Patent Publication Number: US-9425262-B2

Title: Configuration of portions of a power device within a silicon carbide crystal

Description:
RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application is a Non-Provisional Patent Application claiming priority to and the benefit of Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/004,513, filed on May 29, 2014, and entitled, “Configuration of Portions of a Power Device Within a Silicon Carbide Crystal”, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This description relates to configurations of at least a portion of a power device within a silicon carbide crystal. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Silicon carbide (SiC) can be used to produce relatively high-performance power devices having low on-state, low switching losses, high-temperature operation and/or so forth due to high breakdown electric fields, high thermal conductivity and high saturated drift velocity of electrons in SiC. SiC is a wide bandgap semiconductor and may advantageously be used for manufacturing devices for high power, high temperature and high frequency applications. However, known semiconductor devices produced in SiC may not be robust against certain types of defects that can occur in SiC. Thus, a need exists for systems, methods, and apparatus to address the shortfalls of present technology and to provide other new and innovative features. 
     SUMMARY 
     In one general aspect, an apparatus can include a silicon carbide (SiC) crystal having a top surface aligned along a plane and the SiC crystal having an off-orientation direction. The apparatus including a semiconductor device having at least a portion defined within the SiC crystal. The semiconductor device having an outer perimeter where the outer perimeter has a first side aligned along the off-orientation direction and a second side aligned along a direction non-parallel to the off-orientation direction. The first side of the outer perimeter of the semiconductor device having a length longer than the second side of the outer perimeter of the semiconductor device. 
     The details of one or more implementations are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1A  is a diagram illustrating a silicon carbide (SiC) crystal and a semiconductor device. 
         FIG. 1B  and  FIG. 1C  are diagrams of emission images of stacking faults in SiC PN diodes. 
         FIGS. 2A through 2E  illustrate various views of stacking faults of different types. 
         FIG. 3A  is a diagram that illustrates portions that operate as a semiconductor device within a SiC crystal. 
         FIG. 3B  is a side view of the portion of the semiconductor device shown in  FIG. 3A . 
         FIG. 4  is a diagram that illustrates portions that operate as a semiconductor device within a SiC crystal. 
         FIGS. 5 and 6  illustrate a SiC junction-blocked Schottky-barrier rectifier (JBS). 
         FIG. 7  is a block diagram that illustrates a unit cell of a cross-sectional view of a shielded SiC metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) device. 
         FIGS. 8A through 8C  are emission images of stacking faults in SiC PN diodes that illustrate development of a stacking fault triangle. 
         FIGS. 9A through 9E  are emission images of stacking faults in SiC PN diodes that illustrate development of a stacking fault stripe. 
         FIG. 10  illustrates development of a stacking fault triangle. 
         FIG. 11  illustrates development of a stacking fault stripe. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       FIG. 1  is a diagram illustrating a silicon carbide (SiC) crystal  100  (also can be referred to as a wafer or can be included in a wafer) and a semiconductor device  110 . The semiconductor device  110  is formed in the SiC crystal  100 , which includes or is included in an epitaxial layer  140  in this implementation. The semiconductor device  110  can be formed in a hexagonal SiC crystal  100 , which can have a relatively small off-orientation from the basal (0001)Si or (000-1)C crystal plane. Such an off-orientation can provide a device-quality epitaxial layer of SiC on a hexagonal SiC substrate. The off-orientation angle can be between 1 and 8 degrees. In some implementations, the off-orientation angle can be between 4 and 8 degrees given SiC epitaxy technology. The off-orientation direction OD is generally defined as a projection of the inclined hexagonal axis onto the top crystal face. The semiconductor device  110  (and/or portions thereof) has a first side  113  aligned along (e.g., elongated along, substantially aligned along) an off-orientation direction OD. The semiconductor device  110  has at least a portion (e.g., doped regions, trenches, dielectrics, electrodes, etc.) that is formed within the epitaxial layer  140  (which can have a relatively low doping of, for example, around 10 16  cm −3  or lower) formed on a substrate  150  (which can be considered a portion (or a separate portion) of the SiC crystal  100 ). Both the epitaxial layer  140  and the substrate  150  can be, or can include, a SiC material. Accordingly, the epitaxial layer  140  and/or the substrate  150  can be referred to as a SiC material. Although not shown, various portions of the semiconductor device  110 , such as metal layers, passivation layers, oxide layers, and/or so forth can be disposed above or on a surface of the SiC crystal (or wafer). 
     The first side  113  of the semiconductor device  110  has a dimension A that is longer than a dimension B of a second side  114  of the semiconductor device  110 . Accordingly, the first side  113  can be referred to as a length side and the second side  114  can be referred to as a width side. The aspect ratio A:B of the semiconductor device  110  can be greater than 1 (e.g., 1.2:1, 3:2 (or 1.5:1), 2:1, 3:1), or substantially greater than 1. 
     The second side  114  is non-parallel to the first side  113  of the semiconductor device  110 . In some implementations, the second side  114  is orthogonal to the first side  113 . Accordingly, the semiconductor device  110  from a perspective of a plan view can have a rectangular shape or can have a non-rectangular shape (e.g., a parallelogram, a trapezoid). 
     As shown in  FIG. 1 , the perimeter  112  (also can be referred to as an outer perimeter) is defined within the SiC crystal  100 . The perimeter  112  is defined at least in part by the first side  113  and the second side  114 . In some implementations, the perimeter  112  is defined by an active region (or area). In some implementations, the perimeter  112  is defined by a termination region (or area) of the semiconductor device  110 . 
     The semiconductor device  110  is oriented on the SiC crystal  100  such that the first side  113 , which is longer than the second side  114 , is aligned along the off-orientation direction OD. Accordingly, a longitudinal axis L 1  of the semiconductor device  110  is aligned along the off-orientation direction OD. In this implementation, the longitudinal axis L 1  is parallel to (or substantially parallel to) the off-orientation direction OD. The semiconductor device  110  has a surface area such that semiconductor device  110  is generally aligned along off-orientation direction OD. In other words, the aspect ratio of the semiconductor device  110  is defined such that an area (e.g., a surface area) of the semiconductor device  110 , when viewed from above (e.g., when viewed in plan view), is generally aligned along off-orientation direction OD. 
     The semiconductor device  110  has at least a portion that is oriented within the SiC crystal  100  along (e.g., substantially along) the off-orientation direction OD to decrease (or minimize) an effect of defects (e.g., stacking faults) that can propagate within the semiconductor device  110  in a direction non-parallel to (e.g., orthogonal to) the off-orientation direction OD. For example, because certain types of defects (e.g., abundant defects) within the SiC crystal  100 , such as stacking faults (SFs), can propagate along a direction PD non-parallel to the off-orientation direction OD. The effect of such stacking faults can be minimized by orienting the semiconductor device  110  along the off-orientation direction OD. 
       FIG. 1B  is an image  100 B that illustrates an emission image of a stacking fault  110 B grown in, for example, a PN diode in 4H SiC as result of minority carrier injection due to electric current in the forward bias. In this implementation, a current of 4 A had been passed though this diode for approximately 10 minutes prior to imaging. The imaging was done under a forward current of around 2 A through a narrow bandpass filter with a peak transmission wavelength at 430 nm. The wavelength of around 430 nm corresponds to the peak wavelength of emission of so-called single-layer stacking faults, which grow in 4H SiC as result of minority carrier injection. The use of the narrow-band 430 nm filter therefore highlights configuration of the stacking fault  110 B grown as a result of minority carrier injection, which process can be referred to as bipolar degradation in SiC. The image  100 B shown in  FIG. 1B  was taken from the top surface, and certain portions of device emissions are masked with the top metal contact. The top contact was formed as a mesh structure so as to facilitate emission imaging from the top of the SiC crystal. The dark horizontal bars  120 B on the image are results of masking the emission by the mesh contact. In this implementation, the period of contact mesh is 50 μm but can be different in other implementations. The total diode area, in this implementation, is approximately 4 mm 2 . The direction of substrate off orientation is horizontal, as it is shown in the image  100 B. It is seen from the image  100 B that the stacking fault  110 B propagates along approximately, the entire length of the device in the direction orthogonal to the off-orientation direction. 
     An observation is that the SF stripe  110 B does not penetrate, in this implementation, an adjacent PN diode (not shown in  FIG. 1B ) on the SiC crystal provided the distance between adjacent PN diodes is substantially long (e.g., much greater than the diffusion length of minority carriers and/or the thickness of the low-doped drift region). 
       FIG. 1C  illustrates an image  100 C of the emission of two adjacent PN diodes on 4H crystal. The imaging conditions are the same (or approximately the same) as those for  FIG. 1B , apart from a lower current density. PN diodes at the top and at the bottom had been simultaneously stressed flowing approximately 3 amps (A) forward current though for approximately 30 minutes. The stripe-shaped SF  110 C has grown over entire width of the bottom PN diode  142 C, however it did not penetrate the top PN diode  140 C. 
     The image  100 C shown in  FIG. 1C  can be qualitatively explained as follows. Injection-induced growth of stacking faults in hexagonal SiC can require a combination of a seed defect with injection of minority carriers. Both the top and bottom PN diodes  140 C,  142 C in  FIG. 1C  are under the conditions of the carrier injection that is sufficient for SF propagation. It is however only the bottom PN diode  142 C that has the seed required for SF growth. The region  141 C between the PN diodes  140 C,  142 C can be a void of minority carriers. This can explain why the SF growth terminates at the edge of the bottom PN diode  142 C, and the top PN diode  140 C is free from a stacking fault. 
     In some implementations, an elongated chip configuration as it is shown in  FIG. 1  can have a disadvantage in high-power device applications, because such a layout of device chip implicates a lower percentage of useful device area as compared to a quadratic or to a near-quadratic layout. A certain portion of the chip area can be inevitably consumed by high voltage termination at the device periphery as well as by the dicing lanes. The percentage of lost useful area can be progressively increased with increasing deviation of the aspect ratio A:B. However, the device elongated along the off-orientation direction will have the advantage of improved stability if the bipolar degradation occurs in the course of operation. 
     Orienting the semiconductor device  110  along the off-orientation direction OD can be advantageous over, for example, material improvement through optimized SiC substrates, epitaxial growth parameters and though using improved buffer/layer structures. This technique of orientation can be also combined with material improvement so as to decrease the probability for generation of stripe stacking faults as those shown in, for example,  FIGS. 1B and 1C . In some implementations, the semiconductor device  110  can be aligned a few degrees to a 10-20 degrees from the off orientation direction OD. In some implementations, an off-orientation of up to around 30 degrees may not substantially increase, for example, a length of a SF stripe. 
     Because the first side  113  is aligned along the off-orientation direction OD, a defect such as a stacking fault, when propagating along (or longitudinally aligned along) the propagation direction PD and along a width of the semiconductor device  110 , may have a minimal (or reduced) effect on the semiconductor device  110 . In other words, the defect can have a relative small effect on the semiconductor device  110  with a propagation along the length of the semiconductor device  110  when the semiconductor device  110  is longitudinally oriented along (e.g., elongated along) the propagation direction PD. Because the semiconductor device  110  can include many cells (e.g., device cells, metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) (e.g., vertical MOSFET) device cells, bipolar junction transistor (BJT) device cells), a number of the device cells effected by a defect can be reduced (e.g., minimized) with the semiconductor device  110  being longitudinally aligned along the off-orientation direction and non-parallel to (e.g., orthogonal to) the propagation direction PD. As mentioned above, various portions of the semiconductor device  110 , such as metal layers, passivation layers, oxide layers, and/or so forth can be disposed above or on a surface of the SiC crystal (or wafer). 
     In some implementations, orienting the semiconductor device  110  along the off-orientation direction OD can be advantageous for devices utilizing no injection for carrier transport under standard operation conditions, such as Schottky-barrier diodes (SBDs), metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) and junction field-effect transistors (JFETs). As an example, SBDs in SiC can include certain PN-diode portions so as to pass surge forward current without excessive forward voltage drop. It is possible that minority carrier injection occurs in an event of surge current, which may result in growth of a stacking fault, i.e. in bipolar degradation. Minority carrier injection may also occur in a MOSFET or JFET in the event of opening the body diode. 
     In many the embodiments described herein, the epitaxial layer  140  and/or the substrate  150  may be, or may include, hexagonal SiC of the 4H polytype modification of SiC. The stacking fault can originate (e.g., originate at a dislocation) along an interface  130  between the epitaxial layer  140  and the substrate  150  and/or along a top surface of the epitaxial layer  140 . The stacking fault can propagate along (e.g., generally along) the direction PD. The stacking fault can also propagate along a basal plane (not shown) from a dislocation (also can be referred to as a basal plane dislocation (BPD)) at the interface  130  to a top surface  102  of the SiC crystal  100 . The basal plane can be a (0001) crystal plane, which can be at an angle (not shown) between 2 to 8 degrees from a plane P 1  along which the interface  130  is aligned. This angle can correspond with angle A 1  (which can be referred to as an off-orientation angle) between a C6 axis and a normal N to the interface  130 . In some implementations, an off-orientation angle can be advantageous for obtaining epitaxial layers of sufficiently high quality on SiC. The semiconductor device  110  (e.g., a SiC power device) can utilize off-oriented SiC materials (including the substrate  150  and/or the epitaxial layer  140  (and/or additional epitaxial layers)), because off-orientation can result in relatively high-quality epitaxial growth of the epitaxial layer  140  that can be used to form the semiconductor device  110 . Formation (e.g., growth) of a SiC epitaxial layer that is free (e.g., substantially free) from foreign polytype inclusions or dislocations on on-axis SiC crystals can be relatively difficult. In some implementations, a SiC crystal can include as many as 1000 BPDs/cm 2 . 
     Minority carrier injection (e.g., minority carrier injection during operation of the semiconductor device  110 ) into the epitaxial layer  140  (and/or other active layers) and/or into the substrate  130  can result in growth of the stacking faults (which is described in more detail below). Such stacking faults can cause additional resistance for vertical majority carrier flow and/or traps for minority carriers (e.g., a quantum well) in the semiconductor device  110 . The extent of a decrease in conductance (e.g., vertical conductance) of a majority carrier device, such as semiconductor device  110 , can increase with increase of the portion of the semiconductor device  110  that is blocked for vertical current flow by a stacking fault. Thus, the orientation (or layout) of the semiconductor device  110  within the SiC crystal  100  with respect to the off-orientation direction OD can reduce, or minimize, the adverse effects of the stacking fault. 
     In some implementations, a basal plane dislocation seeding a stacking fault (e.g., a stacking fault stripe) may be formed as result of dislocation transformations during epitaxial growth of the epitaxial layer  140 . A portion of basal plane dislocation may be formed by transformation of, for example, a threading dislocation (TD). The treading dislocation can be aligned a direction normal to (e.g., substantially normal to) the interface  130  or plane P 1 . Transformations of threading dislocations to basal plane dislocations and back can occur in formation (e.g., growth) of SiC material. In some implementations, the mechanisms can include interactions with one or more growth steps and/or with one or more screw dislocations. 
     As mentioned above, degradation (e.g., bipolar degradation) in a SiC material can result from the growth of stacking faults that are induced by minority carrier injection in the semiconductor device  110 . The stacking faults can either exist in as-grown material or originate from dislocations (e.g., BPDs), as a result of the dislocations splitting into, for example, Shockley partials. In the case of a dislocation splitting, one of the partials can remain bound to the location of the dislocation whereas the other partial may travel tens or even hundreds of microns in the semiconductor device  110  as long as minority carriers are provided to the leading edge of the partial. The glide of a partial dislocation can occur in general within the basal (0001) crystal plane (e.g., it can form at a certain angle with the substrate surface that is equal to the substrate off-orientation angle). The (0001) plane portion between the two partials can then represent a stacking fault. With an off-orientation of 2 to 8 degrees, even a single stacking fault can have substantially large dimensions. 
     The stacking faults may form resistive barriers for current flow in the semiconductor device  110  and/or can define channels for relatively fast minority carrier recombination. The formation of stacking faults can suppress transport (e.g., vertical transport) of minority carriers in the semiconductor device  110  and/or can increase the on-state forward voltage drop of the semiconductor device  110 . In particular, the formation of stacking faults can increase the on-state resistance, decrease current gain, and/or so forth of the semiconductor device  110 . 
     For example, a relatively high-power SiC semiconductor device (e.g., greater than 400 V device) may be driven into bipolar operation mode even if the devices are predominantly designed for majority carrier operation. As a specific example, a SiC MOSFET and/or JFET device may utilize a body diode for reverse conduction. A SiC Schottky rectifier can provide a parallel PN diode (or a PN diode array) so as to avoid device burnout under surge current conditions. Even if a circuit is not configured to utilize the body diode of the SiC MOSFET and/of JFET device, such a body diode might open under the surge current conditions. It may be desirable to minimize bipolar degradation of the SiC material even for majority-carrier devices. 
     Due to the crystal symmetry of SiC material the stacking faults have certain configurations, which can be aligned to crystal axes of the SiC material. In, for example, stressed PN diodes in SiC material at least two defect types can exist—stacking fault triangels and stacking fault stripes. 
     In some implementations, because the aspect ratio of the semiconductor device  110  is elongated (when viewed from a top view on the surface of the SiC crystal  100 ), the semiconductor device  110  can have thermal advantages or efficiencies. For example, the semiconductor device  110  can be configured to dissipate heat laterally in a direction along the width  114  (e.g., in a direction away from a longitudinal axis or orthogonal to the length  113  of the semiconductor device  110 ). 
     In the implementations described herein, the semiconductor device  110  can be vertical silicon carbide high voltage power device. Vertical can indicate predominantly a vertical direction as a current transport, as compared with a predominantly lateral direction for current transport in a metal-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MESFET) or in a laterally diffused MOSFET (LDMOS). In some implementations, a high-voltage vertical device can include a high voltage termination around periphery of the device so as to prevent early breakdown at the edge of the device. Multiple types of high voltage termination can include, for example, a junction termination extension (JTE), floating guard rings (FGRs), combinations of both above, as well as other types of high voltage termination. 
     In the implementations described herein, the semiconductor device  110  can be silicon carbide high voltage high power device. Such a high-power device can require a large device area, which implies a high probability for incorporation of a seed defect, which may act as a seed for stacking fault growth under the conditions of minority carrier injection. Power devices having a relatively low power rating and a small area have much lower probability for bipolar degradation. In the implementations described herein, the lower boundary for a minimum rated voltage and a minimum rated current of the semiconductor device  110  (as a high-power device) can be approximately 400 Volt and 4 Amperes, respectively. This current rating will correspond to a minimum physical device area of at least approximately 1 mm 2 , because a power density of above approximately 400-600 W/cm 2  may be not appropriate in a large-area device from the viewpoint of thermal management. 
     An example junction termination is seen in the emission imaged in  FIG. 1B  and in  FIG. 1C . The imaged devices include an ion-implanted JTE around the device periphery. The emission due to residual ion damage in the JTE region is visible around the device periphery in, for example,  FIG. 1C . The inner part of the JTE, i.e. the part adjacent to the PN diode anode can contribute to light emission because of high resistance of ion-implanted JTE. In some implementations, rounded anode edges can be another feature of device termination because a sharp edge can be potential source of electric field crowding and of early avalanche breakdown as a result of crowding. The width of the high voltage termination region in SiC high voltage devices can be between a few tens and a few hundred microns, depending on the design and on the rated voltage. 
     Various views of stacking faults of different types are illustrated in  FIGS. 2A through 2E . The stacking faults are included in semiconductor devices  210 A through  210 E. The semiconductor devices  210 A through  210 E are oriented longitudinally along the off-orientation direction OD and non-parallel to (e.g., substantially non-parallel to) propagation directions of stacking faults. The regions (or areas) within the semiconductor devices  210 A through  210 E covered by the stacking faults can be referred to as stacking fault regions or areas. 
     As mentioned above, the stacking faults can be formed from a dislocation that can function as a seed and can be formed during operation of a semiconductor device in the presence of minority carriers. The stacking faults may not be formed in regions, or may terminate at regions, where minority carriers are not present or excluded. The stacking fault can be, for example, single-layer stacking faults included in, for example, a 4H SiC crystal. In some implementations, the stacking faults propagate only within regions that are doped and/or where minority carriers may be present during operation. In some implementations, the doped region can correspond with an active region. The stacking faults do not propagate outside of a region that is free of (e.g., substantially free of) minority carriers. 
       FIG. 2A  is a diagram that illustrates a stacking fault stripe SFA included in an epitaxial layer  240 A on a substrate  250 A of a SiC crystal. The stacking fault stripe SFA propagates from a dislocation  15 A at an interface  230 A between the epitaxial layer  240 A and the substrate  250 A (i.e., epi-to-substrate dislocation) and a top surface  202 A of the epitaxial layer  240 A. A bottom boundary  13 A of the stacking fault stripe SFA is formed along the interface  230 A along direction PD 1  and/or direction PD 2 . The stacking fault stripe SFA is also formed up to (along a basal plane) a top boundary  14  along the top surface  202 A of the epitaxial layer  240 A. In some implementations, the stacking fault strip SFA can be formed via propagation along the arrows from the dislocation  15 A. In some implementations, a stacking fault stripe can also develop from an interfacial (e.g., horizontal) dislocation at the interface border of, for example, an n0 region and a p+ region. 
     As shown in  FIG. 2B , in situations where a dislocation  15 B is at, for example, a top surface of the epitaxial layer  240 B, a stacking fault stripe SFB can be formed via propagation from the dislocation  15 B along the arrows shown in  FIG. 2B . The stacking fault stripe SFB is formed from a top boundary  14 B along a top surface  202 B of the epitaxial layer  240 B to a bottom boundary  13 B. 
       FIG. 2C  is a diagram that illustrates an example of a top view (e.g., plan view) of a stacking fault stripe SFC (represented with hashed areas) within a doped region  205 C (represented by a dashed line) of a semiconductor device  210 C. The stacking fault stripe SFC propagates only within the active region  205 C that is doped and where minority carriers may be present during operation. In some implementations, minority carriers can be present in the semiconductor device  210 C up to a perimeter  212 C (also can be referred to as an outer perimeter) such that the stacking fault stripe SFC can propagate to the perimeter  212 C. The perimeter  212 C can correspond with, or can be associated with, for example, a termination region. An image of emissions from the stacking fault stripe SFC can be captured using, for example, a CCD camera with a filter (e.g., at 430 nm). 
       FIG. 2D  is a diagram that illustrates a stacking fault triangle SFD included in an epitaxial layer  240 D on a substrate  250 D of a SiC crystal. The stacking fault stripe SFD propagates from a dislocation  16 D parallel to (or substantially parallel to the off-orientation direction OD). The stacking fault triangle SFD can be formed via propagation along the arrow. The stacking fault triangle SFD is formed along direction PD 1  and/or direction PD 2 . The stacking fault triangle SFD is also formed up to (along a basal plane) a top boundary  18 D along the top surface  202 D of the epitaxial layer  240 D. In some implementations, the stacking fault triangle SFD can form, for example, a 60-degree right-angle triangle (where the right angle is along the top boundary  18 D). 
       FIG. 2E  is a diagram that illustrates an example of a top view (e.g., plan view) of a stacking fault triangle SFE (represented with hashed regions) within a doped region  205 E (represented by a dashed line) of a semiconductor device  210 E. In some implementations, minority carriers can be present in the semiconductor device  210 E up to a perimeter  212 E such that the stacking fault triangle SFE can propagate to the perimeter  212 E. The perimeter  212 E can correspond with, or can be associated with, for example, a termination region. An image of emissions from the stacking fault triangle SFE can be captured using, for example, a CCD camera with a filter (e.g., at 430 nm). 
       FIGS. 2A through 2E  illustrate configuration of stacking faults due to bipolar degradation in a SiC material (e.g., SiC crystal). Defect lengths LA, LB, and LD along the off-orientation direction OD are defined by the thicknesses HA, HB, and HD of the epitaxial layer  240 A,  240 B, and  240 C, shown in  FIGS. 2A, 2B, and 2C , respectively. The defect lengths LA, LB, and LD can be represented by the following formula: L=H/tan(ALPHA), where ALPHA is the off-orientation angle, H represents thickness, and L represents defect length. In some implementations, stacking faults can be clustered (e.g., consist of more than one stacking fault). Clustering of stacking faults, however, may not significantly increase the defect length L (e.g., defect length LA, LB, and/or LD). 
       FIG. 3A  is a diagram that illustrates two portions  310 A and  310 B (which can be referred to a pair of portions) that collectively operate as a single semiconductor device  310  within a SiC crystal  300 . The portion  310 A and the portion  310 B are electrically coupled by interconnect  360  (e.g., a metal interconnect, a polysilicon interconnect, a bonding wire, a ribbon). In some implementations, the portion  310 A and the portion  310 B can be electrically coupled by more than a single interconnect (e.g., multiple interconnect). In some implementations, the interconnect  360  can be insulated by a dielectric (not shown). The interconnect  360  can be referred to as an interconnect portion or as an interconnect conductor. 
     As shown in  FIG. 3A , a stacking fault area  30 , which propagates from a dislocation  31 , is disposed within a portion  310 A of the semiconductor device  310 . The semiconductor device  310  has a termination region  320  and an active region  330 . The termination region  320  can be an ion-implanted JTE or an array of FGR or any other planar-type termination. The portion  310 A of the semiconductor device  310  includes a perimeter  312 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 3A , the two portions  310 A and  310 B are longitudinally aligned along the off-orientation direction OD. Specifically, portion  310 A is aligned along longitudinal axis E 1  such that the stacking fault area  30  is aligned along longitudinal axis E 2 . Accordingly, an aspect ratio (e.g., length:width) of the portion  310 A is non-parallel to an aspect ratio (e.g., length:width) of the stacking fault area  30 . The stacking fault are 30 is longitudinally aligned along an axis non-parallel to (or orthogonal) to that of the portion  310 A. The aspect ratio of each of the individual portions  310 A and  310 B is different than the aspect ratio (or alignment) of the semiconductor device  310  (including both portions  310 A and  310 B). 
     Although not shown in  FIG. 3A , in some implementations, individual portions can each have a width (or length) that is orthogonal to (or near orthogonal to or non-parallel to) a width (or length) of a semiconductor device including the individual portions. In such instances, the semiconductor device can have a width (or length) that is parallel to (or aligned along) a width (or length) of a stacking fault. In other words, the semiconductor device and stacking fault can each have a longitudinal alignment that is the same, but orthogonal to the longitudinal alignment of the individual portions included in the semiconductor device. 
     In the case of a triangular stacking fault, the portion can be aligned with respect to the off-orientation direction OD so that the boundary of the triangular stacking fault (e.g., a top boundary (e.g., the top boundary  18 D in  FIG. 2D )) can be longitudinally aligned along an axis non-parallel to (or orthogonal to) an axis of a portion of a semiconductor device (e.g., portion  310 A of the semiconductor device  310 ) along which the portion of the semiconductor device is aligned. 
     As shown in  FIG. 3A , the portion  310 A and the portion  310 B are separated by a stacking fault separation region  305  having a dimension Z 1  (also can be referred to as a spacing, width, or as a stacking fault separation volume or area). The stacking fault separation region  305  is devoid (e.g., substantially devoid of) minority carriers such that the stacking fault area  30  does not propagate into the portion  310 B of the semiconductor device  310 . The portion  310 A and the portion  310 B are separated so that the stacking fault area  30  does not propagate across the entirety of the semiconductor device  310  (or into another or adjacent portion). The stacking fault stripe  30  may not propagate from portion  310 A to portion  310 B (which is adjacent to portion  310 A (without another intervening portion) or is the next nearest portion to portion  310 A) even if portion  310 B is stressed at a relatively high forward current density. Thus, the stacking fault stripe  30  can be restricted using geometrical constraints. The stacking fault stripe  30  propagates across the entirety of (or substantially the entirety of) the portion  310 A (e.g., the active region  330  of portion  310 A), however, in some implementations, the stacking fault stripe  30  propagates across only a portion (e.g., a portion of a width) of the portion  310 A. 
     The stacking fault separation region  305  is disposed outside of the active region  330  of the portion  310 A and/or the portion  310 B. The stacking fault separation region  305  is disposed between the termination region  320  of the portion  310 A and the termination region (not labeled) of the portion  310 B. The dimension Z 1  (or width) of the stacking fault separation region  305  is aligned orthogonal to (e.g., substantially orthogonal to) the lengths of the portions  310 A,  310 B and/or is aligned orthogonal to (e.g., substantially orthogonal to) the off-orientation direction OD. 
     In some implementations, the dimension Z 1  between the portion  310 A and the portion  310 B can be greater than (e.g., at least 2 times) or equal to a thickness (e.g., thickness HA in  FIG. 2A , thickness HB in  FIG. 2B , thickness of  140  in  FIG. 1 ) of one or more epitaxial layers (not shown). In some implementations, the one or more epitaxial layers can be relatively low-doped layers associated with, for example, a drift region of the semiconductor device  310 . In some implementations, the dimension Z 1  (or width) can be greater than (e.g., at least 2 times greater than) or equal to a size (e.g., a depth, length, or thickness) of a drift region of the semiconductor device  310  (or a portion thereof). An example of a drift region having a depth DR 0  is shown in  FIGS. 5 and 6 . The portions  310 A,  310 B have a rectangular shape, but in some implementations, one or more of the portions  310 A,  310 B can have a non-rectangular shape (e.g., a parallelogram, a trapezoid, a triangle). 
       FIG. 3B  is a side view of the portion  310 A of the semiconductor device  310 . The portion  310 A of the semiconductor device  310  can include doped regions (e.g., source regions, body regions, drift regions, etc.), trenches, dielectrics, and/or so forth that are formed within an epitaxial layer  340 . Other portions of the semiconductor device  310  above a top surface of the epitaxial layer  340 , such as metal layers, runners, dielectric layers, polysilicon layers, and/or so forth are not shown. The stacking fault area  30  extends within the epitaxial layer  340  (which can be included in the SiC crystal  300 ) from an interface  330  between the epitaxial layer  340  and a substrate  350  (which can also be considered a portion (or a separate portion) of the SiC crystal  300 ). The angle of the stacking fault  30  (which can be substantially aligned along a basal plane) from the interface  330  is not drawn to scale in  FIG. 3B  and can be between, for example, 2 to 8 degrees. A C6 axis (not shown in  FIG. 3B ) can be normal to the stacking fault  30 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 3B , the portion  310 A has an active region  330  disposed within the termination region  320  and includes several active device cells (e.g., vertical MOSFET device cells, BJT device cells). A portion  32  of the device cells in the active region  330  are adversely affected by the stacking fault  30  because the stacking fault  30  intersects the portion  32  of the device cells. Device cells that are not intersected by the stacking fault  30  are not adversely affected by the stacking fault  30 . If the portion  310 A were not aligned along the off-orientation direction OD, a number of device cells adversely affected by the stacking fault  30  would be much larger. 
     In some implementations, a quantity of a decrease in on-state conductance (represented by K) of the semiconductor device  110  can be calculated based on a fraction of defect area: K=S SF /S, where S is the total area of the semiconductor device  310  (or portion thereof) and S SF  is the area of the stacking fault(s). For a single-stripe stacking fault the on-state conductance K can be calculated by K=L/A where L is defect length and A is the device length along the off-orientation direction. 
     In some implementations, the portion  310 A and the portion  310 A can have different surface areas or outer profiles (when viewed in plan view). For example, portion  310 A can have a different aspect ratio than portion  310 B. In some implementations, portion  310 A can have a different length and/or width than portion  310 B. 
       FIG. 4  is a diagram that illustrates several portions  410 A through  410 D that collectively operate as a single semiconductor device  410  within a SiC crystal  400 . One or more of the portions  410 A through  410 D can be electrically coupled by one or more interconnect (not shown) (e.g., interconnect portions, interconnect  360 ). A stacking fault area is not shown in  FIG. 4 , however, the portions  410 A through  410 D are longitudinally aligned along (e.g., substantially aligned along) the off-orientation direction to minimize or reduce the impact of defects such as stacking faults. The semiconductor device  410  has a termination region  420  surrounding the portions  410 A through  410 D so that portions  410 A through  410 D are disposed within the termination region  420 . In some implementations, one or more of portions  410 A through  410 D can be offset a few degrees from off-orientation direction OD. 
     For example, an aspect ratio (e.g., length:width ratio) of the portion  410 A is defined such that a length of the portion  410 A is aligned along the off-orientation direction OD. The aspect ratio of each of the individual portions  410 A and  410 D is different than the aspect ratio of the semiconductor device  410 . The aspect ratio of the semiconductor device  410  in such instances can be aligned along (e.g., longitudinally aligned along) the same direction as the aspect ratio of a stacking fault. A length M 1  (which is longer than a width M 2 ) of portion  410 A is non-parallel to (e.g., orthogonal to) a length M 3  (which is longer than a width M 4 ) of the semiconductor device  410 . 
     The layout shown in  FIG. 4  can be used to define a square or a near-square chip (or device) layout for an application including the semiconductor device  410  while taking advantage of the alignment of sub-components or portions of the semiconductor device  410  along the off-orientation direction OD. In other words, subcomponents or portions of the semiconductor device  410  included within a single termination region  420  can be (e.g., can each be) aligned along the off-orientation direction OD while the entirety of the semiconductor device  410  may not be aligned along the off-orientation direction OD. In some implementations, the semiconductor device  410  can have a different shape than a rectangle such as a square, a hexagonal shape, and so forth. 
     In some implementations, the semiconductor device  410  can include more or less portions than shown in  FIG. 4 . Although not shown, in some implementations, the semiconductor device  410  can have more than one termination region. For example, a portion  410 A can be at least partially surround by a first termination region and the remaining portions  410 B through  410 D can be surround by a second termination region. Such an embodiment the portion  410 A can be electrically coupled (via an interconnect) with one or more of the portions  410 A through  410 D. 
     As shown in  FIG. 4 , the portion  410 A and the portion  410 B (which can be referred to a pair of portions) are separated by a stacking fault separation region  405  having a dimension Z 2  (also can be referred to as a spacing, width, or also can be referred to as a stacking fault separation volume or area). Other stacking fault separation regions or areas (between other pairs of the portions) are not labeled. The dimension Z 2  (or width) is aligned orthogonal to (e.g., substantially orthogonal to) the lengths of the portions  410 A through  410 D and/or is aligned orthogonal to (e.g., substantially orthogonal to) the off-orientation direction OD. 
     As described in connection with  FIG. 3A , the stacking fault separation region  405  is devoid (e.g., substantially devoid of) minority carriers such that a stacking fault area does not propagate between the portions  401 A through  410 D of the semiconductor device  410 . The portion  410 A and the portion  410 B are separated so that a stacking fault area (not shown) does not propagate across the entirety of the semiconductor device  410 . For example, the stacking fault stripe may not propagate from portion  410 A to portion  410 B even if portion  410 B is stressed at a relatively high forward current density. 
     The stacking fault separation region  405  is disposed outside of the active region of the portion  410 A and outside of the active region of the portion  410 B. The stacking fault separation region  405 , however, is disposed within the termination region  420  surrounding both the portion  410 A and the portion  410 B. 
     As it is seen from, for example, the emission images of  FIGS. 1B  at  1 C, the lateral propagation of stacking faults along the ion-implanted junction termination region can be stopped with a length of, for example, only a few microns. This can be explained by residual damage in ion-implanted p-type SiC. Residual damage decreases minority carrier lifetime and suppresses minority carrier injection. In addition, residual damage also increases the sheet resistance of an ion-implanted layer. Additional measures for blocking the lateral current flow and SF propagation can be optionally applied as it will be explained in further Embodiments. 
     In some implementations, the dimension Z 2  between the portion  410 A and the portion  410 B can be greater than (e.g., at least 2 times) or equal to a thickness (e.g., thickness HA in  FIG. 2A , thickness HB in  FIG. 2B , thickness of  140  in  FIG. 1 ) of one or more epitaxial layers (not shown) of the semiconductor device  410 . In some implementations, the one or more epitaxial layers can be relatively low-doped layers associated with, for example, a drift region of the semiconductor device  410 . In some implementations, the drift region can be excluded from the termination region  420 . In some implementations, the dimension Z 2  (or width) can be greater than (e.g., at least 2 times greater than) or equal to a size (e.g., a depth, length) of a drift region of the semiconductor device  410  (or a portion thereof). An example of a drift region having a depth DR 0  is shown in  FIGS. 5 and 6 . The portions  410 A through  410 D have a rectangular shape, but in some implementations, one or more of the portions  410 A through  410 D can have a non-rectangular shape (e.g., a parallelogram, a trapezoid, a triangle). 
     The semiconductor devices  110 ,  210 A through  210 E,  310 ,  410  (and/or portions thereof) described herein can be, or can include, a variety of devices or cells including a BJT device (or cell), a MOSFET device (or cell), a Schottky device (or cell), and/or so forth. Examples of such devices (or cells) are described in, for example,  FIGS. 5 through 7  below. 
       FIG. 5  represents a unit cell  531  of a Schottky-barrier diode rectifier. The unit cell  531  of the rectifier can be formed on an off-oriented heavily doped n-type 4H SiC substrate  550 . A lightly doped n-type epitaxial drift region  540  having a thickness DR 0  is disposed on the substrate  550 . An optional buffer layer  541  is disposed between substrate  550  and drift region  540  to, for example, mitigate substrate crystal imperfections. The doping (e.g., doping concentration or doping level) of the buffer layer  541  can be at least several times higher than the doping of the drift region  540  in some implementations, however it could approach the n-type doping of the substrate  550 . The unit cell  531  can include a trench  533  having a trench bottom  532  (or bottom surface) and trench sidewalls  533 A and  533 B. A heavily doped ion-implanted p-type region  534  can be included adjacent the trench sidewalls  533 A,  533 B and trench bottom  532 . A heavy acceptor doping exceeding 10 20  cm −3  can be included in the region  531 , at least near the trench bottom  532  and/or the surface of trench walls  533 A and  533 B. A portion  535  of the SiC mesa surface can have an n-type conductivity. A metal contact  536  can be included on top of the semiconductor region  560  so as to form a Schottky barrier to n-type portions of SiC the portion  535 . An Ohmic contact with contact  551  can be included at the back side of the crystal. Implanted regions of neighbor unit cells (similar to unit cell  531 ) can form a periodic PN diode grid, which can be oriented (or shaped) in an elongated fashion along an off-orientation direction OD as described herein. 
     One advantage of using a PN diode grid in a Schottky-barrier rectifier is electrostatic shielding of shielding of the Schottky-barrier metal, which could be otherwise exposed to, for example, a high electric field. Avalanche breakdown in a junction barrier schottky (JBS) diode can occur at the PN-diode grid, which can resolve reliability issues that can arise in a non-shielded Schottky-barrier rectifier. The trench design of the JBS can be more readily design optimized as compared to a fully planar design, because the depth of the p-body can be readily increased to a specified value without using, for example, high implant energies (which may not be practical in manufacturing). 
     Another advantage of the PN diode grid is its handling of a high forward surge current. A Schottky-barrier rectifier without a built-in PN body diode may not be as robust in handling an overload in on-state current, because device self-heating results in a drop in carrier mobility and in increase of the forward voltage drop as result. In contrast, the PN diode grid of a JBS rectifier can have a behavior, which is similar to the behavior of a planar PN diode. A high forward bias in a PN-diode can result in injection of minority carriers, which can minimize the forward voltage drop and permit relatively fail-safe operation under the conditions of forward-current overload. Though beneficial, such injection represents a reliability risk due to the bipolar degradation via growth of stripe-type stacking faults. According to this embodiment, such risk is mitigated by sectioning the rectifier in elongated sub-components as described herein. 
     The high power rectifier is sectioned in two or more elongated sub-component rectifiers of smaller area, each sub-component having the longer side that is parallel to the off-orientation direction. Each sub-component can include an array of unit cells  531 . The sub-component rectifier devices can include a common junction termination in the same manner as that shown in, for example,  FIG. 4 . A cross-section of the region between sub-component rectifiers according to this embodiment is shown in, for example,  FIG. 6 . 
     A sub-component rectifier can include a continuous rim of anode implant  537  as shown in  FIG. 6 . In  FIG. 6  such rims are shown as  537 A and  537 B for two neighbor sub-components. Field-limiting regions  521 A,  521 B, and  521 C are disposed between the adjacent rectifiers to avoid or minimize electric field concentration. Regions  521 A,  521 B, and  521 C are provided medium-dose acceptor implant. The role of the field-limiting regions can be same as of a Junction Termination Extension at the device periphery, such as the region  320  in  FIG. 3 . The requirements to optimum implant dose in these regions can be the same as those known for design of the JTE  320 . The optimum dose of electrically active acceptors can be slightly (approximately 5% to 20%) lower, that the characteristic dose Q A , which dose Q A  corresponds to full depletion of such p-type region at the conditions of avalanche breakdown. The characteristic dose Q A  is governed by the Gauss Law, Q A =E CR ∈ 0 ∈ R /q, where E CR  is the critical field for avalanche breakdown, ∈ 0  the dielectric constant ∈ R  the permittivity of SiC and q the electron charge. Gaps  522 A and  522 B in p-implant can be formed between regions  521 A and  521 B, as well as between  521 B and  521 C. The gaps  522 A and  522 B can be formed with a relatively narrow width that can be substantially smaller than the thickness of the drift region DR 0 . Forming the gaps  522 A,  522 B in the field-limiting implant substantially narrow will prevent excessive concentration of electric field next to the gaps  522 A,  522 B. The gaps  522 A,  522 B can prevent (or substantially prevent) lateral current flow under the conditions of a high forward bias and it will therefore assist termination of SF propagation. The number of gaps  522 A,  522 B in the field-limiting implant can optionally be greater than 2 so as to further assist suppression of SF propagation. The SiC surface in the region between neighbor subcomponents can further include a dielectric coating  523 . 
       FIG. 7  is a block diagram that illustrates a unit cell  600  of a cross-sectional view of a shielded SiC metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) device (also can be referred to as a vertical MOSFET device). As shown in  FIG. 7  an epitaxial layer  660  (e.g., N-type) is disposed over a substrate  662  (e.g., N+ substrate). A source region  666  (e.g., N+ source region) and a body region  664  (e.g., p-type body region) are formed. A heavily doped p-type subcontact region  665  is formed in the body region  664  to, for example, minimize resistance of the contact to the body region  664 . A shallow donor implant region  667  that can have dose between approximately 10 12  and 5×10 12  cm −2  is further included for, for example, control of a desired MOSFET threshold voltage. The MOSFET can be normally in an off-state, and can include a gate dielectric  630 . Gate  640  can overlap the top surface including a portion of the source region  666  a portion of the body region  664  and a surface of the lightly doped n-type SiC. A source contact  671  can be applied to a well in the gate dielectric  630 , which contact can also define an Ohmic contact to the body region  664  via the subcontact region  665 . A drain  672  contact can be included on a back side of the substrate. Source and drain contacts  671  and  672 , respectively, can be formed by sintering nickel (Ni) to SiC so as to define a nickel silicide. In some embodiments, the gate dielectric  630  is a silicon dioxide with a layer of silicon oxinitride adjacent to a dielectric interface to the SiC. Such a near-interface oxinitride layer can be formed by a high-temperature anneal of silicon dioxide dielectric on SiC in an ambient containing N 2 O or NO. 
     The unit cell  600  shown in  FIG. 7  can be duplicated in a large array to define a MOSFET (also can be referred to as a MOSFET array). The unit cell  600  may be included in a 1-dimensional linear array or may be arranged as a 2-dimensional array in, for example, a rectangular or in a hexagonal pattern. The array can include 2-level metallization using interconnect techniques, which can be utilized in silicon power MOSFET technology. The MOSFET in an array according to this embodiment should be substantially elongated along the direction of off-orientation direction OD, in a similar manner to, for example, that disclosed for SiC rectifiers herein. The MOSFET can alternately sectioned in elongated sub-components in the manner similar to that described herein. 
     In some implementations, a body diode of the unit cell  600  of the MOSFET can be used as a rectifier, for example, in an inverter circuit. The injection of minority carriers may provoke growth of, for example, stripe-shaped stacking faults. The elongated shape of MOSFET array (or of sub-component a MOSFET array) can mitigate the degradation due to the growth of stacking faults. 
     The unit cell shown in  FIG. 7  represents a vertical MOSFET with a planar inversion channel. Multiple design variations are known for the unit cells of high-power vertical SiC MOSFETs, which include other configurations for the MOSFETs having a planar inversion channel, which may differ from that shown in  FIG. 7 . Bipolar degradation of power MOSFETs may not significantly depend on exact configuration of the unit cell, because most of the stacking fault is located in the bulk of the drift region, as it is shown  FIGS. 2A, 2B and 2C . It is therefore beneficial to arrange the MOSFET unit cells in the elongated configurations shown in  FIGS. 1A, 3A, 3B and 4  for any type of a unit cell of vertical power MOSFET in SiC. Unit cell of a vertical power MOSFET in SiC may as well utilize a trench-type design, in which the inversion channel is arranged on a trench sidewall (e.g., arranged in a vertical direction with respect to a plane along which a substrate and/or a wafer are aligned, arranged in a vertical direction which is orthogonal to off orientation direction OD). 
       FIGS. 8A through 8C  are emission images of stacking faults in SiC PN diodes that illustrate development of a stacking fault triangle  80 .  FIGS. 8A, 8B, and 8C  illustrate the stacking fault triangle  80  at times TT 1 , TT 2 , and TT 3 , respectively.  FIG. 8A  illustrates the start of formation of the stacking fault triangle  80  starting at time TT 1  at a dislocation line, which can be approximately parallel to an off-orientation direction OD. The stacking fault triangle  80  increases to the size (e.g., area) shown in  FIG. 8B  at time TT 2  and further increases to the size (e.g., area) shown in  FIG. 8C  at time TT 3 . 
       FIGS. 9A through 9E  are emission images of stacking faults in SiC PN diodes that illustrate development of a stacking fault stripe  90 .  FIGS. 9A through 9E  illustrate the stacking fault stripe  90 , respectively, at times TU 1  through TU 5 .  FIG. 9A  illustrates the start of formation of the stacking fault stripe  90  starting at time TU 1  at a dislocation line and generally orthogonal to an off-orientation direction OD. The stacking fault stripe  90  increases to the size (e.g., area) shown in  FIG. 9B  at time TU 2  and further increases to the size (e.g., area) shown in  FIG. 9C  at time TU 3 .  FIGS. 9D and 9E  are zoomed in views (relative to the views in  FIG. 9A through 9C ) of further development of the stacking fault stripe  90  at times TU 4  and TU 5 , respectively. In this example, the stacking fault stripe  90  first starts to appear at a top portion (e.g., surface) of an epitixial layer or stack and expands generally downward toward a substrate. 
     The growth (e.g., development) of a stacking fault triangle  82  from a dislocation  83  (as shown by arrows) within an epitaxial layer  1040  above a substrate  1050  is illustrated in  FIG. 10 . A top p-layer is not shown in  FIG. 10 , and the stacking fault triangle  82  forms approximately a 60 degree right triangle. 
       FIG. 11  illustrates growth (e.g., development) of a stacking fault stripe  92  from a dislocation  93  within an epitaxial layer  1140  (e.g., at a top portion or surface of the epitaxial layer  1140 ). The stacking fault  93  first appears in the top portion or surface of the epitaxial layer  1140  (or stack) and expands generally down towards a substrate  1150  as is shown by arrows. Accordingly, the source of the stacking fault stripe  93  or degradation is located at the top of the epitaxial layer  1140 , not at a substrate-to-epi interface. 
     It will also be understood that when an element, such as a layer, a region, or a substrate, is referred to as being on, connected to, electrically connected to, coupled to, or electrically coupled to another element, it may be directly on, connected or coupled to the other element, or one or more intervening elements may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being directly on, directly connected to or directly coupled to another element or layer, there are no intervening elements or layers present. Although the terms directly on, directly connected to, or directly coupled to may not be used throughout the detailed description, elements that are shown as being directly on, directly connected or directly coupled can be referred to as such. The claims of the application may be amended to recite exemplary relationships described in the specification or shown in the figures. 
     As used in this specification, a singular form may, unless definitely indicating a particular case in terms of the context, include a plural form. Spatially relative terms (e.g., over, above, upper, under, beneath, below, lower, and so forth) are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in use or operation in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures. In some implementations, the relative terms above and below can, respectively, include vertically above and vertically below. In some implementations, the term adjacent can include laterally adjacent to or horizontally adjacent to. 
     Implementations of the various techniques described herein may be implemented in (e.g., included in) digital electronic circuitry, or in computer hardware, firmware, software, or in combinations of them. Portions of methods also may be performed by, and an apparatus may be implemented as, special purpose logic circuitry, e.g., an FPGA (field programmable gate array) or an ASIC (application-specific integrated circuit). 
     Implementations may be implemented in a computing system that includes a back-end component, e.g., as a data server, or that includes a middleware component, e.g., an application server, or that includes a front-end component, e.g., a client computer having a graphical user interface or a Web browser through which a user can interact with an implementation, or any combination of such back-end, middleware, or front-end components. Components may be interconnected by any form or medium of digital data communication, e.g., a communication network. Examples of communication networks include a local area network (LAN) and a wide area network (WAN), e.g., the Internet. 
     Some implementations may be implemented using various semiconductor processing and/or packaging techniques. Some implementations may be implemented using various types of semiconductor processing techniques associated with semiconductor substrates including, but not limited to, for example, Silicon (Si), Galium Arsenide (GaAs), Galium Nitride (GaN), and/or so forth. 
     While certain features of the described implementations have been illustrated as described herein, many modifications, substitutions, changes and equivalents will now occur to those skilled in the art. It is, therefore, to be understood that the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications and changes as fall within the scope of the implementations. It should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, not limitation, and various changes in form and details may be made. Any portion of the apparatus and/or methods described herein may be combined in any combination, except mutually exclusive combinations. The implementations described herein can include various combinations and/or sub-combinations of the functions, components and/or features of the different implementations described.