Patent Publication Number: US-11639508-B2

Title: Engineered TSC2

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a National Stage application under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of International Application No. PCT/US2018/042142 having an International Filing Date of Jul. 13, 2018, which claims the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 62/532,909, filed on Jul. 14, 2017. The disclosure of the prior applications are considered part of (and are incorporated by reference in) the disclosure of this application. 
    
    
     GOVERNMENT SUPPORT 
     This invention was made with government support under RO1HL119012-01, HHSN268201000032C, P01HL107153, HL135827-01, and T32-007227 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     The mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) coordinates biosynthetic and recycling pathways to control cell growth and metabolic homeostasis (1, 2). mTORC1 stimulates anabolic growth and suppresses protein recycling by autophagy. In addition to its role in normal physiology, mTORC1 contributes to disease such as autoimmune disorders, cancer, and heart failure (3), where its hyperactivation is a therapeutic target (4). 
     Broad suppression, however, risks compromising the normal role of mTORC1, whereas disease-dependent modulation could provide a more targeted approach. Many intrinsic regulators of mTORC1 do so by phosphorylating Tuberous Sclerosis Complex 2 (“TSC2,” also referred to as “tuberin”), a GTPase activating protein that modifies Rheb-GTP binding to stimulate or suppress mTORC1 (5). 
     TSC2 is constitutively inhibitory, as gene deletion and loss-of-function mutations induce mTORC1 hyperactivity, causing tumors and neurological disease. Growth/metabolic stimulation of extra-cellular response kinase (ERK1/2), protein kinase B (Akt), and p90Rsk reduce TSC2 inhibition (6), whereas energy depletion-stimulated AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) or glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) enhances TSC2 inhibition of mTORC1 (7). Each kinase targets 2-5 different residues, and in order to block a particular enzyme effect, all the related sites must be silenced (7, 8). Perhaps as a consequence, no models altering such regulation in vivo have been reported. 
     In immune cells, upon the activation of the T-Cell Receptor (TCR), or corresponding surface receptor that triggers the immune cell to perform a designated task, the mTORC1 signaling pathway is engaged and ultimately determines the outcome of antigen recognition and cellular signaling response to the immune microenvironment. Through genetic gain or loss of function studies of components of the mTORC1 protein complex and its regulating proteins, a prominent role for mTORC1 in T-cell and other immune and inflammatory cell activity, differentiation, and function has been identified. 
     In T-cells, stimulation of mTORC1 results in enhancement of their effector function. This can involve clonal expansion so that the population size of a specific antigen-receptive cell is amplified to combat a foreign (or perceived to be foreign as in the case of autoimmune disease) body. It can also involve the enhanced synthesis and release of cytokines that coordinate an immune response. Stimulation of mTORC1 also enhances cytotoxic responses controlled by T cells to target foreign cells (e.g. tumor cells, virus, bacteria, other foreign bodies) with the goal of eliminating these cells from the host. 
     In T-cells, sustained mTORC1 stimulation results in a suppression of immunological effector (cytotoxic) function, termed anergy or exhaustion. It also compromises cell memory (or persistence) of the T-cell to a prior immunological antigen-recognition event and response. 
     In T-cells, the suppression of mTORC1 activity allows cells to remain in a more undifferentiated state, where they can replicate while still maintaining full differentiation potential. Reducing activity also enhances memory/persistence in effector T-cells and reduces the development of immunological anergy and exhaustion. 
     mTORC1 stimulation and inhibition play roles in cells that regulate immunological self-recognition, e.g. control over the immune system to recognize self from foreign cells and cell products. This is principally controlled by regulatory T-cells (Treg) that are central for suppressing immune reactions to self-antigens. 
     mTORC1 stimulation and inhibition also play roles in the modulation of inflammatory cells, such as neutrophils and macrophages. These cells are commonly engaged in autoimmune disease where identification of a self-antigen has resulted in the activation of an immunological response, and local release of cytokines and other factors stimulates inflammatory cells to attack the body and cause disease. The regulation of neutrophil and macrophage function to the corresponding inflammatory response also depends on their ability to control cell growth, metabolism, and protein homeostasis, and mTORC1 plays a central role to these factors and thus the functionality of these inflammatory cells. 
     SUMMARY 
     The present disclosure relates generally to engineered TSC2 polypeptides in which the ability of a residue corresponding to a serine residue in a wild-type TSC2 polypeptide to be phosphorylated is altered. In some embodiments, a TSC2 polypeptide is engineered at a serine residue corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5) such that the ability of the engineered TSC2 polypeptide to be phosphorylated at this position is decreased (e.g., an S1364A substitution). In some embodiments, a TSC2 polypeptide is engineered at a serine residue corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5) such that the engineered TSC2 acts as if it is constitutively phosphorylated at this position (e.g., an S1364E substitution). Other embodiments of the invention will be described in more detail herein. 
     In some aspects, provided herein are polypeptides comprising SEQ ID NO: 1 and nucleic acids encoding polypeptides comprising SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3. In some embodiments, a vector includes a nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide comprising SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, a cell comprises the vector, wherein the nucleic acid encoding the polypeptide comprising SEQ ID NO: 1 is operably linked to a nucleic acid that drives expression of the polypeptide in the cell. In some embodiments, the cell is an immune cell. In some embodiments, the immune cell is a cytotoxic T cell or a chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T cell). In some embodiments, upon activation, the cytotoxic T cell or CAR-T cell exhibits a higher level of mTORC1 signaling than a reference cytotoxic T cell or a reference CAR-T cell that lacks the vector. In some embodiments, upon activation, the cytotoxic T cell or CAR-T cell expresses one or more cytokines at a higher level than a reference cytotoxic T cell or a reference CAR-T cell that lacks the vector, wherein the one or more cytokines are selected from the group consisting of: interferon gamma, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 2, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the immune cell is a helper T cell. In some embodiments, the helper T cell exhibits a higher level of mTORC1 signaling than a reference helper T cell that lacks the vector. In some embodiments, the immune cell is a regulatory T cell. In some embodiments, upon activation, the regulatory T cell exhibits a higher level of mTORC1 signaling than a reference regulatory T cell that lacks the vector. In some embodiments, the cell further comprises a genetic alteration in which a wild type nucleic acid sequence encoding TSC2 has been rendered inactive. 
     In some aspects, provided herein are cells comprising a vector, wherein the vector comprises a nucleic acid encoding a mutant TSC2 polypeptide, wherein the mutant TSC2 polypeptide includes an altered amino acid at a position corresponding to S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, or S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7. In some embodiments, the altered amino acid comprises a methionine, an alanine, a valine, a leucine, an isoleucine, or a phenylalanine residue. In some embodiments, the mutant TSC2 polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence as set forth in one of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 8, or 9. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid encoding the mutant TSC2 polypeptide is operably linked to a nucleic acid that drives expression of the mutant TSC2 polypeptide in the cell. 
     In some aspects, provided herein are polypeptides comprising SEQ ID NO: 2 and nucleic acids encoding polypeptides comprising SEQ ID NO: 2. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4. In some embodiments, a vector includes a nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide comprising SEQ ID NO: 2. In some embodiments, a cell comprises the vector, wherein the nucleic acid encoding the polypeptide comprising SEQ ID NO: 2 is operably linked to a nucleic acid that drives expression of the polypeptide in the cell. In some embodiments, the cell is an immune cell. In some embodiments, the immune cell is a memory T cell. In some embodiments, upon activation, the memory T cell exhibits a lower level of mTORC1 signaling than a reference memory T cell that lacks the vector. In some embodiments, upon activation, the memory T cell expresses one or more cytokines at a lower level than a reference memory T cell that lacks the vector, wherein the one or more cytokines are selected from the group consisting of: interferon gamma, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 2, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the cell further comprises a genetic alteration in which a wild type nucleic acid sequence encoding TSC2 has been rendered inactive. 
     In some aspects, provided herein are cells comprising a vector, wherein the vector comprises a nucleic acid encoding a mutant TSC2 polypeptide, wherein the mutant TSC2 polypeptide includes an altered amino acid at a position corresponding to S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, or S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7. In some embodiments, the altered amino acid comprises an aspartic acid or a glutamic acid residue. In some embodiments, the mutant TSC2 polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence as set forth in one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 10, or 11. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid encoding the mutant TSC2 polypeptide is operably linked to a nucleic acid that drives expression of the mutant TSC2 polypeptide in the cell. 
     In some aspects, provided herein are methods of treating a disease in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to a subject an engineered immune cell comprising a vector, wherein the vector comprises a nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide comprising SEQ ID NO: 1 operably linked to a nucleic acid that drives expression of the polypeptide in the T cell, and wherein upon recognizing an antigen associated with the disease, the immune cell exhibits increased activity as compared to a reference immune cell that lacks the vector. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell is a cytotoxic T cell. In some embodiments, the increased activity of the cytotoxic T cell comprises increased mTORC1 signaling. In some embodiments, the increased activity of the cytotoxic T cell comprises increased expression of one or more cytokines selected from the group consisting of: interferon gamma, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 2, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell is a helper T cell. In some embodiments, the increased activity of the helper T cell comprises increased mTORC1 signaling. In some embodiments, the disease is cancer, a viral disease, a bacterial disease, fungal disease, or a parasitic disease. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell is a regulatory T cell. In some embodiments, the increased activity of the regulatory T cell comprises increased mTORC1 signaling. In some embodiments, the disease is asthma, an autoimmune disease, or graft vs. host disease. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell comprises a genetic alteration in a wild type nucleic acid sequence encoding TSC2, wherein the genetic alteration renders the wild-type TSC2 inactive. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell is derived from an endogenous immune cell obtained from the subject. 
     In some aspects, provided herein are methods of generating a persistent T cell in a subject, comprising administering to a subject an engineered immune cell comprising a vector, wherein the vector comprises a nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide comprising SEQ ID NO: 2 operably linked to a nucleic acid that drives expression of the polypeptide in the engineered immune cell, wherein the engineered immune cell recognizes an antigen, wherein upon recognizing the antigen, the engineered immune cell exhibits decreased activity as compared to a reference immune cell that lacks the vector, and wherein upon recognizing the antigen, the engineered immune cell becomes the persistent T cell. In some embodiments, the decreased activity of the engineered immune cell comprises decreased mTORC1 signaling. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell is derived from an endogenous immune cell obtained from the subject. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell is a CD8+ T cell, and the persistent T cell is a memory T cell. In some embodiments, the CD8+ T cell is further engineered to express a chimeric antigen receptor or a T cell receptor. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell is a regulatory T cell, and the persistent T cell is a persistent T regulatory cell. 
     In some aspects, provided herein are methods of generating a persistent T cell in vitro comprising providing an immune cell, introducing into the immune cell a vector comprising a nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide comprising SEQ ID NO: 2 operably linked to a nucleic acid that drives expression of the polypeptide in the immune cell, thereby generating an engineered immune cell, wherein the engineered immune cell exhibits decreased mTORC1 signaling as compared to a reference immune cell that lacks the vector, contacting the engineered immune cell with an antigen that is recognized by the engineered immune cell, and culturing the engineered immune cell under conditions and for a time sufficient such that the engineered immune cell becomes the persistent T cell. In some embodiments, the immune cell is a CD8+ T cell, and the persistent T cell is a memory T cell. In some embodiments, the CD8+ T cell is further engineered to express a chimeric antigen receptor or a T cell receptor. In some embodiments, the memory T cell is administered to a subject. In some embodiments, the subject exhibits a disease, and administration of the memory T cell to the subject treats the disease. In some embodiments, the disease is cancer, a viral disease, a bacterial disease, fungal disease, or a parasitic disease. In some embodiments, the immune cell is obtained from the subject. In some embodiments, the immune cell is a regulatory T cell, and the persistent T cell is a persistent T regulatory cell. In some embodiments, the persistent T regulatory cell is administered to a subject. In some embodiments, the subject exhibits a disease, and administration of the persistent T regulatory cell to the subject treats the disease. In some embodiments, the disease is asthma, an autoimmune disease, or graft vs. host disease. In some embodiments, the immune cell is obtained from the subject. 
     Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Methods and materials are described herein for use in the present invention; other, suitable methods and materials known in the art can also be used. The materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. All publications, patent applications, patents, sequences, database entries, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. 
     Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description and figures, and from the claims. 
    
    
     
       DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         FIG.  1   . A) Phosphorylated/total Ulk1, p70 S6K and 4EBP1 from mice +/− sustained pressure-overload stress (PO) treated with vehicle, sildenafil (Sil, 200 mg/kg/day) or everolimus (Evl, 10 mg/kg/day) starting 1 week post-PO (n=6/group). B) LC3-II and p62 protein changes show increased autophagy with both therapies. C) LC3-II increase with bafilomycin A (BFA) increases further with cGMP; the effect is blocked by DT3. D) Autophagic flux in myocytes stimulated with ET-1 +/− cGMP or DT3. Flux increase is indicated by red/yellow puncta. E) Myocyte stress (Nppb) stimulated by ET-1 is blocked by SIL but not if Ulk1 is genetically silenced. ****: p&lt;0.0001; ***: p&lt;0.001; **: p&lt;0.01; *: p&lt;0.05 by Tukey multiple comparisons test following significance (p&lt;0.001 or lower) deduced by 1-way ANOVA. 
         FIG.  2   . A) TSC2 phospho-target map showing S1365 relative to other known sites in mouse and human. B) Effect of expression of WT, S1365E (SE), or S1365A (SA) TSC2 mutants with and without sildenafil (SIL) treatment in myocytes stimulated by ET1 or vehicle (n=6). C) Effect of each TSC2 mutant on mTORC1 activation. Vehicle&gt;ET1 response (p&lt;0.0001) for WT and SA TSC2, but p=NS with SE expression. D) mTORC1 activation from PO in vivo in WT is suppressed in C42S-PKG1α mice. E) Autophagic flux (AuF) is enhanced in cells expressing C42S by LC3-II/BFA assay. F) Nppb stimulated by ET1 in myocytes expressing WT and C42S PKG1α and S1365 TSC2 mutants. G) Fluorescent microscopy of these myocytes in presence or absence of concomitant Ulk1 gene silencing. Upper: LC3-GFP-RFP (AuF) fluorescence; lower: Alexa-568 phalloidin actin staining for hypertrophy. ****: p&lt;0.0001; ***: p&lt;0.001; **: p&lt;0.01; *: p&lt;0.05 by Tukey multiple comparisons test following significance (p&lt;0.001 or lower) deduced by 1-way ANOVA. 
         FIG.  3   . A) Strategy and guide-RNA for CRISPR-Cas9 generation of S1365A (SA) knock-in mice. B) Survival curves of SA and littermate controls (WT) subjected to PO. Significance of Kaplan-Meier survival curve determined by log-rank (Mantel-Cox) test. C) Example post-mortem left ventricle of WT vs SA hearts subjected to sham or PO. D) Echocardiographic data for left ventricular end-diastolic dimension and fractional shortening. P-value for genotype time-course interaction in PO groups is shown. **: between group difference at 2 weeks post-PO. E) mTORC1 growth/proliferation activation targets were increased after PO in SA versus WT mice, and unaltered in sham (baseline). F) LC3-II protein increased in WT-PO, but was absent in SA-PO (n=4/group). ****: p&lt;0.0001; ***: p&lt;0.001; **: p&lt;0.01; *: p&lt;0.05 by Tukey multiple comparisons test following significance (p&lt;0.001 or lower) deduced by 1-way ANOVA. 2W-ANOVA for PO, genotype, and interaction effects. and *- are as in  FIG.  1   . 
         FIG.  4   . A) Survival of SA-PO mice with or without everolimus (Evl) co-treatment. Significance of Kaplan-Meier survival curve determined by log-rank (Mantel-Cox) test. B) Heart and lung weights show near complete disease reversal with Evl-treatment in SA-PO mice. C) Example echocardiography shows normalized left ventricular function in Evl-treated mice. D) Autophagy is suppressed (low LC3-II, increased p62) in SA-PO mice, and augmented by Evl. E) Survival of C42S×SA mice versus C42S alone after PO. Significance of Kaplan-Meier survival curve determined by log-rank (Mantel-Cox) test. F) Chamber dilation is worse after PO in C42S×SA mice. G) Schematic summary of proposed signaling pathways. PKG1α is a new novel TSC2 regulating kinase targeting S1365, and this activity is suppressed by PKG1α oxidation. The state of S1365 bi-directionally impacts mTORC1 signaling, being particularly potent on Ulk1-dependent autophagy. 
         FIG.  5   . TSC2 Mutant (TSC2*) CD4 T cells display higher mTORC1 activity (pS6 S240.44) upon T cell activation with Signal 1 plus Signal 2 over time. Geometric mean fluorescent intensity (MFI) indicates intensity of expression of mTORC1 activity in respective condition. 
         FIG.  6   . TSC2 Mutant (TSC2*) CD8 T cells display higher mTORC1 activity (pS6 S240.44) upon T cell activation with Signal 1 plus Signal 2 over time. Geometric mean fluorescent intensity (MFI) indicates intensity of expression of mTORC1 activity in respective condition. 
         FIGS.  7 A- 7 B . CD8 mTORC1 Activity. A. Fold difference in mTORC1 activity calculated based on MFI value of 30 and 60 minute stimulation time points versus MFI of no stimulation. B. TSC2 SE mutant CD8+ T cells display the opposite response to TSC2 SA cells, with markedly reduced mTORC1 activation following TCR stimulation. Data shown are at 90 minutes following stimulation. As with TSC2 SA mutant T cells, the TSC2 SE cells also show no differences in mTORC1 activity in the resting (non-stimulated) state. 
         FIGS.  8 A- 8 B . Interferon Gamma (IFNg) cytokine expression. A. TSC2 mutant CD8 T cells have enhanced effector function upon re-challenge assed by Interferon gamma (IFNg) expression. B. TSC2SE mutant CD8 T cells expressed less IFNg upon compared to WT CD8 T cells upon re-challenge. 
         FIG.  9   . TSC2 mutant CD8 T cells have enhanced effector function upon re-challenge assed by IL-2 expression. 
         FIG.  10   . TSC2 mutant CD8 T cells have enhanced effector function upon re-challenge assed by TNFa expression. 
         FIG.  11   . Previously activated TSC2 mutant T cells induce faster and higher mTORC1 activity compared to WT control cells. 
         FIG.  12   . TSC2SA mutant CD8+ effector T cells from homozygote or heterozygote SA-KI mice show hyperactivation of mTOR signaling pathways, with similar responses in cells expressing either one or two mutant alleles. 
         FIG.  13   . Western blot analyses of phosphorylated/total Ulk1, p70 S6K and 4EBP1 from cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCMs) expressing a WT, S1365E, or S1365A TSC2 were treated with insulin (10 μg/ml) or vehicle for 15 minutes. 
         FIG.  14   . Summary table of sequences in  FIGS.  15 - 25   . 
         FIG.  15   . Mutant human TSC2 polypeptide sequence with the engineered alanine mutation. 
         FIG.  16   . Mutant human TSC2 polypeptide sequence with the engineered glutamic acid mutation. 
         FIG.  17   . Mutant human TSC2 nucleic acid sequence with the engineered alanine mutation. 
         FIG.  18   . Mutant human TSC2 nucleic acid sequence with the engineered glutamic acid mutation. 
         FIG.  19   . Wild-type human TSC2 polypeptide sequence. 
         FIG.  20   . Wild-type mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence. 
         FIG.  21   . Wild-type rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence. 
         FIG.  22   . Alanine mutant mouse TSC2polypeptide sequence. 
         FIG.  23   . Alanine mutant rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence. 
         FIG.  24   . Glutamic acid mutant mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence. 
         FIG.  25   . Glutamic acid mutant rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence. 
         FIG.  26   . Table 1: Baseline heart morphology and function in TSC2 S1365A knock-in or S1365E knock-in mutants versus litter mate controls assessed in adult mice aged 9-12 weeks of age. HW—heart weight; LVW—left ventricular weight; LuW—lung weight. None of the parameters were significantly different between groups. 
         FIG.  27   . Suppression of pathological muscle growth and heart dysfunction. 
         FIG.  28   . Expression of phospho-mimetic (S1365E, “SE”) and phospho-silenced (S1365A, “SA”) TSC2 mutants in myocytes. 
         FIG.  29   . C42S mutant strongly suppressed mTORC1 activation in PO-stress heart. 
         FIG.  30   . C42S mutant strongly suppressed mTORC1 activation in ET-1 stimulated myocytes. 
         FIG.  31   . C42S mutant enhanced autophagic flux (AuF). 
         FIG.  32   . A) Cardiac expression of TSC2 was similar in both SA and WT controls. B) Increased cardiac mortality was similarly observed following PO in both homozygote and heterozygote SA mice. C) Lung weight and A-type natriuretic peptide levels in SA and WT controls. 
         FIG.  33   . Phosphorylation levels of other kinase modulators of TSC2, including Akt, ERK1/2, and AMPK. 
         FIG.  34   . mTORC1 inhibition by everolimus (Evl) increases autophagy reflected by LC3-II and p62. 
         FIG.  35   : Previously activated TSC2SA and TSC2SE mutant CD8 +  effector T cells display differential mTOR activity compared to WT CD8 +  T cells. A) Viable day-7 CD8 +  T cells stimulated via TCR and co-stimulation were harvested, and cell lysate examined by immunoblotting. Western blot analysis assessed mTORC1 signaling targets such as pS6K1 and downstream S6. TSC2SA/SA mutant CD8 +  T cells have more mTORC1 activity upon stimulation. This is similarly observed in cells from heterozygous mutant CD8 +  T cells as well. Activation is also faster. B) TSC2 SE mutants show the opposite response to TCR/co-stimulation as observed in TSC2 SA mutants, with mTORC1 activation indexed by phosphorylation of S6K1 and S6 being reduced as compared with cells with either WT or the SA form. 
         FIG.  36   : TSC2SA heterozygous (Het) mutant transgenic (OT1) CD8 +  T cells display a faster proliferative rate, higher mTOR activity, and effector function compared to WT CD8 +  T cells. A) On Day 3, TSC2SA heterozygous/OTI mutant CD8 +  T cells display greater proliferation reflected by more multiplications (leftward shift of periodic peaks indicates replications). B) These cells also display greater cytokine production (interferon gamma). C) These cells also display greater mTORC1 activation. 
         FIG.  37   : TSC2SA heterozygous (Het) mutant transgenic (OVA I) CD8 +  T cells compared to WT transgenic CD8 T cells perform better in adoptive cell therapy (ACT) to B16-OVA melanoma. 
         FIG.  38   : Adoptive cell therapy using TSC2SA/OT1 CD8 +  T cells better infiltrates B16-OVA melanoma than TSC2WT/OV1 CD8 +  T. A) Equal numbers (5E5 each) of WT and mutant CD8 +  T cells were transferred into tumor bearing mice. B) On Day 4 post-ACT, mice were sacrificed to analyze the adoptive transferred T cells in the tumor (tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs)). 
         FIG.  39   : TSC2SA homozygous mutant transgenic (OTI) CD8 +  T cells expand more robustly in vivo in response to infection as compared to WT and TSC2 SE homozygous mutant OTI CD8 T cells. A) Approximately equal numbers (2500) of CD8 OT1 cells from all three genotypes were combined into a one sample for IV transfer into WT (Thy1.2/Thy1.2) hosts. Mice were subsequently infected (i.p.) with Vaccinia-OVA virus (1E6 pfu/mouse) to induce an acute viral infection. B) Cells with the SA TSC2 mutant expanded in vivo between 2-3 fold more as compared to WT and SE TSC2 expressing cells. 
         FIGS.  40 A- 40 B : TSC2SA heterozygous mutant mice have more antigen specific memory CD8 T cells and display better effector function compared to WT mice in response to a viral infection. A) TSC2SA heterozygous mice infected with LCMV Armstrong have more antigen specific memory CD8 +  T cells suggesting that the initial response resulted in more antigen specific T cells that transitioned into memory cells. B) Upon re-challenge with peptide, SA-mutant CD8 T cells secrete more effector cytokines compared to WT CD8 T cells (IFNg and TNFa). 
         FIG.  41   . S1365 phosphorylation of TSC2 is specifically detectable by phospho-antibody. A) Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) treated for 15 minutes with 8-Br-cGMP +/− PKG inhibitor (DT3) or with vehicle alone. Data show increased phospho-TSC2 with cGMP stimulation that is prevented by blocking PKG activity. B) Phosphorylated/Total TSC2 (pS1365) is detected in intact mouse left ventricle, increases with pressure overload (PO), and is further enhanced by co-treatment with PDE5 inhibitor sildenafil (SIL) but now by mTOR inhibitor everolimus (EVL). Summary data to the right, *&lt;0.05 vs. Sham, #&lt;0.001 vs. TAC. C) S1365 Phospho/total TSC2 directly correlates with in vivo myocardial PKG activity. D) pS1365 TSC2 is increased in human myocardium from patients with non-ischemic heart failure versus normal (non-failing donor control) hearts. *0.003 vs. Non-failing. 
         FIG.  42   . S1365 phosphorylation regulates autophagy related signaling and impacts TSC2 regulation of mTORC1 by Rheb dependent signaling. A) Rat neonatal myocytes expressing wild-type TSC2, or the phospho-mimetic (SE) or phospho-silenced (SA) mutant are exposed to endothelin-1 (ET1) to stimulate growth. There is an increase in autophagosomes from ET1 (rise in LC3-II) but less effective autophagic flux to form auto-lysosomes (indicated by rise in p62). With SE expression, autophagy is enhanced reflected by a decline in p62 and further rise in LC3-II. By contrast, with SA expression, LC3-II declines and p62 markedly rises—so autophagy is inhibited. B) The ability of PKG activation to augment autophagy is in part dependent on its ability to access and phosphorylate TSC2 at S1365. TSC2 −/− MEFs are transfected with either WT or SA forms of TSC2, stimulated with endothelin-1 (ET1) +/− cGMP (to stimulate PKG). With WT TSC2, enhanced p62 (inadequate autophagy) stimulated by ET-1 is reversed by PKG activation. However, with SA TSC2, the increase in p62 with ET-1 is greater and it remains elevated despite PKG activation. LC3II does not increase with SA expression. C) mTOR signaling controlled by S1365 modification requires Rheb. MEFs expressing WT, SA, or SE forms of TSC2 were also exposed to siRNA to genetically delete the downstream TSC2 effector—Rheb. mTORC1 activation (P-p70 S6K) increases with ET1, but not in the absence of Rheb. The ET1 rise is prevented in SE but not SA expressing cells, and the latter is also prevented by silencing Rheb. Thus, the modulation of mTORC1 by the TSC2 mutants requires Rheb. 
         FIG.  43   . Mice with S1365A knock-in mutation have normal resting cardiac phenotype but worse heart disease and mortality following pressure-overload stress. A) Kaplan-Meier curves for percent survival in mice harboring WT or heterozygote or homozygote knock-in SA mutation (SA+/−, SA+/+ respectively) subjected to pressure overload stress on the heart (PO). Mice are also co-treated with either vehicle control or sildenafil (SIL), the latter to stimulate myocardial protein kinase G activity. Mortality in SA+/− and SA+/+ mice after PO is marked and very different from WT controls. SIL cannot rescue mortality in SA+/+ mice, but does so in SA+/− mice, indicating that the presence of 50% WT allele in the heterozygote allows for phosphorylation of S1365 by PKG and reverses the mortality. B) Masson&#39;s trichrome stain of left ventricle cross sections from TSC2 WT, SA +/− , SA +/+  mice that were subjected to sham or PO and treated with vehicle or Sil. Data shows marked worse heart enlargement and hypertrophy following PO in SA+/− and SA+/+ mice. This is reversed by SIL in SA+/− mice. C) Heart (HW) and lung (LuW) weights, and fractional shortening for same experiments show near complete suppression of hypertrophy and lung congestion with SIL-treatment in WT and SA+/− but no effect in SA+/+− PO hearts. +&lt;0.01 vs. WT vehicle, #&lt;0.0001 vs. WT vehicle, ‡&lt;0.0001 vs. SA +/−  vehicle. D) p/t p70S6K increases after PO in SA+/+&gt;SA+/−&gt;WT, and is reduced by SIL only in WT and SA +/−  mice. E) Disparities in p62 expression between models also show counteractive efficacy of SIL only in WT and SA +/−  mice. *&lt;0.0001 vs. WT Sham, {circumflex over ( )}&lt;0.001 vs. WT PO, #&lt;0.0001 vs. WT PO, +&lt;0.0001 vs. SA +/−  PO, ‡&lt;0.0001 vs. SA +/−  Sil. 
         FIG.  44   . Mice with S1365E Knock-in mutation are protected against pressure-overload induced hypertrophy and cardiac dysfunction. A and B) Echocardiographs (A) of mice expressing SE +/−  or SE +/+  KI mutation subjected to 6-weeks of PO display reduced ventricular hypertrophy (B, top) and improved fractional shortening (B, bottom) despite similar corresponding increases in pressure load, each measured at time of terminal study. C) p/t70S6K, p62/tubulin, and LC3-II/total protein for same experiments. Expression of the SE TSC2 mutation reduced growth signaling (p-p70S6K) and enhanced autophagy signaling (↓p62 and ↑LC3-II). *&lt;0.0001 vs. WT Sham, ‡&lt;0.05 vs. WT Sham, {circumflex over ( )}&lt;0.01 vs. WT PO, §&lt;0.001 vs. WT PO, #&lt;0.0001 vs. WT PO. 
         FIG.  45   . Protein aggregates accumulate in TSC2-SA knock-in hearts subjected to pathological stress, and are reduced in TSC2-SE knock-in hearts—in a gene dose dependent manner. Protein aggregates assessed by Proteostat assay® were measured in hearts expressing WT, SA and SE forms of TSC2; both heterozygous and homozygous knock-ins. With SA expression, pressure overload stress results in a greater accumulation of protein aggregates (indicative of proteotoxicity, reduced autophagy) that is greater in homozygote than heterozygote KI mice. In SA+/− (heterozygote) mice, the increase in aggregation is reduced by activation of PKG, but this does not occur in homozygotes (SA+/+) knock-in. In SE expressing mice, the results are the opposite, with less protein aggregation in heterozygote KI and even less in homozygote KI. Panel A) *p&lt;0.0005 vs other two groups; †p&lt;0.0001 versus WT; ‡p&lt;0.0005 vs Sham. There is a genetic dose response, with increasing SA correlating with greater aggregation after PO (p&lt;0.0001, r 2 =0.6) and increasing SE correlating with reduced aggregation after PO (p&lt;0.0001, r 2 =0.82). 
         FIG.  46   . Heart weight/tibia length (HW/TL), lung weight/tibia length (LuW/TL), cardiac ejection fraction (EF) from sham-operated mice and mice subjected to 6-wks of pressure-overload (PO) from trans-aortic constriction, and treated with either vehicle, sildenafil (Sil, 200 mg/kg/day) or everolimus (Evl, 10 mg/kg/day) starting 1 week post-PO (n=6/group). Lower panels: Myocardial gene expression of A-type natriuretic peptide (ANP, Nppa), B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP, Nppb), and the regulator of calcineurin 1 (Rcan1) normalized to Gapdh (n=6). †p&lt;0.0001 vs. Sham, § p&lt;0.0001 vs. PO by Tukey multiple comparisons test. 
         FIG.  47   . Filter trap assay from sham-operated mice and mice subjected to 6-wks of pressure-overload (PO) from trans-aortic constriction, and treated with vehicle, sildenafil (Sil, 200 mg/kg/day) or everolimus (Evl, 10 mg/kg/day) starting 1 week post-PO (n=4/group). Membranes were probed for ubiquitin and ∝-tubulin. †p&lt;0.0001 vs. Sham, § p&lt;0.0001 vs. PO by Tukey multiple comparisons test. 
         FIG.  48   . Immunoblot of LC3-II in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCMs) with and without post-BFA treatment to block lysosomal proteolysis. Relative increase in LC3-II pre- and post-BFA treatment indexes AuF; example blot on the left, summary data on the right. N=4/group; #&lt;0.0001 vs. Vehicle. 
         FIG.  49   . Mass-spectrometry identification of TSC2 S1365 as a phosphorylation target of PKG. Adult rat ventricular myocytes were exposed to cGMP to stimulate PKG activity. 
         FIG.  50   . Summary data for  FIG.  2 B . A) Mouse embryonic fibroblasts treated with 8-bromo-cGMP in the presence and absence of DT3 n=6/group. B) TSC2 knockout MEFs transfected with TSC2 WT, SE, or SA and stimulated with 8-bromo-cGMP for 15 minutes. (n=4/group). P&lt;0.001 by 1-way ANOVA for each panel; †p&lt;0.0001 vs. vehicle, ‡p&lt;0.001 vs. cGMP. 
         FIG.  51   . PKG phosphorylation of WT and SA TSC2. A) Autoradiography with immunoprecipitated TSC2-FLAG WT or SA in the presence or absence of purified active PKG and [γ-33P]-ATP (upper lane) and immunoblots from the same samples for Flag and TSC2 (lower lanes). B) PKG phosphorylation identified in cell lysate from adenovirus infected TSC2-KO HEK cells incubated with mutated PKG (M438G) (+) that accepts a bulkier ATP (N6-Benzyl-ATPγS) or with WT PKG (−) that cannot. Following FLAG-immuneprecipitation, immuneblots for thiophosphate ester (recognizing phorphorylation by mutated PKG) and for FLAG are shown. FLAG superimposes the thiophosphate labeling only when mutated PKG is added. For both assays, the substitution of S1365 for alanine does not prevent direct phosphorylation of TSC2 by PKG. 
         FIG.  52   . Immunoblot for TSC2 (antibody recognizing C-terminus) for myocytes expressing native protein, or transduced with wild-type (WT), S1365A (SA), or S1365E (SE) TSC2 mutants. Expression of each TSC2 form was similar and increased compared to non-transduced cells. N=4/group. P&lt;0.0001 1-way ANOVA; #&lt;0.001 vs. Control by post hoc test. 
         FIG.  53   . Neonatal rat myocytes expressing a TSC2 SE, SA, or WT treated with endothelin 1 (ET1, 10 nM) or vehicle for 48 hours. A) PKG activity increases overall with ET1 treatment (all groups combined, n=18/group. B) Each group (n=6/group) shows similar increase in activity (box/whisker plot; p=0.0004 for ET-1 effect, p&gt;0.8 for group effect by 2-way ANOVA). C) Quantification of  FIG.  3   b    immunoblot for TSC2 S1365 phosphorylation in myocytes expressing different TSC2 forms and exposed to vehicle or endothelin-1, ET1. Data normalized to total TSC2. †p&lt;0.0001 vs. WT vehicle. ET1 increased phosphorylation overall, most notably in WT (p=0.0004 for ET1 effect on p/t ratio). 
         FIG.  54   . Neonatal rat myocytes expressing WT, SA, or SE TSC2 protein, and exposed to either vehicle of phenylephrine (PE, 100 μM) for 48 hours. MTORC1 activation from PE is indexed by p70 S6K phosphorylation and increased more in SA expressing cells. Cells expressing SE had no significant increase over non-stimulated conditions, whereas both WT and SA groups displayed significant elevation over baseline. (n=6/group) *: p&lt;0.05 vs WT vehicle;  : p&lt;0.001 vs WT ET1. 
         FIG.  55   . Total protein stains corresponding to western blot images in  FIG.  42    shows equal loading. 
         FIG.  56   . A) Total protein stain corresponding to western blot images in  FIG.  42    shows equal loading and quantification of Rheb to total protein. B) Summary data for upper lane,  FIG.  42    for total Rheb protein expression in response to scrambled siRNA or siRNA to Rheb. (n=4/group) †p&lt;0.0001 vs. vehicle, § p&lt;0.0001 vs. ET1 by Tukey multiple comparisons test. 
         FIG.  57   . TSC2 SA KI Genotyping by PCR detects a unique sequence based on the mutated residue as a 206 base pair (BP) fragment. 
         FIG.  58   . A) Immunoblot of TSC2 protein from SA and WT (littermate controls) both in sham and PO treated groups. There is no difference in expression levels among these groups or conditions. B) Gene expression of A-type natriuretic peptide (ANP, nppa) and GAPDH from SA and WT mouse hearts measured at rest and after PO. N=8/group; p&lt;0.0001 by 1-way ANOVA; †p&lt;0.0001 vs. Sham, § p&lt;0.0001 vs. PO by Tukey multiple comparisons test. 
         FIG.  59   . Immunoblots of LC3 from TSC2 WT, Heterozygous (SA/WT), and homozygous (SA/SA) mice exposed to sham or PO with vehicle or Sildenafil (Sil) co-treatment. There was greater increase of LC3-II in TSC2 WT mice during PO, which was increased by sildenafil only in TSC2 WT and SA/WT but not SA/SA PO mice. 
         FIG.  60   . Immunoblots and summary quantitation for mTORC2 targets from TSC2 WT and SA/SA mice subjected to sham or PO surgeries and treated with sildenafil or vehicle. No significant changes were detected between the genotypes at baseline or during PO. (n=4/group). 
         FIG.  61   . TSC2 SA/SA mice were exposed to PO with vehicle or Everolimus (Evl) co-treatment. A) LC3-II expression increased in SA-TAC hearts treated with Evl. B) p62 expression increased with SA-TAC, consistent with reduced autophagy, but was returned to sham control levels by Evl-co-therapy. N=6/group. P&lt;0.0001 by 1-way ANOVA, *p&lt;0.0001 versus other two groups by post-hoc Tukey test. 
         FIG.  62   . Strategy and guide RNA (SEQ ID NO:12) for CRISPR-Cas9 protocol to generate S1365E (SE) knock-in mice. 
         FIG.  63   . Summary data for  FIG.  6   f   . (n=4-6/group). P&lt;0.0001 by 1 or 2-way ANOVA. Post hoc tests: *p&lt;0.0001 vs. WT Sham, ‡p&lt;0.05 vs. WT Sham,  p&lt;0.01 vs. WT PO, § p&lt;0.001 vs. WT PO, #p&lt;0.0001 vs. WT PO. 
         FIG.  64   . Western blot analyses and summary data from TSC2 WT, SE, and SA mice treated with bafilomycin A1 (BFA) or vehicle. This autophagic flux assay revealed an increase of LC3-II that was greater in SE mice compared to WT mice which was greater than the increase seen in SA mice. (n=4/group); * Interaction vs WT (p&lt;0.05); § interaction vs WT (p&lt;0.005). 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     As used herein, the word “a” before a noun represents one or more of the particular noun. For example, the phrase “a genetic alteration” encompasses “one or more genetic alterations.” 
     As used herein, the term “about” means approximately, in the region of, roughly, or around. When used in conjunction with a numerical range, the term “about” modifies that range by extending the boundaries above and below the numerical values set forth. In general, the term “about” is used herein to modify a numerical value above and below the stated value by a variance of 10%. 
     As used herein, the term “subject” means a vertebrate, including any member of the class mammalia, including humans, domestic and farm animals, and zoo, sports or pet animals, such as mouse, rabbit, pig, sheep, goat, cattle, horse (e.g., race horse), and higher primates. In some embodiments, the subject is a human. In some embodiments, the subject has a disease. In some embodiments, the subject has cancer. In some embodiments, the subject has a viral disease. In some embodiments, the subject has a bacterial disease. In some embodiments, the subject has a fungal disease. In some embodiments, the subject has a parasitic disease. In some embodiments, the subject has asthma. In some embodiments, the subject has an autoimmune disease. In some embodiments, the subject has graft vs. host disease. 
     Engineered TSC2 Polypeptides that Exhibit Decreased Ability to be Phosphorylated 
     Provided herein are engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated at a residue that has been substituted for a serine residue, or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. For example, provided herein are engineered TSC2 polypeptides having an amino acid at a residue corresponding to the serine residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5). In some embodiments, the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, or a serine residue in a TSC2 polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, is substituted with an amino acid with an aliphatic side chain. In some embodiments, the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, or a serine residue in a polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, is substituted with a methionine residue, an alanine residue, a valine residue, a leucine residue, an isoleucine residue, or a phenylalanine residue. In some embodiments, an engineered TSC2 polypeptide having an alanine substitution at the serine residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence is provided (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 1). In some embodiments, engineered TSC2 polypeptides disclosed herein cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. In some embodiments, engineered TSC2 polypeptides disclosed herein are phosphorylated to an extent that is about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or less than a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue. In some embodiments, engineered TSC2 polypeptides disclosed herein cannot be phosphorylated. 
     Provided herein are also engineered TSC2 polypeptides having an amino acid substitution at a residue corresponding to the serine residue at position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6) such that engineered TSC2 polypeptides cannot be phosphorylated at that residue, or cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. In some embodiments, the serine residue at position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, or a serine residue in a TSC2 polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, is substituted with an amino acid with an aliphatic side chain. In some embodiments, the serine residue at position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, or a serine residue in a polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, is substituted with a methionine residue, an alanine residue, a valine residue, a leucine residue, an isoleucine residue, or a phenylalanine residue. In some embodiments, an engineered TSC2 polypeptide having an alanine substitution at the serine residue at position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence is provided (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 8). In some embodiments, engineered TSC2 polypeptides disclosed herein cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. In some embodiments, engineered TSC2 polypeptides disclosed herein are phosphorylated to an extent that is about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or less than a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue. In some embodiments, engineered TSC2 polypeptides disclosed herein cannot be phosphorylated. 
     Provided herein are also engineered TSC2 polypeptides having an amino acid substitution at a residue corresponding to the serine residue at position S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 7) such that engineered TSC2 polypeptides cannot be phosphorylated at that residue, or cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. In some embodiments, the serine residue at position S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, or a serine residue in a TSC2 polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, is substituted with an amino acid with an aliphatic side chain. In some embodiments, the serine residue at position S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, or a serine residue in a polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, is substituted with a methionine residue, an alanine residue, a valine residue, a leucine residue, an isoleucine residue, or a phenylalanine residue. In some embodiments, an engineered TSC2 polypeptide having an alanine substitution at the serine residue at position S1366 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence is provided (SEQ ID NO: 9). In some embodiments, engineered TSC2 polypeptides disclosed herein cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. In some embodiments, engineered TSC2 polypeptides disclosed herein are phosphorylated to an extent that is about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or less than a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine. In some embodiments, engineered TSC2 polypeptides disclosed herein cannot be phosphorylated. 
     Provided herein are also vectors that include nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated at position corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7), or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a TSC2 polypeptide having a serine residue at these positions can be phosphorylated, and cells having such vectors. A vector that includes nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated at position corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7), or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a TSC2 polypeptide having a serine residue at these positions can be phosphorylated can be any appropriate type of vector. Examples of vectors include, without limitation, plasmids (e.g., expression plasmids) and vectors (e.g., viral vectors such as lentiviral vectors, retroviral vectors, adenovirus vectors, and adeno-associated virus vectors). In some cases, a vector that includes nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated at position corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7), or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a TSC2 polypeptide having a serine residue at these positions can be phosphorylated can be a lentiviral vector. A vector that includes nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated at position corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7), or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a TSC2 polypeptide having a serine residue at these positions can be phosphorylated also can include one or more addition features (e.g., one or more additional features to modulate polypeptide expression). Examples of features that can modulate polypeptide expression include, without limitation, an origin of replication, a promoter, a polyA tail, a terminator, and a microRNA response element. In some cases, when a vector described herein also includes a promoter, the promoter can operably linked to a nucleic acid sequence that encodes polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated at position corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7), or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a TSC2 polypeptide having a serine residue at these positions can be phosphorylated (e.g., such that the promoter can drive expression of the nucleic acid sequence). A promoter can be any appropriate promoter. In some cases, a promoter can be constitutive promoter. In some cases, a promoter can be a viral promoter. In some cases, a promoter can be an inducible promoter. In some cases, a promoter can be a cell-specific and/or tissue-specific promoter. Examples of promoters that can be used to drive expression of nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated at position corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7), or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a TSC2 polypeptide having a serine residue at these positions can be phosphorylated include, without limitation, CMV. In some embodiments, a promoter can be as described elsewhere (see, e.g., Morgan et al., 2016  Biomedicines.  4:9). 
     In some embodiments, cells having vectors that include nucleic acid sequences that encode engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated at a position that corresponds to a wild-type serine residue in any of the polypeptides described herein (or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a TSC2 polypeptide having a serine residue at these positions can be phosphorylated) do not express endogenous, wild-type TSC2. For example, the nucleic acid sequence encoding wild-type TSC2 can be modified by any of a variety of genetic manipulation techniques known in the art including, but not limited to, CRISPR-based methods, TALEN-based methods, and other genetic targeting or recombination methods (see, e.g., Roth et al., 2018  Nature  doi: 10.1038/s41586-018-0326-5). 
     TSC2 polypeptides disclosed herein can be engineered at S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID No: 7) with any mutation or modification that results in TSC2 being unable to be phosphorylated (or that results in a decreased ability of TSC2 to be phosphorylated) at the respective positions in human (S1364), mouse (S1365), or rat (S1366). In some cases, TSC2 polypeptides from other species (e.g., monkey) can be engineered with any mutation or modification (e.g., a residue corresponding to human S1364, mouse S1365, and/or rat S1366) that results in TSC2 being unable to be phosphorylated (or that results in a decreased ability of TSC2 to be phosphorylated). 
     Provided herein are also nucleic acids encoding engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated at position corresponding to a serine residue in the wild-type TSC2 polypeptide sequence, or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. For example, provided herein are nucleic acids encoding engineered TSC2 polypeptides having an amino acid substitution at a residue corresponding to the serine residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or position S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 7). In some embodiments, a nucleic acid sequence encoding an engineered TSC2 polypeptide having an amino acid substitution at the serine residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence is provided (e.g., the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3). In some embodiments, nucleic acids provided herein encode engineered TSC2 polypeptides in which the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, or position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, or position 1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, or a serine residue in a TSC2 polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residues at these positions, are substituted with an amino acid with an aliphatic side chain. In some embodiments, nucleic acids provided herein encode engineered TSC2 polypeptides in which the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, or position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, or position 1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, or a serine residue in a TSC2 polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residues at these positions, are substituted with a methionine residue, an alanine residue, a valine residue, a leucine residue, an isoleucine residue, or a phenylalanine residue. In some embodiments, nucleic acids provided herein include the genetic codons of GCT, GCC, GCA, or GCG at positions that are translated to the amino acid alanine at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), or position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or position S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 7). In some embodiments, nucleic acids provided herein include the genetic codons of GTT, GTC, GTA, or GTG at positions that are translated to the amino acid valine at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), or position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or position S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 7). In some embodiments, nucleic acids provided herein encode engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. In some embodiments, nucleic acids disclosed herein encode engineered TSC2 polypeptides that are phosphorylated to an extent that is about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or less than a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. In some embodiments, nucleic acids disclosed herein encode engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated. 
     Methods of Treating Disease Using Cells Having Engineered TSC2 Polypeptides that Exhibit Reduced Ability to be Phosphorylated 
     Cells Having Engineered TSC2 Polypeptides that Exhibit Reduced Ability to be Phosphorylated 
     Provided herein are cells expressing engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated at position corresponding to a serine residue in the wild-type TSC2 polypeptide sequence, or that cannot be phosphorylated to the full extent as that of a wild-type TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue. For example, provided herein are cells expressing engineered TSC2 polypeptides having an amino acid substitution at a position corresponding to the serine residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5). In some embodiments, cells provided herein express engineered TSC2 polypeptides in which the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, or a serine residue in a TSC2 polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, is substituted with an amino acid with an aliphatic side chain. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express engineered TSC2 polypeptides in which the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, or a serine residue in a polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, is substituted with a methionine residue, an alanine residue, a valine residue, a leucine residue, an isoleucine residue, or a phenylalanine residue. In some embodiments, cells disclosed herein express an engineered TSC2 polypeptide (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 1) having an amino acid substitution at the serine residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express engineered TSC2 polypeptides that are phosphorylated to an extent that is about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or less that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated. 
     Provided herein are also cells expressing engineered TSC2 polypeptides having an amino acid substitution at a residue corresponding to the serine residue at position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6) such that engineered TSC2 polypeptides cannot be phosphorylated at the engineered residue, or cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express an engineered TSC2 polypeptide in which the serine residue at position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, or a serine residue in a TSC2 polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, is substituted with an amino acid with an aliphatic side chain. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express an engineered TSC2 polypeptide in which the serine residue at position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, or a serine residue in a polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, is substituted with a methionine residue, an alanine residue, a valine residue, a leucine residue, an isoleucine residue, or a phenylalanine residue. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express an engineered TSC2 polypeptide (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 8) having an amino acid substitution at the serine residue at position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express engineered TSC2 polypeptides that are phosphorylated to an extent that is about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or less that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated. 
     Provided herein are also cells expressing an engineered TSC2 polypeptide having an amino acid substitution at a residue corresponding to the serine residue at position S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 7) such that engineered TSC2 polypeptides cannot be phosphorylated at the engineered residue, or cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express an engineered TSC2 polypeptide in which the serine residue at position S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, or a serine residue in a TSC2 polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, is substituted with an amino acid with an aliphatic side chain. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express an engineered TSC2 polypeptide in which the serine residue at position S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, or a serine residue in a polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, is substituted with a methionine residue, an alanine residue, a valine residue, a leucine residue, an isoleucine residue, or a phenylalanine residue. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express an engineered TSC2 polypeptide (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 9) having an amino acid substitution at the serine residue at position S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue can be phosphorylated. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express engineered TSC2 polypeptides that are phosphorylated to an extent that is about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or less that a non-engineered TSC2 polypeptide having the serine residue. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated. 
     Provided herein are also cells harboring vectors that include nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated at a residue corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7), or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a TSC2 polypeptide having a serine residue at these positions can be phosphorylated, and cells having such vectors. A vector that includes nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated at position corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7), or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a TSC2 polypeptide having a serine residue at these positions can be introduced into a cell using any appropriate methods and/or techniques. A vector can be introduced into a cell in a transient manner (e.g., maintained as a vector) or in a stable manner (e.g., integrated into the genome). Examples of methods and/or techniques that can be used to introduce one or more vectors into a cell include, without limitation, transfection, transduction, electroporation, and infection. In some embodiments, nucleic acids encoding engineered TSC2 polypeptides are operably linked to nucleic acids that drive expression of the engineered TSC2 polypeptides in the vectors (e.g., promoter sequences). 
     In some embodiments, cells having engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated, or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent of a wild-type TSC2 polypeptide can have, or can express, endogenous TSC2 proteins. For example, a cell having an engineered TSC2 polypeptide also can have an endogenous wild-type nucleic acid sequence encoding a wild-type TSC2 polypeptide. In some embodiments of cells having (e.g., expressing) both: 1) engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated, or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent of a wild-type TSC2 polypeptide, and 2) an endogenous TSC2 protein, the cells exhibit the same or similar activity as a corresponding cell lacking (e.g., not expressing) the endogenous TSC2 protein. 
     In some embodiments, cells having engineered TSC2 polypeptides that cannot be phosphorylated, or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent of a wild-type TSC2 polypeptide, do not have, or do not express, endogenous, wild-type TSC2 proteins. For example, a cell having an engineered TSC2 polypeptide can have a genetic alteration in which a wild-type nucleic acid sequence encoding the TSC2 polypeptide has been rendered inactive. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence encoding wild-type TSC2 can be modified by any of a variety of genetic manipulation techniques known in the art including, but not limited to, CRISPR-based methods, TALEN-based methods, and other genetic targeting or recombination methods (see, e.g., Roth et al., 2018  Nature  doi: 10.1038/s41586-018-0326-5). In some embodiments, a wild-type nucleic acid sequence encoding a TSC2 polypeptide can be rendered inactive by removing, replacing, or mutating a nucleic acid sequence that contributes to expression of the TSC2 polypeptide including, but not limited to, a promoter sequence, an enhancer sequence, a coding sequence of a transcription factor that regulates expression of TSC2, the coding sequence of the TSC2 polypeptide itself, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, a wild-type nucleic acid sequence encoding a TSC2 polypeptide can be rendered inactive via a frameshift caused by one or more modifications or mutations in the nucleic acid sequence encoding the TSC2 polypeptide. 
     In some embodiments, cells that can be engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide that cannot be phosphorylated at a position that corresponds to a wild-type serine residue (or that cannot be phosphorylated to the extent that a TSC2 polypeptide having a serine residue at these positions can be phosphorylated) include immune cells. For example, the immune cells can be CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, Natural Killer cells (NK cells), macrophages, neutrophils, regulatory T cells (Tregs), helper T cells, or any other immune cells and/or inflammatory cells known in the art. 
     CD8+ T cells have been investigated in T cell-based therapies for their role in cellular immune responses. Tumor-specific CD8+ T cells have been found in patients with hematologic malignancies and solid tumors and within the pool of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. (Zanetti M, Tapping CD4 T cells for cancer immunotherapy: the choice of personalized genomics, J Immunol. 2015 Mar. 1; 194(5):2049-56). The role of CD8+ T cells has been demonstrated in mouse models of cancer. The presence of CD8+ T cells in tumors has also been shown in human. It has also been shown that the engagement of checkpoint receptors on activated CD8+ T cells represents a major mechanism of tumor-induced immunosuppression. In addition, a high density of CD8+ T cells has been found to be associated with longer patient survival when tumors display high densities of tertiary lymphoid structures in lung, colorectal, and renal cell cancers. (Michele W. L. Teng et al, From mice to humans: developments in cancer immunoediting, J Clin Invest. 2015 September; 125(9):3338-46.) 
     In some embodiments, CD8+ effector T cells can be generated by stimulating the splenocytes and expanding them in effector promoting conditions with IL-2. Strong IL-2 signaling preferentially skews CD8+ T cells to differentiate into effector T cells. After some time, CD8+ cultures can be processed to remove non-viable cells and assessed for effector function by re-stimulating viable cells with PMA and Ionomycin along with a Golgi blocker to capture cytokines within the cells for later flow cytometry analysis. Cells can then be processed and stained to assess cytokine function. High expression of Interferon gamma (IFNg), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFa), and Interleukin-2 (IL-2) are indicators of CD8+ effector T cells. 
     CD4+ T cells are also known to play a role in adaptive immune responses. Various types of CD4+ T cells contribute to anti-tumor immunity through their diverse functions. For example, CD4+ T cells facilitate B cells with isotype switching and affinity maturation. CD4+ T cells are also involved in facilitating the activation and expansion of CD8+ T cells, and the generation and maintenance of memory CD8+ T cells. CD4+ T cells are further involved in tumor protection. For example, activated CD4+ T cells have been found to induce delayed-type hypersensitivity—like reactions and attract inflammatory cells including macrophages, granulocytes, eosinophils, and NK cells in or around the tumor. 
     A T regulatory cell or “Treg cell” refers to a cell that can modulate a T cell response. Regulatory T cells are known for their ability to downregulate the function of other T cells. (Zanetti M, Tapping CD4 T cells for cancer immunotherapy: the choice of personalized genomics, J Immunol. 2015 Mar. 1; 194(5):2049-56). Treg cells express the transcription factor Foxp3, which is not unregulated upon T cell activation and discriminates Tregs from activated effector cells. Tregs are identified by the cell surface markers CD25, CTLA4, and GITR. Several Treg subsets have been identified that have the ability to inhibit autoimmune and chronic inflammatory responses and to maintain immune tolerance in tumor-bearing hosts. These subsets include interleukin 10- (IL-10-) secreting T regulatory type 1 (Tr1) cells, transforming growth factor-β- (TGF-(β-) secreting T helper type 3 (Th3) cells, and “natural” CD4+/CD25+ Tregs (Trn). 
     In some embodiments, an immune cell that is engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide can be a cytotoxic T cell. In some embodiments, a cytotoxic T cell can be engineered to express a chimeric antigen receptor (“CAR”) or a T cell receptor (“TCR”). 
     In some embodiments, an immune cell that is engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide can be a B cell. B cells are known to be involved in immunune responses and T cell activation. For example, B cells can act as antigen-specific antigen presenting cells. A signal through binding of an antigen to membrane Ig can enhance B cell antigen presentation and T-cell-dependent B cell activation. As a result of helper T cell recognition of antigen on the B cell surface, the T cell becomes activated and then activates the B cell. 
     In some embodiments, an immune cell that is engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide can be expanded (e.g., clonally expanded). For example, an immune cell that is engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide can be clonally expanded ex vivo (e.g., for use in an adoptive cell therapy). In cases where an immune cell that is engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide is used in an adoptive cell therapy, the adoptive cell therapy can be any appropriate adoptive cell therapy. Examples of adoptive cell therapies include, without limitation, dendritic cell therapy and synthetic dendritic cell therapy. In some cases, adoptive cell therapy can include the extraction of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes. 
     In some embodiments, increased mTORC1 signaling can be determined by any of a variety of techniques or methods known in the art. For example, mTORC1 signaling typically results in increased growth, decreased autophagy, and phosphorylation of Ulk1 (Unc-51-like kinase-1), p70S6K, and 4EBP1 (elF4E binding protein-1). 
     Cancers 
     In some embodiments, compositions and methods provided herein can be used to treat cancer. For example, an immune cell that is engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide (e.g., expressed from a vector introduced into the cell, which vector includes a nucleic acid sequence that encodes the engineered TSC2 polypeptide) that cannot be phosphorylated at a residue corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7), or that cannot be phosphorylated to the full extent as that of a wild-type TSC2 polypeptide, can be administered to a subject having cancer (e.g., in an adoptive cell therapy) such that the cancer is treated. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell administered to the subject does not have or express an endogenous, wild type TSC polypeptide. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell administered to the subject does have or express an endogenous, wild type TSC2 polypeptide. In some embodiments, a CD8+ T effector cell that recognizes a cancer cell (e.g., via a specific antigen on the cancer cell surface) can be engineered to include a TSC2 polypeptide that cannot be phosphorylated, or that cannot be phosphorylated to the full extent as that of a wild-type TSC2 polypeptide, which CD8+ T effector cell is then administered to a subject that has such a cancer cell. In some embodiments, a CD8+ T effector cell that is engineered to include a TSC2 polypeptide that cannot be phosphorylated, or that cannot be phosphorylated to the full extent as that of a wild-type TSC2 polypeptide, is also engineered to express a chimeric antigen receptor or a T cell receptor. In some embodiments, an immune cell that is engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide that cannot be phosphorylated, or that cannot be phosphorylated to the full extent as that of a wild-type TSC2 polypeptide, is more effective in treating cancer in a subject than an immune cell that lacks the engineered TSC2 polypeptide. 
     Cancer types that can be treated include, without limitation, lung cancer (e.g., small cell lung carcinoma or non-small cell lung carcinoma), papillary thyroid cancer, medullary thyroid cancer, differentiated thyroid cancer, recurrent thyroid cancer, refractory differentiated thyroid cancer, lung adenocarcinoma, bronchioles lung cell carcinoma, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A or 2B (MEN2A or MEN2B, respectively), pheochromocytoma, parathyroid hyperplasia, breast cancer, colorectal cancer (e.g., metastatic colorectal cancer), papillary renal cell carcinoma, ganglioneuromatosis of the gastroenteric mucosa, inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor, or cervical cancer, acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), acute myeloid leukemia (AML), cancer in adolescents, adrenal cancer, adrenocortical carcinoma, anal cancer, appendix cancer, astrocytoma, atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor, basal cell carcinoma, bile duct cancer, bladder cancer, bone cancer, brain stem glioma, brain tumor, breast cancer, bronchial tumor, Burkitt lymphoma, carcinoid tumor, unknown primary carcinoma, cardiac tumors, cervical cancer, childhood cancers, chordoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms, colon cancer, colorectal cancer, craniopharyngioma, cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, bile duct cancer, ductal carcinoma in situ, embryonal tumors, endometrial cancer, ependymoma, esophageal cancer, esthesioneuroblastoma, Ewing sarcoma, extracranial germ cell tumor, extragonadal germ cell tumor, extrahepatic bile duct cancer, eye cancer, fallopian tube cancer, fibrous histiocytoma of bone, gallbladder cancer, gastric cancer, gastrointestinal carcinoid tumor, gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST), germ cell tumor, gestational trophoblastic disease, glioma, hairy cell tumor, hairy cell leukemia, head and neck cancer, heart cancer, hepatocellular cancer, histiocytosis, Hodgkin&#39;s lymphoma, hypopharyngeal cancer, intraocular melanoma, islet cell tumors, pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors, Kaposi sarcoma, kidney cancer, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, laryngeal cancer, leukemia, lip and oral cavity cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, lymphoma, macroglobulinemia, malignant fibrous histiocytoma of bone, osteocarcinoma, melanoma, Merkel cell carcinoma, mesothelioma, metastatic squamous neck cancer, midline tract carcinoma, mouth cancer, multiple endocrine neoplasia syndromes, multiple myeloma, mycosis fungoides, myelodysplastic syndromes, myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative neoplasms, myelogenous leukemia, myeloid leukemia, multiple myeloma, myeloproliferative neoplasms, nasal cavity and paranasal sinus cancer, nasopharyngeal cancer, neuroblastoma, non-Hodgkin&#39;s lymphoma, non-small cell lung cancer, oral cancer, oral cavity cancer, lip cancer, oropharyngeal cancer, osteosarcoma, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, papillomatosis, paraganglioma, paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer, parathyroid cancer, penile cancer, pharyngeal cancer, pheochromosytoma, pituitary cancer, plasma cell neoplasm, pleuropulmonary blastoma, pregnancy and breast cancer, primary central nervous system lymphoma, primary peritoneal cancer, prostate cancer, rectal cancer, renal cell cancer, retinoblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, salivary gland cancer, sarcoma, Sezary syndrome, skin cancer, small cell lung cancer, small intestine cancer, soft tissue sarcoma, squamous cell carcinoma, squamous neck cancer, stomach cancer, T-cell lymphoma, testicular cancer, throat cancer, thymoma and thymic carcinoma, thyroid cancer, transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter, unknown primary carcinoma, urethral cancer, uterine cancer, uterine sarcoma, vaginal cancer, vulvar cancer, Waldenstrom Macroglobulinemia, and Wilms&#39; tumor. 
     Viral Diseases 
     In some embodiments, any of the compositions and methods or methods disclosed provided herein can be used to treat viral diseases. Viral diseases that can be treated include, without limitation, diseases resulting from infection by an adenovirus, a herpesvirus (e.g., HSV-I, HSV-II, CMV, or VZV), a poxvirus (e.g., an orthopoxvirus such as variola or vaccinia, or molluscum contagiosum), a picomavirus (e.g., rhinovirus or enterovirus), an orthomyxovirus (e.g., influenza virus), a paramyxovirus (e.g., parainfluenzavirus, mumps virus, measles virus, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)), a coronavirus (e.g., SARS), a papovavirus (e.g., papillomaviruses, such as those that cause genital warts, common warts, or plantar warts), a hepadnavirus (e.g., hepatitis B virus), a flavivirus (e.g., hepatitis C virus or Dengue virus), or a retrovirus (e.g., a lentivirus such as HIV). Viral diseases that can be treated also include viral skin diseases, such as Herpes or shingles, and systemic viral diseases such as influenza, the common cold, and encephalitis. 
     Bacterial Diseases 
     In some embodiments, any of the compositions and methods provided herein can be used to treat bacterial diseases. Bacterial diseases that can be treated include, without limitation, diseases resulting from infection by bacteria of, for example, the genus  Escherichia, Enterobacter, Salmonella, Staphylococcus, Shigella, Listeria, Aerobacter, Helicobacter, Klebsiella, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Streptococcus, Chlamydia, Mycoplasma, Pneumococcus, Neisseria, Clostridium, Bacillus, Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium, Campylobacter, Vibrio, Serratia, Providencia, Chromobacterium, Brucella, Yersinia, Haemophilus, Bordetella , or  Borrelia.    
     Fungal Diseases 
     In some embodiments, any of the compositions and methods provided herein can be used to treat fungal diseases. Fungal diseases that can be treated include, without limitation, candidiasis, aspergillosis, histoplasmosis, and cryptococcal meningitis. 
     Parasitic Diseases 
     In some embodiments, any of the compositions and methods provided herein can be used to treat parasitic diseases. Parasitic diseases that can be treated include, without limitation, malaria, pneumocystis carnii pneumonia, leishmaniasis, cryptosporidiosis, toxoplasmosis, and trypanosome infection. 
     Methods of Treating a Disease with an Agent that Result in Reduced Phosphorylation of TSC2 Polypeptides in Immune Cells 
     Provided herein are also methods of treating a disease (e.g., any of the variety of cancers, viral diseases, bacterial diseases, fungal diseases, or parasitic diseases disclosed herein) in a subject by administering one or more agents that result in reduced phosphorylation of TSC2 polypeptides in an immune cells. In some embodiments, administration of an agent that results in reduced phosphorylation of TSC2 polypeptides in immune cells results in reduced phosphorylation of a TSC2 polypeptide at a serine residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5). In some embodiments, administration of an agent that results in reduced phosphorylation of TSC2 polypeptides in immune cells results in reduced phosphorylation of a TSC2 polypeptide at a serine residue at position S1365 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6). In some embodiments, administration of an agent that results in reduced phosphorylation of TSC2 polypeptides in immune cells results in reduced phosphorylation of a TSC2 polypeptide at a serine residue at position S1366 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 7). In some embodiments, administration of an agent to a subject that results in reduced phosphorylation of TSC2 polypeptides in immune cells results in a population of TSC2 polypeptides in the immune cell that exhibit decreased phosphorylation as compared to a population of TSC2 polypeptides in an immune cell in a reference subject that has not been administered the agent. For example, administration of an agent to a subject that results in reduced phosphorylation of TSC2 polypeptides in immune cells can result in a population of TSC2 polypeptides in the immune cell wherein at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 25%, at least 30%, at least 35%, at least 40%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, at least 99% or more of the TSC2 polypeptides in the cell are not phosphorylated (e.g., a serine residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), at a serine residue at position S1365 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or at a serine residue at position S1366 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 7) as compared to a population of TSC2 polypeptides in an immune cell in a reference subject, wherein the reference subject has not been administered the agent. Method of determining whether a TSC2 polypeptide or population of TSC2 polypeptides are phosphorylated are known in the art. For example, TSC2 polypeptides from an immune cell(s) from a subject that has been administered the agent or from an immune cell(s) that has been contacted with the agent in vitro can be isolated (e.g., with a TSC2-specific antibody) and the phosphorylation state of the TSC2 polypeptides can be assayed with a phospho-specific antibody. Those of ordinary skill in the art will be aware of other suitable methods for determining whether a TSC2 polypeptide or population of TSC2 polypeptides are phosphorylated. 
     In some embodiments, an agent that results in reduced phosphorylation of TSC2 polypeptides in immune cells is a kinase inhibitor. A variety of kinases are known that can be inhibited, including without limitation: AKT1, AKT2, AKT3, CRIK, DMPK1, DMPK2, MRCKa, MRCKb, ROCK1, ROCK2, BARK1, BARK2, GPRK4, GPRK5, GPRK6, GPRK7, RHOK, MAST1, MAST2, MAST3, MAST4, MASTL, LATS1, LATS2, NDR1, NDR2, PDK1, PKACa, PKACb, PKACg, PRKX, PRKY, PKC (e.g., PKCa, PKCb, PKCg, PKCd, PKCt, PKCe, PKCh, PKCi, or PKCz), PKN1, PKN2, PKN3, MSK1, MSK2, p70S6K, p70S6Kb, RSK1, RSK2, RSK3, RSK4, RSKL1, RSKL2, SgK494, SGK1, SGK2, SGK3, YANK1, YANK2, YANK3, ADCK3, ADCK4, ADCK1, ADCK2, ADCK5, AlphaK1, AlphaK2, AlphaK3, ChaK1, ChaK2, eEF2K, BAZ1A, BAZ1B, ABR, BCR, BLVRA, BRD2, BRD3, BRD4, BRDT, Col4A3BP, FASTK, G11, GTF2F1, BCKDK, PDHK1, PDHK2, PDHK3, PDHK4, ATM, ATR, DNAPK, FRAP, SMG1, TRRAP, RIOK1, RIOK2, RIOK3, TAF1, TAF1L, TIF1D, TIF1a, TIF1b, TIF1g, VACAMKL, CaMK1a, CaMK1b, CaMK1d, CaMK1g, CaMK4, CaMK2a, CaMK2b, CaMK2d, CaMK2g, AMPKa1, AMPKa2, BRSK1, BRSK2, CHK1, HUNK, LKB1, MARK1, MARK2, MARK3, MARK4, MELK, NIM1, NuaK1, NuaK2, PASK, QIK, QSK, SIK, SNRK, CASK, DAPK1, DAPK2, DAPK3, DRAK1, DRAK2, DCLK1, DCLK2, DCLK3, MAPKAPK2, MAPKAPK3, MAPKAPK5, MNK1, MNK2, SgK085, TTN, caMLCK, skMLCK, smMLCK, PHKg1, PHKg2, PIM1, PIM2, PIM3, PKD1, PKD2, PKD3, PSKH1, PSKH2, CHK2, STK33, SgK495, SSTK, TSSK1, TSSK2, TSSK3, TSSK4, Trb1, Trb2, Trb3, Obscn, SPEG, Trad, Trio, CK1a, CK1a2, CK1d, CK1e, CK1g1, CK1g2, CK1g3, TTBK1, TTBK2, VRK1, VRK2, VRK3, CCRK, CDC2, CDK10, CDK11a, CDK11b, CDK2, CDK3, CDK4, CDK6, CDK5, CDK7, CDK19, CDK8, CDK9, CHED, CRK7, PCTAIRE1, PCTAIRE2, PCTAIRE3, PFTAIRE1, PFTAIRE2, CDKL1, CDKL2, CDKL3, CDKL4, CDKL5, CK2al, CK2a2, CLK1, CLK2, CLK3, CLK4, DYRK1A, DYRK1B, DYRK2, DYRK3, DYRK4, HIPK1, HIPK2, HIPK3, HIPK4, PRP4, GSK3A, GSK3B, Erk1, Erk2, Erk3, Erk4, Erk5, Erk7, JNK1, JNK2, JNK3, NLK, p38 (e.g., p38a, p38b, p38d, or p38g), ICK, MAK, MOK, MSSK1, SRPK1, SRPK2, NME1A, NME1B, NME3, NME4, NME5, NME6, NME7a, TXNDC3, TXNDC6, AurA, AurB, AurC, BUB1, BUBR1, PRPK, CaMKK1, CaMKK2, CDC7, Dusty, Haspin, IKKa, IKKb, IKKe, TBK1, IRE1, IRE2, MS, MOS, AAK1, BIKE, GAK, MPSK1, NEK1, NEK3, NEK5, NEK10, NEK11, NEK2, NEK4, NEK6, NEK7, NEK8, NEK9, SBK, SgK069, SgK110, PINK1, SgK223, SgK269, CLIK1, CLIK1L, SgK307, NRBP1, NRBP2, RNAseL, SgK196, SgK396, PAN3, GCN2, HRI, PEK, PKR, PLK1, PLK2, PLK3, PLK4, SCYL1, SCYL2, SCYL3, SgK071, SgK493, Slob, TBCK, TLK1, TLK2, PBK, TTK, Fused, ULK1, ULK2, ULK3, ULK4, PIK3R4, MYT1, Wee1, Wee1B, Wnk1, Wnk2, Wnk3, Wnk4, FAM198A, FAM198B, FAM20A, FAM20B, FAM20C, FJB1, ANPa, ANPb, CYGD, CYGF, HSER, COT, NIK, MAP3K5, MAP3K6, MAP3K7, MAP3K1, MEKK15, MAP3K2, MAP3K3, MAP3K4, OSR1, STLK3, GCK, HPK1, KHS1, KHS2, HGK, MINK, NRK, TNIK, MST1, MST2, MYO3A, MYO3B, PAK1, PAK2, PAK3, PAK4, PAK5, PAK6, LOK, SLK, STLK5, STLK6, TAO1, TAO2, TAO3, MST3, MST4, YSK1, MAP2K1, MAP2K2, MAP2K3, MAP2K6, MAP2K4, MAP2K5, MAP2K7, ALK, LTK, ABL1, ABL2, ACK, TNK1, AXL, MER, TYRO3, CCK4, CSK, CTK, DDR1, DDR2, EGFR, ErbB2, ErbB3, ErbB4, EphA1, EphA10, EphA2, EphA3, EphA4, EphA5, EphA6, EphA7, EphA8, EphB1, EphB2, EphB3, EphB4, EphB6, FAK, PYK2, FGFR1, FGFR2, FGFR3, FGFR4, FER, FES, IGF1R, INSR, IRR, JAK1, JAK2, JAK3, TYK2, LMR1, LMR2, LMR3, MET, RON, MUSK, FLT3, FMS, KIT, PDGFRa, PDGFRb, RET, ROR1, ROR2, RYK, ROS, FRK, BRK, SRM, FGR, FYN, SRC, YES, BLK, HCK, LCK, LYN, SYK, ZAP70, SuRTK106, BMX, BTK, ITK, TEC, TXK, TIE1, TIE2, TRKA, TRKB, TRKC, FLT1, FLT4, KDR, IRAK1, IRAK2, IRAK3, IRAK4, LIMK1, LIMK2, TESK1, TESK2, LRRK1, LRRK2, HH498, ILK, DLK, LZK, MLK1, MLK2, MLK3, MLK4, TAK1, ZAK, KSR1, KSR2, ARAF, BRAF, RAF1, ANKRD3, RIPK1, RIPK2, RIPK3, SgK288, ALK1, ALK2, ALK4, ALK7, BMPR1A, BMPR1B, TGFbR1, ACTR2, ACTR2B, BMPR2, MISR2, TGFbR2, MLKL. In some embodiments, a kinase to be inhibited can be one or more of: PKC, p38, MK2 or MK3. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is a kinase inhibitor (e.g., a kinase inhibitor that inhibits one or more of the kinases disclosed herein). In some embodiments, the agent includes two or more kinase inhibitor. In some embodiments, the agent includes a kinase inhibitor in combination with at least one other second agent (e.g., a second agent that increases the immune response of an immune cell). A variety of kinase inhibitors are known in the art. Non-limiting examples of kinase inhibitors include: MK-5108, palbociclib, capmatinib, rabusertib, SCH-900776, PF-477736, PF-477736, volitinib, crenolanib, pacritinib, adavosertib, afatinib, axitinib, bosutinib, cetuximab, cobimetinib, crizotinib, cabozantinib, dasatinib, entrectinib, erdafitinib, erlotinib, fostamatinib, gefitinib, ibrutinib, imatinib, lapatinib, lenvatinib, mubritinib, nilotinib, pazopanib, pegaptanib, ruxolitinib, sorafenib, sunitinib, SU6656, vandetanib, and vemurafenib. In some embodiments, a kinase inhibitor to be administered to a subject to treat a disease inhibits one or more of PKC, p38, MK2 or MK3. Non-limiting examples of kinase inhibitors that inhibit one or more of PKC, p38, MK2 and/or MK3 include: ruboxistaurin, chelerythrine, miyabenol C, myricitrin, gossypol, verbascoside, bryostatin 1, pamapimod, PH-797804, BIRB 796, VX-702, SB239063, SB202190, SB203580, SCIO 469, and BMS 582949. In some embodiments, a kinase inhibitor can be as described elsewhere (see, e.g., Klaeger et al., 2017  Science  358:1148). 
     In some embodiments, administration to a subject of an agent that results in reduced phosphorylation of TSC2 polypeptides in immune cells is effective in the treatment of a disease (e.g., any of the variety of cancers, viral diseases, bacterial diseases, fungal diseases, or parasitic diseases disclosed herein). In some embodiments, administration to a subject of an agent that results in reduced phosphorylation of TSC2 polypeptides in immune cells results in increased mTORC1 signaling in the immune cells such that the immune cells exhibit increased immune activity as compared to a reference immune cell from a reference subject that has not been administered the agent. In some embodiments, administration of an agent to a subject that results in reduced phosphorylation of TSC2 polypeptides in immune cells results in reduced phosphorylation of TSC2 polypeptides (e.g., a population of TSC2 polypeptides in the cell in which the number of TSC2 polypeptides in the population that are phosphorylate is reduced as compared to a population of TSC2 polypeptides in a reference immune cell from a reference subject that has not been administered the agent) in one or more of CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, Natural Killer cells (NK cells), macrophages, neutrophils, regulatory T cells (Tregs), helper T cells, or any other immune and inflammatory cells known in the art. In some embodiments, administration of an agent to a subject that results in reduced phosphorylation of TSC2 polypeptides in immune cells results in clonal expansion, enhanced synthesis and release of cytokines (e.g., cytokines known in the art to be associated with an increased immune response, including but not limited to TNFα, IFN-γ, IFN-α, IFN-β, TGF-β, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, and GM-CSF), and other downstream effects known to be associated with an increased immune response. A person of ordinary skill in the art will be aware of such downstream effects known to be associated with an increased immune response and will be able to determine whether such downstream effects are occurring or have occurred. In some embodiments, an clinical outcome can be determined in a subject that has been administered an agent that results in reduced phosphorylation of TSC2 polypeptides. Non-limiting examples of clinical outcomes include, increased survival (e.g., number of days, months, or years), increased progression-free survival (e.g., number of days, months, or years), increased overall response rate, decreased numbers of cancer cells, decreased tumor burden, and/or decreased numbers of pathogens (e.g., bacteria, viruses, fungi) as compared to a reference subject that has not been administered the agent. 
     An agent (e.g., a kinase inhibitor, one or more kinase inhibitors, or a kinase inhibitor in combination with a second) can be administered to a subject once or multiple times over a period of time ranging from days to weeks. In some cases, one or more agents can be formulated into a pharmaceutically acceptable composition for administration to a subject having a disease (e.g., cancer). For example, a therapeutically effective amount of an agent can be formulated together with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers (additives) and/or diluents. A pharmaceutical composition can be formulated for administration in solid or liquid form including, without limitation, sterile solutions, suspensions, sustained-release formulations, tablets, capsules, pills, powders, and granules. 
     Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, fillers, and vehicles that may be used in a pharmaceutical composition described herein include, without limitation, ion exchangers, alumina, aluminum stearate, lecithin, serum proteins, such as human serum albumin, buffer substances such as phosphates, glycine, sorbic acid, potassium sorbate, partial glyceride mixtures of saturated vegetable fatty acids, water, salts or electrolytes, such as protamine sulfate, disodium hydrogen phosphate, potassium hydrogen phosphate, sodium chloride, zinc salts, colloidal silica, magnesium trisilicate, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, cellulose-based substances, polyethylene glycol, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, polyacrylates, waxes, polyethylene-polyoxypropylene-block polymers, polyethylene glycol and wool fat. 
     A pharmaceutical composition containing one or more agents can be designed for oral or parenteral (including subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, and intradermal) administration. When being administered orally, a pharmaceutical composition can be in the form of a pill, tablet, or capsule. Compositions suitable for parenteral administration include aqueous and non-aqueous sterile injection solutions that can contain anti-oxidants, buffers, bacteriostats, and solutes that render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient. The formulations can be presented in unit-dose or multi-dose containers, for example, sealed ampules and vials, and may be stored in a freeze dried (lyophilized) condition requiring only the addition of the sterile liquid carrier, for example, water for injections, immediately prior to use. Extemporaneous injection solutions and suspensions may be prepared from sterile powders, granules, and tablets. 
     In some cases, a pharmaceutically acceptable composition including one or more agents can be administered locally or systemically. For example, a composition provided herein can be administered locally by injection into tumors. In some cases, a composition provided herein can be administered systemically, orally, or by injection to a subject (e.g., a human). 
     Effective doses can vary depending on the severity of the disease, the route of administration, the age and general health condition of the subject, excipient usage, the possibility of co-usage with other therapeutic treatments such as use of other agents, and the judgment of the treating physician. 
     When referring to cancer, an effective amount of a composition containing one or more agents can be any amount that reduces the number of cancer cells present within the subject without producing significant toxicity to the subject. For example, an effective amount of dosage of an agent can be in the range of from about 0.1 mg/kg to about 100 mg/kg of body weight/day, for example, from about 1.0 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg of body weight/day. In some embodiments, the dosage of an agent is in the range of from about 0.1 mg/kg to about 1.0 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 0.1 mg/kg to about 5 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 0.1 mg/kg to about 10 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 0.1 mg/kg to about 25 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 0.1 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 1.0 mg/kg to about 5.0 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 1.0 mg/kg to about 10 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 1.0 mg/kg to about 20 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 1.0 mg/kg to about 25 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 1.0 mg/kg to about 40 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 1.0 mg/kg to about 100 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 10 mg/kg to about 100 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 25 mg/kg to about 100 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 50 mg/kg to about 100 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 5.0 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg of body weight/day; from about 10 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg of body weight/day; or from about 25 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg of body weight/day. 
     If a particular subject fails to respond to a particular amount, then the amount of an agent can be increased by, for example, two fold. After receiving this higher amount, the subject can be monitored for both responsiveness to the treatment and toxicity symptoms, and adjustments made accordingly. The effective amount can remain constant or can be adjusted as a sliding scale or variable dose depending on the subject&#39;s response to treatment. Various factors can influence the actual effective amount used for a particular application. For example, the frequency of administration, duration of treatment, use of multiple treatment agents, route of administration, and severity of the condition (e.g., cancer) may require an increase or decrease in the actual effective amount administered. 
     The frequency of administration of an agent can be any amount that reduces the number of cancer cells present within the subject without producing significant toxicity to the subject. For example, the frequency of administration of an agent can be from about two to about three times a week to about two to about three times a month. The frequency of administration of an agent can remain constant or can be variable during the duration of treatment. A course of treatment with a composition containing an agent can include rest periods. For example, a composition containing one or more agents can be administered daily over a two week period followed by a two week rest period, and such a regimen can be repeated multiple times. As with the effective amount, various factors can influence the actual frequency of administration used for a particular application. For example, the effective amount, duration of treatment, use of multiple treatment agents, route of administration, and severity of the condition (e.g., cancer) may require an increase or decrease in administration frequency. 
     An effective duration for administering a composition containing one or more agents can be any duration that reduces the severity of the condition (e.g., the number of cancer cells present within the subject) without producing significant toxicity to the subject. In some cases, the effective duration can vary from several days to several weeks. In general, the effective duration can range in duration from about one week to about four weeks. Multiple factors can influence the actual effective duration used for a particular treatment. For example, an effective duration can vary with the frequency of administration, effective amount, use of multiple treatment agents, route of administration, and severity of the condition being treated. 
     In some embodiments, an agent can be contacted with an immune cell in vitro for any of a variety of purposes including, without limitation, testing specific cell types, testing the effective, maximum, and/or minimum dosage of the agent, and/or testing duration of contact of the agent. In some embodiments, a test agent can be contacted with an immune cell in vitro to determine whether it is effective. Any suitable immune cell can be contacted in vitro with the agent including, without limitation, CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, Natural Killer cells (NK cells), macrophages, neutrophils, regulatory T cells (Tregs), helper T cells, or any other immune and inflammatory cells known in the art. In some embodiments, the in vitro agent is a kinase inhibitor. In some embodiments, the in vitro agent includes two or more kinase inhibitors. In some embodiments, the in vitro agent includes a kinase inhibitor in combination with at least one other second agent (e.g., a second agent that increases the immune response of an immune cell). Effectiveness of the in vitro agent(s) on stimulating the immune cell can be assessed by any of a variety of techniques known in the art. In some embodiments, clonal expansion is assessed. In some embodiments, enhanced synthesis and release of cytokines (e.g., cytokines known in the art to be associated with an increased immune response, including but not limited to TNFα, IFN-γ, TGF-β, IL-4, IL-10, IL-13) is assessed. Those of ordinary skill in the art will be aware of and will be able to employ other suitable assessment methods for determining the effectiveness of an agent(s) on an immune cell in vitro. 
     Engineered TSC2 Polypeptides that are Pseudo-phosphorylated 
     Provided herein are also engineered TSC2 polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated. Such engineered TSC2 polypeptides can be considered to be “pseudo-phosphorylated”. In some embodiments, provided herein are pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides having an amino acid substitution at a residue corresponding to the serine residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5). In some embodiments, the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, or a serine residue in a polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, is substituted with an aspartic acid or a glutamic acid residue. In some embodiments, a pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptide having a glutamic acid substitution at the serine residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence is provided (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 2). 
     Provided herein are also pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides having an amino acid substitution at a residue corresponding to the serine residue at position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6) such that engineered TSC2 polypeptides act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated. In some embodiments, the serine residue at position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, or a serine residue in a polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, is substituted with an aspartic acid or a glutamic acid residue. In some embodiments, a pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptide having an amino acid substitution at the serine residue at position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence is provided (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 10). 
     Provided herein are also pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides having an amino acid substitution at a residue corresponding to the serine residue at position S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 7) such that engineered TSC2 polypeptides act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated. In some embodiments, the serine residue at position S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, or a serine residue in a polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, is substituted with an aspartic acid or a glutamic acid residue. In some embodiments, a pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptide having an amino acid substitution at the serine residue at position S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence is provided (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 11). 
     In some embodiments, pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides exhibit increased activity in their ability to down-regulate the mTORC1 pathway as compared to wild-type TSC2 polypeptides that are not phosphorylated at the engineered amino acid position. 
     Provided herein are also vectors that include nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at a residue corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7), and cells having such vectors. A vector that includes nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at a residue corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7) can be any appropriate type of vector. Examples of vectors include, without limitation, plasmids (e.g., expression plasmids) and vectors (e.g., viral vectors such as lentiviral vectors, retroviral vectors, adenovirus vectors, and adeno-associated virus vectors). In some cases, a vector that includes nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at a residue corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7) can be a lentiviral vector. A vector that includes nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at a residue corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7) also can include one or more addition features (e.g., one or more additional features to modulate polypeptide expression). Examples of features that can modulate polypeptide expression include, without limitation, an origin of replication, a promoter, a polyA tail, a terminator, and a microRNA response element. In some cases, when a vector described herein also includes a promoter, the promoter can operably linked to a nucleic acid sequence that encodes polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at a residue corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7) (e.g., such that the promoter can drive expression of the nucleic acid sequence). A promoter can be any appropriate promoter. In some cases, a promoter can be constitutive promoter. In some cases, a promoter can be a viral promoter. In some cases, a promoter can be an inducible promoter. In some cases, a promoter can be a cell-specific and/or tissue-specific promoter. Examples of promoters that can be used to drive expression of nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at a residue corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7) include, without limitation, CMV. In some embodiments, a promoter can be as described elsewhere (see, e.g., Morgan et al., 2016  Biomedicines.  4:9). 
     In some embodiments, cells having vectors that include nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at a serine residue in any of the polypeptides described herein do not express endogenous, wild-type TSC2. For example, the nucleic acid sequence encoding wild-type TSC2 can be modified by any of a variety of genetic manipulation techniques known in the art including, but not limited to, CRISPR-based methods, TALEN-based methods, and other genetic targeting or recombination methods (see, e.g., Roth et al., 2018  Nature  doi: 10.1038/s41586-018-0326-5). In some embodiments, cells having vectors that include nucleic acid sequences that encode engineered pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at a position that corresponds to a wild-type serine residue in any of the polypeptides described herein do express endogenous, wild-type TSC2. In some embodiments of cells having both: 1) vectors that include nucleic acid sequences that encode engineered TSC2 polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated, and 2) a nucleic acid sequence encoding an endogenous TSC2 protein, the cells exhibit the same or similar activity as a corresponding cell lacking the nucleic acid sequence encoding the endogenous TSC2 protein. 
     TSC2 polypeptides disclosed herein can be engineered at S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID No: 7) with any mutation or modification that results in TSC2 mimicking constitutive phosphorylated at the respective positions in human (S1364), mouse (S1365), or rat (S1366). In some cases, TSC2 polypeptides from other species (e.g., monkey) can be engineered with any mutation or modification (e.g., a residue corresponding to human S1364, mouse S1365, and/or rat S1366) that results in TSC2 mimicking constitutive phosphorylated. 
     Provided herein are also nucleic acids encoding engineered TSC2 polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at a position corresponding to a serine residue in a wild-type TSC2 polypeptide sequence. In some embodiments, nucleic acids provided herein encode pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides that exhibit increased activity in their ability to down-regulate the mTORC1 pathway as compared to wild-type TSC2 polypeptides that are not phosphorylated at the engineered position. In some embodiments, provided herein are nucleic acids encoding pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides having an amino acid substitution at a residue corresponding to the serine residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), or position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or position S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 7). In some embodiments, nucleic acids provided herein encode pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides in which the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, or position 1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, or a serine residue in a TSC2 polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residues at those positions, is substituted with an aspartic acid or a glutamic acid residue. In some embodiments, nucleic acids provided herein include the genetic codons GAA or GAG at positions that are translated to a glutamic acid residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or position S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 7). In some embodiments, nucleic acids provided herein include the genetic codons GAT or GAC at positions that are translated to an aspartic acid residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or position S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 7). In some embodiments, a nucleic acid sequence encoding an engineered TSC2 polypeptide having a glutamic acid substitution at the serine residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence is provided (e.g., a nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4). 
     Methods of Treating Disease Using Cells Having Engineered TSC2 Polypeptides that are Pseudo-phosphorylated 
     Cells Having Engineered TSC2 Polypeptides that are Pseudo-phosphorylated 
     Provided herein are cells expressing engineered TSC2 polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at a position corresponding to a serine residue in the wild-type TSC2 polypeptide sequence. In some embodiments, cells provided herein include pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides that exhibit increased activity in their ability to down-regulate the mTORC1 pathway as compared to wild-type TSC2 polypeptides that are not phosphorylated at the engineered position. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides in which the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, or a serine residue in a polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1364 of SEQ ID NO: 5, is substituted with an aspartic acid or a glutamic acid residue. For example, provided herein are cells expressing pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides having a glutamic acid substitution at a residue corresponding to the serine residue at position S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 2). 
     Provided herein are also cells expressing pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides having an amino acid substitution at a residue corresponding to the serine residue at position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6) such that engineered TSC2 polypeptides act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at the serine residue. In some embodiments, the cells provided herein express a pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptide in which the serine residue at position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, or a serine residue in a polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1365 of SEQ ID NO: 6, is substituted with an aspartic acid or a glutamic acid residue. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express a pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptide having a glutamic acid substitution at the serine residue at position S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 10). 
     Provided herein are also cells expressing a pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptide having an amino acid substitution at a residue corresponding to the serine residue at position S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 7) such that engineered TSC2 polypeptides act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at the serine residue. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express a pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptide in which the serine residue at position S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, or a serine residue in a polypeptide that corresponds to the serine residue at position S1366 of SEQ ID NO: 7, is substituted with a aspartic acid or a glutamic acid residue. In some embodiments, cells provided herein express an engineered TSC2 polypeptide having a glutamic acid substitution at the serine residue at position S1366 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 11). 
     Provided herein are also cells harboring vectors that include nucleic acids that encode polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at a serine residue corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7). A vector that includes nucleic acid sequences that encode polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated at a residue corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7) can be introduced into a cell using any appropriate methods and/or techniques. A vector can be introduced into a cell in a transient manner (e.g., maintained as a vector) or in a stable manner (e.g., integrated into the genome). Examples of methods and/or techniques that can be used to introduce one or more vectors into a cell include, without limitation, transfection, transduction, electroporation, and infection. In some embodiments, nucleic acids encoding pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides are operably linked to nucleic acids that drive expression of pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides in the vectors (e.g., promoter sequences). 
     In some embodiments, cells having pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated can have, or can express, endogenous, TSC2 proteins. For example, a cell having a pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptide also can have an endogenous wild-type nucleic acid sequence encoding a wild-type TSC2 polypeptide. In some embodiments of cells having (e.g., expressing) both: 1) engineered pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated, and 2) an endogenous TSC2 protein, the cells exhibit the same or similar activity as a corresponding cell lacking (e.g., not expressing) the endogenous TSC2 protein. 
     In some embodiments, cells having pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptides that act as if they are constitutively phosphorylated do not have, or do not express, endogenous, wild-type TSC2 proteins. For example, a cell having a pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptide can have a genetic alteration in which a wild-type nucleic acid sequence encoding the TSC2 polypeptide has been rendered inactive. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence encoding wild-type TSC2 can be modified by any of a variety of genetic manipulation techniques known in the art including, but not limited to, CRISPR-based methods, TALEN-based methods, and other genetic targeting or recombination methods (see, e.g., Roth et al., 2018  Nature  doi: 10.1038/s41586-018-0326-5). In some embodiments, a wild-type nucleic acid sequence encoding a TSC2 polypeptide can be rendered inactive by removing, replacing, or mutating a nucleic acid sequence that contributes to expression of the TSC2 polypeptide including, but not limited to, a promoter sequence, an enhancer sequence, a coding sequence of a transcription factor that regulates expression of TSC2, the coding sequence of the TSC2 polypeptide itself, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, a wild-type nucleic acid sequence encoding a TSC2 polypeptide can be rendered inactive via a frameshift caused by one or more modifications or mutations in the nucleic acid sequence encoding the TSC2 polypeptide. 
     In some embodiments, cells that can be engineered to include a pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptide include immune cells. For example, the immune cells can be CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, Natural Killer cells (NK cells), macrophages, neutrophils, regulatory T cells (Tregs), helper T cells, B cells, or any other immune cells and/or inflammatory cells known in the art. Relevant aspects of certain of these cells are disclosed elsewhere herein. 
     In some embodiments, an immune cell that is engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide can be a cytotoxic T cell. In some embodiments, a cytotoxic T cell can be engineered to express a CAR or a TCR. 
     In some embodiments, an immune cell that is engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide can be expanded (e.g., clonally expanded). For example, an immune cell that is engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide can be clonally expanded ex vivo (e.g., for use in an adoptive cell therapy). In cases where an immune cell that is engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide is used in an adoptive cell therapy, the adoptive cell therapy can be any appropriate adoptive cell therapy. Examples of adoptive cell therapies include, without limitation, dendritic cell therapy and synthetic dendritic cell therapy. In some cases, adoptive cell therapy can include the extraction of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes. 
     In some embodiments, decreased mTORC1 signaling can be determined by any of a variety of techniques or methods known in the art. For example, inhibited mTORC1 signaling typically results in decreased growth, increased autophagy, and less phosphorylation of Ulk1 (Unc-51-like kinase-1), p70S6K (ribosomal protein S6 kinase), and 4EBP1 (elF4E binding protein-1). 
     Cancers 
     In some embodiments, the compositions and methods provided herein can be used to treat cancer. For example, an immune cell that is engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide (e.g., expressed from a vector introduced into the cell, which vector includes a nucleic acid sequence that encodes the engineered TSC2 polypeptide) that acts as if it is constitutively phosphorylated at a residue corresponding to S1364 of the human TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5), S1365 of the mouse TSC2 polypeptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6), or S1366 of the rat TSC2 polypeptides sequence (SEQ ID No: 7) can be administered to a subject having cancer (e.g., in an adoptive cell therapy) such that the cancer is treated. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell administered to the subject does not have or express an endogenous, wild type TSC polypeptide. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell administered to the subject does have or express an endogenous, wild type TSC2 polypeptide. In some embodiments, a CD8+ T effector cell that recognizes a cancer cell (e.g., via a specific antigen on the cancer cell surface) can be engineered to include a TSC2 polypeptide that acts as if it is constitutively phosphorylated, which CD8+ T effector cell is then administered to a subject that has such a cancer cell. In some embodiments, a CD8+ T effector cell that is engineered to include a TSC2 polypeptide acts as if it is constitutively phosphorylated is also engineered to express a chimeric antigen receptor or a T cell receptor. In some embodiments, an immune cell that is engineered to include an engineered TSC2 polypeptide that acts as if it is constitutively phosphorylated is more effective in treating cancer in a subject than an immune cell that lacks the engineered TSC2 polypeptide. 
     Cancer types that can be treated include, without limitation, lung cancer (e.g., small cell lung carcinoma or non-small cell lung carcinoma), papillary thyroid cancer, medullary thyroid cancer, differentiated thyroid cancer, recurrent thyroid cancer, refractory differentiated thyroid cancer, lung adenocarcinoma, bronchioles lung cell carcinoma, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A or 2B (MEN2A or MEN2B, respectively), pheochromocytoma, parathyroid hyperplasia, breast cancer, colorectal cancer (e.g., metastatic colorectal cancer), papillary renal cell carcinoma, ganglioneuromatosis of the gastroenteric mucosa, inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor, or cervical cancer, acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), acute myeloid leukemia (AML), cancer in adolescents, adrenal cancer, adrenocortical carcinoma, anal cancer, appendix cancer, astrocytoma, atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor, basal cell carcinoma, bile duct cancer, bladder cancer, bone cancer, brain stem glioma, brain tumor, breast cancer, bronchial tumor, Burkitt lymphoma, carcinoid tumor, unknown primary carcinoma, cardiac tumors, cervical cancer, childhood cancers, chordoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms, colon cancer, colorectal cancer, craniopharyngioma, cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, bile duct cancer, ductal carcinoma in situ, embryonal tumors, endometrial cancer, ependymoma, esophageal cancer, esthesioneuroblastoma, Ewing sarcoma, extracranial germ cell tumor, extragonadal germ cell tumor, extrahepatic bile duct cancer, eye cancer, fallopian tube cancer, fibrous histiocytoma of bone, gallbladder cancer, gastric cancer, gastrointestinal carcinoid tumor, gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST), germ cell tumor, gestational trophoblastic disease, glioma, hairy cell tumor, hairy cell leukemia, head and neck cancer, heart cancer, hepatocellular cancer, histiocytosis, Hodgkin&#39;s lymphoma, hypopharyngeal cancer, intraocular melanoma, islet cell tumors, pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors, Kaposi sarcoma, kidney cancer, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, laryngeal cancer, leukemia, lip and oral cavity cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, lymphoma, macroglobulinemia, malignant fibrous histiocytoma of bone, osteocarcinoma, melanoma, Merkel cell carcinoma, mesothelioma, metastatic squamous neck cancer, midline tract carcinoma, mouth cancer, multiple endocrine neoplasia syndromes, multiple myeloma, mycosis fungoides, myelodysplastic syndromes, myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative neoplasms, myelogenous leukemia, myeloid leukemia, multiple myeloma, myeloproliferative neoplasms, nasal cavity and paranasal sinus cancer, nasopharyngeal cancer, neuroblastoma, non-Hodgkin&#39;s lymphoma, non-small cell lung cancer, oral cancer, oral cavity cancer, lip cancer, oropharyngeal cancer, osteosarcoma, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, papillomatosis, paraganglioma, paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer, parathyroid cancer, penile cancer, pharyngeal cancer, pheochromosytoma, pituitary cancer, plasma cell neoplasm, pleuropulmonary blastoma, pregnancy and breast cancer, primary central nervous system lymphoma, primary peritoneal cancer, prostate cancer, rectal cancer, renal cell cancer, retinoblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, salivary gland cancer, sarcoma, Sezary syndrome, skin cancer, small cell lung cancer, small intestine cancer, soft tissue sarcoma, squamous cell carcinoma, squamous neck cancer, stomach cancer, T-cell lymphoma, testicular cancer, throat cancer, thymoma and thymic carcinoma, thyroid cancer, transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter, unknown primary carcinoma, urethral cancer, uterine cancer, uterine sarcoma, vaginal cancer, vulvar cancer, Waldenstrom Macroglobulinemia, and Wilms&#39; tumor. 
     Other Diseases 
     In some embodiments, the compositions and methods provided herein can be are useful for other situations and/or can be used to treat other diseases. Examples of other situations where the compositions and methods provided herein can be useful include, without limitation, situations of tissue, skin, and organ transplantation. Examples of other diseases that the compositions and methods can be used to treat include, without limitation, graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), allergies, asthma, autoimmune diseases (such as systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis), multiple sclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease. In some embodiments, cells comprising a pseudo-phosphorylated TSC2 polypeptide can be administered to patients in need (e.g., in an adoptive cell therapy) resulting in decreased mTORC1 activities and thus treating diseases including situations of tissue, skin and organ transplantation, in graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), or allergies, or in autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus and multiple sclerosis. 
     Methods of Generating a Persistent T Cell in a Subject 
     Also provided herein are methods of generating a persistent T cell a subject. In some embodiments, methods of generating a persistent T cell in a subject include administering to a subject (e.g., in an adoptive cell therapy) an engineered immune cell comprising a vector. In some embodiments, the vector comprises a nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide comprising SEQ ID NO: 2 that is operably linked to a nucleic acid that drives expression of the polypeptide in the engineered immune cell. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell recognizes an antigen. In some embodiments, upon recognizing the antigen, the engineered immune cell exhibits decreased activity as compared to a reference T cell that lacks the vector. In some embodiments, upon recognizing the antigen, the engineered immune cell becomes a persistent T cell. 
     In some embodiments, the decreased activity of the engineered immune cell comprises decreased mTORC1 signaling. 
     In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell is derived from an endogenous immune cell obtained from the subject. As used herein, the phrase “derived from” means that the endogenous immune cell is obtained from the subject, after which it is modified (e.g., via introduction of a vector having an nucleic acid sequence encoding a modified TSC2 polypeptide as described herein) to generate the engineered immune cell. 
     In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell is a CD8+ T cell. In some embodiments, the persistent T cell is a memory T cell. In some embodiments, the CD8+ T cell is further engineered to express a CAR or a TCR. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell is a regulatory T cell. In some embodiments, the persistent T cell is a persistent T regulatory cell. 
     Methods of Generating a Persistent T Cell In Vitro 
     Also provided herein are methods of generating a persistent T cell in vitro. In some embodiments, methods of generating a persistent T cell in vitro include providing an immune cell, introducing into the immune cell a vector thereby generating an engineered immune cell, contacting the engineered immune cell with an antigen that is recognized by the engineered immune cell, and culturing the engineered immune cell under conditions and for a time sufficient such that the engineered immune cell becomes the persistent T cell. In some embodiments, the vector comprises a nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide comprising SEQ ID NO: 2 that is operably linked to a nucleic acid that drives expression of the polypeptide in the immune cell. In some embodiments, the engineered immune cell exhibits decreased mTORC1 signaling as compared to a reference immune cell that does not comprise the vector. 
     In some embodiments, the immune cell is a CD8+ T cell, and the generated persistent T cell is a memory T cell. In some embodiments, the CD8+ T cell is further engineered to express a chimeric antigen receptor or a T cell receptor. 
     In some embodiments, a persistent T cell generated in vitro is administered to a subject (e.g., in an adoptive cell therapy). In some embodiments, the subject exhibits a disease. In some embodiments, administration of the persistent T cell to the subject treats the disease. In some embodiments, the disease is cancer, a viral disease, a bacterial disease, fungal disease, or a parasitic disease (e.g., any of the cancers, viral diseases, bacterial diseases, fungal diseases, or parasitic diseases disclosed herein). 
     In some embodiments, the immune cell is obtained from the subject to be treated (e.g., an autologous cell). In some embodiments, the immune cell is obtained from a subject other than the subject to be treated (e.g., an allogenic cell). In some embodiments, the immune cell is a regulatory T cell, and the persistent T cell is a persistent T regulatory cell. In some embodiments, the persistent T regulatory cell is administered to a subject (e.g., in an adoptive cell therapy). In some embodiments, the subject exhibits a disease. In some embodiments, administration of the persistent T regulatory cell to the subject treats the disease. In some embodiments, the disease is asthma, an autoimmune disease, or graft vs. host disease. In some embodiments, the immune cell is obtained from the subject (e.g., any of the cancers, viral diseases, bacterial diseases, fungal diseases, or parasitic diseases disclosed herein). 
     REFERENCES (Identified By Numbers Within Parentheses Throughout the Specification) 
     
         
         1. C. C. Dibble et al., Signal integration by mTORC1 coordinates nutrient input with biosynthetic output.  Nat Cell Biol  15, 555 (June 2013). 
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         3. S. Sciarretta et al., Mammalian target of rapamycin signaling in cardiac physiology and disease.  Circ Res  114, 549 (Jan. 31, 2014). 
         4. M. Laplante et al., mTOR signaling in growth control and disease.  Cell  149, 274 (Apr. 13, 2012). 
         5. K. Inoki et al., Rheb GTPase is a direct target of TSC2 GAP activity and regulates mTOR signaling.  Genes Dev  17, 1829 (Aug. 1, 2003). 
         6. S. Menon et al., Spatial control of the TSC complex integrates insulin and nutrient regulation of mTORC1 at the lysosome.  Cell  156, 771 (Feb. 13, 2014). 
         7. K. Inoki et al., TSC2 integrates Wnt and energy signals via a coordinated phosphorylation by AMPK and GSK3 to regulate cell growth.  Cell  126, 955 (Sep. 8, 2006). 
         8. H. H. Zhang et al., Insulin stimulates adipogenesis through the Akt-TSC2-mTORC1 pathway.  PLoS One  4, e6189 (Jul. 10, 2009). 
         9. D. I. Lee et al., Phosphodiesterase 9A controls nitric-oxide-independent cGMP and hypertrophic heart disease.  Nature  519, 472 (Mar. 26, 2015). 
         10. K. Kokkonen et al., Nanodomain Regulation of Cardiac Cyclic Nucleotide Signaling by Phosphodiesterases.  Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol  57, 455 (Jan. 6, 2017). 
         11. J. Kim et al., AMPK and mTOR regulate autophagy through direct phosphorylation of Ulk1.  Nat Cell Biol  13, 132 (February 2011). 
         12. P. E. Burnett et al., RAFT1 phosphorylation of the translational regulators p70 S6 kinase and 4E-BP1.  Proc Natl Acad Sci USA  95, 1432 (Feb. 17, 1998). 
         13. Q. Zheng et al., Autophagy and p62 in cardiac proteinopathy.  Circ Res  109, 296 (Jul. 22, 2011). 
         14. N. Hariharan et al., Oxidative stress stimulates autophagic flux during ischemia/reperfusion.  Antioxid Redox Signal  14, 2179 (June 2011). 
         15. P. Mertins et al., Proteogenomics connects somatic mutations to signalling in breast cancer.  Nature  534, 55 (Jun. 2, 2016). 
         16. J. R. Burgoyne et al., cGMP-dependent activation of protein kinase G precludes disulfide activation: implications for blood pressure control.  Hypertension  60, 1301 (November 2012). 
         17. T. Nakamura et al., Prevention of PKG1α oxidation augments cardioprotection in the stressed heart.  J Clin Invest  125, 2468 (June 2015). 
       
    
     The invention will be further described in the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1 
     PKG1α Suppression of Hypertrophy Requires mTORC1-Ulk1 Regulated Autophagy 
     Cyclic GMP-stimulated protein kinase 1α (PKG1α), the primary downstream kinase of nitric oxide and natriuretic peptide signaling, confers anti-proliferative and anti-fibrotic effects in multiple tissues subjected to mechanical and neurohumoral stress (9, 10). In studies examining downstream effectors of PKG1α, it was discovered that it suppresses mTORC1 activation. Intact mice were subjected to 6 weeks of pressure-overload (PO) with or without co-treatment with a phosphodiesterase type-5 inhibitor (sildenafil, SIL), which stimulates PKG1α by blocking cGMP hydrolysis (9). 
     PO enhanced mTORC1 activation as reflected by phosphorylation of three primary targets—Ulk1 (Unc-51-like kinase-1) to inhibit autophagy (11), and p70S6K, and 4EPB1 (elF4E binding protein-1) to stimulate growth (12). SIL blocked these changes, mimicking effects from an mTORC1 inhibitor (everolimus, Evl) ( FIG.  1 A ). Both therapies equally suppressed pathological muscle growth and heart dysfunction ( FIG.  27   ). Both SIL and Evl also stimulated autophagy, as reflected by higher LC3-II (microtubule-associated protein light-chain 3-II) and reduced p62 ( FIG.  1 B ). Autophagic flux (AuF) was directly measured in myocytes by the rise in LC3-II after exposure to Bafilomycin A1 (13) that blocks lysosomal proteolysis. This rise was greater with PKG1α activation and blocked by DT3, a PKG1α antagonist ( FIG.  1 C ). Myocytes expressing a tandem GFP-RFP-LC3 AuF reporter (14) (shifts from diffuse green to red/yellow punctae with greater AuF) and stimulated to hypertrophy with endothelin-1 (ET-1) showed AuF rise with PKG1α was coupled to smaller cell size ( FIG.  1 D ). Reduced hypertrophy was reflected by lower Nppb gene expression with SIL, but this was prevented when Ulk1 was genetically silenced ( FIG.  1 E ). This shows PKGα suppression of hypertrophy requires mTORC1-Ulk1 regulated autophagy. 
     Example 2 
     PKG1α Targets TSC2 
     To identify the mTORC1-complex or regulatory proteins targeted by PKG1α, a phospho-proteomic assay of adult myocytes exposed to cGMP for 10 minutes to activate PKG1α was performed, and then phospho-peptide enriched lysates was assayed by mass spectrometry. Of all potential candidates, only TSC2 was differentially phosphorylated. This occurred at Ser1365, a highly conserved residue in an activation regulatory domain downstream of known GSK-3β and AMPK targeted sites ( FIG.  2 A ). This site is found in phospho-protein databases including human breast cancer (15), but its functionality and targeting kinase were unknown. To resolve this, phospho-mimetic (S1365E, “SE”) and phospho-silenced (S1365A, “SA”) TSC2 mutants were generated, introduced into myocytes at similar expression levels ( FIG.  28   ), and the cells were then stimulated with ET-1±SIL to co-activate PKG1α ( FIG.  2 B ). Expression of either mutant or WT TSC2 did not impact resting Nppb expression. SE mimicked SIL in blocking Nppb rise induced by ET-1; whereas, SA increased the response. Both TSC2 mutants prevented further changes from PKG1α, unlike the response with WT-TSC2. These disparities were mirrored by differential activation of mTORC1 ( FIG.  2 C ), confirming that pS1365 functionally regulates mTORC1 signaling and is targeted by PKG1α. 
     PKG1α regulation is redox sensitive, as kinase oxidation results in a disulfide bond between homo-dimer C42-residues (16). This change, observed in human and experimental heart disease, limits the efficacy of PKG1α to counter pathological hypertrophy/fibrosis and dysfunction (17). It was therefore hypothesized that PKG1α-mTORC1 modulation is redox modulated. To test this, myocytes or hearts expressing WT or a redox-dead PKG1α (C42S) mutant were exposed to hormone or mechanical stress. This mutation only prevents PKG1α oxidation, leaving cellular and myocardial oxidative stress unaltered (17). When the C42S mutant was expressed, mTORC1 activation was strongly suppressed in the PO-stress heart ( FIG.  2 D ,  FIG.  29   ) and ET-1 stimulated myocytes ( FIG.  30   ), and AuF was enhanced ( FIG.  2 E ,  FIG.  31   ). 
     PKG1α regulation is redox sensitive, as kinase oxidation results in a disulfide bond between homo-dimer C42-residues (16). This change, observed in human and experimental heart disease, limits the efficacy of PKG1α to counter pathological hypertrophy/fibrosis and dysfunction (17). It was therefore hypothesized that PKG1α-mTORC1 modulation is redox modulated. To test this, myocytes or hearts expressing WT or a redox-dead PKG1α (C42S) mutant were exposed to hormone or mechanical stress. This mutation only prevents PKG1α oxidation, leaving cellular and myocardial oxidative stress unaltered (17). When the C42S mutant was expressed, mTORC1 activation was strongly suppressed in the PO-stress heart ( FIG.  2 D , Supplemental  FIG.  29   ) and ET-1 stimulated myocytes (Supplemental  FIG.  30   ), and AuF was enhanced ( FIG.  2 E , Supplemental  FIG.  31   ). 
     Example 3 
     The Role of TSC2 S1365 Modulation In Vivo 
     To test the role of TSC2 S1365 modulation in vivo, S1365A mutant knock-in mice (SA) were generated using CRISPR ( FIG.  3 A ). Homozygous knock-in mice were born healthy in normal Mendelian ratio, develop normally, and have normal cardiac morphology and function (Table 1,  FIG.  26   ). Liver, lung, heart, and kidney histopathology appeared normal. Cardiac expression of TSC2 was similar in both SA and WT controls ( FIG.  32 A ). When SA and WT mice (3 months old) were exposed to PO, SA mice displayed striking early mortality (75% by day 14) ( FIG.  3 B ) attributable to dilated cardiac failure ( FIG.  3 C,  3 D ). Increased cardiac mortality was similarly observed following PO in both homozygote and heterozygote SA mice ( FIG.  32 B ), indicating this is a potent effect. Lung weight and A-type natriuretic peptide were disproportionately greater, consistent with cardiac failure and dilation ( FIG.  32 C ). As in isolated cells, SA expression in vivo did not alter resting mTORC1 activity; however, in response to PO, this activity exceeded controls ( FIG.  3 E ). The impact on growth-stimulation pathways (p70S6K and 4EBP1) was quantitative, whereas autophagy effects were essentially binary. LC3-II increased in PO-stressed WT mice but there was no change from baseline in SA mice ( FIG.  3 F ). Phosphorylation levels of other kinase modulators of TSC2, including Akt, ERK1/2, and AMPK were examined. All increased with PO, and these increases were similar in WT and SA PO mice ( FIG.  34   ). Thus, the SA mutation overdrove other TSC2 regulatory inputs, markedly suppressing autophagy while amplifying mTORC1 anabolic signaling. 
     Example 4 
     Hyper-activation of mTORC1 Caused the Adverse Outcomes and Early Mortality in SA-PO Mice 
     To test if hyper-activation of mTORC1 caused the adverse outcomes and early mortality in SA-PO mice, a second cohort was co-treated with either Evl or vehicle, each started several days prior to PO. Evl fully prevented death ( FIG.  4 A ) and restored cardiac structure and function to that of sham controls ( FIG.  4 B,  4 C ). Evl increased autophagy reflected by LC3-II and p62 ( FIG.  4 D ;  FIG.  35   ). Thus, solely by blocking S1365 phosphorylation in vivo in an integrated model of pathological stress, autophagy was abrogated and the pathological response was amplified by mTORC1 hyperactivation. Lastly, it was tested whether cardiac protection against PO previously reported in PKG1α C42S-KI mice (17) also requires S1365 phosphorylation. Double KI mice (C42S/SA) were bred and subjected to PO. Controls were C42S only. Mortality ( FIG.  4 E ) and cardiac dilation ( FIG.  4 F ) from PO were markedly worse in C42S/SA mice, supporting the link between redox sensitivity of PKG1α and S1365 targeting in vivo. 
       FIG.  4 G  summarizes the findings. PKG1α mediated TSC2 to regulate mTORC1 activity, acting as a single residue bi-directional rheostat capable of blunting or amplifying activity depending on the phosphorylation status of S1365. This impact was most potent on Ulk-1 dependent autophagy. Lastly, S1365 targeting by PKG1α was blunted by its oxidation at C42, linking oxidative stress to mTORC1 activity. 
     Example 5 
     The Role of the Mutant TSC2 Allele on CD8+ T Cell Activation and Differentiation 
     To assess mTORC1 activation in naive T cells, WT and TSC2SA splenocytes were activated with (spleen and lymph node leukocytes) antibodies to the T cell receptor (TCR) and co-stimulatory molecules. TCR and co-stimulation represent Signal 1 and Signal 2 that activate a T cell and turn on mTORC1 signaling. 
     Spleen and lymph nodes were processed to obtain single suspension lymphocytes. T cells were stimulated with Signal 1 and 2 over time to measure T cell receptor induced mTORC1 activity. Cells at indicated time points were chemically fixed with 2% paraformaldehye to quickly preserve signaling status. Next, cells were permeabilized with 90% methanol. Cells were washed and then stained with flow antibodies for surface CD4 and CD8 and also unconjugated antibody to pS6 (S240.44) followed by with a secondary antibody for pS6 (S240.44). Cells were then run on a flow cytometer for analysis. 
     To measure mTORC1 activity in T cells upon TCR activation, phospho-flow cytometry was utilized by staining CD4 and CD8 T cells for phospho-S6 (S240.44) as a readout of downstream mTORC1 activity. Phospho-flow cytometry is a very sensitive method to measure signaling pathways on a per cell basis compared to traditional western blotting which is population based. Splenocytes stimulated with TCR+Co-Stim (anti-CD3/28) for 30, 60, 90, 120 minutes. 
     Minimal basal mTORC1 activity in both CD4 ( FIG.  5   ) and CD8 ( FIG.  6   ) T cells in unstimulated cells was observed. Upon TCR activation, there was an immediate increase in mTORC1 activity in WT T cells; however, TSC2SA mutant T cells displayed an even greater increase in mTORC1 activity throughout the time course experiment.  FIG.  7 A  shows a graphical summary of two independent experiments displaying mTORC1 activity at 30 minutes and 60 minutes compared to basal levels in CD8 +  T cells. Next, spleen and lymph nodes were processed to obtain single suspension lymphocytes. T cells were stimulated with Signal 1 and 2 over time to measure T cell receptor induced mTORC1 activity. Cells at indicated time points were chemically fixed with 2% paraformaldehye to quickly preserve signaling status, and were then permeabilized with 90% methanol. Cells were washed and then stained with flow antibodies for surface CD4 and CD8 and also unconjugated antibody to pS6 (S240.44) followed by with a secondary antibody for pS6 (S240.44). Cells were then run on a flow cytometer for analysis. TSC2SE Mutant CD8 T cells display reduced mTORC1 activity (pS6 S240.44) upon T cell activation with Signal 1 plus Signal 2 over time ( FIG.  7 B ). Geometric mean fluorescent intensity (MFI) indicates intensity of expression of mTORC1 activity in respective condition. 
     Example 6 
     TSC2SA CD8+ T Cells Generate Potent Effector T Cells Compared to WT T Cells 
     To generate CD8 +  effector T cells, the splenocytes were stimulated and expanded in effector promoting conditions with IL-2. Strong IL-2 signaling preferentially skewed CD8 +  T cells to differentiate into effector T cells. 
     T cells were activated and then differentiated with IL-2 to promote proliferation, as well as effector T cell generation. Cells were expanded and then rested for 8 days total. On day 8, live cells were isolated based on density gradient using Ficoll. Live cells were re-stimulated with PMA, Ionomycin, and GolgiStop (to block cytokine secretion and to preserve cytokine within the cell) for 4 hours. Cells were stained with surface CD8 antibody and cell viability dye to exclude dead cells from analysis. Next, cells were fixed and permeabilized to detect intracellular cytokine expression using antibodies to respective cytokines. Finally, cells were analyzed using a flow cytometer. Day 8 resting live T cell cultures were re stimulated with PMA/Iono/GolgiStop for 4 hrs. 
     On Day 7, CD8 +  cultures were processed to remove non-viable cells. To assess effector function, viable cells were re-stimulated with PMA and Ionomycin along with a golgi blocker to capture cytokines within the cells for later flow cytometry analysis. After 4 hours, cells were processed and stained to assess cytokine function. Interferon gamma (IFNg) ( FIG.  8   ), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFa) ( FIG.  10   ), and Interleukin-2 (IL-2) ( FIG.  9   ) are hallmark cytokines of CD8 +  effector T cells. TSC2SA mutant CD8 +  T cells consistently showed elevated levels of these hallmark cytokines compared to WT CD8 +  T cells. 
     Example 7 
     Previously Activated TSC2 Mutant T Cells Induce Faster and Higher mTORC1 Activity Compared to WT Control Cells 
     T cells were activated and then differentiated with IL-2 to promote proliferation, as well as effector T cell generation. Cells were expanded and then rested for 8 days total. On day 8, live cells were isolated based on density gradient using Ficoll. Live cells were re-stimulated with Signal 1 and 2 over time. Cells were snap frozen at indicated times to preserve signaling. Cell pellets were lysed for immunoblotting to assess mTORC1 signaling at indicated time points. Dead cells were removed from day 8 resting T cell cultures by treatment with Ficoll. Live cells were stimulated with anti-CD3/28 for 15, 30, and 60 minutes for immunoblotting of mTORC1 activity. 
     As shown in  FIG.  11   , TSC2SA mutant cells exhibited increased mTORC1 activity at earlier times than wild type cells, as assessed by Western blot analysis of mTORC1 signaling targets such as p70S6 Kinase (S6K1), S6 ribosomal protein (S6 S240/244), Akt (also Protein kinase B), and mTORC2 targets such as Forkhead Box Protein 1 (Foxo1) and N-myc Downstream Regulated Gene 1 Protein (NDRG1). 
     Example 8 
     TSC2SA Mutant CD8+ Effector T Cells from Homozygote or Heteozygote SA-KI Mice Show Hyperactivation of mTOR Signaling Pathways, with Similar Responses in Cells Expressing Either One or Two Mutant Alleles 
     Dead cells were removed from day 7 resting CD8 T cell cultures by treatment with Ficoll. Live cells were stimulated with anti-CD3/28 for 30, 60, and 90 minutes for immunoblotting of mTORC1 activity. TSC2SA mutant CD8+ effector T cells from homozygote or heteozygote SA-KI mice show hyperactivation of mTOR signaling pathways, with similar responses in cells expressing either one or two mutant alleles ( FIG.  12   ). 
     Example 9 
     Treatment of SE and SA Cells with Insulin 
       FIG.  13    shows western blot analyses of phosphorylated/total Ulk1, p70 S6K and 4EBP1 from cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCMs) expressing a WT, S1365E, or S1365A TSC2 were treated with insulin (10 μg/ml) or vehicle for 15 minutes. 
     Example 10 
     SA and SE Mutations in T Cells 
     T cells were activated and then differentiated with IL-2 to promote proliferation but also effector T cell generation. Cells were expanded and then rested for 8 days total. On day 8, live cells were isolated based on density gradient using Ficoll. Live cells were re-stimulated with Signal 1 and 2 over time. Live cells were stimulated with anti-CD3/28 for 30, 60, and 90 minutes for immunoblotting of mTOR activity. Cells were snap frozen at indicated times to preserve signaling. Cell pellets were lysed for immunoblotting to assess mTOR signaling at indicated time points. Previously activated TSC2SA and TSC2SE mutant CD8 +  effector T cells display differential mTOR activity compared to WT CD8 +  T cells ( FIG.  35   ). SE/SE cells consistently observe less mTORC1 and mTORC2 activity. 
     Mice heterozygous for the TSC2 SA mutation were crossed with OT-I mutant mice to generate TSC2SA heterozygous (Het)/OTI (Ovalbumin (OVA) specific) CD8 +  T-cells. Isolated T-Cells were labeled with a cell proliferation dye (cell trace violet (CTV)) to monitor division over time, and then stimulated with OVA I peptide (100 ng/mL) plus IL-2 (10 ng/mL) for three days before analysis. Cells were collected on day 3 to analyze proliferation along with IFNg effector function without any stimulation in only viable CD8 T cells via flow cytometry. During this 72 hour window, cells are actively producing cytokines; therefore, it is possible to measure without any further stimuli. Cells were stained with surface CD8 antibody and cell viability dye to exclude dead cells from analysis. Next, cells were fixed and permeabilized to assess proliferation between groups, to detect intracellular cytokine expression using antibodies to respective cytokines, and to detect mTORC1 activity via a directly conjugated antibody to pS6 (S240.44). Finally, cells were analyzed using a flow cytometer (n=2). TSC2SA heterozygous (Het) mutant transgenic (OT1) CD8 30   T cells display a faster proliferative rate, higher mTOR activity, and effector function compared to WT CD8 30   T cells ( FIG.  36   ). 
     WT B6 recipients were implanted (by intradermal injection) with 250,000 B16 melanoma cells expressing OVA antigen (B16-OVA). On Day 11, tumor burden in mice was assessed to randomize mice for ACT therapy. On Day 11, tumor-bearing mice received (i.v.) 1E6 activated WT or SA-het mutant OTI T-cells as adoptive cell therapy. To activate WT (congenic Thy1.1/Thy1.2) and mutant (congenic Thy1.1/Thy1.1) CD8+ OTI T cells for ACT prior to injection, cells were stimulated with 100 ng/mL OVA I peptide. On Day 2, cells expanded by adding IL-2 (10 ng/mL) for 48 hours. On Day 4, cells were collected and ficolled to enrich for healthy viable cells. Cells were then counted and equal numbers of cells transferred into tumor bearing mice. Tumor burden (volume) was monitored over time with caliper measurements using the following formulate [(shortest{circumflex over ( )}2)×(longest)]/2. TSC2SA heterozygous mutant CD8+ T cells used in ACT consistently showed better reduction of tumor burden associated with potent effector CD8 T cells ( FIG.  37   ). 
     Tumors were chemically and mechanically processed to obtain tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (ITLs) for flow analysis. Cell analysis was conducted on viable CD45 + , CD8 +  T cells from the tumor. Based on the different congenic markers, WT and SA-mutant T cell populations could be separately identified in the tumor, compared with endogenous CD8 T cells, and readily analyzed for infiltration of the donor T cells compared to the endogenous CD8 T cells in the tumor. TSC2SA heterozygous mutant CD8 +  T cells used in ACT compared to WT CD8 T cells were better able to infiltrate the tumor. Despite providing a 50:50 initial mix of WT and SA mutant T-cells for ACT, 90% of the T-cells in the tumor were SA mutants, 10% were WT. Adoptive cell therapy using TSC2SA/OT1 CD8 +  T cells better infiltrates B16-OVA melanoma than TSC2WT/OV1 CD8 +  T ( FIG.  38   ). The use of the same host allows us to assess immune response within the same tumor microenvironment. 
     OTI CD8 T cells were obtained from WT, TSC2SA, and TSC2SE donors. All mice were marked with different congenic markers to readily identify the cells: WT (CD45.1, Thy1.1/Thy1.2), SA (Thy1.1/Thy1.2), SE (CD45.1, Thy1.2/Thy1.2). An approximately equal number (2500) of CD8 OT1 cells from all three genotypes were combined into a one sample for IV transfer into WT (Thy1.2/Thy1.2) hosts. Mice were subsequently infected (i.p.) with Vaccinia-OVA virus (1E6 pfu/mouse) to induce an acute viral infection. On Day 6, mice were sacrificed to analyze immune response of donor T cells within the same host. Donor T cells were identified based on different congenic markers. The percent of each donor cell genotype was determined. Percent of each genotype was based of all donor T cells. Cells with the SA TSC2 mutant expanded in vivo between 2-3 fold more as compared to WT and SE TSC2 expressing cells ( FIG.  39   ). This in vivo analysis is similar to the replication data assessed in vitro. Using the same host allows us to assess immune response within the same microenvironment. 
     On Day 0, WT and TSC2SA mice were infected (i.p.) with 2E5 pfu of LCMV Armstrong to induce an acute viral infection. Mice were sacrificed 40 days later to analyze the number of antigen specific (gp33) CD8+ T cells to the original LCMV infection using gp33 specific tetramers. In addition, splenocytes were stimulated with 1 ug/mL gp33 peptide+GolgiStop to assess effector function using flow cytometry. Cells were stained with surface CD8 antibody and cell viability dye to exclude dead cells from analysis. Next, cells were fixed and permeabilized to detect intracellular cytokine expression using antibodies to respective cytokines. Finally, cells were analyzed using a flow cytometer. TSC2SA heterozygous mutant mice have more antigen specific memory CD8 T cells and display better effector function compared to WT mice in response to a viral infection ( FIG.  40   ). Thus, the SA-mutant T cells exhibit simultaneously enhanced memory function following exposure to a viral infection, but also more effector function when re-exposed to the viral antigen. 
     Example 11 
     TSC2 S1365A (SA) Mice and S1365E (SE) Mice 
     Animal Models 
     Mice expressing a TSC2 knock-in mutation S1365A (SA) ( FIG.  43 A ) or a TSC2 knock-in mutation S1365E (SE) ( FIG.  57   ) were newly generated using CRISPR/Cas9 targeting/insertion methods. TSC2 guide RNA was designed using an algorithm described elsewhere (see, e.g., Inoki et al., 2003  Cell  115:577-590), and subsequently cloned into pSpCas9(BB)-2A-Puro (PX459) V2.0 (Addgene plasmid #62988), as well as pUC57-sgRNA expression vector (Addgene plasmid #51132). DNA cleavage was tested in mouse N2a cells using the Surveyor Mutation Detection kit (Integrated DNA Technologies, Coralville, Iowa) described elsewhere (see, e.g., Schisler et al., 2013  J Clin Invest  123:3588-3599). In vitro transcription was performed for both Cas9 (from a modified pX330-U6-Chimeric_BB-CBh-hSpCas9 plasmid, Addgene plasmid #42230), and guide RNA using the Ambion mMESSAGE mMACHINE kit and NEB HiScribe T7 High Yield RNA Synthesis kit respectively. ssODN for the S1365A point mutation was purchased from Integrated DNA Technologies. C57Bl/6 blastocyst injections were performed with a mix consisting of: 25 ng/μl Cas9; 12.5 ng/μl guide RNA, and 25 ng/ 82  l ssODN. 
     Pressure overload (PO) model. PO was induced by trans-aortic constriction (TAC), performed as described elsewhere (see, e.g., Lee et al., 2015  Nature  519:472-476). Sham controls underwent similar surgery without ligature placement. Age and weight-matched littermates were randomly divided into PO or sham groups with male and female mice equally represented in the presented data. Mice were followed for up to 6 weeks after PO, and were co-treated with everolimus (Evl, Sigma; oral gavage, 10 mg/kg/day), or sildenafil (Sil, Pfizer or Wako Pure Chemical Industries, 200 mg/kg/day in soft diet, Bioserv), or appropriate matched vehicle. Treatment started either 1-week following PO, or was initiated several days prior to PO. All protocols were approved by the Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions Animal Care and Use Committee. 
     Conscious mouse echocardiography. Intact heart morphology and function was determined in conscious mice by serial M-mode transthoracic echocardiography (VisualSonics Vevo 2100, 18-38 MHz linear array transducer; SanoSite Incorporated). Images were obtained and analyzed by an individual blinded to the animal condition. 
     Neonatal rat cardiomyocyte studies (NRCMs). NRCMs were isolated and cultured for 24 hours in DMEM with 10% FBS and antibiotics prior to study, as described elsewhere (see, e.g., Lee et al., 2015  Nature  519:472-476). Cells were then stimulated with endothelin 1 (ET1, 10 nM, Sigma) or vehicle for 15 minutes or for 48 hours, in serum-free DMEM supplemented with 0.1% Insulin-Transferrin-Selenium (Life Technologies). Additional interventions included Evl (1 μM) or vehicle starting 24-36 hours after isolation; transfection with plasmids expressing −TSC2-WT, TSC2-S1365A or −1365E mutations. Plasmid transfection was performed with Takara Clontech Xfect reagent per manufacturer protocol. FLAG-tagged TSC2 WT, SE, and SA vectors were packaged into adenoviruses by Welgen, Inc. (Worcester, Mass.). 
     MEFs 
     Human ventricle analysis. Human myocardium was obtained in accordance with institutional review board approvals at Johns Hopkins University and the University of Pennsylvania. Failing human hearts were obtained at time of explant surgery, and non-failing controls at time of other organ harvesting. LV free wall tissue was collected at the University of Pennsylvania under ice-cold cardioplegia and rapidly frozen in liquid nitrogen. 
     Protein analysis. Whole cell lysate was obtained (Cell Signaling Technology #9803) and protein concentration determined by BCA method (Pierce). Samples were prepared in SDS Tris-Glycine buffer (Life Technologies) and run on Novex 8-16% Tris-Glycine Gels (Life Technologies) and blotted onto a nitrocellulose membrane. The following primary antibodies were used to probe: Ser473-phosphorylated-Akt (S473) (#9271S), total Akt (#9272S), phosphorylated ERK (S202, 204) (#4370S), total ERK (#9102S), AMPK (T172) (#4188S), total AMPK (#2532S), phosphorylated p70 S6K (T389) (#9205S), total p70 S6K (#9202S), 4EBP1 (S65) (#9451S), total 4EBP1 (#9452S) Ulk-1 (S757) (#1420S), total Ulk-1 (8054S), GAPDH (#2118S), TSC2 (#3612S), and α-tubulin (#3873S) (Cell Signaling Technology), p-TSC2 (S1365) (#120718) (NovoPro Labs), LC3 (#M115-3) (MBL International Corp.), thiophosphate ester (#ab92570) and p62 (#ab109012) (Abcam), and ubiquitin (#SAB4503053) (Sigma). Antibody binding was visualized by infrared imaging (Odyssey, Licor) and quantified with Licor Image Studio Software 3.1. 
     Gene expression—qRT-PCR. Total RNA was isolated from left ventricular myocardium or cultured NRCMs using Trizol Reagent (Invitrogen), followed by reverse transcription to cDNA using a High Capacity RNA-to-cDNA Kit (Applied Biosystems, Life Technologies). cDNA underwent PCR amplification using TaqMan probes for atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) (mouse #Mm01255747_gl, rat #Rn00664637_gl), brain or B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) (mouse #Mm01255770_gl, rat #Rn00580641_ml), regulator of calcineurin-1 (Rcan-1) (mouse #Mm01213406_ml, rat #01458494_ml), tuberous sclerosis complex 2 (tuberin, TSC2) (mouse #Mm00442004_ml, rat #Rn00562086_ml), or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) (mouse #99999915_gl, rat #Rn01775763_gl) (Applied Biosystems). The threshold cycle value was determined using the crossing point method. Samples were normalized to the GAPDH value for each run. 
     Bafilomycin autophagic flux assay. NRCMs were cultured as described above. Cells were stimulated with cGMP (50 μM, 15 minutes), and then with either vehicle control or bafilomycin A1 (BFA, 1 μM) (Sigma) for 3 hours. Mice received two injections of BFA (3 μM/kg, IP) 90 minutes apart. Tissue was collected 90 minutes after second injection (180 minutes from first). Protein extract was then analyzed by immunoblot for LC3-II, and relative increase±BFA used to index autophagic flux. 
     Protein Aggregation Assay. Protein aggregation was measured using with a protein aggregation assay Proteostat (Enzo #ENZ-51023). This assay was run according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Briefly, myocardium was lysed in proteostat lysis buffer, protein concentration assayed, equal amount of protein (10 μg) was loaded into a 96 well microplate, and combined with the proteostat substrate. Microplate was incubated and read in a spectrometer. Following background substraction, values were normalized to WT sham which was set to 1. 
     Tandem fluorescent LC3 probe analysis. NRCMs were infected with an adenovirus (10 MOI) expressing a tandem fluorescent (GFP-RFP) tagged LC316. This expresses LC3 with both green and red fluorescence as the autophagosomal membrane is forming; but upon merging with the acidic lysosome (autophagic flux), the GFP signal is quenched, leaving RFP. The ratio of green/yellow to red only puncta assesses autophagosome formation and autophagic flux, respectively. 
     In vitro protein kinase G activity. PKG activity was assessed by in vitro colorimetric assay (Cyclex, Cat #CY-1161, Nagano, Japan) following the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The assay provides cGMP substrate, and a kinase-specific peptide-target to assess phosphorylation activity. 
     Proteomic analysis of PKG phosphokinome. Freshly isolated adult cardiac myocytes were obtained from male Wistar rats as described elsewhere (see, e.g., Shende et al., 2011  Circulation  123:1073-1082), and divided into two aliquots, each relaxed in Tyrode buffer (140 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCL, 10 mM HEPES, 1 mM glucose, 1 mM MgCl2, 1 mM Ca2+, pH 7.45). Cells were then exposed to 1 mM 8-Br-cGMP or Tyrode solution for 10 minutes to stimulate intracellular PKG1α activity. Cells were then centrifuged for 1 minute at 1000×g, the supernatant removed, and the pellet frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at −80° C. Frozen samples (n=3/group) were then lysed in an 8M Urea, 0.5% SDS solution with brief sonication, and protein concentration determined by the BCA method. For each sample, 200 μg of total protein was digested with trypsin/Lys-C protease mixture (Promega), samples were desalted on 10 mg Oasis HLB cartridges (Waters) and eluted in 300 μL of 80% acetonitrile (ACN), 5% trifluoroacetic acid, 1 M glycolic acid and enriched by titanium dioxide (TiO2). Enriched peptides were desalted as above but eluted in 200 μL of 80% ACN, 0.1% formic acid (FA) and dried under vacuum. Dried peptides were re-suspended in 20 μL of 0.1% FA for LC-MS/MS analysis. Samples (4 μL) were injected in duplicate onto an EASY-nLC 1000 (mobile phase A was 0.1% FA in water and mobile phase B was 0.1% FA in ACN) connected to a Q-Exactive Plus (Thermo) equipped with a nano-electrospray ion source. Raw MS/MS data was searched using the Sorcerer 2TM-SEQUEST® algorithm (Sage-N Research) using default peak extraction parameters. Post-search analysis was performed using Scaffold 4 (Proteome Software, Inc.) with protein and peptide probability thresholds set to 95% and 90%, respectively, and one peptide required for identification, and spectra manually validated. Phospho-site localization was determined using Scaffold PTM version 2.1.3 and phospho-sites with probabilities less than 90% were ignored. 
     Results 
     PKG Activation Suppresses mTORC1 to Reduce Hypertrophy and Increase Autophagy 
     In control (vehicle-treated) mice (C57BL/6J) subjected to 4-weeks of pressure overload (PO) induced by transverse aortic constriction, increased phosphorylation was observed of the three major downstream effectors of mTORC1: Unc-51-like kinase-1 (Ulk-1) to inhibit autophagy, and p70S6K and 4EBP1 (elF4E binding protein-1) that stimulate gene transcription and translation ( FIG.  41   ). Co-treatment with the phosphodiesterase type-5 inhibitor, sildenafil (Sil), which blocks cGMP hydrolysis to stimulate PKG, inhibited each change, matching the effects from an mTORC1 inhibitor, everolimus (Evl). Both therapies were known to suppress pathological hypertrophy and cardiac dysfunction, and similar benefits were observed here as well ( FIG.  46   ). Consistent with reduced Ulk1 phosphorylation, Sil and Evl similarly enhanced autophagy after PO, reflected by greater LC3-II (microtubule-associated protein light-chain 3-II) and reduced p62 protein expression ( FIG.  42   ). Sil and Evl treatment also reduced myocardial protein aggregates that increased with PO ( FIG.  47   ). Enhancement of autophagic flux by PKG was further assessed in isolated myocytes expressing a fluorescent reporter (TF-LC3), showing increased red-puncta indicative of auto-lysosome formation. Augmentation of LC3-II expression following exposure to bafilomycin A1 (BFA) (inhibiting lysosomal proteolysis) was also greater in cells with PKG co-stimulation ( FIG.  48   ). Enhanced autophagy was important to anti-hypertrophic effects from PKG. Myocytes stimulated with endothelin-1 (ET1) exhibit hypertrophic signaling (reflected by increased Nppa gene expression). This was reduced by Sil, but not in cells pre-incubated with siRNA to ATG5 (autophagy related 5). Thus, PKG activation suppresses cardiac mTORC1 signaling, blunting growth stimulation while enhancing autophagy. 
     PKG Modulates mTORC1 by Phosphorylation of TSC2 at S1365 
     To determine the mechanism by which PKG suppresses mTORC1, adult myocytes were exposed to cGMP (to stimulate PKG) for 15 minutes, and performed phospho-proteomic analysis on cell lysates. Among mTORC1 complex and regulatory proteins, we identified a change in TSC2 at serine 1365 (S1364 in humans) ( FIG.  49   ), a highly conserved residue in mammals that is located in an activation regulatory domain upstream of GSK-3β and AMPK targeting sites. PKG is among the highest predicted kinase to phosphorylate this residue in an open-source human bio-informatics knowledgebase (PhosphoNET, Kinexus). 
     In mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), resting cells had minimal pS1365 antibody signal, but this increased after acute cGMP stimulation and the rise was blocked by co-incubation with a PKG kinase inhibitor—DT3 ( FIG.  50   ). To test specificity, TSC2-KO MEFs were transfected with WT, phospho-silenced (S1365A, SA), or phospho-mimetic (S1365E, SE) TSC2, and then stimulated with cGMP. Only WT TSC2 showed a rise in pS1365 antibody signal with cGMP ( FIG.  50   ). TSC2 pS1365 was detected in intact mouse myocardium, increased with PO and rose further with Sil (but not Evl) co-treatment ( FIG.  41   ). The level of pS1365-TSC2 (normalized to total TSC2) directly correlated with PKG activity measured in the same tissue. pS1364 was detected in human myocardium from non-failing donor controls and this was significantly increased in dilated heart failure. Thus, S1365 is regulated by PKG activation, is detectable in mammalian heart including human, and increases with cardiac disease. 
     To test if PKG directly phosphorylates S1365, TSC2 KO HEK cells were generated and infected with adenovirus expressing WT-TSC2-FLAG or empty vector. FLAG-immune-precipitate was incubated with recombinant PKG and [γ- 33 P]-ATP. ERK2-TSC2 phosphorylation served as a positive control, and similar TSC2 radiolabeling was observed upon PKG exposure in a dose dependent manner ( FIG.  41   ). It was also tested if direct phosphorylation occurs in the presence of cytosolic proteins. HEK whole cell lysate containing TSC2-FLAG was incubated with a modified PKG (M438G) which can then bind an enlarged sulfonated-ATP (N6 benzyl ATPγS), and FLAG-immune precipitate then probed for thiophosphate ester modification of TSC2. This modification was only observed in lysate containing mutated PKG. Though MS analysis only identified pS1365 as being modified with PKG activation, both radioactive or thiophosphate ester labeling of TSC2 was also seen when SA TSC2 was used ( FIG.  51   ). However, as shown in the subsequent studies, S1365 is the required site for PKG regulation of mTORC1. 
     To test the functionality of S1365 phosphorylation, myocytes were transfected with WT, SA, or SE TSC2, each achieving similar protein levels ( FIG.  52   ), and then stimulated with ET1 for 48 hours. Rest levels of Nppb (a hypertrophy gene marker) were similarly low regardless of the TSC2 form expressed. However, upon ET1 stimulation, Nppb increased more in SA and less in SE expressing cells compared to WT. Activating PKG (SIL) reduced Nppb in cells expressing WT-TSC2, but had no impact in cells expressing SA or SE mutants. It was also confirmed that ET1 exposure similarly increased PKG activity independent of the TSC2 form expressed ( FIG.  53   ), and that this led to an increase in pS1365 in WT-expressing cells, but not SA or SE ( FIG.  41   ). SA mutants amplified and SE attenuated mTORC1 signaling as compared to WT, but only in the presence of ET1 co-stimulation ( FIG.  42   ). Similar differences were observed with an alternative stimulus (phenylephrine,  FIG.  54   ). Autophagy and autophagic flux were also differentially impacted. Increased TF-LC3 labeled red punctae and LC3-II expression, and reduced p62 expression ( FIG.  42   ) were consistent with enhanced autophagy with SE expression and suppression with SA. 
     TSC2-S1365 is Required for PKG-modified Autophagy, Regulates mTORC1 Via Rheb, and Does Not Interfere with AMPK-TSC2-mTORC1 Regulation 
     To test if TSC2 pS1365 is required for PKG to stimulate autophagy, TSC2 KO MEFs were transfected with either WT or SA TSC2, and then treated with ET1±cGMP for 48 hours. Cyclic GMP exposure reduced p62 and increased LC3-II expression in cells expressing WT TSC2, but these changes were substantially reduced when TSC2 SA was expressed ( FIG.  42   ,  FIG.  55   ). 
     To determine if mTORC1 modulation by pS1365 requires Rheb, myocytes expressing WT, SA, or SE TSC2 were incubated with either an siRNA to Rheb or scrambled control ( FIG.  42   ,  FIG.  56   ). ET1 stimulation of mTORC1 (P-p70S6K) was observed with WT or SA expression but not in the absence of Rheb. With SE expression, mTORC1 stimulation was minimal and independent of Rheb. 
     S1365 resides in a region of TSC2 where multiple AMPK and GSK3β sites are located. This raised the question of whether S1365 acts independently of AMPK. To test this, TSC2 KO MEFs were infected with Adenovirus expressing WT or SA TSC2 or empty vector, exposed to ET1, and then to 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) to physiologically stimulate AMPK. MEFs lacking TSC2 showed constitutive mTORC1 activation, and this fell similarly in cells expressing either WT or SA forms. Exposure to 2-DG resulted in further potent mTORC1 inhibition that was independent of whether S1365 could be phosphorylated or not. The decline in cells expressing either TSC2 form was significantly greater than in cells lacking TSC2. It was also confirmed that 2-DG exposure led to increased AMPK phosphorylation of TSC2 (pS1387) similarly in cells expressing either WT or SA TSC2. Thus, modulation of S1365 by PKG is needed for autophagy regulation, involves Rheb-dependent mTORC1 modulation, and does not impede AMPK activation of TSC2 to blunt mTORC1. 
     S1365A KI Mice Display Exacerbated mTORC1-dependent Stress Responses to PO 
     To test the impact of TSC2 S1365 modulation in vivo, S1365A (SA) TSC2 global knock-in mice were generated using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing ( FIG.  57   ). SA mice are born in normal Mendelian ratios and grow and develop normally, with no differences in cardiac structure or function compared to littermate controls (Supplementary Tables 1 and 2). TSC2 protein expression is similar to controls ( FIG.  58   ). 
     To test if partial or full prevention of S1365 phosphorylation modifies the cardiac stress response to PO as well as therapeutic efficacy of PKG activation, heterozygote (SA/WT), homozygote (SA/SA) and littermate control (WT) mice were subjected to PO, and then randomized to receive either vehicle or Sil. Survival data ( FIG.  43   ) show similar marked early mortality after PO in both SA/WT and SA/SA vehicle-treated groups versus WT. Sil fully prevented SA/WT mortality after PO, but had had no effect in SA/SA mice ( FIG.  43   ). With PO, hearts from SA/WT and SA/SA similarly developed marked hypertrophy as compared to WT, and only in WT and SA/WT was this reversed by Sil ( FIG.  43   ). Similar disparities were found in lung weight, A-type natriuretic peptide expression ( FIG.  58   ), (reflecting central volume increase), and in systolic dysfunction ( FIG.  44   ). mTORC1 activity (P-p70S6K) was greater and autophagy (p62, LC3II) less after PO in SA/WT and SA/SA compared to WT. Both were also reversed by Sil in WT and SA/WT PO hearts, but not SA/SA ( FIG.  44   ,  FIG.  59   ). In vivo regulation by S1365A principally altered mTORC1, as MTOR-complex 2 effectors were not differentially activated ( FIG.  60   ). All of these results were similar in males and females. 
     To test if mTORC1 hyper-activation was responsible for the adverse outcomes in SA mice after PO, SA/SA mice were randomized to receive Evl or vehicle starting 3 days before PO. Evl prevented death ( FIG.  43   ) and cardiac structural and functional deterioration ( FIG.  43    and  FIG.  44   ), and enhanced autophagy, reflected by increased LC3-II and reduced p62 expression ( FIG.  61   ). Taken together, these data show that the S1365A mutation is autosomal dominant and potently modulates stress-stimulated mTORC1 activity in vivo. S1365 phosphorylation is required for PKG activation to modulate mTORC1 and counter cardiac disease from PO, and its removal is sufficient to prevent such amelioration. 
     S1365E KI Mice have Reduced mTORC1 Activation with PO and are Protected 
     In isolated myocytes, anti-hypertrophic effects and reduced mTORC1 activation were observed by expressing a phospho-mimetic S1365E mutation. To test this in vivo, we generated a second global KI mouse expressing this mutation ( FIG.  62   ). SE mice are also born healthy in normal Mendelian ratios, and have normal resting cardiac morphology and function (Supplementary Tables 1 and 2). In contrast to SA mice, SE mice exposed to PO are protected, developing minimal cardiac hypertrophy and less ventricular dysfunction ( FIG.  43    and  FIG.  44   ) despite increased pressure-load. Heterozygote and homozygote SE mice displayed similar protection so this mutation is also autosomal dominant. Baseline mTORC1 activity was unchanged in SE mice compared to WT controls; however with PO stress, P-p70S6K increased in WT mice but remained at low levels in both SE/WT and SE/SE mice. 
     Opposite to SA mice, SE mice subjected to PO displayed reduced p62 and increased LC3-II expression, indicative of enhanced autophagy ( FIG.  44    and  FIG.  63   ). To compare baseline autophagic flux between SA and SE mice in vivo, mice were administered systemic BFA. BFA-induced increase in LC3-II was highest in SE and lowest in SA mice ( FIG.  64   ). Lastly, we tested if differences in growth and autophagy in SA versus SE mice exposed to PO altered net myocardial protein aggregation. There was a gene dose-dependent increase in protein aggregates in SA and a reduction in aggregates with SE expression. Sil reversed aggregates in SA/WT and WT mice, but not in SA/SA ( FIG.  45   ).