Patent Publication Number: US-6986258-B2

Title: Operation of a hydrogen storage and supply system

Description:
DOMESTIC PRIORITY CLAIM 
   The priority of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/406,787, filed Aug. 29, 2002, is claimed. 

   FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
   This invention relates generally to the storage of hydrogen in containers and, more specifically, to an apparatus and a method for operation a cryogenic hydrogen storage system that contains porous media that can adsorb or absorb hydrogen. 
   BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
   There is considerable interest in replacing fossil fuels with hydrogen because of hydrogen&#39;s high energy density per unit weight, its ready availability through the electrolysis of water, and the absence of polluting byproducts from its use. A number of technological components present challenges in making this transition to a hydrogen economy, and in the development of appropriate systems and infrastructure that can integrate into those that already exist. Particularly in the automotive industry, one significant challenge involves the current paucity of fully satisfactory systems for hydrogen storage, ones that are safe, reliable, conformable, light-weight, and comprehensively economic. The technical issues underlying various approaches to hydrogen storage include the form within which hydrogen is stored, the nature of the medium holding the hydrogen, and the operation of the containers holding the medium. 
   Holding hydrogen either as a compressed gas or as a cryogenic liquid are the currently standard forms of hydrogen storage. Compressed hydrogen can be stored in high pressure tanks (up to 10,000 p.s.i.). A problem with this method is that hydrogen diffuses very effectively, particularly when under high pressure, and currently available high pressure tanks do not effectively prevent such diffusion over an extended period of time. The requirement that tank materials be lightweight, and the fact that tank failure or damage in the event of an accident would be catastrophic provides further reason for pause. Storage of hydrogen in liquid form at cryogenic temperatures is also an approach that shows some promise. However, liquid hydrogen storage is burdened with a high boil-off rate that limits the dormancy of cryogenic liquid tanks, the time period for which a tank is stable without venting of accrued pressure. 
   Metal hydrides, such as magnesium-based alloys, have been used as media to store hydrogen. Although this method does not require high pressure and is operable at room temperature, there are numerous drawbacks. Metal hydrides are heavy, generally heavier than the hydrogen gas by a factor of about 50. Metal hydrides also undesirably contaminate the hydrogen as it is released. Further, metal hydride storage is not energy-efficient in this context; the energy required to extract the hydrogen from the metal hydride is equivalent to nearly half the amount stored within it. Finally, the rate of heat transfer within metal hydrides is limited by the fact that they are solids, and are not able to benefit from the higher rate of heat transfer afforded by gas that exists in porous materials. Metal hydride storage has been disclosed by Liu et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 4,358,316), by Bernauer et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 4,446,101), and by Ovshinsky et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 6,328,821). 
   Cryogenic surface adsorption of hydrogen on porous host media represents an alternative technological approach. Activated carbon, which has high surface area, has been used to store hydrogen at cryogenic temperatures and moderate pressures (50-70 bar), as has been described by Schwarz (U.S. Pat. No. 4,716,736). Cryogenic storage in activated carbon can be done at a 80K, a temperature higher than that required for liquid hydrogen storage. This relatively high operating temperature is helpful, and carbon is available in large supply; nevertheless an activated carbon solution to hydrogen storage is not free of technical problems. Commonly available activated carbon, for example, is not very pure, and contaminants are released with the hydrogen, and it is difficult to obtain release of all hydrogen stored on activated carbon. Other problems associated with activated carbon include low weight percent storage capacity and the need to maintain cryogenic temperatures. The pros and cons of the use of carbon are discussed by Hynek et al. in “Hydrogen storage by carbon sorption,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 22, No. 6; 601-610, 1997. 
   Alternative forms of carbon for hydrogen storage that have been explored include carbon nanotubes and graphite fibers, which according to Rodriguez et al. (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,653,951 and 6,159,538) bind hydrogen by chemisorption. Another approach using nano-structured media constructed from light elements, as described in pending patent applications of Bradley et al. (U.S. Application No. 60/020,392) and Kwon et al. (U.S. Application No. 60/020,344) is one in which hydrogen is adsorbed by physisorption. Other carbon-based approaches include the utilization of turbostratic microstructures, as described by Maeland (U.S. Pat. No. 6,290,753) and aerogel preparations of carbon fullerenes have been described by Lamb (U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,140). While structured forms of carbon do offer potential advantages over non-structured activated carbon, the basic thermodynamic properties of carbon which determine the operating temperatures at which hydrogen is desorbed from the medium remain substantially the same. 
   In the hydrogen economy, hydrogen will be stored in different places, in different unit volumes, and in operationally varying configurations, as it moves down the supply chain from producers to consumers. Producers will need to store large inventory volumes. Hydrogen will be stored in transporting vessels as it travels from producers to distributors. Fuel distributors, including stations that deliver fuel for vehicles, other power-driven devices, and electronic devices, will have large quantities on hand. Small point-of-use storage containers will also be required in micro-power plants, vehicles, and personal electronics. All these hydrogen storage applications have in common the need to maximize the amount of gas stored per unit tank volume, and differ fundamentally from the gasoline distribution system in which the fuel retains the same and incompressible form throughout the supply chain. 
   The requirements for hydrogen storage in the hydrogen economy have not yet been fully met, and there is a need for storage media that permit systems to operate at higher temperatures and lower pressures than those presently adapted for high pressure hydrogen storage. Further, there is a need for the development of surrounding systems that can accommodate and enable the integration of the storage media into all aspects of the hydrogen fuel distribution system, from the manufacturing source to the engines and devices in which the hydrogen fuel is converted into useful power. 
   SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   In accordance with an embodiment of the present invention a cryosorptive hydrogen storage system that includes a hydrogen source apparatus and a cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus is provided. The medium that stores the hydrogen is porous and has high surface area. In some embodiments, the hydrogen source apparatus and the cryosorptive storage apparatus are on separate platforms, and on others they are on a common platform. Methods for filling the cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus from the hydrogen source apparatus and for circulating hydrogen throughout the system are provided. 
   In accordance with some embodiments of the present invention, an apparatus and method for purifying hydrogen that enters the cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus are provided. In accordance with yet other embodiments of the present invention, a catalyst to adjust the ortho-para ratio of hydrogen entering the cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus is provided. 
   In accordance with some embodiments of the present invention, features that allow warm hydrogen to escape the cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus during the filling process are provided. In other embodiments, vented warm hydrogen is captured by the inventive system and recycled into the hydrogen source apparatus, and made available again for conveyance to the cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus. In other embodiments, the warm hydrogen is captured and removed from the system. A method by which to determine the net amount of hydrogen conveyed from the hydrogen source apparatus to the cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus during a filling operation is also provided. 
   Methods for releasing hydrogen from the storage apparatus are also provided, as well as a hydrogen recycling system, which diverts hydrogen from a fuel stream into a recycle stream. Hydrogen is warmed during recycling, and the warm hydrogen provides heat to the cryosorptive storage tank, thereby facilitating the release of stored hydrogen. In accordance with some embodiments of the present invention, a hydrogen recycle loop conveys hydrogen into a recycle loop which operates during the release of hydrogen from the cryosorptive storage apparatus. Hydrogen is warmed during the recycle loop, and the movement of hydrogen through the loop is facilitated by blowing and/or compressing, as needed. The return of warm hydrogen to the cryosorptive tank facilitates further release of hydrogen. As provided by embodiments of the invention, the recycle loop can be operated in either a batch mode or a continuous mode. Other embodiments of the invention provide for more direct approaches to heat input into the cryosorptive tank, including electrical heating, and the provision of heating by way of conduction from the warmer surrounding environment. 
   Further features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in view of the detailed description of preferred embodiments below, when considered together with the attached drawings and claims. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     The foregoing aspects of this invention and others will be readily appreciated by the skilled artisan from the following brief description of illustrative embodiments when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. 
     FIG.  1 A. is a schematic representation of a pressure-composition isotherm. The amount of hydrogen adsorbed by a storage medium increases with increasing pressure. 
     FIG.  1 B. is a schematic representation of a temperature-composition isotherm. The amount of hydrogen adsorbed by a storage medium decreases with increasing temperature. 
     FIG.  2 A. is a schematic representation of a filling chronology with respect to temperature. Temperature falls as a cryosorptive vessel is exposed to a flow of cold, pressurized hydrogen. 
     FIG.  2 B. is a schematic representation of a filling chronology with respect to hydrogen content. Hydrogen content increases as a cryosorptive vessel is exposed to a flow of cold, pressurized hydrogen. 
     FIG.  2 C. is a schematic representation of a filling chronology with respect to rates of hydrogen influx and efflux. As a cryosorptive vessel is exposed to a constant rate influx of cold, pressurized hydrogen, the efflux rate initially falls away from the influx rate, but then returns to a rate equivalent to it. 
     FIG.  3 . is a schematic drawing of a cryosorptive hydrogen storage vessel, according to an embodiment of the invention. 
     FIG.  4 A. is a schematic drawing of a cryosorptive hydrogen storage vessel with a two wall structure, according to an embodiment of the invention. 
     FIG.  4 B. is a schematic drawing of a cryosorptive hydrogen storage vessel with a two wall structure and an intervening cavity. 
     FIG.  5 . is a schematic drawing of the flow of hydrogen from an external source, into a loop that circulates through the inventive hydrogen storage and supply system, exiting at various points. 
       FIG. 6  is a schematic drawing showing a hydrogen source apparatus connected to cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus. 
     FIG.  7 . is a schematic drawing of a hydrogen source apparatus and an interconnected cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus, with lines for conveying hydrogen within the source apparatus, and between the source apparatus and the cryosorptive storage apparatus. 
     FIG.  8 . is a schematic detail of the cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus, showing an ortho-para catalyst, a hydrogen purifying unit, an expansion nozzle, and a capillary-like circulatory pathway within the bulk of a cryosorptive medium. 
       FIG. 9  is a schematic diagram of a double-walled cryosorptive tank with various heating embodiments illustrated. 
       FIG. 10  is a schematic diagram of the flow of hydrogen within a recycle loop during the release of hydrogen from the system. 
       FIG. 11  is schematic chronology of events and conditions within a cryosorptive tank during the release episode of hydrogen fuel.  FIG. 11A  depicts hydrogen content within the tank during the release episode;  FIG. 11B  depicts pressure; and  FIG. 11C  depicts temperature. 
   

   DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
   The Cryosorptive Storage System: Features and General Operating Considerations 
   By adsorbing hydrogen on a high surface area medium at cryogenic temperatures, hydrogen can be stored densely at low pressures. Two areas of technology development will contribute to this area of commercial development and application. First, hydrogen storage media should be improved in terms of binding energy, storage capacity, and overall density. The first commercially practical porous hydrogen storage medium is likely to be either modified carbon, or boron nitrides, or new high-binding-energy media. Applicant has recently submitted a U.S. Patent Application (Jhi et al., Boron Oxide and Related Compounds for Hydrogen Storage), which provides an example of such a hydrogen storage medium. A second important area of technology development involves the engineering of effective containers and surrounding operating systems to accommodate and enable this form of hydrogen storage. In general, container technology will need to be responsive to the specifications and features of the storage media that emerge as being appropriate for their task. Accordingly, the basic architectural features of a hydrogen storage system centered on a low pressure cryosorptive medium-contained within a vessel have been recently described in the pending U.S. Patent Application of Bradley et al. (app. Ser. No. 10/167,946, Hydrogen Storage and Supply System). 
   Mechanical and operating features of a surface adsorbing hydrogen storage system follow from roles of heat and pressure that govern surface adsorption of hydrogen, as illustrated in  FIGS. 1A and 1B . At constant temperature, the quantity of gas adsorbed on the medium depends on the pressure of the gas in the system, as illustrated in  FIG. 1A , where the curve represents the amount of hydrogen stored as a function of pressure within a cryosorptive vessel. Initially the cryosorptive system is at low pressure, and it becomes charged, or hydrogen-loaded, by applying cold hydrogen under pressure. This creates a nonequilibrium situation with regard to the distribution of hydrogen that is resolved as hydrogen adsorbs to the medium. As hydrogen adsorbs to the medium, heat is released, according to the heat of adsorption that is particular to the gas being adsorbed (in this case hydrogen) and the properties of the host medium. 
   The role of the heat of adsorption, generally reported in units of kJ/mol of gas adsorbed, in determining the operational specifics of a gas adsorbing process has been discussed in detail in the U.S. Patent Application of Jhi et al. (App. No. 60/404,588; Boron Oxide and Related Compounds for Hydrogen Storage). Removal of this heat from the cryosorptive vessel is needed to maintain the vessel under cryogenic conditions. Another source of heat is simply that contained within the unfilled vessel itself, which is generally at a higher temperature than that of the cold hydrogen entering the space. Removal of heat from the cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus, as provided by embodiments of this invention, is generally accomplished by removal of warm hydrogen from the system, as is described in detail later in this disclosure. 
   When the cryosorptive hydrogen storage system is fully charged, the applied pressure is removed, the container closed, and the pressure in the container remains high. Release of hydrogen then occurs by pressure swing desorption. When the container is opened, hydrogen gas is discharged, the pressure inside the vessel drops, and hydrogen is desorbed from the storage medium. The system moves progressively down the curve depicted in  FIG. 1A  towards lower pressure and lower hydrogen content; at zero pressure, the hydrogen would be fully discharged. 
   In practice, however, the pressure of the partially depleted tank preferably does not even reach 1 bar, and temperature-swing desorption plays a role in hydrogen discharge as well. Fuel cells typically require two to three bar of pressure at their inlets, and thus the pressure inside the storage container should not drop below this level. Even at low pressures, however, a substantial amount of hydrogen remains in the medium. Temperature swing desorption, a process whereby medium-adsorbed hydrogen is driven off the medium as temperature increases, is required to extract this remaining hydrogen. At a constant pressure, the quantity of gas adsorbed on a medium depends on the temperature, as illustrated in  FIG. 1B , where the curve represents the amount of hydrogen stored as a function of the temperature within a cryosorptive vessel. When the system has been discharged to a pressure of several bar, it is initially at a low temperature. To extract more hydrogen, the medium is heated, and the system moves rightward along the curve to higher temperature and lower hydrogen content. Just as a quantity of heat is released as hydrogen adsorbs onto the storage medium; so is a required quantity of heat consumed as hydrogen desorbs from the medium, thereby lowering the temperature in the cryosorptive vessel. This energy, the heat of adsorption, is analogous to the latent heat involved when a liquid boils, and can be thought of as the latent heat of “boiling” off adsorbed hydrogen. This is a large quantity of heat, and for many storage media, it will exceed typical cryogenic latent heats. 
   FIGS.  2 (A, B, and C) depicts a chronological course of conditions during the filling of a cryosorptive tank with cold hydrogen;  FIG. 2A  tracks temperature,  FIG. 2B  tracks hydrogen content, and  FIG. 2C  tracks hydrogen flow rates both into the tank and out of the tank. Over the course of filling of a hydrogen-empty tank, temperature falls ( FIG. 2A ) from the pre-fill initial temperature eventually to the temperature of the cold hydrogen entering the system. The time course of hydrogen content on the porous storage medium ( FIG. 2B ) mirrors the temperature course; initially the medium contains no hydrogen, but as temperature drops as a result of exposure to the influx of cold hydrogen, the host medium accumulates stored hydrogen until it reaches a saturation point at about the same time the temperature reaches that of the cold incoming hydrogen. The hydrogen content is depicted in terms relative to the maximum storage for the particular porous medium. The maximum storage in absolute terms (gm hydrogen/gm host medium, or hydrogen mass/volume) is a function of the specific material properties of the host porous medium. 
   The hydrogen flow rates in and out of a cryosorptive vessel are depicted in FIG.  2 C. For the sake of simplicity the influx rate is shown as being constant, although in practice, hydrogen filling would not necessarily require a constant influx rate. Initially, the hydrogen efflux rate is equivalent to the influx rate, as the initial temperature of the cryosorptive storage medium is high enough to preclude hydrogen adsorption. However, as temperature drops within the medium, hydrogen adsorption is initiated, and the rate at which hydrogen is adsorbed is subtracted from the hydrogen flux through the vessel. Thus, the efflux rate falls for a period of time; and then as the host medium becomes hydrogen-saturated, the rate of adsorption falls, and the rate of hydrogen flux through the system eventually rises to equal the rate at which hydrogen is entering the vessel. At this point, clearly, the filling process is complete, and hydrogen influx is terminated. 
   Overview of the Hydrogen Storage and Supply System 
   An embodiment of this hydrogen storage and supply system, according to the invention, uses a cryosorptive hydrogen storage tank that receives hydrogen from the hydrogen economy&#39;s distribution chain; the hydrogen is generally channeled through an intermediary, or so-called first tank. The invention offers wide flexibility in terms of the form in which hydrogen arrives to the system, either as a liquid, gas, or chemical or metal hydride, as well as flexibility in terms of the storage vessels and means of conveyance by which the hydrogen arrives. Table 1 outlines the various embodiments and associated terminology which are useful in describing and understanding the nature of the invention, in the context of net flow of hydrogen from the distribution chain, through a first tank, and into the cryosorptive vessel. 
   
     
       
         
             
           
             
               TABLE 1 
             
           
          
             
                 
             
             
               Filling a Cryosorptive Tank From the Hydrogen Distribution Chain: 
             
             
               A Detailing of Analogous Components and Terms, According to Various 
             
             
               Embodiments of the Invention 
             
          
         
         
             
             
          
             
                 
               Direction of Net Hydrogen Flow: 
             
             
                 
               Across the Three Columns, from Left to Right 
             
             
                 
                 
             
          
         
         
             
             
             
          
             
               Hydrogen 
               Hydrogen source 
               Hydrogen Storage and 
             
             
               Location: 
               external to the 
               Supply System (Part 50) 
             
          
         
         
             
             
             
             
          
             
               basic 
               inventive system: 
               Hydrogen 
               Hydrogen 
             
             
               terminology, 
               the Hydrogen 
               Source 
               Cryosorptive 
             
             
               and part 
               Distribution 
               Apparatus 
               Storage Apparatus 
             
             
               numbers 
               Chain (Part 300) 
               (Part 200) 
               (Part 100) 
             
             
               Alternative terms, 
               Distribution via 
               First Tank 
               Second Tank 
             
             
               configurations, 
               tank trucks, 
               Supply 
               Recipient Tank 
             
             
               or relative 
               railroad tank 
               Source Tank 
             
             
               location, 
               cars, pipelines, 
               Onsite Fuel 
               Vehicle or Machine 
             
             
               according 
               etc. 
               Station Tank 
               Fuel Tank 
             
             
               to various 
                 
               Common 
               Common Platform 
             
             
               embodiments 
                 
               Platform 
             
             
               Hydrogen Form 
               Hydrogen in 
               Hydrogen in 
               Hydrogen, 
             
             
               and Storage 
               various forms and 
               various 
               adsorbed on a 
             
             
               Configuration 
               storage 
               forms, 
               porous medium, 
             
             
                 
               configurations 
               including 
               stored in a 
             
             
                 
                 
               liquid, and 
               cryosorptive tank 
             
             
                 
                 
               varied 
             
             
                 
                 
               storage tank 
             
             
                 
                 
               configura- 
             
             
                 
                 
               tions 
             
             
                 
             
          
         
       
     
   
     FIG. 3  provides a simple schematic view of a cryosorptive storage apparatus  100 , an embodiment of a vessel, amidst surrounding lines and connections centrally located within the inventive system. It contains an insulated pressure chamber with a cold enclosure  120 , commonly known as a dewar; the dewar contains a porous hydrogen storage medium, and is fitted with all connections and equipment necessary to enable its operation. The operating pressure range of this vessel is far below the 350 bar to 700 bar range of high pressure vessels; it is typically about 10 to about 30 bar, but can include a larger pressure range of between about 1 bar and up to 50 bar or higher. The working volume required for this vessel depends on various interrelated metrics such as the hydrogen storage capacity of the medium (wt/wt %), the density of the medium (gm/L), and the absolute quantity of hydrogen stored (grams or moles/vessel). 
   As shown in  FIG. 3 , the cold enclosure  120  contains porous material, or host medium  130  with high surface area, that is capable of adsorbing or absorbing hydrogen. For the purposes of this disclosure, “porosity” is defined as the fractional percent of a material-occupied volume that is void, and by “porous material” is meant a material with a porosity greater than 50%. It is important for a host medium to be porous because pores provide access of gas to the medium, and because porosity, in general, is associated with high surface area. It is not the case for this invention, however, that very high porosity, such as a porosity of greater than 95%, is necessarily better. High porosity also brings with it a void volume burden, which ultimately compromises the hydrogen storage capacity as expressed in terms of hydrogen density per unit volume. High surface area porous material, for some embodiments, indicates a surface area greater than 900 m 2 /gm. In general, material with a surface area in the range of 900 m 2 /g to 4000 m 2 /g is an appropriate range. In other applications; a range of 2000 m 2 /g to 4000 m 2 /g may be appropriate, in still other application a range of 3000 m 2 /g to 4000 m 2 /g may be appropriate. The porous material  130  contains light elements from the second and third rows of the periodic table, including Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, and Cl and/or compounds thereof. Activated carbon is an example of such a material. A high surface area preparation of boron oxide is another example. The benefit derived from the use of light elements and compounds thereof is that the medium itself thus becomes light weight, or low density, and the amount of hydrogen adsorbed per unit weight of host medium thus becomes high. 
   The container  110  can have one port  140  as shown, or it can have more than one port  140 . The one or more ports  140  provide channels for hydrogen flow into and out of the cold enclosure  120 . The ports  140  can include valves (not shown) to control the hydrogen flow. For example, a first port  140  can be used to provide hydrogen to the cold enclosure  120 , and a second port (not shown) can be used to withdraw hydrogen from the cold enclosure  120 . Although  FIG. 3  shows the distal end  160  of the port  140  extending beyond the exterior surface  150  of the container  110 , this is only one possible arrangement. The distal end  160  of the port  140  can be flush with the exterior surface  150  of the container  110 , or the distal end  160  can be recessed with respect to the exterior surface  150 , as long as the arrangement provides a channel for hydrogen flow into or out of the cold enclosure  120 . The distal end  160  of the port can engage with fittings on outside elements (not shown). Outside elements can provide hydrogen to the cold enclosure  120  or withdraw hydrogen from the cold enclosure  120  through the one or more ports  140 . 
     FIGS. 4A and 4B  show other embodiments of the invention, wherein the container for a hydrogen storage and supply apparatus has a multiple wall structure. In  FIG. 4A , the cold enclosure  120  is surrounded by a first wall  108  that is surrounded by a second wall  112 . In this arrangement, the first wall  108  and the second wall  112  are generally in contact with one another. In  FIG. 4B , the cold enclosure  120  is surrounded by a first wall  108  that is surrounded by a second wall  112 , and there is an intervening cavity  114  between the two walls. The cavity  114  can provide thermal insulation. The thermal insulation can be a in the form of a high quality vacuum, preferably the vacuum is below 10 −5  torr, and more preferably, below 10 −7  torr. The thermal insulation can be an insulating material (not shown), such as aerogel, disposed within the cavity or a thermal radiation reflecting material, such as multi-layer vacuum super insulation. 
     FIGS. 4A and 4B  each show containers having two walls, but any number of walls can be used. The walls  108 ,  112 , and others (not shown) can be made all of the same material, or different materials can be used for different walls. In one preferable arrangement, for example, the first wall  108  is a composite material, and the second wall  112  is aluminum. The containers illustrated in  FIGS. 4A and 4B  each have a port  140  as was shown for the illustrated embodiment in FIG.  3 . As was discussed for  FIG. 3 , the containers can have one or more ports  140 , which provide channels for hydrogen flow into and out of the cold enclosure  120 . The ports  140  can include valves (not shown) to control the hydrogen flow. For example, a first port  140  can be used to provide hydrogen to the cold enclosure  120 , and a second port  140 ′ (not shown) can be used to withdraw hydrogen from the cold enclosure  120 . The distal end  160  of the port  140  can be flush with the exterior surface  150  of the container, or the distal end  160  can be recessed with respect to the exterior surface  150 , as long as the arrangement provides a channel for hydrogen flow into and out of the cold enclosure  120 . The distal end  160  of the port can engage with fittings on outside elements (not shown). Outside elements can provide hydrogen to the cold enclosure  120  or withdraw hydrogen from the cold enclosure  120  through the one or more ports  140 . 
   Flow of Hydrogen within the System during Filling 
     FIG. 5  schematically depicts the flow of hydrogen through embodiments of the hydrogen distribution and storage system  50 , in which hydrogen enters from an external source  300 . Hydrogen entering the system  50  is cooled and/or compressed in step  232 , as needed, prior to entry into a hydrogen source tank  210 . Upon exit from the hydrogen source tank  210 , hydrogen is cooled and/or compressed at step  234 , as needed, prior to entry into a cryosorptive storage apparatus  100 . In general, embodiments of the invention make use of either of the cooling and compressing steps  232  or  234 ; some embodiments of the invention make use of both steps, others make use of one or the other. Many factors and constraints, as for example will be related to specifics of the surrounding hydrogen economy infrastructure, will determine the most advantageous distribution of refrigeration and compression steps, either before or after storage in a hydrogen source tank  210 . What the embodiments have in common, in spite of variability with regard to the distribution of refrigeration and compression process steps, is that hydrogen is cold and pressurized upon entry into the cryosorptive storage apparatus  100 . 
   Upon exit from the cryosorptive storage apparatus, in most settings and applications, hydrogen is warmer and at a lower pressure than that at which it entered. Following its exit from the cryosorptive vessel, the warm hydrogen has three broad optional paths to follow. One path exits the inventive hydrogen storage and supply system  50 , and is directed toward a venting into the environment, or toward a hydrogen consuming device  550 . Examples of hydrogen-consuming or hydrogen-powered systems include any of those driven by a fuel cell or a hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine, such as vehicles, industrial machines, household or commercial appliances, and/or electronic devices. The vehicles and other machines and devices are hydrogen-powered, but also include hybrid systems that operate on an additional form of power as well. A second path from the cryosorptive vessel also directs the warm hydrogen toward exiting the system, but conveys it toward an external hydrogen storage option  350 , for ultimate export to an external hydrogen processing apparatus. A third path directs the warm hydrogen back toward the hydrogen source tank  210 . Some embodiments of the invention provide for a warm hydrogen storage option  280  which holds the hydrogen within the system. With- or without the warm hydrogen storage  280 , captured warm hydrogen within the system is cooled and compressed in step  232 , thereby entering the same loop as that of hydrogen from an external source  300 . 
     FIG. 6  focuses on some details of the hydrogen source apparatus  200 , the hydrogen cryosorptive storage apparatus  100 , and the flow of hydrogen between them. As depicted in  FIG. 6  hydrogen flows within the inventive system from a hydrogen source apparatus  200 , as for example, could be found in a stationary fuel station, into a hydrogen cryosorptive storage apparatus  100  as, for example, could be found as a tank onboard a vehicle. In other embodiments of the present invention, the source apparatus  200  and cryosorptive storage apparatus  100  could both be included or mounted on a common platform, either stationary or mobile. Hydrogen flows from the source apparatus  200  through line  440  into the cryosorptive storage apparatus; it flows in the opposite direction, from the cryosorptive storage apparatus  100  back to the source apparatus through line  450 . 
     FIG. 7  provides a more detailed schematic view of hydrogen flow within the system, as it depicts various components within the hydrogen source apparatus that are provided by embodiments of this invention. Hydrogen from an external source  300  enters the bounds of the inventive hydrogen storage and supply apparatus  50 , and the hydrogen source apparatus  200 , more specifically, through line  410 . Within the hydrogen source apparatus, in this particular embodiment, hydrogen first enters a compressor unit  230 , and exits the compressor through line  420  to enter a refrigeration unit  220 . Hydrogen exits the refrigeration unit via line  430 , and enters the hydrogen source tank  210 . Some embodiments have a temperature control or refrigeration unit  240 , which maintains the temperature of the source tank  210  at an appropriate level. From the source tank  210 , hydrogen exits via line  440  and enters the cryosorptive storage apparatus  100 . Hydrogen exits the cryosorptive apparatus and can exit the system via fuel line  460 , to be vented or utilized by a hydrogen consuming device  550 . Exiting hydrogen can also be conveyed back to the hydrogen source apparatus via recycle line  450 , and enter the compressor unit  230 . The embodiment depicted in  FIG. 7  is but one example of an operable embodiment of the present invention. Many other various embodiments of the invention, differentiated by details of hydrogen flow and process step order are possible according to the principles outlined in this disclosure, and the options depicted in  FIG. 5 , and as generally understood by those practiced in these arts. 
   With regard to the case in which a hydrogen source tank is coupled to a recipient tank containing a cryosorptive medium on the same platform, either stationary or mobile, a coupled, closed, or closable system is created that includes both the hydrogen source apparatus and the cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus. In this case, hydrogen entering the recipient tank can be adsorbed by the cryosorptive medium and subsequently cycled back to be recaptured by the source tank, with cooling and compressing, as desired, within the coupled system. 
   Hydrogen flowing into the cryosorptive apparatus, in order to charge it with adsorbed hydrogen, is preferably cold and pressurized, as has been discussed above. If the immediate hydrogen source is liquid hydrogen, then the cold temperature requirement is already met by the liquid, which is then poured onto the medium under a pressure generally only slightly higher atmospheric pressure. If, on the other hand, the immediate hydrogen source is not cold, as is the case with hydrogen coming from a high pressure tank, from a solid metal hydride-containing storage tank, or from a large volume cryosorptive tank, embodiments of the invention, as detailed herein, provide for the cooling of the hydrogen prior to its entry into the cryosorptive storage tank. In general, hydrogen flowing back from the cryosorptive storage apparatus  100  to the hydrogen source apparatus  200  is warmer and under less pressure than the hydrogen which entered the cryosorptive apparatus. 
   Filling the Cryosorptive Storage System from Various Hydrogen Sources 
   Hydrogen entering a cryosorptive recipient apparatus  100  is preferably cold and under pressure. The specifics of the temperature and pressure ranges are determined by the properties of the cryosorptive medium. In the case of carbon, for example, for a pressure a range of about 10 to about 30 bar, it is useful for hydrogen to be in temperature range of about 40K to about 80K. In the case of boron oxide, for another example, for a pressure a range of about 10 to about 30 bar, it is useful for hydrogen to be in temperature range of about 100K to about 140K. The appropriate pressure ranges of entering hydrogen are determined by the operating specifications of the cryosorptive vessel, which is generally in range of about 1 to about 30 bar. The upper end of the range could extend, however, to include pressures of about 50 bar and above. Gaseous hydrogen entering the cryosorptive vessel generally exceeds the targeted final pressure of the vessel by several bar. In general, a factor limiting the filling rate involves the rate of the generated heat of adsorption on filling, while the pressure differential between entering hydrogen and the internal pressure of the recipient cryosorptive vessel is less significant. In other embodiments of the present invention, hydrogen is delivered to the cryosorptive vessel as a liquid, and pressure and temperature concerns associated with gaseous hydrogen are removed. 
   One of the organizing principles in the design and description of this invention is that of the relative position of storage and processing components within the overall flow of hydrogen, as organized above in Table 1. By external hydrogen source  300  is meant a connecting delivery link in a larger hydrogen distribution chain, such as a hydrogen tanker truck, or railroad tank car, or pipeline from a large storage depot. For the sake of providing a clear example, the source tank  210  as described in this disclosure can be exemplified as the onsite storage tank at a fuel station, and a recipient tank can be exemplified as the hydrogen fuel storage tank on a vehicle. Under some circumstances, it can be useful, when describing invention embodiments, to simply designate the source vessel in this example as a first tank, and the recipient vessel as a second tank. The onsite storage vessel at the fuel station, a source of hydrogen for the cryosorptive apparatus at the center of this invention is, itself, a hydrogen recipient when it receives a hydrogen load conveyed to it by a tank truck. Similarly, the recipient tank  100  is itself a source of hydrogen for the fuel cell. Further, it is not necessarily the case that the source vessel and the recipient vessel are on platforms easily defined as separate, such as (1) a stationary tank (onsite fuel station storage) and (2) a portable tank (vehicular fuel storage). In some embodiments of this invention, source and recipient vessels, or a first tank and a second tank, are contained within a single couple system, or on a common platform, configured to recapture hydrogen into the first tank after cycling through the second tank. 
   There are several broad classes of source hydrogen, at a fuel station for example, and embodiments of the present invention provide for apparatus and methods to provide cold, pressurized hydrogen from each source to the recipient cryosorptive vessel. The hydrogen source classes include at least (1) liquid hydrogen; (2) gaseous hydrogen; (3) a metal hydride; (5) a chemical hydride; and/or 5) hydrogen as a gas desorbed from a porous medium. 
   With regard to use of an onsite liquid hydrogen source apparatus, embodiments of the invention provide for the various alternative methods of filling from such a source. In one embodiment, liquid hydrogen is delivered by a truck, stored as a liquid in an onsite holding tank, generally underground, and hydrogen evaporates from the liquid to create cold gas under pressure. In a another embodiment, gaseous hydrogen is delivered in a truck, is liquefied onsite, held in a holding tank, and hydrogen evaporates therefrom to create cold gas under pressure. In still another embodiment, liquid hydrogen is delivered by truck, the liquid hydrogen is stored on site as a liquid, and delivered to the cryosorptive tank as a liquid. 
   With regard to use of a gaseous hydrogen source apparatus, embodiments of the invention provide for the various alternative methods of filling from such a source. Gaseous hydrogen is delivered to the fuel station under pressure, stored as gaseous hydrogen under pressure, and refrigerated during the pumping process. Alternatively hydrogen is delivered, refrigerated, stored as a cold gas, and then pumped into the cryosorptive vessel. 
   With regard to the delivery of hydrogen as a metal hydride, embodiments of the invention provide for various alternative methods of filling from such a source. Hydrogen is delivered as a metal hydride, stored in a holding tank as a metal hydride, and compressed and refrigerated, and then pumped into the cryosorptive vessel. Refrigeration and compression can be accomplished by conventional equipment and methods, or, as other embodiments of the invention provide, the thermodynamic properties of metal hydrides can be exploited to accomplish the compression and or refrigeration. Alternatively, metal hydrides can be delivered, stored in any other form, and delivered by methods as described herein appropriate for that storage form. 
   With regard to the delivery of hydrogen as a chemical hydride, embodiments of the invention provide for the various alternative methods of filling from such a source. Hydrogen is delivered as a chemical hydride, stored in a holding tank as a chemical hydride, and compressed and refrigerated in a pump which is directed toward the cryosorptive vessel. Alternatively, chemical hydrides can be delivered, stored in any other form, and delivered by methods as described herein appropriate for that storage form. 
   With regard to use of hydrogen desorbed from a source apparatus containing a porous medium, embodiments of the invention provide for the various alternative methods of filling from such a source. Hydrogen comes to be stored in the onsite fuel source in several possible ways, according to embodiments of the invention. In one embodiment, hydrogen is delivered to a filling station as a liquid, and poured into a porous medium storage tank onsite. In another embodiment, hydrogen is delivered to the fuel station in gaseous form, refrigerated, and conveyed onto the storage medium. In still another embodiment, hydrogen is delivered to the fuel station as hydrogen desorbed from a transported porous medium tank; in this case it is also refrigerated, and then conveyed to the onsite cryosorptive fuel storage tank. In all these embodiments hydrogen desorbed from the onsite cryosorptive fuel source tank is conveyed to the recipient cryosorptive storage vessel. If the porous storage medium in the source vessel is the same as that in the recipient vessel, then the hydrogen desorbed from the source vessel, being warm and under-pressured, is compressed and refrigerated, as provided by embodiments of this invention, prior to entry into the recipient vessel. 
   Refrigeration can play an important role in the delivery of hydrogen both to the hydrogen source apparatus for storage, and to recipient cryosorptive apparatus, according to several of the above-described embodiments. For example, in the embodiment in which the onsite source vessel itself is cryosorptive, refrigeration can be required in order to provide for efficient adsorption by the storage medium. Depending on the specifics of the application within embodiments of the invention and preferred efficiencies, various refrigeration cycles may be appropriate. Refrigeration efficiency is affected by both the number of compressors and heat exchangers used in the system; representative cycles include variations of the Brayton cycle and Claude cycle. 
   Purifying Entering Hydrogen during Filling, and Adjusting the Ortho-Para Ratio 
     FIG. 8  depicts details the location of several embodiments of the invention, including features that purify hydrogen entering the cryosorptive vessel during a filling operation, and adjust the ortho-para spin state ratio of hydrogen, which varies according to the temperature of hydrogen. One potential problem with regard to filling a cryosorptive vessel with hydrogen is that contaminating gases in the hydrogen supply can preferentially adsorb to the medium, and thereby significantly degrade the capacity of the medium to adsorb hydrogen. Accordingly, the present invention provides for an onboard hydrogen purifier. In one embodiment of the present invention, a palladium membrane (not shown) purifier is included in the hydrogen flow path on line  440 . These devices are highly efficient, and can produce hydrogen with a purity of 99.9999999%; these devices are, however, expensive and fragile. In another embodiment of the present invention, the hydrogen is passed through a filter containing a packed column of activated carbon  620 , located on line  440 . Activated carbon adsorbs contaminants from the gas stream down to the parts per million level, which is a more than sufficient specification for this application. 
   Hydrogen gas has two different spin states, corresponding to two different orientations of the nuclear spin. The spin-aligned state, known as para-hydrogen, is lower in energy; the spin anti-aligned state, ortho-hydrogen, is higher in energy and has more states. At temperatures much higher than the energy difference, equilibrium distribution of hydrogen is 75% ortho and 25% para. At low temperatures, equilibrium hydrogen is all or substantially all in the para form. The proportion of hydrogen which is ortho at equilibrium declines from 75% at room temperature to 0% at 1 K, passing through 50% at around 80 K. This temperature-driven change in spin state releases energy as hydrogen is cooled (becoming para), and absorbs energy as hydrogen warms up (becoming ortho). The rate of the conversion process is remarkably slow; if the temperature of a batch of hydrogen is changed quickly, it can take on the order days for the ortho-para ratio to equilibrate. 
   Accordingly, an embodiment of the present invention includes a bed of ortho-para conversion catalyst, so that the hydrogen delivered to and from the storage medium has the ortho-para ratio appropriate for 80K. This feature allows the system as a whole to take advantage of the energy release that accompanies the ortho-para conversion. Various catalysts that accelerate the ortho-para conversion have been described, such as iron oxide nanoparticles. Several catalytic configurations are included; in one embodiment the catalyst is dispersed within the storage medium, in another ( FIG. 8 ) the catalyst  700  is contained within the line  450  through which hydrogen passes. The presence of catalytic material ensures that the hydrogen is always at its temperature-associated equilibrium. The equilibrium state provides two significant benefits. The dormancy of filled tanks is increased, as the filled vessel does not have to absorb the heat of ortho-para conversion; and the amount of hydrogen needed to fill the tank is lessened, as the system takes full advantage of the heat capacity of gaseous hydrogen. 
   Cooling Hydrogen Prior to Entry into the Cryosorptive Tank During Filling, Heat Removal from the Cryosorptive Tank, and Rapid Hydrogen Movement within the Medium 
   It is helpful to review the heat-related and cooling-related aspects of the process of hydrogen adsorption on a host medium, as has been described above. Hydrogen, preferably cold and pressurized, is supplied to the cryosorptive apparatus. As the medium reaches a sufficiently low temperature, hydrogen begins to adsorb on to the medium, thereby releasing the heat of adsorption into the interior of the storage vessel. In time, the medium reaches its final temperature and becomes fully charged with hydrogen. The sum of the newly released heat, meanwhile, has warmed a quantity of hydrogen gas, now under temperature-driven increased pressure. To enable recapture of the warm hydrogen for use by the hydrogen storage and supply system, as provided by embodiments, the system removes such heat. 
   In some embodiments of the invention, cooling of entering hydrogen, if necessary, is provided by refrigeration, as described above. The invention, however, further provides another embodiment, as depicted in  FIG. 8 , that contributes to cooling in the form of an expansion nozzle  800 . The nozzle provides for a point-of-use cooling capability, thus relieving at least some need for a cold temperature storage capacity. The expansion nozzle transforms the energy of the high pressure of an input hydrogen stream into a lowering the temperature of the gas stream. This nozzle is located at the point where incoming source hydrogen enters the cryosorptive system via line  440 ; one embodiment provides it attached to the distal end of line  440  from the fuel source apparatus, another embodiment provides for the nozzle to be configured at the entry port into the cryosorptive storage apparatus, and through which hydrogen is conveyed. 
   The invention has embodiments that provide for further refinements that enable efficient operation of the tank. To achieve efficient hydrogen penetration into the cryosorptive medium, and heat transfer for quick filling, for example, one embodiment of the system provides for tubes or channels that distribute the gas, and provide for movement of heat through the medium. In one embodiment, a highly pervasive distribution system comprises a few large tubes radiating distally from a central point to a plurality of smaller tubes on the peripheral aspect of the storage medium, in a manner similar to the bronchial system of the vertebrate lung. Another embodiment  135 , shown in  FIG. 8 , is one in which a capillary-like system provides for efficient flow of gas and heat from the point of entry into the cryosorptive apparatus through the point of exit. In this configuration, gas enters the apparatus and is directed toward large channels that radiate into the bulk of the cryosorptive medium and branch into channels of increasingly smaller diameter. Once a minimum diameter is reached, the channels begin to coalesce into common exit channels of increasingly larger radius. As a whole, therefore, the capillary system contains large channels at the entry and exit into the bulk medium, and the large entry and exit channels provide a contiguous space connected by a plurality of smaller channels. Such a configuration provides for efficient flow of cold hydrogen into the adsorbing medium, and efficient efflux of a mixture of unadsorbed hydrogen and warm hydrogen generated during the adsorption process. 
   Recapture of Warm Hydrogen from the Cryosorptive Tank and Determining the Net Hydrogen Transfer during a Filling Operation 
   The cryosorptive hydrogen storage vessel generates warm hydrogen by ways that include adsorption of the ambient heat within the unfilled vessel, from the heat generated by the heat of adsorption during the process of hydrogen adsorption on the host medium, and by heat leaked from the external environment. Warm hydrogen, pressure-driven to escape the cryosorptive apparatus, can be vented to the environment, as noted above, but is also available for recovery, as provided by embodiments of this invention. Methods of recovery of warm hydrogen broadly include (1) recovery within the hydrogen storage and system, or (2) by exporting to external systems. To briefly review the hydrogen recovery process that occurs within the bounds of the inventive system, embodiments provide that recovered hydrogen can be cycled back to the hydrogen source apparatus, through a cooler  220  and compressor  230 , to be delivered to fuel station storage tanks  210  (refer to FIGS.  5  and  7 ). In this scheme, the energy output or penalty for recapturing hydrogen, and removing heat generated by the adsorption of hydrogen to the medium is operationally assumed by the fueling station. 
   From the perspective of the fuel station, or the hydrogen source apparatus, which services multiple vehicles, the returned gas penalty per net hydrogen fill will vary from car to car, depending on the starting temperature of the cryosorptive storage medium and other particulars of the vehicular fuel system. However, the cost of the penalty can be accounted for by measuring the quantity and temperature of warm hydrogen being conveyed back to the hydrogen source apparatus  200  during any particular filling episode. Flow measurement can occur, according to various embodiments at the point of exit from the cryosorptive storage apparatus, at the point of entry into the hydrogen source apparatus, or at any undivided point of flow between the cryosorptive apparatus and the source apparatus. While the hydrogen delivery efficiency penalty is operationally assumed by the fueling station, an embodiment of this invention provides for a business method whereby the penalty cost is factored in to the total cost to the customer for the fueling. 
   The invention provides for flow meters and thermometers within the hydrogen lines that convey hydrogen back and forth between the hydrogen source apparatus and the cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus, and such flow volume and temperature information is electronically captured within the hydrogen source apparatus. Cost calculations account for the net hydrogen flow and net heat from the hydrogen source apparatus to the cryosorptive hydrogen storage apparatus. A cost factor is assigned to the returned hydrogen according to the total heat returned to the source apparatus, a higher cost being associated with warm hydrogen as greater energy expenditure is required of the system in order to cool and compress it to the appropriate temperature to return it to the hydrogen source tank. 
   Releasing Hydrogen from the Cryosorptive Hydrogen Storage Apparatus 
   The mechanical and operating features of a surface adsorbing hydrogen storage system follow from roles of heat and pressure that govern surface adsorption of hydrogen, as illustrated in FIG.  1 .  FIG. 1A  shows that the dependency of a quantity of gas (e.g., hydrogen) adsorbed on a storage medium, when held at a constant temperature, depends on the pressure of the gas in the system; within a limit of saturation, a greater pressure favors a higher storage level. The discharge of hydrogen from the vessel, during the process of normal use, occurs slowly, in comparison to the very rapid hydrogen filling process, and thus the distribution of hydrogen between being a free gas and being medium-sorbed closely tracks the pressure-determined equilibrium shown in FIG.  1 A throughout discharge. Accordingly, upon initiation of a hydrogen release from a filled tank with an initial pressure of about 30 bar, for example, pressure declines within the tank. As pressure drops, so does the content of hydrogen stored on the cryosorptive medium, following the curve of content as a function of pressure in a leftward direction according to FIG.  1 A. 
   The relative simplicity of the relationships depicted in  FIG. 1A , where pressure is varied in the context of a constant temperature, and  FIG. 1B , where temperature is varied in the context of a constant pressure, translate into a more complex picture during the dynamic changes in pressure and temperature that actually occur during fuel release. An exchange of a heat of adsorption accompanies gas adsorption onto and desorption from a host medium. Heat is generated when gas is adsorbed onto a storage medium, as the gas-host system as a whole moves a state of lower energy. In the case of the desorption that occurs during a fuel release episode, heat is consumed as the gas-host system as a whole moves to a state of higher energy. 
   As heat is consumed during the process of hydrogen desorption and release, the temperature within the cryosorptive vessel begins to decrease. As the temperature decreases, in accordance with the gas law, so decreases the gas pressure within the system. Thus, a decrease in pressure within the cryosorptive vessel during fuel release occurs for two reasons: (1) from the escape of gaseous hydrogen, and (2) from the temperature decrease. Without intervention, the pressure within the cryosorptive tank releasing hydrogen would soon fall below a level (e.g., 2-3 bar), constituting the minimum pressure requirement for driving an energy-converting device, such as a fuel cell. Intervention in the form of controlled heat input, as provided by embodiments of this invention, enables the temperature to remain at a sufficient level in the cryosorptive tank to maintain pressure at a sufficient level to drive a hydrogen-powered device. 
   Release of hydrogen from a filled cryosorptive tank typically begins with a pressure of about 10 to about 30 bar. The evident pressure drive provided by the approximate 10-fold drop in pressure to the level of a depleted tank (1-3 bar), however, is by itself generally an inadequate mechanism for running an efficient and controlled fuel release process. In most settings, input of heat usefully facilitates a sustained and controlled release of hydrogen. Accordingly, various embodiments of the invention provide a heat-driven fuel extraction process that offers an energy-efficient approach to extraction of hydrogen from a cryosorptive storage system. 
     FIG. 1B  shows a temperature-content isobaric curve operating at a pressure of a few atmospheres. As the medium is heated, its temperature drives the system rightward, down the isothermic curve, and hydrogen is desorbed from the medium. The amount of heat required to drive a gas from an adsorptive storage medium is a function of several factors, including the heat capacity of the medium, the heat capacity of the gas being heated, and importantly, the heat of adsorption of the gas on the medium. In the case of the storage of hydrogen on activated carbon, a heat input of about 5% of the heat content of the adsorbed hydrogen is an amount sufficient to drive a sustained release; for other storage media, this quantity may be significantly greater. The calculations that follow make exemplary use of values that come from the case of hydrogen storage on activated carbon, but the principles would apply to adsorption of hydrogen onto any storage medium. 
   Two general methods are available to extract the hydrogen from a cryosorptive tank with heat. One is to provide heat directly, through an electrical heater, for example, powered by the fuel cell itself, or through a heat leak from a warmer environment. Another is to provide heat in the form of recycled hydrogen from the cryosorptive hydrogen efflux stream, which is warmed prior to being returned to the tank. Embodiments of the present invention provide for heat delivery by both approaches. 
   Electrical heating, as an example of a direct heating approach, offers an advantage in that it is relatively simple to engineer, and can be more effective than passive heat transfer approaches. Electrical heating does come at a cost, however, as the power expenditure degrades the overall efficiency of hydrogen power as provided by the fuel cell. Heating by way of recycling hydrogen, which is warmed while recycling, generally entails more engineering than the electrical heater approach, but it does offer two significant advantages. First, there is minimal degrading of the overall efficiency of the hydrogen fuel, as the recycled hydrogen is heated by freely available heat. Second, heat provided by warm hydrogen is highly pervasive in nature, and provides for a heat transfer path within the cryosorptive tank that is more efficient than can be provided by direct electrical heating. 
   Heat Provision by Direct Approaches during a Releasing Operation 
   Embodiments of the present invention thus provide for heat input by various direct approaches, and through the use of recycled hydrogen that is warmed. What follows first is a discussion of approaches to direct heating of the cryosorptive tank and the medium contained therein. In general, cryosorptive tanks take the form of a dewar, with a double-wall construction as depicted in detail earlier, in FIG.  4 B.  FIG. 9  schematically depicts a cryosorptive storage apparatus  100  fitted with various devices by which heat can be supplied to the cryosorptive tank. As described earlier, a cold enclosure  120  is surrounded by a first wall  108  that is surrounded by a second wall  112 , and there is an intervening cavity  114  between the two walls. The cavity provides a thermal insulating layer, and can take the form of a high quality vacuum, and/or it can contain an insulating material, such as aerogel, disposed within the cavity or a thermal radiation reflecting material, such as multi-layer vacuum super insulation.  FIG. 9  includes four separate heating devices: an electrical heater  920 , a mechanical contact  922 , a gas reservoir and pump unit  925 , and a sorbent pump  926 . All four devices are included in the figure for purposes of illustration; but in actual implementations, any one or any subset of these desorption mechanisms could be used. 
   The heat input for the temperature-swing desorption can be supplied from various sources, for example, from a heater powered by a fuel cell, from the external environment, or from capture of waste heat generated by a hydrogen-powered device. These hydrogen-powered devices operate at various efficiencies; a hydrogen internal combustion engine operates at an efficiency in the range of about 20% to 30%; a fuel cell typically operates at an efficiency of about 50%. A system drawing hydrogen to power a steady load could, for example, provide power back to the storage system at a rate of 5% of the power being drawn. In one embodiment of the invention, for example, an automobile with an engine of 50 kW (about 67 horsepower) would accordingly supply 2.5 kW or more to the storage tank. Thus, as depicted in  FIG. 9 , an electrical heater  920 , powered by the fuel cell, is imbedded in the storage medium. Supplying the desorption heat via a heater powered by the fuel cell does degrade the overall efficiency of the fuel cell, and is this rate of energy expense needs to be carefully considered in terms of the overall efficiency of the system for various applications. Attractive alternatives to drawing energy from the fuel cell include exploiting heat from the external environment, and/or capturing waste heat from the fuel cell itself. 
   Various embodiments of the invention, accordingly, draw heat from the external environment. The cryosorptive storage system generally operates at a temperature considerably below ambient temperature; and thus a transient short-circuiting or degrading of insulation allows ambient heat to flow naturally down its gradient into the storage medium. As depicted in  FIG. 9 , one embodiment of the present invention provides for a heat leak device in the form of a mechanical heat-conducting contact switch  922  constructed with a heat conductor, such as copper, that is permanently in contact with either the wall of the interior or the exterior vessel. To initiate the heat leak, the conductor is moved to contact the wall of the other vessel as well, thereby enabling heat flow from the environment, through the conductor, and into the interior of the vessel. 
   In another heat-transfer embodiment, a gas-conducted heat leak is created by degrading the vacuum in the insulating space of a double-walled cryosorptive vessel. As depicted in  FIG. 9 , an embodiment of the invention, a gas reservoir-and-pump unit  924  is functionally connected to the insulating space. Gas is introduced into the insulating space from the gas reservoir to allow a heat leak, and when there is no further need for heat, gas is withdrawn from the space by the attached a pump to restore the insulating vacuum. 
   Still another heat-transfer embodiment exploits a feature of the dewar construction and the way in which the high vacuum can be produced by a so-called sorbent pump  926 . As depicted in  FIG. 9 , a sorbent, such as charcoal, is placed within between the inner and outer walls of the dewar. The dewar is pumped down to a pressure of 10 −5  torr and then sealed; as the vessel interior cools, so does the charcoal. The cold charcoal performs as a pump, adsorbing most of the remaining gas from the insulation space, further reducing the pressure to 10 −8  torr. This process is termed a “virtuous cycle”, as better insulation helps the interior maintain a cold temperature, and the charcoal thereby pumps the space to a lower pressure. 
   The virtuous cycle is broken by heating the charcoal. In one embodiment, a small heater is attached to the charcoal pump. When a heat leak is needed, the charcoal is heated, and it releases some gas into the insulation space, thereby providing for heat conduction through the space. When the heat leak is no longer needed, the heater in the charcoal pump is turned off, the charcoal cools down to the temperature of the vessel&#39;s interior, gas in the insulating space is sorbed back onto the charcoal pump, and the heat leak is removed. This method of controlling heat transfer has the advantages of requiring minimal power and having no moving parts. 
   Flow of Hydrogen through the System during Fuel Release, and a Chronology of Temperature and Pressure Dynamics within the Cryosorptive Tank 
     FIG. 10  schematically depicts the flow of hydrogen through the hydrogen cryosorptive storage and release apparatus  110 , as it would be operated by heat-swing desorption in a system in which heat is provided in the form of warm, recycled hydrogen, as provided by embodiments of this invention. At the onset of hydrogen fuel release, internal pressure drives hydrogen out of the cryosorptive storage apparatus, whereupon the exit stream is split in two daughter streams at junction  125 . One daughter is fuel stream  507 , wherein hydrogen is by hydrogen-powered devices  550 , and a second daughter is a recycle stream  506  which is directed into a recycle loop  122 . The recycle loop  122 , through which the recycle stream travels, includes the lines which convey hydrogen, as well as various devices which blow, compress, warm, and store hydrogen, as detailed below, as it travels through the loop. Hydrogen entering the recycle loop is ultimately returned to the cryosorptive storage apparatus  100 . As hydrogen moves through the recycle loop, it is warmed by a heat exchanger  900 , which receives input heat from heat source  910 . 
   According to various embodiments, described in detail below, heat is drawn from a heat source  910 ; the source can include the ambient environment, in general, or a specific source, such as an operating fuel cell. In addition to the warming step that occurs as hydrogen moves through the recycle loop, the movement of the hydrogen stream is assisted by a blower or a compressor, as provided by various embodiments. Thus, blowing and/or compressing units  932  may be included either before and/or after the hydrogen is warmed in the heat exchanger  900 . In addition, an optional warm hydrogen storage reservoir  936  is included in some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, such a warm hydrogen reservoir is not required for the operational demands, or the volume of the heat exchanger  900  itself may be sufficient to provide such a reservoir. 
   Hydrogen, as it emerges from the recycle loop  120 , thus re-enters the cryosorptive tank  100  warmer, and under higher pressure than it was when it left the tank as efflux stream  505 . The temperature of hydrogen exiting the cryosorptive tank (e.g., a range of about 100K to about 200K) is cool in comparison to its temperature (e.g., a range of about 230K to about 370K) upon returning from the recycle loop. This relative coolness, however, should not be confused with the temperature of cold hydrogen (e.g., a range of about 20K to about 100K) that is used to fill the crysorptive apparatus during a filling operation, from a hydrogen source apparatus, as described earlier. 
     FIGS. 11A , B, and C schematically depict a chronology of the conditions within a cryosorptive tank as it is both (1) releasing hydrogen and (2) being fed warm hydrogen from a recycle loop.  FIG. 11A  tracks the hydrogen content of the cryosorptive medium, and  FIGS. 11B and 11C  track the pressure and temperature, respectively, within the cryosorptive tank.  FIG. 11A  indicates that hydrogen is being depleted from the cryosorptive medium at a substantially steady rate, and relatively little of the total tank volume is being depleted over the short time course represented. This releasing episode represents the first of several cycles of fuel release that would typically follow a tank fueling. The subsequent release episodes, beyond the first, are broadly similar in terms of the sequence of events. A typical time course of hydrogen release can be described in terms of three phases, as indicated in FIG.  11 B. 
   Release Phase 1 is a start-up period that lasts for several minutes. Hydrogen release starts immediately upon opening the cryosorptive tank, as a pressure head of about 20 bar to about 30 bar, depending on the operating specifications, is already present. As hydrogen is released from the tank, pressure begins to drop immediately, and so does the temperature. As discussed earlier, the pressure drop is a consequence of two processes: (1) a depletion of gas via escape from the tank, and (2) a temperature-drop induced reduction in pressure of the gaseous hydrogen remaining within the tank. The drop in temperature follows from the relationship depicted in  FIGS. 1A and 1B , and thermodynamically is the result of heat consumption during hydrogen desorption. Upon release of hydrogen into the recycle loop, hydrogen is warmed and pressurized, as described, and ultimately returned to the tank. However, as described here, Release Phase 1 is the period during which warm hydrogen has yet to re-enter the tank, and have any substantial effect on the conditions therein. 
   Over the course of Release Phase 2, warm hydrogen entering the cryosorptive tank  100  has effects on both temperature and pressure. During Release Phase 2, the rates at which both pressure and temperature are decreasing are at first slowed, and then the direction of temperature change reverses, and both pressure and temperature begin to rise. Release Phase 3 is the period of time during which pressure and temperature return to their original levels, and maintain an approximate steady state throughout a substantial portion of the hydrogen releasing operation. 
   Fuel Release by Batch and Continuous Modes of Operation, and Control thereof 
   Embodiments of the system described above are able to operate in two basic modes: (1) a cycling mode of operation, also known as a batch process; and (2) a circulating mode of operation, also known as a continuous process. Hybrid processes, combining elements of batch and continuous processes are also possible. Returning to the  FIG. 10  schematic view provides a foundation for comparing batch and continuous processes. Prior to the initiation of a batch recycle process, hydrogen flowing from the cryosorptive storage apparatus into the efflux stream  505  is being directed into the fuel stream  507 . When a temperature-driven desorption process is called for by a pressure sensitive control system  950 , a recycle batch is initiated by the diversion of hydrogen from the efflux stream  505  into as batch volume or amount of hydrogen into a recycle stream  506 , and thus into the recycle loop  122 . 
   The hydrogen batch volume then moves stepwise to a heat exchanger  900 , where it is warmed. Various embodiments provide for maintaining the flow rate of the hydrogen batch with blowers and/or compressors as needed, either before or after warming in the heat exchanger. Embodiments also provide for a hydrogen storage reservoir  936 , as needed. Generally, the reservoir is stored after warming (as shown), but some embodiments may store hydrogen prior to warming. It is also possible to store a substantial volume of hydrogen within the heat exchanger itself, depending on its size and configuration. 
   In the final step of the batch process, the warm hydrogen batch volume completes the recycle loop, and is introduced into the cryosorptive tank. Within the tank, the addition of heat causes temperature-driven desorption of stored hydrogen, and gaseous hydrogen within the tank thereby becomes a mixture of warm recycled hydrogen and newly desorbed hydrogen. The pressure within the tank is thus raised by several factors, including (1) pressure-driven addition of hydrogen, (2) increased temperature, and (3) the presence of the newly desorbed gas. Gaseous hydrogen is then released from the cryosorptive tank, and directed toward a hydrogen consuming device as needed, and directed toward the recycle loop, batch-wise, as needed. 
   A circulating mode of operation, or a continuous process is one in which the step-wise process described above is substantially continuous, i.e., a substantially continuous stream courses through the recycle loop, rather than discrete volumes of batched hydrogen. The process sequence is essentially the same as in the batch process with regard to warming through a heat exchanger, and flow rate being maintained by a blower, as needed, and pressure being stepped up by a compressor as needed. In general, a continuous process has less of a need for a holding reservoir, as is provided optionally in the batch process. If a continuous process does need to contain a threshold volume, it is generally likely that the heat exchanger  900 , itself, will serve as a storage reservoir. 
   Looking beyond the specifics of absolute volumes or amounts of hydrogen in the recycle loop in either the batch or continuous process, the relative rates of the flow of hydrogen into the fuel stream  507  and the recycle stream  506  are metrics that are useful and broadly applicable to various embodiments and operating modes. For example, if a fuel cell is drawing 1 mole of hydrogen per minute, then the circulating system appropriately flows at a rate of 3-4 moles per minute. Under these operating conditions, then, it can be understood that the heat exchanger should transfer heat at the high rate of 2.5 kW to such a flow, and this is a demand that can be accommodated by a 50 kW engine, as described in the example above. 
   Further as discussed above, although temperature-swing desorption is the mechanism substantially driving desorption of hydrogen from the storage medium, it is the pressure within the cryosorptive tank that is substantially driving the flow of hydrogen into the efflux stream  505 , and thence into the hydrogen fuel stream  507 . Accordingly, regardless of the mode of operation (batch or recycle) an appropriate parameter for controlling the flow of hydrogen into the recycle loop  122  is the gas pressure within the cryosorptive tank. The pressure can be sensed within the tank, or at a point within the efflux stream  505  prior to the junction  125  that marks the separation of the fuel stream  507  and the recycle stream  506 . An electrical control system  950  thus captures pressure information, and according to system specifications and control algorithms, controls the flow of hydrogen into the two divergent streams. 
   Many factors can usefully contribute to methods and apparatus that control the flow of hydrogen into the fuel stream and recycle stream, including the demand being requested from the fuel system, the load being carried, the level of hydrogen present in the storage tank, ambient temperature, temperatures within the fuel system at various locations, and preset minimum and maximum flow rates into the fuel-cell. Accordingly, input information can be drawn from many sources within the system, and from within the vehicle powered by the system. Control of flow within the recycle loop can be exerted at various points;  FIG. 10  identifies two examples of appropriate locations for flow control. A flow regulator  520  is positioned on the recycle loop  122 , at a location such that it controls the entry of hydrogen into the recycle stream  506 . Another flow regulator  522  is positioned on the recycle loop  122  at a location such that it controls the flow of hydrogen after it has gone through the heat exchanger  900 , and after the optional storage step  936 , when present.