Patent Publication Number: US-2023138190-A1

Title: Ai-based model use for network energy savings

Description:
PRIORITY CLAIM 
     This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 63/297,195, filed Jan. 6, 2022, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     Embodiments pertain to 3GPP networks. In particular, some embodiments relate to mechanisms to promote energy saving in 3GPP networks. 
     BACKGROUND 
     The use and complexity of wireless systems has increased due to both an increase in the types of electronic devices using network resources as well as the amount of data and bandwidth being used by various applications, such as video streaming, operating on the electronic devices. As expected, a number of issues abound with the advent of any new technology, including complexities related to energy saving in networks. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
       In the figures, which are not necessarily drawn to scale, like numerals may describe similar components in different views. Like numerals having different letter suffixes may represent different instances of similar components. The figures illustrate generally, by way of example, but not by way of limitation, various embodiments discussed in the present document. 
         FIG.  1 A  illustrates an architecture of a network, in accordance with some aspects. 
         FIG.  1 B  illustrates a non-roaming 5G system architecture in accordance with some aspects. 
         FIG.  1 C  illustrates a non-roaming 5G system architecture in accordance with some aspects. 
         FIG.  2    illustrates a block diagram of a communication device in accordance with some embodiments. 
         FIG.  3    illustrates a first power saving procedure in accordance with some embodiments. 
         FIG.  4    illustrates a second power saving procedure in accordance with some embodiments. 
         FIG.  5    illustrates a second power saving procedure in accordance with some embodiments. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The following description and the drawings sufficiently illustrate specific embodiments to enable those skilled in the art to practice them. Other embodiments may incorporate structural, logical, electrical, process, and other changes. Portions and features of some embodiments may be included in, or substituted for, those of other embodiments. Embodiments set forth in the claims encompass all available equivalents of those claims. 
       FIG.  1 A  illustrates an architecture of a network in accordance with some aspects. The network  140 A includes 3GPP LTE/4G and NG network functions that may be extended to 6G and later generation functions. Accordingly, although 5G will be referred to, it is to be understood that this is to extend as able to 6G (and later) structures, systems, and functions. A network function can be implemented as a discrete network element on a dedicated hardware, as a software instance running on dedicated hardware, and/or as a virtualized function instantiated on an appropriate platform, e.g., dedicated hardware or a cloud infrastructure. 
     The network  140 A is shown to include user equipment (UE)  101  and UE  102 . The UEs  101  and  102  are illustrated as smartphones (e.g., handheld touchscreen mobile computing devices connectable to one or more cellular networks) but may also include any mobile or non-mobile computing device, such as portable (laptop) or desktop computers, wireless handsets, drones, or any other computing device including a wired and/or wireless communications interface. The UEs  101  and  102  can be collectively referred to herein as UE  101 , and UE  101  can be used to perform one or more of the techniques disclosed herein. 
     Any of the radio links described herein (e.g., as used in the network  140 A or any other illustrated network) may operate according to any exemplary radio communication technology and/or standard. Any spectrum management scheme including, for example, dedicated licensed spectrum, unlicensed spectrum, (licensed) shared spectrum (such as Licensed Shared Access (LSA) in 2.3-2.4 GHz, 3.4-3.6 GHz, 3.6-3.8 GHz, and other frequencies and Spectrum Access System (SAS) in 3.55-3.7 GHz and other frequencies). Different Single Carrier or Orthogonal Frequency Domain Multiplexing (OFDM) modes (CP-OFDM, SC-FDMA, SC-OFDM, filter bank-based multicarrier (FBMC), OFDMA, etc.), and in particular 3GPP NR, may be used by allocating the OFDM carrier data bit vectors to the corresponding symbol resources. 
     In some aspects, any of the UEs  101  and  102  can comprise an Internet-of-Things (IoT) UE or a Cellular IoT (CIoT) UE, which can comprise a network access layer designed for low-power IoT applications utilizing short-lived UE connections. In some aspects, any of the UEs  101  and  102  can include a narrowband (NB) IoT UE (e.g., such as an enhanced NB-IoT (eNB-IoT) UE and Further Enhanced (FeNB-IoT) UE). An IoT UE can utilize technologies such as machine-to-machine (M2M) or machine-type communications (MTC) for exchanging data with an MTC server or device via a public land mobile network (PLMN), Proximity-Based Service (ProSe) or device-to-device (D2D) communication, sensor networks, or IoT networks. The M2M or MTC exchange of data may be a machine-initiated exchange of data. An IoT network includes interconnecting IoT UEs, which may include uniquely identifiable embedded computing devices (within the Internet infrastructure), with short-lived connections. The IoT UEs may execute background applications (e.g., keep-alive messages, status updates, etc.) to facilitate the connections of the IoT network. In some aspects, any of the UEs  101  and  102  can include enhanced MTC (eMTC) UEs or further enhanced MTC (FeMTC) UEs. 
     The UEs  101  and  102  may be configured to connect, e.g., communicatively couple, with a radio access network (RAN)  110 . The RAN  110  may be, for example, an Evolved Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN), a NextGen RAN (NG RAN), or some other type of RAN. The RAN  110  may contain one or more gNBs, one or more of which may be implemented by multiple units. Note that although gNBs may be referred to herein, the same aspects may apply to other generation NodeBs, such as 6 th  generation NodeBs—and thus may be alternately referred to as next generation NodeB (xNB). 
     Each of the gNBs may implement protocol entities in the 3GPP protocol stack, in which the layers are considered to be ordered, from lowest to highest, in the order Physical (PHY), Medium Access Control (MAC), Radio Link Control (RLC), Packet Data Convergence Control (PDCP), and Radio Resource Control (RRC)/Service Data Adaptation Protocol (SDAP) (for the control plane/user plane). The protocol layers in each gNB may be distributed in different units—a Central Unit (CU), at least one Distributed Unit (DU), and a Remote Radio Head (RRH). The CU may provide functionalities such as the control the transfer of user data, and effect mobility control, radio access network sharing, positioning, and session management, except those functions allocated exclusively to the DU. 
     The higher protocol layers (PDCP and RRC for the control plane/PDCP and SDAP for the user plane) may be implemented in the CU, and the RLC and MAC layers may be implemented in the DU. The PHY layer may be split, with the higher PHY layer also implemented in the DU, while the lower PHY layer is implemented in the RRH. The CU, DU and RRH may be implemented by different manufacturers, but may nevertheless be connected by the appropriate interfaces therebetween. The CU may be connected with multiple DUs. 
     The interfaces within the gNB include the E1 and front-haul (F) F1 interface. The E1 interface may be between a CU control plane (gNB-CU-CP) and the CU user plane (gNB-CU-UP) and thus may support the exchange of signalling information between the control plane and the user plane through E1AP service. The E1 interface may separate Radio Network Layer and Transport Network Layer and enable exchange of UE associated information and non-UE associated information. The E1AP services may be non UE-associated services that are related to the entire E1 interface instance between the gNB-CU-CP and gNB-CU-UP using a non UE-associated signalling connection and UE-associated services that are related to a single UE and are associated with a UE-associated signalling connection that is maintained for the UE. 
     The F1 interface may be disposed between the CU and the DU. The CU may control the operation of the DU over the F1 interface. As the signalling in the gNB is split into control plane and user plane signalling, the F1 interface may be split into the F1-C interface for control plane signalling between the gNB-DU and the gNB-CU-CP, and the F1-U interface for user plane signalling between the gNB-DU and the gNB-CU-UP, which support control plane and user plane separation. The F1 interface may separate the Radio Network and Transport Network Layers and enable exchange of UE associated information and non-UE associated information. In addition, an F2 interface may be between the lower and upper parts of the NR PHY layer. The F2 interface may also be separated into F2-C and F2-U interfaces based on control plane and user plane functionalities. 
     The UEs  101  and  102  utilize connections  103  and  104 , respectively, each of which comprises a physical communications interface or layer (discussed in further detail below); in this example, the connections  103  and  104  are illustrated as an air interface to enable communicative coupling, and can be consistent with cellular communications protocols, such as a Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) protocol, a code-division multiple access (CDMA) network protocol, a Push-to-Talk (PTT) protocol, a PTT over Cellular (POC) protocol, a Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) protocol, a 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) protocol, a 5G protocol, a 6G protocol, and the like. 
     In an aspect, the UEs  101  and  102  may further directly exchange communication data via a ProSe interface  105 . The ProSe interface  105  may alternatively be referred to as a sidelink (SL) interface comprising one or more logical channels, including but not limited to a Physical Sidelink Control Channel (PSCCH), a Physical Sidelink Shared Channel (PSSCH), a Physical Sidelink Discovery Channel (PSDCH), a Physical Sidelink Broadcast Channel (PSBCH), and a Physical Sidelink Feedback Channel (PSFCH). 
     The UE  102  is shown to be configured to access an access point (AP)  106  via connection  107 . The connection  107  can comprise a local wireless connection, such as, for example, a connection consistent with any IEEE 802.11 protocol, according to which the AP  106  can comprise a wireless fidelity (WiFi®) router. In this example, the AP  106  is shown to be connected to the Internet without connecting to the core network of the wireless system (described in further detail below). 
     The RAN  110  can include one or more access nodes that enable the connections  103  and  104 . These access nodes (ANs) can be referred to as base stations (BSs), NodeBs, evolved NodeBs (eNBs), Next Generation NodeBs (gNBs), RAN nodes, and the like, and can comprise ground stations (e.g., terrestrial access points) or satellite stations providing coverage within a geographic area (e.g., a cell). In some aspects, the communication nodes  111  and  112  can be transmission-reception points (TRPs). In instances when the communication nodes  111  and  112  are NodeBs (e.g., eNBs or gNBs), one or more TRPs can function within the communication cell of the NodeBs. The RAN  110  may include one or more RAN nodes for providing macrocells, e.g., macro RAN node  111 , and one or more RAN nodes for providing femtocells or picocells (e.g., cells having smaller coverage areas, smaller user capacity, or higher bandwidth compared to macrocells), e.g., low power (LP) RAN node  112 . 
     Any of the RAN nodes  111  and  112  can terminate the air interface protocol and can be the first point of contact for the UEs  101  and  102 . In some aspects, any of the RAN nodes  111  and  112  can fulfill various logical functions for the RAN  110  including, but not limited to, radio network controller (RNC) functions such as radio bearer management, uplink and downlink dynamic radio resource management and data packet scheduling, and mobility management. In an example, any of the nodes  111  and/or  112  can be a gNB, an eNB, or another type of RAN node. 
     The RAN  110  is shown to be communicatively coupled to a core network (CN)  120  via an S1 interface  113 . In aspects, the CN  120  may be an evolved packet core (EPC) network, a NextGen Packet Core (NPC) network, or some other type of CN (e.g., as illustrated in reference to  FIGS.  1 B- 1 C ). In this aspect, the S1 interface  113  is split into two parts: the S1-U interface  114 , which carries traffic data between the RAN nodes  111  and  112  and the serving gateway (S-GW)  122 , and the S1-mobility management entity (MME) interface  115 , which is a signalling interface between the RAN nodes  111  and  112  and MMEs  121 . 
     In this aspect, the CN  120  comprises the MMEs  121 , the S-GW  122 , the Packet Data Network (PDN) Gateway (P-GW)  123 , and a home subscriber server (HSS)  124 . The MMEs  121  may be similar in function to the control plane of legacy Serving General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) Support Nodes (SGSN). The MMEs  121  may manage mobility aspects in access such as gateway selection and tracking area list management. The HSS  124  may comprise a database for network users, including subscription-related information to support the network entities&#39; handling of communication sessions. The CN  120  may comprise one or several HSSs  124 , depending on the number of mobile subscribers, on the capacity of the equipment, on the organization of the network, etc. For example, the HSS  124  can provide support for routing/roaming, authentication, authorization, naming/addressing resolution, location dependencies, etc. 
     The S-GW  122  may terminate the S1 interface  113  towards the RAN  110 , and routes data packets between the RAN  110  and the CN  120 . In addition, the S-GW  122  may be a local mobility anchor point for inter-RAN node handovers and also may provide an anchor for inter-3GPP mobility. Other responsibilities of the S-GW  122  may include a lawful intercept, charging, and some policy enforcement. 
     The P-GW  123  may terminate an SGi interface toward a PDN. The P-GW  123  may route data packets between the CN  120  and external networks such as a network including the application server  184  (alternatively referred to as application function (AF)) via an Internet Protocol (IP) interface  125 . The P-GW  123  can also communicate data to other external networks  131 A, which can include the Internet, IP multimedia subsystem (IPS) network, and other networks. Generally, the application server  184  may be an element offering applications that use IP bearer resources with the core network (e.g., UMTS Packet Services (PS) domain, LTE PS data services, etc.). In this aspect, the P-GW  123  is shown to be communicatively coupled to an application server  184  via an IP interface  125 . The application server  184  can also be configured to support one or more communication services (e.g., Voice-over-Internet Protocol (VoIP) sessions, PTT sessions, group communication sessions, social networking services, etc.) for the UEs  101  and  102  via the CN  120 . 
     The P-GW  123  may further be a node for policy enforcement and charging data collection. Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF)  126  is the policy and charging control element of the CN  120 . In a non-roaming scenario, in some aspects, there may be a single PCRF in the Home Public Land Mobile Network (HPLMN) associated with a UE&#39;s Internet Protocol Connectivity Access Network (IP-CAN) session. In a roaming scenario with a local breakout of traffic, there may be two PCRFs associated with a UE&#39;s IP-CAN session: a Home PCRF (H-PCRF) within an HPLMN and a Visited PCRF (V-PCRF) within a Visited Public Land Mobile Network (VPLMN). The PCRF  126  may be communicatively coupled to the application server  184  via the P-GW  123 . 
     In some aspects, the communication network  140 A can be an IoT network or a 5G or 6G network, including 5G new radio network using communications in the licensed (5G NR) and the unlicensed (5G NR-U) spectrum. One of the current enablers of IoT is the narrowband-IoT (NB-IoT). Operation in the unlicensed spectrum may include dual connectivity (DC) operation and the standalone LTE system in the unlicensed spectrum, according to which LTE-based technology solely operates in unlicensed spectrum without the use of an “anchor” in the licensed spectrum, called MulteFire. Further enhanced operation of LTE systems in the licensed as well as unlicensed spectrum is expected in future releases and 5G systems. Such enhanced operations can include techniques for sidelink resource allocation and UE processing behaviors for NR sidelink V2X communications. 
     An NG system architecture (or 6G system architecture) can include the RAN  110  and a core network (CN)  120 . The NG-RAN  110  can include a plurality of nodes, such as gNBs and NG-eNBs. The CN  120  (e.g., a 5G core network (5GC)) can include an access and mobility function (AMF) and/or a user plane function (UPF). The AMF and the UPF can be communicatively coupled to the gNBs and the NG-eNBs via NG interfaces. More specifically, in some aspects, the gNBs and the NG-eNBs can be connected to the AMF by NG-C interfaces, and to the UPF by NG-U interfaces. The gNBs and the NG-eNBs can be coupled to each other via Xn interfaces. 
     In some aspects, the NG system architecture can use reference points between various nodes. In some aspects, each of the gNBs and the NG-eNBs can be implemented as a base station, a mobile edge server, a small cell, a home eNB, and so forth. In some aspects, a gNB can be a master node (MN) and NG-eNB can be a secondary node (SN) in a 5G architecture. 
       FIG.  1 B  illustrates a non-roaming 5G system architecture in accordance with some aspects. In particular,  FIG.  1 B  illustrates a 5G system architecture  140 B in a reference point representation, which may be extended to a 6G system architecture. More specifically, UE  102  can be in communication with RAN  110  as well as one or more other CN network entities. The 5G system architecture  140 B includes a plurality of network functions (NFs), such as an AMF  132 , session management function (SMF)  136 , policy control function (PCF)  148 , application function (AF)  150 , UPF  134 , network slice selection function (NSSF)  142 , authentication server function (AUSF)  144 , and unified data management (UDM)/home subscriber server (HSS)  146 . 
     The UPF  134  can provide a connection to a data network (DN)  152 , which can include, for example, operator services, Internet access, or third-party services. The AMF  132  can be used to manage access control and mobility and can also include network slice selection functionality. The AMF  132  may provide UE-based authentication, authorization, mobility management, etc., and may be independent of the access technologies. The SMF  136  can be configured to set up and manage various sessions according to network policy. The SMF  136  may thus be responsible for session management and allocation of IP addresses to UEs. The SMF  136  may also select and control the UPF  134  for data transfer. The SMF  136  may be associated with a single session of a UE  101  or multiple sessions of the UE  101 . This is to say that the UE  101  may have multiple 5G sessions. Different SMFs may be allocated to each session. The use of different SMFs may permit each session to be individually managed. As a consequence, the functionalities of each session may be independent of each other. 
     The UPF  134  can be deployed in one or more configurations according to the desired service type and may be connected with a data network. The PCF  148  can be configured to provide a policy framework using network slicing, mobility management, and roaming (similar to PCRF in a 4G communication system). The UDM can be configured to store subscriber profiles and data (similar to an HSS in a 4G communication system). 
     The AF  150  may provide information on the packet flow to the PCF  148  responsible for policy control to support a desired QoS. The PCF  148  may set mobility and session management policies for the UE  101 . To this end, the PCF  148  may use the packet flow information to determine the appropriate policies for proper operation of the AMF  132  and SMF  136 . The AUSF  144  may store data for UE authentication. 
     In some aspects, the 5G system architecture  140 B includes an IP multimedia subsystem (IMS)  168 B as well as a plurality of IP multimedia core network subsystem entities, such as call session control functions (CSCFs). More specifically, the IMS  168 B includes a CSCF, which can act as a proxy CSCF (P-CSCF)  162 BE, a serving CSCF (S-CSCF)  164 B, an emergency CSCF (E-CSCF) (not illustrated in  FIG.  1 B ), or interrogating CSCF (I-CSCF)  166 B. The P-CSCF  162 B can be configured to be the first contact point for the UE  102  within the IM subsystem (IMS)  168 B. The S-CSCF  164 B can be configured to handle the session states in the network, and the E-CSCF can be configured to handle certain aspects of emergency sessions such as routing an emergency request to the correct emergency center or PSAP. The I-CSCF  166 B can be configured to function as the contact point within an operator&#39;s network for all IMS connections destined to a subscriber of that network operator, or a roaming subscriber currently located within that network operator&#39;s service area. In some aspects, the I-CSCF  166 B can be connected to another IP multimedia network  170 B, e.g. an IMS operated by a different network operator. 
     In some aspects, the UDM/HSS  146  can be coupled to an application server (AS)  160 B, which can include a telephony application server (TAS) or another application server. The AS  160 B can be coupled to the IMS  168 B via the S-CSCF  164 B or the I-CSCF  166 B. 
     A reference point representation shows that interaction can exist between corresponding NF services. For example,  FIG.  1 B  illustrates the following reference points: N1 (between the UE  102  and the AMF  132 ), N2 (between the RAN  110  and the AMF  132 ), N3 (between the RAN  110  and the UPF  134 ), N4 (between the SMF  136  and the UPF  134 ), N5 (between the PCF  148  and the AF  150 , not shown), N6 (between the UPF  134  and the DN  152 ), N7 (between the SMF  136  and the PCF  148 , not shown), N8 (between the UDM  146  and the AMF  132 , not shown), N9 (between two UPFs  134 , not shown), N10 (between the UDM  146  and the SMF  136 , not shown), N11 (between the AMF  132  and the SMF  136 , not shown), N12 (between the AUSF  144  and the AMF  132 , not shown), N13 (between the AUSF  144  and the UDM  146 , not shown), N14 (between two AMFs  132 , not shown), N15 (between the PCF  148  and the AMF  132  in case of a non-roaming scenario, or between the PCF  148  and a visited network and AMF  132  in case of a roaming scenario, not shown), N16 (between two SMFs, not shown), and N22 (between AMF  132  and NSSF  142 , not shown). Other reference point representations not shown in  FIG.  1 B  can also be used. 
       FIG.  1 C  illustrates a 5G system architecture  140 C and a service-based representation. In addition to the network entities illustrated in  FIG.  1 B , system architecture  140 C can also include a network exposure function (NEF)  154  and a network repository function (NRF)  156 . In some aspects, 5G system architectures can be service-based and interaction between network functions can be represented by corresponding point-to-point reference points Ni or as service-based interfaces. 
     In some aspects, as illustrated in  FIG.  1 C , service-based representations can be used to represent network functions within the control plane that enable other authorized network functions to access their services. In this regard, 5G system architecture  140 C can include the following service-based interfaces: Namf  158 H (a service-based interface exhibited by the AMF  132 ), Nsmf  158 I (a service-based interface exhibited by the SMF  136 ), Nnef  158 B (a service-based interface exhibited by the NEF  154 ), Npcf  158 D (a service-based interface exhibited by the PCF  148 ), a Nudm  158 E (a service-based interface exhibited by the UDM  146 ), Naf  158 F (a service-based interface exhibited by the AF  150 ), Nnrf  158 C (a service-based interface exhibited by the NRF  156 ), Nnssf  158 A (a service-based interface exhibited by the NSSF  142 ), Nausf  158 G (a service-based interface exhibited by the AUSF  144 ). Other service-based interfaces (e.g., Nudr, N5g-eir, and Nudsf) not shown in  FIG.  1 C  can also be used. 
     NR-V2X architectures may support high-reliability low latency sidelink communications with a variety of traffic patterns, including periodic and aperiodic communications with random packet arrival time and size. Techniques disclosed herein can be used for supporting high reliability in distributed communication systems with dynamic topologies, including sidelink NR V2X communication systems. 
       FIG.  2    illustrates a block diagram of a communication device in accordance with some embodiments. The communication device  200  may be a UE such as a specialized computer, a personal or laptop computer (PC), a tablet PC, or a smart phone, dedicated network equipment such as an eNB, a server running software to configure the server to operate as a network device, a virtual device, or any machine capable of executing instructions (sequential or otherwise) that specify actions to be taken by that machine. For example, the communication device  200  may be implemented as one or more of the devices shown in  FIGS.  1 A- 1 C . Note that communications described herein may be encoded before transmission by the transmitting entity (e.g., UE, gNB) for reception by the receiving entity (e.g., gNB, UE) and decoded after reception by the receiving entity. 
     Examples, as described herein, may include, or may operate on, logic or a number of components, modules, or mechanisms. Modules and components are tangible entities (e.g., hardware) capable of performing specified operations and may be configured or arranged in a certain manner. In an example, circuits may be arranged (e.g., internally or with respect to external entities such as other circuits) in a specified manner as a module. In an example, the whole or part of one or more computer systems (e.g., a standalone, client or server computer system) or one or more hardware processors may be configured by firmware or software (e.g., instructions, an application portion, or an application) as a module that operates to perform specified operations. In an example, the software may reside on a machine readable medium. In an example, the software, when executed by the underlying hardware of the module, causes the hardware to perform the specified operations. 
     Accordingly, the term “module” (and “component”) is understood to encompass a tangible entity, be that an entity that is physically constructed, specifically configured (e.g., hardwired), or temporarily (e.g., transitorily) configured (e.g., programmed) to operate in a specified manner or to perform part or all of any operation described herein. Considering examples in which modules are temporarily configured, each of the modules need not be instantiated at any one moment in time. For example, where the modules comprise a general-purpose hardware processor configured using software, the general-purpose hardware processor may be configured as respective different modules at different times. Software may accordingly configure a hardware processor, for example, to constitute a particular module at one instance of time and to constitute a different module at a different instance of time. 
     The communication device  200  may include a hardware processor (or equivalently processing circuitry)  202  (e.g., a central processing unit (CPU), a GPU, a hardware processor core, or any combination thereof), a main memory  204  and a static memory  206 , some or all of which may communicate with each other via an interlink (e.g., bus)  208 . The main memory  204  may contain any or all of removable storage and non-removable storage, volatile memory or non-volatile memory. The communication device  200  may further include a display unit  210  such as a video display, an alphanumeric input device  212  (e.g., a keyboard), and a user interface (UI) navigation device  214  (e.g., a mouse). In an example, the display unit  210 , input device  212  and UI navigation device  214  may be a touch screen display. The communication device  200  may additionally include a storage device (e.g., drive unit)  216 , a signal generation device  218  (e.g., a speaker), a network interface device  220 , and one or more sensors, such as a global positioning system (GPS) sensor, compass, accelerometer, or other sensor. The communication device  200  may further include an output controller, such as a serial (e.g., universal serial bus (USB), parallel, or other wired or wireless (e.g., infrared (IR), near field communication (NFC), etc.) connection to communicate or control one or more peripheral devices (e.g., a printer, card reader, etc.). 
     The storage device  216  may include a non-transitory machine readable medium  222  (hereinafter simply referred to as machine readable medium) on which is stored one or more sets of data structures or instructions  224  (e.g., software) embodying or utilized by any one or more of the techniques or functions described herein. The instructions  224  may also reside, completely or at least partially, within the main memory  204 , within static memory  206 , and/or within the hardware processor  202  during execution thereof by the communication device  200 . While the machine readable medium  222  is illustrated as a single medium, the term “machine readable medium” may include a single medium or multiple media (e.g., a centralized or distributed database, and/or associated caches and servers) configured to store the one or more instructions  224 . 
     The term “machine readable medium” may include any medium that is capable of storing, encoding, or carrying instructions for execution by the communication device  200  and that cause the communication device  200  to perform any one or more of the techniques of the present disclosure, or that is capable of storing, encoding or carrying data structures used by or associated with such instructions. Non-limiting machine readable medium examples may include solid-state memories, and optical and magnetic media. Specific examples of machine readable media may include: non-volatile memory, such as semiconductor memory devices (e.g., Electrically Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM), Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)) and flash memory devices; magnetic disks, such as internal hard disks and removable disks; magneto-optical disks; Random Access Memory (RAM); and CD-ROM and DVD-ROM disks. 
     The instructions  224  may further be transmitted or received over a communications network using a transmission medium  226  via the network interface device  220  utilizing any one of a number of wireless local area network (WLAN) transfer protocols (e.g., frame relay, internet protocol (IP), transmission control protocol (TCP), user datagram protocol (UDP), hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), etc.). Example communication networks may include a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), a packet data network (e.g., the Internet), mobile telephone networks (e.g., cellular networks), Plain Old Telephone (POTS) networks, and wireless data networks. Communications over the networks may include one or more different protocols, such as Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 family of standards known as Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.16 family of standards known as WiMax, IEEE 802.15.4 family of standards, a Long Term Evolution (LTE) family of standards, a Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) family of standards, peer-to-peer (P2P) networks, a next generation (NG)/5 th  generation (5G) standards among others. In an example, the network interface device  220  may include one or more physical jacks (e.g., Ethernet, coaxial, or phone jacks) or one or more antennas to connect to the transmission medium  226 . 
     Note that the term “circuitry” as used herein refers to, is part of, or includes hardware components such as an electronic circuit, a logic circuit, a processor (shared, dedicated, or group) and/or memory (shared, dedicated, or group), an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC), a field-programmable device (FPD) (e.g., a field-programmable gate array (FPGA), a programmable logic device (PLD), a complex PLD (CPLD), a high-capacity PLD (HCPLD), a structured ASIC, or a programmable SoC), digital signal processors (DSPs), etc., that are configured to provide the described functionality. In some embodiments, the circuitry may execute one or more software or firmware programs to provide at least some of the described functionality. The term “circuitry” may also refer to a combination of one or more hardware elements (or a combination of circuits used in an electrical or electronic system) with the program code used to carry out the functionality of that program code. In these embodiments, the combination of hardware elements and program code may be referred to as a particular type of circuitry. 
     The term “processor circuitry” or “processor” as used herein thus refers to, is part of, or includes circuitry capable of sequentially and automatically carrying out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations, or recording, storing, and/or transferring digital data. The term “processor circuitry” or “processor” may refer to one or more application processors, one or more baseband processors, a physical central processing unit (CPU), a single- or multi-core processor, and/or any other device capable of executing or otherwise operating computer-executable instructions, such as program code, software modules, and/or functional processes. 
     Any of the radio links described herein may operate according to any one or more of the following radio communication technologies and/or standards including but not limited to: a Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) radio communication technology, a General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) radio communication technology, an Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) radio communication technology, and/or a Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) radio communication technology, for example Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), Freedom of Multimedia Access (FOMA), 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE), 3GPP Long Term Evolution Advanced (LTE Advanced), Code division multiple access 2000 (CDMA2000), Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD), Mobitex, Third Generation (3G), Circuit Switched Data (CSD), High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (Third Generation) (UMTS (3G)), Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) (W-CDMA (UMTS)), High Speed Packet Access (HSPA), High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA), High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA), High Speed Packet Access Plus (HSPA+), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System-Time-Division Duplex (UMTS-TDD), Time Division-Code Division Multiple Access (TD-CDMA), Time Division-Synchronous Code Division Multiple Access (TD-CDMA), 3rd Generation Partnership Project Release 8 (Pre-4th Generation) (3GPP Rel. 8 (Pre-4G)), 3GPP Rel. 9 (3rd Generation Partnership Project Release 9), 3GPP Rel. 10 (3rd Generation Partnership Project Release 10), 3GPP Rel. 11 (3rd Generation Partnership Project Release 11), 3GPP Rel. 12 (3rd Generation Partnership Project Release 12), 3GPP Rel. 13 (3rd Generation Partnership Project Release 13), 3GPP Rel. 14 (3rd Generation Partnership Project Release 14), 3GPP Rel. 15 (3rd Generation Partnership Project Release 15), 3GPP Rel. 16 (3rd Generation Partnership Project Release 16), 3GPP Rel. 17 (3rd Generation Partnership Project Release 17) and subsequent Releases (such as Rel. 18, Rel. 19, etc.), 3GPP 5G, 5G, 5G New Radio (5G NR), 3GPP 5G New Radio, 3GPP LTE Extra, LTE-Advanced Pro, LTE Licensed-Assisted Access (LAA), MuLTEfire, UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA), Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA), Long Term Evolution Advanced (4th Generation) (LTE Advanced (4G)), cdmaOne (2G), Code division multiple access 2000 (Third generation) (CDMA2000 (3G)), Evolution-Data Optimized or Evolution-Data Only (EV-DO), Advanced Mobile Phone System (1st Generation) (AMPS (1G)), Total Access Communication System/Extended Total Access Communication System (TACS/ETACS), Digital AMPS (2nd Generation) (D-AMPS (2G)), Push-to-talk (PTT), Mobile Telephone System (MTS), Improved Mobile Telephone System (IMTS), Advanced Mobile Telephone System (AMTS), OLT (Norwegian for Offentlig Landmobil Telefoni, Public Land Mobile Telephony), MTD (Swedish abbreviation for Mobiltelefonisystem D, or Mobile telephony system D), Public Automated Land Mobile (Autotel/PALM), ARP (Finnish for Autoradiopuhelin, “car radio phone”), NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephony), High capacity version of NTT (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) (Hicap), Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD), Mobitex, DataTAC, Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN), Personal Digital Cellular (PDC), Circuit Switched Data (CSD), Personal Handy-phone System (PHS), Wideband Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (WiDEN), iBurst, Unlicensed Mobile Access (UMA), also referred to as also referred to as 3GPP Generic Access Network, or GAN standard), Zigbee, Bluetooth®, Wireless Gigabit Alliance (WiGig) standard, mmWave standards in general (wireless systems operating at 10-300 GHz and above such as WiGig, IEEE 802.11ad, IEEE 802.11ay, etc.), technologies operating above 300 GHz and THz bands, (3GPP/LTE based or IEEE 802.11p or IEEE 802.11bd and other) Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-X (V2X) and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) and Infrastructure-to-Vehicle (I2V) communication technologies, 3GPP cellular V2X, DSRC (Dedicated Short Range Communications) communication systems such as Intelligent-Transport-Systems and others (typically operating in 5850 MHz to 5925 MHz or above (typically up to 5935 MHz following change proposals in CEPT Report 71)), the European ITS-G5 system (i.e. the European flavor of IEEE 802.11p based DSRC, including ITS-G5A (i.e., Operation of ITS-G5 in European ITS frequency bands dedicated to ITS for safety re-lated applications in the frequency range 5,875 GHz to 5,905 GHz), ITS-G5B (i.e., Operation in European ITS frequency bands dedicated to ITS non-safety applications in the frequency range 5,855 GHz to 5,875 GHz), ITS-G5C (i.e., Operation of ITS applications in the frequency range 5,470 GHz to 5,725 GHz)), DSRC in Japan in the 700 MHz band (including 715 MHz to 725 MHz), IEEE 802.11bd based systems, etc. 
     Aspects described herein can be used in the context of any spectrum management scheme including dedicated licensed spectrum, unlicensed spectrum, license exempt spectrum, (licensed) shared spectrum (such as LSA=Licensed Shared Access in 2.3-2.4 GHz, 3.4-3.6 GHz, 3.6-3.8 GHz and further frequencies and SAS=Spectrum Access System/CBRS=Citizen Broadband Radio System in 3.55-3.7 GHz and further frequencies). Applicable spectrum bands include IMT (International Mobile Telecommunications) spectrum as well as other types of spectrum/bands, such as bands with national allocation (including 450-470 MHz, 902-928 MHz (note: allocated for example in US (FCC Part 15)), 863-868.6 MHz (note: allocated for example in European Union (ETSI EN 300 220)), 915.9-929.7 MHz (note: allocated for example in Japan), 917-923.5 MHz (note: allocated for example in South Korea), 755-779 MHz and 779-787 MHz (note: allocated for example in China), 790-960 MHz, 1710-2025 MHz, 2110-2200 MHz, 2300-2400 MHz, 2.4-2.4835 GHz (note: it is an ISM band with global availability and it is used by Wi-Fi technology family (11b/g/n/ax) and also by Bluetooth), 2500-2690 MHz, 698-790 MHz, 610-790 MHz, 3400-3600 MHz, 3400-3800 MHz, 3800-4200 MHz, 3.55-3.7 GHz (note: allocated for example in the US for Citizen Broadband Radio Service), 5.15-5.25 GHz and 5.25-5.35 GHz and 5.47-5.725 GHz and 5.725-5.85 GHz bands (note: allocated for example in the US (FCC part 15), consists four U-NII bands in total 500 MHz spectrum), 5.725-5.875 GHz (note: allocated for example in EU (ETSI EN 301 893)), 5.47-5.65 GHz (note: allocated for example in South Korea, 5925-7125 MHz and 5925-6425 MHz band (note: under consideration in US and EU, respectively. Next generation Wi-Fi system is expected to include the 6 GHz spectrum as operating band but it is noted that, as of December 2017, Wi-Fi system is not yet allowed in this band. Regulation is expected to be finished in 2019-2020 time frame), IMT-advanced spectrum, IMT-2020 spectrum (expected to include 3600-3800 MHz, 3800-4200 MHz, 3.5 GHz bands, 700 MHz bands, bands within the 24.25-86 GHz range, etc.), spectrum made available under FCC&#39;s “Spectrum Frontier” 5G initiative (including 27.5-28.35 GHz, 29.1-29.25 GHz, 31-31.3 GHz, 37-38.6 GHz, 38.6-40 GHz, 42-42.5 GHz, 57-64 GHz, 71-76 GHz, 81-86 GHz and 92-94 GHz, etc), the ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems) band of 5.9 GHz (typically 5.85-5.925 GHz) and 63-64 GHz, bands currently allocated to WiGig such as WiGig Band 1 (57.24-59.40 GHz), WiGig Band 2 (59.40-61.56 GHz) and WiGig Band 3 (61.56-63.72 GHz) and WiGig Band 4 (63.72-65.88 GHz), 57-64/66 GHz (note: this band has near-global designation for Multi-Gigabit Wireless Systems (MGWS)/WiGig. In US (FCC part 15) allocates total 14 GHz spectrum, while EU (ETSI EN 302 567 and ETSI EN 301 217-2 for fixed P2P) allocates total 9 GHz spectrum), the 70.2 GHz-71 GHz band, any band between 65.88 GHz and 71 GHz, bands currently allocated to automotive radar applications such as 76-81 GHz, and future bands including 94-300 GHz and above. Furthermore, the scheme can be used on a secondary basis on bands such as the TV White Space bands (typically below 790 MHz) where in particular the 400 MHz and 700 MHz bands are promising candidates. Besides cellular applications, specific applications for vertical markets may be addressed such as PMSE (Program Making and Special Events), medical, health, surgery, automotive, low-latency, drones, etc. applications. 
     Aspects described herein can also implement a hierarchical application of the scheme is possible, e.g., by introducing a hierarchical prioritization of usage for different types of users (e.g., lowithmedium/high priority, etc.), based on a prioritized access to the spectrum e.g., with highest priority to tier-1 users, followed by tier-2, then tier-3, etc. users, etc. 
     Aspects described herein can also be applied to different Single Carrier or OFDM flavors (CP-OFDM, SC-FDMA, SC-OFDM, filter bank-based multicarrier (FBMC), OFDMA, etc.) and in particular 3GPP NR (New Radio) by allocating the OFDM carrier data bit vectors to the corresponding symbol resources. 
     5G networks extend beyond the traditional mobile broadband services to provide various new services such as internet of things (IoT), industrial control, autonomous driving, mission critical communications, etc. that may have ultra-low latency, ultra-high reliability, and high data capacity requirements due to safety and performance concerns. Some of the features in this document are defined for the network side, such as APs, eNBs, NR or gNBs—note that this term is typically used in the context of 3GPP 5G and 6G communication systems, etc. Still, a UE may take this role as well and act as an AP, eNB, or gNB; that is some or all features defined for network equipment may be implemented by a UE. 
     As above, energy savings is of continuing importance to network and device designers. One aspect of energy savings to be explored is the application of artificial intelligence (AI)/machine learning (ML) techniques in optimization of network energy savings at the system level. To make such energy saving strategy decisions, AI models may use various types of information to make optimization decisions. 
     In addition, while Cell Activation/Deactivation are the only power states currently available to the cell, 3GPP NR has defined a number of energy saving mechanisms on the network side other than Cell Activation/De-activation. Based on these mechanisms, a base station (BS), such as a gNB, can therefore be in a defined set of power saving states, with each power saving state having a different enabled/disabled functionality and thus a different set of available capabilities when in each of these states. While in these lower power saving states, the BS may not be deactivated, but the resource status and capacity to service UEs of the BS may be altered and thus must be communicated to the BS neighbors. There is no standardized way for BSs to communicate the power saving capabilities of the BS in a manner that is independent of specific hardware capabilities and instead is abstracted out to service capabilities such as average cell range, cell capacity, cell throughput, cell load, etc. which may be useful for the neighboring cells to make power saving decisions of their own. 
     Energy efficiency may be one input of an AI/ML-based Network Energy Saving model. Specifically, NG-RAN data Energy Efficiency (EE) may be defined as Data Volume (DV) divided by Energy Consumption (EC) of the considered network elements. The unit of this key performance indicator (KPI) is bit/J, which is assumed to be applied to AI/ML based energy saving use case. Given that the exact number of Bits per Joule may be proprietary, and vendors may be unwilling to share this information with other vendors, some embodiments herein describe using an additional indicator to indicate the relative energy efficiency value, which can be used when the actual bits/joule metric is not available. 
     In addition, feedback from a target NG-RAN node to a source NG-RAN node after handover occurs due to power saving or mobility optimization is basically an indication of whether the handover was the right decision or not and can be used for further ML model training. The feedback may be sent periodically from the target NG-RAN node to the source NG-RAN node. To avoid unnecessary feedback and save power further, the target NG-RAN can stop providing feedback to the source NG-RAN node if the UE is no longer at the target NG-RAN node, e.g., the UE has changed to IDLE/INACTIVE mode or even moved to another NG-RAN mode. However, currently the only case considered is when one UE is handed-over to the target NG-RAN. It remains to be determined what occurs if there are more than one handovers to the target NG-RAN but only some of those UEs go into IDLE/INACTIVE or another NG-RAN node. Further, a validity time for the corresponding energy saving strategy that is generated may be used as one of the outputs of the AI/ML-based energy saving model to indicate how long the feedback for the predicted energy saving strategy (for example, handover) is to continue based on predicted traffic status in future. The operations if the prediction validity timer expires but UEs are still in ACTIVE state are undecided at present, as is the timing when the target NG-RAN is to stop sending feedback. 
     Other options for power saving may rely on techniques that depend on vendor-specific hardware implementation and deployment, such as improved cell hardware, antenna muting, micro discontinuous transmission (DTX), adaptive sectorization. As mentioned above, however, the impact of these additional mechanisms has not been incorporated into the RAN energy savings solutions. This leads to very limited solutions that can only be applied under conditions such as when the cell experiences no load, such as at nighttime, but doesn&#39;t take advantage of low usage levels during the daytime low usage levels. 
     In addition, currently there is limited information exchanged between the RAN nodes and the OAM or among the RAN nodes themselves for training AI models. This may lead to poor outcomes, such as lower energy savings than are possible, loss of network coverage due to inaccurate AI model prediction. 
     Accordingly, aspects of various embodiments herein may include: 1) Input/output information for the AI models; 2) AI model accuracy data; 3) Periodic Feedback for further model training; 4) Energy Efficiency; and 5) criteria for stopping feedback for further model training. 
     1) Input/output information for the AI models: given that base stations have many possible mechanisms in addition to cell activation/deactivation to save energy, such mechanisms may impact the service capabilities of the base station and in turn affect the Energy Saving strategy and Handover strategies of the neighboring cells. 
     2) AI model accuracy data: mechanisms are described to ensure that the predicted information provided by various AI models is accompanied with metrics to allow the OAM/RAN nodes to know their accuracy and error bounds. This may allow the individual RAN nodes or OAM to make the best possible decisions under the prevailing conditions. Also, this may help to improve the existing AI models. 
     3) Periodic Feedback for further model training: the feedback from each RAN node may be set at a periodic interval in order to ensure that the RAN node is still able to maintain the KPIs for all the UEs at the chosen power saving strategy and ensure the resulting actions like HO strategy, are correctly selected by tracking the target NG-RAN node&#39;s feedback. 
     4) ‘Energy Efficiency’ as one of the Input information for the AI/ML-based network energy saving models. The definition of Energy Efficiency (Bits per Joule (BpJ)) might be applied to this use case. Given that the exact number of Bits per Joule may be a bit controversial to share between different vendors, using a relative Energy efficiency indicator such as low/Med/High′ may yield more information. Energy efficiency is the energy used by a base station to process data (e.g., encode, decode, receive/transmit, etc. as indicated in TS 28.554, for example). Although only three categories are indicated, any number may be used—with the values set by base station implementation. 
     5) Embodiments describe the criteria of stopping feedback for further model training: the feedback from each RAN node is used to ensure the neighboring RAN node is still able to maintain the KPIs for all the UEs at the chosen power saving strategy (such as handover strategy). Embodiments describe when the target RAN nodes are to stop sending feedback in order to avoid unnecessary information exchange between nodes and to save power. 
     Various embodiments herein may provide information exchange to enable system energy savings AI/ML model work well, which is an important consideration for 5G and beyond 5G network deployment. Embodiments may enable power efficient platforms and systems solutions. 
     For network energy savings, a cell may have different levels of energy saving states and each energy saving state may correspond to different types of actions in the cell, depending on its capability and configuration. The actions may include, for example: increase the System Synchronization Block (SSB) periodicity, lower the advertised bandwidth (use Bandwidth Part Adaptation (BPA) feature), DTX for the BS, increase the System Information Block (SIB) periodicity, use wake-up signaling features/DRX features to increase the number of UEs and/or the amount of time spent in sleep mode, depending on UE traffic patterns, carrier aggregation turn on/off, secondary cell activation/deactivation, primary/Macro cell activation/deactivation, turn off dual connectivity, and turn off pico cells/small cells and just keep macro cells activated or vice versa. 
     For the first six mechanisms outlined (through carrier aggregation), the cell may not be deactivated, but some of its KPIs may be suitable for lower quality of service (QoS) applications. Thus, the decision to transfer a UE to another cell may be dependent on the following: 
     1) Whether the cell can still fulfill the application QoS for e.g., some highly latency-sensitive apps running on UEs within the cell at the chosen or proposed lower power saving state. This may be applicable for existing as well as any new UE entering the system. In this case, the output of the AI model may be to remain in low power state and transfer the UE to neighboring node. Thus, the decision to handover to another cell may still occur in this case. 
     For the actions in first six mechanisms to occur, basically the cell may advertise the impact of changing the power state on the KPIs for each energy state (e.g. current/predicted cell capacity, current/predicted avg. cell throughput, current/predicted resource availability, current/predicted # of UEs able to be handled, current/predicted average time for a UE to connect to the cell from idle state, current CQI information, current mobility information of UEs, predicted UE latency and predicted UE throughput, etc.) may or may not result in transfer a UE to another cell as the cell may still be providing service or may still do that in case the application running on the QoS is latency sensitive and is impacted by longer time to connect etc. For example, if a UE/UEs moves from RAN node 1 to RAN node 2, then the impact on QoS of the handed over/already existing UE/UEs in both RANI node 1 and node 2 should be taken into account while deciding the action to take for energy saving. 
       FIG.  3    illustrates a first power saving procedure in accordance with some embodiments.  FIG.  3    illustrates model training at the OAM and model inference at the NG-RAN. Thus, the cell in RAN node 1/2 (in  FIG.  3   ) may communicate which level of energy saving state applies and also corresponding performance/KPI impact to the corresponding RAN node. The inter-node communication regarding this performance impact is missing presently. 
     For the remaining mechanisms (7-10), a cell may be entirely de-activated, so handover is more likely. But again, the node may share information as specified in the above list. The cell may also communicate potential time to turn on (in case the load starts to rise) and a threshold value to enable this. 
     Procedures for Information Exchange, Model Training/Inference and Feedback 
     In addition to model training at the OAM and model inference at the NG-RAN shown in  FIG.  3   , both model training and model inference may occur at the NG-RAN.  FIG.  4    illustrates a second power saving procedure in accordance with some embodiments.  FIG.  5    illustrates a second power saving procedure in accordance with some embodiments. In  FIG.  4   , both model training and model inference may occur at the NG-RAN, and feedback from Node 2 is configured during handover preparation. In  FIG.  5   , both model training and model inference may occur at the NG-RAN, and feedback configuration and reporting after handover may be provided through a Resource Status Request/Update message. The procedures shown in  FIGS.  3 - 5    may also be applied to other use cases, like load balancing and mobility optimization. 
     Event-based Periodical feedback for ML model training: feedback may be used from the NG-RAN to the OAM or feedback from the target NG-RAN node to the source NG-RAN node after handover occurs due to power saving or mobility optimization. The feedback may be used for further ML model training. NG-RAN nodes may provide feedback to the OAM at a periodic interval to ensure that the OAM is still able to maintain the KPIs (e.g., average cell throughput) for all the UEs in coverage at the chosen power saving strategy (as shown in  FIG.  3   ). Similarly, the target NG-RAN may provide periodical feedback to the source NG-RAN to ensure the handover strategy (e.g., how many UEs are to be handed over, to which node the UE is to be handed over, which UE are to be handed over, etc.) is correctly selected by the source NG-RAN node (as shown in  FIGS.  4  and  5   ). 
     Different Ways to Set the Periodic Intervals for Feedback: 
     In  FIG.  3    (model training at OAM and model interference at NG-RAN), the periodic interval may be set by OAM and configured to NG-RAN along with the ML model. The feedback may also be event-based depending on events specified by the OAM. 
     In  FIG.  4    (both model training and model inference at NG-RAN), the periodic interval may be set by the source NG-RAN node and sent to the target NG-RAN node during the handover preparation. 
     The impact to the target NG-RAN node is due to UE handover so sending feedback from the target node to the source node may be avoided after the UE enters the idle mode or is further handed over to another node. Because the source NG-RAN may not know when the handover UE is to enter the idle mode or is again handed over, a feedback stop trigger may be set to stop the feedback from the target NG-RAN node. The feedback stop trigger may be, for example “stop feedback after the handover UE goes to idle state” or “stop feedback after the handover UE is handed over to a 3 rd  node”. An example below shows how new IEs are added in the HANDOVER REQUEST to support periodic feedback for ML model training. 
     Handover Request 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 IE/Group 
                   
                   
                 IE type and 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Name 
                 Presence 
                 Range 
                 reference 
                 Semantics description 
                 Criticality 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 . . . 
                 . . . 
                   
                 . . . 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Periodic 
                 O 
                   
                 9.2.3.x 
                 Present when the source 
                 — 
               
               
                 Feedback for 
                   
                   
                   
                 node asks for feedback to 
               
               
                 model training 
                   
                   
                   
                 improve the ML training 
               
               
                 &gt; Report 
                 O 
                   
                 BITSTRING 
                 Each position in the 
                 — 
               
               
                 Characteristics 
                   
                   
                 (SIZE(32)) 
                 bitmap indicates 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 measurement object the 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 target NG-RAN node is 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 requested to report. 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 First Bit = PRB 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Second Bit = TNL 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Capacity Ind 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Third Bit = 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Composite Available 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Capacity Fourth Bit = 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Number of Active UEs, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Fifth Bit = RRC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 connections. 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Sixth Bit = Avg. Cell 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Throughput 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Other bits shall be 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ignored 
               
               
                 &gt; Feedback 
                 O 
                 ENUMERATED(500 ms, 
                   
                 Periodicity that can be 
               
               
                 Periodicity 
                   
                 1000 ms, 2000 ms, 
                   
                 used for reporting of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 5000 ms, 10000ms, . . . 
                   
                 current cell capacity, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 1 min, 5 min, 10 min)) 
                   
                 cell throughput, and 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 current resource 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 availability. If this IE 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 does not present it 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 means it is one time 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 feedback 
               
               
                 &gt;Feedback 
                 O 
                 ENUMERATED 
                   
                 It is presentonly when 
               
               
                 stop trigger 
                   
                 (specific time 
                   
                 Feedback Periodicity is 
               
               
                   
                   
                 duration, 
                   
                 present. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 UE goes to 
               
               
                   
                   
                 idle, UE HO 
               
               
                   
                   
                 to 3rd cell, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 . . . 
               
               
                 &gt;Feedback 
                 O 
                   
                 ENUMERATED(10 s, 
                 Present when Feedback 
               
               
                 duration 
                   
                   
                 100 s, . . . 
                 stop triggering for ML 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 training is set as 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 “specific time duration” 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In  FIG.  5    (both model training and model inference at NG-RAN), the periodic interval may be set by the source NG-RAN node and sent to the target NG-RAN node through a RESOURCE STATUS REQUEST. An example below shows how the RESOURCE STATUS REQUEST may be expanded to support feedback for ML model training. 
     Resource Status Request 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 IE/Group 
                   
                   
                 IE type and 
                 Semantics 
                   
                 Assigned 
               
               
                 Name 
                 Presence 
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                 reference 
                 description 
                 Criticality 
                 Criticality 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Message Type 
                 M 
                 9.2.3.1 
                   
                 YES 
                 reject 
               
               
                 NG-RAN node1 
                 M 
                 INTEGER 
                 Allocated by 
                 YES 
                 reject 
               
               
                 Measurement ID 
                   
                 (1 . . . 
                 NG-RAN node1 
               
               
                   
                   
                 4095, . . . ) 
               
               
                 NG-RAN node2 
                 C- 
                 INTEGER 
                 Allocated by 
                 YES 
                 ignore 
               
               
                 Measurement ID 
                 ifRegistrationRequestStoporAdd 
                 (1 . . . 
                 NG-RAN node2 
               
               
                   
                   
                 4095, . . . ) 
               
               
                 Registration 
                 M 
                 ENUMERATED 
                 Type of request 
                 YES 
                 reject 
               
               
                 Request 
                   
                 (start, stop, 
                 for which the 
               
               
                   
                   
                 add, . . . ) 
                 resource status 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 is required. 
               
               
                 Report 
                 C- 
                 BITSTRING 
                 Each position in the 
                 YES 
                 reject 
               
               
                 Characteristics 
                 ifRegistrationRequestStart 
                 (SIZE(32)) 
                 bitmap indicates 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 measurement object 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 the NG-RAN node2 is 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 requested to report. 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 First Bit = 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 PRB Periodic, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Second Bit = 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TNL Capacity Ind 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Periodic, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Third Bit = 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Composite Available 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Capacity Periodic, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Fourth Bit = 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Number of Active UEs, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Fifth Bit = 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 RRC connections. 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Sixth Bit = 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Avg. Cell Throughput 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Seventh Bit = 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Predicted avg. 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 throughput 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 over Interval X 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Eighth Bit = 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Confidence level of 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 predicted information 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Ninth Bit = 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Avg. time for UE to 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 connect to cell 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 10 th  Bit = 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Quantized Histogram 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 of AI/model error 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Other bits shall be 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ignored by the 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 NG-RAN node2. 
               
               
                 . . . 
                 . . . 
               
               
                 . . . 
                 . . . 
               
               
                 Reporting 
                 O 
                 ENUMERATED 
                 Periodicity that can 
                 YES 
                 Ignore 
               
               
                 Periodicity 
                   
                 (500 ms, 1000 ms, 
                 be used for reporting 
               
               
                   
                   
                 2000 ms, 5000 ms, 
                 of PRB Periodic, TNL 
               
               
                   
                   
                 10000 ms, . . . 
                 Capacity Ind Periodic, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 1 min, 5 min, 
                 Composite Available 
               
               
                   
                   
                 10 min) 
                 Capacity Periodic. 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Also used as the 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 averaging window 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 length for all 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 measurement object 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 if supported. 
               
               
                 Prediction 
                 O 
                 ENUMERATED 
                 If the Seventh 
                 YES 
                 Ignore 
               
               
                 Interval 
                   
                 (5 min, 10 min, 
                 and Eighth bit is 
               
               
                   
                   
                 30 min, 60 min 
                 present, then this 
               
               
                   
                   
                 . . . ) 
                 IE indicates the 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 interval over which 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 the prediction has 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 been made 
               
               
                 Confidence 
                 O 
                 ENUMERATED 
                 If the Seventh 
               
               
                 Level of the 
                   
                 (0, 100) 
                 and Ninth bit is 
               
               
                 Prediction 
                   
                   
                 present, then this 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 IE indicates the 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 confidence level of 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 the predicted info 
               
               
                 Ouantized 
                 O 
                 ENUMERATED 
                 If the Seventh 
               
               
                 Histogram of 
                   
                 (0-10%, 
                 and 10 th  bit is 
               
               
                 AI/model 
                   
                 10-20% . . . 
                 present, then this 
               
               
                 error 
                   
                 90-100%) 
                 IE indicates the 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 distribution of 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 the AI/model error 
               
               
                 Avg. time 
                 O 
                 ENUMERATED 
                 If the Ninth bit is 
               
               
                 for UE to 
                   
                 (20 ms, 40 ms, 
                 present, then this 
               
               
                 connect to 
                   
                 60 ms, 80 ms, 
                 IE indicates the 
               
               
                 cell 
                   
                 100 ms, 120 ms, 
                 average amount of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 160 ms, 200 ms) 
                 time it takes a UE 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 to be able to 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 connect to the cell 
               
               
                 Feedback stop 
                 O 
                 ENUMERATED 
                 It is present 
               
               
                 trigger for 
                   
                 (specific time 
                 only when Reporting 
               
               
                 ML training 
                   
                 duration, UE 
                 Periodicity is present. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 goes to idle, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 UE HO to 3rd 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cell, . . . 
               
               
                 &gt;Feedback 
                 O 
                 ENUMERATED 
                 Present when Feedback 
               
               
                 duration 
                   
                 (10 s, 100 s, . . . 
                 stop triggering for 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ML training is set as 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 “specific time 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 duration” 
               
               
                 &gt;UE INFO 
                 O 
                   
                 Present when Feedback 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 stop triggering for 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ML training is set as 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 “UE goes to idle” or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 “UE HO to 3rd cell” 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Corresponding the Resource Status Request message, the Resource Status Update message will also be updated to reflect the measurements for the requested additional parameters as shown below: 
     Resource Status Update 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 IE/Group 
                   
                   
                 IE type and 
                 Semantics 
                   
                 Assigned 
               
               
                 Name 
                 Presence 
                 Range 
                 reference 
                 description 
                 Criticality 
                 Criticality 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Message Type 
                 M 
                   
                 9.2.3.1 
                   
                 YES 
                 ignore 
               
               
                 NG-RAN node1 
                 M 
                   
                 INTEGER 
                 Allocated by 
                 YES 
                 reject 
               
               
                 Measurement ID 
                   
                   
                 (1 . . . 
                 NG-RAN node1 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 4095, . . . ) 
               
               
                 NG-RAN node2 
                 M 
                   
                 INTEGER 
                 Allocated by 
                 YES 
                 reject 
               
               
                 Measurement ID 
                   
                   
                 (1 . . . 
                 NG-RAN node2 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 4095, . . . ) 
               
               
                 Cell Measurement 
                   
                 1 
                   
                   
                 YES 
                 ignore 
               
               
                 Result 
               
               
                 &gt;Cell Measurement 
                   
                 1 . . . &lt; 
                   
                   
                 YES 
                 ignore 
               
               
                 Result Item 
                   
                 maxnoofCellsinNG-RANnode &gt; 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt;Cell ID 
                 M 
                   
                 Global NG-RAN 
                   
                 — 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Cell Identity 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 9.2.2.27 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt;Radio 
                 O 
                   
                   
                   
                 — 
               
               
                 Resource 
               
               
                 Status 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt;TNL 
                 O 
                   
                   
                   
                 — 
               
               
                 Capacity 
               
               
                 Indicator 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt;Composite 
                 O 
                   
                   
                   
                 — 
               
               
                 Available 
               
               
                 Capacity Group 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt;Slice 
                 O 
                   
                   
                   
                 — 
               
               
                 Available 
               
               
                 Capacity 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt;Number of 
                 O 
                   
                   
                   
                 — 
               
               
                 Active UEs 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt; RRC 
                 O 
                   
                   
                   
                 — 
               
               
                 Connections 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt;Predicted avg. 
               
               
                 throughput over 
               
               
                 Interval X 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt;Prediction 
                 O 
               
               
                 Interval 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt;Confidence 
                 O 
               
               
                 Level of the 
               
               
                 Prediction 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt;Quantized 
                 O 
               
               
                 Histogram of 
               
               
                 AI/model error 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt;Avg. time for 
                 O 
               
               
                 UE to connect to 
               
               
                 cell 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt;Avg. Cell 
               
               
                 Throughput 
               
               
                 &gt;&gt;UE INFO 
                 O 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Prediction interval denotes the confidence interval of the predicted value from RAN node 1/2. Confidence level of the prediction is critical information as well, as it denotes the percentage confidence that the prediction provided by RAN node-1/2 is correct. The confidence level may incorporate the average error in the prediction as well. A minimum confidence level threshold can be included in the information as well. A quantized histogram of error provides further details on the AI modeling error and may be useful for further AI model training. 
     “UE INFO” indicates the UE that is handed over from the source NG-RAN node to the target NG-RAN node due to power saving. “NG-C UE associated Signaling reference” or other information may be used to identify the specific UE that has been handed over to the target NG-RAN. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 &gt;NG-C UE associated 
                 M 
                 AMF UE 
                 Allocated at the 
               
               
                 Signalling reference 
                   
                 NGAP ID 
                 AMF on the source 
               
               
                   
                   
                 9.2.3.26 
                 NG-C connection. 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In other embodiments, new messages may be defined instead of expanding the existing messages: 
     Instead of expanding the existing HANDOVER REQUEST and RESOURCE STATUS REQUEST/RESOURCE STATUS RESPONSE/RESOURCE STATUS UPDATE, an alternative way is to define new messages, e.g., Predicted Handover Request/Predicted Handover Request Acknowledgement and Predicted Resource Status Request/Predicted Resource Status Response/Predicted Resource Status Update specially for information exchange for ML model training and ML-based power saving and mobility optimization triggered handover with the same information as outlined in the above table. 
     Content of the Feedback: 
     The content of the feedback can be related to the UE handover decisions and corresponding success/failure, current cell capacity, current average cell throughput, current resource availability, actual energy saving observed once the energy saving decision is taken. The feedback may also include error statistics as observed in the different AI/ML models. The statistics may include the CDF/histogram of the observed error in the AI/ML models. The feedback can be used for further training of the model, either locally at the NG-RAN or at the OAM to better predict the success/failure of the ML model output. 
     Exchanged Energy Efficiency Between NG-RAN Nodes 
     Although ‘Bits per Joule’ is defined to stand for the energy efficiency of the current NG-RAN node and may be applied to AI/ML-based energy saving model, the exact value of ‘Bits per Joule’ may be proprietary and the vendors may be unwilling to share this information with other vendors. Accordingly, a range of ‘Bits per Joule’ may be used as an additional indicator, e.g., ‘Low/Med/High’, to indicate the relative energy efficiency value of Bits per Joule when the actual bits/joule metric is not available or not willing to be shared. 
     In addition, ‘Energy Status’ indicating the current energy consumption status, e.g., Low, Medium, High, may be exchanged between NG-RAN nodes along with energy efficiency. Energy efficiency may merely provide the relation between the useful output and energy/power consumption, but may be unable to provide a full picture of how much the energy consumption is. If the system is consuming high energy despite low cell traffic load, then it can be better understood why energy efficiency is low. If the system is consuming high energy due to a large amount of traffic, then a fuller picture of why the energy consumption is high may be obtained. In a cloud native environment in which multiple cells are physically deployed on the same platform, ‘Energy Status’ may be used to indicate the energy consumption status per cell. 
     In addition, ‘Energy Saving Strategy Effectiveness/Usefulness’ can be exchanged between NG-RAN nodes as a feedback from the neighboring NG-RAN nodes to the source NG-RAN node. One purpose of AI/ML-based energy saving is to allow the system dynamically to configure energy-saving strategy and to keep system performance as well as reducing energy consumption. An AI/ML-based energy saving strategy from one NG-RAN node (e.g., moving some UEs to another NG-RAN nodes) at a certain time may affect the energy efficiency of cells in the neighboring NG-RAN nodes. The strategy may be effective toward one neighboring node (by not degrading energy efficiency or not degrading the performance of the handover UE) but it could be also ineffective toward another neighboring node. The performance feedback for one NG-RAN node&#39;s AI/ML decision from neighboring nodes can not only improve AI/ML model locally but also collectively improve the system performance. NG-RAN nodes may exchange exact values of ‘Energy Saving Strategy Effectiveness/Usefulness’ or bucket values into a ‘Low/Medium/High’ value and exchange this range value. 
     Criteria of Stopping Feedback from Neighbor NG-RAN Node for AI/ML Model Training 
     Feedback from the NG-RAN to the OAM or feedback from the target NG-RAN node to the source NG-RAN node after handover occurs due to power saving or mobility optimization may be used for further ML model training. The feedback could be sent periodically from the target NG-RAN node to the source NG-RAN node. To avoid unnecessary feedback and save power further, the target NG-RAN node may stop providing feedback to the source NG-RAN node. There may be multiple handovers to the target NG-RAN as the output of AI/ML-based energy saving use case. A validity time for the corresponding energy saving strategy, like handover, may also be provided by the source NG-RAN to indicate the predicted time/period of the source NG-RAN node to stay in the new energy state and/or the predicted time/period for a UE to connect to a target NG-RAN node. 
     If the prediction validity timer expires, the confidence level on the prediction decreases. Continuing feedback may be unable to help much to improve the AI/ML model at the source NG-RAN node but can consume more power and resource on sending/receiving feedback at source/target NG-RAN nodes. Therefore, the target NG-RAN node may stop sending feedback if the validity timer expires no matter how many handover UEs are still active in the target NG-RAN node. 
     The source NG-RAN node may share a Feedback Sample UE Percentage (for example 80%) with the target NG-RAN indicating that the target NG-RAN node may stop sending feedback if 80% handed over UEs enter the IDLE/INACTIVE mode or handed over again to a 3 rd  NG-RAN node if the validity timer is still on. If the Feedback Sample UE Percentage is 100%, the target NG-RAN may stop sending feedback when all UEs have been handed over to this target NG-RAN node enter the Idle/Inactive state or are again handed over to another NG-RAN node. 
     Accordingly, other AI model outputs may include the validity time and percentages described herein. The target NG-RAN node may stop feedback when either the validity timer expires or a specified percentage of UEs that have been handed over to the target NG-RAN enter the idle/inactive state or are handed over to a 3rd NG-RAN node, depending on which condition is the first to be satisfied. 
     One example implementation of the HANDOVER REQUEST message is shown as below. The HANDOVER REQUEST may include the new content described above, as well as additional information as shown below. In other embodiments, other messages may be used during handover to include the periodicity and feedback stop timing and/or UE percentages above. 
     Handover Request 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 IE/Group 
                   
                   
                 IE type and 
                 Semantics 
                   
                 Assigned 
               
               
                 Name 
                 Presence 
                 Range 
                 reference 
                 description 
                 Criticality 
                 Criticality 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 . . . 
                 . . . 
                   
                 . . . 
                   
               
               
                 &gt; Feedback 
                 O 
                 ENUMERATED 
                   
                 Periodicity that can 
               
               
                 Periodicity 
                   
                 (500 ms, 1000 ms, 
                   
                 be used for reporting 
               
               
                   
                   
                 2000 ms, 5000 ms, 
                   
                 of current cell capacity, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 10000 ms, . . . 
                   
                 cell throughput, and 
               
               
                   
                   
                 1 min, 5 min, 
                   
                 current resource 
               
               
                   
                   
                 10 min)) 
                   
                 availability. If this IE 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 does not present it means 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 it is one time feedback 
               
               
                 &gt;Feedback 
                 O 
                 ENUMERATED 
                   
                 It is present only when 
               
               
                 stop trigger 
                   
                 (specific time 
                   
                 Feedback Periodicity is 
               
               
                   
                   
                 duration, 
                   
                 present. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Specified sample 
                   
                 ‘specific time duration’ 
               
               
                   
                   
                 percentage of UEs go 
                   
                 could be set as the 
               
               
                   
                   
                 into Idle/Inactive state, 
                   
                 value of validity time 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Specified sample 
                   
                 of prediction. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 percentage of UEs 
                   
                 ‘Any of the above’ 
               
               
                   
                   
                 are HO to another cell, 
                   
                 refers to target NG-RAN 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Any of the above 
                   
                 node stops feedback when 
               
               
                   
                   
                 . . . 
                   
                 either specific time 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 duration expires or a 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 specified percentage of 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 UEs which HO to this 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 target NG-RAN node go to 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 idle/inactive state or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 HO to a 3rd NG-RAN node, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 no matter which one 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 satisfies first. 
               
               
                 &gt; Feedback 
                 O 
                 0~100 
                   
                 It is present only 
               
               
                 sample UE 
                   
                   
                   
                 when Feedback stop 
               
               
                 percentage 
                   
                   
                   
                 trigger is set to 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ‘Sample percentage of 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 UEs go to idle/inactive’, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 or ‘Sample percentage of 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 UEs are HO to 3 rd  cell’ 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 or ‘Any of the above’ 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Although an embodiment has been described with reference to specific example embodiments, it will be evident that various modifications and changes may be made to these embodiments without departing from the broader scope of the present disclosure. Accordingly, the specification and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense. The accompanying drawings that form a part hereof show, by way of illustration, and not of limitation, specific embodiments in which the subject matter may be practiced. The embodiments illustrated are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the teachings disclosed herein. Other embodiments may be utilized and derived therefrom, such that structural and logical substitutions and changes may be made without departing from the scope of this disclosure. This Detailed Description, therefore, is not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of various embodiments is defined only by the appended claims, along with the full range of equivalents to which such claims are entitled. 
     The subject matter may be referred to herein, individually and/or collectively, by the term “embodiment” merely for convenience and without intending to voluntarily limit the scope of this application to any single inventive concept if more than one is in fact disclosed. Thus, although specific embodiments have been illustrated and described herein, it should be appreciated that any arrangement calculated to achieve the same purpose may be substituted for the specific embodiments shown. This disclosure is intended to cover any and all adaptations or variations of various embodiments. Combinations of the above embodiments, and other embodiments not specifically described herein, will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reviewing the above description. 
     In this document, the terms “a” or “an” are used, as is common in patent documents, to include one or more than one, independent of any other instances or usages of “at least one” or “one or more.” In this document, the term “or” is used to refer to a nonexclusive or, such that “A or B” includes “A but not B,” “B but not A,” and “A and B,” unless otherwise indicated. In this document, the terms “including” and “in which” are used as the plain-English equivalents of the respective terms “comprising” and “wherein.” Also, in the following claims, the terms “including” and “comprising” are open-ended, that is, a system, UE, article, composition, formulation, or process that includes elements in addition to those listed after such a term in a claim are still deemed to fall within the scope of that claim. Moreover, in the following claims, the terms “first,” “second,” and “third,” etc. are used merely as labels, and are not intended to impose numerical requirements on their objects. 
     The Abstract of the Disclosure is provided to comply with 37 C.F.R. § 1.72(b), requiring an abstract that will allow the reader to quickly ascertain the nature of the technical disclosure. It is submitted with the understanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scope or meaning of the claims. In addition, in the foregoing Detailed Description, it may be seen that various features are grouped together in a single embodiment for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the claimed embodiments require more features than are expressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive subject matter lies in less than all features of a single disclosed embodiment. Thus, the following claims are hereby incorporated into the Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate embodiment.