Patent Publication Number: US-11661618-B2

Title: Transgenic bacteria with expanded amino acid usage and nucleic acid molecules for use in the same

Description:
This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/380,560, filed Dec. 15, 2016, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/267,498, filed Dec. 15, 2015, the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     The invention was made with government support under Grant No. CHE1402753 awarded by the National Science Foundation and Grant No. FA9550-10-1-0169 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     INCORPORATION OF SEQUENCE LISTING 
     The sequence listing that is contained in the file named “UTSBP1092USC1 ST25 updated.txt”, which is 17 KB (as measured in Microsoft Windows®) and was created on Nov. 3, 2020, is filed herewith by electronic submission and is incorporated by reference herein. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     1. Field of the Invention 
     The present invention relates generally to the field of molecular biology and protein engineering. More particularly, it concerns compositions and methods for producing and screening polypeptides including non-canonical amino acids. 
     2. Description of Related Art 
     Life on Earth has been shaped by the universal and almost static genetic code set early in evolutionary history. At the coding level, life&#39;s proteome has been confined to 20  canonical amino acids, as well as selenocysteine and pyrrolysine, two rare, naturally occurring non-canonical amino acids (NCAAs) with specialized incorporation pathways. Because of differences in the way in which tRNA molecules are charged by tRNA synthetases in different organisms, it is difficult to predict to what extent a tRNA charged with a non-canonical amino acid by an engineered tRNA synthetase will truly be orthogonal to the canonical set of tRNAs and tRNA synthetases in any given organism. There is frequently background charging of introduced tRNAs by native tRNA synthetases, and background charging of native tRNAs by introduced tRNA synthetases. These effects likely contribute to the rapid loss of any introduced system to allow for incorporation of a NCAA. Thus, to date, there remains a need for a stable system that provides incorporation of NCAAs and that can be applied to a broad range of host organisms. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In a first embodiment the invention provides a transgenic bacterial cell, said cell comprising heterologous nucleic acids encoding translation components for incorporation of at least a first non-canonical amino acid and a screenable or selectable marker polypeptide that exhibits enhanced activity when at least one position of the marker polypeptide is said first non-canonical amino acid. In some aspects the bacterial cell comprises a heterologous nucleic acid encoding a screenable marker that exhibits enhanced activity when at least one position of the marker polypeptide is said first non-canonical amino acid. In specific aspects, the screenable marker is a fluorescent or luminescent polypeptide. 
     In other aspects, the bacterial cell comprises a heterologous nucleic acid encoding a selectable marker that exhibits enhanced activity when at least one position of the marker polypeptide is said first non-canonical amino acid. In further aspects, the selectable marker is a polypeptide that provides antibiotic resistance. In particular aspects, the selectable marker is a beta-lactamase enzyme. In specific aspects, the beta-lactamase has least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% identity to SEQ ID NO: 9 and wherein the positions corresponding to C69 and/or C238 are selenocysteine. In still further aspects, the positions corresponding to C69 and C238 are selenocysteine. 
     In some aspects, the bacterial cell is a Gram positive or a Gram negative bacterial cell. In some specific aspects, the bacterial cell is an  E. coli  cell. In other particular aspects, the bacterial cell is an  Enterobacter  or  Serratia  bacteria. In further aspects, the bacterial cell is an  Enterobacter cloacae  or  Serratia marcescens  bacterial cell. 
     In certain aspects, the translation components for incorporation of the first non-canonical amino acid comprise a nucleic acid encoding a tRNA and an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase for the first non-canonical amino acid. In some aspects, the tRNA recognizes a UAG codon. In further aspects, the tRNA is at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% identical to SEQ ID NO: 18, SEQ ID NO: 19, SEQ ID NO: 20 or SEQ ID NO: 4. In specific aspects, the tRNA comprises SEQ ID NO: 18, SEQ ID NO: 19, SEQ ID NO: 20 or SEQ ID NO: 4. 
     In still further aspects, the translation components for incorporation of the first non-canonical amino acid further comprise a nucleic acid encoding an enzyme for synthesis for the first non-canonical amino acid. In a particular aspect, the non-canonical amino acid is selenocysteine. In other aspects, the cell comprises a nucleic acid encoding selA, selB and/or selC. In a specific aspect, the cell comprises a nucleic acid encoding selA. In some aspects, the bacterial cell comprises an inactivated or deleted prfA gene. In certain aspects, the cell has been engineered to lack endogenous Amber codons. In some particular aspects, the cell is or is derived from a  E. coli  C321.ΔA. 
     In a further embodiment the invention provides a population of bacterial cells in accordance with the embodiments and aspects described above. In certain aspects, the population comprises 1×10 3  to 1×10 12  bacterial cells. 
     In still a further embodiment, there is provided a method of producing a commercial polypeptide comprising at least a first non-canonical amino acid comprising (i) obtaining a bacterial cell according to the embodiments and an expression cassette encoding the commercial polypeptide; and (ii) incubating the bacterial cell in conditions that allow expression of the commercial polypeptide. In some aspects, the expression cassette encoding the commercial polypeptide is under the control of an inducible promoter. In certain aspects, the method further comprises isolating the expressed commercial polypeptide. 
     In yet still a further embodiment the invention provides a method of screening for a polypeptide having a desired activity comprising (i) obtaining a population of bacterial cells according to claim  1  and said cells encoding a library of candidate polypeptides, said polypeptides comprising at least a first non-canonical amino acid position; and (ii) screening the population of bacteria to identify a candidate polypeptide having the desired biological activity. In specific aspects, the population of bacterial cells comprises nucleic acid constructs encoding 100 to 10,000,000 different candidate polypeptides. 
     In still a further embodiment, there is provided a recombinant nucleic acid molecule, wherein the molecule encodes a tRNA that is at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% identical to SEQ ID NO: 18, SEQ ID NO: 19, or SEQ ID NO: 20 and comprising one or more of the following features: a G or C at a position corresponding to position 7; a T at a position corresponding to position 49; an A or C at a position corresponding to position 50; a T at a position corresponding to position 64; a G or A at a position corresponding to position 65; and/or a G, T or C at a position corresponding to position 66. In some particular aspects, the molecule encodes a tRNA comprising the sequence at least about 90% identical to SEQ ID NO: 18; and comprises one or more of the features listed above. In further specific aspects, the molecule comprises 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 of the features listed above. In certain aspects, the molecule encodes a tRNA comprising the sequence at least about 90% identical to SEQ ID NO: 19 or SEQ ID NO: 20. In particular aspects, the molecule encodes a tRNA comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 18, SEQ ID NO: 19, or SEQ ID NO: 20. 
     In yet still a further embodiment there is provided a recombinant polypeptide, encoding a beta-lactamase enzyme, said enzyme comprising a disulfide bond between two cysteine positions that is required for activity of the enzyme, where at least one of said two cysteine positions is substituted with a selenocysteine. In some aspects, both of said Cys positions are substituted with a selenocysteine. In further aspects, the beta-lactamase enzyme is SME-type beta-lactamase. For example, the beta-lactamase can comprises a sequence least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% identical to SEQ ID NO: 9 and wherein the positions corresponding to C69 and/or C238 are selenocysteine. In certain aspects, the positions corresponding to C69 and C238 are selenocysteine. 
     Further embodiments of the invention provide a recombinant nucleic acid molecule encoding the polypeptide according to the embodiments and aspects described above. In some aspects, the codons corresponding to the selenocysteine position(s) is a UAG codon. In other aspects, the sequence is at least about 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% identical to SEQ ID NO: 8. 
     As used herein, “essentially free,” in terms of a specified component, is used herein to mean that none of the specified component has been purposefully formulated into a composition and/or is present only as a contaminant or in trace amounts. The total amount of the specified component resulting from any unintended contamination of a composition is therefore well below 0.01%. Most preferred is a composition in which no amount of the specified component can be detected with standard analytical methods. 
     As used herein in the specification and claims, “a” or “an” may mean one or more. As used herein in the specification and claims, when used in conjunction with the word “comprising”, the words “a” or “an” may mean one or more than one. As used herein, in the specification and claim, “another” or “a further” may mean at least a second or more. 
     As used herein in the specification and claims, the term “about” is used to indicate that a value includes the inherent variation of error for the device, the method being employed to determine the value, or the variation that exists among the study subjects. 
     Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating certain embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The following drawings form part of the present specification and are included to further demonstrate certain aspects of the present invention. The invention may be better understood by reference to one or more of these drawings in combination with the detailed description of specific embodiments presented herein. 
         FIGS.  1   a - 1   c   —Selection of tRNAs capable of canonical incorporation of selenocysteine. ( 1   a ) Representation of the NMC-A β-lactamase from  Enterobacter cloacae  (PDB: 1BUE) showing the engineered selenyl-sulfhydryl bond between residues 69 and 238 and its proximity to the catalytic site. ( 1   b ) Validation of a β-lactamase reporter capable of discriminating serine from selenocysteine. Three NMC-A variants, C69X (TAG), C69 and C69S (clockwise from left), were constructed to determine the threshold for selection (&lt;50 μg·mL −1 ). These approximate the following outcomes during selection: Termination at the amber stop codon due to inefficient interaction with EF-Tu, impaired interaction with SelA promoting incorporation of serine, and efficient interactions with both SelA and EF-Tu resulting in incorporation of selenocysteine. ( 1   c ) Representation of  E. coli  tRNA SecCUA  and the evolved antideterminant sequence (SEQ ID NO: 21). The antideterminant library is shown expanded on the right and the CUA anticodon is shown at the bottom of the figure. 
         FIGS.  2   a - 2   b   —Activity of tRNA sec  variants in canonical translation. ( 2   a ) NMC-A β-lactamase reporter assay. From top row: Wild type NMC-A β-lactamase, NMC-A C69S, NMC-A C69X with tRNA SecCUA , NMC-A C69X with tRNA secUx , NMC-A C69X with tRNA SecUx  and inactive SelA, NMC-A C69X with tRNA SecUG  containing a strong EF-Tu binding sequence and NMC-A C69X with tRNA UTu . The observed dynamic range of the selection exceeds 20 fold. ( 2   b ) Reduction of benzyl viologen by  E. coli  formate dehydrogenase H confirms selenocysteine is incorporated by the tRNA SecUx . Plate layout is identical to ( 2   a ) with FdhH, FdhH U140S and FdhH U140TAG reporters replacing the NMC-A reporter. 
         FIGS.  3   a - 3   d   —Intact mass and 193 nm UVPD results are shown for DHFR and seleno-DHFR produced using tRNA SecUx . For the sequence information shown, disulfide-bound cysteines are shaded in gray as are selenocysteine positions. When selenocysteine is located at position 39, it forms a selenyl-sulfhydryl bond with the cysteine at position 85. The slash marks represent the cleavage sites that lead to different N-terminal and C-terminal ions. ( 3   a ) Expanded region of the deconvoluted mass spectrum of DHFR with serine at position 39 (expected average mass m/z 19331.72). ( 3   b ) Expanded region of the deconvoluted mass spectrum of DHFR with selenocysteine incorporated at position 39 using tRNA SecUx  (expected average mass m/z 19392.66). (3c) UVPD fragmentation map of DHFR P39S obtained for the 20+ charge state (SEQ ID NO: 11, encoded by a DNA sequence of SEQ ID NO: 10). ( 3   d ) UVPD fragmentation map of DHFR with selenocysteine at position 39, 18+ charge state (SEQ ID NO: 13, encoded by a DNA sequence of SEQ ID NO: 12). 
         FIG.  4   —Activity of tRNA SecUx  in canonical translation in an  E. coli  strain lacking release factor 1. NMC-A β-lactamase reporter assay. From top row: Wild type NMC-A β-lactamase, NMC-A C69S, NMC-A C69X with tRNA SecCUA  NMC-A C69X with tRNA SecUx , NMC-A C69X with tRNA SecUx  and inactive SelA, NMC-A C69X C238X with tRNA SecUx  and NMC-A C69X with tRNA UTu . Use of the prfA minus  E. coli  strain dramatically enhances selenocysteine incorporation and β-lactamase activity. Incorporation of selenocysteine at both positions 69 and 238 also results in strong β-lactamase activity indicating efficient formation of a di selenide bond. 
         FIGS.  5   a - 5   e   —Intact mass and 193 nm UVPD results are shown for recombinant DHFR and seleno-DHFR produced using tRNA UTu . For the sequences shown on the right, covalently bonded cysteine residues are shaded in gray as is the selenocysteine. When selenocysteine is located at position 39, it forms a selenyl-sulfhydryl bond with cysteine at position 85. The slash marks represent the cleavage sites that lead to different N-terminal and C-terminal ions. (a) Expanded region of the deconvoluted mass spectrum of DHFR with serine at position 39 (expected average mass m/z 19331.72). (b) Expanded region of the deconvoluted mass spectrum of seleno-DHFR with selenocysteine incorporated at position 39 produced using tRNA UTu  (expected average mass m/z 19392.66). (c) UVPD fragmentation map of DHFR obtained for the 20+ charge state (SEQ ID NO: 11, encoded by a DNA sequence of SEQ ID NO: 10). (d) and (e) UVPD fragmentation maps of DHFR with serine or selenocysteine at position 39, 20+ charge state (d, depicts SEQ ID NO: 11, e, depicts SEQ ID NO: 13). Due to their similar masses, DHFR containing serine and DHFR containing selenocysteine were co-isolated (20+ charge state) for UVPD, and thus (d) shows the fragment map corresponding to serine-containing DHFR and (e) shows the fragment map corresponding to selenocysteine-containing DHFR. 
         FIGS.  6   a - 6   e   —Intact mass and 193 nm UVPD results for recombinant azurin and seleno-azurin produced using tRNA SecUx . For the sequences shown on the right, disulfide-bound cysteine residues are shaded in gray as are selenocysteine positions. The slash marks represent the cleavage sites that lead to different N-terminal and C-terminal ions. (a) Expanded region of the deconvoluted mass spectrum of azurin with serine at position 112 (expected average mass m/z 14750.54). (b) Expanded region of the deconvoluted mass spectrum of azurin with selenocysteine incorporated at position 112 produced using tRNA SecUx  (expected average mass m/z 14813.50). (c) UVPD fragmentation map of azurin obtained for the 17+ charge state (SEQ ID NO: 15, encoded by the DNA of SEQ ID NO: 14). (d) and (e) UVPD fragmentation maps of azurin produced using tRNA SecUx , (d, depicts SEQ ID NO: 11, e, is SEQ ID NO: 17, encoded by the DNA of SEQ ID NO: 17). Due to their similar masses, azurin and seleno-azurin were co-isolated (17+ charge state) for UVPD fragmentation where (d) shows the fragment map corresponding to serine-containing azurin (serine at position 112) and (e) shows the fragment map corresponding to seleno-azurin (selenocysteine at position 112). 
         FIGS.  7   a - 7   c   —Deconvoluted full scan mass spectra for seleno-DHFR and seleno-azurin. All protein variants observable for each selenoprotein are shown in the above deconvoluted spectra. (a) Seleno-DHFR produced using tRNA SecUx . (b) Seleno-DHFR produced using tRNA UTu . (c) Seleno-azurin produced using tRNA SecUx . 
         FIGS.  8   a - 8   b   —Intact masses for GPx-1 U49S and GPx-1 U49. (a) Expanded region of the deconvoluted mass spectrum of GPx-1 with serine at codon 49 (expected average mass m/z 24055.06) (b) Expanded region of the deconvoluted mass spectrum of GPx-1 with selenocysteine at codon 49 (expected average mass m/z 24116.21). 
         FIG.  9   —Purification of GPx-1 U49. Combined SDS PAGE gel showing purification of recombinant GPx-1 U49 containing selenocysteine. Lanes 1-7 represent cell lysate, Ni-NTA waste fraction, 20 mM imidazole fraction, 50 mM imidazole fraction, 500 mM imidazole elution, Q sepharose unbound fraction and Q sepharose 750 mM NaCl fraction respectively. Lanes 1-5 and 6-7 represent different gels. The expected MW of the GPx-1 U49 monomer is 24 kDa. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS 
     I. The Present Embodiments 
     The use of non-canonical amino acids in proteins offers the possibility of polypeptides having greatly expanded functionality that could be exploited for wide range of applications. For example, by incorporation of selenocysteine into polypeptides it may be possible to develop enzymes having enhanced levels of stability or activity and to produce highly active therapeutic polypeptides. However, these approaches have, to date, been hampered by the inability to produce organisms that stability retain translation pathways that predictable and reliably incorporate selenocysteine into encoded polypeptides. Studies detailed herein demonstrate a stable system for selection of tRNA molecules that can incorporate selenocysteine and for production of polypeptides that incorporate selenocysteine positions. Importantly, this system can be easily moved from one organism to another with-out the need of re-engineering. 
     II. Examples 
     The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodiments of the invention. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventor to function well in the practice of the invention, and thus can be considered to constitute preferred modes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. 
     Example 1—Selection of tRNAs 
     A method of genetic selection capable of discriminating different levels of selenocysteine incorporation was developed. To specifically ‘addict’ a reporter protein to selenocysteine rather than serine, the NMC-A β-lactamase from  Enterobacter cloacae  was used. This enzyme has high sequence similarity to the SME-1 β-lactamase from  Serratia marcescens , an enzyme that has previously been shown to require a disulfide bond adjacent to the active site serine residue for activity, but that confers a significant fitness cost on  E. coli.   16  First, a C69S mutant was constructed of NMC-A, which failed to confer resistance to ampicillin (MIC&lt;50 μg·mL −1 ), indicating that the disulfide bond was essential for activity ( FIG.  1   b   ). Then cysteine 69 was replaced with an amber stop codon (X69;  FIG.  1   a   ) for library selection, hypothesizing that the incorporation of selenocysteine and the formation of a selenyl-sulfhydryl bond would restore activity. (Swarén et al., 1998) 
     To eliminate any crosstalk between the tRNA Sec  library and the endogenous selenocysteine incorporation machinery, the selA, selB and selC genes (encoding SelA, SelB and tRNA Sec  respectively) were deleted from  E. coli  DH10B (designated DHΔabc). Cells containing the reporter plasmid pNMC-A C69X and the accessory plasmid pRSF-eSelA (expressing SelA) were transformed with plasmid pMB1-ZU containing the tRNA Sec  antideterminant library. Transformants were plated on media containing a gradient of ampicillin concentrations for selection of mutants capable of selenocysteine-specific suppression. The single colonies that arose covered a range of ampicillin concentrations. Some 12 colonies from each plate were sequenced and revealed three distinct tRNA Sec  mutants:  G   7 - C   66 : U   49 - G   65 :C 50 - U   64  (GGAAGATG 7 GTCGTCTCCGGTGAGGCGGCTGGACTCTAAATCCAGTTGGGGCCGCC AGCGGTCCCGGT 49 C 50 AGGTTCGACTCCTT 64 G 65 C 66 ATCTTCCGCCA; SEQ ID NO: 18), C 7 -G 66 : U   49 - G   65 :C 50 - U   64  (GGAAGATC 7 GTCGTCTCCGGTGAGGCGGCTGGACTCTAAATCCAGTTGGGGCCGCC AGCGGTCCCGGT 49 C 50 AGGTTCGACTCCTT 64 G 65 G 66 ATCTTCCGCCA; SEQ ID NO: 19) and C 7 - U   66 : U   49 - A   65 : A   50 - Δ   64  (GGAAGATC 7 GTCGTCTCCGGTGAGGCGGCTGGACTCTAAATCCAGTTGGGGCCGCC AGCGGTCCCGGT 49 A 50 AGGTTCGACTCCTA 65 T 66 ATCTTCCGCCA; SEQ ID NO: 20) (where underlined bases represent changes from the parental antideterminant sequence). Of these tRNA Sec  variants, only G 7 -C 66 :U 49 -G 65 :C 50 -U 64  was detected at the two highest ampicillin concentration (200 and 250 μg·ml −1 ). 
     The tRNA Sec  variant containing the G 7 -C 66 :U 49 -G 65 :C 50 -U 64  (SEQ ID NO: 18) antideterminant sequence was designated tRNA SecUx  and was compared with the previously designed chimera (tRNA UTu ) and with a tRNA Sec  derivative designed to have an antideterminant region that should tightly bind EF-Tu (tRNA UG ;  FIG.  2   a   ). The parental tRNA Sec  containing a CUA anticodon and tRNA UG  failed to produce active β-lactamase. The hybrid tRNA UTu  incorporated selenocysteine and could grow on 75 μg·ml −1 . In contrast, expression of tRNA SecUx  resulted in significantly higher β-lactamase activity (up to 400 μg·ml −1 ), but only when co-expressed with SelA, confirming activity was selenocysteine dependent. To further confirm tRNA SecUx  incorporated selenocysteine in response to amber stop codons, a standard colorimetric assay was employed based on the activity of the endogenous  E. coli  selenoprotein formate dehydrogenase H (FdhH) ( FIG.  2   b   ). FdhH is expressed under anaerobic conditions and catalyses the oxidation of formate to produce CO 2  with the concomitant reduction of the electron acceptor benzyl viologen resulting in the development of a deep purple color. 18  Formate oxidation by FdhH is strictly dependent on the selenocysteine residue at position 140; the mutant FdhH U140S was completely inactive. Only tRNA SecUx  and tRNA UTu  when co-expressed with SelA produced active FdhH. 
     The selected tRNA contained a non-standard sequence in the junction that normally interacts with EF-Tu. Given that neither the base of the acceptor stem nor the adjoining T-arm base pairs are believed to play a role in the interaction between tRNA Sec  and SelA, the results suggest that the selected U:C leads to stronger binding to EF-Tu than the wild-type tRNA Sec  sequence (Itoh et al., 2013). The unusual C50-U64 base pair is not predicted to bind strongly to EF-Tu based on models developed for canonical tRNAs (Schrader et al., 2011), and expression of a hybrid tRNA UG  containing the strong EF-Tu binding region from the major  E. coli  tRNA Gly  did not lead to the production of active β-lactamase, suggesting that the non-standard sequence was functionally important. Thus, it is possible that portions of the engineered tRNA Sec  bind to EF-Tu differently than do canonical tRNAs, which would not necessarily be surprising given that tRNA Sec  normally interacts with SelB (Li and Yarus, 1992). 
     The development of engineered  E. coli  strains lacking the prfA gene encoding release factor 1 (RF1) has allowed efficient incorporation of a range of unnatural amino acids (Mukai et al., 2010; Lajoie et al., 2013), and the development of the genome-engineered ‘Amberless’  E. coli  C321.ΔA (Lajoie et al., 2013) provided an excellent opportunity to determine whether proteins that efficiently incorporated selenocysteine could be expressed. The selA, selB and selC genes were deleted in C321.ΔA (designated strain RTΔA), and cells were transformed with the amber-containing NMC-A reporter and accessory plasmids ( FIG.  4   ). β-lactamase activity was dramatically increased in RF1-deficient cells compared to prfA +  DHΔabc cells that still contain RF1. In addition, in a RF1-deficient background tRNA SecUx  could now support the formation of a functional diselenide bond (via amber-mediated incorporation of two selenocysteine residues, U69 and U238;  FIG.  4   ). 
     To further enhance the efficiency of selenocysteine incorporation, a number of steps were taken to improve the levels of Sec-tRNA Sec  relative to Ser-tRNA Sec , including increasing the level of SelA, decreasing the gene dose of tRNA SecUx , and co-expressing a phosphoseryl-tRNA Sec  kinase (see Example 2 below). To monitor the efficiency of selenocysteine incorporation and demonstrate the possibilities for protein engineering,  E. coli  dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) was produced containing an engineered non-essential selenyl-sulfhydryl bond (Villafranca et al., 1987). Top down mass spectrometry showed close to 100% selenocysteine incorporation with no detectable background corresponding to DHFR containing serine ( FIG.  3   a - d   ). The rationally designed tRNA Utu  chimera was also observed to incorporate selenocysteine in DHFR containing a P39X substitution, but resulted in a much lower level of selenocysteine incorporation (38%) and significant serine incorporation (62%) ( FIG.  4   ). No masses corresponding to the incorporation of other canonical amino acids were observed in the mass spectra ( FIGS.  7   a - 7   c   ). In order to further validate selenocysteine incorporation, the  Pseudomonas aeruginosa  metalloprotein azurin was also expressed with its essential cysteine (C112) replaced by selenocysteine and the human selenoprotein cellular glutathione peroxidase (GPx-1) ( FIGS.  6   a - 6   e  and  8   a - 8   b   ). For azurin, this chemical change had previously proven possible only through expressed protein ligation, 22  the essential cysteine could now be biologically replaced with selenocysteine with good efficiency as measured by mass spectrometry of the intact protein. 
     Example 2—Methods 
     Strain Construction 
     The selAB and selC genes were deleted from  E. coli  DH10B using the lambda Red system adapted from Datsenko and Wanner (2000). Antibiotic resistance cassettes were excised using FLP recombinase to generate strain DHΔabc. Deletion of the entire fdhF open reading frame yielded strain DHΔabcF. 
       E. coli  C321ΔA was obtained from Addgene. A ˜12 kb genomic region containing lambda phage genes and the TEM-1 β-lactamase inserted during development of the strain (Lajoie et al., 2013) was removed to facilitate stable growth at 37° C. and restore sensitivity to β-lactam antibiotics. Subsequent deletion of the selAB and selC genes and excision of antibiotic resistance cassettes generated strain RTΔA. To improve recombinant protein production, deletion of the ion gene encoding the Lon protease and truncation of the me gene to remove 477 amino acids from the C-terminal of RNase E was performed, resulting in RTΔA.2. 
     Reporter Plasmids 
     All reporter plasmids were derived from pcat-pheS (Thyer et al., 2013). A 3281 bp fragment from pcat-pheS containing the 15A origin of replication and tetA gene conferring tetracycline resistance was ligated to an 1158 bp synthetic DNA fragment containing the bla SME-1  gene from  Serratia marcescens  encoding the SME-1 β-lactamase flanked by endogenous promoter and terminator sequences. This plasmid (pSME-1) was found to be highly toxic to  E. coli  host cells and was poorly maintained. Replacement of the bla SME-1  open reading frame with bla NMC-A  from  Enterobacter cloacae  encoding the NMC-A β-lactamase which shares nearly 70% sequence identity (Majiduddin and Palzkill 2003) with SME-1 generated plasmid pNMC-A which did not exhibit any toxicity. pNMC-A variants with serine or amber codons at residues 69 and 238 were generated by QuikChange site directed mutagenesis. 
     p15A-fdhF was constructed by ligating the pcat-pheS derived fragment with a 2886 bp fragment amplified from  E. coli  DH10B genomic DNA containing the fdhF gene, the endogenous promoter and terminator sequences and the upstream formate response elements (Schlensog et al., 1994). U140S and U140TAG variants were generated by QuikChange site directed mutagenesis. 
     Accessory Plasmids 
     The RSF1030 origin of replication and kan cassette were amplified by PCR as a 1563 bp fragment from pRSFDuet-1 (Novagen). A 1562 bp fragment containing the  E. coli  selA gene and 5′ region covering the endogenous promoter (Sawers et al., 1991) was amplified from  E. coli  DH10B genomic DNA. Assembly of the two fragments yielded plasmid pRSF-SelA. Replacement of the endogenous weakly active promoter with the strong constitutively active EM7 promoter and a canonical Shine-Dalgarno sequence resulted in plasmid pRSF-eSelA. SelA expression plasmids were validated by complementing  E. coli  DH10B deleted for selA (DHΔa) measured by benzyl viologen assay. Compared to pRSF-SelA, pRSF-eSelA induced a strong color change and this variant was used for all further experiments. 
     pRSF-U-eSelA was constructed by the addition of NotI and NcoI restriction sites between the RSF1030 origin and selA promoter and subcloning of the NotI/NcoI fragment containing the selC gene from pMB1-ZU. pRSF-U-eSelA variants containing mutant tRNA Sec  genes were constructed by enzymatic inverse PCR. tRNA Sec  sequences are shown in Table 1. Plasmid pRSF-U-ΔSelA containing a truncated selA gene was generated by QuikChange site directed mutagenesis introducing TGA and TAA stop codons at positions 167 and 168 respectively. 
     Table 1. Variant tRNA Sec  sequences. Italics represents the anticodon and underline represents the antideterminant region. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Variant 
                 tRNA Sequence 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 tRNA SecCUA   
                 GGAAGAT C GTCGTCTCCGGTGAGGCGGCTGGAC 
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 1) 
                 T CTA AATCCAGTTGGGGCCGCCAGCGGTCCCGG 
               
               
                   
                   GC AGGTTCGACTCCT GTG ATCTTCCGCCA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 tRNA SecUx   
                 GGAAGAT G GTCGTCTCCGGTGAGGCGGCTGGAC 
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 2) 
                 T CTA AATCCAGTTGGGGCCGCCAGCGGTCCCGG 
               
               
                   
                   TC AGGTTCGACTCCT TGC ATCTTCCGCCA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 tRNA SecUG   
                 GGAAGAT G GTCGTCTCCGGTGAGGCGGCTGGAC 
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 3) 
                 T CTA AATCCAGTTGGGGCCGCCAGCGGTCCCGG 
               
               
                   
                   CG AGGTTCGACTCCT CGT ATCTTCCGCCA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 tRNA UTu   
                 GGAAGAT G TGGCCGAGCGGTTGAAGGCACCGGT 
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 4) 
                 CT CTA AAACCGGCGACCCGAAAGGGTTC CA GAG 
               
               
                   
                 TTCGAATCTC TGC ATCTTCCGCCA 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Plasmid pRSF-eSelAK for constitutive expression of both SelA and PSTK was constructed by insertion of a synthetic DNA fragment between the selA gene and the kan cassette adding a luxI terminator 3′ of selA and the  Methanocaldococcus jannaschii  pstK gene encoding O-phosphoseryl-tRNA Sec  kinase (PSTK) codon optimized for expression in  E. coli  and flanked by the EM7 promoter and luxI terminator. 
     Expression Plasmids 
     All expression plasmids were derived from pRST.11 (Hughes and Ellington, 2010). For pDHFR-P39X-AU, the wrs1 gene was replaced with an operon controlled by the constitutive EM7 promoter containing the  E. coli  folA gene (amplified from DH10B genomic DNA) encoding dihydrofolate reductase with a C-terminal Strep II tag joined by a serine/alanine linker and the selA gene separated by the sequence TAGGAGGCAGATC (SEQ ID NO: 5) to provide a canonical Shine-Dalgarno sequence. Sc-tRNA Trp   Amb  was replaced by tRNA SecUx  and tRNA UTu  to express the tRNA Sec  variants from the strong leuP promoter. TAG and AGC codons were introduced at position 39 by QuikChange site directed mutagenesis. pAz-C112X-AU was constructed similarly replacing the folA gene with a synthetic DNA fragment containing the azu gene from  Pseudomonas aeruginosa  encoding azurin codon optimized for expression in  E. coli  with a C-terminal His6-tag. TAG and AGC codons were introduced at position 112 by QuikChange site directed mutagenesis. pGPx-U49-AU was constructed by replacing the folA gene with a synthetic DNA fragment containing the human gpxl gene encoding cellular glutathione peroxidase (GPx-1) codon optimized for expression in  E. coli  with an N-terminal His6-tag. 
     Library Construction and Selection 
     A 1518 bp fragment encompassing the MB1 origin of replication and rop gene was amplified from pETDuet-1 (Novagen). This was assembled with a synthetic DNA fragment containing a codon optimized ble gene from  Streptoalloteichus hindustans  conferring Zeocin resistance flanked by the EM7 promoter and the endogenous terminator sequence and a MCS including NotI and NcoI sites to generate plasmid pMB1-Z. A 410 bp fragment including the selC gene and its promoter was amplified from  E. coli  DH10B genomic DNA with flanking NotI and NcoI sites and ligated into pMB1-Z to construct pMB1-ZU. Functionality of the selC gene was confirmed by complementing  E. coli  DH10B deleted for selC (DHΔc) as measured by benzyl viologen assay. 
     The tRNA Sec  antideterminant library was generated by enzymatic inverse PCR using oligonucleotide primers (Table 2) to randomize the six positions identified as the main antideterminant for EF-Tu binding. Following self ligation for 16 hours, DNA was ethanol precipitated with GlycoBlue (Ambion) and transformed by electroporation into  E. coli  DHΔabc containing the plasmids pNMC-A C69X and pRSF-eSelA. Transformants were diluted in 200 ml LB medium containing 12.5 μg·mL −1  Zeocin, 6.25 μg·mL −1  tetracycline and 25 μg·mL −1  kanamycin and incubated overnight. Following overnight growth, cells were diluted 1/50 in LB medium containing 6.25 μg·mL −1  Zeocin, 3.75 μg·mL −1  tetracycline, 12.5 μg·mL −1  kanamycin, 1 μM Na 2 SeO 3  and 20 μg·mL −1  L-cysteine and incubated for one hour. A series of 250 μl aliquots of cells were plated on LB agar containing 6.25 μg·mL −1  Zeocin, 3.75 μg·mL −1  tetracycline, 12.5 μg·mL −1  kanamycin, 1 μM Na 2 SeO 3  and 20 μg·mL −1  L-cysteine and 50-300 μg·mL −1  ampicillin in 50 μg·mL −1  increments. After 20 hours at 37° C. individual colonies were observed on plates containing 50-200 μg·mL −1  ampicillin. Plasmid DNA was isolated from a selection of colonies from all plates and tRNA Sec  mutations determined by Sanger sequencing. 
     Table 2. Oligonucleotide primers for library construction. Italics represents the bases randomized to generate the antideterminant library. 
                                 Primer   Sequence                  selClibfwd   TGGACTGGTCTCCCAGTTGGGGCCGCCAGCGGTC       (SEQ ID NO: 6)   CCGG NN AGGTTCGACTCCT NNN ATCTTCCGCCAA           AATGC               selClibrev   GCTGGCGGTCTCaACTGGATTTAGAGTCCAGCCG       (SEQ ID NO: 7)   CCTCACCGGAGACGAC N ATCTTCCGCGCCTCG                    
Rephenotyping
 
     NotI/NcoI fragments containing tRNA SecUx  were subcloned into pRSF-eSelA to generate pRSF-UX-eSelA. pRSF-U-eSelA variants described in Table 1 were transformed into  E. coli  DHΔabc containing the reporter plasmid pNMC-A C69TAG. DHΔabc cells containing pNMC-A and pRSFDuet-1 were used as a positive control. DHΔabc cells harboring pNMC-A C69S and pRSF-UX-eSelA, and pNMC-A C69TAG and pRSF-UX-ΔSelA were used as controls for selenocysteine dependent β-lactamase activity. Transformants were cultured overnight in LB medium containing 6.25 μg·mL −1  tetracycline, 25 μg·mL −1  kanamycin, 1 μM Na 2 SeO 3  and 20 μg·mL −1  L-cysteine. Following overnight growth, cells were diluted 1/10 in LB medium containing antibiotics, selenite and L-cysteine and incubated for three hours. Cultures were normalized to OD 600 =0.1 and 5 μl aliquots plated in triplicate on LB agar containing 3.75 μg·mL-tetracycline, 12.5 μg·mL −1  kanamycin, 1 μM Na 2 SeO 3 , 20 μg·mL −1  L-cysteine and a gradient of ampicillin spanning 0, 10, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450 and 500 μg·mL −1 . Plates were incubated at 37° C. overnight. Identical assay conditions were used to repeat this experiment with  E. coli  RTΔA. 
     Benzyl Viologen Assay 
       E. coli  DH10B cells containing pRSFDuet-1 and pcat-pheS were used as a positive control. DHΔabcF cells harboring p15A-fdhF U140S and pRSF-UX-eSelA, and p15A-fdhF U140X and pRSF-UX-ΔSelA were used as controls for selenocysteine dependent formate dehydrogenase activity. Transformants were grown overnight at 37° C. in LB medium supplemented with 12.5 μg·mL 1  tetracycline and 50 μg·mL −1  kanamycin. Overnight cultures were diluted 1/20 in a final volume of 2 ml and incubated for three hours. Cultures were normalized to OD 600 =0.5 and 5 μl aliquots were dotted on LB agar plates containing 3.75 μg·mL −1  tetracycline, 12.5 μg·mL −1  kanamycin, 5 mM sodium formate, 10 μM Na 2 MoO 4 , 1 μM Na 2 SeO 3  and 20 μg·mL −1  L-cysteine. Plates were incubated at 37° C. for 3 h under aerobic conditions and then transferred to anaerobic conditions at 37° C. for 60 h. Upon removal from the anaerobic chamber, plates were immediately overlaid with agar containing 1 mg·mL −1  benzyl viologen, 250 mM sodium formate and 25 mM KH 2 PO 4  at pH 7.0. Plates were photographed within 1 h of overlaying. 
     Optimization and Protein Purification 
     Initial attempts to produce selenoproteins in  E. coli  strain RTΔA.2 used an accessory plasmid derived from pRSF-UX-eSelA in which the endogenous selC promoter was replaced with the highly active  E. coli  leuP promoter in combination with an expression plasmid containing the azu gene downstream of the strong tacI promoter. Mass spectrometry of the initial selenoprotein samples revealed almost exclusive incorporation of serine at the amber codon and a number of optimizations were made to increase the ratio of Sec-tRNA Sec  to Ser-tRNA Sec , thought to be the main driver of incorporation efficiency. To increase the SelA to tRNA Sec  ratio, expression of tRNA Sec  variants was reduced by shifting the leuP cassette to the lower copy expression plasmid containing the MB1 origin of replication and adding a second selA gene downstream of the target selenoprotein. In addition, to prevent rapid depletion of the Sec-tRNA Sec  pool following induction, the tacI promoter driving selenoprotein expression was replaced by the constitutive EM7 promoter. These changes generated expression plasmids pDHFR-P39X-AU and pAz-C112X-AU. 
     To further reduce the pool of Ser-tRNA Sec  available to participate in canonical translation, the pstK gene encoding O-phosphoseryl-tRNA Sec  kinase was added to the accessory plasmid pRSF-eSelA to yield pRSF-eSelAK. PSTK has previously been reported (Aldag et al., 2013) to increase selenocysteine incorporation with tRNA UTu  by generating Sep-tRNA Sec , an efficient substrate for SelA but poorly recognised by  E. coli  EF-Tu (Park et al., 2011). In conjunction, the selenium concentration in the medium was increased and L-cysteine omitted for selenoprotein production. 
     RTΔA.2 transformants containing pDHFR-P39X-AU and pRSF-eSelAK were cultured ON in LB medium containing 100 μg·mL −1  ampicillin, 50 μg·mL −1  kanamycin and 1 μM Na 2 SeO 3 . Overnight cultures were diluted 1/500 in a final volume of 2 L LB medium containing 50 μg·mL −1  ampicillin, 25 μg·mL −1  kanamycin and 5 μM Na 2 SeO 3  and incubated with agitation for 24 hours at 37° C. Cells were harvested by centrifugation at 8000×g for 10 min and resuspended in 20 mL of wash buffer (100 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA at pH 8.0) with protease inhibitor cocktail (complete, mini EDTA free, Roche) and lysozyme at 1 mg·mL −1 . Following a 20 min incubation at 4° C. cells were lysed by sonication (Model 500, Fisher Scientific) and clarified by three times by centrifugation at 35000×g for 30 min. Lysate was passed through a 0.2 μm filter and seleno-DHFR recovered using Strep-Tactin affinity chromatography following the manufacturer&#39;s instructions (GE Healthcare). Eluate was concentrated to 3 mL and dialyzed against 50 mM NH 4 Ac pH 6.5 prior to the isolation of seleno-DHFR by size exclusion FPLC (ÄKTA, GE Healthcare). Seleno-DHFR was produced using tRNA SecUx  with a yield of 68 μg·L −1  and 100% incorporation efficiency. Seleno-DHFR was produced using tRNA UTu  with a yield of 131 μg·L −1  and 38.1% incorporation efficiency. DHFR containing serine at position 39 was produced with a yield of 225 μg·L −1 . 
     RTΔA.2 transformants containing pAz-C112X-AU and pRSF-eSelAK were cultured as described previously with the exception that 20 μM Na 2 SeO 3  was added for the 24 hour incubation. Cells were harvested by centrifugation and the periplasmic fraction isolated. Briefly, cell pellets were resuspended in 50 mL of 100 mM Tris and 0.75 M sucrose at pH 7.5. Following addition of lysozyme to 1 mg·mL −1  and protease inhibitor cocktail cells were gently agitated for 20 min at 4° C. 50 mL of 1 mM EDTA was added and samples incubated again for 20 minutes. EDTA was neutralized by addition of 3.5 mL 0.5M MgCl 2  during a further 20 min incubation. Spheroblasts were removed by centrifugation at 35000×g for 30 min, the periplasmic fraction passed through a 0.2 μm filter and mixed with imidazole stock solution to a final concentration of 20 mM. Seleno-azurin was recovered by IMAC using Ni-NTA resin and gravity flow columns. Eluate was concentrated and dialyzed against 50 mM NH 4 Ac pH 6.5 prior to the isolation of seleno-azurin by size exclusion FPLC. Seleno-azurin was produced using tRNA SecUx  with a yield of 50 μg·L −1  and greater than 76% incorporation efficiency. This value likely under represents the actual level of selenocysteine incorporation as seleno-azurin was observed to form higher molecular weight complexes during and after purification, resulting in loss during size exclusion chromatography. No aggregation was observed for azurin samples containing only serine. 
     RTΔA.2 transformants containing pGPx-U49-AU and pRSF-eSelAK were cultured as described previously for azurin. Cells were harvested by centrifugation and resuspended in 50 mL of buffer (50 mM Potassium Phosphate, 150 mM NaCl, 10% glycerol, 1 mM DTT at pH 8.0) and lysozyme at 1 mg·mL −1 . Cells were lysed by sonication and clarified prior to GPx-1 recovery by IMAC. Eluate was concentrated and dialyzed against 100 mM phosphate buffer pH 8.0, 0.1% Tween 20 and 1 mM DTT followed by isolation of GPx-1 by anion exchange chromatography (Q HP column). GPx-1 was produced with a yield of 500 μg·L −1  and close to 100% selenocysteine incorporation efficiency. 
     Mass Spectrometry 
     Intact protein samples were analyzed using methods described previously (Ellefson et al., 2014). Azurin, DHFR and GPx-1 samples were buffer exchanged into LC-MS grade water using 10 kDa molecular weight cutoff filters. Once the buffer exchange was complete the samples were diluted to 20 μM in a methanol/water/formic acid (50/49/1) solution. After dilution, protein solutions were infused into an Orbitrap Elite mass spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific Instruments, Bremen, Germany) at a rate of 3 μL·min −1  via electrospray ionization. In order to confirm the incorporation of selenocysteine, intact mass analysis was carried out at 240 k resolution and averaging 20 scans. Characterization of the protein sequences was undertaken by ultraviolet photodissociation (UVPD) using a 193 nm excimer laser (Coherent, Inc.) which was interfaced to the Orbitrap mass spectrometer as described previously (Shaw et al., 2013). For each UVPD spectrum, two laser pulses of 2.5 mJ were used and 250 scans were averaged. MS1 spectra were deconvoluted using the Xtract deconvolution algorithm (Thermo Fisher Scientific). UVPD mass spectra were also deconvoluted using Xtract and then analyzed using ProsightPC 3.0. Proteins containing selenocysteine were searched by adding a modification of 62.9216 Da to the serine at position 112 for azurin or 61.9146 Da for the serine at position 39 for DHFR (with subtraction of one hydrogen atom from the DHFR modification because a selenyl-sulfhydryl bond is formed when selenocysteine is present). Incorporation efficiencies were calculated by dividing the area of the modified protein peak by the summed areas of the unmodified protein peak and the modified protein peak. The peak area used for each protein was the sum of the integrated areas of the five most abundant peaks from each isotope cluster. 
     All of the methods disclosed and claimed herein can be made and executed without undue experimentation in light of the present disclosure. While the compositions and methods of this invention have been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations may be applied to the methods and in the steps or in the sequence of steps of the method described herein without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention. More specifically, it will be apparent that certain agents which are both chemically and physiologically related may be substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similar results would be achieved. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as defined by the appended claims. 
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