Patent Publication Number: US-6992925-B2

Title: High density semiconductor memory cell and memory array using a single transistor and having counter-doped poly and buried diffusion wordline

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
   This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/765,802 filed Jan. 26, 2004 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,940,751 entitled “HIGH DENSITY SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY CELL AND MEMORY ARRAY USING A SINGLE TRANSISTOR AND HAVING VARIABLE GATE OXIDE BREAKDOWN”, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/677,613 filed Oct. 1, 2003 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,898,116 entitled “HIGH DENSITY SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY CELL AND MEMORY ARRAY USING A SINGLE TRANSISTOR HAVING A BURIED N+ CONNECTION”, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/448,505 filed May 30, 2003 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,856,540 entitled “HIGH DENSITY SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY CELL AND MEMORY ARRAY USING A SINGLE TRANSISTOR” and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/133,704 filed Apr. 26, 2002 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,777,757 entitled “HIGH DENSITY SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY CELL AND MEMORY ARRAY USING A SINGLE TRANSISTOR”, to which priority from all is hereby claimed under 35 USC § 120. 

   TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
   The present invention relates to a nonvolatile programmable semiconductor memory, and more particularly to a single transistor memory cell programmed by break down of the transistor gate oxide, and a memory array incorporating such cells. 
   BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
   Nonvolatile memory retains stored data when power is removed, which is desirable in many different types of electronic devices. One commonly available type of nonvolatile memory is the programmable read-only memory (“PROM”), which uses word line—bit line crosspoint elements such as fuses, anti-fuses, and trapped charge devices such as the floating gate avalanche injection metal oxide semiconductor (“FAMOS”) transistor to store logical information. 
   An example of one type of PROM cell that uses the breakdown of a silicon dioxide layer in a capacitor to store digital data is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,215,140 to Reisinger et al. The basic PROM disclosed by Reisinger et al. uses a series combination of an oxide capacitor and a junction diode as the crosspoint element (the term “crosspoint” refers to the intersection of a bitline and a wordline). An intact capacitor represents the logic value 0, and an electrically broken-down capacitor represents the logic value 1. The thickness of the silicon dioxide layer is adjusted to obtain the desired operation specifications. Silicon dioxide has a breakdown charge of about 10 C/cm 2  (Coulomb/cm 2 ). If a voltage of 10 volts is applied to a capacitor dielectric with a thickness of 10 nm (resultant field strength 10 mV/cm), a current of about 1 mA/cm 2  flows. With 10 volts, this thus results in a substantial amount of time for programming a memory cell. However, it is more advantageous to design the capacitor dielectric to be thinner, in order to reduce the high power loss which occurs during electrical breakdown. For example, a memory cell configuration having a capacitor dielectric with a thickness of 3 to 4 nm can be operated at about 1.5 V. The capacitor dielectric does not yet break down at this voltage, so that 1.5 V is sufficient to read data from the memory cell. Data are stored, for example, at 5 V, in which case one cell strand in a memory cell configuration can be programmed within about 1 millisecond. The energy loss which occurs in this case per cm 2  of capacitor dielectric is then about 50 Watts (10 Coulomb*5 V). If the desired power loss is about 0.5 W, about 100 seconds are required to program a 1 Gigabit memory. If the permissible power losses are higher, the programming can be carried out correspondingly more quickly. 
   Some types of nonvolatile memory are capable of being repeatedly programmed and erased, including erasable programmable read only semiconductor memory generally known as EPROM, and electrically erasable programmable read only semiconductor memory generally known as EEPROM. EPROM memory is erased by application of ultraviolet light and programmed by application of various voltages, while EEPROM memory is both erased and programmed by application of various voltages. EPROMs and EEPROMs have suitable structures, generally known as floating gates, that are charged or discharged in accordance with data to be stored thereon. The charge on the floating gate establishes the threshold voltage, or V T , of the device, which is sensed when the memory is read to determine the data stored therein. Typically, efforts are made to minimize gate oxide stress in these types of memory cells. 
   A device known as a metal nitride oxide silicon (“MNOS”) device has a channel located in silicon between a source and drain and overlain by a gate structure that includes a silicon dioxide layer, a silicon nitride layer, and an aluminum layer. The MNOS device is switchable between two threshold voltage states V TH(high)  and V TH(low)  by applying suitable voltage pulses to the gate, which causes electrons to be trapped in the oxide-nitride gate (V TH(high) ) or driven out of the oxide-nitride gate (V TH(low) ). Again, efforts are made to minimize gate oxide stress in these types of memory cells. 
   A junction breakdown memory cell that uses a stored charge on the gate of a gate controlled diode to store logic 0 and 1 values is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,037,243 to Hoffman et al. Charge is stored on the gate by using a capacitance formed between the p-type electrode of the gate controlled diode and the gate electrode. Charge storage is enhanced by using a composite dielectric in the capacitor formed from silicon dioxide and silicon nitride layers in place of silicon dioxide. The application of an erase voltage to the electrode of the gate controlled diode causes the oxide-nitride interface surface to fill with negative charge, which is retained after the erase operation is completed. This negative interface charge causes the gate controlled diode to operate in an induced junction mode even after the erase voltage is removed. When the gate controlled diode is thereafter read, it exhibits field-induced junction breakdown of its channel and a saturation current flows. The field induced junction breakdown voltage is less than the metallurgical junction breakdown voltage. However, the application of a write voltage to the electrode of the gate controlled diode causes the silicon dioxide/silicon nitride interface to fill with positive charge, which is retained after the write operation is completed. When the gate controlled diode is thereafter read, it will not break down because no channel exists. Only a slight current flows. The different current flows are sensed and indicate different logic states. 
   Improvements in the various processes used for fabricating the various types of nonvolatile memory tend to lag improvements in widely used processes such as the advanced CMOS logic process. For example, processes for devices such as flash EEPROM devices tend to use 30% more mask steps than the standard advanced CMOS logic process to produce the various special regions and structures required for the high voltage generation circuits, the triple well, the floating gate, the ONO layers, and the special source and drain junctions typically found in such devices. Accordingly, processes for flash devices tend to be one or two generations behind the standard advanced CMOS logic process and about 30% more expensive on a cost-per-wafer basis. As another example, processes for antifuses must be suitable for fabricating various antifuse structures and high voltage circuits, and so also tend to be about one generation behind the standard advanced CMOS process. 
   Generally, great care is taken in the fabrication of the silicon dioxide layer used in metal-oxide-silicon (MOS) devices such as capacitors and transistors. The high degree of care is necessary to ensure that the silicon dioxide layer is not stressed during manufacture or subsequent normal operation of the integrated circuit, so that the desired device characteristics are attained and are stable over time. One example of how much care is taken during fabrication is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,241,200 to Kuroda, which discloses the use of a diffused layer and a shunt to discharge charges accumulated in the word line during a wafer fabrication process. Avoiding this charge accumulation ensures that a large electric field is not applied to the gate insulating film, so that variations in the characteristics of transistors using the word line as their gate wiring line and degradation and breakdown of the gate insulating film are prevented. 
   An example of how much care is taken in circuit design to avoid stressing the silicon dioxide layer of a transistor during normal circuit operation is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,249,472 to Tamura et al. Tamura et al. disclose an antifuse circuit having an antifuse in series with a p-channel MOS transistor in one embodiment and in series with an n-channel MOS transistor in another embodiment. While the antifuse is fabricated without the additional film manufacturing processes typically required for fabricating antifuse circuits, Tamura et al. poses another problem. When the antifuse is shorted out, the series-connected transistor is exposed to a high voltage sufficient to break down the silicon dioxide layer of the transistor. Tamura et al. disclose the addition of another transistor to the circuit to avoid exposing the first transistor to the break down potential. 
   The observations above generally indicate that there are still disadvantages with each of the prior art memory technologies. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       FIG. 1  is a schematic circuit diagram of a portion of a memory array in accordance with the present invention. 
       FIG. 2  is a partial layout diagram of a portion of the memory array represented by  FIG. 1 . 
       FIG. 3  is a cross-section diagram of an integrated circuit structure for the portion of the memory array corresponding to  FIG. 2 . 
       FIG. 4  is a table of voltages showing the operation of the memory cell of  FIGS. 1–3 . 
       FIG. 5  is a cross-section diagram of a memory cell that has been programmed. 
       FIG. 6  is a schematic circuit diagram of a memory cell that has been programmed. 
       FIG. 7  is a cross-section diagram of an experimental setup. 
       FIG. 8  is a graph showing the effect of a constant voltage stress on an ultra-thin gate oxide. 
       FIG. 9  is a graph showing various stages in the current-voltage characteristics of an ultra-thin gate oxide as degradation proceeds. 
       FIG. 10  is a graph showing time-to-breakdown at 63% distribution vs. gate voltage in a semi-log scale measured on n-channel field effect transistors (inversion) for various oxide thickness. 
       FIG. 11  is a graph showing the current-voltage characteristics of n-type devices measured after the detection of successive breakdown events. 
       FIG. 12  is a is a partial layout diagram of a portion of the memory array formed in accordance with an alternative embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 13  is a cross-section diagram of an integrated circuit structure for the portion of the memory array corresponding to  FIG. 12  taken along line A–A′. 
       FIG. 14  is a cross-section diagram of an integrated circuit structure for the portion of the memory array corresponding to  FIG. 12  taken along line B–B′. 
       FIG. 15  is a table of voltages showing the operation of the memory cell of  FIGS. 12–14 . 
       FIG. 16  is a cross section view of one embodiment of memory cells formed in accordance with the present invention. 
       FIG. 17  is a schematic circuit diagram of the memory cells of  FIG. 16 . 
       FIG. 18  is a table of voltage showing the operation of the memory cells of  FIG. 16 . 
       FIG. 19  is a top layout view showing the extent of a nitrogen implant in one method of forming the memory cells of  FIG. 16 . 
       FIGS. 20–23  show cross sectional views of one method for forming the memory cells of  FIG. 16 . 
       FIGS. 24–25  show cross sectional views of an alternative method for forming the memory cells of  FIG. 16 . 
       FIGS. 26–27  show cross sectional views of an alternative method for forming memory cells of the present invention. 
       FIG. 28  shows top and cross-sectional views of an alternative embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 28A  is an alternative embodiment of  FIG. 28  where the spacing of the polysilicon bitlines is minimized. 
       FIG. 29  shows the operation table of the embodiment of  FIG. 28 . 
       FIG. 30  shows top and cross-sectional views of another alternative embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 31  shows top and cross-sectional views of another alternative embodiment of the present invention with N-type polysilicon doping. 
       FIG. 32  shows the operation table of the embodiment of  FIG. 31 . 
       FIG. 33  is a schematic diagram of a memory array of  FIG. 28 . 
   

   DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
   A semiconductor memory cell having a data storage element constructed around a gate oxide is used to store information by stressing the ultra-thin dielectric into breakdown (soft or hard breakdown) to set a leakage current level of the memory cell. The memory cell is read by sensing the current drawn by the cell. A suitable ultra-thin dielectric is the high quality gate oxide of about 10–50 Å thickness or less used in a transistor, as is commonly available from presently available advanced CMOS logic processes. Such oxides are commonly formed by deposition, by oxide growth from a silicon active region, or by some combination thereof. Other suitable dielectrics include oxide-nitride-oxide composites, compound oxides, and so forth. 
   In the following description, numerous specific details are provided to provide a thorough understanding of embodiments of the invention. One skilled in the relevant art will recognize, however, that the invention can be practiced without one or more of the specific details, or with other methods, components, materials, etc. In other instances, well-known structures, materials, or operations are not shown or described in detail to avoid obscuring aspects of the invention. 
   Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the present invention. Thus, the appearances of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. 
   The present invention is related to other types of gate oxide breakdown based non-volatile memory designs developed by the present inventor and assigned to the same assignee as the present invention. Examples are shown in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/955,641 filed on Sep. 18, 2001 entitled “SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY CELL AND MEMORY ARRAY USING A BREAKDOWN PHENOMENA IN AN ULTRA-THIN DIELECTRIC”, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/024,327 filed on Dec. 17, 2001 entitled “SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY CELL AND MEMORY ARRAY USING A BREAKDOWN PHENOMENA IN AN ULTRA-THIN DIELECTRIC”, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/982,034 filed on Oct. 17, 2001 entitled “SMART CARD HAVING NON-VOLATILE MEMORY FORMED FROM LOGIC PROCESS”, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/982,314 filed on Oct. 17, 2001 entitled “REPROGRAMMABLE NON-VOLATILE OXIDE MEMORY FORMED FROM LOGIC PROCESS”, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference. However, in each of the memory cells described above, the cell size is relatively large. The present invention provides a much smaller cell size, thereby allowing a higher density. 
     FIG. 1  shows an example of a memory array  100  formed in accordance of with the present invention. The memory array  100  is a four column by three row array, however, it can be appreciated that the array can be any arbitrary size. The memory array  100  includes twelve memory cells  102 , each of which comprises a MOS transistor  104 . The memory cell  102  at, for example, the crosspoint of the first row R 1  and the first column C 1  includes a MOS transistor  104  having its gate connected to a column line C 1  (also referred to herein as a “bitline” or “column bitline”), its source connected to a row line R 1  (also referred to herein as a “wordline” or “row wordline”), and its drain left floating connected to a drain of an adjacent memory cell  102 . Alternatively, as will be seen below, since there is no current through the drains, the drains of adjacent devices need not be connected where a shallow trench isolation (STI) is used to isolate two memory cells 
   As will be seen below, during the programming step, a relatively large voltage is applied to the gate of the transistor  102  (through the bitline C x , where x=1 to M and M is the total number of columns) of the selected column to break down the gate oxide of the transistor  102 . The other memory cells  102  shown in  FIG. 1  are also formed from, in one embodiment, identical transistors  102  at the crosspoints of the column bitlines C x  and row wordlines R y , where y=1 to N and N is the total number of columns. 
   The use of transistors  102  as data storage elements in the memory array  100  of  FIG. 1  is advantageous because the transistors can be fabricated using many conventional CMOS processes using only a single polysilicon deposition step, without adding any mask steps to them. This is in contrast to “floating gate” type flash memory, which requires at least two polysilicon layers. Further, with modern technological advances, the size of a transistor can be made very small. For example, current 0.18 micron, 0.13 micron, and smaller line width processes would greatly increase the density of the flash memory. 
   Although only a four by three memory array  100  is shown, in practice such memory arrays contain on the order of about one gigabit or more of memory cells when fabricated using, for example, an advanced 0.13 μm CMOS logic process. Even larger memories will be realized as CMOS logic processes improve further. The memory array  100  in practice is organized into bytes and pages and redundant rows (not shown), which may be done in any desired manner. Many suitable memory organizations are well known in the art. 
     FIG. 2  shows a partial layout diagram  200  for a portion of the memory array  100 , and  FIG. 3  presents a cross-section of an illustrative MOS integrated circuit  300  showing the principal structural aspects thereof corresponding to the memory cells  102  formed by transistors  104  in accordance with the layout diagram of  FIG. 2 . The layout diagram of  FIG. 2  is suitable for an advanced CMOS logic process. The term MOS is commonly understood to pertain to any gate material, including doped polysilicon and other good conductors, as well as to various different types of gate dielectrics not limited to silicon dioxide, and the term is so used herein. For example, the dielectric may be any type of dielectric, such as an oxide or nitride, which undergoes a hard or soft breakdown upon the application of a voltage for a period of time. In one embodiment, a thermally grown gate silicon oxide of about 50 angstroms (50 A for 0.25 um, 30 A for 0.18 um, 20 A for 0.13 um, 16 A for 0.09 um process) thick is used. 
   The memory array  100  preferably is laid out in a grid in which the column lines such as C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , and C 4  are orthogonal to the row lines such as R 1 , R 2 , and R 3 , as well as the diffused source and drains of the transistors  104 . The transistor  104  at the crosspoint of the row line R 1  and the column line C 1  is formed in a p-well active region  302  in the following manner. 
   An ultra-thin gate oxide layer  304  is formed by either deposition or thermal oxidation. This is followed by a deposition and doping of a polysilicon layer, which is patterned using a gate mask containing patterns for the column bitlines C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , and C 4 , which also serve as gates  310  for the transistors  104 . Alternatively, the column bitlines may be separate structure that are connected to the gates  310  of the transistors through column bitline segments. The various source and drain regions are formed by conventional process steps (implants, spacers, and n+ source/drain implants), creating the n+ source regions  306  and n+ drain regions  308 . Importantly, it should be noted that the polysilicon gate  310  for the transistors  104  should not overlap with the n+ source/drain regions. Thus, a lightly doped drain structure is not employed. As will be seen below, by not having the polysilicon gate  310  overlap or proximal to the n+ source/drain regions, during programming, the polysilicon gate will not short directly to the n+ source/drain regions. 
   Further, contacts (also referred to as row wordline segments) to n+ source regions  306  are formed to allow connection with the row lines R y . The row lines R y  are formed from a metal deposition that is subsequently etched. Further, an interlayer dielectric (not shown) is deposited over the polysilicon layer. Thus, the contact vias connecting the metal row lines R y  to the n+ source regions  306  are formed within the interlayer dielectric. 
   The operation of the memory array  100  is now explained with reference to the illustrative voltages shown in  FIG. 4 . It will be appreciated that the voltages are illustrative, and that different voltages are likely to be used in different applications or when different process technologies are used. During programming, the various memory cells in the memory array  100  are exposed to one of four possible programming voltage combinations, which are shown on lines  401 ,  403 ,  405 , and  407  of  FIG. 4 . Read voltages are shown on lines  409 ,  411 ,  413 , and  415 . Assume that a memory cell  102  is selected for programming and is located at the crosspoint of R 1  and C 1 . The selected memory cell  102  is referred to as at the selected row and selected column (“SR/SC”). As shown on line  401 , the voltage on the selected wordline R 1  (designated as V wordline  or “voltage on the wordline”) is 0 volts and the voltage on the bitline C 1  (designated as V bitline  or “voltage on the bitline”) is a programming voltage (V PP ), in this case 8 volts. Thus, the voltage across the gate (the bitline C 1 ) of the transistor  104  and the source (the wordline R 1 ) of the transistor  104  is 8 volts. The gate oxide  304  of the transistor  104  is designed to break down at this potential difference, which programs the memory cell. During programming, the voltage potential breaks down the gate oxide and results in a leakage current through the gate oxide into the underlying substrate and collected mostly by the N+ source/drain, which is connected to ground. Further, the result of this is that a programmed n+ region  501  (see  FIG. 5 ) is formed in the p-well  302  between the n+ source region  306  and the n+ drain region  308  of the transistor  104 . 
   It can be appreciated that the precise magnitude of voltages applied is dependent upon the thickness of the gate oxide and other factors. Thus, for example, for a 0.13 micron CMOS process, the gate oxide is typically thinner, thereby requiring a lower voltage differential between the selected wordline and the selected bitline. In one embodiment, where a 0.13 micron CMOS process is used, the bitline C 1 , and the unselected word line has a voltage of 4.5 volts and the unselected bitline R 1  has a voltage of between 0 and 1.2 volts. 
   With R 1  and C 1  being the selected row and column, consider the impact on the memory cell  102  at the crosspoint of a selected row and an unselected column (“SR/UC”), e.g., R 1  and C 2 . As shown on line  405 , the voltage on the wordline R 1  is 0 volts and the voltage on the unselected bitline C 2  is 0 or floating. This causes a relatively low potential difference across the gate oxide  304  of the transistor  104 , which is insufficient to break down the gate oxide for the transistor  104  at the crosspoint. The memory cell  102  does not program under these conditions. 
   With R 1  and C 1  being the selected row and column, consider the impact on the memory cell  102  at the crosspoint of a selected column and an unselected row (“UR/SC”), e.g. R 2  and C 1 . As shown on line  403 , the voltage on the unselected wordline R 2  is floating or V PP  and the voltage on the bit line C 1  is at V PP  (8 volts in this example). This causes a relatively low potential difference across the gate oxide  304  of the transistor  104 . The memory cell  102  does not program under these conditions. 
   With R 1  and C 1  being the selected row and column, consider the impact on the memory cell  102  at the crosspoint of an unselected column and an unselected row (“UR/UC”), e.g. R 2  and C 2 . As shown on line  407 , the voltage on the unselected wordline R 2  is floating or V PP  and the voltage on the unselected bitline C 2  is 0 volts or floating. This causes a negative potential difference across the gate  304  and the N+ source/drain of the transistor  104 . Since the N+ source/drain is positive and gate is negative, the higher voltage on the source/drain will not pass under the gate, so the memory cell  102  does not program under these conditions. Further, the voltage on the unselected wordline could be biased to an intermediate voltage, such as 2V to 6V to prevent the cell from being programmed. However, the programmed cell will cause a leakage current from the selected bitline to the unselected wordline. If the unselected bit line is floating, the leakage current will charge it up, which causes the voltage to raise up in the bitline. By biasing the unselected wordlines R x  to V PP , we can prevent this leakage and thus the charge time of the selected bitline through programmed cells can be reduced. 
   After a memory cell  102  has been programmed by breaking down the gate oxide  304 , the physical characteristics of the cell  102  is changed. Turning to  FIG. 5 , a transistor  104  of the memory cell  102  has been programmed. During programming, a programmed n+ region  501  is formed underneath the gate of the transistor  104 . This programmed n+ region  501  is formed as current (during the programming process) pierces through the gate oxide  304  and deposits into the substrate (p-well  302 ). 
   Although difficult to view clearly in  FIG. 3 , as noted above, the polysilicon gate  310  for the transistors  104  should not overlap vertically with the n+ source/drain regions  306  and  308 . Indeed, the separation laterally between the gate  310  and the n+ source region  306  and n+ drain region  308 , by for example the use of a CMOS LDD spacer, should be sufficient to prevent short circuiting during programming. As seen in  FIG. 3 , this lateral separation is designated as a lateral distance D. In one embodiment, the lateral distance D is between 0.02 microns to 0.08 microns as formatted by a LDD dielectric spacer in CMOS logic devices. By not having the polysilicon gate overlap or proximal to the n+ source/drain regions, during programming, the polysilicon gate will not short directly to the n+ source/drain regions. Instead, the programmed n+ region  501  is formed. Further, alternative methods by which short circuiting is avoided between the gate  310  and the n+ regions  306  and  308  may be utilized. As but one example, the gate oxide near the n+ regions  306  and  308  may be made thicker by poly gate sidewall oxidation after the gate poly etch. It can be appreciated that other methods are also suitable. 
   The programmed memory cell of  FIG. 5  can be seen in schematic form in  FIG. 6 . The result of programming a memory cell is the formation of two gated diodes  601  and  603 . The gated diodes  601  and  603  prevent current from flowing from the wordlines R y  to the bitlines C x . However, current will be allowed to flow from the bitlines C x  to the wordlines R y  during the read operation since the positive gate bias can induce a n+ inversion, which can make the connection to the N+ source/drain regions. 
   The memory array  100  is read in the following manner. A read select voltage V RD  (for example 1.8 volts) is placed on the selected column bitline (“SC”) and a read select voltage of 0 volts is placed on the selected row wordline (“SR”). Note that these voltages are for a typical 0.18 micron CMOS process. Lower voltages would be typically used for smaller more advanced CMOS processes. For example, for a 0.13 micron CMOS process, the read select voltage on the selected column bitline may be approximately 1.2 volts. 
   Assume that R 1  and C 1  are the selected row and column (“SC/SR”) and that the memory cell  102  at that crosspoint is programmed. As shown on line  409 , 1.8 volts (a read select voltage) is applied via bitline C 1  to the gate of the transistor  104  and 0 volts is applied to the source via the wordline R 1 . This causes a current to flow from the bitline C 1 , through the gate oxide of the transistor  104 , and out through the wordline R 1 , which is ground to zero. By detecting the current on the bitline, it can be determined whether the memory cell  102  is programmed. If the memory cell  102  is not programmed, no current will flow, which indicates that the memory cell is not programmed. 
   With R 1  and C 1  being the selected row and column for the read operation, consider the impact on the memory cell  102  at the crosspoint of a selected column and an unselected row (“UR/SC”), e.g. R 2  and C 1 . As shown on line  411 , 1.8 volts is on the selected bitline C 1  and the source via the unselected wordline R 2  is held to floating or V RD . There is no voltage potential across the transistor and no current flow, which indicates that the memory cell is not programmed. By biasing the unselected wordline R 2  to V RD , the charge time of the selected bitline through programmed cells can be reduced. This is because if the unselected wordline is floating, it will take some time to charge it up to by the selected bit through the programmed cell. 
   With R 1  and C 1  being the selected row and column for the read operation, consider the impact on the memory cell  102  at the crosspoint of an unselected column and a selected row (“SR/UC”), e.g. R 1  and C 2 . As shown on line  413 , 0 volts is on the unselected bitline C 2  and 0 volts is applied to the source via the selected wordline R 1 . There is no voltage potential across the transistor and no current flow, which indicates that the memory cell is not programmed. 
   With R 1  and C 1  being the selected row and column for the read operation, consider the impact on the memory cell  102  at the crosspoint of an unselected column and an unselected row (“UR/UC”), e.g. R 2  and C 2 . As shown on line  415 , 0 volts is on the unselected bitline C 2  and the source via the unselected wordline R 2  is held to floating or V RD . Even for the cell that was previously programmed, and the programmed cell acts like a reversed biased diode, so there is no current going from the unselected wordline (1.8V) to the unselected bitline (0V), which indicates that the memory cell is not programmed. 
   Thus, as seen above, during the read cycle, no current is drawn by memory cells at crosspoints having either an unselected row or an unselected column. Note that the unselected wordlines may be left floating. This embodiment will tend to reduce leakage current through the wordlines, as well as allowing the use of smaller word line drivers, thereby saving integrated circuit space. 
   Moreover, in an alternative embodiment, in order to increase the n+ source/drain junction breakdown voltage and reduce junction leakage in the case of an unselected wordline charged to V PP  either from the selected word line through prior programmed cells or through a word line driver, a high energy, low dose n+ implant can be used. The implant may be a standard n+ electrostatic discharge protection implant from a conventional CMOS process or other existing implant steps, thus staying within standard CMOS logic process. Still, in other embodiments, a special implant step may be added to optimize the implanting. 
   An alternative embodiment of the present invention is shown in  FIGS. 12–14 . The operation tabitlinee of this alternative embodiment is shown in  FIG. 15 . In the alternative embodiment of  FIG. 12 , the row wordlines R 1  and R 2  are not formed from a metal deposition as is shown in the embodiment of  FIG. 2 . Instead, the row wordlines R 1  and R 2 , and in general all of the row wordlines R Y , are formed from a buried n +  layer formed in the substrate. The buried n+ layer thus replaces the metal wordlines discussed above. Because of this, there is no need for metal contact to connect the row wordlines R Y  to the N+ source regions  306 . In general, this allows for higher density integration of the memory array. 
   For clarity purposes, it should be noted that the buried N+ layer forming the row wordlines R 1  and R 2  of  FIG. 12  is shown, while the N+ source regions  306  and the n+ drain regions  308  are not shown in the top view of  FIG. 12 . 
     FIG. 13  is a cross-section view of the silicon substrate taken along line A–A′ of  FIG. 12 . The buried N+ layer  1301  is formed just underneath the N+ source regions  306  and N+ drain regions  308 . Indeed, the N+ source regions  306  are in electrical contact with the buried N+ layer  1301 . Thus, the buried n+ layer  1301  replaces the metal row line R y  of  FIG. 2 . Additionally, the n+ drain regions  308  are also in contact with the buried N+ layer  1301 . 
     FIG. 14  shows a cross-section view of the substrate taken along ine B–B′ of  FIG. 12 . In this embodiment, shallow trench isolations (“STI”)  1401  serve to separate and isolate the memory cells. The buried n+ layer  1301  is shown under the surface of the substrate, but still separated by the shallow trench isolations  1401 . 
   The formation of the buried n+ layers  1301  will require additional masking and implantation steps. In one embodiment, or arsenic may be used as the dopent instead of phosphorous in order to limit the diffusion layer thickness in the deep submicron process. The buried n+ layer  1301  can be formed using high energy ion implantation either before or after the formation of the thin gate oxide layer and/or the polysilicon deposition. Alternatively, the buried n+ layer  1301  may be deposited using an epitaxial deposition technique. Further, in order to be CMOS logic process compatible, the lightly doped P-type implant is the same as the logic NMOS threshold voltage V t  implant. 
   Compared to the embodiment shown in  FIG. 2 , the buried n+ layer  1301  can reduce the size of the memory array by 50% or more due to the smaller critical dimensions possible with the photolithography steps relative to metal and contact via formulation. 
   Finally,  FIG. 15  shows the operation table for the embodiment of  FIGS. 12–14 . The programming voltage V PP  is approximately 8–9 volts for a gate oxide thickness of 32 angstroms or 5–6 volts for gate oxide thickness of 20 angstroms. Typically, the V DD  is the input/output voltage and is on the order of 3.3 volts or 2.5 volts. The power supply voltage of V CC  is typically 1.8 volts for 0.18 micron process or 1.2 volts per 0.13 micron process. As you can see, there can be a range of voltages used in order to form the programming and reading functions. Note also that at lines  405  and  407  (for the unselected columns), the voltage on the column bitline V bitline  is less than 0.5 volts. If the unselected column bitline is greater than 0.5 volts (in other words V t ), the previously programmed cells along the common column bitline will have a large leakage current through the programmed cells. By limiting V bitline  to under V t , this leakage current can be reduced or eliminated. 
   Various studies of oxide breakdown, which were performed in contexts different than the memory cells  102  shown in the array  100 , indicate suitable voltage levels for breaking down ultra-thin gate oxides and establishing that the breakdown is controllable. When an ultra-thin gate oxide is exposed to voltage-induced stress, breakdown in the gate oxide occurs. Although the actual mechanisms leading to the intrinsic breakdown of gate oxide are not well understood, the breakdown process is a progressive process passing through a soft breakdown (“SBD”) stage followed by a hard breakdown (“HBD”) stage. One cause of breakdown is believed to be oxide defect sites. These may act alone to cause breakdown, or may trap charges and thereby cause high local fields and currents and a positive feedback condition that leads to thermal runaway. Improved fabrication processes resulting in fewer oxide defects are reducing the occurrence of this type of breakdown. Another cause of breakdown is believed to be electron and hole trapping at various sites even in defect-free oxide, which also leads to thermal runaway. 
   Rasras et al. performed a carrier separation experiment which demonstrated that, under positive gate bias, impact ionization of the electrons in the substrate is the dominant source of the substrate hole current. Mahmoud Rasras, Ingrid De Wolf, Guido Groeseneken, Robin Degraeve, Herman e. Maes, Substrate Hole Current Origin after Oxide Breakdown, IEDM 00-537, 2000. A constant voltage stress experiment was performed on ultra-thin oxide in an arrangement in which channel inversion was involved, and established that both SBD and HBD may be used for storing data, and that a desired degree of SBD or HBD may be obtained by controlling the time over which the gate oxide storage element is stressed.  FIG. 7  shows a schematic cross-sectional representation of the experimental setup. The effect of the constant voltage stress on the ultra-thin gate oxide is shown in the graph of  FIG. 8 , in which the x-axis is time in seconds and the y-axis is current in amperes expressed logarithmically.  FIG. 8  shows the gate and substrate hole current measured before and after soft and hard breakdown under constant voltage stress. For roughly 12.5 seconds, the total current is substantially constant and dominated by an electron current as measured by I g . The leakage is believed to be due to Fowordlineer-Nordheim (“FN”) tunneling and stress-induced leakage current (“SILC”). At about 12.5 seconds, a large jump in the measured substrate hole current is observed, which signals the onset of a soft breakdown (“SBD”). The total current remains substantially constant at this new level, albeit with some fluctuation in the substrate current, from about 12.5 seconds to about 19 seconds. At about 19 seconds, large jumps in both the electron current and the substrate hole current signal the onset of hard breakdown (“HBD”).  FIG. 8  shows that a desired degree of SBD or HBD may be obtained by controlling the time over which the gate oxide storage element is stressed. 
   Sune et al. studied post SBD conduction in ultra-thin silicon dioxide films. Jordi Sune, Enrique Miranda, Post Soft Breakdown conduction in SiO2 Gate Oxides, IEDM 00-533, 2000. Various stages in the current-voltage (“I-V”) characteristics of an ultra-thin gate oxide as degradation proceeds are shown in  FIG. 9 , in which the x-axis is voltage in volts and the y-axis is current in amperes expressed logarithmically.  FIG. 9  shows that a broad range of voltages may be used to program the gate oxide storage element, and that either SBD or HBD may be used to store information in the gate oxide storage element. Several post breakdown I-V characteristics are also included that show the evolution from SBD to HBD. The amount of the leakage current resulting at SBD and HBD as well as at the intermediate situations between these two extremes is roughly linearly dependent on the magnitude of the voltage in a range of about 2.5 volts to 6 volts. 
   Wu et al. studied the voltage dependency of voltage acceleration for ultra-thin oxides. E. Y. Wu et al., Voltage-Dependent Voltage-Acceleration of Oxide Breakdown for Ultra-Thin Oxides, IEDM 00-541, 2000.  FIG. 10  is a graph of time-to-breakdown at 63% distribution vs. gate voltage in a semi-log scale measured n channel FETs (inversion) for oxide thickness varying from 2.3 nm to 5.0 nm. The distributions are in general agreement and are linear, further indicating that the process is controllable. 
   Miranda et al. measured the I-V characteristics of nMOSFET devices having an oxide thickness of 3 nm and an area of 6.4×10 −5  cm 2  after the detection of successive breakdown events. Miranda et al., “Analytic Modeling of Leakage Current Through Multiple Breakdown Paths in SiO 2  Films”, IEEE 39 th  Annual International Reliability Physics Symposium, Orlando, Fla., 2001, pp 367–379.  FIG. 11  shows the results corresponding to the linear regime in which “N” is the number of conducting channels. The results are quite linear, indicating that the path is essentially resistive. 
   In the embodiments described above, typically the n-type lightly doped drain (NLDD) implant is blocked to not have the gate overlap with the source/drain N+ diffusions (see  FIG. 3  and spacing D). This creates a reverse diode between the wordline N+ S/D diffusion and the bitline polysilicon gate in the programmed cell. This results in reduced leakage between the un-selected wordline (biased at Vdd or even higher, in the case where the floating wordline is charged up by a selected bitline at VPP through a programmed cell) to the unselected bitline (biased at 0 v or floating). 
   In the structures shown in  FIGS. 1–6  and  12 – 15 , the gate-oxide breakdown point is near the gate edge next to the wordline N+ diffusion region (see  FIG. 5 ). The punch-through voltage from the wordline N+ diffusion region to the oxide breakdown point is relatively low, so the reverse diode is not effective to prevent the leakage current from unselected wordlines to unselected bitlines. This may be undesirable for several reasons. 
   Thus, in accordance with the present invention, the gate oxide that is proximal to the floating N+ diffusion region is made to be more susceptible to breakdown than the gate oxide that is proximal to the wordline N+ diffusion region. While this can be done in a myriad of ways, two separate approaches are described herein: (1) making the gate oxide near the floating N+ diffusion regions thinner than the gate oxide near the wordline N+ diffusion region (various methods for implementing with two specific embodiments shown below); or (2) damaging the gate oxide near the floating N+ diffusion region with an implant so as to make the gate oxide more susceptible to breakdown. It can be appreciated that the present invention is primarily directed to having a lower breakdown voltage at the floating N+ diffusion region and that any manufacturing or structural implementation now possible or developed in the future for achieving that aim is within the scope of this invention. 
   In one embodiment, as seen in  FIG. 16 , in order to shift the gate oxide breakpoint away from the gate edge at the wordline N+ diffusion region, the gate oxide may be made thinner at the side of floating N+ source (diffusion) region (Alternative 1). The floating N+ diffusion region connects the adjacent two cells on the same wordline. Alternatively, the gate oxide may be made thicker at the side of the gate near the wordline N+ region (Alternative 2). Note that the present invention can be easily extended to a PMOS device where PMOS devices are formed inside an N-well. 
   Memory cells using this differential gate oxide MOS device have the following advantages: 
   1. Cell programming by oxide breakdown always occurs preferentially on the floating source side of the gate. 
   2. This provides a robust reverse diode between the drain (wordline contact) and the polysilicon gate (bitline) of a programmed cell. 
   3. The reverse diode punchthrough voltage is thereby greatly improved compared with the uniform gate oxide cell, where the gate oxide breakdown could occur near the drain side (resulting in low punch through voltage of the reverse diode). 
   4. The programming voltage will be reduced (down to 3.5–5V) since the source side gate oxide thickness is much thinner than the standard gate oxide, which normally requires 6 to 6.5V to program. 
     FIG. 17  illustrates the equivalent electrical circuit of the differential-oxide 1T memory cell.  FIG. 18  shows the cell operation bias voltages of one embodiment. There are several techniques that can be used to form such differential gate oxide, two of which are described below. 
   Alternative 1: Using nitrogen (N2) implant (or other implant species which can reduce the silicon oxidation rate) on one side of the gate to create differential gate oxide thickness. However, the differential gate oxide created by this method is not self-aligned. 
   As seen in  FIGS. 19 and 20 , after the Pwell and channel Vt implant, a photomask is used to make a selected nitrogen implant in the silicon region where the thinner gate oxide will be grown. 
   Next, turning to  FIG. 21 , the post implant photomask is removed, a preliminary gate oxidation cleaning step is performed, and a normal gate oxidation is performed to grow 20 A (for 0.13 um generic process) on the non-nitrogen implanted area. At the same time, a 10 to 15 A thinner gate oxide will be grown in the nitrogen implanted silicon region. 
   Turning to  FIG. 22 , after the gate polysilicon deposition and polysilicon gate etch, this is followed by a NLDD implant and N+ S/D implant. Finally, a NMOS memory cell with differential gate oxide thickness on the source and drain are formed as shown. 
   Finally, turning to  FIG. 23 , after contact connection to the word line diffusions (wordline) and polysilicon bit lines (bitline), the memory cell with differential gate oxide NMOS devices are formed. 
   In an alternative method (Alternative 2), an isotropic etch is used on the drain side followed by oxidation. The differential gate oxide created by this method is self-aligned. Specifically, as seen in  FIG. 24 , after the gate polysilicon etch, a photoresist is used to cover the source side, and an isotropic etch (usually wet etch) is performed to create an undercut on the drain (wordline) side gate oxide. 
   Next, as seen in  FIG. 25 , the photoresist is removed and an oxidation step is performed to fill in the undercut gate, thus making a thicker gate oxide on the drain (wordline) side. This is followed by regular NLDD implant, spacer deposition, spacer etch and S/D) implant. 
   The above two methods describe making the thickness of the gate oxide different based upon location relative to the source and drain of the transistor. This is done in order to have a lower breakdown voltage for the gate oxide nearer the floating N+ diffusion region. Another method for accomplishing the same task is to damage the gate oxide nearer the floating N+ diffusion region by, for example, implantation of heavy ions. 
   Specifically, another method is to implant heavy ions, such as As+, to selectively damage the gate oxide to make its oxide breakdown voltage lower than the normal gate oxide. This is also a self-aligned process. For example, as seen in  FIG. 26 , after the gate polysilicon etch, a photoresist is used to cover the drain side. Then, an angled (15˜60 degrees, and 2 way or 4 way rotation implants) As+ implant is performed on the floating source side. As seen in  FIG. 27 , the next step is to remove the photoresist and perform the regular LDD implant, spacer deposition, spacer etch and S/D implant. 
   To summarize the above embodiments, the buried N+ layer embodiment of  FIGS. 12–15  requires a special (and often complex) implant process. The implant is used to create the buried N+ layer connection underneath the surface channel in order to eliminate the contacts to the wordline. The variable gate oxide breakdown embodiments of  FIGS. 16–27  require additional and special process steps to make a variable G ox . 
   In yet another alternative embodiment shown in  FIG. 28 , a surface N+ diffusion is used to replace the deep buried N+ layer. Note that the term diffusion as used herein is meant to encompass doped regions formed by both implanted or diffusion processes. This embodiment can be manufactured using a standard CMOS process flow with one additional mask and implant step. After the oxide breakdown, the PN junction diode can then be formed. 
   As seen in  FIG. 28 , the transistors are now similar to PMOS transistors in the sense that a surface N+ wordline replaces the traditional N-well. Note however that the N+ wordline  2801  is isolated by shallow trench isolations. The surface level N+ wordline  2801  is formed (by either diffusion or implant) at the surface of the substrate. For example, an As+ (or any other n-type dopant) diffusion may be performed prior to gate oxidation. Alternatively, if an implant is used, the As+ may be implanted before or after the gate oxidization, or even after the polysilicon gate deposition, to form the N+ wordlines  2801 . 
   After the N+ wordline  2801  is formed in the substrate, and the gate oxidation process is complete, the polysilicon layer is formed over the gate oxide. The polysilicon layer is then conventionally etched to form the bitlines  2803 . Then, collateral (i.e. unnecessary) P+ S/D regions  2805  are also formed, such as for example, by using a self-aligned implant step. As part of this implantation, the polysilicon layer that forms the gate of the transistors is implanted and becomes P+ type polysilicon. This implementation is compatible with standard CMOS logic process and saves additional masking and implantation steps. However, this implementation will also result in unneeded collateral P+ source/drain doping. 
   It should be noted that the N+ wordline  2801  should be deeper than the P+ S/D region  2805  to ensure a good conductance to the N+ wordline  2801 . However, the N+ wordline should not be too deep in order to prevent low punch-through leakage between the adjacent bitlines through the shallow trench isolation (STI). 
   In order to minimize the effect of the collateral P+ source/drain doping blocking the buried N+ connection, the spacing between adjacent polysilicon lines can be made as small as possible. By doing this, the lightly doped drain (LDD) spacer will approach each other to effectively minimize or even eliminate the P+ source/drain implant. An example of this can be seen in  FIG. 28A . Moreover, as seen in  FIG. 33 , the N+ wordline is contacted to the memory array periodically, such as every 64 columns. 
   The operation of the memory array is shown in the table of  FIG. 29 . The programming voltage (VPP) is the voltage necessary between the bitline and the wordline sufficient to punchthrough or electrically breakdown the gate oxide. Because the programming voltage is the difference between the voltage on the wordline (Vwp) and the bitline (Vbp), various combinations of voltages can be distributed between the bitlines and wordlines. 
   In one embodiment, VPP=|Vwp−Vbp|=7˜10V for Gox=32 A (0.18 um process) or 5˜7V for 20 A (0.13 um process). In one embodiment, Vwp=0˜VPP and Vwp can be conveniently set as Vdd. Vbp can be in the range of −VPP˜+VPP. Vrd is the read voltage, which is between Vcc to Vdd. Vcc=1.8V for 0.18 um process and 1.2V for 0.13 um process. Vdd is the I/O voltage (3.3V or 2.5V). 
   An alternative embodiment is shown in  FIG. 30 . In this embodiment, source and drain regions are not formed. This embodiment would likely be implemented where a CMOS process that has selective doping (such as during deposition, or implant dopings after polysilicon deposition and doping) for P+ polysilicon or N+ polysilicon prior to the polysilicon etch. In that case, the concern of the P+ S/D doping blocking the N+ wordline is no longer an issue. That will result in the device structure as shown in  FIG. 30 . Thus, in this embodiment, the structure is simply intersecting polysilicon bitlines over the top of buried wordlines. The principles of operation are substantially the same as shown in  FIG. 29 . 
   The concepts above can be easily extended to a N+ poly/gate oxide/P+ wordline embodiment. In such an embodiment, the doping types are simply reversed, with the array formed in an N-well. Specifically, as seen in  FIG. 31 , an N-well  3101  is first formed in the substrate. Then, a p-type dopant such as boron is introduced into the N-well to form the P+ wordlines  3103 . The p-type doping can be performed either before or after the gate oxidization, or even after the polysilicon deposition. 
   After the P+ wordline  3103  is formed in the substrate, and the gate oxidation process is complete, the polysilicon layer is formed over the gate oxide. The polysilicon layer is then conventionally etched to form the bitlines  3105 . Then, N+ S/D regions  3107  are formed, such as for example, by using a self-aligned implant step. As part of this implantation, the polysilicon layer that forms the gate of the transistors is also implanted and becomes N+ type polysilicon. 
   It should be noted that the P+ wordline  3103  should be deeper than the N+ S/D region  3107  to ensure a good conductance to the P+ wordline  3103 . However, the P+ wordline should not be too deep in order to prevent low punch-through leakage between the adjacent bitlines through the shallow trench isolation (STI). 
   Further, in this embodiment, source and drain regions need not be formed. This embodiment would likely be implemented where a CMOS process that has selective doping (such as during polysilicon deposition, or implant doping after the polysilicon deposition) for N+ polysilicon prior to the polysilicon etch. In that case, the concern of the N+ S/D doping blocking the P+ wordline is no longer an issue. 
   The cell array operation is shown in the table of  FIG. 32 . The programming voltage VPP can be split between the bitlines and wordlines. VPP=|Vbp−Vwp|=7˜10V for Gox=32 A (0.18 um) or 5˜7V for 20 A (0.13 um). Vbp can be in the range of −VPP˜+VPP, and Vwp can be in the range of 0V˜VPP, or conveniently set to Vdd. Vrd is the read voltage, which is between Vcc to Vdd. Vdd is the I/O voltage of 3.3V or 2.5V. Vcc=1.8V for 0.18 um and 1.2V for 0.13 um process. 
   The embodiments shown in  FIGS. 28–32  provide advantageous characteristics. For example: 
   (1) A gate oxide anti-fuse memory cell array consisting of cells with size 4F^2 (where F is the minimum feature size) can be constructed using standard CMOS process with only one additional buried N+ or P+ mask and implants. 
   (2) The cells are constructed by structures of P+poly/Gox/N+ wordline/P-well or N+poly/Gox/P+ wordline/N-well/P-substrate. The buried diffusion wordlines can be isolated by standard STI or by other isolation methods. 
   (3) The bitlines and wordlines are constructed by counterdoped polysilicon lines and buried diffusion lines. 
   (4) The cell array can be selectively programmed by applying the VPP across the cell gate oxide in both polarities. After the programming Gox breakdown, a P-N junction diode is formed between the polysilicon and the buried diffusion lines. 
   (5) The programmed cell can be selectively read out by apply positive voltage to the P terminal of the PN junction diode so as to forward bias the diode to form a sense current. 
   (6) The programming voltage VPP can be distributed between the bitlines and wordlines, so the programming voltage on either bitlines or wordlines can be reduced. 
   Note that the transistors used in the memory cells described herein in most cases are normal low voltage logic transistors having, for example, an ultra-thin gate oxide thickness on the order of 50 Å for a 0.25 μm process, or on the order of 20 Å for a 0.13 μm process. The voltage across such an ultra-thin gate oxide can be temporarily during programming much higher than V CC , which typically is 2.5 volts for an integrated circuit fabricated with a 0.25 μm process, and 1.2 volts for an integrated circuit fabricated with a 0.13 μm process. Such ultra-thin oxides typically can stand up to as much as 4 or 5 volts without significant degradation on the transistor performance. 
   The description of the invention and its applications as set forth herein is illustrative and is not intended to limit the scope of the invention. Variations and modifications of the embodiments disclosed herein are possible, and practical alternatives to and equivalents of the various elements of the embodiments are known to those of ordinary skill in the art. For example, the various voltages set forth in the various examples are only illustrative, since one has some discretion as to the precise voltage to select within a range of voltages, and the voltages are in any event dependent on the device characteristics. The terms row wordline and column bitline have been used to describe types of lines commonly used in memories, but some memories may have alternatives thereto. Further, the various doping types may be reversed, such that an n-channel transistor described above may be replaced with a p-channel transistor. In such a situation, the p-channel transistor would be formed in a large n-well and a buried p+ layer may be used. These and other variations and modifications of the embodiments disclosed herein may be made without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention.