Patent Publication Number: US-2023153832-A1

Title: Tokenizing scarce goods with provenance history bound to biological fingerprints

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 120 as a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 17/689,751, filed Mar. 8, 2022, which application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/272,104, filed Oct. 26, 2021, both of which are hereby incorporated by reference. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Distributed ledger technology refers broadly to the infrastructure and protocols used to provide distributed ledgers. Distributed ledgers represent a consensus of replicated, shared, and synchronized data that is stored across different sites and geographies by multiple participants. In contrast to centralized ledgers or databases, distributed ledgers generally are not associated with any central authority and updates made to the ledger are reflected and copied to all participants using a consensus algorithm. The security of distributed ledgers is achieved in part using cryptographic keys and digital signatures. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
       Various examples in accordance with the present disclosure will be described with reference to the drawings, in which: 
         FIG.  1    is a diagram illustrating an overview of the use of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) to trace the provenance of heirloom-grade products according to some examples. 
         FIG.  2    illustrates an example process for creating a material fingerprint for luxury-grade products according to some examples. 
         FIG.  3    illustrates an example format of an item material fingerprint (or “IMF”) certificate according to some examples. 
         FIG.  4    illustrates an example overview of a key hierarchy inside a tamper-resistant hardware microprocessor according to some examples. 
         FIG.  5    is a diagram illustrating an overview of a process for tokenizing luxury-grade products according to some examples. 
         FIG.  6    is a diagram illustrating an overview of a process for tokenizing heirloom-grade products according to some examples. 
         FIG.  7    is a diagram illustrating an example process for obtaining genome sequencing data from a patron and creating a DNA data authority (or “DDA”) certificate according to some examples. 
         FIG.  8    illustrates an example format of a digital asset definition (or “DAD”) for luxury-grade products and heirloom-grade products according to some examples. 
         FIG.  9    is a diagram illustrating an overview of the acquisition of an heirloom-grade product by a potential buyer or heir-claimant according to some examples. 
         FIG.  10    is a diagram illustrating an overview of paired heirloom-grade product items (e.g., restricted items) belonging to an heirloom-grade product set, where heir entitlement rules constrain both to be simultaneously owned by descendants satisfying a biological relationship specified in the heir entitlement rules according to some examples. 
         FIG.  11    is a diagram illustrating an overview of a group bidding process involving a collection of descendants of a patron according to some examples. 
         FIG.  12    is a flow diagram illustrating operations of a method for creating a material fingerprint of a physical product instance and storing a representation of the material fingerprint in a tamper-resistant microchip coupled to the physical product instance according to some examples. 
         FIG.  13    is a flow diagram illustrating operations of a method for tokenizing a luxury-grade product instance and storing a tokenized representation of a luxury-grade product instance using decentralized ledger technology according to some examples. 
         FIG.  14    is a flow diagram illustrating operations of a method for tokenizing an heirloom-grade product instance and storing a tokenized representation of an heirloom-grade product instance using decentralized ledger technology according to some examples. 
         FIG.  15    is a flow diagram illustrating operations of a method for using a smart contract to verify the permissibility of an heirloom-grade product instance transaction based on centimorgan (cM) numbers of at least two persons involved in the transaction according to some examples. 
         FIG.  16    is a block diagram illustrating an example computer system that may be used in some examples. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The present disclosure relates to methods, apparatus, systems, and non-transitory computer-readable storage media for enabling the creation of a digital asset representation of physical goods (e.g., luxury items) produced in limited quantities or heirloom-grade goods associated with restricted ownership rules. According to examples, anti-counterfeiting mechanisms are proposed for both classes of goods. In some examples, the provenance of both classes of goods is traced using cryptography and decentralized ledger technology. For example, mechanisms to restrict ownership of heirloom-grade goods are proposed based on a combination of (i) a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)-based biological fingerprint of a patron who originated the goods, and (ii) smart contract technology. The goods can be represented as digital tokens on a blockchain, including the binding of manufacturing evidence associated with a good to a corresponding token. For heirloom-grade goods that are associated with restricted ownership rules, in some examples, persons seeking to acquire an heirloom-grade good via the digital token and smart contract are required to prove that they satisfy the entitlement rules based on a biological relationship to the patron. 
     Today, there is an interest in many industries for the ability to represent scarce physical goods (e.g., luxury items) in the form of a digital asset that can be represented as a non-fungible token (or “NFT”) within blockchain networks deployed using decentralized ledger technology (or “DLT”). Examples described herein provide mechanisms for managing such representations of scarce luxury-grade products (or “LGPs”), as well as for a more constrained case of heirloom-grade products (or “HGPs”). In this context, an heirloom-grade product can be considered a luxury-grade product but with the additional feature in that they are associated with biological evidence of the person or patron who commissioned the product as well as there being additional rules as to which persons are permitted to acquire the goods (assuming other possible conditions are met, e.g., financial payment for the goods). 
     In some examples, both of these types of goods (e.g., luxury-grade products and heirloom-grade products) can be associated with digital asset tokens and smart contracts, and these digital representations of the products can be traded on blockchain-based asset trading networks (or “ASNs”). Among other benefits, this permits these types of physical goods to be held in safe keeping (e.g., in a vault in a depository), while their ownership can change hands via transactions on the ASN blockchain. 
     1.1. Luxury-Grade Products 
     As used herein, luxury-grade products include scarce “finished” products (e.g., in contrast to scarce natural resources) in that the products attain economic value due to the finished state of the product in limited quantities. Luxury-grade products thus represent end products intended to be acquired by persons and, as such, are different from scarce natural resources, which are intended to be further processed (e.g., an amount of rare earth metals such as platinum). In some examples, a luxury-grade good product as described herein can generally include any finished product that is: (a) fixed in quantity, and (b) is not produced again at a later time (or that is otherwise part of a self-restricting set of product instances). In contrast, rare natural resources may have continuous supplies albeit at small rates of production. 
     One non-limiting example of luxury-grade products are designer goods produced in one season of the year (e.g., designer handbags, shoes, furniture, prints, cars, etc.). These types of products, for example, are often limited in quantity by design (e.g., only 100 units of a handbag are ever created) and are recognizable by the brand associated with them. In some cases, a luxury-grade product has utility in the hands of its owner (e.g., a handbag can be used to carry items, or a watch can be worn and used to keep time, or a limited-edition sports car can be driven by its owner). 
     The desire to treat luxury-grade products as NFTs arises in part from the existence of a market (e.g., a primary and a secondary market) for these branded goods and, therefore, the desire to consider these types of goods as true assets. The digitization of such goods into NFTs permits their digitized representation to be tradeable on decentralized trading platforms (e.g., blockchain networks). 
     One challenge with scarce luxury-grade products relates to preventing the counterfeiting of such products, which introduces a degree of ambiguity and confusion among potential buyers, particularly in the secondary market. The potential existence of counterfeit goods can impact not only the specific brand in question but also can negatively affect the market as a whole. In some examples, the tokenization of these types of goods in the manner described herein can aid in the detection of such counterfeiting. 
     1.2. Heirloom-Grade Products 
     In some examples, a physical item can be considered to be an heirloom-grade product (or “HGP”) when there is an indisputable provenance history of the item from its original manufacturer down to the current owner. In some cases, an heirloom-grade product can have restrictions or constraints regarding the person(s) who may acquire the product based on biological relationship rules defined by the patron. Heirloom-grade products that are associated with biological relationship rules can be referred to as restricted heirloom-grade products, whereas heirloom-grade products without limits to ownership can be referred to as unrestricted heirloom-grade products. 
     An heirloom-grade product carries DNA evidence of its original owner (also referred to as the “patron”). The product instance thus can be considered a luxury-grade product that was subsequently enhanced with the DNA evidence of the patron, or it may be a custom order item tailored for the patron and that incorporates the DNA evidence of the patron. Although examples described herein include the use of DNA evidence to enforce transferability rules for product instances, in other examples, other types of conditions can be specified such as, e.g., geographic based rules (e.g., to ensure that an heirloom-grade product instance stays within certain geographic boundaries), organizational-based rules (e.g., to ensure that an heirloom-grade product instance stays within the membership of a certain organization such as a business entity, academic institution, religious institution, etc.), or other types of rules that can be codified into a smart contract. 
       FIG.  1    is a diagram illustrating an overview of the use of DNA to trace the provenance of heirloom-grade products according to some examples. In the example of  FIG.  1   , a patron  100  purchased three (3) units  102 A,  102 B, and  102 C, out of several (e.g., twenty (20)) units of a luxury-grade product (e.g., a handbag) produced in total. The patron  100  further bound her DNA with each of the physical units  102 A,  102 B, and  102 C, thereby creating heirloom-grade products. For one of the heirloom-grade products (e.g., the unit  102 A), the patron  100  created heir entitlement rules  104  (or “HER”) that permit the unit  102 A of the item to be legally owned only by a descendant of the patron  100  (e.g., subsequent owners  106 ,  108 , and  110 ). Thus, the unit  102 A represents a restricted heirloom-grade product instance. 
     In  FIG.  1   , the other two units (e.g., unit  102 B and unit  102 C) are not associated with heir entitlement rules and, as such, can be owned by any other person. These two units thus represent unrestricted heirloom-grade product items. Thus, in one case (e.g., unit  102 B), the unit was formerly owned by owners  112  and  114  and is currently legally owned by an auction house (owner  118 ), where the auction house intends to sell the unit  102 B to a highest bidder. In another case (e.g., unit  102 C), the current legal owner of the unit (subsequent to an owner  120 ) is a museum (owner  122 ) and thus likely does not intend to ever sell the item. 
     In each of these three instances (e.g., in the case of unit  102 A,  102 B, and  102 C), a separate digital asset token (or “DAT”) is created on a blockchain for the purpose of tracing the provenance of owners and for enforcing any associated heir entitlement rules (e.g., in the case of unit  102 A). For example, the token corresponding to unit  102 A can include heir entitlement rules embedded in a digital asset contract (or “DAC”) and that require any entity desiring to acquire the unit to prove biological relationship to the patron, as described herein. 
     In some examples, the combination of the patron DNA evidence, the digital asset tokens on the blockchain, and the history of the ownership of the digital asset tokens provide provenance data for each of the three instances of the heirloom-grade product. Together with the anti-counterfeiting mechanism employed for the series of the item produced (e.g., the total of 20 units produced, three of which carry the patron&#39;s DNA), the provenance data permits buyers to distinguish between the unique three (3) unit instances that are true heirloom-grade products relative to the remaining seventeen (17) unit instances that are more simply luxury-grade products items. 
     In some examples, a patron has the freedom to also adopt heirs or other descendants. This means, similar to biological descendants, the adoptee can provide their biological fingerprint, which is then incorporated into the heir entitlement rules devised by the patron. 
     1.3 Summary of Heirloom-Grade Products 
     In some examples, an heirloom-grade product is associated with the following properties: (a) the product is a scarce, luxury-grade product (possibly with additional custom-made features for the initial owner or patron); (b) the product is bound (physically, digitally, or both) to the unique DNA biological fingerprint of the patron of the item; and (c) its future ownership rules may be determined by ownership rules defined by its patron who commissioned the bespoke product. A product optionally can be physically bound with the unique DNA of the patron by affixing evidence of the patron&#39;s DNA to the product (e.g., by enclosing a small amount of hair, blood, or the like, in a container attached to or otherwise made part the product). By including a patron&#39;s DNA evidence with the product, an identifying genome sequence of a patron can be obtained years in the future, e.g., in cases where a DNA data authority used to generate an initial DNA data authority certificate (described in more detail hereinafter) may no longer exist or in other similar scenarios where verification of the patron&#39;s DNA evidence is useful. 
     More formally, the notion of an heirloom-grade product is applicable to scarce finished products in that they are available only to persons whose unique biological fingerprint is provably related to the patron as the initial owner of the goods on some heir ownership policies (or “HOP”) pertaining to the goods or items. In some embodiments, the heir ownership policies can be expressed in the form of a contractual document or other textual description of a patron&#39;s desires for an heirloom-grade product instance. 
     A manufacturer may produce heirloom-grade products based on a commissioned/bespoke order from a patron customer. A patron customer who orders an heirloom-grade product is referred to as an heirloom product patron (or “HPP”). Note that the patron may order several instances of an heirloom-grade product (e.g., order three separate handbags), some of which may be initially owned by the patron and then bequeathed to blood-relatives (e.g., given to the patron&#39;s children). 
     In some embodiments, a patron determines the heir entitlement rules for one or more (or all) of the instances of an heirloom-grade product. If several instances of the same heirloom-grade product are made, then the patron can designate either (i) all of the instances to share the same heir entitlement rules, or (ii) some having their own heir entitlement rules, or (iii) some having no heir entitlement rules (e.g., so that they are unrestricted). In any case, the DNA of the patron is bound to the items regardless of their associated heir entitlement rules. 
     In some examples, the heir entitlement rules for an heirloom-grade product instance can contain clauses that specify the rules expiration time in the future (e.g., a set of rules can be set to expire fifty (50) years from first registration on a blockchain), at which point the product instance&#39;s heir entitlement rules become legally ineffective and the product resembles more of a luxury-grade product. 
     It is noted that more than one patron can have their biological fingerprint bound to an heirloom-grade product. For example, a husband and a wife can create an heirloom-grade product instance that permits descendant family members on both the husband-side and the wife-side to be claimants in the future. Regardless of the number of patrons, the heir entitlement rules are to be created such the rule is internally consistent. 
     Similar to luxury-grade products, an heirloom-grade product can be associated with counterfeit-detection capabilities. In manufacturing terms, an heirloom-grade product commissioned by a patron employs the same technological anti-counterfeiting solutions as unrestricted luxury-grade products. 
     Similar to luxury-grade products, a given heirloom-grade product is tokenized into NFTs by way of creating a digital asset token (or “DAT”) that is tradeable on a blockchain-based asset trading network. However, in the case of an heirloom-grade product, the digital asset token is cryptographically bound to the digital asset contract (or “DAC”) that accompanies the digital asset token on the blockchain. The digital asset contract is a smart contract that implements the heir entitlement rules. Thus, in some examples, the digital asset contract is invoked as a condition prior to any trade transaction involving the digital asset token corresponding to an heirloom-grade product instance. The smart contract, for example, ensures that the heir entitlement rules are enforced on the asset-trading network (e.g., blockchain), constraining its ownership based on the conditions specified in the heir entitlement rules determined by the commissioning patron. A smart contract, for example, can include executable code stored on a blockchain that runs when certain conditions are met (e.g., a transaction involving a product is initiated). A smart contract can be used, for example, to codify the terms of an agreement between a buyer and a seller in the form of code, where the code and the terms of the agreement encoded therein can be stored using decentralized ledger technology. In examples described herein, these smart contracts can be used to codify heir entitlement rules and other conditions specified as part of transactions between persons involving luxury-grade and heirloom-grade product instances. 
     2.0. Example Terminology 
     In some examples, a goods classification refers to the family of goods within which an item belongs (e.g., luxury handbags; luxury shoes; limited-edition sportscars, etc.). 
     In some examples, a brand owner is an entity that legally owns the brand associated with a luxury item. 
     In some examples, a goods manufacturer is an entity responsible for creating the physical goods belonging to a brand owner. In some cases, a goods manufacturer and a brand owner can be the same entity. 
     In some examples, an heirloom-grade product patron, or simply patron, is a person or persons who purchases one or more instances of an heirloom-grade product, either based on a bespoke order or based on a limited-run from the manufacturer. 
     In some examples, a product can be considered an heirloom-grade product if it possesses the following attributes: (a) it is a scarce finished product (where the product may possibly be custom-made for a patron); (b) it is bound (physically, digitally, or both) to the unique biological fingerprint of the patron of the item; and (c) its ownership state may be constrained by some policies by its patron. 
     In some examples, a restricted heirloom-grade product item is one which is associated with future ownership restrictions or constraints defined by its patron, typically based on some biological relationship aspects to the patron. 
     In some examples, heir entitlement rules are a set of rules defined by a patron of a restricted heirloom-grade product item. 
     In some examples, heir ownership policies are a set of legal constraints for a restricted heirloom-grade product item created by a legal representative of the associated patron based on the heir entitlement rules for that item (e.g., heir ownership policies might typically be written as a legal contract). The heir ownership policies can be implemented in a corresponding smart contract governing the purchase of the corresponding digital asset token (e.g., the digital asset token representing the restricted heirloom-grade product) on the blockchain. 
     In some examples, a legal representative of the patron is a legal representative who creates living wills of deceased persons. 
     In some examples, item physical fingerprinting or item material fingerprinting is an extraction process for unique physical properties of a product item that allows for a globally unique digital identifier to be established under the control of the brand issuer. 
     In some examples, a patron biological fingerprint includes biological traits of a person (e.g., the patron) that uniquely identifies the person relative to other humans ever born (and to be born). This can typically include the genomic sequence from a person&#39;s DNA that is unique to that human person. 
     In some examples, a DNA data authority is an entity who is legally authoritative in performing genomic sequencing from the DNA of a human subject (e.g., patrons). 
     In some examples, a DNA data authority certificate for a patron is a data structure (e.g., a file) that carries the cryptographic one-way hash of the unique genomic sequence data of a patron. Not that for privacy reasons, a certificate may not hold the actual complete genome sequence file but only a hash of it instead. In some examples, a DNA data authority certificate is issued by a DNA data authority and digitally signed by the DNA data authority. 
     In some examples, a relationship distance measurement to a patron is a DNA-based numerical representation of the relationship between a person and a patron. As an example, the relationship distance measurement can be the shared centimorgans (cMs) of a person with the patron. 
     In some examples, a patron biological relationship certificate is a report explaining the biological relationship between a person and the patron, based on the genomic sequencing of that person&#39;s DNA. It includes some unit measurement distance of this relationship with the patron (e.g., includes the relationship distance measurement value). 
     In some examples, a blinded patron biological relationship is an anonymized patron biological relationship report where the identity of the person is blinded or hidden (e.g., substituted with a random string) but still carries the relationship distance measurement value (e.g., relative to the patron) for that person. 
     In some examples, an item material fingerprint includes the material properties of a product instance that can uniquely identify the item from among similarly constructed instances of the same item type. For example, for a leather-based product, the item material fingerprint can be the microscopic scan of several different locations of the leather surface (e.g., several high-resolution scans resulting in several files that together can identify the item). 
     In some examples, an item material fingerprint certificate is a digital certificate in a standard format (e.g., X.509). 
     In some examples, a manufacturer product provenance certificate is a certificate issued by the manufacturer and which combines, among other data, (a) an item material fingerprint certificate; (b) a DNA data authority certificate; and (c) other secret parameters. 
     In some examples, an authorized agent of the manufacturer is a dealer or shop located remotely (e.g., in a different legal jurisdiction) who is in possession of a copy of the brand manufacturer public key. 
     In some examples, a brand manufacturer public key-pair is the private-public key pair of the manufacturer that is associated with a luxury-grade product or heirloom-grade product. In the case of a luxury-grade product, the key-pair may be associated with the line of products in a given class/family. 
     In some examples, a brand line public key-pair is a private-public key pair of the manufacturer that is associated with a limited line or series of luxury-grade products. 
     In some examples, a manufacturer instance key-pair is a private-public key-pair that is unique for a product. the key-pair can be kept private/secure by the manufacturer. 
     In some examples, a brand distribution point is a physical retail store or outlet certified by the brand owner for the sale, verification, and re-sale of physical items issued by the brand owner. 
     In some examples, a fingerprint file is a data file resulting from the digital microscope scan of a specific physical location of the item that is unique to the item. 
     3.0. Material Fingerprinting for Luxury-Grade Products 
     In some examples, it is desirable to prevent counterfeiting of luxury-grade products (and heirloom-grade products). For example, mechanisms to detect or prevent counterfeiting ensures that buyers of luxury-grade products can retain the value associated with the brand of the product. In these examples, for simplicity, no distinction is made between the manufacturer and the brand, and it is assumed that the legal brands owner also owns the factories which manufacture the goods; in other examples, these may be separate entities. 
     In some examples, in order to detect and prevent (or limit) counterfeit goods sold in the market associated with a given brand (thereby harming the brand market value), the manufacturer of a product item performs the material fingerprinting of each physical product instance as part of the product manufacturing process. Any of several fingerprinting technologies can be used, such as spraying chemicals that are unique to the manufacturer (e.g., where the chemical makeup is a secret formula), adding nanoparticles and nanocrystals to the surface of the item, etc. 
     3.1. Material Fingerprinting Process 
       FIG.  2    is a diagram illustrating the creation of a material fingerprint for luxury-grade products according to some examples. In some examples, at circle “1,” for a given item category, a manufacturer selects several scan areas or locations (e.g., scan location  200 A, scan location  200 B, and scan location  200 C) that permit the unique physical surface characteristics of a physical product  202  to be digitally scanned (e.g., by a high-resolution digital microscope  204 ). 
     In some examples, at circle “2,” the manufacturer embeds a tamper-resistant hardware microprocessor or chip  206  within the physical goods. The hardware microprocessor  206  is used to securely store unique identifier numbers and cryptographic keys/parameters associated with the physical item. For example, the electronic board containing the hardware microprocessor  206  may be manufactured to be ultra-thin (e.g., possibly double or triple the thickness of a human hair). This kind of microprocessor technology can be laid within the lining of certain types of luxury products (e.g., handbags, watches, etc.). 
     In some examples, at circle “3,” the manufacturer then performs the scanning of the selected areas (e.g., of the item surface) in order to obtain digital images of the unique characteristics of the item  202 . Several scan locations of the item can be utilized for each item category. For example, in the case of a designer leather handbag, the manufacturer may select a standardized set of locations (e.g., three 1-inch by 1-inch locations in the example of  FIG.  2   ) within the inner leather or inner lining material. Because each leather surface will have distinct natural surface characteristics, each of the resulting scans of the specified areas of the same handbag can be associated with a unique representative byte-sequence of data. 
     In some examples, at circle “4,” for each scan location of the physical item  202 , the digital microscope  204  or other device yields a file containing a high-resolution image of the location (e.g., a 1-inch×1-inch square image of the bottom of a bag). These are referred to herein as microscopic scan files (or “MSFs”) (e.g., MSF  208 A, MSF  208 B, and MSF  208 C). As indicated, for each product instance, several microscopic scan files can be created for each of the scan locations. 
     In some examples, at circle “5,” the manufacturer securely stores the microscopic scan files of each product instance within its private database  210 . 
     In some examples, at circle “6,” using parts of the microscopic scan files of a given product item, the manufacturer uses a computing device to generate a unique digital certificate referred to as the item material fingerprint certificate  212 . The manufacturer digitally signs this certificate using its private key. 
     In some examples, at circle “7,” the manufacturer securely stores a copy of the item material fingerprint certificate  210  within the tamper-resistant hardware microprocessor  206  that is bound physically to the item. This permits authorized entities to read the certificate from the hardware microprocessor  206  as part of evaluating the provenance of the item  200 . 
     3.2. Product Instance Material Fingerprint Certificate 
     In some examples, for each item/product instance, the manufacturer derives an item material fingerprint certificate that is associated with the item.  FIG.  3    illustrates an example of an item material fingerprint certificate  300  according to some examples. In some examples, a copy of the item material fingerprint certificate  300  is placed inside the tamper-resistant hardware microprocessor that is physically attached to the item. In some examples, an item material fingerprint certificate  300  includes an item instance serial number  302 , a manufacturer name or identifier  304 , a key identifier of a public key  306  assigned to the item, one or more hash values derived from microscope scan files (e.g., hash of microscope scan file  308 A, hash of microscope scan file  308 B, . . . , hash of microscope scan file  308 N), a certificate serial number  310  (of the IMF certificate), a timestamp  312  (indicating a creation date of the certificate), and a digital signature of the manufacturer  314 . Other examples can include more, fewer, or different data items. 
     As indicated, in some examples, the certificate  300  includes only a key identifier  306  (or “KeyID”) of the public key that has been assigned to the item (i.e., the certificate does not include the actual public key itself). In some examples, the public/private key pair associated with the item is stored inside the tamper-resistant hardware microprocessor that has the ability to employ the key pair for certain types of actions. 
     3.3. Family of Keys Inside the Hardware Microprocessor 
     In some examples, for each product item instance, several keys are held and operated by a tamper-resistant hardware processor coupled to the item instance.  FIG.  4    illustrates an example overview of a key hierarchy inside a tamper-resistant hardware microprocessor  400  according to some examples. As shown, the keys including some or all of: 
     (a) a device-identity public/private key pair for the microprocessor (or hardware manufacturer endorsement key pair  402 ): In some examples, this is the public/private key pair that is unique for the instance of the microprocessor that is attached to the physical item. This key pair cannot be read or migrated to a different microprocessor and can only be operated upon indirectly through certain commands that can be issued by an authorized entity (e.g., a luxury-grade product manufacturer). 
     (b) an internal certificate public/private key pair (or hardware manufacturer key certification key pair  404 ): In some examples, this is an internally generated and certified  406  public/private key pair that is used to prove the cryptographic binding of other keys that are used to interact with the world outside of the microprocessor. This key pair is not migratable and only the public key is readable by external entities. 
     (c) a product instance public/private key pair  408 : In some examples, this is the unique public/private key pair that is associated with (e.g., belongs to) to a particular product instance. This key pair permits the hardware microprocessor to respond to authorized challenge messages from approved entities (e.g., authorized dealers of a luxury-grade product brand). In some examples, the product instance public key is certified by the internal certificate key pair by way of the product instance public key being wrapped in a simple certificate data structure that is signed by the internal certification private key. 
     (d) a brand manufacturer public key  410 : this is the public key of the luxury-good product manufacturer. It is imported into the hardware microprocessor and then certified by the internal certification key pair by way of the brand manufacturer public key being wrapped in a simple certificate data structure that is signed by the internal certification private key. 
     (e) a patron public key (optional)  412 : in cases where the product instance is an heirloom-grade product commissioned by a patron, in some examples, the patron&#39;s public key is imported into the hardware microprocessor. In some examples, this key can be used to prove the cryptographic binding of the physical product instance to the patron. The patron&#39;s public key is certified by the internal certification key pair. 
     4.0. Tokenization of Luxury-Grade Products 
     An example overview of steps involved to tokenize luxury-grade products that are counterfeit-resistant is provided in  FIG.  5   . At circle “1” in  FIG.  5   , in some examples, the manufacturer  500  of a luxury-grade product creates a limited number of instances (e.g., a total of ten) of the luxury-grade product. For each physical product instance, the manufacturer obtains the item&#39;s physical fingerprint, which is unique for each physical instance of the product (e.g., as illustrated herein with respect to  FIG.  2   ). 
     In some examples, for each physical product instance  502 , the manufacturer issues an item material fingerprint certificate  504 . This certificate is stored inside a private database managed by the manufacturer  500  and another copy is stored in the protected and encrypted storage of the tamper-resistant hardware microprocessor  506 . In some examples, the manufacturer  500  stores an encrypted copy of the item material fingerprint certificate  504  inside the tamper-resistant microchip  506 . The encryption can be performed using the manufacturer instance public/private key pair, which is kept secret by the manufacturer  500 . 
     One benefit of this type of evidence is to prove the provenance or origin of a physical product instance (e.g., from the brand-approved manufacturer) and to provide a means to detect counterfeits. In some examples, an authorized agent of the manufacturer (or “AAM”), such as a dealer/shop located overseas and who may evaluate an item (e.g., when the product instance is placed for sale on the secondary market), can request a copy of the manufacturer instance public key from the manufacturer. The manufacturer can deliver the public key over an authenticated and secure channel between the authorized agent of the manufacturer and the manufacturer. In some examples, the secure channel can be established between the authorized agent and the manufacturer using the brand manufacturer public key found in the microprocessor. 
     In some examples, using the manufacturer instance public key, the authorized agent can decrypt the item material fingerprint certificate as part of evaluating whether an item (e.g., brought into the shop by a customer) is counterfeit or not. Note that the manufacturer may possess multiple unique brand line public/private key pairs, where each key pair corresponds to a particular luxury-grade product line or series. For example, this may be due to some luxury-grade product lines being exclusive to only one region or country in the world (e.g., Europe, Middle East, Africa (EMEA) specific products lines, Japan-only product lines, etc.) and, as such, only the authorized agents in those particular locations may be in possession of the corresponding brand line public key for a region-exclusive series. 
     In some examples, at circle “2” in  FIG.  5   , the manufacturer  500  issues manufacturer product provenance (or “MPP”) certificates  508  for each luxury-grade product instance. The manufacturer product provenance certificate  508  provides an assertion that a product instance is a genuine instance. One benefit of the manufacturer product provenance certificate  508  is that it permits a digital asset provider  510  (or “DAP”) to create a token  512  on the blockchain  514  that represents the product instance, and which is founded on the guarantee from the manufacturer that (i) the product actually exists and (ii) that it is in the possession of the manufacturer. 
     In some examples, at circle “3,” the manufacturer  500  creates a digital asset definition (or “DAD”) file  516  and delivers both the manufacturer product provenance certificate  508  and the digital asset definition file  516  via a secure channel (e.g., a secure computer network channel) to a digital asset provider  510  entity. 
     In some examples, at circle “4,” the digital asset provider  510  makes the digital asset token  512  available on a blockchain  514 , assigning its ownership to the brand manufacturer  500 . Generally speaking, in some examples, new luxury-grade products are initially owned by the brand manufacturer  500 . Any entity seeking to purchase a luxury-grade product can purchase the token on the blockchain (e.g., a token  512 ), issuing payment to the blockchain address (e.g., transactions public key) of the brand manufacturer  500 . 
     5.0. Tokenization of Heirloom-Grade Products 
     In some examples, the management of heirloom-grade products involves a more complex infrastructure and ecosystem because it includes collecting and genetically analyzing the biological fingerprint of an associated patron of the heirloom-grade product instance. More specifically, in some examples, an heirloom-grade product instance is associated with the following features in addition to that of a luxury-grade product instance: (i) the same (or stronger) anti-counterfeiting technical mechanisms and infrastructure are used for heirloom-grade products compared to luxury-grade products; (ii) the genome sequence of a patron (e.g., a person) is used to distinguish the heirloom-grade product instance as being originated from the patron; and (iii) heir entitlement rules are decided upon by the patron and are coded into the smart contracts that control the transferability of an heirloom-grade product instance off-chain (e.g., in the real world) and on-chain (e.g., transfers of tokens representing an heirloom-grade product instance). 
       FIG.  6    is a diagram illustrating an overview of a process for tokenizing heirloom-grade products according to some examples. In some examples, at circle “1” in  FIG.  6   , a patron  600  (e.g., a person) seeking to create an item instance (or a limited number of instances) of an heirloom-grade product requests a manufacturer  602  to create the heirloom-grade product instances (e.g., including heirloom-grade product instance  604 ). In some examples, the task of the manufacturer  602  includes obtaining and including two kinds of unique evidence for associated with the product instance. The first evidence (evidence type-1) is an item physical fingerprint, similar to the physical fingerprint discussed herein for luxury-grade product instances. The second evidence (evidence type- 2 ) is a biological fingerprint of the human patron  600 . In some examples, the biological fingerprint is obtained indirectly via a DNA data authority  606  (or “DDA”) as described herein. One benefit of this type of evidence is to prove that a given product instance was manufactured for a given patron such that, e.g., future descendants of the patron can claim eligibility to some entitlements (if any) designated by the patron  600  based on rules set by the patron for the product instance. 
     At circle “2,” in some examples, the patron  600  seeks to establish their unique biological fingerprint by way of genetic sequencing (e.g., a complete sequence) of their DNA or using other methods to biologically identify the patron uniquely and to identify relatives of the patron. In some examples, the patron visits a legally certified DNA data authority  606  (or “DDA”), which performs genetic sequencing of the patron. The patron provides some biological sample from which the patron&#39;s DNA can be obtained as the basis for genetic sequencing. 
     In some examples, a result of this step is a signed DNA data authority certificate  608  carrying unique information of the patron  600  (e.g., a cryptographic hash of the patron&#39;s genetic sequencing data). In some examples, the DNA data authority  606  keeps the complete genome sequencing data as confidential and private information (e.g., stored in a secured database). 
     At circle “3,” in some examples, the patron creates heir entitlement rules  610  pertaining to the eligibility for claims of ownership based on a biological relationship to the patron  600 . For example, the patron  600  can create heir ownership policies  612  (or “HOPs”) for the bespoke heirloom-grade product instance  604  based on a specified set of heir entitlement rules  610 . In some examples, heir ownership policies  612  represent rules indicating which persons on a patron&#39;s family tree are to be allowed to legally own an heirloom-grade product instance. A given policy, for example, may specify a sufficient degree of “closeness” in the family regardless of the financial means to acquire a product instance. A rule can also determine what happens to an heirloom-grade product instance when no claimant is eligible in the future (e.g., because a family tree dies out), such as automatically bequeathing it to a national museum under additional conditions. 
     In some examples, for example, a patron  600  can determine heir entitlement rules  610  based on a measure of the centimorgans (cMs) a relative has in common with the patron. The amount of cMs shared between two persons, for example, can be used to determine how closely the two persons are related to one another. The patron can then provide the rules to a legal representative of the patron (e.g., a family attorney). 
     At circle “4,” in some examples, the DNA data authority  606  completes the genome sequencing of the patron&#39;s DNA and generates a DNA data authority certificate  608  for the patron  600  that includes a unique identifier of the patron  600  as well as a cryptographic, one-way hash of the file containing the derived unique sequence information for the patron  600 . In many cases, the typical size of useful information in the genome sequence can be on the order of 125-200 megabytes. In some examples, the sequence data itself is not contained in the DNA data authority certificate  608  for the patron  600 , but rather only a cryptographic hash of the data is stored, e.g., to protect the privacy of the patron. In some examples, the DNA data authority  606  digitally signs the certificate  608  using its public key of a public/private key pair associated with the DNA data authority  606 . The public key of the DNA data authority  606 , for example, may itself be encapsulated in a X.509 digital certificate structure issued by a commercial public key infrastructure (PKI) certificate authority (CA). 
     In some examples, at circle “5,” the DNA data authority  606  entity provides a copy of the signed DNA data authority certificate  608  for the patron  600  to the legal representative of the patron  614 . For example, the legal representative  614  may be provided with a secure link to download the certificate  608  or otherwise provided with the certificate using a secure communication link. In some examples, the DNA data authority  606  optionally provides a copy of the full genome sequence file to the patron and/or the patron&#39;s legal representatives in a secure manner (e.g., via secure digital transmission or by providing a copy in person). 
     In some examples, at circle “6,” the DNA data authority  606  entity provides a copy of the signed DNA data authority certificate  608  for the patron  600  to the manufacturer  602  responsible for creating the heirloom-grade product instance(s) for the patron. Optionally, the DNA data authority  606  also includes its own X.509 digital certificate issued by a certificate authority (CA). 
     At circle “7,” in some examples, the manufacturer  602  extracts some data fields from the item material fingerprint (IMF) certificate  616  and the DNA data authority certificate  608  (obtained from the DNA data authority) to form the contents of a manufacturer product provenance (or “MPP”) certificate  618 . The manufacturer  600  can then cause encrypted copies of the (i) item material fingerprint certificate  616 , and (ii) the manufacturer product provenance certificate  618  to be stored within the tamper-resistant hardware microchip  620 . In some examples, encryption is performed using the instance private key, which is held securely by the manufacturer  602 . In some examples, the DNA data authority certificate  608  is not stored within the tamper-resistant microchip  620 , e.g., because of the private and sensitive nature of the DNA data authority certificate (e.g., it can be used to identify the patron). 
     In some examples, at circle “8,” the manufacturer  602  creates a digital asset definition (or “DAD”) file  622  for the heirloom-grade product instance  604  and delivers both the manufacturer product provenance certificate  618  and the DAD file  622  to a digital asset provider  624  entity via a secure channel (e.g., via an SSL/TLS-secured internet communication channel). 
     In some examples, at circle “9,” the legal representative of the patron  614  creates heir ownership rules (or “HOPs”) that express the patron&#39;s heir entitlement rules created in a proceeding step (e.g., specified as text-based rules). Optionally, the legal representative  614  or another entity can additionally create a smart contract implementing the heir ownership rules and provide the heir ownership rules file (with or without a corresponding smart contract) to the digital asset provider  624 . 
     At circle “10,” in some examples, the legal representative of the patron  614  countersigns a copy of the DNA data authority certificate  608  file (which it obtained from the DNA data authority  606  in a preceding step) and provides the resulting countersigned certificate to the digital asset provider  624 . 
     At circle “11,” the digital asset provider  624  creates a digital asset definition (or “DAD”) based on the input received from the manufacturer  602  (e.g., the DAD  622  for the heirloom-grade product instance  604  and the manufacturer product provenance certificate  618 ) and from the legal representative of the patron  614  (e.g., the heir ownership rules and the DNA data authority certificate  608  file). If the legal representative of the patron did not include a smart contract, then the digital asset provider creates a smart contract  626  based on the heir ownership policies file it receives from the legal representative. 
     In some examples, the digital asset provider  624  creates an instance of the DAT  628  and digital asset contract  626  (or “DAC”) present (e.g., based on the DAD) on a blockchain-based asset exchange network  630 , effectively registering (e.g., publishing) simultaneously (i) the fact of the existence of the heirloom-grade product, (ii) its initial valuation (e.g., in dollar value) as expressed in the DAT, and (iii) the rules of ownership exchange and eligibility of new owners as expressed through the conditionals in the DAC smart contract. 
     6.0. Obtaining and Recording a Biological Fingerprint of Patron 
     As mentioned above, a luxury-grade product can be considered an heirloom-grade product if, among others, it is bound to a unique biological fingerprint of a patron of the item. In some examples, a process is used to obtain the digital evidence of a patron of a product instance or instances derived from the genomic sequencing of a biological sample of the patron. 
     6.1. Overview of Biological Fingerprinting Process 
       FIG.  7    is a diagram illustrating an example process for obtaining sequence data from a patron and creating a DNA data authority (or “DDA”) certificate according to some examples. At circle “1” in  FIG.  7   , in some examples, a biological specimen of a patron  702  (e.g., a person) is obtained from the patron  700 . The type of biological specimen (e.g., hair, blood, etc.) can be determined by the DNA data authority  704  (e.g., its DNA laboratory) in agreement with the heirloom-grade product manufacturer. 
     At circle “2,” in some examples, the biological specimen of the patron  702  is analyzed by the DNA data authority  704  (e.g., by its DNA laboratory  706 ) and a genomic sequence is generated based on the specimen. 
     At circle “3,” in some examples, the result of the genomic sequencing of the patron is stored in a genomic sequence file  708  (or “GSF”) that can uniquely identify the patron  700  from other people and from among the patron&#39;s family members. 
     In some examples, at circle “4,” the DNA data authority  704  securely stores the genomic sequence files  708  of the patron in its confidential private database  710 . 
     In some examples, at circle “5,” the DNA data authority  704  uses the genomic sequence file  708  of the patron (stored in its private database) to generate a DNA data authority certificate  712  for the patron. In some examples, the certificate  712  does not carry the genomic sequence file data but rather only carries a cryptographic hash of the genomic sequence file data  708 . The DNA data authority certificate  712  can include a timestamp of the issuance of the certificate and can be signed by the DNA data authority  704 . For example, this signature can be used to signify that the DNA data authority  704  attests legally to the truthfulness of the information contained in the DNA data authority certificate  712  and to the correctness of the genomic sequencing procedure that is employed to derive the genomic sequence file data. 
     At circle “6,” in some examples, the DNA data authority  704  securely and confidentially provides a copy of the DNA data authority certificate  712  for the patron to (i) the manufacturer that requested the certificate, and (ii) the legal representative of the patron  714  (e.g., the patron&#39;s family lawyer). The product manufacturer can store a copy of the obtained DNA data authority certificate  712  within its private manufacturer database  716 . 
     In some examples, at circle “7,” the manufacturer extracts data fields from the item material fingerprint certificate  718  and the DNA data authority certificate  712  (obtained from the DNA data authority) to form the manufacturer product provenance certificate  720 . The manufacturer can then cause encrypted copies of the (i) item material fingerprint certificate  718  and (ii) the manufacturer product provenance certificate  720  to be stored within the tamper-resistant microchip  722 . In some examples, encryption is performed using the instance private key held by the manufacturer. In some examples, the DNA data authority certificate is not stored within the tamper-resistant microchip. 
     6.2. Biological Fingerprinting of Descendants 
     In some examples, the biological fingerprinting process described above is repeated by any descendants as part of proving their relationship to the patron. For example, the steps described in relation to circles “1” through circle “5” are to be performed by any person claiming to be an eligible descendant of the patron. 
     6.3. Biological Fingerprinting of Entitlements of Adoptees 
     As mentioned above, a patron may legally adopt one or more persons as children or descendants even though those persons may not be biologically related to the patron. A patron can perform the adoption even after an heirloom-grade product has completed manufacturing. In some examples, the biological fingerprinting of adoptees or other entitled persons can include: 
     Obtaining a biological fingerprint of the adoptee: In some examples, the adoptee (e.g., person) provide their biological samples in person to the DNA data authority, where the DNA data authority performs the relevant DNA fingerprinting (e.g., genomic sequencing) and produces a DNA data authority certificate for the adoptee. 
     Delivery of adoptee&#39;s DNA data authority certificate to legal representative of the patron: In some examples, the DNA data authority securely and confidentially provides a copy of the DNA data authority certificate to the legal representative of the patron. 
     Updating of heir entitlement rules to include adoptee: In some examples, if the patron desires to make the adoptee have entitlements to the heirloom-grade product instance, the patron updates the heir entitlement rules that the patron previously provided to the legal representative of the patron (e.g., see circle “3” of  FIG.  6   ). 
     Updating digital asset contract to include adoptee: In some examples, the legal representative of the patron updates the on-chain digital asset contract with a new digital asset contract that reflects the updated heir entitlement rules incorporating the adoptee. 
     7.0. Digital Asset Tokens and Digital Asset Contracts 
     In some examples, the manufacturer of a product creates tokens with the assistance of a digital asset provider entity, as illustrated in  FIG.  6   . In some cases, the manufacturer and the digital asset provider are separate entities; in other cases, the manufacturer can include the functionality of the digital asset provider. 
     7.1. Digital Asset Definition and Digital Asset Tokens 
     In some examples, as the creator of a luxury-grade product or heirloom-grade product, the manufacturer also creates a digital representation of the created product instances. For example, a manufacturer can first create a digital asset definition (or “DAD”), which states the various factual information regarding the created product instances. The DAD, for example, permits a digital asset provider to create digital asset tokens (or “DAT”) on a blockchain, which represents the product instances on-chain.  FIG.  8    illustrates an example format of a digital asset definition (or “DAD”) for luxury-grade products and heirloom-grade products according to some examples. 
     As shown in  FIG.  8   , a DAD can include some or all of the following data: an asset definition serial number  802 , a brand manufacturer name or identifier  804 , a brand manufacturer public key  806 , a brand manufacturer public key certificate (or serial number of certificate)  808 , a description text of luxury-grade product or heirloom-grade product  810 , a hash of instance of public key  812 , a hash of item material fingerprint (IMF) certificate  814 , a hash of the DNA data authority (DDA) certificate  816  for heirloom-grade products, a hash of the manufacturer product provenance (MPP) certificate  818 , a hash of heir ownership policies (HOP) file  820  (for heirloom-grade products), a hash of a heirloom-grade product smart contract  822  (for heirloom-grade products), a fungibility and collateralization policy  824  (for heirloom-grade products), a timestamp  826 , and a digital signature of issuer  828  (the manufacturer or delated DAP entity). 
     In some examples, a digital asset provider creates a digital asset token for each of the N product instances that a manufacturer produces which conforms to the DAD file asserted by the manufacturer. The manufacturer securely delivers to the digital asset provider a list of the serial numbers of the N items defined by the DAD file. In some examples, the digital asset provider issues N distinct digital asset tokens on the blockchain, where each token includes the following fields (e.g., where some of the fields are obtained from the DAD file in  FIG.  8   ): (i) a serial number of the product instance (e.g., as provided by the manufacturer); (ii) a brand manufacturer name (or unique identifier of the manufacturer); (iii) an asset definition serial number; (iv) a hash of the DAD file used to create the token; (v) a current owner blockchain address (e.g., public key of the manufacturer); (vi) an address (or identifier) of smart contract, if the item is an heirloom-grade product); (vii) a timestamp; and (viii) a digital signature of the digital asset provider. 
     Generally speaking, luxury-grade products have no ownership category limitations. That is, anyone who has the financial means can purchase on-chain a digital asset token corresponding to a luxury-grade product and then obtain the corresponding physical product instance from the manufacturer&#39;s agent (e.g., a dealer/store) or from its current owner. 
     7.2. Digital Asset Contracts for Heirloom-Grade Products 
     In the case of heirloom-grade products, the patron who initiated/requested the creation of an heirloom-grade product instance (and possibly paid for it) may have also defined some restrictions on which persons are permitted to acquire the heirloom-grade product item. These restrictions are listed by the patron in their heir entitlement rule file based on a biological relationship between the patron (or his/her descendants) and a potential buyer of the heirloom-grade product. A patron delivers the heir entitlement rules file to a legal representative of the patron. The legal representative of the patron can then counter sign the heir entitlement rules file and deliver the countersigned file to the digital asset provider. 
     In some examples, when a potential buyer or a claimant-heir (e.g., a person claiming to be an heir) desires to obtain an heirloom-grade product, the person proves the biological relationship of the person to the patron or to the patron&#39;s descendants. This can be performed at a legally recognized DNA data authority, where the buyer/claimant provides biological samples for genomic sequencing (e.g., similar to the process described above in relation to  FIG.  7   ). The DNA data authority then produces a DNA data authority certificate for the buyer/claimant, where the certificate is delivered securely to a legal representative of the patron. In some examples, the legal representative of the patron can then ensure that the new buyer satisfies the constraints defined by the patron (e.g., as stated in the heir eligibility rules). 
     In some examples, the purchase or ownership transfer of an heirloom-grade product via its digital asset token is performed via a smart contract that implements the digital asset contract specified by the digital asset provider (e.g., following the heir entitlement rules defined by the patron). The digital asset contract smart contract software (e.g., in the blockchain) implements conditional logic specified in the heir entitlement rules. 
       FIG.  9    is a diagram illustrating an overview of the acquisition of an heirloom-grade product by a potential buyer of heir-claimant according to some examples. At circle “1” in  FIG.  9   , in some examples, a buyer/claimant  900  of an heirloom-grade product instance uses a computing device to transmit a signed transaction on the blockchain  906  to acquire the digital asset token, where the transaction is addressed to the digital asset contract smart contract  908  specifically for the digital asset token corresponding to the heirloom-grade product instance. In some examples, the smart contract  908  writes a transaction pending (TX-PEND) log message to the ledger of the blockchain, thereby signaling that there is a request to acquire the heirloom-grade product instance. 
     At circles “2A” and “2B,” in some examples, a digital asset provider  910  continuously monitors the state of the ledger and detects new entries pertaining to one of its smart contracts. In this example, the digital asset provider  910  identifies a new TX-PEND entry on the ledger at circle “2A” and then the digital asset provider  910  notifies the DNA data authority  912  that was involved in the tokenization of the heirloom-grade product instance (e.g., the DNA data authority  912  that issued the DNA data authority certificate for the patron). 
     Alternatively, at circle “3,” the DNA data authority  912  may also monitor the state of the ledger to identify any new TX-PEND entries on the ledger pertaining to any of the digital asset tokens corresponding to any heirloom-grade product instances for which the DNA data authority  912  was involved (e.g., the patron was one of its customers). 
     In some examples, at circle “4,” the DNA data authority  912  notifies the buyer/claimant, requesting the buyer/claimant to authenticate with the DNA data authority  912  and to provide evidence of biological relationship to the patron. If the buyer/claimant is unknown to the DNA data authority  912 , the buyer/claimant provides biological samples in-person so that a genomic sequence can be performed. 
     In some examples, at circle “5,” after performing a genomic sequencing of the buyer/claimant, the DNA data authority  912  issues (i) a DNA data authority certificate for the buyer/claimant  914 , and (ii) a patron biological relationship certificate  916  reporting on the biological relationship between the buyer/claimant and the patron. In some examples, the DNA data authority  912  securely delivers the DNA data authority certificate  914  and the patron biological relationship certificate  916  the legal representative of the patron  918 . 
     At circle “6,” if the buyer/claimant is shown to have some biological relationship with the patron and he/she has been authenticated by the DNA data authority  912 , the DNA data authority  912  then signs the relevant parameter in the smart contract on the blockchain  906  (e.g., using its private key). Otherwise, the DNA data authority  912  does nothing (e.g., allows a timer in the smart contract to expire). 
     In some examples, at circle “7,” if the patron biological relationship certificate  916  for the buyer/claimant indicates the buyer/claimant satisfies the heir entitlement rules, the legal representative of the patron  918  then signs the relevant parameter in the smart contract  908  on the blockchain  906  (e.g., it uses its private key). Otherwise, it does nothing (e.g., allows a timer in the smart contract  908  to expire). 
     Once the smart contract  908  receives the signed parameter from the DNA data authority  912  and from the legal representative of the patron  918 , in some examples, the smart contract  908  completes the process by assigning the digital asset token of the heirloom-grade product instance to the address (e.g., transaction public key) of the buyer/claimant. For example, this signifies that the buyer/claimant is now the new owner of the digital asset token and thus the owner of the corresponding physical heirloom-grade product instance. 
     7.3. Paired Restricted Items Belonging to an Heirloom-Grade Product Set 
     In some examples, a given patron may have their biological fingerprint associated with two or more related heirloom-grade product instances with the intent being that these items form an heirloom-grade product set that is to stay together as far as possible.  FIG.  10    is a diagram illustrating an overview of paired heirloom-grade product items (restricted) belonging to an heirloom-grade product set (e.g., including item  1002 A and item  1002 B), where the heir entitlement rules  1010  (or “HER”) constrain both to be simultaneously owned by descendants satisfying a biological relationship to a patron of the heirloom-grade product item  1000  specified in the heir entitlement rules  1010  according to some examples. 
     In some examples, a patron can define heir entitlement rules permitting different descendants of the patron to own one part of an heirloom-grade product set. In the case of the heirloom-grade product sets, in some examples, the tamper-resistant microchip coupled to each product instance is cryptographically bound to one another. Thus, for example, the item  1002 A and item  1002 B in  FIG.  10    are paired by virtue of their tamper-resistant microchips being paired. 
     8.0. Bidding Smart Contract for Heirloom-Grade Product Instances and Properties 
     As mentioned previously, a patron who custom orders an heirloom-grade product instance may establish heir entitlement rules representing the wishes of the patron. The heir entitlement rules are then encoded into a digital asset contract smart contract on the blockchain, where the digital asset contract smart contract enforces a specified set of heir entitlement rules on the blockchain. In the following, the use of the term “descendants” includes persons biologically related to a patron and also persons adopted by the patron. 
     8.1. Group Bidding Based on Relationship Distance to Patron 
     In some examples, a given patron can establish heir entitlement rules that permit multiple combinations between (i) the relationship distance of a descendant to the patron (e.g., as measured in centimorgans) and (ii) the evidence of purchasing power of the descendant. Thus, as an example, a patron can state in an heir entitlement rule that any potential claimant of an heirloom-grade product instance must share at least 900 cM with the patron. However, this can lead to a scenario of multiple descendants being eligible to claim an heirloom-grade product instance. For example, using the minimal 900 cM measurement, any of the following descendants may become eligible under the example heir entitlement rule: first cousins, half-aunt/uncles, half-niece/nephews, great-grandparent, great-grandchildren, great-aunt/uncle, and great-niece/nephews. 
     In order to prevent family disputes among descendants, in some examples, the heir entitlement rules can be implemented using a bidding smart contract (or “BSC”) together with a digital asset contract s mart contract and digital asset token. 
     In some examples, in a bidding smart contract, additional considerations can be placed on claimants that can prove biological relationship to a patron including, for example: 
     Minimal biological relationship measure to the patron: This can be measured in the centimorgans values that a claimant proves (e.g., at least 900 cM in common with the patron, in the example above). 
     Temporary identity confidentiality (e.g., temporary anonymity) of the claimant: In some examples, while within the bidding period, a claimant may use its cryptographic keys as input to the bidding smart contract in an anonymous fashion. This is to prevent, for example, other eligible claimants from seeing the identity of the bidder. If the claimant wins the bid, then he or she reveals their digital identity certificate (e.g., a X.509 certificate) showing legal evidence of the person owning the public/private key pair used for the bidding. 
     Minimal escrow of funds by claimant: In some examples, the claimant entering the bid escrows funds on the blockchain, assigning the funds to the address (e.g., public key) of the current owner of the heirloom-grade product instance. 
     Descendant group-bids using pooled biological evidences: In some examples, the heir entitlement rules of the patron may permit a group or collective of descendants to bid as a single entity (without membership overlap), where the rules permit the collective bidder with the highest cumulative centimorgans winning the bid (subject to available funds). For example, the heir entitlement rules may specify that a claimant/bidder must have minimal 7,500 centimorgans in common with the patron (where parents and their children only share on average 3,000 cM). This may be achieved, for example, by several children and descendants of the patron summing their biological relationship measurements. For example, any two siblings (2,500 cM each) with any four first-cousins (850 cM each) can sum their cM values to reach the designated minimal 7,500 centimorgans. 
     8.2. Group Bidding Process 
       FIG.  11    is a diagram illustrating an overview of group bidding by a collective of descendants of a patron according to some examples. At circle “1” in  FIG.  11   , in some examples, each of the persons in a descendant-claimants group  1100  (or “DCG”) (e.g., including a claimant  1102 A, a claimant  1102 B, and a claimant  1102 C) contacts the DNA data authority entity  1104  ahead of the bid closing time, uses a computing device to authenticate themselves to the DDA entity, and provides evidence of biological relationship to the patron. If one or more person in the group  1100  is unknown to the DNA data authority entity  1104 , the claimant provides biological samples in-person to the DNA data authority entity so that a genomic sequencing can be performed (e.g., shown collectively as claimant authentication and/or provisioning of biological sample  1106 ). Additionally, in some examples, each of the claimants in the group  1100  uses a computing device to independently deliver his/her public key (blockchain address) over a secure channel to the DNA data authority entity. 
     In some examples, at circle “2,” after performing the genomic sequencing of any new claimants in the descendant-claimants group, the DNA data authority  1104  creates (a) a DNA data authority certificate for each of the N claimants (e.g., shown as DDA certificates of claimants  1110 ) and retains the certificates in its local database, and (b) issues a blinded patron biological relationship (or “BPBR”) certificate  1108  for each of the N claimants, reporting on the biological relationship between the claimant and the patron. 
     In some examples, the blinded patron biological relationship certificate carries the relationship-distance measurement (or “RDM”) value of the claimant to patron. This is typically the DNA-based numerical representation of the relationship between a person and the patron. As an example, this can be the shared centimorgans (cM) of a person with the patron. 
     For each claimant, in some examples, the DNA data authority entity uses a computing device to securely deliver the following to a privacy certification authority  1114  (or “PCA”): (i) the blinded patron biological relationship certificate for the claimant and (ii) the public key (blockchain address) of the claimant obtained from the claimant at circle “1.” In some examples, the DNA data authority  1104  entity requests the private certification authority entity to create N separate anonymous identity certificates  1116  (or “AIC”) for the N members of the descendant-claimants group  1100 . 
     At circle “3,” in some examples, for each of the N members of the group  1100 , the privacy certification authority  1114  uses the received blinded patron biological relationship certificate for that member to create/issue a signed anonymous identity certificate  1116  including some or all of: (i) a certificate serial number; (ii) a unique global identifier for the claimant; (iii) the relationship distance measurement values as reported in the blinded patron biological relationship certificate; (iv) a hash of the blinded patron biological relationship certificate; (v) a public key of the claimant (e.g., as delivered by the DNA data authority entity at circle “2”); (vi) a timestamp; and (vii) a digital signature of the privacy certification authority. In some examples, the privacy certification authority  1114  returns the N anonymous identity certificates to the DNA data authority entity. 
     At circle “4,” in some examples, the DNA data authority  1104  entity returns each of the N anonymous identity certificates  1116  to their respective owners (claimants) in the descendant-claimants group  1100 . The DNA data authority  1104  entity also returns a copy of the patron biological relationship certificate to each member respectively (those who have not previously been genomic sequenced by the DNA data authority  1104  entity). 
     In some examples, at circle “5,” for each of the N claimants in the group  1100 , the DNA data authority  1104  entity securely delivers: (i) their DNA data authority certificate and (ii) their patron biological relationship certificate to the legal representative of the patron  1122 . 
     In some examples, at circle “6,” to complete the bid, each of the N members within the descendant-claimants group  1100  independently submits a transaction  1118  (e.g., invokes the bidding smart contract  1120 ) by supplying the following parameters into the smart contract  1120 : (i) the anonymous-identity certificate of the claimant (e.g., the certificate issued by the privacy certification authority  1114  at circle “3”); (ii) the list of all the public keys of the members within the descendant-claimants group  1100  who are bidding; (iii) the blockchain address (public key) of the new owner (e.g., the public key to which the digital asset token of the heirloom-grade product is to be assigned on the blockchain  1124 ; (iv) the claimant&#39;s signature over all the above parameters (e.g., to ensure that the parameters are authentically supplied from the claimant who is a member of the descendant-claimants group  1100 ). 
     In some examples, at circle “7,” the bidding smart contract  1120  implements the computation logic that performs the following tasks: 
     Validates authenticity of certificates: In some examples, the smart contract  1120  validates the signature on each of the received anonymous-identity certificates from all the members of the descendant-claimants group  1100 . It also validates the signatures on all the transaction requests from the members of the group. 
     Checks consistency of descendant-claimants group membership list: In some examples, the smart contract  1120  validates that each of the transaction submitted (independently) by the members of the descendant-claimants group  1100  are the same (e.g., the list of public keys stated is all the same in all the received transaction requests). That is, it detects any attempts of cheating. 
     Sums relationship-distance measurement values: In some examples, the smart contract  1120  computes a sum of the relationship-distance measurement values found in each of the anonymous-identity certificates (AIC) from the members of the descendant-claimants group  1100 . For example, this can involve computing a sum of the centimorgan values found in the anonymous-identity certificates. Note that the patron may have defined a more complex computation formula based on the location of a descendant in the family tree (e.g., a rule might state a descendant must have at least two children, one first-cousin, four second-cousins, etc.). This complex formula can be implemented by the bidding smart contract  1120 . 
     Compares against the heir ownership policies in the smart contract: In some examples, the bidding smart contract  1120  (similar to the digital asset contract contract) embodies the heir ownership policies that were defined by the legal representative of the patron  1122  based on the patron&#39;s heir entitlement rules. 
     Records outcome of bid to the ledger: In some examples, the bidding smart contract  1120  records a bid status report onto the ledger of the blockchain  1124 , signaling to the DNA data authority  1104  entity and to the legal representative of the patron  1122  that the outcome is to be endorsed. If the bid fails (e.g., based pm insufficient relationship-distance measurement values or an incorrect composition of membership of the descendant-claimants group  1100 ), then the bid status report on the ledger states the cause of the failure (e.g. using a failure cause code), and the DNA data authority  1104  entity and the legal representative of the patron  1122  do nothing more (e.g., allow a timer in smart contract to expire). 
     In some examples, at circle “8,” if the bid is successful (as recorded in the bid status report on the ledger), the DNA data authority  1104  entity endorses the successful bid. This is performed, for example, by the DNA data authority  1104  entity sending a signed transaction to the blockchain  1124  (e.g., an ordinary transaction) that includes a hash of the bid status report on the ledger. Alternatively, a separate endorsement smart contract can be created that performs this task, where the endorsement smart contract receives as input parameters including (a) a signature of the DNA data authority  1104  entity and (b) the hash of the bid status report found on the ledger. 
     In some examples, at circle “9,” the legal representative of the patron  1122  endorses the successful bid by sending a signed transaction to the blockchain  1124  that incorporates hash of the bid status report on the ledger. Alternatively, an endorsement smart contract can be created that performs this task which receives as input parameters including (a) the signature of the legal representative of the patron  1122  and (b) a hash of the bid status report found on the ledger. 
     In some examples, publication of the claimants&#39; identities is optionally performed. If the bid by the descendant-claimants group  1100  is successful and has been endorsed by both the DNA data authority  1104  entity and the legal representative of the patron  1122 , then the DNA data authority  1104  entity can optionally reveal the true identity of the claimants who are members of the descendants-claimants group  1100 . Note that prior to this stage, only the anonymous identity certificates  1116  were employed (as in relation to circle “5”), where these anonymous identity certificates  1116  include only a global unique identifier of the claimant (not their full legal name). 
     8.3. Group Bidding on Other Types of Properties 
     In some examples, the bidding smart contract can be used for other types of properties that the patron wishes to retain within a family tree. For example, a piece of land (e.g., according to land ownership deeds) can be given to the patron descendants using the same smart contract process that requires the claimant(s) to prove biological relationship-distance measurements to the patron. 
     9.0. Future Generations of Descendants 
     In some examples, the original (e.g., first generation) heir entitlement rules specified by a patron may require that the rules be observed in perpetuity (i.e., forever). It is the task of the legal representative of the patron, such as the family lawyer, to ensure such heir entitlement rules remain enforced down the generations of descendants. In some examples, this reflects why the legal representative of the patron endorses any transfer on the blockchain. 
     However, in some cases a patron may define an heir entitlement rule that are to hold true (i.e., be observed) for (i) a limited number of times, or (ii) a limited number of generational hops down the family tree. Thus, for example, an original heir entitlement rule can state that the heir entitlement rules are to be observed for 100 years. Alternatively, an original heir entitlement rules can specific that it is to be enforced down to three (3) generations of descendants (e.g., to the grandchildren of the patron). 
     In cases where a set of heir entitlement rules have expired, the current owner of an heirloom-grade product instance can either create new heir entitlement rules (and employ the same process above), or it may simply dispense away with heir entitlement (i.e., no new rules). Regardless of the choice, the heirloom-grade product instance will still carry the biological provenance of the original patron, as described herein. That is, even if an heirloom-grade product instance eventually “leaves the family” at some point in the future, the heirloom-grade product instance still carries the biological evidence of the original patron, thereby making it a scarce good that can be traded using a digital asset token and digital asset contract smart contract on the blockchain. 
       FIG.  12    is a flow diagram illustrating operations  1200  of a method for creating a material fingerprint of a physical product instance and storing a representation of the material fingerprint in a tamper-resistant microchip coupled to the physical product instance according to some examples. Some or all of the operations  1200  (or other processes described herein, or variations, and/or combinations thereof) are performed under the control of one or more computer systems configured with executable instructions, and are implemented as code (e.g., executable instructions, one or more computer programs, or one or more applications) executing collectively on one or more processors. The code is stored on a computer-readable storage medium, for example, in the form of a computer program comprising instructions executable by one or more processors. The computer-readable storage medium is non-transitory. In some examples, one or more (or all) of the operations  1200  are performed by a digital asset provider or other components of the other figures. 
     The operations  1200  include, at block  1202 , obtaining, by a computer system, data representing an image derived from a microscopic scan of a physical location on a physical product instance, wherein the physical product instance is coupled to a tamper-resistant microchip including a microprocessor and memory. 
     The operations  1200  further include, at block  1204 , storing the data representing the image in a database. 
     The operations  1200  further include, at block  1206 , generating a digital certificate including the data representing the image or a hash of the data representing the image, wherein the digital certificate is signed using a private key of a public/private key pair associated with a manufacturer of the physical product instance 
     The operations  1200  further include, at block  1208 , storing the digital certificate within the memory of the tamper-resistant microchip. 
     In some examples, the physical product instance is a designer good produced in limited quantities, and wherein the manufacturer produces a limited quantity of the designer good. 
     In some examples, the tamper-resistant microchip is embedded in the product instance. 
     In some examples, the data further represents a plurality of images derived from microscopic scans of a plurality of physical locations on the physical product instance. 
     In some examples, the database is managed by the manufacturer of the physical product instance. 
     In some examples, the operations further include obtaining, from the tamper-resistant microchip, the digital certificate. 
     In some examples, the digital certificate includes at least one of: a unique identifier of the physical product instance, an identifier of the manufacturer, or a key identifier of a public key assigned to the physical product instance. 
     In some examples, the tamper-resistant microchip includes a public/private key pair that is assigned to the tamper-resistant microchip, an internal certificate public/private key pair used to prove a cryptographic binding of other keys, a product instance key pair that is assigned to the physical product instance, and a public key associated with the manufacturer. 
     In some examples, the tamper-resistant microchip further includes a public key associated with a patron of the physical product instance. 
     In some examples, the operations further include storing, on a digital asset trading network, a digital asset token representing the physical product instance. 
       FIG.  13    is a flow diagram illustrating operations  1300  of a method for tokenizing a luxury-grade product instance and storing a tokenized representation of a luxury-grade product instance using decentralized ledger technology according to some examples. Some or all of the operations  1300  (or other processes described herein, or variations, and/or combinations thereof) are performed under the control of one or more computer systems configured with executable instructions, and are implemented as code (e.g., executable instructions, one or more computer programs, or one or more applications) executing collectively on one or more processors. The code is stored on a computer-readable storage medium, for example, in the form of a computer program comprising instructions executable by one or more processors. The computer-readable storage medium is non-transitory. In some examples, one or more (or all) of the operations  1300  are performed by digital asset provider or other components of the other figures. 
     The operations  1300  include, at block  1302 , obtaining, by a digital asset provider, (i) a digital asset definition (DAD) file including information uniquely identifying a physical product instance and (ii) a digital certificate uniquely identifying a manufacturer of the physical product instance. 
     The operations  1300  further include, at block  1304 , generating a digital asset token based on the DAD file and the digital certificate. 
     The operations  1300  further include, at block  1306 , storing the digital asset token using decentralized ledger technology. 
       FIG.  14    is a flow diagram illustrating operations  1400  of a method for tokenizing an heirloom-grade product instance and storing a tokenized representation of an heirloom-grade product instance using decentralized ledger technology according to some examples. Some or all of the operations  1400  (or other processes described herein, or variations, and/or combinations thereof) are performed under the control of one or more computer systems configured with executable instructions, and are implemented as code (e.g., executable instructions, one or more computer programs, or one or more applications) executing collectively on one or more processors. The code is stored on a computer-readable storage medium, for example, in the form of a computer program comprising instructions executable by one or more processors. The computer-readable storage medium is non-transitory. In some examples, one or more (or all) of the operations  1400  are performed by digital asset provider or other components of the other figures. 
     The operations  1400  include, at block  1402 , obtaining, by a digital asset provider, (i) a digital asset definition (DAD) file including information uniquely identifying a physical product instance, and (ii) a digital certificate uniquely identifying a manufacturer of the physical product instance, wherein the digital certificate includes deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) data obtained from a DNA data authority, wherein the DNA data uniquely identifies a person associated with the physical product instance. 
     The operations  1400  further include, at block  1404 , generating a digital asset token based on the DAD file and the digital certificate. 
     The operations  1400  further include, at block  1406 , storing the digital asset token using decentralized ledger technology. 
       FIG.  15    is a flow diagram illustrating operations  1500  of a method for using a smart contract to verify the permissibility of an heirloom-grade product instance transaction based on centimorgan (cM) numbers of at least two persons involved in the transaction according to some examples. Some or all of the operations ‘Z00 (or other processes described herein, or variations, and/or combinations thereof) are performed under the control of one or more computer systems configured with executable instructions, and are implemented as code (e.g., executable instructions, one or more computer programs, or one or more applications) executing collectively on one or more processors. The code is stored on a computer-readable storage medium, for example, in the form of a computer program comprising instructions executable by one or more processors. The computer-readable storage medium is non-transitory. In some examples, one or more (or all) of the operations  1500  are performed by digital asset provider or other components of the other figures. 
     The operations  1500  include, at block  1502 , storing, using decentralized ledger technology, a smart contract implementing a set of heir entitlement rules reflecting conditions for transferring ownership of an heirloom-grade product instance from a first person to a second person, wherein at least one of the set of heir entitlement rules indicates a threshold number of centimorgans (cMs) measured between persons involved in a transaction related to the heirloom-grade product instance, and wherein the heirloom-grade product instance is represented by a digital asset token stored using the decentralized ledger technology. 
     The operations  1500  further include, at block  1504 , detecting invocation of the smart contract on the decentralized ledger technology, wherein invocation of the smart contract includes: obtaining, from a first computing device associated with a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) data authority, a first parameter indicating a biological relationship between the first person and the second person, wherein the parameter is digitally signed by the DNA data authority, and wherein the first parameter indicates that the threshold number of cMs exists between the first person and the second person, obtaining, from a second computing device, a second parameter indicating that a biological relationship determined by the DNA data authority satisfies the set of heir entitlement rules, and storing data reflecting a status of the transaction. 
     Implementation Mechanism—Hardware Overview 
     According to one example, the techniques described herein are implemented by one or more special-purpose computing devices. The special-purpose computing devices may be desktop computer systems, portable computer systems, handheld devices, networking devices or any other device that incorporates hard-wired and/or program logic to implement the techniques. The special-purpose computing devices may be hard-wired to perform the techniques or may include digital electronic devices such as one or more application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) or field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) that are persistently programmed to perform the techniques, or may include one or more general purpose hardware processors programmed to perform the techniques pursuant to program instructions in firmware, memory, other storage, or a combination thereof. Such special-purpose computing devices may also combine custom hard-wired logic, ASICs, or FPGAs with custom programming to accomplish the techniques. 
       FIG.  16    is a block diagram that illustrates a computer system  1600  utilized in implementing the above-described techniques, according to an example. Computer system  1600  may be, for example, a desktop computing device, laptop computing device, tablet, smartphone, server appliance, computing mainframe, multimedia device, handheld device, networking apparatus, or any other suitable device. 
     Computer system  1600  includes one or more buses  1602  or other communication mechanism for communicating information, and one or more hardware processors  1604  coupled with buses  1602  for processing information. Hardware processors  1604  may be, for example, general purpose microprocessors. Buses  1602  may include various internal and/or external components, including, without limitation, internal processor or memory busses, a Serial ATA bus, a PCI Express bus, a Universal Serial Bus, a HyperTransport bus, an Infiniband bus, and/or any other suitable wired or wireless communication channel. 
     Computer system  1600  also includes a main memory  1606 , such as a random access memory (RAM) or other dynamic or volatile storage device, coupled to bus  1602  for storing information and instructions to be executed by processor  1604 . Main memory  1606  also may be used for storing temporary variables or other intermediate information during execution of instructions to be executed by processor  1604 . Such instructions, when stored in non-transitory storage media accessible to processor  1604 , render computer system  1600  a special-purpose machine that is customized to perform the operations specified in the instructions. 
     Computer system  1600  further includes one or more read only memories (ROM)  1608  or other static storage devices coupled to bus  1602  for storing static information and instructions for processor  1604 . One or more storage devices  1610 , such as a solid-state drive (SSD), magnetic disk, optical disk, or other suitable non-volatile storage device, is provided and coupled to bus  1602  for storing information and instructions. 
     Computer system  1600  may be coupled via bus  1602  to one or more displays  1612  for presenting information to a computer user. For instance, computer system  1600  may be connected via an High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) cable or other suitable cabling to a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitor, and/or via a wireless connection such as peer-to-peer Wi-Fi Direct connection to a Light-Emitting Diode (LED) television. Other examples of suitable types of displays  1612  may include, without limitation, plasma display devices, projectors, cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors, electronic paper, virtual reality headsets, braille terminal, and/or any other suitable device for outputting information to a computer user. In an example, any suitable type of output device, such as, for instance, an audio speaker or printer, may be utilized instead of a display  1612 . 
     One or more input devices  1614  are coupled to bus  1602  for communicating information and command selections to processor  1604 . One example of an input device  1614  is a keyboard, including alphanumeric and other keys. Another type of user input device  1614  is cursor control  1616 , such as a mouse, a trackball, or cursor direction keys for communicating direction information and command selections to processor  1604  and for controlling cursor movement on display  1612 . This input device typically has two degrees of freedom in two axes, a first axis (e.g., x) and a second axis (e.g., y), that allows the device to specify positions in a plane. Yet other examples of suitable input devices  1614  include a touch-screen panel affixed to a display  1612 , cameras, microphones, accelerometers, motion detectors, and/or other sensors. In an example, a network-based input device  1614  may be utilized. In such an example, user input and/or other information or commands may be relayed via routers and/or switches on a Local Area Network (LAN) or other suitable shared network, or via a peer-to-peer network, from the input device  1614  to a network link  1620  on the computer system  1600 . 
     A computer system  1600  may implement techniques described herein using customized hard-wired logic, one or more ASICs or FPGAs, firmware and/or program logic which in combination with the computer system causes or programs computer system  1600  to be a special-purpose machine. According to one example, the techniques herein are performed by computer system  1600  in response to processor  1604  executing one or more sequences of one or more instructions contained in main memory  1606 . Such instructions may be read into main memory  1606  from another storage medium, such as storage device  1610 . Execution of the sequences of instructions contained in main memory  1606  causes processor  1604  to perform the process steps described herein. In alternative examples, hard-wired circuitry may be used in place of or in combination with software instructions. 
     The term “storage media” as used herein refers to any non-transitory media that store data and/or instructions that cause a machine to operate in a specific fashion. Such storage media may comprise non-volatile media and/or volatile media. Non-volatile media includes, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as storage device  1610 . Volatile media includes dynamic memory, such as main memory  1606 . Common forms of storage media include, for example, a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, solid state drive, magnetic tape, or any other magnetic data storage medium, a CD-ROM, any other optical data storage medium, any physical medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a PROM, an EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, NVRAM, any other memory chip or cartridge. 
     Storage media is distinct from but may be used in conjunction with transmission media. Transmission media participates in transferring information between storage media. For example, transmission media includes coaxial cables, copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that comprise bus  1602 . Transmission media can also take the form of acoustic or light waves, such as those generated during radio-wave and infra-red data communications. 
     Various forms of media may be involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to processor  1604  for execution. For example, the instructions may initially be carried on a magnetic disk or a solid state drive of a remote computer. The remote computer can load the instructions into its dynamic memory and use a modem to send the instructions over a network, such as a cable network or cellular network, as modulate signals. A modem local to computer system  1600  can receive the data on the network and demodulate the signal to decode the transmitted instructions. Appropriate circuitry can then place the data on bus  1602 . Bus  1602  carries the data to main memory  1606 , from which processor  1604  retrieves and executes the instructions. The instructions received by main memory  1606  may optionally be stored on storage device  1610  either before or after execution by processor  1604 . 
     A computer system  1600  may also include, in an example, one or more communication interfaces  1618  coupled to bus  1602 . A communication interface  1618  provides a data communication coupling, typically two-way, to a network link  1620  that is connected to a local network  1622 . For example, a communication interface  1618  may be an integrated services digital network (ISDN) card, cable modem, satellite modem, or a modem to provide a data communication connection to a corresponding type of telephone line. As another example, the one or more communication interfaces  1618  may include a local area network (LAN) card to provide a data communication connection to a compatible LAN. As yet another example, the one or more communication interfaces  1618  may include a wireless network interface controller, such as a 802.11-based controller, Bluetooth controller, Long Term Evolution (LTE) modem, and/or other types of wireless interfaces. In any such implementation, communication interface  1618  sends and receives electrical, electromagnetic, or optical signals that carry digital data streams representing various types of information. 
     Network link  1620  typically provides data communication through one or more networks to other data devices. For example, network link  1620  may provide a connection through local network  1622  to a host computer  1624  or to data equipment operated by a Service Provider  1626 . Service Provider  1626 , which may for example be an Internet Service Provider (ISP), in turn provides data communication services through a wide area network, such as the world wide packet data communication network now commonly referred to as the “Internet”  1628 . Local network  1622  and Internet  1628  both use electrical, electromagnetic, or optical signals that carry digital data streams. The signals through the various networks and the signals on network link  1620  and through communication interface  1618 , which carry the digital data to and from computer system  1600 , are example forms of transmission media. 
     In an example, computer system  1600  can send messages and receive data, including program code and/or other types of instructions, through the network(s), network link  1620 , and communication interface  1618 . In the Internet example, a server  1630  might transmit a requested code for an application program through Internet  1628 , ISP  1626 , local network  1622  and communication interface  1618 . The received code may be executed by processor  1604  as it is received, and/or stored in storage device  1610 , or other non-volatile storage for later execution. As another example, information received via a network link  1620  may be interpreted and/or processed by a software component of the computer system  1600 , such as a web browser, application, or server, which in turn issues instructions based thereon to a processor  1604 , possibly via an operating system and/or other intermediate layers of software components. 
     In an example, some or all of the systems described herein may be or comprise server computer systems, including one or more computer systems  1600  that collectively implement various components of the system as a set of server-side processes. The server computer systems may include web server, application server, database server, and/or other conventional server components that certain above-described components utilize to provide the described functionality. The server computer systems may receive network-based communications comprising input data from any of a variety of sources, including without limitation user-operated client computing devices such as desktop computers, tablets, or smartphones, remote sensing devices, and/or other server computer systems. 
     In an example, certain server components may be implemented in full or in part using “cloud”-based components that are coupled to the systems by one or more networks, such as the Internet. The cloud-based components may expose interfaces by which they provide processing, storage, software, and/or other resources to other components of the systems. In an example, the cloud-based components may be implemented by third-party entities, on behalf of another entity for whom the components are deployed. In other examples, however, the described systems may be implemented entirely by computer systems owned and operated by a single entity. 
     In an example, an apparatus comprises a processor and is configured to perform any of the foregoing methods. In an example, a non-transitory computer readable storage medium, storing software instructions, which when executed by one or more processors cause performance of any of the foregoing methods. 
     Extensions and Alternatives 
     As used herein, the terms “first,” “second,” “certain,” and “particular” are used as naming conventions to distinguish queries, plans, representations, steps, objects, devices, or other items from each other, so that these items may be referenced after they have been introduced. Unless otherwise specified herein, the use of these terms does not imply an ordering, timing, or any other characteristic of the referenced items. 
     In the foregoing specification, examples of the invention have been described with reference to numerous specific details that may vary from implementation to implementation. Thus, the sole and exclusive indicator of what is the invention, and is intended by the applicants to be the invention, is the set of claims that issue from this application, in the specific form in which such claims issue, including any subsequent correction. In this regard, although specific claim dependencies are set out in the claims of this application, it is to be noted that the features of the dependent claims of this application may be combined as appropriate with the features of other dependent claims and with the features of the independent claims of this application, and not merely according to the specific dependencies recited in the set of claims. Moreover, although separate examples are discussed herein, any combination of examples and/or partial examples discussed herein may be combined to form further examples. 
     Any definitions expressly set forth herein for terms contained in such claims shall govern the meaning of such terms as used in the claims. Hence, no limitation, element, property, feature, advantage, or attribute that is not expressly recited in a claim should limit the scope of such claim in any way. The specification and drawings are, accordingly, to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense.