Patent Publication Number: US-2023145189-A1

Title: Radome assembly having nodeless cells

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/277,467, filed Nov. 9, 2021, the disclosure of which is hereby expressly incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
    
    
     FIELD 
     The present disclosure pertains to antenna apparatuses for satellite communication systems. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Satellite communication systems generally involve Earth-based antennas in communication with a constellation of satellites in orbit. Earth-based antennas are, of consequence, exposed to weather and other environmental conditions. Therefore, described herein are antenna apparatuses and their housing assemblies designed to be both functional and durable to protect internal antenna elements from environmental conditions while enabling radio frequency communications with a satellite communication system, such as a constellation of satellites. 
     SUMMARY 
     This summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in a simplified form that are further described below in the detailed description. This summary is not intended to identify key features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid in determining the scope of the claimed subject matter. 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, a radome assembly for use with an antenna assembly is described. The radome assembly may comprise a radome body portion having a first side and a second side, wherein the radome body portion defines a portion of a housing for an antenna assembly. The radome assembly may further comprise an outer layer coupled to the first side of the radome body portion, wherein the outer layer is made from a different material than the radome body portion, and wherein at least a portion of the outer layer is exposed to an outdoor environment and has hydrophobic properties. 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, a radome assembly for use with an antenna assembly is described. The radome assembly may comprise a radome body portion having a first side and a second side. The radome assembly may further comprise an outer layer coupled to the first side of the radome body portion, wherein the outer layer is made from a different material than the radome body portion, and wherein at least a portion of the outer layer has hydrophobic properties. The radome assembly may further comprise a radome spacer portion extending from the second side of the radome body portion and configured to space the radome body portion and the outer layer from antenna elements of the antenna assembly. 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, a method of assembling a radome assembly is described. The method may comprise obtaining a radome body portion having a first side and a second side. The method may further comprise coupling an outer layer to the radome body portion by positioning a surface of the outer layer having a pressure sensitive adhesive (PSA) adjacent to the first side of the radome body portion and applying pressure to the outer layer. 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, a radome assembly for use with an antenna assembly is described. The radome assembly may comprise a radome body portion having a first surface and a second surface, wherein the second surface is opposite the first surface, and wherein the radome body portion defines a portion of a housing for an antenna assembly. The radome assembly may further comprise a radome spacer portion extending from the second surface of the radome body portion, the radome spacer portion defining a plurality of cells that are formed from a plurality of cell walls, wherein at least two cell walls of the plurality of cell walls defining each cell of the plurality of cells are spaced apart from each other. 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, a radome assembly for use with an antenna assembly is described. The radome assembly may comprise a radome body portion having a first surface and a second surface, wherein the second surface is opposite the first surface. The radome assembly may further comprise a radome spacer portion extending from the second surface of the radome body portion, the radome spacer portion defining a plurality of cells that are formed from a plurality of cell walls, wherein the plurality of cells are nodeless cells. 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, a radome spacer portion for spacing a radome body portion from antenna elements of an antenna assembly is described. The radome spacer portion may comprise a plurality of cells that are formed from a plurality of cell walls, wherein at least two cell walls of the plurality of cell walls defining each cell of the plurality of cells are spaced apart from each other. 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, a radome body assembly for use with an antenna assembly is described. The radome body assembly may comprise a radome body portion having a first surface and a second surface, wherein the second surface is opposite the first surface, and wherein the radome body portion defines a portion of a housing for an antenna assembly. The radome body assembly may further comprise a plurality of elongated members each coupled to the second surface of the radome body portion and each having a proximal end at or near the radome body portion and a distal end distal from the radome body portion, wherein the plurality of elongated members is configured to extend through a plurality of corresponding thru-holes defined in the antenna assembly. 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, a method of assembling an antenna apparatus having an antenna assembly is described. The method may comprise obtaining a radome assembly including at least a radome body portion and a plurality of elongated members, each of the plurality of elongated members having a proximal end at or near the radome body portion and a distal end distal from the radome body portion. The method may further comprise extending each of the plurality of elongated members through a respective thru-hole of a plurality of thru-holes defined in the antenna assembly. The method may further comprise supporting the antenna assembly on respective shoulders defined on at least some of the plurality of elongated members. 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, a housing for an antenna assembly is described. The housing may comprise a radome body assembly and a lower enclosure that is coupled to the radome body assembly using welding such that a volume is defined between the radome body assembly and the lower enclosure. 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, a method of assembling an antenna assembly is described. The method may comprise obtaining a radome body assembly, a lower enclosure, and at least one antenna layer. The method may further comprise positioning the at least one antenna layer in a volume defined between the top portion and the lower enclosure. The method may further comprise coupling, using vibration welding, the top portion to the lower enclosure to enclose the at least one antenna layer within the volume. 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, a dielectric layer for use in an antenna assembly is described. The dielectric layer may comprise a planar body formed using a dielectric material. The dielectric layer may further comprise a plurality of openings defined in the planar body and surrounding a plurality of portions of the dielectric material, each of the plurality of portions of the dielectric material being configured to be aligned with an antenna element of a plurality of antenna elements of the antenna assembly. 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, an antenna assembly is described. The antenna assembly may comprise a printed circuit board (PCB) assembly. The antenna assembly may further comprise at least one antenna layer at least partially forming a plurality of antenna elements. The antenna assembly may further comprise a dielectric layer located between the PCB assembly and the at least one antenna layer and having a dielectric constant of between 2.5 and 3.5 and a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of between 15 parts per million per degree Celsius (ppm/°C) and 25 ppm/°C. 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, a method of assembling an antenna assembly is described. The method may comprise obtaining at least one antenna layer at least partially forming a plurality of antenna elements. The method may further comprise obtaining a printed circuit board (PCB) assembly. The method may further comprise obtaining a dielectric layer having a planar body formed using a dielectric material, and a plurality of openings defined by the planar body and surrounding a plurality of portions of the dielectric material. The method may further comprise stacking the dielectric layer between the at least one antenna layer and the PCB assembly such that each of the plurality of portions of the dielectric material is aligned with an antenna element of the plurality of antenna elements. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the outer layer may have a thickness that is less than or equal to 60 thousandths of an inch. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome assembly may have a thickness of greater than 3 mm. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the outer layer may be coupled to the first surface of the radome body portion using an adhesive. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the adhesive may be a pressure sensitive adhesive (PSA). 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the outer layer may include an ultraviolet (UV) light blocking additive. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the ultraviolet (UV) light blocking additive may be titanium dioxide (TiO2). 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, at least a portion of the outer layer may have superhydrophobic properties. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the outer layer may have superhydrophobic properties. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome body portion and the radome spacer portion may be integrally formed. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome body portion and the radome spacer portion may be formed from a different material than the outer layer. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome assembly may further comprise a plurality of elongated members each coupled to the second side of the radome body portion and each having a proximal end at or near the radome body portion and a distal end extending away from the radome body portion, wherein the distal end of each of the plurality of elongated members may be configured to extend through an opening defined in the antenna assembly. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, at least one elongated member of the plurality of elongated members may be configured to interface with the antenna assembly to resist separation of the radome body portion from the antenna assembly. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the plurality of elongated members may be further configured to port thermal energy from the antenna assembly to the radome body portion. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome body portion and the radome spacer portion may be formed using a first material. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome body portion and the radome spacer portion may be formed using the same material. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the first material may include a polymer. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the polymer may include at least one of polypropylene (PP), polycarbonates, polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyphenylene ether (PPE), poly(p-phenylene oxide) (PPO), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl chlorine (PVC), and liquid crystal polymer (LCP). 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, each of the cell walls that define a first cell may also function as a cell wall of at least another cell of the plurality of cells. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, each of the plurality of cells may be defined by 6 cell walls. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, a vertical pathway of each of the plurality of cells may be configured to be aligned with a respective antenna element of the antenna assembly. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the first surface may be a planar surface. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the plurality of cells may be nodeless cells. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome assembly may have a thickness of greater than or equal to 3 mm. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome assembly may further comprise a hydrophobic outer layer coupled to the first surface of the radome body portion. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome body portion and the radome spacer portion may be formed from a first material and the hydrophobic outer layer may be formed by a second material. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, at least one elongated member of the plurality of elongated members may configured to interface with the antenna assembly to resist separation of the radome body portion from the antenna assembly. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, at least one elongated member of the plurality of elongated members may include a shoulder. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the antenna assembly may include a plurality of layers each having a plurality of ports. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the plurality of ports of each of the plurality of layers may align to define a plurality of thru-holes in the antenna assembly. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the plurality of elongated members may further be configured to conduct thermal energy from the antenna assembly to the radome body portion. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the antenna assembly may include one or more components configured to generate thermal energy and/or configured to couple to electronic components configured to generate thermal energy, such that the plurality of elongated members conduct the thermal energy generated from the antenna assembly to the radome body portion. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome body portion and the plurality of elongated members may be integrally formed or separately formed. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the distal ends of the plurality of elongated members may be coupled to the antenna assembly. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the distal ends of the plurality of elongated members may be each deformable, such that deformation of the distal end while the at least one elongated member is extended through a corresponding thru-hole of the antenna assembly defines a shoulder that resists separation of the radome body portion from the second element of the antenna assembly. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the respective distal ends of the plurality of elongated members may be coupled to a lower enclosure, wherein the lower enclosure may define a portion of the housing for the antenna assembly. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome body assembly may further comprise a radome spacer portion extending from the second surface of the radome body portion, the radome spacer portion defining a plurality of cells that are formed from a plurality of cell walls. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, at least two cell walls of the cell walls defining each cell of the plurality of cells may be spaced apart from each other. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the plurality of elongated members may extend further from the radome body portion than the plurality of cell walls. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome spacer portion, the radome body portion, and the plurality of elongated members may be integrally formed. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the plurality of elongated members may be coupled to the radome assembly either before or after extending each of the plurality of elongated members through a respective thru-hole of a plurality of thru-holes defined in the antenna assembly. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the respective shoulders defined on at least some of the plurality of elongated members may be formed by deforming at least some of the distal ends of each of the elongated members. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the welding may be vibration welding or ultrasonic welding. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome body assembly may include a bonding surface located at or near a perimeter portion of the radome body assembly. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the lower enclosure may include a post extending away from a perimeter portion of the lower enclosure and defining a bonding edge configured to be coupled to the bonding surface of the radome body assembly via the welding. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the lower enclosure may further include an enclosure lip located outward relative to the post and extending substantially parallel to the post, and wherein the radome body assembly may further include a radome lip extending away from the bonding surface such that a gap is defined between the enclosure lip and the radome lip when the bonding surface is coupled to the bonding edge. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the bonding surface may extend around the entire perimeter portion of the radome body assembly, and the post and bonding edge defined thereon may extend around the entire perimeter portion of the lower enclosure. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the welding between the bonding surface and the bonding edge may form a hermetic seal between the radome body assembly and the lower enclosure. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the radome body assembly may include a radome body portion and a radome spacer portion coupled to the radome body portion, wherein the bonding surface may be defined by the radome body portion and wherein the radome spacer portion may be configured to be located within the volume when the radome body portion is coupled to the lower enclosure. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the bonding surface may extend substantially parallel to the radome body portion and the post may extend substantially perpendicular to the radome body portion. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the dielectric layer may be configured to be positioned between a printed circuit board (PCB) assembly and at least one antenna layer that at least partially forms the antenna assembly. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, each of the plurality of openings may have a circular shape. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the dielectric material may have a dielectric constant of between 2.5 and 3.5. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the dielectric material may have a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of between 15 parts per million per degree Celsius (ppm/°C) and 25 ppm/°C. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the plurality of portions of the dielectric material may be surrounded by 6 openings of the plurality of openings. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the plurality of openings may increase a scan angle of the antenna assembly by at least 1.5 percent. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the dielectric layer may include a planar body; and a plurality of openings defined by the planar body and surrounding a plurality of portions of the dielectric material. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, each of the plurality of portions of the dielectric material may be aligned with an antenna element of the plurality of antenna elements. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the plurality of openings may increase a scan angle of the antenna assembly by at least 1.5 percent. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the dielectric material may have flame retardant properties. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the dielectric material may include at least about 5% decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE). 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, each of the plurality of openings may have a circular shape. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, the method may further comprise coupling the at least one antenna layer, the PCB assembly, and the dielectric layer together. 
     In any of the embodiments described herein, obtaining the dielectric layer may include obtaining the dielectric layer to have a dielectric constant of between 2.5 and 3.5 and a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of between 15 parts per million per degree Celsius (ppm/°C) and 25 ppm/°C. 
    
    
     
       DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG.  1    is a not-to-scale diagram illustrating a simple example of communication in a satellite communication system in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  2 A  is an isometric top view depicting an exemplary antenna apparatus in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  2 B  is an isometric bottom view depicting exemplary antenna apparatus of  FIG.  2 A , showing a housing secured to a leg that is designed to be mounted to a surface in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  3 A  is an isometric exploded view depicting a housing assembly of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  3 B  is an isometric exploded view depicting various elements of an antenna stack of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  4 A  is a bottom view of a radome assembly of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  4 B  is an enlarged isometric view of a portion of the bottom of the radome assembly of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  5    is a cross-sectional view of a portion of the radome assembly of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  including an outer layer as well as a radome body assembly having a radome body portion, a radome spacer portion, and an elongated member in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  6 A  is a top view of an upper patch antenna layer of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  showing an array of upper patch antenna elements in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  6 B  is a top view illustrating an antenna spacer of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  6 C  is a top view of a lower patch antenna layer of the of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  showing an array of lower patch antenna elements in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIGS.  7 A and  7 B  are isometric views of a single antenna element in an antenna element array of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  8 A  is a top view of a dielectric spacer layer of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  illustrating exemplary locations and sizes of openings formed through the dielectric spacer layer in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  8 B  is an enlarged top view of various elements of the antenna stack of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  illustrating relative locations of cell walls of a radome spacer portion, openings of a dielectric spacer layer, ports through which elongated members of a radome body assembly extend, and patch antenna elements in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  9 A  is a top view of a printed circuit board (PCB) assembly of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  9 B  is a cross-sectional view of a portion of the PCB assembly of  FIG.  9 A  in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  9 C  is a bottom view of the PCB assembly of  FIG.  9 A  illustrating electronic components of the PCB assembly in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  10    is an enlarged cross-sectional view of a center portion of an antenna stack of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  illustrating use of elongated members of a radome body assembly to couple elements of the antenna stack together in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  11    is an enlarged cross-sectional view of an edge of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  illustrating the antenna assembly in an assembled state in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure; and 
         FIG.  12    is an enlarged cross-sectional view of a center portion of an antenna stack of the antenna assembly of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  illustrating use of an elongated member to couple elements of the antenna stack together in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Various embodiments of the disclosure are discussed in detail below. While the concepts of the present disclosure are susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof have been shown by way of example in the drawings and will be described herein in detail. It should be understood, however, that there is no intent to limit the concepts of the present disclosure to the particular forms disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives consistent with the present disclosure and the appended claims. 
     In the drawings, some structural or method features may be shown in specific arrangements and/or orderings. However, it should be appreciated that such specific arrangements and/or orderings may not be required. Rather, in some embodiments, such features may be arranged in a different manner and/or order than shown in the illustrative figures. Additionally, the inclusion of a structural or method feature in a particular figure is not meant to imply that such feature is required in all embodiments and, in some embodiments, it may not be included or may be combined with other features. 
     References in the specification to “one embodiment,” “an embodiment,” “an illustrative embodiment,” etc., indicate that the embodiment described may include a particular feature, structure, or characteristic, but every embodiment may or may not necessarily include that particular feature, structure, or characteristic. Moreover, such phrases are not necessarily referring to the same embodiment. Further, when a particular feature, structure, or characteristic is described in connection with an embodiment, it is submitted that it is within the knowledge of one skilled in the art to affect such feature, structure, or characteristic in connection with other embodiments whether or not explicitly described. Language such as “top”, “bottom”, “upper”, “lower”, “vertical”, “horizontal”, “lateral”, in the present disclosure is meant to provide orientation for the reader with reference to the drawings and is not intended to be the required orientation of the components or to impart orientation limitations into the claims. 
     Embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to antenna apparatuses including antenna systems designed for sending and/or receiving radio frequency signals to and/or from a satellite or a constellation of satellites. 
     The antenna systems of the present disclosure may be employed in communication systems providing relatively high-bandwidth, low-latency network communication via a constellation of satellites. Such constellation of satellites may be in a non-geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO), such as a low Earth orbit (LEO).  FIG.  1    illustrates a not-to-scale embodiment of an antenna and satellite communication system  100  in which embodiments of the present disclosure may be implemented. As shown in  FIG.  1   , an Earth-based endpoint or user terminal  102  is installed at a location directly or indirectly on the Earth’s surface such as house or other building, tower, a vehicle (e.g., land-based vehicle, watercraft, aircraft, spacecraft, or the like), or another location where it is desired to obtain communication access via a network of satellites. An Earth-based endpoint terminal  102  may be in Earth’s troposphere, such as within about 10 kilometers (about 6.2 miles) of the Earth’s surface, and/or within the Earth’s stratosphere, such as within about 50 kilometers (about 31 miles) of the Earth’s surface, for example on a geographically stationary or substantially stationary object, such as a platform or a balloon. 
     A communication path may be established between the endpoint terminal  102  and a satellite  104 . In the illustrated embodiment, the first satellite  104 , in turn, establishes a communication path with a gateway terminal  106 . In another embodiment, the satellite  104  may establish a communication path with another satellite prior to communication with a gateway terminal  106 . The gateway terminal  106  may be physically connected via fiber optic, Ethernet, or another physical connection to a ground network  108 . The ground network  108  may be any type of network, including the Internet. While one satellite  104  is illustrated, communication may be with and between any one or more satellite of a constellation of satellites. 
     The endpoint or user terminal  102  may include an antenna apparatus  200 , for example, as illustrated in  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B . As shown, the antenna apparatus  200  may include a housing assembly  202 , which includes a radome portion  206  and a lower enclosure  204  that couples to the radome portion  206 . As described below, the radome portion  206  may be a radome assembly  305  (See  FIG.  3 B ). An antenna system and other electronic components, as described below, are disposed within the housing assembly  202 . In accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure, the antenna apparatus  200  and its housing  202  may include materials for durability and reliability in an outdoor environment as well as facilitating the sending and/or receiving radio frequency signals to and/or from a satellite or a constellation of satellites with the satellites  104 . 
       FIG.  2 B  illustrates a perspective view of an underside of the antenna apparatus  200 . As shown, the antenna apparatus  200  may include a lower enclosure  204  that couples to the radome portion  206  to define the housing  202 . In the illustrated embodiment, the mounting system  210  includes a leg  216  (a “mast”) and a base (a “mount,” not shown). The base may be securable to a surface and configured to receive a bottom portion of the leg  216 . The leg  216 , shown as a single mounting leg, may be defined by a generally hollow cylindrical or tubular body, although other designs and shapes may be suitably employed. With a hollow configuration, any necessary wiring or electrical connections may extend into and within the interior of the leg  204  up into the housing  202  of the antenna apparatus  200 . 
     A tilting mechanism  240  (details not shown) disposed within the lower enclosure  204  permits a degree of tilting to point the face of the radome portion  206  at a variety of angles for optimized communication and for rain and snow run-off. Such tilting may be automatic or manual. 
     Returning to  FIG.  1   , the antenna apparatus  200  is configured to be mounted on a mounting surface for an unimpeded view of the sky. As not limiting examples, the antenna apparatus  200  may be mounted at an Earth-based fixed position, for example, the roof or wall of a building, a tower, a natural structure, a ground surface, an atmospheric platform or balloon, or on a moving vehicle, such as a land vehicle, airplane, or boat, or to any other appropriate mounting surface having an unimpeded view of with the sky for satellite communication. 
     In various embodiments, the antenna apparatus  200  includes an antenna system designed for sending and/or receiving radio frequency signals to and/or from a satellite or a constellation of satellites. The antenna system, as described below, is disposed in the housing assembly  202  and may include an antenna aperture  208  (see  FIG.  2 A ) defining an area for transmitting and receiving signals, such as a phased array antenna system or another antenna system. Besides the antenna aperture  208 , the antenna apparatus  200  may include other electronic components within the housing assembly  202 , for example, which may include, but are not limited to beamformers, a modem, a Wifi card and/or Wifi antennas, a GPS antenna, as well as other components. 
     Turning to  FIG.  3 A , the antenna apparatus  200  may include an antenna stack  250 , an internal cover  252 , a lower enclosure  204 , and a tilting mechanism  240  coupled to a leg  216 . The leg  216  may extend through an opening  254  defined by the lower enclosure  204  and may couple to the tilting mechanism  240 . A volume  258  may be defined between the antenna stack  250  and the lower enclosure  240 . The internal cover  252  may be coupled to the lower enclosure within the volume  258 , forming an inner volume  256  between the internal cover  252  and the lower enclosure  204 . The coupling between the internal cover  252  and the lower enclosure  204  may be waterproof or water resistant (e.g., the internal cover  252  may be hermetically sealed to the lower enclosure  204 ), and the opening  254  may be defined within the inner volume  256 . In that regard, any debris or moisture that enters the inner volume  256  via the opening  254  may remain within the inner volume  256 , reducing the likelihood of such debris or moisture reaching the remainder of the volume  258  (including the antenna stack  250 ). 
     The tilting mechanism  240  may be coupled to at least one of the lower enclosure  204  and the internal cover  252  such that rotation of the tilting mechanism  240  relative to the leg  216  results in rotation of the antenna stack  250  relative to the leg  216 . Such rotation may be used to physically adjust of the position of the antenna aperture  208 . 
       FIG.  3 B  illustrates an exploded view of the antenna stack  250 , showing various layers of the antenna stack  250 . In some examples, the antenna stack  250  may include a radome assembly  305  which may include a radome body assembly  310  and an outer layer  315 . The antenna stack  250  may further include a patch antenna assembly  334  that includes an upper patch antenna layer  330 , an antenna spacer  335 , and a lower patch antenna layer  370  which together form a plurality of patch antennas forming an antenna array. The antenna stack  250  may also include a dielectric layer  375  and a printed circuit board (PCB) assembly  380 . As will be discussed further below, the various layers of the antenna stack  250  may be at least partially mechanically and/or electrically coupled together. 
     As shown in the illustrated embodiment, the layers of the antenna stack  250  may be rectangular in shape. That is, each of the radome assembly  305 , patch antenna assembly  334 , dielectric layer  375 , and PCB assembly  380  may have a rectangular shape when viewed from above or below (i.e., along a stacking axis of the antenna stack  250 ). However, one skilled in the art will realize that the shape of the antenna stack  250  (and all elements therein) may have any shape such as rectangular, square, circular, oval, square, and the like, and may have any additional features such as rounded corners, sharp corners, and the like. As shown each element of the antenna stack  250  may have similar lengths and widths (as well as the lower enclosure  204 ). As will be further discussed below, the radome assembly  305  may have a slightly greater length and a slightly greater width than the remaining elements of the antenna stack  250  to facilitate coupling of the radome assembly  305  to the lower enclosure  204  in such a manner to cause the remaining elements of the antenna stack  250  to remain wholly enclosed within the volume  258 . However, one skilled in the art will realize that the various layers may have different dimensions. 
     Radome Assembly 
     Referring to  FIGS.  4 A,  4 B, and  5   , various additional features of the radome assembly  305  are shown. The radome assembly  305  can include a radome body assembly  310  that is coupled to an outer layer  315 . As seen in  FIG.  5   , the radome body assembly  310  may extend from a first end  401  to a second end  403 , wherein the outer layer  315  may be located at or near the first end  401 , and second end  403  is located nearest the lower enclosure  204  when the antenna apparatus  200  is fully assembled (e.g., see exploded view in  FIG.  3 B ). In some embodiments, the radome body assembly  310  and the outer layer  315  may be referred to as a radome or a radome portion. The outer layer  315  may be exposed to the elements when the antenna apparatus  200  is fully installed and, thus, the outer layer  315  may include water or other weatherproofing features, as described in more detail below. 
     The radome assembly  305  is designed to be an outer portion of the antenna apparatus  200 , which is exposed to the outdoor environment and has mechanical properties of good strength to weight ratios, and a high modulus of elasticity for stiffness and resistance to deformation. Where referred to herein, discussion of the radome assembly  305  may refer to any one or more component of the radome assembly  305  such as at least one of an outer layer  315 , a radome body portion  402 , a radome spacer portion  404 , elongated members  400 , and the like. So as not to impede RF signals, the radome assembly  305  may be made from one or more materials having electrical properties of a low dielectric constant, and a low loss tangent through which antenna signals may travel. In addition, in some embodiments, the radome assembly  305  has chemical properties, for example, of bondability for bonding with adhesive, UV resistance, and low or near zero water absorption. The radome lay-up can also have other suitable properties to mitigate vulnerability to constant outdoor exposure and extreme weather conditions. 
     The radome assembly  305  is designed to maintain high mechanical values and electrical insulating qualities in both dry and humid conditions over thermal cycles between -40° C. (°C) and 85° C. In some embodiments, the radome assembly  305  has a relatively high yield strength and a relatively high enough modulus to spread load on various portions of the radome assembly  305 . In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the radome assembly  305  has a dielectric constant of less than 4. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the radome assembly  305  has a loss tangent of less than 0.001. 
     The radome body assembly  310  may include multiple portions, or components, which may be formed integrally or monolithically (e.g., from a same piece of material or collection of base materials and formed together) or, in various embodiments, may be formed separately and coupled together in any known manner. For example, the radome body assembly  310  may include any one or more of elongated members  400 , a radome body portion  402 , and a radome spacer portion  404 . As will be described in further detail below, the elongated members  400  may be used to couple the radome assembly  305  to additional layers of the antenna apparatus  200 . For example, an end portion  470  of the elongated members  400  (which may be located at the second end  403  of the radome body portion  402 ) may extend through some or all layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  (see  FIG.  3 B  and  FIG.  10   ) and may be deformed or otherwise manipulated to resist separation of the various layers after assembly (e.g., see assembly of the antenna stack assembly  250  in  FIG.  10   ). 
     In some embodiments of the present disclosure, one or more components of the radome assembly  305  may be constructed of suitable materials, such as plastic with one or more properties of bondability for bonding with adhesive, UV resistance, and low or near zero water absorption. 
     The radome body portion  402  may include a planar surface that extends across an entire width  408  and length  410  of the radome body assembly  310 . The radome body portion  402  may have a rectangular shape, or may include any other shape such as circular, elliptical, square, or the like. The radome body portion  402  may provide structural support to the outer layer  315 , may at least partially protect additional elements of the antenna stack  250  (see  FIG.  3 B ) from elements in an environment of the antenna apparatus  200 , and may be formed from a material through which antenna signals may travel (e.g., the radome body portion  402  is designed for reduced interfere with antenna signals). The radome body portion  402  may have a planar top surface  412  and a uniform thickness  414  throughout. However, in various embodiments, the radome body portion  402  may have a curved top surface  412 , may have a non-uniform thickness, or the like. 
     The thickness  414  of the radome body portion  402  may be in the range of less than or equal to 60 thousandths of an inch (mil, 1.5 millimeters (mm)), less than or equal to 30 mil (0.76 mm), less than or equal to 20 mil (0.51 mm), or less than or equal to 10 mil (0.25 mm). The thickness may depend on the conditions of the environment in which the antenna apparatus  200  resides, for example, with a greater thickness  414  being used in geographic locations having harsh weather conditions, such as heavy rain and hail. However, a reduced thickness  414  may reduce radio frequency (RF) signal attenuation from the antenna array. In one embodiment, the radome body portion  402  has a thickness of 0.5 mm. 
     In some embodiments, the radome body portion  402  and the outer layer  315  (or the radome body assembly  310  and the outer layer  315 ) may be formed together (integrally or monolithically) and be formed from the same or different materials. In other embodiments, the radome body portion  402  and the outer layer  315  (or the radome body assembly  310  and the outer layer  315 ) may be formed separately and assembled together from the same or different materials. 
     The radome spacer portion  404  may be made from the same or different material as the radome body portion  402  and may support the radome assembly  305  in providing mechanical and environmental protection to the antenna aperture  208  and other components of the antenna apparatus  200 . The radome spacer portion  404  may also provide suitable spacing between the antenna elements of the antenna aperture  208  and the outer layer  315  of the radome assembly  305 . As described in greater detail below, such spacing can provide advantages in reduced signal attenuation due to environmental effects on the outer top surface of the radome body portion  402 , such as dirt, dust, moisture, rain, and/or snow. 
     In some embodiments, the radome spacer portion  404  is a plastic or foam layer having properties of low dielectric constant, low loss tangent, good compression strength, and a suitable coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). In addition, the radome spacer portion  404  may have the property of bondability for bonding with adhesive for coupling with other layers in the antenna stack assembly  250 . 
     As part of the radome assembly  305 , the radome spacer portion  404  may also be designed to maintain high mechanical values and electrical insulating qualities in both dry and humid conditions over thermal cycling between -40° C. and 85° C. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the radome spacer portion  404  has a dielectric constant of less than 1.0. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the radome spacer portion  404  has a loss tangent of less than 0.001. 
     The radome body portion  402  may be adjacent or coupled to a radome spacer portion  404  to space the outer top surface  412  of the radome body portion  402  (or outer layer  315 ) from components of the antenna stack  250 . In some embodiments, the radome body portion  402  may be formed together with the radome spacer portion  404  or formed separately and coupled to the radome spacer portion  404 , for example, by adhesive bonding. As mentioned above, the radome body portion  402  and radome spacer portion  404  may together (alone or in combination with elongated members  400 ) be referred to as a radome body assembly  310 . The radome spacer portion  404  may also have a planar and rectangular shape corresponding to that of the radome body portion  402  (see  FIG.  4 A ). 
     As seen in  FIG.  5    and in some embodiments, the radome spacer portion  404  may be thicker than the radome body portion  402 . In accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure, the radome spacer portion  404  has a thickness such that the distance from the top patch antenna layer to the top of the radome assembly  305  in the range of greater than about 3.0 mm, less than about 4.5 mm, or in the range of 3.0 mm to 4.5 mm. 
     The radome spacer portion  404  may include a spacing configuration to space the radome body portion  402  from the antenna aperture  208  with air. As one non-limiting example, the radome spacer portion  404  may be made from foam material having air disposed within the structure of the foam. Foam spacers may be advantageous materials in some environments because of their lower dielectric constant and lower thermal conductivity. For example, in cold environments (such as cold climates or for antenna apparatuses  200  disposed on airplanes) foam spacers may provide an insulative effect for electrical components). One suitable foam may be a polymethacrylimide (PMI) or a urethane foam. However, other foams are within the scope of the present disclosure. Foams, unlike other materials described herein having thermal conductivity, may require separate heating systems for snow melt. 
     In other embodiments, the radome spacer portion  404  may be a frame structure. In one suitable embodiment, the frame structure may be designed to have air spaces within the structure of the plastic. One suitable frame structure may be a honeycomb structure. A suitable honeycomb structure may be made from a low-loss plastic material (such as thermoplastic or another suitable plastic material), which may be configured in a honeycomb frame construction. 
     In some embodiments, the radome spacer portion  404  may be air. 
     In some embodiments, the radome spacer portion  404  may include an interior portion  327  and an exterior portion  328  (see  FIGS.  4 A and  4 B ). In the illustrated embodiment, the interior portion  327  includes a plurality of cell walls  316 , or cell portions  316 , defining a plurality of apertures  315 . The exterior portion  328  may extend around at least a portion of the outer perimeter of the interior portion  327  and may be a solid or continuous portion to assist in heat transfer around the outer perimeter of the antenna apparatus  200 . In some embodiments, the exterior portion  328  may not be present. That is, inclusion of the exterior portion  328  may be optional. 
     Each of the plurality of cell walls  316  may extend away from the radome body portion  402 . As seen in  FIG.  5   , the radome body portion  402  may have a first surface  412 , or top surface, defining a planar surface at or near the first end  401  of the radome body assembly  310  and a second surface  413 , or bottom surface, opposite the first surface such that each of the plurality of cell walls  316  extends away from the second surface  413  (and towards the second end  403  of the radome body assembly  310 ). Each of the plurality of cell walls  316  may include an opening (extending from a first end at or near the second surface  413  of the radome body assembly  310  to the second end toward the second end  403  of the radome body assembly  310 ), and a vertical pathway therebetween defining an aperture  317 . Each aperture  317  is configured to vertically align with an individual antenna element in the antenna array to provide an airspace above each upper patch element of each antenna element in the antenna array. The cell structure is configured to provide uniform spacing around each antenna element. 
     A group of cell walls  316  and a single aperture  317  within the plurality of cell walls may together form a cell. In that regard, each cell in the embodiment shown in  FIG.  4 A -5 may include 6 cell walls  316  and a single aperture  317  (e.g., a single cell  450  shown in  FIG.  4 B  may include cell walls  451   a - 451   f  and a single aperture  452 ). In some embodiments, at least a portion of the cell walls  316  may at least partially define an adjacent aperture  317  of an adjacent cell. For example, the cell wall  451   b  may at least partially define a cell  456 . One skilled in the art will realize that the cell walls  316  may have any shape (e.g., rounded, straight, angled, or combinations thereof), and that a cell may include any quantity of cell walls  316  (including a single cell wall  316  defining a single cell), without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. 
     In some embodiments, at least two cell walls  316  (or cell portions  316 ) defining a cell may be spaced apart from each other. For example, any two or more of the cell walls  451   a - 451   f  defining the cell  450  may be spaced from each other (e.g., cell wall  451   a  may be spaced apart from cell wall  451   d ). In some embodiments, any two or more adjacent cell walls  316  defining a cell may be spaced apart from each other. For example, the cell wall  451 A may be spaced apart from adjacent cell wall  451 B by a gap  453 . Such spacing between cell walls  316  defining a cell may be referred to as a nodeless cell configuration. The spacing between cell walls  316  can provide advantages in manufacturing and/or may provide advantages during use. For example, the spacing can enable venting between adjacent cells, which may provide pressure equalization during heat cycling. 
     As referenced above, cell walls  316  may have any shape. In such embodiments any two cell portions, or cell walls  316 , defining a cell may be spaced apart from each other. For example, if cell portions include two semicircular walls defining a cell then at least one intersection of the two semicircular walls may be spaced apart from each other. In that regard, each cell may have at least one gap defined by the cell walls  316  that form the cell. 
     In the illustrated configuration three cell walls  316  come together to define gap  453 . In other configurations four or other numbers of cell walls could come together to define a gap  453 . 
     The cell walls  316  of the interior portion  327  may provide a greater proportion of air to mitigate any RF interference with antenna signals from the antenna array  308 . In some embodiments, the volumetric ratio of air to solid surface area or the cell  315  of the radome spacer  310  is greater than about 50:50, or alternatively greater than about 65:45, or alternatively greater than about 75:25, or alternatively greater than about 80:20, or alternatively greater than about 85:15, or alternatively greater than about 90:10. 
     As described above, one or more components of the radome assembly  305  may be formed from a plastic or other polymer. For example, the one or more components of the radome body assembly  310  may include polypropylene (PP), polycarbonates, polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyphenylene ether (PPE), poly(p-phenylene oxide) (PPO), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl chlorine (PVC), liquid crystal polymer (LCP), other polymers, or mixtures thereof. 
     In some embodiments of the present disclosure, one or more components of the radome assembly  305  may include a lay-up made from a first layer made from fibrous material, such as fiberglass or Kevlar fibers, preimpregnated with a resin, such as an epoxy or polyethylene terephthalate (PET) resin. 
     In some embodiments, one or more components of the radome assembly  305  may have a fiberglass base for mechanical strength. The fiberglass may be laminated with a polymer or copolymer of polyethylene. 
     In some embodiments, the radome assembly  305  may include one or more components formed from a plastic with a plurality of fibers located throughout. For example, the fibers may include fiberglass, Kevlar fibers, carbon fibers, or the like. 
     One or more components of the radome assembly  305  may include fiberglass-reinforced epoxy laminate material, such as FR-4 or NEMA grade FR-4. In other embodiments, the radome assembly  305  may include another type of high-pressure thermoset plastic laminate grade, or a composite, such as fiberglass composite, quartz glass composite, Kevlar composite, or a panel material, such as polycarbonate. 
     As described in greater detail below, the radome assembly  305  may include a hydrophobic surface for water removal. For hydrophobic properties, one or more components of the radome assembly  305  may be functionalized with fluorine and/or chlorine. For example, a suitable material may include a fluorinated polymer (fluoro polymer), such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) or a copolymer of ethylene and chlorotrifluoethylene, such as ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene (ECTFE). 
     Radome Outer Layer 
     The radome assembly  305  may include an outer layer  315 . RF signal attenuation due to gain degradation can be significant as a result of rain or moisture accumulation on the first end  401  of the radome assembly  305 , and the outer layer  315  may assist in reducing or eliminating such concerns. Regarding rain and moisture accumulation, water has a significant relative permittivity which can introduce a non-trivial interface for an antenna aperture causing RF reflection. Such RF reflection results in gain degradation in the RF signal. 
     Snow accumulation on the first end  401  of the radome assembly  305  was generally not found to be as degrading to the RF signal power as water accumulation. However, snow having moisture content was found to be degrading, such as snow at or near 0° C., or melting snow or ice resulting in water accumulation on the on the first end  401  of the radome assembly  305  was found to significantly degrade the RF signal power. 
     As described above, to mitigate signal attenuation due to the lingering presence of droplets of rain, the outer layer  315  (and the radome body portion  402 ) may be spaced a predetermined distance from the antenna aperture  208  defined by the array of antenna elements. In accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure, the radome spacer portion  404  provides a suitable thickness to space the outer surface  315  (and potentially the radome body portion  402 ) a predetermined distance from the upper patch layer of the antenna aperture  208 . As described above, in one embodiment of the present disclosure, an outer surface of the outer layer  315  is equidistantly spaced from the upper patch antenna element of each individual antenna element in the antenna aperture at a distance of at least 3.0 mm. 
     For moisture mitigation and to aid in the run-off of water or moisture accumulating on the radome assembly  305 , the outer layer  315  may include a hydrophobic or superhydrophobic material having low surface energy to cause water to bead up and not spread out. 
     In addition to a hydrophobic or superhydrophobic outer layer  315 , tilting of the antenna apparatus  200  (see  FIG.  2 A ) may help to mitigate snow and moisture accumulation. 
     When formed separately, the outer layer  315  may be coupled to the radome body assembly  310  using any known technique. For example, as discussed above, the outer layer  315  may be bonded to the radome body assembly  310  using an adhesive. The adhesive may include any adhesive such as a pressure sensitive adhesive (PSA) applied to a surface of the outer layer  315 . In that regard, the PSA may be placed in contact with the outer layer  315  and the radome body portion  402  and pressure may be applied to the outer layer  315  to couple the outer layer  315  to the radome body assembly  310 . In some embodiments, the adhesive may include an epoxy, heat activated adhesive, or any other adhesive in the art. 
     In some embodiments, the outer layer  315  may be a thin sheet that is applied to the upper surface of the radome body assembly  310 . Either the outer layer  315  or the radome body assembly  310  may activated on its bonding surface for bonding with an adhesive, such as a pressure sensitive adhesive. Suitable activation may include sodium etching, plasma treatment, corona treatment, or other suitable activation treatments to create bonding sites. The outer layer and/or adhesive lay-up can be routed into a desired shape. 
     In some embodiments, the outer layer  315  may be formed to include a UV blocker, which may protect the adhesive (e.g., the pressure sensitive adhesive). In some embodiments, the radome body assembly  310  may include a UV blocker in the form of pigmentation. For example, the outer layer  315  and/or the radome body assembly  310  may include titanium dioxide (TiO2) for UV blocking. 
     In other embodiments, the outer layer  315  may be formed by melting a separate material and adding it to the radome body assembly  310 , may be molded (e.g., insert molding), painted, sprayed, and the like. In some embodiments, the outer layer  315  may be applied to the radome body assembly  310  using a spray or roll-on technique (e.g., by spraying or rolling on a liquid or gaseous phase of the outer layer material). In some embodiments, a melted outer layer  315  may be applied to the radome body assembly  310  and allowed to dry-harden in place. 
     In some embodiments, the outer layer  315  may be formed to have greater dimensions (e.g., length and width) than those of the radome body portion  310 . In such embodiments, the outer layer  315  may be applied to the radome body portion  310  and then cut (e.g., die cut) to have the same dimensions as the radome body portion  310 . 
     In some embodiments, the outer layer  315  may have a thickness  416  that is less than or equal to 20 mil (0.51 mm), less than or equal to 10 mil (0.25 mm), less than or equal to 5 mil (0.13 mm), less than or equal to 3 mil (0.076 mm), less than or equal to 1 mil (0.025 mm), or the like. 
     Antenna Layers 
       FIG.  3 B  illustrates an exemplary antenna apparatus  200  with an exemplary antenna stack assembly  250  in the form of a plurality or stack of layers. The illustrated plurality of layers includes layers of spacers or spacer portions positioned against other layers including antenna layers or layers including antenna elements or components, which may be for instance electronic layers, such as printed circuit board (PCB) layers. 
     In the illustrated embodiment of  FIG.  3 B , the layers in the antenna stack assembly  250  layup include a radome assembly  305 , a patch antenna assembly  334 , a dielectric layer  375 , and a printed circuit board (PCB) assembly  380 . 
     As illustrated in  FIG.  3 B , an outer top layer of the antenna stack assembly  250  is an outer layer  315  of the radome assembly  305 . As described above, in the illustrated embodiment, the radome assembly  305  can include the radome body assembly  310  and the outer layer  315 . 
     In the illustrated embodiment of  FIG.  3 B , a patch antenna assembly  334  is a phased array antenna assembly made up from a plurality of individual patch antenna elements  304  (see  FIGS.  7 A and  7 B ) configured in an array  308 . (See  FIG.  6 A  for a top view of an array of upper patch antenna elements  330   a ). A patch antenna is generally a low-profile antenna that can be mounted on a flat surface, including a first flat sheet (or “first patch”) of metal mounted over, but spaced from, a second flat sheet (or “second patch”) of metal, the second patch defining a ground plane. The two metal patches together form a resonant structure. The individual patches may be formed using known metal deposition techniques on a standard PCB layer or other suitable substrate. In an alternate embodiment, the patches may be printed, for example, using a conductive ink, on the patch layers. An array of multiple patch antennas on the same substrate can be used to make a high gain array antenna or phased array antenna for which the antenna beam can be electronically steered. 
       FIG.  7 A  illustrates a perspective view of a simplified exemplary individual antenna element  304  including an upper patch layer  330   a , a lower patch layer  370   a , and spacing therebetween. The individual element  304  shown  FIG.  7 A  is one of a plurality of antenna elements  304  forming an array of antenna elements (see  FIG.  6 A ). 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the array  308  of individual patch antenna elements  304  is formed from a plurality of patch antenna layers, including the upper patch antenna layer  330  (see also  FIG.  6 A ), the antenna spacer  335  (see  FIG.  6 B ), and the lower patch antenna layer (or ground plane)  370  (see  FIG.  6 C ). As mentioned above, the upper antenna patch layer  330  and the lower patch antenna layer  370  may be formed on standard PCB layers or other suitable substrates. The two layers  330  and  370  are suitably spaced from each other specific by the antenna spacer  335  to achieve the desired tuning of the patch antenna assembly  334 . While a two-patch (upper and lower patch) antenna is illustrated herein, other single or multilayer patch antennas may be employed in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure. 
     As seen in  FIG.  3 B , the radome assembly  305  is positioned adjacent the upper patch layer  330  to protect the upper surface of the upper patch layer  330 .  FIG.  6 A  illustrates a top view of the upper patch layer  330 . As seen in  FIG.  6 A , the upper surface of the upper patch antenna layer  330  includes an interior portion  347  having a plurality of individual upper antenna patch elements  330   a  that make up the upper patches of individual antenna elements  304  defining the antenna array  308 . The upper antenna patch elements  330   a  may be a plurality of discrete individual dots, circles, modified circles, or other polygonal shapes made up of a conductive metal such as copper. The upper antenna patch elements  330   a  may be separated from each other on the upper patch layer  330  by non-conductive portions of the upper patch antenna layer  330  between the upper antenna patch elements  330   a . 
     The upper patch antenna layer  330  further includes an exterior portion  349  extending to its perimeter. The exterior portion  349  may be relatively small (e.g., may include a relatively small fraction of the entire surface area of the upper patch antenna layer  330  such as 1 percent, 3 percent, 5 percent, 10 percent, or the like), or in some embodiments, the upper patch antenna layer  330  may include no exterior portion. The exterior portion  349  may be configured to port or flow thermal energy (heat) radially from the overall antenna stack assembly  250  outward to the perimeter of the upper patch layer  330  and to the perimeter of the radome assembly  305 . 
     The upper patch layer  330  may define ports  332  through which the elongated members  400  of the radome body assembly  310  (see  FIG.  5   ) may pass. The ports  332  may be located between upper patch antenna elements  330   a , so as to not interfere with any antenna elements  304  of the antenna array. The ports  332  may be formed during molding or other formation of the upper patch antenna layer  330 , may be cut or drilled into a pre-formed upper patch antenna layer  330 , or the like. The elongated members  400  of the radome body assembly  310  engage the PCB assembly  380  (see  FIG.  10   ). The upper patch antenna layer  330  may also port or flow heat to the ports  332  where the elongated members  400  port the heat to the radome body assembly  310 , which can be used to not only dissipate unwanted heat from electrical components attached to the PCB assembly  380 , but also such heat can be repurposed to mitigate snow and rain accumulation on the outer surface  315  of the radome assembly  305 . 
     In some embodiments, the upper patch antenna layer  330  is a PCB substrate having a plurality of upper antenna patch elements  330   a . The features of the upper patch antenna layer  330  may be formed by suitable semiconductor processing to obtain the desired feature patterns and shapes. 
     Turning to  FIGS.  3 B and  6 B , the lower patch antenna layer  370  may be spaced from the upper patch antenna layer  330  by an antenna spacer  335 . The antenna spacer  335  may include a plurality of cell walls  336  that define a plurality of open cells  337 . The antenna spacer  335  may also define a plurality of ports  331   a  extending therethrough. The ports  331   a  may be aligned with ports defined by other layers of the antenna stack  250  and with the elongated members  400  of the radome body assembly  310 . In that regard, the elongated members  400  may extend through the ports  331  to couple the layers of the antenna stack  250  together (see  FIG.  10   ). Because the antenna spacer  335  includes only cell walls  336  in an interior portion of the antenna spacer  335 , ports  331   b  may be defined at junctions of cell walls  336 . That is, certain cell walls  336  may not intersect with adjacent cell walls to form the ports  331   b . The ports  331   a  and  331   b  may be formed during molding or other formation process of the antenna spacer  335 , may be cut or drilled into a pre-formed antenna spacer  335 , or the like. 
     Each of the plurality of cell walls  336  may extend substantially parallel to a stacking axis of the antenna stack assembly  250 . The cells  337  of the antenna spacer  335  may have a similar shape as the cells  315  defined by the cell walls  316  of the radome spacer portion  404 . In some embodiments, the cells  337  may have a different shape such as circular, oval, square, or any other shape. Each of the cells  337  may align with an antenna element  304 . The cells  337  may each define a vertical pathway  338  extending along an entire thickness of the antenna spacer  335 . That is, the pathway  338  may include a void extending through from a first side to a second side of the antenna spacer  335  such that the antenna spacer  335  lacks any material directly aligned with the antenna elements  304  along the stacking axis. 
     A group of cell walls  336  and a single pathway  338  within the plurality of cell walls may together form a cell  337 . In that regard, each cell  337  may include 6 cell walls  336  and a single pathway  338 . In some embodiments, at least a portion of the cell walls  336  may at least partially define an adjacent pathway  338  of an adjacent cell  337 . One skilled in the art will realize that the cell walls  336  may have any shape (e.g., rounded, straight, angled, or combinations thereof), and that a cell  337  may include any quantity of cell walls  336  (including a single cell wall  336  defining a single cell), without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. 
     The cell height of the antenna spacer  335  may be in the range of 1 mm to 2 mm (e.g., about 1.2 mm). Likewise, the cell walls  336  of the antenna spacer  335  may be in the range of 1 mm to 2 mm wide (e.g., about 1.2 mm). 
     A suitable plastic for the antenna spacer  335  may be thermally conductive and capable of dissipating heat through its structure, while also have a low dielectric constant. In one embodiment of the present disclosure, the antenna spacer  335  may be made from the same or similar materials as the radome body assembly  310  and may have a dielectric constant of less than 3.0, and a thermal conductivity value of greater than 0.35 W/m-Kor greater than 0.45 W/m-K. 
     The antenna spacer  335  may be made up of the same or similar materials and by similar manufacturing processes as the radome spacer  310 . As seen in  FIG.  6 B , the antenna spacer  335  may have a honeycomb structure, similar to the radome spacer portion  404  or may be made from a suitable foam or other suitable spacing structure. Although illustrated and described as a single spacing layer, the antenna spacer  335  may be comprised of a plurality of spacer elements defining the space between the upper and lower patch layers  330  and  370  of the patch antenna assembly  334 . 
     Referring to  FIGS.  3 B and  6 C , the lower patch antenna layer  370  is spaced by antenna spacer  335  from the upper patch antenna layer  330 . As shown, a top surface  372  of the lower patch antenna layer  370  includes a plurality of individual upper antenna patch elements  370   a  that make up the lower patches of individual antenna elements  304  defining the antenna array  308 . Like the upper antenna patch elements  330   a , the lower antenna patch elements  370   a  may be a plurality of discrete individual dots, circles, modified circles, or other polygonal shapes made up of a conductive metal such as copper. The lower antenna patch elements  370   a  may be separated from each other on the lower patch layer  370  by portions of the lower patch antenna layer  370  between the lower antenna patch elements  370   a . In one embodiment, the lower patch antenna layer  370 , like the upper patch antenna layer  330 , is a PCB substrate having a plurality of upper antenna patch elements  370   a . 
     The lower patch antenna layer  370  may also define ports  333  extending from the top surface  372  to a bottom surface  373 . As with ports defined by other layers of the antenna stack  250 , the elongated members  400  of the radome body assembly  310  may extend through the ports to couple the layers together (see  FIG.  10   ). The ports  333  may be located between lower patch antenna elements  370   a  such that the elongated members  400  fail to interfere with operation of the various lower patch antenna elements  370   a . The ports  333  may be formed with the lower patch antenna layer  370  during molding or other formation of the lower patch antenna layer  370 , may be cut or drilled into a pre-formed lower patch antenna layer  370 , or the like. 
     As seen in  FIG.  7 A , the individual lower patch layer elements  370   a  are configured to align with the individual upper patch antenna elements  330   a , for example, in a vertical stack. The lower patch antenna elements  370   a  may be the same as or similar in shape and configuration as the upper patch antenna elements  330   a . In the illustrated embodiment, the upper patch elements  330   a  are generally circular in configuration and include a plurality of slots for antenna polarization or tuning effects, while the lower patch antenna elements  370   a  are generally circular in configuration. 
     As seen in  FIG.  7 B , the upper patch antenna layer  330  is spaced by an antenna spacer  335  from the lower patch antenna layer  370 . As described above, the antenna spacer  335  may be made up of the same or similar material as the radome spacer portion  404  (and, by extension, may include the same material as the entire radome body assembly  310 ), and may also have a cell and wall structure similar to that of the radome spacer portion  404 . Similar to the upper patch antenna elements  330   a  and the radome spacer portion  404 , each of the plurality of apertures in the antenna spacer  335  may include a vertical pathway to align with each lower patch element  370   a  (at the bottom) and each upper patch antenna element  330   a  (at the top) to define a plurality of individual antenna elements  304  in the antenna array  308 . 
     Referring to  FIG.  3 B , below the lower antenna patch elements  330   a  and  370   a  is the PCB assembly  380 , which includes circuitry that may be aligned with the upper and lower antenna patch elements  330   a  and  370   a , which together may form a resonant antenna structure. The PCB assembly  380  is separated from the lower patch antenna  370  by a dielectric spacer  375 . 
     Dielectric Spacer 
     Referring to  FIGS.  3 B,  8 A, and  8 B , a dielectric layer  375  provides an electrical insulator between the patch antenna assembly  334  and the PCB assembly  380  and spaces the patch antenna assembly  334  from the PCB assembly  380 . The dielectric layer  375  may have a low dielectric constant (which may be referred to as relative permittivity), for instance in the range of about 1 to about 4 at room temperature. 
     In accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure, in addition to being an electrical insulator, the dielectric spacer  375  may be configured to be a fire enclosure for the antenna apparatus  200 . In that regard, the dielectric spacer  375  may be manufactured to have flame retardant properties, for example, by inclusion of 5% decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) together with the dielectric materials of the dielectric spacer  375 . 
     The dielectric spacer  375  may include a planar body formed from a dielectric material  500  with a plurality of holes  502  formed therethrough. The material  500  of the dielectric spacer  375  may include any dielectric material. For example, the dielectric spacer  375  may include a polymer, silicon, or any other material or materials. 
     The holes  502  formed in the dielectric spacer  375  may optimize a scan angle of the antenna apparatus  200  (because the antenna apparatus  200  is a phased array antenna, it is capable of scanning in multiple directions). For example, the combination of the material  500  and the holes  502  (including the shape, size, and location of the holes  502 ) may increase a scan angle (i.e., an angle at which a main beam may form relative to the stacking axis of the antenna stack  250 ) by at least 0.5 percent, by at least 1 percent, by at least 1.5 percent, by at least 2 percent, by at least 2.5 percent, by at least 3 percent, or the like. In experiments, the dielectric spacer  375  shown herein achieved improvements in scan angle of at least 2 percent. 
     The holes  502  may have any shape. For example, the holes  502  may be circular, oval, triangular, square, rectangular, or any other polygonal or other shape. The holes  502  may have a diameter  504 . In some embodiments, the diameter  504  may be between 1 millimeter and 25 millimeters (40 mil and 984 mil), between 2 millimeters and 15 millimeters (80 mil and 591 mil), between 3 millimeters and 10 millimeters (120 mil and 400 mil), or about 5 millimeters (197 mil). 
     In some embodiments, the holes  502  may be located around an individual antenna element  304  (e.g., around an individual upper patch antenna element  330   a  and lower patch antenna element  370   a ). That is, a group of holes  508  in the material  500  of the dielectric spacer  375  may encircle or surround a portion  510  of solid dielectric material  500 . The holes  502  may surround portions  510  such that each portion  510  aligns with a different antenna element  304  such that solid dielectric material  500  is aligned with each antenna element  304  along the stacking axis (shown in detail in  FIG.  8 B ). In some embodiments, the holes  502  may align with the gaps  453  between adjacent cell walls  316  of the radome spacer portion  404 . This orientation of holes  502  aids in achieving the desired properties of the dielectric spacer  375  (i.e., the CTE value, the dielectric value and properties, the scan angle improvement, and the like). 
     As shown in  FIG.  8 B , each of the plurality of antenna elements  304  of the upper patch layer  330  align with each of the plurality of apertures  315  having the cell walls  316  of the radome spacer  310  and with openings of cells  337  defined by the antenna spacer  335 . For example, each of the antenna elements  304  are disposed within the apertures  315  and the cells  337  of the antenna spacer  335  to provide suitable spacing around each of the antenna elements  304 . 
     At least some of the holes  502  of the dielectric spacer  375  may align with the ports  331 ,  332 ,  333  of the upper patch antenna layer  330 , the antenna spacer  335 , and the lower patch antenna layer  370 . In that regard, the elongated members  400  may extend through the at least one of each port  331 ,  332 ,  333  and at least one hole  502  to couple the layers of the antenna stack  250  together. 
     The material  500  of the dielectric layer  375  may have a thickness  506 . The thickness  506  may be, for example, between 0.1 mm and 5 mm (3.9 mil and 197 mil), between 0.2 mm and 2 mm (7.9 mil and 79 mil), between 0.5 mm and 1 mm (20 mil and 39 mil), or about 0.7 mm (28 mil). These thicknesses  506  may aid in achieving the desired properties of the dielectric spacer  375 . 
     In some embodiments, the dielectric spacer  375  may include any other shape of holes so long as material  500  is aligned with the antenna elements  304 . In some embodiments, the dielectric spacer  375  may lack holes or openings. In some embodiments, holes or openings may be aligned with the antenna elements  330   a ,  370   a  along the stacking axis. In some embodiments, the dielectric spacer  375  may include pucks, disks, or other separated pieces of dielectric material that is aligned with the individual antenna elements  304 . In some embodiments, a plurality of pucks, disks, or other pieces of dielectric material may be coupled together, e.g., via wires, strips of material, or the like, to form the dielectric spacer  375 . The advantageous features of the dielectric spacer  375  may be achieved by using a dielectric material (e.g., of the composition described above) aligned with the individual antenna elements  304  along the stacking axis; and voids, or a lack of dielectric material, at other locations on the same plane as the dielectric material. 
     The combination of materials described above forming the dielectric material  500  along with the holes  502  (including the shape, size, and location thereof) may together achieve a desirable set of characteristics or parameters of the dielectric spacer  375 . In particular, the combination of materials used and holes  502  may provide a desirable CTE and a desirable dielectric constant which may be unavailable for commercial purpose. At least one of the CTE values and dielectric values allow the dielectric spacer  375  to achieve desirable beamforming capabilities and steering of the antenna apparatus  200 , as well as a desirable signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio for received signals. For example this combination may provide a layer having a dielectric constant of between 1 and 5, between 1 and 4, between 2 and 4, between 2.5 and 3.5, or about 2.8; and a CTE of between 10 and 30, between 15 and 25, between 17 and 23, or about 20. In an exemplary embodiment, the dielectric spacer  375  may have a dielectric constant of about 2.8 and a CTE of about 20. As referenced above, materials are unavailable for commercial purpose with these properties. 
     PCB Assembly 
     In some embodiments and as shown in  FIG.  3 B , the patch antenna assembly  334  may be mechanically and electrically supported by a printed circuit board (PCB) assembly  380 . The PCB assembly  380  is generally configured to connect electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from one or more sheet layers of copper laminated onto and/or between sheet layers of a non-conductive substrate. The PCB assembly  380  may be a single or multilayer assembly with various layers including copper, laminate, substrates, and the like, and may have various circuits formed therein. 
     Referring to  FIGS.  3 B,  8 B,  9 A,  9 B, and  9 C , the PCB assembly  380  may have a first side  383  that faces and contacts the dielectric spacer  375  and a second side  384  opposite the first side  383 . The PCB assembly  380  may include a plurality of electronic components  382  coupled thereto, such as microchips, processors, signal processors, beamforming logic devices, power modules, GPS receivers, resistors, capacitors, inductors, transistors, memory devices, and the like. Because the first side  383  faces the dielectric spacer  375  and the electronic components  382  may extend away from the PCB assembly  380 , it may be undesirable for such electronic components  382  to be located on the second side  384  of the PCB assembly  380 . Due to the lack of electronic components on the first side  383 , the first side  383  may be in contact with and lie flush with the dielectric spacer  375 . Additional electronic components (such as signal traces or other logic devices) may be located within the layers of the PCB assembly  380  so long as they avoid extending outward from the first side  383 . In that regard, thermal energy generated by, or dispersed by, the PCB assembly  380  may travel away from the PCB assembly  380  to the dielectric spacer  375 . 
     The PCB assembly  380  may define or include a plurality of ports  381  extending through the first side  383  and the second side  384 . The ports  381  may be aligned with the ports  331 ,  332 ,  333  of the antenna layers and some holes  502  of the dielectric spacer  375 . In that regard, the elongated members  400  of the radome assembly  305  may extend through the ports  381  of the PCB assembly to couple the radome assembly  305  to the PCB assembly  380  and, thus, coupling the layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  together (see  FIG.  10   ). 
     Coupling of Antenna Stack Assembly 
     In some embodiments, the layers of the antenna stack  250  may be coupled together using mechanical fasteners. In particular and as shown in  FIGS.  4 B and  10   , the radome body assembly  310  may include a plurality of elongated members  400  extending in a direction away from the radome body portion  402 . As discussed in more detail below, the elongated members  400  can be utilized to couple together the layers of the antenna stack assembly  250 . In another examples, the layers of the antenna stack  250  can be coupled together through an elongated member  800 , as illustrated in  FIG.  12   . 
     As illustrated in  FIGS.  4 B,  5 , and  10    the elongated members  400  can include a body  460  that extends from the radome body portion  402 . The body  460  can define a first end portion  468  at or near the radome body portion  402  and a second end portion  470  distal from the radome body portion  402 . The elongated members  400  can have two states. As shown in  FIG.  5   , the elongated member  400  is in a first state, where the body  460  forms a narrow profile. As shown in  FIG.  10   , the elongated member  400  is in a second state, where the end portion  470  of the body  460  forms a wide profile. When in the first state, the elongated member  400  can be received within the ports or holes (e.g., port  331 , port  331 , port  333 , hole  502 , and port 381) formed within the various layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  and thereby defining a thru-hole  472  there through. In that regard, the width of the body  460  in the first state is less than the width of the ports. (See  FIG.  5   .) In contrast, as shown in  FIG.  10   , when the elongated member  400  is in the second state, the end portion  470  of the body  460  can be wider than the width of the ports defining the thru-hole  472 , which prevents the elongated member  400  from moving through the ports when in the second state. 
     As will be discussed in more detail below, the elongated members  400  can transition from the first state to the second state to couple the layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  together. For example, the elongated members  400  can be received within the ports of the antenna stack assembly  250  when in the first state and can then transition to the second state to interlock the layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  together. 
     Each of the layers of the antenna stack  250  may have openings, apertures, or ports that each align in the direction of the stacking axis with at least one of the elongated members  400  (or the elongated members  800 ) in response to each of the layers being aligned for assembly. For example, the upper patch antenna layer  330  defines ports  332 , the antenna spacer  335  defines ports  331 , the lower patch antenna layer  370  defines ports  333 , the dielectric layer  375  defines holes  502 , and the PCB assembly  380  defines ports  381 . Each of the ports  332 ,  331 ,  333 ,  381  and holes  502  may align vertically, or along the stacking axis, with the elongated member  400 . 
     In some embodiments, some or all of the openings may serve multiple purposes. For example, the ports  331  in the antenna spacer  335  may also operate as cell centers (e.g., be surrounded by cell walls of the antenna spacer  335 ) such that additional openings beyond the cells are unnecessary. Likewise, the holes  502  of the dielectric layer may also operate as the openings formed therein that align with the antenna elements  304 . In some embodiments, at least some ports  331  in the antenna spacer  335  may be formed separate from the cell centers. In some embodiments, at least some holes  502  in the dielectric layer  375  may be formed separate from the other openings of the dielectric layer  375  (e.g., to avoid an elongated member  400  extending through an antenna element). In that regard, the antenna spacer  335  may be designed to facilitate alignment of the ports  331  and the cell centers or to avoid alignment of the ports  331  and the cell centers. Similarly, the dielectric layer  375  may be designed to facilitate alignment of the functional openings and the fastening holes  502  or to avoid alignment of the functional openings and the fastening openings  502 . 
     In order to couple the layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  together, the layers may be stacked in order (e.g., with the radome assembly  305  at one end and the PCB assembly  380  at the other, with the remaining layers stacked in the same configuration shown in  FIGS.  3 B and  10   ) in such a manner that the elongated members  400  (or the elongated members  800 ) extend through a combined thru-hole  472  extending through the openings of the respective layers. In particular, the elongated members  400  may extend through the openings of the layers in the following order (starting from the closest opening to the radome body assembly  310 ):  332 ,  331 ,  333 ,  502 ,  381 . It should be appreciated, however, that different orders are within the scope of the disclosure and that the antenna stack may include all or only some of the exemplary components described. The elongated members  400  may each include a proximal end at or near the radome body portion  402  and a distal end opposite the proximal end (where the distal end extends away from the radome body portion  402 ). Stated differently, the proximal end of the elongated members  400  may be coupled to the radome body assembly  310  (such as the radome body portion  402 , the radome spacer portion  404 , or the like). 
     In the illustrated embodiment of  FIG.  10   , the elongated members  400  extend through each of the openings  332 ,  331 ,  333 ,  502 ,  381 , collectively defining a thru-hole  472  through the antenna stack  250 ) and the distal end portion  470  may be deformed (e.g., transitioned from the first state to the second state), as discussed further below, to resist removal of the distal end portion  470  from the openings  332 ,  331 ,  333 ,  502 ,  381 . In the illustrated embodiment of  FIG.  10   , in the second state, a shoulder forms  474  at the distal end portion  470  of each elongated member  400  to prevent the end portion  470  from disengaging from the thru-hole  472  of the antenna stack  250 . 
     The layers may be pressed together using any known technique such as manual pressing, mechanical pressing, use of a vice, or the like. In some embodiments, the pressing may continue until the coupling is complete, may only occur until the layers are in the desired configuration, or for any duration therebetween. 
     While the layers are pressed together and the elongated members  400  extend through the thru-holes  472  of the antenna stack  250 , end portions  470  of the elongated members may be warped or otherwise deformed. For example, the end portions  470  may be heated and reshaped manually or with equipment, may have pressure applied thereto for reshaping, or the like. The end portions  470  may be manipulated such that a dimension  610  of the end portion  470  in a direction parallel to a plane formed by the PCB assembly  380  is greater than a diameter  612  of the port  381  of the PCB assembly  380 . The end portion  470  may be manipulated in such a way that the dimension  610  that is greater than the diameter  612  is at a location adjacent to (i.e., within 1 mil (0.0254 mm), 10 mils (0.254 mm), 100 mils (2.54 mm), 300 mils (7.62 mm), or the like) a plane defined by the PCB assembly  380  while the layers are pressed together. 
     After hardening of the end portion  470 , the elongated members  400  couple the entire antenna stack assembly  250  (see  FIG.  3 B ) from the radome body assembly  310  to the PCB assembly (due to the dimension  610  of the end portion  470  being greater than the diameter  612  of the port  381  while the layers are stacked together). Thus, the elongated members  400  may resist separation of the radome body assembly  310  from the remaining layers of the antenna stack assembly in the direction of the stacking axis and may also resist separation of the PCB assembly  380  from the remaining layers of the antenna stack assembly in the direction of the stacking axis. Because the elongated members  400  also extend through openings of the remaining layers, and the remaining layers are sandwiched between the radome body assembly  310  and the PCB assembly  380 , the elongated members  400  also resist separation of any one of the layers from any other of the layers. Furthermore, because the elongated members  400  extend through openings defined by each layer of the antenna stack assembly  250 , the elongated members  400  also resist separation of any layer from any other layer in directions parallel to the plane defined by surfaces of the layers. 
     The elongated members  400  can also couple the outer layer  315  to the remaining layers of the antenna stack assembly  250 . Although the outer layer  315  of the radome assembly  305  may not be interlocked between the remaining layers via the elongated members  400 , the outer layer  315  may be bonded to the radome body portion  402  using an adhesive (e.g., pressure-sensitive adhesive) or any other mechanism (e.g., other types of bonding such as chemical bonding). Therefore, the adhesive of the outer layer  315  and the interaction between the elongated members  400  and the openings may sufficiently couple each layer of the antenna stack assembly  250  together without use of any additional adhesive. In some embodiments, adhesive, fasteners, or other coupling means may be used to couple two or more layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  together. In some embodiments, the outer layer  315  may be coupled to the radome body portion  402  in any manner in addition to, or instead of, the adhesive. For example, another fastener (e.g., screw, bolt, snap-fit connector, clip, or the like) may be used to fasten or couple the outer layer  315  to the radome body portion. 
     In some embodiments, the PCB assembly  380  may include electronic components  650  (e.g., semiconductor processors, memory chips, global positioning system (GPS) sensors, or the like) located on, and coupled to, the PCB assembly  380 . In some embodiments, the components  650  may be located on a bottom surface (e.g., a surface facing away from the remaining layers of the antenna stack assembly  250 ) due to potential direct contact between a top surface of the PCB assembly  380  (e.g., opposite the bottom surface) and the dielectric layer  375 . In that regard, the components  650  may remain coupled to the antenna stack assembly  250  due to the coupling of the components  650  to the PCB assembly  380 . 
     As illustrated in  FIG.  12   , in an alternate embodiment, one or more elongated members  800  can couple various layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  together. The elongated members  800  can include a body  802  having a first portion  804  and a second portion  806 . The first portion  804  of the body  802  can couple to the lower enclosure  204  such that both the first and second portions  804 ,  806  of the body  802  extend from the lower enclosure  204  and towards the radome assembly  305 . As shown in  FIG.  12   , the first portion  804  can be wider than the second portion  806 , which, in some examples, can form a shoulder  808  at the interface between the first and second portion  804 ,  806 . In some embodiments, the first portion  804  can also be wider than the ports (e.g., the port  331 , the port  332 , the port  333 , the hole  502 , and/or the port  381 ), which allows for one or more layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  to rest against the shoulder  808  of the first portion  804  when the antenna apparatus  200  is assembled. In contrast to the first portion  804 , in various embodiments, the second portion  806  can have a width that is less than the width of these ports. As a result of this arrangement, the second portion  806  can extend through the various ports defining the thru-hole  472  of the antenna stack assembly  250 . 
     To couple one or more layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  together, at least a portion of the antenna stack assembly  250  can be placed over one or more elongated members  800  so that at least one layer (e.g., the PCB assembly  380 ) abuts the shoulders  808  of the elongated members  800 . When placed over the elongated members  800 , the second portion  806  of the body  802  can extend through the ports of one or more layers of the antenna stack assembly  250 . The radome assembly  305  can then be coupled to the elongated members  800  by, for example, welding (e.g., vibration welded, ultrasonic welded, etc.), adhering, or otherwise coupling an end portion  810  of the body  802  to the radome body  402 . Coupling the radome assembly  305  to the elongated members  800  can couple the antenna stack assembly  250  together, as the radome body  402  can be joined to elongated members  800  while the remaining layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  are interlocked between the shoulders  808  and the radome body portion  402 . 
     In some embodiments, the elongated members  800  are integrally or monolithically formed with the lower enclosure  204  so that the elongated members  400  and the lower enclosure  204  form a single unitary component. In other embodiments, the elongated members  800  can be formed as separate from the lower enclosure  204  and the radome body assembly  310  and can be later coupled to each of these components. In various embodiments, the first and second portions  804 ,  806  of the elongated members  800  can be formed separately and later coupled together. In other embodiments, the first and second portions  804 ,  806  of the elongated members  800  are integrally or monolithically formed. 
     In various embodiments, the elongated members  400  and/or the elongated members  800  can take the form of a heat stake. In some of these embodiments, or otherwise, the elongated members  400 ,  800  can be configured to port thermal energy generated from the antenna assembly to lower enclosure  204  or the radome assembly  305 . For example, the elongated members  400 ,  800  can be positioned substantially close to (or can contact) one or more layer of the antenna stack assembly  250 , allowing for at least some of the thermal energy generated by these components to transfer via conduction through the elongated members  400 ,  800  and to a separate component of the antenna apparatus  200  (e.g., the outer layer  315 , the lower enclosure  204 , etc.). 
     In some embodiments, some or all of the layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  may be coupled together using any additional or alternative method. For example, in some embodiments, the end portion  470  may be coupled to the PCB assembly in another manner. For instance, the end portion  470  may be bonded to the PCB layer (and, potentially, additional layers). As another example, a clip may be positioned on the end portion  470  while it is protruding through the port  381  to resist separation of the end portion  470  and the PCB assembly  380 . 
     In some embodiments, another one or more layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  may include or be coupled to elongated members. For example, the PCB assembly  380  may be formed to have an integrally formed elongated member, or an elongated member may be coupled thereto after formation of the PCB assembly  380 . The elongated member may extend through at least one additional layer and may have an end portion that is reshaped (or bonded, or a clip coupled thereto) while extending through the other one or more layer to resist separation of the one or more layer and the PCB assembly  380 . 
     In some embodiments, other fasteners may be used to couple two or more layers together in addition to, or instead of, the elongated members. For example, a rivet, bolt, screw, clip, snap-fit connector, or any other fastener may extend through two or more layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  in order to couple the two or more layers together. 
     In some embodiments, multiple mechanisms may be used to couple the antenna stack assembly  250  together. For example, an elongated member  400  may extend from the radome body assembly  310  through the antenna spacer  335  and be coupled thereto, and rivets may be used to couple the antenna spacer  335  and the PCB assembly  380  together. As another example, a bolt may extend through openings defined by each layer (including the outer layer  315 ) and may have a head located outside of one opening (e.g., located above the outer layer  315 ) and be coupled to a nut outside of another opening (e.g., located below the PCB assembly  380 ) in order to resist separation of each layer relative to the remaining layers. As a further example, one or more elongated members  400  may be used together with one or more elongated members  800  to couple the antenna stack assembly  250  together. In some embodiments, a fastener may be used to couple one or more layer of the antenna stack assembly  250  to the lower enclosure  204  in addition to, or instead of, the method discussed below. 
     As will be discussed below, the radome body assembly  310  may be disposed within or coupled to the lower enclosure  204  (see, e.g.,  FIG.  3 B ). In some examples, the lower enclosure  204  couples to the radome body assembly  310  via the elongated members  800 . Additionally, or alternatively, the lower enclosure  204  may include protrusions  390  (which may have any shape such as triangular prism, pyramid, tube, or the like) which may be located in the volume  258  and may extend upward (e.g., towards the radome body assembly  310 ). The protrusions  390  may be sufficiently long so as to contact (and potentially apply pressure to) the PCB assembly  380  in response to coupling between the radome body assembly  310  and the lower enclosure  204 . In that regard, the contact between the protrusions  390 , the PCB assembly  380  (when the lower enclosure  204  is coupled to the radome body assembly  310 ), the shoulders  808  of the elongated members  800  (when utilized), and/or the pressure applied through the stack to the radome body assembly  310 , may be sufficient to retain the layers of the antenna stack assembly together without use of adhesives, fasteners, or other coupling means. This contact (and potential pressure) between the protrusions  390 , the PCB assembly  380 , and other components may provide support to one or more layer of the antenna stack assembly  250 . 
     In some embodiments, multiple coupling mechanisms may be used in some or all locations to provide redundant couplings. For example, the elongated member  400  may be used as shown in  FIG.  10   , and adhesive may be applied between two or more additional layers (e.g., the upper patch antenna layer  330 , the antenna spacer  335 , and the lower patch antenna layer  370 ) to provide redundant coupling. As another example, the outer layer  315 , radome body assembly, upper patch antenna layer  330 , and antenna spacer  335  may be coupled together using a first fastener; the antenna spacer  335 , the lower patch antenna layer  370 , the dielectric layer  375 , and the PCB assembly  380  may be coupled together using a second fastener; and adhesive may be used to couple the lower patch antenna layer  370  to the dielectric layer  375 . 
     In some embodiments, the elongated member  400  may be formed from a same material as the remainder of the radome body assembly  310 . In some embodiments, the elongated member  400  may be strengthened, for example by using a coating, to increase its strength. In some embodiments, the elongated member  400  may be formed separate from the radome body assembly  310  and coupled to the radome body assembly  310  using any means (e.g., fasteners, adhesives, chemical bonding, or the like). In these embodiments, the elongated member  400  may be formed from the same or different material as the remainder of the radome body assembly  310 . Similarly, any additional fasteners, connectors, or the like discussed herein may be formed from any material such as a polymer, a metal, or the like. 
     Coupling of Antenna Assembly 
     Turning to  FIGS.  2 A,  3 B, and  11   , the antenna stack assembly  250  may be coupled to the housing assembly  202 , which includes a radome portion  206  and a lower enclosure  204 , to assemble the antenna apparatus  200  together. As discussed above, in some embodiments, the antenna stack assembly  250  may be coupled together first and then the antenna stack assembly  250  may be coupled to either the radome portion  206  or the lower enclosure  204 . As will be discussed in more detail below, in various examples, the antenna stack assembly  250  may be coupled together and to the housing assembly  202  within the same coupling process. Stated differently, in various examples, coupling the radome body assembly  310  and the housing assembly  202  together may also couple the layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  together. 
     The radome body assembly  310  may include a perimeter portion  700  which may be located at the exterior portion  328  of the radome body portion  402 . The perimeter portion  700  may extend outward from (e.g., in a direction perpendicular to the stacking axis) some or all remaining layers of the antenna stack assembly  250  (e.g., may at least extend outward from the upper patch antenna layer  330 , the antenna spacer  335 , the lower patch antenna layer  370 , the dielectric layer  375 , and the PCB assembly  380 ). The perimeter portion  700  may extend outward from these layers around the entire perimeter of the radome body assembly  310 . In some embodiments, the perimeter portion  700  may be an extension of the radome body portion  402 . In some embodiments, the perimeter portion  700  may be an extension of the radome spacer portion  404 . In some embodiments, the perimeter portion  700  may be an extension of at least a portion of both of the radome body portion  402  and the radome spacer portion  404 . In some embodiments, the perimeter portion may fail to be aligned with one or both of the radome body portion  402  and the radome spacer portion  404 . 
     In some embodiments, the outer layer  315  may extend to an outer edge of the perimeter portion  700 . In some embodiments, the outer layer  315  may fail to extend onto the perimeter portion  700 . In some embodiments, the outer layer  315  may extend a portion of the way onto the perimeter portion  700  but may end before the outer edge of the perimeter portion  700 . The outer layer  315  may be pre-cut to fit as desired or may be applied to the radome body assembly  310  and then cut to a desired shape. 
     The perimeter portion  700  may include a parallel portion  701  that extends in a direction substantially parallel to the plane defined by the radome body portion  402 . The perimeter portion  700  may further include a radome lip  704  that extends away from the parallel portion  701  and at least partially downward (e.g., towards the lower enclosure  204 ). In some embodiments, the radome lip  704  may form an angle with the parallel portion  701  that is between 45 degrees and 135 degrees, between 60 degrees and 120 degrees, between 75 degrees and 105 degrees, or about 90 degrees. The transition from the parallel portion  701  to the radome lip  704  may be angled, curved, or any combination thereof. 
     The parallel portion  701  of the perimeter portion  700  may have an inner surface (e.g., facing towards the lower enclosure  204 ) that extends from, for example, the radome spacer portion  404  to the radome lip  704 . The inner surface may include a bonding or joining surface  702  used to couple the radome body assembly  310  to the lower enclosure  204 . As described herein, the terms bonding and joining may be used interchangeably to describe welding (whether by heat, ultrasonic, or vibration welding techniques, adhesive coupling, or other joining methods). 
     The lower enclosure  204  may also have a perimeter portion  710 . The perimeter portion  710  of the lower enclosure  204  may extend around an entire perimeter of the lower enclosure  204 . As shown, the lower enclosure  204  may be angled or slanted towards the perimeter portion  710  between the perimeter portion  710  and the interface between the post  210  and the lower enclosure  204 . In some embodiments, the slant may only exist for a portion of the lower enclosure  204 , may fail to exist, may exist along the entire lower enclosure  204 , or the like. Similarly, the lower enclosure  204  may be curved instead of angled, may include a combination of angles and curves, or the like. This angled or slanted design of the lower enclosure aids in forming the volume  258  between the lower enclosure  204  and the PCB assembly  380 . However, any other shape may be used for the lower enclosure  204  without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. 
     The perimeter portion  710  of the lower enclosure  204  may include a post  712  extending away therefrom in an upwards direction (e.g., towards the radome body assembly  310 ). For example, the post  712  may extend in a direction that is substantially perpendicular to the plane defined by the radome body portion  402 . The post  712  may include an upper surface or edge which may be used as a joining or bonding edge  714 . The bonding edge  714  may include a surface or edge that is substantially parallel to the bonding surface  702  of the perimeter portion  700  of the radome body assembly  310 . The perimeter portion  710  of the lower enclosure  204  may also include an enclosure lip  716  extending substantially parallel to (e.g., within 45 degrees of parallel, within 30 degrees, within 20 degrees, within 5 degrees, or the like) the radome lip  704 , and may likewise extend substantially parallel to (e.g., within 45 degrees of parallel, within 30 degrees, within 20 degrees, within 5 degrees, or the like) the post  712 . In some embodiments, the enclosure lip  716  may be spaced from the post  712  by a distance. In some embodiments, one or both of the radome lip  704  and the enclosure lip  716  may be optional. 
     The bonding edge  714  of the post  712  may be coupled to the bonding surface  702  of the parallel portion  701  of the radome body assembly  310 . Because the bonding surface  702  and the bonding edge  714  extend around the entire perimeters of the radome body assembly  310  and the lower enclosure  204 , the entire perimeters of the radome body assembly  310  and the lower enclosure  204  may be coupled together. This coupling between the bonding surface  702  and the bonding edge  714  may partially or entirely seal the volume  258  from an environment of the antenna assembly  200 . Likewise, this coupling may be waterproof or water resistant (e.g., the radome body assembly  310  may be hermetically sealed to the lower enclosure  204 ). Thus, the coupling of the radome body assembly  310  to the lower enclosure  204  may reduce the likelihood of water or debris entering the volume  250 . Thus, components within the volume (including the entire antenna stack  250  minus portions of the radome assembly  305 ) may be protected from water and debris that may be present in the environment of the antenna assembly  200 . 
     The bonding surface  702  may be coupled to the bonding edge  714  in any manner. In some embodiments, an O-ring or other sealing member may be present between the bonding surface  702  and the bonding edge  714  and a fastener may be used to fasten the lower enclosure  204  to the radome body assembly  310  such that the O-ring or other sealing member hermetically seals the volume  258  from the environment. In some embodiments, an adhesive may be placed between the bonding surface  702  and the bonding edge  714  and cured to couple the bonding surface  702  and the bonding edge  714  together. In some embodiments, the bonding surface  702  and the bonding edge  714  may be chemically bonded together. 
     In some embodiments, vibration welding may be used to couple the bonding surface  702  and the bonding edge  714  together. Vibration welding refers to a process in which two workpieces (the radome body assembly  310  and the lower enclosure  204 ) are brought into contact under pressure, and a reciprocating motion (e.g., vibration) is applied along the common interface (the bonding surface  702  and the bonding edge  714 ) to generate heat. The resulting heat melts the workpieces, and they become welded when the vibration stops and the interface cools. The vibration may be achieved either through linear vibration welding, which uses a one-dimensional back-and-forth motion, or orbital vibration welding which moves the pieces in small orbits relative to each other. The vibrations may operate at a frequency between 120 hertz and 360 hertz, between 200 hertz and 280 hertz, between 220 hertz and 260 hertz, about 240 hertz, or the like. The amplitude of the vibration may be, for example, between 20 mil and 118 mil (0.5 mm and 3 mm), between 40 mil and 78 mil (1 mm and 2 mm), or about 59 mil (1.5 mm). 
     The vibration weld between the bonding surface  702  and the bonding edge  714  may result in a hermetic seal formed around the entire bonding surface  702  and the entire bonding edge  714 . Vibration welding may be optimally performed using thermoplastics. In that regard and in some embodiments, the radome body assembly  310  and the lower enclosure  204  may include a thermoplastic (at least at the respective perimeter portions  700 ,  710 ). In some embodiments, one or both of the radome body assembly  310  and the lower enclosure  204  may include a different material. For example, the radome body assembly  310  may include a thermoplastic and the lower enclosure  204  may include a non-thermoplastic polymer or a metal. In some embodiments, both the radome body assembly  310  and the lower enclosure  204  may include a non-thermoplastic polymer or a metal. 
     In some embodiments, a different bonding technique may be used. For example, ultrasonic welding may be used to bond two thermoplastics, a thermoplastic and a metal, two metals, or the like together. Ultrasonic welding is a process in which high-frequency (e.g., between 20 kilohertz and 40 kilohertz) ultrasonic acoustic vibrations are locally applied to workpieces (e.g., the radome body assembly  310  and the lower enclosure  204 ) being held together under pressure to create a solid-state weld. Ultrasonic welding may be particularly useful when the two workpieces are formed using dissimilar materials (e.g., a polymer for one and a metal for the other). 
     After the vibration welding, ultrasonic welding, or other coupling technique is completed, a joint  720  may be present between the bonding surface  702  and the bonding edge  714 . The joint  720  may also operate as a hermetic seal, sealing the volume  258  from the environment of the antenna assembly  200 . 
     After the bonding surface  702  and the bonding edge  714  have been bonded together (e.g., using vibration welding, ultrasonic welding, or any other coupling technique), a gap  722  may be present between the radome lip  704  and the enclosure lip  716 . In some embodiments and due to variation present in various welding applications, the joint  720  between the post  712  and the bonding surface  702  may be sufficiently large (e.g., by melting a sufficiently large portion of the post  712  so as to reduce its height along the stacking axis) to cause the gap  722  to be nonexistent. However, in some embodiments, the joint  720  may not remove this quantity of material from the post  712 . In that regard, the presence of the gap  722  between the radome lip  704  and the enclosure lip  716  may provide the appearance of a close seal between the radome body assembly  310  and the lower enclosure  204  while providing for the variation in welding applications. Although the gap  722  may be present between the radome lip  704  and the enclosure lip  716  such that water and debris may pass through the gap  722 , the seal between the bonding surface  702  and the bonding edge  714  of the post is sufficient to resist entry of this water or debris into the volume  258  in which sensitive electronic components may be located. 
     As mentioned above with reference to the embodiment of  FIG.  12   , the radome body assembly  310  can be coupled to the elongated members  800  by, for example, welding (e.g., vibration welded, ultrasonic welded, etc.), adhering, or otherwise coupling an end portion  810  of the body  802  to the radome body  402 . In some embodiments, the post  712  may be coupled to the radome body assembly  310  during the same coupling process as the elongated member  800  is coupled to the radome body assembly  310 . For example, the post  712  can be ultrasonic welded to the radome body assembly  310  at the same time (or at the same step or process) as the elongated member  800  is ultrasonic welded to the radome body assembly  310 . The sites of joining of the elongated members  800  to the radome assembly  305  may be in the same plane as the sites of joining of the lower enclosure  204  and the radome body assembly  310  to facilitate such welding (or other joining methods). Stated differently, the ends of the posts  712  and the elongated members  800  may be substantially equidistant from radome body portion  402 . By arranging the posts  712  and the elongated members  800  in this manner, a uniform force can be applied to the radome body assembly  310  when coupling the radome body assembly  310  to the posts  712  and the elongated members  800  to assist with coupling the components together. The post  712  and the elongated member  800  can be coupled to the radome body assembly  310  using any various coupling method described herein, including, for instance, vibration welding and bonding. 
     Although a variety of examples and other information was used to explain aspects within the scope of the appended claims, no limitation of the claims should be implied based on particular features or arrangements in such examples, as one of ordinary skill would be able to use these examples to derive a wide variety of implementations. Further and although some subject matter may have been described in language specific to examples of structural features and/or method steps, it is to be understood that the subject matter defined in the appended claims is not necessarily limited to these described features or acts. For example, such functionality can be distributed differently or performed in components other than those identified herein. Rather, the described features and steps are disclosed as examples of components of systems and methods within the scope of the appended claims. 
     Claim language and language within the specification reciting “at least one of” refers to at least one of a set and indicates that one member of the set or multiple members of the set satisfy the claim. For example, claim language and language within the specification reciting “at least one of A and B” means A, B, or A and B. As another example, claim language and language within the specification reciting “at least one of A or B” means A, B, or A and B.