Patent Publication Number: US-2021171970-A1

Title: Increasing plant oil content by altering a negative regulator of acetyl-coa carboxylase

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/211,371, filed Aug. 28, 2015, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH 
     This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. PGRP 10S-1339385 awarded by National Science Foundation and Grant No. T32 GM008396 by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     INCORPORATION OF SEQUENCE LISTING 
     The sequence listing that is contained in the file named “UVMO115WO_ST25.txt,” which is 331 kilobytes as measured in Microsoft Windows operating system and was created on Jul. 6, 2016, is filed electronically herewith and incorporated herein by reference. 
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to methods and systems for increasing plant oil content, and more particularly to constructs and methods to down-regulate expression of a negative regulator of de novo fatty acid synthesis in order to increase fatty acid and ultimately triacylglycerol production in plants and algae that harbor this family of negative regulators. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Vegetable oils are an important renewable source of hydrocarbons for food, energy, and industrial feedstocks. As demand for this commodity increases, discovering ways to enhance oil production in crops will be an agronomic priority. Oil production begins with the de novo fatty acid synthesis (FAS) pathway to generate the acyl chains that are eventually esterified to glycerol to produce triacylglycerol, the major storage lipid in the seed. The committed step of de novo FAS is catalyzed by acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase) which carboxylates acetyl-CoA to form malonyl-CoA in a two-step reaction requiring ATP, bicarbonate, and biotin cofactor. In prokaryotes, and in plastids of most plants, ACCase is a heteromeric complex requiring four distinct subunits: biotin carboxylase (BC), biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP), and α- and β-carboxyltransferases (CT). Graminaceous monocots possess a homomeric form of plastid ACCase where the catalytic components are adjoined in tandem as a single polypeptide. Structural models for the heteromeric ACCase are primarily based on studies in  Escherichia coli . The  E. coli  ACCase is composed of two subcomplexes: an α/β-CT heterotetramer and a BC/BCCP heterotetramer. The components of the two subcomplexes form stable associations, while the subcomplexes themselves show a relatively weak interaction with one another. This property has contributed to the difficulties in biochemical and structural characterization of heteromeric ACCase from plants. Plastidial ACCase is regulated by light, feedback inhibition, and a 2-oxoglutarate-binding protein PII. It remains unknown if such regulation is mediated by additional proteins, or if other factors are involved, as the plant heteromeric ACCase has never been fully characterized. A comprehensive study of ACCase protein interactions is needed. 
     Therefore, there is a need to provide a better understanding of protein structure and regulation of ACCase to leverage the potential for manipulating flux through this committed and irreversible step for de novo FAS. There is also a need to develop a novel method to efficiently increase ACCase activity to consequently increase fatty acid and, ultimately, triacylglycerol production in plants and algae. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In one aspect, the present invention provides methods/systems to modulate or alter fatty acid and protein production in plants and algae. Such methods comprise the step of altering the activity level of ACCase, the committed step for de novo fatty acid biosynthesis. The invention may comprise the step of altering the expression of a gene family of negative regulators, biotin/lipoyl attachment domain containing (BADC or BLADC) proteins, which bind to the multi-subunit ACCase found in the plastids of dicotyledon and non-graminaceous monocot plants, as well as algae. Decreasing BADC levels may enable higher oil content in algae and/or land plants, in either vegetative or reproductive tissues including, but not limited to, leaves and seeds. In addition, increasing or overexpressing expression of one or more BADC genes in a plant or alga may enable higher protein content by reducing ACCase activity and flux through de novo FAS. 
     According to one embodiment of the invention, the method may comprise the step of enhancing plastid ACCase activities in the plant or algal cell by down-regulating BADC genes through biotechnology or selective breeding approaches. In some embodiments, total or partial silencing may comprises antisense, RNAi, CRISPR, TALON, nanobodies, EMS, T-DNA or transposon-mediated gene knockout, or conventional mutagenesis/targeted breeding. In one embodiment, such a method may further comprise an RNAi cassette comprising SEQ ID NOs:7 or 138. In some embodiments, such approaches may comprise total or partial silencing of one or more BADC genes, such as genes and gene orthologs of BADC1, BADC2, and/or BADC3 or artificial genes containing essential BADC motifs. In one embodiment, the one or more BADC genes may comprise from about 70% to about 100% sequence identity to a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 7, and 138, or a complement thereof. In another embodiment, the one or more BADC genes may encode a polypeptide comprising from about 70% to about 100% sequence identity to a polypeptide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 3, 5, 8-137, and 139-143. In another embodiment, the invention provides a plant or part thereof produced by a method described herein, wherein the plant comprises increased seed oil content, or a seed that produces the plant or part thereof, wherein the seed comprises increased seed oil content. In some embodiments, such methods may be carried out in organisms that contain orthologs to the  Arabidopsis thaliana  BADC genes, such as  Amborella trichopoda, Arabidopsis lyrata, Arabidopsis alpine, Arachis hypogaea, Auxenochlorella protothecoides, Brassica napus, Brassica rapa, Camelina sativa, Capsella rubella, Cathamus tinctorius, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Chlorella variabilis, Cicer arietinum, Citrus clementina, Citrus sinensis, Coccomyxa subellipsoideas  C-169,  Coffea canephora, Cucumis melo, Cucumis sativus, Elaeis guineensis, Erythranthe guttata, Eucalyptus grandis, Eutrema salsugineum, Fragaria vesca, Genlisea aurea, Glycine max, Helianthus annuus, Helicosporidium  ATCC 50920 , Jatropha curcas, Lotus japonicas, Medicago truncatula, Morus notabilis, Musa acuminate, Nelumbo nucifera, Nicotiana sylvestris, Nicotiana tomentosiformis, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pheonix dactylifera, Physcomitrella patens, Picea sitchensis, Polytomella parva, Populus trichocarpa, Prunus mume, Prunes persica, Pyrus×bretschneideri, Ricinus communis, Selaginella moellendoiffii, Sesamum indicum, Solanum lycopersicum, Solanum tuberosum, Theobroma cacao, Thlaspi arvense, Vitis vinifera , or  Volvox carteri.    
     In another embodiment of the invention, the method may comprises the step of reducing plastid ACCase activity by up-regulating BADC genes through biotechnology or selective breeding approaches in an organism that contains an ortholog to the  Arabidopsis thaliana  BADC genes. In one embodiment, such up-regulation of one or more BADC genes may comprise altering expression of one or more BADC genes in either seed or vegetative tissue of a plant or alga, such as genes and gene orthologs of BADC1, BADC2, and/or BADC3 or artificial genes containing essential BADC motifs. In one embodiment, the one or more BADC genes may comprise from about 70% to about 100% sequence identity to a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 7, and 138, or a complement thereof. In another embodiment, the one or more BADC genes may encode a polypeptide comprising from about 70% to about 100% sequence identity to a poypeptide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 3, 5, 8-137, and 139-143. In another embodiment, the invention provides a plant or part thereof produced by a method described herein, wherein the plant comprises increased seed oil content, or a seed that produces the plant or part thereof, wherein the seed comprises increased seed oil content, such as  Amborella trichopoda, Arabidopsis lyrata, Arabidopsis alpine, Arachis hypogaea, Auxenochlorella protothecoides, Brassica napus, Brassica rapa, Camelina sativa, Capsella rubella, Cathamus tinctorius, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Chlorella variabilis, Cicer arietinum, Citrus clementina, Citrus sinensis, Coccomyxa subellipsoideas  C-169,  Coffea canephora, Cucumis melo, Cucumis sativus, Elaeis guineensis, Erythranthe guttata, Eucalyptus grandis, Eutrema salsugineum, Fragaria vesca, Genlisea aurea, Glycine max, Helianthus annuus, Helicosporidium  ATCC 50920 , Jatropha curcas, Lotus japonicas, Medicago truncatula, Morus notabilis, Musa acuminate, Nelumbo nucifera, Nicotiana sylvestris, Nicotiana tomentosiformis, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pheonix dactylifera, Physcomitrella patens, Picea sitchensis, Polytomella parva, Populus trichocarpa, Prunus mume, Prunes persica, Pyrus×bretschneideri, Ricinus communis, Selaginella moellendorffii, Sesamum indicum, Solanum lycopersicum, Solanum tuberosum, Theobroma cacao, Thlaspi arvense, Vitis vinifera , or  Volvox carteri.    
     Further areas of applicability of the present disclosure will become apparent from the description provided herein. It should be understood that the description and specific examples are intended for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of the present teachings. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       For a more complete understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention, reference is now made to the detailed description of the invention along with the accompanying figures. The drawings described herein are for illustration purposes only and are not intended to limit the scope of the present teachings in any way. 
         FIG. 1 —Shows co-immunoprecipitation of ACCase and BADC proteins from  Arabidopsis thaliana  seedlings. (A and B) Proteins were precipitated from  Arabidopsis thaliana  crude chloroplast lysate using antibodies specific for ACCase subunits BCCP2 (A) or α-CT (B) and identified by LC-MS/MS. Control precipitations were performed with uncoated Protein A Sepharose beads. For both sets of studies, n=7. Error bars represent standard deviation. Semi-quantitative normalized relative abundance values were determined by dividing total spectral matches for each protein by protein size and normalizing to the antibody-specific protein. (C and D) Protein blot analysis of reciprocal co-IPs from the same  Arabidopsis  lysate showed that the BCCP subunits of ACCase co-precipitated with BADC1 (C) and BADC2 (D). Blots are representative of three biological replicates. 
         FIG. 2 —Shows primer design for yeast two-hybrid and recombinant expression cloning studies. (A) Primers used to amplify the genes shown were ordered from Sigma-Aldrich and include: BCCP1 (accession no. AT5G16390) sense and antisense primers (SEQ ID NOs:144 and 145, respectively); BCCP2 (accession no. AT5G15530) sense and antisense primers (SEQ ID NOs:146 and 147, respectively); BADC1 (accession no. AT3G56130) sense and antisense primers (SEQ ID NOs:148 and 149, respectively); BADC2 (accession no. AT1G52670) sense and antisense primers (SEQ ID NOs:150 and 151, respectively); BADC3 (accession no. AT3G15690) sense and antisense primers (SEQ ID NOs:152 and 153, respectively), and apo-BCCP1 (accession no. AT5G16390) mutant sense and antisense primers (SEQ ID NOs:160 and 161, respectively). Underlined segments indicate a restriction endonuclease site. (B) Transit peptide lengths were predicted using TargetP. Primers were designed to omit the bases coding for these peptides from the gene of interest to allow for proper protein folding. 
         FIG. 3 —Shows the direct interaction of BADC proteins with BCCP subunits of ACCase. (A) Strain AH109 yeast was transformed with bait and prey constructs containing the genes shown. Negative controls showed minimal or no growth. Sv40 and p53 were used as positive controls. Lamin C was used as a negative control. Transformed yeast were plated on media lacking Trp, Leu, and His. Results shown are representative of three biological replicates. (B) Coomassie-stained gels showing the elution fractions of Ni 2+ -NTA-purified protein from  E. coli . At right, a native protein was co-expressed with a His 6 -tagged protein. At left, the native protein was expressed alone. The native proteins were present strongly in the elution fractions only when co-expressed with the His 6 -tagged protein. Protein identities were confirmed by LC-MS/MS. 
         FIG. 4 —Shows that BADC proteins share substantial sequence identity with BCCP subunits of ACCase in  Arabidopsis thaliana . Protein sequences from  Arabidopsis thaliana  were aligned and percent amino acid identity was calculated using Clustal-W. 
         FIG. 5 —Shows predicted structures of BADC proteins resemble BCCP subunits of ACCase in  Arabidopsis thaliana . Structures of each protein were generated using SWISS-MODEL. Protein sequences lacking the predicted transit peptide residues were used as the input. 
         FIG. 6A —Shows an alignment of the C-termini of the  Arabidopsis thaliana  BCCP and BADC proteins demonstrating that the BADC proteins resemble BCCP isoforms but lack the conserved biotinylation motif and biotinyl lysine residue. BCCP1 (SEQ ID NO:1), BCCP2 (SEQ ID NO:2), BADC1 (SEQ ID NO:3), BADC2 (SEQ ID NO:4), and BADC3 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
         FIG. 6B  and  FIG. 6C —Show differences in biotinylation between the BCCP and BADC proteins, illustrating that the BADC proteins resemble BCCP isoforms but are not biotinylated. (B) Western blotting analysis of recombinant  Arabidopsis  proteins using a biotin-specific antibody. BCCP2 was observed to be biotinylated while the BADCs were not. (C) Protein blot analysis of immunoprecipitated in vivo BADC1 from  Arabidopsis  seedlings. Blotting precipitate with BADC1-specific antibody showed the presence BADC1 in the sample, while blotting with biotin-specific antibody showed no recognition of BADC1. 
         FIG. 7 —Shows species containing orthologs of the  Arabidopsis thaliana  BADC proteins. Phylogenetic trees showing all species that were identified to contain an ortholog to one or more of the BADC proteins in  A. thaliana . Ortholog candidates were identified by performing PSI-BLAST on the primary sequence of each BADC protein. Results were filtered by performing a reciprocal BLAST against the  A. thaliana  proteome. Species classification is indicated by color. All species identified contain heteromeric ACCase. 
         FIG. 8 —Shows BADC3 reduces ACCase activity in  E. coli . (A) Growth curves showing the optical density of L8  E. coli  cells over time. Cultures were grown in M63 liquid culture at 37° C. in the absence of fatty acids. Transformed cells contained the following vectors: empty pET28a (EV28a), pET28a containing the  E. coli  BCCP gene (EcBCCP), empty pET11a (EV11a), and/or pET11a containing the  A. thaliana  BADC3 gene (BADC3). The EV control cells show minimal growth at 37° C., while re-introduction of native EcBCCP complemented the temperature-sensitive phenotype. BADC3 expression alone showed no statistical difference from EV control except at T=10 h, while co-expression of BADC3 with EcBCCP showed an approximate 75% reduction in growth compared to EcBCCP alone across multiple studies. Results shown are representative of three separate studies. Error bars represent standard deviation. (B) Coomassie blue stain and anti-biotin protein blot of Ni 2+ -NTA purified His 6 -BADC3. 
         FIG. 9 —BADCs reduce ACCase activity in  A. thaliana . Protein extracted from 10-d-old  A. thaliana  siliques was assayed for ACCase activity by incorporation of radiolabelled sodium bicarbonate into acid-stable products. Assays were performed in the absence (WT) or presence of 10 μM recombinant BADC1, BADC2, BADC3, BCCP2, or BSA. Specific activities were calculated for each assay and then normalized to WT control. Four biological replicates were performed for each trial. Error bars denote SEM. 
         FIG. 10 —Shows light-dependent changes in gene expression of BADC and hetACCase in  A. thaliana  siliques. (A) Graph shows the absolute expression level of the given genes obtained by qPCR. Ten d old  A. thaliana  siliques were collected after various amounts of light exposure. RNA extracted from these tissues was used to create cDNA for this analysis. Average values of four biological replicates are shown. Standard error was approximately 5 to 10 percent for all data points. (B) Graph depicts the shift in BADC and BCCP total transcript level in response to light. The sum of transcript levels from BCCPs and BADCs in (A) for each time point were normalized to the sum of BCCP transcripts at six hours light exposure. At T=0, the ratio of BADC:BCCP transcript is 9:1. At T=6, the ratio shifts to 1:4. 
         FIG. 11 —Shows a bar graph illustrating seed oil content of 26 mutant BADC1 RNAi lines and one wild type. Statistical significance was determined by Student&#39;s t-test (*, P&lt;0.05). 
         FIG. 12 —Seed specific RNAi silencing of BADC1 increases seed oil content in  A. thaliana . (A) Bar graph shows total seed oil content in WT and basta-resistant T2  A. thaliana  lines containing a construct that silences BADC1 expression in the seed. Each bar represents the average of four plants. Error bars denote SD. (B) RT-PCR analysis of BADC1 RNAi silencing lines. BADC1 transcript level was quantified relative to Actin transcript level and normalized to WT. RNA used for analysis was extracted from four biological replicates of ten d old siliques. Error bars denote SEM. In both graphs, statistical significance was determined by Student&#39;s t-test (*, P&lt;0.05). 
         FIG. 13A —Shows a scatter plot demonstrating the expression profiles of ACCase and BADC genes in developing seed of  Arabidopsis thaliana  using publicly available transcriptomics data. 
         FIG. 13B —Shows a scatter plot demonstrating the expression profiles of ACCase and BADC genes in developing seed of  Glycine max.    
         FIG. 14 —Shows dose-dependent inhibition of ACCase activity by BADC1. (A) Shows ACCase activity from 20-day-old  A. thaliana  leaf extracts, average of four biological replicates. Error bars denote standard deviation. (B) Shows a table of the values from (A). (C) shows SDS-PAGE analysis of purified recombinant BADC1 protein used in assays for panel (A). 
         FIG. 15 —Shows a model of negative regulation of ACCase by BADC. The BC-BCCP subcomplex of ACCase consists of two dimers of BC and four BCCP proteins. A model was proposed in which BADC proteins compete with BCCP for binding to BC. Binding of BADC prevents binding of the essential BCCP subunit. The pool of BC/BCCP and BC/BCCP/BADC subcomplexes then compete for interaction with the CT subcomplex, leading to variable reductions in ACCase activity. While a transient association of the two ACCase half reactions is known, it is unclear whether BADC can displace BCCP from an assembled BC/BCCP subcomplex (dashed arrows). Abbreviations: BC, biotin carboxylase; BCCP, biotin carboxyl carrier protein; BADC, biotin/lipoyl attachment domain protein; CT, carboxyltransferase. 
     
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEQUENCES 
     SEQ ID NO:1—BADC1 polypeptide sequence, AT3G56130, biotin/lipoyl attachment domain-containing protein. 
     SEQ ID NO:2—BADC1 full genomic nucleic acid sequence, AT3G56130, biotin/lipoyl attachment domain-containing protein. 
     SEQ ID NO:3—BADC2 polypeptide, AT1G52670, Single hybrid motif protein. 
     SEQ ID NO:4—BADC2 full genomic nucleic acid, AT1G52670, Single hybrid motif protein. 
     SEQ ID NO:5—BADC3 polypeptide, AT3G15690, Single hybrid motif protein. 
     SEQ ID NO:6—BADC3 full genomic nucleic acid, AT3G15690, Single hybrid motif protein. 
     SEQ ID NO:7—Nucleic acid, RNAi cassette for BADC1 silencing in  Arabidopsis thaliana.    
     SEQ ID NOs:8-134—Polypeptide sequences of each BADC ortholog across various organisms. Orthologous proteins were identified by performing a PSI-BLAST search using the protein sequence of each BADC from  Arabidopsis thaliana  as the query against known plant and algae proteomes. Orthologs were confirmed by reciprocal BLAST search against the  Arabidopsis thaliana  proteome. Sequences show GenBank ID, reference number, protein annotation, and name of the genus and species. 
     SEQ ID NOs:135-137—Show the consensus sequence identified by multiple sequence alignment of all identified BADC orthologs and the three BADC isoforms in  Arabidopsis thaliana . This consensus sequence identifies a protein as a BADC ortholog. 
     SEQ ID NO:135—Polypeptide sequence of internal 44 amino acids of  Arabidopsis thaliana  BADC1 protein, accession AT3G56130. The 44 amino acids are conserved among the BADC protein family. 
     SEQ ID:136—Internal 44 amino acids of BADC consensus motif 1, with identical amino acid residues at positions 1, 2, 11, 12, 28, 29, 36, 38, and 42. 
     SEQ ID NO:137—Internal 44 amino acids of BADC consensus motif 1, with variable amino acid residues at positions 1, 2, 11, 12, 28, 29, 36, 38, and 42, and providing variable residues. 
     SEQ ID NO:138—Nucleic acid, RNAi cassette to target BADC1 and BADC3 genes in  Glycine max.    
     SEQ ID NO:139—BCCP1 protein sequence. 
     SEQ ID NO:140—BCCP2 protein sequence. 
     SEQ ID NO:141—BADC1 protein sequence. 
     SEQ ID NO:142—BADC2 protein sequence. 
     SEQ ID NO:143—BADC3 protein sequence. 
     SEQ ID NOs:144 and 145—Sequences of BCCP1 (accession no. AT5G16390) sense and antisense primers, respectively. 
     SEQ ID NOs: 146 and 147—Sequences of BCCP2 (accession no. AT5G15530) sense and antisense primers, respectively. 
     SEQ ID NOs:148 and 149—Sequences of BADC1 (accession no. AT3G56130) sense and antisense primers, respectively. 
     SEQ ID NOs:150 and 151—Sequences of BADC2 (accession no. AT1G52670) sense and antisense primers, respectively. 
     SEQ ID NOs:152 and 153—Sequences of BADC3 (accession no. AT3G15690) sense and antisense primers, respectively. 
     SEQ ID NO:154 and 155—Primer Sequences used to amplify AtBADC1. 
     SEQ ID NOs:156—Sequence of sense primer used to amplify BADC1. 
     SEQ ID NOs:157—Sequence of antisense primer used to amplify BADC1. 
     SEQ ID NOs:158—Sequence of sense primer used to amplify Actin 8. 
     SEQ ID NOs:159—Sequence of antisense primer used to amplify Actin 8. 
     SEQ ID NOs:160 and 161—Sequences of apo-BCCP1 (accession no. AT5G16390) mutant sense and antisense primers, respectively. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention provides methods and means to modulate fatty acid, and ultimately triacylglycerol, production, as well as protein production, in plants and algae. Such methods comprise altering the activity levels of the committed step for de novo fatty acid biosynthesis, catalyzed by acetyl-CoA carboxylases (ACCase). In accordance with the invention, a method described herein may increase or decrease ACCase activity levels by down- or up-regulating the biotin/lipoyl attachment domain containing (BADC) genes, respectively. 
     The BADC proteins are a family of three proteins in  Arabidopsis thaliana  and resemble the biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) subunit to ACCase. BADC protein expression has a negative effect on ACCase activity, which in turn affects oil production in plants and algae. The activity of ACCase in catalyzing the committed step of de novo fatty acid synthesis and regulation of flux through this central metabolic pathway is known in the art. In dicot and non-graminaceous monocot plants and algae, plastid ACCase is a heteromeric complex comprised of four catalytic subunits: biotin carboxylase (BC), biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP), and α- and β-carboxyltransferase (α-CT, β-CT). The plant complex is recalcitrant to conventional purification schemes and hence the structure and composition of the full assembly is unknown. 
     As described in detail below, in vivo co-immunoprecipitation with subunit-specific antibodies was used to identify a novel family of BADC proteins, provided herein as SEQ ID NOs:1-6, in  Arabidopsis thaliana . It was determined that BADC proteins resemble BCCP (subunits of ACCase complex) but cannot be biotinylated, and based on the results from orthogonal techniques, all three BADC proteins interact with the two  A. thaliana  BCCP isoforms and the biotin carboxylase subunit of ACCase, based on yeast two-hybrid and heterologous co-expression analyses. None of the BADC proteins were biotinylated in planta or when expressed in  Escherichia coli , unlike BCCP controls. Gene orthologs to BADC were found only in plant and green algae species that contain a heteromeric ACCase suggesting BADC genes co-evolved with this form of ACCase. It was further discovered that expression of BADC proteins inhibited ACCase activity when co-expressed with a functional BCCP in a temperature-sensitive  Escherichia coli  BCCP mutant. Thus, BADC proteins regulate ACCase by competing with BCCP to form less active complexes. Down-regulating BADC genes (i.e., silencing the expression of BADC protein) promotes the formation of active ACCase complexes, which in turn increases ACCase activity levels and thus oil production in plants and/or algae. Down-regulating one or more BADC genes may be achieved via various biotechnology or selective breeding approaches as described herein and/or known in the art. 
     The invention also provides methods of reducing fatty acid synthesis in plants and/or algae by overexpression of BADC genes. Such methods would reduce the amount of triacylglycerol stored in the seed and concomitantly increase the amount of protein stored in the seed. Overexpression of BADC genes may therefore reduce ACCase activity and in turn reduce fatty acid biosynthesis. 
     The present disclosure provides a method of marker-assisted selection as a screening tool for plant and/or algae species that contain higher oil content. The BADC genes are traits that can be monitored to select for specific organisms that may have the potential to produce more triacylglycerol. The expression level of BADC genes may be the marker used to assist in such selection, wherein organisms with naturally reduced expression of BADC genes may be selected. 
     Plant oils are an important renewable source of hydrocarbons for food, energy, and industrial feedstocks. Acyl chains stored as triacylglycerol are produced by the de novo fatty acid synthesis (FAS) pathway. The committed step of de novo FAS is catalyzed by the heteromeric acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (hetACCase) which carboxylates acetyl-CoA to form malonyl-CoA in a two-step reaction requiring ATP, bicarbonate, and biotin cofactor. In prokaryotes, and in plastids of dicots and non-graminaceous monocots, hetACCase is a heteromeric complex requiring four distinct subunits: biotin carboxylase (BC), biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP), and α- and β-carboxyltransferase (CT). Graminaceous monocots possess a homomeric form of plastid ACCase wherein the catalytic components are fused in tandem as a single polypeptide. Structural models for hetACCase are based on studies of the  Escherichia coli  homolog. The  E. coli  hetACCase is composed of two enzymatic subcomplexes: an α/β-CT heterotetramer and a BC/BCCP heterooctamer. The components of each subcomplex form stable associations while the two subcomplexes themselves show a relatively weak interaction with one another. This property has contributed to the difficulties in biochemical and structural characterization of hetACCase from plants. 
     Without being limited to a particular theory, a plant useful for the present invention may be include, but is not limited to, plant or algal apecies, such as  Amborella trichopoda, Arabidopsis lyrata, Arabidopsis alpine, Auxenochlorella protothecoides, Brassica napus, Brassica rapa, Capsella rubella, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Chlorella variabilis, Cicer arietinum, Citrus clementina, Citrus sinensis, Coccomyxa subellipsoideas  C-169,  Coffea canephora, Cucumis melo, Cucurnis sativus, Elaeis guineensis, Erythranthe guttata, Eucalyptus grandis, Eutrema salsugineum, Fragaria vesca, Genlisea aurea, Glycine max, Helianthus annuus, Helicosporidium  ATCC 50920 , Jatropha curcas, Lotus japonicas, Medicago truncatula, Morus notabilis, Musa acuminate, Nelumbo nucifera, Nicotiana sylvestris, Nicotiana tomentosiformis, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pheonix dactylifera, Physcomitrella patens, Picea sitchensis, Polytomella parva, Populus trichocarpa, Prunus mume, Prunes persica, Pyrus×bretschneideri, Ricinus communis, Selaginella moellendorffii, Solanum lycopersicum, Solanum tuberosum, Theobroma cacao, Vitis vinifera , or  Volvox carteri.    
     I. Nucleic Acids, Polypeptides and Plant Transformation Constructs 
     Certain embodiments of the current invention concern isolated nucleic acid sequences and the corresponding polypeptide sequences for a novel family of BADC proteins, provided herein as SEQ ID NOs:1-6, in  Arabidopsis thaliana . Complements to any nucleic acid or protein sequences described herein are also provided. 
     “Identity,” as is well understood in the art, is a relationship between two or more polypeptide sequences or two or more polynucleotide sequences, as determined by comparing the sequences. In the art, “identity” also means the degree of sequence relatedness between polypeptide or polynucleotide sequences, as determined by the match between strings of such sequences. Methods to determine “identity” are designed to give the largest match between the sequences tested. Moreover, methods to determine identity are codified in publicly available programs. “Identity” can be readily calculated by known methods including, but not limited to, those described in Lesk, ed., (1988); Smith, ed., (1993); Griffin, and Griffin, eds., (1994); von Heinje, (1987); Gribskov and Devereux, eds., (1991); and Carillo and Lipman, (1988). Computer programs can be used to determine “identity” between two sequences these programs include but are not limited to, GCG (Devereux, 1984); suite of five BLAST programs, three designed for nucleotide sequences queries (BLASTN, BLASTX, and TBLASTX) and two designed for protein sequence queries (BLASTP and TBLASTN) (Coulson, 1994; Birren, et al., 1997). The BLASTX program is publicly available from NCBI and other sources (BLAST Manual, Altschul, S., et al., NCBI NLM NIH, Bethesda, Md. 20894; Altschul, S., et al., 1990). The well known Smith Waterman algorithm can also be used to determine identity. 
     In accordance with the invention, a polynucleotide or polypeptide sequence as described herein may exhibit at least from about 70% to about 100% sequence identity to at least one of the sequences set forth herein. For example, in one embodiment, a BADC gene as described herein may comprise, for example, 70%, 71%, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% sequence identity to a sequence selected from SEQ ID NO:2, 4, 6, 7, or 138, or a complement thereof. In other embodiments, a BADC protein as described herein may comprise for example, 70%, 71%, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% sequence identity to a sequence selected from SEQ ID NO:1, 3, or 5, or a complement thereof. 
     Parameters for polypeptide sequence comparison include the following: Algorithm: Needleman and Wunsch (1970); Comparison matrix: BLOSUM62 from Hentikoff and Hentikoff, (1992); Gap Penalty: 12; and Gap Length Penalty: 4. A program which can be used with these parameters is publicly available as the “gap” program from Genetics Computer Group, Madison Wis. The above parameters along with no penalty for end gap may serve as default parameters for peptide comparisons. 
     Parameters for nucleic acid sequence comparison include the following: Algorithm: Needleman and Wunsch (1970); Comparison matrix: matches=+10; mismatches=0; Gap Penalty: 50; and Gap Length Penalty: 3. A program which can be used with these parameters is publicly available as the “gap” program from Genetics Computer Group, Madison Wis. The above parameters may serve as the default parameters for nucleic acid comparisons. 
     As used herein, “hybridization,” “hybridizes,” or “capable of hybridizing” is understood to mean the forming of a double- or triple-stranded molecule or a molecule with partial double- or triple-stranded nature. Such hybridization may take place under relatively high-stringency conditions, including low salt and/or high temperature conditions, such as provided by a wash in about 0.02 M to about 0.15 M NaCl at temperatures of about 50° C. to about 70° C. for 10 min. In one embodiment of the invention, the conditions are 0.15 M NaCl and 70° C. Stringent conditions tolerate little mismatch between a nucleic acid and a target strand. Such conditions are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art, and are preferred for applications requiring high selectivity. Non-limiting applications include isolating a nucleic acid, such as a gene or a nucleic acid segment thereof, or detecting at least one specific mRNA transcript or a nucleic acid segment thereof, and the like. Also included may be a protein or polypeptide, or fragment thereof, such as any of those set forth herein. 
     The nucleic acids provided herein as SEQ ID NOs:1-6 may be from any source, e.g., identified as naturally occurring in a plant, or synthesized, e.g., by mutagenesis of SEQ ID NOs:1-6. In an embodiment, the naturally occurring sequence may be from any plant or algal species, such as  Amborella trichopoda, Arabidopsis lyrata, Arabidopsis alpine, Auxenochlorella protothecoides, Brassica napus, Brassica rapa, Capsella rubella, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Chlorella variabilis, Cicer arietinum, Citrus clementina, Citrus sinensis, Coccomyxa subellipsoideas  C-169,  Coffea canephora, Cucumis meld, Cucumis sativus, Elaeis guineensis, Erythranthe guttata, Eucalyptus grandis, Eutrema salsugineum, Fragaria vesca, Genlisea aurea, Glycine max, Helianthus annuus, Helicosporidium  ATCC 50920 , Jatropha curcas, Lotus japonicas, Medicago truncatula, Morus notabilis, Musa acuminate, Nelumbo nucifera, Nicotiana sylvestris, Nicotiana tomentosiformis, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pheonix dactylifera, Physcomitrella patens, Picea sitchensis, Polytomella parva, Populus trichocarpa, Prunus mume, Prunes persica, Pyrus×bretschneideri, Ricinus communis, Selaginella moellendorffii, Solanum lycopersicum, Solanum tuberosum, Theobroma cacao, Vitis vinifera , or  Volvox carteri.    
     Coding sequences may be provided in a recombinant vector operably linked to a heterologous promoter functional in plants, in either sense or antisense orientation. Expression constructs may also be provided comprising these sequences, including antisense oligonucleotides thereof. In other embodiments, plants and plant cells transformed with the sequences may be provided. The construction of vectors which may be employed in conjunction with plant transformation techniques using these or other sequences according to the invention will be known to those of skill of the art in light of the present disclosure (see, for example, Sambrook et al., 1989; Gelvin et al., 1990). The techniques of the current invention are thus not limited to any particular nucleic acid sequences. 
     The choice of any additional elements used in conjunction with a coding sequences or corresponding encoded product may depend on the purpose of the transformation. One of the major purposes of transformation of crop plants is to add commercially desirable, agronomically important traits to the plant, as described herein. 
     Vectors used for plant transformation may include, for example, plasmids, cosmids, YACs (yeast artificial chromosomes), BACs (bacterial artificial chromosomes) or any other suitable cloning system, as well as fragments of DNA therefrom. Thus when the term “vector” or “expression vector” is used, all of the foregoing types of vectors, as well as nucleic acid sequences isolated therefrom, are included. It is contemplated that utilization of cloning systems with large insert capacities will allow introduction of large DNA sequences comprising more than one selected gene. In accordance with the invention, this could be used to introduce genes corresponding to, e.g., an entire biosynthetic pathway, into a plant. 
     Particularly useful for transformation are expression cassettes which have been isolated from such vectors. DNA segments used for transforming plant cells will generally comprise the cDNA, gene, or genes which one desires to introduce into and have expressed in the host cells. These DNA segments can further include structures such as promoters, enhancers, polylinkers, or even regulatory genes as desired. The DNA segment or gene chosen for cellular introduction will often encode a protein which will be expressed in the resultant recombinant cells resulting in a screenable or selectable trait and/or which will impart an improved phenotype to the resulting transgenic plant. Preferred components likely to be included with vectors used in the current invention are as follows. 
     A. Regulatory Elements 
     Exemplary promoters for expression of a nucleic acid sequence include plant promoters such as the CaMV 35S promoter (Odell et al., 1985), or others such as CaMV 19S (Lawton et al., 1987), nos (Ebert et al., 1987), Adh (Walker et al., 1987), sucrose synthase (Yang and Russell, 1990), α-tubulin, actin (Wang et al., 1992), cab (Sullivan et al., 1989), PEPCase (Hudspeth and Grula, 1989) or those promoters associated with the R gene complex (Chandler et al., 1989). Tissue-specific promoters such as leaf specific promoters, or tissue selective promoters (e.g., promoters that direct greater expression in leaf primordia than in other tissues), and tissue-specific enhancers (Fromm et al., 1986) are also contemplated to be useful, as are inducible promoters such as ABA- and turgor-inducible promoters. Any suitable promoters known in the art may be used to express coding sequences in a plant. 
     The DNA sequence between the transcription initiation site and the start of the coding sequence, i.e., the untranslated leader sequence, can also influence gene expression. One may thus wish to employ a particular leader sequence with a transformation construct of the invention. In an embodiment, leader sequences are contemplated to include those which comprise sequences predicted to direct optimum expression of the attached gene, i.e., to include a consensus leader sequence which may increase or maintain mRNA stability and prevent inappropriate initiation of translation. The choice of such sequences will be known to those of skill in the art in light of the present disclosure. 
     It is envisioned that a sequence useful for altering activity levels of ACCase as described herein may comprise any sequence set forth herein, for example SEQ ID NOs:1-6. In certain embodiments, a gene useful for altering ACCase levels may comprise altering expression of a BADC gene, such as BADC1, BADC2, BADC3, set forth herein as SEQ ID NOs:2, 4, and 6, respectively, or orthologs or homologs thereof. Such an ortholog or homolog may be from any species useful in accordance with the invention. Such a sequence may be introduced into a plant under the control of novel promoters, enhancers, etc., or homologous or tissue-specific or tissue-selective promoters or control elements. Vectors for use in tissue-specific targeting of genes in transgenic plants will typically include tissue-specific or tissue-selective promoters and may also include other tissue-specific or tissue-selective control elements such as enhancer sequences. Promoters which direct specific or enhanced expression in certain plant tissues will be known to those of skill in the art in light of the present disclosure. These include, for example, the rbcS promoter, specific for green tissue; the ocs, nos and mas promoters, which have higher activity in roots; or napin and glycinin promoters, which have higher activity in developing seed. 
     B. Terminators 
     Transformation constructs prepared in accordance with the invention may include a 3′ end DNA sequence that acts as a signal to terminate transcription and allow for the polyadenylation of the mRNA produced by coding sequences operably linked to a promoter. In one embodiment of the invention, the native terminator of a BADC coding sequence may be used. Alternatively, a heterologous 3′ end may enhance the expression of sense or antisense BADC coding sequences. Examples of terminators that may be used in this context include those from the nopaline synthase gene of  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  (nos 3′ end) (Bevan et al., 1983), the terminator for the T7 transcript from the octopine synthase gene of  Agrobacterium tumefaciens , and the 3′ end of the protease inhibitor I or II gene from potato or tomato. Regulatory elements such as an Adh intron (Callis et al., 1987), sucrose synthase intron (Vasil et al., 1989) or TMV omega element (Gallie et al., 1989), may further be included where desired. 
     C. Transit or Signal Peptides 
     Sequences that are joined to the coding sequence of an expressed gene, which are removed post-translationally from the initial translation product and which facilitate the transport of the protein into or through intracellular or extracellular membranes, are termed transit (usually into vacuoles, vesicles, plastids and other intracellular organelles) and signal sequences (usually to the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and outside of the cellular membrane). By facilitating the transport of the protein into compartments inside and outside the cell, these sequences may increase the accumulation of gene products by protecting them from proteolytic degradation. These sequences also allow for additional mRNA sequences from highly expressed genes to be attached to the coding sequence of the genes. Since mRNA being translated by ribosomes is more stable than naked mRNA, the presence of translatable mRNA in front of the gene may increase the overall stability of the mRNA transcript from the gene and thereby increase synthesis of the gene product. Since transit and signal sequences are usually post-translationally removed from the initial translation product, the use of these sequences allows for the addition of extra translated sequences that may not appear on the final polypeptide. It further is contemplated that targeting of certain proteins may be desirable in order to enhance the stability of the protein (U.S. Pat. No. 5,545,818, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). 
     Additionally, vectors may be constructed and employed in the intracellular targeting of a specific gene product within the cells of a transgenic plant or in directing a protein to the extracellular environment. This generally will be achieved by joining a DNA sequence encoding a transit or signal peptide sequence to the coding sequence of a particular gene. The resultant transit or signal peptide will transport the protein to a particular intracellular or extracellular destination, respectively, and will then be post-translationally removed. 
     D. Marker Genes 
     By employing a selectable or screenable marker, one can provide or enhance the ability to identify transformants. “Marker genes” are genes that impart a distinct phenotype to cells expressing the marker protein and thus allow such transformed cells to be distinguished from cells that do not have the marker. Such genes may encode either a selectable or screenable marker, depending on whether the marker confers a trait which one can “select” for by chemical means, i.e., through the use of a selective agent (e.g., a herbicide, antibiotic, or the like), or whether it is simply a trait that one can identify through observation or testing, i.e., by “screening” (e.g., the green fluorescent protein). Of course, many examples of suitable marker proteins are known to the art and can be employed in the practice of the invention. 
     Many selectable marker coding regions are known and could be used with the present invention including, but not limited to, neo (Potrykus et al., 1985), which provides kanamycin resistance and can be selected for using kanamycin, G418, paromomycin, etc.; bar, which confers bialaphos or phosphinothricin resistance; a mutant EPSP synthase protein (Hinchee et al., 1988) conferring glyphosate resistance; a nitrilase such as bxn from  Klebsiella ozaenae  which confers resistance to bromoxynil (Stalker et al., 1988); a mutant acetolactate synthase (ALS) which confers resistance to imidazolinone, sulfonylurea or other ALS inhibiting chemicals (European Patent Application 154, 204, 1985); a methotrexate resistant DHFR (Thillet et al., 1988), a dalapon dehalogenase that confers resistance to the herbicide dalapon; or a mutated anthranilate synthase that confers resistance to 5-methyl tryptophan. 
     An illustrative embodiment of selectable marker capable of being used in systems to select transformants are those that encode the enzyme phosphinothricin acetyltransferase, such as the bar gene from  Streptomyces hygroscopicus  or the pat gene from  Streptomyces viridochromogenes . The enzyme phosphinothricin acetyl transferase (PAT) inactivates the active ingredient in the herbicide bialaphos, phosphinothricin (PPT). PPT inhibits glutamine synthetase, (Murakami et al., 1986; Twell et al., 1989) causing rapid accumulation of ammonia and cell death. 
     One beneficial use of the sequences provided by the invention may be in the alteration of plant phenotypes such as fatty acid or triacylglycerol production, as well as protein production, in plants and/or algae by genetic transformation with a coding sequence set forth herein, such as a BADC coding sequence. A BADC coding sequence such as described herein may be provided with other sequences. Where an expressible coding region that is not necessarily a marker coding region is employed in combination with a marker coding region, one may employ the separate coding regions on either the same or different DNA segments for transformation. In the latter case, the different vectors are delivered concurrently to recipient cells to maximize cotransformation. 
     II. Genetic Transformation 
     Additionally provided herein are transgenic plants transformed with the above-identified recombinant vector encoding a BADC, or a sequence modulating expression thereof. 
     Suitable methods for transformation of plant or other cells for use with the current invention are believed to include virtually any method by which DNA can be introduced into a cell, such as by direct delivery of DNA such as by PEG-mediated transformation of protoplasts (Omirulleh et al., 1993), by desiccation/inhibition-mediated DNA uptake (Potrykus et al., 1985), by electroporation (U.S. Pat. No. 5,384,253, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), by agitation with silicon carbide fibers (Kaeppler et al., 1990; U.S. Pat. No. 5,302,523, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,464,765, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), by  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,591,616 and 5,563,055; both specifically incorporated herein by reference) and by acceleration of DNA coated particles (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,550,318; 5,538,877; and 5,538,880; each specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), etc. Through the application of techniques such as these, the cells of virtually any plant species may be stably transformed, and these cells developed into transgenic plants. 
       Agrobacterium -mediated transfer is a widely applicable system for introducing genes into plant cells because the DNA can be introduced into whole plant tissues, thereby bypassing the need for regeneration of an intact plant from a protoplast. The use of  Agrobacterium -mediated plant integrating vectors to introduce DNA into plant cells is well known in the art. See, for example, the methods described by Fraley et al., (1985), Rogers et al., (1987) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
       Agrobacterium -mediated transformation is most efficient in dicotyledonous plants and is the preferable method for transformation of dicots, including  Arabidopsis , tobacco, tomato, alfalfa and potato. Indeed, while  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation has been routinely used with dicotyledonous plants for a number of years, including alfalfa (Thomas et al., 1990), it has only recently become applicable to monocotyledonous plants. Advances in  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation techniques have now made the technique applicable to nearly all monocotyledonous plants. For example,  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation techniques have now been applied to rice (Hiei et al., 1997; U.S. Pat. No. 5,591,616, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), wheat (McCormac et al., 1998), barley (Tingay et al., 1997; McCormac et al., 1998) and maize (Ishidia et al., 1996). 
     Modern  Agrobacterium  transformation vectors are capable of replication in  E. coli  as well as  Agrobacterium , allowing for convenient manipulations as described (Klee et al., 1985). Moreover, recent technological advances in vectors for  Agrobacterium -mediated gene transfer have improved the arrangement of genes and restriction sites in the vectors to facilitate the construction of vectors capable of expressing various polypeptide coding genes. The vectors described (Rogers et al., 1987) have convenient multi-linker regions flanked by a promoter and a polyadenylation site for direct expression of inserted polypeptide coding genes and are suitable for present purposes. Gateway™ and other recombination-based cloning technology is also available in vectors useful for plant transformation. In addition,  Agrobacterium  containing both armed and disarmed Ti genes can be used for the transformations. In those plant strains where  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation is efficient, it is the method of choice because of the facile and defined nature of the gene transfer. 
     One also may employ protoplasts for electroporation transformation of plants (Bates, 1994; Lazzeri, 1995). For example, the generation of transgenic soybean plants by electroporation of cotyledon-derived protoplasts is described by Dhir and Widholm in Intl. Patent Appl. Publ. No. WO 9217598 (specifically incorporated herein by reference). Other examples of species for which protoplast transformation has been described include barley (Lazerri, 1995), sorghum (Battraw et al., 1991), maize (Bhattacharjee et al., 1997), wheat (He et al., 1994) and tomato (Tsukada, 1989). 
     Another method for delivering transforming DNA segments to plant cells in accordance with the invention is microprojectile bombardment (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,550,318; 5,538,880; 5,610,042; and PCT Application WO 94/09699; each of which is specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). In this method, particles may be coated with nucleic acids and delivered into cells by a propelling force. Exemplary particles include those comprised of tungsten, platinum, and preferably, gold. It is contemplated that in some instances DNA precipitation onto metal particles would not be necessary for DNA delivery to a recipient cell using microprojectile bombardment. However, it is contemplated that particles may contain DNA rather than be coated with DNA. Hence, it is proposed that DNA-coated particles may increase the level of DNA delivery via particle bombardment but are not, in and of themselves, necessary. 
     An illustrative embodiment of a method for delivering DNA into plant cells by acceleration is the Biolistics Particle Delivery System, which can be used to propel particles coated with DNA or cells through a screen, such as a stainless steel or Nytex screen, onto a filter surface covered with monocot plant cells cultured in suspension. The screen disperses the particles so that they are not delivered to the recipient cells in large aggregates. Microprojectile bombardment techniques are widely applicable, and may be used to transform virtually any plant species. Examples of species for which have been transformed by microprojectile bombardment include monocot species such as maize (PCT Application WO 95/06128), barley (Ritala et al., 1994; Hensgens et al., 1993), wheat (U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), rice (Hensgens et al., 1993), oat (Torbet et al., 1995; Torbet et al., 1998), rye (Hensgens et al., 1993), sugarcane (Bower et al., 1992), and sorghum (Casa et al., 1993; Hagio et al., 1991); as well as a number of dicots including tobacco (Tomes et al., 1990; Buising and Benbow, 1994), soybean (U.S. Pat. No. 5,322,783, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), sunflower (Knittel et al. 1994), peanut (Singsit et al., 1997), cotton (McCabe and Martinell, 1993), tomato (VanEck et al. 1995), and legumes in general (U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). 
     The transgenic plants of the present invention expressing heterologous BADC can be of any plant or algal apecies, such as  Amborella trichopoda, Arabidopsis lyrata, Arabidopsis alpine, Auxenochlorella protothecoides, Brassica napus, Brassica rapa, Capsella rubella, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Chlorella variabilis, Cicer arietinum, Citrus clementina, Citrus sinensis, Coccomyxa subellipsoideas  C-169,  Coffea canephora, Cucumis melo, Cucumis sativus, Elaeis guineensis, Erythranthe guttata, Eucalyptus grandis, Eutrema salsugineum, Fragaria vesca, Genlisea aurea, Glycine max, Helianthus annuus, Helicosporidium  ATCC 50920 , Jatropha curcas, Lotus japonicas, Medicago truncatula, Morus notabilis, Musa acuminate, Nelumbo nucifora, Nicotiana sylvestris, Nicotiana tomentosiformis, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pheonix dactylifera, Physcomitrella patens, Picea sitchensis, Polytomella parva, Populus trichocarpa, Prunus mume, Prunes persica, Pyrus×bretschneideri, Ricinus communis, Selaginella moellendorffii, Solanum lycopersicum, Solanum tuberosum, Theobroma cacao, Vitis vinifera , or  Volvox carteri . The plant can be an R 0  transgenic plant (i.e., a plant derived from the original transformed tissue). The plant can also be a progeny plant of any generation of an R 0  transgenic plant, wherein the transgenic plant has the nucleic acid sequence from the R 0  transgenic plant. 
     Seeds of the any above-described transgenic plants may also be provided, particularly where the seed comprises the nucleic acid sequence. Additionally contemplated are host cells transformed with the above-identified recombinant vector. In some embodiments, the host cell is a plant cell. 
     Also contemplated herein is a plant genetically engineered to increase expression of a BADC, where the BADC comprises a protein product of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 7, or 138, where the protein product (e.g. a polypeptide) alters plant morphology as described herein. Such a protein product may comprise SEQ ID NOs:1, 3, or 5, or any other sequence described herein that is appropriate for use with the present invention. In an embodiment, the altered plant morphology may be increased or decreased fatty acid content. Such altered morphology may be accomplished by increasing or decreasing ACCase activity levels by down- or up-regulating a BADC gene described herein. Such plants are described in the Examples, and may be useful, e.g., as commercial plants. 
     The plants of these embodiments having altered expression of ACCase or one or more BADC genes may be of any species. The species may be any monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous plant, such as those described herein. One of skill in the art will recognize that the present invention may be applied to plants of other species by employing methods described herein and others known in the art. 
     Application of these systems to different plant strains depends upon the ability to regenerate that particular plant strain from protoplasts. Illustrative methods for the regeneration of cereals from protoplasts have been described (Toriyama et al., 1986; Yamada et al., 1986; Abdullah et al., 1986; Omirulleh et al., 1993 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,184; each specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Examples of the use of direct uptake transformation of cereal protoplasts include transformation of rice (Ghosh-Biswas et al., 1994), sorghum (Battraw and Hall, 1991), barley (Lazerri, 1995), oat (Zheng and Edwards, 1990) and maize (Omirulleh et al., 1993). 
     Tissue cultures may be used in certain transformation techniques for the preparation of cells for transformation and for the regeneration of plants therefrom. Maintenance of tissue cultures requires use of media and controlled environments. “Media” refers to the numerous nutrient mixtures that are used to grow cells in vitro, that is, outside of the intact living organism. A medium usually is a suspension of various categories of ingredients (salts, amino acids, growth regulators, sugars, buffers) that are required for growth of most cell types. However, each specific cell type requires a specific range of ingredient proportions for growth, and an even more specific range of formulas for optimum growth. The rate of cell growth also will vary among cultures initiated with the array of media that permit growth of that cell type. 
     Tissue that can be grown in a culture includes meristem cells, Type I, Type II, and Type III callus, immature embryos and gametic cells such as microspores, pollen, sperm, and egg cells. Type I, Type II, and Type III callus may be initiated from tissue sources including, but not limited to, immature embryos, seedling apical meristems, root, leaf, microspores and the like. Those cells which are capable of proliferating as callus also are recipient cells for genetic transformation. 
     Somatic cells are of various types. Embryogenic cells are one example of somatic cells which may be induced to regenerate a plant through embryo formation. Non-embryogenic cells are those which typically will not respond in such a fashion. Certain techniques may be used that enrich recipient cells within a cell population. For example, Type II callus development, followed by manual selection and culture of friable, embryogenic tissue, generally results in an enrichment of cells. Manual selection techniques which can be employed to select target cells may include, e.g., assessing cell morphology and differentiation, or may use various physical or biological means. Cryopreservation also is a possible method of selecting for recipient cells. 
     A. Altering Gene Expression in a Plant 
     In accordance with the invention, alteration of expression of a gene as described herein may comprise increasing expression of a gene, or decreasing expression of a gene. As described herein, the present invention may comprise altering expression of a BADC gene. In some embodiments, methods are provided comprising completely silencing or down-regulating expression of a gene. In other embodiments, partial or incomplete silencing or down-regulation of a gene may be sufficient to achieve the desired effect. 
     Alteration of gene expression in a plant may be accomplished by a variety of methods known in the art. In accordance with the invention, any method useful for altering expression of a gene or gene product may be used, including, but not limited to, antisense, RNAi, CRISPR, TALON, nanobodies, EMS, T-DNA or transposon-mediated gene knockout, or conventional mutagenesis/targeted breeding. Such methods are known in the art. As used herein the words “gene suppression” are intended to refer to any of the well-known methods for reducing the levels of protein produced as a result of gene transcription to mRNA and subsequent translation of the mRNA. 
     Gene suppression is also intended to mean the reduction of protein expression from a gene or a coding sequence including post-transcriptional gene suppression and transcriptional suppression. Post-transcriptional gene suppression is mediated by the homology between of all or a part of a mRNA transcribed from a gene or coding sequence targeted for suppression and the corresponding double stranded RNA used for suppression, and refers to the substantial and measurable reduction of the amount of available mRNA available in the cell for binding by ribosomes. The transcribed RNA may be in the sense orientation to effect what is called co-suppression, in the anti-sense orientation to effect what is called anti-sense suppression, or in both orientations, in which case a dsRNA may be produced to achieve RNA interference (RNAi). Such methods may be useful in accordance with the invention for down-regulating or silencing a BADC gene as described herein. Transcriptional suppression is mediated by the presence in the cell of a dsRNA, a gene suppression agent, exhibiting substantial sequence identity to a DNA sequence or the complement thereof to result in promoter trans-suppression. Gene suppression may be effective against a native gene associated with a trait, e.g., to produce a plant with reduced levels of a protein encoded by the native gene or with enhanced or reduced levels of an affected gene product. A gene product may include an RNA molecule, including, but not limited to, mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, siRNA, shRNA, or the like. A gene product may also include a protein or polypeptide, or a fragment thereof. 
     Post-transcriptional gene suppression by anti-sense or sense-oriented RNA to regulate gene expression in plant cells is known in the art, as is the use of dsRNA to suppress genes in plants. Post-transcriptional gene suppression in plants may employ both sense-oriented and anti-sense-oriented, transcribed RNA that is stabilized, e.g., as a hairpin or stem-and-loop structure. 
     As used herein, the term “expression” refers to the transcription and stable accumulation of sense or anti-sense RNA derived from a nucleic acid. “Expression” may also refer to translation of mRNA into a polypeptide or protein. As used herein, the term “antisense RNA” refers to an RNA transcript that is complementary to all or a part of a mRNA that is normally produced in a cell. The complementarity of an antisense RNA may be with any part of the specific gene transcript, i.e., at the 5′ non-coding sequence, 3′ non-translated sequence, introns, or the coding sequence. As used herein, the term “RNA transcript” refers to the product resulting from RNA polymerase-catalyzed transcription of a DNA sequence. When the RNA transcript is a perfect complementary copy of the DNA sequence, it is referred to as the primary transcript or it may be an RNA sequence derived from post-transcriptional processing of the primary transcript and is referred to as the mature RNA. 
     As used herein, the phrase “inhibition of gene expression” or “inhibiting expression of a target gene” refers to the absence (or observable decrease) in the level of protein and/or mRNA product from the target gene. Specificity refers to the ability to inhibit the target gene without manifest effects on other genes of the cell and without any effects on any gene within the cell that is producing the dsRNA molecule. The inhibition of gene expression of a target gene as described herein may result in novel phenotypic traits in the plant. 
     III. Production and Characterization of Stably Transformed Plants 
     After effecting delivery of exogenous DNA to recipient cells, the next steps generally concern identifying the transformed cells for further culturing and plant regeneration. In order to improve the ability to identify transformants, one may desire to employ a selectable or screenable marker gene with a transformation vector prepared in accordance with the invention. In this case, one would then generally assay the potentially transformed cell population by exposing the cells to a selective agent or agents, or one would screen the cells for the desired marker gene trait. 
     It is believed that DNA is introduced into only a small percentage of target cells in any one study. In order to provide an efficient system for identification of those cells receiving DNA and integrating it into their genomes one may employ a means for selecting those cells that are stably transformed. One exemplary embodiment of such a method is to introduce, into the host cell, a marker gene which confers resistance to some normally inhibitory agent, such as an antibiotic or herbicide. Examples of antibiotics which may be used include the aminoglycoside antibiotics neomycin, kanamycin and paromomycin, or the antibiotic hygromycin. Resistance to the aminoglycoside antibiotics is conferred by aminoglycoside phosphostransferase enzymes such as neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPT II) or NPT I, whereas resistance to hygromycin is conferred by hygromycin phosphotransferase. 
     Potentially transformed cells then are exposed to the selective agent. In the population of surviving cells will be those cells where, generally, the resistance-conferring gene has been integrated and expressed at sufficient levels to permit cell survival. Cells may be tested further to confirm stable integration of the exogenous DNA. 
     One herbicide which constitutes a desirable selection agent is the broad-spectrum herbicide bialaphos. Another example of a herbicide which is useful for selection of transformed cell lines in the practice of the invention is the broad-spectrum herbicide glyphosate. Glyphosate inhibits the action of the enzyme EPSPS which is active in the aromatic amino acid biosynthetic pathway. Inhibition of this enzyme leads to starvation for the amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan and secondary metabolites derived therefrom. U.S. Pat. No. 4,535,060 describes the isolation of EPSPS mutations which confer glyphosate resistance on the EPSPS of  Salmonella typhimurium , encoded by the gene aroA. The EPSPS gene from  Zea mays  was cloned and mutations similar to those found in a glyphosate resistant aroA gene were introduced in vitro. Mutant genes encoding glyphosate resistant EPSPS enzymes are described in, for example, International Patent WO 97/4103. 
     To use the bar-bialaphos or the EPSPS-glyphosate selective system, transformed tissue is cultured for 0-28 days on nonselective medium and subsequently transferred to medium containing from 1-3 mg/l bialaphos or 1-3 mM glyphosate as appropriate. While ranges of 1-3 mg/l bialaphos or 1-3 mM glyphosate will typically be preferred, it is proposed that ranges of 0.1-50 mg/l bialaphos or 0.1-50 mM glyphosate will find utility. 
     Cells that survive the exposure to the selective agent, or cells that have been scored positive in a screening assay, may be cultured in media that supports regeneration of plants. In an exemplary embodiment, MS and N6 media may be modified by including further substances such as growth regulators. One such growth regulator is dicamba or 2,4-D. However, other growth regulators may be employed, including NAA, NAA+2,4-D or picloram. Media improvement in these and like ways has been found to facilitate the growth of cells at specific developmental stages. Tissue may be maintained on a basic media with growth regulators until sufficient tissue is available to begin plant regeneration efforts, or following repeated rounds of manual selection, until the morphology of the tissue is suitable for regeneration, at least 2 weeks, then transferred to media conducive to maturation of embryoids. Cultures are transferred every 2 weeks on this medium. Shoot development will signal the time to transfer to medium lacking growth regulators. 
     The transformed cells, identified by selection or screening and cultured in an appropriate medium that supports regeneration, will then be allowed to mature into plants. Developing plantlets are transferred to soilless plant growth mix, and hardened, e.g., in an environmentally controlled chamber, for example, at about 85% relative humidity, 600 ppm CO 2 , and 25-250 microeinsteins m −2 s −1  of light. Plants may be matured in a growth chamber or greenhouse. Plants can be regenerated in from about 6 weeks to 10 months after a transformant is identified, depending on the initial tissue. During regeneration, cells are grown on solid media in tissue culture vessels. Illustrative embodiments of such vessels are Petri dishes and Plant Cons. Regenerating plants can be grown at about 19 to 28° C. After the regenerating plants have reached the stage of shoot and root development, they may be transferred to a greenhouse for further growth and testing. 
     To confirm the presence of the exogenous DNA or “transgene(s)” in the regenerating plants, a variety of assays may be performed. Such assays include, for example, “molecular to biological” assays, such as Southern and northern blotting and PCR™; “biochemical” assays, such as detecting the presence of a protein product, e.g., by immunological means (ELISAs and western blots) or by enzymatic function; plant part assays, such as leaf or root assays; and also, by analyzing the phenotype of the whole regenerated plant. 
     Positive proof of DNA integration into the host genome and the independent identities of transformants may be determined using the technique of Southern hybridization. Using this technique specific DNA sequences that were introduced into the host genome and flanking host DNA sequences can be identified. Hence the Southern hybridization pattern of a given transformant serves as an identifying characteristic of that transformant. In addition it is possible through Southern hybridization to demonstrate the presence of introduced genes in high molecular weight DNA, i.e., confirm that the introduced gene has been integrated into the host cell genome. The technique of Southern hybridization provides information that is obtained using PCR™, e.g., the presence of a gene, but also demonstrates integration into the genome and characterizes each individual transformant. 
     Both PCR™ and Southern hybridization techniques can be used to demonstrate transmission of a transgene to progeny. In most instances the characteristic Southern hybridization pattern for a given transformant will segregate in progeny as one or more Mendelian genes (Spencer et al., 1992) indicating stable inheritance of the transgene. 
     Whereas DNA analysis techniques may be conducted using DNA isolated from any part of a plant, RNA will only be expressed in particular cells or tissue types and hence it will be necessary to prepare RNA for analysis from these tissues. PCR™ techniques also may be used for detection and quantitation of RNA produced from introduced genes. In this application of PCR™ it is first necessary to reverse transcribe RNA into DNA, using enzymes such as reverse transcriptase, and then through the use of conventional PCR™ techniques amplify the DNA. In most instances PCR™ techniques, while useful, will not demonstrate integrity of the RNA product. Further information about the nature of the RNA product may be obtained by Northern blotting. This technique will demonstrate the presence of an RNA species and give information about the integrity of that RNA. The presence or absence of an RNA species also can be determined using dot or slot blot northern hybridizations. These techniques are modifications of northern blotting and will only demonstrate the presence or absence of an RNA species. 
     The expression of a gene product is often determined by evaluating the phenotypic results of its expression. These assays also may take many forms including but not limited to analyzing changes in the chemical composition, morphology, or physiological properties of the plant. Chemical composition may be altered by expression of genes encoding enzymes or storage proteins which change amino acid composition and may be detected by amino acid analysis, or by enzymes that change starch quantity which may be analyzed by near infrared reflectance spectrometry. Morphological changes may include greater stature or thicker stalks. Most often changes in response of plants or plant parts to imposed treatments are evaluated under carefully controlled conditions termed bioassays. 
     IV. Breeding Plants of the Invention 
     In addition to direct transformation of a particular plant genotype with a construct prepared according to the current invention, transgenic plants may be made by crossing a plant having a selected DNA of the invention to a second plant lacking the construct. For example, a selected BADC coding sequence can be introduced into a particular plant variety by crossing, without the need for ever directly transforming a plant of that given variety. Therefore, the current invention not only encompasses a plant directly transformed or regenerated from cells which have been transformed in accordance with the current invention, but also the progeny of such plants. As used herein, the term “progeny” denotes the offspring of any generation of a parent plant prepared in accordance with the instant invention, wherein the progeny comprises a selected DNA construct prepared in accordance with the invention. “Crossing” a plant to provide a plant line having one or more added transgenes relative to a starting plant line, as disclosed herein, is defined as the techniques that result in a transgene of the invention being introduced into a plant line by crossing a plant of a starting line with a plant of a donor plant line that comprises a transgene of the invention. To achieve this one could, for example, perform the following steps: 
     (a) plant seeds of the first (starting line) and second (donor plant line that comprises a transgene of the invention) parent plants; 
     (b) grow the seeds of the first and second parent plants into plants that bear flowers; 
     (c) pollinate a flower from the first parent plant with pollen from the second parent plant; and 
     (d) harvest seeds produced on the parent plant bearing the fertilized flower. 
     Backcrossing is herein defined as the process including the steps of: 
     (a) crossing a plant of a first genotype containing a desired gene, DNA sequence or element to a plant of a second genotype lacking the desired gene, DNA sequence or element; 
     (b) selecting one or more progeny plant containing the desired gene, DNA sequence or element; 
     (c) crossing the progeny plant to a plant of the second genotype; and 
     (d) repeating steps (b) and (c) for the purpose of transferring a desired DNA sequence from a plant of a first genotype to a plant of a second genotype. 
     Introgression of a DNA element into a plant genotype is defined as the result of the process of backcross conversion. A plant genotype into which a DNA sequence has been introgressed may be referred to as a backcross converted genotype, line, inbred, or hybrid. Similarly a plant genotype lacking the desired DNA sequence may be referred to as an unconverted genotype, line, inbred, or hybrid. 
     V. Definitions 
     As used herein, accessions AT3G56130, AT1G52670, and AT3G15690 are intended to refer to BADC1, BADC2, and BADC3, respectively. 
     As used herein, α-CT refers to AT2G38040; β-CT refers to ATCG00500; BC refers to AT5G35360; BCCP1 refers to AT5G16390; BCCP2 refers to AT5G15530; BADC1 refers to AT3G56130; BADC2 refers to AT1G52670; and BADC3 refers to AT3G15690. 
     Endogenous: A sequence natively found in a host cell or a cell of the same species. In one embodiment, an endogenous sequence may be overexpressed or expressed at a higher level compared to wildtype and still be considered endogenous. 
     Expression: The combination of intracellular processes, including transcription and translation, undergone by a coding DNA molecule such as a structural gene to produce a polypeptide. 
     Genetic Transformation: A process of introducing a DNA sequence or construct (e.g., a vector or expression cassette) into a cell or protoplast in which that exogenous DNA is incorporated into a chromosome or is capable of autonomous replication. 
     Heterologous: A sequence which is not normally present in a given host genome in the genetic context in which the sequence is currently found. In this respect, the sequence may be native to the host genome, but be rearranged with respect to other genetic sequences within the host sequence. For example, a regulatory sequence may be heterologous in that it is linked to a different coding sequence relative to the native regulatory sequence. In addition, a particular sequence can be “heterologous” with respect to a cell or organism into which it is introduced (for example, a sequence that does not naturally occur in that particular cell or organism). 
     Obtaining: When used in conjunction with a transgenic plant cell or transgenic plant, obtaining means either transforming a non-transgenic plant cell or plant to create the transgenic plant cell or plant, or planting transgenic plant seed to produce the transgenic plant cell or plant. Such a transgenic plant seed may be from an R 0  transgenic plant or may be from a progeny of any generation thereof that inherits a given transgenic sequence from a starting transgenic parent plant. 
     Promoter: A recognition site on a DNA sequence or group of DNA sequences that provides an expression control element for a structural gene and to which RNA polymerase specifically binds and initiates RNA synthesis (transcription) of that gene. 
     R 0  transgenic plant: A plant that has been genetically transformed or has been regenerated from a plant cell or cells that have been genetically transformed. 
     Regeneration: The process of growing a plant from a plant cell (e.g., plant protoplast, callus, or explant). 
     Selected DNA: A DNA segment which one desires to introduce or has introduced into a plant genome by genetic transformation. 
     Transformation construct: A chimeric DNA molecule designed for introduction into a host genome by genetic transformation. Preferred transformation constructs will comprise all of the genetic elements necessary to direct the expression of one or more exogenous genes. In particular embodiments of the instant invention, it may be desirable to introduce a transformation construct into a host cell in the form of an expression cassette. 
     Transformed cell: A cell in which the DNA complement has been altered by the introduction of an exogenous DNA molecule into that cell. 
     Transgene: A segment of DNA which has been incorporated into a host genome or is capable of autonomous replication in a host cell and is capable of causing the expression of one or more coding sequences. Exemplary transgenes will provide the host cell, or plants regenerated therefrom, with a novel phenotype relative to the corresponding non-transformed cell or plant. Transgenes may be directly introduced into a plant by genetic transformation, or may be inherited from a plant of any previous generation which was transformed with the DNA segment. 
     Transgenic plant: A plant or progeny plant of any subsequent generation derived therefrom, wherein the DNA of the plant or progeny thereof contains an introduced exogenous DNA segment not naturally present in a non-transgenic plant of the same strain. The transgenic plant may additionally contain sequences which are native to the plant being transformed, but wherein the “exogenous” gene has been altered in order to alter the level or pattern of expression of the gene, for example, by use of one or more heterologous regulatory or other elements. 
     Vector: A DNA molecule designed for transformation into a host cell. Some vectors may be capable of replication in a host cell. A plasmid is an exemplary vector, as are expression cassettes isolated therefrom. 
     The description herein is merely exemplary in nature and, thus, variations that do not depart from the gist of that which is described are intended to be within the scope of the teachings. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the teachings. 
     EXAMPLES 
     The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodiments of the invention. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples, which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventor to function well in the practice of the invention, and thus can be considered to constitute preferred modes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments, which are disclosed and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. 
     Example 1 
     Two Novel Proteins, BADC1 and BADC2, Co-Immunoprecipitate with hetACCase 
     To discover unknown protein interactors with the hetACCase, quantitative co-innmunoprecipitation (co-IP) analyses were performed. Wild type  A. thaliana  (ecotype-Columbia-0) were grown in a growth chamber with long-day (16 h, 23° C., 50% humidity, 50 pmol m −2  s −1 ) and short-night (8 h, 20° C., 50% humidity) conditions. For co-immunoprecipitation studies, 8.5 cm×8.5 cm pots were filled with moist soil (Sunshine Mix #6, Sun Gro Horticulture), covered with screen (1 mm 2  pore size), and coated with seeds. 
     For co-innmunoprecipitation of hetACCase from  Arabidopsis  seedlings, crude chloroplasts were isolated from approximately 10 g 14-d-old  A. thaliana  seedlings after 1 h light exposure. Fresh leaves were homogenized in ice-cold grinding buffer (50 mM HEPES-KOH pH 8.0, 330 mM sorbitol, 1.5 mM MnCl 2 , 2 mM MgCl 2 , 2 mM EDTA, 0.1% (w/v) BSA) using a Waring blender. Homogenate was filtered through two layers of Miracloth and centrifuged at 2,600 g at 4° C. for 20 min. Chloroplasts were lysed for 30 min in ice-cold lysis buffer (50 mM HEPES-KOH pH 8.0, 10% (v/v) glycerol, 0.5% (v/v) Triton X-100). Lysates were homogenized ten times in a Dounce homogenizer on ice and then centrifuged at 30 k g for 20 min at 4° C. Then, 1 mL of the 30 k g supernatant was added to 25 μL Protein A-Sepharose beads (Sigma Aldrich) either uncoated (control) or coated with antibody specific for α-CT, BCCP, BADC1, or BADC2. Co-immunoprecipations (co-IP) were carried out at 4° C. for 3 h with gentle mixing. The heads were washed twice with 1 mL ice-cold lysis buffer and precipitated protein was eluted by adding 30 μL 6×SDS sample buffer (350 mM Tris-HCl, pH 6.8, 350 mM SDS, 30% (v/v) glycerol, 100 mM dithiothreitol, 2.5 mM bromophenol blue) and heating at 65° C. for 10 min. Eluted proteins were resolved on 10% SDS-PAGE gels for western and mass spectrometry analysis. 
     As described in detail above, clarified chloroplast lysates from 14-d-old  A. thaliana  seedlings were incubated with Protein A-Sepharose beads coated with polyclonal antibodies to either BCCP2 or α-CT. Control precipitations were performed using uncoated beads. Precipitated proteins were identified by LC-MS/MS analysis of trypsin-digested peptides. 
     For mass spectrometry, sample preparation and analysis was as follows. Precipitated proteins from co-IPs were resolved by 10% SDS-PAGE and stained with colloidal Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB) G-250. Each lane was separated into 0.5 cm segments and subsequently diced into approximately 1 mm 3  gel pieces. Gel pieces were digested with sequencing-grade trypsin and peptides were extracted according to methods known in the art. Tryptic peptides were lyophilized and stored at −20° C. until analysis by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Lyophilized peptides were prepared for mass spectrometry analysis as described previously. Samples were analyzed on a LTQ Orbitrap XL ETD (Thermo Fisher Scientific) according to Swatek et al., ( Biochem J  459(1):15-25, 2014), with the exception that peptides were eluted using a 30 min acetonitrile gradient (5-43% acetonitrile), the top 8 masses from the precursor scan were selected for data-dependent acquisition, and precursor ions were fragmented using CID (collision-induced dissociation). Dynamic exclusion was enabled with the following settings: repeat count, 3; repeat duration, 30 s; exclusion list, 50; and exclusion list duration, 30 s. 
     Acquired spectra were searched against the TAIR10 protein database (70,773 entries, downloaded on 06/11/2012), concatenated to a randomized TAIR10 database as a decoy. Search parameter settings of SEQUEST were static modification of cysteine-carboxyamidomethylation and variable modification of methionine-oxidation. Other search parameter settings of SEQUEST included two missed tryptic cleavage sites, absolute threshold: 1000, minimum ion count: 10, mass range: 650-3500, and a parent and fragment ion tolerance of 1 Da and 1000 ppm, respectively. Search result files were loaded into Proteome Discoverer 1.3 (Thermo Fisher Scientific). Identified peptides were filtered to &lt;1% false discovery rate using the following criteria: 10 ppm peptide mass deviation, ‘Xcorr versus charge state’, and 2 and 1 peptide minimum for co-IPs and 2D BN-SDS PAGE, respectively. Protein grouping was also enabled. False discovery rate was calculated manually using spectral counting. Files generated for each biological replicate by Proteome Discoverer 1.3 were exported into Microsoft Excel for further analysis. 
     Proteins identified from SEQUEST searches were compared against uncoated Sepharose bead controls that had been treated in an identical manner to the hetACCase subunit co-IPs. Proteins that were only identified in the hetACCase subunit co-IPs were considered as putative interacting clients. All other proteins were disregarded. The hetACCase subunits were never identified in controls. 
     Quantitative mass spectrometry of these co-IPs revealed all four known subunits to ACCase and two unknown proteins annotated as ‘biotin/lipoyl attachment domain containing’ (BADC) proteins. From seven biological replicates of the α-CT co-IPs, the entire hetACCase complex was identified. Likewise, all subunits, except β-CT, were identified from co-IPs with antibodies to BCCP2 ( FIGS. 1A and 1B ). As expected, the BC/BCCP and α/β-CT subcomplexes were relatively higher in abundance in the BCCP2 and α-CT co-IPs, respectively. Additionally, two unknown proteins with a “biotin attachment domain-containing” region, hereafter termed BADC1 (AT3G56130) and BADC2 (AT1G52670), were identified from both co-IPs. The BADC1 protein was present in seven and one replicate of the BCCP2 and α-CT co-IPs, respectively, while BADC2 was present in six and two replicates of the BCCP2 and α-CT co-IPs, respectively. The normalized, relative abundance of these proteins was more commensurate with BC and BCCP abundance than α- and β-CT from both co-IP analyses. Reciprocal co-IPs using antibodies specific to BADC1 and BADC2 precipitated both BCCP isoforms ( FIGS. 1C and 1D ). Thus, BADC1 and BADC2 appear to interact with the BC/BCCP components of hetACCase. 
     Example 2 
     Recombinant Protein Expression and Purification and Immunoblotting 
     The ORFs of BCCP1, BCCP2, BADC1, BADC2, and BADC3 were amplified via PCR from a cDNA clone (ABRC). The primer pairs for these amplifications were the same as those used in the yeast two-hybrid construct formation ( FIG. 2 ). These primers were designed to remove the transit peptide, as predicted by TargetP. The amplified ORF of all five genes were cloned into either the expression vector pET28a or pET11a producing an N-terminal His-tagged fusion protein or an untagged recombinant protein, respectively. All constructs were sequence confirmed via DNA sequencing. Constructs were then transformed into  E. coli  strain BL21 (B2685: Sigma). Recombinant protein was expressed and purified from transformed BL21 cells as described in Swatek et al.,  J Proteome Res  10(9):4076-4087, 2011). For co-expression studies, ˜200 ng of each plasmid was used to transform BL21 cells. 
     Proteins resolved by SDS-PAGE were transferred to PVDF membrane and stained with the appropriate primary antibody overnight at 4° C. for western blot analysis. All antibodies were used at 1:5000 dilution in PBS-T (10 mM NaH 2 PO 4 —NaOH pH 7.2, 150 mM NaCl, 0.3% (v/v) Tween 20). hetACCase antibodies used in this study were derived from rabbits immunized with recombinant  P. sativum  α-CT, recombinant  A. thaliana  BCCP2, or recombinant  A. thaliana  BADC1. Blots were rinsed twice in PBS-T and probed in secondary antibody for 1 h at room temperature and developed. Goat anti-rabbit IgG secondary antibody conjugated to alkaline phosphatase was obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, Mo.). 
     Example 3 
     Orthogonal Approaches Confirm a Direct Interaction Between Three BADC and Two BCCP Isoforms from  Arabidopsis    
     Yeast two-hybrid construct design. The ORF of genes of interest were inserted into bait and prey vectors PGBKT7 and pGADT7. Primers were designed to exclude the transit peptide from the coding region, as predicted by TargetP ( FIG. 2 ). Genes were amplified from cDNA clones obtained from the  Arabidopsis  Biological Resource Center Amplicons were first inserted into Zero Blunt TOPO vector (Life Technologies) and checked for errors by DNA sequencing. Error-free amplicons were then subcloned into either pGBKT7 or pGADT7 vector. Completed constructs were transformed into competent DH5α cells. Cells transformed with pGBKT7 and pGADT7 were grown on LB media agar plates containing 50 pg/mL kanamycin (Kan) and 100 pg/mL ampicillin (Amp), respectively. Plasmids were purified from 5 mL culture of positive colonies using QIAprep Spin Miniprep kit (Qiagen). 
     To confirm the co-IP results and determine which hetACCase subunit directly interacts with BADC1 and BADC2, targeted yeast two-hybrid analysis was employed using an adaptation of the lithium acetate method. Strain AH109 yeast were transformed with 100 ng of bait and prey vector. Pelleted transformed cells were resuspended in 300 μL sterile water. Aliquots of 100 μL cell suspension were plated on synthetic dropout (SD) media lacking leucine, tryptophan, and histidine. Plates were incubated at 30° C. for 4 d and then imaged. Images shown are representative of at least three replicate studies. 
     In addition to the two experimentally-identified BADCs a third, putative BADC isoform was also tested, termed BADC3 (AT3G15690), identified by BLAST interrogation of the  A. thaliana  genome. This protein shares 61% amino acid identity with BADC2, suggesting it might have similar function. Based upon yeast two hybrid analyses, each of the three BADC proteins interacted with each BCCP isoform. As shown in  FIG. 3A , strain AH109 yeast was transformed with bait and prey constructs containing the genes shown. Negative controls showed minimal or no growth. Sv40 and p53 were used as positive controls. Transformed yeast were plated on media lacking Trp, Leu, and His. Results shown are representative of three biological replicates. Additionally, each of the BADC isoforms interacts with one another. 
     To further evaluate the interaction between BADC and BCCP,  A. thaliana  BCCP1 was co-expressed with each of the three  A. thaliana  BADC proteins in  E. coli . In these studies, either the BADC or BCCP1 protein was expressed with a His 6 -tag, while the other contained no affinity tag. When the Hiss-tagged protein was purified by Ni 2+ -NTA affinity chromatography, the respective “untagged” protein was present in the same elution fractions. In  FIG. 3B , the Coomassie-stained gels show the elution fractions of Ni 2+ -NTA-purified protein from  E. coli . At right, a native protein was co-expressed with a His 6 -tagged protein. At left, the native protein was expressed alone. The native proteins were present strongly in the elution fractions only when co-expressed with the His 6 -tagged protein. Protein identities were confirmed by LC-MS/MS. These studies were performed to test if the BADC proteins can interact directly with ACCase. The results confirm the BADC proteins associate with ACCase via a direct interaction with the BCCP and BC subunits. As a control, it was verified that untagged proteins were unable to bind to the affinity column. Using this system, it was observed that  A. thaliana  BC and BADC3 also co-purified, suggesting that BADC3, and likely BADC1 and 2, may also interact with BC. These studies confirm BADC isoforms directly interact with the BCCP and BC subunits of hetACCase. 
     Example 4 
     Biotin is not Required for BADC-BCCP Interaction 
     To determine if the BCCP-BADC interaction involves the biotin cofactor, as previously reported for PII interaction with hetACCase, the biotinyl Lys245 residue on BCCP1 was mutated to Arg by site-directed mutagenesis. This mutation prevents biotinylation of BCCP1. Using this ‘apo-BCCP1’, the yeast two-hybrid and co-expression analysis was repeated with BADCs. All BADC isoforms were shown to interact with apo-BCCP1. 
     Example 5 
     Recombinant AtBADC1 and AtBADC3 Form Homodimers Through a Disulfide Bond 
     Previous analysis of  E. coli  BCCP suggested that this subunit forms functional homodimers in vivo. Through intact mass analysis of purified recombinant BCCP2, it was observed that plant BCCP can also form homodimers. In addition, analysis of recombinant BADCs showed that BADC1 and BADC3, but not BADC2, can form homodimers. The observed monomer size for each BADC was in agreement with the predicted mass, suggesting these proteins are unmodified. In the absence of DTT, purified recombinant BCCP2, BADC1, and BADC3 show a monomer and dimer band when denatured and resolved by SDS-PAGE. Recombinant BADC2 shows only a monomer band. Increasing DTT concentration led to the disappearance of the dimer band, suggesting a disulfide bond is involved in dimer formation of BADCs and plant BCCPs. 
     Example 6 
     BADCs Resemble BCCPs but are not Biotinylated 
     The three BADC isoforms share many characteristics with the two BCCP isoforms from  A. thaliana . First, these proteins contain a canonical plastid target peptide and are plastid localized based upon bioinformatic predictions, co-IP, and western blot studies. Secondly, the BADC isoforms share 24 to 29% amino acid identity with the BCCP isoforms ( FIG. 4 ). Last, structural predictions of the BADC and BCCP proteins ( FIG. 5 ) show similar (3-sheet secondary structure with a characteristic “thumb motif” as previously observed for the  E. coli  BCCP. Intact mass analysis showed that BADC proteins are able to form homodimers. 
     Despite these similarities, the BADC proteins lack the canonical biotinylation motif. As shown in  FIG. 6A , the alignment of the C-termini of the  Arabidopsis thaliana  BCCP1 and 
     BCCP2 and BADC proteins (BADC1, BADC2, and BADC3) shows multiple conserved residues (shown in bold). The canonical biotinylation motif containing the biotinyl Lys in BCCP1/2 is shown boxed in on lines 1 and 2 of the sequence alignment. The alignment comparison indicates the BADC proteins resemble BCCP isoforms but lack a canonical biotinylation motif. The tetrapeptide (AlaNal)-Met-Lys-(Met/Leu) is the known biotinylation motif and is usually located 34 or 35 residues from the C-terminus. The BADC proteins do, however, possess a conserved Lys residue in a similar (Val/Ile)-(LeuNal)-Lys-(Leu/Ile) motif located near the C-terminus suggesting the possibility of a non-canonical biotinylation motif. 
     To test this possibility, recombinant BADC proteins expressed in  E. coli  and the native BADC1 protein from  A. thaliana  seedlings were purified and probed for biotinylation using a biotin-specific antibody. As shown in  FIG. 6B , based on the western blotting analysis of recombinant  Arabidopsis  proteins using a biotin-specific antibody, BCCP2 is observed to be biotinylated, while the BADCs are not. As shown in  FIG. 6C , which is the protein blot analysis of immunoprecipitated in vivo BADC1 from  Arabidopsis  seedlings, blotting precipitate with BADC1-specific antibody shows the presence BADC1 in the sample, while blotting with biotin-specific antibody shows no recognition of BADC1. Results of these studies confirmed that the BADC proteins are not biotinylated in vivo, although BCCP controls clearly were. 
     Example 7 
     BADC Orthologs are Present in Green Algae and Land Plants but not Bacteria 
     Identification of BADC orthologs and co-occurrence analysis suggests BADCs first appeared in red algae. The evidence of a direct BADC-BCCP interaction suggests that BADC function is linked to hetACCase. If true, orthologs to  A. thaliana  BADCs (AtBADC) would be expected to reside only in organisms that contain hetACCase, not the homomeric form that predominates in eukaryotes. To search for the presence of AtBADC orthologous proteins, the primary sequence of each AtBADC was used to search against the KEGG Sequence Similarity database. Putative orthologs were confirmed by reciprocal BLAST searches against the  A. thaliana  proteome. All AtBADC orthologs lacked the conserved biotinyl Lys found in BCCPs. Orthologous proteins were identified for AtBADCs across 78 different species of land plants and algae (Table 1). The full-length protein sequences of identified AtBADC orthologs were used to generate a maximum-likelihood phylogenetic tree. All of the species that harbor a putative AtBADC ortholog also contain the heteromeric form of ACCase. No orthologs were detected in organisms that contain only the homomeric ACCase. Additionally, no AtBADC orthologs were detected in prokaryotes, which also contain a hetACCase. The presence of orthologs in algae but not prokaryotes suggests that BADCs first appeared in algae. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Orthologous proteins identified for AtBADC1, AtBADC2, and AtBADC3. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Species 
                 Category 
                 BCCP1 
                 BCCP2 
                 BADC1 
                 BADC2 
                 BADC3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 
                   Amborella 
                   trichopoda 
                 
                 Flowering 
                 XP 011621081.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_011627066.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_011622803.1 
               
               
                   
                 Plants 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   Arabidopsis   lyrata  subsp.  lyrata   
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_002873773.1 
                 XP_002871669.1 
                 XP_002876350.1 
                 XP_002894393.1 
                 XP_002882958.1 
               
               
                 
                   Arabidopsis 
                   thaliana 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 NP_197143.1 
                 NP_568316.1 
                 NP_567035.1 
                 NP_564612.1 
                 NP_188190.1 
               
               
                 
                   Arabis 
                   alpina 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 KFK25879.1 
                 KFK25777.1 
                 KFK34856.1 
                 N/A 
                 KFK38917.1 
               
               
                 
                   Arachis 
                   duranensis 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_015962701.1 
                 XP_015946097.1 
                 XP_015944188.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_015933506.1 
               
               
                 
                   Arachis 
                   ipaensis 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_016194346.1 
                 XP_016181644.1 
                 XP_016181047.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_016170604.1 
               
               
                 
                   Auxenochlorella 
                   protothecoides 
                 
                 Green Algae 
                 XP_011398894.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 XP_011395766.1 
               
               
                   Beta   vulgaris  subsp.  vulgaris   
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_010679318.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_010692910.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_010691182.1 
               
               
                 
                   Brachypodium 
                   distachyon 
                 
                 Monocots 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Brassica 
                   napus 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_013663621.1 
                 XP_013728269.1 
                 XP_013663447.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_013645085.1 
               
               
                   Brassica   oleracea  var.  oleracea   
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_013625183.1 
                 XP_013621850.1 
                 XP_013605292.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_013585896.1 
               
               
                 
                   Brassica 
                   rapa 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_009131537.1 
                 XP_009131471.1 
                 XP_009116310.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_009115305.1 
               
               
                 
                   Cajanus 
                   cajan 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 KYP60383.1 
                 N/A 
                 KYP44948.1 
                 N/A 
                 KYP59593.1 
               
               
                 
                   Camelina 
                   sativa 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_010453799.1 
                 XP_010453692.1 
                 XP_010504497.1 
                 XP_010479781.1 
                 XP_010465548.1 
               
               
                 
                   Capsella 
                   rubella 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_006286538.1 
                 XP_006288243.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_006305526.1 
                 XP_006298142.1 
               
               
                 
                   Capsicum 
                   annuum 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_016573862.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_016575440.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_016578500.1 
               
               
                 
                   Chlamydomonas 
                   reinhardtii 
                 
                 Green Algae 
                 N/A 
                 XP_001700442.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 XP_001690119.1 
               
               
                 
                   Chlorella 
                   variabilis 
                 
                 Green Algae 
                 N/A 
                 XP_005850451.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 XP_005845403.1 
               
               
                 
                   Cicer 
                   arietinum 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_012569122.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_004500525.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_004486692.1 
               
               
                 
                   Citrus 
                   clementina 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 XP_006431277.1 
                 XP_006435833.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_006427204.1 
               
               
                 
                   Citrus 
                   sinensis 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 XP_006482733.1 
                 XP_006486239.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_006465373.1 
               
               
                   Coccomyxa   subellipsoidea  C-169 
                 Green Algae 
                 N/A 
                 XP_005649768.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 XP_005646014.1 
               
               
                 
                   Cucumis 
                   melo 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 XP_008456473.1 
                 XP_008441486.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_008461084.2 
               
               
                 
                   Cucumis 
                   sativus 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 XP_004137199.1 
                 XP_011656420.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_004135840.1 
               
               
                   Daucus   carota  subsp.  sativus   
                 Eudicots 
                 KZM82431.1 
                 N/A 
                 KZM80059.1 
                 N/A 
                 KZM88409.1 
               
               
                 
                   Dorcoceras 
                   hygrometricum 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 KZV23283.1 
                 N/A 
                 KZV16809.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Elaeis 
                   guineensis 
                 
                 Monocots 
                 XP_010936329.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_010938420.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_010921048.1 
               
               
                 
                   Elythranthe 
                   guttata 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_012834625.1 
                 XP_012844390.1 
                 XP_012858601.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_012856758.1 
               
               
                 
                   Eucalyptus 
                   grandis 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_010038361.1 
                 XP_010032526.1 
                 XP_010067567.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_010033940.1 
               
               
                 
                   Eutrema 
                   salsugineum 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_006400177.1 
                 XP_006400073.1 
                 XP_006403020.1 
                 XP_006392894.1 
                 XP_006406933.1 
               
               
                   Fragaria   vesca  subsp.  vesca   
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 XP_004304236.1 
                 XP_004307696.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_004302964.1 
               
               
                 
                   Genlisea 
                   aurea 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 EPS63946.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 EPS63437.1 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Glycine 
                   max 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 XP_003543944.1 
                 XP_006590336.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_003543673.1 
               
               
                 
                   Glycine 
                   soja 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 KHN13569.1 
                 N/A 
                 KHN04794.1 
                 N/A 
                 KHN44161.1 
               
               
                 
                   Gonium 
                   pectorale 
                 
                 Green Algae 
                 N/A 
                 KXZ51015.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 KXZ55249.1 
               
               
                 
                   Gossypium 
                   arboreum 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 KHG03380.1 
                 KHG02691.1 
                 N/A 
                 KHG02291.1 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Gossypium 
                   hirsutum 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_016683408.1 
                 XP_016752201.1 
                 XP_016724217.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Gossypium 
                   raimondii 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_012451021.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_012462883.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_012454990.1 
               
               
                   Helicosporidium  sp. ATCC 50920 
                 Green Algae 
                 KDD76354.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 KDD73528.1 
               
               
                 
                   Jatropha 
                   curcas 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_012085783.1 
                 XP_012084810.1 
                 XP_012086589.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_012073227.1 
               
               
                 
                   Klebsormidium 
                   flaccidum 
                 
                 Green Plants 
                 N/A 
                 GAQ84037.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 GAQ80014.1 
               
               
                 
                   Malus 
                   domestica 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 XP_008379410.1 
                 XP_008374383.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
               
               
                   Marchantia   polymorpha  subsp. 
                 Liverworts 
                 OAE20385.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 OAE28621.1 
               
               
                 
                   polymorpha 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 
                   Medicago 
                   truncatula 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_003624197.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_003616717.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_003597852.2 
               
               
                 
                   Morus 
                   notabilis 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 XP_010089617.1 
                 XP_010087032.1 
                 XP_010097264.1 
                 N/A 
               
               
                   Musa   acuminata  subsp.  malaccensis   
                 Monocots 
                 XP_009394324.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_009418932.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Nelumbo 
                   nucifera 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_010259375.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_010250846.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_010254348.1 
               
               
                 
                   Nicotiana 
                   sylvestris 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_009759359.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_009785832.1 
                 XP_009787427.1 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Nicotiana 
                   tabacum 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_016465895.1 
                 XP_016481002.1 
                 XP_016473105.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_016514334.1 
               
               
                 
                   Nicotiana 
                   tomentosiformis 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_009588294.1 
                 XP_009616596.1 
                 XP_009618778.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_009628995.1 
               
               
                 
                   Phaseolus 
                   vulgaris 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_007139713.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_007163588.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_007150717.1 
               
               
                 
                   Phoenix 
                   dactylifera 
                 
                 Monocots 
                 XP_008805110.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_008789922.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_008809725.1 
               
               
                 
                   Physcomitrella 
                   patens 
                 
                 Mosses 
                 N/A 
                 XP_001754932.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 XP_001775667.1 
               
               
                 
                   Populus 
                   euphratica 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_011013398.1 
                 XP_011013434.1 
                 XP_011004753.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_011040023.1 
               
               
                 
                   Populus 
                   trichocarpa 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 XP_002305399.1 
                 XP_002311250.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_002299605.2 
               
               
                 
                   Prunus 
                   mume 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_008240458.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_008233825.1 
                 XP_008228653.1 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Prunus 
                   persica 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_007204703.1 
                 XP_007215770.1 
                 XP_007218764.1 
                 XP_007215787.1 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Pyrus 
                   x 
                   bretschneideri 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 XP_009360536.1 
                 XP_009369234.1 
                 XP_009349124.1 
                 XP_009348645.1 
               
               
                 
                   Ricinus 
                   communis 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_015572257.1 
                 XP_002526099.1 
                 XP_002520803.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_015573743.1 
               
               
                 
                   Selaginella 
                   moellendoiffii 
                 
                 Club-Mosses 
                 XP_002963883.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 XP_002963889.1 
               
               
                 
                   Sesamum 
                   indicum 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 XP_011072842.1 
                 XP_011084859.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_011072247.1 
               
               
                 
                   Setaria 
                   italica 
                 
                 Monocots 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Solanum 
                   lycopersicum 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 NP_001234322.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_004240889.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_004241703.1 
               
               
                 
                   Solanum 
                   pennellii 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_015076155.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_015080112.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_015079819.1 
               
               
                 
                   Solanum 
                   tuberosum 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_006345777.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_006353414.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_006356200.1 
               
               
                 
                   Sorghum 
                   bicolor 
                 
                 Monocots 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Spinacia 
                   oleracea 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 KNA11791.1 
                 N/A 
                 KNA11168.1 
                 N/A 
                 KNA24821.1 
               
               
                 
                   Tarenaya 
                   hassleriana 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_010558581.1 
                 XP_010551815.1 
                 XP_010534633.1 
                 XP_010535127.1 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Theobroma 
                   cacao 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 XP_007029252.1 
                 XP_007008844.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_007023903.1 
               
               
                 
                   Triticum 
                   urartu 
                 
                 Monocots 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Vigna 
                   angularis 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 KOM56589.1 
                 KOM39631.1 
                 N/A 
                 KOM44575.1 
               
               
                   Vigna   radiata  var.  radiata   
                 Eudicots 
                 N/A 
                 XP_014523207.1 
                 XP_014494474.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_014498647.1 
               
               
                 
                   Vitis 
                   vinifera 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_010649227.1 
                 XP_002284374.1 
                 XP_002278151.2 
                 N/A 
                 XP_002285378.1 
               
               
                 
                   Volvox 
                   carteri 
                   f. 
                   nagariensis 
                 
                 Green Algae 
                 N/A 
                 XP_002952670.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 XP_002954026.1 
               
               
                 
                   Zea 
                   mays 
                 
                 Monocots 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Ziziphus 
                   jujuba 
                 
                 Eudicots 
                 XP_015875754.1 
                 XP_015879793.1 
                 XP_015877502.1 
                 N/A 
                 XP_015868335.1 
               
               
                 
                   Zostera 
                   marina 
                 
                 Monocots 
                 N/A 
                 KIVIZ60645.1 
                 KMZ56653.1 
                 KMZ55983.1 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 
                   Gaidieria 
                   sulphuraria 
                 
                 Red Algae 
                 N/A 
                 YP_009051081.1 
                 XP_005708748.1 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     To determine if BADCs arose from a previously functional BCCP in algae, co-occurrence analysis was performed. With the exception of two red algae and  Cyanophora paradoxa  all species contained AtBCCP and AtBADC orthologs. In red algae, only one putative AtBADC1 ortholog (GenBank ID: XP_005708748.1) was identified in the species  Galdieria sulphuraria . This protein shares the same number of identical (31) and similar (46) amino acid residues with both AtBADC1 and AtBADC2, as well as 30 identical and 44 similar amino acid residues with AtBADC3. However, the BLAST search attributed the highest score to AtBADC1. In addition, two putative BCCP proteins were identified in the red algae species  Chondrus crispus  and  Cyanidioschyzon merolae  to lack the biotin motif residue but shared higher sequence similarity to AtBCCP2 than AtBADCs (GenBank ID XP_005715802.1 and XP_005535248.1, respectively), suggesting that BADCs originated from a BCCP gene duplication and loss-of-function mutation in red algae. From this observation, it appears not only that BADCs and BCCPs are related, but that the branch point between these proteins occurred in red algae, particularly since the more primitive glaucophytes contain no AtBADC orthologs. 
     If BADC proteins are exclusive to acetyl-CoA carboxylases and not other acyl-CoA carboxylases, BADC protein orthologs would be found only in plant clades that contain hetACCase. To search for BADC ortholog-containing species, PSI-BLAST was performed using the primary sequence of each BADC from  A. thaliana . Putative orthologs were confirmed by reciprocal BLAST searches against the  A. thaliana  proteome and all putative BADCs were manually confirmed to lack a conserved biotinyl Lys.  FIG. 7  shows the phylogenetic tree of species containing an ortholog to all three BADCs. Orthologs to the  A. thaliana  BADCs were only observed in dicots, non-graminaceous monocots, and green algae. The founding member of the family, BADC3, dates back to green algae. All of these plant clades contain a hetACCase. No BADC ortholog was detected in prokaryotes or graminaceous monocots, the latter containing only the homomeric form of ACCase. 
     Example 8 
     BADC3 Expression Reduces hetACCase Activity in a Temperature-Sensitive  E. coli  Mutant 
     Due to their similarity with BCCPs but lack of a conserved biotinylation motif, BADCs may be negative regulators of hetACCase activity. As  E. coli  contain hetACCase but lack BADC orthologs, this system was appropriate to test this theory. In vivo growth assays in  E. coli  accb strain L8 were performed to evaluate the potential the effect of the BADC proteins on hetACCase activity. This strain contains temperature-sensitive (Ts) mutations in the BCCP gene (accB) that prevent de novo FAS. Thus, cell growth at 37° C. is directly correlated to hetACCase activity when lacking an exogenous source of fatty acids. Experiments were performed in minimal media containing only glucose and glycerol as carbon sources. In brief, the temperature-sensitive (Ts) L8 strain  E. coli  was obtained from the  Coli  Genetic Stock Center (Yale, New Haven, Conn.) and transformed with the vectors in the text using the heat shock method. Transformants were selected by antibiotic resistance and confirmed by PCR. Prior to the growth experiment, cultures were grown overnight in LB media at 30° C. Overnight cultures were centrifuged at 3,000 g and resuspended in 5 mL sterile deionized water. Cultures were centrifuged again and resuspended in M63 minimal media to make OD600=3.75. Then 200 μL cell suspension was added to 7 mL M63 media plus antibiotics in 15 mL sterile culture tubes. Cultures contained Kan, and Amp if necessary, at 50 μg/mL each as well as 1 μM isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside at T=0. 
     To complement the Ts phenotype, the native  E. coli  BCCP (EcBCCP) gene was cloned into L8 cells in the inducible pET28a vector. Induced expression of EcBCCP rescued cell growth at 37° C. in media lacking fatty acids, while empty vector controls showed minimal growth. In  FIG. 8A , the growth curves show the optical density of L8  E. coli  cells over time. Cultures of transformed L8 cells were grown in M63 liquid culture at 37° C. in the absence of fatty acids. Transformed cells contained the following vectors: empty pET28a (EV28a), pET28a containing the  E. coli  BCCP gene (EcBCCP), empty pET11a (EV11a), and/or pET11a containing the AtBADC3 gene (BADC3). At T=0 h, the optical density was 0.15 and protein expression was induced with 1 μM IPTG. The EV control cells show minimal growth at 37° C., while re-introduction of native EcBCCP complemented the temperature-sensitive phenotype. BADC3 expression alone showed no statistical difference from EV control except at T=10 h, while co-expression of BADC3 with EcBCCP showed an approximate 75% reduction in growth compared to EcBCCP alone across multiple studies. Results shown are representative of three separate studies. Error bars represent standard deviation. 
     In the same way, the  A. thaliana  BADC3 gene was cloned into L8 cells and was unable to complement the Ts phenotype. Co-expression of BADC3 with EcBCCP reduced the complementing effect of EcBCCP expression by 71 to 74% over multiple replicates. Affinity pull-down assays with tagged BADC3 confirmed the inhibition was mediated by interaction with EcBCCP.  FIG. 8B  shows the Coomassie blue stain and anti-biotin protein blot of Ni 2+ -NTA purified His 6 -BADC3. Protein blot shows that EcBCCP protein co-purifies with His 6 -BADC3, indicating its direct effect on ACCase activity. The experiment demonstrated that BADC protein expression has a negative effect on  E. coli  growth. Co-association of BADC3 with EcBCCP in vivo verified that this growth phenotype is due to a direct inhibition of hetACCase activity by BADC3. 
     Example 9 
     Recombinant BADC Inhibits Plant hetACCase Activity 
     To test if the BADCs can also inhibit plant hetACCase, enzyme activity assays were performed on ten-day-old  A. thaliana  silique extracts. The activity of hetACCase was monitored in vitro in ten-d-old siliques by measuring the incorporation of H 14 CO 3  into acid-stable products.  A. thaliana  WT Col-0 10-d-old siliques were harvested after six hours of light exposure. In each trial, four biological replicates of three siliques were assayed. Siliques were pulverized in homogenization buffer (20 mM TES, pH 7.5, 10% glycerol, 5 mM EDTA, 2 mM DTT, 2 mM benzamidine, 2 mM PMSF, 1% Triton X-100), centrifuged at 10 k g for 15 s, and assayed within 5 minutes of harvest to minimize loss of hetACCase activity. Assays were performed in the presence of 10 μM haloxyfop to inhibit homomeric ACCase activity. Enzyme activity values for (−)acetyl-CoA controls were subtracted from (+)acetyl-CoA trials to determine the true hetACCase activity levels. Purified recombinant protein was added to assay tubes prior to addition of silique lysate. 
     Assays were performed in the presence of 10 μM purified recombinant BADC1, BADC2, BADC3, BCCP2, or BSA and compared to buffer control (WT). The average of four biological replicates showed that all three BADCs inhibited hetACCase activity by 25 to 37%, while BCCP2 and BSA showed no effect ( FIG. 9 ). These results, in addition to the  E. coli  expression results ( FIG. 8A ), confirm the BADCs can negatively affect hetACCase activity. 
     Example 10 
     Expression Profiles of BADC and hetACCase Subunits Respond Differently to Light 
     HetACCase activity is enhanced upon light exposure in photosynthetic cells. Absolute transcript levels of the BADCs and nuclear-encoded hetACCase subunits were monitored in ten-d-old  A. thaliana  siliques to determine the effect of light on gene expression. Siliques were harvested after dark-adaption or exposure to various lengths of light. Quantitative PCR analysis of RNA extracts from these samples showed that gene expression for each nuclear-encoded catalytic subunit to hetACCase increases significantly in response to light. After six hours, expression of BCCP1, BCCP2, and α-CT increased approximately 15-fold, while BC expression increased 35-fold ( FIG. 10A ). In contrast, BADC1 and BADC2 expression was reduced approximately ten-fold, while BADC3 expression increased eight-fold. Despite the conflicting changes in BADC isoforms, total BADC transcript level was reduced by half after six hours light exposure ( FIG. 10B ). The total BADC:BCCP transcript ratio is approximately 9:1 prior to light exposure, and then shifts to almost 1:4 after six hours light exposure ( FIG. 10B ), suggesting that BADC protein levels are relatively greater than BCCP protein levels in the dark, and vice versa in the light. These data further support the premise that BADC genes are negative regulators of ACCase. 
     Example 11 
     Oil Production in  Arabidopsis thaliana  Seed Increases in Response to Silencing the BADC1 Gene 
     The inventors further designed an in planta experiment to confirm that silencing BADC protein expression has a positive effect on ACCase activity in  Arabidopsis thaliana , and results in increased fatty acid production. An RNAi cassette (SEQ ID NO:7) was produced and transformed into wild type plants in order to silence BADC1 expression in  A. thaliana . Inverted repeats targeting AtBADC1 were inserted into the pMU103 vector. The repeats coded for bases 774 to 1034 of the cDNA sequence (accession AT3G56130.1). Primers used to amplify the sequence were 5′-GTGTTAGTCACATCTCCCGCAGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:154) and 5′-GATGTTGATGTCGTGGAAAGATGGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:155). A sequence confirmed construct was transformed into  A. thaliana  ecotype Col-0 using the floral dip method. Basta herbicide screening was used to identify independent lines. Expression of the RNAi cassette was driven by the glycinin promoter. For monitoring seed oil content, T2 plants from each independent line were grown to maturity alongside wild type plants. Dry seed was harvested for analysis. 
     The fatty acid content in the T3 generation were collected and analyzed to show increased oil production. Seed oil was derivatized as described by Li et al., Phytochemistry 67, 904-915, 2006). Heptadecanoic acid was used as an internal standard. FAMEs were analyzed by a Hewlett Packard 6890 gas chromatography system. For WT and each independent line, 5 mg seed from thirteen and four plants, respectively, were analyzed. Seeds were dried over desiccant for one week prior to analysis 
       FIG. 11  illustrates that the oil production (in  Arabidopsis thaliana  seed) increases in response to silencing of the BADC1 gene. Total seed oil content of 26 independent  A. thaliana  lines containing the BADC1 RNAi cassette has been analyzed along with wild type. The bar graph shows 22 of the 27 lines higher contained higher seed oil content on average. Asterisks signify statistical significance (*, P&lt;0.05, **, P&lt;0.01). Among the 26 lines, eight lines showed statistically higher seed oil content with increases of 7.7 to 11.7%, which is listed in Table 2. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 T3 lines with statistically higher seed oil content 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Plant line 
                 P value 
                 Percent change from wild type 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                  5-1 
                 0.006 
                 11.7 
               
               
                 15-1 
                 0.000 
                 11.5 
               
               
                 24-5 
                 0.008 
                 10.9 
               
               
                 14-1 
                 0.001 
                 10.3 
               
               
                  8-1 
                 0.005 
                 9.4 
               
               
                 25-4 
                 0.005 
                 9.1 
               
               
                 18-1 
                 0.040 
                 7.9 
               
               
                  7-2 
                 0.023 
                 7.7 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Seed oil content analysis showed a significant increase in oil in three of six independent T2 lines ( FIG. 12A ). Additionally, RT-PCR analysis of whole silique tissue showed a significant reduction in BADC1 transcript level of approximately 22% on average in the three lines containing significantly higher seed oil ( FIG. 12B ). RNA for RT-PCR and qPCR analysis was extracted from 10-d-old siliques using the RNeasy Plant Mini Kit (Qiagen). cDNA was synthesized from 500 ng RNA of four biological replicates. Primers used in analysis were: BADC1 sense, 5′-GCTCCTAGCCCATCTCAAGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:156); BADC1 antisense, 5′-TCCAGATGCCTCCAAAGCAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:157); Actin 8 sense, 5′-CCAGATCTTCATCGTCGTGGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:158); Actin 8 antisense, 5′-ATCCAGCCTTAACCATTCCAGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:159). qPCR assays were performed on an ABI 7500 system (Applied Biosystems). Reaction volumes were 20 μL and contained SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystems). Control reactions contained no template and were performed in triplicate. Amplicon identity was confirmed through melting curve analysis. For qPCR analysis, absolute transcript quantities were calculated using a standard curve of serially diluted amplicons of known concentrations. The fractional silencing is partly due to the use of whole silique tissue instead of isolated seed for RT-PCR analysis. These results demonstrate that BADC proteins are negative regulators of hetACCase. 
     Example 12 
     Gene Expression Levels of BADC and ACCase Genes During Seed Development in  Arabidopsis thaliana    
       FIG. 13A  shows the gene expression levels of BADC and ACCase genes during seed development in  Arabidopsis thaliana  (Comprehensive Systems Biology project, csbdb.mpimp-golm.mpg.de). Although all three BADC proteins are expressed during seed filling, BADC2 showed the highest expression over these time points.  FIG. 13B  shows the gene expression levels of BADC and ACCase genes in  Glycine max  during seed development (Soybase Database, soybase.org). In this species, the BADC1 ortholog is the most highly expressed in the seed, while BADC3 is relatively lower in expression and BADC2 is not present. Therefore RNAi silencing of BADC1 is the most likely to increase ACCase activity in the seed of  Glycine max . Nevertheless, the presence of multiple BADC genes in most plants suggests targeted gene silencing (i.e. specific promoter) of multiple copies may be necessary to obtain maximal increases in ACCase activity and thus oil yield, due to the potential for gene compensation. 
     Example 13 
     Dose-Dependent Inhibition of ACCase Activity by BADC1 
     As shown in  FIG. 14 , ACCase activity was monitored in vitro in 20-day-old  A. thaliana  leaf extracts with increasing concentrations of recombinant BADC1. Specific activity was determined for each experiment and 0 μM controls were normalized to 1. Specific activity values for controls ranged from 0.84-2.00 nmol/min/mg. Each data point represents the average of four biological replicates, with each biological replicate comprised of four light-adapted leaves. The data fit to a polynomial curve where R2=0.987. The Ki for BADC1 was determined to be approximately 4.3 μM under these conditions. SDS-PAGE analysis was also performed to demonstrate purity of recombinant BADC1 protein used in the assays.