Patent Publication Number: US-2022227754-A1

Title: Ampk activators

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 17/502,474, filed on Oct. 15, 2021, which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 11,279,702 on Mar. 22, 2022, which is a continuation of International Application No. PCT/US2021/032933, filed May 18, 2021, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/027,231 filed on May 19, 2020, U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/111,837 filed on Nov. 10, 2020, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/141,169 filed on Jan. 25, 2021, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Adenosine 5′-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a serine/threonine kinase and is evolutionarily conserved from yeast to mammals. AMPK acts as an energy sensor and is activated by upstream enzymes when the cellular ratio of adenosine 5′-monophosphate (AMP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is elevated due to nutrient deprivation. Activated AMPK phosphorylates downstream substrates to promote catabolism and impede anabolism, leading to ATP production and energy restoration. AMPK activity can be altered due to numerous physiological factors, such as hormones, cytokines and dietary nutrients, as well as pathological conditions such as obesity, chronic inflammation and type 2 diabetes. AMPK activation can lead to lower hepatic glucose production and plasma glucose levels. Thus, AMPK is an attractive target to treat various metabolic diseases. 
     Additionally, AMPK has beneficial effects for gut health, such as enhancing intestinal absorption, improving barrier function, suppressing colorectal carcinogenesis, and reducing intestinal inflammation and metabolic-related disease, and is important for the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis. For example, AMPK activation enhances paracellular junctions, nutrient transporters, autophagy and apoptosis, and suppresses inflammation and carcinogenesis in the intestine. Accordingly, AMPK is associated with the maintenance of tight junctions in colonic epithelium and controls the progression of colitis. 
     In various mouse models of colitis, treatment with a direct AMPK activator has been shown to be efficacious at restoring gut barrier function (see, for example, WO 2018/189683; Sun, X., et al. (2017), Cell Death and Differentiation, 24(5), 819-831; Xue, Y., et al. (2016), PLoS ONE, 11(12), 1-18; and Sun, X., et al. (2017), Open Biology, 7(8)). This effect has also been recapitulated with metformin, which is an indirect AMPK activator having additional biological activities (see, for example, WO 2018/161077; and Di Fusco, D., et al. (2018), Clinical Science, 132(11)). However, there are safety concerns with sustained direct AMPK activation, particularly in the heart. Chronic treatment with systemic, direct activators can lead to cardiac hypertrophy (concomitant with increased cardiac glycogen) in rodents and non-human primates (See, Myers, R. W., et al. (2017), Science, 357(6350), 507-511). Additionally, human genetic polymorphisms in AMPK are associated with cardiac glycogen deposition, cardiac hypertrophy and Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, a condition characterized by electrocardiogram (ECG) abnormalities (see, Burwinkel, B., et al. (2005), Am Journal of Human Genetics, 76(6), 1034-1049). Due to this risk of cardiac hypertrophy, treatment with known AMPK activators, which are systemic in nature, is unsuitable to address the problem of treating IBD, colitis, and other diseases with a leaky gut barrier with a direct AMPK activator. 
     Direct AMPK activation in the intestine without systemic engagement has never been demonstrated or proposed until the instant disclosure. All reported direct AMPK activators which have been optimized and entered clinical studies (for example, PF-06409577 from Pfizer) or extensive preclinical evaluation (for example, MK-3903 and MK-8722 from Merck) are systemic AMPK activators and have been developed for systemic engagement, as is reflected in the routes of administration and biological assays present in patent applications and published manuscripts relating to direct AMPK activators. A delayed-release formulation has been investigated to deliver higher concentrations of the indirect AMPK activator metformin to the colon for treatment of IBD. However, metformin does not optimally activate AMPK, metformin has other activities, and this approach requires specific formulation development. Thus it is not an optimal solution to the problem. 
     Disclosed herein is the discovery and development of the first gut-restricted, direct AMPK activators that do not require sophisticated formulations to reach the target tissue and avoid systemic circulation. 
     BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     Disclosed herein, in some embodiments, are adenosine 5′-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (5′ AMP-activated protein kinase, AMPK) activators useful for the treatment of conditions or disorders associated with AMPK. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is associated with the gut-brain axis. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is associated with systemic infection and inflammation from having a leaky gut barrier. In some embodiments, the AMPK activators are gut-restricted or selectively modulate AMPK located in the gut. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is selected from the group consisting of: central nervous system (CNS) disorders including mood disorders, anxiety, depression, affective disorders, schizophrenia, malaise, cognition disorders, addiction, autism, epilepsy, neurodegenerative disorders, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, and Parkinson&#39;s disease, Lewy Body dementia, episodic cluster headache, migraine, pain; metabolic conditions including diabetes and its complications such as chronic kidney disease/diabetic nephropathy, diabetic retinopathy, diabetic neuropathy, cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, obesity, dyslipidemia, and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH); eating and nutritional disorders including hyperphagia, cachexia, anorexia nervosa, short bowel syndrome, intestinal failure, intestinal insufficiency and other eating disorders; inflammatory disorders and autoimmune diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, Crohn&#39;s disease, checkpoint inhibitor-induced colitis, psoriasis, celiac disease and enteritis, including chemotherapy-induced enteritis or radiation-induced enteritis; necrotizing enterocolitis; gastrointestinal injury resulting from toxic insults such as radiation or chemotherapy; diseases/disorders of gastrointestinal barrier dysfunction including environmental enteric dysfunction; spontaneous bacterial peritonitis; allergy including food allergy, celiac sprue, and childhood allergy; graft vs. host disease; functional gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome, functional dyspepsia, functional abdominal bloating/distension, functional diarrhea, functional constipation, and opioid-induced constipation; gastroparesis; nausea and vomiting; disorders related to microbiome dysbiosis, and other conditions involving the gut-brain axis. 
     Disclosed herein, in some embodiments, is a compound of Formula (I): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, wherein: 
             R 1  is hydrogen or C 1 -C 4  alkyl; 
             each R 2  is independently halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; 
             n is 0-2; 
             L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )—(CR 5 R 6 ) m —, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkylene, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkylene, phenylene, or monocyclic heteroarylene;
           R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl;   each R 5  and R 6  is independently hydrogen, halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl;   m is 0-2;   
         
             G is —C(O)OR 7 , —P(O)(R 8 )OR 7 , —P(O)(OR 7 ) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OR 7 ;
           each R 7  is independently hydrogen or C 1 -C 4  alkyl;   R 8  is C 1 -C 4  alkyl;   
         
             R A  is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl or a 6,6-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups; 
             or R A  is -L A -A;
           L A  is —C≡C—, or   
         
           
         
       
    
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein each p1, p2, and p3 is independently 1 or 2;
         or L A  is phenylene or monocyclic heteroarylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups;   A is C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl, 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl, C 6 -C 10  aryl, or 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups;   each R 10 , R 11 , and R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 13 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OC(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)OR 13 , —OC(═O)OR 13 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl;
           each R 13  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and   each R 14  is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and   or two R 14  on the same nitrogen atom are taken together with the nitrogen to which they are attached to form a 3- to 6-membered N-heterocycloalkyl;   
           wherein R A  is not 4-morpholinylphenyl.       

     Any combination of the groups described above or below for the various variables is contemplated herein. Throughout the specification, groups and substituents thereof are chosen by one skilled in the field to provide stable moieties and compounds. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, R 1  is hydrogen or methyl; and each R 2  is independently —F, —Cl, —CN, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, R 1  is hydrogen; R 2  is —F, —Cl, or —CN; and n is 1. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )(CR 5 R 6 ) m —; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, methyl, or —CF 3 ; each R 5  and R 6  is independently hydrogen, —F, —CN, methyl, or —CF 3 ; each R 7  is independently hydrogen, methyl, or ethyl; and R 8  is methyl. In some embodiments, L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )—(CR 5 R 6 ) m —; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen or methyl; m is 0; and G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OEt)(OH), —P(O)(OH) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OH. In some embodiments, L 1  is —CH 2 —, —CHMe—, or —CMe 2 -; and G is —C(O)OH. 
     In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is a compound of Formula (II): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof. 
           
         
       
    
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, R A  is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups; and each R 10  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, R A  is 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     X 1  and X 2  are each independently CH, C—R 10 , or N; and R 20  is hydrogen or C 1 -C 6  alkyl. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, R A  is -L A -A. In some embodiments, L A  is phenylene or monocyclic heteroarylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups; and each R 11  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, L A  is unsubstituted phenylene. 
     In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is a compound of Formula (III): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof. 
           
         
       
    
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (I), (II), or (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl or C 6 -C 10  aryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 3 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, A is phenyl, which is unsubstituted or substituted with a —OH group. 
     In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I), (II), or (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is a compound of Formula (IV): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof. 
           
         
       
    
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (I), (II), or (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl or 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic heteroaryl or 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, A is 6-membered heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; or A is 5- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, A is pyridinyl, which is unsubstituted or substituted by a —OH group; or A is pyrrolidinyl or piperidinyl, which is substituted with 1 or 2 groups selected from —OH and —C(═O)OH. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (I), (II), or (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, each R 13  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, or 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl; and each R 14  is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, or 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl; or two R 11  on the same nitrogen atom are taken together with the nitrogen to which they are attached to form a 3- to 6-membered N-heterocycloalkyl. 
     Also disclosed herein, in some embodiment is a compound of Formula (III): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, wherein: 
             R 2  is independently halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; 
             R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; 
             G is —C(O)OR 7 , —P(O)(R 8 )OR 7 , —P(O)(OR 7 ) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OR 7 ;
           each R 7  is independently hydrogen or C 1 -C 4  alkyl;   R 8  is C 1 -C 4  alkyl;   
         
             A is C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl, 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl, C 6 -C 10  aryl, or 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; 
             each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 13 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OC(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)OR 13 , —OC(═O)OR 13 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl;
           each R 13  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and   each R 14  is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and   or two R 14  on the same nitrogen atom are taken together with the nitrogen to which they are attached to form a 3- to 6-membered N-heterocycloalkyl.   
         
           
         
       
    
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, each R 2  is independently —F, —Cl, —CN, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, or —CF 3 ; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, methyl, or —CF 3 ; each R 7  is independently hydrogen, methyl, or ethyl; and R 8  is methyl. In some embodiments, R 2  is —F, —Cl, or —CN; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen or methyl; and G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OEt)(OH), —P(O)(OH) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OH. In some embodiments, L 1  is —CH 2 —, —CHMe—, or —CMe 2 -; and G is —C(O)OH. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is C 6 -C 10  aryl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH(CH 3 )(CH 2 CH 3 ), —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3 , —CF 3 , pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, or tetrazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with a —OH group and is optionally substituted with one other group selected from —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3  and triazolyl. 
     In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (III) is a compound of Formula (IV) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof. In some embodiments, each R 2  is independently —F, —Cl, —CN, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, or —CF 3 ; R 3  and R 14  are each independently hydrogen, methyl, or —CF 3 ; each R 7  is independently hydrogen, methyl, or ethyl; and R 8  is methyl. In some embodiments, R 2  is —F, —Cl, or —CN; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen or methyl; and G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OEt)(OH), —P(O)(OH) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OH. In some embodiments, L 1  is —CH 2 —, —CHMe—, or —CMe 2 -; and G is —C(O)OH. 
           
         
       
    
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, A is pyrrolidinyl or piperidinyl, which is substituted with 1 or 2 groups selected from —OH and —C(═O)OH. In some embodiments, R 2  is —F, —Cl, or —CN; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen or methyl; and G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OEt)(OH), —P(O)(OH) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OH. 
     Disclosed herein, in some embodiments, are pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound disclosed herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. 
     Disclosed herein, in some embodiments, are methods of treating an adenosine 5′-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) associated condition or disorder in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound disclosed herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder involves the gut-brain axis. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is a nutritional disorder. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is short bowel syndrome, intestinal failure, or intestinal insufficiency. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is associated with systemic infection and inflammation from having a leaky gut barrier. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is metabolic syndrome, obesity, type 2 diabetes, coronary artery disease, fatty liver, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cirrhosis, hepatic encephalopathy, fibrotic disorders including scleroderma, inflammatory bowel disease including Crohn&#39;s disease, ulcerative colitis, and checkpoint inhibitor-induced colitis, psoriasis, celiac disease, necrotizing enterocolitis, gastrointestinal injury resulting from toxic insults such as radiation or chemotherapy, environmental enteric dysfunction, allergy including food allergy, celiac sprue, and childhood allergy, graft vs. host disease, irritable bowel syndrome, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, ischemic colitis, sclerosing cholangitis, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Parkinson&#39;s disease, cancer including colorectal cancer, depression, autism, or a combination thereof. 
     Also disclosed herein, in some embodiments, are methods of treating gastrointestinal injury resulting from toxic insult, the method comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound disclosed herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof. In some embodiments, the toxic insult is from radiation, chemotherapy, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the toxic insult is radiation-induced. In some embodiments, the toxic insult is chemotherapy-induced. 
     Also disclosed herein, in some embodiments, is the use of a compound disclosed herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, as a medicine. 
     Also disclosed herein, in some embodiments, is the use of a compound disclosed herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, for the treatment of an adenosine 5′-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) associated condition or disorder in a subject in need thereof. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder involves the gut-brain axis. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is a nutritional disorder. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is short bowel syndrome, intestinal failure, or intestinal insufficiency. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is associated with systemic infection and inflammation from having a leaky gut barrier. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is metabolic syndrome, obesity, type 2 diabetes, coronary artery disease, fatty liver, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cirrhosis, hepatic encephalopathy, fibrotic disorders including scleroderma, inflammatory bowel disease including Crohn&#39;s disease, ulcerative colitis, and checkpoint inhibitor-induced colitis, psoriasis, celiac disease, necrotizing enterocolitis, gastrointestinal injury resulting from toxic insults such as radiation or chemotherapy, environmental enteric dysfunction, allergy including food allergy, celiac sprue, and childhood allergy, graft vs. host disease, irritable bowel syndrome, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, ischemic colitis, sclerosing cholangitis, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Parkinson&#39;s disease, cancer including colorectal cancer, depression, autism, or a combination thereof. 
     Also disclosed herein, in some embodiments, is the use of a compound disclosed herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, for the treatment of gastrointestinal injury resulting from toxic insult in a subject in need thereof. In some embodiments, the toxic insult is from radiation, chemotherapy, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the toxic insult is radiation-induced. In some embodiments, the toxic insult is chemotherapy-induced. 
     Also disclosed herein, in some embodiments, is the use of a compound disclosed herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, for the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of the diseases disclosed herein. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     This disclosure is directed, at least in part, to AMPK activators useful for the treatment of conditions or disorders involving the gut-brain axis. In some embodiments, the AMPK activators are gut-restricted compounds. In some embodiments, the AMPK activators are agonists, super agonists, full agonists, or partial agonists. 
     Compounds disclosed herein directly activate AMPK in the intestine without systemic engagement. The preferred compounds are more potent, efficacious at lower doses, and have decreased systemic exposure compared to other previously-known AMPK activators. 
     Definitions 
     As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “an agent” includes a plurality of such agents, and reference to “the cell” includes reference to one or more cells (or to a plurality of cells) and equivalents thereof known to those skilled in the art, and so forth. When ranges are used herein for physical properties, such as molecular weight, or chemical properties, such as chemical formulas, all combinations and subcombinations of ranges and specific embodiments therein are intended to be included. 
     The term “about” when referring to a number or a numerical range means that the number or numerical range referred to is an approximation within experimental variability (or within statistical experimental error), and thus the number or numerical range, in some instances, will vary between 1% and 15% of the stated number or numerical range. 
     The term “comprising” (and related terms such as “comprise” or “comprises” or “having” or “including”) is not intended to exclude that in other embodiments, for example, an embodiment of any composition of matter, composition, method, or process, or the like, described herein, “consist of” or “consist essentially of” the described features. 
     As used in the specification and appended claims, unless specified to the contrary, the following terms have the meaning indicated below: 
     As used herein, C 1 -C x  includes C 1 -C 2 , C 1 -C 3  . . . C 1 -C x . By way of example only, a group designated as “C 1 -C 4 ” indicates that there are one to four carbon atoms in the moiety, i.e., groups containing 1 carbon atom, 2 carbon atoms, 3 carbon atoms or 4 carbon atoms. Thus, by way of example only, “C 1 -C 4  alkyl” indicates that there are one to four carbon atoms in the alkyl group, i.e., the alkyl group is selected from among methyl, ethyl, propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and t-butyl. 
     “Alkyl” refers to an optionally substituted straight-chain, or optionally substituted branched-chain saturated hydrocarbon monoradical having from one to about ten carbon atoms, or more preferably, from one to six carbon atoms, wherein an sp 3 -hybridized carbon of the alkyl residue is attached to the rest of the molecule by a single bond. Examples include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, 2-methyl-1-propyl, 2-methyl-2-propyl, 2-methyl-1-butyl, 3-methyl-1-butyl, 2-methyl-3-butyl, 2,2-dimethyl-1-propyl, 2-methyl-1-pentyl, 3-methyl-1-pentyl, 4-methyl-1-pentyl, 2-methyl-2-pentyl, 3-methyl-2-pentyl, 4-methyl-2-pentyl, 2,2-dimethyl-1-butyl, 3,3-dimethyl-1-butyl, 2-ethyl-1-butyl, n-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, t-butyl, n-pentyl, isopentyl, neopentyl, tert-amyl and hexyl, and longer alkyl groups, such as heptyl, octyl, and the like. Whenever it appears herein, a numerical range such as “C 1 -C 6  alkyl” means that the alkyl group consists of 1 carbon atom, 2 carbon atoms, 3 carbon atoms, 4 carbon atoms, 5 carbon atoms or 6 carbon atoms, although the present definition also covers the occurrence of the term “alkyl” where no numerical range is designated. In some embodiments, the alkyl is a C 1 -C 10  alkyl, a C 1 -C 9  alkyl, a C 1 -C 8  alkyl, a C 1 -C 7  alkyl, a C 1 -C 6  alkyl, a C 1 -C 5  alkyl, a C 1 -C 4  alkyl, a C 1 -C 3  alkyl, a C 1 -C 2  alkyl, or a C 1  alkyl. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, an alkyl group is optionally substituted as described below by one or more of the following substituents: halo, cyano, nitro, oxo, thioxo, imino, oximo, trimethylsilanyl, —OR a , —SR a , —OC(O)R a , —OC(O)—OR f , —N(R a ) 2 , —N + (R a ) 3 , —C(O)R a , —C(O)OR a , —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —N(R a )C(O)OR f , —OC(O)—N(R a ) 2 , —N(R a )C(O)R a , —N(R a )S(O) t R f  (where t is 1 or 2), —S(O) t OR a  (where t is 1 or 2), —S(O)R (where t is 1 or 2) and —S(O) t N(R a ) 2  (where t is 1 or 2) where each R a  is independently hydrogen, alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, and each R is independently alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl. 
     “Alkenyl” refers to an optionally substituted straight-chain, or optionally substituted branched-chain hydrocarbon monoradical having one or more carbon-carbon double-bonds and having from two to about ten carbon atoms, more preferably two to about six carbon atoms, wherein an sp 2 -hybridized carbon or an sp 3 -hybridized carbon of the alkenyl residue is attached to the rest of the molecule by a single bond. The group may be in either the cis or trans conformation about the double bond(s), and should be understood to include both isomers. Examples include, but are not limited to ethenyl (—CH═CH 2 ), 1-propenyl (—CH 2 CH═CH 2 ), isopropenyl (—C(CH 3 )═CH 2 ), butenyl, 1,3-butadienyl and the like. Whenever it appears herein, a numerical range such as “C 2 -C 6  alkenyl” means that the alkenyl group may consist of 2 carbon atoms, 3 carbon atoms, 4 carbon atoms, 5 carbon atoms or 6 carbon atoms, although the present definition also covers the occurrence of the term “alkenyl” where no numerical range is designated. In some embodiments, the alkenyl is a C 2 -C 10  alkenyl, a C 2 -C 9  alkenyl, a C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, a C 2 -C 7  alkenyl, a C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, a C 2 -C 5  alkenyl, a C 2 -C 4  alkenyl, a C 2 -C 3  alkenyl, or a C 2  alkenyl. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, an alkenyl group is optionally substituted as described below, for example, with oxo, halogen, amino, nitrile, nitro, hydroxyl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, aryl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl, and the like. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, an alkenyl group is optionally substituted as described below by one or more of the following substituents: halo, cyano, nitro, oxo, thioxo, imino, oximo, trimethylsilanyl, —OR a , —SR a , —OC(O)—R f , —OC(O)—OR, —N(R a ) 2 , —N(R a ) 3 , —C(O)R a , —C(O)OR a , —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —N(R a )C(O)OR, —OC(O)—N(R a ) 2 , —N(R a )C(O)R f , —N(R a )S(O) t R f  (where t is 1 or 2), —S(O) t OR f  (where t is 1 or 2), —S(O) t R f  (where t is 1 or 2) and —S(O) t N(R a ) 2  (where t is 1 or 2) where each R a  is independently hydrogen, alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, and each R f  is independently alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl. 
     “Alkynyl” refers to an optionally substituted straight-chain or optionally substituted branched-chain hydrocarbon monoradical having one or more carbon-carbon triple-bonds and having from two to about ten carbon atoms, more preferably from two to about six carbon atoms, wherein an sp-hybridized carbon or an sp 3 -hybridized carbon of the alkynyl residue is attached to the rest of the molecule by a single bond. Examples include, but are not limited to ethynyl, 2-propynyl, 2-butynyl, 1,3-butadiynyl and the like. Whenever it appears herein, a numerical range such as “C 2 -C 6  alkynyl” means that the alkynyl group may consist of 2 carbon atoms, 3 carbon atoms, 4 carbon atoms, 5 carbon atoms or 6 carbon atoms, although the present definition also covers the occurrence of the term “alkynyl” where no numerical range is designated. In some embodiments, the alkynyl is a C 2 -C 10  alkynyl, a C 2 -C 9  alkynyl, a C 2 -C 8  alkynyl, a C 2 -C 7  alkynyl, a C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, a C 2 -C 5  alkynyl, a C 2 -C 4  alkynyl, a C 2 -C 3  alkynyl, or a C 2  alkynyl. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, an alkynyl group is optionally substituted as described below by one or more of the following substituents: halo, cyano, nitro, oxo, thioxo, imino, oximo, trimethylsilanyl, —OR a , —SR a , —OC(O)R a , —OC(O)—OR f , —N(R a ) 2 , —N + (R a ) 3 , —C(O)R a , —C(O)OR a , —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —N(R a )C(O)OR f , —OC(O)—N(R a ) 2 , —N(R a )C(O)R f , —N(R a )S(O)R f  (where t is 1 or 2), —S(O) t OR f  (where t is 1 or 2), —S(O) t R f  (where t is 1 or 2) and —S(O) t N(R a ) 2  (where t is 1 or 2) where each R f  is independently hydrogen, alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, and each R f  is independently alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl. 
     “Alkylene” or “alkylene chain” refers to a straight or branched divalent hydrocarbon chain linking the rest of the molecule to a radical group, consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen, containing no unsaturation and having from one to twelve carbon atoms, for example, methylene, ethylene, propylene, n-butylene, and the like. The alkylene chain is attached to the rest of the molecule through a single bond and to the radical group through a single bond. The points of attachment of the alkylene chain to the rest of the molecule and to the radical group are through one carbon in the alkylene chain or through any two carbons within the chain. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, an alkylene group is optionally substituted as described below by one or more of the following substituents: halo, cyano, nitro, oxo, thioxo, imino, oximo, trimethylsilanyl, —OR a , —SR a , —OC(O)R a , —OC(O)—OR f , —N(R a ) 2 , —N + (R a ) 3 , —C(O)R a , —C(O)OR a , —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —N(R a )C(O)OR f , —OC(O)—N(R a ) 2 , —N(R a )C(O)R f , —N(R a )S(O)R f  (where t is 1 or 2), —S(O) t OR f  (where t is 1 or 2), —S(O)R (where t is 1 or 2) and —S(O) t N(R a ) 2  (where t is 1 or 2) where each R a  is independently hydrogen, alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, and each R f  is independently alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl. 
     “Alkenylene” or “alkenylene chain” refers to a straight or branched divalent hydrocarbon chain linking the rest of the molecule to a radical group, consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen, containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond, and having from two to twelve carbon atoms. The alkenylene chain is attached to the rest of the molecule through a single bond and to the radical group through a single bond. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, an alkenylene group is optionally substituted as described below by one or more of the following substituents: halo, cyano, nitro, oxo, thioxo, imino, oximo, trimethylsilanyl, —OR a , —SR a , —OC(O)—R f , —OC(O)—OR f , —N(R a ) 2 , —N + (R a ) 3 , —C(O)R a , —C(O)OR a , —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —N(R a )C(O)OR f , —OC(O)—N(R a ) 2 , —N(R a )C(O)R f , —N(R a )S(O)R f  (where t is 1 or 2), —S(O) t OR a  (where t is 1 or 2), —S(O) t R (where t is 1 or 2) and —S(O) t N(R a ) 2  (where t is 1 or 2) where each R a  is independently hydrogen, alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, and each R is independently alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl. 
     “Alkynylene” or “alkynylene chain” refers to a straight or branched divalent hydrocarbon chain linking the rest of the molecule to a radical group, consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen, containing at least one carbon-carbon triple bond, and having from two to twelve carbon atoms. The alkynylene chain is attached to the rest of the molecule through a single bond and to the radical group through a single bond. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, an alkynylene group is optionally substituted as described below by one or more of the following substituents: halo, cyano, nitro, oxo, thioxo, imino, oximo, trimethylsilanyl, —OR a , —SR, —OC(O)R a , —OC(O)—OR f , —N(R a ) 2 , —N + (R a ) 3 , —C(O)R a , —C(O)OR a , —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —N(R a )C(O)OR f , —OC(O)—N(R a ) 2 , —N(R a )C(O)R f , —N(R a )S(O)R f  (where t is 1 or 2), —S(O) t OR a  (where t is 1 or 2), —S(O) t R f  (where t is 1 or 2) and —S(O) t N(R a ) 2  (where t is 1 or 2) where each R a  is independently hydrogen, alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, and each R is independently alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl. 
     “Alkoxy” or “alkoxyl” refers to a radical bonded through an oxygen atom of the formula —O-alkyl, where alkyl is an alkyl chain as defined above. 
     “Aryl” refers to a radical derived from an aromatic monocyclic or multicyclic hydrocarbon ring system by removing a hydrogen atom from a ring carbon atom. The aromatic monocyclic or multicyclic hydrocarbon ring system contains only hydrogen and carbon from 6 to 18 carbon atoms, where at least one of the rings in the ring system is fully unsaturated, i.e., it contains a cyclic, delocalized (4n+2) π-electron system in accordance with the Hückel theory. The ring system from which aryl groups are derived include, but are not limited to, groups such as benzene, fluorene, indane, indene, tetralin and naphthalene. In some embodiments, the aryl is a C 6 -C 10  aryl. In some embodiments, the aryl is a phenyl. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, the term “aryl” or the prefix “ar-” (such as in “aralkyl”) is meant to include aryl radicals optionally substituted as described below by one or more substituents independently selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, halo, haloalkyl, cyano, nitro, aryl, aralkyl, aralkenyl, aralkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, —R b —OR a , —R b —SR a , —R b —OC(O)—R a , —R b —OC(O)—OR f , —R b —OC(O)—N(R a ) 2 , —R b —N(R a ) 2 , —R b —N + (R a ) 3 , —R b —C(O)R a , —R b —C(O)OR a , —R b —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —R b —O—R c —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —R b —N(R a )C(O)OR f , —R b —N(R a )C(O)R a , —R b —N(R a )S(O) t R f  (where t is 1 or 2), —R b —S(O) t OR f  (where t is 1 or 2), —R b —S(O) t R f  (where t is 1 or 2) and —R b —S(O)N(R a ) 2  (where t is 1 or 2), where each R a  is independently hydrogen, alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aryl (optionally substituted with one or more halo groups), aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, R f  is independently alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aryl (optionally substituted with one or more halo groups), aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, each R b  is independently a direct bond or a straight or branched alkylene or alkenylene chain, and R c  is a straight or branched alkylene or alkenylene chain. 
     An “arylene” refers to a divalent radical derived from an “aryl” group as described above linking the rest of the molecule to a radical group. The arylene is attached to the rest of the molecule through a single bond and to the radical group through a single bond. In some embodiments, the arylene is a phenylene. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, an arylene group is optionally substituted as described above for an aryl group. 
     “Cycloalkyl” refers to a stable, partially or fully saturated, monocyclic or polycyclic carbocyclic ring, which may include fused (when fused with an aryl or a heteroaryl ring, the cycloalkyl is bonded through a non-aromatic ring atom) or bridged ring systems. Representative cycloalkyls include, but are not limited to, cycloalkyls having from three to fifteen carbon atoms (C 3 -C 15  cycloalkyl), from three to ten carbon atoms (C 3 -C 10  cycloalkyl), from three to eight carbon atoms (C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl), from three to six carbon atoms (C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl), from three to five carbon atoms (C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl), or three to four carbon atoms (C 3 -C 4  cycloalkyl). In some embodiments, the cycloalkyl is a 3- to 6-membered cycloalkyl. In some embodiments, the cycloalkyl is a 5- to 6-membered cycloalkyl. Monocyclic cycloalkyls include, for example, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, and cyclooctyl. Polycyclic cycloalkyls or carbocycles include, for example, adamantyl, norbornyl, decalinyl, bicyclo[1.1.1]pentyl, bicyclo[3.3.0]octane, bicyclo[4.3.0]nonane, cis-decalin, trans-decalin, bicyclo[2.1.1]hexane, bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane, bicyclo[2.2.2]octane, bicyclo[3.2.2]nonane, and bicyclo[3.3.2]decane, 7,7-dimethyl-bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane, and the like. Unless otherwise stated specifically in the specification, the term “cycloalkyl” is meant to include cycloalkyl radicals optionally substituted as described below by one or more substituents independently selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, halo, haloalkyl, cyano, nitro, aryl, aralkyl, aralkenyl, aralkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, —R b —OR a , —R b —SR a , —R b —OC(O)—R a , —R b —OC(O)—OR f , —R b —OC(O)—N(R a ) 2 , —R b —N(R a ) 2 , —R b —N + (R a ) 3 , —R b —C(O)R a , —R b —C(O)OR a , —R b —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —R b —O—R c —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —R b —N(R a )C(O)OR, —R b —N(R a )C(O)R a , —R b —N(R a )S(O) t R f (where t is 1 or 2), —R b —S(O) t OR a  (where t is 1 or 2), —R b —S(O) t R f  (where t is 1 or 2) and —R b —S(O) t N(R a ) 2  (where t is 1 or 2), where each R a  is independently hydrogen, alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aryl (optionally substituted with one or more halo groups), aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, R f  is independently alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aryl (optionally substituted with one or more halo groups), aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, each R b  is independently a direct bond or a straight or branched alkylene or alkenylene chain, and R c  is a straight or branched alkylene or alkenylene chain. 
     A “cycloalkylene” refers to a divalent radical derived from a “cycloalkyl” group as described above linking the rest of the molecule to a radical group. The cycloalkylene is attached to the rest of the molecule through a single bond and to the radical group through a single bond. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, a cycloalkylene group is optionally substituted as described above for a cycloalkyl group. 
     “Halo” or “halogen” refers to bromo, chloro, fluoro or iodo. In some embodiments, halogen is fluoro or chloro. In some embodiments, halogen is fluoro. 
     “Haloalkyl” refers to an alkyl radical, as defined above, that is substituted by one or more halo radicals, as defined above, e.g., trifluoromethyl, difluoromethyl, fluoromethyl, trichloromethyl, 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl, 1,2-difluoroethyl, 3-bromo-2-fluoropropyl, 1,2-dibromoethyl, and the like. 
     “Fluoroalkyl” refers to an alkyl radical, as defined above, that is substituted by one or more fluoro radicals, as defined above, for example, trifluoromethyl, difluoromethyl, fluoromethyl, 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl, 1-fluoromethyl-2-fluoroethyl, and the like. 
     “Haloalkoxy” or “haloalkoxyl” refers to an alkoxyl radical, as defined above, that is substituted by one or more halo radicals, as defined above. 
     “Fluoroalkoxy” or “fluoroalkoxyl” refers to an alkoxy radical, as defined above, that is substituted by one or more fluoro radicals, as defined above, for example, trifluoromethoxy, difluoromethoxy, fluoromethoxy, and the like. 
     “Heterocycloalkyl” refers to a stable 3- to 24-membered partially or fully saturated ring radical comprising 2 to 23 carbon atoms and from one to 8 heteroatoms selected from the group consisting of nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, the heterocycloalkyl radical may be a monocyclic, bicyclic, tricyclic or tetracyclic ring system, which may include fused (when fused with an aryl or a heteroaryl ring, the heterocycloalkyl is bonded through a non-aromatic ring atom) or bridged ring systems; and the nitrogen, carbon or sulfur atoms in the heterocycloalkyl radical may be optionally oxidized; the nitrogen atom may be optionally quaternized. In some embodiments, the heterocycloalkyl is a 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl. In some embodiments, the heterocycloalkyl is a 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl. In some embodiments, the heterocycloalkyl is a 5- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl. Examples of such heterocycloalkyl radicals include, but are not limited to, aziridinyl, azetidinyl, dioxolanyl, thienyl[1,3]dithianyl, decahydroisoquinolyl, imidazolinyl, imidazolidinyl, isothiazolidinyl, isoxazolidinyl, morpholinyl, octahydroindolyl, octahydroisoindolyl, 2-oxopiperazinyl, 2-oxopiperidinyl, 2-oxopyrrolidinyl, oxazolidinyl, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, 4-piperidonyl, pyrrolidinyl, pyrazolidinyl, quinuclidinyl, thiazolidinyl, tetrahydrofuryl, trithianyl, tetrahydropyranyl, thiomorpholinyl, thiamorpholinyl, 1-oxo-thiomorpholinyl, 1,1-dioxo-thiomorpholinyl, 1,3-dihydroisobenzofuran-1-yl, 3-oxo-1,3-dihydroisobenzofuran-1-yl, methyl-2-oxo-1,3-dioxol-4-yl, and 2-oxo-1,3-dioxol-4-yl. The term heterocycloalkyl also includes all ring forms of the carbohydrates, including but not limited to the monosaccharides, the disaccharides and the oligosaccharides. More preferably, heterocycloalkyls have from 2 to 10 carbons in the ring. It is understood that when referring to the number of carbon atoms in a heterocycloalkyl, the number of carbon atoms in the heterocycloalkyl is not the same as the total number of atoms (including the heteroatoms) that make up the heterocycloalkyl (i.e., skeletal atoms of the heterocycloalkyl ring). Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, the term “heterocycloalkyl” is meant to include heterocycloalkyl radicals as defined above that are optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, halo, fluoroalkyl, oxo, thioxo, cyano, nitro, aryl, aralkyl, aralkenyl, aralkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, —R b —OR a , —R b —SR a , —R b —OC(O)—R a , —R b —OC(O)—OR f , —R b —OC(O)—N(R a ) 2 , —R b —N(R a ) 2 , —R b —N + (R a ) 3 , —R b —C(O)R a , —R b —C(O)OR a , —R b —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —R b —O—R c —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —R b —N(R a )C(O)OR f , —R b —N(R a )C(O)R a , —R b —N(R a )S(O) t R f  (where t is 1 or 2), —R b —S(O) t OR a  (where t is 1 or 2), —R b —S(O) t R f  (where t is 1 or 2) and —R b —S(O) t N(R a ) 2  (where t is 1 or 2), where each R a  is independently hydrogen, alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aryl (optionally substituted with one or more halo groups), aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, R f  is independently alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aryl (optionally substituted with one or more halo groups), aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, each R b  is independently a direct bond or a straight or branched alkylene or alkenylene chain, and R c  is a straight or branched alkylene or alkenylene chain. 
     “N-heterocycloalkyl” refers to a heterocycloalkyl radical as defined above containing at least one nitrogen and where the point of attachment of the heterocycloalkyl radical to the rest of the molecule is through a nitrogen atom in the heterocycloalkyl radical. An N-heterocycloalkyl radical is optionally substituted as described above for heterocycloalkyl radicals. 
     “C-heterocycloalkyl” refers to a heterocycloalkyl radical as defined above and where the point of attachment of the heterocycloalkyl radical to the rest of the molecule is through a carbon atom in the heterocycloalkyl radical. A C-heterocycloalkyl radical is optionally substituted as described above for heterocycloalkyl radicals. 
     A “heterocycloalkylene” refers to a divalent radical derived from a “heterocycloalkyl” group as described above linking the rest of the molecule to a radical group. The heterocycloalkylene is attached to the rest of the molecule through a single bond and to the radical group through a single bond. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, a heterocycloalkylene group is optionally substituted as described above for a heterocycloalkyl group. 
     “Heteroaryl” refers to a radical derived from a 5- to 18-membered aromatic ring radical that comprises one to seventeen carbon atoms and from one to six heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur. As used herein, the heteroaryl radical is a monocyclic, bicyclic, tricyclic or tetracyclic ring system, wherein at least one of the rings in the ring system is fully unsaturated, i.e., it contains a cyclic, delocalized (4n+2) π-electron system in accordance with the Hückel theory. In some embodiments, the heteroaryl is a 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl. In some embodiments, the heteroaryl is a monocyclic heteroaryl, or a monocyclic 5- or 6-membered heteroaryl. In some embodiments, the heteroaryl is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl. The heteroatom(s) in the heteroaryl radical is optionally oxidized. One or more nitrogen atoms, if present, are optionally quaternized. The heteroaryl is attached to the rest of the molecule through any atom of the ring(s). Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, the term “heteroaryl” is meant to include heteroaryl radicals as defined above that are optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, halo, haloalkyl, oxo, thioxo, cyano, nitro, aryl, aralkyl, aralkenyl, aralkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, —R b —OR a , —R b —SR a , —R b —OC(O)—R a , —R b —OC(O)—OR f , —R b —OC(O)—N(R a ) 2 , —R b —N(R a ) 2 , —R b —N + (R a ) 3 , —R b —C(O)R a , —R b —C(O)OR a , —R b —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —R b —O—R c —C(O)N(R a ) 2 , —R b —N(R a )C(O)OR f , —R b —N(R a )C(O)R a , —R b —N(R a )S(O)R f  (where t is 1 or 2), —R b —S(O) t OR f  (where t is 1 or 2), —R b —S(O)R f  (where t is 1 or 2) and —R b —S(O)N(R a ) 2  (where t is 1 or 2), where each R a  is independently hydrogen, alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aryl (optionally substituted with one or more halo groups), aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, R is independently alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aryl (optionally substituted with one or more halo groups), aralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, each R b  is independently a direct bond or a straight or branched alkylene or alkenylene chain, and R c  is a straight or branched alkylene or alkenylene chain. 
     A “heteroarylene” refers to a divalent radical derived from a “heteroaryl” group as described above linking the rest of the molecule to a radical group. The heteroarylene is attached to the rest of the molecule through a single bond and to the radical group through a single bond. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, a heteroarylene group is optionally substituted as described above for a heteroaryl group. 
     The term “optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequently described event or circumstance may or may not occur, and that the description includes instances where said event or circumstance occurs and instances in which it does not. For example, “optionally substituted alkyl” means either “alkyl” or “substituted alkyl” as defined above. Further, an optionally substituted group may be unsubstituted (e.g., —CH 2 CH 3 ), fully substituted (e.g., —CF 2 CF 3 ), mono-substituted (e.g., —CH 2 CH 2 F) or substituted at a level anywhere in-between fully substituted and mono-substituted (e.g., —CH 2 CHF 2 , —CH 2 CF 3 , —CF 2 CH 3 , —CFHCHF 2 , etc.). It will be understood by those skilled in the art with respect to any group containing one or more substituents that such groups are not intended to introduce any substitution or substitution patterns (e.g., substituted alkyl includes optionally substituted cycloalkyl groups, which in turn are defined as including optionally substituted alkyl groups, potentially ad infinitum) that are sterically impractical and/or synthetically non-feasible. 
     The term “modulate” or “modulating” or “modulation” refers to an increase or decrease in the amount, quality, or effect of a particular activity, function or molecule. By way of illustration and not limitation, activators, agonists, partial agonists, inverse agonists, antagonists, inhibitors, and allosteric modulators of an enzyme are modulators of the enzyme. 
     The term “agonism” as used herein refers to the activation of a receptor or enzyme by a modulator, or agonist, to produce a biological response. 
     The term “agonist” or “activator” as used herein refers to a modulator that binds to a receptor or target enzyme and activates the receptor or enzyme to produce a biological response. By way of example, “AMPK activator” can be used to refer to a compound that exhibits an EC 50  with respect to AMPK activity of no more than about 100 μM, as measured in the pAMPK1 kinase activation assay. In some embodiments, the term “agonist” includes super agonists, full agonists or partial agonists. 
     The term “super agonist” as used herein refers to a modulator that is capable of producing a maximal response greater than the endogenous agonist for the target receptor or enzyme, and thus has an efficacy of more than 100%. 
     The term “full agonist” refers to a modulator that binds to and activates a receptor or target enzyme with the maximum response that an endogenous agonist can elicit at the receptor or enzyme. 
     The term “partial agonist” refers to a modulator that binds to and activates a receptor or target enzyme, but has partial efficacy, that is, less than the maximal response, at the receptor or enzyme relative to a full agonist. 
     The term “positive allosteric modulator” refers to a modulator that binds to a site distinct from the orthosteric binding site and enhances or amplifies the effect of an agonist. 
     The term “antagonism” or “inhibition” as used herein refers to the inactivation of a receptor or target enzyme by a modulator, or antagonist. Antagonism of a receptor, for example, is when a molecule binds to the receptor or target enzyme and does not allow activity to occur. 
     The term “antagonist” or “neutral antagonist” or “inhibitor” as used herein refers to a modulator that binds to a receptor or target enzyme and blocks a biological response. An antagonist has no activity in the absence of an agonist or inverse agonist but can block the activity of either, causing no change in the biological response. 
     The term “inverse agonist” refers to a modulator that binds to the same receptor or target enzyme as an agonist but induces a pharmacological response opposite to that agonist, i.e., a decrease in biological response. 
     The term “negative allosteric modulator” refers to a modulator that binds to a site distinct from the orthosteric binding site and reduces or dampens the effect of an agonist. 
     As used herein, “EC 50 ” is intended to refer to the concentration of a substance (e.g., a compound or a drug) that is required for 50% activation or enhancement of a biological process. In some instances, EC 50  refers to the concentration of agonist that provokes a response halfway between the baseline and maximum response in an in vitro assay. In some embodiments as used herein, EC 50  refers to the concentration of an activator (e.g., an AMPK activator) that is required for 50% activation of AMPK. 
     As used herein, “IC 50 ” is intended to refer to the concentration of a substance (e.g., a compound or a drug) that is required for 50% inhibition of a biological process. For example, IC 50  refers to the half maximal (50%) inhibitory concentration (IC) of a substance as determined in a suitable assay. In some instances, an IC 50  is determined in an in vitro assay system. In some embodiments as used herein, IC 50  refers to the concentration of a modulator (e.g., an antagonist or inhibitor) that is required for 50% inhibition of a receptor or a target enzyme. 
     The terms “subject,” “individual,” and “patient” are used interchangeably. These terms encompass mammals. Examples of mammals include, but are not limited to, any member of the Mammalian class: humans, non-human primates such as chimpanzees, and other apes and monkey species; farm animals such as cattle, horses, sheep, goats, swine; domestic animals such as rabbits, dogs, and cats; laboratory animals including rodents, such as rats, mice and guinea pigs, and the like. 
     The term “gut-restricted” as used herein refers to a compound, e.g., an AMPK activator, that is predominantly active in the gastrointestinal system. In some embodiments, the biological activity of the gut-restricted compound, e.g., a gut-restricted AMPK activator, is restricted to the gastrointestinal system. In some embodiments, gastrointestinal concentration of a gut-restricted modulator, e.g., a gut-restricted AMPK activator, is higher than the IC 50  value or the EC 50  value of the gut-restricted modulator against its receptor or target enzyme, e.g., AMPK, while the plasma levels of said gut-restricted modulator, e.g., gut-restricted AMPK activator, are lower than the IC 50  value or the EC 50  value of the gut-restricted modulator against its receptor or target enzyme, e.g., AMPK. In some embodiments, the gut-restricted compound, e.g., a gut-restricted AMPK activator, is non-systemic. In some embodiments, the gut-restricted compound, e.g., a gut-restricted AMPK activator, is a non-absorbed compound. In other embodiments, the gut-restricted compound, e.g., a gut-restricted AMPK activator, is absorbed, but is rapidly metabolized to metabolites that are significantly less active than the modulator itself toward the target receptor or enzyme, i.e., a “soft drug.” In other embodiments, the gut-restricted compound, e.g., a gut-restricted AMPK activator, is minimally absorbed and rapidly metabolized to metabolites that are significantly less active than the modulator itself toward the target receptor or enzyme. In some embodiments, the gut-restricted AMPK activator has high efflux. In other embodiments, the gut-restricted AMPK activator is a substrate for one or more intestinal efflux transporters such as P-gp (MDR1), BCRP, or MRP2. 
     In some embodiments, the gut-restricted modulator, e.g., a gut-restricted AMPK activator, is non-systemic but is instead localized to the gastrointestinal system. For example, the modulator, e.g., a gut-restricted AMPK activator, may be present in high levels in the gut, but low levels in serum. In some embodiments, the systemic exposure of a gut-restricted modulator, e.g., a gut-restricted AMPK activator, is, for example, less than 100, less than 50, less than 20, less than 10, or less than 5 nM, bound or unbound, in blood serum. In some embodiments, the intestinal exposure of a gut-restricted modulator, e.g., a gut-restricted AMPK activator, is, for example, greater than 1000, 5000, 10000, 50000, 100000, or 500000 nM. In some embodiments, a modulator, e.g., a gut-restricted AMPK activator, is gut-restricted due to poor absorption of the modulator itself, or because of absorption of the modulator which is rapidly metabolized in serum resulting in low systemic circulation, or due to both poor absorption and rapid metabolism in the serum. In some embodiments, a modulator, e.g., a gut-restricted AMPK activator, is covalently bonded to a kinetophore, optionally through a linker, which changes the pharmacokinetic profile of the modulator. 
     In other embodiments, the gut-restricted modulator is a soft drug. The term “soft drug” as used herein refers to a modulator that is biologically active but is rapidly metabolized to metabolites that are significantly less active than the modulator itself toward the target receptor. In some embodiments, the gut-restricted modulator is a soft drug that is rapidly metabolized in the blood to significantly less active metabolites. In some embodiments, the gut-restricted modulator is a soft drug that is rapidly metabolized in the liver to significantly less active metabolites. In some embodiments, the gut-restricted modulator is a soft drug that is rapidly metabolized in the blood and the liver to significantly less active metabolites. In some embodiments, the gut-restricted modulator is a soft drug that has low systemic exposure. In some embodiments, the biological activity of the metabolite(s) is/are 10-fold, 20-fold, 50-fold, 100-fold, 500-fold, or 1000-fold lower than the biological activity of the soft drug gut-restricted modulator. 
     The term “kinetophore” as used herein refers to a structural unit tethered to a small molecule modulator, e.g., an AMPK activator, optionally through a linker, which makes the whole molecule larger and increases the polar surface area while maintaining biological activity of the small molecule modulator. The kinetophore influences the pharmacokinetic properties, for example solubility, absorption, distribution, rate of elimination, and the like, of the small molecule modulator, e.g., an AMPK activator, and has minimal changes to the binding to or association with a receptor or target enzyme. The defining feature of a kinetophore is not its interaction with the target, for example an enzyme, but rather its effect on specific physiochemical characteristics of the modulator to which it is attached, e.g., an AMPK activator. In some instances, kinetophores are used to restrict a modulator, e.g., an AMPK activator, to the gut. 
     The term “linked” as used herein refers to a covalent linkage between a modulator, e.g., an AMPK activator, and a kinetophore. The linkage can be through a covalent bond, or through a “linker.” As used herein, “linker” refers to one or more bifunctional molecules which can be used to covalently bond to the modulator, e.g., an AMPK activator, and kinetophore. In some embodiments, the linker is attached to any part of the modulator, e.g., an AMPK activator, so long as the point of attachment does not interfere with the binding of the modulator to its receptor or target enzyme. In some embodiments, the linker is non-cleavable. In some embodiments, the linker is cleavable. In some embodiments, the linker is cleavable in the gut. In some embodiments, cleaving the linker releases the biologically active modulator, e.g., an AMPK activator, in the gut. 
     The term “gastrointestinal system” (GI system) or “gastrointestinal tract” (GI tract) as used herein, refers to the organs and systems involved in the process of digestion. The gastrointestinal tract includes the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, which includes the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, and large intestine, which includes the cecum, colon, and rectum. In some embodiments herein, the GI system refers to the “gut,” meaning the stomach, small intestines, and large intestines or to the small and large intestines, including, for example, the duodenum, jejunum, and/or colon. 
     Gut-Brain Axis 
     The gut-brain axis refers to the bidirectional biochemical signaling that connects the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) with the central nervous system (CNS) through the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and endocrine, immune, and metabolic pathways. 
     In some instances, the gut-brain axis comprises the GI tract; the PNS including the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and the sympathetic and parasympathetic arms of the autonomic nervous system including the enteric nervous system and the vagus nerve; the CNS; and the neuroendocrine and neuroimmune systems including the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis). The gut-brain axis is important for maintaining homeostasis of the body and is regulated and modulates physiology through the central and peripheral nervous systems and endocrine, immune, and metabolic pathways. 
     The gut-brain axis modulates several important aspects of physiology and behavior. Modulation by the gut-brain axis occurs via hormonal and neural circuits. Key components of these hormonal and neural circuits of the gut-brain axis include highly specialized, secretory intestinal cells that release hormones (enteroendocrine cells or EECs), the autonomic nervous system (including the vagus nerve and enteric nervous system), and the central nervous system. These systems work together in a highly coordinated fashion to modulate physiology and behavior. 
     Defects in the gut-brain axis are linked to a number of diseases, including those of high unmet need. Diseases and conditions affected by the gut-brain axis, include central nervous system (CNS) disorders including mood disorders, anxiety, depression, affective disorders, schizophrenia, malaise, cognition disorders, addiction, autism, epilepsy, neurodegenerative disorders, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, and Parkinson&#39;s disease, Lewy Body dementia, episodic cluster headache, migraine, pain; metabolic conditions including diabetes and its complications such as chronic kidney disease/diabetic nephropathy, diabetic retinopathy, diabetic neuropathy, cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, obesity, dyslipidemia, and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH); eating and nutritional disorders including hyperphagia, cachexia, anorexia nervosa, short bowel syndrome, intestinal failure, intestinal insufficiency and other eating disorders; inflammatory disorders and autoimmune diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, Crohn&#39;s disease, checkpoint inhibitor-induced colitis, psoriasis, celiac disease, and enteritis, including chemotherapy-induced enteritis or radiation-induced enteritis; necrotizing enterocolitis; gastrointestinal injury resulting from toxic insults such as radiation or chemotherapy; diseases/disorders of gastrointestinal barrier dysfunction including environmental enteric dysfunction, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis; allergy including food allergy, celiac sprue, and childhood allergy; graft vs. host disease; functional gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome, functional dyspepsia, functional abdominal bloating/distension, functional diarrhea, functional constipation, and opioid-induced constipation; gastroparesis; nausea and vomiting; disorders related to microbiome dysbiosis, and other conditions involving the gut-brain axis. 
     Adenosine 5′-Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) in the Gut-Brain Axis 
     Adenosine 5′-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a serine/threonine kinase and is evolutionarily conserved from yeast to mammals. In some instances, AMPK is a heterotrimeric protein complex that is formed by one α (α1 or α2), one β (β1 or β2), and one γ (γ1, γ2, or γ3) subunit. Due to the presence of isoforms of its components, there are 12 versions of AMPK (AMPK1, AMPK2, etc., through AMPK12). In some instances, AMPK acts as an energy sensor and is activated by upstream enzymes when the cellular ratio of adenosine 5′-monophosphate (AMP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is elevated due to nutrient deprivation. In some instances, activated AMPK phosphorylates downstream substrates to promote catabolism and impede anabolism, leading to ATP production and energy restoration. In some instances, AMPK activity can be altered due to numerous physiological factors, such as hormones, cytokines and dietary nutrients, as well as pathological conditions such as obesity, chronic inflammation and type 2 diabetes. In some instances, AMPK activation leads to lower hepatic glucose production and plasma glucose levels. Thus, in some instances, AMPK activation can act as a therapeutic agent to treat various metabolic diseases. 
     In some instances, AMPK has beneficial effects for gut health, such as enhancing intestinal absorption, improving barrier function, suppressing colorectal carcinogenesis, and reducing intestinal inflammation and metabolic-related disease, and is important for the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis. In some instances, AMPK is essential for proper intestinal health. In some instances, AMPK activation enhances paracellular junctions, nutrient transporters, autophagy and apoptosis, and suppresses inflammation and carcinogenesis in the intestine. 
     In some embodiments, this disclosure provides AMPK activators that can be broadly used for multiple conditions and disorders associated with AMPK. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is associated with the gut-brain axis. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is a central nervous system (CNS) disorder including mood disorders, anxiety, depression, affective disorders, schizophrenia, malaise, cognition disorders, addiction, autism, epilepsy, neurodegenerative disorders, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, and Parkinson&#39;s disease, Lewy Body dementia, episodic cluster headache, migraine, pain; metabolic conditions including diabetes and its complications such as chronic kidney disease/diabetic nephropathy, diabetic retinopathy, diabetic neuropathy, cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, obesity, dyslipidemia, and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH); eating and nutritional disorders including hyperphagia, cachexia, anorexia nervosa, short bowel syndrome, intestinal failure, intestinal insufficiency and other eating disorders; inflammatory disorders and autoimmune diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, Crohn&#39;s disease, checkpoint inhibitor-induced colitis, psoriasis, celiac disease, and enteritis, including chemotherapy-induced enteritis or radiation-induced enteritis; necrotizing enterocolitis; gastrointestinal injury resulting from toxic insults such as radiation or chemotherapy; diseases/disorders of gastrointestinal barrier dysfunction including environmental enteric dysfunction, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis; allergy including food allergy, celiac sprue, and childhood allergy; graft vs. host disease; functional gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome, functional dyspepsia, functional abdominal bloating/distension, functional diarrhea, functional constipation, and opioid-induced constipation; gastroparesis; nausea and vomiting; disorders related to microbiome dysbiosis, and other conditions involving the gut-brain axis. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is a metabolic disorder. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, metabolic syndrome, obesity, hypercholesterolemia, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, or hypertension. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is a nutritional disorder. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is short bowel syndrome, intestinal failure, or intestinal insufficiency. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is inflammatory bowel disease including ulcerative colitis, Crohn&#39;s disease and checkpoint inhibitor-induced colitis. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is celiac disease, enteritis including chemotherapy-induced enteritis or radiation-induced enteritis, necrotizing enterocolitis; or gastrointestinal injury resulting from toxic insults such as radiation or chemotherapy. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is diseases/disorders of gastrointestinal barrier dysfunction including environmental enteric dysfunction, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis; allergy including food allergy, celiac sprue, and childhood allergy; graft vs. host disease; functional gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome, functional dyspepsia, functional abdominal bloating/distension, functional diarrhea, functional constipation, opioid-induced constipation; gastroparesis; or nausea and vomiting. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is associated with systemic infection and inflammation from having a leaky gut barrier. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is metabolic syndrome, obesity, type 2 diabetes, coronary artery disease, fatty liver, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cirrhosis, hepatic encephalopathy, fibrotic disorders including scleroderma, inflammatory bowel disease including Crohn&#39;s disease and ulcerative colitis, allergy including food allergy, celiac sprue, and childhood allergy, graft vs. host disease, irritable bowel syndrome, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, ischemic colitis, sclerosing cholangitis, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Parkinson&#39;s disease, cancer including colorectal cancer, depression, autism, or a combination thereof. 
     Adenosine 5′-Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) and the Gut Barrier 
     In some instances, the gut mucosa maintains immune homeostasis under physiological circumstances by serving as a barrier that restricts access of microbes, diverse microbial products, food antigens and toxins in the lumen of the gut to rest of the body. In some instances, the gut barrier is comprised of a single layer of epithelial cells, bound by cell-cell junctions, and a layer of mucin that covers the epithelium. In some instances, loosening of the junctions induced either by exogenous or endogenous stressors, compromises the gut barrier and allows microbes and antigens to leak through and encounter the host immune system, thereby generating inflammation and systemic endotoxemia. In some instances, an impaired gut barrier (e.g. a leaky gut) is a major contributor to the initiation and/or progression of various chronic diseases including, but not limited to, metabolic endotoxemia, type 2 diabetes, fatty liver disease, obesity, atherosclerosis, inflammatory bowel diseases, and cancers. In some instances, activation of AMPK, which is associated with the maintenance of tight junction in colonic epithelium, controls the progression of colitis. In some instances, expression and assembly of tight junctions is dependent on AMPK activity. 
     In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides methods effective to strengthen/protect the gut barrier and reduce and/or prevent the progression of chronic diseases. The gut barrier is a critical frontier that separates microbes and antigens in the lumen of the gut from the rest of the body; a compromised “leaky” gut barrier is frequently associated with systemic infection and inflammation, which is a key contributor to many chronic allergic, infectious, metabolic and autoimmune diseases such as obesity, diabetes, inflammatory bowel diseases, food allergy, and metabolic endotoxemia. 
     In some embodiments, this disclosure provides AMPK activators that can be broadly used for multiple conditions and disorders associated with AMPK. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is associated with systemic infection and inflammation from having a leaky gut barrier. In some embodiments, a leaky gut barrier can fuel the progression of multiple chronic diseases, including but not limited to: metabolic syndrome, obesity, type 2 diabetes, coronary artery disease, fatty liver, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cirrhosis, hepatic encephalopathy, fibrotic disorders including scleroderma, inflammatory bowel disease including Crohn&#39;s disease, ulcerative colitis, checkpoint inhibitor-induced colitis, allergy including food allergy, celiac sprue, and childhood allergy, graft vs. host disease, irritable bowel syndrome, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, ischemic colitis, sclerosing cholangitis, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Parkinson&#39;s disease, cancer including colorectal cancer, depression, autism, or a combination thereof. 
     In some instances, injury to the intestinal mucosa is frequently a dose-limiting complication of radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Approaches to limit the damage to the intestine during radiation and chemotherapy have been largely ineffective. In some embodiments described herein, AMPK activators are useful for the treatment of gastrointestinal injury. In some embodiments, AMPK activators are useful for the treatment of gastrointestinal injury resulting from toxic insult. In some embodiments, the toxic insult is from radiation, chemotherapy, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the toxic insult is radiation-induced. In some embodiments, the toxic insult is chemotherapy-induced. 
     Gut-Restricted Modulators 
     In some instances, there are concerns associated with systemic AMPK activation, for example, AMPK activation in the heart. For example, in some instances, activating mutations in the AMPK γ2-subunit lead to PRKAG2 cardiomyopathy. In other instances, systemic AMPK activation results in cardiac hypertrophy and increased cardiac glycogen. In some instances, given the potential association of adverse effects with systemic AMPK activation, tissue selective AMPK activation is an attractive approach for developing AMPK activators to treat disease. 
     In some embodiments, the AMPK activator is gut-restricted. In some embodiments, the AMPK activator is designed to be substantially non-permeable or substantially non-bioavailable in the blood stream. In some embodiments, the AMPK activator is designed to activate AMPK activity in the gut and is substantially non-systemic. In some embodiments, the AMPK activator has low systemic exposure. 
     In some embodiments, a gut-restricted AMPK activator has low oral bioavailability. In some embodiments, a gut-restricted AMPK activator has &lt;40% oral bioavailability, &lt;30% oral bioavailability, &lt;20% oral bioavailability, &lt;10% oral bioavailability, &lt;8% oral bioavailability, &lt;5% oral bioavailability, &lt;3% oral bioavailability, or &lt;2% oral bioavailability. 
     In some embodiments, the unbound plasma levels of a gut-restricted AMPK activator are lower than the EC 50  value of the AMPK activator against AMPK. In some embodiments, the unbound plasma levels of a gut-restricted AMPK activator are significantly lower than the EC 50  value of the gut-restricted AMPK activator against AMPK. In some embodiments, the unbound plasma levels of the AMPK activator are 2-fold, 10-fold, 20-fold, 30-fold, 40-fold, 50-fold, or 100-fold lower than the EC 50  value of the gut-restricted AMPK activator against AMPK. 
     In some embodiments, a gut-restricted AMPK activator has low systemic exposure. In some embodiments, the systemic exposure of a gut-restricted AMPK activator is, for example, less than 500, less than 200, less than 100, less than 50, less than 20, less than 10, or less than 5 nM, bound or unbound, in blood serum. In some embodiments, the systemic exposure of a gut-restricted AMPK activator is, for example, less than 500, less than 200, less than 100, less than 50, less than 20, less than 10, or less than 5 ng/mL, bound or unbound, in blood serum. 
     In some embodiments, a gut-restricted AMPK activator has high intestinal exposure. In some embodiments, the intestinal exposure of a gut-restricted AMPK activator is, for example, greater than 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 250 or 500 μM. 
     In some embodiments, a gut-restricted AMPK activator has high exposure in the colon. In some embodiments, the colon exposure of a gut-restricted AMPK activator is, for example, greater than 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 250 or 500 μM. In some embodiments, the colon exposure of a gut-restricted AMPK activator is, for example, greater than 100 μM. 
     In some embodiments, a gut-restricted AMPK activator has low permeability. In some embodiments, a gut-restricted AMPK activator has low intestinal permeability. In some embodiments, the permeability of a gut-restricted AMPK activator is, for example, less than 5.0×10 −6  cm/s, less than 2.0×10 −6  cm/s, less than 1.5×10 −6  cm/s, less than 1.0×10 −6  cm/s, less than 0.75×10 −6  cm/s, less than 0.50×10 −6  cm/s, less than 0.25×10 −6  cm/s, less than 0.10×10 −6  cm/s, or less than 0.05×10 −6  cm/s. 
     In some embodiments, a gut-restricted AMPK activator has low absorption. In some embodiments, the absorption of a gut-restricted AMPK activator is less than 40%, less than 30% jess than 20%, less than 10%, less than 5%, or less than 1%. 
     In some embodiments, a gut-restricted AMPK activator has high plasma clearance. In some embodiments, a gut-restricted AMPK activator is undetectable in plasma in less than 8 hours, less than 6 hours, less than 4 hours, less than 3 hours, less than 120 min, less than 90 min, less than 60 min, less than 45 min, less than 30 min, or less than 15 min. 
     In some embodiments, a gut-restricted AMPK activator is rapidly metabolized upon administration. In some embodiments, a gut-restricted AMPK activator has a short half-life. In some embodiments, the half-life of a gut-restricted AMPK activator is less than less than 8 hours, less than 6 hours, less than 4 hours, less than 3 hours, less than 120 min, less than 90 min, less than 60 min, less than 45 min, less than 30 min, or less than 15 min. In some embodiments, the metabolites of a gut-restricted AMPK activator have rapid clearance. In some embodiments, the metabolites of a gut-restricted AMPK activator are undetectable in less than 8 hours, less than 6 hours, less than 4 hours, less than 3 hours, less than 120 min, less than 90 min, less than 60 min, less than 45 min, less than 30 min, or less than 15 min. In some embodiments, the metabolites of a gut-restricted AMPK activator have low bioactivity. In some embodiments, the EC 50  value of the metabolites of a gut-restricted AMPK activator is 10-fold, 20-fold, 30-fold, 40-fold, 50-fold, 100-fold, 500-fold, or 1000-fold higher than the EC 50  value of the gut-restricted AMPK activator against AMPK. In some embodiments, the metabolites of a gut-restricted AMPK activator have rapid clearance and low bioactivity. 
     In some embodiments, the gut-restricted AMPK activator has high efflux. In some embodiments, the gut-restricted AMPK activator is a substrate for one or more intestinal efflux transporters such as P-gp (MDR1), BCRP, or MRP2. In some embodiments, the efflux of the gut-restricted AMPK activator as measured by the B-A/A-B ratio in a cell line such as Caco-2 or MDCK with or without over-expression of one or more efflux transporters is, for example, greater than 2, greater than 5, greater than 10, greater than 25, or greater than 50. 
     In some embodiments of the methods described herein, the AMPK activator is gut-restricted. In some embodiments, the AMPK activator is a gut-restricted AMPK agonist. In some embodiments, the AMPK activator is a gut-restricted AMPK super agonist. In some embodiments, the AMPK activator is a gut-restricted AMPK full agonist. In some embodiments, the AMPK activator is a gut-restricted AMPK partial agonist. In some embodiments, the AMPK activator is covalently bonded to a kinetophore. In some embodiments, the AMPK activator is covalently bonded to a kinetophore through a linker. 
     Compounds 
     Disclosed herein, in some embodiments, is a compound of Formula (A): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, wherein: 
             Y is N, CH, or CR 2 ; 
             X is —O—, —S—, or —NR 1 —; 
             each R 1  is independently hydrogen or C 1 -C 4  alkyl; 
             each R 2  is independently halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; 
             n is 0-2; 
             L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )—(CR 5 R 6 ) m —, cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, arylene, or heteroarylene;
           R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl;   each R 5  and R 6  is independently hydrogen, halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl;   m is 0-2;   
         
             G is —OR 7 , —C(O)OR 7 , —P(O)(R 8 )OR 7 , —P(O)(OR 7 ) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OR 7 ;
           each R 7  is independently hydrogen or C 1 -C 4  alkyl;   R 8  is C 1 -C 4  alkyl;   
         
             R A  is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl or a 6,6-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups; 
             or R A  is -L A -A;
           L A  is —C≡C—, or   
         
           
         
       
    
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein each p1, p2, and p3 is independently 1 or 2;
         or L A  is phenylene or monocyclic heteroarylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups;
           A is C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl, 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl, C 6 -C 10  aryl, or 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups;   
           each R 10 , R 11 , and R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 13 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OC(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)OR 13 , —OC(═O)OR 13 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl;
           each R 13  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and   each R 14  is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and   or two R 14  on the same nitrogen atom are taken together with the nitrogen to which they are attached to form a 3- to 6-membered N-heterocycloalkyl.   
               

     Any combination of the groups described above or below for the various variables is contemplated herein. Throughout the specification, groups and substituents thereof are chosen by one skilled in the field to provide stable moieties and compounds. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, Y is N, CH, or CR 2 . In some embodiments, Y is CH. In some embodiments, Y is CR 2 . In some embodiments, Y is N. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, X is —O—, —S—, or —NR 1 —. In some embodiments, X is —O—. In some embodiments, X is —S—. In some embodiments, X is —NR 1 —. In some embodiments, X is —NR 1 —; and R 1  is hydrogen or unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  alkyl. In some embodiments, X is —NR 1 —; and R 1  is hydrogen or methyl. In some embodiments, X is —NH—. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, Y is CH; and X is —S—. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, the compound has the structure of Compound A1: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof. 
           
         
       
    
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, Y is N; and X is —S—. 
     In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (A), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is a compound of Formula (I): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, wherein: 
             R 1  is hydrogen or C 1 -C 4  alkyl; 
             each R 2  is independently halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; 
             n is 0-2; 
             L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )—(CR 5 R 6 ) m —, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkylene, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkylene, phenylene, or monocyclic heteroarylene;
           R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl;   each R 5  and R 6  is independently hydrogen, halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl;   m is 0-2;   
         
             G is —C(O)OR 7 , —P(O)(R 8 )OR 7 , —P(O)(OR 7 ) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OR 7 ;
           each R 7  is independently hydrogen or C 1 -C 4  alkyl;   R 8  is C 1 -C 4  alkyl;   
         
             R A  is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl or a 6,6-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups;
           or R A  is -L A -A;   L A  is —C≡C—, or   
         
           
         
       
    
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein each p1, p2, and p3 is independently 1 or 2;
         or L A  is phenylene or monocyclic heteroarylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups;
           A is C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl, 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl, C 6 -C 10  aryl, or 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups;   
           each R 10 , R 11 , and R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OC(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)OR 13 , —OC(═O)OR 3 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl;
           each R 13  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and   each R 14  is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and   or two R 14  on the same nitrogen atom are taken together with the nitrogen to which they are attached to form a 3- to 6-membered N-heterocycloalkyl.   
               

     Any combination of the groups described above or below for the various variables is contemplated herein. Throughout the specification, groups and substituents thereof are chosen by one skilled in the field to provide stable moieties and compounds. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, when L A  is phenylene, A is not 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl. In some embodiments, when L A  is unsubstituted phenylene, A is not 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl. In some embodiments, when L A  is unsubstituted phenylene, A is not 6-membered heterocycloalkyl. In some embodiments, when L A  is unsubstituted phenylene, A is not unsubstituted 6-membered heterocycloalkyl. In some embodiments, when L A  is unsubstituted phenylene, A is not unsubstituted morpholinyl. In some embodiments, R A  is not 4-morpholinylphenyl. 
     In some embodiments, disclosed herein is a compound of Formula (I): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, wherein: 
             R 1  is hydrogen or C 1 -C 4  alkyl; 
             each R 2  is independently halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; 
             n is 0-2; 
             L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )—(CR 5 R 6 ) m —, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkylene, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkylene, phenylene, or monocyclic heteroarylene;
           R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl;   each R 5  and R 6  is independently hydrogen, halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl;   m is 0-2;   
         
             G is —C(O)OR 7 , —P(O)(R 8 )OR 7 , —P(O)(OR 7 ) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OR 7 ;
           each R 7  is independently hydrogen or C 1 -C 4  alkyl;   R 8  is C 1 -C 4  alkyl;   
         
             R A  is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl or a 6,6-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups; 
             or R A  is -L A -A;
           L A  is —C≡C—, or   
         
           
         
       
    
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein each p1, p2, and p3 is independently 1 or 2;
         or L A  is phenylene or monocyclic heteroarylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups;
           A is C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl, 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl, C 6 -C 10  aryl, or 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups;   
           each R 10 , R 11 , and R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 13 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OC(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)OR 13 , —OC(═O)OR 13 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl;
           each R 13  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and   each R 14  is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and or two R 14  on the same nitrogen atom are taken together with the nitrogen to which they are attached to form a 3- to 6-membered N-heterocycloalkyl;   
           wherein R A  is not 4-morpholinylphenyl.       

     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, each R 1  is independently hydrogen or unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  alkyl. In some embodiments, each R 1  is hydrogen or methyl. In some embodiments, each R 1  is hydrogen. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, each R 2  is independently halogen, —CN, unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 2  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, n-propyl, t-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl, n-butyl or unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 2  is independently —F, —Cl, —CN, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, each R 2  is independently R 2  is —F, —Cl, or —CN. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, n is 0. In some embodiments, n is 1. In some embodiments, n is 2. In some embodiments, n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, n is 1 or 2. In some embodiments, n is 0, 1, or 2. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, R 1  is hydrogen or methyl; and each R 2  is independently —F, —Cl, —CN, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, R 1  is hydrogen; R 2  is —F, —Cl, or —CN; and n is 1. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, L 1  is C 3 -C 6  cycloalkylene, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkylene, phenylene, or monocyclic heteroarylene. In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, L 1  is C 3 -C 6  cycloalkylene, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkylene, phenylene, or monocyclic heteroarylene, wherein the cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, phenylene, or heteroarylene is unsubstituted or substituted. In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, L 1  is C 3 -C 6  cycloalkylene, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkylene, phenylene, or monocyclic heteroarylene, wherein the cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, phenylene, or heteroarylene is unsubstituted. In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, L 1  is C 3 -C 6  cycloalkylene, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkylene, phenylene, or monocyclic heteroarylene, wherein the cycloalkylene, heterocycloalkylene, phenylene, or heteroarylene is substituted. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, L 1  is C 3 -C 6  cycloalkylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is substituted C 3 -C 6  cycloalkylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is unsubstituted C 3 -C 6  cycloalkylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is cyclopropylene, cyclobutylene, cyclopentylene, or cyclohexylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is cyclobutylene. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, L 1  is 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is substituted 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is unsubstituted 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkylene. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, L 1  is phenylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is substituted phenylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is unsubstituted phenylene. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, L 1  is monocyclic heteroarylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is substituted monocyclic heteroarylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is unsubstituted monocyclic heteroarylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is 5- or 6-membered monocyclic heteroarylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is 5-membered monocyclic heteroarylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is 6-membered monocyclic heteroarylene. In some embodiments, L 1  is substituted or unsubstituted furanylene, thienylene, pyrrolylene, imidazolylene, pyrazolylene, triazolylene, oxazolylene, isoxazolylene, thiazolylene, isothiazolylene, oxadiazolylene, thiadiazolylene, pyridinylene, pyrimidinylene, pyridazinylene, pyrazinylene, or triazinylene. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )(CR 5 R 6 ) m —, R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; each R 5  and R 6  is independently hydrogen, halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; and m is 0-2. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, when L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )(CR 5 R 6 ) m , R 3  and R 14  are each independently hydrogen, unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, n-propyl, t-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl, n-butyl or unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen or methyl. In some embodiments, R 3  and R 14  are each hydrogen. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, when L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )(CR 5 R 6 ) m —, each R 5  and R 6  is independently hydrogen, halogen, —CN, unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 5  and R 6  is independently hydrogen, —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, n-propyl, t-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl, n-butyl or unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 5  and R 6  is independently hydrogen, —F, —Cl, —CN, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, each R 5  and R 6  is independently hydrogen, —F, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, each R 5  and R 6  is independently hydrogen or methyl. In some embodiments, each R 5  and R 6  is hydrogen. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, when Li is —(CR 3 R 4 )(CR 5 R 6 ) m —, m is 0. In some embodiments, m is 1. In some embodiments, m is 2. In some embodiments, m is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, m is 1 or 2. In some embodiments, m is 0, 1, or 2. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )(CR 5 R 6 ) m —; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, methyl, or —CF 3 ; and each R 5  and R 6  is independently hydrogen, —F, —CN, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )(CR 5 R 6 ) m —; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen or methyl; and m is 0. In some embodiments, L 1  is —CH 2 —, —CHMe—, or —CMe 2 -. In some embodiments, L 1  is —CH 2 —. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, each R 7  is independently hydrogen or unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  alkyl. In some embodiments, each R 7  is independently hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, n-propyl, t-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl, or n-butyl. In some embodiments, each R 7  is independently hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, or t-butyl. In some embodiments, each R 7  is independently hydrogen, methyl, or ethyl. In some embodiments, each R 7  is hydrogen. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, R 1  is unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  alkyl. In some embodiments, R 1  is methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, n-propyl, t-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl, or n-butyl. In some embodiments, R 1  is methyl or ethyl. In some embodiments, R 1  is methyl. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, G is —C(O)OR 7 . In some embodiments, G is —P(O)(R 8 )OR 7 . In some embodiments, G is —P(O)(OR 7 ) 2 . In some embodiments, G is —S(O) 2 OR 7 . In some embodiments, G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OEt)(OH), —P(O)(OH) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OH. In some embodiments, G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OH) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OH. In some embodiments, G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OEt)(OH), or —P(O)(OH) 2 . In some embodiments, G is —C(O)OH. In some embodiments, G is —P(O)(Me)OH. In some embodiments, G is —P(O)(OEt)(OH). In some embodiments, G is —P(O)(OH) 2 . In some embodiments, G is —S(O) 2 OH. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )(CR 5 R 6 ) m —; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, methyl, or —CF 3 ; each R 5  and R 6  is independently hydrogen, —F, —CN, methyl, or —CF 3 ; each R 7  is independently hydrogen, methyl, or ethyl; and R 1  is methyl. In some embodiments, L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )(CR 5 R 6 ) m —; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen or methyl; m is 0; and G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OEt)(OH), —P(O)(OH) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OH. In some embodiments, L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )—(CR 5 R 6 ) m —; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen or methyl; m is 0; and G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OEt)(OH), or —P(O)(OH) 2 . In some embodiments, L 1  is —(CR 3 R 4 )—(CR 5 R 6 ); R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen or methyl; m is 0; and G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OH) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OH. In some embodiments, L 1  is —CH 2 —, —CHMe—, or —CMe 2 -; and G is —C(O)OH. In some embodiments, L 1  is —CH 2 —; and G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OEt)(OH), —P(O)(OH) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OH. In some embodiments, L 1  is —CH 2 —; and G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OEt)(OH), or —P(O)(OH) 2 . In some embodiments, L 1  is —CH 2 —; and G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OH) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OH. In some embodiments, L 1  is —CH 2 —; and G is —C(O)OH. 
     In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (A), (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is a compound of Formula (II): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof. 
           
         
       
    
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, R A  is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl or a 6,6-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups. In some embodiments, R A  is a 6,6-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups. In some embodiments, R A  is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups. In some embodiments, R A  is quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, quinoxalinyl, phthalazinyl, quinazolinyl, or cinnolinyl; which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups. In some embodiments, R A  is indolyl, isoindolyl, indazolyl, benzimidazolyl, azaindolyl, benzofuranyl, benzothiophenyl, benzoxazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzthiazolyl, or benzisothiazolyl; which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups. In some embodiments, R A  is indazolyl; which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, each R 10  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 3 , —C(═O)OR 1 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 10  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 3 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, or C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 10  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 10  is independently halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 10  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, R A  is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups; each R 10  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 13 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, R A  is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups; and each R 10  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, R A  is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups; and each R 10  is independently halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, R A  is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 10  groups; and each R 10  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, R A  is 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein X 1  and X 2  are each independently CH, C—R 10 , or N; and R 20  is hydrogen or C 1 -C 6  alkyl. In some embodiments, R A  is 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein X 1  and X 2  are each independently CH, C—R 10 , or N; and R 20  is hydrogen or C 1 -C 6  alkyl. In some embodiments, R A  is 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein X 1  and X 2  are each independently CH, C—R 10 , or N; and R 20  is hydrogen or C 1 -C 6  alkyl. In some embodiments, R 20  is hydrogen or unsubstituted C 1 -C 6  alkyl. In some embodiments, R 20  is hydrogen or unsubstituted C 1 -C 4  alkyl. In some embodiments, R 20  is hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, n-propyl, t-butyl, i-butyl, s-butyl, or n-butyl. In some embodiments, each R 20  is independently hydrogen or methyl. In some embodiments, each R 20  is hydrogen. In some embodiments, each R 2  is methyl. In some embodiments, each R 10  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 13 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 10  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 13 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 1 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, or C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 10  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 10  is independently halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 10  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, R A  is -L A -A. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, R A  is -L A -A; and L A  is -—C≡C—, or 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein each p1, p2, and p3 is independently 1 or 2. In some embodiments, L A  is —C≡C—. In some embodiments, L A  is 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     and p1, p2, and p3 are the same. In some embodiments, L A  is 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     and p1, p2, and p3 are not the same. In some embodiments, L A  is 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, L A  is 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, L A  is 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, L A  is —C≡C—, 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, R A  is -L A -A; and L A  is phenylene or monocyclic heteroarylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups. In some embodiments, L A  is phenylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups. In some embodiments, L A  is an unsubstituted phenylene. In some embodiments, L A  is monocyclic heteroarylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups. In some embodiments, L A  is an unsubstituted monocyclic heteroarylene. In some embodiments, L A  is 5- or 6-membered monocyclic heteroarylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups. In some embodiments, L A  is 5-membered monocyclic heteroarylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups. In some embodiments, L A  is 6-membered monocyclic heteroarylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups. In some embodiments, L A  is an pyrrolylene, pyrazolylene, imidazolylene, triazolylene, furanylene, thiophenylene, oxazolylene, isoxazolylene, thiazolylene, isothiazolylene, oxadiazolylene, thiadiazolylene, pyridinylene, pyridazinylene, pyrimidinylene, pyrazinylene, or triazinylene; which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, when R A  is -L A -A and L A  is phenylene or monocyclic heteroarylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups, each R 11  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 13 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 11  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 11  is independently halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, when R A  is -L A -A, L A  is phenylene or monocyclic heteroarylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups; and each R 11  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, L A  is phenylene, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups; and each R 11  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 1 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. 
     In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is a compound of Formula (III): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof. 
           
         
       
    
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl, 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl, C 6 -C 10  aryl, or 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl. In some embodiments, A is unsubstituted or substituted C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl. In some embodiments, A is C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, or cyclooctyl; which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 11  groups. In some embodiments, A is C 5 -C 6  cycloalkyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl. In some embodiments, A is unsubstituted or substituted 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl. In some embodiments, A is 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is 5- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is 3- to 8-membered N-heterocycloalkyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is 3- to 6-membered N-heterocycloalkyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is 5- to 6-membered N-heterocycloalkyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is aziridinyl, azetidinyl, pyrrolodinyl, piperidinyl, morpholinyl, piperazinyl, or thiomorpholinyl; which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is pyrrolidinyl or piperidinyl; which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is C 6 -C 10  aryl. In some embodiments, A is unsubstituted or substituted C 6 -C 10  aryl. In some embodiments, A is C 6 -C 10  aryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is unsubstituted or substituted phenyl. In some embodiments, A is naphthyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is unsubstituted or substituted naphthyl. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is unsubstituted or substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is an unsubstituted monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is 5- or 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is 5-membered monocyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is pyrrolyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl, triazolyl, furanyl, thiophenyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, isothiazolyl, oxadiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, pyridinyl, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, or triazinyl; which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is pyridinyl, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, or triazinyl; which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is pyridinyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. 
     In some embodiments, A is bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is an unsubstituted bicyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is 9- or 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl or a 6,6-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is a 6,6-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is a 6,5-fused bicyclic heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, quinoxalinyl, phthalazinyl, quinazolinyl, or cinnolinyl; which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is indolyl, isoindolyl, indazolyl, benzimidazolyl, azaindolyl, benzofuranyl, benzothiophenyl, benzoxazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzthiazolyl, or benzisothiazolyl; which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C═O)R 13 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R D3 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —C(═O)OR 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —C(═O)OR 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —C(═O)OR 1 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —OH, —OSO 2 OH, or —C(═O)OH. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —OH or —C(═O)OH. In some embodiments, each R 12  is —OH. In some embodiments, each R 12  is —C(═O)OH. In some embodiments, each R 12  is —OSO 2 OH. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —C(═O)OR 1 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —C(═O)OR 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, 5-membered monocyclic heteroaryl, or 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —CF 3 , or 5-membered monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH(CH 3 )(CH 2 CH 3 ), —C(CH 3 ) 3 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3 , —CF 3 , pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, isothiazolyl, triazolyl, oxadiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, or tetrazolyl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH(CH 3 )(CH 2 CH 3 ), —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3 , —CF 3 , pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, or tetrazolyl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , methyl, —CF 3 , pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, or tetrazolyl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —OH, —OSO 2 OH, —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3 , or triazolyl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —OH, —OSO 2 OH, or triazolyl. In some embodiments, at least 1 R 12  is —OH. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl or C 6 -C 10  aryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —C(═O)OR 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, 5-membered monocyclic heteroaryl, or 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 1 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OH, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —CF 3 , or 5-membered monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH(CH 3 )(CH 2 CH 3 ), —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3 , —CF 3 , pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, or tetrazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , methyl, —CF 3 , pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, or tetrazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH(CH 3 )(CH 2 CH 3 ), —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3 , —CF 3 , pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, or tetrazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , methyl, —CF 3 , pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, or tetrazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —OH, —OSO 2 OH, —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3 , or triazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —OH, —OSO 2 OH, or triazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl, which is unsubstituted or substituted with a —OH or —OSO 2 OH group. In some embodiments, A is phenyl, which is unsubstituted or substituted with a —OH group. In some embodiments, A is phenyl substituted with a —OH group. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with a —OH group and is optionally substituted with one other group selected from —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3  and triazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with a —OH group and is optionally substituted with a triazolyl group. In some embodiments, A is phenyl substituted with a —OSO 2 OH group. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl or 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic heteroaryl or 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, A is 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl or 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic heteroaryl or 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C═O)NR 14 R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, A is 6-membered heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; or A is 5- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, A is 6-membered heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; or A is 5- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, A is 6-membered heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, A is 6-membered heteroaryl which is unsubstituted or substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, A is 5- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, A is 5- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, A is pyridinyl, which is unsubstituted or substituted by a —OH or —OSO 2 OH group; or A is pyrrolidinyl or piperidinyl, which is substituted with 1 or 2 groups selected from —OH and —C(═O)OH. In some embodiments, A is pyridinyl, which is unsubstituted or substituted by a —OH group; or A is pyrrolidinyl or piperidinyl, which is substituted with 1 or 2 groups selected from —OH and —C(═O)OH. In some embodiments, A is pyridinyl, which is unsubstituted or substituted by a —OH group. In some embodiments, A is unsubstituted pyridinyl. In some embodiments, A is pyridinyl, which is substituted by a —OH group. In some embodiments, A is pyridinyl, substituted by a —OSO 2 OH group. In some embodiments, A is pyrrolidinyl or piperidinyl, which is substituted with 1 or 2 groups selected from —OH and —C(═O)OH. In some embodiments, A is pyrrolidinyl, which is substituted with 1 or 2 groups selected from —OH and —C(═O)OH. In some embodiments, A is pyrrolidinyl, which is substituted by a —OH group. In some embodiments, A is piperidinyl, which is substituted with 1 or 2 groups selected from —OH and —C(═O)OH. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl, 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl, C 6 -C 10  aryl, or 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl, 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl, C 6 -C 10  aryl, or 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 13 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OC(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)OR 13 , —OC(═O)OR 3 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is C 6 -C 10  aryl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  group. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 3 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —C(═O)OR 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, 5-membered monocyclic heteroaryl, or 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —CF 3 , or 5-membered monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH(CH 3 )(CH 2 CH 3 ), —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3 , —CF 3 , pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, or tetrazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , methyl, —CF 3 , pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, or tetrazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —OH, —OSO 2 OH, —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3 , or triazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —OH, —OSO 2 OH, or triazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl, which is substituted with a —OH or —OSO 2 OH group. In some embodiments, A is phenyl, which is substituted with a —OH group. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with a —OH group and is optionally substituted with one other group selected from —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3  and triazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with a —OH group and is optionally substituted a triazolyl group. In some embodiments, A is phenyl substituted with a —OSO 2 OH group. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, A is 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, A is 5- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, A is pyrrolidinyl or piperidinyl, which is substituted with 1 or 2 groups selected from —OH and —C(═O)OH. In some embodiments, A is pyrrolidinyl, which is substituted with 1 or 2 groups selected from —OH and —C(═O)OH. In some embodiments, A is pyrrolidinyl, which is substituted by a —OH group. In some embodiments, A is piperidinyl, which is substituted with 1 or 2 groups selected from —OH and —C(═O)OH. 
     In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is a compound of Formula (IV): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof. 
           
         
       
    
     In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is a compound of Formula (V): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof; wherein: 
             q is 0, 1, or 2; and p is 0, 1, 2, or 3. 
           
         
       
    
     In some embodiments, disclosed herein is a compound of Formula (III): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, wherein: 
             R 2  is independently halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; 
             R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; 
             G is —C(O)OR 7 , —P(O)(R 8 )OR 7 , —P(O)(OR 7 ) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OR 7 ;
           each R 7  is independently hydrogen or C 1 -C 4  alkyl;   R 8  is C 1 -C 4  alkyl;   
         
             A is C 3 -C 8  cycloalkyl, 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl, C 6 -C 10  aryl, or 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; 
             each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 13 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OC(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)OR 13 , —OC(═O)OR 3 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl;
           each R 13  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and   each R 14  is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and or two R 14  on the same nitrogen atom are taken together with the nitrogen to which they are attached to form a 3- to 6-membered N-heterocycloalkyl.   
         
           
         
       
    
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is C 6 -C 10  aryl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  group. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —C(═O)OR 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, 5-membered monocyclic heteroaryl, or 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —CF 3 , or 5-membered monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 CH(CH 3 ) 2 , —CH(CH 3 )(CH 2 CH 3 ), —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3 , —CF 3 , pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, or tetrazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —F, —Cl, —Br, —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , methyl, —CF 3 , pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, triazolyl, or tetrazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —OH, —OSO 2 OH, —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3 , or triazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —OH, —OSO 2 OH, or triazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl, which is substituted with a —OH or —OSO 2 OH group. In some embodiments, A is phenyl, which is substituted with a —OH group. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with a —OH group and is optionally substituted with one other group selected from —CH 2 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3  and triazolyl. In some embodiments, A is phenyl which is substituted with a —OH group and is optionally substituted with a triazolyl group. In some embodiments, A is phenyl substituted with a —OSO 2 OH group. 
     In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is a compound of Formula (IV): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof. 
           
         
       
    
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, R 2  is independently halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; G is —C(O)OR 7 , —P(O)(R 8 )OR 7 , —P(O)(OR 7 ) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OR 7 ; each R 7  is independently hydrogen or C 1 -C 4  alkyl; and R 1  is C 1 -C 4  alkyl. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, A is 3- to 8-membered heterocycloalkyl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups. In some embodiments, A is 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 3 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, A is 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, A is 5- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl which is substituted with 1, 2, or 3 R 12  groups; and each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, A is pyrrolidinyl or piperidinyl, which is substituted with 1 or 2 groups selected from —OH and —C(═O)OH. In some embodiments, A is pyrrolidinyl, which is substituted with 1 or 2 groups selected from —OH and —C(═O)OH. In some embodiments, A is pyrrolidinyl, which is substituted by a —OH group. In some embodiments, A is piperidinyl, which is substituted with 1 or 2 groups selected from —OH and —C(═O)OH. 
     In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), or (III), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is a compound of Formula (V): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof; wherein: 
             q is 0, 1, or 2; and p is 0, 1, 2, or 3. 
           
         
       
    
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (V), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, R 2  is independently halogen, —CN, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 4  alkyl, or C 1 -C 4  fluoroalkyl; G is —C(O)OR 7 , —P(O)(R 8 )OR 7 , —P(O)(OR 7 ) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OR 7 ; each R 7  is independently hydrogen or C 1 -C 4  alkyl; R 1  is C 1 -C 4  alkyl; each R 12  is independently halogen, —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)R 3 , —C(═O)OR 1 , —OC(═O)R 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)R 1 , —NR 14 C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OC(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —NR 14 C(═O)OR 13 , —OC(═O)OR 3 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; each R 13  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and each R 14  is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl; and or two R 14  on the same nitrogen atom are taken together with the nitrogen to which they are attached to form a 3- to 6-membered N-heterocycloalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OR 13 , —NR 14 R 14 , —C(═O)OR 14 , —C(═O)NR 14 R 14 , —OSO 2 OR 14 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 12  is independently —CN, —OH, —OMe, —NH 2 , —C(═O)OH, —C(═O)NH 2 , —OSO 2 OH, methyl, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, each R 12  is —OH or —C(═O)OH. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), (IV), or (V), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, each R 2  is independently —F, —Cl, —CN, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, or —CF 3 ; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen, methyl, or —CF 3 ; each R 7  is independently hydrogen, methyl, or ethyl; and R 1  is methyl. In some embodiments, R 2  is —F, —Cl, or —CN; R 3  and R 4  are each independently hydrogen or methyl; and G is —C(O)OH, —P(O)(Me)OH, —P(O)(OEt)(OH), —P(O)(OH) 2 , or —S(O) 2 OH. In some embodiments, L 1  is —CH 2 —, —CHMe—, or —CMe 2 -; and G is —C(O)OH. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), (IV), or (V), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, each R 13  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 13  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 10-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 13  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, or 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 13  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), (IV), or (V), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, each R 11  is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 14  is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, 3- to 10-membered heterocycloalkyl, phenyl, or monocyclic heteroaryl. In some embodiments, each R 14  is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, or 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl. In some embodiments, each R 14  is independently hydrogen or C 1 -C 6  alkyl. In some embodiments, each R 14  is hydrogen. In some embodiments, each R 14  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), (IV), or (V), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, two R 14  on the same nitrogen atom are taken together with the nitrogen to which they are attached to form a 3- to 6-membered N-heterocycloalkyl. In some embodiments, two R 14  on the same nitrogen atom are taken together with the nitrogen to which they are attached to form a 5- to 6-membered N-heterocycloalkyl. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), (IV), or (V), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, each R 13  is independently C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, or 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl; and each RP is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 1 -C 6  fluoroalkyl, C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, or 3- to 6-membered heterocycloalkyl; or two R 5  on the same nitrogen atom are taken together with the nitrogen to which they are attached to form a 3- to 6-membered N-heterocycloalkyl. 
     In some embodiments, the compound disclosed herein is a compound in the following table. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE A 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Cmpd 
                   
                   
               
               
                 No. 
                 Structure 
                 Name 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 1 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 2-((6-chloro-5-(2′- hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4- yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b] pyridin-2- yl)thio)acetic acid 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 2 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 (((6-chloro-5-(2′- hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4- yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b] pyridin-2- yl)thio)methyl)(methyl) phosphinic acid 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 3 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 ethyl hydrogen (((6- chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy- [1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)- 1H-imidazo[4,5- b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)methyl) phosphonate 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 4 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 (((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy- [1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)- 1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2- yl)thio)methyl)phosphonic acid 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 5 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 2-((6-chloro-5-(2′-(sulfooxy)- [1,1′biphenyl]-4-yl)- 1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin- 2-yl)thio)acetic acid 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 6 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 2-((6-chloro-5-(4′-(3,3- dimethylbutyl)-2′- hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]- 4-yl)-1H- imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl) thio)acetic acid 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 7 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 (S)-2-((6-chloro-5-(4-(3- hydroxypyrrolidin- 1-yl)phenyl)-1H-imidazo [4,5-b]pyridin-2- yl)thio)acetic acid 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 8 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 2-((5-(4′-(1H-1,2,4- triazol-1-yl)-[1,1′- biphenyl]-4-yl)-6-chloro- 1H-imidazo[4,5- b]pyridin-2-yl)thio) acetic acid 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 9 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 2-((6-chloro-5-(2′- hydroxy-4′-(1H-1,2,4- triazol-1-yl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]- 4-yl)-1H- imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl) thio)acetic acid 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, the compound disclosed herein is a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug of a compound described in Table A. In some embodiments, the compound disclosed herein is a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of a compound described in Table A. 
     In some embodiments of a compound of Formula (A), (I), (II), (III), (IV), or (V), or a, selected from: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof. 
     In certain embodiments, AMPK activators disclosed herein are useful for the treatment of the conditions described herein. In other embodiments, any AMPK activator can be used for the methods described herein. For example, known AMPK activators include MK-3903, MK-8722, PF-06409577, PXL-770, O-304X, O-304, ENERGI-F701, C-455, NMIC-9, NT-1195, CNX-012, TSL-1516, SU-018, NEX-001 and those described in US 200360471064, WO-2006071095, WO-2007002461, WO-2007005785, WO-2007019914, WO-2008006432, WO-2008016278, WO-2008083124, WO-2008136642, WO-2009076631, WO-2009124636, WO-2009124636, WO-2009132136, WO-2009152909, WO-2009135580, WO-2010036613, WO-2010047982, WO-2010051176, WO-2010051206, WO-2010066901, WO-2011029855, WO-2011032320, WO-2011033099, WO-2011069298, WO-2011080277, WO-2011106273, WO-2011128251, WO-2011138307, WO-2012001020, WO-2012016217, WO-2012033149, WO-2012101068, WO-2012116145, WO-2012119978, WO-2012119979, WO-2013011932, WO-2013153479, WO-2014001554, WO-2014031441, WO-2014031445, WO-2014031465, WO-2014031468, WO-2014031515, WO-2014031517, WO-2014069426, WO-2014128549, WO-2014133008, WO-2014140704, WO-2014175330, WO-2014202528, WO-2014202580, WO-2015007669, WO-2015063011, WO-2015091937, WO-2016001224, WO-2016023789, WO-2016031842, WO-2016068099, WO-2016092413, WO-2016113299, WO-2016113300, WO-2017146186, WO-2017188288, WO-2017200068, WO-2018035128, WO-2018189679, WO-2018189683, and WO-2020229375. In some embodiments, known AMPK activators can be used for treating a condition or disorder involves the gut-brain axis. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is a nutritional disorder. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is short bowel syndrome, intestinal failure, or intestinal insufficiency. In some embodiments, the condition or disorder is associated with systemic infection and inflammation from having a leaky gut barrier. In some embodiments, condition or disorder is metabolic syndrome, obesity, type 2 diabetes, coronary artery disease, fatty liver, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cirrhosis, hepatic encephalopathy, fibrotic disorders including scleroderma, inflammatory bowel disease including Crohn&#39;s disease, ulcerative colitis and checkpoint inhibitor-induced colitis, psoriasis, celiac disease, necrotizing enterocolitis, gastrointestinal injury resulting from toxic insults such as radiation or chemotherapy, environmental enteric dysfunction, allergy including food allergy, celiac sprue, and childhood allergy, graft vs. host disease, irritable bowel syndrome, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, ischemic colitis, sclerosing cholangitis, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Parkinson&#39;s disease, cancer including colorectal cancer, depression, autism, or a combination thereof. 
     In some embodiments disclosed herein, known AMPK activators can be used for treating gastrointestinal injury resulting from toxic insult in a subject in need thereof. In some embodiments, the toxic insult is from radiation, chemotherapy, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the toxic insult is radiation-induced. In some embodiments, the toxic insult is chemotherapy-induced. 
     Further Forms of Compounds 
     Furthermore, in some embodiments, the compounds described herein exist as “geometric isomers.” In some embodiments, the compounds described herein possess one or more double bonds. The compounds presented herein include all cis, trans, syn, anti, entgegen (E), and zusammen (Z) isomers as well as the corresponding mixtures thereof. In some situations, compounds exist as tautomers. 
     A “tautomer” refers to a molecule wherein a proton shift from one atom of a molecule to another atom of the same molecule is possible. In some embodiments, the compounds presented herein exist as tautomers. In circumstances where tautomerization is possible, a chemical equilibrium of the tautomers will exist. The exact ratio of the tautomers depends on several factors, including physical state, temperature, solvent, and pH. Some examples of tautomeric equilibrium include: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In some situations, the compounds described herein possess one or more chiral centers and each center exists in the (R)-configuration or (S)-configuration. The compounds described herein include all diastereomeric, enantiomeric, and epimeric forms as well as the corresponding mixtures thereof. In additional embodiments of the compounds and methods provided herein, mixtures of enantiomers and/or diastereoisomers, resulting from a single preparative step, combination, or interconversion are useful for the applications described herein. In some embodiments, the compounds described herein are prepared as optically pure enantiomers by chiral chromatographic resolution of the racemic mixture. In some embodiments, the compounds described herein are prepared as their individual stereoisomers by reacting a racemic mixture of the compound with an optically active resolving agent to form a pair of diastereoisomeric compounds, separating the diastereomers and recovering the optically pure enantiomers. In some embodiments, dissociable complexes are preferred (e.g., crystalline diastereomeric salts). In some embodiments, the diastereomers have distinct physical properties (e.g., melting points, boiling points, solubilities, reactivity, etc.) and are separated by taking advantage of these dissimilarities. In some embodiments, the diastereomers are separated by chiral chromatography, or preferably, by separation/resolution techniques based upon differences in solubility. In some embodiments, the optically pure enantiomer is then recovered, along with the resolving agent, by any practical means that would not result in racemization. 
     The term “positional isomer” refers to structural isomers around a central ring, such as ortho-, meta-, and para-isomers around a benzene ring. 
     The methods and formulations described herein include the use of crystalline forms (also known as polymorphs), or pharmaceutically acceptable salts of compounds described herein, as well as active metabolites of these compounds having the same type of activity. 
     “Pharmaceutically acceptable salt” includes both acid and base addition salts. A pharmaceutically acceptable salt of any one of the compounds described herein is intended to encompass any and all pharmaceutically suitable salt forms. Preferred pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the compounds described herein are pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts and pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salts. 
     “Pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salt” refers to those salts which retain the biological effectiveness and properties of the free bases, which are not biologically or otherwise undesirable, and which are formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, hydroiodic acid, hydrofluoric acid, phosphorous acid, and the like. Also included are salts that are formed with organic acids such as aliphatic mono- and dicarboxylic acids, phenyl-substituted alkanoic acids, hydroxy alkanoic acids, alkanedioic acids, aromatic acids, aliphatic and aromatic sulfonic acids, etc. and include, for example, acetic acid, trifluoroacetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid, salicylic acid, and the like. Exemplary salts thus include sulfates, pyrosulfates, bisulfates, sulfites, bisulfites, nitrates, phosphates, monohydrogenphosphates, dihydrogenphosphates, metaphosphates, pyrophosphates, chlorides, bromides, iodides, acetates, trifluoroacetates, propionates, caprylates, isobutyrates, oxalates, malonates, succinate suberates, sebacates, fumarates, maleates, mandelates, benzoates, chlorobenzoates, methylbenzoates, dinitrobenzoates, phthalates, benzenesulfonates, toluenesulfonates, phenylacetates, citrates, lactates, malates, tartrates, mehanesulfonates, and the like. Also contemplated are salts of amino acids, such as argiates, gluconates, and galacturonates (see, for example, Berge S. M. et al., “Pharmaceutical Salts,”  Journal of Pharmaceutical Science,  66:1-19 (1997). Acid addition salts of basic compounds are prepared by contacting the free base forms with a sufficient amount of the desired acid to produce the salt. 
     “Pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salt” refers to those salts that retain the biological effectiveness and properties of the free acids, which are not biologically or otherwise undesirable. These salts are prepared from addition of an inorganic base or an organic base to the free acid. In some embodiments, pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salts are formed with metals or amines, such as alkali and alkaline earth metals or organic amines. Salts derived from inorganic bases include, but are not limited to, sodium, potassium, lithium, ammonium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, aluminum salts and the like. Salts derived from organic bases include, but are not limited to, salts of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, substituted amines including naturally occurring substituted amines, cyclic amines and basic ion exchange resins, for example, isopropylamine, trimethylamine, diethylamine, triethylamine, tripropylamine, ethanolamine, diethanolamine, 2-dimethylaminoethanol, 2-diethylaminoethanol, dicyclohexylamine, lysine, arginine, histidine, caffeine, procaine, N,N-dibenzylethylenediamine, chloroprocaine, hydrabamine, choline, betaine, ethylenediamine, ethylenedianiline, N-methylglucamine, glucosamine, methylglucamine, theobromine, purines, piperazine, piperidine, N-ethylpiperidine, polyamine resins and the like. See Berge et al., supra. 
     “Prodrug” is meant to indicate a compound that is, in some embodiments, converted under physiological conditions or by solvolysis to an active compound described herein. Thus, the term prodrug refers to a precursor of an active compound that is pharmaceutically acceptable. A prodrug is typically inactive when administered to a subject, but is converted in vivo to an active compound, for example, by hydrolysis. The prodrug compound often offers advantages of solubility, tissue compatibility or delayed release in a mammalian organism (see. e.g., Bundgard, H., Design of Prodrugs (1985), pp. 7-9, 21-24 (Elsevier, Amsterdam). 
     A discussion of prodrugs is provided in Higuchi, T., et al., “Pro-drugs as Novel Delivery Systems,” A.C.S. Symposium Series, Vol. 14, and in Bioreversible Carriers in Drug Design, ed. Edward B. Roche, American Pharmaceutical Association and Pergamon Press, 1987. 
     The term “prodrug” is also meant to include any covalently bonded carriers, which release the active compound in vivo when such prodrug is administered to a mammalian subject. Prodrugs of an active compound, as described herein, are prepared by modifying functional groups present in the active compound in such a way that the modifications are cleaved, either in routine manipulation or in vivo, to the parent active compound. Prodrugs include compounds wherein a hydroxy, amino, carboxy, or mercapto group is bonded to any group that, when the prodrug of the active compound is administered to a mammalian subject, cleaves to form a free hydroxy, free amino, free carboxy, or free mercapto group, respectively. Examples of prodrugs include, but are not limited to, acetate, formate and benzoate derivatives of alcohol or amine functional groups in the active compounds and the like. 
     “Pharmaceutically acceptable solvate” refers to a composition of matter that is the solvent addition form. In some embodiments, solvates contain either stoichiometric or non-stoichiometric amounts of a solvent, and are formed during the process of making with pharmaceutically acceptable solvents such as water, ethanol, and the like. “Hydrates” are formed when the solvent is water, or “alcoholates” are formed when the solvent is alcohol. Solvates of compounds described herein are conveniently prepared or formed during the processes described herein. The compounds provided herein optionally exist in either unsolvated as well as solvated forms. 
     The compounds disclosed herein, in some embodiments, are used in different enriched isotopic forms, e.g., enriched in the content of  2 H,  3 H,  11 C,  13 C and/or  14 C. In some embodiments, the compound is deuterated in at least one position. Such deuterated forms can be made by the procedure described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,846,514 and 6,334,997. As described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,846,514 and 6,334,997, deuteration can improve the metabolic stability and or efficacy, thus increasing the duration of action of drugs. 
     Unless otherwise stated, structures depicted herein are intended to include compounds which differ only in the presence of one or more isotopically enriched atoms. For example, compounds having the present structures except for the replacement of a hydrogen by a deuterium or tritium, or the replacement of a carbon by  13 C- or  14 C-enriched carbon are within the scope of the present disclosure. 
     The compounds of the present disclosure optionally contain unnatural proportions of atomic isotopes at one or more atoms that constitute such compounds. For example, the compounds may be labeled with isotopes, such as for example, deuterium ( 2 H), tritium ( 3 H), iodine-125 ( 125 I) or carbon-14 ( 14 C). Isotopic substitution with  2 H,  3 H,  11 C,  13 C,  14 C,  15 C,  12 N,  13 N,  15 N,  16 N,  17 O,  18 O,  14 F,  15 F,  16 F,  17 F,  18 F,  33 S,  34 S,  35 S,  36 S,  35 Cl,  37 Cl,  79 Br,  81 Br,  125 I are all contemplated. All isotopic variations of the compounds of the present invention, whether radioactive or not, are encompassed within the scope of the present invention. 
     In some embodiments, the compounds disclosed herein have some or all of the  1 H atoms replaced with  2 H atoms. The methods of synthesis for deuterium-containing compounds are known in the art. In some embodiments deuterium substituted compounds are synthesized using various methods such as described in: Dean, Dennis C.; Editor. Recent Advances in the Synthesis and Applications of Radiolabeled Compounds for Drug Discovery and Development. [In: Curr., Pharm. Des., 2000; 6 (10)] 2000, 110 pp; George W.; Varma, Rajender S. The Synthesis of Radiolabeled Compounds via Organometallic Intermediates, Tetrahedron, 1989, 45(21), 6601-21; and Evans, E. Anthony. Synthesis of radiolabeled compounds, J. Radioanal. Chem., 1981, 64 (1-2), 9-32. 
     In some embodiments, the compounds described herein are labeled by other means, including, but not limited to, the use of chromophores or fluorescent moieties, bioluminescent labels, or chemiluminescent labels. 
     In some embodiments, the compounds described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, are substantially pure, in that it contains less than about 5%, or less than about 1%, or less than about 0.1%, of other organic small molecules, such as contaminating intermediates or by-products that are created, for example, in one or more of the steps of a synthesis method. 
     Preparation of the Compounds 
     Compounds described herein are synthesized using standard synthetic techniques or using methods known in the art in combination with methods described herein. 
     Unless otherwise indicated, conventional methods of mass spectroscopy, NMR, HPLC, protein chemistry, biochemistry, recombinant DNA techniques and pharmacology are employed. 
     Compounds are prepared using standard organic chemistry techniques such as those described in, for example, March&#39;s Advanced Organic Chemistry, 6th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Alternative reaction conditions for the synthetic transformations described herein may be employed such as variation of solvent, reaction temperature, reaction time, as well as different chemical reagents and other reaction conditions. 
     In some embodiments, compounds described herein are prepared as outlined in the Scheme below. 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Briefly, nitropyridine compound A is reduced to bis-amino-pyridine compound B. Compound B is treated with thiophosgene to afford compound C. Compound C undergoes a substitution reaction with an appropriate alkyl bromide compound to afford compound D. Finally, aryl iodide D is treated under cross-coupling conditions, for example Suzuki cross-coupling, to arrive at final compound E. 
     In some embodiments, compounds described herein are prepared as outlined in the Examples. 
     Pharmaceutical Compositions 
     In some embodiments, disclosed herein is a pharmaceutical composition comprising an AMPK activator described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. In some embodiments, the AMPK activator is combined with a pharmaceutically suitable (or acceptable) carrier (also referred to herein as a pharmaceutically suitable (or acceptable) excipient, physiologically suitable (or acceptable) excipient, or physiologically suitable (or acceptable) carrier) selected on the basis of a chosen route of administration, e.g., oral administration, and standard pharmaceutical practice. 
     Examples of suitable aqueous and non-aqueous carriers which are employed in the pharmaceutical compositions include water, ethanol, polyols (such as glycerol, propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, and the like), and suitable mixtures thereof, vegetable oils, such as olive oil, and injectable organic esters, such as ethyl oleate and cyclodextrins. Proper fluidity is maintained, for example, by the use of coating materials, such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersions, and by the use of surfactants. 
     Combination Therapies 
     In some embodiments, it is appropriate to administer at least one compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, in combination with one or more other therapeutic agents. 
     In some embodiments, a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is administered in combination with one or more anti-inflammatory agents. Examples of anti-inflammatory agents to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include, but are not limited to: aminosalicylates such as balsalazide, mesalamine, olsalazine, and sulfalazine; corticosteroids such as budesonide, prednisone, prednisolone, methylprednisolone, dexamethasone, and betamethasone; anti-TNF alpha agents such as infliximab, adalimumab, certolizumab pegol, golimumab, and PRX-106; anti-IL-12 and/or 23 agents such as ustekinumab, guselkumab, brazikumab, mirikizumab, risankizumab, and PTG-200; anti-integrin agents such as natalizumab, vedolizumab, etrolizumab, SHP 647 (PF-00547659), alicaforsen, abrilumab, AJM300, and PTG-100; JAK inhibitors such as tofacitinib, filgotinib, peficitinib, itacitinib, ABT-494, and TD-1473; S1P1R modulators such as ozanimod, amiselimod, etrasimod, and CBP-307; salicylates such as aspirin, salicylic acid, gentisic acid, choline magnesium salicylate, choline salicylate, choline magnesium salicylate, choline salicylate, magnesium salicylate, sodium salicylate, and diflunisal; COX inhibitors such as carprofen, fenoprofen, fenoprofen calcium, fluorobiprofen, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, nabutone, ketolorac, ketorolac tromethamine, naproxen, oxaprozin, diclofenac, etodolac, indomethacin, sulindac, tolmetin, meclofenamate, meclofenamate sodium, mefenamic acid, piroxicam, and meloxicam; COX-2 specific inhibitors such as, but not limited to, celecoxib, rofecoxib, valdecoxib, parecoxib, etoricoxib, lumiracoxib, CS-502, JTE-522, L-745 337, and NS398; and IL-22 agents such as RG-7880. In some embodiments, a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is administered in combination with a aminosalicylate, a corticosteroid, an anti-TNF alpha agent, an anti-IL-12 and/or 23 agent, an anti-integrin agent, a JAK inhibitor, a S1P1R modulator, a salicylate, a COX inhibitor, a COX-2 specific inhibitor, an interleukin-22 (IL-22) agent, or a combination thereof. 
     In some embodiments, a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is administered in combination with one or more agents that improve gastrointestinal barrier function. Examples of agents that improve gastrointestinal barrier function to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include, but are not limited to: HIF-PH inhibitors such as DS-1093, TRC-160334, and GB-004; MC1R agonists such as PL-8177; EZH2 inhibitors such as IMU-856; and DPP-4 inhibitors such as sitagliptin, vildagliptin, saxagliptin, linagliptin, gemigliptin, teneligliptin, alogliptin, trelagliptin, omarigliptin, evogliptin, gosogliptin, and dutogliptin. In some embodiments, a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is administered in combination with a hypoxia-inducible factor-prolyl hydroxylase (HIF-PH) inhibitor, a melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) agonist, an enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) inhibitor, or combinations thereof. 
     In some embodiments, a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is administered in combination with a glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1 agonist, a GLP-2 agonist, a GLP-1/2 co-agonist, a peroxisome proliferator-activator receptor (PPAR) agonist, a Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonist, a TGR5 agonist, a GPR40 agonist, a GPR119 agonist, an SSTR5 antagonist, an SSTR5 inverse agonist, an acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) inhibitor, a stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD-1) inhibitor, a dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4) inhibitor, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises one or more anti-diabetic agents. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises one or more anti-obesity agents. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises one or more agents to treat nutritional disorders. 
     Examples of a GLP-1 agonist to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include: exenatide, liraglutide, taspoglutide, lixisenatide, albiglutide, dulaglutide, semaglutide, OWL833 and ORMD 0901. 
     Examples of a GLP-2 agonist to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include: tedaglutide, glepaglutide (ZP1848), elsiglutide (ZP1846), apraglutide (FE 203799), HM-15912, NB-1002, GX-G8, PE-0503, and SAN-134, and those described in WO-2011050174, WO-2012028602, WO-2013164484, WO-2019040399, WO-2018142363, WO-2019090209, WO-2006117565, WO-2019086559, WO-2017002786, WO-2010042145, WO-2008056155, WO-2007067828, WO-2018229252, WO-2013040093, WO-2002066511, WO-2005067368, WO-2009739031, WO-2009632414, and WO2008028117 
     Examples of a GLP-1/2 co-agonist to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include ZP-GG-72 and those described in WO-2018104561, WO-2018104558, WO-2018103868, WO-2018104560, WO-2018104559, WO-2018009778, WO-2016066818, and WO-2014096440. 
     Examples of a PPAR agonist to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include: elafibranor (GFT505), lanifibranor, pioglitazone, rosiglitazone, saroglitazar, seladelpar, and GW501516. 
     Examples of a FXR agonist to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include: obeticholic acid, NGM-282, EYP001, GS-9674, tropifexor (LJN452), and LMB-763. 
     Examples of a TGR5 agonist to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include: INT-777, XL-475, SRX-1374, RDX-8940, RDX-98940, SB-756050, and those disclosed in WO-2008091540, WO-2010059853, WO-2011071565, WO-2018005801, WO-2010014739, WO-2018005794, WO-2016054208, WO-2015160772, WO-2013096771, WO-2008067222, WO-2008067219, WO-2009026241, WO-2010016846, WO-2012082947, WO-2012149236, WO-2008097976, WO-2016205475, WO-2015183794, WO-2013054338, WO-2010059859, WO-2010014836, WO-2016086115, WO-2017147159, WO-2017147174, WO-2017106818, WO-2016161003, WO-2014100025, WO-2014100021, WO-2016073767, WO-2016130809, WO-2018226724, WO-2018237350, WO-2010093845, WO-2017147137, WO-2015181275, WO-2017027396, WO-2018222701, WO-2018064441, WO-2017053826, WO-2014066819, WO-2017079062, WO-2014200349, WO-2017180577, WO-2014085474. 
     Examples of a GPR40 agonist to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include: fasiglifam, MR-1704, SCO-267, SHR-0534, HXP-0057-SS, LY-2922470, P-11187, JTT-851, ASP-4178, AMG-837, ID-11014A, HD-C715, CNX-011-67, JNJ-076, TU-5113, HD-6277, MK-8666, LY-2881835, CPL-207-280, ZYDG-2, and those described in U.S. Ser. No. 07/750,048, WO-2005051890, WO-2005095338, WO-2006011615, WO-2006083612, WO-2006083781, WO-2007088857, WO-2007123225, WO-2007136572, WO-2008054674, WO-2008054675, WO-2008063768, WO-2009039942, WO-2009039943, WO-2009054390, WO-2009054423, WO-2009054468, WO-2009054479, WO-2009058237, WO-2010085522, WO-2010085525, WO-2010085528, WO-2010091176, WO-2010123016, WO-2010123017, WO-2010143733, WO-2011046851, WO-2011052756, WO-2011066183, WO-2011078371, WO-2011161030, WO-2012004269, WO-2012004270, WO-2012010413, WO-2012011125, WO-2012046869, WO-2012072691, WO-2012111849, WO-2012147518, WO-2013025424, WO-2013057743, WO-2013104257, WO-2013122028, WO-2013122029, WO-2013128378, WO-2013144097, WO-2013154163, WO-2013164292, WO-2013178575, WO-2014019186, WO-2014073904, WO-2014082918, WO-2014086712, WO-2014122067, WO-2014130608, WO-2014146604, WO-2014169817, WO-2014170842, WO-2014187343, WO-2015000412, WO-2015010655, WO-2015020184, WO-2015024448, WO-2015024526, WO-2015028960, WO-2015032328, WO-2015044073, WO-2015051496, WO-2015062486, WO-2015073342, WO-2015078802, WO-2015084692, WO-2015088868, WO-2015089809, WO-2015097713, WO-2015105779, WO-2015105786, WO-2015119899, WO-2015176267, WO-201600771, WO-2016019587, WO-2016022446, WO-2016022448, WO-2016022742, WO-2016032120, WO-2016057731, WO-2017025368, WO-2017027309, WO-2017027310, WO-2017027312, WO-2017042121, WO-2017172505, WO-2017180571, WO-2018077699, WO-2018081047, WO-2018095877, WO-2018106518, WO-2018111012, WO-2018118670, WO-2018138026, WO-2018138027, WO-2018138028, WO-2018138029, WO-2018138030, WO-2018146008, WO-2018172727, WO-2018181847, WO-2018182050, WO-2018219204, WO-2019099315, and WO-2019134984. 
     Examples of a GPR119 agonist to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include: DS-8500a, HD-2355, LC34AD3, PSN-491, HM-47000, PSN-821, MBX-2982, GSK-1292263, APD597, DA-1241, and those described in WO-2009141238, WO-2010008739, WO-2011008663, WO-2010013849, WO-2012046792, WO-2012117996, WO-2010128414, WO-2011025006, WO-2012046249, WO-2009106565, WO-2011147951, WO-2011127106, WO-2012025811, WO-2011138427, WO-2011140161, WO-2011061679, WO-2017175066, WO-2017175068, WO-2015080446, WO-2013173198, US-20120053180, WO-2011044001, WO-2010009183, WO-2012037393, WO-2009105715, WO-2013074388, WO-2013066869, WO-2009117421, WO-201008851, WO-2012077655, WO-2009106561, WO-2008109702, WO-2011140160, WO-2009126535, WO-2009105717, WO-2013122821, WO-2010006191, WO-2009012275, WO-2010048149, WO-2009105722, WO-2012103806, WO-2008025798, WO-2008097428, WO-2011146335, WO-2012080476, WO-2017106112, WO-2012145361, WO-2012098217, WO-2008137435, WO-2008137436, WO-2009143049, WO-2014074668, WO-2014052619, WO-2013055910, WO-2012170702, WO-2012145604, WO-2012145603, WO-2011030139, WO-2018153849, WO-2017222713, WO-2015150565, WO-2015150563, WO-2015150564, WO-2014056938, WO-2007120689, WO-2016068453, WO-2007120702, WO-2013167514, WO-2011113947, WO-2007003962, WO-2011153435, WO-2018026890, WO-2011163090, WO-2011041154, WO-2008083238, WO-2008070692, WO-2011150067, and WO-2009123992. 
     Examples of a SSTR5 antagonist or inverse agonist to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include those described in: WO-03104816, WO-2009050309, WO-2015052910, WO-2011146324, WO-2006128803, WO-2010056717, WO-2012024183, and WO-2016205032. 
     Examples of an ACC inhibitor to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include: firsocostat, GS-834356, and PF-05221304. 
     Examples of a SCD-1 inhibitor to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include aramchol. 
     Examples of a DPP-4 inhibitor to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include: sitagliptin, vildagliptin, saxagliptin, linagliptin, gemigliptin, teneligliptin, alogliptin, trelagliptin, omarigliptin, evogliptin, gosogliptin, and dutogliptin. 
     Examples of anti-diabetic agents to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include: GLP-1 receptor agonists such as exenatide, liraglutide, taspoglutide, lixisenatide, albiglutide, dulaglutide, semaglutide, OWL833 and ORMD 0901; SGLT2 inhibitors such as dapagliflozin, canagliflozin, empagliflozin, ertugliflozin, ipragliflozin, luseogliflozin, remogliflozin, sergliflozin, sotagliflozin, and tofogliflozin; biguinides such as metformin; insulin and insulin analogs. 
     Examples of anti-obesity agents to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include: GLP-1 receptor agonists such as liraglutide, semaglutide; SGLT1/2 inhibitors such as LIK066, pramlintide and other amylin analogs such as AM-833, AC2307, and BI 473494; PYY analogs such as NN-9747, NN-9748, AC-162352, AC-163954, GT-001, GT-002, GT-003, and RHS-08; GIP receptor agonists such as APD-668 and APD-597; GLP-1/GIP co-agonists such as tirzepatide (LY329176), BHM-089, LBT-6030, CT-868, SCO-094, NNC-0090-2746, RG-7685, NN-9709, and SAR-438335; GLP-1/glucagon co-agonist such as cotadutide (MEDI0382), BI 456906, TT-401, G-49, H&amp;D-001A, ZP-2929, and HM-12525A; GLP-1/GIP/glucagon triple agonist such as SAR-441255, HM-15211, and NN-9423; GLP-1/secretin co-agonists such as GUB06-046; leptin analogs such as metreleptin; GDF15 modulators such as those described in WO2012138919, WO2015017710, WO2015198199, WO-2017147742 and WO-2018071493; FGF21 receptor modulators such as NN9499, NGM386, NGM313, BFKB8488A (RG7992), AKR-001, LLF-580, CVX-343, LY-2405319, BIO89-100, and BMS-986036; MC4 agonists such as setmelanotide; MetAP2 inhibitors such as ZGN-1061; ghrelin receptor modulators such as HM04 and AZP-531; and oxytocin analogs such as carbetocin. 
     Examples of agents for nutritional disorders to be used in combination with a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, include: GLP-2 receptor agonists such as tedaglutide, glepaglutide (ZP1848), elsiglutide (ZP1846), apraglutide (FE 203799), HM-15912, NB-1002, GX-G8, PE-0503, SAN-134, and those described in WO-2011050174, WO-2012028602, WO-2013164484, WO-2019040399, WO-2018142363, WO-2019090209, WO-2006117565, WO-2019086559, WO-2017002786, WO-2010042145, WO-2008056155, WO-2007067828, WO-2018229252, WO-2013040093, WO-2002066511, WO-2005067368, WO-2009739031, WO-2009632414, and WO2008028117; and GLP-1/GLP-2 receptor co-agonists such as ZP-GG-72 and those described in WO-2018104561, WO-2018104558, WO-2018103868, WO-2018104560, WO-2018104559, WO-2018009778, WO-2016066818, and WO-2014096440. 
     In one embodiment, the therapeutic effectiveness of one of the compounds described herein is enhanced by administration of an adjuvant (i.e., by itself the adjuvant has minimal therapeutic benefit, but in combination with another therapeutic agent, the overall therapeutic benefit to the patient is enhanced). Or, in some embodiments, the benefit experienced by a patient is increased by administering one of the compounds described herein with another agent (which also includes a therapeutic regimen) that also has therapeutic benefit. 
     In one specific embodiment, a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, is co-administered with one or more additional therapeutic agents, wherein the compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, stereoisomer, or prodrug thereof, and the additional therapeutic agent(s) modulate different aspects of the disease, disorder or condition being treated, thereby providing a greater overall benefit than administration of either therapeutic agent alone. In some embodiments, the additional therapeutic agent(s) is a glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1 agonist, a GLP-2 agonist, a GLP-1/2 co-agonist, a peroxisome proliferator-activator receptor (PPAR) agonist, a Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonist, a stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD-1) inhibitor, a dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4) inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is an anti-inflammatory agent. In some embodiments, the additional therapeutic agent(s) is an aminosalicylate, a corticosteroid, an anti-TNF alpha agent, an anti-IL-12 and/or 23 agent, an anti-integrin agent, a JAK inhibitor, a S1P1R modulator, a salicylate, a COX inhibitor, a COX-2 specific inhibitor, an IL-22 agent, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is an agent that improves gastrointestinal barrier function. In some embodiments, the additional therapeutic agent(s) is a HIF-PH inhibitor, an MC1R agonist, an EZH2 inhibitor, or a combination thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the overall benefit experienced by the patient is additive of the two (or more) therapeutic agents. In other embodiments, the patient experiences a synergistic benefit of the two (or more) therapeutic agents. 
     In combination therapies, the multiple therapeutic agents (one of which is one of the compounds described herein) are administered in any order or even simultaneously. If administration is simultaneous, the multiple therapeutic agents are, by way of example only, provided in a single, unified form, or in multiple forms (e.g., as a single pill or as two separate pills). 
     The compounds described herein, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, stereoisomers, or prodrugs thereof, as well as combination therapies, are administered before, during or after the occurrence of a disease or condition, and the timing of administering the composition containing a compound varies. Thus, in one embodiment, the compounds described herein are used as a prophylactic and are administered continuously to subjects with a propensity to develop conditions or diseases in order to prevent the occurrence of the disease or condition. In another embodiment, the compounds and compositions are administered to a subject during or as soon as possible after the onset of the symptoms. In specific embodiments, a compound described herein is administered as soon as is practicable after the onset of a disease or condition is detected or suspected, and for a length of time necessary for the treatment of the disease. 
     In some embodiments, a compound described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in combination with anti-inflammatory agent, anti-cancer agent, immunosuppressive agent, steroid, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent, antihistamine, analgesic, hormone blocking therapy, radiation therapy, monoclonal antibodies, or combinations thereof. 
     EXAMPLES 
     List of Abbreviations 
     As used above, and throughout the description of the invention, the following abbreviations, unless otherwise indicated, shall be understood to have the following meanings:
         ACN or MeCN acetonitrile   AcOH acetic acid   aq aqueous   BDP bis(pinacolato)diboronn   DCM dichloromethane   DMAP 4-dimethylaminopyridine   DME dimethoxyethane   DMF dimethylformamide   eq equivalent(s)   Et ethyl   EtOH ethanol   EtOAc or EA ethyl acetate   FA formic acid   h, hr(s) hour(s)   HPLC high performance liquid chromatography   KOAc potassium acetate   LCMS liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry   Me methyl   MeOH methanol   min(s) minute(s)   MOMCl methoxymethyl chloride   MS mass spectroscopy   MW microwave irradiation   NBS N-bromosuccinimide   NCS N-chlorosuccinimide   NMR nuclear magnetic resonance   PCy 3  tricyclohexylphosphine   Pd 2 (dba) 3  tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0)   rt or RT room temperature   SEM-Cl 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl chloride   TEA triethylamine   TFA trifluoroacetic acid   THF tetrahydrofuran   TLC thin layer chromatography   TMS-Br trimethylsilyl bromide   tR retention time       

     I. Chemical Synthesis 
     Unless otherwise noted, reagents and solvents were used as received from commercial suppliers. Anhydrous solvents and oven-dried glassware were used for synthetic transformations sensitive to moisture and/or oxygen. Yields were not optimized. Reaction times are approximate and were not optimized. Column chromatography and thin layer chromatography (TLC) were performed on silica gel unless otherwise noted. 
     Example 1: Preparation of 2-((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetic Acid (Compound 1) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Step 1: 5,6-dichloro-3-nitropyridin-2-amine (1-1): To a solution of 6-chloro-3-nitro-pyridin-2-amine (50 g, 0.29 mol, 1 eq) in AcOH (250 mL) was added NCS (46 g, 0.35 mmol, 1.2 eq). The mixture was stirred at 100° C. for 3 hours. The mixture was cooled to room temperature, then filtered. The filter residue was washed with ethanol (100 mL), then dried in vacuo to give 1-1 (48 g, crude) as a yellow solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =207.9. 
     Step 2: 5-chloro-6-iodo-3-nitropyridin-2-amine (1-2): To a solution of 1-1 (48 g, 0.23 mol, 1 eq) in AcOH (250 mL) was added NaI (73 g, 0.48 mol, 2.1 eq). The mixture was stirred at 90° C. for 12 hours. The mixture was poured into water (500 mL), then filtered. The filter residue was washed with water (200 mL), then dried in vacuo to give 1-2 (60 g, crude) as a yellow solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =299.8. 
     Step 3: 5-chloro-6-iodopyridine-2,3-diamine (1-3): To a solution 1-2 of (60 g, 0.20 mol, 1 eq) in EtOH (300 mL) was added SnCl 2 .2H 2 O (0.18 kg, 0.80 mol, 4 eq). The mixture was stirred at 70° C. for 0.5 hour. To the mixture was added water (450 mL) and KF (0.18 kg). The mixture was stirred for 0.5 h, then extracted with ethyl acetate (100 mL×2). The organic phase was washed with saturated brine (50 mL×2), then concentrated in vacuo to give crude product. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , petroleum ether:ethyl acetate; 2:1 to 0:1 gradient) to give 1-3 (41 g, 73% yield, 96% purity) as an off-white solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =269.9. 
     Step 4: 6-chloro-5-iodo-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine-2(3H)-thione (1-4): To a solution of 1-3 (20 g, 74 mmol, 1 eq) and DMAP (26 g, 0.22 mol, 2.9 eq) in THF (400 mL) was added dropwise thiocarbonyl dichloride (12 g, 0.10 mol, 8.0 mL, 1.4 eq) at 0° C. under N2. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 24 hours. To the reaction mixture was added ethyl acetate (2000 mL) and 2 N HCl (200 mL). The organic layer was washed with saturated brine (300 mL×2), then concentrated in vacuo to give 1-4 (17 g, crude) as a yellow solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =311.8. 
     Step 5: methyl 2-((6-chloro-5-iodo-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetate (1-5): To a solution of 1-4 (2.0 g, 6.4 mmol, 1 eq) in THF (40 mL) was added Cs 2 CO 3  (4.2 g, 13 mmol, 2 eq) and methyl 2-bromoacetate (0.49 g, 3.2 mmol, 0.5 eq) at 0° C. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 24 hours. The reaction mixture was quenched by water (100 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (80 mL×3). The organic phase was washed with saturated brine (50 mL) and dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate, filtered, and concentrated in vacuo to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , petroleum ether:ethyl acetate; 1:0 to 2:1 gradient) to give 1-5 (0.80 g, 80% purity, 26% yield) as a yellow solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =383.8. 
     Step 6: 4′-bromo-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2-ol (1-6): To a solution of 1-bromo-4-iodobenzene (10 g, 35 mmol, 1 eq) and (2-hydroxyphenyl)boronic acid (5.4 g, 39 mmol, 1.1 eq) in H 2 O (50 mL) and dioxane (150 mL) was added K 3 PO 4  (11 g, 53 mmol, 1.5 eq), Pd(PPh 3 ) 4  (1.0 g, 0.88 mmol, 0.025 eq) under N2. The reaction mixture was stirred at 100° C. for 16 hours. The reaction mixture was filtered and the filtrate was concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was diluted with water (200 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (200 mL×3). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (400 mL×2), dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , petroleum ether:ethyl acetate; 50:1 to 5:1 gradient) to give 1-6 (7.2 g, 82% yield) as a colorless oil. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =249.9.  1 H-NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ=7.66-7.60 (m, 2H), 7.43-7.40 (m, 1H), 7.40-7.37 (m, 1H), 7.33-7.28 (m, 1H), 7.28-7.24 (m, 1H), 7.07-7.02 (m, 1H), 7.02-6.96 (m, 1H), 5.19 (s, 1H). 
     Step 7: 4′-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2-ol (1-7): To a solution of 1-6 (3.5 g, 14 mmol, 1 eq) and 4,4,4′,4′,5,5,5′,5′-octamethyl-2,2′-bi(1,3,2-dioxaborolane) (3.9 g, 15 mmol, 1.1 eq) in DME (35 mL) was added Pd(dppf)Cl 2 .CH 2 Cl 2  (0.29 g, 0.35 mmol, 0.025 eq) and KOAc (4.1 g, 42 mmol, 3 eq) under N2. The reaction was heated at 150° C. under microwave irradiation for 10 min. The reaction mixture was filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was diluted with water (20 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (20 mL×3). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (40 mL×2), dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , Petroleum ether:Ethyl acetate=20:1 to 5:1) to give 1-7 (2.8 g, 86% purity, 58% yield) as a white solid, LCMS: (ES−) m/z (M−H) − =295.0. 
     Step 8: 2-((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetic acid (Compound 1): To a solution of methyl 1-5 (0.25 g, 0.65 mmol, 1 eq) and 1-7 (0.39 g, 1.3 mmol, 2 eq) in dioxane (10 mL) and H 2 O (2 mL) was added K 2 CO 3  (0.27 g, 2.0 mmol, 3 eq) and Pd(PPh 3 ) 4  (75 mg, 65 μmol, 0.1 eq) under N2. The mixture was stirred at 100° C. for 12 hours. The reaction mixture was concentrated in vacuo to give a residue. The residue was dissolved with water (20 mL), and then adjusted PH to 6˜7 with 1N HCl. This suspension was extracted with ethyl acetate (30 mL×5). The combined organic phase was washed with saturated brine (20 mL) and dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate, filtered, and concentrated in vacuo to get the yellow residue. Petroleum ether (10 mL) and ethyl acetate (1 mL) was added to the residue and stirred at 25° C. for 0.5 hour, then this suspension was filtered. The filter residue was purified by prep-HPLC (basic condition) [column: Xtimate C18 150×25 mm×5 μm; mobile phase: [water (0.05% ammonia hydroxide v/v)-ACN]; B %: 0%-25%, 10 min] to give Compound 1 (78 mg, 29% yield) as a light yield solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H)+=412.0.  1 H-NMR (CD 3 OD, 400 MHz): δ 7.97 (s, 1H), 7.73-7.67 (m, 4H), 7.35 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.19 (t, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 6.96-6.92 (m, 2H), 4.04 (s, 2H). 
     Example 2: Preparation of (((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)methyl)(methyl)phosphinic Acid (Compound 2 FA Salt) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Step 1: ethyl(((6-chloro-5-iodo-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)methyl)(methyl)phosphinate (2-1): To a solution of 1-4 (0.50 g, 1.6 mmol) in DMF (10 mL) was added Cs 2 CO 3  (1.1 g, 3.2 mmol) and ethyl(chloromethyl)(methyl)phosphinate (0.20 g, 1.3 mmol). The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 12 hours. The mixture was poured into water (40 mL), pH was adjusted to ˜6 with 1 N aqueous HCl, and then extracted with ethyl acetate (30 mL×2). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (20 mL×2) and concentrated in vacuo to give 2-1 (0.80 g, crude) as a black brown oil, which was used without further purification. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =431.7. 
     Step 2: ethyl(((6-chloro-5-iodo-1-((2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy)methyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)methyl)(methyl)phosphinate (2-2): To a solution of 2-1 (0.80 g, 1.9 mmol) in THF (16 mL) was added TEA (0.38 g, 3.7 mmol, 0.52 mL), then SEM-Cl (0.37 g, 2.2 mmol, 0.39 mL) was added at 0° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 0.5 hours. The reaction mixture was quenched with H 2 O (100 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (50 mL×2). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (40 mL×2), dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure to give crude product. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , petroleum ether:ethyl acetate=100:1 to 0:1) to give 2-2 (0.28 g, 0.43 mmol, 23% yield, 86% purity) as a yellow oil.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ=7.89 (s, 1H), 5.56 (d, J=2.4 Hz, 2H), 4.17 (m, 2H), 3.76 (d, J=10.8 Hz, 2H), 3.63 (m, 2H), 1.63 (m, 3H), 1.32 (m, 3H), 0.97 (m, 2H), 0.01 (s, 9H). 
     Step 3: ethyl(((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1-((2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy)methyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)methyl)(methyl)phosphinate (2-3): To a solution of 2-2 (0.10 g, 0.15 mmol) and 1-7 (68 mg, 0.23 mmol) in dioxane (2.0 mL) and H 2 O (1 mL) was added Pd(PPh 3 ) 4  (8.8 mg, 7.6 μmol) and K 2 CO 3  (63 mg, 0.46 mmol). The mixture was stirred at 100° C. for 12 hours under N2. The mixture was adjusted to pH˜5 with 1 NHCl (aq) and extracted with ethyl acetate (20 mL×2). The combined organic layers were dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 2-3 (0.18 g, crude) as a yellow oil. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =576.0. 
     Step 4: (((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)methyl)(methyl)phosphinic acid (Compound 2 FA Salt): A solution of 2-3 (0.16 g, 0.26 mmol) in TFA (0.8 mL) was stirred at 25° C. for 1 hour. The reaction mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure at 25° C. to give a residue. The residue was purified by prep-HPLC (column: UniSil 3-100 C18 Ultra (150×25 mm×3 μm); mobile phase: [A: 0.225% FA in water, B: ACN]; B %: 33%-63% gradient over 10 min) to give Compound 2 FA Salt (17 mg, 32 μmol, 11% yield, 92% purity, FA salt) as an off-white solid.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO) δ=9.62 (s, 1H), 8.11 (s, 1H), 7.67 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 4H), 7.33 (dd, J 1 =1.6 Hz, J 2 =1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.19 (m, 1H), 6.97 (m, 1H), 6.91 (m, 1H), 3.55 (d, J=10.4 Hz, 2H), 1.42 (d, J=14.4 Hz, 3H). 
     Example 3: Preparation of ethyl hydrogen (((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)methyl)phosphonate (Compound 3 FA Salt) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Step 1: diethyl(((6-chloro-5-iodo-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)methyl)phosphonate (3-1): To a solution of 1-4 (1.0 g, 3.2 mmol) in DMF (20 mL) was added Cs 2 CO 3  (2.1 g, 6.4 mmol) and diethyl(bromomethyl)phosphonate (0.59 g, 2.6 mmol) under N2. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hours. The mixture was poured into water (50 mL), adjusted to pH˜6 with 1 N aqueous HCl, and then extracted with ethyl acetate (100 mL×2). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (30 mL×2), concentrated in vacuo to give 3-1 (1.6 g, crude) as a yellow solid which was used without further purification. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =461.9. 
     Step 2: diethyl(((6-chloro-5-iodo-1-((2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy)methyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)methyl)phosphonate (3-2): To a solution of 3-1 (1.6 g, 3.5 mmol) and TEA (0.53 g, 5.2 mmol) in THF (32 mL) was added SEM-Cl (0.58 g, 3.5 mmol) at 0° C. under nitrogen. The reaction mixture was stirred at 20° C. for 0.5 hour. The mixture was poured into water (30 mL) and then extracted with ethyl acetate (100 mL×2). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (30 mL×2) and concentrated in vacuo to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , petroleum ether:ethyl acetate; 10:1 to 1:1 gradient) to give 3-2 (1.0 g, 44% yield over two steps) as a yellow oil. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =592.1. 
     Step 3: diethyl(((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1-((2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy)methyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)methyl)phosphonate (3-3): To a solution of 3-2 (0.29 g, 0.49 mmol) and 1-7 (0.22 g, 0.73 mmol) in dioxane (6 mL) and H 2 O (3 mL) was added Pd(PPh 3 ) 4  (28 mg, 25 μmol) and K 2 CO 3  (0.20 g, 1.5 mmol) under N2. The mixture was stirred at 100° C. for 12 hours. The reaction mixture was quenched with water (30 mL), then diluted with ethyl acetate (30 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (20 mL×3). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (20 mL), dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , petroleum ether:ethyl acetate; 20:1 to 1:1 gradient) to give 3-3 (0.20 g, 65% yield) as a yellow oil. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =634.3. 
     Step 4: diethyl(((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)methyl)phosphonate (3-4): A solution of 3-3 (0.20 g, 0.32 mmol) in TFA (1 mL) and DCM (5 mL) was stirred at 25° C. for 1 hour. The reaction mixture was quenched with saturated aqueous NaHCO 3  and the pH was adjusted to ˜2 with 1 N aqueous HCl. The mixture was diluted with water (30 mL) and ethyl acetate (30 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (20 mL×3). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (20 mL), dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by prep-HPLC (column: Phenomenex Synergi C18 150×25 mm×10 μm; mobile phase: [A: 0.225% FA in water; B: ACN]; B %: 40%-70% gradient over 10 min) to give 3-4 (30 mg, 55 μmol, FA salt) as a white solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =504.2.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 ): δ 8.05-7.85 (m, 1H), 7.80 (d, J=8 Hz, 2H), 7.61 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 7.37-7.30 (m, 1H), 7.30-7.22 (m, 1H), 7.06-6.97 (m, 2H), 4.30-4.10 (m, 4H), 3.56 (d, J=12.8 Hz, 2H), 1.34 (t, J=6.8 Hz, 6H). 
     Step 5: ethyl hydrogen (((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)methyl)phosphonate (Compound 3 FA Salt): To a solution of 3-4 (30 mg, 60 μmol) in H 2 O (0.3 mL), MeOH (0.3 mL) and THF (0.3 mL) was added LiOH—H 2 O (8.3 mg, 0.20 mmol). The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 12 hours. The reaction mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by prep-HPLC (column: UniSil 3-100 C18 Ultra (150×25 mm×3 μm); mobile phase: [A: 0.225% FA in water; B: ACN]; B %: 45%-75% gradient over 10 min) to give Compound 3 FA Salt (15 mg, 28 μmol) as a yellow solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =476.2.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CD 3 OD): δ 8.00 (s, 1H), 7.76˜7.61 (m, 4H), 7.38˜7.31 (m, 1H), 7.24˜7.15 (m, 1H), 7.00˜6.90 (m, 2H), 4.15˜4.01 (m, 2H), 3.54 (d, J=12.8 Hz, 2H), 1.28 (t, J=6.8 Hz, 3H). 
     Example 4: Preparation of (((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)methyl)phosphonic Acid (Compound 4) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     To a solution of 3-4 (0.45 g, 0.89 mmol) in CHCl 3  (4.5 mL) was added TMSBr (0.41 g, 2.7 mmol). The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 12 hours. The reaction mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The mixture was adjusted to pH˜10 with 0.2 N aqueous NaOH and concentrated in vacuo. The mixture was poured into water (20 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (2×20 mL). The aqueous phase was adjusted to pH˜5 with 2 N aqueous HCl, extracted with ethyl acetate (20 mL) and THF (20 mL), then concentrated in vacuo. The crude product was triturated with ethyl acetate at 25° C. for 30 min to give Compound 4 (0.43 g, 94% yield) as a yellow solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =448.1.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d6): δ 9.70 (br, 1H), 8.10 (s, 1H), 7.70˜7.64 (m, 4H), 7.33 (dd, J 1 =7.6 Hz, J 2 =1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.18 (t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.01 (dd, J 1 =8.0 Hz, J 2 =1.2 Hz, 1H), 6.91 (t, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 3.53 (d, J=13.2 Hz, 2H). 
     Example 5: Preparation of 2-((6-chloro-5-(2′-(sulfooxy)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetic Acid (Compound 5) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Step 1: tert-butyl 2-((6-chloro-5-iodo-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetate (5-1): To a solution of 1-4 (7.0 g, 22 mmol, 1 eq) in THF (100 mL) was added tert-butyl 2-bromoacetate (2.6 g, 13 mmol, 0.6 eq) and Cs 2 CO 3  (15 g, 45 mmol, 2 eq). The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 1 hour. The mixture was diluted with water (150 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (300 mL×2). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (200 mL×2), dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , petroleum ether:ethyl acetate; 10:1 to 3:1 gradient) to give 5-1 (3.2 g, 30% yield) as a yellow solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =426.1.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d6) δ 8.08 (s, 1H), 4.13 (s, 2H), 1.39 (s, 9H). 
     Step 2: tert-butyl 2-((6-chloro-5-iodo-1-((2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy)methyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetate (5-2): To a solution of 5-1 (3.2 g, 6.8 mmol, 1 eq) in THF (40 mL) was added TEA (1.4 g, 14 mmol, 2 eq). Then SEM-Cl (1.4 g, 8.1 mmol, 1.2 eq) was added at 0° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 0.5 hour. The reaction mixture was poured into ice water (100 mL) and stirred for 10 min. Then the mixture was extracted with ethyl acetate (200 mL×2), and the combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (100 mL×2), dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , petroleum ether:ethyl acetate; 100:1 to 20:1 gradient) to give 5-2 (3.0 g, 79% yield) as a yellow oil. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =556.1.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ 7.97 (s, 1H), 5.60 (s, 2H), 4.15 (s, 2H), 3.71-3.59 (m, 2H), 1.44 (s, 9H), 0.99-0.88 (m, 2H), −0.03-0.05 (m, 9H). 
     Step 3: tert-butyl 2-((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1-((2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy)methyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetate (5-3): To a solution of 5-2 (0.30 g, 0.53 mmol, 1 eq) in dioxane (5 mL) and H 2 O (1 mL) was added 1-7 (0.16 g, 0.53 mmol, 1 eq) and K 2 CO 3  (74 mg, 0.53 mmol, 1 eq). Then Pd(PPh 3 ) 4  (62 mg, 53 umol, 0.1 eq) was added under N2. The mixture was stirred at 100° C. for 12 hours. The reaction mixture was adjusted to pH 6˜7 with 1 N aqueous HCl, then diluted with water (50 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (50 mL×2). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (40 mL×2), dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , petroleum ether:ethyl acetate; 100:1 to 10:1 gradient) to give 5-3 (0.20 g, 41% yield) as a yellow oil. 
     Step 4: tert-butyl 2-((6-chloro-5-(2′-(sulfooxy)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1-((2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy)methyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetate (5-4): To a solution of 5-3 (0.3 g, 0.50 mmol, 1 eq) in DCM (4 mL) and pyridine (6 mL) was added SO 3 .pyridine (0.24 g, 1.5 mmol, 3 eq). The mixture was stirred at 50° C. for 24 hours. The mixture was diluted with water (50 mL) and extracted with DCM (50 mL×2). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (40 mL×2), dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by prep-HPLC (column: Waters Xbridge C18 150×50 mm×10 μm; mobile phase: [A: water (0.05% ammonia hydroxide v/v); B:−ACN]; B %: 35%-65% gradient over 11.5 min) to give 5-4 (0.14 mg, 0.20 μmol, 40% yield) as a yellow solid. LCMS: (ES−) m/z (M−H) − =676.2. 
     Step 5: 2-((6-chloro-5-(2′-(sulfooxy)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetic acid (Compound 5): A solution of 5-4 (0.12 g, 0.18 mmol, 1 eq) in TFA (0.1 mL) and DCM (1 mL) was stirred at 25° C. for 9 hours. The mixture was adjusted to pH 6 with saturated aqueous NaHCO 3  solution and then concentrated in vacuo to give a residue. The residue was purified by prep-HPLC (column: Waters Xbridge C18 150×50 mm×10 μm; mobile phase: [A: water (10 mM NH 4 HCO 3 ), B: ACN]; B %: 5%-35% gradient over 8 min) to give Compound 5 (20 mg, 22% yield) as a white solid. LCMS: (ES−) m/z (M−H) − =490.0. 1H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d6) δ=8.05 (s, 1H), 7.75-7.64 (m, 5H), 7.38 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.31 (t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.19-7.11 (m, 1H), 3.93 (s, 2H). 
     Example 6: 2-((6-chloro-5-(4′-(3,3-dimethylbutyl)-2′-hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetic Acid (Compound 6) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Step 1: 1-iodo-3-(methoxymethoxy)benzene (6-1): To a solution of 3-iodophenol (10 g, 45 mmol, 1 eq) and K 2 CO 3  (6.9 g, 50 mmol, 1.1 eq) in acetone (100 mL) was added MOMCl (5.5 g, 68 mmol, 5.2 mL, 1.5 eq) at 0° C. The mixture was stirred at 20° C. for 12 hrs. The mixture was quenched with ice water (130 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (80 mL×3). The organic layers were washed with brine (130 mL), dried over anhydrous Na 2 SO 4 , and concentrated in vacuo. The residue was purified by flash silica gel chromatography (ISCO®; 120 g SepaFlash® Silica Flash Column, Eluent of 0-40% Ethyl acetate/Petroleum ether gradient) to afford 6-1 (11 g, 92% yield) as colorless oil.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ=7.46-7.40 (m, 1H), 7.38-7.31 (m, 1H), 7.05-6.98 (m, 2H), 5.15 (s, 2H), 3.48 (s, 3H). 
     Step 2: 1-(3,3-dimethylbut-1-yn-1-yl)-3-(methoxymethoxy)benzene (6-2): To a solution of 6-1 (1.0 g, 3.8 mmol, 1.25 eq), CuI (58 mg, 0.30 mmol, 0.1 eq), Pd(PPh 3 )Cl 2  (0.21 g, 0.30 mmol, 0.1 eq) and TEA (0.46 g, 4.6 mmol, 1.5 eq) in THF (7 mL) was added 3,3-dimethylbut-1-yne (0.25 g, 3.0 mmol, 1 eq) in THF (2 mL). The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hrs. The reaction mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by flash silica gel chromatography (ISCO®; 20 g SepaFlash® Silica Flash Column, Eluent of 0˜20% Ethyl acetate/Petroleum ether gradient) to afford 6-2 (0.65 g, 98% yield) as a colorless oil.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ=7.18 (t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.11-7.03 (m, 2H), 6.98-6.89 (m, 1H), 5.17 (s, 2H), 3.48 (s, 3H), 1.32 (s, 9H). 
     Step 3: 1-(3,3-dimethylbutyl)-3-(methoxymethoxy)benzene (6-3): To a solution of 6-2 (0.65 g, 3.0 mmol, 1 eq) in MeOH (10 mL) was added 10% Pd/C (100 mg) under N2. The suspension was degassed under vacuum and purged with H2 several times. The mixture was stirred under H2 (15 psi) at 20° C. for 12 hours. The reaction mixture was filtered, and the filtrate was concentrated under vacuum to afford 6-3 (0.66 g) as a yellow oil.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CHCl 3 ) δ=7.20 (t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 6.89-6.82 (m, 3H), 5.18 (s, 2H), 3.50 (s, 3H), 2.63-2.51 (m, 2H), 1.55-1.46 (m, 2H), 0.97 (s, 9H). 
     Step 4: 1-bromo-4-(3,3-dimethylbutyl)-2-(methoxymethoxy)benzene (6-4): To a solution of 6-3 (0.66 g, 3.0 mmol, 1 eq) in MeCN (10 mL) was added NBS (0.53 g, 3.0 mmol, 1 eq) at −10° C. The mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 2 hr. The reaction mixture was concentrated under vacuum. The residue was purified by flash silica gel chromatography (ISCO®; 20 g SepaFlash® Silica Flash Column, Eluent of 0˜20% Ethyl acetate/Petroleum ether gradient) to afford 6-4 (0.85 g, 95% yield) as a yellow oil.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ=7.40 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 6.90 (d, J=2.8 Hz, 1H), 6.75 (dd, J=8.80, 3.20 Hz, 1H), 5.15 (s, 2H), 3.48 (s, 3H), 2.73-2.58 (m, 2H), 1.52-1.38 (m, 2H), 0.99 (s, 9H). 
     Step 5: 2-(4′-(3,3-dimethylbutyl)-2′-(methoxymethoxy)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolane (6-5): Compound 6-4 (0.26 g, 0.86 mmol, 1 eq), 1,4-bis(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)benzene (0.31 g, 0.95 mmol, 1.1 eq), Pd(dppf)Cl 2  (95 mg, 0.13 mmol, 0.15 eq) and K 2 CO 3  (0.36 g, 2.6 mmol, 3 eq) in DMF (3 mL) and H 2 O (0.3 mL) was heated to 110° C. for 2 hours under N2. The reaction mixture was diluted with water (10 mL) and extracted with EA (15 mL×3). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (20 mL), dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to afford 6-5 (0.40 g, crude) as a brown oil which was used for the next step directly. 
     Step 6: tert-butyl 2-((6-chloro-5-(4′-(3,3-dimethylbutyl)-2′-(methoxymethoxy)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetate (6-6): Compound 6-5 (0.40 g, 0.94 mmol, 1 eq), tert-butyl 2-((6-chloro-5-iodo-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetate (0.40 g, 0.94 mmol, 1 eq), Pd(dppf)Cl 2 .CH 2 Cl 2  (0.12 g, 0.14 mmol, 0.15 eq) and K 2 CO 3  (0.39 mg, 2.8 mmol, 3 eq) in DMF (5 mL) and H 2 O (0.5 mL) was heated to 80° C. for 2 hours under N2. The reaction mixture was diluted with water (30 mL) and extracted with EA (30 mL×3). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (50 mL), dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by flash silica gel chromatography (ISCO®; 40 g SepaFlash® Silica Flash Column, Eluent of 0˜60% Ethyl acetate/Petroleum ether gradient) to afford 6-6 (0.12 g, 13% yield, 62% purity) as a yellow oil. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =596.2. 
     Step 7: 2-((6-chloro-5-(4′-(3,3-dimethylbutyl)-2′-hydroxy-[1,1′-biphenyl]4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetic acid (Compound 6): A mixture of 6-6 (0.16 g, 0.27 mmol, 1 eq) in TFA (1 mL) and DCM (3 mL) was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hrs under N2 atmosphere. The reaction mixture was concentrated under vacuum. The residue was purified by prep-HPLC (column: Phenomenex luna C18 150×25 mm×10 um; mobile phase: [A: water (0.225% FA); B: ACN]; B %: 50%-80%) two times to afford Compound 6 (12 mg, 8% yield) as yellow solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =496.3.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ=7.97 (s, 1H), 7.67 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.36 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.05 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 6.77-6.59 (m, 2H), 4.20 (s, 2H), 2.61-2.46 (m, 2H), 1.40-1.30 (m, 2H), 0.78 (s, 9H). 
     Example 7: (S)-2-((6-chloro-5-(4-(3-hydroxypyrrolidin-1-yl)phenyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetic Acid (Compound 7) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Step 1: (S)-1-(4-bromophenyl)pyrrolidin-3-ol (7-1): A mixture of (3S)-pyrrolidin-3-ol (4.0 g, 46 mmol, 3.7 mL, 1 eq), 1-bromo-4-iodo-benzene (6.5 g, 23 mmol, 0.5 eq), CuI (0.87 g, 4.6 mmol, 0.1 eq), and K 3 PO 4  (9.8 g, 46 mmol, 1 eq) in 2-(dimethylamino)ethanol (15 mL) was degassed and purged with N2 3 times. The mixture was stirred at 55° C. for 20 hrs under N2 atmosphere. The reaction mixture was diluted with water (40 mL) and extracted with EA (100 mL×3). The combined organic layers were dried over Na 2 SO 4  and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , Petroleum ether/Ethyl acetate=10/1 to 0/1) to give 7-1 (4.3 g, 39% yield) as a white solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =242.2. 
     Step 2: (S)-1-(4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)phenyl)pyrrolidin-3-ol (7-2): A mixture of 7-1 (3.0 g, 12 mmol, 1 eq), bis(pinacolato)diboron (3.6 g, 15 mmol, 1.2 eq), and KOAc (12 g, 0.12 mol, 10 eq) in dioxane (45 mL) was degassed and purged with N2 3 times. Then Pd(PPh 3 )Cl 2  (0.43 g, 0.62 mmol, 0.05 eq) was added to the mixture. The mixture was stirred at 80° C. for 12 hrs under N2 atmosphere. The residue was diluted with water (30 mL) and extracted with EA (100 mL×4). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (100 mL×2), dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , Petroleum ether/Ethyl acetate=10/1 to 0/1) to give 7-2 (2.2 g, 62% yield) as a white solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =290.3. 
     Step 3: (S)-2-((6-chloro-5-(4-(3-hydroxypyrrolidin-1-yl)phenyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetic acid (Compound 7): A mixture of 7-2 (0.20 g, 0.69 mmol, 1.5 eq), tert-butyl 2-((6-chloro-5-iodo-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetate (0.20 mg, 0.46 mmol, 1 eq), Pd(dppf)Cl 2 CH 2 Cl 2  (57 mg, 69 umol, 0.15 eq), and K 2 CO 3  (0.24 g, 1.7 mmol, 3.7 eq) in H 2 O (1.3 mL) and dioxane (6.0 mL) was degassed and purged with N2 3 times. The mixture was stirred at 120° C. for 2 hours under N2 atmosphere under microwave. The residue was diluted with water (10 mL) and extracted with EA (30 mL×4). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (10 mL×2), dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by prep-HPLC (column: Welch Xtimate C18 150×25 mm×5 um; mobile phase: [A: water (0.05% HCl); B: ACN]; B %: 27%-57%) to give Compound 7 (15 mg, 8% yield) as orange solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =405.2.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ=8.47 (s, 1H) 7.61 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 2H) 6.82 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 2H) 4.60 (dt, J=4.4, 2.0 Hz, 1H) 4.32 (s, 1H) 4.31-4.26 (m, 1H) 3.66-3.55 (m, 2H) 3.51 (td, J=9.2, 3.2 Hz, 1H) 3.36 (br d, J=10.8 Hz, 1H) 2.29-2.16 (m, 1H) 2.05-2.15 (m, 1H). 
     Example 8: 2-((5-(4′-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-6-chloro-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetic Acid (Compound 8) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Step 1: 1-(4-bromophenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazole (8-1): To a solution of 1H-1,2,4-triazole (1.0 g, 14 mmol, 1 eq) and 1-bromo-4-iodo-benzene (5.1 g, 18 mmol, 1.25 eq) in DMF (50 mL) was added Cs 2 CO 3  (19 g, 58 mmol, 4 eq) and CuI (1.1 g, 5.8 mmol, 0.4 eq). The mixture was stirred at 120° C. for 12 hrs. The reaction mixture was diluted with water (20 mL) and extracted with EA (50 mL×3). The combined organic layers were dried over Na 2 SO 4  and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The crude product was purified by re-crystallization from petroleum ether (20 mL) at 25° C. to give 8-1 (1.2 g, crude) as a white solid.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ=9.11 (s, 1H), 8.17 (s, 1H), 7.87-7.64 (m, 4H). 
     Step 2: 1-(4′-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-1,2,4-triazole (8-2): To a solution of 8-1 (0.50 g, 2.2 mmol, 1 eq) and 1,4-bis(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)benzene (0.81 g, 2.4 mmol, 1.1 eq) in H 2 O (0.5 mL) and DMF (5 mL) was added Pd(dppf)Cl 2  (0.24 g, 0.33 mmol, 0.15 eq) and K 2 CO 3  (0.93 g, 6.7 mmol, 3 eq). The mixture was stirred at 110° C. for 2 hrs under N2 atmosphere. The reaction mixture was diluted with water (10 mL) and extracted with EA (30 mL×3). The combined organic layers were dried over Na 2 SO 4  and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , Petroleum ether/Ethyl acetate=100/1 to 3/1) to give 8-2 (0.51 g, 65% yield) as a brown solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =348.3.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ=9.15 (s, 1H), 8.19 (s, 1H), 7.97-7.90 (m, 2H), 7.85 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 4H), 7.73-7.65 (m, 2H), 1.40-1.34 (m, 12H). 
     Step 3: tert-butyl 2-((6-chloro-5-iodo-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetate (8-3): To a solution of 6-chloro-5-iodo-1,3-dihydro-2H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine-2-thione (2.0 g, 6.4 mmol, 1 eq) and tert-butyl 2-bromoacetate (1.3 g, 6.4 mmol, 1 eq) in DMF (20 mL) was added K 2 CO 3  (1.1 g, 7.7 mmol, 1.2 eq). The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 1 hr. The reaction mixture was diluted with water (20 mL) and extracted with EA (50 mL×3). The combined organic layers were dried over Na 2 SO 4  and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 8-3 (2.5 g) as a yellow solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =426.0.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d6) δ=13.42 (br dd, J=11.8, 14.3 Hz, 1H), 8.08 (s, 1H), 4.13 (s, 2H), 1.39 (s, 12H). 
     Step 4: tert-butyl 2-((6-chloro-5-iodo-1-((2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy)methyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetate (8-4): To a solution of 8-3 (2.5 g, 5.8 mmol, 1 eq) in THF (20 mL) was added SEM-Cl (1.5 g, 8.8 mmol, 1.6 mL, 1.5 eq) and TEA (0.89 g, 8.8 mmol, 1.2 mL, 1.5 eq) at 0° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 12 hr. The reaction mixture was diluted with water (20 mL) and extracted with EA (50 mL×3). The combined organic layers were dried over Na 2 SO 4  and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , Petroleum ether/Ethyl acetate=100/1 to 5/1) to give 8-4 (1.2 g, 37% yield) as a yellow solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =556.0. 
     Step 5: tert-butyl 2-((5-(4′-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-6-chloro-1-((2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy)methyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetate (8-5): To a solution of 8-2 (0.10 g, 0.29 mmol, 1 eq) and 8-4 (0.16 mg, 0.29 mmol, 1 eq) in H 2 O (0.5 mL) and dioxane (3 mL) was added Pd(dppf)Cl 2 CH 2 Cl 2  (35 mg, 43 umol, 0.15 eq) and K 2 CO 3  (0.15 g, 1.1 mmol, 3.7 eq). The mixture was stirred at 120° C. for 2 hrs under microwave. The reaction mixture was diluted with water (10 mL) and extracted with EA (15 mL×3). The combined organic layers were dried over Na 2 SO 4  and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , Petroleum ether/Ethyl acetate=100/1 to 10/1) to give 8-5 (61 mg, 33% yield) as a yellow oil. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =649.5.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d6) δ=9.39 (s, 1H), 8.27 (d, J=10.8 Hz, 2H), 8.04-7.93 (m, 4H), 7.91-7.85 (m, 2H), 7.84-7.78 (m, 2H), 5.58 (s, 2H), 4.22 (s, 2H), 3.69-3.59 (m, 2H), 1.41 (s, 9H), 1.25 (br d, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 0.94-0.87 (m, 2H), −0.10 (s, 8H). 
     Step 6: 2-((5-(4′-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-6-chloro-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetic acid (Compound 8): To a solution of 8-5 (80 mg, 0.12 umol, 1 eq) in DCM (0.8 mL) was added TFA (0.8 mL). The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hrs. The mixture was concentrated in vacuo to give a residue. The residue was purified by prep-HPLC (column: Welch Ultimate XB—SiOH 250×50×10 um; mobile phase: [A: Hexane, B:EtOH]; B %: 0%-25%) and prep-HPLC (column: Phenomenex Luna C18 75×30 mm×3 um; mobile phase: [A: water (10 mM NH 4 HCO 3 ), B: ACN]; B %: 20%-40%) to give Compound 8 (30 mg, 53% yield) as white soild. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =462.9.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d6) δ=9.38 (s, 1H), 8.27 (s, 1H), 8.08 (s, 1H), 8.01-7.94 (m, 4H), 7.87-7.83 (m, 2H), 7.80-7.76 (m, 2H), 4.02 (s, 2H). 
     Example 9: 2-((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy-4′-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetic Acid (Compound 9) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Step 1: 1-bromo-4-iodo-2-(methoxymethoxy)benzene (9-1): To a solution of 2-bromo-5-iodo-phenol (2.0 g, 6.7 mmol, 1 eq) in DMF (20 mL) was added chloro(methoxy)methane (1.1 g, 13 mmol, 1.0 mL, 2 eq) and K 2 CO 3  (1.9 g, 13 mmol, 2 eq). The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 12 hrs. The reaction solution was quenched with saturated aqueous Na 2 CO 3  solution (40 mL) at 0° C. and extracted with EA (30 mL×2). The combined organic layers were concentrated under reduced pressure to give 9-1 (2 g) as yellow oil. 
     Step 2: 2-bromo-5-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)phenol (9-2): To a solution of 9-1 (0.85 g, 2.5 mmol, 1 eq) and 1H-1,2,4-triazole (0.21 g, 3.0 mmol, 1.2 eq) in DMSO (0.85 mL) was added K 3 PO 4  (1.1 g, 5.0 mmol, 2 eq), N,N′-bis(2-furylmethyl)oxamide (12 mg, 50 umol, 0.02 eq) and Cu 2 O (7.1 mg, 50 umol, 0.02 eq). The mixture was stirred at 120° C. for 12 hrs. The reaction mixture was diluted with H 2 O (10 mL) and extracted with EA (10 mL×3). The combined organic layers were dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , Petroleum ether/Ethyl acetate=5/1 to 1/1) to give 9-2 (0.4 g, 67% yield) as a yellow solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =240.0. 
     Step 3: 1-(4-bromo-3-(methoxymethoxy)phenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazole (9-3): To a solution of 9-2 (0.30 g, 1.3 mmol, 1 eq) in DMF (3 mL) was added chloro(methoxy)methane (0.11 g, 1.4 mmol, 1.1 eq) and K 2 CO 3  (0.35 g, 2.5 mmol, 2 eq). The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hrs. The reaction solution was quenched with saturated aqueous Na 2 CO 3  solution (10 mL) at 0° C. and extracted with EA (10 mL×2). The combined organic layers were concentrated under reduced pressure to give 9-3 (0.30 g) as yellow oil. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =284.0. 
     Step 4: 1-(2-(methoxymethoxy)-4′-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-1,2,4-triazole (9-4): To a solution of 9-3 (0.25 g, 0.88 mmol, 1 eq) and 4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-2-[4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)phenyl]-1,3,2-dioxaborolane (0.52 g, 1.6 mmol, 1.8 eq) in dioxane (4.5 mL) and H 2 O (1.5 mL) was added PCy 3  (9.9 mg, 35 umol, 0.04 eq), 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol (0.19 g, 0.88 mmol, 1 eq) and K 2 CO 3  (0.36 g, 2.6 mmol, 3 eq). The mixture was degassed and purged with N2 3 times, then Pd 2 (dba) 3  (16 mg, 18 umol, 0.02 eq) was added. The mixture was stirred at 110° C. for 2 hrs. The reaction mixture was diluted with H 2 O (10 mL) and extracted with EA (10 mL×3). The combined organic layers were dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , Petroleum ether/Ethyl acetate=1/1 to 0/1) to give 9-4 (0.30 g, 71% yield, 85% purity) as a yellow oil. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =408.2. 
     Step 5: tert-butyl 2-((6-chloro-5-(2′-(methoxymethoxy)-4′-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1-((2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy)methyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetate (9-5): To a solution of 9-4 (0.15 g, 0.37 mmol, 1 eq) and tert-butyl 2-[6-chloro-5-iodo-1-(2-trimethylsilylethoxymethyl)imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl]sulfanylacetate (0.27 g, 0.48 mmol, 1.3 eq) in dioxane (1.2 mL) and H 2 O (0.2 mL) was added Na 2 CO 3  (0.12 g, 1.1 mmol, 3 eq) and Pd(dppf)Cl 2  (27 mg, 37 umol, 0.1 eq). The mixture was degassed and purged with N2 3 times, then stirred at 100° C. for 12 hrs. The reaction mixture was diluted with H 2 O (5 mL) and extracted with EA (5 mL×3). The combined organic layers were dried over Na 2 SO 4 , filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 , Petroleum ether/Ethyl acetate=1/1 to 0/1) to give 9-5 (80 mg, 30% yield) as a yellow oil. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =709.1. 
     Step 6: 2-((6-chloro-5-(2′-hydroxy-4′-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)thio)acetic acid (Compound 9): A solution of 9-5 (60 mg, 84 umol, 1 eq) in 4 M HCl/dioxane (0.6 mL) was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hrs. The reaction mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure to give a residue. The residue was purified by prep-HPLC (column: Phenomenex luna C18 150×25 mm×10 um; mobile phase: [A: water (0.225% FA), B: ACN]; B %: 28%-58%) to give Compound 9 (16 mg, 37% yield) as a yellow solid. LCMS: (ES + ) m/z (M+H) + =478.9.  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ=9.07 (s, 1H) 8.18 (s, 1H) 7.99 (s, 1H) 7.73 (s, 4H) 7.52 (d, J=8.40 Hz, 1H) 7.35-7.43 (m, 2H) 4.22 (s, 2H). 
     II. Biological Evaluation 
     Example A-1: In Vivo pAMPK1 Kinase Activation Assay 
     Compound effect on AMPK enzyme activation was determined in a cell-free format with a 12-point concentration curve. The ADP-Glo detection system was used to determine phosphorylation of a SAMS peptide substrate. Recombinant AMPK α1/β1/γ1 complex was pre-activated by phosphorylation with CAMKK2 followed by incubated with compound for 15 minutes prior to the SAMS phosphorylation reaction. Activity curves and EC 50  values were fitted by interpolation to an ATP:ADP standard curve as indicated by the ADP-Glo manufacturer using Prism software. Activity at 10 μM is reported relative to a reference compound, MK-8722 (Science 2017, 357(6350):507-511). 
     This analysis revealed that Compounds 1 and A1 each at 10 μM display activation greater than that displayed by AMP. However, Compound 1 is &gt;100-fold more potent than Compound A1 which translates to a significantly lower dose required for efficacy in vivo. 
     Results for exemplary compounds are shown in Table 1. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Compound 
                 EC 50  (nM) 
                 Activity at 10 μM (%) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 A1 
                 200 
                 48 
               
               
                 1 
                 1.4 
                 35 
               
               
                 2 
                 0.97 
                 47 
               
               
                 3 
                 2.38 
                 49 
               
               
                 4 
                 0.55 
                 28 
               
               
                 6 
                 1123 
                 18 
               
               
                 7 
                 43 
                 42 
               
               
                 8 
                 20 
                 39 
               
               
                 9 
                 1.1 
                 51 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example A-2: Pharmacokinetic Assays 
     Oral Bioavailability 
     Compounds were tested for pharmacokinetics in C57BL/6 mice. Compounds 2, 4, and A1 were dosed IV at 1 mg/kg as a formulation of 0.5 mg/mL in 5% DMSO+30% PEG400+65% water and PO at 30 mg/kg as a formulation of 6 mg/mL in 0.25% MC+5% Tween 80+0.02% SDS. Compound 1 was dosed IV at 1 mg/kg as a formulation of 0.50 mg/mL in 5% DMSO+30% PEG400+65% water and PO at 30 mg/kg as a formulation of 6 mg/mL in 0.5% MC+0.5% Tween 80. 
     Compounds 1, 2, 4 and A1 were shown to have oral bioavailability of less than 1%. 
     Following IV administration, Compound 1 has a significantly reduced volume of distribution (0.7 L/kg) compared to Compound A1 (2.4 L/kg), as well as a shorter half-life (1.9 h for 1, 4.8 h for A1). This indicates that a smaller portion of the absorbed dose makes it into tissues and that any absorbed dose is eliminated more quickly, respectively, for Compound 1 when compared to Compound A1. Compound 1 has a greatly reduced risk of causing systemic AMPK activation compared to Compound A1. 
     Concentrations in Colon Post Oral Dosing 
     A time course for colonic exposure to Compound A1 was determined in mouse following a single bolus oral (PO) gavage of 30 mg/kg of A1. Whole colon from cecum to rectum was collected at 2, 4, 6, and 8 hours post-dose and snap frozen. Tissue was homogenized and the concentration of A1 was measured. 
     As shown in Table 2, an exposure profile ranging from 122-255 μM was observed during this time frame. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Time post dosing 
                 A1 (PO; dose: 30 mg/kg) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
                 2 h 
                 254 μM 
               
               
                   
                 4 h 
                 122 μM 
               
               
                   
                 6 h 
                 128 μM 
               
               
                   
                 8 h 
                 205 μM 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example A-3: BCRP Substrate Assessment in the Caco-2 Cell Monolayer 
     Caco-2 cells purchased from ATCC were seeded onto polyethylene membranes (PET) in 96-well BD Insert plates at 1×10 5  cells/cm 2 , and refreshed medium every 4-5 days until to the 21 st  to 28 th  day for confluent cell monolayer formation. The transport buffer in the study was HBSS with 10 mM HEPES at pH 7.40 f 0.05. Compounds were tested at 2 μM in the presence or absence of 30 μM novobiocin bi-directionally in duplicate. E3S was tested at 5 μM in the presence or absence of 30 μM novobiocin bi-directionally in duplicate, while nadolol and metoprolol were tested at 2 μM in the absence of novobiocin in A to B direction in duplicate. Final DMSO concentration was adjusted to less than 1%. The plate was incubated for 2 hours in CO 2  incubator at 37±1° C., with 5% CO 2  at saturated humidity without shaking. All samples were mixed with acetonitrile containing internal standard and were centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 10 min. Subsequently, 100 μL supernatant solution was diluted with 100 ILL distilled water for LC/MS/MS analysis. Concentrations of test and control compounds in starting solution, donor solution, and receiver solution were quantified by LC/MS/MS, using peak area ratio of analyte/internal standard. 
     Results for exemplary compounds are shown in Table 3. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Mean P app  (10 −6   
                   
                 Mean Recovery 
               
               
                   
                 cm/s) 
                 Efflux 
                 (%) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Compound 
                 Inhibitor 
                 A to B 
                 B to A 
                 Ratio 
                 A to B 
                 B to A 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 nadolol 
                 — 
                 0.11 
                 ND 
                 — 
                 99.73 
                 ND 
               
               
                 (control: low 
               
               
                 permeability) 
               
               
                 metoprolol 
                 — 
                 14.72 
                 ND 
                 — 
                 95.40 
                 ND 
               
               
                 (control: high 
               
               
                 permeability) 
               
               
                 E3S 
                 — 
                 0.42 
                 15.55 
                 36.79 
                 76.60 
                 98.34 
               
               
                 BCRP substrate 
               
               
                 control 
               
               
                   
                 novobiocin 
                 1.21 
                 4.16 
                 3.43 
                 77.15 
                 98.52 
               
               
                 Compound A1 
                 — 
                 &lt;0.01 
                 17.08 
                 &gt;2299.14 
                 &lt;65.56 
                 77.39 
               
               
                   
                 novobiocin 
                 0.16 
                 9.16 
                 55.54 
                 61.16 
                 78.94 
               
               
                 Compound 1 
                 — 
                 &lt;0.05 
                 12.74 
                 &gt;258.28 
                 &lt;68.76 
                 79.53 
               
               
                   
                 novobiocin 
                 0.16 
                 6.98 
                 44.89 
                 69.40 
                 82.75 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Both Compounds 1 and A1 were shown to have a large BA/AB efflux ratio (&gt;100) PG-7T in the absence of novobiocin. The BA/AB efflux ratio decreases in the presence of novobiocin for both 1 and A1. These data indicate that the compounds are likely substrates of intestinal efflux transporters. 
     Example A-4: In Vivo MDCK Epithelial Permeability Assay 
     In order to quantitatively measure the effects of transporter substrate AMPK activators on epithelial permeability in vitro, standard calcium switch protocols from the literature were adapted for use with Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells grown on Corning Transwell inserts for use with fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran, average molecular weight 4 kDa (FITC-dextran). FITC-dextran is a large, metabolically inert sugar molecule that is not readily transferrable across healthy epithelial barriers in vitro or in vivo. This compound has been tagged with a fluorophore to easily track its movement. 
     Briefly, MDCK cells were seeded onto Transwell inserts and grown according to manufacturer instructions until confluent. On the day of the experiment, a baseline reading was taken in standard growth media in which FITC-dextran was spiked into the apical chamber and the percent permeation of FITC-dextran from the apical to the basolateral chamber was measured. The inserts were then washed in low calcium medium (LCM) containing either vehicle or compound to remove residual FITC-dextran and calcium, and FITC-dextran was once again spiked into the apical chamber and the percent permeation in LCM was measured. Values were determined by reading fluorescence intensity on a standard plate reader and calculated by fitting back to 12-point standard curve in either growth media or LCM+vehicle, respectively. The fold induction of FITC-dextran permeation to the basolateral chamber when each well was transferred from baseline growth media to LCM was then calculated. 
     Both Compounds 1 and A1 dose-dependently reduced the amount of FITC-dextran that permeated from the apical chamber to the basolateral chamber in the LCM condition relative to baseline; and show a reduction of 62% and 61% respectively at 1 μM, and 48% and 40% respectively at 0.1 μM relative to the vehicle treated epithelial cell monolayers. This effect was reversible, as the compound-induced reduction in basolateral permeation of FITC-dextran in LCM was lost following an overnight washout in regular growth media. 
     Example A-5: Effects of AMPK Activators on Tight Junction (TJ) Architecture 
     MDCK cells were grown to confluence on Transwell inserts in standard growth media. The inserts were then washed and incubated in low calcium medium (LCM) with vehicle or compound (10 μM) and fixed with paraformaldehyde. Fixed cells were stained for tight junction (TJ) component proteins using commercially available antibodies and visualized on a confocal microscope (Model DM6, Leica Microsystems). As shown by zona occludens-1 (ZO-1) staining, confluent epithelial cell monolayers in standard growth media display well-organized TJs that allow the cells to form a tight seal with their neighbors, while LCM induces autonomous internalization of TJ proteins into the cytoplasm and therefore compromises the barrier function of the epithelial monolayer. Both Compounds 1 and A1 prevented the loss of TJ architecture in the presence of LCM as visualized by zona occludens-1 (ZO-1) staining. 
     Example A-6: Effects of AMPK Activators on Intestinal Barrier Function in a Mouse in Vivo Acute Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS) Colitis Model 
     Vehicle or a dose of Compound A1 or Compound 1 was administered once daily by oral gavage to C57Bl/6 mice. After 3 days of pre-dosing, dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) was simultaneously administered at 2.5-3% in drinking water, and appropriate water-only controls were included. 
     After 6 days of DSS administration, animals treated with Compound A1 were switched back to their regular water source and a 24-hour wash-out of both DSS and compound was provided. The animals were fasted on the morning of take-down and administered a single oral bolus dose of FITC-dextran. The animals were sacrificed by cardiac puncture 4 hours after administration and plasma was collected. The concentration of FITC-dextran present in plasma was determined by measuring fluorescence intensity on a standard plate reader, and fitting values back to a standard curve. 
     After 7 days of DSS administration, animals treated with Compound 1 were switched back to their regular water source and the animals were administered a single oral bolus dose of FITC-dextran (FD) four hours prior to necropsy. The animals were sacrificed by cardiac puncture and serum was collected. The concentration of FITC-dextran present in serum was determined by measuring fluorescence intensity on a standard plate reader, and fitting values back to a standard curve. 
     As shown in Table 4, administration of Compound A1 and Compound 1 produced reductions in plasma or serum fluorescence intensity compared to vehicle treatment in animals given DSS; however, Compound 1 at a dose of 10 mg/kg showed superior efficacy compared to Compound A1 at higher dose. This is indicative of improved intestinal barrier function in the animals treated with Compound 1 relative to Compound A1-treated animals and vehicle-treated controls. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Compound 
                 Change in Fluorescence 
               
               
                   
                 (dose) 
                 Intensity vs. Vehicle 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
                 A1 (30 mg/kg)     
                 −60% 
               
               
                   
                 1 (3 mg/kg)  
                 −35% 
               
               
                   
                 1 (10 mg/kg) 
                 −69% 
               
               
                   
                 1 (30 mg/kg) 
                 −80% 
               
               
                   
                  1 (100 mg/kg) 
                 −96% 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example A-7: Effects of AMPK Activators on Diarrhea in a Mouse In Vivo Chemotherapy-Induced Intestinal Injury Model 
     Compounds were formulated in vehicle (0.25% methyl cellulose, 5% Tween 80, 0.02% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) in Hanks&#39; Buffered Salt Solution with Ca2+ and Mg2+). On day 1, either saline or a 400 mg/kg dose of 5-fluorouracil (5FU) in saline was administered by intraperitoneal injection to BALB/c mice. Starting on day 2, vehicle or compound was administered once or twice a day by oral gavage. In some instances, compound was also administered once or twice a day by oral gavage from day −3 to day −1 (pre-5FU). From days 5 to 6 post-5FU, the animals were scored for diarrhea severity once a day. The diarrhea was scored 0-3 as follows: 0—normal consistency (black and solid), 1—soft (black and a bit lighter/yellow), 2—loosely shaped stool (yellowish and somewhat watery), 3—extreme diarrhea (very watery). Day 5 and day 6 diarrhea scores following administration of certain compounds were lower than vehicle control mice. Compound A1 at a dose of 30 mg/kg QD showed only modest improvement to diarrhea score on Day 6 and worsened the diarrhea score on Day 5, whereas Compound 1 significantly improved diarrhea score on both Day 5 and Day 6 at the same dose. In addition, Compound 1 was efficacious at doses as low as 3 mg/kg BID (6 mg/kg total daily dose). This indicates that Compound 1 has greater efficacy than Compound A1 at a much lower dose, translating into significantly lower doses for efficacy in the clinic. 
     Results for exemplary compounds are shown in Table 5. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Compound 
                 Diarrhea Score (% Change vs. Vehicle) 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 (dose) 
                 Day 5 
                 Day 6 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 A1 (30 mg/kg QD)  
                 1.38 (+38%) 
                 1.25 (−29%) 
               
               
                 1 (30 mg/kg QD)  
                 0.63 (−30%) 
                 0.75 (−58%) 
               
               
                 1 (3 mg/kg BID)  
                 0.50 (−17%) 
                 0.75 (−56%) 
               
               
                 1 (10 mg/kg BID) 
                 0.43 (−28%) 
                 0.50 (−71%) 
               
               
                 1 (30 mg/kg BID) 
                    0 (−100%) 
                 0.57 (−66%) 
               
               
                  1 (100 mg/kg BID) 
                 0.38 (−63%) 
                 0.38 (−79%) 
               
               
                 4 (30 mg/kg BID) 
                 0.37 (−58%) 
                 0.63 (−65%) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example A-8: Effects of AMPK Activators on the Level of Acetyl CoA Carboxylase (ACC) Phosphorylation in Mouse Muscle 
     Systemic AMPK target engagement in vivo can be assessed by measuring the site-specific phosphorylation of a direct AMPK substrate, acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (ACC), in a well perfused tissue such as muscle. 
     Compounds were formulated in vehicle (0.25% methyl cellulose, 5% Tween 80, 0.02% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) in Hanks&#39; Buffered Salt Solution with Ca 2+  and Mg 2+ ). Male C57BL/6J mice were administered vehicle or compound once daily for 5 days. On the final day of dosing (day 1 for acute assessment, day 5 for sub-chronic assessment), mice were euthanized by cervical dislocation five hours post dose and samples of skeletal muscle (gastrocnemius) were removed and snap frozen in liquid nitrogen. 
     Frozen muscle tissues were homogenized. Homogenates were analyzed for protein concentration and equal amounts of protein were assayed for total and phosphorylated ACC (p-ACC) levels using Meso Scale Discovery&#39;s Multi-array assay kit. The ratio of p-ACC/total ACC was determined for each sample. 
     Results for exemplary compounds are shown in Table 5. For a systemically active compound (e.g. MK-8722), the ratio of pACC/total ACC following administration of 30 mg/kg was significantly higher than vehicle control mice. The ratio of pACC/total ACC following administration of 30 mg/kg of Compound 1 was not significantly changed from vehicle control mice. This indicates that unlike MK-8722, Compound 1 is gut targeted and does not engage AMPK in the periphery at doses higher than those required for efficacy. Statistics were performed using one-way ANOVA vs vehicle group (Dunnett&#39;s post-test). ns=not significant; **** p&lt;0.0001. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Compound 
                 % p-ACC/ACC ratio change vs. Vehicle 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 (dose) 
                 Acute (5 hr) 
                   
                 Sub-chronic (5 days) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 MK-8722 
                 275.7 
                 **** 
                 259.0 
                 **** 
               
               
                 (30 mg/kg) 
               
               
                 Compound 1 
                 6.6 
                 ns 
                 29.6 
                 ns 
               
               
                 (30 mg/kg)