissue perfusion pressure sensing system may measure tissue perfusion pressure data including skin perfusion pressure. The tissue perfusion sensing system may use optical methods to measure tissue perfusion pressure data. For example, the tissue perfusion sensing system may illuminate skin and measure the light transmitted and reflected to detect changes in blood flow. The tissue perfusion sensing system may apply occlusion. For example, the tissue perfusion sensing system may determine skin perfusion pressure based on the measured pressure used to restore blood flow after occlusion. The tissue perfusion sensing system may measure the pressure to restore blood flow after occlusion using a strain gauge or laser doppler flowmetry. The measured change in frequency of light caused by movement of blood may directly correlate with the number and velocity of red blood cells, which the tissue perfusion pressure sensing system may use to calculate pressure. The tissue perfusion pressure sensing system may monitor tissue flaps during surgery to measure tissue perfusion pressure data. 
     Based on the measured tissue perfusion pressure data, the tissue perfusion pressure sensing system may detect tissue perfusion pressure-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including hypovolemia, internal bleeding, and/or tissue mechanical properties. For example, the tissue perfusion pressure sensing system may detect hypovolemia and/or internal bleeding based on a drop in perfusion pressure. Based on the measured tissue perfusion pressure data, the tissue perfusion pressure sensing system may inform surgical tool parameters and/or medical procedures. For example, the tissue perfusion pressure sensing system may determine tissue mechanical properties using the tissue perfusion pressure data. Based on the determined mechanical properties, the sensing system may generate stapling procedure and/or stapling tool parameter adjustment(s). Based on the determined mechanical properties, the sensing system may inform dissecting procedures, Based on the measured tissue perfusion pressure data, the tissue perfusion pressure sensing system may generate a score for overall adequacy of perfusion. 
     The tissue perfusion pressure sensing system may locally process tissue perfusion pressure data or transmit the data to a processing unit and/or computing system. In an example, the detection, prediction, determination, and/or generation described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the tissue perfusion pressure sensing system. 
     A coughing and sneezing sensing system may measure coughing and sneezing data including coughing, sneezing, movement, and sound. The coughing and sneezing sensing system may track hand or body movement that may result from a user coveting her mouth while coughing or sneezing. The sensing system may include an accelerometer and/or a microphone. The sensing system may include a wearable device. The wearable device may include a watch. 
     Based on the coughing and sneezing data, the sensing system may detect coughing and sneezing-related biomarkers, including but not limited to, coughing frequency, sneezing frequency, coughing severity, and/or sneezing severity. The sensing system may establish a coughing and sneezing baseline using the coughing and sneezing information. The coughing and sneezing sensing system may locally process coughing and sneezing data or transmit the data to a computing system. 
     Based on the coughing and sneezing data, the sensing system may detect coughing and sneezing-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including respiratory tract infection, infection, collapsed lung, pulmonary edema, gastroesophaegeal reflux disease, allergic rhinitis, and/or systemic inflammation. For example, the coughing and sneezing sensing system may indicate gastroesophageal reflux disease when the sensing system measures chronic coughing. Chronic coughing may lead to inflammation of the lower esophagus. Lower esophagus inflammation may affect the properties of stomach tissue for sleeve gastrectomy. For example, the coughing and sneezing sensing system may detect allergic rhinitis based on sneezing. Sneezing may link to systemic inflammation. Systemic inflammation may affect the mechanical properties of the lungs and/or other tissues. In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the coughing and sneezing sensing system. 
     A gastrointestinal (GI) motility sensing system may measure GI motility data including pH, temperature, pressure, and/or stomach contractions. The GI motility sensing system may use electrogastrography, electrogastroenterography, stethoscopes, and/or ultrasounds. The GI motility sensing system may include a non-digestible capsule. For example, the ingestible sensing system may adhere to the stomach lining. The ingestible sensing system may measure contractions using a piezoelectric device which generates a voltage when deformed. 
     Based on the GI data, the sensing system may calculate GI motility-related biomarkers including gastric, small bowel, and/or colonic transit times. Based on the gastrointestinal motility information, the sensing system may detect GI motility-related conditions including ileus. The GI motility sensing system may detect ileus based on a reduction in small bowel motility. The GI motility sensing system may notify healthcare professionals when it detects GI motility conditions. The GI motility sensing system may locally process GI motility data or transmit the data to a processing unit. In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the GI motility sensing system. 
     A GI tract imaging/sensing system may collect images of a patient&#39;s colon. The GI tract imaging/sensing system may include an ingestible wireless camera and a receiver. The GI tract imaging/sensing system may include one or more white LEDs, a battery, radio transmitter, and antenna. The ingestible camera, may include a pill. The ingestible camera may travel through the digestive tract and take pictures of the colon. The ingestible camera may take pictures up to 35 frames per second during motion. The ingestible camera may transmit the pictures to a receiver. The receiver may include a wearable device. The GI tract imaging/sensing system may process the images locally or transmit them to a processing unit. Doctors may look at the raw images to make a diagnosis. 
     Based on the GI tract images, the GI tract imaging sensing system may identify GI tract-related biomarkers including stomach tissue mechanical properties or colonic tissue mechanical properties. Based on the collected images, the GI tract imaging sensing system may detect GI tract-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including mucosal inflammation, Crohn&#39;s disease, anastomotic leak, esophagus inflammation, and/or stomach inflammation. The GI tract imaging/sensing system may replicate a physician diagnosis using image analysis software. The GI tract imaging/sensing system may locally process images or transmit the data to a processing unit. In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the GI tract imaging/sensing system. 
     A respiratory tract bacteria sensing system may measure bacteria data including foreign DNA or bacteria. The respiratory tract bacteria sensing system may use a radio frequency identification (RFID) tag and/or electronic nose (e-nose). The sensing system using an RFID tag may include one or more gold electrodes, graphene sensors, and/or layers of peptides. The RFID tag may bind to bacteria. When bacteria bind to the RFID tag, the graphene sensor may detect a change in signal-to-signal presence of bacteria. The RFID tag may include an implant. The implant may adhere to a tooth. The implant may transmit bacteria data. The sensing system may use a portable e-nose to measure bacteria data. 
     Based on measured bacteria data, the respiratory tract bacteria sensing system may detect bacteria-related biomarkers including bacteria levels. Based on the bacteria data, the respiratory tract bacteria sensing system may generate an oral health score. Based on the detected bacteria data, the respiratory tract bacteria sensing system may identify bacteria-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information, including pneumonia, lung infection, and/or lung inflammation. The respiratory tract bacteria sensing system may locally process bacteria information or transmit the data to a processing unit. In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the respiratory tract bacteria sensing system. 
     An edema sensing system may measure edema data including lower leg circumference, leg volume, and/or leg water content level. The edema sensing system may include a force sensitive resistor, strain gauge, accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetometer, and/or ultrasound. The edema sensing system may include a wearable device. For example, the edema sensing system may include socks, stockings, and/or ankle bands. 
     Based on the measured edema data, the edema sensing system may detect edema-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information, including inflammation, rate of change in inflammation, poor healing, infection, leak, colorectal anastomotic leak, and/or water build-up. 
     For example, the edema sensing system may detect a risk of colorectal anastomotic leak based on fluid build-up. Based on the detected edema physiological conditions, the edema sensing system may generate a score for healing quality. For example, the edema sensing system may generate the healing quality score by comparing edema information to a certain threshold lower leg circumference. Based on the detected edema information, the edema sensing system may generate edema tool parameters including responsiveness to stapler compression. The edema sensing system may provide context fir measured edema data, by using measurements from the accelerometer, gyroscope, and/or magnetometer. For example, the edema sensing system may detect whether the user is sitting, standing, or lying down. 
     The edema sensing system may process measured edema data locally or transmit the edema data to a processing unit. In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the edema sensing system. 
     A mental aspect sensing system may measure mental aspect data, including heart rate, heart rate variability, brain activity, skin conductance, skin temperature, galvanic skin response, movement, and/or sweat rate. The mental aspect sensing system may measure mental aspect data over a set duration to detect changes in mental aspect data. The mental aspect sensing system may include a wearable device. The wearable device may include a wristband. 
     Based on the mental aspect data, the sensing system may detect mental aspect-related biomarkers, including emotional patterns, positivity levels, and/or optimism levels. Based on the detected mental aspect information, the mental aspect sensing system may identify mental aspect-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including cognitive impairment, stress, anxiety, and/or pain. Based on the mental aspect information, the mental aspect sensing system may generate mental aspect scores, including a positivity score, optimism score, confusion or delirium score, mental acuity score, stress score, anxiety score, depression score, and/or pain score. 
     Mental aspect data, related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or mental aspect scores may be used to determine treatment courses, including pain relief therapies. For example, post-operative pain may be predicted when it detects pre-operative anxiety and/or depression. For example, based on detected positivity and optimism levels, the mental aspect sensing system may determine mood quality and mental state. Based on mood quality and mental state, the mental aspect sensing system may indicate additional care procedures that would benefit a patient, including paint treatments and/or psychological assistance. For example, based on detected cognitive impairment, confusion, and/or mental acuity, the mental aspects sensing system may indicate conditions including delirium, encephalopathy, and/or sepsis. Delirium may be hyperactive or hypoactive. For example, based on detected stress and anxiety, the mental aspect sensing system may indicate conditions including hospital anxiety and/or depression. Based on detected hospital anxiety and/or depression, the mental aspect sensing system may generate a treatment plan, including pain relief therapy and/or pre-operative support. 
     In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the mental aspect sensing system. The mental aspect sensing system may process mental aspect data locally or transmit the data to a processing unit. 
     A sweat sensing system may measure sweat data including sweat, sweat rate, cortisol, adrenaline, and/or lactate. The sweat sensing system may measure sweat data using microfluidic capture, saliva testing, nanoporous electrode systems, e-noses, reverse iontophoresis, blood tests, amperometric thin film biosensors, textile organic electrochemical transistor devices, and/or electrochemical biosensors. The sensing system may measure sweat data with microfluidic capture using a colorimetric or impedimetric method. The microfluidic capture may include a flexible patch placed in contact with skin. The sweat sensing system may measure cortisol using saliva tests. The saliva tests may use electrochemical methods and/or molecularly selective organic electrochemical transistor devices. The sweat sensing system may measure ion build-up that bind to cortisol in sweat to calculate cortisol levels. The sweat sensing system may use enzyme reactions to measure lactate. Lactate may be measured using lactate oxidase and/or lactate dehydrogenase methods. 
     Based on the measured sweat data, the sweat sensing system or processing unit may detect sweat-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including cortisol levels, adrenaline levels, and/or lactate levels. Based on the detected sweat data and/or related biomarkers, the sweat sensing system may indicate sweat physiological conditions including sympathetic nervous system activity, psychological stress, cellular immunity, circadian rhythm, blood pressure, tissue oxygenation, and/or post-operation pain. For example, based on sweat rate data, the sweat sensing system may detect psychological stress. Based on the detected psychological stress, the sweat sensing system may indicate heightened sympathetic activity. Heightened sympathetic activity may indicate post-operation pain. 
     Based on the detected sweat information, the sweat sensing system may detect sweat-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including post-operation infection, metastasis, chronic elevation, ventricular failure, sepsis, hemorrhage, hyperlactemia, and/or septic shock. For example, the sensing system may detect septic shock when serum lactate concentration exceeds a certain level, such as 2 mmol/L. For example, based on detected patterns of adrenaline surges, the sweat sensing system may indicate a risk of heart attack and/or stroke. For example, surgical tool parameter adjustments may be determined based on detected adrenaline levels. The surgical tool parameter adjustments may include settings for surgical sealing tools. For example, the sweat sensing system may predict infection risk and/or metastasis based on detected cortisol levels. The sweat sensing system may notify healthcare professionals about the condition. 
     In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the sweat sensing system. The sweat sensing system may locally process sweat data or transmit the sweat data to a processing unit. 
     A lactate sensing system may measure lactate level using electrochemical biosensors. The electrochemical biosensors may detect lactate oxidase and/or lactate dehydrogenase in various bodily fluids, including sweat. Based on the measured lactate level data, the lactate sensing system or processing unit may detect lactate-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including tissue oxygenation, ventricular failure, sepsis, hemorrhage, hyperlactemia, and/or septic shock. For example, the lactate sensing system may detect septic shock when serum lactate concentration exceeds a certain level, such as 2 mmol/L. 
     In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the lactate sensing system. The lactate sensing system may locally process lactate level data or transmit the lactate level data to a processing unit. 
     A sweat rate system may measure sweat rate data with micro fluidic capture using a colorimetric or impedimetric method. The microfluidic capture may include a flexible patch placed in contact with skin. Based on the measured sweat rate data, the sweat rate sensing system or processing unit may detect sweat rate-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including sympathetic nervous system activity, psychological stress, post-operation infection and/or post-operation pain. For example, the sweat rate sensing system may detect psychological stress. Based on the detected psychological stress, the sweat rate sensing system may indicate heightened sympathetic activity. Heightened sympathetic activity may indicate post-operation pain. 
     In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the sweat rate sensing system. The sweat rate sensing system may locally process sweat rate data or transmit the sweat rate data to a processing unit. 
     A circulating tumor cell sensing system may detect circulating tumor cells. The circulating tumor cell sensing system may detect circulating tumor cells using an imaging agent. The imaging agent may use microbubbles attached with antibodies which target circulating tumor cells. The imaging agent may be injected into the bloodstream. The imaging agent may attach to circulating tumor cells. The circulating tumor cell sensing system may include an ultrasonic transmitter and receiver. The ultrasonic transmitter and receiver may detect the imaging agent attached to circulating tumor cells. The circulating tumor cell sensing system may receive circulating tumor cell data. 
     Based on the detected circulating tumor cells data, the circulating tumor cell sensing system may calculate metastatic risk. The presence of circulating cancerous cells may indicate metastatic risk. Circulating cancerous cells per milliliter of blood exceeding a threshold amount may indicate a metastatic risk. Cancerous cells may circulate the bloodstream when tumors metastasize. Based on the calculated metastatic risk, the circulating tumor cell sensing system may generate a surgical risk score. Based on the generated surgical risk score, the circulating tumor cell sensing system may indicate surgery viability and/or suggested surgical precautions. 
     In an example, the detection, prediction and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the circulating tumor cells sensing system. The circulating tumor cell sensing system may process the circulating tumor cell data locally or transmit the circulating tumor cells data to a processing unit. 
     An autonomic tone sensing system may measure autonomic tone data including skin conductance, heart rate variability, activity, and/or peripheral body temperature. The autonomic tone sensing system may include one or more electrodes, PPG trace, ECG trace, accelerometer, GPS, and/or thermometer. The autonomic tone sensing system may include a wearable device that may include a wristband and/or finger band. 
     Based on the autonomic tone data, the autonomic tone sensing system may detect autonomic tone-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information, including sympathetic nervous system activity level and/or parasympathetic nervous system activity level. The autonomic tone may describe the basal balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. Based on the measured autonomic tone data, the autonomic tone sensing system may indicate risk for post-operative conditions including inflammation and/or infection. High sympathetic activity may associate with increase in inflammatory mediators, suppressed immune function, postoperative ileus, increased heart rate, increased skin conductance, increased sweat rate, and/or anxiety. 
     In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the autonomic tone sensing system. The autonomic, tone sensing system may process the autonomic, tone data locally or transmit the data to a processing unit. 
     A circadian rhythm sensing system may measure circadian rhythm data including light exposure, heart rate, core body temperature, cortisol levels, activity, and/or sleep. Based on the circadian rhythm data the circadian rhythm sensing system may detect circadian rhythm-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information including sleep cycle, wake cycle, circadian patterns, disruption in circadian rhythm, and/or hormonal activity. 
     For example, based on the measured circadian rhythm data, the circadian rhythm sensing system may calculate the start and end of the circadian cycle. The circadian rhythm sensing system may indicate the beginning of the circadian day based on measured cortisol. Cortisol levels may peak at the start of a circadian day. The circadian rhythm sensing system may indicate the end of the circadian day based on measured heart rate and/or core body temperature. Heart rate and/or core body temperature may drop at the end of a circadian day. Based on the circadian rhythm-related biomarkers, the sensing system or processing unit may detect conditions including risk of infection and/or pain. For example, disrupted circadian rhythm may indicate pain and discomfort. 
     In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the circadian rhythm sensing system. The circadian rhythm sensing system may process the circadian rhythm data locally or transmit the data to a processing unit. 
     A menstrual cycle sensing system may measure menstrual cycle data including heart rate, heart rate variability, respiration rate, body temperature, and/or skin perfusion. Based on the menstrual cycle data, the menstrual cycle unit may indicate menstrual cycle-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information, including menstrual cycle phase. For example, the menstrual cycle sensing system may detect the periovulatory phase in the menstrual cycle based on measured heart rate variability. Changes in heart rate variability may indicate the periovulatory phase. For example, the menstrual cycle sensing system may detect the luteal phase in the menstrual cycle based on measured wrist skin temperature and/or skin perfusion. increased wrist skin temperature may indicate the luteal phase. Changes in skin perfusion may indicate the luteal phase. For example, the menstrual cycle sensing system may detect the ovulatory phase based on measured respiration rate. Low respiration rate may indicate the ovulatory phase. 
     Based on menstrual cycle-related biomarkers, the menstrual cycle sensing system may determine conditions including hormonal changes, surgical bleeding, scarring, bleeding risk, and/or sensitivity levels. For example, the menstrual cycle phase may affect surgical bleeding in rhinoplasty. For example, the menstrual cycle phase may affect healing and scarfing in breast surgery. For example, bleeding risk may decrease during the periovulatory phase in the menstrual cycle. 
     In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the menstrual cycle sensing system. The menstrual cycle sensing system may locally process menstrual cycle data or transmit the data to a processing unit. 
     An environmental sensing system may measure environmental data including environmental temperature, humidity, mycotoxin spore count, and airborne chemical data. The environmental sensing system may include a digital thermometer, air sampling, and/or chemical sensors. The sensing system may include a wearable device. The environmental sensing system may use a digital thermometer to measure environmental temperature and/or humidity. The digital thermometer may include a metal strip with a determined resistance. The resistance of the metal strip may vary with environmental temperature. The digital thermometer may apply the varied resistance to a calibration curve to determine temperature. The digital thermometer may include a wet bulb and a dry bulb. The wet bulb and dry bulb may determine a difference in temperature, which then may be used to calculate humidity. 
     The environmental sensing system may use air sampling to measure mycotoxin spore count. The environmental sensing system may include a sampling plate with adhesive media connected to a pump. The pump may draw air over the plate over set time at a specific flow rate. The set time may last up to 10 minutes. The environmental sensing system may analyze the sample using a microscope to count the number of spores. The environmental sensing system may use different air sampling techniques including high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and/or immunoassays and nanobodies. 
     The environmental sensing system may include chemical sensors to measure airborne chemical data. Airborne chemical data may include different identified airborne chemicals, including nicotine and/or formaldehyde. The chemical sensors may include an active layer and a transducer layer. The active layer may allow chemicals to diffuse into a matrix and alter some physical or chemical property. The changing physical property may include refractive index and/or H-bond formation. The transducer layer may convert the physical and/or chemical variation into a measurable signal, including an optical or electrical signal. The environmental sensing system may include a handheld instrument. The handheld instrument may detect and identify complex chemical mixtures that constitute aromas, odors, fragrances, formulations, spills, and/or leaks. The handheld instrument may include an array of nanocomposite sensors. The handheld instrument may detect and identify substances based on chemical profile. 
     Based on the environmental data, the sensing system may determine environmental information including climate, mycotoxin spore count, mycotoxin identification, airborne chemical identification, airborne chemical levels, and/or inflammatory chemical inhalation. For example, the environmental sensing system may approximate the mycotoxin spore count in the air based on the measured spore count from a collected sample. The sensing system may identify the mycotoxin spores which may include molds, pollens, insect parts, skin cell fragments, fibers, and/or inorganic particulate. For example, the sensing system may detect inflammatory chemical inhalation, including cigarette smoke. The sensing system may detect second-hand or third-hand smoke. 
     Based on the environmental information, the sensing system may generate environmental aspects conditions including inflammation, reduced lung function, airway hyper-reactivity, fibrosis, and/or reduce immune functions. For example, the environmental aspects sensing system may detect inflammation and fibrosis based on the measured environmental aspects information. The sensing system may generate instructions for a surgical tool, including a staple and sealing tool used in lung segmentectomy, based on the inflammation and/or fibrosis, inflammation and fibrosis may affect the surgical tool usage. For example, cigarette smoke may cause higher pain scores in various surgeries. 
     The environmental sensing system may generate an air quality score based on the measured mycotoxins and/or airborne chemicals. For example, the environmental sensing system may notify about hazardous air quality if it detects a poor air quality score. The environmental sensing system may send a notification when the generated air quality score falls below a certain threshold. The threshold may include exposure exceeding 105 spores of mycotoxins per cubic meter. The environmental sensing system may display a readout of the environment condition exposure over time. 
     The environmental sensing system may locally process environmental data or transmit the data to a processing unit. In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data generated by the environmental sensing system. 
     A light exposure sensing system may measure light exposure data. The light exposure sensing system may include one or more photodiode light sensors. For example, the light exposure sensing system using photodiode light sensors may include a semiconductor device in which the device current may vary as a function of light intensity. Incident photons may create electron-hole pairs that flow across the semiconductor junction, which may create current. The rate of electron-hole pair generation may increase as a function of the intensity of the incident light. The light exposure sensing system may include one or more photoresistor light sensors. For example, the light exposure sensing system using photoresistor light sensors may include a light-dependent resistor in which the resistance decreases as a function of light intensity. The photoresistor light sensor may include passive devices without a PN-junction. The photoresistor light sensors may be less sensitive than photodiode light sensors. The light exposure sensing system may include a wearable, including a necklace and/or clip-on button. 
     Based on the measured light exposure data, the light exposure sensing system may detect light exposure information including exposure duration, exposure intensity, and/or light type. For example, the sensing system may determine whether light exposure consists of natural light or artificial light. Based on the detected light exposure information, the light exposure sensing system may detect light exposure-related biomarker(s) including circadian rhythm. Light exposure may entrain the circadian cycle. 
     The light exposure sensing system may locally process the light exposure data or transmit the data to a processing unit. In an example, the detection, prediction, and/or determination described herein may be performed by a computing system based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the light exposure sensing system. 
     The various sensing systems described herein may measure data, derive related biomarkers, and send the biomarkers to a computing system, such as a surgical hub as described herein with reference to  FIGS. 1-12 . The various sensing systems described herein may send the measured data to the computing system. The computing system may derive the related biomarkers based on the received measurement data. 
     The biomarker sensing systems may include a wearable device. In an example, the biomarker sensing system may include eyeglasses. The eyeglasses may include a nose pad sensor. The eyeglasses may measure biomarkers, including lactate, glucose, and/or the like. In an example, the biomarker sensing system may include a mouthguard. The mouthguard may include a sensor to measure biomarkers including uric acid and/or the like, In an example, the biomarker sensing system may include a contact lens. The contact lens may include a sensor to measure biomarkers including glucose and/or the like. In an example, the biomarker sensing system may include a tooth sensor. The tooth sensor may be graphene-based. The tooth sensor may measure biomarkers including bacteria and/or the like, in an example, the biomarker sensing system may include a patch. The patch may be wearable on the chest skin or arm skin. For example, the patch may include a chem-phys hybrid sensor. The chem-phys hybrid sensor may measure biomarkers including lactate, ECG, and/or the like. For example, the patch may include nanomaterials. The nanomaterials patch may measure biomarkers including glucose and/or the like. For example, the patch may include an iontophoretic biosensor. The iontophoretic biosensor may measure biomarkers including glucose and/or the like. In an example, the biomarker sensing system may include a microfluidic sensor. The microfluidic sensor may measure biomarkers including lactate, glucose, and/or the like. In an example, the biomarker sensing system may include an integrated sensor array. The integrated sensory array may include a wearable wristband. The integrated sensory array may measure biomarkers including lactate, glucose, and/or the like. In an example, the biomarker sensing system may include a wearable diagnostics device. The wearable diagnostic device may measure biomarkers including cortisol, interleukin-6, and/or the like. In an example, the biomarker sensing system may include a self-powered textile-based biosensor. The self-powered textile-based biosensor may include a sock. The self-powered textile-based biosensor may measure biomarkers including lactate and/or the like. 
     The various biomarkers described herein may be related to various physiologic systems, including behavior and psychology, cardiovascular system, renal system, skin system, nervous system, GI system, respiratory system, endocrine system, immune system, tumor, musculoskeletal system, and/or reproductive system. 
     Behavior and psychology may include social interactions, diet, sleep, activity, and/or psychological status. Behavior and psychology-related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or conditions may be determined and/or predicted based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data. A computing system, as described herein, may select one or more biomarkers (e.g., data from biomarker sensing systems) from behavior and psychology-related biomarkers, including sleep, circadian rhythm, physical activity, and/or mental aspects for analysis. Behavior and psychology scores may be generated based on the analyzed biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or conditions. Behavior and psychology scores may include scores for social interaction, diet, sleep, activity, and/or psychological status. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, sleep-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including sleep quality, sleep duration, sleep timing, immune function, and/or post-operation pain. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, sleep-related conditions may be predicted, including inflammation. In an example, inflammation may be predicted based on analyzed pre-operation sleep. Elevated inflammation may be determined and/or predicted based on disrupted pre-operation sleep. In an example, immune function may be determined based on analyzed pre-operation sleep. Reduced immune function may be predicted based on disrupted pre-operation sleep. In an example, post-operation pain may be determined based on analyzed sleep. Post-operation pain may be determined and/or predicted based on disrupted sleep. In an example, pain and discomfort may be determined based on analyzed circadian rhythm. A compromised immune system may be determined based on analyzed circadian rhythm cycle disruptions. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, activity-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including activity duration, activity intensity, activity type, activity pattern, recovery time, mental health, physical recovery, immune function, and/or inflammatory function. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, activity-related conditions may be predicted. In an example, improved physiology may be determined based on analyzed activity intensity. Moderate intensity exercise may indicate shorter hospital stays, better mental health, better physical recovery, improved immune function, and/or improved inflammatory function. Physical activity type may include aerobic activity and/or non-aerobic activity. Aerobic physical activity may be determined based on analyzed physical activity, including running, cycling, and/or weight training. Non-aerobic physical activity may be determined based on analyzed physical activity, including walking and/or stretching. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, psychological status-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including stress, anxiety, pain, positive emotions, abnormal states, and/or post-operative pain. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, psychological status-related conditions may be predicted, including physical symptoms of disease. Higher post-operative pain may be determined and/or predicted based on analyzed high levels of pre-operative stress, anxiety, and/or pain. Physical symptoms of disease may be predicted based on determined high optimism. 
     The detection, prediction, determination, and/or generation described herein may be performed by a computing system described herein, such as a surgical hub, a computing device, and/or a smart device based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the biomarker sensing systems. 
     The cardiovascular system may include the lymphatic system, blood vessels, blood, and/or heart. Cardiovascular system-related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or conditions may be determined and/or predicted based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data. Systemic circulation conditions may include conditions for the lymphatic system, blood vessels, and/or blood. A computing system may select one or more biomarkers (e.g., data from biomarker sensing systems) from cardiovascular system-related biomarkers, including blood pressure, VO2 max, hydration state, oxygen saturation, blood pH, sweat, core body temperature, peripheral temperature, edema, heart rate, and/or heart rate variability for analysis. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, lymphatic system-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including swelling, lymph composition, and/or collagen deposition. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, lymphatic system-related conditions may be predicted, including fibrosis, inflammation, and/or post-operation infection. Inflammation may be predicted based on determined swelling. Post-operation infection may be predicted based on determined swelling. Collagen deposition may be determined based on predicted fibrosis. Increased collagen deposition may be predicted based on fibrosis. Harmonic tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on determined collagen deposition increases. Inflammatory conditions may be predicted based on analyzed lymph composition. Different inflammatory conditions may be determined and/or predicted based on changes in lymph peptidome composition. Metastatic cell spread may be predicted based on predicted inflammatory conditions. Harmonic tool parameter adjustments and margin decisions may be generated based on predicted inflammatory conditions. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, blood vessel-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including permeability, vasomotion, pressure, structure, healing ability, harmonic sealing performance, and/or cardiothoracic health fitness. Surgical tool usage recommendations and/or parameter adjustments may be generated based on the determined blood vessel-related biomarkers. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, blood vessel-related conditions may be predicted, including infection, anastomotic leak, septic shock and/or hypovolemic shock. In an example, increased vascular permeability may be determined based on analyzed edema, bradykinin, histamine, and/or endothelial adhesion molecules. Endothelial adhesion molecules may be measured using cell samples to measure transmembrane proteins. In an example, vasomotion may be determined based on selected biomarker sensing systems data. Vasomotion may include vasodilators and/or vasoconstrictors. In an example, shock may be predicted based on the determined blood pressure-related biomarkers, including vessel information and/or vessel distribution. individual vessel structure may include arterial stiffness, collagen content, and/or vessel diameter. Cardiothoracic health fitness may be determined based on VO2 max. Higher risk of complications may be determined and/or predicted based on poor VO2 max. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, blood-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including volume, oxygen, pH, waste products, temperature, hormones, proteins, and/or nutrients. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, blood-related complications and/or contextual information may be determined, including cardiothoracic health fitness, lung function, recovery capacity, anaerobic threshold, oxygen intake, carbon dioxide (CO2) production, fitness, tissue oxygenation, colloid osmotic pressure, and/or blood clotting ability. Based on derived blood-related biomarkers, blood-related conditions may be predicted, including post-operative acute kidney injury, hypovolemic shock, acidosis, sepsis, lung collapse, hemorrhage, bleeding risk, infection, and/or anastomotic leak. 
     For example, post-operative acute kidney injury and/or hypovolemic shock may be predicted based on the hydration state. For example, lung function, lung recovery capacity, cardiothoracic health fitness, anaerobic threshold, oxygen uptake, and/or CO2 product may be predicted based on the blood-related biomarkers, including red blood cell count and/or oxygen saturation. For example, cardiovascular complications may be predicted based on the blood-related biomarkers, including red blood cell count and oxygen saturation. For example, acidosis may be predicted based on the pH. Based on acidosis, blood-related conditions may be indicated, including sepsis, lung collapse, hemorrhage, and/or increased bleeding risk. For example, based on sweat, blood-related biomarkers may be derived, including tissue oxygenation. Insufficient tissue oxygenation may be predicted based on high lactate concentration. Based on insufficient tissue oxygenation, blood-related conditions may be predicted, including hypovolemic shock, septic shock, and/or left ventricular failure. For example, based on the temperature, blood temperature-related biomarkers may be derived, including menstrual cycle and/or basal temperature. Based on the blood temperature-related biomarkers, blood temperature-related conditions may be predicted, including sepsis and/or infection. For example, based on proteins, including albumin content, colloid osmotic pressure may be determined. Based on the colloid osmotic pressure, blood protein-related conditions may be predicted, including edema risk and/or anastomotic leak. Increased edema risk and/or anastomotic leak may be predicted based on low colloid osmotic pressure. Bleeding risk may be predicted based on blood clotting ability. Blood clotting ability may be determined based on fibrinogen content. Reduced blood clotting ability may be determined based on low fibrinogen content. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, the computing system may derive heart-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information, including heart activity, heart anatomy, recovery rates, cardiothoracic health fitness, and/or risk of complications. Heart activity biomarkers may include electrical activity and/or stroke volume. Recovery rate may be determined based on heart rate biomarkers. Reduced blood supply to the body may be determined and/or predicted based on irregular heart rate. Slower recovery may be determined and/or predicted based on reduced blood supply to the body. Cardiothoracic health fitness may be determined based on analyzed VO2 max values. VO2 max values below a certain threshold may indicate poor cardio thoracic health fitness, VO2 max values below a certain threshold may indicate a higher risk of heart-related complications. 
     The detection, prediction, determination, and/or generation described herein may be performed by a computing system described herein, such as a surgical hub, a computing device, and/or a smart device, based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the biomarker sensing systems. 
     Renal system-related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or conditions may be determined and/or predicted based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data. A computing system, as described herein, may select one or more biomarkers (e.g., data from biomarker sensing systems) from renal system-related biomarkers for analysis. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, renal system-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined including ureter, urethra, bladder, kidney, general urinary tract, and/or ureter fragility. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, renal system-related conditions may be predicted, including acute kidney injury, infection, and/or kidney stones. In an example, ureter fragility may be determined based on urine inflammatory parameters. In an example, acute kidney injury may be predicted based on analyzed Kidney Injury Molecule-1 (KIM-1) in urine. 
     The detection, prediction, determination, and/or generation described herein may be performed by a computing system described herein, such as a surgical hub, a computing device, and/or a smart device based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the biomarker sensing systems. 
     The skin system may include biomarkers relating to microbiome, skin, nails, hair, sweat, and/or sebum. Skin-related biomarkers may include epidermis biomarkers and/or dermis biomarkers. Sweat-related biomarkers may include activity biomarkers and/or composition biomarkers. Skin system-related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or conditions may be determined and/or predicted based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data. A computing system, as described herein, may select one or inure biomarkers (e.g., data from biomarker sensing systems) from skin-related biomarkers, including skin conductance, skin perfusion pressure, sweat, autonomic tone, and/or pH for analysis. 
     For example, based on selected biomarker sensing systems data, skin-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including color, lesions, trans-epidermal water loss, sympathetic nervous system activity, elasticity, tissue perfusion, and/or mechanical properties. Stress may be predicted based on determined skin conductance. Skin conductance may act as a proxy for sympathetic nervous system activity. Sympathetic nervous system activity may correlate with stress. Tissue mechanical properties may be determined based on skin perfusion pressure. Skin perfusion pressure may indicate deep tissue perfusion. Deep tissue perfusion may determine tissue mechanical properties. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on determined tissue mechanical properties. 
     Based on selected biomarker sensing systems data, skin-related conditions may be predicted. 
     For example, based on selected biomarker sensing systems data, sweat-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including activity, composition, autonomic tone, stress response, inflammatory response, blood pH, blood vessel health, immune function, circadian rhythm, and/or blood lactate concentration. Based on selected biomarker sensing systems data, sweat-related conditions may be predicted, including ileus, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, metastasis, cardiac issues, and/or infections. 
     For example, sweat composition-related biomarkers may be determined based on selected biomarker data. Sweat composition biomarkers may include proteins, electrolytes, and/or small molecules. Based on the sweat composition biomarkers, skin system complications, conditions, and/or contextual information may be predicted, including ileus, cystic fibrosis, acidosis, sepsis, lung collapse, hemorrhage, bleeding risk, diabetes, metastasis, and/or infection. For example, based on protein biomarkers, including sweat neuropeptide Y and/or sweat antimicrobials, stress response may be predicted. Higher sweat neuropeptide Y levels may indicate greater stress response. Cystic fibrosis and/or acidosis may be predicted based on electrolyte biomarkers, including chloride ions, pH, and other electrolytes. High lactate concentrations may be determined based on blood pH. Acidosis may be predicted based on high lactate concentrations. Sepsis, lung collapse, hemorrhage, and/or bleeding risk may be predicted based on predicted acidosis. Diabetes, metastases, and/or infection may be predicted based on small molecule biomarkers. Small molecule biomarkers may include blood sugar and/or hormones. Hormone biomarkers may include adrenaline and/or cortisol. Based on predicted metastasis, blood vessel health may be determined. Infection due to lower immune function may be predicted based on detected cortisol. Lower immune function may be determined and/or predicted based on high cortisol. For example, sweat-related conditions, including stress response, inflammatory response, and/or ileus, may be predicted based on determined autonomic tone. Greater stress response, greater inflammatory response, and/or ileus may be determined and/or predicted based on high sympathetic tone. 
     The detection, prediction, determination, and/or generation described herein may be performed by a computing system described herein, such as a surgical hub, a computing device, and/or a smart device based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the biomarker sensing systems. 
     Nervous system-related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or conditions may be determined and/or predicted based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data. A computing system, as described herein, may select one or more biomarkers (e.g., data from biomarker sensing systems) from nervous system-related biomarkers, including circadian rhythm, oxygen saturation, autonomic tone, sleep, activity, and/or mental aspects for. The nervous system may include the central nervous system (CNS) and/or the peripheral nervous system. The CNS may include brain and/or spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system may include the autonomic nervous system, motor system, enteric system, and/or sensory system. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, CNS-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including post-operative pain, immune function, mental health, and/or recovery rate. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, CNS-related conditions may be predicted, including inflammation, delirium, sepsis, hyperactivity, hypoactivity, and/or physical symptoms of disease. In an example, a compromised immune system and/or high pain score may be predicted based on disrupted sleep. In an example, post-operation delirium may be predicted based on oxygen saturation. Cerebral oxygenation may indicate post-operation delirium. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, peripheral nervous system-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, peripheral nervous system-related conditions may be predicted, including inflammation and/or ileus. In an example, high sympathetic tone may be predicted based on autonomic tone. Greater stress response may be predicted based on high sympathetic tone. Inflammation and/or dens may be predicted based on high sympathetic tone. 
     The detection, prediction, determination, and/or generation described herein may be performed by a computing system described herein, such as a surgical hub, a computing device, and/or a smart device based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the biomarker sensing systems. 
     The GI system may include the upper GI tract, lower GI tract, ancillary organs, peritoneal space, nutritional states, and microbiomes. The upper GI may include the mouth, esophagus, and/or stomach. The lower GI may include the small intestine, colon, and/or rectum. Ancillary organs may include pancreas, liver, spleen, and/or gallbladder. Peritoneal space may include mesentry and/or adipose blood vessels. Nutritional states may include short-term, long-term, and/or systemic. GI-related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or conditions may be determined and/or predicted based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data. A computing system, as described herein, may select one or more biomarkers (e.g., data from biomarker sensing systems) from GI-related biomarkers, including coughing and sneezing, respiratory bacteria, GI tract imaging/sensing, GI motility, pH, tissue perfusion pressure, environmental, and/or alcohol consumption for analysis. 
     The upper GI may include the mouth, esophagus, and/or stomach. For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, mouth and esophagus-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information, may be determined, including stomach tissue properties, esophageal motility, colonic tissue change, bacteria presence, tumor size, tumor location, and/or tumor tension. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, mouth and esophagus-related conditions may be predicted, including inflammation, surgical site infection (SSI), and/or gastro-esophageal disease. The mouth and esophagus may include mucosa, muscularis, lumen, and/or mechanical properties. Lumen biomarkers may include lumen contents, lumen microbial flora, and/or lumen size. In an example, inflammation may be predicted based on analyzed coughing biomarkers. Gastro-esophageal reflux disease may be predicted based on inflammation. Stomach tissue properties may be predicted based on gastro-esophageal disease. In an example, esophageal motility may be determined based on collagen content and/or muscularis function. In an example, changes to colonic tissue may be indicated based on salivary cytokines. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) may be predicted based on changes to colonic tissue. Salivary cytokines may increase in IBD. SSI may be predicted based on analyzed bacteria. Based on the analyzed bacteria, the bacteria may be identified. Respiratory pathogens in the mouth may indicate likelihood of SSI. Based on lumen size and/or location, surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may include staple sizing, surgical tool fixation, and/or surgical tool approach. In an example, based on mechanical properties, including elasticity, a surgical tool parameter adjustment to use adjunct material may be generated to minimize tissue tension. Additional mobilization parameter adjustments may be generated to minimize tissue tension based on analyzed mechanical properties. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, stomach-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information, may be determined including tissue strength, tissue thickness, recovery rate, lumen location, lumen shape, pancreas function, stomach food presence, stomach water content, stomach tissue thickness, stomach tissue shear strength, and/or stomach tissue elasticity. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, stomach-related conditions may be predicted, including ulcer, inflammation, and/or gastro-esophageal reflux disease. The stomach may include mucosa, muscularis, serosa, lumen, and mechanical properties. Stomach-related conditions, including ulcers, inflammation, and/or gastro-esophageal disease may be predicted based on analyzed coughing and/or GI tract imaging. Stomach tissue properties may be determined based on gastro-esophageal reflux disease. Ulcers may be predicted based on analyzed  H. pylori.  Stomach tissue mechanical properties may be determined based on GI tract images. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on the determined stomach tissue mechanical properties. Risk of post-operative leak may be predicted based on determined stomach tissue mechanical properties. In an example, key components for tissue strength and/or thickness may be determined based on analyzed collagen content. Key components of tissue strength and thickness may affect recovery. In an example, blood supply and/or blood location may be determined based on serosa biomarkers. In an example, biomarkers, including pouch size, pouch volume, pouch location, pancreas function, and/or food presence may be determined based on analyzed lumen biomarkers. Lumen biomarkers may include lumen location, lumen shape, gastric emptying speed, and/or lumen contents. Pouch size may be determined based on start and end locations of the pouch. Gastric emptying speed may be determined based on GI motility. Pancreas function may be determined based on gastric emptying speed. Lumen content may be determined based on analyzed gastric pH. Lumen content may include stomach food presence. For example, solid food presence may be determined based on gastric pH variation. Low gastric pH may be predicted based on an empty stomach. Basic gastric pH may be determined based on eating. Buffeting by food may lead to basic gastric pH. Gastric pH may increase based on stomach acid secretion. Gastric pH may return to low value when the buffering capacity of food is exceeded. Intraluminal pH sensors may detect eating. For example, stomach water content, tissue thickness, tissue shear strength, and/or tissue elasticity may be determined based on tissue perfusion pressure. Stomach mechanical properties may be determined based on stomach water content. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on the stomach mechanical properties. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on key components of tissue strength and/or friability. Post-surgery leakage may be predicted based on key components of tissue strength and/or friability. 
     The lower GI may include the small intestine, colon, and/or rectum. For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, small intestine-related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or conditions may be determined, including caloric absorption rate, nutrient absorption rate, bacteria presence, and/or recovery rate. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, small intestine-related conditions may be predicted, including ileus and/or inflammation. The small intestine biomarkers may include muscularis, serosa, lumen, mucosa, and/or mechanical properties. For example, post-operation small bowel motility changes may be determined based on GI motility. Ileus may be predicted based on post-operation small bowel motility changes. GI motility may determine caloric and/or nutrient absorption rates. Future weight loss may be predicted based on accelerated absorption rates. Absorption rates may be determined based on fecal rates, composition, and/or pH. Inflammation may be predicted based on lumen content biomarkers. Lumen content biomarkers may include pH, bacteria presence, and/or bacteria amount. Mechanical properties may be determined based on predicted inflammation. Mucosa inflammation may be predicted based on stool inflammatory markers. Stool inflammatory markers may include calprotectin. Tissue property changes may be determined based on mucosa inflammation. Recovery rate changes may be determined based on mucosa inflammation. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, colon and rectum-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including small intestine tissue strength, small intestine tissue thickness, contraction ability, water content, colon and rectum tissue perfusion pressure, colon and rectum tissue thickness, colon and rectum tissue strength, and/or colon and rectum tissue friability. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, colon and rectum-related conditions may be predicted, including inflammation, anastomotic leak, ulcerative colitis, Crohn&#39;s disease, and/or infection. Colon and rectum may include mucosa, muscularis, serosa, lumen, function, and/or mechanical properties. In an example, mucosa inflammation may be predicted based on stool inflammatory markers. Stool in markers may include calprotectin. An increase in anastomotic leak risk may be determined based on inflammation. 
     Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on the determined increased risk of anastomotic leak. Inflammatory conditions may be predicted based on GI tract imaging. Inflammatory conditions may include ulcerative colitis and/or Crohn&#39;s disease. Inflammation may increase the risk of anastomotic leak. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on inflammation. In an example, the key components of tissue strength and/or thickness may be determined based on collagen content. In an example, colon contraction ability may be determined based on smooth muscle alpha-actin expression. In an example, the inability of colon areas to contract may be determined based on abnormal expression. Colon contraction inability may be determined and/or predicted based on pseudo-obstruction and/or ileus. In an example, adhesions, fistula, and/or scar tissue may be predicted based on serosa biomarkers. Colon infection may be predicted based on bacterial presence in stool. The stool bacteria may be identified. The bacteria may include commensals and/or pathogens. In an example, inflammatory conditions may be predicted based on Mechanical properties may be determined based on inflammatory conditions. Gut inflammation may be predicted based on ingested allergens. Constant exposure to ingested allergens may increase gut inflammation. Gut inflammation may change mechanical properties. In an example, mechanical properties may be determined based on tissue perfusion pressure. Water content may be determined based on tissue perfusion pressure. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on determined mechanical properties. 
     Ancillary organs may include the pancreas, liver, spleen, and/or gallbladder. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, ancillary organ-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined including gastric emptying speed, liver size, liver shape, liver location, tissue health, and/or blood loss response. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, ancillary organ-related conditions may be predicted, including gastroparesis. For example, gastric emptying speed may be determined based on enzyme load and/or titratable base biomarkers. Gastroparesis may be predicted based on gastric emptying speed. Lymphatic tissue health may be determined based on lymphocyte storage status. A patient&#39;s ability to respond to an SSI may be determined based on lymphatic tissue health. Venous sinuses tissue health may be determined based on red blood cell storage status. A patient&#39;s response to blood loss in surgery may be predicted based on venous sinuses tissue health. 
     Nutritional states may include short-term nutrition, long-term nutrition, and/or systemic nutrition. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, nutritional state-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including immune function. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, nutritional state-related conditions may be predicted, including cardiac issues. Reduced immune function may be determined based on nutrient biomarkers. Cardiac issues may be predicted based on nutrient biomarkers. Nutrient biomarkers may include macronutrients, micronutrients, alcohol consumption, and/or feeding patterns. 
     Patients who have had gastric bypass may have an altered gut microbiome that may be measured in the feces. 
     The detection, prediction, determination, and/or generation described herein may be performed by a computing system described herein, such as a surgical hub, a computing device, and/or a smart device based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the biomarker sensing systems. 
     The respiratory system may include the upper respiratory tract, lower respiratory tract, respiratory muscles, and/or system contents. The upper respiratory tract may include the pharynx, larynx, mouth and oral cavity, and/or nose. The lower respiratory tract may include the trachea, bronchi, aveoli, and/or lungs. The respiratory muscles may include the diaphragm and/or intercostal muscles. Respiratory system-related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or conditions may be determined and/or predicted based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data. A computing system, as described herein, may select one or more biomarkers (e.g., data from biomarker sensing systems) from respiratory system-related biomarkers, including bacteria, coughing and sneezing respiration rate. VO2 max, and/or activity for analysis. 
     The upper respiratory tract may include the pharynx, larynx, mouth and oral cavity, and/or nose. For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, upper respiratory tract-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, upper respiratory tract-related conditions may be predicted, including SSI, inflammation, and/or allergic rhinitis. In an example, SSI may be predicted based on bacteria and/or tissue biomarkers. Bacteria biomarkers may include commensals and/or pathogens. Inflammation may be indicated based on tissue biomarkers. Mucosa inflammation may be predicted based on nose biomarkers, including coughing and sneezing. General inflammation and/or allergic rhinitis may be predicted based on mucosa biomarkers. Mechanical properties of various tissues may be determined based on systemic inflammation. 
     The lower respiratory tract may include the trachea, bronchi, aveoli, and/or lungs. For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, lower respiratory tract-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information mac be determined, including bronchopulmonary segments. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, lower respiratory tract-related conditions may be predicted. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on the determined biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on the predicted conditions. 
     Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, lung-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including poor surgical tolerance. Lung-related biomarkers may include lung respiratory mechanics, lung disease, lung surgery, lung mechanical properties, and/or lung function. Lung respiratory mechanics may include total lung capacity (TLC), tidal volume (TV), residual volume (RV), expiratory reserve volume (ERV), inspiratory reserve volume (IRV), inspiratory capacity (IC), inspiratory vital capacity (IVC), vital capacity (VC), functional residual capacity (FRC), residual volume expressed as a percent of total lung capacity (RV/TLC %), alveolar gas volume (VA), lung volume (VL), forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume over time (FEVt), difference between inspired and expired carbon monoxide (DLco), volume exhaled after first second of forced expiration (FEV1), forced expiratory flow related to portion of functional residual capacity curve (FEFx), maximum instantaneous flow during functional residual capacity (FEFmax), forced inspiratory flow (FIF), highest forced expiratory flow measured by peak flow meter (PEF), and maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV). 
     TLC may be determined based on lung volume at maximal inflation. TV may be determined based on volume of air moved into or out of the lungs during quiet breathing. RV may be determined based on air volume remaining in lungs after a maximal exhalation. ERV may be determined based on maximal volume inhaled from the end-inspiratory level. IC may be determined based on aggregated IRV and TV values. IVC may be determined based on maximum air volume inhaled at the point of maximum expiration. VC may be determined based on the difference between the RV value and TLC value. FRC may be determined based on the lung volume at the end-expiratory position. FVC may be determined based on the VC value during a maximally forced expiratory effort. Poor surgical tolerance may be determined based on the difference between inspired and expired carbon monoxide, such as when the difference falls below 60%. Poor surgical tolerance may be determined based on the volume exhaled at the end of the first second of force expiration, such as when the volume falls below 35%. MVV may be determined based on the volume of air expired in a specified period during repetitive maximal effort. 
     Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, lung-related conditions may be predicted, including emphysema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, chronic bronchitis, asthma, cancer, and/or tuberculosis. Lung diseases may be predicted based on analyzed spirometry, x-rays, blood gas, and/or diffusion capacity of the aveolar capillary membrane. Lung diseases may narrow airways and/or create airway resistance. Lung cancer and/or tuberculosis may be detected based on lung-related biomarkers, including persistent coughing, coughing blood, shortness of breath, chest pain, hoarseness, unintentional weight loss, bone pain, and/or headaches. Tuberculosis may be predicted based on lung symptoms including coughing for 3 to 5 weeks, coughing blood, chest pain, pain while breathing or coughing, unintentional weight loss, fatigue, fever, night sweats, chills, and/or loss of appetite. 
     Surgical tool parameter adjustments and surgical procedure adjustments may be generated based on lung-related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or conditions. Surgical procedure adjustments may include pneumonectomy, lobectomy, and/or sub-local resections. In an example, a surgical procedure adjustment may be generated based on a cost-benefit analysis between adequate resection and the physiologic impact on a patient&#39;s ability to recover functional status. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on determined surgical tolerance. Surgical tolerance may be determined based on the FEC1 value. Surgical tolerance may be considered adequate when FEV1 exceeds a certain threshold, which may include values above 35%. Post-operation surgical procedure adjustments, including oxygenation and/or physical therapy, may be generated based on determined pain scores. Post-operation surgical procedure adjustments may be generated based on air leak. Air leak may increase cost associated with the post-surgical recovery and morbidity following lung surgery. 
     Lung mechanical property-related biomarkers may include perfusion, tissue integrity, and/or collagen content. Plura perfusion pressure may be determined based on lung water content levels. Mechanical properties of tissue may be determined based on plura perfusion pressure. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on plum perfusion pressure. Lung tissue integrity may be determined based on elasticity, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in exhaled breath, lung tissue thickness, and/or lung tissue shear strength. Tissue friability may be determined based on elasticity. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on post-surgery leakage. Post-surgery leakage may be predicted based on elasticity. In an example, fibrosis may be predicted based on H2O2 in exhaled breath. Fibrosis may be determined and/or predicted based on increased H2O2 concentration. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on predicted fibrosis. Increased scarring in lung tissue may be determined based on predicted fibrosis. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on determined lung tissue strength. Lung tissue strength may be determined based on lung thickness and/or lung tissue shear strength. Post-surgery leakage may be predicted based on lung tissue strength. 
     Respiratory muscles may include the diaphragm and/or intercostal muscles. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, respiratory muscle-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, respiratory muscle-related conditions may be predicted, including respiratory tract infections, collapsed lung, pulmonary edema, post-operation pain, air leak, and/or serious lung inflammation. Respiratory muscle-related conditions, including respiratory tract infections, collapsed lung, and/or pulmonary edema, may be predicted based on diaphragm-related biomarkers, including coughing and/or sneezing. Respiratory muscle-related conditions, including post-operation pain, air leak, collapsed lung, and/or serious lung inflammation may be predicted based on intercostal muscle biomarkers, including respiratory rate. 
     Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, respiratory system content-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including post-operation pain, healing ability, and/or response to surgical injury. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, respiratory system content-related conditions may be predicted, including inflammation and/or fibrosis. The selected biomarker sensing systems data may include environmental data, including mycotoxins and/or airborne chemicals. Respiratory system content-related conditions may be predicted based on airborne chemicals. Inflammation and/or fibrosis may be predicted based on irritants in the environment. Mechanical properties of tissue may be determined based on inflammation and/or fibrosis. Post-operation pain may be determined based on irritants in the environment. Airway inflammation may be predicted based on analyzed mycotoxins and/or arsenic. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on airway inflammation. Altered tissue properties may be determined based on analyzed arsenic. 
     The detection, prediction, determination, and/or generation described herein may be performed by a computing system described herein, such as a surgical hub, a computing system, and/or a smart device based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the biomarker sensing systems. 
     The endocrine system may include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, testes, intestines, ovaries, thyroid gland, parathyroid, and/or stomach. Endocrine system-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data, including immune system function, metastasis, infection risk, insulin secretion, collagen production, menstrual phase, and/or high blood pressure. Endocrine system-related conditions may be predicted based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data. A computing system, as described herein, may select one or more biomarkers (e.g., data from biomarker sensing systems) from endocrine system-related biomarkers, including hormones, blood pressure, adrenaline, cortisol, blood glucose, and/or menstrual cycle for analysis. Surgical tool parameter adjustments and/or surgical procedure adjustments may be generated based on the endocrine system-related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or conditions. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, hypothalamus-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including blood pressure regulation, kidney function, osmotic balance, pituitary gland control, and/or pain tolerance. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, hypothalamus-related conditions may be predicted, including edema. The hormone biomarkers may include anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) and/or oxytocin. ADH may affect blood pressure regulation, kidney function, osmotic balance, and/or pituitary gland control. Pain tolerance may be determined based on analyzed oxytocin. Oxytocin may have an analgesic effect. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on predicted edema. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, pituitary gland-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including circadian rhythm entrainment, menstrual phase, and/or healing speed. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, pituitary gland-related conditions may be predicted. Circadian entrainment may be determined based on adrenocorticotropic hormones (ACTH). Circadian rhythm entrainment may provide context for various surgical outcomes. Menstrual phase may be determined based on reproduction function hormone biomarkers. Reproduction function hormone biomarkers may include luteinizing hormone and/or follicle stimulating hormone. Menstrual phase may provide context for various surgical outcomes. The menstrual cycle may provide context for biomarkers, complications, and/or conditions, including those related to the reproductive system. Wound healing speed may be determined based on thyroid regulation hormones, including thyrotropic releasing hormone (TRH). 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, thymus-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including immune system function. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, thymus-related conditions may be predicted. immune system function may be determined based on thymosins. Thymosins may affect adaptive immunity development. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, adrenal gland-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including metastasis, blood vessel health, immunity level, and/or infection risk. Based on the selected biomarker sensing system data, adrenal gland-related conditions may be predicted, including edema. Metastasis may be determined based on analyzed adrenaline and/or non adrenaline. Blood vessel health may be determined based on analyzed adrenaline and/or noradrenaline. blood vessel health score may be generated based on the determined blood vessel health. Immunity capability may be determined based on analyzed cortisol. Infection risk may be determined based on analyzed cortisol. Metastasis may be predicted based on analyzed cortisol. Circadian rhythm may be determined based on measured cortisol. High cortisol may lower immunity, increase infection risk, and/or lead to metastasis. High cortisol may affect circadian rhythm. Edema may be predicted based on analyzed aldosterone. Aldosterone may promote fluid retention. Fluid retention may relate to blood pressure and/or edema. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, pancreas-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including blood sugar, hormones, polypeptides, and/or blood glucose control. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, pancreas-related conditions may be predicted. The pancreas-related biomarkers may provide contextual information for various surgical outcomes. Blood sugar biomarkers may include insulin. Hormone biomarkers may include somatostatin. Polypeptide biomarkers play include pancreatic polypeptide. Blood glucose control may be determined based on insulin, somatostatin, and/or pancreatic polypeptide. Blood glucose control may provide contextual information for various surgical outcomes. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, testes-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including reproductive development, sexual arousal, and/or immune system regulation. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, testes-related conditions may be predicted. Testes-related biomarkers may include testosterone. Testosterone may provide contextual information for biomarkers, complications, and/or conditions, including those relating to the reproductive system. High levels of testosterone may suppress immunity. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, stomach/testes-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including glucose handling, satiety, insulin secretion, digestion speed, and/or sleeve gastrectomy outcomes. Glucose handling and satiety biomarkers may include glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), cholecystokinin (CCK), and/or peptide YY. Appetite and/or insulin secretion may be determined based on analyzed GLP-1. Increased GLP-1 may be determined based on enhanced appetite and insulin secretion. Sleeve gastrectomy outcomes may be determined based on analyzed GLP-1. Satiety and/or sleeve gastrectomy outcomes may be determined based on analyzed CCK. Enhanced CCK levels may be predicted based on previous sleeve gastrectomy. Appetite and digestion speeds may be determined based on analyzed peptide YY. Increased peptide YY may reduce appetite and/or increase digestion speeds. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, hormone-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including estrogen, progesterone, collagen product, fluid retention, and/or menstrual phase. Collagen production may be determined based on estrogen. Fluid retention may be determined based on estrogen. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on determined collagen production and/or fluid retention. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, thyroid gland and parathyroid-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including calcium handling, phosphate handling, metabolism, blood pressure, and/or surgical complications. Metabolism biomarkers may include triiodothyronine (T3) and/or thyroxine (T4). Blood pressure may be determined based on analyzed T3 and T4. High blood pressure may be determined based on increased T3 and/or increased T4. Surgical complications may be determined based on analyzed T3 and/or T4. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, stomach-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including appetite. Stomach-related biomarkers may include ghrelin. Ghrelin may induce appetite. 
     The detection, prediction, determination, and/or generation described herein may be performed by a computing system described herein, such as a surgical hub, a computing system, and/or a smart device based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the biomarker sensing systems. 
     Immune system-related biomarkers may relate to antigens and irritants, antimicrobial enzymes, the complement system, chemokines and cytokines, the lymphatic system, bone marrow, pathogens, damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and/or cells. Immune system-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data. A computing system, as described herein, may select one or more biomarkers (e.g., data from biomarker sensing systems) from immune system-related biomarkers, including alcohol consumption, pH, respiratory rate, edema, sweat, and/or environment for analysis. Antigens/irritants 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, antigen and irritant-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including healing ability, immune function, and/or cardiac issues. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, antigen and irritant-related conditions may be predicted, including inflammation. Antigen and irritant-related biomarkers may include inhaled chemicals, inhaled irritants, ingested chemicals, and/or ingested irritants. Inhaled chemicals or irritants may be determined based on analyzed environmental data, including airborne chemicals, mycotoxins, and/or arsenic. Airborne chemicals may include cigarette smoke, asbestos, crystalline silica, alloy particles, and/or carbon nanotubes. Lung inflammation may be predicted based on analyzed airborne chemicals. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on determined lung inflammation. Airway inflammation may be predicted based on analyzed mycotoxin and/or arsenic. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on determined airway inflammation. Arsenic exposure may be determined based on urine, saliva, and/or ambient air sample analyses. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, antimicrobial enzyme-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including colon state. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, antimicrobial enzyme-related conditions may be predicted, including GI inflammation, acute kidney injury,  E. faecalis  infection, and/or  S. aureus  infection. Antimicrobial enzyme biomarkers may include lysozyme, lipocalin-2 (NGAL), and/or orosomuccoid. GI inflammation may be predicted based on analyzed lysozyme. Increased levels in lysozyme may be determined and/or predicted based on GI inflammation. Colon state may be determined based on analyzed lysozyme. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on analyzed lysozyme levels. Acute kidney injury may be predicted based on analyzed NGAL. NGAL may be detected from serum and/or urine. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, complement system-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including bacterial infection susceptibility. Bacterial infection susceptibility may be determined based on analyzed complement system deficiencies. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, chemokine and cytokine-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including infection burden, inflammation burden, vascular permeability regulation, omentin, colonic tissue properties, and/or post-operation recovery. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, chemokine and cytokine-related conditions may be predicted, including inflammatory bowel diseases, post-operation infection, lung fibrosis, lung scarring, pulmonary fibrosis, gastroesophageal reflux disease, cardiovascular disease, edema, and/or hyperplasia. Infection and/or inflammation burden biomarkers may include oral, salivary, exhaled, and/or C-reactive protein (CRP) data. Salivary cytokines may include interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and/or interleukin-8 (IL-8). 
     In an example, inflammatory bowel diseases may be predicted based on analyzed salivary cytokines. Increased salivary cytokines may be determined based on inflammatory bowel diseases. Colonic tissue properties may be determined based on predicted inflammatory bowel diseases. Colonic tissue properties may include scarring, edema, and/or ulcering. Post-operation recovery and/or infection may be determined based on predicted inflammatory bowel diseases. Tumor size and/or lung scarring may be determined based on analyzed exhaled biomarkers. Lung fibrosis, pulmonary fibrosis, and/or gastroesophageal reflux disease may be predicted based on analyzed exhaled biomarkers. Exhaled biomarkers may include exhaled cytokines, pH, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and/or nitric oxide. Exhaled cytokines may include IL-6, TNF-α, and/or interleukin-17 (IL-17). Lung fibrosis may be predicted based on measured pH and/or H2O2 from exhaled breath. Fibrosis may be predicted based on increased H2O2 concentration. Increased lung tissue scarring may be predicted based on fibrosis. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on predicted lung fibrosis. In an example, pulmonary fibrosis and/or gastroesophageal reflux disease may be predicted based on analyzed exhaled nitric oxide. Pulmonary fibrosis may be predicted based on determined increased nitrates and/or nitrites. Gastroesophageal disease may be predicted based on determined reduced nitrates and/or nitrites. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on predicted pulmonary fibrosis and/or gastroesophageal reflux disease. Cardiovascular disease, inflammatory bowel diseases, and/or infection may be predicted based on analyzed CRP biomarkers. Risk of serious cardiovascular disease may increase with high CRP concentration. inflammatory bowel disease may be predicted based on elevated CRP concentration. Infection may be predicted based on elevated CRP concentration. In an example, edema may be predicted based on analyzed vascular permeability regulation biomarkers. Increased vascular permeability during inflammation may be determined based on analyzed bradykinin and/or histamine. Edema may be predicted based on increased vascular permeability during inflammation. Vascular permeability may be determined based on endothelial adhesion molecules. Endothelial adhesion molecules may be determined based on cell samples. Endothelial adhesion molecules may affect vascular permeability, immune cell recruitment, and/or fluid build-up in edema. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on analyzed vascular permeability regulation biomarkers. In an example, hyperplasia may be predicted based on analyzed omentin. Hyperplasia may alter tissue properties. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on predicted hyperplasia. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, lymphatic system-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including lymph nodes, lymph composition, lymph location, and/or lymph swelling. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, lymphatic system-related conditions may be predicted, including post-operation inflammation, post-operation infection, and/or fibrosis. Post-operation inflammation and/or infection may be predicted based on determined lymph node swelling. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on the analyzed lymph node swelling. Surgical tool parameter adjustments, including harmonic tool parameter adjustments, may be generated based on the determined collagen deposition. Collagen deposition may increase with lymph node fibrosis. Inflammatory conditions may be predicted based on lymph composition. Metastatic cell spread may be determined based on lymph composition. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on lymph peptidome. Lymph peptidome may change based on inflammatory conditions. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, pathogen-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), pathogen burden,  H. Pylori,  and/or stomach tissue properties. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, pathogen-related conditions may be predicted, including infection, stomach inflammation, and/or ulcering. PAMPs biomarkers may include pathogen antigens. Pathogen antigens may impact pathogen burden. Stomach inflammation and/or potential ulcering may be predicted based on predicted infection. Stomach tissue property alterations may be determined based on predicted infection. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, DAMPs-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including stress (e.g., cardiovascular, metabolic, glycemic, and/or cellular) and/or necrosis. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, DAMPs-related conditions may be predicted, including acute myocardial infarction, intestinal inflammation, and/or infection. Cellular stress biomarkers may include creatine kinase MB, pyruvate kinase isoenzyme type M2 (M2-PK), irisin, and/or microRNA. In an example, acute myocardial infarction may be predicted based on analyzed creatine kinase MB biomarkers. Intestinal inflammation may be predicted based on analyzed M2-PK biomarkers. Stress may be determined based on analyzed irisin biomarkers. Inflammatory diseases and/or infection may be predicted based on analyzed microRNA biomarkers. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on predicted inflammation and/or infection. Inflammation and/or infection may be predicted based on analyzed necrosis biomarkers. Necrosis biomarkers may include reactive oxygen species (ROS). Inflammation and/or infection may be predicted based on increased ROS. Post-operation recovery may be determined based on analyzed ROS. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems, cell-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including granulocytes, natural killer cells (NK cells), macrophages, lymphocytes, and/or colonic tissue properties. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems, cell-related conditions may be predicted, including post-operation infection, ulceratic colitis, inflammation, and/or inflammatory bowel disease. Granulocyte biomarkers may include eosinophilia and/or neutrophils. Eosinophilia biomarkers may include sputum cell count, eosinophilic cationic protein, and/or fractional exhaled nitric oxide. Neutrophil biomarkers may include S100 proteins, myeloperoxidase, and/or human neutrophil lipocalin. Lymphocyte biomarkers may include antibodies, adaptive response, and/or immune memory. The antibodies may include immunoglobulin A (IgA) and/or immunoglobulin M (IgM). In an example, post-operational infection and/or pre-operation inflammation may be predicted based on analyzed sputum cell count. Ulcerative colitis may be predicted based on analyzed eosinophilic cationic protein. Altered colonic tissue properties may be determined based on the predicted ulcerative colitis. Eosinophils may produce eosinophilic cationic protein which may be determined based on ulcerative colitis. Inflammation may be predicted based on analyzed fractional exhaled nitric oxide. The inflammation may include type 1 asthma-like inflammation. Surgical tool parameter adjustments may be generated based on the predicted inflammation. In an example, inflammatory bowel diseases may be predicted based on S100 proteins. The S100 proteins may include calprotectin. Colonic tissue properties may be determined based on the predicted inflammatory bowel diseases. Ulcerative colitis may be predicted based on analyzed myeloperoxidase and/or human neutrophil lipocalin. Altered colonic tissue properties may be determined based on predicted ulcerative colitis. In an example, inflammation may be predicted based on antibody biomarkers. Bowel inflammation may be predicted based on IgA. Cardiovascular inflammation may be predicted based on IgM. 
     The detection, prediction, determination, and/or generation described herein may be performed by a computing system described herein, such as a surgical hub, a computing device, and/or a smart device based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the biomarker sensing systems. 
     Tumors may include benign and/or malignant tumors. Tumor-related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or conditions may be determined and/or predicted based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data. A computing system, as described herein, may select one or more biomarkers (e.g., data from biomarker sensing systems) from tumor-related biomarkers, including circulating tumor cells for analysis. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, benign tumor-related biomarkers, conditions, and/or contextual information may be determined, including benign tumor replication, benign tumor metabolism, and/or benign tumor synthesis. Benign tumor replication may include rate of mitotic activity, mitotic metabolism, and/or synthesis biomarkers. Benign tumor metabolism may include metabolic demand and/or metabolic product biomarkers. Benign tumor synthesis may include protein expression and/or gene expression biomarkers. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, malignant tumor-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including malignant tumor synthesis, malignant tumor metabolism, malignant tumor replication, microsatellite stability, metastatic risk, metastatic tumors, tumor growth, tumor recession, and/or metastatic activity. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, malignant tumor-related conditions may be predicted, including cancer. Malignant tumor synthesis may include gene expression and/or protein expression biomarkers. Gene expression may be determined based on tumor biopsy and/or genome analysis. Protein expression biomarkers may include cancer antigen 125 (CA-125) and/or carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA). CEA may be measured based on urine and/or saliva. Malignant tumor replication data may include rate of mitotic activity, mitotic encapsulation, tumor mass, and/or microRNA 200c. 
     In an example, microsatellite stability may be determined based on analyzed gene expression. Metastatic risk may be determined based on determined microsatellite stability. Higher metastatic risk may be determined and/or predicted based on low microsatellite instability. In an example, metastatic tumors, tumor growth, tumor metastasis, and/or tumor recession may be determined based on analyzed protein expression. Metastatic tumors may be determined and/or predicted based on elevated CA-125. Cancer may be predicted based on CA-125. Cancer may be predicted based on certain levels of CEA. Tumor growth, metastasis, and/or recession may be monitored based on detected changes in CEA. Metastatic activity may be determined based on malignant tumor replication. Cancer may be predicted based on malignant tumor replication. MicroRNA 200c may be released into blood by certain cancers. Metastatic activity may be determined and/or predicted based on presence of circulating tumor cells. 
     The detection, prediction, determination, and/or generation described herein may be performed by a computing system described herein, such as a surgical hub, a computing device, and/or a smart device based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the biomarker sensing systems. 
     The musculoskeletal system may include muscles, bones, marrow, and/or cartilage. The muscles may include smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and/or skeletal muscle. The smooth muscle may include calmodulin, connective tissue, structural features, hyperplasia, actin, and/or myosin. The bones may include calcified bone, osteoblasts, and/or osteoclasts. The marrow may include red marrow and/or yellow marrow. The cartilage may include cartilaginous tissue and/or chondrocytes. Musculoskeletal system-related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/or conditions may be determined and/or predicted based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data. A computing system, as described herein, may select one or more biomarkers (e.g., data from biomarker sensing systems) from musculoskeletal-related biomarkers for analysis. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, muscle-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including serum calmodulin levels, mechanical strength, muscle body, hyperplasia, muscle contraction ability, and/or muscle damage. Based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, muscle-related conditions may be predicted. In an example, neurological conditions may be predicted based on analyzed serum calmodulin levels. Mechanical strength may be determined based on analyzed smooth muscle collagen levels. Collagen may affect mechanical strength as collagen may bind smooth muscle filament together. Muscle body may be determined based on analyzed structural features. The muscle body may include an intermediate body and/or a dense body. Hyperplasia may be determined based on analyzed omentin levels. Omentin may indicate hyperplasia. Hyperplasia may be determined and/or predicted based on thick areas of smooth muscles. Muscle contraction ability may be determined based on analyzed smooth muscle alpha-actin expression. Muscle contraction inability may result from an abnormal expression of actin in smooth muscle. In an example, muscle damage may be determined based on analyzed circulating smooth muscle myosin and/or skeletal muscle myosin. Muscle strength may be determined based on analyzed circulating smooth muscle myosin. Muscle damage and/or weak, friable smooth muscle may be determined and/or predicted based on circulating smooth muscle myosin and/or skeletal muscle myosin. Smooth muscle myosin may be measured from urine. In an example, muscle damage may be determined based on cardiac and/or skeletal muscle biomarkers. Cardiac and/or skeletal muscle biomarkers may include circulating troponin. Muscle damage may be determined and/or predicted based on circulating troponin alongside myosin. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, bone-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined, including calcified bone properties, calcified bone functions, osteoblasts number, osteoid secretion, osteoclasts number, and/or secreted osteoclasts. 
     For example, based on the selected biomarker sensing systems data, marrow-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information ma be determined, including tissue breakdown and/or collagen secretion. Arthritic breakdown of cartilaginous tissue may be determined based on analyzed cartilaginous tissue biomarkers. Collage secretion by muscle cells may be determined based on analyzed chondrocyte biomarkers. 
     The detection, prediction, determination, and/or generation described herein may be performed by a computing system described herein, such as a surgical hub, a computing device, and/or a smart device based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the biomarker sensing systems. 
     Reproductive system-related biomarkers, complications, contextual information, and/conditions may be determined and/or predicted based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data. A computing system, as described herein, may select one or more biomarkers (e.g., data from biomarker sensing systems) from reproductive system-related biomarkers for analysis. Reproductive system-related biomarkers, complications, and/or contextual information may be determined based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data, including female anatomy, female function, menstrual cycle, pH, bleeding, wound healing, and/or scarring. Female anatomy biomarkers may include the ovaries, vagina, cervix, fallopian tubes, and/or uterus. Female function biomarkers may include reproductive hormones, pregnancy, menopause, and/or menstrual cycle. Reproductive system-related conditions may be predicted based on analyzed biomarker sensing systems data, including endometriosis, adhesions, vaginosis, bacterial infection, SSI, and/or pelvic abscesses. 
     In an example, endometriosis may be predicted based on female anatomy biomarkers. Adhesions may be predicted based on female anatomy biomarkers. The adhesions may include sigmoid colon adhesions. Endometriosis may be predicted based on menstrual blood. Menstrual blood may include molecular signals from endometriosis. Sigmoid colon adhesions may be predicted based on predicted endometriosis. In an example, menstrual phase and/or menstrual cycle length may be determined based on the menstrual cycle. Bleeding, wound healing, and/or scarring may be determined based on the analyzed menstrual phase. Risk of endometriosis may be predicted based on the analyzed menstrual cycle. Higher risk of endometriosis may be predicted based on shorter menstrual cycle lengths. Molecular signals may be determined based on analyzed menstrual blood and/or discharge pH. Endometriosis may be predicted based on the determined molecular signals. Vaginal pH may be determined based on analyzed discharge pH. Vaginosis and/or bacterial infections may be predicted based on the analyzed vaginal pH. Vaginosis and/or bacterial infections may be predicted based on changes in vaginal pH. Risk of SSI and/or pelvic abscesses during gynecologic procedures may be predicted based on predicted vaginosis. 
     The detection, prediction, determination, and/or generation described herein may be performed by any of the computing systems within any of the computer-implemented patient and surgeon monitoring systems described herein, such as a surgical hub, a computing device, and/or a smart device based on measured data and/or related biomarkers generated by the one or more sensing systems. 
       FIG. 2A  shows an example of a surgeon monitoring system  20002  in a surgical operating room. As illustrated in  FIG. 2A , a patient is being operated on by one or more health care professionals (HCPs). The HCPs are being monitored by one or more surgeon sensing systems  20020  worn by the HCPs. The HCPs and the environment surrounding the HCPs may also be monitored by one or more environmental sensing systems including, for example, a set of cameras  20021 , a set of microphones  20022 , and other sensors, etc. that may be deployed in the operating room. The surgeon sensing systems  20020  and the environmental sensing systems may be in communication with a surgical hub  20006 , which in turn may be in communication with one or more cloud servers  20009  of the cloud computing system  20008 , as shown in  FIG. 1 . The environmental sensing systems may be used for measuring one or more environmental attributes, for example, HCP position in the surgical theater, HCP movements, ambient noise in the surgical theater, temperature/humidity in the surgical theater, etc. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 2A , a primary display  20023  and one or more audio output devices (e.g., speakers  20019 ) are positioned in the sterile field to be visible to an operator at the operating table  20024 . In addition, a visualization/notification tower  20026  is positioned outside the sterile field. The visualization/notification tower  20026  may include a first non-sterile human interactive device (HID)  20027  and a second non-sterile HID  20029 , which may face away from each other. The HID may be a display or a display with a touchscreen allowing a human to interface directly with the HID. A human interface system, guided by the surgical hub  20006 , may be configured to utilize the HIDs  20027 ,  20029 , and  20023  to coordinate information flow to operators inside and outside the sterile field. In an example, the surgical hub  20006  may cause an HID (e.g., the primary HID  20023 ) to display a notification and/or information about the patient and/or a surgical procedure step. in an example, the surgical hub  20006  may prompt for and/or receive input front personnel in the sterile field or in the non-sterile area. In an example, the surgical hub  20006  may cause an HID to display a snapshot of a surgical site, as recorded by an imaging device  20030 , on a non-sterile HID  20027  or  20029 , while maintaining a live feed of the surgical site on the primary HID  20023 . The snapshot on the non-sterile display  20027  or  20029  can permit a non-sterile operator to perform a diagnostic step relevant to the surgical procedure, for example. 
     In one aspect, the surgical hub  20006  may be configured to route a diagnostic input or feedback entered by a non-sterile operator at the visualization tower  20026  to the primary display  20023  within the sterile field, where it can be viewed by a sterile operator at the operating table. In one example, the input can be in the form of a modification to the snapshot displayed on the non-sterile display  20027  or  20029 , which can be routed to the primary display  20023  by the surgical hub  20006 . 
     Referring to  FIG. 2A , a surgical instrument  20031  is being used in the surgical procedure as part of the surgeon monitoring system  20002 . The hub  20006  may be configured to coordinate information flow to a display of the surgical instrument  20031 . For example, in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2019-0200844 A1 (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/209,385), titled METHOD OF HUB COMMUNICATION, PROCESSING, STORAGE AND DISPLAY, filed Dec. 4, 2018, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. A diagnostic input or feedback entered by a non-sterile operator at the visualization tower  20026  can be routed by the hub  20006  to the surgical instrument display within the sterile field, where it can be viewed by the operator of the surgical instrument  20031 . Example surgical instruments that are suitable for use with the surgical system  20002  are described under the heading “Surgical Instrument Hardware” and in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2019-0200844 A1 (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/209,385), titled METHOD OF HUB COMMUNICATION, PROCESSING, STORAGE AND DISPLAY, filed Dec. 4, 2018, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety, for example. 
       FIG. 2A  illustrates an example of a surgical system  20002  being used to perform a surgical procedure on a patient who is lying down on an operating table  20024  in a surgical operating room  20035 . A robotic system  20034  may be used in the surgical procedure as a part of the surgical system  20002 . The robotic system  20034  may include a surgeon&#39;s console  20036 , a patient side cart  20032  (surgical robot), and a surgical robotic hub  20033 . The patient side cart  20032  can manipulate at least one removably coupled surgical tool  20037  through a minimally invasive incision in the body of the patient while the surgeon views the surgical site through the surgeon&#39;s console  20036 . An image of the surgical site can be obtained by a medical imaging device  20030 , which can be manipulated by the patient side cart  20032  to orient the imaging device  20030 . The robotic hub  20033  can be used to process the images of the surgical site for subsequent display to the surgeon through the surgeon&#39;s console  20036 . 
     Other types of robotic systems can be readily adapted for use with the surgical system  20002 . Various examples of robotic systems and surgical tools that are suitable for use with the present disclosure are described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2019-0201137 A1 (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/209,407), titled METHOD OF ROBOTIC HUB COMMUNICATION, DETECTION, AND CONTROL, filed Dec. 4, 2018, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     Various examples of cloud-based analytics that are performed by the cloud computing system  20008 , and are suitable for use with the present disclosure, are described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2019-0206569 A1 (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/209,403), titled METHOD OF CLOUD BASED DATA ANALYTICS FOR USE WITH THE HUB, filed Dec. 4, 2018, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     In various aspects, the imaging device  20030  may include at least one image sensor and one or more optical components. Suitable image sensors may include, but are not limited to, Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) sensors and Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) sensors. 
     The optical components of the imaging device  20030  may include one or more illumination sources and/or one or more lenses. The one or more illumination sources may be directed to illuminate portions of the surgical field. The one or more image sensors may receive light reflected or refracted from the surgical field, including light reflected or refracted from tissue and/or surgical instruments. 
     The one or more illumination sources may be configured to radiate electromagnetic energy in the visible spectrum as well as the invisible spectrum. The visible spectrum, sometimes referred to as the optical spectrum or luminous spectrum, is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to (i.e., can be detected by) the human eye and may be referred to as visible light or simply light. A typical human eve will respond to wavelengths in air that range from about 380 nm to about 750 nm. 
     The invisible spectrum (e.g., the non-luminous spectrum) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that lies below and above the visible spectrum (i.e., wavelengths below about 380 nm and above about 750 nm). The invisible spectrum is not detectable by the human eye. Wavelengths greater than about 750 nm are longer than the red visible spectrum, and they become invisible infrared (IR), microwave, and radio electromagnetic radiation. Wavelengths less than about 380 nm are shorter than the violet spectrum, and they become invisible ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma ray electromagnetic radiation. 
     In various aspects, the imaging device  20030  is configured for use in a minimally invasive procedure. Examples of imaging devices suitable for use with the present disclosure include, but are not limited to, an arthroscope, angioscope, bronchoscope, choledochoscope, colonoscope, cytoscope, duodenoscope, enteroscope, esophagogastro-duodenoscope (gastroscope), endoscope, laryngoscope, nasopharyngo-neproscope, sigmoidoscope, thoracoscope, and ureteroscope. 
     The imaging device may employ multi-spectrum monitoring to discriminate topography and underlying structures. A multi-spectral image is one that captures image data with specific wavelength ranges across the electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelengths may be separated by filters or by the use of instruments that are sensitive to particular wavelengths, including light from frequencies beyond the visible light range, e.g., IR and ultraviolet. Spectral imaging can allow extraction of additional information that the human eye fails to capture with its receptors for red, green, and blue. The use of multi-spectral imaging is described in greater detail under the heading “Advanced Imaging Acquisition Module” in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2019-0200844 A1 (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/209,385), titled METHOD OF HUB COMMUNICATION, PROCESSING, STORAGE AND DISPLAY, filed Dec. 4, 2018, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Multi-spectrum monitoring can be a useful tool in relocating a surgical field after a surgical task is completed to perform one or more of the previously described tests on the treated tissue. It is axiomatic that strict sterilization of the operating room and surgical equipment is required during any surgery. The strict hygiene and sterilization conditions required in a “surgical theater,” i.e., an operating or treatment room, necessitate the highest possible sterility of all medical devices and equipment. Part of that sterilization process is the need to sterilize anything that comes in contact with the patient or penetrates the sterile field, including the imaging device  20030  and its attachments and components. It will be appreciated that the sterile field may be considered a specified area, such as within a tray or on a sterile towel, that is considered free of microorganisms, or the sterile field may be considered an area, immediately around a patient, who has been prepared for a surgical procedure. The sterile field may include the scrubbed team members, who are properly attired, and all furniture and fixtures in the area. 
     Wearable sensing system  20011  illustrated in  FIG. 1  may include one or more sensing systems, for example, surgeon sensing systems  20020  as shown in  FIG. 2A . The surgeon sensing systems  20020  may include sensing systems to monitor and detect a set of physical states and/or a set of physiological states of a healthcare provider (HCP). An HCP may be a surgeon or one or more healthcare personnel assisting the surgeon or other healthcare service providers in general. In an example, a sensing system  20020  may measure a set of biomarkers to monitor the heart rate of an HCP. In another example, a sensing system  20020  worn on a surgeon&#39;s wrist (e.g., a watch or a wristband) may use an accelerometer to detect hand motion and/or shakes and determine the magnitude and frequency of tremors. The sensing system  20020  may send the measurement data associated with the set of biomarkers and the data associated with a physical state of the surgeon to the surgical hub  20006  for further processing. One or inure environmental sensing devices may send environmental information to the surgical hub  20006 . For example, the environmental sensing devices may include a camera  20021  for detecting hand/body position of an HCP. The environmental sensing devices may include microphones  20022  for measuring the ambient noise in the surgical theater. Other environmental sensing devices may include devices, for example, a thermometer to measure temperature and a hygrometer to measure humidity of the surroundings in the surgical theater, etc. The surgical hub  20006 , alone or in communication with the cloud computing system, may use the surgeon biomarker measurement data and/or environmental sensing information to modify the control algorithms of hand-held instruments or the averaging delay of a robotic interface, for example, to minimize tremors. In an example, the surgeon sensing systems  20020  may measure one or more surgeon biomarkers associated with an HCP and send the measurement data associated with the surgeon biomarkers to the surgical hub  20006 . The surgeon sensing systems  20020  may use one or more of the following RF protocols for communicating with the surgical hub  20006 : Bluetooth, Bluetooth Low-Energy (BLE), Bluetooth Smart, Zigbee, Z-wave, IPv6 Low-power wireless Personal Area Network (6LoWPAN), Wi-Fi. The surgeon biomarkers may include one or more of the following: stress, heart rate, etc. The environmental measurements from the surgical theater may include ambient noise level associated with the surgeon or the patient, surgeon and/or staff movements, surgeon and/or staff attention level, etc. 
     The surgical hub  20006  may use the surgeon biomarker measurement data associated with an HCP to adaptively control one or inure surgical instruments  20031 . For example, the surgical hub  20006  may send a control program to a surgical instrument  20031  to control its actuators to limit or compensate for fatigue and use of fine motor skills. The surgical hub  20006  may send the control program based on situational awareness and/or the context on importance or criticality of a task. The control program may instruct the instrument to alter operation to provide more control when control is needed. 
       FIG. 2B  shows an example of a patient monitoring system  20003  (e.g., a controlled patient monitoring system). As illustrated in  FIG. 2B , a patient in a controlled environment (e.g., in a hospital recovery room) may be monitored by a plurality of sensing systems (e.g., patient sensing systems  20041 ). A patient sensing system  20041  (e.g., a head band) may be used to measure an electroencephalogram (EEG) to measure electrical activity of the brain of a patient. A patient sensing system  20042  may be used to measure various biomarkers the patient including, for example, heart rate, VO2 level, etc. A patient sensing system  20043  (e.g., flexible patch attached to the patient&#39;s skin) may be used to measure sweat lactate and/or potassium levels by analyzing small amounts of sweat that is captured from the surface of the skin using microfluidic channels. A patient sensing system  20044  (e.g., a wristband or a watch) may be used to measure blood pressure, heart rate, heart rate variability, VO2 levels, etc. using various techniques, as described herein. A patient sensing system  20045  (e.g., a ring on finger) may be used to measure peripheral temperature, heart rate, heart rate variability, VO2 levels, etc. using various techniques, as described herein. The patient sensing systems  20041 - 20045  may use a radio frequency (RF) link to be in communication with the surgical hub  20006 . The patient sensing systems  20041 - 20045  may use one or more of the following RF protocols for communication with the surgical hub  20006 : Bluetooth, Bluetooth Low-Energy (BLE), Bluetooth Smart, Zigbee, Z-wave, IPv6 Low-power wireless Personal Area Network (6LoWPAN), Thread, Wi-Fi, etc. 
     The sensing systems  20041 - 20045  may be in communication with a surgical hub  20006 , which in turn may be in communication with a remote server  20009  of the remote cloud computing system  20008 . The surgical hub  20006  is also in communication with an HID  20046 . The HID  20046  may display measured data associated with one or more patient biomarkers. For example, the HID  20046  may display blood pressure, Oxygen saturation level, respiratory rate, etc. The HID  20046  may display notifications For the patient or an HCP providing information about the patient, for example, information about a recovery milestone or a complication. In an example, the information about a recovery milestone or a complication may be associated with a surgical procedure the patient may have undergone. In an example, the HID  20046  may display instructions for the patient to perform an activity. For example, the HID  20046  may display inhaling and exhaling instructions. In an example the HID  20046  may be part of a sensing system. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 2B . the patient and the environment surrounding the patient may be monitored by one or more environmental sensing systems  20015  including, for example, a microphone (e.g., for detecting ambient noise associated with or around a patient), a temperature/humidity sensor, a camera for detecting breathing patterns of the patient, etc. The environmental sensing systems  20015  may be in communication with the surgical hub  20006 , which in turn is in communication with a remote server  20009  of the remote cloud computing system  20008 . 
     In an example, a patient sensing system  20044  may receive a notification information from the surgical hub  20006  for displaying on a display unit or an HID of the patient sensing system  20044 . The notification information may include a notification about a recovery milestone or a notification about a complication, for example, in case of post-surgical recovery. In an example, the notification information may include an actionable severity level associated with the notification. The patient sensing system  20044  may display the notification and the actionable severity level to the patient. The patient sensing system may alert the patient using a haptic feedback. The visual notification and/or the haptic notification may be accompanied by an audible notification prompting the patient to pay attention to the visual notification provided on the display unit of the sensing system. 
       FIG. 2C  shows an example of a patient monitoring system (e.g., an uncontrolled patient monitoring system  20004 ). As illustrated in  FIG. 2C , a patient in an uncontrolled environment (e.g., a patient&#39;s residence) is being monitored by a plurality of patient sensing systems  20041 - 20045 . The patient sensing systems  20041 - 20045  may measure and/or monitor measurement data associated with one or more patient biomarkers. For example, a patient sensing system  20041 , a head band, may be used to measure an electroencephalogram (EEG). Other patient sensing systems  20042 ,  20043 ,  20044 , and  20045  are examples where various patient biomarkers are monitored, measured, and/or reported, as described in  FIG. 2B . One or more of the patient sensing systems  20041 - 20045  may be send the measured data associated with the patient biomarkers being monitored to the computing device  20047 , which in turn may be in communication with a remote server  20009  of the remote cloud computing system  20008 . The patient sensing systems  20041 - 20045  may use a radio frequency (RF) link to be in communication with a computing device  20047  (e.g., a smart phone, a tablet, etc.). The patient sensing systems  20041 - 20045  may use one or more of the following RF protocols for communication with the computing device  20047 : Bluetooth, Bluetooth Low-Energy (BLE), Bluetooth Smart, Zigbee, Z-wave, IPv6 Low-power wireless Personal Area Network (6LoWPAN), Thread, Wi-Fi, etc. In an example, the patient sensing systems  20041 - 20045  may be connected to the computing device  20047  via a wireless router, a wireless hub, or a wireless bridge. 
     The computing device  20047  may be in communication with a remote server  20009  that is part of a cloud computing system  20008 . In an example, the computing device  20047  may be in communication with a remote server  20009  via an interact service provider&#39;s cable/FIOS networking node. In an example, a patient sensing system may be in direct communication with a remote server  20009 . The computing device  20047  or the sensing system may communicate with the remote servers  20009  via a cellular transmission/reception point (TRP) or a base station using one or more of the following cellular protocols: GSM/GPRS/EDGE (2G), UMTS/HSPA (3G), long term evolution (LTE) or 4G, LTE-Advanced (LTE-A), new radio (NR) or 5G. 
     In an example, a computing device  20047  may display information associated with a patient biomarker. For example, a computing device  20047  may display blood pressure, Oxygen saturation level, respiratory rate, etc. A computing device  20047  may display notifications for the patient or an HCP providing information about the patient, for example, information about a recovery milestone or a complication. 
     In an example, the computing device  20047  and/or the patient sensing system  20044  may receive a notification information from the surgical hub  20006  for displaying on a display unit of the computing device  20047  and/or the patient sensing system  20044 . The notification information may include a notification about a recovery milestone or a notification about a complication, for example, in case of post-surgical recovery. The notification information may also include an actionable seventy level associated with the notification. The computing device  20047  and/or the sensing system  20044  may display the notification and the actionable severity level to the patient. The patient sensing system may also alert the patient using a haptic feedback. The visual notification and/or the haptic notification may be accompanied by an audible notification prompting the patient to pay attention to the visual notification provided on the display unit of the sensing system. 
       FIG. 3  shows an example surgeon monitoring system  20002  with a surgical hub  20006  paired with a wearable sensing system  20011 , an environmental sensing system  20015 , a human interface system  20012 , a robotic system  20013 , and an intelligent instrument  20014 . The hub  20006  includes a display  20048 , an imaging module  20049 , a generator module  20050 , a communication module  20056 , a processor module  20057 , a storage array  20058 , and an operating-room mapping module  20059 . In certain aspects, as illustrated in  FIG. 3 , the hub  20006  further includes a smoke evacuation module  20054  and/or a suction/irrigation module  20055 . During a surgical procedure, energy application to tissue, for sealing and/or cutting, is generally associated with smoke evacuation, suction of excess fluid, and/or irrigation of the tissue. Fluid, power, and/or data lines from different sources are often entangled during the surgical procedure. Valuable time can be lost addressing this issue during a surgical procedure. Detangling the lines may necessitate disconnecting the lines from their respective modules, which may require resetting the modules. The hub modular enclosure  20060  offers a unified environment for managing the power, data, and fluid lines, which reduces the frequency of entanglement between such lines. Aspects of the present disclosure present a surgical hub  20006  for use in a surgical procedure that involves energy application to tissue at a surgical site. The surgical hub  20006  includes a hub enclosure  20060  and a combo generator module slidably receivable in a docking station of the hub enclosure  20060 . The docking station includes data and power contacts. The combo generator module includes two or more of an ultrasonic energy generator component, a bipolar RF energy generator component, and a monopolar RF energy generator component that are housed in a single unit. In one aspect, the combo generator module also includes a smoke evacuation component, at least one energy delivery cable for connecting the combo generator module to a surgical instrument, at least one smoke evacuation component configured to evacuate smoke, fluid, and/or particulates generated by the application of therapeutic energy to the tissue, and a fluid line extending from the remote surgical site to the smoke evacuation component. In one aspect, the fluid line may be a first fluid line, and a second fluid line may extend from the remote surgical site to a suction and irrigation module  20055  slidably received in the hub enclosure  20060 . In one aspect, the hub enclosure  20060  may include a fetid interface. Certain surgical procedures may require the application of more than one energy type to the tissue. One energy type may be more beneficial for cubing the tissue, while another different energy type may be more beneficial for sealing the tissue. For example, a bipolar generator can be used to seal the tissue while an ultrasonic generator can be used to cut the sealed tissue. Aspects of the present disclosure present a solution where a hub modular enclosure  20060  is configured to accommodate different generators and facilitate an interactive communication therebetween. One of the advantages of the hub modular enclosure  20060  is enabling the quick removal and/or replacement of various modules. Aspects of the present disclosure present a modular surgical enclosure for use in a surgical procedure that involves energy application to tissue. The modular surgical enclosure includes a first energy-generator module, configured to generate a first energy for application to the tissue, and a first docking station comprising a first docking port that includes first data and power contacts, wherein the first energy-generator module is slidably movable into an electrical engagement with the power and data contacts and wherein the first energy-generator module is slidably movable out of the electrical engagement with the first power and data contacts. Further to the above, the modular surgical enclosure also includes a second energy-generator module configured to generate a second energy, different than the first energy, for application to the tissue, and a second docking station comprising a second docking port that includes second data and power contacts, wherein the second energy-generator module is slidably movable into an electrical engagement with the power and data contacts, and wherein the second energy-generator module is slidably movable out of the electrical engagement with the second power and data contacts. in addition, the modular surgical enclosure also includes a communication bus between the first docking port and the second docking port, configured to facilitate communication between the first energy-generator module and the second energy-generator module. Referring to  FIG. 3 , aspects of the present disclosure are presented for a hub modular enclosure  20060  that allows the modular integration of a generator module  20050 , a smoke evacuation module  20054 , and a suction /irrigation module  20055 . The hub modular enclosure  20060  further facilitates interactive communication between the modules  20059 ,  20054 , and  20055 . The generator module  20050  can be a generator module  20050  with integrated monopolar, bipolar, and ultrasonic components supported in a single housing unit slidably insertable into the hub modular enclosure  20060 . The generator module  20050  can be configured to connect to a monopolar device  20051 , a bipolar device  20052 , and an ultrasonic device  20053 . Alternatively, the generator module  20050  may comprise a series of monopolar, bipolar, and/or ultrasonic generator modules that interact through the hub modular enclosure  20060 . The hub modular enclosure  20060  can be configured to facilitate the insertion of multiple generators and interactive communication between the generators docked into the hub modular enclosure  20060  so that the generators would act as a single generator. 
       FIG. 4  illustrates a surgical data network having a set of communication hubs configured to connect a set of sensing systems, an environment sensing system, and a set of other modular devices located in one or more operating theaters of a healthcare facility, a patient recovery room, or a room in a healthcare facility specially equipped for surgical operations, to the cloud, in accordance with at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 4 , a surgical hub system  20060  may include a modular communication hub  20065  that is configured to connect modular devices located in a healthcare facility to a cloud-based system (e.g., a cloud computing system  20064  that may include a remote server  20067  coupled to a remote storage  20068 ). The modular communication hub  20065  and the devices may be connected in a room in a healthcare facility specially equipped for surgical operations. In one aspect, the modular communication hub  20065  may include a network hub  20061  and/or a network switch  20062  in communication with a network router  20066 . The modular communication hub  20065  may be coupled to a local computer system  20063  to provide local computer processing and data manipulation. Surgical data network associated with the surgical hub system  20060  may be configured as passive, intelligent, or switching. A passive surgical data network serves as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one device (or segment) to another and to the cloud computing resources. An intelligent surgical data network includes additional features to enable the traffic passing through the surgical data network to be monitored and to configure each port in the network hub  20061  or network switch  20062 . An intelligent surgical data network may be referred to as a manageable hub or switch. A switching hub reads the destination address of each packet and then forwards the packet to the correct port. 
     Modular devices  1   a - 1   n  located in the operating; theater may be coupled to the modular communication hub  20063 . The network hub  20061  and/or the network switch  20062  may be coupled to a network router  20066  to connect the devices  1   a - 1   n  to the cloud computing system  20064  or the local computer system  20063 . Data associated with the devices  1   a - 1   n  may be transferred to cloud-based computers via the router for remote data processing and manipulation. Data associated with the devices  1   a - 1   n  may also be transferred to the local computer system  20063  for local data processing and manipulation. Modular devices  2   a - 2   m  located in the same operating theater also may be coupled to a network switch  20062 . The network switch  20062  may be coupled to the network hub  20061  and/or the network router  20066  to connect the devices  2   a - 2   m  to the cloud  20064 . Data associated with the devices  2   a - 2   m  may be transferred to the cloud computing system  20064  via the network router  20066  for data processing and manipulation. Data associated with the devices  2   a - 2   m  may also be transferred to the local computer system  20063  for local data processing and manipulation. 
     The wearable sensing system  20011  may include one or more sensing systems  20069 . The sensing systems  20069  may include a surgeon sensing system and/or a patient sensing system. The one or more sensing systems  20069  may be in communication with the computer system  20063  of a surgical hub system  20060  or the cloud server  20067  directly via one of the network routers  20066  or via a network hub  20061  or network switching  20062  that is in communication with the network routers  20066 . 
     The sensing systems  20069  may be coupled to the network router  20066  to connect to the sensing systems  20069  to the local computer system  20063  and/or the cloud computing system  20064 . Data associated with the sensing systems  20069  may be transferred to the cloud computing system  20064  via the network router  20066  for data processing and manipulation. Data associated with the sensing systems  20069  may also be transferred to the local computer system  20063  for local data processing and manipulation. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 4 , the surgical hub system  20060  may be expanded by interconnecting multiple network hubs  20061  and/or multiple network switches  20062  with multiple network routers  20066 . The modular communication hub  20065  may be contained in a modular control tower configured to receive multiple devices  1   a - 1   n / 2   a - 2   m . The local computer system  20063  also may be contained in a modular control tower. The modular communication hub  20065  may be connected to a display  20068  to display images obtained by some of the devices  1   a - 1   n/   2   a - 2   m , for example dating surgical procedures. In various aspects, the devices  1   a - 1   n / 2   a - 2   m  may include, for example, various modules such as an imaging module coupled to an endoscope, a generator module coupled to an energy-based surgical device, a smoke evacuation module, a suction/irrigation module, a communication module, a processor module, a storage array, a surgical device coupled to a display, and/or a non-contact sensor module, among other modular devices that may be connected to the modular communication hub  20065  of the surgical data network. 
     In one aspect, the surgical hub system  20060  illustrated in  FIG. 4  may comprise a combination of network hub(s), network switch(es), and network router(s) connecting the devices  1   a - 1   n/   2   a - 2   m  or the sensing systems  20069  to the cloud-base system  20064 . One or more of the devices  1   a - 1   n/   2   a - 2   m  or the sensing systems  20069  coupled to the network hub  20061  or network switch  20062  may collect data or measurement data in real-time and transfer the data to cloud computers for data processing and manipulation. It will be appreciated that cloud computing relies on sharing computing resources rather than having local servers or personal devices to handle software applications. The word “cloud” may be used as a metaphor for “the Internet,” although the term is not limited as such. Accordingly, the term “cloud computing” may be used herein to refer to “a type of Internet-based computing,” where different services such as servers, storage, and applications are delivered to the modular communication hub  20065  and/or computer system  20063  located in the surgical theater (e.g., a fixed, mobile, temporary, or field operating room or space) and to devices connected to the modular communication hub  20065  and/or computer system  20063  through the Internet. The cloud infrastructure may be maintained by a cloud service provider. In this context, the cloud service provider may be the entity that coordinates the usage and control of the devices  1   a - 1   n / 2   a - 2   m  located in one or more operating theaters. The cloud computing services can perform a large number of calculations based on the data gathered by smart surgical instruments, robots, sensing systems, and other computerized devices located in the operating theater. The hub hardware enables multiple devices, sensing systems, and/or connections to be connected to a computer that communicates with the cloud computing resources and storage. 
     Applying cloud computer data processing techniques on the data collected by the devices  1   a - 1   n / 2   a - 2   m , the surgical data network can provide improved surgical outcomes, reduced costs, and improved patient satisfaction. At least some of the devices  1   a - 1   n / 2   a - 2   m  may be employed to view tissue states to assess leaks or perfusion of sealed tissue after a tissue sealing and cutting procedure. At least some of the devices  1   a - 1   n / 2   a - 2   m  may be employed to identify pathology, such as the effects of diseases, using the cloud-based computing to examine data including images of samples of body tissue for diagnostic purposes. This may include localization and margin confirmation of tissue and phenotypes. At least some of the devices  1   a - 1   n / 2   a - 2   m  may be employed to identify anatomical structures of the body using a variety of sensors integrated with imaging devices and techniques such as overlaying images captured by multiple imaging devices. The data gathered by the devices  1   a - 1   n / 2   a - 2   m , including image data, may be transferred to the cloud computing system  20064  or the local computer system  20063  or both for data processing and manipulation including image processing and manipulation. The data may be analyzed to improve surgical procedure outcomes by determining if further treatment, such as the application of endoscopic intervention, emerging technologies, a targeted radiation, targeted intervention, and precise robotics to tissue-specific sites and conditions, may be pursued. Such data analysis may further employ outcome analytics processing and using standardized approaches may provide beneficial feedback to either confirm surgical treatments and the behavior of the surgeon or suggest modifications to surgical treatments and the behavior of the surgeon. 
     Applying cloud computer data processing techniques on the measurement data collected by the sensing systems  20069 , the surgical data network can provide improved surgical outcomes, improved recovery outcomes, reduced costs, and improved patient satisfaction. At least some of the sensing systems  20069  may be employed to assess physiological conditions of a surgeon operating on a patient or a patient being prepared for a surgical procedure or a patient recovering after a surgical procedure. The cloud-based computing system  20064  may be used to monitor biomarkers associated with a surgeon or a patient in real-time and to generate surgical plans based at least on measurement data gathered prior to a surgical procedure, provide control signals to the surgical instruments during a surgical procedure, notify a patient of a complication during post-surgical period. 
     The operating theater devices la-in may be connected to the modular communication hub  20065  over a wired channel or a wireless channel depending on the configuration of the devices  1   a - 1   n  to a network hub  20061 . The network hub  20061  may be implemented, in one aspect, as a local network broadcast device that works on the physical layer of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. The network hub may provide connectivity to the devices  1   a - 1   n  located in the same operating theater network. The network hub  20061  may collect data, in the form of packets and sends them to the router in half duplex mode. The network hub  20061  may not store any media access control/Internet Protocol (MAC/IP) to transfer the device data. Only one of the devices  1   a - 1   n  can send data at a time through the network hub  20061 . The network hub  20061  may not have routing tables or intelligence regarding where to send information and broadcasts all network data across each connection and to a remote server  20067  of the cloud computing system  20064 . The network hub  20061  can detect basic network errors such as collisions but having all information broadcast to multiple ports can be a security risk and cause bottlenecks. 
     The operating theater devices  2   a - 2   m  may be connected to a network switch  20062  over a wired channel or a wireless channel. The network switch  20062  works in the data link layer of the OSI model. The network switch  20062  may be a multicast device for connecting the devices  2   a - 2   m  located in the same operating theater to the network. The network switch  20062  may send data in the form of frames to the network router  20066  and may work in full duplex mode. Multiple devices  2   a - 2   m  can send data at the same time through the network switch  20062 . The network switch  20062  stores and uses MAC addresses of the devices  2   a - 2   m  to transfer data. 
     The network hub  20061  and/or the network switch  20062  may be coupled to the network router  20066  for connection to the cloud computing system  20064 . The network router  20066  works in the network layer of the OSI model. The network router  20066  creates a route for transmitting data packets received from the network hub  20061  and/or network. switch  20062  to cloud-based computer resources for further processing and manipulation of the data collected by any one of or all the devices  1   a - 1   n / 2   a - 2   m  and wearable sensing system  20011 . The network router  20066  may be employed to connect two or more different networks located in different locations, such as, for example, different operating theaters of the same healthcare facility or different networks located in different operating theaters of different healthcare facilities. The network router  20066  may send data in the form of packets to the cloud computing system  20064  and works in full duplex mode. Multiple devices can send data at the same time. The network router  20066  may use IP addresses to transfer data. 
     In an example, the network hub  20061  may be implemented as a USB hub, which allows multiple USB devices to be connected to a host computer. The USB hub may expand a single USB port into several tiers so that there are more ports available to connect devices to the host system computer. The network hub  20061  may include wired or wireless capabilities to receive information over a wired channel or a wireless channel. In one aspect, a wireless USB short-range, high-bandwidth wireless radio communication protocol may be employed for communication between the devices  1   a - 1   n  and devices  2   a - 2   m  located in the operating theater. 
     In examples, the operating theater devices  1   a - 1   n/   2   a - 2   m  and/or the sensing systems  20069  may communicate to the modular communication hub  20065  via Bluetooth wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using short-wavelength UHF radio waves in the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz) from fixed and mobile devices and building personal area networks (PANs). The operating theater devices  1   a - 1   n / 2   a - 2   m  and/or the sensing systems  20069  may communicate to the modular communication hub  20065  via a number of wireless or wired communication standards or protocols, including but not limited to Bluetooth, Low-Energy Bluetooth, near-field communication (NFC), Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11 family), WiMAX (IEEE 802.16 family), IEEE 802.20, new radio (NR), long-term evolution (LTE), and Ev-DO, HSPA+, HSDPA+, HSUPA+, EDGE, GSM, GPRS, CDMA, TDMA, DECT, and Ethernet derivatives thereof, as well as any other wireless and wired protocols that are designated as 3G, 4G, 5G, and beyond. The computing module may include a plurality of communication modules. For instance, a first communication module may be dedicated to shorter-range wireless communications such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth Low-Energy Bluetooth, Bluetooth Smart, and a second communication module may be dedicated to longer-range wireless communications such as GPS, EDGE, GPRS, CDMA, WiMAX, LTE, Ev-DO, HSPA+, HSDPA+, HSUPA+, EDGE, GSM, GPRS, CDMA, TDMA, and others. 
     The modular communication hub  20065  may serve as a central connection for one or more of the operating theater devices  1   a - 1   n / 2   a - 2   m  and/or the sensing systems  20069  and may handle a data type known as frames. Frames may carry the data generated by the devices  1   a - 1   n / 2   a - 2   m  and/or the sensing systems  20069 . When a frame is received by the modular communication hub  20065 , it may be amplified and/or sent to the network router  20066 , which may transfer the data to the cloud computing system  20064  or the local computer system  20063  by using a number of wireless or wired communication standards or protocols, as described herein. 
     The modular communication hub  20065  can be used as a standalone device or be connected to compatible network hubs  20061  and network switches  20062  to form a larger network. The modular communication hub  20065  can be generally easy to install, configure, and maintain, making it a good option for networking the operating theater devices  1   a - 1   n / 2   a - 2   m.    
       FIG. 5  illustrates a computer-implemented interactive surgical system  20070  that may be a part of the surgeon monitoring system  20002 . The computer-implemented interactive surgical system  20070  is similar in many respects to the surgeon sensing system  20002 . For example, the computer-implemented interactive surgical system  20070  may include one or more surgical sub-systems  20072 , which are similar in many respects to the surgeon monitoring systems  20002 . Each sub-surgical system  20072  includes at least one surgical hub  20076  in communication with a cloud computing system  20064  that may include a remote server  20077  and a remote storage  20078 . In one aspect, the computer-implemented interactive surgical system  20070  may include a modular control tower  20085  connected to multiple operating theater devices such as sensing systems (e.g., surgeon sensing systems  20002  and/or patient sensing system  20003 ), intelligent surgical instruments, robots, and other computerized devices located in the operating theater. As shown in  FIG. 6A , the modular control tower  20085  may include a modular communication hub  20065  coupled to a local computing system  20063 . 
     As illustrated in the example of  FIG. 5 , the modular control tower  20085  may be coupled to an imaging module  20088  that may be coupled to an endoscope  20087 , a generator module  20090  that may be coupled to an energy device  20089 , a smoke evacuator module  20091 , a suction/irrigation module  20092 , a communication module  20097 , a processor module  20093 , a storage array  20094 , a smart device/instrument  20095  optionally coupled to a display  20086  and  20084  respectively, and a non-contact sensor module  20096 . The modular control tower  20085  may also be in communication with one or more sensing systems  20069  and an environmental sensing system  20015 . The sensing systems  20069  may be connected to the modular control tower  20085  either directly via a router or via the communication module  20097 . The operating theater devices may be coupled to cloud computing resources and data. storage via the modular control tower  20085 . A robot surgical hub  20082  also may be connected to the modular control tower  20085  and to the cloud computing resources. The devices instruments  20095  or  20084 , human interface system  20080 , among others, may be coupled to the modular control tower  20085  via wired or wireless communication standards or protocols, as described herein. The human interface system  20080  may include a display sub-system and a notification sub-system. The modular control tower  20085  may be coupled to a hub display  20081  (e.g., monitor, screen) to display and overlay images received from the imaging module  20088 , device/instrument display  20086 , and/or other human interface systems  20080 . The hub display  20081  also may display data received from devices connected to the modular control tower  20085  in conjunction with images and overlaid images. 
       FIG. 6A  illustrates a surgical hub  20076  comprising a plurality of modules coupled to the modular control tower  20085 . As shown in  FIG. 6A , the surgical hub  20076  may be connected to a generator module  20090 , the smoke evacuator module  20091 , suction/irrigation module  20092 , and the communication module  20097 . The modular control tower  20085  may comprise a modular communication hub  20065 , e.g., a network connectivity device, and a computer system  20063  to provide local wireless connectivity with the sensing systems, local processing, complication monitoring, visualization, and imaging, for example. As shown in  FIG. 6A , the modular communication hub  20065  may be connected in a configuration (e.g a tiered configuration) to expand a number of modules (e.g, devices) and a number of sensing systems  20069  that may be connected to the modular communication hub  20065  and transfer data associated with the modules and/or measurement data associated with the sensing systems  20069  to the computer system  20063 , cloud computing resources, or both. As shown in  FIG. 6A , each of the network hubs/switches  20061 / 20062  in the modular communication hub  20065  may include three downstream ports and one upstream port. The upstream network hub /switch may be connected to a processor  20102  to provide a communication connection to the cloud computing resources and a local display  20108 . At least one of the network/hub switches  20061 / 20062  in the modular communication hub  20065  may have at least one wireless interface to provided communication connection between the sensing systems  20069  and/or the devices  20095  and the cloud computing system  20064 . Communication to the cloud computing system  20064  may be made either through a wired or a wireless communication channel. 
     The surgical hub  20076  may employ a non-contact sensor module  20096  to measure the dimensions of the operating theater and generate a map of the surgical theater using either ultrasonic or laser-type non-contact measurement devices. An ultrasound-based non-contact sensor module may scan the operating theater by transmitting a burst of ultrasound and receiving the echo when it bounces off the perimeter walls of an operating theater as described under the heading “Surgical Hub Spatial Awareness Within an Operating Room” in U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/611,341, titled INTERACTIVE SURGICAL PLATFORM, filed Dec. 28, 2017, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety, in which the sensor module is configured to determine the size of the operating theater and to adjust Bluetooth-pairing distance limits. A laser-based non-contact sensor module may scan the operating theater by transmitting laser light pulses, receiving laser light pulses that bounce off the perimeter walls of the operating theater, and comparing the phase of the transmitted pulse to the received pulse to determine the size of the operating theater and to adjust Bluetooth pairing distance limits, for example. 
     The computer system  20063  may comprise a processor  20102  and a network interface  20100 . The processor  20102  may be coupled to a communication module  20103 , storage  20104 , memory  20105 , non-volatile memory  20106 , and input/output (I/O) interface  20107  via a system bus. The system bus can be any of several types of bus structure(s) including the memory bus or memory controller, a peripheral bus or external bus, and or a local bus using any variety of available bus architectures including, but not limited to, 9-bit bus, industrial Standard Architecture (ISA), Micro-Charmel Architecture (MSA), Extended ISA (EISA), Intelligent Drive Electronics (IDE), VESA Local Bus (VLB), Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), USB, Advanced Graphics Port (AGP), Personal Computer Memory Card International Association bus (PCMCIA), Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI), or any other proprietary bus. 
     The processor  20102  may be any single-core or multicore processor such as those known under the trade name ARM Cortex by Texas Instruments. In one aspect, the processor may be an LM4F230H5QR ARM Cortex-M4F Processor Come, available from Texas Instruments, for example, comprising an on chip memory of 256 KB single cycle flash memory, or other non-volatile memory, up to 40 MHz, a prefetch buffer to improve performance above 40 MHz, a 32 KB single-cycle serial random access memory (SRAM), an internal read-only memory (ROM) loaded with StellarisWare® software, a 2 KB electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), and/or one or more pulse width modulation (PWM) modules, one or more quadrature encoder inputs (QEI) analogs, one or more 12-bit analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) with 12 analog input channels, details of which are available for the product datasheet. 
     In an example, the processor  20102  may comprise a safety controller comprising two controller-based families such as TMS570 and RM4x, known under the trade name Hercules ARM Cortex R4, also by Texas Instruments. The safety controller may be configured specifically for IEC 61508 and ISO 26262 safety critical applications, among others, to provide advanced integrated safety features while delivering scalable performance, connectivity, and memory options. 
     The system memory may include volatile memory and non-volatile memory. The basic input/output system (BIOS), containing the basic routines to transfer information between elements within the computer system, such as during start-up, is stored in non-volatile memory. For example, the non-volatile memory can include ROM, programmable ROM (PROM), electrically programmable ROM (EPROM), EEPROM, or flash memory. Volatile memory includes random-access memory (RAM), which acts as external cache memory. Moreover, RAM is available in many forms such as SRAM, dynamic RAM (DRAM), synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), double data rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM), enhanced SDRAM (ESDRAM), Synchlink DRAM (SLDRAM), and direct Rambus RAM (DRRAM). 
     The computer system  20063  also may include removable/non-removable, volatile/non-volatile computer storage media, such as for example disk storage. The disk storage can include, but is not limited to, devices like a magnetic disk drive, floppy disk drive, tape drive, Jaz drive, Zip drive, LS-60 drive, flash memory card, or memory stick. In addition, the disk storage can include storage media separately or in combination with other storage media including, but not limited to, an optical disc drive such as a compact disc ROM device (CD-ROM), compact disc recordable drive (CD-R Drive), compact disc rewritable drive (CD-RW Drive), or a digital versatile disc ROM drive (DVD-ROM). To facilitate the connection of the disk storage devices to the system bus, a removable or non-removable interface may be employed. 
     It is to be appreciated that the computer system  20063  may include software that acts as an intermediary between users and the basic computer resources described in a suitable operating environment. Such software may include an operating system. The operating system, which can be stored on the disk storage, may act to control and allocate resources of the computer system. System applications may take advantage of the management of resources by the operating system through program modules and program data stored either in the system memory or on the disk storage. It is to be appreciated that various components described herein can be implemented with various operating systems or combinations of operating systems. 
     A user may enter commands or information into the computer system  20063  through input device(s) coupled to the I/O interface  20107 . The input devices may include, but are not limited to, a pointing device such as a mouse, trackball, stylus, touch pad, keyboard, microphone, joystick, game pad, satellite dish, scanner, TV tuner card, digital camera, digital video camera, web camera, and the like. These and other input devices connect to the processor  20102  through the system bus via interface port(s). The interface port(s) include, for example, a serial port, a parallel port, a game port, and a USB. The output device(s) use some of the same types of ports as input device(s). Thus, for example, a USB port may be used to provide input to the computer system  20063  and to output information from the computer system  20063  to an output device. An output adapter may be provided to illustrate that there can be some output devices like monitors, displays, speakers, and printers, among other output devices that may require special adapters. The output adapters may include, by way of illustration and not limitation, video and sound cards that provide a means of connection between the output device and the system bus. It should be noted that other devices and/or systems of devices, such as remote computer(s), may provide both input and output capabilities. 
     The computer system  20063  can operate in a networked environment using logical connections to one or more remote computers, such as cloud computer(s), or local computers. The remote cloud computer(s) can be a personal computer, server, router, network PC, workstation, microprocessor-based appliance, peer device, or other common network node, and the like, and typically includes many or all of the elements described relative to the computer system. For purposes of brevity, only a memory storage device is illustrated with the remote computer(s). The remote computer(s) may be logically connected to the computer system through a network interface and then physically connected via a communication connection. The network interface may encompass communication networks such as local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs). LAN technologies may include Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI), Ethernet/IEEE 802.3, Token Ring/IEEE 802.5, and the like. WAN technologies may include, but are not limited to, point-to-point links, circuit-switching networks like Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN) and variations thereon, packet-switching networks, and Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL). 
     In various examples, the computer system  20063  of  FIG. 4 ,  FIG. 6A  and  FIG. 6B , the imaging module  20088  and/or human interface system  20080 , and/or the processor module  20093  of  FIG. 5  and  FIG. 6A  may comprise an image processor, image-processing engine, media processor, or any specialized digital signal processor (DSP) used for the processing of digital images. The image processor may employ parallel computing with single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) or multiple instruction, multiple data (MIMD) technologies to increase speed and efficiency. The digital image-processing engine can perform a range of tasks. The image processor may be a system on a chip with multicore processor architecture. 
     The communication connection(s) may refer to the hardware/software employed to connect the network interface to the bus. While the communication connection is shown for illustrative clarity inside the computer system  20063 , it can also be external to the computer system  20063 . The hardware/software necessary for connection to the network interface may include, for illustrative purposes only, internal and external technologies such as modems, including regular telephone-grade moderns, cable modems, optical fiber modems, and DSL modems, ISDN adapters, and Ethernet cards. In some examples, the network interface may also be provided using an RF interface. 
       FIG. 6B  illustrates an example of a wearable monitoring system, e.g., a controlled patient monitoring system. A controlled patient monitoring system may be the sensing system used to monitor a set of patient biomarkers when the patient is at a healthcare facility. The controlled patient monitoring system may be deployed for pre-surgical patient monitoring when a patient is being prepared for a surgical procedure, in-surgical monitoring when a patient is being operated on, or in post-surgical monitoring, for example, when a patient is recovering, etc. As illustrated in  FIG. 6B , a controlled patient monitoring system may include a surgical hub system  20076 , which may include one or more routers  20066  of the modular communication hub  20065  and a computer system  20063 . The routers  20065  may include wireless routers, wired switches, wired routers, wired or wireless networking hubs, etc. In an example, the routers  20065  may be part of the infrastructure. The computing system  20063  may provide local processing for monitoring various biomarkers associated with a patient or a surgeon, and a notification mechanism to indicate to the patient and/or a healthcare provided (HCP) that a milestone (e.g., a recovery milestone) is met or a complication is detected. The computing system  20063  of the surgical hub system  20076  may also be used to generate a seventy level associated with the notification, for example, a notification that a complication has been detected. 
     The computing system  20063  of  FIG. 4 ,  FIG. 6B , the computing device  20200  of  FIG. 6C , the hub/computing device  20243  of  FIG. 7B ,  FIG. 7C , or  FIG. 7D  may be a surgical computing system or a hub device, a laptop, a tablet, a smart phone, etc. 
     As shown in  FIG. 6B , a set of sensing systems  20069  and/or an environmental sensing system  20015  (as described in  FIG. 2A ) may be connected to the surgical hub system  20076  via the routers  20065 . The routers  20065  may also provide a direct communication connection between the sensing systems  20069  and the cloud computing system  20064 , for example, without involving the local computer system  20063  of the surgical hub system  20076 . Communication from the surgical hub system  20076  to the cloud  20064  may be made either through a wired or a wireless communication channel. 
     As shown in  FIG. 6B , the computer system  20063  may include a processor  20102  and a network interface  20100 . The processor  20102  may be coupled to a radio frequency (RF) interface or a communication module  20103 , storage  20104 , memory  20105 , non-volatile memory  20106 , and input/output interface  20107  via a system bus, as described in  FIG. 6A . The computer system  20063  may be connected with a local display unit  20108 . In some examples, the display unit  20108  may be replaced by a HID. Details about the hardware and software components of the computer system are provided in  FIG. 6A . 
     As shown in  FIG. 6B , a sensing system  20069  may include a processor  20110 . The processor  20110  may be coupled to a radio frequency (RF) interface  20114 , storage  20113 , memory (e.g., a non-volatile memory)  20112 , and I/O interface  20111  via a system bus. The system bus can be any of several types of bus structure(s) including the memory bus or memory controller, a peripheral bus or external bus, and/or a local bus, as described herein. The processor  20110  may be any single-core or multicore processor as described herein. 
     It is to be appreciated that the sensing system  20069  may include software that acts as an intermediary between sensing system users and the computer resources described in a suitable operating environment. Such software may include an operating system. The operating system, which can be stored on the disk storage, may act to control and allocate resources of the computer system. System applications may take advantage of the management of resources by the operating system through program modules and program data stored either in the system memory or on the disk storage. It is to be appreciated that various components described herein can be implemented with various operating systems or combinations of operating systems. 
     The sensing system  20069  may be connected to a human interface system  20115 . The human interface system  20115  may be a touch screen display. The human interface system  20115  may include a human interface display for displaying information associated with a surgeon biomarker and/or a patient biomarker, display a prompt for a user action by a patient or a surgeon, or display a notification to a patient or a surgeon indicating information about a recovery millstone or a complication. The human interface system  20113  may be used to receive Input from a patient or a surgeon. Other human interface systems may be connected to the sensing system  20069  via the I/O interface  20111 . For example, the human interface device  20115  may include devices for providing a haptic feedback as a mechanism for prompting a user to pay attention to a notification that may be displayed on a display unit. 
     The sensing system  20069  may operate in a networked environment using logical connections to one or more remote computers, such as cloud computer(s), or local computers. The remote cloud computer(s) can be a personal computer, server, router, network PC, workstation, microprocessor-based appliance, peer device, or other common network node, and the like, and typically includes many or all of the elements described relative to the computer system. The remote computer(s) may be logically connected to the computer system through a network interface. The network interface may encompass communication networks such as local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), and/or mobile networks. LAN technologies may include Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI), Ethernet/IEEE 802.3, Token Ring/IEEE 802.5, Wi-Fi/IEEE 802.11, and the like. WAN technologies may include, but are not limited to, point-to-point links, circuit-switching networks like Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN) and variations thereon, packet-switching networks, and Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL). The mobile networks may include communication links based on one or more of the following mobile communication protocols: GSM/GPRS/EDGE (2G), UMTS/HSPA (3G), long term evolution (LTE) or 4G, LTE-Advanced (LTE-A), new radio (NR) or 5G, etc. 
       FIG. 6C  illustrates an exemplary uncontrolled patient monitoring system, for example, when the patient is away from a healthcare facility. The uncontrolled patient monitoring system may be used for pre-surgical patient monitoring when a patient is being prepared for a surgical procedure but is away from a healthcare facility, or in post-surgical monitoring, for example, when a patient is recovering away from a healthcare facility. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 6C , one or more sensing systems  20069  are in communication with a computing device  20200 , for example, a personal computer, a laptop, a tablet, or a smart phone. The computing system  20200  may provide processing for monitoring of various biomarkers associated with a patient, a notification mechanism to indicate that a milestone (e.g., a recovery milestone) is met or a complication is detected. The computing system  20200  may also provide instructions for the user of the sensing system to follow. The communication between the sensing systems  20069  and the computing device  20200  may be established directly using a wireless protocol as described herein or via, the wireless router/hub  20211 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 6C , the sensing systems  20069  may be connected to the computing device  20200  via router  20211 . The router  20211  may include wireless routers, wired switches, wired routers, wired or wireless networking hubs, etc. The router  20211  may provide a direct communication connection be the sensing systems  20069  and the cloud servers  20064 , for example, without involving the local computing device  20200 . The computing device  20200  may be in communication with the cloud server  20064 . For example, the computing device  20200  may be in communication with the cloud  20064  through a wired or a wireless communication channel. In an example, a sensing system  20069  may be in communication with the cloud directly over a cellular network, for example, via a cellular base station  20210 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 6C , the computing device  20200  may include a processor  20203  and a network or an RF interface  20201 . The processor  20203  may be coupled to a storage  20202 , memory  20212 , non-volatile memory  20213 , and input/output interface  20204  via a system bus, as described in  FIG. 6A  and  FIG. 6B . Details about the hardware and software components of the computer system are provided in  FIG. 6A . The computing device  20200  may include a set of sensors, for example, sensor # 1   20205 , sensor # 2   20206  up to sensor #n  20207 . These sensors may be a part of the computing device  20200  and may be used to measure one or more attributes associated with the patient. The attributes may provide a context about a biomarker measurement performed by one of the sensing systems  20069 . For example, sensor # 1  may be an accelerometer that may be used to measure acceleration forces in order to sense movement or vibrations associated with the patient. In an example, the sensors  20205  to  20207  may include one or more of: a pressure sensor, an altimeter, a thermometer, a lidar, or the like. 
     As shown in  FIG. 6B , a sensing system  20069  may include a processor, a radio frequency interface, a storage, a memory or non-volatile memory, and input/output interface via a system bus, as described in  FIG. 6A . The sensing system may include a sensor unit and a processing and communication unit, as described in  FIG. 7B through 7D . The system bus can be any of several types of bus structure(s) including the memory bus or memory controller, a peripheral bus or external bus, and/or a local bus, as described herein. The processor may be any single-core or multicore processor, as described herein. 
     The sensing system  20069  may be in communication with a human interface system  20215 . The human interface system  20215  may be a touch screen display. The human interface system  20215  may be used to display information associated with a patient biomarker, display a prompt for a user action by a patient, or display a notification to a patient indicating information about a recovery millstone or a complication. The human interface system  20215  may be used to receive input from a patient. Other human interface systems may be connected to the sensing system  20069  via the I/O interface. For example, the human interface system may include devices for providing a haptic feedback as a mechanism for prompting a user to pay attention to a notification that may be displayed on a display unit. The sensing system  20069  may operate in a networked environment using logical connections to one or more remote computers, such as cloud computer(s), or local computers, as described in  FIG. 6B . 
       FIG. 7A  illustrates a logical diagram of a control system  20220  of a surgical instrument or a surgical tool in accordance with one or more aspects of the present disclosure. The surgical instrument or the surgical tool may be configurable. The surgical instrument may include surgical fixtures specific to the procedure at-hand, such as imaging devices, surgical staplers, energy devices, endocutter devices, or the like. For example, the surgical instrument may include any of a powered stapler, a powered stapler generator, an energy device, an advanced energy device, an advanced energy jaw device, an endocutter clamp, an energy device generator, an in-operating-room imaging system, a smoke evacuator, a suction-irrigation device, an insufflation system, or the like. The system  20220  may comprise a control circuit. The control circuit may include a microcontroller  20221  comprising a processor  20222  and a memory  20223 . One or more of sensors  20225 ,  20226 ,  20227 , for example, provide real-time feedback to the processor  20222 . A motor  20230 , driven by a motor driver  20229 , operably couples a longitudinally movable displacement member to drive the I-beam knife element. A tracking system  20228  may be configured to determine the position of the longitudinally movable displacement member. The position information may be provided to the processor  20222 , which can be programmed or configured to determine the position of the longitudinally movable drive member as well as the position of a firing member, firing bar, and I-beam knife element. Additional motors may be provided at the tool driver interface to control I-beam firing, closure tube travel, shaft rotation, and articulation. A display  20224  may display a variety of operating conditions of the instruments and may include touch screen functionality for data input. Information displayed on the display  20224  may be overlaid with images acquired via endoscopic imaging modules. 
     In one aspect, the microcontroller  20221  may be any single-core or multicore processor such as those known under the trade name ARM Cortex by Texas Instruments. In one aspect, the main microcontroller  20221  may be an LM4F230H5QR ARM Cortex-M4F Processor Core, available from Texas Instruments, for example, comprising an on-chip memory of 256 KB single-cycle flash memory, or other non-volatile memory, up to 40 MHz, a prefetch buffer to improve performance above 40 MHz, a 32 KB single-cycle SRAM, and internal ROM loaded with StellarisWare® software, a 2 KB EEPROM, one or more PWM modules, one or more QEI analogs, and/or one or more 12-bit ADCs with 12 analog input channels, details of which are available for the product datasheet. 
     In one aspect, the microcontroller  20221  may comprise a safety controller comprising two controller-based families such as TMS570 and RM4x, known under the trade name Hercules ARM Cortex R4, also by Texas Instruments. The safety controller may be configured specifically for IEC 61508 and ISO 26262 safety critical applications, among others, to provide advanced integrated safety features while delivering scalable performance, connectivity, and memory options. 
     The microcontroller  20221  may be programmed to perform various functions such as precise control over the speed and position of the knife and articulation systems. In one aspect, the microcontroller  20221  may include a processor  20222  and a memory  20223 . The electric motor  20230  may be a brushed direct current (DC) motor with a gearbox and mechanical links to an articulation or knife system. In one aspect, a motor driver  20229  may be an A3941 available from Allegro Microsystems, Inc. Other motor drivers may be readily substituted for use in the tracking system  20228  comprising an absolute positioning system. A detailed description of an absolute positioning system is described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2017/0296213, titled SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR CONTROLLING A SURGICAL STAPLING AND CUTTING INSTRUMENT, which published on Oct. 19, 2017, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     The microcontroller  20221  may be programmed to provide precise control over the speed and position of displacement members and articulation systems. The microcontroller  20221  may be configured to compute a response in the software of the microcontroller  20221 . The computed response may be compared to a measured response of the actual system to obtain an “observed” response, which is used for actual feedback decisions. The observed response may be a favorable, tuned value that balances the smooth, continuous nature of the simulated response with the measured response, which can detect outside influences on the system. 
     In some examples, the motor  20230  may be controlled by the motor driver  20229  and can be employed by the firing system of the surgical instrument or tool. In various forms, the motor  20230  may be a brushed DC driving motor having a maximum rotational speed of approximately 25,000 RPM. In some examples, the motor  20230  may include a brushless motor, a cordless motor, a synchronous motor, a stepper motor, or any other suitable electric motor. The motor driver  20229  may comprise an H-bridge driver comprising field-effect transistors (FETs), for example. The motor  20230  can be powered by a power assembly releasably mounted to the handle assembly or tool housing for supplying control power to the surgical instrument or tool. The power assembly may comprise a battery which may include a number of battery cells connected in series that can be used as the power source to power the surgical instrument or tool. In certain circumstances, the battery cells of the power assembly may be replaceable and/or rechargeable. In at least one example, the battery cells can be lithium-ion batteries which can be couplable to and separable from the power assembly. 
     The motor driver  20229  may be an A3941 available from Allegro Microsystems, Inc. A3941 may be a full-bridge controller for use with external N-channel power metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) specifically designed for inductive loads, such as brush DC motors. The driver  20229  may comprise a unique charge pump regulator that can provide full (&gt;10 V) gate drive for battery voltages down to 7 V and can allow the A3941 to operate with a reduced gate drive, down to 5.5 V. A bootstrap capacitor may be employed to provide the above battery supply voltage required for N-channel MOSFETs. An internal charge pump for the high-side drive may allow DC (100% duty cycle) operation. The full bridge can be driven in fast or slow decay modes using diode or synchronous rectification. In the slow decay mode, current recirculation can be through the high-side or the low-side FETs. The power FETs may be protected from shoot-through by resistor-adjustable dead time. Integrated diagnostics provide indications of undervoltage, overtemperature, and power bridge faults and can be configured to protect the power MOSFETs under most short circuit conditions. Other motor drivers may be readily substituted for use in the tracking system  20228  composing an absolute positioning system. 
     The tracking system  20228  may comprise a controlled motor drive circuit arrangement comprising a position sensor  20225  according to one aspect of this disclosure. The position sensor  20225  for an absolute positioning system may provide a unique position signal corresponding to the location of a displacement member. In some examples, the displacement member may represent a longitudinally movable drive member comprising a rack of drive teeth for meshing engagement with a corresponding drive gear of a gear reducer assembly. In some examples, the displacement member may represent the firing member, which could be adapted and configured to include a rack of drive teeth. In some examples, the displacement member may represent a firing bar or the I-beam, each of which can be adapted and configured to include a rack of drive teeth. Accordingly, as used herein, the term displacement member can be used generically to refer to any movable member of the surgical instrument or tool such as the drive member, the firing member, the firing bar, the I-beam, or any element that can be displaced. In one aspect, the longitudinally movable drive member can be coupled to the firing member, the firing bar, and the I-beam. Accordingly, the absolute positioning system can, in effect, track the linear displacement of the I-beam by tracking the linear displacement of the longitudinally movable drive member. In various aspects, the displacement member may be coupled to any position sensor  20225  suitable for measuring linear displacement. Thus, the longitudinally movable drive member, the firing member, the firing bar, or the I-beam, or combinations thereof, may be coupled to any suitable linear displacement sensor. Linear displacement sensors may include contact or non-contact displacement sensors. Linear displacement sensors may comprise linear variable differential transformers (LVDT), differential variable reluctance transducers (DVRT), a slide potentiometer, a magnetic sensing system comprising a movable magnet and a series of linearly arranged Hall effect sensors, a magnetic sensing system comprising a fixed magnet and a series of movable, linearly arranged Hall effect sensors, an optical sensing system comprising a movable light source and a series of linearly arranged photo diodes or photo detectors, an optical sensing system comprising a fixed light source and a series of movable linearly, arranged photodiodes or photodetectors, or any combination thereof. 
     The electric motor  20230  can include a rotatable shaft that operably interfaces with a gear assembly that is mounted in meshing engagement with a set, or rack, of drive teeth on the displacement member. A sensor element may be operably coupled to a gear assembly such that a single revolution of the position sensor  20225  element corresponds to some linear longitudinal translation of the displacement member. An arrangement of gearing and sensors can be connected to the linear actuator, via a rack and pinion arrangement, or a rotary actuator, via a spur gear or other connection. A power source may supply power to the absolute positioning system and an output indicator may display the output of the absolute positioning system. The displacement member may represent the longitudinally movable drive member comprising a rack of drive teeth formed thereon for meshing engagement with a corresponding drive gear of the gear reducer assembly. The displacement member may represent the longitudinally movable firing member, firing bar, I-beam, or combinations thereof. 
     A single revolution of the sensor element associated with the position sensor  20225  may be equivalent to a longitudinal linear displacement d1 of the of the displacement member, where d1 is the longitudinal linear distance that the displacement member moves from point “a” to point “b” after a single revolution of the sensor element coupled to the displacement member. The sensor arrangement may be connected via a gear reduction that results in the position sensor  20225  completing one or more revolutions for the full stroke of the displacement member. The position sensor  20225  may complete multiple revolutions for the full stroke of the displacement member. 
     A series of switches, where n is an integer greater than one, may be employed alone or in combination with a gear reduction to provide a unique position signal for more than one revolution of the position sensor  20225 . The state of the switches may be fed back to the microcontroller  20221  that applies logic to determine a unique position signal corresponding to the longitudinal linear displacement d1+d2+ . . . dn of the displacement member. The output of the position sensor  20225  is provided to the microcontroller  20221 . The position sensor  20225  of the sensor arrangement may comprise a magnetic sensor, an analog rotary sensor like a potentiometer, or an array of analog Hall-effect elements, which output a unique combination of positron signals or values. 
     The position sensor  20225  may comprise any number of magnetic sensing elements, such as, for example, magnetic sensors classified according to whether they measure the total magnetic field or the vector components of the magnetic field. The techniques used to produce both types of magnetic sensors may encompass many aspects of physics and electronics. The technologies used for magnetic field sensing may include search coil, fluxgate, optically pumped, nuclear precession, SQUID, Hall-effect, anisotropic magnetoresistance, giant magnetoresistance, magnetic tunnel junctions, giant magnetoimpedance, magnetostrictive/piezoelectric composites, magnetodiode, magnetotransistor, fiber-optic, magneto-optic, and microelectromechanical systems-based magnetic sensors, among others. 
     In one aspect, the position sensor  20225  for the tracking system  20228  comprising an absolute positioning system may comprise a magnetic rotary absolute positioning system. The position sensor  20225  may be implemented as an AS5055EQFT single-chip magnetic rotary position sensor available from Austria Microsystems, AG. The position sensor  20225  is interfaced with the microcontroller  20221  to provide an absolute positioning system. The position sensor  20225  may be a low-voltage and low-power component and may include four Hall-effect elements in an area of the position sensor  20225  that may be located above a magnet. A high-resolution ADC and a smart power management controller may also be provided on the chip. A coordinate rotation digital computer (CORDIC) processor, also known as the digit-by-digit method and Volder&#39;s algorithm, may be provided to implement a simple and efficient algorithm to calculate hyperbolic and trigonometric functions that require only addition, subtraction, bit-shift, and table lookup operations. The angle position, alarm bits, and magnetic field information may be transmitted over a standard serial communication interface, such as a serial peripheral interface (SPI) interface, to the microcontroller  20221 . The position sensor  20225  may provide 12 or 14 bits of resolution. The position sensor  20225  may be an AS5055 chip provided in a small QFN 16-pin 4×4×0.85 mm package. 
     The tracking system  20228  comprising an absolute positioning system may comprise and/or be programmed to implement a feedback controller, such as a PID, state feedback, and adaptive controller. A power source converts the signal from the feedback controller into a physical input to the system: in this case the voltage. Other examples include a PWM of the voltage, current, and force. Other sensor(s) may be provided to measure physical parameters of the physical system in addition to the position measured by the position sensor  20225 . In some aspects, the other sensor(s) can include sensor arrangements such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,345,481, titled STAPLE CARTRIDGE TISSUE THICKNESS SENSOR SYSTEM, which issued on May 24, 2016, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2014/0263552, titled STAPLE CARTRIDGE TISSUE THICKNESS SENSOR SYSTEM, which published on Sep. 18, 2014, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/628,175, titled TECHNIQUES FOR ADAPTIVE CONTROL OF MOTOR VELOCITY OF A SURGICAL STAPLING AND CUTTING INSTRUMENT, filed Jun. 20, 2017, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. In a digital signal processing system, an absolute positioning system is coupled to a digital data acquisition system where the output of the absolute positioning system will have a finite resolution and sampling frequency. The absolute positioning system may comprise a compare-and-combine circuit to combine a computed response with a measured response using algorithms, such as a weighted average and a theoretical control loop, that drive the computed response towards the measured response. The computed response of the physical system may take into account properties like mass, inertia, viscous friction, inductance resistance, etc., to predict what the states and outputs of the physical system will be by knowing the input. 
     The absolute positioning system may provide an absolute position of the displacement member upon power-up of the instrument, without retracting or advancing the displacement member to a reset (zero or home) position as may be required with conventional rotary encoders that merely count the number of steps forwards or backwards that the motor  20230  has taken to infer the position of a device actuator, drive bar, knife, or the like. 
     A sensor  20226 , such as, to example, a strain gauge or a micro-strain gauge, may be configured to measure one or more parameters of the end effector, such as, for example, the amplitude of the strain exerted on the anvil during a clamping operation, which can be indicative of the closure forces applied to the anvil. The measured strain may be converted to a digital signal and provided to the processor  20222 . Alternatively, or in addition to the sensor  20226 , a sensor  20227 , such as, for example, a load sensor, can measure the closure force applied by the closure drive system to the anvil. The sensor  20227 , such as, for example, a load sensor, can measure the firing force applied to an I-beam in a firing stroke of the surgical instrument or tool. The I-beam is configured to engage a wedge sled, which is configured to upwardly cam staple drivers to force out staples into deforming contact with an anvil. The I-beam also may include a sharpened cutting edge that can be used to sever tissue as the I-beam is advanced distally by the firing bar. Alternatively, a current sensor  20231  can be employed to measure the current drawn by the motor  20230 . The force required to advance the firing member can correspond to the current drawn by the motor  20230 , for example. The measured force may be converted to a digital signal and provided to the processor  20222 . 
     In one form, the strain gauge sensor  20226  can be used to measure the force applied to the tissue by the end effector. A strain gauge can be coupled to the end effector to measure the force on the tissue being treated by the end effector. A system for measuring forces applied to the tissue grasped by the end effector may comprise a strain gauge sensor  20226 , such as, for example, a micro-strain gauge, that can be configured to measure one or more parameters of the end effector, for example. In one aspect, the strain gauge sensor  20226  can measure the amplitude or magnitude of the strain exerted on a jaw member of an end effector during a clamping operation, which can be indicative of the tissue compression. The measured strain can be converted to a digital signal and provided to a processor  20222  of the microcontroller  20221 . A load sensor  20227  can measure the force used to operate the knife element, for example, to cut the tissue captured between the anvil and the staple cartridge. A magnetic field sensor can be employed to measure the thickness of the captured tissue. The measurement of the magnetic field sensor also may be converted to a digital signal and provided to the processor  20222 . 
     The measurements of the tissue compression, the tissue thickness, and/or the force required to close the end effector on the tissue, as respectively measured by the sensors  20226 ,  20227 , can be used by the microcontroller  20221  to characterize the selected position of the firing member and/or the corresponding value of the speed of the firing member. In one instance, a memory  20223  may store a technique, an equation, and/or a lookup table which can be employed by the microcontroller  20221  in the assessment. 
     The control system  20220  of the surgical instrument or tool also may comprise wired or wireless communication circuits to communicate with the modular communication hub  20065  as shown in  FIG. 5  and  FIG. 6A . 
       FIG. 7B  shows an example sensing system  20069 . The sensing system may be a surgeon sensing system or a patient sensing system. The sensing system  20069  may include a sensor unit  20235  and a human interface system  20242  that are in communication with a data processing and communication unit  20236 . The data processing and communication unit  20236  may include an analog-to-digital converted  20237 , a data processing unit  20238 , a storage unit  20239 , and an input/output interface  20241 , a transceiver  20240 . The sensing system  20069  may be in communication with a surgical hub or a computing device  20243 , which in turn is in communication with a cloud computing system  20244 . The cloud computing system  20244  may include a cloud storage system  20078  and one or more cloud servers  20077 . 
     The sensor unit  20235  may include one or more ex vivo or in vivo sensors for measuring one or more biomarkers. The biomarkers may include, for example, Blood pH, hydration state, oxygen saturation, core body temperature, heart rate, Heart rate variability, Sweat rate, Skin conductance, Blood pressure, Light exposure, Environmental temperature, Respiratory rate, Coughing and sneezing, Gastrointestinal motility, Gastrointestinal tract imaging, Tissue perfusion pressure, Bacteria in respiratory tract, Alcohol consumption, Lactate (sweat), Peripheral temperature, Positivity and optimism, Adrenaline (sweat), Cortisol (sweat), Edema, Mycotoxins, VO2 max, Pre-operative pain, chemicals in the air, Circulating tumor cells, Stress and anxiety, Confusion and delirium, Physical activity, Autonomic tone, Circadian rhythm, Menstrual cycle, Sleep, etc. These biomarkers may be measured using one or more sensors, for example, photosensors (e.g., photodiodes, photoresistors), mechanical sensors (e.g., motion sensors), acoustic sensors, electrical sensors, electrochemical sensors, thermoelectric sensors, infrared sensors, etc. The sensors may measure the biomarkers as described herein using one of more of the following sensing technologies: photoplethysmography, electrocardiography, electroencephalography, colorimetry, impedimentary, potentiometry, amperometry, etc. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 7B , a sensor in the sensor unit  20235  may measure a physiological signal (e.g., a voltage, a current, a PPG signal, etc.) associated with a biomarker to be measured. The physiological signal to be measured may depend on the sensing technology used, as described herein. The sensor unit  20235  of the sensing system  20069  may be in communication with the data processing and communication unit  20236 . In an example, the sensor unit  20235  may communicate with the data processing and communication unit  20236  using a wireless interface. The data processing and communication unit  20236  may include an analog-to-digital converter (ADC)  20237 , a data processing unit  20238 , a storage  20239 , an I/O interface  20241 , and an RF transceiver  20240 . The data processing unit  20238  may include a processor and a memory unit. 
     The sensor unit  20235  may transmit the measured physiological signal to the ADC  20237  of the data processing and communication unit  20236 . In an example, the measured physiological signal may be passed through one or more filters (e.g., an RC low-pass filter) before being sent to the ADC. The ADC may convert the measured physiological signal into measurement data associated with the biomarker. The ADC may pass measurement data to the data processing unit  20238  for processing. In an example, the data processing unit  20238  may send the measurement data associated with the biomarker to a surgical hub or a computing device  20243 , which in turn may send the measurement data to a cloud computing system  20244  for further processing. The data processing unit may send the measurement data to the surgical hub or the computing device  20243  using one of the wireless protocols, as described herein. In an example, the data processing unit  20238  may first process the raw measurement data received from the sensor unit and send the processed measurement data to the surgical hub or a computing device  20243 . 
     In an example, the data processing and communication unit  20236  of the sensing system  20069  may receive a threshold value associated with a biomarker for monitoring from a surgical hub, a computing device  20243 , or directly from a cloud server  20077  of the cloud computing system  20244 . The data processing unit  20236  may compare the measurement data associated with the biomarker to be monitored with the corresponding threshold value received from the surgical hub, the computing device  20243 , or the cloud server  20077 . The data processing and communication unit  20236  may send a notification message to the HID  20242  indicating that a measurement data value has crossed the threshold value. The notification message may include the measurement data associated with the monitored biomarker. The data processing and computing unit  20236  may send a notification via a transmission to a surgical hub or a computing device  20243  using one of the following RF protocols: Bluetooth, Bluetooth Low-Energy (BLE), Bluetooth Smart, Zigbee, Z-wave, IPv6 Low-power wireless Personal Area Network (6LoWPAN), Wi-Fi. The data processing unit  20238  may send a notification (e.g., a notification for an HCP) directly to a cloud server via a transmission to a cellular transmission/reception point (TRP) or a base station using one or more of the following cellular protocols: GSM/GPRS/EDGE (2G), UMTS/HSPA (3G), long term evolution (LTE) or 4G, LTE-Advanced (LTE-A), new radio (NR) or 5G. In an example, the sensing unit may be in communication with the hub/computing device via a router, as described in  FIG. 6A  through  FIG. 6C . 
       FIG. 7C  shows an example sensing system  20069  (e.g., a surgeon sensing system or a patient sensing system). The sensing system  20069  may include a sensor unit  20245 , a data processing and communication unit  20246 , and a human interface device  20242 . The sensor unit  20245  may include a sensor  20247  and an analog-to-digital converted (ADC)  20248 . The ADC  20248  in the sensor unit  20245  may convert a physiological signal measured by the sensor  20247  into measurement data associated with a biomarker. The sensor unit  20245  may send the measurement data to the data processing and communication unit  20246  for further processing. In an example, the sensor unit  20245  may send the measurement data to the data processing and communication unit  20246  using an inter-integrated circuit (I2C) interface. 
     The data processing and communication unit  20246  includes a data processing unit  20249 , a storage unit  20250 , and an RF transceiver  20251 . The sensing system may be in communication with a surgical hub or a computing device  20243 , which in turn may be in communication with a cloud computing system  20244 . The cloud computing system  20244  may include a remote server  20077  and an associated remote storage  20078 . The sensor unit  20245  may include one or more ex vivo or in vivo sensors for measuring one or more biomarkers, as described herein. 
     The data processing and communication unit  20246  after processing the measurement data received from the sensor unit  20245  may further process the measurement data and/or send the measurement data to the smart hub or the computing device  20243 , as described in  FIG. 7B . In an example, the data processing and communication unit  20246  may send the measurement data received from the sensor unit  20245  to the remote server  20077  of the cloud computing system  20244  for further processing and/or monitoring. 
       FIG. 7D  shows an example sensing system  20069  (e.g., a surgeon sensing system or a patient sensing system). The sensing system  20069  may include a sensor unit  20252 , a data processing and communication unit  20233 , and a human interface system  20261 . The sensor unit  20252  may include a plurality of sensors  20254 ,  20255  up to  20256  to measure one or more physiological signals associated with a patient or surgeon&#39;s biomarkers and/or one or more physical state signals associated with physical state of a patient or a surgeon. The sensor unit  20252  may also include one or more analog-to-digital converter(s) (ADCs)  20257 . A list of biomarkers may include biomarkers such as those biomarkers disclosed herein. The ADC(s)  20257  in the sensor unit  20252  may convert each of the physiological signals and/or physical state signals measured by the sensors  20254 - 20256  into respective measurement data. The sensor unit  20252  may send the measurement data associated with one or more biomarkers as well as with the physical state of a patient or a surgeon to the data processing and communication unit  20253  for further processing. The sensor unit  20252  may send the measurement data to the data processing and communication unit  20253  individually for each of the sensors Sensor  1   20254  to Sensor N  20256  or combined for all the sensors. In an example, the sensor unit  20252  may send the measurement data to the data processing and communication unit  20253  via an I2C interface. 
     The data processing and communication unit  20253  may include a data processing unit  20258 , a storage unit  20259 , and an RF transceiver  20260 . The sensing system  20069  may be in communication with a surgical hub or a computing device  20243 , which in tum is in communication with a cloud computing system  20244  comprising at least one remote server  20077  and at least one storage unit  20078 . The sensor units  20252  may include one or more ex vivo or in vivo sensors for measuring one or more biomarkers, as described herein. 
       FIG. 8  is an example of using a surgical task situational awareness and measurement data from one or more surgeon sensing systems to adjust surgical instrument controls.  FIG. 8  illustrates a timeline  20265  of an illustrative surgical procedure and the contextual information that a surgical hub can derive from data received from one or more surgical devices, one or more surgeon sensing systems, and/or one or more environmental sensing systems at each step in the surgical procedure. The devices that could be controlled by a surgical hub may include advanced energy devices, endocutter clamps, etc. The surgeon sensing systems may include sensing systems for measuring one or more biomarkers associated with the surgeon, for example, heart rate, sweat composition, respiratory rate, etc. The environmental sensing system may include systems for measuring one or more of the environmental attributes, for example, cameras for detecting a surgeon&#39;s position/movements/breathing pattern, spatial microphones, for example to measure ambient noise in the surgical theater and/or the tone of voice of a healthcare provider, temperature/humidity of the surroundings, etc. 
     In the following description of the timeline  20265  illustrated in  FIG. 8 , reference should also be made to  FIG. 5 .  FIG. 5  provides various components used in a surgical procedure. The timeline  20265  depicts the steps that may be taken individually and/or collectively by the nurses, surgeons, and other medical personnel during the course of an exemplary colorectal surgical procedure. In a colorectal surgical procedure, a situationally aware surgical hub  20076  may receive data from various data sources throughout the course of the surgical procedure, including data generated each time a healthcare provider (HCP) utilizes a modular device/instrument  20095  that is paired with the surgical hub  20076 . The surgical hub  20076  may receive this data from the paired modular devices  20095 . The surgical hub may receive measurement data from sensing systems  20069 . The hub may use the data from the modular device/instruments  20095  and/or measurement data from the sensing systems  20069  to continually derive inferences (i.e., contextual information) about an HCP&#39;s stress level and the ongoing procedure as new data is received, such that the stress level of the surgeon relative to the step of the procedure that is being performed is obtained. The situational awareness system of the surgical hub  20076  may perform one or more of the following record data pertaining to the procedure for generating reports, verify the steps being taken by the medical personnel, provide data or prompts (e.g., via a display screen) that may be pertinent for the particular procedural step, adjust modular devices based on the context (e.g., activate monitors, adjust the FOV of the medical imaging device, change the energy level of an ultrasonic surgical instrument or RF electrosurgical instrument), or take any other such action described herein. In an example, these steps may be performed by a remote server  20077  of a cloud system  20064  and communicated with the surgical hub  20076 . 
     As a first step (not shown in  FIG. 8  for brevity), the hospital staff members may retrieve the patient&#39;s EMR from the hospital&#39;s EMR database. Based on select patient data in the EMR, the surgical hub  20076  may determine that the procedure to be performed is a colorectal procedure. The staff members may scan the incoming medical supplies for the procedure. The surgical hub  20076  may cross-reference the scanned supplies with a list of supplies that can be utilized in various types of procedures and confirms that the mix of supplies corresponds to a colorectal procedure. The surgical hub  20076  may pair each of the sensing systems  20069  worn by different HCPs. 
     Once each or the devices is ready and pre-surgical preparation is complete, the surgical team may begin by making incisions and place trocars. The surgical team may perform access and prep by dissecting adhesions, if any, and identifying inferior mesenteric artery (IMA) branches. The surgical hub  20076  can infer that the surgeon is in the process of dissecting adhesions, at least based on the data it may receive from the RF or ultrasonic generator indicating that an energy instrument is being fired. The surgical hub  20076  may cross-reference the received data. with the retrieved steps of the surgical procedure to determine that an energy instrument being fired at this point in the process (e.g., after the completion of the previously discussed steps of the procedure) corresponds to the dissection step. 
     After dissection, the HCP may proceed to the ligation step (e.g., indicated by A 1 ) of the procedure. As illustrated in  FIG. 8 , the HCP may begin by ligating the IMA. The surgical hub  20076  may infer that the surgeon is ligating arteries and veins because it may receive data from the advanced energy jaw device and/or the endocutter indicating that the instrument is being fired. The surgical hub may also receive measurement data from one of the HCP&#39;s sensing systems indicating higher stress level of the HCP (e.g., indicated by B 1  mark on the time axis). For example, higher stress level may be indicated by change in the RCP&#39;s heart rate from a base value. The surgical hub  20076 , like the prior step, may derive this inference by cross-referencing the receipt of data from the surgical stapling and cutting instrument with the retrieved steps in the process (e.g., as indicated by A 2  and A 3 ). The surgical hub  20076  may monitor the advance energy jawtrigger ratio and/or the endocutter clamp and firing speed during the high stress time periods. in an example, the surgical hub  20076  may send an assistance control signal to the advanced energy jaw device and/or the endocutter device to control the device in operation. The surgical hub may send the assistance signal based on the stress level of the HCP that is operating the surgical device and/or situational awareness known to the surgical hub. For example, the surgical hub  20076  may send control assistance signals to an advanced energy device or an endocutter clamp, as indicated in  FIG. 8  by A 2  and A 3 . 
     The HCP may proceed to the next step of freeing the upper sigmoid followed by freeing descending colon, rectum, and sigmoid. The surgical hub  20076  may continue to monitor the high stress markers of the HCP (e.g., as indicated by D 1 , E 1   a,  E 1   b,  F 1 ). The surgical hub  20076  may send assistance signals to the advanced energy jaw device and/or the endocutter device during the high stress time periods, as illustrated in  FIG. 8 . 
     After mobilizing the colon, the HCP may proceed with the segmentectomy portion of the procedure. For example, the surgical hub  20076  may infer that the HCP is transecting tire bowel and sigmoid removal based on data from the surgical stapling and cutting instrument, including data from its cartridge. The cartridge data can correspond to the size or type of staple being fired by the instrument, for example. As different types of staples are utilized for different types of tissues, the cartridge data can thus indicate the type of tissue being stapled and/or transected. It should be rioted that surgeons regularly switch back and forth between surgical stapling/cutting instruments and surgical energy (e.g., RF or ultrasonic) instruments depending upon the step in the procedure because different instruments are better adapted for particular tasks. Therefore, the sequence in which the stapling/cutting instruments and surgical energy instruments are used can indicate what step of the procedure the surgeon is performing. 
     The surgical hub may determine and send a control signal to surgical device based on the stress level of the HCP. For example, during time period G 1   b,  a control signal G 2   b  may be sent to an endocutter clamp. Upon removal of the sigmoid, the incisions are closed, and the post-operative portion of the procedure may begin. The patient&#39;s anesthesia can be reversed. The surgical hub  20076  may infer that the patient is emerging from the anesthesia based on one or more sensing systems attached to the patient. 
       FIG. 9  is a block diagram of the computer-implemented interactive surgical system with surgeon/patient monitoring, in accordance with at least one aspect of the present disclosure. In one aspect, the computer-implemented interactive surgical system may be configured to monitor surgeon biomarkers and/or patient biomarkers using one or more sensing systems  20069 . The surgeon biomarkers and/or the patient biomarkers may be measured before, after, and/or during a surgical procedure. In one aspect, the computer-implemented interactive surgical system may be configured to monitor and analyze data related to the operation of various surgical systems  20069  that include surgical hubs, surgical instruments, robotic devices and operating theaters or healthcare facilities. The computer-implemented interactive surgical system may include a cloud-based analytics system. The cloud-based analytics system may include one or more analytics servers. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 9 , the cloud-based monitoring and analytics system may comprise a plurality of sensing systems  20268  (may be the same or similar to the sensing systems  20069 ), surgical instruments  20266  (may be the same or similar to instruments  20031 ), a plurality of surgical hubs  20270  (may be the same or similar to hubs  20006 ), and a surgical data network  20269  (may be the same or similar to the surgical data network described in  FIG. 4 ) to couple the surgical hubs  20270  to the cloud  20271  (may be the same or similar to cloud computing system  20064 ). Each of the plurality of surgical hubs  20270  may be communicatively coupled to one or more surgical instruments  20266 . Each of the plurality of surgical hubs  20270  may also be communicatively coupled to the one or more sensing systems  20268 , and the cloud  20271  of the computer-implemented interactive surgical system via the network  20269 . The surgical hubs  20270  and the sensing systems  20268  may be communicatively coupled using wireless protocols as described herein. The cloud system  20271  may be a remote centralized source of hardware and software for storing, processing, manipulating, and communicating measurement data from the sensing systems  20268  and data generated based on the operation of various surgical systems  20268 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 9 , access to the cloud system  20271  may be achieved via the network  20269 , which may be the Internet or some other suitable computer network. Surgical hubs  20270  that may be coupled to the cloud system  20271  can be considered the client side of the cloud computing system (e.g., cloud-based analytics system). Surgical instruments  20266  may be paired with the surgical hubs  20270  for control and implementation of various surgical procedures and/or operations, as described herein. Sensing systems  20268  may be paired with surgical hubs  20270  for in-surgical surgeon monitoring of surgeon related biomarkers, pre-surgical patient monitoring, in-surgical patient monitoring, or post-surgical monitoring of patient biomarkers to track and/or measure various milestones and/or detect various complications. Environmental sensing systems  20267  may be paired with surgical hubs  20270  measuring environmental attributes associated with a surgeon or a patient for surgeon monitoring, pre-surgical patient monitoring, in-surgical patient monitoring, or post-surgical monitoring of patient. 
     Surgical instruments  20266 , environmental sensing systems  20267 , and sensing systems  20268  may comprise wired or wireless transceivers for data transmission to and from their corresponding surgical hubs  20270  (which may also comprise transceivers). Combinations of one or more of surgical instruments  20266 , sensing systems  20268 , or surgical hubs  20270  may indicate particular locations, such as operating theaters, intensive care unit (ICU) rooms, or recovery rooms in healthcare facilities (e.g., hospitals), for providing medical operations, pre-surgical preparation, and/or post-surgical recovery. For example, the memory of a surgical hub  20270  may store location data. 
     As shown in  FIG. 9 , the cloud system  20271  may include one or more central servers  20272  (may be same or similar to remote server  20067 ), surgical hub application servers  20276 , data analytics modules  20277 , and an input/output (“I/O”) interface  20278 . The central servers  20272  of the cloud system  20271  may collectively administer the cloud computing system, which includes monitoring requests by client surgical hubs  20270  and managing the processing capacity of the cloud system  20271  for executing the requests. Each of the central servers  20272  may comprise one or more processors  20273  coupled to suitable memory devices  20274  which can include volatile memory such as random-access memory (RAM) and non-volatile memory such as magnetic storage devices. The memory devices  20274  may comprise machine executable instructions that when executed cause the processors  20273  to execute the data analytics modules  20277  for the cloud-based data analysis, real-time monitoring of measurement data received from the sensing systems  20268 , operations, recommendations, and other operations as described herein. The processors  20273  can execute the data analytics modules  20277  independently or in conjunction with hub applications independently executed by the hubs  20270 . The central servers  20272  also may comprise aggregated medical data databases  20275 , which can reside in the memory  20274 . 
     Based on connections to various surgical hubs  20270  via the network  20269 , the cloud  20271  can aggregate data from specific data generated by various surgical instruments  20266  and/or monitor real-time data from sensing systems  20268  and the surgical hubs  20270  associated with the surgical instruments  20266  and/or the sensing systems  20268 . Such aggregated data from the surgical instruments  20266  and/or measurement data from the sensing systems  20268  may be stored within the aggregated medical databases  20275  of the cloud  20271 . In particular, the cloud  20271  may advantageously track real-time measurement data from the sensing systems  20268  and/or perform data analysis and operations on the measurement data and/or the aggregated data to yield insights and/or perform functions that individual hubs  20270  could not achieve on their own. To this end, as shown in  FIG. 9 , the cloud  20271  and the surgical hubs  20270  are communicatively coupled to transmit and receive information. The I/O interface  20278  is connected to the plurality of surgical hubs  20270  via the network  20269 . In this way, the I/O interface  20278  can be configured to transfer information between the surgical hubs  20270  and the aggregated medical data databases  20275 . Accordingly, the I/O interface  20278  may facilitate read/write operations of the cloud-based analytics system. Such read/waste operations may be executed in response to requests from hubs  20270 . These requests could be transmitted to the surgical hubs  20270  through the hub applications. The I/O interface  20278  may include one or more high speed data ports, which may include universal serial bus (USB) ports, IEEE 1394 ports, as well as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth I/O interfaces for connecting the cloud  20271  to surgical hubs  20270 . The hub application servers  20276  of the cloud  20271  may be configured to host and supply shared capabilities to software applications (e.g., hub applications) executed by surgical hubs  20270 . For example, the hub application servers  20276  may manage requests made by the hub applications through the hubs  20270 , control access to the aggregated medical data databases  20275 , and perform load balancing. 
     The cloud computing system configuration described in the present disclosure may be designed to address various issues arising in the context of medical operations (e.g., pre-surgical monitoring, in-surgical monitoring, and post-surgical monitoring) and procedures performed using medical devices, such as the surgical instruments  20266 ,  20031 . In particular, the surgical instruments  20266  may be digital surgical devices configured to interact with the cloud  20271  for implementing techniques to improve the performance of surgical operations. The sensing systems  20268  may be systems with one or more sensors that are configured to measure one or more biomarkers associated with a surgeon perfuming a medical operation and/or a patient on whom a medical operation is planned to be performed, is being performed or has been performed. Various surgical instruments  20266 , sensing systems  20268 , and/or surgical hubs  20270  may include human interface systems (e.g., having a touch-controlled user interfaces) such that clinicians and/or patients may control aspects of interaction between the surgical instruments  20266  or the sensing system  20268  and the cloud  20271 . Other suitable user interfaces for control such as auditory controlled user interfaces may also be used. 
     The cloud computing system configuration described in the present disclosure may be designed to address various issues arising in the context of monitoring one or more biomarkers associated with a healthcare professional (HCP) or a patient in pre-surgical, in-surgical, and post-surgical procedures using sensing systems  20268 . Sensing systems  20268  may be surgeon sensing systems or patient sensing systems configured to interact with the surgical hub  20270  and/or with the cloud system  20271  for implementing techniques to monitor surgeon biomarkers and/or patient biomarkers. Various sensing systems  20268  and/or surgical hubs  20270  may comprise touch-controlled human interface systems such that the HCPs or the patients may control aspects of interaction between the sensing systems  20268  and the surgical hub  20270  and/or the cloud systems  20271 . Other suitable user interfaces for control such as auditory controlled user interfaces may also be used. 
       FIG. 10  illustrates an example surgical system  20280  in accordance with the present disclosure and may include a surgical instrument  20282  that can be in communication with a console  20294  or a portable device  20296  through a local area network  20292  or a cloud network  20293  via a wired or wireless connection. In various aspects, the console  20294  and the portable device  20296  may be any suitable computing device. The surgical instrument  20282  may include a handle  20297 , an adapter  20285 , and a loading unit  20287 . The adapter  20285  releasably couples to the handle  20297  and the loading unit  20287  releasably couples to the adapter  20285  such that the adapter  20285  transmits a force from a drive shaft to the loading unit  20287 . The adapter  20285  or the loading unit  20287  may include a force gauge (not explicitly shown) disposed therein to measure a force exerted on the loading unit  20287 . The loading unit  20287  may-include an end effector  20289  having a first jaw  20291  and a second jaw  20290 . The loading unit  20287  may be an in-situ loaded or multi-firing loading unit (MFLU) that allows a clinician to fire a plurality of fasteners multiple times without requiring the loading unit  20287  to be removed from a surgical site to reload the loading unit  20287 . 
     The first and second jaws  20291 ,  20290  may be configured to clamp tissue therebetween, fire fasteners through the clamped tissue, and sever the clamped tissue. The first jaw  20291  may be configured to fire at least one fastener a plurality of times or may be configured to include a replaceable multi-fire fastener cartridge including a plurality of fasteners (e.g., staples, clips, etc.) that may be fired more than one time prior to being replaced. The second jaw  20290  may include an anvil that deforms or otherwise secures the fasteners, as the fasteners are ejected from the multi-fire fastener cartridge. 
     The handle  20297  may include a motor that is coupled to the drive shaft to affect rotation of the drive shaft. The handle  20297  may include a control interface to selectively activate the motor. The control interface may include buttons, switches, levers, sliders, touchscreen, and any other suitable input mechanisms or user interfaces, which can be engaged by a clinician to activate the motor. 
     The control interface of the handle  20297  may be in communication with a controller  20298  of the handle  20297  to selectively activate the motor to affect rotation of the drive shafts. The controller  20298  may be disposed within the handle  20297  and may be configured to receive input from the control interface and adapter data from the adapter  20285  or loading unit data from the loading unit  20287 . The controller  20298  may analyze the input from the control interface and the data received from the adapter  20285  and/or loading unit  20287  to selectively activate the motor. The handle  20297  may also include a display that is viewable by a clinician during use of the handle  20297 . The display may be configured to display portions of the adapter or loading unit data before, during, or after firing of the instrument  20282 . 
     The adapter  20285  may include an adapter identification device  20284  disposed therein and the loading unit  20287  may include a loading unit identification device  20288  disposed therein. The adapter identification device  20284  may be in communication with the controller  20298 , and the loading unit identification device  20288  may be in communication with the controller  20298 . It will be appreciated that the loading unit identification device  20288  may be in communication with the adapter identification device  20284 , which relays or passes communication from the loading unit identification device  20288  to the controller  20298 . 
     The adapter  20285  may also include a plurality of sensors  20280  (one shown) disposed thereabout to detect various conditions of the adapter  20285  or of the environment (e.g., if the adapter  20285  is connected to a loading unit, if the adapter  20285  is connected to a handle, if the drive shafts are rotating, the torque of the drive shafts, the strain of the drive shafts, the temperature within the adapter  20285 , a number of firings of the adapter  20285 , a peak force of the adapter  20285  during firing, a total amount of force applied to the adapter  20285 , a peak retraction force of the adapter  20285 , a number of pauses of the adapter  20285  during firing, etc.). The plurality of sensors  20286  may provide an input to the adapter identification device  20284  in the form of data signals. The data signals of the plurality of sensors  20286  may be stored within or be used to update the adapter data stored within the adapter identification device  20284 . The data signals of the plurality of sensors  20286  may be analog or digital. The plurality of sensors  20286  may include a force gauge to measure a force exerted on the loading unit  20287  during firing. 
     The handle  20297  and the adapter  20285  can be configured to interconnect the adapter identification device  20284  and the loading unit identification device  20288  with the controller  20298  via an electrical interface. The electrical interface may be a direct electrical interface (i.e., include electrical contacts that engage one another to transmit energy and signals therebetween). Additionally, or alternatively, the electrical interface may be a non-contact electrical interface to wirelessly transmit energy and signals therebetween (e.g., inductively transfer). It is also contemplated that the adapter identification device  20284  and the controller  20298  may be in wireless communication with one another via a wireless connection separate from the electrical interface. 
     The handle  20297  may include a transceiver  20283  that is configured to transmit instrument data from the controller  20298  to other components of the system  20280  (e.g., the LAN  20292 , the cloud  20293 , the console  20294 , or the portable device  20296 ). The controller  20298  may also transmit instrument data and/or measurement data associated with one or more sensors  20286  to a surgical hub  20270 , as illustrated in  FIG. 9 . The transceiver  20283  may receive data (e.g., cartridge data, loading unit data, adapter data, or other notifications) from the surgical hub  20270 . The transceiver  20283  may receive data (e.g., cartridge data, loading unit data, or adapter data) from the other components of the system  20280 . For example, the controller  20298  may transmit instrument data including a serial number of an attached adapter (e.g., adapter  20285 ) attached to the handle  20297 , a serial number of a loading unit (e.g., loading unit  20287 ) attached to the adapter  20285 , and a serial number of a multi-fire fastener cartridge loaded into the loading unit to the console  20294 . Thereafter, the console  20294  may transmit data (e.g., cartridge data, loading unit data, or adapter data) associated with the attached cartridge, loading unit, and adapter, respectively, back to the controller  20298 . The controller  20298  can display messages on the local instrument display or transmit the message, via transceiver  20283 , to the console  20294  or the portable device  20296  to display the message on the display  20295  or portable device screen, respectively. 
       FIG. 11A  to  FIG. 11D  illustrates examples of wearable sensing systems, e.g., surgeon sensing systems or patient sensing systems.  FIG. 11A  is an example of eyeglasses-based sensing system  20300  that may be based on an electrochemical sensing platform. The sensing system  20300  may be capable of monitoring (e.g, real-time monitoring) of sweat electrolytes and/or metabolites using multiple sensors  20304  and  20305  that are in contact with the surgeon&#39;s or patient&#39;s skin. For example, the sensing system  20300  may use an amperometry based biosensor  20304  and/or a potentiometry based biosensor  20305  integrated with the nose bridge pads of the eyeglasses  20302  to measure current and/or the voltage. 
     The amperometic biosensor  20304  may be used to measure sweat lactate levels (e.g., in mmol/L). Lactate that is a product of lactic acidosis that may occur due to decreased tissue oxygenation, which may be caused by sepsis or hemorrhage. A patient&#39;s lactate levels (e.g., &gt;2 mmol/L) may be used to monitor the onset of sepsis, for example, during post-surgical monitoring. The potentiometric biosensor  20305  may be used to measure potassium levels in the patient&#39;s sweat. A voltage follower circuit with an operational amplifier may be used for measuring the potential signal between the reference and the working electrodes. The output of the voltage follower circuit may be filtered and converted into a digital value using an ADC. 
     The amperometric sensor  20304  and the potentiometric sensor  20305  may be connected to circuitries  20303  placed on each of the arms of the eyeglasses. The electrochemical sensors may be used for simultaneous real-time monitoring of sweat lactate and potassium levels. The electrochemical sensors may be screen printed on stickers and placed on each side of the glasses nose pads to monitor sweat metabolites and electrolytes. The electronic circuitries  20303  placed on the arms of the glasses frame may include a wireless data transceiver (e.g., a low energy Bluetooth transceiver) that may be used to transmit the lactate and/or potassium measurement data to a surgical hub or an intermediary device that may then forward the measurement data to the surgical hub. The eyeglasses-based sensing system  20300  may use signal conditioning unit to filter and amplify the electrical signal generated from the electrochemical sensors  20305  or  20304 , a microcontroller to digitize the analog signal, and a wireless (e.g., a low energy Bluetooth) module to transfer the data to a surgical hub or a computing device, for example, as described in  FIGS. 7B through 7D . 
       FIG. 11B  is an example of a wristband-type sensing system  20310  comprising a sensor assembly  20312  (e.g., Photoplethysmography (PPG)-based sensor assembly or Electrocardiogram (ECG) based-sensor assembly). For example, in the sensing system  20310 , the sensor assembly  20312  may collect and analyze arterial pulse in the wrist. The sensor assembly  20312  may be used to measure one or more biomarkers (e.g., heart rate, heart rate variability (HRV), etc.). In case of a sensing system with a PPG-based sensor assembly  20312 , light (e.g., green light) may be passed through the skin. A percentage of the green light may be absorbed by the blood vessels and some of the green light may be reflected and detected by a photodetector. These differences or reflections are associated with the variations in the blood perfusion of the tissue and the variations may be used in detecting the heart-related information of the cardiovascular system (e.g., heart rate). For example, the amount of absorption may vary depending on the blood volume. The sensing system  20310  may determine the heart rate by measuring light reflectance as a function of time. HRV may be determined as the time period variation (e.g., standard deviation) between the steepest signal gradient prior to a peak, known as inter-beat intervals (IBIs). 
     In the case of a sensing system with an ECG-based sensor assembly  20312 , a set of electrodes may be placed in contact with skin. The sensing system  20310  may measure voltages across the set of electrodes placed on the skin to determine heart rate. HRV in this case may be measured as the time period variation (e.g., standard deviation) between R peaks in the QRS complex, known as R-R intervals. 
     The sensing system  20310  may use a signal conditioning unit to filter and amplify the analog PPG signal, a microcontroller to digitize the analog PPG signal, and a wireless (e.g., a Bluetooth) module to transfer the data to a surgical hub or a computing device, for example, as described in  FIGS. 7B through 7D . 
       FIG. 11C  is an example ting sensing system  20320 . The ring sensing system  20320  may include a sensor assembly (e.g., a heart rate sensor assembly)  20322 . The sensor assembly  20322  may include a light source (e.g., red or green light emitting diodes (LEDs)), and photodiodes to detect reflected and/or absorbed light. The LEDs in the sensor assembly  20322  may shine light through a finger and the photodiode in the sensor assembly  20322  may measure heart rate and/or oxygen level in the blood by detecting blood volume change. The ring sensing system  20320  may include other sensor assemblies to measure other biomarkers, for example, a thermistor or an infrared thermometer to measure the surface body temperature. The ring sensing system  20320  may use a signal conditioning unit to filter and amplify the analog PPG signal, a microcontroller to digitize the analog PPG signal, and a wireless (e.g., a low energy Bluetooth) module to transfer the data to a surgical hub or a computing device, for example, as described in  FIGS. 7B through 7D . 
       FIG. 11D  is an example of an electroencephalogram (EEG) sensing system  20315 . As illustrated in  FIG. 11  the sensing system  20315  may include one or more EEG sensor units  20317 . The EEG sensor units  20317  may include a plurality of conductive electrodes placed in contact with the scalp. The conductive electrodes may be used to measure small electrical potentials that may arise outside of the head due to neuronal action within the brain. The EEG sensing system  20315  may measure a biomarker, for example, delirium by identifying certain brain patterns, for example, a slowing or dropout of the posterior dominant rhythm and loss of reactivity to eyes opening and closing. The ring sensing system  20315  may have a signal conditioning unit for filtering and amplifying the electrical potentials, a microcontroller to digitize the electrical signals, and a wireless (e.g., a low energy Bluetooth) module to transfer the data to a smart device, for example, as described in  FIGS. 7B through 7D . 
       FIG. 12  illustrates a block diagram of a computer-implemented patient/surgeon monitoring system  20325  for monitoring one or more patient or surgeon biomarkers prior to, during, and/or after a surgical procedure. As illustrated in  FIG. 12 , one or more sensing systems  20336  may be used to measure and monitor the patient biomarkers, for example, to facilitate patient preparedness before a surgical procedure, and recovery after a surgical procedure. Sensing systems  20336  may be used to measure and monitor the surgeon biomarkers in real-time, for example, to assist surgical tasks by communicating relevant biomarkers (e.g., surgeon biomarkers) to a surgical hub  20326  and/or the surgical devices  20337  to adjust their function. The surgical device functions that may be adjusted may include power levels, advancement speeds, closure speed, loads, wait times, or other tissue dependent operational parameters. The sensing systems  20336  may also measure one or more physical attributes associated with a surgeon or a patient. The patient biomarkers and/or the physical attributes may be measured in real time. 
     The computer-implemented wearable patient/surgeon wearable sensing system  20325  may include a surgical hub  20326 , one or more sensing systems  20336 , and one or more surgical devices  20337 . The sensing systems and the surgical devices may be communicably coupled to the surgical hub  20326 . One or more analytics servers  20338 , for example part of an analytics system, may also be communicably coupled to the surgical hub  20326 . Although a single surgical hub  20326  is depicted, it should be noted that the wearable patient/surgeon wearable sensing system  20325  may include any number of surgical hubs  20326 , which can be connected to form a network of surgical hubs  20326  that are communicably coupled to one or more analytics servers  20338 , as described herein. 
     In an example, the surgical hub  20326  may be a computing device. The computing device may be a personal computer, a laptop, a tablet, a smart mobile device, etc. In an example, the computing device may be a client computing device of a cloud-based computing system. The client computing device may be a thin client. 
     In an example, the surgical hub  20326  may include a processor  20327  coupled to a memory  20330  for executing instructions stored thereon, a storage  20331  to store one or more databases such as an EMR database, and a data relay interface  20329  through which data is transmitted to the analytics servers  20338 . In an example, the surgical hub  20326  further may include an I/O interface  20333  having an input device  20341  (e.g., a capacitive touchscreen or a keyboard) for receiving inputs from a user and an output device  20335  (e.g., a display screen) for providing outputs to a user. In an example, the input device and the output device may be a single device. Outputs may include data from a query input by the user, suggestions for products or a combination of products to use in a given procedure, and/or instructions for actions to be carded out before, during, and/or after surgical procedure. The surgical hub  20326  may include a device interface  20332  for communicably coupling the surgical devices  20337  to the surgical hub  20326 . In one aspect, the device interface  20332  may include a transceiver that may enable One or more surgical devices  20337  to connect with the surgical hub  20326  via a wired interface or a wireless interface using one of the wired or wireless communication protocols described herein. The surgical devices  20337  may include, for example, powered staplers, energy devices or their generators, imaging systems, or other linked systems, for example, smoke evacuators, suction-irrigation devices, insufflation systems, etc. 
     In an example, the surgical hub  20326  may be communicably coupled to one or more surgeon and/or patient sensing systems  20336 . The sensing systems  20336  may be used to measure and/or monitor, in real-time, various biomarkers associated with a surgeon performing a surgical procedure or a patient on whom a surgical procedure is being performed. A list of the patient/surgeon biomarkers measured by the sensing systems  20336  is provided herein. In an example, the surgical hub  20326  may be communicably coupled to an environmental sensing system  20334 . The environmental sensing systems  20334  may be used to measure and/or monitor, in real-time, environmental attributes, for example, temperature/humidity in the surgical theater, surgeon movements, ambient noise in the surgical theater caused by the surgeon&#39;s and/or the patient&#39;s breathing pattern, etc. 
     When sensing systems  20336  and the surgical devices  20337  are connected to the surgical hub  20326 , the surgical hub  20326  may receive measurement data associated with one or more patient biomarkers, physical state associated with a patient, measurement data associated with surgeon biomarkers, and/or physical state associated with the surgeon from the sensing systems  20336 , for example, as illustrated in  FIG. 7B through 7D . The surgical hub  20326  may associate the measurement data, e.g., related to a surgeon, with other relevant pre-surgical data and/or data from situational awareness system to generate control signals for controlling the surgical devices  20337 , for example, as illustrated in  FIG. 8 . 
     In an example, the surgical hub  20326  may compare the measurement data from the sensing systems  20336  with one or more thresholds defined based on baseline values, pre-surgical measurement data, and/or in surgical measurement data. The surgical hub  20326  may compare the measurement data from the sensing systems  20336  with one or more thresholds in real-time. The surgical hub  20326  may generate a notification for displaying. The surgical hub  20326  may send the notification for delivery to a human interface system for patient  20339  and/or the human interface system for a surgeon or an HCP  20340 , for example, if the measurement data crosses (e.g., is greater than or lower than) the defined threshold value. The determination whether the notification would he sent to one or more of the to the human interface system for patient  20339  and/or the human interface system for an HCP  2340  may be based on a severity level associated with the notification. The surgical hub  20326  may also generate a severity level associated with the notification for displaying. The severity level generated may be displayed to the patient and/or the surgeon or the HCP. In an example, the patient biomarkers to be measured and/or monitored (e.g., measured and/or monitored in real-time) may be associated with a surgical procedural step. For example, the biomarkers to be measured and monitored for transection of veins and arteries step of a thoracic surgical procedure may include blood pressure, tissue perfusion pressure, edema, arterial stiffness, collagen content, thickness of connective tissue, etc., whereas the biomarkers to be measured and monitored for lymph node dissection step of the surgical procedure may include monitoring blood pressure of the patient. In an example, data regarding postoperative complications could be retrieved from an EMR database in the storage  20331  and data regarding staple or incision line leakages could be directly detected or inferred by a situational awareness system. The surgical procedural outcome data can be inferred by a situational awareness system from data received from a variety of data sources, including the surgical devices  20337 , the sensing systems  20336 , and the databases in the storage  20331  to which the surgical hub  20326  is connected. 
     The surgical hub  20326  may transmit the measurement data and physical state data it received from the sensing systems  20336  and/or data associated with the surgical devices  20337  to analytics servers  20338  for processing thereon. Each of the analytics servers  20338  may include a memory and a processor coupled to the memory that may execute instructions stored thereon to analyze the received data. The analytics servers  20338  may be connected in a distributed computing architecture and/or utilize a cloud computing architecture. Based on this paired data, the analytics system  20338  may determine optimal and/or preferred operating parameters for the various types of modular devices, generate adjustments to the control programs for the surgical devices  20337 , and transmit (or “push”) the updates or control programs to the one or more surgical devices  20337 . For example, an analytics system  20338  may correlate the perioperative data it received from the surgical hub  20236  with the measurement data associated with a physiological state of a surgeon or an HCP and/or a physiological state of the patient. The analytics system  20338  may determine when the surgical devices  20337  should be controlled and send an update to the surgical hub  20326 . The surgical hub  20326  then forward the control program to the relevant surgical device  20337 . 
     Additional detail regarding the computer-implemented wearable patient/surgeon wearable sensing system  20325 , including the surgical hub  30326 , one or more sensing systems  20336  and various surgical devices  20337  connectable thereto, are described in connection with  FIG. 5  through  FIG. 7D . 
       FIG. 13  illustrates a diagram of a situationally aware surgical system  5100 , in accordance with at least one aspect of the present disclosure. In some exemplifications, the data sources  5126  may include, for example, the modular devices  5102  (which can include sensors configured to detect parameters associated with the patient and/or the modular device itself), databases  5122  (e.g., an EMR database containing patient records), and patient monitoring devices  5124  (e.g., a blood pressure (BP) monitor and an electrocardiography (EKG) monitor). The surgical hub  5104  can be configured to derive the contextual information pertaining to the surgical procedure from the data based upon, for example, the particular combination(s) of received data or the particular order in which the data is received from the data sources  5126 . The contextual information inferred from the received data can include, for example, the type of surgical procedure being performed, the particular step of the surgical procedure that the surgeon is performing, the type of tissue being operated on, or the body cavity that is the subject of the procedure. This ability by some aspects of the surgical hub  5104  to derive or infer information related to the surgical procedure from received data can be referred to as “situational awareness.” In an exemplification, the surgical hub  5104  can incorporate a situational awareness system, which is the hardware and/or programming associated with the surgical hub  5104  that derives contextual information pertaining to the surgical procedure from the received data. 
     The situational awareness system of the surgical hub  5104  can be configured to derive the contextual information from the data received from the data sources  5126  in a variety of different ways. In an exemplification, the situational awareness system can include a pattern recognition system, or machine learning system (e.g., an artificial neural network), that has been trained on training data to correlate various inputs (e.g., data from databases  5122 , patient monitoring devices  5124 , and/or modular devices  5102 ) to corresponding contextual information regarding a surgical procedure. In other words, a machine learning system can be trained to accurately derive context information regarding a surgical procedure from the provided inputs. In examples, the situational awareness system can include a lookup table storing pre-characterized contextual information regarding a surgical procedure in association with one or more inputs (or ranges of inputs) corresponding to the contextual information. In response to a query with one or more inputs, the lookup table can return the corresponding contextual information for the situational awareness system for controlling the modular devices  5102 . In examples, the contextual information received by the situational awareness system of the surgical hub  5104  can be associated with a particular control adjustment or set of control adjustments for one or more modular devices  5102 . In examples, the situational awareness system can include a further machine learning system, lookup table, or other such system, which generates or retrieves one or more. control adjustments fur one or more modular devices  5102  when provided the contextual information as input. 
     A surgical hub  5104  incorporating a situational awareness system can provide a number of benefits for the surgical system  5100 . One benefit may include improving the interpretation of sensed and collected data, which would in turn improve the processing accuracy and/or the usage of the data during the course of a surgical procedure. To return to a previous example, a situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could determine what type of tissue was being operated on; therefore, when an unexpectedly high force to close the surgical instrument&#39;s end effector is detected, the situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could correctly ramp up or ramp down the motor or the surgical instrument for the type of tissue. 
     The type of tissue being operated can affect the adjustments that are made to the compression rate and load thresholds of a surgical stapling and cutting instrument for a particular tissue gap measurement. A situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could infer whether a surgical procedure being performed is a thoracic or an abdominal procedure, allowing the surgical hub  5104  to determine whether the tissue clamped by an end effector of the surgical stapling and cutting instrument is lung (for a thoracic procedure) or stomach (for an abdominal procedure) tissue. The surgical hub  5104  could then adjust the compression rate and load thresholds of the surgical stapling and cutting instrument appropriately for the type of tissue. 
     The type of body cavity being operated in during an insufflation procedure can affect the function of a smoke evacuator. A situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could determine whether the surgical site is under pressure (by determining that the surgical procedure is utilizing insufflation) and determine the procedure type. As a procedure type can be generally performed in a specific body cavity, the surgical hub  5104  could then control the motor rate of the smoke evacuator appropriately for the body cavity being operated in. Thus, a situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could provide a consistent amount of smoke evacuation for both thoracic and abdominal procedures. 
     The type of procedure being performed can affect the optimal energy level for an ultrasonic surgical instrument or radio frequency (RF) electrosurgical instrument to operate at. Arthroscopic procedures, for example, may require higher energy levels because the end effector of the ultrasonic surgical instrument or RF electrosurgical instrument is immersed in fluid. A situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could determine whether the surgical procedure is an arthroscopic procedure. The surgical hub  5104  could then adjust the RF power level or the ultrasonic amplitude of the generator (e.g., “energy level”) to compensate for the fluid filled environment. Relatedly, the type of tissue being operated on can affect the optimal energy level for an ultrasonic surgical instrument or RF electrosurgical instrument to operate at. A situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could determine what type of surgical procedure is being performed and then customize the energy level for the ultrasonic surgical instrument or RF electrosurgical instrument, respectively, according to the expected tissue profile for the surgical procedure. Furthermore, a situationally aware surgical hub  5104  can be configured to adjust the energy level for the ultrasonic surgical instrument or RF electrosurgical instrument throughout the course of a surgical procedure, rather than just on a procedure-by-procedure basis. A situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could determine what step of the surgical procedure is being performed or will subsequently be performed and then update the control algorithms for the generator and/or ultrasonic surgical instrument or RF electrosurgical instrument to set the energy level at a value appropriate for the expected tissue type according to the surgical procedure step. 
     In examples, data can be drawn from additional data sources  5126  to improve the conclusions that the surgical hub  5104  draws from one data. source  5126 . A situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could augment data that it receives from the modular devices  5102  with contextual information that it has built up regarding the surgical procedure from other data sources  5126 . For example, a situationally aware surgical hub  5104  can be configured to determine whether hemostasis has occurred (i.e., whether bleeding at a surgical site has stopped) according to video or image data received from a medical imaging device. However, in some cases the video or image data can be inconclusive. Therefore, in an exemplification, the surgical hub  5104  can be further configured to compare a physiologic measurement (e.g., blood pressure sensed by a BP monitor communicably connected to the surgical hub  5104 ) with the visual or image data of hemostasis (e.g., from a medical imaging device communicably coupled to the surgical hub  5104 ) to make a determination on the integrity of the staple line or tissue weld. In other words, the situational awareness system of the surgical hub  5104  can consider the physiological measurement data to provide additional context in analyzing the visualization data. The additional context can be useful when the visualization data may be inconclusive or incomplete on its own. 
     For example, a situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could proactively activate the generator to which an RF electrosurgical instrument is connected if it determines that a subsequent step of the procedure requires the use of the instrument. Proactively activating the energy source can allow the instrument to be ready for use a soon as the preceding step of the procedure is completed. 
     The situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could determine whether the current or subsequent step of the surgical procedure requires a different view or degree of magnification on the display according to the feature(s) at the surgical site that the surgeon is expected to need to view. The surgical hub  5104  could then proactively change the displayed view (supplied by, e.g., a medical imaging device for the visualization system  108 ) accordingly so that the display automatically adjusts throughout the surgical procedure. 
     The situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could determine which step of the surgical procedure is being performed or will subsequently be performed and whether particular data or comparisons between data will be required for that step of the surgical procedure. The surgical hub  5104  can be configured to automatically can up data screens based upon the step of the surgical procedure being performed, without waiting for the surgeon to ask for the particular information. 
     Errors may be checked during the setup of the surgical procedure or during the course of the surgical procedure. For example, the situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could determine whether the operating theater is setup properly or optimally for the surgical procedure to be performed. The surgical hub  5104  can be configured to determine the type of surgical procedure being performed, retrieve the corresponding checklists, product location, or setup needs (e.g., from a memory), and then compare the current operating theater layout to the standard layout for the type of surgical procedure that the surgical hub  5104  determines is being performed. In some exemplifications, the surgical hub  5104  can be configured to compare the list of items for the procedure and/or a list of devices paired with the surgical hub  5104  to a recommended or anticipated manifest of items and/or devices for the given surgical procedure. If there are any discontinuities between the lists, the surgical hub  5104  can be configured to provide an alert indicating that a particular modular device  5102 , patient monitoring device  5124 , and/or other surgical item is missing. In some exemplifications, the surgical hub  5104  can be configured to determine the relative distance or position of the modular devices  5102  and patient monitoring devices  5124  via proximity sensors, for example. The surgical hub  5104  can compare the relative positions of the devices to a recommended or anticipated layout for the particular surgical procedure. If there are any discontinuities between the layouts, the surgical hub  5104  can be configured to provide an alert indicating that the current layout for the surgical procedure deviates from the recommended layout. 
     to The situationally aware surgical hub  5104  could determine whether the surgeon (or other medical personnel) was making an error or otherwise deviating from the expected course of action during the course of a surgical procedure. For example, the surgical hub  5104  can be configured to determine the type of surgical procedure being performed, retrieve the corresponding list of steps or order of equipment usage (e.g., from a memory), and then compare the steps being performed or the equipment being used during the course of the surgical procedure to the expected steps or equipment for the type of surgical procedure that the surgical hub  5104  determined is being performed. In some exemplifications, the surgical hub  5104  can be configured to provide an alert indicating that an unexpected action is being performed or an unexpected device is being utilized at the particular step in the surgical procedure. 
     The surgical instruments (and other modular devices  5102 ) may be adjusted for the particular context of each surgical procedure (such as adjusting to different tissue types) and validating actions during a surgical procedure. Next steps, data, and display adjustments may be provided to surgical instruments (and other modular devices  5102 ) in the surgical theater according to the specific context of the procedure. 
       FIG. 14 , illustrates example planned procedure steps of a colorectal procedure using various surgical devices. As shown, planned procedure steps of a colorectal procedure may include access  206580 , dissection  206582 , transection  206584 , anastomosis  206586 , and closing  206588 . The planned procedure steps may be associated with one or more modular devices such as a trocar  206581 , a modular energy device  206583 , a linear surgical stapler  206585 , and a circular surgical stapler  206585 . In various examples, the computing system may access a database of various surgeries, the identity and order of the planned surgical steps pertaining to the surgeries, and/or the identity and/or usage or activation frequency of the modular surgical devices to be used in the planned surgical steps. 
     Tissue irregularity may lead to complications in a surgical procedure. For example, a failure to account for a thicker-than-normal tissue may lead to complications in a transection step of a surgical procedure. For example, a surgical stapler may compress a thicker-than-normal tissue ineffectively by applying a normal compression force during tissue compression. A sub-optimal compression on the thicker-than-normal tissue may be reached due to the thicker-than-normal tissue&#39;s reduced compressibility if the surgical stapler waits a normal tissue creep time before firing. A staple line may be poorly formed on the thicker-than-normal tissue if the surgical stapler uses staples with a normal staple height during firing. The complications may include staple-line air leaks in a thoracic surgery (e.g., a lung segmentectomy procedure) or staple-line leaks in a colorectal surgery (e.g., a lower anterior resection (LAR) procedure). For example, a failure to account for stiffer-than-normal tissue or a highly-variable-in-thickness tissue in a dissection, a transection, and/or an anastomosis step of a surgical procedure may lead to similar complications. 
     Tissue irregularity complication may be predicted based on pre-surgical and/or in-surgical measurements of related biomarker(s). For example, tissue irregularity may be determined based on one or more biomarkers, such as edema, tissue perfusion pressure, hydration state, lactate, oxygen saturation, VO2Max, respiration rate, autonomic tone, sweat rate, heart rate variability, skin conductance, GI motility, and/or the like. 
     For example, a tissue irregularity complication may be determined wised on one or more biomarkers related to water retention level in tissues. Biomarkers related to irregular water retention level may include edema, hydration state, and/or the like. Edema is swelling caused by water content of the blood flow leaking into tissues and becoming trapped in tissues. Swelling in tissues may lead to thickened tissues. For example, hydration state indicates the water retention level of the body. Insufficient water retention may include insufficient blood flow through tissues and/or insufficient interstitial fluid (which may be referred to as tissue fluid). Such insufficiency of water retention may lead to stiffened tissues (e.g., with a higher density). 
     For example, a tissue irregularity complication may be determined based on one or more biomarkers related to chronic inflammation response. Chronic inflammation response may lead to prolonged scar tissue forming, prolonged tissue remodeling, and/or damaging healthy tissues. As such, fibrotic, stiffened, and/or thickened tissues may form. Biomarkers related to chronic inflammation response may include tissue perfusion pressure, lactate, oxygen saturation, VO2Max, respiration rate, autonomic tone, sweat rate, heart rate variability, skin conductance, GI motility, and/or the like. 
     For example, a tissue irregularity complication may be predicted based on biomarker(s) related to a chronic inflammation response associated with poor tissue oxygenation. Chronic poor tissue oxygenation may lead to cell death, the associated infection and chronic inflammation, and consequently thickened and/or stiffened tissues. Biomarkers related to a chronic inflammation response associated with poor tissue oxygenation may include tissue perfusion pressure, lactate, oxygen saturation, and/or VO2Max. In an example, tissue perfusion pressure measures the sufficiency of blood flow through tissues. Insufficient tissue perfusion pressure may lead to chronic poor tissue oxygenation and consequently thickened and/or stiffened tissues. Lactate is a substance produced by cells during cell metabolism. A high lactate level may indicate chronic poor tissue oxygenation and consequently thickened and/or stiffened tissues. In an example, oxygen saturation measures the oxygen level in the blood flow. A low oxygen level in the blood flow may lead to chronic poor tissue oxygenation and consequently thickened and/or stiffened tissues. VO2Max measures the maximum amount of oxygen the body can consume (e.g., from breathing in the air to tissue oxygenation) during a specified period of time (e.g., a period of incrementally intense exercise). A low VO2Max may indicate a poor oxygen consumption ability. Such poor oxygen consumption ability may lead to chronic poor tissue oxygenation and consequently thickened and/or stiffened tissues. 
     For example, a tissue irregularity complication may be predicted based on biomarker(s) related to a chronic inflammation response associated with increased respiration rate. Increased respiration rate may indicate a chronic lung inflammation condition and the presence of consequent thickened and/or stiffened tissues. In an example, an increased respiration rate due to air leaks in lungs caused by an underlying chronic inflammation response may indicate the presence of thickened and/or stiffened tissues. 
     For example, a tissue regularity complication may be predicted based on biomarker(s) related to a chronic inflammation response associated with an imbalanced autonomic tone. Autonomic tone describes the basal balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. In an example, an imbalanced autonomic tone, such as a high sympathetic tone, may indicate chronic inflammation and the presence of consequent thickened and/or stiffened tissues. Autonomic tone may be associated with biomarkers related to the sympathetic nervous system, such as heart rate variability, skin conductance, or sweat rate. For example, a high sympathetic tone may be inferred from one or more of: an increased heart rate, an increased sweat rate, or a higher skin conductance (e.g., based on these biomarkers&#39; association with heightened sympathetic activity). The inference of such high sympathetic tone may indicate a chronic inflammation response and the presence of consequent thickened and/or stiffened tissues. The inference of such high sympathetic tone may be associated with pre-.surgical pain and/or stress. 
     For example, a tissue irregularity complication may be predicted based on biomarker(s) related to a chronic inflammation response associated with reduced GI motility. In an example, reduced small bowel motility due to small bowel obstruction may be caused by thickened and/or stiffened tissues formed on the wall of a small bowel. Such thickened and/or stiffened tissues may have resulted from internal scarring and/or remodeled tissues due to a chronic inflammation response in the small bowel. In such example, the chronic inflammation response may have been caused by an underlying chronic inflammatory disease (e.g., Crohn&#39;s disease or irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)). In such example, the chronic inflammation response may have been caused by a chronic inflammation resulting from a prior colorectal procedure. In an example, the tissue irregularity complication predicted based on reduced GI motility may be inferred from a high sympathetic tone indicated by one or more of: an increased heart rate, an increased sweat rate, or a higher skin conductance. The indication of such high sympathetic tone may be associated with pre-surgical pain and/or stress. 
     As described herein, various sensing systems may measure biomarkers that may be used to predict tissue irregularity complication(s). For example, the sensing systems may perform pre-surgical and/or in-surgical measurement(s) of a patient&#39;s tissue irregularity-related biomarkers, such as edema, hydration state, tissue perfusion pressure data, lactate data, oxygen saturation data, VO2Max data, respiration rate data, autonomic tone data, sweat rate data, heart rate variability data, skin conductance data, GI motility data, and/or the like. Such pre-surgical measurement(s) of tissue irregularity -related biomarkers may be performed via the sensing system(s) in a clinical setting. In an example, as shown in  FIG. 6A , one or more of sensing systems may perform pre-surgical measurement(s) of a patient&#39;s tissue irregularity-related biomarker(s) before a surgical procedure in an operating room. 
     The sensing system(s) may process and/or store measurement data, for predicting tissue irregularity complication(s) locally, and/or send the measurement data to a computing system for further processing. The computing system may be or may include a surgical hub described herein, for example with reference to  FIGS. 1, 2, 2A, 2B, 3, 5, 6A, 6B, 7B, 7C, 7D, 9, and 12 . The computing system may include or be connected with a surgical hub/surgeon display interface described here, for example with reference to  FIGS. 4, 5, 6A -B, and  12 . In an example, as shown in  FIG. 6A , the sensing system(s) may communicate with the computing system via a communication module  230 . In an example, as shown in  FIG. 6B , the sensing system(s) may communicate with the computing system via a local area network (LAN). 
     Pre-surgical measurement data and/or in-surgical measurement data associated with one or more patient biomarkers may be obtained from the sensing system(s). For example, the computing system may obtain from the sensing system(s) measurement data associated with one or more tissue irregularity-related biomarkers, such as edema, hydration date, tissue perfusion pressure, lactate, oxygen saturation, VO2Max, respiration rate, autonomic tone, sweat rate, heart rate variability, skin conductance, GI motility, and/or the like. 
     A tissue irregularity complication may be predicted based on pre-surgical and/or in-surgical measurement data associated with biomarker(s) monitoring. For example, the sensing system(s) may perform the prediction based on the measurement data of tissue irregularity-related biomarker(s). For example, the computing system may determine a tissue irregularity complication based on the measurement data of tissue irregularity related biomarker(s) and the threshold(s) associated with the biomarker(s). 
     One or more thresholds may be obtained for a patient biomarker. For example, the surgical computing system may determine respective threshold(s) associated with a patient&#39;s edema, hydration state, tissue perfusion pressure, lactate, oxygen saturation, VO2Max, respiration rate, autonomic tone, sweat rate, heart rate variability, skin conductance, GI motility, and/or the like. The threshold(s) may be standard threshold(s). The threshold(s) may be pre-defined and/or set by an HCP. The threshold(s) may be customized for a patient based on the patient&#39;s medical history, health information, biographical information, family health information, and/or the like. A biomarker may be monitored by comparing the measurement data related to the biomarker against the corresponding threshold(s). A potential tissue irregularity complication(s) may be detected when the measurement data related to one or more biomarkers crosses the corresponding threshold(s) for a predetermined amount of time. Crossing a threshold may include the measurement data associated with a biomarker increasing above the corresponding threshold value. Crossing the threshold may include the measurement data associated with a biomarker dropping below the corresponding threshold value. The predetermined amount of time may be used to mitigate erroneous measurement data. For example, the predetermined amount of tune may reduce the number of false positive detections. The predetermined amount of tune may be determined based on the one or more biomarkers being monitored. 
     The computing system may predict a tissue irregularity complication by determining that a probability of a water retention level crosses a threshold. The probability of an irregular water retention level may be determined (e.g., calculated) based on the biomarker measurement data, such as edema data or hydration state data. 
     The computing system may determine a tissue irregularity complication based on measurement data of a water retention level-related biomarker crossing the obtained threshold(s). For example, an edema sensing system (e.g., employing lower leg circumference measurements) may measure the lower leg circumference. The measured the lower leg circumference may be compared against a lower leg circumference threshold. A lower leg circumference measurement above such threshold may indicate thickened tissues. For example, a hydration state sensing system employing optical spectroscopy may measure a water retention level of the blood. The measured water retention level of the blood may be compared against a water retention level range threshold. A water retention level measurement below such range threshold may indicate stiffened tissues. 
     In examples, an edema severity may be determined based on an edema sensing system&#39;s measurement data described herein and/or other measurements/tests performed on a patient. For example, the computing system may determine an edema severity based on local edema, a weight change and an albumin level change. The computing system may detect a tissue irregularity complication when the determined edema severity exceeds a threshold. The weight change (e.g., increase in weight) may be obtained based on the patient&#39;s weight measurements before an impending surgical procedure and a baseline past weight. Weight data may be obtained from a patient&#39;s EMRs (e.g., hospital records) based on a weight measurement before an impending surgical procedure and a baseline past weight measurement. The albumin level change (e.g., a drop in albumin) may be obtained based on the patient&#39;s urine albumin test before an impending surgical procedure and a baseline past albumin. The albumin level data may be obtained from a patient&#39;s EMRs (e.g., other hospital records). In an example, the computing system may predict a tissue irregularity complication such as thickened tissues based on an edema sensing system&#39;s measurement data, an indication of an increase in weight, and/or a drop in albumin. 
     The computing system may predict a tissue irregularity complication by determining that a probability of a chronic inflammation response crosses a threshold. The probability of chronic inflammation response may be determined (e.g., calculated) based on the pre-surgical biomarker measurement data, such as tissue perfusion pressure, lactate, oxygen saturation, VO2Max, respiration rate, autonomic tone, sweat rate, heart rate variability, skin conductance, and/or GI motility data. 
     The computing system may determine a tissue irregularity complication based on measurement data of one or more chronic inflammation response-related biomarker(s) crossing the obtained threshold(s). For example, a tissue perfusion pressure sensing system (e.g., based on skin perfusion pressure) may measure blood volume changes to determine the skin perfusion pressure. The measured shin perfusion pressure may be compared against a skin perfusion pressure range threshold. A tissue irregularity complication may be determined when a skin perfusion pressure measurement is below such range threshold. For example, a lactate sensing system may employ electrochemical biosensors to measure sweat lactate levels. The measured sweat lactate level may be compared against a sweat lactate level range threshold. A tissue irregularity complication may be determined when a sweat lactate level measurement is above such range threshold. For example, a peripheral capillary oxygen saturation (SpO2) may be calculated as a ratio of pulsed signal to non-pulsed signal. The measured SpO2 may be compared against an SpO2 range threshold. A tissue irregularity complication may be determined when a SpO2 measurement is above such range threshold. For example, VO2Max measures the body&#39;s oxygen consumption ability. The measured VO2Max score may be compared against a VO2Max score threshold. A tissue irregularity complication may be determined when a SpO2 measurement is above such score threshold. For example, a respiration rate may measure the number of breaths per minute. The measured respiration rare may be compared against a respiration rate range threshold. A tissue irregularity complication may be determined when a respiration rate measurement is above such range threshold. For example, a heart rate variability score measured by a heart rate sensing system may be compared against a heart rate variability score range threshold. A tissue irregularity complication may be determined when a respiration rate measurement is above such range threshold. For example, a sweat rate measured by a sweat rate sensing system may be compared against a sweat rate range threshold. A tissue irregularity complication may be determined when a sweat rate measurement is above such range threshold and hence indicates high sympathetic activity. For example, a skin conductance level (SCL) measured by a skin conductance sensing system may be compared against a SCL range threshold. A tissue irregularity complication may be determined when a SCL measurement is above such range threshold and hence indicates high sympathetic activity. For example, an autonomic tone sensing system may be configured to employ a heart rate variability sensing sub-system, a sweat rate sensing sub-system, and/or a skin conductance sensing sub-system. A tissue irregularity complication may be determined by an autonomic tone sensing system when a tissue irregularity complication is determined by one or more such sub-systems. For example, a GI motility sensing system employing a wireless non digestible capsule may measure gastric, small bowel, large bowel, and/or colonic transit times. The measured gastric transit time, small bowel transit time, large bowel transit time, and/or colonic transit time may be compared against a gastric transit time range threshold, a small bowel transit time range threshold, a large bowel transit time range threshold, and/or a colonic transit time range threshold, respectively. A reduced GI motility may be determined when one or more of such transit times are above their respective transmit time range threshold. Accordingly, a tissue irregularity complication may be determined based on the determination of reduced GI motility. For example, a reduced GI motility may be determined when an autonomic tone-related biomarker (e.g., heart rate variability, sweat rate, or skin conductance) is determined to indicate high sympathetic activity. Accordingly, a tissue irregularity complication may be determined based on the determination of the high sympathetic activity indication. 
     The determination of a tissue irregularity may be based on the pre-surgical and/or in-surgical tissue irregularity biomarker measurement data preprocessed by the sensing systems. For example, a hydration state sensing system (e.g., implemented using optical spectroscopy) may monitor a patient&#39;s water content level in the blood via continuous measurements. When the hydration state sensing system transmits the hydration state measurement data, the sensing system may calculate the mean of the measurements and transmit such mean to the computing system. The sensing system may calculate the mean of the measurements excluding outlier measurements and transmit such mean. The sensing system may calculate the mean of the measurements and standard deviation of the measurement data set, and transmit the mean and the standard deviation. The sensing system may calculate an average of the highest measurement and the lowest measurement and transmit such average. The sensing system may identify the highest measurement and the lowest measurement and transmit such measurement range. The sensing system may identify the highest measurement and the lowest measurement after excluding outlier measurements and transmit such measurement range. The sensing system may convert the preprocessed water content level measurement data to hydration state classifications, such as “well hydrated”, “mildly dehydrated”, or “severely dehydrated”, and transmit such classifications to the computing system. The hydration state sensing system may transmit to the computing system identifiers for such classifications, e.g., “WH”, “MD”, “SD” for “well hydrated”, “mildly dehydrated”, or “severely dehydrated”, respectively. Those of skill in the art will recognize other sensing systems described herein may also preprocess the biomarker measurement data and then transmit the preprocessed biomarker measurement data to the computing system as described. 
     The determination of a tissue irregularity may be based on the tissue irregularity biomarker measurement data as captured by the sensing systems (e.g., raw measurements). The computing system may process the raw measurements before making the determination. For example, a hydration state sensing system (e.g., implemented using optical spectroscopy) may monitor a patient&#39;s water content level in the blood via continuous measurements. The hydration state sensing system may transmit the raw measurements to the computing system. In response, the computing system may process the raw measurements as described in how the hydration state sensing system preprocesses the hydration state measurement data described herein. Those of skill in the art will recognize other sensing systems described herein may transmit raw measurements to the computing system, and in response the computing system may process the raw measurements as described. 
     The computing system may determine a tissue irregularity complication associated with a pulmonary procedure based on the measurement data of a patient&#39;s pulmonary function. The pre-surgical measurement may be performed on the patient before an impending pulmonary procedure (e.g., in a clinical setting, such as in an operating room). In an example, forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) test may be performed. The measurement data may be entered into the computing system (e.g., via a user interface). The measurement data may be entered into a hospital record system (e.g., an EMR system) and obtained by the computing system. The computing system may determine a tissue irregularity complication on the condition that the FEV1 measurement is below a FEV1 threshold and hence indicates the presence and/or the severity of a restrictive or obstructive pulmonary disease (e.g., emphysema). In an example, forced vital capacity (FVC) test may be performed. The measurement data may be entered into the computing system. The measurement data may be entered into a hospital record system (e.g., an EMR system) and obtained by the computing system. The computing system may determine a tissue irregularity complication on the condition that a pulmonary function metric crosses a threshold. In an example, the computing system may determine a tissue irregularity complication on the condition that FVC measurement is below a FVC threshold and hence indicates the presence and/or the severity of a restrictive or obstructive pulmonary disease. In an example, the computing system may determine a tissue irregularity complication on the condition that a ratio of the FEV1 measurement over the FVC measurement is below a FEV1/FVC ratio threshold and hence may indicate the presence and/or the severity of a restrictive or obstructive pulmonary disease. In an example, a spirometry test may be performed. The measurement data may be entered into the computing system. The measurement data may be entered into a hospital record system (e.g., an EMR system) and obtained by the computing system. The computing system may determine a tissue irregularity complication on the condition that a spirometry test result is below a threshold. 
     The computing system may determine a tissue irregularity based on the tissue irregularity biomarker measurement data received from the sensing systems described herein (“sensed biomarker data”) and patient-related medical data. For example, the computing system may determine a tissue to be highly variable in thickness based on the sensed biomarker data and a patient&#39;s diseases state(s) data and/or medical condition(s) data obtained from the patient&#39;s EMRs or other hospital records. In an example, a determination of a thickened and/or stiffened tissue based on the sensed biomarker data may indicate a disease state such as a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (e.g., emphysema). The computing system may determine the tissue to be highly variable in thickness on the condition that the patient&#39;s EMRs (or other hospital records) indicate one or more of the following: adhesions from a prior surgical procedure, a present infection (e.g., pneumonia or the like), a chronic lung disease (e.g., an interstitial lung disease), or the like. The computing system may determine a higher likelihood of post-operative air leaks on such above condition. Further, the computing system may provide such indication of a higher likelihood of post-operative air leaks to a post-operative chest tube management control program. 
     The computing system may generate an output based on the predicted tissue irregularity complication. The output may include a control signal configured to alter an operational parameter associated with a surgical device. For example, the computing system may generate one or more adjustments to an impending surgical procedure. The adjustment may include, but not limited to, an adjustment to a surgical instrument&#39;s control program, an adjustment to a surgical instrument&#39;s reload, adding an adjunct, and/or an indication of a probability of a tissue irregularity complication. An indication of a probability of tissue irregularity complication may be or may include a notification of a tissue irregularity complication in a surgical procedure plan. Such notification may include highlighting an affected area associated with the predicted tissue irregularity complication, enlarging a mobilization planned area, and/or displaying an improved access option. 
     An impending surgical procedure may include planned procedure steps that may be stored and retrieved, or otherwise accessed on a computing device (e.g., the surgical hub  206  or  5104 ). For example, a list of planned procedure steps for a thoracic procedure (specifically, a lung segmentectomy procedure) may be retrieved or accessed. 
     Planned surgical instruments&#39; (as shown in  FIGS. 1A, 2A, 3, 4, 5, 6A, 7A, 8, 9, 10, and 12 ) identification information may be obtained via a computing device (e.g., the surgical hub  206  or  5104 ). For example, planned surgical instruments&#39; identification information may be obtained based on planned procedure steps and the associated surgical instruments information. For example, as described in  FIG. 14 , planned procedure steps of a colorectal procedure (e.g., access  206580 , dissection  206582 , transection  206584 , anastomosis  206586 , and closing  206588 ) may be retrieved from a surgical hub (e.g., the surgical hub  206  or  5104 ). A list of planned surgical instruments (e.g., trocar  206581 , energy device  206583 , linear surgical stapler  206585 , and circular surgical stapler  206587 ) associated with the planned procedure steps may be retrieved from the surgical hub. Usage of planned surgical instruments at planned procedure steps may be detected and confirmed by the surgical hub (e.g., the surgical hub  206  or  5104 ). For example, activation instances  206592  illustrate the expected usage of trocar  206581  at planned procedure steps access  206580  and closing  206588 . For example, activation instances  206590  illustrate the expected usage of energy device  206584  at planned procedure steps access  206580 , dissection  206582 , and transection  206584 . For example, activation instance  206594  illustrates the expected usage of linear surgical stapler  206585  at planned procedure step transection  206584 . For example, activation instance  206596  illustrates the expected usage of circular surgical stapler  206587  at planned procedure step anastomosis  206586 . 
     Based on the predicted tissue irregularity complication, a control signal configured to alter an operational parameter associated with a surgical device may be determined and generated as an output. The control signal may adjust control program of a surgical instrument. The control signal may be configured to update an operational parameter, such as an operating parameter, a surgical parameter, or the like of the control program associated with a surgical instrument (e.g., during an activation instance). 
     For example, as described in  FIG. 13 , a computing system (e.g., the surgical hub  206  or  5104 ) may adjust operational parameters (e.g., energy level) of a control program of an energy device  206583 . The control program of an energy device may include adjustable operational parameters, such as a power level for tissue separation, a power application duration for tissue separation, a power level for tissue sealing/coagulation, and/or a power application duration for tissue sealing/coagulation. The control program of an energy device may include an adjustable operational parameter, such as an ultrasonic blade&#39;s energy generation threshold for a subsequent energy application phase. In examples, an ultrasonic blade&#39;s energy generation threshold for a subsequent energy application phase may be a desired resonant frequency threshold for starting a tissue coagulation phase or an ultrasonic blade&#39;s desired resonant frequency threshold for starting a tissue transection phase. 
     Based on the predicted tissue irregularity complication, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to alter an energy device&#39;s operational parameter(s) at one or more procedure steps. Such alteration(s) may be due to a higher energy level and/or longer energy application duration needed for tissue transection and/or tissue coagulation. For example, based on predicted thickened and/or stiffened tissue, the control signal may alter in energy device&#39;s operational parameter at a dissection step of a colorectal procedure. The control signal may increase an energy level for tissue separation, increase an energy level for tissue sealing and/or transection, increase an energy application duration for tissue separation, increase an ultrasonic blade&#39;s desired resonant frequency threshold for starting a tissue coagulation phase, and/or increase an ultrasonic blade&#39;s desired resonant frequency threshold for a tissue transection phase. 
     Based on the predicted tissue irregularity complication, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to alter one or more operational parameters associated with a surgical stapling device at one or more procedure steps. For example, as described in  FIG. 13 , the computing system may update operational parameters (e.g., compression rate or load thresholds) of a control program of a surgical stapling and cutting instrument (e.g.,  206585  or  206587 ). In an example, upon detecting a tissue irregularity, a control signal may be generated to adjust one or more closure parameters associated with a surgical stapling and cutting instrument, such as closure force (e.g., force-to-close (FTC) or closure compression force), closure velocity (e.g., closure rate or clamping speed), and/or tissue creep wait time (e.g., wait time before stapling). In an example, upon detecting a tissue irregularity, a control signal may be generated to adjust one or more firing; parameters associated with a surgical stapling and cutting instrument, such as firing speed and/or viable staple height range. 
     The computing system may update a stapling and cutting instrument&#39;s control program operational parameter(s) at one or more procedure steps based on the predicted tissue irregularity complication. Such updates(s) may be due to a reduced compressibility and/or increased tissue impedance of thickened and/stiffened tissues. For example, the computing system may update the stapling and cutting instrument&#39;s (e.g, a linear stapler) control program to reduce the closure rate, prolong the tissue creep wait time (e.g., wait time before stapling), and/or reduce the flung speed associated with a transection step of a colorectal procedure. For example, the computing system may update the control program of a circular stapler to reduce the closure rate, increase the tissue creep wait time, and/or reduce the firing speed at an anastomosis step of a colorectal procedure. To form taller staples, the computing system may shift upward the viable staple height range of the circular surgical stapler. 
     Based on the predicted tissue irregularity complication, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to indicate a suggestion for changing a surgical instrument&#39;s reload. For example, a suggestion for changing a surgical instrument&#39;s reload may include changing a cartridge to be used for a linear surgical stapler in a transection step (e.g., in a colorectal procedure). In an example, to form taller staples to compensate for a predicted thickened and/or stiffened tissue, a cartridge including taller staples may be suggested. In an example, for a tissue predicted to be highly variable in thickness, a cartridge that compensates for such tissue may be suggested. For example, a cartridge with a gripping surface to minimize tissue slippage due to a highly variable tissue thickness (e.g., Echelon™ Gripping Surface Technology (GST)) may be suggested to replace a cartridge with a smooth surface (e.g., Echelon Endopath™ (ECR)). For example, a cartridge including rows of staples with graduated staple heights (e.g., Endo GIA™ Tri-Staple™ technology) may be suggested to replace a cartridge including rows of staple with uniform staple heights (e.g., Endo GIA™). In an example, for a tissue predicted to be highly variable in thickness, a tissue thickness compensator may be suggested to be used with a general-purpose cartridge. Additional details are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 9,700,317, titled FASTENER CARTRIDGE COMPRISING A RELEASABLE TISSUE THICKNESS COMPENSATOR, issued Jul. 11, 2017 and U.S. Pat. No. 8,864,009, titled TISSUE THICKNESS COMPENSATOR FOR A SURGICAL STAPLER COMPRISING AN ADJUSTABLE ANVIL, issued Oct. 21, 2014, which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. 
     Based on the predicted tissue irregularity complication, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to indicate a suggestion for adding an adjunct at one or more procedure steps. For example, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to indicate a suggestion for adding an adjunct for a transection step. In an example, a suggestion may be made to use a buttress (e.g., an absorbable or permanent buttress) to supplement a surgical stapler to increase staple line strength and hence reduce staple line leaks (e.g., when a tissue to be operated on is predicted to be highly variable in thickness). In an example, a suggestion may be made to use a lung sealant prophylactically in a lung segmentectomy procedure after transection is complete at a transection step to prevent prolonged post-operative air leaks (e.g., when a tissue to be operated on is predicted to be highly variable in thickness). 
     Suggestions described herein may be provided via a user interface a surgeon interacts with (“surgeon interface”), such as a surgical planning interface, a surgeon interface/console, surgical hub display  215  illustrated in  FIG. 5 , and/or a surgical device having a display. The suggestions may be generated by a computing system (e.g., the surgical hub  206  or  5104 ) and sent to the surgeon interface. A suggestion message may be displayed in a designated area on the surgeon interface, such as a suggestion overlay or a suggestion box at the bottom right corner of the surgeon interface. 
     Based on the predicted tissue irregularity complication, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to indicate a probability of the predicted tissue irregularity complication. The indication may be or may include a notification of predicted tissue irregularity complication. 
     For example, a notification of a tissue irregularity complication may be displayed in a surgical procedure plan on a surgical planning interface. In an example, the notification may be displayed as highlight(s) of affected area(s) associated with the tissue irregularity complication in a surgical procedure plan. The surgical plan may be based on the pre-surgery imaging (e.g, 2-D or 3-D ultrasound image(s)) of a target surgical site and a surrounding area. Highlight(s) of potentially affected area(s) may be at the location(s) of the predicted tissue irregularity complication. The location(s) of the predicted tissue irregularity complications may be based on the pre-surgery imaging data from a patient&#39;s EMR data, such as location(s) of infection(s) (e.g., pneumonia) and/or interstitial lung disease. In an example, the notification may be displayed as enlarged mobilization area in the surgical plan to include working space potentially needed to work around the predicted tissue irregularity complication. Such enlarging of mobilization area may be based on increasing a pre-defined margin parameter&#39;s value to a higher threshold. In an example, the notification may be displayed as improved access option(s) during a dissection step in the surgical plan. Such improved access option(s) may be different trajector(ies) (e.g., path(s)) of a dissection instrument generated based on the patient&#39;s anatomical structure around the location of predicted potential thickened/stiffened tissue and/or adhesions from a prior surgery. Suggestion(s) described herein may be displayed in the surgical procedure plan. 
     For example, a notification of a tissue irregularity complication may be displayed as an overlay on top of pre-surgery imaging rendered on the surgeon interface. 
     For example, a notification of a tissue irregularity complication may be presented as an augmented reality (AR) or mixed reality overlay on the surgeon interface that may be interrogated. An AR device may provide AR content to a user. For example, the AR content may be the virtual anatomy of the target surgical site and its surrounding area generated based on pre-surgery imaging. The tissue irregularity complication(s) may be marked (e.g., highlighted, circled, and/annotated) in the virtual anatomy. For example, a visual AR device, such as safety glasses with an AR display, AR goggles, or head-mounted display (HMD), may include a graphics processor for rendering 2D or 3D video and/imaging for display. AR content may be overlaid onto the various displays described herein. For example, an audible AR device, such as an earbud, a headset, a headphone, or a speaker, may provide audible AR content. The audible AR device may provide auditory overlay, for example, in addition to hearing OR sounds. Audible overlay may be provided via an earbud set with pass through noise capabilities and/or via a bone conduction speaker system. The AR device may communicate certain information only to the targeted individual within the OR that could utilize the information. The AR device may include a processor, a non-transitory computer readable memory storage medium, and executable instructions contained within the storage medium that are executable by the processor to carry out methods or portions of methods disclosed herein. Examples of visual and audio AR devices can be found in more detail in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 17/062,509 (atty docket no. END9287USNP16), titled INTERACTIVE INFORMATION OVERLAY ON MULTIPLE SURGICAL DISPLAYS, which was filed on Oct. 2, 2020, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Examples of visual and audio AR devices can be found in more detail are described in a patent application with Attorney Docket No. END9290US18, titled AUDIO AUGMENTED REALITY CUES TO FOCUS ON AUDIBLE INFORMATION, filed contemporaneously, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
       FIG. 15  illustrates an example process  24600  of predicting a tissue irregularity complication. The process may include a computer-implemented process. For example, a computing system may perform the process illustrated in  FIG. 15 . For example, a sensing system described herein may perform the process illustrated in  FIG. 15 . 
     At  24602 , measurement data associated with one or more patient biomarkers may be obtained via one or more sensing systems. Measurement data may include measurement data obtained prior to a surgery, and/or biomarker measurements taken during a surgery. Pre-surgical measurements may be combined with in-surgical measurements. The patient biomarker(s) may include one or more of the following: tissue perfusion pressure, lactate, oxygen saturation, VO2Max, respiration rate, autonomic tone, sweat rate, heart rate variability, skin conductance, GI motility, edema or hydration state. 
     At  24604 , a tissue irregularity complication may be predicted based on the biomarker measurement data associated with the one or more patient biomarkers. The tissue irregularity complication may be predicted based on pre-surgical measurement data, in-surgical measurement data, or a combination of pre-surgical measurement data, in-surgical measurement data. 
     For example, the computing system may determine a probability of a chronic inflammation response based on measurement data associated with the one or more of: tissue perfusion pressure, lactate, oxygen saturation, VO2Max, respiration rate, autonomic tone, sweat rate, heart rate variability, skin conductance, or GI motility. On the condition that the probability of a chronic inflammation response crosses a threshold, the computing system may predict a tissue irregularity complication. 
     The computing system may determine a probability of an irregular water retention level based on measurement data associated with the one or more of: edema or hydration state. On the condition that the probability of an irregular water retention level crosses a threshold, the computing system may predict a tissue irregularity complication. 
     At  24606 , an output associated with a surgical procedure may be generated based on the predicted tissue irregularity complication. For example, a control signal configured to alter an operational parameter associated with a surgical device may be generated. For example, the control signal may control a surgical cutting d stapling device (e.g., a linear stapler or a circular stapler) to perform prolonging a tissue creep wait time prior to stapling, reducing a clamping speed, reducing a stapler firing speed, increasing a closure compression force, and/or shifting upward a viable staple height range. The control signal may be configured to control a surgical energy device to perform increasing an energy level, increasing an energy application duration, and/or increasing a threshold for an energy generation associated with a subsequent energy application. The control signal may be configured to perform displaying a probability of a tissue irregularity complication on a pre-surgery imaging, displaying a probability of a tissue irregularity complication via an augmented reality device, and/or displaying a probability of a tissue irregularity complication in a surgical procedure plan along with an indication of an adjustment to the surgical procedure plan. The output may be generated by a sensing system to indicate the predicted tissue irregularity complication. 
       FIG. 16A-D  illustrates example procedure steps of a lung segmentectomy and example use of patient biomarker measurements. As shown in  FIG. 16A-E , example steps of a lung segmentectomy may include pre-surgery, initiation, access and preparation, manage vessels, remove segment, manage lymph nodes, assessment, and post-surgery. As shown, patient biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions, identify various ticks pre-surgery, during surgery, after surgery, and/or determine operational parameters for various surgical tools. 
       FIG. 16A  illustrates example pre-surgery, initiation, and access and preparation procedural steps and example use of patient biomarkers during these steps. As shown, during a pre-surgical period, patient biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to lung segmentectomy. In an example, patient biomarkers measurements may be related to how fit the patient is to undergo surgery (e.g., lung segmentectomy). For example, the biomarkers measurements may be related to the patient&#39;s overall cardiothoracic performance and/or stress levels. The biomarkers measured may include oxygen saturation, blood pressure, cortisol level, and/or the like as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B . Pre-surgical biomarkers measurements may be used to determine the placement of one or more trocars. For example, the biomarker measurements may be related to the position of tumor, the volume of adipose, and/or the number of adhesions. A computing system may determine, based on the biomarker measurements, an angle and/or site for trocar placement (e.g., for an optimal field of view). Various sensing systems may be used to measure the biomarkers as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B . 
     As shown in  FIG. 16A , a lung segmentectomy may include an initiation procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to identify various risks associated with the initiation procedural step. For example, a risk associated with the initiation procedural step may be accidental damage to the lung upon insertion of the trocars. Biomarker measurements related to lung tissue strength, as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B , may be used to identify the risk that the lung may be accidentally damaged during the initiation procedural step. Biomarker measurements may be used post-op to diagnose or predict failure(s). For example, biomarker measurements related to lung tissue strength may be used to diagnose when the lung has been accidentally damaged. A risk may be accidentally widening the incision, and biomarker measurements related to muscle friability and/or dermis strength may be used to identify such accidental widening. 
     As shown in  FIG. 16A , lung segmentectomy may include an access and preparation procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to the access and preparation procedural step. For example, biomarker measurements related to the appearance and/or character of lung tissue tumor may be used to differentiate the tumor from the surrounding lung. The biomarker measurements may be lung tissue perfusion pressure and/or tissue friability as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B . 
     Biomarker measurements may be used to determine operational parameters for various surgical tools related to the access and preparation procedural step. During the access and preparation procedural step, the HCP may dissect: the pulmonary ligament and/or adhesions using a harmonic scalpel. Biomarkers measurements related to the thickness, character, and/or perfusion of the adhesions and/or ligament may be used to determine the operational parameters of the harmonic scalpel. The biomarkers may include one or more of the biomarkers described with reference to  FIG. 1B . A computing system may adjust the parameters of the harmonic scalpel based on time determined operational parameters. 
       FIG. 16B  illustrates example manage vessel and remove segment procedural steps and example use of patient biomarkers during these steps. As shown, lung segmentectomy may include a manage vessel procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to the manage vessel procedural step, such as locating segmental branches of the pulmonary vessels and deciding the height of ligation appropriate to risk of metastasis. Biomarker measurements related to the thickness of the connective tissue, the metastatic nature of the tumor, and/or the arrangement of the blood vessels may be used when deciding the ligation height. 
     As shown fn  FIG. 16B , biomarkers measurements may be used to identify various risks associated with the manage vessels procedural step. For example, a risk associated with the manage vessels procedural step may be ligating incorrect blood vessels and/or cutting off blood supply to healthy tissue. Biomarker measurements related to blood vessel arrangement, as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B , may be used to identify the risk that incorrect blood vessels may be ligated. Biomarker measurements related to blood vessel arrangement may be used post-op to diagnose when incorrect blood vessels have been ligated. A risk associated with the manage vessel procedural step may be improperly ligating the pulmonary artery and/or causing blood loss. Biomarker measurements related to blood pressure and/or blood vessel collagen level may be used to identify the risk of improper ligation and/or blood loss. These measurements may be used to diagnose improper ligation and/or blood loss. A risk associated with the manage vessel procedural step may be accidental damage to lung tissue and/or air leaks. Biomarker measurements related to lung tissue strength (e.g., lung tissue perfusion pressure) may be used to identify the risks. 
     As shown in  FIG. 16B , biomarker measurements may be used to determine operational parameters for various surgical tools related to the manage vessels procedural step. During the manage vessels procedural step, the HCP may develop fissures to expose segmental vessels and/or airways using a harmonic scalpel. Biomarkers measurements related to the thickness of connective tissue may be used to determine the operational parameters of the harmonic scalpel. During the manage vessels procedural step, biomarker measurements related to effective homeostasis (e.g., blood vessel collagen level and/or blood pressure) may be used to determine the operational parameters of the harmonic scalpel. A computing system may adjust the parameters of the harmonic scalpel based on the determined operational parameters. 
     As shown in  FIG. 16B , lung segmentectomy may include a remove segment procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to the remove segment procedural step. For example, biomarker measurements related to the metastatic risk of tumor may be used to decide an appropriate tissue margin. 
     Biomarkers measurements may be used to identify various risks associated with the remove segment procedural step. For example, a risk associated with the remove segment procedural step may be transecting incorrect bronchiole. Biomarker measurements related to the visibility of airways, as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B , may be used to identify the risk that incorrect bronchiole may be transected. Biomarker measurements related to airway visibility may be used post-op to diagnose when incorrect bronchiole have been transected. 
     Biomarker measurements may be used to determine operational parameters for various surgical tools related to the remove segment procedural step. During the remove segment procedural step, the HCF may staple the tissue using a linear stapler. Biomarkers measurements related to lung tissue thickness, viscoelastic properties, and/or fibrous character may be used to determine the operational parameters of the linear stapler. For example, lung tissue friability, as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B , may be used to determine the operation parameters of the linear stapler. In examples, as described in  FIG. 15 , based on a predicted tissue irregularity complication, such as a complication due to a lung tissue that is irregularly thick or fibrous, the computing system may generate control signals to improve the optimal compression and/or firing of a linear stapler. In an example, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to reduce a clamping speed, increase a closure compression force, and/or prolong a tissue creep wait time prior to stapling. In an example, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to reduce a stapler firing speed. 
       FIG. 16C  illustrates example manage lymph nodes and assessment procedural steps and example use of patient biomarkers during these steps. As shown, lung segmentectomy may include a manage lymph nodes procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to the manage lymph nodes procedural step. For example, biomarker measurements related to the metastatic risk of tumor may be used to determine a degree of lymph node clearance. 
     As shown in  FIG. 16C , lung segmentectomy may include an assessment procedural step. Biomarkers measurements related to lung tissue repair capacity and/or staple line integrity may be used to decide whether to apply fibrin sealant. Biomarkers measurements related to lung tissue repair capacity and/or staple line integrity may be used to decide the quantity of fibrin sealant to apply. 
       FIG. 16D  illustrates example post-surgery and example use of patient biomarkers. Biomarker measurements may be used post--op to predict or detect post-surgical lung segmentectomy complications. 
       FIG. 17A-E  illustrates example procedure steps of sigmoid colectomy and example use of patient biomarker measurements. As shown in  FIG. 17A-E , example steps of a sigmoid colectomy may include pre-surgery, initiation, access and preparation, mobilize colon, resect sigmoid, anastomosis, assessment, and post-surgery. As shown, patient biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions, identify various risks pre-surgery, during surgery, after surgery, and/or determine operational parameters for various surgical tools. 
       FIG. 17A  illustrates example pre-surgery, initiation, and access and preparation procedural steps and example use of patient biomarkers during these steps. As shown, during a pre-surgical period, patient biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to sigmoid colectomy. In an example, patient biomarkers measurements may be related to how fit the patient is to undergo surgery (e.g. sigmoid colectomy). For exam the biomarkers measurements may be related to the patient&#39;s overall cardiothoracic performance. The biomarkers measured may include oxygen saturation, blood pressure, VO2 max, and/or the like as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B . Pre-surgical biomarkers measurements may be used to determine the placement of one or more trocars. For example, the biomarker measurements may be related to the volume of adipose and/or the number of adhesions. A computing system may determine, based on the biomarker measurements, an angle and/or site for trocar placement (e.g., for an optimal field of view). Various sensing systems may be used to measure the biomarkers as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B . 
     As shown in  FIG. 17A , sigmoid colectomy may include an initiation procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to identify various risks associated with the initiation procedural step. 
     As shown in  FIG. 17A , sigmoid colectomy may include an access and preparation procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to the access and preparation procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to identify various risks associated with the surgery, such as accidental damage to the inferior mesenteric artery (“IMA”) and/or ureter. Biomarker measurements related to visibility of features, IMA and/or ureter fragility, as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B , may be used to identify the risk that at least one of the bodily structures may be accidentally damaged dining the access and preparation step. Biomarker measurements may be used post-op to diagnose or predict failure(s). For example, biomarker measurements related to IMA fragility may be used to diagnose when the IMA has been accidentally damaged. For example, biomarker measurements related to ureter fragility may be used to diagnose when the ureter has been accidentally damaged. 
     As shown in  FIG. 17A , during the access and preparation step, biomarker measurements may be used to determine operational parameters for various surgical tools. The HCP may use a harmonic scalpel and/or bipolar and monopolar RF. Biomarker measurements related to homeostasis (e.g., blood vessel collagen level and/or blood pressure) may be used to determine the operational parameters of the harmonic scalpel and/or bipolar and monopolar RF. A computing system may adjust the parameters based on the determined operational parameters. 
       FIG. 17B  illustrates example mobilize colon and resect sigmoid procedural steps and example use of patient biomarkers during these steps. As shown, a sigmoid colectomy may include a mobilize colon procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to the mobilize colon procedural step, such as deciding the ligation height of the IMA. Biomarker measurements related to the perfusion of the colon and/or the metastatic nature of the tumor may be used when deciding the ligation height. In such a case, the biomarker measurements may include sweat adrenaline, cortisol, colon tissue perfusion pressure, and/or circulating tumor cells. The mobilize colon procedure step may include identifying the tumor within the colon. Biomarker measurements related to the appearance of colon and/or tumor may be used when identifying the tumor. In such a case, the biomarker measurements may include gastrointestinal tract imaging. 
     As shown in  FIG. 17B , biomarkers measurements may be used to identify various risks associated with the mobilize colon procedural step. For example, a risk associated with the mobilize colon procedural step may be accidental damage to the IMA and/or ureter. Biomarker measurements related to IMA and/or ureter fragility, as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B , may be used to identify the risk that at least one of the bodily structures may be accidentally damaged during the mobilize colon procedural step. Biomarker measurements may be used post-op to diagnose or predict failure(s). For example, biomarker measurements related to IMA fragility may be used to diagnose when the IMA has been accidentally damaged. For example, biomarker measurements related to ureter fragility may be used to diagnose when the ureter has been accidentally damaged. A risk associated with mobilize colon procedural step may be hemorrhage resulting from incomplete homeostasis. Biomarker measurements related to blood vessel collagen level and/or blood pressure, as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B , may be used to identify the risk of incomplete homeostasis. 
     As shown in  FIG. 17B , biomarker measurements may be used to determine operational parameters for various surgical tools related to the mobilize colon procedural step. During the mobilize colon procedural step, the HCP may use a harmonic scalpel and/or bipolar and monopolar RF. Biomarker measurements related to homeostasis (e.g., blood vessel collagen level and/or blood pressure) may be used to determine the operational parameters of the harmonic scalpel and/or bipolar and monopolar RF. During the mobilize colon procedural step, the HCP may dissect mesentery and/or adhesions using a harmonic scalpel and/or bipolar and monopolar RF. Biomarkers measurements related to the thickness, character, and/perfusion of adhesions may be used to determine the operational parameters of the harmonic scalpel and/or bipolar and monopolar RF. A computing system may adjust the parameters based on the determined operational parameters. 
     As shown in  FIG. 17B , a sigmoid colectomy may include a resect sigmoid procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to the resect sigmoid procedural step. For example, biomarker measurements related to the metastatic risk and/or size of the tumor may be used to decide an appropriate tissue margin. 
     As shown in  FIG. 17B , biomarkers measurements may be used to identify various risks associated with the resect sigmoid procedural step. For example, a risk associated with the resect sigmoid procedural step may be colorectal leak. Biomarker measurements related to colon tissue thickness, viscoelastic properties, and/or fibrous character, as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B , may be used to identify the risk of colorectal leak. In such a case, the biomarkers measured may include blood pressure, gastrointestinal tract imaging, colon tissue perfusion pressure, and/or edema. 
     As shown, biomarker measurements may be used to determine operational parameters for various surgical tools related to the resect sigmoid procedural step. During the resect sigmoid procedural step, the HCP may staple the tissue using a linear and/or circular stapler. Biomarkers measurements related to colon tissue thickness, viscoelastic properties, and/or fibrous character may be used to determine the operational parameters of the linear stapler. Biomarker measurements related to colon tissue friability (e.g., gastrointestinal tract imaging) may be used to determine the operational parameters of the circular stapler. In examples, as described in  FIG. 15 , based on a predicted tissue irregularity complication, such as a complication due to a colon tissue that is irregularly thick or fibrous, the computing system may generate various control signals to improve the optimal compression and/or firing of a linear stapler. In an example, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to reduce a clamping speed, increase a closure compression force, and/or prolong a tissue creep wait time prior to stapling of a linear stapler. In an example, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to reduce a stapler firing speed. 
       FIG. 17C  illustrates example anastomosis and assessment procedural steps and example use of patient biomarkers during these steps. As shown, sigmoid colectomy may include an anastomosis procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to the anastomosis procedural step. For example, biomarker measurements related to colon repair capacity (e.g., oxygen saturation, gastrointestinal tract imaging, menstrual cycle) may be used to determine appropriate colon tension. Biomarker measurements related to colon tissue friability and/or viscoelastic properties may be used to determine whether the doughnut integrity is sufficient. In such a case, the biomarkers measured may include blood pressure, gastrointestinal tract imaging, colon tissue perfusion pressure, and/or edema. 
     Biomarkers measurements may be used to identify various risks associated with anastomosis procedural step. 
     As shown in  FIG. 17C , biomarker measurements may be used to determine operational parameters for various surgical tools related to the anastomosis procedural step. During the anastomosis procedural step, the HCP may staple the tissue using a circular stapler. Biomarkers measurements related to colon tissue thickness, edema, and/or fibrous character may be used to determine the operational parameters of the circular stapler. In examples, as described in  FIG. 15 , based on a predicted tissue irregularity complication, such as a complication due to a colon tissue that is irregularly thick or fibrous, the computing system may generate various control signals to improve the optimal compression and/or firing of a circular stapler. In an example, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to reduce a clamping speed, increase a closure compression force, and/or prolong a tissue creep wait time prior to stapling. In an example, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to reduce a stapler firing speed. In an example, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to shift upward a viable staple height range. 
     As shown, sigmoid colectomy may include an assessment procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to the assessment procedural step. For example, biomarker measurements related to colon tissue appearance and/or staple line integrity may be used to determine an anastomosis leak. 
     As shown in  FIG. 17C , biomarkers measurements may be used to identify various risks associated with the assessment procedural step. For example, a risk associated with the resect sigmoid procedural step may be anastomosis leak. Biomarker measurements related to colon tissue friability, as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B , may be used to identify the risk of anastomosis leak. In such a case, the biomarkers measured may include gastrointestinal tract imaging. 
       FIG. 17D  illustrates example post-surgery and example use of patient biomarkers during this step. Biomarker measurements may be used post-op to predict or detect post-surgical sigmoid colectomy complications. 
       FIG. 17E  illustrates example patient biomarkers related to sigmoid colectomy. The various biomarkers and corresponding measurements using one or more sensing system(s) are described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B . 
       FIG. 18A-E  illustrates example procedure steps of sleeve gastrectomy and example use of patient biomarker measurements. As shown in  FIG. 18A-E , example steps of a sigmoid colectomy may include pre-surgery, initiation, access and preparation, gastric transection, assessment, and post-surgery. As shown, patient biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions, identify various risks pre-surgery, during surgery, after surgery, and/or determine operational parameters for various surgical tools. 
       FIG. 18A  illustrates example pre-surgery and initiation procedural steps and example use of patient biomarkers during these steps. As shown, during a pre-surgical period, patient biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to sleeve gastrectomy. In an example, patient biomarkers measurements may be related to how fit the patient is to undergo surgery (e.g., sleeve gastrectomy). For example, the biomarkers measurements may be related to the patient&#39;s overall cardio thoracic performance and/or stress levels. The biomarkers measured may include oxygen saturation, blood pressure, cortisol level, and/or the like as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B . Pre-surgical biomarkers measurements may be used to determine the placement of one or more trocars. For example, the biomarker measurements may be related to the size of the liver, the volume of adipose, and/or the number of adhesions. A computing system may determine, based on the biomarker measurements, an angle and/or site for trocar placement (e.g., for an optimal field of view). Various sensing systems may be used to measure the biomarkers as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B . 
     As shown in  FIG. 18A , sleeve gastrectomy may include an initiation procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to identify various risks associated with the initiation procedural step. For example, a risk associated with the initiation procedural step may be accidental damage to organs upon insertion of the trocars. Biomarker measurements related to number of adhesions, strength of stomach tissue, and/or strength of liver tissue, as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B , may be used to identify the risk that one or more organs may be accidentally damaged during the initiation procedural step. Biomarker measurements may be used post-op to diagnose or predict failures(s). For example, biomarker measurements related to number of adhesions, strength of stomach tissue, and/or strength of liver tissue may be used to diagnose when an organ has been accidentally damaged. 
       FIG. 18B  illustrates an example access and preparation procedural step and example use of patient biomarkers during this step. As shown, biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to the access and preparation procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to identify various risks associated with the access and preparation procedural step. For example, a risk associated with the access and preparation procedural step may be accidental damage to the stomach and/or liver during mesentery dissection and/or mobilization. Biomarker measurements related to strength of stomach tissue and/or liver tissue, as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B , may be used to identify the risk that the stomach and/or liver may be accidentally damaged during the access and preparation procedural step. Biomarker measurements may be used post-op to diagnose or predict failure(s). For example, biomarker measurements related to stomach tissue strength and/or liver tissue strength may be used to diagnose when the stomach and/or liver has been accidentally damaged. 
     As shown in  FIG. 18B , biomarker measurements may be used to determine operational parameters for various surgical tools related to the access and preparation procedural step. During the access and preparation procedural step, the HCP may use a harmonic scalpel and/or bipolar RF to dissect the mesentery and/or adhesions. Biomarker measurements related to the thickness, character, and/or perfusion of the adhesions may be used to determine the operational parameters of the harmonic scalpel and/or bipolar RF. Biomarker measurements related to homeostasis (e.g., blood vessel collagen level and/or blood pressure) may be used to determine the operational parameters of the harmonic scalpel and/or bipolar RF. A computing system may adjust the parameters based on the determined operational parameters. 
       FIG. 18C  illustrates an example gastric transection procedural step and example use of patient biomarkers during this step. As shown, sleeve gastrectomy may include a gastric transection procedural step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to the gastric transection procedural step, such as defining the staple line to preserve the antrum and ensure adequate blood supply to the stomach. Biomarker measurements related to stomach blood supply may be used when defining the staple line. 
     As shown in  FIG. 18C , biomarkers measurements may be used to identify various risks associated with gastric transection. For example, a risk associated with the gastric transection procedural step may be stapling through critical blood vessels and/or causing ischemia to the stomach. Biomarker measurements related to stomach blood supply, as described herein with reference to  FIG. 1B , may be used to identify the risk of stapling through critical blood vessels and/or causing stomach ischemic during the gastric transection procedural step. Biomarker measurements may be used post-op to diagnose or predict failure(s). For example, biomarker measurements related to stomach blood supply may be used to diagnose when critical blood vessels have been stapled through and/or stomach ischemia. 
     As shown in  FIG. 18C , biomarker measurements may be used to determine operational parameters for various surgical tools related to the gastric transection procedural step. During the gastric transection procedural step, the HCP may use a harmonic scalpel and/or bipolar RF to dissect the mesentery and/or adhesions. Biomarker measurements related to the thickness, character, and/or perfusion of the adhesions may be used to determine the operational parameters of the harmonic scalpel and/or bipolar RF. Biomarker measurements related to homeostasis (e.g., blood vessel collagen level and/or blood pressure) may be used to determine the operational parameters of the harmonic scalpel and/or bipolar RF. Biomarker measurements related to stomach tissue strength and/or spleen strength may be used to determine the operational parameters. 
     During the gastric transection procedural step, the HCP may use a linear stapler to staple the stomach tissue. Biomarker measurements related to the thickness, friability, and/or viscoelastic properties of the stomach may be used to determine the operational parameters of the linear stapler. In examples, as described in  FIG. 15 , based on a predicted tissue irregularity complication, such as a complication due to an irregularly thick stomach tissue, the computing system may generate various control signals to improve the optimal compression and/or firing of a linear stapler. In an example, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to reduce a clamping speed, increase a closure compression force, and/or prolong a tissue creep wait time prior to stapling. In an example, the computing system may generate a control signal configured to reduce a stapler firing speed. 
       FIG. 18D  illustrates an example assessment procedural step and example use of patient biomarkers during this step. Biomarkers measurements may be used to inform various decisions related to the assessment procedural step. As shown, biomarkers measurements may be used to identify various risks associated with the assessment procedural step. For example, a risk associated with the assessment procedural step may be stomach leak. Biomarker measurements related to staple line integrity may be used to identify the risk of a stomach leak. Biomarker measurements related to staple line integrity may be used to diagnose or predict a stomach leak. 
       FIG. 18E  illustrates example post-surgery and example use of patient biomarkers. As shown, biomarker measurements may be used post-op to predict or detect post-surgical sleeve gastrectomy complications.