Patent Publication Number: US-7897029-B2

Title: Removal of surface oxides by electron attachment

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation-in part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/042,055, which, in turn, is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/425,405, filed Apr. 28, 2003, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates generally to fluxless processes for removing metal oxides from the surface of a substrate, including an insulated substrate. 
     Wafer bumping is a process used to make thick metal bumps on the chip bond pads for inner lead bonding. The bumps are commonly made by depositing a solder on the pads and then reflowing (referred to herein as a first reflow) to conduct alloying and to change the shape of the solder bump from a mushroom-shape into a hemispherical-shape. The chip with the first-reflowed bumps is “flipped” to correspond to the footprint of the solder wettable terminals on the substrate and then subjected to a second reflow to form solder joints. These solder joints are referred to herein as inner lead bonds. High-melting point solders (e.g., &gt;300° C.) are normally used in the wafer bumping process because it allows for subsequent assembly steps such as outer lead bonding to proceed using lower-melting point solders (e.g., &lt;230° C.) without disruption of the inner lead bonds. 
     The shape of the solder bumps after the first reflow is critical. For example, a large bump height is preferable for better bonding and higher fatigue resistance. Further, the bumps formed should preferably be substantially uniform to ensure planarity. Substantially uniform solder bumps having relatively larger bump heights is believed to be associated with an oxide-free bump surface during the first reflow. Currently, there are two major approaches to removing solder oxides during the first reflow of the solder bumped wafer. One approach is fluxless soldering using pure hydrogen at a reflow temperature of 400 to 450° C. The major challenge of this approach is the flammable nature of the pure hydrogen, which largely limits the application of this approach. The second approach is applying organic fluxes over the deposited solder bumps, or within a solder paste mixture that has been printed onto the wafer to form the bumps, and reflowing the bumps in an inert environment so that the fluxes can effectively remove initial oxides on the solder surface. However, this approach has its drawbacks. Small voids may form in the solder bumps due to flux decomposition. These voids may not only degrade the electrical and mechanical properties of the formed solder bonds but also destroy the co-planarity of the solder bumped wafer and affect the subsequent chip bonding process. The decomposed flux volatiles can also contaminant the reflow furnace which can increase the maintenance cost. In addition, flux residues are oftentimes left upon the wafer which can corrode metals and degrade the performance of the assembly. 
     To remove the flux residues from the reflow processes described above, a post cleaning process may be adopted using chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs) as cleaning agents. However, post-cleaning adds an additional process step and increases the manufacturing processing time. Further, the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as cleaning agents is banned due to the potential damage to the earth&#39;s protective ozone layer. Although no-clean fluxes have been developed by using a small amount of activators to reduce residues, there is a trade-off between the gain and loss in the amount of flux residues and the activity of the fluxes. Therefore, a catalytic method to assist generating highly reactive H 2  radicals, and thus reducing the effective ranges of hydrogen concentration and processing temperature for reducing surface oxides, has been sought by the industry. 
     Fluxless (dry) soldering has been performed in the prior art using several techniques. One technique is to employ lasers to ablate or heat metal oxides to their vaporization temperatures. Such processes are typically performed under inert or reducing atmospheres to prevent re-oxidation by the released contaminants. However, the melting or boiling points of the oxide and base metal can be similar and it may not be desirable to melt or vaporize the base metal. Therefore, such laser processes are difficult to implement. Lasers are typically expensive and inefficient to operate and require a direct line of sight to the oxide layer. These factors limit the usefulness of laser techniques for most soldering applications. 
     Surface oxides can be chemically reduced (e.g., to H 2 O) through exposure to reactive gases (e.g., H 2 ) at elevated temperatures. A mixture containing 5% or greater reducing gas in an inert carrier (e.g., N 2 ) is typically used. The reaction products (e.g., H 2 O) are then released from the surface by desorption at the elevated temperature and carried away in the gas flow field. Typical process temperatures exceed 350° C. However, this process can be slow and ineffective, even at elevated temperatures. 
     The speed and effectiveness of the reduction process can be increased using more active reducing species. Such active species can be produced using conventional plasma techniques. Gas plasmas at audio, radio, or microwave frequencies can be used to produce reactive radicals for surface de-oxidation. In such processes, high intensity electromagnetic radiation is used to ionize and dissociate H 2 , O 2 , SF 6 , or other species, including fluorine-containing compounds, into highly reactive radicals. Surface treatment can be performed at temperatures below 300° C. However, in order to obtain optimum conditions for plasma formation, such processes are typically performed under vacuum conditions. Vacuum operations require expensive equipment and must be performed as a slow, batch process rather than a faster, continuous process. Also, plasmas are typically dispersed diffusely within the process chamber and are difficult to direct at a specific substrate area. Therefore, the reactive species cannot be efficiently utilized in the process. Plasmas can also cause damage to process chambers through a sputtering process, and can produce an accumulation of space charge on dielectric surfaces, leading to possible microcircuit damage. Microwaves themselves can also cause microcircuit damage, and substrate temperature may be difficult to control during treatment. Plasmas can also release potentially dangerous ultraviolet light. Such processes also require expensive electrical equipment and consume considerable power, thereby reducing their overall cost effectiveness. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 5,409,543 discloses a process for producing a reactive hydrogen species (i.e., atomic hydrogen) using a hot filament to thermally dissociate molecular hydrogen in a vacuum condition. The energized hydrogen chemically reduces the substrate surface. The temperature of the hot filament may range from 500° C. to 2200° C. Electrically biased grids are used to deflect or capture excess free electrons emitted from the hot filament. The reactive species or atomic hydrogen is produced from mixtures containing 2% to 100% hydrogen in an inert carrier gas. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 6,203,637 discloses a process for activating hydrogen using the discharge from a thermionic cathode. Electrons emitted from the thermionic cathode create a gas phase discharge, which generates active species. The emission process is performed in a separate or remote chamber containing a heated filament. Ions and activated neutrals flow into the treatment chamber to chemically reduce the oxidized metal surface. However, such hot cathode processes require vacuum conditions for optimum effectiveness and filament life. Vacuum operations require expensive equipment, which must be incorporated into soldering conveyor belt systems, thereby reducing their overall cost effectiveness. 
     Potier, et al., “Fluxless Soldering Under Activated Atmosphere at Ambient Pressure”, Surface Mount International Conference, 1995, San Jose, Calif., and U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,146,503, 6,089,445, 6,021,940, 6,007,637, 5,941,448, 5,858,312 and 5,722,581 describe processes for producing activated H 2  (or other reducing gases, such as CH 4  or NH 3 ) using electrical discharge. The reducing gas is generally present at “percent levels” in an inert carrier gas (N 2 ). The discharge is produced using an alternating voltage source of “several kilovolts”. Electrons emitted from electrodes in a remote chamber produce exited or unstable species that are substantially free of electrically charged species, which are then flowed to the substrate. The resulting processes reduce oxides on the base metal to be soldered at temperatures near 150° C. However, such remote discharge chambers require significant equipment costs and are not easily retrofitted to existing soldering conveyor belt systems. In addition, these processes are typically employed for pre-treating the metal surface before soldering rather than removing solder oxides. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 5,433,820 describes a surface treatment process using electrical discharge or plasma at atmospheric pressure from a high voltage (1 kV to 50 kV) electrode. The electrode is placed in the proximity of the substrate rather than in a remote chamber. The free electrons emitted from the electrodes produce reactive hydrogen radicals—a plasma containing atomic hydrogen—which then pass through openings in a dielectric shield placed over the oxidized substrate. The dielectric shield concentrates the active hydrogen onto those specific surface locations requiring de-oxidation. However, such dielectric shields can accumulate surface charge that may alter the electric field and inhibit precise process control. The described process is only used to flux base metal surfaces. 
     Accordingly, there is a need in the art to provide an economical and efficient process for fluxless reflow of solder bumped wafer under relatively low temperatures to reduce thermal energy. There is a further need in the art to provide a process and apparatus for fluxless reflow under near ambient or atmospheric pressure conditions to avoid the expense of purchasing and maintaining vacuum equipment. Additionally, there is a need in the art to provide a fluxless reflow process using a non-flammable gas environment. 
     BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention satisfies some, if not all, of the needs of the art by providing an apparatus and method for removing metal oxides from the surface of a substrate without the use of a flux. Specifically, in one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of removing a metal oxide from a treating surface of a substrate, the method comprising: providing a substrate which is proximal to a base electrode having a grounded electrical potential, the substrate comprising a treating surface comprising the metal oxide; providing an energizing electrode that is proximal to the base electrode and the substrate, wherein at least a portion of the treating surface is exposed to the energizing electrode and wherein the base electrode and the energizing electrode and the substrate reside within a target area, wherein the energizing electrode is defined by an insulated plate comprising an array of protruding conductive tips, wherein the conductive tips are electrically connected by a conductive wire, wherein the array of protruding tips is separated into a first electrically connected group and a second electrically connected group wherein one of the first or second electrically connected group is connected to a DC voltage source that is positively biased and the other of the first or second electrically connected group is connected to a DC voltage source that is negatively biased, and wherein the DC voltage source that is positively biased and the DC voltage source that is negatively biased are electrically connected to a functional controller that is capable of alternating a supply of energy between the DC voltage source that is negatively biased and the DC voltage source that is positively biased; passing a gas mixture comprising a reducing gas through the target area; energizing the rows of conductive tips by activating the DC voltage source that is negatively biased to generate electrons within the target area, wherein at least a portion of the electrons attach to at least a portion of the reducing gas thereby forming a negatively charged reducing gas; contacting the treating surface with the negatively charged reducing gas to reduce the metal oxides on the treating surface of the substrate; and energizing the rows of conductive tips by activating the DC voltage source that is positively biased to retrieve excess electrons from the treating surface, wherein the rows of conductive tips electrically connected to the DC voltage source that is negatively biased and the rows of conductive tips electrically connected to the DC voltage source that is positively biased are not energized at the same time. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIGS. 1   a  and  1   b  illustrate a voltage pulse on an emission and a base electrode, respectively; 
         FIGS. 2   a  through  2   i  is a schematic illustration of various electrode geometries suitable for emission and/or retrieval of electrons; 
         FIG. 3  provides an example of one embodiment of the electrode suitable for emission and/or retrieval of electrons employing a plurality of tips; 
         FIG. 4  provides an example of one embodiment of the electrode suitable for emission and/or retrieval of electrons having a segmented assembly; 
         FIG. 5  provides an example of one embodiment of the present invention illustrating removal of surface metal oxides in a wafer bumping application; 
         FIG. 6  illustrates a particular embodiment of the present invention for removing negatively charged ions on the substrate surface by changing the electrode polarity during the reflow of wafer bumps; 
         FIGS. 7   a  and  7   b  illustrates the transportation of the charged species between two electrodes when the polarity of the two electrodes is changed; 
         FIG. 8  provides an illustration of a particular embodiment of the present invention for removing electrons on the surface of a substrate by employing an additional electrode with a positive bias relative to the base electrode; 
         FIGS. 9   a  through  9   e  provide various illustrations of particular embodiments of the present invention employing movement of at least one electrode with respect to the substrate; 
         FIGS. 10   a  and  10   b  provide an illustration of a unidirectional voltage pulse and a bi-directional voltage pulse, respectively; 
         FIG. 11  is an illustration of an electrode assembly embodiment of the present invention; 
         FIGS. 12(   a ) and  12 ( b ) are illustrations of certain features of the embodiment of  FIG. 11 ; 
         FIG. 13  is an illustration of a conductive tip employed in the embodiment of  FIG. 11 ; and 
         FIG. 14  is a diagram of the electrical arrangement of the conductive tips employed in the embodiment of  FIG. 11 . 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to a method for the removal of metal oxides from a substrate surface by exposure to negatively charged ions. The negatively charged ions react and reduce the surface metal oxides. The present invention can be employed by modifying traditional reflow and soldering equipments such as, for example, the reflow machine used for reflow of solder bumped wafer. The present invention can also be applied to other processes wherein the removal of the surface metal oxides from a substrate is desired such as, but not limited to, metal plating (i.e., the solder plating of portions of printed circuit boards or metal surfaces to make them more amenable to subsequent soldering), reflow and wave soldering for outer lead bonding, surface cleaning, brazing, welding, and removing surface oxides of metals, such as copper oxide, formed during silicon wafer processing. The removal of metal oxides using the method and apparatus of the present invention is equally applicable to the aforementioned processes or any other process desirous of removing oxides without the need for organic fluxes. 
     The term “substrate” as used herein generally relates to a material such as silicon, silicon coated with silicon dioxide, aluminum-aluminum oxide, gallium arsenide, ceramic, quartz, copper, glass, epoxy, or any material suitable for use within an electronic device. In certain embodiments, the substrate is an electrically insulated or semi-conductive substrate having solder disposed thereupon. Exemplary solder compositions include, but are not limited to, a fluxless tin-silver, a fluxless tin-silver-copper, a fluxless tin-lead, or a fluxless tin-copper. However, the method of the present invention is suitable for a variety of different substrates and solder compositions. In a certain preferred embodiment, the substrate is a silicon wafer having a plurality of solder bumps disposed thereupon. 
     While not wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that when an energy source such as a direct current voltage source is applied between at least two electrodes, electrons are generated from one of the two electrodes having a negative electrical bias relative to the other electrode (referred to herein as an “emission electrode”) and/or the gas phase between the two electrodes. The generated electrons drift toward the other electrode, which is grounded or has a positive electrical bias (referred to herein as a “base electrode”), along the electric field. The substrate having a plurality of solder bumps upon its surface is placed within the area defined by the base and the emission electrodes (referred to herein as the “target area”) with the solder-bumped surface or treating area exposed to the emission electrode. In certain embodiments, the substrate may be connected to the base electrode forming a target assembly. A gas mixture comprising a reducing gas and optionally a carrier gas is passed through the electric field generated by the electrodes. During the electron drift, part of the reducing gas forms negative ions by electron attachment which then drift to the target assembly, i.e., the base electrode and substrate surface. On the substrate surface, negatively charged ions can thus reduce the existing metal oxides without the need for traditional fluxes. Further, the adsorption of the active species on the surface to be treated can be promoted due to the drifting of the negatively charged ions along the electric field. 
     In embodiments wherein the reducing gas comprises hydrogen, it is believed that the method of the present invention occurs as follows:
 
Dissociative Attachment of Molecular H 2 : H 2   +e ′ H − +H  (I)
 
Electron Attachment on Hydrogen Atom:  e ′+H H −   (II)
 
The combination of (I) and (II): 2 e ′+H 2   2H −   (III)
 
Oxide Reduction: 2H − +MO M+H 2 O+2 e ′ (M=solder/base metal)  (IV)
 
     In these embodiments, the activation energy of metal oxide reduction using the electron attachment method of the present invention is lower than methods that use molecular hydrogen because the formation of atomic hydrogen ions with electron attachment eliminates the energy associated with bond breaking of molecular hydrogen. 
     In certain embodiments, energy is supplied to at least one of the electrodes, preferably the emission electrode, sufficient to cause the emission electrode to generate electrons. The energy source is preferably an electric energy or voltage source, such as an AC or DC source. Other energy sources, such as an electromagnetic energy source, a thermal energy source, or a photo energy source may also be used alone, or in combinations with any of the aforementioned energy sources. In certain embodiments of the present invention, the emission electrode is connected to a first voltage level and the base electrode is connected to a second voltage level. The difference in the voltage levels creates a bias in electrical potential. One of the first or the second voltage levels may be zero indicating that either of the two electrodes can be grounded. 
     To produce negatively charged ions by electron attachment, a large quantity of electrons needs to be generated. In this connection, the electrons can be generated by a variety of ways such as, but not limited to, cathode emission, gas discharge, or combinations thereof. Among these electron generation methods, the selection of the method depends mainly on the efficiency and the energy level of the electrons generated. For embodiments wherein the reducing gas is hydrogen, electrons having an energy level approaching 4 eV is preferred. In these embodiments, such low energy level electrons are preferably generated by cathode emission rather than gas discharge. The generated electrons may then drift from the emission electrode toward the base electrode which creates a space charge. The space charge provides the electron source for generating the negatively charged hydrogen ions by electron attachment when hydrogen passes through the at least two electrodes or within the target area. 
     For embodiments involving electron generation through cathode emission, these embodiments may include: field emission (referred to herein as cold emission), thermal emission (referred to herein as hot emission), thermal-field emission, photoemission, and electron or ion beam emission. 
     Field emission involves applying an electric field with a negative bias on the emission electrode relative to the base electrode that is sufficiently high in intensity to overcome an energy barrier for electrons to be generated from the surface of the emission electrode. In certain preferred embodiments, a DC voltage is applied between the two electrodes that ranges from 0.1 to 50 kV, preferably ranging from 2 to 30 kV. In these embodiments, the distance between the electrodes may range from 0.1 to 30 cm, preferably from 0.5 to 5 cm. 
     Thermal emission, on the other hand, involves using a high temperature to energize electrons in the emission electrode and separate the electrons from the metallic bond in the material of the emission electrode. In certain preferred embodiments, the temperature of the emission electrode may range from 800 to 3500° C., preferably from 800 to 1500° C. The emission electrode may be brought to and/or maintained at a high temperature by a variety of methods such as, but not limited to, directly heating by passing AC or DC through the electrode; indirect heating such as contacting the cathode surface with an electrically insulated hot surface heated by a heating element, IR radiation, or combinations thereof. 
     Thermal-field emission is a hybrid of field emission and thermal emission methods for electron generation in which both an electric field and a high temperature are applied. Therefore, thermal-field emission may require a lesser electric field and a lower electrode temperature for generating the same quantity of electrons as compared with pure field emission and pure thermal emission. Thermal-field emission can minimize difficulties encountered with pure field emission, such as the tendency of degradation in electron emission by contamination on the emission surface, and a high restriction on the planarity and uniformity of the emission surface. Further, thermal-field emission may also avoid problems related to thermal emission such as a high potential of chemical reaction between the emission electrode and the gas phase. In embodiments wherein the thermal-field emission is used for electron generation, the temperature of the emission electrode can range from ambient to 3500° C., or more preferably from 150 to 1500° C. In these embodiments, the electric voltage can range from 0.01 to 30 KV, or more preferably from 0.1 to 10 KV. 
     In certain preferred embodiments, the thermal emission or thermal-field emission method is used for electron generation. In these embodiments, a high temperature emission electrode used in either of these methods may also act as a heat source for the gas mixture that is passed through the electric field generated by the two electrodes, so that the thermal energy required for heating the gas for a subsequent reflow process step can be reduced. 
     In certain embodiments of the present invention, the electron generation is accomplished via a combination of cathode emission and corona discharge methods. In these embodiments, an energy source such as a DC voltage is applied between the two electrodes and electrons may be generated from both the emission electrode (cold or hot) and the gas phase (corona discharge) near the emission electrode. The corona discharge is preferably minimized in order to increase the efficiency of forming negatively charged ions by electron attachment and increase the lifetime of the emission electrode. 
     In embodiments wherein the cathode emission mechanism is used for electron emission, the voltage applied across the two electrodes may be constant or pulsed. The frequency of the voltage pulse ranges from 0 to 100 kHz.  FIGS. 1   a  and  1   b  provide an illustration of a voltage pulse on an emission electrode and a base electrode, respectively. In these embodiments, it is believed that a pulsed voltage, such as that shown in  FIGS. 1   a  and  1   b , is preferable to constant voltage to improve the amount of electron generation and to reduce the tendency of gas phase discharge. 
     For embodiments involving electron generation through gas discharge, these embodiments may include thermal discharge, photo-discharge, and various avalanche discharge, including glow discharge, arc discharge, spark discharge, and corona discharge. In these embodiments, electrons are generated by gas phase ionization. The gas phase is a gas mixture comprising the reducing gas and an inert gas. In certain embodiments of gas phase ionization, a voltage source is applied between two electrodes and electrons may be generated from the inert gas within the gas mixture between the two electrodes that then drift toward the positively biased electrode such as the base electrode. During this electron drift, some of these electrons may attach on the reducing gas molecules and form negatively charged ions by electron attachment. In addition, some positive ions are also created in the inert gas that then drift toward the negatively biased electrode such as the emission electrode and are neutralized at the electrode surface. 
     As mentioned previously, electrons can be generated from an emission electrode when it has a negative bias relative to a base electrode. Referring to  FIGS. 2   a  through  2   i , the emission electrode may have a variety of geometries, such as, for example, a thin wire  2   a , a rod with a sharpened tip  2   b , a rod with several sharpened tips or comb  2   c , a screen or wire mesh  2   d , a loose coil  2   e , an array of combs  2   f , a bundle of thin wires or filament  2   g , a rod with sharp tips protruding from its surface  2   h , or a plate with a knurled surface  2   i . Additional geometries may include combinations of the above geometries such as plates or rods with surface protrusions, rods wrapped with wire windings or filament, coils of thin wires, etc. A plurality of electrodes may be employed that may be arranged in a parallel series or in an intersecting grid. Still further geometries may include a “wagon wheel” geometry wherein a plurality of electrodes is arranged in a radial fashion such as in “spokes” of a wheel. In certain embodiments, such as embodiments wherein field emission is involved, the cathode is preferably made of geometries having a large surface curvature, such as a plurality of sharp tips to maximize the electric field near the electrode surface such as the geometry depicted in  FIG. 3 . As  FIG. 3  illustrates, electrode  1  has a series of thin wires  2  that reside within grooves on the electrode surface along with a plurality of tips  3  emanating from its surface. 
     The electrode material that acts as an emission electrode is preferably comprised of a conductive material with relatively low electron-emission energy or work function. The material preferably also has a high melting point and relatively high stability under processing conditions. Examples of suitable materials include metals, alloys, semiconductors, and oxides coated or deposited onto conductive substrates. Further examples include, but are not limited to, tungsten, graphite, high temperature alloys such as nickel chromium alloys, and metal oxides such as BaO and Al 2 O 3  that are deposited onto a conductive substrate. 
     The electrode that acts as a base electrode is comprised of a conductive material such as a metal or any of the other materials described therein. The base electrode can have a variety of different geometries depending upon the application. 
     In certain embodiments of the present invention involving thermal-field emission, the emission electrode may comprise a segmented assembly such as the electrode depicted in  FIG. 4 . In this regard, the core  10  of the emission electrode may be made of a metal with a high electrical resistance. A plurality of tips  11  emanate from core  10 . Tips  11  may be made of a conductive material with relatively low electron emission energy or work function such as any of the materials disclosed herein. The core may be heated by directly passing an AC or a DC current (not shown) through core  10 . The thermal conduction will transfer the heat from the core to tips  11 . The hot core  10  and the plurality of tips  11  are enclosed within an enclosure  12  which is then inserted into a support frame thereby forming a segmented assembly as shown. Tips  11  are exposed outside the enclosure  12 . Enclosure  12  is composed of an insulating material. The segmented assembly allows for the thermal expansion of the core during operation. In this arrangement, electrons can be generated from hot tips  11  by applying a negative voltage bias on the emission electrode relative to the base electrode. 
     In another preferred embodiment of the present invention involving thermal-field emission, indirect heating can raise the temperature of the emission electrode. This may be accomplished by using a heating cartridge as the core of the emission electrode. The surface of the heating cartridge may be comprised of an electrically conductive material such as a metal that is electrically insulated from the heating element inside the cartridge. To promote electron emission, a plurality of distributed emission tips can be mounted on the surface of the heating cartridge. The cartridge can be heated by passing an AC or DC current through the heating element inside the cartridge. Electrons can be generated from the distributed tips of the cartridge by applying a negative voltage bias on the surface of the cartridge relative to a second electrode. For creating the voltage bias in this arrangement, the second electrode can be grounded so that the cartridge may be negatively biased or, alternatively, the cartridge can be grounded so that the second electrode may be positively biased. In some embodiments, the latter case may be preferable for eliminating a potential interference between two electric circuits, e.g., one circuit may be the AC or DC current along the heating element, and the another circuit may be the high voltage bias between the surface of the cartridge and the second electrode. In these embodiments, the hot cartridge electrode may also act as a heat source for the gas mixture to achieve the required temperatures for the reflow process step. 
     As mentioned previously, a gas mixture comprising a reducing gas is passed through the electric field generated by the at least two electrodes. The reducing gas contained within the gas mixture may fall within one or more of the following categories: 1) an intrinsically reductant gas, 2) a gas capable of generating active species which form gaseous oxides upon reaction of the active species with the metal oxide, or 3) a gas capable of generating active species which form liquid or aqueous oxides upon reaction of the active species with the metal oxide. 
     The first category of gases, or an intrinsically reductant gas, includes any gas that thermodynamically acts as a reductant to the oxides to be removed. Examples of intrinsically reductant gases include H 2 , CO, SiH 4 , Si 2 H 6 , formic acid, alcohols such as, for example, methanol, ethanol, etc., and some acidic vapors having the following formula (III): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In formula (III), substituent R may be an alkyl group, substituted alkyl group, an aryl, or substituted aryl group. The term “alkyl” as used herein includes straight chain, branched, or cyclic alkyl groups, preferably containing from 1 to 20 carbon atoms, or more preferably from 1 to 10 carbon atoms. This applies also to alkyl moieties contained in other groups such as haloalkyl, alkaryl, or aralkyl. The term “substituted alkyl” applies to alkyl moieties that have substituents that include heteroatoms such as O, N, S, or halogen atoms; OCH 3 ; OR (R=alkyl C 1-10  or aryl C 6-10 ); alkyl C 1-10  or aryl C 6-10 ; NO 2 ; SO 3 R (R=alkyl C 1-10  or aryl C 6-10 ); or NR 2  (R=H, alkyl C 1-10  or aryl C 6-10 ). The term “halogen” as used herein includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. The term “aryl” as used herein includes six to twelve member carbon rings having aromatic character. The term “substituted aryl” as used herein includes aryl rings having substitutents that include heteroatoms such as O, N, S, or halogen atoms; OCH 3 ; OR (R=alkyl C 1-10  or aryl C 6-10 ); alkyl C 1-10  or aryl C 6-10 ; NO 2 ; SO 3 R (R=alkyl C 1-10  or aryl C 6-10 ); or NR 2  (R=H, alkyl C 1-10  or aryl C 6-10 ). In certain preferred embodiments, the gas mixture contains hydrogen. 
     The second category of reducing gas includes any gas that is not an intrinsically reductive but can generate active species, such as, for example, H, C, S, H′, C′, and S′, by dissociative attachment of electron on the gas molecules and form gaseous oxides by reaction of the active species with the metal oxides to be removed. Examples of this type of gas include: NH 3 , H 2 S, C 1  to C 10  hydrocarbons such as but not limited to CH 4 , C 2 H 4 , acidic vapors having the formula (III), and organic vapors having the following formula (IV): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In formulas (III) and (IV), substituent R may be an alkyl group, substituted alkyl group, an aryl, or substituted aryl group. 
     The third category of reducing gas includes any gas that is not an intrinsically reductive but can form active species, such as, for example, F, Cl, F′, and Cl′, by dissociative attachment of electron on the gas molecules and form liquid or aqueous oxides by reaction of the active species with the metal oxides. Examples of this type of gas include fluorine and chlorine containing gases, such as CF 4 , SF 6 , CF 2 Cl 2 , HCl, BF 3 , WF 6 , UF 6 , SiF 3 , NF 3 , CClF 3 , and HF. 
     Besides including one or more of the above categories of reducing gases, the gas mixture may further contain one or more carrier gases. The carrier gas may be used, for example, to dilute the reducing gas or provide collision stabilization. The carrier gas used in the gas mixture may be any gas with an electron affinity less than that of the reducing gas or gases within the gas mixture. In certain preferred embodiments, the carrier gas is an inert gas. Examples of suitable inert gases include, but are not limited to, N 2 , Ar, He, Ne, Kr, Xe, and Rn. 
     In certain preferred embodiments, the gas mixture comprises hydrogen as the reducing gas and nitrogen as the carrier gas due to its relatively lower cost and the environmental friendliness of the exhaust gas release. In these embodiments, the gas mixture comprises from 0.1 to 100% by volume, preferably 1 to 50% by volume, or more preferably from 0.1 to 4% by volume of hydrogen. Amounts of hydrogen lower than 4% are preferred, which makes gas mixture non-flammable. 
     In certain embodiments, the gas mixture is passed through the field generated by the at least two electrodes at a temperature ranging from ambient to 450° C., more preferably ranging from 100 to 350° C. The pressure of the gas mixture is preferably ambient atmospheric pressure, i.e., the existing pressure of the area of the process. No special pressure, such as vacuum, may be required. In embodiments where the gas mixture is pressurized, the pressure may range from 10 to 20 psia, preferably from 14 to 16 psia. 
     The substrate surface in which the oxides are to be removed is preferably located between the emission electrode and the base electrode with the surface facing the emission electrode. In certain preferred embodiments of the present invention, the substrate may be connected to the base electrode to provide a target assembly and facing the emission electrode. In these embodiments, the distance between the emission electrode and the top surface of the wafer/or target assembly may range from 0.1 to 30 cm, preferably from 0.5 to 5 cm. 
       FIG. 5  provides an illustration of the process used for a wafer bumping application wherein the substrate is silicon wafer  20 . Referring to  FIG. 5 , a second electrode  24  is located above a wafer  20 , and the wafer  20  comprising a plurality of solder bumps (not shown) is placed upon a first electrode  22  to form a target assembly. At least a portion of the surface of wafer  20  containing the plurality of solder bumps is exposed to second electrode  24 . While the wafer  20  is shown as being placed upon first electrode  22 , it is envisioned that the wafer  20  can be placed anywhere between electrodes  22  and  24 . A pulsed voltage  25  is applied across the first electrode  22  and the second electrode  24  to generate an electric field. A gas mixture  26  containing hydrogen and nitrogen is passed through the electric field. Low energy electrons  28  are generated within the electric field which drift towards the first electrode  22  and wafer  20  disposed thereupon. In addition, a portion of the hydrogen within gas mixture  26  forms hydrogen ions  30  by electron attachment which also drift towards the first electrode  22  and wafer  20  disposed thereupon. The drift of negatively charged hydrogen ions  30  and electrons  28  towards the electrode  22  with wafer  20  disposed thereupon promotes adsorption of ions  30  onto the surface of wafer  20  and fosters de-oxidation of the wafer surface (referred to herein as surface de-oxidation). 
     Depending upon the conductivity of the substrate, some of the electrons that are generated as a reaction byproduct from surface de-oxidation can accumulate on the substrate surface. In addition, a portion of the free electrons can directly adsorb on the substrate due to the drifting along the electric field. This electron build-up on the substrate surface may prevent additional adsorption of the negatively charged ions as well as adversely affect the equilibrium of the surface de-oxidation. To make the surface de-oxidation process more efficient, the electrons on the substrate surface need to be periodically removed. 
     One method to remove the electrons on the substrate surface may be to change the polarity of both of the electrodes relative to each other. During the polarity change, the voltage level on each electrode may not necessarily be the same. In one embodiment, the polarity change can be achieved by applying a bi-directional voltage pulse between at least two electrodes such as that shown in  FIG. 10   b .  FIG. 6  provides an example of a polarity change wherein an electrode may generate electrons in one phase of the voltage pulse (i.e., a negative bias) and retrieve electrons in another phase of the voltage pulse (i.e., a positive bias). In  FIG. 6 , electrode  110  is used as both the electron emission and electron retrieving electrode and electrode  120  is used a base electrode. This arrangement allows the efficiency of surface de-oxidation to be maximized. Electrode  110  containing a plurality of sharp tips  101  is located above wafer  103 . Electrode  110  is heated by connecting to an AC power source  104 . Another electrode  120  is located underneath wafer  103 . The change in polarity of electrodes  110  and  120  can be obtained, for example, by a bi-directional pulsed DC power  105 . An example of bi-directional voltage pulse is illustrated in  FIG. 10   b . When electrode  110  is negatively biased, at least a portion of the electrons generated from tips  101  attach to at least a portion of the reducing gas and newly created reducing gas ions drift towards wafer  103 . When the polarity is reversed, electrons are released from the surface of wafer  103  and retrieved back at tips  101 .  FIGS. 7   a  and  7   b  illustrate the transportation of the charged species during each cycle of the voltage pulse. The frequency of changing the polarity of the two electrodes can range from 0 to 100 kHz. 
     In an alternative embodiment, excess electrons on the substrate surface may be removed by employing one or more additional electrodes.  FIG. 8  provides such an example wherein a wafer is the substrate. Referring to  FIG. 8 , wafer  200  is disposed upon a grounded base electrode  201 . Two electrodes, electrode  202  having a negative voltage bias relative to base electrode  201  and electrode  203  having a positive voltage bias relative to base electrode  201  are installed above the wafer surface  200 . In this arrangement, electrons are continually generated from electrode  202  and retrieved at electrode  203 . In one particular embodiment, the polarity of electrode  202  and electrode  203  may be periodically changed from a positive to a negative voltage bias, and vice versa, relative to the base electrode  201 . 
     In yet another embodiment, electrons or residual surface charge may be removed from the substrate surface by employing a neutralizer after surface de-oxidation. If left untreated, residual charge contamination can cause electrostatic discharge damage to sensitive electronic components. In these embodiments, flowing a high purity gas such as N 2  through a commercially available neutralizer device and then across the substrate surface can neutralize the residual charge on the wafer surface. The positive ions present in the gas will neutralize any residual electrons and provide an electrically neutral surface. Suitable charge neutralizer devices may, for example, consist of Kr-85 radioactive sources that produce equal densities of positive and negative ions in the gas. While positive and negative ions are produced in the gas as it flows through the wafer, the net charge of the gas stream is zero. 
       FIGS. 11 to 14  illustrate a preferred electrode assembly apparatus employed for removing a metal oxide from a treating surface of a substrate according to the present invention. Referring to  FIG. 11 , electrode assembly comprises energizing electrode  501  having an array of protruding conductive tips  506  that are electrically connected by a conductive wire (not shown), and base electrode  502 , which has a grounded electrical potential. As used herein the term “energizing electrode” refers to an electrode that is an electrode that has an electrical potential—either positive or negative—relative to ground (zero). The energizing electrode  501  is proximal to the base electrode  502 . Preferably, the base electrode  502  and the energizing electrode  501  are spaced apart from one another by a distance of from about 0.5 cm to about 5.0 cm. In preferred embodiments, the base electrode  502  and the energizing electrode  501  are spaced apart from one another by a distance of 1.0 cm. 
     A substrate  503  is proximal to the base electrode  502 . Substrate  503  comprises an insulating portion  504  and a treating surface  505  comprising a metal oxide. Preferably, at least a portion of the treating surface  505  is exposed to the energizing electrode  501  and the base electrode  502  and the energizing electrode  501  and the substrate  503  all reside within a target area. 
     Referring now to  FIGS. 11 and 12(   a ), energizing electrode  501  is defined by an insulated plate having an array of protruding conductive tips  506  that are electrically connected by a conductive wire. Preferably, the insulated plate comprises a material selected from insulating materials such as, for example, quartz, a ceramic material, a polymer, and mixtures thereof. In preferred embodiments, the insulating plate comprises quartz. 
     In preferred embodiments of the present invention the protruding conductive tips are removably connected to the base plate. For example, referring to  FIG. 12(   a ), the underside of the insulated plate has holes  507  that resemble “key holes.” Each of the holes  507  is connected by a conductive wire  508 , which electrically contacts the conductive tips  506  once the conductive tips  506  are inserted into the holes  507 .  FIG. 12(   b ) shows a close-up of the arrangement of three of the holes  507 . Preferably, the holes  507  (and, thus, the conductive tips  506 ) are spaced apart from each other by a distance of from about 2 mm to about 10 mm, more preferably from about 5 mm to about 8 mm, and most preferable, by a distance of about 5 mm. The holes  507  can be formed by any means known to those skilled in the art such as, for example, by laser drilling. 
       FIG. 13  shows a single conductive tip  506  whose upper end  508  fits into one of the holes  507 , contacts conductive wire  508 , and locks into place by, for example, a twisting motion. Each of the conductive tips can be unlocked and removed by, for example, a twisting motion in the opposite direction than that used to lock the conductive tip  506  into place. Preferably, conductive tips  506  are formed from metals such as, for example, brass, stainless steel, nickel-chromium alloy, and other metals with relatively low electron-emission energy. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 14 , the array of protruding conductive tips  506  is separated into a first electrically connected group  510  and a second electrically connected group  512  wherein one of the first or second electrically connected group is connected to a DC voltage source that is positively biased  516  and the other of the first or second electrically connected group is connected to a DC voltage source that is negatively biased  518 . The DC voltage source that is positively biased and the DC voltage source that is negatively biased are electrically connected to a functional controller  514  that is capable of alternating a supply of energy between the DC voltage source that is negatively biased and the DC voltage source that is positively biased. Between the functional controller  514  and each of the positive and negative DC voltage sources is a positive pulse generator  520  and a negative pulse generator  522  in communication with the positive and negative DC voltage sources, respectively. The pulse generators  520  and  522  are, in effect, switches. When each pulse generator receives a pulsing signal (e.g., a pulsed low voltage signal of 0 to 5 v) from the functional controller  514 , a corresponding high voltage pulse (e.g., between 0 v and the set point of the DC voltage) will be created, which powers the corresponding high voltage source. The functional controller  514  has a dual outputs. When one output is connected to a corresponding pulse generator, the other output is disconnected to the other pulse generator, thus making the alternating function. Typically, there are two adjustable variables of the pulsing signal of the functional controller: pulsing frequency and the on/off ratio of the voltage. 
     In operation, when a gas mixture comprising a reducing gas is passed through the target area, the functional controller  514 , in cooperation with the negative pulse generator  522 , energizes the rows of conductive tips by activating the DC voltage source that is negatively biased to generate electrons within the target area, wherein at least a portion of the electrons attach to at least a portion of the reducing gas thereby forming a negatively charged reducing gas that, in turn, contacts the treating surface to reduce metal oxides on the treating surface of the substrate. The functional controller  514  then deactivates the DC voltage source that is negatively biased and, in cooperation with the positive pulse generator  520 , activates the DC voltage source that is positively biased to energize the other set of rows of conductive tips to retrieve excess electrons from the treating surface. Preferably, the rows of conductive tips electrically connected to the DC voltage source that is negatively biased and the rows of conductive tips electrically connected to the DC voltage source that is positively biased are not energized at the same time. In operation, functional controller  514  is capable of alternating between the negative and positive biased DC voltage at a high-frequency pulse. In preferred embodiments, the voltage pulsing frequency is preferably from about 0 to about 50 kHz and, more preferably, from about 10 kHz to about 30 kHz. The amplitude of the voltage pulse is preferably from about 1 kV to about 3 kV. 
     There are several benefits of the embodiment of the present invention illustrated by  FIGS. 11 to 14 . First, such embodiment allows for the low temperature reduction of metal oxides such as, for example, copper oxide, on an insulated substrate such as, for example, a ceramic substrate. Examples of insulated substrates include, for example, rigid epoxy glass laminate substrates used for printed circuit boards, flexible flex polymeric films (e.g., polyimide) substrates used for flexible circuits, insulated substrates used in integrated circuit interconnection schemes, high density interconnects such as polymeric based BGA&#39;s (Ball Grid Array), high density interconnects, and insulated substrates used in 3-D or stacked integrated circuit or 3-D or stacked packaging technologies. Next, the embodiment illustrated in  FIGS. 11 to 14  provides a structure and electrical arrangement that is able to intensify the electrical field on each conductive tip, thereby largely reducing the threshold voltage for a uniform electron emission among the tips without arcing between adjacent tips of opposite voltage potentials. 
     In certain embodiments, the substrate or target assembly may be moved with respect to the electrode that acts as an emission electrode. In this regard, the emission electrode may be in a fixed position and the substrate may be moved, the emission electrode may be moved and the substrate may be in a fixed position, or both the emission electrode and the substrate are moved. The movement may be vertical, horizontal, rotational, or along an arc. In these embodiments, surface de-oxidation may then occur within a localized area of the substrate surface. 
     For the following  FIGS. 9   a  through  9   e , the substrate is a silicon wafer that is disposed upon a base electrode, which is grounded. At least portion of the wafer surface comprising a plurality of solder bumps (not shown) is exposed to a second electrode that acts as both an emitting and a retrieving electrode (i.e., changing polarity, for example, from a negative to a positive bias in electrical potential).  FIG. 9   a  shows a silicon wafer  300  moved rotationally under a heated linear electrode  302  to which is applied a bi-directionally pulsed voltage relative to the base electrode  304  that may cycled in a frequency range from 0 to 100 KHz thereby generating an ion area shown as  306 . A motor located outside the processing chamber (not shown) rotates the wafer. Such rotation is frequently accomplished in semiconductor processing without significant contamination of the wafer surface. Contamination may be avoided by employing high cleanliness, rotational feed-throughs and control of flow patterns.  FIG. 9   b  shows a silicon wafer  310  moved linearly under a heated linear electrode  312  to which is applied a bi-directionally pulsed voltage relative to the base electrode  314  thereby generating an ion area shown as  316 . This arrangement may be suitable for applications wherein a conveyor belt is used to move wafers through tubular bumping furnaces such as, for example, printed circuit boards through reflow furnaces.  FIG. 9   c  shows a silicon wafer  320  moved rotationally under a pair of heated linear emission electrodes  324  and  326 : the base electrode  322  has a steady positive bias and the emission electrodes  324  and  326  has a steady negative bias relative to the base electrode  322  so that electrons can be generated to and be retrieved back from the wafer surface thereby generating an ion area shown as  328 . A motor located outside the processing chamber (not shown) rotates the wafer.  FIG. 9   d  shows a silicon wafer  330  moved linearly under a heated pair of linear electrodes  334  and  336  that are held at steady and opposite polarities relative to the base electrode  332  to conduct electron emission and retrieving separately_thereby generating an ion area shown as  338 . Lastly,  FIG. 9   e  employs a relatively smaller electrode  344  located on the end of a pivoting arm  346 . The polarity of the electrode  344  is frequently altered relative to the base electrode  342  thereby generating an ion area shown as  348 . The arm is swung over a rotating wafer  340 , in for example an arc-like motion, to affect complete and uniform treatment of the entire wafer surface. 
     The method of the present invention can be used in several areas of the microelectronics manufacturing in addition to the reflow of a solder bumped wafer such as, for example, surface cleaning, metal plating, brazing, welding, and reflow and wave soldering for outer lead bonding. An example of reflow and wave soldering apparatuses that are suitable for the method of present invention is in FIGS. 1-3 provided in pending U.S. application Ser. No. 09/949,580 which assigned to the assignee of the present invention and is incorporated herein by reference it its entirety. In one particular embodiment, the method of the present invention can be used to reduce surface oxides of metals, such as copper oxide, formed during silicon wafer processing or thin film de-oxidation. Such oxides may form as a result of the various wet processing steps, such as chemical mechanical planarization, that are used to form micro-electronic devices on the wafers. These surface oxides reduce device yield and device reliability. The present invention allows surface oxides to be removed in a fully dry, environmentally friendly manner that does not require the use of aqueous reducing agents. Further, since the present invention is performed at relatively low temperatures, it does not significantly affect the thermal budget of the device during processing. Higher temperatures, by contrast, tend to reduce device yield and reliability by causing diffusion of dopants and oxides thereby reducing device performance. Since the method of the present invention can be performed on a single wafer, the method can be integrated with other single wafer processes, thereby providing better compatibility with other fabrication steps. 
     The method and apparatus of the present invention are particularly suitable for applications of wafer bumping and thin film de-oxidation. The conveniences of using the present invention for wafer bumping and thin film de-oxidation are numerous. First, compared to typical reflow soldering processes for outer lead bonding, wafer bumping and thin film de-oxidation are both single-face treatment. In this connection, the space above the surface to be deoxidized can be as small as 1 cm, thereby resulting in an efficient process for both ion generation and transportation. Second, the processing temperatures for reflow in wafer bumping are significantly higher than that of typical reflow soldering processes. The higher temperatures promote the formation of the negatively charged ions by electron attachment. Third, in wafer bumping and thin film de-oxidation processes, the solder bumps and thin films are completely exposed thereby minimizing any “shadow” effect during surface de-oxidation. Further, compared to other soldering processes whereby the solder has to wet and spread over the component surface, the deposited solder bumps on the wafer need only exhibit solder ball formation upon first reflow. 
     The invention will be illustrated in more detail with reference to the following examples, but it should be understood that the present invention is not deemed to be limited thereto. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1 
     A first experiment was conducted by using a lab-scale furnace. The sample used was a fluxless tin-lead solder preform (melting point 183° C.) on a grounded copper plate (anode), which was loaded inside a furnace and heated up to 250° C. under a gas flow of 5% H 2  in N 2 . When the sample temperature was at equilibrium, a DC voltage was applied between the negative electrode (cathode) and the grounded sample (anode) and gradually increased to about −2 kV with a current of 0.3 mA. The distance between the two electrodes was about 1 cm. The pressure was ambient, atmospheric pressure. It was found that the solder was indeed very well wetted on the copper surface. Without applying an electric voltage, a good wetting of a fluxless solder on a copper surface can never be achieved at such low temperature, even in pure H 2 , because the effective temperature for pure H 2  to remove tin-oxides on a tin-based solder is above 350° C. Therefore, this result confirms that the electron-attachment method is effective in promoting H 2  fluxless soldering. 
     Example 2 
     Several cathode materials were investigated for electron-attachment assisted hydrogen fluxless soldering by using the field emission mechanism using the same set-up as Example 1. The results of the investigation is provided in Table I. 
     As Table I illustrates, the best result was obtained by using a Ni/Cr cathode, which provided the highest fluxing efficiency and thus resulted in the shortest wetting time. It is believed that the Ni/Cr cathode generates a relatively larger quantity of electrons and has suitable energy level of the electrons compared to other cathode materials. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE I 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Effect of Cathode Material on Wetting Time at 250° C. and 20% H 2   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Material of Cathode Rod 
                   
               
               
                   
                 with a Sharp Tip ( 1/16″ dia.) 
                 Time to Complete Wetting 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Brass 
                 1 min 55 sec 
               
               
                   
                 Copper 
                 1 min 44 sec 
               
               
                   
                 Nickel Chromium 
                 39 sec 
               
               
                   
                 Aluminum 
                 1 min 28 sec 
               
               
                   
                 Stainless Steel 
                 1 min 
               
               
                   
                 Tungsten 
                 1 min 54 sec 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 3 
     The present example was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of the thermal-field emission method for generating electrons. A 3 mm diameter graphite rod, having a number of 1 mm long machined tips protruding from its surface, acted as the cathode and had a geometry similar to that depicted in  FIG. 2   i . Each of the protruding machined tips had a tip angle of 25 degrees. The graphite rod was heated up in a gas mixture of 5% H 2  and 95% N 2  to about 400 to 500° C. by resistive heating using an AC power source. A DC voltage source of 5 KV was applied between the graphite cathode and a copper plate that acted as an anode having a 1.5 cm gap therebetween. All the tips on the graphite rod were illuminated thereby indicating that electrons could uniformly be generated from the distributed tips on the graphite rod. Without heating of the graphite rod, there would be either no electron emission from the cathode, or arcing between one of the tips and the anode plate. This demonstrates that the combination of using a cathode having multiple tips and elevated temperatures, i.e., a thermal-field emission method, is effective for obtaining uniform electron emission from an integrated emitting system. 
     Example 4 
     The present example was conducted using a 0.04″ diameter nickel-chromium alloy heating wire clamped horizontally between two machined Al 2 O 3  refractory plates such as the electrode illustrated in  FIG. 4 . A series of five nickel-chromium alloy emitting wires, each with a sharp tip (12.5 degree) on one end of the wire, protruded perpendicularly from the nickel-chromium heating wire and were vertically positioned between two refractory plates. The nickel-chromium heating wire and tips were heated up in a gas mixture of 5% H 2  and 95% N 2  to about 870° C. using an AC power source. A DC voltage of 2.6 KV was applied between the cathode and a copper plate that acted as the anode having a 6 mm gap between the two electrodes. All five tips were illuminated and the total emission current reached 2.4 mA. Without heating of the wire, there would be either no electron emission from the cathode, or arcing between one of the tips and the anode plate. Like example 3, example 4 demonstrates that thermal-assisted field emission provides uniform electron emission. Further, because of the higher temperature of the emission electrode, it also increases the quantity of the electron emission at a given electric potential. 
     Example 5 
     The present example was conducted to demonstrate the effect of a voltage pulse between two electrodes on cathode emission. A single-tip nickel-chromium alloy wire was used as the emission electrode and a grounded copper plate acted as a base electrode. The copper plate was located 3 mm below the tip of the emission electrode. A tin/lead solder preform was disposed upon the copper plate. The nickel-chromium wire, preform, and copper plate were maintained in a furnace at ambient temperature in a gas mixture of 4% H 2  and the remainder N 2 . A pulsed unidirectional voltage of various frequencies and amplitudes was applied between the two electrodes. In this connection, the electric potential of the emission electrode was varied from negative to zero relative to the grounded base electrode thereby allowing electrons to be generated from the tip electrode. The results are provided in Table II. 
     The results in Table II indicate that greater quantities of electrons are generated from the emission electrode when a voltage pulse of higher pulsing frequency and amplitude is applied. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE II 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Uni-Directional Voltage Pulse 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Pulsing Frequency (Hz) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 0 
                 250 
                 500 
                 1000 
                 2500 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Emission Current at 3.4 kV 
                 0 
                 0.3 
                 0.4 
                 0.5 
                 0.6 
               
               
                 Pulsing Amplitude (mA) 
               
               
                 Emission Current at 1.0 kV 
                 0 
                 0.1 
                 0.1 
                 0.2 
                 0.2 
               
               
                 Pulsing Amplitude (mA) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 6 
     The present example was conducted to demonstrate surface discharge by altering the polarity of the two electrodes using the same set-up as example 5. 
     A bi-directional voltage pulse with a total pulsing amplitude of 3.4 kV (e.g. from +1.7 kV to −1.7 kV) was applied between the two electrodes. During the bi-directional voltage pulse, the polarity of the two electrodes was changed. In other words, the tip of the emission electrode was varied from a positive to a negative electrical bias relative to the grounded base electrode thereby allowing electrons to be generated from and retrieved to the tip electrode. 
     Table III provides the leakage current from the base electrode for each frequency of the polarity change. As Table III illustrates, the higher the frequency of the polarity change, the lower the charge build up will be by observing the leakage current passing through the copper base electrode. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE III 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Bi-Directional Voltage Pulse 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Pulsing Frequency (Hz) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 250 
                 500 
                 1000 
                 2500 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Leakage Current (mA) 
                 0.00069 
                 0.00054 
                 0.00015 
                 0.00015 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 7 
     The present example was conducted to demonstrate remote surface discharge by employing an additional electrode. A 90 Pb/10Sn solder preform having a melting point of 305° C. was set on a small piece of a copper substrate that was set on an electrically insulated wafer. A grounded copper plate was placed underneath the wafer and acted as a base electrode. Two single-tip nickel-chromium wires, one with a negative voltage and one with a positive voltage, were installed 1 cm above the base electrode with the solder preform. The distance between the two single-tip electrodes was 1.5 cm. The arrangement was heated within a gas mixture containing 4% H 2  in N 2  from room temperature to a given reflow temperature above the melting point of the solder. When the reflow temperature reached equilibrium, electron attachment was started by applying the positive and the negative voltages to the two single-tip electrodes and the time required for the solder preform to form a spherical ball was recorded. The formation of a spherical solder ball indicated an oxide-free solder surface. As shown in Table IV, the surface de-oxidation is quite efficient at a range of temperature from 310 to 330° C., which is only 5 to 15° C. above the melting point of the solder. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE IV 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
                 Isotherm Reflow Temperature (° C.) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 310 
                 320 
                 330 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Ball formation Time (seconds) 
                 20, 18, 20, 24 
                 17, 13, 16 
                 14, 12 
               
               
                 Average Ball Formation Time 
                 20.5 
                 15.3 
                 13 
               
               
                 (seconds) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 8 
     A quartz-plate based electrode according to the present invention was installed inside a furnace. The space between metal pins on the quartz plate was 0.5 cm. The substrate was a copper plate on a ceramic substrate which, in turn, was put on a grounded electrode (i.e., a base electrode). The gap between the tips of metal pins on the quartz plate and the copper surface was 1 cm. The furnace was purged by 5% H 2  balanced with N 2 . A pulsed voltage ranging from 0 to −3.12 kV with a pulsing frequency of 10 kHz was applied on the quartz electrode. A uniform electron emission from all the emission pins was observed. The average emission current from each emission pin was around 0.3 mA. Significantly, no arcing was observed in this embodiment where the space between the emission tips was as small as 0.5 cm. This result demonstrates that the threshold voltage for a uniform electron emission from the quartz-plate based electrode is largely reduced to a level much below that of gas ionization. 
     Example 9 
     A quartz-plate based electrode according to the present invention was installed inside a furnace. The space between metal pins on the quartz plate was 1.0 cm. The treating surface was a copper plate that had been pre-oxidized in air at 150° C. for two hours, which made the color of the copper plate darker compared with original copper plate. The oxide thickness was estimated to be ˜400 Å by Auger analysis. The pre-oxidized copper plate was put on a ceramic substrate and then located on a grounded electrode. The gap between the tips of metal pins on quartz plate and the surface of the pre-oxidized copper plate was 1 cm. The furnace was purged by 5% H 2  balanced with N 2  and heated to 200° C. Positive and negative voltages were alternatively applied on two different groups of metal pins with amplitudes of +1.2 kV and −1.2 kV, respectively. The alternating frequency was 15 KHz. A uniform electron emission was observed. After a 15 minutes of such electron attachment treatment under the condition described above, the copper plate was taken out of the furnace. It was observed that the color of the treated copper surface was changed to the original copper plate color. Without applying the electron attachment process of the present invention, the oxide reductions on the surface of the pre-oxidized copper were found to be inefficient in the same heating process. 
     While the invention has been described in detail and with reference to specific examples thereof, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that various changes and modifications can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope thereof.