Patent Publication Number: US-2023158491-A1

Title: Methods and compositions for detecting analytes

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 16/334,647 filed Mar. 19, 2019 entitled METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR DETECTING ANALYTES, which claims the benefit of Int&#39;l App. No. PCT/US2017/052555 filed Sep. 20, 2017 entitled METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR DETECTING ANALYTES which claims the benefit of U.S. Prov. App. No. 62/398,959 filed Sep. 23, 2016 entitled “METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR DETECTING VIRAL TARGETS”, U.S. Prov. App. No. 62/399,047 filed Sep. 23, 2016 entitled “METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR DETECTING BACTERIAL TARGETS”, U.S. Prov. App. No. 62/398,925 filed Sep. 23, 2016 entitled “METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR DETECTING ANTIGENS”, U.S. Prov. App. No. 62/398,913 filed Sep. 23, 2016 entitled “METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR DETECTING PARASITES”, U.S. Prov. App. No. 62/398,955 filed Sep. 23, 2016 entitled “METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR DETECTING MICRORNA TARGETS”, and U.S. Prov. App. No. 62/398,965 filed Sep. 23, 2016 entitled “METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR DETECTING AGRICULTURAL ANALYTES”, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     REFERENCE TO SEQUENCE LISTING 
     The present application is being filed along with a Sequence Listing in electronic format. The Sequence Listing is provided as a file entitled ALVEO010C1SEQ, created Sep. 26, 2022, which is approximately 18 Kb in size. The information in the electronic format of the Sequence Listing is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     FIELD 
     The present application is generally directed to systems, methods, and devices for diagnostics for sensing and/or identifying pathogens, genomic materials, proteins, and/or other small molecules or biomarkers. In some implementations, a small footprint low cost device provides rapid and robust sensing and identification. Such a device may utilize microfluidics, biochemistry, and electronics to detect one or more targets at once in the field and closer to or at the point of care. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Pathogens in a sample may be identified by detecting specific genomic material (DNA or RNA). Beyond pathogen detection, many other biomarkers are available for testing, including molecules that provide early detection of cancer, vital prenatal information, or a greater understanding of a patient&#39;s microbiome. In conventional nucleic acid testing (“NAT”), genomic material in a sample may first be exponentially copied using a molecular amplification process known as the polymerase chain reaction (“PCR”) until the quantity of DNA present is great enough to be measurable. In the case of RNA, the genomic material of many viruses, an additional step can be included to first transcribe the RNA into DNA before amplifying by PCR. 
     SUMMARY 
     Some embodiments include a system for detecting a target agent, the system comprising: an assay cartridge including a test well containing an excitation electrode and a sensing electrode, wherein the test well is configured to contain a sample comprising the target agent undergoing an amplification process; and a reader device including: a region configured to receive the assay cartridge, a heater positioned to heat the assay cartridge in use within the cavity, a memory storing at least computer-readable storing instructions, and a processor configured by the instructions to at least: cause the heater to heat the assay cartridge to a predetermined temperature for performing the amplification process within the test well; provide an excitation current to the excitation electrode for at least a portion of a duration of the amplification process, receive a signal from the sensing electrode, the signal representing the excitation current after attenuation by at least the sample within the test well, decompose the signal into a resistance component and a reactance component, analyze the reactance component to determine whether a signal cliff indicative of a positive sample including the target agent occurred during at least the portion of the duration of the amplification process, and in response to determining that the signal cliff occurred, output a positive test result or, in response to determining that the signal cliff did not occur, output a negative test result. 
     In some embodiments, the assay cartridge further comprises: a sample introduction area configured to receive the sample; and a fluid path fluidically coupling the sample introduction area to the test well. 
     In some embodiments, the assay cartridge also includes a sealed chamber containing liquid constituents of the amplification process, the sealed chamber positioned in a region of the assay cartridge having an aperture leading into the fluid path, wherein the sample introduction area is positioned between the aperture and the test well along the fluid path; and a pneumatic fluid path fluidically coupling a pneumatic interface to the region of the assay cartridge, wherein the test well is provided with dried constituents of the amplification process. 
     In some embodiments, the reader device includes a pneumatic system configured to apply pressure through the pneumatic interface, the processor further configured by the instructions to at least: actuate a motor coupled to an actuator positioned to rupture the sealed chamber and cause the liquid constituents to flow into the region of the assay cartridge; activate the pneumatic system to cause the liquid constituents to flow into the fluid path and carry the sample received at the sample introduction area to the test well. 
     In some embodiments, the assay cartridge further comprises a mixing chamber positioned between the sample introduction area and the test well along the fluid path, the mixing chamber configured to mix the liquid constituents and the sample into a substantially evenly mixed test fluid. 
     In some embodiments, the assay cartridge comprises a first electrode interface including a first contact pad leading to the excitation electrode and a second contact pad leading to the sensing electrode. 
     In some embodiments, the reader device comprises a second electrode interface configured to couple to the first electrode interface with the assay cartridge received in the region of the reader device. 
     In some embodiments, the reader device further comprises a voltage source configured to generate the excitation current, and wherein the second electrode interface includes: a third contact pad positioned to couple to the first contact pad, the third contact pad coupled to the voltage source; and a fourth contact pad positioned to couple to the second contact pad, the fourth contact pad coupled to the memory. 
     In some embodiments, to decompose the signal into the resistance component and the reactance component, the processor is further configured by the instructions to at least: sample the signal faster than its Nyquist frequency, the signal representing an impedance of the sample; decompose the signal into an in-phase component and an out-of-phase component; and calculate the resistance component based on the in-phase component and calculate the reactance component based on the out-of-phase component. 
     In some embodiments, to analyze the reactance component, the processor is further configured by the instructions to at least access predetermined expected characteristics of the signal cliff from the memory. 
     In some embodiments, the predetermined expected characteristics of the signal cliff stored in the memory include a window of time during the duration of the amplification process at which the signal cliff is predicted to occur. 
     In some embodiments, the predetermined expected characteristics of the signal cliff stored in the memory include a threshold change in a value of the reactance component. 
     In some embodiments, the predetermined expected characteristics of the signal cliff stored in the memory include a threshold slope of a curve of the reactance component, the curve of the reactance component representing values of the reactance component sampled throughout at least a portion of the duration of the amplification process. 
     In some embodiments, the amplification process comprises contacting the processed sample with a capture probe. In some embodiments, the capture probe is selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, and a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the capture probe comprises a detectable nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the detectable nucleic acid is amplified. 
     In some embodiments, the amplification process comprises isothermal amplification. In some embodiments, the amplification process comprises an isothermal amplification reaction selected from the group consisting of self-sustaining sequence replication reaction (3SR); 90-I; BAD Amp; cross priming amplification (CPA); isothermal exponential amplification reaction (EXPAR); isothermal chimeric primer initiated amplification of nucleic acids (ICAN); isothermal multi displacement amplification (IMDA); ligation-mediated SDA; multi displacement amplification; polymerase spiral reaction (PSR); restriction cascade exponential amplification (RCEA); smart amplification process (SMAP2); single primer isothermal amplification (SPIA); transcription-based amplification system (TAS); transcription meditated amplification (TMA); ligase chain reaction (LCR); and multiple cross displacement amplification (MCDA). In some embodiments, the amplification process comprises loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). 
     In some embodiments, the predetermined temperature for performing the amplification process within the test well is greater than 30° C. In some embodiments, the predetermined temperature for performing the amplification process within the test well is greater than 37° C. In some embodiments, the predetermined temperature for performing the amplification process within the test well is greater than 60° C. In some embodiments, the predetermined temperature for performing the amplification process within the test well is in a range from 60° C. to 70° C. 
     In some embodiments, the liquid constituents of the amplification process comprise a component selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, a nucleic acid such as a primer, a buffer, and an enzyme such as a polymerase. 
     In some embodiments, the dried constituents of the amplification process comprise a component selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, a nucleic acid such as a primer, a buffer, and an enzyme such as a polymerase. 
     Some embodiments include a device for testing a sample for a target agent, the device comprising: a sample introduction area configured to receive a sample comprising the target agent; a test well containing an excitation electrode and a sensing electrode, wherein the test well is configured to: contain the sample during an amplification process, apply a current to the sample during the amplification process using the excitation electrode, and sense a signal using the sensing electrode, the signal representing the current after attenuation by at least the sample within the test well; and a fluid path fluidically coupling the sample introduction area to the test well. 
     Some embodiments also include a sealed chamber containing liquid constituents of the amplification process, the sealed chamber positioned in a region of the device having an aperture leading into the fluid path, wherein the sample introduction area is positioned between the aperture and the test well along the fluid path; and dried constituents of the amplification process provided within the test well. 
     Some embodiments also include a sharp configured to rupture the sealed chamber and cause the liquid constituents to flow into the region; and a pneumatic fluid path fluidically coupling a pneumatic interface to the region of the device, the pneumatic fluid path configured to apply pressure to the region to cause the liquid constituents to flow into the fluid path and carry the sample received at the sample introduction area to the test well. 
     Some embodiments also include a mixing chamber positioned between the sample introduction area and the test well along the fluid path, the mixing chamber configured to mix the liquid constituents and the sample into a substantially evenly mixed test fluid. 
     In some embodiments, the assay cartridge comprises a first electrode interface including a first contact pad leading to the excitation electrode and a second contact pad leading to the sensing electrode. 
     Some embodiments also include a circuit board including the excitation electrode and the sensing electrode, wherein the sample introduction area and at least a portion of the fluid path are formed in a unitary piece of a liquid impermeable material, and wherein the circuit board is adhered to a portion of the liquid impermeable material. 
     Some embodiments also include a cover positioned over the liquid impermeable material and the circuit board, the cover comprising an aperture positioned over the sample introduction area and a cap configured to releasably seal the aperture. 
     In some embodiments, sides of the test well are formed as a circular aperture through the liquid impermeable material, and wherein a bottom of the test well is formed by the circuit board. 
     In some embodiments, the excitation electrode and the sensing electrode are positioned on the bottom of the test well and away from the sides of the test well. 
     In some embodiments, the excitation electrode and the sensing electrode are configured to be substantially flush with an underlying layer of the circuit board. 
     Some embodiments also include a vent configured to release gas from the test well, wherein the vent is covered by a liquid impermeable, gas permeable filter. 
     In some embodiments, the excitation electrode comprises a circular electrode disposed within the center of the well and wherein the sensing electrode comprises an annular electrode positioned concentrically around the excitation electrode. 
     In some embodiments, the annular electrode is separated from the circular electrode by a gap approximately equal to a radius of the annular electrode. 
     In some embodiments, the annular electrode is separated from the circular electrode by a gap at least twice as large as a radius of the annular electrode. 
     In some embodiments, the excitation electrode comprises a first semicircular electrode and wherein the sensing electrode comprises a second semicircular electrode separated by a gap from the first semicircular electrode, wherein straight portions of the first and second semicircular electrodes face each other across the gap. 
     In some embodiments, the excitation electrode comprises a first linear electrode and wherein the sensing electrode comprises a second linear electrode separated by a gap from the first linear electrode. 
     In some embodiments, the excitation electrode comprises a first square electrode and wherein the sensing electrode comprises a second square electrode separated by a gap from the first linear electrode. 
     In some embodiments, the amplification process comprises contacting the processed sample with a capture probe. In some embodiments, the capture probe is selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, and a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the capture probe comprises a detectable nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the detectable nucleic acid is amplified. 
     In some embodiments, the amplification process comprises isothermal amplification. In some embodiments, the amplification process comprises an isothermal amplification reaction selected from the group consisting of self-sustaining sequence replication reaction (3SR); 90-I; BAD Amp; cross priming amplification (CPA); isothermal exponential amplification reaction (EXPAR); isothermal chimeric primer initiated amplification of nucleic acids (ICAN); isothermal multi displacement amplification (IMDA); ligation-mediated SDA; multi displacement amplification; polymerase spiral reaction (PSR); restriction cascade exponential amplification (RCEA); smart amplification process (SMAP2); single primer isothermal amplification (SPIA); transcription-based amplification system (TAS); transcription meditated amplification (TMA); ligase chain reaction (LCR); and multiple cross displacement amplification (MCDA). In some embodiments, the amplification process comprises loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). 
     In some embodiments, the test well is configured to heat the sample to a temperature greater than 30° C. In some embodiments, the test well is configured to heat the sample to a temperature greater than 37° C. In some embodiments, the test well is configured to heat the sample to a temperature greater than 60° C. In some embodiments, the test well is configured to heat the sample to a temperature in a range from 60° C. to 70° C. 
     In some embodiments, the liquid constituents of the amplification process comprise a component selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, a nucleic acid such as a primer, a buffer, and an enzyme such as a polymerase. 
     In some embodiments, the dried constituents of the amplification process comprise a component selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, a nucleic acid such as a primer, a buffer, and an enzyme such as a polymerase. 
     Some embodiments include a non-transitory computer-readable medium storing instructions that, when executed by a reader device configured to receive an assay cartridge containing a sample comprising a target agent, and a test well, cause the reader device to perform operations comprising: providing an excitation current to an excitation electrode positioned within the test well for at least a portion of a duration of an amplification process occurring within the test well; receiving a signal from a sensing electrode positioned within the test well, the signal representing the excitation current after attenuation by at least the sample undergoing amplification within the test well; decomposing the signal into a resistance component and a reactance component; analyzing the reactance component to determine whether a signal cliff indicative of a positive sample including the target agent occurred during the least the portion of a duration of the amplification process; and in response to determining that the signal cliff occurred, outputting a positive test result or, in response to determining that the signal cliff did not occur, outputting a negative test result. 
     In some embodiments, the operations further comprising causing a heater to heat the assay cartridge to a predetermined temperature for performing the amplification process. 
     In some embodiments, the operations further comprising transmitting the positive test result or the negative test result over a network. 
     In some embodiments, the operations for the decomposing further comprising: sampling the signal faster than its Nyquist frequency, the signal representing an impedance of the sample; decomposing the signal into an in-phase component and an out-of-phase component; and calculating the resistance component based on the in-phase component and calculate the reactance component based on the out-of-phase component. 
     In some embodiments, the operations for the analyzing the reactance component further comprising accessing predetermined expected characteristics of the signal cliff from a memory. 
     In some embodiments, the predetermined expected characteristics of the signal cliff stored in the memory include a window of time during the duration of the amplification process at which the signal cliff is predicted to occur. 
     In some embodiments, the predetermined expected characteristics of the signal cliff stored in the memory include a threshold change in a value of the reactance component. 
     In some embodiments, the predetermined expected characteristics of the signal cliff stored in the memory include a threshold slope of a curve of the reactance component, the curve of the reactance component representing values of the reactance component sampled throughout the least a portion of the duration of the amplification process. 
     In some embodiments, the operations further comprising activating a pneumatic system to apply pressure to a fluid path of the assay cartridge to cause the sample to mix with constituents of the amplification process provided in the assay cartridge and to flow into the test well. 
     In some embodiments, the operations further comprising activating a motor to push an actuator into a blister pack of the assay cartridge to cause liquid constituents of the amplification process to be released into the fluid path. 
     In some embodiments, the amplification process comprises contacting the processed sample with a capture probe. In some embodiments, the capture probe is selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, and a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the capture probe comprises a detectable nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the detectable nucleic acid is amplified. 
     In some embodiments, the amplification process comprises isothermal amplification. In some embodiments, the amplification process comprises an isothermal amplification reaction selected from the group consisting of self-sustaining sequence replication reaction (3SR); 90-I; BAD Amp; cross priming amplification (CPA); isothermal exponential amplification reaction (EXPAR); isothermal chimeric primer initiated amplification of nucleic acids (ICAN); isothermal multi displacement amplification (IMDA); ligation-mediated SDA; multi displacement amplification; polymerase spiral reaction (PSR); restriction cascade exponential amplification (RCEA); smart amplification process (SMAP2); single primer isothermal amplification (SPIA); transcription-based amplification system (TAS); transcription meditated amplification (TMA); ligase chain reaction (LCR); and multiple cross displacement amplification (MCDA). In some embodiments, the amplification process comprises loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). 
     In some embodiments, the predetermined temperature for performing the amplification process is greater than 30° C. In some embodiments, the predetermined temperature for performing the amplification process is greater than 37° C. In some embodiments, the predetermined temperature for performing the amplification process is greater than 60° C. In some embodiments, the predetermined temperature for performing the amplification process is in a range from 60° C. to 70° C. 
     In some embodiments, the liquid constituents of the amplification process comprise a component selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, a nucleic acid such as a primer, a buffer, and an enzyme such as a polymerase. 
     In some embodiments, the amplification process further comprises dried constituents selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, a nucleic acid such as a primer, a buffer, and an enzyme such as a polymerase. 
     Some embodiments include a method of detecting a target agent, the method comprising: providing a cartridge comprising a test well including an excitation electrode and a sensor electrode; introducing a sample comprising the target agent into the cartridge; inserting the cartridge into a reader device; performing an amplification of the target agent comprised in the sample within the test well; applying an excitation signal from the reader device to the excitation electrode; sensing a signal from the test well using the excitation electrode, the signal representing an impedance of the sample undergoing the amplification; transmitting the signal to the reader device; and detecting the target agent based on the reader device analyzing a reactance portion of the impedance. 
     Some embodiments also include applying the sample at a sample introduction area of the cartridge; rupturing a sealed chamber within the cartridge to release liquid constituents of the amplification process into a fluid path of the cartridge; and causing the liquid constituents and the sample to flow along the fluid path to the test well, thereby mixing the liquid constituents and the sample into a test fluid. 
     Some embodiments also include hydrating dried components of the amplification process provided within the test well with test fluid. 
     Some embodiments also include pushing gas trapped in the test fluid out through a vent in fluid communication with the test well. 
     Some embodiments also include analyzing the reactance portion of the signal to identify a signal cliff indicative of a positive test result. 
     Some embodiments also include identifying the signal cliff based on a portion of a curve generated based on the reactance portion that has one or both of greater than a threshold change in value and a temporal location within predetermined window of time of the amplification process. 
     In some embodiments, the amplification process comprises contacting the processed sample with a capture probe. In some embodiments, the capture probe is selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, and a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the capture probe comprises a detectable nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the detectable nucleic acid is amplified. 
     In some embodiments, the amplification comprises isothermal amplification. In some embodiments, the amplification comprises an isothermal amplification reaction selected from the group consisting of self-sustaining sequence replication reaction (3SR); 90-I; BAD Amp; cross priming amplification (CPA); isothermal exponential amplification reaction (EXPAR); isothermal chimeric primer initiated amplification of nucleic acids (ICAN); isothermal multi displacement amplification (IMDA); ligation-mediated SDA; multi displacement amplification; polymerase spiral reaction (PSR); restriction cascade exponential amplification (RCEA); smart amplification process (SMAP2); single primer isothermal amplification (SPIA); transcription-based amplification system (TAS); transcription meditated amplification (TMA); ligase chain reaction (LCR); and multiple cross displacement amplification (MCDA). In some embodiments, the amplification comprises loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). 
     In some embodiments, performing an amplification of the target agent comprises heating the sample to a temperature great than 30° C. In some embodiments, performing an amplification of the target agent comprises heating the sample to a temperature great than 37° C. In some embodiments, performing an amplification of the target agent comprises heating the sample to a temperature great than 60° C. In some embodiments, performing an amplification of the target agent comprises heating the sample to a temperature in a range from 60° C. to 70° C. 
     In some embodiments, the liquid constituents of the amplification process comprise a component selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, a nucleic acid such as a primer, a buffer, and an enzyme such as a polymerase. 
     In some embodiments, the dried constituents of the amplification process comprise a component selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, a nucleic acid such as a primer, a buffer, and an enzyme such as a polymerase. 
     Some embodiments include a method of detecting a target agent, the method comprising: providing a device comprising an excitation electrode and a sensor electrode; introducing a sample comprising the target agent into the device; processing the sample within the device; and detecting the target by measuring an electrical property of the processed sample. 
     In some embodiments, the electrical property of selected from the group consisting of complex admittance, impedance, conductivity, resistivity, resistance, and a dielectric constant. 
     In some embodiments, the electrical property is complex admittance. 
     In some embodiments, detecting comprises applying an excitation signal to the excitation electrode. 
     In some embodiments, the excitation signal comprises an alternating current. 
     In some embodiments, the excitation signal comprises a direct current. 
     In some embodiments, the excitation signal comprises a sweeping voltage and frequency. 
     In some embodiments, detecting comprises measuring an induced current at the sensor electrode. 
     In some embodiments, the electrical property is measured over a period of time. 
     In some embodiments, at least one electrode is passivated. 
     In some embodiments, the electrode is passivated with a dielectric material. 
     In some embodiments, the electrode is passivated with titanium oxide. 
     In some embodiments, detecting comprises contacting the processed sample with a capture probe. In some embodiments, the capture probe comprises a magnetic bead. 
     In some embodiments, the capture probe is selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, and a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the capture probe comprises a detectable nucleic acid. In some embodiments, detecting comprises amplifying the detectable nucleic acid. 
     In some embodiments, the amplification comprises isothermal amplification. In some embodiments, the amplification comprises loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). In some embodiments, the processed sample comprises a low ionic solution. 
     In some embodiments, the processed sample lacks ammonium sulfate. 
     In some embodiments, detecting comprises contacting the sample with an agent to enhance changes in the conductivity of a solution comprising the sample. In some embodiments, the agent binds to inorganic pyrophosphate. In some embodiments, the agent is selected from the group consisting of Cd2+-cyclen-coumarin; Zn2+ complex with a bis(2-pyridylmethyl)amine (DPA) unit; DPA-2Zn2+-phenoxide; acridine-DPA-Zn2+; DPA-Zn2+-pyrene; and an azacrown-Cu2+ complex. In some embodiments, the agent comprises 2-amino-6-mercapto-7-methylpurine ribonucleoside. 
     Some embodiments include a method of detecting a target agent using a frequency dependent capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection device, the method comprising: introducing a sample comprising the target agent into the device; processing the sample within the device; and detecting the target by analyzing the frequency dependent capacitively coupled contactless conductivity of the sample. 
     In some embodiments, processing comprises a step selected from the group consisting of enriching the sample for the target agent, removing non-target agent material from the sample, lysing cells, precipitating proteins, and adding a preservative agent. 
     In some embodiments, detecting comprises contacting the processed sample with a capture probe. In some embodiments, the capture probe is selected from the group consisting of an antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a protein receptor, and a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the capture probe comprises a detectable nucleic acid. In some embodiments, detecting comprises amplifying the detectable nucleic acid. 
     In some embodiments, the amplification comprises isothermal amplification. In some embodiments, the amplification comprises an isothermal amplification reaction selected from the group consisting of self-sustaining sequence replication reaction (3SR); 90-I; BAD Amp; cross priming amplification (CPA); isothermal exponential amplification reaction (EXPAR); isothermal chimeric primer initiated amplification of nucleic acids (ICAN); isothermal multi displacement amplification (IMDA); ligation-mediated SDA; multi displacement amplification; polymerase spiral reaction (PSR); restriction cascade exponential amplification (RCEA); smart amplification process (SMAP2); single primer isothermal amplification (SPIA); transcription-based amplification system (TAS); transcription meditated amplification (TMA); ligase chain reaction (LCR); and multiple cross displacement amplification (MCDA). In some embodiments, the amplification comprises loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). 
     In some embodiments, detecting comprises contacting the sample with an agent to enhance changes in the conductivity of a solution comprising the sample. In some embodiments, the agent binds to inorganic pyrophosphate. In some embodiments, the agent is selected from the group consisting of Cd2+-cyclen-coumarin; Zn2+ complex with a bis(2-pyridylmethyl)amine (DPA) unit; DPA-2Zn2+-phenoxide; acridine-DPA-Zn2+; DPA-Zn2+-pyrene; and an azacrown-Cu2+ complex. In some embodiments, the agent comprises 2-amino-6-mercapto-7-methylpurine ribonucleoside. 
     In some embodiments, the detecting utilizes an alternating current. 
     In some embodiments, the detecting utilizes a high-frequency alternating current. 
     In some embodiments, the detecting utilizes a direct current. 
     Some embodiments include a device for detecting a target agent in a sample comprising: a chamber capable of containing a liquid sample; a channel having at least one side wall, the channel in fluid communication with the chamber and including one or more reagents for nucleic acid amplification; a heater capable of heating the channel; a first electrode in contact with the side wall; a second electrode in contact with the side wall and spaced apart from the first electrode along the channel; and circuitry electrically connected to the first and second electrodes, the circuitry capable of applying a current to the first electrode and detecting a current signal received by the second electrode that is indicative of the target agent. 
     In some embodiments, the current is a direct current. 
     In some embodiments, the current is an alternating current. 
     In some embodiments, the heater is capable of heating a liquid sample to at least 30° C. In some embodiments, the heater is capable of heating a liquid sample to at least 37° C. In some embodiments, the heater is capable of heating a liquid sample to at least 60° C. In some embodiments, the heater is capable of heating a liquid sample in a range from 60° C. to 70° C. 
     In some embodiments, the channel is formed in a dielectric substrate and the heater is disposed adjacent to the channel. 
     In some embodiments, the device is configured to be electronically and mechanically coupled to a companion device. 
     In some embodiments, the companion device is a consumer product comprising a processor, memory, a graphical user display. 
     In some embodiments, the companion device is selected from the group consisting of a smart phone, a tablet, a laptop, and a smart watch. 
     In some embodiments, the one or more reagents for nucleic acid amplification comprise a primer, and a polymerase. 
     In some embodiments, the one or more reagents for nucleic acid amplification comprise an agent to enhance changes in the conductivity of a solution comprising the sample. In some embodiments, the agent binds to inorganic pyrophosphate. In some embodiments, the agent is selected from the group consisting of Cd2+-cyclen-coumarin; Zn2+ complex with a bis(2-pyridylmethyl)amine (DPA) unit; DPA-2Zn2+-phenoxide; acridine-DPA-Zn2+; DPA-Zn2+-pyrene; and an azacrown-Cu2+ complex. In some embodiments, the agent comprises 2-amino-6-mercapto-7-methylpurine ribonucleoside. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which the target agent is selected from the group consisting of a viral nucleic acid, a viral capsid protein, a viral structural protein, a viral glycoprotein, a viral membrane fusion protein, a viral protease, and a viral polymerase 
     In some embodiments, a virus comprises the target agent. 
     In some embodiments, the virus is selected from the group consisting of a double-stranded DNA virus, a single-stranded DNA virus, a double-stranded RNA virus, a single-stranded (+) RNA virus, a single-stranded (−) RNA virus, a single-stranded retro-transcribing RNA virus, and a double-stranded retro-transcribing DNA virus. 
     In some embodiments, the virus is selected from the group consisting of Adeno-associated virus, Aichi virus, Australian bat lyssavirus, BK polyomavirus, Banna virus, Barmah forest virus, Bunyamwera virus, Bunyavirus La Crosse, Bunyavirus snowshoe hare, Cercopithecine herpesvirus, Chandipura virus, Chikungunya virus, Cosavirus A, Cowpox virus, Coxsackievirus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Dengue virus, Dhori virus, Dugbe virus, Duvenhage virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Ebolavirus, Echovirus, Encephalomyocarditis virus, Epstein-Barr virus, European bat lyssavirus, GB virus C/Hepatitis G virus, Hantaan virus, Hendra virus, Hepatitis A virus, Hepatitis B virus, Hepatitis C virus, Hepatitis E virus, Hepatitis delta virus, Horsepox virus, Human adenovirus, Human astrovirus, Human coronavirus, Human cytomegalovirus, Human enterovirus 68, 70, Human herpesvirus 1, Human herpesvirus 2, Human herpesvirus 6, Human herpesvirus 7, Human herpesvirus 8, Human immunodeficiency virus, Human papillomavirus 1, Human papillomavirus 2, Human papillomavirus 16,18, Human parainfluenza, Human parvovirus B19, Human respiratory syncytial virus, Human rhinovirus, Human SARS coronavirus, Human spumaretrovirus, Human T-lymphotropic virus, Human torovirus, Influenza A virus, Influenza B virus, Influenza C virus, Isfahan virus, JC polyomavirus, Japanese encephalitis virus, Junin arenavirus, KI Polyomavirus, Kunjin virus, Lagos bat virus, Lake Victoria marburgvirus, Langat virus, Lassa virus, Lordsdale virus, Louping ill virus, Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, Machupo virus, Mayaro virus, MERS coronavirus, Measles virus, Mengo encephalomyocarditis virus, Merkel cell polyomavirus, Mokola virus, Molluscum contagiosum virus, Monkeypox virus, Mumps virus, Murray valley encephalitis virus, New York virus, Nipah virus, Norwalk virus, O&#39;nyong-nyong virus, Orf virus, Oropouche virus, Pichinde virus, Poliovirus, Punta toro phlebovirus, Puumala virus, Rabies virus, Rift valley fever virus, Rosavirus A, Ross river virus, Rotavirus A, Rotavirus B, Rotavirus C, Rubella virus, Sagiyama virus, Salivirus A, Sandfly fever sicilian virus, Sapporo virus, Semliki forest virus, Seoul virus, Simian foamy virus, Simian virus 5, Sindbis virus, Southampton virus, St. louis encephalitis virus, Tick-borne powassan virus, Torque teno virus, Toscana virus, Uukuniemi virus, Vaccinia virus, Varicella-zoster virus, Variola virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Vesicular stomatitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, WU polyomavirus, West Nile virus, Yaba monkey tumor virus, Yaba-like disease virus, Yellow fever virus, and Zika virus. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which the target agent is selected from the group consisting of a bacterial nucleic acid, a bacterial protein, and bacterial toxin. 
     In some embodiments, a bacterium comprises the target agent. 
     In some embodiments, the bacterium is selected from the group consisting of a gram-positive bacterium or a gram-negative bacterium. 
     In some embodiments, the bacterium is selected from the group consisting of  Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas acidovorans, Pseudomonas alcaligenes, Pseudomonas putida, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Burkholderia cepacia, Aeromonas hydrophilia, Escherichia coli, Citrobacter freundii, Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella typhi, Salmonella paratyphi, Salmonella enteritidis, Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella flexneri, Shigella sonnei, Enterobacter cloacae, Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxytoca, Serratia marcescens, Francisella tularensis, Morganella morganii, Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, Providencia alcalifaciens, Providencia rettgeri, Providencia stuartii, Acinetobacter baumannii, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Acinetobacter haemolyticus, Yersinia enterocolitica, Yersinia pestis, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Yersinia intermedia, Bordetella pertussis, Bordetella parapertussis, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Haemophilus influenzae, Haemophilus parainfluenzae, Haemophilus haemolyticus, Haemophilus parahaemolyticus, Haemophilus ducreyi, Pasteurella multocida, Pasteurella haemolytica, Branhamella catarrhalis, Helicobacter pylori, Campylobacter fetus, Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli, Borrelia burgdorferi, Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Legionella pneumophila, Listeria monocytogenes, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitidis , Kingella,  Moraxella, Gardnerella vaginalis, Bacteroides fragilis, Bacteroides distasonis, Bacteroides  3452A homology group,  Bacteroides vulgatus, Bacteroides ovalus, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, Bacteroides uniformis, Bacteroides eggerthii, Bacteroides splanchnicus, Clostridium difficile, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium intracellulare, Mycobacterium leprae, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Corynebacterium ulcerans, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Staphylococcus intermedius, Staphylococcus hyicus  subsp.  hyicus, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus hominis , and  Staphylococcus  saccharolyticus. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which the target agent is selected from the group consisting of a protein, a polypeptide, a nucleic acid, a small molecule, and a pharmaceutical compound. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which a parasite comprises the target agent. 
     In some embodiments, the parasite is selected from the group consisting of an endoparasite and an ectoparasite. 
     In some embodiments, the parasite is selected from the group consisting of protozoan, helminth, fluke and roundworm. 
     In some embodiments, the endoparasite is selected from the group consisting of  Acanthamoeba  spp.  Babesia  spp.,  B. divergens, B. bigemina, B. equi, B. microfti, B. duncani, Balamuthia mandrillaris, Balantidium coli, Blastocystis  spp.,  Cryptosporidium  spp.,  Cyclospora cayetanensis, Dientamoeba fragilis, Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Isospora belli, Leishmania  spp.,  Naegleria fowleri, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale curtisi, Plasmodium ovale wallikeri, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium knowlesi, Rhinosporidium seeberi, Sarcocystis bovihominis, Sarcocystis suihominis, Toxoplasma gondii, Trichomonas vaginalis, Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, Bertiella mucronata, Bertiella studeri , Cestoda,  Taenia multiceps, Diphyllobothrium latum, Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis, E. vogeli, E. oligarthrus, Hymenolepis nana, Hymenolepis diminuta, Spirometra erinaceieuropaei, Taenia saginata, Taenia solium, Clonorchis sinensis; Clonorchis viverrini, Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Echinostoma echinatum, Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola gigantica, Fasciolopsis buski, Gnathostoma spinigerum, Gnathostoma hispidum, Metagonimus yokogawai, Metorchis conjunctus, Opisthorchis viverrini, Opisthorchis felineus, Clonorchis sinensis, Paragonimus westermani, Paragonimus africanus, Paragonimus caliensis, Paragonimus kellicotti, Paragonimus skrjabini; Paragonimus uterobilateralis, Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma japonicum, Schistosoma mansoni  and  Schistosoma intercalatum, Schistosoma mekongi, Schistosoma  sp,  Trichobilharzia regenti , Schistosomatidae,  Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus, Angiostrongylus costaricensis, Anisakis, Ascaris  sp.  Ascaris lumbricoides, Baylisascaris procyonis, Brugia malayi, Brugia timori, Dioctophyme renale, Dracunculus medinensis, Enterobius vermicularis, Enterobius gregorii, Halicephalobus gingivalis, Loa boa filaria, Mansonella streptocerca, Onchocerca volvulus, Strongyloides stercoralis, Thelazia californiensis, Thelazia callipaeda, Toxocara canis, Toxocara cati, Trichinella spiralis, Trichinella britovi, Trichinella nelsoni, Trichinella nativa, Trichuris trichiura, Trichuris vulpis, Wuchereria bancrofti , Archiacanthocephala,  Moniliformis moniliformis, Linguatula serrata , Oestroidea, Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae,  Cochliomyia hominivorax  (family Calliphoridae),  Tunga penetrans , Cimicidae:  Cimex lectularius , and  Dermatobia hominis.    
     In some embodiments, the parasite is an ectoparasite selected from the group consisting of  Pediculus humanus, Pediculus humanus  corporis,  Pthirus pubis, Demodex folliculorum, Demodex brevis, Demodex canis, Sarcoptes scabiei , Trombiculidae,  Pulex irritans , Ixodidae and Argasidae. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which a microRNA comprises the target agent. 
     In some embodiments, the microRNA is mammalian. In some embodiments, the microRNA is human. 
     In some embodiments, the microRNA is selected from the group consisting of hsa-miR-1, hsa-miR-1-2, hsa-miR-100, hsa-miR-100-1, hsa-miR-100-2, hsa-miR-101, hsa-miR-101-1, hsa-miR-101a, hsa-miR-101b-2, hsa-miR-102, hsa-miR-103, hsa-miR-103-1, hsa-miR-103-2, hsa-miR-104, hsa-miR-105, hsa-miR-106a, hsa-miR-106a-1, hsa-miR-106b, hsa-miR-106b-1, hsa-miR-107, hsa-miR-10a, hsa-miR-10b, hsa-miR-122, hsa-miR-122a, hsa-miR-123, hsa-miR-124a, hsa-miR-124a-1, hsa-miR-124a-2, hsa-miR-124a-3, hsa-miR-125a, hsa-miR-125a-5p, hsa-miR-125b, hsa-miR-125b-1, hsa-miR-125b-2, hsa-miR-126, hsa-miR-126-5p, hsa-miR-127, hsa-miR-128a, hsa-miR-128b, hsa-miR-129, hsa-miR-129-1, hsa-miR-129-2, hsa-miR-130, hsa-miR-130a, hsa-miR-130a-1, hsa-miR-130b, hsa-miR-130b-1, hsa-miR-132, hsa-miR-133a, hsa-miR-133b, hsa-miR-134, hsa-miR-135a, hsa-miR-135b, hsa-miR-136, hsa-miR-137, hsa-miR-138, hsa-miR-138-1, hsa-miR-138-2, hsa-miR-139, hsa-miR-139-5p, hsa-miR-140, hsa-miR-140-3p, hsa-miR-141, hsa-miR-142-3p, hsa-miR-142-5p, hsa-miR-143, hsa-miR-144, hsa-miR-145, hsa-miR-146a, hsa-miR-146b, hsa-miR-147, hsa-miR-148a, hsa-miR-148b, hsa-miR-149, hsa-miR-15, hsa-miR-150, hsa-miR-151, hsa-miR-151-5p, hsa-miR-152, hsa-miR-153, hsa-miR-154, hsa-miR-155, hsa-miR-15a, hsa-miR-15a-2, hsa-miR-15b, hsa-miR-16, hsa-miR-16-1, hsa-miR-16-2, hsa-miR-16a, hsa-miR-164, hsa-miR-170, hsa-miR-172a-2, hsa-miR-17, hsa-miR-17-3p, hsa-miR-17-5p, hsa-miR-17-92, hsa-miR-18, hsa-miR-18a, hsa-miR-18b, hsa-miR-181a, hsa-miR-181a-1, hsa-miR-181a-2, hsa-miR-181b, hsa-miR-181b-1, hsa-miR-181b-2, hsa-miR-181c, hsa-miR-181d, hsa-miR-182, hsa-miR-183, hsa-miR-184, hsa-miR-185, hsa-miR-186, hsa-miR-187, hsa-miR-188, hsa-miR-189, hsa-miR-190, hsa-miR-191, hsa-miR-192, hsa-miR-192-1, hsa-miR-192-2, hsa-miR-192-3, hsa-miR-193a, hsa-miR-193b, hsa-miR-194, hsa-miR-195, hsa-miR-196a, hsa-miR-196a-2, hsa-miR-196b, hsa-miR-197, hsa-miR-198, hsa-miR-199a, hsa-miR-199a-1, hsa-miR-199a-1-5p, hsa-miR-199a-2, hsa-miR-199a-2-5p, hsa-miR-199a-3p, hsa-miR-199b, hsa-miR-199b-5p, hsa-miR-19a, hsa-miR-19b, hsa-miR-19b-1, hsa-miR-19b-2, hsa-miR-200a, hsa-miR-200b, hsa-miR-200c, hsa-miR-202, hsa-miR-203, hsa-miR-204, hsa-miR-205, hsa-miR-206, hsa-miR-207, hsa-miR-208, hsa-miR-208a, hsa-miR-20a, hsa-miR-20b, hsa-miR-21, hsa-miR-22, hsa-miR-210, hsa-miR-211, hsa-miR-212, hsa-miR-213, hsa-miR-214, hsa-miR-215, hsa-miR-216, hsa-miR-217, hsa-miR-218, hsa-miR-218-2, hsa-miR-219, hsa-miR-219-1, hsa-miR-22, hsa-miR-220, hsa-miR-221, hsa-miR-222, hsa-miR-223, hsa-miR-224, hsa-miR-23a, hsa-miR-23b, hsa-miR-24, hsa-miR-24-1, hsa-miR-24-2, hsa-miR-25, hsa-miR-26a, hsa-miR-26a-1, hsa-miR-26a-2, hsa-miR-26b, hsa-miR-27a, hsa-miR-27b, hsa-miR-28, hsa-miR-296, hsa-miR-298, hsa-miR-299-3p, hsa-miR-299-5p, hsa-miR-29a, hsa-miR-29a-2, hsa-miR-29b, hsa-miR-29b-1, hsa-miR-29b-2, hsa-miR-29c, hsa-miR-301, hsa-miR-302, hsa-miR-302a, hsa-miR-302b, hsa-miR-302c, hsa-miR-302c, hsa-miR-302d, hsa-miR-30a, hsa-miR-30a-3p, hsa-miR-30a-5p, hsa-miR-30b, hsa-miR-30c, hsa-miR-30c-1, hsa-miR-30d, hsa-miR-30e, hsa-miR-30e, hsa-miR-30e-5p, hsa-miR-31, hsa-miR-31a, hsa-miR-32, hsa-miR-32, hsa-miR-320, hsa-miR-320-2, hsa-miR-320a, hsa-miR-322, hsa-miR-323, hsa-miR-324-3p, hsa-miR-324-5p, hsa-miR-325, hsa-miR-326, hsa-miR-328, hsa-miR-328-1, hsa-miR-33, hsa-miR-330, hsa-miR-331, hsa-miR-335, hsa-miR-337, hsa-miR-337-3p, hsa-miR-338, hsa-miR-338-5p, hsa-miR-339, hsa-miR-339-5p, hsa-miR-34a, hsa-miR-340, hsa-miR-340, hsa-miR-341, hsa-miR-342, hsa-miR-342-3p, hsa-miR-345, hsa-miR-346, hsa-miR-347, hsa-miR-34a, hsa-miR-34b, hsa-miR-34c, hsa-miR-351, hsa-miR-352, hsa-miR-361, hsa-miR-362, hsa-miR-363, hsa-miR-355, hsa-miR-365, hsa-miR-367, hsa-miR-368, hsa-miR-369-5p, hsa-miR-370, hsa-miR-371, hsa-miR-372, hsa-miR-373, hsa-miR-374, hsa-miR-375, hsa-miR-376a, hsa-miR-376b, hsa-miR-377, hsa-miR-378, hsa-miR-378, hsa-miR-379, hsa-miR-381, hsa-miR-382, hsa-miR-383, hsa-miR-409-3p, hsa-miR-419, hsa-miR-422a, hsa-miR-422b, hsa-miR-423, hsa-miR-424, hsa-miR-429, hsa-miR-431, hsa-miR-432, hsa-miR-433, hsa-miR-449a, hsa-miR-451, hsa-miR-452, hsa-miR-451, hsa-miR-452, hsa-miR-452, hsa-miR-483, hsa-miR-483-3p, hsa-miR-484, hsa-miR-485-5p, hsa-miR-485-3p, hsa-miR-486, hsa-miR-487b, hsa-miR-489, hsa-miR-491, hsa-miR-491-5p, hsa-miR-492, hsa-miR-493-3p, hsa-miR-493-5p, hsa-miR-494, hsa-miR-495, hsa-miR-497, hsa-miR-498, hsa-miR-499, hsa-miR-5, hsa-miR-500, hsa-miR-501, hsa-miR-503, hsa-miR-508, hsa-miR-509, hsa-miR-510, hsa-miR-511, hsa-miR-512-5p, hsa-miR-513, hsa-miR-513-1, hsa-miR-513-2, hsa-miR-515-3p, hsa-miR-516-5p, hsa-miR-516-3p, hsa-miR-518b, hsa-miR-519a, hsa-miR-519d, hsa-miR-520a, hsa-miR-520c, hsa-miR-521, hsa-miR-532-5p, hsa-miR-539, hsa-miR-542-3p, hsa-miR-542-5p, hsa-miR-550, hsa-miR-551a, hsa-miR-561, hsa-miR-563, hsa-miR-565, hsa-miR-572, hsa-miR-582, hsa-miR-584, hsa-miR-594, hsa-miR-595, hsa-miR-598, hsa-miR-599, hsa-miR-600, hsa-miR-601, hsa-miR-602, hsa-miR-605, hsa-miR-608, hsa-miR-611, hsa-miR-612, hsa-miR-614, hsa-miR-615, hsa-miR-615-3p, hsa-miR-622, hsa-miR-627, hsa-miR-628, hsa-miR-635, hsa-miR-637, hsa-miR-638, hsa-miR-642, hsa-miR-648, hsa-miR-652, hsa-miR-654, hsa-miR-657, hsa-miR-658, hsa-miR-659, hsa-miR-661, hsa-miR-662, hsa-miR-663, hsa-miR-664, hsa-miR-7, hsa-miR-7-1, hsa-miR-7-2, hsa-miR-7-3, hsa-miR-708, hsa-miR-765, hsa-miR-769-3p, hsa-miR-802, hsa-miR-885-3p, hsa-miR-9, hsa-miR-9-1, hsa-miR-9-3, hsa-miR-9-3p, hsa-miR-92, hsa-miR-92-1, hsa-miR-92-2, hsa-miR-9-2, hsa-miR-92, hsa-miR-92a, hsa-miR-93, hsa-miR-95, hsa-miR-96, hsa-miR-98, hsa-miR-99a, and/or hsa-miR-99b. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which an agricultural analyte comprises the target agent. 
     In some embodiments, the agricultural analyte is indicative of the source of a food product. In some embodiments, the agricultural analyte is indicative of the animal source of a food product. In some embodiments, the agricultural analyte is indicative of the genus of the animal source. In some embodiments, the agricultural analyte is indicative of the plant source of a food product. In some embodiments, the agricultural analyte is indicative of the genus of the plant source. 
     In some embodiments, the agricultural analyte is a pesticide. In some embodiments, the agricultural analyte is a pesticide selected from the group consisting of a herbicide, an insecticide, and a fungicide. In some embodiments, the agricultural analyte is a herbicide selected from the group consisting of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), atrazine, glyphosate, mecoprop, dicamba, paraquat, glufosinate, metam-sodium, dazomet, dithopyr, pendimethalin, EPTC, trifluralin, flazasulfuron, metsulfuron-methyl, diuron, nitrofen, nitrofluorfen, acifluorfen, mesotrione, sulcotrione, and nitisinone. In some embodiments, the agricultural analyte is an insecticide selected from the group consisting of an organochloride, an organophosphates, a carbamate, a pyrethroid, a neonicotinoid, and a ryanoid. In some embodiments, the agricultural analyte is a fungicide selected from the group consisting of carbendazim, diethofencarb, azoxystrobin, metalaxyl, metalaxyl-m, streptomycin, oxytetracycline, chlorothalonil, tebuconazole, zineb, mancozeb, tebuconazole, myclobutanil, triadimefon, fenbuconazole, deoxynivalenol, and mancozeb. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which a biomarker for a disorder comprises the target agent. In some embodiments, the disorder is a cancer. In some embodiments, the cancer is selected from breast cancers, colorectal cancers, gastric cancers, gastrointestinal stromal tumors, leukemias and lymphomas, lung cancers, melanomas, brain cancers, and pancreatic cancers. In some embodiments, the biomarker is selected from include estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, HER-2/neu, EGFR, KRAS, UGT1A1, c-KIT, CD20, CD30, FIP1L1-PDGFRalpha, PDGFR, Philadelphia chromosome (BCR/ABL), PML/RAR-alpha, TPMT, UGT1A1, EML4/ALK, BRAF, and elevated levels of certain amino acids such as leucine, isoleucine, and valine. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which the sample is avian. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which the sample is mammalian. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which the sample is human. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which the sample is selected from the group consisting of blood, serum, plasma, urine, saliva, ascites fluid, spinal fluid, semen, lung lavage, sputum, phlegm, mucous, a liquid medium comprising cells or nucleic acids, a solid medium comprising cells or nucleic acids and tissue. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which the sample is obtained by performing a step selected from a finger stick, a heel stick, a venipuncture, an adult nasal aspirate, a child nasal aspirate, a nasopharyngeal wash, a nasopharyngeal aspirate, a swab, a bulk collection in cup, a tissue biopsy, and a lavage. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which the sample is vegetable. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which the sample is an environmental sample. 
     Some of the foregoing embodiments include a device, a non-transitory computer-readable medium, or a method in which the sample is a soil sample or a water sample. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIGS.  1 A- 1 D  depict an example cartridge for detection of a target. 
         FIG.  2    depicts another example cartridge for detection of a target. 
         FIGS.  3 A and  3 B  depict another example cartridge for detection of a target. 
         FIGS.  4 A- 4 G  depict various examples of electrodes that can be used in a test well of the cartridges of  FIGS.  1 A- 3 B  or in the test well or channel of another suitable target detection cartridge as described herein. 
         FIG.  5 A  depicts a first electrode or excitation electrode and a second electrode or signal electrode that may be spaced apart from one another within a test well of the cartridges of  FIGS.  1 A- 3 B  or in the test well or channel of another suitable target detection cartridge as described herein. 
         FIG.  5 B  depicts an example signal that can be extracted from the signal electrode of  FIG.  5 A . 
         FIG.  5 C  depicts the resistance and reactance components extracted from a signal as shown in  FIG.  5 B  generated based on an example positive test. 
         FIG.  5 D  depicts the resistance and reactance components extracted from signals as shown in  FIG.  5 B  from example tests of positive and negative controls. 
         FIG.  5 E  depicts the resistance and reactance components extracted from a signal as shown in  FIG.  5 B  generated based on another example positive test. 
         FIG.  6    depicts a schematic block diagram of an example reader device that can be used with the cartridges described herein. 
         FIG.  7 A  depicts a flowchart of an example process for operating a reader device during a test as described herein. 
         FIG.  7 B  depicts a flowchart of an example process for analyzing test data to detect a target as described herein. 
         FIG.  8    depicts an amplification immunoassay scheme. 
         FIG.  9    depicts a bead-based amplification immunoassay scheme. 
         FIG.  10    depicts a magnetic bead-based amplification immunoassay scheme. 
         FIG.  11    depicts a first electrode or excitation electrode and a second electrode or signal electrode that may be spaced apart from one another along a channel. 
         FIG.  12    is a graph showing the impedance of a signal is dependent on the excitation frequency and changes after a LAMP reaction occurs in a channel in which the left inequality may define a frequency region. 
         FIG.  13    is a graph showing that in both extremal regions the impedance is capacitor-like, and is out of phase (approaching 90°) with the excitation voltage. 
         FIG.  14    is a graph depicting the measured impedance of a sample chip with respect to excitation frequency. 
         FIG.  15    is a graph depicting a synchronous detector response plotted with respect to non-dimensional conductivity. 
         FIG.  16    is a graph depicting results of a model demonstrating agreement with a detector output for a wide range of conductivities and for a given steps in frequencies. 
         FIG.  17 A  and  FIG.  17 B  depict an embodiment of a detection system that may be used to detect presence or absence of a particular nucleic acid and/or a particular nucleotide in a sample.  FIG.  17 A  is a top view of the system, while  FIG.  17 B  is a cross-sectional side view of the system. 
         FIG.  18    is a process flow chart illustrating an implementation of device for detecting a target. 
         FIG.  19    is a process flow chart illustrating an implementation of a device for detecting a target. 
         FIG.  20    depicts an example fluidics cartridge. 
         FIG.  21    is a plan view of the example fluidic cartridge of  FIG.  20   . 
         FIG.  22    depicts an example configuration for electrodes. 
         FIG.  23    depicts an example channel. 
         FIG.  24    is a graph depicting sensor voltage over time for pre-amplification (− control), and post-amplification (+ control). 
         FIG.  25    is a graph depicting sensor voltage over time for pre-amplification (− control), and post-amplification (+ control) for 0% whole blood. 
         FIG.  26    is a graph depicting sensor voltage over time for pre-amplification (− control), and post-amplification (+ control) for 1% whole blood. 
         FIG.  27    is a graph depicting sensor voltage over time for pre-amplification (− control), and post-amplification (+ control) for 5% whole blood. 
         FIG.  28    is a graph depicting sensor voltage over time for pre-amplification (− control), and post-amplification (+ control) with 0% whole blood for unfiltered sample. 
         FIG.  29    is a graph depicting sensor voltage over time for pre-amplification (− control), and post-amplification (+ control) with 0% whole blood for filtered sample. 
         FIG.  30    depicts a graph of time over target load with error bars showing standard deviation. 
         FIG.  31    depicts a graph of conductivity for various samples from pre-amplification vial (− control), and post-amplification vial (+ control). 
         FIG.  32    depicts a magnetic bead-based amplification immunoassay scheme for the detection of HBsAg. 
         FIG.  33    depicts a graph illustrating detection of HBsAg. 
         FIG.  34    depicts a graph illustrating detection of HBsAg with a low ionic buffer (T10). 
         FIG.  35    depicts a graph illustrating impedance characteristics of a fluidics cartridge. 
         FIG.  36 A  depicts a graph for out of phase signals for LAMP carried on a cartridge at 65° C. 
         FIG.  36 B  depicts a graph for in phase signals for LAMP carried on a cartridge at 65° C. 
         FIG.  36 C  depicts a graph for out of phase signals for LAMP carried on a cartridge at 67° C. 
         FIG.  36 D  depicts a graph for in phase signals for LAMP carried on a cartridge at 67° C. 
         FIG.  36 E  depicts a graph for out of phase signals for LAMP carried on a cartridge at 67° C. 
         FIG.  36 F  depicts a graph for in phase signals for LAMP carried on a cartridge at 67° C. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Aspects of the disclosure herein concern the use of amplification and contactless electrical sensing to detect the presence of a target in a sample. Such a diagnostic platform may replace the complex optical systems and expensive fluorescent labels used for optical detection and the electrodes and electroactive agents used in existing electrochemical and FET techniques with common electronic components. In some aspects, the amplification can be isothermal. The platform described herein is inexpensive, robust, portable, and consumes less power than traditional diagnostic systems. In some aspects, the diagnostic platform is small enough to fit in the palm of a consumer&#39;s hand and capable of performing in the field, for example, a diagnosis in a doctor&#39;s office, in the home, in a location remote from a medical facility. 
     Many commercially available nucleic acid detection platforms utilize traditional PCR, thereby requiring temperature cycling, fluorescent labels and optical detection instrumentation. These factors result in expensive, lab-based instrumentation which employ delicate, vibration sensitive detectors, costly fluorescent markers, and have a large footprint. The equipment requires operation, and frequent calibration, by highly trained personnel. 
     These large, unwieldy platforms make routine use of conventional NAT challenging to use in the clinic, much less in the home. NAT remains a costly and slow strategy closely tied to centralized laboratory facilities. The presently disclosed technology, in contrast, avoids these challenges. 
     A hurdle to point of care (“POC”) testing is the potential inhibition of amplification by interferents often encountered in crude, unprocessed clinical samples such as whole blood or mucus. The mitigation of amplification inhibitors may challenge the direct detection of target nucleic acids from clinically relevant biologic samples. 
     Traditional detection strategies commonly rely on fluorescence detection techniques. Such techniques may be complex, more expensive, and require precision optical systems. The present disclosure however, generally relies on electrical detection systems. Such electrical detection systems may leverage microelectronics that consume relatively low power and can be manufactured at a reduced cost due to high volume manufacturing. Thus, electrical detection of genomic material may transfer the advances of the computer industry to bioassay sensing. 
     Existing electronic methods for monitoring amplification may require the binding of an electrochemically active label or the selective binding of the amplified material to a surface. However, when used in real world clinical applications, these techniques often suffer from slow response times, biofouling of the electrode or binding surfaces resulting in poor signal to noise ratios, and limitations on the lifetime and reliability of the device. While potentially enabling great sensitivity, the use of electrochemical or field effect transistor “FET” detection adds a layer of complexity to the detection. This can result in more expensive and less robust strategies than POC and other consumer applications typically dictate. Accordingly, the need for additional diagnostic devices is manifest. 
     The platform disclosed herein relies on measurement of the change in electrical conductivity that occurs during nucleic acid amplification. In sum, during biochemical synthesis of DNA from nucleotide triphosphates, the number and the mobility of electrically charged molecules are altered. This, in turn, results in a change in the solution conductivity as amplification progresses. This change in solution electrical conductivity may be sensed using frequency-dependent capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (“fC 4 D”). 
     In some implementations, fC 4 D uses a pair of electrodes in close proximity to, but not in contact with, a fluid disposed in an amplification chamber to measure the solution&#39;s electrical properties. The ability to measure the properties of the solution in this way, without direct contact, avoids the challenges of surface fouling common to other electrical measurement methods. 
     In some implementations, utilizing fC 4 D, a high-frequency alternating current (“AC”) signal is applied to the excitation electrode. This signal is capacitively coupled through the solution where it is detected at the signal electrode. By comparing the excitation signal with the signal at the signal electrode, the solution&#39;s conductivity can be determined. 
     Informed by high-resolution finite element models and empirical studies, specific tolerances of fC 4 D based technology may achieve the optimal detection sensitivity and dynamic sensing range for particular implementations of the platform. Such calculated and empirically determined parameters of microfluidic dimensions, capacitive coupling characteristics, and the applied frequency can enable the determination of the effective parameters for detecting solution conductivity changes. In some embodiments, the parameters corresponding to optimal detection can be interdependent variables. According to the following equation, the measured impedance is a function of the solution resistance, capacitance and the applied frequency: 
         Z=R =(1/ pi*f*C )* j    
     As the thickness of the electrode passivation layer increases, a parasitic capacitance due to this layer consequently increases. The optimal AC frequency with which to measure solution conductivity by fC 4 D therefore can be chosen with respect to the capacitance of the passivation layer. 
     Overview of Example Cartridges, Readers, and Signal Processing 
     In some aspects, a system for detecting a target in a sample includes a removable fluidics cartridge that is couplable to a companion reader device. A user can apply a sample to the cartridge and then insert it into the reader device. The reader device is configured for performing the testing procedures using the cartridge and analyzing the test data to determine the presence, absence, or quantity of a target in the sample. For example, the cartridge can be provided with the desired agents, proteins, or other chemical matter for an amplification process by which a target initially present in the sample is amplified. Specifically, some cartridges can be provided with the desired chemical matter for nucleic acid testing, wherein genomic material in the sample is exponentially copied using a molecular amplification process, as described herein. The cartridge can also include a test well for containing the amplification process, where a test well refers to a well, chamber, channel, or other geometry configured for containing (or substantially containing) test fluid and constituents of the amplification process. The reader device may maintain a desired temperature or other test environment parameters for the cartridge to facilitate the amplification process, and can electronically monitor a test well of the cartridge throughout some or all of the amplification process. The reader device can thus gather signal data representing the impedance of the test well over time during the amplification process, and can analyze the impedance as described herein to ascertain the presence, absence, or quantity of the target in the sample. As an example, the amplification process can range from five minutes to sixty minutes, with some examples ranging from ten minutes to thirty minutes. Preferably, in some embodiments, the amplification products are detected while being suspended in the fluid within the wells such that the amplification products are not attached or sequestered to the wells or fixed or bound to probes, which are bound to the wells. In other embodiments, the amplification products are detected as they are attached or sequestered to the wells e.g., fixed or bound to probes, which are bound to the wells. 
     Such systems can beneficially provide target detection performable in a clinical setting or even the home of a user, rather than requiring the sample to be sent to a laboratory for amplification and analysis. In the clinical setting, this can avoid the delays of conventional nucleic acid testing thereby enabling clinicians to determine diagnoses within the typical timeframe of a patient&#39;s office visit. As such, the disclosed systems enable clinicians to develop treatment plans for patients during their initial office visit, rather than requiring the clinician to wait for hours or even days to receive test results back from a laboratory. For example, when a patient visits a clinic a nurse or other healthcare practitioner can collect a sample from the patient and begin testing using the described system. The system can provide the test result by the time the patient consults with their doctor or clinician to determine a treatment plan. Particularly when used to diagnose pathologies that progress quickly, the disclosed systems can avoid the delays associated with laboratory testing that can negatively impact the treatment and outcome of the patient. 
     As another benefit, the disclosed systems can be used outside of the clinical setting (e.g., in the field, in rural settings without easy access to an established healthcare clinic) to detect health conditions such as contagious diseases (e.g., ebola), thus enabling the appropriate personnel to take immediate action to prevent or mitigate the spread of a contagious disease. Similarly, the disclosed systems can be used in the field or at the site of a suspected hazardous contaminant (e.g., anthrax) to quickly determine whether a sample contains the hazardous contaminant, thus enabling the appropriate personnel to take immediate action to prevent or mitigate human exposure to the contaminant. Additionally, the disclosed systems can be used to detect contaminants in the blood or plasma supply or in the food industry. It will be appreciated that the disclosed systems can provide similar benefits in other scenarios in which real-time detection of a target enables more effective action than delayed detection through sending a sample to an off-site laboratory. 
     Another benefit of such systems is their use of low-cost, disposable single use cartridges together with a reusable reader device that can be used many times with different cartridges and/or for tests with different targets. 
       FIGS.  1 A- 1 D  depict an example cartridge  100  configured for detection of a target. As described herein, the target may be a viral target, bacterial target, antigen target, parasite target, microRNA target, or agricultural analyte. Some embodiments of the cartridge  100  can be configured for testing for a single target, while some embodiments of the cartridge  100  can be configured for testing for multiple targets. 
       FIG.  1 A  depicts the cartridge  100  with cover  105  provided over its base  125 . In use, the cover  105  can operate to seal a provided sample within the cartridge  100 , thereby preventing exposure of test operators to the sample and preventing any liquid from escaping into the electronics of an associated reader device. The cover  105  may be permanently affixed to the base  125  or may be removable in certain embodiments. The cover  105  can be formed from suitable materials such as plastic, and may be opaque as depicted or in other examples may be translucent or transparent. 
     The cover  105  includes an aperture  115  positioned over a sample introduction area  120  of the base  125 . Over, as used here, refers to the aperture  115  being above the sample introduction area  120  when the cartridge  100  is viewed from a top-down perspective orthogonally to the planar surface of the cover  105  including the aperture  115 . The cover  105  also includes a cap  110  configured to fluidically seal the aperture  115  before and after provision of a sample through the aperture  115 . The cap  110  includes a cylindrical protrusion  111  that plugs the aperture  115  when the cap  110  is sealed with the aperture  115 , a release tab  113  configured to assist a user in pulling the cap  110  out of the aperture  115  when the cap  110  is sealed with the aperture  115 , and a hinge  112  configured to enable the cap  110  to be moved away from the aperture  115  and out of a sample provision path while keeping the cap  110  secured to the cover  105 . It will be appreciated that other variations of the shape of the cap  110  can similarly be used to achieve the sealing of aperture  115 , and in some embodiments the hinge  112  and/or release tab  113  can be modified or omitted. In the illustrated embodiment, the cover  105  and cap  110  are formed integrally as a single piece of material, however in other embodiments the cap  110  can be a separate structure from the cover  105 . 
     In use, a user opens the cap  110  and applies a sample potentially containing the target(s) to the sample introduction area  120  of the base  125  through the aperture  115  in the cover. For example, a user can prick a finger and apply a whole blood sample to the sample introduction area  120 , for example through a capillary. The cartridge  100  can be configured to accept one or more of liquid, semi-solid, and solid samples. After applying the sample, the user can close the cap  110  to seal the aperture  115 . Beneficially, sealing the entrance to the fluid path of the base  125  allows the sample (and other liquids) to be moved through the fluid path of the base  125  to a test well. For example, the user can insert the sealed cartridge  100  containing the sample into a reader device as described herein, and the reader device can activate an optional pneumatic interface for moving the sample to the test well. The fluid path and test well are described in more detail with respect to  FIGS.  1 B and  1 C , and an example reader device is described with respect to  FIG.  6   . 
     The cover  105  also includes a recess  130  for exposing an electrode interface  135  of the base  125 , described in more detail below. In some embodiments, the cover  105  can include a movable flap or removable sheath for protecting the electrode interface  135  prior to use. 
       FIG.  1 B  depicts the cartridge  100  of  FIG.  1 A  with the cover removed to expose the features of the base  125 . The base  125  can be formed from a fluid impermeable material, for example injection molded or milled acrylic or plastic. The base  125  includes sample introduction area  120 , a blister pack  140 , pneumatic interface  160 , test region  170 A including test wells  175 , and a fluid path  150  configured for mixing the applied sample with the liquids contained in the blister pack  140  and for carrying this mixed liquid to the test wells  175 . It will be appreciated that the particular geometric configurations or relative arrangements of these features may be varied in other embodiments. 
     Blister pack  140  includes a film, for example a thermoformed plastic, forming a sealed chamber containing liquids for mixing with the applied sample. These liquids can include amplification reagents, buffer solutions, water, or other desired liquid constituents for the testing process. The particular selection and chemistry of these liquids can be tailored to a particular target or targets for which the cartridge  100  is designed to test. Some embodiments of the blister pack  140  can additionally include non-liquid compounds dissolved or suspended in the enclosed liquid. The blister pack  140  can be secured to the base  125 , for example within a fluid-tight chamber having a pneumatic fluid path  161  leading into the chamber and aperture  141  leading out of the chamber into the fluid path  150 . For example, a ring of pressure-sensitive adhesive disposed along the outer edge of one or both surfaces of the blister pack  140  can be used to secure the blister pack  140  in place. 
     In use, a user or reader device can mechanically actuate a sharp (e.g., a needle or other body having a sharp point) to puncture the blister pack  140  and release its liquid contents through aperture  141  and into the first segment  151  of the fluid path  150 . The sharp may be incorporated into the cartridge  100 , for example located in a chamber containing the blister pack  140  with the chamber in fluidic communication with the first segment  151  of the fluid path. As used herein, fluidic communication refers to the capability to transfer fluids (e.g., liquid gas gas). In another embodiment, the user or reader device can press on a lower surface of the blister pack  140  (though not illustrated, the lower surface opposes the surface visible in  FIG.  1 B ) to push it upward into the sharp and puncture the blister pack  140 . In other embodiments, the sharp can be omitted, and the blister pack  140  can be compressed by the user or reader device until the pressure of its liquid contents causes the blister pack  140  to rupture. Though described as a rupturable blister pack, other embodiments can implement mechanically openable chambers configured to similarly release the enclosed liquids into the first segment  151  of the fluid path  150 . 
     As described above, after application of the sample the user seals the aperture  115  of the cover, thereby sealing the fluid path  150  within the cartridge  100 . The pneumatic interface  160  is configured to provide a fluid such as air into the sealed fluid path  150  through the blister pack chamber in order to promote flow of fluid in the desired direction along the fluid path  150  to the test wells  175 . Pneumatic interface  160  can be an aperture leading into and in fluidic communication with a pneumatic fluid path  161  that in turn leads into and is in fluidic communication with the blister pack  140  or the chamber containing the blister pack  140 . In some embodiments, the pneumatic interface  160  can be a compressible one-way valve that forces ambient air into the pneumatic fluid path  161  when compressed and takes in ambient air from its environment as it decompresses. In such embodiments, repeated compression of the pneumatic interface  160  can force the fluid in the cartridge along the fluid path. 
     The fluid path  150  includes segments  151 ,  152 ,  153 ,  154 ,  155 , and  156  as well as sample introduction area  120 , test well  175 , test well inlet path  176 , and test well outlet path  177 . The first segment  151  of the fluid path  150  leads from the blister pack  140  to the sample introduction area  120 . The second segment  152  of the fluid path  150  leads from the sample introduction area  120  to the mixing chamber  153 . The mixing chamber  153  is the third segment of the fluid path  150  and is widened relative to the second segment  152  and fourth segment  154 . The fourth segment  154  of the fluid path  150  leads from the mixing chamber  153  to the fifth segment  155  of the fluid path. The fifth segment  155  of the fluid path  150  is formed in the test region  170 A. The fifth segment  155  of the fluid path  150  leads into both the first test well inlet path  176  and into the sixth segments  156  of the fluid path  150 . The sixth segments  156  of the fluid path  150  each form a continuation of the fluid path  150  between adjacent test well inlets until the last test well inlet  176 . A test well inlet path  176  fluidically connects a test well  175  to the fluid path  150 , and may closed off by a valve  174 , for example to prevent cross-amplification between the test wells. A test well outlet path  177  leads from a test well  175  to an outlet aperture  178  that allows gas to escape from the test well  175  and out of the cartridge  100 . 
     Even or homogenous mixing of the liquid from the blister pack  140  with the applied sample can yield more accurate test results in some embodiments. As such, the mixing chamber  153  is configured to promote even mixing of the liquid from the blister pack  140  with the applied sample, for example by including curved regions and/or a cross-sectional shape that promote turbulent flow rather than laminar flow of the liquids within the mixing chamber  153 . Turbulent flow is a flow regime in fluid dynamics characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and flow velocity of a fluid. Turbulent flow is in contrast to laminar flow, which occurs when fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between those layers. 
     The segments  151 ,  152 ,  153 ,  154  of the fluid path  150  can be entirely encased within the material of the base  125 , or can have three surfaces formed from the material of the base  125  with the cover  105  forming an upper surface that seals these channels. The segments  155 ,  156  of the fluid path  150  and the test well inlet path  176  and test well outlet path  177  can be entirely encased within the material of the base  125 , can have three surfaces formed from the material of the base  125  with the cover  105  forming an upper surface that seals these features, or can have two surfaces formed from the material of the base  125  with the circuit board  179  forming a lower surface of these features and the cover  105  forming an upper surface of these features. 
       FIG.  1 C  illustrates the direction of flow along the fluid path  150  with encircled numbers shown as labels for certain points along the fluid path. The encircled numbers are discussed below as example steps of a progression of fluid  180  as it travels through the fluid path  150  within the cartridge  100 , with each step including a directional arrow showing the direction of fluid travel at that step. 
     Prior to step ( 1 ), a user applies a sample at the sample introduction area  120 . For clarity and simplicity of  FIG.  1 C , the components labeled with reference numbers in  FIG.  1 B  are not labeled in  FIG.  1 C . Also prior to step ( 1 ), the blister pack  140  is ruptured so that its liquid contents are released from its previously sealed chamber. 
     At step ( 1 ), air or other fluid flowing from the pneumatic interface  160  travels in the illustrated direction along pneumatic fluid path  161  towards the ruptured blister pack  140 . 
     At step ( 2 ), the liquid released from the ruptured blister pack  140  (referred to herein as a “master mix”) travels through the aperture  141  in the illustrated direction and into the first segment  151  of the fluid path  150 . The master mix continues flowing along the first segment  151  until step ( 3 ), when it enters the sample introduction area  120  and begins to carry the sample with itself further along the fluid path. 
     At step ( 4 ), the master mix and sample leave the sample introduction area  120  and flow along the second segment  152  of the fluid path  150  in the illustrated direction. The volume of the master mix can be pre-selected to completely or substantially completely flush the applied sample from the sample introduction area  120  and/or to at least fill the test wells  175  and their respective inlet paths  176 . 
     At step ( 5 ), the master mix and sample flow in the illustrated direction into the entrance to the wider third segment  153  of the fluid path  150 , and at step ( 6 ) the master mix and sample are mixed into a homogenous solution in which the sample is evenly distributed throughout the master mix. As described above, the third segment  153  includes curved segments and a planar mixing chamber configured to promote mixing of the master mix and the sample. The rate of fluid provided by the pneumatic interface  160  can be selected to further facilitate this mixing in some embodiments. 
     At step ( 7 ), the mixed master mix and sample (referred to as the “test fluid”) leave the mixing chamber  153  and enter the fourth segment  154  of the fluid path  150  that leads into the test region  170 A. 
     At step ( 8 ), the test fluid travels along the fifth segment  155  of the fluid path  150  in the illustrated direction through the test region  170 A towards the test wells  175 . 
     At step ( 9 ), the test fluid reaches the first test well inlet path  176  and its flow is directed along the three possible paths shown trifurcating from the arrow of the fluid path of step ( 9 ). 
     The path of step ( 10 ) shows the flow of the test fluid further along the segment  156  of the fluid path  150  to subsequent test well inlet paths  176 . Optionally, the valve  174  at the test well inlet path  176  may be closed, preventing the flow of the test fluid to step ( 10 ). 
     The path of step ( 11 ) shows the optional flow of a gas portion of the test fluid through the valve  174 . In some embodiments, the valve  174  can include a liquid impermeable, gas permeable filter to allow any gas present in the test fluid to vent through the valve  174  prior to entering the test well  175 . In some embodiments the valve  174  may not be configured to vent gas. 
     The path of step ( 12 ) shows the direction of the flow of the test fluid into the test well  175 . In some embodiments, the valve  174  can be closed to seal off the test well  175  upon occurrence of a predetermined trigger. The trigger can occur after a predetermined volume of liquid corresponding to the volume of at least the test well  175  (and additionally the inlet and outlet paths  176 ,  177 ) has flowed along the path of step ( 12 ). Another example of the valve closing trigger can occur after a predetermined amount of time has elapsed corresponding to the time expected for this volume of liquid to flow along the path of step ( 12 ). In another embodiment, the trigger can be the deactivation of the pneumatic interface  160 , at which point fluid may begin to flow backward along the illustrated paths, causing cross-contamination of the amplification processes occurring in different test wells. In some embodiments, the depicted location of the valve  174  may instead be a gas outlet aperture optionally covered with a liquid impermeable, gas permeable filter, and the described valve can be located along the test well inlet path  176  or along the fluid path segment  156 . 
     The path of step ( 13 ) shows the direction of the flow of the test fluid or a gas component thereof out of the test well  175  through the outlet path  177 . The outlet path  177  can be a channel leading out of the test well  175 , and the test fluid can be pushed into the outlet path  177  by the pressure provided by the pneumatic interface  160 . In some embodiments, a liquid impermeable, gas permeable filter can be provided at the interface of the test well  175  and the outlet path  177  so that only a gas component of the test fluid flows through the outlet path  177 . 
     At step ( 14 ), gas from the test fluid is vented from the cartridge  100  through the outlet aperture  178 . Outlet aperture  178  can be covered by a liquid impermeable, gas permeable filter to allow gas to escape and prevent liquid from escaping the cartridge  100 . Beneficially, allowing and facilitating the venting of gas from the test fluid can minimize the amount of gas that remains in the test well, maximizing the amount of liquid in the test well. As described below, minimizing the potential for gas bubbles to form in the path between electrodes can beneficially lead to more reliable signals and more accurate test results. 
     Returning to  FIG.  1 B , the test region  170 A includes the segments  155 ,  156  of the fluid path  150 , the test wells  175 , the test well inlet paths  176 , the test well outlet paths  177 , the apertures/valves  176 ,  178 , and a circuit board  179 . The circuit board  179  includes the electrodes  171 A,  171 B of the test wells, the conductors  172  for carrying current or other electric signals, and the electrode interface  135 . The electrode interface  135  includes contact pads  173 ; half of the contact pads  173  are configured for coupling an excitation electrode of a test well with a voltage or current source of a reader device and the other half of the contact pads  173  are configured for electrically coupling a signal electrode of the test well with a signal reading conductor of the test device. For clarity of  FIG.  1 B , only certain ones of the repeated features of the test region  170 A are labeled with reference numbers. 
     The circuit board  179  can be a printed circuit board, for example a screen-printed or silkscreen printed circuit board having multiple layers. The circuit board  179  can be a printed onto a flexible plastic substrate or semiconductor substrate. The circuit board  179  can be formed at least partly from a separate material from the base  125  and secured to the underside of the base  125 , with an overlying region  126  of the base  125  including the segments  155 ,  156  of the fluid path  150 , the test wells  175 , the test well inlets  176 , the test well outlets  178 , and the apertures/valves  176 ,  178 . For example, the circuit board  179  can be a multilayered printed circuit board adhered, affixed, or laminated to the acrylic of the overlying region  126 . The electrode interface  135  can extend beyond the edge of the overlying region  126 . The test wells  175  can be formed as openings in the material of the overlying region  126  such that the electrodes  171 A,  171 B of the circuit board  179  are exposed within a well  175 . As such, the electrodes  171 A,  171 B can be in direct contact with fluid that flows into the well  175 . The circuit board  179  can be butter coated by having a resin on its upper surface in order to create a smooth, flat surface for the bottoms of the test wells. 
     The test wells  175  can be provided with solid dried constituents for the testing process, for example primers and proteins. The particular selection and chemistry of these dried constituents can be tailored to a particular target or targets for which the cartridge  100  is designed to test. The test wells  175  can be provided with the same or different dried constituents. These dried constituents can be hydrated with the liquid that flows into the test well (e.g., the liquid from the blister pack  140  mixed with the applied sample) and thus activated for the test procedure. Beneficially, providing the liquid constituents in the blister pack  140  separately from the dried solid constituents in the test wells  175  enables the cartridge  100  to be stored before use containing the components needed for the amplification process, while also delaying initiation of amplification until after the sample has been applied. 
     The test wells  175  are depicted as circular wells arranged in two rows at staggered distances from the electrode interface  135 . The test wells  175  can be generally cylindrical, for example formed as circular openings in the material of the overlying region  126  and bounded by planar surfaces at their upper (e.g., cover  105  or a portion of the overlying region  126 ) and lower (e.g., circuit board  179 ) sides. Each test well  175  contains two electrodes  171 A,  171 B, with one electrode being an excitation electrode configured to apply current to the sample in the test well  175  and the other electrode being a signal electrode configured to detect current flowing from the excitation electrode through the liquid sample. In some embodiments, one or more test wells can be provided with a thermistor in place of the electrodes in order to provide for monitoring of the temperature of the fluid within the cartridge  100 . 
     Each test well can be monitored independently of the other test wells, and thus each test well can constitute a different test. The depicted electrodes  171 A,  171 B within each test well are linear electrodes positioned parallel to one another. The depicted arrangement of the test wells  175  provides a compact test region  170 A with access from the fluid path  150  to each test well  175 . Some embodiments can include only a single test well, and various embodiments can include two or more test wells arranged in other configurations. Further, the shape of the test wells can be varied in other embodiments, and the electrode shapes can be any of the electrodes shown in  FIGS.  4 A- 4 G . 
     In some embodiments, gas bubbles within a test well  175 , particularly if positioned along the current path between the electrodes  171 A,  171 B, can create noise in the signal picked up by the signal electrode. This noise can reduce the accuracy of test results determined based on the signal from the signal electrode. A desired high-quality signal may be obtained when only liquid is present along the current path or when minimal gas bubbles are present along the current path. As described above, any air initially present in the fluid flowing along the fluid path  150  can be pushed out through the outlet aperture  178 . In addition, the electrodes  171 A,  171 B and/or test well  175  can be shaped to mitigate or prevent nucleation of the liquid sample in which air or gas bubbles form in the liquid sample and collect along the electrodes. 
     For example, the electrodes  171 A,  171 B are positioned at the bottom of the test well  175 . This can allow any air or gas to rise to the top of the fluid in the test well and away from the path between the electrodes. As used herein, the bottom of the test well refers to the portion of the test well in which heavier liquid settles due to gravity, and the top of the test well refers to the portion of the test well in which lighter gas rises above the heavier liquids. Further, the electrodes  171 A,  171 B are positioned away from the perimeter or edges of the test well  175  which is a location at which bubble nucleation typically occurs. 
     Further, the electrodes  171 A,  171 B can be formed from a thin, flat layer of material that has minimal height relative to the underlying circuit board layer that forms the bottom of the test well. In some embodiments, the electrodes  171 A,  171 B can be formed using electrodeposition and patterning to form a thin layer of metal film, for example around 300 nm in height. This minimal height can help prevent or mitigate air bubbles from becoming trapped along the interface between the electrode and the underlying layer. In some embodiments, a layer of conductive material can be deposited on top of each electrodes to create a smoother transition between the edge of the electrode and the bottom of the test well. For example, a thin polymid layer (e.g., around 5 microns in height) can be deposited on top of the electrode or the circuit board can be butter coated. Additionally or alternatively, the electrodes can be positioned in grooves in the underlying layer with the grooves having a depth approximately equal to the height of the electrode. These and other suitable methods can achieve an electrode that is approximately flat or flush with the bottom surface of the well. 
     Beneficially, the above-described features can help to keep the electrodes  171 A,  171 B surrounded by liquid and prevent or reduce gas bubbles from becoming positioned along the current path between the electrodes  171 A,  171 B. 
       FIG.  1 D  is a line drawing depicting a top plan view of test region  170 B of the cartridge  100 . As with  FIG.  1 B , certain repeated features are labeled with reference numbers in only one location for simplicity and clarity of the drawing of  FIG.  1 D . 
     The test region  170 B is an alternate embodiment of the test region  170 A, with the difference between the two embodiments being a different electrode configuration within the test wells  175 . In the embodiment of the test region  170 B, the test wells are provided with annular electrodes  171 C and  171 D. With the linear electrodes  171 A,  171 B of the test region  170 A, either electrode can be the excitation electrode or the signal electrode. In the embodiment of the test region  170 B, the inner electrode  171 D is the excitation electrode and the outer electrode  171 C is the signal electrode. 
     The inner electrode  171 D can be a disc or circular-shaped electrode coupled to the current providing conductor  172 B, which is in turn coupled to a current providing pad  173  of the electrode interface  135  that transmits current (e.g., AC current at a specified frequency) to the inner electrode  171 D from a reader device. The inner electrode  171 D can be positioned in the center of the test well  175 . The outer electrode  171 C is a semicircular electrode formed concentrically around the inner electrode  171 D and separated from the inner electrode  171 D by a gap. A break in the semicircle of the outer electrode  171 C occurs where a conductive lead connects the inner electrode  171 D to the current providing conductor  172 B. The outer electrode  171 C is coupled to the current sensing conductor  172 B, which is in turn coupled to a current sensing pad  173  of the electrode interface  135  that transmits the sensed current to the reader device. 
     The cartridge  100  of  FIGS.  1 A- 1 D  provides a self-contained, easy to use device for performing an amplification-based test for a target, for example nucleic acid testing wherein genomic material in the sample is exponentially copied using a molecular amplification process. Beneficially, the user only needs to apply the sample and insert the cartridge  100  into a reader device in order to ascertain the result of the test in some embodiments, as the liquid and solid constituents of the amplification process are pre-provided within the cartridge and automatically mixed with the sample. In some embodiments, one or both of the cartridge or reader may include a heater and a controller configured to operate the heater to maintain the cartridge at the desired temperature for amplification. In some embodiments, one or both of the cartridge or reader may include a motor to impart vibrations to or otherwise agitate the cartridge to cause any trapped gas to rise to the top of the liquid and vent from the test wells. 
       FIG.  2    depicts a photograph of another example cartridge  200  configured for detection of a target. The cartridge  200  was used to generate some of the test data described herein, and represents an alternate configuration of some of the components described with respect to the cartridge  100 . 
     Cartridge  200  includes a printed circuit board layer  205  and an acrylic layer  210  overlying and adhered to a portion of the printed circuit board layer  205  using a pressure-sensitive adhesive. The acrylic layer  210  includes a number of test wells  215 A and a number of temperature monitoring wells  215 B formed as circular apertures extending through the height of the acrylic layer  210 . The printed circuit board layer  205  can be formed similarly to the circuit board  179  described above, and includes a pair of electrodes  220  positioned within each test well  215 A and a thermistor  225  positioned within each temperature monitoring well  215 B. The electrodes  220  and thermistors  225  are each coupled to conductors terminating at a number of leads  230  of the printed circuit board. As illustrated, six of the leads are labeled “SIG” followed by a number 1-6 for the signal electrodes, six of the leads are labeled “EXC” followed by a number 1-6 for the excitation electrodes, and two leads are labeled RT 1  and RT 2  for the thermistors. 
     During some of the tests described herein, the following example protocol was followed. First, the user filled the wells  215 A with a test fluid and capped the fluid with mineral oil. The test fluid can have no primer control, allowing for a definitive negative control as there is no primer to cause amplification. 
     Next, the user heated the cartridge  200  to 65 degrees Celsius for ten minutes to expand any trapped air in the test fluid and cause it to rise as bubbles to the top of the liquid. During this initial heating, bubbles formed in the wells  215 A. 
     At the next step, the user scraped the bubbles from the surface of the liquid in the wells  215 A using a pipette or other tool. As described above, elimination of air bubbles can promote more accurate test results. 
     After eliminating the bubbles, the user allowed the cartridge  200  to cool to room temperature. Next, the user injected loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) positive control (PC) into the bottom of each of the test wells  215 A, placed the cartridge  200  on a heat block, and began performing the LAMP tests. The signals detected from the signal electrodes were analyzed as described herein to identify a positive signal cliff. 
       FIGS.  3 A and  3 B  depict another example cartridge  300  configured for detection of a target.  FIG.  3 A  depicts a top, front, and left perspective view of the cartridge  300  and  FIG.  3 B  depicts a perspective cutaway view showing the contour of the wells  320  of the cartridge  300 . The cartridge  300  represents an alternate configuration of some of the components described with respect to the cartridge  100 . 
     The cartridge  300  includes sample introduction area  305 , central channel  310 , test wells  320 , branches  315  fluidically connecting the test wells  320  to the central channel  310 , electrodes  325 A,  325 B positioned within each test well  320 , and an electrode interface  320  including contact pads coupled to conductors that are in turn coupled to respective ones of the electrodes  325 A,  325 B and configured to receive or send signals from or to a reader device. As shown in  FIG.  3 B , the wells  320  can have a curved bottom surface such that each well is generally hemispherical. The cartridge  300  is depicted as having an open top for purposes of revealing its interior components, however in use a cover or other upper layer can be provided to seal the fluid pathways of the cartridge  300 . The cover can include vents to allow gas to escape from the cartridge  300 , for example provided with liquid impermeable gas permeable filters, as described above with respect to  FIGS.  1 A- 1 D . 
     The fluid sample applied at the sample introduction area  305  flows down the central channel  310 , for example in response to pressure from a reader device injecting the sample into the cartridge  300  through a port coupled above the sample introduction area  305 . Such a reader device can be provided with a set of cartridges in some embodiments, for example positioned in a stack, and can provide the same or different sample to each cartridge. The fluid sample can be predominantly liquid with dissolved or trapped gas (e.g., air bubbles). The fluid can flow from the central channel  310  through the branched channels  315  into the test wells  320 . The branched channels  315  can inlet into the top of the well and can be tortuous (e.g., including a number of turns having small radii) in order to prevent or mitigate backflow of fluid that could lead to cross-contamination of the amplification processes between the various wells. 
       FIGS.  4 A- 4 G  depict various examples of electrode configurations that can be used in a test well of the cartridges of  FIGS.  1 A- 3 B  or in the test well or channel of another suitable target detection cartridge as described herein. The test wells shown in  FIGS.  4 A- 4 G  are depicted as circular, however the electrodes can be used in test wells of other geometries in other examples. Unless otherwise noted, the solid circles in  FIGS.  4 A- 4 G  represent contacts between the disclosed electrodes and conductors leading to or from the electrode. “Width” as used below refers to a dimension along the horizontal direction of the page of  FIGS.  4 A- 4 G , and “height” as used below refers to a dimension along the vertical direction of the page of  FIGS.  4 A- 4 G . Though depicted in a particular orientation, the illustrated electrodes of  FIGS.  4 A- 4 G  can be rotated in other implementations. Further, the disclosed example dimensions represent certain potential implementations of the electrode configurations  400 A- 400 G, and variations can have different dimensions that follow the same ratios between the provided example dimensions. The electrodes shown in  FIGS.  4 A- 4 G  can be made from suitable materials including platinum, gold, steel, or tin. In experimental testing, tin and platinum performed similarly and suitable for certain test setups and test targets. 
       FIG.  4 A  depicts a first electrode configuration  400 A wherein the first and second electrodes  405 A,  405 B are each formed as a semicircular perimeter. The straight edge of the first electrode  405 A is positioned adjacent to the straight edge of the second electrode  405 B and separated by a gap along the width of the configuration  400 A. The gap is larger than the radius of the semicircle of the electrodes. Thus, the first and second electrodes  405 A,  405 B are positioned as mirrored semicircular perimeters. In one example of the first electrode configuration  400 A, the gap between the closest portions of the first and second electrodes  405 A,  405 B spans approximately 26.369 mm, the height (along the straight edge) of each of the electrodes  405 A,  405 B is approximately 25.399 mm, and the radius of the semicircle of each of the electrodes  405 A,  405 B is approximately 12.703 mm. 
       FIG.  4 B  depicts a second electrode configuration  400 B. Similar to the first electrode configuration  400 A, the first and second electrodes  410 A,  410 B of the second electrode configuration  400 B are each formed as a semicircular perimeter and are positioned as mirrored semicircles with their straight edges facing one another. The first and second electrodes  410 A,  410 B of the second electrode configuration  400 B can be the same size as the first and second electrodes  405 A,  405 B of the first configuration  400 A. In the second electrode configuration  400 B, the gap along the width of the configuration  400 B between the first and second electrodes  410 A,  410 B is smaller than in the first configuration  400 A, and the gap is smaller than the radius of the semicircle of the electrodes  410 A,  410 B. In one example of the second electrode configuration  400 B, the gap between the closest portions of the first and second electrodes  410 A,  410 B spans approximately 10.158 mm, the height (along the straight edge) of each of the electrodes  410 A,  410 B is approximately 25.399 mm, and the radius of the semicircle of each of the electrodes  410 A,  410 B is approximately 12.703 mm. 
       FIG.  4 C  depicts a third electrode configuration  400 C having first and second linear electrodes  415 A,  415 B separated by a gap along the width of the configuration  400 C, where the gap is approximately equal to the height of the electrodes  415 A,  415 B. The width of the electrodes  415 A,  415 B is approximately one half to one third of the height of the electrodes. In one example of the third electrode configuration  400 C, the gap between the closest portions of the first and second electrodes  415 A,  415 B spans approximately 25.399 mm, the height of each of the electrodes  415 A,  415 B is also approximately 25.399 mm, and the width of each of the electrodes  415 A,  415 B is approximately 10.158 mm. The ends of the first and second electrodes  415 A,  415 B can be radiused, for example having a radius of around 5.078 mm. 
       FIG.  4 D  depicts a fourth electrode configuration  400 D having first and second rectangular electrodes  420 A,  420 B separated by a gap along the width of the configuration  400 D, where the gap is approximately equal to the width of the electrodes  420 A,  420 B. In one example of the fourth electrode configuration  400 D, the gap between the closest portions of the first and second electrodes  420 A,  420 B spans approximately 20.325 mm, the height of each of the electrodes  420 A,  420 B is also approximately 23.496 mm, and the width of each of the electrodes  420 A,  420 B is approximately 17.777 mm. 
       FIG.  4 E  depicts a fifth electrode configuration  400 E having first and second linear electrodes  425 A,  425 B separated by a gap along the width of the configuration  400 E, where the gap is approximately equal to the height of the electrodes  425 A,  425 B. The fifth electrode configuration  400 E is similar to the third electrode configuration  400 C, with the width of the electrodes  425 A,  425 B reduced to around one half to two thirds of the width of the electrodes  415 A,  415 B while having the same height. In one example of the fifth electrode configuration  400 E, the gap between the closest portions of the first and second electrodes  425 A,  425 B spans approximately 25.399 mm, the height of each of the electrodes  425 A,  425 B is also approximately 25.399 mm, and the width of each of the electrodes  425 A,  425 B is approximately 5.078 mm. The ends of the first and second electrodes  425 A,  425 B can be radiused, for example having a radius of around 2.542 mm. 
       FIG.  4 F  depicts a sixth electrode configuration  400 F having concentric annular electrodes  430 A,  430 B. The sixth electrode configuration  400 F is the configuration shown in the test wells  175  of  FIG.  1 D . The inner electrode  430 B can be a disc or circular-shaped electrode and can be positioned in the center of the test well. The outer electrode  430 A can be a semicircular electrode formed concentrically around the inner electrode  430 B and separated from the inner electrode  430 B by a gap. In the sixth electrode configuration  400 F, the gap is approximately equal to the radius of the inner electrode  430 B. A break in the semicircle of the outer electrode  430 A occurs where a conductive lead connects the inner electrode  430 B to the current providing conductor. In one example of the sixth electrode configuration  400 F, the gap between the inner edge of the annular first electrode  430 A and the outer perimeter of the circular second electrode  430 B spans approximately 11.430 mm, the radius of the circular second electrode  430 B is approximately 17.777 mm, and the thickness of the annulus of the annular first electrode  430 A is approximately 5.080 mm. The ends of the first electrode  430 A can be radiused, for example having a radius of around 2.555 mm, and the gap between the open ends of the annulus of the first electrode  435 A can be around 28.886 mm from vertex to vertex. 
       FIG.  4 G  depicts a seventh electrode configuration  400 G having concentric annular electrodes  435 A,  435 B. Similar to the embodiment of  FIG.  4 F , the inner electrode  435 B can be a disc or circular-shaped electrode having the same radius as inner electrode  430 B and can be positioned in the center of the test well. The outer electrode  435 A can be a semicircular electrode formed concentrically around the inner electrode  435 A and separated from the inner electrode  435 A by a gap. In the seventh electrode configuration  400 G, the gap is greater than the radius of the inner electrode  435 B, for example two to three times greater. Correspondingly, the outer electrode  435 B has a larger radius than the outer electrode  430 B. In one example of the seventh electrode configuration  400 G, the gap between the inner edge of the annular first electrode  435 A and the outer perimeter of the circular second electrode  435 B spans approximately 24.131 mm, the radius of the circular second electrode  435 B is approximately 17.777 mm, and the thickness of the annulus of the annular first electrode  435 A is approximately 5.080 mm. The ends of the first electrode  435 A can be radiused, for example having a radius of around 2.555 mm, and the gap between the open ends of the annulus of the first electrode  435 A can be around 46.846 mm from vertex to vertex. 
     In the embodiments of  FIGS.  4 A- 4 E , either electrode can be used as the excitation electrode and the other electrode can be used as the signal electrode. In the embodiments of  FIGS.  4 F and  4 G , the inner electrode  430 B,  435 B is configured to be used as the excitation electrode (e.g., coupled to a current source) and the outer electrode  430 A,  435 A is configured to be used as the signal electrode (e.g., provides its signal to a memory or processor). In some example tests, the sixth electrode configuration  400 F exhibited the best performance of the configurations shown in  FIGS.  4 A- 4 G . 
       FIG.  5 A  depicts a first electrode or excitation electrode and a second electrode or signal electrode that may be spaced apart from one another within a test well of the cartridges of  FIGS.  1 A- 3 B  or in the test well or channel of another suitable target detection cartridge as described herein. 
     The formation of an aggregate, nucleic acid complex, or polymer, for example during an amplification process in the test wells of cartridges of  FIGS.  1 A- 3 B , can affect waveform characteristics of one or more electrical signals that are sent through a channel. As shown in  FIG.  5 A , a first electrode or excitation electrode  510 A is spaced apart from a second electrode or sensing electrode  510 B within test well  505 . The test well  505  can contain a test solution undergoing an amplification process. During some of all of that process, an excitation voltage  515  can be provided to the excitation electrode  510 A, from which the excitation voltage  515  is transmitted into the fluid (preferably all or substantially all liquid) within the well  505 . 
     After passage through and attenuation by the liquid sample (represented schematically by the resistance R and reactance X), the attenuated excitation voltage is sensed or detected at the sensing electrode  510 B. The fluid acts as a resistor R in series with the excitation electrode  510 A and the sensing electrode  510 B. The fluid also acts as in series capacitor(s), shown by the reactance X. The raw sensed signal during some or all of the duration of a test can be represented over time as a sinusoidal curve with varying amplitudes, similar to that shown in plot  520 . 
     The excitation voltage  515  can be an alternating current at a predetermined drive frequency. The particular frequency selected can depend for example upon the particular target sought to be detected, the medium of the test sample, the chemical makeup of the amplification process constituents, the temperature of the amplification process, and/or the excitation voltage. In some embodiments of the cartridges of  FIGS.  1 A- 3 B , the excitation drive frequency can be between 1 kHz and 10 kHz at as low an excitation voltage as possible. As one example, in tests performed to identify a target of H. Influienza (10 6  copies/reaction) spiked into 5% whole blood, excitation sensor drive frequency was varied from 100 Hz to 100,000 Hz at 0.15 Volts. These tests revealed that the desired “signal cliff,” an artifact in a portion of the signal indicative of a positive test sample described in more detail below, becomes more easily detectable below 100 Hz and is most easily detectable between 1 kHz and 10 kHz. Further, with frequencies in the range between 1 kHz and 10 kHz, the signal cliff advantageously could be identified before 12 minutes of test time had elapsed. Beneficially, faster identification of the signal cliff can result in shorter test times, in turn resulting in quicker provision of test results and the ability to perform more tests per day. At frequencies lower than 1 kHz, the reactance component of the signal (in which the signal cliff may be found in a positive sample) decreased monotonically. The sensor drive frequency can be similarly fine-tuned for other tests to optimize performance, that is, to optimize the detectability of a signal cliff. Detectability of a signal cliff refers to the ability to consistently differentiate between a positive sample and a negative sample. 
       FIG.  5 B  depicts an example plot  525  showing an impedance signal  530  that can be extracted from the raw signal  520  provided by the sensing electrode  510 B. The impedance signal  530  represents the electrical impedance Z of the test well over time. The impedance Z can be represented by a Cartesian complex number equation as follows: 
     
       
      
       Z=R+jX  
      
     
     where R represents the resistance of the test well and is the real part of the above equation and the X represents the reactance of the test well and is the imaginary part of the above equation (denoted by j). Thus, the impedance of the test well can be parsed into two components, the resistance R and the reactance X. 
     Initially, the value of the resistance R can be determined by taking a baseline measurement of the test well prior to or at the outset of the amplification process. Although the resistance of the test fluid can drift away from this baseline value throughout the duration of the test, the current sensed by the sensing electrode  510 B due to the resistance of the test fluid can be in phase with the signal provided through the excitation electrode  510 A. Thus, changes or drift in the resistance can be identified by values of the in phase component of the signal  520  over time. The reactance can arise from the effect of inductance in the test fluid, capacitance in the test fluid, or both; this effect can cause the fluid to retain current (e.g., electrons provided by excitation electrode  510 A) temporarily. After some time this retained current flows out of the test fluid into the sensing electrode  510 B. Due to this delay, the current sensed by the sensing electrode  510 B due to the reactance of the test fluid can be out of phase with the current sensed from the resistance of the test fluid. Thus, values of the reactance of the test fluid can be identified by values of the out of phase component of the signal  520  over time. The reactance can fluctuate throughout the duration of the test based on changes to the chemical constituents of the test fluid due to the amplification process. The signal cliff (e.g., a rise or drop in the reactance at or greater than a threshold rate or magnitude and/or during a predetermined window of time) indicative of a positive sample can be found in the reactance X. 
     During a test, the excitation electrode  510 A can be sinusoidally excited with some amplitude and voltage. The excitation electrode  510 A is in series with the test liquid in the well, which can be considered as a resistor R. The resistor (e.g., the test fluid) and electrode form a voltage divider, which has a voltage determined by the ratio of the resistor and electrode chemistry/impedances. The resulting voltage waveform sensed at the sensing electrode  510 B represents the complex impedance signal  530 . In some embodiments, a curve such as the impedance signal  530  may not be generated, but rather the raw sensed signal  520  can be parsed into its resistance and reactance components as described herein. The impedance signal  530  is provided as an example representation of a combined curve representing both the resistance of the test fluid and the reactance of the test fluid over time. The complex impedance signal  530  can be interpreted as a quadrature-modulated waveform (e.g., a combination of an in-phase waveform resulting from the resistance of the test fluid and an out-of-phase waveform resulting from the reactance of the test fluid), where the in-phase and out-of-phase components change on a timescale much greater than the modulation frequency. The in-phase waveform is in-phase with the composite waveform of the complex impedance. Some implementations can use a synchronous detector, for example having multipliers and low pass filters implemented in a field programmable gate array (FPGA), to extract the in-phase and out-of-phase components from the raw signal  520  and compute their amplitude and phase. 
     In order to parse the impedance signal  530  (or the raw sensed signal  520 ) into its constituent resistance and reactance components, the voltage waveform  520  at the sensing electrode  510 B is sampled faster than its Nyquist frequency (e.g., two times the highest frequency of the excitation voltage) and then decomposed into an in-phase component (resistance) and an out-of-phase component (reactance). The in-phase and out-of-phase voltage components can be computed using the known series resistance (e.g., the value of R) to calculate the real component of the impedance (the resistance) and the imaginary component of the impedance (the reactance). 
       FIG.  5 C  depicts a plot  541  of the resistance  540 A and reactance components  540 B over time (t=3 minutes to t=45 minutes) extracted from a raw signal  520  generated based on an example positive test. As illustrated, the signal cliff  545  represents a change Δ R  in the reactance  540 B during a particular window of time Tw. The signal cliff  545  indicates a positive sample. At times occurring prior to the signal cliff  545 , the reactance curve  540 B is relatively flat or stable, and again after the signal cliff  545  the reactance curve  540 B is relatively flat or stable. Thus, in this embodiment the signal cliff  545  for the particular test parameters represented by the plot  541  occurs as a drop of Δ R  in the expected region  535 . 
     The magnitude of the change Δ R  in the reactance that corresponds to a positive sample signal cliff  545 , as well as the position and/or duration of the particular window of time Tw at which the signal cliff  545  is expected to occur, can vary depending on a number of parameters of the test. These parameters include the particular target of the test (e.g., the rate at which that target amplifies), the frequency of the excitation voltage, the configuration of the excitation and sensor electrodes (e.g., their individual shapes and dimensions, the gap separating the electrodes, and the material of the electrodes), the sampling rate, the quantity of amplification agents provided at the start of the test, the temperature of the amplification process, and the amount of target present in the sample. In some embodiments, the expected characteristics of a signal cliff of a positive sample, predetermined for example through experimentation, can be used for differentiating between positive samples and negative samples. In some embodiments, the expected characteristics of a signal cliff can be used for determining the severity or progress of a medical condition, for example via correlations between particular signal cliff characteristics and particular initial quantities of the target in the sample. The predetermined expected characteristics can be provided to, stored by, and then accessed during test result determination by a reader device configured to receive signals from the sensing electrode(s) of a test cartridge. 
     For a given test, the expected magnitude of the change Δ R  in the reactance and the expected window of time Tw of a signal cliff  545  for a positive sample can be determined experimentally based on monitoring and analyzing the reactance curves generated by positive control samples (and optionally negative control samples). In some embodiments, the test parameters influencing the signal cliff can be varied and fine-tuned to identify the parameters that correspond to an accurately distinguishable signal cliff. A reader and cartridge as described herein can be configured to match the tested configuration and provided with expected signal cliff characteristics for that test. 
     For example, in a set of experimental tests for  H. influenza , the test fluid initially included amplification primers and 1,000,000 added target copies, the excitation voltage was 200 mV P2P, the test parameters included a 10 kHz sweep start and a 10 MHz sweep stop for the frequency of the excitation current, and close and far electrode gaps were configured at 2.55 mm and 5 mm respectively. The amplification temperature was set to 65.5 degrees Celcius, and the two electrode setups (one for each of the close and far gaps) included platinum electrodes. At low frequencies (10 kHz-100 kHz), detectable signal cliffs were identified beginning around 23 minutes into amplification around 10 kHz and around 30 minutes around 100 kHz using the 5 mm gap electrode configuration, with the magnitude of change in reactance being around 3.5-4 Ohms at 10 kHz and dropping to around 3.25-3.5 Ohms at 100 kHz. At low frequencies (10 kHz-100 kHz), detectable signal cliffs were identified beginning around 25 minutes into amplification around 10 kHz and around 30 minutes around 100 kHz using the 2.5 mm gap electrode configuration, with the magnitude of change in reactance being around 3.5-4 Ohms. At higher frequencies, the drop in reactance of the signal cliff decreased, and the time at which these smaller signal cliffs were identified was shifted to later in the amplification process. Accordingly, in this example a test well in a test cartridge may be configured with the 5 mm gap electrodes and a reader device may be configured to provide 10 kHz excitation current to the test cartridge during amplification. The reader device can be provided with instructions to provide this current and monitor the resulting reactance of the test well throughout amplification or for a window of time around the expected signal cliff time (here, 23 minutes), for example between 20 and 35 minutes. The reader device can also be provided with instructions to identify a positive sample based on the reactance exhibiting around a 3.5-4 Ohm change around 23 minutes into amplification, or within the window of time around the expected signal cliff time. 
     Once identified, the values for Δ R  and Tw can be provided to reader devices for use in distinguishing between positive and negative samples for that particular test. In some examples, such devices can determine whether the reactance curve  540 B has the required value and/or slope at the identified window of time Tw to correspond to the signal cliff. In other embodiments, the reader device can analyze the shape of the reactance curve over time to determine whether it contains a signal cliff. In some embodiments, a reader can modify its testing procedures based on the identified window of time Tw at which the signal cliff  545  is expected to occur, for example by only providing the excitation voltage and monitoring the resultant signal within this window, advantageously conserving power and processing resources compared to continuous monitoring during an entire test time. 
       FIG.  5 D  depicts a plot  551  of the resistance and reactance components extracted from the raw sensor data of a sensing electrode  510 B during example tests of positive and negative controls. Specifically, the plot  551  shows a curve  550 A of the resistance of the positive sample, a curve  550 B of the reactance of the positive sample, a curve  550 C of the resistance of the positive sample, and a curve  550 D of the reactance of the positive sample over the 35 minute duration of the test. As shown by  FIG.  5 D , the positive sample signal cliff occurs around 17 minutes into the test, with a relatively flat and stable reactance curve  550 B leading up to the signal cliff. In contrast, at this same time the negative sample reactance curve  550 D exhibits no signal cliff, but rather maintains a quadratic curvature from around t=8 minutes through the end of the test. 
       FIG.  5 E  depicts a plot  561  of the resistance  560 A and reactance components  560 B over time (t=0 minutes to t=60 minutes since the start of amplification) extracted from a raw signal  520  generated based on an example positive test. As illustrated, the signal cliff  565  represents a change Δ R  in the reactance  560 B during a particular window of time Tw. The signal cliff  565  indicates a positive sample. At times occurring prior to the signal cliff  565 , the reactance curve  560 B is relatively flat or stable, and again after the signal cliff  565  the reactance curve  560 B is relatively flat or stable with slight concavity. The signal cliff  565  for the particular test parameters represented by the plot  561  occurs as a peak, spike, or bell curve in the expected region  535 , during which the reactance values rise and fall by the Δ R  value in an approximately parabolic curve. As described herein, varying of certain test parameters (e.g., test well configuration, chemistry and initial quantity of amplification constituents, target, and excitation current characteristics) can vary the geometry of the signal cliff yielded from a positive sample. Thus, in some embodiments the geometry of a “signal cliff” in the reactance values vs time curve can vary from test to test, though for a particular test the curve geometry and/or timing signal cliff remains consistent within reactance change and/or timing parameters across positive samples for that test. 
       FIG.  6    depicts a schematic block diagram of an example reader device  600  that can be used with the cartridges described herein, for example the cartridges  100  or  300 . The reader device  600  includes a memory  605 , processor  610 , communications module  615 , user interface  620 , heater  625 , electrode interface  630 , voltage source  635 , compressed air storage  640 , motor  650 , and a cavity  660  into which a cartridge can be inserted. 
     When test cartridge  100  is inserted into the reader device, the electrode interface  135  of the cartridge couples with the electrode interface  630  of the reader device  600 . This can allow the reader device  600  to detect that a cartridge is inserted, for example by testing whether a communication path is established. Further, such communications can enable the reader device  600  to identify a particular inserted test cartridge  100  and access corresponding testing protocols. Testing protocols can include the duration of the test, the temperature of the test, the characteristics of a positive sample impedance curve, and the information to output to the user based on various determined test results. In other embodiments, the reader device  600  can receive an indication via user interface  620  that a cartridge is inserted (e.g., by a user inputting a “begin testing” command and optionally a test cartridge identifier). 
     The memory  605  includes one or more physical electronic storage devices configured for storing computer-executable instructions for controlling operations of the reader device  600  and data generated during use of the reader device  600 . For example, the memory  605  can receive and store data from sensing electrodes coupled to the electrode interface  630 . 
     The processor  610  includes one or more hardware processors that execute the computer-executable instructions to control operations of the reader device  600  during a test, for example by managing the user interface  620 , controlling the heater  625 , controlling the communications module  615 , and activating the voltage source  635 , compressed air  640 , and motor  650 . One example of testing operations is described with respect to  FIG.  7 A  below. The processor  610  can be also be configured by the instructions to determine test results based on data received from the excitation electrodes of an inserted test cartridge, for example by performing the process of  FIG.  7 B  described below. The processor  610  can be configured to identify different targets in the same test sample based on signals received from different test wells of a single cartridge, or can identify a single target based on individual or aggregate analysis of the signals from the different test wells. 
     The communications module  615  can optionally be provided in the reader device  600  and includes network-enabled hardware components, for example wired or wireless networking components, for providing networked communications between the reader device  600  and remote computing devices. Suitable networking components include WiFi, Bluetooth, cellular modems, Ethernet ports, USB ports, and the like. Beneficially, networking capabilities can enable the reader device  600  to send test results and other test data over a network to identified remote computing devices such as hospital information systems and/or laboratory information systems that store electronic medical records, national health agency databases, and the computing devices of clinicians or other designated personnel. For example, a doctor may receive the test results for a particular patient on their mobile device, laptop, or office desktop as the test results are determined by the reader device, enabling them to provide faster turnaround times for diagnosis and treatment plans. In addition, the networking capabilities can enable the reader device  600  to receive information over the network from remote computing devices, for example updated signal cliff parameters for existing test, new signal cliff parameters for new tests, and updated or new testing protocols. 
     The user interface  620  can include a display for presenting test results and other test information to users, as well as user input devices (e.g., buttons, a touch sensitive display) that allow the user to input commands or test data into the reader device  600 . 
     The heater  625  can be positioned adjacent to the cavity  660  for heating an inserted cartridge to the desired temperature for an amplification process. Though depicted on a single side of the cavity  660 , in some embodiments the heater  625  can surround the cavity. 
     As described herein, the voltage source  635  can provide an excitation signal at a predetermined voltage and frequency to each excitation electrode of an inserted test cartridge. The compressed air storage  640  can be used to provide pneumatic pressure via channel  645  to the pneumatic interface  160  of the test cartridge  100  to promote flow of the liquid within the test cartridge. Compressed air storage  640  can store previously compressed air or generate compressed air as needed by the reader device  600 . Other suitable pneumatic pumps and pressure-providing mechanisms may be used in place of stored or generated compressed air in other embodiments. The motor  650  can be operated to move actuator  655  towards and away from the blister pack  140  of an inserted cartridge in order to rupture the blister pack as described above. 
       FIG.  7 A  depicts a flowchart of an example process  700  for operating a reader device during a test as described herein. The process  700  can be performed by the reader device  600  described above. 
     At block  705 , the reader device  600  can detect that an assay cartridge  100 ,  200 ,  300  has been inserted, for example in response to user input or in response to establishing a signal path with the inserted cartridge. In some embodiments, the cartridge  100 ,  200 ,  300  can include an information element that identifies the particular test(s) to be performed to the reader device  600  and optionally includes test protocol information. 
     At block  710 , the reader device  600  can heat the cartridge  100 ,  200 ,  300  to a specified temperature for amplification. For example, the temperature can be provided by information stored on the cartridge  100 ,  200 ,  300  or accessed in the internal memory of the reader device  600  in response to identification of the cartridge  100 ,  200 ,  300 . 
     At block  715 , the reader device  600  can active a blister pack puncture mechanism, for example motor  650  and actuator  655 . Puncturing the blister pack can cause its liquid contents, including chemical constituents for facilitating amplification, to be released from its previously sealed chamber. 
     At block  720 , the reader device  600  can activate a pneumatic pump to move the sample and liquid from the blister pack through a fluid path of the cartridge towards the test well. As described above, the test wells can include vents that enable the pushing of liquid through the fluid path of the cartridge and also allow any trapped air to escape. The pneumatic pump can include compressed air  640  or another suitable source of pressure, and can fluidically communicate with the pneumatic interface  160 . 
     At block  725 , the reader device  600  can release any trapped air from the test wells, for example by pushing the fluid through the fluid path of the cartridge until a certain resistance is sensed (e.g., the liquid of the fluid path is pushed against the liquid impermeable, gas permeable filter of a vent). Block  725  may optionally include agitating the inserted cartridge to promote movement of any trapped air or gas bubbles up through the liquid and out through the vents. Further, at block  725  the reader device  600  optionally can provide signals to the cartridge that cause closure of valves positioned between test wells in order to avoid mixing of the amplification processes. 
     At decision block  730 , the reader device  600  can determine whether the test is still within its specified test duration. For example, where the expected window of time in which a signal cliff should appear in a positive sample is known, the duration of the test may end at or some predetermined period of time after the end of the window. If so, the process  700  transitions to optional decision block  735  or, in embodiments omitting block  735 , to block  740 . 
     At optional decision block  735 , the reader device  600  determines whether to monitor the test well amplification by logging data from the test well sensing electrode. For example, the reader  600  may be provided with instructions to only monitor the impedance of the test well during a particular window or windows of a test. If the reader device  600  determines not to monitor the test well amplification, the process  700  loops back to decision block  730 . 
     If the reader device  600  determines to monitor the test well amplification, the process  700  transitions to block  740 . At block  740 , the reader device  600  provides an excitation signal to the excitation electrode of the test well(s) of the inserted cartridge. As described above, this can be an alternating current at a particular frequency and voltage. 
     At block  745 , the reader device  600  detects and logs data from the sensing electrode of the test well(s) of the inserted cartridge. In some embodiments, this data can be stored for later analysis, for example after completion of the test. In some embodiments, the reader device  600  can analyze this data in real time (e.g., as the test is still occurring) and may stop the test once a positive sample signal cliff is identified. 
     When the reader device  600  determines at block  730  that the test is not still within its specified duration, the process  700  moves to block  750  to analyze the test data and output the test result. The test result can include an indication that the sample tested positive or negative for the target, or can more specifically indicate an estimated quantity of the target in the tested sample. 
       FIG.  7 B  depicts a flowchart of an example process for analyzing test data to detect a target as described herein that can be performed by the reader device  600  as block  750  of  FIG.  7 A . 
     At block  755 , the reader device  600  can access logged signal data received from the electrode of a well. Even if a cartridge has multiple wells, the data from each well can be analyzed individually. The test results from the wells may later be analyzed in aggregate to determine a single test result for aa single target based on all tests performed within the cartridge, or to determine multiple test results for multiple targets. 
     At block  760 , the reader device  600  can decomponse the signal into resistance and reactance components across some or all of the different time points of the test. For example, as described above, at each time point the reader device  600  can determine in phase and out of phase components of the raw sampled voltage waveform and can then deconvolute these components using known series resistance of the electrode circuit to calculate the in-phase (resistance) and out-of-phase (reactance) portions of the impedance of the test well. 
     At block  765 , the reader device  600  can generate a curve of the reactance values over time. Also at block  765 , the reader device  600  can optionally generate a curve of the resistance values over time. 
     At block  770 , the reader device  600  can analyze the reactance curve to identify a signal change indicative of a positive test. As described above with respect to the signal cliff of  FIG.  5 C , the reader device  600  can look for greater than a threshold change in reactance, can look for such a change within a predetermined window of time, can analyze the slope of the reactance curve at a predetermined time, or can analyze the overall shape of the reactance curve in order to determine whether a signal cliff (e.g., a rise or drop in the signal preceded and followed by relatively more stable values) is present. 
     At decision block  775 , based on the analysis performed at block  770 , the reader device  600  can determine whether the sought-after signal change was identified in the reactance curve. If so, the process  750  transitions to block  780  to output an indication of a positive test result to the user. If not, the process  750  transitions to block  785  to output an indication of a negative test result to the user. The result can be output locally, for example on the display of the device, or output over a network to a designated remote computing device. 
     Overview of Example Devices 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include devices comprising an excitation electrode and a sensor electrode. In some embodiments, the excitation electrode and the sensor electrode measure electrical properties of a sample. In some embodiments, the electrical properties comprise complex admittance, impedance, conductivity, resistivity, resistance, and/or a dielectric constant. 
     In some embodiments, the electrical properties are measured on a sample having electrical properties that do not change during the measurement. In some embodiments, the electrical properties are measured on a sample having dynamic electrical properties. In some such embodiments, the dynamic electrical properties are measured in real-time. 
     In some embodiments, an excitation signal is applied to the excitation electrode. The excitation signal can include direct current or voltage, and/or alternating current or voltage. In some embodiments, the excitation signal is capacitively coupled to/through a sample. In some embodiments, the excitation electrode and/or the sensor electrode is passivated to prevent direct contact between the sample and the electrode. 
     In some embodiments, parameters is optimized for the electric properties of a sample. In some such embodiments, parameters can include the applied voltage, applied frequency, and/or electrode configuration with respect to the sample volume size and/or geometry. 
     In some embodiments, the voltage and the frequency of the excitation voltage may be fixed or varied during the measurement. For example, measurement may involve sweeping voltages and frequencies during detection, or selecting a specific voltage and frequency which may be optimized for each sample. In some embodiments, the excitation voltage induces a current on the signal electrode that is can vary with the admittance of the device and/or sample characteristics. 
     In some embodiments, the detection parameters is optimized by modeling the admittance, device and sample by the lumped-parameter equivalent circuit consisting of electrode-sample coupling impedances, sample impedance, and inter-electrode parasitic impedance. Parameters of the lumped-parameter equivalent circuit is determined by measuring the admittance of the electrode-sample system at one or many excitation frequencies for a device. In some embodiments, the complex (number having both real and imaginary components) admittance of the electrode-sample system is measured using both magnitude- and phase-sensitive detection techniques. In some embodiments, the detection parameters are optimized by determining the frequencies corresponding to the transitions between the frequency regions by measuring the admittance across a wide range of frequencies. In some embodiments, the detection parameters are optimized by determining the frequencies corresponding to the transitions between the frequency regions by computing from the values given lumped-parameter model. 
     In some embodiments, the admittance of a capacitively-coupled electrode-sample system comprises three frequency regions: a low frequency region dominated by the electrode-sample coupling impedance, a mid-frequency region dominated by the sample impedance, and a high frequency region dominated by parasitic inter-electrode impedance. The admittance in the electrode-sample coupling region is capacitive in nature and is characterized by a magnitude that increases linearly with frequency, whose phase is ninety degrees. The admittance in the sample region is conductive in nature and is characterized by an admittance that does not vary significantly with respect to frequency, whose phase is approximately zero degrees. The admittance inter-electrode region is capacitive in nature and is characterized by a magnitude that increases linearly with frequency and a phase of ninety degrees. 
     In some embodiments, an induced current at the pick-up electrode is related to the excitation voltage and complex admittance by the relation: 
       current=(complex admittance)×(voltage)
 
     In some embodiments, the device measures both the excitation voltage magnitude and induced current magnitude to determine the magnitude of the complex admittance. In some embodiments, the device is calibrated to known excitation voltages and measure the magnitude of the induced current. In order to determine the phase of complex admittance, the device may measure the relative phase difference between the excitation voltage and the induced current. 
     In some embodiments, the magnitude and phase is measured directly. 
     In some embodiments, the magnitude and phase is measured indirectly e.g., by using both synchronous and asynchronous detection. The synchronous detector gives the in-phase component of the induced current. The asynchronous detector gives the quadrature component of the induced current. Both components can be combined to determine the complex admittance. 
     In some embodiments, the electrodes are not passivated. 
     In some embodiments, the excitation and/or detection electrodes are passivated. The excitation and/or detection electrodes may be passivated to prevent e.g., undesirable adhesion, fouling, adsorption or other detrimental physical interactions between the electrode with the sample or components therein. In some embodiments, the passivation layer comprises a dielectric material. In some embodiments, passivation enables efficient capacitive coupling from the electrodes to the sample. The efficiency of the coupling is determined by measuring the characteristics of the electrode/sample system, for example, which may include: the dielectric properties of the passivation layer, the thickness of the passivation layer, the area of the passivation/sample interface, the passivation surface roughness, the electric double layer at the sample/passivation interface, temperature, applied voltage and applied frequency, the electrical properties of the sample, the electric and/or chemical properties of the electrode materials. 
     In some embodiments, the electrode configuration and fabrication is optimized to mitigate undesirable parasitic coupling between electrodes. This may be accomplished through electric field shielding, the use of a varying dielectric constant electrode substrate, layout optimization, and/or grounding layers. 
     Overview of Example Devices for Detection of Biomolecules 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include devices for the detection of a target, such as a biomolecule. In some such embodiments, measurement of the electrical properties of a sample is used as a detection strategy for biomolecular assays. 
     In some embodiments, the target is a nucleic acid, protein, small molecule, drug, metabolite, toxin, parasite, intact virus, bacteria, spore or any other antigen, which may be recognized and/or bound by a capture and/or detection probe moiety. 
     In some embodiments, the target is a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, methods comprise nucleic acid amplification. In some embodiments, amplification comprises isothermal amplification. In some embodiments, a nucleic acid amplification reaction is quantified by measuring the electric properties, or change therein, of the reaction solution. In some embodiments, the electrical properties of the amplification reaction is measured in real-time over the course of the reaction, or comparison measurements is made using before and after reaction electrical property measurements. 
     In some embodiments, a target antigen is detected via the specific binding of a detection probe such as e.g., an antibody, aptamer or other molecular recognition and/or binding moiety to the antigen. In an example embodiment, a detection antibody is linked to a nucleic acid sequence to form an antibody-nucleic acid chimeric complex. The chimeric complex is synthesized prior to the assay for the purpose of detecting the antigen. Many different nucleic acids may be conjugated to a single antibody thereby increasing the sensitivity for detection of binding of the chimeric complex to the antigen. After removing any excess chimeric complex not bound to antigen, the nucleic acids portion of the chimeric complex is amplified and the amplification reaction is quantified via the measurement of the electric properties (or changes therein) of the reaction solution as described herein. In this way, the degree of amplification of the nucleic acids, which are bound to the antigen through the chimeric complex signifies the presence of the target antigen and permits quantitation of antigen. The use of secondary amplification representative of antigen recognition, in combination with electrical detection, allows for greater ease, sensitivity and dynamic range than other antigen detection methods. 
     In some embodiments, a capture probe such as an antibody, aptamer or other molecular recognition and/or binding moiety to an antigen is bound to a surface by a conjugation or linkage. The immobilization of the capture probe onto a surface allows for the removal of excess, unbound reagents and/or antigen through washing. The chimeric complex is bound to the surface captured antigen enabling unbound chimera complex to be removed by washing. In this way, only captured antigen is retained for detection by the chimera complex. An example embodiment is depicted in  FIG.  8   . In some embodiments, the capture probe and the detection antibody are the same. 
     In some embodiments, the capture probe is immobilized onto a surface by covalent conjugation, the use of streptavidin-biotin linkages, or other bioconjugation and molecular immobilization methodologies as are commonly employed and familiar to those in the field. In some embodiments, the surface is a planar surface, a scaffold, a filter, a microsphere, a particle of any shape, a nanoparticle, or a bead or the like. An example embodiment is depicted in  FIG.  9   . 
     Overview of Example Magnetic Beads 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include magnetic beads or the use thereof. In some embodiments, the microsphere, particle or bead is magnetic and/or magnetizable. The use of a magnetic support in such embodiments can facilitate the washing of the beads to remove excess, antigen and/or non-specifically adsorbed chimeric complex from the surfaces. A method, which includes the use of a magnetic particle support, may comprise a magnetic amplification immunoassay (MAIA). An example embodiment is depicted in  FIG.  10   . 
     In some embodiments, magnetic beads are useful to capture targets, and are used for magnetophoretic manipulation within the context of a purely electrical (MEMS) sample processing and/or amplification/detection cartridge and reduce or eliminate reliance on flow/pressure driven mobility within the fluidics. In some embodiments, magnetic beads are used to extract, and/or concentrate target genomic material from a sample. See e.g., Tekin, H C., et al., Lab Chip DOI: 10.1039/c3lc50477h, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. An automated microfluidic processing platform useful for embodiments provided herein is described in Sasso, L A., et al., Microfluid Nanofluidics. 13:603-612, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. Examples of beads useful with embodiments provided herein include Dynabeads® for Nucleic Acid IVD (ThermoFisher Scientific), or Dynabeads® SILANE Viral NA Kit (ThermoFisher Scientific). 
     Overview of Example fC 4 D excitation and detection 
     In some implementations, the disclosed devices, systems, and/or methods utilize a fC 4 D based approach to monitor nucleic acid amplification in real-time. Thus, one or more phase-sensitive electrical conductivity measurements may be indicative of one or more targets within a sample. 
     In some aspects, a method includes rapidly sweeping frequencies at specific drive voltage values to determine an optimal excitation frequency (f opt ) where the sample conductivity linked to amplification is maximal. At f opt  the sensor output corresponds to a minimum in the relative phase difference between the excitation voltage and the induced current, thereby enabling high-sensitivity biomolecule quantification through conductivity measurements. 
     In some implementations, a fC 4 D detection system employs at least two electrodes. The two electrodes are placed in relatively close proximity to a microchannel where nucleic acid amplification is performed. An AC signal is applied to one of the two electrodes. The electrode to which the signal is applied to may be capacitively coupled through the microchannel to the second of the two electrodes. Thus, in some aspects, the first electrode is a signal electrode and the second electrode is a signal electrode. 
     In general, the detected signal at the signal electrode is of an identical frequency as the AC signal that is applied to the signal electrode but is smaller in magnitude and has a negative phase shift. The pickup current may subsequently be amplified. In some aspects, the pickup current is converted to a voltage. In some aspects, the voltage is rectified. In some aspects, the rectified voltage is converted to a DC signal using a low-pass filter. The signal may be biased to zero before it is sent to a DAQ system for further processing. 
     The above-described system may be represented by a series of capacitors and resistors. Changes in electrical conductivity that occurs during nucleic acid amplification within the channel may cause the total impedance of the system to decrease and thus cause an increase in the level of the pickup signal that is produced. Such changes in the level of the resultant output signal may appear as one or more peaks on the DAQ system. 
     The signal generation and demodulation electronics is implemented with circuitry. For example a printed circuit board (“PCB”), ASIC device, or other integrated circuitry (“IC”) is made using traditional manufacturing and fabrication techniques. In some aspects, such electronics is fully or partially designed to be single-use and/or disposable components. The physical geometry and electrical characteristics (passivation layer thickness, electrode pad area, channel cross sectional area and length, and dielectric strength) of such circuits is varied to achieve the desired results. 
     An example nucleic acid detection system includes at least one channel, and detects one or more physical properties, such as pH, optical properties, electrical properties and/or characteristics, along at least a portion of the length of the channel to determine whether the channel contains a particular nucleic acid of interest and/or a particular nucleotide of interest. 
     An example detection system is configured to include one or more channels for accommodating a sample and one or more sensor compounds (e.g., one or more nucleic acid probes), one or more input ports for introduction of the sample and the sensor compounds into the channel and, in some embodiments, one or more output ports through which the contents of the channel may be removed. 
     One or more sensor compounds (e.g., one or more nucleic acid probes) may be selected such that direct or indirect interaction among the nucleic acid and/or nucleotide of interest (if present in the sample) and particles of the sensor compounds results in formation of an aggregate that alters one or more physical properties, such as pH, optical properties, or electrical properties and/or characteristics, of at least a portion of the length of the channel. 
     In certain cases, formation of an aggregate, nucleic acid complex, or polymer inhibits or blocks fluid flow in the channel, and therefore causes a measurable drop in the electrical conductivity and electrical current measured along the length of the channel. Similarly, in these cases, formation of the aggregate, nucleic acid complex, or polymer causes a measurable increase in the resistivity along the length of the channel. In certain other cases, the aggregate, nucleic acid complex, or polymer is electrically conductive, and formation of aggregate, nucleic acid complex, or polymer enhances an electrical pathway along at least a portion of the length of the channel, thereby causing a measurable increase in the electrical conductivity and electrical current measured along the length of the channel. In these cases, formation of an aggregate, nucleic acid complex, or polymer causes a measurable decrease in the resistivity along the length of the channel. 
     In certain cases, formation of an aggregate, nucleic acid complex, or polymer affects waveform characteristics of one or more electrical signals that are sent through a channel. As shown, for example in  FIG.  11   , a first electrode or excitation electrode  1116  and a second electrode (a ‘pickup’ or ‘sensor’ electrode)  118  are spaced apart from one another along a channel  1104 .  FIG.  11    represents an alternate or complementary approach to that described above with respect to  FIGS.  5 A- 5 D . The first and second electrodes  1116 ,  1118  may not be in contact with the measured solution that is contained within the channel  1104 . In this sense the first and second electrodes  1116 ,  1118  are capacitively-coupled to the solution within the channel  1104 . The strength of the capacitive coupling depends on the electrode geometry, passivation layer thickness, and the passivation layer material (specifically its relative dielectric strength). 
     In some aspects, the solution is confined to the channel  1104 . The channel may have a micron-scale cross-sectional area. As such, the solution behaves as a resistor whose resistance depends on the solution&#39;s conductivity and the channel  1104  geometry. 
     In some implementations, an alternating current/voltage is applied to the excitation electrode  1116  and the induced current is measured at the signal electrode  1118 . The induced current is proportional to the inter-electrode impedance, which may change with the solution&#39;s conductivity. As shown, an excitation voltage  1400  is applied to the excitation electrode  1116  and an induced current  1410  is detected by the signal electrode  1118 . 
     In some implementations, detector sensitivity is at least partially dependent on excitation frequency. Thus, in some aspects, a maximal sensitivity occurs when the absolute value of the phase of the induced current is at a minimum. In this region, chip impedance is dominated by fluid impedance. Fluid impedance is a function of fluid conductivity and chip geometry. Complex impedance information is important for ensuring maximal detector sensitivity and correct detector operation 
     An analysis of lumped parameter model for the equivalent circuit has shown that detector sensitivity is intimately related to the strength of coupling capacitance, C WALL , the solution resistance, R LAMP , and the parasitic capacitance, C X . Specifically, the change in inter-electrode impedance with respect to conductivity change is maximal when the excitation frequency, f, satisfies the following: 
       1/(π R   LAMP   C   WALL )&lt;&lt; f &lt;&lt;&lt;1/(π R   LAMP   C   X )
 
     As shown in  FIG.  12   , the impedance of the signal is dependent on the excitation frequency and changes after a LAMP reaction occurs in the channel  1104 . As also seen in  FIG.  12   , the left inequality may defines a frequency region below which the coupling impedance dominates and changes in the solution&#39;s impedance become practically invisible. The right inequality may define a frequency region above which parasitic effects dominate, and the electrodes  1116 ,  1118  are in effect shunted together. 
     As shown in  FIG.  13   , in both extremal regions, the impedance is capacitor-like, and is out of phase (approaching 90°) with the excitation voltage. Between the two regions, the impedance begins to approach the limit of a simple resistor, and the impedance versus frequency response flattens out. In fact, maximal detector sensitivity corresponds to the phase minimum of the impedance. 
     To elucidate the need for synchronous detection, one may consider two parallel paths for current in a simplified model: current through the chip via the fluidic channel and parasitic or geometric capacitance. Given an excitation signal, V, at a given frequency, f, the induced current, I, will be: 
         I ( t )=( Y+ 2π fC   x   j ) V ( t )
 
     where Y is the admittance of the chip due to coupling to the fluidic path, C x  is the parasitic capacitance, and j is the imaginary unit. Multiplication by j means the current through the parasitic path is 90° out of phase with the excitation voltage. The measured impedance of a sample chip with respect to excitation frequency is shown in  FIG.  14   . 
     In a synchronous detector, the pickup current is multiplied by an in-phase square wave, m, then low-pass filtered. 
     
       
         
           
             
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     It is straightforward to show that the contribution of signals 90° out of phase with the modulating signal will be zero, so we may ignore the parasitic capacitance in this analysis. To see the effect synchronous detection on the current through the fluidic path, one can multiply the induced current (minus the parasitic contribution), with the modulating wave 
     
       
         
           
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     A simple equivalent circuit model comprises two capacitors, C, in series with a resistor, R. As discussed above, the resistance R is primarily a function of the micro-fluidic geometry and solution conductance. The capacitance is primarily a function of the electrode area, the dielectric used for the passivation layer and the passivation layer thickness. The impedance, Z, of the simplified circuit is given by: 
     
       
         
           
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                 V 
                 
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                   &#34;\[RightBracketingBar]&#34; 
                 
               
               ⁢ 
               fC 
               ⁢ 
               
                 
                   σ 
                   ~ 
                 
                 
                   1 
                   + 
                   
                     
                       σ 
                       ~ 
                     
                     2 
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     The dependence of the detector output on the non-dimensional conductivity, {tilde over (σ)} is of note. 
     1) The detector response is asymptotically proportional to for {tilde over (σ)} for {tilde over (σ)}&lt;&lt;1 
     2) The detector response reaches a local maximum of s max =|V|fC at {tilde over (σ)}=1 
     3) The detector response is asymptotically proportional to 1/{tilde over (σ)} for {tilde over (σ)}&gt;&gt;1. 
     Given the dependence of the detector response on the non-dimensional conductance, it is important to tightly couple the design the chip and detector. Translating the previously-stated points in terms of the actual conductance result in the following: 
     1) The detector response is asymptotically proportional to σ for 
     
       
         
           
             f 
             ≫ 
             
               σ 
               
                 π 
                 ⁢ 
                 kC 
               
             
           
         
       
         
         
           
             2) The detector response is asymptotically proportional to 
           
         
       
    
     
       
         
           
             1 
             σ 
           
         
       
     
     for 
     
       
         
           
             f 
             ≪ 
             
               σ 
               
                 π 
                 ⁢ 
                 kC 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     3) The detector response becomes non-monotonic at σ=πkfC 
     In other words, increasing the excitation frequency expands the range of conductivities for which the synchronous detector output is linear. A synchronous detector response is plotted with respect to non-dimensional conductivity in  FIG.  15   . 
     To evaluate the lumped parameter model&#39;s validity, the detector response for known conductivity solutions of KCl was measured. The chip&#39;s channel was 2 mm with 0.01 mm 2  cross-sectional area. The two electrodes were each 9 mm 2 , passivated with a 10 um layer of SU8 photoresist. The cell constant and capacitance were estimated and an excitation frequency was chosen so that the conductivity corresponding to the non-linearity in the detector output would be approximately 5 mS/cm. The experiment was repeated at excitation frequencies of 10, 15, and 20 kHz. 
     The conductivity of pre-LAMP chemistries has been measured to be approximately 10 mS/cm. TABLE 1 below, presents the estimates for the minimal detector frequency governed by the constraint found earlier, namely: 
     
       
         
           
             f 
             ≫ 
             
               G 
               
                 π 
                 ⁢ 
                 C 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Geometry 
                 A E  [mm 2 ] 
                 ϵ [μm] 
                 ϵ r   
                 C [pF] 
                 A F  [mm 2 ] 
                 l [mm] 
                 G [ms] 
                 f [MHz] 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Restrictive 
                 9 
                 10 
                 3 
                 24 
                 0.01 
                 3 
                 0.003 
                 0.044 
               
               
                 Channel 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Bulk Well, 
                 0.8 
                 0.3 
                 3 
                 71 
                 0.8 
                 1 
                 0.8 
                 3.6 
               
               
                 Planar 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Electrodes 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Parallel 
                 16 
                 300 
                 2.8 
                 1.3 
                 16 
                 1.5 
                 10.5 
                 2500 
               
               
                 Plate, 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Non- 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 integrated 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Electrodes 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The results of the model, shown in  FIG.  16   , demonstrate good agreement with the detector output for a wide range of conductivities and for the given steps in frequencies. It is important to note that the same two parameters, k and C, are used at each frequency. The model predicts the qualitative behavior of the detector response. Namely, the functional form the response, the dependence of the critical conductivity at which the nonlinearity occurs on the excitation frequency. The model overestimates the divergence of the frequency-dependent behavior for conductivities past the critical conductivity. 
     As a tool to quickly estimate the conductance and wall capacitance, one may ignore surface conductivity and capacitance effects in addition to fringe fields effects. A geometry-specific finite element model can be used to further refine this crude estimate. 
     The electrode is modeled as a parallel plate capacitor of area A, separated by a dielectric of relative dielectric strength ε r , and thickness t. The capacitance is then approximated as: 
     
       
         
           
             C 
             = 
             
               
                 
                   ε 
                   0 
                 
                 ⁢ 
                 
                   ε 
                   r 
                 
                 ⁢ 
                 
                   A 
                   E 
                 
               
               t 
             
           
         
       
     
     where ε 0  is the dielectric constant. 
     The fluid may be modeled as a simple resistor of cross-sectional area A E , length l and conductivity σ. Thus, the conductance of the fluidic path may be approximated as 
     
       
         
           
             G 
             = 
             
               
                 σ 
                 ⁢ 
                 
                   A 
                   F 
                 
               
               l 
             
           
         
       
     
     From this, the cell constant is also approximated. 
     In some aspects, the device is configured to determine “impedance spectrum” after the chip is introduced. The device may include a digitally controlled excitation frequency. The device may have quick frequency sweeping ability. The device may include in-phase and quadrature components of the induced signal, from which complex impedance can be determined. The fitness of impedance spectrum is determined, at least in part, based on curve fit or other heuristic to determine proper chip insertion and/or proper sample introduction. In some aspects, the device is first tested by exciting at a frequency determined by initial sweep. In some implementations, the device includes a detector that utilizes synchronous detection. In this way, measured induced currents attributable to the fluidic path (at phase minimum) may be detected in real time. 
     Overview of Example Channels 
     In some embodiments, a channel has the following dimensions: a length measured along its longest dimension (y-axis) and extending along a plane parallel to the substrate of the detection system; a width measured along an axis (x-axis) perpendicular to its longest dimension and extending along the plane parallel to the substrate; and a depth measured along an axis (z-axis) perpendicular to the plane parallel to the substrate. An example channel may have a length that is substantially greater than its width and its depth. In some cases, example ratios between the length:width may be: 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 6:1, 7:1, 8:1, 9:1, 10:1, 11:1, 12:1, 13:1, 14:1, 15:1, 16:1, 17:1, 18:1, 19:1, or 20:1 or within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned ratios. 
     In some embodiments, a channel is configured to have a depth and/or a width that is substantially equal to or smaller than the diameter of an aggregate, nucleic acid complex, or polymer formed in the channel, preferably while in suspension in the channel, due to interaction between the nucleic acid of interest and particles of the sensor compounds (e.g., one or more nucleic acid probes) used to detect the nucleic acid of interest. 
     In some embodiments, a channel is configured to have a width taken along the x-axis ranging from about 1 nm to about 50,000 nm or a width that is within a range defined by any two numbers within the aforementioned range, but is not limited to these example ranges. An example channel has a length taken along the y-axis ranging from about 10 nm to about 2 cm, or a length that is within a range defined by any two numbers within the aforementioned range but is not limited to these example ranges. An example channel has a depth taken along the z-axis ranging from about 1 nm to about 1 micron, or a depth that is within a range defined by any two numbers within the aforementioned range but is not limited to these example ranges. 
     In some embodiments, a channel has any suitable transverse cross-sectional shape (e.g., a cross-section taken along the x-z plane) including, but not limited to, circular, elliptical, rectangular, square, D-shaped (due to isotropic etching), and the like. 
     In some embodiments, a channel has a length in a range from 10 nm to 10 cm, such as e.g., at least or equal to 10 nm, 50 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 400 nm, 600 nm, 800 nm, 1 μm, 10 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 300 μm, 600 μm, 900 μm, 1 cm, 3 cm, 5 cm, 7 cm, or 10 cm or a length that is within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned lengths. In some embodiments, a channel has a depth in a range from 1 nm to 1 μm, such as e.g., at least or equal to 1 nm, 5 nm, 7 nm, 10 nm, 50 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 400 nm, 600 nm, 800 nm, 1 μm, 10 μm, 20 μm, 30 μm, 40 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 500 μm, or 1 mm or a depth that is within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned depths. In some embodiments, a channel has a width in a range from 1 nm to 50 μm, such as e.g., 1 nm, 5 nm, 7 nm, 10 nm, 50 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 400 nm, 600 nm, 800 nm, 1 μm, 10 μm, 20 μm, 30 μm, 40 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 500 μm, or 1 mm or a width that is within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned widths. 
     In some implementations, the channels are formed in a cartridge that is later inserted into a device. In some aspects, the cartridge may be a disposable cartridge. In some aspects, the cartridge is made of cost-effective plastic materials. In some aspects, at least a portion of the cartridge is made from paper and laminate-based materials for fluidics. 
     An embodiment of a detection system  2100  that is used to detect presence or absence of a particular nucleic acid and/or a particular nucleotide in a sample is illustrated in  FIGS.  17 A- 17 B .  FIG.  17 A  is a top view of the system, while  FIG.  17 B  is a cross-sectional side view of the system. The detection system  2100  includes a substrate  2102  that extends substantially along a horizontal x-y plane. In some embodiments, the substrate  2102  may be formed of a dielectric material, for example, silica. Other example materials for the substrate  2102  include, but are not limited to, glass, sapphire, or diamond. 
     The substrate  2102  supports or includes a channel  2104  having at least an inner surface  2106  and an inner space  2108  for accommodating a fluid. In some cases, the channel  2104  is etched in a top surface of the substrate  2102 . Example materials for the inner surfaces  2106  of the channel  2104  include, but are not limited to, glass or silica. 
     The channel  2104  and the substrate  2102  are formed of glass in certain embodiments. Biological conditions represent a barrier to the use of glass-derive implantations due to the slow dissolution of glass into biological fluids and adhesion of proteins and small molecules to the glass surface. In certain non-limiting embodiments, surface modification using a self-assembled monolayer offers an approach for modifying glass surfaces for nucleic acid detection and analysis. In certain embodiments, at least a portion of the inner surface  2106  of the channel  2104  is pre-treated or covalently modified to include or be coated with a material that enables specific covalent binding of a sensor compound to the inner surface. In certain embodiments, a cover slip  2114  covering the channel may also be covalently modified with a material. 
     Exemplary materials that are used to modify the inner surface  2106  of the channel  2104  include, but are not limited to, a silane compound (e.g., tricholorsilane, alkylsilane, triethoxysilane, perfluoro silane), zwitterionic sultone, poly(6-9)ethylene glycol (Peg), perfluorooctyl, fluorescein, an aldehyde, or a graphene compound. The covalent modification of the inner surface of the channel decreases non-specific absorption of certain molecules. In one example, covalent modification of the inner surface may enable covalent bonding of sensor compound molecules to the inner surface while preventing nonspecific absorption of other molecules to the inner surface. For example, poly(ethylene glycol) (Peg) is used to modify the inner surface  2106  of the channel  2104  to reduce nonspecific adsorption of materials to the inner surface. 
     In some embodiments, the channel  2104  is nano or micro-fabricated to have a well-defined and smooth inner surface  2106 . Exemplary techniques for fabricating a channel and modifying the inner surface of a channel are taught in Sumita Pennathur and Pete Crisallai (2014), “Low Temperature Fabrication and Surface Modification Methods for Fused Silica Micro- and Nanochannels,” MRS Proceedings, 1659, pp 15-26. doi:10.1557/opl.2014.32, the entire contents of which are hereby expressly incorporated herein by reference. 
     A first end section of the channel  2104  includes or is in fluid communication with an input port  2110 , and a second end section of the channel  2104  includes or is in fluid communication with an output port  2112 . In certain non-limiting embodiments, the ports  2110  and  2112  are provided at terminal ends of the channel  2104 . 
     The top surface of the substrate  2102  having the channel  2104  and the ports  2110 ,  2112  is covered and sealed with a cover slip  2114  in some embodiments. In some embodiments, a rigid plastic is used to define the channels, including the top, and a semipermeable membrane may also be used. 
     A first electrode  2116  is electrically connected at the first end section of the channel  2104 , for example, at or near the input port  2110 . A second electrode  2118  is electrically connected at the second end section of the channel  2104 , for example, at or near the output port  2112 . The first and second electrodes  2116 ,  2118  are electrically connected to a power supply or voltage source  2120  in order to apply a potential difference between the first and second electrodes. That is, the potential difference is applied across at least a portion of the length of the channel. When a fluid is present in the channel  2104  and is under the influence of the applied potential difference, the electrodes  2116 ,  2118  and the fluid create a complete electrical pathway. 
     The power supply or voltage source  2120  is configured to apply an electric field in a reversible manner such that a potential difference is applied in a first direction along the channel length (along the y-axis) and also in a second opposite direction (along the y-axis). In one example in which the electric field or potential difference direction is in a first direction, the positive electrode is connected at the first end section of the channel  2104 , for example, at or near the input port  2110 , and the negative electrode is connected at the second end section of the channel  2104 , for example, at or near the output port  2112 . In another example in which the electric field or potential difference direction is in a second opposite direction, the negative electrode is connected at the first end section of the channel  2104 , for example, at or near the input port  2110 , and the positive electrode is connected at the second end section of the channel  2104 , for example, at or near the output port  2112 . 
     The power supply or voltage source  2120  are configured to apply an AC signal in some embodiments. The frequency of the AC signal may be changed dynamically. In some aspects, the power supply or voltage source  2120  are configured to supply an electrical signal having a frequency between 10-10 9  Hz. In some aspects, the power supply or voltage source  2120  are configured to supply an electrical signal having a frequency between 10 5 -10 7  Hz. 
     The first and second end sections of the channel  2104  (e.g., at or near the input port  2110  and the output port  2112 ) are electrically connected to a nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  that is programmed or configured to detect values of one or more electrical properties of the channel  2104  for determining whether the particular nucleic acid and/or nucleotide is present or absent in the channel  2104 . The electrical property values are detected at a single time period (for example, a certain time period after introduction of a sample and one or more sensor compounds into the channel), or at multiple different time periods (for example, before and after introduction of both the sample and one or more sensor compound into the channel). In some aspects, the electrical property values are detected continuously for a set time period from sample introduction through LAMP amplification. Example electrical properties detected include, but are not limited to, electrical current, conductivity voltage, resistance, frequency, or waveform. Certain example nucleic acid detection circuits  2122  include or are configured as a processor or a computing device, for example as device  1700  illustrated in  FIG.  18   . Certain other nucleic acid detection circuits  2122  include, but are not limited to, an ammeter, a voltmeter, an ohmmeter, or an oscilloscope. 
     In one embodiment, the nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  comprises a measurement circuit  2123  programmed or configured to measure one or more electrical property values along at least a portion of a length of the channel  2104 . The nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  also comprises an equilibration circuit  2124  that is programmed or configured to periodically or continually monitor one or more values of an electrical property of the channel over a time period, and/or to select a single one of the values after the values have reached equilibrium (e.g., have stopped varying beyond a certain threshold of variance or tolerance). 
     The nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  may also comprise a comparison circuit  2126  that is programmed or configured to compare two or more electrical property values of the channel, for example, a reference electrical property value (e.g., measured before a state in which both the sample and all of the sensor compounds have been introduced into the channel) and an electrical property value (e.g., measured after introduction of the sample and all of the sensor compound into the channel). The comparison circuit  2126  may use the comparison in order to determine whether the nucleic acid is present or absent in the channel. In one embodiment, the comparison circuit  2126  calculates a difference between the measured electrical property value and the reference electrical property value, and compares the difference to a predetermined value indicative of the presence or absence of the nucleic acid in the channel and this information is used to diagnose or predict a disease state or the presence or absence of an infection in the subject. 
     In certain embodiments, upon introduction of both the sample and the sensor compound into the channel, the comparison circuit  2126  is programmed or configured to compare a first electrical property value (e.g., magnitude of electrical current) when the electric field or potential difference is applied across the channel in a first direction along the length of the channel to a second electrical property value (e.g., magnitude of electrical current) when the electric field or potential difference is applied across the channel in a second opposite direction along the length of the channel. In one embodiment, the comparison circuit  2126  calculates a difference between the magnitudes of the first and second values, and compare the difference to a predetermined value (e.g., whether the difference is substantially zero) indicative of the presence or absence of a nucleic acid in the channel. For example, if the difference is substantially zero, this indicates absence of a nucleic acid, which may be in a dispersed, polymer form, or aggregate form, in the channel. If the difference is substantially non-zero, this indicates presence of a nucleic acid, which may be in dispersed form, a polymer form, or an aggregate form, in the channel. 
     In certain embodiments, the nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  is programmed or configured to determine an absolute concentration of the nucleic acid in a sample, and/or a relative concentration of the nucleic acid relative to one or more additional substances in a sample. 
     In some embodiments, the comparison circuit  2124  and the equilibration circuit  2126  is configured as separate circuits or modules, while in other embodiments, they are configured as a single integrated circuit or module. 
     The nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  has an output  2128  that may, in some embodiments, be connected to one or more external devices or modules. For example, the nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  may transmit a reference electrical property value and/or one or more measured electrical property values to one or more of: a processor  2130  for further computation, processing and analysis, a non-transitory storage device or memory  2132  for storage of the values, and/or a visual display device  2134  for display of the values to a user. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  generates an indication of whether the sample includes the nucleic acid, and it transmits this indication to the processor  2130 , the non-transitory storage device or memory  2132  and/or the visual display device  2134 . 
     In an example method of using the system of  FIG.  17 A  and  FIG.  17 B , one or more sensor compounds (e.g., one or more nucleic acid probes) and a sample are sequentially or concurrently introduced into the channel. When flow of the fluid and/or flow of the charged particles in the fluid is uninhibited (e.g., due to absence of an aggregate), the conductive particles or ions in the fluid travel along at least a portion of the length of the channel  2104  along the y-axis from the input port  2110  toward the output port  2112 . The movement of the conductive particles or ions produce or generate a first or “reference” electrical property value or range of values (e.g., of an electrical current, conductivity, resistivity, or frequency) being detected by the nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  along at least a portion of the length of the channel  2104 . In some embodiments, the equilibration circuit  2124  periodically or continually monitors electrical property values during a time period until the values reach equilibrium. The equilibration circuit  2124  then selects one of the values as the reference electrical property value to avoid the influence of transient changes in the electrical property. 
     As used herein, “reference” electrical property value refers to a value or range of values of an electrical property of a channel prior to introduction of a sample and all of the sensor compounds (e.g., one or more nucleic acid probes) into the channel. That is, the reference value is a value characterizing the channel prior to any interaction between the nucleic acid in the sample and all of the sensor compounds. In some cases, the reference value is detected at a time period after introduction of a sensor compound into the channel but before introduction of the sample and additional sensor compounds into the channel. In some cases, the reference value is detected at a time period after introduction of a sensor compound and the sample into the channel but before introduction of additional sensor compounds into the channel. In some cases, the reference value is detected at a time period before introduction of the sample or the sensor compounds into the channel. In some cases, the reference value is predetermined and stored on a non-transitory storage medium from which it may be accessed. 
     In some cases, formation of an electrically conductive aggregate, polymer, or nucleic acid complex in the channel (e.g., due to interactions between a nucleic acid of interest in the sample and one or more nucleic acid probes) enhances the electrical pathway along at least a portion of the length of the channel  2104 . In this case, the nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  detects a second electrical property value or range of values (e.g., of an electrical current, conductivity, resistivity, or frequency) along at least a portion of the length of the channel  2104 . In some embodiments, the nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  provides for a waiting or adjustment time period after introduction of the sample and all of the sensor compounds into the channel prior to detecting the second electrical property value. The waiting or adjustment time period allows an aggregate, polymer, or nucleic acid complex to form in the channel, preferably while being suspended in the channel, and for the aggregate, polymer, or nucleic acid complex formation to alter the electrical properties of the channel, preferably while being suspended in the channel. 
     In some embodiments, the equilibration circuit  2124  periodically or continually monitors electrical property values during a time period after the introduction of the sample and all of the sensor compounds until the values reach equilibrium. The equilibration circuit  2124  may then select one of the values as the second electrical property value to avoid the influence of transient changes in the electrical property. 
     The comparison circuit  2126  compares the second electrical property value to the reference electrical property value. If it is determined that the difference between the second value and the reference value corresponds to a predetermined range of increase in current or conductivity (or decrease in resistivity), the nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  determines that an aggregate, polymer, or nucleic acid complex is present in the channel and that, therefore, the nucleic acid target is present or detected in the sample. Based thereon, one can diagnose or identify the presence or absence of the target and a disease state or infection state in a subject. 
     In certain other embodiments, when flow of the fluid in the channel and/or flow of the charged particles in the fluid is partially or completely blocked (for example, by formation of an aggregate, polymer, or nucleic acid complex), the conductive particles or ions in the fluid are unable to freely travel along at least a portion of the length of the channel  2104  along the y-axis from the input port  2110  toward the output port  2112 . The hindered or stopped movement of the conductive particles or ions produces or generates a third electrical property value or range of values (e.g., of an electrical current or signal, conductivity, resistivity, or frequency) is detected by the nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  along at least a portion of the length of the channel  2104 . The third electrical property value is detected in addition to or instead of the second electrical property value. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  may wait for a waiting or adjustment time period after introduction of both the sample and all of the sensor compounds into the channel prior to detecting the third electrical property value. The waiting or adjustment time period allows an aggregate, polymer, or nucleic acid complex to form in the channel and for the aggregate, polymer, or nucleic acid complex formation to alter the electrical properties of the channel. 
     In some embodiments, the equilibration circuit  2124  periodically or continually monitors electrical property values during a time period after the introduction of the sample and all of the sensor compounds until the values reach equilibrium. The equilibration circuit  2124  then selects one of the values as the third electrical property value to avoid the influence of transient changes in the electrical property. 
     The comparison circuit  2126  compares the third electrical property value to the reference electrical property value. If it is determined that the difference between the third value and the reference value corresponds to a predetermined range of decrease in current or conductivity (or increase in resistivity), the nucleic acid detection circuit  2122  determines that an aggregate, polymer, or nucleic acid complex is present in the channel and that, therefore, the target nucleic acid is identified as being present in the sample. 
     The fluid flow along the length of the channel depends on the size of the aggregate, polymer, or nucleic acid complex in relation to the dimensions of the channel, and the formation of an electrical double layer (EDL) at the inner surface of the channel. 
     In general terms, an EDL is a region of net charge between a charged solid (e.g., the inner surface of the channel, an analyte particle, an aggregate, polymer, or nucleic acid complex) and an electrolyte-containing solution (e.g., the fluid contents of the channel). EDLs exist around both the inner surface of the channel and around any nucleic acid particles and aggregates, polymers, or nucleic acid complexes within the channel. The counter-ions from the electrolyte are attracted towards the charge of the inner surface of the channel, and induce a region of net charge. The EDL affects ion flow within the channel and around analyte particles and aggregates, polymers, or nucleic acid complexes of interest, creating a diode-like behavior by not allowing any of the counter-ions to pass through the length of the channel. 
     To mathematically solve for the characteristic length of the EDL, the Poisson-Boltzmann (“PB”) equation and/or Poisson-Nemst-Plank equations (“PNP”) are solved. These solutions are coupled to the Navier-Stokes (NS) equations for fluid flow to create a nonlinear set of coupled equations that are analyzed to understand the operation of the example system. 
     In view of the dimensional interplay among the channel surface, the EDLs and the aggregates, polymers, or nucleic acid complexes, example channels are configured and constructed with carefully selected dimensional parameters that ensure that flow of conductive ions is substantially inhibited along the length of the channel when an aggregate, polymer, or nucleic acid complex of a certain predetermined size is formed in the channel. In certain cases, an example channel is configured to have a depth and/or a width that is substantially equal to or smaller than the diameter of an aggregate particle formed in the channel during nucleic acid detection. In certain embodiments, the sizes of the EDLs are also taken into account in selecting dimensional parameters for the channel. In certain cases, an example channel is configured to have a depth and/or a width that is substantially equal to or smaller than the dimension of the EDL generated around the inner surface of the channel and the aggregate, polymer, or nucleic acid complex in the channel. 
     In certain embodiments, prior to use of the detection system, the channel is free of the sensor compounds (e.g., one or more nucleic acid probes). That is, a manufacturer of the detection system may not pre-treat or modify the channel to include the sensor compound. In this case, during use, a user will introduce one or more sensor compounds, for example in an electrolyte buffer, into the channel and detect a reference electrical property value of the channel with the sensor compound but in the absence of a sample. 
     In certain other embodiments, prior to use of the detection system, the channel is pre-treated or modified so that at least a portion of an inner surface of the channel includes or is coated with a sensor compound (e.g., one or more nucleic acid capture probes). In one example, the manufacturer detects a reference electrical property value of the channel modified with the sensor compound and, during use a user may use the stored reference electrical property value. That is, a manufacturer of the detection system may pretreat or modify the channel to include a sensor compound. In this case, a user will need to introduce the sample and one or more additional sensor compounds into the channel. 
     Certain example detection systems include a single channel. Certain other example detection systems include multiple channels provided on a single substrate. Such detection systems may include any suitable number of channels including, but not limited to, at least or equal to 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10, or a number of channels within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned numbers. 
     In one embodiment, a detection system includes a plurality of channels in which at least two channels operate independent of each other. The example channel  2104  and associated components of  FIGS.  17 A- 17 B  are reproduced on the same substrate to achieve such a multi-channel detection system. The multiple channels are used to detect the same nucleic acid in the same sample, different nucleic acids in the same sample, the same nucleic acid in different samples, and/or different nucleic acids in different samples. In another embodiment, a detection system includes a plurality of channels in which at least two channels operate in cooperation with each other. In some aspects, the channels are shaped differently depending on the target that is sought to be detected. 
     Overview of Example Devices for Point of Care Use 
     In some implementations, the device is portable and configured to detect one or more targets in a sample. As shown in  FIG.  19   , the device includes a processor  900  configured to control fC 4 D circuitry  905 . The fC 4 D circuitry  905  includes a signal generator  907 . The signal generator  907  is configured to supply one or more signals through a channel  2104  or test well as described above. The signal generator  907  is coupled to a pre-amplifier  915  to amplify the one or more signals from the signal generator  907 . The one or more signals is passed through a multiplexor  909  and through the channel  2104 . From the channel  2104 , the signal is amplified by a post-amplifier  911  and demodulated with a demultiplexer  913 . An analog to digital  917  convertor recovers the signal and forwards the digital signal to the processor  900 . The processor  900  includes circuitry configured to measure, equilibrate, compare, and the like, to determine if the desired target was detected in the sample. In some embodiments, the analog to digital conversion may happen first. In some such embodiments, the induced waves can be sampled in their entirety, and demodulated digitally in software. 
     The processor  900  is also coupled to one or more heating elements  920  in some embodiments. The one or more heating elements  920  may be resistive heating elements. The one or more heating elements  920  are configured to heat the sample and/or the solution in the channel  2104 . In some embodiments, the sample is heated to a temperature greater than or equal to 0° C., 5° C., 10° C., 15° C., 20° C., 25° C., 30° C., 35° C., 40° C., 45° C., 50° C., 55° C., 60° C., 65° C., 70° C., 75° C., 80° C., 85° C., 90° C., 95° C., 100° C., 105° C., 110° C., 115° C., 120° C., 130° C., 140° C., 150° C., 160° C., 170° C., 180° C., 190° C., 200° C., 210° C., 220° C., 230° C., 240° C., 250° C., 260° C. or any temperature, or any range of temperatures between two of the foregoing numbers. In some embodiments, the sample is cooled to a temperature less than or equal to 40° C., 35° C., 30° C., 25° C., 20° C., 15° C., 10° C., 5° C., 0° C., −5° C., −10° C., −15° C.,−20° C., or any temperature or any range of temperatures between two of the foregoing numbers. In view of the foregoing, the processor  900  and/or other circuitry is configured to read the temperature  925  of the sample and/or channel  2104  and control the one or more heating elements  920  until the desired heating set point  930  is reached. In some aspects the entire channel  2104  is configured to be heated by the one or more heating elements  920 . In other aspects, only portions of the channel  2104  are configured to be heated by the one or more heating elements  920 . 
     The processor  900  is configured to receive user input  940  from one or more user inputs such as keypads, touchscreens, buttons, switches, or microphones. Data is output  950  and logged  951 , reported to a user  953 , pushed to a cloud based storage system  952 , and the like. Data is sent to another device to be processed and/or further processed in some embodiments. For example, fC 4 D data may be pushed to the cloud and later processed to determine the presence or absence of a target(s) in the sample. 
     In some aspects, the device is configured to consume relatively low power. For example, the device may only require 1-10 watts of power. In some aspects, the device requires 7 watts or less of power. The device is configured to process data, wirelessly communicate with one or more other devices, send and detect signals through the channel, heat the sample/channel, and/or detect and display input/output with a touch enabled display. 
     In some implementations, a sample collector, sample preparer, and fluidics cartridge are formed as separate physical devices. Thus a first sample collector device is used to collect a sample. The sample may comprise saliva, mucus, blood, plasma, stool, or cerebral spinal fluid. The sample is then transferred to a second sample preparing device. The sample preparing device includes components and reagents required for nucleic acid amplification. After the sample is prepared, it is transferred to a third device comprising a fluidics cartridge where amplification and fC 4 D excitations and measurements take place. In some implementations, the sample collecting and sample preparation are accomplished by a single device. In some implementations, the sample preparation and fluidics cartridge are contained within a single device. In some implementations, a single device is configured to collect a sample, prepare the sample, amplify at least a portion of the sample, and analyze the sample with fC 4 D. 
     Overview of Example Compact Fluidics Cartridges 
     In some aspects, the device includes a removable fluidics cartridge that is couplable to another companion device. The removable fluidics cartridge is configured to be a disposable single use cartridge. The cartridge includes a plurality of channels in some embodiments. The channels may be differently shaped. In some aspects, four shapes of channels are used and repeated to ensure accuracy. In some aspects, more than four shapes of channels are used and repeated to ensure accuracy. In some aspects, each channel is configured to detect one unique target. In other aspects each channel is configured to detect the same target. In some implementations, the cartridge includes one or more heating elements. In general, the fluidics cartridge may include at least one channel configured for fC 4 D analysis. 
     In some aspects the cartridge includes a multi-layered laminated structure. One or more channels are stamped and/or laser cut into the substrate. The substrate includes a polypropylene film in some embodiments. One or both sides of the film are coated with an adhesive. This channel layer is secured over a polyamide heater coil in order to heat all or a portion of the channel. The channel is at least partially covered by a hydrophilic PET layer. Printed electrodes may be disposed under the PET layer. In some aspects, at least one thermistor is supplied per channel for temperature feedback. 
     In other aspects, the cartridge includes injected molded plastic. One or more channels are disposed within the injected molded plastic. A PET layer or PET film is coated on all or parts of the channels by laser welding the PET to the IM plastic. Injection molding may offer the benefits of rigidity and 3D structure and also allow for features such as valves, and a frame for easy handling. The cartridge may or may not include printed electronics and/or heating elements and/or thermistors depending on the particular design. 
     An example embodiment of a fluidics cartridge  500  is depicted in  FIG.  20   . As shown, the cartridge  2500  includes four layers. A PCB/PWB layer  2501  having electrodes  2505  traced thereon. The electrodes can be passivated with a 30 nm layer of titanium dioxide using methods such as atomic deposition. The PCB/PWB layer can include entry points  2506  for screws or other holding means to hold the four layers together. A power supply and detection circuitry can be in coupled to the PCB/PWB layer. A gasket layer  2510  having cutouts  2513  and  2514 , and entry points  2506 . The gasket layer can be manufactured from materials such as a fluorosilicone. A lower rigid substrate layer  2520  that includes entry points  2506 , and inlet ports  2522 . An upper rigid layer  2530  that includes entry points  2506 , and inlet ports  2522 . The lower and upper rigid layers can each be manufactured from materials such as acrylic. Four channels are formed when the four layers are assembled together by fixing screws or other holding means through the several entry points  2506  of the several layers. The cutouts  2513  and  2514  form the sides of the channels. The cutout  513  forms a channel having two trapezoidal ends, and the cutout  2514  forms a channel having substantially straight sides. Portions of the PCB/PWB layer  2501  including electrodes  2505  form the bottom of the channels. The lower rigid layer  2520  forms the top of the channels, and the inlet ports  2522  provide inlet and outlet ports to the channels. The inlet ports  2522  of the upper layer and inlet ports of the upper rigid layer provide a means to provide reagents to each channel. In some embodiments, a channel having two trapezoidal ends can have a volume about 30 μl to about 50 μl. In some embodiments, a channel having substantially straight sides can have a volume about 20 μl to about 30 μl. Such volumes can be adjusted by varying compression of at least the gasket layer.  FIG.  21    depicts a top plan view of the fluidics cartridge  2500  of  FIG.  20   , and shows entry points  506  for screws or other holding means, inlet ports  2522  in communication with channels  2550 , and electrodes  2505 .  FIG.  22    provides example dimensions for two electrodes  2505 .  FIG.  23    provides example dimensions for a channel  2550  having two trapezoidal ends. In some embodiments, the channel is heated to a temperature of 60° C., 61° C., 62° C., 63° C., 64° C., 65° C., 66° C., 67° C., 68° C., 69° C., 70° C., 71° C., 72° C., 73° C., 74° C., or 75° C. or within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned numbers and pressurized. In some aspects, the channel can be pressurized to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 atmospheres or within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned pressures. 
     In some embodiments, a channel of a fluidics device can be adapted to or configured to hold a sample volume greater than or equal to 1 μl, 2 μl, 3 μl, 4 μl, 5 μl, 6 μl, 7 μl, 8 μl, 9 μl, 10 μl, 20 μl, 30 μl, 40 μl, 50 μl, 60 μl, 70 μl, 80 μl, 90 μl, 100 μl, 200 μl, 300 μl, 400 μl, 500 μl, 600 μl, 700 μl, 800 μl, 900 μl, or 1000 μl, or a volume or any range between any two of the foregoing volumes. In some embodiments, a channel of a fluidics device can be adapted to be pressurized. In some embodiments, the sample in a channel can be pressurized to a pressure greater than or equal to 1 atmospheres, 2 atmospheres, 3 atmospheres, 4 atmospheres, 5 atmospheres, 6 atmospheres, 7 atmospheres, 8 atmospheres, 9 atmospheres, 10 atmospheres, or any range between any two of the foregoing pressures. In some embodiments, a channel of a fluidics device can be adapted to be held at a temperature greater than or equal to −20° C., −15° C., −10° C., −5° C., 0° C., 5° C., 10° C., 15° C., 20° C., 25° C., 30° C., 35° C., 40° C., 45° C., 50° C., 55° C., 60° C., 65° C., 70° C., 85° C., 80° C., 85° C., 90° C., 95° C., 100° C., 105° C., 110° C., 115° C., 120° C., 130° C., 140° C., 150° C., 160° C., 170° C., 180° C., 190° C., 200° C., 210° C., 220° C., 230° C., 240° C., 250° C., 260° C., or any temperature or any range between any two of the foregoing temperatures. 
     Overview of Example Sample Collection 
     In some implementations, methods, systems and device disclosed herein utilize a simplified and direct sample collection process. In this way, the number of steps from sample collection to analysis is shortened. In other words, in some implementations, it is desirable to minimize the number of times the sample is transferred and/or manipulated by the user to avoid contamination of the sample. In some aspects, the devices disclosed herein are configured to be compatible with a plurality of sample collection methods to suit all types of testing environments. Thus, homogeneous vial-to-chip interfaces are utilized in some aspects. By adjusting the sample collection systems, the detection hardware remains the same regardless of the type of sample that is collected and analyzed. 
     Overview of Example Assays 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include a simple, lysis/amplification/detection of targets from crude samples in a single vessel. Some embodiments include immuno-based amplification for detection of non-nucleic acid targets. Some embodiments include reagents added to reaction which result in increased conductivity change. Some embodiments include isothermal amplification strategies, such as LAMP, SDA, and/or RCA. In some embodiments, targets for detection are biomarkers such as proteins, small molecules such as pharmaceuticals or narcotics, or biological weapons such as toxins. Detection of such targets can be achieved by conjugating immuno-based binding reagents, such as antibodies or aptamers, with nucleic acids which will participate in an isothermal amplification reaction. In some embodiments, additives to the amplification reaction can increase the solution conductivity change which is correlated with the quantification of the target. The use of additives can provide a greater sensitivity and dynamic range for detection. 
     Some embodiments of the methods provided herein allow for sample collection and processing to have one or more of the following desirable features: be centrifuge-free; be portable; be inexpensive; be disposable; may not require wall outlet electrics; may be easy and or intuitive to use; may require only a relatively low technical skill to use; may be able extract RNA and/or DNA from a small volume sample (e.g., 70 μL); may be able to stabilize the RNA and/or DNA until amplification; may use thermally stable reagents with no cold chain storage requirements; may be assay compatible for low level of detail samples (e.g., samples having 1,000 copies or less/mL), and/or have a dynamic range with the ability to detect viral load across, for example, at least 4 orders of magnitude. 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided include the collection and processing of a sample for use in a diagnostic device, as described herein. Examples of a collected sample, also referred to as a biological sample, can include, for example, plant, blood, serum, plasma, urine, saliva, ascites fluid, spinal fluid, semen, lung lavage, sputum, phlegm, mucous, feces, a liquid medium comprising cells or nucleic acids, a solid medium comprising cells or nucleic acids, tissue, and the like. Methods to obtain samples can include the use of a finger stick, a heel stick, a venipuncture, an adult nasal aspirate, a child nasal aspirate, a nasopharyngeal wash, a nasopharyngeal aspirate, a swab, a bulk collection in cup, a tissue biopsy or a lavage sample. More examples include environmental samples, such as soil sample, and a water sample. 
     Overview of Example Amplification 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include amplification of nucleic acid targets. Methods of nucleic amplification are well known and include methods in which temperature is varied during the reaction, such as the PCR. 
     More examples include isothermal amplification in which the reaction can occur at a substantially constant temperature. In some embodiments, isothermal amplification of nucleic acid targets results in changes in conductivity of a solution. There are several types of isothermal nucleic acid amplification methods such as nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA), strand displacement amplification (SDA), loop-mediated amplification (LAMP), Invader assay, rolling circle amplification (RCA), signal mediated amplification of RNA technology (SMART), helicase-dependent amplification (HDA), recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA), nicking endonuclease signal amplification (NESA) and nicking endonuclease assisted nanoparticle activation (NENNA), exonuclease-aided target recycling, Junction or Y-probes, split DNAZyme and deoxyribozyme amplification strategies, template-directed chemical reactions that lead to amplified signals, non-covalent DNA catalytic reactions, hybridization chain reactions (HCR) and detection via the self-assembly of DNA probes to give supramolecular structures. See e.g., Yan L., et al., Mol. BioSyst., (2014) 10: 970-1003, which is hereby expressly incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     In an example of LAMP, two primers in a forward primer set are named inner (F1c-F2, c strands for “complementary”) and outer (F3) primers. At 60° C., the F2 region of the inner primer first hybridizes to the target, and is extended by a DNA polymerase. The outer primer F3 then binds to the same target strand at F3c, and the polymerase extends F3 to displace the newly synthesized strand. The displaced strand forms a stem-loop structure at the 5′ end due to the hybridization of F1c and F1 region. At the 3′ end, the reverse primer set can hybridize to this strand and a new strand with stem-loop structure at both ends is generated by the polymerase. The dumbbell structured DNA enters the exponential amplification cycle and strands with several inverted repeats of the target DNA can be made by repeated extension and strand displacement. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein components for LAMP include 4 primers, DNA polymerase, and dNTPs. Examples of the application of LAMP include Viral pathogens, including dengue (M. Parida, et al., J. Clin. Microbiol., 2005, 43, 2895-2903) Japanese encephalitis (M. M. Panda, et al., J. Clin. Microbiol., 2006, 44, 4172-4178), Chikungunya (M. M. Parida, et al., J. Clin. Microbiol., 2007, 45, 351-357), West Nile (M. Parida, et al., J. Clin. Microbiol., 2004, 42, 257-263), Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) (T. C. T. Hong, Q. L. Mai, D. V. Cuong, M. Panda, H. Minekawa, T. Notomi, F. Hasebe and K. Morita, J. Clin. Microbiol., 2004, 42, 1956-1961), and highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 (M. Imai, et al., J. Virol. Methods, 2007, 141, 173-180), each of the foregoing references is hereby expressly incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
     In an example of SDA, a probe includes two parts: a Hinc II recognition site at the 5′ end and another segment that includes sequences that are complementary to the target. DNA polymerase can extend the primer and incorporate deoxyadenosine 5′-[α-thio]triphosphate (dATP[aS]). The restriction endonuclease Hinc II then nicks the probe strand at the Hinc II recognition site because the endonuclease cannot cleave the other strand that includes the thiophosphate modification. The endonuclease cleavage reveals a 3′-OH, which is then extended by DNA polymerase. The newly generated strand still contains a nicking site for Hinc II. Subsequent nicking of the newly synthesized duplex, followed by DNA polymerase-mediated extension is repeated several times and this leads to an isothermal amplification cascade. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein components for SDA include 4 primers, DNA polymerase, REase HincII, dGTP, dCTP, dTTP, and dATPaS. An example of the application of SDA include  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  genomic DNA (M. Vincent, et al., EMBO Rep., 2004, 5, 795-800 which is hereby expressly incorporated by reference herein in its entirety). 
     In an example of NASBA, a forward primer 1 (P1) is composed of two parts, one of which is complementary to a 3′-end of a RNA target and the other to a T7 promoter sequence. When the P1 binds to the RNA target (RNA (+)), reverse transcriptase (RT) extends the primer into a complementary DNA (DNA (+)) of the RNA. RNase H then degrades the RNA strand of the RNA-DNA (+) hybrid. A reverse primer 2 (P2) then binds to the DNA (+), and a reverse transcriptase (RT) produces double stranded DNA (dsDNA), which contains a T7 promoter sequence. After this initial phase, the system enters the amplification phase. The T7 RNA polymerase generates many RNA strands (RNA (—)) based on the dsDNA, and the reverse primer (P2) binds to the newly formed RNA (—). RT extends the reverse primer and RNase H degrades the RNA of the RNA-cDNA duplex into ssDNA. The newly produced cDNA (DNA (+)) then becomes a template for P1 and the cycle is repeated. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein components for NASBA include 2 primers, reverse transcriptase, RNase H, RNA polymerase, dNTP, and rNTP. Examples of the application of NASBA include HIV-1 genomic RNA (D. G. Murphy, et al., J. Clin. Microbiol., 2000, 38, 4034-4041) hepatitis C virus RNA (M. Damen, et al., J. Virol. Methods, 1999, 82, 45-54), human cytomegalovirus mRNA (F. Zhang, et al., J. Clin. Microbiol., 2000, 38, 1920-1925), 16S RNA in bacterial species (S. A. Morre, et al., J. Clin. Pathol.: Clin. Mol. Pathol., 1998, 51, 149-154), and enterovirus genomic RNA (J. D. Fox, et al., J. Clin. Virol., 2002, 24, 117-130). Each of the foregoing references is hereby expressly incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
     More examples of isothermal amplification methods include: self-sustaining sequence replication reaction (3SR); 90-I; BAD Amp; cross priming amplification (CPA); isothermal exponential amplification reaction (EXPAR); isothermal chimeric primer initiated amplification of nucleic acids (ICAN); isothermal multi displacement amplification (IMDA); ligation-mediated SDA; multi displacement amplification; polymerase spiral reaction (PSR); restriction cascade exponential amplification (RCEA); smart amplification process (SMAP2); single primer isothermal amplification (SPIA); transcription-based amplification system (TAS); transcription meditated amplification (TMA); ligase chain reaction (LCR); and/or multiple cross displacement amplification (MCDA). 
     Overview of Example Immuno-isothermal amplification 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include the use of immuno-isothermal amplification to detect non-nucleic acid targets. In some such embodiments, primers useful in an isothermal amplification method are linked to an antibody or fragment thereof, or aptamer. As used herein “aptamer” can include a peptide or oligonucleotide that binds specifically to a target molecule. In some embodiments, the antibody or aptamer can be linked to primers useful in an isothermal amplification method through covalent or non-covalent bonds. In some embodiments, primers useful in an isothermal amplification method can be linked to an antibody or aptamer through biotin and streptavidin linkers. In some embodiments, primers useful in an isothermal amplification method can be linked to an antibody or aptamer using THUNDER-LINK (Innova Biosciences, UK). 
     In some embodiments, a target antigen binds to the antibody or aptamer, and the primers linked to the antibody or aptamer are substrates for isothermal amplification and/or initiate isothermal amplification. See e.g., Pourhassan-Moghaddam et al., Nanoscale Research letters, 8:485-496 which is hereby expressly incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. In some embodiments, a target antigen is captured in a sandwich form between two anti-bodies or aptamers (Abs), the capture antibody and the detection antibody, which are specifically bound to the target antigen. The capture Ab, which is pre-immobilized on a solid support surface, captures the target Ag, and the detection Ab, which is linked with primers useful in an isothermal amplification method, attaches to the captured Ag. After washing, isothermal amplification is performed, and the presence of amplified products indicates indirectly the presence of target Ag in the sample. 
     Overview of Example Enhancing Changes in Conductivity 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include enhancing changes in the conductivity of a solution that result from amplification of a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, chelation of pyrophosphate (“PPi”) that results from nucleic acid amplification can be used to enhance changes in the conductivity of a solution as an amplification reaction continues. Without being bound to any one theory, conductivity changes that can occur during amplification of a nucleic may be based on precipitation of magnesium cations and PPi ions from solution. Some embodiments of the methods provided herein can include increasing the conductivity change by changing the equilibria, which otherwise results in the precipitation of magnesium cations and PPi ions. In some embodiments, this is accomplished by the addition of molecules that compete against magnesium cations for PPi. In some such embodiments, compounds are provided that have a high ionic mobility, which would result in a high contribution to net solution conductivity. Therefore, the removal of the compound from solution by precipitation of the compounds with PPi produces a dramatic change in the conductivity of the solution. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein, compounds/complexes, which may bind PPi and result in changes and/or enhanced changes in the conductivity of a solution as amplification continues, include Cd 2+ -cyclen-coumarin; Zn 2 + complexes with a bis(2-pyridylmethyl)amine (DPA) unit; DPA-2Zn 2+ -phenoxide; acridine-DPA-Zn 2+ ; DPA-Zn 2+ -pyrene; and azacrown-Cu 2+  complexes. See e.g., Kim S. K. et al., (2008) Accounts of Chemical Research 42: 23-31; and Lee D-H, et al., (2007) Bull. Korean Chem. Soc. 29: 497-498; Credo G. M. et al., (2011) Analyst 137:1351-1362; and Haldar B. C. (1950) “Pyrophosphato-Complexes of Nickel and Cobalt in Solution” Nature 4226:744-745, each of which is hereby expressly incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
     Some embodiments include compounds such as 2-amino-6-mercapto-7-methylpurine ribonucleoside (MESG). MESG is used in kits to detect pyrophosphate such as an EnzChek® Pyrophosphate Assay Kit (ThermoFischer Scientific) in which MESG is converted by the purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) enzyme to ribose 1-phosphate and 2-amino-6-mercapto-7-methylpurine in the presence of inorganic phosphate. The enzymatic conversion of MESG results in a shift in absorbance maximum from 330 nm to 360 nm. PNP catalyzes conversion of pyrophosphate into two equivalents of phosphate. The phosphate is then consumed by the MESG/PNP reaction and detected by an increase in absorbance at 360 nm. Additional sensitivity is gained by the amplification of one molecule of pyrophosphate into two molecules of phosphate. Another kit includes PIPER Pyrophosphate Assay Kit (ThermoFischer Scientific). 
     In some embodiments, enhancing changes in the conductivity of a solution that result from amplification of a nucleic acid include compounds that bind amplified DNA. In some such embodiments, as amplification continues a charge carrying species binds to the increasing amounts of amplified DNA resulting in a net reduction in conductivity of the solution. In some embodiments, charged carrying species can include positively charged molecules commonly used as DNA/RNA stains/dyes, such as ethidium bromide, crystal violet, SYBR, which bind to nucleic acids through electrostatic attraction. The binding of these small, charged molecular species to large and less mobile amplification products can reduce the conductivity of the solution by effectively reducing the charge mobility of the dye molecules. It should be noted that while this electrostatic attraction is the mechanism by which DNA is frequently stained for gel electrophoresis, the molecules which bind to the amplicons need not be compounds traditionally used as DNA stains. Since these molecules are being utilized for their function as a charge carrier (contributor to the solution conductivity) as well as their ability to bind to the amplicon, they need not possess any DNA staining properties. 
     Some embodiments include the use of antibodies or aptamers linked to a nanoparticle. In some such embodiments, the presence of a target antigen results in aggregation of the antibodies and a change in conductivity of the solution. Without being bounds to any one theory, the effective electrical conductivity of colloidal nano-suspensions in a liquid can exhibit a complex dependence on the electrical double layer (EDL) characteristics, volume fraction, ionic concentrations and other physicochemical properties. See e.g., Angayarkanni SA., et al., Journal of Nanofluids, 3: 17-25 which is hereby expressly incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Antibody-conjugated nanoparticles are well known in the art. See e.g., Arruebo M. et al., Journal of Nanomaterials 2009:Article ID 439389; and Zawrah M F., et al., HBRC Journal 2014.12.001, which are each hereby expressly incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Examples of nanoparticles that are useful with the methods provided herein include γ-Al 2 O 3 , SiO 2 , TiO 2  and α-Al 2 O 3 , and gold nanoparticles, See e.g., Abdelhalim, M A K., et al., International Journal of the Physical Sciences, 6:5487-5491 which is hereby expressly incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The use of antibodies linked to nanoparticles may also enhance signal generated at a surface through measurements taken using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). See e.g., Lu J., et al., Anal Chem. 84: 327-333 which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include the use of the use of antibodies or aptamers linked to an enzyme. In some embodiments, enzyme activity produces a change in the conductivity of a solution. In some such embodiments, the change in conductivity is detected by a charge transfer to a substrate contacting the assay components. 
     Overview of Example Viral Targets 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include the detection of certain viruses and viral targets. A viral target can include a viral nucleic acid, a viral protein, and/or product of viral activity, such as an enzyme or its activity. Examples of viral proteins that are detected with methods and devices provided herein include viral capsid proteins, viral structural proteins, viral glycoproteins, viral membrane fusion proteins, viral proteases or viral polymerases. Viral nucleic acid sequences (RNA and/or DNA) corresponding to at least a portion of the gene encoding the aforementioned viral proteins are also detected with the methods and devices described herein. Nucleotide sequences for such targets are readily obtained from public databases. Primers useful for isothermal amplification are readily designed from the nucleic acid sequences of desired viral targets. Antibodies and aptamers to proteins of such viruses are also readily obtained through commercial avenues, and/or by techniques well known in the art. Examples of viruses that are detected with the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include DNA viruses, such as double-stranded DNA viruses and single-stranded viruses; RNA viruses such as double-stranded RNA viruses, single-stranded (+) RNA viruses, and single-stranded (−) RNA viruses; and retro-transcribing viruses, such as single-stranded retro-transcribing RNA viruses, and double-stranded retro-transcribing DNA viruses. Viruses that are detected utilizing this technology include animal viruses, such as human viruses, domestic animal viruses, livestock viruses, or plant viruses. Examples of human viruses that are detected with the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include those listed in TABLE 2 below which also provides exemplary nucleotide sequences from which primers useful for amplification are readily designed. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Example nucleotide sequence 
               
               
                 Example virus 
                 (NCBI Accession No.) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Adeno-associated virus 
                 NC_001401 
               
               
                 Aichi virus 
                 NC_001918 
               
               
                 Australian bat lyssavirus 
                 NC_003243 
               
               
                 BK polyomavirus 
                 NC_001538 
               
               
                 Banna virus 
                 NC_004217 
               
               
                 Barmah forest virus 
                 NC_001786 
               
               
                 Bunyamwera virus 
                 NC_001925 
               
               
                 Bunyavirus La Crosse 
                 NC_004108 
               
               
                 Bunyavirus snowshoe hare 
                   
               
               
                 Cercopithecine herpesvirus 
                 NC_006560 
               
               
                 Chandipura virus 
                   
               
               
                 Chikungunya virus 
                 NC_004162 
               
               
                 Cosavirus A 
                 NC_012800 
               
               
                 Cowpox virus 
                 NC_003663 
               
               
                 Coxsackievirus 
                 NC_001612 
               
               
                 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 
                 NC_005301 
               
               
                 Dengue virus 
                 NC_001477 
               
               
                 Dhori virus 
                   
               
               
                 Dugbe virus 
                   
               
               
                 Duvenhage virus 
                 NC_004159 
               
               
                 Eastern equine encephalitis virus 
                 NC_003899 
               
               
                 Ebolavirus 
                 NC_002549 
               
               
                 Echovirus 
                 NC_001897 
               
               
                 Encephalomyocarditis virus 
                 NC_001479 
               
               
                 Epstein-Barr virus 
                 NC_007605 
               
               
                 European bat lyssavirus 
                 NC_009527 
               
               
                 GB virus C/Hepatitis G virus 
                 NC_001710 
               
               
                 Hantaan virus 
                 NC_005222 
               
               
                 Hendra virus 
                 NC_001906 
               
               
                 Hepatitis A virus 
                 NC_001489 
               
               
                 Hepatitis B virus 
                 NC_003977 
               
               
                 Hepatitis C virus 
                 NC_004102 
               
               
                 Hepatitis E virus 
                 NC_001434 
               
               
                 Hepatitis delta virus 
                 NC_001653 
               
               
                 Horsepox virus 
                   
               
               
                 Human adenovirus 
                 NC_001405 
               
               
                 Human astrovirus 
                 NC_001943 
               
               
                 Human coronavirus 
                 NC_002645 
               
               
                 Human cytomegalovirus 
                 NC_001347 
               
               
                 Human enterovirus 68, 70 
                 NC_001430 
               
               
                 Human herpesvirus 1 
                 NC_001806 
               
               
                 Human herpesvirus 2 
                 NC_001798 
               
               
                 Human herpesvirus 6 
                 NC_001664 
               
               
                 Human herpesvirus 7 
                 NC_001716 
               
               
                 Human herpesvirus 8 
                 NC_009333 
               
               
                 Human immunodeficiency virus 
                 NC_001802 
               
               
                 Human papillomavirus 1 
                 NC_001356 
               
               
                 Human papillomavirus 2 
                 NC_001352 
               
               
                 Human papillomavirus 16, 18 
                 NC_001526 
               
               
                 Human parainfluenza 
                 NC_003461 
               
               
                 Human parvovirus B19 
                 NC_000883 
               
               
                 Human respiratory syncytial virus 
                 NC_001781 
               
               
                 Human rhino virus 
                 NC_001617 
               
               
                 Human SARS coronavirus 
                 NC_004718 
               
               
                 Human spumaretrovirus 
                   
               
               
                 Human T-lymphotropic virus 
                 NC_001436 
               
               
                 Human torovirus 
                   
               
               
                 Influenza A virus 
                 NC_002021 
               
               
                 Influenza B virus 
                 NC_002205 
               
               
                 Influenza C virus 
                 NC_006308 
               
               
                 Isfahan virus 
                   
               
               
                 JC polyomavirus 
                 NC_001699 
               
               
                 Japanese encephalitis virus 
                 NC_001437 
               
               
                 Junin arenavirus 
                 NC_005080 
               
               
                 KI Polyomavirus 
                 NC_009238 
               
               
                 Kunjin virus 
                   
               
               
                 Lagos bat virus 
                   
               
               
                 Lake Victoria marburgvirus 
                 NC_001608 
               
               
                 Langat virus 
                 NC_003690 
               
               
                 Lassa virus 
                 NC_004296 
               
               
                 Lordsdale virus 
                   
               
               
                 Louping ill virus 
                 NC_001809 
               
               
                 Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus 
                 NC_004294 
               
               
                 Machupo virus 
                 NC_005078 
               
               
                 Mayaro virus 
                 NC_003417 
               
               
                 MERS coronavirus 
                 NC_019843 
               
               
                 Measles virus 
                 NC_001498 
               
               
                 Mengo encephalomyocarditis virus 
                   
               
               
                 Merkel cell polyomavirus 
                 NC_010277 
               
               
                 Mokola virus 
                 NC_006429 
               
               
                 Molluscum contagiosum virus 
                 NC_001731 
               
               
                 Monkeypox virus 
                 NC_003310 
               
               
                 Mumps virus 
                 NC_002200 
               
               
                 Murray valley encephalitis virus 
                 NC_000943 
               
               
                 New York virus 
                   
               
               
                 Nipah virus 
                 NC_002728 
               
               
                 Norwalk virus 
                 NC_001959 
               
               
                 O&#39;nyong-nyong virus 
                 NC_001512 
               
               
                 Orf virus 
                 NC_005336 
               
               
                 Oropouche virus 
                 NC_005775 
               
               
                 Pichinde virus 
                 NC_006439 
               
               
                 Poliovirus 
                 NC_002058 
               
               
                 Punta toro phlebo virus 
                   
               
               
                 Puumala virus 
                 NC_005224 
               
               
                 Rabies virus 
                 NC_001542 
               
               
                 Rift valley fever virus 
                 NC_002044 
               
               
                 Rosavirus A 
                 NC_024070 
               
               
                 Ross river virus 
                 NC_001544 
               
               
                 Rotavirus A 
                 NC_011506 
               
               
                 Rotavirus B 
                 NC_007549 
               
               
                 Rotavirus C 
                 NC_007570 
               
               
                 Rubella virus 
                 NC_001545 
               
               
                 Sagiyama virus 
                   
               
               
                 Salivirus A 
                 NC_012957 
               
               
                 Sandfly fever Sicilian virus 
                   
               
               
                 Sapporo virus 
                 NC_006554 
               
               
                 Semliki forest virus 
                 NC_003215 
               
               
                 Seoul virus 
                 NC_005237 
               
               
                 Simian foamy virus 
                 NC_001364 
               
               
                 Simian virus 5 
                   
               
               
                 Sindbis virus 
                 NC_001547 
               
               
                 Southampton virus 
                   
               
               
                 St. louis encephalitis virus 
                 NC_007580 
               
               
                 Tick-borne powassan virus 
                 NC_003687 
               
               
                 Torque teno virus 
                 NC_002076 
               
               
                 Toscana virus 
                 NC_006319 
               
               
                 Uukuniemi virus 
                 NC_005220 
               
               
                 Vaccinia virus 
                 NC_006998 
               
               
                 Varicella-zoster virus 
                 NC_001348 
               
               
                 Variola virus 
                 NC_001611 
               
               
                 Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus 
                 NC_001449 
               
               
                 Vesicular stomatitis virus 
                 NC_001560 
               
               
                 Western equine encephalitis virus 
                 NC_003908 
               
               
                 WU polyomavirus 
                 NC_009539 
               
               
                 West Nile virus 
                 NC_001563 
               
               
                 Yaba monkey tumor virus 
                 NC_005179 
               
               
                 Yaba-like disease virus 
                 NC_002642 
               
               
                 Yellow fever virus 
                 NC_002031; and/or 
               
               
                 Zika virus 
                 NC_012532 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Overview of Example Bacterial Targets 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include the detection of certain bacteria and bacterial targets. A bacterial target includes a bacterial nucleic acid, a bacterial protein, and/or product of bacterial activity, such as toxins, and enzyme activities. Nucleotide sequences indicative of certain bacteria are readily obtained from public databases. Primers useful for isothermal amplification are readily designed from nucleic acid sequences of such bacterial targets. Antibodies and aptamers to proteins of certain bacteria are readily obtained through commercial avenues, and/or by techniques well known in the art. Examples of bacteria that are detected with the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include gram negative or gram positive bacteria. Examples of bacteria that are detected with the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include:  Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas acidovorans, Pseudomonas alcaligenes, Pseudomonas putida, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Burkholderia cepacia, Aeromonas hydrophilia, Escherichia coli, Citrobacter freundii, Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella typhi, Salmonella paratyphi, Salmonella enteritidis, Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella flexneri, Shigella sonnei, Enterobacter cloacae, Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxytoca, Serratia marcescens, Francisella tularensis, Morganella morganii, Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, Providencia alcalifaciens, Providencia rettgeri, Providencia stuartii, Acinetobacter baumannii, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Acinetobacter haemolyticus, Yersinia enterocolitica, Yersinia pestis, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Yersinia intermedia, Bordetella pertussis, Bordetella parapertussis, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Haemophilus influenzae, Haemophilus parainfluenzae, Haemophilus haemolyticus, Haemophilus parahaemolyticus, Haemophilus ducreyi, Pasteurella multocida, Pasteurella haemolytica, Branhamella catarrhalis, Helicobacter pylori, Campylobacter fetus, Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli, Borrelia burgdorferi, Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Legionella pneumophila, Listeria monocytogenes, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitidis, Kingella, Moraxella, Gardnerella vaginalis, Bacteroides fragilis, Bacteroides distasonis, Bacteroides  3452A homology group,  Bacteroides vulgatus, Bacteroides ovalus, Bacteroides  thetaiotaomicron,  Bacteroides uniformis, Bacteroides eggerthii, Bacteroides splanchnicus, Clostridium difficile, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium intracellulare, Mycobacterium leprae, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Corynebacterium ulcerans, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Staphylococcus intermedius, Staphylococcus hyicus  subsp.  hyicus, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus hominis , and/or  Staphylococcus saccharolyticus . More example include  B. anthracis, B. globigii, Brucella, E. herbicola , or  F. tularensis.    
     Overview of Example Antigen Targets 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include the detection of certain antigen targets. Antigens are detected using antibodies, binding fragments thereof, or aptamers linked to primers that are configured for amplification, such as isothermal amplification. Antibodies and aptamers to certain antigens are readily obtained through commercial avenues, and/or by techniques well known in the art. As used herein an “antigen” includes a compound or composition that is specifically bound by an antibody, binding fragment thereof, or aptamer. Examples of antigens that are detected with the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include proteins, polypeptides, nucleic acids, and small molecules, such as pharmaceutical compounds. More examples of analytes include toxins, such as ricin, abrin, Botulinum toxin, or Staphylococcal enterotoxin B. 
     Overview of Example Parasite Targets 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include the detection of certain parasite targets. A parasite target includes a parasite nucleic acid, a parasite protein, and/or a product of parasite activity, such as a toxin and/or an enzyme or enzyme activity. Nucleotide sequences indicative of certain parasites are readily obtained from public databases. Primers useful for isothermal amplification are readily designed from nucleic acid sequences of such parasite targets. Antibodies and aptamers to proteins of certain parasites are readily obtained through commercial avenues, and/or techniques well known in the art. Examples of parasites that are detected with the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include certain endoparasites such as protozoan organisms such as  Acanthamoeba  spp.  Babesia  spp.,  B. divergens, B. bigemina, B. equi, B. microfti, B. duncani, Balamuthia mandrillaris, Balantidium coli, Blastocystis  spp.,  Cryptosporidium  spp.,  Cyclospora cayetanensis, Dientamoeba fragilis, Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Isospora belli, Leishmania  spp.,  Naegleria fowleri, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale curtisi, Plasmodium ovale wallikeri, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium knowlesi, Rhinosporidium seeberi, Sarcocystis bovihominis, Sarcocystis suihominis, Toxoplasma gondii, Trichomonas vaginalis, Trypanosoma brucei , or  Trypanosoma cruzi . Certain helminth organisms such as  Bertiella mucronata, Bertiella studeri , Cestoda,  Taenia multiceps, Diphyllobothrium latum, Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis, E. vogeli, E. oligarthrus, Hymenolepis nana, Hymenolepis diminuta, Spirometra erinaceieuropaei, Taenia saginata , or  Taenia solium . Certain fluke organism such as  Clonorchis sinensis; Clonorchis viverrini, Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Echinostoma echinatum, Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola gigantica, Fasciolopsis buski, Gnathostoma spinigerum, Gnathostoma hispidum, Metagonimus yokogawai, Metorchis conjunctus, Opisthorchis viverrini, Opisthorchis felineus, Clonorchis sinensis, Paragonimus westermani; Paragonimus africanus; Paragonimus caliensis; Paragonimus kellicotti; Paragonimus skrjabini; Paragonimus uterobilateralis, Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma japonicum, Schistosoma mansoni  and  Schistosoma intercalatum, Schistosoma mekongi, Schistosoma  sp,  Trichobilharzia regenti , or Schistosomatidae. Certain roundworm organisms such as  Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus, Angiostrongylus costaricensis, Anisakis, Ascaris  sp.  Ascaris lumbricoides, Baylisascaris procyonis, Brugia malayi, Brugia timori, Dioctophyme renale, Dracunculus medinensis, Enterobius vermicularis, Enterobius gregorii, Halicephalobus gingivalis, Loa loa filaria, Mansonella streptocerca, Onchocerca volvulus, Strongyloides stercoralis, Thelazia californiensis, Thelazia callipaeda, Toxocara canis, Toxocara cati, Trichinella spiralis, Trichinella britovi, Trichinella nelsoni, Trichinella nativa, Trichuris trichiura, Trichuris vulpis , or  Wuchereria bancrofti . Other parasites such as Archiacanthocephala,  Moniliformis moniliformis, Linguatula serrata , Oestroidea, Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae,  Cochliomyia hominivorax  (family Calliphoridae),  Tunga penetrans , Cimicidae:  Cimex lectularius , or  Dermatobia hominis . More examples of parasites include ectoparasites such as  Pediculus humanus, Pediculus humanus  corporis,  Pthirus pubis, Demodex folliculorum/brevis/canis, Sarcoptes scabiei , or Arachnida such as Trombiculidae, or  Pulex irritans , or Arachnida such Ixodidae and/or Argasidae. 
     Overview of Example microRNA Targets 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include the detection of certain microRNA (miRNA) targets. miRNAs include small non-coding RNA molecules that function in RNA silencing or post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. Some miRNAs are associated with deregulation in various human diseases which are caused by abnormal epigenetic patterns, including abnormal DNA methylation and histone-modification patterns. For example, the presence or absence of a certain miRNA in a sample from a subject is indicative of a disease or disease state. Primers useful to detect miRNAs and useful for isothermal amplification are readily designed from nucleotide sequences of miRNAs. Nucleotide sequences of miRNAs are readily obtained from public databases. Examples of miRNA targets that are detected with the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include: hsa-miR-1, hsa-miR-1-2, hsa-miR-100, hsa-miR-100-1, hsa-miR-100-2, hsa-miR-101, hsa-miR-101-1, hsa-miR-101a, hsa-miR-101b-2, hsa-miR-102, hsa-miR-103, hsa-miR-103-1, hsa-miR-103-2, hsa-miR-104, hsa-miR-105, hsa-miR-106a, hsa-miR-106a-1, hsa-miR-106b, hsa-miR-106b-1, hsa-miR-107, hsa-miR-10a, hsa-miR-10b, hsa-miR-122, hsa-miR-122a, hsa-miR-123, hsa-miR-124a, hsa-miR-124a-1, hsa-miR-124a-2, hsa-miR-124a-3, hsa-miR-125a, hsa-miR-125a-5p, hsa-miR-125b, hsa-miR-125b-1, hsa-miR-125b-2, hsa-miR-126, hsa-miR-126-5p, hsa-miR-127, hsa-miR-128a, hsa-miR-128b, hsa-miR-129, hsa-miR-129-1, hsa-miR-129-2, hsa-miR-130, hsa-miR-130a, hsa-miR-130a-1, hsa-miR-130b, hsa-miR-130b-1, hsa-miR-132, hsa-miR-133a, hsa-miR-133b, hsa-miR-134, hsa-miR-135a, hsa-miR-135b, hsa-miR-136, hsa-miR-137, hsa-miR-138, hsa-miR-138-1, hsa-miR-138-2, hsa-miR-139, hsa-miR-139-5p, hsa-miR-140, hsa-miR-140-3p, hsa-miR-141, hsa-miR-142-3p, hsa-miR-142-5p, hsa-miR-143, hsa-miR-144, hsa-miR-145, hsa-miR-146a, hsa-miR-146b, hsa-miR-147, hsa-miR-148a, hsa-miR-148b, hsa-miR-149, hsa-miR-15, hsa-miR-150, hsa-miR-151, hsa-miR-151-5p, hsa-miR-152, hsa-miR-153, hsa-miR-154, hsa-miR-155, hsa-miR-15a, hsa-miR-15a-2, hsa-miR-15b, hsa-miR-16, hsa-miR-16-1, hsa-miR-16-2, hsa-miR-16a, hsa-miR-164, hsa-miR-170, hsa-miR-172a-2, hsa-miR-17, hsa-miR-17-3p, hsa-miR-17-5p, hsa-miR-17-92, hsa-miR-18, hsa-miR-18a, hsa-miR-18b, hsa-miR-181a, hsa-miR-181a-1, hsa-miR-181a-2, hsa-miR-181b, hsa-miR-181b-1, hsa-miR-181b-2, hsa-miR-181c, hsa-miR-181d, hsa-miR-182, hsa-miR-183, hsa-miR-184, hsa-miR-185, hsa-miR-186, hsa-miR-187, hsa-miR-188, hsa-miR-189, hsa-miR-190, hsa-miR-191, hsa-miR-192, hsa-miR-192-1, hsa-miR-192-2, hsa-miR-192-3, hsa-miR-193a, hsa-miR-193b, hsa-miR-194, hsa-miR-195, hsa-miR-196a, hsa-miR-196a-2, hsa-miR-196b, hsa-miR-197, hsa-miR-198, hsa-miR-199a, hsa-miR-199a-1, hsa-miR-199a-1-5p, hsa-miR-199a-2, hsa-miR-199a-2-5p, hsa-miR-199a-3p, hsa-miR-199b, hsa-miR-199b-5p, hsa-miR-19a, hsa-miR-19b, hsa-miR-19b-1, hsa-miR-19b-2, hsa-miR-200a, hsa-miR-200b, hsa-miR-200c, hsa-miR-202, hsa-miR-203, hsa-miR-204, hsa-miR-205, hsa-miR-206, hsa-miR-207, hsa-miR-208, hsa-miR-208a, hsa-miR-20a, hsa-miR-20b, hsa-miR-21, hsa-miR-22, hsa-miR-210, hsa-miR-211, hsa-miR-212, hsa-miR-213, hsa-miR-214, hsa-miR-215, hsa-miR-216, hsa-miR-217, hsa-miR-218, hsa-miR-218-2, hsa-miR-219, hsa-miR-219-1, hsa-miR-22, hsa-miR-220, hsa-miR-221, hsa-miR-222, hsa-miR-223, hsa-miR-224, hsa-miR-23a, hsa-miR-23b, hsa-miR-24, hsa-miR-24-1, hsa-miR-24-2, hsa-miR-25, hsa-miR-26a, hsa-miR-26a-1, hsa-miR-26a-2, hsa-miR-26b, hsa-miR-27a, hsa-miR-27b, hsa-miR-28, hsa-miR-296, hsa-miR-298, hsa-miR-299-3p, hsa-miR-299-5p, hsa-miR-29a, hsa-miR-29a-2, hsa-miR-29b, hsa-miR-29b-1, hsa-miR-29b-2, hsa-miR-29c, hsa-miR-301, hsa-miR-302, hsa-miR-302a, hsa-miR-302b, hsa-miR-302c, hsa-miR-302c, hsa-miR-302d, hsa-miR-30a, hsa-miR-30a-3p, hsa-miR-30a-5p, hsa-miR-30b, hsa-miR-30c, hsa-miR-30c-1, hsa-miR-30d, hsa-miR-30e, hsa-miR-30e, hsa-miR-30e-5p, hsa-miR-31, hsa-miR-31a, hsa-miR-32, hsa-miR-32, hsa-miR-320, hsa-miR-320-2, hsa-miR-320a, hsa-miR-322, hsa-miR-323, hsa-miR-324-3p, hsa-miR-324-5p, hsa-miR-325, hsa-miR-326, hsa-miR-328, hsa-miR-328-1, hsa-miR-33, hsa-miR-330, hsa-miR-331, hsa-miR-335, hsa-miR-337, hsa-miR-337-3p, hsa-miR-338, hsa-miR-338-5p, hsa-miR-339, hsa-miR-339-5p, hsa-miR-34a, hsa-miR-340, hsa-miR-340, hsa-miR-341, hsa-miR-342, hsa-miR-342-3p, hsa-miR-345, hsa-miR-346, hsa-miR-347, hsa-miR-34a, hsa-miR-34b, hsa-miR-34c, hsa-miR-351, hsa-miR-352, hsa-miR-361, hsa-miR-362, hsa-miR-363, hsa-miR-355, hsa-miR-365, hsa-miR-367, hsa-miR-368, hsa-miR-369-5p, hsa-miR-370, hsa-miR-371, hsa-miR-372, hsa-miR-373, hsa-miR-374, hsa-miR-375, hsa-miR-376a, hsa-miR-376b, hsa-miR-377, hsa-miR-378, hsa-miR-378, hsa-miR-379, hsa-miR-381, hsa-miR-382, hsa-miR-383, hsa-miR-409-3p, hsa-miR-419, hsa-miR-422a, hsa-miR-422b, hsa-miR-423, hsa-miR-424, hsa-miR-429, hsa-miR-431, hsa-miR-432, hsa-miR-433, hsa-miR-449a, hsa-miR-451, hsa-miR-452, hsa-miR-451, hsa-miR-452, hsa-miR-452, hsa-miR-483, hsa-miR-483-3p, hsa-miR-484, hsa-miR-485-5p, hsa-miR-485-3p, hsa-miR-486, hsa-miR-487b, hsa-miR-489, hsa-miR-491, hsa-miR-491-5p, hsa-miR-492, hsa-miR-493-3p, hsa-miR-493-5p, hsa-miR-494, hsa-miR-495, hsa-miR-497, hsa-miR-498, hsa-miR-499, hsa-miR-5, hsa-miR-500, hsa-miR-501, hsa-miR-503, hsa-miR-508, hsa-miR-509, hsa-miR-510, hsa-miR-511, hsa-miR-512-5p, hsa-miR-513, hsa-miR-513-1, hsa-miR-513-2, hsa-miR-515-3p, hsa-miR-516-5p, hsa-miR-516-3p, hsa-miR-518b, hsa-miR-519a, hsa-miR-519d, hsa-miR-520a, hsa-miR-520c, hsa-miR-521, hsa-miR-532-5p, hsa-miR-539, hsa-miR-542-3p, hsa-miR-542-5p, hsa-miR-550, hsa-miR-551a, hsa-miR-561, hsa-miR-563, hsa-miR-565, hsa-miR-572, hsa-miR-582, hsa-miR-584, hsa-miR-594, hsa-miR-595, hsa-miR-598, hsa-miR-599, hsa-miR-600, hsa-miR-601, hsa-miR-602, hsa-miR-605, hsa-miR-608, hsa-miR-611, hsa-miR-612, hsa-miR-614, hsa-miR-615, hsa-miR-615-3p, hsa-miR-622, hsa-miR-627, hsa-miR-628, hsa-miR-635, hsa-miR-637, hsa-miR-638, hsa-miR-642, hsa-miR-648, hsa-miR-652, hsa-miR-654, hsa-miR-657, hsa-miR-658, hsa-miR-659, hsa-miR-661, hsa-miR-662, hsa-miR-663, hsa-miR-664, hsa-miR-7, hsa-miR-7-1, hsa-miR-7-2, hsa-miR-7-3, hsa-miR-708, hsa-miR-765, hsa-miR-769-3p, hsa-miR-802, hsa-miR-885-3p, hsa-miR-9, hsa-miR-9-1, hsa-miR-9-3, hsa-miR-9-3p, hsa-miR-92, hsa-miR-92-1, hsa-miR-92-2, hsa-miR-9-2, hsa-miR-92, hsa-miR-92a, hsa-miR-93, hsa-miR-95, hsa-miR-96, hsa-miR-98, hsa-miR-99a, and/or hsa-miR-99b. 
     Overview of Example Agricultural Analytes 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include the detection of certain agricultural analytes. Agricultural analytes include nucleic acids, proteins, or small molecules. Nucleotide sequences indicative of certain agricultural analytes are readily obtained from public databases. Primers useful for isothermal amplification are readily designed from nucleic acid sequences of such agricultural analytes. Antibodies and aptamers to proteins of certain agricultural analytes are readily obtained through commercial avenues, and/or techniques well known in the art. 
     Some embodiments of the methods and devices provided herein are used to identify the presence of an organism or product of the organism in a meat product, fish product, or yeast product such as beer, wine or bread. In some embodiments, species-specific antibodies or aptamers, or species-specific primers are used to identify the presence of a certain organism in a food product. 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include the detection of pesticides. In some embodiments, pesticides are detected in samples such as soils samples or food samples. Examples of pesticides that are detected with the devices and methods described herein include herbicides, insecticides, or fungicides. Examples of herbicides include 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), atrazine, glyphosate, mecoprop, dicamba, paraquat, glufosinate, metam-sodium, dazomet, dithopyr, pendimethalin, EPTC, trifluralin, flazasulfuron, metsulfuron-methyl, diuron, nitrofen, nitrofluorfen, acifluorfen, mesotrione, sulcotrione, or nitisinone. Examples of insecticides that are detected with the devices and methods described herein include organochlorides, organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, or ryanoids. Examples of fungicides that are detected with the devices and methods described herein include carbendazim, diethofencarb, azoxystrobin, metalaxyl, metalaxyl-m, streptomycin, oxytetracycline, chlorothalonil, tebuconazole, zineb, mancozeb, tebuconazole, myclobutanil, triadimefon, fenbuconazole, deoxynivalenol, or mancozeb. 
     Overview of Example Biomarkers 
     Some embodiments of the methods, systems and compositions provided herein include the detection of certain biomarkers for certain disorders. Biomarkers can include nucleic acids, proteins, protein fragments, and antigens. Some biomarkers can include a target provided herein. Example disorders include cancers, such as breast cancers, colorectal cancers, gastric cancers, gastrointestinal stromal tumors, leukemias and lymphomas, lung cancers, melanomas, brain cancers, and pancreatic cancers. Some embodiments can include detecting the presence or absence of a biomarker, or the level of a biomarker in a sample. The biomarker can be indicative of the presence, absence or stage of a certain disorder. Example biomarkers include estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, HER-2/neu, EGFR, KRAS, UGT1A1, c-KIT, CD20, CD30, FIP1L1-PDGFRalpha, PDGFR, Philadelphia chromosome (BCR/ABL), PML/RAR-alpha, TPMT, UGT1A1, EML4/ALK, BRAF, and elevated levels of certain amino acids such as leucine, isoleucine, and valine. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1—fC4D LAMP Pre/Post Amplification Detection in PDMS 
     A LAMP reaction mix was prepared according to NEB&#39;s standard protocol using the 5′ untranslated region of the genome of  H. influenza  as the target. The mix was aliquoted into a pre-amplification vial (− control), and post-amplification vial (+ control). The pre-amplification vial was heat-inactivated at 85° C. for 20 minutes to prevent amplification. The post-amplification vial was amplified at 63° C. for 60 minutes. Aliquots from each vial were loaded sequentially, alternating between the two vials at room temperature on to the PDMS/Glass Chip v.1.1 while real time data collection was performed.  FIG.  24    is a graph depicting sensor voltage over time. 
     Example 2—fC4D Pre/Post Amplification Detection with Whole Blood in PDMS 
     A reaction mix was prepared using the 5′ untranslated region of the genome of  H. influenza  as the target with 0%, 1%, and 5% whole blood (v/v). The mix was aliquoted into a pre-amplification vial (− control), and post-amplification vial (+ control). The pre-amplification vial was heat-inactivated at 85° C. for 20 minutes to prevent amplification. The post-amplification vial was amplified at 63° C. for 60 minutes. Aliquots from each vial were loaded sequentially, alternating between the two vials at room temperature on to the PDMS/Glass Chip v.1.1 while real time data collection was performed.  FIG.  25   ,  FIG.  26    and  FIG.  27    are graphs depicting sensor voltage over time for pre-amplification (− control), and post-amplification (+ control) for 0%, 1%, and 5% whole blood, respectively. 
     Example 3—Filtering LAMP Pre/Post Amplification 
     Samples were prepared as in Example 1. Prior to measurement, all samples (minus one as a control) were spin-filtered using a 50 kD filter. Aliquots from each vial were loaded sequentially, alternating between the two vials at room temperature on to the PDMS/Glass Chip v.1.1 while real time data collection was performed. Filtration improved S/N and conductivity change.  FIG.  28    and  FIG.  29    are graphs depicting sensor voltage over time for pre-amplification (− control), and post-amplification (+ control) with 0% whole blood, for unfiltered sample and filtered sample, respectively. 
     Example 4—Conductivity Detection of 1k-1M Target Copies 
     A reaction mix was prepared using the 5′ untranslated region of the genome of  H. influenza  as the target. Detection was performed using a fC 4 D instrument. Data was averaged for 3 replicates.  FIG.  30    depicts a graph of time over target load with error bars showing standard deviation. No template negative controls showed no signal at 60 minutes heating. 
     Example 5— fC4D Pre/Post Amplification Detection with Whole Blood in PDMS 
     A reaction mix was prepared using the 5′ untranslated region of the genome of  H. influenza  as the target with 0% or 1% whole blood (v/v). The mix was aliquoted into a pre-amplification vial (− control), and post-amplification vial (+ control). The pre-amplification vial was heat-inactivated at 85° C. for 20 minutes to prevent amplification. The post-amplification vial was amplified at 63° C. for 60 minutes. Aliquots from each vial were loaded sequentially, alternating between the two vials at room temperature on to the PDMS/Glass Chip v.1.1 while real time data collection was performed.  FIG.  31    depicts a graph of conductivity for various samples from pre-amplification vial (− control), and post-amplification vial (+ control). 
     Example 6—Detection of Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Using MAIA 
     Biotinylated, polyclonal antibody capture probe (anti-HBsAg) was conjugated to streptavidin functionalized 1 micron magnetic microspheres (Dynal T1). Chimeric detection complexes were synthesized by conjugating biotinylated, polyclonal capture probe (anti-HBsAg) to streptavidin, and conjugating to the streptavidin-Antibody complex to biotinylated DNA target. The Antibody functionalized beads captured HBsAntigen from solution. The HBsAntigen was detected by the binding of the chimera Ab-DNA complex followed by amplification of the DNA template portion of the chimera complex.  FIG.  32    depicts binding between antigen, antibody conjugated with nucleic acids.  FIG.  33    depicts a graph showing detection of hepatitis B surface antigen. 
     Example 7—Detection with Low Ionic Strength Buffer 
     A commercial amplification solution, and a T10 amplification solution were prepared with the reagents listed in TABLE 2 and TABLE 3, respectively. The commercial amplification solution would typically be used in general amplification reactions. The T10 amplification solution had a reduced content of Tris-HCl, and ammonium sulfate was absent. 400 μL of each solution was prepared, and about 15 μL of each solution was loaded into a different channel of an experimental cartridge. The solutions were heated to 63.0° C. Data was collected using a data collection board. 
     The results are depicted in  FIG.  34   . The T10 amplification buffer provided at least 30% greater signal compared to the signal provided by the commercial amplification solution. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Final 
               
               
                   
                 Volume 
                   
                 added 
               
               
                 Reagent 
                 ratio 
                 Final reagent concentration 
                 volume 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Isothermal amplification 
                 0.1 
                 1x (contains 2 mM MgSO 4 ) 
                 40 
               
               
                 buffer (10x; NEB) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 MgSO 4  (100 mM; NEB) 
                 0.06 
                 6 mM (8 mM Total) 
                 24 
               
               
                 dNTP mix (10 mM each; 
                 0.14 
                 1.4 mM each 
                 56 
               
               
                 NEB) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 10x H. inf. primer mix 
                 0.1 
                 1x (1.6 μM FIP/BIP, 0.2 μM 
                 40 
               
               
                   
                   
                 F3/B3, 0.4 mM LoopF/B 
                   
               
               
                 Bst 2.0 WarmStart 
                 0.04 
                 320 U/L 
                 16 
               
               
                 polymerase 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 (8000 U/L; NEB) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 UDG (NEB) 
                 0 
                   
                 0 
               
               
                 RTx (NEB) 
                 0 
                   
                 0 
               
               
                 H. inf. DNA Sample 
                 0.04 
                   
                 16 
               
               
                 (1 Mc/uL) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Ultra Pure Water 
                 0.52 
                   
                 208 
               
               
                 Total 
                   
                   
                 400 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 1x 
                   
                   
                 mg to add 
               
               
                   
                 concentration 
                 10x concentration 
                   
                 for 10 mL 
               
               
                 Reagent 
                 (mM) 
                 (mM) 
                 FW 
                 10x 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Tris-HCl 
                 2 
                 20 
                 157.6 
                 31.52 
               
               
                 (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4   
                 0 
                 0 
                 132.14 
                 0.00 
               
               
                 KCl 
                 50 
                 500 
                 74.55 
                 372.75 
               
               
                 MgSO 4   
                 2 
                 20 
                 246.48 
                 49.30 
               
               
                 Tween 20 
                 0.10% 
                 1% 
                 100% 
                 0.1 mL 
               
               
                 DI Water 
                   
                   
                   
                 9.9 mL 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 8—Impedance Characteristics of a Fluidics Cartridge 
     The channels of a fluidics cartridge depicted in  FIG.  17 A  were filled with a 1288 mS/cm reference buffer, and an excitation frequency was swept from less than about 100 Hz to greater than about 1 MHz, and the impedance (“|Z|”) or arg Z over frequency were measured. The results are shown in  FIG.  35    which depicts either |Z| or arg Z over frequency. 
     Example 9—Amplification of Nucleic Acids Containing HCV Sequences 
     Samples containing nucleic acids comprising Hepatitis C virus (HCV) sequences were amplified in a series of experiments by LAMP under various conditions, and threshold cycle (C t ) values along with standard deviations (SD) and % relative standard deviations (RSD) were determined. Nucleic acids included synthetic nucleic acids comprising an HCV sequence; synthetic RNA comprising an HCV sequence. All reactions contained 5% Tween-20. For experiments with reactions containing about a million copies of synthetic nucleic acids comprising an HCV sequence, the average Ct was 856, with a SD of 15, and a RSD of 1.72%. 
     Samples of plasma containing synthetic RNA comprising an HCV sequence were amplified by LAMP under various conditions including: untreated, treated by heating before addition of the synthetic RNA, by heating after addition of the synthetic RNA, and by adding 100 mM DTT. Each reaction contained about 25k copies of the nucleic acid. TABLE 4 summarizes the results. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Heat-treated 
                 Heat-treated 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 before 
                 after 
                 100 nM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 addition of the 
                 addition of the 
                 DTT 
               
               
                 Parameter 
                 Untreated 
                 synthetic RNA 
                 synthetic RNA 
                 added 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Average C t   
                 1043 
                 983 
                 1190 
                 999 
               
               
                 SD 
                 53 
                 26 
                 145 
                 19 
               
               
                 RSD (%) 
                 5.12 
                 2.64 
                 12.22 
                 1.93 
               
               
                 n 
                 12 
                 16 
                 8 
                 4 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Addition of 100 mM DTT, or heat-treating plasma before addition of the synthetic RNA improved amplification as shown by RSD compared to untreated samples. Adding DTT, or heat-treating plasma before addition of the synthetic RNA also produced faster amplification (about 50 s faster) compared to untreated samples (P=0.03 and 0.002, respectively). 
     Samples of plasma containing HCV (SeraCare, Milford Mass.) were amplified by LAMP under various conditions including: heat-treating the plasma, adding 100 mM DTT, adding SDS and/or DTT. TABLE 5 summarizes the results. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 100 
                   
                   
                 0.05% 
                 0.05% 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Heat- 
                 nM 
                 0.05% 
                 0.1% 
                 SDS + 100 
                 SDS + 100 
               
               
                 Parameter 
                 Untreated 
                 treated 
                 DTT 
                 SDS 
                 SDS 
                 mM DTT 
                 mM DTT 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Average C t   
                 2020 
                 1081 
                 1117 
                 2032 
                 2793 
                 1190 
                 1288 
               
               
                 SD 
                 1368 
                 111 
                 130 
                 2052 
                 1617 
                 230 
                 278 
               
               
                 RSD (%) 
                 67.72 
                 10.23 
                 11.63 
                 100.96 
                 57.89 
                 19.36 
                 21.57 
               
               
                 n 
                 15 
                 18 
                 16 
                 16 
                 15 
                 16 
                 16 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Heat treating the plasma or adding DTT improved amplification results, compared to untreated plasma, as shown by RSD values. Adding either 0.05% or 0.1% SDS reduced the reproducibility and speed of the amplification compared to plasma that was untreated, heat-treated, or DTT was added. 
     Example 10—Amplification of Clinical Samples Containing HCV 
     Clinical plasma samples containing HCV were amplified by LAMP with various concentrations of DTT. WarmStart LAMP master mix (New England Biolabs) was used to prepare samples in quadruplicates. Samples included: 5% plasma (SeraCare, Milford Mass.) containing about ˜20k copies of HCV/reaction, 50 U/reaction murine RNase inhibitor, with various concentrations of Tween and DTT. Samples containing synthetic nucleic acids comprising an HCV sequence (1M copies/rxn) were tested with 1% and 5% Tween. No target controls (NTCs) were also tested. The LAMP was carried out at 67° C., and results measured on a Zeus QS3 system for 60 cycles at 1 min/cycle, with data taken each cycle, and an up/down melt curve was applied after LAMP was complete. Results are summarized in TABLE 6. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Average 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Sample 
                 C t   
                 SD 
                 RSD (%) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Synthetic nucleic acids + 1% Tween 
                 1214 
                 15 
                 1.22 
               
               
                 Synthetic nucleic acids + 5% Tween 
                 1123 
                 54 
                 4.84 
               
               
                 Plasma + 1% Tween 
                 1754 
                 1040 
                 59.32 
               
               
                 Plasma + 1% Tween + 5 mM DTT 
                 1728 
                 1030 
                 59.61 
               
               
                 Plasma + 1% Tween + 10 mM DTT 
                 1202 
                 213 
                 17.76 
               
               
                 Plasma + 1% Tween + 25 mM DTT 
                 1467 
                 609 
                 41.53 
               
               
                 Plasma + 1% Tween + 50 mM DTT 
                 1576 
                 543 
                 34.43 
               
               
                 Plasma + 1% Tween + 100 mM DTT 
                 1391 
                 165 
                 11.84 
               
               
                 Plasma + 5% Tween 
                 1038 
                 48 
                 4.64 
               
               
                 Plasma + 5% Tween + 5 mM DTT 
                 961 
                 52 
                 5.43 
               
               
                 Plasma + 5% Tween + 10 mM DTT 
                 979 
                 68 
                 6.94 
               
               
                 Plasma + 5% Tween + 25 mM DTT 
                 983 
                 38 
                 3.89 
               
               
                 Plasma + 5% Tween + 50 mM DTT 
                 965 
                 122 
                 12.66 
               
               
                 Plasma + 5% Tween + 100 mM DTT 
                 1111 
                 102 
                 9.18 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 No template control 
                 No amplification detected 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Samples containing 5% Tween had improved amplification compared to samples containing 1% Tween, as shown by RSD values. A similar study was carried out further varying the concentrations of Tween in reaction tubes. The results are summarized in TABLE 7. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Sample 
                 Average C t   
                 SD 
                 RSD (%) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Synthetic nucleic acids + 2% Tween 
                 957 
                 3 
                 0.27 
               
               
                 Synthetic nucleic acids + 5% Tween 
                 842 
                 12 
                 1.37 
               
               
                 Plasma + 2% Tween 
                 2163 
                 n/a 
                 n/a 
               
               
                 Plasma + 2% Tween + 0.5 mM DTT 
                 1671 
                 989 
                 59.16 
               
               
                 Plasma + 2% Tween + 1 mM DTT 
                 1512 
                 623 
                 41.17 
               
               
                 Plasma + 2% Tween + 5 mM DTT 
                 1234 
                 154 
                 12.45 
               
               
                 Plasma + 2% Tween + 10 mM DTT 
                 1042 
                 56 
                 5.38 
               
               
                 Plasma + 3% Tween 
                 1995 
                 1004 
                 50.34 
               
               
                 Plasma + 3% Tween + 0.5 mM DTT 
                 1119 
                 63 
                 5.65 
               
               
                 Plasma + 3% Tween + 1 mM DTT 
                 1581 
                 948 
                 59.87 
               
               
                 Plasma + 3% Tween + 5 mM DTT 
                 1067 
                 107 
                 10.03 
               
               
                 Plasma + 3% Tween + 10 mM DTT 
                 1237 
                 120 
                 9.73 
               
               
                 Plasma + 4% Tween 
                 1182 
                 71 
                 6.04 
               
               
                 Plasma + 4% Tween + 0.5 mM DTT 
                 1112 
                 117 
                 10.56 
               
               
                 Plasma + 4% Tween + 1 mM DTT 
                 1229 
                 301 
                 24.50 
               
               
                 Plasma + 4% Tween + 5 mM DTT 
                 1076 
                 114 
                 10.64 
               
               
                 Plasma + 4% Tween + 10 mM DTT 
                 1017 
                 57 
                 5.61 
               
               
                 Plasma + 5% Tween 
                 1142 
                 62 
                 5.42 
               
               
                 Plasma + 5% Tween + 0.5 mM DTT 
                 1104 
                 93 
                 8.46 
               
               
                 Plasma + 5% Tween + 1 mM DTT 
                 1510 
                 800 
                 52.99 
               
               
                 Plasma + 5% Tween + 5 mM DTT 
                 1020 
                 65 
                 6.34 
               
               
                 Plasma + 5% Tween + 10 mM DTT 
                 1014 
                 59 
                 5.79 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 No template control 
                 No amplification detected 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Reaction volumes with greater concentrations of Tween and DTT had better reproducibility of amplification results for the HCV samples, specifically, in replicated reactions there were fewer extreme outliers, fewer failed amplifications, and lower RSD values for amplified replicates. At 5 mM DTT and 10 mM DTT, there were no replicates that did not amplify for any concentration of Tween. Likewise, at 4% and 5% Tween, there were no failed replicates or extreme outliers, except for the low (1 mM and below) DTT concentrations. 
     Example 11—Amplification of Targets with Cartridges 
     A series of three experiments were performed using a cartridge substantially similar to the cartridge depicted in  FIG.  2    having six wells, each well having an annular ring electrode. Each well was associated with a measured channel. Samples included targets nucleic acids comprising sequences from  Haemophilus influenza  (Hinf), or Hepatitis B virus (HBV). Samples were amplified by LAMP, and changes in impedance were measured. 
     Wells were prepared by pre-heating the cartridge to 72° C. for 20 minutes, filling each well with 25 μl ‘no template and primer control’ (NTPC) buffer, capping the buffer with mineral oil, heating the cartridge to 72° C. for 20 minutes, removing bubbles from the wells, cooling the cartridge at room temperate for 10 minutes. Samples were injected at the bottom of the prefilled wells, and the cartridge was placed at 67° C., or 76.5° C. to carry out the LAMP for a particular experiment. The frequency used for the Hinf studies was 60 kHz. Samples and corresponding wells/channels for each cartridge are listed in TABLE 8. Target sequences and primers are listed in TABLE 9. Reaction components are listed in TABLE 10. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Well/channel 
                 Sample 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 1 
                 Synthetic HBV 
               
               
                 2 
                 Synthetic HBV 
               
               
                 3 
                 Synthetic HBV 
               
               
                 4 
                 NTPC 
               
               
                 5 
                 Hinf 
               
               
                 6 
                 Hinf 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 9 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 
                 Sequence 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 01 
                 GACAAGAATCCTCACAATACCGCAGAGTCTAGACTC 
               
               
                 (HBV target) 
                 GTGGTGGACTTCTCTCAATTTTCTAGGGGGATCACCC 
               
               
                   
                 GTGTGTCTTGGCCAAAATTCGCAGTCCCCAACCTCC 
               
               
                   
                 AATCACTCACCAACCTCCTGTCCTCCAATTTGTCCTG 
               
               
                   
                 GTTATCGCTGGATGTGTCTGCGGCGTTTTATCATATT 
               
               
                   
                 CCTCTTCATCCTGCTGCTATGCC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 02 
                 TCCTCACAATACCGCAGAGT 
               
               
                 (HBV F3 primer) 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 03 
                 GCATAGCAGCAGGATGAAGA 
               
               
                 (HBV B3 primer) 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 04 
                 GTTGGGGACTGCGAATTTTGGCCTCGTGGTGGACTT 
               
               
                 (HBV FIP primer) 
                 CTCTCA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 05 
                 TCACCAACCTCCTGTCCTCCAAATAAAACGCCGCAG 
               
               
                 (HBV BIP primer) 
                 ACACAT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 06 
                 ACGGGTGATCCCCCTAGAAAA 
               
               
                 (HBV LF primer) 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 07 
                 TTTGTCCTGGTTATCGCTGG 
               
               
                 (HBV LB primer) 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 08 
                 TGGTACGCCAATACATTCAACAAGAAATTAATCCAA 
               
               
                 (Hinf target) 
                 AAGAAAAATTTGCGTTTGTTGAATTCTGGGGGCGAG 
               
               
                   
                 GCTATACACAAGATACCTTTGGTCGTCTGCTAAATG 
               
               
                   
                 ATGCCTTTGGTAAAGAAGTAAAAAACCCATTCTATT 
               
               
                   
                 ATGTCAGAAGTTTTACTGATGATATGGGTACATCTGT 
               
               
                   
                 TCGCCATAACTTCATCTTAGCACCACAAAACTTCTCA 
               
               
                   
                 TTCTTCGAGCCTATTTTTGCACAAACCCCATACGACA 
               
               
                   
                 GTATTCCTGATTACTACGAAGAAAAAGGCAGAATTG 
               
               
                   
                 AACCAATTA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 09 
                 GCAGACGACCAAAGGTATCTTG 
               
               
                 (Hinf LF primer) 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 10 
                 CGTATGGGGTTTGTGCA 
               
               
                 (Hinf B3 primer) 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 11 
                 CGCCAATACATTCAACAAGA 
               
               
                 (Hinf F3 primer) 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 12 
                 CTGATGATATGGGTACATCTGTTCGCGAAGAATGAG 
               
               
                 (Hinf BIP primer) 
                 AAGTTTTGTGG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 13 
                 ACTTCTTTACCAAAGGCATCATTTTGCGTTTGTTGAC 
               
               
                 (Hinf FIP primer sequence) 
                 GCCAAATTCTGG 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 10 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Mix 
                 Component 
                 Volume (μl) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Master mix 1 
                 LAMP master mix (2X; NEB) 
                 12.5 
               
               
                   
                 dUTP Additive (100 mM; Sigma) 
                 0.175 
               
               
                 NTPC mix 
                 Master mix 1 
                 12.675 
               
               
                   
                 Water 
                 12.325 
               
               
                 Hinf mix 
                 Master mix 1 
                 12.675 
               
               
                   
                 Hinf primers (25X) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 Hinf target (1M/μl) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 Water 
                 10.325 
               
               
                 Master mix 2 
                 Master mix 1 
                 12.675 
               
               
                   
                 UDG 
                 0.5 
               
               
                   
                 HBV primers (25X) 
                 1 
               
               
                 Synthetic HBV 
                 Master mix 2 
                 13.175 
               
               
                   
                 HBV target (10e10 c/μl) 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 Water 
                 10.825 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Data for LAMP carried out on the cartridge at 65° C. are shown in  FIGS.  36 A and  36 B .  FIG.  36 A  is a graph of the out of phase portion of an attenuated excitation signal sensed in a test well of the cartridge of  FIG.  2   , in which the x-axis is time, and lines representing LAMP on samples for NTPC, and examples of Hinf and synthetic HBV are labelled.  FIG.  36 B  is a graph of the in phase portion of an attenuated excitation signal sensed in a test well of the cartridge of  FIG.  2   , with lines representing synthetic HBV (channels 1-3), NTPC (channel 4) and Hinf (channels 5-6). Samples containing synthetic HBV were not amplified on the cartridge at 65° C. The labeled Hinf sample shows an example signal cliff indicative of a positive sample. 
     Data for LAMP carried out on the cartridge at 67° C. are shown in  FIGS.  36 C and  36 D .  FIG.  36 C  is a graph of the out of phase portion of an attenuated excitation signal sensed in a test well of the cartridge of  FIG.  2   , in which the x-axis is time, and lines representing LAMP on samples for NTPC, and examples of Hinf and synthetic HBV are labelled.  FIG.  36 D  is a graph of the in phase portion of an attenuated excitation signal sensed in a test well of the cartridge of  FIG.  2    with lines representing synthetic HBV (channels 1-3), NTPC (channel 4) and Hinf (channels 5-6). Samples containing synthetic HBV amplified on the cartridge at 67° C. at about 49 minutes. The labeled Hinf sample shows an example signal cliff indicative of a positive sample. 
     Data for LAMP carried out on the cartridge at 67° C. is shown in  FIGS.  36 E and  36 F .  FIG.  36 E  is a graph of the out of phase portion of an attenuated excitation signal sensed in a test well of the cartridge of  FIG.  2   , in which the x-axis is time, and lines representing LAMP on samples for NTPC, and examples of Hinf and synthetic HBV are labelled.  FIG.  36 F  is a graph of the in-phase portion of an attenuated excitation signal sensed in a test well of the cartridge of  FIG.  2   , with lines representing synthetic HBV (channels 1-3), NTPC (channel 4) and Hinf (channels 5-6). Samples containing synthetic HBV amplified on the cartridge at 67° C. at about 46 minutes. 
     Samples were also tested by quantative PCR using an Applied Biosystems QuantStudio™ 3 Real-Time PCR System at 67° C. Threshold cycles (C t ) were calculated using Thermo Fisher&#39;s QS3 software with a threshold set at 100k and the baseline set for the same value for each set of the same reactions. TABLE 11 lists average Ct values for samples containing Hinf, or synthetic HBV. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 11 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Sample (target 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 concentration) 
                 Average Ct 
                 SD 
                 RSD (%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Hinf PC (1M c/uL) 
                 1704.5 
                 10.4 
                 0.6 
               
               
                   
                 HBV Synt (10B c/uL) 
                 380.4 
                 5.5 
                 1.5 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Implementing Systems and Terminology 
     Implementations disclosed herein provide systems, methods and apparatus for detection of the presence and/or quantity of a target analyte. One skilled in the art will recognize that these embodiments may be implemented in hardware or a combination of hardware and software and/or firmware. 
     The signal processing and reader device control functions described herein may be stored as one or more instructions on a processor-readable or computer-readable medium. The term “computer-readable medium” refers to any available medium that can be accessed by a computer or processor. By way of example, and not limitation, such a medium may comprise RAM, ROM, EEPROM, flash memory, CD-ROM or other optical disk storage, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium that can be used to store desired program code in the form of instructions or data structures and that can be accessed by a computer. It should be noted that a computer-readable medium may be tangible and non-transitory. The term “computer-program product” refers to a computing device or processor in combination with code or instructions (e.g., a “program”) that may be executed, processed or computed by the computing device or processor. As used herein, the term “code” may refer to software, instructions, code or data that is/are executable by a computing device or processor. 
     The various illustrative logical blocks and modules described in connection with the embodiments disclosed herein can be implemented or performed by a machine, such as a general purpose processor, a digital signal processor (DSP), an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a field programmable gate array (FPGA) or other programmable logic device, discrete gate or transistor logic, discrete hardware components, or any combination thereof designed to perform the functions described herein. A general purpose processor can be a microprocessor, but in the alternative, the processor can be a controller, microcontroller, combinations of the same, or the like. A processor can also be implemented as a combination of computing devices, e.g., a combination of a DSP and a microprocessor, a plurality of microprocessors, one or more microprocessors in conjunction with a DSP core, or any other such configuration. Although described herein primarily with respect to digital technology, a processor may also include primarily analog components. For example, any of the signal processing algorithms described herein may be implemented in analog circuitry. A computing environment can include any type of computer system, including, but not limited to, a computer system based on a microprocessor, a mainframe computer, a digital signal processor, a portable computing device, a personal organizer, a device controller, and a computational engine within an appliance, to name a few. 
     The methods disclosed herein comprise one or more steps or actions for achieving the described method. The method steps and/or actions may be interchanged with one another without departing from the scope of the claims. In other words, unless a specific order of steps or actions is required for proper operation of the method that is being described, the order and/or use of specific steps and/or actions may be modified without departing from the scope of the claims. 
     The term “comprising” as used herein is synonymous with “including,” “containing,” or “characterized by,” and is inclusive or open-ended and does not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps. 
     The above description discloses several methods and materials of the present invention. This invention is susceptible to modifications in the methods and materials, as well as alterations in the fabrication methods and equipment. Such modifications will become apparent to those skilled in the art from a consideration of this disclosure or practice of the invention disclosed herein. Consequently, it is not intended that this invention be limited to the specific embodiments disclosed herein, but that it cover all modifications and alternatives coming within the true scope and spirit of the invention. 
     All references cited herein, including but not limited to published and unpublished applications, patents, and literature references, are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety and are hereby made a part of this specification. To the extent publications and patents or patent applications incorporated by reference contradict the disclosure contained in the specification, the specification is intended to supersede and/or take precedence over any such contradictory material.