Patent Publication Number: US-2009233090-A1

Title: Transparent polymer nanocomposites containing nanoparticles and method of making same

Description:
RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. Nos. 60/723,344, filed Oct. 3, 2005, and 60/830,433, filed Jul. 13, 2006, entitled Transparent Polymer Nanocomposites Containing Nanoparticles and Method of Making Same, and incorporates these applications, in their entirety, by reference. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention relates to polymer nanocomposites. More particularly, the invention concerns transparent polymeric nanocomposites containing finely dispersed nanocrystalline particles that possess a multitude of characteristics in optical and thermophysical properties. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Zinc oxide (ZnO) is a white crystalline, semiconducting material that has found use in many and various applications. It is currently used in cosmetic sunscreens, varistors, white pigment in plastics and ink. It is being considered as a potential material for light emitting diodes, piezoelectric transducers, transparent electronics, transparent conducting oxide (TCO) films and gas sensors. See Pearton et al, “Recent progress in processing and properties of ZnO”, Prog. Mater. Sci., Vol. 50, pp 293-340 (2005). The unique combination of properties of ZnO, namely that it is a transparent, UV absorbing, luminescent, piezoelectric, non-toxic and a low cost material, makes it technologically important. 
     ZnO is particularly useful when used in combination with polymers. It is used to improve the UV stability of polymers. Organic UV absorbers such as benzotriazols may bleed out during the service life of the polymeric product. Bleed out degrades surface finish quality and UV stability. Inorganic UV absorbers like ZnO, do not bleed out, however. This makes them particularly desirable in polymeric products. 
     In the form of nanoparticles (particle size less then 100 nm), ZnO is known to improve the thermal stability of polyacrylates and polyethylene. See Liufu et al, “Thermal analysis and degradation mechanism of polyacrylate/ZnO nanocomposites”, Polym. Degrad. Stab., Vol 87, pp 103-110 (2005); Cho et al, “Effects of ZnO Nano Particles on Thermal Stabilization of Polymers”, Polym. Eng. Sci., Vol 44, pp 1702-1706 (2004). ZnO nanoparticles also improve the wear resistance of polymers. See Li et al, “The friction and wear characteristics of nanometer ZnO filled polytetrafluoroethylene”, Wear, Vol. 249, pp 877-882 (2002). Bulk ZnO has a refractive index around 2.0 and because visible light scattering is significantly reduced when particle size is smaller than 20 nm, ZnO nanoparticles may be used to increase refractive indices of transparent polymers such as poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), polystyrene (PSt), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyvinyl butyral (PVB) etc, while maintaining transparency. However, in order to maximize the benefits that ZnO may bring to polymers, fully dispersed polymer nanocomposites must be achieved. 
     Nanocomposites have been made using nanoparticulate fillers of various types. The Border et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,586,096 discloses nanocomposite optical articles using magnesium oxide and aluminum oxide nanofillers. However none of these fillers show the UV absorption and semiconducting characteristics of ZnO. The Arney et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,432,526 describes nanosized titania highly dispersed in polymeric matrix. This nanocomposite shows UV absorption, refractive index and semiconducting characteristics comparable to ZnO nanocomposites, however, titania nanoparticles do not provide protection in the UVA band, furthermore, thermal stability of the nanocomposite is not discussed. 
     Ultraviolet (UV) light is commonly classified into three bands; UVC 200 to 290 nm, UVB 290 to 315 nm and UVA 315 to 400 nm. UVA and UVB are the predominant types of UV light present in sunlight. Polymers and organic materials degrade easily when exposed to UVB and skin tanning, pigmentation and cancer may occur when human skin is exposed to UVA. Although both titania and ZnO are commonly used as UV shielding agents, TiO 2  shows a gradual absorption in the UVA region, reaching peak absorption around 330 to 350 nm. See Nussbaumer et al, “Synthesis and characterization of surface-modified rutile nanoparticles and transparent polymer composites thereof”, J. Nanoparticle Res., Vol. 4, pp 319-323 (2002). ZnO is favored in UV shielding over TiO 2  due to its sharp absorption curve in the UVA. Bulk or micron sized-ZnO absorbs UV light below 380 nm, when particle size is reduced below 10 nm, UV absorption shifts to shorter wavelengths. Thus a method of incorporating ZnO particles of around 10 nm is desirable to provide protection against both UVA and UVB. 
     Many attempts have been made to disperse ZnO nanoparticles in polymers. One approach in obtaining ZnO polymer nanocomposites is by in-situ formation of ZnO nanoparticles in polymer matrix. Generally, precursors of zinc oxide are first mixed into the polymer in solution, and then zinc oxide nanoparticles are induced to form using a variety of methods including hydrolysis by alkali or water and oxidation by oxygen plasma. See Abdullah et al, “Generating Blue and Red Luminescence from ZnO/Poly(ethylene glycol) Nanocomposite Prepared Using an In-Situ Method”, Adv. Func. Mater, Vol 13, pp 800-804 (2003); Jeon et al, “Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles embedded in a polymeric matrix; effect of curing temperature”, Materials Science Forum. Vol. 449-452, Part 2, pp. 1145-1148 (2004); Mulligan et al, “Synthesis and Characterization of ZnO Nanostructures Templated Using Diblock Copolymers”, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., Vol. 89, pp 1058-1061 (2003); Yoo et al, “Self-assembled arrays of zinc oxide nanoparticles from monolayer films of diblock copolymer micelles”, Chem. Commun., Iss. 24, pp 2850-2851 (2004). Although ZnO polymer nanocomposites can be obtained with good dispersion, the synthesis process often requires complex and multiple steps and the types of polymer that can be used may be limited. 
     Another approach is by simple blending of ZnO nanoparticles to the polymer matrix. See Xiong et al, “Preparation and Characterization of Poly(styrene butylacrylate) Latex/Nano-ZnO Nanocomposites”, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., Vol. 90, pp 1923-1931 (2003). ZnO content of 9 percent by weight were produced. However, the nanocomposites shows agglomeration under TEM and light transmission quality was poor. 
     Transparent and high content ZnO/PMMA composites have been made by mixing ZnO nanoparticles and PMMA in toluene solution, then spin-coated on to a substrate. See Chen et al, “ZnO/PMMA Thin Film nanocomposites for Optical Coatings”, Proc. SPIE, Vol 5222, pp 158-162 (2003). The transparent film thus formed can have as much as 20 percent by weight of ZnO, but film thickness is limited to less than 300 nm. 
     The quality of the nanocomposites can be improved by surface modification of ZnO nanoparticles. Attaching molecules on to the ZnO surface may improve solubility of the oxide nanoparticles in the polymer matrix, thereby ensuring homogeneous dispersion. A simple method has been utilized by Zhou et al, who used commercial dispersant with ZnO nanoparticles and blended by ball milling with water-borne acrylic latex, the resultant nanocomposite did not achieve sufficient homogeneity and transparency as shown in the UV-Vis transmittance spectra. See Zhou et al, “Dispersion and UV-VIS Properties of Nanoparticles in Coatings”, J. Dispersion Sci. Tech., Vol. 25, pp. 417-433, 2004. An alternative form of this concept has been utilized whereby ZnO was synthesized in the presence of polymeric surfactants, then purified and blended with PMMA and spin-coated to form a transparent coating. See Khrenov et al, “Surface Functionalized ZnO Particles Designed for the Use in Transparent Nanocomposites”, Macromol. Chem. Phys., Vol 206, pp 95-101 (2005). However the nanoparticles formed showed broad size distributions and irregular shapes and maximum film thickness was only 2.5 μm. Moreover, the polymeric surfactant had to be synthesized specially for this purpose, hence adding a level of complexity to the procedure. 
     Good quality ZnO/poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA) nanocomposite films have been made by first modifying the surface of ZnO with 3-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate. The modified ZnO nanoparticles were then mixed with HEMA monomers and polymerized to form transparent films. In this method, the original size distribution and shape of ZnO nanoparticles were preserved. However, when the same procedure was applied to PMMA, the quality of films obtained was less satisfactory. See Hung et al, “Effect of surface stabilization of nanoparticles on luminescent characteristics in ZnO poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate) nanohybrid films”, J. Mater. Chem., Vol. 15, pp 267-274 (2005). In general, it is easier to incorporate ZnO nanoparticles in hydrophilic than hydrophobic polymers. It has been shown by Guo et al (Synthesis and Characterization of Poly(vinylpyrrolidone)-Modified Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles, Chem. Mater Vol. 12, pp 2268-2274 (2005)), that poly (vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP) coats ZnO nanoparticles completely to form a shell around them and in the previously mentioned article by Hung et al, ZnO was well dispersed in PHEMA to give transparent nanocomposite. Both of these examples demonstrate that ZnO has good affinity to hydrophilic polymers, it is thought that the abundance of —OH groups on ZnO surface greatly increases affinity to hydrophilic polymer, however this also results in poor affinity to hydrophobic polymers such as PMMA. 
     A polymeric material, which can overcome all of the limitations referred to above, is still lacking. Inclusion of ZnO nanoparticles in a polymer matrix will impart the beneficial properties such as wear resistance, UV blocking, optical transparency, refractive index tuning, thermal stability without any of the flaws associated with the organic additives typically used to achieve the same properties. However, the homogeneous dispersion of nanosized particles of ZnO is required for the beneficial properties to show, and such nanocomposites are still not achievable in the required quality and quantity. Thus there remains a need for producing finely dispersed ZnO nanoparticles in transparent polymers, especially hydrophobic polymers, which is relatively simple and applicable to a wide range of polymer matrix. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     It is an object of this invention to provide a nanocomposite that exhibits high quality transparency and a high content of nanoparticles. 
     It is another object to provide a polymer nanocomposite, especially of a hydrophobic polymer, which exhibits heretofore unobtained, and exceptional, physical properties. 
     It is another object to provide a process of dispersing metal oxide or semiconductor or metal nanoparticles in a polymer matrix to obtain nanocomposites. 
     The foregoing and other objects are realized in accord with the present invention in a nanocomposite with included metal oxide particles that do not exhibit substantial diminishing of transparency, and a method of making a nanocomposite article. The nanocomposites exhibit excellent optical properties, including UV absorption, and improvement of thermal stability. 
     The metal oxide particles are preferably zinc oxide particles. The metal oxide particles have a particle size or diameter of preferably less than 20 nm. The nanocomposites exhibit a haze level of less than 5% when measured at a thickness of at least 100 microns. The invention contemplates use of combinations of metal oxide particles or mixture of metal oxide, semiconductor or, metal particles and a polymer matrix. Capping agents are attached to the particle surface and aid in dispersing the particle in the solvent or polymer matrix. 
     The invention is also embodied in coated articles having a substrate with at least one layer of transparent coating attached to the surface of the substrate. The substrate, its coating or both may comprise a nanocomposite including inorganic nanoparticles dispersed in a polymer matrix. 
     The present invention is also embodied in a process of making metal oxide, semiconductor or metal nanoparticles dispersed in polymer matrix to obtain nanocomposites. The process includes a method of dispersing nanoparticles in an organic medium including a step (a) of modifying the nanoparticles with thiol compounds or silane compounds. The thiol compounds contain at least a thiol group and aromatic ring. The silane compounds contain at least a hydrolyzable silane group and aromatic ring. Modifications using these compounds allow the nanoparticles to disperse in nitrogen containing solvents including amine or amide containing solvents such as pyridine, N,N-dimethylformamide, etc. The process also includes the step (b) of preparing a solution of capped nanoparticles from step (a) in nitrogen containing solvents, such as pyridine, N,N-dimethylformamide, and a step (c) of preparing a solution of polymer in a suitable solvent. Subsequently, a method of preparing nanoparticles and polymer mixture in the step (d) of mixing the solutions prepared in (b) and (c), and the step (e) of drying the solution, are carried out to form a nanocomposite. 
     As used herein, with respect to the present invention, the following shall apply: 
     “Capping” refers to the formation of an ionic or covalent bond of organic molecules to the surface atoms of a nanoparticle, this organic molecule is referred to as a capping agent. 
     “Capping agent” refers to an organic molecule possessing a functional group capable of binding to the surface atoms of a nanoparticle by ionic or covalent bond. 
     “Colloid” or “Colloidal solution” refers to a stable dispersion of nanoparticles in a liquid solution. 
     “Haze” refers to the scattering effect of light in a transparent or partially transparent material. 
     “Nanocomposite” refers to a composite material of polymer and particles, where the particle is of various forms and shapes and with at least one dimension smaller than 100 nanometers. 
     “Nanoparticle” refers to a particle of various forms and shapes and with at least one dimension smaller than 100 nanometers. 
     “Silane compound” often referred to as silane-coupling agent, contains a hydrolyzable silane group, —Si-Hy, where Hy is a hydrolyzable moiety such as acyloxy, alkoxy, chlorine, etc. The hydrolyzable group can form stable bonds with inorganic atoms such as zinc and titanium, and an organic functional group that increases affinity to organic media, such as solvents and polymers. The organic functional may also contain reactive moieties, thereby allowing reactive bonding with organic media. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is an electron micrograph of a nanocomposite comprising of 4 weight percent of ZnO nanoparticles covered with thiol compounds dispersed in poly(methyl methacrylate). The electron micrograph was taken at a magnification of 400,000 times. 
         FIG. 2  is an electron micrograph of a nanocomposite comprising of 1.35 weight percent of ZnO nanoparticles covered with silane compounds dispersed in poly(methyl methacrylate). The electron micrograph was taken at a magnification of 400,000 times. 
         FIG. 3  is a chart depicting the weight loss of phenyltrimethoxysilane capped ZnO against temperature. The remaining solid is found to be 82.7% of the original weight. 
         FIG. 4  is a chart depicting the transmission of light in the visible range and absorption of light in the ultraviolet range of virgin poly(methyl methacrylate) and nanocomposite of thiol-capped ZnO. 
         FIG. 5  is a chart depicting the transmission of light in the visible range and absorption of light in the ultraviolet range of virgin polystyrene and nanocomposite of thiol-capped ZnO. 
         FIG. 6  is a chart depicting the transmission of light in the visible range and absorption of light in the ultraviolet range of virgin poly(methyl methacrylate) and nanocomposite of silane-capped ZnO. 
         FIG. 7  is a chart depicting the weight loss of virgin poly(methyl methacrylate) and nanocomposite of thiol-capped ZnO against temperature. 
         FIG. 8  is a chart depicting the weight loss of virgin polystyrene and nanocomposite of thiol-capped ZnO against temperature. 
         FIG. 9  is a chart depicting the weight loss of virgin poly(methyl methacrylate) and nanocomposite of silane-capped ZnO against temperature. 
         FIG. 10  is a schematic representation of an exemplary nanocomposite article with the coating comprising of the nanocomposite material according to one embodiment of the invention. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     Referring now to the drawings, and particularly to  FIG. 1 , which is an electron micrograph, a transparent nanocomposite  10  comprising 4 weight percent of inorganic nanoparticles  12  dispersed in a polymer matrix  14  is shown. The polymer matrix  14  is selected from the polymer group consisting of transparent polymers, which is chosen from the group of thermoplastics including polyester, polycarbonate, polyolefin, polyamide, polyurethane, polyacetal, polyvinyl acetal, polyvinyl ketal, vinyl polymer or copolymer comprising vinyl monomer selected from (meth)acrylate ester, aromatic vinyl, vinyl cyanide, vinyl halide and vinylidene halide; preferably it is selected from the group of polyalkylene terephthalate, polycarbonate of bisphenol compound, vinyl polymer or copolymer comprising vinyl monomer selected from methyl methacrylate, styrene and acrylonitrile; and more preferably the transparent material should be selected from the group of poly(meth)acrylate, polystyrene and combinations thereof. The nanoparticles  12  comprise zinc oxide or a mixture of inorganic nanoparticles of metal oxides, semiconductors or metals and zinc oxide. The surface of nanoparticles is covered by thiolic capping agents. The nanoparticles have an average particle diameter preferably in the range of 1 to 20 nm maximum, more preferably 1 to 10 nm and most preferably as low as 1 to 8 nm. Average particle size can be obtained from a transmission electron micrograph as shown in  FIG. 1 . The diameters of individual particles in the micrograph are measured and an average value is obtained, this value is regarded as the average particle size. 
       FIG. 2 , is an electron micrograph showing a transparent nanocomposite  20  comprising 1.35 weight percent of inorganic nanoparticles  22  dispersed in a polymer matrix  24  is shown. The polymer matrix  24  is selected from the polymer group consisting of transparent polymers, which is chosen from the group of thermoplastics including polyester, polycarbonate, polyolefin, polyamide, polyurethane, polyacetal, polyvinyl acetal, polyvinyl ketal, vinyl polymer or copolymer comprising vinyl monomer selected from (meth)acrylate ester, aromatic vinyl, vinyl cyanide, vinyl halide and vinylidene halide; preferably it is selected from the group of polyalkylene terephthalate, polycarbonate of bisphenol compound, vinyl polymer or copolymer comprising vinyl monomer selected from methyl methacrylate, styrene and acrylonitrile; and more preferably the transparent material should be selected from the group of poly(meth)acrylate, polystyrene and combinations thereof. The nanoparticles  22  comprise zinc oxide or a mixture of inorganic nanoparticles of metal oxides, semiconductors or metals and zinc oxide. The surface of nanoparticles is covered by silane capping agents. The capping agents consist of silane compounds with a hydrolyzable functionality to bond with zinc oxide surface and an organic aromatic functionality to improve affinity between polymer and nanoparticle. The nanoparticles have an average particle diameter preferably in the range of 1 to 20 nm maximum, more preferably 1 to 10 nm and most preferably as low as 1 to 8 nm. 
     A key feature of the invention is the transparency of the nanocomposite. Transparency can be characterized by the haze value of the nanocomposite. Haze value is defined as the percentage of transmitted light, which, when passing through a specimen, deviates from the incident beam by forward scattering, the total amount of light that deviates from the incident beam is termed the diffuse transmission. Lower haze values imply higher transparency. It is given mathematically as 
     
       
         
           
             
               % 
                
               
                   
               
                
               Haze 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   T 
                   diffuse 
                 
                 
                   T 
                   total 
                 
               
               × 
               100 
             
           
         
       
     
     where T=% transmission 
     For many practical applications, haze values less than 5% is desirable, preferably haze value should be less than 4%, more preferably haze value should be less than 3%, still more preferably less than 2% and most preferably less than 1%. This value can be affected by both the inherent transparency of the material and the surface quality of the object. In order to realize this level of transparency, a few conditions must be satisfied. 1) The nanoparticles incorporated should preferably be less than 20 nm in diameter to minimize light scattering, more preferably they should be less than 10 nm and most preferably they should be less than 8 nm. 2) A transparent matrix material should be chosen from the group of thermoplastics including polyester, polycarbonate, polyolefin, polyamide, polyurethane, polyacetal, polyvinyl acetal, polyvinyl ketal, vinyl polymer or copolymer comprising vinyl monomer selected from (meth)acrylate ester, aromatic vinyl, vinyl cyanide, vinyl halide and vinylidene halide; preferably it is selected from the group of polyalkylene terephthalate, polycarbonate of bisphenol compound, vinyl polymer or copolymer comprising vinyl monomer selected from methyl methacrylate, styrene and acrylonitrile; and more preferably the transparent material should be selected from the group of poly(meth)acrylate, polystyrene and combinations thereof. 3) The incorporated nanoparticles must be well dispersed with little or no agglomeration. 4) The surface condition of the nanocomposite object should preferably be sufficiently smooth to reduce light scattering and ensure maximum luminous transmission. 
     The transparent matrix material should preferably be a hydrophobic polymer or a copolymer comprising of hydrophobic and hydrophilic monomers, with the hydrophilic monomer comprising preferably not more than 40 percent weight of the total polymer. Further more, the amount of hydrophilic monomer is more preferably not more than 30 percent weight, still more preferably not more than 20 percent weight and most preferably not more than 10 percent weight of the total polymer. The hydrophilic monomer may include functional groups that contribute hydrophilic character such as amido, amino, carboxyl, hydroxyl, pyrrolidinone and ethylene glycol. 
     A nanocomposite that satisfies the conditions stated above and exhibits haze level of no more than 5% in the measurement conditions of 100 microns thickness is considered part of the present invention. Further more, the haze value may be no more than 4%, preferably less than 3%, more preferably less than 2% and most preferably lower than 1%. 
     Providing ultraviolet shielding while maintaining high transparency is a salient feature of the present invention. ZnO naturally absorbs ultraviolet light containing energies higher than its bandgap energy. Bulk ZnO absorbs light shorter than 380 nm in wavelength. However, ZnO nanoparticles begins absorbing light at wavelengths less than 380 nm due to the widening of bandgap energy as particle size becomes smaller, this phenomenon is attributed to the well known quantum size effect. A polymer sample may be characterized by a UV-visible photospectrometer whereby the transmission spectrum can be obtained. A cut-off wavelength may be defined as the wavelength where full absorption of light is observed. However, for samples where full absorption of light does not occur, an effective cut-off wavelength may be defined instead. The effective cut-off wavelength can be found by locating the slope where the curve first begin to drop in transmission intensity, then extending a straight line from the linear portion of this slope of the transmission curve, the cut-off wavelength is read off the point where the line intersects the abscissa. For all practical purposes, the effective cut-off wavelength may be used as the wavelength where UV absorption occurs. 
       FIG. 3  illustrates that phenyltrimethoxysilane (PTMS) capped ZnO exhibit weight loss when temperature is increased to 800° C. The weight loss is attributed to absorbed solvent and organic component of silane compound. The metal oxide content can be estimated according to Test Procedure 2, in this case weight loss is 17.3% and metal oxide content is 76.4%. 
       FIG. 4  illustrates that thiol-capped ZnO/PMMA. nanocomposite BM 01  absorbs ultraviolet light shorter than 355 nm, which is blue-shifted compared to the 380 nm of bulk ZnO. BM 01  contains 4 weight percent of ZnO nanoparticles of roughly 5 nm in average size, which is similar to nanoparticles  12  in nanocomposite  10  shown in  FIG. 1 .  FIG. 4  also shows the virgin polymer BM 00  which begins absorbing UV light at 270 nm. Incorporation of ZnO clearly improves the ultraviolet shielding of virgin polymer and extends UV absorption into the UVA band. Simply incorporating ZnO into a polymer matrix is not enough, however.  FIG. 5  illustrates that thiol-capped ZnO/PSt nanocomposite TM 01  partially absorbs UV light shorter than 325 nm, compared to virgin polymer TM 00  which absorbs UV light shorter than 270 nm. In this case, TM 01  also contains 4 weight percent of ZnO nanoparticles of roughly 5 nm in average size. UV shielding of TM 01  is markedly poor compared to BM 01  due to the thickness of the film, which is at 0.020 mm, compared to 0.110 mm of BM 01 . Thin polymer films may not absorb all UV light due to insufficient amount of ZnO nanoparticles. Consequently, to improve UV shielding, either film thickness or ZnO amount must be increased. In practice, one of the two methods will be preferred according to practical constraints. 
       FIG. 6  illustrates that silane-capped ZnO/PMMA. nanocomposites, PTMS 01  and PTMS 02  absorbs ultraviolet light shorter than 340 nm and 350 nm, respectively, which is blue-shifted compared to the 380 nm of bulk ZnO. The zinc oxide contents of PTMS 01  and PTMS 02  are 1.35 and 6.31 weight percent, respectively, of which the ZnO nanoparticles are roughly 5 nm in average size, which is similar to nanoparticles  22  in nanocomposite  20  shown in  FIG. 2 .  FIG. 6  also shows the virgin polymer PTMS 00  which begins absorbing UV light at 280 nm. Incorporation of ZnO clearly improves the ultraviolet shielding of virgin polymer and extends UV absorption into the UVA band. 
     The present invention does not impose conditions on amount of ZnO incorporated nor the level of UV absorption, as such it covers any polymer nanocomposite that incorporates ZnO particles showing UV absorption below 380 nm, preferably less than 370 nm, more preferably less than 360 nm, still more preferably less than 355 nm and most preferably less than 350 nm, while maintaining transparency with haze level lower than 5% at thickness of 0.100 mm. 
     Nanocomposites of the present invention show a marked improvement in thermal stability over virgin polymers.  FIG. 7  illustrates the weight loss of thiol-capped ZnO nanocomposites as a function of temperature. Thiol-capped ZnO/PMMA nanocomposite BM 01  shows an improvement in thermal stability of 78° C. over virgin polymer BM 00 . Similarly,  FIG. 8  illustrates that thiol-capped ZnO/PSt nanocomposite TM 01  shows an improvement in thermal stability of 14° C. over virgin PSt polymer TM 00 . 
       FIG. 9  illustrates the weight loss of silane-capped ZnO nanocomposites as a function of temperature. Silane-capped ZnO/PMMA nanocomposite PTMS 01  and PTMS 02  shows an improvement in thermal stability of 17° C. and 27° C., respectively, over virgin polymer PTMS 00 . A nanocomposite is considered part of the present invention if the temperature to reduce the nanocomposite to 50% of its original weight, measured at 25° C., is increased by at least 110° C., compared to the same virgin polymer without ZnO nanoparticles included. 
     The nanocomposite of the current invention may be formed into articles having different shapes and forms. The nanocomposite of the current invention may also be in the form of a coated article, where the surface coating or film is composed of the nanocomposite and the underlying substrate may or may not be composed of the nanocomposite.  FIG. 10  illustrates a coated article  40  comprising a substrate  44  with at least one layer of transparent coating  50  attached to the surface of the substrate. The substrate  44 , the coating  50  or both comprise nanocomposites including inorganic nanoparticles dispersed in a polymer matrix. The nanocomposite comprises nanoparticles of zinc oxide, the nanoparticles being covered by a capping agent. A transparent polymer matrix material is chosen from the group of thermoplastics including polyester, polycarbonate, polyolefin, polyamide, polyurethane, polyacetal, polyvinyl acetal, polyvinyl ketal, vinyl polymer or copolymer comprising vinyl monomer selected from (meth)acrylate ester, aromatic vinyl, vinyl cyanide, vinyl halide and vinylidene halide; preferably it is selected from the group of polyalkylene terephthalate, polycarbonate of bisphenol compound, vinyl polymer or copolymer comprising vinyl monomer selected from methyl methacrylate, styrene and acrylonitrile; and more preferably the transparent material should be selected from the group of poly(meth)acrylate, polystyrene and combinations thereof. The coated article of the current invention may be in any shape or form. 
     Once again, the haze level of the nanocomposite is no more than 5%. UV absorption of the nanocomposite begins at wavelength of 380 nm or shorter. Thermal stability wherein the temperature to reduce to 50% weight is increased by at least 10° C. compared to the polymer without said nanoparticles is achieved. 
     The invention is also embodied in a method for making nanocomposite, comprising inorganic nanoparticles dispersed in an organic medium, where the organic medium comprises of organic solvents, monomer and polymer. Nanoparticles of the current invention can be of the metal, semiconductor or metal oxide type, which are selected from the group consisting of aluminium, cadmium, cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, gallium, germanium, gold, indium, iron, iridium, lead, mercury, nickel, platinum, palladium, silicon, silver, tin, zinc, zirconium, aluminum arsenide, aluminum nitride, aluminum phosphide, cadmium selenide, cadmium sulfide, cadmium telluride, gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, gallium phosphide, gallium selenide, gallium sulfide, indium arsenide, indium phosphide, indium nitride, indium selenide, indium sulfide, indium telluride, lead selenide, lead sulfide, lead telluride, mercury selenide, mercury sulfide, mercury telluride, zinc selenide, zinc sulfide, zinc telluride, aluminum oxide, cadmium oxide, cerium oxide, chromium oxide, cobalt oxide, indium oxide, indium tin oxide, iron oxide, lead oxide, nickel oxide, silicon dioxide, tin oxide, titanium oxide, zinc oxide and zirconium oxide. The current invention is particularly effective for metal oxide nanoparticles and in particular zinc oxide nanoparticles. 
     Metal oxide nanoparticles can be synthesized by the forced hydrolysis of metal salts in alcoholic solution. A variety of articles are available in the literature describing such methods, some examples can be found in the articles by Koch et al (Chem. Phys. Lett., 122(5), pp 507-510 (1985)), Bahnemann et al (J. Phys. Chem., 91, pp 3789-3798, (1987)) and Spanhel et al (J. Am. Chem. Soc., 113, pp 2826-2833, (1991)). In the present invention, the method of Bahnemann et al (J. Phys. Chem., 91, pp 3789-3798, (1987)) and of Li et al as disclosed in US patent publication no. US20050260122 will be used with modifications to synthesize zinc oxide nanoparticles less than 10 nm in size. In the modified method of Bahnemann et al, zinc acetate dihydrate was dissolved in alcoholic solvent, after which an alcoholic solution of sodium hydroxide was added to the zinc acetate solution. The mixture is placed in a water bath that was preheated to 60° C. for 2 hours. The reaction solution is then concentrated by rotary evaporation to give 0.04 M ZnO colloidal solution. In the modified method of Li et al, zinc acetate dihydrate was dissolved in alcoholic solvent. An alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide was also prepared. The zinc acetate dihydrate solution was rapidly poured into the alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide while stirring. The reaction was allowed to continue for 2 hours after which the solution was cooled to 0˜5° C. to halt further nanocrystal growth. The solution thus prepared gives 1 L of 0.04 M ZnO colloidal solution. Although the example of ZnO nanoparticles dispersed in alcoholic solution is given, it should be understood that the present invention also includes ZnO nanoparticles dispersed in nonalcoholic solvents. 
     Some surface modification is required for nanoparticles to disperse well in organic media, in particular polymers. Examples of surface modifiers that can serve as good capping agents are thiols that possess an aromatic functionality and silanes that possess an aromatic functionality and a hydrolyzable functionality. A good candidate is benzyl mercaptan, which consist of a thiol functionality and an aromatic functionality. Benzyl mercaptan acts as a capping agent which caps or attaches to the surface of nanoparticles via the thiol functionality, whereas the aromatic functionality increases affinity between solvent and nanoparticle. Another good candidate is phenyltrimethoxysilane, which consist of a hydrolyzable alkoxysilane functionality and an aromatic functionality. Phenyltrimethoxysilane acts as a capping agent which caps or attaches to the surface of nanoparticles via the —Si—O— metal linkage, similarly, the aromatic functionality increases affinity between solvent and nanoparticle. A second role of the aromatic functionality is to improve affinity between polymer and nanoparticle. Two possible ways for improving solubility between inorganic particle and organic species are to ensure that hydrogen bonding abilities and the solubility parameters are alike. Native zinc oxide nanoparticles are highly polar due to the presence of OH group on the surface, attaching the surface with less polar molecules will bring solubility parameters closer to organic solvents while shielding the —OH group from interacting with solvents of less hydrogen bonding abilities. In the present invention, the use of benzyl mercaptan, phenyltrimethoxysilane and other related molecules allows ZnO to be dissolved in nitrogen containing solvents, including amine or amide containing and in particular, N,N-dimethylformamide and pyridine. One or more types of capping agents may be used in combination to achieve the desired solubility in solvents and compatibility with polymeric matrices. 
     Benzyl mercaptan is prepared as a solution with 2-propanol, which is then added directly into the ZnO/2-propanol colloidal solution while stirring. The amount of benzyl mercaptan added is calculated to be in the range of 0.5 to 1.5 molar equivalents to zinc oxide in solution. The amount of zinc oxide is estimated by assuming 100 percent conversion from zinc acetate. Precipitation occurs immediately and the solution is allowed to settle. The precipitate is separated by centrifugation and washed at least twice by methanol by redispersing as a suspension in methanol and centrifuging the suspension to collect the precipitate, followed by the drying of the wet precipitate in a vacuum oven at room temperature for at least 2 hours. This dried powder form of ZnO capped with benzyl mercaptan can be dispersed in nitrogen containing solvents, including amine or amide containing and in particular, N,N-dimethylformamide and pyridine, heating and mild agitation may be required in some cases and insoluble parts may also be observed, in which case the insoluble parts shall be removed from the solution by filtration or centrifugation. 
     The thiolic capping agent selected is not restricted to benzyl mercaptan and may be selected from the group of thiol compounds having aromatic group of the structure, HS—R 1 -AR—R 2  or HS-AR—R 2 , whereby R 1 , is selected from the group consisting of cycloalkylene, cycloalkenylene, branched or unbranched alkylene, a branched or unbranched alkenylene, a branched or unbranched alkynylene, a branched or unbranched heteroalkylene, a branched or unbranched heteroalkenylene, a branched or unbranched heteroalkynylene, preferably branched or unbranched C 1-4  alkylene; and R 2 , is selected from the group consisting of sulfonate, phosphonate, halogen, hydrogen, epoxy, allyl, amine, amide, aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, heterocycloalkyl ester, a branched or unbranched alkyl, a branched or unbranched alkenyl, a branched or unbranched alkynyl, a branched or unbranched heteroalkyl, a branched or unbranched heteroalkenyl, a branched or unbranched heteroalkynyl, preferably branched or unbranched C 1-4  alkyl; and AR is an aromatic group consisting of arylene (preferably phenylene), cycloarylene, heteroarylene or heterocycloarylene. The selection of R 1  and R 2  is decided by the type of polymer matrix, for example, long alkyl chains or bulky side groups may be introduced to match the hydrophobicity of the polymer matrix. Reactive functional groups may also be added, for example vinyl groups, which may react with unsaturated bonds and thiol group in the polymer. Other functional groups such as amines and epoxies may be selected to allow reaction with resins containing epoxide functionalities. 
     The nanoparticles may be surface treated with one or more types of silane compound(s), having the structure, X n Y (3-n) Si—(CH 2 ) m —R, whereby X is a hydrolyzable functional group including acryloxy, acyloxy, alkoxy, alkoxyalkoxy, amine, enoxy, halogen, methacryloxy, oxime or phenoxy, preferably C 1-4  alkoxy, Y is any non-hydrolyzable functional group such as —CH 3 , —H, or —OSi, the number n can be 1, 2 or 3, and m is an integer ranging from 0 to 18, R is an organic group having a functionality from the group consisting of cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, branched or unbranched alkyl, a branched or unbranched alkenyl, a branched or unbranched alkynyl, a branched or unbranched heteroalkyl, a branched or unbranched heteroalkenyl, a branched or unbranched heteroalkynyl, acid anhydride, acyloxy, alkoxy, allyl, amino, amido, carbamate, cyano, epoxy, epoxy cycloalkyl, ester, glycidoxy, halogen, halogenated alkyl, hydrogen, hydroxyl, mercapto, methacryloyl, phenyl, phosphonate, sulfonate, sulfonyl, ureido, vinyl, and combinations thereof. 
     It was found that silane compounds containing aromatic rings are particularly compatible with vinyl polymers such as poly methyl(meth)acrylate and polystyrene, an example of such a compound is phenyltrimethoxysilane. The preferable type of capping agent(s) may be selected from the group of silane compounds having aromatic group of the structure, X′ n Y′ (3-n) Si—R 3 -AR′—R 4  or X′ n Y′ (3-n) Si-AR′—R 4 , whereby X′ is a hydrolyzable functional group including acryloxy, acyloxy, alkoxy, alkoxyalkoxy, amine, enoxy, halogen, methacryloxy, oxime or phenoxy, preferably C 1-4  alkoxy, Y′ is any non-hydrolyzable functional group such as —CH 3 , —H, or —OSi, the number n can be 1, 2 or 3. R 3  is selected from the group consisting of cycloalkylene, cycloalkenylene, branched or unbranched alkylene, a branched or unbranched alkenylene, a branched or unbranched alkynylene, a branched or unbranched heteroalkylene, a branched or unbranched heteroalkenylene, a branched or unbranched heteroalkynylene, preferably branched or unbranched C 1-4  alkylene. R 4  is an organic group having a functionality from the group consisting of cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, branched or unbranched alkyl, a branched or unbranched alkenyl, a branched or unbranched alkynyl, a branched or unbranched heteroalkyl, a branched or unbranched heteroalkenyl, a branched or unbranched heteroalkynyl. Both R 3  and R 4  may also be selected from the group consisting of acid anhydride, acyloxy, alkoxy, allyl, amino, amido, carbamate, cyano, epoxy, epoxy cycloalkyl, ester, glycidoxy, halogen, halogenated alkyl, hydrogen, hydroxyl, mercapto, phosphonate, sulfonate, sulfonyl, ureido and combinations thereof; and AR′ is an aromatic group consisting of arylene (preferably phenylene), cycloarylene, heteroarylene or heterocycloarylene, including pyridine, pyrrole, thiophene, etc. 
     If multiple functional groups of X, Y, X′ or Y′ exist in the same molecule, they may have the same or different structure, for example in the case where two moieties of X exist, X may consist of two methoxy moieties or one methoxy moiety and one ethoxy moiety. 
     The selection of functional groups R, R 3  and R 4  is decided by the type of polymer matrix, for example, long alkyl chains or bulky side groups may be introduced to match the hydrophobicity of the polymer matrix. Reactive functional groups may also be added, for example vinyl groups, which may react with unsaturated bonds and thiol group in the polymer. Other functional groups such as amines and epoxy may be selected to allow reaction with resins containing epoxide functionalities. The abovementioned silane compounds may be used in combination with other types of silane or non-silane capping agents to achieve the desired solubility in solvents and compatibility in polymer matrices. 
     Phenyltrimethoxysilane is prepared as a solution with methanol, which is then added directly into the ZnO/methanol colloidal solution while stirring. The amount of phenyltrimethoxysilane added is calculated to be in the range of 0.01 to 1.5 molar equivalents to zinc oxide in solution. The amount of zinc oxide is estimated by assuming 100 percent conversion from zinc acetate. Precipitation due to flocculation of nanoparticles may occur after concentration by solvent evaporation, and flocculation is further induced by pouring into a mixture of 2-propanol and hexane, at which precipitation occurs immediately and the solution is allowed to settle. The precipitate is separated by centrifugation and washed at least twice by methanol by redispersing as a suspension in methanol and centrifuging the suspension to collect the precipitate, followed by the drying of the wet precipitate in a vacuum oven at room temperature for at least 2 hours. This dried powder form of ZnO capped with phenyltrimethoxysilane can be dispersed into nitrogen containing solvents, including amines or amides, and in particular, N,N-dimethylformamide and pyridine. Heating and mild agitation may be required in some cases and insoluble parts may also be observed, in which case the insoluble parts shall be removed from the solution by filtration or centrifugation. 
     The solution of nanoparticles is added to a solution of polymer and mixed to obtain a homogeneous dispersion. Alternatively, the polymer can be added directly into the nanoparticle solution. The polymer is selected from the group of transparent polymers of group consisting of polyester, polycarbonate, polyolefin, polyamide, polyurethane, polyacetal, cellulose derivatives, polyvinyl acetal, polyvinyl ketal, vinyl polymer or copolymer comprising vinyl monomer selected from (meth)acrylate ester, aromatic vinyl, vinyl cyanide, vinyl halide, vinylidene halide, vinyl alcohol and derivatives, vinyl pyrrolidone and combinations thereof. 
     The nanoparticle and polymer solution mixture is poured into a mold and dried under vacuum to obtain clear and transparent polymer nanocomposite. 
     Example 1 
     Preparation of ZnO/PMMA Nanocomposites 
     Preparation of Particles 
     Solvents and reagents used in this and subsequent examples were of reagent grade and used without further purification. ZnO nanoparticle alcoholic solutions produced by a variety of methods available in the literature may be employed in production of nanoparticles less than 10 nm in diameter. In this example, the method of Bahnemann et al (J. Phys. Chem., 91:3789, (1987)) will be used with modifications. Briefly, 0.439 g (2 mmol) of zinc acetate dihydrate (98%) was dissolved in 160 mL of 2-propanol under stirring at 50° C., after which the solution was further diluted to 1840 mL. 0.16 g (4 mmol) of sodium hydroxide pellets (99.99%) were dissolved in 160 mL of 2-propanol at 50° C., this solution was added to the zinc acetate solution at 0° C. under stirring. The mixture was placed in a water bath that was preheated to 60° C. for 2 hours. The reaction solution was then concentrated by a rotary evaporator at 30˜35° C. to 50 ml to give 0.04 M ZnO colloid solution. 
     Preparation of Capping Solution and Capped ZnO 
     0.248 g (2 mmoles) of benzyl mercaptan (BM) (99%) was added to 10 ml of isopropanol. The BM solution was rapidly added to the reaction solution while stirring. The ZnO nanocrystals were capped by BM and the flocculation of nanocrystals resulted in formation of slight yellow or white precipitates. The precipitate was allowed to settle and then separated from the solution phase by centrifugation. The precipitate collected was redispersed in methanol to form a turbid suspension and centrifuged. This purification procedure was repeated once more. The purified precipitate was dried in a vacuum oven at room temperature for 2 hours to obtain a slightly yellow fine powder. This powder was analyzed by TGA to estimate the percentage of ZnO present. Typically a range 45 to 65 weight percent of ZnO can be obtained. This value is obtained according to Test Procedure 1. 
     Preparation of ZnO/PMMA Nanocomposites 
     To prepare a 4 weight percent ZnO nanocomposite, assuming 50% weight of benzyl mercaptan (BM)-capped ZnO was ZnO, BM-capped ZnO powder (0.08 g) was dissolved in 10 ml of pyridine. Heating the nanoparticle solution at 60° C. for 30 minutes will result in an optically clear solution. PMMA (0.92 g) was dissolved in 30 ml of chloroform to form a clear, transparent solution. The nanoparticle solution was mixed thoroughly with the PMMA solution while maintaining an optically clear solution with a concentration of 1 g of capped ZnO and PMMA in 40 ml solution. This solution was then concentrated to a volume of 10 ml at room temperature using a rotary evaporator. The concentrated solution was poured into a glass mold to form a film. The mold is then placed in a vacuum oven to be dried for 2 hours at room temperature. A clear, transparent film was obtained that was easily separated from the mold. Thermogravimetic analysis (TGA) according to Test Procedure 1 confirmed the residue weight of the nanocomposites to be 4%. 
     Example 2 
     Preparation of ZnO/PSt Nanocomposites 
     Preparation of Particles 
     The same procedure as described in Example 1 was followed. 
     Preparation of Capping Solution and Capped ZnO 
     The same procedure as described in Example 1 was followed except that p-(Trimethylsilyl)phenylmethanethiol (TMSPMT) from Wako Chemicals was used instead of BM. 
     A solution of 0.393 g (2 mmole) of TMSPMT in methanol (10 ml) was prepared. The TMSPMT solution was rapidly added to the reaction solution while stirring. The ZnO nanocrystals were capped by TMSPMT and the flocculation of nanocrystals resulted in formation of slight yellow or white precipitates. The precipitate was allowed to settle and then separated from the solution phase by centrifugation. The precipitate collected was redispersed in methanol to form a turbid suspension and centrifuged. This purification procedure was repeated once more. The purified precipitate was dried in a vacuum oven at room temperature for 2 hours to obtain a slightly yellow fine powder. This powder was analyzed by TGA to estimate the percentage of ZnO present. Typically a range 50 to 70 weight percent of ZnO can be obtained. This value was obtained according to Test Procedure 1. 
     Preparation of ZnO/PSt Nanocomposites 
     To prepare a 4 weight percent ZnO nanocomposite, assuming 50% weight of TMSPMT-capped ZnO was ZnO, TMSPMT-capped ZnO powder (0.08 g) was dissolved in 10 ml of pyridine. Heating the nanoparticle solution at 60° C. for 30 minutes will result in an optically clear solution. PSt (0.92 g) was dissolved in 30 ml of chloroform to form a clear, transparent solution. The nanoparticle solution was mixed thoroughly with the PSt solution while maintaining an optically clear solution with a concentration of 1 g capped ZnO and PSt in 40 ml solution. This solution was then concentrated to volume of 10 ml at room temperature using a rotary evaporator. The concentrated solution was poured into an open mold to form a film. The mold is then placed in a vacuum oven to be dried for 2 hours at room temperature. A clear, transparent film was obtained that was easily separated from the mold. Thermogravimetic analysis according to Test Procedure 1 confirmed the residue weight of the nanocomposites to be 4%. 
     Example 3 
     Preparation OF ZnO/PMMA Nanocomposites 
     Preparation of Particles 
     In this example, the method of Li et al as disclosed in US patent publication no. US20050260122 will be used with modifications. Briefly, 8.78 g (0.04 moles) of zinc acetate dihydrate (98%) was dissolved in 200 mL of methanol under stirring at 60° C., after which the solution was allowed to cool to 25° C. An alkali solution was prepared using 4.489 g (0.08) moles of potassium hydroxide pellets (85%), which were dissolved in 800 mL of methanol under stirring and temperature was maintained at 60° C. The zinc acetate dihydrate solution was rapidly poured into the alkali solution while stirring. Solution turbidity may be observed which eventually clears up within an hour to give a transparent solution. The reaction was allowed to continue for 2 hours after which the solution was cooled to 0˜5° C. to halt further nanocrystal growth. The solution thus prepared gives 1 L of 0.04 M ZnO colloidal solution. 
     Preparation of Capping Solution and Capped ZnO 
     7.932 g (0.04) moles of phenyltrimethoxysilane (PTMS) (94%) was added to 20 ml of methanol. The PTMS solution was rapidly added to the reaction solution while stirring. The ZnO nanocrystals were capped by PTMS and some flocculation of nanocrystals may result in the formation of white precipitates. The solution was concentrated by evaporation to 500 mL at 40° C. Some precipitation may be observed after concentration. A homogeneous mixture of 500 mL of 2-propanol and 2.5 L of hexane was prepared. The concentrated ZnO colloid was rapidly poured into the 2-propanol and hexane mixture while stirring. Flocculation of the nanocrystals occurred and the mixture was allowed to settle for 1 to 3 hours. The flocculated nanocrystals in the form of white precipitate was separated from the solution phase by centrifugation at 6000 rpm for 20 min. The precipitate collected was added to methanol to form a turbid suspension and centrifuged. This purification procedure was repeated once more. The purified precipitate was dried in a vacuum oven at room temperature for 2 hours to obtain a white powder. This powder was analyzed by TGA to estimate the percentage of ZnO present. Typically a range of 60 to 85 weight percent of solid residue can be obtained. This value is then converted to ZnO weight percentage obtained according to Test Procedure 2. A TGA graph from a typical preparation of nanoparticle is shown in  FIG. 3 . The weight loss is attributed to absorbed solvent and organic component of the silane compound. The metal oxide content can be estimated according to Test Procedure 2, in this case weight loss is 17.3% and metal oxide content is 76.4%. 
     Preparation of ZnO/PMMA Nanocomposites 
     To prepare a 1.35 weight percent ZnO nanocomposite, where 76.4% weight of phenyltrimethoxysilane (PTMS)-capped ZnO was ZnO, PTMS-capped ZnO powder (0.0176 g) was dissolved in 0.3344 g of DMF to make 5% solution. The nanoparticle solution was sonicated for 30 minutes resulting in an optically clear solution. PMMA (0.9824 g) was dissolved in 8.842 g of DMF to make 10% solution. The polymer solution was heated to 80° C. and stirred for at least 1 hour to ensure homogeneous mixing. The nanoparticle solution was mixed thoroughly with the PMMA solution while maintaining an optically clear solution. The nanoparticle/polymer solution was poured into a glass mold to form a film. The mold is then placed in a vacuum oven to be dried for 5 hours at room temperature. A clear, transparent film was obtained that was easily separated from the mold. Thermogravimetic analysis according to Test Procedure 2 confirmed the residue weight of the nanocomposites to be 1.45%, which can be converted to obtain ZnO weight of 1.35%. This sample was designated as PTMS 01 . To prepare another sample of 6.31 weight percent ZnO nanocomposite, a similar procedure as before was followed where PTMS-capped ZnO powder (0.0822 g) was dissolved in 1.5618 g of DMF to make 5% solution. PMMA (0.9178 g) was dissolved in 8.260 g of DMF to make 10% solution. Thermogravimetic analysis according to Test Procedure 2 confirmed the residue weight of the nanocomposites to be 6.83%, which can be converted to obtain ZnO weight of 6.31%. This sample was designated as PTMS 02 . 
     Test Procedure 1: Determination of Weight Percentage of Metal Oxide Content of Thiol-Capped Particles and Thermal Stability of Nanocomposites. 
     The metal oxide contents of the particles and nanocomposites were determined using a Shimadzu TGA-50 Thermal Gravimetric Analyzer. For the particles prepared according to Examples 1 and 2, a sample was heated to 800° C., at a rate of 20° C. per minute, in air flowing at 50 cubic centimeters per minute and held isothermally for 10 minutes. The weight percentage of remaining solid was attributed to metal oxide with all volatile organic components removed. For the nanocomposites prepared according to Examples 1 and 2, a sample was heated to 120° C. for 2 hours in an oven to drive off residual solvent. This sample was then heated to 800° C., at a rate of 20° C. per minute in the Thermal Gravimeter Analyzer, in air flowing at 50 cubic centimeters per minute and held isothermally for 10 minutes. t 50 , defined as the temperature corresponding to fifty percent weight remaining of the sample, taking the weight measured at 25° C. as reference, was recorded for the purpose of determination of thermal stability. The weight percentage of remaining solid was attributed to metal oxide with all polymeric and volatile organic components removed. 
     Test Procedure 2: Determination of Weight Percentage of Metal Oxide Content of Silane-Capped Particles and Thermal Stability of Nanocomposites. 
     The metal oxide contents of the particles and nanocomposites were determined using a Shimadzu TGA-50 Thermal Gravimetric Analyzer. For the particles prepared according to Example 3, a sample was heated to 800° C., at a rate of 20° C. per minute, in air flowing at 50 cubic centimeters per minute and held isothermally for 10 minutes. The weight percentage of remaining solid was attributed to metal oxide and silicon residue with all volatile organic components removed. For the nanocomposites prepared according to Example 3, a sample was heated to 120° C. for 2 hours in an oven to drive off residual solvent. This sample was then heated to 800° C., at a rate of 20° C. per minute in the Thermal Gravimeter Analyzer, in air flowing at 50 cubic centimeters per minute and held isothermally for 10 minutes. t 50 , defined as the temperature corresponding to fifty percent weight remaining of the sample, taking the weight measured at 25° C. as reference, was recorded for the purpose of determination of thermal stability. The weight percentage of remaining solid was attributed to metal oxide and silicon residue with all polymeric and volatile organic components removed. 
     To obtain an estimate of metal oxide content of capped ZnO powder, it is assumed that the residue contains only metal oxide and silicon atoms from the original silane compound. The fraction of metal oxide contained in the powder can be obtained by the following equation; 
     
       
         
           
             
               f 
               MO 
             
             = 
             
               1 
               - 
               
                 
                   f 
                   organic 
                 
                  
                 
                   ( 
                   
                     1 
                     + 
                     
                       
                         m 
                         Si 
                       
                       
                         m 
                         organic 
                       
                     
                   
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     where f MO =weight fraction of metal oxide, f organic =weight fraction of organic component and is equivalent to weight loss measured by TGA, m Si =relative molecular mass of silicon atom, and m organic =relative molecular mass of organic moiety connected by the Si—C bond, which in the case of phenyltrimethoxysilane consists of C 6 H 5  is 77.1. In the case of 50 wt % of ZnO, f MO =0.5 and weight loss measured by TGA is 36.7% or f organic =0.367. 
     To obtain an estimate of metal oxide content in polymer nanocomposite, a similar reasoning is followed as before. However, both the polymer and organic moiety in the silane compound contribute to weight loss. Consequently the equation is modified and assumes the following form; 
     
       
         
           
             
               f 
               MO 
               nanocomposite 
             
             = 
             
               w 
               
                 1 
                 + 
                 
                   A 
                   
                     1 
                     + 
                     B 
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     where f MO   nanocomposite =weight fraction of metal oxide in nanocomposite, w=weight fraction of solid content remaining as measured by TGA, 
     
       
         
           
             A 
             = 
             
               
                 1 
                 - 
                 
                   f 
                   MO 
                 
               
               
                 f 
                 MO 
               
             
           
         
       
       
         
           and 
         
       
       
         
           
             
               B 
               = 
               
                 
                   m 
                   organic 
                 
                 
                   m 
                   Si 
                 
               
             
             , 
           
         
       
     
     where f MO , m Si  and m organic  have the same meanings as before. In the case of using 50% wt of phenyltrimethoxysilane-capped ZnO to obtain 4% wt ZnO in nanocomposite, f MO =0.5, f MO   nanocomposite =0.04 and the weight of solid content remaining as measured by TGA is 5% or w=0.05. 
     Test Procedure 3: Determination of Haze Level of Nanocomposites. 
     Haze is the percentage of transmitted light, which when passing through a specimen, deviates from the incident beam by forward scattering, the total amount of light that deviates from the incident beam is termed the diffuse transmission. Lower haze values imply greater transparency. It is defined as 
     
       
         
           
             
               % 
                
               
                   
               
                
               Haze 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   T 
                   diffuse 
                 
                 
                   T 
                   total 
                 
               
               × 
               100 
             
           
         
       
     
     where T=% transmission 
     Haze may be caused by particles or voids in the polymer matrix or imperfect surface of the polymer. It is an effective measure of optical quality of a nanocomposite and may be used as an indicator of the degree of nanoparticle dispersion in polymer. Lower haze implies better dispersion of nanoparticles. Haze level was determined using a Nippon Denshoku Hazemeter NDH 2000, using a standard CIE D65 illuminant (Colorimetry, 3rd Edition, Publication CIE 15:2004). The use of a standard illuminant gives a measure of haze closer to what is observed visually by the human eye. Standard illuminant D65 covers a spectrum close to natural daylight. This is more exacting than measuring transmittance at a certain wavelength as slight agglomeration of nanoparticles may show little light scattering at longer wavelengths, thereby giving a lower haze value than expected, whereas a broad spectrum will reveal scattering effects for both short and long wavelengths. A nanocomposite film was prepared according to one of the procedures in the examples. The nanocomposite film was in the shape of a disc with diameter of 4 centimeters; alternatively a piece of film measuring 3 centimeters by 3 centimeters was cut out of a large film, and then thickness was measured by a micrometer gauge. Care must be taken to ensure the surface of the film was not damaged by scratches or cracks, which may increase haze level. The film sample was set on to the sample holder and analyzed, the film was then flipped over and analyzed again. The average of two readings was taken to be the final haze level of the film. 
     Test Procedure 4: Determination of UV-Visible Transmission of Nanocomposites. 
     UV absorption is measured by UV-visible spectrophotometer. The ability of a film to protect a substrate from UV light depends both on the range of wavelength and amount of UV light absorbed. The amount of UV light absorbed is determined by the amount of UV absorbing agent and the thickness of the film. The range of the wavelength is determined by the size of ZnO nanoparticles, the larger the particle size the broader the absorption range. The effective UV cut-off wavelength can be determined from the UV-visible absorption curve by extending a straight line from the linear slope of the curve; the cut-off wavelength is read off the point where the line intersects the abscissa. A nanocomposite film can absorb UV fully beyond the effective cut-off wavelength even though it exhibits partial absorption if its thickness is increased. A nanocomposite film was prepared according to one of the procedures in the examples. The nanocomposite film measuring 3 centimeters by 3 centimeters was cut out of a large film and the thickness measured by a micrometer gauge. Care must be taken to ensure the surface of the film was not damaged by scratches or cracks, which may increase light scattering and affect transmission readings. Ultraviolet-visible light transmission of the film was measured using a Hitachi Spectrophotometer U-3310. The UV-visible spectrum was recorded in percent transmission (% T). 
     Properties and Characteristics of Nanocomposites 
     The thermal stabilities of nanocomposites that were prepared in Examples 1 and 2 are determined. The TGA curves depicted in  FIGS. 4 and 5  were obtained and the results that were read off the curves are shown in Table 1. Table 1 illustrates that t 50  increases in the presence of ZnO and an improvement of at least 14° C. in thermal stability is observed in both PMMA and PSt. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Temperature, 
                 % Weight 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 t 50  at 50% 
                 remaining 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 Polymer 
                 Capping Agent 
                 weight loss (° C.) 
                 at 700° C. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 BM00 
                 PMMA 
                 — 
                 310 
                 0.37 
               
               
                 BM01 
                 PMMA 
                 Benzyl Mercaptan 
                 388 
                 4.48 
               
               
                 TM00 
                 PSt 
                 — 
                 390 
                 0.80 
               
               
                 TM01 
                 PSt 
                 p-(Trimethylsilyl)phe- 
                 404 
                 4.11 
               
               
                   
                   
                 nylmethanethiol 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The thermal stabilities of nanocomposites that were prepared according to Example 3 are determined. The TGA curves depicted in  FIG. 6  were obtained and the results that were read off the curves are shown in Table 1. Table 2 illustrates that t 50  increases in the presence of ZnO and an improvement of at least 17° C. in thermal stability is observed in PMMA. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Temperature, 
                 % Weight 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 t 50  at 50% 
                 remaining at 
                 ZnO % 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 Polymer 
                 Capping Agent 
                 weight loss (° C.) 
                 700° C. 
                 weight 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 PTMS00 
                 PMMA 
                 — 
                 365 
                 0.44 
                 0 
               
               
                 PTMS01 
                 PMMA 
                 Phenyltrimethoxysilane 
                 382 
                 1.45 
                 1.35 
               
               
                 PTMS02 
                 PMMA 
                 Phenyltrimethoxysilane 
                 392 
                 6.83 
                 6.31 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The haze level and UV absorption properties of nanocomposites that were prepared in Examples 1 and 2 are determined. The UV absorption spectra depicted in  FIGS. 7 and 8  were obtained and the results that were read off the spectra are shown in Table 3. Table 3 illustrates that haze levels can be maintained below 3% while UV absorption is extended to 355 nm in the presence of ZnO. Note that haze level of virgin polymer can be higher than the nanocomposite due to surface quality of test samples. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Effective UV 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Haze 
                 cut-off 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 Polymer 
                 Level (%) 
                 wavelength (nm) 
                 Thickness (mm) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 BM00 
                 PMMA 
                 1.8 
                 270 
                 0.210 
               
               
                 BM01 
                 PMMA 
                 1.57 
                 355 
                 0.110 
               
               
                 TM00 
                 PSt 
                 1.62 
                 270 
                 0.250 
               
               
                 TM01 
                 PSt 
                 2.88 
                 325 
                 0.020 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The haze level and UV absorption properties of nanocomposites that were prepared in Example 3 are determined. The UV absorption spectra depicted in  FIG. 9  were obtained and the results that were read off the spectra are shown in Table 4. Table 4 illustrates that haze levels can be maintained below 3% while UV absorption is extended to 350 nm in the presence of ZnO. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Effective UV 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Haze 
                 cut-off 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 Polymer 
                 Level (%) 
                 wavelength (nm) 
                 Thickness (mm) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 PTMS00 
                 PMMA 
                 0.86 
                 280 
                 0.213 
               
               
                 PTMS01 
                 PMMA 
                 0.89 
                 340 
                 0.244 
               
               
                 PTMS02 
                 PMMA 
                 1.26 
                 350 
                 0.248