Patent Publication Number: US-2023163369-A1

Title: Enhanced solid state battery cell

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 15/610,552 filed May 31, 2017, entitled “ENHANCED SOLID STATE BATTERY CELL,” which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/343,683 filed on May 31, 2016, entitled “MULTI-LAYERED SOLID STATE ELECTROLYTE FILM FOR RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES AND ITS CORRESPONDING MANUFACTURING METHODS”. The entire contents of these applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The subject matter described herein relates generally to battery technology and more specifically to battery electrolytes. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Electrolytes are highly conductive substances that enable the movement of electrically charged ions. For example, electrolytes in a battery can provide a pathway for the transfer of charged particles and/or ions between the anode and the cathode of the battery. 
     SUMMARY 
     Systems, methods, and articles of manufacture, including batteries and battery components, are provided. In some implementations of the current subject matter, there is provided a battery cell. The battery cell can include a first electrode, a second electrode, and a solid state electrolyte layer interposed between the first electrode and the second electrode. The battery cell can further include a resistive layer interposed between the first electrode and the second electrode. The resistive layer can be electrically conductive in order to regulate an internal current flow within the battery cell. The internal current flow can result from an internal short circuit formed between the first electrode and the second electrode. The internal short circuit can be formed from the solid state electrolyte layer being penetrated by metal dendrites formed at the first electrode and/or the second electrode. 
     In some variations, one or more features disclosed herein including the following features can optionally be included in any feasible combination. The resistive layer can further be ionically conductive to enable a transfer of ions between the first electrode and the second electrode. 
     In some variations, the resistive layer can include one or more electrically conductive materials. The one or more electrically conductive materials can include carbon black, carbon nano tubes, graphene, conductive polymers, and/or conductive inorganic compounds. An amperage of the internal current flow can be proportional to a quantity of the one or more electrically conductive material. 
     In some variations, the resistive layer can include one or more ionically conductive materials. The one or more ionically conductive materials can include a polymer electrolyte, a polymer gel electrolyte, and/or a solid state electrolyte. A power of the battery cell can be directly proportional to a quantity of the one or more ionically conductive material. 
     In some variations, the resistive layer can include one or more polymer binders. The one or more polymer binders can include a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), a styrene-butadiene (SBR), a carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), a polyimide, a polyamide, and/or a polyethylene. 
     In some variations, the resistive layer can include one or more nano-particle fillers. The one or more nano-particle fillers can include a calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ), a silicon titanium oxide (SiTiO 3 ), an aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ), and/or a fumed silica. 
     In some variations, the resistive layer can include one or more electrochemically active compounds. The one or more electrochemically active compounds can include lithium nickel cobalt (NCM), lithium iron fluorine oxide (LiFeFO 2 ), iron fluoride (FeF x /C), and/or lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC). 
     In some variations, the resistive layer can be interposed between the solid state electrolyte layer and one of the first electrode and the second electrode. The battery cell can further include a first polymer electrolyte layer. The first polymer electrolyte layer can be interposed between the first electrode and the solid state electrolyte layer. The first polymer electrolyte layer can be configured to reduce a contact impedance between the first electrode and the solid state electrolyte layer. The battery cell can further include a second polymer electrolyte layer. The second polymer electrolyte layer can be interposed between the resistive layer and the second electrode. The battery cell can further include a base film layer. The solid state electrolyte layer can be interposed between the first polymer electrolyte layer and the base film layer. The first polymer electrolyte layer and the base film layer can be configured to prevent a decomposition of the solid state electrolyte layer during a production and/or an operation of the battery cell. 
     In some variations, the battery cell can be a metal battery. The metal battery can be a lithium (Li) battery, a sodium (Na) battery, and/or a potassium (K) battery. The solid state electrolyte layer can be formed by vapor deposition and/or plasma deposition. 
     The details of one or more variations of the subject matter described herein are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features and advantages of the subject matter described herein will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. 
    
    
     
       DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
       The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, show certain aspects of the subject matter disclosed herein and, together with the description, help explain some of the principles associated with the disclosed implementations. In the drawings, 
         FIG.  1 A  depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  1 B  depicts a schematic diagram illustrating an internal short circuit consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  2 A  depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  2 B  depicts a schematic diagram illustrating an internal short circuit consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  3    depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  4    depicts a flowchart illustrating a process for manufacturing a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  5    depicts a flowchart illustrating a process for manufacturing a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  6    depicts a flowchart illustrating a process for manufacturing a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; and 
         FIG.  7    depicts a flowchart illustrating a process for manufacturing a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. 
     
    
    
     When practical, similar reference numbers denote similar structures, features, or elements. 
     DESCRIPTION 
     Metal batteries, such as lithium (Li) batteries, are susceptible to internal shorts, which can lead to hazardous thermal runaway and combustion. For example, the charging and discharging of a metal battery can give rise to metal dendrites. These metal dendrites can penetrate the porous separator between the anode and the cathode of the metal battery, thereby causing an internal short. Solid state electrolytes (SSEs) are not porous and are thought to be less prone to being penetrated by metal dendrites. Nevertheless, metal dendrites may still penetrate the structural defects, such as pinholes and cracks, that are inevitably present in solid state electrolytes. Thus, a metal battery formed with solid state electrolytes may still succumb to an internal short, particularly after the metal battery is subjected to a large number of charge and discharge cycles. As such, in some implementations of the current subject matter, a battery cell having a solid state electrolyte may further include an electrical barrier against internal shorts. For example, this enhanced solid state battery cell can include a resistive layer configured to regulate internal current flow in the event of an internal short caused by a breach of the solid state electrolyte. 
       FIG.  1    depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell  100  consistent with some implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIG.  1 A , the battery cell  100  can include a solid state electrolyte layer  110 , a polymer electrolyte layer  120 , a base film layer  130 , a first electrode  140 A, and a second electrode  140 B. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the first electrode  140 A can be the negative electrode (e.g., anode) of the battery cell  100 . Meanwhile, the second electrode MOB can be the positive electrode (e.g., cathode) of the battery cell  100 . However, it should be appreciated that the battery cell  100  can also be configured with an opposite electrical polarity. 
     The solid state electrolyte layer  110  can be interposed between the polymer electrolyte layer  120  and the base film layer  130 . Furthermore, as shown in  FIG.  1 A , the polymer electrolyte layer  120  can be interposed between the solid state electrolyte layer  110  and the first electrode  140 A while the base film layer  130  can be interposed between the solid state electrolyte layer  110  and the second electrode  140 B. It should be appreciated that the solid state electrolyte layer  110  may be formed from solid state electrolytes that tend to be fragile and highly reactive. For example, the solid state electrolyte layer  110  can decompose and/or breakdown during production of the battery cell  100  due to reaction with common environmental elements such as water and/or oxygen. The solid state electrolyte layer  110  can also decompose and/or breakdown during operation of the battery cell  100  by reacting with the first electrode  140 A and the second electrode  140 B of the battery cell  100  upon contact. Thus, in some implementations of the current subject matter, the polymer electrolyte layer  120  and the base film layer  130  can be configured to isolate the solid state electrolyte layer  110  from environmental elements as well as both the first electrode  140 A and the second electrode  140 B, thereby preventing a decomposition and/or breakdown of the solid state electrolyte layer  110  during both the production and operation of the battery cell  100 . Furthermore, the polymer electrolyte layer  120  and/or the base film layer  130  can also mitigate the high contact impedance between the solid state electrolyte layer  110  and the first electrode  140 A and/or between the first solid state electrolyte layer  110  and the second electrode  140 B. 
     As noted earlier, the solid state electrolyte layer  110  can include physical defects (e.g., pinholes, cracks) that render the solid state electrolyte layer  110  susceptible to being penetrated by metal dendrites, especially after the battery cell  100  is subjected to a large number of charge and discharge cycles. For example, metal dendrites forming on the first electrode  140 A and/or the second electrode  140 B can penetrate the solid state electrolyte layer  110 , the polymer electrolyte layer  120 , and the base film layer  130  to form an internal short circuit  160  between the first electrode  140 A and the second electrode  140 B.  FIG.  1 B  depicts a schematic diagram illustrating the internal short circuit  160  consistent with some implementations of the current subject matter. This internal short circuit  160  provides an alternative path that is less resistive than a path through an electric load  150  of the battery cell  170 . Thus, the bulk of the current  170  is diverted from the electric load  150  to the internal short circuit  160 . The resulting short circuit current  165  flowing through the battery cell  100  (e.g., from the second electrode  140 B to the first electrode  140 A) can be much greater than the current  170  still flowing through the electric load  150 . This short circuit current  165  can generate a large quantity of heat (e.g., thermal runaway) within the battery cell  100  that can lead to combustion of the battery cell  100 . No existing mechanisms are available to mitigate the effects of the internal short circuit  160  caused by the penetration of the solid state electrolyte layer  110 . 
       FIG.  2 A  depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell  200  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIG.  2 A , the battery cell  200  can include a solid state electrolyte layer  210 , a polymer electrolyte layer  220 , a base film layer  230 , a resistive layer  240 , a first electrode  250 A, and a second electrode  250 B. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the first electrode  250 A can be the negative electrode (e.g., anode) of the battery cell  200 . Meanwhile, the second electrode  250 B can be the positive electrode (e.g., cathode) of the battery cell  200 . 
     The solid state electrolyte layer  210  can be interposed between the polymer electrolyte layer  220  and the base film layer  230  and/or the resistive layer  240 . For example, as shown in  FIG.  2 A , the solid state electrolyte layer  210  can be interposed between the polymer electrolyte layer  220  and the base film layer  230  while the polymer electrolyte layer  220  is interposed between the first electrode  250 A and the solid state electrolyte layer  210 . Furthermore, the polymer electrolyte layer  220  can be interposed between the solid state electrolyte layer  210  and the first electrode  250 A. Meanwhile the base film layer  230  and/or the resistive layer  240  can be interposed between the solid state electrolyte layer  210  and the second electrode  250 B. However, it should be appreciated that the base film layer  230  can be optional. In the absence of the base film layer  230 , the solid state electrolyte layer  210  can also be interposed directly between the polymer electrolyte layer  220  and the resistive layer  240 . Furthermore, the positions of the various layers of the battery cell  200  shown in  FIG.  2 A  are interchangeable. For example, the respective positions of the polymer electrolyte layer  220  and the base film layer  230  can be swapped such that the base film layer  230  is interposed between the first electrode  250 A and the solid state electrolyte layer  210  instead of the polymer electrolyte layer  220 . Alternately and/or additionally, the respective positions of the base film layer  230  and the resistive layer  240  can be swapped such that the base film layer  230  is interposed between the resistive layer  240  and the second electrode  250 B instead of the resistive layer  240  being interposed between the base layer  230  and the second electrode  250 B. 
     It should be appreciated that the solid state electrolyte layer  210  may be formed from solid state electrolytes that tend to be fragile and highly reactive. For example, the solid state electrolyte layer  210  can decompose and/or breakdown during production of the battery cell  200  due to reaction with common environmental elements such as water and/or oxygen. The solid state electrolyte layer  210  can also decompose and/or breakdown during operation of the battery cell  200  by reacting with the first electrode  250 A and the second electrode  250 B of the battery cell  200  upon contact. Thus, in some implementations of the current subject matter, the polymer electrolyte layer  220 , the base film layer  230 , and/or the resistive layer  240  can be configured to isolate the solid state electrolyte layer  210  from environmental elements as well as both the first electrode  250 A and the second electrode  250 B, thereby preventing a decomposition and/or breakdown of the solid state electrolyte layer  210  during both the production and operation of the battery cell  200 . Furthermore, the polymer electrolyte layer  220 , the base film layer  230 , and/or the resistive layer  240  can also mitigate the high contact impedance between the solid state electrolyte layer  210  and the electrode  250 A and/or between the first solid state electrolyte layer  210  and the second electrode  250 B. 
     As noted earlier, the solid state electrolyte layer  210  can include physical defects (e.g., pinholes, cracks) that render the solid state electrolyte layer  210  susceptible to being penetrated by metal dendrites, especially after the battery cell  200  is subjected to a large number of charge and discharge cycles. For example, metal dendrites forming on the first electrode  250 A and/or the second electrode  250 B can penetrate the solid state electrolyte layer  210 , the polymer electrolyte layer  220 , the base film layer  230 , and the resistive layer  240  to form an internal short circuit  270  between the first electrode  250 A and the second electrode  250 B. 
       FIG.  2 B  depicts a schematic diagram illustrating the internal short circuit  270  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. According to some implementations of the current subject matter, the resistive layer  240  can be configured to regulate a short circuit current  275  between the second electrode  250 B and the first electrode  250 A, in the event of a breach of the solid state electrolyte layer  210  and the formation of the internal short circuit  20 . The resistive layer  240  can be ionically conductive, electrically conductive, and/or electrochemically active. The short circuit current  275  that results from the internal short circuit  270  within the battery cell  200  can be controlled via the electrical conductivity and/or electrochemical activity of the resistive layer  240 . As shown in  FIG.  2 B , the resistive layer  240  can provide an electric resistance  292 . A rate (e.g., amperage) of the short circuit current  275  can be dependent upon the electric resistance  292 , which may be directly proportional to a quantity of electrically conductive material and/or electrochemically active material in the resistive layer  240 . Meanwhile, the resistive layer  240  will not interfere with the normal operation of the battery cell  200  because the resistive layer  240  is ionically conductive and/or electrochemically active, and will therefore not impede the transfer of charged particles and/or ions between the first electrode  250 A and the second electrode  250 B. However, it should be appreciated that the resistive layer  240  can impose some ionic resistance  294 . Thus, the power of the battery cell  200  can be dependent upon the ionic conductivity and/or the electrochemical activity of the resistive layer  240 . For instance, the power of the battery cell  200  can be directly proportional to a quantity of ionically conductive material and/or electrochemically active in the resistive layer  240 . 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the resistive layer  240  can be formed from a polymer binder such as, for example, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), styrene-butadiene (SBR), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), polyimide, polyamide, polyethylene, and/or the like. The resistive layer  240  can include one or more electrically conductive additives such as, for example, carbon black, carbon nano tubes, graphene, a conductive polymer, a conductive inorganic compound, and/or the like. The resistive layer  240  can further include one or more ionically conductive additives such as, for example, a polymer electrolyte, a polymer gel electrolyte, a solid state electrolyte, and/or the like. Alternately and/or additionally, the resistive layer  240  can include nano-particle fillers such as, for example, calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ), silicon titanium oxide (SiTiO 3 ), aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ), fumed silica, and/or the like. The resistive layer  240  can also be formed from one or more electrochemically active materials (e.g., lithium nickel cobalt (NCM), lithium iron fluorine oxide (LiFeFO 2 ), lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), iron fluoride (FeF x /C)) and/or compounds having a negative thermal expansion coefficient. It should be appreciated that the resistive layer  240  can have a thickness between 0.1 to 30 microns (μm) or preferably between 1 to 10 microns. Furthermore, heat generated from electrochemical activity within the resistive layer  240  can provide an indication of the presence of the internal short circuit  270  and/or trigger one or more safety mechanisms. 
     It should be appreciated that the battery cell  200  can be any type of metal battery including, for example, a lithium (Li) battery, a sodium (Na) battery, a potassium (K) battery, and/or the like. The first electrode  240 A and/or the second electrode  240 B of the battery cell  200  can be formed from any material. For instance, the positive second electrode  240 B can be formed from lithium nickel cobalt (NCM), lithium iron fluorine oxide (LiFeFO 2 ), lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), and/or the like. The solid state electrolyte layer  210  can be formed from one or more type of solid state electrolytes including, for example, sulfide-based solid state electrolytes (e.g., Li 2 S—SiS 2 —P 2 S 5 , Li 7 P 3 S 11 , Li 4.34 Ge 0.73 Ga 0.24 S 4 ), garnet-type lithium ion-conducting oxides (e.g., Li 5+x La 3 (Zr x , A 2-x )O 12  where 1.4&lt;x&lt;2), ceramic ion conductors (e.g., LISICON) containing the frame work structure SiO 4 , PO 4 , and ZnO 4 , and/or the like. Meanwhile, the base film layer  230  can be formed from any combinations of one or more solid state electrolytes, silicon oxides, alumina oxides, lithium salts, organic binders, inorganic binders, and/or the like. The base film layer  230  can be a separator or any combination of separators including, for example, a polyethylene separator (e.g., Asahi® D420), a tri-layer polyolefin separator (e.g., Celgard® 2300), a fiber separator, a non-woven fabric separator, a glass fiber separator, a ceramic separator, and/or the like. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the polymer electrolyte layer  220  can be formed a polymers and/or a polymer composite. For example, the polymer electrolyte layer  220  can be formed from a crosslinked polymer (e.g., containing crosslinking agents such as polyethylene oxide, poly-(bis((methoxyethoxy)ethoxy)phosphazene) (MEEP), single ionic conductor (e.g., lithium (Li) replaced Nafion®), polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), methacrylate, and/or the like), a non-crosslinked polymer, a stiff polymer (e.g., polyamide imide (PAI)), a block polymer, a composite of different polymers, and/or the like. Alternately and/or additionally, the protective layer  120  may be formed from a composite of one or more polymers and at least one additive including, for example, conductive and/or nonconductive ceramic particles, lithium salt particles (e.g., lithium fluoroborate (LiBF 4  and/or LiPF 6 ), lithium nitrate (LiNO 3 ), lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(perfluoroethanesulfonyl)imide), lithium metal stabilizers (e.g., vinyl carbonate), ether solvents, and/or the like. 
       FIG.  3    depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell  300  consistent with some implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIG.  3   , the battery cell  300  can include a first electrode  350 A, a second electrode  350 B, a solid state electrolyte layer  310 , a base film layer  330 , and a resistive layer  340 . The first electrode  350 A can be the negative electrode (e.g., anode) of the battery cell  300  while the second electrode  350 B can be the positive electrode (e.g., cathode) of the battery cell  300 . However, it should be appreciated that the battery cell  300  can also be configured with an opposite electrical polarity. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell  300  can include more than one polymer electrolyte layers configured to mitigate the high contact impedance with respect to the first electrode  350 A and/or the second electrode  350 B. For example, the battery cell  300  can include a first polymer electrolyte layer  320 A that is interposed between the first electrode  350 A and the solid state electrolyte layer  310 . The battery cell  300  can also include a second polymer electrolyte layer  320 B that is interposed between the second electrode  350 B and the resistive layer  340 . It should be appreciated that one or both of the first polymer electrolyte  320 A and the second polymer electrolyte  320 B may be optional. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the resistive layer  340  can be configured to regulate a short circuit current flowing through the battery cell  300  in the event that metal dendrites formed at the first electrode  350 A and/or the second electrode  350 B penetrates the first polymer electrolyte layer  320 A, the second polymer electrolyte layer  320 B, the solid state electrolyte layer  310 , and the base film layer  330  to form an internal short circuit within the battery cell  300 . The resistive layer  340  can be formed from one or more materials that are ionically conductive, electrically conductive, and/or electrochemically active. As such, the short circuit current resulting from the internal short circuit within the battery cell  300  can be controlled by the electrically conductive and/or electrochemically active material within the resistive layer  340 . Meanwhile, the resistive layer  340  will not interfere with the normal operation of the battery cell  300  because the resistive layer  340  is ionically conductive and/or electrochemically active, and will therefore not impede the transfer of charged particles and/or ions between the first electrode  350 A and the second electrode  350 B. However, it should be appreciated that the resistive layer  340  can impose some ionic resistance. Therefore, the power of the battery cell  300  can be dependent upon the ionic conductivity of the resistive layer  340  including, for example, the ionically conductive and/or electrochemically active material within the resistive layer  340 . 
       FIG.  4    depicts a flowchart illustrating a process  400  for manufacturing a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIGS.  1 A-B  and  4 , the process  400  can be performed to manufacture a battery cell such as, for example, the battery cell  100 . 
     At  402 , a solid state electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, the solid state electrolyte layer  110  of the battery cell  100  can be formed, for example, by vapor deposition and/or plasma deposition. In some implementations of the subject matter, forming the solid state electrolyte layer  110  can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer, 5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 1,000,000 molecular weight into approximately 100 grams of deionized water, thereby forming a polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithium nitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solution followed by 20 grams of Li 7 La 3 Zr 2 O 12  (LLZO). The resulting slurry can be coated onto the base film layer  130 . The base film layer  130  can be a separator such as, for example, Celgard® 2300 and/or the like. Here, an automatic coating machine can be used to deposit an approximately 20 microns thick coating of the slurry onto the separator at 0.1 meter per minute. The coating of slurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a second heating zone set to 80° C. 
     At  404 , a polymer electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, the polymer electrolyte layer  120  of the battery cell  100  can be formed. In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the polymer electrolyte layer  120  can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer, 5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 500,000 molecular weight into approximately 50 grams of deionized water, thereby forming a polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithium nitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. The solution can be coated onto the solid state electrolyte layer  110  formed at operation  402 . For instance, the coating can be performed using an automatic coating machine at 0.1 meter per minute. The coating can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a second heating zone set to 80° C. It should be appreciated that the resulting polymer electrolyte layer  120  will interface directly with the negative first electrode  140 A (e.g., anode) of the battery cell  100 . 
     At  406 , a positive electrode can be formed. For example, the second electrode  140 B of the battery cell  100  can be formed. In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the second electrode  140 B can include dissolving 10.5 grams of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) into 120 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP). Furthermore, 9 grams of carbon black can be added to the mixture and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute (rpm). A flowable slurry can subsequently be formed by adding 280 grams of LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2  (NMC) (280 g) to the mixture and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Additional N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) can be added to adjust the viscosity of the slurry. The resulting slurry can be coated onto a 15 micron thick layer of aluminum foil using an automatic coating machine. The coating of slurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with a first heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and a second heat zone set to approximately 130° C. It should be appreciated that subjecting the slurry to heat can evaporate the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in the slurry. The final dried second electrode  140 B can have a loading of approximately 15.55 milligrams per square centimeter (mg/cm 2 ). The second electrode  140 B can further be compressed to a thickness of approximately 117 microns. 
     At  408 , a battery cell can be prepared. For example, the battery cell  100  can be formed. In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the battery cell  100  can include using an electrode tab to punch out the pieces forming the first electrode  140 A and/or the second electrode  140 B. The second electrode  140 B (e.g., positive electrode) can be dried at 125° C. for 10 hours. Furthermore, the first electrode  140 A and the second electrode  140 B can be laminated, in a dry room, with the solid state electrolyte layer  110  interposed between the first electrode  140 A, the polymer electrolyte layer  120 , the base film layer  130 , and the second electrode  140 B. It should be appreciated that in the resulting jelly-flat, the polymer electrolyte layer  120  will directly interface with the first electrode  140 A while the base film layer  130  will interface directly with the second electrode  140 B. This jelly-flat can be inserted into an aluminum (Al) composite bag, which is subsequently filled with a limited quantity of a liquid electrolyte such as, for example, a LiPF 6  based organic carbonate electrolyte. The aluminum composite bag can be sealed at 190° C. to form the battery cell  100 . The battery cell  100  can be aged at 45° C. for 5 hours before being subject to an initial charge and discharge cycle. For instance, the sealed battery cell  100  can be first charged to 4.2V at a C/20 rate for 5 hours and then to 4.2V at 0.2 C rate for 5 hours before the battery cell  100  is rested for 20 minutes. The rested battery cell  100  can subsequently be discharged to 2.8V at 0.2 C rate. In addition, the battery cell  100  can be punctured, while under vacuum, to release any gases before the battery cell  100  is resealed. At this point, the battery cell  100  is ready for operation and/or evaluation. 
       FIG.  5    depicts a flowchart illustrating a process  500  for manufacturing a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIGS.  2 A-B  and  5 , the process  500  can be performed to manufacture a battery cell such as, for example, the battery cell  200 . 
     At  502 , a solid state electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, the solid state electrolyte layer  210  of the battery cell  200  can be formed, for example, by vapor deposition and/or plasma deposition. In some implementations of the subject matter, forming the solid state electrolyte layer  110  can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer, 5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 1,000,000 molecular weight into approximately 100 grams of deionized water, thereby forming a polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithium nitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solution followed by 20 grams of Li 7 La 3 Zr 2 O 12  (LLZO). The resulting slurry can be coated onto the base film layer  230 . The base film layer  230  can be a separator such as, for example, Celgard® 2300 and/or the like. Here, an automatic coating machine can be used to deposit an approximately 20 microns thick coating of the slurry onto the separator at 0.1 meter per minute. The coating of slurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a second heating zone set to 80° C. 
     At  504 , a resistive layer can be formed on top of a base film. For example, the resistive layer  240  can be formed on top of the base film layer  230 . In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the resistive layer  240  can include dissolving 10 grams of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) LBG-1 into 100 grams of acetone and 20 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP). Furthermore, 0.5 grams of carbon black can be added to the mixture and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. A flowable slurry can be formed by adding 1 grams of a lithium salt (e.g., lithium imide) and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Additional N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) may be added to adjust the viscosity of the flowable slurry. This resulting slurry can be coated, using an automatic coating machine, onto one side of the base film layer  230  (e.g., Celgard® 2300) with the solid state electrolyte layer  210  being disposed on the opposite side of the base film layer  230 . The automatic coating machine can further be used to dry the slurry with a first heat zone set to approximately 60° C. and a second heat zone set to approximately 80° C. It should be appreciated that the slurry is subjected to heat in order to evaporate off the acetone and the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in the slurry. The final dried resistive layer  240  can have a loading of approximately 2 milligrams per square centimeter. 
     At  506 , a polymer electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, the polymer electrolyte layer  220  of the battery cell  200  can be formed. In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the polymer electrolyte layer  220  can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer, 5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 500,000 molecular weight into approximately 50 grams of deionized water, thereby forming a polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithium nitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. The solution can be coated onto the solid state electrolyte layer  210  formed at operation  502 . For instance, the coating can be performed using an automatic coating machine at 0.1 meter per minute. The coating can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a second heating zone set to 80° C. It should be appreciated that the resulting polymer electrolyte layer  220  will interface directly with the negative first electrode  250 A (e.g., anode) of the battery cell  200 . 
     At  508 , a positive electrode can be formed. For example, the second electrode  250 B of the battery cell  200  can be formed. In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the second electrode  250 B can include dissolving 10.5 grams of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) into 120 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP). Furthermore, 9 grams of carbon black can be added to the mixture and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute (rpm). A flowable slurry can subsequently be formed by adding 280 grams of LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2  (NMC) (280 g) to the mixture and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Additional N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) can be added to adjust the viscosity of the slurry. The resulting slurry can be coated onto a 15 micron thick layer of aluminum foil using an automatic coating machine. This coating of slurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with a first heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and a second heat zone set to approximately 130° C. It should be appreciated that subjecting the slurry to heat can evaporate the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in the slurry. The final dried second electrode  250 B can have a loading of approximately 15.55 milligrams per square centimeter (mg/cm 2 ). The second electrode  250 B can further be compressed to a thickness of approximately 117 microns. 
     At  510 , a battery cell can be prepared. For example, the battery cell  200  can be formed. In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the battery cell  200  can include using an electrode tab to punch out the pieces forming the first electrode  250 A and/or the second electrode  250 B. The second electrode  250 B (e.g., positive electrode) can be dried at 125° C. for 10 hours. Furthermore, the first electrode  250 A and the second electrode  250 B can be laminated, in a dry room, with the solid state electrolyte layer  210  interposed between the first electrode  250 A, the polymer electrolyte layer  220 , the base film layer  230 , the resistive layer  240 , and the second electrode  250 B. It should be appreciated that in the resulting jelly-flat, the polymer electrolyte layer  220  will directly interface with the first electrode  250 A while the resistive layer  240  will interface directly with the second electrode  250 B. This jelly-flat can be inserted into an aluminum (Al) composite bag, which is subsequently filled with a limited quantity of a liquid electrolyte such as, for example, a LiPF 6  based organic carbonate electrolyte. The aluminum composite bag can be sealed at 190° C. to form the battery cell  200 . The battery cell  200  can be aged at 45° C. for 5 hours before being subject to an initial charge and discharge cycle. For instance, the sealed battery cell  200  can be first charged to 4.2V at a C/20 rate for 5 hours and then to 4.2V at 0.2 C rate for 5 hours before the battery cell  200  is rested for 20 minutes. The rested battery cell  200  can subsequently be discharged to 2.8V at 0.2 C rate. In addition, the battery cell  200  can be punctured, while under vacuum, to release any gases before the battery cell  200  is resealed. At this point, the battery cell  200  is ready for operation and/or evaluation. 
       FIG.  6    depicts a flowchart illustrating a process  600  for manufacturing a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIGS.  2 A-B  and  6 , the process  600  can be performed to manufacture a battery cell such as, for example, the battery cell  200 . 
     At  602 , a solid state electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, the solid state electrolyte layer  210  of the battery cell  200  can be formed, for example, by vapor deposition and/or plasma deposition. In some implementations of the subject matter, forming the solid state electrolyte layer  110  can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer, 5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 1,000,000 molecular weight into approximately 100 grams of deionized water, thereby forming a polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithium nitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solution followed by 20 grams of Li 7 La 3 Zr 2 O 12  (LLZO). The resulting slurry can be coated onto the base film layer  230 . The base film layer  230  can be a separator such as, for example, Celgard® 2300 and/or the like. Here, an automatic coating machine can be used to deposit an approximately 20 microns thick coating of the slurry onto the separator at 0.1 meter per minute. The coating of slurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a second heating zone set to 80° C. 
     At  604 , a polymer electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, the polymer electrolyte layer  220  of the battery cell  200  can be formed. In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the polymer electrolyte layer  220  can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer, 5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 500,000 molecular weight into approximately 50 grams of deionized water, thereby forming a polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithium nitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. The solution can be coated onto the solid state electrolyte layer  210  formed at operation  502 . For instance, the coating can be performed using an automatic coating machine at 0.1 meter per minute. The coating can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a second heating zone set to 80° C. It should be appreciated that the resulting polymer electrolyte layer  220  will interface directly with the negative first electrode  250 A (e.g., anode) of the battery cell  200 . 
     At  606 , a positive electrode can be formed. For example, the second electrode  250 B of the battery cell  200  can be formed. In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the second electrode  250 B can include dissolving 10.5 grams of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) into 120 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP). Furthermore, 9 grams of carbon black can be added to the mixture and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute (rpm). A flowable slurry can subsequently be formed by adding 280 grams of LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2  (NMC) (280 g) to the mixture and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Additional N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) can be added to adjust the viscosity of the slurry. The resulting slurry can be coated onto a 15 micron thick layer of aluminum foil using an automatic coating machine. This coating of slurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with a first heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and a second heat zone set to approximately 130° C. It should be appreciated that subjecting the slurry to heat can evaporate the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in the slurry. The final dried second electrode  250 B can have a loading of approximately 15.55 milligrams per square centimeter (mg/cm 2 ). The second electrode  250 B can further be compressed to a thickness of approximately 117 microns. 
     At  608 , a resistive layer can be formed on top of the positive electrode. For example, the resistive layer  240  can be formed on top of the positive second electrode  250 B instead of the base film layer  230  as in process  500 . In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the resistive layer  240  can include dissolving 10 grams of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) LBG-1 into 100 grams of acetone and 20 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP). Furthermore, 0.5 grams of carbon black can be added to the mixture and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. A flowable slurry can be formed by adding 1 grams of a lithium salt (e.g., lithium imide) and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Additional N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) may be added to adjust the viscosity of the flowable slurry. This resulting slurry can be coated, using an automatic coating machine, onto one side of the second electrode  250 B (e.g., Celgard® 2300) formed at operation  606 . The automatic coating machine can further be used to dry this coating of slurry with a first heat zone set to approximately 60° C. and a second heat zone set to approximately 80° C. It should be appreciated that the slurry is subjected to heat in order to evaporate off the acetone and the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in the slurry. The final dried resistive layer  240  can have a loading of approximately 2 milligrams per square centimeter. 
     At  610 , a battery cell can be prepared. For example, the battery cell  200  can be formed. In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the battery cell  200  can include using an electrode tab to punch out the pieces forming the first electrode  250 A and/or the second electrode  250 B. The second electrode  250 B (e.g., positive electrode) can be dried at 125° C. for 10 hours. Furthermore, the first electrode  250 A and the second electrode  250 B can be laminated, in a dry room, with the solid state electrolyte layer  210  interposed between the first electrode  250 A, the polymer electrolyte layer  220 , the base film layer  230 , the resistive layer  240 , and the second electrode  240 B. It should be appreciated that in the resulting jelly-flat, the polymer electrolyte layer  220  will directly interface with the first electrode  250 A while the resistive layer  240  will interface directly with the second electrode  250 B. This jelly-flat can be inserted into an aluminum (Al) composite bag, which is subsequently filled with a limited quantity of a liquid electrolyte such as, for example, a LiPF 6  based organic carbonate electrolyte. The aluminum composite bag can be sealed at 190° C. to form the battery cell  200 . The battery cell  200  can be aged at 45° C. for 5 hours before being subject to an initial charge and discharge cycle. For instance, the sealed battery cell  200  can be first charged to 4.2V at a C/20 rate for 5 hours and then to 4.2V at 0.2 C rate for 5 hours before the battery cell  200  is rested for 20 minutes. The rested battery cell  200  can subsequently be discharged to 2.8V at 0.2 C rate. In addition, the battery cell  200  can be punctured, while under vacuum, to release any gases before the battery cell  200  is resealed. At this point, the battery cell  200  is ready for operation and/or evaluation. 
       FIG.  7    depicts a flowchart illustrating a process  700  for manufacturing a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIGS.  3  and  7   , the process  700  can be performed to manufacture a battery cell such as, for example, the battery cell  300 . 
     At  702 , a solid state electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, the solid state electrolyte layer  310  of the battery cell  300  can be formed, for example, by vapor deposition and/or plasma deposition. In some implementations of the subject matter, forming the solid state electrolyte layer  310  can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer, 5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 1,000,000 molecular weight into approximately 100 grams of deionized water, thereby forming a polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithium nitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solution followed by 20 grams of Li 7 La 3 Zr 2 O 12  (LLZO). The resulting slurry can be coated onto the base film layer  330 . The base film layer  330  can be a separator such as, for example, Celgard® 2300 and/or the like. Here, an automatic coating machine can be used to deposit an approximately 20 microns thick coating of the slurry onto the separator at 0.1 meter per minute. The coating of slurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a second heating zone set to 80° C. 
     At  704 , a first polymer electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, the first polymer electrolyte layer  320 A of the battery cell  300  can be formed. In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the first polymer electrolyte layer  320  can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer, 5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 500,000 molecular weight into approximately 50 grams of deionized water, thereby forming a polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithium nitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. The solution can be coated onto the solid state electrolyte layer  310  formed at operation  702 . For instance, the coating can be performed using an automatic coating machine at 0.1 meter per minute. This coating of slurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a second heating zone set to 80° C. It should be appreciated that the resulting first polymer electrolyte layer  320 A will interface directly with the negative first electrode  350 A (e.g., anode) of the battery cell  300 . 
     At  706 , a resistive layer can be formed on top of a base film layer. For example, the resistive layer  340  can be formed on top of the base film layer  330 . In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the resistive layer  340  can include dissolving 10 grams of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) LBG-1 into 100 grams of acetone and 20 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP). Furthermore, 0.5 grams of carbon black can be added to the mixture and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. A flowable slurry can be formed by adding 1 grams of a lithium salt (e.g., lithium imide) and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Additional N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) may be added to adjust the viscosity of the flowable slurry. This resulting slurry can be coated, using an automatic coating machine, onto one side of the base film layer  330  (e.g., Celgard® 2300) with the solid state electrolyte layer  310  being disposed on the opposite side of the base film layer  330 . The automatic coating machine can further be used to dry this coating of slurry with a first heat zone set to approximately 60° C. and a second heat zone set to approximately 80° C. It should be appreciated that the slurry is subjected to heat in order to evaporate off the acetone and the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in the slurry. The final dried resistive layer  340  can have a loading of approximately 2 milligrams per square centimeter. 
     At  708 , a second polymer electrolyte layer can be formed on top of the resistive layer. For example, the second polymer electrolyte layer  320 B of the battery cell  300  can be formed on top of the resistive layer  340 . In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the second polymer electrolyte layer  320 B can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer, 5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 500,000 molecular weight into approximately 50 grams of deionized water, thereby forming a polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithium nitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. The solution can be coated onto one side of the resistive layer  340  formed at operation  706 , opposite from the base film layer  330 . For instance, the coating can be performed using an automatic coating machine at 0.1 meter per minute. This coating of slurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a second heating zone set to 80° C. It should be appreciated that the resulting second polymer electrolyte layer  320 B will interface directly with the positive second electrode  350 B (e.g., cathode) of the battery cell  300 . 
     At  710 , a positive electrode can be formed. For example, the second electrode  350 B of the battery cell  300  can be formed. In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the second electrode  250 B can include dissolving 10.5 grams of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) into 120 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP). Furthermore, 9 grams of carbon black can be added to the mixture and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute (rpm). A flowable slurry can subsequently be formed by adding 280 grams of LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2  (NMC) (280 g) to the mixture and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Additional N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) can be added to adjust the viscosity of the slurry. The resulting slurry can be coated onto a 15 micron thick layer of aluminum foil using an automatic coating machine. This coating of slurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with a first heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and a second heat zone set to approximately 130° C. It should be appreciated that subjecting the slurry to heat can evaporate the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in the slurry. The final dried second electrode  350 B can have a loading of approximately 15.55 milligrams per square centimeter (mg/cm 2 ). The second electrode  350 B can further be compressed to a thickness of approximately 117 microns. 
     At  712 , a battery cell can be prepared. For example, the battery cell  300  can be formed. In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming the battery cell  300  can include using an electrode tab to punch out the pieces forming the first electrode  350 A and/or the second electrode  350 B. The second electrode  350 B (e.g., positive electrode) can be dried at 125° C. for 10 hours. Furthermore, the first electrode  350 A and the second electrode  350 B can be laminated, in a dry room, with the solid state electrolyte layer  310  interposed between the first electrode  350 A, the first polymer electrolyte layer  320 A, the base film layer  330 , the resistive layer  340 , the second polymer electrolyte layer  320 B, and the second electrode  350 B. It should be appreciated that in the resulting jelly-flat, the first polymer electrolyte layer  320 A will directly interface with the first electrode  350 A while the second polymer electrolyte layer  320 B will interface directly with the second electrode  350 B. Meanwhile, the base film layer  330  is interposed between the solid state electrolyte layer  310  and the resistive layer  340 . This jelly-flat can be inserted into an aluminum (Al) composite bag, which is subsequently filled with a limited quantity of a liquid electrolyte such as, for example, a LiPF 6  based organic carbonate electrolyte. The aluminum composite bag can be sealed at 190° C. to form the battery cell  300 . The battery cell  300  can be aged at 45° C. for 5 hours before being subject to an initial charge and discharge cycle. For instance, the sealed battery cell  300  can be first charged to 4.2V at a C/20 rate for 5 hours and then to 4.2V at 0.2 C rate for 5 hours before the battery cell  300  is rested for 20 minutes. The rested battery cell  300  can subsequently be discharged to 2.8V at 0.2 C rate. In addition, the battery cell  300  can be punctured, while under vacuum, to release any gases before the battery cell  300  is resealed. At this point, the battery cell  300  is ready for operation and/or evaluation. 
     Implementations of the current subject matter can include, but are not limited to, articles of manufacture (e.g. apparatuses, systems, etc.), methods of making or use, compositions of matter, or the like consistent with the descriptions provided herein. 
     In the descriptions above and in the claims, phrases such as “at least one of” or “one or more of” may occur followed by a conjunctive list of elements or features. The term “and/or” may also occur in a list of two or more elements or features. Unless otherwise implicitly or explicitly contradicted by the context in which it used, such a phrase is intended to mean any of the listed elements or features individually or any of the recited elements or features in combination with any of the other recited elements or features. For example, the phrases “at least one of A and B;” “one or more of A and B;” and “A and/or B” are each intended to mean “A alone, B alone, or A and B together.” A similar interpretation is also intended for lists including three or more items. For example, the phrases “at least one of A, B, and C;” “one or more of A, B, and C;” and “A, B, and/or C” are each intended to mean “A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, or A and B and C together.” Use of the term “based on,” above and in the claims is intended to mean, “based at least in part on,” such that an unrecited feature or element is also permissible. 
     The subject matter described herein can be embodied in systems, apparatus, methods, and/or articles depending on the desired configuration. The implementations set forth in the foregoing description do not represent all implementations consistent with the subject matter described herein. Instead, they are merely some examples consistent with aspects related to the described subject matter. Although a few variations have been described in detail above, other modifications or additions are possible. In particular, further features and/or variations can be provided in addition to those set forth herein. For example, the implementations described above can be directed to various combinations and subcombinations of the disclosed features and/or combinations and subcombinations of several further features disclosed above. In addition, the processes depicted in the accompanying figures and/or described herein do not necessarily require the operations to be performed in the order shown, or in any sequential order, in order to achieve desirable results. For example, one or more operations from these processes may be repeated and/or omitted. Other implementations may be within the scope of the following claim.