Patent Publication Number: US-2007118399-A1

Title: System and method for integrated learning and understanding of healthcare informatics

Description:
BACKGROUND  
      The present invention relates generally to field of medical data processing, acquisition and analysis. More particularly, the invention relates to techniques for drawing upon a wide range of available medical data, to the organization and analysis of such data, and to refinement of various medical processes based upon an integrated understanding of the data gained by virtue of such organization and analysis.  
      In the medical field many different tools are available for learning about and treating patient conditions. Traditionally, physicians would physically examine patients and draw upon a vast array of personal knowledge gleaned from years of study to identify problems and conditions experienced by patients, and to determine appropriate treatments. Sources of support information traditionally included other practitioners, reference books and manuals, relatively straightforward examination results and analyses, and so forth. Over the past decades, and particularly in recent years, a wide array of further reference materials have become available to the practitioner that greatly expand the resources available and enhance and improve patient care.  
      Among the diagnostic resources currently available to physicians and other caretakers are databases of information as well as sources which can be prescribed and controlled. The databases, are somewhat to conventional reference libraries, are know available from many sources and provide physicians with detailed information on possible disease states, information on how to recognize such states, and treatment of the states within seconds. Similar reference materials are, of course, available that identify such considerations as drug interactions, predispositions for disease and medical events, and so forth. Certain of these reference materials are available at no cost to care providers, while other are typically associated with a subscription or community membership.  
      Specific data acquisition techniques are also known that can be prescribed and controlled to explore potential physical conditions and medical events, and to pinpoint sources of potential medical problems. Traditional prescribable data sources included simple blood tests, urine tests, manually recorded results of physical examinations, and the like. Over recent decades, more sophisticated techniques have been developed that include various types of electrical data acquisition which detect and record the operation of systems of the body and, to some extent, the response of such systems to situations and stimuli. Even more sophisticated systems have been developed that provide images of the body, including internal features which could only be viewed and analyzed through surgical intervention before their development, and which permit viewing and analysis of other features and functions which could not have been seen in any other manner. All of these techniques have added to the vast array of resources available to physicians, and have greatly improved the quality of medical care.  
      Despite the dramatic increase and improvement in the sources of medical-related information, the prescription and analysis of tests and data, and the diagnosis and treatment of medical events still relies to a great degree upon the expertise of trained care providers. Input and judgment offered by human experience will not and should not be replaced in such situations. However, further improvements and integration of the sources of medical information are needed. While attempts have been made at allowing informed diagnosis and analysis in a somewhat automated fashion, these attempts have not even approached the level of integration and correlation which would be most useful in speedy and efficient patient care.  
      A challenge in integrating diverse data and processes, particularly in the medical field, involves providing a network mechanism for the integration itself. To date, such networking has been only very limited, typically involving only specific institutions and departments. Such systems do not extend to patients, either for collection or access of data. Moreover, additional interfacing in a multilevel network environment would be advantageous for identifying shared conditions and trends developing in a population. However, existing network systems typically do not permit such functionality, and thus tend to be much more reactive in their response to emergent disease trends and the like.  
      Traditional systems of medical care, including all facets from actual patient care to financial management to institution management, have also failed to reach a level of understanding that permits real improvements in processes affecting care. Again, improvements have typically been made within a specific area or institution, with process improvements even being limited to departments and specific clinics. By way of example, goals and order of processing and testing during visits and diagnostic procedures are rarely rethought based upon insights from the vast array of information actually produced by researchers, care providers, insurance companies, and so forth. Similarly, processing of claims or evaluation of coverage of procedures is rarely adequately informed by improvements in knowledge of what procedures may best benefit patients with particular conditions, demographics, and so forth. It is believed that vast improvements could be made, both in terms of quality of care, and efficiency of operations if the data available from the resources mentioned above could be tapped and properly considered.  
      A fundamental limiting factor in the integration of the disparate information created in the medical field is the inability to effectively organize and analyze the data. The very different nature of textual, image, waveform, financial and other documents and data entities makes this a daunting task. Most often, the refinement of processes in the medical field is the result of useful, but limited insights of experts who, often serendipitously gain knowledge of different factors that could improve care or efficiency.  
      There is a need in the field for a more rigorous, encompassing and integrated approach to the access, processing, organization and analysis for medical data that can permit refinement of health care processing.  
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION  
      The present invention provides an approach to refinement of health care processes designed to respond to such needs. In accordance with one aspect of the invention, a multilevel medical data sharing system includes an integrated knowledge base, or “IKB” comprising data derived from a plurality of controllable and prescribable resource types, as well as from any other data entities available. The IKB, itself, may be analytically subdivided into certain data resources and other controllable and prescribable resources. The data resources may include such things as databases which are patient-specific, population-specific, condition-specific, or that group any number of factors, including physical factors, genetic factors, financial and economic factors, and so forth. The controllable and prescribable resources may include any available medical data acquisition systems, such as electrical systems, imaging systems, systems based upon human and machine analyses of patients and tissues, and so forth. All individual records, documents, articles, and so forth thus accessed may be thought of as separate “data entities.” 
      The invention permits a vast range of data entities to be identified, selected, and processed, including data defined as text, images, waveforms, audio files, and so forth, as well as combinations of these. The invention permits particular multidimensional domains of interest (such as a subject matter domain) to be defined by setting definitions of axes, labels for each axis and attributes of each label. The axes may subdivide the domain, while the labels may subdivide the axes. Any number of subsequent levels may be thus defined. The attributes for the basis of the labels and generally form the basis of criteria on which data entities are identified, and processed. The entire domain definition may be changed, refined, expanded, or otherwise manipulated over time.  
      From this framework, then, the IKB may be established, and subsequent searches, analysis, mapping and classification, and use of the entities may be made based upon the IKB or based upon new searches performed in a different database.  
      Ultimately, interrelationships among the data entities, and the information they represent or contain are organized in this manner, and high level., integrated understanding of the underlying health care processes can be gained. The invention contemplates refinement, by manual, semi-automated and even automated fashion, of any facet of the health care provision processes based upon such access, organization and analysis of the health care data entities. 
    
    
     DRAWINGS  
      These and other features, aspects, and advantages of the present invention will become better understood when the following detailed description is read with reference to the accompanying drawings in which like characters represent like parts throughout the drawings, wherein:  
       FIG. 1  is a general overview certain exemplary functional components within a computer-aided medical data handling system and of data flow between the components in accordance with aspects of the present techniques, including refinement of health care processes based upon organization and analysis of various data entities;  
       FIG. 2  is a diagrammatical representation of certain exemplary components of a data processing system of the type illustrated generally in  FIG. 1 ;  
       FIG. 3  is a diagrammatical representation of certain exemplary data resources that could form part of a knowledge base employed in the system of  FIG. 1 ;  
       FIG. 4  is a diagrammatical representation of certain exemplary of the controllable and prescribable resources that may be employed in the system of the type illustrated in  FIG. 1 ;  
       FIG. 5  is a general diagrammatical representation of exemplary modules within a controllable and prescribable resource, as well as certain modules which could be included in a data processing system in accordance with aspects of the present technique;  
       FIG. 6  is a diagrammatical representation of the overall structure of certain prescribable and controllable data resources, illustrating the availability of various modality resources within certain types and over certain time periods;  
       FIG. 7  is a diagrammatical representation of flow of information between certain data resource types as shown in  FIG. 6 , over certain time periods, and manners in which the information may be tied into the data processing system for analysis and prescription of additional data acquisition, processing or analysis;  
       FIG. 8  is a tabulated representation of a range of exemplary prescribable and controllable medical data resources organized by type and illustrating the various modalities of resources within the types;  
       FIG. 9  is a general diagrammatical representation of a typical exemplary electrical data resource as mentioned in  FIG. 8 , which may include various general components or modules for acquiring electrical data representative of body function and state;  
       FIG. 10  is a general diagrammatical representation of certain functional components of a medical diagnostic imaging system as one of the prescribable and controllable resources mentioned in  FIG. 9 ;  
       FIG. 11  is a diagrammatical representation of an exemplary X-ray imaging system which may be employed in accordance with certain aspects of the present technique;  
       FIG. 12  is a diagrammatical representation of an exemplary magnetic resonance imaging system which may be employed in the technique;  
       FIG. 13  is a diagrammatical representation of an exemplary computed tomography imaging system for use in the technique;  
       FIG. 14  is a diagrammatical representation of an exemplary positron emission tomography system for use in the technique;  
       FIG. 15  is a diagrammatical overview of an exemplary neural network system which may be used to establish and configure the knowledge base in accordance with aspects of the present technique;  
       FIG. 16  is a diagrammatical overview of an expert system which may similarly be used to program and configure a knowledge base;  
       FIG. 17  is a diagrammatical overview of certain components of the system in accordance with the present technique illustrating interaction between the federated database, the integrated knowledge base, data processing system, and an unfederated interface layer for acquiring information from a series of clinicians, and for providing information for output;  
       FIG. 18  is a diagrammatical flow chart of a series of processing strings which may be initiated in various manners to acquire, analyze and output information from the resources and knowledge base established by the present techniques;  
       FIG. 19  is a diagrammatical flow chart of certain events and processes which may take place over time to acquire patient information by patient interaction, perform system interactive functions, and output information for users, including patients and clinicians;  
       FIG. 20  is a diagrammatical representation of certain components and functions available for refining user access to the integrated knowledge base and for defining user-specific interfaces for interacting with the integrated knowledge base;  
       FIG. 21  is a diagrammatical representation of levels in a clustered architecture implemented in aspects of the present technique;  
       FIG. 22  is flowchart illustrating various functions carried out at different levels of the architecture of  FIG. 21 ;  
       FIG. 23  is a flowchart illustrating components and processes in a patient-managed integrated record system;  
       FIG. 24  is a flowchart illustrating exemplary components and steps in a predictive model development system;  
       FIG. 25  is a flowchart illustrating functions carried out in a predictive model development module of the type illustrated in  FIG. 24 ;  
       FIG. 26  is a flowchart illustrating a technique for refining or training a computer-assisted algorithm and a medical professional;  
       FIG. 27  is a flowchart illustrating processing steps for in vitro sample processing and analysis;  
       FIG. 28  is a diagrammatical representation of a CAX system including one or more CAX algorithms in accordance with aspects of the present technique;  
       FIG. 29  is a diagrammatical representation of the CAX algorithms of  FIG. 28  and functions and operators employed by the algorithms;  
       FIG. 30  is a diagrammatical representation of a scheme for implementing CAX algorithms in parallel and/or in series to evaluate a range of conditions and situations;  
       FIG. 31  is a diagrammatical representation of a computer-assisted assessment algorithm which may serve as one of the CAX algorithms implemented;  
       FIG. 32  is a diagrammatical overview of a data entity identification, structuring, mapping and classification system in accordance with aspects of the present techniques, operative to access, analyze, classify and otherwise organize data entities from the types of resources shown and discussed with reference to the foregoing figures;  
       FIG. 33  is a flow diagram of exemplary domain definition logic which may be employed in a system such as that illustrated in  FIG. 32 ;  
       FIG. 34  is a flow diagram of entity processing logic based upon a domain definition;  
       FIG. 35  is a diagrammatical representation of exemplary mapping of data entities performed through the logic of  FIG. 34 ;  
       FIG. 36  is a diagrammatical representation of related domains and domain levels that may be implemented in accordance with aspects of the present techniques;  
       FIG. 37  is a diagrammatical representation of a multi-level domain definition implemented to facilitate structuring, mapping, classification and analysis of data entities;  
       FIG. 38  is a representation of an exemplary domain definition template for use with a programmed computer in accordance with aspects of the present technique;  
       FIG. 39  is a representation of an exemplary template for defining axes and labels of the domain defined by the template of  FIG. 39 ;  
       FIG. 40  is an exemplary interface for defining data entity attributes for axes and labels of a domain;  
       FIG. 41  is a flow chart illustrating exemplary logic for search and classification of data entities, and for establishment of an IKB based upon such search and classification;  
       FIG. 42  is a diagrammatical representation of how a collection of entities may be mapped into an IKB using a domain definition and rules in accordance with the present techniques;  
       FIG. 43  is a diagrammatical representation of certain processing steps that may be performed for analysis and classification of data entities;  
       FIG. 44  is a diagrammatical representation of one exemplary process for identifying relevant records or data entities in a known field, such as an IKB;  
       FIG. 45  represents one exemplary representation of an analyzed set of data entities, such as textual documents with highlighting based upon a domain definition as a conceptual framework;  
       FIG. 46  is a further representation of analysis performed on a set of data entities to identify correspondence between attributes or portions of the conceptual framework of the domain definition found in a set of data entities;  
       FIG. 47  is an exemplary representation of analysis of a series of data entities showing overlap or intersection of correspondence between entities having specific attributes;  
       FIG. 48  is a further exemplary representation of analysis performed on a series of records or data entities for a portion of a domain definition or analytical or conceptual framework;  
       FIG. 49  is a further exemplary representation of analysis performed on a series of data entities showing classification by other criteria, such as by ownership;  
       FIG. 50  is a further exemplary representation of analysis and classification of data entities by the records themselves (i.e., the data entities);  
       FIG. 51  is a further exemplary representation of data analyzed for a series of data entities, indicating cumulative counts of entities by the conceptual framework of the domain definition;  
       FIG. 52  is a further representation of an exemplary analysis of data entities similar to that illustrated in  FIG. 51 , but showing exemplary additional displays of data that may be obtained based upon the analyzed and classified data entities;  
       FIG. 53  is a diagrammatical representation of a further interactive representation of analysis and classification of data entities based upon a domain definition and conceptual framework associated therewith;  
       FIG. 54  is a diagrammatical representation of the domain definition, search, analysis, mapping and classification techniques applied to image data files and associated text files for establishment of a database of such files, such as an IKB;  
       FIG. 55  is a further diagrammatical representation of exemplary workflow for analysis, mapping and classification of image and text files for classification and mapping of the files in accordance with aspects of the present technique;  
       FIG. 56  is a representation of an exemplary display of a series of summaries of the analysis of image and text files following the processes of  FIGS. 54 and 55 ;  
       FIG. 57  is a diagrammatical representation of a matrix of exemplary feature or characteristic types that may be defined, sought, located and mapped in data entities;  
       FIG. 58  is a diagrammatical representation of an exemplary axis having labels defined in terms of images and features within images;  
       FIG. 59  is a similar diagrammatical representation of an exemplary axis having labels defined by reference to waveforms;  
       FIG. 60  is a similar diagrammatical representation of an exemplary axis having labels defined by reference to audio features;  
       FIG. 61  is a diagrammatical overview of certain of the participants and elements in a healthcare system that may be involved in refinement of processes based upon the processing and analysis of data from resources as illustrated in the foregoing figures;  
       FIG. 62  is a diagrammatical summary of certain of the elements in an informatics system in accordance with the invention, that may be involved in the refinement; and  
       FIG. 63  is a diagrammatical representation of certain of the refinement feedback that may be involved in improving the healthcare system based upon the processing summarized in the foregoing figures. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION  
      Healthcare facilities today are increasingly becoming large warehouses of information. In a typical healthcare facility, data is continuously acquired, transferred, processed, and stored. Such data ranges from patient records to scanned images to hospital logistics, and a wide variety of data types there between. Proper management of this data is crucial for the healthcare facility to operate efficiently as well as to meet regulatory requirements. As the quality of data and the number of different data sources increases, the management of the data becomes increasingly complex. Automated methods for data management have become very valuable in the healthcare environment.  
      In addition to the management of healthcare data, the processing of such data is essential. Traditionally, the processing of healthcare data has been limited to a single data type, or only a few data types at a time. Such types may include, for example, clinical data, image data, financial or insurance data, and so forth. This allows the data to be processed in only the context from which it came. However, as the complexity of healthcare data increases, processing from only one context becomes very limiting to the overall understanding of the data. Integration of multiple data types and data sources is necessary for a more reliable and complete processing of the data. A fully integrated processing mechanism allows for the most comprehensive analysis of the healthcare data.  
      Through the management and processing of healthcare data, understanding of the data can be achieved. Traditionally, understanding of healthcare data has been limited by the single-dimensional processing of the data as described above. The resulting understanding of healthcare data is constrained to only the context in which the data was acquired or in which it is normally handled. The invention described below is adapted to provide a multi-dimensional, dynamic and complex understanding of healthcare data from a wide range of sources, for the improvement and refinement of healthcare processes.  
      The invention provides an integrated system for managing, processing, and understanding healthcare informatics. The system draws upon data entities in multiple formats and from multiple sources. A federated layer may be provided that converts all formats into a common format, such as in a markup language (e.g., XML), by tagging, or by any other data file structuring technique. Mapping and classification of the entities is carried out in accordance with a domain definition that may be defined and refined by a user. An IKB stores information thus obtained and can be updated periodically or iteratively as information is refined or becomes available, or as the domain definition is refined. Analysis tools process the data in an integrated fashion. The organized and analyzed data then serves as a basis for altering, refining, and improving healthcare processes, such as patient care paths, diagnostic testing, data and financial processing, equipment evaluation, and so forth.  
      The following discussion is subdivided into a number of sections to aid in an understanding of the overall scheme of the system, as well as the types and nature of the data entities and their sources. Sections are then provided that discuss processing that may be performed on healthcare data, and improved by the present techniques. Finally, overviews are provided for exemplary manners in which the data entities may be access and organized in accordance with a defined domain framework, and how the processes for provision of healthcare may be improved based upon understanding gained by such analysis.  
      Turning now to the drawings, and referring first to  FIG. 1 , an overview of a computer aided medical data exchange system  2  is illustrated. The system  2  is designed to provide high-quality medical care to a patient  4  by facilitating the management of data available to care providers, as indicated at reference numeral  6  in  FIG. 1 . The care providers will typically include attending physicians, radiologist, surgeons, nurses, clinicians, various specialists, and so forth. It should be noted, however, that while general reference is made to a clinician in the present context, the care providers may also include clerical staff, insurance companies, teachers and students, and so forth.  
      The system illustrated in  FIG. 1  provides an interface  8  which allows the clinicians to exchange data with a data processing system  10 . More will be said regarding the types of information which can be exchanged between the system and the clinicians, as well as about the interfaces and data processing system, and their functions. The data processing system  10  is linked to an integrated knowledge base  12  and a federated database  14 , as illustrated in  FIG. 1 . System  10 , and the federated database  14  draw upon data from a range of data resources, as designated generally by reference numeral  18 . The federated database  14  may be software-based, and includes data access tools for drawing information from the various resources as described below, or coordinating or translating the access of such information. In general, the federated database will unify raw data into a useable form. Any suitable form may be employed, and multiple forms may be employed, where desired, including hypertext markup language (HTML) extended markup language (XML), Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM), Health Level Seven® (HL7), and so forth. In the present context, the integrated knowledge base  12  is considered to include any and all types of available medical data which can be processed by the data processing system and made available to the clinicians for providing the desired medical care. In the simplest implementation, the resources  18  may include a single source of medical data, such as an imaging system, or more conventional data extraction techniques (e.g. forms completed by a patient or care provider). However, the resources may include many more and varied types of data as described more fully below. In general, data within the resources and knowledge base are digitized and stored to make the data available for extraction and analysis by the federated database and the data processing system. Thus, even where more conventional data gathering resources are employed, the data is placed in a form which permits it to be identified and manipulated in the various types of analyses performed by the data processing system.  
      As used herein, the term “integrated knowledge base” or “IKB” is intended to include one or more repositories of medical-related data in a broad sense, as well as interfaces and translators between the repositories, and processing capabilities for carrying out desired operations on the data, including analysis, diagnosis, reporting, display and other functions. The data itself may relate to patient-specific characteristics as well as to non-patient specific information, as for classes of persons, machines, systems and so forth. Moreover, the repositories may include devoted systems for storing the data, or memory devices that are part of disparate systems, such as imaging systems. As noted above, the repositories and processing resources making up the IKB may be expandable and may be physically resident at any number of locations, typically linked by dedicated or open network links. Furthermore, the data contained in the IKB may include both clinical data (i.e. data relating specifically to a patient condition) and non-clinical data. Non-clinical data may include data representative of financial resources, physical resources (as at an institution or supplier), human resources, and so forth.  
      The flow of information, as indicated by the arrows in  FIG. 1 , may include a wide range of types and vehicles for information exchange, as described more fully below. In general, the patient  4  may interface with clinicians  6  through conventional clinical visits, as well as remotely by telephone, electronic mail, forms, and so forth. The patient  4  may also interact with elements of the resources  18  via a range of patient data acquisition interfaces  16 , which may include conventional patient history forms, interfaces for imaging systems, systems for collecting and analyzing tissue samples, body fluids, and so forth. Interaction between the clinicians  6  and the interface  8  may take any suitable form, typically depending upon the nature of the interface. Thus, the clinicians may interact with the data processing system  10  through conventional input devices such as keyboards, computer mice, touch screens, portable or remote input and reporting devices. Moreover, the links between the interface  8 , data processing system  10 , the knowledge base  12 , the federated database  14  and the resources  18  will be described more fully below, but may typically include computer data exchange interconnections, network connections, local area networks, wide area networks, dedicated networks, virtual private network, and so forth.  
      As noted generally in  FIG. 1 , the data processing and interconnection of the various resources, databases, and processing components can vary greatly. For example,  FIG. 1  illustrates the federated database as being linked to both the data processing system  10  and to the resources  18 . Such arrangements will permit the federated database, and the software contained therein, to extract and access information from various resources, while providing the information to the data processing system  10  upon demand. The data processing system  10 , in certain instances, may directly extract or store information in the resources  18  where such information can be accessed and interpreted or translated. Similarly, the data processing system  10  can be linked to the IKB  12  and both of these components can be linked to the interface  8 . The interface  8 , which may be subdivided into specific interface types or components, may thus be used to access knowledge directly from the IKB  12 , or to command data processing system  10  to acquire, analyze, process or otherwise manipulate data from the IKB or the resources. Such links between the data are illustrated diagrammatically in the figures for explanatory purposes. In specific systems, however, the high degree of integration may follow specific software modules or programs which perform specific analyses or correlations for specific patients, specific disease states, specific institutions, and so forth.  
      Throughout the present discussion, the resources  12  will be considered to include two primary types of resource. First, a purely data resource may consist of various types of previously-acquired, analyzed and stored data. That is, the data resources may be thought of as reference sources which may represent information regarding medical events, medical conditions, disease states, financial information, and so forth, as discussed more fully below. The data resources do not, in general, require information to be gathered directly from the patient. Rather, these resources are more general in nature and may be obtained through data reference libraries, subscriptions, and so forth. A second type of resource comprising knowledge base  12  consists of controllable and prescribable resources. These resources include any number of data gathering devices, mechanisms, and procedures which acquire data directly or indirectly from the patient. More will be said of these resources later in the present discussion, but, in general they may be thought of as clinical resources such as imaging systems, electrical parameter detection devices, data input by clinicians in fully or partially-automated or even manual procedures, and so forth.  
       FIG. 2  illustrates in somewhat greater detail the types of components associated with the data processing system  10 . In general, the data processing system  10  may include a single computer, but for more useful and powerful implementations, a wide array of computing and interface resources. Such resources, designated generally at reference numeral  20 , may include application-specific computing devices, general purpose computers, servers, data storage devices, and so forth. Such devices may be positioned at a single principle location, but also may be widely geographically placed and drawn upon as desired, such as via wide area networks, local area networks, virtual private networks, and so forth. The computing resources draw upon and implement programs, designated generally at reference numeral  22 , which codify and direct the data extraction, analysis, compilation, reporting and similar functions performed by the data processing system. In general, such programs may be embodied in software, although certain programs may be hard-wired into specific components, or may constitute firmware within or between certain components. As described more fully below, the programs  22  may be considered to include certain logic engine components  24  which drive the analysis functions performed by the data processing system  10 . Such logic engine components may assist in diagnosis of medical events and conditions, but may also be used for a wide range of other functions as described below. Such functions may include prescription and control of the controllable and prescribable resources, proposals for patient care, analysis of financial arrangements and conditions, analysis of patient care, teaching and instruction, to mention but a few of the possible applications.  
      The computing resources  20  are designed to draw upon and interface with the data resources discussed above via data resource interfaces  26 , which may be part of federated database  14  (see,  FIG. 1 ). Moreover, the data resource interfaces  26  will typically include computer code stored both at the computing resources  20  and additional code which may be stored within these specific data resources, as well as code that permits communication between the computing resources and the data resources. Accordingly, such code will permit information to be searched, extracted, transmitted, and stored for processing by the computing resources. Moreover, the data resource interfaces  26  will allow for data to be sent from the computing resources, where desired, and stored within the data resources. When necessary, the data resource interfaces will also permit translation of the data from one form to another so as to facilitate its retrieval, analysis, and storage. Such translation may include compression and decompression techniques, file formatting, and so forth.  
      The computing resources  20  also interface with the controllable and prescribable resources via interfaces  28 , which may also be included in the federated database. Like interfaces  26 , interfaces  28  may include code stored, as noted above at the computer resources, as well as codes stored at the specific locations or systems which comprise the controllable and prescribable resources. Thus, the interfaces will typically include code which identifies types of information sought, permitting location and extraction of the information, translation of the information, where necessary, manipulation of the information and storage of the information. The interfaces may also permit information to be loaded to the controllable and prescribable resources from the computing resources, such as for configurations of systems and parameters for carrying out examinations, reports, and so forth. It should also be noted that certain of the computing resources may actually be located at or even integral with certain of the controllable and prescribable resources, such as computer systems and controllers within imaging equipment, electrical data acquisition equipment, or other resource systems. Thus, certain of the operations and analysis performed by the logic engine components  24  or, more generally, by the programs  22 , may be implemented directly at or local to the controllable and prescribable sources.  
      Also illustrated in  FIG. 2  is a network  29  which is shown generally linked to the data processing system  10 . The network  29 , while possibly including links to the data resource interfaces, the data resources, the controllable and prescribable resources, and so forth, may provide additional links to users, institutions, patients, and so forth. Thus, the network  29  may route data traffic to and from the various components of the data processing system  10  so as to permit data collection, analysis and reporting functions more generally to a wider range of participants.  
      As noted by the arrows in  FIG. 2 , a wide range of network configurations may be available for communicating between and among the various resources and interfaces. For example, as noted by arrow  30 , the computing resources  20  may draw upon program  22  both directly (e.g. internally of computer systems), or via local or remote networking. Thus, the computing resources may permit execution of routines based upon programs stored and accessed on an “as-needed” basis, in addition to programs immediately accessible from within specific computer systems.  
      Arrows  31  and  32  represent, generally, more varied data interchange pathways, such as configurable and dedicated networks, that allow for high-speed data exchange between the various resources. Similar communications may be facilitated between the data resource interfaces and the controllable and prescribable resource interfaces as noted at arrow  33  in  FIG. 2 . Such exchanges may be useful for drawing upon specific data resource information in configuring or operating the controllable and prescribable resources. By way of example, the data resource interfaces may permit extraction of population information, “best practice” system configurations, and so forth which can be stored within the controllable and prescribable resources to facilitate their operation as dictated by analysis performed by the computing resources. Arrows  34  refer generally to various data links between the interfaces  26  and  28  and the components of the knowledge base as described below, such links may include any suitable type of network connection or even internal connections within a computer system. In a case of all of the data communications  30 ,  31 ,  32 ,  33  and  34 , any range of network or data transfer means may be envisaged, such as data busses, dial-up networks, high-speed broadband data exchanges, wireless networks, satellite communication systems, and so forth.  
     Data Resources  
       FIG. 3  illustrates certain exemplary components which may be included within the data resource segment of the resources discussed above and illustrated in  FIG. 1 . The data resources denoted generally at reference numeral  38  in  FIG. 3 , are designed to communicate with the data processing system  10  as noted above with reference to  FIG. 2  and as indicated by arrows  35  in  FIG. 3 . In turn, the data processing system is available as a resource to clinicians  6  via interface  8  and may further communicate with the controllable and prescribable resources  40  as indicated by arrows  36 . As noted in  FIG. 3 , the clinicians may have direct access and interface directly with the data processing system, or access to the data processing system  10  indirectly via remote networking arrangements as denoted by the straight and broken arrows  37 .  
      The data processing system, in addition to drawing upon and communicating with the data resources  38  and controllable/prescribable resources  40 , communicates with the controllable and prescribable resources as indicated at reference numeral  40  and discussed more fully below. As noted above, the data resources may generally be thought of as including information and data which can be identified, localized, extracted and utilized by the data processing system  10 . Moreover, the data processing system may write data to the various resources where appropriate.  
      As illustrated in  FIG. 3 , the data resources  38  and controllable/prescribable resources  40  may include a range of information types. For example, many sources of information may be available within a hospital or institution as indicated at reference numeral  42 . As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the information may be included within a radiology department information system  44 , such as in scanners, control systems, or departmental management systems or servers. Similarly, such information may be stored in an institution within a hospital information system  46  in a similar manner. Many such institutions further include data, particularly image data, archiving systems, commonly referred to as PACS  48  in the form of compressed and uncompressed image data, data derived from such image data, data descriptive of system settings used to acquire images (such as in DICOM or other headers appended to image files), and so forth. In addition to data stored within institutions, data may be available from patient history databases as indicated at reference numeral  50 . Such databases, again, may be stored in a central repository within an institution, but may also be available from remote sources to provide patient-specific historical data. Where appropriate, such patient history databases may group a range of resources searchable by the data processing system and located in various institutions or clinics.  
      Other data resources may include databases such as pathology databases  52 . Such databases may be compiled both for patient-specific information, as well as for populations of patients or persons sharing medical, genetic, demographic, or other traits. Moreover, external databases, designated generally by reference numeral  54 , may be accessed. Such external databases may be widely ranging in nature, such as databases of reference materials characterizing populations, medical events and states, treatments, diagnosis and prognosis characterizations, and so forth. Such external databases may be accessed by the data processing system on specific subscription bases, such as on ongoing subscription arrangements or pay-per-use arrangements. Similarly, genetic and similar databases  56  may be accessed. Such genetic databases may include gene sequences, specific genetic markers and polymorphisms, as well as associations of such genetic information with specific individuals or populations. Moreover, financial, insurance and similar databases  58  may be accessible for the data processing system  10 . Such databases may include information such as patient financial records, institution financial records, payment and invoicing records and arrangements, Medicaid or Medicare rules and records, and so forth.  
      Finally, other databases, as denoted at reference numeral  60  may be accessed by the data processing system. Such other databases may, again, be specific to institutions, imaging or other controllable or prescribable data acquisition systems, reference materials, and so forth. The other databases, as before, may be available free or even internal to an institution or family of institutions, but may also be accessed on a subscription bases. Such databases may also be patient-specific, or population-specific to assist in the analysis, processing and other functions carried out by the data processing system  10 . Furthermore, the other databases may include information which is clinical and non-clinical in nature. For assistance in management of financial and resource allocation, for example, such databases may include administrative, inventory, resource, physical plant, human resource, and other information which can be accessed and managed to improve patient care.  
      As indicated by the multiple-pointed arrow in the data resources grouping  38  in  FIG. 3 , the various data resources may also communicate between and among themselves. Thus, certain of the databases or database resources may be equipped for the direct exchange of data, such as to complete or compliment data stored in the various databases. While such data exchange may be thought of generally as passing through the data processing system  10 , in a more general respect, the resources may facilitate such direct data exchange as between institutions, data repositories, computer systems, and the like with the data processing system  10  drawing upon such exchange data from one or more of the resources as needed.  
     Controllable/Prescribable Resources  
       FIG. 4  similarly indicates certain of the exemplary controllable and prescribable resources which may be accessed by the data processing system  10 . As before, the data processing system is designed to interface with clinicians  6  through appropriate interfaces  8 , as well as with the data resources  38  and controllable/prescribable resources  40 .  
      In general, the controllable and prescribable resources  40  may be patient-specific or patient-related, that is, collected from direct access either physically or remotely (e.g. via computer link) from a patient. The resource data may also be population-specific so as to permit analysis of specific patient risks and conditions based upon comparisons to known population characteristics. It should also be noted that the controllable and prescribable resources may generally be thought of as processes for generating data. Indeed, while may of the systems and resources described more fully below will themselves contain data, these resources are controllable and prescribable to the extent that they can be used to generate data as needed for appropriate treatment of the patient. Among the exemplary controllable and prescribable resources  40  are electrical resources denoted generally at reference numeral  62 . Such resources, as described more fully below, may include a variety of data collection systems designed to detect physiological parameters of patients based upon sensed signals. Such electrical resources may include, for example, electroencephalography resources (EEG), electrocardiography resources (ECG), electromyography resources (EMG), electrical impedance tomography resources (EIT), nerve conduction test resources, electronystagmography resources (ENG), and combinations of such resources. Moreover, various imaging resources may be controlled and prescribed as indicated at reference numeral  64 . A number of modalities of such resources are currently available, such as X-ray imaging systems, magnetic resonance (MR) imaging systems, computed tomography (CT) imaging systems, positron emission tomography (PET) systems, flouorography systems, mammography systems, sonography systems, infrared imaging systems, nuclear imaging systems, thermoacoustic systems, and so forth.  
      In addition to such electrical and highly automated systems, various controllable and prescribable resources of a clinical and laboratory nature may be accessible as indicated at reference numeral  66 . Such resources may include blood, urine, saliva and other fluid analysis resources, including gastrointestinal, reproductive, and cerebrospinal fluid analysis system. Such resources may further include polymerase (PCR) chain reaction analysis systems, genetic marker analysis systems, radioimmunoassay systems, chromatography and similar chemical analysis systems, receptor assay systems and combinations of such systems. Histologic resources  68 , somewhat similarly, may be included, such as tissue analysis systems, cytology and tissue typing systems and so forth. Other histologic resources may include immunocytochemistry and histopathological analysis systems. Similarly, electron and other microscopy systems, in situ hybridization systems, and so forth may constitute the exemplary histologic resources. Pharmacokinetic resources  70  may include such systems as therapeutic drug monitoring systems, receptor characterization and measurement systems, and so forth.  
      In addition to the systems which directly or indirectly detect physiological conditions and parameters, the controllable and prescribable resources may include financial sources  72 , such as insurance and payment resources, grant sources, and so forth which may be useful in providing the high quality patient care and accounting for such care on an ongoing basis. Miscellaneous other resources  74  may include a wide range of data collection systems which may be fully or semi-automated to convert collected data into a useful digital form. Such resources may include physical examinations, medical history, psychiatric history, psychological history, behavioral pattern analysis, behavioral testing, demographic data, drug use data, food intake data, environmental factor information, gross pathology information, and various information from non-biologic models. Again, where such information is collected manually directly from a patient or through qualified clinicians and medical professionals, the data is digitized or otherwise entered into a useful digital form for storage and access by the data processing system.  
      As discussed above with respect to  FIG. 3 , the multi-pointed arrow shown within the controllable and prescribable resources  40  in  FIG. 4  is intended to represent that certain of these resources may communicate directly between and among themselves. Thus, imaging systems may draw information from other imaging systems, electrical resources may interfaced with imaging systems for direct exchange of information (such as for timing or coordination of image data generation, and so forth). Again, while such data exchange may be thought of passing through the data processing system  10 , direct exchange between the various controllable and prescribable resources may also be implemented.  
      As noted above, the data resources may generally be thought of as information repositories which are not acquired directly from a specific patient. The controllable and prescribable resources, on the other hand, will typically include means for acquiring medical data from a patient through automated, semi-automated, or manual techniques.  FIG. 5  generally represents certain of the functional modules which may be considered as included in the various controllable and prescribable resource types illustrated in  FIG. 4 . As shown in  FIG. 5 , such resources may be thought of as including certain general modules such as an acquisition module  76 , a processing module  78 , an analysis module  80 , a report module  82 , and an archive module  84 . The nature of these various modules may differ widely, of course, depending upon the type of resource under consideration. Thus, the acquisition module  76  may include various types of electrical sensors, transducers, circuitry, imaging equipment, and so forth, used to acquire raw patient data. The acquisition module  76  may also include more hurnan-based systems, such as questionnaires, surveys, forms, computerized and other input devices, and the like.  
      The nature and operation of the processing module  76 , similarly will depend upon the nature of the acquisition module and of the overall resource type. Processing modules may thus include data conditioning, filtering, and amplification or attenuation circuits. However, the processing modules may also include such applications as spreadsheets, data compilation software, and the like. In electrical and imaging systems, the processing module may also include data enhancement circuits and software used to perform image and other types of data scaling, reconstruction, and display.  
      Analysis module  80  may include a wide range of applications which can be partially or fully automated. In electrical and imaging systems, for example, the analysis module may permit users to enhance or alter the display of data and reconstructed images. The analysis module may also permit some organization of clinician-collected data for evaluating the data or comparing the data to reference ranges, and the like. The report module  82  typically provides for an output or summary of the analysis performed by module  80 . Reports may also provide an indication of techniques used to collect data, the number of data acquisition sequences performed, the types of sequences performed, patient conditions during such data acquisition, and so forth. Finally, archive module  84  permits the raw, semi-processed, and processed data to be stored either locally at the acquisition system or resource, or remote there from, such as in a database, repository, archiving system (e.g. PACS), and so forth.  
      The typical modules included within the controllable and prescribable resources may be interfaced with programs, as indicated at reference numeral  22 , to enhance the performance of various acquisition, processing and analysis functions. As illustrated diagrammatically in  FIG. 5 , for example, various computer-assisted acquisition routines  86  may be available for analyzing previous acquisition sequences, and for prescribing, controlling or configuring subsequent data acquisition. Similarly, computer-assisted processing modules  88  may interface with the processing module  78  to perform additional or enhance processing, depending upon previous processing and analysis of acquired data. Finally, programs such as computer-assisted data operating algorithms (CAX) modules  90  may be used to analyze received and processed data to provide some indication of possible diagnoses that may be made from the data.  
      While more will be said later in the present discussion regarding the various types of controllable and prescribable resource types and modalities, as well as of the modules used to aid in the acquisition, processing, analysis and diagnosis functions performed on the data from such resources, it should be noted in  FIG. 5  that various links between these components and resources are available. Thus, in a typical application, a computer-assisted acquisition module  86  may prescribe, control or configure subsequent acquisition of data, such as image data, based upon the results of enhanced processing performed by a computer-assisted processing module  88 . Similarly, such acquisition prescription may result from output from a computer-assisted diagnosis module  90 , such as to refine potential diagnosis made, based upon subsequent data acquisition. In a similar manner, a computer-assisted processing module  88  may command enhanced, different or subsequent processing by processing module  78  based upon output of computer-assisted module  86  or of a computer-assisted diagnosis module  90 . The various modules, both of the resources, and of the programs, then, permit a high degree of cyclic and interwoven data acquisition, processing and analysis by virtue of the integration of these modules into the overall system in accordance with the present techniques.  
      As also illustrated in  FIG. 5 , for the typical controllable and prescribable resource, the programs executed on the data, and used to provide enhanced acquisition, processing and analysis, may be driven by a logic engine  24  of the programs  22 . As noted above, and as discussed in greater detail below, the logic engine  24  may incorporate a wide range of algorithms which link and integrate the output of programs, such as CAX algorithms, certain of which are noted as CAA, CAP and CAD modules  86 ,  88  and  90   FIG. 5 , and which prescribe or control subsequent acquisition, processing and analysis based upon programmed correlations, recommendations, and so forth. As also noted above, the programs  22  are accessed by and implemented via the computing resources  20 . The computing resources  20  may interface generally with the archive module  84  of the particular resource modality via an appropriate interface  28  as mentioned above. Finally, the computing resources  20  interface with the IKB  12 . It should be noted from  FIG. 5  that the knowledge base may also include modality-specific knowledge bases  19  which are repositories of information relating to the specific modality of the resource  62 - 74 . Such modality-specific knowledge base data may include factors such as system settings, preferred settings for specific patients or populations, routines and protocols, data interpretation algorithms based upon the specific modality, and so forth. The knowledge bases are generally available to clinicians  6  and, where desired, may be based upon input from such clinicians. Thus, where appropriate, the knowledge base may be at least partially built by configuration input from specialists, particularly inputs relating to the specific resource modality, for purposes of enhancing and improving acquisition, processing, analysis, or multiple aspects of these processes.  
     Modality/Type Interaction  
      A particularly powerful aspect of the present technique resides in the ability to integrate various resource data between types of controllable and prescribable resources, between various modalities of these types, and between acquisition, processing and diagnosis made at various points in time. Such aspects of the present techniques are summarized diagrammatically in  FIGS. 6 and 7 .  FIG. 6  illustrates, in a block form, a series of controllable and prescribable resource types  98 ,  100  and  102 . These resource types, which may generally track the various designations illustrated in  FIG. 4 , and described above, may each comprise a series of modalities  104 ,  106  and  108 . By way of example, type  98  may comprise various electrical resources denoted by reference numeral  62  in  FIG. 4 , while another type of resource  100  may include imaging resources  64  of  FIG. 4 . With each of these types the various modalities may include systems and procedures such as EEG, ECG, EMG, and so forth, for type  98 , and X-ray, MRI, CT imaging systems, and so forth, for type  100 .  
      In general, the representation of  FIG. 6  illustrates that, in accordance with the present technique, the patient may have various procedures performed at a first time  92 , which may include one or a range of data acquisition, processing and diagnosis functions for any one or more of the resource types  98 ,  100 ,  102 , or any one or more or the modalities within each type. Based upon the results of such acquisition, processing and diagnosis, subsequent sessions of data acquisition, processing or diagnosis may be performed at a subsequent time  94 . As indicated by the arrows between the blocks at these two points in time, control and prescription of subsequent data acquisition, processing and analysis may be appropriate. The subsequent operations may be performed on the same modality within a given resource type, or on a different modality of the same resource type. Similarly, the system may control or prescribe such procedures on entirely different types of resources, and for specific modalities within the different types of resources. Subsequent procedures may then be performed at subsequent times, as indicated generally by reference numeral  96  in  FIG. 6 .  
      As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the technique provides a very powerful and highly integrated approach to control and prescription of medical data handling over time. For example, based upon the results of acquisition and analysis of electrical data, such as at time  92 , an additional session may be scheduled for the patient wherein the system automatically or semi-automatically prescribes or controls acquisition of images via specific imaging systems. The system may also prescribe or control acquisition, processing or analysis of clinical laboratory data, histologic data, pharmacokinetic data, or other miscellaneous data types as described generally above. Over time, and between the various modalities and resource types, then, and in conjunction with data from the other data resources discussed above, the analysis may provide highly insightful feedback regarding medical events, medical conditions, disease states, treatments, predispositions for medical conditions and events, and so forth.  
      The integration of this information over time is further illustrated in  FIG. 7 . As shown in  FIG. 7 , the various data collected, processed and analyzed at the various points in time, and from the various resource types indicated by reference numerals  98 ,  100 ,  102 , are made available to and processed by the computing resources  20  via the programs  22 . As noted above, such processing may include a wide range of operations performed on available data, such as for analysis, prescription and control through the use of CAX algorithms, as noted for certain such algorithms CAA  86 , CAP  88 , CAD  90 , or other program modules made available to the computing resources  20 . Other such modules may be provided as part of an application, or software suite, or added over time, as indicated generally at reference numeral  91 . The logic engine components  24  aid in correlating the data and in prescribing or controlling the subsequent acquisition, processing and analysis of data from one or more of the modalities of one or more of the resource types. Ultimately, the computing resources may make the information available to the clinicians  6  as part of the IKB  12 .  
      Several points may be made with regards to the diagrammatical representations of  FIG. 7 . Firstly, the various interconnections between the elements of the system will generally be provided by direct or indirect communications links as discussed above. Moreover, interconnections and data exchange between the various resource types  98 ,  100  and  102  may be facilitated by direct interconnections between the components as discussed above. This is the case both between modalities of each type, as well as between various modalities of different types. The same is true for interconnections for data exchange between such types and modalities over time, as discussed above with respect to  FIG. 6 . Finally, while clinicians  6  are illustrated at various positions in the overall diagrammatical representation of  FIG. 7 , it should be noted that these may include the same or different clinicians, depending upon the modalities and types employed, and the needs of the patient. That is, specific clinicians or specialists may be provided for various resource types and even specific modalities, with different trained personnel being involved for other resource types and modalities. Ultimately, however, the general reference to clinicians  6  in the present context is intended to include all trained personnel that may, from time to time, and individually or as a team, provide inputs and care required by the medical situation.  
      The various types of controllable and prescribable resources, and the modalities of such resource types may include any available data resources which can be useful in performing the acquisition, processing, analysis functions offered by the present techniques. Specifically, the present technique contemplates that as few as a single resource may be provided, such as for integration of acquisition, processing and analysis over time, and, in a most useful configuration, a wide range of such resources are made available.  FIG. 8  is a tabulated summary of certain exemplary resource types, designated generally by reference numeral  110 , and modalities  112  within each of these types. As noted above, such controllable and prescribable resources may generally include electrical data sources, imaging data sources, clinical laboratory data sources, histologic data sources, pharmacokinetic data sources, and other miscellaneous sources of medical data. While various reference data on each of these types and modalities may be included in the data resources, the types and modalities enumerated in the table of  FIG. 8  are designed to acquire data which is patient-specific and which is acquired either directly or indirectly from a patient. The following discussion relates to the various types and modalities summarized in  FIG. 8  to provide a better understanding of the nature of such resources and the manner in which they may be used to evaluate medical events and conditions.  
     Electrical Data Resources  
      Electrical data resources of the controllable and prescribable type may be considered as including certain typical modules or components as indicated generally in  FIG. 9 . These components will include sensors or transducers  114  which may be placed on or about a patient to detect certain parameters of interest that may be indicative of medical events or conditions. Thus, the sensors may detect electrical signals emanating from the body or portions of the body, pressure created by certain types of movement (e.g. pulse, respiration), or parameters such as movement, reactions to stimuli, and so forth. The sensors  114  may be placed on external regions of the body, but may also include placement within the body, such as through catheters, injected or ingested means, capsules equipped with transmitters, and so forth.  
      The sensors generate signals or data representative of the sensed parameters. Such raw data are transmitted to a data acquisition module  116 . The data acquisition module may acquire sampled or analog data, and may perform various initial operations on the data, such as filtering, multiplexing, and so forth. The data are then transmitted to a signal conditioning module  118  where further processing is performed, such as for additional filtering, analog-to-digital conversion, and so forth. A processing module  120  then receives the data and performs processing functions, which may include simple or detailed analysis of the data. A display/user interface  122  permits the data to be manipulated, viewed, and output in a user-desired format, such as in traces on screen displays, hardcopy, and so forth. The processing module  120  may also mark or analyze the data for marking such that annotations, delimiting or labeling axes or arrows, and other indicia may appear on the output produced by interface  122 . Finally, an archive module  124  serves to store the data either locally within the resource, or remotely. The archive module may also permit reformatting or reconstruction of the data, compression of the data, decompression of the data, and so forth. The particular configuration of the various modules and components illustrated in  FIG. 9  will, of course, vary depending upon the nature of the resource and the modality involved. Finally, as represented generally at reference numeral  29 , the modules and components illustrated in  FIG. 9  may be directly or indirectly linked to external systems and resources via a network link.  
      The following is a more detailed discussion of certain electrical data resources available for use in the present technique.  
      EEG  
      Electroencephalography (EEG) is a procedure, typically taking one to two hours, that records the electrical activity of the brain via sensors or electrodes that are attached to a patient&#39;s head and coupled to a computer system. The process records the electrical discharge of the brain as sensed by the electrodes. The computer system displays the brain electrical activity as traces or lines. Patterns that develop are recorded and can be used to analyze brain activity. Several types of brainwaves may be identified in the patterns, including alpha, beta, delta and theta waves, each of which are associated with certain characteristics and activities. Variations from normal patterns of brain activity can be indicative of certain brain abnormalities, medical events, conditions, disease states, and so forth.  
      In preparation for an EEG test, certain foods and medications are generally avoided as these can affect the brain activity and produce abnormal test results. The patient may also be asked to take necessary steps to avoid low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) during the test, and may be prepared to sleep if necessary as certain types of abnormal brain activity must be monitored during sleep. Performance of an EEG may take place in a hospital or clinic and the examination is typically performed by an EEG technologist. The technologist secures the electrodes, typically  16 - 25 , at various places on the patient&#39;s head, using paste or small needles to hold the electrodes in place. A physician, typically a neurologist, analyzes the EEG record. During the procedure, the patient may be asked to simple relax, or various forms of stimulation may be introduced, such as having the patient breath rapidly (hyperventilate) or view a strobe to observe the brain response to such stimuli. An EEG is typically performed to diagnose specific potential events or conditions, such as epilepsy, or to identify various types of seizures that a patient may experience in conjunction with such disorders. EEG examinations may also be used to evaluate suspected brain tumors, inflammation, infection (such as encephalitis), or diseases of the brain. The examinations may also be used to evaluate periods of unconsciousness or dementia. The test may also evaluate the patient&#39;s prognosis for recovery after cardiac arrest or other major trauma, to confirm brain death of a comatose patient, to study sleep disorders, or to monitor brain activity while a person is receiving general anesthesia during surgery.  
      ECG  
      Electrocardiography (EKG, ECG) is a procedure, typically requiring a 10-15 minute examination, that records electrical activity of the heart via electrodes attached to a patient&#39;s skin and coupled to a data acquisition system. The electrodes detect electrical impulses and do not apply electricity to the body. The electrodes detect activity of the body&#39;s electrical system that result in cardiac activity. The electrical activity is detected, typically, through the skin on the chest, arms and legs of the patient where the electrodes are placed. The patient clothing may be removed above the waist and stockings or pants moved such that the patient&#39;s forearms and lower legs are exposed. The examination, typically performed by a specialized clinician, may be scheduled in a hospital, clinic or laboratory. After the test, a cardiologist typically analyzes the electrocardiography record. During the procedure, the patient is typically asked to lie on a bed or table, although other procedures require specific types of activities, including physical exertion. During the examination where appropriate, the patient may be asked to rest for a period of time before the test is performed. The electrodes used to detect the electrical activity, typically 12 or more, are placed at the desired locations via adhesive or other means. The areas may be cleaned and possibly shaven to facilitate placement and holding of the electrodes. Additionally, a conductive pad or paste may be employed to improve the conduction of the electrical impulses.  
      The acquisition system translates the electrical activity as indicated by the impulses, into traces or lines. The ECG traces will typically follow characteristic patterns of the electrical impulses generated by the heart. Various parts of the characteristic pattern may be identified and measured, including portions of a waveform typically referred to as the P-wave, the QRS complex, the ST segment and the T-wave. These traces may be analyzed by a computer or cardiologist for abnormalities which may be indicative of medical events or conditions. The ECG procedure is typically employed to identify such conditions as heart enlargement, signs of insufficient blood flow to the heart, signs of new or previous injury to the heart (e.g. resulting from heart attack), heart arrhythmias, changes in electrical activity of the heart caused by a chemical imbalance in the body, signs of inflammation of the pericardium, and so forth.  
      EMG  
      Electromyography (EMG) is a procedure, typically taking from 1-3 hours, designed to measure electrical discharges resulting from contraction of muscles. In general, as muscles contract, electrical signals are generated which can be detected by sensors placed on a patient. EMG and nerve conduction studies, summarized below, can be used to assist in the detection of the presence, location and existence of conditions and diseases that can damage muscle tissue or nerves. EMG examinations and nerve conduction studies are commonly performed together to provide more complete information.  
      In preparation for an EMG examination, a patient is typically called upon to avoid certain medications and stimulants for a certain time period, such as three hours, before the examination. Specific conditions such as bleeding or thinning of the blood, and practices such as the use of a cardiac stimulator are noted prior to the examination. In the EMG examination itself, a clinician in a hospital or clinic screens out extraneous electrical interference. A neurologist or physical rehabilitation specialist may also perform the test, where desired. During the procedure, the patient is generally asked to take a relaxed position, and muscles subject to the test are positioned to facilitate their access. Skin areas overlying the muscles to be tested are cleaned and electrodes are placed on the skin, including a reference electrode and a recording electrode. The reference electrode may typically include a flat metal disk which is attached to the skin near the test area, or a needle inserted just below the skin near the test area. The recording electrode typically comprises a needle, attached via conducting wires to a data acquisition device or recorder. The recording electrode is inserted into the muscle tissue to be tested. Electrical activity of the muscle is being tested is then recorded via the two electrodes both at rest and during contraction, typically with gradually increasing contraction force. Repositioning of the electrodes may be required to record activity in different areas of the muscle or in different muscles. Electrical activity data thus gathered may be displayed and typically takes the form of spiked waveforms.  
      The results of EMG examinations may be analyzed alone, although they typically are used in conjunction with other data to diagnose conditions. Such other data may include the patient&#39;s medical history, information regarding specific symptoms, as well as information gathered from other examinations. The EMG examination are typically performed to provide assistance in diagnosing disease that can damage muscle tissue, nerves or junctions between nerve and muscle, or to evaluate the causes of weakness, paralysis or involuntary muscle stimulation. Such examinations can also be used to diagnose conditions such as post-polio syndrome, as well as other conditions affecting normal muscle activity.  
      EIT  
      Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) is a non-invasive process designed to provide information regarding electrical parameters of the body. Specifically, the process maps the electrical conductivity and permittivity within the body. Electrical conductivity is a measure of the ease with which a material conducts electricity, while electrical permittivity is a measure of the ease with which charges within a material will separate when an imposed electric field is introduced. Materials with high conductivity allow the passage of direct and alternating current. High permittivity materials, on the other hand, allow only the passage of alternating currents. Alternate data gathering of electrical conductivity and permittivity within the body are obtained in a typical examination, by applying current to the body via electrodes attached to the patient&#39;s skin and by measuring resulting voltages. The measurements permit computations of impedance of body tissues, which may be used to create images of the tissues by reconstruction.  
      Because the electric current supplied during the examination will assume the path of least impedance, current flow through the tissues will depend upon the conductivity distribution of the tissues of the patient. Data obtained is then used to reconstruct images of the tissues, through various reconstruction techniques. In general, the image reconstruction process comprises a non-linear mathematical computation, and the resulting images can be used for various diagnosis and treatment purposes. For example, the process can be used to detect blood clots in the lungs or pulmonary emboli. The process can also be used to detect lung problems including collapsed lungs and accumulation of fluid. Other conditions which can be detected include internal bleeding, melanomas, cancers, such as breast cancer, as well as a variety of other medical events and conditions.  
      Nerve Conduction Tests  
      Nerve conduction studies have been used to measure how well individual nerves can transmit electrical signals. Both nerve conduction studies and EMG studies can be used to aid in the detection and location of diseases that can damage muscle tissue or nerves. Nerve conduction studies and EMG are often done together to provide more complete information for diagnosis. Nerve conduction studies are typically done first if both tests are performed together.  
      In preparation for a nerve conduction study, a patient is generally asked to avoid medications, as well as stimulants such as tobacco and caffeine. Additionally, issues with bleeding or blood thinning, and the use of cardiac implants are identified prior to the test. The nerve conduction study itself is generally performed by a technologist and may take place in a hospital or clinic or in a special room designed to screen electrical interference. A neurologist or physical rehabilitation specialist commonly performs the test. During the procedure, the patient is asked to recline or sit and areas of the body to be tested are relaxed. Several flat metal disk electrodes are attached to the patient&#39;s skin, and a charge-emitting electrode is placed over a nerve to be tested. A recording electrode is placed over the muscle controlled by the nerve. Electrical impulses are repeatedly administered to the nerve and the conduction velocity, or time required to obtain muscle response, is then recorded. A comparison of response times may be made between corresponding muscles on different sides of the body. The nerve conduction study may be performed, as noted above, to detect and evaluate damage to the peripheral nervous system, to identify causes of abnormal sensations, to diagnose post-polio syndrome, as well as to evaluate other symptoms.  
      ENG  
      Electronystagmography (ENG) refers to a series of tests designed to evaluate how well a patient maintains a sense of position and balance through coordinated inputs of the eyes, inner ears and brain. ENG tests can be utilized, for example, to determine whether dizziness or vertigo are caused by damage to nerve structures in the inner ear or brain. The tests utilize electrodes which are attached to the facial area and are wired to a device for monitoring eye movements. During an ENG test series, certain involuntary eye movements, referred to as nystagmus, which normally occur as the head is moved, are measured. Spontaneous or prolonged nystagmus may be indicative of certain conditions affecting the nerves or structures of the inner ear or brain.  
      In preparation for an ENG test series, the patient is generally asked to avoid certain medications, and stimulants for an extended period. Visual and hearing aids, as well as facial cosmetics, may need to be avoided or removed due to possible interference with electrodes used during the tests. For the examination, a series of electrodes, typically five, are attached to the patient&#39;s face using a conductive adhesive. The patient is tested in a seated position in a darkened room. During the examination, instrumentation is adjusted for measuring or monitoring how a patient follows a moving point using only the eyes. Readings are then taken while the patient performs mental tasks with the eyes closed, gazes straight ahead and to each side, follows movement of a pendulum or other object with the eyes, and moves the head and body to different positions. Additionally, eye movements may be monitored during a caloric test, which involves warm or cool air or water being placed or blown inside the patient&#39;s ears. During such tests the electrodes detect eye movement and the monitoring system translates the movement into line recordings. The caloric test may be performed with or without the use of electrodes to detect eye movement. The results of the test are analyzed to determine whether abnormal involuntary eye movements are detected, whether head movement results in vertigo, and whether eye movements have normal intensity and direction during the caloric test. If such abnormal involuntary eye movements occur during the test, or if vertigo or abnormal eye movement is detected during the caloric test, results maybe indicative of possible brain or nerve damage, or damage to structures of the ear affecting balance.  
      Combinations  
      Various combinations of the foregoing procedures maybe used in conjunction to obtain more detail or specific information. In particular, as noted above, nerve conduction tests and EMG studies are often done to compliment one another. However, based upon the results of one or more of the electrical tests described above other, more detailed tests of the same nature or of different types may be in order. The analyses may be combined or considered separately to better identify potential abnormalities, physical conditions, or disease states.  
     Imaging Data Resources  
      Various imaging resources may be available for diagnosing medical events and conditions in both soft and hard tissue, and for analyzing structures and function of specific anatomies. Moreover, imaging systems are available which can be used during surgical interventions, such as to assist in guiding surgical components through areas which are difficult to access or impossible to visualize.  FIG. 10  provides a general overview for exemplary imaging systems, and subsequent figures offer somewhat greater detail into the major system components of specific modality systems.  
      Referring to  FIG. 10 , an imaging system  126  generally includes some type of imager  128  which detects signals and converts the signals to useful data. As described more fully below, the imager  128  may operate in accordance with various physical principles for creating the image data. In general, however, image data indicative of regions of interest in a patient are created by the imager either in a conventional support, such as photographic film, or in a digital medium.  
      The imager operates under the control of system control circuitry  130 . The system control circuitry may include a wide range of circuits, such as radiation source control circuits, timing circuits, circuits for coordinating data acquisition in conjunction with patient or table of movements, circuits for controlling the position of radiation or other sources and of detectors, and so forth. The imager  128 , following acquisition of the image data or signals, may process the signals, such as for conversion to digital values, and forwards the image data to data acquisition circuitry  132 . In the case of analog media, such as photographic film, the data acquisition system may generally include supports for the film, as well as equipment for developing the film and producing hard copies that may be subsequently digitized. For digital systems, the data acquisition circuitry  132  may perform a wide range of initial processing functions, such as adjustment of digital dynamic ranges, smoothing or sharpening of data, as well as compiling of data streams and files, where desired. The data is then transferred to data processing circuitry  134  where additional processing and analysis are performed. For conventional media such as photographic film, the data processing system may apply textual information to films, as well as attach certain notes or patient-identifying information. For the various digital imaging systems available, the data processing circuitry perform substantial analyses of data, ordering of data, sharpening, smoothing, feature recognition, and so forth.  
      Ultimately, the image data is forwarded to some type of operator interface  136  for viewing and analysis. While operations may be performed on the image data prior to viewing, the operator interface  136  is at some point useful for viewing reconstructed images based upon the image data collected. It should be noted that in the case of photographic film, images are typically posted on light boxes or similar displays to permit radiologists and attending physicians to more easily read and annotate image sequences. The images may also be stored in short or long term storage devices, for the present purposes generally considered to be included within the interface  136 , such as picture archiving communication systems. The image data can also be transferred to remote locations, such as via a network  29 . It should also be noted that, from a general standpoint, the operator interface  136  affords control of the imaging system, typically through interface with the system control circuitry  130 . Moreover, it should also be noted that more than a single operator interface  136  may be provided. Accordingly, an imaging scanner or station may include an interface which permits regulation of the parameters involved in the image data acquisition procedure, whereas a different operator interface may be provided for manipulating, enhancing, and viewing resulting reconstructed images.  
      The following is a more detailed discussion of specific imaging modalities based upon the overall system architecture outlined in  FIG. 10 .  
      X-ray  
       FIG. 11  generally represents a digital X-ray system  150 . It should be noted that, while reference is made in  FIG. 11  to a digital system, conventional X-ray systems may, of course, be provided as controllable and prescribable resources in the present technique. In particular, conventional X-ray systems may offer extremely useful tools both in the form of photographic film, and digitized image data extracted from photographic film, such as through the use of a digitizer.  
      System  140  illustrated in  FIG. 11  includes a radiation source  142 , typically an X-ray tube, designed to emit a beam  144  of radiation. The radiation may be conditioned or adjusted, typically by adjustment of parameters of the source  142 , such as the type of target, the input power level, and the filter type. The resulting radiation beam  144  is typically directed through a collimator  146  which determines the extent and shape of the beam directed toward patient  4 . A portion of the patient  4  is placed in the path of beam  144 , and the beam impacts a digital detector  148 .  
      Detector  148 , which typically includes a matrix of pixels, encodes intensities of radiation impacting various locations in the matrix. A scintillator converts the high energy X-ray radiation to lower energy photons which are detected by photodiodes within the detector. The X-ray radiation is attenuated by tissues within the patient, such that the pixels identify various levels of attenuation resulting in various intensity levels which will form the basis for an ultimate reconstructed image.  
      Control circuitry and data acquisition circuitry are provided for regulating the image acquisition process and for detecting and processing the resulting signals. In particular, in the illustration of  FIG. 11 , a source controller  150  is provided for regulating operation of the radiation source  142 . Other control circuitry may, of course, be provided for controllable aspects of the system, such as a table position, radiation source position, and so forth. Data acquisition circuitry  152  is coupled to the detector  148  and permits readout of the charge on the photo detectors following an exposure. In general, charge on the photo detectors is depleted by the impacting radiation, and the photo detectors are recharged sequentially to measure the depletion. The readout circuitry may include circuitry for systematically reading rows and columns of the photo detectors corresponding to the pixel locations of the image matrix. The resulting signals are then digitized by the data acquisition circuitry  152  and forwarded to data processing circuitry  154 .  
      The data processing circuitry  154  may perform a range of operations, including adjustment for offsets, gains, and the like in the digital data, as well as various imaging enhancement functions. The resulting data is then forwarded to an operator interface or storage device for short or long-term storage. The images reconstructed based upon the data may be displayed on the operator interface, or may be forwarded to other locations, such as via a network  29  for viewing. Also, digital data may be used as the basis for exposure and printing of reconstructed images on a conventional hard copy medium such as photographic film.  
      MR  
       FIG. 12  represents a general diagrammatical representation of a magnetic resonance imaging system  156 . The system includes a scanner  158  in which a patient is positioned for acquisition of image data. The scanner  158  generally includes a primary magnet for generating a magnetic field which influences gyromagnetic materials within the patient&#39;s body. As the gyromagnetic material, typically water and metabolites, attempts to align with the magnetic field, gradient coils produce additional magnetic fields which are orthogonally oriented with respect to one another. The gradient fields effectively select a slice of tissue through the patient for imaging, and encode the gyromagnetic materials within the slice in accordance with phase and frequency of their rotation. A radio-frequency (RF) coil in the scanner generates high frequency pulses to excite the gyromagnetic material and, as the material attempts to realign itself with the magnetic fields, magnetic resonance signals are emitted which are collected by the radio-frequency coil.  
      The scanner  158  is coupled to gradient coil control circuitry  160  and to RF coil control circuitry  162 . The gradient coil control circuitry permits regulation of various pulse sequences which define imaging or examination methodologies used to generate the image data. Pulse sequence descriptions implemented via the gradient coil control circuitry  160  are designed to image specific slices, anatomies, as well as to permit specific imaging of moving tissue, such as blood, and defusing materials. The pulse sequences may allow for imaging of multiple slices sequentially, such as for analysis of various organs or features, as well as for three-dimensional image reconstruction. The RF coil control circuitry  162  permits application of pulses to the RF excitation coil, and serves to receive and partially process the resulting detected MR signals. It should also be noted that a range of RF coil structures may be employed for specific anatomies and purposes. In addition, a single RF coil may be used for transmission of the RF pulses, with a different coil serving to receive the resulting signals.  
      The gradient and RF coil control circuitry function under the direction of a system controller  164 . The system controller implements pulse sequence descriptions which define the image data acquisition process. The system controller will generally permit some amount of adaptation or configuration of the examination sequence by means of an operator interface  136 .  
      Data processing circuitry  166  receives the detected MR signals and processes the signals to obtain data for reconstruction. In general, the data processing circuitry  166  digitizes the received signals, and performs a two-dimensional fast Fourier transform on the signals to decode specific locations in the selected slice from which the MR signals originated. The resulting information provides an indication of the intensity of MR signals originating at various locations or volume elements (voxels) in the slice. Each voxel may then be converted to a pixel intensity in image data for reconstruction. The data processing circuitry  166  may perform a wide range of other functions, such as for image enhancement, dynamic range adjustment, intensity adjustments, smoothing, sharpening, and so forth. The resulting processed image data is typically forwarded to an operator interface for viewing, as well as to short or long-term storage. As in the case of foregoing imaging systems, MR image data may be viewed locally at a scanner location, or may be transmitted to remote locations both within an institution and remote from an institution such as via a network connection  29 .  
      CT  
       FIG. 13  illustrates the basic components of a computed tomography (CT) imaging system. The CT imaging system  168  includes a radiation source  170  which is configured to generate X-ray radiation in a fan-shaped beam  172 . A collimator  174  defines limits of the radiation beam. The radiation beam  172  is directed toward a curved detector  176  made up of an array of photodiodes and transistors which permit readout of charges of the diodes depleted by impact of the radiation from the source  170 . The radiation source, the collimator and the detector are mounted on a rotating gantry  178  which enables them to be rapidly rotated (such as at speeds of two rotations per second).  
      During an examination sequence, as the source and detector are rotated, a series of view frames are generated at angularly-displaced locations around a patient  4  positioned within the gantry. A number of view frames (e.g. between 500 and 1000) are collected for each rotation, and a number of rotations may be made, such as in a helical pattern as the patient is slowly moved along the axial direction of the system. For each view frame, data is collected from individual pixel locations of the detector to generate a large volume of discrete data. A source controller  180  regulates operation of the radiation source  170 , while a gantry/table controller  182  regulates rotation of the gantry and control of movement of the patient.  
      Data collected by the detector is digitized and forwarded to a data acquisition circuitry  184 . The data acquisition circuitry may perform initial processing of the data, such as for generation of a data file. The data file may incorporate other useful information, such as relating to cardiac cycles, positions within the system at specific times, and so forth. Data processing circuitry  186  then receives the data and performs a wide range of data manipulation and computations.  
      In general, data from the CT scanner can be reconstructed in a range of manners. For example, view frames for a full 360° of rotation may be used to construct an image of a slice or slab through the patient. However, because some of the information is typically redundant (imaging the same anatomies on opposite sides of a patient), reduced data sets comprising information for view frames acquired over 180° plus the angle of the radiation fan may be constructed. Alternatively, multi-sector reconstructions are utilized in which the same number of view frames may be acquired from portions of multiple rotational cycles around the patient. Reconstruction of the data into useful images then includes computations of projections of radiation on the detector and identification of relative attenuations of the data by specific locations in the patient. The raw, the partially processed, and the fully processed data may be forwarded for post-processing, storage and image reconstruction. The data may be available immediately to an operator, such as at an operator interface  136 , and may be transmitted remotely via a network connection  29 .  
      PET  
       FIG. 14  illustrates certain basic components of a positron emission tomography (PET) imaging system. The PET imaging system  188  includes a radio-labeling module  190  which is sometimes referred to as a cyclotron. The cyclotron is adapted to prepare certain tagged or radio-labeled materials, such as glucose, with a radioactive substance. The radioactive substance is then injected into a patient  4  as indicated at reference numeral  192 . The patient is then placed in a PET scanner  194 . The scanner detects emissions from the tagged substance as its radioactivity decays within the body of the patient. In particular, positrons, sometimes referred to as positive electrons, are emitted by the material as the radioactive nuclide level decays. The positrons travel short distances and eventually combine with electrons resulting in emission of a pair of gamma rays. Photomultiplier-scintillator detectors within the scanner detect the gamma rays and produce signals based upon the detected radiation.  
      The scanner  194  operates under the control of scanner control circuitry  196 , itself regulated by an operator interface  136 . In most PET scans, the entire body of the patient is scanned, and signals detected from the gamma radiation are forwarded to data acquisition circuitry  198 . The particular intensity and location of the radiation can be identified by data processing circuitry  200 , and reconstructed images may be formulated and viewed on operator interface  136 , or the raw or processed data may be stored for later image enhancement, analysis, and viewing. The images, or image data, may also be transmitted to remote locations via a network link  29 .  
      PET scans are typically used to detect cancers and to examine the effects of cancer therapy. The scans may also be used to determine blood flow, such as to the heart, and may be used to evaluate signs of coronary artery disease. Combined with a myocardial metabolism study, PET scans may be used to differentiate non-functioning heart muscle from heart muscle that would benefit from a procedure, such as angioplasty or coronary artery bypass surgery, to establish adequate blood flow. PET scans of the brain may also be used to evaluate patients with memory disorders of undetermined causes, to evaluate the potential for the presence of brain tumors, and to analyze potential causes for seizure disorders. In these various procedures, the PET image is generated based upon the differential uptake of the tagged materials by different types of tissue.  
      Fluorography  
      Fluoroscopic or fluorography systems consist of X-ray image intensifiers coupled to photographic and video cameras. In digital systems, the basic fluoroscopic system may be essentially similar to that described above with reference to  FIG. 11 . In simple systems, for example, an image intensifier with a video camera may display images on a video monitor, while more complex systems might include high resolution photographic cameras for producing still images and cameras of different resolutions for producing dynamic images. Digital detectors such as those used on digital X-ray systems are also used in such fluoroscopic systems. The collected data may be recorded for later reconstruction into a moving picture-type display. Such techniques are sometimes referred to as cine-fluorography. Such procedures are widely used in cardiac studies, such as to record movement of a living heart. Again, the studies may be performed for later reference, or may also be performed during an actual real-time surgical intervention.  
      As in conventional X-ray systems, the camera used for fluorography systems receives a video signal which is collected by a video monitor for immediate display. A video tape or disk recorder may be used for storage and later playback. The computer system or data processing circuitry may perform additional processing and analysis on the image data both in real-time and subsequently.  
      The various techniques used in fluorography systems may be referred to as video-fluoroscopy or screening, and digital fluorography. The latter technique is replacing many conventional photography-based methods and is sometimes referred to as digital spot imaging (DSI), digital cardiac imaging (DCI) and digital vascular imaging (DVI)/digital subtraction angiography (DSA), depending upon the particular clinical application. A hard-copy device, such as a laser imager, is used for to output hard copies of digital images. Moreover, fluoroscopic techniques may be used in conjunction with conventional X-ray techniques, particularly where a digital X-ray detector is employed as described above. That is, high-energy X-ray images may be taken at intervals interspersed with fluoroscopic images, the X-ray images providing a higher resolution or clarity in the images, while the fluoroscopic images provide real-time movement views.  
      Mammography  
      Mammography generally refers to specific types of imaging, commonly using low-dose X-ray systems and high-contrast, high-resolution film, or digital X-ray systems as described above, for examination of the breasts. Other mammography systems may employ CT imaging systems of the type described above, collecting sets of information which are used to reconstruct useful images. A typical mammography unit includes a source of X-ray radiation, such as a conventional X-ray tube, which may be adapted for various emission levels and filtration of radiation. An X-ray film or digital detector is placed in an oppose location from the radiation source, and the breast is compressed by plates disposed between these components to enhance the coverage and to aid in localizing features or abnormalities detectable in the reconstructed images. In general, the features of interest, which may include such anatomical features as microcalcifications, various bodies and lesions, and so forth, are visible in the collected data or on the exposed film due to differential absorption or attenuation of the X-ray radiation as compared to surrounding tissues. Mammography plays a central role in the early detection of cancers which can be more successfully treated when detected at very early stages.  
      Sonography  
      Sonography imaging techniques generally include ultrasonography, employing high-frequency sound waves rather than ionizing or other types of radiation. The systems include a probe which is placed immediately adjacent to a patient&#39;s skin on which a gel is disposed to facilitate transmission of the sound waves and reception of reflections. Reflections of the sound beam from tissue planes and structures with differing acoustic properties are detected and processed. Brightness levels in the resulting data are indicative of the intensity of the reflected sound waves.  
      Ultrasonography is generally performed in real-time with a continuous display of the image on a video monitor. Freeze-frame images may be captured, such as to document views displayed during the real-time study. In ultrasound systems, as in conventional radiography systems, the appearance of structures is highly dependent upon their composition. For example, water-filled structures (such as a cyst) appear dark in the resulting reconstructed images, while fat-containing structures generally appear brighter. Calcifications, such as gallstones, appear bright and produce a characteristic shadowing artifact.  
      When interpreting ultrasound studies, radiologists and clinicians generally use the terminology “echogeneity” to describe the brightness of an object. A “hypoechoic” structure appears dark in the reconstructed image, while a “hyperechoic” structure appears bright.  
      Ultrasonography presents certain advantages over other imaging techniques, such as the absence of ionizing radiation, the high degree of portability of the systems, and their relatively low cost. In particular, ultrasound examinations can be performed at a bedside or in an emergency department by use of a mobile system. The systems are also excellent at distinguishing whether objects are solid or cystic. As with other imaging systems, results of ultrasonography may be viewed immediately, or may be stored for later viewing, transmission to remote locations, and analysis.  
      Infrared  
      Clinical thermography, otherwise known as infrared imaging, is based upon a careful analysis of skin surface temperatures as a reflection of normal or abnormal human physiology. The procedure is commonly performed either by the direct application of liquid crystal plates to a part of the body, or via ultra-sensitive infrared cameras through a sophisticated computer interface. Each procedure extrapolates the thermal data and forms an image which may be evaluated for signs of possible disease or injury. Differences in the surface temperature of the body may be indicative of abnormally enhanced blood flow, for example, resulting from injury or damage to underlying tissues.  
      Nuclear  
      Nuclear medicine involves the administration of small amounts of radioactive substances and the subsequent recording of radiation emitted from the patient at specific loci where the substances accumulate. There are a wide variety of diagnostic and therapeutic applications of nuclear medicine. In general, nuclear medicine is based upon the spontaneous emission of energy in the form of radiation from specific types of nuclei. The radiation typically takes the form of alpha beta and gamma rays. The nuclei are used in radiopharmaceuticals as tracers which can be detected for imaging, or whose radiation can serve for treatment purposes.  
      A tracer is a substance that emits radiation and can be identified when placed in the human body. Because the tracers can be absorbed differently by different tissues, their emissions, once sensed and appropriately located in the body, can be used to image organs, and various internal tissues. Radiopharmaceuticals are typically administered orally or intravenously, and tend to localize in specific organs or tissues. Scanning instruments detect the radiation produced by the radiopharmaceuticals and images can be reconstructed based upon the detected signals. Radioactive analysis of biologic specimens may also be performed by combining samples from the patient, such as blood or urine, with radioactive materials to measure various constituents of the samples.  
      In treatment, radioactive materials may be employed due to the emissions they produce in specific tissues in which they are absorbed. Radioactive iodine, for example, may be trapped within cancerous tissue without excessive radiation to surrounding healthy tissue. Such compounds are used in various types of treatment, such as for thyroid cancer. Because the iodine tends to pass directly to the thyroid, small doses of radioactive iodine are absorbed in the gland for treatment or diagnostic purposes. For diagnosis, a radiologists may determine whether too little or too much iodine is absorbed, providing an indication of hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism, respectively.  
      Other types of imaging in nuclear medicine may involve the use of other compounds. Technetium, for example, is a radiopharmaceutical substance which is combined with a patient&#39;s white blood cells, and may be used to identify metastasis or spread of cancer in the bone. Following a period of settling, scans of specific limbs or of the entire body may be performed to identify whether metastasis can be diagnosed. Technetium may also be used to identify abnormalities in the liver or gallbladder, such as blockages due to gallstones. The substances also used in radionuclide ventriculograms. In such procedures, a sample of the patient&#39;s blood is removed (such as approximately 10 cm3) and radioactive technetium is chemically attached to the red blood cells. The blood is then injected back into the patient, and its circulation through the heart is traced and imaged.  
      Other uses for technetium in nuclear medicine include the diagnosis of appendicitis, due to the inflammation which occurs and the presence of white blood cells in the organ. Similarly, techniques involving technetium may be used for the diagnosis of abdominal inflammations and infections.  
      In radiation oncology known or possible extents tumors may be determined, and radiation employed to attack tumorous cells while avoiding major injury to surrounding healthy cells. External beam therapy, for example, involves radiation from a linear accelerator, betatron or cobalt machine that is targeted to destroy cancers at known locations. In brachytherapy, radioactive sources such as iodine, cesium or iridium are combined into or alongside a tumor. In another cancer therapy, known as boron neutron capture therapy (MNCT), alpha particles are produced by non-radioactive pharmaceuticals containing boron. Subsequent neutron beam irradiation causes neutrons to react with the boron in a tumor to generate alpha particles that aide in destroying the tumor.  
      Radioactive nuclides can be naturally-occurring or may be produced in reactors, cyclotrons, generators, and so forth. For radiation therapy, oncology, or other applications in nuclear medicine, radiopharmaceuticals are artificially produced. The radiopharmaceuticals have relatively short half-lives, such that they may be employed for their intended purpose, and degrade relatively rapidly to non-toxic substances.  
      Thermoacoustic  
      Thermoacoustic imaging systems are based upon application of short pulses of energy to specific tissues. The energy is created and applied to cause portions of the energy to be absorbed by a patient&#39;s tissue. Due to heating of the tissue, the tissue is caused to expand and an acoustic wave is thereby generated. Multi-dimensional image data can be obtained which is related to the energy absorption of the tissue. The energy may be applied in short pulses of radio-frequency (RF) waves. The resulting thermoacoustic emissions are then detected with an array of ultrasonic detectors (transducers).  
      Thermoacoustic scanners consist generally of an imaging tank, a multi-channel amplifier and an RF generator. The generator and the other components of the scanner are generally positioned in an RF-shielded room or environment. A digital acquisition system is provided along with a rotational motor for acquiring the thermoacoustic emission signals. A processing system then filters the signals, and processes them in digital form for image reconstruction. In general, the image contrast is determined by the energy delivered to the patient, and image spatial resolution is determined by the sound propagation properties and the detector geometry.  
     Clinical Laboratory Resources  
      Clinical laboratory resources include various techniques which analyze tissues of the body. Many of the resources are based upon extraction and analysis of fluids from different parts of the body, and comparison of detectable parameters of the fluids with norms for the individual patient or for a population of patients. The procedures for clinical laboratories analysis include sampling of the fluids or tissues, typically during a hospital or clinic visit. Such tissue collection may include various sampling procedures, such as to collect blood, saliva, urine, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and so forth. The tissues are collected and stored in specially prepared containers and forwarded to a laboratory for testing analysis.  
      Many different methods exist for performing clinical laboratory tests on body fluids and tissues. Some such techniques involve mixing of antibodies or antigens with the tissues being tested. The antibodies essentially consist of special proteins made by the immune system. The body produces such proteins in response to certain types of infection or the presence of foreign materials or organisms in the body. Antigens are substances which cause immune system responses in the body. Such antigens include bacteria, virus, medications, or other tissues, including, in certain circumstances, tissues of a patient&#39;s own body.  
      In general, where antibodies in the blood, for example, are to be detected, antigens are typically used in tests and analysis. Where the presence of antigens is to be detected, conversely, antibodies may be used. By way of example, analysis for the presence of lyme disease may be based upon placement of portions of a bacteria that causes lime disease, the antigen, in a container along with samples of a patient&#39;s blood. If antibodies against lyme disease bacteria a present, these will react with antigen and may be detected in various ways. A positive reaction would indicate that the disease may be present, whereas a negative reaction indicates that the disease is probably not present.  
      Blood  
      A complete blood count (CBC) provides important information regarding the types and numbers of cells in the blood. In general, the blood contains many components including red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. The CBC assists physicians in evaluating symptoms, such as weakness, fatigue, bruising and to diagnose specific disease states and medical events, such as anemia, infection and many other common disorders.  
      CBC and other blood tests may target specific parameters of the blood constituency. In particular, such tests may serve to identify white blood cell count, red blood cell count, hematocrit, hemoglobin, various red blood cell indices, platelet count, and other blood chemistry measurements. The resulting indications, typically in the form of levels or ranges, are then compared to known normal or abnormal levels and ranges as an indication of health or potential disease states. Over time, the comparisons may be based upon the patient&#39;s own normal or abnormal levels as an indication of progression of disease or the results of treatment or the bodies own reaction to infection or other medical events.  
      The specific types of measurements made in blood analysis may be indicative of wide range of medical conditions. For example, elevated white blood count levels may be an indication of infection or the body&#39;s response to certain types of treatment, such as cancer treatment. The white blood cells may be differentiated from one another to identify major types of white blood cells, including neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. Each of these types of cells plays a different role in response by the body. The numbers of each of these white blood cell types may provide important information into the immune system and the immune response. Thus, levels and changes in the white blood cell counts can identify infection, allergic or toxic reactions, as well as other specific conditions.  
      Analysis of red blood cells serves numerous purposes. For example, because the red blood cells provide exchange of oxygen in carbon dioxide for tissues, their relative count may provide an indication of whether sufficient oxygen is being provided to the body, or, if elevated, whether there is a risk of polycythemia, a condition that can lead to clumping and blocking of capillaries. Hematocrit measures the volume occupied by red blood cells in the blood. The hematocrit value is generally provided as a percentage of the red blood cells in a volume of blood. Hemoglobin tests measure the relative amount of hemoglobin in the blood, and provide indication of the blood&#39;s ability to carry oxygen throughout the body. Other red blood indices include mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration. These indices are generally determined during other measurements of the CBC, and provide indications of the relative sizes of red blood cells, the hemoglobin content of the cells, and the concentration of hemoglobin in an average blood cell. Such measurements may be used, for example, to identify different types of anemia.  
      The platelet or thrombocyte count provides an indication of the relative levels of platelets in the blood, and may be used to indicate abnormalities in blood clotting and bleeding.  
      In addition to the foregoing analyses, blood smear examinations may be performed, in which blood is smeared and dyed for manual or automated visual inspection. The counts and types of cells contained in the blood may ascertained from such examination, including the identification of various abnormal cell types. Moreover, large variety of chemical compositions may be detected and analyzed in blood tests, including levels of albumin, alkaline, phosphatase, ALT (SGPT), AST (SGOT), BUN, calcium-serum, serum chloride, carbon dioxide, creatinine, direct bilirubin, gamma-GT glucose, LDH, phosphorous-serum, potassium, serum sodium, total bilirubin, total cholesterol, total protein, uric acid, and so forth.  
      Blood testing is also used to identify the presence or changes in levels of tumor biomarkers. For example, the presence of cancers such as colon, prostate, and liver cancer are directly linked to elevated blood levels of specific biomarkers, such as carcinogenic embryonic antigen (CEA), prostate specific antigen (PSA), and alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), respectively, which can be detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests, as discussed more fully below.  
      Urine  
      A wide variety of analysis may be performed on urine samples. Certain of these analyses based upon the overall appearance and characteristics of the sample, while others are based upon chemical or microscopic analysis. Of the analyses which are based on macroscopic features of urine samples, are tests of color, clarity, odor, specific gravity, and pH.  
      Factors affecting color of urine samples include fluid balance, diet, medications, and disease states. Color may be, for example, an indication of the presence of blood in the urine, indicative of conditions such as kidney ailments. The relative clarity (i.e. opacity or turbidity) of the urine may be an indication of the presence of bacteria, blood, sperm, crystals or mucus that, in turn, may be indicative of abnormal physical conditions. Certain disease states or physical conditions can also lead to abnormal odors which can be detected in the blood, such as  E.coli . The specific gravity of the urine provides and indication of relative amounts of substances dissolved in the sample. In general, higher specific gravities may be indicative of higher levels of solid materials dissolved in the urine, and may provide an indication of the state of functioning of the kidneys. The pH of the sample (i.e. acidity and alkalinity) of the sample may be an indication of kidney conditions and kidney function. For example, urine pH may be adjusted by treatment, such as to prevent formation of certain types of kidney stones.  
      Chemical analyses of urine samples may be performed to provide indications of such constituents as proteins, glucose and ketones. The presence of proteins in the blood, can be an indication of certain physical conditions and states, such as fever, normal pregnancy, as well as diseases such as kidney disorders. Glucose, which is normally found in the blood, is generally not present in the urine. The presence of glucose in urine samples can be an indication of diabetes or certain kidney damage or disease. Ketones, a by-product of the metabolization of fat, are normally present in the urine. However, high ketone levels can signal conditions such as diabetic ketoacidosis. Other abnormal conditions, such as low sugar and starch diets, starvation, and prolonged vomiting can also cause elevated ketone levels in the urine.  
      Microscopic analysis of urine samples can be used to detect the presence of a variety of materials, including red and white blood cells, casts, crystals, bacteria, yeast cells and parasites. Such solid materials are generally identified by placing the urine sample in a centrifuge to cause the materials to form sediments. Casts and crystals may be signs of abnormal kidney function, while the presence of bacteria, yeast cells or parasites can indicate the presence of various types of infection.  
      Saliva  
      Analyses of saliva can serve a number of clinical purposes. For example, sex hormone testing may be performed by different methods including saliva and serum. The sex hormones typically tested include estradiol, estrone, estriol, testosterone, progesterone, DHEA, melatonin, and cortisol. In using the saliva testing, the free fraction of hormones is calculated to arrive at a baseline value. Saliva reflects the biological active (free) fraction of steroids in the bloodstream (unlike blood or urine which measures total levels). The free fraction of hormones can easily pass from the blood into the salivary glands. A drop in the free fraction of sex steroid hormones specifically leads to perimenopause and menopause. Such tests may be performed, for example, to determine whether hormone replacement therapy should be considered to bring hormone levels and balance from current levels back into the protective range.  
      Saliva testing is also used to identify the presence or changes in levels of tumor biomarkers. For example, the presence of breast malignancies in women is directly linked to elevated levels of c-erbB-2 in saliva, which can be detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests, as discussed more fully below.  
      Similarly, sputum-based tests can be used in the diagnosis of disease states, such as lung cancer. Such diagnosis is based upon the fact that cancer cells may be present in fluid a patient expels from the airways. In a typical implementation, clinicians analyze sputum samples as a screening tool by determining whether the samples contain atypical cells from the lungs before they develop into cancer cells.  
      Gastrointestinal Fluids  
      The analysis of gastrointestinal fluids can similarly be important in detecting and diagnosing certain disease states or abnormalities in function of various internal organs. For example, liver function tests (LFTs) afford detection of both primary and secondary liver diseases, although the tests are generally not specific. That is, the results must be intelligently selected and interpreted to provide the maximum useful information. Indeed, certain of the common tests may be characterized as functional tests rather than tests for diseases.  
      In one exemplary test, bilirubin is sampled and analyzed. Bilirubin results from breakdown of hemoglobin molecules by the reticuloendothelial system. Bilirubin is carried in plasma to the liver, where it is extracted by hepatic parenchymal cells, conjugated with two glucuronide molecules to form bilirubin diglucuronide, and excreted in the bile. Bilirubin can be measured in the serum as total bilirubin, including both conjugated and unconjugated bilirubin, and as direct bilirubin which is conjugated bilirubin. Abnormal conditions, such as hemolysis can cause increased formation of unconjugated bilirubin, which can rise to levels that cannot be properly processed by the liver. Moreover, obstructive jaundice may result from extrahepatic common bile duct obstruction by stones or cancer, as evidenced by an increase in serum bilirubin. Long term obstruction may result in secondary liver damage. Jaundice due to liver cell damage, such as is found in hepatitis or decompensated active cirrhosis, can also be evidenced by elevated levels of bilirubin.  
      As a further example, analysis of the enzyme alkaline phosphatase may provide an indication of liver damage. The enzyme mainly produced in liver and bone, and is very sensitive to partial or mild degrees of biliary obstruction. In such circumstances, alkaline phosphatase levels may be elevated with a normal serum bilirubin. While little or no elevation may be present in mild cases of acute liver cell damage, in cirrhosis, the alkaline phosphatase may vary depending upon the degree of compensation and obstruction. Moreover, different isoenzymes of alkaline phosphatase are found in liver and bone, which may be used to provide an indication of the source of elevated serum alkaline phosphatase.  
      Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) is an enzyme found in several organs, especially in heart, skeletal muscle, and liver. Damage to hepatocytes releases AST, and in cases of acute hepatitis, AST levels are usually elevated according to the severity and extent of hepatocyte damage at the particular time the specimen is drawn. In conditions such as passive congestion of the liver, variable degrees of AST elevation may be detected, especially if the episode is severe and acute.  
      Similarly, alanine aminotransferase (ALT) is an enzyme found mostly, although not exclusively, in the liver. In liver disease, ALT is elevated in roughly the same circumstances as the AST, although ALT appears somewhat less sensitive to the concitoin, except with more extensive or severe acute parenchymal damage. An advantage of ALT analysis is that it is relatively specific for liver cell damage.  
      A number of other constituents of gastrointestinal fluids may provide similar indications of abnormal conditions and disease states. For example, lactate dehydrogenase, although somewhat less sensitive than AST, may provide an indication of liver damage or hepatitis. Gamma glutamyl transpeptidase is another enzyme found primarily in the liver and kidney, and may be elevated in a wide variety of hepatic diseases. Serum proteins, such as albumin are synthesized chiefly in the liver, and acute or chronic destructive liver diseases of at least moderate severity show decreased serum albumin on electrophoresis. Similarly, coagulation factors are synthesized in the liver, so that certain coagulation tests (such as the prothrombin time or PT) are relatively sensitive indicators of hepatic function. Elevated levels of AMM (ammonia) may occur with liver dysfunction, hepatic failure, erythroblastosis fetalis, cor pulmonale, pulmonary emphysma, congestive heart failure and exercise. Decreased levels may occur with renal failure, essential or malignant hypertension or with the use of certain antibiotics (e.g. neomycin, tetracycline). Further, hepatitis-associated antigen (HAA) may aid in the diagnosis of hepatitis A, B, non-A and non-B, tracking recovery from hepatitis and to identify hepatitis “carriers.” Immunoglobulin G (IgG) level is used in the diagnosis and treatment of immune deficiency states, protein-losing conditions, liver disease, chronic infections, as well as specific diseases such as multiple sclerosis, mumps, meningitis, while immunoglobulin M (IgM) levels are used in the diagnosis and treatment of immune deficiency states, protein-losing conditions, Waldenstrom&#39;s Macroglobinema, chronic infections and liver disease. Other constituents which may be analyzed include alkaline phosphatase, used, for example, to distinguish between liver and bone disease, and in the diagnosis and treatment of parathyroid and intestinal diseases, leucine amiopeptidase, used to diagnose liver disorders, amylase, used to diagnose pancreatitis and disorders affecting salivary glands, liver, intestines, kidney and the female genital tract, and lipase, used to diagnose pancreatitis and pancreatic carcinoma.  
      Reproductive Fluids  
      A number of tests may be performed on reproductive fluids to evaluate the function of the reproductive system, as well as disease states or abnormal function due to a wide variety of events and conditions including disease, trauma, and aging. Among the many tests available, are cervical mucus tests, designed to evaluate infertility by predicting the day of ovulation and determining whether ovulation occurs. Similarly, semen analyses are commonly performed to assess male fertility and document adequate sterilization after a vasectomy by checking for abnormal volume, density, motility and morphology which can indicate infertility. The Papanicolaou smear test (commonly referred to as a Pap Smear, Pap Test, or Cytologic Test for Cancer) is used to detect neoplastic cells in cervical and vaginal secretions or to follow certain abnormalities (e.g. infertility).  
      Specific tests or analyses of reproductive fluids may be directed to corresponding specific disease states. For example, gonorrhea cultures are used to diagnose gonorrhea, while chlamydia smears are used to diagnose chlamydia infections, indicated if a gram stain of the smear exhibits polymorphonuclear leukocytes.  
      Cerebrospinal Fluids  
      Cerebrospinal fluids are the normally clear, colorless fluids that surround the brain and spinal cord. Cerebrospinal fluids are typically analyzed to detect the presence of various infectious organisms. The fluid is generally collected by performing a lumbar puncture, also called a spinal tap. In this procedure, a needle is inserted into the spinal canal to obtain a sample of the cerebrospinal fluid. The pressure of cerebrospinal fluid is measured during a lumbar puncture. Samples are then collected and later analyzed for color, blood cell counts, protein, glucose, and other substances. A sample of the fluid may be used for various cultures that promote the growth of infectious organisms, such as bacteria or fungi, to check for infection.  
      PCR  
      Polymerase chain reaction refers generally to a method of detecting and amplifying specific DNA or RNA sequences. Typically, certain known genetic regions are targeted in clinical applications, although a number of entire genomes have been and continue to be sequences for research and clinical purposes. In general, particular genes, which may be the root of abnormal conditions, disease states, or predispositions for development of particular conditions, exhibit unique sequences of constituent molecules. Moreover, infectious organisms, including viruses and bacteria, possess specific DNA or RNA sequences that are unique to the particular species or class of organism. These can be detected by such targeted sequences.  
      The PCR technique is utilized to produce large amounts of a specific nucleic acid sequence (DNA/RNA) in a series of simple temperature-mediated enzymatic and molecular reactions. Beginning with a single molecule of the genetic material, over a billion similar copies can be synthesized. By testing for the presence or absence of the unique sequence in a clinical specimen, PCR can be used for a great many purposes, such as to diagnose certain viral infections. PCR has also been used as one of the methods to quantify the amount of viral material in a clinical specimen. The technique may also be used for forensic purposes, for analyzing paternity and lineages, and so forth. Moreover, PCR assays are available for diagnostic, quantitative, and research purposes for a variety of viruses and viral diseases.  
      Gene Markers  
      As an outgrowth of genetic testing and genomic sequencing, increasing reference to gene markers has permitted very specific predispositions to conditions and diseases to be evaluated. The Human Genome Project has significantly advanced the understanding of the specific genetic material and sequences making up the human genome, including an estimated 50,000 to 100,000 genes as well as the spaces between them. The resulting maps, once refined and considered in conjunction with data indicative of the function of individual and groups of genes, may serve to evaluate both existing, past and possible future conditions of a patient.  
      While several approaches exist for genetic mapping, in general, scientists first look for easily identifiable gene markers, including known DNA segments that are located near a gene associated with a known disease or condition, and consistently inherited by persons with the disease but are not found in relatives who are disease free. Research then targets the exact location of the altered gene or genes and attempts to characterize the specific base changes. Maps of the gene markers are then developed that depict the order in which genes and other DNA landmarks are found along the chromosomes.  
      Even before the exact location of a mutation is known, probes can sometimes be made for reliable gene markers. Such probes may consist of a length of single-stranded DNA that is linked to a radioactive molecule and matches an area near a gene of interest. The probe binds to the area, and radioactive signals from the probe are then made visible on X-ray film, showing where the probe and the DNA match.  
      Predictive gene tests based upon probes and markers will become increasingly important in diagnosis of gene-linked diseases and conditions. Predictive gene tests are already available for some two dozen disorders, including life-threatening diseases such as cystic fibrosis and Tay Sachs disease. Genes also have been found to be related to several types of cancer, and tests for several rare cancers are already in clinical use. More recently, scientists have identified gene mutations that are linked to an inherited tendency toward developing common cancers, including colon cancer and breast cancer. In general, it should be noted that such gene markers and tests do not generally guarantee that a future conditions may develop, but merely provide an indication (albeit perhaps strongly linked) that a particular sequence or mutation exists.  
      Radioimmunoassay  
      Radioimmunoassays (RIA) is a technique used to detect small amounts of antibodies (Abs) or antigens (Ags), and interactions or reactions between these. The Abs or Ags are labeled with a radioisotope, such as iodine-125, and the presence of the antibodies or antigens may then be detected via a gamma counter. In a typical procedure, an Ab is bound to a hormone attached to a filter. A serum sample is added and any hormone (Ag) is allowed time to bind to the Ab. To detect the binding, a radiolabeled hormone is added and allowed time to bind. All unbound substances are washed away. The amount of bound radio activity is measured in the gamma counter. Because the presence of the hormone in the serum sample inhibits binding of the radiolabeled hormone, the amount of radio activity present in the test is inversely proportional to the amount of hormone in the serum sample. A standard curve using increasing amounts of known concentrations of the hormone is used to determine the quantity in the sample.  
      RIAs may be used to detect quite small quantities of Ag or Ab, and are therefore used to measure quantities of hormones or drugs present in a patient&#39;s serum. RIAs may also be performed in solution rather than on filters. In certain cases, RIAs are replaced by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) or fluorescence polarization immunoassays (FPIAs). Such assays have similar sensitivities. FPIAs are highly quantitative, and leases can be appropriately designed to be similarly quantitative. RIAs can also be used to measure quantity of serum IgE antibodies specific for various allergens, in which case the assays may be referred to as radioallergosorbent tests (RAST).  
      ELISAs employ enzymes to detect binding of Ag and Ab. The enzyme converts a colorless substance called chromogen to a colored product indicating Ag/Ab binding. Preparation protocols may differ based upon whether Abs or Ags are to be detected. In general, the combination of Ag and Ab is attached to a surface, and a sample being tested is added and allowed to incubate. An antiglobulin or a second Ab that is covalently attached to an enzyme is added and allowed to incubate, and the unbound antiglobulins or enzyme-linked Abs are washed from the surface. A colorless substrate of the enzyme is added and, if the enzyme-linked substance is on the surface, the enzyme will be converted to a colored product for detection.  
      Variations on the ELISA technique include competitive ELISA, in which Abs in a sample will bind to an Ag and then inhibit binding of an enzyme-linked Ab that reacts with the Ag, and quantitative ELISAs, in which intensities of color changes that are roughly proportional to the degree of positivity of the sample are quantified.  
      Chromatography  
      Chromatography includes a broad range of techniques used to separate or analyze complex mixtures by separating them into a stationery phase bed and a mobile phase which percolates through the stationery bed. In such techniques, the components are past through a chromatography device at different rates. The rates of migration over absorptive materials provide the desired separation. In general, the smaller the affinity a molecule has for the stationery phase, the shorter the time spent in a separation column.  
      Benefits of chromatography include the ability to separate complex mixtures with high degrees of precision, including separation of very similar components, such as proteins differing by single amino acids. The techniques can thus be used to purify soluble or volatile substances, or for measurement purposes. Chromatography may also be employed to separate delicate products due to the conditions under which the products are separated.  
      Chromatographic separation takes place within a chromatography column, typically made of glass or metal. The column is formed of either a packed bed or a tubular structure. A packed bed column contains particles which make up the stationery phase. Open tubular columns may be lined with a thin filmed stationery phase. The center of the column is hollow. The mobile phase is typically a solvent moving through the column which carries the mixture to be separated. The stationery phase is typically a viscous liquid coded on the surface of solid particles which are packed into the column, although solid particles may also be taken as the stationery phase. Partitioning of solutes between the stationery and mobile phases renders the desired separations.  
      Several types of chromatography exist and may be employed for medical data collection purposes. In general, these types include adsorption chromatography, partition chromatography, ion exchange chromatography, molecular exclusion chromatography and affinity chromatography.  
      Receptor Assays  
      Neurons transmit impulses based upon an electrical phenomenon in which the nerve fibers are sequentially polarized and depolarized. In general, a potential across a cell boundary, typically of approximately 80 mv, results from concentrations of potassium ions within the neuron and sodium ions external to the neuron. When a stimulus is applied to the cells, a change in potential results, resulting in a flow of ions in depolarization. Neurotransmitters then cross the synaptic cleft and propagate the neural impulse.  
      Assays have been designed to determine the presence or absence of substances, including neurotransmitters, toxins, and so forth, which can provoke the nerve response. In general, such assays are used to measure the presence of chemicals which provoke responses of particular interest. By way of example, domoic acid receptor binding assays can be used to identify substances which bind to a glutamate receptor in the brain.  
      In the case of the domoic acid receptor binding assay, for example, a cainic acid preparation is made that includes a radioactive marker, such as 3H. By allowing the radioactive cainic acid to attach to cells containing glutamate receptors, radioactivity present in cells which may bind the cainic acid (which functions in a manner similar to glutamic acid (a common amino acid neurotransmitter) as well as domoic acid can be measured. In practice, a standard curve is typically generated based upon addition of a known amount of domoic acid to the cells, and this standard curve is then employed to estimate the concentrations of the assayed substance in a prepared sample.  
     Histologic Data Resources  
      Tissue Analysis  
      Histology is the microscopic study of the structure and behavior of tissue. It is classified into two categories based on the living state of the specimen under study: non-living and living specimens. The first category is the traditional study of a non-living specimen. Many different methods may be used in preparing a specimen for study, usually dictated by the type of tissue being studied. Some common preparation methods are: a thinly sliced section on a glass slide or metal grid, a smear on a glass slide; a sheet of tissue stretched thinly; and fibers that have been separated from a strand. Some common specimen types on which these methods are used include tissue of an organ, blood, urine, mucus, areolar connective tissue, and muscle.  
      Most of the preparation methods for non-living specimens are fairly straightforward, while the actual method used to prepare a section can be quite involved. The specimen must first be preserved to prevent decay, preserve the cellular structure, and intensify later staining. The specimen is generally either be frozen or imbedded in wax or plastic so that it will cut properly. A section of interest is cut, typically to a thickness dictated by the viewing means, such as 1-150 microns for light microscopy or 30-60 nanometers for electron microscopy. The section is mounted on a glass slide or metal grid. The section is then generally stained, possibly in several stages by chemical dyes, or reagents. If the specimen is to be viewed under an optical microscope, excess water and dye will then be removed and the specimen on the slide will be covered by a glass slip. Finally, the specimen will be observed analyzed, and observed data are recorded.  
      Specimen types and methods of study for living specimens are seriously limited by the requirement to keep the specimen alive. In general, specimens may be viewed in vivo or in vitro. A typical in vitro specimen is a tissue culture system. A typical in vivo specimen must also be available in an observable situation, i.e. ear or skin tissue. Because staining and other methods of preparation are inappropriate, specialized phase-contrast or dark-field microscopy are typically used to provide enhanced contrast between the natural structures.  
      Cytology  
      Cytology is the study of the structure, function, pathology, and life history of cells. The advantages of cytology, as compared to other histological data collection techniques, include the speed with which it can be performed, its relatively low cost, and the fact that it can lead to a specific diagnosis. Disadvantages include the relatively small sample sizes generally observed, the lack of information regarding tissue architecture, and the relatively high level of skill required of clinicians performing the studies. The specimen collection method used generally depends upon the type of specimen to be collected. Such methods include fine needle aspiration, solid tissue impression smears or scrapings, and fluid smears. Aspiration is essentially specimen collection by suction. Some common specimen types collected by these various methods include thyroid, breast, or prostrate specimens, uterus, cervix or stomach tissues, and excretions (urine or feces) or secretions (sputum, prostatic fluid or vaginal fluid).  
      The specimen preparation method for cytology is relatively straightforward. The sample is first removed from the area being examined, is then placed on a glass slide, stained, and studied. When the sample is a solid, an additional step may be appropriate, called squash preparation. In this procedure the sample is placed on a first glass slide, squashed with a second glass slide, and then spread across the first glass slide using the second slide.  
      Analysis of a cytologic specimen typically includes comparison of the specimen to normal cells for the anatomic location of the sample. The cells are then classified as normal or abnormal. Abnormality is typically determined by the presence of inflammation, hyperplasia, or neoplasia. Hyperplasia is an increase in size of a tissue or organ due to the formation of more cells, independent of the natural growth of the body. Neoplasia is the formation of an abnormal growth, i.e. a tumor. Abnormal cells may be sub-classified as inflammatory or non-inflammatory, and the type of inflammatory cells that predominate is determined. Inflammation may be determined by a high, or greater than normal, presence of leukocytes or macrophages. Leukocytes are classified by their physical appearance into two groups: granular or nongranular. Examples of granular leukocytes are neutrophils and eosinophils. Nongranular leukocytes include lymphocytes. If the specimen cells are non-inflammatory, they are then checked for malignancy. If the cells are malignant, type of malignant tissue is determined.  
      Tissue Typing  
      Tissue typing is the identification of a patient&#39;s human leukocyte antigen (HLA) pattern. The HLA pattern is located on a region of chromosome  6 , called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). The HLA system is crucial to fighting infections because it distinguishes between foreign and native cells for the body&#39;s immune system. Thus, this pattern is also crucial for the organ transplant field, because if the donor&#39;s and donee&#39;s HLA patterns are not similar enough, the donee&#39;s immune system will attack (“reject”) the transplanted organ or tissue. There are five groups, called loci, of antigens that make up the HLA pattern: HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C, HLA-D, and HLA-DR. Each locus of antigens contains many variations, called alleles, identified, if known, with a number, i.e. HLA-A2. Provisionally identified alleles are designated with a letter and number, i.e. HLA-Cw5. Each person inherits an allele of each locus from a parent. Thus, the chance of two siblings having identical HLA patterns is 25%. The closer the relation between two people, the greater the similarity will be in their two respective HLA patterns. Thus, tissue typing has been used to determine the likelihood that two people are related. Also, patients with certain HLA patterns are more prone to certain diseases; however, the cause of this phenomenon is unknown. All that is typically needed to perform the tissue typing test is a blood sample.  
      Two common methods for testing for the tissue type include serology and DNA testing. Until recently, only serology tests were performed. However, since the amino acid sequences of the alleles of the HLA-A, B, Cw, and DR loci have been determined, DNA testing has become the most widely used testing method for these loci of the HLA pattern. The serology test is generally performed by incubating lymphocytes from a blood sample in a dish containing an antiserum that will destroy, or lyse, a certain allele. A dye is then added to show whether any lysed cells are present. If so, the test is positive for that specific allele.  
      Immunocytochemistry  
      Cytochemistry is the study of the chemical constituents of tissues and cells involving the identification and localization of the different chemical compounds and their activities within the cell. Immunocytochemistry comprises a number of methods, where antibodies are employed to localize antigens in tissues or cells for microscopic examination. There are several strategies to visualize the antibody.  
      For transmitted light microscopy, color development substrates for enzymes are often used. The antibody can be directly labeled with the enzyme. However, such a covalent link between an antibody and an enzyme might result in a loss of both enzyme and antibody activity. For such reasons several multistep staining procedures have been developed, where intermediate link antibodies are used.  
      Stereology is a quantitative technique providing the necessary mathematical background to predict the probability of an encounter between a randomly positioned, regularly arranged geometrical probe and the structure of interest. Stereological methods have been introduced in quantitative immunocytochemistry. Briefly, a camera may be mounted on a microscope with a high precision motorized specimen stage and a microcator to monitor movements. The camera is coupled to a computer configured to execute stereological software. The analysis is performed at high magnification using an objective with a high numerical aperture, which allows the tissue to be optically dissected in thin slices, such as to a thickness of 0.5 μm. Quantitative analysis requires thick sections (40 μm) with an even and good penetration of the immunohistochemical staining.  
      Electron microscopy is also commonly used in immunocytochemistry. In a typical sample preparation method the sample is first preserved. In one assembly type, the specimen is embedded in an epoxy resin. Several samples are then assembled into a laminar assembly, called a stack, which facilitates simultaneous sectioning of multiple samples. Another assembly type, called a mosaic, can be used when the stack assembly is infeasible. The mosaic assembly involves placing several samples side-by-side and then imbedding them in an epoxy resin. After the stack or mosaic is assembled, it is then sectioned and examined.  
      Histopathological Analysis  
      Histopathological analysis involve in making diagnoses by examination of tissues both with the naked eye and the microscope. Histopathology is classified into three main areas: surgical pathology, cytology, and autopsy. Surgical pathology is the examination of biopsies and resected specimens. Cytology comprises both a major part of screening programs (e.g. breast cancer screening and cervical cytology programs), and the investigation of patients with symptomatic lesions (e.g. breast lumps or head and neck lumps).  
      Electron Microscopy  
      Electron Microscopes are scientific instruments that use a beam of highly energetic electrons to examine objects on a very fine scale. There are two common types of electron microscopes: transmission and scanning. Further, specimen sections must be viewed in a vacuum and sliced very thinly, so that they will be transparent to the electron beam.  
      Two main indicators are used in microscopy: magnification and resolution. Magnification is the ratio of the apparent size of the specimen (as viewed) to the actual size. Electron microscopes allow magnification of a specimen up to 200 times greater than that of an optical microscope. Resolution measures the smallest distance between two objects at which they can still be distinguished. The resolution of an electron microscope is roughly 0.002 μm, up to 100 times greater than that of an optical microscope.  
      The examination of a specimen by an electron microscope can yield useful information on a specimen, such as topography, morphology, composition, and crystallographic information. The topography of a specimen refers to the surface features of an object. There is generally a direct relation between these features and the material properties (hardness, reflectivity, and so forth) of the specimen. The morphology of a specimen is the shape and size of the particles making up the specimen. The structures of the specimen&#39;s particles are generally related to its material properties (ductility, strength, reactivity, and so forth). The composition comprises the elements and compounds comprising a specimen, and the relative amounts of these. The composition of the specimen is generally indicating of its material properties (melting point, reactivity, hardness, and so forth). The crystallographic information relates to the atomic arrangement of the specimen. The specimen&#39;s atomic arrangement is also related to its material properties (conductivity, electrical properties, strength, and so forth).  
      In Situ Hybridization  
      In situ hybridization (ISH) is the use of a DNA or RNA probe to detect the presence of the complementary DNA sequence in cloned bacterial or cultured eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are cells having a membrane-bound, structurally discrete nucleus, and other well developed subcellular compartments. Eukaryotes include all organisms except viruses, bacteria, and bluegreen algae. There are two common types of ISH: fluorescence (FISH) and enzyme-based.  
      ISH techniques allow specific nucleic acid sequences to be detected in morphologically preserved chromosomes, cells or tissue sections. In combination with immunocytochemistry, in situ hybridization can relate microscopic topological information to gene activity at the DNA, mRNA, and protein level. Moreover, preparing nucleic acid probes with a stable nonradioactive label can remove major obstacles which hinder the general application of ISH. Furthermore, this may open new opportunities for combining different labels in one experiment. The many sensitive antibody detection systems available for such probes further enhances the flexibility of this method.  
      Several different fluorescent or enzyme-based systems are used for detecting labeled nucleic acid probes. Such options provide the researcher with flexibility in optimizing experimental systems to achieve highest sensitivity, to avoid potential problems such as endogenous biotin or enzyme activity, or to introduce multiple labels in a single experiment. Such factors as tissue fixation, endogenous biotin or enzyme activity, desired sensitivity, and permanency of record are all considered when choosing both the optimal probe label and subsequent detection system.  
      Combinations  
      Any combination in whole or in part of the above methods can be used to optimally diagnose a patient&#39;s malady or, more generally, a physical condition, or risk or predisposition for a condition.  
     Pharmacokinetic Data Resources  
      Therapeutic Drug Monitoring  
      Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is the measurement of the serum level of a drug and the coordination of this serum level with a serum therapeutic range. The serum therapeutic range is the concentration range where the drug has been shown to be efficacious without causing toxic effects in most people. Recommended therapeutic ranges can generally be found in commercial and academic pharmaceutical literature.  
      Samples for TDM must be obtained at the proper elapsed time after a dose for valid interpretation of results to avoid errors. Therapeutic ranges are established based on steady state concentrations of a drug, generally achieved about five half-lives after oral dosing has begun. In some instances, it may be useful to draw peak and trough levels. Peak levels are achieved at the point of maximum drug absorption. Trough levels are achieved just before the next dose. The type of sample used for TDM is also important. For most drugs, therapeutic ranges are reported for serum concentrations. Some TDM test methods may be certified for use with both serum and plasma. Manufactures generally indicate which samples are acceptable.  
      A number of drugs can be subject to TDM. For example, common anticonvulsant drugs which require therapeutic monitoring include phenytoin, carbamazepine, valproic acid, primidone, and phenobarbital. Anticonvulsant drugs are usually measured by immunoassay. Immunoassays are generally free from interferences and require very small sample volumes.  
      As a further example, the cardioactive drug digoxin is a candidate for therapeutic monitoring. The bioavailability of different oral digoxin preparations is highly variable. Digoxin pharmacokinetics follow a two-compartment model, with the kidneys being the major route of elimination. Patients with renal disease or changing renal function are typically monitored, since their elimination half life will change. The therapeutic range for digoxin is based on blood samples obtained a predetermined amount of time, such as eight hours, after the last dose in patients with normal renal function. Particular periods may also be specified as a basis for determining steady state levels before the samples are drawn. Immunoassays, typically available in kits, indicate significant interferences or cross-reactivities for the tests.  
      As a further example, theophylline is a bronchodilator with highly variable inter-individual pharmacokinetics. Serum levels are be monitored after achievement of steady-state concentrations to insure maximum therapeutic efficacy and to avoid toxicity. Trough levels are usually measured, with immunoassays being the most common method used for monitoring this drug. Similarly, for lithium compounds used to treat bipolar depressive disorders, serum lithium concentrations are measured by ion selective electrode technology. An ion selective electrode has a membrane which allows passage of the ion of interest but not other ions. A pH meter is an example of an ion selective electrode which responds to hydrogen ion concentrations. A lithium electrode will respond to lithium concentrations but not to other small cations such as potassium.  
      As yet a further example, tricyclic antidepressant drugs include imipramine, its pharmacologically active metabolite desipramine; amitriptyline and its metabolite nortriptyline, as well as doxepin and its metabolite nordoxepin. Both the parent drugs and the metabolites are available as pharmaceuticals. These drugs are primarily used to treat bipolar depressive disorders. Imipramine may also be used to treat enuresis in children, and severe attention deficit hyperactivity disorder that is refractory to methylphenidate. Potential cardiotoxicity is the major reason to monitor these drug levels. Immunoassay methods are available for measuring imipramine and the other tricyclics, but high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods are generally preferred. When measuring tricyclic antidepressants which have pharmacologically active metabolites, the parent drug and the metabolite are generally measured.  
      Receptor Characterization and Measurement  
      Receptor characterizations are traditionally performed using one of several methods. These methods include direct radioligand binding assays, radioreceptor assays, and agonist and antagonist interactions, both complete and partial. A radioligand is a radioactively labeled drug that can associate with a receptor, transporter, enzyme or any protein of interest. Measuring the rate and extent of binding provides information on the number of binding sights and their affinity and pharmacological characteristics.  
      Three commonly used experimental protocols include saturation binding experiments, kinetic experiments, and competitive binding experiments. Saturation binding protocols measure the extend of binding in the presence of different concentrations of the radioligand. From an analysis of the relationship between binding and ligand concentration, parameters, including the number of binding sites, binding affinity, and so forth can be determined. In kinetic protocols, saturation and competitive experiments are allowed to incubate until binding has reached equilibrium. Kinetic protocols measure the time course of binding and dissociation to determine the rate constants of radioligand binding and dissociation. Together, these values also permit calculation of the KD. In competitive binding protocols, the binding of a single concentration of radioligand at various concentrations of an unlabeled competitor are measured. Such protocols permit measurement of the affinity of the receptor for the competitor.  
      Due to expense and technical difficulty, direct radioligand binding assays are often replaced with competitive binding assays. The latter technique also permits radiolabeling of drugs to promote an understanding of their receptor properties. Techniques for drug design and development, based upon combinatorial chemistry often employ radioreceptor assays. Radioreceptor assay techniques are based upon the fact that the binding of a ligand having high affinity for a macromolecular target may be measured without the need for equilibrium dialysis, as long as the ligand-receptor complex can be separated from the free ligand. By labeling the ligands with appropriate radioactive substances, the ligand-receptor combination can be measured. Such assays are both rapid and highly sensitive. Antagonism is the process of inhibiting or preventing an agonist-induced receptor response. Agents that produce such affects are referred to as antagonists. The availability of selective antagonists has provided an important element for competitive binding protocols.  
     Miscellaneous Resources  
      Physical Exam  
      A comprehensive physical examination provides an opportunity for a healthcare professional to obtain baseline information about the patient for future use. The examination, which typically occurs in a clinical setting, provides an opportunity to collect information on patient history, and to provide information on diagnoses, and health practices. Physical examinations may be complete, that is cover many or virtually all of the body, or may be specific to symptoms experienced by a patient.  
      In a typical physical examination, the examiner observes the patient&#39;s appearance, general health, behavior, and makes certain key measurements. The measurements typically include height, weight, vital signs (e.g. pulse, breathing rate, body temperature and blood pressure). This information is then recorded, typically on paper for a patient&#39;s file. In accordance with aspects of the present technique, much of the information can be digitized for inclusion as a resource for compiling the IKB and for providing improved care to the patient. Exemplary patient data acquisition techniques and their association with the knowledge base and other resources will be discussed in greater detail below.  
      In a comprehensive physical examination, the various systems of the patient&#39;s body will generally be examined, such as in a sitting position. These include exposed skin areas, where the size and shape of any observable lesions will be noted. The head is then examined, including the hair, scalp, skull and face areas. The eyes are observed including external structures and internal structures via an ophthalmoscope. The ears are similarly examined, including external structures and internal structures via an otoscope. The nose and sinuses are examined, including the external nose structures and the nasal mucosa and internal structures via a nasal speculum. Similarly, the mouth and pharynx are examined, including the lips, gums, teeth, roof of the mouth, tongue and throat. Subsequently, the neck and back are typically examined, including the lymph nodes on either side of the neck, and the thyroid gland. For the back, the spine and muscles of the back are generally palpated and checked for tenderness, the upper back being palpated on right and left sides. The patient&#39;s breathing is also studied and noted. The breasts and armpits are then examined, including examination of a woman&#39;s breasts with the arms in relaxed and raised positions for signs of lesions. For both men and women, lymph nodes of the armpits are examined, as are the movements of the joints of the hand, arms, shoulder, neck and jaw.  
      Subsequently, generally with the patient lying, the breasts are palpated and inspected for lumps. The front of the chest and lungs are inspected using palpation and percussion, with the internal breath sounds being again noted. The heart rate and rhythm is then checked via a stethoscope, and the blood vessels of the neck are observed and palpated.  
      The lower body is also examined, including by light and deep palpation of the abdomen for examination of the internal organs including the liver, spleen, kidneys and aorta. The rectum and anus may be examined via digital examination, and the prostate gland may be palpated. Reproductive organs are inspected and the area is examined for hernias. In men, the scrotum is palpated, while in women the pelvic examination is typically performed using a speculum and a Pap test. The legs are inspected for swelling and pulses in the knee, thigh and foot area are found. The groin area is palpated for the presence of lymph nodes, and the joints and muscles are also observed. The musculoskeletal system is also examined, such as for noting the straightness of the spine and the alignment of the legs and feet. The blood vessels are also observed for abnormally enlarged veins, typically occurring in the legs.  
      A typical physical examiner also includes evaluation of the patients alertness and mental ability. The nervous system may also be examined via neurologic screening, such as by having the patient perform simple physical operations such as steps or hops, and the reflexes of the knees and feet can be tested. Certain reflex functions, such as of the eye, face, muscles of the jaw, and so forth may also be noted, as may the general muscle tone and coordination.  
      Medical History  
      Medical history information is generally collected on questionnaires that are completed upon entry of the patient to a medical facility. As noted below, and in accordance with aspects of the present technique, such information may be digitized in advance of a patient visit, and follow-up information may be acquired, also in advance, or during a patient visit. The information may typically include data relating to an insurance carrier, and names and addresses or phone numbers of significant or recent practitioners who have seen or cared for the patient, including primary care physicians, specialists, and so forth. Present medical conditions are generally of interest, including symptoms and disease states or events being experienced by the patient. Particular interests are conditions such as diabetes, high blood pressure, chronic or acute diseases and illnesses, and so forth. Current medications are also noted, including names, doses, when taken, the prescribing physician name, side effects, and so forth. Finally, current allergies, known to the patient, are noted, including allergies to natural and man-made substances.  
      Medical history information also includes past medical history, even medical information extending into the patient&#39;s childhood, immunization records, pregnancies, significant short-term illnesses, longer term conditions, and the like. Similarly, the patient&#39;s family history is noted, to provide a general indication of potential pre-dispositions to medical conditions and events. Hospitalizations are also noted, including in-patient stays and emergency room visits, as are surgeries, both major and minor, with information relating to anesthesia and particular invasive procedures.  
      Medical history data may also include data from other physicians and sources, such as significant or recent blood tests which provide a general background for conditions experienced by the patient. Similar information, such as in the form of film-based images may also be sought to provide this type of background information.  
      The information provided by the patient may also include certain information relating to the general social history and lifestyle of the patient. These may include habits, such as alcohol or tobacco consumption, diet, exercise, sports and hobbies, and the like. Work history, including current or recent employment or tasks in occupations may be of interest, particularly information relating to hazardous, risky or stressful tasks.  
      Psychiatric, Psychological History, and Behavioral Testing  
      A patient&#39;s psychiatric history may be of interest, particularly where symptoms or predispositions to treatable or identifiable psychiatric conditions may be of concern. In particular, psychiatrists can provide medication to control a wide range of psychiatric symptoms. Most psychiatrists also provide psychotherapy and counseling services to patients, as well as, where appropriate, to couples, groups, and families. Moreover, psychiatrists can administer electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT). Psychiatrists are more likely than psychologists to treat individuals with severe mental disorders, and to work with patients on an in-patient basis in a clinical setting. Psychiatric history may be very generally sought, such as on questionnaires before or during office visits, or may be determined through more extensive questioning or testing.  
      The psychological history, as opposed strictly to the psychiatric history, may depend upon the special interests of the patient seeking care. In particular, the services provided by psychologists will typically depend upon their training, with certain psychologists providing psychotherapy and counseling to individuals, groups, couples and families. Psychologists are also typically trained in the administration, scoring and interpretation of psychological tests. Such tests can assess a variety of psychological factors, including intelligence, personality traits (e.g. via tests such as the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, the Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator), relationship factors, brain dysfunction, and psychopathology. Neuropsychologists may be also do cognitive retraining with brain injured patients.  
      Behavioral testing is somewhat similar to psychological testing, and may identify cognitive behavioral disorders or simply behavioral patterns. Such tests may be provided in conjunction with psychiatric or psychological evaluations to determine a root cause, psychiatric, psychological or physiological, to certain observed behavior in a patient. Where appropriate, treatment may include counseling or drug administration.  
      Demographic Data  
      Certain of the data collected from a patient may be intended to associate the patient with certain groups or population of known characteristics. Statistical study of human populations generally include such demographic data, specially with reference to size and density, distribution, and vital statistics of populations with particular characteristics. Among the demographic variables which may be typically noted are gender, age, race, ethnicity, religious affiliation, marital status, size of household, native language, citizenship, occupation, life expectancy, birthrate, mortality, education level, income, population, water supply and sanitation, housing, literacy, unemployment, disease prevalence, and health risk factors. As noted below, in accordance with aspects of the present technique, patient-specific or patient-adapted feedback or counseling may be provided, including on an automated basis by the present technique based at least upon such demographic data.  
      Drug Use  
      Information relating to drug use, similar to general information collected during an examination is typically of particular interest. Such information may include the use of legal and illegal drugs, prescription medications, over-the-counter medications, and so forth. Also, specific substance, even though not generally considered as a drug by a patient may be noted under such categorizations, including vitamins, dietary supplements, alcohol, tobacco, and so forth.  
      Food Intake  
      In addition to the information generally collected from the patient regarding diet and medication, specific food intake information may be of interest, depending upon the patient condition. Such information may be utilized to provide specific nutritional counseling to address specific conditions or the general health of the patient. Food intake information generally also includes information regarding the patient&#39;s physical activity, ethnic or cultural background, and home life and meal patterns. Specific information regarding appetite and attitude towards food and eating may also be noted and discussed with the patient. Specific allergies, intolerances and food avoidances are of particular interest to address known and unknown symptoms experienced by patients. Similarly, dental and oral health, gastro-intestinal problems, and issue of chronic disease may be of interest in counseling clients for food intake or similar issues. Food intake information may also address specific medications or perceived dietary or nutritional problems known to the patient. Also of particular interest are items relating to remote and recent significant weight changes experienced.  
      Certain assessments may be made relating to food intake based upon information collected or detected from a patient. Such evaluations may include anthropometric data, biochemical assessments, body mass index data, and caloric requirements. Similarly, from patient anthropometric data, ideal body weight and usual body weight information may be computed for further counseling and diagnostic purposes.  
      Environmental Factors  
      Various environmental factors are of particular interest in evaluating patient conditions and predispositions for certain conditions. Similar to demographic information, the environmental factors may aide in evaluating potential conditions which are much more subtle and difficult to identify. Typical environmental factors may include, quite generally, life events, exercise, and so forth. Moreover, information on the specific patient or the patient living conditions may be noted, including air pollution, ozone depletion, pesticides, climate, electromagnetic radiation levels, ultraviolet exposure, chemical exposure, asbestos, lead, radon, or other specific exposures, and so forth. Such information may be associated with population information or known relational data, such as problems with teeth and bones associated with fluoride, potential cancer links associated with volatile organics (e.g. benzene, carbon tetrachloride, and so forth), gastrointestinal illnesses and other problems associated with bacteria and viruses (e.g.  E. coli , giardia lamblia, and so forth), and lengths of cancer, liver damage, kidney damage, and nervous system damage related to inorganics (e.g. asbestos, mercury, nitrates, and so forth).  
      Gross Pathology  
      Gross pathology, in general, relates to information on the structure and function of the primary human systems. Such systems include the skeletal system, the endocrine system, the reproductive system, the nervous system, the muscular system, the urinary system, the digestive system, and the respiratory system. Such gross pathology information may be collected in specific inquiries or examinations, or may be collected in conjunction with other general inquiries such as the physical examination or patient history data collection processes described above. Moreover, certain aspects of the gross anatomy information may be gleaned from reference texts, autopsies, anthropomorphic databases, such as the Visible Human Project, and so forth.  
      Information from Non-Biologic Models  
      Information from non-biologic models may also be of particular interest in assessing and diagnosing patient conditions. The information is also of particular interest in the overall management of patient care. Information included in this general category of resources includes health insurance information and healthcare financial information. Moreover, for a medical institution, significant amounts of information are necessary to provide adequate patient care on a timely bases, including careful control of management, workflow, and human resources. In institutions providing living arrangements for patients, the data must also include such items as food service, hospital financial information and patient financial information. Much of the information that is patient-specific may be accumulated by an institution in a general patient record.  
      Other specific information for institutions which aide in the overall management may include information on the business-related aspects of the institution alone or in conjunction with other associated institutions. This information may include data indicative of geographic locations of hospitals, types of clinics, sizes of clinics, specialties of clinics or departments or physicians, and so forth. Patient education materials may also be of particular interest in this group, and the patient educational materials may be specifically adapted for individual patients as described in greater detail below. Finally, information relating to relationships with physicians, including physician referrals and physician needs and preferences may also be of particular interest in this category of resources.  
     Processing and Analysis  
      The processing and analysis functions described above performed by the data processing system  10  may take many forms depending upon the data on which the processing is based, the types of analysis desired, and the purpose for the output of the data. In particular, however, the processing and analysis is preferably performed on a wide range of data from the various resources, in conjunction with the IKB  12 . Among the various modalities and types of resources, several scenarios may be envisaged for performing the processing and analysis. These include analyses that are performed based upon a single modality medical system or resource, single-type multi-modality combinations, and multi-type, multi-modality configurations. Moreover, as noted above, various computer-assisted processing, acquisition, and analysis modules may be employed for one or more of the modality and type scenarios. The following is a description of certain exemplary implementations of modality-based, type-based and computer-assisted processing-based approaches to the use of the data collected and stored by the present system.  
      Modalities and Types  
      In a single modality medical system, a clinician initiates a chain of events for the patient data. The events are broken down into various modules, such as the acquisition module, processing module, analysis module, report module and archive module as discussed above. In the traditional method, the report goes back to the referring clinician.  
      In the present technique, computer processing may be introduced to perform several data operation tasks. In general, in the present discussion, algorithms for performing such operations are referred to as data operating algorithms or CAX algorithms. While more will be said about currently contemplated CAX algorithms and their interaction and integration, at this point, certain such algorithms will be referred to generally, including computer aided acquisition algorithms (CAA), computer aided processing algorithms (CAP), computer aided detection algorithms (CAD). The implemented software also serves to manage the overall work flow, optimizing parameters of each stage from the knowledge of the same module at the present time or at previous times, and/or data from other modules at the present time or at previous times. Furthermore, as shown in the  FIG. 1 , the knowledge base  12  is created/updated with new data and essentially drives the various computer-aided modules. Thus, knowledge base  12  creation and updates are linked with the comuter aided methods to implement the single modality unit. The details of the CAX modules, including CAA, CAP, CAD, modules  86 ,  88 ,  90  (see, e.g.  FIG. 5 ), and knowledge base  12  are detailed below. Furthermore, it should be noted that each of these modules may be specialized for a given clinical question. Thus, if the same clinical question requires multiple acquisitions, for example, or multiple processing and multiple analyses at different time points, the techniques can be generalized to accommodate the temporal aspects of data.  
      A single-type, multi-modality medical system, in the present context, may consist of any of the columns of the  FIG. 8 . In  FIG. 7 , a diagrammatical representation a single-type, multi-modality system with the temporal attributes is illustrated, considering M modalities at N different time points. Of course, all the attributes of a single modality are also applicable to any of the modalities in the multi-modality context, and the diagram simply highlights the interaction between multiple modalities. In  FIGS. 6 and 7 , interaction within each type is also evident, such as to optimize acquisition, processing and analysis of data. The temporal aspects of a medical event are also considered in the context, such as to modify acquisition, processing and analysis modules based on the temporal attributes of the data. As discussed below, the logic engine  24  (see, e.g.  FIG. 5 ), or more generally, the processing system  10  may use rules to optimize acquisition, processing, and analysis of data between the modalities using the knowledge base  12 .  
      A multi-type, multi-modality medical system essentially may cover the entire range of resources available, including the types and modalities summarized in  FIG. 8  In  FIG. 6 , a diagrammatical representation of a multi-type, multi-modality system with temporal attributes is illustrated, considering different time points. As before, all of the attributes of single-type, multi-modality systems are applicable for any of the types, and the schematic highlights the interaction between multiple types and multiple modalities. In the multi-type, multi-modality context, the interaction among modalities of different types can be used to optimize acquisition, processing and analysis of the data. Here again, the temporal aspects of a medical event from multiple types may be considered and used to modify acquisition, processing and analysis modules based on the temporal attributes of the data. Logic engine  24 , and again more generally processing system  10  may use rules to optimize acquisition, processing, and analysis of data between the modalities using the knowledge base. System  10 , uses data from tools or modules, such as CAX modules, or, as shown for certain specific such modules, CAA, CAP, CAD modules  86 ,  88 ,  90  and from knowledge base  12 , and then establishes the relationship, which could then be part of the knowledge base  12 .  
      While any suitable processing algorithms and programs may be utilized to obtain the benefits of the IKB approach of the present technique, certain adaptations and integration of the types of programs available may be made for this purpose. As noted above, exemplary computer-assisted data operating algorithms and modules for analyzing medical-related data include computer-assisted diagnosis modules, computer-assisted acquisition modules, and computer-assisted processing modules. The present technique greatly enhances the ability to develop, refine and implement such algorithms by virtue of the high level of integration afforded. More detail is provided below regarding the nature and operation of the algorithms, as well as their interaction and interfacing in accordance with aspects of the present technique.  
     Integrated Knowledge Base  
      As noted above, the IKB employed in the present technique can be a highly integrated resource comprised of one or more memory devices at one or more locations linked to one another via any desired network links. The IKB may further include memory devices on client components, such as the resources themselves, as will commonly be the case in certain imaging systems. In limited implementations, the IKB may combine very few such resources. In larger implementations, or as an implementation is expanded over time, further integration and interrelation between data and resources may be provided. As noted throughout the present discussion, any and all of the resources may not only serve as users of the data, but may provide data where desired.  
      The presently contemplated IKB may include raw data as well as semi-processed data, processed data, reports, tabulated data, tagged data, and so forth. In a minimal implementation, the IKB may comprise a subset of raw data or raw data basis. However, in a more preferred implementation, the IKB is a superset of such raw databases and further includes filtered, processed, or reduced dimension data, expert opinion information, such as relating to rules of clinical events, predictive models, such as based upon symptoms or other inputs and disease or treatment considerations or other outputs, relationships, interconnections, trends, and so forth. As also noted throughout the present discussion, contents of the IKB may be validated and verified, as well as synchronized between various memory devices which provide or draw upon the knowledge present in the knowledge base.  
      In general, the IKB as presently contemplated enables evidence-based medicine to be seamlessly integrated into common practice of medicine and the entire healthcare enterprise. That is, the IKB serves to augment the wealth of domain knowledge and experience mentally maintained by the clinicians or users as well as the related clinical and non-clinical communities which provide data and draw upon the data in the various algorithmic programs implemented. Also as described throughout the present discussion, the IKB may be distributed and federated in nature, such as to accommodate raw databases, data resources, and controllable and prescribable resources.  
      Current practice for knowledge base creation is to collect representative data for a particular clinical event, set up a domain-expert panel to review the data, use experts to categorize the data into different valid groupings, and corroborate the expert findings with some reference standard technique. For example, to create an image knowledge base of lung nodule determination from radiography images, the expert panel may group images in terms of degree of subtlety of nodules and corroborate the radiological findings with biopsies. In the present technique, such methodologies may serve as a first basic step for given data of clinical relevance. However, the classification process may then be automated based on the attributes provided by domain experts and adjunct methods. In one embodiment, any clinical data may be automatically categorized and indexed so that it can be retrieved on demand for various intended purposes.  
     Logic Engine  
      The logic engine essentially contains the rules that coordinate the various functions carried out by the system. Such coordination includes accessing and storing data in the knowledge base, as well as execution of various computer-assisted data operating algorithms, such as for feature detection, diagnosis, acquisition, processing and decision-support. The logic engine can be rule-based, and may include a supervised learning or unsupervised learning system. By way of example, functions performed by the logic engine may include data traffic control, initiation of processing, linking to resources, connectivity, coordination of processing (e.g. sequencing), and coordination of certain activities such as access control, “handshaking” of components, interface definition, and so forth.  
      Temporal Processing Module  
      In accordance with one aspect of the present techniques involves simply performing temporal change analysis on a single modality data. The results can be presented to the user by displaying temporal change data and the current data side-by-side, or by fusing the temporal results on the current data to highlight temporal changes. Another approach is to use data of at least one modality and its temporal counterpart from another modality to perform temporal change analysis. Yet another approach would involve performing temporal analysis on multiple-type data to fully characterize the medical condition in question.  
      Temporal processing may generally include the following general modules: acquisition/storage module, segmentation module, registration module, comparison module, and reporting module.  
      The acquisition/storage module contains acquired medical data. For temporal change analysis, means are provided to access the data from storage corresponding to an earlier time point. To simplify notation in the subsequent discussion we describe only two time points t 1  and t 2 , even though the general approach can be extended for any type of medical data in the acquisition and temporal sequence. The segmentation module provides automated or manual means for isolating features, volumes, regions, lines, and/or points of interest. In many cases of practical interest, the entire data can be the output of the segmentation module. The registration module provides methods of registration for disparate medical data. Several examples may assist in illustrating this point.  
      In case of single modality medical images, if the regions of interest for temporal change analysis are small, rigid body registration transformations, including translation, rotation, magnification, and shearing may be sufficient to register a pair of images from t 1  and t 2 . However, if the regions of interest are large, such as including almost an entire image, warped, elastic transformations may be applied. One way to implement the warped registration is to use a multi-scale, multi-region, pyramidal approach. In this approach, a different cost function highlighting changes may be optimized at every scale. An image is resampled at a given scale, and then it is divided into multiple regions. Separate shift vectors are calculated at different regions. Shift vectors are interpolated to produce a smooth shift transformation, which is applied to warp the image. The image is resampled and the warped registration process is repeated at the next higher scale until the pre-determined final scale is reached.  
      In the case of multi-modality medical images, maximizing mutual information can perform rigid and warped registration. In certain medical data, there may not be a need to do any spatial registration at all. In such cases, data would be a single scale value or a vector.  
      The comparison module provides methods of comparison for disparate medical data. For Example, registered image comparison can be performed in several ways. One method involves subtracting two images to produce a difference image. Alternatively, two images S(t 1 ) and S(t 2 ) can be compared using an enhanced division method, which is described as [S(t 1 )*S(t 2 )]/[S(t 2 )*S(t 2 )+Φ], where the scalar constant Φ&gt;0. In the case of single scalar values, temporal trends for a medical event can be compared with respect to known trends for normal and abnormal cases.  
      The report module provides the display and quantification capabilities for the user to visualize and or quantify the results of temporal comparison. In practice, one would use all the available data for the analysis. In the case of medical images, several different visualization methods can be employed. Results of temporal comparisons can be simultaneously displayed or overlaid on one another using a logical operator based on some pre-specified criterion. For quantitative comparison, color look-up tables can be used. The resultant data can also be coupled with an automated pattern recognition technique to perform further qualitative and/or manual/automated quantitative analysis of the results.  
      Artificial Neural Network  
      A general diagrammatical representation of an artificial neural network is shown in  FIG. 15  and designated by the reference numeral  202 . Artificial neural networks consist of a number of units and connections between them, and can be implemented by hardware and/or software. The units of the neural network may generally be categorized into three types of different groups (layers), according to their functions, as illustrated in  FIG. 15 . A first layer, input layer  204 , is assigned to accept a set of data representing an input pattern, a second layer, output layer  208 , is assigned to provide a set of data representing an output pattern, and an arbitrary number of intermediate layers, hidden layers  206 , convert the input pattern to the output pattern. Because the number of units in each layer is determined arbitrarily, the input layer and the output layer include sufficient numbers of units to represent the input patterns and output patterns, respectively, of a problem to be solved. Neural networks have been used to implement computational methods that learn to distinguish between objects or classes of events. The networks are first trained by presentation of known data about objects or classes of events, and then are applied to distinguish between unknown objects or classes of events.  
      Briefly, the principle of neural network  202  can be explained in the following manner. Normalized input data  210 , which may be represented by numbers ranging from 0 to 1, are supplied to input units of the neural network. Next, the output data  212  are provided from output units through two successive nonlinear calculations (in a case of one hidden layer  206 ) in the hidden and output layers  208 ,  210 . The calculation at each unit in the layer, excluding the input units, may include a weighted summation of all entry numbers, an addition of certain offset terms and a conversion into a number ranging from 0 to 1 typically using a sigmoid-shape function. In particular, as represented diagrammatically in  FIG. 16 , units  214 , which may be labeled O 1  to On, represent input or hidden units, W 1  through Wn represent the weighting factors  216  assigned to each respective output from these input or hidden units, and T represents the summation of the outputs multiplied by the respective weighting factors. An output  218 , or O is calculated using the sigmoid function  220  given where θ represents an offset value for T. An example sigmoid function is given by the following expression: 1/[1+exp(−T+θ)]. The weighting factors and offset values are internal parameters of the neural network  202 , which are determined for a given set of input and output data.  
      Two different basic processes are involved in the neural network  202 , namely, a training process and a testing process. The neural network is trained by the back-propagation algorithm using pairs of training input data and desired output data. The internal parameters of the neural network are adjusted to minimize the difference between the actual outputs of the neural network and the desired outputs. By iteration of this procedure in a random sequence for the same set of input and output data, the neural network learns a relationship between the training input data and the desired output data. Once trained sufficiently, the neural network can distinguish different input data according to its learning experience.  
      Expert Systems  
      One of the results of research in the area of artificial intelligence (AI) has been the development of techniques which allow the modeling of information at higher levels of abstraction. These techniques are embodied in languages or tools, which allow programs to be built to closely resemble human logic in their implementation and are therefore easier to develop and maintain. These programs, which emulate human expertise in well-defined problem domains, are generally called expert systems.  
      The component of the expert system that applies the knowledge to the problem is called the inference engine. Four basic control components may be generally identified in an inference engine, namely, matching (comparing current rules to given patterns), selection (choosing most appropriate rule), implementation (implementation of the best rule), and execution (executing resulting actions).  
      To build an expert system that solves problems in a given domain, a knowledge engineer, an expert in Al language and representation, starts by reading domain-related literature to become familiar with the issues and the terminology. With that as a foundation, the knowledge engineer then holds extensive interviews with one or more domain experts to “acquire” their knowledge. Finally, the knowledge engineer organizes the results of these interviews and translates them into software that a computer can use. The interviews typically take the most time and effort of any of these stages.  
      Rule-based programming is one of the most commonly used techniques for developing expert systems. Other techniques include fuzzy expert systems, which use a collection of fuzzy membership functions and rules, rather than Boolean logic, to reason relationships between data. In rule-based programming paradigms, rules are used to represent heuristics, or “rules of thumb,” which specify a set of actions to be performed for a given situation. A rule is generally composed of an “if” portion and a “then” portion. The “if” portion of a rule is a series of patterns which specify the facts (or data) which cause the rule to be applicable. The process of matching facts to patterns is generally called pattern matching. The expert system tool provides the inference engine, which automatically matches facts against patterns and selects the most appropriate rule. The “if” portion of a rule can actually be thought of as the “whenever” portion of a rule, because pattern matching occurs whenever changes are made to facts. The “then” portion of a rule is the set of actions to be implemented when the rule is applicable. The actions of applicable rules are executed when the inference engine is instructed to begin execution. The inference engine selects a rule, and then the actions of the selected rule are executed (which may affect the list of applicable rules by adding or removing facts). The inference engine then selects another rule and executes its actions. This process continues until no applicable rules remain.  
     Initiation of Processing Functions and Strings  
      As used herein, the term “processing string” is intended to relate broadly to computer-based activities performed to acquire, analyze, manipulate, enhance, generate or otherwise modify or derive data within the IKB or from data within the IKB. The processing may include, but is not limited to analysis of patient-specific clinical data. Processing strings may act upon such data, or upon entirely non-clinical data, but in general will act upon both. Thus, processing strings may include activities for acquisition of data (both for initiating acquisition and terminating acquisition, and for setting acquisition settings and protocols, or notification that acquisition is desired or desirable).  
      A user-initiated processing string, for example, might include launching of a computer-assisted detection routine to identify calcifications possibly visible within cardiac CT data. While this processing string proceeds, moreover, the system, based upon the requested routine and the data available from other resources, may automatically initiate a processing string which fetches cholesterol test results from the IKB for analysis of possible relationships between the requested data analysis and the cholesterol test results. Conversely, when analysis of cholesterol test results is requested or initiated, the system may detect the utility in performing imaging that would assist in evaluating or diagnosing related conditions, and inform the user (or a different user) of the need or desirability to schedule acquisition of images that would form the basis for the complementary evaluation.  
      It should also be noted that the users that may initiate processing strings may include a wide range of persons with diverse needs and uses for the raw and processed data. These might include, for example, radiologists requesting data within and derived from images, insurers requesting information relating or supporting insurance claims, nurses in need of patient history information, pharmacists accessing prescription data, and so forth. Users may also include the patient him or herself, accessing diagnostic information or their own records. Initiation based upon a change in data state may look to actual data itself, but may also rely on movement of data to or from a new workstation, uploading or downloading of data, and so forth. Finally, system-initiated processing strings may rely on simple timing (as at periodic intervals) or may rely on factors such as the relative level of a parameter or resource. System-initiated processing strings may also be launched as new protocols or routines become available, as to search through existing data to determine whether the newly available processing might assist in identifying a condition therefore unrecognized.  
      As noted above, the data processing system  10 , IKB  12 , and federated database  14  can all communicate with one another to provide access, translation, analysis and processing of various types of data from the diverse resources available.  FIG. 17  illustrates this feature of the present technique again, with emphasis upon the interface  8  provided for users, such as clinicians and physicians. The interface  8 , while permitting access to the various resources of the system, including the data processing system, the IKB, and the federated database, will generally allow for a wide range of interface types and systems. In particular, as designated diagrammatically by the reference numeral  222  in  FIG. 17 , the “unfederated” interface layer comprising the interface  8  may include a range of disparate and different interface components at single institutions, or at a wide range of different institutions widely geographically dispersed from one another. Moreover, the basic operating systems of the interfaces need not be the same, and the present technique contemplates that various types of interfaces may be united and configured in the unfederated interface layer separately, and nevertheless enable to communicate with one or more of the data processing system, the integrated knowledge base and the federated database. In particular, where an integrated knowledge base and a federated database are provided, these may accommodate the various types of interfaces in the layer, such as through the use of standardized protocols as noted above, including HTML, XML, and so forth. The interface layer may also permit automatic or use-prompted queries of the integrated knowledge base, the data processing system, or the federated database. In particular, where appropriate, the users may not be aware of queries executed by programs implemented on workstations, such as by management of input or output of client data, filing of claims, prescription of data acquisition sequences, medications, and so forth.  
      The interface layer, and the programming included therein and in the data processing system may permit a wide range of processing fuictions to be executed based upon a range of triggering events. These events maybe initiated and carried out in conjunction with use requests, or may be initiated in various other manners.  FIG. 18  diagrammatically illustrates certain of the initiating and processing functions which may be performed in this manner.  
      As shown in  FIG. 18 , various initiating sources  224  may be considered for initiating the data acquisition, processing, and analysis on the data from the resources and knowledge base described above. The initiating sources  224  commence processing as indicated generally at reference numeral  226  in  FIG. 18 , in accordance with routines stored in one or more of the data processing system, IKB, and federated database, or further more within the resources, including the controllable prescribable resources and the data resources. The particular processing may be stored, as noted above, and a single computer system comprised in the data processing system, or dispersed through various computer systems which cooperate with one another to perform the data processing and analysis. Following initiation of the processing, processing strings may be carried out as indicated generally at reference numeral  228  in  FIG. 18 . These processing strings may include a wide range of processing and analysis of functions, typically designed to provide a caregiver with enhanced insights into patient care, to process the data required for the patient care, including clinical and non-clinical data, to enhance function of an institution providing the care, to detect trends or relationships within the patient data, and to perform general discovery and mining of relationships for future use.  
      The present technique contemplates that a range of initiating sources  224  may commence the processing and analysis functions in accordance with the routines executed by the system. In particular, for such initiating sources are illustrated in FIG. data state change source  234 , and a system or automatic initiating source  236 . Where a user, such as a clinician, physician, insurance company, clinic or hospital employee, management or staff user, and the like initiates a request that draws upon the IKB or the various integrated resources described above, a processing string may begin that calls upon information either already stored within the IKB or accessible by locating, accessing, and processing data within one or more of the various resources. In a typical setting, a user may initiate such processing at a workstation where a query or other function is performed. As noted above, the query may be obvious to the user, or may be inherent in the function performed on the workstation.  
      Another contemplated initiating source is the event or patient as indicated at reference numeral  232  in  FIG. 18 . In general, many medical interactions will begin with specific symptoms or medical events which trigger contact with a medical institution or practitioner. Upon logging such an event by a patient or clinician interfacing with the patient, a processing string may begin which will include a range of interactive steps, such as access to patient records, updating of patient records, acquisition of details relating to symptoms, and so forth as described more fully below. The event to patient initiated processing string, while used to perform heretofore unavailable and highly integrated processing in the present context, may be generally similar to the types of events which drive current medical service provision.  
      The data processing system  10  may generally monitor a wide range of data parameters, including the very state of the data (static or changing) to detect when new data becomes available. The new data may become available by updating patient records, accessing new information, uploading or downloading data to and from the various controllable and prescribable resources and data resources, and so forth. Where desired, the programs executed by the data processing system may initiate processing based upon such changes in the state of data. By way of example, upon detecting that a patient record has been updated by a recent patient contact or the availability of clinical or non-clinical data, the processing string may determine whether subsequent actions, notifications, reports or examinations are in order. Similarly, the programs carried out by the data processing system may automatically initiate certain processing as indicated at reference numeral  236  in  FIG. 18 . Such system-initiated processing may be performed on a routine bases, such as predetermined time intervals or at the trigger of various system parameters, such as inventory levels, newly-available data or identification of relationships between data, and so forth.  
      A particularly powerful aspect of the highly integrated approach of the present technique resides in the fact that, regardless of the initiating source of the processing, various processing strings may result. As summarized generally in  FIG. 18 , for example, the processing strings  228 , while generally aligned with various initiating sources in the figure, may result from other initiating sources and executed programs. For example, a user or context string  238  may include processing which accesses and returns processed information to respond precisely to a user-initiated processing event, or in conjunction with the particular context within which a user accesses the system. However, such processing strings may also result from event or patient initiated processing, data state changes, and system-initiated processing. Moreover, it should be noted that several types of specific strings may follow within the various categories. For example, the user or context string  238  may include specific query-based processing as indicated at reference numeral  240 , designed to identify and return data which is responsive to specific queries posed by a user. Alternatively, user or environment-based strings  242  may result in which data accessed and returned is user-specific or environment-specific. Examples of such processing strings might include access and processing of data for analysis of interest to specific users, such as specific types of clinicians or physicians, financial institutions, and insurance companies.  
      As a further example of the various processing strings which may result from the initiating source processing, event strings  244  may include processing which is specific to the medical event experienced by a patient, or to events experienced in the past or which may be possible in future. Thus, the event strings  244  may result from user initiation, event or patient initiation, data state change initiation, or system initiation. In a typical context, the event string may simply follow the process of a medical event or symptom being experienced by a patient to access information, process the information, and provide suggestions or diagnoses based upon the processing. As noted above, the suggestions may include the performance of additional processing or analysis, the acquisition of additional information, both automatically and with manual assistance, and so forth.  
      A general detection string  246  might also be initiated by the various initiating sources. In the present context, the general detection string  246  may include processing designed to identify relevant data or relationships which were not specifically requested by a user, event, patient, data state change or by the system. Such general detection strings may correlate new data in accordance with relationships identified by the data processing system or IKB. Thus, even where a patient or user has not specifically requested detection of relationships or potential correlations, programs executed by the data processing system  10  may nevertheless execute comparisons and groupings to identify risks, potential treatments, financial management options and so forth under a general detection string.  
      Finally, a processing string designated in  FIG. 18  as a system string  248  may be even more general in nature. The system string may be processing which is executed with the goal of discovering relationships between data available from the various resources. These new relationships may be indicative of new ways to diagnose or treat patients such as based upon recognizable trends or correlations, analysis of success or failure rates, statistical analyses of patient care results, and so forth. As in the previous examples, the system string may be initiated in various manners, including at the automatic initiation of the system, but also with changes in data state, upon the occurrence of newly detected medical event or by initiation of the patient, or by a specific request of a user.  
     Computer-Assisted Patient Data Capture and Processing  
      In accordance with one aspect of the present technique, enhanced processing of patient data is provided by coordinating data collection and processing directly from the patient with data stored in the IKB  12 . For the present purposes, it should be borne in mind that the IKB  12  may be considered to include information within various resources themselves, or processed information resulting from analysis of such raw data. Moreover, in the present context the IKB is considered to include data which may be stored in a variety of locations both within an institution and within a variety of institutions located in a single location or in quite disparate locations. The IKB may, therefore, include a variety of coordinated data collection and repository sites. Exemplary logical action classes and timeframes, with associated exemplary actions, are illustrated generally in  FIG. 19 .  
      Referring to  FIG. 19 , the patient information which is included in the IKB may result from any one or more of the types of modalities described above, and, more generally, of the various resource types. Moreover, as also described above, patient information may result from analysis of this type of data in conjunction with other generally available data in the data resources, such as different graphic information, proprietary or generally accessible databases, subscription databases, digitized reference materials, and so forth. However, the information is particularly useful when coordinated with a patient contact, such as a visit to a physician or facility. In the diagrammatical representation of  FIG. 19 , different distinct classes of action, designated generally at reference numeral  250 , may be grouped logically, such as patient interactions, system interactions, and report or education-type actions. These action classes may be further considered, generally, as inputs, processing, and outputs of the overall system. Moreover, the action classes may be thought of as occurring by reference to a patient contact, such as an on-site visit. In this sense, the actions may be generally classified as those taken prior to a visit or contact, as noted at reference numeral  252 , those taken during a contact, as illustrated at reference numeral  254 , and post-contact actions, as indicated at reference numeral  256 .  
      It has been found, in the present technique, that by collection of certain patient information at these various stages of interaction, information from the IKB may be extremely useful in providing enhanced diagnosis, analysis, patient care, and patient instruction. In particular, several typical scenarios may be envisaged for the collection and processing of data prior to a patient contact or on-site visit.  
      As an example of the type of information which may be collected prior to a patient contact, sub-classes of actions may be performed, as indicated at reference numeral  258  in  FIG. 19 . By way of example, prior to a patient visit, a record for the patient contact or medical event (e.g. the reason for the visit) may be captured to begin a new or continuing record. Such initiation may begin by a patient phone call, information entered into a website or other interface, instant messages, chat room messages, electronic messages, information input via a web camera, and so forth. The data relating to the record may be input either with human interaction or by automatic prompting or even through unstructured questionnaires. In such questionnaires, the patient may be prompted to input a chief complaint or symptoms, medical events, and the like, with prompting from voice, textual or graphical interfacing. In one exemplary embodiment, for example, the patient may also respond to graphical depictions of the human body, such as for selection of symptomatic region of the body.  
      Other information may be gathered prior to the patient contact, such as biometric information. Such information may be used for patient identification and/or authentication before data is entered into the patient record. Moreover, remote vital sign diagnostics may be acquired by patient input or by remote monitors, if available. Where data is collected by voice recording, speech recognition software or similar software engines may identify key medical terms for later analysis. Also, where necessary, particularly in emergency situations, residential or business addresses, cellular telephone locations, computer terminal locations, and the like can be accessed to identify the physical location of a patient. Moreover, patient insurance information can be queried, with input by the patient to the extent such information is known or available.  
      Based upon the patient interactions  258 , various system interactions  260  may be taken prior to the patient visit or contact. In particular, as the patient-specific data is acquired, data is accessed from the IKB (including the various resources) for analysis of the patient information. Thus, the data may be associated or analyzed to identify whether appointments for visits are in order, if not already arranged, and such appointments may be scheduled based upon the availability of resources and facilities, patient preferences and location, and so forth. Moreover, the urgency of such scheduled appointments may be assessed based upon the information input by the patient.  
      Among the various recommendations which may be made based upon the analysis, pre-visit imaging, laboratory examinations, and so forth may be recommended and scheduled to provide the most relevant information likely to be needed for efficient diagnosis and feedback during or immediately after the patient visit. Such recommendations may entail one or more of the various types of resources described above, and one or more of the modalities within each resource. The various information may also be correlated with information in the IKB to provide indications of potential diagnoses or relevant questions and information that can be gathered during the patient visit. The entire set of data can then be uploaded to the IKB to create or supplement a patient history database within the IKB.  
      As a result of the uploading of data into the IKB, various types of structured data may be stored for later access and processing. For example, the most relevant captured patient data may be stored, in a structured form, such as by classes or fields which can be searched and used to evaluate potential recommendations for the procedures used prior to the medical visit, during the visit and after the visit. The data may be used, then for temporal analysis of changes in patient conditions, identification of trends, evaluation of symptoms recognized by the patient, and general evaluation of conditions which may not even be recognized by the patient and which are not specifically being complained of. The data may also include, and be processed to recognize, potentially relevant evidence-based data, demographic risk assessments, and results of comparisons and analyses of hypothesis for the existence or predisposition for medical events and conditions.  
      Following the system interaction, and resulting from the system interaction, various output-type functions may be performed by the system. For example, as noted at reference numeral  262  in  FIG. 19 , patient-specific recommendations may be communicated to the patient prior to the patient contact. These recommendations may include appointments for the contact or for other examinations or analyses, educational information relating to such procedures, protocols to be followed prior to the procedures (e.g. dietary recommendations, prescriptions, timing and duration of visits). Moreover, the patient information may be specifically tailored or adapted to the patient. In accordance with one aspect of the technique, for example, educational information may be conveyed to the patient in a specific language of preference based upon textual information available in the IKB and the language of preference indicated by the patient in the patient record. Such instructions may further include detailed data, such as driving or public transportation directions, contact information (telephone and facsimile numbers, website addresses, etc.). As noted above, actions may include ordering and scheduling of exams and data acquisition.  
      A further output action which may be taken by the system prior to and on-site visit might include reports or recommendations for clinicians and physicians. In particular, the reports may include output based upon the indications and designation of symptoms experienced by the patient, patient history information collect, and so forth. The report may also include electronic versions of images, computer-assisted processed (e.g. enhanced) images, and so forth. Moreover, such physician reports may include recommendations or prioritized lists of information or examinations which should be performed during the visit to refine or rule out specific diagnoses.  
      The process summarized in  FIG. 19  continues with information which is collected by patient interaction during a contact, such as an on-site visit, as indicated at reference numeral  264 . In a present example, the information collected at the time of the contact might begin with biometric information which, again can be used for patient identification and authentication. The visit may thus begin with a check-in process in which the patient is either registered on-site or pre-registered off-site prior to a visit. Coordinated system interactions may be taken during this time, such as automatic access to the patient record established during the pre-visit phase. Additional information, similar to or supplementing the information collected prior to the visit may then be entered into the patient record. Patient conversation and inputs may be recorded manually or automatically during this interview process in preparation for a clinician or physician interview. As before, where voice data is collected, speech recognition engines may identify key medical terms or symptoms which can be associated with information in the IKB to further enhance the diagnosis or treatment. Video data may similarly be collected to assess patient interaction, mental or physical state, and so forth. This entire check-in process may be partially or fully automated to make optimal use of institutional resources prior to actual interview with a clinician, nurse, or physician.  
      The on-visit may continue with an interview by a clinician or nurse. The patient conversation or interaction may again be recorded in audio or video formats, with complaints, symptoms and other key data being input into the IKB, such as for identification of trends and temporal analysis of advancement of a condition or event. Again, and similarly, vital sign information may be updated, and the updated patient record may be evaluated for identification of trends and possible diagnoses, as well as or recommendations of additional medical procedures, as noted above.  
      The on-site visit typically continues with a physician or clinician interview. As noted above, during the on-site visit itself, analyses and correlations with information in the IKB may be performed with reports or recommendations being provided to the physician at the time of the interview. Again, the reports may provide recommendations, such as rank-ordered proposals for potential diagnoses, procedures, or simply information which can be gathered directly from the patient to enhance the diagnosis and treatment. The interview itself may, again, be recorded in whole or in part, and key medical terms recognized and stored in the patient&#39;s record for later use. Also during the on-site visit, reports, recommendations, educational material, and so forth may be generated for the patient or the patient care provider. Such information, again, may be customized for the patient and the patient condition, including explanations of the results of examinations, presentations of the follow-up procedures if any, and so forth. The materials may further include general health recommendations based upon the patient record, interaction during the contact and information from the IKB, including general reference material. The material provided to the patient may include, without limitation, text, images, animations, graphics, and other reference material, raw or processed, structured video and/or audio recordings of questions and answers, general data on background, diagnoses, medical regimens, risks, referrals, and so forth. The form of such output may suit any desired format, including hard-copy printout, compact disk output, portable storage media, encrypted electronic messages, and so forth. As before, the communication may also be specifically adapted to the patient in a language of preference. The output may also include information on financial arrangements, including insurance data, claims data, and so forth.  
      The technique further allows for post-contact data collection and analysis. For example, following a patient visit, various patient interactions may be envisaged, as indicated generally at reference numeral  266  in  FIG. 19 . Such interactions may include general follow-up questions, symptom updates, remote vital sign capture, and the like, generally similar to information collected prior to the contact. Moreover, the post-contact patient interaction may include patient rating of an institution or care providers, assistance in filing or processing insurance claims, invoicing, and the like. Again, based upon such inputs, data is accessed, which may be patient-specific or more general in nature, from the IKB to permit the information to the coordinated with patient records and all other available data to facilitate the follow-up activities, and to generate any reports and feedback both for the patient and for the care provider.  
     Integrated Knowledge Base Interface  
      As noted above, the “unfederated” interface for the IKB and, more generally, for the processing system and resources, may be specifically adapted for a variety of users, environments, fuictions, and the like.  FIG. 20  generally illustrates an interface processing system which facilitates interactions with the IKB. The system generally includes a series of input parameters or sources  270 , which may be widely varied in nature, location, and utility. Based upon inputs from such sources, a logical parser  272 , which may be generally part of the data processing system  10  described above, identifies interfaces and access of for interaction between users, hardware, and systems on one hand, and user workstations on the other, as well as access to the IKB. The interface and access output functions, indicated generally at reference numeral  274 , are then used to provide customized interfaces and access to the IKB depending upon the inputs received by the parser.  
      As summarized in  FIG. 20 , input parameters or sources  270  may generally include parameters relating to users, including patients  4  and clinicians  6 , as well as to any other users of the system, such as financial or insurance companies, researchers, and any other persons or institutions having the right to access the data. For user-initiated events, or any contact with the IKB in which a user is involved, various access levels, functions, profiles, environments and the like may be considered in customizing the user interface and the level of access to the IKB data and processing capabilities. By way of example, a radiologist reviewing an image or images at a review workstation, a technologist operating a CT scanner, or an administrator scheduling appointments or entering billing information may all be users to the system. The parameters or characteristics of the user which may be considered by the logical parser  272  may, as noted, vary greatly. In a present exemplary embodiment such characteristics include the function being performed by the user, as noted at reference numeral  276 , as well as a personal profile of a user as noted at reference numeral  278 . The information relating to functions and personal profiles may, where appropriate, be subject to a manual override as indicated at reference numeral  280  in  FIG. 20 . Moreover, all of the access by specific users may be filtered through various types of authentication as indicated in reference numeral  282 .  
      In a typical scenario, a user may enter an authentication module, such as on a workstation  304 , illustrated in  FIG. 20 , to enable secure access to the system. Where the function performed by the user is one of the criteria considered for interfacing and access, the user may be prompted to enter a current function, or the function may be recognized for the individual user profile. In this matter, the same user may have multiple functions in the system, such as in the case of thoracic radiologist at a hospital functioning as an interventionalist in one context and having additional functions as a mammographer at other periods, a manager at certain periods, and so forth. As a further example, a general practice nurse may function as a clinician at certain times, such as to input medical history information, and as an appointment scheduler at other times, and as a clerical person for input of billing, record data or insurance data at still other times. Each individual or institution, may customize one or more profiles containing personal preferences or information for each function. The profile may contain data about the user, and information describing the user interface preferences, if any, for different data access modes or functions.  
      Similarly, certain hardware or modality systems may have direct access to the IKB, such as for uploading or downloading information useful in the analysis, processing, or data acquisition functions performed by the system. As illustrated in  FIG. 20 , such hardware, denoted generally by reference numeral  284 , may include imaging systems, patient input stations, general purpose of computers linked via websites, and so forth. The hardware may interface with the parser by similar designation of one or more functions  286 , in a matter similar to that described above for the users. Similarly, parameters such as the environment of the hardware, as indicated at reference numeral  288 , may be considered. Such environments may provide an indication, for example, of where and how a system is used, such as to differentiate specific functionalities of imaging systems used in emergency room settings from those used in other clinical applications, mobile settings, and so forth. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, such function and environment information may influence the type and amount of data which can be accessed from or uploaded to the IKB, and may be used, for example, in prioritization or processing of information from the IKB depending upon urgency of treatment, and so forth.  
      A general system input  290  is also illustrated in  FIG. 20 , which may be considered by the logical parser. General system information may be relative to individual interfacing systems, including a system on which a user or piece of hardware interfaces with the knowledge base. By way of example, a system utilized by a user to interface with the knowledge base may, automatically or with user intervention, provide information relating to specific hardware devices, parameters, system capabilities, functions of the device, environments in which the devices are located or used, and so forth. Such information may indicate, for example, that a device is used as an image review workstation, such that different default interface characteristics may be employed in a radiology reading room and in an intensive care unit. Such interface characteristics may offer unique advantages, such as different presentation modes for similar data, customized resolution and bandwidth utilization, and so forth.  
      Based upon the information provided to the logical parser  272 , the parser determines appropriate user interface definitions, as well as definitions of access to the IKB. Among the determinations made by the logical parser  272 , may be allowable data state changes which can be initiated by the user, hardware or system, allowed methods and fields for data input and output, defined graphical or other (e.g. audio) presentation modes, and so forth. In providing such definition, the logical parser may draw upon specific levels or classifications of access, as well as upon specific pre-defined graphical interfaces or other fields, which are utilized in formulating the interfaces. In particular, for a given knowledge base request, the logical parser  272  may utilize algorithms embedded within the knowledge base interface software, pre-defined sets of instructions from an interface manager, or self-learning algorithms, in addition to such pre-defined access and interface configurations. Where a user is allowed to manually override characteristic data or configurations, the logical parser may customize the interface or given application or function. For example, an individual user may utilize a review workstation  304  in an intensive care unit to review a trauma case, but utilizing default emergency room settings by overriding the intensive care unit settings. A wide variety of other definitional functions and overrides may be envisioned, all permitting standard and customized interfaces and access levels to the IKB.  
      Among the functions defined by the logical parser are certain functions for defining the user interface, and other functions for defining access to the IKB. As illustrated in  FIG. 20 , such functions may include a definition of allowed input fields, as illustrated at reference numeral  292 . Such fields may, in the context of a graphical user interface, be shown, not shown, or “grayed out” in a particular user interface, depending upon the factors discussed above. In addition, allowed input modes, as indicated at reference numeral  294 , may be defined, again allowing various types of input, such as through the display or non-display of specific input pages, interactive web pages, and so forth. Similarity, specific graphical interfaces may be defined by the logical parser as indicated at reference numeral  296 . It should be noted, that the various interface fields, modes, and presentations identified by the logical parser based upon the input information may be stored remotely, such as in the processing system or system data repository, or locally in a management system or within a workstation  304  itself.  
      The logical parser may also define specific levels of interaction or access which are permitted between users, systems, and hardware on one hand, and the IKB on the other. Such access control may define both the accessing of information from the knowledge base, and the provision of information to the knowledge base. The access control may also define the permitted processing fuictions associated with the knowledge base via the data processing system. In the examples illustrated in  FIG. 20 , such functions may include defining allowed data for read access, as indicated at reference numeral  298 , defining allowed data for read-write access, as indicated at reference numeral  300 , and defining allowed data for write access, as indicated at reference numeral  302 .  
      As noted above, the interface processing system  268  permits various types of authentication to be performed, particularly for users attempting to gain access to the IKB. This authentication function may be achieved in a range of manners, including by password comparisons, voice recognition, biometrics, script or files contained within an interface device (e.g. a “cookie”) or password file, and so forth. Because a wide range of diverse data may be included in the IKB, authentication and security issues can be the focus of specific software and devices to carefully guard access and avoid tampering or unauthorized access. Thus, in addition to the use of standard user authentication protocols, data encryption techniques for knowledge communicated to and from the knowledge base may be employed, and associated infrastructure may be offered at input sides and output sides of the interface.  
      In general, a user may be responsible for setting the security or access level for data generated or administrated by that user, or other participates may be responsible for such security and access control. Thus, the system can be programmed to implement default access levels for different types of users or user functions, as noted above. Moreover, different privacy levels may be set by a user for different situations and for other users. Specifically, a patient or primary care physician may be in a best position to set access to his or her medical data, such that a specific set of physicians or institutions can access the information, depending upon their need. Access can also be broadened to include other physicians and institutions, such as in the event of accident or incapacitation of a patient. Moreover, access levels can be sorted by individual, situation, institution, and the like, with particular access levels being implemented in particular situations, such as in case of emergency, for clinical visits, during a transfer of control or oversight to an alternative physician during periods of a vacation, and so forth.  
      In general, the authentication and security procedures may be implemented through software which may question a patient and implement defaults based upon the responses. Thus, a patient may be prompted for classes of individuals, insurance companies, primary care physicians and specialists, kin, and the like, as well as for an indication of what level of access is to be provided to each class. Parsing and access to the information, as well as customization of the interfaces may then follow such designations.  
      Certain inherent advantages flow from the interface system described above. By way of example, an individual patient can become, effectively, a data or case manager granting access to information based upon the patient&#39;s desires and objectives. The mechanism can also be customized, and easily altered, for conformance with local, state and federal or other laws or regulations, particularity those relating to access to patient data. Such regulations may also relate to access to billing and financial information, access by employers, disability information, access to and for insurance claims, Medicare and Medicaid information, and so forth. Moreover, the technique offers automatic or easily adapted compliance with hospital information system data access regulations, such that data can be flagged to insure privacy based upon the user or access method. Finally, the technique provides for rapid and convenient setting, such as by the patient or a physician, of privacy levels for a broad range of users, such as by class, function, environment, and so forth.  
     Multi-Level System Architecture  
      As described generally above, the present techniques offer input, analysis, processing, output and general access to data at various levels, for various users, and for various needs. In particular, the system offers the capability of providing various levels of data access and processing, with all of the various levels generally being considered as contributing to, maintaining, or utilizing portions of the IKB and functionality described herein. The various levels, rising from a patient or user level may include workstations, input devices, portions of the data processing system, and so forth which contribute the needed data and which extract needed data for the functionality carried out at the corresponding level. Where levels in the system architecture can satisfy the users needs, such as within a specific institution, insurance company, department, region, and so forth, sharing and management of data may take place solely at such levels. Where, however, additional functionality, is desired, the system architecture offers for linking the lower and any intermediate levels as necessary to accommodate such functionality.  
       FIGS. 21 and 22  generally illustrate exemplary architectures and management functions carried out in accordance with such multi-level architectures.  FIG. 21  illustrates the present data exchange system  2  as including a number of integrated levels and clusters of input and output stations or users. The users, which would typically be patients  4  or clinicians  6  (including radiologists, nurses, physicians, management personnel, insurance companies, research institutions, and so forth) reside at fundamental or local level  306 . As noted above, various functionalities may be carried out at such local levels, including tailoring of data input and output functions, access control, interface customization, and so forth. Within a local group or cluster level  308 , then, such users may communicate with one another and with system elements of the type described above. That is, each local group or cluster level  308  may include any or all of the various resources discussed above, including both data resources and controllable and prescribable resources. In a practical implementation, a local group or cluster level  308  may include, by way of example, departments within a particular institution, institutions affiliated in some way, institutions located in a specific geographical region, institutions linked by virtue of their practice area or specialization, and so forth. The linking of the users and components at such local group or cluster levels, then, permits specific functions to be carried out, to the extent possible, fairly locally and without the need to access remote data resources or other local groups or clusters.  
      Similar remote groups or clusters may then be linked, and may be similar or generally similar internal structures, as indicated at reference numerals  310 ,  312 , and  314  in  FIG. 21 . It should be noted, however, that each of such clusters may vary widely in size, character, and even in its own network architecture, depending upon the needs and functions of the users within the group or cluster. The various local groups and cluster levels, then, may be linked by one or more central clusters as indicated generally at reference numeral  318 .  
      Although a “centralized/decentralized” system architecture is generally illustrated in  FIG. 21 , it should also be borne in mind that the functionality of the multi-level system offered by aspects of the present technique may take on various analytical forms. That is, any or all of available network architectures, including centralized architectures, ring structures, hierarchical structures, decentralized structures, centralized structures, and combinations of these may reside at the various levels in the overall system. Moreover, the various remote groups or clusters may, where desired, be linked to one another in alternative fashions without necessarily passing through a central group or cluster. Thus, preferential links between specific institutions or practitioners may be provided such that a “virtual cluster” is defined for the exchange of data and processing of data. Such links may be particularly useful where special relationships or repetitive operations are carried out between such users.  
      The functions described above, including the data acquisition, processing, analysis, and other functions may be carried out at specific workstations within the architecture of  FIG. 21 , within local groups or clusters, or by use of more expanded resources incorporating one or more remote group or cluster. Certain of these functions, according to the multi-level architecture scenario, are generally illustrated in  FIG. 22 . As shown in  FIG. 22 , certain functions may be carried out at local group or cluster levels  308 , with generally similar functions being carried out at higher levels  318 . Again, it should be noted that the same or similar functions may even be carried out at an individual terminal or workstation, and that further levels may be provided in the architecture.  
      As illustrated in  FIG. 22 , users  4 ,  6  may be linked to the system and inputs and access filtered through a security/access control modules  320 . As noted above, such modules may employ various forms of security and access control, such as based upon passwords, voice recognition, biometrics, and more sophisticated techniques. In general, the modules  320  will maintain a desired level of assurance that those linking to the network have rights to the specific data to be uploaded, downloaded, or processed. The modules  320  allow the users to gain access to a local knowledge base  322  which, from a general standpoint, may be considered to be part of the IKB discussed above. It should also be noted that the local knowledge base  322  may also incorporate features of a federated database as discussed above wherein certain data may be pre-processed or translated for use by the programmed functionalities.  
      A validation or data management module  324  will typically be provided in some form to control access to and quality of data within the local knowledge base  322  and data from the other components of the overall system. That is, certain data, particularly that data which is used at a local level, may be preferential stored within the local knowledge base  322 . However, where the overall system functionality requires, such data may be uploaded to higher levels, or to piers in other local groups or clusters. Similarly, data may be downloaded or processed from other remote sources. To maintain the validity and quality of such data, the validation and data management module  324  may carry out specific functions, typically bi-directionally, as indicated in  FIG. 22 . Such functions may include those of the reconciliation modules as indicated at reference numeral  326 , which can reconcile or validate certain data, such as based upon time of entry, source of the data, or any other validating criteria. Where such reconciliation or validation is not available, such as due to conflicting updates or inputs, such matters may be flagged to a user for reconciliation. A synchronizer module  328  provides, similarly, for synchronizing records between the local knowledge base  322  and remote resources. Finally, a link-upload/download module  330  provides for locating, accessing, and either storing up or downloading from other memories or repositories for the data from the local knowledge bases.  
      Generally similar functionality may be carried out, then, at other levels or within other relationships, as indicated generally by  318  in  FIG. 22 . Thus, as between local groups or clusters, security and access control modules  332  may, in conjunction with modules  320 , provide secure access to data from other users, groups, clusters or levels. Moreover, cluster knowledge base  334  may be maintained which compliment, or even replicate some of the local knowledge base data. As with the local knowledge base  322 , the cluster knowledge base  334  may be generally considered to be part of the overall IKB. Other functions may be performed at such higher levels as well. Thus, as indicated at reference numeral  336 , validation and data management modules may be implemented which, again, may be coordinated with the functionality of similar modules  324  at local levels. Such modules may, again, include reconciler modules  338 , synchronizer modules  340  and link/upload/download modules  342  which facilitate exchange of data between groups or clusters.  
      The multi-level architecture described above offers significant advantages and functionalities. First, data may be readily accessed by specific members of groups or clusters with specifically-tailored access control functions. That is, for such functions as insurance billing, clinical analysis, and so forth, reduced levels of securities may be provided within a specific group or cluster. Access to data by other users in other groups or clusters, then, may be more regulated, such as by application of different security or access control mechanisms. Moreover, certain functionalities may be provided at very basic levels, such as at patient or clinician workstations, with additional access to data and processing capabilities being linked as necessary.  
      Moreover, it should be noted that in presently contemplated embodiments, the overall network topology tends to mirror the underlying data structure which in itself mirrors and facilitates computer-assisted data operation algorithms discussed below. That is, where functionality or data are related by specific relationships, processing needs, access needs, validation needs, and so forth, the establishment of groups or clusters may follow similar structures. That is, as noted above, “typical” access, use, needs, and functionalities may reside at more or less tight nodes or clusters, with more distant or infrequent structures or functionalities being more distributed.  
      The linking of various clusters or groups also permit functionalities to be carried out that were heretofore unavailable in existing systems. For example, analysis for trends, relationships and the like between data at various groups or cluster levels may be facilitated which can aid in identifying traditionally unavailable information. By way of example, where a specific prevalence level of a disease state occurs at a specific institution, department within an institution, or a geographic region, existing systems tend to not recognize or belatedly recognize any relationship between such occurrence and similar occurrences in other locations. The present system, on the other hand, permits such data to be operated upon, mined, analyzed, and associated so as to easily and quickly recognize the development of trends at various locations and even related by various data, such as quality of care, and so forth. Thus, coordinated access and analysis of peer information is available for identification of such disease states in overall population.  
      Similarly, resource management may be improved by the multi-level architecture offered by the present technique. In particular, trends, both past and anticipated in inventory use, insurance claims, human resource needs, and so forth may also be identified based upon the availability of data and processing resources at the various levels described above.  
     Patient-Oriented Medical Data Management  
      The present technique offers further advantages in the ability of patients to be informed and even manage their own respective medical care. As noted above, the system can be integrated in such a manner as to collect patient data prior to medical contacts, such as office visits. The system also can be employed to solicit additional information, where needed, for such interactions. Furthermore, the system can be adapted to allow specific individualized patient records to be maintained that may be controlled by the individual patient or a patient manager.  FIG. 23  generally represents aspects of the technique designed for creation and management of integrated patient records.  
      As shown in  FIG. 23 , the arrangement of functionalities and modules may be referred to generally as a patient-management knowledge base system  344 , which at least partially includes features of the IKB and other techniques described above. A patient  4  provides patient data, as indicated generally at reference numeral  346  in  FIG. 23 . The patient data may be provided in any suitable manner, such as via hard copies, analysis of tissue samples, input devices at institutions or clinics, or input devices which are individualized for the patient. Such input devices may include, for example, devices which are provided to, worn by, implanted in, or directly implemented by the patient as at the patient&#39;s home or place of employment. Thus, the patient data  346  may be provided by mobile samplers (e.g. for blood analysis), sensing systems for physiological data (e.g. blood pressure, heart rate, etc.). The patient data may be stored locally, such as within the sensing device or within a patient computer or workstation. Similarly, the patient data may be provided either at the prompting of the patient or through system prompting, such as via accessible Internet web pages. Further, patient data may be extracted from external resources, including the resources of the IKB as described more fully below. Thus, the patient data, in implementation, may be exchanged in a bi-directional fashion such that the patient may provide information to the record and access information from the record. Similarly, the patient may manage input to the record of data from outside resources as well as manage access to output of the record to outside resources.  
      The patient data is exchanged with other element of the system via a patient network interface  348 . The patient network interface may be as simple as a web browser, or may include more sophisticated management tools that control access to, validation of, and exchange of data between the patient and the outside resources. The patient network interface may communicate with a variety of other components, such as directly with care providers as indicated at reference numeral  350 . Such care providers may include primary care physicians, but may also include institutions and offices that store patient clinical data, and institutions that store non-clinical data such as insurance claims, financial resource data, and so forth. The patient network interface  348  may further communicate with reference data repository  352 . Such reference data repositories were discussed above with general reference to the IKB. The repositories  352  may be the same or other repositories, and may be useful by the patient network interface for certain processing functions carried out by the interface, such as comparison of patient data to known ranges or demographic information, integration into patient-displayed interface pages of background and specific information relating to disease states, care, diagnoses and prognoses, and so forth. The patient network interface  348  where necessary, may further communicate with a translator or processing module as indicated generally at reference numeral  354 . The translator and processing modules may completely or partially transform the accessed data or the patient data for analysis and storage. Again, the translator and processing functions may be bi-directional such that they may translate and process both data originating from the patient and data transferred to the patient from outside resources.  
      An integrated patient record module  356  is designed to generate an integrated patient record, as represented generally by reference numeral  362  in  FIG. 23 . As used in the present context, the integrated patient record may include a wide range of information, both acquired directly from the patient, as well as acquired from institutions which provide care to the patient. The record may also include data derived from such data, such as resulting from analysis of raw patient data, image data, and the like both by automated techniques and by human care providers, where appropriate. Similarly, the integrated patient record may include information incorporated from reference data repositories  352 . The integrated patient record module preferably stores some or all of the integrated patient record  362  in one or more data repository  358 .  
      As noted above, the system  344  permits creation of an integrated patient record  362  which may include a wide range of patient data. In practice, the integrated patient record, or portions of the patient record, may be stored at various locations, such as at a patient location as indicated adjacent to the patient data block  346 , at individual care providers (e.g. with a primary care physician) as indicated adjacent to block  350 , or within a data repository  358  accessed by the integrated patient record module  356 . It should also be noted that some or all of the functionality provided by the patient network interface  348 , the translator and processing module  354  and the integrated patient record module  356  may be local or remote to the patient. That is, software for carrying out the creation and maintenance of the patient record may be stored direct at a patient terminal, or may be fully or partially provided remotely, such as through a subscription service. Similarly, the patient record repository  358  may be local or remote from the patient.  
      The integrated patient record module  356  also is preferably designed to communicate with the IKB  12  via an IKB interface  360 . The interface  360  may conform to the general functionalities described above with respect to access, validation, tailoring for patient needs or uses, and so forth. The IKB interface  360  permits the extraction of information from resources  18 , which may be internal to specific institutions as indicated in  FIG. 23 . The interface also permits data from the patient to be uploaded to such resources and institutions. As also noted in  FIG. 23 , the integrated patient record  356 , fully or in part, may be stored generally within the IKB  12  to facilitate access by care providers, for example. The record may also be stored within individual institutions, such as within a hospital or clinic which has or will provide specific patient care.  
      The system functionality illustrated in  FIG. 23  offers significant advantages. By way of example, as noted above, the access to specific information and the creation of records may be controlled and regulated more directly by a patient. That is, the system serves as an enabler for empowering the patient with respect to proactive management of medical records. Such interaction may take the form of patient-controlled access to portions of the patient record provided to specific care providers. Similarly, the system offers the potential for improving the education of the patient as regards to general questions as well as specific clinical and non-clinical issues. The system also provides a powerful tool for accessing patient data, including raw data, processed data, links, updates, and so forth which may be used by care providers for identifying and tracking patient conditions, scheduling patient care visits, and so forth. Such functions may be provided by “push” or “pull” exchange techniques, such as on a timed basis, or through notifications, electronic messages, wireless messages, and so forth. Direct interaction with the patient may include, therefore, uploading of patient data, downloading of patient data, prescription reminders, office visit reminders, screening communications, and so forth. Moreover, the integration of the patient data with other functionality and data from other resources permits the integrated patient record to be created and stored periodically or in advance of specific needs by the patient or by an institution, or compiled at the time of a specific query by linking to and accessing data for response to the query.  
     Predictive Modeling  
      The present technique, by virtue of the high degree of integration of the data storage, access and processing functions described above, provides a powerful tool for development of predictive models, both clinical and non-clinical in nature. In particular, data can be drawn from the various resources in the IKB or a federated data base, processed, and analyzed to improve patient care by virtue of predictive model development. The development of such predictive models can be fully or partially automated, and such modeling may serve to adapt certain computer-assisted functions of the types described above.  
       FIGS. 24 and 25  generally illustrate aspects of predictive model development which may be implemented in accordance with aspects of the present technique.  FIG. 24  represents a predictive modeling system  364  that may be built upon or compliment the IKB and network functions described above. The predictive modeling system  364  draws upon the resources  18 , both data resources and controllable and prescribable resources, as well as upon any federated databases  14  provided in the system and upon the IKB  12 , which again may be centralized or distributed in nature. The system  364  relies upon software identified in  FIG. 24  as data mining and analysis modules  366  designed to extract data from the various resources, knowledge bases and databases, and to identify relationships between the data useful in developing predictive models. The analysis performed by the data mining and analysis modules  366  may be initiated in any suitable manner, as indicated by the initiators block  368  in  FIG. 24 , including any or all of the initiating events outlined above with reference to  FIG. 18 . Once processing is initiated, the modules search for and identify data which may be linked to specific disease states, medical events, or to yet unidentified or unrecognized disease states or medical events. Moreover, the modules may similarly seek non-clinical data for development of similar models, such as for prediction of resource needs, resource allocation, insurance rates, financial planning, and so forth. It should be noted that the data mining and analysis functions performed by the modules  366  may operate on “raw” data from the resources and databases (again both clinical and non-clinical), as well as on filtered, validated, reduced-dimension, and similarly processed data from any one of these resources. Moreover, initiation of such processing, or validation of data may be provided by an expert, such as a clinician represented at reference numeral  6  in  FIG. 24 .  
      Based upon the mining an analysis performed by modules  366 , a predictive model development module  370  further acts to convert the data and analysis into a representative model that can be used for diagnostic, planning, and other purposes. In the clinical context, a wide range of model types may be developed, particularly for refinement of computer-assisted processes referred to above. As noted above, these processes, referred to here in as CAX processes, permit powerful computer-assisted work flow such as for acquisition, processing, analysis, diagnostics, and so forth. The methodologies employed by the predictive model development module  370  may vary depending upon the application, the data available, and the desired output. In presently contemplated embodiments, for example, the processing may be based upon regression analysis, decision trees, clustering algorithms, neural network structures, expert systems, and so forth. Moreover, the predictive model development module may target a specific disease state or medical condition or event, or may be non-condition specific. Where data is known to relate to a specific medical condition, for example, the model may consist in refinement of rules and procedures used to identify the likelihood of occurrence of such conditions based upon all available information from the resources and knowledge base. More generally, however, the data mining and analysis functions, in conjunction with the model development algorithms, may provide for identification of disease states and relationships between these disease states and available data which were not previously recognized.  
      In applications where the predictive model development module  370  is adapted for refinement of a computer-assisted process CAX, the model may identify or refine parameters useful in carrying out such processes. The output of the module  370  may therefore consist of one or more parameters identified as relating to a specific condition, event or diagnosis. Outputs from the predictive model development module  370 , typically in the form of data relationships, may then be further refined or mapped onto parameters available to and used by the CAX processes  85  illustrated in  FIG. 24 . In a presently contemplated embodiment, therefore, a parameter refinement function  372  is provided wherein parameters utilized in the CAX processes  85  are identified, as indicated at reference numeral  374 , and “best” or optimized values or ranges of the values are identified or as indicated at reference numeral  376 . The parameters and their values or ranges are then supplied to the CAX process algorithms for future use in the specific process. As a general rule, the CAX processes produce some output as indicated at reference numeral  378 .  
      It should be noted that various functions performed and described above in the predictive modeling system  364  may be performed on one or more processing systems, and based upon various input data. Thus, as mentioned above, the IKB and therefore the data available for predictive model development is inherently expandable such that models may be developed differently or enhanced as improved or additional information is available. It should also be noted that the various components of the system illustrated in  FIG. 24  provide for highly interactive model development. That is, various modules and functions may influence one another to further improve model development.  
      By way of example, where a predictive model is developed by module  370  based upon specific data mining, the model development module may identify that additional or complimentary data would also be useful in improving the performance of the CAX processes. The model development module may then influence the data mining and analysis function based upon such insights. Similarly, the identification of parameters and parameter optimization carried out in the parameter refinement process can influence the predictive model development module. Furthermore, the results of the CAX process  85  can similarly affect the predictive model development module, such as for development or refinement of other CAX processes.  
      The latter possibility of interaction between the components and functions illustrated in  FIG. 24  is particularly powerful. In particular, it should be recognized that the predictive model development module  370  may, in some respects, itself serve as a CAX process  85 , such as for recognizing relationships between available data and matching such relationships to potential disease states, events, resource needs, financial considerations, and so forth. The process is not limited to any particular CAX process, however. Rather, although model development may focus on the diagnosis of a disease state, for example, the output of the CAX process (e.g. computer-assisted diagnosis or detection) may give rise to improvements in processing and modeling of desired processing of data. Similarly, the results of the CAX process in processing may lead to recognition of improvements in a model implemented for computer-assisted acquisition (CAA) of data. Other computer-assisted processes, including computer-assisted assessment (CAAx) of health or financial states, prognoses, prescriptions, therapy, and other decisions may similarly be impacted both by the predictive model development module, and by feedback from refined other processes.  
      As illustrated in  FIG. 24 , certain steps involved in development of clinical and non-clinical predictive models may be subject to validation or input from elements of the system or from experts. Thus, the CAX output  378  would typically be reviewed by an expert  6 . Similarly, CAX output which may influence the predictive model development module  370  is preferably subject to validation as indicated at block  380  in  FIG. 24 . Such validation may be performed by the system itself (such as by cross-checking data or algorithm output, or by one or more experts). The output of the validation may then be linked to the resources, including the original resources themselves  18 , and the IKB  12 . For example, it may be useful to link or pre-process certain data, or flag certain data for use in the CAX processes implemented by the developed model.  
      In use, the developed or improved model will typically be available for remote processing or may be downloaded to systems, including computer systems, medical diagnostic imaging equipment, and so forth, which employ the model for improving data acquisition, processing, diagnosis, decision support, or any of the other fuictions served by the CAX process. During such implementation, and as described above, the implementing system may access the IKB, the federated database, or the originating resources themselves to extract the data needed for the CAX process.  
      Within the predictive model development module  370  several functions may be resident and carried out either on a routine basis or as specifically programmed or initiated by a user or by the system.  FIG. 25  illustrates an example of certain of these processes carried out by the model development module. As shown in  FIG. 25 , based upon data mined and analyzed (i.e. acquired or extracted from the resources), the module will typically identify relationships between available data as indicated at block  382  of  FIG. 25 . The relationships may be based upon known interactions between the data, or based upon identification algorithms as noted above (e.g. regression analysis, decision trees, clustering algorithms, neural networks, expert input, etc.). Moreover, it should be noted that the relationship identification may be based on any available data. That is, the data may be most usefully employed in the system when considered separate from its type, modality, practice area, and so forth. By way of example, clinical data may be employed from imaging systems and used in conjunction with demographic information and with histological information on a particular patient. The data may also incorporate non-patient specific (e.g. general population) data which may be further indicative of risk or likelihood of a particular disease state, and so forth. Based upon the identified relationships, rule identification is carried out as indicated at block  384 . Such rules may include comparisons, Boolean relationships, regression equations, and so forth used to link the various items of data or input in the identified relationships.  
      Input refinement steps are carried out as indicated at block  386  in which the relationships are linked to various data inputs which are available from the resources or database or knowledge base. As noted in  FIG. 25 , such inputs  388  may be non-parametric, that is, relate to raw or processed data which is not specifically influenced by settings or parameters of the CAX process. Other input identification, as indicated at block  390 , is targeted to parametric inputs which can be impacted by alteration of the CAX process. Based upon the input identification, the rule identification and the relationship identification, reconciliation and refinement of the model is possible as indicated at block  392 . Again, such reconciliation and refinement may include addition or deletion of certain inputs, placement of certain conditions on inclusion of inputs, weighting of some inputs, and so forth. Such reconciliation and refinement may be carried out by the system or with input from an expert as indicated at reference numeral  6  in  FIG. 25 . The entire process, then, may be somewhat iterative as indicated by the return arrows in  FIG. 25 , such that the reconciliation and refinement process may further impact identification of relationships, rules and inputs.  
      A wide range of models may be developed by the foregoing techniques. In a clinical context for example, different types of data as described above maybe accessible to the CAX algorithms, such as image data, demographic data, and non-patient specific data. By way of example, a model may be developed for diagnosing breast cancer in women residing in a specific region of a country during a specific period of years known to indicate an elevated risk of such conditions. Additional factors that may be considered where available, could be patient history as extracted from questionnaires completed by the patient (e.g. smoking habits, dietary habits, etc.).  
      As a further example, and illustrating the interaction between the various processes, a model for acquiring data or processing data may be influenced by a computer-assisted diagnosis (CADx) algorithm. In one example, for example, the output from a therapy algorithm with highlighting of abdominal images derived from scanned data may be altered based upon a computer-assisted diagnosis. Therefore, the image data may be acquired or processed in relatively thin slices for a lower abdomen region where the therapy algorithm called for an appendectomy. The rest of the data may be processed in a normal way with thicker slices. Thus, not only can the CAX algorithms of different focus influence one another in development and refinement of the predictive models, but data of different types and from different modalities can be used to improve the models for identification and treatment of diseases, as well as for non-clinical purposes.  
     Algorithm and Professional Training  
      As noted above, a number of computer-assisted algorithms may be implemented in the present technique. Such algorithms, generally referred to herein as CAX algorithms, may include processing and analysis of a number of types of data, such as medical diagnostic image data. The present techniques offer enhanced utility in refining such processes as described above, and for refining the processes through a learning or training process to enhance detection, segmentation, classification and other functions carried out by such processes. The present techniques also offer the potential for providing feedback, such as for training purposes, of medical professionals at various levels, including radiologists, physicians, technicians, clinicians, nurses, and so forth.  FIG. 26  illustrates exemplary steps in such a training process both for an algorithm and for a medical professional.  
      Referring to  FIG. 26 , an algorithm and professional training process  394  is illustrated diagrammatically. The process may include separate, although interdependent modes, such as a professional training mode  396  and an algorithm training mode  398 . In general, both modes may be programmed and functioned in one or more operating environments, with the actual functionality performed varying depending upon how the user is currently implementing the process.  
      In general, the process provides for interaction between computer-assisted algorithms, such as a CAD algorithm, and functions performed by a medical professional. The process will be explained herein in context of a CAD program used to detect and classify features in medical diagnostic image data. However, it should be borne in mind that similar processes can be implemented for other CAX algorithms, and on different types of medical diagnostic data, including data from different modalities and resource types.  
      The process  394  may be considered to begin at a step  400  where an expert or medical professional performs feature detection and classification. As will be recognized by those skilled in the art, such functions are typically performed as part of a diagnostic image reading process, beginning typically with a reconstructed image or a set of images in an examination sequence. The expert will typically draw the data from the IKB  12  or from the various resources  18  and may draw upon additional data from such resources to support the “reading” process of feature detection and classification. The expert then produces a dataset labeled D 1 , and referred to in  FIG. 26  by reference numeral  402 , which may be an annotated medical diagnostic image in a particular application. Any suitable technique can be used for producing the dataset, such as conventional annotation, dictation, interactive marking, and similar techniques.  
      In parallel with the expert feature detection and classification functions, an algorithm, in the example a CAD algorithm, performs similar feature detection and classification fuictions at step  404 . As noted above, various programs are available for such functions, typically drawing upon raw or processed image data, and identifying segmenting and classifying identified features in accordance with parametric settings. Such settings may include mathematically or logically-defined feature recognition steps, intensity or color-based feature detection, automated or semi-automated feature segmentation, and classification based upon comparisons of identified and segmented features with known characteristics of identified pathologies. As a result of step  404 , a second dataset D 2 , referred to in  FIG. 26  by reference numeral  406 , is produced, which may be similarly annotated for display.  
      The expert-produced dataset  402  is subjected to verification by the same or a different computer algorithm at step  408 . The algorithm verification step  408  is illustrated in broken lines in  FIG. 26  due to the optional nature of this step when the system is operating in algorithm training mode. That is, the algorithm verification of the expert reading is preferred where feedback is provided to the expert as described below. Alternatively, the algorithm verification step may be implemented in all cases, such that a subsequently processed dataset includes both the reading by the expert and by the algorithm and the filtering of the expert-identified and classified features as produced by the algorithm verification step. In general, the algorithm verification step will serve to eliminate false positive readings as produced by the expert. It should also be noted that a particular algorithm and/or the parametric settings employed by the algorithm at step  408  may be different from those used in step  404 . That is, the algorithm verification step may be performed by a different algorithm, or with different parametric settings, so as to provide a more or less stringent filter at step  408  than was applied for the algorithm feature detection and classification at step  404 . Step  408  results in a further refined dataset D 3 , referred to in  FIG. 26  by reference numeral  410 , which may constitute a reconstructed image, annotated to indicate, where desired, both the expert feature detection and classification results, and changes in such results as result of the algorithm verification.  
      Similarly, the dataset  406  resulting from the algorithm feature detection and classification is subjected to expert verification at step  412 . As with step  408 , step  412  may be an optional step, particularly where the system functions in professional training mode. That is, where feedback is intended to be provided to the medical professional or expert, the step may be eliminated so as to provide comparison of the algorithm feature detection and classification with that produced by the medical professional. It should also be noted that a particular expert and/or the decision thresholds employed by the expert at step  412  may be different from those used in step  400 . The resulting dataset D 4 , referred to in  FIG. 26  by reference numeral  414 , again, may be reconstructed, when the data represents images, and may be annotated to indicate features identified by the algorithm and the changes made to such identification or classification by the expert or medical professional.  
      In a present implementation, the datasets  410  and  414  are joined in a union dataset  416 , which may again comprise of one or more images displaying the origin of particular features detected and classified, along with changes made by either the algorithm or the expert during verification. Block  418  in  FIG. 26  represents a reconciler which may be a medical professional (the same or a different medical professional than carrying out the feature detection and classification or verification), or the reconciler may include automated or semi-automated processing. The purpose of the reconciler  418  is to resolve conflicts between detection and classification by the algorithm and the expert, along with such conflicts that may result from modifications following the verification at steps  408  and  412 .  
      Once the reconciler has acted upon the dataset DS, referred to in  FIG. 26  by reference numeral  416 , in an algorithm training mode  398 , changes made by the expert verification at step  412  and by the reconciler  418  are analyzed as indicated at step  420 . The analysis may consist of comparing the changes made and determining why the changes were necessitated. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, CAX processing typically includes various settings which can be altered to change the feature identification, detection, segmentation, and classification that may have been performed. The analysis performed at step  420 , then, can be directed to identifying how such parametric inputs can be modified to permit the results of the verification and reconciliation to conform. It should be noted, however, the analysis performed at step  420  may not necessarily imply that a change in the algorithm is needed to desired. That is, in certain situations it may be desirable that the algorithm not produce exactly the same results as the expert, in order to enhance the “second reader” or “independent first reader” nature of the algorithm functions. At step  422 , then, validation of any possible changes to the algorithm are made, such as by an expert or a team of experts. Where the validation step results in a conclusion that a change in the algorithm may be in order, such modification may be implemented as indicated at step  424 . While reference is made in the present process to parametric modification of such algorithms, it should also be noted that such modifications may include identification and consideration of other inputs, such as inputs available from the IKB  12 , as discussed above with reference to  FIG. 24 .  
      When operating in a professional training mode  396 , similar analysis of the dataset  416  can be made as indicated at step  426  in  FIG. 26 . Such analysis, again, may be intended to determine why changes in the expert reading were made by the algorithm in the verification  408 , and how such performance can be brought into conformity. Based upon such analysis, at step  428  the results may be reported and instruction provided for the medical professional. It should be noted that such reporting and instruction may simply provide feedback for the medical professional, such as to indicate changes that would have been made to the dataset  402  by algorithm verification. However, the reports or instruction may also provide useful didactic input, references to teaching materials, samples, image-based data retrieval, and so forth, such that the medical professional is apprised of relevant considerations for improvement of performance.  
      Following creation of the dataset  416 , results may be reported and displayed in a conventional manner as indicated at step  430 . Moreover, and optionally, other processes may be performed on the resulting data which may similarly provide assistance in refining either the CAX algorithm or teaching the medical professional. Such processes are illustrated in  FIG. 26  at reference numerals  432  and  434 .  
      It should be noted that the foregoing processes can be implemented as normal operating procedures, where desired. That is, complimentary algorithm and expert reading procedures, with complimentary algorithm and expert verification procedures, and with the use of a reconciler, may be employed for regular handling of data for diagnostic and other purposes. In a professional training mode, however, a relatively “heavy” filter may be used at the algorithm verification step, such as to identify more positive reads as potential false positive reads for training purposes. A different or “lighter” filter may be used during normal operation and for the algorithm feature detection classification formed at step  404 . In addition, the analysis performed either at step  420  or at  426  may further rely upon the IKB to identify trends, prognoses, and so forth based upon both patient-specific data, non-patient specific data, temporal data of both a patient-specific and non-patient specific nature, and so forth. It should also be noted that, as discussed above, various changes can be made to the CAX algorithms as a result of the training operations. Such changes may include changes in processing, and may be “patient-specific”, with such changes being stored for future analysis of data relating to the same patient. That is, for example, for image data relating to a patient with certain anatomical characteristics (e.g. weight, bone mass, size, implants, prosthesis, etc.), the algorithm may be specifically tailored for the patient by altering parametric settings to enhance the utility of future application of the algorithm and future correction or suggestions made to expert readings based upon the determinations made by the algorithm. In addition, changes can also be made to the IKB itself based upon the learning mode outcome, such as to adjust “normal ranges” within the data stored in the knowledge base.  
     In Vitro Characteristic Identification  
      As noted above, among the many resources and types of resources available for the present technique, certain resources will produce data or samples which may be subject to in vitro data acquisition and analysis. The present techniques offer a particularly useful tool in the processing of such data and samples for several reasons. First, the samples may be analyzed based upon input of data of multiple types of resources. Various computer-assisted processes, including data acquisition, content-based information retrieval, processing and analyzing of retrieved and/or acquired data, identification of characteristics, and classification of data based upon identified characteristics may be implemented. Moreover, temporal analysis may be performed to analyze characteristics of in vitro samples as they relate to previously-identified characteristics using known data, such as from the IKB. The information retrieval processes may furthermore be based upon specific attributes of the in vitro sample, such as spatial attributes (e.g. size of specific components or characteristics), temporal attributes (e.g. change in features over time), or spectral attributes (e.g. energy level, intensity, color, etc.). Such content, also identified, where possible, from information stored in the IKB, may include biomarkers, images, relationship tables, standardized matrixes, and so forth. Thus, multiple attributes may be used to enhance the acquisition, processing and analysis of in vitro samples through reference to available data, particularly information in the IKB.  
       FIG. 27  generally represents steps in processing of an in vitro sample in accordance with such improved techniques. The in vitro characteristic identification process, generally represented by reference numeral  436  in  FIG. 27 , begins at step  438  where the in vitro diagnostics sample is acquired. As noted above, any suitable technique can be used for acquiring the sample, which may typically include body fluids, tissues, and so forth. At step  440  an analysis is performed on the acquired sample. The analysis is informed by input from the IKB as indicated at block  442 . The input may include data relating to other modalities, resource types, or temporal data relating to similar samples from the patient. The analysis performed at step  440  may include certain comparisons with such data and may be somewhat preliminary in nature. Thus, without departing from the acquisition step in the overall process, the sample acquisition may be tailored to the needs of the process as indicated at step  444 . Such tailoring may include acquisition of other samples, acquisitions of samples under specific conditions (e.g. later in time during an office visit, during patient activity or rest periods, from other regions of the body, and so forth). Thus, the in vitro diagnostics sample acquisition process may be improved by computer analysis that influences the acquisition of the sample itself.  
      Following acquisition of the sample, processing of the sample may be performed at step  446 . The processing performed at step  446 , rather than data processing, is typically sample processing to condition the sample for extraction of data either manually or in a semi-automated or fully-automated process. Following the processing at step  446 , results of the processing are analyzed at step  448 . As before, the analysis performed at step  448  may include consideration of data from the IKB, including data from other modalities, resource types, and times. As with the analysis performed at step  440 , the analysis at step  448  may be preliminary in nature, or further analysis may be performed by tailoring the processing as indicated at step  452 . Thus, prior to final analysis of an in vitro diagnostic sample, additional processing may be in order, such as slide preparation, analysis for the presence of various chemicals, tissues, pathogens, and so forth.  
      At step  454  results of the analysis are compared to known profiles, such as from the IKB, to determine possible diagnoses. As before, the comparisons made at step  454  may be based upon data from different modalities, resource types and times. The comparisons may result in classification of certain data indicative of disease states, medical events, and so forth as indicated at step  458 . The comparison and classification may further indicate that a specific patient (or a population of patients) is undergoing certain trends that may be indicative of potential diagnoses, prognoses, and so forth. The results of the classification made at step  458  may be validated, such as by a medical professional, at step  460 .  
      In general, for the present purposes, quantifiable signs, symptoms and/or analytes (e.g. chemicals, tissues, etc.) in biological specimens characteristic of a particular disease or predisposition for a disease state or condition may be referred to as “biomarkers” for the disease or condition. While reference has been made hereinto analysis and comparison in general, such biomarkers may include a wide range of features, including the spatial, temporal and spectral attributes mentioned above, but also including genetic markers (e.g. the presence or absence of specific genes), and so forth.  
      By way of example, in a typical application, a patient&#39;s tissue will be sampled and transmitted to a laboratory for analysis. The laboratory acquires the data with computer assistance using appropriate detectors, such as microscopes, fluorescent probes, micro arrays, and so forth. The data contents, such as biomarkers, image signals, and so forth are processed and analyzed. As noted above, the acquisition and processing steps themselves may influenced by the reference to other data, such as from the IKB. Therefore, such data is retrieved from the knowledge base for assisting in the acquisition, analysis, comparison and classification steps.  
      The comparisons made in the process may be parametric in nature or non-parametric. That is, as noted above, parametric comparisons may be based upon measured quantities and parameters where characteristics are indexed or referenced in parameter space and comparisons are performed in terms of relative similarity of one dataset to another with respect to certain indices, such as a Euclidean distance measure between two feature set vectors. Such indices may include, in the example of microscopy, characteristic cell structures, colors, reagent, indices, and so forth. Other examples may include genetic composition, presence or absence of specific genes or gene sequences, and so forth.  
      Non-parametric comparisons include comparisons made without specific references to indices, such as for a particular patient over a period of time. Such comparisons may be based upon the data contents of one dataset that is compared for similarity to characteristics from the data contents of another dataset. As will be noted by those skilled in the art, one or both of such comparisons may be performed, and in certain situations one of the comparisons may be preferred over the other. The parametric approach is typically used when a comparison is to be made between a given specimen and a different specimen with known characteristics, such as based upon information from the IKB. For example, in addition to deriving textures and shape patterns of cells in a histopathology image, parameters may also be derived from demographic data, electrical diagnostic data, imaging diagnostic data, and concentrations of biomarkers in biological fluid or a combination of these. Thus, the comparisons can be made based upon data from different modalities and different resource types, as noted above. Non-parametric comparisons may generally be made, again, for temporal comparison purposes. By way of example, a specimen may exhibit specific ion concentrations dynamically changing and temporal variations of data attributes (e.g. values, ratios of values, etc.) may need to be analyzed to arrive at a final clinical decision.  
     Computer-Assisted Data Operating Algorithms  
      As noted above, the present technique provides for a high level of integration of operations in computer-assisted data operating algorithms. As also noted above, certain such algorithms have been developed and are in relatively limited use in various fields, such as for computer-assisted detection or diagnosis of disease, computer-assisted processing or acquisition of data, and so forth. In the present technique, however, an advanced level of integration and interoperability is afforded by interactions between algorithms both in their development, as discussed above with regards to model development, and in their use. Moreover, such algorithms may be envisaged for both clinical and non-clinical applications. Clinical applications include a range of data analysis, processing, acquisition, and other techniques as discussed in further detail below, while non-clinical applications may include various types of resource management, financial analysis, insurance claim processing, and so forth.  
       FIG. 28  provides an overview of interoperability between such algorithms, referred to generally in a present context as computer-assisted data operating algorithms or CAX. As noted above, CAX algorithms in the present context may be built upon algorithms presently in use, or may be modified or entirely constructed on the basis of the additional data resources, integration of such data resources, or interoperability between such resources in the algorithms and between the algorithms themselves as discussed throughout the present description. In the overview of  FIG. 28 , for example, an overall CAX system  462  is illustrated as including a wide range of steps, processes or modules which may be included in a fully integrated system. As noted above, more limited implementations may also be envisaged in which some or a few only of such processes, fuictions or modules are present. Moreover, in a presently contemplated embodiment, such CAX systems are implemented in the context of integrated knowledge basis such that information can be gleaned to permit adaptation and optimization of both the algorithms themselves and the data managed in the algorithms. Such development and optimization may be carried out, as noted above, through the model development modules described herein, and various aspects of the individual CAX algorithms may be altered, including rules or processes implemented in the algorithms, as well as various settings. More will be said about such aspects of the CAX algorithms below with regards to  FIG. 29 .  
      As summarized in  FIG. 28 , in general, the CAX algorithms begin at a step  464  in which data is acquired. As noted throughout the present discussion, the acquisition of data may take many forms, particularly depending upon the resource type and the resource modality providing the data. Thus, data may be input manually, such as from forms or conventional terminals, or data may be acquired through laboratory reporting techniques, imaging systems, automatic or manual physiological parameter acquisition systems, and so forth. The data is typically stored in one or more memory devices as discussed above, some of which may be incorporated in the data acquisition systems themselves, such as in imaging systems, picture archiving systems, and so forth.  
      At step  466  data of interest or utility for the functions carried out by the CAX algorithm is accessed. A series of operations may then be performed on the accessed data as indicated generally at reference numeral  468 . Throughout such processing, and indeed at step  466 , the IKB  12 , in full or in part, may be accessed to extract data, validate data, synchronize data, download data or upload data during the functioning of the CAX algorithm.  
      While many such computer-assisted data operating algorithms may be envisaged, at present, some ten such algorithms are anticipated for carrying out specific functions, again both clinical and non-clinical. Summarized in  FIG. 28 , therefore, are steps in algorithms for computer-assisted detection of features (CAD), and algorithms for computer aided diagnosis of medical conditions (CADx). Further, computer-assisted clinical decision algorithms (CADs) are implemented in which clinical decisions are automatically made based upon analysis and processing. Similarly, therapeutic or treatment decisions may be implemented through additional routines (CATx). Specific computer-assisted acquisition (CAA) and computer-assisted processing (CAP) algorithms may be implemented of type described in detail above. Further, computer-assisted analysis (CAAn) algorithms may be implemented as discussed below. Computer-assisted prediction or prognosis (CAPx) algorithms are also envisaged in a medical context, as are prescription validation, recommendation or processing algorithms (CARx). Finally, computer-assisted assessment (CAAx) algorithms are envisaged for a range of conditions, both clinical and non-clinical.  
      Considering in further detail the data operating steps summarized in  FIG. 28 , at step  470  accessed data is generally processed, such as for digital filtering, conditioning of data, adaptation of dynamic ranges, association of data, and so forth. As will be appreciated both those skilled in the art, the particular processing carried out in step  470  will depend upon the type of data being analyzed in the type of analysis or functions being performed. It should be noted, however, that data may be processed from any of the resources discussed above, and indeed data from more than one modality or even type of resource may be processed, such as for complex analysis of the presence risk, or treatment of medical conditions, and so forth. At step  472 , similarly, analysis of the data is performed. Again, such analysis will depend upon the nature of the data and the nature of the algorithm on which the analysis is performed.  
      Following such processing and analysis, at step  474  features of interest are segmented or circumscribed in a general manner. Again, in image data such feature segmentation may identify the limits of anatomies or pathologies, and so forth. More generally, however, the segmentation carried out at step  474  is intended to simply discern the limits of any type of feature, including various relationships between data, extents of correlations, and so forth. Following such segmentation, features may be identified in the data as summarized at step  476 . While such feature identification may be accomplished on imaging data to identify specific anatomies or pathologies, it should be borne in mind that the feature identification carried out at step  476  may be much broader in nature. That is, due to the wide range of data which may be integrated into the inventive system, the feature identification may include associations of data, such as clinical data from all types of modalities, non-clinical data, demographic data, and so forth. In general, the feature identification may include any sort of recognition of correlations between the data that may be of interest for the processes carried out by the CAX algorithm. At step  478  such features are classified. Such classification will typically include comparison of profiles in the segmented feature with known profiles for known conditions. The classification may generally result from parameter settings, values, and so forth which match such profiles in a known population of datasets with a dataset under consideration. However, the classification may also be based upon non-parametric profile matching, such as through trend analysis for a particular patient or population of patients over time.  
      Based upon the processing carried out by the algorithm, a wide range of decisions may be made. As summarized in step  462 , such decisions may include clinical decisions  480 , therapeutic decisions  482 , data acquisition decisions  484 , data processing decisions  486 , data analysis decisions  488 , condition prediction or prognosis decisions  490 , prescription recommendation or validation decisions  492 , and assessment of conditions  494 . As noted above, the high level of integration of the processing operations provided by the present technique, and the integration of data from a range of resources, permits any one of the categories of functions carried out by the CAX algorithm to be modified or optimized, both for non-patient specific reasons and for patient-specific reasons, as summarized in  FIG. 28 . Thus, as a result of any one of the decisions made in the algorithm, modifications in the same or different CAX algorithms may be made as summarized at step  496 . As also noted below, such modifications may include selection of a different algorithm type, modification, addition or removal of one or more functions carried out by the algorithm, or modification of parameters and settings employed by the algorithm in carrying out the functions. Thus, in the flow diagram of  FIG. 28 , feedback may be had to any one of the steps summarized above including data acquisition, processing, analysis, feature identification, feature segmentation, feature classification, or any other function carried out within the CAX algorithms. In general, some form of reporting or display of results of the algorithms will be provided as summarized at step  498 .  
      In general, in the present context, each decision submodule has a task (e.g., acquisition) and a purpose (e.g., cancer detection) associated with it. Depending upon the task and the intended purpose, decision rules are established. In one implementation, a domain expert can decide on the rules to be used for a given task and purpose. In another implementation, a library of rules relating to all possible tasks and purposes can be determined by a panel of experts and used by the submodule. In another implementation, the library of rules can be accessed from the IKB. In another implementation, new rules may be stored in IKB, but are derived from other means prior to storage in the knowledge base. In a typical implementation, the combination of the current data and the rules are used to develop a summary of hypothesized decision options for the data. These options may lead to several outcomes, some of which may be desired and some undesired. To obtain the optimal outcome, a metric is established to provide scores for each of the outcomes. Resultant outcomes are thus evaluated, and the selected (i.e. optimal) outcome determines the function provided in the decision block.  
      As mentioned, the various CAX algorithms may be employed individually or with some level of interaction. Moreover, the algorithms may be employed in the present technique without modification, or some or a high level of adaptability may be offered by virtue of integration of additional data resources, and processing in the present system. Such adaptation may be performed in real time or after or prior to data acquisition events. Moreover, as noted above, triggering of execution or adaptation of CAX algorithms may be initiated by any range of initiation factors, such as scheduled timing, operator intervention, change of state of data, and so forth. In general, a number of aspects of the CAX system or specific CAX algorithms may be altered. As summarized in  FIG. 29 , the present technique envisages at a substantially new and different approach to compiling, analyzing and altering such CAX algorithms for the adaptation and optimization provided.  
      Referring to  FIG. 29 , an overall CAX formulation, designated generally by the reference numeral  500 , may be represented by separate functionalities or parameters [i][j][k]. These aspects of the CAX algorithms, in the present formulation, represent first the primary type of function performed by the algorithm, as denoted by the list  502  in  FIG. 29 , the functions carried out by the algorithm, as denoted by reference numeral  504  in  FIG. 29  and the specific data attributes  506  employed in the algorithms. The algorithm designations  502  may follow general lines for functionality in the algorithms, although those skilled in the art will recognize that more than one such functionality may be employed, such as through subroutine, submodules, and the like. The [j] level of functionality in the algorithms may include a wide range of integrated or modular functions that are carried out in the various algorithms, some of which may be shared by a different algorithm. Noted in particular, in  FIG. 29  are functions such as data access, feature identification, analysis, segmentation, classification, decision, comparison, prediction, validation, and reconciliation. Other functions may, of course, be employed as well. In general, in the present context such functionalities are implemented as submodules of the algorithms, and may generally be implemented as “tool kits” which are called upon by the algorithm and developed by programming, expert systems, neural networks, and so forth as discussed above.  
      That [k] level of the CAX algorithm represents generally, variables or inputs that are used by the CAX algorithms for performing the functions specified at the [j] level. By way of example, in presently contemplated embodiments, items at the [k] level may include parameters, settings, values, ranges, patient-specific data, organ-specific data, condition-specific data, temporal data, and so forth. Such parameters and settings may be altered in the manner described above, such as for patient-specific implementation of the CAX algorithm or for more broadly-based changes as for a population of patients, institutions, and so forth. It should also be noted, that, as described above with respect to modeling, alterations made in a CAX algorithm may include consideration of data which was not considered prior to a modification. That is, as new data or new relationships are identified, the CAX algorithm may be altered to accommodate consideration of the new data. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art then, the high degree of integration of the present technique allows for new and useful relationships to be identified among and between data from a wide range of resources and such knowledge incorporated into the CAX algorithm to further enhance its performance. Where available, the data may then be extracted from the IKB or a portion of the knowledge base to carry out the function when called upon by the CAX algorithm.  
      It should be noted that, while a single CAX algorithm may be implemented in accordance with the present technique, a variety of CAX algorithms may be implemented in parallel and in series for addressing a wide range of conditions. As summarized in  FIG. 30 , for example, a multi-CAX implementation  508  may include a first type of algorithm  510 , which may be any of the algorithms summarized above. Moreover, the selected type of algorithm may be implemented in parallel, such that multiple different or complementary functions may be executed. Each such algorithm will typically include fundamental operations such as noted at reference numeral  512 . Such operations may generally resemble those of CAD algorithms, including steps such as feature segmentation  514 , feature identification  516 , and feature classification  518 . Based upon such steps, decisions may be made, such as for specific recommendations for future actions, as indicated at step  520 . As noted above, based upon such operations, the algorithm may be modified, as noted at step  522 . The modification is then implemented by returning to the system or method employed to generate or process the data, as noted at step  524 . As noted above, the modifications may be made as various levels in the algorithms, such as levels [j] and [k] discussed above.  
      As also summarized in  FIG. 30 , a number of CAX algorithms of different type (i.e. CAX[i]) may be executed in parallel, such as to identify features of interest of different type, or from data of different type or modality. Such additional algorithms, designated by reference numerals  526  and  528  may include any of the algorithm types discussed above. Similarly, CAX algorithms of the same or different type may be executed in series, as indicated at reference numerals  530  and  532  in  FIG. 30 . Such algorithms may, in fact, be selected based upon results of earlier-executed algorithms.  
      While all of the CAX algorithms discussed above may have application in addressing a range of clinical and non-clinical issues, a more complete discussion of certain of these is useful in understanding the types of data operations performed by the modules or submodules involved.  
      Computer-Assisted Diagnosis (CADx):  
      Computer-assisted diagnosis modules aid in identifying and diagnosing specific conditions, typically in the area of medical imaging. However, in accordance with the present technique, such modules may incorporate a much wider range of data, both from imaging types and modalities, as well as from other types and modalities of resources. The following is a general description of an exemplary computer-assisted diagnosis module. As described above and shown in  FIG. 28 , CADx consists of a computer-assisted detection (CAD) module and a feature classification block.  
      As described above, the medical practitioner derives information regarding a medical condition from a variety of sources. The present technique provides computer-assisted algorithms and techniques calling upon these sources from multi-modal and multi-dimensional perspectives for the detection and classification of a range of medical conditions in clinically relevant areas including (but not limited to) oncology, radiology, pathology, neurology, cardiology, orthopedics, and surgery. The condition identification can be in the form of screening using the analysis of body fluids and detection alone (e.g., to determine the presence or absence of suspicious candidate lesions) or in the form of diagnosis (e.g., for classification of detected lesions as either benign or malignant nodules). For the purposes of simplicity, one present embodiment will be explained in terms of a CADx module to diagnose benign or malignant lesions.  
      In the present context, a CADx module may have several parts, such as data sources, optimal feature selection, and classification, training, and display of results. Data sources, as discussed above, may typically include image acquisition system information, diagnostic image data sets, electrical diagnostic data, clinical laboratory diagnostic data from body fluids, histological diagnostic data, and patient demographics/symptoms/history, such as smoking history, sex, age, clinical symptoms.  
      Feature selection may, itself comprise different types of analysis and processing, such as segmentation and feature extraction. In the data, a region of interest can be defined to calculate features. The region of interest can be defined in several ways, such as by using the entire data “as is,” or by using a part of the data, such as a candidate nodule region in the apical lung field. The segmentation of the region of interest can be performed either manually or automatically. The manual segmentation involves displaying the data and delineating the region, such as by a user interfacing with the system in a computer mouse. Automated segmentation algorithms can use prior knowledge, such as the shape and size of a nodule, to automatically delineate the area of interest. A semi-automated method which is the combination of the above two methods may also be used.  
      The feature extraction process involves performing computations on the data sources. For example, in image-based data and for a region of interest, statistics such as shape, size, density, curvature can be computed. On acquisition-based and patient-based data, the data themselves may serve as the features. Once the features are computed, a pre-trained classification algorithm can be used to classify the regions of interest as benign or malignant nodules. Bayesian classifiers, neural networks, rule-based methods, fuzzy logic or other suitable techniques can be used for classification. It should be noted here that CADx operations may be performed once by incorporating features from all data, or can be performed in parallel. The parallel operation would involve performing CADx operations individually on sets of data and combining the results of some or all CADx operations (e.g., via AND, OR operations or a combination of both). In addition, CADx operations to detect multiple disease states or medical conditions or events can be performed in series or parallel.  
      Prior to classification, such as, of nodules, in the example, using a CAD module, prior knowledge from training of the module may be performed. The training phase may involve the computation of several candidate features on known samples of benign and malignant nodules. A feature selection algorithm is then employed to sort through the candidate features and select only the useful ones, removing those that provide no information or redundant information. This decision is based on classification results with different combinations of candidate features. The feature selection algorithm is also used to reduce the dimensionality from a practical standpoint. Thus, in the example of breast mass analysis, a feature set is derived that can optimally discriminate benign nodules from malignant nodules. This optimal feature set is extracted on the regions of interest in the CAD module. Optimal feature selection can be performed using a well-known distance measure techniques including divergence measure, Bhattacharya distance, Mahalanobis distance, and so forth.  
      The proposed method enables, for example, the use of multiple biomarkers for review by human or machine observers. CAD techniques may operate on some or all of the data, and display the results on each kind or set of data, or synthesize the results for display. This provides the benefit of improving CAD performance by simplifying the segmentation process, while not increasing the quantity or type of data to be reviewed.  
      Again following the lesion analysis example, following identification and classification of a suspicious candidate lesion, its location and characteristics may be displayed to the reviewer of the data. In certain CADx applications this is done through the superposition of a marker (for example an arrow or circle) near or around the suspicious lesion. In other cases CAD and CADx afford the ability to display computer detected and diagnosed markers on any of multiple data sets, respectively. In this way, the reviewer may view a single data set upon which results from an array of CADx operations can be superimposed (defined by a unique segmentation (i.e. regions of interest), feature extraction, and classification procedures).  
      Computer-Assisted Acquisition (CAA)  
      Computer-assisted acquisition processing modules may be implemented to acquire further data, again from one or more types of resources and one or more modalities within each type, to assist in enhanced understanding and diagnosis of patient conditions. The acquisition of data may entail one or more patient visits, or sessions (including, for example, remote sessions with the patient), in which additional data is acquired based upon determinations made automatically by the data processing system  10 . The information is preferably based upon data available in the integrated database  12 , to provide heretofore unavailable levels of integration and acquisition of subsequent for additional data for use in diagnosis and analysis.  
      In accordance with one aspect of the present technique, for example, initial CAD processing may be used to guide additional data acquisition with or without additional human operator assistance. CT lung screening will serve as an example of this interaction. Assuming first that original CT data is acquired with a 5 mm slice thickness. This is a common practice for many clinical sites to achieve a proper balance between diagnostic accuracy, patient dose, and number of images to review. Once the CAD algorithm identifies a suspicious site, the computer may automatically direct the CT scanner (or recommend to the CT operator) to re-acquire a set of thin slices at the suspected location (e.g., 1 mm slice thickness). In addition, an increased X-ray flux can be used for better signal-to-noise. Because the location is well-defined, the additional dose to the patient is kept to a minimum. The thin slice image provides better spatial resolution and, therefore, improved diagnostic accuracy. Advantages of such interactions include improved image quality and the avoidance of patient rescheduling. It should be noted that most of the diagnostic process generally occurs long after the patient has left the CT scanner room. In conventional approaches, if the radiologist needs thinner slices, the patient has to be called back and re-scanned. Because scan landmarking is performed with a scout image, the subsequent localization of the feature of interest is often quite poor. As a result, a larger volume of the patient organ has to be re-scanned. This leads not only to lost time, but also an increased dose to the patient.  
      Although this example is for a single modality, the methodology can be applied across modalities, and even across types of resources as discussed above, and over time. For example, the initial CAD information generated with images acquired via a first modality may be used by the CAA algorithm to guide additional data acquisition via a modality B. A specific example of such interaction is the CAD detection of a suspicious nodule in chest x-ray guiding the acquisition of a thin slice helical chest CT exam.  
      Computer-Assisted Processing (CAP)  
      Computer-assisted processing modules permit enhanced analysis of data which is already available through one or more acquisition sessions. The processing may be based, again, one or more types of resources, and on one or more modalities within each type. As also noted above, while computer-assisted processing modules have been applied in the past to single modalities, typically in the medical imaging context, the present technique contemplates the use of such modules in a much broader context by use of the various resources available and the IKB.  
      As an example, CAD generated information may be used to further optimize the process of obtaining new images. Following data acquisition and initial image formation (or based upon un-processed or partially processed data without image reconstruction), CAD modules may be used to perform the initial feature detection. Once potential pathology sites are identified and characterized, a new set of images may be generated by a CAA module based upon the findings. The new set of images may be generated to assist the human observer&#39;s detection/classification task, or to improve the performance of other CAX algorithms.  
      For illustration, a CT lung-screening example is considered, although the approach may be, of course, generalized to other imaging modalities, other resource types, and other pathologies. We assume initially that an image is reconstructed with a “Bone” (high-resolution) filter kernel and with a 40 cm reconstruction field of view (FOV). Once a suspicious lung nodule is identified, a CAP module may reconstruct a new set of images at the suspected location with the original scan data. For example, a first images with a “Standard” (lower resolution kernel) filter kernel may first be reconstructed. Although the Standard kernel produces poor spatial resolution, it has the property of maintaining accurate CT numbers. Combining such images with those produced via the Bone algorithm, a CAP algorithm can separate calcified nodules from the non-calcified nodules based on their CT number. Additionally, the CAP module may perform targeted reconstruction at the suspected locations to provide improved spatial resolution, or to improve algorithm performance and/or to facilitate human observer analysis. By way of further example, for a present CT scanner, typical image size is 512×512 pixels. For a 40 cm reconstruction FOV, each pixel is roughly 0.8 mm along a side. From a Nyquist sampling point of view, this insufficient to support high spatial resolutions. When the CAP module re-generates the image, however, with a 10 cm FOV at a suspicious site, each pixel is roughly 0.2 mm along a side and, therefore, can support much higher spatial resolution. Because the additional reconstruction and processing is performed only at the isolated sites, instead of the entire volume, the amount of image processing, reconstruction, and storage becomes quite manageable. It should be noted that a simple example is presented here for the purpose of illustration. Other processing steps (such as image enhancement, local 3D modeling, image reformation, etc.) could also be performed with under the guidance of the CAP module, such as based on the initial CAD result and the results of further processing. The additional images can be used either to refine the original findings of CAD processing, as input to further CAX analyses, or may be presented to the radiologists.  
      Computer-Assisted Prognosis (CAPx)  
      Medical prognosis is an estimate of cure, complication, recurrence of disease, length of stay in health care facilities or survival for a patient or group of patients. The simplistic meaning of prognosis is a prediction of the future course and outcome of a disease and an indication of the likelihood of recovery from that disease.  
      Computational prognostic model may be used, in accordance with the present technique to predict the natural course of disease, or the expected outcome after treatment. Prognosis forms an integral part of systems for treatment selection and treatment planning. Furthermore, prognostic models may play an important role in guiding diagnostic problem solving, e.g. by only requesting information concerning tests, of which the outcome affects knowledge of the prognosis.  
      In recent years several methods and techniques from the fields of artificial intelligence, decision theory and statistics have been introduced into models of the medical management of patients (diagnosis, treatment, follow-up); in some of these models, assessment of the expected prognosis constitutes an integral part. Typically, recent prognostic methods rely on explicit patho-physiological models, which may be combined with traditional models of life expectancy. Examples of such domain models are causal disease models, and physiological models of regulatory mechanisms in the human body. Such model-based approaches have the potential to facilitate the development of knowledge-based systems, because the medical domain models can be partially obtained from the medical literature.  
      Various methods have been suggested for the representations of such domain models ranging from quantitative and probabilistic approaches to symbolic and qualitative ones. Semantic concepts such as time, e.g. for modeling the progressive changes of regulatory mechanisms, have formed an important and challenging modeling issue. Moreover, automatic learning techniques of such models have been proposed. When model construction is hard, less explicit domain models have been studied such as the use of case-based representations and its combination with more explicit domain models.  
      Computer-Assisted Assessment (CAAx)  
      Computer-assisted assessment modules may include algorithms for analyzing a wide range of conditions or situations. By way of example, such algorithms may be employed to evaluate the outcome of a medical procedure (e.g., surgery), the outcome of therapy due to an injury (e.g. spinal injury), conditions (e.g. pregnancy), situations (e.g. trauma), processes (e.g. insurance, reimbursement, equipment utilization), and individuals (e.g. patients, students, medical professionals).  
      Certain exemplary steps in a CAAx algorithm are illustrated generally in  FIG. 31 . The algorithm  534  begins with input of key data at step  536 . Depending upon the purpose of the algorithm, such data may include a designation or description of a situation, task, available results, intended person, requested information, and so forth. The data is used to identify a desired software tool, as indicated at step  538 , which may take the form of a “wizard” used as an interface to lead a user through the assessment process. The interface may be at least partially based upon input from a professional or expert in the field of the operations executed by the algorithm or in the field of the data or assessment to be performed.  
      At step  540 , more specific information may be evoked from one or more users, or automatically acquired or accessed from the various resources described above. Where the data is input by an individual, a customized interface may be provided in a manner described above, such as via the unfederated interface layer  222 , drawing upon information from the IKB  12  and data resources  18 . As noted above, such interfaces may be customized for the particular user, the function performed, the data to be provided or accessed, and so forth.  
      Based upon the information provided, assessment is performed, as indicated at step  542 . Such assessment will generally vary widely based upon the condition, situation, or other issue being evaluated. In a presently contemplated implementation, a score is determined from the assessment, and a comparison is performed based upon the score at step  544 . The comparison is then the basis of a recommendation for further action, or may simply serve as the basis for reported results of the assessment. Moreover, results of the process may optionally be reconciled, where potential conflicts or judgments are in order, as indicated at step  546 , including input from a human expert, where desired.  
     Business Model Implementation  
      The foregoing techniques permit implementation in a wide range of manners. For example, as noted repeatedly, the use of data and the interaction between data and modules may be implemented on a very small scale, including at a single workstation. Higher levels of integration may be provided by network links between various types of resources and workstations, and at various levels between network components as also described above. It should also be noted that the present techniques may be implemented as overall business models within an industry or a portion of an industry.  
      The business model implementation for the present techniques may include software installed on one or more memory devices or machine-readable media, such as disks, hard drives, flash memory, and so forth. A user may then employ the techniques individually, or by access to specific sites, links, services, databases, and so forth through a network. Similarly, a business model based upon the techniques may be developed such that the technique is offered on a pay-per-use, subscription, or any other suitable basis.  
      Such business models may be employed for any or all of the foregoing techniques, and may be offered on a “modular” basis. By way of example, institutions may subscribe or order services for evaluation of patient populations, scheduling of services and resources, development of models for prediction of patient conditions, training purposes, and so forth. Individuals or institutions may subscribe or purchase similar services for maintenance of individual patient records, integration of records, and the like. Certain of the techniques may be offered in conjunction with other assets or services, such as imaging systems, workstations, management networks, and so forth.  
      As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the business models built upon the foregoing techniques may employ a wide range of support software and hardware, including servers, drivers, translators, and so forth which permit or facilitate interaction with databases, processing resources, and the data and controllable and prescribable resources described above. Supporting components which provide for security, verification, interfacing and synchronization of data may be incorporated into such systems, or may be distributed among the systems and the various users or clients. Financial support modules, including modules which permit tracking and invoicing for services may be incorporated in a similar manner.  
      It is similarly contemplated that certain of the foregoing techniques may be implemented in sector-wide or industry-wide manners. Thus, high levels of integration may be enabled by appropriately standardizing or tagging data for access, exchange, uploading, downloading, translation, processing, and so forth.  
     Domain Definition and Mapping  
      Referring to  FIG. 32 , a data entity mapping system  548  is illustrated diagrammatically for establishing a domain definition, and for searching, analyzing, structuring, mapping and classifying data entities in accordance with the definition. The data entities will generally be drawn from the data resources and controllable/prescribable resources discussed above. In the embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 32 , the domain definition is designated by reference numeral  550 . As described in greater detail below, the domain definition may relate to any relevant field, such as technical fields. The domain definition may be established in accordance with the techniques described below, and may generally be thought of a conceptual framework of logically subdivided portions of the relevant field. Each portion may be further subdivided into any number of conceptual levels. The levels are eventually associated with attributes likely to be found in the data entities, permitting their identification, analysis, structuring, mapping and classification. As described below, these attributes may be defined by text, features or characteristics of images, features or characteristics of waveforms, features or characteristics of audio files, or any other type of codification of information.  
      The domain definition  550  is linked to a processing system  552  which utilizes the domain definition for identifying data entities from any of a range of data resources  18 . The processing system  552  will generally include one or more programmed computers, which may be located at one or more locations. The domain definition itself may be stored in the processing system  552 , or the definition may be accessed by the processing system  552  when called upon to search, analyze, structuring, mapping or classify the data entities. To permit user interface with the domain definition, and the data resources and data entities themselves, a series of editable interfaces  554  are provided. Again, such interfaces may be stored in the processing system  552  or may be accessed by the system as needed. The interfaces generate a series of views  556  about which more will be said below. In general, the views allow for definition of the domain, refinement of the domain, analysis of data entities, viewing of analytical results, and viewing and interaction with data entities themselves.  
      Returning to the domain definition  550 , in the present discussion, the terms “axis,” “label,” and “attribute” are employed for different levels of the conceptual framework represented by the domain definition. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, any other terms may be used. In general, the axes of the definition represent conceptual subdivisions of the domain. The axes may not necessarily cover the entire domain, and may, in fact, be structured strategically to permit analysis and viewing of certain aspects of the data entities in particular levels, as discussed below. The axes, designated at reference numeral  556 , are then subdivided by the labels  560 . Again, any suitable term may be used for this additional level of conceptual subdivision. The labels generally are conceptual portions of the respective axis, although the labels may not cover the full range of concepts assignable to the axis. Moreover, the present techniques do not exclude overlaps, redundancies, or, on the contrary, exclusions between labels of one axis and another, or indeed of axes themselves.  
      Each label is then associated with attributes  562 . Again, attributes may be common between labels or even between axes. In general, however, strategic definition of the domain permits one-to-many mapping and classification of individual data entities in ways that allow a user to classify the data entities. Thus, some distinctions between the axes, the labels and the attributes are useful to allow for distinction between the data entities.  
      Furthermore, by way of example only, the present techniques may be applied to identification of textual documents, as well as documents with other forms and types of data, such as image data, audio data, waveform data, and so forth, as discussed below. By way of further example, the technique may be applied to identifying patient data entities, population data entities, financial data entities, institutional data entities, general medical and technical writings, and so forth. Within such domains, a range of individual classifications may be devised, which may follow traditional classifications, or may be defined completely by the user based upon particular knowledge or interest. Within each of the individual axes, then, individual subdivisions of the classification may be implemented. As described in greater detail below, many such levels of classification may be implemented. Finally, because the documents may be primarily textual in nature, individual attributes  562  may include particular words, word strings, phrases, and the like. In other types of data entities, attributes may include features of interest in images, portions of audio files, portions or trends in waveforms, and so forth. The domain definition, then, permits searching, analysis, structuring, mapping and classification of individual data entities by the particular features identifiable within and between the entities.  
      As will be discussed in greater detail below, however, while the present techniques provide unprecedented tools for analysis of textual documents, the invention is in no way limited to application with textual data entities only. The techniques may be employed with data entities such as images, audio data, waveform data, and data entities which include or are associated with one another having one or more of these types of data (i.e., text and images, text and audio, images and audio, text and images and audio, etc.). Moreover, by permitting the axes, labels and attributes themselves to take on the character likely to be of interest in the target data entities (e.g., an image feature, a waveform feature, an audio file feature, and so forth), independent or in compliment to a textual or word description of the feature, a powerful entity management tool is provided that goes far beyond mere textual search and categorization.  
      Based upon the domain definition, the processing system  552  accesses the data resources  18  to identify, analyze, structure, map and classify individual data entities. A wide range of such data entities may be accessed by the system, and these may be found in any suitable location or form. For example, the present technique may be used to identify and analyze structured data entities  564  or unstructured entities  566 . Structured data entities  564  may include such structured data as bibliography content, pre-identified fields, tags, and so forth. Unstructured data entities may not include any such identifiable fields, but may be, instead, “raw” data entities for which more or different processing may be in order. Moreover, such structured and unstructured data entities may be considered from data sources  38 , or from known and pre-established databases such as the IKB  12 .  
      The IKB, on the other hand, may include data entities which are pre-identified, analyzed, structured, mapped and classified in accordance with the conceptual framework of the domain definition. The establishment of an IKB, as discussed above, and again discussed in greater detail below, is particularly useful for the further and more rapid analysis and reclassification of entities, and for searching entities based upon user-defined search criteria. However, it should be borne in mind that the same or similar search criteria may be used for identifying data entities from data sources, and the present technique is not intended to be limited to use with a pre-defined IKB.  
      Finally, as illustrated in  FIG. 32 , any other sources of data entities may be drawn upon by the processing system  552 , including those of the IKB itself, as represented generally by reference numeral  12 . These other sources may include sources that become available following establishment of the domain and classification, such as newly established or newly subscribed to resources. It should also be borne in mind that such new resources may come into existence at any time, and the present technique provides for their incorporation into the classification system, and indeed for refinement of the classification system itself to accommodate such new data entities.  
      The present techniques provide several useful functions that should be considered as distinct, although related. First, “identification” of data entities relates to the selection of entities of interest, or of potential interest. This is typically done by reference to the attributes of the domain definition, and to any rules or algorithms implemented to work in conjunction with the attributes. “Analysis” of the entities entails examination of the features defined by the data. Many types of analysis may be performed, again based upon the attributes of interest, the attributes of the entities and the rules or algorithms upon which structuring, mapping and classification will be based. Analysis is also performed on the structured and classified data entities, such as to identify similarities, differences, trends, and even previously unrecognized correspondences.  
      “Structuring” as used herein refers to the establishment of the conceptual framework or domain definition. In the data mining field, the term “structuring” and the distinction between “structured” and “unstructured” data may sometimes be used (e.g., as above with respect to the structured and unstructured entities represented in  FIG. 32 ). Such “structure” may be thought of as implementing a particular analytical system on and within certain data entities. Thus, a document may be subdivided into a title, abstract, and subparts. Within each of these, however, the data may remain essentially unstructured. The present techniques permit such structure to be used, altered or even discarded, depending upon the particular conceptual framework of the domain definition. Such structuring may entail translation, formatting, tagging, or otherwise transforming the data to a form that is more readily searched, analyzed, compared and classified. By way of example, such structuring may include conversion of the data into a particular type of file or format, such as through use of a markup language, such as XML.  
      “Mapping” of the entities involves relation of the attributes of the domain definition to the features and attributes of the data entities. Such mapping may be thought of as a process of applying the domain definition to the data of each entity, in accordance with the attributes of the domain definition and the rules and algorithms employed. Although highly related, mapping is distinguished from “classification” in the present context. Classification is the assignment of a relationship between the subdivisions of the conceptual framework of the domain definition (e.g., via the attributes of the axes and labels) and the data entities. In the present context, reference is made to one-to-many mapping and to one-to-many classification, with mapping being the process for arriving at the classification based upon the structural system of the domain definition.  
      The resulting process may be distinguished from certain existing techniques, such as data mining, taxonomy, markup languages, and simple search engines, although certain of these may be used for the subprocesses implemented here. For example, typical data mining identifies relationships or patterns in data from a data entity standpoint, and not based upon a structure established by a domain definition. Data mining generally does not provide one-to-many mappings or classifications of entities. Taxonomies impose a unique classification of entities by virtue of the breakdown of the categories defining the taxonomy. Markup languages, while potentially useful for structuring entities, are not well suited for one-to-many mapping or classification, and generally provide “structure” within the entities based upon the tags or other features of the language. Similarly, simple search techniques typically only return listings of entities that satisfy certain search criteria, but provide no mapping or classification of the entities as provided herein.  
      The processing system  552  also draws upon rules and algorithms  568  for analysis, structuring, mapping and classification of the data entities. As discussed in greater detail below, the rules and algorithms  568  will typically be adapted for specific types of data entities and indeed for specific purposes (e.g., analysis and classification) of the data entities. For example, the rules and algorithms may pertain to analysis of text in textual documents or textual portions of data entities. The algorithms may provide for image analysis for image entities or image portions of entities, and so forth. The rules and algorithms may be stored in the processing system  552 , or may be accessed as needed by the processing system. For example, certain of the algorithms may be quite specific to various types of data entities, such as diagnostic image files. Sophisticated algorithms for the analysis and identification of features of interest in image may be among the algorithms, and these may be drawn upon as needed for analysis of the data entities.  
      The rules and algorithms used for analysis, structuring, mapping and classification of the data entities will typically be specifically adapted to the type of data entity and the nature of the criteria used for the domain definition. For example, rather then simply describe or define a feature of interest in textual terms, the rules and algorithms may aid in locating and processing data entities by reference to what a feature “looks like” or “sounds like” or any other similar criterion. Where desired, the rules and algorithms can even provide some degree of freedom or tolerance in the comparison process that will be based on the axes, labels and attributes. Thus, for example, classification may be made by reference to a label or axis that an image “looks most like” or that a waveform “most resembles” or that a sound “sounds most like”.  
      The data processing system  552  is also coupled to one or more storage devices  570  for storing results of searches, results of analyses, user preferences, and any other permanent or temporary data that may be required for carrying out the purposes of the analysis, structuring, mapping and classification. In particular, storage  570  may be used for storing the IKB  12  once analysis, structuring, mapping and classification have been completed on a series of identified data entities. Again, additional data entities may be added to the IKB over time, and analysis and classification of data entities in the IKB may be refined and even changed based upon changes in the domain definition, the rules applied for analysis and classification, and so forth.  
      A range of editable interfaces may be envisaged for interacting with the domain definition, the rules and algorithms, and the entities themselves. By way of example only, as illustrated in  FIG. 32 , several such interfaces are presently contemplated. These may include a domain definition interface  572  for establishing the axes, labels and attributes of the domain. A rule definition interface  574  may be provided for defining particular rules to be used, or links to external rules and algorithms. A search definition interface  576  is provided for allowing users to search, analyze and classify data entities either from data sources or an IKB, and various result viewing interfaces  578  are contemplated for illustrating the results of analysis of one or more data entities. The interfaces will typically be served to the user by a workstation  580  which is linked to the processing system  552 . Indeed, the processing system  552  may be part of a workstation  580 , or may be completely remote from the workstation and linked by a suitable network. Many different views may be served as part of the interfaces, including views enumerated in  FIG. 32 , and designated a stamp view, a form view, a table view, a highlight view, a basic spatial display (splay), a splay with overlay, a user-defined schema, or any other view. It should be borne in mind that these are merely exemplary reviews of analysis and classification, and many other views or variants of these views may be envisaged.  
      It should be noted that the representation made of an axis, label or attribute in such interfaces may actually constitute a “shorthand” or iconographic representation only. That is, where a characteristic is defined by an axis, label or attribute that is other than textual, and does not readily lend itself to visual representation, a visual representation may be nevertheless placed in the interface. Where desired, the user may be able to access the actual data characteristic (in any appropriate form) by selection of the iconographic representation. Thus, for example, an audio feature may be represented by an icon, and the actual sound corresponding to the feature may be played when desired. Other features, such as in images, waveforms, and so forth, may be simplified in the interface, with more detailed versions available upon selection. In all cases, however, it is the feature itself and not simply the iconographical representation that serves as the basis for defining the domain and processing of entities of interest.  
      As noted above, the present techniques provide for user-definition and refinement of the conceptual framework represented by the domain definition.  FIG. 33  illustrates exemplary steps in defining the conceptual framework of a domain. The overall logic, designated generally by reference numeral  582  includes general specification of the domain in a first phase  584 , followed by refinement of the domain definition in a second phase  586 . The specification of the domain  584  may include a range of steps, such as a definition of domain axes  588  and definition of labels  590  within each axis. As discussed above, the axes generally represent conceptual portions of the domain broken down in any suitable fashion defined by the user. The labels, in turn, represent conceptual breakdown of the individual axes. The labels, and indeed the axes, may be thought of as conceptual sub-classification levels. As discussed in greater detail below, certain of the levels may be redundant or lower levels may also be redundant with higher levels to permit “conceptual zooming” within the domain. That is, particular labels may also be listed as axes of the domain, permitting analysis and visualization of the bases for particular classifications of data entities.  
      Following specification of the domain, the domain may be further refined in phase  586 . Such refinement may include listing attributes of the individual labels of each axis. In general, these attributes may be any feature of the data entities which may be found in the data entities and which facilitate their identification, analysis, structuring, mapping or classification. As indicated in  FIG. 33 , for documents, such entities may include words, variations on words and terms, synonyms, related words, concepts, and so forth. These may be simply listed for each label as discussed in greater detail below. Based upon the listed attributes, an association list may be generated as indicated at step  594 . This association list effectively represents the collection of attributes to be associated with each label and axis. Here again, the association list may include features defined in any suitable manner for images, waveforms, audio files, and so forth, as well as such features in combination with text or in combination with one another.  
      Following definition of the domain, the rules and algorithms to be applied for the search, analysis, structuring, mapping and classification of specific data entities are identified and defined at step  596 . These rules and algorithms may be defined by the user along with the domain. Such rules and algorithms may be as simple as whether and how to identify words and phrases (e.g., whether to search a whole word or phrase, proximity criteria, and so forth). In other contexts, much more elaborate algorithms may be employed. For example, even in the analysis of textual documents, complex text analysis, indexing, classification, tagging, and other such algorithms may be employed. In the case of image data entities, the algorithms may include algorithms that permit the identification, segmentation, classification, comparison and so forth of particular regions or features of interest within images. In the medical diagnostic context, for example, such algorithms may permit the computer-assisted diagnosis of disease states, or even more elaborate analysis of image data. Moreover, the rules and algorithms may permit the separate analysis of text and other data, including image data, audio data, and so forth. Still further, the rules and algorithms may provide for a combination of analysis of text and other data.  
      As discussed in greater detail below, the present techniques thus provide unprecedented liberty and breadth in the types of data that can be analyzed, and the classification of data entities based upon a combination of algorithms for text, image, and other types of data contained in the entities. At step  598 , optionally, links to such rules and algorithms may be provided. Such links may be useful, for example, where particular data entities are to be located, but complex, evolving, or even new algorithms are available for their analysis and classification. Many such links may be provided, where appropriate, to facilitate classification of individual data entities once identified, and based upon user-input search criteria.  
      At step  600  the data entities are accessed. The data entities, again, may be found in any suitable location, including data sources and known or even pre-defined knowledge bases and the like. The present techniques may extend to acquisition or creation of the data entities themselves, although the processing illustrated in  FIG. 33  assumes that the data entities are already in existence. At step  602 , optionally, the data entities may be indexed and stored. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, such indexing permits very rapid subsequent processing of the data entities. Such indexing may be particularly suitable for situations in which the data entities are to be accessed again and where the original entities are either unstructured or semi-structured, or even contain raw data (e.g., raw text). Where such indexing is performed, the indexed entities are typically stored at step  602  for later access, analysis, mapping and classification. Also, as noted above, even for entities and portions of entities that are structured or partially structured, the domain definition may utilize such structure (where, for example the existing structure within the entity corresponds to the structural system of the domain definition), or may restructure or further structure the data, or even disregard the existing data structure of the entity.  
      At step  604  in  FIG. 33 , the domain definition and the associated rules and algorithms are applied to the accessed data entities. Based upon the domain definition and the rules and algorithms, specific data entities are identified, analyzed, structured, mapped and classified. It should be noted, that, as described in greater detail below, the particular search performed at step  604  may be specified or crafted by the user. That is, interfaces for particular searches, both of data sources and sources within an IKB, may be defined by a user via an appropriate search interface. In a present implementation, a search interface may be essentially identical to the resulting domain definition interface, including similar axes and labels, which may be selected by the user for performing the search. At step  606  the results of the application of the domain definition and rules are stored. At step  608  interface pages presenting the analysis and classification, and indeed the data entities themselves, are presented. Based upon such presentations, the domain definition and the attributes, as well as the rules and algorithms applied based upon the domain definition, may be altered as indicated by the arrows returning to the earlier processing steps illustrated in  FIG. 33 .  
      Data Entity Processing  
      The particular steps and stages in accessing and treating data entities are represented diagrammatically in  FIG. 34 . In  FIG. 34 , the entity processing logic, designated generally by reference numeral  610 , begins with classification of the data entities based upon the domain definition (or the search criteria defined by the user) and the rules and algorithms associated with the definition. This classification results in a one-to-many mapping and classification as indicated at reference numeral  614 . As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, such mapping is not typically performed by conventional search engines and data mining tools. That is, because many different axes, labels, and indeed various levels of these may be included in a domain definition, along with associated attributes, rules and algorithms, each data entity may be mapped onto and classified in more than one axis and label. Thus, any one data entity may be mapped onto many different conceptual subdivisions of the conceptual framework of the domain definition. This one-to-many mapping and classification provide a powerful basis for subsequent analysis, comparison, and consideration of the data entity.  
      Following the mapping and classification, analysis of the data entities may be performed as indicated at block  616  in  FIG. 34 . Again, such analysis may be based upon user-defined or accessed rules and algorithms, as well as based upon statistical analytical techniques. For example, where documents are searched and classified, correspondences, overlaps, and distinctions between the documents may be analyzed. Moreover, simple analyses such as counts and relevancy of the documents may be determined based upon the multiple criteria and many-to-one mapping performed in the classification steps. The analysis results and views are then output as indicated at block  618 . Such views may be part of a software package implementing the present techniques, or may be user-defined.  
      At step  620 , the analysis results and views are reviewed by a user. The review may take any suitable form, and may be immediate, such as following a search or may take place at any subsequent time. Again, the reviews are performed on the individual analysis views as indicated at block  622 . Based upon the review, the user may refine any portion of the conceptual framework as indicated at block  624 . Such refinement may include alteration of the domain definition, any portion of the domain definition, change of the rules or algorithms applied, change of the type and nature of the analysis performed, and so forth. The present technique thus provides a highly flexible and interactive tool for identifying, analyzing and classifying the data entities.  
      As noted above, within the conceptual framework of the domain definition, many strategies may be envisaged for subdividing and defining the axes and labels.  FIG. 35  illustrates an exemplary mapping process for developing the one-to-many mapping and classification of a data entity. For the present purposes, the mapping, designated generally by reference numeral  626 , is performed based upon an exemplary domain definition  628 . The domain definition includes a series of axes  556  and their associated label  560 .  FIG. 35  also illustrates one example of how a “conceptual zoom” may be provided through the domain definition itself. In the illustrated example, attributes  562  of a first axis I, and of a label IA within that axis are provided at a label level  630  of a subsequent axis A. That is, axis A is identical to label IA of axis I. Because the attributes of label IA are the same as the labels of axis A, if selected by the user in a search, as described below, the returned search results may represent not only that certain data entities corresponded to the criteria of label IA, but will provide a higher level or resolution or granularity for why the entities were selected, mapped and classified by reference to the labels of axis A.  
      As indicated at reference numeral  632  in  FIG. 35 , a particular data entity is assumed to include a series of attributes. In the case of a textual entity, these attributes may be words or phrases. That is, certain words or phrases defined by the attributes of the domain definition are found in the data entity. The mapping, then, represented by reference numeral  626 , will indicate that the data entity is to be classified in accordance with the individual axes, labels and label attributes, corresponding to the attributes found in the entity. In this case, at an axis level  634 , the entity will be classified in accordance with axes I, II and A. Further, at a label level, the entity will be classified in labels IA, IIB, IIC, AAa, and AAc. Still further, due to the conceptual zoom provided by the additional axis A, at an “attribute” level, the entity will be associated with attributes IAa and IAc. In a present implementation, the attributes are not directly displayed in the returned search results, as described below. However, by placing the attributes of label IA in the label level  630  of axis A, this additional classification will be performed.  
      The mapping illustrated in  FIG. 35  is performed at the classification phase of the present techniques discussed above. It should be noted that this classification may be user-selected. That is, as described below, once the definition is established, all entities identified may be structured, mapped and classified in accordance with all axes, labels and attributes. However, where appropriate, a user may select only some of the axes and labels for the desired classification. Once the classification is performed, however, searches may be made to identify particular data entities corresponding to some or all of the axes, labels arid attributes that make up the conceptual framework of the domain definition. For this reason, it may be advantageous to employ all axes, levels and attributes for the identification, structuring, mapping and classification of data entities, and to permit user selection of a subset of these in later searches. Where indexing or other data processing techniques are employed, moreover, the use of all axes and labels, and the associated attributes, permits the indexing to cover all of these, thereby greatly facilitating subsequent searching and analysis.  
      As mentioned above, the conceptual framework represented by the domain definition may include a wide range of levels, and any conceptual subdivision of the levels.  FIG. 36  represents an exemplary domain  640 , in this case termed a “super domain.” The term super domain is employed here to illustrate that the domain itself may be subdivided. That is, many different levels may be provided in the conceptual breakdown in classification. In the illustrated embodiment, four domains are identified in the super domain, including domains  642 ,  644 ,  646  and  648 . These domains may overlap with one another. That is, certain labels or attributes within the domains may also be found in other domains. In certain cases, however, there may be no overlap between the domains. As indicated in  FIG. 36 , the domains themselves may be considered as axes of the super domain. At a further conceptual level, each domain may be then subdivided into sub-domains as indicated by sub-domains  650  for domain  642 . That is, each domain may conceptually be subdivided so as to classify data entities distinctly within the domain. Ultimately, individual axes are defined, with labels for each axis, and attributes for each label.  
      This multi-level approach to the conceptual framework defined by the domain is further illustrated in  FIG. 37 .  FIG. 37  illustrates, in fact, six separate levels of classification and analysis. At a first level L 1 , the super domain is defined. This super domain  640  is typically the field itself in which the data entities are found. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the field is, in fact, merely a level of abstraction defined by the user. Within the super domain may be found a series of domains  642 - 648 , as indicated at level L 2  in  FIG. 37 . Still further, a level of sub-domains may be identified within each domain, followed by a series of axes, with each axes having individual labels and ultimately attributes of each label, as represented by levels L 3 -L 6 . Thus, any number of conceptual levels may be defined for definition of the domain. Based upon the ultimate attributes of the data entities, then, mapping to and classification in corresponding levels and sublevels is accomplished.  
      Domain Definition  
      As mentioned above, the present techniques provide for user definition of the domain and its conceptual framework.  FIG. 38  illustrates and exemplary computer interface page for defining a domain. By way of example only, in this illustrated implementation the domain includes only the domain level, the axis level, the label level, and associated attributes. The domain definition template indicated by reference numeral  556 , may include a bibliographic data section  654 , a subjective data section  656 , and a classification data section  658 , in which the axes and labels are listed.  
      Where provided, the bibliographic data section  654  enables certain identifying features of data entities to be provided in corresponding fields. It may be noted that such biographical information will typically be textual in nature, even for data entities and features that are not textual. For such entities, the biographical information may relate general provenance, reference, and similar information. For example, an entity field  660  may be provided along with a data entity identification field  662  uniquely identifying, together, the data entity. A title field  664  may also be provided for further identifying the data entity. Additional fields  666  may be provided, that may be user-defined. Data representative of the source or origin of the data entity may also be provided as indicated at blocks  668  and  670 . Further information, such as a status field  672  may be provided where desired. Finally, a general summary field  674  may be provided, such as for receiving information such as an abstract of a document, and so forth. Selections  146  or field identifiers may be provided, such as for selecting databases from which data entities are to be searched, analyzed, mapped and classified. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the exemplary fields of the bibliographical section  654  are intended here as examples only. Some or all of this information may be available from structured data entities, or the fields may be completed by a user. Moreover, certain of the fields may be filled only upon processing and analysis of the data entities themselves, or a portion of the entities. For example, such bibliographic information may be found in certain sections of documents, such as front pages of textual documents, bibliographic listings of books and articles, and so forth. Other bibliographic data may be found, for example, in headers of image files, text portions associated with audio files, annotations included in text, image and audio files, and so forth.  
      The subjective data section  656  may include any of a range of subjective data that is typically input by one or more users. In the illustrated example, the subjective data includes an entity identifying or designating field  678  and a field for identifying a reviewer  680 . Subjective rating fields  682  may also be provided. In the illustrated embodiment, a further field  684  may be provided for identifying some quality of a data entity as judged by a reviewer, expert, or other qualified person. The quality may include, for example, a user-input relevancy or other qualifying indication. Finally, a comment field  686  may be included for receiving reviewer comments. It should be noted that, while some or all of the fields in a subjective data section  656  may be completed by human users and experts, some or all of these fields may be completed by automated techniques, including computer algorithms.  
      The classification data section  658  includes, in the illustrated embodiment, inputs for the various axes and labels, as well as virtual interface tools (e.g., buttons) for launching searches and performing tasks. In the illustrated embodiment, these include a virtual button  688  for submitting a domain definition for searching, analyzing, structuring, mapping and classifying data entities in accordance with the definition. Selection of views for presenting various results or additional interface pages may be provided as represented by buttons  690 . A series of selectable blocks  692  are provided in the implementation illustrated in  FIG. 38 , that permit a user to select one or all of the axes making up the domain definition. Similarly, the user-selectable block  694  provided for each label. Although not illustrated in  FIG. 38  in the interest of clarity, all of the axes may include, and typically will include, many different labels. Any number of axes may be provided in the domain definition, and any number of labels may be provided for each axes. Finally, a series of identifiers or tip boxes  696  may be provided that can be automatically viewed or viewable by a user (e.g., by selection of a button on a mouse or other interface device) to facilitate recalling the meaning or scope of individual axes or labels, or for showing attributes of individual labels.  
      A range of additional interfaces may be provided for identifying and designating the axes and labels. For example,  FIG. 39  represents an exemplary interface  698  for defining axes, labels and tip text for each label. In the interface, user may input the axes name in a field  700 , and series of label names in field  702  for the axis. The interface  698  further permits the user to input tip text, as indicated at reference numeral  704 , which may be used or displayed for the user to remind the user of the meaning of each label or the scope of their label. Similar tip text may, of course, be included for each axis. As noted above, for non-textual axes, labels, and attributes of non-textual features and characteristics, the interface pages may include descriptive text, iconographical representations (e.g., thumbnail representations), and so forth.  
      Similarly, interface pages may permit the user to define the particular attributes of each label.  FIG. 40  represents an exemplary interface page for this purpose. The page displays for the user the individual axis and the label for the axis for which the attributes are to be designated. In the illustrated example, the attributes are attributes of text documents, such that words and phrases may be defined by the user in a listing, such as in a field  706 . A further field  708  is provided for exact word or phrases. Depending upon the design of the interface, input blocks, such as block  710  can be provided that permit the user to input the particular word or phrase, with selections, such as selection  712  for selecting whether it is to be a wildcard word or phrase or an exact word or phrase. A wide range of other attribute input interfaces may be envisaged, particularly for different types of data entities and different types of data expected to be encountered in the entity. Finally, blocks can be provided, along with other virtual tools, for adding attributes, deleting attributes, modifying attributes and so forth, as indicated generally at reference numeral  714  in  FIG. 40 .  
      Domain IKB creation  
      As noted above, the present techniques may be employed for identifying, analyzing, structuring, mapping, classifying and further comparing and performing other analysis functions on a variety of data entities. Moreover, these may be selected from a wide range of resources, including data sources. Furthermore, the data entities may be processed and stored in an IKB as described above.  FIG. 41  represents exemplary logic in performing certain of these operations. It should also be noted that the IKB created or organized in accordance with the domain definition may be the same IKB as that discussed above, or a separate or parallel IKB. More generally, the IKB may serve as both the source of the data entities accessed and analyzed, and as the output or repository for structured and classified data entities.  
      The exemplary logic  716  illustrated in  FIG. 41  begins with accessing one or more templates for selection, analysis and classification of the data entities, as indicated at reference numeral  778 . In a present implementation, for initial selection and classification of data entities, all axes, labels and attributes of the domain definition are employed in this step. However, as indicated at reference numeral  720 , where desired, the user may select a target database or resource for identification and classification of the data entities, along with axes and labels from the template. In the present context, the access mentioned in step  720  are the data entities, and the accessed target is one or more locations in which the entities are found or believed to be located. The accessed target may, for example, include known databases, public access databases and libraries, subscription-based databases and libraries, and so forth. When searching for medical diagnostic images, as another example, the accessed target may include repositories of such images, such as picture archiving and communication systems (PACS) or other repositories. Again, any suitable resource may be employed for this purpose.  
      Based upon the axes and labels selected at step  720 , the selected attributes are accessed at step  722 . These attributes would generally correspond to the axes and labels selected, as defined by the user and the domain definition. Again, for initial classification of data entities, such as for inclusion in an IKB, all axes and labels, and their associated attributes may be used. In subsequent searches, however, and where desired in initial searches, only selected attributes may be employed where a subset of the axes and/or labels are used as a search criterion. At step  724  the selected rules and algorithms are accessed. Again, these rules and algorithms may come into play for all analysis and classification, or only for a subset, such as depending upon the search criteria selected by the user via a search template. Finally, at step  726 , access is made to the accessed target field, to the data entity themselves, or parts of the data entities or even to indexed versions of the entities. This access will typically be by means of a network, such as a wide area network, and particularly through the Internet. By way of example, at step  726  raw data from the entities may be accessed, or only specific portions of the entities may be accessed, where such apportionment is available (e.g., from structure present in the entities). Thus, the access may be limited to specific subdivisions, such as front pages, abstracts, and so forth. Similarly, for image files, access may be made to bibliographic information only, to image content only, or a combination of these.  
      Where the data entities are to be classified in an IKB for later access, reclassification, analysis, and so forth, a series of substeps may be performed as outlined by the dashed lines in  FIG. 41 . In general, these may include steps such as for translation of data as indicated at reference numeral  728 . As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, because the present tools may be implemented for a wide range of data, the format, content, and a structure of which may not be known, translation of the data may be in order at step  728 . Such translation may include reformatting, sectioning, partitioning, and otherwise manipulating the data into a desired format for analysis and classification. Where desired, the entities may be indexed at step  730 . Such indexing, as again will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, generally includes subdividing the data entities into a series of sections or portions, with each portion being tagged or indexed for later analysis. Such indexing may be performed on only portions of the entities, where desired. The indexing, where performed, is stored in step  732  to permit much more rapid accessing and evaluation of the indexed data entities for future searches.  
      A “candidate list” may be employed, where desired, to enhance the speed and facilitate classification of the particular data entities. Where such candidate lists are employed, a candidate list is typically generated beforehand as indicated at step  734  in  FIG. 41 . The candidate list may generally include the axes and labels, along with associated attributes that are particularly of interest in the targeted data entities. The candidate list may be used to quickly select data entities for inclusion in the IKB when certain simple criteria, such as the presence of a word, phrase, image feature, waveform feature, and so forth is found in the entity. Where such candidate lists are employed, the predefined list is applied in a step  736  to the accessed data entities. Further filtering and checks may be performed in a variety of ways, depending upon the nature of the data entity and the useful filtration that may be implemented. For example, in step  738  illustrated in  FIG. 41 , the process may call for checking for redundancies and filtering certain documents and other data entities. By way of example, where an IKB has already been established, step  738  may include verification of whether certain records or data entities are already included in the IKB, and elimination of such data entities for preclude redundant records in the IKB. Similarly, where records are found to essentially represent the same underlying information, these may be filtered in step  738 . A wide variety of checks and verifications may be implemented.  
      At step  740  the data entities are mapped and classified. The mapping and classification, again, generally follows the domain definition by axis, label and attribute. As noted above, the classification performed at step  740  is a one-to-many classification, wherein any single data entity may be classified in more than one corresponding axis and label. Step  740  may include other functions, such as the addition of subjective information, annotations, and so forth. Of course, this type of annotation and addition of subjective review or other subjective input may be performed at a later stage. At step  740  the data entities, along with the indexing, classification, and so forth is stored in the IKB. It should be appreciated that, while the term “IKB” is used in the present context, this knowledge base may, in fact, take a wide range of forms. The particular form of the IKB may follow the dictates of particular software or platforms in which the IKB is defined. The present techniques are not intended to be limited to any particular software or form for the IKB.  
      It should be noted that the IKB will generally include classification information, but may include all or part of the data entities themselves, or processed (e.g., indexed or structured) versions of the entities or entity portions. The classification may take any suitable form, and may be a simple as a tabulated association of the structural system of the domain definition with corresponding data entities or portions of the entities.  
      Following establishment of the IKB, or classification of the data entities in general, various searches may be performed as indicated at steps  744 . The arrow leading from step  724  to step  744  in  FIG. 41  is intended to illustrate that the searches performed at step  744  may be performed either on data entities stored in an IKB or on data entities that are not stored in an IKB. That is, searches may be performed on data sources of data entities, including external databases, structured data, unstructured data, and so forth. Where an IKB has been established, however, the accessing step performed at reference numeral  726  leads directly to accessing the IKB and searching the records of the IKB at step  744 . At step  746 , then, based upon the search defined at step  744 , and the associated rules and algorithms, search results are presented. Again, these search results may be presented in a wide range of forms, both including analysis of individual data entities, or the search results may include the data entities themselves in their original form or in some highlighted or otherwise manipulated form.  
      Based upon any or all of the search results, the selection of data entities, the classification of data entities, or any other feature of the domain definition or its function, the domain definition, the rules, or other aspects of the conceptual framework and tools used to analyze it may be modified, as indicated generally at reference numeral  624  in  FIG. 41 . That is, if the search results are found to be over inclusive or under inclusive, for example, the domain definition may be altered, as may the rules used for selection of data entities, classification of the data entities or analysis of the entities. Similarly, if the analysis is found to provide an excess of distinctions or insufficient distinctions between the data entities, these may be altered at step  624 . Moreover, as new conceptual distinctions are recognized, or new attributes are recognized, such as due to developments in a field, these may result in alternation of the domain definition, the rules and algorithms applied, and so forth. Still further, as new rules and algorithms for classification of the data entities are developed or become available, these may also result in changes at step  624 . Based upon such changes, the entire process may be recast. That is, additional searches may be performed, additional data entities may be added to an IKB, new IKBs may be generated, and so forth. Indeed, such changes may simply result in reclassification of data entities already present in an IKB.  
       FIG. 42  represents, diagrammatically, the process set forth in  FIG. 41  as applied to certain textual data entities for generating an IKB. The IKB generation process, designated generally be reference numeral  748  in  FIG. 42 , begins with a template  750 , which may generally be similar to or identical to the template used to define the domain. As noted above, it may be preferable to initially cast the search for generation of the IKB to include all axes, labels and attributes of the labels. Where desired, however, the template may permit the user to select certain of the axes or labels, as indicated by the enlarged check boxes  754  in the template  750  of  FIG. 42 . Based upon the selection of some or all of the axes and labels, then, an association list  756  may be employed. The association list  756 , in the illustrated example, may include identification of the individual attributes of particular labels, along with user-defined specific attributes and certain selection criteria. In the illustration of  FIG. 42 , as one example, the particular attributes are words relating to web pages or a similar technical field. The selection criteria in the illustrated example include whether the entire word or less than the entire word is to be used in the identification of the data entities, whether a proximity rating is to be used, as indicated at reference numeral  764 , and whether any particular threshold is to be used as indicated at reference numeral  766 . As will be apparent to those skilled in the art, even within the field of textual searching and classification, many such selection criteria may be employed. The present techniques are not intended to be limited to any such selection criteria. Moreover, it should also be recognized that the selection criteria may be employed in the form of a quality of the attribute, or such criteria may also be implemented as a rule to be applied to the selection and classification process.  
      Based upon the domain definition, or a portion of the domain definition as selected by the user, and upon inputs such as the candidate list, where used, rules are applied for the selection and classification of data entities as indicated by reference numeral  768  in  FIG. 42 . In the simple example illustrated, a rule identifier  770  is associated with various rules  772 . Moreover, a relevancy criteria  774  may be implemented for each of the rules in the illustrated example. As noted above, it should be borne in mind that any desired rules may be used for the selection and classification of the data entities. In the case of text documents, these rules may be quite simple. However, for more complex documents, or where text and images, or text and other forms of data are to be analyzed for classification purposes, these rules may combine criteria for selection and analysis of text, as well as selection and analysis of other portions of the data, such as images. As also discussed above, the rules may be included in the code implementing the selection and classification process, or may be linked to the code. Where complex algorithms are employed, for example, for image analysis and classification, such algorithms may be too voluminous or may be used so sparingly as to make linking to the algorithms the most efficient and limitation. Finally, and as also mentioned above, for non-textual documents, the selection and classification rules and algorithms may provide for both the identification of features, and their classification by permitting certain tolerances or other flexibility on the basic definition referred to in the axis, label or attribute.  
      Based upon the domain definition, any candidate lists, any rules, and so forth, then, data resources  38  and controllable/prescribable resources  40  may be accessed, that include a large variety of possible data entities  776 . The domain definition, its attributes, and the rules, then, permit selection of a subset of these entities for inclusion in the IKB, as indicated at reference numeral  778 . In a present implementation, not only are these entities are selected for inclusion in the IKB, but additional data, such as indexing where performed, analysis, tagging, and so forth accompany the entities to permit and facilitate their further analysis, representation, selection, searching, and so forth.  
      The analysis performed on the selected and classified data entities may vary widely, depending upon the interest of the user and upon the nature of the data entities. Moreover, even prior to the classification, during the classification, and subsequent to the initial classification, additional analysis and classification may be performed.  FIG. 43  illustrates generally logic for computer-assisted processing, analysis and classification of features of interest in the data entities. This logic may be said to begin with the acquisition of the data contained in each entity. As noted above, the present process generally assumes that such acquisition is performed a priori. However, based upon certain analysis and classification, the present techniques may also recommend that additional data entities be created by acquiring additional data. At step  780 , the data is accessed as described above. Subsequent processing via computer-assisted techniques follows access of the data, as indicated generally at reference numeral  784  in  FIG. 43 .  
      As noted above, the present technique provides for a high level of integration of operation in computer-assisted searching, analysis and classification of data entities. These operations are generally performed by computer-assisted data operating algorithms, particularly for analyzing and classifying data entities of various types. Certain such algorithms have been developed and are in relatively limited use in various fields, such as for computer-assisted detection or diagnosis of disease, computer-assisted processing or acquisition of data, and so forth. In the present technique, however, an advanced level of integration and interoperability is afforded by interactions between algorithms for analyzing and classifying newly located data entities, and for subsequent analysis and classification of known entities, such as in an IKB. The technique makes use of unprecedented combinations of algorithms for more complex or multimedia data, such as text and images, audio files, and so forth.  
       FIG. 43  provides an overview of interoperability of such algorithms, which may be referred to generally in the present context as computer-assisted data operating algorithms or CAX, such as those described above. Such CAX algorithms in the present context may be built upon algorithms presently in use, or may be modified or entirely constructed on the basis of the additional data sources and entities, integration of such data sources and entities, or for search analysis and classification of specific types of data entities. In the overview of  FIG. 43 , for example, an overall CAX system is illustrated as included a wide range of steps, processes or modules which may be included in a fully integrated system. As noted above, more limited implementations may also be envisaged in which some or a few only of such processes, functions or modules are present. Moreover, in presently contemplated embodiment, such CAX systems may be implemented in the context of an IKB such that information can be gleaned to permit adaptation or optimization of both the algorithms themselves and the data management by the data managed by the algorithms for analysis and classification of the data entity. Various aspects of the individual CAX algorithms may be altered, including rules or processes implemented in the algorithms, or specific rules may be written and called upon during the data entity mining, analysis and classification processes.  
      While many such computer-assisted data operating algorithms may be envisaged, certain such algorithms are illustrated in  FIG. 43  for carrying out specific functions on data entities, with these processes being designated generally by reference numeral  784 . Considering in further detail the data operating steps summarized in  FIG. 43 , at step  786  accessed data is generally processed, such as for indexing, redundancy checking, reformatting of data, translation of data, and so forth. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the particular processing carried out in step  786  will depend upon the type of data entity being analyzed and the type of analysis or functions being performed. It should be noted, however, that data entities may be processed from any of the sources discussed above, including data sources and IKBs. At step  786 , similarly, analysis of the data entities is performed. Again, such analysis will depend upon the nature of the data entities, the data in the entities, and the nature of the algorithm on which the analysis is performed. Such processing may identify, for example, certain similarities or differences within or between entities. Such data may then be tabulated, counted, and so forth for presentation. Similarly, statistical analyses may also be performed on the data entities, to determine such relationships as relevancy, degree of similarity, or any other feature of interest both within the entities or between or among entities.  
      Following such processing and analysis, at step  788  features of interest may be segmented or circumscribed in a general manner. Recognition of features in textual data may include operations as simple as recognizing particular passages and terms, highlighting such passages and terms, identification of relevant portions of documents, and so forth. An image data, such feature segmentation may include identification of limits or outlines of features and objects, identification of contrast, brightness, or any number of image-based analyses. In a medical context, for example, segmentation may include delimiting or highlighting specific anatomies or pathologies. More generally, however, the segmentation carried out at step  788  is intended to simply discern the limits of any type of feature, including various relationships between data, extents of correlations, and so forth.  
      Following such segmentation, features may be identified in the data as summarized at step  790 . While such feature identification may be accomplished on imaging data in accordance with generally known techniques, it should be borne in mind that the feature identification carried out at step  790  may be much broader in nature. That is, due to the wide range of data which may be integrated into the inventive system, the feature identification may include associations of data, such as text, images, audio data, or combinations of such data. In general, the feature identification may include any sort of recognition of correlations between the data that may be of interest for the processes carried out by the CAX algorithm.  
      At step  794  such features are classified. Such classification will typically include comparison of profiles in the segmented feature with known profiles for known conditions. The classification may generally result from attributes, parameter settings, values, and so forth which match profiles in a known population of data sets with a data set or entity under consideration. The profiles, in the present context, may correspond to the set of attributes for the axes and labels of the domain definition, or a subset of these where desired. Moreover, the classification may generally be based upon the desired rules and algorithms as discussed above. The algorithms, again, may be part of the same software code as the domain definition and search, analysis and classification software, or certain algorithms may be called upon as needed by appropriate links in the software. However, the classification may also be based upon non-parametric profile matching, such as through trend analysis for a particular data entity or entities over time, space, population, and so forth.  
      As indicated in  FIG. 43 , the processes carried out during the analysis and classification may be based upon either data resources  38  and controllable/prescribable resources  40  or data entities stored in an IKB. As also noted in  FIG. 43 , these processes may be driven by input via a template  750  of the type described above. As a result of the analysis and classification, a representation is generally represented to the user as indicated at reference numeral  556 .  
      The present techniques for searching, identification, analysis, classification and so forth of data entities is specifically intended to facilitate and enhance decision processes. The processes may include a vast range of decisions, such as marketing decisions, research and development decisions, technical development decisions, legal decisions, financial and investment decisions, clinical diagnostic and treatment decisions, and so forth. These decisions and their processes are summarized at reference numeral  796  in  FIG. 43 . As discussed above, based upon the representations  556 , and additionally based the decision making processes, further refinements to the analysis and classification algorithms, the data entities, the domain definition, and so forth may be in order, as indicated at optional block in  FIG. 43 . As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, such refinement may include, but certainly not limited to, the acquisition of additional data, the acquisition of data under different conditions, particular additional analysis of data, further segmentation or different segmentation of the data, alternative identifications of features, and alternative classifications of the data.  
      Entity Searching and Presentation of Data  
      As noted above, additional interfaces are provided in the present technique for performing searches and further identification and classification of data entities, such as from an IKB.  FIG. 44  illustrates an overview for performing searches of data entities, such as entities stored in an IKB. It would be noted that the overview is similar to that illustrated in  FIG. 42  in which data entities are searched and structured for formation of the IKB. In the workflow illustrated in  FIG. 44 , designated generally by reference numeral  798 , a search form  750  is again employed that includes a graphical illustration of the domain definition, including the axes and labels. Again, attributes and, where appropriate, association lists may be combined with the search template to define the features of the data entities which are to be searched and classified. An association list  756 , may thus be used for automated search and classification. The user, then, may define the particular axes and labels which are to be located in the structured data entities comprising the IKB via the completed template  750 . Based upon the completed template, the association list  756 , and rules, designated generally by reference numeral  68 , the IKB is searched. That is, selected and classified entities  778  are searched to identify and reclassify, where appropriate, the data entities that correspond to the criteria used for the search (as defined by the template, any association list, and the rules applicable). In the embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 44 , the search results are returned via a form that resembles the search template. However, in the representation, designated here as a “form view”  800 , only the axes and labels located for each record or data entity are highlighted in the template. Thus, the user can quickly identify the bases for the one-to-many mapping performed in the classification procedure. A number of such records  802  may be returned, with each indicating, where desired, a bibliographic data, subjective data, classification data, and so forth as discussed above.  
      In another implementation, data entities may be highlighted for specific features or attributes located in the search and analysis steps, and classified into the structured data entity.  FIG. 45  illustrates an exemplary workflow for one such implementation. The text highlighting implementation of  FIG. 45 , designated generally by reference numeral  804 , may begin with identification of specific features of candidates from a candidate list  806 . The candidate selections, indicated by reference numeral  808  are made from the list, and efficient searches may be carried out for highlighting individual features of interest. In the implementation illustrated in  FIG. 45 , for example, a text search is performed on a document ID field  810 , with words being highlighted as indicated at reference numeral  802 . Individual words, which may correspond to individual attributes of labels in the domain definition, will thus be highlighted as indicated in the entity record view  814  of  FIG. 45 . In a present implementation, the highlighting may be done by changing a word color or a background color surrounding a word. Different highlighting, as indicated by reference numerals  816 ,  818  and  820  are used for different terms, or, for example, for terms associated with a single label, or single axis. Here again, the basis for the classification (and selection) of the data entities can be readily apparent to the user by reference to the highlighting. As will be noted by those skilled in the art, while the relatively straightforward example of a text document as illustrated, similar techniques may be used on a wide range of data entity types. For example, as discussed below, image data, audio data, or other data, and combinations of these types of data may be analyzed and highlighted in similar manners. Where image data is highlighted, for example, graphical techniques may be employed, such as blocks surrounding features of interest, pointers indicating features of interest, annotations indicating features of interest and so forth. Where data entities including text, image, and other types data are analyzed, combinations of these highlighting approaches may be used.  
      Further representations which may be used to evaluate the analyzed and classified data entities include various spatial displays, such as those illustrated in  FIGS. 46-53 . In the spatial display (or splay) illustrated in  FIG. 46 , a data-centric view of a series of records corresponding to search criteria and classified in accordance with the search criteria are viewed. The spatial display  822  takes the form of a matrix or array of data indicating a pair of axes  824  and  826  of the domain definition. The tabulated summary  828  follows these axes and the individual labels of each axis. A count or number of records or data entities corresponding to intersections of the axes and individual labels is indicated by a count or score number  830 . Additional information may, of course, be displayed in each intersection block, as discussed in greater detail below. Where desired, additional information may be displayed, such as by clicking a mouse on a count to produce a drop-down menu or list, as indicated at reference numeral  832 . It should be borne in mind that the illustrated example is one of many possibilities only. Additional possibilities are discussed below, and be formally a part of the myriad of options available to the system designer. In a present implementation, for example, additional links may be provided to the individual entities or records from the listing  832 , with the records themselves available from the listing. Selection of records from the listing may result in display of a form view such as shown in  FIG. 44  or a highlight view as indicated in  FIG. 45 , or any similar representation of all or part of the data entity.  
      A further example of a spatial display as illustrated in  FIG. 47 . The display illustrated in  FIG. 47  may be considered a record-centric spatial display  834 . The record-central display is similar to the display illustrated in  FIG. 46 , but highlights intersections of labels corresponding to attributes of individual data entities or records. That is, for example, a number of records returned for a specific search criteria, such as a company or institution owner of a particular type of diagnostic equipment, may be highlighted in a first color or graphic, as indicated by the right-slanted hatches in  FIG. 47 . Records corresponding to data entities returned for a second company may be indicated in a different manner, such as the left-slanted hatches. Of course, other graphical techniques, such as colors, where available, may be more indicative and apparent. Here again, the highlighting may indicate that at least one record in each of the intersection blocks was located for each of the highlighted features (e.g., a company owner). The spatial display thus make readily apparent where intersections exist between data entities returned having the attributes, and areas where no such records were returned. The specific record highlighting, indicated by reference numerals  836  and  838 , may thus overlap, as in the case of the two central blocks in the intersection space  840 , indicating that at least one record in each such block belongs to one or the other basis for the highlighting. Here again, additional graphical or analytical techniques may be employed, such as record listings  842 , from which specific records or view may be accessed.  
       FIG. 48  represents an additional spatial display, which may be thought of as a different type of record-centric display. In the display of  FIG. 48 , axes  824  and  826  are again indicated, with corresponding labels for each axis. Blocks illustrating the intersections of each label are then provided. In the spatial display presentation  844 , however, separate blocks for each individual record or data entity may be provided. Such blocks are indicated at reference numerals  846 ,  848  and  850 . Based upon the content of the structured data entity, then, the individual intersection blocks may indicate whether a record contains the axis label attributes or not. For example, in the illustrated data, the data entities  846 ,  848  and  850  share no attributes corresponding to label IIA, but entities  848  and  850  share an intersection at label IC/IIB. Here again, the presentation of the data facilitates identification of the uniqueness or distinctiveness of data entities, and their similarities.  
      A somewhat similar spatial display is illustrated in  FIG. 49 . A spatial display of the type illustrated in  FIG. 49  may be considered for specific features of interest, such as a company owner of a particular property right. Any other suitable feature, may, of course, be used for generating the display. As illustrated, axes and labels are again indicated in a tabulated form, but with the specific features of interest being called out in individual intersection blocks as indicated at reference numerals  846 ,  848  and  850 . By way of example, in the case of company comparisons, each of the columns  846 ,  848  and  850  may correspond to the number of properties in each of the intersection blocks owned by each of the companies. Analysis is therefore apparent for the viewer, indicating strengths and weaknesses on a relative basis of each company owner. By way of example, in the illustrated example, company  848  would appear somewhat dominant in the intersection space IC/IIB, but weak, along company  846 , in the intersection space IB/IIB.  
      A further illustrative example of a spatial display is shown in  FIG. 50 .  FIG. 50  may be considered a different type of record or data entity-centric view. Here again, axes  824  and  826  are indicated. A number of data entities or records  846 ,  848  and  850  are also indicated in a tabulated form. Here, however, for the axes  824 ,  826  and any additional axes  856 , individual labels for which classification was made based on the content of the data entities is illustrated, with all such correspondence as indicated. Thus, the user can readily discern how and why certain records were returned, how certain records were structured and classified, and the basis for the one-to-many mapping of each data entity record  
      A further example of a spatial display is shown in  FIG. 51 . In the representation of  FIG. 51 , the spatial display  858  illustrates in a tiled-format graphical spaces corresponding to each axis  860  of the domain definition, with the individual labels  862  being called out for each axis. Each label is displayed in a block or area  864 . In the illustrated example, a count or cumulative total  866  for the number of data entities corresponding to the attributes of each label is provided in the respective block. A background designated generally by reference numeral  868  may be colored or a particular graphic may be used for the background to indicate a level or number of data entities corresponding to the attributes of the individual labels. Moreover, in the illustrated example, an inset  870  is provided that may have a special meaning, such as data entities corresponding to a specific feature. Here again, any other suitable meaning may be attributed to either the background or to the inset  870 . Moreover, many such insets, or other graphical tools may be used for calling out the special features of interest.  
      A legend  872  is provided in the illustrated example for the particular color or graphic used to enhance the understanding of the presented data. In the illustrated example, for example, different colors may be used for the number of data entities corresponding to the attributes of specific labels, with the covers being called out in insets  874  of the legend. Additional legends may be provided, for example, as represented at reference numeral  876 , for explaining the meaning of the backgrounds and the insets for each label. Thus, highly complex and sophisticated data presentation tools, incorporating various types of graphics, may be used for the analysis and decision making processes based upon the classification of the structured data entities. Where appropriate, as noted above, additional features, such as data entity record listings  878  may be provided to allow the user to “drill down” into data entities corresponding to specific axes, labels, attributes or any other feature of interest.  
       FIG. 52  illustrates the basic spatial display of  FIG. 51 , with additional illustrative graphics associated. In the illustration of  FIG. 52 , for example, graphical representations of a number of specific features may be shown, such as insets or menus, graphics, linked displays, and so forth, for classifying the individual data entities by counts, such as of company owners, or any other feature of interest. In the inset of  880 , for example, a user may display the number of data entities in a graphical format  882  corresponding to individual labels of the first axis I. As illustrated, for example, a company of interest is illustrated to have a number of data entities corresponding to individual labels IA-IF, with counts of individual data entities or records being displayed in a graphical bar chart in which the number or account of data entities is indicated for each individual label shown along an axis  884 . The counts may be represented by the bars  886  in this example. Similarly, as indicated by the graphical display  888  in  FIG. 52 , for an individual label, then, a number of data entities may be displayed for different companies. The company designations may be indicated along an axis  892 , then, with the counts being indicated by bars  894 . The graphical representation  890  provides an indication, then of the number of properties owned by each company for an individual label. Here again, any other feature may be provided for such analysis and display.  
       FIG. 53  shows an example of an interactive spatial display of representation of an analyzed and classified data entities, such as may be implemented through an interactive computer interface. The interactive representation  896  includes a top level view, of a superdomain  900  in the illustrated example. As noted above, such designations may be somewhat arbitrary, and indicate simply levels of classification as defined for the data entities. As shown in  FIG. 53 , the superdomain includes several individual domains  902 , with each domain including a series of axes  904 . As noted above, in the definition of the superdomain and of the domains, each axis will be associated with individual attributes or features of interest by which the structure data entities will be analyzed and classified. Upon being presented with the graphical illustration superdomain, then, a user may “drill down” into individual domains or axes as indicated by the view  906 . In the illustrated implementation, by selecting axis IA, the view  906  is produced in which the individual labels of the selected axis are displayed in an expanded inset  910 . The inset illustrates the labels as indicated at reference  912 , and additional information, such as counts or cumulative numbers of data entities corresponding to the labels may be displayed (not shown in  FIG. 53 ). Here again, each of the labels will be associated with attributes as indicated by reference numeral  914  in  FIG. 53 . The attributes may or may not be displayed along with the labels, but the attributes may be accessible to the user as an indication of the basis for which selection and classification of data entities was made. In the implementation of  FIG. 53 , again, the individual axes of the other domains may be collapsed as indicated at reference numeral  908 . As noted with respect to the other spatial displays above, other graphics, such as record listings  916  may be provided to permit the user to view data entities, portions of data entities, summaries of data entities, and so forth. Other types of graphical representations may, of course, be provided, such as the charted, tabulated or highlighted views summarized above.  
      Different Data Entity Axis, Label and Attribute Types  
      As mentioned throughout the foregoing discussion, the present techniques may be employed for searching, classifying and analyzing any suitable type of data entity. In general, several types of data entities are presently contemplated, including text entities, image entities, audio entities, and combinations of these. That is, for specific text-only entities, word selection and classification techniques, and techniques based upon words and text may be employed, along with text indicating by graphical information, subjective information, and so forth. For image entities, a wide range of image analysis techniques are available, including computer-assisted analysis techniques, computer-assisted feature recognition techniques, techniques for segmentation, classification, and so forth.  
      In specific domains, such as in medical diagnostic imaging, these techniques may also permit evaluation of image data to analyze and classify possible disease states, to diagnose diseases, to suggest treatments, to suggest further processing or acquisition of image data, to suggest acquisition of other image data, and so forth. The present techniques may be employed in images including combined text and image data, such as textual information present in appended bibliographic information. As will be apparent to those skilled in the art, in certain environments, such as in medical imaging, headers appended to the image data, such as standard DICOM headers may include substantial information regarding the source and type of image, dates, demographic information, and so forth. Any and all of this information may be analyzed and thus structured in accordance with the present techniques for classification and further analysis. Based upon such analysis and classification, the data entities may be stored in a knowledge base, such as an integrated knowledge base or IKB, in a structured, semi-structured or unstructured form. As will be apparent to those skilled in the art, the present technique thus allow for a myriad of advantageous uses, including the integrated analysis of complex data sets, for such purposes as financial analyses, recognitions of diseases, recognitions of treatments, recognitions of demographics of interest, recognitions of target markets, recognitions of risk, or any other correlations that may exist between data entities but are so complex or unapparent as to be difficult otherwise to recognize.  
       FIGS. 54, 55  and  56  illustrate application of the foregoing techniques to image data, and particularly to image data associated with text data. As shown in  FIG. 54 , the image/text entity processing system  918  generally follows the outlines of the techniques described above, but may begin with image and text files as indicated at reference numeral  920 . Here again, the data entities corresponding to the files may be included in a single file or in multiple files, or links between files may be provided, such as for annotations based upon image data, and so forth. In general, each entity will include, then, a textual segment  922  and a image segment  924 . The textual segment  922  may include structure, unstructured or subjective data in the form of one or more strings of text  926 . The image segment  924  may include bibliographic data  928 , such as text data in an image header, and image content data  930 . Image content data will typically be in the form of image pixel data, voxel data, overlay data, and so forth. In general, the image data  930  may generally be sufficient to permit the reconstruction of visual images  932  or series or images for display in accordance with desired reconstruction techniques. As will be apparent to those skilled in the art, the particular reconstruction technique may generally be selected in accordance with the nature of the image data, the type of imaging system from which the data was acquired, and so forth.  
      The data entities are provided to a processing system  552  of the type described above. In general, all of the processing described above, particularly that described with respect to  FIGS. 41 and 43 , may be performed on the complex data entities. In accordance with these processing techniques, specific feature of interest, both in the text, in the images, and between the text and the images may be segmented, identified, filtered, processed, classified and so forth in accordance with the domain definition and the rules or algorithms defined by the domain definition as indicated at reference numeral  568 . Based upon the processing performed on the complex data entities, then, resulting structured data may be stored in any suitable storage  570 , and an integrated knowledge base or IKB may be generated as indicated at reference numeral  12 . As also noted above, based upon the one-to-many mapping performed for each of the data entities, similar searches may be performed for individual features of interest in either the text, the images, or both. While  FIG. 54  represents text and image files in the complex data entities, it should also be noted that the data entities may include text and audio data, audio data and image data, text and audio and image data, or even additional types of data, such as waveform data, or data of any other type.  
      The specific image/text entity processing  934  performed on complex data entities is generally illustrated in  FIG. 55 . As noted above, text data  936  (shown in  FIG. 55  in a highlight view) and image data  938  is analyzed and classified in accordance with individual text rules an algorithms  940  and individual image rules and algorithms  942 . It should be noted, however, that certain of the rules and algorithms for classification and mapping may include criteria based upon text and image data. For example, the user may have a particular interest in particular anatomical features of interest visible in image data but for a specific group of subjects as discernable only from the text analysis. Such combined analysis provides a powerful tool for enhanced classification and mapping. Based, then, upon the domain definition  550 , the mapping is performed as indicated at block  740  in  FIG. 55  to provide results which may be, then, stored in an IKB  12 .  
      In addition to analysis and classification of complex data entities, all of the techniques described above may be used for complex data entities, including text, image, audio, and other types of data as indicated generally in  FIG. 56 .  FIG. 56  shows an exemplary form view for combination text/image data similar to that described above for text data alone. In the summaries provided in views  946 , shown in  FIG. 56 , bibliographic information may be provided along with subjective information and classification information, all designated generally by reference numeral  948 . Here, however, additional information on analysis of the image data may be provided, along with image representations, such as indicated at reference numeral  950 . Where appropriate, links to actual images, annotated images or additional subjective or bibliographic data may, of course, be provided.  
      As noted above, the present techniques may be applied to any suitable data entities capable of analysis and classification. For identification and classification of documents of interest, the relevant data domain is first defined. Axes may pertain to subject matter or technical fields, such as imaging modalities, clinical uses for certain types of images, image reconstruction techniques, and so forth. Labels for each axis then subdivide the axis topic to form a matrix of technical concepts. Words, terms of art, phrases, and the like are then associated with each label as attributes of the label. Rules and algorithms for recognition of similar terms are established or selected, including proximity criteria, whole or part word rules, and so forth. Any suitable text analysis rules may be employed.  
      Based upon the domain definition and the rules, data entities and files are accessed from available databases. Structure in the documents may be used, such as for identification of patients (which may also be filtered to avoid any identification of specific individuals), physicians, institutions, disease states, diagnoses, equipment, or any other useful information, if such structure is implemented in the domain definition. Structure present in the documents that is not used by the domain definition may be used, such as to complete bibliographical data fields, or may be ignored if not deemed relevant to the domain definition. Data in the documents that is not structured may, on the other hand, be structured, such as by identifying terms in sections of the documents that are found in generally unstructured areas (e.g., paragraph text, abstract text, etc.). To facilitate later searching and classification, the documents may be indexed as well.  
      The documents are then mapped onto the domain definition to establish the one-to-many classification. This classification may place any particular document in a number of different axis/label associations. Many rich types of analysis may then be performed on the documents, such as searches for documents relating to particular combinations of topics, documents assigned to particular title-holders, and combinations of these. The matrix of axes and labels, with the associated terms and attributes, permits a vast number of subsets of the documents to be defined by selection of appropriate combinations of axes and/or labels in particular searches.  
      In another exemplary implementation, medical diagnostic image files may be classified. Such files typically include both image data and bibliographic data. Subjective data, annotations by physicians, and the like may also be included. In this example, a user may define a domain having axes corresponding to particular anatomies, particular disease states, treatments, demographic data, and any other relevant category of interest. Here again, the labels will subdivide the axes logically, and attributes will be designated for each label. For text data, the attributes may be terms, words, phrases, and so forth, as described in the previous example. However, for image data, a range of complex and powerful attributes may be defined, such as attributes identifiable only through algorithmic analysis of the image data. Certain of these attributes may be analyzed by computer aided diagnosis (CAD) and similar programs. As noted above, these may be embedded in the domain definitions, or may be called as needed when the image data is to be analyzed and classified.  
      It should be noted that in this type of implementation, text, image, audio, waveform, and other types of data may be analyzed independently, or complex combinations of classifications may be defined. Where entities are classified by the one-to-many mapping, then, rich analyses may be performed, such as to locate populations exhibiting particular characteristics or disease states discernable from the image data, and having certain similarities or contrasts in other ways only discernable from the text or other data, or from combinations of such data.  
      In both of these examples, and in any implementation, the analysis and presentation techniques described above may be employed, and adapted to the particular type of entity. For example, a text document may be displayed in a highlight view with certain pertinent words or phrases highlighted. Images too may be highlighted, such as by changes in color for certain features or regions of interest, or through the use of graphical tools such as pointers, boxes, and so forth.  
      As noted above, the conceptual framework represented by the domain definition may include reference to a variety of data types, feature types, characteristics of entities, and so forth.  FIG. 57  represents graphically a number of such combinations. In  FIG. 57 , a combinatorial matrix is represented generally by the reference numeral  950 . The conceptual framework may be thought of, then, as defining intersections between features and characteristics set forth as axes  556 , labels  560 , association lists (of attributes)  562 , and data entities  38 ,  776 ,  778  on the one hand, and different types of data on the other. The type or nature of the data is designated generally by reference numeral  952  in  FIG. 57 , while the defined characteristic either sought or present in the data entities (by virtue of the domain definition) is represented by reference numeral  954 .  
      As represented in  FIG. 57 , presently contemplated data types include textual data  956 , image data  958 , audio data  962 , video data  962 , and waveform data  964 . Data may include, however, combinations of these, as indicated by reference numeral  966 , as well as other data types not represented here. For example, an image may include forms, surfaces, edges, textures, colors, or any other particular features that can be identified (visually or algorithmically) and that are subject to any type of reference, as well as other data, such as textual data. In certain contexts, for example, such textual data may be visible or detectable in an image (such as from an annotation, date stamp, and so forth), while in other contexts, the data may not appear in the image, but be part of a codified file used to reproduce the image. Similarly, particular combinations of features may be present in waveforms, audio data, video data and so forth.  
      It is important to note, then, that a correspondence or intersection space will exist between the data types  952  and the characteristics  954 . Moreover, this intersection space may be enriched by direct reference to the features or characteristics of interest both in the domain definition and in the data entities themselves. The present technique thus frees the user from constraints of definition by text, and enhances integration of searching, classification, and the other functions discussed above with the actual features and characteristics sought in their own “type vernacular.” 
       FIG. 58  represents an example of this type of definition of features in images. As represented in  FIG. 58 , an axis  556  includes a number of image labels  970 ,  972 ,  974  and  976 . In the example illustrated, label  970  generally has the appearance of a circle  978 . The subsequent labels  972 ,  974  and  976  have appearances of a circle within a circle  982 , two circles within a circle  986 , and three circles within a circle  990 , respectively.  
       FIG. 58  also represents an association list  562  of attributes that will be anticipated or accepted for data entities to be mapped to each label. For example, as represented by reference numeral  980 , entities having various forms and appearances  980  generally similar to circle  978  may be mapped to label  970 . Similarly, variations of the other images or image features defined by images  982 ,  986  and  990  of labels  972 ,  974 , and  976  may be mapped to those labels, as represented generally by the variation images  984 ,  988  and  992 , respectively.  
      As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, many imaginative used may be made of the ability to directly define image characteristics for search and processing as set forth above. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, medical images may be searched and mapped for occurrences of tumors by the number of sites. In different contexts, elements, anatomies, articles, and any other feature subject to definition may be sought. Such possibilities might extend to any useful feature, including such features as weapons, faces, vehicles, and so forth, to mention only a few. It should also be noted that the association list may be used to include or exclude any desired variation on the label, effectively creating a “vocabulary” of corresponding features, again in the “type vernacular” of image data entities.  
       FIGS. 59 and 60  represent similar definitions of labels for other axes, for waveform and audio files, respectively. As shown in  FIG. 59 , labels  994  and  996  may, for example, be defined for waveforms  998  and  1002 , such as corresponding to a normal EKG waveform and an anomalous EKG waveform. The association list may, for each of these, include attributes that are variations of the target waveform of interest, as represented generally by reference numerals  1000  and  1004 .  
      Similarly, as shown in  FIG. 60 , audio labels  1006  and  1008  may be defined for sounds  1010  and  1014 . It should be noted that, because sounds do not readily lend themselves to a visual interface, waveforms, or any iconographical representation may be shown to facilitate human interaction with the domain and entities. Indeed, the representation might well simply include textual terms (such as “cancer” or “Dr. Smith”) if those words are sought in audio data. However, it should be borne in mind that the definition of audio files is in no way limited to sounds corresponding to words. Rather, any generally sound or combination of sounds subject to definition and recognition may be specified. Attributes, which may be forms or variations of the audio feature of interest, may then be defined by the attributes  1012  and  1016 .  
      In a practical implementation, any combination of such “type vernacular” features may be referenced for axes, labels and attributes. For example, in a search for cancerous tumors, an axis may include labels that result in mapping of text entities including the word “cancer” or any cognate or related word, but also of images that tend to show forms of cancer, and audio or video files that mention or show cancers. As noted above, even lower level integration may be employed, such as for different “type vernacular” attributes within the same label definition, and attributes of one type (e.g., text) that is sought in a data entity that is fundamentally of a different type (e.g., an image).  
      By way of illustration, the following is an example of how such multi-type domain definitions may be used in one medical diagnostic context. In the assessment of lung disease, a classification system recommended in 2002 by the International Labor Office (ILO) included guidelines and two sets of standard films. The standard films represent different types and severity of abnormalities, and are used for comparison to subject films and images during the classification process. The system is oriented towards describing the nature and extent of features associated with different pneumoconiosis, including coal workers&#39; pneumoconiosis, silicosis, and asbestosis. It deals with parenchymal abnormalities (small and large opacities), pleural changes, and other features associated, or sometimes confused with occupational lung disease.  
      In the present manifestation of the ILO 2002 system, the reader is first asked to grade film quality. They are then asked to categorize small opacities according to shape and size. The size of small round opacities is characterized as p (up to 1.5 mm), q (1.5-3 mm), or r (3-10 mm). Irregular small opacities are classified by width as s, t, or u (same sizes as for small rounded opacities). Profusion (frequency) of small opacities is classified on a 4-point major category scale (0-3), with each major category divided into three, resulting in a 12-point scale between 0/− and 3/+. Large opacities are defined as any opacity greater than 1 cm that is present in an image. Large opacities are classified as category A (for one or more large opacities not exceeding a combined diameter of 5 cm), category B (large opacities with combined diameter greater than 5 cm but not exceeding the equivalent of the right upper zone, or category C (larger than B). Pleural abnormalities are also assessed with respect to location, width, extent, and degree of calcification. Finally, other abnormal features of the chest radiograph can be commented upon.  
      The domain definition techniques discussed above, particularly the direct definition of labels and attributes in an image context, is particularly well suited to sorting through and classifying medical images to implement the ILO 2002 system. In particular, the various forms, sizes, and counts or opacities may be designated and represented as axes, labels or attributes directly for classification purposes. Also, as noted above, such a domain may be designed such that “conceptual zooms” are possible to first recognize, then analyze the various types and categories of disease occurrences.  
      Another exemplary medical diagnostic implementation may be considered in the assessment of neuro-degenerative disease. Such disorders are typically difficult to detect at an early stage of their inception. Common practice is to use tracer agents in certain imaging sequences, such as SPECT and PET to determine a change in either the cerebral blood flow or the change in metabolic rate of area that indicate degeneration of cognitive ability with respect to a normal subject. A key element of the detection of neuro-degenerative disorders (NDD) is the development of age segregated normal databases. Comparison to these normals can only be made in a standardized domain, however, such as Talairach or The Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI). Consequently, data must be mapped to this standard domain using registration techniques.  
      Once a comparison has been made, the user is displayed a statistical deviation image of the anatomy from which to make a diagnosis of disease. This is a very specialized task and can only be performed by highly trained experts. Even these experts can only make a subjective determination as to the degree of severity of the disease. For example, the classification of a disease into its severity for one NDD (Alzheimer&#39;s disease) is mild, moderate or advanced. The ultimate determination is made by the reader based upon judgment of the deviation images.  
      The foregoing domain definition and mapping techniques are again well suited for implementation of an automated or semi-automated reading system for images potentially indicating NDD&#39;s. For example, the same standard images or image features currently referred to by experts for subjective diagnosis of the disease or the relative stage of the disease may be implemented as axes, labels, attributes, or combinations of these. Moreover, the domain definition and the subsequent analysis and mapping (diagnosis) based features of patient images may be made in the context or vernacular of the images themselves.  
     Healthcare Process Refinement  
      The ability to access, organize and analyze the various data entities of the data resources and controllable/prescribable resources of the healthcare system affords insights into the efficacy of the various facets of the system, that can serve as the basis for refinement and improvement.  FIG. 61  illustrates, generally, exemplary interrelationships between the participants in the healthcare system  1018 , and how they may be affected by such understanding and refinement.  
      As shown in  FIG. 61 , at the base of the system is the patient  4 , and healthcare professionals  6 . The goal of the foregoing processes, including the accessing, processing, formatting, organization and analysis of data entities, is ultimately to adapt and optimize the various processes of patient care through directed learning and understanding of the system, as indicated generally at reference numeral  1020 . Again, such understanding is gained, in accordance with the present invention, through organizational and analysis tools, such as the domain definition and domain framework processing described above. Moreover, in general, the system includes various types of components that in some way interact with the patient, as indicated by reference numeral  1022 , to acquire all of the types of information described above for the provision of healthcare.  
      Similarly, the system  1018  will include a range of interfaces, designated generally by reference numeral  1024  in  FIG. 61 , for providing medical institutions  1026  with data. In many cases, indeed, the data resources  18  will be or be controlled or owned by the institutions themselves. Certain interfaces of this type are described above. They will typically include security devices, filters, and so forth, for maintaining the integrity and security of the data and institution, and for protecting the privacy of the patients.  
       FIG. 62 , then, represents certain flow paths for feedback and refinement of the healthcare processes that are enabled by the present invention. In the information system  1028  of  FIG. 62 , the various data sources  18  are drawn upon to generate the federated layer  14  as described above. The data entities thus accessed are mapped and classified, as indicated by reference numeral  1030 . As described in detail above, such mapping and classification may be based upon user definition of a domain definition or framework that can be modified, adapted, and generally completely crafted to identify features of interest in a wide range of data entity types, as well as interrelationships between them. The IKB  12  may thus include such processed entities (as well as unstructured or unprocessed entities, when desired).  
      A search engine, such as the processing system  552  described above, can be used to select or screen specific data to be mapped and classified. The search engine allows data to be advanced through the healthcare informatics system. Searches may be performed, for example, based upon questions and queries generated by a user, by an automated system, or by a feedback mechanism, as described below.  
      Various analysis tools  1032  are then available for processing the healthcare data. The processing tools allow the data to be analyzed in an integrated fashion by combining different sets of data from different sources. The analysis tools may also be used to process one set of data at a time. A time stamp may be stored for each set of data that is analyzed, which can later be used for time-based analysis, such as for evidence-based processing and trending. The tools may include, for example, the CAX tools described above that are used both for the provision of healthcare, and for the analysis, mapping and classification of data entities.  
      The system further allows for review of the analyzed data, as indicated at block  1034  in  FIG. 62 . Such review relates to the results of the various analysis tools, such that they can be considered together in an integrated fashion. The review may provide its output in a standardized form, such as a report, graph, signal, image, and for forth. Moreover, the review may be manual, semi-automated, or completely automated.  
      The results of the review are considered in an integrated fashion, then, ultimately resulting in an understanding of the information, as indicated by block  1036  in  FIG. 62 . The resulting integrated understanding may be both broad, encompassing an entire domain, or specific and task oriented. The type of understanding that is gained is generally dependent upon the questions that are asked at the query stage. However, it should be understood that the very ability to access the information or data entities initiates an understanding that was heretofore impossible, or based upon serendipitous interceptions of information. Similarly, the ability to organize the data in a domain framework of choice, and then to search and analyze the data via the techniques described above provides the necessary tools for gaining the understanding needed to refine and improve the system.  
      The feedback paths leading from such understanding to the various system components in  FIG. 62  are intended to illustrate certain avenues of improvement and refinement. Any processing, both of the ways in which information is gathered (e.g., patient processing, diagnostic testing, etc.) and the ways in which the information is processed (e.g., organized, analyzed, etc.) may be subject to such refinement.  
       FIG. 63  is a general overview of exemplary feedback paths of this type. The feedback overview  1038  is based upon the federated and mapped entities, designated by reference  1040  here, but discussed in various contexts above. By way of example only, elements that may be altered and refined might include the IKB  12  and the manner in which it is generated or analyzed, any of the integrated analysis and processing components  1042  (e.g., the CAX components described above), interfaces, such as security/privacy interfaces  1024 , and clinical, insurer, and other processes, as indicated generally by reference numeral  1044 . The refinements and feedback leading to such refinement will ultimately result from the database content  1046  generated by the systems and methods described above.  
      Examples of such refinements might include direct patient care processes, such as acquisition and management of patient information, development of diagnoses and procedures for gathering information and making such diagnoses. Insurance procedures, reimbursement procedures, claims processing, and similar financial data handling may also be affected. Still other refinements may focus specifically on institutional issues, such as equipment monitoring, staffing, and so forth.  
     PROCESS REFINEMENT EXAMPLES  
      As noted above, any of the many processes involved in the provision of quality healthcare to patients, or even processes in medical research, education, financing or institutional management may benefit from the present informatics improvements. By way of example, insurance claim and reimbursement processing may be affected by physiological data, specific patient data, and demographic data in ways that are not readily apparent by examining the cost and coverage information alone. Processing of claims may be made more speedy, for example based upon knowledge of diagnosed medical conditions, knowledge of where and in what physical state a patient may be, and demographic information relating to the willingness and ability of both insurance companies to make settlement claim payments, and patients to make co-payments. Invoicing and financial planning of medical institutions may thus be improved based upon such knowledge considered holistically or in an integrated fashion.  
      The process flow of the patient may be similarly improved. From the financial point of view, the entry of the patient into the healthcare system for a particular medical issue may be better planned, from examination, though the billing cycle based upon knowledge of the types of testing and treatment that are likely, and the timing for such activities.  
      Such care paths may also be pre-established and refined over time. For example, as data entities are analyzed to determine the most effective care paths through the healthcare system (and testing or treatment that is less effective or necessary), more directed care can be provided in a manner that provides more rapid response to root causes of medical issues, and in a more efficient way. At various stages in the care process, then, patients may be directed towards specific tests and treatments (including informational counseling) based upon increasing knowledge of the patient condition gained through testing and diagnosis, informed by knowledge of similar populations and care paths that have been most effective or efficient for them.  
      Institutions, too, may benefit from such integrated understanding from relevant data entities. For example, the effectiveness of particular diagnostic systems, imaging systems, imaging protocols, diagnostic evaluation routines (e.g., CAX algorithms) may be evaluated based upon knowledge of certain conditions, symptoms, factors shared by or different between populations, and so forth. The organization of the data entities and the information they represent, however, enables a much more broad understanding of the interactions of factors affecting the use of such institutional tools then does knowledge of a single tool and its effectiveness alone.  
      As a result, institutions may make improvements in the workflow (e.g., order of testing and procedures), and even evaluate what equipment to have available, and how. Similarly, refinements in the equipment, protocols and routines themselves may be made, better informed by such factors as genetic makeup, demographics, test results, examinations and the like, once these can be evaluated by the organizational and analysis techniques discussed above.  
      While only certain features of the invention have been illustrated and described herein, many modifications and changes will occur to those skilled in the art. It is, therefore, to be understood that the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications and changes as fall within the true spirit of the invention.