Patent Publication Number: US-11041983-B2

Title: High brightness directional direct emitter with photonic filter of angular momentum

Description:
BACKGROUND 
     A typical light-emitting diode (LED) emitter generally produces a Lambertian radiation emission distribution pattern such that the radiation, when observed from an ideal diffuse radiator, is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle between the direction of the incident light and the surface normal. Secondary optics can be used to shape radiation so that it is more directional. Such optics can be bulky and may limit the benefits of the small form factor of the LED. Also, often times, the secondary optics can be lossy or simply not optimized for efficiency and, hence may end up absorbing a large portion of the emitted radiation. 
     SUMMARY 
     A nano-structure layer is disclosed. The nano-structure layer includes a plurality of nano-structure material that are configured in a first configuration such that light incident upon the nano-structured layer below a cutoff angle, with respect to normal, passes through the nano-structured layer and light incident upon the nano-structured layer above the cutoff angle is reflected back in direction of the incidence. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       A more detailed understanding can be had from the following description, given by way of example in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein: 
         FIG. 1A  is a diagram of light emitting device with a nano-structure layer; 
         FIG. 1B  is a graph showing a Lambertian radiation emission versus a desired radiation emission distribution pattern; 
         FIG. 1C  is graph showing reflectance as a function of angle; 
         FIG. 1D  is a diagram showing light beams at different angles; 
         FIG. 1E  is two graphs showing transmission based on angular frequency; 
         FIG. 1F  is a chart showing relative flux gains over cone angles based on cutoff angles; 
         FIG. 1G  is a chart showing transmission as a function of angle; 
         FIG. 1H  shows example nano-antennae; 
         FIG. 1I  is a graph showing transmission based on angle of incidence; 
         FIG. 1J  is a transmission angular map for scattering; 
         FIG. 1K  is a reflectance angular map; 
         FIG. 1L  is a multi nano-structure material array; 
         FIG. 1M  is a flow diagram for light emission through a nano-structure layer; 
         FIG. 2A  is a diagram showing an Light Emitting Diode (LED) device; 
         FIG. 2B  is a diagram showing multiple LED devices; and 
         FIG. 3  is a diagram of an example application system. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Examples of different light illumination systems and/or light emitting diode implementations will be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings. These examples are not mutually exclusive, and features found in one example may be combined with features found in one or more other examples to achieve additional implementations. Accordingly, it will be understood that the examples shown in the accompanying drawings are provided for illustrative purposes only and they are not intended to limit the disclosure in any way. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout. 
     It will be understood that, although the terms first, second, third, etc. may be used herein to describe various elements, these elements should not be limited by these terms. These terms may be used to distinguish one element from another. For example, a first element may be termed a second element and a second element may be termed a first element without departing from the scope of the present invention. As used herein, the term “and/or” may include any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items. 
     It will be understood that when an element such as a layer, region, or substrate is referred to as being “on” or extending “onto” another element, it may be directly on or extend directly onto the other element or intervening elements may also be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly on” or extending “directly onto” another element, there may be no intervening elements present. It will also be understood that when an element is referred to as being “connected” or “coupled” to another element, it may be directly connected or coupled to the other element and/or connected or coupled to the other element via one or more intervening elements. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly connected” or “directly coupled” to another element, there are no intervening elements present between the element and the other element. It will be understood that these terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the element in addition to any orientation depicted in the figures. 
     Relative terms such as “below,” “above,” “upper,”, “lower,” “horizontal” or “vertical” may be used herein to describe a relationship of one element, layer, or region to another element, layer, or region as illustrated in the figures. It will be understood that these terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures. 
     Semiconductor light emitting devices or optical power emitting devices, such as devices that emit ultraviolet (UV) or infrared (IR) optical power, are among the most efficient light sources currently available (hereinafter “LEDs”). These LEDs, may include light emitting diodes, resonant cavity light emitting diodes, vertical cavity laser diodes, edge emitting lasers, or the like. Due to their compact size and lower power requirements, for example, LEDs may be attractive candidates for many different applications. For example, they may be used as light sources (e.g., flash lights and camera flashes) for hand-held battery-powered devices, such as cameras and cell phones. They may also be used, for example, for automotive lighting, heads up display (HUD) lighting, horticultural lighting, street lighting, torch for video, general illumination (e.g., home, shop, office and studio lighting, theater/stage lighting and architectural lighting), augmented reality (AR) lighting, virtual reality (VR) lighting, as back lights for displays, and IR spectroscopy. A single LED may provide light that is less bright than an incandescent light source, and, therefore, multi-junction devices or arrays of LEDs (such as monolithic LED arrays, micro LED arrays, etc.) may be used for applications where more brightness is desired or required. 
     LEDs that increase radiation within a narrow angular range via nano-structured layers are disclosed. The disclosed implementations may allow control over beam direction for normal or side emission. The disclosed implementations may be used for any direct emitter applications including, but not limited to infrared (IR) applications, single wavelength applications, or the like. 
     A nano-structure layer may include nano-structure material such as meta-surfaces, plasmonic nanostructures, meta-molecules, photonic crystals, among others. As used herein, photonic crystals and meta-surfaces may be periodic arrangements of meta-atoms and/or nano-antennae. A meta-atom nano-structure layer may include an array of meta-atoms. A nano-antenna nano-structure layer may include one or more nano-antennae. Nano-structured layers, as disclosed herein, may incorporate the design of LED devices with nano scale optical antennas placed on an LED surface (e.g., a sapphire substrate). 
     The design and optimization of controlling beam direction of LEDs is disclosed. By way of example and in order to provide concrete description, a flip chip of chip scale package (CSP) LED with a sapphire substrate is described, although the principles and teaching herein may be applied to any applicable LED design. A sapphire based CSP emitter with a smooth light escape surface (LES) may allow deposition of a nano-structured layer such that light emitted by an LED is incident upon the nano-structured layer via the sapphire substrate. 
     A nano-structured layer may transmit radiation within a limited angular range. The limited angular range may be one that renders a pre-determined angular radiation pattern in the far-field. As an example, an LED configured to increase brightness at normal (e.g., at 0 degrees, or, straight) to a light emitting surface, may be manufactured using a nano-structured layer as disclosed herein. To increase brightness at normal, a nano-structured layer may create an angular filter that transmits lights at angles lower than an angular cut-off angle and reflects radiation above the angular cut-off angle, as further disclosed herein. Light incident at an angle lower than the angular cut-off angle may be transmitted through the nano-structured layer and may be re-radiated into preferred cone angles (e.g., +/−5 deg, +/−45 deg, and +/−60 deg, etc.) as further disclosed herein. 
     The nano-structured layers disclosed herein may include nano-antennae placed in a pre-determined arrangement to re-radiate emission into preferential angular directions. The preferential angular direction based radiation may be a deviation from a Lambertian radiation emission such that it may be shaped by a nano-structured layer to re-radiate light into preferred cone angles. The nano-structured layers disclosed herein may utilize a partial band-gap to restrict the angular momentum range of radiation. The partial band-gap may be determined based on a configuration of the nano-structured layer(s) such that radiation is only allowed within a particular range of angles, for example, center to normal or near grazing (highly oblique radiation). 
       FIG. 1  illustrates an LED device  100  including a nano-structured layer  110  on top of an LED device that includes an epitaxial grown semiconductor layers  130  and substrate  120 . The epitaxial grown semiconductor layers  130  may include a first contact  131  and a second contact  132  separated by a gap  133  which may be an airgap or may be filled with dielectric material. A p-type layer  134  may be proximate to an active layer  135  and an n-type layer  136 . The active layer  135  may be configured to emit light distal from the contacts  131  and  132  such that light beams emitted from the active layer  135  are generally emitted towards the substrate  120 . The LED device  100  is presented in a simplified form for ease of understanding of the invention, knowing that one possessing an ordinary skill in the pertinent arts would understand the other elements included within an LED. 
     The epitaxial grown semiconductor layers  130  may be formed from any applicable material configured to emit photons when excited including sapphire, SiC, GaN, Silicone and may more specifically be formed from a III-V semiconductors including, but not limited to, AlN, AlP, AlAs, AlSb, GaN, GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InN, InP, InAs, InSb, II-VI semiconductors including, but not limited to, ZnS, ZnSe, CdSe, CdTe, group IV semiconductors including, but not limited to Ge, Si, SiC, and mixtures or alloys thereof. These example materials may have indices of refraction ranging from about 2.4 to about 4.1 at the typical emission wavelengths of LEDs in which they are present. 
     For example, Aluminum nitride (AlN) may be used and is a wide band gap (6.01-6.05 eV at room temperature) material. AlN may have refractive indices of about 1.9-2.2 (e.g., 2.165 at 632.8 nm). III-Nitride semiconductors, such as GaN, may have refractive indices of about 2.4 at 500 nm, and III-Phosphide semiconductors, such as InGaP, may have refractive indices of about 3.7 at 600 nm. An example gallium nitride (GaN) layer may take the form of a layer of pGaN. As would be understood by those possessing an ordinary skill the pertinent arts, GaN is a binary III/V direct bandgap semiconductor commonly used in light-emitting diodes. GaN may have a crystal structure with a wide band gap of 3.4 eV that makes the material ideal for applications in optoelectronics, high-power and high-frequency devices. GaN can be doped with silicon (Si) or with oxygen to create an n-type GaN and with magnesium (Mg) to create a p-type GaN as is used in the present example. The active layer  135  is the region where light is emitted as electroluminescence occurs. Contacts  131  and/or  132  coupled to the LED device  100  may be formed from a solder, such as AuSn, AuGa, AuSi or SAC solders. 
     As shown in  FIG. 1A , substrate  120  may be located between the semiconductor layers  130  and the nano-structured layer  110 . The substrate may be a CSP emitter with a smooth LES that enables deposition of the nano-structured layer  110 . The substrate  120  may comprise sapphire, which is an aluminum oxide (Al2O3) also known as corundum, and can exhibit properties including being very hard, strong, easy to machine flat, a good electrical insulator, and an excellent thermal conductor. Sapphire is generally transparent when produced synthetically with the blue color in naturally occurring sapphires (and the red in rubies, which are another form of corundum) coming from impurities in the crystal lattice. In other LEDs, the sapphire may be replaced with gallium nitride (GaN). The semiconductor layers  130  may be in the region where light is emitted as electroluminescence occurs. 
     As shown in  FIG. 1A , the sidewalls of the substrate  120  may be covered by sidewall material  140 . The sidewall material  140  may also cover one or more layers of the semiconductor layers  130  such that either the same sidewall material  140  covers the substrate  120  and the semiconductor layers  130  or a different material may cover the sidewalls of the substrate  120  than the semiconductor layers  130 . The sidewall material  140  may be any applicable reflecting or scattering material. According to an embodiment, the sidewall material  140  may be a distributed Bragg reflector (DBR). 
     As disclosed herein, to emit light at a pre-determined angular radiation, such as to increase brightness at normal, a nano-structured layer may create an angular filter that transmits lights at angles lower than an angular cut-off angle, with respect to normal, and reflects radiation above the angular cut-off angle. Reflected radiation may reflect back into the substrate  120  such that beams of radiated light within the radiation are incident upon the sidewall material  140  and/or a back reflector  125  located below the active layer  135  and distal from the surface of the substrate  120  that faces the nano-structured layer  110 . The back reflector  125  may be a plasmonic layer including planar metal mirrors, a distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) and/or other known LED reflectors. The back reflector is designed to reflect the light beams that are reflected back into the substrate  120 . The back reflector  125  may reflect light beams before or after the light beams bounce off sidewall material  140  or may reflect light beams directly reflected by the nano-structured layer  110 . 
     The nano-structured layer  110  may include photonic materials incorporated into photonic crystals and/or meta-surfaces which may include meta-atoms and/or nano-antennae such that the largest dimension for a meta-atom or nano-antennae is less than 1000 nm. The nano-antennae can be implemented as an array of nanoparticles located in the nano-structure layer, as further disclosed herein. The nano-antennas may be arranged in either periodic or a-periodic patterns. In analogy with chemical molecules composed of atoms, a meta-surface is composed of meta-atoms with the meta-atoms combined together and interacting to give the meta-surface unique optical properties. The size of individual meta-surfaces may be sub-wavelength or may be formed at the same order of wavelength of use. 
     The nano-structured layer  110  can also include nano-antennae that are distributed throughout a host dielectric medium. The sizes of the nano-antennae may be a sub-wavelength of order of wavelength. 
     The nano-structured layer  110  may be designed with a configuration so that its optical properties have a resonance or controllable properties at one or more wavelengths such that the configuration causes re-radiation of emitted light into a preferential angular direction (e.g., a desired cone angle of +/−5 deg, +/−45 deg and +/−60 deg, etc.). As a result, the nano-structured layer  110  behaves as an optical antenna and may radiate the light incident upon the nano-structure layer through into free space such that the light satisfies certain emission conditions. This may be achieved by tuning the structure and chemical composition of the nano-structure layer  110  so as to simultaneously excite electric and magnetic dipoles, quadrupoles and higher order multipoles within the nano-structure layer  110 . The simultaneous excitation of the dipoles and higher order multipoles may tailor the emission properties of the nano-structure layer  110  to steer angular radiation such that light emitted by the LED device  100  is boosted within a given restricted angular range. 
     Tailoring of the configuration of the photonic crystals and/or meta-surfaces in the nano-structure layer  110  enables transmission of radiation incident upon the substrate within a limited angular range. Control of the angular emission patter (or directivity) may be accomplished by either one or both of re-radiating emission into a preferred angular direction (e.g., via beam bending) or by restricting the angular momentum range of radiation (e.g., filtering incident light beams based on their angle of incident). 
     A nano-structure layer  110  may include nano-antennae arranged in an array. The nano-antennae may be configured such that they re-radiate emission into preferential angular directions. A partial band-gap may be engineered to restrict the angular momentum range of radiation such that radiation is only allowed within a particular range, for example, centered at or about normal.  FIG. 1B  shows an angular range centered at 0 in the X direction and transmission in the Y direction. As shown in  FIG. 1B , an example Lambertian radiation emission distribution pattern  122  has a lower but wider transmission range when compared to a desired radiation emission distribution pattern  121 , provided in accordance with the subject matter disclosed herein with the use of a nano-structured layer. As shown, the desired radiation emission distribution pattern  121  shows radiation within a narrow angular range with a higher transmission value within the narrower angular range. 
       FIG. 1C  shows a graph with a Y axis of reflectivity and an X axis of an angle of incidence of light  151  incident upon a nano-structured layer  110  of  FIG. 1A . As shown, light incident upon the nano-structure layer  110  at angles closer to normal (e.g., closer to 0 degrees) have a reflectivity of near zero such that all light incident at such angles passes through the nano-structure layer  110  without any or a minimal amount of light being reflected back into the substrate  120 . As shown in  FIG. 1C , the amount of reflectance may increase as the angle of incidence increases such that the Θ C    159  represents a cut-off angle where all light at or past the cut-off angle, with respect to normal, is reflected back into a substrate (e.g., substrate  120 ). At angle Θ TH , half of light incident upon the nano-structure layer  110  may be reflected, at  154 , less than half the light may be reflected, and at  156 , more than half the light is reflected. 
     An example visual representation of this phenomenon is shown in  FIG. 1D  by light beams  111  and  112 . Light beams  111  and  112  may traverse the substrate  120  to the nano-structure layer  110 . Light beams  111  with an angle of incidence below a cut off angle (i.e., closer to normal) traverse through the and out of the nano-structure layer  110  and light beams  112  with an angle of incident higher than a cut off angle (i.e., further away from normal) are reflected back into the substrate  120 . As disclosed herein, light beams reflected back into the substrate  120  may experience one or more bounces within the substrate and/or on a back reflector such that they may be incident upon the nano-structure layer  110  a second time after being reflected into the substrate  120  by the nano-structure layer  110 . A light beam that is reflected into the substrate by the nano-structure layer  110  at a first time may experience one or more bounces within the substrate (e.g., at the sidewall material, back reflector, etc.) and may be incident upon the nano-structure layer  110  at a second time after the first time. The angle of incidence of the light beam, at the second time, may be lower than the cut off angle, with respect to normal, and accordingly, the light beam may pass through the nano-structure layer  110 . 
       FIG. 1M  shows an example process  1400  of a beam transmission through substrate  120  and nano-structure layer  110 . At step  1410 , a first light beam may be incident upon the nano-structure layer  110  after traversing through substrate  120 . The first light beam may be incident at an angle above the nano-structure layer  110 &#39;s cutoff angle. At step  1420 , the first light beam may be reflected back into the substrate  120  based on the interaction with the nano-structure layer  110  at an angle above the cutoff angle, with respect to normal. At step  1430 , a second light beam maybe incident upon the nano-structure layer  110  through the substrate  120 . The second light beam may be incident at an angle below the nano-structure layer  110 &#39;s cutoff angle, with respect to normal. At step  1440 , the second light beam may be emitted through the nano-structure layer  110  based on its interaction with the nano-structure layer  110  at an angle below the cutoff angle, with respect to normal. According to an embodiment, as discussed herein, the first light beam may bounce off one or more inside surfaces of the substrate, sidewall material and/or back reflector and may be incident upon the nano-structure layer  110  at an angle below the cutoff angle. The first light beam may then be emitted through the nano-structure layer  110  based on the angle of incident below the cutoff angle. 
       FIG. 1E  shows charts  165  and  160  corresponding to the behavior of light when incident upon the nano-structure layer  110 . In chart  160 , W represents the angular frequency and K represents the in plane angular moment. Light line  161  of chart  160  is determined based on the configuration of nano-structure layer  110  and represents the boundary between light that can pass through the nano-structure layer  110  and light that does not pass through nano-structure layer  110 . Further, limiting light below a given angular frequency W allows an LED to achieve the desired radiation emission distribution pattern  121  of  FIG. 1B . As shown in chart  165 , the transmission output of light incident upon nano-structure layer  110  is unity below Θ TH  and drops to zero after Θ TH  as a result of reaching the corresponding angular cutoff Kth shown in  FIG. 160 . Accordingly, light emitted at K&gt;Kth will pass through the nano-structure layer  110 . 
       FIG. 1F  shows a relative gain in flux, by percentage, represented via the Y axis, for various cone angles (5, 45, and 60 degrees) as well as full width at half maximum (FWHM) reduction. As shown, in this example, cutoff  1  represents a cutoff angle of 10 degrees and cutoff  2  represents a cut off angle of 20 degrees. The experimental results shown in  FIG. 1F  are obtained by using a 1 mm 2 CSP Gen 4 die with an AlN epi with sidewall material. As shown, the relative flux gain for a nano-structure layer  110  configured to emit a 5 degree cone angle was 214% for the 10 degree cutoff  171  and 45% for the 20 degree cutoff  172 . The relative flux gain for a nano-structure layer  110  configured to emit a 45 degree cone angle was −12% for the 10 degree cutoff  173  and 27% for the 20 degree cutoff  174 . The relative flux gain for a nano-structure layer  110  configured to emit a 60 degree cone angle was −34% for the 10 degree cutoff  175  and −4% for the 20 degree cutoff  176 . As shown, light emitted at a wider cone angle but with narrow cut off experiences lower gain in flux. As also shown in  FIG. 1F , the FWHM experienced at cutoff  1   177  is 62% and at cutoff  2   178  is 34%. 
       FIG. 1G  shows transmission properties based on angle for the nano-structure layer  110  considered for simulation of the results provided in  FIG. 1F . As shown,  182  represents the 10 degree cutoff configuration of the nano-structure layer  110  and  184  represents the 20 degree cutoff configuration of the nano-structure layer  110 . As represent by the 10 degree cutoff of  182 , the transmission is at unity until approximately 10 degrees when the transmission amount significantly drops as a gradient to less than 10% of its peak value by 20 degrees and drops to 0% of its peak value by 35 degrees. Similarly, as represented by the 20 degree cutoff of  184 , the transmission is at unity until approximately 20 degrees when the transmission amount significantly drops as a gradient to less than 10% of its peak value by 30 degrees and drops to 0% of its peak value by 35 degrees. 
     Photonic crystals and/or meta-surfaces in the nano-structure layer  110  may be configured with a spatial gradient of phase.  FIG. 1H  illustrates various cross-sections of some different possible nano-antennae. The nano-antenna may be formed from nano-cylinders  191 , nano-cones  192 , or nano-cone  193  and  195  with vertical or coaxial dimmers, arranged in either hexagonal or rectangular lattice. The lattice period may be sub-wavelength or larger than wavelength. The nano-antennae may be Huygen&#39;s meta-atoms or support waveguide modes. A Huygen&#39;s nano-structure layer with spatial variation of radius can also be used to achieve the desired narrowing of the beam. Each photonic crystal or meta-surface may present a certain amount of beam bending properties such that incident beams can be shaped to the required angular distribution. In the cases of the nano-cylinder vertical dimer  194  in nano-cone  193  and coaxial dimer  196  in nano-cone  195 , interfering modes within the meta-atom or nano-antenna provide additional control of the light emitted through nano-structure layer  110 , using structural parameters. For example, the nano-antennae may be configured in an arrangement that establishes a given cutoff angle such that light incident below the cutoff angle passes through the nano-antennae, and thus the nano-structure layer, and light incident above the cutoff angle does not pass or is reflected back. Alternatively or in addition, the nano-antennae may be configured in an arrangement that results in a given cone angle (e.g., +/−5 deg, +/−45 deg, and +/−60 deg, etc.) based distribution. The cutoff angle and the cone angle based distribution may determine the overall flux gain experienced by light emitted though the nano-structure layer  110 . 
     Nano-antennae may be formed or arrayed as single nano-structure material such that the same nano-antenna is repeated numerous times to form a nano-structured layer. Alternatively or in addition, nano-antennae may be formed or arrayed as multi nano-structure materials such that an array of nano-antennae is repeated numerous times to form a nano-structured layer.  FIG. 1L  illustrates an example multi nano-structure material  1300 . As shown, the multi nano-structure material  1300  includes nano-cylinders  1301  and  1302  such that the different nano-cylinders  1301  and  1302  have one or more different properties when compared to each other. As a visual example, as shown in  FIG. 1L , nano-cylinder  1301  is smaller in volume than the nano-cylinder  1302 . This multi nano-structure material may be arrayed such that a nano-structure layer  110  includes multiple iterations of multi nano-structure material  1300 . Each small multi nano-structure material  1300  of a nano-structure layer  110  may provide beam bending to the light incident on nano-structure layer  110 . By suitably placing a multitude of different nano-cylinders  1301 , with different beam bending properties, within a multi nano-structure material  1300  within nano-structure layer  110 , light incident upon nano-structure layer  110  may be shaped to a predetermined or preferred angular distribution. The design and placement within nano-structure layer  110  may selected by an optimizer to obtain the best possible flux from the LED device  100  of  FIG. 1A . The design of photonic crystals and/or meta-surfaces may be dictated by the required angular distribution and the placement of the same can be determined based on an optimizer to obtain the optimal transmission over the required angular distribution. 
     As disclosed herein, as the nano-structure layer  110  functions as an optical antenna, the directivity of the emitted light may be tuned by tuning the configuration of the photonic crystals and/or meta-surfaces in the nano-structure layer  110 . The photonic crystals and/or meta-surfaces may be designed to provide collimated or un-collimated light emission from the LED at multiple wavelengths, beam-forming of light emitted for different wavelengths, or the like. To clarify, the shape of a light beam emitted from the nano-structure layer  110  is determined by the interference of the beam scattered by the individual photonic crystals and/or meta-atoms in the nano-structure layer  110  and from further interaction with neighboring nano photonic crystals and/or meta-surfaces in the nano-structure layer  110 . 
     The simultaneous excitation of electric and magnetic dipoles in the nano-structure layer  110  may be sufficient to suppress back-scattering of light back into LED die and, thus yielding a large forward scatter. Such a nano-structure layer  110  may be built using purely dielectric nanoparticles, without using metals, thereby reducing absorption losses. 
     Photonic crystals and/or meta-surfaces in the nano-structure layer  110  may be purely plasmonic, composed of metal nanoparticles, or metallo-dielectric, composed of metals and dielectric nanoparticles, or purely dielectric, composed of dielectric nanoparticles, typically high index dielectrics. The photonic crystals and/or meta-surfaces in the nano-structure layer  110  may be fabricated using top-down or bottom-up fabrication methods and may utilize nanoparticle self-assembly to provide advantages for manufacturing and scalability. Photonic crystals can be fabricated for one, two, or three dimensions. One-dimensional photonic crystals can be made of layers deposited or stuck together. Two-dimensional ones can be made by photolithography, or by drilling holes in a suitable substrate. Fabrication methods for three-dimensional ones include drilling under different angles, stacking multiple 2D layers on top of each other, direct laser writing, or, for example, instigating self-assembly of spheres in a matrix and dissolving the spheres. The meta-atoms within photonic crystals and/or meta-surfaces in the nano-structure layer  110  may be held together by different techniques including, but not limited to, molecular linkers, DNA, and the like. Alternatively, they may be fabricated by top-down fabrication techniques, such as nano-imprint lithography, nano-sphere lithography, or the like, and individual meta-atom released using lift-off techniques. A nano-structure layer may be encapsulated by dielectrics such as silicon dioxide or aluminum dioxide to prevent degradation of meta-atom properties over time. 
       FIG. 1I  shows the phi averaged transmission  1000  versus angle plot for a nano-structure layer, with TiOx nano-cylinders, the plot obtained at 450 nm. As shown, the configuration of the nano-structure layer  110  enables a unity or near unity transmission until a cutoff angle of approximately 35 degrees and does not permit transmission after the cutoff angle. 
       FIG. 1J  shows a transmission angular map for scattering by the TiOx nano-cylinder based nano-structure layer of  FIG. 1I . The angular map is generated for such a nano-structure layer on sapphire substrate in a background medium of air at 450 nm. The pitch of the hexagonal lattice used was 200 nm, the height of the rod was 250 nm and the radius was 56 nm. It should be noted that similar results may be obtained for a silicon nano-rod at 840 nm with a height of 150 nm. 
       FIG. 1K  shows a reflection angular map for scattering by the TiOx nano-cylinder based nano-structure layer of  FIG. 1I . The angular map is generated for such a nano-structure layer on sapphire substrate in a background medium of air at 450 nm. The pitch of the hexagonal lattice used was 200 nm, the height of the rod was 250 nm and the radius was 56 nm. It should be noted that similar results may be obtained for a silicon nano-rod at 840 nm with a height of 150 nm. 
       FIG. 2A  is a diagram of an LED device  200  in an example embodiment. The LED device  200  may include one or more epitaxial layers  202 , an active layer  204 , and a substrate  206 . In other embodiments, an LED device may include a wavelength converter layer and/or primary optics. As shown in  FIG. 2A , the active layer  204  may be adjacent to the substrate  206  and emit light when excited. The epitaxial layers  202  may be proximal to the active layer  204  and/or one or more intermediate layers may be between the active layer  204  and epitaxial layers  202 . The substrate  206  may be proximal to the active layer  204  and/or one or more intermediate layers may be between the active layer  204  and substrate  206 . The active layer  204  emits light into the substrate  206 . 
       FIG. 2B  shows a cross-sectional view of a lighting system  220  including an LED array  210  with pixels  201 A,  201 B, and  201 C. The LED array  210  includes pixels  201 A,  201 B, and  201 C each including a respective substrate  206 B active layer  204 B and an epitaxial layer  202 B. Pixels  201 A,  201 B, and  201 C, in the LED array  210  may be formed using array segmentation, or alternatively using pick and place techniques and may, for example, emit light at different peak wavelengths such as red, green, and blue. The spaces  203  shown between one or more pixels  201 A,  201 B, and  201 C may include an air gap or may be filled by a material such as a metal material which may be a contact (e.g., n-contact). According to some embodiments, secondary optics such as one or more lenses and/or one or more waveguides may be provided. 
     The LED device  200  or pixels  201 A,  201 B, and  201 C may be single wavelength emitters and may be powered individually or via as an array. The LED device  200  or pixels  201 A,  201 B, and  201 C may be part of an illumination system that includes one or more electronics boards, power modules, sensors, connectivity and control modules, LED attach regions, or the like. Pixels in an array may be powered based on different channel signals and their operation may be determined by a microcontroller. The pixels  201 A,  201 B, and  201 C may be manufactured in accordance with the subject matter disclosed herein such that they may have respective nano-structure layers  210 A,  210 B, and  210 C 
       FIG. 3  shows an example system  550  which includes an application platform  560  and LED systems  552  and  556 . The LED system  552  produces light beams  561  shown between arrows  561   a  and  561   b . The LED system  556  may produce light beams  562  between arrows  562   a  and  562   b . As an example embodiment, the LED system  552  and  556  may be part of an automobile and may emit infrared (IR) light communication beams such that an oncoming vehicle in the path of the light beams  561  and/or  562  is able to receive communication from the automobile. In example embodiments, the system  550  may be a mobile phone of a camera flash system, indoor residential or commercial lighting, outdoor light such as street lighting, an automobile, a medical device, AR/VR devices, and robotic devices. 
     The application platform  560  may provide power to the LED systems  552  and/or  556  via a power bus via line  565  or other applicable input, as discussed herein. Further, application platform  560  may provide input signals via line  565  for the operation of the LED system  552  and LED system  556 , which input may be based on a user input/preference, a sensed reading, a pre-programmed or autonomously determined output, or the like. One or more sensors may be internal or external to the housing of the application platform  560 . 
     In various embodiments, application platform  560  sensors and/or LED system  552  and/or  556  sensors may collect data such as visual data (e.g., LIDAR data, IR data, data collected via a camera, etc.), audio data, distance based data, movement data, environmental data, or the like or a combination thereof. The data may be collected based on emitting an optical signal by, for example, LED system  552  and/or  556 , such as an IR signal and collecting data based on the emitted optical signal. The data may be collected by a different component than the component that emits the optical signal for the data collection. Continuing the example, sensing equipment may be located on an automobile and may emit a beam using a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL). The one or more sensors may sense a response to the emitted beam or any other applicable input. 
     Although features and elements are described above in particular combinations, one of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that each feature or element can be used alone or in any combination with or without the other features and elements. In addition, the methods described herein may be implemented in a computer program, software, or firmware incorporated in a computer-readable medium for execution by a computer or processor. Examples of computer-readable media include electronic signals (transmitted over wired or wireless connections) and computer-readable storage media. Examples of computer-readable storage media include, but are not limited to, a read only memory (ROM), a random access memory (RAM), a register, cache memory, semiconductor memory devices, magnetic media such as internal hard disks and removable disks, magneto-optical media, and optical media such as CD-ROM disks, and digital versatile disks (DVDs).