Patent Publication Number: US-10781196-B2

Title: Integrated process for direct saccharification and dehydration of intact biomass to furfurals

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a national stage application under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of International Application No. PCT/US2017/046874, filed Aug. 15, 2017, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/375,991, filed Aug. 17, 2016, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. 
    
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH 
     This invention was made with government support under DOE Grant No. DE-SC0001004 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Lignocellulosic biomass is an appealing renewable carbon source for fuels and chemicals. Calculation shows that ˜33% of fuels and 25% of chemicals demand of the U.S. can be sourced from ˜1.3 billion tons of lignocellulosic biomass annually. [1]  This outlook has motivated researchers and policy makers towards development of lignocellulose supply chain and conversion technologies to produce fuels, additives and chemicals [2-6]  that are commonly obtained from petroleum. However, after a decade of research, many pathways for renewable products have unfavorable process economics, especially when lignocellulosic biomass is considered as a starting feed due to the high processing cost of lignocellulose to C 5 /C 6  sugars. [7]  In traditional practice, recalcitrant lignocellulose, containing cross-linkages of lignin with cellulose and hemicellulose units in the cell microfibril, [8,9]  is first pretreated to make polysaccharides amenable for saccharification. The pretreatment employs acid, alkali, ammonia/CO 2 , or liquid hot water (LHW) under harsh reaction conditions and is energy- and water-intensive, requires complex separation steps, and imparts potentially hazardous effects on the environment. [7]  The second step involves saccharification of fractionated polysaccharides to soluble C 5 /C 6  sugars in an enzymatic process, and is expensive due to high cost of enzyme. 
     Recently, Inorganic salts based molten salt hydrates (MSHs) have emerged as promising media for saccharification of polysaccharides because of Intrinsic acidity of the media. [10]  The MSH consists of a highly concentrated solution of inorganic salt (C salt ≥50%) that has a water-to-salt molar ratio close to the coordination number of the cation of the salt. The ratio is usually equal to or less than the coordination number of the cation. 
     The cations of the salts are shielded from anions by one hydration sphere and ion-water interactions predominantly occur in the hydration sphere. [11]  As a result, the hydrated cations can polarize water molecules, making their protons acidic in the Brønsted sense. The anions of the salt enhance the acidity by deshielding the protons and increasing their tendency to leave water. [12,13] . 
     MSHs are (1) easy to prepare, (2) environmentally friendly due to their high boiling point and low vapor pressure, and (3) less expensive than common ionic liquids. Because of these advantages, MSHs media have been used for cellulose saccharification. [14-19]  However, previous efforts have employed high temperatures (&gt;120° C.) or high acid concentrations (&gt;3 wt %) or long reaction times, which caused degradation of soluble sugars to furanic adducts and humins. [18]  A medium for saccharification of crystalline cellulose using LIBr has recently been developed [10] . High yield of soluble sugars (&gt;90%) was achieved in 30 min at 85° C. in which gluco-oligosaccharides were formed as intermediates. However, this and other known processes still suffer overall from insufficient sugar yield and/or high consumption of water and/or energy, and process intensification resulting in fewer processing steps, high yield of sugars, and lower water and energy consumption would be a welcome advance in the industry. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The invention provides a method of converting a lignocellulosic biomass to monosaccharides, and optionally further converting the monosaccharides to one or both of furfural and HMF, said method comprising contacting the biomass with a reactive liquid phase comprising LiBr, H 2 SO 4 , and water, wherein H 2 SO 4  preferably constitutes at most 1.0 wt %, more preferably at most 0.5 wt %, and most preferably at most 0.1 wt % of the reactive liquid phase, and water preferably constitutes at most at most 60 wt %, more preferably at most 50 wt %, and most preferably at most 30 wt % of the reactive liquid phase. 
     The reactive liquid phase may further comprise a Lewis acid, preferably one selected from the group consisting of CrCl 3 , SnCl 4 , ZrO(OCl), Sn-Beta, Zr-Beta, Hf-Beta, Sn-MFI, TiO 2 , and Lewis acidic-carbonaceous materials, for example TI-carbonaceous, and more preferably AlCl 3 , wherein the Lewis acid is preferably present in an amount of at least 10 mol %, more preferably at least 50 mol %, and most preferably at least 70 mol % relative to total monosaccharides in the liquid phase, and preferably wherein the amount is at most 200 mol % and more preferably at most 150 mol %. 
     The reactive liquid phase may be in contact with a solvent phase that is immiscible with it, said solvent phase preferably comprising or consisting of one or more organic solvents, more preferably comprising or consisting of one or more solvents selected from the group consisting of methyl isobutyl ketone, methyl tetrahydrofuran, phenolic solvents, dimethyl furan, and m-cresol, and most preferably comprising or consisting of ethyl acetate, wherein the ratio by volume of reactive liquid phase to solvent phase is preferably in a range from 1:10 to 10:1, more preferably from 1:5 to 5:1. 
     The contacting may be performed at a temperature of at least 25° C. and no higher than 120° C., preferably no higher than 100° C., and more preferably no higher than 90° C. 
     The method may further include said further converting the monosaccharides to one or both of furfural and HMF, preferably wherein at least 60% of the monosaccharides are converted, more preferably at least 90%, and most preferably at least 99%. 
     The method may be performed such that the biomass is not pretreated with acid to form polysaccharides prior to said contacting. 
     The biomass may be plant matter, preferably lignocellulosic biomass, and more preferably intact or extractive-free wood, switch grass, or corn stover. 
     The yields of glucose and xylose may each individually be at least 50%, or at least 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or 95%, based on the glucan and xylan content of the biomass, respectively. 
     The yields of HMF and furfural may each individually be at least 50%, or at least 60%, 70%, 75%, or 80%, based on the amount of monomeric and oligomeric glucose and xylose produced by the contacting, respectively. 
     The yields of HMF and furfural may each individually be at least 50%, or at least 60%, 70%, 75%, or 80%, based on the glucan and xylan content of the biomass, respectively. 
     The viscosity of the reactive liquid phase may be at least 2 mPa s, or at least 3, 4, or 5 mPa s. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  shows depolymerization results according to the invention for several types of biomass. 
         FIG. 2  is a chromatogram showing species produced by depolymerization and saccharification of Soxlet extracted poplar wood (SEPW) according to the invention. 
         FIG. 3  shows the effect of SEPW loading on glucose and xylose yields produced according to the invention. 
         FIG. 4  shows scanning electron microscope images of poplar wood and SEPW. 
         FIG. 5  shows depolymerization and saccharification results for several types of biomass according to the invention. 
         FIG. 6  shows the effects of reaction conditions on xylose conversion and furfural yields using conversion methods according to the invention. 
         FIG. 7  is a chromatogram of the molten salt hydrate reactive liquid phase using a biphasic process according to the invention. 
         FIG. 8  shows results of glucose hydrolysate dehydration performed according to the invention. 
         FIG. 9  shows chromatograms of products obtained by monophasic and biphasic dehydration of glucose hydrolysate according to the invention. 
         FIG. 10  is a schematic view of integrated saccharification and dehydration processes according to the invention. 
         FIG. 11  shows HMF and furfural yields and sugars conversions from dehydration of several types of biomass with AlCl 3  according to the invention. 
         FIG. 12  compares fixed (CapEx), breakdown operating costs and HMF production cost for the MSH process of this invention with those of two prior art processes. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     As used herein, references to percent values are on a weight basis unless otherwise specified or made apparent by the context. Biomass is considered “intact” if it has not undergone chemical processing to separate lignin from carbohydrates. 
     The inventors now disclose that LIBr is effective for one-step depolymerization and saccharification of untreated lignocellulose to soluble sugars with high yields at low temperature. The inventors elucidate the effects of lignocellulose extractives and lignin on the rates of depolymerization using microscopic techniques. Techno-economic analysis shows that the inventive processes are highly competitive compared with traditional two-step processes. The inventors further disclose an efficient method of converting the soluble sugars to furfurals. 
     Conversion of Lignocellulosic Biomass to Sugars 
     First the Inventors examined the effectiveness of the LIBr-MSH for depolymerization of intact poplar wood (PW) and Soxlet extracted poplar wood (SEPW). At optimal reaction conditions developed for cellulose saccharification, SEPW depolymerization in MSH progresses through formation of gluco-oligosaccharides. Characteristic HPLC peaks for xylo-oligosaccharides, including xylobiose, disappeared quickly (5 min), suggesting saccharification of biomass hemicellulose takes place rapidly upon its dissolution. Most of the xylose was formed within 15 min, while about 50% glucose remained unsaccharified in gluco-oligosaccharides or undepolymerized biomass ( FIG. 1 , panel b; Table 1). Detected gluco-oligosaccharides were cellobiose (CB), cellotriose (CTr), cellotetrose (CTt) and cellopentose (CPt) ( FIG. 2 ). A small amount of acetic acid (AA) was formed from acetate-xylan, which is present in PW. [20]  The recovered solid (40 wt %) contained unconverted polysaccharides and lignin. The yield of glucose Increased upon depolymerization and saccharification of remaining polysaccharides in SEPW and gluco-oligosaccharides. About 90% of theoretical glucan and xylan were saccharified in 1 h from SEPW (Table 1). Lignin was formed as a solid with a small fraction in soluble form (soluble lignin; SL). Monosaccharide yield did not improve upon continuing the reaction for another 1 h; rather a slight dehydration of sugars to HMF and furfural is observed.  FIG. 1  panel e presents the reaction profile showing SEPW depolymerization and gluco-oligosaccharides saccharification. These results, demonstrating high yields of soluble sugars in one step without the need for a pretreatment step or high consumption of water and acid additive, represent a significant process Intensification for low-temperature conversion of lignocellulose processing to soluble sugars, currently a hurdle in cellulosic biorefineries. Lower SEPW loading (1.58 wt %) resulted in a slightly higher glucose and similar xylose yields ( FIG. 3 ). Higher SEPW loading (4.95 wt %) might have caused insufficient stirring of the slurry using a magnetic stir bar, hence yielding a little less glucose (6 wt %) than that observed at 3.4 wt % SEPW loading. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Yield of glucose and xylose from depolymerization 
               
               
                 and saccharification of different biomass in MSH. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Yield (wt %) based on 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Yield (wt %) based on 
                 theoretical glucan and 
               
               
                 Biomass 
                 Time 
                 dry weight of biomass 
                 xylan in biomass 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 samples 
                 (min) 
                 Glucose 
                 Xylose 
                 Glucose 
                 Xylose 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 PW 
                 15 
                 2.2 
                 7.8 
                 4.9 
                 43.4 
               
               
                   
                 30 
                 10.6 
                 12.5 
                 23.3 
                 69.6 
               
               
                   
                 60 
                 32.2 
                 14.5 
                 71.0 
                 80.6 
               
               
                   
                 90 
                 38.7 
                 14.1 
                 85.4 
                 78.2 
               
               
                   
                 120 
                 42.9 
                 13.4 
                 94.7 
                 75 
               
               
                 SEPW 
                 15 
                 23.9 
                 13.0 
                 52.8 
                 74.6 
               
               
                   
                 30 
                 29.6 
                 14.3 
                 65.4 
                 82.4 
               
               
                   
                 60 
                 40.5 
                 15.8 
                 89.3 
                 90.7 
               
               
                   
                 90 
                 39.1 
                 14.2 
                 86.3 
                 81.5 
               
               
                   
                 120 
                 39.3 
                 13.6 
                 86.7 
                 78.1 
               
               
                 CP 
                 15 
                 15.1 
                 3.4 
                 21.2 
                 37.6 
               
               
                   
                 30 
                 42.7 
                 6.5 
                 59.9 
                 72.0 
               
               
                   
                 60 
                 67.0 
                 8.1 
                 94.0 
                 89.6 
               
               
                   
                 90 
                 67.8 
                 7.8 
                 95.2 
                 86.6 
               
               
                   
                 120 
                 65.3 
                 6.9 
                 91.7 
                 76.5 
               
               
                 Pine a   
                 60 
                 39.4 
                 21 
                 89.5 
                 84 
               
               
                 Douglas Fir a   
                 60 
                 41.0 
                 21.2 
                 85.4 
                 85 
               
               
                 Alder a   
                 60 
                 36.6 
                 19.4 
                 85.1 
                 78 
               
               
                 Switch Grass a   
                 60 
                 30.4 
                 24.5 
                 70.6 
                 82 
               
               
                 Corn Stover a   
                 60 
                 14.0 
                 19.6 
                 33.3 
                 63.2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Reaction conditions: 3.45 wt % biomass, 59 wt % LiBr, water/salt molar ratio 3.25, 0.05M H 2 SO 4 , 85° C., 
               
               
                   a 1 h reaction time. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     To assess the effect of biomass extractives on depolymerization, the inventors used intact PW without the removal of biomass extractives. Under comparable reaction conditions, PW depolymerization is very slow in the beginning of the reaction ( FIG. 1 , panel a). Unlike SEPW, the reaction with intact PW gives negligible glucose in 15 min, with the majority of depolymerized cellulose remaining in the form of gluco-oligosaccharides. The concentration of total gluco-oligosaccharides, of which CPt is 11 wt %, increased to 33 wt % at 0.5 h. Higher Mw soluble oligosaccharides (DP&gt;5) might have been formed during depolymerization; however the inventors could not qualitatively and quantitatively determine these species by the inventors&#39; HPLC method due to their high Mw. Further saccharification of oligomers formed an amount of glucose similar that obtained from SEPW, but required a longer reaction time (2 h). Comparison of reaction profiles ( FIG. 1 , panels d and e) reveals that the rates of PW depolymerization to gluco-oligosaccharides and their further saccharification to glucose are significantly slower than those for SEPW. 
     The inventors further evaluated the effect of lignin on the depolymerization, using cellulose-pulp (CP) obtained from an organic acid-assisted pretreatment of SEPW in a biphasic solvent consisting of aqueous oxalic acid and MeTHF, detailed in the Examples. This process removed 39 wt % of total PW lignin (10 wt % on the basis of dry biomass) and 38 wt % of total hemicellulose (7 wt % on the basis of dry biomass) Including acetate-xylan, in the form of xylose and AA from SEPW, while cellulose content was untouched. The resultant CP, containing significantly less lignin and hemicellulose than did SEPW or PW, was subjected to depolymerization in MSH.  FIG. 1  panels c and f show faster conversion of CP, achieving 31 wt % gluco-oligosaccharides within 15 min and maximum 67 wt % glucose on the basis of dry CP weight (95% based on theoretical glucan) in 1 h. The remaining solid (mostly lignin) and detected soluble products accounts for the mass balance. The results show that partial removal of lignin and hemicellulose from SEPW by pretreatment enhances the rates of CP depolymerization and gluco-oligosaccharides saccharification. 
     To understand the differences in depolymerizaton, the inventors studied morphological features of PW, SEPW and CP by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) ( FIGS. 1 and 4 ). The higher magnified SEM images ( FIG. 1 , panel g for PW and h for SEPW) show the presence of a more porous structure in the SEPW sample due to the removal of extractives during Soxlet extraction. The porous structure and higher surface area of pores allows greater accessibility and better interactions of the SEPW fibers with the salt solution, resulting in faster depolymerization than for PW. This result agrees with a previous report demonstrating improved yields of saccharified monosaccharides from Soxlet extracted palm pressed fiber containing pores. [21]  Similarly, CP exhibited faster conversion due to processing of samples with much larger pores ( FIG. 1 , panel i). Importantly, partial lignin removal upfront from SEPW also makes CP less recalcitrant, enabling faster conversion. 
     To evaluate the potential of the MSH for depolymerization of other lignocellulose, extractive-free pine, switch grass, corn stover, Douglas Fir and alder biomass of similar particle size (1 mm) was used ( FIG. 5 , Table 2). Pine and Douglas Fir samples yielded comparable amounts of glucose as SEPW. Alder biomass yielded a little less monosaccharides due to its high lignin content (33 wt %). Switch grass and corn stover, especially corn stover, produced significantly less glucose, possibly due to neutralization of acidity of the MSH solution by the basic metals of corn stover containing high amount of ash. [22]   
                     TABLE 2                  Compositional analysis data for biomass feeds                         Compositional analysis data in wt %                                                 Corn               Components   Pine   Switch Grass   Stover   Douglas Fir   Alder                                             Glucan   44   41   42   48   43       Xylan   25   30   31   25   25       Lignin   28   20   15   29   33       Ash   1.5   1   4   1   0.2       Extractive   7   6   12   3   2                    
Conversion of Sugars to Furfurals
 
     The inventors now also address the separation of soluble sugars from MSH hydrolysate, which is necessary for recycling MSH. Salt extraction by crown ethers [23]  and sugars separation by boronic acid complexation-decomplexation, [24]  antisolvents, [25]  liquid membranes [26]  and ion exclusion chromatography [27]  have previously been attempted. However, these methods are either slow or expensive and are impractical for large scale separation. The inventors now disclose conversion of sugars to furfurals (HMF and furfural) in a biphasic system, an approach that allows concurrent reactive extraction of furfurals into an extraction solvent and recycling of the reactive phase (MSH). This results in process intensification that addresses both sugars separation and furfurals production in an integrated manner. 
     Conversion of sugars to furfurals progresses via isomerization and dehydration reactions, and requires Lewis and Brønsted acid sites. [28]  The Lewis acid isomerizes C 6 /C 5  aldoses to the corresponding ketoses, while the Brønsted acid dehydrates the ketoses to HMF/furfural. The inventors previously reported that homogeneous metal salts are effective catalysts for the conversion of glucose and xylose to HMF and furfural, respectively, and that the reaction was accelerated with addition of Brønsted acids. [29, 30]  In the present invention, the inventors used AlCl 3  and a biphasic solvent to convert glucose/xylose in hydrolysates to HMF/furfural. First, the inventors screened several organic extracting solvents of high partition coefficients predicted by COSMO-SAC [31]  and optimized the reaction conditions for glucose and xylose dehydration separately in MSH hydrolysates. Usually inorganic salts in the aqueous phase improve partitioning of furfurals into the organic phase due to the salting out effect. [3, 32]  Interestingly MSH behaves negatively with most organic solvents in partitioning HMF and furfural. For example, HMF partitioning into methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) enhanced in the presence of 30 wt % NaCl in water in a MIBK/water biphasic system (partition coefficient=1.2). [32]  It is noteworthy that the inventors&#39; experiment using pure HMF showed a very low partition coefficient for HMF (0.5) in MIBK/MSH (1:3 (v/v)). Similarly, the COSMO-SAC model predicted a high partition coefficient for HMF (33.8) in m-cresol/water, a finding which was experimentally validated. [32]  However, in the m-cresol/MSH system, HMF forms a condensation product with m-cresol, which agrees with a previous report [33] . This results in an erroneous partition coefficient for HMF. Control experiments reveal the formation of a similar condensation product between HMF and MIBK in MSH, resulting in about four-fold mass loss of added HMF. Furanic solvents (tetrahydrofuran (THF) and 2-methyl tetrahydrofuran (2-MeTHF)), which form separate phases with pure water or NaCl saturated water, are miscible with MSH. Screening experiments identified ethyl acetate (EA) as the best solvent among those tested for extracting HMF and furfural from MSH hydrolysate. 
     The inventors optimized the reaction conditions for sugar dehydration in EA/MSH by varying the reaction temperature (100-140° C.) and AlCl 3  (10-50 mol % on the basis of sugar amount). Xylose was used as a model sugar for optimization of dehydration conditions. The results show maximum 84 mol % furfural yield from xylose hydrolysate with 50 mol % AlCl 3  at 120° C. for 2 h ( FIG. 6 ). The Inventors have previously established that the reaction progresses via xylulose Intermediate ( FIG. 7 ). [34]  Xylose conversion is nearly quantitative (99%); thus, some carbon mass loss occurs during dehydration. The solution turned brownish during the reaction, Indicating oligomerization of furfural (potentially with xylose/xylulose) to form humins. 
     Under comparable reaction conditions, the conversion of glucose hydrolysate containing 33 mg glucose, obtained from cellulose sacchariflcation in MSH, achieved 80 mol % HMF yield in 1 h in EA/MSH biphasic solvent. After 2 h the yield improved to a maximum of 85 mol %, but the total HPLC yield, representing the combined yield of HMF, fructose, and unconverted glucose, decreased ( FIG. 8 ). This indicates some carbon loss to form of humins with increased reaction time. HMF rehydration forms levulinic acid (LA) in an MSH monophasic system, but LA formation was not evident in a biphasic reaction system by HPLC analysis, as seen in  FIG. 9 . The product solution obtained from dehydration of glucose hydrolysate in MSH (shorter trace) shows formation of levulinic acid and formic acid. However, the chromatogram of the MSH phase obtained from dehydration of glucose hydrolysate in EA/MSH biphasic solvent (taller trace) shows no peaks for levulinic acid or formic acid. This suggests that HMF rehydration takes place in monophasic MSH but not in biphasic solvent. Acetic acid (AA) and ethanol in the biphasic reaction are thought to have formed by hydrolysis of EA. 
     The recovered MSH phase containing LiBr and Lewis acidic Al 3+ , upon decantation of the organic phase containing HMF ( FIG. 10 ), was reused in the 2 nd  cycle in which cellulose saccharification and glucose dehydration occurred in the same reactor. The reused MSH solution yielded slightly less HMF (78 mol %). A slight yield loss in the 2 nd  cycle could be due to a loss of Li-salt (0.04%) into the organic phase as observed from ICP-MS analysis of the crude HMF. The inventors evaluated the effect of MSH on sugars dehydration by comparing the inventors&#39; results with the literature results reported in non-MSH systems. Maximum reported HMF and furfural yields in biphasic solvents containing non-MSH as an aqueous phase are 68 mol % [35]  and 84 mol % [36]  at 140° C. and 170° C., respectively. This comparison suggests that there may be a cooperative effect between Lewis and Brønsted acids in MSH that, possibly along with the high viscosity of the MSH medium, may account for the enhanced HMF yield in the inventors&#39; reactions. 
     Biomass hydrolysates from SEPW, PW and CP depolymerization and saccharification were similarly dehydrated in EA/MSH at 120° C. for 2 h.  FIG. 11  compares HMF and furfural formation from each hydrolysate. SEPW hydrolysate yields 60 mol % HMF within 1 h, which increased slightly in 2 h. Furfural formation occurs faster than HMF, achieving 78 mol % yield within 0.5 h and maintains similar concentration for 2 h. This suggests that HMF and furfural products are stable in the organic phase and side products (LA, humins, FA) may form in the MSH phase, accounting for carbon mass loss. HMF and furfural formation profiles from PW hydrolysate followed similar trends in the beginning of the reaction; however HMF and furfural degradation occurred after 1 h and the solution became dark colored, suggesting that biomass extractives in the solution might accelerate oligomerization of furfurals with sugars resulting in dark colored humins formation. CP hydrolysate gave higher HMF (68 mol %) and furfural (87 mol %) yields, possibly due to partial removal of lignin upfront from the substrate and hence minimization of soluble lignin that could inhibit dehydration. However, the exact reason is unclear. Interestingly, glucose and xylose conversion profiles for all the three hydrolysates are comparable. This indicates that the nature and extent of impurities in the hydrolysates may affect HMF and furfural degradation and product selectivity. 
     Techno-economic analysis for HMF production, using the inventors&#39; observed glucose yield from the MSH process and HMF recovery, was performed using Aspen Economic analyzer V8.6. Annual biomass processing capacity of the production plant is assumed as 400,000 metric tons. Minimum price, which is defined as the minimum production cost of a product at the Net Present Value (NPV) of zero, of HMF from the MSH process is compared with two other processes in which commercially relevant dilute acid (DA) and concentrated acid (CA) saccharification technologies are used for processing biomass to sugars in two-steps. In the DA process, biomass is first pretreated with 1.6 wt % H 2 SO 4  at 170° C. for 12 min. [37]  The resulting solid is treated with 0.8 wt % acid in the second step at 230° C. for 40 s. The yield of glucose is 57%. The CA process [38]  involves depolymerization of biomass to oligosaccharides with a mixture of H 2 SO 4  and H 3 PO 4  (2:1 w/w) at 50° C. in the first step, followed by saccharification of oligosaccharides to sugars (glucose and xylose) with 90% yield in the second step at 140° C. Biomass loading for the DA and CA processes are assumed as 25 wt % and 40 wt % as per the reported values, whereas biomass loading in the MSH process is assumed as 10 wt %. The sensitivity analysis shows lower minimum price of HMF at higher biomass loading (vide infra). The reaction conditions for dehydration of sugars in hydrolysates obtained from all the processes are assumed similar. Furfural and lignin are formed as co-products, except in the DA process in which xylose is separated in the first step and hence furfural yield is low. These co-products are assumed as by-products with no value for estimation of HMF minimum price. 
     Aspen simulation predicts annual production volume of HMF from the MSH, DA and CA processes as 81072, 51925 and 70488 metric tons with HMF purity of 98%, 96% and 96%, respectively. While the yield of HMF from glucose dehydration is assumed to be the same for the three processes, total HMF production from each process is controlled by glucose yield in biomass depolymerization and saccharification step.  FIG. 12  compares fixed (CapEx) and breakdown operating costs for the three processes. CapEx of the CA process is maximum because special materials requirement for handling concentrated acid. CapEx of the MSH process is slightly lower than the CA process. The high organic solvent requirement for HMF extraction and associated separation of the solvent by distillation makes overall utility costs of the MSH process high. Interestingly, total costs of the DA process is lower than the other two processes; however, minimum price of HMF from the MSH process ($729/metric ton) is lower than that of the DA ($1032/metric ton) and CA ($795/ton) processes. Sensitivity analysis shows a 34% decrease in the minimum price of HMF from the MSH process at biomass loading similar to the CA process (40 wt % loading). Thus, the MSH process has significant cost advantages for HMF production due to its single stage conversion technology as well as higher glucose yield. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Materials 
     Lithium bromide, 5 M sulfuric acid, aluminium chloride hexahydrate, ethyl acetate, m-cresol, oxalic acid, ethanol, 2-methyl tetrahydrofuran (MeTHF) and HPLC standards (xylose, glucose, acetic acid, formic acid, levulinic acid, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, furfural) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Gluco- and xylo-oligosaccharides with degree of polymerization (DP) of 2-6 with &gt;95% purity were purchased from Megazymes. All chemicals were used as received. Unless otherwise mentioned, deionized water (Millipore model Direct-Q3 UV R) was used for preparation of all solutions. Syringe filter discs (Nylon, 0.2 μm) for filtration of solutions for HPLC analysis were purchased from Fisher Scientific. Beech wood xylan containing 6.5% moisture was purchased from TCI America. Poplar, Alder, Pine, Switch grass, Douglas Fir and corn stover biomass were purchased from Forest Concepts, LLC. Particle size of hardwood sample is approximately 1 mm (l×w×h). Compositional analysis using NREL procedure [40]  suggests that poplar wood sample contains 45.3% glucan, 18% xylan, 25.5% lignin, 0.8% ash and 5% extractives (weight basis). The remaining 5% could be others (Advanced Hardwood Biofuels Northwest 2013a, http://crf.sandia.gov/thermochemical-integration-key-to-improving-the-efficiency-of-blo-ethanol-production). Compositional analysis data of pine, switch grass, corn stover, Douglas Fir and alder biomass samples are given in Table 2. As per NREL procedure, these data have ±5% uncertainty. 
     Soxlet Extraction 
     Biomass samples containing variable amount of moisture were washed consecutively with ethanol followed by water each for 4 hr using a Soxlet extraction setup. After Soxlet extraction, washed samples were dried at 30° C. for overnight and moisture content was measured using a moisture analyzer. 
     Fractionation of Poplar Wood 
     Fractionation of Soxlet extracted poplar wood (SEPW) to cellulose enriched pulp (referred hereto as cellulose-pulp; CP) was carried out by OrganoCat pretreatment method in a biphasic system. [39]  In this method, SEPW (4 g) was treated with 40 mL of 0.1 M aqueous solution of oxalic acid and 40 mL MeTHF at 140° C. for 4 h in a stainless steel Parr reactor. Upon completion of reaction for the set time, the reactor was cooled down to room temperature and the mixture was allowed to settle. The organic phase containing soluble lignin was separated by decantation. The aqueous phase was filtered to separate solid cellulose pulp and the filtrate was analyzed by HPLC to quantify the yield of soluble sugars, mainly xylose. Dry weight of the pulp was 2.56 g (73 wt % based on dry weight of SEPW). Compositional analysis by NREL procedure shows that the pulp after partial removal of hemicelluloses and lignin contains 70.2 wt % glucan, 9 wt % xylan and 15.3 wt % lignin. Thus, 39 wt % of total lignin of poplar wood was removed during fractionation. HPLC analysis shows that the aqueous solution contains 50 wt % xylan and 33 wt % acetic acid and 1.3% glucose from SEPW. These calculations are based on xylan, acetate form of xylan and glucan amount in SEPW. 
     Depolymerization and Saccharification 
     Saccharification of xylan, cellulose, untreated poplar wood, Soxlet extracted biomass samples and cellulose-pulp was conducted in high pressure glass vials. The vial was loaded with calculated amount of LiBr and 0.05 M aqueous sulfuric acid in amounts calculated to maintain a water:LiBr molar ratio of 3.25:1. Upon dissolving LiBr, the calculated amount of substrate (crystalline cellulose, xylan or biomass) to keep substrate concentrations up to 6 wt % was added into the vial and the mixture was vortexed for about 30 sec. The vial was sealed with an Al-crimp cap and placed in a preheated heating block to start depolymerization at 85° C. (or other desired temperature) with continuous stirring using a magnetic bar. Upon completion of reaction for the set time, the vial was removed from the heating block and quenched in an ice bath. The hydrolysate was diluted 1:10 with deionized water and filtered for HPLC analysis. 
     Dehydration of Sugars to Furfurals 
     C 6 /C 5  sugars in the hydrolysates, obtained from crystalline cellulose, xylan or biomass, were dehydrated to furfurals (HMF or furfural or both) in a biphasic system. Typically, 1 mL hydrolysate was mixed with amounts of AlCl 3  6H 2 O varying from 10 mol % to 50 mol % relative to total sugars in the hydrolysates, along with an organic extracting solvent (ethyl acetate, EA) in a high pressure glass vial. The ratios of the hydrolysate (reactive phase) to organic solvent were varied in the range of 1-3 (v/v). Upon addition of a small magnetic bar into the vial for stirring, the vial was sealed with an Al-crimp cap and placed in a preheated stainless steel heating block preset at desired temperature. After completion of the reaction for the set time, the vial was removed from the heating block and quenched in an ice bath. The solution was allowed to settle to ensure separation of the two phases. The organic phase containing furfurals was decanted in a collection flask and the aqueous phase containing MSH was washed two times with EA (2×5 mL) to extract remaining HMF or furfural or both. Both EA and MSH phases were filtered for analysis by HPLC. The MSH phase was diluted 1:10 with deionized water before analysis. 
     Recycling MSH 
     Recyclability of the MSH was evaluated for the saccharification of pure cellulose in MSH at a LiBr to water molar ratio of 3.25 (1.46 g LiBr, 1 mL 0.05 M acid, 39.5 mg cellulose, total volume 1.5 mL). After saccharification of cellulose at 85° C. for 30 min, the hydrolysate containing soluble glucose was subjected to dehydrate in MSH-EA (1:3 (v/v)) biphasic system at 120° C. for 1 h using AlCl 3  (50 mol % with respect to the molar amount of glucose, 32.7 mg glucose in 1.5 mL, 22 mg AlCl 3  6H 2 O). After decantation of the organic phase containing HMF and washing the aqueous phase twice with EA, the recovered solution containing MSH and Al-species was filtered through a syringe filter and reused in the 2 nd  cycle. The yields of glucose and HMF after the hydrolysis and the dehydration steps were quantified by HPLC. The unconverted amount of glucose that remained in the hydrolysate after the 1 st  cycle of dehydration was accounted during addition of cellulose in the 2 nd  cycle. EA was added to adjust the ratio of EA to MSH phase to 3 (v/v) and the mixture was heated at 120° C. for 1 h. Cellulose saccharification and glucose dehydration takes place simultaneously in the 2 nd  cycle as the recovered aqueous phase from the 1 st  cycle contains both MSH and AlCl 3 . Upon completion of the 2 nd  cycle, the organic and aqueous phases were worked out by following the same procedure discussed above and the reactive phase was reused. 
     Selection of Organic Solvents for HMF and Furfural Extraction 
     The inventors determined partition coefficient (R) values of different organic solvents for selection of the best organic solvent for extraction of furfurals from the MSH phase. These experiments were performed in a jacketed glass reactor equipped with a thermostatted bath to set desired temperature of the reaction mass. MSH solution was prepared by mixing 8.22 g LIBr in 10 mL H 2 O (water to LiBr molar ratio is 3.25). HMF (0.91 g, 5 wt %) was added to the MSH solution and dissolved by stirring the solution. To this, calculated amount of EA was added to adjust the ratios of organic and aqueous phase of 1 and 3 (v/v) in order to evaluate the effect of volume of the extracting solvent on HMF partitioning. The mixture was stirred at 60° C. for 1 h and settled overnight to ensure complete phase separation. HMF concentrations in both phases were quantified by HPLC upon dilution. All experiments were conducted in triplicate. 
     Analysis and Quantification of Various Products 
     Sugar hydrolysates and the aqueous and organic phases from sugar hydrolysates dehydration reactions were diluted 10-fold, unless otherwise mentioned, and analyzed on a Waters HPLC instrument (model e2695) equipped with a photodiode array (PDA) detector (Waters 2998) as well as a refractive index (RI) detector (Waters 2414). Three HPLC columns of following specifications were used for analysis of different sugar and furfurals products at different operating conditions. (1) A Bio-Rad Aminex HPX-87H (7.8×300 mm, 9 μm) column operating at column oven temperature of 55° C., an aqueous solution of H 2 SO 4  (0.005 M) as a mobile phase at flow rate of 0.6 mL/min was used for detection and quantification of glucose (9.52 min), xylose (10.14 min), fructose (10.26 min), xylulose (10.41), formic acid (14.23 min), acetic acid (15.48 min), Levulinic acid (16.16 min) 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (30.22 min) and furfural (45.58 min) using a PDA detector (254 nm). The number in parenthesis refers to the retention time of the species. (2) An Agilent Hiplex Na (7.7×300 mm, 10 μm) column operating at column oven temperature of 85° C. and deionized water a mobile phase at flow rate of 0.2 mL/min was used for analysis of oligosaccharides using an RI detector. This column and HPLC operating conditions detected gluco- and xylo-oligosaccharides of DP (degree of polymerization) up to 6. Retention times of for detected oligosaccharides are given in Table 3. (3) An Agilent Zorbax SB C18 (4.6×250 mm, 5 μm) column operating at column oven temperature of 25° C. and acetonitrile-water mixture (1:1 v/v) as a mobile phase at flow rate of 0.3 mL/min was used for analysis of HMF in the organic phase from sugar hydrolysates dehydration experiments using a PDA detector (254 nm). The characteristic peaks for organic products and sugar monosaccharides and oligosaccharides were identified from the retention times of the authentic samples. Each peak was integrated, and the actual concentrations of each product were calculated from their respective pre-calibrated plots of peak areas vs. concentrations. The yields of various products (C 6 /C 5  monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, HMF, furfural and other soluble products from cellulose/xylan saccharification and biomass (PW, SEPW, CP depolymerization and saccharification) were calculated by following equations. 
     C 6  monosaccharides and oligosaccharides yields from cellulose saccharification 
                     Yield   ⁢           ⁢       (     wt   ⁢             ⁢             ⁢   %     )       C   ⁢           ⁢   6   ⁢     mono   /   oligosaccharides           =         Yields   ⁢           ⁢   in   ⁢           ⁢   mg   ⁢           ⁢   measured   ⁢           ⁢   from   ⁢           ⁢   HPLC       Cellulose   ⁢           ⁢   in   ⁢           ⁢   mg   ×   F   ⁢           ⁢   1       ×   100             (   1   )               
where F1 is Mw of mono- or oligosaccharides/162
 
C 5  monosaccharides and oligosaccharides yields from xylan saccharification
 
                     Yield   ⁢           ⁢       (     wt   ⁢           ⁢   %     )       C   ⁢           ⁢   5   ⁢     mono   /   oligosaccharides           =         Yields   ⁢           ⁢   in   ⁢           ⁢   mg   ⁢           ⁢   measured   ⁢           ⁢   from   ⁢           ⁢   HPLC       Xylan   ⁢           ⁢   in   ⁢           ⁢   mg   ×   F   ⁢           ⁢   2       ×   100             (   2   )               
where F2 is w of mono- or oligosaccharides/132
 
C 6 /C 5  monosaccharides, oligosaccharides HMF, furfural yields from PW or SEPW or CP depolymerization and sacchariflcation
 
                     Yield   ⁢           ⁢     (     wt   ⁢           ⁢   %     )       =         Yields   ⁢           ⁢   in   ⁢           ⁢   mg   ⁢           ⁢   measured   ⁢           ⁢   from   ⁢           ⁢   HPLC       Dry   ⁢           ⁢     wt   .           ⁢   of     ⁢           ⁢   PW   ⁢           ⁢   or   ⁢           ⁢   SEPW   ⁢           ⁢   or   ⁢           ⁢   CP       ×   100             (   3   )               
C6/C5 monosaccharides yields on the basis of theoretical glucan and xylan amounts in PW or SEPW or CP samples
 
                     Yield   ⁢           ⁢     (     wt   ⁢           ⁢   %     )       =         Yields   ⁢           ⁢   in   ⁢           ⁢   mg   ⁢           ⁢   measured   ⁢           ⁢   from   ⁢           ⁢   HPLC               Theoretical   ⁢           ⁢   glucan   ⁢           ⁢   or   ⁢           ⁢   xylan     ⁢                       amounts   ⁢           ⁢   in   ⁢           ⁢   PW   ⁢           ⁢   or   ⁢           ⁢   SEPW   ⁢           ⁢   or   ⁢           ⁢   CP             ×   100             (   4   )               
Furfurals (HMF, furfural) yield from dehydration of glucose and xylose in cellulose or xylan or biomass hydrolysates
 
                     Yield   ⁢           ⁢       (     mol   ⁢           ⁢   %     )       HMF   ,   Ff   ,   fructose   ,   xylulose   ,   FA   ,   LA         =         Yield   ⁢           ⁢   in   ⁢           ⁢   mol   ⁢           ⁢   measured   ⁢           ⁢   from   ⁢           ⁢   HPLC       Initial   ⁢           ⁢   glucose   ⁢           ⁢   or   ⁢           ⁢   xylose   ⁢           ⁢   in   ⁢           ⁢   hydrolysates   ⁢           ⁢     (     in   ⁢           ⁢   mol     )         ×   100             (   5   )               
Where FA, LA and Ff are formic acid, levulinic acid and furfural
 
HMF Partition coefficient was calculated using the following equation
 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     Partition 
                     ⁢ 
                     
                         
                     
                     ⁢ 
                     
                       coefficient 
                       HMF 
                     
                   
                   = 
                   
                     
                       HMF 
                       
                         Organic 
                         ⁢ 
                         
                             
                         
                         ⁢ 
                         phase 
                       
                     
                     
                       HMF 
                       
                         aqueous 
                         ⁢ 
                         
                             
                         
                         ⁢ 
                         phase 
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   6 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
                     TABLE 3                  Retention times of various xylo- and gluco-oligosaccharides.                             Oligosaccharides   RT (min)                                         Xylobiose   37.55           Xylotriose   32.26           Xylotetraose   28.23           Xylopentaose   22.86           Xylohexaose   25.18           Cellobiose   33.36           Cellotriose   27.43           Cellotetraose   23.62           Cellopentaose   20.92           Cellohexaose   19.23                        
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
 
     SEM analysis of biomass samples was performed on an Auriga 60 microscope (Carl Zeiss NTS GmbH, Germany) equipped with a Schottky Field Emission Gun (FEG). All samples were deposited on adhesive carbon tape and sputtered by a DESK IV sputter unit (Denton Vacuum Inc. NJ, USA) equipped with Au/Pd target. 
     In summary, the inventors present a one-pot approach to process a variety of lignocellulose to soluble sugars using an inorganic salt solution. This process using significantly less water than the enzymatic or acidic saccharification processes and enables nearly quantitative yield of soluble sugars at 85° C. in short reaction time. Lignin is separated as a solid. Extractive-free and partially lignin-removed biomass samples produce sugars at faster rates due to greater accessibility and better interactions of their porous fibers with the salt solution. Biomass extractives also caused faster degradation of furans, formed from dehydration of sugars, resulting in undesired humins and carbon loss. The process integration enables sugars separation in the form of furans via reactive extraction and recycling of the salt solution. Techno-economic analysis shows significant cost advantages of the inventors&#39; process when compared with commercially relevant dilute and concentrated acid processes. 
     Although the invention is illustrated and described herein with reference to specific embodiments, the Invention is not Intended to be limited to the details shown. Rather, various modifications may be made in the details within the scope and range of equivalents of the claims without departing from the invention. 
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