Patent Publication Number: US-8987541-B2

Title: Coal waste treatment processes and products

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     A claim for the benefit of priority to the Apr. 26, 2013 filing date of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/816,160, titled COAL WASTE TREATMENT PROCESSES AND PRODUCTS, AND THEIR USES (“the &#39;160 Provisional Application”), is hereby made pursuant to 35 U.S.C. §119(e). In addition, this application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/646,365, filed on Oct. 5, 2012 and titled NANO FLEX HLW/SPENT FUEL RODS RECYCLING AND PERMANENT DISPOSAL (“the &#39;365 Application”), in which a claim to the benefit of the Feb. 1, 2012 filing date of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/632,865, titled NANO FLEX HLW/SPENT FUEL RODS RECYCLING AND PERMANENT DISPOSAL (“the &#39;865 Provisional Application”) is made under 35 U.S.C. §119(e). The entire disclosures of the &#39;865 Provisional Application, the &#39;365 Application and the &#39;160 Provisional Application are hereby incorporated herein. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This disclosure relates to techniques for disposing of toxic materials, such as various byproducts of coal burning processes, including fly ash and toxic materials. More specifically, this disclosure relates to techniques and apparatuses for improving safety in handling and processing toxic materials for recycling and disposal, including incorporation of toxic materials into feldspar materials in amounts that match or are less than comparable materials naturally present at a selected disposal site. 
     BACKGROUND 
     The disclosed processes resolve issues that relate to the disposal of fly ash, other byproducts of coal power generation and other toxic and/or hazardous materials. In various embodiments, fly ash or other waste is incorporated into an artificial feldspar material, which is also referred to herein as “artificial feldspar.” The artificial feldspar is then disposed of or used for a variety of different purposes. Examples of other uses for the artificial feldspar include, but are not limited to, use as an aggregate (e.g., in concrete, in asphalt, etc.), as road base, as gravel, as another fill material or the like. 
     As illustrated by the pie chart of  FIG. 1 , in 2009, forty-four and nine tenths percent (44.9%) of all electricity generated in the United States came from coal burning power plants. Twenty-three and four tenths percent (23.4%) of electricity in the U.S. during that same year was generated by natural gas fired power plants. Nuclear power plants generated twenty and three tenths percent (20.3%) of electricity in the U.S. in 2009. Other sources of electricity in the U.S. in 2009 and their contributions to the overall U.S. power demand during that year are also shown in  FIG. 1 . 
     In recent years in the U.S., coal has been burned at a rate of 1.05 billion tons annually to generate electricity. In addition to generating electricity, a number of byproducts, or waste materials, are formed as coal is burned. These include fly ash, or furnace ash, of which about 72 million tons are generated each year in the U.S., cinder and sludge, as well as carbon dioxide, of which about 1.9 billion tons is produced in the U.S. each year, air pollutants and oxides of silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, titanium, sodium, potassium, arsenic, mercury, sulfur, uranium and thorium. 
     In addition, coal burning often releases radioactive materials, such as uranium-235, uranium-238 and thorium, and isotopes formed by the decay of radioactive materials, which are also known as “daughters.” These daughters may include materials such as radium, radon, polonium, bismuth, lead and potassium-40, all of which are hazardous materials. Any uranium-238 released as coal is burned may react with neutrons in the air (e.g., from oxygen bombardment, nitrogen nuclei generated by cosmic rays, etc.) to form plutonium-239. Other materials that are present in the waste that is generated by burning coal include mercury (at a current rate of about 109 tons per year), arsenic (at a current rate of about 7,884 tons per year), beryllium (at a current rate of about 1,167 tons per year), cadmium (at a current rate of about 750 tons per year), chromium (at a current rate of about 8,810 tons per year), nickel (at a current rate of about 9,339 tons per year), selenium (at a current rate of about 2,587 tons per year), uranium (at a current rate of about 801 tons per year; of which about 11,400 pounds are uranium-235) and thorium (at a current rate of about 1,971 tons per year). Altogether, toxic materials currently account for an estimated 120 million tons of the waste generated each year by coal burning power plants in the U.S. With about five hundred coal burning power plants currently in the U.S., this averages out to about 240,000 tons of toxic waste per power plant. 
     Before burning, coal is crushed and washed. The waste from these processes includes mercury, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, nickel, selenium and acid mine runoff. 
     When the coal is burned, fly ash and sludge are formed. These byproducts also include mercury, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, nickel and selenium, along with chromium, titanium, uranium and thorium, as well as toxic gases and a variety of radioactive materials. Although the gaseous waste that is generated when coal is burned is scrubbed to remove toxic components and prevent their release into the atmosphere, scrubbing processes also form toxic materials. As an example, scrubbing of coal with sulfur dioxide creates calcium sulfite (CaSO 3 ) and calcium sulfate (CaSO 4 ), both of which are toxic materials. The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) has determined that one ton of coal has a radiation of 0.00427 millicuries. At current rates, coal burning in the U.S. releases 4,483,500 millicuries of radiation into the environment each year. Based on current projections, by the year 2040, 11.716 billion tons of coal will be burned each year, resulting in an annual release of 145,230 tons of uranium (of which 5,883 tons will be uranium-235) and 1,039,709 tons of thorium into the environment. 
     At current energy production rates, it has been estimated that about seventy-two million (72,000,000) tons of fly ash is produced by coal burning power plants in the U.S. each year. Fly ash is typically stored in pits and landfills. The U.S. currently includes three hundred fifty (350) sites that have been approved and designated for permanent disposal of coal waste, including fly ash. Since all coal wastes are deposited in chemically active state, they release toxins over time. As rainwater filters through fly ash, toxic metals are leached from the fly ash into the water, which flows into the ground and ultimately contaminates groundwater and the biosphere. According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a ten (10) acre fly ash landfill may introduce about 0.2 gallon to about ten (10) gallons of toxic metals into groundwater each day. 
     As demonstrated by the following table, each of the forty-nine continental states of the U.S. has at least one site that has been approved and designated for disposal of coal waste: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Tons 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Rank 
                 of 
                 Tons of 
                 Tons of 
               
               
                   
                 Rank 
                   
                 (Toxic 
                 Toxic 
                 Waste in 
                 Waste in 
               
               
                 State 
                 (Waste) 
                 Tons of Waste 
                 Metals) 
                 Metals 
                 Ponds 
                 Landfills 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Texas 
                 1 
                 13,454,000 
                 1 
                 8,915 
                 576,810 
                 6,490,800 
               
               
                 Pennsylvania 
                 2 
                 11,057,650 
                 4 
                 5,639 
                 1,076,700 
                 2,536,500 
               
               
                 Kentucky 
                 3 
                 8,599,400 
                 6 
                 4,853 
                 2,298,000 
                 3,409,900 
               
               
                 Indiana 
                 4 
                 8,528,650 
                 3 
                 5,958 
                 2,273,450 
                 2,820,400 
               
               
                 Ohio 
                 5 
                 7,836,700 
                 2 
                 6,594 
                 2,667,300 
                 899,900 
               
               
                 West Virginia 
                 6 
                 6,190,900 
                 5 
                 4,990 
                 896,200 
                 3,118,400 
               
               
                 Florida 
                 7 
                 5,180,787 
                 12 
                 3,029 
                 74,000 
                 1,335,300 
               
               
                 Illinois 
                 8 
                 4,411,100 
                 9 
                 3,264 
                 747,800 
                 8,000 
               
               
                 North Carolina 
                 9 
                 4,008,200 
                 10 
                 3,243 
                 1,344,200 
                 607,200 
               
               
                 New Mexico 
                 10 
                 3,799,300 
                 30 
                 870 
                 517,100 
                 89,300 
               
               
                 Georgia 
                 11 
                 3,508,910 
                 7 
                 4,192 
                 1,541,900 
                 825,610 
               
               
                 Tennessee 
                 12 
                 3,505,220 
                 16 
                 2,176 
                 632,100 
                 732,600 
               
               
                 Alabama 
                 13 
                 3,200,700 
                 11 
                 3,175 
                 1,810,400 
                 903,500 
               
               
                 North Dakota 
                 14 
                 3,001,100 
                 8 
                 3,419 
                 334,800 
                 1,736,400 
               
               
                 New York 
                 15 
                 2,838,410 
                 29 
                 1,000 
                 — 
                 699,990 
               
               
                 Arizona 
                 16 
                 2,775,030 
                 19 
                 1,795 
                 387,900 
                 1,148,730 
               
               
                 Utah 
                 17 
                 2,366,700 
                 17 
                 2,027 
                 131,000 
                 1,475,200 
               
               
                 Missouri 
                 18 
                 2,332,150 
                 14 
                 2,469 
                 779,150 
                 221,700 
               
               
                 Virginia 
                 19 
                 2,329,200 
                 18 
                 1,877 
                 448,200 
                 943,000 
               
               
                 Michigan 
                 20 
                 2,129,700 
                 13 
                 2,524 
                 669,200 
                 769,500 
               
               
                 Wyoming 
                 21 
                 2,106,300 
                 23 
                 1,306 
                 448,100 
                 950,400 
               
               
                 South Carolina 
                 22 
                 2,091,490 
                 15 
                 2,315 
                 301,050 
                 377,100 
               
               
                 Maryland 
                 23 
                 1,932,740 
                 20 
                 1,594 
                 28,100 
                 420,300 
               
               
                 Louisiana 
                 24 
                 1,629,300 
                 31 
                 838 
                 191,300 
                 691,100 
               
               
                 Colorado 
                 25 
                 1,607,970 
                 21 
                 1,442 
                 5,700 
                 655,080 
               
               
                 Minnesota 
                 26 
                 1,544,110 
                 28 
                 1,022 
                 813,910 
                 420,400 
               
               
                 Wisconsin 
                 27 
                 1,480,900 
                 22 
                 1,406 
                 11,000 
                 267,700 
               
               
                 Oklahoma 
                 28 
                 1,462,300 
                 27 
                 1,180 
                 16,560 
                 123,900 
               
               
                 Washington 
                 29 
                 1,405,220 
                 39 
                 279 
                 — 
                 424,220 
               
               
                 Kansas 
                 30 
                 1,386,400 
                 25 
                 1,253 
                 194,300 
                 539,200 
               
               
                 Mississippi 
                 31 
                 1,308,100 
                 26 
                 1,196 
                 99,100 
                 707,000 
               
               
                 Iowa 
                 32 
                 1,228,100 
                 24 
                 1,284 
                 201,700 
                 151,600 
               
               
                 Montana 
                 33 
                 1,018,900 
                 37 
                 364 
                 963,600 
                 — 
               
               
                 Maine 
                 34 
                 892,110 
                 46 
                 20 
                 — 
                 858,700 
               
               
                 Arkansas 
                 35 
                 784,567 
                 32 
                 784 
                 59,700 
                 284,640 
               
               
                 Nevada 
                 36 
                 771,600 
                 36 
                 391 
                 — 
                 477,200 
               
               
                 New Jersey 
                 37 
                 642,300 
                 35 
                 488 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 Nebraska 
                 38 
                 595,000 
                 33 
                 630 
                 — 
                 166,500 
               
               
                 Massachusetts 
                 39 
                 384,890 
                 34 
                 581 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 Delaware 
                 40 
                 284,100 
                 38 
                 316 
                 — 
                 149,000 
               
               
                 New Hampshire 
                 41 
                 177,650 
                 40 
                 210 
                 — 
                 2,600 
               
               
                 Connecticut 
                 42 
                 172,730 
                 41 
                 160 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 Oregon 
                 43 
                 99,900 
                 42 
                 114 
                 — 
                 17,500 
               
               
                 South Dakota 
                 44 
                 97,300 
                 43 
                 82 
                 000,000 
                 0,080,100 
               
               
                 Hawaii 
                 45 
                 51,500 
                 44 
                 46 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 California 
                 46 
                 50,400 
                 45 
                 38 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 Idaho 
                 47 
                 26,800 
                 — 
                 — 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The implementation of so-called coal gasification—converting coal into gas before combustion—reduces the volume of produced waste, but still poses very serious contamination issues and environmental risks. The table that follows provides a projection of the amounts of coal waste that result from coal gasification processes: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Number 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 of New 
                 Projected Tons  
                   
               
               
                 State 
                 Plants 
                 of Coal Waste 
                 Rank 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Texas 
                 7 
                 3,653,412 
                 1 
               
               
                 South Dakota 
                 2 
                 952,630 
                 2 
               
               
                 Nevada 
                 3 
                 888,272 
                 3 
               
               
                 Montana 
                 3 
                 848,278 
                 4 
               
               
                 Florida 
                 2 
                 736,649 
                 5 
               
               
                 South Carolina 
                 2 
                 731,110 
                 6 
               
               
                 Michigan 
                 5 
                 686,879 
                 7 
               
               
                 Illinois 
                 3 
                 632,521 
                 8 
               
               
                 Missouri 
                 4 
                 515,709 
                 9 
               
               
                 Wisconsin 
                 3 
                 512,632 
                 10 
               
               
                 Georgia 
                 2 
                 507,952 
                 11 
               
               
                 Wyoming 
                 4 
                 449,022 
                 12 
               
               
                 Pennsylvania 
                 5 
                 430,275 
                 13 
               
               
                 Kentucky 
                 3 
                 410,548 
                 14 
               
               
                 New Mexico 
                 1 
                 366,937 
                 15 
               
               
                 Ohio 
                 1 
                 325,864 
                 16 
               
               
                 Arkansas 
                 2 
                 316,691 
                 17 
               
               
                 Oklahoma 
                 2 
                 316,691 
                 17 
               
               
                 Iowa 
                 2 
                 312,755 
                 19 
               
               
                 Utah 
                 3 
                 296,257 
                 20 
               
               
                 Louisiana 
                 2 
                 294,414 
                 21 
               
               
                 North Carolina 
                 1 
                 251,099 
                 22 
               
               
                 West Virginia 
                 2 
                 247,775 
                 23 
               
               
                 Nebraska 
                 2 
                 199,063 
                 24 
               
               
                 Virginia 
                 1 
                 173,472 
                 25 
               
               
                 Colorado 
                 1 
                 169,656 
                 26 
               
               
                 North Dakota 
                 1 
                 93,797 
                 27 
               
               
                 Arizona 
                 1 
                 90,483 
                 28 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In January 2009, Sue Sturgis of the Institute of Southern Studies compiled a list of the top one hundred (100) U.S. coal burning power plants, in terms of coal waste stored in surface impoundments: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2006 Surface 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Impoundment 
               
               
                 Rank 
                 Facility 
                 Corporate Owner 
                 City 
                 State 
                 Releases (lbs.) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 Stanton Energy Center 
                 Orlando Utilities 
                 Orlando 
                 FL 
                 8,423,056 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Commission 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 2 
                 Sherburne County 
                 Xcel Energy 
                 Becker 
                 MN 
                 4,721,862 
               
               
                   
                 Generating Plant 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 3 
                 Coal Creek Station 
                 Great River Energy 
                 Underwood 
                 ND 
                 4,372,709 
               
               
                 4 
                 Scherer Steam Electric  
                 Georgia Power/ 
                 Juliette 
                 GA 
                 4,114,502 
               
               
                   
                 Plant 
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 5 
                 Detroit Edison 
                 DTE Energy 
                 Monroe 
                 MI 
                 4,110,859 
               
               
                   
                 Monroe Power Plant 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 6 
                 Gibson Generating 
                 Duke Energy 
                 Owensville 
                 IN 
                 3,030,524 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 7 
                 Gorgas Steam Plant 
                 Alabama Power/ 
                 Parrish 
                 AL 
                 2,888,290 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 8 
                 Cholla Power Plant 
                 Arizona Public 
                 Joseph City 
                 AZ 
                 2,863,427 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Service Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 9 
                 Wansley Steam Plant 
                 Georgia Power/ 
                 Roopville 
                 GA 
                 2,673,672 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 10 
                 Ghent Generating 
                 E.ON US 
                 Ghent 
                 KY 
                 2,664,501 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 11 
                 J.M. Stuart Station 
                 Dayton Power &amp; 
                 Manchester 
                 OH 
                 2,456,637 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Light, Duke, AEP 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 12 
                 Harllee Branch 
                 Georgia Power/ 
                 Milledgeville  
                 GA 
                 2,433,945 
               
               
                   
                 Generating Plant 
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 13 
                 Barry Steam Plant 
                 Alabama Power/ 
                 Bucks 
                 AL 
                 2,350,349 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 14 
                 Gaston Steam Plant 
                 Alabama Power/ 
                 Wilsonville 
                 AL 
                 2,306,006 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 15 
                 Miller Steam Plant 
                 Alabama Power/ 
                 Quinton 
                 AL 
                 2,160,349 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 16 
                 La Cygne Generating 
                 Great Plains Energy 
                 Lacygne 
                 KS 
                 2,127,000 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 17 
                 Gallatin Fossil Plant 
                 Tennessee Valley 
                 Gallatin 
                 TN 
                 2,093,068 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Authority 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 18 
                 Boswell Energy 
                 Minnesota Power 
                 Cohasset 
                 MN 
                 2,009,628 
               
               
                   
                 Center 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 19 
                 Leland Olds Station 
                 Basin Electric Power 
                 Stanton 
                 ND 
                 1,937,821 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Cooperative 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 20 
                 Widows Creek Fossil 
                 Tennessee Valley 
                 Stevenson 
                 AL 
                 1,864,177 
               
               
                   
                 Plant 
                 Authority 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 21 
                 Paradise Fossil Plant 
                 Tennessee Valley 
                 Drakesboro 
                 KY 
                 1,765,148 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Authority 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 22 
                 Labadie Power Station 
                 AmerenUE 
                 Labadie 
                 MO 
                 1,740,882 
               
               
                 23 
                 Kingston Fossil Plant 
                 Tennessee Valley 
                 Harriman 
                 TN 
                 1,738,437 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Authority 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 24 
                 Cardinal Plant 
                 American Electric 
                 Brilliant 
                 OH 
                 1,707,225 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 25 
                 Bowen Steam Plant 
                 Georgia Power/ 
                 Cartersville  
                 GA 
                 1,684,118 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 26 
                 Pearl Station 
                 Soyland Power 
                 Pearl 
                 IL 
                 1,661,744 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Cooperative 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 27 
                 New Madrid Power 
                 Associated Electric 
                 Marston 
                 MO 
                 1,514,440 
               
               
                   
                 Plant 
                 Cooperative 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 28 
                 Kammer and Mitchell 
                 American Electric 
                 Moundsville 
                 WV 
                 1,372,687 
               
               
                   
                 Plants 
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 29 
                 Kyger Creek Station 
                 Ohio Valley Electric 
                 Cheshire 
                 OH 
                 1,356,475 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Corp. 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 30 
                 Greene County Steam 
                 Alabama Power/ 
                 Forkland 
                 AL 
                 1,343,973 
               
               
                   
                 Plant 
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 31 
                 Baldwin Energy 
                 Dynegy 
                 Baldwin 
                 IL 
                 1,324,467 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 32 
                 Rush Island Power 
                 AmerenUE 
                 Festus 
                 MO 
                 1,307,769 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 33 
                 Karn and Weadock 
                 Consumers Energy 
                 Essexville 
                 MI 
                 1,171,382 
               
               
                   
                 Generating Plants 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 34 
                 Cayuga Generating 
                 Duke Energy 
                 Cayuga 
                 IL 
                 1,154,623 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 35 
                 Council Bluffs Energy 
                 MidAmerican Energy 
                 Council 
                 IA 
                 1,092,320 
               
               
                   
                 Center 
                   
                 Bluffs 
                   
                   
               
               
                 36 
                 Chesterfield Power 
                 Dominion 
                 Chester 
                 VA 
                 1,088,260 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 37 
                 Milton R. Young 
                 Minnkota Power 
                 Center 
                 ND 
                 1,036,290 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                 Cooperative 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 38 
                 Wabash River 
                 Duke Energy 
                 W. Terre 
                 IN 
                 951,610 
               
               
                   
                 Generating Station 
                   
                 Haute 
                   
                   
               
               
                 39 
                 A. B. Brown 
                 Vectren 
                 Mount 
                 IL 
                 944,944 
               
               
                   
                 Generating Station 
                   
                 Vernon 
                   
                   
               
               
                 40 
                 Big Sandy Plant 
                 American Electric 
                 Louisa 
                 KY 
                 915,079 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 41 
                 Amos Plant 
                 American Electric 
                 Winfield 
                 WV 
                 864,024 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 42 
                 Big Cajun II 
                 NRG Energy 
                 New Roads 
                 LA 
                 860,640 
               
               
                 43 
                 Hammond Steam 
                 Georgia Power/ 
                 Rome 
                 GA 
                 849,068 
               
               
                   
                 Generating Station 
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 44 
                 Tanners Creek Plant 
                 American Electric 
                 Lawrenceburg 
                 IN 
                 819,840 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 45 
                 Muskingum River 
                 American Electric 
                 Beverly 
                 OH 
                 791,757 
               
               
                   
                 Plant 
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 46 
                 Mayo Generating 
                 Progress Energy 
                 Roxboro 
                 NC 
                 786,128 
               
               
                   
                 Plant 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 47 
                 Killen Generating 
                 Dayton Power &amp; 
                 Manchester 
                 OH 
                 715,435 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                 Light, Duke Energy 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 48 
                 Roxboro Steam Plant 
                 Progress Energy 
                 Semora 
                 NC 
                 698,290 
               
               
                 49 
                 Trimble County 
                 E.ON US 
                 Bedford 
                 KY 
                 637,434 
               
               
                   
                 Generating Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 50 
                 E.W. Brown 
                 E.ON US 
                 Harrodsburg 
                 KY 
                 637,230 
               
               
                   
                 Generating Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 51 
                 George Neal Station 
                 MidAmerican Energy 
                 Sergeant 
                 IA 
                 612,005 
               
               
                   
                 North 
                   
                 Bluff 
                   
                   
               
               
                 52 
                 Clifty Creek Station 
                 Ohio Valley Electric 
                 Madison 
                 IN 
                 590,808 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Corp. 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 53 
                 Welsh Power Plant 
                 American Electric 
                 Pittsburg 
                 TX 
                 562,064 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 54 
                 Coleto Creek Power 
                 International Power 
                 Fannin 
                 TX 
                 550,623 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 55 
                 L. V. Sutton Electric 
                 Progress Energy 
                 Wilmington 
                 NC 
                 548,210 
               
               
                   
                 Plant 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 56 
                 Laramie River Station  
                 Basin Electric Power  
                 Wheatland 
                 WY 
                 541,970 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Cooperative 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 57 
                 Lansing Smith 
                 Gulf Power/ 
                 Southport 
                 FL 
                 520,282 
               
               
                   
                 Generating Plant 
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 58 
                 Naughton Power Plant 
                 PacifiCorp/ 
                 Kemmerer 
                 WY 
                 517,966 
               
               
                   
                   
                 MidAmerican Energy 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 59 
                 Meramec Power Plant 
                 AmerenUE 
                 Saint Louis 
                 MO 
                 481,318 
               
               
                 60 
                 Shawnee Fossil Plant 
                 Tennessee Valley 
                 West 
                 KY 
                 467,616 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Authority 
                 Paducah 
                   
                   
               
               
                 61 
                 Brayton Point Station  
                 Dominion 
                 Somerset 
                 MA 
                 464,254 
               
               
                 62 
                 Duck Creek Station 
                 Ameren 
                 Canton 
                 IL 
                 462,272 
               
               
                 63 
                 Twin Oaks Power 
                 OptimEnergy 
                 Bremond 
                 TX 
                 449,002 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 64 
                 Conesville Power 
                 American Electric 
                 Conesville 
                 OH 
                 447,846 
               
               
                   
                 Plant 
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 65 
                 G.G. Allen Steam 
                 Duke Energy 
                 Belmont 
                 NC 
                 439,208 
               
               
                   
                 Plant 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 66 
                 Montrose Station 
                 Great Plains Energy  
                 Clinton 
                 MO 
                 422,100 
               
               
                 67 
                 Allen Fossil Plant 
                 Tennessee Valley 
                 Memphis 
                 TN 
                 416,705 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Authority 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 68 
                 Cliffside Plant 
                 Duke Energy 
                 Mooresboro 
                 NC 
                 413,459 
               
               
                 69 
                 Asheville Plant 
                 Progress Energy 
                 Arden 
                 NC 
                 411,793 
               
               
                 70 
                 Meredosia Power 
                 Ameren 
                 Meredosia 
                 IL 
                 398,106 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 71 
                 Louisa Generating 
                 MidAmerican Energy 
                 Muscatine 
                 IA 
                 382,063 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 72 
                 Asbury Generating 
                 Empire District 
                 Asbury 
                 MO 
                 381,186 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                 Electric Co. 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 73 
                 H. W. Pirkey Power 
                 American Electric 
                 Hallsville 
                 TX 
                 380,111 
               
               
                   
                 Plant 
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 74 
                 Yates Steam 
                 Georgia Pacific/ 
                 Newnan 
                 GA 
                 376,610 
               
               
                   
                 Generating Plant 
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 75 
                 Joppa Steam Plant 
                 Ameren 
                 Joppa 
                 IL 
                 366,675 
               
               
                 76 
                 Havana Power Station 
                 Ameren 
                 Havana 
                 IL 
                 360,772 
               
               
                 77 
                 Apache Generating 
                 Arizona Electric 
                 Cochise 
                 AZ 
                 360,465 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                 Power Cooperative 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 78 
                 Canadys Station 
                 SCE&amp;G/SCANA 
                 Canadys 
                 SC 
                 357,897 
               
               
                 79 
                 Lee Steam Plant 
                 Progress Energy 
                 Goldsboro 
                 NC 
                 356,078 
               
               
                 80 
                 Kincaid Generating 
                 Dominion 
                 Kincaid 
                 IL 
                 355,108 
               
               
                   
                 Plant 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 81 
                 Cape Fear Steam Plant 
                 Progress Energy 
                 Moncure 
                 NC 
                 334,076 
               
               
                 82 
                 Intermountain Power 
                 Intermountain Power 
                 Delta 
                 UT 
                 333,589 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                 Service Corp. 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 83 
                 Frank Ratts 
                 Hoosier Energy 
                 Petersburg 
                 IN 
                 330,014 
               
               
                   
                 Generating Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 84 
                 McDonough/ 
                 Georgia Power/ 
                 Smyrna 
                 GA 
                 318,051 
               
               
                   
                 Atkinson Steam Plant 
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 85 
                 Petersburg Generating 
                 AES 
                 Petersburg 
                 IN 
                 309,961 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 86 
                 Dolet Hills Power 
                 Cleco 
                 Mansfield 
                 LA 
                 291,208 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 87 
                 Rockport Plant 
                 American Electric 
                 Rockport 
                 IN 
                 281,995 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 88 
                 Buck Steam Station 
                 Duke Energy 
                 Spencer 
                 NC 
                 279,190 
               
               
                 89 
                 Hugo Plant 
                 Western Farmers 
                 Hugo 
                 OK 
                 275,203 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Electric Cooperative 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 90 
                 Wood River Station 
                 Dynegy 
                 Alton 
                 IL 
                 267,066 
               
               
                 91 
                 Gallagher Generating  
                 Duke Electric 
                 New Albany 
                 IN 
                 260,183 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 92 
                 Oklaunion Power 
                 American Electric 
                 Vernon 
                 TX 
                 254,652 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 93 
                 Gadsden Steam Plant 
                 Alabama Power/ 
                 Gadsden 
                 AL 
                 249,740 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Southern Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 94 
                 Iatan Generating 
                 Great Plains Energy  
                 Weston 
                 MO 
                 240,245 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 95 
                 Sioux Power Plant 
                 AmerenUE 
                 West Alton 
                 MO 
                 226,193 
               
               
                 96 
                 Flint Creek Power 
                 American Electric 
                 Gentry 
                 AR 
                 221,456 
               
               
                   
                 Plant 
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 97 
                 Riverton Power Plant 
                 Empire District 
                 Riverton 
                 KS 
                 212,688 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Electric Company 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 98 
                 Spurlock Power 
                 East Kentucky Power 
                 Maysville 
                 KY 
                 196,954 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                 Cooperative 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 99 
                 Jeffrey Energy Center 
                 Westar Energy 
                 Saint Marys  
                 KS 
                 190,417 
               
               
                 100 
                 W.S. Lee Steam 
                 Duke Energy 
                 Pelzer 
                 SC 
                 190,030 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Total 
                 114,790,602 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The EPA has found that, since 2004, ninety percent (90%) of coal burning power plants in the U.S. violate the Clean Water Act. Many violations are accidental, but they all pose significant health risks and risks to the environment, particularly since combustion reduces the volume of coal by eighty-five percent (85%), which results in a significant increase in the concentration of all of the byproducts of coal burning processes. Some of the hazards of coal waste were apparent after Oct. 11, 2000, when an estimated three hundred six million (306,000,000) gallons of coal mining sludge burst through the bottom of a Massey Energy coal slurry impoundment in Martin County, Ky., filling Wolf Creek and Coldwater Fork, two tributaries of the Tug River. That disaster killed all aquatic life in the affected tributaries, leaving sludge over five feet thick along parts of their banks and adjacent land and poisoning the water supply for about 27,000 people. The Martin County coal fly ash slurry spill was thirty (30) times as big as the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Other fly ash spills, including the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill on Dec. 22, 2008, have had similarly disastrous effects on the environment. 
     There are a number of additional sites where similar disasters could happen. The EPA has released a list of “high hazard” dumps for coal waste (including fly ash), which includes the forty-four (44) sites listed below: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Owner 
                 Site 
                 Facility 
                 Location 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 E.ON-owned Kentucky 
                 Ghent Generating 
                 Ash Pond Basin 1 
                 Ghent, KY 
               
               
                 Utilities Company 
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 E.ON-owned Kentucky 
                 Ghent Generating 
                 Ash Pond Basin 2 
                 Ghent, KY 
               
               
                 Utilities Company 
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 E.ON-owned Louisville 
                 Cane Run Station 
                 Ash Pond 
                 Louisville, KY 
               
               
                 Gas &amp; Electric Co 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 PPL Montana LLC 
                 Colstrip Steam Plant  
                 Units 1 &amp; 2 Stage 
                 Colstrip, MT 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Evaporation Ponds (STEP) 
                   
               
               
                 Progress Energy 
                 Asheville Plant 
                 1982 Pond 
                 Arden, NC 
               
               
                 Carolinas Inc 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Progress Energy 
                 Asheville Plant 
                 1964 Pond 
                 Arden, NC 
               
               
                 Carolinas Inc 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Allegheny Energy 
                 Pleasants Power Station 
                 McElroy&#39; s Run Embankment 
                 Willow Island, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 WV 
               
               
                 American Electric 
                 Big Sandy Plant 
                 Fly Ash 
                 Louisa, KY 
               
               
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 American Electric 
                 Cardinal Plant 
                 Fly Ash Reservoir 2 
                 Brilliant, OH 
               
               
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 American Electric 
                 Gavin Plant 
                 Fly Ash Pond 
                 Cheshire, OH 
               
               
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 American Electric 
                 Gavin Plant 
                 Bottom Ash Pond 
                 Cheshire, OH 
               
               
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 American Electric 
                 Amos Plant 
                 Fly Ash Pond 
                 St. Albans, WV 
               
               
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 American Electric 
                 Mitchell Plant 
                 Fly Ash Pond 
                 Moundsville, 
               
               
                 Power 
                   
                   
                 WV 
               
               
                 American Electric 
                 Muskingum River Plant 
                 Unit 5 Bottom Ash Pond 
                 Waterford, OH 
               
               
                 Power 
                   
                 (Lower Fly Ash Pond) 
                   
               
               
                 American Electric 
                 Muskingum River Plant 
                 Upper Fly Ash Pond 
                 Waterford, OH 
               
               
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 American Electric 
                 Muskingum River Plant 
                 Middle Fly Ash Pond 
                 Waterford, OH 
               
               
                 Power 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 American Electric 
                 Philip Sporn Power 
                 Fly Ash Pond 
                 New Haven, WV 
               
               
                 Power 
                 Plant 
                   
                   
               
               
                 American Electric 
                 Tanners Creek Plant 
                 Fly Ash Pond 
                 Lawrenceburg, 
               
               
                 Power 
                   
                   
                 IN 
               
               
                 Arizona Electric Power  
                 Apache Generating 
                 Ash Pond 4 
                 Cochise, AZ 
               
               
                 Cooperative 
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Arizona Electric Power  
                 Apache Generating 
                 Ash Pond 1 
                 Cochise, AZ 
               
               
                 Cooperative 
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Arizona Electric Power  
                 Apache Generating 
                 Ash Pond 3 
                 Cochise, AZ 
               
               
                 Cooperative 
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Arizona Electric Power  
                 Apache Generating 
                 Scrubber Pond 2 
                 Cochise, AZ 
               
               
                 Cooperative 
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Arizona Electric Power  
                 Apache Generating 
                 Scrubber Pond 1 
                 Cochise, AZ 
               
               
                 Cooperative 
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Arizona Electric Power  
                 Apache Generating 
                 Evaporation 1 
                 Cochise, AZ 
               
               
                 Cooperative 
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Arizona Electric Power  
                 Apache Generating 
                 Ash Pond 2 
                 Cochise, AZ 
               
               
                 Cooperative 
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Arizona Public Service  
                 Cholla Generating 
                 Bottom Ash Pond 
                 Joseph City, AZ 
               
               
                 Company 
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Arizona Public Service  
                 Cholla Generating 
                 Fly Ash Pond 
                 Joseph City, AZ 
               
               
                 Company 
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Duke Energy 
                 G.G. Allen Steam 
                 Plant Active Ash Pond 
                 Belmont, NC 
               
               
                 Duke Energy 
                 Belews Creek Steam 
                 Active Ash Pond 
                 Walnut Cove, 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                 NC 
               
               
                 Duke Energy 
                 Buck Steam Station 
                 New Primary Pond 
                 Spencer, NC 
               
               
                 Duke Energy 
                 Buck Steam Station 
                 Secondary Pond 
                 Spencer, NC 
               
               
                 Duke Energy 
                 Buck Steam Station 
                 Primary Pond 
                 Spencer, NC 
               
               
                 Duke Energy 
                 Dan River Steam 
                 Secondary Pond 
                 Eden, NC 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Duke Energy 
                 Dan River Steam 
                 Primary Pond 
                 Eden, NC 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Duke Energy 
                 Marshall Steam Station  
                 Active Ash Pond 
                 Terrell, NC 
               
               
                 Duke Energy 
                 Riverbend Steam 
                 Secondary Pond 
                 Mount Holly, 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                 NC 
               
               
                 Duke Energy 
                 Riverbend Steam 
                 Primary Pond 
                 Mount Holly, 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                 NC 
               
               
                 Dynegy Midwest 
                 Havana Power Station 
                 East Ash Pond 
                 Havana, IL 
               
               
                 Generation 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Dynegy Midwest 
                 Wood River Station 
                 East Ash Pond (2 cells) 
                 Alton, IL 
               
               
                 Generation 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 FirstEnergy 
                 Bruce Mansfield Power 
                 Little Blue Run Dam 
                 Shippingport, PA 
               
               
                   
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Southern Company- 
                 Branch Generating Plant 
                 E 
                 Milledgeville, 
               
               
                 owned Georgia Power 
                   
                   
                 GA 
               
               
                 E.ON-owned Kentucky 
                 E.W. Brown Generating 
                 Auxiliary Pond 
                 Harrodsburg, KY 
               
               
                 Utilities Company 
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 E.ON-owned Kentucky 
                 E.W. Brown Generating 
                 Ash Pond 
                 Harrodsburg, KY 
               
               
                 Utilities Company 
                 Station 
                   
                   
               
               
                 E.ON-owned Kentucky 
                 Ghent Generating 
                 Gypsum Stacking Facility 
                 Ghent, KY 
               
               
                 Utilities Company 
                 Station 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In the U.S., coal waste dumps contain billions of gallons of fly ash and other toxic coal waste. All of these sites are threats to water supplies, human health and the environment. 
     SUMMARY 
     This disclosure includes methods for processing toxic waste, including the byproducts of coal burning processes, or “coal waste” or “coal combustion residuals” (“CCRs”), which includes fly ash, sludge and a variety of toxic materials. A method for processing toxic materials, such as coal waste, includes forming artificial feldspar that includes one or more toxic materials (e.g., fly ash, etc.). The artificial feldspar is tailored for use as an aggregate in concrete and other cementitious materials, as road base and/or for compatibility with a host site. 
     In a specific embodiment, fly ash and, optionally, other coal waste and/or additives are mixed with an aqueous material (e.g., water; sludge, or liquid waste, produced by coal crushing, cleaning and/or burning processes; etc.) and retained, or allowed to set. As the mixture sets, alumina silicate clusters form. Once alumina silicate clusters have formed, the mixture is introduced into a continuous flow/batch reactor (“CFR”) of a known type. In some embodiments, the CFR may heat the mixture to a temperature of up to 1,400° F., or an even higher temperature. The temperature of the CFR and the duration of time for which the mixture is subjected to processing by the CFR may correspond to an intended compound and product (e.g., aggregate, road base, fill material, etc.) in terms of particle size, shape, density and other characteristics. The product traps any toxic materials present in the fly ash in a manner and concentration similar to those in which the toxic materials were originally present in coal, which may result in a product that is only about as toxic as the coal from which it was derived and, in some embodiments, may be less toxic than the coal from which it was derived. Thus, the safety of the product will not be as questionable as the safety of fly ash, and the product can be safely used in a variety of different ways, introduced into virtually any environment or disposed of in a safe and effective manner. 
     Environmentally safe compounds and products that result from such processes are also disclosed. An environmentally safe compound includes artificial feldspar formed from coal waste, including fly ash. Individual pieces or particles of the compound may have a configuration suitable for introduction into a predetermined disposal site, for example, they may match the configurations and other characteristics of pieces or particles of materials that are already present at the disposal site, including, without limitation, naturally occurring materials at the disposal site. Various embodiments of such configurations include aggregates for use with binders (e.g., cementitious binders, asphalt, etc.), as road base or as a fill material (e.g., gravel, sand, dirt, etc.). 
     In some embodiments, an environmentally safe compound may be incorporated into a material (e.g., a construction material, etc.) that may be used to form a structure. Non-limiting examples of such materials include cementitious materials (e.g., concrete, mortar, etc.) and asphalts. Thus, the predetermined disposal site may be a structure formed from a material that includes the environmentally safe compound. Alternatively, an environmentally safe compound that has been formed from coal waste, including fly ash, may be disposed of as a road base, as a fill material or in any other suitable manner. 
     Other aspects, as well as features and advantages of various aspects, of the disclosed subject matter will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art through consideration of the ensuing description, the accompanying drawings and the appended claims. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       In the drawings: 
         FIG. 1  is a pie chart showing different categories of sources of electricity available in the United States of America in 2009 and the percentage of total electricity provided by each category of sources; and 
         FIG. 2  is an image of artificial feldspar made in accordance with teachings of this disclosure. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     In various embodiments, methods for converting toxic materials, such as coal waste (e.g., fly ash, sludge, etc.) include forming artificial feldspar from the toxic materials or incorporating the toxic materials into artificial feldspar. 
     Such a process includes forming a mixture, or slurry, that includes toxic material(s). In embodiments where the toxic material(s) comprise(s) coal waste, the mixture may include fly ash and an aqueous component (e.g., water, sludge, other liquid waste, etc.). Some mixtures may include one or more additives that will impart the resulting artificial feldspar with one or more desired characteristics. As a non-limiting example, in embodiments where the artificial feldspar comprises an aggregate, anorthite (e.g., in the form of crushed dolomite, etc.) may be added to the mixture in an amount sufficient to impart the artificial aggregate with a desired amount of durability (e.g., about eight percent (8%), by weight of the mixture, to about twelve percent (12%), by weight of the mixture, etc.). After forming the mixture, it is retained, or allowed to set. As the mixture sets, alumina silicate clusters form. The alumina silicate clusters contain the toxic materials. 
     After alumina silicate clusters have formed, the mixture is introduced into a CFR of a known type. The CFR may be part of a fixed facility or it may comprise a mobile unit. As another alternative, naturally occurring fumaroles may be used as a CFR to convert the toxic material(s) to (an) environmentally safe product(s). 
     The temperature to which the mixture is exposed in the CFR, and the amount of time that the mixture is exposed to the elevated temperature of the CFR are tailored to provide artificial feldspar with desired characteristics. In some embodiments, a CFR may heat the mixture to a temperature of up to 1,400° F. 
     In embodiments where the toxic material comprises coal waste, subjecting the mixture to CFR processing will heat mercury in the coal waste, and cause the mercury to evaporate. The evaporated mercury may be collected. In vapor form, the mercury can be collected by passing the entire gas stream released from the CFR through a series of centrifuges, which separate the mercury vapors on the basis of density. Alternatively, the mercury may be condensed, then collected and used (or sold) for a variety of purposes. 
     The artificial feldspar that results from such a process has at least two predetermined properties. The CFR process provides each artificially made feldspar molecule with an initial content of (4) molecules of water, leaving four (4) additional sites available for water molecules to occupy of the eight (8) total available sites on each feldspar molecule. Thus, the artificial feldspar will be unable to transport solutes until eight (8) water molecules have associated themselves with the feldspar molecule—an event that takes at least 10,000 years to occur in natural sites that are not normally exposed to liquid groundwater. In addition, the CFR process forms a silicon coating on the artificial feldspar, encasing any toxic materials present in the artificial feldspar. 
     The CFR is configured to provide an environmentally safe product with a desired physical configuration (e.g., particle size, shape, etc.). When a CFR is used to form artificial feldspar, it is possible to form the artificial feldspar into any of a variety of configurations, including small particles, pellets, larger pieces and molded block. The artificial feldspar may be configured in a manner suitable for its intended use. A few examples include dry masonry, artificial aggregates, road base and fill materials.  FIG. 2  provides an image of a specific embodiment of artificial feldspar, or an environmentally safe product, that may be formed by such a process. 
     Processes for forming artificial feldspar may be performed without the production of any byproducts that require additional purification (i.e., unsafe byproducts, etc.). 
     Artificial aggregates may be configured for use in a variety of materials, including, without limitation, concrete and other cementitous materials, asphalt and other construction materials. An artificial aggregate may be tailored to have a desired hardness and/or durability. As an example, an artificial aggregate that includes dolomite or another source of anorthite may have a rating of nine (9) out of ten (10) on the Los Angeles Scale of Strength and Durability. Some embodiments of artificial aggregate may have a higher strength and durability than aggregate obtained from naturally occurring sources. Construction materials that include artificial aggregate are useful for forming a variety of structures, including, but not limited to, pavement. Artificial aggregates may have a configuration (e.g., shape, dimensions, etc.) that matches or substantially matches the configuration of natural aggregates. 
     As a fill material, the artificial feldspar may comprise common engineering fill (e.g., 85% to 87% of MDD at OMC, reference ASTM or AASHTO, etc.). While fill materials that have been formed from artificial feldspar can be placed virtually anywhere, a few suitable locations include underground mines (e.g., mines that are subject to remediation and closure, etc.), open pit mines, berms, dikes and trenches. In some embodiments, artificial feldspar that is in the form of a fill material may be put into place in the same manner as ordinary engineering fill, then protected from surface water via a high plastic clay cap (common in civil engineering) having a thickness of about two feet to about three feet and covered with crushed rejects from any asphalt, concrete or stone production quarry/facility (e.g., for protection against flash floods, etc.). 
     In embodiments where the toxic material comprises coal waste, the toxic waste may be converted to an environmentally safe product at or near the coal burning power plant. In other embodiments, the process of converting toxic waste into an environmentally safe product is performed at or near a site where the environmentally safe product is to be used or otherwise disposed of. Conversion of toxic waste to an environmentally safe product at such a location will minimize issues related to handling and transportation. 
     In addition to reducing the detrimental impact of coal waste on the environment by providing a safe use for coal waste and other toxic materials, the production of artificial feldspar will have an added positive impact on the environment by reducing the need for exploration for aggregates, road base and fill materials. In addition, the use of coal waste to product artificial feldspar may reduce or eliminate the costs associated with identifying new sources for aggregates, road base and fill materials. 
     Additional information that may be useful in conjunction with the various aspects of the disclosed subject matter is set forth in International patent application no. PCT/US13/24232, filed on Jan. 31, 2013 and titled “NANO FLEX HLW/SPENT FUEL RODS RECYCLING AND PERMANENT DISPOSAL,” the entire disclosure of which is, by this reference, incorporated herein. 
     The disclosed embodiments should not be deemed to limit the scope of any of the claims that follow. The scope of each claim should be limited merely by its plain language, and should be deemed to include the full complement of available equivalents.