Patent Publication Number: US-7590401-B1

Title: Super-regenerative microwave detector

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/716,417, filed Nov. 21, 2000, entitled “Super-Regenerative Microwave Detector,” now U.S. Pat. No. 6,993,315. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention relates to microwave detectors and more particularly to a very sensitive detector of millimeter wavelength (millimeter-wave) RF signals and sub-millimeter wavelength (sub-millimeter-wave) RF signals. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Microwave detectors are essential microwave components. They convert RF energy into electrical form for analysis. The subject detector can be used anywhere high sensitivity is required in a simple detector. Obvious applications include simple sub-millimeter-wave imagers, phased array receivers, proximity detecting warhead fuses, and communication links. Since the detector is an oscillator, it can be configured as a transmitter and a receiver in the same circuit. This permits its use in simple wideband communication links and proximity detectors. 
     Homodyne detectors detect RF energy at the carrier frequency, and output the information carried on the RF signal as a demodulation waveform. To minimize power consumption in wideband front-end amplifiers, these detectors should be very sensitive. 
     Typically, Schottky diodes are used as square-law detectors at millimeter (mm) wavelength (&gt;50 gigahertz or &gt;50 GHz) frequencies. Often, the millimeter-wave signal is down-converted to a lower frequency for easier amplification and detection at a so-called intermediate frequency. Schottky detectors can operate directly at deep millimeter-wavelengths (&gt;500 GHz), but they are very lossy and have noise figures on the order of 12 dB at 500 GHz. To override the negative effect of this high loss, a low-noise &gt;1000 Hz preamplifier must be placed ahead of the detector. However, this amplifier component not easily provided by transistor technology due to the extreme frequencies involved. So, previous detectors have either high loss or require complicated RF circuitry to efficiently detect millimeter-wave signals. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention this invention solves the problem of providing very sensitive direct detection of millimeter-wave and sub-millimeter-wave RF signals. This invention creates an oscillator using resonant tunneling diodes (RTDs) at the center frequency of the signals of interest. The oscillator is periodically shut down (quenched) and restarted such that the duty cycle of the oscillator varies with the strength of the input signal coupled to the oscillator. The oscillator startup time is directly and linearly related to the strength of the input signal. The oscillating detector, called a super-regenerative detector, is also highly sensitive, and can directly detect RF signals at or below the thermal noise floor of the system. The rate at which the oscillator is quenched directly controls the bandwidth and sensitivity of the circuit. The circuit is capable of operating to the oscillation limit (fmax) of RTDs, or about 2000 GHz. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       In the drawing: 
         FIG. 1  shows a schematic of a conceptual super-regenerative millimeter-wave detector; 
         FIG. 2  shows the current versus voltage response of a typical resonant tunneling; 
         FIG. 3  shows the differential conductance of the resonant tunneling diode of  FIG. 2 ; 
         FIG. 4  shows a schematic of a conceptual quench generator as used to excite a superregenerative millimeter-wave detector; 
         FIG. 5  shows a schematic of a conceptual power meter as used in a millimeter-wavelength detector; 
         FIG. 6  shows a schematic of a super-regenerative millimeter-wave detector with component values; 
         FIG. 7  illustrates a SPICE simulation of the response of the millimeter wavelength circuit represented in  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIG. 8  illustrates an expanded view of  FIG. 7  during a time where the detector is sensing an external signal; 
         FIG. 9  illustrates a SPICE simulation of the response of the millimeter wavelength circuit represented in  FIG. 6  for differing levels of input signal strength; 
         FIG. 10  is an expanded view of  FIG. 9  during a time where the detector is sensing an external signal; 
         FIG. 11  illustrates a SPICE simulation of the response of the millimeter wavelength circuit represented in  FIG. 6  when adjusted to provide a linear response to changes in input signal strength; 
         FIG. 12  illustrates a SPICE simulation of the circuit of  FIG. 6  showing the output of a millimeter wavelength power meter used to monitor super-regenerative oscillations; 
         FIG. 13  illustrates a super-regenerative detector of free-space millimeter-wavelength signals; 
         FIG. 14  shows the top view of a monolithic quenched oscillator for the detection of free-space millimeter wavelength signals; 
         FIG. 15  shows a schematic of the quenched oscillator of  FIG. 14 ; 
         FIG. 16  shows the top view of a free-space power meter to be used to monitor the radiated power from a quenched millimeter wavelength oscillator; 
         FIG. 17  shows a schematic of the millimeter wavelength power meter of  FIG. 16 ; 
         FIG. 18  shows the schematic of a conceptual millimeter wavelength super-regenerative detector using a push-pull arrangement of resonant tunneling diodes; and 
         FIG. 19  is a schematic of a conceptual super-regeneration detector using a single resonant tunneling diode integrated with a tapered slot transmission line antenna. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     When power is applied to any electronic oscillator, steady state oscillations build up from random noise fluctuations within the circuit. The turn-on delay, the time between power-up and stable oscillation, is controlled by the overall gain, feedback, and noise level within the circuit. This characteristic turn-on time can be shortened by injecting a coherent, resonant signal into the oscillator. The circuit gain amplifies the injected signal, feeding back the amplified wave until stable oscillation is achieved. The final amplitude of the oscillations may be a million times greater than the strength of the injected input signal. This effect, called super-regeneration, can be used to build simple, highly sensitive radio frequency detectors using resonant tunneling devices. Due to their high intrinsic speed, super-regenerative detectors based on resonant tunneling devices can operate well above 1000 GHz.  FIG. 1  shows a schematic of a conceptual super-regenerative millimeter-wave (30-300 GHz) detector  10 . A resonant tunneling diode (RTD)  11  is coupled to a tuned circuit composed of capacitor  12  and inductor  13  forming an oscillator with characteristic frequency F. The oscillator is coupled to a signal source represented by current source  14  and source resistance  15 , and the circuit is energized by a quench waveform generator  16 . The output of the detector is taken from power meter  17  which measures the average oscillator power. 
     The waveform generator  16  applies periodic power to the RTD such that the circuit undergoes repeated build-up and decay of self-oscillations even in the absence of external signal  14 . We refer to the on-off modulator as the “quench generator” and the on-off rate as the “quench” frequency. When an external signal of frequency F is applied to the circuit the buildup of oscillation occurs earlier in the quench cycle so that the duty factor of oscillation changes in proportion to the strength of the input. A measurement of the average energy of circuit oscillations provides a direct measure of the relative strength of the input signal. Since the average oscillation power is related to the signal strength, the changes in the measured power over time correspond to changes in the amplitude of the signal “carrier.” Information impressed on the signal carrier by amplitude modulation can thus be recovered or detected by circuit  10 . According to well-known information theory, the instantaneous bandwidth of information that can be unambiguously detected by the circuit is about one half of the quench frequency. The periodic waveform generator  16  is also an oscillator operating at a relatively low frequency, preferably less than 10% of the RF carrier frequency. For example, a circuit designed to detect 300 GHz signals might have a quench circuit oscillate at 10 GHz if it desired to detect modulated signals with a bandwidth of up to 5 GHz. 
     As is very well known in the art, a resonant tunneling diode, also known as the quantum well diode, utilizes the tunneling of electrons through a pair of potential energy barriers to produce negative differential conductance effects. A RTD typically consists of a multi-layer stack (heterostructure) of epitaxially grown semiconductor material so formed to produce a single quantum energy well surrounded by twin energy barriers. Electrons incident upon this structure will be reflected from the structure except for certain well defined energies. These energies correspond to resonant energy levels within the quantum well, and conductance through the structure for these energies is very efficient. A typical design for an RTD is given in Table 1. These layers are grown using molecular beam epitaxy or chemical vapor deposition methods using compounds of Indium (In), Arsenic (As), Gallium (Ga), Aluminum (AI), and Phosphorous (P). RTDs based on InGaAs quantum wells and AlAs tunnel barriers are easily grown on standard InP substrates. Various dopants such as silicon and boron can be used to alter the conductivity of each layer. Such diodes can also be fabricated using AlGaAs compounds on GaAs substrates. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Typical Resonant Tunneling Diode Heterostructure. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Thickness in 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Doping 
                 Angstroms 
               
               
                   
                 Layer Name 
                 Material 
                 Density 
                 or Monolayers 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Top Contact 
                 InGaAs 
                 2E19/cc 
                 500 
                 Angstroms 
               
               
                   
                 Spacer 
                 InGaAs 
                 undoped 
                 50 
                 Angstroms 
               
               
                   
                 Aluminum 
                 AlAs 
                 undoped 
                 6.5 
                 monolayers 
               
               
                   
                 Quantum Well 
                 InGaAs 
                 undoped 
                 10 
                 Angstroms 
               
               
                   
                 Quantum Well 
                 InAs 
                 undoped 
                 20 
                 Angstroms 
               
               
                   
                 Quantum Well 
                 InGaAs 
                 undoped 
                 10 
                 Angstroms 
               
               
                   
                 Aluminum 
                 AlAs 
                 undoped 
                 6.5 
                 monolayers 
               
               
                   
                 Spacer 
                 InGaAs 
                 undoped 
                 50 
                 Angstroms 
               
               
                   
                 Top Contact 
                 InGaAs 
                 2E19/cc 
                 2000 
                 Angstroms 
               
               
                   
                 Substrate 
                 InP 
                 undoped 
                 0.018 
                 inches 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Under electrical bias between the top contact and the bottom contact, the electrical current in the diode will first rise with increasing bias, then precipitously drop with further bias, then rise again with even further bias as shown in  FIG. 2 .  FIG. 2  shows the current versus voltage response of an RID of Table 1 that exhibits 50,000 amperes/cm2 of current at the first resonance. The response is for a device of 1 square micrometer of cross-sectional area. The initial rise and peak in the diode current, at about 0.14 volts of bias, is due to quantum mechanical tunneling of electrons through the lowest energy conduction band resonance established within the heterostructure. The second rise in current after 0.3 volts of bias is due to the onset of tunneling through the next higher energy resonance. The falloff in current, at bias voltages between 0.14 and 0.3 volts in the figure, has a negative slope. The negative differential conductance (or conversely the negative differential resistance) associated with this bias regime for this device is shown in  FIG. 3 . Within this bias range the RTD can be used as a gain element for amplification or oscillation. The maximum negative differential conductance occurs at about 0.17 volts in this exemplary device, which is also the bias point of maximum available gain. Connecting the RTD to a resonant electrical circuit can produce amplification and selfstarting oscillation if the magnitude of this gain exceeds the losses within the circuit. This ability to support amplification and oscillation within an electronic circuit is characteristic of any electrical device that exhibits negative differential conductance. REF: “Basic Theory And Application of Tunnel Diodes,” S. P. Gentile, Van Nostrand, Princeton N.J. (1962) At the present state of the art, the resonant tunneling diode is the fastest semiconductor with intrinsic electronic gain. RTDs have been shown to oscillate above 700 GHz. (REF:Brown et. al. “High Frequency Resonant tunneling Oscillators,” Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, Vol. 4, No. 1, January 1991, pp 19-23) Therefore, the fastest oscillators based on semiconductor gain elements must currently employ resonant tunneling diodes. A millimeter-wave and sub-millimeter wavelength detectors based on the super-regeneration principle should employ resonant tunneling diodes. 
     Based on the need for circuit in detector  10  to controllably oscillate using a RTD, the electrical properties of quench generator  16  in detector  10  must meet several requirements. First, it must present a very low impedance at the signal frequency so that the size of, or changes in, the generator do not affect the resonant frequency of the detector. Since the generator preferably operates at a frequency much lower than F and must supply operating power to the detector, it may typically be composed of relatively large, low frequency components. The size of these components and their interconnection wiring may be of the order of a wavelength at F, which could cause undesired parasitic resonance and oscillations in the detector  10 . In practice, the requirement of a low impedance can be met by placing a capacitor across the output terminals of the generator  16 . This signal bypass capacitor  18  is shown in  FIG. 4 . The second requirement of the generator is that it present a sufficiently low dc resistance to the detector circuit. In order for the circuit  10  to oscillate controllably and in a sinusoidal fashion, the dc resistance presented by the circuit to RTD  11  must be less than the magnitude of the peak negative differential resistance of the RTD. In equation form, proper operation of detector  10  as a quenched superregenerative detector requires that
 
− RRTD ( dc )&gt; R Circuit( dc )  Equation 1
 
where RRTD(dc) is the differential dc resistance of the RTD and RCircuit(dc) is the equivalent differential dc conductance of the circuit connected to the RTD. As an example, the peak negative differential resistance of the diode of  FIG. 3  is (−1/8.4E-3)=−119 ohms. For this RTD to be correctly used in detector  10 , the total effective dc resistance across the RTD must be less than 119 ohms. To provide design margin, RCircuit is preferably limited to a value no greater than ½ of (−RRTD).
 
     Since the quench generator  16  is placed in series with the RTD in detector  10 , it follows that the dc resistance of the quench generator must be less than the magnitude of the peak negative differential resistance of the RTD, and less than ½ of this value for design margin. If the rest of the circuit also has non-zero dc resistance, the dc resistance of the generator must be reduced further by a similar amount. 
     The required low dc resistance of generator  16  can be ensured by using a shunt bias resistor  19  placed across the output terminals of the generator. The value of resistor  19  is adjusted down in value until the parallel combination of resistor  19  and the output resistance  20  of voltage source  21  meets the oscillation condition set by Equation 1. For some embodiments of the generator voltage source  21 , its output resistance  20  may be sufficiently low to avoid the need for resistor  19 . 
     The combination of voltage source  21  and series resistor  20  represents an idealized waveform generator, but closely approximates standard laboratory signal generators. Typically, the output resistance of radio frequency generators is 50 ohms. However, RF transformers may be used to step-up or step-down the impedance and resistance of the generator output to whatever value is required by detector  10 . Generators with sine-like, rectangular-like, triangle-like, and sawtooth-like waveforms can be used as the quench generator. 
     The power meter  17  in detector  10  must provide an output signal that is proportional to the average RF power contained in the detector circuit at the signal frequency F. This can be accomplished as shown in  FIG. 5  using a Schottky diode envelope detector. A Schottky diode  22 , with sufficient switching speed to rectify signals at frequency F is connected to inductor  13  and an RC filter network comprised of capacitor  24  and resistor  25 . A low noise amplifier  27  is connected to the RC network to buffer the power meter circuit from subsequent instrumentation. Power meter  17  operates as follows. RF energy at frequency F is periodically stored and released from inductor  13 . Some of the RF voltage across inductor  13  is applied across diode  22  and the parallel combination of capacitor  24  and resistor  25 . When forward biased by the RF voltage, diode  22  acts as a resistor of low value and the capacitor becomes partially charged. When reversed biased by the changing polarity of the RF voltage, diode  22  acts as an open circuit so that capacitor  24  does not significantly discharge back through diode  22  during this half cycle. Thus on each RF cycle, the capacitor tends to accumulate a net charge proportional to the strength of the received RF energy. Resistor  25  provides a leakage path for charge stored on the capacitor so that the long-term average voltage across the capacitor rises and falls with the long-term average of the RF voltage across inductor  13 . 
     Preferably diode  22  should be connected to a point on inductor  13  that provides the minimum loading of the oscillator while providing sufficient RF voltage to be detected. Alternatively, diode  22  can be magnetically coupled to inductor  13  by connecting a grounded inductor between diode  22  and ground, and then placing this inductor in the proximity of inductor  13 . 
     Preferably the RC time constant of the parallel combination of capacitor  24  and resistor  25  should be roughly equal to the quench period (1/quench rate) of quench generator  16  but significantly longer than the signal period (1/F). For example, if power meter  17  is used to measure 100 GHz oscillation from an oscillator quenched at a 1.67 GHz rate, capacitor  24  might have a value of 20 picofarads and resistor  25  should then have a value of about 50 ohms. The low-noise amplifier  27  is connected across the RC network to serve as a buffer of the measured power. The output of this amplifier represents the overall output of detector  10 . If the input resistance of amplifier  27  is very low then resistor  25  should be adjusted so that the overall RC time constant for the power meter  17  is roughly equal to the period of the quench rate for detector  10 . 
       FIG. 6  shows a complete circuit for a super-regenerative detector  10  based on a quenched RTD oscillator and a Schottky diode power meter. The quench generator subcircuit consists of a 2 pF capacitor, a 35 ohm bias resistor, and an ideal rectangular waveform generator with a 50 ohm source resistance. The equivalent dc resistance of the quench circuit is about 20 ohms. The generator has a peak open circuit output voltage of 0.9 volts and a minimum open circuit output voltage of 0.46 volts. The quench generator has a fixed repetition rate of 1.67 GHz (1 GHz=1E9 Hertz). The RTD has a peak current density of 50,000 amperes/cm2 and an active area of 3.1 square micrometers. The input signal source consists of an ideal gated RF current source and a 75 ohm shunt resistor. The signal source has an on-off duty factor of 50% and a pulse repetition rate of 833 MHz (1 MHz=1E6 Hertz). The detector has a center oscillation frequency of 116 GHz. The signal source is ideally set equal to the center oscillation frequency. The power meter consists of an ideal power meter. The power meter subcircuit consists of a Schottky diode, 20 pF capacitor, a 50 ohm resistor, and a low noise amplifier. 
       FIG. 7  shows a 1.8 nanosecond long simulation of the operation of detector  10  in the embodiment of  FIG. 6 . Trace-A records the voltage across the 2 pF capacitor. Trace-B records the voltage across the 30 pH inductor. Trace-C records the voltage across the RTD. Trace-D records the current provided by the RF signal source. Operation of the detector proceeds as follows. Initially the quench waveform has a high (0.9 Volt) value. This results in a potential difference of 0.4 volts across the 2 pF capacitor and the RTD. With reference to  FIG. 3 , the RTD is thus biased in a region of slightly positive differential resistance. When the generator voltage changes to its minimum value, the dc voltage across the 2 pF capacitor and the RTD drops to about 0.19 volts with a time constant of about 20 ohms*2 pF=40 picoseconds. At a relative point in time near 0.45 nanoseconds, the RTD becomes biased within its region of negative differential conductance and the circuit builds up oscillations at its resonant frequency. The onset of oscillation in the circuit at 0.45 nanoseconds occurs while the input signal is applied to the circuit. Soon after oscillation begins, the quench waveform voltage across the RTD rises toward its maximum value of 0.4V. This rise biases the RTD out of negative differential conductance and into positive differential conductance. At this bias the RTD acts as a passive positive resistance and dissipates the RF energy stored within the circuit. On the next cycle of the quench waveform the circuit breaks into oscillation at a relative time of about 1.1 nanoseconds into the simulation. In this cycle the input signal is turned off, and the oscillator starts naturally due to random electrical fluctuations in the circuit. It will be seen that the duration and strength of the spontaneous (input off) oscillation of the circuit is less than the driven (input on) oscillation condition. The correlation of the strength of the RF oscillation with the presence or absence of the input is clearly evident.  FIG. 8  provides a time-expanded view of the circuit of  FIG. 6  when operating in the driven mode. 
       FIG. 9  plots the time domain response of the circuit in  FIG. 6  to various levels if input signal power. Trace E records the voltage across the 2 pF capacitor. Trace F records the response of the circuit to an average input signal power of 0.002 picowatts. Trace G records the response of the circuit to an average input signal power of 0.2 picowatts. Trace H records the response of the circuit to an average input signal power of 20 picowatts. Trace I records the response of the circuit to an average input signal power of 2000 picowatts. During the time when the input source is on, it is seen that the duration and total RF power of the oscillation is related to the logarithm of the strength of the input signal. The oscillation duration and strength of the oscillation during the undriven timeframe (around 1 nanosecond into the simulation) is independent of input signal strength. Therefore, the measurement of the RF voltage or power in the circuit provides a direct measure of the presence and strength of the input signal.  FIG. 10  shows an expanded view of  FIG. 9  for one quench cycle. Trace J in  FIG. 10  shows the input signal source current. 
     The precise functional relationship between the input signal power and the average RF power of the oscillating detector is controlled by the shape, rate and amplitude of the quench waveform. The operation of the circuit in  FIG. 6  using the simulation conditions of  FIG. 10  produces a roughly logarithmic increase in average oscillation power with the increase in the power of the input signal. A linear response of detector  10  can be obtained by adjusting the quench waveform so that the RF oscillations are not allowed to reach a steady state condition.  FIG. 11  shows a simulation of the same circuit as in  FIG. 6 , but where the duty factor of the rectangular quench waveform is reduced to roughly 180 ps/1200 ps=15%. For this quench waveform, the time during which the RTD is biased at maximum negative differential conductance is so shortened that the oscillation waveform never reaches a steady state value. In this mode of operation, the oscillation power increases roughly linearly with the strength of the input signal. Trace K records the voltage across the 2 pF capacitor in  FIG. 6 . Trace L records the response of the circuit to an average input signal power of 10 picowatts. Trace M records the response of the circuit to an average input signal power of 40 picowatts. Trace N records the response of the circuit to an average input signal power of 160 picowatts. A linear response of the detector may be required when it is used to detect amplitude modulated analog signals while a logarithmic response may be useful when detecting pulsed RF signals modulated by on-off digital information. 
     The output of the power meter in the circuit of  FIG. 6  is shown in  FIG. 12  for the case of a gated 116 GHz input signal. The signal source is alternately turned on and off every 2.5 nanoseconds. The quench rate is 1.67 GHz. Trace-P shows the voltage across the 20 pF capacitor over time. Trace-Q shows the voltage across the inductor  13  and Trace-R shows the input signal current. The voltage across the 20 pF capacitor has the same general envelop as the modulated input signal. This shows that the detector faithfully recovers the modulation impressed on the input RF signal. 
     The sensitivity and bandwidth of detector  10  can be controlled by adjusting the quench frequency. A low quench frequency allows very weak signals enough time to stimulate a slow buildup of steady state oscillations in the detector, but necessarily reduces the allowable signal modulation rate. A high quench rate increases the instantaneous detection bandwidth but requires stronger inputs so that oscillation buildup can occur in a shorter time. For weak-signal detection, a very low quench rate can be used to permit detector to recover signals that have an RF power below that of ambient thermal and electrical noise. The quench frequency might be set to several hundred GHz when used to detect large-signal, wide bandwidth sub-millimeter waves. Thus, detector  10  provides a simple means to trade detector bandwidth for sensitivity. This flexibility could be very useful in dynamic noise environments where wideband information can be transferred while the level of ambient and thermal noise is high, while a narrow-band mode can be used to detect signals near the noise floor. 
     The detector  10  can be embodied in many different ways. A preferred physical embodiment  90  for detector  10  when used to directly detect free space RF signals is shown in  FIG. 13 . The detector consists of a quenched oscillator  100  and an adjacent RF power meter  200 . The system is used to detect signals from signal source  300  that propagate in free space. In quenched oscillator  100 , the input signal source is replaced by a dipole antenna  102  that is resonant at the desired RF signal frequency F. This embodiment is shown in  FIG. 14 . A RTD  108  is placed across the dipole terminals. At resonance, the dipole antenna presents to RTD  108  the equivalent electrical effect as a pure resistance in parallel with an RF current source. Received RF current passes through the RTD to alter its oscillation duty factor. The detector output is taken from power meter  200  which measures the average RF oscillation power radiated from quenched oscillator  100 . The quench waveform is applied to RTD  108  via a section of RF transmission line  104 . A thin film capacitor  105  and resistor  106  are connected in parallel and placed across the transmission line  104 . Capacitor  105  is adjusted to have a low (few ohms) of reactive impedance at the signal frequency F. Resistor  106  provides the low dc resistance required to meet the oscillation condition set by Equation 1. The electrical length of transmission line  104  between RTD  108  and capacitor  106  is adjusted to be one quarter wavelength at the signal frequency. It is well known that a line of this length (or any odd integer multiple thereof) will present an impedance to the RTD equal to (Zline)2/Zquench, where Zline is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line at the signal frequency and Zquench is the impedance of the quench generator  16  at the signal frequency. Zquench is equal to the impedance of the parallel combination of capacitor  105 , resistor  106 , and the quench generator. If the quench impedance is very much less than the line impedance then the impedance of the quench generator as seen by the RTD becomes very high. As a result of the use of line  104  the quench generator does not place a significant load resistance on the RTD at the signal frequency. At relatively low frequencies however, the value of Zline is effectively the dc resistance of the wires that makeup the line and this resistance can be made arbitrarily small. As a result of the use of resistor  106  the dc resistance presented to the RTD by the line-generator circuit can be kept small enough to satisfy the requirement for oscillation while allowing effective quenching of the oscillator over a broad range of frequencies. 
     If fabricated on an Indium Phosphide substrate, a detector  100  with a center frequency of 100 GHz will have the following dimensions. Dipole antenna  102  will be about 200 micrometers in length and 20 micrometers wide. The line  104  will be about 100 micrometers in length, use 10 micrometer wide lines, and have a center-to-center line spacing of about 20 micrometers. More generally, the length of line  104  can be selected so that it has an electrical length equal to any odd integral number of quarter wavelengths at the signal frequency F. Since the RTD  108  will have an inherent junction capacitance, the detector  100  will be resonant at a signal frequency somewhat less than predicted from the physical length of dipole  102 . An electrical equivalent circuit of quenched oscillator  100  is shown in  FIG. 15 . The subcircuit consisting of capacitors Cline and inductors Lline represents transmission line  104 . Preferably, the RC time constant of bypass capacitor  105  with bias resistor  106  and the quench generator source resistance should be less than the quench frequency. For example, a version of detector  100  with a center signal detection frequency of 100 GHz could use a bypass capacitance of 1 picofarad to effectively serve as a low (0.8 ohms) impedance shunt at 100 GHz. Using a 10 GHz quench rate from a 50 ohm generator, the value of bias resistor  106  can have any value whatever and still result in a RC time constant for the quench circuit of less than 100 picoseconds. For this example, resistor  106  need only be adjusted so that Equation 1 is satisfied by the overall circuit. 
     Power meter  200  is placed in proximity to dipole  102  so that the oscillation power of the circuit can be measured. Since the quenched oscillator  100  consists of an oscillating RTD connected to an antenna, power meter  200  can be provided by a RF-coupled rectifying antenna placed in the proximity to dipole  102 .  FIG. 16  shows an example of power meter  200  consisting of a dipole antenna  202 , a Schottky diode rectifier  208 , thin film capacitor  205  and thin film resistor  106 . RF energy radiated from quenched oscillator  100  is collected by dipole  202  that is placed in proximity to dipole  102 . The RF energy received by dipole  202  is applied as an RF voltage across diode  208  and a parallel combination of capacitor  205  and resistor  206 . When forward biased by the RF voltage, diode  208  acts as a resistor of low value and the capacitor is partially charged. When reversed biased by the changing RF signal polarity, diode  208  acts as an open circuit so that capacitor  205  does not discharge during this half cycle. Thus the capacitor tends to accumulate a net charge proportional to the strength of the received RF energy. Resistor  206  provides a leakage path for charge stored on the capacitor so that the average voltage across the capacitor rises and falls with the average power received by dipole  202  and rectified by diode  208 . Preferably the RC time constant of the parallel combination of capacitor  205  and resistor  206  should be roughly equal to the quench period (l/quench rate) of the quenched oscillator  100  but significantly longer than the signal period (l/F). For example, if power meter  200  is used to measure 100 GHz oscillation from quenched oscillator  100 , capacitor  205  might have a value of 10 picofarads and resistor  206  should then have a value of about 10 ohms. A low-noise amplifier  210  is connected across the RC network to serve as a buffer of the measured power. The output of this amplifier represents the overall output of detector  90 . If the input resistance of amplifier  210  is very low then resistor  206  should be adjusted so that the overall RC time constant for the power meter  200  is roughly equal to the period of the quench rate for the detector.  FIG. 17  shows the electrical equivalent circuit for power meter  200 . A low noise amplifier can be integrated onto the power meter substrate or connected remotely using conventional means such as wire bonding or flip-chip bonding. 
     The physical dimensions of dipole  202  would be approximately the same as dipole  102 . The exact length of dipole  202  should be adjusted to compensate for the tuning effects of the other circuit elements so that the maximum response of the power meter occurs at the detection frequency F of oscillator  100 . 
     An alternative circuit for an RTD-based super-regenerative detector is shown in  FIG. 18 . Here, a pair of RTDs  402  and  404  are arranged in a push-pull oscillator configuration. The inductor  408 , capacitor  406 , and shunt RTD capacitance&#39;s establish the detector resonance condition. For example, a pair of 2 □m RTDs  402  and  404  have a typical net junction capacitance of 0.02 picofarads. A 50 pH inductor  408  and 0.03 picofarad capacitor  406  will result in a circuit resonant frequency F of about 100 GHz. The inductor  408  is connected to the power meter  428  and the input signal source  424  and its source resistance  426  are connected across inductor  408  and capacitor  406 . Power meter  428  can be implemented using the same circuit as power meter  17 . The resistors  414 ,  416 ,  418 , and  420  and capacitors  410  and  412 , and generator  422  comprise the quench generator analogous to quench generator  16 . Since inductor  408  ideally provides a zero dc resistance, resistors  414 ,  416 ,  418 , and  420  are each adjusted so that Equation 1 is satisfied for each RTD separately. For example, if the same RTDs were used as in  FIG. 6  then resistors  414  and  416  can each be 35 ohms and resistors  418  and  420  can each be 50 ohms. With these values, quench generator  422  would be set to provide a minimum and maximum output voltage twice that of the generator in  FIG. 6 . Capacitors  410  and  412  are adjusted in value to provide an effective de-coupling of RF energy within the circuit from the quench generator circuitry. 
     The signal source in detector  400  can be a conventional electronic signal generator or a dipole antenna as was used in quenched oscillator  100 . The power meter  428  can in this case be the same as power meter  200 . 
     There are many variations on the RTD oscillating detector theme that will provide a sensitive millimeter-wave detector. A single-RTD version of a millimeter-wave detector-antenna configuration is shown in  FIG. 19 . Here, a tapered slot transmission line antenna (TSA)  41  is used to collect millimeter-wave radiation. The antenna  41  can be of metal walls or metal film over a dielectric body. The oscillating RTD  43  is placed across the “stub-end” of the TSA  41 . A narrow slot  47  is included in the TSA so that the RTD may be electrically biased. Slot  47  is made very narrow in comparison to the signal wavelength so that it acts effectively as an electrical short circuit at the frequency F. Resistor  44  and capacitor  45  are used as necessary to respectively satisfy equation 1 and to isolate, at the RF frequency F, the quench generator circuitry. The RTD  43  is located so that its RF impedance matches that of the slot-line. For example, a 2 μm2 RTD has a shunt capacitance of about 10 ff (femtofarad). This presents a capacitive reactance of 53 ohms at 300 GHz. The resistive impedance of the same RTD is about 100 ohms for a 50,000 ampere/cm2 device. The RTD  43  is placed at a point on the slot line so that the line presents 53 ohms of inductive reactance to the RTD  43 . The line reactance at this point will cancel the RTD reactance and so establish a resonance condition for the detector. Power meter  200  or equivalent can be used to monitor the power in the oscillator.