Patent Publication Number: US-2023157971-A1

Title: Compositions and methods for nanopolymer-based nucleic acid delivery

Description:
1. INTRODUCTION 
     Provided herein are p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions. In one aspect, the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions comprise deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine lactate derivative nanoparticles less than 500 nm and a nucleic acid. Also, provided herein are methods for administering a nucleic acid to a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition. In certain embodiments, the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered subcutaneously to the subject. 
     2. BACKGROUND 
     DNA vaccines represent a flexible strategy that precisely and effectively presents antigens to the immune system. However, despite all the theoretical advantages of DNA vaccines, the clinical experience with DNA vaccines has been rather disappointing. It is becoming increasingly evident that one of the central problems in clinical translation of DNA vaccines is suboptimal platforms for plasmid DNA delivery. Further, improved platforms of nucleic acid delivery are required for a wide variety of in vivo and ex vivo gene therapy applications. 
     Viral platforms for DNA delivery, such that based on retroviruses and adenoviruses, have been developed. However, viral vectors have significant disadvantages. Administration of recombinant viruses induces an immune response to viral proteins, a response that may be about 20-fold higher than that induced by the transgene (see Harrington et al., 2002, Hum. Gene Ther. 13(11):1263-1280; and Harrington et al., 2002, J. Virol. 76(7):3329-3337). Such immune response limits the immune response to the transgene itself. The pre-existence of T-cell and antibody-mediated immunity to viral particles also limits the ability of subsequent administration of recombinant viruses (see Barouch et al., 2003, J. Virol. 77(13):7367-7375; Premenko-Lanier et al., 2003, Virology 307(1):67-75; Ramirez et al., 2000, J. Virol. 74(16):7651-7655; and Ramirez et al., 2000, J. Virol. 74(2):923-933), and thus does not allow for repeated treatment regimens. The repeated administration of such vector leads to generation of neutralizing antibodies against them (see Tewary et al., 2005, J. Infect. Dis. 191(12):2130-2137). Although the repeated delivery may be accomplished by use of different viral vectors, such approach is laborious and requires preparation of large amounts of different viral vectors raising biosafety concerns. In addition, viral delivery platforms create a risk of interaction of viral genetic sequences with those of a host genome. It is also known that most of the viral vectors are degraded by scrum nucleases such that almost 90% of injected viral vectors are degraded within 24 hours (see Muzyczka, 1992, Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 158:97-129; and Varmus, 1988, Science 240(4858):1427-1435). The fast degradation of the viral vectors may result in their failure to reach the target cells. Taken together, viral platforms for nucleic acid delivery have significant limitations. 
     Non-viral platforms for DNA delivery, including liposomes (lipoplex), synthetic polymers (polyplex) (see Wasungu et al., 2006, J. Control. Release 116(2):255-264; and Wasungu, 2006, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1758(10):1677-1684), and chitosan (see Mansouri et al. 2004, Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 57(1):1-8), also have proven to be suboptimal. The preparation of lipoplexes is very demanding and requires formulation of DNA into the vehicle (see Wasungu et al., 2006, J. Control. Release 116(2):255-264; and Wasungu, 2006, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1758(10):1677-1684). In addition, publications by Wasungu et al. show that several physical factors such as pH and charge and the structural characteristics of liposomes affect interactions of liposomes with DNA, and that lipoplexes achieve low transduction efficiency due to their rapid clearance from the circulation. The process of lipoplex and polyplex assembly could compromise the structural integrity of the plasmid DNA, such that the resulting inefficient wrapping of plasmid into the lipoplex shell can affect interaction of lypoplexes with cell surfaces. This can result in a very poor transcription of lipoplex- or polyplex-delivered genes (see Hama, 2006, Mol. Ther. 13(4):786-794). Further, most of the polyplexes require co-transfection with endosome-lytic agents because of their inability to release intracellular DNA into the cytoplasm (see Forrest and Pack, 2002, Mol. Ther. 6(1):57-66). 
     Use of chitin and chitosan-based products for DNA delivery applications has been hampered by the chemical and physical heterogeneity of the polymer products and contamination of chitin and chitosan preparations by proteins and other components (see Vournakis et al., 2004, J. Trauma 57(1 Suppl.):S2-6). 
     Accordingly, there is a need for a non-viral platform for nucleic acid delivery that can induce high transfection efficiency but without inducing toxicity. There is also a need for a delivery vehicle that would allow for sustained release of nucleic acids, allowing for repeated administration but reducing its frequency. 
     3. SUMMARY 
     Provided herein are poly-N-acetylglucosamine (“p-GlcNAc”) nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions. In one aspect, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions comprise poly-N-acetylglucosamine and a nucleic acid, wherein at least 40% of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is deacetylated. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid is DNA. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles in the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions are between about 5 nm and 500 nm in size. In some embodiments, at least 50% of the nanoparticles in the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions are between about 5 nm and 500 nm in size. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles in the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions are between about 10 nm and 500 nm, 20 nm and 200 nm, 20 nm and 150 nm, 20 μm and 100 nm, 25 nm to 250 nm, 25 nm and 150 nm, 25 nm and 100 μm, 50 nm and 200 nm, or 50 nm and 150 nm in size. In specific embodiments, at least 50% of the nanoparticles in the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions are between about 10 nm and 500 nm, 20 nm and 200 nm, 20 nm and 150 nm, 20 nm and 100 nm, 25 nm to 250 nm, 25 nm and 150 nm, 25 nm and 100 nm, 50 nm and 200 nm, or 50 nm and 150 nm in size. In particular embodiments, at least 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% of the nanoparticles are between 5 nm and 500 nm, 10 nm and 500 nm, 20 nm and 200 nm, 20 nm and 150 nm, 20 nm and 100 nm, 25 nm to 250 nm, 25 nm and 150 nm, 25 nm and 100 nm, 50 nm and 200 μm, or 50 nm and 150 nm in size. In certain embodiments, the size of the nanoparticles is determined by transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some embodiments, the composition further comprises an adjuvant. In a specific embodiment, the adjuvant is PolyI:C. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a cytokine. 
     In some embodiments, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine in the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition comprises a deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine ammonium salt derivative. In a specific embodiment, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine in the composition comprises a deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine lactate derivative. In some embodiments, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine in the composition has been solubilized with an organic or mineral acid. In a specific embodiment, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine in the composition has been solubilized with a lactic acid. 
     In certain embodiments, described herein are p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions wherein at least 65% of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is deacetylated. In some embodiments, at least 70% of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine in the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is deacetylated. In other embodiments, about 40% to about 90% (e.g., 40% to 90%) of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine in the composition is deacetylated. In one embodiment, about 60% to about 80% (e.g., 60% to 80%) of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine in the composition is deacetylated. In other embodiments, about 40% to about 95%, about 40% to about 85%, about 40% to about 80%, about 50% to about 95%, about 50% to about 90%, about 50% to about 85%, about 50% to about 80%, about 55% to about 95%, about 55% to about 90%, about 55% to about 85%, about 55% to about 80%, about 60% to about 95%, about 60% to about 90%, about 60% to about 85%, about 65% to about 95%, about 65% to about 90%, about 65% to about 85%, about 65% to about 80%, or about 65% to about 75% of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine in the composition is deacetylated. 
     In some embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine in the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is a fiber of about 50 to about 200 μm in length. In a specific embodiment, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine in the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is a fiber of 50 to 100 μm in length. In some embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine in the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition has a molecular weight of at least 2×10 6  Da or at least 2.5×10 6  Da, or molecular weight between about 2×10 6  Da and about 3.5×10 6  Da, or between about 2.5×10 6  Da and about 3×10 6  Da. 
     In another aspect, the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions comprise deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine lactate derivative nanoparticles less than 500 nm and a nucleic acid. In certain embodiments, at least 50%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85% or 90% of the nanoparticles are 100 to 200 nm in size as determined by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some embodiments, the composition further comprises an adjuvant. In a specific embodiment, the adjuvant is PolyI:C. In another embodiment, the adjuvant is a cytokine. 
     In another aspect, provided herein are methods for administering a nucleic acid to a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition. In some embodiments, the subject is a human. In other embodiments, the subject is a non-human animal. In certain embodiments, the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered subcutaneously to the subject. In specific embodiments, the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered subcutaneously to epithelial cells of a subject. In other embodiments, the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered intramuscularly or intravenously to a subject. The methods described herein are based, at least in part, on the surprising discovery that the administration of p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions to a subject result in sustained expression of nucleic acid at the site of administration. In addition, the expressed nucleic acid can be effectively taken up by professional antigen-presenting cells and transported to the draining lymph nodes which results in specific CD8+ T cell activity. In some embodiments, the administration of the composition results in a sustained expression of the nucleic acid in the composition for at least 1 week, at least 2 weeks, at least 4 weeks, at least 6 weeks, or at least 2 months. In certain embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is repeatedly administered to a subject (e.g., twice, three times, four times, or more than three or four times; or once a week, once in 2 weeks, once in 3 weeks, once in 4 weeks, once in 6 weeks, once in 8 weeks). In some embodiments, the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is repeatedly administered over a period of 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, 6 months, 7 months, 8 months, 9 months, 10 months, 11 months, 12 months, 2 years, 3 years, 4 years or 5 years (or more than 1 year or 5 years). 
     In particular embodiments, provided herein are methods for administering a nucleic acid and an adjuvant to a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition and an adjuvant. The adjuvant can be administered in the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition, or administered concomitantly with the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition (e.g., in a separate composition comprising p-GlcNAc and an adjuvant). In some embodiments, administering of the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition comprising a nucleic acid and an adjuvant results in a sustained concurrent release of both the nucleic acid and the adjuvant. 
     In another aspect, provided herein are methods of making a poly-N-acetylglucosamine nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition. In particular, described herein are methods of making the composition comprising: (a) adding a base to poly-N-acetylglucosamine to deacetylate at least 40% of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine; (b) adding a mineral acid or organic acid to a form a deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine ammonium salt derivative; (c) adding a buffer to facilitate dilution; and (d) adding a nucleic acid; thereby making a poly-N-acetylglucosamine nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition. In some of these embodiments, the mineral acid or organic acid is lactic acid. In other embodiments, the mineral acid or organic acid is glycolic, succinic, citric, gluconic, glucoronic, malic, pyruvic, tartaric, tartronic or fumaric acid. In specific embodiments, the buffer in step (c) is sodium acetate-acetic buffer or ammonium acetate-acetic buffer. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid has been combined with a salt (e.g., sodium sulfate, potassium sulfate, calcium sulfate or magnesium sulfate) prior to step (d) (in which nucleic acid is added to the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine ammonium salt derivative diluted in a buffer). In certain embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine used in making the poly-N-acetylglucosamine nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions is 40% to 90% deacetylated, 60% to 80% deacetylated, or more than 65% deacetylated. In some specific embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine used in making the described compositions is about 40% to about 95%, about 40% to about 85%, about 40% to about 80%, about 50% to about 95%, about 50% to about 90%, about 50% to about 85%, about 50% to about 80%, about 55% to about 95%, about 55% to about 90%, about 55% to about 85%, about 55% to about 80%, about 60% to about 95%, about 60% to about 90%, about 60% to about 85%, about 65% to about 95%, about 65% to about 90%, about 65% to about 85%, about 65% to about 80%, or about 65% to about 75% deacetylated. 
     In certain embodiments, described herein are methods of making the poly-N-acetylglucosamine nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition, which further comprises adding an adjuvant in step (d) described above. Yet in other embodiments, described herein are methods of making the poly-N-acetylglucosamine nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition, which further comprises combining the poly-N-acetylglucosamine nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition with an adjuvant. The adjuvant can be any adjuvant described herein (e.g., poly I:C or a cytokine). 
     3.1 Terminology 
     The term “alkyl” refers to a linear or branched saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical, wherein the alkylene may optionally be substituted as described herein. The term “alkyl” also encompasses both linear and branched alkyl, unless otherwise specified. In certain embodiments, the alkyl is a linear saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical that has 1 to 20 (C 1-20 ), 1 to 15 (C 1-15 ), 1 to 10 (C 1-10 ), or 1 to 6 (C 1-6 ) carbon atoms, or branched saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of 3 to 20 (C 3-20 ), 3 to 15 (C 3-15 ), 3 to 10 (C 3-10 ), or 3 to 6 (C 3-6 ) carbon atoms. As used herein, linear C 1-6  and branched C 3-6  alkyl groups are also referred as “lower alkyl.” Examples of alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl (including all isomeric forms), n-propyl, isopropyl, butyl (including all isomeric forms), n-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, t-butyl, pentyl (including all isomeric forms), and hexyl (including all isomeric forms). For example, C 1-6  alkyl refers to a linear saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of 1 to 6 carbon atoms or a branched saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of 3 to 6 carbon atoms. 
     The term “alkenyl” refers to a linear or branched monovalent hydrocarbon radical, which contains one or more, in one embodiment, one to five, carbon-carbon double bonds. The alkenyl may be optionally substituted as described herein. The term “alkenyl” also embraces radicals having “cis” and “trans” configurations, or alternatively, “Z” and “E” configurations, as appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art. As used herein, the term “alkenyl” encompasses both linear and branched alkenyl, unless otherwise specified. For example, C 2-6  alkenyl refers to a linear unsaturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of 2 to 6 carbon atoms or a branched unsaturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of 3 to 6 carbon atoms. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl is a linear monovalent hydrocarbon radical of 2 to 20 (C 2-20 ), 2 to 15 (C 2-15 ), 2 to 10 (C 2-10 ), or 2 to 6 (C 2-6 ) carbon atoms, or a branched monovalent hydrocarbon radical of 3 to 20 (C 3-20 ), 3 to 15 (C 3-15 ), 3 to 10 (C 3-10 ), or 3 to 6 (C 3 -M) carbon atoms. Examples of alkenyl groups include, but are not limited to, ethenyl, propen-1-yl, propen-2-yl, allyl, butenyl, and 4-methylbutenyl. 
     The term “alkynyl” refers to a linear or branched monovalent hydrocarbon radical, which contains one or more, in one embodiment, one to five, carbon-carbon triple bonds. The alkynyl may be optionally substituted as described herein. The term “alkynyl” also encompasses both linear and branched alkynyl, unless otherwise specified. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl is a linear monovalent hydrocarbon radical of 2 to 20 (C 2-20 ), 2 to 15 (C 2-15 ), 2 to 10 (C 2-10 ), or 2 to 6 (C 2-6 ) carbon atoms, or a branched monovalent hydrocarbon radical of 3 to 20 (C 3-20 ), 3 to 15 (C 3-15 ), 3 to 10 (C 3-10 ), or 3 to 6 (C 3-6 ) carbon atoms. Examples of alkynyl groups include, but are not limited to, ethynyl (—C≡CH) and propargyl (—CH 2 C≡CH). For example, C 2-6  alkynyl refers to a linear unsaturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of 2 to 6 carbon atoms or a branched unsaturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of 3 to 6 carbon atoms. 
     The term “halogen”, “halide” or “halo” refers to fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and/or iodine. 
     The term “optionally substituted” is intended to mean that a group, such as an alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, or alkoxy group, may be substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from, e.g., (a) alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and heterocyclyl, each optionally substituted with one or more, in one embodiment, one, two, three, or four, substituents Q; and (b) halo, cyano (—CN), nitro (—NO 2 ), —C(O)R a , —C(O)OR a , —C(O)NR b R c , —C(NR a )NR b R c , —OR a , —OC(O)R a , —OC(O)OR a , —OC(O)NR b R c , —OC(═NR a )NR b R c , —OS(O)R a , —OS(O) 2 R a , —OS(O)NR b R c , —OS(O) 2 NR b R c , —NR b R c , —NR a C(O)R d , —NR a C(O)OR d , —NR a C(O)NR b R c , —NR a C(═NR d )NR b R c , —NR a S(O)R d , —NR a S(O) 2 R d , —NR a S(O)NR b R c , —NR a S(O) 2 NR b R c , —SR a , —S(O)R a , —S(O) 2 R a , —S(O)NR b R c , and —S(O) 2 NR b R c , wherein each R a , R b , R c , and R d  is independently (i) hydrogen; (ii) C 1-6  alkyl, C 2-6  alkenyl, C 2-6  alkynyl, C 3-7  cycloalkyl, C 6-14  aryl, heteroaryl, or heterocyclyl, each optionally substituted with one or more, in one embodiment, one, two, three, or four, substituents Q; or (iii) R b  and R c  together with the N atom to which they are attached form heterocyclyl, optionally substituted with one or more, in one embodiment, one, two, three, or four, substituents Q. As used herein, all groups that can be substituted are “optionally substituted,” unless otherwise specified. 
     In one embodiment, each Q is independently selected from the group consisting of (a) cyano, halo, and nitro; and (b) C 1-6  alkyl, C 2-6  alkenyl, C 2-6  alkynyl, C 3-7  cycloalkyl, C 6-14  aryl, heteroaryl, and heterocyclyl; and —C(O)R e , —C(O)OR e , —C(O)NR f R g , —C(NR)NR f R g , —OR e , —OC(O)R c , —OC(O)OR c , —OC(O)NR f R g , —O, C(═NR c )NR f R g , —OS(O)R e , —OS(O) 2 R e , —OS(O)NR f R g , —OS(O) 2 NR f R g , —NR f R g , —NR e C(O)R b , —NR e C(O)OR h , —NR e C(O)NR f R g , —NR e C(═NR h )NR f R g , —NR g S(O)R h , —NR e S(O) 2 R h , —NR e S(O)NR f R g , —NR e S(O) 2 NR f R g , —SR e , —S(O)R e , —S(O) 2 R e , —S(O)NR f R g , and —S(O) 2 NR f R g ; wherein each R e , R f , R g , and R h  is independently (i) hydrogen; (ii) C 1-6  alkyl, C 2-6  alkenyl, C 2-6  alkynyl, C 3-7  cycloalkyl, C 6-14  aryl, heteroaryl, or heterocyclyl; or (iii) R f  and R g  together with the N atom to which they are attached form heterocyclyl. 
    
    
     
       4. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES 
         FIG.  1    (A)-(F). Scanning electron micrographs of p-GlcNAc nanoparticles. 
         FIG.  2   . Bioluminescent detection of luciferase activity after vaccination with plasmid DNA encoding luciferase with or without p-GlcNAc nanoparticles. Plasmid DNA encoding the gene for luciferase was delivered as indicated (i.e., subcutaneous injection of naked pDNA; subcutaneous injection of p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pDNA, or intramuscular injection of naked DNA). Luciferase activity was detected after intraperitoneal (i.p) injection of luciferin at the indicated time interval. Bioluminescence was imaged using the IVIS system. p-GlcNAc nanoparticles effectively release DNA 1, 7 and 14 days after subcutaneous injection. 
         FIG.  3   . Delivery of DNA using p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA composition results in uptake and transport of encoded antigen to draining lymph node by professional antigen presenting cells. Six mice were injected in the footpad with p-GlcNAc nanoparticles alone (n=3) or with p-GlcNAc nanoparticles mixed with 100 μg of plasmid DNA encoding GFP (n=3). One day after injection, popliteal lymph nodes were removed and cell suspensions were stained with monoclonal antibody against MHC Class II conjugated with PE. Cells were analyzed by flow cytometry. Histograms show the percentage of MHC Class II positive cells with GFP signal. Each histogram represents an individual mouse. 
         FIG.  4   . Proliferation of donor Pmel cells in response to hgp100 DNA vaccination. p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/phgp100 vaccination induces CD8+ specific responses. Mice were subcutaneously vaccinated as indicated 24 hours after adoptive transfer of 10 6  Pmel splenocytes (Thyl1.1 + ). Levels of circulating Pmel cells were determined by flow cytometry. Frequency of donor cells is shown as average of percentage of total CD8+ T cells (n=3)±SDEV. 
         FIG.  5   . Co-delivery of DNA and Poly I:C with p-GlcNAc nanoparticles enhances antitumor immunity and the therapeutic efficacy of DNA vaccines encoding self tumor antigens. (A) Mice (n=5) were injected intravenously (i.v.) with 3×10 4  B16 melanoma cells. Three subcutaneous vaccinations were given three days apart starting at day three after B16 tumor cell injection (i.e., with saline control, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pTRP2, or p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pTRP2/Poly I:C). Subsequently, animals were sacrificed, and their lungs were excised and weighed. (B) Mice (n=5) were injected subcutaneously (s.c.) with 10′ B16 melanoma cells. Three subcutaneous vaccinations were given three days apart starting at day five after B16 tumor cell injection (i.e., with saline control, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pTRP2, or p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pTRP2/Poly I:C). Following treatment, tumor progression was monitored three times a week. 
     
    
    
     5. DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     5.1 p-GlcNAc Nanoparticle/Nucleic Acid Compositions 
     Described herein are p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions. In certain embodiments, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA compositions comprise poly-N-acetylglucosamine or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine has a β-1→4 configuration. In other embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine has a α-1→4 configuration. In certain embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is about 100%, 99.9%, 99.8%, 99.5%, 99%, 98%, 95%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, or 20% pure. In a specific embodiment, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is 90 to 100% pure. In some embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is more than 90%, more than 95%, more than 98%, more than 99% pure, or more than 99.5% pure. In certain embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 95%, 40% to 90%, 40% to 80%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 50% to 95%, 50% to 90%, 50% to 80%, 60% to 95%, 60% to 90%, 60% to 80%, 65% to 75%, 65% to 95%, 65% to 90%, 65% to 80%, 70% to 95%, 70% to 90%, 75% to 80%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is deacetylated. In some embodiments, 25%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99% or 100% of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is deacetylated. In some embodiments, at least or more than 25%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is deacetylated. In specific embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine or deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine is derivatized with an organic acid or mineral acid to form an ammonium salt in order to facilitate its solubilization. In certain embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine or deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine is derivatized with lactic acid. In certain embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine or deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine is derivatized with lactic acid to facilitate its solubilization. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,622,834; 5,623,064; 5,624,679; 5,686,115; 5,858,350; 6,599,720; 6,686,342; and 7,115,588 (each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety) describe the poly-N-acetylglucosamine and derivatives thereof, and methods of producing the same. 
     Poly-N-acetylglucosamine can, for example, be produced by, and may be purified from, microalgae, preferably diatoms. The diatoms which may be used as starting sources for the production of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine include, but are not limited to members of the  Coscinodiscus  genus, the  Cyclotella  genus, and the  Thalassiosira  genus. Poly-N-acetylglucosamine may be obtained from diatom cultures via a number of different methods, including the mechanical force method and chemical/biological method known in the art (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,622,834; 5,623,064; 5,624,679; 5,686,115; 5,858,350; 6,599,720; 6,686,342; and 7,115,588, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). In certain embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is not derived from one or more of the following: a shell fish, a crustacean, insect, fungi or yeasts. In certain embodiments, the compositions do not comprise collagen fibers. In certain embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is about 100%, 99.9%, 99.8%, 99.5%, 99%, 98%, 95%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, or 20% pure. In a specific embodiment, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is 90 to 100% pure. In certain embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine are fibers of greater than 15 sm. In specific embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine fibers are greater than 15 μm in length. In some embodiment, more than 50%, more than 75%, more than 90%, more than 95%, more than 99% of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine fibers are greater than 15 μm in length. In one embodiment, 100% of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine fibers are greater than 15 μm in length. In some embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine are fibers of 50 to 200 μm, 50 to 150 μm, 50 to 100 μm, or 80 to 100 μm in length. In some embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine are fibers of 1 to 5 nm, 2 to 4 nm, 2 to 10 nm, 10 to 25 nm, 10 to 50 nm, 25 to 50 nm, or 50 to 100 nm in diameter. 
     The poly-N-acetylglucosamine can be deacetylated by treatment of poly-N-acetylglucosamine with a base to yield glucosamines residues with free amino groups. This hydrolysis process may be carried out with solutions of concentrated sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide at elevated temperatures. Alternatively, an enzymatic procedure utilizing a chitin deacetylase enzyme may be used for poly-N-acetylglucosamine deacylation using techniques known in the art. In a specific embodiment, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is deacetylated using the methods described in Section 6.1, infra. In certain embodiments, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine has a molecular weight of 1×10 4  Da to 3.5×10 6  Da, 5×10 4  Da to 3.5×10 6  Da, 1×10 5  Da to 3.5×10 6  Da, 5×10 5  Da to 3.5×10 6  Da, 1×10 6  Da to 3×10 6  Da, 1.5×10 6  Da to 3.5×10 6  Da, 1.5×10 6  Da to 3×10 6  Da, 2×10 6  Da to 3×10 6  Da, 2×10 6  Da to 5×10 6  Da, 2×10 6  Da to 8×10 6  Da. In a specific embodiment, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine has a molecular weight of 2.8×10 6  Da. In some embodiments, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine has a molecular weight of at least 1×10 4  Da. In one embodiment, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine has a molecular weight of at least 2×10 6  Da. In some embodiments, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine has a molecular weight of less than 3×10 6  Da. 
     In certain embodiments, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine can be derivatized, including counterion substitution to form salt derivatives, with any organic acid or mineral acid to form a p-GlcNAc ammonium salt. In some embodiments, the organic acid has the structure RCOOH, where R is optionally substituted alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl. In some embodiments, R is optionally substituted alkyl. In some embodiments, R is alkyl substituted with one or more hydroxyl groups. In certain embodiments, RCOOH is glycolic acid or lactic acid. In other embodiments, RCOOH is citric, succinic, gluconic, glucoronic, malic, pyruvic, tartaric, tartronic or fumaric acid. In a particular embodiment, RCOOH is lactic acid. In certain embodiments, the ratio of deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine to poly-N-acetylglucosamine is 1:1, 1.2:2:1, 1:3, or 3:1. In a specific embodiment, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine can be derivatized with lactic acid using the methods described in Section 6.1, infra. In some embodiments, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine is derivatized to make it soluble. In certain embodiments, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine is solubilized by incubation with any organic acid or mineral acid (described herein or known in the art). In specific embodiments, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine is derivatized to form a soluble p-GlcNAc ammonium salt. In some embodiments, solubility of the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine is achieved at a pH of about 4 to a pH of about 5, e.g., pH 4, pH 4.5, pH 5 or a pH between 4 and 5. In one embodiment, the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine is incubated with lactic acid to make it soluble (for example, at pH 4 to pH 5 such as pH 4.5). In such embodiment, H+ ion is substituted by lactate counterion to facilitate solubilization of the deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine. 
     In certain embodiments, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions comprise a deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine ammonium salt derivative, such as a lactate derivative. In a specific embodiment, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions comprise a deacetylated poly-β-1→4-N-acetylglucosamine lactate derivative. In certain embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 95%, 40% to 90%, 40% to 80%, 50% to 95%, 50% to 90%, 50% to 80%, 60% to 95%, 60% to 90%, 60% to 80%, 65% to 95%, 65% to 90%, 65% to 80%, 70% to 95%, 70% to 90%, 75% to 80%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is deacetylated. In some embodiments, 25%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99% or 100% of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is deacetylated. In some embodiments, at least or more than 25%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99% of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine is deacetylated. In a specific embodiment, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions are the compositions that result from the process described in Section 6.1, infra. 
     In a specific embodiment, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions comprise a nucleic acid, such as described in Section 5.2, infra. In certain embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition comprises 0.1 μg to 2 μg, 0.2 μg to 1 μg, 0.5 μg to 500 μg, 1 μg to 750 μg, 1 μg to 500 μg 1 μg to 200 μg, 1 μg to 100 μg, 1 μg to 50 μg, 5 μg to 25 μg, 5 μg to 15 μg, 50 μg to 150 μg, 1 μg to 5 μg, 2 μg to 5 μg, 1 μg to 10 μg, 5 μg to 10 μg, 5 μg to 15 μg, 10 μg to 15 μg, 10 μg to 220 μg, 15 μg, to 25 μg, 100 μg to 750 μg, 100 μg to 500 μg, 100 μg to 1 μg, or 500 μg to 750 μg of a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition comprises two, three or more different types of nucleic acids. In some embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition comprises two, three or more different nucleic acids that encode two, three or more different peptides, polypeptides, or proteins. In certain embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition comprises an adjuvant in addition to a nucleic acid. 
     In certain embodiments, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions do not comprise a significant amount of protein material. In certain embodiments, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions do not comprise any protein or peptide adjuvant. In other embodiments, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions comprise no greater than 0.1%, 0.5% or 1% by weight of protein material. In some embodiments, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions comprise no greater than 0.1%, 0.5%, 1% or 2% by weight of protein material as determined by any technique known in the art (such as Coomassie staining). In other embodiments, the protein content of a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is undetectable by Coomassie staining. In yet other embodiments, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions comprise a protein or peptide adjuvant. 
     In certain embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are about 5 nm to about 500 nm, about 5 nm to about 300 nm, about 5 nm to about 150 nm, about 10 nm to about 500 nm, about 10 nm to about 300 nm, about 10 nm to about 150 nm, about 20 nm to about 500 nm, about 20 nm to about 300 nm, about 20 nm to about 150 nm, about 25 nm to about 500 nm, about 25 nm to about 300 nm, about 25 nm to about 150 nm, about 50 μm to about 100 nm, about 75 nm to about 100 nm, about 100 nm to about 125 nm, about 100 nm to about 150 nm, about 100 nm to about 200 nm, about 150 nm to about 200 nm, about 50 nm to about 150 nm, or about 50 μm to about 200 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are 5 nm to 500 μm, 5 nm to 300 nm, 5 nm to 150 nm, 10 nm to 500 nm, 10 μm to 300 nm, 10 nm to 150 nm, 20 nm to 500 μm, 20 μm to 300 nm, 20 nm to 150 μm, 25 nm to 500 nm, 25 nm to 300 nm, 25 nm to 150 nm, 50 nm to 100 nm, 75 nm to 100 nm, 100 nm to 125 nm, 100 nm to 150 nm, 100 μm to 200 nm, 150 nm to 200 nm, 50 nm to 150 nm, or 50 nm to 200 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. 
     In certain embodiments, 25%, 35%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99% or 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are about 5 nm to about 500 nm, about 5 nm to about 300 nm, about 5 nm to about 150 nm, about 10 nm to about 500 nm, about 10 nm to about 300 nm, about 10 nm to about 150 nm, about 20 μm to about 500 nm, about 20 nm to about 300 nm, about 20 nm to about 150 nm, about 25 nm to about 500 nm, about 25 nm to about 300 nm, about 25 μm to about 150 nm, about 50 nm to about 100 nm, about 75 nm to about 100 nm, about 100 nm to about 125 nm, about 100 nm to about 150 nm, about 100 nm to about 200 nm, about 150 μm to about 200 μm, about 50 nm to about 150 nm, or about 50 nm to about 200 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some embodiments, 25%, 35%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99% or 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are 5 nm to 500 nm, 5 nm to 300 μm, 5 nm to 150 nm, 10 nm to 500 nm, 10 nm to 300 nm, 10 nm to 150 nm, 20 nm to 500 nm, 20 nm to 300 nm, 20 nm to 150 nm, 25 nm to 500 nm, 25 nm to 300 nm, 25 nm to 150 nm, 50 nm to 100 nm, 75 nm to 100 nm, 100 nm to 125 nm, 100 nm to 150 nm, 100 nm to 200 nm, 150 nm to 200 nm, 50 nm to 150 nm, or 50 nm to 200 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. 
     In certain embodiments, at least or more than 25%, 35%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are about 5 nm to about 500 nm, about 5 nm to about 300 nm, about 5 nm to about 150 nm, about 10 nm to about 500 nm, about 10 nm to about 300 nm, about 10 nm to about 150 nm, about 20 nm to about 500 nm, about 20 nm to about 300 nm, about 20 nm to about 150 nm, about 25 nm to about 500 nm, about 25 nm to about 300 nm, about 25 nm to about 150 nm, about 50 nm to about 100 nm, about 75 nm to about 100 nm, about 100 nm to about 125 nm, about 100 nm to about 150 nm, about 100 nm to about 200 nm, about 150 nm to about 200 nm, about 50 nm to about 150 nm, or about 50 nm to about 200 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some embodiments, at least or more than 25%, 35%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are 5 nm to 500 nm, 5 nm to 300 nm, 5 nm to 150 nm, 10 nm to 500 nm, 10 nm to 300 nm, 10 nm to 150 nm, 20 nm to 500 nm, 20 nm to 300 nm, 20 nm to 150 nm, 25 nm to 500 nm, 25 nm to 300 nm, 25 nm to 150 nm, 50 nm to 100 nm, 75 nm to 100 nm, 100 nm to 125 nm, 100 nm to 150 nm, 100 nm to 200 nm, 150 nm to 200 nm, 50 nm to 150 nm, or 50 nm to 200 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. 
     In certain embodiments, at least or more than 25%, 35%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are about 10 nm to about 800 nm, about 10 nm to about 600 nm, 50 nm to about 800 nm, about 50 nm to about 600 nm, about 50 nm to about 500 nm, about 50 nm to about 400 nm, about 50 to about 300 nm, about 50 nm to about 200 nm, about 75 nm to about 500 nm, about 75 nm to about 300 nm, about 100 nm to about 500 nm, about 100 nm to about 400 nm, about 100 nm to about 300 nm, about 150 nm to about 500 nm, about 150 nm to about 400 nm, or about 150 nm to about 300 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some embodiments, at least or more than 25%, 35%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are 10 nm to 800 nm, 10 nm to 600 nm, 50 nm to 800 nm, 50 nm to 600 nm, 50 nm to 500 nm, 50 nm to 400 nm, 50 to 300 nm, 50 nm to about 200 nm, 75 nm to 500 nm, 75 nm to 300 nm, 100 nm to 500 nm, 100 nm to 400 nm, 100 nm to 300 nm, 150 nm to 500 nm, 150 nm to 400 nm, or 150 nm to 300 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. 
     The terms “about” and “approximately,” when used herein to a modify numeric value or numeric range, indicate that reasonable deviations from the value or range, typically 10% above and 10% below the value or range, remain within the intended meaning of the recited value or range. 
     In some embodiments, the described sizes of the nanoparticles indicate the diameter of spherical nanoparticles. In certain embodiments, the described sizes indicate the length of one of the cross-sectional dimensions of a nanoparticle (e.g., the longest of the two cross-sectional dimensions). 
     In certain embodiments, at least 25%, at least 35%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, or at least 99% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are less than 500 nm. In some embodiments, at least 25%, at least 35%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, or at least 99% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are less than 300 nm. In certain embodiments, at least 25%, at least 35%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, or at least 99% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are less than 250 nm. In some embodiments, at least 25%, at least 35%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, or at least 99% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are less than 200 nm. In some of these embodiments, at least 25%, at least 35%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are at least 5 nm, at least 10 nm, at least 25 nm, or at least 50 nm in size. 
     In certain embodiments, at least 25%, at least 30%, at least 35%, at least 40%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, or at least 99% of the nanoparticles are at least or greater than 5 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 25 nm, or 50 nm in size. In certain embodiments, more than 25%, more than 35%, more than 45%, more than 50%, more than 55%, more than 60%, more than 65%, more than 70%, more than 75%, more than 80%, more than 85%, more than 90%, more than 95%, more than 98%, or more than 99% of the nanoparticles are at least or greater than 5 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 25 nm, or 50 nm in size. In specific embodiments, 100% of the nanoparticles are at least or greater than 5 nm, 10 am, 20 nm, 25 nm, or 50 nm in size. In some of these embodiments, at least 25%, at least 30%, at least 35%, at least 40%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70′%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are less than 100 nm, 500 nm, or 750 nm in size. In certain embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are no greater than 800 am in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are no greater than 800 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some of these embodiments, at least 25%, at least 35%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are at least 5 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 25 nm, or 50 nm in size. 
     In certain embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are no greater than 600 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are no greater than 600 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some of these embodiments, at least 25%, at least 35%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are at least 5 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 25 nm, or 50 nm in size. 
     In certain embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are no greater than 500 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are no greater than 500 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some of these embodiments, at least 25%, at least 35%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are at least 5 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 25 nm, or 50 nm in size. 
     In certain embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are no greater than 400 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are no greater than 400 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some of these embodiments, at least 25%, at least 35%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are at least 5 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 25 nm, or 50 nm in size. 
     In certain embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are no greater than 300 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are no greater than 300 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some of these embodiments, at least 25%, at least 35%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are at least 5 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 25 nm, or 50 nm in size. 
     In certain embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are no greater than 200 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some embodiments, 25% to 50%, 40% to 65%, 50% to 65%, 65% to 75%, 75% to 85%, 85% to 95%, 90% to 99% or 95% to 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are no greater than 200 nm in size as measured by, e.g., transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. In some of these embodiments, at least 25%, at least 35%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100% of the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition are at least 5 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 25 nm, or 50 nm in size. 
     In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition have irregular geometry. In other embodiments, the nanoparticles in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition have regular geometric shapes (e.g., a round or spherical shape). 
     In a specific embodiment, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is biocompatible and/or biodegradable. Biocompatibility may be determined by a variety of techniques, including, but not limited to such procedures as the elution test, intramuscular implantation, or intracutaneous or systemic injection into animal subjects. Such tests are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,686,342, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. In one embodiment, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition has an elution test score of “0,” an intramuscular implantation test score of “0,” an intracutaneous injection test score of “0,” and/or a weight gain as opposed to weight loss in response to a systemic injection. In one embodiment, the polymer or fiber has an elution test score of “0.” 
     In a specific embodiment, biodegradable p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions degrade within about 1 day, 2 day, 5 day, 8 day, 12 day, 17 day, 25 day, 30 day, 35 day, 40 day, 45 day, 50 day, 55 day, 60 day, 65 day, 70 day, 75 day, 80 day, 85 day, 90 day, 95 day, or 100 days after administration or implantation into a patient. In one aspect, the slow biodegradable nature of the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions allows for sustained release of the nucleic acid. This property increases the efficiency of transfection of nucleic acid and protects the nucleic acid from degradation by the serum nucleases. 
     In certain aspects, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is immunoneutral, in that it does not elicit an immune response. In specific aspects, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is immunoneutral, in that it does not elicit an immune response when administered to an animal (e.g., injected subcutaneously or intramuscularly into an animal such as a mouse or a rabbit). The non-immunogenic nature of the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition allows its repeated administration into a subject. 
     In some embodiments, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions have no biological reactivity as shown by one or more biocompatibility tests. In one embodiment, the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions have no biological reactivity as shown by an elution test, subcutaneous injection test, intramuscular implantation test and/or systemic injection test. 
     In certain embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition can be stored at 20° C. to 30° C. or 20° C. to 25° C. for a certain period of time before use. In a specific embodiment, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition can be stored at room temperature for a certain period of time before use. In one embodiment, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition can be stored at 20° C. to 30° C. or 20° C. to 25° C. for about 30 minutes, 45 minutes, 1 hour, 1.5 hours, or 2 hours. In another embodiment, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition can be stored at 20° C. to 30° C. or 20° C. to 25° C. for 30 to 45 minutes, 45 minutes to 1 hour, 1 hour to 1.5 hours, 1 to 2 hours, or 1.5 to 2 hours. In one embodiment, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition can be stored at room temperature for about 30 minutes, 45 minutes, 1 hour, 1.5 hours, or 2 hours. In another embodiment, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition can be stored at room temperature for 30 to 45 minutes, 45 minutes to 1 hour, 1 hour to 1.5 hours, 1 to 2 hours, or 1.5 to 2 hours. In specific embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition can be stored at 4° C., 20° C. to 30° C., 20° C. to 25° C. or at room temperature for up to about 30 minutes, 45 minutes, 1 hour, 1.5 hours, or 2 hours. In some embodiments a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition can be stored at 4° C., 20° C. to 30° C., 20° C. to 25° C. or at room temperature for more than 2 hours (e.g., 3 hours, 4 hours, 5 hours, 6 hours, 7 hours, 8 hours, 12 hours, or 24 hours), or for more than 1 day. In one embodiment, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is stored at 4° C. In a specific embodiment, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition can be frozen or cryopreserved (and thawed before administration to a patient). For example, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition can be frozen at −20° C. or −70° C. In other embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is not frozen, or not cryopreserved and thawed, prior to administration to a patient. 
     5.2 Nucleic Acids 
     A p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition can comprise any nucleic acid known to one skilled in the art. Such nucleic acids include, but are not limited to, DNA and RNA, including cDNA, genomic DNA, plasmid DNA, plasmid RNA, mRNA, siRNA, microRNA, single stranded RNA, double stranded RNA, oligonucleotides, single stranded or double stranded oligonucleotides, triplex oligonucleotides, and other nucleic acids. Nucleic acids encompassed herein include nucleic acids in a sense or antisense orientations, modified, unmodified and synthetic nucleic acids. In specific embodiments, the nucleic acid is a coding region of a gene. 
     In one aspect, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition comprises a nucleic acid encoding a therapeutic peptide, polypeptide or protein. Such a therapeutic peptide, polypeptide or protein may be useful in treatment and/or prevention of a disorder in which the production of the therapeutic peptide, polypeptide or protein is beneficial to a subject, such as cancer, infectious diseases, genetic deficiencies of certain necessary proteins, and/or acquired metabolic or regulatory imbalances. For example, nucleic acid encoding a cytokine, such as interferon, IL-2, IL-12 or IL-15 might be useful for the treatment and/or prevention of infectious diseases and/or cancer. Nucleic acids encoding a insulin like growth factor binding protein 7 (IGFBP-7) and other factors might be useful for reducing the proliferation of certain cancer cells (e.g., breast cancer cells) and/or the growth of certain types of tumors (e.g., breast tumors). Nucleic acids encoding insulin might be useful to treating and/or preventing diabetes. Nucleic acids encoding, e.g., acid sphingomyelinase might be useful to treat Niemann-Pick disease. 
     In another aspect, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition comprises a nucleic acid encoding an antigen. The nucleic acid can encode any disease target of interest. For example, the nucleic acid can encode viral antigens, bacterial antigens, fungal antigens, parasitic antigens, and/or tumor-associated antigens. In a specific embodiment, the nucleic acid encodes a self-antigen. Nonlimiting examples of viral antigens include antigens from adenovirdiae (e.g., mastadenovirus and aviadenovirus), herpesviridae (e.g., herpes simplex virus 1, herpes simplex virus 2, herpes simplex virus 5, herpes simplex virus 6, Epstein-Barr virus, HHV6-HHV8 and cytomegalovirus), leviviridae (e.g., levivirus, enterobacteria phase MS2, allolevirus), poxviridae (e.g., chordopoxvirinae, parapoxvirus, avipoxvirus, capripoxvirus, leporiipoxvirus, suipoxvirus, molluscipoxvirus, and entomopoxvirinae), papovaviridae (e.g., polyomavirus and papillomavirus), paramyxoviridae (e.g., paramyxovirus, parainfluenza virus 1, mobillivirus (e.g., measles virus), rubulavirus (e.g., mumps virus), pneumonovirinae (e.g., pneumovirus, human respiratory synctial virus), human respiratory syncytial virus and metapneumovirus (e.g., avian pneumovirus and human metapneumovirus)), picomaviridae (e.g., enterovirus, rhinovirus, hepatovirus (e.g., human hepatits A virus), cardiovirus, and apthovirus), reoviridae (e.g., orthoreovirus, orbivirus, rotavirus, cypovirus, fijivirus, phytoreovirus, and oryzavirus), retroviridae (e.g., mammalian type B retroviruses, mammalian type C retroviruses, avian type C retroviruses, type D retrovirus group, BLV-HTLV retroviruses, lentivirus (e.g. human immunodeficiency virus 1 and human immunodeficiency virus 2), spumavirus), flaviviridae (e.g., hepatitis C virus), hepadnaviridae (e.g., hepatitis B virus), togaviridae (e.g., alphavirus (e.g., sindbis virus) and rubivirus (e.g., rubella virus)), rhabdoviridae (e.g., vesiculovirus, lyssavirus, ephemerovirus, cytorhabdovirus, and necleorhabdovirus), arenaviridae (e.g., arenavirus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, Ippy virus, and lassa virus), and coronaviridae (e.g., coronavirus and torovirus). 
     Nonlimiting examples of bacterial antigens include antigens from bacteria of the Aquaspirillum family, Azospirillum family, Azotobacteraceae family, Bacteroidaceae family,  Bartonella  species, Bdellovibrio family,  Campylobacter  species,  Chlamydia  species (e.g.,  Chlamydia pneumoniae ),  clostridium , Enterobacteriaceae family (e.g.,  Citrobacter  species,  Edwardsiella, Enterobacter aerogenes, Erwinia species, Escherichia coli, Hafnia species, Klebsiella species, Morganella species, Proteus vulgaris, Providencia, Salmonella  species,  Serratia marcescens , and  Shigella flexneri ), Gardinella family,  Haemophilus influenzae, Halobacteriaceae family, Helicobacter  family, Legionallaceae family,  Listeria  species, Methylococcaceae family, mycobacteria (e.g.,  Mycobacterium tuberculosis ), Neisseriaceae family, Oceanospirillum family, Pasteurellaceae family, Pneumococcus species,  Pseudomonas  species, Rhizobiaceae family, Spirillum family, Spirosomaceae family,  Staphylococcus  (e.g., methicillin resistant  Staphylococcus aureus  and  Staphylococcus  pyrogenes),  Streptococcus  (e.g.,  Streptococcus enteritidis, Streptococcus fasciae , and  Streptococcus pneumoniae ), Vampirovibr  Helicobacter  family, and Vampirovibrio family. 
     Nonlimiting examples of fungal antigens include antigens from fungus of  Absidia  species (e.g.,  Absidia corymbifera  and  Absidia ramosa ),  Aspergillus  species, (e.g.,  Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus niger , and  Aspergillus terreus ),  Basidiobolus ranarum, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Candida  species (e.g.,  Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Candida kerr, Candida krusei, Candida parapsilosis, Candida pseudotropicalis, Candida quillermondii, Candida rugosa, Candida stellatoidea , and  Candida tropicalis ),  Coccidioides immitis, Conidiobolus species, Cryptococcus  neoforms,  Cunninghamella  species, dermatophytes,  Histoplasma capsulatum, Microsporum gypseum, Mucor pusillus, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Pseudallescheria boydii, Rhinosporidium seeberi, Pneumocystis carinii, Rhizopus  species (e.g.,  Rhizopus arrhizus, Rhizopus oryzae , and  Rhizopus microsporus ),  Saccharomyces  species,  Sporothrix schenckii , zygomycetes, and classes such as Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes, the Basidiomycetes, Deuteromycetes, and Oomycetes. 
     Non-limiting tumor-associated antigens include melanocyte lineage proteins (such as gp100, MART-1/MelanA, TRP-1 (gp75), and tyrosinase), and tumor-specific antigens (such as MAGE-1, MAGE-3, BAGE, GAGE-1, -2, N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase-V, p15, beta-catenin, MUM-1, CDK4, Nonmelanoma antigens, HER-2/neu (breast and ovarian carcinoma), Human papillomavirus-E6, E7 (cervical carcinoma), and MUC-1 (breast, ovarian and pancreatic carcinoma)). 
     Nucleic acid sequences encoding a therapeutic peptide, polypeptide or protein, or an antigen can be determined by cloning techniques or found within sequence databases such as, GenBank and Uniprot. 
     In certain embodiments, the nucleic acids described above may be part of or otherwise contained in a vector or plasmid that provides transcriptional regulatory elements and optionally, translational regulatory elements. The vector or plasmid chosen will depend upon a variety of factors, including, without limitation, the strength of the transcriptional regulatory elements. 
     Techniques for practicing aspects of this invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of molecular biology and recombinant DNA manipulation and production, which are routinely practiced by one of skill in the art. 
     5.3 Adjuvants 
     In certain embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition described herein comprises, or are administered in combination with, an adjuvant. The adjuvant for administration in combination with a composition described herein may be administered before, concomitantly with, or after administration of said composition. In specific embodiments, the adjuvant is administered in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition. In other embodiments, the adjuvant is administered concomitantly with but not in the same composition as the nucleic acid. 
     In some embodiments, the term “adjuvant” refers to a compound that when administered in conjunction with or as part of a composition described herein augments, enhances and/or boosts an immune response. For example, an adjuvant can enhance and/or boost an immune response to an influenza virus hemagglutinin, but when the compound is administered alone does not generate an immune response. In some embodiments, the adjuvant generates an immune response and does not produce an allergy or another adverse reaction. Adjuvants can enhance an immune response by several mechanisms including, e.g., lymphocyte recruitment, stimulation of B and/or T cells, and stimulation of macrophages. 
     In certain embodiments, an adjuvant augments the intrinsic immune response to the antigen encoded by the nucleic acid in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition. In certain embodiments, an adjuvant augments the intrinsic immune response to the antigen encoded by the nucleic acid in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition without causing conformational changes in the product encoded by the nucleic acid. In certain embodiments, an adjuvant augments the intrinsic immune response to the antigen encoded by the nucleic acid in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition without causing conformational changes in the product encoded by the nucleic acid that affects the qualitative form of the response. 
     In specific embodiments, the adjuvant is a protein or a peptide. In other embodiments, the adjuvant is not a protein or peptide. In some embodiment, the adjuvant is a chemical. In other embodiments, the adjuvant is not a chemical. 
     In some embodiments, an adjuvant is a nucleic acid. Such adjuvant can be placed in the same or in a different construct from the “primary” nucleic acid to be delivered in a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition. Such adjuvant can be added either to the same “primary” p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition, or administered concomitantly or sequentially with the “primary” p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition in a separate adjuvant/polymer vehicle. Two or more adjuvants (e.g., nucleic acid adjuvants) can be administered in two or more separate p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions. In certain embodiments, the adjuvant is not a nucleic acid. 
     Specific examples of adjuvants include, but are not limited to, aluminum salts (alum) (such as aluminum hydroxide, aluminum phosphate, and aluminum sulfate), 3 De-O-acylated monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL) (see GB 2220211), MF59 (Novartis), AS03 (GlaxoSmithKline), AS04 (GlaxoSmithKline), polysorbate 80 (Tween 80; ICL Americas, Inc.), imidazopyridine compounds (see International Application No. PCT/US2007/064857, published as International Publication No. WO2007/109812), imidazoquinoxaline compounds (see International Application No. PCT/US2007/064858, published as International Publication No. WO2007/109813) and saponins, such as QS21 (see Kensil et al., in Vaccine Design: The Subunit and Adjuvant Approach (eds. Powell &amp; Newman, Plenum Press, N Y, 1995); U.S. Pat. No. 5,057,540). In some embodiments, the adjuvant is Freund&#39;s adjuvant (complete or incomplete). Other adjuvants are oil in water emulsions (such as squalene or peanut oil), optionally in combination with immune stimulants, such as monophosphoryl lipid A (see Stoute et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 336, 86-91 (1997)). Another adjuvant is CpG (Bioworld Today, Nov. 15, 1998). Such adjuvants can be used with or without other specific immunostimulating agents such as MPL or 3-DMP, QS21, polymeric or monomeric amino acids such as polyglutamic acid or polylysine, or other immunopotentiating agents known in the art. 
     In one aspect, an adjuvant is a cytokine, e.g., GM-CSF, IL-2, IL-12, IL-15, TNF-α, and IFN-α. In another aspect, the adjuvant is polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (“Poly I:C”) or CPG. In one embodiment, the adjuvant is Poly I:C. In some embodiments, the adjuvant is used at a concentration of about 1 μg to 100 μg per one dose of administration. In some embodiments, the adjuvant is used at a concentration of about 0.5 μg to 200 μg, 1 μg to 150 μg, 1 μg to 20 μg, 1 μg to 50 μg, 10 μg to 25 μg, 10 μg to 50 μg, 10 μg to 75 μg, 10 μg to 100 μg, 10 μg to 150 μg, 20 g to 50 g, 20 g to 80 μg, 20 g to 100 μg, 25 g to 75 g, 50 μg to 75 μg, 50 μg to 100 μg, or 50 μg to 150 μg per one dose of administration. In specific embodiments, Poly I:C or CpG is used at a concentration of about 1 μg to 500 μg, 10 μg to 250 μg, 20 μg to 200 μg, 25 μg to 150 μg, 25 μg to 100 μg, 25 μg to 75 μg, 30 μg to 70 μg, or 40 μg to 60 μg per one dose of administration. In other specific embodiments, GM-CSF or IL-12 is used at a concentration of about 0.1 μg to 250 μg, 0.5 μg to 100 μg, 0.5 μg to 75 μg, 0.5 μg to 50 μg, 1 μg to 100 μg, 1 μg to 50 μg, 1 μg to 25 μg, 1 μg to 15 μg, 1 μg to 10 μg, 2 μg to 15 μg, 2 μg to 10 μg, or 2.5 μg to 7.5 μg per one dose of administration. In a specific embodiment, an adjuvant is added to or used in combination with a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition. 
     5.4 Methods of Making p-GlcNAc Nanoparticle/Nucleic Acid Compositions 
     In certain embodiments, p-GlcNAc compositions comprising deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine derivatized with a mineral acid or an organic acid to allow it to be solubilized (as described supra, section 5.1), such as lactic, citric, succinic, gluconic, glucoronic, malic, pyruvic, tartaric, tartronic or fumaric acid, are diluted in a buffer (e.g., an acetic acid buffer such as sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer or ammonium acetate-acetic acid buffer), and optionally, incubated for a certain period of time (e.g., 5 to 10 minutes, 5 to 15 minutes, 10 to 15 minutes, 10 to 20 minutes, 15 to 30 minutes, 30 to 45 minutes, 30 minutes to 1 hour, 45 minutes to 1 hour, 5 minutes to 1 hour, 10 minutes to 1 hour, or for at least for 5 or 10 minutes) at a certain temperature (e.g., 45° C. to 55° C., 50° C. to 55° C., 50° C. to 60° C., 55° C. to 60° C., 55° C. to 65° C., 60° C. to 75° C., or 45° C. to 75°). In certain embodiments, the organic acid has the structure RCOOH, where R is optionally substituted alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl. In some embodiments, R is optionally substituted alkyl. In some embodiments, R is alkyl substituted with one or more hydroxyl groups. In certain embodiments, RCOOH is glycolic acid or lactic acid. In other embodiments, RCOOH is citric, succinic, gluconic, glucoronic, malic, pyruvic, tartaric, tartronic or fumaric acid. In specific embodiments, the buffer used in the method described herein can be any buffer which is effective to dilute the p-GlcNAc compositions. 
     In some embodiments, p-GlcNAc compositions comprising deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine derivatized/solubilized with a mineral acid or an organic acid to form an ammonium salt derivative (as described supra, section 5.1), such as lactic, citric, succinic, gluconic, glucoronic, malic, pyruvic, tartaric, tartronic or fumaric acid, are dissolved/diluted in a buffer, such as sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer pH 5.7 (or ammonium acetate-acetic acid buffer), and incubated for a certain period of time (e.g., 5 to 10 minutes, 5 to 15 minutes, 10 to 15 minutes, 10 to 20 minutes, 15 to 30 minutes, 30 to 45 minutes, 30 minutes to 1 hour, or 45 minutes to 1 hour) at a certain temperature (e.g., 450° C. to 55° C., 500° C. to 55° C., 500° C. to 60° C., 550° C. to 60° C., 550° C. to 65° C., or 600° C. to 750° C.). In one embodiment, a p-GlcNAc composition comprising deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine derivatized/solubilized with lactic acid is dissolved/diluted in buffer, such as sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer pH 5.7 (or ammonium acetate-acetic acid buffer), to obtain a final concentration of the derivatized poly-N-acetylglucosamine of about 0.001% to about 0.01%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.1% to about 0.2%, about 0.1% to about 0.25%, about 0.1% to about 0.3%, about 0.1% to about 0.4%, about 0.1% to about 0.5%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.2% to about 0.3%, about 0.2 to about 0.4% or about 0.2% to about 0.5%. In another embodiment, a p-GlcNAc composition comprising deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine derivatized/solubilized with lactic acid is dissolved/diluted in a buffer, such as sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer pH 5.7 (or ammonium acetate-acetic acid buffer), to obtain a final concentration of the derivatized poly-N-acetylglucosamine of 0.001% to 0.01%, 0.01% to 0.1%, 0.1% to 0.2%, 0.1% to 0.25%, 0.1% to 0.3%, 0.1% to 0.4%, 0.1% to 0.5%, 0.1% to 1%, 0.2% to 0.3%, 0.2 to 0.4% or 0.2% to 0.5%. In a specific embodiment, a p-GlcNAc composition comprising deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine derivatized/solubilized with lactic acid is dissolved/diluted in a buffer, such as sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer pH 5.7 (or ammonium acetate-acetic acid buffer), to obtain a final concentration of the derivatized poly-N-acetylglucosamine of 0.2%. In one embodiment, the buffer chosen precipitates the p-GlcNAc composition. 
     A certain amount of the dissolved/diluted p-GlcNAc composition can then be combined with a certain concentration of a nucleic acid and the mixture can be agitated (by, e.g., mixing, vortexing or shaking) for a certain period of time (e.g., 5 to 10 seconds, 5 to 15 seconds, 5 to 20 seconds, 10 to 20 seconds, 20 to 30 seconds, 20 to 40 seconds, 30 to 40 seconds, 40 to 50 seconds, 50 to 60 seconds, 1 to 2 minutes, 2 to 4 minutes, or 2 to 5 minutes) to form p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions described herein. In certain embodiments, 50 to 100 microliters, 75 to 150 microliters, 75 to 100 microliters, or 100 to 200 microliters of the dissolved/diluted p-GlcNAc composition is combined with a certain concentration of a nucleic acid. In a specific embodiment, 100 microliters of the dissolved/diluted p-GlcNAc composition is combined with a certain concentration of a nucleic acid. In certain embodiments, the nucleic acid has been combined with a salt, such as sodium sulfate, potassium sulfate, calcium sulfate or magnesium sulfate, and incubated at certain temperature (e.g., 450° C. to 55° C., 50° C. to 55° C., 500° C. to 60° C., 550° C. to 60° C., 550° C. to 650° C., or 600° C. to 750° C.) for a certain period of time (e.g., 5 to 10 minutes, 5 to 15 minutes, 10 to 15 minutes, 10 to 20 minutes, 15 to 30 minutes, 30 to 45 minutes, 30 minutes to 1 hour, or 45 minutes to 1 hour). In a specific embodiment, 0.1 g to 2 μg, 0.2 μg to 1 μg, 0.5 μg to 500 μg, 1 μg to 200 μg, 1 μg to 100 μg, 1 μg to 50 μg, 5 μg to 25 μg, 5 μg to 15 μg, 50 μg to 150 μg, 1 μg to 5 μg, 2 μg to 5 μg, 1 μg to 10 μg, 5 μg to 10 μg, 5 μg to 15 μg, 10 μg to 15 μg, 10 μg to 20 μg, or 15 μg to 25 μg of nucleic acid are combined with a salt, such as sodium sulfate, potassium sulfate, calcium sulfate or magnesium sulfate. In a specific embodiment, the nucleic acid is combined with 100 microliters of 50 mM sodium sulfate. In certain embodiments, the mixture of dissolved/diluted p-GlcNAc composition and nucleic acid is agitated by vortexing for a certain period of time (e.g., 5 to 10 seconds, 5 to 15 seconds, 5 to 20 seconds, 10 to 20 seconds, 20 to 30 seconds, 20 to 40 seconds, 30 to 40 seconds, 40 to 50 seconds, 50 to 60 seconds, 1 to 2 minutes, 2 to 4 minutes, or 2 to 5 minutes). In a specific embodiment, the mixture of dissolved/diluted p-GlcNAc composition and nucleic acid is agitated by vortexing for 20 seconds. In certain embodiments, an adjuvant as well as the nucleic acid is combined with the dissolved/diluted p-GlcNAc composition. See Section 5.3, supra, for examples of adjuvants that might be added to the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions. 
     A nucleic acid can be prepared for use in the method of making p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition by combining or mixing it with a salt, such as sodium sulfate, potassium sulfate, calcium sulfate or magnesium sulfate, and optionally, incubating the resulting combination or mixture at certain temperature (e.g., 450° C. to 55° C., 50° C. to 55° C., 50° C. to 60° C., 550° C. to 60° C., 550° C. to 65° C., 600° C. to 750° C., or 450° C. to 750° C.) for a certain period of time (e.g., 5 to 10 minutes, 5 to 15 minutes, 10 to 15 minutes, 10 to 20 minutes, 15 to 30 minutes, 30 to 45 minutes, 30 minutes to 1 hour, 45 minutes to 1 hour, 5 minutes to 1 hour, 10 minutes to 1 hour, or for at least 5 or 10 minutes). In a specific embodiment, 0.1 μg to 2 μg, 0.2 μg to 1 μg, 0.5 μg to 500 μg, 1 μg to 200 μg, 1 μg to 100 μg, 1 μg to 50 μg, 5 μg to 25 μg, 5 μg to 15 μg, 50 μg to 150 μg, 1 μg to 5 μg, 2 μg to 5 μg, 1 μg to 10 μg, 5 μg to 10 μg, 5 μg to 15 μg, 10 μg to 15 μg, 10 μg to 20 μg, or 15 μg to 25 μg of nucleic acid are combined with a salt, such as sodium sulfate. In a specific embodiment, the nucleic acid is combined with 100 microliters of 50 mM sodium sulfate. In specific embodiments, 0.5 μg/ml to 100 μg/ml, 1 mg/ml to 50 μg/ml, 1 μg/ml to 30 μg/ml, 1 μg/ml to 20 μg/ml, 2 μg/ml to 50 μg/ml, 2 μg/ml to 30 μg/ml, 2 μg/ml to 20 μg/ml, 3 μg/ml 30 μg/ml, 3 μg/ml to 20 μg/ml, 4 μg/ml to 15 mg/ml, 5 μg/ml to 15 μg/ml, 5 μg/ml to 10 μg/ml, or 6 μg/ml to 8 μg/ml of sodium sulfate is combined with a nucleic acid. 
     In a specific embodiment, the methodology described in Section 6.1, infra, is used to produce a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition. 
     5.5 Uses of p-GlcNAc Nanoparticle/Nucleic Acid Compositions 
     Described herein are methods for in vivo and ex vivo delivery of a nucleic acid to a subject. In a specific embodiment, methods for delivery of a nucleic acid to a subject in vivo for the purposes of gene therapy or vaccination are contemplated. The methods generally comprise administering a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition to a subject. In certain embodiments, the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition comprises an adjuvant in addition to a nucleic acid. In other embodiments, an adjuvant is administered separately before, during or after the administration of a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition. 
     In one embodiment, the administration of a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition results in a sustained expression of a nucleic acid in the composition. In certain embodiments, the administration of a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition results in expression of a nucleic acid in the composition for 1 week, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, 4 weeks, 1 month, 1.5 months, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, 6 months, 8 months, 10 months, 1 year or longer. In certain embodiments, the administration of a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition results in expression of a nucleic acid for a period of time between 2 hours and 3 months, 2 hours and 2 months, 2 hours and 1 month, 2 hours and 2 weeks, 6 hours and 3 months, 6 hours and 2 months, 6 hours and 1 month, 6 hours and 2 weeks, 12 hours and 3 months, 12 hours and 2 months, 12 hours and 1 month, 12 hours and 2 weeks, 1 day and 3 months, 1 day and 2 months, 1 day and 1 month, 1 day and 2 weeks, 2 days and 3 months, 2 days and 2 months, 2 days and 1 month, or 2 days and 2 weeks post-administration. 
     In another embodiment, the administration of a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition comprising an adjuvant is able to co-deliver nucleic acids and adjuvants to a subject. In a specific embodiment, the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is able to efficiently release adjuvants, such as GM-CSF and IL-12, for a sustained concurrent release of both nucleic acid and adjuvant. Without being bound by any theory, the co-delivery of nucleic acids and adjuvant by the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition increases the likelihood that antigen-presenting cells uptake the nucleic acid under proper stimulatory conditions. This stimulatory condition will be useful, e.g., when administering a nucleic acid encoding an antigen. 
     A p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition can be administered to a subject as part of a gene therapy protocol or vaccination protocol. The gene therapy or vaccination can be used to treat and/or prevent a variety of disorders or symptoms thereof. For example, gene therapy, can be used to treat and/or prevent cancer, infectious diseases, genetic deficiencies of certain necessary proteins, and/or acquired metabolic or regulatory imbalances. 
     A p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition can be administered to a subject by any route that permits expression of the nucleic acid, including parenteral, topical, intradermal, intranasal, mucosal intraperitoneal, epidural, sublingual, intracerebral, intravaginal, transdermal, rectal, by inhalation, intratumoral, and topical. In certain embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is to be delivered to a subject subcutaneously, intramuscularly or intravenously. In a specific embodiment, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered by subcutaneous injection. In certain embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is not administered intravenously. 
     In a specific embodiment, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered to the epithelial cells, e.g., cells of the skin, epidermis or dermis. In one embodiment, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered subcutaneously, e.g., by injection, in order to target the cells of the skin. The advantage of subcutaneous administrations is that such administration can target antigen presenting cells, such as dendritic cells, which play a central role in the initiation and establishment of a robust antigen-specific immune response. Delivery of the compositions described herein into the skin of a subject allows targeting of an antigen encoded by the nucleic acid to dendritic cells. In certain embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered in combination with an adjuvant, e.g., a cytokine. Subcutaneous administration of a nucleic acid encoded antigen and an immune response activator, such as a cytokine, is advantageous because it can induce activation and/or maturation of dendritic cells. Administration of such a composition can facilitate activation of dendritic cells and is essential for dendritic cells to cross-prime antigen to T-cells and generate effective immunity. 
     In some embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is used for repeated administration. In some embodiments, the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered three times a day, two times a day, once a day, once in two days, once a week, once in two weeks or once a month for a period of one month, two months, three months, six months, one year, or more than one year. In other embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is for one-time, non-recurring administration. 
     In some embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition comprising 0.1 μg, 0.5 μg, 1 μg, 1.5 μg, 2 μg, 3 μg, 4 μg, 5 μg, 6 μg, 7 μg, 8 μg, 9 μg, 10 μg, 15 μg, 20 μg, 25 μg, 30 μg, 35 μg, 40 μg, 45 μg, 50 μg, 60 μg, 75 μg, 80 μg, 90 μg, 100 μg, 125 μg, 150 μg, 200 μg, 250 μg, 300 μg, 350 μg, 400 μg or 500 μg of nucleic acid is administered to a subject. In certain embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition comprising 0.1 μg to 2 μg, 0.2 μg to 1 μg, 0.5 μg to 500 μg, 1 μg to 200 μg, 1 μg to 100 μg, 1 μg to 50 μg, 5 μg to 25 μg, 5 μg to 15 μg, 50 μg to 150 μg, 1 μg to 5 μg, 2 μg to 5 μg, 1 μg to 10 μg, 5 μg to 10 μg, 5 μg to 15 μg, 10 μg to 15 μg, 10 μg to 20 μg, or 15 μg to 25 μg of nucleic acid is administered to a subject. 
     In some embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is advantageous because it reduces the frequency of administration of its components, by allowing sustained release and/or expression of such components, while maintaining the therapeutic concentration of such components at a desired level. 
     The terms “subject” and “patient” are used interchangeably to refer to an animal, including a non-human animal and a human animal. In certain embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered to a mammal which is 0 to 6 months old, 6 to 12 months old, 1 to 5 years old, 5 to 10 years old, 10 to 15 years old, 15 to 20 years old, 20 to 25 years old, 25 to 30 years old, 30 to 35 years old, 35 to 40 years old, 40 to 45 years old, 45 to 50 years old, 50 to 55 years old, 55 to 60 years old, 60 to 65 years old, 65 to 70 years old, 70 to 75 years old, 75 to 80 years old, 80 to 85 years old, 85 to 90 years old, 90 to 95 years old or 95 to 100 years old. In certain embodiments, the mammal is a non-human mammal. In some embodiments, the mammal is an animal model for a particular disorder. In certain embodiments, the mammal is at risk or prone to a particular disorder. In other embodiments, the mammal has been diagnosed as having a particular disorder. In some embodiments, the mammal manifests symptoms of a particular disorder. 
     In specific embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered to a human. In certain embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered to a human 0 to 6 months old, 6 to 12 months old, 1 to 5 years old, 5 to 10 years old, 5 to 12 years old, 10 to 15 years old, 15 to 20 years old, 13 to 19 years old, 20 to 25 years old, 25 to 30 years old, 20 to 65 years old, 30 to 35 years old, 35 to 40 years old, 40 to 45 years old, 45 to 50 years old, 50 to 55 years old, 55 to 60 years old, 60 to 65 years old, 65 to 70 years old, 70 to 75 years old, 75 to 80 years old, 80 to 85 years old, 85 to 90 years old, 90 to 95 years old or 95 to 100 years old. In some embodiments, the human is at risk or prone to a particular disorder. In other embodiments, the human has been diagnosed as having a particular disorder. In some embodiments, the human manifests symptoms of a particular disorder. 
     In certain embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered to a pet, e.g., a dog or cat. In certain embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered to a farm animal or livestock, e.g., pig, cows, horses, chickens, etc. In some embodiments, the pet, farm animal or livestock is at risk or prone to a particular disorder. In other embodiments, the pet, farm animal or livestock has been diagnosed as having a particular disorder. In some embodiments, the pet, farm animal or livestock manifests symptoms of a particular disorder. 
     In some embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered to a subject who is refractory to a standard therapy. In some embodiments, a p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition is administered to a subject who is susceptible to adverse reactions to a conventional therapy or therapies. 
     In addition, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid compositions can be used to transfect (e.g., stably transfect) cells to produce large quantities of the nucleic acid gene product suitable for in vitro and/or in vivo uses. In one embodiment, the cells used for delivery of the nucleic acids are cell lines. In another embodiment, the cells used for delivery of the nucleic acids are primary cells from a subject (preferably, a human subject). In a specific embodiment, the cells used for delivery of the nucleic acids are cancer cells. Cells transfected with the nucleic acid delivery composition may also be administered to a subject (preferably, a human subject) as part of a gene therapy protocol. 
     5.6 Kits 
     Provided herein is a pharmaceutical pack or kit comprising one or more containers filled with one or more of the ingredients to produce p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/nucleic acid composition. In a specific embodiment, a pharmaceutical pack or kit comprises a deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine ammonium salt derivative (e.g., a lactate derivative), in a container. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical pack or kit also comprises one or more of the following: (i) sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer pH 5.7 (e.g., 25 mM sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer pH 5.7), in a container; (ii) sodium sulfate (e.g., 50 mM sodium sulfate), in a container; (iii) a nucleic acid in a container; and (iv) an adjuvant in a container. 
     In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical pack or kit comprises a deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine ammonium salt derivative (e.g., a lactate derivative), a nucleic acid, and optionally, an adjuvant. In some embodiments, a pharmaceutical pack or kit comprises a deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine ammonium salt derivative (e.g., a lactate derivative), a nucleic acid, and optionally, an adjuvant, wherein the poly-N-acetylglucosamine ammonium salt derivative is in a separate container from the nucleic acid and, optionally, the adjuvant. In some embodiments, a pharmaceutical pack or kit comprises a deacetylated poly-N-acetylglucosamine ammonium salt derivative (e.g., a lactate derivative), a nucleic acid, and an adjuvant, wherein each of the poly-N-acetylglucosamine ammonium salt derivative, the nucleic acid and the adjuvant is placed in a separate container. In other embodiments, the nucleic acid and the adjuvant are in the same container of the pharmaceutical pack or kit. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical pack or kit further comprises one or more of the following: (i) an acetic acid buffer such as ammonium acetate-acetic acid buffer or sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer (e.g., pH 5.7 such as 25 mM sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer pH 5.7), in a container; and/or (ii) sodium sulfate, potassium sulfate, calcium sulfate or magnesium sulfate (e.g., 50 mM sodium sulfate), in a container. In some embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine ammonium salt derivative is in the same container as an acetic acid buffer such as sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer or ammonium acetate-acetic acid buffer. In other embodiments, the poly-N-acetylglucosamine ammonium salt derivative is in a different container from an acetic acid buffer such as sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer or ammonium acetate-acetic acid buffer. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid is in the same container as sodium sulfate, potassium sulfate, calcium sulfate or magnesium sulfate. Yet in other embodiments, the nucleic acid is in a different container from sodium sulfate, potassium sulfate, calcium sulfate or magnesium sulfate. 
     Optionally associated with such container(s) can be a notice in the form prescribed by a governmental agency regulating the manufacture, use or sale of pharmaceuticals or biological products, which notice reflects approval by the agency of manufacture, use or sale for human administration. 
     The kits encompassed herein can be used in the above methods. 
     6. EXAMPLES 
     6.1 Example 1: Preparation of p-GlcNAc Nanoparticle/Nucleic Acid Composition 
     Step One: Determination of p-GlcNAc Slurry Concentration
         1.1 Dilute p-GlcNAc slurry stock to 20 liters with deionized (DI) water and mix overnight or 24 hours on shaker.   1.2 Filter 10 mL of the diluted slurry using Supro 800 filter membrane three times (30 mL total volume). Incubate the three membranes in an 85° C. oven until they are dried.   1.3 Weigh the three membranes and take the average weight.   1.4 Calculate the concentration by dividing the average weight by 10.       

     For example, the resulting p-GlcNAc slurry can have an average weight=6.3 μg, and concentration=6.3 μg/10 mL=0.63 μg/mL 
     Step Two: Calculate Volume Needed to Make Mats 
     The dimension of the mat box is 22 cm×22 cm, thus the area of the box is 484 cm 2 .
         2.1 The amount of polymer that may be used or is required is 0.5 μg/cm 2 ; therefore, the amount of polymer needed for one mat is 0.5 μg/cm 2 ×by 484 cm 2 , which is 242 μg.   2.2 The volume that may be used or is required for one mat is 242 μg/0.63 μg/mL, which is 384 mL.   2.3 Pour 384 mL of diluted slurry into the metal box with the metal screen, filter and remove the mat. Incubate the mat in a 50° C. oven until dry or let it dries at room temperature on paper towels.       

     Step Three: Membrane (Mat) Deacetylation
         3.1 Make 40% Sigma Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH flakes) solution one day prior to deacetylation reaction because the solution takes 24 hours to cool down. This is a weight to volume formulation; therefore, 40 grams of NaOH flakes per 60 mL of DI water (weight to volume). Once the solution is cool, pour into a 1 liter bottle.   3.2 Turn the water bath ON and set it to 80° C. Soak the membrane in 40% NaOH solution to loosen it from the screen and transfer it into a 1-liter glass bottle. Place the metal screen into a 4-liters beaker. Once all the membranes are transferred into the glass bottle, fill the bottle with the remaining 40% NaOH solution above the 1,000 mL mark and place the bottle in the water bath.   3.3 Incubate the bottle with membranes for 3 hours. Remove and shake the bottle every 30 minutes in order to mix it. Three hours of incubation will give you approximately 75% deacetylation measurement.   3.4 Remove the bottle and turn OFF the water bath. Let the membranes cool down, pour the 40% NaOH solution into a 4-liters flask and wash the membranes with DI water until the pH is neutral (7). Soak the membranes in DI water overnight and dispose of the 40% NaOH solution properly.   3.5 Place the deacetylated membranes on the metal screen and dry them in the 50° C. oven and measure deacetylation.       

     Step Four: Measure Deacetylation Percentage
         4.1 Make acetic acid standard (0.01, 0.02 and 0.03M) and glucosamine standard (0.005, 0.015 and 0.035 μg/mL) and run them on the programmed spectrophotometer to obtain a standard curve.   4.2 Weigh two weights per sample between 0.5 μg and 1.0 μg. Dissolve the sample with 100 μL of acetic acid for 20 minutes, bring the volume up to 1 mL w/900p-L of DI water. Aliquot 50 μL, 100 μL, 150p of the sample into three eppendorf tubes containing 950 μL, 900 μL, 850 μL of 0.01M acetic acid, mix well and read the sample in the spectrophotometer.   4.3 Calculate the deacetylation percentage using Excel spreadsheet once the standard and sample reading are obtained.       

     Step Five: After Deacetylation Measurement Calculate the Amount of Lactic Acid Needed to Make Gel. 
     Example for 69% Deacetylated Membrane: 
     
       
         
           
             
               Acetyl 
               ⁢ 
                   
               Glucosamine 
                   
               221.2 
               × 
               .31 
             
             = 
             6857.2 
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               Glucosamine 
                   
               215.6 
               × 
               .69 
             
             = 
             14876.4 
           
         
       
       
         
           
             Sum 
             = 
             
               
                 21733.6 
                 100 
               
               = 
               
                 217 
                 - 
                 
                   average 
                   ⁢ 
                       
                   MW 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               Weight 
               ⁢ 
                   
               of 
               ⁢ 
                   
               polymer 
               ⁢ 
                   
               
                 
                   10 
                   ⁢ 
                       
                   g 
                 
                 217 
               
             
             = 
             
               0.046 
                 
               M 
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               30 
               ⁢ 
               % 
               ⁢ 
                   
               Lactic 
               ⁢ 
                   
               Acid 
             
             = 
             
               3.33 
                   
               M 
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               
                 To 
                 ⁢ 
                     
                 achieve 
                 ⁢ 
                     
                 1 
                 : 
                 1 
                 ⁢ 
                     
                 molar 
                 ⁢ 
                     
                 ratio 
                 ⁢ 
                     
                 p 
               
               - 
               
                 GlcNAc 
                 : 
                 LA 
                 ⁢ 
                     
                 
                   46 
                   3.33 
                 
               
             
             = 
             
               13.81 
                   
               mL 
               ⁢ 
                   
               of 
               ⁢ 
                   
               Lactic 
               ⁢ 
                   
               Acid 
               ⁢ 
                   
               needed 
               ⁢ 
                   
               for 
               ⁢ 
                   
               this 
               ⁢ 
                   
               
                 sample 
                 . 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     Step Six: Pour 13.81 mL of 30% Lactic Acid into beaker with 986 mL of DI water with DEAC membranes. Leave membranes stir overnight to obtain uniform solution. Filter gel material through glass filter. Freeze in −20° C. freezer in plastic covered trays and lyophilize. 
     Step Seven: Dissolve 2 g of lyophilized material in 100 ml of DI water to obtain 100 ml of 2% p-GlcNAc gel. Sterilize gel with autoclaving 120° C. 20 min. 
     Step Eight: This protocol is scaled for 1 animal injection: 
     (1) Dilute p-GlcNAc gel 100 times in 25 mM sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer pH 5.7 and place in a water bath 55° C. for 15 min (final p-GlcNAc concentration after dilution is 0.02% gel). (2) Add 10 microgram of DNA plasmid to 100 micro liters of 50 mM sodium sulfate and place in a water bath at 55° C. for 10 min. (3) Add 100 micro liters of diluted p-GlcNAc gel to the DNA-sodium sulfate solution, while sample is being vortexed at a high speed. (4) Continue vortex the mixture for 20 seconds. (5) Keep the mixture at room temperature before injection into a subject for under 2 hours. The resulting p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA composition is used for injection into a subject. 
       FIG.  1    shows scanning electron micrographs of p-GlcNAc nanoparticles. 
     6.2 Example 2: In Vivo DNA Vaccination Using Luciferase Gene with or without p-GlcNAc Nanoparticle Composition 
     The protocol referenced in section 6.1 was used to produce p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA composition comprising plasmid DNA encoding luciferase. Plasmid preparations comprising DNA encoding luciferase (pcDNALuc) were injected (100 μg/mouse) intramuscularly (“i.m”) as naked DNA preparations or subcutaneously (“s.c”) as either naked DNA or p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA compositions. Luciferase activity was detected by bioluminescence imaging using the IVS system after intraperitoneal injection of luciferin substrate at days 1, 7 and 14 after administration of the DNA composition.  FIG.  2    shows the luciferase activity in all mice injected with pcDNALuc compositions. The highest overall luciferase activity was detected in mice injected subcutaneously with p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA compositions. Remarkably, DNA expression was detected in the same animals that received a single subcutaneous injection of the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA composition at comparable levels to mice that received an intramuscular injection up to four days after injection. Furthermore,  FIG.  2    shows that transgene expression was detectable up to 14 days after vaccination with p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA composition, which suggests a sustained availability of antigen locally at the site of administration. This data show that p-GlcNAc polymer nanoparticles are capable of releasing plasmid DNA in a way that results in sustained expression of the encoded antigen. 
     6.3 Example 3: Effective Uptake and Transport of DNA Encoded Antigen to Draining Lymph Node by Professional Antigen Presenting Cells Using p-GlcNAc Nanoparticle/DNA Composition 
     To determine whether DNA was effectively taken up by professional antigen presenting cells and transported to the draining lymph node, six mice were injected in the footpad with p-GlcNAc nanoparticle alone or an p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA composition comprising 100 μg of plasmid DNA encoding GFP. The protocol in section 6.1 was used to generate the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA composition. Draining lymph nodes were excised one day after injection and cell suspensions were stained with monoclonal antibody against MHC ClassII conjugated with PE. The cell suspensions were analyzed by flow cytometry for dual expression of MHC Class 11 and green fluorescent protein (GFP).  FIG.  3    shows flow cytometry analysis of cell suspensions from draining lymph nodes of mice immunized with p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pGFP compositions and of mice immunized with p-GlcNAc nanoparticle alone, wherein mice vaccinated with p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA compositions showed GFP signal in ≃30% of MCH Class II positive cells from excised lymph nodes. This indicates that the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle is capable of delivering DNA to the local injection site resulting in the successful expression of the coded product which was then taken up and transported to draining lymph nodes by professional antigen presenting cells (APCs). 
     6.4 Example 4: Proliferation of Donor Pmel Cells in Response to hgp100 DNA Vaccination 
     The protocol in section 6.1 was used to produce p-GlcNAc nanoparticles comprising hgp100 DNA. Mice were vaccinated with naked hgp100 DNA (intramuscularly and subcutaneously), p-GlcNAc nanogparticle/hgp100 (subcutaneously) or left unvaccinated 24 hours after adoptive transfer of 10 6  Pmel splenocytes (naïve Pmel cells: CD8 +  T cells TCR transgenic for an epitope within human gp100 (i.e., hgp100)). Levels of circulating Pmel cells were determined by flow cytometry of blood samples.  FIG.  4    shows the proliferation of Pmel cells in response to vaccination with either naked hgp100DNA or p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/hgp100DNA in spleen, peripheral blood (“blood”) and lymph nodes (“LN”). Higher frequencies of proliferating donor Pmel cells were found in the lymph nodes. p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA compositions effectively activated antigen-specific CD8 +  T cell responses as evidenced by proliferation of naïve Pmel cells in response to immunization with p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/phgp100 compositions. 
     6.5 Example 5: Co-Delivery of Poly I:C Enhances the Therapeutic Efficacy of DNA Vaccines Encoding Self Tumor Antigens 
     A previously established vaccination model that employs DNA encoding TRP2, a melanocyte differentiation antigen highly expressed in mouse and human melanomas was used. Previous studies have shown that the therapeutic efficacy of vaccination with naked DNA encoding TRP2 is minimal. Two experimental approaches, i.e., subcutaneous therapeutic model and metastasis therapeutic model, were utilized to test the efficacy of p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA and p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA/adjuvant compositions. 
     For the metastasis therapeutic model, five mice were injected intravenously with 3×10 4  B16 melanoma cells for each of the PBS saline control, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pDNA and p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pDNA/Poly I:C. Mice were vaccinated subcutaneously three days apart (three vaccinations) starting at day 3 of the tumor injection with PBS saline, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pDNA or p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pDNA/Poly I:C. All mice were sacrificed after tumor injection, and their lungs were excised and weighed.  FIG.  5 A  shows that the average lung weight of mice injected with p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pDNA is lower than lung weight of mice injected with PBS saline. Remarkably,  FIG.  5 A  shows that the average lung weight of mice injected with p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pDNA/adjuvant is significantly lower than lung weight of mice injected with either p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA or PBS saline. 
     For the subcutaneous therapeutic model, five mice were injected subcutaneously with 10 5  B16 melanoma cells for each of the PBS saline control, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pDNA and p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pDNA/Poly I:C. Three subcutaneous vaccinations were given three days apart starting at day five after injection of tumor cells, with either saline, p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pTRP2, or p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/pTRP2/adjuvant (where adjuvant is Poly I:C). Tumor progression was monitored three times a week following treatment.  FIG.  5 B  shows the effect of the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle compositions on tumor size.  FIG.  5 B  demonstrates that p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA composition inhibits tumor growth relative to saline control; it also demonstrates that p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA/adjuvant composition shows greater inhibition of tumor growth than p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA composition without an adjuvant. 
     Taken together,  FIG.  5    suggests that addition of adjuvant to the p-GlcNAc nanoparticle/DNA composition in the context of a therapeutic vaccination enhances antitumor immunity and delays tumor progression in both metastasis and subcutaneous models. 
     All publications, patents and patent applications cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patent application were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail by way of illustration and example for purposes of clarity of understanding, it will be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in light of the teachings of this invention that certain changes and modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit or scope of the appended claims.