Patent Publication Number: US-11396607-B2

Title: Compositions and methods for fabricating durable, low-ice-adhesion coatings

Description:
PRIORITY DATA 
     This patent application is a divisional application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/608,975, filed on May 30, 2017 (now allowed), which is (a) a non-provisional application of U.S. Provisional Patent App. No. 62/345,250, filed on Jun. 3, 2016, as well as (b) a continuation-in-part of U.S. Pat. No. 10,125,227, issued on Nov. 13, 2018, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. U.S. Pat. No. 10,125,227 is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Pat. No. 10,344,244, issued on Jul. 9, 2019, which is a non-provisional application of U.S. Provisional Patent App. No. 61/953,093, filed on Mar. 14, 2014, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention generally relates to low-ice-adhesion coatings. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Coatings and materials can become soiled from debris (particles, insects, oils, etc.) impacting the surface as well as ice forming on the surface. The debris and ice affects airflow over the surface. 
     In aviation, icing conditions are those atmospheric conditions that can lead to the formation of water ice on the surfaces of an aircraft, or within the engine as carburetor icing. Inlet icing is another engine-related danger, often occurring in jet aircraft. Icing conditions exist when the air contains droplets of supercooled liquid water. The wing will ordinarily stall at a lower angle of attack, and thus a higher airspeed, when contaminated with ice. 
     If ice is present on an aircraft prior to takeoff, the ice must be removed from critical surfaces. Removal can take many forms, including mechanical means, deicing fluids, hot water, or infrared heating. These techniques may remove existing contamination, but provide no practical protection in airborne icing conditions. Deicing fluids may resist the effects of snow and rain for some time but are intended to shear off the aircraft during takeoff and therefore provide no inflight protection. 
     To protect an aircraft against icing in-flight, various forms of anti-icing or deicing are used. Some aircraft are equipped with pneumatic deicing boots that disperse ice build-up on the surface. A weeping wing system may be used, with many small holes that release anti-icing fluid on demand to prevent the buildup of ice. Electrical heating may be used to protect aircraft and components (including propellers) against icing. Modern commercial aircraft often employ a hollow tube located behind the leading edge of the wing, through which hot engine bleed air is directed to melt and release ice. 
     Passive, durable anti-icing coatings have been identified as a need in the aerospace field for many decades. However, previous solutions lacked a required level of performance in ice adhesion reduction, adequate long-term durability, or both of these. Some of the most-effective coatings for reducing ice adhesion are dependent on sacrificial oils or greases that have limited useful lifetimes and require regular reapplication. Currently, durable coatings for exposed areas on fixed wing and rotorcraft (such as the leading edge of the wing or rotorblade) include thermoplastic elastomers bonded to the vehicle surface using a film adhesive or an activated adhesive backing incorporated into the coating itself. However, the prior compositions do not provide any benefit in lowering ice adhesion. 
     There remains a desire for coatings on aircraft exteriors (and other aerospace-relevant surfaces) in order to passively suppress the growth of ice near strategic points on the vehicle—such as the rotorblade edge, wing leading edge, or engine inlet. There also exists a need for high-performance coating materials fabricated in a way that preserves coating function during actual use of aerospace structures. 
     AMIL is the Anti-icing Materials International Laboratory located at the Université du Québec a Chicoutimi in Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada. The icephobic character of a coating can be evaluated by measuring the ice adhesion reduction effect of a candidate coating compared to an uncoated surface. AMIL can evaluate icephobic coatings in many different atmospheric conditions (wind and temperature) with glaze or rime accreted ice obtained with a simulation of freezing precipitation. 
     A single “Centrifuge Adhesion Test” by AMIL consists of the ice adhesion measurement of three small aluminum beams covered with the candidate product, compared with three bare beams. The extremity of the six sample beams are iced simultaneously with freezing precipitation on about 5 cm 2  surface to a thickness of about 7 mm. Each sample beam is rotated and balanced in the centrifuge apparatus. The rotation speed increases with a constant acceleration rate until the centrifugal force resulting from rotation reaches the adhesion stress of ice, detaching the ice. This detachment is picked up by a piezoelectric cell (sensitive to vibrations) which relays signals in real time to a computer. Finally, the adhesion stress is calculated using detachment speed, the mass of ice, and the beam length. 
     The Adhesion Reduction Factor, ARF is calculated using the average stress measured on the three coated beams compared to the average stress measured on the three bare (control) beams. In particular, from the centrifugal force the stress is determined as F=mrω 2  where F=centrifugal force [N], m=mass of ice [kg], r=radius of the beam [m], and ω=speed of rotation [rad/s]. The Adhesion Reduction Factor (AMIL ARF) is then calculated using the average stress measured on the three coated beams compared to the average stress measured on the three bare beams: ARF=τ bare /τ coated  where τ bare =average stress measured on three simultaneously iced bare beams [Pa] and τ coated =average stress measured on three simultaneously iced beams with candidate icephobic coating [Pa]. The web site www.uqac.ca/amil/en/icephobiccoatings/centrifuge, as retrieved on the filing date hereof, is hereby incorporated by reference herein. 
     An ARF value of 1 means there is no icephobic effect. An ARF value greater than 1 means there is an ice-adhesion reduction (icephobic effect); the higher the value, the more icephobic (low ice adhesion) the coating. 
     Low-ice-adhesion coatings are certainly not limited to aerospace-relevant surfaces. Other potential applications would include wind turbine blades, automobiles, trucks, trains, ocean-going vessels, electrical power transmission lines, buildings, windows, antennas, filters, instruments, sensors, cameras, satellites, weapon systems, and chemical plant infrastructure (e.g., distillation columns and heat exchangers). 
     In view of the shortcomings in the art, improved low-ice-adhesion coating materials and material systems, and compositions suitable for these systems, are needed. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention addresses the aforementioned needs in the art, as will now be summarized and then further described in detail below. 
     Some variations provide a low-ice-adhesion coating comprising a microstructure characterized in that the microstructure contains at least a first-material phase and a second-material phase that is microphase-separated from the first-material phase on an average length scale of phase inhomogeneity from about 0.1 microns to about 500 microns, wherein the coating is characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 10 or more. 
     In some embodiments, the average length scale of phase inhomogeneity is from about 0.5 microns to about 100 microns, or from about 1 micron to about 50 microns. 
     In some embodiments, the coating is characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 25 or more, about 50 or more, or about 100 or more. 
     In some low-ice-adhesion coatings, one of the first-material phase and the second-material phase is hydrophobic, and the other is hydrophilic. In these or other embodiments, one of the first-material phase and the second-material phase is hydrophobic, and the other is hygroscopic. In these or other embodiments, one of the first-material phase and the second-material phase is hygroscopic, and the other comprises a low-surface-energy polymer having a surface energy between about 5 mJ/m 2  to about 50 mJ/m 2 . 
     The first-material phase and the second-material phase may be covalently connected in a block copolymer. 
     In some embodiments, the low-ice-adhesion coating is characterized by a delay in the formation of ice of at least about 5 minutes at −10° C. 
     Some variations of the present invention provide a low-ice-adhesion material comprising: 
     a substantially continuous matrix containing a first component; and 
     a plurality of discrete inclusions containing a second component, wherein the inclusions are dispersed within the matrix to form a phase-separated microstructure that is inhomogeneous on an average length scale of phase inhomogeneity from about 0.1 microns to about 500 microns, 
     wherein one of the first component or the second component is a low-surface-energy polymer having a surface energy between about 5 mJ/m 2  to about 50 mJ/m 2 , and the other of the first component or the second component is a hygroscopic material, 
     and wherein the continuous matrix and the inclusions form a material surface characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 10 or more. 
     In some embodiments, the low-surface-energy polymer is a fluoropolymer, such as a fluoropolymer selected from the group consisting of polyfluoroethers, perfluoropolyethers, polyfluoroacrylates, polyfluorosiloxanes, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), polyvinylfluoride (PVF), polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), copolymers of ethylene and trifluoroethylene, copolymers of ethylene and chlorotrifluoroethylene, and combinations thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the hygroscopic material is selected from the group consisting of poly(acrylic acid), poly(ethylene glycol), poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate), poly(vinyl imidazole), poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline), poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline), poly(vinylpyrolidone), cellulose, modified cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, hydrogels, PEG diacryalate, monoacrylate, and combinations thereof. 
     The low-surface-energy polymer and the hygroscopic material may be covalently connected in a block copolymer. In these embodiments, the block copolymer may be a segmented urethane/urea copolymer composition comprising: 
     (a) one or more first soft segments selected from fluoropolymers having an average molecular weight from about 500 g/mol to about 10,000 g/mol, wherein the fluoropolymers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (b) one or more second soft segments selected from polyesters or polyethers, wherein the polyesters or polyethers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (c) one or more isocyanate species, or a reacted form thereof, possessing an isocyanate functionality of 2 or greater; and 
     (d) one or more polyol or polyamine chain extenders or crosslinkers, or a reacted form thereof. 
     In specific embodiments, the fluoropolymers include a fluoropolymer having the structure: 
                         
wherein:
     X, Y═CH 2 —(O—CH 2 —CH 2 ) p —OH wherein p=0 to 50 and wherein X and Y are independently selected;   m=1 to 100; and   n=1 to 100.   

     In some embodiments, the polyesters or polyethers are selected from the group consisting of poly(oxymethylene), poly(ethylene glycol), poly(propylene glycol), poly(tetrahydrofuran), poly(glycolic acid), poly(caprolactone), poly(ethylene adipate), poly(hydroxybutyrate), poly(hydroxyalkanoate), and combinations thereof. 
     The low-ice-adhesion material optionally further includes one or more additional components selected from the group consisting of a particulate filler, a pigment, a dye, a plasticizer, a flame retardant, a flattening agent, and a substrate adhesion promoter. A particulate filler (when present) may be selected from the group consisting of silica, alumina, silicates, talc, aluminosilicates, barium sulfate, mica, diatomite, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, carbon, wollastonite, and combinations thereof. 
     The average length scale of phase inhomogeneity may be from about 0.5 microns to about 100 microns, or from about 1 micron to about 50 microns, for example. 
     In some embodiments, the material is characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 25 or more, such as about 100 or more. 
     A coating may be provided, containing the low-ice-adhesion material as disclosed. 
     Some variations provide a method of forming a low-ice-adhesion coating, the method comprising: 
     (a) obtaining a hardenable precursor material for a low-ice-adhesion coating, the hardenable precursor material comprising: 
     a first component; and 
     a plurality of inclusions containing a second component, 
     wherein one of the first component or the second component is a low-surface-energy polymer having a surface energy between about 5 mJ/m 2  to about 50 mJ/m 2 , and the other of the first component or the second component is a hygroscopic material; 
     (b) applying the hardenable precursor material to a substrate surface; and 
     (c) curing the hardenable precursor material to form a low-ice-adhesion coating comprising a hardened continuous matrix, wherein the inclusions are dispersed within the hardened continuous matrix, and wherein low-ice-adhesion coating is characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 10 or more. 
     Some variations provide a method of forming a low-ice-adhesion coating, the method comprising: 
     (a) obtaining a low-ice-adhesion material comprising: 
     a substantially continuous matrix containing a first component; and 
     a plurality of inclusions containing a second component, wherein said inclusions are dispersed within said substantially continuous matrix, 
     wherein one of said first component or said second component is a low-surface-energy polymer having a surface energy between about 5 mJ/m 2  to about 50 mJ/m 2 , and the other of said first component or said second component is a hygroscopic material; and 
     (b) applying said low-ice-adhesion material to a substrate surface, thereby forming a coating containing said low-ice-adhesion material, wherein said coating is characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 10 or more. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawings will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee. 
         FIG. 1  depicts the structure of a coating or surface with low-ice-adhesion properties, in some embodiments. 
         FIG. 2A  shows a confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) image for the coating of Example 5 (scale bar=25 μm). 
         FIG. 2B  shows a CLSM image for the coating of Example 5 (scale bar=100 μm). 
         FIG. 2C  shows a CLSM image for the coating of Example 5 (scale bar=250 μm). 
         FIG. 3A  shows a CLSM image for the coating of Example 6, at the surface of the film (scale bar=100 μm). 
         FIG. 3B  shows a CLSM image for the coating of Example 6, at a depth of 12 μm (scale bar=100 μm). 
         FIG. 3C  shows a CLSM image for the coating of Example 6, at a depth of 26 μm (scale bar=100 μm). 
         FIG. 3D  shows the stacking of z-slices to reconstruct a sharper 2D image that displays inhomogeneity (microphase separation), in Example 6. 
         FIG. 4A  shows a CLSM image for the coating of Example 7 (scale bar=25 μm). 
         FIG. 4B  shows a CLSM image for the coating of Example 7 (scale bar=100 μm). 
         FIG. 5  shows a table of AMIL Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor data for the samples described in Examples 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION 
     The materials, compositions, structures, systems, and methods of the present invention will be described in detail by reference to various non-limiting embodiments. 
     This description will enable one skilled in the art to make and use the invention, and it describes several embodiments, adaptations, variations, alternatives, and uses of the invention. These and other embodiments, features, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent to those skilled in the art when taken with reference to the following detailed description of the invention in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. 
     As used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as is commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. 
     Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing conditions, concentrations, dimensions, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about.” Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the following specification and attached claims are approximations that may vary depending at least upon a specific analytical technique. 
     The term “comprising,” which is synonymous with “including,” “containing,” or “characterized by” is inclusive or open-ended and does not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps. “Comprising” is a term of art used in claim language which means that the named claim elements are essential, but other claim elements may be added and still form a construct within the scope of the claim. 
     As used herein, the phrase “consisting of” excludes any element, step, or ingredient not specified in the claim. When the phrase “consists of” (or variations thereof) appears in a clause of the body of a claim, rather than immediately following the preamble, it limits only the element set forth in that clause; other elements are not excluded from the claim as a whole. As used herein, the phrase “consisting essentially of” limits the scope of a claim to the specified elements or method steps, plus those that do not materially affect the basis and novel characteristic(s) of the claimed subject matter. 
     With respect to the terms “comprising,” “consisting of,” and “consisting essentially of,” where one of these three terms is used herein, the presently disclosed and claimed subject matter may include the use of either of the other two terms. Thus in some embodiments not otherwise explicitly recited, any instance of “comprising” may be replaced by “consisting of” or, alternatively, by “consisting essentially of.” 
     Variations of the invention provide compositions for low-ice-adhesion coatings. A “low-ice-adhesion” material, coating, or film is defined as a material, coating, or film that is characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of greater than 1, preferably greater than 5, more preferably 10 or more, and most preferably 25 or more. The definition with test procedure for the AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor is described in the Examples section below. 
     Some embodiments utilize polymeric coating compositions containing at least two phases that microphase-separate microscopic length scales. In some embodiments, the low-ice-adhesion material contains a segmented urethane/urea copolymer composition that includes a fluoropolymer, a polyether, and a polyurethane. 
     Thermoplastic compositions set forth herein have been found to significantly delay the freezing of ice. Quantitative data is included in the Examples herein. In particular, quantitative test data show unprecedented performance of ice-adhesion reduction across a range of compositions. The disclosed coatings in some embodiments are composed of a 100% solid composition (no oils/greases/liquids) while showing excellent (up to 10-100×) reduction in ice adhesion over the state-of-the-art solid coatings. Such technology and performance represents a genuine path toward solving the aforementioned long-standing problems in the art. 
     This patent application hereby expressly incorporates by reference herein U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/829,640 for “SEGMENTED COPOLYMER COMPOSITIONS AND COATINGS INCORPORATING THESE COMPOSITIONS” filed on Aug. 19, 2015 and published as U.S. Patent App. Pub. No. 2016/0194574 on Jul. 7, 2016. 
     Some variations of this invention are premised on the discovery of a material that possesses both low surface energy (for low adhesion) and the ability to absorb water. A structured material or coating, as disclosed, may passively absorb water from the atmosphere and then expel this water to create a lubrication/self-cleaning layer. Because these materials trap a layer of water near the surface, they can delay the formation of ice. The coating in some embodiments may thus be characterized as “icephobic,” which is intended to mean the coating is capable of delaying the formation of ice and/or causing a freezing-point depression of ice, compared to a bare substrate. The lubricating component has the ability to trap and organize a layer of water at the surface to both inhibit freezing and reduce adhesion forces in ice that does begin to accumulate on the surface. 
     In some variations, low-ice-adhesion structures are created by an inhomogeneous microstructure comprising a low-surface-energy polymer that is interspersed with hygroscopic domains (lubricating inclusions). 
     Some variations provide a low-ice-adhesion coating comprising a microstructure characterized in that the microstructure contains at least a first-material phase and a second-material phase that is microphase-separated from the first-material phase on an average length scale of phase inhomogeneity from about 0.1 microns to about 500 microns, wherein the coating is characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 10 or more. 
     Unless otherwise indicated, all references to “phases” in this patent application are in reference to solid phases. The solid phases are typically polymeric and may melt or at least undergo a glass transition at elevated temperatures. Reference to multiple solid phases in a composition or microstructure means that there are at least two distinct chemical phases that are solid, without forming a solid solution or homogeneous mixture. 
     As intended in this patent application, “phase inhomogeneity,” “inhomogeneous microstructure,” and the like mean that a multiphase microstructure is present in which there are at least two discrete phases that are separated from each other. The two phases may be one discrete solid phase in a continuous solid phase, two co-continuous solid phases, or two discrete solid phases in a third continuous solid phase, for example. 
       FIG. 2A  is an exemplary optical image (confocal laser scanning microscopy) depicting phase inhomogeneity, from Example 5, for purposes of illustration. The scale bar is 25 μm. The phase inhomogeneity can be characterized by a length scale associated with a discrete phase  220 . For example, the length scale of phase inhomogeneity may refer to the average size (e.g., effective diameter) of discrete inclusions of one phase  220  dispersed in a continuous phase  210 . The selected (for illustration) inclusions  220  labeled in  FIG. 2A  have an effective diameter of about 15-30 microns; generally the inclusions have an effective diameter of about 1 to 50 microns in this image. The length scale of phase inhomogeneity may refer to the average center-to-center distance  225  between nearest-neighbor inclusions of the same phase  220 . In  FIG. 2A , the selected center-to-center distance  225  is about 25 microns. The length scale of phase inhomogeneity may alternatively refer to the average separation distance  215  between nearest-neighbor regions of the discrete (e.g., droplets) phase  220 , i.e. the size of the continuous phase  210  regions. In  FIG. 2A , the selected separation distance  215  is about 20 microns. A range of particle sizes and separations is clearly present in this structure; the specific instances of features  210 ,  215 ,  220 , and  225  were arbitrarily selected. The average length scale of phase inhomogeneity is in the range of 1 micron to 50 microns in  FIG. 2A . 
     The average length scale of phase inhomogeneity ( 210 ,  215 ,  220 , and/or  225 ) may generally be from about 0.1 microns to about 500 microns, which in this disclosure is also generally referred to as “microphase separation.” In some embodiments, the average length scale of phase inhomogeneity ( 210 ,  215 ,  220 , and/or  225 ) is from about 0.5 microns to about 100 microns, such as about 1 micron to about 50 microns. In various embodiments, the average length scale of phase inhomogeneity ( 210 ,  215 ,  220 , and/or  225 ) is about 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, or 500 microns, including any intermediate values not explicitly recited, and ranges starting, ending, or encompassing such intermediate values. These are average values, noting that a portion of phase inhomogeneity ( 210 ,  215 ,  220 , and/or  225 ) may be present on a length scale less than 0.1 micron or greater than 500 microns (e.g., about 1000 microns), with the overall average falling in the range of 0.1-500 microns. 
     Without being limited by theory, it is believed that the unique and quantifiable microstructure with phase inhomogeneity on the order of 0.1-500 microns drives low-ice-adhesion performance. 
     This phase inhomogeneity typically causes opaque low-ice-adhesion coatings due to the scattering of light. Scattering of light including visible wavelengths in the bulk of a material is governed by changes in the index of refraction through the medium. Variations in refractive index at length scales near the wavelength of the propagating radiation will tend to scatter those wavelengths more effectively (Mie scattering), resulting in an opaque or white appearance for a coating. With visible light having a wavelength range of about 400-700 nm, a clear or transparent coating must typically keep variations in index of refraction below about 50 nm in length. As phase inhomogeneities increase in length scale, the opacity of the material rises. Phase inhomogeneities with average length scale from 0.1 μm to 500 μm are expected to drive significant scattering in the material, leading to opaque structures above 25 μm in thickness—unless the multiple phases happen to be refractive index-matched. See Althues et al., “Functional inorganic nanofillers for transparent polymers”,  Chem. Soc. Rev.,  2007, 36, 1454-1465, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein for its teaching that materials with inhomogeneity below 50 nm will tend to be clear, and materials with inhomogeneity above 50 nm (0.05 μm) will tend to be more opaque. 
     The low-ice-adhesion coating may be characterized by a coating transparency of less than 70% average light transmission in the wavelength range of 400 nm to 700 nm, through a 1-millimeter-thick coating sample (defined test depth). In some embodiments, the low-ice-adhesion coating transparency is less than about 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, or 10% average light transmission in the wavelength range of 400 nm to 700 nm, through a 1-millimeter-thick coating sample. As stated above, it is not technically necessary to have an opaque coating when providing a low-ice-adhesion coating. However, according to the principles of this disclosure, phase inhomogeneity on the order of 0.1-500 microns drives low-ice-adhesion performance; and such phase inhomogeneity, generally speaking, will cause more opaque coatings (e.g., less than 70% average light transmission through one mm of coating). 
     In certain embodiments, the coating is characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 100 or higher. In various embodiments, the coating is characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200 or higher. In preferred embodiments, the phase inhomogeneity of the microstructure results in low ice adhesion of a coating, characterized in that the coating, when subjected to an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Test, generates an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 10 or more, more preferably about 25, 50, 75, 100 or more. 
     Note that the AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor is intrinsically tied to the physical microstructure at the surface as well as the chemical composition. The AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor is not a parameter that depends on intended use of the material, and it is not a functional limitation. Rather, the AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor is a defined, structural property of the material. 
     The micron-scale inhomogeneity exists throughout the material, in both planar and depth dimensions. That it, the low ice adhesion is not just a surface effect and will be present even if the coatings are eroded over time. The low-ice-adhesion function is retained even after abrasion (for whatever reason) of the top layer of the material. 
     In some low-ice-adhesion coatings, one of the first-material phase and the second-material phase is hydrophobic, and the other is hydrophilic. In these or other embodiments, one of the first-material phase and the second-material phase is hydrophobic, and the other is hygroscopic. In these or other embodiments, one of the first-material phase and the second-material phase is hygroscopic, and the other comprises a low-surface-energy polymer having a surface energy between about 5 mJ/m 2  to about 50 mJ/m 2 . 
     As intended in this patent application, “hygroscopic” means that the material is capable of attracting and holding water molecules from the surrounding environment. The water uptake of various polymers is described in Thijs et al., “Water uptake of hydrophilic polymers determined by a thermal gravimetric analyzer with a controlled humidity chamber”,  J. Mater. Chem . (17) 2007, 4864-4871, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. In some embodiments, the hygroscopic material is characterized by a water absorption capacity, at 90% relative humidity and 30° C., of at least 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, or 50 wt % increase due to water uptake. 
     The first-material phase and the second-material phase may be covalently connected in a block copolymer. 
     In some embodiments, the low-ice-adhesion coating is characterized by a delay in the formation of ice of at least about 5 minutes at −10° C. 
     Some variations of the present invention provide a low-ice-adhesion material comprising: 
     a substantially continuous matrix containing a first component; and 
     a plurality of discrete inclusions containing a second component, wherein the inclusions are dispersed within the matrix to form a phase-separated microstructure that is inhomogeneous on an average length scale of phase inhomogeneity from about 1 micron to about 100 microns, 
     wherein one of the first component or the second component is a low-surface-energy polymer having a surface energy between about 5 mJ/m 2  to about 50 mJ/m 2 , and the other of the first component or the second component is a hygroscopic material, 
     and wherein the continuous matrix and the inclusions form a material surface characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 10 or more. 
     In some embodiments, the low-surface-energy polymer is a fluoropolymer, such as a fluoropolymer selected from the group consisting of polyfluoroethers, perfluoropolyethers, polyfluoroacrylates, polyfluorosiloxanes, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), polyvinylfluoride (PVF), polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), copolymers of ethylene and trifluoroethylene, copolymers of ethylene and chlorotrifluoroethylene, and combinations thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the hygroscopic material is selected from the group consisting of poly(acrylic acid), poly(ethylene glycol), poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate), poly(vinyl imidazole), poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline), poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline), poly(vinylpyrolidone), cellulose, modified cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, hydrogels, PEG diacryalate, monoacrylate, and combinations thereof. 
     The low-surface-energy polymer and the hygroscopic material may be covalently connected in a block copolymer. In these embodiments, the block copolymer may be a segmented copolymer composition comprising: 
     (a) one or more first soft segments selected from fluoropolymers having an average molecular weight from about 500 g/mol to about 10,000 g/mol, wherein the fluoropolymers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (b) one or more second soft segments selected from polyesters or polyethers, wherein the polyesters or polyethers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (c) one or more isocyanate species, or a reacted form thereof, possessing an isocyanate functionality of 2 or greater; and 
     (d) one or more polyol or polyamine chain extenders or crosslinkers, or a reacted form thereof. 
     In specific embodiments, the fluoropolymers include a fluoropolymer having the structure: 
                         
wherein:
     X, Y═CH 2 —(O—CH 2 —CH 2 ) p —OH wherein p=0 to 50 and wherein X and Y are independently selected;   m=1 to 100; and   n=1 to 100.   

     Note that the X group, the Y group, or both of these may alternatively be amine-terminated rather than hydroxyl-terminated. 
     In some embodiments, the polyesters or polyethers are selected from the group consisting of poly(oxymethylene), poly(ethylene glycol), poly(propylene glycol), poly(tetrahydrofuran), poly(glycolic acid), poly(caprolactone), poly(ethylene adipate), poly(hydroxybutyrate), poly(hydroxyalkanoate), and combinations thereof. 
     The low-ice-adhesion material optionally further includes one or more additional components selected from the group consisting of a particulate filler, a pigment, a dye, a plasticizer, a flame retardant, a flattening agent, and a substrate adhesion promoter. A particulate filler (when present) may be selected from the group consisting of silica, alumina, silicates, talc, aluminosilicates, barium sulfate, mica, diatomite, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, carbon, wollastonite, and combinations thereof. 
     The average length scale of phase inhomogeneity may be from about 5 microns to about 50 microns, or from about 2 microns to about 20 microns. 
     In some embodiments, the material is characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 25 or more, such as about 100 or more. 
     Preferred embodiments employ fluoropolymers, without limitation of the invention, as described in more detail below. A preferred technique to compatiblize fluoropolymers and hygroscopic materials is the use of segmented polyurethane or urea systems. These species demonstrate strong hydrogen bonding potential between them and as a result can create strong associative forces between the chains. In order to produce elastomeric materials, regions of highly flexible and weakly interacting chains (soft segments) must be incorporated with strongly associating elements (hard segments) and this can be provided in a segmented copolymerization scheme. Segmented copolymers provide a straightforward synthetic route toward block architectures using segments with vastly differing properties. Such synthesis results in chains that possess alternating hard and soft segments composed of regions of high urethane bond density and the chosen soft segment component (e.g., fluoropolymer or hygroscopic element), respectively. This covalent linkage of dissimilar hard and soft blocks drives the systems to microphase separation and creates regions of flexible soft blocks surrounding regions of hard blocks. The associative forces among the hard segments prevent flow under stress and can produce elastomeric materials capable of displaying high elongation and tensile strength. 
     In a specific embodiment of the disclosure, there is provided a segmented copolymer composition. The composition comprises one or more α,ω (alpha, omega)-amine-terminated or α,ω (alpha, omega)-hydroxyl-terminated polyfluoropolymer first soft segments having an average molecular weight of between about 500 grams per mole to about 10,000 grams per mole. The exemplary composition further comprises one or more polyethylene glycol second soft segments having an average molecular weight of between about 500 grams per mole to about 10,000 grams per mole. A total content of the one or more first soft segments and the one or more second soft segments is present in an amount of from about 40% by weight to about 90% by weight, based on a total weight percent of the composition. The composition further comprises one or more hard segments present in an amount of from about 15% by weight to about 50% by weight, based on the total weight percent of the composition. The one or more hard segments comprise a combination of one or more isocyanate species and one or more low-molecular-weight polyol or polyamine chain extenders or crosslinkers. Some compositions are characterized by a delay in the formation of ice on the surface and/or by a contact angle of water on the surface &gt;90°. 
     Some variations provide a segmented copolymer composition comprising: 
     (a) one or more first soft segments selected from fluoropolymers having an average molecular weight from about 500 g/mol to about 10,000 g/mol, wherein the fluoropolymers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (b) one or more second soft segments selected from polyesters or polyethers, wherein the polyesters or polyethers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (c) one or more isocyanate species, or a reacted form thereof, possessing an isocyanate functionality of 2 or greater; and 
     (d) one or more polyol or polyamine chain extenders or crosslinkers, or a reacted form thereof, 
     wherein optionally the molar ratio of the second soft segments to the first soft segments is less than 2.0. 
     It is noted that (α,ω)-terminated polymers are terminated at each end of the polymer. The α-termination may be the same or different than the co-termination. Also it is noted that in this disclosure, “(α,ω)-termination” includes branching at the ends, so that the number of terminations may be greater than 2 per polymer molecule. The polymers herein may be linear or branched, and there may be various terminations and functional groups within the polymer chain, besides the end (α,ω) terminations. 
     In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the second soft segments to the first soft segments is from about 0.1 to about 1.5. In various embodiments, the molar ratio of the second soft segments to the first soft segments is about 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, or 1.95. 
     In this description, “polyurethane” is a polymer comprising a chain of organic units joined by carbamate (urethane) links, where “urethane” refers to N(H)—(C═O)—O—. Polyurethanes are generally produced by reacting an isocyanate containing two or more isocyanate groups per molecule with one or more polyols containing on average two or more hydroxyl groups per molecule, in the presence of a catalyst. 
     Polyols are polymers in their own right and have on average two or more hydroxyl groups per molecule. For example, α,ω-hydroxyl-terminated perfluoropolyether is a type of polyol. 
     “Isocyanate” is the functional group with the formula —N═C═O. For the purposes of this disclosure, O—C(═O)—N(H)—R is considered a derivative of isocyanate. 
     “Polyfluoroether” refers to a class of polymers that contain an ether group—an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups, where at least one hydrogen atom is replaced by a fluorine atom in an alkyl or aryl group. 
     “Perfluoropolyether” (PFPE) is a highly fluorinated subset of polyfluoroethers, wherein all hydrogen atoms are replaced by fluorine atoms in the alkyl or aryl groups. 
     “Polyurea” is a polymer comprising a chain of organic units joined by urea links, where “urea” refers to N(H)—(C═O)—N(H)—. Polyureas are generally produced by reacting an isocyanate containing two or more isocyanate groups per molecule with one or more multifunctional amines (e.g., diamines) containing on average two or more amine groups per molecule, optionally in the presence of a catalyst. 
     A “chain extender or crosslinker” is a compound (or mixture of compounds) that link long molecules together and thereby complete a polymer reaction. Chain extenders or crosslinkers are also known as curing agents, curatives, or hardeners. In polyurethane/urea systems, a curative is typically comprised of hydroxyl-terminated or amine-terminated compounds which react with isocyanate groups present in the mixture. Diols as curatives form urethane linkages, while diamines as curatives form urea linkages. The choice of chain extender or crosslinker may be determined by end groups present on a given prepolymer. In the case of isocyanate end groups, curing can be accomplished through chain extension using multifunctional amines or alcohols, for example. Chain extenders or crosslinkers can have an average functionality greater than 2 (such as 2.5, 3.0, or greater), i.e. beyond diols or diamines. 
     The one or more chain extenders or crosslinkers (or reaction products thereof) may be present in a concentration, in the segmented copolymer composition, from about 0.01 wt % to about 25 wt %, such as about 0.05 wt % to about 10 wt %. 
     As meant herein, a “low-surface-energy polymer” means a polymer, or a polymer-containing material, with a surface energy of no greater than 50 mJ/m 2 . The principles of the invention may be applied to low-surface-energy materials with a surface energy of no greater than 50 mJ/m 2 , in general (i.e., not necessarily limited to polymers). 
     In some embodiments, the low-surface-energy polymer includes a fluoropolymer, such as (but not limited to) a fluoropolymer selected from the group consisting of polyfluoroethers, perfluoropolyethers, fluoroacrylates, fluorosilicones, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), polyvinylfluoride (PVF), polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), copolymers of ethylene and trifluoroethylene, copolymers of ethylene and chlorotrifluoroethylene, and combinations thereof. 
     In these or other embodiments, the low-surface-energy polymer includes a siloxane. A siloxane contains at least one Si—O—Si linkage. The low-surface-energy polymer may consist of polymerized siloxanes or polysiloxanes (also known as silicones). One example is polydimethylsiloxane. 
     In some embodiments, the fluoropolymers are selected from the group consisting of perfluoropolyethers, polyfluoroacrylates, polyfluorosiloxanes, and combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, the fluoropolymers include a fluoropolymer segmented copolymer with poly(ethylene glycol) having the structure: 
                         
wherein:
     X, Y═CH 2 —(O—CH 2 —CH 2 ) p —OH wherein p=0 to 50 and wherein X and Y are independently selected;   m=1 to 100; and   n=1 to 100.   

     In some embodiments, the polyesters or polyethers are selected from the group consisting of poly(oxymethylene), poly(ethylene glycol), poly(propylene glycol), poly(tetrahydrofuran), poly(glycolic acid), poly(caprolactone), poly(ethylene adipate), poly(hydroxybutyrate), poly(hydroxyalkanoate), and combinations thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the isocyanate species is selected from the group consisting of 4,4′-methylenebis(cyclohexyl isocyanate), hexamethylene diisocyanate, cycloalkyl-based diisocyanates, tolylene-2,4-diisocyanate, 4,4′-methylenebis(phenyl isocyanate), isophorone diisocyanate, and combinations or derivatives thereof. 
     The polyol or polyamine chain extender or crosslinker possesses a functionality of 2 or greater, in some embodiments. At least one polyol or polyamine chain extender or crosslinker may be selected from the group consisting of 1,4-butanediol, 1,3-propanediol, 1,2-ethanediol, glycerol, trimethylolpropane, ethylenediamine, isophoronediamine, diaminocyclohexane, and homologues, derivatives, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, polymeric forms of polyol chain extenders or crosslinkers are utilized, typically hydrocarbon or acrylic backbones with hydroxyl groups distributed along the sidegroups. These crosslinkers typically possess a functionality of much greater than 2. 
     Following a suitable chemical reaction, the segmented copolymer composition contains, in a hard segment, the reacted form of the one or more isocyanate species, combined with the reacted form of the one or more polyol or polyamine chain extenders or crosslinkers. In some embodiments, the hard segment is present in an amount from about 5 wt % to about 60 wt %, based on total weight of the composition. 
     The segmented copolymer composition may be present in a coating, for example. Such a coating may be characterized by a contact angle of water on a coating surface of greater than 90°. Such a coating may be characterized by an average kinetic delay of surface ice formation of at least 5 minutes at −10° C. Alternatively or additionally, such a coating may be characterized in that the average length scale of phase inhomogeneity may be from about 5 microns to about 50 microns, or from about 2 microns to about 20 microns. Alternatively or additionally, such a coating may be characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 10 or more, such as about 100 or more. 
     Some variations of this disclosure provide a low-ice-adhesion material comprising: 
     a substantially continuous matrix containing a first component; and 
     a plurality of inclusions containing a second component, wherein the inclusions are dispersed within the matrix, 
     wherein one of the first component or the second component is a low-surface-energy polymer having a surface energy between about 5 mJ/m 2  to about 50 mJ/m 2 , and the other of the first component or the second component is a hygroscopic material, 
     and wherein the continuous matrix and the inclusions form a material surface characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 10 or more. 
     In various embodiments, the material surface is characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, or more. 
     In some embodiments, the surface energy of the low-surface-energy polymer is between about 10 mJ/m 2  to about 40 mJ/m 2 . For example, the low-surface-energy polymer may be a fluoropolymer, such as a fluoropolymer selected from the group consisting of polyfluoroethers, perfluoropolyethers, polyfluoroacrylates, polyfluorosiloxanes, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), polyvinylfluoride (PVF), polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), copolymers of ethylene and trifluoroethylene, copolymers of ethylene and chlorotrifluoroethylene, and combinations thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the hygroscopic material is selected from the group consisting of poly(acrylic acid), poly(ethylene glycol), poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate), poly(vinyl imidazole), poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline), poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline), poly(vinylpyrolidone), cellulose, modified cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, hydrogels, PEG diacryalate, monoacrylate, and combinations thereof. 
     In some preferred embodiments, the low-surface-energy polymer and the hygroscopic material are covalently connected in a block copolymer. An exemplary block copolymer is a segmented copolymer composition comprising: 
     (a) one or more first soft segments selected from fluoropolymers having an average molecular weight from about 500 g/mol to about 10,000 g/mol, wherein the fluoropolymers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (b) one or more second soft segments selected from polyesters or polyethers, wherein the polyesters or polyethers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (c) one or more isocyanate species, or a reacted form thereof, possessing an isocyanate functionality of 2 or greater; and 
     (d) one or more polyol or polyamine chain extenders or crosslinkers, or a reacted form thereof, 
     wherein the molar ratio of the second soft segments to the first soft segments is less than 2.0. 
     In certain embodiments, the fluoropolymers include a fluoropolymer having the structure: 
                         
wherein:
     X, Y═CH 2 —(—CH 2 —CH 2 ) p —OH wherein p=0 to 50 and wherein X and Y are independently selected;   m=1 to 100; and   n=1 to 100.   

     The polyesters or polyethers may be selected from the group consisting of poly(oxymethylene), poly(ethylene glycol), poly(propylene glycol), poly(tetrahydrofuran), poly(glycolic acid), poly(caprolactone), poly(ethylene adipate), poly(hydroxybutyrate), poly(hydroxyalkanoate), and combinations thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the low-ice-adhesion material further comprises one or more additional components selected from the group consisting of a particulate filler, a pigment, a dye, a plasticizer, a flame retardant, a flattening agent, and a substrate adhesion promoter. The particulate filler may be selected from the group consisting of silica, alumina, silicates, talc, aluminosilicates, barium sulfate, mica, diatomite, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, carbon, wollastonite, and combinations thereof. The particulate filler may be surface-modified with a compound selected from the group consisting of fatty acids, silanes, alkylsilanes, fluoroalkylsilanes, silicones, alkyl phosphonates, alkyl phosphonic acids, alkyl carboxylates, alkyldisilazanes, and combinations thereof. 
     The low-ice-adhesion material according to some embodiments is characterized by an average delay in the formation of ice on a surface of the low-ice-adhesion material of at least 5 minutes at −10° C. The low-ice-adhesion material may be characterized by a surface contact angle of water of greater than 90°. 
     A coating is provided, wherein the coating contains the low-ice-adhesion disclosed material, and potentially contains other materials. 
     Some variations provide a method of forming a low-ice-adhesion coating, the method comprising: 
     (a) obtaining a hardenable precursor material for a low-ice-adhesion coating, the hardenable precursor material comprising: 
     a first component; and 
     a plurality of inclusions containing a second component, 
     wherein one of the first component or the second component is a low-surface-energy polymer having a surface energy between about 5 mJ/m 2  to about 50 mJ/m 2 , and the other of the first component or the second component is a hygroscopic material; 
     (b) applying the hardenable precursor material to a substrate surface; and 
     (c) curing the hardenable precursor material to form a low-ice-adhesion coating comprising a hardened continuous matrix, wherein the inclusions are dispersed within the hardened continuous matrix, and wherein low-ice-adhesion coating is characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 10 or more. 
     Some variations provide a method of forming a low-ice-adhesion coating, the method comprising: 
     (a) obtaining a low-ice-adhesion material comprising: 
     a substantially continuous matrix containing a first component; and 
     a plurality of inclusions containing a second component, wherein said inclusions are dispersed within said substantially continuous matrix, 
     wherein one of said first component or said second component is a low-surface-energy polymer having a surface energy between about 5 mJ/m 2  to about 50 mJ/m 2 , and the other of said first component or said second component is a hygroscopic material; and 
     (b) applying said low-ice-adhesion material to a substrate surface, thereby forming a coating containing said low-ice-adhesion material, wherein said coating is characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 10 or more. 
     Optionally, a solvent may be present with the low-ice-adhesion material that is applied to the substrate surface. The solvent may be removed during or after the process of applying the coating, such as by drying, vacuum, curing, and so on. 
     These methods are different than patterning phase inhomogeneity by creating an inhomogeneous microstructure with microscale lithography. 
     The structure of some variations of the invention is shown in  FIG. 1 .  FIG. 1  depicts the structure of a coating or surface with low-ice-adhesion properties. 
     The structure  100  of  FIG. 1  includes a continuous matrix  110 . A “continuous matrix” (or equivalently, “substantially continuous matrix”) means that the matrix material is present in a form that includes chemical bonds among molecules of the matrix material. An example of such chemical bonds is crosslinking bonds between polymer chains. In a substantially continuous matrix  110 , there may be present various defects, cracks, broken bonds, impurities, additives, and so on. The structure  100  further includes a plurality of inclusions  120  (depicted as two-dimensional circles for illustration purposes only), intimately dispersed within the matrix  110 . In some embodiments, each of the inclusions  120  are, or comprise, a hygroscopic material. In certain embodiments, the inclusions  120  are covalently bonded with the matrix  110  in a copolymer, such as the fluoropolymer copolymerized with poly(ethylene glycol). 
     Note that in  FIG. 1 , the functions of the continuous matrix  110  and discrete inclusions  120  may be reversed. That is, in some variations, the continuous matrix  110  may be hygroscopic, while the inclusions  120  may include a low-surface-energy polymer. An example of such a configuration is the structure of  FIGS. 2A, 2B , and  2 C, in which the continuous matrix  210  is hygroscopic and the inclusions  220  are hydrophobic. In the specific case of a fluoropolymer copolymer with poly(ethylene glycol), the PEG phase may be regarded as the matrix and the fluoropolymer phase may be regarded as the inclusions, depending on the magnitude of individual molecular weights in the copolymer. 
     Optionally, the continuous matrix  110  may further comprise one or more additives selected from the group consisting of fillers, colorants, UV absorbers, defoamers, plasticizers, viscosity modifiers, density modifiers, catalysts, and scavengers. 
     Some variations provide a low-ice-adhesion material (e.g., coating or bulk material) comprising: 
     a substantially continuous matrix containing a first component; 
     a plurality of inclusions containing a second component, wherein the inclusions are dispersed within the matrix; 
     wherein one of the first component or the second component is a low-surface-energy polymer having a surface energy between about 5 mJ/m 2  to about 50 mJ/m 2 , and the other of the first component or the second component is a hygroscopic material, 
     and wherein the continuous matrix and the inclusions form a material surface characterized by an AMIL Centrifuge Ice Adhesion Reduction Factor of about 10 or more. 
     In some embodiments, the surface energy of the low-surface-energy polymer is between about 10 mJ/m 2  to about 40 mJ/m 2 , such as about 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, or 40, mJ/m 2 . In some preferred embodiments, the low-surface-energy polymer is a fluoropolymer selected from the group consisting of polyfluoroethers, perfluoropolyethers, polyfluoroacrylates, polyfluorosiloxanes, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), polyvinylfluoride (PVF), polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), copolymers of ethylene and trifluoroethylene, copolymers of ethylene and chlorotrifluoroethylene, and combinations thereof. 
     The hygroscopic material may be selected from the group consisting of poly(acrylic acid), poly(ethylene glycol), poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate), poly(vinyl imidazole), poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline), poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline), poly(vinylpyrolidone), cellulose, modified cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, hydrogels, PEG diacryalate, monoacrylate, and combinations thereof. 
     The low-surface-energy polymer and the hygroscopic material are preferably phase-separated, i.e. they do not form a single continuous phase. There may be, but is not necessarily, some degree of chemical and/or physical bonding between the low-surface-energy polymer and the hygroscopic material. 
     The inclusions are three-dimensional objects or domains, which may be of any shape, geometry, or aspect ratio. In a three-dimensional object, an aspect ratio of exactly 1.0 means that all three characteristic length scales are identical, such as in a perfect cube. The aspect ratio of a perfect sphere is also 1.0. The inclusions may be geometrically symmetric or asymmetric. Randomly shaped asymmetric templates are, generally speaking, geometrically asymmetric. In some embodiments, inclusions are geometrically symmetric. Examples include cylinders, cones, rectangular prisms, pyramids, or three-dimensional stars. 
     In some embodiments, the inclusions are anisotropic. As meant herein, “anisotropic” inclusions have at least one chemical or physical property that is directionally dependent. When measured along different axes, an anisotropic inclusion will have some variation in a measurable property. The property may be physical (e.g., geometrical) or chemical in nature, or both. 
     The inclusions may be characterized as templates, domains, or regions (such as phase-separated regions). The inclusions are not a single, continuous framework in the coating. Rather, the inclusions are discrete, non-continuous and dispersed in the continuous matrix (see for example  FIGS. 1, 2A, 2B, and 2C ). The hygroscopic inclusions may be dispersed uniformly within the continuous matrix. In some low-friction, low-adhesion materials, the low-surface-energy polymer and the hygroscopic material are covalently connected in a block copolymer, in which the inclusions and the continuous matrix are distinct phases of the block copolymer. 
     As intended herein, a “block copolymer” means a copolymer containing a linear arrangement of blocks, where each block is defined as a portion of a polymer molecule in which the monomeric units have at least one constitutional or configurational feature absent from the adjacent portions. Several types of block copolymers are generally possible, including AB block copolymers, ABA block copolymers, ABC block copolymers, segmented block copolymers, and random copolymers. Segmented block copolymers are preferred, in some embodiments of the invention. 
     For example, a block copolymer may be a segmented copolymer composition comprising: 
     (a) one or more first soft segments selected from fluoropolymers having an average molecular weight from about 500 g/mol to about 10,000 g/mol, wherein the fluoropolymers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (b) one or more second soft segments selected from polyesters or polyethers, wherein the polyesters or polyethers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (c) one or more isocyanate species, or a reacted form thereof, possessing an isocyanate functionality of 2 or greater; and 
     (d) one or more polyol or polyamine chain extenders or crosslinkers, or a reacted form thereof, 
     wherein the molar ratio of the second soft segments to the first soft segments is less than 2.0, such as from about 0.1 to about 1.5. 
     In some embodiments, the fluoropolymers include a fluoropolymer having the structure: 
                         
wherein:
     X, Y═CH 2 —(O—CH 2 —CH 2 ) p —OH wherein p=0 to 50 and wherein X and Y are independently selected;   m=1 to 100; and   n=1 to 100.   

     In some embodiments, the polyesters or polyethers are selected from the group consisting of poly(oxymethylene), poly(ethylene glycol), poly(propylene glycol), poly(tetrahydrofuran), poly(glycolic acid), poly(caprolactone), poly(ethylene adipate), poly(hydroxybutyrate), poly(hydroxyalkanoate), and combinations thereof. 
     A wide range of concentrations of components may be present in the low-ice-adhesion material. For example, the continuous matrix may be from about 5 wt % to about 95 wt %, such as from about 10 wt % to about 50 wt % of the material. The inclusions may be from about 1 wt % to about 90 wt %, such as from about 10 wt % to about 50 wt % of the coating. 
     Within the component containing the low-surface-energy polymer, the low-surface-energy polymer may be from about 50 wt % to 100 wt %, such as about 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, or 100 wt %. Within the component containing the hygroscopic material, the hygroscopic material may be from about 50 wt % to 100 wt %, such as about 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, or 100 wt %. 
     The low-surface-energy polymer and/or the hygroscopic material may be surface-treated, such as to adjust hydrophobicity. The low-ice-adhesion material optionally further contains one or more additional components selected from the group consisting of a particulate filler, a pigment, a dye, a plasticizer, a flame retardant, a flattening agent, and a substrate adhesion promoter. 
     A particulate filler may be selected from the group consisting of silica, alumina, silicates, talc, aluminosilicates, barium sulfate, mica, diatomite, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, carbon, wollastonite, and combinations thereof. The particulate fillers generally should be in the size range of about 5 nm to about 2 μm, such as about 20 nm to 100 nm. 
     The particulate fillers may be surface-modified with a compound selected from the group consisting of fatty acids, silanes, silicones, alkyl phosphonates, alkyl phosphonic acids, alkyl carboxylates, and combinations thereof. Optionally, the fillers may be surface-modified with a hydrophobic material, such as (but not limited to) an alkylsilane, a fluoroalkylsilane, and/or an alkyldisilazane (e.g., hexamethyldisilazane). 
     In some embodiments, the low-ice-adhesion material further includes porous voids. As intended herein, a “void” is a discrete region of empty space, or space filled with air or another gas, that is enclosed within the continuous matrix. The voids may be open (e.g., interconnected voids) or closed (isolated within the continuous matrix), or a combination thereof. The voids may partially surround inclusions. 
     The low-ice-adhesion material may be characterized by a water absorption capacity of at least 10 wt % water based on total weight of the low-friction, low-adhesion material. The material is characterized, according to some embodiments, by a water absorption capacity of at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 wt % water, preferably at least 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 wt % water, based on total weight of the material. 
     The low-ice-adhesion material may be characterized by a surface contact angle of water of greater than 90° (hydrophobic). The material may also be hydrophilic, i.e. characterized by an effective contact angle of water that is less than 90°. In various embodiments, the material is characterized by an effective contact angle of water of about 70°, 75°, 80°, 85°, 90°, 95°, 100°, or higher. 
     The low-ice-adhesion material may also be lipophobic or partially lipophobic in some embodiments. In various embodiments, the material is characterized by an effective contact angle of hexadecane (as a measure of lipophobicity) of about 50°, 55°, 60°, 65°, 70°, 75°, 80°, 85°, 90°, or higher. 
     The low-ice-adhesion material may simultaneously have hydrophobic and lipophobic properties. A low-ice-adhesion material may be “omniphobic,” which means it is both lipophobic and hydrophobic. In certain embodiments, the material is characterized by an effective contact angle of water of at least 90° and simultaneously an effective contact angle of hexadecane of at least 60°. In certain embodiments, the material is characterized by an effective contact angle of water of at least 80° and simultaneously an effective contact angle of hexadecane of at least 70°. 
     In some embodiments, the material is characterized by a coefficient of friction, measured at 40-55% (e.g. 50%) relative humidity and room temperature, less than 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, or 0.3. In these or other embodiments, the material is characterized by a coefficient of friction, measured at 85-90% relative humidity and room temperature, less than 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, or 0.2. The low-ice-adhesion material may be characterized by a coefficient of friction, measured at about 90% relative humidity, less than 0.5. 
     The coefficient of friction is relatively low due to the presence of a lubricating surface layer. By a “lubricating surface layer in the presence of humidity,” it is meant a layer, multiple layers, a partial layer, or an amount of substance that lubricates the substrate such that it has a lower coefficient of friction compared to the substrate without the low-ice-adhesion material present, when in the presence of some amount of atmospheric humidity. Relative humidity is the ratio of the water vapor density (mass per unit volume) to the saturation water vapor density. Relative humidity is also approximately the ratio of the actual to the saturation vapor pressure. 
     The substance that lubricates the substrate is primarily water, but it should be noted that other components from the environment may be present in the lubricating surface layer, including oils, metals, dust, dissolved gases, dissolved aqueous components, suspended non-aqueous components, fragments of debris, fragments of polymers, and so on. 
     The low-ice-adhesion material may be characterized by a delay in the formation of ice on a surface of the material. For example, when a material surface is held at −10° C., the material provided by the invention may be characterized by an average delay in the formation of ice on the surface of at least about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 minutes, or more. 
     In various embodiments, the material is a coating and/or is present at a surface of an object or region. The material may be utilized in relatively small applications, such as lens coatings, or for large structures, such as aircraft wings. In principle, the material could be present within a bulk region of an object or part. In certain embodiments, the coating provided herein is disposed with a temporary, protective laminating film for storage or transport, which film is later removed. 
     The principles of the invention may be applied in a wide variety of coatings, materials, and structures. For example, this disclosure describes icephobic, urethane-based coatings that demonstrate low coefficients of friction and extended freezing delays and/or very low ice adhesion. 
     In this specification, “ice” should be broadly construed to refer to any possible solid phase of water, solid phase containing water, or multiphase mixtures containing solid water. 
     The coatings disclosed herein may be applied to aerospace-relevant surfaces. As intended herein, an “aerospace-relevant surface” is any surface, substrate, or region of material which may be exposed to ice or water that has the potential to freeze, and which is contained on or in an aerospace structure. Examples of aerospace-relevant surfaces include, but are not limited to, surfaces of airfoils, aircraft wings, rotor blades, propeller blades, engine-intake regions, nose cones, fan blades, windows, or antennas. Aerospace-relevant surfaces may be any portions of these surfaces, or surfaces which overlap, or contain other surfaces. In some embodiments, the aerospace-relevant surface is an airfoil surface, which is typically not a flat surface. In certain embodiments, the airfoil surface is a curved surface of a rotorcraft airfoil. In certain embodiments, the coatings may be applied onto aircraft exteriors, in order to passively suppress the growth of ice near strategic points on the vehicle (e.g., rotorblade edge, wing leading edge, or engine inlet). 
     The coatings disclosed herein may be applied to other structures including, but not limited to, wind turbine blades, automobiles, trucks, trains, ocean-going vessels, electrical power transmission lines, buildings, antennas, chemical plant infrastructure (e.g., distillation columns and heat exchangers), and so on. Other practical applications for the present invention include, but are not limited to, vehicle windows, filters, instruments, sensors, cameras, satellites, and weapon systems. For example, automotive applications can utilize these coatings to prevent the formation of ice on back-up sensors. 
     Variations of the invention also provide a precursor material for a low-ice-adhesion material, the precursor material comprising: 
     a hardenable material capable of forming a substantially continuous matrix containing a first component; and 
     a plurality of inclusions containing a second component, wherein the inclusions are dispersed within the hardenable material, 
     wherein one of the first component or the second component is a low-surface-energy polymer having a surface energy between about 5 mJ/m 2  to about 50 mJ/m 2 , and the other of the first component or the second component is a hygroscopic material. 
     In some embodiments, the surface energy of the low-surface-energy polymer is between about 10 mJ/m 2  to about 40 mJ/m 2 , such as about 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, or 40, mJ/m 2 . In some embodiments, the low-surface-energy polymer is a fluoropolymer, such as one selected from the group consisting of polyfluoroethers, perfluoropolyethers, polyfluoroacrylates, polyfluorosiloxanes, and combinations thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the hygroscopic material is selected from the group consisting of poly(acrylic acid), poly(ethylene glycol), poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate), poly(vinyl imidazole), poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline), poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline), poly(vinylpyrolidone), cellulose, modified cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, hydrogels, PEG diacryalate, monoacrylate, and combinations thereof. 
     The low-surface-energy polymer and the hygroscopic material may be covalently connected, or are capable of being covalently connected, in a block copolymer. For example, a block copolymer may be a segmented copolymer composition comprising: 
     (a) one or more first soft segments selected from fluoropolymers having an average molecular weight from about 500 g/mol to about 10,000 g/mol, wherein the fluoropolymers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (b) one or more second soft segments selected from polyesters or polyethers, wherein the polyesters or polyethers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (c) one or more isocyanate species, or a reacted form thereof, possessing an isocyanate functionality of 2 or greater; and 
     (d) one or more polyol or polyamine chain extenders or crosslinkers, or a reacted form thereof, 
     wherein the molar ratio of the second soft segments to the first soft segments is less than 2.0, such as from about 0.1 to about 1.5. 
     In some embodiments, the fluoropolymers include a fluoropolymer having the structure: 
                         
wherein:
     X, Y═CH 2 —(O—CH 2 —CH 2 ) p —OH wherein p=0 to 50 and wherein X and Y are independently selected;   m=1 to 100; and   n=1 to 100.   

     In some embodiments, the polyesters or polyethers are selected from the group consisting of poly(oxymethylene), poly(ethylene glycol), poly(propylene glycol), poly(tetrahydrofuran), poly(glycolic acid), poly(caprolactone), poly(ethylene adipate), poly(hydroxybutyrate), poly(hydroxyalkanoate), and combinations thereof. 
     The low-surface-energy polymer and/or the hygroscopic material may be surface-treated, either prior to introduction into the precursor material or prior to conversion of the precursor material to the low-ice-adhesion material. 
     The precursor material may further contain one or more additional components selected from the group consisting of a particulate filler, a pigment, a dye, a plasticizer, a flame retardant, a flattening agent, and a substrate adhesion promoter. Alternatively, or additionally, such additional components may be introduced during the conversion of the precursor material to the low-ice-adhesion material, or to the low-ice-adhesion material after it is formed. 
     Specific particulate fillers include, for example, silica, alumina, silicates, talc, aluminosilicates, barium sulfate, mica, diatomite, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, carbon, wollastonite, and combinations thereof. The particulate fillers generally should be in the size range of about 5 nm to about 2 μm, such as about 20 nm to 100 nm. 
     The particulate fillers may be surface-modified with a compound selected from the group consisting of fatty acids, silanes, silicones, alkyl phosphonates, alkyl phosphonic acids, alkyl carboxylates, and combinations thereof. Optionally, the fillers may be surface-modified with a hydrophobic material, such as (but not limited to) an alkylsilane, a fluoroalkylsilane, and/or an alkyldisilazane (e.g., hexamethyldisilazane). 
     Optionally, an adhesion promoter may be selected from the group consisting of a silane, a polysilane, a silazane, a polysilazane, and combinations thereof. Other adhesion promoters may be utilized. The adhesion promoter should increase the chemical and/or physical adhesion of the low-ice-adhesion material, compared to the surface without the adhesion promoter. The necessity and choice of adhesion promoter will depend at least on the material of the bare surface (e.g., aluminum, carbon fibers, etc.). In some embodiments, an adhesive or adhesion promoter is selected from the group consisting of a silane, a polysilane, a silazane, a polysilazane, an epoxy-based material, and combinations thereof. 
     Any known methods to fabricate these low-ice-adhesion materials or coatings may be employed. Notably, these materials or coatings may utilize synthesis methods that enable simultaneous deposition of components or precursor materials to reduce fabrication cost and time. In particular, these materials or coatings may be formed by a one-step process, in some embodiments. In other embodiments, these materials or coatings may be formed by a multiple-step process. 
     The low-ice-adhesion material, in some embodiments, is formed from a precursor material (or combination of materials) that may be provided, obtained, or fabricated from starting components. The precursor material is capable of hardening or curing in some fashion, to form a substantially continuous matrix along with a plurality of inclusions, dispersed within the matrix. The precursor material may be a liquid; a multiphase liquid; a multiphase slurry, emulsion, or suspension; a gel; or a dissolved solid (in solvent), for example. 
     The low-surface-energy polymer and the hygroscopic material may be in the same phase or in different phases, within the precursor material. In some embodiments, the low-surface-energy polymer is in liquid or dissolved form while the hygroscopic material is in dissolved-solid or suspended solid form. In some embodiments, the low-surface-energy polymer is in dissolved-solid or suspended-solid form while the hygroscopic material is in liquid or dissolved form. In some embodiments, the low-surface-energy polymer and the hygroscopic material are both in liquid form. In some embodiments, the low-surface-energy polymer and the hygroscopic material are both in dissolved (solvent) form. 
     In some embodiments of the invention, an emulsion sets up in the reaction mixture based on incompatibility between the two blocks (e.g., PEG and PFPE). The emulsion provides microphase separation in the precursor material. The precursor material is then cured from casting or spraying. The microphase separation survives the curing process (even if the length scales change somewhat during curing), providing the benefits in the final materials as described herein. Without being limited by theory, the microphase separation in this invention is not associated with molecular length-scale separation (5-50 nm) that many classic block-copolymer systems exhibit. Rather, the larger length scales of microphase separation, i.e. 0.1-500 μm, arise from the emulsion that was set-up prior to curing. 
     Xu et al., “Structure and morphology of segmented polyurethanes: 1. Influence of incompatibility on hard-segment sequence length,” POLYMER 1983, Vol. 24, pages 1327-1332 and Chen et al., Structure and morphology of segmented polyurethanes: 2. Influence of reactant incompatibility,” POLYMER 1983, Vol. 24, pages 1333-1340, are each hereby incorporated by reference herein for their teachings about emulsion set-up in polyurethane systems prior to curing. 
     In some variations of the invention, a material or coating precursor is applied to a substrate (such as a surface of an automobile or aircraft) and allowed to react, cure, or harden to form a final low-ice-adhesion coating, wherein the material, coating precursor, or final coating contains a segmented copolymer composition comprising: 
     (a) one or more first soft segments selected from fluoropolymers having an average molecular weight from about 500 g/mol to about 10,000 g/mol, wherein the fluoropolymers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (b) one or more second soft segments selected from polyesters or polyethers, wherein the polyesters or polyethers are (α,ω)-hydroxyl-terminated and/or (α,ω)-amine-terminated; 
     (c) one or more isocyanate species, or a reacted form thereof, possessing an isocyanate functionality of 2 or greater; and 
     (d) one or more polyol or polyamine chain extenders or crosslinkers, or a reacted form thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the hygroscopic material is also hardenable, either alone or in combination with the low-surface-energy polymer. For instance, a low-surface-energy polymer and a hygroscopic polymer may form a high-molecular-weight block copolymerize and thus harden. In certain embodiments, the hygroscopic material assists in the curability (hardenability) of the low-surface-energy polymer. 
     In some embodiments, a precursor material is prepared and then dispensed (deposited) over an area of interest. Any known methods to deposit precursor materials may be employed. A fluid precursor material allows for convenient dispensing using spray coating or casting techniques over a large area, such as the scale of a vehicle or aircraft. 
     The fluid precursor material may be applied to a surface using any coating technique, such as (but not limited to) spray coating, dip coating, doctor-blade coating, spin coating, air knife coating, curtain coating, single and multilayer slide coating, gap coating, knife-over-roll coating, metering rod (Meyer bar) coating, reverse roll coating, rotary screen coating, extrusion coating, casting, or printing. The fluid precursor material may be rapidly sprayed or cast in thin layers over large areas (such as multiple square meters). 
     When a solvent or carrier fluid is present in the fluid precursor material, the solvent or carrier fluid may include one or more compounds selected from the group consisting of water, alcohols (such as methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, or tert-butanol), ketones (such as acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, or methyl isobutyl ketone), hydrocarbons (e.g., toluene), acetates (such as tert-butyl acetate or n-butyl acetate), acids (such as organic acids), bases, and any mixtures thereof. When a solvent or carrier fluid is present, it may be in a concentration of from about 10 wt % to about 99 wt % or higher, for example. 
     The precursor material may be converted to an intermediate material or the final material using any one or more of curing or other chemical reactions, or separations such as removal of solvent or carrier fluid, monomer, water, or vapor. Curing refers to toughening or hardening of a polymeric material by cross-linking of polymer chains, assisted by electromagnetic waves, electron beams, heat, and/or chemical additives. Chemical removal may be accomplished by heating/flashing, vacuum extraction, solvent extraction, centrifugation, etc. Physical transformations may also be involved to transfer precursor material into a mold, for example. Additives may be introduced during the hardening process, if desired, to adjust pH, stability, density, viscosity, color, or other properties, for functional, ornamental, safety, or other reasons. 
     The overall thickness of the final low-ice-adhesion material or coating may be from about 1 μm to about 1 cm or more, such as about 5 μm, 10 μm, 20 μm, 25 μm, 30 μm, 40 μm, 50 μm, 75 μm, 100 μm, 200 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 750 μm, 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, 5 mm, 6 mm, 7 mm, 8 mm, 9 mm, 10 mm, or more. 
     Relatively thick coatings offer good durability and mechanical properties, such as impact resistance, while being relatively lightweight. In certain embodiments, a low-ice-adhesion film has a thickness from about 10 microns to about 10 millimeters. If desired, a coating may have a varying thickness, such as greater thickness at high surface curvature, for example. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Materials. Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) with M n =3400 g/mol, 4,4′-methylenebis(cyclohexyl isocyanate) (HMDI), 1,4-butanediol (BD), dibutyltin dilaurate (DBTDL), tetrahydrofuran, and methyl isobutyl ketone are purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Fluorolink E10-H, Fluorolink D4000, and 5147X PFPE-ethoxylated diol are purchased from Solvay Specialty Polymers. All chemicals are used as received without further purification. Note that solvents may be processed through activated sieves to remove trace amounts of water, since water may cause the formation of side products during polyurethane synthesis. 
     Example 1: Low-Ice-Adhesion Material 
     PEG (1.5 mmoles, 5.1 g) and HMDI (15 mmoles, 3.94 g) are added into a 3-neck flask equipped with a mechanical stirrer. The reaction flask is placed in a 100° C. oil bath. Once PEG is melted and dissolved in the HMDI, 10 μL of DBTDL is added to the mix. The reaction mixture is stirred at 100° C. for 1 hour. Fluorolink D4000 (1.5 mmoles, 6 g) is added and stirring is continued for another 1 hour. The reaction flask is removed from the 100° C. oil bath and allowed to cool down before adding THF (10 mL) and BD (12 mmoles, 1.08 g) dissolved in THF (2 mL). The THF and BD are added to the viscous resin and vortexed to disperse and thin the overall mixture. The sample is sprayed with an HVLP gun using a 1.7 mm nozzle aperture to a thickness of 8.5 mils. The spray coating is allowed to cure under ambient conditions for 16 hours. 
     The kinetic delay of freezing is measured by placing 50 μL drops of deionized water on a surface held at −10° C. with a thermoelectric cooler. The time for ice to initially form in the droplets is measured (5 droplets are measured). The kinetic delay of freezing is found to be 8.0±1.5 minutes. A bare aluminum (Al) surface has an ice formation delay of 0.2±0.1 minutes. The surprisingly long ice formation delay may be due to the material trapping water at the surface. Without being limited by theory, it is believed that this trapped layer of water cannot freeze because the hygroscopic domains inhibit the crystallization reaction mechanisms in the surface water. Any droplet of water on the surface sees liquid water instead of a coating on the surface; ice nucleation is confined to the homogeneous nucleation regime that is kinetically much slower than heterogeneous nucleation. 
     The change in friction in response to humidity is tested by equilibrating the sample at ambient (40-55%) relative humidity or 85-90% relative humidity in a humidity-controlled chamber. Then the sample is placed on a variable-angle stage and the angle is increased until a 5-gram cylindrical mass slides along the sample surface. The sliding angle is used to determine the friction constant (coefficient of friction). The coefficient of friction at 40-55% relative humidity is measured to be 0.45, and the coefficient of friction at 85-90% relative humidity is measured to be 0.38. 
     Example 2: Low-Ice-Adhesion Material 
     PEG (1.0 mmoles, 3.4 g) and HMDI (19.3 mmoles, 5.06 g) are added into a 3-neck flask equipped with a mechanical stirrer. The reaction flask is placed in a 100° C. oil bath. Once PEG is melted and dissolved in the HMDI, 10 μL of DBTDL is added to the mix. The reaction mixture is stirred at 100° C. for 1 hour. Fluorolink E10H (2.7 mmoles, 5.27 g) is added and stirring is continued for another 1 hour. The reaction flask is removed from the 100° C. oil bath and allowed to cool down before adding THF (10 mL) and BD (15.4 mmoles, 1.39 g) dissolved in THF (2 mL). The THF and BD are added to the viscous resin and vortexed to disperse and thin the overall mixture. The sample is sprayed with an HVLP gun using a 1.7 mm nozzle aperture to a thickness of 4 mils. The spray coating is allowed to cure under ambient conditions for 16 hours. 
     The kinetic delay of freezing is measured by placing 50 μL drops of deionized water on a surface held at −10° C. with a thermoelectric cooler. The time for ice to initially form in the droplets is measured (5 droplets are measured). The kinetic delay of freezing is found to be 5.1±0.2 minutes. A bare aluminum (Al) surface has an ice formation delay of 0.2±0.1 minutes. The surprisingly long ice formation delay may be due to the material trapping water at the surface. Without being limited by theory, it is believed that this trapped layer of water cannot freeze because the hygroscopic domains inhibit the crystallization reaction mechanisms in the surface water. Any droplet of water on the surface sees liquid water instead of a coating on the surface; ice nucleation is confined to the homogeneous nucleation regime that is kinetically much slower than heterogeneous nucleation. 
     The change in friction in response to humidity is tested by equilibrating the sample at ambient (40-55%) relative humidity or 85-90% relative humidity in a humidity-controlled chamber. Then the sample is placed on a variable-angle stage and the angle is increased until a 5-gram cylindrical mass slides along the sample surface. The sliding angle is used to determine the friction constant (coefficient of friction). The coefficient of friction at 40-55% relative humidity is measured to be 0.32, and the coefficient of friction at 85-90% relative humidity is measured to be 0.35. While the friction coefficient increases slightly with increased humidity, the result is still a smooth, low-friction coating. 
     Example 3: Low-Ice-Adhesion Material 
     PEG (1.5 mmoles, 5.1 g) and HMDI (15 mmoles, 3.94 g) are added into a 3-neck flask equipped with a mechanical stirrer. The reaction flask is placed in a 100° C. oil bath. Once PEG is melted and dissolved in the HMDI, 3 μL of DBTDL is added to the mix. The reaction mixture is stirred at 100° C. for 1 hour. Fluorolink D4000 (1.5 mmoles, 6 g) is added and stirring is continued for another 1 hour. The reaction flask is removed from the 100° C. oil bath and allowed to cool down before adding THF (10 mL) and BD (12 mmoles, 1.08 g) dissolved in THF (2 mL). The THF and BD are added to the viscous resin and vortexed to disperse and thin the overall mixture. The sample is sprayed with an HVLP gun using a 1.7 mm nozzle aperture to a thickness of 4 mils. The spray coating is allowed to cure under ambient conditions for 16 hours. 
     Example 4: Low-Ice-Adhesion Material 
     PEG (1.5 mmoles, 5.1 g) and HMDI (15 mmoles, 3.94 g) are added into a 3-neck flask equipped with a mechanical stirrer. The headspace of the reaction is continually purged with N 2  over the course of the reaction. The reaction flask is placed in a 100° C. oil bath. Once PEG is melted and dissolved in the HMDI, 3 μL of DBTDL is added to the mix. The reaction mixture is stirred at 100° C. for 1 hour. Fluorolink D4000 (1.5 mmoles, 6 g) is added and stirring is continued for another 1 hour. The reaction flask is removed from the 100° C. oil bath and allowed to cool down before adding THF (10 mL) and BD (12 mmoles, 1.08 g) dissolved in THF (2 mL). The sample is sprayed with an HVLP gun using a 1.7 mm nozzle aperture to a thickness of 4 mils. The spray coating is allowed to cure under ambient conditions for 16 hours. 
     Example 5: Low-Ice-Adhesion Material 
     PEG (1.5 mmoles, 5.1 g) and HMDI (15 mmoles, 3.94 g) are added into a 3-neck flask equipped with a mechanical stirrer. The headspace of the reaction is continually purged with N 2  over the course of the reaction. The reaction flask is placed in a 100° C. oil bath. Once PEG is melted and dissolved in the HMDI, 3 μL of DBTDL is added to the mix. The reaction mixture is stirred at 100° C. for 1 hour. Fluorolink D4000 (1.5 mmoles, 6 g) is added and stirring is continued for another 1 hour. The reaction flask is removed from the 100° C. oil bath and allowed to cool down before adding THF (10 mL) and BD (12 mmoles, 1.08 g) dissolved in THF (2 mL). The THF and BD are added to the viscous resin and vortexed to disperse and thin the overall mixture. The sample is sprayed with an HVLP gun using a 1.7 mm nozzle aperture to a thickness of 4.5 mils. The spray coating is then cured in an oven at a temperature of 60-80° C. for about 4 hours, resulting in an especially tough coating material. 
     The polymer network is composed of both a water-absorbing (hydrophilic) and a water-repelling (hydrophobic) material. To investigate the film&#39;s network and microphase separation of the opposing materials, confocal microscopy is employed. Confocal microscopy is an optical imaging technique that detects fluorescence by exposing the specimen to light of a certain wavelength to excite fluorescent dyes. Samples are prepared by soaking a thin slice of film in an aqueous solution containing fluorescein (10 to 100 μM), a water-soluble dye, for 24 hours. The thinner the film, the better for allowing light to go through the sample. Confocal microscopy allows imaging of xy-plane with thin optical z-slice to prevent background fluorescence. Water absorbed by the film contains fluorescein, allowing contrast between the hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains. Once removed from the solution, the film is rinsed with DI water to remove excess fluorescein from the surface. The film is quickly pat dried to remove water droplets and placed on a glass slide (75×25 mm). A glass coverslip (0.17 mm thick) is placed firmly on the film and the edges are sealed with a quick cure 5-minute epoxy. The edges are sealed to prevent evaporation of water to allow optimal imaging of the specimen by better matching the refractive index of the glass. The fluorescent imaging is obtained using a Leica SP 5 confocal microscope with an Argon laser for an excitation wavelength of 496 nm for fluorescein, giving an emission at 512 nm in water. 
       FIGS. 2A, 2B, and 2C  show confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) images for the coating of Example 5. CLSM images are shown at different magnifications of the Example 5 films soaked with water-soluble fluorescent dye. The fluorescent regions  210  (which display as green regions in the color drawings and lighter regions when reproduced in grayscale) are representative of hydrophilic PEG regions containing a water-soluble fluorescent dye. The inclusions  220  (which display as darker regions) are representative of hydrophobic fluoropolymer regions. The scale bars are 25 μm, 100 μm, and 250 μm in  FIGS. 2A, 2B, and 2C , respectively. 
     The selected (for illustration) inclusions  220  labeled in  FIG. 2A  have an effective diameter of about 15-30 microns; generally the inclusions have an effective diameter of about 1 to 50 microns in this image. The length scale of phase inhomogeneity may refer to the average center-to-center distance  225  between nearest-neighbor inclusions of the same phase  220 . In  FIG. 2A , the selected center-to-center distance  225  is about 25 microns. The length scale of phase inhomogeneity may alternatively refer to the average separation distance  215  between nearest-neighbor regions of the discrete (e.g., droplets) phase  220 , i.e. the size of the continuous phase  210  regions. In  FIG. 2A , the selected separation distance  215  is about 20 microns. A range of particle sizes and separations is clearly present in this structure; the specific instances of features  210 ,  215 ,  220 , and  225  were arbitrarily selected. The average length scale of phase inhomogeneity is in the range of 1 micron to 50 microns in  FIG. 2A . 
       FIGS. 2B and 2C  also depict selected continuous phase regions  210  and discrete inclusions  220 , noting that these are not necessarily the same regions of material as shown in  FIG. 2A . Microphase separation is shown in these images. 
       FIGS. 2A, 2B, and 2C  images suggest an average length scale of phase inhomogeneity in the range of 1 micron to 50 microns. The discrete phase (darker regions  220 ) contains sizes of about 1-50 μm with center-to-center distances  225  of about 5-50 μm. The continuous phase (lighter regions  210 ) contains sizes  215  of about 1-100 μm. Therefore the length scale of phase inhomogeneity for the structure in  FIGS. 2A, 2B, and 2C  is in the range of 1 to 100 microns. 
     Example 6: Low-Ice-Adhesion Material Phase Inhomogeneity in the Depth Dimension 
     To create 3D CLSM images of the specimen (microstructure throughout the film), a z-stack is acquired. A z-stack takes a series of CLSM images keeping the xy-plane constant while moving through the film in the z-direction in thin sections. Depending on the film thickness, z-stacks may be acquired by taking images through 20 to 30 μm of the film in about 2 μm slices, for example 
       FIGS. 3A to 3D  show CLSM images for the depth of the coating of Example 3. Images are of the xy-plane at different depths in the z-direction. The scale bar in each of  FIGS. 3A to 3D  is 100 μm.  FIG. 3A  shows an image at the surface of the film,  FIG. 3B  shows an image at a depth of 12 μm, and  FIG. 3C  shows an image at a depth of 26 μm. The fluorescent regions (which display as green regions in the color drawings and lighter regions when reproduced in grayscale) are representative of PEG regions  310  containing a water-soluble fluorescent dye. The darker regions are representative of hydrophobic regions  320  that are microphase-separated from PEG regions  310 . Micron-scale inhomogeneity is seen through the thickness of the film.  FIG. 3D  shows the stacking of all the z-slices to reconstruct a sharper 2D image that displays inhomogeneity (microphase separation). In particular,  FIG. 3D  shows that the size range of each of the separated phases  310  and  320  is approximately 1 to 50 microns, with most phase regions  310  and  320  being in the range of about 5 to 25 microns. 
     This example demonstrates that the micron-scale inhomogeneity propagates through the entire thickness of the coating. In other words, the microstructure is not just a surface effect and will be present even if the coatings are eroded over time. 
     Example 7: Clear Thermoplastic Material 
     Hydroxy-terminated poly(perfluoroether) (9.00 g, 3.73 mmol, Fluorolink 5147×) is placed in a 3-neck roundbottom flask that contains an inlet for argon and is equipped with an overhead stirrer (Teflon shaft and blade). While stirring, 4,4′-methylenebis(cyclohexyl isocyanate) (4.89 g, 18.66 mmol) is added to the solution and the flask is placed in an oil bath at 100° C. Dibutyltin dilaurate (0.02 wt %) is then added to the solution using a micropipette, and the reaction is allowed to proceed. 
     After 1 hr, the prepolymer is then allowed to cool down to room temperature. The prepolymer is diluted with tetrahydrofuran (15 mL) and placed in a plastic mixing container (FlackTek-speedmixer compatible). In a separate vial, 1,4-butanediol (1.35 g, 14.98 mmol) is weighed and diluted with tetrahydrofuran (0.5 mL). The two solutions are combined in the mixing container and placed in the FlackTek at 2300 rpm for 15 seconds. The sample is sprayed with an HVLP gun using a 1.7 mm nozzle aperture to a thickness of 4 mils. The spray coating is allowed to cure under ambient conditions for 16 hours. 
     The result is a clear, crosslinked fluoropolymer-based film.  FIGS. 4A and 4B  show CLSM images for this material. The scale bar for  FIG. 4A  is 25 μm, and the scale bar for  FIG. 4B  is 100 μm. The fluorescent regions (which display as green regions in the color drawings and lighter regions when reproduced in grayscale) are representative of regions  410  containing a water-soluble fluorescent dye. The darker regions are representative of hydrophobic regions  420 . There is not much phase inhomogeneity on an average length scale of 0.1-500 microns, and thus relatively poor anti-ice performance. This example can therefore be considered a comparative example. 
     The freezing delay associated with this material (Example 7) is measured as 1.2±1.2 min, based on the same test protocol as Examples 1 and 2. The coefficient of sliding friction is measured at 0.14 at 55% relative humidity and 0.23 at 90% relative humidity, also based on the same test protocol as Examples 1 and 2. 
     Example 8: Clear Thermoset Material 
     Hydroxy-terminated poly(perfluoropolyether) (3.73 mmoles, 9.00 g, Fluorolink 5147x) is placed in a 3-neck roundbottom flask that contains an inlet for argon and is equipped with an overhead stirrer (Teflon shaft and blade). While stirring, 4,4′-methylenebis(cyclohexyl isocyanate) (18.66 mmoles, 4.89 g) is added to the solution and the flask is placed in an oil bath at 100° C. Dibutyltin dilaurate (0.02 wt %) is then added to the solution using a micropipette, and the reaction is allowed to proceed. 
     After 1 hr, the prepolymer is then allowed to cool down to room temperature. The prepolymer is diluted with 2-butanone (15 mL) and placed in a plastic mixing container (FlackTek-speedmixer compatible). In a separate vial, 1,1,1-tris(hydroxymethyl)propane (9.84 mmoles, 1.32 g) is weighed and dissolved with a solvent mixture of acetone (6 mL), 2-butanone (4 mL), and xylene (3.5 mL). The use of a triol enables vulcanization during curing. The two solutions are combined in the mixing container and placed in the FlackTek at 2300 rpm for 15 seconds. The sample is sprayed with an HVLP gun using a 1.7 mm nozzle aperture to a thickness of 4 mils. The spray coating is then cured in an oven at a temperature of 60-80° C. for about 4 hours. 
     The result is a clear, highly crosslinked fluoropolymer-based film. There is not believed to be significant phase inhomogeneity on an average length scale of 0.1-500 microns, leading to lower anti-ice performance compared to Examples 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (see Example 9). This Example 8 can therefore be considered a less-preferred example. 
     Example 9: AMIL ARF Testing of Example Coatings 
     AMIL is the Anti-icing Materials International Laboratory located at the Université du Québec a Chicoutimi in Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada. The icephobic character of a coating can be evaluated by measuring the ice adhesion reduction effect of a candidate coating compared to an uncoated surface. AMIL can evaluate icephobic coatings in many different atmospheric conditions (wind and temperature) with glaze or rime accreted ice obtained with a simulation of freezing precipitation. 
     A single “Centrifuge Adhesion Test” by AMIL consists of the ice adhesion measurement of three small aluminum beams covered with the candidate product, compared with three bare beams. The extremity of the six sample beams are iced simultaneously with freezing precipitation on about 5 cm 2  surface to a thickness of about 7 mm. Each sample beam is rotated and balanced in the centrifuge apparatus. The rotation speed increases with a constant acceleration rate until the centrifugal force resulting from rotation reaches the adhesion stress of ice, detaching the ice. This detachment is picked up by a piezoelectric cell (sensitive to vibrations) which relays signals in real time to a computer. Finally, the adhesion stress is calculated using detachment speed, the mass of ice, and the beam length. 
     The Adhesion Reduction Factor, ARF (herein also referred to as “AMIL ARF”) is calculated using the average stress measured on the three coated beams compared to the average stress measured on the three bare (control) beams. In particular, from the centrifugal force the stress is determined as F=mr ω 2  where F=centrifugal force [N], m=mass of ice [kg], r=radius of the beam [m], and ω=speed of rotation [rad/s]. The Adhesion Reduction Factor (AMIL ARF) is then calculated using the average stress measured on the three coated beams compared to the average stress measured on the three bare beams: ARF=τ bare /τ coated  where τ bare =average stress measured on three simultaneously iced bare beams [Pa] and τ coated =average stress measured on three simultaneously iced beams with candidate icephobic coating [Pa]. The web site www.uqac.ca/amil/en/icephobiccoatings/centrifuge, as retrieved on the filing date hereof, is hereby incorporated by reference herein. 
     An ARF value of 1 means there is no icephobic effect. An ARF value greater than 1 means there is an ice-adhesion reduction (icephobic effect); the higher the value, the more icephobic the coating. 
       FIG. 5  shows a table of AMIL ARF data for the samples described in Examples 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8. All AMIL ARF values for Examples 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are significantly above 10, and samples in Examples 1, 3, 4, and 5 have AMIL ARF values above 100 which represent extreme reduction in ice adhesion compared to the control substrate. The less-preferred Example 8 gives an AMIL ARF value of 10.5, which is much less than the more-preferred materials of Examples 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Also, AMIL public information (retrievable at the www.uqac.ca web site link above) shows ARF values of around 1 to 10 for a wide variety of solid coatings. Even silicone grease, lithium grease, or other industrial lubricants have ARF values well below 100. This result (ARF values on the order of 100 or higher) is unexpected and surprising. 
     In this detailed description, reference has been made to multiple embodiments and to the accompanying drawings in which are shown by way of illustration specific exemplary embodiments of the invention. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention, and it is to be understood that modifications to the various disclosed embodiments may be made by a skilled artisan. 
     Where methods and steps described above indicate certain events occurring in certain order, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the ordering of certain steps may be modified and that such modifications are in accordance with the variations of the invention. Additionally, certain steps may be performed concurrently in a parallel process when possible, as well as performed sequentially. 
     All publications, patents, and patent applications cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety as if each publication, patent, or patent application were specifically and individually put forth herein. 
     The embodiments, variations, and figures described above should provide an indication of the utility and versatility of the present invention. Other embodiments that do not provide all of the features and advantages set forth herein may also be utilized, without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. Such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of the invention defined by the claims.