Patent Publication Number: US-11046949-B2

Title: Method and system for microbial lysis using periodates

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present application pertains to the field of nucleic acid extraction. More particularly, the present application relates to methods and systems for maximizing or improving nucleic acid extraction from microorganisms, such as bacteria, virus, and fungi. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Composition/method to improve the release of nucleic acids from tough microorganisms and viruses. 
     Microorganisms, including bacteria, algae and fungi, are very diverse and live in all parts of the biosphere. Some microorganisms are critical to nutrient recycling and have intimate, mutually beneficial relationships with larger organisms, while others are pathogenic, infecting and sometimes killing the host, namely humans, other animals and plants. Microorganisms, viruses and prions cause diseases such as plague, anthrax, tuberculosis, leprosy, malaria, cholera, typhoid fever, sleeping sickness, tetanus, toxoplamosis, histoplasmosis, botulism, diphtheria, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), influenza, polio, measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis A and B, herpes 1 and 2, yellow fever, dengue fever, rabies, papillomas/cancers (caused by human papilloma virus), adenovirus-mediated respiratory tract infection, and transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (e.g., Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease). 
     Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) or nosocomial infections are infections that patients acquire during the course of receiving healthcare treatment for other conditions or one that develops among hospital staff. The healthcare environment can become highly contaminated with nosocomial pathogens that are able to survive for long periods of time. These preventable infections can be devastating and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. 
     Modern healthcare employs numerous types of invasive devices and procedures to treat patients. Two-thirds of HAIs are associated with the devices used in medical procedures, for example, central-line associated bloodstream infections, catheter-associated urinary tract infections, and ventilator-associated pneumonia. HAIs also may occur at surgery sites and open wounds. In addition, surfaces contaminated with  Clostridium difficile  bacterium and spores can cause gastrointestinal infection and severe illness. Other examples of microorganisms causing HAIs include  Acinetobacter, Burkholderia cepacia, Candida albicans, Clostridium Sordellii , Enterobacteriasceae,  Escherichia coli , Hepatitis A-C, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Influenza,  Klebsiella, Legionella pneumophila , Methicillin-resistant  Staphylococcus aureus  (MRSA),  Mycobacterium abscessus , Norovirus,  Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis , Vancomycin-intermediate and -resistant  Staphylococcus aureus , and  Stenotrophomonas maltophilia . Infections caused by these microorganisms take up scarce health sector resources by prolonging a patient&#39;s stay in hospital. 
     HAIs are a critical public health problem in developed countries. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated roughly 1.7 million HAIs, from all types of microorganisms, including bacteria, combined, cause or contribute to 99,000 deaths each year. Every day in the U.S., about 1 in every 20 hospitalized patients has an infection caused by receiving medical care, according to the CDC. In the U.S. alone, the overall annual direct medical costs of HAI to hospitals (including inpatient hospital services) is approximately $45 billion (based on 2007 data analyzed by the CDC; RD Scott II, 2009). 
     Hospitals have sanitization protocols regarding uniforms, equipment sterilization, washing, and other preventive measures. Thorough hand washing and or use of alcohol rubs by all medical personnel before and after each patient contact is one of the most effective ways to combat some HAIs. Microorganisms on equipment and surfaces can be killed or sterilized through exposure to chemicals, ionizing radiation, dry heat, or steam under pressure. However, hardy microorganisms, such as  Staphylococcus , MRSA and vancomycin-resistant  Enterococcus , are known to survive on ‘touch’ surfaces (e.g., bed rails, telephones, call buttons, floors, bedside curtains, toilets, chairs, door handles, light switches, intravenous poles, counters, stethoscopes, TV remotes, and table tops), as well as in the air and in dust, for extended periods of time. 
     Sanitizing these surfaces is an often overlooked, yet critical, component of breaking the cycle of infection in healthcare environments. Modern sanitizing methods such as Non-flammable Alcohol Vapour in Carbon Dioxide (NAV-CO 2 ) systems have been somewhat effective against gastroenteritis, MRSA, and influenza agents. Also, hydrogen peroxide vapour reduces infection rates, especially effective against endospore-forming bacteria, such as  Clostridium difficile , where alcohol has proven to be ineffective. Hence, to both avoid and combat HAIs, safe and effective antimicrobial agents are desperately needed in hospitals, healthcare facilities, nursing homes, and long-term care facilities to routinely disinfect common touch surfaces, reusable medical devices, and medical/dental equipment. 
     Researchers and infection control experts are calling for more rigorous cleaning protocols and procedures, as well as materials tailored to the different infectious pathogens. Fawley and colleagues (2001) found that some general purpose, detergent-based (ionic and non-ionic surfactants) disinfectants, without adequate disinfection, can actually increase contamination of the environment. Also, a U.S. study (Martinez et al., 2003) concluded that routine 20-30 minute cleaning (using phenolic disinfectant) was not enough to eradicate Vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE) in patients&#39; rooms. It took a more thorough four hour cleaning protocol to eliminate VRE from the medical intensive care unit (ICU). Today, there is demand for a safe, fast, effective, inexpensive, and environmentally sound way of sanitizing equipment, tools and contact surfaces, without the use of toxic or corrosive chemicals. An ideal disinfectant should have a wide antimicrobial spectrum, produce a rapid kill, nontoxic, odourless, should leave an antimicrobial film on treated surfaces, economical, soluble in water, stability, and should not damage the environment. 
     Most medical and surgical devices used in healthcare facilities are made of materials that are heat stable and therefore undergo heat, primarily steam, sterilization. However, since 1950, there has been an increase in medical devices and instruments made of materials that require low-temperature sterilization. Within the past 15 years, a number of new, low-temperature sterilization systems (e.g., ethylene oxide (ETO), hydrogen peroxide gas plasma, peracetic acid immersion, ozone) have been developed and are being used to sterilize medical devices (e.g., surgical instruments, implants, blood culture tubes, hypodermic syringes, biopsy forceps) and dental instruments, as well as to decontaminate microbiological waste. Technologies under development for use in healthcare facilities, but not cleared by the FDA, include vaporized hydrogen peroxide, vapour phase peracetic acid, gaseous chlorine dioxide, ionizing radiation, or pulsed light. To protect patients from infections, while minimizing risks to staff and preserving the value of the items being reprocessed, there is a need for additional new, low-temperature, environmentally-friendly sterilization technologies with excellent microbicidal activity for active microorganisms and spores. 
     Tuberculosis (TB) is a leading infectious disease in humans caused by members of the “ Mycobacterium tuberculosis  complex,” which include, e.g., pathogenic strains of the species  M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. africanum, M. microti, M. cannetti, M. caprae  and  M. pinnipedi. Mycobacterium tuberculosis  (MT) infects about one third of the world&#39;s population, 90% of whom can remain asymptomatic for years following infection. TB is fatal in &gt;50% of the infected population and the emergence of multi-drug resistant (MDR) strains has made diagnosis and treatment of TB a high priority in developing African populations. MT grows slowly, which means that isolation, identification, and drug susceptibility testing of this organism and other clinically important mycobacteria are difficult and can take several weeks or months. If a Biosafety level-3 laboratory it not available in such remote locations, the difficulty in testing is confounded by the need to render the sample non-infectious prior to processing and molecular testing to reduce transmission and disease incidence. However, early and accurate diagnosis of MT infection is critical to isolating the patient, thereby reducing spread of the disease to close contacts, and to ensuring initiation of appropriate and effective treatment. Early administration of antibiotic therapy significantly reduces the severity of the disease, increases remission rates and aims to avoid the development of MDR TB. Current methods suffer from drawbacks associated with difficulty in safely collecting, transporting, stabilizing and/or extracting “good”/representative samples (such as sputum samples) from patients suspected of being infected with MT. 
     Current methods for diagnosis of MT infection using sputum involve collecting the sputum into an empty container, sending the potentially infectious sputum sample to a lab where the container is opened and the sample is treated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NALC). NaOH/NALC is widely used to liquefy sputum and to reduce the background of other microorganisms, while maintaining viability of MT. MT is so hardy that the majority survives this harsh treatment, allowing selective culture of this microorganism. However, MT is very slow growing in vitro which prolongs the time to detection and diagnosis. Following the NaOH/NALC treatment, the MT-containing sediment can be concentrated prior to further processing, including a) the Ziehl-Neelsen stain to identify “acid-fast” bacteria in smears, b) conventional microbial culture methods, and c) molecular-based assays for species identification and antibiotic-resistance profiling. 
     In principle, the use of molecular diagnostic methods avoids the need to culture MT and, consequently, the need to maintain the bacteria in the original sample in a viable state. Furthermore, there is a worldwide need to implement more sensitive and rapid molecular diagnostic tests (using DNA and/or RNA) for tuberculosis than conventional laboratory tests for MT to enable isolation of the patient and earlier initiation of effective therapy. Commercially-available, FDA-approved assays for molecular detection of MT (e.g. Amplicor  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  Test from Roche Diagnostic Systems, Basel, Switzerland and “Enhanced Amplified  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  Direct (E-MTD) Test” from Gen-Probe, San Diego, Calif., U.S.A.) have the advantage of being standardized and reproducible, and exhibit high sensitivity (&gt;95%) and specificity in smear-positive samples. However, one-half of all new cases of pulmonary TB are smear-negative upon initial diagnosis. Unfortunately, the FDA-approved molecular assays also demonstrate low sensitivity (40.0-92.9%, MTD test; 40.0-73.1%, Amplicor test) in smear-negative and non-respiratory samples. Furthermore, the high equipment and test costs limit their implementation in the remote, low-resource settings of developing countries (“Report of an Expert Consultation on the Uses of Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests for the Diagnosis of Tuberculosis,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; “Molecular genetic methods for diagnosis and antibiotic resistance detection of mycobacteria from clinical specimens,” APMIS (2004) 112: 728-752). One means to increase sensitivity of MT detection, and thus accuracy of molecular diagnostic tests, is to increase the efficiency of nucleic acid extraction from a given sample, in particular, DNA and RNA from the pathogenic bacteria in clinical samples. Samples from patients with active and/or dormant infection, especially individuals co-infected with HIV/TB, may contain only a small number of  Mycobacterium  embedded in thick, often ‘solid’, mucus. A highly effective extraction method could revolutionize the diagnosis and treatment of TB by increasing the sensitivity of detection of MT, thereby permitting earlier intervention. 
     The waxy cell wall of Mycobacteria contains mycolic acid, making it difficult to disrupt and greatly reducing the nucleic acid extraction efficiency of most chemical or enzymatic extraction processes. The robust bacterial cell wall hinders both cell lysis and efficient extraction of DNA (Kaser et al., 2009). The clinical market currently lacks an efficient method to extract/isolate nucleic acids from a large number of samples in a form suitable for PCR and other sophisticated molecular analyses, such as microarrays. Physical methods for microbe/cell breakage include mechanical cell disintegration (bead-beating, crushing and grinding, wet milling, ultrasonics, hydraulic shear, freeze pressure), liquid or hydrodynamic shear (French press, Chaikoff press, homogenizers, wet mills, vibration mills, filters, ultrasonic disintegration) and solid shear (grinding, Hughes press). For example, in the E-MTD Test, sonication is used to release mycobacterial rRNA from target cells. Mechanical disruption of bacteria and other microbes (e.g. fungi) produces highly variable release of DNA, very much dependent upon the specific technique used. 
     Compared to mechanical means such as bead-beating, some type of chemical/enzymatic lysis of hardy bacteria/spores in clinical samples would be much easier and safer to integrate into existing high-throughput, automated sample processing systems and workflows. Chemical methods of microbe/cell disintegration are aimed at modifying the cell wall, so cells either become leaky or burst due to the effects of turgor pressure. Methods include osmosis, drying and extraction, autolysis, inhibition of cell wall synthesis, enzyme attack on cell walls, bacteriophages and other lytic factors, and ionizing radiation. 
     Drug-resistance of MT is typically determined using the agar and liquid culture methods, which require six to eight weeks and four to five weeks, respectively, to provide results. Reliable detection of RNA from MT-positive specimens is expected to revolutionize the diagnosis and treatment of TB, in particular, multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR/XDR TB). Rapid detection of drug-resistance using molecular methods takes one to two days which can enable earlier initiation of effective therapy and thereby reduce periods of infectiousness of MDR TB cases by as much as six weeks and improve patient outcomes globally; both of which may have a large impact on efforts to control MDR TB (Ref: “Report of Expert Consultations on Rapid Molecular Testing to Detect Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis in the United States,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 
     Quantitative measurement of MT DNA levels in TB-positive patient specimens is not a reliable marker for successful treatment in the majority of patients, since MT DNA can persist in sputum of TB patients for as long as a year after completion of treatment. In contrast, prokaryotic mRNA has a short half-life and would therefore be predicted to be found only in viable organisms. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a relatively stable RNA target, compared to mRNA, with a substantially longer half-life than mRNA and greater abundance than mRNA, with estimated levels of 100 times that for the total pool of mRNA. Hence, RNA stabilization, extraction and analyses will be especially valuable for diagnosing and treating previously missed smear-negative, TB-positive samples and rapidly measuring the therapeutic margin or effectiveness of new drug regimens or current anti-TB therapies. The rapid disappearance of MT mRNA from sputum of TB-positive patients suggests that it is a good indicator of microbial viability and useful marker for rapid assessment of response to therapy (LE Desjardin et al. “Measurement of sputum  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  messenger RNA as a surrogate for response to chemotherapy” (1999) Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160: 203-210). 
     Currently available ‘non-mechanical’ methods for DNA extraction include ‘Rapid extraction’ (mix sample with lysis buffer including Tris, EDTA and Triton X-100, boil 15 min, precipitation of DNA with isopropanol), ‘Organic extraction’ (mix sample with phenol-chloroform-isoamyl alcohol, DNA precipitated from aqueous layer), ‘Silica-based extraction’ (mix sample with lysis buffer including guanidine thiocyanate, EDTA and Triton X-100, incubate with silica, washes, elute DNA from silica) and magnetic particles, e.g. ‘MagaZorb™’ (mix sample with Proteinase K and lysis buffer, incubate, add binding buffer and magnetic particles, washes, elute DNA from particles). Presently, RNA can be released from MT only by physical or mechanical disruption (e.g. bead-beating) and it is often degraded. 
     This background information is provided for the purpose of making known information believed by the applicant to be of possible relevance to the present invention. No admission is necessarily intended, nor should be construed, that any of the preceding information constitutes prior art against the present invention. 
     SUMMARY 
     An object of the present invention is to provide a method and system for release of DNA and RNA from microbes using periodates. In accordance with an aspect of the present invention, there is provided a composition comprising an oxidizing agent and buffer, wherein the oxidizing agent is periodic acid, periodate or persulfate. 
     In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for extracting nucleic acid from a microorganism comprising mixing a sample suspected of containing the microorganism with an oxidizing agent and heating the resulting mixture, wherein the oxidizing agent is periodic acid, periodate or persulfate. 
     In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided a kit for nucleic acid extraction, wherein the kit comprises (i) an extraction composition comprising periodate or persulfate at a concentration of from about 5 mM to about 300 mM and a buffer at a pH of from about 7 to about 13; and (ii) instructions for use. 
     In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for quantification of total nucleic acid in a sample, comprising (i) treating the sample with an acid and heating the acidified sample; (ii) neutralizing the acidified sample; and (iii) subjecting the neutralized sample to HPLC using a reverse phase column and monitoring the eluent by UV spectroscopy to identify peak corresponding to adenine; (iv) calculating the area under the curves of the adenine peaks as a measure of total nucleic acid in the sample. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
       For a better understanding of the present invention, as well as other aspects and further features thereof, reference is made to the following description which is to be used in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, where: 
         FIG. 1  graphically depicts results from an acid-treatment to release adenine from pure DNA; 
         FIG. 2  graphically depicts results of the release of adenine from the DNA present in a suspension of intact  Bacillus subtilis  cells as a function of acid concentration; 
         FIG. 3  graphically depicts results of a comparison of total DNA detected by the Acid-Extraction method and by the bead-beating method; 
         FIG. 4  is a photograph of an agarose gel showing nucleic acids released from  S. cerevisiae  using compositions of the present application; 
         FIG. 5  is a photograph of an agarose gel showing DNA and RNA released from  Bacillus subtilis  using periodate and heating. 
         FIG. 6  is a photograph of an agarose gel showing DNA and RNA released from  Mycobacterium smegmatis  using periodate and heating. 
         FIG. 7  graphically depicts the detection of  C. botulinum -specific DNA from spores extracted with periodate, compared to commercially-available isolation kit (Roche). 
         FIG. 8  graphically depicts the detection of  C. difficile -specific DNA from spores extracted with periodate, compared to commercially-available isolation kit (Roche). 
         FIG. 9  graphically depicts a comparison of “Periodate” method and the “Standard of Care” method sensitivity of rtPCR. 
         FIG. 10  graphically depicts rtPCR Analysis of Low, Mid and High TB Burdened Sputum Samples. 
         FIG. 11  graphically depicts percentage of aMTB DNA recovered from saliva samples using different extraction methodologies. 
         FIG. 12  is a photograph of an SDS-PAGE of pure pancreatic ribonuclease A treated with periodate. 
         FIG. 13  is a photograph of an SDS-PAGE of  M. smegmatis  lysate treated with periodate. 
         FIG. 14  is a photograph of an agarose gel electrophoresis showing inhibition of RNase A by pre-treatment with periodate. 
         FIG. 15  graphically depicts  B. anthracis  spore viability following standard decontamination and treatment with periodate. 
         FIG. 16  graphically depicts  C. botulinum  spore viability following standard decontamination and treatment with periodate. 
         FIG. 17  graphically depicts  C. difficile  spore viability following standard decontamination and treatment with periodate. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. 
     As used in the specification and claims, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. 
     The term “comprising” as used herein will be understood to mean that the list following is non-exhaustive and may or may not include any other additional suitable items, for example one or more further feature(s), component(s) and/or ingredient(s) as appropriate. 
     The term “sample” as used herein will be understood to mean any specimen that potentially contains a substance of interest, which is optionally a nucleic acid, protein or other biomolecule of interest. The term “sample” can encompass a solution, such as an aqueous solution, cell, tissue, biopsy, powder, or population of one or more of the same. The sample can be a biological sample, such as saliva, sputum, buccal swab sample, serum, plasma, blood, buffy coat, pharyngeal, nasal/nasal pharyngeal or sinus swabs or secretions, throat swabs or scrapings, urine, mucous, feces, rectal swabs, lesion swabs, chyme, vomit, gastric juices, pancreatic juices, gastrointestinal juices, semen/sperm, urethral swabs and secretions, cerebral spinal fluid, products of lactation or menstruation, egg yolk, amniotic fluid, aqueous humour, vitreous humour, cervical secretions or swabs, vaginal fluid/secretions/swabs or scrapings, bone marrow samples and aspirates, pleural fluid and effusions, sweat, pus, tears, lymph, bronchial or lung lavage or aspirates, peritoneal effusions, cell cultures and cell suspensions, connective tissue, epithelium, epithelial swabs and smears, mucosal membrane, muscle tissue, placental tissue, biopsies, exudates, organ tissue, nerve tissue, hair, skin, nails, plants, plant extracts, algae, soil samples, sewage, wastewater, foodstuff, meat-processing equipment swabs or the like. The sample can also be a stabilized or preserved sample, in which an original nucleic acid-containing sample has been mixed or otherwise treated with a storage solution such as found in kits such as, but not limited to, Oragene®⋅DNA Collection Kits, Oragene®⋅RNA Collection Kits, OMNIgene®⋅Discover Infectious Disease Collection Kits, Performagene™⋅LIVESTOCK DNA Collection Kits, and Oragene®⋅Animal DNA Collection Kits, or a composition, such as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,482,116, 8,158,357 and U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010/0099149, each of which are incorporated herein by reference. Preferably, the nucleic acid within such stabilized samples are maintained substantially intact and non-degraded for extended periods of time, e.g., from the point of sample collection, transport to the testing laboratory, and treatment with the present invention. 
     The term “microorganism” as used herein, will be understood to mean any microscopic organisms and spores, including all of the prokaryotes, namely the eubacteria and archaeabacteria, and various forms of eukaryote, comprising the protozoa, fungi (e.g., yeast), algae, and animals such as rotifers and planarians. 
     The term “chelator” as used herein will be understood to mean a chemical that will form a soluble, stable complex with certain metal ions, sequestering the ions so that they cannot normally react with other components. A chelator can be, for example, ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid (EGTA), (2-Hydroxyethyl)ethylenediaminetriacetic acid (HEDTA), diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA), NitriloTriAcetic Acid (NTA), ethylenediaminetriacetic acid (EDTA), cyclohexanediaminetetraacetic acid (CDTA), N,N-bis(carboxymethyl)glycine, citrate anhydrous, sodium citrate, calcium citrate, ammonium citrate, ammonium bicitrate, citric acid, diammonium citrate, ferric ammonium citrate, lithium citrate, or any combination thereof. 
     The term “denaturing agent” as used herein will be understood to mean any chemical that can cause proteins to lose their native secondary and/or tertiary structures. A denaturing agent can be, for example, an anionic detergent, (such as, for example, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), lithium dodecyl sulphate, or sodium lauroyl sulfate (SLS)), a cationic detergent (such as, for example, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), which may be suitable in some nucleic acid applications; cetylpyridinium bromide or alkylbenzyldimethylammonium chloride), or a nonionic detergent (such as, for example, Tween, Triton X, or Brij). 
     The present application provides a method, composition and system for extracting nucleic acid from microorganisms. The present method, composition and system are capable of releasing nucleic acids from microorganisms and spores that are generally resistant to standard nucleic extraction techniques, such as, one or more species of the  Mycobacterium  genus, one or more species of the  M. tuberculosis  complex, MDR strains of  M. tuberculosis , one or more species of  Clostridium , one or more species of  Bacillus , and other microorganisms with hardy cell walls. 
     The present extraction method, composition and system have applications beyond the tuberculosis market. The method, composition and system are useful in human and animal medical diagnostics and research (e.g. population genomics to study microorganism evolution, virulence, drug-resistance, and epidemiology). In addition, many markets/industries are looking for efficient ways to break open tough bugs and spores, including food safety (food/meat processing plants), soil and water sampling (environment testing), biosecurity or biodefence (anthrax spores and other biological weapons), animal feed testing, agriculture/plant science/industry, alcohol production, etc. 
     A new and rapidly expanding research focus is the intestinal microbiota or gut microbiome and the analysis of microbes in stool of healthy and diseased humans. For research and economic reasons, there is also immense interest in the analysis of the thousands of different microorganisms in the rumen of many livestock, especially those animals which are reared for dairy products and meat. 
     The present inventors have surprisingly found that a common laboratory chemical, periodate, used at slightly alkaline pH and elevated temperature, can be used to rapidly and efficiently release nucleic acid from microorganisms, in both vegetative and dormant (e.g., endospores and spores) states. The surprising release of nucleic acid appears to be specific to periodates and, to a lesser degree, persulfates. Related compounds, such as iodate, do not significantly enhance the release of nucleic acids from bacteria or fungi. 
     The present chemical composition and method has the potential to simplify and expedite specimen preparation or processing for the detection of microorganisms, without the need for a cold chain or costly and time-consuming sample decontamination and emulsification. The invention can be used in central labs with high throughput systems or in rural or mobile clinics with minimal laboratory infrastructure and equipment. This utility facilitates epidemiologic and outbreak surveillance, pandemic and epidemic tracking from field samples at the site of collection, as well as for rapid assessment and monitoring of a patient&#39;s response to therapy. 
     The hardy cell wall of  Mycobacterium  consists of a thick, waxy, hydrophobic, mycolate layer and a peptidoglycan layer held together by polysaccharide. To determine if the waxy component of the cell wall could be stripped away, various solvents (e.g., Varsol, DMSO and Hemo-De®) were tried, but no increased release of DNA was observed. Similarly, various detergents (e.g., SDS), formic acid, and borate were tested at elevated temperatures. None of these compounds, even at 100° C., was found to release more than 10% of DNA from Mycobacteria. 
     In addition to releasing a very high fraction of DNA/RNA from microorganisms, the present non-mechanical extraction composition and method may have the further advantage of rendering the samples non-infective, which would be beneficial for the safety of laboratory staff. Surprisingly, under conditions in which essentially the entire DNA is released, the present composition and method may still permit acid-fast staining and microscopic observation of Mycobacteria. In contrast, the inventors observed that yeast quickly disintegrate upon treatment with the present composition and method to the point where they are not capable of further analysis by staining or microscopy. 
     The method and system of the present application is useful in releasing DNA/RNA from bacteria and spores. The bacteria can be, for example,  Mycobacterium tuberculosis , species of the  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  complex,  Mycobacterium smegmatis, Mycobacterium bovis, Mycobacterium africanum, Mycobacterium microti, Mycobacterium canetti, Mycobacterium caprae, Mycobacterium pinnipedi, Mycobacterium marinum, Mycobacterium leprae, Mycobacterium  Lepromatosis,  Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium avium -intra-cellulare,  Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis, Mycobacterium ulcerans, Mycobacterium gordonae, Bacillus species, Bacillus subtilis, Helicobacter pylori, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, Toxoplasma gondii, Streptococcus species, Staphylococcus species, Dientamoeba fragilis, Borrelia burgdorferi  and other species,  Clostridia  species,  Fusobacterium nucleatum, Salmonella species, Campylobacter  species,  Firmicutes  bacteria,  Bartonella  species,  Rickettsia  species,  Yersinia  species,  Francisella  species,  Brucella  species,  Bordetella  species,  Burkholderia  species,  Pseudomonas  species,  Shigella  species,  Chlamydophila  species,  Legionella  species,  Listeria  species,  Corynebacterium  species,  Enterococcus  species,  Escherichia  species,  Haemophilus  species,  Helicobacter  species,  Leptospira  species,  Mycoplasma  species,  Neisseria  species,  Treponema  species, or  Vibrio  species. 
     The method and system of the present application is useful in releasing DNA/RNA from fungi. The fungus can be, for example,  Saccharomyces, Candida, Aspergillus, Histoplasma, Pneumocystis, Stachybotrys  or  Cryptococcus.    
     Periodate Extraction Compositions 
     Periodates can exist in many forms, which include, meta- and ortho-periodate (IO 4   −  and IO 6   −5 , respectively), which are anions formed from iodine and oxygen and are commonly found as salts with potassium (e.g. KIO 4 ) or sodium (e.g. NaIO 4 ). At least four series of periodates are known in aqueous solutions, namely orthoperiodic (H 5 IO 6 ), periodic (HIO 4 ), mesoperiodic (H 3 IO 5 ), and triperiodic (H 7 I 3 O 14 ) acids [N. N. Greenwood and A. Earnshaw,  Chemistry of the Elements,  2 nd    Edition , Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, Chapter 17, pp. 872-875 (1998)]. In solution, periodates can be oxidizing agents and are utilized in molecular biochemistry for the purpose of opening saccharide rings and labelling RNA. Periodate cleaves the bond between adjacent carbon atoms having hydroxyl groups (cis-glycols) in synthetic polymers and natural poly- and monosaccharide, creating two aldehyde groups. These aldehydes can be used in two types of coupling reactions with primary amine- or hydrazide-activated labelling/tags, immobilization supports and cross-linking reagents. Periodic acid is also used in the histological stain, Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS), a staining method used to detect glycogen and other polysaccharides in tissues. To the inventors&#39; knowledge, however, periodate has never been used previously for the extraction of DNA and/or RNA from microorganisms. 
     Periodate extraction compositions are aqueous solutions of periodate that can comprise from about 0.1 mM to about 100 mM, preferably 5 mM to about 30 mM periodate when mixed with the sample, which can be meta-periodate, ortho-periodate or any combination thereof. Compositions having periodate at concentrations as low as 5 mM periodate at slightly alkaline pH, together with heat, release a significant amount of DNA from hardy bacteria and spores, including, without limitation,  Mycobacterium, Clostridium  and  Bacillus  species. Concentrations of periodate up to 25-30 mM in a sample are also successful in efficiently releasing DNA from microorganisms in said sample. Even higher concentrations of periodate are likely to be successful, but undesired side-reactions may occur. The maximum practical solubility of sodium periodate is about 400 mM making it potentially difficult to produce highly concentrated compositions or stock solutions for manufacturing purposes. 
     To circumvent the solubility issues of periodates at high concentrations, they can be added to the composition in the form of periodic acid, which can be neutralized using a base such as NaOH. Alternatively, the periodate is introduced in the form of a periodate salt, such as sodium periodate (also referred to herein as NPI), potassium periodate or lithium periodate. The use of the sodium salt of periodate (NaIO 4 ), is preferred over the potassium and lithium salts because of its higher solubility. Alternatively, sodium persulfate (Na 2 S 2 O 8 ), potassium persulfate and ammonium persulfate can be used to release nucleic acid from microorganisms and spores. 
     While a simple solution of sodium periodate in water and mixed with a sample does extract nucleic acids from microorganisms, the action of periodate is pH dependent. At a pH from about 5 to about 11, DNA and RNA extraction is observed, with RNA integrity better preserved at closer to neutral pH. In certain embodiments, the extraction composition of the present application is buffered to a pH of from about 6.5 to about 11, or from about 8.0 to about 10.5, or from about 9.5 to about 10.5. In one embodiment, to determine the optimal pH range, the extraction composition is buffered using a combination of buffering agents. For example, the composition can be buffered using a combination of phosphoric acid (pKa&#39;s 2.15, 7.20, 12.38), acetic acid (pKa 4.76) and boric acid (pKa 9.24). 
     Optionally, the periodate extraction compositions can comprise additional components, including lithium salts, detergents and/or chelators. In a specific embodiment, the periodate extraction composition additionally comprises LiCl, SDS and/or CDTA. Optionally, the composition additionally comprises glycine or borate as buffering agents. Beneficially, these additional components help to ensure the nucleic acids remain intact during their extraction from microorganisms and processing of biological samples for subsequent downstream molecular tests (e.g. PCR, microarrays). The additional components can also assist in liquefying the sample and conferring stabilization during handling. If the sample is immediately collected into a periodate composition with these additional components, nucleic acids will be optimally preserved from the point of collection, during transport and storage of the sample, allowing processing of the sample to extract nucleic acids, and culminating in the test of interest. 
     Optionally, the extraction composition without periodate containing LiCl, SDS and/or CDTA and/or glycine or borate as buffering agents can be used to preserve nucleic acids in the sample from the point of collection, during transport and storage until nucleic extraction is required. At that point, periodate can be added and processing of the sample to extract nucleic acids can be carried out, culminating in the test of interest. 
     Method of Nucleic Acid Extraction 
     The present application further provides a method of extracting nucleic acid from a sample comprising a microorganism. The method comprises contacting a sample containing microorganism with a composition comprising periodate and heating the resulting mixture. 
     In accordance with particular embodiments, the method comprises the following steps:
         Preparing a suspension of microorganisms: In one example, for example, when the microorganisms are broth cultures of bacteria, the cells are collected by centrifugation and washed (e.g., two times with saline) to remove interfering contaminants that may be present in a complex culture medium. The washed cells (about 5-20×10 8 ) should be well suspended in water (e.g., about 200 μL).   Adding periodate extraction composition: typically an equal volume of extraction composition is mixed with an equal volume of cell suspension (e.g., 200 μL of extraction reagent is mixed with 200 μL of cell suspension).   Heating the suspension: The heating step is usually performed with the suspension from the previous step in a closed tube. Typically the heating step is performed at a temperature of 45° C. or higher, or at a temperature from about 50° C. to about 100° C., and a time from about 15 min to about 60 minutes. Longer times and higher temperatures can be more effective in releasing DNA, but the released DNA may be partially degraded. Almost 100% release of DNA from periodate-treated  Mycobacterium smegmatis  occurs with heating at 80° C. for about 20 min, with minimal DNA degradation.       

     In a specific embodiment, the sample is first treated with a stabilization or pretreatment composition prior to addition of the periodate extraction composition. In one example of such a method, the following steps can be performed: 
     1) collecting a sample, such as a sputum sample, (for example, in a remote setting) in a stabilization reagent such as Oragene® or OMNIgene®, which stabilizes nucleic acid under ambient conditions; 
     2) transporting the stabilized sample to a laboratory with no requirement for cold chain (e.g., no refrigeration); 
     3) adding the periodate composition to the stabilized sample and heating to rapidly and effectively release substantially all nucleic acids from tough microorganisms (e.g.,  M. tuberculosis ) and spores and to render the sample non-infectious; 
     4) rapidly, cost-effectively, processing the treated sample to isolate the nucleic acid released in step 3; and, optionally, 
     5) performing one or more diagnostic tests using the released nucleic acid. 
     As a result of the improved release of nucleic acid in comparison to existing technologies, the present periodate treatment can lead to increased sensitivity of diagnostic tests and more accurate diagnosis or determination of the effectiveness of treatment regimens. 
     The present application further provides a kit for DNA extraction. The kit includes an extraction composition comprising periodate at a concentration of from about 5 mM to about 30 mM and a buffer at a pH of from about 7 to about 13. As described above, the extraction composition can comprise additional components, including a lithium salt, a denaturing agent and/or a chelator. The kit can additionally comprise instructions for performing the above described extraction method, a reagent container(s) and/or a sample receiving container. 
     Method for Decontamination/Disinfection 
     The present application further provides a method for decontaminating or disinfecting a surface, for example, of a device, instrument or structure. The method comprises contacting a surface with a composition comprising periodate and heating the surface. 
     As has been demonstrated herein, the method of treating a microorganism with a composition comprising periodate and heat results in release of DNA from the microorganism. A consequence of this release of DNA is that the microorganism is no longer viable. Example 12 below demonstrates the ability of the present periodate composition plus heat to render three hardy bacteria non-viable. 
     Typically the heating step in the method of decontaminating or disinfecting is performed at a temperature of 45° C. or higher, or at a temperature from about 50° C. to about 100° C., and a time from about 15 min to about 60 minutes. Longer times and higher temperatures can also be used in the present method as they can be more effective in releasing DNA and decontaminating or disinfecting the surface. Heat can be applied to the surface using various means, such as, but not limited to, heat lamps, radiant heating systems and ovens. 
     Method for Quantification of Total DNA in a Microbial Suspension 
     The present application provides a method for quantitation of total DNA in a sample, including a microbiological sample. This method is used to establish the total amount of DNA in a sample to be used as a reference to calculate the efficiency of release of DNA by the compositions described herein. 
     It is well known that exposure to relatively mild acid conditions can cause DNA degradation (breaks in the backbone). Degradation occurs in two steps. First, acid catalyzes depurination of the DNA, i.e., release of the purine nucleobases (adenine and guanine), but not the pyrimidine nucleobases (thymine and cytosine). The result is a fairly stable structure called apurinic acid. Eventually, the backbone breaks at apurinic sites by 3-elimination, releasing deoxyribose and phosphate; this process is hastened by treatment with alkali or certain catalysts [e.g., K. Burton, M. R. Lunt, G. B. Petersen, J. C. Siebke, Studies of Nucleotide Sequences in Deoxyribonucleic Acid,  Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Quantitative Biology , vol. 28, pp. 28-34 (1963)]. 
     In contrast, depurination of RNA by mild acid treatment has not previously been studied in any detail. It is generally understood that purines of RNA is more stable than of DNA, but a side-by-side comparison has not been made. Conversely, it is known that RNA is easily degraded by treatment with mild alkali, whereas the backbone of DNA is very stable under these conditions [(e.g., G. Schmidt and S. J. Thannhauser, A method for the determination of deoxyribonucleic acid, ribonucleic acid, and phosphoproteins in animal tissues.  Journal of Biological Chemistry  vol. 161, pp. 83-89 (1945)]. Alkali-catalysed breakdown of the RNA backbone proceeds in two steps. First, the phosphodiester bond linking the ribose 3′-hydroxyl of one nucleotide to the 5′-hydroxyl of the neighbouring nucleotide is transferred (not broken) to the 2′-hydroxyl of the first nucleotide. This results in chain scission without hydrolytic cleavage of a phosphoester bond. The resultant 2′, 3′-cyclic phosphodiester is relatively stable, but it can be slowly cleaved on further treatment with alkali to either the 2′-phosphomonoester or 3′-phosphomonoester with approximately equal frequency. Under these conditions, the DNA backbone is very stable, since its sugar (deoxyribose) lacks a 2′-hydroxyl adjacent to the 3′-hydroxyl so the facile first step, formation of a 2′, 3′-cyclic phosphodiester, is not possible. 
     Although the scientific literature contains general background information about the reactions described above, detailed, specific conditions of acid treatment that produce near-quantitative depurination of DNA, while causing little or no depurination of RNA, have not previously been described. 
     Having well-defined conditions under which adenine and guanine are quantitatively released from DNA, but not from RNA, has great utility. It allows for sensitive and reproducible quantification of DNA in complex biological samples and microorganisms, something that is at present difficult, with no amplification steps prior to detection. For example, sample preparation and DNA purification are necessary first steps before assay methods such as UV absorbance or fluorescent DNA-binding dyes can be applied. Chemical methods based upon diphenylamine or DABA (diaminobenzoic acid) are subject to interference by compounds in biological samples, including complex polysaccharides [G. M. Richards, Modifications of the diphenylamine reaction giving increased sensitivity and simplicity in the estimation of DNA. Analyt. Biochem. 57, 369-376 (1974); J. M. Kissane, E. Robins, The fluorometric measurement of deoxyribonucleic acid in animal tissues with special reference to the central nervous system. J. Biol. Chem. 233, 184-188 (1958)]. Surprisingly, there is currently no simple, precise method to determine the amount of DNA (or RNA) present in a suspension of intact, unprocessed microorganisms. Having such information is critical to determining the efficiency by which any existing or novel method or composition actually releases DNA from a suspension of organisms. Efficiency of extraction (E) is defined as amount of DNA extracted by a treatment (DNAe) divided by the total amount of DNA initially present in the untreated sample (DNAt). 
             E   =       DNA   ⁢           ⁢   e       DNA   ⁢           ⁢   t             
The presently described Acid-Extraction/HPLC method was developed to allow such determination.
 
     Accordingly, the present application provides a method for determination of total DNA in a sample. The method is described in detail in Example 1 below. Generally, the method comprises the step of heating a nucleic acid containing sample with HCl (an “acid hydrolysis” step), or another acid (such as, for example, concentrated formic acid), followed by neutralization of the sample prior to HPLC analysis using a reverse phase HPLC column (e.g., Gemini-NX column). The mobile phase can be selected from various solvents or mixtures of solvents based on the specific column used, etc. Selection of the appropriate mobile phase would be within the standard abilities of a worker skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the mobile phase is 2% methanol, 1 mM CDTA, 30 mM ammonium acetate, adjusted to pH 6.3 with sodium monophosphate. Optionally, the method additionally comprises a step to allow quantification of RNA. To determine the amount of RNA in a sample, NaOH is added, after the step of heating the sample with HCl, to an excess of 0.1 N over the amount of HCl added and incubated at 100° C. for 15 minutes. 
     The Area Under the Curve (“AUC”) for HPLC peaks corresponding to adenine (representing DNA) and to 2′ or 3′ adenosine monophosphate (2′- and 3′-AMP) (representing RNA) was calculated using TotalChrom Navigator software (Perkin Elmer). Standard curves can be generated using known concentrations of these pure analytes (adenine from Alfa Aesar; 2′-3′-AMP (mixture) from Sigma-Aldrich). 
     To gain a better understanding of the invention described herein, the following examples are set forth. It should be understood that these examples are for illustrative purposes only. Therefore, they should not limit the scope of this invention in any way. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1: Acid-Extraction HPLC Method for Measuring Total DNA in a Sample 
     Table 1 outlines details of the Acid-Extraction/HPLC Method developed by the present inventors to precisely measure the total amount of nucleic acid in raw or unprocessed microorganisms/samples, as well as nucleic acids released from such microorganisms/samples resulting from treatment with the invention. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Typical protocol for releasing nucleic acids from hardy microbes using  
               
               
                 the presently described extraction method and for  
               
               
                 measuring DNA and RNA in intact and treated microbes 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 1.  
                 Prepare 
                 For bacterial cultures, cells should be collected by centrifugation  
               
               
                   
                 suspension  
                 and washed twice with saline to remove interfering contaminants  
               
               
                   
                 of 
                 that may be present in complex culture medium and cellular .  
               
               
                   
                 microbes or 
                 debris The washed cells (about 5-20 × 10 8 ) should be well- 
               
               
                   
                 sample 
                 dispersed in 200 μL water. For determining the total amount of  
               
               
                   
                   
                 nucleic acids in untreated bacteria, remove a known aliquot  
               
               
                   
                   
                 of the washed cell suspension and proceed to step 5. 
               
               
                 2. 
                 Add bacter- 
                 Typically, an equal volume of invention/reagent (200 μL) is  
               
               
                   
                 ial lysing  
                 mixed with 200 μL of cell suspension. 
               
               
                   
                 reagent 
                   
               
               
                 3. 
                 Heat the 
                 Typically, temperatures of 50° C. to 100° C. and times of 15 to  
               
               
                   
                 suspension  
                 60 minutes are used. Longer times and higher temperatures  
               
               
                   
                 in a 
                 may be more effective in releasing DNA, but the released  
               
               
                   
                 closed tube 
                 DNA may be more degraded. Over 90% DNA can  
               
               
                   
                   
                 be released from  Mycobacterium   smegmatis  with 80° C. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 incubation for 20 min, with little DNA degradation. 
               
               
                 4. 
                 Centrifuge, 
                 Centrifuge the suspension at 14,000 rpm for 4-10 minutes.  
               
               
                   
                 discard  
                 Keep supernatant and discard the pellet of insoluble material. 
               
               
                   
                 pellet, 
                   
               
               
                   
                 and retain 
                   
               
               
                   
                 supernatant 
                   
               
               
                 5. 
                 Acid 
                 Add HCl to supernatant fractions (which contain a pH buffer)  
               
               
                   
                 hydrolysis 
                 to final concentration of 0.25N. For suspension of  
               
               
                   
                   
                 untreated bacteria from step 1, add HCl to 0.20N. 
               
               
                 6. 
                 Heat 
                 Incubate at 60° C. for 60 minutes. Vortex during incubation  
               
               
                   
                   
                 at 0, 30 and 60 minutes. 
               
               
                 7. 
                 (Optional) 
                 Where required to determine the amount of RNA in a sample,  
               
               
                   
                   
                 add NaOH to an excess of 0.1N over the amount  
               
               
                   
                   
                 of HCl added and incubate at 100° C. for 15 minutes. 
               
               
                 8. 
                 Centrifuge, 
                 Cool samples to room temperature, Centrifuge at  
               
               
                   
                 discard 
                 14,000 rpm for 4-10 minutes to remove  
               
               
                   
                 pellet, 
                 colloidal material and obtain a clear supernatant. 
               
               
                   
                 and retain 
                 Retain supernatant and discard the pellet of insoluble material. 
               
               
                   
                 supernatant 
                   
               
               
                 9. 
                 Neutralize 
                 Neutralize each supernatant with ADA buffer (N-(2- 
               
               
                   
                 supernatant 
                 Acetamido)iminodiacetic acid) or HCl (if NaOH was  
               
               
                   
                   
                 added) to approximately pH 6.3. 
               
               
                 10. 
                 Analyze by 
                 Analyze samples by reverse phase-HPLC (High-Pressure  
               
               
                   
                 HPLC 
                 Liquid Chromatography). A Perkin Elmer series 200  
               
               
                   
                   
                 system with Series 225 auto-sampler and with UV  
               
               
                   
                   
                 detection at 260 nm was used. The column was a reverse  
               
               
                   
                   
                 phase Gemini-NX column (Phenomenex). The mobile phase 
               
               
                   
                   
                 contained 2% methanol, 1 mM CDTA, 30 mM ammonium  
               
               
                   
                   
                 acetate, adjusted to pH 6.3 with sodium monophosphate.  
               
               
                   
                   
                 Samples (40 μL) were injected. The Area Under the Curve  
               
               
                   
                   
                 (“AUC”) for peaks corresponding to adenine (representing  
               
               
                   
                   
                 DNA) and to 2′ or 3′ adenosine monophosphate (2′-  
               
               
                   
                   
                 and 3′-AMP) (representing RNA) was calculated using  
               
               
                   
                   
                 TotalChrom Navigator software (Perkin Elmer).  
               
               
                   
                   
                 Standard curves were generated using known  
               
               
                   
                   
                 concentrations of these pure analytes (adenine from Alfa  
               
               
                   
                   
                 Aesar; 2′-and 3′-AMP from Sigma-Aldrich). 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 1A: Pure DNA. Optimal Acid-Extraction Conditions for Complete Release of Adenine from DNA 
     In this example, the amount of adenine released from pure genomic DNA by acid treatment for different periods of time was measured. Four hundred and sixty nanograms of pure canine DNA (Novagen) was subjected to the Acid-Extraction Method for the indicated times at 60° C. The results are shown in  FIG. 1 . The error bars indicate the SEM of triplicate samples. 
     The results indicate that a 60 minute period of incubation at 60° C. is sufficient to release the maximum amount of adenine from DNA. The vast majority of adenine is released by 40 minutes and no further adenine is released by 80 minutes of treatment, indicating complete depurination of adenine by 60 minutes. 
     Example 1B: Optimal Acid Concentration for Release of Adenine from Intact Bacterial Cells 
       Bacillus subtilis  cells were incubated 60 minutes at 60° C. with different concentrations (Normal) of HCl as shown in  FIG. 2 . Error bars, average and range of duplicates; where no error bars are shown, the value of the ranges are within the symbols. 
     The results indicate that the maximal release of adenine from intact  B. subtilis  cells occurs with an HCl concentration in the range of about 0.20-0.25 N. 
     Example 1C. CFU Method to Estimate DNA Content Compared to Acid-Extraction HPLC Method 
     This experiment was designed to compare the amount of DNA present in a bacterial culture by counting the number of bacterial cells (as estimated by Colony Forming Units (CFU)) with the amount of DNA calculated from the AUC for adenine using the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method. 
     The CFU Method is a classical method used to estimate the number of viable bacterial cells in a sample. However, it is time-consuming and has theoretical limitations. Bacteria typically grow in small clumps. Therefore, what is scored as a visible “colony” of bacteria can actually arise either from a single cell or from a clump of 2 or more cells. Also, any non-viable cells in a culture will contain DNA but will not form colonies. These two factors tend to underestimate the actual number of bacterial cells in a suspension. From estimates of cell number and “literature” knowledge of DNA per cell, the total amount of DNA in a cell suspension can be calculated. 
     By contrast, the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method is a direct, chemical method for estimating the total amount of DNA in a cell suspension. The inventors developed this method primarily to demonstrate the effectiveness of the invention for releasing nucleic acids from hardy microorganisms and spores. The method (outlined in detail above) is based upon the release of purines from DNA and extraction of adenine from cells, and then the detection and quantification of adenine using HPLC. A known amount of adenine can be converted to a known amount of DNA from the base composition of the DNA. For example, the conversion factor from adenine to DNA is 10, for DNA having a GC content of 48%. 
     This example compares the CFU and Acid-Extraction HPLC Methods for their ability to measure DNA in a suspension of  Bacillus subtilis . To estimate CFU, a suspension of log phase bacteria (grown in tryptic soy broth (TSB)) was washed with a solution of cold 25 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, pH 7.6 and split into 2 portions. One portion was serially diluted in TSB, in triplicate, and spread on the surface of a tryptic soy agar plate. After 18 hours growth at 37° C., the number of visible colonies was enumerated. The other portion was split into three tubes and centrifuged. The pellets were brought up in 200 μL of 0.2 N HCl, incubated at 60° C. for 60 minutes, neutralized with ADA, and analyzed by HPLC. 
     From published genome sequence data, the genome size for  Bacillus subtilis  was taken to be 4880 ng/10 9  cells. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Standard CFU Method 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 CFU, at 10 −7   
                 CFU, at 10 −6   
               
               
                   
                 Sample 
                 dilution 
                 dilution 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 1 
                 19 
                 255 
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 27 
                 263 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 32 
                 279 
               
               
                   
                 CFU of the original  
                 2.6 × 10 8   
                 2.7 × 10 8   
               
               
                   
                 culture (Average) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Acid-Extraction HPLC Method 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Ade  
                 Total 
                 No. of Bacteria  
               
               
                   
                 AUC*, 
                 concentration 
                 DNA  
                 calculated assuming  
               
               
                 Sample 
                 ade** 
                 (nmoles/mL) 
                 (ng) 
                 4880 ng/10 9  cells 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1 
                 204.92 
                 3.963 
                 1556 
                 3.2 × 10 8   
               
               
                 2 
                 217.47 
                 4.214 
                 1655 
                 3.4 × 10 8   
               
               
                 3 
                 208.55 
                 4.036 
                 1585 
                 3.3 × 10 8   
               
               
                 Average 
                 210.31 
                 4.071 
                 1599 
                 3.3 × 10 8   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *AUC, Area under the curve, 
               
               
                 **ade, adenine 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The CFU and Acid-Extraction HPLC Methods provided very similar estimates of bacterial counts in a pure culture of  B. subtilis . The Acid-Hydrolysis HPLC Method provided about a 20% higher estimate, which is in keeping with the expected underestimate of cell number by the CFU method discussed above. This example supports the notion that the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method effectively releases adenine from intracellular DNA, allowing its detection by HPLC. 
     Example 1D: Lysozyme/Detergent Method to Estimate DNA Content Compared to Acid-Extraction HPLC Method 
     This experiment was designed to compare the amount of DNA released from Gram-positive (i.e., lysozyme-sensitive)  B. subtilis  by an enzymatic lysis method with the amount of DNA measured in intact cells using the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method. Gram-positive organisms such as  B. subtilis  are known to be very sensitive to lysis by treatment with the enzyme lysozyme followed by treatment with SDS (e.g., B. M. Chassy. A gentle method for the lysis of oral streptococci. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 68: 603-608 (1976)). Lysozymes are glycoside hydrolases that function by attacking peptidoglycans found in the cell walls of bacteria, especially Gram-positive bacteria. If the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method is indeed effective, the amount of adenine released by acid treatment of whole cells and detected by HPLC should be similar to the amount released by lysis of cells with lysozyme plus SDS. 
     Lysozyme Protocol: 
     
         
         
           
               Bacillus subtilis  was grown to exponential phase in 1 mL of LB broth and harvested by centrifugation. 
             Cells were washed in ice-cold TE buffer (10 mM Tris, 1 mM EDTA, pH 8.0). The pellet was brought up in 1 mL TE buffer, split into four aliquots and washed once more with TE. 
             Two of the pellets were resuspended in 950 μL of lysozyme (1 mg/mL in TE), and incubated 45 minutes at 37° C. 
             50 μL of 10% SDS was added to a final concentration of 0.5%. 
             SDS was removed by addition of KCl (final concentration 0.1 M), incubation at 0° C. for 5 minutes and centrifugation for 5 minutes. The supernatants were transferred to fresh tubes; the pellets were discarded. 
             Samples were subjected to the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method. 
             The remaining two untreated pellets were brought up in 500 μL H 2 O and subjected to the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method. 
           
         
       
    
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Acid-Extraction HPLC Method Detects the Same  
               
               
                 Amount of DNA in Intact  B.   subtilis  Cells as is Released  
               
               
                 after Lysozyme/SDS-Treatment of the Same Cells 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 
                   B. 
                   subtilis 
                 
                   
                 Corrected  
                 AUC  
               
               
                 cell suspension 
                 AUC, 
                 for 
                 (average), 
               
               
                 treated with: 
                 adenine 
                 dilution 
                 adenine 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Lysozyme/SDS 
                 189* 
                 193* 
                 378 
                 386 
                 382.0 
               
               
                 Acid-Extraction HPLC 
                 376  
                 395  
                 376 
                 396 
                 385.5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *replicate samples 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The amount of adenine released from intact  B. subtilis  by acid-treatment was essentially identical to the amount of adenine released by lysozyme/SDS treatment, a procedure expected to release 100% of the DNA by lysis of 100% of the cells. This provides strong evidence that the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method is a very effective tool for determining the amount of DNA in intact, Gram-positive bacterial cells. 
     Example 1E: Bead Beating Method to Estimate DNA Content Compared to Acid-Extraction HPLC Method from  Bacillus subtilis    
     This study was performed in order to compare the initial amount of DNA in intact bacterial cells (estimated by the Acid-Extraction HPLC method) to the amount of DNA released from the same bacteria using a ‘bead-beating’ method. The procedure used for the Acid-Extraction HPLC was as described above. The procedure used for the Bead-Beating method is summarized below:
         Multiple 2 mL aliquots of  B. subtilis  stationary phase culture were harvested by centrifugation and washed twice by centrifugation in a cold solution of 25 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, pH 7.6 (TBS).   Bead-beating was performed in a Mini-BeadBeater-16 (BioSpec) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. In brief, washed bacterial pellets were suspended in 500 μL of TBS and transferred to a screw-cap polypropylene microtube containing about 100 μL of 100 m glass beads (Polyscience).   The tube was secured to the instrument and vigorous agitation was performed in two 1-minute cycles at 3,450 oscillations/minute. The sample was cooled on ice for 1 minute between cycles.   The suspension was transferred to a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube and unbroken cells and debris were removed by centrifugation 5 minutes, 14,000 rpm in a microcentrifuge.   The supernatant was removed and HCl was added to a final concentration of 0.2 N. Samples were incubated for 60 minutes at 60° C.   To compare the amount of DNA in intact cells to the cell lysate generated by bead-beating, an aliquot of intact  B. subtilis  cells was incubated in 0.2 N HCl for 60 minutes at 60° C. (the Acid-Extraction method).   All samples were centrifuged 4 minutes, 14,000 rpm to remove debris and a 40 μL portion was applied to a reverse phase Gemini-NX column (Phenomenex) and analysed by HPLC.       

     The results of this study are provided in  FIG. 3 . The error bars represent the range of duplicate analyses. 
     Although it is commonly assumed that “bead-beating” is highly efficient at disrupting bacterial cells and releasing DNA, this is not necessarily the case. This experiment provides additional evidence that the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method provides a truer and more consistent representation than bead-beating of the actual amount of DNA in the initial cell suspension. In other experiments, the amount of DNA released by bead-beating has ranged up to 100%, that is, in an amount equal to the acid-extraction method. Because it provides variable results, the bead beating method is not a reliable way to estimate the amount of DNA present in a suspension of intact bacterial cells. 
     Example 2: Comparison of Periodate to Other Per-Halogenated and Oxidizing Compounds 
     In this example, a series of per-halogenated and oxidizing compounds were evaluated for their effectiveness at releasing nucleic acids from bacterial cells. Sodium (meta)periodate, sodium perborate tetrahydrate, sodium perchlorate, sodium persulfate (each at 15 mM) were used to treat aliquots of a suspension of  Bacillus subtilis  vegetative cells (i.e., not spores). Following a 20-minute incubation at 70° C., with or without the test compounds, the supernatant fractions of each suspension (as well as the untreated bacterial cells) were subjected to the Acid-Hydrolysis HPLC Method and the percentage of DNA released from the bacteria by each treatment was calculated. 
     Experimental Method and Materials 
     
         
         
           
             Prepared BD buffer (2% SDS, 5 mM Li-CDTA, 250 mM LiCl, 50 mM glycine, pH 10.5). 
             300 mM stock solutions of test compounds were freshly prepared in distilled water for each of the following: sodium (meta)periodate (Sigma-Aldrich, Cat. No. S-1878), sodium perborate tetrahydrate (Sigma-Aldrich, Cat. No. 71840), sodium perchlorate (Sigma-Aldrich, Cat. No. 410241), and sodium persulfate (Sigma-Aldrich, Cat. No. 216232). 
             A 10-fold dilution of each stock solution from the above step was made by transferring 100 μL (or 100 μL of water for negative control) to five tubes containing 0.8 mL of BD buffer. 
             Working Test Solutions. Water (100 μL) was added to each tube to bring the final concentration of each stock solution to 30 mM in 80% BD buffer. 
             Washed pellets were prepared from equal volumes of a suspension of stationary phase  Bacillus subtilis.    
             Each pellet was suspended in 300 μL of water. 
             An equal volume (300 μL) of each Working Test Solution, (i.e., 30 mM sodium (meta)periodate, sodium perborate tetrahydrate, sodium perchlorate, or sodium persulfate in 80% BD buffer or water (negative control)) was added to each bacterial suspension and mixed well. 
             The mixtures were heated at 70° C. for 20 minutes. 
             Following heating, each mixture was centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 4 minutes. The supernatant was retained. The pellet of insoluble material was discarded. 
             Hydrochloric acid was added to supernatant fractions to a final concentration of 0.2 N. 
             The mixture was heated at 60° C. for 60 minutes. 
             A 150 μL aliquot of each sample was neutralized with 100 μL of ADA buffer, pH 8.0. 
             Each sample was then analyzed by HPLC to determine the AUC for adenine. Three washed pellets of untreated cells (step 5) were subjected directly to the Acid-Hydrolysis HPLC Method to determine the total amount of DNA (adenine) in each bacterial pellet. 
           
         
       
    
     Results 
     The results are summarized in Table 5, below: 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Comparison of DNA Released from  B .  subtilis  by Per-halogenated and  
               
               
                 Oxidizing Compounds. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Control  
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 (no reagent) 
                 Periodate 
                 Perborate 
                 Perchlorate 
                 Persulfate 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 % 
                   
                 % 
                   
                 % 
                   
                 % 
                   
                 % 
               
               
                   
                 AUC, 
                 DNA 
                 AUC, 
                 DNA 
                 AUC, 
                 DNA 
                 AUC, 
                 DNA 
                 AUC, 
                 DNA 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 Ade 
                 release 
                 Ade 
                 release 
                 Ade 
                 release 
                 Ade 
                 release 
                 Ade 
                 release 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 79 
                 6.2 
                 594 
                 46.6 
                 70 
                 5.5 
                 79 
                 6.2 
                 202 
                 15.9 
               
               
                 2 
                 89 
                 7.0 
                 611 
                 48.0 
                 80 
                 6.3 
                 85 
                 6.7 
                 187 
                 14.7 
               
               
                 3 
                 89 
                 7.0 
                 476 
                 37.4 
                 82 
                 6.4 
                 81 
                 6.4 
                 182 
                 14.3 
               
               
                 Average 
                 85.7 
                 6.7% 
                 560.3 
                 44.0% 
                 77.3 
                 6.1% 
                 81.7 
                 6.4% 
                 190.3 
                 15.0% 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Conclusion 
     Of the 4 compounds tested at a single concentration (15 mM), only sodium (meta)periodate and sodium persulfate released more DNA than the control: 44% and 15% of the total DNA from  Bacillus subtilis , respectively. In contrast, the other per-halogenated/oxidizing compounds released no more DNA than the control (6.7%). 
     This example demonstrates that persulfate can also function to increase nucleic acid release in a manner similar to periodate. 
     Example 3: Effect of pH on Periodate Extraction 
     In testing the effectiveness and dose-dependence of NPI (sodium (meta)periodate) across a range of pH it was necessary to consider various factors including (i) potential reaction of NPI with the buffer itself (ii) different forms of NPI may exist at different pH values (e.g., metaperiodate, orthoperiodate) and (iii) NPI has reduced solubility at elevated pH. 
     For these studies, a buffer system was used comprising 3 different buffering weak acids covering a range of pKa values and adjusted to the desired pH with a single base. The acids (pKa values) were phosphoric acid (2.15, 7.20, 12.38), acetic acid (4.76) and boric acid (9.24). The initial solution of combined acids (20 mM each) had a pH of 1.9 (Table 6) (referred to herein as “PAB” buffer solutions). PAB buffer solutions were adjusted with 5 N NaOH to attain the desired pH values for experimentation (Table 7). 
     PAB buffer solutions at pH 3.7, 5.5, 7.4 and 9.4 were tested alone and in combination with NPI at three different concentrations (6, 12 and 18 mM final). The buffer, with or without the NPI, was added to pellets of washed  Mycobacterium smegmatis . Three different concentrations of NPI were tested to determine whether a dose-response exists in this concentration range for the release of DNA from bacterial cells. Thus,  M. smegmatis  cells were heated with PAB buffer solutions containing different concentrations of NPI over a range of pH values to measure the amount of DNA released using the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method described herein. 
     PAB Buffer Solutions 
     The components listed in Table 6 were mixed and the resulting mixture was stirred overnight to allow the boric acid to fully dissolve. The initial pH was measured at 1.9. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Composition of the PAB Buffer System 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 PAB Buffer System 
                 Formula Weight &amp; 
                   
                 Final 
               
               
                 Chemicals 
                 Concentration 
                 Amount 
                 Concentration 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 o-Phosphoric acid 
                 F.W. 98;  
                 0.465 mL 
                 20 mM 
               
               
                 (85%) 
                 Density 1.685 
                 (0.78 grams 
                   
               
               
                 Glacial acetic acid 
                 17.4N 
                  0.46 mL 
                 20 mM 
               
               
                 Boric acid powder 
                 F.W. 61.8 
                 0.494 grams 
                 20 mM 
               
               
                 Water 
                   
                 to 200 mL 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Final pH Values of PAB Buffer System Solutions 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 PAB Buffer 
                 Adjust with 5N 
               
               
                   
                 System Solutions 
                 NaOH to desired pH 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 PAB buffer 3.7 
                 3.7 
               
               
                   
                 PAB buffer 5.5 
                 5.5 
               
               
                   
                 PAB buffer 7.4 
                 7.4 
               
               
                   
                 PAB buffer 9.4 
                 9.4 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Following preparation, the PAB buffer solutions were stored at 4° C. 
     Experimental Method 
     Fresh working solutions (PAB buffer solutions±NPI) were prepared by addition of 0, 20, 40 or 60 μL of 300 mM NPI stock (in water) to 1,000, 980, 960 or 940 μL (respectively) of each PAB buffer solution. The working solutions were used within 3 hours of preparation. 
     Washed pellets were prepared from equally distributed, washed suspensions of  Mycobacterium smegmatis  (where water was used for the last wash). 
     Each pellet was suspended in 200 μL of PAB buffer solutions±NPI (6, 12 and 18 mM final), in triplicate. The resulting mixture was heated at 70° C. for 20 minutes. 
     The mixture was centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 4 minutes. The supernatant was retained and the pellet of insoluble material was discarded. 
     HCl was added to supernatant fractions to final concentration of 0.2 N. The acidified fractions were heated for 60 minutes at 60° C. 
     Each 150 μL sample was neutralized with 100 μL of ADA buffer (N-(2-acetamido)iminodiacetic acid), pH 8.0. The samples were then analyzed by HPLC. 
     Results 
     The results are summarized in Tables 8 and 9 below. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Release of DNA into the Supernatant from  M. smegmatis  Cells Treated with NPI as 
               
               
                 a Function of pH* 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *Bacteria treated with PAB buffer solutions without and with 6, 12 and 18 mM NPI (final) at the indicated pH and with heat prior to analysis of DNA released using the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method described herein. Results of each replicate analysis are shown. 
               
               
                 **AUC (area under the curve) for adenine is a measure of the amount of DNA released by the indicated treatment at the indicated pH and measured by HPLC. 
               
               
                 ***The percentage of DNA released is calculated from the average AUC for adenine released into the supernatant under each pH condition and concentration of NPI, divided by the  average  amount of adenine that is acid-extracted from untreated bacteria (Table 9). 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 9 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Amount of DNA in 3 Replicate Pellets of  M. smegmatis  Cells used in the 
               
               
                 Experiment of Table 8. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 **AUC (area under the curve) for adenine, a measure of the amount of DNA present in the pellet of untreated cells 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Conclusions 
     A 3-component buffering system was employed to demonstrate the pH-dependent effect on NPI-mediated release of DNA from  Mycobacterium smegmatis . In the absence of NPI, 2.1-11.5% of DNA was released from  M. smegmatis  during a 20-minute incubation at 70° C. In contrast, the addition of even a low concentration of NPI (6 mM) to the buffer solutions markedly increased the percentage of total DNA released from the same microbes by approximately 9-fold to 37.4-59.4%, in a pH-dependent manner. Surprisingly, increasing the concentration of NPI from 6 mM to 12 mM and even 18 mM lead to only a modest additional release of DNA from bacteria; this was observed only at neutral and alkaline pH values. 
     Example 4: Release of Nucleic Acids from Spores Using Periodate 
       Bacillus subtilis  is a Gram-positive bacterium that can change from a growing, vegetative state to an extremely hardy non-dividing spore, allowing the organism to survive extreme environmental conditions. In general, spores are very resistant to heat (able to survive at 100° C. for several hours), dessication, UV radiation and oxidizing agents. Sporulation is essentially triggered by a lack of nutrients. The bacterium divides in an asymmetric manner resulting in the formation of a single endospore containing the bacterium&#39;s genomic DNA surrounded by a very tough outer wall. In this state, the bacterium can lie in a dormant but viable state for extended periods of time, even centuries. Under favourable environmental conditions, the endospore can be reactivated and revert to the growing (vegetative) state. 
     Bacterial spores are considered to be amongst the most difficult cell types to break open. Common anti-bacterial agents that destroy vegetative cells, such as household disinfectants (e.g., alcohols, detergents, quaternary ammonium compounds) do not kill endospores. The spore coat is not sensitive to lysozyme. In this example, the efficacy of sodium (meta)periodate for releasing nucleic acids from  Bacillus subtilis  spores was demonstrated. 
     Preparation of Spores 
     Single colonies of  B. subtilis  were grown in 2 mL Luria Broth (LB) overnight at 37° C. in an orbital platform shaker at 200 rpm. Bacteria (1 mL) were harvested by centrifugation at 11,000 rpm for 3 minutes; the supernatant was discarded. The bacteria were washed twice by centrifugation in 1 mL of cold sterile H 2 O to remove residual LB. 
     To convert vegetative cells to spores, bacteria were suspended in 200 μL H 2 O and added to 100 mL Columbia Broth [J. A. Morello and P. D. Ellner. 1969. New medium for blood cultures. Appl. Microbiol. 17:68-07] containing 0.1 mM manganese chloride. 
     The mixture was shaken on an orbital platform at 160 rpm at 37° C. for 72 hours to produce approximately 10 8  spores per mL. The spores were harvested by centrifugation and suspended in 15% ethanol in water. 
     Prior to use, each spore sample was washed three times with ice-cold water. 
     To eliminate any remaining vegetative bacteria, the pellet was suspended in 1 mL cold water. Lysozyme solution (400 μL of a 5 mg/mL stock solution in Tris (10 mM), EDTA (1 mM)) was added and the resulting mixture was incubated at 37° C. for 1 hour. The spores were collected by centrifugation and the supernatant discarded. 
     The spore pellet was suspended in 1 mL of 0.1% SDS and incubated 5 minutes at room temperature. The pellet of spores was collected by centrifugation at 9,000 rpm for 4 minutes; the supernatant was discarded. 
     To remove any residual cell-free DNA in the preparation, the spores were suspended in 1 mL of 1×DNase buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl, 4 mM MgCl 2 , 1 mM CaCl 2 ) containing 10 μg pancreatic DNase and incubated at 37° C. for 30 minutes. 
     The spore suspension was centrifuged at 9,000 rpm for 4 minutes and the supernatant was discarded. The pellet was washed once with water. The pellet of highly purified spores was resuspended in 1.2 mL H 2 O. The majority of this preparation (800 μL) was used in step 2 of the following experimental method; three other 100 μL aliquots were treated directly with the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method (step 5-8, below) to estimate total DNA content of the spores; the remaining 100 μL aliquot of the spore suspension was treated a second time with lysozyme and SDS (steps 9 and 10, above) to confirm that DNA released from spores was not due to cells that converted to the vegetative state. Acid-extraction/HPLC analysis was then carried out. 
     DNA Extraction 
     Reagents BA, BB, BC and BD were prepared with and without sodium (meta)periodate (Table 10). 
     Aliquots (100 μL) of suspended  B. subtilis  spores (from the above process) were mixed with an equal volume of BA, BB, BC or BD with or without sodium (meta)periodate. The mixture was heated at 70° C. for 20 minutes and then centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 4 minutes. The supernatant was retained and the pellet of insoluble material was discarded. 
     Hydrochloric acid was added to supernatant fractions to a final concentration of 0.2 N. The fractions were then heated at 60° C. for 60 minutes. A portion of each sample (150 μL) was neutralized with 100 μL of ADA buffer, pH 8.0. The samples were analyzed by HPLC to determine the AUC for adenine. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 10 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Composition of Reagents Used 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 NPI  
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (Sodium 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Lithium 
                 Lithium 
                 Sodium 
                   
                 (meta) 
                   
               
               
                   
                 SDS 
                 CDTA 
                 chloride 
                 borate 
                 Glycine 
                 periodate) 
                 Final 
               
               
                 Reagent 
                 (%) 
                 (mM) 
                 (mM) 
                 (mM) 
                 (mM) 
                 (mM) 
                 pH 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 BA 
                 4.0 
                 50 
                 250 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 6.8 
               
               
                 BAP 
                 4.0 
                 50 
                 250 
                 0 
                 0 
                 30 
                 6.8 
               
               
                 BB 
                 4.0 
                 5 
                 250 
                 50 
                 0 
                 0 
                 9.0 
               
               
                 BBP 
                 4.0 
                 5 
                 250 
                 50 
                 0 
                 30 
                 8.9 
               
               
                 BC 
                 0.0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 7.0 
               
               
                 BCP 
                 0.0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 30 
                 6.5 
               
               
                 BD 
                 2.0 
                 5 
                 250 
                 0 
                 50 
                 0 
                 10.5 
               
               
                 BDP 
                 2.0 
                 5 
                 250 
                 0 
                 50 
                 30 
                 9.4 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 11 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Effectiveness of Periodate in Different Reagents on DNA Release from Spores 
               
               
                 Treated at 70° C. for 20 minutes, as measured Using the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method* 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 * B. subtilis  spores treated with reagents (Table 10), without and with 15 mM sodium (meta)periodate (final concentration) at the indicated pH and with heat (70° C., 20 minutes) prior to analysis of DNA released using the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method described herein. Results of triplicate analyses are shown. 
               
               
                 **AUC (area under the curve) for adenine is a measure of the amount of DNA released from the spores into the supernatant by the indicated treatment and measured by HPLC. 
               
               
                 ***The percentage of DNA released from spores is calculated from the average AUC for adenine released into the supernatant under each treatment condition,  divided  by the average amount of adenine acid-extracted from the pellet of untreated spores. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Conclusions 
     Surprisingly, a low concentration of sodium (meta)periodate present in BAP and BDP reagents together with moderate heat treatment (70° C., 20 minutes) was able to release as much as 10% and 8.3% of DNA, respectively, from spores, the most hardy of organisms. Higher temperatures and longer treatment times would be expected to release even more DNA. In the absence of sodium (meta)periodate, no release of DNA could be detected. 
     Example 5: Release of Nucleic Acids from Fungi Using Periodate 
     Yeast are unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms, classified in the kingdom Fungi. One species of yeast,  Saccharomyces cerevisiae , has been widely used for thousands of years and numerous applications. During the process of fermentation,  S. cerevisiae  can metabolize simple carbohydrates to CO 2  (carbon dioxide) and ethanol (ethyl alcohol). The CO 2  is used as a leavening agent in baking and the alcohol a central component of alcoholic beverages. The biotechnology industry has recently harnessed yeast to convert sugar into ethanol, used as a biofuel. Some yeast strains have been utilized in the field of bioremediation.  S. cerevisiae  is one of the most thoroughly researched eukaryotic microorganisms and it remains an important organism for genetic and cell biology research. 
     While bacteria typically have cell walls comprised of peptidoglycan, fungi possess cell walls containing the glucosamine polymer, chitin. Most true fungi have a cell wall consisting of three layers: chitin, other polysaccharides (zymosan), and mannoproteins. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_wall-cite_note-11 In this example,  S. cerevisiae  served as a model microorganism from the kingdom Fungi for the inventors to test the efficacy of NPI (sodium (meta)periodate) for the release of nucleic acids, both DNA and RNA. 
     Experimental Method 
     Reagents BA, BB, BC and BD were prepared with and without sodium (meta)periodate (see Table 10). 
     A culture of  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  (Fleischmann&#39;s Bakers&#39; yeast) was prepared by growth overnight in tryptic soy broth with 50 mM glucose at 37° C. Cells were collected from 6 mL of culture by centrifugation at 8,000 rpm for 3 minutes. The cell pellet was washed once with cold PBS by centrifugation, suspended in cold PBS, distributed into 10 tubes, centrifuged and the resultant pellets were washed again with cold water. 
     Each washed pellet was resuspended in 200 μL water and mixed with an equal volume of BA, BB, BC and BD reagents with or without NPI (15 mM final). The suspensions were heated at 70° C. for 20 minutes and then cooled to room temperature. Suspensions were centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 4 minutes; the clarified supernatants were transferred to fresh tubes and the pellets were discarded. 
     A 10 μL portion of each supernatant was electrophoresed on a 0.8% agarose gel and stained with ethidium bromide to visualize DNA and RNA. 
     To the remainder of the supernatant fractions, HCl was added to a final concentration of 0.2 N. Samples were heated for 60 minutes at 60° C. 150 μL of each sample was then neutralized with 100 μL of ADA buffer, pH 8.0. 
     The neutralized samples (40 μL) were analyzed by HPLC and the AUC for adenine was determined. 
     Results and Discussion 
     DNA Released from  S. cerevisiae  by Treatment with Different Compositions without or with Periodate 
     The results shown in Table 12 below demonstrate several features of the present invention. 
       Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a hardy unicellular microorganism, is unexpectedly sensitive to the release of DNA by sodium (meta)periodate. Sodium (meta)periodate in water alone at near-neutral pH (BCP) released 4-fold more DNA after 20 minutes treatment at 70° C., compared to the same heat treatment in water (BC) (Table 12). 
     The addition of a high concentration of SDS (1-2% final) and/or LiCl (125 mM) and/or higher pH and/or the chelator CDTA (2.5-25 mM) increased even more the amount of DNA released (Table 12). Interestingly, the amount of DNA released under the same conditions in the absence of sodium (meta)periodate was not affected by these secondary components of the novel reagents (Table 12). 
     As expected from literature reports, yeast contains a large amount of RNA compared to DNA, which can be seen by agarose gel electrophoresis ( FIG. 4 ). Clear, intense ribosomal RNA (rRNA) bands can be seen in samples from treatment using reagents BA and BD in the absence of sodium (meta)periodate; more RNA appeared to be released when sodium (meta)periodate was added (BAP, BDP), but the RNA was partially degraded. No attempts were made in these experiments to stabilize the RNA released from  S. cerevisiae  by the treatment conditions. 
     Large amounts of RNA were released using BB and BBP buffered with borate, but in both cases the RNA was appreciably degraded ( FIG. 4 ). In all cases, only small amounts of high molecular weight DNA were seen on the gel, compared to the amounts of RNA ( FIG. 4 ). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 12 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Effect of Reagents Containing Periodate on the Release of DNA from  S. cerevisiae   
               
               
                 Using the Acid-Extraction/HPLC Method to Measure AUC for Adenine* 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *details of compositions provided in Table 10. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Conclusions 
     This study demonstrated that the release of both DNA and RNA from the yeast  S. cerevisiae , a primitive eukaryotic microorganism with a sturdy cell wall, can be greatly enhanced by treatment with reagents containing sodium periodate, as compared to the same reagents without periodate. In some periodate-containing reagents, high molecular weight DNA and RNA was extracted as shown using agarose gel electrophoresis to view DNA and RNA released from the  S. cerevisiae.    
     Example 6: Effect of Periodate and Heat Treatment on Release of Nucleic Acids from  B. subtilis  and  M. smegmatis  in Various Reagents 
     In this example, the effects of temperature (room temperature, 50° C., 70° C., 80° C. and 100° C.) and sodium (meta)periodate (15 mM final) in several compositions (Table 10), was assessed using two different target microorganisms,  Bacillus subtilis  and  Mycobacterium smegmatis . The release of nucleic acids from these microorganisms was assessed using the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method, real-time PCR and agarose gel electrophoresis. 
       Bacillus subtilis  is a hardy bacterium that is commonly found in soil and vegetation; it is widely used for research laboratory studies. The cells are Gram-positive, rod-shaped and have a rigid cell wall composed of peptidoglycan (murein), a polymer of sugars and amino acids. Under adverse environmental conditions, it can form tough, protective spores that are capable of surviving extreme conditions. 
     Mycobacteria are rod-shaped bacteria that may be identified as acid-fast by a staining technique. Some species, found in soil, are considered benign. Other species are serious pathogens for humans and other mammals and the causative agent for pulmonary tuberculosis (TB), a devastating disease in many parts of the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated the 2010 incidence of TB infection to be as high as 1,000 per 100 000 population in some African countries. Co-infection of TB and HIV is a particularly lethal combination. A growing cause for concern is the emergence of extensively drug-resistant (XDR) strains of TB, which constitute a major human health problem. 
       Mycobacterium  species share a characteristic tough cell wall containing a waxy material called mycolic acids, which makes the microorganism very hydrophobic. The cell wall consists of a mycolic acid layer, a peptidoglycan layer and the polysaccharide, arabinogalactan. The property of acid-fast staining is due to the mycolic acid layer. While Gram-positive bacteria are generally sensitive to the lysozyme, no such enzyme is known that attacks the cell wall of Mycobacteria. All current methods for effectively releasing DNA from this species require some form of mechanical disruption. 
     The presently described method, which completely avoids complex mechanical disruption steps, was evaluated for its ability to liberate DNA from these species of microorganisms. 
     Experimental Methods 
       B. subtilis  was grown in trypic soy broth at 37° C. overnight. An aliquot (100 L) of the overnight culture was used to inoculate 40 mL of trypic soy broth and grown at 37° C. on a shaking platform until log phase.  M. smegmatis  was grown on trypic soy agar for 3 days at 37° C. and then harvested by scraping into cold H 2 O. 
       B. subtilis  and  M. smegmatis  were each collected by centrifugation at 2,700 g for 15 minutes; the supernatant was discarded. Bacterial pellets were washed twice with cold H 2 O by centrifuging at 2,700 g for 15 minutes and discarding the supernatants. The washed bacterial pellets were resuspended in 15 mL of cold H 2 O. 
     Three aliquots (300 μL each) of each bacterial suspension were treated directly with the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method to determine total nucleic acid content in these cells. 
     The remainder of each bacterial suspension was split into 1.5 mL sample aliquots and then mixed with an equal volume of one of BA, BB, BC or BD reagent (Table 10), with and without sodium (meta)periodate (30 mM in reagents, 15 mM final). 
     Each 3 mL aliquot was divided equally (600 μL) into 5 microcentrifuge tubes and incubated at room temperature, 50°, 70°, 80° or 100° C. for 20 minutes. The tubes were centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 5 minutes. The clarified supernatants were transferred to fresh tubes and pellets were discarded. An aliquot (190 μL) of each supernatant was removed for direct analysis in triplicate by Acid-Extraction HPLC Method (Table 13 and 14) as follows: 
     Hydrochloric acid was added to supernatant fractions to a final concentration of 0.2 N. The fractions were heated at 60° C. for 60 minutes. Aliquots (150 μL) of each fraction were neutralized with 100 μL of ADA buffer, pH 8.0. The resulting samples were analyzed by HPLC and the AUC for adenine was determined. 
     A 350 μL sample from each of the remaining supernatant fractions was removed and incubated at 50° C. for 1 hour with proteinase K (160 μg). 
     10 μL of each treated supernatant fraction was electrophoresed on a 1.0% agarose gel at 100 V for 40 minutes with a 1 Kb*DNA ladder as a marker; the gel was stained with ethidium bromide (1 μg/μL) for 10 minutes and the DNA and RNA were visualized/photographed under UV transillumination ( FIGS. 5 and 6 ). 
     Sodium chloride (0.1 M final) was added to tubes with BC and BCP chemistries. Two volumes of 95% cold ethanol was added to all tubes and then incubated at −20° C. for 30 minutes to precipitate nucleic acids. Tubes were centrifuged at 13,000 g and the pellets were carefully rinsed once with cold 70% ethanol. 
     The pellets were air-dried and dissolved in 90 μL of reduced TE (10 mM Tris, 0.1 mM EDTA, pH 8.0). A 2 μL portion of each dissolved pellet was added to a 25 μL PCR reaction with ‘universal’ bacterial 16S ribosomal DNA primers (BacrRNA173-F 5′ATTACCGCGGCTGCTGG3′ and BacrRNA173-R 5′CCTACGGGAGGCAGCAG3′) to estimate by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) the amount of DNA released from  B. subtilis  and  M. smegmatis  for each test condition (Table 15 and 16). Each PCR reaction contained 2.5 μL of 1 mg/mL bovine serum albumin (BSA), 2.5 μL of 10×PCR Buffer, 1.25 μL of 50 mM MgCl 2 , 0.5 μL of 10 mM dNTPs, 0.5 μL of 10 pMol forward primer, 0.5 μL of 10 pMol reverse primer, 0.5 μL of 0.5 μM Syto 9, 0.2 μL of 5 U/μL Taq Polymerase, 12.3 μL of water. Highly purified DNA from  B. subtilis  and  M. smegmatis  served as a reference for PCR analysis. Negative controls included reactions in which no template DNA was added. The Ct value refers to the fractional cycle number at the point where the amplification curve crosses a threshold of detection. The Rotorgene instrument software set a threshold line and calculated the Ct values for each sample. Ct values are inversely proportional to the amount of DNA in a sample; a decrease in one Ct value corresponds to a doubling in the amount of DNA detected. 
     Results and Discussion 
     The results are shown in Tables 13, 14, 15 and 16 and in  FIGS. 5 and 6 . 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 13 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Effect of Periodate in Different Reagents on DNA Release from  
               
               
                   B .  subtilis  Treated at Increasing Temperatures for 20 Minutes,  
               
               
                 as Measured Using the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method  
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 % Release of DNA* 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Temperature (° C.) 
                 BA 
                 BAP 
                 BB 
                 BBP 
                 BC 
                 BCP 
                 BD 
                 BDP 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 room temperature 
                 1.3 
                 3.2 
                 5.5 
                 6.9 
                 0 
                 0 
                 3.9 
                 5.5 
               
               
                 50 
                 4.4 
                 7.5 
                 17.2 
                 13.1  
                 0 
                 6.7 
                 9.8 
                 4.2 
               
               
                 70 
                 2.2 
                 12.4 
                 26.5 
                 58.9  
                 0 
                 8.6 
                 2.8 
                 21.0 
               
               
                 80 
                 5.8 
                 30.6 
                 37.5 
                 106.8** 
                 0 
                 9.0 
                 4.8 
                 52.3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *The percentage of DNA released from vegetative  B .  subtilis  is calculated from the average AUC for adenine released into the supernatant under each treatment condition, divided by the average amount of adenine acid-extracted from the pellet of untreated bacteria. 
               
               
                 **Values above 100% indicate that the reference samples (average amount of adenine acid-extracted from the pellets of untreated bacteria) slightly underestimated the total amount of DNA present. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 14 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Effect of Periodate in Different Reagents on DNA Release from  
               
               
                   M .  smegmatis  Treated at Increasing Temperatures for 20 Minutes, as  
               
               
                 Measured Using the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method  
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Temperature  
                 % Release of DNA* 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 (° C.) 
                 BA 
                 BAP 
                 BB 
                 BBP 
                 BC 
                 BCP 
                 BD 
                 BDP 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 room  
                 3.3 
                 16.1 
                 4.2 
                 17.3 
                 0.4 
                 0.0 
                 3.2 
                 30.0 
               
               
                 temperature 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 50 
                 9.6 
                 37.8 
                 9.4 
                 43.8 
                 0.5 
                 18.1 
                 10.6 
                 55.1 
               
               
                 70 
                 8.3 
                 43.1 
                 10.0 
                 43.8 
                 9.1 
                 27.1 
                 9.4 
                 62.5 
               
               
                 80 
                 6.8 
                 56.8 
                 11.9 
                 90.1 
                 7.9 
                 17.6 
                 7.8 
                 57.0 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *The percentage of DNA released from vegetative  M .  smegmatis  is calculated from the average AUC for adenine released into the supernatant under each treatment condition, divided by the average amount of adenine acid-extracted from the pellet of untreated bacteria. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     With reference to  FIG. 5 , which shows DNA and RNA released from  Bacillus subtilis  into the supernatant by periodate and an 80° C. (A) or 70° C. (B) heating step, the intensity of high molecular weight (&gt;23 kb) DNA bands was markedly increased by the presence of periodate in all but one case, BBP at 80° C. (panel A). The latter was likely due to an error resulting in the loss of the DNA at some point after its release from the cells, since the same sample treated at 70° C. showed a strong DNA band (panel B). Intact or substantially intact ribosomal RNA was present from treatments in all conditions, except BB and BBP. 
     With reference to  FIG. 6 , which shows DNA and RNA released from  Mycobacterium smegmatis  into the supernatant by periodate and a 70° C. heating step the intensity of high molecular weight (&gt;23 kb) DNA bands was markedly increased by the presence of periodate in all cases. Compared to  B. subtilis , the amount of RNA released was less and it was more extensively degraded. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 15 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Quantification of DNA Released from  
               
               
                   B.   subtilis  into the Supernatant by  
               
               
                 Periodate and Increasing Temperature using qPCR 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Ct Values 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Room 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 temperature 
                 50° C. 
                 70° C. 
                 80° C. 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Test 
                 BA 
                 17.0 
                 17.1 
                 17.2 
                 16.4 
               
               
                 Solutions 
                 BAP 
                 17.6 
                 16.1 
                 15.2 
                 13.0 
               
               
                   
                 BB 
                 14.9 
                 14.8 
                 14.1 
                 14.6 
               
               
                   
                 BBP 
                 17.3 
                 17.1 
                 13.7 
                 13.9 
               
               
                   
                 BC 
                 22.5 
                 22.2 
                 20.6 
                 24.4 
               
               
                   
                 BCP 
                 24.7 
                 24.9 
                 22.9 
                 24.5 
               
               
                   
                 BD 
                 14.5 
                 13.4 
                 14.3 
                 14.3 
               
               
                   
                 BDP 
                 14.7 
                 14.3 
                 11.4 
                 10.2 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 16 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Quantification of DNA Released from  M.   
               
               
                   smegmatis  into the Supernatant by Periodate and  
               
               
                 Increasing Temperature using real-time PCR 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Ct Values 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Room 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 temperature 
                 50° C. 
                 70° C. 
                 80° C. 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Test 
                 BA 
                 21.5 
                 21.6 
                 20.7 
                 19.9 
               
               
                 Solutions 
                 BAP 
                 19.9 
                 18.5 
                 17.7 
                 17.3 
               
               
                   
                 BB 
                 20.2 
                 20.9 
                 20.7 
                 20.8 
               
               
                   
                 BBP 
                 19.7 
                 23.5 
                 21.0 
                 22.6 
               
               
                   
                 BC 
                 22.7 
                 21.7 
                 21.9 
                 25.7 
               
               
                   
                 BCP 
                 21.0 
                 21.0 
                 21.9 
                 25.7 
               
               
                   
                 BD 
                 21.7 
                 20.8 
                 19.4 
                 30.6 
               
               
                   
                 BDP 
                 19.5 
                 20.7 
                 17.1 
                 19.7 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The results presented in Tables 15 and 16 show that periodate lowers the Ct values (i.e., extracts more DNA), from both vegetative  B. subtilis  and  M. smegmatis  treated with BA, BB, and BD reagents, but not BC reagent (water), and incubated at 50, 70 and 80° C. for 20 minutes. Importantly, the quality of the DNA released with the periodate and heat treatment is suitable for subsequent amplification and identification by real-time PCR analysis. The study was repeated using heating at 100° C. and successful DNA extraction was demonstrated; however, the qPCR results were complicated by the fact that DNA denatures at 100° C. and was not quantifiable by fluorescent dyes. 
     The failure of some samples to show a lower Ct value after periodate treatment, is likely due to variable or poor efficiency of the ethanol precipitation step. In these experiment, this step was necessary to remove inhibitors before qPCR could be carried out. When the same samples prior to ethanol precipitation were analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis ( FIGS. 5 and 6 ), clear increases in the amount of DNA released from samples treated with periodate could be seen in every case. 
     Conclusions 
     Three different methods (Acid-Extraction HPLC, Agarose Gel Electrophoresis and qPCR) have been used to demonstrate the effectiveness by which the present chemical method liberates nucleic acids from microorganisms, including those well known to be resistant to standard nucleic acid extraction methods. The present method is particularly valuable since it does not require mechanical disruption or boiling of the sample. Periodate clearly increased the amount of DNA and RNA released from both  B. subtilis  and  M. smegmatis  in a temperature-dependent manner. 
     Example 7: Effect of Periodate and Heat Treatment on Release of Nucleic Acids from  M. smegmatis -Spiked Saliva Samples in Various Reagents 
     In this example, the effects of temperature (70° C.) and sodium (meta)periodate (15 mM final), added to several compositions (Table 10), were assessed using known quantities of ‘live’  Mycobacterium smegmatis  spiked into human saliva, to simulate the conditions of a complex biological specimen. The release of nucleic acids from this microorganism in a complex saliva sample was assessed using the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method and real-time PCR with  Mycobacterium smegmatis -specific primers. 
     Previous examples dealt with pure cultures and washed pellets of bacteria and fungi. However, the composition of most biological specimens or samples is highly complex and contains numerous sample-specific, and potentially interfering substances, as well as host cells and microbial species. For instance, in addition to large amounts of water, saliva (and sputum) contains many other substances, such as, electrolytes, mucus, numerous enzymes, antibacterial compounds and cells, both human and microbial in origin. In particular, saliva contains large amounts of mucin, which are proteins that have polysaccharide side-chains. Given that periodates primarily attack and open sugar rings, the inventors were concerned that periodates (especially at lower concentrations found to be effective in releasing DNA from washed microbial pellets), might be consumed by reacting with the overabundance of polysaccharides present in saliva, rather than being available to attack the cell wall of bacteria/fungi of interest in the sample. This example was designed to demonstrate the effectiveness of periodate in releasing nucleic acids from microorganisms in a complex biological sample. As well, specific detection of the spiked organism ( M. smegmatis ) in the presence of human DNA and oral bacterial DNA was assessed. 
     Experimental Method and Materials 
     
         
         
           
             Six 1 mL saliva samples were collected by alternately spitting into 15 mL tubes. Immediately thereafter, one of three different buffers (1 mL) was added to each tube as follows: 2 tubes contained BA reagent, 2 tubes contained BB reagent and the remaining 2 tubes contained BD reagent (Table 10). 
             A suspension of approximately 109  Mycobacterium smegmatis  was washed twice by centrifugation in 1 mL of cold PBS, pH 7.4 and then suspended in 0.5 mL PBS. 
             100 μL of each bacterial suspension was added to one set of tubes containing BA, BB or BD reagents; 100 μL of PBS was added to the second set of tubes. Samples were mixed briefly by vortexing. Another 100 μL of bacterial suspension (in duplicate) was subjected to the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method to accurately quantify the amount of  M. smegmatis  DNA spiked into each saliva aliquot with one of the three buffers. Using adenine standards of known concentration and the known 67.5% GC content of  M. smegmatis  DNA to convert quantity of adenine to quantity of DNA, it was determined that 100 μL of bacterial suspension contained 2366 ng of  M. smegmatis  DNA. 100% yield of DNA was not expected since extraction steps were followed by purification steps, e.g., ethanol precipitation (described below), which are not 100% efficient. 
             10 μL of proteinase K (89 μg/mL final) was added to each tube and the tubes were incubated at 50° C. overnight. 
             One 200 μL aliquot from each tube was transferred to a fresh tube and mixed with 10 μL of 300 mM sodium (meta)periodate. 
             A second 200 μL aliquot from each tube was transferred to a fresh tube. 
             All aliquots were incubated at 70° C. for 20 minutes, and then cooled at room temperature for 3 minutes. 
             Tris-HCl (1 M, pH 7.1) was added to each aliquot to a final concentration of 100 mM and incubated at room temperature for 15 minutes. 
             Potassium acetate (3 M, pH 5.5) was added to each aliquot to a final concentration of 150 mM and incubated on ice for 10 minutes. 
             Aliquots were centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 3.5 minutes. The supernatants were removed and transferred to fresh tubes; the pellets were discarded. 
             Two volumes of room temperature 95% ethanol was added to each aliquot and incubated at room temperature for 15 minutes. 
             Aliquots were centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 3.5 minutes. 
             Alcohol was carefully removed from each aliquot and the DNA pellets were dissolved in 50 μL TE, pH 7.5. A portion of the re-dissolved pellet was diluted 5 times and 5 μL of the diluted aliquot was added as template to a 25 μL qPCR reaction containing  M. smegmatis  gene-specific DNA primers [HP-Forward: TGCCATCATCAGCGAAGTAG; HP-Reverse: GCGGCTACAGATTACGAAGC]. The expected product is a 250 bp region of the gene encoding ‘hypothetical protein MSMEI_2098’ of  Mycobacterium smegmatis  str. MC2 155. This primer-pair was used to estimate by quantitative PCR (qPCR) the amount of DNA released from this microorganism after ‘spiking’ it into saliva samples. Specific conditions are listed in Table 17. The qPCR reactions also contained 2.5 μL of 1 mg/mL bovine serum albumin (BSA), 2.5 μL of 10×PCR Buffer, 1.0 μL of 50 mM MgCl 2 , 0.5 μL of 10 mM dNTPs as well as 0.5 μL of 10 pMol forward primer, 0.5 μL of 10 pMol reverse primer described above, 0.5 μL of 0.5 μM Syto 9, 0.2 μL of 5 U/μL Taq Polymerase, 11.85 μL of water. Highly purified DNA from  M. smegmatis  served as a reference for qPCR analysis. Negative controls included reactions in which no template DNA was added. The Ct value refers to the fractional cycle number at the point where the amplification curve crosses a software-generated threshold of detection. The Rotorgene software sets the threshold and calculates the Ct values for each sample. Ct values are inversely proportional to the amount of DNA in a sample; a decrease in one Ct value corresponds to a doubling in the amount of DNA detected. 
           
         
       
    
     Results and Discussion. 
     The results are summarized in Table 17, below: 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 17 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Quantification of DNA Released from  M.   smegmatis -spiked  
               
               
                 Human Saliva by Periodate and Heat Treatment using qPCR 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Test 
                 Periodate 
                 Saliva spiked with 
                   
                 Estimated DNA 
               
               
                 Reagents 
                 (mM) 
                 
                   M. 
                   smegmatis 
                 
                 Ct value 
                 (ng/reaction) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 BA 
                 0 
                 − 
                 30.66 
                 0.00 
               
               
                 BA 
                 15 
                 − 
                 33.23 
                 0.00 
               
               
                 BA 
                 0 
                 + 
                 21.22 
                 0.00 
               
               
                 BA 
                 15 
                 + 
                 17.86 
                 1.09 
               
               
                 BB 
                 0 
                 − 
                 32.67 
                 0.00 
               
               
                 BB 
                 15 
                 − 
                 30.56 
                 0.00 
               
               
                 BB 
                 0 
                 + 
                 21.34 
                 0.07 
               
               
                 BB 
                 15 
                 + 
                 15.61 
                 6.43 
               
               
                 BD 
                 0 
                 − 
                 30.41 
                 0.00 
               
               
                 BD 
                 15 
                 − 
                 30.99 
                 0.00 
               
               
                 BD 
                 0 
                 + 
                 20.47 
                 0.15 
               
               
                 BD 
                 15 
                 + 
                 14.45 
                 16.23 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The results of Table 17 show that periodate dramatically increased the amount of  M. smegmatis  DNA released from cells that were initially ‘spiked’ into saliva and subsequently treated with periodate-containing BB and BD reagents at 70° C. for 20 minutes. Lower Ct values are a reflection of larger amounts of  M. smegmatis  DNA. A similar but less dramatic increase in extraction efficiency was seen with BA reagent containing periodate. In the most striking case, the estimated amount of DNA increased about 100-fold, from 150 pg to 16,230 pg per reaction, in samples containing BD reagent alone compared to BD plus periodate. For samples containing BB, adding periodate also increased the DNA 100-fold, from 70 pg to 6,430 pg per reaction. For samples containing BA, adding periodate increased the DNA detected from undetectable to 1,090 pg per reaction. These experiments demonstrate that the quality of DNA released from  M. smegmatis  mixed with saliva containing periodate and other reagents and subsequently heated is suitable for PCR amplification and microorganism-specific identification by qPCR analysis using  M. smegmatis -specific primers. 
     Conclusions 
     This example demonstrates the effectiveness by which the present chemical composition and method liberates nucleic acids from  M. smegmatis , even when spiked into a complex biological sample. Despite the presence of protein-linked polysaccharides and other potentially interfering substances found in saliva, small concentrations of periodate were highly effective in releasing a significant proportion of nucleic acids from this very hardy microorganism. This demonstrated 100-fold increase in the release and detection of DNA from  M. smegmatis  by periodate may increase the sensitivity of detection of smear-negative, MT-positive samples, allowing earlier initiation of effective treatment regimens and thereby reduce periods of infectiousness of MDR TB cases. 
     Example 8: Comparing the Amount of DNA Released from  Clostridium botulinum  and  Clostridium difficile  Spores by Periodate and MagNA Pure Purification Methods as Determined by Real-Time PCR 
       Clostridium  is a genus consisting of approximately 100 Gram-positive bacteria species, belonging to the  Firmicutes , which produce hardy spores when stressed. These rod-shaped cells are ubiquitous in nature and especially prevalent in soil.  Clostridia  are motile, obligate anaerobes that are important pathogens causing human disease. There are five main species responsible for human disease, namely  C. botulinum, C. difficile, C. perfringens, C. tetani , and  C. sordellii.    
     Spores produced by  C. botulinum  are oval, subterminal endospores, commonly found in soil, and are very hard to kill.  C. botulinum  spores can survive boiling water temperature at sea level, thus many foods are canned with a pressurized boil that achieves an even higher temperature, sufficient to kill the spores.  C. botulinum  produce botulinum toxin in food and wounds, which can lead to botulism. Spores from this bacterium can be found in honey and cause infant botulism in children twelve months and younger. “Botox,” a neurotoxin, is used cosmetically to paralyze facial muscles to reduce the signs of aging, as well as in numerous therapeutic applications. 
     Approximately 1 out of every 20 hospitalized patients will contract a hospital-acquired infection (HAI). While most types of HAIs are declining, outbreaks caused by  Clostridium difficile , a commensal bacterium of the intestine, are a growing problem afflicting patients in hospitals and long-term healthcare facilities where antibiotics treatment is commonplace.  C. difficile  infection (CDI) is transmitted by the fecal-oral route and believed to result from gastro-intestinal dysbiosis, i.e., the disruption of the normal gut microbes or flora. Antibiotics treatment kills most bacteria in the GI tract that usually keep  C. difficile  under control. In this altered environment,  C. difficile  replicate and produce toxins that attack the lining of the intestine, causing symptoms ranging from diarrhea to life-threatening inflammation and bleeding of the lining of the colon. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),  C. difficile  is linked to the deaths of 14,000 people a year in the United States. 
     In healthcare environments,  C. difficile  is transmitted person to person by the fecal-oral route and outbreaks occur when humans accidentally ingest spores from common ‘touch’ surfaces (e.g. bed rails, door knobs, toilets, sinks).  C. difficile  spores are resistant to heat and most routine surface cleaning methods, including alcohol-based hand cleaners, and can remain viable in the environment for several months to years. An effective treatment against recurrent  C. difficile  infection is not widely available. Paradoxically, today, the primary treatment for  C. difficile  infection is the administration of more antibiotics, with about 20% of patients having recurrences within a month, and many of those have repeated attacks. 
     Many markets and industries are looking for efficient ways to destroy harmful spores (and bacteria), including food safety (food/meat processing plants), healthcare, soil and water sampling (environment testing), biosecurity or biodefence, animal feed testing, agriculture/plant science/industry, etc. Both clinical practice and epidemiologic studies, interested in the detection and characterization of pathogenic strains of bacteria and/or spores, need faster alternative methodologies with excellent sensitivity and specificity, as well as test-retest reliability. Today, the “gold standard” test still involves stool culture, which is a sensitive assay, but has a long turnaround time, is resource intensive, and requires experienced laboratories with tissue culture facilities. In contrast, PCR assay testing is inexpensive, has a fast turnaround time, excellent sensitivity, specificity and predictive value, assuming a sufficient quantity of DNA was extracted from the bacteria/spores of interest present in the collected biological sample. 
     The present inventors have surprisingly found that a common laboratory chemical, periodate, used at slightly alkaline pH and elevated temperature, can be used to rapidly and efficiently release nucleic acid from microorganisms, in both their active and dormant state. In this example, spores were prepared from cultures of  Clostridium botulinum  and  Clostridium difficile  and the efficacy of two different DNA isolation methodologies were compared, 1) the present periodate method and 2) a commercially-available MagNA™ Pure Purification Method. DNA extracted by these methods was quantified using CLIA/CLEP-approved real-time PCR (rtPCR) assay specific for each organism. 
     Experimental Method 
     [ C. botulinum  and  C. difficile  spore preparation, DNA extraction and rtPCR assay was performed in collaboration with Wadsworth Center Biodefense Laboratory, New York State Department of Health, Albany, N.Y., U.S.A.] 
       C. botulinum  and  C. difficile  Spore Preparation 
     Frozen stock cultures of  C. botulinum  Type B and  C. difficile  were cultured on Trypticase Soy Agar with 5% Sheep&#39;s Blood and incubated anaerobically at 35° C. for 24 to 48 hours. After initial incubation, these cultures were transferred to multiple (minimum of 10) Brain Heart Infusion Agar plates and incubated anaerobically at 35° C. for up to 2 weeks. Malachite Green spore staining was performed every 3 to 4 days to monitor sporulation of bacteria in vitro. When the malachite green stains showed almost complete sporulation of organisms, the spores were harvested into 5.0 mL of PBS (pH 7.4) and stored at room temperature until use. 
     Determination of Spore Concentration 
     Each spore stock suspension of  C. botulinum  and  C. difficile  were diluted in PBS to 10 −2 . An aliquot (10 μL) of each of these final dilutions were loaded into each clean well of a 2-chamber hemocytometer slide. Hemocytometer chambers were observed at 40× magnification without oil for spore counting. Spores were visualized as round or oval black cells on the light field grid of the hemocytometer.  C. botulinum , Limit of Detection (LOD)=30 spores/reaction;  C. difficile , LOD=20 spores/reaction. 
     Extraction of DNA from Spores Using Periodate Method
         1. To 350 μL spore stock suspension of  C. botulinum  and  C. difficile  (above), add 350 μL BD2 buffer (2% SDS, 12.5 mM CDTA, 250 mM LiCl, 50 mM glycine, pH 10.5).   2. Vortex to mix.   3. Remove 100 μL for culture.   4. Add 50 μL of 300 mM sodium (meta)periodate or NPI stock (final concentration 30 mM), vortex to mix.   5. Incubate at 70° C. in a water bath for 20 minutes.   6. Cool samples at room temperature for 2 minutes.   7. Remove 100 μL for culture.   8. Add 20 μL of 1M Tris pH 7 buffer (final concentration 50 mM).   9. Incubate at room temperature for 10 minutes.   10. Add 20 μL of 3M potassium acetate pH 5.5 (final concentration 150 mM).   11. Incubate on ice for 10 minutes.   12. Centrifuge at 13,000 rpm for 5 minutes.   13. Transfer supernatant to a clean, labeled tube. Discard pellet.   14. Add 800 μL room temperature 95% ethanol.   15. Invert 20 times to mix.   16. Incubate samples at room temperature for 15 minutes to precipitate DNA.   17. Centrifuge at 15,000 rpm for 2 minutes to pellet DNA.   18. Gently remove and discard supernatant taking care not to disturb the pellet.   19. Dissolve pellet in 100 μL TE.   20. Vortex briefly to fully resuspend DNA.   21. Run CLIA/CLEP-approved rtPCR assay specific for each organism.       

     Extraction of DNA from Spores Using Roche MagNA™ Pure DNA Isolation Kit
         1. Prepare 10 aliquots of 200 μL  C. botulinum  and  C. difficile  spore suspensions at each desired concentration (total 30 tubes).   2. Lysis buffer was prepared for each sample by combining 38 μL proteinase K with 262 μL Bacterial Lysis Buffer from MagNA Pure LC DNA Isolation Kit III (Bacteria, Fungi) (Cat. No. 03264785001, Roche).   3. 300 μL of Lysis buffer was added to each 200 μL spore suspension.   4. Vortex.   5. Incubate at 65° C. for 20 minutes.   6. Incubate at 95° C. for 10 minutes.   7. Samples were allowed to cool at room temperature.   8. When cool, centrifuge briefly to remove aerosols.   9. Transfer 500 μL of each sample into Roche MagNA Pure Compact sample tubes.   10. Place sample tubes on Roche MagNA Pure Compact instrument.   11. Follow on screen instructions using the DNA Blood External Lysis protocol: Sample volume: 500 μL; Elution volume: 100 μL.       

     Real-Time PCR for  C. botulinum  Type B and  C. difficile    
     All rtPCR assays were performed on an ABI 7500 instrument. DNA isolated from each extraction was analyzed in singlicate for  C. botulinum  Type B and  C. difficile  using a CLIA/CLEP-approved rtPCR assay (Wroblewski et al., 2009) specific for each organism. 
     Results and Discussion 
     While mechanical bead beating of biological samples or cultures of bacteria/spores can be fairly effective in breaking open microbes, it does create aerosols which increase the chance of spreading infectious agents and putting the health of laboratory personnel at risk. Hence, it is highly desirable to develop non-mechanical, chemical methods to release total nucleic acid from tough microbes and their spores. This example demonstrates that the present “Periodate” method, a fast, inexpensive, easy chemical treatment, is significantly more effective (8-fold increase in DNA) at isolating DNA from both  C. botulinum  spores ( FIG. 7 ) and  C. difficile  spores ( FIG. 8 ) than a commercially-available DNA isolation kit (“Collaborator” method) and very costly automated system from Roche. The MagNA™ Pure kit (“Collaborator”,  FIGS. 7 and 8 ) utilizes a lysis buffer plus magnetic glass particles, while the present periodate method (“Periodate”,  FIGS. 1  A and  1 B) does not require magnetic beads or a complex automated system with magnetic-handling capabilities to isolate DNA even from hardy spores. 
     CLIA/CLEP-approved rtPCR assays indicated an increased sensitivity of detection (Δ3 C t  values) of DNA from both  C. botulinum  and  C. difficile  spores using the “Periodate” method, compared to the “Collaborator” method, i.e., the periodate-treated samples results in consistently lower Ct values at each LOD in rtPCR. The improved extraction of microbial DNA using the periodate method should translate into enhanced sensitivity of detection in biological samples assessed with other CLIA/CLEP-approved rtPCR assays. 
     Example 9: Comparing the Amount of DNA Released from Tuberculosis-Positive Clinical Sputum Samples by Periodate Method Vs. Conventional Bead Beating as Determined by Real-Time PCR Specific for  M. tuberculosis    
     This example provides a side-by-side comparison of the clinical evaluation of TB-positive sputum samples (kindly donated by FIND, see below) purified by two methods. Specifically, the impact of two distinct DNA isolation methods, 1) the “Standard of Care” and 2) the “Periodate Method” were compared on the sensitivity of a CLIA/CLEP-approved rtPCR assay targeting the RD4  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  complex (MTBC) region of difference (RD) (Halse et al., 2011). 
     In contrast to the “Periodate Method”, the “Standard of Care” method includes bead beating, a mechanical method, to break open bacteria in sputum samples. While mechanical bead beating can be effective at breaking open organisms, it does create dangerous aerosols in the laboratory environment. Hence, it is highly desirable to develop an effective, non-mechanical, chemical method to safely release DNA from  Mycobacterium tuberculosis , without negatively impacting the clinical sensitivity of the diagnostic test. 
     Experimental Methods 
     Confirmation of Viability of  Mycobacterium tuberculosis -Positive Sputum 
     Samples 
     For the present example, raw sputum samples from TB-positive patients were kindly donated by the Foundation for Innovative Diagnostics (FIND) Tuberculosis Specimen Bank. Duplicate 0.5 mL aliquots were provided from 30 patient samples and stored frozen. Using culture and smear analysis, FIND categorized these 30 samples as ‘Smear+, Culture+ (high)’, ‘Smearl+, Culture+ (mid)’ or ‘Smear−, Culture+ (low)’ TB-positive. 
     Aliquots were shipped frozen to Wadsworth Center Mycobacteriology Laboratory (New York State Department of Health, Albany, N.Y., U.S.A.), a CLIA/CLEP-approved Clinical Laboratory for further analysis. 
     Upon arrival at Wadsworth, aliquots from 30 donors were thawed on ice and the viability of  Mycobacterium  in these 10 ‘high’, 10 ‘mid’, and 10 ‘low’ TB aliquots was confirmed with culture and smear microscopy. 
     Extraction of DNA from TB-Positive Sputum Using Periodate Method
         1. 0.5 mL BD2 buffer (2% SDS, 12.5 mM CDTA, 250 mM LiCl, 50 mM glycine, pH 10.5) was added to each 0.5 mL sputum aliquot; vortexed to mix.   2. Added Proteinase K (400 μg) and incubated at 50° C. in a water bath for 2 hours.   3. Transferred 0.4 mL to a fresh tube and added NPI (final concentration 30 mM), vortex to mix.   4. Incubated at 70° C. in a water bath for 20 minutes.   5. Cooled samples at room temperature for 2 minutes.   6. Added 1M Tris buffer (pH 7) buffer to a final concentration of 50 mM.   7. Incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes.   8. Added 3M potassium acetate (pH 5.5) to a final concentration of 150 mM.   9. Incubated on ice for 10 minutes.   10. Centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 5 minutes.   11. Transferred supernatant to a clean, labeled tube. Discarded pellet.   12. Added 2 volumes of room temperature 95% ethanol.   13. Inverted 20 times to mix.   14. Incubated samples at room temperature for 10 minutes to precipitate DNA.   15. Centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 2 minutes to pellet DNA.   16. Gently removed and discarded supernatant taking care not to disturb the pellet.   17. Dissolved pellet in 200 μL TE.   18. Vortexed briefly to fully resuspend DNA.       

     Extraction of DNA from TB-Positive Sputum Using “Standard of Care”
         1. 0.5 mL 3.5% NaOH was added to each 0.5 mL sputum aliquot; vortexed to mix.   2. Incubated at room temperature for 15 minutes.   3. Added sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) to bring volume to 10 mL.   4. Centrifuged at 5,000 rpm for 20 minutes to pellet bacteria. Discarded the supernatant.   5. Resuspended pellet in 0.5 mL sterile PBS.   6. Set aside 300 μL of resuspended bacteria for culture.   7. To remaining 200 μL of resuspended bacteria, added 200 mg of 105-150 micron glass beads.   8. Bead beat for 2 cycles of 1 minute, followed by 1 minute on ice using a Mini-BeadBeater (BioSpec Products).       

     Real-Time PCR for  M. tuberculosis  and Pyrosequencing for Antibiotic Resistance 
     Duplicate reactions of 5 μL ‘neat’ DNA and 5 μL diluted (1:10) DNA from each purified sputum sample were amplified on an ABI 7500 real-time PCR instrument using a CLIA/CLEP-approved rtPCR assay targeting the RD4  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  complex (MTBC) region of difference (RD) (Halse et al., 2011). Threshold cycle (Ct) values less than 37 were reported as positive, and samples with values greater than 37 were retested; if the results were the same, the result was reported as positive, and if they were not, they were reported as inconclusive. 
     Results and Discussion 
     Compared to the conventional bead beating method (“Standard of Care”), the present chemical “Periodate Method” clearly leads to increased sensitivity of  M. tuberculosis -specific detection, in particular, for sputum samples categorized as ‘low’ and ‘mid’ TB-positive by culture and smear microscopy. In this example, not until DNA extracted using the “Standard of Care” method is diluted 10-fold can  M. tuberculosis  be detected in ‘mid’ and ‘high’ TB-positive sputum samples (Table 18); whereas 87% of ‘low’ TB-burden sputum samples were detected as positive following DNA isolation utilizing the “Periodate Method” (Table 18). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 18 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Percentage of Sputum Samples Detected TB-Positive Following 
               
               
                 DNA Extraction using 2 Different Methods 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 % Detected 
                 % Detected 
                 % Detected 
               
               
                 Extraction Method 
                 LOW*  (n =   8)   
                 Mid  (n =   10)   
                 High  (n =   10)   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Standard of Care (neat) 
                 12 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 Standard of Care (1:10) 
                 25 
                 70 
                 100 
               
               
                 Periodate Method 
                 87 
                 100 
                 100 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *2 data points excluded from Low samples-not detected following any extraction method or by culture 
               
            
           
         
       
     
       FIG. 9  illustrates the significantly improved limit of detection of  M. tuberculosis  in all TB-positive sputum samples extracted using the “Periodate Method”, compared to the “Standard of Care” or SOC. For example, the C t  values for ‘low’ TB-positive sputum ranged from 31.4-45.0 for the “Periodate Method”, compared to 38.5-45.0 for SOC; the Ct values for ‘mid’ TB-positive sputum ranged from 20.9-32.3 for the “Periodate Method”, compared to 26.8-45.0 for SOC; the C t  values for ‘high’ TB-positive sputum ranged from 19.8-28.3 for the “Periodate Method”, compared to 27-2-39.3 for SOC.  FIG. 10  shows the data of  FIG. 9  arranged by DNA extraction method. The Ct values are consistently lower, for all TB burden levels, when the DNA was extracted using the periodate method of the present invention. This lower limit of detected, afforded by improved DNA extraction, helps ensure an accurate diagnosis of  M. tuberculosis  from patient sputum samples. 
     Example 10: Periodate-Based Method Releases Significantly More  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  DNA than does Qiagen Purification 
     The resurgence of tuberculosis in developed, as well as developing, countries since 1980 has been associated with the HIV epidemic, the emergence of drug-resistant strains, and increases in emigration from regions with high rates of disease endemicity (Corbett et al., 2003). Tuberculosis is one of the most common causes of morbidity and the most common cause of death in HIV-positive adults living in less-developed countries, yet it is a preventable and treatable disease. The rapid detection of  M. tuberculosis  is essential for disease management due to the high risk of transmission from person to person. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that clinical specimens received be analyze simultaneously by culture, acid-fast  bacillus  (AFB) staining, and nucleic acid amplification (NAA) protocols (Diagnostic Standards and Classifications of Tuberculosis in Adults and Children; American Thoracic Society and CDC, 2000). While culture is still the “gold standard” for final determination, it may take up to two to 8 weeks. Staining for AFB is rapid, but has a low sensitivity and a low specificity, since it does not distinguish non-tuberculosis mycobacteria (NTM) from members of the  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  complex (MTBC). Hence, rapid identification, which is essential to control the spread of tuberculosis, relies increasingly upon nucleic acid extraction and molecular diagnostic tests. 
     MTBC members differ in virulence attributes, drug resistance patterns, and host preferences. The rapid differentiation of these species to determine zoonotic or human sources of tuberculosis disease or to direct treatment can benefit both public health and patient management. Halse et al. (2010; 2011) developed a real-time PCR assay for differentiation of the closely-related organisms,  M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. bovis  BCG,  M. africanum, M. microti , and  M. canettii . The presence or absence of regions of difference (RD) between the genomes of members of the MTBC allowed for the design of an inexpensive, rapid, single-tube, five-plex real-time PCR (rtPCR) assay to differentiate these species in clinical specimens. 
     Upstream of such rtPCR assays; however, it is critical the clinical specimen is treated in such a way as to recover the maximum amount of DNA possible. Historically, quantitative studies have shown that there must be 5,000 to 10,000 bacilli per milliliter of specimen to allow detection of bacteria in stained smears (Hobby et al., 1973). In contrast, 10 to 100 organisms are needed for a positive culture (Yeager et al., 1967). Molecular detection of  Mycobacterium  in a whole specimen containing as few as 10 bacilli represents a real challenge to diagnostic assays, especially when the assay input volume is a small fraction of the total specimen. In contrast to culture and staining smears, molecular methods detect DNA from both live and dead or dying bacilli in specimens from patients undergoing treatment, allowing the identification of MTBC organisms prior to and during treatment. 
     There clearly exists a demand for the development of superior extraction methodologies which facilitate rapid recovery of all or the majority of the DNA from tough microbes in patient specimens. Improved DNA extraction from complex specimens, like sputum, translates directly into increased sensitivity of diagnostic (Dx)/DNA-based assays for tuberculosis, and other diseases, and ultimately faster treatment of the patient with appropriate drug therapy. This need is further compounded by the emergence of multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) in several countries, as well as the recent epidemic of rapidly fatal HIV-associated tuberculosis in South Africa (Ghandi et al., 2006; Raviglione 2006). As a result of poor control practices, some countries are now facing one of the worst possible scenarios in TB control: the lethal combination of HIV infection and highly drug-resistant TB (Raviglione 2006). 
     Experimental Methods 
     Preparation of  Mycobacterium tuberculosis -Spiked Biological Samples 
     To simulate tuberculosis-positive sputum, saliva samples from healthy donors were spiked with attenuated  M. tuberculosis  (aMTB) at 5×10 6  colony forming units/mL (cfu/mL). 
     Extraction of DNA from  M. tuberculosis -positive Saliva using the Periodate Method [“DNA Genotek Optimal Method” or “Option 1”]
         1. Mixed an equal volume of saliva spiked-aMTB with BD2 buffer (2% SDS, 12.5 mM CDTA, 250 mM LiCl, 50 mM glycine, pH 10.5).   2. Incubated at room temperature for 15 minutes.   3. Centrifuged at 5,000 rpm for 20 minutes. Discarded the supernatant.   4. Resuspended pellet in 50% BD2 buffer.   5. Added NPI to a final concentration of 30 mM, vortex to mix   6. Incubated at 70° C. in a water bath for 20 minutes   7. Cooled samples at room temperature for 2 minutes   8. Added 1M Tris buffer (pH 7) to a final concentration of 50 mM   9. Incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes   10. Added 3M potassium acetate (pH 5.5) to a final concentration of 150 mM   11. Incubated on ice for 10 minutes   12. Centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 5 minutes   13. Transferred supernatant to a clean, labeled tube. Discarded pellet.   14. Added 800 μL room temperature 95% ethanol   15. Inverted 20 times to mix   16. Incubated samples at room temperature for 15 minutes to precipitate DNA   17. Centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 2 minutes to pellet DNA   18. Gently removed and discarded supernatant taking care not to disturb the pellet   19. Dissolved pellet in 100 μL TE   20. Vortexed briefly to fully resuspend DNA       

     Extraction of DNA from  M. tuberculosis -Positive Saliva Using the Periodate Method Followed by Qiagen Purification [“Option 2”]
         1. Mixed an equal volume of saliva spiked-aMTB with BD2 buffer (2% SDS, 12.5 mM CDTA, 250 mM LiCl, 50 mM glycine, pH 10.5).   2. Incubated at room temperature for 15 minutes.   3. Centrifuged at 5,000 rpm for 20 minutes. Discarded the supernatant.   4. Resuspended pellet in 50% BD2 buffer.   5. Added NPI to a final concentration of 30 mM, vortex to mix   6. Incubated at 70° C. in a water bath for 20 minutes   7. Cooled samples at room temperature for 2 minutes   8. Added 1M Tris buffer (pH 7) to a final concentration of 50 mM   9. Incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes   10. Added an equal volume of Qiagen AL buffer   11. Followed Qiagen QIAMP procedure for Qiagen QIAamp DNA Mini Kit (Cat. No. 51304)       

     Extraction of DNA from  M. tuberculosis -Positive Saliva Using BD2 Buffer and Qiagen Purification [“Option 3”]
         1. Mixed an equal volume of saliva spiked-aMTB with BD2 buffer (2% SDS, 12.5 mM CDTA, 250 mM LiCl, 50 mM glycine, pH 10.5).   2. Incubated at room temperature for 15 minutes.   3. Centrifuged at 5,000 rpm for 20 minutes. Discarded the supernatant.   4. Resuspended pellet in 50% BD2 buffer.   5. Added an equal volume of Qiagen AL buffer   6. Followed Qiagen QIAMP procedure for Qiagen QIAamp DNA Mini Kit (Cat. No. 51304)       

     Extraction of DNA from  M. tuberculosis -Positive Saliva Using Standard Sodium Hydroxide/NALC Method and Qiagen Purification [“Standard Qiagen Method” or “Option 4”]
         1. Freshly prepared and autoclaved 4% solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH).   2. Freshly prepared and autoclaved 2.9% sodium citrate solution.   3. Prior to use, mixed equal volumes of NaOH and sodium citrate solution.   4. Added N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NALC) powder to achieve a final concentration of 0.5%. Mixed well and used the same day.   5. Mixed an equal volume of saliva spiked-aMTB with NaOH/NALC/citrate solution.   6. Incubated at room temperature for 15 minutes.   7. Added sterile PBS to bring the total volume to 50 mL.   8. Centrifuged at 5,000 rpm for 20 minutes. Discard the supernatant.   9. Resuspended pellet in PBS.   10. Added an equal volume of Qiagen AL buffer   11. Followed Qiagen QIAMP procedure for Qiagen QIAamp DNA Mini Kit (Cat. No. 51304)       

     rtPCR Conditions 
     In this example, DNA isolated from saliva spiked-aMTB samples (Options 1-4, above) was subjected to an rtPCR assay specific for  Mycobacterium , the RD4 Taqman Real-time PCR assay. Primers for RD4 are as follows: RD4-forward 5′-CCA CGA CTA TGA CTA GGA CAG CAA-3′ and RD4-reverse 5′-AAG AAC TAT CAA TCG GGC AAG ATC-3′ (Halse et al. (2011)). 
       FIG. 11  illustrates the percentage of aMTB DNA recovered by molecular testing based on genome equivalents (GE) calculated (recovered GE/input GE*100). 
     Results and Conclusions 
     Recently-developed molecular assays provide reliable results that aid with the initial management of patients with suspected tuberculosis, prior to the availability of results for cultured material, and provide the ability to predict antibiotic resistance in  Mycobacterium tuberculosis -positive specimens in as little as 1-2 days from the collection of clinical specimens. However, tuberculosis diagnostics and PCR-based systems in general require an efficient isolation and purification procedure for DNA, which is further complicated by the physical peculiarity and lack of homogeneity of sputum, as well as by the high lipid content of the mycobacterial cell wall. Thus, all the available techniques for mycobacterial DNA extraction require manipulation steps, which result in an unpredictable loss of starting material which can lead to false-negative diagnoses. 
     The present example compared multiple DNA isolation and processing methodologies for biological specimens. Specifically, tuberculosis-positive sputum was simulated by spiking saliva samples from healthy donors with aMTB. Conventional NaOH/NALC decontamination of specimens, followed by DNA extraction with a commercially-available Qiagen QIAamp DNA Mini Kit (Option 4), resulted in recovery of only 2.2% of aMTB DNA. In contrast, the present periodate method (Option 1) led to the remarkable recovery of 71.3% of aMTB DNA; a 70% increase in recovery compared to Option 4. Option 3 demonstrates that the initial incubation of the specimen with BD2 buffer was not responsible for the dramatic result of Option 1, as BD2 buffer followed by Qiagen extraction recovered 1.6% of the original spiked amount of aMTB. When periodate treated specimens were extracted with Qiagen&#39;s kit (Option 2), only 26.4% of aMTB DNA was recovered; equivalent to a 24% increase in DNA recovery compared to conventional NaOH/NACL/Qiagen kit (Option 4). 
     The periodate method efficiently isolated the majority of DNA from  Mycobacterium tuberculosis -spiked specimens and, consequently can be used to significantly enhance the already well known benefits of diagnostic/molecular assays, i.e., high level of specificity and sensitivity, short turnaround time, and cost-effectiveness. These improvements allow healthcare systems to save up to 8 weeks of time to differentiate species of the MTBC by culture, provide information to achieve appropriate, rapid drug therapy with minimal side effects, as well as early insight into TB transmission. 
     Example 11: Selective Degradation of Protein by Periodate 
     Periodate is commonly used in solution to open saccharide rings between vicinal diols, allowing the selective labeling of the 3′-terminus of RNA. Surprisingly, the inventors have determined that periodate is also very effective at “killing” or neutralizing the activity of specific enzymes, such as pancreatic ribonuclease A (RNase A) and that it also degrades certain other proteins. 
     In this example, RNase A, a pancreatic ribonuclease that cleaves single-stranded RNA, was shown to be a target for periodate. The enzymatic activity of RNase was assessed by monitoring its ability to degrade an RNA substrate, RNA purified from HeLa cells. If the enzymatic activity of RNase were negatively impacted by periodate, then HeLa cell ribosomal RNA would not be degraded substantially as assessed by agarose gel electrophoresis. 
     Experimental Method and Materials 
     Treatment of Pure Pancreatic Ribonuclease a with Periodate
         1. Pure Pancreatic Ribonuclease A (Sigma) (0.1-0.2 μg/μL) was added to a buffer (1% SDS, 25 mM Li-CDTA, 125 mM LiCl, 25 mM glycine, pH 10.5), with or without 15 mM periodate.   2. The mixture was heated at 70° C. for 15 minutes.   3. 10 μL of the mixture was loaded onto a 10% SDS-PAGE gel and run at 160 volts for 60 minutes.   4. The SDS-PAGE gel was stained with hot Coomassie blue for 30 minutes, then destained for 2 h at room temperature, and photographed under visible light ( FIG. 12 ).       

     Treatment of  Mycobacterium smegmatis  Lysate with Periodate
         1. A washed pellet was prepared from a suspension of plate-grown  Mycobacterium smegmatis.      2. Bead-beating was performed in a Mini-BeadBeater-16 (BioSpec) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. In brief, the washed bacterial pellet was suspended in 1000 μL of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and transferred to a screw-cap polypropylene microcentrifuge tube containing approximately 100 μL of 100 μm glass beads (Polyscience).   3. The tube was secured to the instrument and vigorous agitation was performed in two 1-minute cycles (3,450 oscillations/minute). The sample was cooled on ice for 1 minute between cycles.   4. The suspension was transferred to a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube and unbroken cells and debris were removed by centrifugation 5 minutes at 14,000 rpm, in a microcentrifuge.   5. The supernatant was removed and split equally between two 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes. One fraction was diluted with an equal volume of PBS (control, see  FIG. 13 ). The second fraction was mixed with an equal volume of buffer (1% SDS, 25 mM Li-CDTA, 125 mM LiCl, 25 mM glycine, pH 10.5), split into 3 portions and periodate was added, to a final concentration of 0, 7.5 mM or 15 mM.   6. The tubes were heated at 70° C. for 15 minutes. The control sample was not heated.   7. 7.5 or 15 μL of the mixture was loaded on a 10% SDS-PAGE gel, and run at 160 volts for 60 minutes.   8. SDS-PAGE gel was stained with hot Coomassie blue for 30 minutes and then destained for 2 h at room temperature, and photographed ( FIG. 13 ).       

     Purified HeLa Nucleic Acid Treated with Pancreatic Ribonuclease a and Periodate
         1. A solution of pure pancreatic ribonuclease A (Sigma) (RNase A) was prepared at 10 μg/mL in 50 mM glycine, pH 10.5.   2. The solution was divided equally between two tubes and one of the aliquots was treated with 15 mM periodate.   3. Both tubes were incubated at 70° C. for 15 minutes.   4. The treated RNase A tube was diluted 200-1000 fold in 50 mM ADA buffer, pH 6.5.   5. The diluted RNase A was incubated with HeLa nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) for 20 minutes at 50° C.   6. The reaction was ‘stopped’ with the addition of SDS to 0.5%.   7. The integrity of the treated HeLa RNA was analyzed using 1.0% agarose gel electrophoresis ( FIG. 14 ).       

     Results and Conclusions 
       FIG. 12  shows the surprising result that the quantity of full-length purified RNase protein decreased after a brief incubation with periodate; degradation products (smaller protein fragments) were not observed in the gel. Also, careful inspection of  FIG. 13  shows the selective loss of certain (unknown) protein bands in a cell-free lysate of  M. smegmatis  after incubation with periodate. In the presence of increasing concentrations (7.5 and 15 mM) of periodate, some protein bands selectively decreased or disappeared altogether from the gel, indicating that periodate has multiple protein targets 
     As demonstrated by the data shown in  FIG. 14 , ribosomal RNA was no longer degraded by RNase A if RNase A was pre-incubated with periodate for a brief period of time before contact with RNA. Addition of a relatively large amount of RNase A (50 ng) was needed to detect a small amount of residual active RNase that failed to be inactivated by periodate. Hence, in addition to its effects on total cellular proteins, periodate can target and inhibit the enzymatic action of specific degradative enzymes. 
     Example 12: Periodate Treatment Eliminates Viability of  Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium Botulinum , and  Clostridium difficile  Spores 
     Anthrax is an acute, often lethal, disease caused by the rod-shaped, gram-positive, aerobic bacterium  Bacillus anthracis  that normally rests in endospore form in the soil. Like  C. botulinum  and  C. difficile, B. anthracis  can form dormant endospores, which are very hard to eradicate, surviving harsh conditions for decades or even centuries. When spores are inhaled, ingested, or come into contact with a skin lesion on a host, they may become reactivated and multiply rapidly. The hardiness of anthrax spores, and their ease of production in vitro, makes them extraordinarily well suited to use (in powdered and aerosol form) as biological weapons. 
     While previous examples demonstrate the effectiveness of the periodate method, compared to the standard method, for releasing nucleic acid from spores, it is important to also understand whether any viable spores remain following treatment with periodate. 
     Experimental Method 
       Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium botulinum , and  Clostridium difficile  Spore Preparation 
     Frozen stock cultures of  C. botulinum  Type B and  C. difficile  were cultured on Trypticase Soy Agar with 5% Sheep&#39;s Blood and incubated anaerobically at 35° C. for 24 to 48 hours. After initial incubation, these cultures were transferred to multiple (minimum of 10) Brain Heart Infusion Agar plates and incubated anaerobically at 35° C. for up to 2 weeks. 
     Frozen stock culture of  B. anthracis  Sterne Strain was cultured on Trypticase Soy Agar with 5% Sheep&#39;s Blood and incubated at 35° C. with 5% CO 2  for 24 hours. After initial incubation, this culture was transferred to multiple (minimum of 10)  Bacillus  Sporulation Agar plates and incubated aerobically at 35° C. with CO 2  for up to 2 weeks. 
     Malachite Green spore staining was performed every 3 to 4 days to monitor sporulation of bacteria in vitro. When the malachite green stains prepared showed almost complete sporulation of organisms, the spores were harvested into 5.0 mL of PBS (pH 7.4) and stored at room temperature until use. 
     Determination of Spore Concentration 
     Each spore stock suspension of  C. botulinum  and  C. difficile  were diluted in PBS to 10 −2   . B. anthracis  Sterne Strain was diluted to 10-3 in PBS. An aliquot (10 μL) of each of these final dilutions were loaded into each clean well of a 2-chamber hemocytometer slide. Hemocytometer chambers were observed at 40× magnification without oil for spore counting. Spores were visualized as round or oval black cells on the light field grid of the hemocytometer.  Bacillus anthracis , Limit of Detection (LOD)=53 spores/reaction;  C. botulinum , LOD=30 spores/reaction;  C. difficile , LOD=20 spores/reaction. 
     Treatment of Spores Using Standard and Periodate Methods
         1. Prepared 700 μL of spore stock suspension for each organism at the required concentration.   2. Split each sample into 2×350 μL volumes   3. 350 μL for WC BDL Standard Method (“Collaborator”):
           a. 50 μL aliquot was removed to confirm spores were viable by plating onto Trypticase Soy Agar with 5% Sheep&#39;s Blood (see below).   
           4. 350 μL for Periodate Method:
           a. 350 μL BD2 buffer (2% SDS, 12.5 mM CDTA, 250 mM LiCl, 50 mM glycine, pH 10.5) was added to the 350 μL spore stock suspension of  B. anthracis, C. botulinum  and  C. difficile.      b. Vortexed to mix.   c. Removed 100 μL for culture (“Pre-Periodate”).   d. Added 50 μL of 300 mM sodium (meta)periodate or NPI stock (final concentration 30 mM), vortexed to mix.   e. Incubated at 70° C. in a water bath for 20 minutes.   f. Cooled samples at room temperature for 2 minutes.   g. Removed 100 μL for culture (“Post-Periodate”).   
               

     Culture of Spores to Determine Viability 
       B. anthracis : Aliquots were plated directly onto Trypticase Soy Agar with 5% Sheep&#39;s Blood and incubated at 35° C. with 5% CO 2  for 24 hours. 
       C. botulinum  and  C. difficile : Aliquots were plated directly onto Trypticase Soy Agar with 5% Sheep&#39;s Blood and incubated anaerobically at 35° C. for 24 to 48 hours. 
     Results and Discussion 
     This example demonstrates that the present “Periodate” method is very effective at reducing the viability of hardy spores from  B. anthracis  ( FIG. 15 ),  C. botulinum  ( FIG. 16 ), and  C. difficile  ( FIG. 17 ). Periodate treatment (Post-Periodate) dramatically reduced the viability of  B. anthracis  spores, but did not eradicate all spores present with one treatment. In contrast, no  C. botulinum  or  C. difficile  spores were viable by culture following a periodate treatment. Interestingly, BD2 buffer alone (Pre-Periodate) had a significant impact on  C. botulinum  and  C. difficile , but not  B. anthracis , spore viability, suggesting these microorganisms are easier to lyse than  B. anthracis.    
     Example 13: Use of the Present Invention to Detect Mycobacteria in Saliva and Oral Wash Specimens 
     According to the World Health Organization, in 2012, 1.3 million people died from TB, 8.6 million people fell ill with TB, and an estimated 530,000 children &lt;15 years of age became ill with this infectious disease worldwide. TB is an air-borne disease transmitted through fine respiratory droplets from an infected person. Persons with TB are most likely to spread it to people who have close and prolonged contact with them, such as family members, friends and coworkers. 
     Pediatric TB diagnosis is impeded by difficulty obtaining sputum samples in children and the paucibacillary nature of their disease that often necessitates invasive procedures such as gastric aspiration or bronchoscopy. If TB could be diagnosed from saliva or oral samples, collection could easily take place in the field or in clinics. However, with conventional DNA extraction methods, the abundance of MTB in saliva of TB-infected individuals is considered too low for saliva to be considered a reliable sample type for the diagnosis of active pulmonary TB. 
     Today, diagnostic laboratories rely largely on sputum specimens to make a diagnosis of pulmonary TB. However, many patients, including infants and children, are unable to expectorate sputum, making an alternate non-invasive sample for TB diagnostic investigations valuable. Several studies have assessed the use of oral wash specimens (Davis J L et al., 2009) and saliva samples (Yassen G et al., 2012) for the detection of active TB. In patients who cannot produce sputum, saliva samples and/or oral wash specimens may be easier and safer to obtain, compared with inducing sputum, which can be uncomfortable and dangerous for hypoxic patients and time-consuming and hazardous for staff. For the collection of oral wash specimens, subjects are instructed to cough vigorously 5 times, and then gargle 10 mL of sterile saline for 60 seconds. Fewer infectious aerosols are generated with oral wash specimens and saliva samples, compared to expectorated sputum. 
     It is well known that the sensitivity of PCR to diagnose disease can be improved by optimizing the DNA extraction technique. Example 9 (above) demonstrates that the periodate method of the present invention releases significantly more DNA from MTB in sputum than standard of care methods utilizing bead beating. In addition, Example 10 indicates that the periodate-based method releases significantly more MTB DNA in saliva than does Qiagen DNA extraction method. Hence, it is anticipated that the increased sensitivity in detection gained by utilizing the present invention to extract MTB DNA will, for the first time, enable the widespread use of saliva and/or oral wash specimens as preliminary diagnostic specimens for pulmonary TB in symptomatic individuals, especially children. While the numbers of MTB in saliva of actively infected individuals is low, it is anticipated the increased sensitivity of detection gained by the periodate-based method will enable a more reliable molecular detection of MTB using this easy to collect sample type. Saliva and/or oral wash specimens could be readily collected from symptomatic individuals to rapidly screen for TB and initiate treatment at an earlier stage which, in turn, will reduce the transmission and morbidity associated with this infectious disease. 
     Similarly, it is anticipated that the composition of the present invention can also be used with bronchoalveolar lavage samples, urine, feces and gastric aspirates to extract DNA from MTB, resulting in an increased sensitivity of detection of TB in molecular diagnostic tests, and increase in the number of TB cases identified. 
     Example 14: Use of Periodate for Releasing Nucleic Acids from a Broad Array of Microorganisms 
     In this example, a panel of various microorganisms, including Gram-positive bacteria ( Bacillus thuringiensis, Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium smegmatis ), Gram-negative bacteria ( Moraxella catarrhalis, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Yersinia enterocolitica, Francisella philomiragia ) and yeast ( Candida albicans ), were treated with periodate. The release of nucleic acids from these microorganisms was assessed using 2 distinct methods, namely the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method and real-time PCR (qPCR). 
     Experimental Methods 
     Bacteria and yeast were grown in recommended growth media and at recommended temperature as follows: in YEPD broth ( C. albicans ), Tryptic soy broth with 0.1% cysteine ( F. philomiragia ), Brain heart infusion broth ( Y. enterocolitica, M. catarrhalis ) or Tryptic soy broth ( B. thuringiensis, S. aureus, M. smegmatis, K. pneumonia, P. aeruginosa ).  Y. enterocolitica  and  C. albicans  were grown at 30° C., while other microorganisms were grown at 35° C. 
     After overnight growth cells were collected by centrifugation at 7,500 g for 8 minutes; the supernatant was discarded. Bacterial pellets were washed once with cold phosphate-buffered saline by centrifuging at 7,500 g for 6 minutes and discarding the supernatants. The washed bacterial pellets were resuspended in 1.5 mL of cold water. 
     180 μL of cell suspension was mixed with 200 μL of BD2 buffer (2% SDS, 12.5 mM CDTA, 250 mM LiCl, 50 mM glycine, pH 10.5) and 20 μL of 300 mM periodate or RNase-/DNase-free water (control) was added to samples not receiving periodate. Samples were incubated for 20 minutes at 35° C., 70° C. or 80° C. Samples were centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 5 minutes. The supernatants were transferred to a fresh tube and the pellets were discarded. 
     All samples were purified with the addition of 16 μL of TK buffer (500 mM Tris, 1.5 M potassium acetate, pH 5.5), incubated first for 5 minutes at room temperature, then for 15 minutes on ice, followed by centrifugation for 5 minutes at 14,000 rpm. Half the volume of each sample was precipitated with 2× volume of cold 95% ethanol for 1 hour at −20° C.; the other half was subjected to acid-hydrolysis by the addition of HCl to 0.2 N final concentration, and incubated at 60° C. for 60 minutes. NaOH was added to 0.1 N excess to all acid hydrolysed samples, followed by incubation at 100° C. for 10 minutes. To neutralize the samples for reverse-phase HPLC, 300 μL of 500 mM ADA pH 6.5 was added to samples and samples were centrifuged for 3 minutes at 14,000 rpm for 5 minutes. Supernatants were analysed by HPLC while any insoluble material was discarded. 
     Samples in ethanol were centrifuged for 3 minutes at 14,000 rpm, supernatants were removed, and pellets were dissolved in 50 μL of cold RNase-/DNase-free water. 1 μL of purified material was used as template in 25 μL PCR reactions in duplicate. See example 6 for conditions of real-time PCR using universal bacterial primers. 
     Universal fungal primers were F: 5′-gcatcgatgaagaacgcagc-3′ and R: 5′-tcctccgcttattgatatgc-3′. Each 25 μL PCR reaction contained 2.0 mM MgCl 2 , 0.2 mM dNTPs, 1.0 μM Syto 9, 4.0 pmole universal fungal primer F, 4.0 pmole universal fungal primer R, 2.0 μg bovine serum albumin (BSA), 1 U FastStart Taq DNA polymerase (Roche) and 1× FastStart PCR master mix. The cycling conditions for universal fungal primers were as follows: 95° C. for 2 minutes×1, (95° C. for 20 seconds, 56.5° C. for 30 seconds, 72° C. for 25 seconds)×38. 
     Results and Discussion 
     Clearly, significantly more DNA was released from a wide array of microorganisms in the presence of periodate than without it, as shown by both real-time PCR (Tables 19-21) and the Acid-Extraction HPLC Method (Tables 22-30). This effect of periodate appeared to be temperature dependent with optimal nucleic acid release occurring at 70-80° C. Periodate released nucleic acids from both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as well as fungus. Interestingly, periodate released relatively small amounts of nucleic acid from  S. aureus  as detected by the HPLC method, but not real-time PCR. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 19 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 C t  values from real-time PCR using universal bacterial primers. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Microorganism 
                 Periodate 
                 35° C. 
                 70° C. 
                 80° C. 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 
                   M. catarrhalis 
                 
                 − 
                 16.7 
                 17.2 
                 12.7 
               
               
                   
                 + 
                 16.3 
                 12.7 
                 10.8 
               
               
                 
                   K. pneumonia 
                 
                 − 
                 15.9 
                 16.4 
                 17.5 
               
               
                   
                 + 
                 24.3 
                 9.3 
                 9.6 
               
               
                 
                   P. aeruginosa 
                 
                 − 
                 12.8 
                 13.5 
                 12.4 
               
               
                   
                 + 
                 10.8 
                 7.8 
                 8.8 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 20 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 C t  values from real-time PCR using universal  
               
               
                 bacterial primers or universal fungal primers. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Microorganism 
                 Periodate 
                 35° C. 
                 70° C. 
                 80° C. 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 
                   B. thuringiensis 
                 
                 − 
                 14.2 
                 12.9 
                 13.1 
               
               
                   
                   
                 + 
                 15.5 
                 10.3 
                 10.8 
               
               
                   
                 
                   Y. enterocolitica 
                 
                 − 
                 14.8 
                 14.9 
                 14.5 
               
               
                   
                   
                 + 
                 15.5 
                 12.0 
                 11.4 
               
               
                   
                 
                   C. albicans 
                 
                 − 
                 23.4 
                 19.1 
                 17.4 
               
               
                   
                   
                 + 
                 27.1 
                 15.2 
                 15.7 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 21 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 C t  values from real-time PCR using universal bacterial primers. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Microorganism 
                 Periodate 
                 35° C. 
                 70° C. 
                 80° C. 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 
                   S. aureus 
                 
                 − 
                 13.9 
                 13.9 
                 14.1 
               
               
                   
                 + 
                 15.5 
                 13.7 
                 15.0 
               
               
                 
                   F. philomiragia 
                 
                 − 
                 17.5 
                 17.0 
                 17.8 
               
               
                   
                 + 
                 15.3 
                 15.5 
                 16.0 
               
               
                 
                   M. smegmatis 
                 
                 − 
                 22.3 
                 22.4 
                 22.3 
               
               
                   
                 + 
                 22.8 
                 18.1 
                 17.9 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 22 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 % DNA Released from  F. philomiragia  as  
               
               
                 Determined by Acid Extraction HPLC Method. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Periodate 
                 Control 
               
               
                   
                 Temperature 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 35° C. 
                 65.3 
                 65.0 
               
               
                   
                 70° C. 
                 89.4 
                 24.6 
               
               
                   
                 80° C. 
                 92.0 
                 34.6 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 23 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 % DNA Released from  S. aureus  as  
               
               
                 Determined by Acid Extraction HPLC Method. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Periodate 
                 Control 
               
               
                   
                 Temperature 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 35° C. 
                 18.4 
                 9.6 
               
               
                   
                 70° C. 
                 24.8 
                 10.1 
               
               
                   
                 80° C. 
                 26.7 
                 10.1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 24 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 % DNA Released from  M. smegmatis  as  
               
               
                 Determined by Acid Extraction HPLC Method. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Periodate 
                 Control 
               
               
                   
                 Temperature 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 35° C. 
                 49.7 
                 8.6 
               
               
                   
                 70° C. 
                 85.2 
                 1.3 
               
               
                   
                 80° C. 
                 80.6 
                 10.1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 25 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 % DNA Released from  B. thuringiensis  as  
               
               
                 Determined by Acid Extraction HPLC Method. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Periodate 
                 Control 
               
               
                   
                 Temperature 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 35° C. 
                 42.1 
                 26.5 
               
               
                   
                 70° C. 
                 103.5 
                 27.5 
               
               
                   
                 80° C. 
                 107.7 
                 28.8 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 26 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 % DNA Released from  Y. enterocolitica  as  
               
               
                 Determined by Acid Extraction HPLC Method. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Periodate 
                 Control 
               
               
                   
                 Temperature 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 35° C. 
                 52.1 
                 24.2 
               
               
                   
                 70° C. 
                 80.8 
                 36.6 
               
               
                   
                 80° C. 
                 89.5 
                 34.2 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 27 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 % DNA Released from  C. albicans  as  
               
               
                 Determined by Acid Extraction HPLC Method. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Periodate 
                 Control 
               
               
                   
                 Temperature 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 35° C. 
                 105.4 
                 53.7 
               
               
                   
                 70° C. 
                 155.3 
                 51.4 
               
               
                   
                 80° C. 
                 156.4 
                 53.6 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 28 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 % DNA Released from  M. catarrhalis  as  
               
               
                 Determined by Acid Extraction HPLC Method. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Periodate 
                 Control 
               
               
                   
                 Temperature 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 35° C. 
                 77.1 
                 18.1 
               
               
                   
                 70° C. 
                 143.6 
                 35.6 
               
               
                   
                 80° C. 
                 140.5 
                 58.5 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 29 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 % DNA Released from  K. pneumonia  as  
               
               
                 Determined by Acid Extraction HPLC Method. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Periodate 
                 Control 
               
               
                   
                 Temperature 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 35° C. 
                 49.0 
                 2.8 
               
               
                   
                 70° C. 
                 119.2 
                 15.1 
               
               
                   
                 80° C. 
                 124.4 
                 8.7 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 30 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 % DNA Released from  P. aeruginosa  as  
               
               
                 Determined by Acid Extraction HPLC Method. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Periodate 
                 Control 
               
               
                   
                 Temperature 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 35° C. 
                 38.6 
                 19.4 
               
               
                   
                 70° C. 
                 117.8 
                 69.8 
               
               
                   
                 80° C. 
                 98.2 
                 31.0 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 15: Use of Periodate for Releasing DNA from  M. tuberculosis  Present in Varied Biological Sample Types 
     It is possible to find microorganisms in a variety of natural environments, host organisms and biological samples. This example shows that the present chemical “Periodate Method” of DNA extraction is suitable for detecting hardy organisms, such as  M. tuberculosis  from biological samples of varying complexity. Specifically,  M. tuberculosis  DNA was recovered from human urine and feces samples. 
     Experimental Methods 
     Preparation of  Mycobacterium tuberculosis -spiked Biological Samples 
     To simulate tuberculosis-positive samples, 1 mL of urine or feces (from a preparation of ˜400 mg feces collected into 2 mL of feces homogenization buffer (U.S. Ser. No. 61/949,692)) samples from healthy donors were spiked with attenuated  M. tuberculosis  (aMTB) to a final concentration of approximately 3×10 6  cfu/mL. 
     Extraction of DNA from  M. Tuberculosis  Positive Urine and Feces Using the “Periodate Method”
         1. Mixed 200 μL of aMTB-spiked urine or feces with an equal volume of BD2 buffer   2. Add 40 μL NPI (final concentration 30 mM), vortex to mix, and incubate at 70° C. for 20 minutes   3. Cool samples at room temperature for 2 minutes   4. Add 1 M Tris buffer (pH7) to a final concentration of 50 mM   5. Incubate at room temperature for 10 minutes   6. Add 3 M potassium acetate (pH 5.5) to a final concentration of 150 mM   7. Incubate on ice for 10 minutes   8. Centrifuge at 15,000×g for 5 minutes   9. Transfer the supernatant to a fresh tube, and discard the pellet   10. Add 800 μL room temperature 95% ethanol and invert 20 times to mix   11. Incubate the samples at room temperature for 15 minutes to precipitate DNA   12. Centrifuge at 15,000×g for 2 minutes to pellet the DNA   13. Carefully remove and discard the supernatant, taking care not to disturb the pellet.   14. Add 100 μL TE to rehydrate the pellet       

     Real-Time PCR 
     DNA isolated from urine or feces spiked with aMTB was used in the RD4 Taqman Real-time PCR assay as described in Examples 9 and 10. The DNA was diluted 1:100 for feces prior to the assay, and 5 μL was used in each case. 
     Results and Conclusions 
     In this example, DNA extracted using the “Periodate Method” is detected as TB-positive in 100% of cases tested (Table 31), demonstrating that the current invention is effective in releasing functional DNA from samples ranging from low complexity (mainly aqueous, homogeneous, pH neutral solutions) to higher complexity (semi-solid, heterogeneous, pH variable composites). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 31 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Percentage of Urine and Feces samples detected TB-positive 
               
               
                 following DNA extraction using the “Periodate Method”. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 %  
                 Average Ct 
               
               
                   
                 Sample Type 
                 Detected 
                 Value 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Urine (n = 3) 
                 100 
                 17.46 
               
               
                   
                 Feces 
                 100 
                 23.34 
               
               
                   
                 (1:100 dilution, n = 6) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 16: Use of Periodate for the Biosafety of Infectious Samples 
     The continued rise of worldwide TB infections requires a robust medical response involving detection, treatment and prevention. Such a framework depends on a large network of laboratories and associated scientific personnel actively involved in the handling of highly infectious samples. Given the ease with which TB is transmitted, sophisticated, high-level biological safety cabinets (BSCs) are required for handling. Further, these workers are at a potentially higher risk of infection. A composition with the ability to rapidly render these samples “biosafe”, i.e. no longer viable, and therefore safe for removal to a more basic laboratory for downstream analysis is a clear advantage in this field. 
     In this example, bacterial sediments obtained following the treatment protocols with and without periodate were evaluated from a biosafety perspective to ensure that the material can be safely removed from a BSL-3 (Biological Safety Level 3) for analysis in a molecular suite of a BSL-2 laboratory. 
     Experimental Methods 
     Preparation of  Mycobacterium tuberculosis -Spiked Biological Samples 
     To simulate tuberculosis-positive sputum, saliva samples from healthy donors were spiked with attenuated  M. tuberculosis  (aMTB) with the following approximate stock concentrations:
         1. 7.5×10 9  cfu/mL (high load)   2. 7.5×10 7  cfu/mL (medium load)       

     Spiked saliva samples were prepared according to the following groups, and each group was prepared using either the high load stock concentration or the medium load stock concentration:
         A. 1.0 mL Saliva+1.0 mL BD2 buffer+100 μL aMTB stock: No NPI treatment   B. 2.0 mL Saliva+100 μL aMTB stock: No NPI treatment   C. 2.0 mL Saliva+100 μL aMTB stock: NPI treatment   D. 1.0 mL Saliva+1.0 mL BD2 buffer+100 μL aMTB stock: NPI treatment       

     The final concentration of aMTB in each group was ˜3.75×10 8  cfu/mL (high load samples) or ˜3.75×10 6  cfu/mL (medium load samples). Each tube was vortexed briefly to mix, and the samples were processed as follows: 
     Protocol for Group A and Group B Samples
         1. Aliquot each sample into three fresh 1.5 mL centrifuge tubes at 500 μL per tube   2. Centrifuge the tubes for 20 minutes at 3500×g   3. Remove and discard the supernatant   4. Re-suspend the sediment in 50 μL of sterile PBS   5. Apply the PBS sediment mixture carefully to the top edge of a Lawenstein-Jansen culture media tube (LJ slant), and rock gently from side to side to distribute sample.   6. Incubate at 35° C. for 42 days and score growth       

     Protocol for Group C and Group D Samples
         1. Aliquot each sample into three fresh 1.5 mL centrifuge tubes at 500 μL per tube   2. Centrifuge the tubes for 20 minutes at 3500×g   3. Remove and discard the supernatant   4. Re-suspend the sediment in 500 μL of 50% BD2 buffer   5. Add 50 μL of NPI (final concentration 30 mM), vortex to mix and incubate at 70° C. for 20 minutes   6. Cool samples at room temperature for 2 minutes   7. Add 1M Tris buffer (pH7) to a final concentration of 50 mM   8. Centrifuge the tubes for 20 minutes at 3500×g   9. Remove and discard the supernatant   10. Wash the sediment in 500 μL sterile PBS   11. Centrifuge the tubes for 20 minutes at 3500×g   12. Remove and discard the supernatant   13. Re-suspend the sediment in 50 μL of sterile PBS   14. Apply the PBS sediment mixture carefully to the top edge of a Löwenstein-Jansen culture media tube (LJ slant), and rock gently from side to side to distribute sample.   15. Incubate at 35° C. for 42 days and score growth       

     Results and Conclusions 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 32 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Summary of aMTB growth on LJ slants in the presence or 
               
               
                 absence of NPI 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Groups 
                   
                 A 
                 B 
                 C 
                 D 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Sample 
                 BD2 
                 + 
                 − 
                 − 
                 + 
               
               
                 Composition 
                 aMTB 
                 + 
                 + 
                 + 
                 + 
               
               
                   
                 NPI 
                 − 
                 − 
                 + 
                 + 
               
               
                 Growth 
                 High load 
                 +++ 
                 ++* 
                 NEG 
                 NEG 
               
               
                 (up to 42 days) 
                 Medium 
                 ++ 
                 ++* 
                 NEG 
                 NEG 
               
               
                   
                 load 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Time to Positive 
                 High load 
                  8 
                 1* 
                 &gt;42 
                 &gt;42 
               
               
                 (d) 
                 Medium 
                 10 
                 1* 
                 &gt;42 
                 &gt;42 
               
               
                   
                 load 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *The absence of an initial Lysis Buffer (BD2) to remove background flora resulted in rapid growth of these contaminating organisms 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Table 32 demonstrates the prevention of TB viability in the presence of NPI. In groups A and B, where NPI is not present, TB colonies began to appear after 8-10 days (group A), and contaminating background flora overwhelmed the LJ medium within one day (Group B). In contrast, in groups C and D, where NPI has been added, no growth of any microorganism was observed, even after 42 days incubation which is the current culture standard for determining TB negative status. This shows that NPI is necessary for the prevention of TB viability. This effect is also seen even in the absence of an initial lysis buffer for the removal of background flora (BD2; Group C), indicating that NPI alone is sufficient for the prevention of TB viability. This is a clear improvement on the current state of the art as it allows the individual handling TB positive samples to quickly and effectively render the samples biosafe. The risk to the individual is thus lowered, and these NPI treated samples can be removed from the restrictive BSL3 environment to a BSL2 laboratory for further analysis including DNA extraction and real-time PCR (see Example 9). 
     Example 17: Test Activity of ML Directly in NaOH-NALC Sputum Sample 
     NaOH/NALC is widely used to liquefy sputum. This example demonstrates that periodate remains active, i.e. releases nucleic acids from MTB, in sputum samples treated with NaOH/NALC. 
     Experimental Methods 
     Preparation of  Mycobacterium tuberculosis -Spiked Sputum Samples 
     To simulate tuberculosis-positive sputum, a sputum sample (purchased from Tissue Solutions Ltd., Glasgow, Scotland) was spiked with approximately 9×106 CFU/mL attenuated  M. tuberculosis  H37Ra (aMTB) and split into two portions. One portion was treated with an equal volume of NaOH/NALC for 15 minutes at room temperature, while the second portion was mixed with an equal volume of BD2 buffer (50 mM glycine, 250 mM LiCl, 12.5 mM Li-CDTA, 2% SDS, pH 10.5). BD buffer-treated sputum was centrifuged at 5,000 rpm for 20 minutes and the pellet was resuspended in 1 mL PBS to which 1 mL BD2 buffer was added. 
     Extraction of DNA from aMTB-Positive Sputum in NaOH/NALC or BD Buffer Using the Optimal Periodate Method
         1. Three 200 μL aliquots of NaOH/NALC-treated sputum or BD2 buffer-treated sputum (above) were treated with NPI to a final concentration of 30 mM, vortexed to mix.   2. Incubated at 70° C. in a water bath for 20 minutes.   3. Cooled aliquots at room temperature for 2 minutes.   4. Added 1 M Tris buffer (pH 7) to a final concentration of 50 mM.   5. Added 3M potassium acetate (pH 5.5) to a final concentration of 150 mM.   6. Incubated on ice for 10 minutes.   7. Centrifuged at 13,200 rpm for 5 minutes.   8. Transferred supernatant to a clean tube. Discarded pellet.   9. Added 400 μL room temperature 95% ethanol. Inverted 20 times to mix.   10. Incubated samples at room temperature for 15 minutes to precipitate DNA.   11. Centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 2 minutes to pellet DNA.   12. Gently removed and discarded supernatant taking care not to disturb the pellet.   13. Dissolved pellet in 200 μL TE. Vortexed briefly to fully resuspend DNA.       

     Extraction of DNA from aMTB-Positive Sputum in NaOH/NALC Using the Shortened Periodate Method
         1. Three 200 μL aliquots of NaOH/NALC-treated sputum (above) were treated with NPI to a final contraction of 30 mM, vortex to mix.   2. Incubated at 70° C. in a water bath for 20 minutes.   3. Cooled aliquots at room temperature for 2 minutes.   4. Added 1 M Tris buffer (pH 7) to a final concentration of 50 mM.   5. Incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes.   6. Added 2 volumes of room temperature 95% ethanol. Inverted 20 times to mix.   7. Incubated samples at room temperature for 15 minutes to precipitate DNA.   8. Centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 2 minutes to pellet DNA.   9. Gently removed and discarded supernatant taking care not to disturb the pellet.   10. Dissolved pellet in 200 μL TE. Vortexed briefly to fully resuspend DNA.       

     rtPCR Conditions 
     In this example, DNA isolated from sputum spiked-aMTB samples (above) was subjected to an rtPCR assay specific for  Mycobacterium , the RD4 Tagman Real-time PCR assay (see example 10). 
     Results and Conclusions 
     As outlined above, the extraction protocol for NaOH/NALC-treated sputum can be shortened by removing the potassium acetate and centrifugation steps required to precipitate SDS from BD2 buffer-treated samples. The present example uses a real-time PCR assay specific for  M. tuberculosis  to demonstrate that periodate is capable of releasing nucleic acid from aMTB in sputum after treatment with NaOH/NALC (Table 33). Compared to the method of the present invention, BD2 buffer treatment followed by DNA extraction using periodate, Ct values were only 2 cycles higher when sputum was treated with NaOH/NALC prior to DNA extraction using periodate. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 33 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Quantification of DNA released from aMTB-spiked sputum. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 C t    
                 C t    
                 C t    
                 Av- 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 DNA  
                 value 
                 value 
                 value 
                 erage 
               
               
                 Treat- 
                 Extraction  
                 Aliquot  
                 Aliquot  
                 Aliquot  
                 C t    
               
               
                 ment 
                 Method 
                 1 
                 2 
                 3 
                 value 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 NaOH/ 
                 Shortened 
                 27.13 
                 26.90 
                 26.34 
                 26.79 
               
               
                 NALC 
                 Periodate Method 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 NaOH/ 
                 Optimal 
                 27.12 
                 27.94 
                 26.79 
                 27.28 
               
               
                 NALC 
                 Periodate Method 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 BD2  
                 Optimal 
                 23.60 
                 25.53 
                 24.98 
                 24.70 
               
               
                 Buffer 
                 Periodate Method 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 18: Periodate Method Compared to Standard of Care Method for Molecular Detection of  Mycobacterium Tuberculosis    
     The CDC recommends that clinical specimens be analyzed simultaneously by culture, acid-fast  bacillus  (AFB) staining, and nucleic acid amplification protocols (Anonymous, 2009). Culture is the “gold standard” for final determination of TB positivity, but it is slow and may take up to 8 weeks. AFB staining is rapid, but has a low sensitivity and low specificity, since it does not distinguish non-tuberculosis Mycobacteria (NTM) from members of the  M. tuberculosis  complex (MTBC). Thus, rapid identification, which is essential to control spread of disease, relies on nucleic acid amplification protocols, such as real-time PCR (qPCR) and sequencing. 
     The assessment of antibiotic resistance in  M. tuberculosis -infected patients is critically important to patient management and controlling the spread of disease. Standard methods for drug susceptibility testing (DST) of  M. tuberculosis  can take weeks to months to provide results. Due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB), rapid molecular approaches have been developed. Mutations within rpoB gene are associated with rifampin (RIF) resistance, while mutations with katG and inhA genes are associated with Isoniazid resistance. Halse et al. (2010) developed a two-step molecular approach which utilized antibiotic resistance gene pyrosequencing analysis directly with clinical specimens positive for  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  complex (MTBC) by real-time PCR. 
     In this example, a side-by-side comparison of the clinical evaluation of TB-positive sputum samples (kindly donated by the Foundation for Innovative Diagnostics (FIND) Tuberculosis Specimen Bank) treated by two distinct methods, was performed. Specifically, 1) the “Standard of Care” method, consisting of sodium hydroxide treatment followed by bead beating, and 2) the present invention were compared in terms of sensitivity in a CLIA/CLEP-approved qPCR assay (targeting the RD4 MTBC region of difference (RD)) (Halse et al., 2011) and antibiotic resistance gene pyrosequencing assay (Halse et al., 2010). In the present method, TB-positive sputum samples were treated with BD2 buffer and periodate to facilitate chemical lysis of cells in the specimen, prior to isolation of DNA and assay testing. 
     In contrast to the present invention, the “Standard of Care” includes bead beating, a mechanical method, to break open bacteria in sputum samples. While mechanical bead beating can be effective at breaking open organisms, it does create dangerous aerosols in the laboratory environment. Hence, it is highly desirable to develop an effective, non-mechanical, chemical method to safely release DNA from  Mycobacterium tuberculosis , without negatively impacting the clinical sensitivity of the diagnostic tests. 
     Experimental Method 
       Mycobacterium tuberculosis -Positive Sputum Samples 
     For the present example, raw sputum samples from confirmed TB-positive patients were kindly donated by the Foundation for Innovative Diagnostics (FIND) Tuberculosis Specimen Bank. Using smear and culture analysis, FIND categorized these samples as ‘low’, ‘mid’ and ‘high’ TB-positive specimens. Duplicate 0.5 mL aliquots were provided from 30 patient samples and stored frozen. Aliquots were shipped frozen to Wadsworth Center Mycobacteriology Laboratory (New York State Department of Health, Albany, N.Y., U.S.A.), a CLIA/CLEP-approved Clinical Laboratory for further analysis. 
     Duplicate aliquots from 30 donors were thawed on ice; one set of aliquots was processed using the “Standard of Care” Method (Collaborator) and the second set was treated with BD2 buffer and periodate (Periodate), prior to isolation of DNA. 
     Treatment of TB-Positive Sputum Using the “Standard of Care” Method
         1. Added 0.5 mL 3.5% NaOH to each 0.5 mL sputum aliquot (n=6); vortexed to mix.   2. Incubated at room temperature for 15 minutes.   3. Brought up to 10 mL with sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS).   4. Centrifuged at 5,000 rpm for 20 minutes to pellet bacteria. Discarded the supernatant.   5. Resuspended the pellet in 0.5 mL sterile PBS.   6. Set aside 300 μL of resuspended bacteria for culture to confirm viability of  M. tuberculosis.      7. Lysed bacteria by adding 200 mg of 105-150 micron glass beads to remaining 200 μL of resuspended bacteria.   8. Bead beat for 2 cycles of 1 minute, followed by 1 minute on ice using a Mini-BeadBeater (BioSpec Products).       

     Treatment of TB-Positive Sputum Using the Periodate Method
         1. Added 0.5 mL BD2 buffer (2% SDS, 12.5 mM CDTA, 250 mM LiCl, 50 mM glycine, pH 10.5) to each 0.5 mL sputum aliquot (n=6); vortexed to mix.   2. Added Proteinase K (400 g) and incubated at 50° C. in a water bath for 2 hours.   3. Added NPI to a final concentration of 30 mM, vortexed to mix.   4. Incubated at 70° C. in a water bath for 20 minutes.   5. Cooled samples at room temperature for 2 minutes.   6. Added 1 M Tris buffer (pH 7) to a final concentration of 50 mM.   7. Incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes.   8. Added 3M potassium acetate (pH 5.5) to a final concentration of 150 mM.   9. Incubated on ice for 10 minutes.   10. Centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 5 minutes.   11. Transferred supernatant to a clean, labeled tube. Discarded pellet.   12. Added 2 volumes of room temperature 95% ethanol; inverted 20 times to mix.   13. Incubated samples at room temperature for 15 minutes to precipitate DNA.   14. Centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 2 minutes to pellet DNA.   15. Gently removed and discarded supernatant taking care not to disturb the pellet.   16. Dissolved pellet in 200 μL TE.   17. Vortexed briefly to fully resuspend DNA and let stand at room temperature for a minimum of 30 minutes.       

     Real-Time PCR for  M. tuberculosis  and Pyrosequencing for Antibiotic Resistance 
     Duplicate reactions of 5 μL ‘neat’ DNA and 5 μL diluted (1:10) DNA from each purified sputum sample (above) were amplified on an ABI 7500 real-time PCR instrument using a CLIA/CLEP-approved qPCR assay targeting the RD4 MTBC region of difference (RD) (Halse et al., 2011). Threshold cycle (C t ) values less than 37 were reported as positive, and samples with values greater than 37 were retested; if the results were the same, the result was reported as positive, and if they were not, they were reported as inconclusive. 
     Antibiotic resistance profiling was done using the previously published pyrosequencing method for rifampcin resistance (rpoB) (Halse et al, 2010) and additional targets for isonazid resistance (inhA and katG). DNA obtained from both methods was used in separate PCR reactions to amplify specific regions of the rpoB, inhA and katG genes. Mutations in these regions indicate probable resistance to either rifampcin and/or isonazid antibiotics. 
     Results and Discussion 
     Today, the standard of care method involves liquefaction of sputum with sodium hydroxide (or NaOH/NALC), followed by isolation of DNA from bacteria using mechanical bead beating. The present method is different in that a simple chemical treatment, including periodate, efficiently lyses bacteria. Importantly, the present composition and method appeared to be just as effective, if not more effective, compared to the standard of care methodology, in leading to the subsequent detection of  M. tuberculosis -specific DNA and antibiotic resistance markers. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 34 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Pyrosequencing Results for Three Antibiotic Resistance Markers in 
               
               
                   M .  tuberculosis . 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Real-time PCR 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 C t  value (in 
                   
                   
                   
                 MGIT 
               
               
                 Study ID # 
                 Method 
                 duplicate) 
                 rpoB gene 
                 katG gene 
                 inhA gene 
                 Growth 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FIND 01 01 
                 Collaborator 
                 Negative 
                 Failed 
                 Failed 
                 Failed 
                 NG 
               
               
                 2072 
                   
                 (straight, 1:10) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 LOW 
                 Periodate 
                 32/32 
                 WT 
                 Failed 
                 C(−15)T 
                   
               
               
                 FIND 01 01  
                 Collaborator 
                 34/34 (1:10) 
                 Failed 
                 Failed 
                 WT 
                 NG 
               
               
                 2137 
                 Periodate 
                 41/33 
                 Asp516Val 
                 Failed 
                 WT 
                   
               
               
                 LOW 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 FIND 01 01 
                 Collaborator 
                 26/26 (1:10) 
                 Failed/WT(M) 
                 WT 
                 WT 
                 Yes 
               
               
                 2166 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (12 d) 
               
               
                 MID 
                 Periodate 
                 23/23 
                 WT 
                 WT 
                 WT 
                   
               
               
                 FIND 01 01  
                 Collaborator 
                 34/34 (1:10) 
                 Failed 
                 Failed 
                 G(−17)T 
                 NG 
               
               
                 2287 
                 Periodate 
                 33/33 
                 WT 
                 WF 
                 G(−17)T 
                   
               
               
                 MID 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 FIND 10 01 
                 Collaborator 
                 27/27 (1:10) 
                 Failed/WT(M) 
                 Failed/WT(M) 
                 C(−15)T 
                 Yes 
               
               
                 0041 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (10 d) 
               
               
                 HIGH 
                 Periodate 
                 19/19 
                 WT 
                 WT 
                 C(−15)T 
                   
               
               
                 FIND 10 01 
                 Collaborator 
                 31/31 (1:10) 
                 Failed/WT(M) 
                 Failed/WT(M) 
                 Failed/WT(M) 
                 Yes 
               
               
                 0042 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (19 d) 
               
               
                 HIGH 
                 Periodate 
                 24/25 
                 WT 
                 WT 
                 WT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WT, Wild type; 
               
               
                 NG, no growth; 
               
               
                 STC, sputum transport chemistry 
               
               
                 M, Pyrosequencing was done using a HK made from the MGIT growth 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Compared to the conventional method (“Collaborator”, Table 34), the present chemical method (“Periodate”, Table 34) led to increased clinical sensitivity of  M. tuberculosis -specific detection by qPCR in duplicate sputum samples categorized previously as ‘low’ and ‘mid’ TB-positive by culture and smear microscopy. In this example, not until DNA extracted using the “Standard of Care” method was diluted 10-fold was  M. tuberculosis  detected by qPCR in ‘mid’ and ‘high’ TB-positive sputum samples (Table 34). For all TB burden levels, Table 1 illustrates the significantly improved limit of detection (lower C t  values by qPCR) of  M. tuberculosis  in all TB-positive sputum samples treated using the present method (Periodate), compared to the standard of care method (Collaborator). This lower limit of detection helps ensure an accurate diagnosis of  M. tuberculosis  from patient sputum samples. 
     Similarly, the present composition and method is compatible with industry standard testing to predict antibiotic resistance in  M. tuberculosis -positive specimens. Pyrosequencing assay results obtained with the standard of care method and periodate method were 100% concordant for the 6 clinical TB-positive sputum specimens tested. Importantly, from these 6 patient sputum specimens, the present periodate method, but not the standard of care method, detected 2 patients (FIND 0101 2072 and FIND 01 01 2137) with antibiotic resistance markers (inhA and ropB genes) (Table 34). Even the gold standard culture test failed to show growth of Mycobacteria in these 2 patients&#39; samples after 52 days in vitro. 
     The impact of the increased recovery of Mycobacteria DNA at the time of testing is best highlighted with the pyrosequencing data. The samples treated with periodate had DNA available in sufficient quantities to be tested for antibiotic resistance markers on day 0 of testing. In contrast, the standard of care method required an average of 14 days for MGIT cultures to become positive before pyrosequencing could be repeated on samples that were negative by PCR at day 0. The antibiotic profile of a patient is critical for case management and earlier intervention with the appropriate antibiotic therapy will decrease transmission rates and increase the chances of recovery. Hence, the present invention is valuable for rapid, same-day identification of MTBC by real-time PCR and sensitive enough to detect antibiotic resistance markers for  M. tuberculosis , without waiting for the detection of Mycobacteria by culture. 
     Example 19: Detection of MTB from Sputum Swab Samples 
     For optimal control of tuberculosis, early diagnosis is essential. Several researchers have developed real-time PCR assays that provide rapid detection of various target sequences of  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  complex (MTBC) and drug resistance genes in patient samples. The ability of these assays to detect MTBC in clinical samples is dependent on both the target sequence selected and the efficiency of the DNA extraction procedure. Previous examples have demonstrated that the present invention substantially improves nucleic acid extraction from microorganisms, such as MTB, increasing the sensitivity of  M. tuberculosis  detection in human sputum. 
     Instead of processing entire sputum specimens, further efficiencies can be gained by extracting nucleic acids directly from a small fraction of each specimen in its raw or untreated state, i.e., prior to decontamination with sodium hydroxide and/or NALC. This example demonstrates that commercially available swabs can be used to successfully capture and transfer small aliquots (approximately 100-200 microliters per swab) of untreated sputum. Combined with the extraction efficiency gained with the present invention, processing of a small fraction of the entire specimen can greatly improve specimen handling in the lab, as well as time to diagnosis. 
     Materials and Methods 
     One 3 mL frozen, untreated sputum sample (Tissue Solutions Ltd.) was thawed and spiked with 9×10 7  CFU/mL attenuated MTB H37Ra (aMTB). One at a time, 8 FLOQ (Copan Diagnostics Inc.; Cat. No. 502CS01) and 8 Hydra Flock (Puritan Medical Products Co., LLC; Cat. No. 25-3406-H) swabs were dipped into aMTB-spiked sputum, swirled for 10 seconds, and then transferred into tubes containing 500 μL of BD2 buffer (50 mM glycine, 250 mM LiCl, 12.5 mM Li-CDTA, 2% SDS, pH 10.5). Following 2 hours at room temperature, the swabs were removed, the tubes were centrifuged at 3,500 g for 20 minutes, and the pellets were resuspended in 100 μL PBS. Two resuspended samples per swab were plated onto M7H10 agar plates and incubated at 35° C. for 21 days to confirm viability of aMTB; six resuspended samples per swab were mixed with 100 μL BD2 buffer prior to nucleic acid extraction with and without periodate (see below). 
     Extraction of DNA from aMTB-Positive Sputum Using the Periodate Method
         1. Five 200 μL aliquots (swabs 1-5; above) were treated with NPI to a final concentration of 30 mM, vortexed to mix; one 200 μL aliquot (swab 6) was not treated with NPI.   2. Incubated at 70° C. in a water bath for 20 minutes.   3. Cooled aliquots at room temperature for 2 minutes.   4. Added 1 M Tris buffer (pH 7) to a final concentration of 50 mM.   5. Added 3M potassium acetate (pH 5.5) to a final concentration of 150 mM.   6. Incubated on ice for 10 minutes.   7. Centrifuged at 13,200 rpm for 5 minutes.   8. Transferred supernatant to a clean tube. Discarded pellet.   9. Added 400 μL room temperature 95% ethanol. Inverted 20 times to mix.   10. Incubated samples at room temperature for 15 minutes to precipitate DNA.   11. Centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 2 minutes to pellet DNA.   12. Gently removed and discarded supernatant taking care not to disturb the pellet.   13. Dissolved pellet in 200 μL TE. Vortexed briefly to fully resuspend DNA.       

     rtPCR Conditions 
     In this example, DNA isolated from aMTB-spiked sputum samples (above) was subjected to an rtPCR assay specific for  Mycobacterium , the RD4 Taqman Real-time PCR assay (see example 10). 
     Results and Conclusions 
     aMTB-spiked sputum collected with swabs was viable in culture. After 21 days in culture, aMTB isolated from Copan swabs produced a lawn of bacteria, while aMTB recovered from Puritan swabs produced approximately 200 colonies per plate. 
     The amount of aMTB DNA collected with a single Copan or Puritan swab was readily detected using MTB-specific rtPCR (swab 6; see Table 35). When periodate was included in the DNA extraction protocol (swabs 1-5; Table 35), the Ct values decreased by more than 3 cycles from 27.75 to 24.02 for Copan swabs and 27.62 to 23.69 for Puritan swabs, corresponding to more than a 10-fold increase in the amount of aMTB-specific DNA recovered per swab. In addition, rtPCR using neat versus diluted DNA (1:10) demonstrated the expected 3 cycle difference, indicating that the extracted DNA contained little to no inhibitors of PCR. 
     Hence, dipping a swab into an untreated sputum specimen may provide sufficient sample (100-200 μL) to rapidly diagnose the presence of  M. tuberculosis  in mid- to high-positive specimens. Importantly, the inclusion of periodate in the DNA extraction protocol increased the sensitivity of this detection by at least 10-fold which has important ramifications for low- to mid-positive specimens. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 35 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Real-time PCR analysis of DNA isolated 
               
               
                 from sputum using swabs and periodate. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 C t  value  
                 C t  value (1:10  
               
               
                   
                   
                 (neat DNA) 
                 dilution of DNA) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Copan 
                 Puritan 
                 Copan 
                 Puritan 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 (+) periodate 
                 Swab 1 
                 30 .09 
                 23.93 
                 33.99 
                 27.29 
               
               
                   
                 Swab 2 
                 22.93 
                 24.36 
                 26.47 
                 27.67 
               
               
                   
                 Swab 3 
                 22.99 
                 22.67 
                 26.49 
                 26.24 
               
               
                   
                 Swab 4 
                 24.60 
                 24.19 
                 28.11 
                 27.74 
               
               
                   
                 Swab 5 
                 25.55 
                 23.28 
                 29.12 
                 26.60 
               
               
                   
                 Average: 
                 24.02 
                 23.69 
                 27.55 
                 27.11 
               
               
                 (−) periodate 
                 Swab 6 
                 27.75 
                 27.62 
                 31.33 
                 32.83 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Periodate efficiency 
                 3.73 
                 3.93 
                 3.78 
                 5.72 
               
               
                 (Ct  Swab 6  (−) Ct average ) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
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     All publications, patents and patent applications mentioned in this Specification are indicative of the level of skill of those skilled in the art to which this invention pertains and are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent applications was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. 
     The invention being thus described, it will be obvious that the same may be varied in many ways. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the invention, and all such modifications as would be obvious to one skilled in the art are intended to be included within the scope of the following claims.