Patent Publication Number: US-2023148177-A1

Title: Graphenium dispersions and composites, process for making same, and uses thereof

Description:
PRIORITY 
     This PCT Application claims priority to European Patent Application n° EP 20305194.1 filed on 27 Feb. 2020, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to organic or aqueous graphenium dispersions, process for preparing the same, and uses thereof. The invention also relates to graphenium deposits, films, membranes and coatings, as well as graphenium composites. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Carbon is known as having four unique crystalline structures or structure families: diamond, graphite, fullerenes and carbon nanotubes. 
     Graphene, or graphite&#39;s basic plane, which has long been considered as a virtual object, became a reality fairly recently thanks to the work of Novoselov et al. (K. S. Novoselov, A. K. Geim, S. V. Morozov, D. Jiang, Y. Zhang, S. V. Dubonos, I. V. Grigorieva, and A. A. Firsov, “Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films”, Science, 306, 666-669 (2004) [1]; K. S. Novoselov, A. K. Geim, S. V. Morozov, D. Jiang, M. I, Katsnelson, I. V. Grigorieva, S. V. Dubonos, A. A. Firsov, “Two-dimensional gas of massless Dirac fermions in graphene”, Nature, 438, 197-200 (2005) [2] which describe electronic properties of this singular object. 
     Since 2004 and the publication of Novesolov et al., the world of physics has taken a keen interest in the electronic properties of graphene or graphite isolated plane. Specifically, graphene is expected to efficiently solve many technological problems such as corrosion, electromagnetic shielding, thermal evacuation, mining pollution, end of life pollution, etc. . . . and open up opportunities such as barrier films, high tech membranes, etc. . . . 
     Liquid formulations of graphene are traditionally obtained either through reduced graphene oxide (RGO) or sonicated dispersions of graphite in organic or aqueous surfactant dispersions. A major drawback of RGO is that it retains a high defect density and employs harsh chemicals such as sulfuric acid and potassium permanganate. Sonicated dispersions employ CMR classified solvents such as NMP or environmentally non friendly surfactants. In addition, they have low lateral size graphene flakes due to sonication and present poor exfoliation performances and distribution of thicknesses. All of these problems have been solved by the use of graphenide solutions (WO 2009/087287 [3]) and their use for the preparation of stable organic or aqueous graphene dispersions (WO 2015/189335 [4]). These dispersions present highly exfoliated graphene, in water, without surfactant or sonication. However, these graphene dispersions (e.g., graphene water) require a first step to treat graphite with potassium (to prepare the corresponding donor-GIC), a hazardous substance that ignites in contact with water, presenting hazard issues for scale up. 
     Thus, there exists a real need for methods for solubilizing graphite that remedy these problems, drawbacks and obstacles known in the art, more particularly a method allowing to obtain graphene solutions that can readily be used for processing graphene for a given application, reducing the composite material manufacturing costs and improving accessibility to graphene in large quantity with high purity. 
     Accordingly, there exists a significant need for further improvements in and to liquid formulations of exfoliated graphene in organic or aqueous solvents that remedy these problems, drawbacks and obstacles known in the art, more particularly a method allowing to obtain graphene liquid formulations without having to resort to hazardous materials/substances. The present invention fulfills these needs and provides further related advantages. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIGS.  1 A-B  schematically show a process for preparing exemplary organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention. 
         FIG.  2   : comparative DOS of graphenide (negatively charged graphene sheets), graphene and graphenium (positively charged graphene sheets). 
         FIG.  3   : Exemplary acceptor-GICs suitable for preparing aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention. 
         FIGS.  4 A-D : UV/visible spectra of exemplary organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention. ( FIG.  4 A ) FeCl 3 -GIC in THF, ( FIG.  4 B ) FeCl 3 -GIC in Toluene, ( FIG.  4 C ) FeCl 3 -GIC in acetonitrile, and ( FIG.  4 D ) FeCl 3 -GIC in dichloromethane. 
         FIGS.  5 A-D : XPS spectra of graphenium dispersion FeCl 3 -GIC in THF filtered on PTFE filter. ( FIG.  5 A ) Cl 2p , ( FIG.  5 B ) Fe 2p , ( FIG.  5 C ) O 1s , and ( FIG.  5 D ) C1s. 
         FIGS.  6 A-D : Raman spectra of graphenium dispersion FeCl 3 -GIC and ICI-GIC in THF filtered on PTFE filter. 
         FIGS.  7 A-C : AFM images of graphenium deposited on a Si/SiO 2  wafer. ( FIG.  7 A ) FeCl 3 -GIC in methanol (scale 16.6 μm, height (white regions): 31.5 nm), ( FIG.  7 B ) FeCl 3 -GIC in 1-butanol (scale 6.8 μm, height (white regions): 4.8 nm), and ( FIG.  7 C ) FeCl 3 -GIC in 2-butanol (scale 3.6 μm, height (white regions): 3.4 nm). 
         FIGS.  8 A-D : TEM images of graphenium deposited on a lacey carbon grid. ( FIG.  8 A ) and ( FIG.  8 B ) FeCl 3 -GIC in acetonitrile, ( FIG.  8 C ) and ( FIG.  8 D ) FeCl 3 -GIC in dichloromethane. 
         FIGS.  9 A-F : TEM images of graphenium deposited on a lacey carbon grid. ( FIG.  9 A ) and ( FIG.  9 B ) FeCl 3 -GIC in THF (2 days), ( FIG.  9 C )-( FIG.  9 F ) FeCl 3 -GIC in THF (6 days). 
         FIG.  10   : Statistical analysis of carbon lateral size (or carbon lattice size) distribution of FeCl 3 -based graphenium in toluene by TEM on lacey carbon grids. Average value=1.84 μm, standard deviation=1.25 μm. 
         FIGS.  11 A-E : STEM/EDX mapping of FeCl 3 -based graphenium in THF deposited on a lacey carbon grid.( FIG.  11 A ) TEM image of FeCl 3 -based graphenium, ( FIG.  11 B ) Carbon mapping, ( FIG.  11 C ) Fe mapping, ( FIG.  11 D ) CI mapping, and ( FIG.  11 E ) O mapping. 
         FIGS.  12 A-D : TEM images of graphenium deposited on a lacey carbon grid. ( FIG.  12 A ) and ( FIG.  12 B ) ICI-GIC in methanol, ( FIG.  12 C ) and ( FIG.  12 D ) ICI-GIC in butanol. 
         FIG.  13   : schematically show a process for preparing exemplary organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention, using an excess of liquid oxidant, such as in Example 6. 
         FIG.  14   : XPS measurements at different binding energies of ICI-GICs. 
         FIG.  15   : SAXS/WAXS spectra of ICI-based graphenium in THF filtered on PTFE filter obtained in Example 6, at 10° C., 50° C. and 25° C. 
         FIGS.  16 A-D : AFM/TEM images and statistical analysis of thickness distribution of ICI-based graphenium obtained in Example 6 (thickness refers to the number of carbon layers multipied by 0.35 nm, which is the thickness of the single-layered carbon sheet). ( FIG.  16 A ) TEM image of ICI-based graphenium obtained in Example 6 deposited on a lacey carbon grid, ( FIG.  16 B ) Carbon, Cl and I mapping, ( FIG.  16 C ) AFM image of graphenium obtained in Example 6 deposited on a Si/SiO 2  wafer, and ( FIG.  16 D ) statistical analysis of thickness distribution of graphenium obtained in Example 6 deposited on a Si/SiO 2  wafer. Average value=1.8 nm, mode=0.8 nm, standard deviation=0.6 nm. The mode is the value for the maximum of the most abundant species in the distribution. 
         FIGS.  17 A-F : STEM/EDX mapping of ICI-based graphenium obtained in Example 6 deposited on a lacey carbon grid. ( FIG.  17 A ) TEM image of ICI-based graphenium, ( FIG.  17 B ) Carbon, Cl and I mapping, ( FIG.  17 C ) Carbon mapping, ( FIG.  17 D ) 0 mapping, ( FIG.  17 E ) I mapping, and ( FIG.  17 F ) CI mapping. 
         FIG.  18   : TEM-based statistical analysis of lateral size distribution of ICI-based graphenium in THF deposited on lacey carbon grids. Average value=2.57 μm, mode=2.25 μm, standard deviation=1.40 μm. 
         FIGS.  19 A-F : XPS spectra of ICI-based graphenium in THF filtered on PTFE filter, obtained in Example 6. ( FIG.  19 A ) survey scan, ( FIG.  19 B ) C1s, ( FIG.  19 C ) I 3d , ( FIG.  19 D ) Cl 2p , ( FIG.  19 E ) Si 2p , and ( FIG.  19 F ) O1s. 
         FIGS.  20 A-E : Statistical Raman analysis of ICI-based graphenium in THF filtered on PTFE filter, obtained in Example 6. 
         FIG.  21   : Exemplary applications of graphenium dispersions according to the invention. 
     
    
    
     While the graphenium dispersions and process of the present application are susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof have been shown by way of example in the drawings and are herein described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the description herein of specific embodiments is not intended to limit the application to the particular embodiment disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the graphenium dispersions and process of the present application as defined by the appended claims. 
     Definitions 
     Unless defined otherwise, all the technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as those generally understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which the invention pertains. Generally, the nomenclature used herein and the experiment methods, which will be described below, are those well-known and commonly employed in the art. 
     To facilitate an understanding of the present invention, a number of terms and phrases are defined below: 
     As used herein other than the claims, the terms “a,” “an,” “the,” and/or “said” means one or more. As used herein in the claim(s), when used in conjunction with the words “comprise,” “comprises” and/or “comprising,” the words “a,” “an,” “the,” and/or “said” may mean one or more than one. As used herein and in the claims, the terms “having,” “has,” “is,” “have,” “including,” “includes,” and/or “include” has the same meaning as “comprising,” “comprises,” and “comprise.” As used herein and in the claims “another” may mean at least a second or more. As used herein and in the claims, “about” refers to any inherent measurement error or a rounding of digits for a value (e.g., a measured value, calculated value such as a ratio), and thus the term “about” may be used with any value and/or range. 
     The phrase “a combination thereof” “a mixture thereof” and such like following a listing, the use of “and/or” as part of a listing, a listing in a table, the use of “etc.” as part of a listing, the phrase “such as,” and/or a listing within brackets with “e.g.,” or i.e., refers to any combination (e.g., any sub-set) of a set of listed components, and combinations and/or mixtures of related species and/or embodiments described herein though not directly placed in such a listing are also contemplated. Such related and/or like genera(s), sub-genera(s), specie(s), and/or embodiment(s) described herein are contemplated both in the form of an individual component that may be claimed, as well as a mixture and/or a combination that may be described in the claims as “at least one selected from,” “a mixture thereof” and/or “a combination thereof.” 
     As used herein, the term “and/or” means any one of the items, any combination of the items, or all of the items with which this term is associated. 
     As will be understood by the skilled artisan, all numbers, including those expressing quantities of ingredients, properties such as cavity/pore size and zeta potential, experimental conditions, and so forth, are approximations and are understood as being optionally modified in all instances by the term “about.” These values can vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by those skilled in the art utilizing the teachings of the descriptions herein. It is also understood that such values inherently contain variability necessarily resulting from the standard deviations found in their respective testing measurements. 
     As used herein, the term “about” can refer to a variation of ±5% of the value specified. For example, “about 50” percent can in some embodiments carry a variation from 45 to 55 percent. For integer ranges, the term “about” can include one or two integers greater than and/or less than a recited integer. Unless indicated otherwise herein, the term “about” is intended to include values, e.g., concentration values, proximate to the recited range that are equivalent in terms of the functionality of the individual ingredient, the composition, or the embodiment. 
     As will be understood by one skilled in the art, for any and all purposes, particularly in terms of providing a written description, all ranges recited herein also encompass any and all possible subranges and combinations of subranges thereof, as well as the individual values making up the range, particularly integer values. A recited range includes each specific value, integer, decimal, or identity within the range. Any listed range can be easily recognized as sufficiently describing and enabling the same range being broken down into at least equal halves, thirds, quarters, fifths, or tenths. As a non-limiting example, each range discussed herein can be readily broken down into a lower third, middle third and upper third, etc. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EXEMPLARY 
     Embodiments of the Invention 
     Illustrative embodiments are described below. In the interest of clarity, not all features of an actual implementation are described in this specification. It will of course be appreciated that in the development of any such actual embodiment, implementation-specific decisions must be made to achieve the developer&#39;s specific goals, such as compliance with system-related and business-related constraints, which will vary from one implementation to another. Moreover, it will be appreciated that such a development effort might be complex and time-consuming but would nevertheless be a routine undertaking for those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure. 
     The graphenium dispersions and method in accordance with the present application overcome one or more of the above-discussed problems commonly associated with liquid formulations of graphene and related processes. Specifically, the method of the present application uses hazard-free steps and substances. This and other unique features of the method are discussed below and illustrated in the accompanying drawings. 
     The method will be understood, both as to its structure and operation, from the accompanying drawings, taken in conjunction with the accompanying description. Several embodiments of the method are presented herein. It should be understood that various components, parts, and features of the different embodiments may be combined together and/or interchanged with one another, all of which are within the scope of the present application, even though not all variations and particular embodiments are shown in the drawings. It should also be understood that the mixing and matching of features, elements, and/or functions between various embodiments is expressly contemplated herein so that one of ordinary skill in the art would appreciate from this disclosure that the features, elements, and/or functions of one embodiment may be incorporated into another embodiment as appropriate, unless otherwise described. 
     Graphenium Dispersions 
     In one aspect, the invention provides a dispersion of graphenium in a polar organic solvent system, water or a mixture of both. As such, there is provided:
         a dispersion of graphenium in a polar organic solvent system,   a dispersion of graphenium in water, and   a dispersion of graphenium in an aqueous polar organic solvent system.       

     Thus, the present invention provides organic or aqueous dispersions of graphenium. The solvent system may be water alone, a polar organic solvent system, or a mixture of both. 
     As used herein, the term “graphenium” refers to one or more individual positively charged graphene plane(s). In other words, graphenium is an oxidized form of graphene (removal of electron(s)). The “holes” (removed electron(s)) are delocalized over the carbon atoms forming the graphenium plane. The term “graphenium” encompasses positively charged single-layered graphene planes, and positively charged few-layered graphene planes. As such, a graphenium flake may contain several carbon layers packed on top of each other, bearing an overall positive charge (“holes”) delocalized over the carbon atoms forming the carbon planes stack. The graphenium may be single-layered (fully exfoliated graphenium, a single individual positively charged graphene plane) or multi-layered (exfoliated graphenium, up to 10 graphene planes stacked on top of each other, the stack bearing a positive charge). In other words, a graphenium flake may be composed of a few layers, for example 1 to 10 layers, preferably 1 to 5 layers, preferably 1 to 3 layers of carbon atoms sheets, advantageously a single layer of carbon atoms sheet (fully exfoliated graphenium). 
     As used herein, the term “graphene”, takes the conventional meaning often used in the modern scientific literature, and refers to graphitic material composed of a few layers, for example 1 to 10 layers, preferably 1 to 5 layers, preferably 1 to 3 layers of carbon atoms sheets. Fully exfoliated graphene refers to single-layered graphene sheets. Graphene thickness can be calculated from the number of layers multiplied by 0.335 nm (A-B stacked graphite) to 0.345 nm (turbostratic packing). 
     As used herein, “polar” when referring to organic solvents does not deviate from the conventional meaning and from common knowledge/usage in the field. In general, polar organic solvents include without limitation aprotic solvents having a dielectric constant ≥4 and a dipole moment ≥1.00 D, and protic solvents such as alcohols. As used herein, also encompassed by “polar organic solvents” are aromatic solvent exhibiting some level of polarity. As such, aromatic solvent having a dielectric constant ε≥2.20 and a dipole moment &gt;0.30 are included within the scope of polar organic solvents useable in the context of the present invention. Throughout the present document, unless mentioned otherwise, all dielectric constant values (ε) are provided with reference to a temperature of 25° C. In other words, unless mentioned otherwise, the expression “dielectric constant ε≥n” means “dielectric constant ε≥n at 25° C.”. Polar organic solvents useable in the context of the invention are described in detail infra in the section dealing with a method for preparing the inventive graphenium dispersions. 
     Advantageously, organic or aqueous graphenium dispersions according to the invention are metastable. 
     As used herein, “metastable” when referring to graphenium dispersions according to the invention, takes the conventional meaning of thermodynamic metastability in the field of colloidal suspensions. In general, if several states are in principle accessible to a colloidal suspension under given conditions, that with the lowest potential is called the stable state, while the other states are described as metastable. Likewise, as used herein, “metastable dispersion” means that the dispersion is in a state of equilibrium corresponding to a thermodynamic potential local minimum. 
     Advantageously, organic or aqueous graphenium dispersions according to the invention are air-metastable. 
     As used herein, the term “air-metastable”, when referring to aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention, means “metastable in air” and refers to graphenium dispersions that are not oxygen- or water-sensitive. For example, aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention are not sensitive to ambient air, and can readily be stored and manipulated in ambient air. 
     The aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention may be stable for a long time (at least several days but more often several weeks or months) allowing processing without the need to remove the organic or aqueous solvent system. The aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention may be stable for 5 days, 10 days or more; 1 week, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, 4 weeks, 5 weeks, or more; 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, or more. 
     The term “stable”, as used herein, preferably refers to dispersions which possess stability sufficient to allow manufacture and which maintain the integrity of the dispersion for a sufficient period of time to be detected and preferably for a sufficient period of time to be useful for the purposes detailed herein. The term “stability” can refer to an ability to resist degradation, to persist in a given environment, and/or to maintain a particular colloidal state. 
     As discussed above, the graphenium in the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention is exfoliated (intercalation of oxidant couterions between grapheniums stacks; i.e., multi-layer graphenium). Advantageously, the graphenium in the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention may be fully exfoliated (single-layer graphenium). In exemplary embodiments, the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention may contain mainly, if not only, single layer graphenium. In exemplary embodiments, single layer graphenium present in the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention represents at least 50%, more preferably at least 75%, most preferably at least 90%, of carbonaceous material in the dispersion. In other words, in exemplary embodiments, multilayer graphenium present in the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention represents less than 50%, more preferably less than 25%, most preferably less than 10%, of carbonaceous material in the dispersion. 
     Also included in the scope of the present invention are aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions containing mainly, if not only, multi-layer graphenium (for example, few-layer graphenium). In exemplary embodiments, multi-layer graphenium (for example, few-layer graphenium) present in the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention represents at least 50%, more preferably at least 75%, most preferably at least 90%, of carbonaceous material in the dispersion. In other words, in exemplary embodiments, single-layer graphenium present in the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention represents less than 50%, more preferably less than 25%, most preferably less than 10%, of carbonaceous material in the dispersion. 
     Aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention may contain a mixture of single-layer and multi-layer (e.g., few-layer) graphenium. 
     In exemplary embodiments, single layer and/or few layer graphenium in the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention may be present at a concentration ≥0.01 g/L, preferably ≥0.03 g/L, preferably ≥0.05 g/L, preferably ≥0.07 g/L, preferably ≥0.08 g/L, preferably ≥0.10 g/L, preferably ≥0.12 g/L, preferably ≥0.14 g/L, preferably ≥0.16 g/L, preferably ≥0.18 g/L, preferably ≥0.20 g/L. The presence of individualized single-layered graphenium in the dispersions may be characterized by Raman spectroscopy. 
     In yet another aspect, the present invention also provides surfactant-free aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions. One advantage of the invention is that no surfactant is needed to disperse graphite into single- or multi-layered graphenium, and to obtain dispersions that are stable over time. As used herein, the term “surfactant” refers to any substance which lowers the surface tension of the solvent in which it is used. Specifically, a surfactant as used herein refers to any substance which, at concentrations of 1 mM or 0.05% w/w (whichever may be the lowest) and at 25° C., reduces water-hexane interfacial tension by more than 2 mN/m. 
     Advantageously, the graphenium present in the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention originates from carbonaceous material (e.g., graphite) which has not been subjected to sonication at any stage of the process leading to graphenium. Accordingly, the graphenium present in the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention advantageously has minimal defects. 
     As used herein, the term “graphenium dispersion” refers to a composition where graphenium is in suspension or dispersed in a solvent. In other words, the dispersion contains graphenium particles dispersed in the solvent. Advantageously, the term “graphenium dispersion” in the context of the present invention preferably refers to fully exfoliated graphenium dispersion (i.e., the starting graphite material, which is composed of aggregated/stacked graphene planes, is separated into individualized single-layered graphenium). 
     The solvent may be water, an ionic aqueous solution, or a mixture of one or more organic solvents with water or an aqueous ionic solution, all of which may be fully or partially degassed, as described herein, in which case the graphenium dispersion is referred to as “aqueous graphenium dispersion”. 
     Likewise, the solvent may be a polar solvent or a mixture of two or more polar organic solvents, all of which may be fully or partially degassed, as described herein, in which case the graphenium dispersion is referred to as “organic graphenium dispersion”. Within the context of the present invention, dispersion is fundamentally defined as a metastable system, i.e. a system which phases will eventually separate after a certain amount of time. Graphenium flakes present in the organic or aqueous graphenium dispersions according to the invention may have a fairly large lateral size, up to the μm range. Typically, the graphenium flakes in the dispersions of the invention may have a lateral size between 100 nm and 100 μm, preferentially between 500 nm and 50 μm, between 800 nm and 40 μm, between 800 nm and 10 μm, between 1 μm and 5 μm, between 1 μm and 3 μm, on average about 2 μm. 
     As used herein, the term “lateral size” refers to the largest dimension of the planar carbon atom sheet surface of the graphenium particles. The term is not to be confused with the thickness of the graphenium particles, which refers to the height of the stacked carbon atom planes making up the graphenium particles. 
     Graphenium flakes present in the organic or aqueous graphenium dispersions according to the invention may be fairly thin. Typically, the graphenium flakes in the dispersions of the invention may have a thickness ≤5 nm (fewer than 10 layers of carbon sheets). 
     Process—Organic Graphenium Dispersions 
     In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a process for preparing graphenium dispersions in polar organic solvent systems (organic graphenium dispersions), comprising steps of:
         (a) procuring an acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound; and   (b) mixing the acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound of step (a) with a polar organic solvent system to yield a dispersion of graphenium in the polar organic solvent system.       

     “Graphite intercalation compound” or “GIC” as used herein refers to a compound in which a layer of intercalant (oxidized or reduced agent) is situated in between a defined number of carbon layers (generally from 1 to 10 carbon layers). As such, GICs are compounds comprising at least two individual negatively or positively charged graphene planes, intercalated by positive or negative counter ions, respectively. Acceptor GICs are GICs which have been obtained by oxidation of graphite, whereas donor GICs, such as KC 8  are obtained by reduction of graphite.Consequently, the chemical and physical properties of GICs are dramatically altered in comparison to the starting graphite. 
     As used herein, the term “acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound” does not deviate from the conventional meaning and from common knowledge/usage in the field, and refers to GICs which have been obtained by oxidation of graphite. As such, acceptor GICs comprise at least two individual positively charged graphene planes intercalated by negative counter ions. The positively charged graphene planes in an acceptor GIC take the definition of «graphenium», as defined above: they may be single-layered multi-layered carbon atom planes. As such, the graphenium sheets in an acceptor-GIC may contain several carbon layers packed on top of each other, bearing an overall positive charge (“holes”) delocalized over the carbon atoms forming the carbon planes stack. The graphenium sheets in an acceptor-GIC may be single-layered (a single individual positively charged graphene plane) or multi-layered (up to 10 graphene planes stacked on top of each other, the stack bearing a positive charge). In other words, graphenium sheets in an acceptor-GIC may be composed of a few layers, for example 1 to 10 layers, preferably 1 to 5 layers, preferably 1 to 3 layers of carbon atoms sheets, advantageously a single layer of carbon atoms sheet. An acceptor-GIC with a stoichiometric loading of intercalant is denoted «stage 1 acceptor-GIC»: single-layered positively charged graphene sheets intercalated with single-layered negative counter ions. The stoichiometric amount of intercalant depends on the intercalant. For example, in the case of ICI as oxidant intercalant, the stoichiometry for stage-1 acceptor ICI-GIC is roughly ICI/C10. An acceptor-GIC with 2-layered positively charged graphene sheets intercalated with single-layered negative counter ions is denoted «stage 2 acceptor-GIC». An acceptor-GIC with 3-layered positively charged graphene sheets intercalated with single-layered negative counter ions is denoted «stage 3 acceptor-GIC». Etc. Thus, if an intermediate stoichiometry of oxidant is used (e.g., a stoichiometry that is between stage-1 and stage-2), a mixture of acceptor GICs with different stage may be formed, such as a mixture of stage-1 and stage-2 acceptor GICs. 
     As further discussed below, the acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound may be prepared by exposure of graphite to a liquid oxidant, for example by immersing graphite into a suitable liquid oxidant. In that case, stage-1/n acceptor GICs may be obtained or even fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium dispersed in the liquid oxidant. Accordingly, throughout the present disclosure, step (a) may involve procuring an acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound or a dispersion of fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in a suitable liquid oxidant. The suitable liquid oxidant may be any of the oxidants useable in the context of the invention, as defined generally and in any variant in the present disclosure, that is liquid under the reaction condition used in step (a). 
     Advantageously, the suitable liquid oxidant may be any of the oxidants useable in the context of the invention, as defined generally and in any variant in the present disclosure, that is liquid at room temperature (20° C.±5° C.). For example, the liquid oxidant may be selected from halogen or interhalogen compounds, such as ICI. 
     As such, the present invention also provides a process for preparing graphenium dispersions in polar organic solvent systems (organic graphenium dispersions), comprising steps of:
         (a) procuring an acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound, or a dispersion of fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in a suitable liquid oxidant; and   (b) mixing the acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound with a polar organic solvent system, or transferring the dispersion of fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium of step (a) into a polar organic solvent system, to yield a dispersion of graphenium in the polar organic solvent system.       

     The oxidant may be used in super-stoichiometric amounts (i.e., in excess with respect to graphite). In that case, “stage 1/n” acceptor-GICs may be obtained where n is an integer from 2 or above. This is the case when more than one layer of oxidant counterions are intercalated between two adjacent single-layered graphenium sheets. For example, an acceptor-GIC where each single-layered positively charged graphenium sheet is intercalated with double-layered negative oxidant counter ions is denoted «stage ½ acceptor-GIC». Likewise, an acceptor-GIC where each single-layered positively charged graphenium sheet is intercalated with triple-layered negative oxidant counter ions is denoted «stage ⅓ acceptor-GIC». Etc. More generally, «stage 1/n acceptor-GICs» 0  refer to acceptor-GICs where each single-layered positively charged graphenium sheet is intercalated with n-intercalant layers of negative oxidant counter ions. See  FIGS.  13  and  14   . 
     Advantageously, the acceptor GIC may be a stage-1 acceptor GIC. The acceptor GIC may be a stage-1/n acceptor GIC where n represents an integer ≥2, for example stage ½, ⅓, ¼, ⅕ acceptor GIC or even acceptor GICs with higher oxidant/C stoichiometries. The “stage” of an acceptor-GIC may be adjusted depending on the stoichiometry between the starting graphite and the intercalated oxidant used to prepare the acceptor-GIC. Stage-1/n GICs may be obtained by using an excess of suitable oxidant, for example by using a suitable liquid oxidant as solvent. The intercalant stoichiometry for reaching each “stage 1/n” acceptor GICS (e.g., stage ½, ⅓, ¼, ⅕ acceptor GICS) depends on the intercalant. For example, as mentioned above, the stoichiometry for stage-1 acceptor ICI-GIC is roughly ICI/C10. For stage-½ acceptor ICI-GICs, the ICI stoichiometry is roughly ICI/C5. Any intermediate stoichiometry will be a mixture of ICI/C10 (stage-1 ICI-GIC) and ICI/C5 (stage ½ ICI-GIC). 
     Accordingly, depending on the super-stoichiometric amount of liquid oxidant that gets intercalated, the resulting acceptor GIC may be a mixture of acceptor GICs with different stage 1/n, for example a mixture of stage 1/n and stage 1/(n+1) acceptor GICs. Generally speaking, without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, as the amount of liquid oxidant is increased, the stage 1/n GIC initially formed starts becoming stage 1/(n+1) by intercalation of an additional layer of intercalant counterion, until only or predominantly stage 1/(n+1) GIC is obtained. Then, when the amount of liquid oxidant still keeps getting increased, stage 1/(n+2) GIC starts being formed, until only or predominantly stage 1/(n+2) GIC is obtained with increasing amount of liquid oxidant. Thus, as the amount of liquid oxidant intercalant increases, stage 1/n acceptor-GICs with increasing n may be obtained, typically as a dispersion in the liquid oxidant (an equilibrium is established between the stage 1/n GIC formation and the surrounding liquid oxidant). As increasing excess of liquid oxidant intercalant is used (n=∞), dispersions of fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in the liquid oxidant solvent may be obtained. As such, a full continuum from stage 1 all the way to graphenium dispersions in the liquid intercalant may be obtained. 
     Thus, in step (a), the acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound may be procured in the form of:
         isolated acceptor graphite-intercalation-compounds (such as a stage-1, stage-2, stage-3 or higher stage acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound, or a mixture of two or more thereof), or   a dispersion of acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound in a suitable liquid oxidant (such as a stage 1/n acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound or a mixture of acceptor GICs with different stage 1/n, for example a mixture of stage 1/n and stage 1/(n+1) acceptor graphite-intercalation-compounds dispersed in a liquid oxidant), or   a dispersion of fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in the liquid oxidant solvent.   Again, the suitable liquid oxidant may be any of the oxidants useable in the context of the invention, as defined generally and in any variant in the present disclosure, that is liquid under the reaction condition used in step (a). Advantageously, the suitable liquid oxidant may be any of the oxidants useable in the context of the invention, as defined generally and in any variant in the present disclosure, that is liquid at room temperature (20° C.±5° C.). For example, the liquid oxidant may be selected from halogen or interhalogen compounds, such as ICI.       

     Acceptor GICs may be prepared by any method known in the art. Typically, acceptor GICs may be prepared by contacting graphite and a suitable oxidant. For example, acceptor GICs may be prepared by one of:
         (i) vapour-phase oxidation of graphite using a suitable oxidant;   (ii) electro-chemical oxidation of graphite using a suitable oxidant;   (iii) oxidation of graphite using a suitable oxidant dissolved in a polar organic solvent system; or   (iv) exposure of graphite to a suitable liquid oxidant.       

     Upon contacting graphite with the oxidant, a redox reaction occurs: 
       − n e   − —&gt;Gr n+ (oxidation;Gr=graphite)
 
       Ox+ n e   −   —&gt;n  Ox − (reduction) 
     Concomitantly to this redox reaction, graphite is intercalated by Ox − . The reaction written above is a simplification: sometimes, the reduced form of the oxidant may have undergone an atomic rearrangement. E.g.: I n   −  instead of I − , FeCl 4   −  rather than FeCl 3   − , . . . In other words, disproportionation may occur in the carbon lattice. 
     The preparation of acceptor-GICs via oxidation of graphite is well known in the art. The persons skilled in the art will know how to identify the appropriate experimental conditions for implementing an oxidation method in the presence of an oxidant, for example in vapour phase, by electro-chemical means or in the liquid phase (with an oxidant dissolved in a polar organic solvent system, or by reacting with a liquid oxidant). 
     In exemplary embodiments, the acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound may be prepared by vapour-phase oxidation of graphite. In that case, the process comprises exposure of graphite to vapours of a suitable oxidant under reduced pressure. For example the person of ordinary skill in the art can draw from the teachings of Stumpp et al. in Materials Science and Engineering, 31 (1997) 53-59 [5]. See also the Examples of the present disclosure. 
     The oxidation of graphite may also be carried out by electrochemistry. The electrochemical oxidation of graphite takes place with the insertion of a counter anion present in the solution. For example, the reader can draw from the teachings of J. Bottomley et al., Electrochemical preparation of salts from well-oriented graphite, J. Chem. Soc. (1963), p. 5674 [6] and D. Dumas et al., Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de I&#39;académie des sciences série C 265 (1967) p. 1395. [7] 
     In other exemplary embodiments, the acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound may be prepared by exposure of graphite to a liquid oxidant. In that case, step (a) of the process may comprise immersing graphite into a suitable liquid oxidant selected from halogen or interhalogen compounds, such as ICI (cf. Examples). In other words, the suitable liquid oxidant may be used as solvent to prepare the acceptor-GIC, or even dispersions of fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in the liquid oxidant solvent. In that case, a dispersion of stage 1/n acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound or fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in the liquid oxidant may be formed. Thus, step (a) of the process may lead to stage-1/n acceptor GICs (which may be a mixture of GICs with different stage 1/n for example a mixture of stage 1/n and stage 1/(n+1) acceptor GICs) where n represents an integer ≥2, such as stage ½, ⅓, ¼, ⅕ acceptor GICs or even acceptor GICs with higher oxidant/C stoichiometries (or a mixture of two or more thereof), up to dispersions of fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in the liquid oxidant solvent when a large excess of liquid oxidant intercalant is used (n=∞). Typically, the stage-1/n acceptor GICs where n represents an integer 2, prepared by this method get dispersed in the suitable liquid oxidant. As mentioned above, this may result in dispersions of mixtures of acceptor GICs with different stage 1/n, for example mixtures of stage 1/n and stage 1/(n+1) acceptor GICs, depending on the super-stoichiometric amount of liquid oxidant that gets intercalated. In this case, step (a) of the process according to the invention may involve procuring a dispersion of stage 1/n acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound or fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in a suitable liquid oxidant, and step (b) of the process according to the invention may involve transferring the dispersion of stage 1/n acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound or fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in the liquid oxidant into a polar organic solvent system, thereby providing a dispersion of graphenium in the polar organic solvent system. The polar organic solvent system may be as defined generally and in any variant in the present disclosure. The stage-1/n acceptor GIC where n represents an integer ≥2 may be a stage-1/n ICI-GIC, such as stage ½, ⅓, ¼, ⅕ ICI-GICs, or a mixture of two or more thereof. 
     Accordingly, in one aspect, the present invention provides a process for preparing graphenium dispersions in polar organic solvent systems (organic graphenium dispersions), comprising steps of:
         (a) immersing graphite into a suitable liquid oxidant selected from halogen or interhalogen compounds, such as ICI, to form a dispersion of stage 1/n acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound or fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in the liquid oxidant; and   (b) transferring the dispersion of stage 1/n acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound or fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in the liquid oxidant into a polar organic solvent system to yield a dispersion of graphenium in the polar organic solvent system.       

     The graphite useable in the context of the invention may be any type of graphite that can be intercalated, including disordered graphite, crystalline flake graphite, natural and lump graphite, highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), graphitic nanofibres, and graphitic nanoplatelets For example, the graphite may be selected from at least one of natural graphite, synthetic graphite, expanded graphite, microcrystalline graphite and highly ordered pyrolytic graphite. 
     Oxidants useable in the context of the invention include all oxidants having a redox potential suitable to oxidize graphite. For example, the oxidant may be a halide-based oxidant selected from:
         (a) halogen or interhalogen compounds, such as X 2 , XX A , X(X A ) 3 , X(X A ) 5  or X(X A ) 7 ;   (b) metal- or metalloid-halides, preferably from groups IB, IIIB, IVA, VB, VA, VIII, VIA, IIIA, VIIA, IIB, VB the lanthanides, or the actinides; such as CuX 2 , AuX 3 , BX 3 , AIX 3 , GaX 3 , InX 3 , TIX 3 , ZrX 4 , HfX 4 , SbX 5 , TaX 5 , FeX 3 , CrX 3 , CrO 2 X 2 , MoX 5 , α-WX 6 , UX 4 , UO 2 X 2 , UX 6 , ReX 4 , CoX 3 , RuX 3 , RhX 3 , PdX 4 , PtX 4 , IrX 4 , YX 3 , SmX 3 , CdX 3 , YbX 3 , DyX 3 , EuX 3 , AsX 5 , or SbX 5 ; or   (c) noble gas-halide compounds such as XeF 4 , XeF 6  or XeOF 4 ;   (d) thionyl or sulfuryl halides, such as SOCl 2  or SO 2 Cl 2 ;   wherein X independently represents a halide selected from F, Br, Cl or I, preferably F, Br or Cl; and X A  independently represents F, Br, Cl, preferably Cl.   Advantageously, the oxidant may be a halide-based oxidant selected from FeX 3 , PdX 4 , PtX 4  or IX A ; most preferably FeX 3  or IX A ; wherein X independently represents a halide selected from F, Br, Cl or I, preferably F, Br or Cl; and X A  independently represents F, Br, Cl, preferably Cl.       

     Advantageously, the oxidant may be selected from Br 2 , ICI, IBr, IF, IF 3 , ICI 3 , BrF 3 , IF 5 , BrF 5 , IF 7 , CuCl 2 , CuBr 2 , AuCl 3 , BCl 3 , AlCl 3 , GaCl 3 , InCL 3 , TICI 3 , ZrCl 4 , Hfl 4 , SbCl 5 , TaCl 5 , FeCl 3 , CrCl 3 , CrO 2 Cl 2 , MoCl 5 , α-WCl 6 , UCl 4 , UO 2 Cl 2 , UF 6 , ReCl 4 , CoCl 3 , RuCL 3 , RhCl 3 , PdCl 4 , PtCl 4 , IrCl 4 , ICI 3 , YCl 3 , SmCl 3 , CdCl 3 , YbCl 3 , DyCl 3 , EuCl 3 , AsF 5 , SbF 5 , XeF 4 , XeF 6 , XeOF 4 , SOCl 2  or SO 2 Cl 2 ; preferably FeCl 3 , PdCl 4 , PtCl 4 , ICI, SOCl 2  or SO 2 Cl 2 ; preferably FeCl 3 , PdCl 4 , PtCl 4 , ICI, IBr or ICI 3 ; more preferably most preferably FeCl 3  ICI, IBr or ICI 3 , for example FeCl 3  or ICI. 
     Examples of polar organic solvents that may be used to make up the polar organic solvent system used in step b) include:
         aprotic solvents having a dielectric constant ε≥4 and a dipole moment ≥1.00 D, preferably a dielectric constant ε≥4 and a dipole moment 1.50 D, preferably a dielectric constant ε≥6.00 and a dipole moment &gt;1.00, preferably a dielectric constant ε≥7.00 and a dipole moment &gt;1.00;   aromatic solvents having a dielectric constant ε≥2.20 and a dipole moment &gt;0.30; and   protic organic solvents such as alcohols.       

     Advantageously, among the aprotic solvents, nitrile solvents, polar ethers, preferably having a dielectric constant ε≥4 and a dipole moment ≥1.00 D, polar halogenated hydrocarbons, preferably having a dielectric constant ε≥6 and a dipole moment ≥1.00 D, ketone solvents, carboxylic ester solvents, alkyl sulfoxide-containing solvents, and amide solvents may be used. 
     Advantageously, the polar organic solvent system used in step b) may comprise at least one electron-donating polar organic solvent. 
     Advantageously, the polar organic solvent system used in step b) may be anhydrous. 
     Advantageously, the polar organic solvent system used in step b) may comprise one or more polar organic solvent(s) selected from:
         aromatic solvents, preferably having a dielectric constant ε≥2.20 and a dipole moment &gt;0.30, such as toluene, o-xylene or m-xylene;   nitrile solvents such as acetonitrile;   polar ethers, preferably having a dielectric constant ε≥4 and a dipole moment ≥1.00 D, such as tetrahydrofuran (THF), methyl-THF (Me-THF), dimethoxyethane (DME), methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), diethyl ether, or CycloPentylMethylEther (CPME);   polar halogenated hydrocarbons, preferably having a dielectric constant ε≥6 and a dipole moment ≥1.00 D such as CH 2 Cl 2 ;   alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, i-propanol, n-butanol, 2-butanol, n-pentanol, 2-pentanol or n-hexanol; preferably methanol or n-butanol;   ketone solvents such as acetone, 2-butanone, 2-pentanone, 3-pentanone, cyclopentanone, or cyclohexanone;   carboxylic ester solvents such as methyl acetate, ethyl acetate, propyl acetate, butyl acetate or methyl propionate;   alkyl sulfoxide-containing solvents such as dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) or sulfolane; or   amide solvents such as N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), dimethylformamide (DMF), N-methylformamide (NMF), or dimethylacetamide (DMA).       

     Advantageously, the polar organic solvent system used in step b) may be aprotic; preferably toluene, acetonitrile, THF, CH 2 Cl 2  or a mixture of two or more thereof; most preferably toluene. 
     The process according to the invention may be carried out under inert atmosphere or ambient air, advantageously under dry air or inert atmosphere (to gain in efficiency). As used herein, the expression “inert atmosphere” refers to a gas or a gaseous mixture such as argon, nitrogen, helium or a mixture of those. For example, step b) may be carried out under an oxygen and moisture-free atmosphere. Advantageously, step b) may be carried out under an argon, helium or nitrogen gas atmosphere. However, an inert atmosphere is not necessary to carry out the process of the present invention, as graphenium is somewhat stable to air. 
     The mixing step b) may be carried out at a temperature ranging from −78° C. to 202° C. For example, the mixing step b) may be carried out at a temperature of 20 to 25° C. (room temperature). 
     Generally speaking, the process of the invention, more particularly the mixing step b) can be implemented with or without stirring. When a stirring system is used, it may be a mechanical or magnetic stirring system or sonication. In exemplary embodiments, the method may be carried out with a mechanical stirring. In other exemplary embodiments, the method may be carried with a magnetic stirring. 
     It should be noted that, although the process of the invention can be implemented with a stirring system comprising sonication, the latter is not necessary. In fact, a remarkable advantage of the present process is that it is based on a soft dissolution method, starting from neutral graphite, which precisely allows avoiding the use of sonication. Thus, the method of the invention allows obtaining large size graphenium flakes. For example, the graphenium flakes may have a lateral size up to the μm range. Typically, the graphenium flakes may have a lateral size between 100 nm and 100 μm, preferentially between 500 nm and 50 μm, between 800 nm and 40 μm, between 800 nm and 10 μm, between 1 μm and 5 μm, between 1 μm and 3 μm, on average about 2 μm. 
     Process—Aqueous Graphenium Dispersions 
     In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a process for preparing graphenium dispersions in aqueous solvent systems according to the invention (aqueous graphenium dispersions). Such aqueous graphenium dispersions may be prepared from the organic graphenium dispersions described previously, by transferring to water or an aqueous solvent system a dispersion of graphenium in a polar organic solvent system. Accordingly, there is provided a process for preparing aqueous graphenium dispersions, comprising steps of:
         (a) procuring an acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound;   (b) mixing the acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound of step (a) with a polar organic solvent system to yield a dispersion of graphenium in the polar organic solvent system; and   (c) transferring the graphenium dispersion obtained in step (b) into water or an aqueous solvent system.       

     As discussed above, when a suitable liquid oxidant is used as solvent to prepare the acceptor-GIC, dispersions of stage 1/n-acceptor GICs where n represents an integer from 2 or above, or even dispersions of fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in the liquid oxidant solvent, may be obtained. Accordingly, in one aspect, the present invention provides a process for preparing aqueous graphenium dispersions, comprising steps of:
         (a) procuring an acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound, or a dispersion of fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in a suitable liquid oxidant;   (b) mixing the acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound with a polar organic solvent system, or transferring the dispersion of fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium of step (a) into a polar organic solvent system, to yield a dispersion of graphenium in the polar organic solvent system; and   (c) transferring the graphenium dispersion obtained in step (b) into water or an aqueous solvent system to yield an aqueous dispersion of graphenium.       

     In a variant, the present invention provides a process for preparing aqueous graphenium dispersions, comprising steps of:
         (a) immersing graphite into a suitable liquid oxidant selected from halogen or interhalogen compounds, such as ICI to form a dispersion of stage 1/n acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound or fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in the liquid oxidant;   (b) transferring the dispersion of stage 1/n acceptor graphite-intercalation-compound or fully exfoliated (single-layered) graphenium in the liquid oxidant into a polar organic solvent system to yield a dispersion of graphenium in the polar organic solvent system (i.e., an organic dispersion of grahenium); and   (c) transferring the graphenium dispersion obtained in step (b) into water or an aqueous solvent system to yield an aqueous dispersion of graphenium.       

     The polar organic solvent system, liquid oxidant and acceptor-GICs may be as defined generally and in any variant in the present disclosure. For example, the liquid oxidant may be selected from halogen or interhalogen compounds, such as ICI. For example, the stage-1/n acceptor GIC where n represents an integer ≥2 may be a stage-1/n ICI-GIC, such as stage ½, ⅓, ¼, ⅕ ICI-GIC or a mixture of two or more thereof. 
     Advantageously, when an aqueous solvent system is used in step c), it may be a mixture of water with the same polar organic solvent system used in step b). 
     Advantageously, the polar organic solvent used in step (b) may be fully or partially water-miscible. Solvents fully miscible in water include, but are not limited to tetrahydrofuran (THF), acetone, acetonitrile, dimethoxyethane (DME), alcohols such as such as methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, i-propanol, n-butanol, 2-butanol, n-pentanol, 2-pentanol or n-hexanol, and the like. Solvents partially miscible in water include, but are not limited to ethyl acetate, 2-butanone, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), diethyl ether, dichloromethane, CycloPentylMethylEther (CPME), and the like. 
     Advantageously, the polar organic solvent used in step (b) may have a boiling point lower than water (i.e., the solvent boiling point is &lt;100° C. at 1 atmosphere (1.01325. 10 5  Pa)), and the process may further comprise a step of evaporating the polar organic solvent, to yield a dispersion of graphenium in water. Advantageously, the evaporation may be carried out by any conventional method known in the art. For example, a rotary evaporator may be used or the solvent mixture might simply be left standing for evaporation. Advantageously, in all these methods, care should be taken not to heat the mixture. 
     Accordingly, the process allows to achieve stable graphenium dispersions in water alone, or in aqueous solvent systems (mixture of organic solvent and water). 
     The pH of the water used in step c) (alone or in mixture with an organic solvent system) may be adjusted to vary its ionic strength. For example, the pH may be adjusted by addition of any base or acid, such as, but not limited to, HCl, HNO 3 , acetic acid, NaOH, KOH, NH 4 OH. Any base or acid known in the art may be used to adjust the ionic strength of the water (alone or in mixture with an organic solvent system) used in step c). The modulation of pH presents an advantage in stabilizing the positively charged graphenium in the dispersion. 
     For any variant described herein, advantageously, when carrying out step c), the ratio of polar organic solvent used in step b) to water may be appropriately selected/adjusted/optimized by simple eye (or optical microscope) observation of dispersion stability. 
     In yet another aspect, the invention provides the use of a polar organic solvent for solubilising an acceptor GIC. Advantageously, aprotic solvents having a dielectric constant 4 and a dipole moment 1.00 D, alcohols, or aromatic solvent having a dielectric constant ε≥2.20 and a dipole moment &gt;0.30, may be used for that purpose. Among the aprotic solvents, nitrile solvents, polar ethers, preferably having a dielectric constant ε≥4 and a dipole moment ≥1.00 D, polar halogenated hydrocarbons, preferably having a dielectric constant ε≥6 and a dipole moment 1.00 D, ketone solvents, carboxylic ester solvents, alkyl sulfoxide-containing solvents, and amide solvents. Examples of suitable polar organic solvents for solubilising an acceptor GIC include:
         aromatic solvents, preferably having a dielectric constant ε≥2.20 and a dipole moment &gt;0.30, such as toluene, o-xylene or m-xylene;   nitrile solvents such as acetonitrile;   polar ethers, preferably having a dielectric constant ε≥4 and a dipole moment 1.00 D, such as tetrahydrofuran (THF), methyl-THF (Me-THF), dimethoxyethane (DME), methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), diethyl ether, or CycloPentylMethylEther (CPME);   polar halogenated hydrocarbons, preferably having a dielectric constant ε≥6 and a dipole moment ≥1.00 D such as CH 2 Cl 2 ;       

     alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, i-propanol, n-butanol, 2-butanol, n-pentanol, 2-pentanol or n-hexanol; preferably methanol or n-butanol;
         ketone solvents such as acetone, 2-butanone, 2-pentanone, 3-pentanone, cyclopentanone, or cyclohexanone;   carboxylic ester solvents such as methyl acetate, ethyl acetate, propyl acetate, butyl acetate or methyl propionate;   alkyl sulfoxide-containing solvents such as dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) or sulfolane; or   amide solvents such as N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), dimethylformamide (DMF), N-methylformamide (NMF), or dimethylacetamide (DMA).       

     Graphenium Deposits, Films, Membranes and Coatings 
     In a variant, the process may further optionally comprise a step d) of depositing the organic graphenium dispersion of step b) or the aqueous graphenium dispersion of step c) on a given substrate. Preferably, this deposition step may be carried out under inert atmosphere, although not necessarily (deposition may be carried out under ambient air). Once the deposition has been performed and the solvent has been eliminated, the graphenium planes then interact with the substrate surface and remain stabilised. 
     The deposition step may be carried out by a simple deposition (drop-casting) of a quantity of aqueous or organic graphenium dispersion on a substrate, followed by the evaporation of the aqueous and/or organic solvent so as to isolate the graphenium. 
     The deposition step d) may also be carried out by application, for example using a brush or any other tool allowing the deposition of a nanocarbon dispersion film or membrane onto a substrate. 
     As used herein, the term “film” does not deviate from the conventional meaning in the art and refers to a closed layer of substance (no pores). The term encompasses thin films which may be fabricated as coatings on top of a substrate/support, and free-standing films (i.e., self-standing films), which may be prepared similarly but the films are separated from the substrate/support without impairing (e.g. mechanical) stability thereof, hence they are “free-standing”. Since there is no any additional species “holding”, or supporting, the free-standing films require additional physical properties such as mechanical strength and stability. In other words, a free-standing or self-standing film refers to a film which is mechanically stable without support of a substrate. 
     As used herein, the term “membrane” does not deviate from the conventional meaning in the art and refers to a film with an array of pores where at least gases may pass through. Membranes as used herein are thus permeable, and may be fabricated by forming a film using a filter (e.g., by filtering a dispersion in a solvent through a filter): the liquid passes through, thereby creating channels extending completely through the film to allow passage of chemical species such as gases. In the context of the present invention, the pores created in the membrane may be random in distribution and shape, and not defined in size like the ones used in conventional membranes for filtering applications. This is essentially a consequence from the preparation method, and the large aspect ratio of the sheets from which the graphenium dispersion is made of. Preferably a membrane is mechanically stable without support of a substrate. The term “array” as used herein refers to a plurality of hole structures (such as nanoholes, pores, and nanoneedles). 
     The deposition step d) may also be carried out by dip-coating. For example, the substrate can be dipped into the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersion for some time so as to allow the adsorption of the graphenium on the surface of the substrate. The substrate may then be removed from the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersion, preferably with a uniform speed to obtain a uniform coating, and the water and/or the organic solvent may then be evaporated from the substrate. 
     The deposition step d) may also be implemented by spin coating. For example, a droplet of aqueous or organic graphenium dispersion can be deposited on a rotating substrate, optionally at high temperature. Preferably, the rotation is kept constant during the whole process so as to obtain a uniform coating, and the water and/or the solvent is then evaporated. When the spin coating is carried out at high temperature, the temperature can be between 10 and 200° C. 
     The deposition step d) may also be performed by spray-coating, optionally on a heated substrate. 
     The deposition step d) may be performed by diverse ways of coating, such as roll to roll deposition, Dr Blade coating, and the like. 
     Such methods are known to the persons skilled in the art who will know how to adapt the experimental conditions depending on the parameters such as the nature of the substrate, interactions between the substrate and the graphenium, the wettability of the substrate by the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersion, and other relevant parameters the persons skilled in the art will appreciate. 
     Accordingly, the process according to the invention may further comprise a step of depositing the graphenium dispersion obtained in step b) on a substrate, to form a film, membrane or a coating. The process according to the invention may additionally comprise a step of evaporating the polar organic solvent from the substrate. 
     The substrates that may be used in the context of the invention include, in a non-limiting way, ceramics, metals, glass, silica, silicon, molybdenite (MoS 2 ), mica, graphite and/or plastics. Advantageously, the substrate can be any known substrate which is used and/or adapted to depositing carbon nanotubes, nanodiamonds, carbon nanohorns, graphene and fullerenes-type materials. For example, the substrate can be HOPG (highly oriented pyrolytic graphite), Si/SiO 2  wafers, mica, glass, MoS 2  and all kinds of plastics suitable for that purpose. 
     Advantageously, the substrate surface may be functionalised or modified prior to depositing the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersion according to the invention. 
     For example, the modification of the substrate surface can be carried out by exposing the substrate to an ionic solution containing anions that may participate in an ionic exchange with the counter anions existing on the exfoliated faces of the graphenium sheets, thereby resulting in a favourable negative polarisation of the substrate surface when the latter is contacted with the organic or aqueous graphenium dispersion resulting from step b) or c), respectively. For example, the substrate surface may be modified by dip-coating in the suitable ionic solution. The substrate can then be dried to evaporate the solvent of the ionic solution prior to depositing the organic or aqueous graphenium dispersion. 
     The person skilled in the art will know how to select the appropriate ionic solutions for this purpose and can draw for example from Ill et al., Biophys. J; 1993, 64: 919-924 [8] for an exemplary reduction to practice of this concept. 
     The substrate can also be modified by depositing a monomolecular layer of a compound to obtain a hydrophobic surface. For example, the substrate (e.g., mica) can be coated with a polylysine layer according to protocols well-known to the person skilled in the art. 
     Other types of surface modifications of substrates can also be considered. Generally speaking, any surface modification method known to the person skilled in the art can be used. The selection of the modification type will depend on the nature of the substrate, the aqueous solution used (water or ionic solution), the organic solvents used and the desired physico-chemical interactions at the substrate surface for improving the quality of the graphenium deposits. Specifically, electrostatic interactions can interfere between the graphenium sheets and the substrates upon the deposition step, depending on the state of the substrate surface. More particularly, unfavourable interactions may occur if the substrate comprises positive charges on the surface. 
     The film, membrane or coating resulting from deposition of the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersion on a substrate may contain counter anions still embedded within the graphenium carbon lattice and/or present on the exfoliated surface of the graphenium material (from the acceptor-GIC from which the graphenium dispersion was obtained). The process according to the invention may additionally comprise a step of rinsing away the intercalant anion from the graphenium material deposited on the substrate. This may be accomplished, for example, by using an aqueous solution containing a suitable counter anion that will replace the intercalant anion for charge balance. For example, an aqueous solution containing OH— anions may be used to rinse away the intercalant/counter anion present on the deposited graphenium material. 
     Thus, in one aspect, there is also provided the use of an aqueous or organic graphenium dispersion obtainable according to a method of the invention, for depositing graphenium on a substrate. For example, the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersion obtainable according to a method of the invention may be used for the preparation of transparent conducting films of graphenium. 
     In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a deposit, film, membrane or coating comprising graphenium. 
     In yet another aspect, the invention relates to graphenium obtainable by a method according to the invention. The graphenium can be in the form of isolated graphenium planes and/or graphenium strips. For example, the graphenium planes can be deposited onto a substrate or can be mixed with another material. 
     Graphenium Composites 
     In yet another aspect, the invention provides composite materials comprising graphenium. Advantageously, the graphenium composite material may comprise graphenium sheets bearing metallic particles embedded with the graphenium carbon lattice, advantageously finely divided metallic particles. The metal particles may be adsorbed on/attached to the graphenium flake. The metallic particles may be metal nanoparticles. As used herein, the term “metal nanoparticle” refers to metal particles of roughly spheroidal shape whose diameter is in the nanometer range. For example, the finely divided metallic particles adsorbed on/attached to the graphenium flake may have a diameter from 0.5 to 100 nm, preferably from 0.5 to 20 nm, preferably from 0.5 to 15 nm, preferably from 0.5 to 10 nm, preferably from 0.5 to 5 nm. 
     In still another aspect, the invention provides graphenium composites obtainable by a method according to the invention. 
     Thus, in one aspect, there is also provided the use of an aqueous or organic graphenium dispersion obtainable according to a method of the invention, for depositing graphenium composites on a substrate. The invention also provides the use of an aqueous or organic graphenium dispersion obtainable according to a method of the invention, for obtaining graphenium composites. 
     As discussed previously, films, membranes or coatings resulting from deposition of the aqueous or organic graphenium dispersion according to the invention on a substrate may contain counter anions still embedded within the graphenium carbon lattice and/or present on the exfoliated surface of the graphenium material (from the acceptor-GIC from which the graphenium dispersion was obtained). The material deposited on the substrate is therefore a graphenium composite per se, which may find use in a variety of applications. In particular, as transpires from the contents of the present disclosure, the deposited graphenium material may contain halide-, metal- or metalloid-based counter anion species at the exfoliated surface of graphenium or between the surfaces of two exfoliated graphenium sheets. Accordingly, graphenium composites according to the invention may find use in any application where such counter anion species can be useful. 
     When a metal halide is used to form the precursor acceptor-GIC use to prepare the graphenium dispersions according to the process of the invention, finely divided metal particles are detected on the graphenium planes (i.e., roughly spheroidal metal nanoparticles having a diameter from 0.5 to 100 nm, preferably from 0.5 to 20 nm, 5 preferably from 0.5 to 15 nm, preferably from 0.5 to 10 nm, preferably from 0.5 to 5 nm). This is the case for example, when FeCl 3 -GIC is used to prepare an aqueous or organic dispersion according to the invention: finely divided Fe particles are embedded in the carbon lattice of the graphenium planes. This results in composites having magnetic properties. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is proposed that a disproportionation phenomenon occurs after intercalation of the initial metal-based anion between the graphenium sheets, which leads to the formation of metal particles on the carbon lattice. The metal particles are typically adsorbed on/attached to the graphenium flake but the metal species is no longer intercalated. This gives rise to a brand new type of carbonaceous composite material: metal-graphenium composites (graphenium-supported metal-based composites), which are air-stable and can be used in a variety of applications where metal-based catalysts are important. 
     For example, the graphenium composites according to the invention, such as graphenium-supported metal-based composites (for example those prepared from Fe-based acceptor GICs), may be used as catalytic material. 
     For example, the graphenium composites according to the invention, in particular graphenium-supported metal-based composites such as Fe-graphenium composites, may find use:
         as electrode material for use in electrocatalysis, for example for applications in fuel cell and energy storage technology;   as electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) or oxygen evolution reaction (OER);   as bifunctional electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER); as such, graphenium composites of the invention may be useful for fuel cells (ORR) but also for energy storage (OER).   as catalyst for gas-phase chemical reactions, such as hydrogenation of CO in the Fischer-Tropsch process;   as slurry catalyst for liquid-phase chemical reactions, such as liquid phase oxidation processes (such as oxidations of aldehydes to carboxylic acids, benzyl alcohol to benzaldehyde, vanillyl alcohol to vanillin) or liquid phase reduction reactions; and/or   as catalyst for CO 2  reduction and energy conversion.       

     Graphenium composites according to the invention, such as graphenium-supported metal-based composites (for example those prepared from Fe-based acceptor GICs), may exhibit magnetic properties, depending on the metal nanoparticles supported on the graphenium sheets. Such magnetic composites may be collected/separated from a reaction mixture by application of a magnetic field (magnet). 
     In exemplary embodiments of the use of aqueous or organic graphenium dispersions according to the invention for preparing graphenium composite materials, the composite material may comprise, in addition to the graphenium material, other materials conventionally used in composite materials, for example fillers. For example, the composite material may contain carbon nanotubes, in addition to graphenium obtainable by the method of the present invention. Such carbon nanotubes can be obtained by conventional manufacturing methods, for example by laser ablation and/or electric arc. They can be in the form of a solution in a polar aprotic solvent such as described in documents Penicaud et al., “Spontaneous dissolution of a single-wall carbon nanotube salt”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 27, 8-9, 2005 [9]; WO 2005/073127 [10]. 
     The fillers used in the composition of said composite materials, including graphenium obtainable by the method of the present invention, can have a nanometric and/or micrometric size. 
     “Nanometric size material” a used herein refers to a material whose size is of a few nanometres in at least one of the space dimensions. For example, the size of the material in at least one of the space dimensions is between 1 and 20 nm, preferably between 1 and 2 nm. 
     “Micrometric size material” a used herein refers to a material whose size is between 1 and 100 microns. 
     The composite material may comprise only micrometric size fillers, or only nanometric size fillers, or a mixture of micro and nanometric size fillers (see for example FR 2 873 381 [11] where composite materials comprising nano- and micro-metric fillers in the same material are described). 
     Advantages 
     As will be readily understood from reading the present disclosure, for the first time to the inventors&#39; knowledge, the present invention allows successful solubilization of acceptor-GICs in a polar organic solvent system or in an aqueous solvent system, including water. 5 The resulting graphenium dispersions are stable over time, and can therefore be handled and/or stored under ambient air. In other words, the present invention allows to effectively produce stable liquid formulations of graphenium. Air stable graphenium dispersions have been obtained that do not necessarily need inert atmosphere to be prepared. 
     The graphenium dispersions of the invention have the same advantage of starting with a graphite intercalation compound where the van der Waals interactions between the graphene layers have been replaced by electrostatic interactions and the graphene planes have been moved apart from each other (from 3.34 Å to about 9 Å). They differ from graphenide solutions in that they do not need potassium, a highly hazardous substance, to be prepared. 
     When using metal halide (e.g., iron chloride) acceptor GICs, finely divided metal (e.g., iron) is detected on the graphenium flakes, making this composite material very promising as electrocatalysts. The metal-graphenium composites of the present invention are believed to be one of the potential candidates to replace the commercial Pt— or Rh-based catalysts used notably for oxygen reduction reaction (fuel cell technology) and oxygen evolution reaction (energy storage). 
     The organic or aqueous graphenium dispersions of the invention, and related process for their preparation, are advantageous compared to known processes in that no hazardous substance need to be used (no potassium metal, as opposed to graphene solutions made from graphenide material (negatively charged graphene). 
     EQUIVALENTS 
     The representative examples that follow, together with the appended Figures, are intended to help illustrate the invention, and are not intended to, nor should they be constructed to, limit the scope of the invention. Indeed, various modifications of the invention and many further embodiments thereof, in addition to those shown and described herein, will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the full contents of this document, including the examples which follow and the references to the scientific and patent literature cited herein. It should further be appreciated that the contents of those cited references are incorporated herein by reference to help illustrate the state of the art. The following examples contain important additional information, exemplification and guidance that can be adapted to the practice of this invention in its various embodiments and the equivalents thereof. 
     EXAMPLES 
     The process and graphenium dispersions according to the present invention and their reduction to practice can be understood further by the examples that illustrate how some of the processes may be carried out. It will be appreciated, however, that these examples should not be construed to limit the invention. Variations of the invention, now known or further developed, are considered to fall within the scope of the present invention as described herein and as hereinafter claimed. 
     In the Examples that follow, natural flake graphite (Asbury graphite, grade 3763, mesh 30, flake size ≤600 μm) was used. The majority of the graphite flake size is between 400-600 micrometers (determined by analytical sieving). 
     Example 1—Synthesis of ICI—, IBr— and ICI 3 -GICs 
     600 mg (50 mmol) of flake graphite (Asbury graphite, grade 3763, mesh 30) and 1.62 g (10 mmol) iodine monochloride (stoichiometry ICI-05) were placed inside a 50 ml argon filled Schlenk flask. Immediately, the disappearance of the liquid ICI and the expansion of the volume of the graphite were visible. The Schlenk flask was closed with a glass cap and the sample was allowed to equilibrate for 24 h under constant pressure. The resulting graphite intercalation compound (GIC), C 5 ICI was isolated and used without further purification. 
     The procedure was repeated using IBr or ICI 3  as oxidant (in replacement of ICI) using the same experimental conditions. 
     The resulting ICI—, IBr— and ICI 3 -GICs were characterized by X-ray diffraction, transmission electronic microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. 
     Example 2—Synthesis of FeCl 3 -GIC 
     600 mg (50 mmol) of flake graphite (Asbury graphite, grade 3763, mesh 30) and 0.81 g (5 mmol) anhydrous FeCl 3  (stoichiometry FeCl 3 —C10) were weighted inside an argon filled glove box and added into a glass tube. Subsequently, the glass tube was connected to a vacuum pump, then evacuated at 1.10 −2  mbar and sealed afterwards. The sealed glass tube was placed inside an oven at 340° C. for 24 h. Afterwards, the sample was cooled down by 5 K/min until room temperature is reached. The glass tube was brought back into the glove box, was opened, and the FeCl 3  graphite intercalation compound was isolated and used without further purification. 
     The resulting FeCl 3 -GIC was characterized by X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy. It was shown to have magnetic properties. 
     Example 3—Graphenium Dispersion in a Polar Organic Solvent 
     200 mg of the as prepared acceptor-GIC from Example 1 or 2 were mixed to with 100 mL of the anhydrous solvent (THF, toluene, acetonitrile, methanol, butanol, dichloromethane) under inert condition in a 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask and the dispersion was stirred for 5 days by the aid of a PTFE coated magnetic stirring bar. Afterwards, the stirring was stopped and the sample was left for sedimentation for 24 h. The faint yellow to gray upper dispersion was retained. The concentration of the graphenium dispersion was determined by dry extracts as 0.08±0.02 mg/mL. 
     The results are summarized in Table 1. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Concentration of graphenium dispersions (mg/mL) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 BuOH 
                   
               
               
                 Acceptor 
                   
                 Absolute 
                   
                   
                   
                 (n-BuOH 
               
               
                 GIC used 
                 THF 
                 THF 
                 Toluene 
                 MeCN 
                 MeOH 
                 or 2-BuOH) 
                 CH 2 Cl 2   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FeCl 3 - 
                 nd 
                 nd 
                 0.02-0.08 
                 nd 
                 nd 
                 nd 
                 nd 
               
               
                 GIC 
               
               
                 ICI-GIC 
                 0.05 
                 0.08 
                 nd 
                 0.03 
                 0.01 
                 0.02 
                 nd 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 nd: graphenium dispersions prepared, but graphenium concentrations not determined 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The graphenium dispersions have been characterized either in liquid phase, or through deposits by UV-Vis/nIR, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Raman spectroscopy, Electron energy loss spectroscopy, all confirming the successful preparation of graphenium dispersions in liquid phase, which are stable for a long time. 
     Example 4—Graphenium Dispersion in Water 
     A dispersion of graphenium in an organic solvent (having a boiling point lower than that of water) from Example 3 was injected in water. The organic solvent was left to evaporate leaving a suspension of graphenium in water. The aqueous graphenium suspension remained stable up to 1 or 2 weeks, allowing processing. 
     The experiment was repeated using a dispersion of graphenium in acetonitrile (instead of THF). The following organic dispersions from Example 3 were used to prepare the graphenium dispersions in water: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Acceptor GIC used 
                 THF 
                 Absolute THF 
                 MeCN 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 ICI-GIC 
                 0.05 mg/mL 
                 0.08 mg/mL 
                 0.03 mg/mL 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The resulting aqueous graphenium suspension remained stable up to 1 or 2 weeks, allowing processing/handling. The results are summarized in Table 2. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Stability of graphenium dispersions in water 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Volume ratio organic 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 dispersion:water 
                 THF 
                 Absolute THF 
                 MeCN 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 2:1 
                  1 week 
                  1 week 
                  1 week 
               
               
                 1:1 
                  1 week 
                  1 week 
                  1 week 
               
               
                 1:2 
                 &gt;1 week 
                 &gt;1 week 
                 &gt;1 week 
               
               
                 1:4 
                 &gt;1 week 
                 &gt;1 week 
                 &gt;1 week 
               
               
                 1:8 
                 &gt;1 week 
                 &gt;1 week 
                 &gt;1 week 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 5—Aqueous Graphenium Dispersion 
     200 mg of the as prepared acceptor-GIC from Example 1 or 2 is mixed to with 100 mL of anhydrous dimethyl formamide under inert condition in a 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask and the dispersion is stirred for 5 days by the aid of a PTFE coated magnetic stirring bar. Afterwards, the stirring is stopped and the sample is left for sedimentation for 24 h. A volume of the upper dispersion is sampled out, and is injected in water to yield a metastable aqueous graphenium dispersion in DMF/H 2 O. 
     Any volume ratio DMF:H 2 O can be used depending on the fraction of organic solvent relative to water that is desired in the final aqueous graphenium dispersion. For example, the following DMF:H 2 O volume ratios may be used: 2:1, 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 1:6, 1:8, 1:10, 1:20, 1:30. 
     Example 6—Graphenium Dispersion Using ICI as Solvent (FIG.  13 ) 
     In a heat-dried and argon purged round-bottomed Schlenk flask (50 mL), 162.3 mg (1.0 mmol) of liquid iodine monochloride (ICI) was placed (super-stoichiometric amount). Afterwards, 12 mg (1.0 mmol) flake graphite (Asbury graphite, grade 3763, mesh 30) was added under argon and the flask was immediately sealed by a glass cap. The mixture was then let to equilibrate for 48 h under constant pressure. The liquid ICI was then carefully extracted by means of a glass pipette and transferred in 50 mL of anhydrous THF in a separate heat-dried and argon purged round-bottomed Schlenk flask (100 mL). The dispersion turned orange due to the dissolution of ICI. The mixture was then kept untouched for 48 h sedimentation time. Afterwards, the liquid phase was carefully extracted from the precipitate. The carbon material was collected by filtering the dispersion with a 0.2 μm PTFE and subsequent washing with 5 times, 20 mL THF each. The concentration in the dispersion was determined gravimetrically, exhibiting in average a concentration of 0.10±0.03 mg/mL based on 7 individual experiments. 
     The resulting ICI-GIC/ICI-based graphenium was characterized by small-angle X-ray scattering diffraction/wide angle X-ray scattering diffraction (SAXS/WAXS) (cf.  FIG.  15   ), atomic force microscopy/transmission electronic microscopy (AFM/TEM) (cf.  FIG.  16   ), and Transmission electron microscopy/energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (TEM/EDX) (cf.  FIG.  17   ), XPS ( FIG.  19   ), and Raman spectroscopy ( FIG.  20   ). 
     SAXS/WAXS data show that in the mixture of ICI with graphite, the carbon interlayer interactions are efficiently screened ( FIG.  15   ). 
     AFM/TEM analysis shows that dissolution in a liquid oxidant is possible and exfoliation down to the identity, one layer of carbon is possible ( FIG.  16   ). 
     TEM/EDX analysis shows that dissolution does not lead to significant functionalization, however some halogen species remain even in UHV ( FIG.  17   ). 
     XPS measurements at different binding energies shows that stage ½ is competitive with stage 1, a concept not known prior for binary intercalation compounds ( FIG.  14   ). 
     XPS analysis of the filtrated material, before and after sputtering, show that the carbon material is not excessively functionalized. Moreover, halogen species can be found on the surface, confirming TEM analysis ( FIG.  19   ). 
     Statistical Raman analysis corroborates the XPS interpretation that no excessive functionalization of the surface was occurring. Moreover, the broad single Lorentzian 2D band indicates that the intercalation lead to a disintegration of the bernal graphite stacking ( FIG.  20   ). 
     Example 6 was carried out with large natural size graphite (Asbury graphite, grade 3763, mesh 30). Statistical lateral size analysis based on TEM shows that the average flake lateral size exceeds 2 micrometer ( FIG.  18   ). Regarding the lateral size analysis, the fitting was done with lognormal fits as the lateral size distribution is not normal distributed. The size count is significantly skewed due to the presence large and very large sheets (larger than 10 micrometer) present in the samples. The mean value for the lateral size is 2.57 μm, whereas the mode is 2.25 μm (the mode is the value for the maximum of the most abundant species in the distribution). The standard deviation is 1.40 μm, showing the skewed nature of the lateral size distribution. 
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         9. Penicaud et al., “Spontaneous dissolution of a single-wall carbon nanotube salt”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 27, 8-9, 2005. 
         10. WO 2005/073127 
         11. FR 2 873 381