Patent Publication Number: US-2007099231-A1

Title: Bioelastomer

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD  
      The present invention is concerned with a bioelastomer based upon resilin and, more particularly, a bioelastomer comprising the repeat sequences in exon 1 of resilin. The present invention is also concerned with nanomachines, biosensors and like apparatus, in particular, those in which a polypeptide comprising the repeat sequences in exon 1 of resilin is, for example, a part of, a spring mechanism, or “nanospring”. The invention also provides the use of the bioelastomer in macroscopic applications. Fusion proteins with other polypeptides also form a part of the invention and may be used in various of these applications, as can hybrid molecules formed in other ways.  
     BACKGROUND ART  
      Resilin is a rubber-like protein which occurs in specialised regions of the insect cuticle and is the most efficient elastic material known. The elastic efficiency of the material is purported to be 97%; only 3% of stored energy is lost as heat. It confers long range elasticity to the cuticle and functions as both an energy store and as a damper of vibrations in insect flight systems. It is also used in the jumping mechanisms of fleas and grasshoppers.  
      The first description of resilin was by Weis-Fogh (1960). This was of elastic ligaments associated with the wings of the locust and elastic tendons in the flight musculature of the dragonfly. Resilin displays extraordinary elasticity (Weis-Fogh, 1960). The elastic tendon:from dragonflies can be stretched to over three times its original unstrained length without breaking and it returns immediately to its original length when the strain is released. No lasting deformations are present even after the sample has been kept in the stretched condition for weeks on end (Weis-Fogh, 1961a, 1961b).  
      Resilin has been found in the jumping mechanism of fleas (Bennet-Clark and Lucey, 1967; Neville and Rothschild, 1967) and in a number of other insect structures and in some crustaceans (Andersen and Weis-Fogh, 1964). It has been found in all insects investigated and also in crustaceans such as crayfish ( Astacus fluviatilis ) (Andersen and Weiss-Fogh, 1964), but appears to be absent from arachnids. Resilin has been found in the sound-producing organs of some insects, including cicadas (Young and Bennet-Clark, 1995) and moths (Skals and Surlykke, 1999). Resilin has also been found in some cuticular structures which are stretchable but possess no long-range elasticity, such as the abdominal wall of physogastric termite queens (Varman, 1980) and some ants (Varman, 1981).  
      The-two most outstanding properties of resilin are its elasticity and its insolubility. It is insoluble in water below 140° C. In many solvents, resilin swells considerably, especially in protein solvents such as, phenol, formamide, formic acid. Resilin also swells without going into solution in concentrated solutions of lithium thiocyanate and cupric ethylenediamine, solvents which are able to dissolve silk fibroins and cellulose. When resilin is placed in methanol, ethanol or acetone, it shrinks to a hard glassy substance as when dried in air. When placed back in water, it swells to its original size with no noticeable change in its elastic properties (Weis-Fogh, 1960).  
      The elastic properties of resilin are consistent with the requirements of polymer elasticity: the cross-linked molecules must be flexible and conformationally free. There are two theories to explain elastic behaviour of materials. The first is the so called “rubber theory”, which attributes rubber-like properties to a decrease in conformational entropy on deforming a network of kinetically free, random polymer molecules. The second is the theory of Urry and co-workers (Urry, 1988; Urry et al. 1995), which proposes that the elastic mechanism arises from the beta-spiral structure. Resilin and abductin behave as entropic elastomers, returning almost all of the energy stored in deformation. However, abductin has low proline content with no predicted β-turns and hence no β-spiral. The amino acid composition of resilin is more like that of elastin, with high proline, glycine and alanine content. Nevertheless, the sequences do not show similarities in alignment however and appear to be unrelated on an evolutionary basis.  
      An important property of resilin is the cross-linked nature of the insoluble resilin. This has been shown to be due to tyrosine cross-linking resulting in the formation of dityrosine moieties (Andersen, 1964; 1966); The precursors of resilin are probably soluble, non-cross-linked peptide chains, which are secreted from the apical surface of the epidermal cells into the subcuticular space, where they are rapidly cross-linked to form a three dimensional easily deformable protein network.  
      U.S. Pat. No. 6,127,166 entitled, “Molluscan ligament polypeptides and genes encoding them”, describes a mollusc protein based on the repeat sequences in abductin which can be used as a novel biomaterial. The gene encoding abductin is not related to the resilin gene (&lt;30% identity) and the formation of beta-turns is not predicted. The repeat sequence identified for abductin is GGFGGMGGGX, which does not contain tyrosine and therefore cannot cross-link through the formation of dityrosine links, as resilin does.  
      A polypeptide that comprises at least three beta-turn structures is described in International Publication No. WO 98/05685. The repeat sequence disclosed is based on human elastin. Elastin typically cross-links through the oxidisation and condensation of lysine side chains to produce hydrolysates which contain desmosine and isodesmosine. However, there is no suggestion in WO 98/05685 of dityrosine cross-link formation to link the beta-turns.  
      International Publication No. WO 02/00686 describes a nanomachine comprising a bioelastomer having repeating peptide monomeric units which form a series of beta-turns separated by dynamic bridging segments suspended between said beta-turns. The bioelastomers described are poor in tyrosine, and there is no suggestion of tyrosine cross-linking between the chains comprising beta-turns. To the contrary, the fundamental functional unit at the nanoscale dimension is the twisted filament, formed through coupling a plurality of individual chains to a multi-functional cap—adipic acid for the double-stranded filament, the Kemp tri-acid for the triple-stranded filament and EDTA for a quadruple-stranded filament.  
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
      The present invention is based on the discovery that a recombinant polypeptide expressed from exon 1 of the resilin gene from  Drosophilia melanogaster  may be cross-linked by dityrosine formation and form a bioelastomer, despite only amino acids 19-322 of a 620 amino acid polypeptide being present. While not wishing to be bound by theory it is proposed that a polypeptide having this amino acid sequence comprises a series of beta-turns which together form a beta-spiral, which can act as a readily deformed spring (a “nanospring”) in nanomachines and/or be cross-linked by dityrosine bond formation to form a novel bioelastomer.  
      According to a first aspect of the present invention there is provided a bioelastomer comprising a proresilin fragment capable of forming a plurality of beta-turns cross-linked through dityrosine formation.  
      Typically the fragment comprises the repeat sequences found in the N-terminal region of resilin. Advantageously, the resilin is Drosophilia melanogaster proresilin and a fragment comprising the 18 repeat sequences located in the region extending from residue 19 to 322 is cross-linked, although a smaller fragment from this region may be used provided it comprises sufficient beta-turns to produce a beta spiral.  
      The polypeptide typically has the amino acid sequence shown in  FIG. 6  (SEQ ID NO:1) in italics and is encoded by the nucleotide sequence set forth in italics in  FIG. 7  (SEQ ID NO:2). A histidine tag may be added to assist in purification, or other conventional genetic manipulations may be made.  
      According to a second aspect of the present invention there is provided an isolated polypeptide having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:9, 11, 12 or 13 or a fragment thereof capable of forming a plurality of beta-turns.  
      In these proteins such a fragment will additionally be able to cross-link through dityrosine formation due to the presence of tyrosine in most cases. It will be-appreciated that the isolated polypeptide may include conventional additions to the 5 such as histidine tags or be a chimera fused to proteins such as glutathione S-transferase, mannose binding protein, keyhole limpet haemocyanin or the like for purposes such as assisting in purification, enhancing immunogenicity and other purposes as would be well understood by the person skilled in the art.  
      According to a third aspect of the present invention there is provided an isolated nucleic acid which encodes the polypeptide of the second aspect.  
      It will be appreciated by the person skilled in the art that redundancy in the genetic code means that many different nucleic acids will encode these polypeptides. The principles involved in nucleotide selection in order to avoid rare codon usage and so on are well understood by the person skilled in the art.  
      Typically, the nucleotide sequence is as set forth in SEQ ID NO:8 or 10.  
      According to a fourth aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of preparing a bioelastomer, comprising the steps of:  
      (1) providing a pro-resilin fragment capable of forming a plurality of beta-turns and able to cross-link through dityrosine formation;  
      (2) initiating a cross-linking reaction; and  
      (3) isolating the bioelastomer.  
      Advantageously, the cross-linking is initiated through an enzyme-mediated cross-linking reaction, photo-induced cross-linking through photolysis of a tris-bipyridyl-Ru(II) complex in the presence of an electron acceptor or irradiation with gamma radiation, UVB or visible light.  
      According to a fifth aspect of the present invention there is provided a hybrid resilin a hybrid resilin comprising a pro-resilin fragment capable of farming a plurality of beta-turns and able to cross-link through dityrosine formation, and a second polymeric molecule, preferably selected from the group consisting of mussel byssus protein, spider silk protein, collagen, elastin, glutenin and fibronectin, or fragments thereof.  
      These “hybrid resilin” polymers will display new properties including resilience with high tensile strength, adhesion properties and cell interaction and adhesion.  
      A recombinant form of spider dragline silk protein has been successfully expressed in transformed mammalian cells in culture (Lazaris et al. 2002).  
      The mussel adhesive proteins Mefp-1,2 and 3 have also been expressed in  E. coli  and also synthesised chemically, (Deming, 1999)  
      Elastin has been produced in a recombinant form (Meyer and Chilkoti (2002).  
      Glutenin proteins, specifically the HMW-GS (high molecular weight glutenin subunits) are responsible for the elastomeric properties of dough (Parchment et al., 2001).  
      Advantageously, the isolated polypeptide is a his-tagged polypeptide having the amino acid sequence set forth in  FIG. 15  or is a polypeptide consisting of the amino acid sequence shown in italics in  FIG. 6 .  
      In an embodiment of the invention there is provided an isolated nucleic acid molecule comprising the nucleotide sequence set forth in  FIG. 7 . Further sequence may be added through conventional genetic manipulations. A strategy for the synthesis of genes encoding repetitive, protein based polymers of specific sequence, chain length and architecture is described by Meyer and Chilkoti (2002).  
      For example, one might synthesise a hybrid resilin gene comprising concatamers of the resilin repeat but with variations in the number and spacing of tyrosine residues. One might also synthesise a gene with hybrid sequences added to the resilin gene repeats. These additional genes might encode the Byssus plaque protein (Mefp) sequence or the elastin sequence or the fibronectin cell adhesion sequence motif (Arg-Gly-Asp-Ser/Val) or dragline spider silk protein sequence or collagen sequence.  
      These hybrid genes could then be cloned into a bacterial expression vector such as that described in the present invention for production of the novel recombinant protein(s).  
      Another modification includes the production of hybrid hydrogel systems assembled from water-soluble synthetic polymers and a well-defined protein-folding motif, in this case the resilin polypeptide unit. These hydrogels undergo temperature-induced collapse owing to the cooperative conformational transition of the coiled-coil protein domain. This system shows that well-characterized water-soluble synthetic polymers can be combined with well-defined folding motifs of proteins in hydrogels with engineered volume-change properties. This technology has been described by Wang et al (1999).  
      In an embodiment the hybrid resilin comprises a first polypeptide as described above and a second polypeptide fused to the first polypeptide.  
      The fusion protein may be cross-linked through dityrosine cross-links, but need not necessarily be cross-linked. For example, the first polypeptide comprising a series of beta-turns in sufficient number to form a beta-spiral may be fused to a second peptide without cross-linking to form a spring mechanism in a nanomachine although, the first polypeptide may be cross-linked. Alternatively, the second polypeptide may be-an enzyme, in order to allow the introduction of functionality to a bioelastomer, an immunoglobulin, a structural protein such as silk fibroin which can then be woven into an extremely light, resilient and durable thread or filament, or any, other polypeptide.  
      According to a sixth aspect of the present invention there is provided a nanomachine comprising pro-resilin or a pro-resilin fragment capable of forming a plurality of beta-turns and able to cross-link through dityrosine formation acting as a spring mechanism and the device upon which said spring mechanism acts.  
      According to a seventh aspect of the present invention there is provided a biosensor comprising pro-resilin or a pro-resilin fragment capable of forming a plurality of beta-turns and able to cross-link through dityrosine formation, or a bioelastomer as described above or a hybrid resilin as described above.  
      According to an eighth aspect of the present invention there is provided a manufactured article consisting of or comprising a bioelastomer as described above or a hybrid resilin as described above. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       FIG. 1  is a schematic illustration of how elastomeric polypeptides work;  
       FIG. 2  shows the beta-spiral structure in UDP-N-acetylglucosamine acyltransferase;  
       FIG. 3  is an alternative representation of the beta-spiral elastic protein structure using a space filling model;  
       FIG. 4  shows the nature of the dityrosine cross-link in proteins;  
       FIG. 5  is a schematic illustration of cross-linking in a bioelastomer such as is created by the formation of tyrosine cross-links;  
       FIG. 6  shows the amino acid sequence of the resilin gene from Drosophilia melangogaster;  
       FIG. 7  shows the DNA sequence from the coding region of the resilin gene from  Drosophilia melanogaster;    
       FIG. 8  shows the PCR reaction products using primers RESF3 and RESPEPR1 which shows that expression and purification of soluble  Drosophilia  pro-resilin in  E. coli  has been achieved;  
       FIG. 9  shows a partial NdeI/ECOR1 digest of a resilin clone;  
       FIG. 10  is a gel showing expression and purification of soluble Drosophilia pro-resilin in  E. coli;    
       FIG. 11  is a gel illustrating the cross-linking of soluble pro-resilin with peroxidase enzymes has taken place;  
       FIG. 12  is a photograph of a sample of uncrossed-linked resilin in test A and cross-linked resilin in test tube B;  
       FIG. 13  shows graphically the fluorescence spectrum of cross-linked resilin;  
       FIG. 14  gives the amino acid sequence for cloned recombinant pro-resilin in accordance with the present invention;  
       FIG. 15  shows the sedimentation equilibrium analysis of resilin which gives a molecular weight estimate of soluble pro-resilin;  
       FIG. 16  shows expression of Resilin gene in  Drosophila  developmental stages:  
      A RT-PCR results showing expression of resilin gene using probes Res-1 compared to the control gene RpP0 during different developmental stages. cDNA was prepared using oligo-dT primed total RNA.  
      B. RT-PCR results showing expression of resilin gene using probes Res-2 compared to the control gene RpP0 during different developmental stages. cDNA was prepared using oligo-dT primed total RNA.  
      C. RT-PCR results showing expression of resilin gene using probes Res-1 compared to the control gene 18S rRNA gene during different developmental stages. cDNA was prepared using random hexamer-primed total RNA; and  
       FIG. 17  shows alignment of resilin gene and primers (Res-1 and res-2) used in qRT-PCR expression experiments;  
       FIG. 18  is a graph showing force extension curves for recombinant resilin polymer;  
       FIG. 19  shows alignment of Drosophila 18S rRNA gene and primers used in qRT-PCT expression experiments. QPCT SYBR Green Assay;  
       FIG. 20  shows alignment of Drosophila Ribosomal Protein RpP0 gene and primers used in qRT-PCT SYBR-Green Assay expression experiments;  
       FIG. 21  is a gel demonstrating pro-resilin production in the method of Example 4;  
       FIG. 22  is a gel showing pro-resilin production under different induction conditions;  
       FIG. 23  is a gel showing the fractions emerging from a nickel column and demonstrating purification of recombinant pro-resilin;  
       FIG. 24  is a gel demonstrating pro-resilin production in an auto-induction method;  
       FIG. 25  is a gel showing that cross-linking takes place after one (1) hour of irradiation of a pro-resilin solution with gamma radiation;  
       FIG. 26  is a gel showing that cross-linking of a pro-resilin solution takes place after exposure to UVB radiation;  
       FIG. 27  is a gel showing cross-linking of pro-resilin with UV radiation in the presence of riboflavin;  
       FIG. 28  is a gel showing fluorescein cross-linking of pro-resilin with white light;  
       FIG. 29  shows the results of a further experiment with fluorescein cross-linking;  
       FIG. 30  shows the results of coumarin cross-linking with an ultraviolet mercury lamp as described in Example 14;  
       FIG. 31  plots percentage dityrosine cross-link formation from tyrosine residues in resilin against exposure time (in minutes) to white light when fluorescein is added to the resilin;  
       FIG. 32  is a gel showing photo-induced cross-linking of pro-resilin exon 1 recombinant protein as described in Example 16. Irradiation was for ten (10) seconds. Lane 1: molecular weight standard; Lane 2: resilin only; Lane 3: resilin plus S 2 O 8 ; Lane 4: resilin plus ((Ru)II) (pby 3 ) 2+ ; Lane 5: resilin plus S 2 O 8 ; plus ((Ru)II) (PBY 3 ) 2+ ; and  
       FIG. 33  shows the effect of ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+  dilution on degree of soluble pro-resilin (1 mg/ml in PBS) crosslinking. Lane 1: resilin+S 2 O 8 +((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+  (no light); lane 2: resilin+S 2 O 8 ; lane 4: resilin+((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+ ; lane 5: resilin+S 2 O 8 +200 μM ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+ ; Lane 6: resilin+S 2 O 8 +10 μM ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+ ; lane 7: resilin+S 2 O 8 +50 μM ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+ ; Lane 8: resilin+S 2 O 8 +25 μM ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+ ; Lane 9: resilin+S 2 O 8 +12.5 μM ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+ ; Lane 10: resilin+S 2 O 8 +6.25 μM ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+ ; Lane 11: resilin+S 2 O 8 +3.125 μM ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+ ; Lane 12: resilin+S 2 O 8 +1.56 μM ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3) 2+ ; and  
       FIG. 34  is a photograph of a shaped resilin product;  
       FIG. 35  is a graph giving a comparison of elastomer resilience for butadiene rubber(BR), butyl rubber (IIR), natural rubber (NR) and resilin;  
       FIG. 36  gives force distance curves for resilin samples;  FIG. 37  illustrates the homologies between resilin sequences from different insects; and  
       FIG. 38  is a graph of fluorescence vs time-which compares the fluorescence produced by various peroxidases when mused to cross-link pro-resilin. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION  
      The resilin gene (CG15920) was tentatively identified from the genome sequence of  Drosophila melanogaster  (Ardell, D H and Andersen, SO (2001), through analysis of the  Drosophila  genome database. The protein comprises short repeat sequences characteristic of other elastic proteins such as elastin and spider flagelliform silk, which are dominated by the VPGVG and GPGGX units, respectively. For these sequences it was suggested that they form beta-turns, and that the resulting series of beta turns forms a beta spiral (Ardell and Andersen, 2001), which can act as a readily deformed spring (a “nanospring”).  
       FIG. 1  shows schematically how a beta-spiral structure as in the present invention may revert from an extended position back to a rest position. This is an entropy-driven process to which the rubbery properties of elastomeric polypeptides is frequently attributed.  FIGS. 2 and 3  show a typical beta-spiral structure (in this case from UDP-N-acetylglucosamine acyltransferase) which may extend and revert to a rest position in the manner illustrated in  FIG. 1 . The beta strands in  FIG. 2  are represented by arrow structures. These are connected by a beta-turn motif, and these are generally initiated by a 2 amino acid sequence of PG or GG. The provision of a plurality of beta-turn motifs allows the beta-strands to form a beta-spiral of the type shown in  FIG. 2  and, with a space filling model of a peptide from the HMW protein, in  FIG. 3  (from: Parchment et al. (2001). Tyrosine is able to form dityrosine through a free radical mechanism, as illustrated in  FIG. 4 . The present inventors have been able to prepare a bioelastomer from resilin through formation of dityrosine cross-links between monomer units. Uncrossed-linked monomeric units are also useful in certain applications such as in nanomachines.  
      In a particularly preferred embodiment of the present invention the polypeptides are cross-linked to form an insoluble gel from a solution, preferably one with a relatively high concentration of protein, more preferably a protein concentration greater than 10% w/v. The person skilled in the art will appreciate that solutions with a higher concentration of protein may be effectively cross-linked but economic considerations dictate that very high concentrations of protein will not be used, and that there is a limit to the concentration of protein which will remain in solution. Likewise, solutions with a lesser concentration of protein may be cross-linked although the gel resulting from this procedure may be less effective.  
      Any means of cross-linking may be employed provided that the dityrosine bonds are formed. These methods are well known to the person skilled in the art and are discussed by Malencik and Anderson (1996), the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.  
      In an embodiment enzyme-mediated cross-linking may be employed. Although peroxidases such as horseradish peroxidase and lactoperoxidase can form dityrosine cross-links between proteins, their specific activity towards tyrosine residues is only about 1% of the activity displayed by the Arthromyces peroxidase. This unique property of the fungal enzyme was identified and used by Malencik and Anderson (1996) to cross-link calmodulin (which contains only two Tyr residues) into a very large MW polymer.  
      Other systems can also be used to cross-link protein molecules via di-tyrosine cross-links. These include:  
      Other peroxidases could also be used to cross-link the soluble resilin into a polymer. These include: 
          A. Duox peroxidase from  Caenorhabditis elegans  which is responsible for the cross-linking of tyrosine residues in the cuticle. This enzyme has been shown to cause formation of dityrosine in worm cuticle proteins (Edens et al. 2001).     B. Sea urchin ovoperoxidases play an important role in hardening the egg membranes immediately following fertilisation. The genes encoding these enzymes have been cloned from two species of sea urchins (LaFleur, et al. 1998).        

      Chorion peroxidase from mature eggs of the mosquito  Aedes aegypti  eggs. (Nelson et al. 1994). This chorion peroxidase has a specific activity 100 times greater than horseradish peroxidase to tyrosine. The enzyme was shown to catalyse polypeptide and chorion protein cross-linking through dityrosine formation in vitro. The enzyme is responsible for chorion formation and hardening. In a further embodiment the PICUP (photo-induced-cross-linking of unmodified proteins) reaction, which is induced by very rapid, visible light photolysis of a tris-bipyridyl Ru(I) complex in the presence of an electroniceptor may be used to induce cross linking (Fancy and Kodadek, 1999).  
      Following irradiation, a Ru(III) ion is formed, which serves as an electron abstraction agent to produce a carbon radical within the polypeptide, preferentially at a tyrosine residue, and thus allows dityrosine link formation. This method of induction allows quantitative conversion of soluble resilin or pro-resilin fragments to a very high molecular weight aggregate. Moreover this method allows for convenient shaping of the bioelastomer by introducing recombinant resilin into a glass tube of the desired shape and irradiating the recombinant resilin contained therein.  
      In a further embodiment, gamma-irradiation may be employed for cross-linking resilin monomers, although care must be taken not to damage the protein through exposure to this radiation. UVB radiation cross-linking may also be undertaken in the presence of absence of riboflavin. In the absence of riboflavin a substantial amount of cross-linking takes place within one hour of exposure, but this; time is substantially reduced if riboflavin is present. Still further, cross-linking may be effected with ultra-violet light in the presence of coumarin or by white light in the presence of fluorescein. An analysis of the dityrosine may be performed using conventional methods such as high performance liquid chromatography measurements in order to ascertain the extent of dityrosine cross-link formation.  
      To determine the effect of cross-links and the optimal number of cross-links per monomer unit, the resilience of a cross-linked polymer can be measured using methods known in the art. The level of cross-linking can vary provided that the resulting resilin repeat polymer displays the requisite resilient properties. For example, when the cross-linking is by gamma-irradiation, the degree of cross-linking is a function of the time and energy of the irradiation. The time required to achieve a desired level of cross-linking may readily be computed by exposing non-cross-linked polymer to the source of radiation for different time intervals and determining the degree of resilience (elastic modulus) of the resulting cross-linked material for each time interval. By this experimentation, it will be possible to determine the irradiation time required to produce a level of resiliency appropriate for a particular application (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,474,851, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference).  
      The resilin repeat polymers are preferably lightly cross-linked. Preferably, the extent of cross-linking is at least about one cross-link for every five or ten to one hundred monomer units, e.g., one cross-link for every twenty to fifty monomer units. Indeed, we have found that about 18% of the available tyrosine in the pro-resilin monomer is converted to dityrosine following enzymatic oxidation of proresilin.  
      The extent of cross-linking may be monitored during the reaction or pre-determined by using a measured amount of reactants. For example., since-the dityrosine cross-link is fluorescent, the fluorescence spectrum of the reactant mixture may be monitored during the course of a reaction to determine the extent of cross-linking at any particular time. This is illustrated in  FIG. 14 , and allows for control of the reaction and the properties of the bioelastomer which results. Once the desired level of cross-linking is achieved (indicated by reaching a predetermined fluorescence intensity) a peroxidase-catalysed reaction may be quenched in a manner known to the person skilled in the art.  
      For example, glutathione can be added or the gel can be soaked in a solution of glutathione and glutathione peroxidase as described in Malencik and Anderson (1996).  
      Fusion proteins may be produced through cloning techniques known to the person skilled in the art. Alternatively, other means of linking molecules may be employed including covalent bonds, ionic bonds and hydrogen bonds or electrostatic interactions such as ion-dipole and dipole-dipole interactions. The linkage may be formed, for example, by the methods described above for cross-linking of the resilient component. It may be necessary to provide appropriate chemical moieties in the second component to allow cross-linking with the first, resilient component. Such moieties are well known to the person skilled in the art and include, for example, amino, and carboxylic groups. Where the second component is a protein, the association between the components can be effected by recombinant nucleic acid technology.  
      A hybrid resilin molecule can contain various numbers of both components. For example they can contain (a) one molecule of each component, (b) one molecule of the first component and a plurality of molecules (e.g., two to five hundred or ten to one hundred) of the second component, (c) a plurality of molecules of the first component and one molecule of the second component, or (d) a plurality of molecules of both components. Optimal numbers and positioning of inserted sequences can be determined by the person skilled in the art. The degree of linkage between the two components and the relative number of each component in the final hybrid resilin molecule can be varied so as to provide the desired level of the function of both components. The hybrid resilin molecules include those in which the fragments of the second component are inserted within the sequence of the resilin polypeptide. Alternatively, resilin repeat sequences can be inserted in the second component molecules. The inserted sequences can be inserted tandemly or alternately.  
      For example, to make biomaterials that require strength as well as resilience, a first component can be combined with a load-bearing second component. Examples of naturally occurring load-bearing polymers are collagen and silk or silk-like proteins, e.g., insect (or spider)-derived silk proteins. Other suitable types of polymers that could used as second components to endow strength include polyamides, polyesters, polyvinyls, polyethylenes, polyurethanes, polyethers, and polyimides. Hybrid resilin molecules that include such polymers have a variety of uses including, for example, artificial joint ligaments with increased resilience where the second component is collagen or a functional fragment thereof. Functional fragments of collagen include those with the following sequence: Gly-Pro-Hyp, where Hyp is hydroxyproline.  
      Alternatively, by using silk worm, an insect or spider silk protein (e.g., fibroin) or a functional fragment thereof, as the second component, an extremely light-weight, resilient, and durable thread or filament can be produced, which can be woven into a fabric. Such fabrics are useful in the manufacture, for example, of military clothing. Fragments of fibroin include those with the following sequences: Gly-Ala-Gly-Ala-Gly-Ser, Ala-Ser-Ala-Ala-Ala-Ala-Ala-Ala, Ser-Ser-Ala-Ala-Ala-Ala-Ala-Ala-Ala-Ala, and Ala-Ala-Ala-Ala-Ala-Ala-Ala-Ala.  
      The materials of the invention, i.e., resilin repeat polymers, or hybrid resilin molecules, can be manufactured-in various useful physical forms, e.g., woven or non-woven sheets, gels, foams, powders, or solutions. Furthermore, where desired, the materials, during manufacture, can be molded into appropriate shapes as, for example, in the case of medical prostheses such as vascular prostheses or joint prostheses.  
      When used in vivo, and in particular inside the body of a subject, e.g., a human patient, it is important that the material be biocompatible. A “biocompatible” material is not substantially mutagenic, antigenic, inflammatory, pyrogenic, or hemolytic. Furthermore, it must neither exhibit substantial cytotoxicity, acute systemic toxicity, or intracutaneous toxicity, nor significantly decrease clotting time. In vivo and in vitro tests for these undesirable biological activities are well known in the art; examples of such assays are given, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,527,610, the contents of which are incorporated by reference. Also, when used in vivo, the materials may be biogradable.  
      In light of their high glycine content, insolubility, chemical inertness and biodegradability, the resilin polypeptides and hybrid molecules used for in vivo applications (e.g., prostheses and tissue adhesion-preventing barriers) are likely to be substantially biocompatible. In the event that toxicity or immunogenicity, for example, occurs in a relevant material, methods for modulating these undesirable effects are known in the art. For example, “tanning” of the material by treating it with chemicals such as aldehydes (e.g., glutaraldehyde) or metaperiodate will substantially decrease both toxicity and immunogenicity. Preferably, the materials used to make devices for in vivo use are also sterilizable.  
      Resilin may be used to produce nanomachines and biosensors.  
      The entropy-driven extension and resilience of resilin, can be used in a number of nanomachine applications, including: 
          (A) MEMS applications of nanomachines. Significant improvements in micro-electro-mechanical device functions. Response times of such devices can be as short as milliseconds.     (B) Biosensor applications such as sensing the binding of drugs, xenobiotics and toxic chemical compounds. The nanomachine envisaged comprises an elastomer, such as resilin, coupled in series to a hydrophobically folded globular receptor protein. For example, it has been shown (Urry, 2001) that binding of one phosphate residue (to a kinase recognition sequence such as RGYSLG) per 300 residues of a repeat sequence in the elastomer titin, causes complete hydrophobic unfolding of the titin β-barrel. This would cause an increase in the contour length which could be measured.     (C) Acoustic absorption properties of the β-barrel nanomachine elastomers as described by Urry (2001).        

      Polypeptides of the present invention such as that derived from the first exon of the resilin gene, whose sequence is given in  FIG. 15 , can be prepared in any suitable manner. While chemical synthesis of such polypeptides is envisaged, it is preferred to transform an appropriate host cell with an expression vector which expresses the polypeptide. The design of a host-expression vector system is entirely within the capability of the person skilled in the art.  
      The expression systems that can be used for purposes of the invention include, but are not limited to, microorganisms such as bacteria (for example,  E. coli  including but not limited to  E. coli  strains BL21 (DE3) plysS, BL21;(DE3)RP and BL21* and  B. subtilis ) transformed with recombinant bacteriophage DNA, plasmid DNA, or cosmid DNA expression vectors containing the nucleotide sequences; yeast transformed with recombinant yeast expression vectors; insect cells infected with recombinant viral expression vectors (baculovirus); plant cell systems infected with recombinant viral expression vectors (e.g., cauliflower mosaic virus, CaMV; tobacco mosaic virus, TMV) or transformed with recombinant plasmid expression vectors; or mammalian cells (e.g., COS, CHO, BHK, 293, 3T3) harboring recombinant expression constructs containing promoters derived from the genome of mammalian cells (e.g. metallothionein promoter) or from mammalian viruses.  
      In bacterial systems, a number of expression vectors may be advantageously selected depending upon the use intended for the gene product being expressed. For example, when a large quantity of such a protein is to be produced vectors which direct the expression of high levels of fusion protein products that are readily purified may be desirable. Such vectors include, but are not limited to, the  E. coli  expression vector pETMCS1 (Miles et al, 1997), pUR278 (Ruther et al., EMBO J., 2:1791, 1983), in which the coding sequence may be ligated individually into the vector in frame with the lacZ coding region so that a fusion protein is produced; pIN vectors (Inouye &amp; Inouye, Nucleic Acids Res., 13:3101, 1985; Van Heeke &amp; Schuster, J. Biol. Chem., 264:5503, 1989); and the like. pGEX vectors may also be used to express foreign polypeptides as fusion proteins with glutathione S-transferase (GST). In general, such fusion proteins are soluble and can easily be purified from lysed cells by adsorption to glutathione-agarose beads followed by elution in the presence of free glutathione. The pGEX vectors are designed to include thrombin or factor Xa protease cleavage sites so that the cloned target gene product can be released from the GST moiety.  
      In mammalian host cells, a number of viral-based expression systems can be utilized. In cases where an adenovirus is used as an expression vector, the nucleotide sequence of interest may be ligated to an adenovirus transcription/translation control complex, e.g., the late promoter and tripartite leader sequence. This chimeric gene can then be inserted in the adenovirus genome by in vitro or in vivo recombination. Insertion in a non-essential region of the viral genome (e.g., region E1 or E3) will result in a recombinant virus that is viable and capable of expressing the gene product in infected hosts (e.g., See Logan &amp; Shenk, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 81:3655, 1984). Specific initiation signals may also be required for efficient translation of inserted nucleotide sequences. These signals include the ATG initiation codon and adjacent sequences. In cases where an entire gene or cDNA, including its own initiation codon and adjacent sequences, is inserted into the appropriate expression vector, no additional translational control signals may be needed. However, in cases where only a portion of the coding sequence is inserted, exogenous translational control signals, including, perhaps, the ATG initiation codon, must be provided. Furthermore, the initiation codon must be in phase with the reading frame of the desired coding sequence to ensure translation of the entire insert. These exogenous translational control signals and initiation codons can be of a variety of origins, both natural and synthetic. The efficiency of expression can be enhanced by the inclusion of appropriate transcription enhancer elements, transcription terminators, etc. (Bittner et al., Methods in Enzymol., 153:516, 1987).  
      In addition, a host cell strain can be chosen which modulates the expression of the inserted sequences, or modifies and processes the gene product in the specific fashion desired. Such modifications (e.g., glycosylation and generation of Hyp and DOPA residues) and processing (e.g., cleavage) of protein products can be important for the function of the protein. Appropriate cell lines or host systemas can be chosen to ensure the correct modification and processing of the foreign protein expressed. Mammalian host cells include but are not limited to CHO, VERO, BEEK, HeLa, COS, MDCK, 293, 3T3, and WI38.  
      For long-term, high-yield production of recombinant proteins, stable expression is preferred. For example, cell lines which stably express the sequences described above can be engineered. Rather than using expression vectors which contain viral origins of replication, host cells can be transformed with DNA controlled by appropriate expression control elements (e.g., promoter, enhancer sequences, transcription terminators, polyadenylation sites, etc. ), and a selectable marker. Following the introduction of the foreign DNA, engineered cells can be allowed to grow for 1-2 days in an enriched medium, and then are switched to a selective medium. The selectable marker in the recombinant plasmid confers resistance to the selection and allows cells to stably integrate the plasmid into their chromosomes and grow to form foci which in turn can be cloned and expanded into cell lines. This method can advantageously be used to engineer cell lines which express the gene product. Such engineered cell lines can be particularly useful in screening and evaluation of compounds that affect the endogenous activity of the gene product.  
      A fusion protein can be readily purified by utilizing an antibody or a ligand that specifically binds to the fusion protein being expressed. For example, a system described by Janknecht et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88:8972, 1991) allows for the ready purification of non-denatured fusion proteins expressed in human cell lines. In this system, the gene of interest is subcloned into a vaccinia recombination plasmid such that the gene&#39;s open reading frame is translationally fused to an amino-terminal tag consisting of six histidine residues. Extracts from cells infected with recombinant vaccinia virus are loaded onto Ni 2+  nitriloacetic acid-agarose columns and histidine-tagged proteins are selectively eluted with imidazole-containing buffers. If desired, the histidine-tag can be selectively cleaved with an appropriate enzyme.  
      In addition, large quantities of recombinant polypeptides can advantageously be obtained using genetically modified organisms (e.g., plants or mammals), wherein the organisms harbor exogenously derived transgenes encoding the polypeptide of interest (Wright et al., Bio/technology, 5:830, 1991; Ebert et al., Bio/technology, 9:835, 1991; Velander et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 89:12003, 1993; Paleyanda et al., Nature Biotechnology, 15:971, 1997; Hennighausen, Nature Biotechnology, 15:945, 1997; Gibbs, Scientific American, 277:44, 1997). The polypeptide of interest is expressed in a bodily tissue and then is purified from relevant tissues or body fluids of the appropriate organism. For example, by directing expression of the transgene to the mammary gland, the protein is secreted in large amounts into the milk of the mammal from which it can be conveniently purified (e.g., Wright et al., cited supra, Paleyanda et al., cited supra; Hennighausen, cited supra).  
     EXAMPLES  
     Example 1  
     Cloning of the Resilin Gene from  Drosophila melanogaster    
      The first exon of the resilin gene ( FIG. 6 ) was amplified from  Drosophila melanogaster  genomic DNA via PCR using two primers designed from the known DNA sequence of the  Drosophila  gene. The forward primer contained a (His) coding sequence and an NdeI site while the reverse primer contained an EcoRI site. These restriction sites were included to facilitate cloning of the PCR product into the NdeI/EcoRI site of the  E. coli  expression vector pETMCS1 (Miles et al. 1997). The PCR product shown in  FIG. 8 , lane 3, was. purified from the agarose gel using a commercial kit (MN) and cloned into the cloning vector pCR-Blunt (Invitrogen). The sequence of the insert was determined using dye-terminator nucleotide mixes (Big Dye—ABI). The sequence was found to be identical to that reported for the CG15920 sequence from  Drosophila . An internal NdeI site was found at base 55596 (underlined in  FIG. 7 ).  
      PCR primers were (forward) ResF3 and (reverse) RespepR1. The sequences of the primers were:  
                          ResF3:           5′ . . . CCCATATGCACCATCACCATCACCATCCGGAGCCACCAGTT       AACTCGTATCTACC . . . 3′               RespepR1:       5′ . . . CCGAATTCCTATCCAGAAGCTGGGGGTCCGTAGGAGTCGGA       GGG . . . 3′          
 
     Example 2  
     Expression and Purification of the First Exon of the Resilin Gene from  Drosophila melanogaster    
      The sequence obtained above was obtained by partial digestion of the resilin/pCRBlunt clone with EcoRI/NdeI. The upper band (see  FIG. 9 ) was excised from the gel and purified using a commercially available kit (Machery-Nagel) and ligated into the EcoI/NdeI site of the expression vector pETMCS1, using standard ligation conditions with T4 DNA ligase. About 200 ng of insert was ligated to 50 ng of vector at 12° C. overnight. The ligated recombinant plasmid mix was used to transform competent cells of the  E. coli  strain Top10 (Invitrogen) with selection for resistance to ampicillin (100 μg/ml) on Luria Broth (LB) agar plates. Colonies were selected and recombinant plasmids carried were prepared using a bcommercial kit (Machery-Nagel). The sequence of the expected recombinant plasmid insert was confirmed by DNA sequence analysis and matched the published sequence of CG15920.  
      The correct recombinant plasmid containing the  Drosophila melanogaster  resilin exon 1 sequence cloned into the NdeI/EcoR1 site of expression vector pETMCS1 was isolated from a 2ml overnight culture of the  E. coli  Top10 strain carrying this plasmid. This purified plasmid was then used to transform the  E. coli  strains BL21(DE3)plysS or the  E. coli  rne (BL21*) strain, with selection for resistance to both ampicillin (100 μg/ml) and chloramphenicol (34 μg/ml).  
      Small scale inductions of the recombinant protein were carried out by growing the two strains overnight in LB medium and the level of resilin recombinant protein production was compared to the  E. coli  and vector proteins expressed in  E. coli  BL21(DE3)plysS transformed with the vector pETMCS1 only. The results showed that the  E. coli  ribonuclease E mutant strain, BL21 Star™, (DE3)pLysS: F-ompT hsdS B (rB-mB-) gal dcm rnel3l (DE3) pLysS (Cam R) contained more soluble recombinant resilin than the BL21(DE3)plysS strain (data not shown).  
      This recombinant BL21 Star™ strain (resilin5/BL21Star) was therefore chosen for large-scale expression of the resilin recombinant protein.  
     Example 3  
     Scale-Up of Resilin Production  
      3 litres of LB medium (1 litre of medium in each of 3×2-litre baffled Ehrlenmeyer flask) was inoculated with an overnight culture of (resilin5/BL21Star) to an A600 of 0.1. The cells were grown with vigorous aeration (200 cycles per minute) on a rotary shaker at 37° C. until the A600 reached 0.8. At this point, IPTG (isopropyl-p-D-thiogalactopyranoside) was added to 1 mM final concentration and the culture was grown for a further 4.5 h at 37° C. with vigorous aeration. The cells were harvested by centrifugation (10,000×g 20 min at 4° C. ). The cell pellets were resuspended at 4° C. in 80 ml of 50 mM NaH 2 PO 4 /Na 2 HPO 4  buffer containing 150 mM NaCl and 1× protease inhibitor cocktail (EDTA-free) (Roche—Cat. No. 1873 580). The cells were disrupted with a sonicator (4×15 sec bursts) following addition of Triton X-100 (to 0.5% final conc).  
      Membrane and soluble fractions were separated by centrifugation of the disrupted cells at 100,000×g for 1 h at 4° C. The soluble fraction was bound to a 10 ml packed column of Ni-NTA affinity resin (Qiagen—Ni-NTA Superflow (25 ml) 25 ml nickel-charged resin (max. pressure: 140 psi) (cat # 30410) for 1.5 h at 4° C. The resin was packed into a column which-was washed (at 1 ml/min) with loading buffer (50 mM NaH 2 PO 4 /Na 2 HPO 4  buffer containing 150 mM NaCl) until the A 280  fell to near baseline and stabilised. In order to remove  E. coli  proteins bound non-specifically to the resin, buffer containing 10 mM imidazole was passed through the column, resulting in elution of many  E. coli  proteins. Once the A 280  had fallen to near baseline, a 10 mM-150 mM gradient of imidazole in loading buffer was passed through the column at 2.0 ml/min. Fractions (2 ml) were collected and 10 μl aliquots of each fraction were analysed by SDS-PAGE. The gel was stained with Coomassie blue and destained (10% acetic acid, 30% ethanol) to reveal the affinity column chromatographic purification of soluble recombinant resilin protein. The fractions containing purified resilin (fractions 12-48) were pooled and concentrated to about 20 ml volume and dialysed against a buffer containing 50mM Tris/HCl 100 mM NaCl pH 8.0. The dialysed protein solution was then concentrated using a CentriconE filtration device (MW cutoff=10,000 Da) to a protein concentration of 80 mg/ml, 150 mg. ml or 250 mg/ml (by A 280  measurement). The results of this affinity column purification of soluble resilin is shown in  FIG. 10 .  
      The molecular weight of the soluble recombinant resilin was shown by SDS-PAGE to be ca. 46,000 Da, which suggested that the recombinant protein might be produced in  E. coli  as a dimer ,since the calculated MW of the 303 amino acid protein is 28,466 Da. However, when a sample (A 280=0.4 ) dialysed against TBS, was analysed by equilibrium density gradient ultracentrifugation, the results clearly showed that the calculated thermodynamic molecular weight of the soluble recombinant protein was 23,605 Da ( FIG. 16 ). We can conclude that the recombinant resilin expressed from the first exon of the CG15902 gene from  Drosophila melanogaster  is a monomer.  
     Example 4  
      Growth of  E. coli  on LB medium: recombinant resilin production 6 litres of LB broth is prepared with distilled water using 2×LB EZMix (Sigma). The pH is adjusted to 7.5 with 1M NaOH. Trace elements are added at 0.25 ml per litre of broth and phosphate buffer at 10 ml per litre of broth. The broth is added to 6×2L baffled flasks and autoclaved.  
      Trace elements mix:  
                                                      FeCl 3 •6H 2 O   2.713 g           CuCl 2     0.101 g           CoCl 2 •6H2O   0.204 g           H 3 BO 4     0.051 g           Na 2 MoO 4 •2H 2 O   0.202 g           CaCl2•2H2O   0.0977 g            ZnSO4•7H2O   0.300 g                      
 
      Conc HC 10 ml—make up to 100 ml with H 2 O. Use 25 μL per 100 ml culture.  
      A single colony of the recombinant  E. coli  strain is added to 400 ml broth with 0.4 ml Ampicillin (100 mg/ml) and 0.4 ml Chloramphenicol (34 mg/ml) in a laminar flow cabinet to ensure sterile conditions. The broth is shaken at 220 rpm overnight at 37° C.  
      The following morning, the OD 600  of the overnight culture is measured. An aliquot of the overnight culture is added to the 6 litres of broth to give a final OD 600  of 0.15. 1 ml of both Ampicillin and Chloramphenicol (same concentrations as above) is added to each 1 litre of broth along with 1 drop (ca. 50 μl) of Antifoam 289 (Sigma). The broth is shaken at 220 rpm for 2 hours until the OD 600  is around 1.0. At this time, 0.5 ml of 1M IPTG is added to each litre of broth followed by shaking for another 3 hours.  
      The cells from the culture are collected by centrifugation at 6000 rpm at 4° C. for 20 minutes. The supernatant is discarded and the pellet removed and kept in the −80° C. freezer, ready for processing. A 40 ml sample is spun and the small pellet kept in the −80° C. freezer until ready for processing. The small pellet is used to verify the resilin content of the cells. This pellet from a 40 ml culture is processed through cell lysis and affinity chromatography on a Ni-NTA resin (Qiagen). A typical result is shown in  FIG. 21 .  
      Change of Inducing Conditions  
      The inducing conditions were changed by inducing for 4 hours and inducing after the culture had reached OD 600 =2, to determine the effect on the resilin yield.  
      Note that the OD 600  values above 1.3 are not correct due to errors whilst reading the  
      Three 40 ml broths were autoclaved as per usual recipe. Each was induced at different times and OD 600  values according to the conditions below:  
      1: Induced at OD 600 =1 for 3 hours (usual conditions)  
      2: Induced at OD 600 =1 for 4 hours  
      3: Induced at OD 600 =2 for 3 hours  
      The cultures were induced with 20 μl of 1M IPTG.  
      All other conditions and recipes etc remained the same as per the usual recipe. The culture was spun and the pellet resuspended in 1 ml of phosphate buffer with 0.1% Triton-X100 (TX-100) and protease inhibitor, keeping the same final OD 600  ratios. After sonication and spinning, the resulting supernatant was put through a Nickel column. The resulting eluate was run on an SDS-PAGE gel. The results are shown below.  
                                                       Condition 1   Condition 2   Condition 3                                                            Final OD 600     2.042   1.917   2.278           Resuspension   1.02   0.95   1.15           volume (ml)                      
 
      The results given in  FIG. 22  show that there is little difference between the resilin yields for the various conditions. If anything, the usual conditions of inducing at OD 600 =1 for 3 hours appears to be better than the other variations. Whilst the gel does not give quantitative results, it does show that there is no significant gains achieved by altering the inducing conditions.  
     Example 5  
     Alternative Strain of  E. coli    
      The  E. coli  BL21 (DE3)plysS strain was compared to BL21 (DE3) RP strain of  E. coli  to determine if we could improve our production of resilin. This strain contains plasmid-encoded copies of tRNA genes which can overcome rare Arg and Pro codons.  
      The resilin expression clone (resilin 5) DNA was transformed into another strain of  E. coli , the BL21 (DE3) RP strain (Stratagene). This strain is expected to give better production due to the ability to produce rare codons. To determine the resilin production characteristics, three 40 ml LB broths were alutoclaved. One broth contained the Resilin 5 strain, one with Resilin RP strain and the other with the vector alone. The vector was included because it would not produce resilin and hence would help ensure that the results were valid.  
      The three cultures were grown with a starting OD 600 =0.15, inducing with 0.5mM IPTG at OD 600  approximately equal to 0.8. After 3 hours of shaking at 37° C., the final OD 600  of each culture was measured. After spinning, the resulting pellet was resuspended to ensure the same relative OD 600  in phosphate buffer+0.1% TX-100+protease inhibitor, as the final OD 600  reading. 100 μl of 25 mg/ml lysozyme was added to the Resilin RP before sonication.  
                                                   Final OD 600     Resuspension Volume                                                        Resilin 5   1.326   10 ml           Resilin RP   0.323   2.5 ml            Vector   1.206   10 ml                      
 
      After spinning, the supernatant was treated with Nickel resin and the eluate run on an SDS-PAGE gel.  
      The resilin band is strong in Resilin 5 however it appears somewhat weaker in Resilin RP suggesting that the Resilin 5 strain more effectively produces the recombinant resilin protein From this, we can conclude that there is no advantage to producing resilin in the RP strain compared with the 5 strain.  
     Example 6  
     Alternative Procedures for Production of Recombinant Resilin in  E. coli    
      The medium used for autoinduction of the recombinant resilin gene was the Overnight Express Autoinduction System (Novagen).  
     Procedure 1  
      Add 1 ml of overnight culture (OD 600  approximately 6.0) to the culture medium and shake for 4 hours at 37° C. at 220 rpm. Shake for a further 26 hours at room temperature. Spin as per usual method.  
      Using this method, the final OD 600  is approximately 12.0 rather than the usual 4.0 obtained on LB medium. A 40 ml sample was spun and processed to compare with resilin produced from LB broth. The results are shown in  FIG. 24 . Since the pellet from the 40 ml spin was 3.6 times greater in weight than the usual resilin pellet, it was resuspended in 3.6 ml rather than the 1 ml used for the usual 40 ml pellet. The resuspended pellets were sonicated and spun. 1 ml of the resulting supernatant was processed through a Nickel column and the elution was run on a gel. The gel shows that the production of resilin is equivalent to that from the LB broth method. Since we are achieving approximately 4 times the number of cells per litre of broth, we are effectively increasing our productivity 4-fold.  
     Procedure 2  
      As per Procedure 1 however add overnight culture to broth at approximately 3.30 μm and shake overnight at 37° C. Spin the broth in the morning at approximately 8.00 am.  
      This procedure reduces the shaking time and hence allows 4 batches to be produced over the course of a week.  
      Variation of Growth Conditions  
      Several alternative recipes and procedures were tested on 50 mL scale culture broths.  
      The culture is grown at an initial temperature of 37° C. at 220 rpm for 4 hours. The culture is then grown at a secondary temperature of 30° C. for 26 hours.  
      All tests were conducted at the same standard test conditions with the following variations:  
      A: standard test conditions, no variations  
      B: 100 ml of starting culture  
      C: 500 ml of starting culture  
      D: 100 ml of starting culture and double strength growth medium containing Ampicillin and Chloramphenicol.  
      E: Culture grown overnight (4.00pm -8.00am the following morning) at 37° C.  
      G: Secondary temperature was 23° C.  
      H: Culture grown overnight (4.00pm -2.00pm the following afternoon) at 37° C.  
                                                       OD 600  @ 8.10 am   OD 600  @ 9.50 am   OD 600  @ 2.00 pm                                                    A   6.794   7.146   7.188       B   6.618   7.038   7.546       C   7.036   7.872   8.162       D   5.768   5.896   6.310       E   6.094   —   —       G   6.832   7.050   7.300       H   —   6.084   6.470                  
 
      From the spectrometer readings, we can see that the largest density of cells occurs when the broth is inoculated with the most cells. However, the differences in cell density are small. Growing the cells with double the concentration of solutions in the media resulted in the smallest cell density, possibly due to the higher concentration of salts in the media.  
      Low densities were achieved when the cells were grown overnight at 37° C.  
      The cultures were spun, and processed through a Ni-NTA spin column. The elutions, with 1M Imidazole, were loaded onto an SDS PAGE gel. All the pellets were lysed in the same volume of lysis buffer and sonicated for the same amount of time. They were spun for 30 minutes at 14,000 rpm and 1 mL of the supernatant was loaded onto the Ni-NTA columns. The resilin was eluted with 100 μL 1 M Imidazole. 5 μl of each eluate was loaded onto the gel.  
      The results show that the largest yield of resilin appears to be from the overnight cultures grown at 37° C. These samples were also shown to have the lowest optical density suggesting that although the yield of cells is lower, they contain more resilin protein.  
      The lowest yield appears to be from variation C which was inoculated with the largest amount of cells and reached the highest optical density. This suggests that the cells have used their energy to grow rather than produce resilin protein.  
     Example 7  
     Purification of Recombinant ( E. coli ) Hexahis Resilin  
      A summary of the procedure is as follows:  
      1. Lysis of cells  
      2. Centrifugation  
      3. Pass supernatant through a Q-Sepharose column and collect the breakthrough.  
      4. Pass the breakthrough through a Ni NTA Column.  
      5. Elute the resilin with imidazole.  
      6. Concentrate resilin  
      7. Dialysis  
      8. Concentrate through Ainicon Ultra-15 (15 kDa cutoff) ultrafilter.  
      1. Lysis of Cells  
      Thaw—100 g of cell pellet and resuspend in 400 ml of Lysis buffer. It is best to place the cell paste in—200 ml of lysis buffer to thaw it. Place this material into 12×50 ml tubes and top up the tubes with the remainder of the lysis buffer. This helps to give a more even distribution of the cell paste into the 50 ml tubes. Each tube should contain about 40 ml of cell suspension.  
     Sonication  
      An Ultrasonics (Melbourne, Aust) A180 (180 W max power output) sonicator with 10 mm ultrasonic probe was used for cell disruption. Place a 50 ml tube containing ca. 40 ml cell suspension into a beaker containing a wet ice slurry. Sonicate (for 30 sec). Sonicate the remainder of the material in the 12 tubes in turn, then repeat the procedure twice more. After each sonication, store the tubes in ice to enable the material to cool between sonications. When finished, place the tubes at −80° C. for at least 4 hours (or preferably overnight). It is easiest to place the tubes into a rack, place the rack into a polystyrene box and place this into the freezer.  
      Thaw the material by filling the polystyrene box with warm water. Sonicate as before for another 3×1 minute bursts. The cell suspension should now be a straw-coloured solution with no obvious viscosity (determined by dispensing an aliquot through a Pasteur pipette).  
      2. Centrifugation  
      Place the lysed cell suspension into Beckman thick walled polyearbonate tubes for spinning at 100,000g at 40° C. for 30 minutes.  
      The supernatant should now be very clear and should not require filtering (except for the last few drops at the bottom of each Beckman tube). Collect the pellet into labelled containers and store in the −80° C. freezer.  
      3. Q-Sepharose Column (Anion Exchange) Flow-Through Chromatography)  
      Equilibrate the Q-sepharose column (˜200 ml lysis buffer for a 50 mm dia×100 mm resin column bed). Fluid can be run through the 50 mm dia column at a flow rate 10 ml per minute.  
      Once the column is equilibrated, load the supernatant onto the column at the same flow rate. Collect the breakthrough as this contains the resilin (pI=9.0). Begin collecting after˜80 ml of supernatant has been loaded to ensure that all the resilin is collected.  
      Once loaded, use a small amount of lysis buffer to rinse the bottom of the supernatant container and load this onto the column. Continue washing with lysis buffer until all non-bound protein has passed through the column and the A280 has returned to baseline (˜280 ml required).  
      To the pooled breakthrough fluid add NaCl to 500 mM and Imidazole to 10 mM, pH to 8.0. Any resultant precipitate should be removed by either filtration or centrifugation (ppt has been observed when using the modified ZY media for high cell production).  
      The material is now ready to load onto the nickel nitrilotriacetic acid column (Ni-NTA).  
      To remove the proteins bound to the Q-sepharose column, elute with lysis buffer containing 1M NaCl. Once all the protein has been removed, re-equilibrate the column with˜200 ml lysis buffer ready for the next run. The eluted protein can be discarded.  
      Immobilized Metal Affinity Chromatography (Ni-NTA Resin)  
      Assemble the Nickel column in a fume hood and equilibrate with wash buffer 1, (˜200 ml for a 50 mm dia×60 mm column). Flow rate˜10 ml per minute.  
      Once the column is equilibrated, load the Q-sepharose breakthrough onto the column at the same flow rate. Collect the breakthrough, this will be discarded at a later point once it has been confirmed that it contains no resilin. Begin collecting after ˜40 ml of supernatant has been loaded.  
      Once loading is complete, use a small amount of wash buffer 1 to rinse the bottom of the Q-sepharose breakthrough container and load this onto the column. Continue washing the column with wash buffer 1 until the A280 has returned to baseline (˜100 ml). At this point, all the resilin should be bound to the nickel column and almost all other protein washed out and collected as Nickel column breakthrough.  
      Elution of Bound Resilin:  
      Connect the column to the FPLC and wash with 50MM Imidazole solution (8.1% Elution Buffer, 91.9% Wash Buffer 2). Continue washing until OD baseline stabilises. Run a gradient from 8.1% Wash Buffer 2 (50 mM Imidazole) to 40% Wash Buffer 2 (200 mM Imidazole) over one hour at a flow rate of 5 ml/min. Collect 10 ml fractions. Continue eluting with 40% Wash Buffer 2 for another 50 minutes whilst collecting fractions. This should ensure that all the resilin and any other proteins have been removed from the nickel column. Label the. fractions ( FIG. 23 ) and store in the 4° C. fridge.  
      Re-equilibrate the nickel-column with ˜200 ml wash buffer 1 ready for the next run.  
      Concentrate of Resilin  
      Concentrate the fractions containing resilin using a Millipore/Amicon ultra-filtration tube (cut off 10 kDa) to a final volume of ˜20 ml. Keep the flow through and check that it does not contain any resilin by running an SDS PAGE. Dialyse and Concentrate Dialyse the resilin using a 10 kDa cut off membrane, overnight against 5 litres of 50 mM Tris pH 7.5 and 50 mM NaCl.  
      Further concentrate the resilin to at least 200 mg/mL. At this point it should appear as a viscous yellow fluid at the bottom of the concentrating tube. The resilin is now ready to be used for experimentation.  
     Buffers  
      Lysis Buffer:  
      50 mM TRIS  
      1 mM Benzamidine HCl  
      0.5% Triton X-100 (TX-100)  
      10 mM β-ME (750-μl per litre of solution)  
      Make up to 1 litre with distilled water, pH to 7. 2 (with conc HCl). Add the 2ME just prior to using and re-pH.  
      Wash Buffer 1:  
      100 mM NaH 2 PO 4    
      10 mM TRIS  
      500 mM NaCl  
      1 mM Benzamidine HCl 10 mM Imidazole  
      0.1% Tx-100  
      10 mM 2ME (add 750 μl to 1 litre of solution just before using)  
      Make up to 1 litre with distilled water, pH to 8.0.  
      Wash Buffer 2 (Solution A)  
      100 mM NaH 2 PO 4    
      10 mM TRIS  
      500 mM NaCl  
      1 mM Benzamidine HCl  
      10 mM Imidazole  
      Make up to 1 litre with distilled water, pH to 7.2.  
      Elution Buffer (Solution B)  
      100 mM NaH 2 PO 4    
      10 mM TRIS  
      500 mM NaCl  
      1 mM Benzamidine HCl  
      500 mM Imidazole  
      Make up to 1 litre with distilled water, pH to 7.2.  
     Example 8  
     Cross-Linking of Soluble Resilin using Peroxidases  
      Pro-resilin was purified from  E. coli  cells as described above and was cross-linked into an insoluble polymer. The formation of the insoluble gel depended on the concentration of the resilin protein solution. For gel formation, soluble resilin monomer was concentrated to 80 mg/ml, 150 mg/ml and 250 mg/ml in 0.25M Borate buffer pH 8.2, as described above.  
      In order to test the effectiveness of the 3 commercially available peroxidase enzymes, the following small-scale experiment was carried out. Resilin was used at 5 mg/ml. Horseradish peroxidase (Boehringer #814407), Lactoperoxidase (Sigma #L8257) and Arthromyces ramosus peroxidase (Sigma # P4794) were dissolved in buffer at 1 mg/ml. Hydrogen peroxide was prepared from a fresh 30% solution and was used as a (100 mM) stock solution.  
      To a solution of purified resilin (20 μl) enzymes were added (2 μl) and the reaction was started by addition of hydrogen peroxide. Final concentrations were therefore: Resilin (5 nmole/40 μl), H 2 O 2  (5 mM) and enzymes (40 μmol/40 μl). The reaction was carried out in borate buffer (0.25M) at pH 8.2 at 37° C. for 4 h. Reactions were stopped by the addition of 10 μl of lysis buffer and 10 μl of the mixture was analysed by SDS-PAGE on 10% gels (Invitrogen i-Gel). The results of this experiment are shown in  FIG. 11 .  
      Lane 1 shows the purified soluble resilin prior to cross-linking. Lanes 2, 3 and 4 show the peroxidase enzymes used in the experiment while lanes 5, 6 and 7 show, respectively, the effects of lactoperoxidase, horseradish peroxidase and Arthromyces peroxidase on the soluble resilin. Lactoperoxidase was the least effective peroxidase at causing cross-linking of soluble resilin as only a small percentage of the monomer was converted to a dimer. Horseradish peroxidase was more effective as a ladder of higher molecular weight oligomers was apparent by Coomassie blue staining of the gel. In contrast, the Arthromyces peroxidase converted all of the monomer to very large protein polymers which barely entered the 10% polyacrylamide separating gel.  
      In order to produce insoluble resilin polymer, the protein concentration was increased by passage of the soluble resilin through a Centricon™ (10 kDa) filtration device. The protein concentration was increased from 5 mg/ml to 80 mg/ml, 170 mg/ml and 150 mg/ml (8%, 17% and 25% protein solutions, respectively). The reaction conditions were: soluble resilin (40 μl), H 2 O 2  (10 mM), peroxidase (5 μl of 10 mg/ml) in 0.25M Borate buffer pH 8.2. reaction was initiated by addition of hydrogen peroxide. An instantaneous gel formation was observed in all three reactions, with the 25% protein solution yielding the firmest gel and the 8% resilin solution gave a very low density gel, which was not completely solid.  
      The gel which formed was brightly fluorescent upon irradiation with long-wave (300 nm) UV light (tube B), in comparison with an equivalent quantity of soluble resilin before cross-linking (tube B), as shown in  FIG. 12 , was insoluble in buffer and water.  
      These results are consistent with the comparative effectiveness of Arthromyces peroxidase at causing cross-linking of the soluble protein calmodulin into very large polymers (Malencik and Anderson, 1996; Malencik et al, 1996). These authors also showed that the fungal peroxidase was more effective than both horseradish peroxidase and lactoperoxidase.  
      The fluorescence spectrum of the material cross-linked in lane 7,  FIG. 4  was obtained in 3 ml of 0.25M borate buffer pH 8.2, using a Perkin-Elmer fluorimeter, with excitation carried out at 300 nm for generation of the emission spectrum and emission monitored at 400 nm for generation of the excitation spectrum. These spectra were compared to those generated an equivalent quantity of uncross-linked soluble resilin. These results are shown in  FIG. 13 . The spectra show excitation and emission maxima closely resembling the spectra reported for dityrosine standard and for cross-linked calmodulin reported by Malencik and Anderson (1996). These values are: (in borate buffer pH 8. 4) Excitation maximum=315 nm; Emission maximum=377 nm. Authentic dityrosine shows maximum sensitivity for excitation at 301 nm and emission at 377 nm in borate buffer. These wavelengths represent the isosbestic and isoemissive points found in the absorption and fluorescence emission spectra of dityrosine in the presence of varying amounts of boric acid-sodium borate buffer (Malencik et al. 1996).  
       FIG. 38  shows a comparison of dityrosine fluorescence produced by various peroxidases and measured using a microtitre plate fluorescence reader (BMG Polarstar) with excitation at 300 nm and emission at 420 nm. Peroxidases were made up in PBS to 1 mg/ml. Resilin concentration was 5 mg/ml. Peroxide concentration was 5 mM. Reactions were carried out in 100 mM borate buffer pH 8.2. Reactions were carried out at 37 degrees and started by addition of enzyme. These data are supported by the results showing dityrosine formation from L-tyrosine and the cross-linking of calmodulin by Arthromyces ramosus peroxidase (Malencik et al. 1996, Malencik and Anderson).  
     Example 9  
      Purified soluble recombinant resilin was crosslinked by preparing a 20% solution of resilin protein in 100 mM borate buffer pH 8.5 and treating with Arthromyces ramosus peroxidase in the presence of 10 mM H 2 O 2  at room temperature. The conditions for rubber formation were:  
      40 μL resilin solution (200 mg/ml)  
      5 μL H 2 O 2  (100 mM stock solution)  
      5 μL Arthromyces peroxidase (10 mg/ml)  
      An instantaneous formation of solid rubber material occurred upon addition of the enzyme.  
      The soluble protein w as converted to a highly fluorescent (excitement λ=320 nm) insoluble material within 5 seconds. This material was washed in 0.1M tris buffer pH 8.0 and tested for comparative resilience using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). The samples were dried and then either resuspended in water or maintained at 70% relative humidity for AFM testing. Where humidity control was required this was achieved by enclosing both the sample and the lower portion of the SPM scanner tube with a small Perspex chamber and flushing the system with nitrogen gas of the desired humidity, obtained by bubbling the gas through reverse osmosis water. A Honeywell monolithic integrated humidity sensor and a “K” type thermocouple sensor were inserted through small holes in the end wall of the chamber in order to monitor humidity and temperature. The Butadiene and Butyl rubber were supplied as sheets by Empire Rubber, Australia. The samples had been vulcanised using standard curative systems and contained no fillers.  
      A Digital Instruments Dimension 3000 Scanning Probe Microscope (SPM) was used to capture Force-Distance curves from which resilience could be determined. Measurements made in air were obtained with the SPM operating in TappingMode using silicon “Pointprobes” while Measurements made in water were obtained with the SPM operating in ContactMode™ using “Nanoprobe” Silicon Nitride Probes. Relative triggers of 20-100 nm of deflection were used to limit the cantilever deflection and thus the total force applied to the samples during force-distance measurements. The resilience of the sample was defined as the area under the contact region of the retract curve expressed as a percentage of the area under the contact region of the approach curve. It is inversely related to the hysteresis between the approach and retract portions of the curves. If adhesion occurred between the tip and the sample this was taken into account when measuring the area under the retract curve. Prior to force-distance measurements on the sample, the position-sensitive detector was calibrated by conducting a force-distance measurement on a hard material (glass).  
     Example 10  
     Gamma Irradiation for Crosslinking Resilin  
      50 μl aloquots of concentrated resilin (230 mg/ml) was placed into 7 glass tubes. They were exposed to gamma radiation, using a Cobalt-60 source. Exposure times were for 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 hours. Exposure was continuous for all samples. (Radiation source=4.5 kG/h).  
      The exposed resilin was diluted 40:1 with 10 mM phosphate buffer pH 8.0.1 μl of this solution was mixed with 14 μl of loading dye and loaded into each gel well. Note that after 32 and 64 hours of exposure, the resilin could not be pipetted hence a: small amount was picked up at the end of a tip and mechanically mixed with the loading dye. A protein standard was used in lane 1. The gel was run at 160V and, once finished, was stained with Coomassie Blue. The resulting gel is shown in  FIG. 25 .  
      Resilin monomer runs at around 50kDa on an SDS-PAGE gel and can be clearly seen as the dominant band in lanes 2-6. Crosslinking between two resilin monomers to create a dimer, will double the size of the protein and hence will run at around 100 kDa. Trimers will run at around 150 kDa and so on. Fully crosslinked resilin should remain at the bottom of the well i.e. the very top of the lane.  
      The gel shows that crosslinking is taking place after 1 hour irradiation with a faint band at around 100 kDa. However, comparing the relative concentrations of the monomer and dimer shows that not a lot of crosslinking has occurred at this point.  
      With further exposure, the degree of crosslinking ie the proportion of dimers, increases such that after 16 hours irradiation, the proportion of uncrosslinked resilin is around the same as crosslinked resilin. At 32 and 64 hours, the resilin does not easily progress through the gel indicating that little monomer remains and the resilin contains many crosslinks. A slight band of monomer can be seen in the 32 hour sample.  
      Therefore, to achieve full crosslinking of resilin using gamma radiation requires at least 32 hours of exposure. This amount of exposure may damage the protein, and therefore this method is not preferred.  
     Example 11  
     UVB Radiation Crosslinking of Resilin  
      100 μl of concentrated resilin (230 mg/ml) was diluted in 900 μl PBS (Phosphate Buffer Solution) to give a final concentration of 23 mg/ml. This was aloquoted into 7×100 μl samples in quartz glass cups of 5 mm internal diameter. The cups were sealed with sticky labels, ensuring that this did not hinder the exposure of the resilin solution to the UVB radiation.  
      The samples were exposed to UVB radiation using UVB tubes designed for a QUV Weatherometer. Samples were located 10 mm from the edge of the UVB tube. This was performed at ambient air temperatures for 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 hours. All exposures were continuous except for the 16 hour (2×8 hour exposures on consecutive days) and 64 hour (56 hours followed by 8 hours exposure 2 days later) exposures. After exposure, the samples were transferred to eppendorf tubes to minimise loss of water from evaporation.  
      1 μl of each resilin solution was mixed with 14 μl of loading dye, heated to 95° C. for 2 minutes and loaded onto a gel. The results are shown in  FIG. 26 . The gel shows that a substantial amount of crosslinking takes place within one hour of exposure. There are many dimers, trimers and higher level crosslinks taking place although the volume of monomer is greater than the volume of crosslinked protein. Increasing the exposure to UVB, increases the amount of crosslinking and reduces the volume of monomer. After 8 hours exposure, much of the crosslinked protein remains at the top of the lane suggesting that multiple crosslinks have formed. There is some evidence of dimers however the higher order crosslinks are not evident. This may suggest that a lot of the material is now forming multiple crosslinks. After 16 hours exposure, only a small amount of monomer remains with most of the material remaining at the top of the well hence we have a highly crosslinked protein.  
     Example 12  
     Riboflavin Crosslinking of Resilin with UVB Radiation  
      50 μl aloquots of 10 mg/ml resilin in 50 mM TRIS and 50 mM NaCl, were placed into quartz glass cups after 25 μM Riboflavin was added and mixed. The riboflavin was dissolved into distilled water. The samples were exposed to UVB radiation as per previous UVB radiation experiments, for 30, 60, 120 and 240 minutes duration.  
      After exposure, 1 μl of each solution was mixed with loading dye, heated to 95° C. and loaded onto an SDS-PAGE gel. The results are shown in  FIG. 27 . They show that a substantial amount-of resilin has crosslinked after just 30 minutes with all resilin monomer being crosslinked after 4 hours exposure. This shows a large improvement in crosslinking time compared with resilin exposed to UVB without riboflavin. A small amount of resilin dimer and trimer exists after 4 hours exposure.  
     Example 13  
     Fluorescein Crosslinking of Resilin with White Light  
      100 mM fluorescein solution was produced using 0.1 mM NaOH in water. 1 μl of the fluorescein solution was mixed with 1 ml of 10 mg/ml resilin. 190 μl of the resilin was aloquoted into 5 wells and kept on ice. The resilin was exposed to 2×300W globes positioned 10 cm from the top of the wells for 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 seconds. 1 μl of the resulting solution was mixed with 14 μl of loading dye and run on an SDS-PAGE gel. The results (not shown here) showed that more time was needed to complete the crosslinking. Therefore, an additional exposures were performed for 150, 300, 600, 900 seconds. With these time-frames, the globes were heating up excessively so the exposures were conducted at 150 second intervals, with 60 second rest intervals to give the globes a chance to cool. The results are shown in  FIG. 28 . They show that after only 30 seconds, considerable crosslinking has occurred. The reduction in monomer volume decreases considerably after 10 minutes exposure. After 15 minutes exposure, most of the resilin monomer has been crosslinked.  
      It is expected that after crosslinking, a large proportion of the resilin would remain in the wells however there appears to be little of this material in the wells. The reason for this is due to the aggregation of the crosslinked resilin in solution. The solutions were not prepared for the gel until the following day, allowing the resilin to aggregate. The aggregate could not be pippetted and hence was absent from the loading onto the gel.  
      To alleviate this, the experiment was repeated. Exposed resilin was quickly pippetted into the loading dye and a gel run immediately after the final exposure was completed. The results are shown in  FIG. 29 .  
     Example 14  
     Coumarin crosslinking with Ultraviolet Mercury Lamp (380 nm)  
      Concentrated resilin was diluted to 10 mg/ml with 50 mM TRIS and 50 mM NaCl. The solution was divided into three parts. The first part was mixed with 100 μM 7-hydroxycoumarin-3-carboxylic acid and 90 μl aliquots were placed into small tubes with a black cap. The second part was mixed with 10 μM 7-hydroxycoumarin-3-carboxylic acid and 90 μl aliquots were placed into small tubes with a blue cap. The third part contained no 7-hydroxycoumarin-3-carboxylic acid, and the tubes had red caps.  
      Each aliquot wag exposed to varying times under a Mercury laser (380 nm wavelength) as described in the table below. Each solution was exposed in multiples of 10 second bursts.  
                                               Time (sec)   Dosage (J/cm 2 )   Black   Blue   Red                                                    0   0   *   *           10   3.53   *   *   *       30   10.6   *   *   *       60   21.2   *   *   *       300   106   *   *   *       600   212   *   *                 * denotes exposure             
 
      Each exposure condition for the Black and Blue samples was duplicated. After exposure, 5 μl of each solution was mixed with loading buffer and loaded onto SDS-PAGE. The results are shown in  FIG. 30 .  
      The results show that all the resilin has been crosslinked after 300 seconds of exposure to the mercury vapour laser. Considerable crosslinking has taken place after 60 seconds. The absence of time intervals between 60 and 300 seconds makes it impossible to determine the exact time required for full crosslinking.  
      The coumarin appears to have a small effect on the crosslinking. This can be best viewed by comparing the 30 second exposures for resilin containing 100 and 10 μM of coumarin. The sample with a higher concentration of coumarin shows more “smudging” towards the well indicating that more crosslinks have been formed.  
     Example 15  
     HPLC of Resilin Samples—Dityrosine Analysis  
      The fluorescein samples from the second experiment described in Example 13 and some samples from solid crosslinked resilin were analysed for dityrosine content via HPLC.  
      75 μl of each fluorescein sample, and a known weight of crosslinked resilin were digested in 1 ml of 6M HCl containing 0.1% phenol. The samples were heated to 145° C. for 4 hours. Approximately 1 ml of water was added to each sample to make them up to 2 ml. A 400 uL aliquot of each of the samples-was evaporated before 400 μl of buffer was added. 20 uL of this volume of solution was injected on the HPLC.  
      The results are shown in the table below, with samples identified by a time entry in the left-hand column being the samples those described with reference to  FIG. 31  in example 13 (the time, in minutes, denoting length of the exposure of the sample to light). Note that the 10 and 15 minute samples may show a lower result than. expected due to the agglomeration of the crosslinked resilin at the bottom of the eppendorf tubes. This resulted in an inhomogenous sample being selected that may have altered the results significantly. Solid B was Resilin crosslinked with enzyme however the crosslinking reaction did not produce a homogenous material. Solid C was Resilin crosslinked with enzyme and produced a more homogenous rubber due to better mixing of the enzyme. Soluble resilin was also tested as a standard with no crosslinking present.  
      Dityrosine Analysis in Soluble and Crosslinked Resilin  
                                                                           HPLC       Dityrosine           Sample   Weight   Volume   HPLC UV   FLU   Dityrosine   FLU   % dityrosine       name   (mg)   (ml)   (μg/ml)   (μg/ml)   UV (μg/mg)   (μg/mg)   vs tyrosine                                                                Solid B   3.7   1.70228   9.196   10.219   4.231   4.702   15.9       Soluble   3.5   1.69832   0   0.047   0   0.023   0.57       Solid C   6.2   1.70285   27.254   30.693   7.485   8.430   18.4       0   1.725   1.70818   0   0.232   0   0.230   0       0.5   1.725   1.69987   1.294   1.411   1.275   1.390   0.84       1   1.725   1.6943   1.506   1.671   1.479   1.641   1.35       2   1.725   1.7089   2.415   2.733   2.392   2.707   1.82       3   1.725   1.70468   2.401   2.664   2.373   2.633   2.01       5   1.725   1.71478   3.1   3.478   3.082   3.457   2.52       10   1.725   1.64278   2.730   2.972   2.600   2.830   4.26       15   1.725   1.72742   2.669   3.02   2.673   3.024   5.21                  
 
      The dityrosine was determine using the following equation: (volume*HPLC/weight) and results in a figure for the amount of dityrosine per weight of protein.  
      To determine the percentage of tyrosine that had crosslinked to form dityrosine, the area under the tyrosine and dityrosine curves was recorded and the centage calculated using the following equation: tyrosine area/(dityrosine area+tyrosine area).  
      The results ( FIG. 31 ) show that there is a steady increase in the amount of dityrosine with greater exposure to white light when fluorescein is added to the resilin. This indicates that more crosslinks are forming which is in agreement with the results of the SDS PAGE gel. The amount of tyrosine crosslinking is larger for the enzyme catalysed reaction than for 15 minutes exposure to white light with the addition of fluorescein. In fact, there are at least 3 times as many crosslinks formed.  
     Example 16  
     Crosslinking of Soluble Resilin using Tris(2,2-bipyridyl) Ruthenium(II) Dichloride  
      The PICUP (photo-induced cross-linking of unmodified proteins) reaction is induced by very rapid, visible light photolysis of a tris-bipyridyl Ru(II) complex in the presence of an electron acceptor. Following irradiation, a Ru(III) ion is formed, which serves as an electron abstraction agent to produce a carbon radical within the polypeptide (backbone or side chain), preferentially at positions where stabilization of the radical by hyperconjugation or resonance is favored—tyrosine and tryptophan residues. The radical reacts very rapidly with a susceptible group in its immediate proximity to form a new C-C bond (Fancy and Kodadek, 1999 and Fancy, 2000)  
      Essentially, the method described by Fancy and Kodadek (1999) was used. This involved preparing a stock solution (0.1M) of Tris(2,2′-bipyridyl) ruthenium dichloride in water. Fresh ammonium persulphate (0.5M) was prepared just prior to use. Recombinant resilin was dialysed in 50 mM Tris/HCl+50 mM sodium phosphate pH 8.0 and concentrated to ca. 200 mg/ml as described in Example 4 The lamp was a 600W quartz tungsten halogen (2×300W) (GE #38476 300W). The spectral output shows a broad peak from 300 nm to 1200 nm.  
      Oxidative crosslinking of proteins mediated by the tris(2,2′-bipyridyl)ruthenium (II) dichloride ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+ , ammonium persulphate (APS) and visible light was originally described by Fancy and Kodadek (1999). This method preferentially crosslinks associated or self assembled proteins following brief photolysis. The reaction has been proposed to proceed through a Ru(III) intermediate formed by photoinitiated oxidation of the metal centre by APS. The Ru(III) complex is a potent one-electron oxidant and can oxidise tyrosine (or tryptophan—although there are no trp residues in the resilin-5 sequence) side chains, creating a radical that can couple to appropriate nearby residues by a variety of pathways. One possible crosslinking reaction that can occur is the formation of an arene coupling reaction. If the neighbouring amino acid is tyrosine, a dityrosine bond is formed (Fancy and Kodadek, 1999).  
     Cross-Linking of Resilin Exon 1 Soluble Recombinant Protein  
      Our experiments were carried out in order to investigate the utility of the ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+ , ammonium persulphate (APS) and visible light based method of Fancy and Kodadek (1999). Initially, a 1 mg/ml solution of resilin in PBS (phosphate buffered saline) was used in reactions carried out at room temperature. The APS concentration was 5 mM and the ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+  concentration was 200 μM. Irradiation was carried out for 10 sec using the 660W lamp at a distance of 15 cm.  
      The results of this experiment ( FIG. 32 ) show that there was a quantitative conversion of soluble resilin to a very high molecular-weight aggregate which remained at the top of the SDS-PAGE gel. This result suggests that resilin exon 1 recombinant protein is self associating with tyrosine residues brought into close proximity and available for dityrosine bond formation.  
      In order to investigate the effect of ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+ concentration on the crosslinking reaction, an experiment was carried out in which 2′-fold serial dilutions of ((Ru(II) (bpy) 3 ) 2+  were added to a 1 mg/ml solution of soluble resilin in PBS containing 5 mM APS. Irradiation was carried out at room temperature for 10 seconds at a distance of 15 cm.  
      The results showed ( FIG. 33 ) that under these conditions, crosslinking yielded a very high molecular weight product. Furthermore, this experiment revealed the stoichiometry of the reaction in which the Ru(II)Bpy metal salt is oxidized during light illumination. These data show that with 1 mM resilin (40 μM protein) approximately 4 μM Ru(II)Bpy is required to catalyse complete crosslinking.  
     Example 17  
     Casting Various Shapes of Solid Resilin using the PICUP Crosslinking Method  
      A 20% solution of recombinant resilin was mixed with Ru(Bpy)3 to 2 mM final concentration and APS was added to 10 mM final concentration. The solution was mixed and drawn into a 100 μl capillary tube. The sample was irradiated using a 600W tungsten-halogen lamp for 10 seconds at a distance of 15 cm. The solidified resilin was then removed from the glass tube ( FIG. 34 ).  
     Example 18  
     Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) Study of Resilin  
      Four samples of solid resilin were prepared for this study:  
      (i) a tube of resilin 1.5 mm×50 mm (20% resilin)  
      (ii) two discs 1.5 mm thick×10 mm diam (26% resilin)  
      (iii) a disc 1.5 mm thick×10 nm diam (20% resilin)  
      Conditions for Cross-Linking Were:  
      (i) 200 mg/ml resilin in 50 mM Tris pH 8.0+50 mM NaCl. 2 mM [Ru(II) (Bpy) 3 ]Cl 2 +10 mM APS. Light irradiation 600W@15 cm for 10 seconds.  
      (ii) 100 mg/ml resilin in 50 mM Tris pH 8.0+50 mM NaCl. 5 mM [Ru(II) (Bpy) 3 ]Cl 2 +10M APS. Light irradiation 600W@15 cm for 10 seconds.  
      (iii) 260 mg/ml resilin in 50 mM Tris pH 8.0+50 mM NaCl. 5 mM [Ru(II) (Bpy) 3 ]Cl 2 +10 mM APS. Light irradiation 600W@15 cm for 10 seconds.  
      Sample Preparation for SPM—A 2mm length of the Resilin Tube (20%) was stuck to a metal disc using a small amount of nail varnish. A magnetic strip was stuck to the underside of the disc and the assembly placed on the SPM stage.  
      Resilin Discs 1 (26%+5 mm RuBR), 2 (10%) and 3 (26%) were stuck to the metal discs using double-sided adhesive tape.  
      Instrumentation—A Digital Instruments Dimension 3000 SPM was operated in contact mode using a Nanoprobe silicon nitride probe. The probe consisted of a pyramidal tip on a v-shaped cantilever with a nominal spring constant of 0.12 N/m.  
      Force Volume Measurements—Prior to examination of the samples, the position-sensitive detector was calibrated by conducting a force-distance (f-d) measurement on a hard material (metal disc). Numerous Force Volume plots (arrays of 16×16 f-d curves taken over a 10×10 μm area) were then taken on each of the samples. The measurements were taken using a Z scan rate of 2 Hz and a Relative Trigger of 100 nm deflection (12 nN force). All measurements were carried out in Dulbecco&#39;s Phosphate-Buffered Saline.  
      Data Analysis—The resilience for each of the curves in the array was determined using Force Volume Analysis (FVA) software  
      The following table shows the resilience values obtained from each of the Force Volume plots. Each file was collected at a different position on the sample. Disc 2 could not be properly examined due to the samples moving while being probed.  
                                                       Tube   Disc 1   Disc 3                                                                            N f-d     249   242   246   217   242   244   250   241   250       Mean   90.2   93.7   92.7   81.2   85.1   86.5   85.7   88.0   87.2       (%)       SD (%)   5.0   3.3   3.5   5.3   9.0   4.6   6.1   7.1   5.2                  
 
      Resilience values for Resilin Tube and Resilin Discs 1 and 3.  
      Samples of recombinant resilin as well as commercial rubber samples have been tested using SPM in force volume mode. The software allowed the results to be analysed and showed that the commercial rubbers could be ranked in accordance with their expected level of resilience, viz. butyl rubber, natural rubber and butadiene rubber ( FIG. 35 ). The recombinant resilin was measured in the fully hydrated state with a much softer probe and found to have excellent resilience, similar to that of the butadiene rubber ( FIG. 36 ).  
      BR=butadiene rubber, generally very good resilience—used in superballs  
      IIR=butyl rubber, known to have poor resilience  
      NR=natural rubber, good resilience but generally not as good as BR  
      Resilin=10, 11 &amp; 13 were 3 repeat measurements on the same sample  
                                              Material                                                             Resilin   Resilin   Resilin   Resilin           BR   IIR   NR   10   11   13   Combined                                                         Mean   76.0   32.0   65.1   75.7   76.9   82.4   78.3       Std Dev   5.3   5.9   3.5   6.2   5.0   2.1   5.6       Min   56.9   20.8   58.1   49.9   61.8   77.2   49.9       Max   83.1   54.9   75.0   86.3   84.4   88.2   88.2       n   64   64   64   64   64   64   192                  
 
     Example 19  
      The expression of the resilin gene in  Drosophila  was investigated. This has important implications for the fatigue properties of the native biomaterial. Real-time PCR was used to study the expression of two regions of the CG15920 gene. The control genes used were 18S ribosomal RNA and the ribosomal protein gene RpP0.  
      The two resilin gene regions (res1 and res2) were chosen and assays designed for their use. The sequences of primers for the 2 resilin assays and the control genes, RpoO and 18S ribosomal protein, is shown below.  
      Oligos for RT-PCR Resilin Expression  
                                           Oligo Name   Sequence   Size   Tm [C.]                                                    Res 001 Fwd   GAGCCACCAGTTAACTCGTATCTAC   25   58                   Res 002 Rev   GGCTTGCCTGCATATCCA   18   50               Res 003 Fwd   CAGAACCAAAAACCATCAGATTC   23   52               Res 004 Rev   GGCGGGCTCATCGTTATC   18   52               D.RpP0001 Fwd   CTTCATCAAGGTTGTGGAACTGT   23   53               D.RpP0002 Rev   TTGGTGAACACGAATCCCA   19   49               D.18Sr001 Fwd   CCTCTGTTCTGCTTTCATTGGT   22   53               D.18Sr002 Rev   GCTGGCATCGTTTATGGTTAGA   22   53                  
 
      50-100 mg of larvae, pupae and adults were obtained from cultures maintained at the University of Queensland Department of Entomology and were used for extraction of total RNA.  
      RESILIN qPCR expression profile: Basic qPCR Outline  
      Approx 50 mg-100 mg of tissue from the following  Drosophila  lifestages was collected and snap frozen under liquid nitrogen:  
      Larvae at 4, 5, 6, 7 8 days and wandering (pre-pupation)  
      Pupae at early, mid and late development Adult fly (just post eclosion)  
      RNA was extracted by homogenization in TRIZOL extraction reagent (Invitrogen), Dnase (Ambion) treated and then passed through RNeasy RNA columns (Qiagen) as a second round RNA clean-up procedure with an additional on-column DNase treatment (Qiagen).  
      1 st  strand cDNA was synthesised using Superscript II reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen) on 5 ug of the purified RNA as follows:  
      Superscript Rnase H Reverse Transcriptase (Invitrogen) 1 st  Strand cDNA Synthesis  
      5 ug of purified RNA (as determined spectrophometerically) was reversed transcribed essentially according to the Superscript protocol.  
      NB: A minus RT control was included for each tissue type to demonstrate in qPCR that DNA contamination is negligible or within acceptable limits (&gt;12-15 cycles difference in detection)  
      Set-up the RT reaction as follows:  
       
      1 ul NNdT(20) oligo (2 ug)  
      or 1 ul Random Hexamers (500 ng)  
      5 ug of total RNA (to 31 ul)  
      1 ul Rnasin (Promega) (40 units)  
      Heat to 70° C. for 10 mins then sit on ice  
      Add:  
      10 ul of 5×RT buffer  
      5 ul of 0.1M DTT  
      1 ul of 25 mM dNTPs  
      Mix reaction and sit at 42° C. (oligo dT) or 37° C. (RH) for 2 mins and then add 1 ul (200 units) of Superscript.  
      Total Volume=50 ul  
     
         
          Incubate for 1 hour at 42° C. (oligo dT) or 37° C. (RH).  
          Terminate reaction by heat treating at 70° C. for 10 mins.  
          Store cDNA at −20 or ˜80° C.  
          cDNA diluted 10 fold and used in qPCR analysis as follows:  
          qPCR Assays: 5 μl volume  
       
    
      SYBR-Green Master Mix (Applied Biosystems) 2.5 ul  
      Primer 1 0.25 ul (450 n  
      Primer 2 0.25 ul (450 nM)  
      cDNA template 0.5 ul (10 fold dilution of stock cDNA)  
      Water 1.5 ul  
      4 technical replicates were conducted for each biological sample  
      Assays were performed in a 7900 HT Sequence Detection System Apparatus (Applied Biosystems) under the following conditions:  
      95° C. 10 min Amplitaq Gold Activation 1 cycle  
      95° C. 15 sec  
      60° C. 1 min  
      40 cycles  
      Upon completion of the amplicon detection assay, a dissociation analysis was performed to ensure a single amplicon species only was generated.  
      Data Analysis:  
      Data was analysed using a specialized EXCEL program (Q-Gene www.Biotechniques.com) Data was normalised to a reference gene (18S rRNA or Ribosomal Protein RpP0). The results indicate ( FIG. 17 ) that resilin is expressed only in the pupal stages of development, thus it seems not to be renewed during the life of the insect and therefore has considerable fatigue resistance.  
     Example 20  
     Identification and Isolation of Resilin Homologues  
      A search of the genbank insect genomes database comprising completed genomes from  Drosophila melanogaster, Anopheles gambiae  and  Apis iellifera  (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/BLAST/Genome/Insects.html) was carried out using the putative resilin gene (CG15920) from  Drosophila  (Ardell and Andersen, 2001) as the query sequence in a TBLASTN search using default settings and revealed a number of gene homologues with high scores (Low E values) all of which contain the “YGAP” amino acid motif. The repeat motif is of varying spacing and there are different numbers of repeat units in these genes. In Anopheles, only one sequence in the genome contains multiple YGAP repeat motifs (SEQ ID NO: 4), whereas in both  Drosophila  and Apis, there are two homologue forms (SEQ ID Nos:5 and 6 and SEQ ID Nos: 1 and 7, respectively). These have similarity to the CG15920 type and the CG7709 type sequence. Furthermore, Resilin homologues were isolated from insect cDNA in experiments employing degenerate oligonucleotide primers whose design was based on the alignment of primary amino acid sequences from  Drosophila  (CG15920) and Anopheles (EAA07479.1). This alignment is shown below. These degenerate oligos were used in PCR reactions with cDNA isolated from the pupal stages of fleas and buffalo flies. The sequence of primers is shown in the following Table.  
                                                      Protein                                 Name   sequence   Nucleotide sequence (5′-3′)                                     CF1   GGNGG F′   5′ ggATAACAATTTCACACAgggg(inosine)gg                   (inosine)AAYgg(inosine)gg(inosine)Mg               3′               CF2   GNGNG F′   5′ ggATAACAATTTCACACAgggg(inosine)AAY               gg(inosine)AAYgg 3′               CF3   YGAP F′   5′ ggATAACAATTTCACACAggTAYgg(inosine)               gC(inosine)CC 3′               CF4   GNGNG R′   5′ CACgACgTTgTAAAACgACCCRTT(inosine)C               CRTT(inosine)CC 3′               CF5   YGAP R′   5′ CACgACgTTgTAAAACgACgg(inosine)gC               (inosine)CCRTA 3′               CF6   SYGAP F′   5′ ggATAACAATTTCACACAggCC(inosine)SW               (inosine)SWRTA(inosine)CC 3′               CF7   GYSSG R′   5′ ggATAACAATTTCACACAggWS(inosine)TAY               gg(inosine)gC(inosine)CC 3′                  
 
 Degenerate Primers Designed and used in this Experiment 
 
 1. PCR Experiments (Optimization of PCR Conditions and MgCl 2  Concentration) 
 
      PCR&#39;s were set up to determine the optimal conditions for-amplification of specific products from the primer pairs designed (see table of primer pairs above). The standard PCR was set up as follows by adding all components listed below in to a microcentrifuge PCR tube to a total volume of 50 μl: (note that QIAGEN Taq Polymerase kit was used)  
      10×QIAGEN reaction buffer 5 μl, 5×Q buffer 10 μl, 25 mM MgCl 2  (variable component ranging from 0.2 μl-2 μl), dNTP mix (0.5 μM each) 0.51 μl, primer F 0.5 μl, primer R′ 0.5 μl, Tag polymerase 0.5 μl, sterile water) (variable 31.8-30 μl), template DNA 1 μl.  
      Conditions used for the PCR was variable as well (machine used BIORAD “Gene Cycler”):  
      94° C. 30 sec  
      37° C. 30 sec (variable step)  
      72° C. 1 minute  
      for 35 cycles (variable step)  
      cycles testing included 40 cycles and annealing temperatures tested included 40° C., 47° C.  
      other conditions tested include two stage PCR:  
      94° C. 30 sec  
      37° C. 30 sec  
      72° C. 1 minute  
      for 5 cycles  
      94° C. 30 sec  
      66° C. 30 sec  
      72° C. 1 minute  
      for 40 cycles  
      2. Cloning of PCR Product in pGEM-Teasy™ 
      Run PCR products on a medium size agarose gel (120 ml+1.21 μl EtBr) and excise bands after run with fresh scalper blade. Place cut agarose into 2 ml microcentrifuge tubes. Purify using the Macherey-Nagel Nucleospin extract 2 in 1 kit (protocol 4.1: protocol for DNA extraction from agarose gels):  
      For each 100 mg of agarose gel, add 300 μl buffer NT1. Incubate sample at 50° C. for 5-10 minutes with brief vortexing every 3 minutes until totally dissolved. Then place NucleoSpin Extract column into a 2 ml collecting tube, load sample and centrifuge. 1 minute at 8,000×g (10,000 rpm). Then an optional step can be performed by discarding the flowthrough and placing the column back into the collecting tube and adding 500 μl buffer NT2. centrifuge for 1 minute at full speed. Discard flowthrough and place back into collecting tube. Add 600 μl of buffer NT3 and centrifuge for 1 minute at full speed. Discard flowthrough and place back into collecting tube. Then add 200 μl buffer NT3. Centrifuge for 2 minutes at full speed to remove NT3 quantitatively. Finally place column into a clean 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube and add 25-50 μl elution buffer NE and leave at room temperature for 1 minute. Centrifuge for 1 minute at full speed.  
      Ligate excised PCR fragment into pGEM-Teasy (Promega) by putting together:  
      PCR fragment 3.7 μl, pGEM-Teasy 0.5 μl, ligation buffer 5 μl and T4 DNA ligase 0.8 μl  
      And incubate overnight at 4° C. for maximum transformants (can also be done for ½ hour at room temperature) and proceed to transformation protocol.  
      3. Transformation Protocol  
      Thaw top10 cells on ice and when thawed add 0.5 μl of res5 plasmid or 1 μl of ligation reaction. Mix gently with fingers and keep on ice for 1 hour. Heat shock tube at 42 degrees for 30 seconds, and immediately place on ice for 10 minutes. Add 250 μl of SOC and incubate for 1 hour at 37° C. Plate out at 25, 50 and 100 μl onto LB/amp plates with 3.5 μl of 1M IPTG and 16 μl of 50 ng/ml×Gal. Inoculate overnight at 37° C. Pick white colonies the next day and inoculate into LB/amp culture. Use the 15 ml blue capped Falcon tubes with 10 ml&#39;s of LB (10 μl of ampicillin to 10 mls of LB). Proceed to mini prep protocol (QIAGEN)  
      4. Mini Prep Protocol (QIAGEN)  
      Transfer 2 mls of culture from a 15 ml Blue Cap Falcon tube into a 2 ml microcentrifuge tube and spin for 10 minutes at max speed. Then decant supernatant into a glass beaker containing bleach and resuspend bacterial pellet in 250 μl buffer P1 via vortexing. Add 250 μl buffer P2 to resuspended cells and gently invert the tube 4 to 6 times to mix. Following that add 350 μl buffer N3 and invert the tube immediately 4 to 6 times. Centrifuge tubes for 10 minutes at maximum speed. A compact white pellet will form. Using a pipette, transfer the supernatant to a QIAprep column and centrifuge 30 to 60 seconds. Discard the flow-through. An optional step after this is to wash the column by adding 0.5 ml buffer PB and centrifuge 30 to 60 seconds. Discard the flow through from this and wash the column by adding 0.75 ml buffer PE and centrifuge for 30 to 60 seconds. Discard the flow-through from this and centrifuge an additional 1 minute to remove residual wash buffer. Place the column in clean 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube. To elute the DNA, add 50 μl buffer EB to the centre of the column and let stand for 1 minute. Then centrifuge for 1 minute.  
      5. Sequencing Protocol  
      Put together in a microcentrifuge tube:  
      Double distilled water 1 μl, DNA (plasmid) 5 μl, primer (M13 F , M13 R or T7) 1 μl, Big Dye 3.1 2R1, sequencing buffer 3R1 (total volume 12R1) and use program 4 35 cycles. When complete, add 1.3 μl 3M NaOAc pH 5.2 and 30 μl absolute ethanol. Incubate at −20° C. for 15 minutes. Spin 15 minutes at 4° C. and remove solution carefully by pipetting. Then wash with 100 μl 80% ethanol and spin at max speed for 5 minutes at 4° C. Then remove solution carefully and dry with no heat in vacuum centrifuge for 3 minutes. Make sure that the sequencing cleanup is performed in 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tubes. Also better sequences were obtained when the amount of starting DNA was increased from 5 μl to 6 μl.  
      6. RNA extraction with QIAGEN Rneasy Mini kit following protocol described in “Rneasy mini protocol for isolation of total RNA from animal tissue” 
      Tissues and samples need to be disrupted first up. To do this the samples are first places in a sterile RNase free 2 ml screw cap microcentrifuge tube with 3 to 4 sterile glass beads. This is then taken through the BIO-101 (Savant) FastPrep FP120 disruptor. A speed of 5.0 and time of 3×6 seconds is used. The a quick spin for 15 seconds at 2000 rpm is performed to allow settling of debris. The supernatant is then transferred onto a QIA shredder column in a 2 ml collection tube and then centrifuged for 15 seconds at 10,000 rpm. The cleared lysate is then transferred into a fresh 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube and further centrifuge for an extra 3 minutes at max speed. This is then transferred into another fresh microcentrifuge tube. Then 1 volume (approximately 350-600 μl) of 70% ethanol is added to the cleared lysate and mixed immediately by pipetting (do not centrifuge). Up to 700 μl of the sample can then be added to the Rneasy column, placed in a 2 ml collection tube. Centrifuge for 15 seconds at 8000×g (10,000 rpm). Discard the flow through and pipette 350 μl buffer RW1 onto the column and centrifuge 15 seconds at 8000×g (10,000 rpm). Discard the flow through and add 10 μl Dnase 1 stock solution to 70 μl buffer RDD. Mix this by gentle inversion. Pipette Dnase 1 incubating mix (80 μl) directly onto Rneasy silica-gel membrane and place on bench top (20-30° C.) for 15 minutes. Pipette 350 μl buffer RW1 onto column and centrifuge 15 seconds at 8000×g. discard flow-through and then add 700 μl buffer RW1 to column and centrifuge 15 seconds at 8000×g. discard flow-through and collecting tube. Then transfer Rneasy column into a new 2 ml collection tube and pipette 500 μl buffer RPE onto the column. Centrifuge for 15 seconds at 8000×g and discard flow-through. Add another 500 μl buffer RPE to the column and centrifuge 2 minutes at 8000×g to dry membrane. Place Rneasy column into a new 2 ml collecting tube and centrifuge at max speed for 1 minute. To elute, place the column in a new 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube and pipette 30-50 μl Rnase-free water directly onto the column and then centrifuge for 1 minute at 8000×g.  
      7. Superscript Double stranded cDNA synthesis kit (invitrogen)  
      1 st  Strand Synthesis  
      Add into a RNase free 1.5 microcentrifuge tube:  
      primer (100 pmol/μl) 1 μl, RNA in DEPC-treated water 11 μl  
      and heat mix to 70° C. for 10 minutes and quick chill on ice. Collect contents at the bottom of the tube by brief centrifugation and add:  
      5×first strand reaction buffer 4 μl, 0.1M DTT 2 μl, 10 mM dNTP mix 1 μl  
      Vortex gently and collect by brief centrifugation. Place tube at 45° C. for 2 minutes and add superscript II RT 1 μl.  
      Mix gently and incubate at 45° C. for 1 hour. Total volume is now 20 μl. Then place tube on ice to terminate reaction  
      2 nd  Strand cDNA Synthesis  
      On ice add the following components to the first strand reaction tube:  
      DEPC-treated water 91 μl, 5×second strand reaction buffer 30 μl, 10 mM dNTP mix 3 μl,  E.coli  DNA ligase (10 U/μl) 1 μl,  E.coli  DNA Polymerase I (10 U/μl) 4 μl,  E.coli  Rnase H (2U/μl) 1 μl. Vortex gently to mix and incubate 2 hours at 16° C. (temperature must not exceed 16° C.). Then add 2 μl (10 units) of T4 DNA polymerase and continue to incubate at 16° C. for 5 minutes. Place tube on ice and add 10 μl of 0.5M EDTA and add 160 μl of phenol: chloroform: isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1), vortex thoroughly and centrifuge at room temperature for 5 minutes at 14,000×g. Carefully remove 140 μl of upper, aqueous layer and transfer to a fresh 1.5-ml tube. Add 70 μl of 7.5M NH 4 O ac, followed by 0.5 ml of ice-cold absolute ethanol. Vortex the mixture thoroughly and immediately centrifuge at room temperature for 20 minutes at 14,000×g. Remove supernatant carefully and discard. Overlay the pellet with 0.5 ml ice-cold 70% ethanol. Centrifuge for 2 minutes at 14,000×g and remove supernatant and discard. Finally dry the pellet at 37° C. for 10 minutes to evaporate residual ethanol and dissolve pellet in a small volume of DEPC-treated water (3 μl per 25 μg of starting total RNA or 1 μg of starting mRNA).  
      Results from Degenerate PCR  
      Initial optimization experiments were performed with the res5 plasmid and primer pair&#39;s 1+5, 2+5, 1+4 and 3+4. Conditions used were as described in 1. PCR experiments (optimization of PCR conditions and MgCl 2  concentration). Of all the conditions tested, the optimal condition was found to be at 37° C. for 35 cycles. PCR was done in the BIORAD “gene cycler” PCR machine using QIAGEN reagents. The optimal MgCl 2  concentration was found to be 0.5 μl. A higher MgCl 2  concentration resulted in smearing. Optimization experiments showed that the use of Q buffer improved the efficacy of the reaction resulting in brighter and sharper bands.  
      The next stage involved extracting RNA and making ds cDNA from flea and buffalo fly this was then used in degenerate PCR. Also at this stage, two new degenerate primers were designed, primers 6 and 7. This primers were used in conjunction with the earlier primers. PCR was then performed using all the primer pair s 1+7, 2+7, 3+7 and the earlier primer sets of 1+5, 2+5, 1+4 and 3+4 on both flea and buffalo fly cDNA. Of these bands were obtained for buffalo fly for primer pair&#39;s 1+7 (approx. 500 bp), 2+7 (300, 500 bp and 1 kb), 3+7 (1 kb), 1+4 (approx. 1 kb) and 3+4 (approx. 1 kb) (see  FIG. 36 ). Bands were obtained in flea for primer pair 2+5 300 and 500 bp) ( FIG. 37 ).  
      Partial nucleotide sequences were then obtained via cloning of these bands from flea ( Ctenocephalides felis ) (SEQ ID NOs:8, 9 and 12) and buffalo fly ( Haematobia irritans exigua ) (SEQ ID NOs: 10, 11 and 13). When translated, these sequences showed the repeat motif YGAP as seen in  FIG. 38 .  FIG. 38  also illustrates the similarities (and differences) between sequences containing the repeat motifs.  
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