Patent Publication Number: US-2015068123-A1

Title: Systems and methods for utilizing alcohol fuels

Description:
PRIORITY CLAIM 
     This patent document is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/831,748 entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR UTILIZING ALCOHOLIC FUELS” filed on Mar. 15, 2013, and of U.S. provisional application No. 61/725,450 entitled “SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR REDUCING THE RATE OF COMBUSTION AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE” filed on Nov. 12, 2012, the entire disclosures of the applications 61/725,450 and Ser. No. 13/831,748 are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This patent document relates to technologies that implement fuel alcohols. 
     BACKGROUND 
     An alcohol is an organic substance having a chemical formula of C n H 2n+1 OH. While not the dominant energy resource used throughout the world today, alcohols have been used as fuels throughout the course of history. The first four aliphatic alcohols include methanol, ethanol, propanol, and butanol. These alcohols, as well as others, can be used as fuels in current engines and systems. Fuel alcohols can be advantageous because they can be synthesized chemically or biologically, in some instances provide greater fuel economy than most fossil fuels (e.g., gasoline, diesel), and typically produce less harmful byproducts when burned. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1A  shows a diagram of an exemplary system to convert a liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel substance. 
         FIG. 1B  shows a diagram of another embodiment of the exemplary system to convert a liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel substance. 
         FIGS. 1C and 1D  show an exemplary embodiment of an apparatus to combine the acoustical attenuation of exhaust noise with condensate water collection with additional safety capabilities. 
         FIG. 2  shows a diagram of an exemplary system to provide capabilities to convert a liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel substance. 
         FIG. 3A  shows a schematic of an exemplary system to deliver pressurized fuel into a combustion chamber. 
         FIG. 3B  shows an enhanced view of some exemplary components of the exemplary system shown in  FIG. 3A . 
         FIG. 4A  depicts a flow chart representing one exemplary method for preparing an alcohol fuel according to the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 4B  depicts a flow chart representing another exemplary method for preparing an alcohol fuel according to the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 5A  depicts a flow chart representing one exemplary method for preparing a fuel for an engine according to the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 5B  depicts a flow chart representing another exemplary method for preparing a fuel according to the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 5C  depicts a flow chart representing another exemplary method for preparing a fuel according to the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 6  depicts a flow chart representing one exemplary method for providing a fuel to an engine according to the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 7  depicts a flow chart representing one exemplary method for providing a fuel to an engine according to the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 8  depicts a flow chart representing one exemplary method for providing a fuel to an engine and recycling water condensates from an exhaust pipe or stream according to the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 9  depicts a flow chart representing one exemplary method for preparing a fuel from formic acid and water and providing the fuel to an engine according to the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 10  depicts a flow chart representing another exemplary method for preparing a fuel from formic acid and water and providing the fuel to an engine according to the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     Like reference symbols and designations in the various drawings indicate like elements. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Techniques, systems, and devices are described for producing, storing and using alcohol fuels, e.g., at atmospheric pressures. 
     In one aspect of the disclosed technology, a method for producing an alcohol fuel includes a process to mix an alcohol with water to produce a wet alcohol and a process to add a fuel constituent in the wet alcohol, in which the fuel constituent is soluble in the wet alcohol. 
     In another aspect, a method to provide a fuel for an engine includes a process to produce a solution of an alcohol and water or to mix an alcohol with water to produce a wet alcohol, a process to add a fuel constituent in the wet alcohol to form a liquid fuel, in which the fuel constituent is soluble in the wet alcohol, and a process to convert the liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel substance using at least one of heat energy or electrical energy to pressurize the liquid fuel. The process to convert the liquid fuel is implemented in a container having an interior formed of a safety reinforced or an armored material, and the gaseous fuel substance exhibits a higher pressure and lower density than that of the liquid fuel. 
     In another aspect, a method to provide a fuel for an engine includes a process to mix an alcohol with water to produce a wet alcohol, a process to suspend a fuel constituent in the wet alcohol to form a liquid fuel, and a process to convert the liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel substance using at least one of heat energy or electrical energy to pressurize the liquid fuel. The process to convert the liquid fuel is implemented in a container having an interior formed of an armored material, and the gaseous fuel substance exhibits a higher pressure and lower density than that of the liquid fuel. 
     In another aspect, a method to provide a fuel for an engine includes a process to mix formic acid with water to produce a liquid fuel, a process to add a fuel constituent in the liquid fuel, the fuel constituent being soluble in the liquid fuel, and a process to convert, in a container having an interior formed of an armored material, the liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel substance using at least one of heat energy or electrical energy to pressurize the liquid fuel, the gaseous fuel substance exhibiting a higher pressure and lower density than that of the liquid fuel. 
     In another aspect, a system for fuel storage includes a fuel storage unit to contain a liquid fuel substance stored at a low pressure, a fuel conversion unit to convert the liquid fuel substance into a gaseous fuel substance using at least one of heat energy or electrical energy to pressurize the liquid fuel substance, in which the fuel conversion unit includes a tank having an interior formed of an armored material, and a fluid transfer unit including a low pressure pump to deliver the liquid fuel substance from the fuel storage unit to the fuel conversion unit, in which the gaseous fuel substance exhibits a higher pressure and lower density than that of the liquid fuel substance. 
     Methanol is an alcohol that can be used as a fuel in a variety of applications. Methanol presents several advantages when used as a fuel. Methanol is biodegradable in both aerobic (oxidizing) and anaerobic (reducing) environments. For example, this prevents methanol from persisting in the environment, e.g., in the instance of a fuel leak. The half-life for methanol in groundwater is one to seven days. In comparison, for example, many common components of gasoline and the products of incomplete combustion of fossil fuels like gasoline may have half-lives in the hundreds of days, e.g., such as the carcinogen benzene, which has a half-life of 20-730 days. Thus, because of the high rate that methanol biodegrades, it is unlikely to accumulate in groundwater, surface water, air, or soil. 
     Methanol does pose some serious concerns for use in any application. For example, methanol is highly toxic to humans and animals, e.g., usually internalized by means of inhalation, ingestion, or absorption through the skin. Methanol can be fatal due to its central nervous system (CNS) depressant effects, e.g., which include decreased heart and breathing rates along with loss of consciousness. Also, methanol can cause a chemically toxic response when metabolized. For example, methanol can be metabolized to create formic acid via formaldehyde in a process initiated by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase in the liver. The formic acid can result in death because it inhibits mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase, e.g., which can result in hypoxia at the cellular level, metabolic acidosis, or other metabolic disturbances. Exemplary antidotes can include ethanol and fomepizole, both of which reduce the action of alcohol dehydrogenase so that the methanol can be excreted through the kidneys before toxic formaldehyde or formic acid is formed. Similarly hemodialysis or hemodiafiltration may be utilized to accelerate the removal of methanol, formaldehyde, and formic acid. Additional safety concerns regarding methanol arise because it is difficult to differentiate from ethanol, which is generally considered to be a safe alcohol since it is used as the primary alcohol substance in popular alcoholic beverages. 
     Despite the potential for toxicity problems, pure methanol has been deemed to be a safer fuel than gasoline. For example, methanol replaced gasoline as the primary fuel in open wheel auto racing from the 1960s to 2007, after which, for example, some racing organizations like IndyCars switched to ethanol (which may largely have been in response to lobbying efforts by grain alcohol promoters). The switch to methanol was prompted based on the tragedy in the 1964 Indianapolis 500 race, in which a devastating crash ignited gasoline that was leaking from ruptured fuel tanks and killed two renowned drivers, Dave MacDonald and Eddie Sachs. Methanol burns in a nearly transparent flame and at atmospheric pressure produces heat at only about 20% of the rate that gasoline combusts. Methanol flames can be extinguished by cooling and blocking oxygen with plain water, as compared to petroleum fires that produce injurious burns because of their intense infrared and bright-colored radiation and cannot be extinguished easily with water. 
     Techniques, systems, and devices are disclosed for producing, storing and using alcohol fuels, e.g., at atmospheric pressures. 
     In one aspect of the disclosed technology, a system for producing a fuel, e.g., with improved fuel safety for storage and use, includes a unit for low-pressure storage of liquid fuel substances. The system includes a unit for delivering the liquid fuel substances via a low-pressure pump into a fuel conversion unit, which, for example, can include a tank having a smaller volume and an armored interior. The fuel conversion unit converts the liquid fuel to a gaseous fuel. In some implementations, the fuel conversion unit applies heat and/or electrical energy to pressurize the liquid fuel by thermal expansion and/or conversion to less dense phases to form the gaseous fuel. For example, the system can provide several advantages for fuel storage including, but not limited to, reducing the amount and residence time of stored liquid fuel, which can be the source of potential dangerous consequences from the escape of gases given off by the stored liquid fuels. As a result the gaseous fuel constituents provide a lower availability to be ingested by animals or plants; a shorter half-life as a contaminant than the liquid fuel; and a shorter time of dispersion upon leakage than the liquid fuel. 
     In some embodiments, a system for storing fuel includes a fuel storage unit to contain a liquid fuel substance stored at a low pressure, a fuel conversion unit to convert the liquid fuel substance into a gaseous fuel substance using at least one of heat energy or electrical energy to pressurize the liquid fuel substance, in which the fuel conversion unit includes a tank having an interior formed of an armored material, and a fluid transfer unit including a low pressure pump to deliver the liquid fuel substance from the fuel storage unit to the fuel conversion unit, in which the gaseous fuel substance exhibits a higher pressure and lower density than that of the liquid fuel substance. 
     Exemplary armor materials that can be used in the tank of the fuel conversion unit can include, but are not limited to, high-strength stainless steels or super alloys, e.g., Hastelloy (e.g., C22, X), Inconel (e.g., IN100, IN600, IN713), Waspaloy, Rene alloys (e.g., Rene 41, Rene 80, Rene 95, Rene N5), Haynes alloys, Incoloy, MP98T, TMS alloys, and CMSX (e.g., CMSX-4) single crystal alloys, as well as supertubes that may be made of composites including multilayers of stainless steel or super alloys, silicon carbide, silica, bauxite, or carbon fibers or nanotubes, partially stabilized zirconia or spinel and high toughness aluminum. Additionally, for example, in cooler zones, exemplary armor materials may include polymers such as polyimides including Kevlar film and/or fiber. Additionally, for example, in application zones and instances that additional cut-through resistance is needed, overlays of woven wire jackets can provide improved safety. In particularly sensitive applications, for example, such exemplary over-woven jackets may incorporate polyimide fibers over high-strength stainless steel wire layers to enable electronic monitoring of the conductive stainless steel to detect any cut-through of the polyimide layer as an early warning alarm embodiment. 
     In some embodiments of the disclosed system for fuel production, storage and utilization, the system can be configured to (a) produce a fuel with higher specific heat, (b) produce a fuel with reduced vapor pressure, (c) produce a fuel with reduced penetration capability into a living cell, (d) produce vaporous fuel constituents that escape more rapidly than liquid fuel constituents, (e) produce gaseous fuel constituents that escape more rapidly than liquid fuel constituents, (f) utilize armor material (e.g., plating of critical portions of a storage interior) in a fuel storage and/or delivery systems, (g) collect and/or detect fuel substance leaks to prevent harmful escape, (h) transfer fuel substance leaks to safe blow down and dissipation provisions, (i) transfer fuel substances in case of over pressure limits to one or more safe blow down receivers, (j) control the shutoff of valves of the system to prevent dangerous escape of fuel substances, (k) control the shutoff of a fuel ignition system(s) interfaced or integrated with the disclosed fuel system, (l) control the shutoff of a fuel pump interfaced or integrated with the disclosed fuel system, and/or (m) provide total armored containment of fuel from pressurization locations to the fuel cell conversion chamber or combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine. 
     In another aspect of the disclosed technology, a method for producing an alcohol fuel includes a process to mix an alcohol with water to produce a wet alcohol and a process to add a fuel constituent in the wet alcohol, in which the fuel constituent is soluble in the wet alcohol. 
     The processes of the method can be implemented in the following exemplary ways and/or to provide one or more of the following exemplary features. For example, the alcohol used in the process can be a substantially pure alcohol. For example, the alcohol used in the process can include methanol. In some implementations, for example, the method can further comprise a process to create the methanol by implementing a process to apply heat to a methane feedstock substance to produce hydrogen and a carbon substance and a process to react the hydrogen with carbon dioxide to create the methanol and water. For example, the methane feedstock substance used in the process can be supplied from exhaust gas produced by an engine. In some implementations, for example, the process to add the fuel constituent includes a process to suspend an exemplary insoluble fuel constituent into the wet alcohol. For example, the fuel constituents used in the process can include, but is not limited to, urea, cellulose, starch, lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, and/or food products. Illustratively, food and other organic wastes can be emulsified with the wet alcohol and may utilize various surfactants, e.g., including nonionic ethoxylated alkyphenol, to combine these exemplary organic substances in a homogeneous mixture. For example, substances that ordinarily are wasted in landfills or sewage disposal plants and release carbon dioxide and/or methane can thus become useful fuels to replace fossil fuels and greatly reduce net greenhouse gas production. In some implementations, for example, the method can further comprise a process to add an odorizing agent to provide a scent to the wet alcohol. For example, the odorizing agent used in the process can include, but is not limited to, wintergreen oil, methyl salicylate, or peppermint. 
     Equations 1 and 2A-C describe an exemplary economical approach to implement the process to create an alcohol used to produce a fuel. For example, a feedstock substance (e.g., such as methane) can be utilized to produce an alcohol fuel (e.g., such as methanol). For example, Equation 1 shows that applying heat to a feedstock such as methane (e.g., supplied to the process from wastes or fossil sources) can convert the methane feedstock to hydrogen and carbon, in which the carbon can be utilized for production of durable goods. As shown in exemplary Equations 2A-C, the co-produced hydrogen can be reacted with carbon dioxide (e.g., from the atmosphere or more concentrated sources and/or a carbon donor “C” from sewage, garbage or farm wastes) to produce “wet alcohol” illustratively shown here as a mixture of methanol or ethanol and water. 
       CH 4 +Δ→C+2H 2    (Eq. 1)
 
       3H 2 +CO 2 →CH 3 OH+H 2 O   (Eq. 2A)
 
       6H 2 +2CO 2 →C 2 H 5 OH+3H 2 O   (Eq. 2B)
 
       4H 2 +CO 2 +“C”→C 2 H 5 OH+H 2 O   (Eq. 2C)
 
     For example, wet alcohol such as wet ethanol or methanol produced by processes such as the exemplary process in Equations 2A-C can be safer to manufacture, distribute, and use, as well as being particularly inexpensive as compared to gasoline and diesel fuel or processes that provide dry, neat, or otherwise essentially pure alcohol, e.g., such as pure methanol. The described method to produce wet alcohol such as methanol and water mixed in stoichiometric or non-stoichiometric proportions is a safer mixture that also has a capacity for suspending or otherwise including other fuel constituents, e.g., such as soluble wastes from the food or paper industries. For example, in some applications, the disclosed wet alcohol system and methods can serve as an enhanced hydrogen donor in the endothermic production of pressurized hydrogen and carbon dioxide and in mixtures that are further modified by additional soluble or otherwise suspended reactants. 
     In some implementations, the method can further include a process to pressurize the liquid wet alcohol fuel to produce gaseous fuels having a higher pressure and lower density. For example, the process can include pressurizing a low/non-pressurized storage unit containing one or more liquid fuels. In some examples, the process can include transferring heat to produce one or more vapor phases of the same chemical compounds that comprise the liquid phases of the fuel. 
     In other implementations, the method can include a process to pressurize the liquid wet alcohol fuel by forming gaseous fuels or one or more products, e.g., by reversing the reaction described in Equations 2A-C or by implementing the reaction shown in Equations 3 or 4. For example, two moles of liquid methanol and water can be used to produce four moles of self-pressurized gaseous hydrogen and carbon dioxide. 
     Equation 3 shows the conversion of an exemplary fuel composition containing methanol, water, and a carbon donor substance “C”, e.g., as a fuel constituent, and waste heat (Δ) into gaseous fuel with much greater chemical and pressure energy-conversion potentials. For example, the carbon donor substance can include, but is not limited to, soluble urea, cellulose, starch, lipids, carbohydrates, or another waste product of the food industry. In addition to producing a gaseous fuel with greater chemical and pressure energy-conversion potentials, for example, the conversion of the exemplary fuel composition described in Equation 3 can also provide improved fuel storage safety for a variety of systems. 
       CH 3 OH+H 2 O+“C”+Δ→2CO+3H 2    (Eq. 3)
 
     Equation 4 shows another exemplary process (e.g., one of numerous selected processes) for conversion of another exemplary fuel composition containing ethanol, water and a carbon donor substance “C” (e.g., fuel constituent), and waste heat (Δ) into similarly pressurized gaseous fuel constituents. 
       C 2 H 5 OH+2H 2 O+“C”+Δ→3CO+5H 2    (Eq. 4)
 
     The exemplary process can be implemented in sub-systems for self-pressurization of fuel that can provide for the low-pressure pumped delivery of liquid fuel into a system circuit that provides heat transfer in cyclic operations that add heat to produce and deliver vaporous or gaseous fuel constituents with elevated pressures. Alternatively, for example, the exemplary process can be implemented using the liquid fuel from the exemplary low-pressure storage, in which the liquid fuel can be continuously added at the desired elevated pressure to one or more heat addition circuits by one or more efficient liquid pumps. 
     Alcohols such as methanol and ethanol are miscible with water in all proportions. For example, such solutions can provide improved safety because the vapor pressure and thus the amount of alcohol molecules that can become airborne above alcohol-water solutions are depressed. This reduces the availability of alcohol molecules for airborne transfer to animals. Fuel compositions that include alcohol and water also have increased specific heat. Thus, for example, such solutions are safer to use and handle because the rate of combustion at atmospheric pressure is reduced. In addition, for example, the concentration gradient with respect to the water content of living cells is reduced. This further reduces the rate that methanol may diffuse into living cells and/or the rate of dehydration, which greatly reduces the possibility of harm or toxic processes dangers. 
     In some embodiments of the disclosed technology, surface active agents or other additives can be added to the wet alcohol fuels to stabilize water emulsions or colloidal suspensions with oil or lipid constituents. For example, applying suitable mixture emulsion and/or stabilization agents also improves fuel safety with other fuels such as gasoline and/or diesel fuel, which can reduce the production of vapors and combustion rates of potential fuel spills. For example, reducing the combustion rate of gasoline, such as in a fire caused by a gasoline spill, can prevent the rapid depletion of oxygen as well as asphyxiation and burns by contact and/or radiation suffered by victims exposed to such spill combustion incidents. 
     In some embodiments of the disclosed technology, the exemplary surface active stabilizing agents or other additives can be added to the wet alcohol fuels to prevent toxic process dangers and reduce the vaporous availability of methanol and/or the ability to penetrate skin and/or other cell walls. In some embodiments, the wet alcohol can further include odorizing agents to provide additional safety features to the fuel solution. For example, a suitably recognized odorizing agent may be provided by a small amount of wintergreen oil, methyl salicylate, peppermint, and/or other odorant selections. This can provide a readily detectible odorous warning of a liquid leakage, vaporizing conditions, or the possibility of a nearly invisible flame. In some embodiments, the wet alcohol can further include denaturing agents including formic acid to also provide additional safety features to the fuel solution. For example, formic acid can serve as a denaturing agent, odorizing agent, and detection agent in the fuel solution. Conversion of such exemplary soluble constituents into the gaseous products by the process of Equation 1 for delivery, e.g., by the exemplary armored circuit system into a combustion chamber of an engine, can greatly reduce or eliminate the potential for dangerously concentrated exposures to methanol and/or possibly toxic odorizing agents. 
     In another aspect of the disclosed technology, a method to provide a fuel for an engine includes a process to mix an alcohol with water to produce a wet alcohol, a process to add a fuel constituent in the wet alcohol to form a liquid fuel, in which the fuel constituent is soluble in the wet alcohol, and a process to convert the liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel substance using at least one of heat energy or electrical energy to pressurize the liquid fuel, in which the process to convert is implemented in a container having an interior formed of an armored material, and in which the gaseous fuel substance exhibits a higher pressure and lower density than that of the liquid fuel. 
     For example, conversion of the liquid fuel solutions (e.g., such as the wet alcohol with fuel constituents) into gaseous fuel products provides another type and degree of safety.  FIG. 1A  shows a diagram of a system  100  to convert a liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel substance. The system  100  can be interfaced with an engine  150 , e.g., which can include a combustion engine. In some implementations, the system  100  can be interfaced with a fuel cell. In some exemplary embodiments of the system  100 , the system can utilize heat that is rejected from a fuel cell or a heat engine or from a regenerative braking system, as well as other heat producing systems, to produce the gaseous fuel constituents. 
     The system  100  includes a storage tank  102  to contain the liquid fuel to be converted into the gaseous fuel substance. The system includes a fuel pump  104  fluidically coupled to the storage tank  102 , in which the fuel pump  104  can be configured as a ceramic, steel or stainless steel mechanical and/or electrical fuel pump. The fuel pump  104  can be used to transport the liquid fuel to a fuel conversion unit of the system  100  to convert the liquid fuel to a gaseous fuel. In some implementations, the system  100  can utilize the fuel pump  104  to pressurize the liquid fuel in the storage tank  102  and transport the pressurized liquid fuel. For example, the fuel pump  104  can cyclically pump the fuel in a process that greatly increases the pressure (e.g., such as from nominal psi to 10,000 psi) and additionally adds heat to the system  100  to produce and deliver elevated pressure vaporous or gaseous fuel. 
     The fuel conversion unit can include a group of components having a casing structure including an interior of an armored material. For example, the materials of the casing structures of the fuel conversion unit components can be forged, wrought, and/or swaged to form the armored interior structure. The fuel conversion unit includes a countercurrent heat exchanger assembly  110 , which receives the liquid fuel via transporting conduits  117  and  108  (e.g., each can also be configured to include an armored material structure). For example, the liquid fuel pressurized and/or pumped by the fuel pump  104  passes through a filter  103  and a check valve  106  for delivery by the protected conduits  117  and  108  to the countercurrent heat exchanger assembly  110 , e.g., which can be configured to have an interior of an armored material. The armored countercurrent heat exchanger assembly  110  can cool gases, e.g., such as the products of Equation 3 or 4, from the reaction temperature of the endothermic process of Equations 3 or 4 (e.g., ranging from 900 to 2000° F. (about 482 to 1100° C.) to nearly the temperature of the fuel from the storage tank  102  (e.g., ranging from −60 to 150° F. (about −50 to 65° C.). The fluid fuel is subsequently transferred to an endothermic reactor and heat exchanger assembly  112  of the fuel conversion unit and is heated from the temperature that is substantially similar to that of the fuel from the storage tank  102  (e.g., ranging from −60 to 150° F. (about −50 to 65° C.) to an adaptively controlled temperature for achieving the desired conversion rate of gasification processes, e.g., exemplified in exemplary Equations 3 or 4 (e.g., the adaptively controlled temperature ranging from 900 to 2800° F. (about 482 to 1500° C.). For example, the higher pressure, less dense gaseous fuel converted from the liquid fuel, as exemplified by Equation 3 and/or Equation 4, can be delivered into the combustion chamber  158  through armored conduit  115  and injector  116  as ambient temperature pressurized gaseous products with 30% or more chemical and/or pressure energy potential than the liquid feed stocks from tank  102 . In addition, for example, the pressure that is produced by the conversion of relatively small volumes of such liquid fuel solutions into much larger controlled volumes of densely packed gaseous products can be used to increase the effectiveness of the countercurrent heat exchanger assembly  110 , the power density of the engine  150 , and efficiency of such combustion engines and/or fuel cells. 
     In operation, for example, liquid fuel that is pumped into the conduit  108  passes through the countercurrent heat exchanger assembly  110  of the fuel conversion unit and out via conduit  111  to enter the endothermic reactor and heat exchanger assembly  112  of the fuel conversion unit, e.g., to gain heat from engine coolant (not shown) and/or exhaust gases and/or further energy conversion, e.g., such as by regenerative electric resistance and/or inductive heating, to adaptively produce the reaction temperature and rate desired. For example, the endothermic reactor and heat exchanger assembly  112  can be configured within an exhaust pipe  114  from the engine  150 , as shown. After sufficient heat gain, the liquid fuel reactants are converted to one or more pressurized gaseous constituents. In some examples, the liquid fuel reactants are converted to one or more pressurized gaseous constituents, as well as, if desired, the product components, e.g., like carbon, shown in Equation 1. For example, such hot gaseous constituents products from the process of the reactor and heat exchanger assembly  112  reenter the countercurrent heat exchanger assembly  110  to be cooled to temperatures substantially similar to that of the liquid fuel reactants from the storage tank  102 . Accordingly, the pressurized and cooled gaseous fuel can be transported from the heat exchanger assembly  110  via the armored conduit  115  to be safely contained and directly injected by a fuel injector and/or ignition device  116  into the combustion chamber  158  of the engine  150  to be combusted. In some implementations, the disclosed system  100  can include the elimination of air throttling that is normally provided by air-inlet valve  126 , which is accomplished by an electronic controller  122  of the system  100  to fully open the air-inlet valve  126  in normal response to all positions of an accelerator transducer  124 . The controller  122  can be configured to receive and transmit signals using wireless communication techniques or using wired communication techniques, e.g., such as the cable  119 . For example, the controller  122  can be configured by repurposing an existing electronic controller in an engine system. In some implementations, injection and ignition of such fuel constituents can be implemented by plasma generation that can be generated by repurposing the electronic controller  122  to drive a suitable fuel injection valve and transformer coil  120  and/or other circuit components as needed to provide suitable electrical processes for the voltage, current, wave forms and related values required. 
     For example, in the instance that such gaseous constituents escape from a storage tank or the process circuit, the leaked gaseous constituents leave the leakage zone more rapidly (e.g., in orders of magnitude) than the liquid precursors and become diffused in the atmosphere to concentrations below the flammable and toxicity danger limits. Such vaporization and/or gasification greatly reduces the time duration for combustion to potentially occur, e.g., when compared to a spill or leakage of equal energy equivalents as liquid fuel alcohols, gasoline or diesel fuel (e.g., a few seconds as compared to days or longer). 
     For example, the system  100  can be implemented in existing engine systems to provide the rapid and economical conversion of existing piston-powered vehicles (e.g., currently about one billion) now dedicated to gasoline or diesel fuel to improve operation with regard to safety and thermal efficiency. For example, most of the components in conventional fuel storage and metering systems can be repurposed as a comprehensive system to accomplish the new outcomes disclosed in this patent document to provide substantially greater safety. Existing fuel storage tanks made of steel or polymers, e.g., such as injection blow-molded polyolefin tanks, can be repurposed and utilized as the storage tank  102  to store liquid fuels such as the disclosed wet alcohols, e.g., some examples of which are generally shown as the exemplary reactant mixture in the Equations 3 and 4 previously shown. For example, conventional fuel pump designs (e.g., such as those that include aluminum or magnesium alloys) can be substituted by the fuel pump  104  (e.g., such as the steel or stainless steel mechanical and/or electrical fuel pumps), e.g., including diaphragm types, to avoid potential chemical reactions with such reactant mixtures. 
     In some implementations, one or more additional circuits of the fuel conversion unit for converting fuel from tank  102  to pressurized cooled gaseous constituents may be operated at controlled cycle times in parallel with the system  100  shown in  FIG. 1A . For example, one or more additional circuits of the heat exchanger/reactor assemblies  110  and  112  and the corresponding conduits can be incorporated into the system  100 . In some implementations, the system  100  includes the controller  122 , which provides the ability to de-pressurize one such parallel circuits by useful pressure bleed down through an injector  152  to allow for the low-pressure recharging of the depressurized circuit with sufficient liquid inventory for subsequent pressurizing vaporization and/or product gas generation while high-pressure gaseous fuel is provided by another parallel circuit to the injector  116 . Accordingly, for example, a relatively low-pressure liquid pump (e.g., such as the pump  104 ) can supply intermittent parallel flow to load the pressure boosting heat exchanges in one or more parallel and/or series circuits, e.g., such as those shown in the circuits  110  and  112 , to provide reactions like those exemplified in Equations 3 or 4, and may include one or more accumulators (not shown) to reduce pressure swings and/or to allow for the subsequent startup of a cold fuel cell or engine. 
     For example, the system  100  can be interfaced with the engine  150  such that an existing air filter  128  continues to be used as designed. For example, the previously utilized inlet port injector  152  may or may not be used, but it can be left in place for purposes of intermittent bleed down of pressure in the circuits of the system  100 , e.g., including the heat exchanger assemblies  110  and  112 , to allow the fluid conversion unit to be recharged with liquid from the tank  102  and/or retaining the option for original fuel delivery into throttled air. Similarly, for example, the system  100  can include an oxygen sensor  154  that may or may not be used, but it can be left in place for purposes of retaining the option to resume using the original fuel control system and operations. 
     For example, in instances where the exemplary injector  152  is used to bleed down the pressure in the exemplary circuit  110  and/or  112 , it is beneficial to operate the injector  152  in unison with the opening of an air inlet valve  156  of the engine  150 . This can be beneficial because it provides momentum to the pumping of air that is accelerated into the combustion chamber  158 , and it improves the overall volumetric efficiency of the engine. In some examples, depending upon the fuel rate required to meet the power and performance requirements, the rate that fuel is injected by the injector  152  is relatively small compared to the opportunity to achieve higher air-utilization efficiency by injection using the injector  116  and ignition by RF or other plasma generation by energy delivered through the cable connection  118 . 
     The system  100  can be implemented in a variety of applications including fuel cells and two- or four-stroke piston engines. For example, when applied in two- and four-stroke piston engines, it is particularly advantageous to inject high-pressure gaseous fuel constituents into the combustion chamber after the piston reaches top dead center position and thus add the pressure potential energy to performance by increasing torque and power production. The fuel injection and rapid combustion of such hydrogen-characterized constituents can be further tailored to the combustion chamber geometry and any swirl or pressure wave conditions to greatly reduce heat losses to combustion chamber components such as the piston, cylinder walls, valves and head surfaces. 
       FIG. 1B  shows another embodiment of the system  100  shown as system  180 . The system  180  is configured for transoceanic and/or transcontinental applications, among other applications, in which safety-trained personnel can practice the efficient transport of more dense water-free forms of fuels, e.g., including methanol, ethanol, etc. Water may be added at the site of distribution to the general public to achieve the purposes described herein, e.g., including contributing to health safety. The system  180  can provide for the dense storage of fuels such as fuel alcohols and can collect water from the exhaust of fuel cells and/or engines for similar operation to gain the benefits described in the embodiment of the system  100 . 
     For example, at times that it is desired to collect water condensate from the exhaust stream, e.g., such as the exhaust pipe  114 , in which a valve  182  of the system  180  diverts the coolest fuel from the tank  102  for delivery via the conduit  111  into the endothermic reactor and heat exchanger assembly  112  of the fuel conversion unit to provide cooling the exhaust gas inventory sufficiently to precipitate water for collection in a condensate collector and/or receiver  184 . The condensate collector and/or receiver  184  may be of any suitable design, e.g., including the peripheral configuration as shown in  FIG. 1B . For example, accordingly the separation may be aided by design of the assembly  112  of the fuel conversion unit to include a twisted fin tube assembly that maximizes heat transfer and imparts swirl acceleration to exhaust gases in the zone of operation by the collector/receiver  184 . In some embodiments of the collector/receiver  184 , such condensate separation and collection is improved by a suitable mechanical slinger that may be propelled by the exhaust gases or a suitable impetus, e.g., such as an electric motor and/or the wind, which would be provided by the motion of a vehicle may include wind-chill benefits. In some implementations, the system  180  is configured to utilize the controller  122  to operate a pump  186  to deliver such collected condensate water to the tank  102  for mixing with alcohol, e.g., to provide protection against freezing in cold weather. In some implementations, the system  180  is configured to utilize the controller  122  to operate the pump  186  to deliver such collected water through a connection  188  to be regeneratively heated in an additional circuit  192  of the fuel conversion unit. In some embodiments, the circuit  192  can be housed within the same armor-protected housing as the countercurrent heat exchanger assembly  110 . The disclosed methods of providing reactant water can produce the benefits and products, e.g., as exemplified in Equations 3 or 4, implemented using the system  180 . 
     In particularly sensitive applications, for example, described embodiments of the armored protection is provided for tubes and conduits, e.g., such as  108 ,  109 ,  111 ,  115 ,  116 ,  117  and  118 , along with the tank assembly  102  and casing units of the fuel conversion unit, among other components of the described systems. Such armored structures may also provide protection against radio frequency interference (RFI). Thus, long before any containment failure, the system  100  and/or  180  can be repaired or shut down to prevent conditions that could lead to accidental fuel leakage or loss of RFI protection. 
     In certain exemplary applications of the system  100  and/or  180 , it is desirable to combine acoustical attenuation of exhaust noise with condensate water collection to provide a lightweight system with additional safety capabilities.  FIGS. 1C and 1D  show an exemplary embodiment of an apparatus  700  (top view shown in  FIG. 1C  and partial side-section view shown in  FIG. 1D . For example, the apparatus  700  can be configured to provide a relatively smaller diameter muffler than conventional designs along with new benefits and outcomes. The apparatus  700  includes a system of spaced rotor disks  702  that are supported on stationary tube spindle  718  by bearing assembly  716  and one or more suitable support fins  720 . The exemplary spinning rotor disks  702  can be perforated with various optimized patterns of suitably shaped passageways  712  and/or louvers  714  for directing flow from inlet conduit  704  to shroud  706  and to an additional exhaust conduit to an interface with the atmosphere, e.g., such as bell  722 . Shroud  706  further cools and collects growing droplets of condensate that disks  702  sling to the larger diameter of the periphery for collection through a collection component  708  including one or more pumps that deliver to a tube  710  for connection to a pump, e.g., such as the pump  186  of the system  180 . 
     For example, the kinetic energy from exhaust gases in the inlet conduit  704  is transferred to features such as the perforations and/or louvers  714  to cause the exemplary droplet nucleation rotor disks  702  to spin for the combined purposes of cooling, e.g., converting acoustical wave energy into work for the spinning rotor disks  702  and slinging water droplets to the shroud  706  for collection. Accordingly, for example, exhaust gases such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and/or oxygen are dried to the extent provided by water condensate removal through the tube  710  and are then rerouted to the exhaust bell  722  for very low pressure drop and accomplishment of combined exhaust noise quieting, water vapor cooling, and condensate collecting functions. In some implementations, the exhaust bell  722  may be near or at some distance away from support fins  720  as may be optimized according to the vehicle application requirements. 
     Additional functions as described can be used to provide for emergency blowdown of vapor or gases through the injector  116  and/or the injector  152  to the combustion chamber  158  and through one or more open exhaust valves  157  to the exhaust pipe  114  for delivery to assembly  700 . The apparatus  700  provides a low clearance volume heat quenching system for blocking ignition and/or flame travel from inside of the inlet conduit  704  and similarly for blocking ignition sources outside of the bell  722  and effectively attenuating the heat and pressure of such emergency blowdown gases to protect anyone in the downstream zone of exhaust flow that would otherwise blast out of a conventional exhaust system. 
     Equation 5 depicts an exemplary case for the beneficial production and delivery of vapor or gaseous phase fuel constituents by the described armored fuel conversion systems, e.g., such as at times in which the system  180  is implemented without water additions. 
       CH 3 OH+Δ→CO+2H 2    (Eq. 5)
 
     Equation 6 depicts another example in which part of the endothermic energy A is produced by partial oxidation. In such instances, such separated oxygen may be delivered by filtration including membrane or pressure or temperature swing adsorption from atmospheric air. Oxygen may also be produced from other sources such as the electrolysis of sulfuric acid solutions, e.g., such as in an electrolyzer  526  of a system  500 , as shown in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/843,976, entitled “CHEMICAL FUEL CONDITIONING AND ACTIVATION”, filed on Mar. 15, 2013, which is incorporated in its entirety by reference as part of the disclosure in this patent document. 
       C 2 H 5 OH+0.5O 2 +Δ→2CO+3H 2    (Eq. 6)
 
     In some exemplary instances in which it is desired to inject the vapors or gaseous fuel constituents at elevated temperatures, such as the disclosed vapors or gaseous fuel constituents used in the systems  100  and/or  180 , or the system  500  described in the incorporated reference entitled “CHEMICAL FUEL CONDITIONING AND ACTIVATION”. The vapors or gaseous fuel constituents can be injected using an apparatus  600 , as shown in co-pending application U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/843,197, entitled “MECHANICAL MOTION AMPLIFICATION FOR NEW THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES”, filed on Mar. 15, 2013, which is incorporated in its entirety by reference as part of the disclosure in this patent document. The apparatus  600  can be implemented to provide the armored delivery of the vapors or gaseous fuel constituents into the combustion chamber zone  618 . 
       FIG. 2  shows a diagram of a system  200  to provide further safety capabilities for converting a liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel substance. The system  200  can be integrated in the exemplary systems  100  or  180 . The system  200  includes heat exchanger circuits  208  and  209  structured to include tube structures that can comprise, for example, conductively coupled steel, stainless steel or super alloy tubing. For example, the tube structures may be configured by placing the tube for the circuit  208  in a suitably larger tube, e.g., such as that of the circuit  209 , to develop an additional layer of armor. In some implementations, the tube structure of the circuit  209  is designed as a considerably heavier-walled safety containment tube. This can provide very high heat transfer capabilities that may be enhanced by knurling or otherwise providing surface features on the inside and/or outside of the tube structure of the circuits  208  and/or  209  that accelerate the fluids undergoing heat exchanges to improve the operating efficiency and effectiveness. The exemplary heat exchange circuits  208  and/or  209  may be further contained in an inert substance, e.g., such as a fluid or a suitable fused salt medium  250  that is contained in an insulated layer  252  of pressure-rated vessel  210 . 
     In some embodiments, for example, the zone  250  can serve as an accumulator for storage of pressurized water, steam, a fuel reactant, or product constituents. In such applications, reinforcement of the vessel  210  is provided to armor the relatively small process events against damages that could cause leakage or malfunctions. Additional security can be provided by another barrier and collection assembly within the insulated layer  252  to provide substantially greater safety than conventional fuel management systems. For example, the insulated layer assembly  252  can be configured as an outer barrier jacket designed and constructed of an extremely tough stainless steel alloy foil or as a fiber-reinforced composite that provides for the collection and delivery via a conduit  254  of any leakage that may occur from the tube structures of the circuits  208  and/or  209 , or the containment tank  102 . For example, then the delivery of any such collected leakage would be made to a safe zone such as exhaust pipe  256  and/or conduit  258 . 
     The exemplary exhaust pipe  256  can be designed and constructed of heat and corrosion resistant materials that are suitable for long-term thermal cycling operations such as the containment conduit for hot exhaust gases from engines. For example, such exhaust gases may at times be highly aggressive oxidants, and at other times they may become acidic or reducing agents that are resisted by the exemplary exhaust pipe  256 . In some applications, for example, the exhaust pipe  256  is structured to include a double-walled structure to provide insulation and prevent wind chill for retention of the heat in exhaust gases. Such exemplary double-walled construction provides another degree of containment and armor against adverse consequences, e.g., due to collisions and/or other types of damage. 
     These thermal shock, oxidation and reduction resistant, and superior heat containment capabilities of the exemplary exhaust pipe  256  are utilized in the exemplary application of the system  200  to make exhaust pipe  256  a suitable receiver for any leakage that may occur in the case of crash impact damage or other failures of the tube structures of the heat exchanger circuits  208  and/or  209  and/or the vessel  210 . Thus, for example, leakage that may occur in this critical circuit can be drained safely into a relatively larger pressure blow-down capacity of conduit  256 , as shown. The relatively small volume of potentially dangerous fuel in the tubes of the circuits  208  and/or  209 , e.g., as compared to the much larger volume and heat and/or pressure dissipation capabilities of the exhaust tube  256 , provides a substantially greater degree of safety than conventional fuel delivery systems. 
     In some embodiments, the system  200  can include other suitable blowdown piping units for heat and/or pressure dissipation. In one example, the system  200  can include a separate tube such as the conduit  258  to provide a substantially greater degree of safety, e.g., than conventional fuel delivery systems. The conduit  258  may provide a portion that aims potential leakage in a safer direction than may be found for an exhaust pipe, e.g., such as the exhaust pipe  256 . Additional safety features may be provided by a dissipater cap  262   a  of the system  200  that is also designed and constructed to prevent the entry of rain, dust, and/or insects into the interior portions of the tube assembly  258 . In addition, the conduit  258  may include pressure and/or heat dissipating structures or packing contents  260  and an insulator system  262 , e.g., such as one or more layers or wraps or a double wall, to contain a foam or fibrous selection of thermal insulation to further improve safety capabilities. 
     Fuel management can be further provided by system  300 , as shown in  FIG. 3A .  FIG. 3A  shows a cross-sectioned view of the system  300  showing an exemplary high safety tube (e.g., such as the tube structure of the circuit  209  of system  200  in  FIG. 2 ) interfaced with an armored tube  304  of the system  300  to deliver pressurized fuel into assembly  302 . In some implementations, the tube structure of the circuit  209  may be further armored by the exemplary armored tube  304 , e.g., against damage and to provide thermal insulation for the flow of vapors and/or gases from fail-safe processes in the fuel conversion unit assemblies  110  and  112 . Delivery of the pressurized fuel into a combustion chamber  306  (of an engine) by the armored fuel ignition system  300  further offering enhanced safety by containment capabilities of the exhaust pipe  114  or  256  for protection of the fuel conversion unit assembly  112  coupled with the exemplary armored containment and improved fail-safe blowdown provisions of system  200 . 
     The system  300  can be configured to provide layers of fail-safe structural containment capabilities. In some embodiments, the system  300  can be structured to include pressure containment shell portions  308 A,  308 B, and  308 C, within which are pressure containing sub-assemblies  310 ,  312 , and  314 , as shown in  FIG. 3A . The system  300  can also be configured to provide automatic actuation of over-pressure bleed down. In some embodiments, the system  300  can be structured to include a valve  316  interfaced with a port into the combustion chamber  306  to further improve overall system safety. For example, in the event that over-pressurization of fuel including fluid (e.g., such as vaporous reactants and/or gaseous products as shown by Equations 3 and/or 4) exceeds a safety limit, the valve  316  is opened by such pressure. In operation, for example, the valve  316  is normally held closed by force exerted by permanent magnet  318  on armature  320  and thus on the connecting linkage to valve  316  to hold it closed against seat  322 . For example, at an ultimately fail-safe moment, pressure over a safety limit forces the valve  316  open to relieve such pressure by allowing fuel to flow into the combustion chamber  306  and upon closure of throttle valve  126  through any exhaust valves to the exhaust pipe  114  or  256  or the conduit  258 . 
       FIG. 3B  shows additional details of the exemplary embodiment of the system  300  shown in  FIG. 3A , including the exemplary pressure assisted or over-pressure actuated outward opening valve  316 , the corresponding valve seat  322 , radial flow ports  324 , and annular passageway  326  between ignition electrodes  328  and  330  configured for providing rapid blowdown of fuel constituents into the combustion chamber  306  (e.g., in case of emergency).  FIG. 3B  also shows the particularly rugged and multilayered armored construction within the exemplary case assembly  308 A,  308 B and  308 C of the system  300  to resist or administer fail-safe processes in instances of experiencing severe impact forces, e.g., such as those that might be present in a vehicle collision. 
     Further enhancements of safety can be provided by a new or reprogrammed controller  122  in response to alarms, e.g., such as fuel leakage detection or a crash impact indication typical of an event that would trigger deployment of air bags. In such instances, for example, the controller  122  signals by wireless communication or connection through cables (e.g., such as cables  119 ) to trigger events including, but not limited to, the shutdown of the exemplary fuel ignition subsystem of the system  300  and closure of the valve  126 ; the shutoff of the pump  104  to stop fuel flow from the tank  102 ; and the actuation of the armature  320 , e.g., which is forced away from the magnet  318  to open the valve  316  and quickly bleed-down fluid between the tank  102  to the combustion chamber  306 . This is particularly effective in multi-cylinder engine operations, for example, because of the large simultaneous flow path provided past valves (e.g., such as the valve  316 ) in each cylinder and because some cylinders will have large clearance volumes and/or pathways to blow down through open exhaust valves into exhaust containment pipe (e.g., such as the exhaust pipe  256 ). Such emergency closure of the valve  126  by the present embodiment for operation by the exemplary controller  122  provides shutoff of air and thus the rapid elimination of oxygen that would support combustion and prevents the escape of any fuel constituent that might pass through an open intake valve. 
     Implementation of the disclosed fuel systems, devices, and methods can provide for improved fuel storage and utilization. Fuel storage and utilization can be achieved based on the disclosed features and techniques, e.g., including, but not limited to, application of the throttle valves (e.g., such as valve  126  of the systems  100  and/or  180 ), utilization of the heat and pressure dissipating capabilities of exhaust valves, exhaust manifolds, and exhaust pipe systems, the reduction or elimination of toxicity characteristics, and the armored production and delivery of fuel constituents with far more rapid escape characteristics of any potential leakage of vapors and gases compared to liquid fuels. Implementation of the disclosed fuel systems, devices, and methods provide improved fuel economy and engine performance. For example, the disclosed systems, devices, and techniques can be combined with the vaporization and/or gasification of conventional and/or new fuel compositions, e.g., including conversions that provide “net hydrogen” accomplishments that enable much greater public safety from harmful pollutants and greenhouse gas accumulation for additional public benefits. 
     In another aspect, a method to provide a fuel for an engine includes mixing formic acid with water to produce a liquid fuel, adding a fuel constituent in the liquid fuel, the fuel constituent being soluble in the liquid fuel, and converting, in a container having an interior formed of an armored material, the liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel substance using at least one of heat energy or electrical energy to pressurize the liquid fuel, the gaseous fuel substance exhibiting a higher pressure and lower density than that of the liquid fuel. In some examples, the fuel constituent can include urea, cellulose, starches, lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, and other food products. In some exemplary implementations of the method, the method can include mixing the formic acid with selected alcohols, e.g., such as methanol and/or ethanol. In this example, the mixing the formic acid with the selected alcohol can be implemented with or without water. In some exemplary implementations, the formic acid is included in liquid fuel solutions to provide for denaturing of stored fuel and/or as an odorant and/or to serve with an electronic or optical detector as a more easily detected agent for early detection of incipient fuel leaks. In other exemplary implementations of the method, the mixing the formic acid is not implemented and the formic acid serves as the liquid fuel. 
     In certain embodiments a liner is formed to fit within a diesel injector port or on the inside of threaded electrode  308 C of relatively high work function alloy selections including material compositions listed in Table 1 that may be manufactured by any suitable technology including powder metallurgy to include control of the particle morphology, orientation and packing density to provide porosity such as may be oriented toward the combustion chamber  306 . The porosity voids and/or capillaries are utilized to subsequently add low work function materials such as TiC, ZrC, along with fine grains of iron, magnesium, cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, praseodymium or alloys of such rare earths with aluminum, magnesium, iron, and/or oxides of magnesium, iron and/or aluminum such as Ce n Ca l2 A 17 O m . 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Selected Hydrogen Compatible Alloys 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Carpenter 
               
               
                 Element 
                 Ni SA 
                 INVAR 
                 HAYNES 230 
                 MP35N 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Nickel 
                 Balance 
                 36% 
                 57% 
                   
                 35% 
               
               
                 Iron 
                 24-34% 
                 64% 
                 3.0% 
                 Max 
                 0% 
               
               
                 Chromium 
                 17-19% 
                 0% 
                 22% 
                   
                 20% 
               
               
                 Tungsten 
                 3.0-6.0% 
                 0% 
                 14% 
                   
                 0% 
               
               
                 Molybdenum 
                 3.0-5.0% 
                 0% 
                 2.0% 
                   
                 10% 
               
               
                 Cobalt 
                 3.0-5.0% 
                 0% 
                 5.0% 
                 Max 
                 35% 
               
               
                 Vanadium 
                 0.1-1.0% 
                 0% 
                 0% 
                   
                 0% 
               
               
                 Titanium 
                 2.0-3.5% 
                 0% 
                 0% 
                   
                 0% 
               
               
                 Niobium 
                 0.5-2.0% 
                 0% 
                 0% 
                   
                 0% 
               
               
                 Aluminum 
                 0.1-0.5% 
                 0% 
                 0.3% 
                   
                 0% 
               
               
                 Manganese 
                 0% 
                 0% 
                 0.5% 
                   
                 0% 
               
               
                 Silicon 
                 0% 
                 0% 
                 0.4% 
                   
                 0% 
               
               
                 Carbon 
                 0% 
                 0% 
                 0.1% 
                   
                 0% 
               
               
                 Lanthanum 
                 0% 
                 0% 
                 0.02% 
                   
                 0% 
               
               
                 Boron 
                 0% 
                 0% 
                 0.015% 
                 Max 
                 0% 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Referring now specifically to  FIG. 3B , ignition electrode  330  and/or ignition electrode  328  may include one or more features  331  which includes a low work function material. In some embodiments, the feature  331  is disposed on at least an interior portion of the ignition electrode  328  and/or ignition electrode  330  (e.g., at least on the surface of the ignition electrode  328  and/or ignition electrode  330  and adjacent to the annular passageway  326 ). The feature  331  can be included in ignition electrode  328  and/or ignition electrode  330  in any suitable form including, for example, as a liner, a coating, a surface treatment (e.g., a heat treatment), a filling (e.g., a filling in a pore), a distinct sacrificial element, or a combination thereof. 
     In some embodiments an electrical trigger current or spark is generated on or proximate to such pore filled materials to induce production of a small amount or “spark grain” of hot metal that is projected and/or swept into the combustion chamber by the flow of fuel from the space  326  within and around electrodes  328  and  330 . Oxidation of the hot metal spark as it penetrates from fuel rich striated or stratified spray pattern toward or into the surrounding oxidant rich zone further increases the temperature and ability to initiate and/or accelerate combustion of fuel and/or constituent preparations in the combustion chamber. 
     In operation hot sparks are similar to Roman candles by providing hot grains of activated metal “fuel” that sparkle upon penetration from fuel and/or constituent rich striated or stratified injection patterns into the surrounding oxidant rich zone of the combustion chamber. 
     Such electrodes may extend useful lifetime of system  300  by, for example, allowing fuel to contact the ignition electrodes  328  and  330  to limit or prevent allowing the fuel to enter the combustion chamber  306  in an unoxidized state, enabling combustion to occur at a location remote from (e.g., distal from) the ignition electrodes  328  and/or  330 , and/or enabling initiation of combustion with a lower current and voltage relative to a traditional spark plug ignition, and/or configuring the ignition electrodes  328  and/or  330  such that the low work function and/or hot spark grains of material components of the ignition electrodes  328  and/or  330  is only activated (e.g., energized to produce an initiation event) when the rate of combustion must be increased (e.g., when more power output from the engine is needed). Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is contemplated that the longer service life may be attributable at least in part to the much greater size (e.g., shape, length, surface area, etc.) of such ignition electrodes  328  and/or  330  compared to ordinary spark plug electrodes. In addition, ignition electrodes  328  and/or  330  consistent with the present disclosure may also thrust the current by Lorentz force to spread the spark erosion over a much larger electrode area. In many applications ignition electrodes  328  and/or  330  including a low work function material as described above may be refurbished by cleaning and refilling the porosity filler composition. 
     In various applications adaptive controller  122  provides variation of the voltage and current magnitudes and durations for Lorentz thrust fuel ion currents during transient acceleration or full power to include production of hot spark grains compared to operation with Lorentz thrust oxidant ions and/or fuel ions at idle and cruise without production of hot spark grains. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 4A , a method  400   a  for preparing an alcohol fuel according to the present disclosure is provided. The method  400   a  includes a process  410  to mix an alcohol with water and/or to produce a solution or mixture of alcohol and water to provide a wet alcohol. The alcohol can be any suitable alcohol, such as methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, another organic alcohol, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the alcohol is a substantially pure alcohol. In some embodiments, the alcohol includes at least one of methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol. The method  400   a  further includes a process  420  to add a fuel constituent to the wet alcohol. The fuel constituent can be any appropriate fuel constituent that is soluble in the wet alcohol. In some embodiments, the fuel constituent is such as, for example, urea, cellulose, starch, lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, and/or food products, food waste, organic waste (with or without a surfactant). Optionally, the method  400   a  also includes a process  425  to add an odorizing agent. The odorizing agent can be any suitable odorizing agent such as, for example, wintergreen oil, methyl salicylate, peppermint, or a combination thereof. The method  400   a  additionally includes a process  430  to convert the mixture into a gaseous fuel substance in an armored container. The process  430  may include, for example, increasing the heat and/or pressure of the mixture until the gaseous fuel substance has a higher pressure and lower density that of the mixture. In some embodiments, the gaseous fuel substance is introduced into a combustion chamber as a striated or stratified charge without first passing through an intake manifold or without forming a homogeneous mixture. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 4B , a method for preparing an alcohol fuel according to the present disclosure is provided. The method  400   b  includes a process  402  to heat a hydrocarbon such as a methane-containing feedstock to produce hydrogen and carbon products. The hydrogen product is then reacted with carbon dioxide to form an alcohol and water in a process  404 . Optionally, additional water can be added to the alcohol/water mix in a separate process  410  to form a wet alcohol. A fuel constituent and an optional odorizing agent are then added in processes  420  and  425 , respectively, similar to those discussed in method  400   a.  A process  430  then converts the mixture into a gaseous fuel substance in an armored container, as described above with respect to method  400   a.    
     A method  500   a  to provide a fuel for an engine is shown diagrammatically in  FIG. 5A . The method  500   a  includes a process  510  to mix alcohol and water and/or to produce a mixture of an alcohol and water to produce a wet alcohol. The alcohol can be any suitable alcohol, such as methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, another organic alcohol, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the alcohol is a substantially pure alcohol. In some embodiments, the alcohol includes at least one of methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol. The method  500   a  further includes a process  520  to add a fuel constituent to the wet alcohol. The fuel constituent can be any appropriate fuel constituent that is soluble or that may be suspended in the wet alcohol. In some embodiments, the fuel constituent is such as, for example, urea, cellulose, starch, lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, and/or food products, food waste, organic waste (with or without a surfactant). The method  500   a  additionally includes a process  530  to convert the mixture into a gaseous fuel substance in an armored container. The process  530  may include, for example, increasing the heat and/or pressure of the mixture until the gaseous fuel substance has a higher pressure and lower density that of the mixture. As shown in  FIG. 5A , for example, heat and/or electrical energy is input into the armored container by process  535  in order to pressurize the gaseous fuel. As shown in  FIG. 5B , a method  500   b  may include processes  510 ,  520 ,  530  and  535  substantially as described with respect to method  500   a  ( FIG. 5A ), and may further include a process  540  to deliver the gaseous fuel to a fuel cell and/or to a heat engine. In some embodiments, the gaseous fuel substance is introduced into a combustion chamber of a fuel cell or a heat engine as a striated or stratified charge without first passing through an intake manifold or without forming a homogeneous charge. Referring now to  FIG. 5C , a method  500   c  may include processes  510 ,  520 ,  530 ,  535  and  540  substantially as described with respect to method  500   b  ( FIG. 5B ), and may further include a process  515  of adding an odorizing agent to the wet alcohol prepared in process  510 . 
     Referring now to  FIG. 6 , a method  600  for providing a fuel for an engine is provided. The method  600  includes a process  610  to produce or provide a mixture of an alcohol and water to form a wet alcohol, similar to processes  410  and  510  described above. The method  600  further includes a process  620  to dissolve or suspend a fuel constituent in the wet alcohol to form a liquid fuel. The fuel constituent fuel constituent can be any appropriate fuel constituent that is insoluble or only partially soluble in the wet alcohol. In some embodiments, the fuel constituent is such as, for example, urea, cellulose, starch, lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, and/or food products, food waste, organic waste (with or without a surfactant). The liquid fuel is then converted into a gaseous fuel in an armored container in a process  630 . The process  630  may include, for example, increasing the heat and/or pressure of the mixture until the gaseous fuel substance has a higher pressure and lower density that of the mixture. For example, heat and/or electrical energy is input into the armored container by process  635  in order to pressurize the gaseous fuel. 
     As shown in  FIG. 7 , the present disclosure provides another method  700  for providing a fuel for an engine. The method  700  includes a process  710  to provide a liquid fuel comprising an alcohol and water, and a process  720  to heat the liquid fuel in a countercurrent heat exchanger. In some embodiments, the countercurrent heat exchanger is a countercurrent heat exchanger consistent with those described in the present disclosure, such as countercurrent heat exchanger assembly  110  ( FIGS. 1A-1B ) or selected components of system  200  ( FIG. 2 ). In other embodiments, the countercurrent heat exchanger may have different configurations. The heated liquid fuel is then passed through an endothermic reactor/heat exchanger to form pressurized gaseous component(s) in process  730 . In some embodiments, the endothermic reactor/heat exchanger is an armored endothermic reactor/heat exchanger (e.g., includes an interior formed of an armored material such as a high-strength stainless steel or super alloy, a single crystal alloy, a supertube including a composite, a polymer, and/or a woven wire jacket as described herein). The pressurized gaseous component(s) are then cooled in a process  740  in the countercurrent heat exchanger described above with respect to process  720 . Alternatively, two (or more) separate countercurrent heat exchangers may be employed for processes  720  and  740 . The cooled and pressurized gaseous components are then introduced into a combustion chamber in process  750 . In some embodiments, the gaseous fuel components are introduced into a combustion chamber as a striated or stratified charge without first passing through an intake manifold or forming a homogeneous charge. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 8 , a method  800  for providing a fuel for an engine is provided. The method  800  includes a process  810  to provide a liquid fuel comprising an alcohol and water. The liquid fuel is then heated in a countercurrent heat exchanger within an exhaust pipe in process  820 . In some embodiments, the countercurrent heat exchanger is a countercurrent heat exchanger consistent with those described in the present disclosure, such as countercurrent heat exchanger assembly  110  ( FIGS. 1A-1B ) or select components of system  200  ( FIG. 2 ). In other embodiments, the countercurrent heat exchanger may have different configurations. Water condensate is collected from the exhaust pipe and/or the exhaust stream in process  835 . In some embodiments, the collected water condensate is mixed with an alcohol to form a liquid fuel in process  836 . The liquid fuel produced by processes  835 - 836  can be used as the liquid fuel, or as a component of the liquid fuel, in process  820 . The method  800  also includes a process  830  to pass the heated liquid fuel formed in process  820  through an endothermic reactor/heat exchanger to form pressurized gaseous components in process  830 . In some embodiments, the endothermic reactor/heat exchanger is an armored endothermic reactor/heat exchanger (e.g., includes an interior formed of an armored material such as a high-strength stainless steel or super alloy, a single crystal alloy, a supertube including a composite, a polymer, and/or a woven wire jacket as described herein). The pressurized gaseous component(s) are then cooled in a process  840  in the countercurrent heat exchanger described above with respect to process  820 . Alternatively, two (or more) separate countercurrent heat exchangers may be employed for processes  820  and  840 . The cooled and pressurized gaseous components are then introduced into a combustion chamber in process  850 . In some embodiments, the gaseous fuel components are introduced into a combustion chamber without first passing through an intake manifold. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 9 , a method  900  for providing a fuel for an engine is provided. The method  900  includes a process  910  to produce or mix formic acid with water to form a liquid fuel. A fuel constituent is added in process  920 , and the mixture is converted into a gaseous fuel substance in an armored container in process  930 . The process  930  may include, for example, increasing the heat and/or pressure of the mixture until the gaseous fuel substance has a higher pressure and lower density that of the mixture. As shown in  FIG. 9 , for example, heat and/or electrical energy is input into the armored container by process  935  in order to pressurize the gaseous fuel. The gaseous fuel substance produced by process  930  may then be introduced into a combustion chamber (e.g., in a fuel cell and/or in a heat engine) as described above with respect to other fuels. 
     As shown in  FIG. 10 , a method  1000  for producing a gaseous fuel substance is provided. The method  1000  includes a process  1010  to provide formic acid. Water and/or an alcohol is optionally added to the formic acid in process  1015 . A fuel constituent is then added in process  1020 . The fuel constituent can be any fuel constituent described herein with respect to other fuels and methods. The method  1000  additionally includes a process  1030  to convert the mixture into a gaseous fuel substance in an armored container. The process  1030  may include, for example, increasing the heat and/or pressure of the mixture until the gaseous fuel substance has a higher pressure and lower density that of the mixture. As shown For example, heat and/or electrical energy is input into the armored container by process  1035  in order to pressurize the gaseous fuel. The gaseous fuel substance produced by process  1030  may then be introduced into a combustion chamber (e.g., in a fuel cell and/or in a heat engine) as described above with respect to other fuels. 
     Other methods for producing a fuel including one or more processes consistent with those described above with respect to  FIGS. 4A-10  will be recognized by one of ordinary skill in the art and are within the scope of the present disclosure. 
     While this patent document contains many specifics, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of any invention or of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of features that may be specific to particular embodiments of particular inventions. Certain features that are described in this patent document in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable subcombination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of a subcombination. 
     Similarly, while operations are depicted in the drawings in a particular order, this should not be understood as requiring that such operations be performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, or that all illustrated operations be performed, to achieve desirable results. Moreover, the separation of various system components in the embodiments described in this patent document should not be understood as requiring such separation in all embodiments. 
     EXAMPLES 
     The following Examples are illustrative of several embodiments of the present technology. 
     1. A system for preparing a fuel, comprising:
         a fuel storage unit to contain a liquid fuel substance stored at a low pressure;   a fuel conversion unit to convert the liquid fuel substance into a gaseous fuel substance using at least one of heat energy or electrical energy to pressurize the liquid fuel substance, the fuel conversion unit including a tank having an interior formed of an armored material; and   a fluid transfer unit including a low pressure pump to deliver the liquid fuel substance from the fuel storage unit to the fuel conversion unit,   wherein the gaseous fuel substance exhibits a higher pressure and lower density than that of the liquid fuel substance.       

     2. The system as in example 1, wherein the heat energy is supplied to the fuel conversion unit by at least one of the engine coolant fluid and an exhaust system of an engine. 
     3. The system as in example 1, wherein the fuel transfer unit delivers the gaseous fuel substance to an engine. 
     4. The system as in example 1, further comprising a fuel cell to supply heat to the fuel conversion unit. 
     5. The system as in example 1, wherein the armored material includes at least one of stainless steel or composite material including multilayers of at least one of stainless steel, filaments of at least one of carbon, silicon carbide, silica, bauxite, carbon nanotubes, partially stabilized zirconia or spinel, or aluminum. 
     6. The system as in example 1, wherein the armored material includes at least one type of polymers including polyimides or Kevlar film or fiber. 
     7. The system as in example 1, wherein the liquid fuel substance includes a hydrogen donor constituent, carbon donor constituent, or nitrogen donor constituent. 
     8. The system as in example 1, further comprising a controller to trigger a shutdown of the system. 
     9. A method for providing an alcohol fuel, comprising: producing or mixing an alcohol with water to produce a wet alcohol; and adding a fuel constituent in the wet alcohol, the fuel constituent being soluble in the wet alcohol. 
     10. The method as in example 9, wherein the alcohol is a substantially pure alcohol. 
     11. The method as in example 9, wherein the alcohol includes methanol. 
     12. The method as in example 11, further comprising creating the methanol by: applying heat to a methane feedstock substance to produce hydrogen and a carbon substance, and reacting the hydrogen with carbon dioxide to create the methanol and water. 
     13. The method as in example 12, wherein the methane feedstock substance is supplied from exhaust gas produced by an engine. 
     14. The method as in example 9, wherein the fuel constituent is selected from the group consisting of urea, cellulose, starches, lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, and food products. 
     15. The method as in example 9, further comprising adding an odorizing agent to provide a scent to the wet alcohol. 
     16. The method as in example 15, wherein the odorizing agent includes at least one of wintergreen oil, methyl salicylate, or peppermint. 
     17. A method to provide a fuel for an engine, comprising:
         producing or mixing an alcohol with water to produce a wet alcohol;   adding a fuel constituent in the wet alcohol to form a liquid fuel, the fuel constituent being soluble in the wet alcohol; and   converting, in a container having an interior formed of an armored material, the liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel substance using at least one of heat energy or electrical energy to pressurize the liquid fuel, the gaseous fuel substance exhibiting a higher pressure and lower density than that of the liquid fuel.       

     18. The method as in claim  17 , further comprising supplying the heat energy to the container from at least one of an exhaust system of an engine or a fuel cell. 
     19. The method as in example 17, further comprising delivering the gaseous fuel substance to a fuel cell and/or a heat engine. 
     20. The method as in example 17, wherein the armored material includes at least one of stainless steel or composite material including multilayers of at least one of stainless steel, carbon nanotubes, partially stabilized zirconia or spinel, or aluminum. 
     21. The method as in example 17, wherein the armored material includes at least one type of polymers including polyimides or Kevlar film or fiber. 
     22. The method as in example 17, wherein the fuel constituent is selected from the group consisting of urea, cellulose, starches, lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, and food products. 
     23. The method as in example 17, further comprising adding an odorizing agent to provide a scent to the wet alcohol. 
     24. The method as in example 23, wherein the odorizing agent includes at least one of wintergreen oil, methyl salicylate, or peppermint. 
     25. A method to provide a fuel for an engine, comprising:
         producing or mixing an alcohol with water to produce a wet alcohol;   suspending a fuel constituent in the wet alcohol to form a liquid fuel; and   converting, in a container having an interior formed of an armored material, the liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel substance using at least one of heat energy or electrical energy to pressurize the liquid fuel, the gaseous fuel substance exhibiting a higher pressure and lower density than that of the liquid fuel.       

     26. A method to provide a fuel for an engine, comprising:
         producing mixing formic acid with water to produce a liquid fuel;   adding a fuel constituent in the liquid fuel, the fuel constituent being soluble in the liquid fuel; and   converting, in a container having an interior formed of an armored material, the liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel substance using at least one of heat energy or electrical energy to pressurize the liquid fuel, the gaseous fuel substance exhibiting a higher pressure and lower density than that of the liquid fuel.       

     Chemical equations described herein are representative, and reflect only select processes within a complex and dynamic system which may include many simultaneously operating reactions. Accordingly, chemical equations included herein that appear unbalanced merely reflect the complex and dynamic nature of the environment in which those reactions take place, and should not be interpreted as suggesting that any process described herein violates any fundamental law of nature, such as the conservation of matter. 
     Only a few implementations and examples are described and other implementations, enhancements and variations can be made based on what is described and illustrated in this patent document. From the foregoing it will be appreciated that, although specific embodiments of the technology have been described herein for purposes of illustration, various modifications may be made without deviating from the spirit and scope of the technology. Further, certain aspects of the new technology described in the context of particular embodiments may be combined or eliminated in other embodiments. Moreover, while advantages associated with certain embodiments of the technology have been described in the context of those embodiments, other embodiments may also exhibit such advantages, and not all embodiments need necessarily exhibit such advantages to fall within the scope of the technology. Accordingly, the disclosure and associated technology can encompass other embodiments not expressly shown or described herein. Thus, the disclosure is not limited except as by the appended claims.