Patent Publication Number: US-2023133264-A1

Title: Waveguide with a beam splitter upstream of output region

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present disclosure relates to optical components, and in particular to waveguides usable in wearable displays. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Head-mounted displays (HMDs), near-eye displays (NEDs), and other wearable display systems can be used to present virtual scenery to a user, or to augment real scenery with dynamic information, data, or virtual objects. The virtual or augmented scenery can be three-dimensional (3D) to enhance the experience and to match virtual objects to real objects observed by the user. Eye position and gaze direction, and/or orientation of the user may be tracked in real time, and the displayed scenery may be dynamically adjusted depending on the user&#39;s head orientation and gaze direction, to provide a better experience of immersion into a simulated or augmented environment. 
     Lightweight and compact near-eye displays reduce strain on the user&#39;s head and neck, and are generally more comfortable to wear. The optics block of such displays can be the heaviest part of the entire system. Compact planar optical components, such as waveguides, gratings, Fresnel lenses, etc., may be employed to reduce size and weight of an optics block. However, compact planar optics may have limitations related to image quality, output pupil size and uniformity, pupil swim, field of view of the generated imagery, visual artifacts, etc. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Example embodiments will now be described in conjunction with the drawings, which are not to scale, in which like elements are indicated with like reference numerals, and in which: 
         FIG.  1    is a schematic side view of a pupil replicating waveguide; 
         FIG.  2    is a schematic diagram illustrating pupil replication by the waveguide of  FIG.  1   ; 
         FIG.  3    is a schematic diagram of a portion of a pupil replicating waveguide with a partially reflecting beam splitter at equal distances from outer surfaces; 
         FIG.  4    is a schematic diagram of a portion of a pupil replication waveguide with a partially reflecting beam splitter at non-equal distances from outer surfaces; 
         FIG.  5 A  is a schematic plan view of a pupil replicating waveguide with a folding reflector for pupil replication along two directions (2D) and a beam splitter upstream of an output coupler; 
         FIG.  5 B  is a schematic side view of the pupil replicating waveguide shown in  FIG.  5 A ; 
         FIG.  6 A  is a schematic diagram illustrating pupil replication by the waveguide of  FIG.  5 A  in the absence of the beam splitter; 
         FIG.  6 B  is a schematic diagram illustrating pupil replication by the waveguide of  FIG.  5 A  in the presence of the beam splitter; 
         FIG.  7    is a schematic side view of a display apparatus using a pupil replicating waveguide with a beam splitter extending across the output region for expanding a beam of light illuminating a display panel; 
         FIG.  8    is a schematic side view of a display apparatus using a pupil replicating waveguide with a beam splitter upstream of the output region for expanding a beam of light illuminating a display panel; 
         FIG.  9    is a schematic side view of a display apparatus using a pupil replicating waveguide with a beam splitter upstream of the output region to provide an expanded image beam to an eyebox; 
         FIG.  10 A  is a schematic plan view of a beam splitter partly overlapping a non-useable area of an output coupler of a pupil replicating waveguide; 
         FIG.  10 B  is a schematic plan view of a beam splitter overlapping a small portion of a useable area of an output coupler of a pupil replicating waveguide; 
         FIG.  11 A  is an isometric view of an eyeglasses form factor near-eye AR/VR display incorporating a waveguide of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  11 B  is a side cross-sectional view of the display of  FIG.  11 A ; and 
         FIG.  12    is an isometric view of a head-mounted display (HMD) incorporating a waveguide of the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     While the present teachings are described in conjunction with various embodiments and examples, it is not intended that the present teachings be limited to such embodiments. On the contrary, the present teachings encompass various alternatives and equivalents, as will be appreciated by those of skill in the art. All statements herein reciting principles, aspects, and embodiments of this disclosure, as well as specific examples thereof, are intended to encompass both structural and functional equivalents thereof. Additionally, it is intended that such equivalents include both currently known equivalents as well as equivalents developed in the future, i.e., any elements developed that perform the same function, regardless of structure. Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. 
     As used herein, the terms “first”, “second”, and so forth are not intended to imply sequential ordering, but rather are intended to distinguish one element from another, unless explicitly stated. Similarly, sequential ordering of method steps does not imply a sequential order of their execution, unless explicitly stated. 
     A pupil expander functions to expand a beam of light across an output pupil of an optical system, such as but not exclusively a near-eye display (NED), having a relatively small input pupil. Herein the term “eyebox” means a geometrical area for the user&#39;s eye where a good-quality image may be observed by a user of the NED. In display systems where the pupil expander is coupled to an image projector at its input, the pupil expander may provide multiple offset copies of an angular fan of beams generated by the image projector, and spreads the multiple offset copies of the beam fan over the output pupil. The output pupil may be thereby expanded, e.g. over an entire eyebox of the NED, to enable users with different distances between eyes, termed interpupillary distances, and with different facial features, to wear the NED comfortably. In display systems where the pupil expander is coupled to a source of illumination light at its input and to a display panel at its output, the pupil expander may provide multiple offset copies of a beam of illumination light emitted by the light source, and spreads the multiple offset copies of the beam over a usable area of the image projector. 
     A pupil-replicating waveguide may be used as a pupil expander, e.g. to carry an image from a projector to an eye of a user, or to illuminate a panel display with an expanded beam of light. A high degree of flatness and parallelism of waveguide surfaces may be desired to maintain good quality of the observed image. Pupil-replicating waveguides based on relatively thick substrates may be preferable in some implementations; for example, it may be easier to polish a thicker optical component, such as a waveguide, to high flatness and parallelism. Furthermore, a thicker substrate may allow for a larger light-input area. The gaps may appear due to larger lateral offsets of the in-coupled beam upon reflection from outer surfaces of a thicker waveguide. In accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure, the output pupil gaps may be reduced or even completely eliminated by providing a beam splitter that is positioned only, or predominately, upstream of an output region of the waveguide from which an expanded output beam exits the waveguide. The beam splitter may be configured to split the in-coupled beam into beam portions propagating toward different ones of the outer surfaces, thereby at least partially filling in the output pupil gaps of the beam-replicating waveguide. In at least some embodiments the beam splitter is configured to split the beam propagating in the waveguide in a vertical plane, i.e. the plane of beam propagation that is normal to the outer surfaces of the waveguide at the location of the splitting, and may be referred to as the vertical beam splitter. Positioning of the beam splitter optically upstream of an output coupler of the waveguide may reduce image artifacts related to the beam splitter. 
     In accordance with the present disclosure, there is provided an optical waveguide comprising a substrate of optically transparent material, the substrate comprising: an input region configured to couple a beam of light into the substrate; an output region at a distance from the input region, the output region comprising an output coupler configured to direct the beam out of the substrate to form an output beam; two opposing outer surfaces for guiding the beam in the substrate by reflections therefrom; and a beam splitter disposed in an optical path of the beam between the input and output regions without an overlap with the output coupler, or overlapping at most a fraction of the output coupler when viewed in a vertical direction normal to at least one of the outer surfaces. The beam splitter is configured to split the beam into beam portions propagating toward opposite ones of the two opposing outer surfaces. 
     An input coupler may be provided to couple the beam into the substrate at angles of total internal reflection (TIR) from the surfaces. In some implementations, the input coupler may comprise an input diffraction grating, which may be supported by the substrate. 
     In some implementations, the output coupler may comprise at least one output diffraction grating extending across the output region along the surfaces and configured to out-couple a fraction of the beam from the substrate at each of a sequence of laterally offset locations to expand the output beam. 
     In any of the above implementations, the beam splitter may be configured to split the beam at least once before the beam reaches the output region. 
     In any of the above implementations, the output diffraction grating may be configured to not overlap when viewed in the vertical direction, or the beam splitter may overlap at most 20% of a total area of the at least one output diffraction grating when viewed in the vertical direction. 
     In any of the above implementations, the beam splitter may be configured to split the beam incident thereon into beam portions of substantially equal optical power. 
     In any of the above implementations, the beam splitter may comprise a partially reflective layer extending parallel to, and between, the outer surfaces. In at least some of such implementations, the partially reflective layer may be disposed at least a quarter of a thickness of the substrate away from each of the outer surfaces. 
     In any of the above implementations, the substrate may comprise a folding reflector in an optical path between the input region and the output region. The folding reflector may be configured to perform pupil replication along a first direction, the output coupler may be configured to perform pupil replication along a second direction different from the first direction, and the beam splitter may be configured to at least double a pupil replication density along at least one of the first and second directions. 
     In any of the above implementations, the substrate may comprise a polarization retarder disposed in the output region or upstream of the output region adjacent thereto. 
     An aspect of the present disclosure relates to a display apparatus comprising: a light source for emitting a beam of light, and a pupil-replicating waveguide comprising a substrate. The substrate comprises: an input region configured to couple, into the substrate, the beam received in an input pupil; an output region at a distance from the input region comprising an output coupler configured to out-couple at least a portion of the beam out of the substrate as output light; two opposing outer surfaces for guiding the beam in the substrate by reflections therefrom; and a beam splitter disposed in an optical path of the beam between the input and output regions without an overlap with the output coupler when viewed in a vertical direction normal to at least one of the outer surfaces, or overlapping at most a fraction of the output coupler. The beam splitter is configured to split the light beam into beam portions propagating toward opposite ones of the two opposing outer surfaces. 
     In some implementations of the display apparatus, the output coupler comprises an output diffraction grating configured to diffract at least a portion of the light beam into an eyebox outside of the waveguide. The beam splitter may be disposed away from an optical path of the light diffracted by the output diffraction grating into the eyebox. In some implementations the beam splitter may be disposed so as not to intersect more than 10% of a beam cross-section of the light diffracted by the output diffraction grating into the eyebox. 
     In any of the above implementations, the display apparatus may further comprise a display panel disposed to receive at least a portion of the output light and to provide image light, wherein the beam splitter may be disposed away from an optical path of the output light in the substrate. 
     In some implementations comprising a display panel, the display apparatus may further include a projection lens disposed to receive the image light from the display panel. The waveguide may be disposed in part between the projection lens and the display panel, and the beam splitter may be disposed not to intersect the image light propagating from the display panel to the projection lens, or to intersect no more than 10% of beam cross-section of said image light. 
     In any of the above implementations of the display apparatus, the beam splitter may comprise a partially reflective layer extending parallel to, and between, the outer surfaces. 
     A further aspect of the present disclosure provides a method for increasing optical pupil replication density, the method comprising: using, in an optical pupil replicating waveguide, a beam splitter for splitting, upstream of an output coupler of the waveguide, a beam of light propagating in the waveguide into sub-beams propagating toward different ones of two opposing outer surfaces of the waveguide, and to re-direct the sub-beams out of the waveguide without engaging the beam splitter. 
     In some implementations, the method may comprise using a beam splitting layer or layers extending between and along the outer surfaces away from an optical path of the beams to at least one of: an eye box of a near-eye display, or a pixel array of a panel display. In some implementations, the method may comprise using a polarization beam splitter extending between and along the outer surfaces away from an optical path of the beams to at least one of: an eye box of a near-eye display, or a pixel array of a panel display. 
     In any of the above implementations, the method may comprise using a folding reflector for pupil replication along a first direction, using an output coupler for pupil replication along a second, different direction, and using the beam splitter to at least double a pupil replication density along at least one of the first and second directions. 
     Referring to  FIG.  1   , a pupil replicating waveguide  100  includes a substrate  110  having a light input region  101 , a light output region  103 , and two opposing outer surfaces  112 ,  114  configured for propagating a beam of light  11  in the substrate  110  by reflecting the beam  11  from the two surfaces  112 ,  114 . The light input region  101  may have an area at least equal to an input pupil  107  of the waveguide, as illustrated in  FIG.  2   . Generally, the input pupil may be defined by an area of the input region  101  illuminated by the beam  11  impinging thereupon. The beam  11 , schematically shown with solid arrows, is in-coupled into the substrate  110  by an input coupler  105  at an angle or angles exceeding a critical angle of total internal reflection (TIR) upon the surfaces  112  and  114 , to cause the beam  11  propagate within the substrate  110  in a vertical zigzag pattern, bouncing off the surfaces  112  and  114  by TIR. Accordingly, the surfaces  114 ,  112  may also be referred to as the TIR surfaces of the substrate. In the context of this specification, “vertical” relates to a plane or direction normal to the opposing outer surfaces of TIR in a waveguide substrate. The input coupler  105  may be, for example, a diffraction grating or gratings extending across the input region  101  along one of the outer surfaces, e.g.  112 , or a prism coupler. The output region  103  may include an output coupler  115  configured for directing offset beam portions  15  of the beam  11  out of the substrate  110  at consecutive incidences, thereby expanding the beam across an output pupil  140  that is larger than the input pupil  107 , as schematically illustrated in  FIG.  1 B . The output coupler  115  may be embodied, for example, with one or more diffraction gratings extending across the output region  103  along the outer surfaces  112  and  114 , and may be positioned at one or both of the outer surfaces  112  and  114 , or between the outer surfaces  112  and  114 . 
     The pupil replicating waveguide  100  provides multiple laterally offset parallel beam portions  15 , which may be substantially lower-intensity copies or replicas of the light beam  11 , illuminating a sequence of “pupil replicas”  127  spread across an output pupil  140  of the waveguide. The term “laterally offset”, and derivatives thereof, is used herein to refer to a spatial offset between adjacent co-propagating beams in a plane normal to the direction of their propagation. The pupil replicas  127  may be separated by pupil holes  129  where the light intensity drops, which is generally undesirable. For a given angle of incidence of the input beam  11 , the width (i.e. size in the direction of light propagation along the waveguide) of the pupil holes  129  depends on a distance  119  between consecutive out-coupling interactions of the light beam  11  with the output coupler  115 , i.e. diffractions therefrom, and a corresponding width of the input pupil  107 . The distance  119 , which may be referred to as the replication step  119 , depends on the angle of incidence upon the input coupler  105 . In  FIG.  1    the replication step  119  is illustrated for rays of the input light beam  11  of a particular wavelength that impinge upon the waveguide at normal incidence; the replication step  119  may be greater or smaller for rays of non-normal incidence. Therefore in embodiments where the input beam  11  is not collimated, the positions of pupil replicas  127 , and the size of the pupil holes  129 , may depend on a viewing angle. 
     Generally, for a fixed viewing angle or angle of incidence of the input beam  11 , the replication step  119  may be decreased by decreasing the thickness  117  of the substrate  110 , i.e. using a thinner waveguide, e.g. with a thickness  117   a , which brings the opposing outer surfaces  112 ,  114  closer to each other, proportionally reducing the replication step  119  and increasing the number of pupil replicas  127  within the output pupil  140 . In  FIG.  1   , the position of the lower opposing surface of the thinner waveguide is indicated at  114   a  by way of example. However, in this case a portion of the in-coupled beam  11  may impinge upon the input coupler  105  after reflecting of the opposing surface  114   a  of the thinner waveguide, which ads loss to the in-coupled light and reduces the waveguide efficiency. This can be avoided by reducing the size of the input region  101  proportionally to the waveguide thickness reduction, which however preserves the relative size of the pupil holes  129  relative to the size of the pupil replicas  127 , i.e. preserving the pupil replication density. Here, the term “pupil replication density” refers to the cumulative size of all pupil replicas  127  relative to the size of the output pupil  140  in a pupil replication direction. The size of the output pupil  140  may be defined e.g. by a distance between opposing edges of the outer-most pupil replicas  127  across a range of angles of incidence of the input beam  11 , as may be defined by a field of view (FOV) of the waveguide. 
     Referring now to  FIG.  3   , the pupil replication density by a pupil replicating waveguide may be increased by using a beam splitter extending between the TIR surfaces thereof.  FIG.  3    schematically shows a vertical cross-section of a portion of a substrate  310  of waveguide  300  between input and output regions thereof (not shown), the substrate including a beam splitter  330  extending between and along TIR surfaces  312 ,  314  of the substrate and intersecting an optical path of an in-coupled beam  13 . The beam splitter  330  may be ideally a  50 / 50  beam splitter configured to split the in-coupled beam impinging thereon into two beams of substantially equal optical power, i.e. within +\− 10% of each other, for at least some propagation angles of the in-coupled light. In some embodiments, and/or at some of the propagation angles of the in-coupled light, the power splitting coefficient of the beam splitter  330  may be, for example, in the range from 60/40 to 40/60, or in the range from 70/30 to 30/70. 
     The beam splitter  330  may be e.g. a partially reflecting surface or layer extending generally in parallel to the TIR surfaces  312 ,  314 , having a reflectivity in a range from about 20% to about 80%. It may be formed, for example, by one or more layers of dielectric coating. The beam splitter  330  may also be a polarization beam splitter, for example it may be configured to reflect up to 100% of s-polarization and transmit up to 100% of p-polarization of light incident thereon in some range of angles of incidence of the in-coupled beam. 
     As the in-coupled beam  13  impinges upon the beam splitter  330 , the in-coupled beam  13  splits into two beam portions, or beam replicas, which propagate toward different ones of the opposing TIR surfaces  312 , and  314 , thereby more uniformly spreading the light energy within the substrate  310  and at least partially filling in the pupil gaps  129 . In embodiments where the beam splitter  330  is a partially reflecting surface (PRS) extending parallel to the TIR surfaces  312  and  314 , each incidence of the beam upon the PRS splits the incident beam into a transmitted and reflected beam portions, or beam replicas, with the reflected portion also referred to herein as the split-off beam, split-off beam portion, or split-off beam replica. 
       FIG.  3    illustrates an embodiment where the beam splitter  330  is disposed at equal distances α and b from the TIR surfaces  314  and  312 , respectively, so that α=b=d/2, where d is the thickness of the substrate. In this embodiment the beam replication step in the substrate, denoted as c, may be shortened by a factor of 2, thereby enabling a greater pupil replication density and enhanced illumination uniformity of the output pupil. 
       FIG.  4    illustrates an embodiment where the beam splitter  330  is disposed closer to one of the TIR surfaces, e.g.  314 , i.e. when α&lt;b, α+b=d. A portion of the in-coupled beam  13  that is transmitted through the beam splitter  330  at each incidence thereon, as indicated by the solid arrows, propagates along a first zig-zag path between the TIR surfaces, reflecting from one of the surfaces, e.g. the first surface  312 , at a first periodic sequence of locations X 1 ={x 0 , x 0 +c, x 0 +2c, . . . } spread by a distance c, where x 0  denotes a coordinate of a first incidence after transmitting through the beam splitter. A portion of the beam reflected from the beam splitter  330  once, i.e. a first split-off beam, propagates along a second zig-zag path that is shifted by a distance e=c·α/d, reflecting from the first surface at a second periodic sequence of locations X 2 ={x 0 +e, x 0 +c+e, x 0 +2c+e, . . . }=(X 1 +e). A second consecutive reflection off the beam splitter  330  produces a second split-off beam that propagates along a third zig-zag path that is shifted from the first zig-zag path by a distance  2   e , reflecting from the first surface at a periodic sequence of locations X 3 =(X 1 +2e). A first reflection from the beam splitter  330  of the once-transmitted portion of the beam, on its way back to the first surface, produces a third split-off beam that propagates along a fourth zig-zag path that is shifted from the first zig-zag path by a distance g=(c−e), reflecting from the first surface at a fourth sequence of locations X 4 =(X 1 +c−e). 
     In some embodiments, the beam splitter  330  may be disposed at a distance from one of the outer surfaces  312 ,  314  equal to about one third of the substrate thickness d, i.e. b=2α, which results in c=3e. In such embodiments, the four location sets X i , i=1, 2, 3, 4, sum up to an equidistant set of locations spread by a distance c/3 along the general direction of light propagation in the substrate. Thus, in this embodiment the beam replication step in the substrate may be shortened by a factor of 3, potentially enabling an even greater pupil replication density, and further enhancing illumination uniformity of the output pupil in some embodiments. 
     In some embodiments, the beam splitter  330  may be disposed at distances α and b from the outer surfaces  312  and  314 , which ratio is not a rational number, for example that satisfy a “golden ratio” condition: 
     
       
         
           
             
               a 
               b 
             
             = 
             
               
                 b 
                 
                   a 
                   + 
                   b 
                 
               
               = 
               
                 b 
                 d 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     which corresponds to α≅0.382·d. In this case, the ratio of beam shifts e and c for the beam portions reflected from, and transmitted through, the beam splitter  330  is not a rational number either. Accordingly, these beam portions propagate along optical paths that have no shared segments, with their central rays impinging upon the outer surfaces  312  and  314  at different non-overlapping locations, which may facilitate better illumination uniformity of the output pupil. Other embodiments in which the ratio of distances α and b is an irrational number may also be contemplated. 
     Accordingly, the presence of the beam splitter  330  may increase output pupil density and enhance the illumination uniformity of the output pupil for a relatively thick substrate, without reducing the size of the input pupil. By way of example, embodiments described herein may use pupil replication waveguides with substrate thickness in the range from about 0.5 millimeter (mm) to about 1 mm, although substrates with thickness outside of this range are also within the scope of this disclosure. In some embodiments, the substrate thickness d may exceed about one half of a linear size of the input pupil in the plane of the substrate. Further by way of example, the beam splitter  330  may be disposed at a distance α≥d/4 from each of the outer TIR surfaces of the substrate, although embodiments with the beam splitter  330  disposed closer to one of the TIR surfaces are also within the scope of the present disclosure. 
       FIGS.  5 A and  5 B  schematically illustrate, in plan and side views respectively, an example waveguide  500  configured for pupil replication along two different directions. In the examples described below these two directions are considered to be generally orthogonal, and thus may be described as aligned with the x- and y-axes of a Cartesian coordinate system (x,y,z)  555 , although their orthogonality is not a requirement and embodiments may be envisioned with pupil replication along non-orthogonal directions. 
     Similarly to the waveguide  100 , the waveguide  500  includes a substrate  510  having an input region  501 , an output region  503  that is offset from the input region  501  in the plane of the substrate, and two opposing outer surfaces  512  and  514  for propagating a light beam  11  in the substrate  510  at least in part by reflections from the surfaces  514  and  512 . In the description below the substrate  510  is considered to be planar, so that the propagation of light therein may be conveniently described relative to a same “global” coordinate system  555 , which z-axis is perpendicular to the plane of the substrate. The substrate  510  may however have a curvature, for example to accommodate a human face, in which case the coordinate system  555  may be viewed as local to a region of the substrate being described, with its z-axis normal to the outer surfaces  512 ,  514  at the location being described. Thus, the term “plane of the substrate” may be understood as pertaining to a particular location or region of the substrate being described, and referring to a plane that can be viewed as locally parallel to the outer surfaces  512 ,  514  (the “(x,y) plane”). 
     The input region  501  includes an input coupler  505 , while the output region  503  includes an output coupler  525  extending thereacross. The input coupler  505  is configured to couple the input beam  11  of light into the substrate for propagation therein by reflection from the opposing outer surfaces  512  and  514 , e.g. by TIR therefrom. Light of the input beam  11  coupled into the substrate  510  may be referred to as the in-coupled light (beam). The input coupler  505  may be, for example, a diffraction grating or gratings extending in the x-axis and y-axis directions across the input area  501  along one of the outer surfaces, e.g. surface  512  illuminated by the input light  11 , or between the surfaces. Other embodiments of the input coupler  505  are also possible, for example using a prism. An input pupil  507  of the waveguide may be defined by an area of the input region  501  that is illuminated by the input beam  11 . 
     As illustrated in  FIG.  5 A , the output region  503  may be offset from the input region  501  along each of the two directions, i.e. the x-axis and the y-axis. A folding reflector  520  is disposed to receive the in-coupled light  13  from the input coupler  505  and re-direct it toward the output coupler  525 . The folding reflector  520  may be configured to cooperate with the output coupler  525  for pupil replication along the x- and y-axes directions, as schematically illustrated in  FIGS.  6 A and  6 B . 
     The substrate  510  further includes a beam splitter  530  configured to increase the pupil replication density and to at least partially fill the pupil holes, as schematically illustrated in  FIG.  6 B . The beam splitter  530  may be an embodiment of the beam splitter  330  described above, and may be for example a partially reflecting surface or layer extending between the opposing outer surfaces  512  and  513 , generally in parallel thereto, to split in-coupled light  13  in a vertical plane. The beam splitter  530  may be located in the path of the in-coupled light  13  upstream of the output region  503 . 
     In some embodiments, the substrate  510  may further include a polarization converter  551 , such as a retarder, upstream of the output coupler  525 ; this polarization converter  551  is schematically illustrated in  FIG.  5 A  but is absent in  FIG.  5 B  to avoid clutter. The polarization converter  551  may also be placed between the input coupler  505  and the folding reflector  520 . The polarization converter  551  may be configured to adjust, e.g. rotate, the polarization of the in-coupled beam to improve uniformity of light coupled out of the substrate by the out-coupler  525 , as described further below. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the input coupler  505  is configured to direct the in-coupled light beam  13  to propagate along the first direction in the plane of the substrate, e.g. along the y-axis, toward the folding reflector  520 . The folding reflector  520  may be aligned with the input coupler  505  in the first direction, and is configured to re-direct the in-coupled light beam  13  to propagate along the second direction (x-axis) toward the output region  503 . The folding reflector  520  may be a suitably configured diffraction grating or gratings having a length in the first direction (y-axis) corresponding to a width of the output pupil ( 540 ,  FIGS.  6 A and  6 B ) in that direction, and sufficient to split the in-coupled light beam  13  into multiple laterally offset sub-beams  513 ′ that are spread along the first direction (y-axis), as illustrated in  FIG.  5 A  by a sequence of parallel solid arrows. In embodiments where the beam splitter  530  extends into a region of the substrate upstream of the folding reflector  520 , and/or overlaps with the folding reflector  520 , the beam splitter  530  may cooperate with the folding reflector  520  to form additional split-off folded sub-beams  513 ″, which are illustrated in  FIG.  5 A  with dotted arrows, thereby increasing the beam replication density along the first direction (y-axis). The laterally offset folded sub-beams  513 ′ and  513 ″ may be viewed as lower-power replicas of the in-coupled beam  13  or the input beam  11 , and may be commonly referred to as (folded) sub-beams  513  or (folded) beam replicas  513 . 
       FIG.  5 B  illustrates the propagation of a folded sub-beam  513 , in the vertical plane (x,z), from the folding reflector  520  into the output region  503 . The folded sub-beam  513  may represent one of folded sub-beams  513 ′ or folded split-off sub-beams  513 ″. The beam splitter  530  is disposed to intersect the sub-beam  513  at least once before reaching the output region  503 , and is configured to split the sub-beam  513  into beam portions propagating toward different ones of the outer surfaces  512  and  514 , as described above with reference to  FIGS.  3  and  4   . The beam splitter  530  may be e.g. a partially reflecting surface or layer extending generally in parallel with the outer surfaces  512  and  514  of the substrate, and may transmit a beam portion  513 T of the sub-beam  513  incident thereon toward one of the outer surfaces, e.g.  512 , and reflect a split-off beam portion  513 R of the incident sub-beam  513  toward the other of the outer surfaces, e.g.  514 . The beam portions  513 T and  513 R may be viewed as lower-intensity replicas of the input beam  11  coupled into the substrate. The optical paths of the transmitted and reflected beam portions  513 T,  513 R after the split are indicated in  FIG.  5 B  by solid and dashed arrows, respectively. In some embodiments, the beam splitter may extend in the direction of the output region long enough to intersect the zig-zag optical paths of the transmitted and reflected beam portions  513 R,  513 T one or more times, resulting in further splitting into transmitted and reflected beam portions at each intersection, as described above with reference to  FIGS.  3  and  4   . 
     The output region  503  includes an output coupler  525  configured for coupling multiple offset portions of the in-coupled light incident thereon out of the substrate  510 , thereby expanding the out-coupled beam in the second direction (x-axis) in the plane of the substrate. The output coupler  525  may include, for example, one or more diffraction gratings extending across the whole output region  503  along the outer surfaces  512  and  514 , i.e. in the (x,y) plane. In  FIG.  5 A , the boundary of the output region  503  is shown by solid lines, and the one or more output gratings are indicated by crosshatching. 
     In the illustrated example, the output coupler  525  is embodied with a diffraction grating, e.g. a surface-relief grating, disposed at the outer surface  512  and configured to diffract a portion of the in-coupled light at each incidence thereon, to form a sequence of spatially offset out-coupled light beams that are spread into the second direction (x-axis). The output coupler  525  may also be embodied with a diffraction grating, e.g. a surface-relief grating, disposed at the other outer surface, i.e.  514 , or between the surfaces. In other embodiments, the output coupler  525  may include two or more diffraction gratings, e.g. relief gratings, located at a same one, or at different ones of the outer surfaces  512  and  514 , or between the surfaces. In some embodiments the output coupler  525  may include a volume Bragg grating (VBG) located between the outer surfaces  512  and  514 . Furthermore, other type of diffraction gratings, e.g. hyperbolic metamaterial gratings, liquid crystal gratings, or so-called Pisa gratings comprising a plurality of slanted dielectric fringes, may be used. More broadly, any diffraction grating, or a plurality of diffraction gratings, supported by a substrate on the outside, inside, etc., and configured for diffracting an in-coupled light beam impinging thereon, may be used. In all these embodiments, at least one of such output gratings may be configured to diffract, e.g. in a first diffraction order, a portion of the in-coupled light beam incident thereon out of the substrate at each incidences thereon, to provide a sequence of spatially offset out-coupled beams. 
     Referring to  FIG.  5 B  and  FIG.  6 A , in the absence of the beam splitter  530  the sub-beam  513  propagates as indicated by the solid arrows, bouncing between the outer surfaces  512  and  514  and being diffracted out of the substrate at each incidence upon the output coupler  525  from a same direction, to form a sequence of output sub-beams  515 ′ with their central rays spaced by a distance  519  between consecutive diffractions.  FIG.  6 A  schematically illustrates pupil replication by the waveguide  500  in the absence of the beam splitter  530 . The folding reflector  520  and the output coupler  525  cooperate to replicate the input pupil  507  along the two orthogonal directions to form a 2D array of pupil replicas  527  spread across the output pupil  540 . Rows of the array originate from respective folded sub-beams  513 ′ provided by the folding reflector  520  ( FIG.  5 A ), with different pupil replicas  527  in each row corresponding to different output sub-beams  515 ′ produced by the output coupler  525  from one of the folded sub-beams  513 ′. The beam splitter  530  splits the sub-beam  513  into two sub-beams  513 T and  513 R, resulting into a second sequence of output sub-beams  515 ″, which is interleaved with the first sequence of output sub-beams  515 ′, thereby at least partially filling gaps that may be present between sub-beams  515 ′. Thus the presence of the beam splitter  530  increases the spatial density of beam-coupler interactions so that the total power of out-coupled light is spread over a greater number of out-coupled beam portions  515 ′ and  515 ″. 
       FIG.  6 B  schematically illustrates corresponding pupil replication in presence of the beam splitter  530 , with the input pupil  507  now being replicated within the output pupil  540  of the waveguide  500  with a greater spatial density. The splitting of the sub-beams  513  into the transmitted and reflected beam portions  513 T,  513 R results in the appearance of additional pupil replicas  527 ′ at least partially filling the gaps between the pupil replicas  527  in each row (x-axis). In embodiments where the beam splitter  530  extends to overlap with the folding reflector  520 , and/or into the region upstream of the folding reflector  520 , the vertical splitting of the in-coupled light  13  may produce the additional set of split-off folded sub-beams  513 ″ as described above, which at least partially fill the gaps between the rows of pupil replicas  527 ′ and increases the pupil replication density along the first direction (y-axis). The pupil replicas  527 ,  527 ′,  527 ″ shown in  FIG.  6 B  may correspond to a specific angle of incidence of the input beam  11 , for example to the normal incidence, and their position and spacing within the output pupil  540  may be different for rays of the input light beam that impinges upon the input coupler  505  at different angles of incidence. 
     In some embodiments, the diffraction efficiency of the output coupler  525  may be polarization-sensitive. For example, the diffraction efficiency may be greater for left circularly polarized light and lower for right secularly polarized light. Circularly polarized light typically changes its chirality after each TIR, which converts between left- and right-circular polarizations. When disposed upstream of the output coupler  525 , the polarization converter  551  may be configured to convert sub-beams  513 ′,  513 ″ incident thereon to a mixed polarization state with approximately equal parts of left- and right-circular polarizations. In some embodiments, the polarization converter  551  may overlap with the output coupler  525  to convert between the left circular polarization and the right circular polarization after each TIR upon one of the outer surfaces  512 ,  514 . 
       FIGS.  5 A and  5 B  illustrate an embodiment where the beam splitter  530  is absent in the output region  503  and does not overlap with the output coupler  525 . The term “overlap” and its derivatives, when used herein with reference to two or more elements of a waveguide, means an overlap between orthogonal projections of the elements onto one of the outer surface  512  or  514  of the substrate or, equivalently, an overlap between the elements as may be viewed in the vertical direction normal to the plane of the substrate. For example, the beam splitter  530  illustrated in  FIGS.  5 A and  5 B  overlaps the folding reflector  520  and does not overlap the output coupler  525  or any portion thereof. However, embodiments may be envisioned when a beam splitter, e.g. the beam splitter  530 , extends into the output region  503  overlapping fully or partially the output coupler  525 . Such embodiments may however have disadvantages when used in an image projection system, as described below, in particular when the beam splitter extends across most, or the whole, output region  503 , fully overlapping the output coupler  525 , or a functionally significant portion thereof. 
       FIG.  7    schematically illustrates, in a side cross-sectional view, a display apparatus  700 , which utilizes a pupil replicating waveguide  600  to illuminate a display panel  740  with an expanded beam of illumination light. The pupil replicating waveguide  600  incorporates a beam splitter  630  that extends across an output region  503  thereof. The display apparatus  700  may be for example a near-eye display (NED). The pupil replication waveguide  600  may be a modification of the waveguide  500  described above with reference to  FIGS.  5 A and  5 B ; accordingly, elements of the waveguide  600  that are functionally same or similar to corresponding elements of waveguide  500  are labeled with the same reference numerals, and will not be described again. The beam splitter  630  differs from the beam splitter  530  in that the beam splitter  630  extends into the output region  503  of the substrate  510  to overlap with the output coupler  525 , but may be an embodiment of the beam splitter  530  otherwise, and an embodiment of the beam splitter  330 . 
     The display apparatus  700  includes a reflective display panel  740 , and may further include a projection lens  750 . In a NED implementation, the projection lens  750  may function as an ocular lens. In operation, an input beam  711  of illumination light is coupled into the waveguide  600  by an input coupler  505 , and propagates toward the output coupler  525 , generally as described above with reference to waveguide  500 . The output coupler  525  re-directs the in-coupled beam impinging thereon toward the reflective display panel  740  as output light  615  comprising a plurality of offset beam replicas, e.g. such as beam replicas  515 ′ and  515 ″ described above. The display panel  740  incorporates a reflective pixel array facing the output region  503 , the total area of the pixel array facing the output region defining a useful area of the display panel. The display panel  740  may be, for example, a reflective active-matrix LCOS (liquid crystal on silicon) display panel using a liquid-crystal (LC) layer on top of a silicon backplane, or a DLP (digital light processing) panel having a 2D array of tiltable micro-mirrors. The reflective display panel  740  reflects a spatially-modulated portion of the output light  615 , i.e. image light  617 , toward the projection lens  750  disposed opposite the display panel  740  at the other side of the waveguide. The projection lens  750  may be configured to project the image light  617  onto a screen or into an eye of a viewer (not shown). The projection lens  750  may function as an ocular lens in embodiments where the display apparatus  700  is a NED. 
     The presence of the beam splitter  630  across the output region  503  may however lead to spurious reflections therefrom of the output light  615  and the image light  617 , illustrated by dashed arrows  616  and  618 , respectively. These spurious reflections reduce efficiency of the display  700 , and may further lead to undesirable artifacts in various applications, including a reduced image contrast, the appearance of an eye glow in AR applications, and the appearance of ghost images. 
       FIG.  8    illustrates a display apparatus  800  that illuminates the display panel  740  using the pupil replication waveguide  500  described above with reference to  FIGS.  5 A- 6 B , in which the beam splitter  530  is positioned substantially upstream of the output region  503  of the waveguide, and does not overlap, or has only a small overlap, with the output coupler  525  when viewed in the vertical direction (z-axis). The display apparatus  800  may be, for example a NED. The display apparatus  800  includes a light source  801 , which is configured to illuminate the input coupler  505  of the waveguide  500  with an illumination light beam  711 , for coupling into the substrate  510  as described above. In some embodiments the illumination light beam  711  may be collimated. In some embodiments the illumination light beam  711  may be non-collimated, e.g. divergent in an angular range comprising a field of view (FOV) of the apparatus. Similarly to the display apparatus  700 , the display apparatus  800  further includes the reflective display panel  740  as described above, e.g. an LCOS or DLP display panel, which may be disposed facing the output region  503  of the waveguide to receive the output beam  615 . The projection lens  750  may be provided to receive modulated image light  617  from the display panel  740 , also as described above with reference to  FIG.  7   . In operation, the light beam  711  is coupled into the waveguide  500  by the input coupler  505 , and propagates toward the folding reflector  520 , which directs portions of the beam toward the output coupler  525 . The beam splitter  530  splits the beam in a vertical plane, with split portions of the beam, or beam replicas, propagating toward the output coupler  525 , as described above with reference to  FIGS.  5 A and  5 B  and split beam portions  513 T and  513 R. The output coupler  525  re-directs, e.g. diffracts, the split beam portions toward the reflective display panel  740  as the output light  615 . The output light  615  thus comprises a plurality of spatially offset beam replicas, e.g. beam replicas  515 ′ and  515 ″, illuminating the usable area of the display panel  740  in accordance with corresponding pupil replicas, e.g. as schematically indicated at  527 ,  527 ′,  527 ″ in  FIG.  6 B . The display panel  740  reflects a spatially-modulated portion of the output light  615  toward the projection lens  750  as image light  617 . The projection lens  750  may be configured to project the image light  617  onto a screen or into an eye of a viewer (not shown). The projection lens  750  may functions as an ocular lens in embodiments where the display apparatus  800  is a NED. 
     Since the beam splitter  530  is absent from the output region  503  and does not overlap, or has only a relatively small overlap, with the output coupler  525 , the output and image beams  615 ,  617  are transmitted in the substrate without passing through the beam splitter  530 , and therefore do not reflect therefrom. Accordingly, the beam splitter  530  increases the pupil replication density at the output pupil of the waveguide  500 , thereby potentially enhancing the illumination uniformity of the display panel  640 , without creating spurious reflections described above with reference to  FIG.  7   . 
       FIG.  9    illustrates a display apparatus  900 , such as a NED, that uses the pupil replicating waveguide  500 , or a suitable embodiment thereof, to expand a beam  911  of image light from a light source  901  and to relay it to an eye box  940 , i.e. a geometrical area for the user&#39;s eye where a good-quality image may be observed. The light source  901 is configured to operate as an image projector, and in operation provides the beam  911  of image light comprised of an angular fan of beams carrying an image in angular domain, and at angles of incidence upon the substrate  510  spanning a field of view (FOV) of the NED. 
     The image projector  901  may be embodied, for example, using a pixilated display panel, e.g. an LCD micro display, optionally having suitable optics at its output. It may also be embodied using a light source, such as e.g. one or more light-emitting diodes (LED), superluminescent light-emitting diodes (SLED), side-emitting laser diodes, vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser diodes (VCSEL), etc, followed by an image beam scanner. 
     The pupil replicating waveguide  500  provides an output beam  950  composed of multiple offset replicas  915  of the angular fan of beams  911  generated by the image projector  901 , and spreads these beam replicas  915  over the eyebox  940 , with the pupil holes at least partially filled by the split-off beam replicas produced by the beam splitter  530 , as described above. Also as described above, the beam splitter  530  is disposed upstream of the output coupler  525 , so as to avoid, or at least reduce, an overlap with the output coupler  525  when viewed in projection on the plane of the substrate  510 , and to avoid or at least reduce spurious reflections of the output beam  950  off the beam splitter  530  as described above with reference to  FIG.  7   . In some embodiments, the beam splitter  530  may be disposed in the optical path of the beam  911  in the substrate  510  upstream off the output coupler  525 , so as not to overlap with any portion thereof; in  FIG.  9   , an example position of the beam splitter  530  in such embodiments is illustrated by a solid line. 
     In some embodiments, an edge portion of the beam splitter  530  may overlap a relatively small portion  525   b  of the output coupler  525 ; by way of example, the overlapping edge portion  531  of the beam splitter  530  in one such embodiment is illustrated in  FIG.  9    by a dashed line. In some embodiments the overlap between the beam splitter  530  and the output coupler may be at most 20%, or at most 10%, or at most 5%, of the total area of the output coupler  525  in the plan of the waveguide, i.e. as represented by the (x,y) plane of the Cartesian coordinate system  555  in  FIGS.  10 A and  10 B . In some embodiments, at least 50% of a total area of the output coupler  525  centered in the middle of the output region  503  is being free of an overlap with the beam splitter  530 . 
       FIGS.  10 A and  10 B  schematically illustrate relative positions of the beam splitter  530  and the output coupler  525  in partially overlapping embodiments, where the overlap areas are indicated by square grid shading. The output coupler  525  may have a usable area  525   a  that is somewhat smaller than the full extent of the output coupler  525 , and the beam splitter  530  may be positioned so as not to overlap the usable area  525   a , as illustrated in  FIG.  10 A . In other embodiments the beam splitter  530  may be positioned so as to slightly overlap the usable area  525   a , as illustrated in  FIG.  10 B . In some embodiments the overlap area does not exceed 10% of the area of the output coupler  525  in the plane of the waveguide. In some embodiments the overlap area does not exceed 5% of the area of the output coupler  525  in the plane of the waveguide. 
     The usable area  525   a  may correspond, for example, to the area of the eyebox  940 , i.e. the area encompassing all locations of a user&#39;s eye for an acceptable image quality perception. In some embodiments, e.g. in embodiments of the display apparatus  900 , the usable area  525   a  may, for example, be an area of the output coupler  525  from which output light is transmitted into the eyebox  940 , i.e. into the area encompassing all locations of a user&#39;s eye with an acceptable image quality perception. In some embodiments, e.g. in embodiments of the display apparatus  800 , the usable area  525   a  may, for example, be an area of the output coupler  525  from which output light is transmitted into the usable area  745  of the display panel  740 , e.g. the area of the pixel array thereof. In some embodiments, the beam splitter may partially overlap an edge of the usable area  525   a  of the output coupler, to allow for some visual artifacts due to the spurious reflections of the beam splitter to appear in the peripheral vision of a viewer. In at least some of such embodiments, a central region  526  spanning at least 50% of a total area of the output coupler  525  in the middle of the output region  503  remains free of an overlap with the beam splitter  530 . 
     Accordingly, an aspect of the present disclosure provides a method for increasing optical pupil replication density in an optical pupil replicating waveguide, e.g. waveguides  300  or  500 , may include using a beam splitter, e.g.  330  or  530 , upstream of an output coupler of the waveguide, e.g. output coupler  525 , for splitting the light into sub-beams propagating toward different ones of opposing outer surfaces, e.g.  312  and  314 , or  512  and  514 , of the waveguide, and to re-direct the sub-beams out of the waveguide without engaging the beam splitter. 
     A related aspect of the present disclosure provides a method for expanding a beam of light, e.g. the beam  13  in  FIGS.  3  and  5 A , which may include propagating the beam  13  in the substrate, e.g.  310  or  510 , by reflecting the beam  13  from the outer surfaces, e.g.  312  and  314  or  512  and  514 , of the substrate, so as to cause the beam to impinge on an output coupler, e.g.  525 , to be directed out of the substrate, e.g. by diffraction, as output light, e.g. light beam comprised of beam portions  515 ′ and  515 ″. As the beam  13  propagates towards the outer coupler, it is split in the vertical plane normal to the outer surfaces upstream of the output coupler, for further propagation in the substrate toward the output coupler, with the split-off beams at least partially filling pupil holes after being re-directed by the output coupler, as explained above with reference to  FIGS.  3  to  6 B . The splitting is performed by a beam splitter, such as the beam splitter  330  or  530 , e.g. a partial reflector, disposed between the outer surfaces of the substrate substantially upstream of the output coupler, so as not to overlap with at least a usable portion of the output coupler when viewed in a vertical direction normal to the substrate, to substantially avoid intersecting the output light, or to overlap only a small fraction of the total area of the output coupler in the plane of the substrate. 
     Embodiments of the present disclosure may include, or be implemented in conjunction with, an artificial reality system. An artificial reality system adjusts sensory information about outside world obtained through the senses such as visual information, audio, touch (somatosensation) information, acceleration, balance, etc., in some manner before presentation to a user. By way of non-limiting examples, artificial reality may include virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), mixed reality (MR), hybrid reality, or some combination and/or derivatives thereof. Artificial reality content may include entirely generated content or generated content combined with captured (e.g., real-world) content. The artificial reality content may include video, audio, somatic or haptic feedback, or some combination thereof. Any of this content may be presented in a single channel or in multiple channels, such as in a stereo video that produces a three-dimensional effect to the viewer. Furthermore, in some embodiments, artificial reality may also be associated with applications, products, accessories, services, or some combination thereof, that are used to, for example, create content in artificial reality and/or are otherwise used in (e.g., perform activities in) artificial reality. The artificial reality system that provides the artificial reality content may be implemented on various platforms, including a wearable display such as an HMD connected to a host computer system, a standalone HMD, a near-eye display having a form factor of eyeglasses, a mobile device or computing system, or any other hardware platform capable of providing artificial reality content to one or more viewers. 
     Referring to  FIGS.  11 A and  11 B , a near-eye AR/VR display  1100  includes a body or frame  1102  having a form factor of a pair of eyeglasses. A display  1104  includes a pupil-replicating waveguide  1106  ( FIG.  11 B ), which provides image light  1108  to an eyebox  1110 , i.e. a geometrical area where a good-quality image may be presented to a user&#39;s eye  1112 . The pupil-replicating waveguide  1106  may include any of the waveguides described herein, i.e. the waveguide  300  of  FIGS.  3  and  4   , the waveguide  500  of  FIG.  5 A,  5 B,  7 ,  8   , or  9 . 
     An image light source of the near-eye AR/VR display  1100  may include, for example and without limitation, a liquid crystal display (LCD), an organic light emitting display (OLED), an inorganic light emitting display (ILED), an active-matrix organic light-emitting diode (AMOLED) display, a transparent organic light emitting diode (TOLED) display, a projector, or a combination thereof. The near-eye AR/VR display  1100  may further include an eye-tracking system  1114  for determining, in real time, the gaze direction and/or the vergence angle of the user&#39;s eyes  1112 . The determined gaze direction and vergence angle may also be used for real-time compensation of visual artifacts dependent on the angle of view and eye position. Furthermore, the determined vergence and gaze angles may be used for interaction with the user, highlighting objects, bringing objects to the foreground, dynamically creating additional objects or pointers, etc. Yet furthermore, the near-eye AR/VR display  1100  may include an audio system, such a set of small speakers or headphones. 
     Turning now to  FIG.  12   , an HMD  1200  is an example of an AR/VR wearable display system enclosing user&#39;s eyes, for a greater degree of immersion into the AR/VR environment. The HMD  1200  may be a part of an AR/VR system including a user position and orientation tracking system, an external camera, a gesture recognition system, control means for providing user input and controls to the system, and a central console for storing software programs and other data for interacting with the user for interacting with the AR/VR environment. The function of the HMD  1200  is to augment views of a physical, real-world environment with computer-generated imagery, and/or to generate entirely virtual 3D imagery. The HMD  1200  may include a front body  1202  and a band  1204 . The front body  1202  is configured for placement in front of eyes of the user in a reliable and comfortable manner, and the band  1204  may be stretched to secure the front body  1202  on the user&#39;s head. A display system  1280  may include any of the pupil-replication waveguides described herein. The display system  1280  may be disposed in the front body  1202  for presenting AR/VR images to the user. Sides  1206  of the front body  1202  may be opaque or transparent. 
     In some embodiments, the front body  1202  includes locators  1208 , an inertial measurement unit (IMU)  1210  for tracking acceleration of the HMD  1200 , and position sensors  1212  for tracking position of the HMD  1200 . The locators  1208  are traced by an external imaging device of a virtual reality system, such that the virtual reality system can track the location and orientation of the HMD  1200 . Information generated by the IMU and the position sensors  1212  may be compared with the position and orientation obtained by tracking the locators  1208 , for improved tracking of position and orientation of the HMD  1200 . Accurate position and orientation is important for presenting appropriate virtual scenery to the user as the latter moves and turns in 3D space. 
     The HMD  1200  may further include an eye tracking system  1214 , which determines orientation and position of user&#39;s eyes in real time. The obtained position and orientation of the eyes allows the HMD  1200  to determine the gaze direction of the user and to adjust the image generated by the display system  1280  accordingly. In one embodiment, the vergence, that is, the convergence angle of the user&#39;s eyes gaze, is determined. The determined gaze direction and vergence angle may also be used for real-time compensation of visual artifacts dependent on the angle of view and eye position. Furthermore, the determined vergence and gaze angles may be used for interaction with the user, highlighting objects, bringing objects to the foreground, creating additional objects or pointers, etc. An audio system may also be provided including e.g. a set of small speakers built into the front body  1202 . 
     The present disclosure is not to be limited in scope by the specific embodiments described herein. Indeed, other various embodiments and modifications, in addition to those described herein, will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art from the foregoing description and accompanying drawings. Thus, such other embodiments and modifications are intended to fall within the scope of the present disclosure. Further, although the present disclosure has been described herein in the context of a particular implementation in a particular environment for a particular purpose, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that its usefulness is not limited thereto and that the present disclosure may be beneficially implemented in any number of environments for any number of purposes. Accordingly, the claims set forth below should be construed in view of the full breadth and spirit of the present disclosure as described herein. 
     The present disclosure is not to be limited in scope by the specific embodiments described herein. Indeed, other various embodiments and modifications, in addition to those described herein, will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art from the foregoing description and accompanying drawings. Thus, such other embodiments and modifications are intended to fall within the scope of the present disclosure. Furthermore, elements or features described with reference to a particular embodiment may be used in other embodiments. Further, although the present disclosure has been described herein in the context of a particular implementation in a particular environment for a particular purpose, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that its usefulness is not limited thereto and that the present disclosure may be beneficially implemented in any number of environments for any number of purposes. Accordingly, the claims set forth below should be construed in view of the full breadth and spirit of the present disclosure as described herein.