Patent Publication Number: US-2022234306-A1

Title: Laminated sealing member for prosthetic heart valve

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 16/294,761, filed Mar. 6, 2019, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/140,387, filed on Apr. 27, 2016, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/154,610, filed Apr. 29, 2015. Each of U.S. application Ser. No. 16/294,761, U.S. application Ser. No. 15/140,387, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/154,610 are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. 
    
    
     FIELD 
     The present disclosure relates to implantable prosthetic valves and, more particularly, to laminated sealing members for prosthetic valves and methods of making the same. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Known prosthetic valves include a frame with a valvular structure mounted therein, an inner skirt or sealing member secured to the inside of the frame, and an outer skirt or sealing member secured to the exterior of the frame. The inner and outer skirts frequently must be secured to the frame by suturing or stitching the fabric of the respective skirts to the frame. Such suturing must often be done by hand, increasing the cost and time required to produce a prosthetic valve. Accordingly, improvements to skirts for prosthetic valves are desirable. 
     SUMMARY 
     Certain embodiments of the disclosure concern laminated sealing members for prosthetic heart valves and methods of making the same. In one representative embodiment, an implantable prosthetic valve that is radially collapsible to a collapsed configuration and radially expandable to an expanded configuration comprises an annular frame having an inflow end and an outflow end, a leaflet structure positioned within the frame and secured thereto, and a laminate sealing member comprising an encapsulating material. The laminate sealing member has a main portion that encapsulates at least a portion of the frame and an end portion extending from the inflow end of the frame, and the end portion of the laminate sealing member is folded to form a cuff adjacent the inflow end of the frame and secured to the main portion of the laminate sealing member. 
     In another representative embodiment, a method of making a prosthetic heart valve comprises positioning a first layer about a mandrel, positioning a radially expandable frame over the first layer, and positioning a second layer over the radially expandable frame. The method further comprises fusing the first and second layers to form a monolithic laminate sealing member such that at least a portion of the frame is encapsulated within the laminate sealing member, and folding an end portion of the laminate sealing member and securing it to a main portion of the laminate sealing member to form a cuff adjacent an inflow end of the frame. 
     In another representative embodiment, a transcatheter heart valve comprises a radially expandable frame having an inflow end, an outflow end, and a laminate sealing member comprising a non-fabric inner layer positioned inside of the frame, a non-fabric outer layer positioned outside of the frame, and a fabric layer positioned between the non-fabric inner layer and the non-fabric outer layer. The non-fabric inner and outer layers are fused to one another such that the fabric layer and at least a portion of the frame are encapsulated therebetween. The laminate sealing member further comprises a main portion adjacent the frame and an end portion extending from the inflow end of the frame, the end portion being folded to form a cuff adjacent the inflow end of the frame and secured to the main portion of the laminate sealing member. 
     The foregoing and other objects, features, and advantages of the disclosure will become more apparent from the following detailed description, which proceeds with reference to the accompanying figures. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIGS. 1-3  illustrate an exemplary embodiment of a prosthetic valve including a laminate sealing member 
         FIGS. 4-10  illustrate an exemplary frame of the heart valve of  FIG. 1 . 
         FIGS. 11-15B  illustrate another embodiment of a frame for use with a prosthetic heart valve. 
         FIG. 16  illustrates a cross-sectional profile of the frame of  FIG. 4 , showing a general tapering from the outflow end to the inflow end. 
         FIG. 17  is a cross-sectional view of the prosthetic heart valve of  FIG. 2  taken along line  17 - 17 . 
         FIG. 18  is a cross-sectional view of the prosthetic heart valve of  FIG. 1  taken along line  18 - 18 . 
         FIGS. 19A-19F  illustrate a method of forming a laminate sealing member on the frame of a prosthetic heart valve, according to one embodiment. 
         FIG. 20  is a flow chart of a method for forming a laminate sealing member on the frame of a prosthetic heart valve, according to one embodiment. 
         FIG. 21  is a side elevation view illustrating another embodiment of a sealing member. 
         FIG. 22  is a perspective view of the sealing member of  FIG. 21  folded to form a cuff. 
         FIG. 23  is a perspective view illustrating the main portion of the sealing member of  FIG. 21  secured to a frame and the end portion extending distally from the frame. 
         FIG. 24  is a perspective view illustrating the end portion of the sealing member of  FIG. 21  folded and secured to the frame to form a cuff. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The present disclosure concerns embodiments of implantable prosthetic devices and, in particular, implantable prosthetic valves, and methods for making such devices. In one aspect, a prosthetic device includes encapsulating layers that extend over a fabric layer and secure the fabric layer to another component of the device. In particular embodiments, the prosthetic device comprises a prosthetic heart valve, and can be configured to be implanted in any of the native heart valves. In addition, the prosthetic heart valve can be, for example, a transcatheter heart valve, a surgical heart valve, or a minimally-invasive heart valve. The prosthetic valve also can comprise other types of valves implantable within other body lumens outside of the heart or heart valves that are implantable within the heart at locations other than the native valves, such as trans-atrial or trans-ventricle septum valves. 
       FIGS. 1-3  show various views of a prosthetic heart valve  10 , according to one embodiment. The illustrated valve is adapted to be implanted in the native aortic annulus, although in other embodiments it can be adapted to be implanted in the other native annuluses of the heart. The valve  10  can have four main components: a stent, or frame,  12 , a valvular structure  14 , and a laminate sealing member  16 . 
     The valvular structure  14  can comprise three leaflets  40 , collectively forming a leaflet structure, which can be arranged to collapse in a tricuspid arrangement, as best shown in  FIG. 2 . The lower edge of leaflet structure  14  desirably has an undulating, curved scalloped shape (suture line  108  shown in  FIG. 19F  tracks the scalloped shape of the leaflet structure). By forming the leaflets with this scalloped geometry, stresses on the leaflets are reduced which, in turn, improves durability of the valve. Moreover, by virtue of the scalloped shape, folds and ripples at the belly of each leaflet (the central region of each leaflet), which can cause early calcification in those areas, can be eliminated or at least minimized. The scalloped geometry also reduces the amount of tissue material used to form leaflet structure, thereby allowing a smaller, more even crimped profile at the inflow end of the valve. The leaflets  40  can be formed of pericardial tissue (e.g., bovine pericardial tissue), biocompatible synthetic materials, or various other suitable natural or synthetic materials as known in the art and described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,730,118, which is incorporated by reference herein. 
     The bare frame  12  is shown in  FIG. 4 . The frame  12  can be formed with a plurality of circumferentially spaced slots, or commissure windows,  20  (three in the illustrated embodiment) that are adapted to mount the commissures of the valvular structure  14  to the frame, as described in greater detail below. The frame  12  can be made of any of various suitable plastically-expandable materials (e.g., stainless steel, etc.) or self-expanding materials (e.g., Nitinol) as known in the art. When constructed of a plastically-expandable material, the frame  12  (and thus the valve  10 ) can be crimped to a radially compressed state on a delivery catheter and then expanded inside a patient by an inflatable balloon or equivalent expansion mechanism. When constructed of a self-expandable material, the frame  12  (and thus the valve  10 ) can be crimped to a radially compressed state and restrained in the compressed state by insertion into a sheath or equivalent mechanism of a delivery catheter. Once inside the body, the valve can be advanced from the delivery sheath, which allows the valve to expand to its functional size. 
     Suitable plastically-expandable materials that can be used to form the frame  12  include, without limitation, stainless steel, a nickel based alloy (e.g., a cobalt-chromium or a nickel-cobalt-chromium alloy), polymers, or combinations thereof. In particular embodiments, frame  12  is made of a nickel-cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloy, such as MP35N™ (tradename of SPS Technologies), which is equivalent to UNS R30035 (covered by ASTM F562-02). MP35N™/UNS R30035 comprises 35% nickel, 35% cobalt, 20% chromium, and 10% molybdenum, by weight. It has been found that the use of MP35N to form frame  12  provides superior structural results over stainless steel. In particular, when MP35N is used as the frame material, less material is needed to achieve the same or better performance in radial and crush force resistance, fatigue resistances, and corrosion resistance. Moreover, since less material is required, the crimped profile of the frame can be reduced, thereby providing a lower profile valve assembly for percutaneous delivery to the treatment location in the body. 
     Referring to  FIGS. 4 and 5 , the frame  12  in the illustrated embodiment comprises a first, lower row I of angled struts  22  arranged end-to-end and extending circumferentially at the inflow end  13  of the frame; a second row II of circumferentially extending, angled struts  24 ; a third row III of circumferentially extending, angled struts  26 ; a fourth row IV of circumferentially extending, angled struts  28 ; and a fifth row V of circumferentially extending, angled struts  32  at the outflow end  15  of the frame. A plurality of substantially straight axially extending struts  34  can be used to interconnect the struts  22  of the first row I with the struts  24  of the second row II. The fifth row V of angled struts  32  are connected to the fourth row IV of angled struts  28  by a plurality of axially extending window frame portions  30  (which define the commissure windows  20 ) and a plurality of axially extending struts  31 . Each axial strut  31  and each frame portion  30  extends from a location defined by the convergence of the lower ends of two angled struts  32  to another location defined by the convergence of the upper ends of two angled struts  28 .  FIGS. 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10  are enlarged views of the portions of the frame  12  identified by letters A, B, C, D and E, respectively, in  FIG. 4 . 
     Each commissure window frame portion  30  mounts a respective commissure of the leaflet structure  14 . As can be seen each frame portion  30  is secured at its upper and lower ends to the adjacent rows of struts to provide a robust configuration that enhances fatigue resistance under cyclic loading of the valve compared to known cantilevered struts for supporting the commissures of the leaflet structure. This configuration enables a reduction in the frame wall thickness to achieve a smaller crimped diameter of the valve. In particular embodiments, the thickness T of the frame  12  ( FIG. 4 ) measured between the inner diameter and outer diameter is about 0.48 mm or less. 
     The struts and frame portions of the frame collectively define a plurality of open cells of the frame. At the inflow end of the frame  12 , struts  22 , struts  24 , and struts  34  define a lower row of cells defining openings  36 . The second, third, and fourth rows of struts  24 ,  26 , and  28  define two intermediate rows of cells defining openings  38 . The fourth and fifth rows of struts  28  and  32 , along with frame portions  30  and struts  31 , define an upper row of cells defining openings  40 . The openings  40  are relatively large and are sized to allow portions of the leaflet structure  14  to protrude, or bulge, into and/or through the openings  40  when the frame  12  is crimped in order to minimize the crimping profile. 
     As best shown in  FIG. 7 , the lower end of the strut  31  is connected to two struts  28  at a node or junction  44 , and the upper end of the strut  31  is connected to two struts  32  at a node or junction  46 . The strut  31  can have a thickness  51  that is less than the thicknesses S 2  of the junctions  44 ,  46 . The junctions  44 ,  46 , along with junctions  64 , can prevent full closure of openings  40 . The geometry of the struts  31 , and junctions  44 ,  46  and  64  can assist in creating enough space in openings  40  in the crimped state to allow portions of the leaflets to protrude (i.e., bulge) outwardly through openings. This allows the valve to be crimped to a relatively smaller diameter than if all of the leaflet material is constrained within the crimped frame. 
     The frame  12  is configured to prevent or at least minimize possible over-expansion of the valve at a predetermined balloon pressure, especially at the outflow end portion of the frame, which supports the leaflet structure  14 . In one aspect, the frame is configured to have relatively larger angles  42   a ,  42   b ,  42   c ,  42   d ,  42   e  between struts. The larger the angle, the greater the force required to open (expand) the frame. This phenomenon is schematically illustrated in  FIGS. 15A and 15B .  FIG. 15A  shows a strut  32  when the frame  12  is in its compressed state (e.g., mounted on a balloon). The vertical distance d 1  between the ends of the struts is greatest when the frame is compressed, providing a relatively large moment between forces F 1  and F 2  acting on the ends of the strut in opposite directions upon application of an opening force from inflation of the balloon (or expansion of another expansion device). When the frame expands radially, the vertical distance between the ends of the strut decreases to a distance d 2 , as depicted in  FIG. 15B . As the vertical distance decreases, so does the moment between forces F 1  and F 2 . Hence, it can be seen that a relatively greater expansion force is required as the vertical distance and the moment between the ends of the strut decreases. Moreover, strain hardening (stiffening) at the ends of the strut increases as the frame expands, which increases the expansion force required to induce further plastic deformation at the ends of the strut. As such, the angles between the struts of the frame can be selected to limit radial expansion of the frame at a given opening pressure (e.g., inflation pressure of the balloon). In particular embodiments, these angles are at least 110 degrees or greater when the frame is expanded to its functional size, and even more particularly these angles are at least 120 degrees or greater when the frame is expanded to its functional size. 
     In addition, the inflow and outflow ends of a frame generally tend to over-expand more so than the middle portion of the frame due to the “dog boning” effect of the balloon used to expand the valve. To protect against over-expansion of the leaflet structure  14 , the leaflet structure desirably is secured to the frame  12  below the upper row of struts  32 , as best shown in  FIG. 1 . Thus, in the event that the outflow end of the frame is over-expanded, the leaflet structure is positioned at a level below where over-expansion is likely to occur, thereby protecting the leaflet structure from over-expansion. 
     In a known valve construction, the leaflets can protrude outwardly beyond the outflow end of the frame when the valve is crimped if the leaflets are mounted too close to the distal end of the frame. If the delivery catheter on which the crimped valve is mounted includes a pushing mechanism or stop member that pushes against or abuts the outflow end of the valve (for example, to maintain the position of the crimped valve on the delivery catheter), the pushing member or stop member can damage the exposed leaflets that extend beyond the outflow end  15  of the frame  12 . Another benefit of mounting the leaflets at a location spaced from the outflow end  15  of the frame  12  is that when the valve is crimped on a delivery catheter, the leaflets  40  do not protrude beyond the outflow end  15  of the frame  12  in the axial direction. As such, if the delivery catheter includes a pushing mechanism or stop member that pushes against or abuts the outflow end of the valve, the pushing mechanism or stop member can contact the end of the frame  12 , and not leaflets  40 , so as to avoid damage to the leaflets. 
     Also, as can be seen in  FIG. 5 , the openings  36  of the lowermost row of openings in the frame  12  are relatively larger than the openings  38  of the two intermediate rows of openings. This allows the frame, when crimped, to assume an overall tapered shape that tapers from a maximum diameter D 1  at the outflow end of the valve to a minimum diameter D 2  at the inflow end of the valve, as shown in  FIG. 16  and further described in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2012/0123529, which is incorporated herein by reference. When crimped, the frame  12  has a reduced diameter region extending along a portion of the frame adjacent the inflow end of the frame, indicated by reference number  174 , which generally corresponds to the region of the frame covered by the cuff  21  of the laminated sealing member  16 , further described below. The diameter of region  174  is reduced compared to the diameter of the upper portion of the frame such that the cuff  21  need not increase the overall crimp profile of the valve. When the valve is deployed, the frame can expand to the cylindrical shape shown in  FIG. 4 . In one example, the frame of a 26-mm valve, when crimped, had a diameter D 1  of 14 French at the outflow end of the valve and a diameter D 2  of 12 French at the inflow end of the valve. 
       FIGS. 11 and 12  show an alternative frame  50  that can be incorporated in the valve  10 . The frame  50  comprises multiple rows of circumferentially extending, angled struts  52  that are connected to each other at nodes, or connecting portions,  54  and  56 . The uppermost row of struts  52  are connected to an adjacent row of struts by a plurality of axially extending struts  58  and commissure window frame portions  60 . Each commissure frame portion  60  defines a slot or commissure window  62  for mounting a respective commissure of the valvular structure, as described in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2012/0123529 incorporated by reference above. In particular embodiments, the thickness T of the frame  50  is about 0.45 mm or less.  FIGS. 13 and 14  are enlarged views of the portions of the frame  50  identified by letters A and B, respectively, in  FIG. 12 . 
     The laminate sealing member  16  can include a main portion  17  extending from the proximal end of the fourth row IV of angled struts  28  (i.e., from about the height of the commissure windows  20 ), and an end portion  19  extending from the inflow end  13  of the frame  12 , as shown in  FIGS. 1-3 . In the illustrated embodiment, the end portion  19  can be folded back on itself and secured to the main portion  17  to form a cuff  21  adjacent the inflow end  13  of the frame  12 , as shown in  FIGS. 1-3, and 18 . The end portion  19  can include a plurality of circumferentially spaced apart extension portions or projections  23  that can be secured to the main portion  17  by, for example, heat bonding, adhesive, and/or suturing, as further described below. The laminate sealing member  16  can seal against the tissue of the native valve annulus, helping to reduce paravalvular leakage past the prosthetic valve  10 . In some embodiments, the cuff  21  can billow open such that it defines a pocket in the laminate sealing member  16  extending circumferentially around the inflow end  13  of the frame  12  when the prosthetic valve is implanted in a native valve annulus. Alternatively, the end portion  19  can lie relatively flush against the main portion  17 , as desired. 
     The laminate sealing member  16  can comprise inner and outer encapsulating layers  84 ,  86 , respectively (also referred to as “inner and outer layers”), as shown in  FIGS. 17 and 18 . In particular embodiments, the encapsulating layers  84 ,  86  comprise a non-fabric polymer layer or film. In some embodiments, the laminate sealing member  16  can also include a reinforcing layer, such as a fabric or textile layer  18  situated adjacent the frame  12  between the encapsulating layers  84 ,  86 . The encapsulating layers  84 ,  86  can be fused, bonded, or otherwise secured to each other through the openings in the frame  12 , which effectively encapsulates corresponding portions of the frame  12  and the fabric layer  18  to secure these components in their assembled state shown in  FIGS. 1-3 . 
     In the embodiment shown, the inner and outer encapsulating layers  84 ,  86  can be coextensive along the axial length of the main portion  17  of the laminate sealing member  16 . In other words, the encapsulating layers  84 ,  86  can both extend distally from about the level of the commissure windows  20  to the inflow end of the frame to completely or substantially encapsulate the corresponding portion of the frame  12  and the fabric layer  18 , as shown in  FIG. 18 . In the illustrated embodiment, the inner layer  84  can terminate at or near the inflow end  13  of the frame  12 , while the outer layer  86  can extend beyond the inflow end to form the end portion  19  of the laminate sealing member  16  and, hence, the cuff  21 . Thus, in the illustrated embodiment, the inner layer  84  forms an inner skirt of the sealing member and the outer layer  86  forms an outer skirt of the sealing member. In alternative embodiments, the inner and/or outer layers  84 ,  86  can extend along any proportion of the main portion  17  or the end portion  19  of the laminate sealing member  16 , as desired. For example, in some embodiments the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  can be coextensive along both the main portion  17  and the end portion  19  of the laminate sealing member  16 . In further alternative embodiments, the outer layer  86  can terminate at the inflow end  13  of the frame  12 , while the inner layer  84  can continue beyond the inflow end  13  to form the cuff  21 . In the illustrated embodiment, the outer layer  86  can form a fold line at an upstream-most end of the outer layer. The outer layer  86  can double back on the outside of the frame so that the cuff  21  extends from the fold line in a downstream direction along an outer surface of a main body portion of the outer layer and forms a double layer on the exterior of the frame  12 . 
     In some embodiments, the layers  84 ,  86  can be such that they only encapsulate selected portions of the frame  12  and the fabric layer  18 . Also, although in the illustrated embodiment the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  are tubular or cylindrical in shape, the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  need not extend along the respective inner and outer surfaces of the frame  12  in the circumferential direction through 360 degrees. In other words, the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  can have a cross-sectional profile (in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the lumen of the valve) that is not a complete circle. 
     As stated above, the laminate sealing member  16  can comprise a reinforcing layer, such as the fabric layer  18 . The fabric layer  18  can comprise, for example, any of various woven fabrics, such as gauze, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fabric (e.g., Dacron), polyester fabric, polyamide fabric, or any of various non-woven fabrics, such as felt. The thickness of the fabric layer can vary, but can be less than 6 mil, and desirably less than 4 mil, and even more desirably about 2 mil. Traditionally, fabric skirts have been secured to frames using sutures. In contrast, in the illustrated embodiment, fabric layer  18  desirably is secured to the frame  12  without sutures and instead is secured to the frame  12  with the inner and/or outer encapsulating layers  84 , and  86  (see, e.g.,  FIGS. 17 and 18 ). 
     The fabric layer  18  of the prosthetic valve can serve several functions. In particular embodiments, for example, the fabric layer  18  primarily functions to strengthen the laminate sealing member  16  to resist tearing. In this manner, the leaflet structure  14  can be anchored to the frame  12  by sutures without tearing the laminate sealing member  16 . In addition, the fabric layer  18 , in cooperation with the encapsulating layers  84 ,  86 , can help decrease (or prevent) paravalvular leakage past the prosthetic valve when in the expanded configuration. 
     Alternatively, the reinforcing layer can comprise one or more layers or films formed from any of various semi-crystalline polymeric materials or thermoplastics having aligned or partially aligned (e.g., parallel) molecular chains. Such materials can exhibit anisotropic mechanical properties, such as increased mechanical strength along the longitudinal direction of the molecular chains. Suitable semi-crystalline polymeric materials can include, for example, PTFE, PET, polypropylene, polyamide, polyetheretherketone (PEEK), etc., layers or films of which can be situated between and encapsulated by the encapsulating layers to reinforce the laminate sealing member  16 . 
     The encapsulating layers  84 ,  86  can be made of any suitable biocompatible material. In one example, the encapsulating layers  84 ,  86  can be formed using an electrospinning process. In other examples, the encapsulating layers  84 ,  86  can be formed using any other suitable method including, for example, dip coating, spray coating, or melt-spinning. The biocompatible material may be a non-absorbable polymeric material (i.e., a material that does not dissolve once implanted in the body). Examples of such materials include, without limitation, expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE), unexpanded porous PTFE, polyester or expanded PTFE yarns, PTFE, ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), other polyolefins, composite materials such as ePTFE with PTFE fibers, or UHMWPE film with embedded UHMWPE fibers, polyimides, silicones, polyurethane, hydrogels, fluoroethylpolypropylene (FEP), polypropylfluorinated amines (PFA), other related fluorinated polymers, or various combinations of any of these materials. In particular embodiments, the encapsulating layers  84 ,  86  are formed from respective tubes made of a suitable polymeric material (e.g., ePTFE tubes or UHMWPE tubes) that are bonded to each other when subjected to heat treatment, as described in detail below. 
     Microporous expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) tubes can be made by a number of well-known methods. Expanded PTFE is frequently produced by admixing particulate dry polytetrafluoroethylene resin with a liquid lubricant to form a viscous slurry. The mixture can be poured into a mold, typically a cylindrical mold, and compressed to form a cylindrical billet. The billet can then be ram extruded through an extrusion die into either tubular or sheet structures, termed extrudates in the art. The extrudates comprise an extruded PTFE-lubricant mixture called “wet PTFE.” Wet PTFE has a microstructure of coalesced, coherent PTFE resin particles in a highly crystalline state. Following extrusion, the wet PTFE can be heated to a temperature below the flash point of the lubricant to volatilize a major fraction of the lubricant from the PTFE extrudate. The resulting PTFE extrudate without a major fraction of lubricant is known in the art as dried PTFE. The dried PTFE can then be either uniaxially, biaxially, or radially expanded using appropriate mechanical apparatus known in the art. Expansion is typically carried out at an elevated temperature, e.g., above room temperature but below 327 degrees C., the crystalline melt point of PTFE. Uniaxial, biaxial, or radial expansion of the dried PTFE causes the coalesced, coherent PTFE resin to form fibrils emanating from nodes (regions of coalesced PTFE), with the fibrils oriented parallel to the axis of expansion. Once expanded, the dried PTFE is referred to as expanded PTFE (“ePTFE”) or microporous PTFE. 
     UHMWPE is made up of very long chains of polyethylene, with molecular weight numbering in the millions, usually between 2 and 6 million. It is highly resistant to corrosive chemicals, has extremely low moisture absorption and a very low coefficient of friction. It is self-lubricating and highly resistant to abrasion. UHMWPE is processed using compression molding, ram extrusion, gel spinning, and sintering. UHMWPE is available commercially as a powder, in sheets or rods, and as fibers. 
     Referring to  FIGS. 19A-19E and 20 , an exemplary method for forming the prosthetic valve  10  will now be described. Although the use of ePTFE is described below, it is merely exemplary in nature and is not intended as a limitation. It is to be understood that other materials such as UHMWPE, polyurethane composite materials, or any other non-absorbable polymeric materials described above can be used. 
     First, as depicted in  FIG. 19A , an inner layer  84  comprising a flat piece of ePTFE material or an ePTFE tube can be placed or wrapped on a mandrel  100 . Second, as depicted in  FIG. 19B , a frame  12  can be placed over the inner layer  84  such that the inner layer  84  extends from approximately the commissure windows  20  to the inflow end  13  of the frame  12 , although it will be appreciated that other configurations are possible. Third, as depicted in  FIG. 19C , the fabric layer  18  can be placed over the frame  12 . The fabric layer  18  can be in the form of a sheet of fabric material that is tightly wrapped around the outer surface of the frame  12 . However, in alternative embodiments, the fabric layer  18  may also be situated inside the frame  12  (e.g., placed on the inner layer  84  before placement of the frame  12  on the inner layer  84 ). In the illustrated embodiment, the fabric layer  18  may have an axial length that is shorter than the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  to facilitate bonding of the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  at their respective ends to encapsulate the frame  12  and fabric layer  18  therebetween. 
     Fourth, as depicted in  FIG. 19D , the outer layer  86  comprising a flat piece of ePTFE material or an ePTFE tube can be placed or wrapped over the fabric layer  18 . In the illustrated embodiment, the outer layer  86  can have a proximal portion  87  and a distal portion  89 , wherein the distal portion  89  can have a diameter that is greater than the diameter of the proximal portion  87 . The extension portions  23  of the outer layer  86  can be formed on the distal portion  89  (e.g., by laser cutting) before or after placement of the outer layer  86  on the mandrel  100 , as desired. As shown in  FIG. 19E , layers of PTFE tape  92  can then be wrapped around one or both ends of the outer layer  86  to help secure the position of the outer layer  86  to the underlying layers of the assembly and to the mandrel  100  during subsequent processing. 
     An alternative way to encapsulate the frame with a polymer is by using an electrospinning technique. Electrospinning uses an electrical charge to draw very fine (typically on the micrometer or nanometer scale) fibers from a liquid. 
     The assembly shown in  FIG. 19E  can now undergo an encapsulation process whereby the assembly is subjected to heat and/or pressure to cause the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  to bond to each other through the openings in the frame  12  proximally and distally of the fabric layer  18  (see  FIG. 18 ) to encapsulate the frame  12  and the fabric layer  18  therebetween. Depending on the porosity of the weave of the fabric layer  18 , the layers  84 ,  86  can bond to each other through the fabric layer  18 . During this step, the entire outer surface of the assembly on the mandrel  100  can be tightly wrapped with a suitable material (e.g., PTFE tape) to apply pressure to the various layers of the assembly such that the layers  84 ,  86  form a monolithic laminate sealing member  16 . The entire assembly, including the mandrel  100 , can be transferred to an oven where the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  are sintered by being heated to a predetermined temperature. In one implementation, for example, the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  are sintered by being heated to a temperature above 327 degrees C., the crystalline melt point of PTFE. In some embodiments, bonding between the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  can be facilitated by the use of one or more adhesives, such as polyurethane. 
     During the sintering process the ePTFE is restrained against uniaxial, biaxial, or radial contraction. Sintering can cause at least a portion of the crystalline PTFE to change from a crystalline state to an amorphous state. The conversion from a highly crystalline structure to one having an increased amorphous content can lock the node and fibril microstructure, as well as its orientation relative to the axis of expansion, and provide a dimensionally stable tubular or sheet material upon cooling. 
     After the sintering process, the assembly is removed from the oven and allowed to cool. The material wrapped around the assembly, as well as tape layers  92 , can now be removed. Any portions of the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  that extend beyond the desired dimensions of the laminate sealing member  16  can be trimmed. If desired, selected portions of the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  can be removed to facilitate crimping of the valve for delivery into a patient. Any of various suitable techniques and mechanisms can be used to selectively remove portions of layers  84 ,  86 , such as laser cutting. For example, portions of the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  that cover selected openings in the frame  12  can be cut or otherwise removed to minimize the amount of material in the valve, which can facilitate crimping of the valve to a relatively small diameter. 
     Referring to  FIG. 19F , after the encapsulating layers  84 ,  86  have been bonded together to form the laminate sealing member  16 , the end portion  19  of the laminate sealing member  16  can be folded over to form the cuff  21 , and the extension portions  23  can be secured to the main portion  17  of the laminate sealing member  16 . In some embodiments, the extension portions  23  can be attached to the main portion  17  by heat bonding (e.g., in combination with an optional additional polymer such as polyurethane to promote bonding between the ePTFE layers, with process temperatures adjusted as necessary). In some embodiments, the extension portions  23  can be attached to the main portion by suturing. In some embodiments, the end portion  19  and/or the extension portions  23  can include a reinforcing fabric layer to facilitate suturing of the end portion  19  to the main portion  17 . In some embodiments, the cuff  21  can be secured to the main portion via heat bonding, an adhesive, and/or suturing. 
     In particular embodiments, the cuff  21  is secured to the main body  17  only along the uppermost edges of the extension portions  23  and the U-shaped upper edge portions  25  defining the gaps are not secured to the frame. Thus, the cuff  21  can form a pocket having openings defined by the U-shaped edges  25 . 
     In an alternative embodiment, the fabric layer  18  can be pre-formed in a tubular or cylindrical configuration. In this embodiment, the fabric layer  18  can be positioned on the frame  12  by first partially crimping the frame  12  to a diameter smaller than the diameter of the fabric layer  18 . The fabric layer  18  can then be placed over the partially crimped frame, and the frame can be expanded back to its functional size. The fabric layer  18  desirably is sized such that the expanded frame  12  applies at least some outward radial pressure against the fabric layer  18  to assist in retaining the fabric layer  18  on the frame  12 . The frame and fabric layer assembly can then be placed onto inner layer  84  (already on the mandrel), and encapsulated following the process described above. In another embodiment, the fabric layer  18  can be placed on the inside of the frame  12 . For example, the fabric layer  18  can be in the form of a sheet of material that is wrapped around inner layer  84  prior to placing the frame  12  on the mandrel  100 . Alternatively, the fabric layer  18  can have a tubular configuration and can be positioned onto inner layer  84  prior to placing the frame  12  on the mandrel  100 . 
     After encapsulation, the frame  12  can be removed from the mandrel  100  and the leaflet structure  14  can be attached to the fabric layer  18  and/or the frame  12  using sutures or other suitable techniques or mechanisms. In the illustrated embodiment shown in  FIG. 2 , for example, the leaflets  40  are secured to one another at their adjacent sides to form commissures  48 . Each commissure  48  can be secured to a corresponding commissure window  20  of the frame  12 , as described in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2012/0123529, incorporated by reference above. The lower, or inflow, end portion of the leaflets  40  can be sutured to the fabric layer  18  of the laminate sealing member  16  along a suture line  108  that tracks the curvature of the scalloped lower edge of the leaflet structure, as shown in  FIG. 19F . The fabric layer  18  can provide the strength required to retain the sutures without tearing the laminate sealing member  16 . Any suitable suture, such as an Ethibond suture, can be used to secure the leaflets  40  to the fabric layer  18  of the laminate sealing member  16  along suture line  108 . 
     In certain embodiments, the lower edges of the leaflets  40  can be secured to the fabric layer  18  via a thin PET reinforcing strip (not shown), as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,993,394, which is incorporated herein by reference. As described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,993,394, the reinforcing strip can be sutured to the lower edges of the leaflets. The reinforcing strip and the lower edges of the leaflets can then be sutured to the laminate sealing member  16  along suture line  108 . The reinforcing strip desirably is secured to the inner surfaces of the leaflets  40  such that the lower edges of the leaflets become sandwiched between the reinforcing strip and the laminate sealing member  16  when the leaflets and the reinforcing strip are secured to the laminate sealing member. The reinforcing strip enables a secure suturing and protects the pericardial tissue of the leaflet structure from tears. 
     As noted above, the conventional method for securing a fabric skirt to a frame involves manually suturing the fabric skirt to the frame. In contrast, the illustrated embodiment relies on the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  to secure the fabric layer  18  in place relative to the frame. As can be appreciated, this technique for securing the fabric layer  18  to the frame can significantly reduce the amount of labor required to assemble a valve. The use of layers  84 ,  86  provides other advantages as well. For example, the outer layer  86 , when formed from ePTFE or UHMWPE, has a porous microstructure that facilitates tissue in-growth from surrounding tissue after the valve is implanted. When formed of ePTFE, UHMWPE, or other suitable polymers, the laminate sealing member  16  can exhibit lower blood permeability than conventional fabric skirts, especially in the period immediately following implantation, which can help to reduce paravalvular leakage. 
     In addition, the inner and outer layers  84 ,  86  can protect the leaflets  40  during crimping and facilitate even and predictable crimping of the valve. When a prosthetic valve is placed in a crimping apparatus to radially compress the valve to a smaller diameter for insertion into a patient, the leaflets of the valve are pressed against the inner surface of the metal frame and portions of the tissue can protrude into the open cells of the frame between the struts and can be pinched due to the scissor-like motion of the struts of the frame. If the valve is severely crimped to achieve a small crimping size, this scissor-like motion can result in cuts and rupture of the tissue leaflets. To protect the leaflets during crimping, it is known to place a deformable material around the valve to prevent direct contact between the hard surface of the jaws of the crimping apparatus and the valve. The deformable material can protrude into the open cells, thereby preventing the leaflets from entering this space and being pinched by metal struts of the frame. Layers  84 ,  86  function in a manner similar to this deformable material to protect leaflets from being pinched during crimping. As such, the disclosed valve  10  can be placed in a crimping apparatus without an additional protective layer of material surrounding the valve. Due to the presence of layers  84 ,  86 , the valve  10  can be crimped onto the balloon of a balloon catheter in an even and predictable manner that forms a very ordered structure of balloon-leaflets-frame (from inward to outward). Additionally, inner layer  84  can prevent direct contact between the leaflets  40  and the frame  12  during working cycles of the valve (i.e., as the valve leaflets open and close in response to blood pressure) to protect the leaflets against damage caused by contact with the frame. 
     Moreover, as noted above, the fabric layer  18  can be any of various woven or non-woven fabrics, such as a gauze, PET cloth, or felt. PET or other fabrics are substantially non-elastic (i.e., substantially non-stretchable and non-compressible). As such, in known prosthetic valves, the skirt can wrinkle after expansion from the crimped diameter. In the illustrated embodiment, the fabric layer  18  can be tightly compressed against the frame by layers  84 ,  86  such that when the valve is expanded to its functional size from the crimped state, the fabric layer  18  can recover to its original, smooth surfaces with little or no wrinkling. 
     The encapsulation process is described above in the context of securing a fabric layer to the frame of an expandable transcatheter heart valve within a laminate sealing member. The fabric layer typically is more durable than the ePTFE layers and, therefore, the fabric layer reinforces the ePTFE layers where they undergo stresses from cyclic loading of the valve. However, in alternative embodiments, the valve can be formed without the fabric layer to permit crimping of the valve to a smaller delivery diameter. The ePTFE layers  84 ,  86 , and the cuff  21  can serve as the primary sealing mechanism that prevents paravalvular leakage around or through the frame of the valve. In other embodiments, the fabric layer  18  can be used to reinforce only selected portions of the layers  84 ,  86 , such as those portions of layers  84 ,  86  subject to greatest loading, while the remaining portions of layers  84 ,  86  do not contain a fabric layer or fabric layer. 
     It should be noted that the encapsulation process can be utilized to secure a fabric or woven or non-woven textile element to other components of a prosthetic valve. For example, surgical valves (valves which are typically implanted via open-heart surgery) include several components that are covered with a cloth or fabric material. Known surgical valves typically have a sewing ring and one or more stent components, each of which are covered with a cloth member. The cloth member typically is wrapped around the valve component and the longitudinal edges of the cloth member are manually stitched to each other to secure the cloth member around the valve component. As can be appreciated, the time and labor required to secure such cloth members to the components of the valve can be significantly reduced by employing an encapsulation technique as described herein. 
       FIG. 20  schematically illustrates a representative method of encapsulating a frame of a prosthetic valve to form a laminate sealing member. At block  202 , an inner layer comprising, for example, ePTFE, can be positioned over a mandrel. 
     At block  204 , a frame can be positioned on the mandrel over the inner layer. 
     At block  206 , an outer layer comprising, for example, ePTFE, can be positioned on the mandrel over the frame. 
     At block  208 , the inner and outer layers can be fused to one another to create a laminate sealing member encapsulating at least a portion of the frame therebetween. 
     At block  210 , an end portion of the laminate sealing member can be folded up and secured to a main portion of the laminate sealing member to form a cuff. The laminate sealing member can optionally include a fabric or textile layer located between the inner and outer layers adjacent the inside or outside of the frame, as described above. 
       FIGS. 21-24  illustrate another embodiment of a sealing member  300  including a main portion  302 , an intermediate portion  304 , and an end portion  306 . In the illustrated embodiment, the main portion  302  can have a diameter DM corresponding substantially to an inner diameter of an expanded frame  308 . In the illustrated embodiment, the end portion  306  can have a diameter DE that is equal to or greater than an outer diameter of the expanded frame  308 , and the intermediate portion  304  can have a diameter that increases or flares in a longitudinal direction of the sealing member from the diameter DM of the main portion  302  to the diameter DE of the end portion  306 . Thus, in the illustrated embodiment, the intermediate portion can have a frustoconical shape. 
     The end portion  306  of the sealing member  300  can be folded (e.g., along the interface  316  between the intermediate portion and the end portion and the interface  318  between the main portion and the intermediate portion) and secured to the main portion  302 , as shown in  FIGS. 21 and 22 . During the assembly process, the sealing member can be secured to the inside of the frame  308  such that the main portion  302  is adjacent an inner surface of the frame and the end portion  306  extends distally from an inflow end  310  of the frame  308 . The end portion  306  can then be folded upwardly and around the inflow end  310  of the frame and attached to the main portion  302  (through the frame) and/or to the exterior of the frame  308  to form a cuff  312  adjacent the inflow end  310  of the frame. In this manner, the sealing member  300  can combine the functions of conventionally separate inner and outer skirts into a single unitary sealing member. This can reduce the amount of material around the inflow end of the valve, thereby reducing the crimped profile of the valve, along with flow disturbances or obstructions created by the sealing member when inserted into a native heart valve. Use of the sealing member described herein can also reduce the time and labor required to assemble a valve over known valve skirts. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the end portion  306  can include tabs or projections  314 , which can be secured to the main portion  302  of the sealing member and/or to the exterior of the frame members by, for example, stitching, adhesive, heat bonding, etc. The projections  314  can aid in folding the end portion  306  to form the cuff  312 , thereby reducing the need for complex shaping of the sealing member. In some embodiments, the main portion  302  can also include tabs or projections. 
     The sealing member  300  may be made from any of various woven fabrics such as PET, polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), UHMWPE, polypropylene, natural fibers such as silk, etc. The fabric may be woven or braided into the final shape of the sealing member  300 . Alternatively, the sealing member  300  may be formed from a tubular piece of material, such as by application of heat or by shape setting. The projections  314  can be created by, for example, cutting sections of material from the end portion  306 . Additionally, it should be understood that the shape of the sealing member  300  can be applicable to any of the sealing members described herein. 
     In some embodiments, the properties of the fabric may be varied along the length of the sealing member. For example, yarns in the fabric of the main portion  302  may be set at an angle (e.g., 45 degrees) such that the fabric of the main portion can more easily elongate and/or foreshorten during crimping and expansion of the frame. 
     In some embodiments, a fabric sealing member (e.g., the sealing member  300 ) can be laminated with or encapsulated between one or more layers or films of ePTFE (e.g., 0.00020 inch to 0.001 inch Aeos® ePTFE material available from Zeus Industrial Products, Inc.). For example, one or more layers of ePTFE can be applied to at least one surface of the sealing member to reduce the permeability of the sealing member. This can reduce the amount of blood leakage through the sealing member, especially in the time period immediately following implantation. The smooth surface of the one or more ePTFE layers can also improve the durability of the tissue leaflets contacting the ePTFE layers, and can reduce or prevent the exposure of broken yarns or filaments in the underlying fabric, improving yields during manufacturing of the heart valves. The number and thickness of the one or more ePTFE layers, along with other parameters including the internodal distance, porosity, etc., of the ePTFE, can be varied according to the particular properties desired. In alternative embodiments, one or more layers of ePTFE are applied to both surfaces of a sealing member (e.g., sealing member  300 ) before it is assembled onto a frame. 
     General Considerations 
     For purposes of this description, certain aspects, advantages, and novel features of the embodiments of this disclosure are described herein. The disclosed methods, apparatus, and systems should not be construed as being limiting in any way. Instead, the present disclosure is directed toward all novel and nonobvious features and aspects of the various disclosed embodiments, alone and in various combinations and sub-combinations with one another. The methods, apparatus, and systems are not limited to any specific aspect or feature or combination thereof, nor do the disclosed embodiments require that any one or more specific advantages be present or problems be solved. 
     Although the operations of some of the disclosed embodiments are described in a particular, sequential order for convenient presentation, it should be understood that this manner of description encompasses rearrangement, unless a particular ordering is required by specific language set forth below. For example, operations described sequentially may in some cases be rearranged or performed concurrently. Moreover, for the sake of simplicity, the attached figures may not show the various ways in which the disclosed methods can be used in conjunction with other methods. Additionally, the description sometimes uses terms like “provide” or “achieve” to describe the disclosed methods. These terms are high-level abstractions of the actual operations that are performed. The actual operations that correspond to these terms may vary depending on the particular implementation and are readily discernible by one of ordinary skill in the art. 
     As used in this application and in the claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include the plural forms unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Additionally, the term “includes” means “comprises.” Further, the terms “coupled” and “associated” generally mean electrically, electromagnetically, and/or physically (e.g., mechanically or chemically) coupled or linked and does not exclude the presence of intermediate elements between the coupled or associated items absent specific contrary language. 
     In the context of the present application, the terms “lower” and “upper” are used interchangeably with the terms “inflow” and “outflow”, respectively. Thus, for example, the lower end of the valve is its inflow end and the upper end of the valve is its outflow end. 
     As used herein, the term “proximal” refers to a position, direction, or portion of a device that is closer to the user and further away from the implantation site. As used herein, the term “distal” refers to a position, direction, or portion of a device that is further away from the user and closer to the implantation site. Thus, for example, proximal motion of a device is motion of the device toward the user, while distal motion of the device is motion of the device away from the user. The terms “longitudinal” and “axial” refer to an axis extending in the proximal and distal directions, unless otherwise expressly defined. 
     In view of the many possible embodiments to which the principles of the disclosure may be applied, it should be recognized that the illustrated embodiments are only preferred examples and should not be taken as limiting the scope of the disclosure. Rather, the scope of the disclosure is at least as broad as the following claims.