Patent Publication Number: US-2023149703-A1

Title: Devices and methods for treating stress and improving alertness using electrical stimulation

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation-in-part of, and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 17/750,109 entitled “Devices and Methods for Treating Stress and Improving Alertness Using Electrical Stimulation” and filed Apr. 20, 2022. This application is also a continuation-in-part of, and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 17/832,437 entitled “Devices and Methods for treatment of substance use disorders,” filed Jun. 3, 2022, which is a continuation-in-part of, and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 17/219,712 entitled “Devices and Methods for Treating Cognitive Dysfunction and Depression Using Electrical Stimulation,” filed Mar. 31, 2021 (now U.S. Pat. No. 11,351,370), which is a continuation-in-part of, and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/846,220 entitled “Devices and Methods for Reducing Inflammation Using Electrical Stimulation,” filed Apr. 10, 2020 (now U.S. Pat. No. 10,967,182), which is a continuation-in-part of, and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/510,930 entitled “Device and Method for the Treatment of Substance Use Disorders,” filed Jul. 14, 2019 (now U.S. Pat. No. 10,695,568), which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/777,569, entitled “Device and Method for the Treatment of Substance Use Disorders,” filed Dec. 10, 2018. All above identified applications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Events that trigger stress are generally called stressors; individuals react differently to similar as well as to dissimilar stressors. In general, stressors can be divided into two main categories or types: physical and psychological. Physical stressors include a physical threat to bodily homeostasis; for example, bleeding profusely or having an infection. Psychological stressors include a perceived threat, which, as such, needs to be interpreted; for example, being in front of a hungry tiger, running late for a meeting, or feeling pressure to properly perform a task. Stress is part of normal life, and a healthy response to a stressor may be demonstrated by an anticipatory phase, a peak response during the event, and a return to baseline. 
     Even though stress is part of life, at some level of stress (which may be different for everyone at a particular time), performance generally becomes negatively affected. The effects of stress on performance can manifest in physical, cognitive, emotional, and/or behavioral impairments that affect a number of areas of life, such as decision-making, perception, and cognition. Individuals under stress tend to consider a reduced pool of available options, oftentimes resulting in a suboptimal decision, and, in some cases, a potentially risky or dangerous one. This suboptimal decision is not only driven by a lack of a thorough analysis but also by a reduced number of perceived external cues. This reduction of perceived external cues is sometimes referred to as “tunnel vision,” although the perception reduction is not limited to vision. In addition to only considering a limited pool of options when making a decision, people under stress, tend to process information slower; in fact, a study found that individuals under stress may take as much as twice the amount of time to complete the same task when a stressor is introduced 
     As stated, stress tends to reduce people&#39;s perception field thus not allowing all available information to be considered while consciously or unconsciously responding to external stimuli. This scenario often leads to mistakes and accidents. For example, drivers experiencing a reduced perception field may be more apt to cause accidents or injuries. In other examples, stress may cause an athlete, an air traffic controller, or a stockbroker to make mistakes, in particular when performance demands are at their highest. 
     In many cases, the pressure felt through recognizing that a non-ideal action or response could lead to a highly undesirable outcome will lead to high levels of stress. Pressure-induced stress, in some examples, may be experienced by professional athletes during competition, including those performing electronic sports (Esports), or by military operators, including those operating unmanned vehicles. 
     A large percentage of the population has reported feeling under stress on regular basis; the perception of stress tends to increase when working long hours, working under pressure, and/or not sleeping enough. 
     In some cases, people develop what is known as an Acute Stress Reaction (ASR), also known as Acute Stress Disorder (ASD). If the ASR is prolonged or the stressor causing it is persistent or reoccurring, a person suffering from an ASR may go on to develop Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). In addition to the reactions/symptoms to stress described above, ASR symptoms may also include fatigue, restlessness, panic, irritability, rage, flashbacks, nightmares, intrusive memories, confusion, avoidance of reminders of the event (e.g., avoiding people, conversations, places, etc.), difficulty remembering the event, reckless or aggressive behavior (which may be self-destructive), feeling emotionally numb and detached from others, an inability to experience positive emotions, anxiety, sleep disturbances, and difficulty concentrating. Additionally, some of the physical symptoms of an ASR may include chest pain, pounding heart or palpitations, feeling sick (e.g., nausea), abdominal pain, loss of appetite, headaches, and/or difficulty breathing. In the beginning, ASR may lead to performance issues, however, ASR can also manifest into a serious medical problem. ASR is a risk factor for completed suicide. In one study, for example, it was found that individuals diagnosed with ASR followed through with complete suicide at a rate of 10 times of those who were not diagnosed with ASR. See Gradus et al. 2010. “Acute Stress Reaction and Completed Suicide.” International Journal of Epidemiology 39 (6): 1478-84. 
     ASRs are more common (or at least more commonly diagnosed) in some situations than in others. For example, ASR diagnoses are common in the military and can be life threatening to the individual experiencing it as well as to the team working with the individual. In the military, ASRs may also be referred to as Combat Stress Reaction (CSR) and Operational Stress Reaction (OSR) or together as Combat and Operational Stress Reactions (COSRs). Often, the conditions of operational environments increase exposure to severely stressful situations and prolong the duration of time soldiers must cope with severe stressors, thereby putting personal safety and mission success at risk. Further, many battlefield situations do not allow for the affected soldier to be close enough to trained personnel to avert adverse effects from an ASR event. 
     Individuals under long-term or chronic stress tend to develop pathological conditions, including cardiovascular disease, muscle pain, stomach and intestinal problems, decreased fertility, and reduced immune system strength. 
     Long-term stress can also lead to feelings of anger, anxiety, fatigue, depression, as well as sleep problems. Furthermore, as stated previously, long-term exposure to a stressor or stressors can lead to the development of PTSD; Patients with PTSD have shown a greater propensity to alcohol and opioid abuse. See Bilevicius, Elena, et. al. 2018. “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Chronic Pain Are Associated with Opioid Use Disorder: Results from a 2012-2013 American Nationally Representative Survey.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence 188 (July): 119-25. Additionally, long-term stress may also lead to burnout. Stress is a well-known risk factor in the development of addiction (e.g., substance use disorder) and in addiction relapse vulnerability. 
     Burnout manifests as emotional exhaustion, physical fatigue, diminished professional efficacy, cognitive impairments, feelings of ineffectiveness, detachment, and cynicism. Burnout is generally the result of a sustained or prolonged psychosocial stress exposure in which a mismatch between demands and resources exists or it is believed by the sufferer to exist. For example, when the personal emotional, cognitive, and physical resources are not, or are perceived to not be sufficient to overcome the demands of a situation or an environment. Available data regarding development of burnout supports an initial hyperactive stress response (in both the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic system) followed by physiological exhaustion resulting in an impaired physiological response (hyporeactivity of the HPA axis). 
     Reducing and/or controlling stress to an individual&#39;s manageable level and not allowing stress to become chronic, could lead to a more desirable and faster response to a scenario or event, as well as to a better decision-making process, better overall performance and the prevention of burnout. Furthermore, reducing and/or controlling stress could help prevent undesired health consequences as well positively influencing life span. Effectively reducing and/or controlling stress is dependent on the immediacy of an intervention. 
     SUMMARY OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS 
     Chronic exposure to stressors leads to continuously higher perceived stress. Stress and aging have been shown to be positively correlated; interestingly, studies have shown that stress as well as inflammation (including low-level inflammation) influence telomere attrition. Telomeres are the last portion of the chromosomes and protect the DNA. With each cell replication/division, the telomere length (TL) tends to decrease. TL has been linked to lifespan and has been used as a biomarker of cellular aging. An unhealthy response to acute stress (e.g., an exaggerated response, such as a very long anticipatory response or a long return to baseline), may result in detrimental changes in telomere regulation, including problems with telomerase activity (TA). Telomerase is an enzyme which activity counteracts telomere shortening. For instance, an autonomic overreaction has been correlated with an increased cortisol reactivity to stressors, with diminished immune cell function, and shorter TL. Perseverative cognition (e.g., rumination and worriedness), which can increase the stress reaction and prolong the recovery time to baseline has also been associated with shorter TL. An overreaction in the form of longer, or stronger/exaggerated anticipatory threat appraisals to acute stressors is one example of perseverance cognition. 
     The profile of an acute stress reaction is mainly affected by allostatic cases, for example, basal levels of inflammation and hormones as well as baseline autonomic and neuroendocrine activity. A prolonged stress reaction and/or repeated exposures to a particular stressor may lead to disturbed allostatic states. Shorter TL as well as lower TA have been linked to a decreased vagal tone, increased basal levels of cortisol, oxidative stress, and inflammation. 
     Among healthy individuals, the two branches of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), i.e., the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) are in a dynamic balance. This allows for a fast and efficient response to a challenge (internal or external) followed by a fast and efficient return to baseline when the challenge is over. At high levels of stress and/or under chronic stress, the dynamic balance between the SNS and the PNS is lost, resulting in excessive demands and insufficient recovery. This stress-related autonomic imbalance is the result of a hyperactive SNS and a hypoactive PNS. The general response to both physical and psychological stress is activation of the sympathetic nervous system with inhibition of the parasympathetic nervous system. Interestingly, studies have shown that a higher baseline parasympathetic activity leads to a more controlled stress response. A higher parasympathetic activity allows to a faster counteraction of the stress response and a rapid return to baseline after the challenge (i.e., the stressor) has passed. One way to increase parasympathetic activity is to increase vagal tone (e.g., increasing vagal activity). For example, increasing vagal tone when stress is high enough to start negatively impacting performance would lower the stress response and would bring stress to a manageable level, i.e., to a level at which performance is no longer impacted. 
     Given the above, the inventors recognized that controlling or reducing stress levels as well as not allowing a decreased vagal tone would be highly desirable. In one aspect, the present disclosure relates to addressing stress through affecting the balance of the ANS by modulating the activity ratio between the SNS and the PSN. In some embodiments, modulating the activity ration between the SNS and PSN involves activating vagal and/or auriculotemporal nerve structures, leading to an increase in vagal activity and thus vagal tone. This may be achieved not only by directly stimulating the above-mentioned nerve structures but also as a consequence of the activation of efferent descending pathways from the NTS and the NA. 
     As mentioned above, fatigue or feeling fatigued or extremely fatigued is one of the symptoms or consequences of stress. Fatigue can be said to be or to manifest as a lack of alertness. Wakefulness is a state in which an individual can perceive external stimuli and interact with their surroundings and their environment. The degree of vigilance and alertness during wakefulness is called arousal, and it corresponds to the level of: (a) responsiveness to sensory inputs, (b) emotional reactivity, and (c) cognitive processing. 
     The inventors recognized that controlling or reducing levels of fatigue as well as encouraging alertness would be highly desirable. In one aspect, the present disclosure relates to increasing both NE and NPS as it activates the LC, trigeminal areas and the PbN. NPS activity is paradoxical as it acts as an anxiolytic and yet increases arousal. 
     Furthermore, studies have shown stress can negatively affect neuroplasticity by altering hippocampal function. This functional alteration is similar to that seen in cases of depression. The neural centers forming the circuit involved in the stress response are also the ones involved in the physiology of depression. Interestingly, stressed individuals respond positively when treated with antidepressants such as selective serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitors (S SRI). Thus, antidepressant treatments targeting the neural circuit that increase 5-HT have a positive effect on stress. Neuroplasticity is key for learning and memory and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is crucial for neuroplasticity; high stress levels have been shown to negatively impact BDNF availability. 
     The inventors recognized that treating depression through 5-HT increase would be a highly beneficial augmentation to treating stress. In one aspect, the present disclosure relates to increased activity in neural medullary structures such as, amongst others, the NTS. This activity increase in neural medullary structures triggers a cascade of neural activity in other brain areas which have direct and indirect connections to these neural medullary structures. For example, increasing activity in the neural medullary structures may result in increasing the availability of monoamine neurotransmitters such as Serotonin (5-HT) as well as endogenous release of neuropeptides such as endorphins. This increase in endorphins triggers further activity in neuronal populations in yet other brain regions, for example, in populations of GABAergic interneurons in the VTA, which are inhibited by the endorphins. This inhibition of GABAergic interneurons leads to an increase in the release of dopamine form dopaminergic neurons also located at the VTA. As a result, there is a net increase in dopamine availability. An increasing activity in the TCC may result not only in an activity increase in some medullary neural structures but also in an increase in the availability of a Norepinephrine (NE) and in an improve in BDNF availability. 
     It has been shown that acute stress promotes both fibrinolysis and platelet aggregation which in most cases counteract each other. Fibrinolysis is promoted via an increased release of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) from endothelial and chromaffin cells. When the balance between fibrinolysis and platelet aggregation is disrupted, stressed individuals are prone to either bleeding or thrombosis. Individuals under stress with hemostatic disorders such as Factor VIII deficiency (i.e., hemophilia) as well as those with Von Willebrand disease are prone to bleeding. Interestingly, a bleeding control method via stimulation of vagal and/or trigeminal structures has been proposed by researchers from the Feinstein Institute. The bleeding control method is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 8,729,129 to Tracey et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 10,912,712 to Tracey et al.; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2020/0094055 to Manogue; and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2019/0321623 to Huston et al., hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. 
     The inventors recognized that treating stress reaction would be a highly beneficial augmentation to treating bleeding control. In one aspect, the present disclosure relates to reducing likelihood of bleeding under stressful situations and/or speeding the stoppage of bleeding through vagal and/or trigeminal stimulation in combination with neurostimulation treatment to reduce stress reaction. 
     The forgoing general description of the illustrative implementations and the following detailed description thereof are merely exemplary aspects of the teachings of this disclosure, and are not restrictive. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of the specification, illustrate one or more embodiments and, together with the description, explain these embodiments. The accompanying drawings have not necessarily been drawn to scale. Any values dimensions illustrated in the accompanying graphs and figures are for illustration purposes only and may or may not represent actual or preferred values or dimensions. Where applicable, some or all features may not be illustrated to assist in the description of underlying features. In the drawings: 
         FIG.  1 A  is a drawing identifying structures of an ear according to an example; 
         FIG.  1 B  is a drawing of innervations of the ear amongst which are vagal related neural structures, auriculotemporal nerve structures, neural structures related to the lesser occipital nerve, and neural structures related to the great auricular nerve; 
         FIGS.  1 C- 1 G  are drawings identifying neural structures and pathways for modulating the release of endogenous opiate receptor agonist, which modulate pain, as well as pathways modulating anti-inflammatory, pulmonary, and cognitive processes to an example; 
         FIG.  2 A  is a drawing of a treatment device including an auricular component having an earpiece connected to a concha apparatus by a first connector, and a pulse generator connected to the earpiece of the auricular component by a second connector according to an example; 
         FIG.  2 B  is a drawing of an alternative view of the treatment device shown in  FIG.  2 A  showing the concha apparatus including a first electrode or cymba electrode, and the earpiece including a second electrode and at least another electrode according to an example; 
         FIG.  2 C  is a drawing of a treatment device including a number of electrodes configured to be virtually grouped together to form one or more effective electrodes according to an example; 
         FIG.  2 D  is a drawing of a side view of a portion of a treatment device including haptic feedback actuators between a pair of electrodes according to an example; 
         FIG.  2 E  is a drawing of an example treatment device having an earpiece with a tragus appendix; 
         FIG.  3 A  is a drawing of an auricular component having an earpiece and concha apparatus with shapes configured to aid in securing the treatment device and respective electrodes to a respective ear structure according to an example; 
         FIG.  3 B  is an illustration of the auricular component worn on the ear of a patient according to an example; 
         FIGS.  3 C and  3 D  illustrate example auricular components including an electrode for contacting the tissue of the tragus; 
         FIGS.  4 A- 4 C  are drawings of a concha apparatus having a shape configured to aid in securing the concha apparatus and respective supported electrodes to a respective ear structure according to another example; 
         FIGS.  5 A- 5 B  are exploded views of components of the treatment device including a skin, a PCB layer, an adhesive layer composed of two elements, a skin adhesive and a number of conductive adhesive elements according to an example; 
         FIG.  6    is a drawing of a portion of an auricular component made from a flexible PCB according to an example; 
         FIG.  7 A- 7 C  are drawings of the flexible PCB encapsulated in a protective covering according to an example; 
         FIGS.  8 A- 8 B  are drawings of a structural-loaded component configured to facilitate placement of the cymba electrode according to an example; 
         FIGS.  9 A- 9 C  are drawings of a compression-loaded component configured to facilitate placement of the cymba electrode according to an example; 
         FIGS.  10 A- 10 C  are drawings of a system including the treatment device in communication with third parties through a computing cloud and/or a peripheral device according to an example; 
         FIG.  11    is a drawing of a schematic of components of a pulse generator in communication with components of the flexible PCB of the auricular component according to an example; 
         FIG.  12    is a drawing of an electrode configuration and equivalent circuit for providing therapy according to an example; 
         FIG.  13    is a drawing of a method for triggering multiple channels using a single clock according to an example; 
         FIG.  14 A  is a flow chart of a method for providing therapy including providing a first stimulation at a first tissue location configured to stimulate a first pathway for modulating a first release of a first endogenous peptide and a second stimulation at a second tissue location configured to stimulate a second pathway for modulating a second release of a second endogenous peptide according to an example; 
         FIG.  14 B  are examples of target locations for stimulation of the first tissue location; 
         FIG.  14 C  are examples of target locations for stimulation of the second tissue location; 
         FIG.  14 D  is a flow chart of a method for providing therapy including providing a first stimulation at a first tissue location such that neural activity at the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (ARC) is modulated such that it stimulates the Periaqueductal Gray Area (PAG) for modulating a first release of enkephalins and/or endorphins, and a second stimulation at a second tissue location such that neural activity at the Parabrachial Nucleus (PbN) is modulated such that it also stimulates the Periaqueductal Grey Area (PAG) for modulating a second release of a dynorphins, according to an example; 
         FIG.  14 E  is a flow chart of an example method for providing therapy for increasing bronchi compliance; 
         FIG.  14 F  is a flow chart of an example method for providing therapy for decreasing pro-inflammatory processes; 
         FIG.  15    is a bar graph showing data collected using the proposed system according to an example; 
         FIGS.  16 A through  16 D  illustrate example processes for providing direct or indirect modulation of neural pathways to treat disorders such as depression, PTSD, phobias, and/or addictive behaviors by increasing BDNF levels and monoamine neurotransmitter availability; 
         FIG.  17 A  and  FIG.  17 B  are bar graphs showing data collected when applying stimulation to treat depression and PTSD according to an example; 
         FIG.  18 A  illustrates example connections of the Sympathetic-Adrenomedullary (SMA) Axis pathway; 
         FIG.  18 B  illustrates example connections of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis pathway; 
         FIG.  19 A  illustrates example connections of the main parasympathetic pathway; 
         FIG.  19 B  illustrates example connections of the central endorphin pathway; 
         FIG.  20 A  illustrates example connections of a stress reduction pathway; 
         FIG.  20 B  illustrates example connections of an arousal and alertness control pathway; 
         FIG.  20 C  illustrates example connections of an anti-inflammatory pathway; 
         FIG.  21 A  illustrates example mechanisms for using electrical stimulation to control and/or decrease stress; 
         FIG.  21 B  illustrates example mechanisms for using electrical stimulation to promote wakefulness, increase arousal/alertness, and counteract fatigue; and 
         FIG.  21 C  illustrates example mechanisms for using electrical stimulation to for decrease pro-inflammatory processes. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS 
     The description set forth below in connection with the appended drawings is intended to be a description of various, illustrative embodiments of the disclosed subject matter. Specific features and functionalities are described in connection with each illustrative embodiment; however, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the disclosed embodiments may be practiced without each of those specific features and functionalities. 
     Reference throughout the specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with an embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the subject matter disclosed. Thus, the appearance of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” in various places throughout the specification is not necessarily referring to the same embodiment. Further, the particular features, structures or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. Further, it is intended that embodiments of the disclosed subject matter cover modifications and variations thereof. 
     It must be noted that, as used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context expressly dictates otherwise. That is, unless expressly specified otherwise, as used herein the words “a,” “an,” “the,” and the like carry the meaning of “one or more.” Additionally, it is to be understood that terms such as “left,” “right,” “top,” “bottom,” “front,” “rear,” “side,” “height,” “length,” “width,” “upper,” “lower,” “interior,” “exterior,” “inner,” “outer,” and the like that may be used herein merely describe points of reference and do not necessarily limit embodiments of the present disclosure to any particular orientation or configuration. Furthermore, terms such as “first,” “second,” “third,” etc., merely identify one of a number of portions, components, steps, operations, functions, and/or points of reference as disclosed herein, and likewise do not necessarily limit embodiments of the present disclosure to any particular configuration or orientation. 
     Furthermore, the terms “approximately,” “about,” “proximate,” “minor variation,” and similar terms generally refer to ranges that include the identified value within a margin of 20%, 10% or preferably 5% in certain embodiments, and any values therebetween. 
     All of the functionalities described in connection with one embodiment are intended to be applicable to the additional embodiments described below except where expressly stated or where the feature or function is incompatible with the additional embodiments. For example, where a given feature or function is expressly described in connection with one embodiment but not expressly mentioned in connection with an alternative embodiment, it should be understood that the inventors intend that that feature or function may be deployed, utilized or implemented in connection with the alternative embodiment unless the feature or function is incompatible with the alternative embodiment. 
     In some implementations, treatment systems, devices, and methods for stimulation of neural structures on and surrounding a patient&#39;s ear are designed for providing stimulation without piercing the dermal layers on or surrounding the ear. The stimulation, for example, may induce endogenous release of peptides, such as endorphins. Electrodes may be frictionally and/or adhesively retained against the skin on and surrounding the patient&#39;s ear to target various nerve structures. The electrodes may have a substantial surface area in comparison to prior art systems relying upon dermal-piercing electrodes, such that multiple nerve terminals are stimulated by a single electrode during therapy. For example, a number of nerve terminals may be situated directly beneath and/or beneath and closely adjacent to the skin upon which the electrode is positioned. By targeting multiple nerve terminals, in some embodiments, positioning of each electrode does not necessarily need to be precise. Therefore, for example, a patient or caregiver may be able to apply and remove the device as desired/needed (e.g., for sleeping, showering, etc.). Further, targeting multiple nerve terminals is advantageous since stimulating multiple branches of a nerve elicits a stronger response than stimulating a single branch, which is the case when using pinpoint electrodes such as needle electrodes. 
     The transdermal stimulation of these nerve regions enables a variety of beneficial treatments. In some examples, these include the treatment of acute or chronic pain, inflammatory conditions, and cognitive difficulties.  FIGS.  1 C- 1 E  are drawings identifying neural structures and pathways for modulating the release of endogenous opioid receptor agonist, which modulates pain, as well as pathways modulating inflammatory and cognitive processes. The Nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) receives afferent connections from many areas including the Trigemino-cervical complex (TCC), the cervical vagus nerve as well as from the auricular branch of the vagus nerve (ABVN). The TCC is a region in the cervical and brain stem area were trigeminal and occipital fibers synapse, including the Auriculotemporal nerve, the lesser occipital nerve and the greater auricular nerve. The TCC projects to multiple areas in the brain stem including, but not limited to the Nucleus Raphe Magnus (NRM) and other parts of the Raphe nuclei (e.g., Raphe Nucleus (RN)), the Locus Coeruleus (LC), Periaqueductal Gray (PAG), Nucleus Basalis (NBM), the Nucleus Ambiguus (NA), the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA), the Nucleus Accumbens (NAc) and Parabrachial nucleus (PbN). The NTS among others, also projects to the RN (e.g., NRM), the LC, and the PAG as well as to high centers like the hypothalamus, including into the Arcuate Nucleus (ARC) which receives its majority of non-intrahypothalamic afferents from the NTS. Additionally, many interconnections exist amongst different brainstem nuclei (e.g., PAG, LC, RN, NRM, NBM, PbN, PPN, NA, VTA, NAc); for example, the LC, PAG, and RN (e.g., NRM) project to the NA, and the PPN projects into the VTA. The VTA, in turn, projects to the Prefrontal Cortex, being interconnected with the hypothalamus and the hippocampus. The VTA projects directly to the Hippocampus as well. The Hippocampus, in turn, projects to the NAc and interconnects with the hypothalamus. 
     The following table presents a listing of opioid receptors in the central nervous system: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Endogenous 
               
               
                 Receptor 
                 Expression/Distribution 
                 Cell Types 
                 Ligands 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 MOR 
                 Amygdala, thalamus, periaqueductal 
                 GABAergic 
                 β-endorphin (High) 
               
               
                   
                 gray, locus coeruleus, raphe magnus, 
                 Glutamatergic 
                 enkephalins (Med) 
               
               
                   
                 mesencephalon, habenula, hippocampus, 
                   
                 Dynorphin (Low) 
               
               
                   
                 some brainstem nuclei 
               
               
                 KOR 
                 Basal anterior forebrain, olfactory 
                 Dopaminergic 
                 Dynorphin (High) 
               
               
                   
                 tubercle, striatum (caudate putamen and 
                 Glutamatergic 
                 β-endorphin (Low) 
               
               
                   
                 NAc), preoptic area, hypothalamus, 
                 GABAergic 
                 enkephalins (Low) 
               
               
                   
                 pituitary 
               
               
                 DOR 
                 Olfactory tract, cortices, including whole 
                 GABAergic 
                 β-endorphin (High) 
               
               
                   
                 neocortex and regions of the amygdala 
                 Dopaminergic 
                 enkephalins (High) 
               
               
                   
                 that derive from the cortex (basolateral, 
                   
                 Dynorphin (Low) 
               
               
                   
                 cortical, and median nuclei of the 
               
               
                   
                 amygdala), striatum 
               
               
                 NOP 
                 Periaqueductal gray, thalamic nuclei, 
                 Dopaminergic 
                 Orphanin 
               
               
                   
                 somatosensory cortex, rostral ventral 
                   
                 FQ/nociceptin (High) 
               
               
                   
                 medulla, spinal cord, dorsal root ganglia, 
               
               
                   
                 VTA, NAc, PFC, central amygdala, 
               
               
                   
                 lateral hypothalamus 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 MOR/KOR/DOR = μ/κ/δ -opioid receptor; NOP = nociception/orphanin FQ receptor; NAc = nucleus accumbens; PFC = prefrontal cortex; VTA = ventral tegmental area. 
               
               
                 Affinity is presented in parenthesis. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     These connections make this neural circuit extremely important for modulating pain, as production of endorphins, enkephalins, and dynorphins are modulated by this circuit. In addition, this neural circuits are crucial for learning and memory as well as for arousal and wakefulness. For example, an interaction between norepinephrine, produced by activity in the Locus Coeruleus (LC), Serotonin (5-HT), produced by activity in the RN (e.g., NRM), and Acetylcholine (ACh) produced by activity in the Pedunculopontine Nucleus (PPN) or NBM is extremely important for memory and learning. Arousal and wakefulness are modulated, amongst others, by norepinephrine in the brain. 
     There are descending indirect connections going to the heart, lungs, gut, and spleen. Indirect connections include connections where there is at least one synapse elsewhere before reaching the target. This means that modulating the activity of these neural circuits can affect the respective organs. In particular, heart rate can be modulated (e.g., heart rate can be decreased and heart rate variability can be increased); oxygen absorption can be increased at the lungs by increasing the compliance of the bronchi tissue and thus increasing the oxygen transport availability therefore increasing the potential for more oxygen to be absorbed into the blood; gut motility can be increased by descending pathways originating in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve (DMV); since DMV activity is modulated by NTS activity, motility in the gut can be affected by modulating the activity in the NTS; and a decrease in circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines can be achieved by modulating spleen activity via NTS descending pathways. 
     Heart rate variability (HRV) is a reflection of the state of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The sympathetic branch of the ANS, which is more active during stress situations tends to increase heart rate (HR) and decrease HRV; the opposite is true for the parasympathetic branch of the ANS, which tend to decrease HR and increase HRV. Higher HRV has been associated with morbidity and mortality in several conditions as well as with well-being and has been used as a health biomarker. 
     There are at least three different opioid receptors, Mu (μ), Delta (δ), and Kappa (κ) in pain modulation. The body produces endogenous agonist peptides for each of these three receptors. These peptides are called endorphins, which primarily binds to the Mu (μ) receptors, Enkephalin which primarily binds to the Delta (δ) receptors, and Dynorphins, which primarily binds to the Kappa (κ) receptors. Pain studies suggest that production of these endogenous peptides follow different pathways. While production of endorphins and enkephalin is mediated by activity in the Arcuate Nucleus (ARC) in the hypothalamus, activity in the Parabrachial nucleus mediates production of dynorphins. Furthermore, electrostimulation experiment showed that dynorphin production was more efficiently mediated by higher frequency than production of the endorphins and/or enkephalins; this suggests that while the dynorphin pathway is more efficiently activated by higher frequencies, the endorphins and enkephalins pathway is more efficiently activated by lower frequencies. 
     In some implementations, the treatment device can be used to induce neuronal plasticity or Neuroplasticity for provoking cognitive improvements, stroke recovery, PTSD, phobias, ADHD, ADD, dementia including treating Alzheimer&#39;s disease. Neuroplasticity underlies learning; therefore, strategies that enhance neuroplasticity during training have the potential to greatly accelerate learning rates. Earlier studies have successfully demonstrated that invasive or implanted vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) can drive robust, specific neural plasticity. Brief bursts of VNS are paired with training to engage pro-plasticity neuromodulatory circuits and reinforce the specific neural networks that are involved in learning. This precise control of neuroplasticity, coupled with the flexibility to be paired with virtually any training paradigm, establishes VNS as a potential targeted neuroplasticity training paradigm. 
     The vagus nerve is a cranial nerve that is located adjacent to the carotid artery in the neck. Direct stimulation of the vagus nerve activates the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), which has projections to nucleus basalis (NBM) and locus coeruleus (LC). The NBM and LC are deep brain structures that release acetylcholine and norepinephrine, which are pro-plasticity neurotransmitters important for learning and memory. Stimulation of the vagus nerve using a chronically implanted electrode cuff is safely used in humans to treat epilepsy and depression and has shown success in clinical trials for tinnitus and motor impairments after stroke. The auricular branch of the vagus nerve innervates the dermatome region of outer ear, being the region known as the cymba conchae one of the areas innervated by it. Non-invasive stimulation of the left auricular branch of the vagus nerve may drive activity in similar brain regions as invasive vagus nerve stimulation. Recently auricular neurostimulation has proven beneficial in treating a number of human disorders. 
     In some implementations, the treatment device can be used to restore autonomic balance such as cardiac heart failure, atrial fibrillation (AF), anxiety, stress, gastric motility, depression, cluster headaches, and migraines. Transcutaneous electrical stimulation of the tragus (e.g., the anterior protuberance of the outer ear), which is partly enervated by the auricular branch of the vagus nerve, can elicit evoked potentials in the brainstem in human subjects. Based on these observations, it was demonstrated that atrial fibrillation inducibility was suppressed by transcutaneous low level-VNS stimulation, which was achieved through stimulation of the auricular branch of the vagus nerve at the tragus in a canine. Noninvasive transcutaneous low level-VNS stimulation increases AF threshold (mitigates risk of AF), as well as alleviates AF burden in both canines and humans. In healthy subjects, transcutaneous low level-VNS stimulation can also increase heart rate variability and reduce sympathetic outflow. 
     In some implementations, the treatment device is used to reduce inflammation caused by viral or bacterial infections. In the initial stages of infection, the body response includes the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In some cases, controlling this inflammatory response such that it can be reduced can help the body to heal faster. Inflammatory responses are a double-edged sword in the sense that it is necessary to eradicate cells infected by viruses as well as bacteria. However, an excessive pro-inflammatory response can actually lead to death. In particular in respiratory infections, pro-inflammatory cytokines may lead to an increase in pathogen replication. In addition, lung function may be compromised by the accumulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Studies suggest that the pro-inflammatory response in some individuals (e.g., older people) is often excessive. In many of these cases, it is this pro-inflammatory response that causes more harm than the infection itself resulting in the potential death of the infected subject. In response to Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), for example, the human body produces an excessive pro-inflammatory response. In fact, evidence gathered so far suggests that in some individuals with severe COVID-19 the body responds by unleashing an exacerbated release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Reducing the inflammatory response, e.g., through reducing circulating pro inflammatory cytokines, will, in some cases, reduce the time to heal and/or will reduce the time an infected person may need to use assistive respiratory therapy such as the need for a ventilator. In general, a patient stays on average less than 5 days on a ventilator; however, in the case of COVID-19, patients have been remaining on ventilators for as much as 3 or 4 times longer; i.e., 15 to 20 days. Healthcare centers are generally equipped with enough ventilators to serve a population that will need them in average less than 5 days. The increase in the time a ventilator is needed in COVID-19 patients is a factor in the overall mortality rate seen in COVID-19 since many patients in need of a ventilator will not have access to one. Via modulation of NTS activity, treatment devices and methods described herein can not only a) increase the compliance of the bronchi tissue ultimately providing more oxygen to the body but also, b) decrease inflammation in the lungs. For example, modulation of NTS activity can decrease the amount of circulating pro inflammatory cytokines. These two effects allow the novel treatment devices and methods described herein to behave as an adjuvant therapy in the treatment of respiratory infections (e.g., Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS), severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), COVID-19, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)). 
     The compliance of the bronchi is produced via the modulation of the Autonomic Pulmonary Pathway, illustrated in  FIG.  1 F . In particular, the novel treatment presented herein stimulates the ABVN and/or the auriculotemporal nerve (ATN) which have projections to the NTS. The NTS projects to LC, PAG and RN (e.g., NRM). These brainstem nuclei deliver an inhibitory signal to airway-related pre-ganglionic neurons located in the nucleus ambiguus (NA). The NA sends a signal to the airway smooth muscle, via efferent pathways mainly through the vagus nerve, eliciting bronchodilation. 
     The anti-inflammatory effect is provided via activation of the Anti-inflammatory Pathway (a.k.a. the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway), as illustrated in  FIG.  1 G . In particular, the novel treatment described herein stimulates the ABVN and/or the ATN which, as stated before, have projections to the NTS; these projections elicit cholinergic anti-inflammatory effects via efferent pathways; mostly via the vagus nerve. Systemic anti-inflammatory effects occur when the vagus nerve mediates spleen function, thereby reducing the amount of circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines. In addition, a local anti-inflammatory effect occurs at organs reached by the efferent pathways; for example at the lungs, gut, and heart. 
     To stimulate the various neural structures discussed above, in some implementations, treatment devices may be designed for positioning against various surfaces on or surrounding a patient&#39;s ear.  FIG.  1 A  is a drawing identifying structures of an ear showing amongst other the concha cymba, the tragus, the antihelix, the helix, the external auditory meatus, and the Lobule.  FIG.  1 B  is a drawing of innervations of the ear amongst which are vagal related neural structures, for example within the concha cymba, auriculotemporal nerve structures, for example rostral to the auricle. In  FIG.  1 E , neural structures related to the lesser occipital nerve and neural structures related to the great auricular nerve are shown, for example behind the auricle. 
     Turning to  FIG.  2 A  and  FIG.  2 B , a treatment device  200  is shown including an auricular component  201  having an earpiece  202  connected to a concha apparatus  204  by a first connector  206 , and a pulse generator  210  connected to the earpiece  202  of the auricular component  201  by a second connector  214  according to an example. The first connector  206 , in some embodiments, is releasably connected between the earpiece  202  and the concha apparatus  204 . For example, at least one of a proximal (earpiece  202  side) end or at distal (concha apparatus  204  end) of the first connector  206  may be designed for releasable connection. In other embodiments, the first connector  206  is integrated with the earpiece  202  and concha apparatus  204 , behaving as a conduit for bridging an electrical connection between the earpiece  202  and the concha apparatus  204 . Similarly, in some embodiments, the second connector  214  is releasably connected between the earpiece  202  and the pulse generator  210 . For example, at least one of a proximal (earpiece  202  side) end or at distal (pulse generator  210  end) of the second connector  214  may be designed for releasable connection. In other embodiments, the second connector  214  is integrated with the earpiece  202  and pulse generator  210 , behaving as a conduit for bridging an electrical connection between the earpiece  202  and the pulse generator  210 . Either of the first connector  206  or the second connector  214 , in embodiments designed for releasable connection, may include at least one of its proximal or distal ends having a keyed connection with a corresponding port on the treatment device  200  for snug (e.g., non-spinning) connection or for assuring electrical alignment. In some embodiments designed for releasable connection, either of the first connector  206  or the second connector  214  is designed for locking connection. The locking connection, for example, may be a water-resistant locking connection to protect against shorting due to sweating, rain, etc. 
     In some embodiments, the earpiece  202  and/or the concha apparatus  204  are designed from inexpensive materials, allowing the apparatus to be disposable; lowering the cost per treatment and eliminating the need for maintenance. Disposable apparatus also provides for greater hygienics. 
     In some embodiments, the concha apparatus  204  includes a first electrode  220  configured to be in proximity to vagal related neural structures to enable electrical stimulation of the vagal related neural structures, and the earpiece  202  includes a second electrode  222  configured to be in proximity to a neural structure related to the auriculotemporal nerve to enable electrical stimulation of the auriculotemporal nerve. The earpiece  202  may further include at least another electrode  224 ,  226  configured to be in proximity to neural structures related to the great auricular nerve and/or its branches as well as the lesser occipital nerve and/or its branches to enable electrical stimulation of those structures. In an example, the pulse generator  210  can include a return electrode  230  configured to provide a return path or reference to electrodes  220 - 226 . In another embodiment, electrodes  220 - 226  form pairs such that for example electrodes  220  and  226  form a pair are used to deliver bipolar stimulation; in this example a second pair could be formed by electrodes  222  and  224  such that bipolar stimulation is provided through them. 
     In yet another embodiment, electrodes  224  and  226  may be combined into a single electrode and be used as a share pair for electrodes  220  and  222  to produce biphasic pulses. 
     Turning to  FIG.  2 E , some embodiments further include at least one tragus appendix for contacting and stimulating the tragus. As illustrated in  FIG.  2 E , for example, a tragus appendix  284  containing a tragus electrode  282  configured for stimulating the tissue of the tragus extends from an earpiece  286  of a treatment device  280 . In some embodiments, the tragus appendix  284  can be folded such that it is in contact with the exterior-facing tissue of the tragus and/or with the interior-facing tissue of the tragus. For example, contacting the tragus can enable electrical stimulation of the auriculotemporal nerve and/or the vagus nerve branch. The tragus electrode  282 , for example, may be provided instead of the first electrode  220  of the treatment device  200  of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  and can be configured with electrode  226  as a pair. In another embodiment (not illustrated), the tragus electrode  282  may be provided in addition to the first electrode  220 , in which case both may share electrode  226  as their pair to produce biphasic pulses. In other embodiment, another electrode (not shown), used as the pair for electrode  282  to produce biphasic pulses, may be placed, for example, below electrode  226 . 
     In illustrative example, a treatment device such as the auricular component  201  of  FIG.  2 A  and  FIG.  2 B  may be donned as follows. Apply the earpiece  202  around the auricle of the patient, press against the patient&#39;s skin such that exposed skin adhesives and adhesives/hydrogels adhere to the skin. Next, place the concha apparatus  204  in the ear such that a first portion of the concha apparatus  204  sits outside the external ear canal in the cavum. Finally, flex or compress a second or distal portion of the concha apparatus  204  supporting the cymba electrode until it goes into the cymba of the ear. In some implementations, the earpiece  202  includes one or more protective liners on one or more of the skin adhesive, the cymba electrode, and the non-cymba electrodes which are to be removed before use. 
     Turning to  FIG.  2 C , a treatment device can include a number of electrodes configured to be virtually grouped together to form one or more effective electrodes according to an example. In an exemplary embodiment, a treatment device can include a number of electrodes  228  that can be grouped together to form into one or more effective electrodes  240   a - c . In an example, a grouping of electrodes  240   a  can be equivalent to electrode  222 , a grouping of electrodes  240   b  can be equivalent to electrode  224 , and a grouping of electrodes  240   c  can be equivalent to electrode  226 . 
     Benefits of grouping smaller electrodes include having the ability to have multiple electrodes each one with its own independently controlled current source allows for the current to be steer providing better spatial resolution and targeting capabilities. Electrodes can also be made larger or combined such that for example in one embodiment electrodes  1206  and  1208  be combined into one large contact. In an example, the grouping of two or more electrodes ( 222 ,  224 ,  226 ) can be done using a processor such as a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) such as FPGA  1112 . 
     In a preferred embodiment, a treatment device includes an auricular component  201  which has a number of electrodes that are configured to be in contact with the dermis in and around the outer ear. The auricular component  201  includes at least one of the following electrodes: an electrode configured to be in proximity to vagal related neural structures; for example at the cymba concha (also known as the concha of the cymba, concha cymba, and/or cymba)  204 , an electrode  222  configured to be in proximity to a neural structure related to the auriculotemporal nerve, an electrode configured to be in proximity to neural structures related to the great auricular nerve and/or its branches, as well as the lesser occipital nerve and/or its branches,  224  and  226 . Additionally, the treatment device includes a pulse generator  210  or controller having management software for providing the user with at least one of: customizing the therapeutic output, receiving confirmation of therapeutic delivery, and receiving and saving overall stimulation logs, diagnostics, and events. 
     In some implementations, a treatment device  250  can include one or more haptic feedback actuators  270  between a pair of electrodes  228  according to an example ( FIG.  2 D ). In an aspect, the one or more haptic feedback actuators  270  can move  272  from a first position  270  to a second position  270 ′ in repetitive patterns. In an example, the repetitive patterns can aid to mask sensations felt by stimulation of the electrodes. In an aspect, the one or more haptic feedback actuators  270  can be configured to isolate or electrically separate conductive shunting pathways between electrodes  228 , including between portions of conductive gel  260 . 
     In an aspect, an auricular component can include an earpiece and concha apparatus having shapes configured to aid in securing the treatment device and the electrodes to a respective ear structure. In an exemplary embodiment, an auricular component  300  can include an earpiece and concha apparatus having shapes  310 ,  320 ,  330  configured to aid in securing the treatment device and the electrodes  220 ,  222 ,  224 ,  226  to a respective ear structure (see  FIGS.  3 A- 3 B ). Shaped portions  310 ,  320 ,  330 ,  332  of the earpiece and the concha apparatus are configured to interface with structures of the ear ( 302 ,  304 ,  306 ,  308 ,  309 ) to facilitate secure placement of the electrodes for providing therapy. In another exemplary embodiment, a concha apparatus  400  can have a structural shape configured to aid in securing the concha apparatus  400  and allow for supported electrode(s) to maintain contact with a respective ear structure (See  FIGS.  4 A- 4 C ). The concha apparatus  400  includes a first member  402  connected at a distal elbow  406  to an arm  404  having a second member  408  configured to fit within extrusions and notches  410   a - b  of the ear. 
     In some embodiments, an auricular component can include a tragus element configured to extend over or wrap around the tragus of the ear. In an illustrative example,  FIG.  3 C  illustrates an earpiece  340  including a tragus extension  342 . The tragus extension  342 , for example, may be configured to contact an exterior-facing surface of the tragus. In another example, the tragus extension  342  may be foldable such that it curves around a surface of the tragus. In this configuration, the tragus extension may have one or both of an interior surface facing electrode and an exterior surface facing electrode. Turning to  FIG.  3 D , in another example, an auricular component  350  includes an earpiece  352  including a tragus bridging section  356  and a concha apparatus  354 . 
     In some implementations, an earpiece assembly  500  includes a skin  502  for overlaying a PCB layer  504  having electrodes  503   a - d  ( 220 ,  222 ,  224 ,  226 ,  228 ), an adhesive layer composed of two elements, a skin adhesive  505  having corresponding apertures  506  to adhesive elements  508  configured for enhancing electrical interfacing of the electrodes  503   a - d  with the skin (See  FIG.  5 A  and  FIG.  5 B ). In some embodiments, the adhesive elements  508  can include a conductive hydrogel in another embodiment the hydrogel is infused with analgesic for a more comfortable stimulation. In an example, the hydrogel is on top of one or more contact surfaces on the flex PCB. In an example, the skin  502  can be made from a flexible piece or material such as silicone. 
     In an example, a flexible PCB  602  can include electronic components to suppress electrical spikes as well as a component to identify and/or uniquely identify the PCB (See  FIG.  6   ). Exposed conductive surfaces  612 ,  620 ,  622 ,  624  on the PCB  602  serve as contact points to connect the hydrogels  508  to the PCB  602 . The PCB  602  extends forming a cable-like structure  604  to integrate the cymba component  610  of the electrode  220  in proximity to nerve branches related to vagal nerve structures  204  without the need for soldering and/or connecting the electrode  220  during assembly. In one embodiment, the cable-like structure forms an anchoring structure  606  which sits inside portions of the ear. In this example, PCB  602  connects to the pulse generator  210  via a slim keyed connector  630 . In another embodiment, more than one electrode can be located on the cymba component  610 . In this case, additional components can be added to the PCB  602  to accommodate additional electrodes including additional traces on the PCB  602 . In an example, additional connections could extend along the cable-like structure  604  and connector  630  can have additional contact pins. In another embodiment, an analog multiplexor could be added to control and/or direct or re-direct the stimulation pulses towards a desired electrode and/or set of electrodes. 
     In some embodiments, the circuit  602  on the earpiece assembly  500  is formed with printed electronics. 
     In an example, the flexible PCB can be encapsulated in a protective covering as shown in  FIGS.  7 A- 7 C . The protective covering can be made from a flexible material such as silicone. The protective covering can be an encapsulation that may have different thickness and densities in order to provide comfort to the touch and robustness and protection to the PCB. The encapsulation is done with at least one material. In some embodiments, the encapsulation is done at least in using one mold and at least one molding step. 
     In an aspect, a concha apparatus can include a component for facilitating placement of the cymba electrode to portions of the ear. For example, the concha apparatus may be designed for frictional engagement with a concha of the ear, thus retaining a position of the concha apparatus external to the patient&#39;s ear canal in the concha. In an exemplary embodiment, a concha apparatus can include a structural-loaded component  800  which facilitates frictional retention of a cymba electrode  808  to portions of the ear (See  FIG.  8 A- 8 B ). Compression loading, such as spring loading, has the added advantage that it is self-fitting allowing a secure and comfortable fit for different ear sizes. The presented shape (i.e., omega shape  814 ,  816 ) has the added advantage that it can be made with metal and non-metal materials. Other suitable shapes may be fabricated to allow a structural-loaded action using metal and/or non-metal materials or a combination of both metal and non-metal materials. The materials, for example, may include shape retaining materials or shape memory materials. In this example, the cable-like structure  604  after encapsulation with, for example, silicone  804  is routed such that the PCB  602  does not need to incorporate the anchoring structure  606 . In this case, the cable-like structure  804  goes through a handle-like feature  810  that can be utilized by the user to handle and place the component  800  on the user&#39;s ear. 
     An anchoring structure  812  is placed in the ear and the electrode  808  in proximity to nerve branches related to vagal nerve structures  204  is placed in the cymba. The use of an anchoring structure outside the ear canal instead of a part going into the ear canal for the placement serves three purposes, comfort, functionally (it does not block sound), and safety (minimal risk of having a loose part going into the ear canal). Aside from the handle  810  and anchoring structure  812 , component  800  has two omega-like structures  814 ,  816  having a structural-loaded effect, a flat structure  802  connecting structural-loaded components  814  and  816  and a flat structure  818  attaching electrode  204  to component  800 . Structural-loaded structure  814  helps in directing the rest of component  800  (i.e.,  802 ,  816 ,  818 ,  204 ) medially (i.e., towards the user&#39;s head) while the structural-loaded structure  816  helps in directing electrode  808  cranially inside the cymba crevice (i.e., towards the upper portion of the cymba crevice). 
     In an exemplary embodiment, a concha apparatus can include a compression-loaded component  900  which facilitates the placement of a cymba electrode  908  on the user&#39;s ear. (See  FIG.  9 A- 9 B ). Compression loading, such as spring loading has the added advantage that it is self-fitting allowing a secure and comfortable fit for different ear sizes. The presented shape (i.e., classic spring) is usually fabricated with metallic materials. Other suitable shapes may be fabricated to allow a compression-loaded action using metallic materials, non-metal materials, or a combination of both metal and non-metal materials. The materials may include shape-retaining or shape-memory materials. In this example, the cable-like structure  604  after encapsulation with, for example, silicone  904  is routed such that the PCB  602  does not need to incorporate the anchoring structure  606 . In this case, the cable-like structure  904  goes through holder  910  which can be utilized by the user to handle and placed the component  900  on the user&#39;s ear. An anchoring structure  912  is placed in the ear and the electrode  908  in proximity to nerve branches related to vagal nerve structures is placed in the cymba. The use of an anchoring structure outside the ear canal instead of a part going into the ear canal for the placement serves three purposes, comfort, functionally (it does not block sound), and safety (minimal risk of having a loose part going into the ear canal). Aside from the handle  910  and anchoring structure  912 , component  900  has two springs  914 ,  916 , a flat structure  902  connecting the two springs  914  and  916  and a flat structure  918  attaching electrode  908  to component  900 . Spring  914  helps in directing the rest of component  900  (i.e.,  902 ,  916 ,  918 ,  204 ) medially (i.e., towards the user&#39;s head) while spring  916  helps in directing electrode  908  cranially inside the cymba crevice (i.e., towards the upper portion of the cymba crevice). In some embodiments, a single wire  920  is shaped such that components  910 ,  912 ,  914 ,  916 , and  918  are formed (See  FIG.  9 C ). In some embodiments, the wire is encapsulated into a comfortable-to-the-touch and flexible material (e.g., silicone). In some embodiments, holder  910  is longer, for example it could bridge over the entire anchoring structure  912  for a more functional and comfortable handling. 
     In some implementations, the pulse generator  210  includes a battery, circuitry configured to produce therapy stimulation in communication with the electrodes of the auricular component  201 . In some embodiments, the pulse generator includes at least one antenna configured to receive programming instructions encoding stimulation parameters. In an aspect, the system is rechargeable to allow for long-term use. 
     In an exemplary embodiment, the auricular component  201  is connected to an electrical pulse generator  210  which produces the therapy stimulation going to the electrodes on the auricular component  201 . In some implementations, the pulse generator  210  is co-located in close proximity with the auricle of the patient. For example, the pulse generator  210  may be designed into or releasably connected to a head apparatus similar an over the head or back of the head headphones band or earmuffs band. In another example, the pulse generator  210  may be releasably retained in a pocket of a cap or head wrap donned by a patient. In other embodiments, the pulse generator  210  is placed on the body of the user, for example on the pectoral region just below the clavicle. In another embodiment, the pulse generator  210  can be clipped to the user&#39;s clothing or carried in the user&#39;s trousers pocket or in a specially designed pouch. In further embodiments, the pulse generator is built into the auricular component  201 . 
     In some embodiments, the pulse generator  210  includes an input/output (I/O) interface for user control of the therapy. The I/O interface, for example, may include a number of controls, such as buttons, dials, or a touch pad, for adjusting therapy. In some examples, the I/O interface may include one or more of a mode selection, a length of time selection, or a stimulation strength control. Separate controls, in a further example, may be provided for the adjustment of the electrodes of the concha apparatus and for the electrodes of the earpiece. 
     In some embodiments, the pulse generator  210  is remotely configurable via wireless communication. In some embodiments, the wireless remote device may periodically request therapy status and in some embodiments the status, including any changes, may be communicated to a 3rd party such as a healthcare provider who is monitoring the therapy being applied to the user. For example, therapy provided via the pulse generator  210  may be controlled or adjusted at least in part using a peripheral device such as a mobile device, a tablet, or a personal computer. For example, a mode and/or stimulation strength may be adjusted by a clinical user (e.g., doctor, nurse, occupational therapist, etc.), while the timing (e.g., powering on and off and/or length of time setting) of the stimulation may be user-controlled via the I/O interface of the pulse generator  210 . In another example, a software update to the pulse generator  210  may be delivered via wireless communication. The wireless communication, in some examples, can include radio frequency (RF) communication (e.g., Bluetooth) or near-field communication (NFC). The wireless communication may be enabled via an application installed on the peripheral device. 
     In some embodiments, other components of the treatment device are configurable by or capable of communication with a peripheral device. For example, data collected by the treatment device may be transferred to the peripheral device and thereby exchanged via a computing cloud with third parties such as healthcare professionals and/or healthcare providers 
     Turning to  FIGS.  10 A- 10 C , in some implementations, a treatment system can include a treatment device  1000  in communication with a network  1020  and/or one or more peripheral devices  1010 . Certain peripheral devices  1010 , further, may enable communication between the treatment device  1000  and one or more third parties. Examples of peripheral devices  1010  include a personal computer, a tablet, or phone. In some embodiments, the peripheral device(s)  1010  include a fitness-monitoring device, such as a Fitbit, Apple Watch, or Garmin Smartwatch. In some embodiments, the peripheral device(s)  1010  include a health-monitoring device, such as a glucose meter, a holter monitor, an electrocardiogram (EKG) monitor, or an electroencephalogram (EEG) monitor. Further, the peripheral devices  1010 , in some embodiments, include a remote server, server farm, or cloud service accessible via the network  1020 . Certain peripheral device(s)  1010  may communicate directly with the treatment device  1000  using short-range wireless communications, such as a radio frequency (RF) (e.g., Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Zigbee, etc.) or near-field communication (NFC). Certain peripheral device(s)  1010  may communicate with the treatment device  1000  through another peripheral device  1010 . For example, using Bluetooth communications, information from the treatment device  1000  may be forwarded to a cloud service via the network  1020  (e.g., using a Wi-Fi, Ethernet, or cellular connection). The network  1020 , in some examples, can include a local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), metro area network (MAN) or the Internet. In some embodiments, the network is a clinical LAN used for communicating information in a medical environment, such as a hospital, in a secure (e.g., HIPAA-compliant) manner. 
     In an example illustrated in  FIG.  10 A , the treatment device  1000  is shown including an auricular component  1002  connected via a connector to a pulse generator  1004 , and the pulse generator  1004  is wirelessly connected to the peripheral device(s)  1010  and/or the network  1020 . This configuration, for example, may enable a patient, caregiver, or clinical user to adjust settings and/or monitor treatment controlled by the pulse generator  1004 . For example, an application running on a peripheral device  1010  may provide one or more adjustable controls to the user for adjusting the delivery of therapy by the pulse generator  1004  to the patient via the auricular component  1002 . Further, feedback data gathered by the auricular component  1002  and/or the pulse generator  1004 , such as sensor feedback, may be supplied by the pulse generator  1004  to one or more of the peripheral devices  1010 . The feedback, for example, may include sensor signals related to symptoms of the patient being treated by the treatment device  1000 . A clinical user monitoring sensor metrics related to these signals may manually adjust the delivery of therapy accordingly using the one or more adjustable controls provided by the application. Further, in some implementations, the feedback may be used by one of the peripheral devices  1010  to generate a notification for review by the patient, a caregiver, or a clinician. The notification, for example, may include a low power notification, a device removed notification, or a malfunction notification. In an illustrative example, the treatment device  1000  may monitor impedance measurements allowing closed-loop neurostimulation. The notifications regarding removal or malfunction, for example, may be issued upon determining that the impedance measurements are indicative of lack of a proper contact between one or more electrodes of the treatment device  1000  and tissue on or surrounding the patient&#39;s ear. The notifications, for example, may be delivered to the patient and/or one or more third parties via an application executing on one of the peripheral devices  1010 . For example, the application may issue an audible alarm, present a visual notification, or generate a haptic output on the peripheral device  1010 . Further, in some embodiments, the application may issue a notification via a communication means, such as sending an email, text message, or other electronic message to one or more authorized users, such as a patient, caregiver, and/or clinician. 
     Conversely, in some implementations, the configuration illustrated in  FIG.  10 A  enables automatic adjustment of therapy delivery by reviewing feedback provided by the treatment device and/or one or more peripheral devices  1010  (e.g., fitness monitors and/or health monitors used by the patient). In one example, a cloud platform accessible via the network  1020  may receive the feedback, review present metrics, and relay instructions to the pulse generator  1004  (e.g., via a Wi-Fi network or indirectly via a local portable device belonging to the patient such as a smart phone app in communication with the treatment device  1000 ). The pulse generator, in a further example, may gather feedback from the one or more fitness monitor and/or health monitor devices  1010 , analyze the feedback, and determine whether to adjust treatment accordingly. 
     Turning to  FIG.  10 B , in some implementations, the auricular component  1002  of the treatment device  1000  may further be enabled for wireless transmission of information with one or more peripheral devices  1010 . For example, the auricular component  1002  may include a short-range radio frequency transmitter for sharing sensor data, alerts, error conditions, or other information with one or more peripheral devices  1010 . The data, for example, may be collected in a small non-transitory (e.g., non-volatile) memory region built into the auricular component  1002 . 
     In other implementations, the pulse generator  210  is included in the auricular component  1002  that is, they are co-located thus the need for an extension cable to connect them is not necessary. The auricular component  1002  and pulse generator  210  may be wirelessly connected to an electronic device (for example a personal computer, a tablet or a phone)  1010  and/or to a remote server  1010  via the network  1020 . In turn, in some embodiments, the electronic device  1010  is also wirelessly connected to a remote server via the network  1020 . 
     As shown in  FIG.  10 C , different communication components of the treatment device  1000  can be in communication with the peripheral device(s)  1010  or network  1020 . In some implementations, the treatment device  1000  includes at least one isolated port  1032  for wired communication with the peripheral device  1010 . The isolated port  1032 , in some examples, may be a universal serial bus (USB) connection (e.g., a mini-USB connection, a micro-USB connection, a USB-C port, etc.), an Ethernet port, or a Serial ATA (SATA) connector. The isolated port  1032 , for example, may be included in the pulse generator  1004  for updating a software version running on the pulse generator  1004  or for reprogramming treatment settings of the pulse generator  1004 . The isolated port(s)  1032  may be connected to a communications port engine  1034  for enabling communications between a peripheral device  1010  and the treatment device  1000  via the isolated port  1032 . The communications port engine  1034  may couple the isolated port  1032  to one or more microprocessors  1036 . For example, the communications port engine  1034  may establish a direct (e.g., wired) communication link with one of the peripheral device(s)  1010  to transfer data from a memory  1038  to the peripheral device  1010 . 
     Further, a wireless radio frequency (RF) antenna (e.g., transmitter or transmitter/receiver)  1040 , in some implementations, is included in the treatment device  1000 . The RF antenna  1040  can be in wireless communication with the peripheral device(s)  1010  directly or via the network  1020 . The RF antenna  1040 , in combination with processing circuitry for generating wireless communications (e.g., another communication port engine  1034  or a portion of the microprocessor(s)  1036 ) may function as a broadcast antenna, providing information to any RF receiver in a receiving region of the treatment device  1000 . For example, the RF antenna  1040  may broadcast sensor data, sensor metrics, alerts, alarms, or other operating information for receipt by one or more peripheral devices  1010 . In other implementations, the RF antenna  1040 , in combination with additional processing circuitry, may establish a wireless communication link with a particular peripheral device  1010 . The wireless communication link, in some embodiments, is a secure wireless communication link (e.g., HIPAA-compliant) for sharing patient data with the peripheral device(s)  1010 . The wireless communication link may be used to receive control settings from a peripheral device  1010  for controlling the functionality of the pulse generator, for example. 
     Turning to  FIG.  11   , a schematic  1100  of components of a pulse generator  1150  in communication with components of the flexible PCB  1160  of the auricular component is shown according to an example. The multichannel pulse generator circuit  1150  has at least one microcontroller or a microprocessor  1110  with at least one core. When multiple microcontrollers or multiple cores are present, for example one controls the radio  1120  and other core(s) are dedicated to control the therapy. In one embodiment, a low power programmable logic circuitry (e.g., FPGA or PLD)  1112  is also available such that the microcontroller  1110  goes into a low power mode as much as possible while the programmable logic circuitry  1112  controls therapy delivery. 
     In some embodiments, an inverter circuit  1140  is used to generate biphasic/bipolar pulses. In some embodiments, one inverter circuit is used per channel, while in other embodiment, a single inverter is used for multiple channels. In one embodiment, each channel targets a different anatomical area  1148 . A high voltage compliance (e.g., &gt;50V, in other embodiments &gt;70V, and yet in others &gt;90V) may be used to ensure there is enough margin on the electrical potential to generate current demanded by the intensity control  1142 . In order to enhance safety, in some embodiments an over current detection circuit  1144  is present. In one embodiment an impedance measuring circuit is present  1146 , such that impedance can be tracked over time and to identify when the electrodes are not in contact or in good contact with the skin or if the cable is disconnected, or if the electrodes have deteriorated or are defective. Monitoring impedance over time provides the added advantage that the condition of the contact electrode can be followed; thus allowing the circuit to alert the user when the contact electrodes are close to their end of life or no longer viable. 
     In some embodiments, an isolated port  1118 , such as a USB is used to charge the battery, and to communicate with the microcontroller(s)  1110 . The communication can be both ways, such that instructions or entire new code can be uploaded to the microcontroller(s)  1110  and to download information stored in the memory  1122 . In some embodiments, memory  1122  can be added to the circuit as an external CHIP, while in other embodiments, the memory  1122  can be internal to the microcontroller(s)  1110 . In some embodiments, the FPGA  1112  may also have internal memory. In some embodiments, an external trigger circuit  1124  is included, such that the stimulation can be started and/or stopped via an external signal. In some embodiments, the external trigger signal can be passed through the isolated port  1118 ; in yet other embodiments a modify USB configuration (i.e., not using the standard USB pin configuration) can be used to pass the trigger signal. Using a modify USB configuration will force a custom USB cable to be used thus ensuring that an external trigger cannot be done by mistake using an off-the-shelf USB cable. 
     In some embodiments, a hardware user interface  1126  is used to interact with the circuit. In an example, the user interface  1126  can include buttons, LEDs, haptic (e.g., piezoelectric) devices such as buzzers, and/or a display, or a combination of any of them. 
     In some embodiments, an external master clock  1128  is used to drive the microcontroller(s)  1110  and/or the FPGA  1112 , in other embodiments the clock(s) can be internal or integrated or co-packaged with the microcontroller(s)  1110  and/or the FPGA  1112 . In some embodiments, one or more oscillators, including in some cases adjustable oscillators  1114  are used to set pulse parameters such as for example, frequency and/or pulse width. 
     In some embodiments, the auricular component  1160  is made from a thin flex PCB or printed electronics, such that it is light weight and can be easily bent to accommodate different anatomies. In some embodiments, the auricular circuit  1160  has more than one channel. In one embodiment, each channel includes a peak suppressing circuit  1147  and electrodes  1148  to contact the skin at the location of the target tissue. In some embodiments, the auricular circuit  1160  includes a unique chip identifier or unique ID chip  1149 . The unique ID chip can be used to track usage as well as to prevent other no authorized circuits to be connected to the multichannel pulse generator  1150 . At least one auricular circuit  1160  is connected to the multichannel pulse generator  1150 . 
     Turning to  FIGS.  14 A- 14 C , a method  1400  is disclosed for providing therapy to a patient. The therapy, in some examples, may include the treatment of acute or chronic pain, inflammatory conditions, and/or cognitive difficulties. In a particular example, the therapy may include the treatment to abate withdrawal symptoms. 
     In some implementations, the method  1400  includes providing a first stimulation  1410  at a first tissue location configured to stimulate a first pathway  1420  for modulating a first release  1430  of at least one first endogenous peptide. The first endogenous peptide release, for example, may be an endorphin and/or enkephalins release. Examples of target pathways and structures ( 1420 ) for stimulation of the first tissue location include those modulating activity at/on the auricular branch of the vagus nerve, the lesser occipital nerve, the great auricular nerve, and the arcuate nucleus, for example as shown in  FIG.  14 B . The first tissue location, for example, may be a tissue location contacted by one or more electrodes of the concha apparatus  204  of  FIGS.  2 A- 2 C . 
     In some implementations, the method  1400  includes providing a second stimulation  1440  at a second tissue location configured to stimulate a second pathway  1450  for modulating a second release  1460  of a second endogenous peptide. The second endogenous peptide release, for example, may be a dynorphin release. Examples of target pathways and structures ( 1450 ) for stimulation of the second tissue location include those modulating activity at/on the auriculotemporal nerve, the lesser occipital nerve, the great auricular nerve, and the parabrachial nucleus, for example as shown in  FIG.  14 C . In some examples, the first electrode  220  of  FIG.  2 B , an electrode in the second member  408  of  FIG.  4 A , the electrode  503   c  of  FIG.  5 B , an electrode disposed on the anchoring structure  606  of  FIG.  6   , or the electrode  1202  of  FIG.  12    may be used to provide the first stimulation. 
     In some embodiments, providing the first stimulation ( 1410 ) and providing the second stimulation ( 1440 ) involves providing a series of simultaneous and/or synchronized stimulation pulses to both the first tissue location and the second tissue location. Each of the first stimulation ( 1410 ) and the second stimulation ( 1440 ) may be applied using the same or different parameters. The parameters, in some examples, may include pulse frequency (e.g., low, mid-range, or high) and/or pulse width. Further, the parameters may indicate electrode pairs for producing biphasic pulses. In a first illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a low frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a mid-range frequency. Conversely, in a second illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a mid-range frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a low frequency. Other combinations of low, mid-range, and high frequency stimulations are possible depending upon the patient and the disorder being treated. 
     In other embodiments, the method  1400  includes automatically adjusting delivery of the therapy (e.g., adjusting one or more parameters) based on feedback received from the pulse generator or another computing device in communication with the pulse generator. The feedback, in some examples, may include sensor feedback provided by the treatment device and/or one or more peripheral devices (e.g., fitness monitors and/or health monitors used by the patient, medical apparatus in a clinical environment, etc.). 
       FIG.  14 D  shows a flow chart of an example method  1402  for providing a therapy as described in relation to  FIG.  14 A . In some implementations, the method  1402  includes providing the first stimulation  1410  such that neural activity at the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (ARC) is modulated ( 1422 ) such that it stimulates the Periaqueductal Gray Area (PAG) ( 1470 ) for modulating a first release of enkephalins and/or endorphins ( 1480 ). In some implementations, the method  1402  includes providing the second stimulation  1440  such that neural activity at the Parabrachial Nucleus (PbN) ( 1452 ) is modulated such that it also stimulates the Periaqueductal Grey Area (PAG) ( 1470 ) for modulating a second release of a dynorphins ( 1482 ). Additionally, the second stimulation  1440  may contribute to releasing enkephalins and/or endorphins ( 1480 ). 
     Turning to  FIG.  14 E , a flow chart of an example method  1401  is illustrated for providing therapy to increase bronchi compliance. The therapy of method  1401 , for example, may encourage bronchodilation, thereby reducing airway resistance. Further, the therapy of method  1401  may increase the oxygen transport availability of the lungs, increasing the potential for more oxygen to be absorbed into the blood. The method  1401 , in some examples, may be applied in combatting COPD symptoms and/or symptoms produced by a viral or bacterial infection. The viral infection, in some examples, can include SARS, MERS, or COVID-19. The method  1401 , for example, may be performed at least in part by a pulse generator, such as the pulse generator  210  of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B , the pulse generator  1004  of  FIG.  10 A , or the pulse generator  1150  of  FIG.  11   . 
     In some implementations, the method  1401  begins with providing a first stimulation  1402  at a first tissue location configured to stimulate an autonomic pulmonary pathway  1406  for modulating bronchi compliance  1408 . Examples of target pathways and structures for stimulation of the first tissue location include those modulating activity at/on the auricular branch of the vagus nerve, the lesser occipital nerve, the great auricular nerve, and/or the nucleus ambiguus. The pathways, for example, may include a portion of the pathways illustrated in  FIG.  1 F . The first tissue location, for example, may include a surface of an ear structure contacted by an in-ear component of an auricular stimulation device. In some examples, the first electrode  220  of  FIG.  2 B , an electrode in the second member  408  of  FIG.  4 A , the electrode  503   c  of  FIG.  5 B , an electrode disposed on the anchoring structure  606  of  FIG.  6   , or the electrode  1202  of  FIG.  12    may be used to provide the first stimulation. The first tissue location, in another example, may be a tissue location contacted by the tragus appendix  282  of  FIG.  2 E . In some embodiments, the first stimulation  1402  is supplied to multiple tissue locations. For example, the first stimulation  1402  may be applied to a first tissue location including a surface of an ear structure contacted by an in-ear component of an auricular stimulation device as well as to a second tissue location on a tragus of the ear (e.g., contacted by the tragus appendix  282 ). 
     Modulating bronchi compliance  1408 , in some implementations, includes modulating activity at the NTS, thereby affecting activity at the LC, PAG, and/or RN (e.g., NRM) which in turn modulates activity in the NA such that the smooth muscle tone in the airways is modified according to an example. 
     In some implementations, the method  1401  includes providing a second stimulation  1404  at a second tissue location configured to stimulate the autonomic pulmonary pathway  1406  for modulating bronchi compliance  1408 . Examples of target pathways and structures for stimulation of the second tissue location include those modulating activity at and/or on the auriculotemporal nerve, the lesser occipital nerve, and/or the great auricular nerve. The pathways, for example, may include a portion of the pathways illustrated in  FIG.  1 F . The second tissue location, for example, may be a tissue location contacted by one or more of the electrodes  222 ,  224 , and/or  226  of the earpiece  202  of  FIGS.  2 A- 2 C . 
     In some embodiments, providing the first stimulation ( 1402 ) and providing the second stimulation ( 1404 ) involves providing a series of simultaneous and/or synchronized stimulation pulses to both the first tissue location and the second tissue location. Each of the first stimulation ( 1402 ) and the second stimulation ( 1404 ) may be applied using the same or different parameters. The parameters, in some examples, may include pulse frequency (e.g., low, mid-range, or high) and/or pulse width. Further, the parameters may indicate electrode pairs for producing biphasic pulses. In a first illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a low frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a mid-range frequency. Conversely, in a second illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a mid-range frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a low frequency. Other combinations of low, mid-range, and high frequency stimulations are possible depending upon the patient and the disorder being treated. 
     In other embodiments, the method  1401  includes automatically adjusting delivery of the therapy (e.g., adjusting one or more parameters) based on feedback received from the pulse generator or another computing device in communication with the pulse generator. The feedback, in some examples, may include a blood oxygen concentration, a breathing rate, a breathing variation, and/or tidal volume. 
     Turning to  FIG.  14 F , a flow chart of an example method  1490  is illustrated for providing therapy to decrease systemic pro-inflammatory processes and/or pro-inflammatory processes in one or more target organs. The target organs, for example, may include the spleen, lungs, gut, and heart. The method  1490 , in some examples, may be applied in combatting symptoms produced by COPD and/or produced by a viral or bacterial infection. The viral infection, in some examples, can include SARS, MERS, or COVID-19. The method  1490 , for example, may be performed at least in part by a pulse generator, such as the pulse generator  210  of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B , the pulse generator  1004  of  FIG.  10 A , or the pulse generator  1150  of  FIG.  11   . 
     In some implementations, the method  1490  begins with providing a first stimulation  1492  at a first tissue location configured to stimulate an anti-inflammatory pathway  1496  for decreasing systemic pro-inflammatory processes and/or pro-inflammatory processes in one or more target organs  1498 . The pathways, for example, may include a portion of the pathways illustrated in  FIG.  1 G . The first tissue location, for example, may include a surface of an ear structure contacted by an in-ear component of an auricular stimulation device. In some examples, the first electrode  220  of  FIG.  2 B , an electrode in the second member  408  of  FIG.  4 A , the electrode  503   c  of  FIG.  5 B , an electrode disposed on the anchoring structure  606  of  FIG.  6   , or the electrode  1202  of  FIG.  12    may be used to provide the first stimulation. The first tissue location, in another example, may be a tissue location contacted by the tragus appendix  282  of  FIG.  2 E . In some embodiments, the first stimulation  1402  is supplied to multiple tissue locations. For example, the first stimulation  1402  may be applied to a first tissue location including a surface of an ear structure contacted by an in-ear component of an auricular stimulation device as well as to a second tissue location on a tragus of the ear (e.g., contacted by the tragus appendix  282 ). 
     Decreasing systemic pro-inflammatory processes and/or pro-inflammatory processes in one or more target organs  1498 , in some implementations, involves modulating at least a portion of the anti-inflammatory pathway of  FIG.  1 G  such that activity at the NTS is modulated affecting activity in efferent pathways through the celiac and parasympathetic ganglion, which in turn modulates activity in the spleen, lungs, gut, and/or heart such that an anti-inflammatory response is elicited. 
     In some implementations, the method  1490  includes providing a second stimulation  1494  at a second tissue location configured to stimulate the anti-inflammatory pathway  1496  for decreasing systemic pro-inflammatory processes and/or pro-inflammatory processes in one or more target organs  1498 . Examples of target pathways and structures for stimulation of the second tissue location include those modulating activity at and/or on the auriculotemporal nerve, the lesser occipital nerve, and/or the great auricular nerve. The pathways, for example, may include a portion of the pathways illustrated in  FIG.  1 G . The second tissue location, for example, may be a tissue location contacted by one or more of the electrodes  222 ,  224 , and/or  226  of the earpiece  202  of  FIGS.  2 A- 2 C . 
     In some embodiments, providing the first stimulation ( 1492 ) and providing the second stimulation ( 1494 ) involves providing a series of simultaneous and/or synchronized stimulation pulses to both the first tissue location and the second tissue location. Each of the first stimulation ( 1492 ) and the second stimulation ( 1494 ) may be applied using the same or different parameters. The parameters, in some examples, may include pulse frequency (e.g., low, mid-range, or high) or pulse width. Further, the parameters may indicate electrode pairs for producing biphasic pulses. In a first illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a low frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a mid-range frequency. Conversely, in a second illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a mid-range frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a low frequency. Other combinations of low, mid-range, and high frequency stimulations are possible depending upon the patient and the disorder being treated. 
     In other embodiments, the method  1490  includes automatically adjusting delivery of the therapy (e.g., adjusting one or more parameters) based on feedback received from the pulse generator or another computing device in communication with the pulse generator. The feedback, in some examples, may include a blood oxygen concentration, a breathing rate, a breathing variation and/or tidal volume. 
     In further embodiments, combinations of the methods  1401  and  1490  may be used to increase bronchi compliance  1408  while also decreasing systemic pro-inflammatory processes and/or pro-inflammatory processes in one or more target organs  1498 . For example, the first stimulation  1402  of the method  1401  may be delivered synchronously or simultaneously with the second stimulation  1494  of the method  1490  or vice-versa. In another example, the therapy of the method  1401 , including both the first stimulation  1402  and the second stimulation  1404  may be delivered for a first period of time, and the therapy of the method  1490  including both the first stimulation  1492  and the second stimulation  1494  may be delivered for a second period of time. The combined methods may be repeated for a number of cycles of the first period of time and the second period of time. Based on feedback, the length of one or both of the first period of time and the second period of time may be adjusted, to both increase bronchi compliance  1408  and decrease systemic pro-inflammatory processes and/or pro-inflammatory processes in one or more target organs  1498  in an efficient manner. 
     In an aspect, the stimulation targets specific neural targets in a local manner using bipolar stimulation. In an aspect, the system can be programmed for optimal therapy according to the needs of individual users including custom stimulation frequency, custom pulse width, custom stim intensity (amplitude), independently controlled stimulation channels. In some implementations, the treatment is configured to abate withdrawal symptoms including acute and/or chronic pain. In an aspect, pain control is due to modulation of endorphin, enkephalins, and/or dynorphins output in opioid related systems. In an example, the therapy can be provided during surgery, and/or post-surgery to reduce dependency of pain killer medications, including opioids, up to not needing medication at all. 
     In some implementations, devices and methods described herein promote reduction of opioid intake by incrementally reducing doses taken by a patient (e.g., provided by a medical professional or managed by the patient). Patients being prescribed long term opioid use for treatment of chronic pain eventually, at high doses, are susceptive to increased pain sensitivity/lack of efficacy, adverse events and/or symptoms, and/or a tendency toward harmful or hazardous (e.g., addictive) use of opioid medications. Chronic pain patients, such as cancer patients, may be provided a regimen of electrical stimulation for reducing dosage of the opioid drug over time. Further, since the reliance upon strong doses of opioid medication may be, in part, related to a cognitive disorder (e.g., phantom pains, etc.), systems and methods described herein that adjust functioning of the pre-frontal cortex, in particular, may adjust over-reliance on opioid medication by assisting the patient in improved recognition of, and decision-making related to, reliance on pharmaceutical support. 
     In one some embodiments, systems and methods described herein may be used to gradually reduce reliance upon opioid medications through periodic dose reduction (e.g., every day, every other day, etc.) of a morphine equivalent substance. This stage of treatment may be referred to as the “acute phase.” The dosage may be provided as one of a number of morphine equivalent opioid substances such as, in some examples, Buprenorphine patch, Buprenorphine tab or film, Butorphanol, Codeine, Dihydrocodeine, Fentanyl buccal or SL tablets, or lozenge/troche, Fentanyl film or oral spray, Fentanyl nasal spray, Fentanyl patch, Hydrocodone, Hydromorphone, Levorphanol tartrate, Meperidine hydrochloride, Methadone, Morphine, Nalbuphine, Opium, Oxycodone, Oxymorphone, Pentazocine, Tapentadol, and/or Tramadol. The dose may be based on known morphine equivalent conversion factors. A physician, for example, may monitor and adjust stimulation therapy and patient pharmaceutical dosage of a morphine equivalent daily dose (MEDD) over a period of time, such as two to 5 days prior to surgery. For example, according to the veteran affairs opioid tapering protocol, a “fast taper” involves reducing dosage by 10% to 20% weekly, and a “rapid taper” involves reducing dosage immediately by 20 to 50%, followed by a 10 to 20% reduction each day for the following days. 
     In an illustrative example, stimulation therapy may be provided for at least one hour each session and at least two daily sessions for a minimum of two hours total stimulation time, coordinated with dosage reduction. The stimulation therapy may be repeated daily until the target dosage (or complete cessation of dosage) has been achieved. 
     In some implementations, the stimulation therapy is continued after the target MEDD has been achieved, for example to assist the patient&#39;s brain to adjust to the lack of accustomed opioid level in the patient&#39;s system. Withdrawal symptoms may continue for seven to ten days or longer after the patient has stopped all consumption. After there is no presence of any opioids in the patient&#39;s body, that is, after removal of the drug from the system, the patient may still experience some withdrawal symptoms. This may be referred to as the “protracted phase” of therapy. Aside from these withdrawal symptoms, the patient may also feel the urge to consume or use opioids; that is, the user may feel cravings. During this time period, which could last for several months, the patient may be tapered from daily stimulation sessions of one hour or more to several (e.g., 2, 3, 4, etc.) times per week. Further, the length of each treatment may be reduced from the minimum of one hour per session, in an illustrative example, gradually down to as little as ten to 15 minutes per session. In some treatment scenarios, several weeks or months after the initial 7 to 10 day period of acute withdrawal, treatment sessions may be as infrequent as once per week. By continuing stimulation for about two weeks after the target MEDD has been achieved or longer, incidents of withdrawal symptoms can be lessened or negated. Further, the likelihood of relapse may be reduced. In some embodiments, along with continuing stimulation therapy after the target MEDD has been achieved, a secondary treatment, such as acupuncture, electroacupuncture, naloxone, and/or naltrexone (e.g., ReVia®, Vivitrol®, etc.) may be provided to the patient to accelerate adjustment and/or assist in negation of withdrawal symptoms related to adjustment to removal of the drug from the system. 
     In some implementations, after scheduled sessions have been discontinued, the patient may retain the device, allowing the opportunity for as-needed dosage to attenuate the urge to relapse. The stimulation therapy, for example, may to quell the urge to return to substance use (e.g., cravings), thereby reducing likelihood of relapse. In another example, the stimulation therapy may reduce the urge to return to substance use. Further, the stimulation therapy may reduce symptoms that the patient associates with a “need to use,” such as acute anxiety, depression, PTSD, and the presence or experience of triggering scenarios. The as-needed treatments may be self-regulated in relation to frequency and/or duration. In some scenarios, this ongoing stimulation therapy may be conducted under the guidance of a health care professional. 
     In example clinical results involving neonatal abstinence syndrome (NOWS), illustrated in Table 2, below, newborns were provided 30 minutes of Transcutaneous Auricular Neurostimulation (tAN™) prior to each scheduled MEDD administration. Jenkins, Dorothea D et al. “Transcutaneous Auricular Neurostimulation (tAN): A Novel Adjuvant Treatment in Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal Syndrome.” Frontiers in human neuroscience vol. 15 648556. 8 Mar. 2021, doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.648556 The infants, categorized into tAN groupings, were exposed in utero to methadone, tobacco (tAN1); heroin, buprenorphine, cocaine, and tobacco (tAN2); buprenorphine (tAN3); opioids, methamphetamines, and benzodiazepines (tAN4); heroin, cocaine, and methadone (tAN5); heroin, methadone, tobacco, and THC (tAN6); hydromorphone (tAN7); and heroin, methamphetamines, methadone, and tobacco (tAN8). The mean (SD) control oral morphine dose was 0.076 (±0.041) mg/kg administered every 3 h. Id. at p. 5. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Id. at p. 6. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Median 
                   
                 Mean (SD) Excludes 
                   
               
               
                 Outcome 
                 (IQR) 
                 Mean (SD) 
                 tAN6 (N = 7) 
                 Range 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Total oral morphine length 
                 9.0 
                 13.3 (12.8) 
                 9.0 (4.7) 
                 (4-43) 
               
               
                 of treatment (LOT) in days 
                 (6.5 to 12.8) 
               
               
                 Oral morphine length of 
                 6.0 
                 7.0 (4.0) 
                 5.7 (1.9) 
                 (3-16) 
               
               
                 treatment (LOT) after tAN 
                 (4.8 to 8) 
               
               
                 initiation in days 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     As illustrated in Table 2, “the median LOT from the start of administering oral morphine (9 days) and the median LOT after tAN initiation (6.0 days) were both significantly lower than previously published data suggesting that the average NICU stay for infants undergoing pharmacotherapy for NOWS is 23 days.” Id. 
     In some implementations, while engaged in a longer-term therapy, the patient may opt to switch from one ear to the other when replacing the earpiece for stimulation therapy. For example, a patient may apply a right earpiece on day 1, wear the earpiece overnight, conduct a morning therapy session, remove the earpiece before showering, and then apply a left earpiece for day 2. In other examples, patients may switch sides every other day, every few days, or remain with the earpiece on the same side, depending upon comfort. For example, a side sleeper who commonly sleeps on the left may opt to only apply an earpiece to the right side for comfort while sleeping. 
     In further embodiments, patients may obtain therapy with dual earpieces simultaneously applied. Therapy may be provided to both ears simultaneously, for example. In other embodiments, therapy may be alternated from the left to the right between therapy sessions. 
     Turning to  FIG.  12   , an electrode configuration of an auricular component  1200  and equivalent circuits  1210   a - b  for providing therapy is shown according to an example. The auricular component  1200  is shown having electrodes  1202  ( 220 ),  1204  ( 222 ),  1206  ( 224 ), and  1208  ( 226 ) configured to form corresponding circuits  1210   a - b  according to an example. In an example, equivalent circuit  1210   a  is formed by electrode  1202  and electrode  1206  which are configured to stimulate tissue portion  1220 . In this example, tissue portion  1220  is configured to target the cymba conchae region which is enervated by branches of the auricular branch of the vagus nerve and the region behind the ear which is enervated by branches of the great auricular nerve and branches of the lesser occipital nerve. In an example, equivalent circuit  1210   b  is formed by electrode  1204  and electrode  1208  which are configured to stimulate tissue portion  1222 . In this example, tissue portion  1222  is configured to target the region rostral to the ear which is enervated by the Auriculotemporal nerve as well as the region behind the ear which is enervated by branches of the great auricular nerve and branches of the lesser occipital nerve. 
     In an example, the tissue portion  1220  can be the concha which is stimulated at approximately 5 Hz. In an example, the tissue portion  1220  can be located proximate to the trigeminal nerve which is stimulated at approximately 100 Hz. 
     In an example, equivalent circuit  1210   a  is stimulated by a first channel and equivalent circuit  1210   b  is stimulated by a second channel. 
       FIG.  13    is a drawing of a timing diagram  1300  illustrating the triggering multiple channels  1304 ,  1306  using a master clock  1302  according to an example. In an exemplary embodiment, the clock  1302  triggers pulses  1308  at a predetermined clock frequency. In an example, a first channel  1304  can be configured to trigger stimulation  1310   a - b  of equivalent circuit  1210   a  and a second channel  1306  can be configured to trigger stimulation  1312   a - b  of equivalent circuit  1210   b . In an example, the triggering can be reversed where equivalent circuit  1210   b  is triggered before equivalent circuit  1210   a.    
     In an example, stimulation  1310   a  is configured to be triggered by every pulse of the master clock  1302 ; i.e., at a 1-to-1 ratio. In an example, stimulation  1310   b  is configured to be triggered following a specific time interval after the pulse in stimulation  1310   a  ends. In an example, stimulation  1312   b  is configured to be triggered every two pulses of the master clock  1302 ; i.e., at a 2-to-1 ratio with the master clock  1302 . However, the triggering of stimulation  1312   b  occurs after a specific time delay after the master clock pulse  1314 . In an example, stimulation  1312   a  is configured to be triggered following a specific time interval after the pulse in stimulation  1312   b  ends. In an example, stimulation  1310   a  is offset by stimulation  1312   a  by a synchronous delay  1314 . In an example, the synchronous delay  1314  is preferably 2 ms and can be as little as zero (making both channels to trigger simultaneously depending on the master clock ratio for each channel) and as much as the master clock period less the combine duration of stimulation  1312   b  and  1312   a  plus the time interval between them. In some embodiments this delay can amount to 10 ms. 
     In some implementations, the equivalent circuits are synchronized using a master clock counter and a register per channel. By setting each register to a number of master clock pulses to trigger the respective channel, each channel is configured to be triggered when the channel register value equals the master clock pulses. Subsequently, the counter for each channel is reset after the channel is triggered. In an example, using a 6 bit counter and a 6 bit register, the trigger frequency can be as high as the master clock frequency (1:1) and as low as 1/64 of the clock frequency (64:1). 
     Stimulation delivery may vary based upon the therapy provided by the treatment device. Frequency and/or pulse width parameters, for example, may be adjusted for one or more if not all electrodes delivering stimulation. In some embodiments, frequency and/or pulse width parameters are adjusted during therapy, for example responsive to feedback received from monitoring the patient (e.g., using one or more sensors or other devices). The stimulation frequencies, in some examples, may include a first or low frequency within a range of about 1 to 30 Hz, a second or mid-range frequency within a range of about 30 to 70 Hz, and/or a third or high frequency within a range of about 70 to 150 Hz. Stimulation pulses, in some embodiments, are delivered in patterns. Individual pulses in the pattern may vary in frequency and/or pulse width. Patterns may be repeated in stimulation cycles. 
     In one embodiment, the stimulation patterns are such that stimulating frequencies are not the same in all electrodes. In one embodiment, a stimulation frequency is varied between 2 Hz and 100 Hz such that different endogenously produced opioid receptor agonist are released (e.g., Mu, Delta, Kappa, nociception opioid receptor agonist). In yet another embodiment, the pulse width can be adjusted from between 20 and 1000 microseconds to further allow therapy customization. 
     In some embodiments, different stimulation frequencies are used at the different electrodes. In illustration, different combinations of high, mid-range and low frequencies can be used at either a cymba electrode (e.g.,  204 ), an auriculotemporal electrode (e.g.,  222 ), and/or a great auricular nerve and lesser occipital nerve electrode (e.g.,  224 ,  226 ). For example, a first or low frequency of between 1 to 30 Hz, or in particular one or more of 1 to 5 Hz, 5 to 10 Hz, 10 to 15 Hz, 15 to 20 Hz, 20 to 25 Hz, 25 to 30 Hz may be used at an in-ear electrode such as the cymba electrode  204 , while a second of high frequency of between 70 and 150 Hz, or in particular one or more of 70 to 75 Hz, 75 to 80 Hz, 80 to 85 Hz, 85 to 90 Hz, 90 to 95 Hz, 95 to 100 Hz, 100 to 105 Hz, 105 to 110 Hz, 110 to 115 Hz, 115 to 120 Hz, 120 to 125 Hz, 125 to 130 Hz, 130 to 135 Hz, 135 to 140 Hz, 140 to 145 Hz, 145 to 150 Hz is used at tissue surrounding the ear, such as the auriculotemporal electrode  222 . In another example, a third or mid-range frequency of between 30 to 70 Hz, or in particular one or more of 30 to 35 Hz, 35 to 40 Hz, 40 to 45 Hz, 45 to 50 Hz, 50 to 55 Hz, or 55 to 60 Hz or 60 to 65 Hz or 65 to 70 Hz can be used at one or more of the electrodes. In yet another example, one or more low or mid-range frequencies can be used at an in-ear electrode such as the cymba electrode  204 , while one or more high frequencies is used at an electrode contacting tissue surrounding the ear, such as the auriculotemporal electrode  222 . In other example, a high frequency can be used at an in-ear electrode such as the cymba electrode  204  while a low frequency can be used at an electrode contacting tissue surrounding the ear, such as the auriculotemporal electrode  222 . 
     Different combination of pulse widths can be used at each electrode. Pulse widths, in some examples, may range from one or more of the following: first or short pulse widths within a range of about 10 to 50 microseconds, or more particularly between 10 to 20 microseconds, 20 to 30 microseconds, 30 to 40 microseconds, 40 to 50 microseconds; second or low mid-range pulse widths within a range of about 50 to 250 microseconds, or more particularly between 50 to 70 microseconds, 70 to 90 microseconds, 90 to 110 microseconds, 110 to 130 microseconds, 130 to 150 microseconds, 150 to 170 microseconds, 170 to 190 microseconds, 190 to 210 microseconds, 210 to 230 microseconds, or 230 to 250 microseconds; third or high mid-range pulse widths within a range of about 250 to 550 microseconds, or more particularly between 250 to 270 microseconds, 270 to 290 microseconds, 290 to 310 microseconds, 310 to 330 microseconds, 330 to 350 microseconds, 350 to 370 microseconds, 370 to 390 microseconds, 390 to 410 microseconds, 410 to 430 microseconds, 430 to 450 microseconds, 450 to 470 microseconds, 470 to 490 microseconds, 490 to 510 microseconds, 510 to 530 microseconds, or 530 to 550 microseconds; and/or fourth or long pulse widths within a range of about 550 to 1000 microseconds, or more particularly between 550 to 600 microseconds, 600 to 650 microseconds, 650 to 700 microseconds, 700 to 750 microseconds, 750 to 800 microseconds, 800 to 850 microseconds, 850 to 900 microseconds, 900 to 950 microseconds, or 950 to 1000 microseconds. Different embodiments can use different ranges of pulse widths at one or more of the electrodes (e.g., the electrodes  204 ,  222 ,  224 ,  226 ,  230 ,  282 ). 
     In yet another embodiment, a variable frequency (i.e., stimulating a non-constant frequency) can be used at one or more of the electrodes (e.g.,  204 ,  222 ,  224 ,  226 ,  230 ,  282 ). The variable frequency can be a sweep, and/or a random/pseudo-random frequency variability around a central frequency (e.g., 5 Hz+/−1.5 Hz, or 100 Hz+/−10 Hz). 
     In one embodiment, the auricular component (e.g.,  201 ,  600 ) is made with a single flexible board and/or printed electronics containing electronic components to uniquely identify it and, among other things, to counteract any inductance produced by the connecting cable. This flexible electronic circuit is over-molded onto a skin  502  allowing openings in it to allow direct contact with the back part of the skin-contacting electrodes  503 . This auricular component  201 ,  600  is light-weight and extremely flexible allowing it to easily conform to different shapes presented by the anatomic variability of users. In one embodiment, the molded auricular component is not homogenic, changing the density and elasticity/flexibility at different places such that, for example, the part going around the ear is more flexible than the part going on the ear. 
     In other embodiment, the flexible electronic circuit  600  is covered with a flexible material such as a closed cell foam. 
     In one embodiment, the skin-contacting electrodes can be made for example of 3-layers, being the first layer a medical-grade double-sided conducting adhesive tape, the second layer a conductive flexible metallic and/or fabric mesh for mechanical robustness and homogenic electrical field distribution, and a third layer of self-adhesive hydrogel. A two-layer version is also possible in which both mechanical robustness and homogenic electrical field distribution is achieved by the first layer, rendering unnecessary the second layer described in the three-layer electrode. 
     In another embodiment, the PCB electrodes  503  are made such that they cover a similar surface area as the skin-contacting hydrogel electrodes; such that homogenic electrical field distribution is achieved at the hydrogels without the need of any additional conductive layer. 
     In an aspect, the system can record overall therapeutic delivery so the caregiver/clinician can measure compliance. In one embodiment, the management software notifies the wearer, caregiver, clinician if the device has stopped delivering therapy. In an example, the management software can be configured to report data related to use, events, logs, errors, and device health status. In an aspect, the system can provide usage reports. In an aspect, the system can have a uniquely identifiable auricular component  201  that can be used in identifying users and reported data. In an example, the device health status can report on the condition of the electrodes, the conductive hydrogel, and/or the analgesic. 
     In an exemplary embodiment, the system utilizes feedback to monitor and/or modify the therapy. The feedback may be obtained from one or more sensors capable of monitoring one or more symptoms being treated by the therapy. For example, upon reduction or removal of one or more symptoms, a therapeutic output may be similarly reduced or ceased. Conversely, upon increase or addition of one or more symptoms, the therapeutic output may be similarly activated or adjusted (increased, expanded upon, etc.). In some examples, the sensors may monitor one or more of electrodermal activity (e.g., sweating), movement activity (e.g., tremors, physiologic movement), glucose level, neurological activity (e.g., via EEG), and/or cardio-pulmonary activity (e.g., EKG, heart rate, blood pressure (systolic, diastolic and mean)). Imaging techniques such as MRI and fMRI could be used to adjust the therapy in a clinical setting for a given user. In other embodiments, imaging of pupillary changes (e.g., pupillary dilation) using, for example a common cellular phone and/or smart-glass glasses could be used to provide feedback to make therapy adjustments. In some implementations, one or more sensors are integrated into the earpiece and/or concha apparatus. One or more sensors, in some implementations, are integrated into the pulse generator. For example, periodic monitoring may be achieved through prompting the wearer to touch one or more electrodes on the system (e.g., electrodes built into a surface of the pulse generator) or otherwise interact with the pulse generator (e.g., hold the pulse generator extended away from the body to monitor tremors using a motion detector in the pulse generator). In further implementations, one or more sensor outputs may be obtained from external devices, such as a fitness computer, smart watch, or wearable health monitor. 
     The monitoring used may be based, in part, on a treatment setting. For example, EEG monitoring is easier in a hospital setting, while heart rate monitoring may be achieved by a sensor such as a pulsometer built into the earpiece or another sensor built into a low budget health monitoring device such as a fitness monitoring device or smart watch. 
     In an illustrative example, feedback related to electrodermal activity could be used to monitor and detect a speed or timing of a symptom and/or therapeutic outcome. In an example, the electrodermal activity could be sensed by electrodes on the auricular component  201 . In another example, the electrodermal activity could be detected by electrodes on another portion of the body and communicated to the system. 
     In some implementations, the system can further include one or more motion detectors, such as accelerometers or gyroscopes, that can be used gather information to modulate the therapy. In an example, the one or more motion detectors are configured to detect a tremor and/or physiologic movement. In an aspect, the tremor and/or the physiologic movement can be indicative of at least one of the underlying condition and the treatment to the underlying condition. In an example, the tremor and/or physiologic movement can be indicative of symptoms associated with substance withdrawal. In an aspect, feedback from glucose monitoring can be used to modulate the therapy. 
     In yet other implementations, EKG can be used to assess heart rate and heart rate variability, to determine the activity of the autonomic nervous system in general and/or the relative activity of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system, and to modulate the therapy. Autonomic nervous activity can be indicative of symptoms associated with substance withdrawal. In an aspect, the treatment device can be used to provide therapy for treating cardiac conditions such as atrial fibrillation and heart failure. In an example, therapy can be provided for modulation of the autonomic nervous system. In some implementations, the treatment device can be used to provide therapy to balance a ratio between any combinations of the autonomic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, and the sympathetic nervous system. 
     In an aspect, the system can monitor impedance measurements allowing closed-loop neurostimulation. In an example, monitoring feedback can be used to alert patient/caregiver if therapy is not being adequately delivered and if the treatment device is removed. 
     Turning to  FIG.  15   , a graph  1500  is shown of data collected using the proposed system according to an example. Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Score (COWS) over time was collected from two subjects  1502   a ,  1502   b  being treated with the proposed therapy. Therapy included using Low frequency (5 Hz) between the cymba electrode  204  and an electrode  224 , and High frequency (100 Hz) between the auriculotemporal electrode  222  and electrode  226 . As illustrated, the COWS score dramatically decreased over time  1504 , in particular within the first 30-60 minutes. 
     Treatments that increase the availability of monoamine neurotransmitters such as Serotonin (5-HT) as well as Norepinephrine (NE) have shown to be effective in treating and controlling depression in a synergistic manner. For example, implanted vagal stimulation (VNS) and independent stimulation of the supraorbital nerve, which is part of the trigeminal system, have been used to treat depression-like symptoms. However, prescription medications, instead of increasing serotonin, rely on blocking the re-uptake of serotonin. NE and 5-HT are respectively produced in the Locus Coeruleus (LC) and in the Raphe Nucleus (RN), illustrated in the neural circuit of  FIG.  1 C . These two brain regions are integral parts of the Endogenous Opioid Circuits (EOC). Activity in both of these brain regions (or brain areas) can be modulated by activating afferent pathways to the EOC such as some trigeminal and vagal branches, for example using devices described herein. In this manner, a usable take-home solution involving increase of monoamine neurotransmitters, rather than the traditional pharmaceutical uptake blocking, may increase effectiveness of depression treatment in an outpatient environment. 
     Further demonstrating the previously mentioned link between the EOC, cognition, and depression, studies have shown that some antidepressants promote neurogenesis likely via the upregulation of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic-Factor (BDNF) in areas such as the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex (PFC). BDNF plays a strong role in cognition, plasticity, neurogenesis, and neuronal survival. 5-HT has also been shown to have a role in such physiological activities. Furthermore, patients suffering from depression have been shown to have decreased plasma levels of BDNF, suggesting that depressive conditions would benefit from a therapy that could increase BDNF levels. Additionally, learning and memory as well as cortical plasticity is modulated by stimulation of vagal afferents through the synergetic action of ACh, 5-HT and BDNF. Further, acute vagal stimulation has been shown to increase NE and 5-HT release in the PFC and the amygdala as well as to enhance synaptic transmission in the hippocampus. 
     The cognitive improvement due to the increase in BDNF, which leads to a faster reorganization of neural circuits, can be leveraged not only to learn new things faster, but also to eliminate/extinguish undesirable and/or maladaptive behavior such as, in some examples, PTSD, phobias, and addictive behavior such as drug-seeking. 
     Also, it has been shown that vagal activation produces pairing-specific plasticity, thus stimulation of vagal afferents irrespective of what neuromodulator is produced can be used to eliminate and/or extinguish undesirable and/or maladaptive behavior such as those described above. 
     In another example, the cognitive enhancement provided by the systems and methods described herein can be used to overcome the cognitive problems that have been described to occur in people exposed to microgravity environments such as astronauts in the space station or on a long space travel such as visiting Mars. 
     Additionally, BDNF levels have been shown to have an inverse correlation with factors associated with cognitive decline and/or impediments, such as in Alzheimer&#39;s patients. 
     Turning to  FIG.  16 A  through  FIG.  16 D , example processes are illustrated for providing direct or indirect modulation of neural pathways to treat disorders such as depression, PT SD, phobias, and/or addictive behaviors by increasing BDNF levels and monoamine neurotransmitter availability is illustrated. In particular, a process  1600  of  FIG.  16 A  exploits a relationship between BDNF and 5-HT where BDNF promotes ( 1602 ) differentiation and survival of 5-HT neurons and, in turn, 5-HT availability upregulates BDNF ( 1604 ) gene expression. By applying the processes of  FIG.  16 A  through  FIG.  16 D  to electrical stimulation of a patient, the therapy may result in increasing the patient&#39;s control over the decision process by shifting the balance from impulsive decision to contemplative decision, allowing the patient to better weigh benefits with consequences of their actions. The therapy, in some examples, may include the treatment of depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and/or addiction. With the cognitive process bolstered by the increased BDNF levels and monoamine neurotransmitter availability as well as ACh, in some examples, the patient may be more likely to actively engage in counseling and/or be more receptive to therapy, experience an increased ability to apply coping mechanisms or behavior redirection techniques to counter the depression cycle, and/or demonstrate the ability to reduce intake of or be weaned from prescribed pharmaceutical therapies. Further, patients overcoming addictive disorders such as alcohol and/or tobacco addiction may experience reduced incidents of cravings and/or be better prepared to avoid succumbing to such cravings. Regarding tobacco addiction, as discussed above in relation to bronchial inflammation, the stimulation therapy represented in the examples provided by the processes of  16 A through  16 D, alone or in combination with stimulation therapies described above, may experience reduced inflammation and/or accelerated recovery from bronchial inflammation disorders caused by smoke inhalation such as COPD. 
     Turning to  FIG.  16 D , responsive to the first stimulation  1610 , for example, BDNF levels may be upregulated by endogenous opioid agonists (EOA) (e.g., μ-opioid receptor agonists i.e., MOR agonists and/or δ-opioid receptor agonists i.e., DOR agonists)  1672 . For example, Enkephalins may increase BDNF mRNA expression in the hippocampus mediated by DOR and MOR mechanisms and β-Endorphin, while endomorphin-1 and endomorphin-2 upregulate BDNF mRNA in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala  1674 . Production of DA in the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) can be augmented by an increase in MOR agonist (e.g., endorphins and enkephalins); in particular by inhibiting GABAergic interneurons which in turn inhibit dopaminergic neurons in the VTA. Amongst other, these DAergic VTA neurons project to Nucleus Accumbens (NAc), the Prefrontal Cortex (PFC), the Hippocampus (Hipp), and the Amygdala (Amyg). These brain regions also share projections/connections amongst themselves making an important neuronal circuit known as the Reward Circuit or Reward Neural Circuit. Alterations leading to dysregulation, maladaptive regulation, or dysfunctional interactions in this neural circuit are seen in people with behaviors such as addiction, PTSD and depression. Furthermore, a dysregulation in this circuit has also been observed in people showing behaviors associated with lower attention levels, for example in attention deficit disorder (ADD) and attention deficit hyper-activity deficit disorder (ADHD). 
     Poor vagal tone and dysregulation in the activity between the PFC and the amygdala has been shown to be associated with anxiety disorders, including PTSD. Interestingly, activation of the PFC during vagal stimulation is correlated with positive patient outcomes. 
     Further, in some implementations, the first stimulation  1610  increases BDNF availability  1616 , leading to promoting ( 1602 ) differentiation and survival of 5-HT neurons and 5-HT cells  1618 . Turning to  FIG.  16 D , in the first stimulation  1610  may increase availability of monoamine neurotransmitters  1676 , such as 5-HT and DA, leading to an increase in BDNF expression. The BDNF, in turn, may function to protect monoamine neurotransmitter neurons and assist the monoamine neurotransmitter neurons to differentiate. 
     Returning to  FIG.  16 A , in some implementations, the second stimulation  1620  increases BDNF availability. Turning to  FIG.  16 C , for example, BDNF may be upregulated through stimulation along example pathways  1650 . According to the pathways  1650 , the first stimulation  1610  may be configured to stimulate the ABVN which projects to the prefrontal cortex and/or the ATN which has a pathway to the prefrontal cortex via the TCC. The pathways  1650  result in modulating the “go/no-go center” of the brain which, when impaired, contributes to depression, cravings, and impulsiveness. 
     Turning to  FIG.  16 D , the second stimulation  1620 , in some embodiments, increases prefrontal cortex activity  1678 . The Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) is part of the Reward Circuit. The PFC plays an important role in the go/no-go decision-making process. That is, the reward or lack thereof is contrasted with the perceived risk of an action or a thought. The PFC is heavily involved in the process of deciding to act (go) or not act (no-go). As such, it is also involved in motivation, as the reward/risk balance is assessed against the person&#39;s goals and desires. Activity in the PFC has been shown to be lower than normal in individuals suffering from or experiencing depression. Study results comparing the anti-depressive properties of invasive electrostimulation suggest that targeting the PFC produces the most robust anti-depressant effects. For example, deep brain stimulation (DBS) in the PFC improves mood in people suffering from depression; additionally, non-invasive neuromodulation using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) targets the PFC to alleviate depression-like symptoms. Long-term stimulation of the trigeminal nerve has been shown to increase PFC activity. 
     In addiction, the dysregulation in the PFC Reward Circuit results in bias towards a more immediate reward; manifested in a more impulsive decision instead of a more controlled decision. The more impulsive behavior involves the DA network and tends to favor pleasure-seeking behavior. One manifestation of such behavior in addiction is reflected by a heightened attention to drug cues and cravings. This heightened attention to drug cues and cravings constitutes a heightened preoccupation/anticipation. The more controlled decision involves parts of the Reward Circuit like the PFC which provides control over goal-oriented tasks and self-regulation vs. impulsive behavior. The cravings experienced by individuals suffering from addiction reflect this bias towards more impulsiveness and less self-regulated behavior. Interestingly, studies of people suffering from addiction have shown a decrease in PFC activity. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over portions of the PFC, for example, have shown an improvement of self-regulated vs. impulsive decision making and a reduction in cravings. Since the second stimulation  1620  can be used to interact with the Reward Circuit by interacting with the DA network and can be used to increase PFC activity  1678 , the processes illustrated in  FIGS.  16 A- 16 D  can be used to achieve a reduction in cravings and impulsive decision-making behavior. 
     Returning to  FIG.  16 A , as illustrated, applying the first stimulation  1610  and the second stimulation  1620  generates a virtuous-circle in which activation of the EOC increases 5-HT and EOA, 5-HT stimulates BDNF gene expression while EOA increases BDNF release, and in turn BDNF increase promotes survival and differentiation of 5-HT neurons which increases the availability of 5 HT neurons, thereby allowing a higher level of 5-HT to be produced and thus increasing BDNF gene availability which under the presence of EOA leads to higher BDNF levels. Increases in BDNF leads to cognitive enhancement/improvement, for example in learning and memory acquisition. Increases in BDNF have also shown to have neuroprotective effects. 
     In some embodiments, providing the first stimulation ( 1610 ) and providing the second stimulation ( 1620 ) involves providing a series of simultaneous and/or synchronized stimulation pulses. Each of the first stimulation ( 1610 ) and the second stimulation ( 1620 ) may be applied using the same or different parameters. The parameters, in some examples, may include pulse frequency (e.g., low, mid-range, or high) and/or pulse width. Further, the parameters may indicate electrode pairs for producing biphasic pulses. In a first illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a low frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a mid-range frequency. Conversely, in a second illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a mid-range frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a low frequency. Other combinations of low, mid-range, and high frequency stimulations are possible depending upon the patient and the disorder being treated. Therapy may be optimized according to the needs of individual patients including custom stimulation frequency, custom pulse width, custom stimulation intensity (amplitude), and/or independently controlled stimulation channels. 
       FIG.  17 A  and  FIG.  17 B  illustrate results of a clinical trial involving patients with depression and/or PTSD who were provided therapeutic stimulation over the course of five days. As illustrated in  FIG.  17 A , a graph  1700  demonstrates a reduction of depression-related symptoms between a first day baseline  1702  and a fifth day level  1704 . Turning to  FIG.  17 B , a graph  1710  demonstrates a reduction in PTSD-related symptoms between a first day baseline  1712  and a fifth day level  1714 . Table 3, below, provides metrics related to the results of the study. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Mean (SD) 
                 Percent 
                   
                 Percentage of 
               
               
                   
                 Reduction in Score 
                 Change in Score 
                   
                 Participants with 
               
               
                   
                 from Baseline to 
                 from Baseline to 
                   
                 Clinically Meaningful 
               
               
                 Questionnaire 
                 Day 5 (N = 13) 
                 Day 5 (N = 13) 
                 P value 
                 Reduction 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 PHQ-9 
                  5.4 (6.1) 
                 31.4 (35.7)% 
                 0.015 
                 6/13 (46.2%) 
               
               
                 (Depression) 
               
               
                 PCL-5 
                 10.2 (9.1) 
                 31.4 (33.4)% 
                 0.001 
                 5/13 (38.5%) 
               
               
                 (PTSD) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Turning to  FIG.  18 A  and  FIG.  18 B , the response to a stressor, (i.e., the stress response) is carried out via two main pathways: the Sympathetic-Adrenomedullary (SMA) Axis  1802  and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis  1804 . Although many brain regions or nuclei are involved in the stress response, the Locus Coeruleus (LC)  108  and the Paraventricular Hypothalamic Nucleus (PVN)  1806  (PVN  113  of  FIG.  1 C ) are the two main drivers of these pathways. 
     The LC  108  is the main producer of Norepinephrine (NE) in the Central Nervous System (CNS) and is one of the main drivers of the SNS. In response to a stressor, the LC  108  releases NE. 
     In responding to a stressor, the PVN  1806  produces, amongst others, Corticotropin (also written as Corticotrophin) Releasing Hormone (CRH), also known as Corticotropin Releasing Factor (CRF). CRH is delivered to several brain nuclei, including the LC  108 , as well as to the pituitary gland  1808  which consequently releases, amongst others, β-endorphins  1810  and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)  1812  into the blood steam. The circulating ACTH  1812  reaches the adrenal gland (adrenal cortex)  1814  and triggers the release of Epinephrine (Epi), NE, and glucocorticoids into the blood stream, in particular cortisol  1816  in humans. In general, the Epi/NE ratio released by the adrenals is 80/20. 
     Epi and NE primarily elicit a sympathetic response (e.g., increase heart rate). Cortisol  1816  has various physiologic effects, including catecholamine release (e.g., Epi, NE, etc.), suppression of insulin, mobilization of energy stores through gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, as well as the suppression of the immune-inflammatory response. In addition, cortisol  1816  serves as a feedback molecule-signal to limit the further release of CRH, thus slowing down the stress response. 
     The β-endorphins  1810  are released from the pituitary gland  1808  to opioid receptors primarily in the peripheral nervous system (but also to immune cells), where, amongst other effects, they produce analgesia. This analgesia is the result of a cascade of interactions resulting in inhibition of the release of tachykinins, particularly of substance P, which is involved in the transmission of pain. 
     The PVN  1806  receives stress-related ascending monosynaptic afferent signals from several areas/nuclei. These nuclei include the Nucleus of the Solitary Track (NTS)  104 , the LC  108 , the parabrachial nuclei (PbN)  114 , the Periaqueductal Grey Area (PAG)  110 , and the Raphe Nucleus (RN)  106 . These ascending pathways carry information regarding the stressor or stressors encountered. In addition to these ascending afferent signals, intrahypothalamic as well as descending afferent signals modulate the PVN  1806  response to stressors. For example, signals from the Prefrontal cortex (PFC)  1818 , the Hippocampus (Hipp)  138 , and the Amygdala  149  reach the PVN  1806 ; in some cases, these signals are further integrated at the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis (BNST) before reaching the PVN  1806 . Together, these signals incorporate cognitive and memory information into the stress response. 
     Turning to  FIG.  19 A  and  FIG.  19 B , psychological stressors are perceived and interpreted in an anticipatory fashion, and the response can be heavily modulated by the reward circuit, which includes the PFC  1818 , the Amygdala  149 , the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)  1906 , as well as the Nucleus Accumbens (NAc)  126  (dopaminergic pathways, which are highly modulated by the central endorphin pathway  1902 ). Under normal circumstances, the Pre-Limbic (PL) and Infra-Limbic (IL) areas of the PFC  1818  coordinate a top-bottom control over the stress response to psychological stressors. However, under high stress levels or chronic stress scenarios this top-bottom control gets disrupted and a bottom-top control, heavily weighing the Amygdala&#39;s inputs, takes over the stress response to these psychological stressors. Having a bottom-top type response hinders the decision-making processes by not given proper weight to other signals; for example, to those afferent signals from the PFC  1818  and the Hipp  138 . 
     The brain areas or nuclei forming the neural circuitry involved in the stress response are not only involved in depression but also are integral components of the Endogenous Opioid Circuit (EOC), which includes the Central Endorphin Pathway ( FIG.  19 B ) as well as the secondary connections arising from it. As illustrated in  FIG.  19 B , together with  FIG.  18 A  and  FIG.  18 B , the NTS  104 , LC  108 , PbN  114 , PAG  110 , RN  106 , PFC  1818 , VTA  1906 , NAc  126  (as it receives afferents from the VTA  1906 ), the Amygdala  149  are part of the EOC. The central endorphin pathway  1902  interacts with several other brain regions or nuclei including with other hypothalamic areas such as the PVN  1806 . Stimulating afferent pathways to the central endorphin pathway  1902  such as vagal and/or trigeminal structures activates this circuit and connected regions, including the VTA  1906 , which is one of the main producers of dopamine in the CNS. By activating the central endorphin pathway  1902  and connected regions, systems and methods described herein are able to modulate stress and alertness levels. 
     As stated before, one of the characteristics of stress is a hyperactive SNS, and hypoactive PNS, or both; resulting in a high SNS/PNS activity ratio. An increase in the activity of the PNS leads to a faster return to baseline after a response to a stressor. One way to increase PNS activity is to increase vagal tone which can be achieved by increasing the activity of the Vagus nerve  156 . Activation of The Main Parasympathetic Pathway  1900  of  FIG.  19 A  results in an increase in vagal tone and thus a better stress response. Amongst the main vagus nerve afferent pathways are those originating in the NTS  104 , the NA  122 , and the DMV  1904 . Activity in these regions generally results in an increase in vagal tone. Activation of the ABVN  118  and the ATN  130  directly and indirectly lead to increase activity in all three above mentioned pathways going from the NTS  104 , the DMV  1904 , and the NA  122 , to the Vagus nerve  156 . As seen in  FIG.  19 A  these pathways also involve other nuclei or regions such as LC  108 , PAG  110 , RN  106 , and TCC  102 . 
     As can be seen from a comparison of the stress reduction pathway  2000  of  FIG.  20 A  with the main parasympathetic pathway  1900  of  FIG.  19 A  and the central endorphin pathway  1902  of  FIG.  19 B , significant overlap exists. Turning to the stress reduction pathway  2000  and arousal/alertness control pathway  2002 , stimulation (e.g., of the ABVN  118  and/or ATN  130 ) can be provided to trigger Neuropeptide S (NPS) release into several CNS regions  2004 . In the CNS, NE is primarily produced in the LC  108 . NPS is produced in the LC  108 , the trigeminal nucleus, and the Parabrachial Nucleus (PbN)  114 . Neuropeptides as opposed to neurotransmitters require a higher level of activity to be released (e.g., higher frequency of neuronal activity at the production sites). The NPS release  2004 , for example, includes release via the TCC  102 , the PbN  114 , and the LC  108 . 
     LC  108  activity is key for arousal. Both Norepinephrine  2008  and NPS, which are produced in and around the LC  108 , promote arousal and wakefulness. Thus, turning to  FIG.  20 B , interventions that increase NE and NPS in the CNS  2004  also increase arousal, mitigating the effects of fatigue. 
     Descending pathways from the LC  108  directly activate sympathetic preganglionic neurons in the spinal cord (e.g., Coeruleo-Spinal Pathway). Activation of these sympathetic spinal neurons has a net sympathetic effect, such as for example an increase in heart rate. Many of the generalized sympathetic effects are a direct effect of the higher amount of circulating catecholamines, in particular epinephrine and norepinephrine. The main source of these catecholamines is the adrenal medulla  2012 , which is innervated by preganglionic sympathetic nerves  2010 . The adrenal medulla  2012  releases a mix of approximately 80% epinephrine and 20% norepinephrine  2008  into the blood stream when stimulated. 
     Heart rate variability (HRV) is a reflection of the state of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The sympathetic branch of the ANS, which is more active during stressful situations tends to increase heart rate (HR) and decrease HRV; the opposite is true for the parasympathetic branch of the ANS, which tends to decrease HR and increase HRV. Higher HRV has been associated with well-being and has been used as a health biomarker. 
     In some implementations, an anti-inflammatory effect is provided via activation of an anti-inflammatory pathway  2020  (e.g., the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway), as illustrated in  FIG.  20 C . In particular, the methods and devices described herein may activate the anti-inflammatory pathway by stimulating the ABVN  118  and/or the ATN  130  which, as stated before, have projections to the NTS  104 . These projections elicit cholinergic anti-inflammatory effects via efferent pathways, mostly via the vagus nerve  156 . Systemic anti-inflammatory effects occur when the vagus nerve  156  mediates spleen  146  function, thereby reducing the amount of circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines. In addition, a local anti-inflammatory effect occurs at organs reached by the efferent pathways; for example at the lungs  142 , gut  144 , and heart  140 . Decreasing systemic pro-inflammatory processes and/or pro-inflammatory processes in one or more target organs  140 ,  142 ,  144 , and/or  146 , in some implementations, involves modulating at least a portion of the anti-inflammatory pathway  2020  such that activity at the NTS  104  is modulated affecting activity in efferent pathways through the celiac ganglion  2022  and/or the parasympathetic ganglion  2024 , which in turn modulate activity in the spleen  146 , lungs  142 , gut  144 , and/or heart  140  such that an anti-inflammatory response is elicited. 
     In some embodiments, the anti-inflammatory pathway  2020  may be activated to reduce bleeding. For example, activation of a portion of the anti-inflammatory pathway  2020 , via stimulation of the vagus nerve  156 , is discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 8,729,129 to Tracey et al., incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
     Turning to  FIG.  21 A , a stimulation flow diagram  2100  illustrates stimulation mechanisms for controlling and/or decreasing stress  2110  using a treatment device such as treatment device  200  of  FIG.  2 A , treatment device  280  of  FIG.  2 E , treatment device  300  of  FIG.  3 A , treatment device  340  of  FIG.  3 C , treatment device  350  of  FIG.  3 D , treatment device  400  of  FIG.  4 A , treatment device  500  of  FIG.  5 A , treatment device  600  of  FIG.  6   , treatment device  700  of  FIG.  7 A , treatment device  800  of  FIG.  8 A , treatment device  900  of  FIG.  9 A , and/or treatment device  1000  of  FIG.  10 A . The stimulation mechanisms are produced by a first stimulation  2102   a  and a second stimulation  2102   b . The first and second stimulations, in some embodiments, are temporally separated (e.g., in overlapping or non-overlapping stimulations). In some embodiments, the first and second stimulations are physically separated (e.g., using a different electrode or set of electrodes contacting a different location on the patient). The first and second stimulations, for example, may be provided via the stress reduction pathways  2000  discussed in relation to  FIG.  20 A . According to the pathways  2000 , the first stimulation  2102   a  and/or the second stimulation  2102   b  may be configured to stimulate the ABVN  118  which projects to the prefrontal cortex and/or the ATN  130  which has a pathway to the prefrontal cortex  136  via the TCC  102 . 
     Responsive to a first stimulation  2102   a , in some embodiments, parasympathetic activity and/or vagal tone is increased ( 504 ). For example, Enkephalins may increase BDNF mRNA expression in the hippocampus mediated by DOR and MOR mechanisms while β-Endorphin, endomorphin-1 and endomorphin-2 upregulate BDNF mRNA in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala. Production of dopamine (DA) in the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)  124  can be augmented by an increase in MOR agonist (e.g., endorphins and enkephalins); in particular by inhibiting GABAergic interneurons which in turn inhibit dopaminergic neurons in the VTA. Amongst other, these DAergic VTA neurons project to Nucleus Accumbens (NAc)  126 , the Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)  136 , the Hippocampus (Hipp)  138 , and the Amygdala (Amyg)  149 . These brain regions also share projections/connections amongst themselves making an important neuronal circuit known as the Reward Circuit or Reward Neural Circuit. Alterations leading to dysregulation, maladaptive regulation, or dysfunctional interactions in this neural circuit are seen in people with behaviors such as addiction, anxiety disorders including PTSD, and depression. Furthermore, a dysregulation in this circuit has also been observed in people showing behaviors associated with lower attention levels, for example in attention deficit disorder (ADD) and attention deficit hyper-activity deficit disorder (ADHD). 
     Further, in some implementations, the first stimulation  2102   a  increases activity in one or more neural medullary structures  2106   a , such as the NTS  104 , the spinal trigeminal nucleus, the NA  122 , and at least some of the RN  106 . The first stimulation  2102   a , for example, may increase 21-HT availability  2106   b , leading to an increase in BDNF expression. The BDNF, in turn, may function to protect monoamine neurotransmitter neurons and assist the monoamine neurotransmitter neurons to differentiate. In some embodiments, the second stimulation  2102   b  also increases 21-HT availability. 
     NPS is mainly produced in three areas in the brain: LC  108 , PbN  2004   b , and the trigeminal nucleus, the latter being the target of the ATN  130  and at least partially included in the TCC  102 . Activity in any of these three areas is necessary for NPS expression  2004  (see  FIG.  20 A  and  FIG.  20 B ). In some implementations, the second stimulation  2102   b  increases activity in neural structures in the TCC  2108   a . The second stimulation  2102   b , for example, may increases NPS release  2108   b  via the activation cascade that follows the stimulation of the ATN  130 . 
     In some embodiments, providing the first stimulation  2102   a  and providing the second stimulation  2102   b  involves providing a series of simultaneous and/or synchronized stimulation pulses. Each of the first stimulation  2102   a  and the second stimulation  2102   b  may be applied using the same or different parameters. The parameters, in some examples, may include pulse frequency (e.g., low, mid-range, or high) and/or pulse width. Further, the parameters may indicate electrode pairs for producing biphasic pulses. In a first illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a low frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a mid-range frequency. Conversely, in a second illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a mid-range frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a low frequency. Other combinations of low, mid-range, and high frequency stimulations are possible depending upon the patient and the disorder being treated. Therapy may be optimized according to the needs of individual patients including custom stimulation frequency, custom pulse width, custom stimulation intensity (amplitude), and/or independently controlled stimulation channels. 
     Turning to  FIG.  21 B , a stimulation flow diagram  2120  illustrates stimulation mechanisms for promoting wakefulness and increasing arousal/alertness to counteract fatigue  2128  using a treatment device such as treatment device  200  of  FIG.  2 A , treatment device  280  of  FIG.  2 E , treatment device  300  of  FIG.  3 A , treatment device  340  of  FIG.  3 C , treatment device  350  of  FIG.  3 D , treatment device  400  of  FIG.  4 A , treatment device  500  of  FIG.  5 A , treatment device  600  of  FIG.  6   , treatment device  700  of  FIG.  7 A , treatment device  800  of  FIG.  8 A , treatment device  900  of  FIG.  9 A , and/or treatment device  1000  of  FIG.  10 A . The stimulation mechanisms are produced by a first stimulation  2122   a  and a second stimulation  2122   b . The first and second stimulations, in some embodiments, are temporally separated (e.g., in overlapping or non-overlapping stimulations). In some embodiments, the first and second stimulations are physically separated (e.g., using a different electrode or set of electrodes contacting a different location on the patient). The first and second stimulations, for example, may be provided via the arousal alertness/control pathways  2002  discussed in relation to  FIG.  20 B . According to the pathways  2002 , the first stimulation  2122   a  and/or the second stimulation  2122   b  may be configured to stimulate the ABVN  118  which projects to the prefrontal cortex and/or the ATN  130  which has a pathway to the prefrontal cortex via the TCC  102 . 
     Responsive to a first stimulation  2122   a , in some embodiments, 21-HT and NE availability are increased ( 524 ), leading to an increase in BDNF expression. The BDNF, in turn, may function to protect monoamine neurotransmitter neurons and assist the monoamine neurotransmitter neurons to differentiate. In some embodiments, the second stimulation  2122   b  also increases 21-HT and NE availability. NE and 21-HT are respectively produced in the Locus Coeruleus (LC)  108  and in the Raphe Nucleus (RN)  106 . These brain regions are integral parts of the Endogenous Opioid Circuits (EOC). Activity in these brain regions (or brain areas) can be modulated by activating afferent pathways to the EOC such as some trigeminal and vagal branches. 
     Further demonstrating the previously mentioned link between the EOC, cognition, and depression, studies have shown that some antidepressants promote neurogenesis likely via the upregulation of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic-Factor (BDNF) in areas such as the hippocampus  138  and the prefrontal cortex (PFC)  136 . BDNF plays a strong role in cognition, plasticity, neurogenesis, and neuronal survival. 21-HT has also been shown to have a role in such physiological activities. Furthermore, patients suffering from depression have been shown to have decreased plasma levels of BDNF, suggesting that depressive conditions would benefit from a therapy that could increase BDNF levels. Additionally, learning and memory as well as cortical plasticity is modulated by stimulation of vagal afferents through the synergetic action of ACh, 21-HT and BDNF. Further, acute vagal stimulation has been shown to increase NE and 21-HT release in the PFC  136  and the amygdala  149  as well as to enhance synaptic transmission in the hippocampus  138 . 
     The cognitive improvement due to the increase in BDNF, which leads to a faster reorganization of neural circuits, can be leveraged not only to learn new things faster, but also to eliminate/extinguish undesirable and/or maladaptive behavior such as, in some examples, PTSD, phobias, and addictive behavior such as drug-seeking or overeating. 
     Also, it has been shown that vagal activation produces pairing-specific plasticity, thus stimulation of vagal afferents, irrespective of what neuromodulator is produced, can be used to eliminate and/or extinguish undesirable and/or maladaptive behavior such as those described above. 
     In another example, the cognitive enhancement provided by the systems and methods described herein can be used to overcome the cognitive problems that have been described to occur in people exposed to microgravity environments such as astronauts in the space station or on a long space travel such as visiting Mars. 
     Additionally, BDNF levels have been shown to have an inverse correlation with factors associated with cognitive decline and/or impediments, such as in Alzheimer&#39;s patients. 
     The second stimulation  2122   b , in some embodiments, increases NPS release  2126 . As discussed above, this increase in NPS production or expression is the result of the activation cascade that follows the stimulation of the ATN  130 . 
     In some embodiments, providing the first stimulation  2122   a  and providing the second stimulation  2122   b  involves providing a series of simultaneous and/or synchronized stimulation pulses. Each of the first stimulation  2122   a  and the second stimulation  2122   b  may be applied using the same or different parameters. The parameters, in some examples, may include pulse frequency (e.g., low, mid-range, or high) and/or pulse width. Further, the parameters may indicate electrode pairs for producing biphasic pulses. In a first illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a low frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a mid-range frequency. Conversely, in a second illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a mid-range frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a low frequency. Other combinations of low, mid-range, and high frequency stimulations are possible depending upon the patient and the disorder being treated. Therapy may be optimized according to the needs of individual patients including custom stimulation frequency, custom pulse width, custom stimulation intensity (amplitude), and/or independently controlled stimulation channels. 
     Turning to  FIG.  21 C , a stimulation flow diagram  2130  is illustrated for providing therapy to decrease systemic pro-inflammatory processes and/or pro-inflammatory processes in one or more target organs. The target organs, for example, may include the spleen, lungs, gut, and heart. The stimulations of flow diagram  2130 , in some examples, may be applied in mitigating bleeding, reducing volume of bleeding, and/or reducing a time period of blood loss. The stimulations of flow diagram  2130 , for example, may be performed at least in part by a pulse generator. 
     In some implementations, a first stimulation  2132  is provided at a first tissue location configured to stimulate the anti-inflammatory pathway  420  for decreasing systemic pro-inflammatory processes and/or pro-inflammatory processes in one or more target organs  2136 . The pathways, for example, may include a portion of the pathways illustrated in  FIG.  4 C . The first tissue location, for example, may include a surface of an ear structure contacted by an in-ear component of an auricular stimulation device. In some embodiments, the first stimulation  2132  is supplied to multiple tissue locations. For example, the first stimulation  2132  may be applied to a first tissue location including a surface of an ear structure contacted by an in-ear component of an auricular stimulation device as well as to a second tissue location on the tragus of the ear. 
     Decreasing systemic pro-inflammatory processes and/or pro-inflammatory processes in one or more target organs  2136 , in some implementations, involves modulating at least a portion of the anti-inflammatory pathway of  FIG.  4 C  such that activity at the NTS  104  is modulated affecting activity in efferent pathways through the celiac ganglion  422  and/or the parasympathetic ganglion  424 , which in turn modulate activity in the spleen  146 , lungs  142 , gut  144 , and/or heart  140  such that an anti-inflammatory response is elicited. 
     In some implementations, a second stimulation  2134  is provided at a second tissue location configured to stimulate the anti-inflammatory pathway  420  for decreasing systemic pro-inflammatory processes and/or pro-inflammatory processes in one or more target organs  2136 . Examples of target pathways and structures for stimulation of the second tissue location include those modulating activity at and/or on the auriculotemporal nerve  130 , the lesser occipital nerve  152 , and/or the great auricular nerve  154 . The pathways, for example, may include a portion of the pathways illustrated in  FIG.  21 C . 
     In some embodiments, providing the first stimulation  2132  and providing the second stimulation  2134  involves providing a series of simultaneous and/or synchronized stimulation pulses to both the first tissue location and the second tissue location. Each of the first stimulation  2132  and the second stimulation  2134  may be applied using the same or different parameters. The parameters, in some examples, may include pulse frequency (e.g., low, mid-range, or high) or pulse width. Further, the parameters may indicate electrode pairs for producing biphasic pulses. In a first illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a low frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a mid-range frequency. Conversely, in a second illustrative example, the first stimulation may be applied using a mid-range frequency, while the second stimulation is applied using a low frequency. Other combinations of low, mid-range, and high frequency stimulations are possible depending upon the patient and the disorder being treated. 
     In other embodiments, the therapy provided by the stimulation  2132  and/or the stimulation  2134  of the stimulation flow diagram  2130  includes automatically adjusting delivery of the therapy (e.g., adjusting one or more parameters) based on feedback received from the pulse generator or another computing device in communication with the pulse generator. The feedback, in some examples, may include a blood oxygen concentration, a breathing rate, a breathing variation, tidal volume, skin conductance, blood pressure, heart rate, heart rate variability, and/or EEG signal. 
     In further embodiments, combinations of the stimulations described in stimulation flow diagrams  2100  and/or  2120  with the stimulations described in stimulation flow diagram  2130  may be used to enhance stress reduction through reducing the time and/or volume of the physical stressor of bleeding. Thus, activation of the anti-inflammatory pathway  2020  of  FIG.  20 C  in combination with activation of the stress reduction pathway  2000  of  FIG.  20 A  may mitigate stress reactions in subjects experiencing physical stress at least partially induced by bleeding. In a further example, in subjects performing stressful activities that have a substantial likelihood of resulting in bleeding (e.g., certain athletes, military personnel involved in active missions, etc.), activating the anti-inflammatory pathway  2020  prior to initiation of bleeding may decrease or minimize bleeding if it occurs and may be used in combination with activation of the arousal/alertness control pathway  2002  of  FIG.  20 B  to improve performance, reduce tunnel vision, and maintain focus of the subject during the activity. 
     For example, the first stimulation  2132  of the stimulation flow diagram  2130  may be delivered synchronously or simultaneously with the second stimulation  2102   b  of the stimulation flow diagram  2100  of  FIG.  21 A  for controlling and/or decreasing stress  2110  or vice-versa. Similarly, for example, the first stimulation  2132  of the stimulation flow diagram  2130  may be delivered synchronously or simultaneously with the second stimulation  2122   b  of the stimulation flow diagram  2120  of  FIG.  21 B  for promoting wakefulness, increasing arousal/alertness, and counteracting fatigue  2128  or vice-versa. In another example, the therapy of the stimulation flow diagram  2100 , including both the first stimulation  2102   a  and the second stimulation  2102   b  may be delivered for a first period of time, and the therapy of the stimulation flow diagram  2130 , including both the first stimulation  2132  and the second stimulation  2134  may be delivered for a second period of time; or the therapy of the stimulation flow diagram  2110 , including both the first stimulation  2122   a  and the second stimulation  2122   b  may be delivered for a first period of time, and the therapy of the stimulation flow diagram  2130 , including both the first stimulation  2132  and the second stimulation  2134  may be delivered for a second period of time. The combined therapies, in some embodiments, may be repeated for a number of cycles of the first period of time and the second period of time. Based on feedback, the length of one or both of the first period of time and the second period of time may be adjusted to control/decrease stress  2110  or promote wakefulness, increase arousal/alertness, and counteract fatigue  2128  while decreasing systemic pro-inflammatory processes and/or pro-inflammatory processes in one or more target organs  2136  in an efficient manner. 
     Reference has been made to illustrations representing methods and systems according to implementations of this disclosure. Aspects thereof may be implemented by computer program instructions. These computer program instructions may be provided to a processor of a general-purpose computer, special purpose computer, or other programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer or other programmable data processing apparatus, create means for implementing the functions/operations specified in the illustrations. 
     One or more processors can be utilized to implement various functions and/or algorithms described herein. Additionally, any functions and/or algorithms described herein can be performed upon one or more virtual processors, for example on one or more physical computing systems such as a computer farm or a cloud drive. 
     Aspects of the present disclosure may be implemented by hardware logic (where hardware logic naturally also includes any necessary signal wiring, memory elements and such), with such hardware logic able to operate without active software involvement beyond initial system configuration and any subsequent system reconfigurations. The hardware logic may be synthesized on a reprogrammable computing chip such as a field programmable gate array (FPGA), programmable logic device (PLD), or other reconfigurable logic device. In addition, the hardware logic may be hard coded onto a custom microchip, such as an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC). In other embodiments, software, stored as instructions to a non-transitory computer-readable medium such as a memory device, on-chip integrated memory unit, or other non-transitory computer-readable storage, may be used to perform at least portions of the herein described functionality. 
     Various aspects of the embodiments disclosed herein are performed on one or more computing devices, such as a laptop computer, tablet computer, mobile phone or other handheld computing device, or one or more servers. Such computing devices include processing circuitry embodied in one or more processors or logic chips, such as a central processing unit (CPU), graphics processing unit (GPU), field programmable gate array (FPGA), application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), or programmable logic device (PLD). Further, the processing circuitry may be implemented as multiple processors cooperatively working in concert (e.g., in parallel) to perform the instructions of the inventive processes described above 
     The process data and instructions used to perform various methods and algorithms derived herein may be stored in non-transitory (i.e., non-volatile) computer-readable medium or memory. The claimed advancements are not limited by the form of the computer-readable media on which the instructions of the inventive processes are stored. For example, the instructions may be stored on CDs, DVDs, in FLASH memory, RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, hard disk or any other information processing device with which the computing device communicates, such as a server or computer. The processing circuitry and stored instructions may enable the pulse generator  210  of  FIGS.  2 A- 2 C , the pulse generator  1004  of  FIGS.  10 A- 10 C , or the pulse generator  1150  of  FIG.  11    to perform various methods and algorithms described above. Further, the processing circuitry and stored instructions may enable the peripheral device(s)  1010  of  FIGS.  10 A- 10 C  to perform various methods and algorithms described above. 
     These computer program instructions can direct a computing device or other programmable data processing apparatus to function in a particular manner, such that the instructions stored in the computer-readable medium produce an article of manufacture including instruction means which implement the function/operation specified in the illustrated process flows. 
     Embodiments of the present description rely on network communications. As can be appreciated, the network can be a public network, such as the Internet, or a private network such as a local area network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN) network, or any combination thereof and can also include PSTN or ISDN sub-networks. The network can also be wired, such as an Ethernet network, and/or can be wireless such as a cellular network including EDGE, 3G, 4G, and 5G wireless cellular systems. The wireless network can also include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, or another wireless form of communication. The network, for example, may be the network  1020  as described in relation to  FIGS.  10 A- 10 C . 
     The computing device, such as the peripheral device(s)  1010  of  FIG.  10 A- 10 C , in some embodiments, further includes a display controller for interfacing with a display, such as a built-in display or LCD monitor. A general purpose I/O interface of the computing device may interface with a keyboard, a hand-manipulated movement tracked I/O device (e.g., mouse, virtual reality glove, trackball, joystick, etc.), and/or touch screen panel or touch pad on or separate from the display. 
     A sound controller, in some embodiments, is also provided in the computing device, such as the peripheral device(s)  1010  of  FIG.  10 A- 10 C , to interface with speakers/microphone thereby providing audio input and output. 
     Moreover, the present disclosure is not limited to the specific circuit elements described herein, nor is the present disclosure limited to the specific sizing and classification of these elements. For example, the skilled artisan will appreciate that the circuitry described herein may be adapted based on changes on battery sizing and chemistry or based on the requirements of the intended back-up load to be powered. 
     Certain functions and features described herein may also be executed by various distributed components of a system. For example, one or more processors may execute these system functions, where the processors are distributed across multiple components communicating in a network such as the network  1020  of  FIGS.  10 A- 10 C . The distributed components may include one or more client and server machines, which may share processing, in addition to various human interface and communication devices (e.g., display monitors, smart phones, tablets, personal digital assistants (PDAs)). The network may be a private network, such as a LAN or WAN, or may be a public network, such as the Internet. Input to the system may be received via direct user input and received remotely either in real-time or as a batch process. 
     Although provided for context, in other implementations, methods and logic flows described herein may be performed on modules or hardware not identical to those described. Accordingly, other implementations are within the scope that may be claimed. 
     In some implementations, a cloud computing environment, such as Google Cloud Platform™, may be used perform at least portions of methods or algorithms detailed above. The processes associated with the methods described herein can be executed on a computation processor of a data center. The data center, for example, can also include an application processor that can be used as the interface with the systems described herein to receive data and output corresponding information. The cloud computing environment may also include one or more databases or other data storage, such as cloud storage and a query database. In some implementations, the cloud storage database, such as the Google Cloud Storage, may store processed and unprocessed data supplied by systems described herein. 
     The systems described herein may communicate with the cloud computing environment through a secure gateway. In some implementations, the secure gateway includes a database querying interface, such as the Google BigQuery platform. 
     While certain embodiments have been described, these embodiments have been presented by way of example only, and are not intended to limit the scope of the present disclosures. Indeed, the novel methods, apparatuses and systems described herein can be embodied in a variety of other forms; furthermore, various omissions, substitutions and changes in the form of the methods, apparatuses and systems described herein can be made without departing from the spirit of the present disclosures. The accompanying claims and their equivalents are intended to cover such forms or modifications as would fall within the scope and spirit of the present disclosures.