Patent Publication Number: US-11643720-B2

Title: Selective deposition of silicon oxide on metal surfaces

Description:
REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/002,135, filed on Mar. 30, 2020, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Field 
     The present disclosure relates generally to selective deposition of silicon oxide on a metal or metallic surface of a substrate relative to a dielectric surface of the substrate. 
     Description of the Related Art 
     The shrinking device dimensions in semiconductor manufacturing call for new innovative processing approaches. Conventionally, patterning in semiconductor processing involves subtractive processes, in which blanket layers are deposited, masked by photolithographic techniques, and etched through openings in the mask. Additive patterning is also known, in which masking steps precede deposition of the materials of interest, such as patterning using lift-off techniques or damascene processing. In most cases, expensive multi-step lithographic techniques are applied for patterning. 
     Patterning could be simplified by selective deposition, which has received increasing interest among semiconductor manufacturers. Selective deposition would be highly beneficial in various ways. Significantly, it could allow a decrease in lithography steps, reducing the cost of processing. Selective deposition could also enable enhanced scaling in narrow structures. 
     Thin films comprising silicon dioxide are used in many different applications in microelectronic devices, for example, as dielectric materials. Silicon dioxide is one of the most commonly used dielectric materials in silicon microelectronic devices. 
     SUMMARY 
     In some aspects, methods for selective deposition of silicon oxide films on metal or metallic surfaces relative to dielectric surfaces are provided. In some embodiments, the methods of selectively depositing silicon oxide on a metal surface of a substrate relative to a dielectric surface of the substrate comprise, in order: contacting the substrate with a passivation agent; contacting the metal surface with a metal catalyst; and contacting the metal surface with a silicon reactant comprising a silanol. In some embodiments, the metal surface comprises one or more of Al, Cu, Co, Ni, W, Nb, Fe, and Mo. In some embodiments, the dielectric surface comprises a silicon oxide. In some embodiments, contacting the substrate with the passivation agent results in selectively passivating the dielectric surface relative to the metal surface. In some embodiments, the passivation agent is a silylating agent. In some embodiments, the silylating agent comprises an alkylaminosilane. In some embodiments, the alkylaminosilane has a formula (R I ) 3 Si(NR II R III ), wherein R I  is a linear or branched C 1 -C 5  alkyl group or a linear or branched C 1 -C 4  alkyl group, R II  is a linear or branched C 1 -C 5  alkyl group, a linear or branched C 1 -C 4  alkyl group, or hydrogen, and R III  is a linear or branched C 1 -C 5  alkyl group or a linear or branched C 1 -C 4  alkyl group. In some embodiments, the silylating agent comprises allyltrimethylsilane (TMS-A), chlorotrimethylsilane (TMS-Cl), N-(trimethylsilyl)imidazole (TMS-Im), octadecyltrichlorosilane (ODTCS), hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS), or N-(trimethylsilyl)dimethylamine (TMSDMA). 
     In some embodiments, the metal catalyst comprises trimethylaluminum (TMA), dimethylaluminum chloride, aluminum trichloride (AlCl 3 ), dimethylaluminum isopropoxide (DMAI), tris(tert-butyl)aluminum (TTBA), tris(isopropoxide)aluminum (TIPA) or triethyl aluminum (TEA). In some embodiments, the metal catalyst is a metal compound comprising Zn, Mg, Mn, La, Hf, Al, Zr, Ti, Sn, or Ga. In some embodiments, the metal catalyst is a metal halide, organometallic compound or metalorganic compound. 
     In some embodiments, the silicon reactant comprises tris(tert-butoxy)silanol (TBS), tris(isopropoxy)silanol (TIS), or tris(tert-pentoxy)silanol (TPS). 
     In some embodiments, a passivation blocking layer is formed on the metal surface prior to contacting the substrate with the passivation agent. In some embodiments, the passivation blocking layer comprises a polymer or a self-assembled monolayer (SAM). 
     In some embodiments, the selectivity of deposition of silicon oxide on the catalyzed metal surface relative to the passivated dielectric surface is greater than about 50%. 
     In some embodiments, selectively depositing silicon oxide on a metal surface of a substrate relative to a dielectric surface of the substrate comprises a deposition super-cycle comprising: contacting the substrate with a silylating agent, and conducting one or more silicon oxide deposition sub-cycles comprising alternately and sequentially contacting the substrate with a metal catalyst and a silanol. In some embodiments, the silylating agent is N-(trimethylsilyl)dimethylamine. In some embodiments, the metal catalyst comprises trimethylaluminum (TMA), dimethylaluminum chloride, aluminum trichloride (AlCl 3 ), dimethylaluminum isopropoxide (DMAI), tris(tert-butyl)aluminum (TTBA), tris(isopropoxide)aluminum (TIPA) or triethyl aluminum (TEA). 
     In some embodiments, the metal catalyst is a metal compound comprising Zn, Mg, Mn, La, Hf, Al, Zr, Ti, Sn, or Ga. In some embodiments, the metal catalyst is a metal halide, organometallic compound, or metalorganic compound. In some embodiments, the silane is tris(tert-pentoxy)silanol. In some embodiments, the silicon oxide deposition sub-cycle is repeated two or more times in the deposition super-cycle. In some embodiments, the substrate is contacted with the silanol two or more times in at least one silicon oxide deposition sub-cycle. In some embodiments, the deposition super-cycle is repeated two or more times. 
     In some embodiments, methods of selectively depositing silicon oxide on a metal surface of a substrate relative to a dielectric surface of the substrate comprise alternately and sequentially contacting the substrate with a silylating agent comprising allyltrimethylsilane (TMS-A), chlorotrimethylsilane (TMS-Cl), N-(trimethylsilyl)imidazole (TMS-Im), octadecyltrichlorosilane (ODTCS), hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS), or N-(trimethylsilyl)dimethylamine (TMSDMA); trimethylaluminum (TMA), dimethylaluminum chloride, aluminum trichloride (AlCl 3 ), dimethylaluminum isopropoxide (DMAI), tris(tert-butyl)aluminum (TTBA), tris(isopropoxide)aluminum (TIPA) or triethyl aluminum (TEA); and tris(tert-pentoxy)silanol. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG.  1    is a flow chart illustrating a deposition process for selectively depositing silicon oxide on a metal surface relative to a dielectric surface. 
         FIG.  2 A  is a schematic cross section of a portion of a substrate having first dielectric surface and a second adjacent metal surface. 
         FIG.  2 B  is a schematic cross section of the substrate of  FIG.  2 A  after a selective passivation of the dielectric surface. 
         FIG.  2 C  is a schematic cross section of the substrate of  FIG.  2 B  after selective deposition of an aluminum catalyst on the metal surface. 
         FIG.  2 D  is a schematic cross section of the substrate of  FIG.  2 C  after selective deposition of silicon oxide on the metal surface. 
         FIG.  2 E  is a schematic cross section of the substrate of  FIG.  2 D  after removal of the passivation material from the oxide surface. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The silicon oxide films, such as silicon dioxide films, for example SiO 2  films, formed by the methods described herein can be used in a variety of contexts. Silicon oxide films, such as silicon dioxide films, for example SiO 2  films, are used, for example, in a wide variety of semiconductor devices, including CMOS, DRAM, flash, and magnetic head applications. Silicon oxide, such as silicon dioxide, for example SiO 2 , is also commonly used as a gate dielectric for CMOS, as an electrical isolation layer, and gap filling layer. Silicon oxide films, such as silicon dioxide films, for example SiO 2  films, can be deposited by silanol exposure to surfaces comprising an appropriate catalyst. The catalyst prepares the surface for reaction with a silanol that leads to catalytic silicon oxide growth on the substrate surface. 
     In some embodiments, silicon oxide is selectively deposited over a first metal (or metallic) surface relative to a second dielectric surface, such as an oxide surface, through the use of a passivation agent in combination with a catalyst. In some embodiments, the dielectric surface may be selectively passivated relative to the metal surface, for example by silylation. Subsequently, a catalyst is selectively deposited on the metal surface relative to the dielectric surface. The catalyst may be, for example, a metal catalyst as described in more detail below. A silicon oxide layer is then selectively deposited on the metal surface relative to the passivated dielectric surface by contacting the substrate with a silicon reactant such as a silanol. In some embodiments, silicon oxide is deposited after passivation of the dielectric surface and a catalyst is not deposited on the metal surface. The silicon oxide layer may be deposited by a cyclical vapor deposition process in which the substrate is alternately contacted with the catalyst and the silanol until a silicon oxide film of a desired thickness has been selectively deposited. In some embodiments the passivation step may be omitted. 
     In some embodiments a dielectric surface, such as an oxide surface, on a substrate is silylated with a silylating agent such as allyltrimethylsilane (TMS-A), chlorotrimethylsilane (TMS-Cl), N-(trimethylsilyl)imidazole (TMS-Im), octadecyltrichlorosilane (ODTCS), hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS), or N-(trimethylsilyl)dimethylamine (TMSDMA), a metal catalyst as described herein is selectively deposited on a metal surface of the same substrate, and silicon oxide is subsequently selectively deposited on the metal surface of the substrate relative to the passivated dielectric surface. For example, a silicon oxide layer may be selectively deposited on a metal surface relative to an adjacent dielectric surface, such as a metal oxide surface, a silicon oxide surface or a low k surface, by, for example, using allyltrimethylsilane (TMS-A), chlorotrimethylsilane (TMS-Cl), N-(trimethylsilyl)imidazole (TMS-Im), octadecyltrichlorosilane (ODTCS), hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS), or N-(trimethylsilyl)dimethylamine (TMSDMA) as the passivation agent, trimethylaluminum (TMA), dimethylaluminum chloride, aluminum trichloride (AlCl 3 ), dimethylaluminum isopropoxide (DMAI), tris(tert-butyl)aluminum (TTBA), tris(isopropoxide)aluminum (TIPA) or triethyl aluminum (TEA) as an aluminum catalyst, and a silanol such as tris(tert-pentoxy) silanol as the silicon reactant. 
     In some embodiments a metal or metallic surface of a substrate comprises an elemental metal or metal alloy, while a second, different surface of the substrate comprises a dielectric material, such as an oxide. In some embodiments the dielectric surface and metal surface are adjacent to each other. Examples of possible dielectric materials include silicon oxide-based materials, including grown or deposited silicon dioxide, doped and/or porous oxides, native oxide on silicon, etc. In some embodiments the dielectric material comprises a metal oxide. In some embodiments the dielectric material comprises a low k material. 
     The surface of the dielectric material may be selectively passivated relative to the metal or metallic surface, such as by selective silylation. In some embodiments the dielectric surface is contacted with a vapor phase passivation agent, such as vapor phase allyltrimethylsilane (TMS-A), chlorotrimethylsilane (TMS-Cl), N-(trimethylsilyl)imidazole (TMS-Im), octadecyltrichlorosilane (ODTCS), hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS), or N-(trimethylsilyl)dimethylamine (TMSDMA). The substrate may be contacted with a sufficient quantity of the passivation agent and for a sufficient period of time that the dielectric surface is selectively passivated with silicon species. In some embodiments both surfaces are contacted with the vapor phase passivation agent and the dielectric surface is selectively passivated relative to the metal or metallic surface. In some embodiments the dielectric surface is not passivated with a self-assembled monolayer (SAM). 
     A catalyst is selectively formed on the metal surface relative to the dielectric surface, such as by contacting the substrate with a metal catalyst compound. In some embodiments the catalyst is a metal catalyst. Both the metal surface and the dielectric surface are contacted with the metal catalyst compound in some embodiments. A metal surface comprising catalyst species may be referred to as a “catalyzed metal surface” herein. In some embodiments the substrate is contacted with a metal catalyst as described below. The catalyst may be, for example, a metal compound comprising Zn, Mg, Mn, La, Hf, Al, Zr, Ti, Sn, or Ga. In some embodiments the catalyst is a metal halide, organometallic or metalorganic compound. In some embodiments the catalyst may be a metal oxide. In some embodiments the catalyst is a compound comprising boron. In some embodiments the metal catalyst is an aluminum catalyst comprising trimethylaluminum (TMA), dimethylaluminum chloride, aluminum trichloride (AlCl 3 ), dimethylaluminum isopropoxide (DMAI), tris(tert-butyl)aluminum (TTBA), tris(isopropoxide)aluminum (TIPA) or triethyl aluminum (TEA). In some embodiments the catalyst is a zirconium compound, such as Zr-DO 4 . In some embodiments the catalyst is tetrakis(ethylmethylamino)zirconium (TEMAZ). In some embodiments the catalyst is ZrCl 4 . In some embodiments the catalyst is a lanthanum compound, such as tris(isopropyl-cyclopentadienyl)lanthanum (LA(iPrCp) 3 ). In some embodiments the catalyst is a titanium compound, such as titanium isopropoxide (TTIP) or TiCl 4 . In some embodiments the catalyst is a gallium compound, such as trimethylgallium (TMG). In some embodiments the catalyst is a hafnium compound, such as HfCl 4  or Hf(NO 3 ) 4 . 
     In some embodiments the catalyst may preferentially deposit on the metal surface relative to the dielectric surface. In some embodiments the catalyst preferentially deposits on the metal surface relative to a passivated dielectric surface. In some embodiments the passivation agent on the dielectric surface inhibits or prevents deposition of aluminum catalyst on the dielectric surface. In some embodiments a single exposure to the passivation agent may prevent deposition of catalyst on the dielectric surface for 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40 or 50 or more cycles in which the substrate is contacted with the catalyst. In some embodiments the dielectric surface is not passivated and the catalyst selectively deposits on the metal surface in the absence of a passivating material on the dielectric surface. In some embodiments a catalyst is not utilized, for example where the metal of the metal or metallic surface may itself catalyze the silicon oxide deposition. 
     After deposition of the catalyst on the metal or metallic surface, a silicon oxide layer is selectively deposited on the metal or metallic surface relative to the passivated dielectric surface. For example, the substrate may be exposed to a silicon precursor, such as a silanol. In some embodiments the substrate is exposed to the silicon precursor alone, while in some embodiments the substrate is exposed to the silicon precursor and an oxygen precursor, such as H 2 O. The silicon precursor may react with the surface comprising the aluminum catalyst to form silicon oxide. For example, the substrate may be contacted with a silicon reactant comprising a silanol such that the silanol decomposes at the catalyst atoms on the metal or metallic surface, resulting in the selective growth of silicon oxide on the metal or metallic surface relative to the dielectric surface. 
     In some embodiments the substrate is alternately and sequentially contacted with the passivation agent, the catalyst and the silanol reactant in one or more deposition super-cycles. This deposition super-cycle may be repeated multiple times to selectively deposit a silicon oxide film of a desired thickness on the metal surface relative to the dielectric surface. With reference to  FIG.  1   , in some embodiments in a complete deposition super-cycle  100  the substrate is initially contacted with the passivation agent  110 , such as a silylating agent. Excess passivation agent may be removed from the substrate surface. A silicon oxide deposition sub-cycle  120  is carried out in which the substrate is contacted with the catalyst  130  and the silicon precursor, such as a silanol  140 . As mentioned above, in some embodiments the substrate is contacted with an oxygen reactant such as H 2 O in addition to the silicon reactant. Excess catalyst and silanol may be removed from the substrate surface after each contacting step  130  and  140 . The sub-cycle may be repeated 150 multiple times in a single deposition super-cycle  100 . In some embodiments one, two, three or more silicon oxide deposition sub-cycles in which the substrate is alternately and sequentially contacted with the catalyst  130  and the silanol reactant  140  are carried out in each deposition super-cycle  100 . That is, for each time that the substrate is contacted with the passivation agent  110 , multiple silicon oxide deposition sub-cycles  120  may be carried out. In some embodiments the silicon oxide deposition sub-cycle  120  is repeated up to fifty times prior to commencing another deposition super-cycle  100  by contacting the substrate with the passivation agent. In some embodiments after the deposition sub-cycles and prior to contacting the substrate with the passivation agent  110 , the passivation layer is removed, such as by plasma etching, for example by contacting the substrate with H 2  plasma. In this way the passivation layer may be renewed one or more times during the deposition process. In some embodiments the passivation layer is not removed in every deposition super-cycle  100  but is only removed in one or more deposition super-cycles, such as in the last deposition super-cycle. The deposition super-cycle  100  may be repeated until a silicon oxide film of a desired thickness has been selectively formed on the metal surface. In some embodiments the passivation agent is provided only once in the deposition process. 
     In some embodiments the metal or metallic surface on which the metal oxide is selectively deposited is at least partially adjacent to the dielectric surface that is selectively passivated. For example, at least one portion of a metal or metallic surface may be adjacent to a dielectric surface such as an oxide surface. 
     In some embodiments, prior to forming the passivation layer on the dielectric surface, such as an oxide surface, the metal or metallic surface can be provided with a passivation blocking layer, such as a self-assembled monolayer (SAM). The passivation blocking layer may facilitate selectivity for the passivation, such as silylation, of the dielectric surface, and the passivation blocking layer can be removed thereafter to permit selective deposition of the metal catalyst and the silicon oxide on the metal or metallic surface relative to the silylated dielectric surface. 
     The passivation layer (for example silylation) on the dielectric surface may be removed from the dielectric surface, such as from an oxide surface, following the selective deposition of the silicon oxide layer over the metal or metallic surface. Conditions may be chosen to avoid damage to surrounding materials on the substrate. In some embodiments the passivation layer (for example silylation) on the dielectric surface may be removed and renewed at one or more intervals during the deposition of the silicon oxide layer. For example, the passivation layer may be removed, such as by exposure to H 2  plasma, at one or more intervals during the deposition process, followed by re-exposure to the silylating agent before proceeding with further silicon oxide deposition. In some embodiments the passivation layer is removed and renewed in each cycle. 
     Examples of suitable reactors that may be used in the selective deposition processes described herein include commercially available atomic layer deposition (ALD) equipment. In addition to ALD reactors, many other kinds of reactors capable of growth of organic passivation layers, including chemical vapor deposition (CVD) reactors, vapor deposition polymerization (VDP) reactors, and molecular layer deposition (MLD) reactors, can be employed. 
     Substrate Surfaces 
     According to some aspects of the present disclosure, selective deposition can be used to deposit films of interest, such as silicon oxide films, on a metal or metallic surface preferentially relative to an oxide surface, or other dielectric surface. Such a substrate is illustrated schematically in  FIG.  2 A . In some embodiments the two surfaces are at least partially adjacent to each other on the substrate. Selective passivation of the oxide surface, such as selective silylation of the oxide surface, relative to the metal or metallic surface, facilitates subsequent selective deposition of a metal catalyst on the metal or metallic surface followed by selective deposition of a silicon oxide layer on the metal or metallic surface relative to the silylated oxide surface. 
     In some embodiments, one of the surfaces can be a conductive metal or metallic surface of a substrate, while the other dielectric surface can be a non-conductive oxide surface of the substrate. In some embodiments, the non-conductive oxide surface comprises —OH groups, such as a silicon oxide-based surface (e.g., low-k materials, including grown and deposited silicon-oxide materials and native oxide over silicon). The oxide surface can be selectively passivated relative to the metal or metallic surface by exposure to a silylation agent. This is followed by exposure to a metal catalyst and subsequently silicon oxide can be selectively deposited on the metal or metallic surface relative to the silylated oxide surface. 
     The material differences between the two substrate surfaces are such that vapor deposition methods can selectively passivate the oxide surface relative to the metal or metallic surface. In some embodiments, cyclical vapor deposition is used, for example, cyclical chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or atomic layer deposition (ALD) processes. In some embodiments, selectivity for the passivation layer can be achieved without passivation/blocking agents on the metal or metallic surface (to receive less of the passivation layer), and/or without catalytic agents on the surface of the dielectric layer to receive more of the passivation layer. For example, in embodiments where the first surface is an oxide and the second surface is metallic, the oxide layer can be selectively silylated relative to the metal or metallic surface without pretreatment of the oxide surface or the metal or metallic surface. 
     In some embodiments, the metal or metallic surface is first treated to inhibit passivation (such as silylation) of that surface. In some embodiments the passivation blocking layer is a polymer layer. In some embodiments a passivation blocking self-assembled monolayer (SAM) can be first formed over a metal or metallic surface relative to an oxide surface, facilitating selective deposition of a passivation layer on the oxide surface relative to the SAM-covered metallic surface. The passivation inhibitor can be removed after selective passivation and prior to deposition of the catalyst and the subsequent deposition of the silicon oxide. After selective deposition of the passivation layer is completed, selective deposition of materials of interest, such as the catalyst and/or the silicon oxide, can be conducted on the non-passivated metal or metallic surface relative to the passivated surface. 
     As used herein, unless otherwise specified if a surface is referred to as a metal surface herein, it may be a metal surface or a metallic surface. In some embodiments, the metal or metallic surface may comprise surface oxidation. In some embodiments, the material of the metal surface is electrically conductive with or without surface oxidation. In some embodiments, a metal surface comprises one or more transition metals. In some embodiments, a metal surface comprises one or more of Al, Cu, Co, Ni, W, Nb, Fe, or Mo. In some embodiments a metal surface comprises Cu. In some embodiments a metal surface is a copper surface. In some embodiments, a metallic surface comprises titanium nitride. In some embodiments, the metal surface comprises one or more noble metals, such as Ru. In some embodiments, the metal surface comprises a metal oxide, such as a conductive metal oxide, metal nitride, metal carbide, metal boride, or combination thereof. For example, the metal or metallic surface may comprise one or more of RuO x , NbC x , NbB x , NiO x , CoO x , NbO x , MoO x , WO x , WNC x , TaN, or TiN. 
     In some embodiments, the metal or metallic surface is a surface that can accept or coordinate with a reactant utilized in a selective deposition process of the aluminum catalyst, as described herein. 
     As mentioned above, in some embodiments, the metal or metallic surface may comprise a passivation blocking layer thereover. That is, in some embodiments, the metal or metallic surface may comprise a material that inhibits formation of a passivation layer on the metal or metallic surface, for example a self-assembled monolayer (SAM). In some embodiments a deposition process includes forming the passivation blocking layer on the metal or metallic surface but not on the surface to be passivated. Following formation of the passivation layer on the dielectric surface, the passivation blocking layer may be removed, if necessary or desired. 
     Passivation of Substrate Surfaces 
     In some embodiments an oxide or other dielectric surface of a substrate may be passivated. In some embodiments, the passivation is selective for the oxide surface relative to another surface, such as a metal or metallic surface on the same substrate (see, e.g.,  FIG.  2 B ). In some embodiments the oxide surface is silylated by exposure to a vapor phase silylating agent one or more times. For example, in a passivation step, a silylating agent may be conducted into the reaction space and contacted with the substrate surface. The silylation agent may be, for example, a chlorosilane, alkoxysilane, silyl halide, silylcyanate, silylazide, silylisocyanate, silylisothiocyanate, silylsulfonate, silylacetamide, silylcarbodiimide, allylsilane, or nitrogen-bearing silane such as a silazane, imidazole or amine. In some embodiments the silylating agent is allyltrimethylsilane (TMS-A), chlorotrimethylsilane (TMS-Cl), N-(trimethylsilyl)imidazole (TMS-Im), octadecyltrichlorosilane (ODTCS), hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS), or N-(trimethylsilyl)dimethylamine (TMSDMA) and silylation comprises exposing the substrate to one or more pulses of the silylation agent. In some embodiments both the metal or metallic surface and oxide surface are contacted with the silylating agent, such as allyltrimethylsilane (TMS-A), chlorotrimethylsilane (TMS-Cl), N-(trimethylsilyl)imidazole (TMS-Im), octadecyltrichlorosilane (ODTCS), hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS), or N-(trimethylsilyl)dimethylamine (TMSDMA). In some embodiments the oxide surface of a substrate is selectively silylated relative to a metal or metallic surface of the substrate. 
     In some embodiments the silylating agent is an alkylaminosilane. For example, the oxide surface of the substrate may be contacted with an alkylaminosilane having the formula (R I ) 3 Si(NR II R III ), wherein R I  is a linear or branched C 1 -C 5  alkyl group or a linear or branched C 1 -C 4  alkyl group, R III  is a linear or branched C 1 -C 5  alkyl group, a linear or branched C 1 -C 4  alkyl group, or hydrogen, and R III  is a linear or branched C 1 -C 5  alkyl group or a linear or branched C 1 -C 4  alkyl group. 
     In some embodiments the silylating agent is a silane. For example, the oxide surface may be contacted with a silane having the general formula (R I ) 3 SiA, wherein R I  is a linear or branched C 1 -C 5  alkyl group or a linear or branched C 1 -C 4  alkyl group, and A is any ligand which is reactive with a silicon containing surface. 
     The silylating agent may be provided to the reaction chamber holding the substrate in a single pulse or in a sequence of multiple pulses. In some embodiments the silylating agent is provided in a single long pulse or in multiple shorter pulses. The pulses may be provided sequentially. In some embodiments the silylating agent is provided in 1 to 25 pulses of from about 0.1 to about 60 seconds. In some embodiments the silylating agent is provided in a single pulse of about 0.1 to about 60 seconds, about 1 to about 30 seconds or about 25 seconds. In between pulses, the silylating agent may be removed from the reaction space. For example, the reaction chamber may be evacuated and/or purged with an inert gas. The purge may be, for example for about 1 to about 30 seconds or more. Purging the reaction chamber means that vapor phase passivation agent and/or vapor phase byproducts, if any, are removed from the reaction chamber such as by, evacuating the chamber with a vacuum pump and/or by replacing the gas inside the reactor with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen. In some embodiments the substrate is moved from a reaction space comprising the passivation agent. 
     In some embodiments, the temperature of the silylation process may be, for example, from about 50 to about 500° C., or about 100 to about 300° C. The pressure during the silylation process may be, for example, from about 10 −5  to about 760 Torr, or in some embodiments from about 1 to about 10 Torr or about 0.1 to about 10 Torr. 
     In some embodiments, the silylation process may be carried out in situ, that is in the same reaction chamber as a subsequent deposition process, for example selective deposition of an aluminum catalyst on the non-silylated surface relative to the silylated surface and/or the subsequent selective deposition of silicon oxide on the non-silylated surface relative to the silylated surface. However, in some embodiments the silylation may be carried out in a separate reaction chamber from one or more subsequent processing steps. In some embodiments the reaction chamber in which the silylation is carried out is part of a cluster tool, including one or more additional reaction chambers. For example, such a cluster tool may include additional reaction chambers for the deposition of the aluminum catalyst, the deposition of silicon oxide, and/or for etching one or more layers. In some embodiments a cluster tool includes separate modules for pretreatment, silylation of the oxide surface, selective deposition of catalyst, selective deposition of silicon oxide and subsequent post-deposition treatment, such as etching to remove the silylation or plasma post-deposition cleaning. In some embodiments the same module can be used for two or more processes. 
     In some embodiments, the substrate may be pretreated or cleaned prior to or at the beginning of the passivation and/or one or more of the selective deposition processes. In some embodiments, the substrate may be subjected to a plasma cleaning process prior to or at the beginning of the selective passivation and/or selective deposition processes. In some embodiments, a plasma cleaning process may not include ion bombardment, or may include relatively small amounts of ion bombardment. In some embodiments the substrate surfaces may be exposed to plasma, radicals, excited species, and/or atomic species prior to or at the beginning of the passivation process, and/or the selective metal oxide deposition process. In some embodiments, the substrate surface may be exposed to hydrogen plasma, radicals, or atomic species prior to or at the beginning of the selective passivation process and/or the selective metal oxide deposition process. 
     In some embodiments the dielectric surface is not passivated prior to selectively depositing the catalyst on the metal surface relative to the dielectric surface. 
     Selective Deposition of Metal Catalyst on Metal or Metallic Surfaces Relative to Oxide Surfaces 
     A catalyst for the subsequent deposition of silicon oxide can be selectively deposited on a metal or metallic surface of a substrate relative to the dielectric surface of the substrate. This surface comprising the catalyst may be referred to as the catalyzed metal surface. In some embodiments passivation of the dielectric surface is not necessary and the catalyst is selectively deposited on the metal surface relative to the dielectric surface, where the dielectric surface has not been passivated. However, in some embodiments the selective deposition of the catalyst is facilitated or improved by the passivation of the dielectric surface as described above. Thus, in some embodiments, the catalyst is selectively deposited on a metal or metallic surface relative to a passivated dielectric surface. As shown in  FIG.  2 C , in some embodiments an aluminum catalyst is selectively deposited on the metal surface relative to a dielectric surface that has been passivated with a silylating compound as described herein. 
     After selectively forming a passivation layer on the dielectric surface, in some embodiments a catalyst is selectively deposited on the second surface by contacting the substrate with a catalyst compound. The catalyst forms up to a molecular layer of catalytic sites on the metal substrate surface. The catalyst compound preferably catalyzes the formation of silicon oxide from a vapor phase silanol reactant, as described below. Briefly, the substrate is exposed to silanol, such as TPS, and a silicon oxide film, such as a silicon dioxide film, for example a SiO 2  film is formed, typically comprising multiple molecular layers. The cycle of exposure to the catalyst and the silanol can be repeated, if necessary, to deposit a silicon dioxide film of a desired thickness. In some embodiments, the concentration of the silanol can be controlled to achieve a desired deposition rate. In some embodiments, the substrate temperature can be controlled to achieve a desired deposition rate. In some embodiments a catalyst is not necessary and the metal surface itself catalyzes the deposition of silicon oxide from silanol. 
     In some embodiments the catalyst is a metal catalyst. The catalyst may be, for example, a metal compound comprising Zn, Mg, Mn, La, Hf, Al, Zr, Ti, Sn, or Ga. In some embodiments the catalyst is a metal halide, organometallic or metalorganic compound. 
     In some embodiments the catalyst comprises boron. In some embodiments the catalyst is an alkylaluminium, alkylboron or alkylzinc compound that is able to react with the hydrophobic surface. For example, the catalyst may comprise trimethyl aluminum (TMA), triethylboron (TEB), or diethyl zinc. 
     In some embodiments the catalyst comprises a compound having the formula MR x A 3-x , wherein x is from 1 to 3, R is a C 1 -C 5  alkyl ligand, M is B, Zn, Mg, Mn, La, Hf, Al, Zr, Ti, Sn, or Ga and A is a halide, alkylamine, amino, silyl or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments the R is a C 1 -C 3  alkyl ligand. In some embodiments the R is a methyl or ethyl group. In some embodiments the M is boron. In some embodiments the catalyst is ZnR x A 2-x , wherein x is from 1 to 2, R is a C 1 -C 5  alkyl ligand, and A is a halide, alkylamine, amino, silyl or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments the R is a C 1 -C 3  alkyl ligand. In some embodiments the R is a methyl or ethyl group. 
     In some embodiments the catalyst is an aluminum catalyst. Examples of Al compounds that can be used include trimethylaluminum (TMA), dimethylaluminum chloride, aluminum trichloride (AlCl 3 ), dimethylaluminum isopropoxide (DMAI), tris(tert-butyl)aluminum (TTBA), tris(isopropoxide)aluminum (TIPA) or triethyl aluminum (TEA). In some embodiments the aluminum catalyst comprises is a heteroleptic aluminum compound. In some embodiments the heteroleptic aluminum compound comprises an alkyl group and another ligand, such as a halide, for example Cl. In some embodiments the aluminum catalyst comprises dimethylaluminum chloride. In some embodiments the aluminum catalyst comprises an alkyl precursor comprising two different alkyl groups as ligands. In some embodiments the aluminum compound is an aluminum isopropoxide. In some embodiments the aluminum catalyst comprises a metalorganic compound. In some embodiments the aluminum catalyst comprises an organometallic compound. In some embodiments the aluminum catalyst is an aluminum compound such as trimethylaluminum (TMA), dimethylaluminum chloride, aluminum trichloride (AlCl 3 ), dimethylaluminum isopropoxide (DMAI), tris(tert-butyl)aluminum (TTBA), tris(isopropoxide)aluminum (TIPA) or triethyl aluminum (TEA). 
     In some embodiments the catalyst is a zirconium compound, such as Zr-DO 4 . In some embodiments the catalyst is tetrakis(ethylmethylamino)zirconium (TEMAZ). In some embodiments the catalyst is ZrCl 4 . 
     In some embodiments the catalyst is a lanthanum compound, such as tris(isopropyl-cyclopentadienyl)lanthanum (LA(iPrCp) 3 ). 
     In some embodiments the catalyst is a titanium compound, such as titanium isopropoxide (TTIP) or TiCl 4 . 
     In some embodiments the catalyst is a gallium compound, such as trimethylgallium (TMG). 
     In some embodiments the catalyst is a hafnium compound, such as HfCl 4  or Hf(NO 3 ) 4 . 
     The catalyst may be provided to the reaction chamber holding the substrate in a single pulse or in a sequence of multiple pulses. In some embodiments the catalyst is provided in a single long pulse or in multiple shorter pulses. The pulses may be provided sequentially. In some embodiments the catalyst is provided in 1 to 25 pulses of from about 0.1 to about 60 seconds. In some embodiments the catalyst is provided in a single pulse of about 0.1 to about 60 seconds, about 1 to 30 seconds or about 25 seconds. In between pulses, excess catalyst may be removed from the reaction space. For example, the reaction chamber may be evacuated and/or purged with an inert gas. The purge may be, for example for about 1 to 30 seconds or more. Purging means that vapor phase catalyst and/or vapor phase byproducts, if any, are removed from the reaction chamber such as by evacuating the chamber with a vacuum pump and/or by replacing the gas inside the reaction chamber with an inert gas. In some embodiments vapor phase catalyst is removed from the substrate surface by moving the substrate from the reaction space comprising the vapor phase catalyst. 
     In some embodiments, the temperature of the selective catalyst deposition may be, for example, from about 50 to about 500° C., or about 100 to about 300° C. In some embodiments, the deposition temperature is between about 50° C. and about 400° C. In some embodiments the deposition temperature is greater than about 100° C. and the catalytic chemical is an alkylaluminum compound, such as TMA. In some embodiments the catalytic chemical is an alkylboron compound, such as TEB, and the deposition temperature is between about 50° C. and about 400° C., between about 100° C. and about 350° C., or between about 100° C. and about 300° C. In some embodiments the catalytic chemical is an alkylboron compound and the temperature is greater than about 100° C. In some embodiments the deposition temperature is greater than about 300° C. and the catalytic chemical is TEB. 
     In some embodiments the catalyst comprises a metal compound that is selectively deposited by contacting the substrate with a metal precursor and an oxygen reactant. In some embodiments the catalyst comprises a metal oxide. In some embodiments the metal compound is selectively deposited by an ALD process. In some embodiments the substrate is simultaneously or sequentially contacted with a first metal precursor and a second reactant comprising oxygen in one, two or more deposition cycles. In some embodiments the deposition process comprises a plurality of deposition cycles in which the substrate is alternately and sequentially contacted with the first metal precursor and the second reactant. 
     In some embodiments the first metal precursor is a hydrophobic Lewis acid. The hydrophobic metal reactant may comprise at least one hydrophobic hydrocarbon ligand, such as alkyl, alkenyl, cyclic C 3 -C 8  or aromatic groups. In some embodiments the first metal precursor may be bis(methylcyclopentadienyl)methoxymethyl zirconium. 
     In some embodiments the first metal precursor comprises a transition metal. In some embodiments the first precursor does not comprise a noble metal, such as Ru. 
     In some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise at least one alkyl ligand, such as a C 1 -C 4  alkyl ligand. In some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise an organometallic or metalorganic compound. In some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise at least one cyclopentadienyl (Cp) ligand. In some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise a formamidinate or an amidinate compound. In some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise a beta-diketonate compound. In some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise an alkylamino compound, such as a dialkylamino compound. In some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise an alkylamino ligand, such as —NMe 2 , —NEt 2  or —NEtMe. 
     In some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise magnesium. In some embodiments the first metal precursor may be an organometallic or a metalorganic compound comprising magnesium. For example, in some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise Mg(Cp) 2  or a derivative thereof. 
     In some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise lanthanum. In some embodiments the first metal precursor may be an organometallic compound comprising lanthanum. In some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise lanthanum formamidinate (La(FAMD) 3 ). 
     In some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise hafnium. In some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise an organometallic compound comprising hafnium. For example, in some embodiments the first metal precursor may comprise alkylamino hafnium compound, such as Tetrakis(ethylmethylamino)hafnium (TEMAH, Hf(NEtMe) 4 ) or a derivative thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the first metal precursor has the following formula:
 
MgL 2   (I)
 
     wherein Mg is magnesium, and wherein each L can be independently selected to be a hydrocarbon group. In some embodiments each L can be linear, branched, cyclic alkyl or unsaturated hydrocarbon group, such as alkenyl, alkynyl, aromatic, cyclopentadienyl, phenyl, cyclooctadienyl, or cycloheptatrienyl group. In some embodiments one or both L can be a cyclopentadienyl group. In some embodiments, one or both L can be a bidentate ligand, such as beta-diketonate, guanidinate, or amidinate. In some embodiments, the beta-diketonate ligand can be acetylacetonate or 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-3,5-heptanedionato (THD). 
     In some embodiments, the first metal precursor is a cyclopentadienyl compound or a derivative thereof, such as alkyl-substituted cyclopentadienyl compound and have the following formula:
 
Mg(R 1 R 2 R 3 R 4 R 5 Cp) 2   (II)
 
     wherein each of the R 1  groups, each of the R 2  groups, each of the R 3  groups, each of the R 4  groups, and each of the R 5  groups can be independently selected to be hydrogen or a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group. In some embodiments each of the R 1  groups, each of the R 2  groups, each of the R 3  groups, each of the R 4  groups, and each of the R 5  groups can be independently selected to be hydrogen or a linear or branched C 1 -C 5  alkyl group. In some embodiments each of the R 1  groups, each of the R 2  groups, each of the R 3  groups, each of the R 4  groups, and each of the R 5  groups can be independently selected to be hydrogen or a C 1 -C 3  alkyl group, such as methyl, ethyl, n-propyl or i-propyl group. In some embodiments the first precursor is Mg(Cp) 2 . 
     In some embodiments, the first metal precursor comprises one or more ligands, such as cyclopentadienyl (“Cp”) ligands. These first precursor compounds can be selected from a group consisting of the following compounds:
 
(Cp) x La  (III);
 
(Cp) x L y La  (IV);
 
(Cp) x W n La  (V);
 
(CP) x L y W n La  (VI);
 
     La is lanthanum, Cp is a cyclopentadienyl or a cyclooctadienyl group, so that Cp groups in chemical formulas I-IV can be the same as each other or different from one other; x denotes the number of the Cp ligands and it is an integer from 1 up to the oxidation state of La; it should be noted that cyclooctadiene is usually shortened as Cod, but here the presentation is simplified by the use of the single common abbreviation Cp for both cyclopentadienyl and cyclooctadienyl; 
     L y  is a neutral adduct ligand that bounds from one or more of its atoms to the metal and wherein y denotes the number of the bound ligands; and 
     W is some other ligand with a valence of one less than Cp and where n denotes the number of ligands. In some embodiments W is amidinate or formamidinate. In some embodiments W is a beta-diketonate or its corresponding sulfur or nitrogen compound, halide, amide, alkoxide, carboxylate or Schiff&#39;s base. 
     In the chemical equations I-IV, the cyclopentadienyl and/or cyclooctadienyl groups can be in the same molecule, so that there is a bridge between two Cp-groups consisting of a substituted or unsubstituted C 1 -C 6  chain that may contain a heteroatom selected from Si, N, P, Se, S or B. 
     In some embodiments L is an independently selected:
         (i) a hydrocarbon,   (ii) a hydrocarbon that contains oxygen,   (iii) a hydrocarbon that contains nitrogen,   (iv) a hydrocarbon that contains sulfur,   (v) a hydrocarbon that contains phosphor,   (vi) a hydrocarbon that contains arsenic,   (vii) a hydrocarbon that contains selenium and/or   (viii) a hydrocarbon that contains tellurium       

     In some embodiments L is and independently selected:
         (a) amine or polyamine,   (b) bipyridine,   (c) a ligand according to a chemical diagram:       

     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             wherein G is —O—, —S—, or —NR 1 , where R 1  is an independently selected hydrogen or substituted or unsubstituted, cyclic, linear or branched, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, alkylaryl, arylalkyl, alkoxy, thio, cyano or silyl group. A cyclic or aromatic ring in R 1  may contain a heteroatom. Hydrogen or a R 1 -type substituent may also be attached to the carbon atoms in chemical equation V, or 
             (d) ether or thioether. 
           
         
       
    
     Cyclopentadienyl or cyclooctadienyl groups, Cp in chemical formulas I-IV have the form:
 
Cp′R m H a-m   (VII)
         wherein m is an integer from 0-8 when a is 8 and m is an integer from 0-5 when a is 5,   Cp′ is fused or isolated cyclopentadienyl or cyclooctadienyl, and   R is an independently selected hydrocarbon fragment containing 1-6 carbon atoms, such as a C 1 -C 6  hydrocarbon.       

     In some embodiments each R ligand can be the same as each other R ligand, or each R ligand may different from one another. That is, each R ligand can be independently selected. In some embodiments R can be a substituted or unsubstituted, cyclic, linear or branched, alkyl alkenyl, aryl, alkylaryl, arylalkyl, alkoxy, thio, amino, cyano or silyl group. The cyclic or aromatic ring of the substituent may contain a heteroatom. Examples of the substituents are methyl, ethyl, propyl and isopropyl groups. 
     Neutral adduct ligands L shown in chemical equations II and IV can be independently selected ethers, amines or solvent molecules such as tetrahydrofuran that form a bond to the metal with one atom. Examples of suitable neutral adduct ligands that form a bond to a metal with several atoms are polyethers and polyamines. 
     In some embodiments a first metal precursor may comprise at least one cyclopentadienyl ligand and can be written according to Formula VIII:
 
(R 1 R 2 R 3 R 4 R 5 Cp) x -MR 0   z —(R 6 ) y   (VIII)
 
     wherein M is a metal selected from the group consisting of Mg, Sr, Ba, Sc, Y and lanthanides; 
     wherein each of the R 0  groups, each of the R 1  groups, each of the R 2  groups, each of the R 3  groups, each of the R 4  groups, and each of the R 5  groups can be independently selected from:
         i. hydrogen;   ii. linear and branched C 1 -C 6  alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups, which are independently substituted or unsubstituted;   iii. carbocyclic groups, such as aryl, phenyl, cyclopentadienyl, alkylaryl, and halogenated carbocyclic groups; and   iv. heterocyclic groups;       

     wherein R 6  is independently selected from:
         i. hydrogen;   ii. linear and branched C 1 -C 6  alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups, which are independently substituted or unsubstituted;   iii. carbocyclic groups, such as aryl, phenyl, cyclopentadienyl, alkylaryl, and halogenated carbocyclic groups;   iv. heterocyclic groups; and   v. NR 1 R 2 ; and       

     wherein both x and y are ≥1 and z≥0. 
     In some embodiments, a first metal precursor comprising a cyclopentadienyl compound comprises at least one ligand that is bonded to a metal via nitrogen as depicted by Formula IX:
 
(R 1 R 2 R 3 R 4 R 5 Cp) x -MR 0   z —(NR 1 R 2 ) y   (IX)
 
     wherein M is a metal selected from the group consisting of Mg, Sr, Ba, Sc, Y or lanthanides; 
     wherein each of the R 0  groups, each of the R 1  groups, each of the R 2  groups, each of the R 3  groups, each of the R 4  groups, and each of the R 5  groups is independently selected from:
         i. hydrogen;   ii. linear and branched C 1 -C 6  alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups, which are independently substituted or unsubstituted;   iii. carbocyclic groups, such as aryl, phenyl, cyclopentadienyl, alkylaryl, and halogenated carbocyclic groups; and   iv. heterocyclic groups; and       

     wherein both x and y are ≥1 and z≥0. 
     In Formula IX, the alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups can be selected from any linear or branched alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups which have 1 to 6 carbon atoms. Examples of such alkyl groups include methyl; ethyl; n- and i-propyl-; n-, i- and t-butyl-; n- and isoamyl; n- and isopentyl; n- and isohexyl; and 2,3-dimethyl-2-butyl. In some embodiments, alkyl groups are used. In other embodiments the C 1-6 , alkenyl and alkynyl groups include the corresponding groups having a corresponding degree of unsaturation can be used. 
     In some embodiments the first metal precursor is a compound having at least one cyclopentadienyl ligand and at least one chelating ligand, for example, a bidentate ligand. In some embodiments, this compound is depicted by Formula X, (R 1 R 2 R 3 R 4 R 5 Cp) x -MR 0   z —(NR 1 NR 2 R) y , as follows: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein M is a metal selected from the group consisting of Mg, Sr, Ba, Sc, Y or lanthanides;
         wherein R can be any linear and branched C 1 -C 6  alkyl, alkenyl or alkynyl groups, which are independently substituted or unsubstituted and R can be bonded to two bridging nitrogen atoms any point of alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups;       

     wherein each of the R 0  groups, each of the R 1  groups, each of the R 2  groups, each of the R 3  groups, each of the R 4  groups, and each of the R 5  groups can be independently selected from:
         i. hydrogen;   ii. linear and branched C 1 -C 6  alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups, which are independently substituted or unsubstituted;   iii. carbocyclic groups, such as aryl, phenyl, cyclopentadienyl, alkylaryl, and halogenated carbocyclic groups; and   iv. heterocyclic groups; and       

     wherein both x and y are ≥1 and z≥0. 
     In some other embodiments, the first metal precursor can be depicted by Formula XI, (R 1 R 2 R 3 R 4 R 5 Cp) x -MR 0   z —[(NR 1 NR 2 )CNR 3 ] y , as follows: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             wherein M is a metal, selected from the group consisting of Mg, Sr, Ba, Sc, Y or lanthanides; 
             wherein each of the R 0  groups, each of the R 1  groups, each of the R 2  groups, each of the R 3  groups, each of the R 4  groups, and each of the R 5  groups can be independently selected from
           i. hydrogen;   ii. linear and branched C 1 -C 6  alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups, which are independently substituted or unsubstituted;   iii. carbocyclic groups, such as aryl, phenyl, cyclopentadienyl, alkylaryl, and halogenated carbocyclic groups; and   iv. heterocyclic groups; and   
         
             wherein both x and y are ≥1 and z≥0. 
           
         
       
    
     In further embodiments, the first metal precursor is depicted by Formula XII, (R 1 R 2 R 3 R 4 R 5 Cp) x -MR 0   z —[(NR 1 NR 2 )CNR 3 R 4 ] y , as follows: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
         
         
           
             wherein M is a metal, selected from the group consisting of Mg, Sr, Ba, Sc, Y or lanthanides; 
           
         
       
    
     wherein each of the R 0  groups, each of the R 1  groups, each of the R 2  groups, each of the R 3  groups, each of the R 4  groups, and each of the R 5  groups can be independently selected from:
         i. hydrogen;   ii. linear and branched C 1 -C 6  alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups, which are independently substituted or unsubstituted;   iii. carbocyclic groups, such as aryl, phenyl, cyclopentadienyl, alkylaryl, and halogenated carbocyclic groups; and   iv. heterocyclic groups; and       

     wherein both x and y are ≥1 and z≥0. 
     In some embodiments, the first metal precursor as described in Formulae VIII-XII may comprise R 0 , R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , and R 6  wherein each of the R 0  groups, each of the R 1  groups, each of the R 2  groups, each of the R 3  groups, each of the R 4  groups, and each of the R 5  groups, and each of the R 6  groups can be independently selected from
         i. hydrogen;   ii. linear and branched C 1 -C 6  alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups, which are independently substituted or unsubstituted;   iii. carbocyclic groups, such as aryl, phenyl, cyclopentadienyl, and alkylaryl; and   iv. heterocyclic groups       

     Optionally, a first metal precursor as described may comprise modified cyclopentadienyl groups. In some embodiments, the modified cyclopentadienyl groups are selected from the group consisting of Me 5 Cp, MeCp, EtCp, and Me 3 SiCp. In further embodiments, the first metal precursor may comprise an anionic or dianionic guanidinate ligand such as a triisopropylguandinate ligand. 
     In some embodiments the second reactant comprises oxygen and may be referred to herein as the oxygen precursor, oxygen reactant, oxygen-containing precursor, or oxygen-containing reactant. In some embodiments the second reactant comprises molecular oxygen (O 2 ). In some embodiments the second reactant does not comprise a compound comprising oxygen other than O 2 . In some embodiments the second reactant does not comprise O 3  or H 2 O. In some embodiments the second reactant does not comprise a plasma, for example an oxygen plasma. In some embodiments the second reactant is supplied with or mixed with inert gas such as N 2 , He or Ar. 
     In some embodiments the second reactant comprises molecular oxygen and less than about 50%, 25%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 1%, or 0.1% of impurities other than inert gases. 
     In some embodiments, the selective catalyst deposition process may be carried out in situ, that is in the same reaction chamber as prior passivation and/or a subsequent deposition process, for example the subsequent selective deposition of silicon oxide on the non-silylated surface relative to the silylated surface. However, in some embodiments the selective catalyst deposition may be carried out in a separate reaction chamber from one or more subsequent processing steps, for example in one chamber that is part of a cluster tool. 
     In some embodiments, the substrate and in particular the metal surface may be pretreated or cleaned prior to or at the beginning of the selective catalyst deposition. 
     Selective Deposition of Silicon Oxide on Catalyzed Metal Surfaces Relative to Dielectric Surfaces 
     Following passivation of the dielectric surface (if conducted) and selective deposition of the catalyst on the metal surface (if conducted), silicon oxide can be selectively deposited on the metal surface of the substrate relative to the dielectric surface. In some embodiments, silicon oxide is selectively deposited on the metal surface by contacting the substrate with a silicon reactant, such as a silanol (see, e.g.,  FIG.  2 D ). In some embodiments the substrate surface is contacted with a silicon reactant and an oxygen reactant, such as H 2 O. The formation of silicon oxide is catalyzed by the presence of the catalyst on the metal surface, or by the metal surface itself if a catalyst is not employed. 
     One or more silanols can be used as the silicon reactant, such as alkoxysilanols or alkoxysilanediols. In some embodiments the silicon reactant may comprise on or more tris(tert-alkoxy)silanols, di(alkoxy)alkylsilanols, di(alkoxy)silanediols or bis(tert-alkoxy)silanediols. In some embodiments the silanol may be selected from one or more of tris(tert-butoxy)silanol (TBS), tris(isopropoxy)silanol (TIS), and tris(tert-pentoxy)silanol (TPS). Silanols are compounds comprising silicon bound to one or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. In some embodiments, the silanols comprise more than one OH— group bonded directly to the silicon atom. Silanol compounds include, without limitation, alkoxysilanols, alkoxyalkylsilanols, and alkoxysilanediols. In some embodiments, the silicon precursor comprises TPS. In some embodiments the silicon source is di(alkoxy)silanediol. 
     In some embodiments only a single silanol pulse is provided after the catalyst has been deposited on the metal surface. In some embodiments a single silanol pulse is used to deposit a silicon dioxide film with a thickness measured on the top surface of the metal surface on the substrate of more than 5 angstroms. As discussed above, in some embodiments the substrate can be contacted with the catalyst and the silanol in one or more silicon oxide deposition sub-cycles. The sub-cycles may be repeated until a silicon oxide film of the desired thickness has been selectively formed over the metal surface. In some embodiments, a single sub-cycle may be all that is required to obtain a silicon dioxide film of a desired thickness. In other embodiments the steps may be repeated 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more times. 
     In some embodiments, more than one silanol pulse is provided in each deposition super-cycle. For example, a catalyst pulse can be followed by two, three or more silanol pulses. In some embodiments, a catalyst pulse is followed by two silanol pulses. Each silanol pulse may be separated by a purge step. In other embodiments, each silanol pulse is provided after a predetermined time delay, without an intervening purge step. 
     Although generally described as beginning with provision of the catalyst, each silicon oxide deposition sub-cycle can begin with either reactant. However, as will be recognized by the skilled artisan, if the first sub-cycle begins with the silanol reactant, deposition may not begin until the second deposition super-cycle. 
     With respect to the catalyst, surface saturation ensures catalyst occupation of all available reactive sites (subject, for example, to physical size or “steric hindrance” restraints) and thus ensures excellent step coverage. However, in some embodiments, the catalyst can be provided in a non-saturating or under-saturating dose. For example, in deep trench structures it is important to form a “collar,” which is an etch-stop layer that must extend only part of the way down the trench. In this example, under-saturated pulses of the catalyst can be used to preferentially deposit the catalyst along the collar area in comparison to surfaces further down in the trench. As a result, the silicon dioxide deposition only occurs to the depth the catalyst reached and thus the extent of silicon dioxide deposition is limited to a desired depth. Thus, in some embodiments, the dose of the catalyst is metered in order to provide a predetermined amount of catalyst and a predetermined amount of deposition of silicon dioxide. 
     With respect to the silanol reactant, in some embodiments a saturating pulse of silanol is provided. However, because the growth rate of silicon dioxide depends, in part, on diffusion of the precursor through the growing film, the growth rate can be controlled, for example by controlling precursor dose, purge time and/or temperature. Thus, in some embodiments a non-saturating dose of silanol can be provided. In some embodiments the dose of the silanol reactant and/or exposure time may be limited to provide silicon dioxide to a particular thickness and/or to a particular depth in a given reaction cycle. 
     In some embodiments a silicon dioxide thin film is selectively formed on a metal surface of a substrate relative to a dielectric surface by selecting a catalyst that is able to react with the metal surface and carrying out a deposition process comprising one or more silicon dioxide deposition sub-cycles, each silicon dioxide deposition sub-cycle comprising:
         providing a first vapor phase reactant pulse comprising a metal catalyst into the reaction chamber to form no more than about a single molecular layer of the catalyst on the metal surface of the substrate;   removing excess catalyst from the reaction chamber;   providing a second vapor phase reactant pulse comprising a silanol to the reaction chamber; and   removing excess second reactant and reaction byproducts, if any, from the reaction chamber.       

     In some embodiments a silicon oxide thin film is selectively deposited on one or more metal or metallic surfaces, such as a copper, cobalt, titanium nitride or tungsten surfaces, relative to one or more dielectric surfaces. 
     The thickness of the film can be adjusted depending on the particular circumstances. In some embodiments a thin film of silicon dioxide ranging from a few angstroms to a few nanometers is deposited. In some embodiments a thin film of silicon dioxide of less than about 2 nm is deposited. In some embodiments a thin film of silicon dioxide of less than about 3 nm is deposited. In some embodiments one or both of the catalyst and the silanol are underdosed in order to obtain deposition of a film of less than about 2 nm or less than about 3 nm. The thin film may be deposited in one deposition super-cycle or in multiple deposition super-cycles. 
     Before starting the deposition of the film, the substrate is typically heated to a suitable growth temperature. In some embodiments, the growth temperature of the silicon dioxide thin film is less than about 500° C., less than about 400° C., less than about 300° C., less than about 200° C., less than about 150° C., or even less than about 125° C. Temperatures are typically selected such that the catalyst does not decompose. In some embodiments the deposition process can be performed at temperatures greater than about 100° C., for example with TMA as a catalyst. 
     In some embodiments the pulse time for the reactants may be from about 0.1 to about 10 seconds, and the purge time between reactant pulses may also be from about 0.1 to about 10 seconds. 
     The pressure in the reaction chamber is typically from about 0.1 mTorr to about 5 Torr, more preferably from about 0.1 mTorr to about 3 Torr, and most preferably about 0.2 mTorr to about 3 Torr. However, in some cases the pressure will be higher or lower than this range, as can be readily determined by the skilled artisan. 
     In one embodiment, in a silicon oxide deposition sub-cycle, silicon oxide, such as silicon dioxide, for example SiO 2  is deposited on a metal surface of a substrate relative to a passivated dielectric surface at a temperature of about 150° C. TMA is pulsed into the reaction chamber for 150 ms, followed by a 3 s purge. TPS is then pulsed into the reaction chamber for 100 s, followed by a 90 s purge. 
     Post-Deposition Treatment 
     Following selective deposition of the metal oxide, the substrate may be subjected to a post-deposition cleaning step to remove the passivation layer from the oxide surfaces, as mentioned above (See, e.g.,  FIG.  2 E ). In some embodiments the cleaning step may comprise H 2  plasma treatment. In some embodiments the cleaning step is carried out at a temperature of about room temperature to about 400° C. In some embodiments plasma power of about 25 to about 250 W may be used to generate a plasma in flowing H 2 , for example at a flow rate of about 10 to about 500 sccm. The clean time after deposition of the metal oxide layer may be, for example, from about 0.1 to about 600 seconds or more in some embodiments. 
     In some embodiments a thin silicon oxide film is selectively deposited on a metal or metallic surface of a three-dimensional structure relative to one or more passivated dielectric surfaces. The three-dimensional structure may comprise, for example, a via or a trench. In some embodiments dielectric surfaces may be selectively passivated and an aluminum catalyst deposited on metal surfaces prior to depositing the silicon oxide film. 
     Passivation Blocking Layer 
     A passivation blocking layer can facilitate selective formation of a passivation layer on dielectric material relative to the passivation blocking layer. As noted above, in some embodiments a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) can serve to inhibit silylation of a metal or metallic surface, thus facilitating selective passivation of dielectric surfaces. In some embodiments, passivation blocking layers other than SAMs are used. The term “blocking” is thus merely a label and need not imply 100% deactivation of the passivation layer deposition. As noted elsewhere herein, even imperfect selectivity can suffice to obtain a fully selective structure, for example after an etch back process. 
     Selectivity 
     Selective passivation and/or selective deposition can be fully selective or partially selective. A partially selective process can be followed by a post-deposition etch that removes all of the deposited material from over one surface without removing all of the deposited material from over a second surface, resulting in a fully selective layer. Thus, in some embodiments the selective deposition need not be fully selective in order to obtain the desired benefits. 
     Selectivity of deposition (or passivation) on a first surface, here referred to as surface A, relative to a second surface, referred to as surface B, can be given as a percentage calculated by [(deposition on surface A)−(deposition on surface B)]/(deposition on the surface A). Deposition can be measured in any of a variety of ways. For example, deposition may be given as the measured thickness of the deposited material, or may be given as the measured amount of material deposited. In embodiments described herein, an oxide surface (A) can be selectively passivated relative to a metal or metallic surface (B). With respect to passivation, if the passivation results from treatment of the substrate surface rather than deposition of a layer, the amount of passivation can be a measure of available reactive sites on the substrate surface that have reacted with the passivation agent. Subsequently, a metal oxide layer can be selectively deposited on the metal or metallic surface (B) relative to the passivation layer over the oxide surface (A). 
     In some embodiments, selectivity for the selective formation of the passivation layer on a dielectric surface (relative to a metal or metallic surface) is greater than about 10%, greater than about 50%, greater than about 75%, greater than about 85%, greater than about 90%, greater than about 93%, greater than about 95%, greater than about 98%, greater than about 99%, or even greater than about 99.5%. 
     In some embodiments, deposition of the catalyst on a metal or metallic surface relative to a passivated dielectric surface is greater than about 10%, greater than about 50%, greater than about 75%, greater than about 85%, greater than about 90%, greater than about 93%, greater than about 95%, greater than about 98%, greater than about 99% or even greater than about 99.5%. 
     In some embodiments, deposition of the catalyst on a metal or metallic surface relative to an unpassivated dielectric surface is greater than about 10%, greater than about 50%, greater than about 75%, greater than about 85%, greater than about 90%, greater than about 93%, greater than about 95%, greater than about 98%, greater than about 99% or even greater than about 99.5%. 
     In some embodiments, selectivity of deposition of silicon oxide on a catalyzed metal or metallic surface (relative to a passivated or unpassivated dielectric surface) is greater than about 10%, greater than about 50%, greater than about 75%, greater than about 85%, greater than about 90%, greater than about 93%, greater than about 95%, greater than about 98%, greater than about 99% or even greater than about 99.5%. 
     In some embodiments, deposition only occurs on one surface and does not occur on the other surface. 
     In some embodiments, passivation of a dielectric surface by silylation relative to a metal or metallic surface of the substrate is at least about 80% selective. In some embodiments, the passivation process is at least about 50% selective. In some embodiments the passivation process is at least about 10% selective. The skilled artisan will appreciate that a partially selective process can result in a fully selective passivation of the oxide surface by a post-deposition etch that removes any silylation from the other surface. 
     In some embodiments, deposition of a catalyst on a metal surface relative to a passivated dielectric surface of the substrate is at least about 80% selective. In some embodiments, the catalyst deposition process is at least about 50% selective. In some embodiments the catalyst deposition process is at least about 10% selective. The skilled artisan will appreciate that a partially selective process can result in a fully selective deposition on the metal surface by a post-deposition etch that removes any catalyst from the dielectric surface. 
     In some embodiments, deposition of silicon oxide on a catalyzed metal or metallic surface of the substrate relative to a silylated oxide surface of the substrate is at least about 80% selective. In some embodiments, deposition of silicon oxide on a catalyzed metal or metallic surface of the substrate relative to a silylated oxide surface of the substrate is at least about 50% selective. In some embodiments deposition of silicon oxide on a catalyzed metal or metallic surface of the substrate relative to a silylated oxide surface of the substrate is at least about 10% selective. The skilled artisan will appreciate that a partially selective process can be followed by a post-deposition etch (or other treatment) that removes substantially all of the deposited material from over the silylated dielectric surface. Furthermore, the post-deposition treatment can also aid in tailoring the position and/or profile of the selectively deposited layer. 
     Selective Deposition of Silicon Oxide on Metal or Metallic Surfaces 
       FIGS.  2 A- 2 E  schematically illustrate an embodiment for selective passivation of a first dielectric surface relative to a second metal or metallic surface, followed by selective deposition of silicon oxide on the second metal or metallic surface relative to the passivated first oxide surface. 
       FIG.  2 A  illustrates a substrate having materially different surfaces exposed. For example, the first surface can comprise or be defined by a dielectric material  220 , such as a silicon oxide-based layer or a silicon surface having native oxide formed thereover. The second surface can comprise or be defined by a metal  210 , such as copper (Cu). 
       FIG.  2 B  shows the substrate of  FIG.  2 A  after selective passivation of the dielectric surface, such as by silylation. For example, a passivation layer  230  may be formed selectively on the dielectric surface  220  by exposing the substrate to a silylating agent, such as allyltrimethylsilane (TMS-A), chlorotrimethylsilane (TMS-Cl), N-(trimethylsilyl)imidazole (TMS-Im), octadecyltrichlorosilane (ODTCS), hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS), or N-(trimethylsilyl)dimethylamine (TMSDMA). 
       FIG.  2 C  shows the substrate of  FIG.  2 B  following selective deposition of an aluminum catalyst  240  on the metal surface  210  relative to the passivation layer  230  on the dielectric surface  220 . The aluminum catalyst  240  may be formed selectively on the metal surface  210  by exposing the substrate to an aluminum reactant such as trimethylaluminum (TMA), dimethylaluminum chloride, aluminum trichloride (AlCl 3 ), dimethylaluminum isopropoxide (DMAI), tris(tert-butyl)aluminum (TTBA), tris(isopropoxide)aluminum (TIPA) or triethyl aluminum (TEA). Although illustrated with an aluminum catalyst, in other embodiments metal catalysts comprising other metals or other catalysts may be used, as described herein. 
       FIG.  2 D  shows the substrate of  FIG.  2 C  following selective deposition of silicon oxide  250  on the catalyzed metal surface  210  relative to the dielectric surface  220 . In some embodiments the silicon oxide  250  is formed by exposing the substrate to a silanol reactant, such as tris(tert-pentoxy)silanol. The silanol reactant may decompose on the aluminum atoms on the catalyzed metal surface, leading to the deposition of silicon oxide on the metal surface. 
     As noted above, any silicon oxide deposited on the dielectric layer, such as on the passivated dielectric layer, can be removed by a post deposition treatment, such as an etch back process. This etch back process may also remove the silylation from the dielectric surface. Because the silicon oxide is deposited selectively on the metal surface, any silicon oxide left on the passivation surface will be thinner than the silicon oxide formed on the metal surface. Accordingly, the post deposition treatment can be controlled to remove all of the silicon oxide over the dielectric surface without removing all of the silicon oxide from over the metal surface. Repeated selective deposition and etching back in this manner can result in an increasing thickness of the silicon oxide on the metal surface with each cycle of deposition and etch. Repeated selective deposition and etching back in this manner can also result in increased overall selectivity of the silicon oxide on the metal or metallic surface, as each cycle of deposition and etch leaves a clean passivation layer over which the selective silicon oxide deposition nucleates poorly. In other embodiments, silicon oxide over the dielectric surface may be removed during subsequent removal of the passivation layer. For example, either a direct etch or a lift-off method can be used to remove silicon oxide from the passivation layer surface in a cyclical selective deposition and removal. 
       FIG.  2 E  shows the substrate of  FIG.  2 D  after a post deposition treatment to remove the passivation layer  230  from the dielectric surface  220 , such as by an etch process. In some embodiments, the etch process may comprise exposing the substrate to a plasma. In some embodiments, the plasma may comprise oxygen atoms, oxygen radicals, oxygen plasma, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the plasma may comprise hydrogen atoms, hydrogen radicals, hydrogen plasma, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the plasma may comprise noble gas species, for example Ar or He species. In some embodiments the plasma may consist essentially of noble gas species. In some instances, the plasma may comprise other species, for example nitrogen atoms, nitrogen radicals, nitrogen plasma, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the etch process may comprise exposing the substrate to an etchant comprising oxygen, for example O 3 . In some embodiments, the substrate may be exposed to an etchant at a temperature of between about 30° C. and about 500° C., or between about 100° C. and about 400° C. In some embodiments, the etchant may be supplied in one continuous pulse or may be supplied in multiple pulses. As noted above, the passivation layer removal can be used to lift-off any remaining metal oxide from over the oxide layer, either in a complete removal of the passivation layer or in a partial removal of the passivation layer in a cyclical selective deposition and removal. 
     Additional treatments, such as heat or chemical treatment, can be conducted prior to, after, or between the foregoing processes. For example, treatments may modify the surfaces or remove portions of the metal, silicon oxide, passivation and metal oxide surfaces exposed at various stages of the process. In some embodiments the substrate may be pretreated or cleaned prior to or at the beginning of the process. In some embodiments, the substrate may be subjected to a plasma cleaning process, as mentioned above. 
     Although certain embodiments and examples have been discussed, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that the scope of the claims extend beyond the specifically disclosed embodiments to other alternative embodiments and/or uses and obvious modifications and equivalents thereof.