Patent Publication Number: US-11041147-B2

Title: Bacteriophage strain capable of producing a lytic infection in the Escherichia coli ST131-025B:H4 clone

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to a bacteriophage strain capable of producing a lytic infection in the  Escherichia coli  ST131-O25b:H4 clone. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Amongst the highly diverse  Escherichia coli  population (1), the ST131-O25b:H4 clonal complex is of particular concern. Since its first description in 2008 in a limited number of countries, this clone is now present worldwide demonstrating an uncommon ability to propagate in humans (2, 3). Moreover, ST131-O25b:H4  E. coli  strains have a high pathogenic potential (4), they belong to the B2 phylogroup where most extraintestinal-pathogenic  E. coli  classify (5), they express a large number of virulence factors (6) and are lethal in a mouse model of sepsis (7). Involved in community as well as hospital-acquired infections, ST131-O25b:H4 isolates are responsible for a wide range of pathology, from the common cystitis to the life threatening meningitis (2). Finally, these clones are also particularly worrisome as they are associated with a high level of resistance to betalactams (mainly via production of CTX-M-15 extended spectrum beta-lactamase but also carbapenemase (8)) and fluoroquinolones (9, 10). To a lesser extent, O25b strains may belong to another antibioresistant spreading clonal complex with a high extraintestinal pathogenic potential, the ST69 (clonal group A) (11). The lack of new antibiotics and the worldwide continuous increase of infections caused by multidrug resistant bacterial pathogens have revived attention to phage therapy (12), boosting the search for novel bacteriophages. Numerous experimental data have been published demonstrating the proof of concept of this approach and clinical trials have been reported or are ongoing. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to a bacteriophage strain capable of producing a lytic infection in the  Escherichia coli  ST131-O25b:H4 clone. In particular, the present invention is defined by the claims. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The burden of ST131-O25b:H4  Escherichia coli  clonal complex in human community and hospital-acquired infections is increasing worldwide, going along with a worrying and growing resistance to betalactams and fluoroquinolones. Bacteriophage LM33_P1, isolated using an extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing ST131-O25b:H4 strain responsible for a ventilator-associated pneumonia, infects exclusively (100% specificity) O25b  E. coli  strains with 70% coverage on the two major antibiotic resistant pandemic clonal complexes ST131-O25b:H4 and ST69-O25b. The inventors showed that bacteriophage specificity relied on a LPS-dependent interaction. Remarkably, bacteriophage LM33_P1 displays uncommon adsorption and kinetic characteristics leading to bacteria lysis in less than 10 minutes. The inventors evaluated the in vivo activity of bacteriophage LM33_P1 using three different extraintestinal virulence murine models, i.e. pneumonia, sepsis and urinary tract infection and showed that it infects bacteria in several organs. This bacteriophage represents a promising specific tool targeting O25b  E. coli  strains from which therapeutic approaches could be developed to stop, or at least slow down, the spread of this drug resistant clonal complex. 
     Accordingly a first object of the present invention relates to a bacteriophage capable of producing a lytic infection in the  Escherichia coli  ST131-O25b:H4 clone comprising a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence having at least 80% of identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 wherein said polypeptide corresponds to the bacteriophage tail fiber protein and is responsible for the attachment of the bacteriophage to the  Escherichia coli  ST131-O25b:H4 clone. 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 1 
               
               
                 MSTITQFPSGNTQYRIEFDYLARTFVVVTLVNSSNPTLNRVLEVGRDYRF 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 LNPTMIEMLADQSGFDIVRIHRQTGTDLVVDFRNGSVLTASDLTNSELQA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 IHIAEEGRDQTVDLAKEYADAAGSSAGNAKDSEDESRRIAASIKAAGKIG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 YITRRSFEKGFNVTTWNEVLLWEEDGDYYRWDGTLPKNVPAGSTPESSGG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 IGLSAWVSVGDASLRANLADSDGAKYIGSGERTLLEHNNDVLHSKDFPTL 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 QAAIDASLQKNDLLVSPGNYTEKVTIGNAQLKGVGGATVLKTPADFTNTV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 QVNLATPHWQFRHSGGFAIDGSGTTGAVGISFDPSDQYSGRHNFSDVYIH 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 NINKAIQKPSGNIGNTWRNIGISTCDWGYYAISGSEMHCGADTLYNIHFD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GISTYAVYLDGTVDNGGGGAWWLKDSIIEASGGGGIYLKSKSGDCPTSPC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GVSNIWMEAIATSPAVQVDGVAQKPRVLKLVDTAIFFAEYSYLNNIELSN 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SNLVTYGCRFDNADGNQDIVVDAQSTIVAHDVYLNGSSGKDVIVESVASQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SATIAATNLSLRGNLTRGRVFNTPTGNKLMAITFDSGSHNFSGSGTVNGS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TVSDGLHAATCTEFSFPGAGLYEMVATRTTITSGRWYVWGVNSRLQSGSA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 DISITSGITMGSVYTKPGEWISTFGVGKASTTGTVALYVSTGGGSGATVR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FSDFFIAEFTTQAQALAFANSRMSLS 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     According to the invention a first amino acid sequence having at least 80% of identity with a second amino acid sequence means that the first sequence has 70; 71; 72; 73; 74; 75; 76; 77; 78; 79; 80; 81; 82; 83; 84; 85; 86; 87; 88; 89; 90; 91; 92; 93; 94; 95; 96; 97; 98; 99 or 100% of identity with the second amino acid sequence. Sequence identity is frequently measured in terms of percentage identity (or similarity or homology); the higher the percentage, the more similar are the two sequences. Methods of alignment of sequences for comparison are well known in the art. Various programs and alignment algorithms are described in: Smith and Waterman, Adv. Appl. Math., 2:482, 1981; Needleman and Wunsch, J. Mol. Biol., 48:443, 1970; Pearson and Lipman, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 85:2444, 1988; Higgins and Sharp, Gene, 73:237-244, 1988; Higgins and Sharp, CABIOS, 5:151-153, 1989; Corpet et al. Nuc. Acids Res., 16:10881-10890, 1988; Huang et al., Comp. Appls Biosci., 8:155-165, 1992; and Pearson et al., Meth. Mol. Biol., 24:307-31, 1994). Altschul et al., Nat. Genet., 6:119-129, 1994, presents a detailed consideration of sequence alignment methods and homology calculations. By way of example, the alignment tools ALIGN (Myers and Miller, CABIOS 4:11-17, 1989) or LFASTA (Pearson and Lipman, 1988) may be used to perform sequence comparisons (Internet Program® 1996, W. R. Pearson and the University of Virginia, fasta20u63 version 2.0u63, release date December 1996). ALIGN compares entire sequences against one another, while LFASTA compares regions of local similarity. These alignment tools and their respective tutorials are available on the Internet at the NCSA Website, for instance. Alternatively, for comparisons of amino acid sequences of greater than about 30 amino acids, the Blast 2 sequences function can be employed using the default BLOSUM62 matrix set to default parameters, (gap existence cost of 11, and a per residue gap cost of 1). When aligning short peptides (fewer than around 30 amino acids), the alignment should be performed using the Blast 2 sequences function, employing the PAM30 matrix set to default parameters (open gap 9, extension gap 1 penalties). The BLAST sequence comparison system is available, for instance, from the NCBI web site; see also Altschul et al., J. Mol. Biol., 215:403-410, 1990; Gish. &amp; States, Nature Genet., 3:266-272, 1993; Madden et al. Meth. Enzymol., 266:131-141, 1996; Altschul et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 25:3389-3402, 1997; and Zhang &amp; Madden, Genome Res., 7:649-656, 1997. 
     In some embodiments, bacteriophage of the present invention comprises a genomic sequence having at least 70% of identity with the genomic sequence of LM33_P1 represented by SEQ ID NO:2. 
     According to the invention a first nucleic acid sequence having at least 70% of identity with a second nucleic acid sequence means that the first nucleic acid sequence has 70; 71; 72; 73; 74; 75; 76; 77; 78; 79; 80; 81; 82; 83; 84; 85; 86; 87; 88; 89; 90; 91; 92; 93; 94; 95; 96; 97; 98; or 99% of identity with the second nucleic acid sequence. 
     In some embodiments, the bacteriophage of the present invention is the bacteriophage strain LM33-P1 deposited at the French National Collection of Microorganisms at the Institut Pasteur under Accession Number CNCM 1-4964 on Apr. 3, 2015 or a variant thereof, wherein the variant has the same lytic activity, preferably the same lytic activity and the same phenotypic characteristics as said bacteriophage strain. 
     In some embodiments, the variant of LM33-P1 is a progeny of the bacteriophage strain LM33-P1. The term “progeny” means bacteriophage replicates containing descendents produced according to subculture of the deposited bacteriophage or a method known to those ordinarily skilled in the art, or bacteriophages having a RFLP (Restriction fragment length polymorphism) DNA profile substantially equivalent to the deposited bacteriophage. The term “have a substantially equivalent or equal RFLP” is expressed to represent variability between organisms according to the method suggested by Tenover et al. (Tenover, F. C. et al. Interpreting Chromosomal DNA Restriction Patterns Produced by Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis: Criteria for Bacterial Strain Typing. J. Clin. Microbiol 33:2233-2239 (1995)). It is also possible to select appropriate phages based upon the sequences of DNA or RNA encoding proteins involved in the binding and/or entry of phage into their specific host, or based upon the amino acid sequences or antigenic properties of such proteins. 
     Typically, the variants are tested for activity against multiple strains to select broad-spectrum O25b-ST131-active bacteriophage. Efforts are made to select phages that (i) are lytic, and (ii) are specific to ST131-O25b:H4 clones. Typically methods for evaluating the lytic properties of the variants are described in the EXAMPLE. 
     Suitable methods for isolating pure bacteriophage strains from a bacteriophage-containing sample are well known, and such methods may be adapted by the skilled artisan in view of the guidance provided herein. Isolation of active bacteriophage from suitable samples typically proceeds by mixing the sample with nutrient broth, inoculating the broth with a host bacterial strain, and incubating to enrich the mixture with bacteriophage that can infect the host strain. A  Escherichia coli  ST131-O25b:H4 clone will be used as the host strain. After the incubation for enrichment, the mixture is filtered to remove bacteria, leaving lytic bacteriophage in the filtrate. Serial dilutions of the filtrate are plated on a lawn of bacteria, and active phages infect and lyse neighbouring bacteria. However the agar limits the physical spread of the phage throughout the plate, resulting in small visibly clear areas called plaques on the plate where bacteriophage has destroyed the bacteria within the confluent lawn of growth. Since one plaque with a distinct morphology represents one phage particle that replicated in the bacteria within that area of the bacterial lawn, the purity of a bacteriophage preparation can be ensured by removing the material in that plaque with a pasteur pipette (a “plaque pick”) and using this material as the inoculum for further growth cycles of the phage. The bacteriophage produced in such cycles represents a single strain or “monophage.” The purity of phage preparation (including confirmation that it is a monophage and not a polyvalent phage preparation) is assessed by a combination of electron microscopy, SDS-PAGE, DNA restriction digest, analytical ultracentrifugation and cross-test against various bacterial strains. In addition, each phage is uniquely identified by its DNA restriction digest profile, protein composition, and/or genome sequence. 
     Quantities of broad-spectrum bacteriophage needed for therapeutic uses described below may be produced by culture on a suitable host strain in the manner described above for enrichment culture. When performing an enrichment culture to produce bacteriophage for therapeutic use, a host strain is selected based on its ability to give a maximum yield of phage, as determined in pilot experiments with several different host  Escherichia coli  ST131-O25b:H4 clones. 
     The bacteriophage of the present invention is particularly suitable for therapeutically purposes. 
     Accordingly a further aspect of the present invention relates to a method of treating an infection caused by an  Escherichia coli  ST131-O25b:H4 clone in a patient in need thereof, comprising administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of the bacteriophage of the present invention. 
     As used herein, the term “treatment” or “treat” refers to both prophylactic or preventive treatment as well as curative or disease modifying treatment, including treatment of subjects at risk of contracting the disease or suspected to have contracted the disease as well as subjects who are ill or have been diagnosed as suffering from a disease or medical condition, and includes suppression of clinical relapse. The treatment may be administered to a subject having a medical disorder or who ultimately may acquire the disorder, in order to prevent, cure, delay the onset of, reduce the severity of, or ameliorate one or more symptoms of a disorder or recurring disorder, or in order to prolong the survival of a subject beyond that expected in the absence of such treatment. By “therapeutic regimen” is meant the pattern of treatment of an illness, e.g., the pattern of dosing used during therapy. A therapeutic regimen may include an induction regimen and a maintenance regimen. The phrase “induction regimen” or “induction period” refers to a therapeutic regimen (or the portion of a therapeutic regimen) that is used for the initial treatment of a disease. The general goal of an induction regimen is to provide a high level of drug to a subject during the initial period of a treatment regimen. An induction regimen may employ (in part or in whole) a “loading regimen”, which may include administering a greater dose of the drug than a physician would employ during a maintenance regimen, administering a drug more frequently than a physician would administer the drug during a maintenance regimen, or both. The phrase “maintenance regimen” or “maintenance period” refers to a therapeutic regimen (or the portion of a therapeutic regimen) that is used for the maintenance of a subject during treatment of an illness, e.g., to keep the subject in remission for long periods of time (months or years). A maintenance regimen may employ continuous therapy (e.g., administering a drug at a regular intervals, e.g., weekly, monthly, yearly, etc.) or intermittent therapy (e.g., interrupted treatment, intermittent treatment, treatment at relapse, or treatment upon achievement of a particular predetermined criteria [e.g., disease manifestation, etc.]). 
     For example any patient who is at risk for colonization with the  Escherichia coli  ST131-O25b:H4 clone or who has proven the  Escherichia coli  ST131-O25b:H4 clone colonization is a candidate for treatment according to the method of the present invention. 
     Typically, the method of the present invention is particularly suitable for the treatment of nosocomial infections and in particular, hospital-acquired nosocomial infections. 
     In some embodiments, the bacteriophage of the present invention is particularly suitable for the treatment of an infectious disease selected from the group consisting of cystic fibrosis, otitis media, keratitis, endophthalmitis, bacteremia, burn wound infection, pneumonia, meningitis, peritonitis, urinary tract infections or sepsis, more preferably pneumonia, urinary tract infections, meningitis, peritonitis or sepsis, and most preferably urinary tract infection, peritonitis or sepsis. 
     In some embodiments, the bacteriophage of the present invention is particularly suitable for the treatment of urinary tract infection. 
     In some embodiments, the bacteriophage of the present invention is particularly suitable for the treatment of lung infection. 
     In some embodiments, the patient is selected among immunocompromised and/or seriously ill patients in cancer centers, intensive care units, and organ transplant centers. 
     The  Escherichia coli  ST131-O25b:H4 clone infection is a particularly serious problem among immunocompromised and/or seriously ill patients in cancer centers, intensive care units, and organ transplant centers. For example, categories of immunocompromised patients who would be susceptible to the  Escherichia coli  ST131-O25b:H4 clone colonization include: 1) leukemia (30,200 patients per year in the U.S.) and lymphoma patients (64,000 patients per year in the U.S.), 2) transplant patients (20,961 per year in the U.S.), and 3) AIDS patients (66,659 patients per year in the U.S.). 
     According to this invention, the bacteriophage of the present invention is formulated in pharmaceutical compositions containing the bacteriophage and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and can be stored as a concentrated aqueous solution or lyophilized powder preparation. A pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient refers to a non-toxic solid, semi-solid or liquid filler, diluent, encapsulating material or formulation auxiliary of any type. Typically, the pharmaceutical compositions contain vehicles, which are pharmaceutically acceptable for a formulation capable of being injected. These may be in particular isotonic, sterile, saline solutions (monosodium or disodium phosphate, sodium, potassium, calcium or magnesium chloride and the like or mixtures of such salts), or dry, especially freeze-dried compositions which upon addition, depending on the case, of sterilized water or physiological saline, permit the constitution of injectable solutions. The pharmaceutical forms suitable for injectable use include sterile aqueous solutions or dispersions; formulations including sesame oil, peanut oil or aqueous propylene glycol; and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersions. In all cases, the form must be sterile and must be fluid to the extent that easy syringability exists. It must be stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage and must be preserved against the contaminating action of microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. Sterile injectable solutions are prepared by incorporating the bacteriophage of the present invention in the required amount in the appropriate solvent with several of the other ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed by filtered sterilization. Generally, dispersions are prepared by incorporating the various sterilized active ingredients into a sterile vehicle which contains the basic dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from those enumerated above. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation of sterile injectable solutions, the preferred methods of preparation are vacuum-drying and freeze-drying techniques which yield a powder of the active ingredient plus any additional desired ingredient from a previously sterile-filtered solution thereof. Bacteriophage may also be formulated for oral administration by resuspending purified phage preparation in aqueous medium, such as deionized water, mineral water, 5% sucrose solution, glycerol, dextran, polyethylene glycol, sorbitol, or such other formulations that maintain phage viability, and are non-toxic to humans. The pharmaceutical composition may contain other components so long as the other components do not reduce the effectiveness (infectivity) of the bacteriophage so much that the therapy is negated. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers are well known, and one skilled in the pharmaceutical art can easily select carriers suitable for particular routes of administration (Remington&#39;s Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa., 1985). 
     The pharmaceutical compositions may be administered by parenteral (subcutaneously, intramuscularly, intravenously, intraperitoneally, intrapleurally, intravesicularly or intrathecally), topical, oral, rectal, inhalation, ocular, auricular, or nasal route, as necessitated by choice of drug and disease. Injection of specific lytic phages directly into the bloodstream can eliminate or significantly reduce the number of targeted bacteria in the blood. If, after either oral or local administration, phages get into the bloodstream in sufficient numbers to eliminate bacteria from the bloodstream, septicemia may be treated by administering phages orally (or locally). If the phages do not get into the bloodstream in sufficient numbers to eliminate bacteria from the bloodstream, the utility of direct i.v. injection of phages for treating septic infections can be used to treat bloodstream infections and other pathogenic bacteria, and can provide an urgently needed means for dealing with currently untreatable septicemic infections. The phage may be administered orally in, for example, mineral water, optionally with 2.0 grams of sodium bicarbonate added to reduce stomach acidity. Alternatively, sodium bicarbonate may be administered separately to the patient just prior to dosing with the phage. Phages also may be incorporated in a tablet or capsule which will enable transfer of phages through the stomach with no reduction of phage viability due to gastric acidity, and release of fully active phages in the small intestine. For non-oral administration, the composition of the present invention may be formulated into injections for subcutaneous, intravenous, or intramuscular routes, suppositories, or sprays inhalable via the respiratory tract, such as aerosols. Injection preparations may be obtained by dissolving or suspending the composition of the present invention, together with a stabilizer or a buffer, in water and packaging the solution or suspension in ampules or vial units. For sprays, such as aerosol, a propellant for spraying a water-dispersed concentrate or wetting powder may be used in combination with an additive. 
     As used herein, the term “effective amount” refers to a quantity sufficient to achieve a therapeutic effect (e.g. treating the infection). In the context of therapeutic or prophylactic applications, the amount of a composition administered to the subject will depend on the type and severity of the disease and on the characteristics of the individual, such as general health, age, sex, body weight and tolerance to drugs. It will also depend on the degree, severity and type of disease. The skilled artisan will be able to determine appropriate dosages depending on these and other factors. The dose of the bacteriophage and duration of therapy for a particular patient can be determined by the skilled clinician using standard pharmacological approaches in view of the above factors. The response to treatment may be monitored by, analysis of blood or body fluid levels of ST131-O25b:H4 clone, or ST131-O25b:H4 clone levels in relevant tissues or monitoring disease state in the patient. The skilled clinician will adjust the dose and duration of therapy based on the response to treatment revealed by these measurements. Based on previous human experience, a dose of phage between 10 7  and 10 11  PFU will be suitable in most instances. 
     The bacteriophage of the present invention is also particularly suitable for environmental applications. For example, environmental applications of phage in health care institutions could lie most useful for equipment such as endoscopes and environments such as ICUs which may be potential sources of nosocomial infection by the  Escherichia coli  ST131-O25b:H4 clone but which may be difficult or impossible to disinfect. Phage would be particularly useful in treating equipment or environments inhabited by  Escherichia coli  ST131-O25b:H4 clones which may become resistant to commonly used disinfectants. Phage compositions used to disinfect inanimate objects or the environment may be sprayed, painted, or poured, onto such objects or surfaces in aqueous solutions with phage titers ranging between 10 7 -10 11  PFU/ml. Alternatively, phage may be applied by aerosolizing agents that might include dry dispersants which would facilitate distribution of the phage into the environment. Such agents may also be included in the spray if compatible with phage viability and nontoxic in nature. Finally, objects may be immersed in a solution containing phage. The optimal numbers and timing of applications of phage compositions remains to be determined and would be predicated by the exact usage of such products. The bacteriophage of the present invention can also be suitable for decontaminate food products. 
     The invention will be further illustrated by the following figures and examples. However, these examples and figures should not be interpreted in any way as limiting the scope of the present invention. 
    
    
     
       FIGURES 
         FIG. 1 . O25b LPS extract inhibits bacteriophage LM33_P1 infection: appearance on agar plates. LPS extract from strain LM33 was mixed with bacteriophage LM33_P1 (left) or 536_P (right) at two different concentrations (10 5  and 10 4  pfu/mL) and assayed on two agar plates overlaid with an O25b strain (AVC02) or an O6 strain (536) as control. Enlargements of these two plates are shown to facilitate the observation. 
         FIG. 2 . Bacteriophage LM33_P1 in vivo activity in a lung infection model. Bacterial (A) and viral (B) counts 17 hours post-infection in lungs homogenate of mice infected with 1×10 8  cfu of strain LM33. Four hours post-infection, mice received either PBS (Ctrl, n=8, intranasally and intraperitoneally) or bacteriophage LM33_P1 by intranasal route (ϕ IN, MOI 50, n=6) or by intraperitoneal route (ϕ IP, MOI 500, n=6). Results are expressed as individual values with median and interquartile ranges (25 th  and 75 th  percentiles). *: p&lt;0.001 compared to control group. 
         FIG. 3 . Bacteriophage LM33_P1 in vivo activity in a septicemia model. Bacterial (A) and viral (B) counts 20 hours post-infection in indicated organs of mice infected with 1×10 9  cfu of strain H1659 (ST131-O25b:H4). Two hours post-infection, mice received intraperitoneally either PBS (Ctrl) or bacteriophage LM33_P1 at a MOI of 60 (ϕ X1: one dose 2 hours post-infection, ϕ X2: two doses 2 and 12 hours post-infection). Results are expressed as individual values (4 animals per condition) with median and interquartile ranges (25 th  and 75 th  percentiles). §: p&lt;0.05 compared to control group, #: p=0.057 compared to control group. 
         FIG. 4 . Bacteriophage LM33_P1 in vivo activity in a urinary tract infection model. Bacterial (A) and viral (B) counts 48 hours post-infection in kidneys homogenates of mice infected with 5×10 7  cfu of strain LM33. Twenty four hours post-infection, mice received intraperitoneally either PBS (Ctrl, n=13) or bacteriophage LM33_P1 (ϕ, MOI 200, n=10). Results are expressed as individual values with median and interquartile ranges (25 th  and 75 th  percentiles). *: p&lt;0.001 compared to control group. 
     
    
    
     EXAMPLE 
     Material &amp; Methods 
     Bacterial Strains and Bacteriophages, Susceptibility Testing 
     Bacterial strains used in this work belong to previously published collections of human commensal and extraintestinal  E. coli  gathered in France during the 2010s (13-15), from the ECOR collection (16) and the ColoColi collection (an ongoing French multicenter study collecting  E. coli  strains in the lower respiratory tract of mechanically ventilated patients). Phylogroup and ST belonging was determined as described in (17, 18). O-type and fimH allele were determined by PCR-based assays as previously described (19, 20), respectively. All strains were grown in lysogeny broth (LB) (Difco™ Bacto-Tryptone 10 g/L, Difco™ Yeast extract Difco 5 g/L, NaCl 5 g/L). Antibiotic susceptibility using the disk diffusion method was performed following the guidelines of the European Committee for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing guidelines. 
     Some  E. coli  strains, used for lipopolysaccharide (LPS) assays or bacteriophage susceptibility testing, are detailed below:
         LM33, LM36, AVC02 (ST131-O25b:H4) and AVC03 (O25b, non-ST131) are clinical strains responsible for ventilator-associated pneumonia,   536 (ST127-O6), LM02 (ST69-O17) and ECOR51 (ST73-O25a) have been used as source of their corresponding LPS,   81009 WT (ST131-O25b:H4) and its isogenic rough derivative (mutant strain obtained by deleting the gene encoding for the O-antigen ligase) (21) were used to prove the LPS-dependent interaction of LM33_P1.       

     Bacteriophages were isolated from sewage, using specific host. By convention, bacteriophages are named as follows: “host bacteria_Px” (for example LM33_P1 represents the first bacteriophage isolated using strain LM33). In all competition experiments, bacteriophage solutions were purified using ultracentrifugation on cesium chloride gradient as previously described (22). 
     For bacteriophage susceptibility testing, we used double spot test (23) as screening method to identify resistant strains. Briefly, spot test consisted in dropping off 10 μL of a growing liquid culture of the bacterial strain (OD 600nm  0.5) on an agar plate. After drying, 1 μL of the bacteriophage solution (LM33_P1, 10 7  pfu/mL) was added on one half of the bacterial drop. Plate was then incubated at 37° C. during 4 hours before reading. A susceptible strain was identified by the presence of a crescent-shaped lysis area on the bacterial drop or the visualization of individualized plaques. Efficiency of plaquing (EOP) was determined for all susceptible strains by titrating the solution of LM33_P1 on both its host (LM33) and the evaluated strain. EOP was calculated as the ratio of number of plaques formed by the bacteriophage on the non-host strain to the number of plaques formed on its host, using the same bacteriophage solution. Only strains for which individualized plaques were observed were considered as susceptible strains. For strain 81009 WT and its rough derivative mutant, tests were performed at 20° C. to turn-off type II capsule expression (24). 
     LPS Extraction 
     LPS extracts were purified from the same amount of bacteria (10 10  cfu) using a hot phenol-water-diethyl ether extraction (25) followed by extensive dialysis against sterile pyrolyzed water. High purity LPS was confirmed by performing agarose gel electrophoresis with ethidium bromide staining (nucleic acids detection) and SDS-PAGE 12% followed by Coomassie blue staining (proteins detection). Ten μL of each LPS extract were migrated on a SDS-PAGE 10% followed by silver staining to visualize the LPS O-antigen pattern (SilverSNAP Stain Kit II, Pierce). 
     Plaques Inhibition Assays with LPS Extracts 
     From purified stock solution of bacteriophages in TN buffer (Tris-HCl 10 mM, NaCl 150 mM, pH 7.5), 3 solutions of 10 6 , 10 and 10 4  pfu/mL in TN buffer were prepared. Each of these working solutions was used to prepare final tubes with bacteriophages alone (100 μL of working solution+100 μL of pyrolyzed water) and tubes with bacteriophages+LPS (100 μL+100 μL of undiluted LPS extract). Additional tubes containing bacteriophages and decreasing amounts of LPS were also prepared (pyrolyzed water was used to reach an identical final volume). Then, 10 μL of each final bacteriophage tubes, with and without LPS, were spotted in triplicate on an agar plate, previously overlaid by the bacteria to test. Plates were incubated during 4 hours at 37° C. before plaques-forming units were numerated in each condition. 
     Characterization of Bacteriophage LM33_P1 
     Adsorption assay and one-step growth were performed using LB (Difco™ Bacto-Tryptone 10 g/L, Difco™ Yeast extract Difco 5 g/L, NaCl 5 g/L), under constant shaking (100 rpm) at 37° C., as described by Hyman and Abedon (26), in triplicate. A correlation curve was extrapolated from raw data using nonlinear regressions (GraphPad Prism 5.0, GraphPad software, California): a dose-response model was used for one step growth experiment (Y=Bottom+(Top−Bottom)/(1+10{circumflex over ( )}((Log EC50−X)*HillSlope)) with Y=log(pfu/infected cell) and X=time) and an exponential model with one phase decay for adsorption experiment (Y=(Y0−Plateau)*exp(−K*X)+Plateau with Y=free phages (%), X=time). Growth parameters (eclipse and latent period, burst size) were then derived from these regressions. Adsorption constant was calculated as −p/N where p is the slope of the straight line obtained after a natural logarithm transform and N the concentration of bacteria when starting the adsorption assay. 
     Lysis Kinetic (with and without LPS Extracts) and Aggregation Assays with O25 Antibody 
     Lysis kinetics were performed as detailed in the SI. Briefly, the growth of LM33 with and without LM33_P1 was followed overtime by recording optical density at 600 nm every 15 minutes. 
     Aggregation assays were performed using O25  E. coli  anti-serum (Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark) and observed under light microscope as detailed in the SI. 
     Sequencing of the Strain LM33 and Bacteriophage LM33_P1 
     Sequencing of bacteriophage LM33_P1 and strain LM33 was performed using Illumina sequencing technology (Illumina Inc., San Diego, Calif.). LM33_P1 DNA was extracted from a purified bacteriophage solution, using DNase and RNase pretreatments followed by a phenol-chloroform extraction, modified from Pickard (27). LM33 genomic DNA was extracted using a MaxWell Tissue DNA Purification kit (Promega, Madison, Wis.). Genomes annotation was performed by MicroScope plateform for strain LM33 and with RAST server for bacteriophage LM33_P1 (28, 29) followed by manual curation. 
     Murine Experimental Infections Models 
     Animal were housed in animal facilities in accordance with French and European regulations on the care and protection of laboratory animals. Protocols were approved by the veterinary staff of the Institut Pasteur and INSERM animal facilities as well as the National Ethics Committee regulating animal experimentation. Food and drink were provided ad libitum. 
     Pneumonia was initiated by intranasal administration of 1×10 8  cfu of strain LM33 on anesthetized eight-week-old 25 g BALB/cJRj male mice (Janvier, Le Genest Saint Isle, France) as previously described (30). Mice were treated using bacteriophage LM33_P1 four hours post-infection, either by using the intranasal route (multiplicity of infection of 50, i.e. a ratio of viruses to bacteria equal to 50) or the intraperitoneal route (MOI of 500). Control mice received accordingly an intranasal or intraperitoneal identical volume of PBS (phosphate-buffered saline). Lungs were collected 17 hours post-infection on euthanized animals. 
     The septicemia model, as previously described, is essentially used to study intrinsic extraintestinal virulence of  E. coli  isolates (7). Four-week-old 17 g OF1 female mice (Janvier, Le Genest Saint Isle, France) were injected subcutaneously into the nape of the neck with 1×10 9  cfu of strain H1659 (ST131-O25b:H4) (6). Because of the high inoculum used, we tested both a single and a double dose of bacteriophages: the single dose (MOI 60) was administered by intraperitoneal injection 2 hours post-infection while the double dose consisted in an injection (MOI 60) administered 2 and 12 hours post-infection. Control mice received an identical volume of PBS. Organs targeted by septic metastasis (heart-lung, spleen and liver) were collected on animals that died between 24 to 30 hours post-infection. 
     The urinary tract infection model consists in a retrograde kidneys infection occurring after an intra-urethral injection of 5×10 7  cfu of strain LM33 in the bladder, as previously described (31). Twenty-four hours after infection, 8-week-old 17 g CBA/j female mice (Charles River, Chatillon-sur-Chalaronne, France) were treated intraperitoneally with LM33_P1 (MOI of 200) while control mice received an identical volume of PBS. Kidneys were collected 48 hours post-infection. 
     In all cases, organs were mechanically homogenized in cold PBS using a gentleMACS Octo Dissociator (Milteny Biotec, Bergisch Gladbach, Germany) before being serially diluted and spread on Drigalski agar plates containing appropriate antibiotic to numerate colony. Bacteriophages count was performed on supernatant after centrifugation of homogenates according to routine methods. 
     Statistical Analysis 
     All statistical analyses were performed by using GraphPad Prism version 5.00 (GraphPad Software, La Jolla, Calif.). The normal distribution of all variables was checked using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, and results are then expressed as mean±SD. In case of non-Gaussian distribution, results are expressed as median [25th, 75th percentile]. Statistical tests (Student t test or Mann-Whitney test) were chosen accordingly. 
     Results: 
     Bacteriophage LM33_P1 Targets Antibiotic Resistant O25b  E. coli  Strains. 
     The  E. coli  strain LM33 (isolated from an intensive care unit patient who developed a ventilator-associated pneumonia) was used to isolate bacteriophage LM33_P1. Strain LM33 displays an O25b:H4 serotype, a B2 phylogroup (subgroup I) and a ST131 sequence-type as well as a multi-drug resistance phenotype with an extended spectrum beta-lactamase, a resistance to nalidixic acid, aminoglycosides (kanamycin, tobramycin, gentamicin, netilmicin excepted for amikacin where an intermediate phenotype is found), sulphonamides and chloramphenicol. The beta-lactam resistance is supported by a plasmid (pLM33) bearing the blaTEM-1c (penicillinase) and blaSHV-12 (extended spectrum beta-lactamase) genes, as well as by the bacterial chromosome containing the blaDHA-7 gene encoding a cephalosporinase and also a copy of the blaSHV-12 and blaTEM-1c gene (Table 1). 
     We determined the host range of bacteriophage LM33_P1 on a panel of 283  E. coli  strains belonging to various O-types (data not shown). One hundred and eighty-three (64%) of these strains were not O25b and none of them was infected by LM33_P1, including twelve O25a strains and six ST131-O16 strains. Among the remaining one hundred O25b strains (encompassing 83 ST131, 4 ST69, 10 ST95 and 3 others STs), 64 (64%) were infected by LM33_P1 with a median efficiency of plaquing of 0.46 [0.09-1.27]. Interestingly, LM33_P1 was found to be more efficient on STs associated with high antibiotic resistance (ST131 and ST69) where 70% of these strains were lysed while it was weakly efficient on ST associated with low antibiotic resistance (ST95 and others) where only 23% of these strains were susceptible (data not shown). Finally, we did not find a correlation between susceptibility to bacteriophage LM33_P1 and the fimH allele H30, which is strongly associated with fluoroquinolone resistance among ST131 strains (32). 
     Bacteriophage LM33_P1 is a Podoviridae Distantly Related to Bacteriophage T7. 
     Genome of bacteriophage LM33_P1 (38 979 bp; GC content of 50.8%; 49 ORFs predicted) lacks putative ORFs with homologies to integrase or recombinase. 
     A BLAST analysis of the genomic sequence revealed that the four closest related bacteriophages were enterobacteria bacteriophages: three coliphages called PE3-1, K1F (33), EcoDS1 (with 94% identity on ≥88% of its length for all of them) and bacteriophage Dev2 infecting  Cronobacter turicensis  (with 83% identity on 85% of its length) (34). Alignment of these related bacteriophages with LM33_P1 revealed a similar spatial genome organization and confirmed the high homology between them (data not shown). Strikingly, the 5′ extremity (the first 650 nucleotides) of the tail fiber gene is highly conserved in each bacteriophage genome, while the remaining part is highly divergent. The corresponding N-terminal region (IPR005604/PF03906, InterPro/Pfam database) of this tail fiber protein is involved in its connection to the tail-tube (35) while the C-terminal part, involved in host recognition, often carries hydrolase activities as the endosialidase of bacteriophage K F used for exopolysaccharide degradation (33, 36). BLAST searches on the C-terminal part of the tail fiber of bacteriophage LM33_P1 revealed homology to a domain belonging to the pectin lyase superfamily (IPR011050). Tridimensional structure prediction using Phyre 2  database (37) confirmed its close proximity to the endopolygalacturonase of  Erwinia carotovora  that belongs to the pectin lyase superfamily (100% amino-acid predicted with a confidence &gt;90% for the tertiary structure, index of confidence for homologous protein 94.1%, Protein Data Bank entry: 1BHE). 
     Bacteriophage LM33_P1 is Highly Efficient and Rapid In Vitro. 
     Adsorption of LM33_P1 bacteriophage on its host is fast with ≥90% of the viral population attached to cells after 3.5 minutes with an adsorption constant of 1.2×10 8  mL/min. Newly produced virions are detected within the bacteria as soon as 7 minutes post-infection (eclipse period) while host lysis occurs in 9 minutes (latent period) with a burst size of 317 (95% confidence interval: 289-345) (data not shown). 
     In liquid medium, when LM33_P1 was mixed with its host, the absorbance value of LM33 cells started to decline (sign of lysis) within 15 minutes (MOI of 1). With much fewer bacteriophages (MOI of 10 −6 ) lysis still occurred within 60 minutes. On solid medium, LM33_P1 forms clear and large plaques, whose diameter increases rapidly overtime with a visible halo around clear areas. This halo suggests the presence of a diffusible enzyme that most likely carries a depolymerase activity (38). 
     Bacteriophage LM33_P1 Specifically Binds to O25b LPS O-Antigen. 
     Host range of bacteriophage LM33_P1 strongly suggested that O-chain of LPS could be involved in its specificity. Using LPS competition assays we observed that purified LPS from strain LM33 was able to partially inhibit interaction between bacteriophage LM33_P1 and strain LM33 as well as other O25b strains (Table 2). 
     First, we demonstrated that purified LPS reduced the number of plaque-forming units when mixed with bacteriophages before application on a bacterial layer (mean reduction of 1.0±0.23 Log 10  from 15 assays with five different O25b strains). Together with the reduction of the number of plaques, we observed a reduction of plaque diameters suggesting that LPS molecules prevented newly released bacteriophages to infect surrounding hosts ( FIG. 1 ). These observations are specific of bacteriophage LM33_P1 interaction with O25b strains since: i) O25b LPS extract from strain LM33 was not able to affect interaction of other bacteriophages targeting non O25b strains and ii) LPS extract from non O25b strains (O25a, O6 and O17) was unable to alter interaction between bacteriophage LM33_P1 and strain LM33 (Table 2). 
     Second, LPS extract from O25b strain (LM33) was also reducing infectivity of bacteriophage LM33_P1 on liquid medium in a dose dependent manner (data not shown), while LPS extracts from O6 and O25a strains had no effect. 
     Third, using an O-type specific antibody to aggregate O25 strains for serotyping, we found that bacteriophage LM33_P1 prevented aggregation of strain LM33 (data not shown). 
     Fourth, using the  E. coli O 25b 81009 and its isogenic rough derivative (LPS deficient strain obtained by deleting the gene encoding for the O-antigen ligase) (21) we observed that bacteriophage LM33_P1 infects the wild type strain 81009 while the LPS deficient strain is resistant. Conversely, we confirmed that bacteriophage LM33_P1 could not adsorb on the LPS defective strain. 
     Adsorption of Bacteriophage LM33_P1 is Hindered by Capsule Production. 
     Production of exopolysaccharides is a well-known bacteriophage resistance mechanism and might be involved in the non-adsorption of bacteriophage LM33_P1 observed in five randomly chosen LM33_P1 resistant strains (81009 WT, JJ1886, S242, B-1, C-1). Since, in some cases (type II capsule), the synthesis of exopolysaccharides is temperature dependent, we investigated LM33_P1 susceptibility on all O25b resistant strains (n=36) at 20° C. We observed that nine of them (25%) became susceptible at this temperature (data not shown). 
     Bacteriophage LM33_P1 Efficiently Infects its Host In Vivo. 
     As bacteriophage LM33_P1 exhibited impressive in vitro characteristics, we investigated its in vivo activity in three different animal infection models relevant to ST131 clinical epidemiology: pneumonia, septicemia and urinary tract infection ( FIGS. 2-4 ). Since strain LM33 was isolated from a patient with pneumonia, we first attempted to establish pneumonia in mice. Using an inoculum 50 times higher than previously reported in such model (30) and despite clear macroscopic lung lesions, strain LM33 was not lethal preventing us to use survival as an indicator of bacteriophage efficacy. We therefore evaluated LM33_P1 efficacy by counting bacteria from lung homogenates collected 17 hours following infection. Three groups of mice were treated 4 hours post-infection either by control solution (PBS), intranasal (MOI 50) or intraperitoneal (MOI 500) bacteriophages. Independently of the administration route, we observed a 3 Log 10  reduction in bacterial load when mice received bacteriophage treatments compared to control group (PBS-treated animal: 5.4×10 7  cfu/g, intranasally LM33_P1-treated: 2.7×10 4  cfu/g, intraperitoneally LM33_P1-treated: 3.3×10 4  cfu/g, p&lt;0.01). Interestingly, the number of bacteriophages in the lung tissue was similar between intranasally and intraperitoneally-treated mice despite the latter had received 10 times higher dose. 
     Then, we challenged the fast in vitro kinetics parameters of bacteriophage LM33_P1 in a murine model of septicemia previously reported (6, 7) using the H1659 ST131-O25b:H4 strain (6) (strain LM33 was not lethal in this model), on which LM33_P1 is as efficient as on strain LM33 (EOP=1). Following a subcutaneous inoculation of 1×10 9  cfu, septic metastasis in several organs were rapidly observed (first deaths occurred in less than 24 hours). Intraperitoneal administrations of bacteriophage LM33_P1 (MOI 60, single dose at H2 post-infection or two doses at H2 and H12 post-infection) were not sufficient to prevent animals death. However, in a subset of animals that died within the same time interval (between 24 and 30 hours), bacteria and bacteriophages content was analyzed: i) in liver, spleen and lung-heart homogenates of bacteriophage-treated groups the number of bacteria was reduced compared to control group; ii) two doses appeared to be more efficient than a single one, reaching a significant reduction of approximately 1.4 Log 10  (median bacterial count decrease from 8.5×10 6  to 2.9×10 5  in heart-lungs, 7.7×10 5  to 3.2×10 4  in the liver and 3.5×10 5  to 1.4×10 4  cfu/g in the spleen); iii) bacteriophage counts were in the same order of magnitude in all organs, but were significantly higher when two doses were administered (2.0×10 10  vs 4.0×10 9  pfu/g, p&lt;0.01); iv) the amount of bacteriophages was 3 to 6 Log 10  higher than the amount of the bacteria in each mouse for all organs. All of these observations revealed that bacteriophage LM33_P1 was able to infect strain H1659 in each organ considered. 
     Finally, as  E. coli  is a major pathogen in UTIs, we assessed bacteriophage LM33_P1 efficacy in a murine UTI model. Twenty-four hours following intra-urethral injection of 5.10 7  cfu of strain LM33, mice received a single bacteriophage treatment intraperitoneally (MOI of 200). Forty-eight hours post-infection, a 2 Log 10  reduction of the bacterial load was observed in the kidneys in the treated group compared to control (1.5×10 5  vs 8.8×10 2  cfu/g, p&lt;0.001). 
     Altogether these data firmly demonstrate the ability of bacteriophage LM33_P1 in infecting O25b strains in vivo. 
     Discussion: 
     Antibiotic resistance is a public health problem worldwide. In less than 10 years, multi-drug resistant ST131-O25b:H4  E. coli  clonal complex have spread over the planet, now being present in both animals and humans (2). Unfortunately, the discovery of new antibiotics did not turn out to be as successful as initially expected, leading to the reappraisal of phage therapy. One of the main advantages of bacteriophages often reported is their specificity to infect few strains within a species, having then a limited impact on patient&#39;s microbiota. Along with monoclonal antibodies (anti-O25b antibodies have been proven to exert a protective effect in mouse septicemia model) (39), bacteriophages are the only anti-infectious tools that could reach such specificity. 
     Using an ST131-O25b:H4 clinical isolate of  E. coli  (strain LM33), we isolated a bacteriophage, LM33_P1, which was found to be extremely specific. Extensive tests on almost 300 strains belonging to various serotypes revealed that this bacteriophage infects exclusively O25b strains. Interestingly, O25b O-antigen is present in the archetypal ST131 clonal complex but also in ST69, another antibiotic resistant spreading clone of  E. coli , the “clonal group A” (11, 40). In a therapeutic projection and based on the pandemic lineages of extraintestinal pathogenic  E. coli  (41), we observed a greater susceptibility among both of these STs (70%) compared to less antibiotic resistant O25b STs like ST95 and minor ones (23%). 
     Additionally, the majority of strains belonging to the ST131 clonal complex displays an O25b O-antigen while a minor part, less resistant to antibiotics, displays an 016 serogroup (42). Bacteriophage LM33_P1 specificity was linked to the O25b O-antigen and not to the sequence type (i.e. none of the non-O25b ST131 strains were susceptible to bacteriophage LM33_P1 while all O25b-ST69 strains tested were susceptible). Furthermore, susceptibility of ST131-O25b:H4 strains to bacteriophage LM33_P1 was independent of the fimH allele, a marker of the epidemiologic evolution of this clone (32). Besides, bacteriophage LM33_P1 was unable to infect O25a strains, despite a highly similar O-antigen structure where polysaccharides repeated units only differ by one monosaccharide (fucose versus rhamnose), a fine discrimination that is not possible with classical antibodies used for serotyping until the recent description of O25b monoclonal antibodies (21). 
     Our investigations led to estimate that global host coverage of bacteriophage LM33_P1 on O25b strains is 64%. We consider that this coverage is reliable as we first avoided sampling bias by screening a large collection (may be one of the largest ever tested for such study) obtained from different sources with many serotypes. Second, we assessed strain susceptibility in a rigorous way using EOP determination that excludes atypical results and false positive like lysis from without (43, 44). Finally, 90% of EOP values were within −1.5 and 1.5 Log 10  units, which indicate that strains infected with a very low efficiency are infrequent. In addition to this specialized host range, we found that bacteriophage LM33_P1 possesses optimized properties to infect its host. Compared to data available in the literature, we found that it is the quickest T7-like bacteriophage ever reported, lysing its host within 10 minutes while T7 takes 13 to 16 minutes (45, 46). Part of this success relies on its absorption constant (1.2×10 8  mL/min) which was found 10 times higher that most of bacteriophages (47-50) and its burst size that is also on the top half of values usually observed (51). 
     To prevent phage adsorption bacteria can mask phage receptors by the production of extracellular exopolysaccharides (capsules), which can also help bacteria escaping immune cells recognition (52, 53). We found that 25% of strains reversed their phenotype towards bacteriophage LM33_P1 from resistant to susceptible, when tested at 20° C., a temperature known to turn off type II capsule production (24). Therefore, bacteriophage LM33_P1 coverage increased to 80% among all ST131-O25b:H4 strains and to 73% among all O25b strains tested. It was also previously shown that bacteriophages can defeat this defense mechanism using tail fibers that possess depolymerase activities (54-57) and we can reasonably assume that isolation of LM33_P1 variants or different bacteriophages could provide such solution to improve (by synergy) the coverage rate of O25b strains (56, 58, 59). 
     With the goal of using bacteriophages to treat human bacterial infections, the translation from in vitro activity (forming plaques) to in vivo efficacy (curing a disease) is not guaranteed, despite high success rate (60). Our investigation of the in vivo curative potential of bacteriophage LM33_P1 revealed indeed that, in the three models tested, this bacteriophage was able to infect targeted bacteria in several body compartments and via different administration routes. These treatments were not optimized to reach maximum efficacy as many parameters would need to be evaluated, which require dedicated studies out of the focus of this work. Indeed, bacteriophages pharmacokinetic is highly complex, due to their intrinsic properties (bacteria-driven self-expansion, diffusion, adsorption, threshold to prime a viral expansion, etc.) (61-63) and cannot be compared to traditional pharmacokinetic of antibiotics. In addition, in such experimental models, the curative dose applied is always related to the initial known dose of pathogenic bacteria, which is therefore a gross estimation of what is needed (amount of bacteria could be highly different between time of inoculation and treatment due to bacterial growth). Consequently, our data should not be over-translated to the clinical setting. Nevertheless, it remains indisputable that bacteriophages, including LM33_P1 as shown in this study, can quickly reduce the load of their host within a complex environment including the gut of mammals (64). Our data also support higher efficacy when bacteriophages are applied locally (intranasal instillation to treat pneumonia) than when used via a systemic administration. In a therapeutic approach, such bacteriophages could be used as a selective antimicrobial agent for controlling passive carriage of ST131-O25b:H4 strains in human gut in order to reduce its dissemination, particularly in healthcare-associated environments. Indeed,  E. coli  strains residing in the digestive tract constitute a well-known reservoir for urinary tract infections but probably also for ventilator-associated pneumonia (14). Finally, as no positive correlation between antibiotic and bacteriophage resistance has ever been shown, phage therapy remains a valuable resource to control such multi-drug resistant pathogens. Clinical trials are now required and are indeed encouraged by the recent position taken by the European Medicine Agency (65), in order to better define to which extent promises of bacteriophages, such as the one reported here, can be translated into efficient treatment. 
     Beside the classical phage therapy approach, bacteriophage LM33_P1 or proteins from it offer opportunities to develop several tools. The tail fiber could be used to kill specifically O25b  E. coli  strains using bacteriocins, as previously shown for 0104  E. coli  strains involved in enterohemorragic colitis (66). Other approaches could be foreseen where bacteriophages are reprogrammed and could suppress antibiotic resistance genes using CRISPR-Cas system (67) or express well-chosen beneficial enzymes to fight biofilm (68). Deeper investigations on the infectious cycle of this bacteriophage are now required to determine which molecular mechanisms are responsible for its fast-killing component. Bacteriophage LM33_P1 could also be used from now as a starting platform to develop highly virulent synthetic bacteriophages with various host specificity (69). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Main genotypic characteristics of strain LM33 and plasmid pLM33. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Strain LM33 chromosome (accession number: PRJEB9970) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 General informations 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Genome size: 
                 GC content: 51.5% 
                 Number of genes: 
               
               
                 5 450 287 bp 
                   
                 5276 
               
               
                 Sequence type: 
                 Serotype: O25b:H4 
                 Phylogroup: B2 
               
               
                 ST131 
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 (according to the Achtman scheme) 
                 fimH allele: 22 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Genes coding for virulence factors* 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 iss (increased serum 
                 aer (aerotaxis sensor 
               
               
                 survival) 
                 receptor) 
               
               
                 iroN (Enterobactin siderophore receptor protein) 
                 fyuA (siderophore) 
               
               
                 prfB (P-related fimbriae regulatory gene) 
                 papC (P fimbriae) 
               
               
                 traT (serum resistance-associated outer membrane 
                 papGIII (P fimbriae) 
               
               
                 protein) 
                   
               
               
                 gad (glutamate decarboxylase) 
                 mchF (ABC 
               
               
                   
                 transporter protein) 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Genes coding for antibiotic resistance* 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Aminoglycoside resistance: strB, aacA4, strA, aac(6′)-IIc 
               
               
                   
                 Beta-lactam resistance: blaDHA-7, blaSHV-12, blaTEM-1C 
               
               
                   
                 Quinolone resistance: aac(6′)Ib-cr, qnrB4 
               
               
                   
                 MLS resistance: ere(A) 
               
               
                   
                 Sulphonamide: sul1; thrimethoprim: dfrA18 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Plasmid pLM33 (accession number: PRJEB9970) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 General informations 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Plasmid size: 296 909 bp 
                 GC content: 47.2% 
                 Number of genes: 382 
               
               
                 Incompatibility 
                   
                   
               
               
                 group: H 
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Genes coding for virulence factors* 
               
               
                 none 
               
               
                 Genes coding for antibiotic resistance* 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Aminoglycoside resistance: strA, strB, aacA4, aac(6′)-IIc 
               
               
                   
                 Beta-lactam resistance: blaSHV-12, blaTEM-1C 
               
               
                   
                 Quinolone resistance: aac(6′)Ib-cr 
               
               
                   
                 MLS resistance: ere(A) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *data obtained using the center for genetic epidemiology server (70, 71) 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Data obtained during plaque test inhibition assays with different LPS 
               
               
                 extracts and randomly chosen couples of viruses-bacteria. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Interaction tested 
                 Inhibitory effect of various LPS extracts 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Bacteria 
                 O25b 
                 O6 
                 O17 
                 O25a 
               
               
                 Bacteriophage 
                 (serotype) 
                 (LM33) 
                 (536) 
                 (LM02) 
                 (ECOR51) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 LM33_P1 
                 LM33 (O25b) 
                 (+) 
                 (−) 
                 (−) 
                 (−) 
               
               
                   ″ 
                 LM34 (O25b) 
                 (+) 
                 (−) 
                 (−) 
                 (−) 
               
               
                   ″ 
                 LM36 (O25b) 
                 (+) 
                 (−) 
                 (−) 
                 (−) 
               
               
                   ″ 
                 AVC02 (O25b) 
                 (+) 
                 (−) 
                 (−) 
                 (−) 
               
               
                   ″ 
                 AVC03(O25b) 
                 (+) 
                 (−) 
                 (−) 
                 (−) 
               
               
                 536_P1 a   
                 536 (O6) 
                 (−) 
                 (−) 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 423_P1 b   
                 H17 (O16) 
                 (−) 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 416_P1 b   
                 LM49 (O2b) 
                 (−) 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 LF82_P2 c   
                 LF82 (O83) 
                 (−) 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 LF82_P2 c   
                 RY09 (O4) 
                 (−) 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 (+)/(−): presence/absence of an inhibitory effect of LPS extract, 
               
               
                 —: not tested. 
               
               
                   a described in (30), 
               
               
                   b bacteriophages isolated using ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) strains (423, 416) and active on others VAP strains (H17, LM49), 
               
               
                   c bacteriophage isolated using an adherent-invasive  E. coli  (LF82) and active on VAP strain RY09. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     REFERENCES 
     Throughout this application, various references describe the state of the art to which this invention pertains. The disclosures of these references are hereby incorporated by reference into the present disclosure.
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