Patent Publication Number: US-2015079555-A1

Title: Reading disability screening system

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims priority to U.S. Application No. 61/879,533, filed on Sep. 18, 2013, and titled READING DISABILITY SCREENING SYSTEM, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     A reading disability is the inability of a child, with otherwise good potential, to read fluently (with accuracy and appropriate pace) and/or with good comprehension. For most children, the reading disability affects the child&#39;s ability to read accurately the printed word. The inability to read isolated words affects the child&#39;s ability to read fluently—with accuracy and proper speed. We all have limited cognitive capacity. If a child is spending an inordinate amount of mental energy in reading words on the page, he or she does not have enough mental capacity to make meaning of what he is reading and comprehension suffers. Children need to reach a level of automaticity with decoding words so that they have the mental energy to process what they are reading. 
     Reading disabilities are the most prevalent form of learning disability, accounting for about 80% of all learning disabilities. Approximately 10 to 15 percent of English speakers have a reading disability known as dyslexia. Children with dyslexia fall on a continuum. One can be mildly affected or significantly affected. The good news is that the prognosis for dyslexic children is good, especially if they are identified early. Unfortunately, many children are not identified early. Such a failure to identify the reading disability early can cause great harm to the child, which may last for the child&#39;s lifetime. 
     SUMMARY 
     In general terms, this disclosure is directed to a system for screening for a reading disability. In one possible configuration and by non-limiting example, the system provides a preliminary assessment of a child that evaluates the child for risk factors associated with childhood reading disabilities, and if a risk is identified, the child is recommended for formal assessment. Various aspects are described in this disclosure, which include, but are not limited to, the following aspects. 
     One aspect is a method of performing a preliminary assessment of a child to evaluate the child&#39;s risk of developing a reading disability, the method comprising: assessing, using at least one computing device, a history of the child to at least identify whether the child has a family history of reading disability; assessing the child&#39;s rhyming ability; assessing the child&#39;s ability to recognize letters of an alphabet; assessing the child&#39;s ability to identify particular sounds; and using the results of the assessments to evaluate the child&#39;s risk of developing a reading disability. 
     Another aspect is a screening system comprising: a processing device; and at least one computer readable storage device, the at least one computer readable storage device storing data instructions that when executed by the processing device cause the processing device to generate: an assessment engine operable to present a preliminary assessment to a child to evaluate the child&#39;s risk of developing a reading disability; a scoring engine operable to determine a score based on the preliminary assessment; and a recommendation engine configured to generate a recommendation based on the score, wherein the recommendation engine recommends that the child be formally assessed for a reading disability when the score indicates that the child has a high risk of developing a reading disability. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic block diagram illustrating an example system for treating a reading disability. 
         FIG. 2  is a schematic block diagram illustrating an example screening system. 
         FIG. 3  illustrates an example architecture of a computing device that can be used to implement aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 4  is a schematic block diagram of an example data store of the screening system shown in  FIG. 2 . 
         FIG. 5  is a flow chart illustrating an example method of providing an age appropriate preliminary assessment. 
         FIG. 6  is a schematic block diagram illustrating an example preliminary assessment. 
         FIG. 7  is a schematic block diagram illustrating another example of a preliminary assessment. 
         FIG. 8  is a screen shot of an example welcome page. 
         FIG. 9  is a screen shot of an example registration page. 
         FIG. 10  is a screen shot of an example history assessment page. 
         FIG. 11  is a screen shot of an example spatial understanding assessment page. 
         FIG. 12  is a screen shot of an example rhyming assessment page. 
         FIG. 13  is a screen shot of another example rhyming assessment page. 
         FIG. 14  is a screen shot of an example letter recognition assessment page. 
         FIG. 15  is a screen shot of an example letter recognition assessment page. 
         FIG. 16  is a screen shot of an example counting words assessment page. 
         FIG. 17  is a screen shot of an example compound words assessment page. 
         FIG. 18  is a screen shot of an example syllable level words assessment page. 
         FIG. 19  is a screen shot of an example first words assessment page. 
         FIG. 20  is a screen shot of an example last sounds assessment page. 
         FIG. 21  is a screen shot of an example counting sounds assessment page. 
         FIG. 22  is a flow chart illustrating an example method of scoring a preliminary assessment. 
         FIG. 23  is a flow chart illustrating an example method of generating a recommendation based on a preliminary assessment. 
         FIG. 24  is a flow chart illustrating an example method of providing resources relating to a preliminary assessment. 
         FIG. 25  is a screen shot illustrating an example assessment results page. 
         FIG. 26  illustrates an example of a letter to a school or school district requesting a formal assessment of a child found to be at risk of developing a reading disability. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Various embodiments will be described in detail with reference to the drawings, wherein like reference numerals represent like parts and assemblies throughout the several views. Reference to various embodiments does not limit the scope of the claims attached hereto. Additionally, any examples set forth in this specification are not intended to be limiting and merely set forth some of the many possible embodiments for the appended claims. 
       FIG. 1  is a schematic block diagram illustrating an example system  100  for treating a reading disability of a child C 1 . The diagram also illustrates two exemplary stages in treating the child&#39;s reading disability. The first stage  102  involves a preliminary assessment of the child C 1  for risk of developing a reading disability. The second stage  104  involves a formal assessment and treatment of the child&#39;s C 1  reading disability. 
     The system  100  includes a preliminary assessment system  110  and a formal assessment and treatment system  112 . The preliminary assessment system  110  is primarily involved in the first stage  102 , while the formal assessment and treatment system  112  is involved in the second stage  104 . 
     During the first stage  102 , the preliminary assessment system  110  operates to perform a preliminary assessment of the child C 1  in order to evaluate whether or not the child is at risk of developing a reading disability. Because the system  110  performs a preliminary assessment that can be later followed up with a formal assessment in stage  104  if needed, the assessment does not need to be administered by a licensed professional. Instead, the assessment can be administered by the assistance of a suitable adult A 1 , such as the child&#39;s C 1  parent or guardian, a relative, a teacher, a club leader, or other person capable of ensuring that proper responses are entered into the preliminary assessment system  110 . In many cases the preliminary assessment of the child C 1  is performed at home with the computing device  122 . In other cases, however, the preliminary assessment can also be performed at other locations, such as at a school, club facility, or other suitable location with a computing device  122  present at that location. 
     In the illustrated example, a web-based implementation of the preliminary assessment system  110  is illustrated, which includes a screening system  120  and a computing device  122  that operate to communicate with each other across one or more data communication networks  124 . 
     In some embodiments the screening system  120  is a web server computing device that sends web page data across the network  124 , and the computing device  122  is a client computing device which receives the web page data and presents that data in the form of web pages through a web browser software application. Inputs are received from the adult A 1  into the computing device  122  and sent back to the screening system  120 . In other embodiments, the screening system  120  is implemented in other forms. For example, the screening system  120  can also be implemented as a software application operating on a single computing device, such as the computing device  122 , or by multiple software applications that communicate with each other across a network, such as the Internet. 
     During the second stage  104 , the formal assessment and treatment system  112  operates to perform a formal assessment of the child&#39;s C 1  reading disability and to provide treatment to address the disability. The formal assessment is typically administered by a licensed practitioner, such as the speech and language professional S 1 . In one embodiment, a formal assessment can include cognitive testing as well as achievement testing in reading, spelling, mathematics, and written expression. Assessments for physical disorders can also be performed during this stage  104 , such as an eye test to check for the presence of a visual impairment, which can be influencing the child&#39;s ability to visually identify words and letters when reading. 
     After a reading disorder has been formally confirmed, an appropriate plan of treatment can be developed and implemented, which may involve the participation of one or more, or all, of the director of special education P 1  or school district, one or more speech and language professionals S 1  or other professionals (such as an occupational therapist, a child psychologist, a physician, etc.), and a special education teacher T 1  or other educator. In some situations, for example, the team will put together a written Individualized Education Plan (IEP) that details the specific goals and objectives that the team will assist the child C 1  to meet during the course of a school year, and will work together over the course of the year to implement the plan. 
     The preliminary assessment performed in stage  102  is critical to identifying that the child C 1  is at risk for developing a reading disability early in the child&#39;s development. Without the preliminary assessment of stage  102 , the second stage  104  often will not occur, or will not occur until very late in the child&#39;s development—at a point where it is much more difficult to address. There are various reasons for this. One reason is that parents are unlikely to recognize a reading disability until the child C 1  has fallen significantly behind other children of his or her same age. Even then, parents may avoid taking remedial action thinking that they can just work harder with the child C 1 , or that they should give the child C 1  more time to learn to read in school. Many educators are also reluctant to recommend children for evaluation for a reading disability for fear of stigmatizing the children by labeling them with a reading disability. Other educators may mistakenly believe that it is merely a maturity issue and that the reading “light bulb” will go on when a child&#39;s brain has sufficiently matured. Whatever the reason, without the preliminary assessment in stage  102 , sufficient time may lapse before the child&#39;s C 1  reading disability is identified. When such time has passed, significant damage may have occurred, and such damage may last for the child&#39;s C 1  lifetime. 
       FIG. 2  is a schematic block diagram illustrating an example of the screening system  120 . In this example, the screening system  120  includes an assessment engine  132 , a scoring engine  134 , a recommendation engine  136 , and a resource generator  138 . 
     The assessment engine  132  generates and presents an assessment to the child C 1  to evaluate the child for risk of developing a reading disability. In some embodiments, the assessment includes a set of questions. At least some of the questions are posed to the child to evaluate one or more aspects of the child&#39;s abilities. In some embodiments, at least some of the questions are presented through a video, including an audio recording, which presents instructions to the child. A response is received for each question. For some questions, the response indicates whether or not the child C 1  answered the question correctly or incorrectly, for example. Examples of the operation of the assessment engine  132  are illustrated and described in more detail with reference to  FIGS. 5-21 . 
     The scoring engine  134  evaluates the results of the assessment presented by the assessment engine  132  and generates a score. An example of the scoring engine  134  is illustrated and described in more detail with reference to  FIG. 22 . 
     The recommendation engine  136  utilizes the score generated by the scoring engine  134  to generate and present a recommendation for the child. In some embodiments, for example, the recommendation engine identifies whether or not the child C 1  is at risk of developing a reading disability. An example of the recommendation engine is illustrated and described in more detail with reference to  FIGS. 23 and 25 . 
     If the child C 1  is found to be at risk of developing a reading disability, the resource generator  138  provides one or more additional resources. The resources can include, for example, educational resources to provide more information about or relating to reading disabilities. An example of the resource generator  138  is illustrated and described in more detail with reference to  FIGS. 24-26 . 
       FIG. 3  illustrates an exemplary architecture of a computing device that can be used to implement aspects of the present disclosure, including any of the plurality of computing devices utilized by the adult A 1 , child C 1 , director of special education P 1 , speech and language professional S 1 , and special education teacher T 1 , or the computing device of the screening system  120 . The computing device illustrated in  FIG. 3  can be used to execute any one or more of the application programs and software engines described herein. By way of example, the computing device will be described below as an example of the screening system  120 . To avoid undue repetition, this description of an example computing device will not be separately repeated herein for each of the other possible computing devices, including those discussed above, but such devices can also be configured as illustrated and described with reference to  FIG. 3 . 
     The screening system  120  includes, in some embodiments, at least one processing device  150 , such as a central processing unit (CPU). A variety of processing devices are available from a variety of manufacturers, for example, Intel or Advanced Micro Devices. In this example, the screening system  120  also includes a system memory  152 , and a system bus  154  that couples various system components including the system memory  152  to the processing device  150 . The system bus  154  is one of any number of types of bus structures including a memory bus, or memory controller; a peripheral bus; and a local bus using any of a variety of bus architectures. 
     An example of the screening system  120  is a computing device such as a server computer. The computing device may include one or more computing devices, and one or more data storage devices, which can be configured as a single unit or can be distributed across multiple locations but in data communication with each other across one or more data communication networks  124 . Other examples of computing devices suitable for one or more of the computing devices described herein include a desktop computer, a laptop computer, a tablet computer, a mobile computing device (such as a smart phone, an iPod® or iPad® mobile digital device, or other mobile devices), or other devices configured to process digital instructions. 
     The system memory  152  includes read only memory  156  and random access memory  158 . A basic input/output system  160  containing the basic routines that act to transfer information within screening system  120 , such as during start up, is typically stored in the read only memory  156 . 
     The screening system  120  also includes a secondary storage device  162  in some embodiments, such as a hard disk drive or solid state memory, for storing digital data. The secondary storage device  162  is connected to the system bus  154  by a secondary storage interface  164 . The secondary storage devices  162  and their associated computer readable media provide nonvolatile storage of computer readable instructions (including application programs and program modules), data structures, and other data for the screening system  120 . 
     Although the exemplary environment described herein employs a hard disk drive as a secondary storage device, other types of computer readable storage media are used in other embodiments. Examples of these other types of computer readable storage media include magnetic cassettes, flash memory cards, digital video disks, Bernoulli cartridges, compact disc read only memories, digital versatile disk read only memories, random access memories, or read only memories. Some embodiments include non-transitory media. Additionally, such computer readable storage media can include local storage or cloud-based storage. The example data store described herein includes computer readable storage media. 
     A number of program modules can be stored in secondary storage device  162  or memory  152 , including an operating system  166 , one or more application programs  168 , other program modules  170  (such as the software engines described herein), and program data  172 . The screening system  120  can utilize any suitable operating system, such as Microsoft Windows™, Google Chrome™, Apple OS, and any other operating system suitable for a computing device. 
     In some embodiments, a user provides inputs to the screening system  120  through input devices at the computing device  122 , shown in  FIG. 1 . However, in other embodiments the user may provide input directly to the screening system  120  through one or more input devices  174 . In either case, examples of input devices  174  include a keyboard  176 , mouse  178 , microphone  180 , and touch sensor  182  (such as a touchpad or a touch sensitive display). Other embodiments include other input devices  174 . The input devices are often connected to the processing device  150  through an input/output interface  184  that is coupled to the system bus  154 . These input devices  174  can be connected by any number of input/output interfaces, such as a parallel port, serial port, game port, or a universal serial bus. Wireless communication between input devices and the interface  184  is possible as well, and includes infrared, BLUETOOTH® wireless technology, 802.11a/b/g/n, cellular, or other radio frequency communication systems in some possible embodiments. 
     In this example embodiment, a display device  186 , such as a monitor, liquid crystal display device, projector, or touch sensitive display device, is also connected to the system bus  154  via an interface, such as a video adapter  188 . In addition to the display device  186 , the screening system  120  can include various other peripheral devices (not shown), such as speakers or a printer. Outputs can be presented in different embodiments through the display device  186  or the peripheral devices at the screening system  120  or at the computing device  122 , shown in  FIG. 1 . 
     When used in a local area networking environment or a wide area networking environment (such as the Internet), the screening system  120  is typically connected to the network  124  through a network interface  190 , such as an Ethernet interface. Other possible embodiments use other communication devices. For example, some embodiments of the screening system  120  include a modem for communicating across the network. 
     The screening system  120  typically includes at least some form of computer readable media. Computer readable media includes any available media that can be accessed by the screening system  120 . By way of example, computer readable media include computer readable storage media and computer readable communication media. 
     Computer readable storage media includes volatile and nonvolatile, removable and non-removable media implemented in any device configured to store information such as computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules or other data. Computer readable storage media includes, but is not limited to, random access memory, read only memory, electrically erasable programmable read only memory, flash memory or other memory technology, compact disc read only memory, digital versatile disks or other optical storage, magnetic cassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium that can be used to store the desired information and that can be accessed by the screening system  120 . Computer readable storage media does not include computer readable communication media. 
     Computer readable communication media typically embodies computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules or other data in a modulated data signal such as a carrier wave or other transport mechanism and includes any information delivery media. The term “modulated data signal” refers to a signal that has one or more of its characteristics set or changed in such a manner as to encode information in the signal. By way of example, computer readable communication media includes wired media such as a wired network or direct-wired connection, and wireless media such as acoustic, radio frequency, infrared, and other wireless media. Combinations of any of the above are also included within the scope of computer readable media. 
     The computing device illustrated in  FIG. 3  is also an example of programmable electronics, which may include one or more such computing devices, and when multiple computing devices are included, such computing devices can be coupled together with a suitable data communication network  124  ( FIG. 1 ) so as to collectively perform the various functions, methods, or operations disclosed herein. 
       FIG. 4  is a schematic block diagram of an example data store  202 . In this example, the data store  202  includes web page data  204 , assessment data  206 , scoring algorithms  208 , recommendations definitions  210 , resources  212 , and user data  214 . 
     The data store  202  includes one or more computer readable storage devices, such as described with reference to  FIG. 3 . In some embodiments, the data store  202  is or includes one or more of the memory  152  and secondary storage device  162 , also discussed above. The data store  202  may be part of the screening system  120  or part of the computing device  122 , located remotely and accessible through the data communication network  124 , shown in  FIG. 1 . 
     Some embodiments include web page data  204  that stores digital data defining a plurality of web pages used to present the preliminary assessment to the child C 1  and adult A 1 . The web page data is typically encoded in a standard markup language, such as a hypertext markup language (HTML), which is capable of being interpreted by a browser software application and rendered and displayed as web pages to the child C 1  and adult A 1 . The web page data can also or alternatively include software code, such as Java script, Flash, and the like. In some embodiments, each step of the preliminary assessment is encoded as a separate web page with separate web page data  204 . 
     Some embodiments do not include web page data. For example, in some embodiments the preliminary assessment is encoded as a software application (or software app). Web page data and software applications both include a form of data instructions that are executable by a processing device to perform one or more functions, steps, methods, operations, or other aspects of the preliminary assessment described herein. 
     The assessment data  206  contains the data used to generate and present the questions of the preliminary assessment to the child C 1  and adult A 1 . In some embodiments, the assessment data  206  includes video files  216  and age appropriateness data  218 . 
     The video files  216  encode a short video including an audio recording, which are used to present the questions to the child Cl. In some embodiments the questions are arranged in a series of sections, and the first video in each section includes introductory content for that section, such as instructions and example questions. 
     The age appropriateness data  218  is used by the assessment engine  132  to generate a preliminary assessment that is appropriate for the age of the child C 1 . In one example, the age appropriateness data  218  identifies for each question a minimum age at which the question is appropriate to be presented to a child. An example of the use of the age appropriateness data  218  is discussed in more detail with reference to  FIG. 5 . 
     The scoring algorithms  208  define the algorithms used to compute a score based on the results of the preliminary assessment. In some embodiments the score is a raw score based on the number of questions presented (as adjusted by the age appropriateness data  218 ). The scoring algorithms  208  are used by the scoring engine  134  ( FIG. 2 ). 
     The recommendations definitions  210  are used by the recommendation engine  136  to generate appropriate recommendations based on the raw score generated by the scoring engine  134  ( FIG. 2 ). 
     The resources  212  are used by the resource generator  138  ( FIG. 2 ) to provide resources to the adult A 1  to assist the adult A 1  in better understanding and navigating the second stage  104  ( FIG. 1 ) when the child C 1  is determined to be at risk of developing a learning disability. 
     The user data  214  stores data for each child C 1  that takes the preliminary assessment. In some embodiments, the user data  214  stores the child&#39;s C 1  name  220 , age  222 , assessment status  224  (e.g., whether pending or completed, and a current question the child is on), and results  226 . The results  226  stores the result for each question presented in the preliminary assessment, such as whether the question was completed correctly or incorrectly. In some embodiments a final score and/or recommendation is stored. In some embodiments the results  226  also include results for sections of the test, which can be helpful to identify the particular strengths and weaknesses of the child C 1  prior to the formal assessment in stage  104  ( FIG. 1 ). 
       FIG. 5  is a flow chart illustrating an example method  230  of providing an age appropriate preliminary assessment. In some embodiments the method  230  is performed by the assessment engine  132  ( FIG. 2 ). In this example, the method  230  includes operations  232 ,  234 , and  236 . 
     A significant factor to consider when assessing a child&#39;s reading abilities is the child&#39;s age. The various reading skills are developed over time as a child gets older, but children that are progressing appropriately should have certain skills by certain ages. For example, children should be able to identify letters of the alphabet by the time that they enter first grade. Therefore, although it would not be a significant concern if a five year old child was not able to identify the letters of the alphabet, it would be a significant concern if a six year old child was not able to identify the letters of the alphabet. Therefore, it is important for a preliminary assessment to take into account the age of the child. Typically questions that are not appropriate for a given age need not be presented to the child C 1 , as such questions provide little insight into whether or not the child is likely to develop a reading disability, and may cause concern or even frustration to the child C 1  and parent A 1  if the child C 1  is unable to correctly answer the questions that are likely above his or her ability. 
     The operation  232  is performed to determine a child&#39;s age. In some embodiments, the child&#39;s age is obtained by prompting a user to enter the age of the child C 1 . The age is stored in the age data  222  ( FIG. 4 ). In another embodiment, the user is prompted to enter the child&#39;s C 1  birthday, and the operation  232  computes the age at the present date. 
     The operation  234  is performed to generate an age appropriate assessment. In some embodiments, the operation  234  uses the age determined in the operation  232  and the age appropriateness data  218  ( FIG. 4 ) to identify a set of age appropriate questions to be included in the preliminary assessment. For example, if the child&#39;s age is 7, the age appropriateness data  218  is used to identify those questions from the assessment data  206  that are appropriate for a 7 year old child. This is accomplished, for example, by comparing the child&#39;s age with the minimum age identified in the age appropriateness data  218  for each question, and determining whether the child&#39;s age is greater than or equal to the minimum age. Those questions are then identified as age appropriate, and identified for inclusion in the preliminary assessment. 
     The operation  236  is then performed to administer the age appropriate preliminary assessment to the child C 1 , using the questions that have been identified as age appropriate. Additional examples of the preliminary assessment are discussed herein. 
       FIG. 6  is a schematic block diagram illustrating an example preliminary assessment  240 A. In some embodiments, the preliminary assessment  240  is presented by the assessment engine  132  shown in  FIG. 2 . In this example, the preliminary assessment  240 A includes multiple sections, including a history assessment  242 , a rhyming assessment  244 , a letter recognition assessment  246 , and a sound identification assessment  248 . Other embodiments include additional or different sections, such as illustrated in  FIG. 7 . 
     The history assessment  242  presents one or more questions relating to the child&#39;s C 1  history. An example of a history assessment  242  is described with reference to  FIG. 10 . 
     The rhyming assessment  244  presents one or more questions which ask the child C 1  to identify words that rhyme. Two words rhyme when they end with the same sound. Examples of the rhyming assessment  244  are described with reference to  FIGS. 12-14 . 
     The letter recognition assessment  246  presents one or more questions which ask the child C 1  to identify letters of the alphabet. For example, a picture of a letter is shown to the child C 1  and the child is asked to identify the letter. An example of the letter recognition assessment  246  is described with reference to  FIG. 15 . 
     The sound identification assessment  248  presents one or more questions which ask the child C 1  to identify certain sounds. For example, some embodiments ask the child C 1  to identify words that share a common sound. Examples of the sound identification assessment  248  are described with reference to  FIGS. 19-20 . 
     Other embodiments of the preliminary assessment  240  include more or fewer sections, such as shown in  FIG. 7 . 
       FIG. 7  is a schematic block diagram illustrating another example of a preliminary assessment  240 B. In this example, the preliminary assessment includes a plurality of sections including one or more of the history assessment  242 , a spatial understanding assessment  252 , the rhyming assessment  244 , the letter recognition assessment  246 , a counting words assessment  254 , a compound words assessment  256 , a syllable level words assessment  258 , the sound identification assessment  248  including a first sounds assessment  260  and a last sounds assessment  262 , and a counting sounds assessment  264 . 
     The history assessment  242 , rhyming assessment  244 , letter recognition assessment  246 , and sound identification assessment  248  were previously introduced in  FIG. 6 . 
     The spatial understanding assessment  252  presents one or more questions that evaluate a child&#39;s spatial understanding, such as whether a child understands the meaning of words that define a spatial relationship between two objects, such as above, on, below, under, etc. An example of the spatial understanding assessment  252  is described with reference to  FIG. 11 . 
     The counting words assessment  254  presents one or more questions that evaluate a child&#39;s ability to identify whole words, such as by counting the number of words in a phrase. An example of the counting words assessment  254  is described with reference to  FIG. 16 . 
     The compound words assessment  256  presents one or more questions that evaluate a child&#39;s ability to identify portions of compound words. An example of the compound words assessment  256  is described with reference to  FIG. 17 . 
     The syllable level words assessment  258  presents one or more questions that evaluate a child&#39;s ability to identify syllables within words. An example of the syllable level words assessment is described with reference to  FIG. 18 . 
     The sound identification assessment  248  presents one or more questions that evaluate a child&#39;s ability to identify certain sounds. In this example, the sound identification assessment  248  includes two subsections, including a first sounds assessment  260  and a last sounds assessment  262 . The first sounds assessment  260  asks a child to identify two words that start with the same sound. The last sounds assessment  262  asks the child to identify two words that end with the same sound. Examples of the first and last sounds assessments  260  and  262  are described with reference to  FIGS. 19-20 . 
     The counting sounds assessment  264  presents one or more questions that evaluate a child&#39;s ability to identify individual sounds within a word. An example of the counting sounds assessment  264  is illustrated and described with reference to  FIG. 21 . 
       FIG. 8  is a screen shot of an example welcome page  270  of an example of the preliminary assessment  240 . In this example, the welcome page  270  includes basic information  272  and a begin control  274 . 
     The basic information  272  presents basic information about the preliminary assessment  240  to the adult A 1 , such as to help the adult determine whether or not to utilize the preliminary assessment  240  with the child C 1 . In some embodiments, the basic information provides a short overview of how the preliminary assessment  140  works, an explanation of how the results will be useful, and what the next steps might be after the preliminary assessment  140  is completed. 
     If the adult A 1  would like to proceed, the begin control  274  is selected to proceed to a registration page shown in  FIG. 9 . In this example the begin control  274  is a selectable button. 
       FIG. 9  is a screen shot of an example registration page  280  of the example preliminary assessment  240 . The registration page  280  is provided to register a new user, and in some embodiments, to collect payment information. In this example, the registration page  280  includes registration instructions  282 , a billing information entry region  284 , a credit card information entry region  286 , and a continue control  288 . 
     The registration instructions  282  provide instructions for the completion of the registration page  280 . 
     The billing information entry region  284  includes fields that prompt the adult A 1  to enter billing information, such as first and last name, address, city, state, zip code, and e-mail address. In some embodiments a link is subsequently sent to the adult A 1  at the e-mail address. The link permits the adult A 1  to return to the preliminary assessment or associated results when desired. 
     The credit card information entry region  286  prompts the adult A 1  to enter credit card payment details, such as a credit card number, expiration date, and credit card verification number. 
     Upon completion of the registration page, the adult A 1  selects the continue control  288  to begin the assessment. Upon selection of the continue control, the screening system  120  confirms the credit card information, such as by sending the information to a third party payment processor for verification. When successfully processed, the screening system  120  proceeds with the preliminary assessment. Additionally, at least some of the registration information is stored in the user data  214  shown in  FIG. 4 . 
       FIG. 10  is a screen shot of an example history assessment page  302 . In this example, the history assessment page includes a child name prompt  304 , child age prompt  306 , and history questions  308 . The child history assessment page  302  is an example of the history assessment  242  discussed with reference to  FIGS. 6 and 7 . 
     The child name prompt  304  prompts the adult A 1  to enter the name of the child C 1  to be assessed. The child&#39;s C 1  name is then entered and stored in the user data  214  as the name  220 , shown in  FIG. 4 . The child&#39;s name is then used as a unique identifier to subsequently identify the assessment and results. For example, if multiple children are to be assessed, a unique name is entered for each child to allow the adult A 1  to distinguish between the multiple assessments and results. 
     The child age prompt  306  is provided to prompt the adult A 1  to enter the child&#39;s C 1  age. In this example the child age prompt  306  prompts for the age in terms of years and months. In another possible embodiment the child age prompt  306  prompts only for the child&#39;s age in years. In yet another possible embodiment, the child&#39;s birthday is input to permit the screening system  120  to compute the child&#39;s C 1  age. The age is then stored as the age  222  of the user data  214 , shown in  FIG. 4 . 
     The history questions  308  are also presented. In some embodiments, the number of history questions  308  (as well as the number of questions presented in other sections discussed herein) varies depending on the age of the child C 1  identified in the age prompt  306 . For example, if a child is less than 7 years old, only the first four questions are asked. If the child is 7 years old or older, all nine questions are asked. Other embodiments include additional, fewer, or different questions. 
     A child&#39;s history with respect to a reading disability is a very important consideration as to whether or not the child will develop a reading disability. For example, if there is a family history of a reading or spelling disability, there is a strong risk that the child will develop a reading disability. Various other factors should also be considered. The importance of such factors can be divided into three tiers, from a first tier of greatest relevance to a third tier of lesser relevance. Factors in the first tier include whether there is a family history of a reading or spelling disability, whether the child was slow to develop oral language, whether the child has difficulty reciting the alphabet, and whether the child could identify the letters of the alphabet by the end of kindergarten. Second tier factors include whether the child has difficulty playing with words or language, and whether or not the child had difficulty learning to read in his or her early school years. Third tier factors include whether the child is interested in books, whether the child&#39;s behavior changed when he or she started school, and whether or not the child has difficulty with the sequence of the seasons of the year. 
     Another factor that is considered in some embodiments is a history of physical impairment, such as a visual impairment. Therefore, in some embodiments a question is presented asking whether the child has been diagnosed with a physical impairment. Additionally, the history assessment can remind the adult A 1  that if a visual impairment has been identified and glasses have been prescribed, is the child currently wearing the prescription glasses? If not, the visual impairment may have an adverse impact on the test results. 
     In one example, the history questions  308  include the following: 
     (1) Is there a family history of a reading disability? 
     (2) Was your child slow to develop oral skills? 
     (3) Does your child have difficulty playing with words or language (for example, rhyming, making up stories, reciting nursery rhymes, etc.)? 
     (4) Is your child not interested in books—even being read to? 
     (5) Did your child have difficulty learning to read in his/her early school years? 
     (6) Did your child&#39;s behavior change when he/she started school? 
     (7) Does your child have difficulty reciting the alphabet? 
     (8) Does your child have difficulty with the sequence of the seasons of the year? 
     (9) Could your child identify the letters of the alphabet by the end of kindergarten? 
     In this example, each of the history questions  308  is followed by a result prompt, which allows the adult to answer yes  310  or no  312  to each question. 
     After all questions have been answered, the continue control  314  is selected to proceed to the next section. 
       FIG. 11  is a screen shot of an example spatial understanding assessment page  320 . The spatial understanding assessment page  320  presents a question to evaluate a child&#39;s spatial understanding. In this example, the spatial understanding assessment page  320  includes a progress bar  322 , a question identifier  324 , a question presentation window  326 , a result prompt  328  with result controls  330  and  332 , a save and continue control  334 , and a save and exit control  336 . The spatial understanding assessment page  320  is an example of a question that can be presented by the spatial understanding assessment  252 , shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     In some embodiments the progress bar  322  is presented on some or all of the assessment pages to graphically display the current assessment status as a percentage of the overall assessment that has been completed. The progress bar  322  allows the adult A 1  to easily visualize how much progress has been made and how much of the assessment remains. In some embodiments the progress is also shown numerically as a percentage (e.g., 1% completed). 
     The question identifier  324  is presented to identify the current section of the assessment and the question number. For example, the question identifier identifies the question by a question number (“Question  1 ”), and also identifies the current section of the assessment as the “Spatial Understanding” section. 
     The page  320  includes a question presentation window  326  in which a video associated with this question can be displayed to the child C 1 . In some embodiments, the page  320  causes the computing device  122  to load a video player. The video player accesses the video file  216  ( FIG. 4 ) associated with the current question. The video player includes player controls, such as play and stop buttons. Some embodiments include volume controls. Such controls are hidden during playback, but can be made visible by clicking on the question presentation window  326 , for example. When the child C 1  is ready, the adult A 1  begins the video by providing a suitable input into the spatial understanding assessment page  320 . 
     Because this is the first question of the section on spatial understanding, the video provides instructions to the child before presentation of the first question. 
     As one example, the video presents the following instructions: “In this first part we are going to be looking at a table and a kitten. The kitten likes to move around, so what you are going to do, is decide just where the kitten is when it&#39;s around the table.” The graphic shown in  FIG. 11  of a kitten on a table. The first question is then presented to the child: “Is it on the table, over the table, under the table, or next to the table?” 
     The child C 1  answers the question to the adult A 1 , who determines whether or not the child C 1  answered correctly, as prompted by the result prompt  328 . The adult A 1  then indicates whether or not the child answered correctly by providing the appropriate input into the result controls  330  (yes) or  332  (no). 
     Upon completion of the question, the adult selects the save and continue control  334  to advance to the next question or the save and exit control  336  to exit the assessment. 
     Additional questions are then asked in the same manner until the spatial understanding section has been completed. 
     Additional pages are described with reference to  FIGS. 12-21 , which include the same layout as the example page shown in  FIG. 11 . For example, they similarly contain the progress bar  322 , the question identifier  324 , the question presentation window, the result prompt  328  with the result controls  330  and  332 , the save and continue control  334 , and the save and exit control  336 . Accordingly, the descriptions of such page features are not separately repeated below. Additionally, other embodiments may have different layouts than the examples illustrated herein. 
       FIG. 12  is a screen shot of an example rhyming assessment page  340 . The rhyming assessment page  340  presents a question to evaluate the child&#39;s ability to identify words that rhyme. The rhyming assessment page  340  is an example of a question that can be presented by the rhyming assessment  244 , shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     In this example, the question identifier illustrates an example of Question  5 , which begins the Rhyming Section A- 1 . Because this is the first question in the next section, the video played in the question presentation window  326  first presents instructions for answering the question. An example of the instructions is as follows: “Now we&#39;ll do some rhyming. Here in Section A, we&#39;ll show you four pictures. All you have to do is pick out the thing that rhymes with the thing shown in the first picture. Words that rhyme end with the same sound, like hat and cat.” 
     The video then provides a couple of examples, as follows, with matching graphical images: “Let&#39;s do one for practice. I&#39;ll tell you what each thing is, and then you say it after me. Here we go. This is a box. Say box. Very good. Now I&#39;ll show you three more things and we&#39;ll figure out which one rhymes with box. Remember, words that rhyme end with the exact same sound. This is a fan. Say fan. Fan. This is the sun. Say sun. Sun. And this is a fox. Say fox. Fox. So, we have a fan, the sun, and a fox. Which one rhymes with box? Fox. Fox rhymes with box, because they both end with the ‘ox’ sound. See how easy this is?” 
     Next, the first question is presented: “Let&#39;s do a few more and you can decide which things rhyme? This is a cat. Say cat. Cat. Which one rhymes with cat? This is a cup. Say cup. Cup. This is a hat. Say hat. Hat. This is a mit. Say mit. Mit. So we have a cup, a hat, and a mit. Which one rhymes with cat?” 
     The adult A 1  then listens to the answer provided by the child C 1  and determines whether or not the child C 1  correctly identifies the hat as the word that rhymes with cat, and indicates accordingly into the result controls  330  or  332 . 
     Additional questions are presented in some embodiments until the section has been completed. 
       FIG. 13  is a screen shot of another example rhyming assessment page  350 . In this example, the rhyming assessment page  350  provides another example of a question that can be presented by the rhyming assessment  244 , shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     In this example, the video presents the following instructions for this second section of the rhyming assessment: “Very good. Now on to section B for some more rhyming. Here in section B we are going to show you things two at a time. All you have to do is say whether or not they rhyme.” 
     The video then provides several examples, with matching graphics: “First we&#39;ll do a couple to warm up and I&#39;ll tell you what they are, and we&#39;ll decide together whether or not they rhyme. Remember two words rhyme if they end with the same sound. Like goat and boat, and bear and pear. Here we go. This is a hat and this is a rat. Rat and hat. Do rat and hat rhyme? Yes they do. They both end with the ‘at’ sound. R-at and h-at do rhyme. Let&#39;s try another one just for practice. This is a pig and this is a dog. Pig and dog. Do pig and dog rhyme? No they don&#39;t rhyme. They don&#39;t rhyme because pig ends with an ‘ig’ sound (p-ig) and dog ends with an ‘og’ sound (d-og). Ig and og don&#39;t rhyme, so the answer here is no, pig and dog don&#39;t rhyme.” 
     The video then presents the question: “Now I&#39;ll show you two things at a time, tell you what they are, and you can decide if they do rhyme or if they don&#39;t rhyme. Here we go. This is a fan and this is a can. Fan and can. Do fan and can rhyme? Yes, or no?” 
     The child C 1  answers the question and the adult indicates whether or not the child C 1  correctly indicated that, yes, the words fan and can do rhyme. 
     Additional questions are presented in some embodiments until the section has been completed. 
       FIG. 14  is a screen shot of another example rhyming assessment page  360 . In this example, the rhyming assessment page  360  provides another example of a question that can be presented by the rhyming assessment  244 , shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     In this example, the video presents the following instructions for this third section of the rhyming assessment: “You are doing very well here. Remember, being right or wrong isn&#39;t the important thing. Just by doing your best you are doing it exactly right, okay? Now for just one more bit of rhyming. Remember words that rhyme end with the same sound like cat and hat or pear and bear. Now I&#39;m going to show you some things and you say a word that rhymes. It doesn&#39;t even have to be a real word, it just has to rhyme.” 
     The video then presents the question: “Ready? Here we go. This is a cake. Say ‘cake.’ Now, say a word that rhymes with cake.” 
     The child C 1  then answers the question, and the adult A 1  determines whether or not the answer is a word that rhymes with cake. An example of a word that rhymes with cake is make. The adult A 1  then selects an appropriate result from controls  330  and  332 . 
     Additional questions are asked in some embodiments, until the section has been completed. 
       FIG. 15  is a screen shot of an example letter recognition assessment page  370 . In this example, the letter recognition assessment page  370  presents a question that evaluates the child&#39;s C 1  ability to recognize letters of the alphabet. The letter recognition assessment page  370  provides an example of a question that can be presented by the letter recognition assessment  246 , shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     In this example, the video presents the following instructions for the letter recognition section: “In this section we&#39;ll show you a bunch of letters one at a time and you just say what the letter is as it comes up on the screen.” 
     The video then asks the first question, by displaying the letter “c.” 
     If the child C 1  recognizes the letter, the child C 1  answers the question by identifying the letter as the letter “c.” The adult A 1  then indicates whether or not the child has answered correctly by selecting one of controls  330  or  332 . 
     Additional questions are asked in some embodiments until the section has been completed. Preferably the order in which the letters are presented is not in alphabetical order. Recognition of some or all of the letters of the alphabet can be tested in this section. 
       FIG. 16  is a screen shot of an example counting words assessment page  380 . The counting words assessment page  380  is used to evaluate a child&#39;s ability to distinguish individual words within a phrase. The counting words assessment page  380  provides an example of a question that can be presented by the counting words assessment  254 , shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     In this example, the video presents the following instructions for this counting words section of questions: “Now we&#39;re going to count the number of words in some sentences. It&#39;s easy. I&#39;ll tell you some sentences and you count the number of words in each one. We&#39;ll clap our hands one time for each word in a sentence, and whoever is helping you can count the claps for you.” 
     The video then provides a couple of examples: “We&#39;ll try a couple to warm up. I&#39;ll say a sentence and you say it after me. Then we&#39;ll say it again, and clap your hands one time for each word. It will go like this. I like birthday cake. Now you say it with me. I like birthday cake. Now we&#39;ll clap our hands one time for each word in the sentence. I [clap] like [clap] birthday [clap] cake [clap]. This sentence has four words, so we clapped our hands four times. Let&#39;s try one more. Dogs like bones. Now say it with me. Dogs like bones. Now we&#39;ll clap our hands one time for each word in the sentence. Dogs [clap] like [clap] bones [clap]. This sentence has three words, so we clapped our hands three times.” 
     The video then presents the question: “Now I&#39;ll say a sentence and then you say it with me. Then, you say it by yourself and clap your hands one time for each word, like we just did. The first sentence is we eat popsicles. Now you say we eat popsicles and clap your hands one time for each word. Whoever is helping you will count the number of times that you clap.” 
     The child C 1  then answers the question and the adult counts the number of times that the child C 1  claps his or her hands, to see if the child C 1  correctly claps his hands three times. The adult A 1  records the result into one of the controls  330  or  332 . 
     Additional questions are then asked in some embodiments until the section has been completed. 
       FIG. 17  is a screen shot of an example compound words assessment page  390 . The compound words assessment page  390  is used to evaluate a child&#39;s ability to distinguish parts of a compound word from its other parts. The compound words assessment page  390  provides an example of a question that can be presented by the compound words assessment  256 , shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     In this example, the video presents the following instructions for the compound words section: “In this next part I&#39;m going to show you some pictures of things and say what they are. Then you say them with me. After we&#39;ve said them, I&#39;ll ask you to say the same word, but with a part of the word left out.” 
     The video then presents several examples: “We&#39;ll do a couple together first, to help you get started. This is popcorn. Say “popcorn.” Popcorn. Now let&#39;s say popcorn without saying the “pop” part. Popcorn without the pop is corn. So the answer is corn. Now let&#39;s try one more. This is a strawberry. Say strawberry. Strawberry. Now let&#39;s stay strawberry without the berry part. Strawberry without the berry is straw. So the answer is straw.” 
     The video then presents the first question: “Okay, now you do a few on your own. This is a cowboy. Say cowboy. Cowboy. Now say cowboy without saying the boy part. Say cowboy again, but leave off the boy part.” 
     The adult A 1  determines whether or not the child C 1  correctly answers with the word “cow,” and provides the appropriate result into the control  330  or  332 . 
     Additional questions are asked in some embodiments until the section has been completed. 
       FIG. 18  is a screen shot of an example syllable level words assessment page  400 . The syllable level words assessment page  400  is used to evaluate a child&#39;s ability to identify syllables within a word. The syllable level words assessment page  400  provides an example of a question that can be presented by the syllable level words assessment  258 , shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     In this example, the video presents the following instructions for the syllable level words section: “In this next part I&#39;m going to show you some more pictures of things and say what they are. Then you say them with me. After we&#39;ve said them, I&#39;ll ask you to say the same word but with a part of the word left out.” 
     The video then presents a couple of examples: “We&#39;ll do a couple together first to help get you started. This is a cucumber. Say cucumber. Cucumber. Now let&#39;s say cucumber without saying the ‘cu’ part. Cucumber without the cu is cumber. So the answer is cumber. Let&#39;s try one more. This is a kangaroo. Kangaroo. Now, let&#39;s say kangaroo without saying the ‘roo’ part. Kangaroo without the roo is kanga. So the answer is kanga. 
     The first question is then presented: “Okay now you get to do a few more on your own. This is a dinosaur. Say dinosaur. Dinosaur. Now say dinosaur without saying the dino part. Say dinosaur without saying the dino part.” 
     The child C 1  answers the question and the adult Al determines whether the child C 1  has correctly says “saur.” The adult Al responds accordingly into control  330  or  332 . 
     Additional questions are asked in some embodiments until the section has been completed. 
       FIG. 19  is a screen shot of an example first words assessment page  410 . In this example, the first words assessment page  410  is used to evaluate whether the child C 1  can identify words that begin with the same sound. The first words assessment page  410  provides an example of a question that can be presented by the sound identification assessment  248 , and more specifically the first sounds assessment  260 , shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     In this example, the video presents the following instructions for the first sounds section: “Now we&#39;re going to look at some things and decide which ones start with the same sound as the first thing. We&#39;re not looking for the first letter here, we&#39;re looking for the first sound.” 
     The video then provides an example: “Let&#39;s do one together first and I&#39;ll say what each thing is, and then you say what it is. Here we go. This is the sun. Say sun. Sun. Now I&#39;ll show you four more things and we&#39;ll figure out which ones start with the same sound as sun. Remember we&#39;re looking for words that start with the same sound as sun. This is a ball. Say ball. Ball. This is a sock. Say sock. Sock. This is a smile. Say smile. Smile. This is a cat. Say cat. Cat. So we have a ball, a sock, a smile, and a cat. Which ones begin with the same sound as sun? It&#39;s the sock and the smile. Sock and smile both start with the s sound, just like sun. So the answer is sock and smile sound with the same sound as sun. See how easy this is?” 
     The video then presents the first question: “Let&#39;s do a few more and you can decide which things start with the same sound as the first thing. This is cake. Say cake. Cake. Find the ones that sound with the same sound as cake. Cake. Cake. This is boat. Say boat. Boat. This is a king. Say king King. This is a hat. Say hat. Hat. And this is a car. Say car. Car. So we have a boat, a king, a hat, and a car. Which ones start with the same sound as cake?” 
     The adult A 1  listens to determine whether the child C 1  correctly identifies the king and the car as both starting with the same sound as cake. The adult A 1  indicates the result in one of the controls  330  or  332 . 
     Additional questions are then asked in some embodiments until the section has been completed. 
       FIG. 20  is a screen shot of an example last sounds assessment page  420 . In this example, the last sounds assessment page  420  is used to evaluate whether the child C 1  can identify words that end with the same sound. The last sounds assessment page  420  provides another example of a question that can be presented by the sound identification assessment  248 , and an example of a question presented by the last sounds assessment  262 , shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     In this example, the video presents the following instructions for the last sounds section: “Now we&#39;re going to look at some things and decide which ones end with the same sound as the first thing. We&#39;re not looking for the last letter here. We&#39;re looking for the last sound.” 
     The video then provides an example: “Let&#39;s do one together first. I&#39;ll say what each thing is, and then you say what it is. This is a cat. Say cat. Now I&#39;ll show you four more things and we&#39;ll figure out which ones end with the same sound as cat. Remember we&#39;re looking for words that end with the same sound as cat. This is the sun. Say sun. Sun. This is a boat. Say boat. Boat. This is a bar of soap. Say soap. Soap. And this is a heart. Say heart. Heart. So we have the sun, a boat, a bar of soap, and a heart. Which ones end with the same sound as cat? It&#39;s the boat and the heart. Boat and heart both end with the ‘t’ sound, just like cat. So the answer is that boat and heart both end with the same sound as cat.” 
     The video then presents the first question: “Let&#39;s do a few more and you can decide which things end with the same sound as the first thing. This is a bug. Say bug. Bug. Find the ones that end with the same sound as bug. This is a car. Say car. Car. This is a dog. Say dog. Dog. This is a bed. Say bed. Bed. This is a pig. Say pig. Pig. So we have a car, a dog, a bed, and a pig. Which ones end with the same sound as bug? 
     The adult A 1  determines whether the child C 1  correctly identifies dog and pig as ending with the same sound as bug, and inputs the result into controls  330  or  332 . 
     Additional questions are asked in some embodiments until the section has been completed. 
       FIG. 21  is a screen shot of an example counting sounds assessment page  430 . The counting sounds assessment page is used to evaluate the child&#39;s C 1  ability to identify individual sounds within a word. The counting sounds assessment page  430  provides an example of a question that can be asked by the counting sounds assessment  264 , shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     In this example, the video presents the following instructions for the counting sounds section: “In this last part we are going to count the number of sounds in some words. Not the number of letters, the number of sounds. We&#39;ll show you some pictures and I&#39;ll say what they are, then you say it with me just so you&#39;re sure. Once we&#39;re sure what the picture is, you say the word yourself and clap your hands one time for each sound in the word. Like when we counted words, only this time we&#39;re counting the number of sounds in one word at a time.” 
     The video then provides several examples: “Let&#39;s try a few to warm up. Okay? This is an eye. Say eye. Eye. Now let&#39;s clap our hands one time for each sound in the word eye. Eye [clap]. Eye has one sound so we clap our hands one time. Let&#39;s try another one. First, let&#39;s turn this light on. There. The word is on. Say on. On. Now let&#39;s clap our hands one time for each sound in the word on. Ah [clap] nn [clap]. The word on has two sounds ah—nn, so we clapped our hands twice. Next let&#39;s try the word pig. Say pig. Pig. Now let&#39;s clap our hands one time for each sound in the word pig. P [clap] ih [clap] g [clap]. The word pig has three sounds, p—ih—g, so we clapped our hands three times.” 
     The video then presents the first question: “Now it&#39;s your turn to count some sounds on your own. I&#39;ll show you some things and say what they are. Then you say it with me. Then you say the word yourself and clap one time for each sound in the word. Just do your best and that will be perfect. Whoever is helping you will count the number of times you clap. This is a pie. Say pie. Pie. Now say pie and clap one time for each sound in the word pie.” 
     The adult then determines whether the child C 1  correctly identifies that there are two sounds in the word pie, and indicates the result with controls  330  or  332 . 
     Additional questions are asked in some embodiments until the section has been completed. 
     That concludes the presentation of questions in this example embodiment of the preliminary assessment, as presented by the assessment engine  132 , shown in  FIG. 2 . 
       FIG. 22  is a flow chart illustrating an example method  440  of scoring a preliminary assessment. In some embodiments, the method  440  illustrates the operation of an example scoring engine  134 , shown in  FIG. 2 . In this example, the method  440  includes operations  442  and  444 . 
     The operation  442  is first performed to determine a total number of questions in the preliminary assessment. In some embodiments this is a fixed number. In other embodiments, the total number of questions varies. For example, as discussed with reference to  FIG. 5 , in some embodiments the number of questions asked varies depending on the child&#39;s C 1  age. For example, a child C 1  four years old or younger may be asked 60 questions, a five year old child C 1  may be asked 85 questions, and a child six year old or older may be asked 161 questions. Other embodiments have other quantities of questions. In some embodiments the quantities can change based on other factors, such as whether or not the child gets certain questions right or wrong. 
     The operation  444  is performed to determine a total number of incorrect responses and to subtract that number from the total number of questions identified in operation  442 . The result of the operation  444  is a raw score for the preliminary assessment. 
     Other scoring algorithms are used in other embodiments. For example, in some embodiments weighting factors are applied to certain questions or to certain sections to weight certain answers more heavily than others. 
     In other embodiments, however, the number of questions presented in each section automatically provides a weighting factor in the scoring of each section (e.g., if a child struggles with letter identification, the number of incorrect answers given is likely to be twice as high if twice as many questions are asked in that section. Therefore, by increasing the number of questions in a section with respect to other sections, the impact of that section on the overall score can be increased). 
       FIG. 23  is a flow chart illustrating an example method  450  of generating a recommendation based on a preliminary assessment of a risk of developing a learning disability. The method  450  also illustrates the operation of an example of the recommendation engine  136 , shown in  FIG. 2 . In this example, the method  450  includes operations  452 ,  454 ,  456 ,  458 ,  460 ,  462 , and  464 . 
     The operation  452  is performed to identify a risk level based on a score. One example of the score is the raw score discussed with reference to  FIG. 22 . 
     In some embodiments, the operation  452  uses the score to identify a risk level by comparing the raw score with predetermined values. An example of a lookup table identifying the predetermined values is shown in Table 1. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Age-Based Risk 
                 4 YEARS 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Levels Based 
                 OR 
               
               
                 on Raw Scores 
                 YOUNGER 
                 5 YEARS 
                 6 YEARS 
                 7+ YEARS 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Low Risk 
                 60 
                 85 
                 161 
                 161 
               
               
                 Moderate Risk 
                 58 to 59 
                 81 to 84 
                 154 to 160 
                 158 to 160 
               
               
                 High Risk 
                 57 or 
                 80 or 
                 153 or 
                 157 or 
               
               
                   
                 lower 
                 lower 
                 lower 
                 lower 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Using this lookup table, the operation  452  first identifies the age of the child C 1  that has been scored. The score obtained on the preliminary assessment is then compared with the identified risk levels to identify a risk level associated with that score. For example, a 5 year old child that scores  82  would be identified as being in the moderate risk level. 
     As can be seen, the expected scores on the assessment increase with age. This represents the expectation that children&#39;s reading skills continue to develop as they get older. As a result, even if 6 and 7 year old children take the same preliminary assessment having 161 total points possible, the 6 year old that scores a 155 will only be found to be at a moderate risk level, while a 7 year old with the same score will be found to be at a high risk level. 
     Therefore, the operation  452  uses the score to classify the child as having a low risk in the operation  454 , a moderate risk in the operation  456 , or a high risk in the operation  458  of developing a reading disability. 
     If a child is determined to have a low risk in the operation  454 , a recommendation  460  is presented to the adult Al advising the adult of the low risk and providing additional information. As one example, the recommendation is as follows: “Congratulations! At the present time, your child is not showing signs of developing a reading disability. To be sure he or she continues to stay on track, we recommend reassessing the child again in one year. To do so, please save your username and password so that you can access the Reading Screen again at no charge.” 
     If the child is determined to have a moderate risk in operation  456 , a recommendation  462  is presented to the adult A 1  advising the adult A 1  of the moderate risk and providing additional information. As one example, the recommendation is as follows: “Your child scored in the moderate risk range. We recommend reassessing the child again in six months.” 
     If the child is determined to have a high risk in operation  458 , a recommendation  464  is presented to the adult A 1  advising the adult A 1  of the high risk and recommending a formal evaluation. In some embodiments the recommendation  464  also provides additional information. As one example, the recommendation is as follows: “Your child scored in the high risk range. We recommend that your child undergo a more thorough evaluation to determine whether he/she had a reading disability.” 
     Other embodiments of the recommendation engine  136  identify different risk levels. For example, in some embodiments the recommendation engine  136  uses the score to determine whether the child C 1  is likely to develop a reading disability or is unlikely to develop a reading disability. In yet other embodiments, the risk can be divided into multiple different levels of severity. Further, in some embodiments results are displayed based on the different sections of the test, such as to identify the particular area or areas of weakness for the child. In some embodiments the results for each question are provided to permit the adult A 1  and or another professional (e.g., the speech and language professional S 1 , director of special education P 1 , or teacher T 1 ) to evaluate the results to determine the formal assessments and therapies that may be appropriate for the child C 1 . 
       FIG. 24  is a flow chart illustrating an example method  470  of providing resources relating to a preliminary assessment of a risk of developing a reading disability. The method  470  also illustrates an exemplary operation of the resource generator  138 , shown in  FIG. 2 . In this example, the method  470  includes the operations  472 ,  474 ,  476 ,  478 ,  480 ,  482 ,  484 , and  486 . 
     The operation  472  is performed to determine the risk level identified for the child C 1 . In some embodiments the risk level is determined using a score, as discussed with reference to  FIG. 23 . In this example the risk level is identified as either a low risk in the operation  474 , a moderate risk in the operation  476 , or a high risk in the operation  478 . 
     If the risk level is determined to be a low risk, the operation  480  is performed in which case a determination is made that no additional resources are needed, because the child C 1  is not likely to develop a reading disability, and therefore there should be no need for any further formal assessment or treatment. 
     If the risk level is determined to be a moderate risk in the operation  476  or a high risk in the operation  478 , then additional resources are provided. In this example, additional resources are provided in the operations  482 ,  484 , and  486 . 
     The operation  482  provides a letter that can be sent to the director of special education P 1  or school district requesting a formal evaluation by the local public school. In some embodiments the letter is a template or form that contains key language that, if sent to the school or school district, requires prompt action on their part, as defined by law. For example, in the United States a law titled the Individuals with Disabilities Act was reauthorized and signed into law in 2004. When triggered, the law defines specific actions and strict timelines that must be complied with by the schools or school districts. The letter provided in the operation  482  is drafted in such a way as to trigger these actions and timelines. One example of such a letter is illustrated and described in more detail with reference to  FIG. 26 . 
     For example, the law currently requires that, once the letter from a parent is received from the school or school district, the school has 15 days to present an assessment plan to the parent that requested it. The parent then has 15 days to sign off on the plan or to offer revisions to the plan. Once the plan has been signed off on by the parent, the school has 60 days to complete a formal assessment and have an Individual Education Plan (IEP) meeting to discuss the results of the assessment and offer services that the child may qualify for. The IEP meeting will include members of the IEP team, including the special education director, the child&#39;s teacher(s), the parents, the special education teacher(s), and any specialists such as a speech and language therapist or an occupational therapist. Once concluded, the IEP will be written detailing the specific goals and objectives that the child&#39;s C 1  teachers will be helping the child C 1  to meet during the course of the school year. Follow up achievement tests may also be planned to ensure that the child C 1  is making adequate progress according to the plan. Annual IEP meetings should also be scheduled thereafter to develop an IEP plan for the following year, or to determine that additional treatment is no longer required. 
     The operation  484  provides a special education roadmap. The special education roadmap is a written document that provides guidance relating to reading disabilities. The written document includes, for example, a brief overview of the laws and process discussed above, and answers commonly asked questions. In one example, the roadmap answers the following questions: 1) what can I do to help my child obtain the education that he deserves, 2) what is a reading disability, 3) are there signs to look for in children who may develop a reading disability, 4) what should I do if I suspect my child has a reading disability, 5) what should I do after my child has been evaluated, 6) what should I do if my child has qualified for services, and 7) what should we be looking for once my child has qualified for services. 
     The operation  486  provides references to additional resources. In one example, the references to additional resources is a list of other resources that may be helpful to the adult A 1 . The resources can include, for example, a list of books or web sites that provide additional information regarding reading disabilities, the names of clubs or organizations that provide support for families having a child with a reading disability, links to governmental resources relating to reading disabilities, information about schools that specialize in helping students with reading disabilities, and information on therapeutic curriculum and training resources for addressing issues associated with reading disabilities. 
     If the child C 1  is determined to have a moderate risk, the additional resources may be presented as optional resources that are presented in case the adult A 1  want to pursue formal assessment or treatment at this time. As one example, the following message is also displayed to the adult A 1 : “Should you wish your child to undergo a more thorough evaluation, we have provided a letter that can be individualized for your child. This letter, requesting a formal psycho-educational evaluation from the school district, should be sent via certified mail to the special education director of your child&#39;s public school. Also attached is a special education roadmap with a series of the most often asked questions along with answers to these questions. Please read this roadmap before beginning the process of requesting testing from the school. You may wish to refer to the roadmap often during your journey through the special education process. Finally, attached is a list of resources you might want to avail yourself of.” 
     If the child C 1  is determined to have a high risk, the additional resources are suggested and recommended to the adult A 1  for use. As one example, the following message is displayed to the adult A 1 : “Attached is a letter that can be individualized for your child. This letter, requesting a formal psycho-educational evaluation from the school district, should be sent via certified mail to the special education director of your child&#39;s public school. Also attached is a special education roadmap with a series of the most often asked questions along with answers for these questions. Please read this roadmap before beginning the process of requesting testing from the school. You may wish to refer to the roadmap often during your journey through the special education process. Finally, attached is a list of resources you might want to avail yourself of.” 
       FIG. 25  is a screen shot illustrating an example assessment results page  490 . In this example, the assessment results page  490  presents an assessment score  492 , name  494  of the child C 1 , recommendation  496 , links  498  to a sample letter, links  500  to a roadmap, links  502  to additional resources, and detailed results  504 . In some embodiments the detailed results identify the question numbers  506 , a question type  508 , a response  510 , and a result  512 . 
     In some embodiments the assessment results page  490  is presented at the conclusion of the preliminary assessment. The assessment results page  490  can be presented to the adult A 1 , and can also be presented to others, such as the director of special education P 1 , speech and language therapist S 1 , and the special education teacher T 1  in some embodiments. Additionally, in some embodiments the results page  490  may be printed by the adult A 1 , and the printed results can be provided to others by the adult A 1  if desired. In some embodiments, the results page  490  may be saved in an electronic form and shared with others via e-mail, for example. 
     In this example, the results page  490  presents the score  492  achieved by the child C 1  on the assessment. However, in other embodiments the raw score is not usable by the adult A 1  in its raw form, and so some embodiments do not present the raw score. The raw score can be converted into another score, such as a percentage of correct answers. In other embodiments, the ranges of scores that are associated with various risk levels can be displayed to permit the adult A 1  to see where the raw score falls within the risk levels. An example of the risk levels is shown in Table 1, above. 
     The name  494  of the child C 1  who was assessed is displayed in some embodiments. The name  494  can be used to associate the assessment results with the appropriate child C 1  in the event that the printed or saved results are subsequently accessed or viewed. 
     In some embodiments the assessment results page  490  includes a recommendation  496 , that advises the adult A 1  on what next steps are recommended based on the preliminary assessment. The recommendation  496  may include, for example, a recommendation  496  that formal testing be performed, and that the adult A 1  contact the school district to obtain the assessment and additional assistance. Additional examples of suitable recommendations  496  are described herein, such as with reference to the operations  460 ,  462 , and  464  shown in  FIG. 23 . 
     In some embodiments the assessment results page  490  also provides additional resources, such as described with reference to  FIG. 24 . In this example, the assessment results page  490  includes links  498  to a sample letter, links  500  to a roadmap, and links  502  to additional resources. In some embodiments links are provided to the resources in multiple formats, such as an editable form (e.g., a Word format) and a non-editable form (e.g., a PDF format). The resources can be provided in other formats as well, such as by presenting the results on separate pages. 
     Some embodiments provide detailed results  504 . In this example, the detailed results  504  include a listing of each question number  506 , an identification of a type  508  of each question (e.g., history or assessment), an identification of the actual response received (e.g., Yes/No or Correct/Incorrect), and a result  512  (e.g., whether the result was recorded as a correct or an incorrect answer for scoring purposes). 
       FIG. 26  illustrates an example of a letter  520  to a school or school district requesting a formal assessment of a child C 1  found to be at risk of developing a reading disability through the preliminary assessment. In this example, the letter is a template that can be completed by the adult A 1 . Once the template is complete, the letter can be sent (via mail, e-mail, fax, etc.) to the intended recipient to request a formal assessment. In some embodiments the letter is adequate to trigger a formal process defined by laws or regulations relating to learning disabilities, such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), as discussed herein. 
     Some embodiments, as described herein and such as illustrated in  FIG. 1 , are utilized by an adult A 1  working with a child C 1 . In some embodiments preliminary assessment is provided to a group of children C 1 . For example, the preliminary assessment can be administered to a group of children that are in a common school, class, club, or other organization. The preliminary assessment may still be administered to each child individually, for example, but the results may be compiled and considered as a whole. For example, each section of the test may be scored separately and the results averaged across the population to arrive at group scores for each section. These group scores for each section can then be evaluated to identify general areas of weakness that appear within the population of the children in the group. Once this is known, the results could be used to suggest additional formal assessments that may be helpful, or alternatively may identify treatment that is needed within the group, such as a topic of a curriculum that could be provided to the children to assist the children in improving in that area of weakness. In some embodiments the administration of the assessment is provided to the group in the form of a workshop. 
     The various embodiments described above are provided by way of illustration only and should not be construed to limit the claims attached hereto. Those skilled in the art will readily recognize various modifications and changes that may be made without following the example embodiments and applications illustrated and described herein, and without departing from the true spirit and scope of the following claims.