Patent Publication Number: US-2009221439-A1

Title: Combinatorial artificial receptors including tether building blocks

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/219,515, filed Sep. 1, 2005, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 60/609,160, filed Sep. 11, 2004, entitled “ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS, BUILDING BLOCKS, AND METHODS”, 60/612,666, filed Sep. 23, 2004, entitled “ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS, BUILDING BLOCKS, AND METHODS”, 60/626,770, filed Nov. 10, 2004, entitled “ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS, BUILDING BLOCKS, AND METHODS”, 60/645,582, filed Jan. 19, 2005, entitled “ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS, BUILDING BLOCKS, AND METHODS”, 60/649,729, filed Feb. 3, 2005, entitled “ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS, BUILDING BLOCKS, AND METHODS”, 60/607,438, filed Sep. 3, 2004, entitled “COMBINATORIAL ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS INCLUDING TETHER BUILDING BLOCKS ON SCAFFOLDS”, 60/607,458, filed Sep. 3, 2004, entitled “COMBINATORIAL ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS INCLUDING TETHER BUILDING BLOCKS ON SCAFFOLDS”, 60/608,557, filed Sep. 10, 2004, entitled “COMBINATORIAL ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS INCLUDING TETHER BUILDING BLOCKS ON SCAFFOLDS”, 60/607,457, filed Sep. 3, 2004, entitled “SCAFFOLD-BASED ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS AND METHODS”, and 60/608,654, filed Sep. 10, 2004, entitled “SCAFFOLD-BASED ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS AND METHODS”. 
     Each of the listed applications is incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to artificial receptors, arrays or microarrays of artificial receptors or candidate artificial receptors, methods of and compositions for making them, and methods of using them. Each artificial receptor includes a plurality of building block compounds. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. The tether can provide spacing or distance between the recognition element and the support or scaffold to which the building block is immobilized. A tether moiety can have any of a variety of characteristics or properties including flexibility, rigidity or stiffness, ability to bond to another tether moiety, and the like. 
     BACKGROUND 
     The preparation of artificial receptors that bind ligands like proteins, peptides, carbohydrates, microbes, pollutants, pharmaceuticals, and the like with high sensitivity and specificity is an active area of research. None of the conventional approaches has been particularly successful; achieving only modest sensitivity and specificity mainly due to low binding affinity. 
     Antibodies, enzymes, and natural receptors generally have binding constants in the 10 8 -10 12  range, which results in both nanomolar sensitivity and targeted specificity. By contrast, conventional artificial receptors typically have binding constants of about 10 3  to 10 5 , with the predictable result of millimolar sensitivity and limited specificity. 
     Several conventional approaches are being pursued in attempts to achieve highly sensitive and specific artificial receptors. These approaches include, for example, affinity isolation, molecular imprinting, and rational and/or combinatorial design and synthesis of synthetic or semi-synthetic receptors. 
     Such rational or combinatorial approaches have been limited by the relatively small number of receptors which are evaluated and/or by their reliance on a design strategy which focuses on only one building block, the homogeneous design strategy. Common combinatorial approaches form microarrays that include 10,000 or 100,000 distinct spots on a standard microscope slide. However, such conventional methods for combinatorial synthesis provide a single molecule per spot. Employing a single building block in each spot provides only a single possible receptor per spot. Synthesis of thousands of building blocks would be required to make thousands of possible receptors. 
     Further, these conventional approaches are hampered by the currently limited understanding of the principals which lead to efficient binding and the large number of possible structures for receptors, which makes such an approach problematic. 
     There remains a need for methods for detecting test ligands in unknown samples and for detecting compounds that disrupt one or more binding interactions. 
     SUMMARY 
     The present invention relates to artificial receptors, arrays or microarrays of artificial receptors or candidate artificial receptors, methods of and compositions for making them, and methods of using them. Each artificial receptor includes a plurality of building block compounds. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. The tether can provide spacing or distance between the recognition element and the support or scaffold to which the building block is immobilized. A tether moiety can have any of a variety of characteristics or properties including flexibility, rigidity or stiffness, ability to bond to another tether moiety, and the like. 
     The present invention relates to artificial receptors, arrays or microarrays of artificial receptors or candidate artificial receptors, methods of and compositions for making them, and methods of using them. The artificial receptor includes a plurality of building block compounds including a tether and immobilized on a surface. 
     The present invention includes a method of making an array of artificial receptors including tethered building blocks. This method includes forming a plurality of spots on a solid support. At least certain of the spots include a plurality of building blocks, at least one of the building blocks including a tether moiety. The method includes immobilizing building blocks on the solid support in the spots. 
     The present invention includes a method of making a receptor surface or an artificial receptor. This method includes forming a region on a solid support. The region includes a plurality of building blocks, at least one of the building blocks including a tether moiety. The method includes immobilizing building blocks on the solid support in the region. 
     The invention includes artificial receptors and compositions. The compositions can include a support and a plurality of building blocks, at least one of the building blocks including a tether moiety. The compositions can also include a functionalized lawn. The functionalized lawn can be coupled to the support. Building blocks can be immobilized on the support, the lawn, or both. In an embodiment, the present invention includes a composition including a surface and a region on the surface. This region includes a plurality of building blocks, at least one of the building blocks including a tether moiety. 
     The present invention includes arrays of artificial receptors and heterogeneous building block arrays. Such an array can include a support and a plurality of building blocks, at least one of the building blocks including a tether moiety. The array can also include a functionalized lawn. The functionalized lawn can be coupled to the support. The array can also include a plurality of regions on the support. The regions can include a plurality of building blocks, at least one of the building blocks including a tether moiety. 
     The present invention includes kits and articles of manufacture. Such an article of manufacture can include a support and a plurality of building blocks. The article of manufacture can also include a functionalized lawn reagent. The functionalized lawn reagent can be configured to be coupled to the support. At least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
         FIG. 1  schematically illustrates two dimensional representations of an embodiment of a receptor according to the present invention that employs 4 different building blocks to make a ligand binding site. 
         FIG. 2  schematically illustrates two and three dimensional representations of an embodiment of a molecular configuration of 4 building blocks, each building block including a recognition element, a framework, and a linker coupled to a support (immobilization/anchor). 
         FIG. 3  schematically illustrates an embodiment of the present methods and artificial receptors employing shuffling and exchanging building blocks. 
         FIG. 4  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a building block including a flexible tether (left) and a building block including a rigid tether (right). 
         FIG. 5  schematically illustrates an embodiment with two tether building blocks coupled, for example, by a reversible covalent bond between moieties X and Y and by noncovalent interaction between moieties A and B. 
         FIG. 6  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a test ligand bound to an embodiment of an artificial receptor including a plurality of building blocks including a rigid tether and a plurality of building blocks including a flexible tether. 
         FIG. 7  schematically illustrates the receptor and test ligand of  FIG. 15 , the test ligand displaying an altered form of feature VE, VE 2 . 
         FIG. 8  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for evaluating candidate artificial receptors for binding to a test ligand, such as a molecule or cell. 
         FIG. 9  schematically illustrates an embodiment of the present method employing an array of candidate artificial receptors. 
         FIG. 10  schematically illustrates certain binding patterns on an array of working artificial receptors. 
         FIG. 11  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for developing a method and system for detecting a test ligand. 
         FIG. 12  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for detecting an agent that disrupts a binding interaction of a target molecule. 
         FIG. 13  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for detecting an agent that disrupts a binding interaction of a complex including a target molecule. 
         FIG. 14  schematically illustrates a candidate disruptor disrupting a protein:protein complex. 
         FIG. 15  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method of employing the present artificial receptors to produce or as an affinity support. 
         FIG. 16  schematically illustrates evaluating an array of candidate artificial receptors for binding of a test ligand and selecting one or more working artificial receptors for binding or operating on a test ligand. 
         FIG. 17  schematically illustrates identification of a lead artificial receptor from among candidate artificial receptors. 
         FIG. 18  schematically illustrates a false color fluorescence image of a labeled microarray according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG. 19  schematically illustrates a two dimensional plot of data obtained for candidate artificial receptors contacted with and/or binding phycoerythrin. 
         FIG. 20  schematically illustrates a three dimensional plot of data obtained for candidate artificial receptors contacted with and/or binding phycoerythrin. 
         FIG. 21  schematically illustrates a two dimensional plot of data obtained for candidate artificial receptors contacted with and/or binding a fluorescent derivative of ovalbumin. 
         FIG. 22  schematically illustrates a three dimensional plot of data obtained for candidate artificial receptors contacted with and/or binding a fluorescent derivative of ovalbumin. 
         FIG. 23  schematically illustrates a two dimensional plot of data obtained for candidate artificial receptors contacted with and/or binding a fluorescent derivative of bovine serum albumin. 
         FIG. 24  schematically illustrates a three dimensional plot of data obtained for candidate artificial receptors contacted with and/or binding a fluorescent derivative of bovine serum albumin. 
         FIG. 25  schematically illustrates a two dimensional plot of data obtained for candidate artificial receptors contacted with and/or binding an acetylated horseradish peroxidase. 
         FIG. 26  schematically illustrates a three dimensional plot of data obtained for candidate artificial receptors contacted with and/or binding an acetylated horseradish peroxidase. 
         FIG. 27  schematically illustrates a two dimensional plot of data obtained for candidate artificial receptors contacted with and/or binding a TCDD derivative of horseradish peroxidase. 
         FIG. 28  schematically illustrates a three dimensional plot of data obtained for candidate artificial receptors contacted with and/or binding a TCDD derivative of horseradish peroxidase. 
         FIG. 29  schematically illustrates a subset of the data illustrated in  FIG. 5 . 
         FIG. 30  schematically illustrates a subset of the data illustrated in  FIG. 5 . 
         FIG. 31  schematically illustrates a subset of the data illustrated in  FIG. 5 . 
         FIG. 32  schematically illustrates a correlation of binding data for phycoerythrin against logP for the building blocks making up the artificial receptor. 
         FIG. 33  schematically illustrates a correlation of binding data for phycoerythrin against logP for the building blocks making up the artificial receptor. 
         FIG. 34  schematically illustrates a two dimensional plot comparing data obtained for candidate artificial receptors contacted with and/or binding phycoerythrin to data obtained for candidate artificial receptors contacted with and/or binding a fluorescent derivative of bovine serum albumin. 
         FIGS. 35 ,  36 , and  37  schematically illustrate subsets of data from  FIGS. 5 ,  9 , and  7 , respectively, and demonstrate that the array of artificial receptors according to the present invention yields receptors distinguished between three analytes, phycoerythrin, bovine serum albumin, and ovalbumin. 
         FIG. 38  schematically illustrates a gray scale image of the fluorescence signal from a scan of a control plate which was prepared by washing off the building blocks with organic solvent before incubation with the test ligand. 
         FIG. 39  schematically illustrates a gray scale image of the fluorescence signal from a scan of an experimental plate which was incubated with 1.0 μg/ml Cholera Toxin B at 23° C. 
         FIG. 40  schematically illustrates a gray scale image of the fluorescence signal from a scan of an experimental plate which was incubated with 1.0 μg/ml Cholera Toxin B at 3° C. 
         FIG. 41  schematically illustrates a gray scale image of the fluorescence signal from a scan of an experimental plate which was incubated with 1.0 μg/ml Cholera Toxin B at 43° C. 
         FIGS. 42-44  schematically illustrate plots of the fluorescence signals obtained from the candidate artificial receptors illustrated in  FIG. 36-41 . 
         FIG. 45  schematically illustrate plots of the fluorescence signals obtained from the combinations of building blocks employed in the present studies, when those building blocks are covalently linked to the support. Binding was conducted at 23° C. 
         FIG. 46  schematically illustrates the changes in fluorescence signal from individual combinations of covalently immobilized building blocks at 4° C., 23° C., or 44° C. 
         FIG. 47  schematically illustrates a graph of the changes in fluorescence signal from individual combinations of building blocks at 4° C., 23° C., or 44° C. 
         FIG. 48  schematically illustrates the data presented in  FIG. 46  (lines marked A) and the data presented in  FIG. 47  (lines marked B). 
         FIG. 49  schematically illustrates a graph of the fluorescence signal at 44° C. divided by the signal at 23° C. against the fluorescence signal obtained from binding at 23° C. for the artificial receptors with reversibly immobilized receptors. 
         FIG. 50  illustrates fluorescence signals produced by binding of cholera toxin to a microarray of the present candidate artificial receptors followed by washing with buffer in an experiment reported in Example 4. 
         FIG. 51  illustrates the fluorescence signals due to cholera toxin binding that were detected upon competition with GM1 OS (0.34 μM) in an experiment reported in Example 4. 
         FIG. 52  illustrates the ratio of the amount bound in the absence of GM1 OS to the amount bound in competition with GM1 OS (0.34 μM) in an experiment reported in Example 4. 
         FIG. 53  illustrates fluorescence signals produced by binding of cholera toxin to a microarray of the present candidate artificial receptors followed by washing with buffer in an experiment reported in Example 4 and for comparison with competition experiments using 5.1 μM GM1 OS. 
         FIG. 54  illustrates the fluorescence signals due to cholera toxin binding that were detected upon competition with GM1 OS (5.1 μM) in an experiment reported in Example 4. 
         FIG. 55  illustrates the ratio of the amount bound in the absence of GM1 OS to the amount bound in competition with GM1 OS (5.1 μM) in an experiment reported in Example 4. 
         FIG. 56  illustrates the fluorescence signals produced by binding of cholera toxin to the microarray of candidate artificial receptors alone and in competition with each of the three concentrations of GM1 in the experiment reported in Example 5. 
         FIG. 57  illustrates the ratio of the amount bound in the absence of GM1 OS to the amount bound upon competition with GM1 for the low concentration of GM1 employed in Example 5. 
         FIG. 58  illustrates the fluorescence signals produced by binding of cholera toxin to the microarray of candidate artificial receptors without pretreatment with GM1 in the experiment reported in Example 6. 
         FIGS. 59-61  illustrate the fluorescence signals produced by binding of cholera toxin to the microarray of candidate artificial receptors with pretreatment with GM1 (100 g/ml, 10 μg/ml, and 1 μg/ml GM1, respectively) in the experiment reported in Example 6. 
         FIG. 62  illustrates the ratio of the amount bound in the presence of 1 μg/ml GM1 to the amount bound in the absence of GM1 in the experiment reported in Example 6. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Definitions 
     As used herein, the term “peptide” refers to a compound including two or more amino acid residues joined by amide bond(s). 
     As used herein, the terms “polypeptide” and “protein” refer to a peptide including more than about 20 amino acid residues connected by peptide linkages. 
     As used herein, the term “proteome” refers to the expression profile of the proteins of an organism, tissue, organ, or cell. The proteome can be specific to a particular status (e.g., development, health, etc.) of the organism, tissue, organ, or cell. 
     As used herein, the term “support” refers to a solid support that is, typically, macroscopic. 
     As used herein, the term scaffold refers to a molecular scale structure to which a plurality of building blocks can covalently bind. 
     Reversibly immobilizing building blocks on a support couples the building blocks to the support through a mechanism that allows the building blocks to be uncoupled from the support without destroying or unacceptably degrading the building block or the support. That is, immobilization can be reversed without destroying or unacceptably degrading the building block or the support. In an embodiment, immobilization can be reversed with only negligible or ineffective levels of degradation of the building block or the support. Reversible immobilization can employ readily reversible covalent bonding or noncovalent interactions. Suitable noncovalent interactions include interactions between ions, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals interactions, and the like. Readily reversible covalent bonding refers to covalent bonds that can be formed and broken under conditions that do not destroy or unacceptably degrade the building block or the support. 
     A combination of building blocks immobilized on, for example, a support can be a candidate artificial receptor, a lead artificial receptor, or a working artificial receptor. That is, a heterogeneous building block spot on a slide or a plurality of building blocks coated on a tube or well can be a candidate artificial receptor, a lead artificial receptor, or a working artificial receptor. A candidate artificial receptor can become a lead artificial receptor, which can become a working artificial receptor. 
     As used herein the phrase “candidate artificial receptor” refers to an immobilized combination of building blocks that can be tested to determine whether or not a particular test ligand binds to that combination. In an embodiment, the combination includes one or more reversibly immobilized building blocks. In an embodiment, the candidate artificial receptor can be a heterogeneous building block spot on a slide or a plurality of building blocks coated on a tube or well. 
     As used herein the phrase “lead artificial receptor” refers to an immobilized combination of building blocks that binds a test ligand at a predetermined concentration of test ligand, for example at 10, 1, 0.1, or 0.01 μg/ml, or at 1, 0.1, or 0.01 ng/ml. In an embodiment, the combination includes one or more reversibly immobilized building blocks. In an embodiment, the lead artificial receptor can be a heterogeneous building block spot on a slide or a plurality of building blocks coated on a tube or well. 
     As used herein the phrase “working artificial receptor” refers to a combination of building blocks that binds a test ligand with a selectivity and/or sensitivity effective for categorizing or identifying the test ligand. That is, binding to that combination of building blocks describes the test ligand as belonging to a category of test ligands or as being a particular test ligand. A working artificial receptor can, for example, bind the ligand at a concentration of, for example, 100, 10, 1, 0.1, 0.01, or 0.001 ng/ml. In an embodiment, the combination includes one or more reversibly immobilized building blocks. In an embodiment, the working artificial receptor can be a heterogeneous building block spot on a slide or a plurality of building blocks coated on a tube, well, slide, or other support or on a scaffold. 
     As used herein the phrase “working artificial receptor complex” refers to a plurality of artificial receptors, each a combination of building blocks, that binds a test ligand with a pattern of selectivity and/or sensitivity effective for categorizing or identifying the test ligand. That is, binding to the several receptors of the complex describes the test ligand as belonging to a category of test ligands or as being a particular test ligand. The individual receptors in the complex can each bind the ligand at different concentrations or with different affinities. For example, the individual receptors in the complex each bind the ligand at concentrations of 100, 10, 1, 0.1, 0.01 or 0.001 ng/ml. In an embodiment, the combination includes one or more reversibly immobilized building blocks. In an embodiment, the working artificial receptor complex can be a plurality of heterogeneous building block spots or regions on a slide; a plurality of wells, each coated with a different combination of building blocks; or a plurality of tubes, each coated with a different combination of building blocks. 
     As used herein, the phrase “significant number of candidate artificial receptors” refers to sufficient candidate artificial receptors to provide an opportunity to find a working artificial receptor, working artificial receptor complex, or lead artificial receptor. As few as about 100 to about 200 candidate artificial receptors can be a significant number for finding working artificial receptor complexes suitable for distinguishing two proteins (e.g., cholera toxin and phycoerythrin). In other embodiments, a significant number of candidate artificial receptors can include about 1,000 candidate artificial receptors, about 10,000 candidate artificial receptors, about 100,000 candidate artificial receptors, or more. 
     Although not limiting to the present invention, it is believed that the significant number of candidate artificial receptors required to provide an opportunity to find a working artificial receptor may be larger than the significant number required to find a working artificial receptor complex. Although not limiting to the present invention, it is believed that the significant number of candidate artificial receptors required to provide an opportunity to find a lead artificial receptor may be larger than the significant number required to find a working artificial receptor. Although not limiting to the present invention, it is believed that the significant number of candidate artificial receptors required to provide an opportunity to find a working artificial receptor for a test ligand with few features may be more than for a test ligand with many features. 
     As used herein, the term “building block” refers to a molecular component of an artificial receptor including portions that can be envisioned as or that include one or more linkers, one or more frameworks, and one or more recognition elements. In an embodiment, the building block includes a linker, a framework, and one or more recognition elements. In an embodiment, the linker includes a moiety suitable for reversibly immobilizing the building block, for example, on a support, surface or lawn. The building block interacts with the ligand. 
     As used herein, the term “linker” refers to a portion of or functional group on a building block that can be employed to or that does (e.g., reversibly) couple the building block to a support, for example, through covalent link, ionic interaction, electrostatic interaction, or hydrophobic interaction. 
     As used herein, the term “framework” refers to a portion of a building block including the linker or to which the linker is coupled and to which one or more recognition elements are coupled. 
     As used herein, the term “recognition element” refers to a portion of a building block coupled to the framework but not covalently coupled to the support. Although not limiting to the present invention, the recognition element can provide or form one or more groups, surfaces, or spaces for interacting with the ligand. 
     As used herein, the phrase “plurality of building blocks” refers to two or more building blocks of different structure in a mixture, in a kit, or on a support or scaffold. Each building block has a particular structure, and use of building blocks in the plural, or of a plurality of building blocks, refers to more than one of these particular structures. Building blocks or plurality of building blocks does not refer to a plurality of molecules each having the same structure. 
     As used herein, the phrase “combination of building blocks” refers to a plurality of building blocks that together are in a spot, region, or a candidate, lead, or working artificial receptor. A combination of building blocks can be a subset of a set of building blocks. For example, a combination of building blocks can be one of the possible combinations of 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 building blocks from a set of N (e.g., N=10-200) building blocks. 
     As used herein, the phrases “homogenous immobilized building block” and “homogenous immobilized building blocks” refer to a support or spot having immobilized on or within it only a single building block. 
     As used herein, the phrase “activated building block” refers to a building block activated to make it ready to form a covalent bond to a functional group, for example, on a support. A building block including a carboxyl group can be converted to a building block including an activated ester group, which is an activated building block. An activated building block including an activated ester group can react, for example, with an amine to form a covalent bond. 
     As used herein, the term “naïve” used with respect to one or more building blocks refers to a building block that has not previously been determined or known to bind to a test ligand of interest. For example, the recognition element(s) on a naïve building block has not previously been determined or known to bind to a test ligand of interest. A building block that is or includes a known ligand (e.g., GM1) for a particular protein (test ligand) of interest (e.g., cholera toxin) is not naïve with respect to that protein (test ligand). 
     As used herein, the term “immobilized” used with respect to building blocks coupled to a support refers to building blocks being stably oriented on the support so that they do not migrate on the support or release from the support. Building blocks can be immobilized by covalent coupling, by ionic interactions, by electrostatic interactions, such as ion pairing, or by hydrophobic interactions, such as van der Waals interactions. 
     As used herein a “region” of a support, tube, well, or surface refers to a contiguous portion of the support, tube, well, or surface. Building blocks coupled to a region can refer to building blocks in proximity to one another in that region. 
     As used herein, a “bulky” group on a molecule is larger than a moiety including 7 or 8 carbon atoms. 
     As used herein, a “small” group on a molecule is hydrogen, methyl, or another group smaller than a moiety including 4 carbon atoms. 
     As used herein, the term “lawn” refers to a layer, spot, or region of functional groups on a support, for example, at a density sufficient to place coupled building blocks in proximity to one another. The functional groups can include groups capable of forming covalent, ionic, electrostatic, or hydrophobic interactions with building blocks. 
     As used herein, the term “alkyl” refers to saturated aliphatic groups, including straight-chain alkyl groups, branched-chain alkyl groups, cycloalkyl (alicyclic) groups, alkyl substituted cycloalkyl groups, and cycloalkyl substituted alkyl groups. In certain embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkyl has 30 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C 1 -C 12  for straight chain, C 1 -C 6  for branched chain). Likewise, cycloalkyls can have from 3-10 carbon atoms in their ring structure, for example, 5, 6 or 7 carbons in the ring structure. 
     The term “alkyl” as used herein refers to both “unsubstituted alkyls” and “substituted alkyls”, the latter of which refers to alkyl moieties having substituents replacing a hydrogen on one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. Such substituents can include, for example, a halogen, a hydroxyl, a carbonyl (such as a carboxyl, an ester, a formyl, or a ketone), a thiocarbonyl (such as a thioester, a thioacetate, or a thioformate), an alkoxyl, a phosphoryl, a phosphonate, a phosphinate, an amino, an amido, an amidine, an imine, a cyano, a nitro, an azido, a sulfhydryl, an alkylthio, a sulfate, a sulfonate, a sulfamoyl, a sulfonamido, a sulfonyl, a heterocyclyl, an aryl alkyl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. The moieties substituted on the hydrocarbon chain can themselves be substituted, if appropriate. For example, the substituents of a substituted alkyl can include substituted and unsubstituted forms of the groups listed above. 
     The phrase “aryl alkyl”, as used herein, refers to an alkyl group substituted with an aryl group (e.g., an aromatic or heteroaromatic group). 
     As used herein, the terms “alkenyl” and “alkynyl” refer to unsaturated aliphatic groups analogous in length and optional substitution to the alkyls groups described above, but that contain at least one double or triple bond respectively. 
     The term “aryl” as used herein includes 5-, 6- and 7-membered single-ring aromatic groups that may include from zero to four heteroatoms, for example, benzene, pyrrole, furan, thiophene, imidazole, oxazole, thiazole, triazole, pyrazole, pyridine, pyrazine, pyridazine and pyrimidine, and the like. Those aryl groups having heteroatoms in the ring structure may also be referred to as “aryl heterocycles” or “heteroaromatics”. The aromatic ring can be substituted at one or more ring positions with such substituents such as those described above for alkyl groups. The term “aryl” also includes polycyclic ring systems having two or more cyclic rings in which two or more carbons are common to two adjoining rings (the rings are “fused rings”) wherein at least one of the rings is aromatic, e.g., the other cyclic ring(s) can be cycloalkyls, cycloalkenyls, cycloalkynyls, aryls and/or heterocyclyls. 
     As used herein, the terms “heterocycle” or “heterocyclic group” refer to 3- to 12-membered ring structures, e.g., 3- to 7-membered rings, whose ring structures include one to four heteroatoms. Heterocyclyl groups include, for example, thiophene, thianthrene, furan, pyran, isobenzofuran, chromene, xanthene, phenoxathiin, pyrrole, imidazole, pyrazole, isothiazole, isoxazole, pyridine, pyrazine, pyrimidine, pyridazine, indolizine, isoindole, indole, indazole, purine, quinolizine, isoquinoline, quinoline, phthalazine, naphthyridine, quinoxaline, quinazoline, cinnoline, pteridine, carbazole, carboline, phenanthridine, acridine, pyrimidine, phenanthroline, phenazine, phenarsazine, phenothiazine, furazan, phenoxazine, pyrrolidine, oxolane, thiolane, oxazole, piperidine, piperazine, morpholine, lactones, lactams such as azetidinones and pyrrolidinones, sultams, sultones, and the like. The heterocyclic ring can be substituted at one or more positions with such substituents such as those described for alkyl groups. 
     As used herein, the term “heteroatom” as used herein means an atom of any element other than carbon or hydrogen, such as nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and phosphorous. 
     Overview of the Artificial Receptor 
       FIG. 1  schematically illustrates an embodiment employing 4 distinct building blocks in a spot on a microarray to make a ligand binding site. This Figure illustrates a group of 4 building blocks at the corners of a square forming a unit cell. A group of four building blocks can be envisioned as the vertices on any quadrilateral.  FIG. 1  illustrates that spots or regions of building blocks can be envisioned as multiple unit cells, in this illustration square unit cells. Groups of unit cells of four building blocks in the shape of other quadrilaterals can also be formed on a support. 
     Each immobilized building block molecule can provide one or more “arms” extending from a “framework” and each can include groups that interact with a ligand or with portions of another immobilized building block.  FIG. 2  illustrates that combinations of four building blocks, each including a framework with two arms (called “recognition elements”), provides a molecular configuration of building blocks that form a site for binding a ligand. Such a site formed by building blocks such as those exemplified below can bind a small molecule, such as a drug, metabolite, pollutant, or the like, and/or can bind a larger ligand such as a macromolecule or microbe. 
     The present artificial receptors can include building blocks reversibly immobilized on a support or surface. Reversing immobilization of the building blocks can allow movement of building blocks to a different location on the support or surface, or exchange of building blocks onto and off of the surface. For example, the combinations of building blocks can bind a ligand when reversibly coupled to or immobilized on the support. Reversing the coupling or immobilization of the building blocks provides opportunity for rearranging the building blocks, which can improve binding of the ligand. Further, the present invention can allow for adding additional or different building blocks, which can further improve binding of a ligand. 
       FIG. 3  schematically illustrates an embodiment employing an initial artificial receptor surface (A) with four different building blocks on the surface, which are represented by shaded shapes. This initial artificial receptor surface (A) undergoes (1) binding of a ligand to an artificial receptor and (2) shuffling the building blocks on the receptor surface to yield a lead artificial receptor (B). Shuffling refers to reversing the coupling or immobilization of the building blocks and allowing their rearrangement on the receptor surface. After forming a lead artificial receptor, additional building blocks can be (3) exchanged onto and/or off of the receptor surface (C). Exchanging refers to building blocks leaving the surface and entering a solution contacting the surface and/or building blocks leaving a solution contacting the surface and becoming part of the artificial receptor. The additional building blocks can be selected for structural diversity (e.g., randomly) or selected based on the structure of the building blocks in the lead artificial receptor to provide additional avenues for improving binding. The original and additional building blocks can then be (4) shuffled and exchanged to provide higher affinity artificial receptors on the surface (D). 
     Adaptive Artificial Receptor 
     In an embodiment, the present invention relates to an artificial receptor including a tethered building block. A tethered building block can include one or more recognition elements at an end of the building block. Such a building block can be envisioned as including a framework moiety located at or forming that end of the building block. The recognition elements can be coupled to the framework moiety. Such a building block can also include a tether moiety. 
     The tether moiety can provide spacing or distance between the recognition element and the support or scaffold to which the building block is immobilized. A tether moiety can have any of a variety of characteristics or properties including flexibility, rigidity or stiffness, ability to bond to another tether moiety, and the like. The tether moiety can include the linker. The framework moiety be envisioned as forming all or part of the tether moiety.  FIG. 4  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a building block including a flexible tether (left) and a building block including a rigid tether (right). 
     The tether can include groups suitable for coupling one tether building block to another or one tether to another. Such coupling can provide, for example, rigidity or positioning to a building block with a flexible tether. Such coupling can maintain, for example, two building blocks in proximity to one another. The coupling can be reversible, which can allow the coupled building blocks to “change partners” and couple to no or a different building block.  FIG. 5  schematically illustrates an embodiment with two tether building blocks coupled, for example, by a reversible covalent bond between moieties X and Y and by noncovalent interaction between moieties A and B. The specification below describes suitable groups for forming reversible covalent bonds and noncovalent interactions. 
     An artificial receptor can include a plurality of building blocks with one or more of the building blocks having a tether moiety. For example, an artificial receptor can include at least one building block without a tether moiety, at least one building block with a linker suitable for reversible immobilization on a support, or at least one tether building block. For example, an artificial receptor can include a plurality of tether building blocks, which can include at least one building block including a rigid tether or at least one building block including a flexible tether. In an embodiment, the artificial receptor can include at least one building block including a rigid tether and at least one building block including a flexible tether. In an embodiment, the artificial receptor can include a plurality of building blocks including a rigid tether and a plurality of building blocks including a flexible tether. 
       FIG. 6  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a test ligand bound to an embodiment of an artificial receptor including a plurality of building blocks including a rigid tether and a plurality of building blocks including a flexible tether. The illustrated test ligand includes three features of interest, FE 1 , FE 2 , and VE 1 . These features can be thought of as epitopes that can be recognized by the artificial receptor, which can be considered analogous to an antibody. Two of the features can be considered to have fixed structures. One of the features can be considered to have a structure that can change or be altered. For example, features FE 1  and FE 2  can be visualized as fixed epitopes on the surface of a microbe. For example, feature VE 1  can be visualized as a variable epitope on the surface of a microbe. 
     The artificial receptor schematically illustrated in  FIG. 6  includes 12 different building blocks, 6 with rigid tethers and 6 with flexible tethers, each coupled to a support. In this illustration, the 6 building blocks with rigid tethers bind to features FE 1  and FE 2 , which can be considered fixed epitopes. Heterogeneous building block combinations that bind to each of features FE 1  and FE 2  can be selected by methods described herein and in greater detail in Applicant&#39;s co-pending applications. In this illustration, 3 of the building blocks with flexible tethers bind to feature VE 1 , which can be considered form 1 of a variable epitope. Combinations of building blocks including flexible tethers and that bind to feature VE 1  can be selected by methods including those described herein and those employed for selecting combinations of other building blocks. 
     As schematically illustrated in  FIG. 6 , the artificial receptor includes 3 building blocks with flexible tethers not bound to any feature of the test ligand. In practice, an artificial receptor could include any number of different unbound building blocks with flexible tethers. The unbound flexible tether building blocks can be selected for their ability to bind to different forms of the variable feature, to other features of the test ligand, to another test ligand, or the like. The unbound flexible tether building blocks can be selected to be naïve to the variable feature or the test ligand. That is, the unbound flexible tether building blocks can be selected so that one or more of them has the possibility of binding to, for example, a different form of the variable feature. 
       FIG. 7  schematically illustrates the receptor and test ligand of  FIG. 6 , the test ligand displaying an altered form of feature VE, VE 2 . The alternate forms of feature VE can be considered, for example, as different forms of a variable protein expressed on the surface of a microbe. The alternate forms of feature VE can be considered, for example, as different structural features on isoforms or variants of a protein. The alternate forms of feature VE can be considered, for example, as different structural features on isomeric or homomorphic compounds. 
     As schematically illustrated in  FIG. 7 , the rigid tether building blocks each still bind features FE 1  and FE 2 . Binding of the flexible tether building blocks to form VE 2  of feature VE has changed. The flexible tether building blocks that had bound to VE 1  are now unbound. The flexible tether building blocks that had been unbound are now bound to VE 2 . The artificial receptor including flexible tether building blocks can bind a plurality of forms of the test ligand. As illustrated, the artificial receptor binds to different forms of the test ligand including versions VE 1  and VE 2  of feature VE. An artificial receptor including one or more flexible tether building blocks can be referred to as an adaptive receptor. 
     Methods of Making an Adaptive Artificial Receptor 
     The present invention relates to a method of making an artificial receptor or a candidate artificial receptor. In an embodiment, this method includes preparing a spot or region on a support, the spot or region including a plurality of building blocks immobilized on the support. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. The method can include forming a plurality of spots on a solid support, each spot including a plurality of building blocks, and immobilizing (e.g., reversibly) a plurality of building blocks on the solid support in each spot. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks in at least one of the spots includes a tether. In an embodiment, an array of such spots is referred to as a heterogeneous building block array. 
     The method can include mixing a plurality of building blocks and employing the mixture in forming the spot(s). In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. Alternatively, the method can include spotting individual building blocks on the support. Coupling building blocks to the support can employ covalent bonding or noncovalent interactions. Suitable noncovalent interactions include interactions between ions, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals interactions, and the like. In an embodiment, the support can be functionalized with moieties that can engage in covalent bonding or noncovalent interactions. Forming spots can yield a microarray of spots of heterogeneous combinations of building blocks (at least one spot including at least one tether building block), each of which can be a candidate artificial receptor. The method can apply or spot building blocks onto a support in combinations of 2, 3, 4, or more building blocks. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. 
     In an embodiment, the present method can be employed to produce a solid support having on its surface a plurality of regions or spots, each region or spot including a plurality of building blocks. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. For example, the method can include spotting a glass slide with a plurality of spots, each spot including a plurality of building blocks. Such a spot can be referred to as including heterogeneous building blocks. A plurality of spots of building blocks can be referred to as an array of spots. 
     In an embodiment, the present method includes making a receptor surface. Making a receptor surface can include forming a region on a solid support, the region including a plurality of building blocks, and immobilizing (e.g., reversibly) the plurality of building blocks to the solid support in the region. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. The method can include mixing a plurality of building blocks and employing the mixture in forming the region or regions. Alternatively, the method can include applying individual building blocks in a region on the support. Forming a region on a support can be accomplished, for example, by soaking a portion of the support with the building block solution. The resulting coating including building blocks can be referred to as including heterogeneous building blocks. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. 
     A region including a plurality of building blocks can be independent and distinct from other regions including a plurality of building blocks. In an embodiment, one or more regions including a plurality of building blocks can overlap to produce a region including the combined pluralities of building blocks. In an embodiment, two or more regions including a single building block can overlap to form one or more regions each including a plurality of building blocks. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. The overlapping regions can be envisioned, for example, as portions of overlap in a Venn diagram, or as portions of overlap in a pattern like a plaid or tweed. 
     In an embodiment, the method produces a spot or surface with a density of building blocks sufficient to provide interactions of more than one building block with a ligand. That is, the building blocks can be in proximity to one another. Proximity of different building blocks can be detected by determining different (e.g., greater) binding of a test ligand to a spot or surface including a plurality of building blocks compared to a spot or surface including only one of the building blocks. 
     In an embodiment, the method includes forming an array of heterogeneous spots made from combinations of a subset of the total building blocks and/or smaller groups of the building blocks in each spot. That is, the method forms spots including only, for example, 2 or 3 building blocks, rather than 4 or 5. For example, the method can form spots from combinations of a full set of building blocks (e.g. 81 of a set of 81) in groups of 2 and/or 3. For example, the method can form spots from combinations of a subset of the building blocks (e.g., 25 of the set of 81) in groups of 4 or 5. For example, the method can form spots from combinations of a subset of the building blocks (e.g., 25 of a set of 81) in groups of 2 or 3. The method can include forming additional arrays incorporating building blocks, lead artificial receptors, or structurally similar building blocks. 
     In an embodiment, the method includes forming an array including one or more spots that function as controls for validating or evaluating binding to artificial receptors of the present invention. In an embodiment, the method includes forming one or more regions, tubes, or wells that function as controls for validating or evaluating binding to artificial receptors of the present invention. Such a control spot, region, tube, or well can include no building block, only a single building block, only functionalized lawn, or combinations thereof. 
     The method can immobilize (e.g., reversibly) building blocks on supports using known methods for immobilizing compounds of the types employed as building blocks. Coupling building blocks to the support can employ covalent bonding or noncovalent interactions. Suitable noncovalent interactions include interactions between ions, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals interactions, and the like. In an embodiment, the support can be functionalized with moieties that can engage in reversible covalent bonding, moieties that can engage in noncovalent interactions, a mixture of these moieties, or the like. 
     In an embodiment, the support can be functionalized with moieties that can engage in covalent bonding, e.g., reversible covalent bonding. The present invention can employ any of a variety of the numerous known functional groups, reagents, and reactions for forming reversible covalent bonds. Suitable reagents for forming reversible covalent bonds include those described in Green, T W; Wuts, P G M (1999),  Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis Third Edition , Wiley-Interscience, New York, 779 pp. For example, the support can include functional groups such as a carbonyl group, a carboxyl group, a silane group, boric acid or ester, an amine group (e.g., a primary, secondary, or tertiary amine, a hydroxylamine, a hydrazine, or the like), a thiol group, an alcohol group (e.g., primary, secondary, or tertiary alcohol), a diol group (e.g., a 1,2 diol or a 1,3 diol), a phenol group, a catechol group, or the like. These functional groups can form groups with reversible covalent bonds, such as ether (e.g., alkyl ether, silyl ether, thioether, or the like), ester (e.g., alkyl ester, phenol ester, cyclic ester, thioester, or the like), acetal (e.g., cyclic acetal), ketal (e.g., cyclic ketal), silyl derivative (e.g., silyl ether), boronate (e.g., cyclic boronate), amide, hydrazide, imine, carbamate, or the like. Such a functional group can be referred to as a covalent bonding moiety, e.g., a first covalent bonding moiety. 
     A carbonyl group on the support and an amine group on a building block can form an imine or Schiff&#39;s base. The same is true of an amine group on the support and a carbonyl group on a building block. A carbonyl group on the support and an alcohol group on a building block can form an acetal or ketal. The same is true of an alcohol group on the support and a carbonyl group on a building block. A thiol (e.g., a first thiol) on the support and a thiol (e.g., a second thiol) on the building block can form a disulfide. 
     A carboxyl group on the support and an alcohol group on a building block can form an ester. The same is true of an alcohol group on the support and a carboxyl group on a building block. Any of a variety of alcohols and carboxylic acids can form esters that provide covalent bonding that can be reversed in the context of the present invention. For example, reversible ester linkages can be formed from alcohols such as phenols with electron withdrawing groups on the aryl ring, other alcohols with electron withdrawing groups acting on the hydroxyl-bearing carbon, other alcohols, or the like; and/or carboxyl groups such as those with electron withdrawing groups acting on the acyl carbon (e.g., nitrobenzylic acid, R—CF 2 —COOH, R—CCl 2 —COOH, and the like), other carboxylic acids, or the like. 
     In an embodiment, the support, matrix, or lawn can be functionalized with moieties that can engage in noncovalent interactions. For example, the support can include functional groups such as an ionic group, a group that can hydrogen bond, or a group that can engage in van der Waals or other hydrophobic interactions. Such functional groups can include cationic groups, anionic groups, lipophilic groups, amphiphilic groups, and the like. 
     In an embodiment, the support, matrix, or lawn includes a charged moiety (e.g., a first charged moiety). Suitable charged moieties include positively charged moieties and negatively charged moieties. Suitable positively charged moieties (e.g., at neutral pH in aqueous compositions) include amines, quaternary ammonium moieties, ferrocene, or the like. Suitable negatively charged moieties (e.g., at neutral pH in aqueous compositions) include carboxylates, phenols substituted with strongly electron withdrawing groups (e.g., tetrachlorophenols), phosphates, phosphonates, phosphinates, sulphates, sulphonates, thiocarboxylates, hydroxamic acids, or the like. 
     In an embodiment, the support, matrix, or lawn includes groups that can hydrogen bond (e.g., a first hydrogen bonding group), either as donors or acceptors. The support, matrix, or lawn can include a surface or region with groups that can hydrogen bond. For example, the support, matrix, or lawn can include a surface or region including one or more carboxyl groups, amine groups, hydroxyl groups, carbonyl groups, or the like. Ionic groups can also participate in hydrogen bonding. 
     In an embodiment, the support, matrix, or lawn includes a lipophilic moiety (e.g., a first lipophilic moiety). Suitable lipophilic moieties include branched or straight chain C 6-36  alkyl, C 8-24  alkyl, C 12-24  alkyl, C 12-18  alkyl, or the like; C 6-36  alkenyl, C 8-24  alkenyl, C 12-24  alkenyl, C 12-18  alkenyl, or the like, with, for example, 1 to 4 double bonds; C 6-36  alkynyl, C 8-24  alkynyl, C 12-24  alkynyl, C 12-18  alkynyl, or the like, with, for example, 1 to 4 triple bonds; chains with 1-4 double or triple bonds; chains including aryl or substituted aryl moieties (e.g., phenyl or naphthyl moieties at the end or middle of a chain); polyaromatic hydrocarbon moieties; cycloalkane or substituted alkane moieties with numbers of carbons as described for chains; combinations or mixtures thereof; or the like. The alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group can include branching; within chain functionality like an ether group; terminal functionality like alcohol, amide, carboxylate or the like; or the like. A lipophilic moiety like a quaternary ammonium lipophilic moiety can also include a positive charge. 
     Building Blocks for Adaptive Artificial Receptors 
     The present invention relates to building blocks for making or forming candidate artificial receptors. Building blocks can be designed, made, and selected to provide a variety of structural characteristics among a small number of compounds. A building block can provide one or more structural characteristics such as positive charge, negative charge, acid, base, electron acceptor, electron donor, hydrogen bond donor, hydrogen bond acceptor, free electron pair, π electrons, charge polarization, hydrophilicity, hydrophobicity, and the like. A building block can be bulky or it can be small. 
     A building block can be visualized as including several components, such as one or more frameworks, one or more linkers, one or more recognition elements, and/or one or more tethers. The framework can be covalently coupled to each of the other building block components. The linker can be covalently coupled to the framework. The linker can be coupled to a support through one or more of covalent, electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals, or like interactions. The recognition element can be covalently coupled to the framework. The tether can be covalently coupled to the linker and to the framework. In an embodiment, a building block includes a framework, a linker, a recognition element, and a tether. In an embodiment, a building block includes a framework, a linker, a tether, and two recognition elements. 
     A description of general and specific features and functions of a variety of building blocks and their synthesis can be found in copending U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 10/244,727, filed Sep. 16, 2002, 10/813,568, filed Mar. 29, 2004, and Application No. PCT/US03/05328, filed Feb. 19, 2003, each entitled “ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS, BUILDING BLOCKS, AND METHODS”; U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 10/812,850 and 10/813,612, and application No. PCT/US2004/009649, each filed Mar. 29, 2004 and each entitled “ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS INCLUDING REVERSIBLY IMMOBILIZED BUILDING BLOCKS, THE BUILDING BLOCKS, AND METHODS”; and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 60/499,965, filed Sep. 3, 2003, and 60/526,699, filed Dec. 2, 2003, each entitled BUILDING BLOCKS FOR ARTIFICIAL RECEPTORS; the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. These patent documents include, in particular, a detailed written description of: function, structure, and configuration of building blocks, framework moieties, recognition elements, synthesis of building blocks, specific embodiments of building blocks, specific embodiments of recognition elements, and sets of building blocks. 
     Framework 
     The framework can be selected for functional groups that provide for coupling to the recognition moiety and for coupling to or being the tether and/or linking moieties. The framework can interact with the ligand as part of the artificial receptor. In an embodiment, the framework includes multiple reaction sites with orthogonal and reliable functional groups and with controlled stereochemistry. Suitable functional groups with orthogonal and reliable chemistries include, for example, carboxyl, amine, hydroxyl, phenol, carbonyl, and thiol groups, which can be individually protected, deprotected, and derivatized. In an embodiment, the framework has two, three, or four functional groups with orthogonal and reliable chemistries. In an embodiment, the framework has three functional groups. In such an embodiment, the three functional groups can be independently selected, for example, from carboxyl, amine, hydroxyl, phenol, carbonyl, or thiol group. The framework can include alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl alkyl, and like moieties. 
     A general structure for a framework with three functional groups can be represented by Formula 1a: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     A general structure for a framework with four functional groups can be represented by Formula 1b: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In these general structures: R 1  can be a 1-12, a 1-6, or a 1-4 carbon alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl alkyl, or like group; and F 1 , F 2 , F 3 , or F 4  can independently be a carboxyl, amine, hydroxyl, phenol, carbonyl, or thiol group. F 1 , F 2 , F 3 , or F 4  can independently be a 1-12, a 1-6, a 1-4 carbon alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl alkyl, or inorganic group substituted with carboxyl, amine, hydroxyl, phenol, carbonyl, or thiol group. F 3  and/or F 4  can be absent. 
     A variety of compounds fit the formulas and text describing the framework including amino acids, and naturally occurring or synthetic compounds including, for example, oxygen and sulfur functional groups. The compounds can be racemic, optically active, or achiral. For example, the compounds can be natural or synthetic amino acids, α-hydroxy acids, thioic acids, and the like. 
     Suitable molecules for use as a framework include a natural or synthetic amino acid, particularly an amino acid with a functional group (e.g., third functional group) on its side chain. Amino acids include carboxyl and amine functional groups. The side chain functional group can include, for natural amino acids, an amine (e.g., alkyl amine, heteroaryl amine), hydroxyl, phenol, carboxyl, thiol, thioether, or amidino group. Natural amino acids suitable for use as frameworks include, for example, serine, threonine, tyrosine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, asparagine, glutamine, cysteine, lysine, arginine, histidine. Synthetic amino acids can include the naturally occurring side chain functional groups or synthetic side chain functional groups which modify or extend the natural amino acids with alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl alkyl, and like moieties as framework and with carboxyl, amine, hydroxyl, phenol, carbonyl, or thiol functional groups. Suitable synthetic amino acids include β-amino acids and homo or β analogs of natural amino acids. In an embodiment, the framework amino acid can be serine, threonine, or tyrosine, e.g., serine or tyrosine, e.g., tyrosine. 
     Although not limiting to the present invention, a framework amino acid, such as serine, threonine, or tyrosine, with a linker and two recognition elements can be visualized with one of the recognition elements in a pendant orientation and the other in an equatorial orientation, relative to the extended carbon chain of the framework. 
     All of the naturally occurring and many synthetic amino acids are commercially available. Further, forms of these amino acids derivatized or protected to be suitable for reactions for coupling to recognition element(s) and/or linkers can be purchased or made by known methods (see, e.g., Green, T W; Wuts, P G M (1999),  Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis Third Edition , Wiley-Interscience, New York, 779 pp.; Bodanszky, M.; Bodanszky, A. (1994), The Practice of Peptide Synthesis Second Edition, Springer-Verlag, New York, 217 pp.). 
     Tether 
     In an embodiment, the present invention relates to a building block including a tether moiety. The tether can include the framework. The tether moiety can provide spacing or distance between the recognition element and the support or scaffold to which the building block is immobilized. A tether moiety can have any of a variety of characteristics or properties including flexibility, rigidity or stiffness, ability to bond to another tether moiety, and the like. The tether moiety can include the linker. The framework moiety be envisioned as forming all or part of the tether moiety. 
     Suitable tether moieties can include a polyethylene glycol, a polyamide, a linear polymer, a peptide, a polypeptide, an oligosaccharide, a polysaccharide, a semifunctionalized oligo- or polyglycine. In an embodiment, the tether is or includes a polymer of up to 2000 carbon atoms (e.g., up to 48 carbon atoms). Such a polymer can be naturally occurring or synthetic. Suitable polymers include a polyether or like polymer, such as a PEG, a polyethyleneimine, polyacrylate (e.g., substituted polyacrylates), salt thereof, a mixture or combination thereof, or the like. Suitable PEGs include PEG 1500 up to PEG 20,000, for example, PEG 1450, PEG 3350, PEG 4500, PEG 8000, PEG 20,000, and the like. 
     Suitable tether moieties can include one or more branched or straight chain C 6-36  alkyl, C 8-24  alkyl, C 12-24  alkyl, C 12-18  alkyl, or the like; C 6-36  alkenyl, C 8-24  alkenyl, C 12-24  alkenyl, C 12-18  alkenyl, or the like, with, for example, 1 to 4 double bonds; C 6-36  alkynyl, C 8-24  alkynyl, C 12-24  alkynyl, C 12-18  alkynyl, or the like, with, for example, 1 to 4 triple bonds; chains with 1-4 double or triple bonds; chains including aryl or substituted aryl moieties (e.g., phenyl or naphthyl moieties at the end or middle of a chain); polyaromatic hydrocarbon moieties; cycloalkane or substituted alkane moieties with numbers of carbons as described for chains; combinations or mixtures thereof; or the like. The alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group can include branching; within chain functionality like an ether group; terminal functionality like alcohol, amide, carboxylate or the like; or the like. In an embodiment, the lipophilic moiety includes or is a 12-carbon aliphatic moiety. 
     Rigid tether moieties can include conformationally restricted groups such as imines, aromatics, and polyaromatics. Rigid tether moieties can include one or more branched or straight chain C 6-36  alkenyl, C 8-24  alkenyl, C 12-24  alkenyl, C 12-18  alkenyl, or the like, with, for example, 2 to 8 double bonds; C 6-36  alkynyl, C 8-24  alkynyl, C 12-24  alkynyl, C 12-18  alkynyl, or the like, with, for example, 1 to 8 triple bonds; chains with 3-8 double or triple bonds; chains including aryl or substituted aryl moieties (e.g., phenyl or naphthyl moieties at the end or middle of a chain); polyaromatic hydrocarbon moieties; and the like. The alkenyl or alkynyl group can include branching; within chain functionality like an ether group; terminal functionality like alcohol, amide, carboxylate or the like; or the like. Rigid tether moieties can include a steroid moiety, such as cholesterol, a corrin or another porphyrin, a polynuclear aromatic moiety, a polar polymer fixed with metal ions, or the like. 
     In an embodiment, a rigid tether moiety can include more than one tether moiety. For example, a rigid tether moiety can include a plurality of hydrophobic chains, such as those described in the paragraph above and in the paragraph below. The hydrophobic chains if held in sufficient proximity on the support or scaffold will, in a hydrophobic solvent, form a grouping sufficiently rigid to hold one or more sets of recognition elements in place. In another embodiment, a rigid tether moiety can include a plurality of otherwise flexible tether moieties crosslinked to one another. The crosslinking can include, for example, covalent bonding, electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, or hydrophobic interactions. Groups for forming such interactions are disclosed herein. 
     Flexible tether moieties can include one or more branched or straight chain C 6-36  alkyl, C 8-24  alkyl, C 12-24  alkyl, C 12-18  alkyl, or the like; C 6-36  alkenyl, C 8-24  alkenyl, C 12-24  alkenyl, C 12-18  alkenyl, or the like, with, for example, 1 to 2 double bonds; C 6-36  alkynyl, C 8-24  alkynyl, C 12-24  alkynyl, C 12-18  alkynyl, or the like, with, for example, 1 to 2 triple bonds; chains with 1-2 double or triple bonds; chains including 1 to 2 aryl or substituted aryl moieties (e.g., phenyl or naphthyl moieties at the end or middle of a chain); cycloalkane or substituted alkane moieties with numbers of carbons as described for chains; combinations or mixtures thereof; or the like. The alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group can include branching; within chain functionality like an ether group; terminal functionality like alcohol, amide, carboxylate or the like; or the like. In an embodiment, the lipophilic moiety includes or is a 12-carbon aliphatic moiety. 
     In an embodiment, the tether forms or can be visualized as forming a covalent bond with an alcohol, phenol, thiol, amine, carbonyl, or like group on the framework. Between the bond to the framework and the group participating in or formed by the interaction with the support or lawn, the linker can include an alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl alkyl, ethoxy or propoxy oligomer, a glycoside, or like moiety. 
     Suitable tethers can include, for example: the functional group participating in or formed by the bond to the framework, the functional group or groups participating in or formed by the interaction with the support or lawn, and a tether backbone moiety. The tether backbone moiety can include about 8 to about 200 carbon or heteroatoms, about 12 to about 150 carbon or heteroatoms, about 16 to about 100 carbon or heteroatoms, about 16 to about 50 carbon or heteroatoms, or the like. The tether backbone can include an alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl alkyl, ethoxy or propoxy oligomer, a glycoside, mixtures thereof, or like moiety. Suitable tethers have structures such as (CH 2 ) n COOH, with n=12-24, n=17-24, or n=16-18. 
     The tether can interact with the ligand as part of the artificial receptor. The tether can also provide bulk, distance from the support, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and like structural characteristics to the building block. In an embodiment, the tether forms a covalent bond with a functional group on the framework. In an embodiment, the tether also includes a functional group that can couple to the tether or to the support or lawn, e.g., through covalent bonding or noncovalent interactions. 
     In an embodiment, the tether includes one or more moieties for forming a reversible covalent bond, a hydrogen bond, or an ionic interaction, e.g., with another tether moiety. For example, the linker can include about 1 to about 20 reversible bond/interaction moieties or about 2 to about 10 reversible bond/interaction moieties. 
     In an embodiment, the tether includes one or more moieties that can engage in reversible covalent bonding. Suitable groups for reversible covalent bonding include those described hereinabove. Such groups for reversible covalent bonds can be part of links between tether moieties. The tether-tether links can include, for example, imine, acetal, ketal, disulfide, ester, or like linkages. Such functional groups can engage in reversible covalent bonding. Such a functional group can be referred to as a covalent bonding moiety. 
     In an embodiment, the tether can be functionalized with moieties that can engage in noncovalent interactions. For example, the tether can include functional groups such as an ionic group, a group that can hydrogen bond, or a group that can engage in van der Waals or other hydrophobic interactions. Such functional groups can include cationic groups, anionic groups, lipophilic groups, amphiphilic groups, and the like. 
     In an embodiment, the present methods and compositions can employ a tether including a charged moiety. Suitable charged moieties include positively charged moieties and negatively charged moieties. Suitable positively charged moieties include protonated amines, quaternary ammonium moieties, sulfonium, sulfoxonium, phosphonium, ferrocene, and the like. Suitable negatively charged moieties (e.g., at neutral pH in aqueous compositions) include carboxylates, phenols substituted with strongly electron withdrawing groups (e.g., tetrachlorophenols), phosphates, phosphonates, phosphinates, sulphates, sulphonates, thiocarboxylates, and hydroxamic acids. 
     In an embodiment, the present methods and compositions can employ a tether including a group that can hydrogen bond, either as donor or acceptor (e.g., a second hydrogen bonding group). For example, the tether can include one or more carboxyl groups, amine groups, hydroxyl groups, carbonyl groups, or the like. Ionic groups can also participate in hydrogen bonding. 
     Recognition Element 
     The recognition element can be selected to provide one or more structural characteristics to the building block. The recognition element can interact with the ligand as part of the artificial receptor. For example, the recognition element can provide one or more structural characteristics such as positive charge, negative charge, acid, base, electron acceptor, electron donor, hydrogen bond donor, hydrogen bond acceptor, free electron pair, π electrons, charge polarization, hydrophilicity, hydrophobicity, and the like. A recognition element can be a small group or it can be bulky. 
     In an embodiment the recognition element can be a 1-12, a 1-6, or a 1-4 carbon alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl alkyl, or like group. The recognition element can be substituted with a group that includes or imparts positive charge, negative charge, acid, base, electron acceptor, electron donor, hydrogen bond donor, hydrogen bond acceptor, free electron pair, π electrons, charge polarization, hydrophilicity, hydrophobicity, and the like. 
     Recognition elements with a positive charge (e.g., at neutral pH in aqueous compositions) include protonated amines, quaternary ammonium moieties, sulfonium, sulfoxonium, phosphonium, ferrocene, and the like. Suitable amines include alkyl amines, alkyl diamines, heteroalkyl amines, aryl amines, heteroaryl amines, aryl alkyl amines, pyridines, heterocyclic amines (saturated or unsaturated, the nitrogen in the ring or not), amidines, hydrazines, and the like. Alkyl amines generally have 1 to 12 carbons, e.g., 1-8, and rings can have 3-12 carbons, e.g., 3-8. Suitable alkyl amines include that of formula B9. Suitable heterocyclic or alkyl heterocyclic amines include that of formula A9. Suitable pyridines include those of formulas A5 and B5. Any of the amines can be employed as a quaternary ammonium compound. Additional suitable quaternary ammonium moieties include trimethyl alkyl quaternary ammonium moieties, dimethyl ethyl alkyl quaternary ammonium moieties, dimethyl alkyl quaternary ammonium moieties, aryl alkyl quaternary ammonium moieties, pyridinium quaternary ammonium moieties, and the like. 
     Recognition elements with a negative charge (e.g., at neutral pH in aqueous compositions) include carboxylates, phenols substituted with strongly electron withdrawing groups (e.g., substituted tetrachlorophenols), phosphates, phosphonates, phosphinates, sulphates, sulphonates, thiocarboxylates, and hydroxamic acids. Suitable carboxylates include alkyl carboxylates, aryl carboxylates, and aryl alkyl carboxylates. Suitable phosphates include phosphate mono-, di-, and tri-esters, and phosphate mono-, di-, and tri-amides. Suitable phosphonates include phosphonate mono- and di-esters, and phosphonate mono- and di-amides (e.g., phosphonamides). Suitable phosphinates include phosphinate esters and amides. 
     Recognition elements with a negative charge and a positive charge (at neutral pH in aqueous compositions) include sulfoxides, betaines, and amine oxides. 
     Acidic recognition elements can include carboxylates, phosphates, sulphates, and phenols. Suitable acidic carboxylates include thiocarboxylates. Suitable acidic phosphates include the phosphates listed hereinabove. 
     Basic recognition elements include amines. Suitable basic amines include alkyl amines, aryl amines, aryl alkyl amines, pyridines, heterocyclic amines (saturated or unsaturated, the nitrogen in the ring or not), amidines, and any additional amines listed hereinabove. Suitable alkyl amines include that of formula B9. Suitable heterocyclic or alkyl heterocyclic amines include that of formula A9. Suitable pyridines include those of formulas A5 and B5. 
     Recognition elements including a hydrogen bond donor include amines, amides, carboxyls, protonated phosphates, protonated phosphonates, protonated phosphinates, protonated sulphates, protonated sulphinates, alcohols, and thiols. Suitable amines include alkyl amines, aryl amines, aryl alkyl amines, pyridines, heterocyclic amines (saturated or unsaturated, the nitrogen in the ring or not), amidines, ureas, and any other amines listed hereinabove. Suitable alkyl amines include that of formula B9. Suitable heterocyclic or alkyl heterocyclic amines include that of formula A9. Suitable pyridines include those of formulas A5 and B5. Suitable protonated carboxylates, protonated phosphates include those listed hereinabove. Suitable amides include those of formulas A8 and B8. Suitable alcohols include primary alcohols, secondary alcohols, tertiary alcohols, and aromatic alcohols (e.g., phenols). Suitable alcohols include those of formulas A7 (a primary alcohol) and B7 (a secondary alcohol). 
     Recognition elements including a hydrogen bond acceptor or one or more free electron pairs include amines, amides, carboxylates, carboxyl groups, phosphates, phosphonates, phosphinates, sulphates, sulphonates, alcohols, ethers, thiols, and thioethers. Suitable amines include alkyl amines, aryl amines, aryl alkyl amines, pyridines, heterocyclic amines (saturated or unsaturated, the nitrogen in the ring or not), amidines, ureas, and amines as listed hereinabove. Suitable alkyl amines include that of formula B9. Suitable heterocyclic or alkyl heterocyclic amines include that of formula A9. Suitable pyridines include those of formulas A5 and B5. Suitable carboxylates include those listed hereinabove. Suitable amides include those of formulas A8 and B8. Suitable phosphates, phosphonates and phosphinates include those listed hereinabove. Suitable alcohols include primary alcohols, secondary alcohols, tertiary alcohols, aromatic alcohols, and those listed hereinabove. Suitable alcohols include those of formulas A7 (a primary alcohol) and B7 (a secondary alcohol). Suitable ethers include alkyl ethers, aryl alkyl ethers. Suitable alkyl ethers include that of formula A6. Suitable aryl alkyl ethers include that of formula A4. Suitable thioethers include that of formula B6. 
     Recognition elements including uncharged polar or hydrophilic groups include amides, alcohols, ethers, thiols, thioethers, esters, thio esters, boranes, borates, and metal complexes. Suitable amides include those of formulas A8 and B8. Suitable alcohols include primary alcohols, secondary alcohols, tertiary alcohols, aromatic alcohols, and those listed hereinabove. Suitable alcohols include those of formulas A7 (a primary alcohol) and B7 (a secondary alcohol). Suitable ethers include those listed hereinabove. Suitable ethers include that of formula A6. Suitable aryl alkyl ethers include that of formula A4. 
     Recognition elements including uncharged hydrophobic groups include alkyl (substituted and unsubstituted), alkene (conjugated and unconjugated), alkyne (conjugated and unconjugated), aromatic. Suitable alkyl groups include lower alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl alkyl, and heteroaryl alkyl. Suitable lower alkyl groups include those of formulas A1, A3, A3a, and B1. Suitable aryl alkyl groups include those of formulas A3, A3a, A4, B3, B3a, and B4. Suitable alkyl cycloalkyl groups include that of formula B2. Suitable alkene groups include lower alkene and aryl alkene. Suitable aryl alkene groups include that of formula B4. Suitable aromatic groups include unsubstituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, aryl alkyl, heteroaryl alkyl, alkyl substituted aryl, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Suitable aryl alkyl groups include those of formulas A3, A3a and B4. Suitable alkyl heteroaryl groups include those of formulas A5 and B5. 
     Spacer (e.g., small) recognition elements include hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, and the like. Bulky recognition elements include 7 or more carbon or hetero atoms. 
     Formulas A1-A9 and B1-B9 are: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     These A and B recognition elements can be called derivatives of, according to a standard reference: A1, ethylamine; A2, isobutylamine; A3, phenethylamine; A4, 4-methoxyphenethylamine; A5, 2-(2-aminoethyl)pyridine; A6, 2-methoxyethylamine; A7, ethanolamine; A8, N-acetylethylenediamine; A9, 1-(2-aminoethyl)pyrrolidine; B1, acetic acid, B2, cyclopentylpropionic acid; B3, 3-chlorophenylacetic acid; B4, cinnamic acid; B5, 3-pyridinepropionic acid; B6, (methylthio)acetic acid; B7, 3-hydroxybutyric acid; B8, succinamic acid; and B9, 4-(dimethylamino)butyric acid. 
     In an embodiment, the recognition elements include one or more of the structures represented by formulas A1, A2, A3, A3a, A4, A5, A6, A7, A8, and/or A9 (the A recognition elements) and/or B1, B2, B3, B3a, B4, B5, B6, B7, B8, and/or B9 (the B recognition elements). In an embodiment, each building block includes an A recognition element and a B recognition element. In an embodiment, a group of 81 such building blocks includes each of the 81 unique combinations of an A recognition element and a B recognition element. In an embodiment, the A recognition elements are linked to a framework at a pendant position. In an embodiment, the B recognition elements are linked to a framework at an equatorial position. In an embodiment, the A recognition elements are linked to a framework at a pendant position and the B recognition elements are linked to the framework at an equatorial position. 
     Although not limiting to the present invention, it is believed that the A and B recognition elements represent the assortment of functional groups and geometric configurations employed by polypeptide receptors. Although not limiting to the present invention, it is believed that the A recognition elements represent six advantageous functional groups or configurations and that the addition of functional groups to several of the aryl groups increases the range of possible binding interactions. Although not limiting to the present invention, it is believed that the B recognition elements represent six advantageous functional groups, but in different configurations than employed for the A recognition elements. Although not limiting to the present invention, it is further believed that this increases the range of binding interactions and further extends the range of functional groups and configurations that is explored by molecular configurations of the building blocks. 
     In an embodiment, the building blocks including the A and B recognition elements can be visualized as occupying a binding space defined by lipophilicity/hydrophilicity and volume. A volume can be calculated (using known methods) for each building block including the various A and B recognition elements. A measure of lipophilicity/hydrophilicity (logP) can be calculated (using known methods) for each building block including the various A and B recognition elements. Negative values of logP show affinity for water over nonpolar organic solvent and indicate a hydrophilic nature. A plot of volume versus logP can then show the distribution of the building blocks through a binding space defined by size and lipophilicity/hydrophilicity. 
     Reagents that form many of the recognition elements are commercially available. For example, reagents for forming recognition elements A1, A2, A3, A3a, A4, A5, A6, A7, A8, A9 B1, B2, B3, B3a, B4, B5, B6, B7, B8, and B9 are commercially available. 
     Linkers 
     The linker is selected to provide a suitable coupling of the building block to a support. The framework can interact with the ligand as part of the artificial receptor. The linker can also provide bulk, distance from the support, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and like structural characteristics to the building block. Coupling building blocks to the support can employ covalent bonding or noncovalent interactions. Suitable noncovalent interactions include interactions between ions, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals interactions, and the like. In an embodiment, the linker includes moieties that can engage in covalent bonding or noncovalent interactions. In an embodiment, the linker includes moieties that can engage in covalent bonding. Suitable groups for forming covalent and reversible covalent bonds are described hereinabove. 
     Linkers for Reversibly Immobilizable Building Blocks 
     The linker can be selected to provide suitable reversible immobilization of the building block on a support or lawn. In an embodiment, the linker forms a covalent bond with a functional group on the framework. In an embodiment, the linker also includes a functional group that can reversibly interact with the support or lawn, e.g., through reversible covalent bonding or noncovalent interactions. 
     In an embodiment, the linker includes one or more moieties that can engage in reversible covalent bonding. Suitable groups for reversible covalent bonding include those described hereinabove. An artificial receptor can include building blocks reversibly immobilized on the lawn or support through, for example, imine, acetal, ketal, disulfide, ester, or like linkages. Such functional groups can engage in reversible covalent bonding. Such a functional group can be referred to as a covalent bonding moiety, e.g., a second covalent bonding moiety. 
     In an embodiment, the linker can be functionalized with moieties that can engage in noncovalent interactions. For example, the linker can include functional groups such as an ionic group, a group that can hydrogen bond, or a group that can engage in van der Waals or other hydrophobic interactions. Such functional groups can include cationic groups, anionic groups, lipophilic groups, amphiphilic groups, and the like. 
     In an embodiment, the present methods and compositions can employ a linker including a charged moiety (e.g., a second charged moiety). Suitable charged moieties include positively charged moieties and negatively charged moieties. Suitable positively charged moieties include protonated amines, quaternary ammonium moieties, sulfonium, sulfoxonium, phosphonium, ferrocene, and the like. Suitable negatively charged moieties (e.g., at neutral pH in aqueous compositions) include carboxylates, phenols substituted with strongly electron withdrawing groups (e.g., tetrachlorophenols), phosphates, phosphonates, phosphinates, sulphates, sulphonates, thiocarboxylates, and hydroxamic acids. 
     In an embodiment, the present methods and compositions can employ a linker including a group that can hydrogen bond, either as donor or acceptor (e.g., a second hydrogen bonding group). For example, the linker can include one or more carboxyl groups, amine groups, hydroxyl groups, carbonyl groups, or the like. Ionic groups can also participate in hydrogen bonding. 
     In an embodiment, the present methods and compositions can employ a linker including a lipophilic moiety (e.g., a second lipophilic moiety). Suitable lipophilic moieties include one or more branched or straight chain C 6-36  alkyl, C 8-24  alkyl, C 12-24  alkyl, C 12-18  alkyl, or the like; C 6-36  alkenyl, C 8-24  alkenyl, C 12-24  alkenyl, C 12-18  alkenyl, or the like, with, for example, 1 to 4 double bonds; C 6-36  alkynyl, C 8-24  alkynyl, C 12-24  alkynyl, C 12-18  alkynyl, or the like, with, for example, 1 to 4 triple bonds; chains with 1-4 double or triple bonds; chains including aryl or substituted aryl moieties (e.g., phenyl or naphthyl moieties at the end or middle of a chain); polyaromatic hydrocarbon moieties; cycloalkane or substituted alkane moieties with numbers of carbons as described for chains; combinations or mixtures thereof; or the like. The alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group can include branching; within chain functionality like an ether group; terminal functionality like alcohol, amide, carboxylate or the like; or the like. In an embodiment the linker includes or is a lipid, such as a phospholipid. In an embodiment, the lipophilic moiety includes or is a 12-carbon aliphatic moiety. 
     In an embodiment, the linker includes a lipophilic moiety (e.g., a second lipophilic moiety) and a covalent bonding moiety (e.g., a second covalent bonding moiety). In an embodiment, the linker includes a lipophilic moiety (e.g., a second lipophilic moiety) and a charged moiety (e.g., a second charged moiety). 
     In an embodiment, the linker forms or can be visualized as forming a covalent bond with an alcohol, phenol, thiol, amine, carbonyl, or like group on the framework. Between the bond to the framework and the group participating in or formed by the reversible interaction with the support or lawn, the linker can include an alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl alkyl, ethoxy or propoxy oligomer, a glycoside, or like moiety. 
     For example, suitable linkers can include: the functional group participating in or formed by the bond to the framework, the functional group or groups participating in or formed by the reversible interaction with the support or lawn, and a linker backbone moiety. The linker backbone moiety can include about 4 to about 48 carbon or heteroatoms, about 8 to about 14 carbon or heteroatoms, about 12 to about 24 carbon or heteroatoms, about 16 to about 18 carbon or heteroatoms, about 4 to about 12 carbon or heteroatoms, about 4 to about 8 carbon or heteroatoms, or the like. The linker backbone can include an alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl alkyl, ethoxy or propoxy oligomer, a glycoside, mixtures thereof, or like moiety. 
     In an embodiment, the linker includes a lipophilic moiety, the functional group participating in or formed by the bond to the framework, and, optionally, one or more moieties for forming a reversible covalent bond, a hydrogen bond, or an ionic interaction. In such an embodiment, the lipophilic moiety can have about 4 to about 48 carbons, about 8 to about 14 carbons, about 12 to about 24 carbons, about 16 to about 18 carbons, or the like. In such an embodiment, the linker can include about 1 to about 8 reversible bond/interaction moieties or about 2 to about 4 reversible bond/interaction moieties. Suitable linkers have structures such as (CH 2 ) n COOH, with n=12-24, n=17-24, or n=16-18. 
     Additional Embodiments of Linkers 
     The linker can be selected to provide a suitable covalent coupling of the building block to a support. The framework can interact with the ligand as part of the artificial receptor. The linker can also provide bulk, distance from the support, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and like structural characteristics to the building block. In an embodiment, the linker forms a covalent bond with a functional group on the framework. In an embodiment, before attachment to the support the linker also includes a functional group that can be activated to react with or that will react with a functional group on the support. In an embodiment, once attached to the support, the linker forms a covalent bond with the support and with the framework. 
     In an embodiment, the linker forms or can be visualized as forming a covalent bond with an alcohol, phenol, thiol, amine, carbonyl, or like group on the framework. The linker can include a carboxyl, alcohol, phenol, thiol, amine, carbonyl, maleimide, or like group that can react with or be activated to react with the support. Between the bond to the framework and the group formed by the attachment to the support, the linker can include an alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl alkyl, ethoxy or propoxy oligomer, a glycoside, or like moiety. 
     The linker can include a good leaving group bonded to, for example, an alkyl or aryl group. The leaving group being “good” enough to be displaced by the alcohol, phenol, thiol, amine, carbonyl, or like group on the framework. Such a linker can include a moiety represented by the formula: R—X, in which X is a leaving group such as halogen (e.g., —Cl, —Br or —I), tosylate, mesylate, triflate, and R is alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl alkyl, ethoxy or propoxy oligomer, a glycoside, or like moiety. 
     Suitable linker groups include those of formula: (CH 2 ) n COOH, with n=1-16, n=2-8, n=2-6, or n=3. Reagents that form suitable linkers are commercially available and include any of a variety of reagents with orthogonal functionality. 
     Embodiments of Building Blocks 
     In an embodiment, building blocks can be represented by Formula 2: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     in which: RE 1  is recognition element 1, RE 2  is recognition element 2, T is an optional tether, and L is a linker. X is absent, C═O, CH 2 , NR, NR 2 , NH, NHCONH, SCONH, CH═N, or OCH 2 NH. In certain embodiments, X is absent or C═O. Y is absent, NH, O, CH 2 , or NRCO. In certain embodiments, Y is NH or O. In an embodiment, Y is NH. Z 1  and Z 2  can independently be CH2, O, NH, S, CO, NR X , NR 2 , NHCONH, SCONH, CH═N, or OCH 2 NH. In an embodiment, Z 1  and/or Z 2  can independently be 0. Z 2  is optional. R 2  is H, CH 3 , or another group that confers chirality on the building block and has size similar to or smaller than a methyl group. R 3  is CH 2 ; CH 2 -phenyl; CHCH 3 ; (CH 2 ) n  with n=2-3; or cyclic alkyl with 3-8 carbons, e.g., 5-6 carbons, phenyl, naphthyl. In certain embodiments, R 3  is CH 2  or CH 2 -phenyl. 
     RE 1  is B1, B2, B3, B3a, B4, B5, B6, B7, B8, B9, A1, A2, A3, A3a, A4, A5, A6, A7, A8, or A9. In certain embodiments, RE 1  is B1, B2, B3, B3a, B4, B5, B6, B7, B8, or B9. RE 2  is A1, A2, A3, A3a, A4, A5, A6, A7, A8, A9, B1, B2, B3, B3a, B4, B5, B6, B7, B8, or B9. In certain embodiments, RE 2  is A1, A2, A3, A3a, A4, A5, A6, A7, A8, or A9. In an embodiment, RE 1  can be B2, B3a, B4, B5, B6, B7, or B8. In an embodiment, RE 2  can be A2, A3a, A4, A5, A6, A7, or A8. 
     T can be any of the tether moieties described hereinabove. 
     In an embodiment, L is the functional group participating in or formed by the bond to the framework (such groups are described herein), the functional group or groups participating in or formed by the reversible interaction with the support or lawn (such groups are described herein), and a linker backbone moiety. In an embodiment, the linker backbone moiety is about 4 to about 48 carbon or heteroatom alkyl, substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl alkyl, ethoxy or propoxy oligomer, a glycoside, or mixtures thereof; or about 8 to about 14 carbon or heteroatoms, about 12 to about 24 carbon or heteroatoms, about 16 to about 18 carbon or heteroatoms, about 4 to about 12 carbon or heteroatoms, about 4 to about 8 carbon or heteroatoms. 
     In an embodiment, the L is the functional group participating in or formed by the bond to the framework (such groups are described herein) and a lipophilic moiety (such groups are described herein) of about 4 to about 48 carbons, about 8 to about 14 carbons, about 12 to about 24 carbons, about 16 to about 18 carbons. In an embodiment, this L also includes about 1 to about 8 reversible bond/interaction moieties (such groups are described herein) or about 2 to about 4 reversible bond/interaction moieties. In an embodiment, L is (CH 2 ) n COOH, with n=12-24, n=17-24, or n=16-18. 
     In an embodiment, L is (CH 2 ) n COOH, with n=1-16, n=2-8, n=4-6, or n=3. 
     Building blocks including an A and/or a B recognition element, a linker, and an amino acid framework can be made by methods illustrated in general Scheme 1. 
     Methods Employing the Artificial Receptors 
     Working artificial receptors can be generated to be specific to a given test ligand or specific to a particular part of a given test ligand. Heterogeneous and immobilized combinations of building block molecules form the working artificial receptors. For example, combinations of 2, 3, 4, or 5 distinct building block molecules immobilized in proximity to one another on a support provide molecular structures that serve as candidate and working artificial receptors. The building blocks can be naïve to the test ligand. Once a plurality of candidate artificial receptors are generated, they can be tested to determine which are specific or useful for a given ligand. 
     The specific or working artificial receptor or receptor complex can then be used in a variety of different methods and systems. For example, the receptors can be employed in methods and/or devices for binding or detecting a test ligand. By way of further example, the receptors can be employed in methods and/or devices for chemical synthesis. Methods and systems for chemical synthesis can include methods and systems for regiospecific and stereospecific chemical synthesis. The receptors can also be employed for developing compounds that disrupt or model binding interactions. Methods and systems for developing therapeutic agents can include methods and systems for pharmaceutical and vaccine development. 
     In an embodiment, methods and systems of the present invention can be employed for detecting a plurality of ligands of interest. For example, an unknown biological sample can be characterized by the presence of a combination of specific ligands. Such a method can be useful in assays for detecting specific pathogens or disease states. By way of further example, such an embodiment can be used for determining the genetic profile of a subject. For example, cancerous tissue can be detected or a genetic disposition to cancer can be detected. 
     The present artificial receptors can be part of products used in: analyzing a genome and/or proteome (protein isolation and characterization); pharmaceutical development (such as identification of sequence specific small molecule leads, characterization of protein to protein interactions); detectors for a test ligand; drug of abuse diagnostics or therapy (such as clinical or field analysis of cocaine or other drugs of abuse); hazardous waste analysis or remediation; chemical exposure alert or intervention; disease diagnostics or therapy; cancer diagnostics or therapy (such as clinical analysis of prostate specific antigen); biological agent alert or intervention; food chain contamination analysis or remediation and clinical analysis of food contaminants; and the like. 
     Methods of Binding or Detecting Test Ligands 
     In an embodiment, the invention can include methods and/or devices for binding or detecting a test ligand. For example, the present artificial receptors can be used for a variety of assays that presently employ an antibody. The present artificial receptors can be specific for a given ligand, such as an antigen or an immunogen. Thus, the present artificial receptors can be used in formats analogous to enzyme immunoassay, enzyme-linked immunoassay, immunodiffusion, immunoelectrophoresis, latex agglutination, and the like. Test ligands that can be detected in such a method include a drug of abuse, a biological agent (such as a hazardous agent), a marker for a biological agent, a marker for a disease state, etc. Methods and systems for detection can include methods and systems for clinical chemistry, environmental analysis, and diagnostic assays of all types. 
     For example, the artificial receptor can be contacted with a sample including or suspected of including at least one test ligand. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Then, binding of one or more of the test ligands to the artificial receptors can be detected. Next, the binding results can be interpreted to provide information about the sample. In an embodiment, the invention includes a method for detecting a test ligand in a sample including contacting an artificial receptor specific to the test ligand with a sample suspected of containing the test ligand. The method can also include detecting or quantitating binding of the test ligand to the artificial receptor. For example, an artificial receptor that binds (e.g., tightly) the molecule, cell, or microbe under appropriate conditions can be employed in a format where binding itself is sufficient to indicate presence of the molecule or organism. Such a format can also include artificial receptors to be probed with positive and control samples. 
       FIG. 8  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for evaluating candidate artificial receptors for binding to a test ligand, such as a molecule or cell. The method can include making an array of candidate artificial receptors. Working artificial receptors can be identified by contacting the array with test ligand and identifying which receptors bind the test ligand. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Such a method can employ a labeled test ligand. The method can include producing an array or device including the working artificial receptor or receptor complex. In an embodiment, the method can include employing the array or device for detecting or characterizing the test ligand in a sample, such as a biological, laboratory, or environmental sample. 
       FIG. 9  schematically illustrates an embodiment of the present method employing an array of candidate artificial receptors. This embodiment of the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a test ligand. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to a test ligand, e.g., a molecule or cell. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The molecule or cell can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample, or characterizing or detecting the molecule or cell. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 9 , a test ligand can be identified by a method employing a single or a plurality of lead or working artificial receptors. The plurality of lead or working artificial receptors suitable for identifying a test ligand can be employed in an array format test. A single lead or working artificial receptor can be configured on a support as a strip together with positive and/or negative control receptors, which can also be configured as strips. 
     In an embodiment, the method can include producing or employing the selected working artificial receptor or receptor complex on a substrate. The substrate can include working artificial receptors for a single test ligand or working artificial receptors for a plurality of test ligands. For example, a method can include contacting the artificial receptors with a sample. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a single test ligand can be employed in a method or system for detecting that test ligand. Binding to the working artificial receptors indicates that the sample includes the test ligand. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a plurality of test ligands can be employed in a method or system for detecting one, several, or all of the test ligands. Binding to the working artificial receptors for a particular test ligand or ligands indicates that the sample includes such test ligand or ligands. 
     The working artificial receptors or receptor complexes can be configured to provide a pattern indicative of the presence of one or more of the test ligands. The method can include detecting the binding pattern of the sample and comparing it with binding patterns from known samples.  FIG. 10  schematically illustrates certain binding patterns on an array of working artificial receptors. In an embodiment, all artificial receptors for one test ligand can be arranged in a line across the substrate. Referring to  FIG. 10 , receptors that are specific for IL-2 are in a line  12  on the array  10  of working artificial receptor complexes. Working artificial receptors that have bound a test ligand (e.g., IL-2) are indicated as shaded 24. Working artificial receptors that have not bound a test ligand are illustrated as open circles  26 . 
     A method employing the illustrated array can include detecting binding on line  12  of working artificial receptors through fluorescence or another means described herein. In the illustrated embodiment, detecting binding on line  12  of working artificial receptors indicates that the sample contains IL-2. Further, lack of signal from the other working artificial receptors in array  10  indicates that the sample does not contain IFN-gamma, IL-10, TGF-beta, IL-12, or TGF-alpha. Thus, a method employing such an array can determine whether a sample is a particular type of biological sample or contains a particular type of molecule or cell. 
     When designed for use with a field assay kit, the device  30  can have spots arranged such that a positive result creates an easily recognizable pattern  36 , such as a plus sign. The readily recognizable pattern can thus indicate that a particular test ligand is present in the sample. Alternatively, the artificial receptors or spots for a particular target  42  can be arranged randomly on third array  40 . In this manner, when the detection device or array is used, the results of the test may not be immediately apparent to an observer but will be readily read by a machine which can be programmed to correlate binding to receptors or spots in different positions with the identity of a particular biological sample, molecule, or cell. 
     In an embodiment, the invention includes a method for detecting or characterizing a biological sample, a molecule, or cell. This embodiment of the method can include selecting an artificial receptor that binds the biological sample, molecule, or cell from an array of artificial receptors, contacting the artificial receptor with a test composition, and detecting binding of the artificial receptor to the test composition. In such an embodiment, binding indicates the presence of the biological sample, molecule, or cell in the test composition. In an embodiment, the invention includes a method for detecting or characterizing a biological sample, molecule, or cell. This embodiment of the method can include contacting an array of artificial receptors with a test composition and detecting binding to the artificial receptors. Binding indicates the presence of the biological sample, molecule, or cell in the test composition. 
     The present method can develop or employ a plurality of working receptors specific for a particular test ligand, e.g., biological sample, molecule, or cell. That is, the working receptors can be specific for a particular test ligand, but different receptors can interact with different distinct antigens (e.g., proteins or carbohydrates), ligands, functional groups, or structural features of the test ligand. Such a method can provide a robust test for the presence of a test ligand. For example, such a robust test can reduce the chances of a false-positive or false-negative result in comparison with an assay that relies upon a single unique receptor to detect a given test ligand. Further, this embodiment of the method can develop or employ working receptors that demonstrate higher binding affinity due to interaction with multiple antigens or ligands on the same test ligand (e.g., multivalent binding). 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a polynucleotide, e.g., DNA or RNA. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the polynucleotide, e.g., DNA or RNA. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the DNA or RNA. The polynucleotide, e.g., DNA or RNA, can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample, or characterizing or detecting the polynucleotide, e.g., DNA or RNA. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a polypeptide or peptide. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the polypeptide or peptide. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the polypeptide or peptide. The polypeptide or peptide can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample, or characterizing or detecting the polypeptide or peptide. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a oligo- or polysaccharide. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the oligo- or polysaccharide. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the oligo- or polysaccharide. The oligo- or polysaccharide can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample, or characterizing or detecting the oligo- or polysaccharide. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a cell, e.g., a hepatocyte. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the cell, e.g., a hepatocyte. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the cell. The cell, e.g., a hepatocyte, can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample, or characterizing or detecting the cell, e.g., a hepatocyte. 
     Methods of Binding or Detecting Drugs of Abuse 
     In an embodiment, the invention can include methods and/or devices for binding or detecting a drug of abuse. Methods and systems for detection can include methods and systems for clinical chemistry, field analysis, and diagnostic assays of all types. For example, the artificial receptor can be contacted with a sample including or suspected of including at least one drug of abuse. Then, binding of one or more of the drugs of abuse to the artificial receptors can be detected. Next, the binding results can be interpreted to provide information about the sample. In an embodiment, the invention includes a method for detecting a drug of abuse in a sample including contacting an artificial receptor specific to the drug of abuse with a sample suspected of containing the drug of abuse. The method can also include detecting or quantitating binding of the drug of abuse to the artificial receptor. 
       FIG. 8  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for evaluating candidate artificial receptors for binding to a test ligand. This embodiment of the present method can be employed for detecting a test ligand such as a drug of abuse. The method can include making an array of candidate artificial receptors. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Working artificial receptors can be identified by contacting the array with a drug of abuse and identifying which receptors bind the drug of abuse. The method can include producing an array or device including the working artificial receptor or receptor complex. In an embodiment, the method can include employing the array or device for detecting or characterizing the drug of abuse in a sample, such as a biological, laboratory, or evidence sample. 
       FIG. 9  schematically illustrates an embodiment of the present method employing an array of candidate artificial receptors. This embodiment of the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a drug of abuse. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to a drug of abuse. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the drug of abuse. The drug of abuse can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological or field sample, or characterizing or detecting the drug of abuse. 
     In an embodiment, the method can include producing or employing the selected working artificial receptor or receptor complex on a substrate. The substrate can include working artificial receptors for a single drug of abuse or working artificial receptors for a plurality of drugs of abuse. For example, a method can include contacting the artificial receptors with a sample. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a single drug of abuse can be employed in a method or system for detecting that drug of abuse. Binding to the working artificial receptors indicates that the sample includes the drug of abuse. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a plurality of drugs of abuse can be employed in a method or system for detecting one, several, or all of the drugs of abuse. Binding to the working artificial receptors for a particular drug of abuse or drugs of abuse indicates that the sample includes such a drug of abuse or drugs of abuse. 
     The working artificial receptors or receptor complexes can be configured to provide a pattern indicative of the presence of one or more of the drugs of abuse. The method can include detecting the binding pattern of the sample and comparing it with binding patterns from known samples.  FIG. 10  schematically illustrates binding patterns on an array of working artificial receptors. Such patterns and schemes can be employed for identifying a variety of test ligands including drugs of abuse. 
     The present method can develop or employ a plurality of working receptors specific for a particular drug of abuse or feature on the drug of abuse. That is, the working receptors can be specific for a particular drug of abuse, but different receptors can interact with different distinct ligands, functional groups, or structural features of the drug of abuse. Such a method can provide a robust test for the presence of a drug of abuse. For example, such a robust test can reduce the chances of a false-positive or false-negative result in comparison with an assay that relies upon a single unique receptor to detect a given drug of abuse. Further, this embodiment of the method can develop or employ working receptors that demonstrate higher binding affinity due to interaction with multiple ligands or features on the same drug of abuse (e.g., multivalent binding). 
     Suitable drugs of abuse include cannabinoids (e.g., hashish and marijuana), depressants (e.g., barbiturates, benzodiazepines, gamma-hydroxy butyrate, methaqualone), dissociative anesthetics (e.g., ketamine, PCP, and PCP analogs), hallucinogens (e.g., LSD, mescaline, psilocybin), opiates or opioids (e.g., codeine, fentanyl, fentanyl analogs, heroin, morphine, opium, oxycodone HCL, hydrocodone bitartrate), stimulants (e.g., amphetamine, cocaine, methylenedioxy-methamphetamine, methamphetamine, methylphenidate, nicotine), inhalants (e.g., solvents), and the like. 
     Suitable drugs of abuse include performance enhancing agents, such as stimulants and beta-blockers, anabolic agents, oxygen carrier enhancers, masking agents, and inhalants. Suitable stimulants include caffeine and amphetamines. Suitable beta-blockers include salbutamol (used in asthma inhalers) and the like. Suitable anabolic agents include steroids (e.g., anabolic steroids), steroid analogs, and growth hormone. Suitable oxygen carrier enhancers include erythropoietin and the like. 
     Methods of Binding or Detecting Isomers 
     In an embodiment, the invention can include methods and/or devices for binding or detecting an isomer or isomers of a compound. Methods and systems for detection can include methods and systems for clinical chemistry, environmental analysis, and diagnostic assays of all types. For example, the artificial receptor can be contacted with a sample including or suspected of including at least one isomer of a compound. Then, binding of one or more of the isomers of a compound to the artificial receptors can be detected. Next, the binding results can be interpreted to provide information about the isomers. In an embodiment, the invention includes a method for detecting an isomer of a compound in a sample including contacting an artificial receptor specific to the isomer with a sample suspected of containing the isomer. The method can also include detecting or quantitating binding of the isomer to the artificial receptor. 
     The present method can be applied to isomers such as stereoisomers (e.g., geometric isomers or optical isomers), optical isomers (e.g., enantiomers and diastereomers), geometric isomers (e.g., cis- and trans-isomers). The present method can be employed to develop working or lead artificial receptors or working artificial complexes that can bind to one or more isomers of a compound (e.g., enantioselective receptor environments). For example, the artificial receptor or complex can bind to one stereoisomer of a compound but bind only weakly or not at all another stereoisomer of the compound. For example, the artificial receptor or complex can bind one geometric isomer of a compound but bind only weakly or not at all another geometric isomer. For example, the artificial receptor or complex can bind one optical isomer of a compound but bind only weakly or not at all another optical isomer. For example, the artificial receptor or complex can bind one enantiomer of a compound but bind only weakly or not at all another enantiomer. For example, the artificial receptor or complex can bind one diastereomer of a compound but bind only weakly or not at all another diastereomer. 
       FIG. 8  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for evaluating candidate artificial receptors for binding to a test ligand. This embodiment of the present method can be employed for detecting a test ligand such as an isomer of a compound. The method can include making an array of candidate artificial receptors. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Working artificial receptors can be identified by contacting the array with an isomer and identifying which receptors bind the isomer. The method can include producing an array or device including the working artificial receptor or receptor complex. In an embodiment, the method can include employing the array or device for detecting or characterizing the isomer in a sample, such as a biological, laboratory, or clinical sample. 
       FIG. 9  schematically illustrates an embodiment of the present method employing an array of candidate artificial receptors. This embodiment of the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting an isomer. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to an isomer. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the isomer. The isomer can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological, clinical, or laboratory sample, or characterizing or detecting the isomer. 
     In an embodiment, the method can include producing or employing the selected working artificial receptor or receptor complex on a substrate. The substrate can include working artificial receptors for a single isomer or working artificial receptors for a plurality of isomers. For example, a method can include contacting the artificial receptors with a sample. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a single isomer can be employed in a method or system for detecting that isomer. Binding to the working artificial receptors indicates that the sample includes the isomer. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a plurality of isomers can be employed in a method or system for detecting one, several, or all of the isomers. Binding to the working artificial receptors for a particular isomer or isomers indicates that the sample includes such an isomer or isomers. 
     The working artificial receptors or receptor complexes can be configured to provide a pattern indicative of the presence of one or more of the isomers. The method can include detecting the binding pattern of the sample and comparing it with binding patterns from known samples.  FIG. 10  schematically illustrates binding patterns on an array of working artificial receptors. Such patterns and schemes can be employed for identifying a variety of test ligands including isomers. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a stereoisomer. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the stereoisomer. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the stereoisomer. The stereoisomer can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a lab or clinical sample or characterizing or detecting the stereoisomer. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a geometric isomer (e.g., cis- and trans-isomers). The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the geometric isomer (e.g., cis- and trans-isomers). The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the geometric isomer. The geometric isomer can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a lab or clinical sample or characterizing or detecting the geometric isomer (e.g., cis- and trans-isomers). 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting an optical isomer. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the optical isomer. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the optical isomer. The optical isomer can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a lab or clinical sample or characterizing or detecting the optical isomer. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting an enantiomer. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the enantiomer. The enantiomer can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a lab or clinical sample or characterizing or detecting the enantiomer. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a diastereomer. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the diastereomer. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the diastereomer. The diastereomer can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a lab or clinical sample or characterizing or detecting the diastereomer. 
     Methods for Binding or Detecting Peptides 
     In an embodiment, the invention can include methods and/or devices for binding or detecting a peptide. Methods and systems for detection can include methods and systems for clinical chemistry, environmental analysis, and diagnostic assays of all types. For example, the artificial receptor can be contacted with a sample including or suspected of including at least one peptide. Then, binding of one or more of the peptides to the artificial receptors can be detected. Next, the binding results can be interpreted to provide information about the sample. In an embodiment, the invention includes a method for detecting a peptide in a sample including contacting an artificial receptor specific to the peptide with a sample suspected of containing the peptide. The method can also include detecting or quantitating binding of the peptide to the artificial receptor. 
       FIG. 8  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for evaluating candidate artificial receptors for binding to a test ligand. This embodiment of the present method can be employed for detecting a test ligand such as a peptide. The method can include making an array of candidate artificial receptors. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Working artificial receptors can be identified by contacting the array with a peptide and identifying which receptors bind the peptide. The method can include producing an array or device including the working artificial receptor or receptor complex. In an embodiment, the method can include employing the array or device for detecting or characterizing the peptide in a sample, such as a biological, laboratory, or clinical sample. 
       FIG. 9  schematically illustrates an embodiment of the present method employing an array of candidate artificial receptors. This embodiment of the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a peptide. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to a peptide. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the peptide. The peptide can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological or environmental sample, or characterizing or detecting the peptide. 
       FIG. 11  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for developing a method and system for detecting a test ligand, such as a peptide or mixture of peptides. This embodiment of the present method includes evaluating a plurality (e.g. array) of candidate artificial receptors for binding to each of a plurality of peptides. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to one or more of the peptides. The plurality of peptides can include the peptides found in a cell or organism. The method can include detecting binding of individual peptides to a subset of the plurality or array of candidate artificial receptors. The method can include detecting binding of the peptides found in a cell or organism to a subset of or all of the plurality or array of candidate artificial receptors. This can be envisioned as developing a working artificial receptor or artificial receptor complex for each peptide or mixture of peptides. 
     Thus, each peptide or mixture of peptides can provide a pattern of bound receptors in the plurality or array. The pattern of bound receptors can be characteristic of the peptide or mixture of peptides or a sample including the peptide or mixture of peptides. The method can include storing a representation of the binding pattern as an image or a data structure. The representation of the binding pattern can be evaluated either by an operator or data processing system. The method can include such evaluating. A binding pattern from an unknown sample that matches the binding pattern for a particular peptide then characterizes the unknown sample as containing that peptide. A binding pattern from an unknown sample that matches the binding pattern for a particular mixture of peptides then characterizes the unknown sample as including or being that mixture of peptides or as including or being the organism or cell containing that mixture of peptides. A plurality of binding patterns can be stored as a database. 
     An embodiment of the illustrated method can include creating an array of artificial receptors. This embodiment can also include compiling a database of the binding patterns of a specific peptide or mixture of peptides, for example, by probing the array with a plurality of individual peptides or the peptides found in a cell or organism. Contacting the array with an unidentified peptide or mixture of peptides can create a test binding pattern. The method can then compare the test binding pattern with the binding patterns of known peptides or mixtures of peptides in the database in order to characterize or classify the unidentified peptide, mixture of peptides, or cell or organism. In an embodiment, the database and the array of receptors has already been constructed and the method involves probing the array with an unknown peptide or mixture of peptides to create a test binding pattern and then comparing this binding pattern with the binding patterns in the database in order to characterize or classify the unidentified peptide, mixture of peptides, or cell or organism. 
     An array constructed for distinguishing mixtures of peptides can be contacted with samples from an organism, cell, or tissue of interest. Peptides that bind to the array can characterize or detect the organism, cell or tissue; can indicate a disorder caused by the organism or affecting the cell or tissue; can indicate successful therapy of a disorder caused by the organism or affecting the cell or tissue; characterize disease processes; identify therapeutic leads or strategies; or the like. 
     In an embodiment, the method can include producing or employing the selected working artificial receptor or receptor complex on a substrate. The substrate can include working artificial receptors for a single peptide or working artificial receptors for a plurality of peptides. For example, a method can include contacting the artificial receptors with a sample. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a single peptide can be employed in a method or system for detecting that peptide. Binding to the working artificial receptors indicates that the sample includes the peptide. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a plurality of peptides can be employed in a method or system for detecting one, several, or all of the peptides. Binding to the working artificial receptors for a particular peptide or peptides indicates that the sample includes such a peptide or peptides. 
     The working artificial receptors or receptor complexes can be configured to provide a pattern indicative of the presence of one or more of the peptides. The method can include detecting the binding pattern of the sample and comparing it with binding patterns from known samples.  FIG. 10  schematically illustrates binding patterns on an array of working artificial receptors. Such patterns and schemes can be employed for identifying a variety of test ligands including peptides. 
     The present method can develop or employ a plurality of working receptors specific for a particular peptide or feature on the peptide. That is, the working receptors can be specific for a particular peptide, but different receptors can interact with different distinct ligands, functional groups, or structural features of the peptide. Such a method can provide a robust test for the presence of a peptide. For example, such a robust test can reduce the chances of a false-positive or false-negative result in comparison with an assay that relies upon a single unique receptor to detect a given peptide. Further, this embodiment of the method can develop or employ working receptors that demonstrate higher binding affinity due to interaction with multiple ligands or features on the same peptide (e.g., multivalent binding). 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a peptide. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the peptide. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The peptide can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample or characterizing or detecting the peptide. 
     The present method can include selecting artificial receptors that bind a particular peptide and/or the building blocks making up these receptors (e.g., bound to a scaffold molecule) as leads for pharmaceutical development or as active agents for modulating an activity of that peptide. The artificial receptor or building blocks making up that artificial receptor can be selected to bind to a portion of a peptide required for its interaction with an other macromolecule (e.g. carbohydrate, protein, or polynucleotide), thus disrupting this interaction. 
     Methods for Binding or Detecting Protein or Proteome 
     In an embodiment, the invention can include methods and/or devices for binding or detecting a protein, one or more of a plurality of proteins, or a proteome. Methods and systems for detection can include methods and systems for clinical chemistry, environmental analysis, diagnostic assays, and for proteome analysis. For example, the artificial receptor can be contacted with a sample including at least one protein or one proteome. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Then, binding of one or more proteins to the artificial receptors can be detected. Next, the binding results can be interpreted to provide information about the sample, e.g., the proteome. In an embodiment, the invention includes a method for detecting a protein in a sample including contacting an artificial receptor specific to the protein with a sample suspected of containing the protein. The method can also include detecting or quantitating binding of the protein to the artificial receptor. 
       FIG. 8  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for evaluating candidate artificial receptors for binding to a test ligand. This embodiment of the present method can be employed for detecting a test ligand such as one or more proteins. The method can include making an array of candidate artificial receptors. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Working artificial receptors can be identified by contacting the array with a protein and identifying which receptors bind the protein. The method can include producing an array or device including the working artificial receptor or receptor complex. In an embodiment, the method can include employing the array or device for detecting or characterizing the protein in a sample, such as a biological, laboratory, or environmental sample. 
     In an embodiment, the method can include producing or employing the selected working artificial receptor or receptor complex on a substrate. The substrate can include working artificial receptors for a single protein or working artificial receptors for a plurality of proteins. For example, a method can include contacting the artificial receptors with a sample. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a single protein can be employed in a method or system for detecting that protein. Binding to the working artificial receptors indicates that the sample includes the protein. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a plurality of proteins can be employed in a method or system for detecting one, several, or all of the proteins. Binding to the working artificial receptors for a particular protein or protein indicates that the sample includes such a protein or protein. 
     The working artificial receptors or receptor complexes can be configured to provide a pattern indicative of the presence of one or more of the proteins. The method can include detecting the binding pattern of the sample and comparing it with binding patterns from known samples.  FIG. 10  schematically illustrates binding patterns on an array of working artificial receptors. Such patterns and schemes can be employed for identifying a variety of test ligands including proteins. 
       FIG. 11  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for developing a method and system for detecting a test ligand, such as a protein or proteome. This embodiment of the present method includes evaluating a plurality (e.g. array) of candidate artificial receptors for binding to each of a plurality of test ligands. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The plurality of test ligands can include a plurality of proteins. The plurality of test ligands can include the proteins making up the proteome of a cell or organism. The method can include detecting binding of individual proteins to a subset of the plurality or array of candidate artificial receptors. The method can include detecting binding of proteins making up the proteome to a subset of or all of the plurality or array of candidate artificial receptors. This can be envisioned as developing a working artificial receptor or artificial receptor complex for each protein or for the proteome. 
     Thus, each protein or proteome can provide a pattern of bound receptors in the plurality or array. The pattern of bound receptors can be characteristic of the protein or proteome or a sample including the protein or proteome. The method can include storing a representation of the binding pattern as an image or a data structure. The representation of the binding pattern can be evaluated either by an operator or data processing system. The method can include such evaluating. A binding pattern from an unknown sample that matches the binding pattern for a particular protein then characterizes the unknown sample as containing that protein. A binding pattern from an unknown sample that matches the binding pattern for a particular proteome then characterizes the unknown sample as including or being that proteome or as including or being the organism or cell having that proteome. Similarly, a binding pattern from an unknown sample can be evaluated against the patterns of a plurality of particular proteins or proteomes and the sample can be characterized as containing one or more of the proteins or proteomes. A plurality of binding patterns can be stored as a database. 
     An embodiment of the illustrated method can include creating an array of artificial receptors. This embodiment can also include compiling a database of the binding patterns of specific proteins or proteomes, for example, by probing the array with a plurality of individual proteins or proteomes. Contacting the array with unidentified proteins or proteomes can create a test binding pattern. The method can then compare the test binding pattern with the binding patterns of known proteins or proteomes in the database in order to characterize or classify the unidentified protein, proteome, or cell or organism. In an embodiment, the database and the array of receptors has already been constructed and the method involves probing the array with an unknown protein or proteome to create a test binding pattern and then comparing this binding pattern with the binding patterns in the database in order to characterize or classify the unidentified protein, proteome, or cell or organism. 
     A proteome array can be contacted with samples from an organism, cell, or tissue of interest. Proteins that bind to the proteome array can characterize or detect the organism, cell or tissue; can indicate a disorder caused by the organism or affecting the cell or tissue; can indicate successful therapy of a disorder caused by the organism or affecting the cell or tissue; characterize disease processes; identify therapeutic leads or strategies; or the like. 
     The present method can develop or employ a plurality of working receptors specific for a particular protein or feature on the protein. That is, the working receptors can be specific for a particular protein, but different receptors can interact with different distinct ligands, functional groups, or structural features of the protein. Such a method can provide a robust test for the presence of a protein. For example, such a robust test can reduce the chances of a false-positive or false-negative result in comparison with an assay that relies upon a single unique receptor to detect a given protein. Further, this embodiment of the method can develop or employ working receptors that demonstrate higher binding affinity due to interaction with multiple ligands or features on the same protein (e.g., multivalent binding). 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a protein. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the protein. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The protein can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample or characterizing or detecting the protein. 
     The present method can include selecting artificial receptors that bind a particular protein and/or the building blocks making up these receptors (e.g., bound to a scaffold molecule) as leads for pharmaceutical development or as active agents for modulating an activity of that protein. The artificial receptor or building blocks making up that artificial receptor can be selected to bind to or disrupt the activity of the active site of an enzyme or the ligand binding site of a receptor. The artificial receptor or building blocks making up that artificial receptor can be selected to bind to a portion of a protein required for its interaction with an other macromolecule (e.g. carbohydrate, protein, or polynucleotide), thus disrupting this interaction. The artificial receptor or building blocks making up that artificial receptor can be selected to bind to the binding site of a receptor and act as an agonist of that receptor. 
     The present method can include selecting working artificial receptors that bind a preselected protein for use in a system for proteome analysis. The working artificial receptors for the preselected protein can be provided on a substrate and the protein bound to the receptors. In an embodiment, selecting and binding employ a plurality of different working artificial receptors for the preselected protein. The plurality of artificial receptors may bind to different features on the preselected protein and leave free different features on the preselected protein. This embodiment of the method includes contacting the working receptors with bound preselected protein to at least one candidate binding partner for the preselected protein. The method can include detecting binding or absence of binding of the candidate binding partner to the preselected protein. A candidate binding partner that binds to the preselected protein can be considered a lead binding partner. 
     In an embodiment, the method includes contacting the working receptors with bound preselected protein with a proteome of a cell or organism serving as the source of candidate binding partners. The method can then recover from the proteome one or more lead binding partners. This can then characterize the proteome as containing or not a binding partner for the preselected protein. 
     In an embodiment, the present artificial receptors can be employed in studies of proteomics. In such an embodiment, an array of candidate or working artificial receptors can be contacted with a mixture of peptides, polypeptides, and/or proteins. Each mixture can produce a characteristic fingerprint of binding to the array. In addition, identification of a specific receptor environment for a target peptide, polypeptide, and/or protein can be utilized for isolation and analysis of the target. That is, in yet another embodiment, a particular receptor surface can be employed for affinity purification methods, e.g. affinity chromatography. 
     In an embodiment, the present candidate artificial receptors can be employed to find receptor surfaces that bind proteins in a preferred configuration or orientation. Many proteins (e.g. antibodies, enzymes, receptors) are stable and/or active in specific environments. Defined receptor surfaces can be used to produce binding environments that selectively retain or orient the protein for maximum stability and/or activity. In an embodiment, the present artificial receptors can be employed to form bioactive surfaces. For example, receptor surfaces can be used to specifically bind the active conformation of an antibody or enzyme. 
     In an embodiment, the present method can include labeling a protein while it remains bound to an artificial receptor. The resulting protein will be labeled on its portions accessible to the labeling reagent but not on those portions bound to the artificial receptor. The method can include releasing the labeled protein from the artificial receptor. Determining the distribution of labels on the protein indicates which portion of the protein was bound to the receptor. 
     In certain embodiments, the present artificial receptors can be employed to distinguish between two conformations of a single protein. Certain proteins exist in two or more stable conformations. In an embodiment, the present working artificial receptor or complex can bind a first conformation of a protein. In an embodiment, the present working artificial receptor or complex can bind a second conformation of a protein. In an embodiment, the present working artificial receptor or complex can bind a first conformation of a protein, but not a second conformation of the same protein. In an embodiment, the present working artificial receptor or complex can bind a second conformation of a protein, but not a first conformation of the same protein. 
     For example, in an embodiment, the present working artificial receptor or complex can bind a first or non-infectious conformation of a prion, but not its second or infectious conformation. For example, in an embodiment, the present working artificial receptor or complex can bind the second or infectious conformation of a prion, but not its first or non-infectious conformation. For example, in an embodiment, the present working artificial receptor or complex can bind a first or non-plaque-forming conformation of β-amyloid, but not its second or plaque-forming conformation. For example, in an embodiment, the present working artificial receptor or complex can bind a second or plaque-forming conformation of β-amyloid, but not its second or non-plaque-forming conformation. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a desired conformation of a protein. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the desired conformation of the protein. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the protein or its desired conformation. The desired conformation of the protein can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample or characterizing or detecting the desired conformation of the protein. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a first or non-infectious conformation of a prion. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the first or non-infectious conformation of a prion. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the prion. The first or non-infectious conformation of a prion can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample or characterizing or detecting the first or non-infectious conformation of a prion. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a second or infectious conformation of a prion. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the second or infectious conformation of a prion. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The second or infectious conformation of a prion can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample or characterizing or detecting the second or infectious conformation of a prion. 
     In an embodiment, the present method includes developing receptors or a receptor system that can distinguish between the first or non-infectious conformation of a prion and the second or infectious conformation of the prion. Such a method can include selecting a working artificial receptor or complex can that bind the first or non-infectious conformation of a prion, but not the second or infectious conformation of the prion. This embodiment can include selecting a working artificial receptor or complex can that bind the second or infectious conformation of a prion, but not the first or non-infectious conformation of the prion. Employed together, these two sets of working artificial receptors or systems can characterize a biological sample as containing one or both forms of the prion. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a first or non-plaque-forming conformation of a β-amyloid. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the first or non-plaque-forming conformation of the β-amyloid. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the β-amyloid. The first or non-plaque-forming conformation of the β-amyloid can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample or characterizing or detecting the first or non-plaque-forming conformation of the β-amyloid. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a second or plaque-forming conformation of a β-amyloid. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the second or plaque-forming conformation of a β-amyloid. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the β-amyloid. The second or plaque-forming conformation of the β-amyloid can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample or characterizing or detecting the second or plaque-forming conformation of the β-amyloid. 
     In an embodiment, the present method includes developing receptors or a receptor system that can distinguish between the first or non-plaque-forming conformation of β-amyloid and the second or plaque-forming conformation of the β-amyloid. Such a method can include selecting a working artificial receptor or complex can that bind the first or non-plaque-forming conformation of β-amyloid, but not the second or plaque-forming conformation of the β-amyloid. This embodiment can include selecting a working artificial receptor or complex can that bind the second or plaque-forming conformation of the β-amyloid, but not the first or non-plaque-forming conformation of β-amyloid. Employed together, these two sets of working artificial receptors or systems can characterize a biological sample as containing one or both forms of the β-amyloid. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting cholera toxin. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the cholera toxin. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The cholera toxin can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample, or characterizing or detecting cholera toxin. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting at least one protein of a cancer cell. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the cancer cell protein. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The cancer cell protein can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample or characterizing or detecting the cancer cell protein. 
     In an embodiment, the present method can include contacting a working artificial receptor or array with a sample from cells or tissues suspected of being cancerous or including a tumor. The sample can be serum. Binding of at least one protein to the working artificial receptor or array can indicate or characterize the presence of the particular cancer or tumor, such as by characterizing the pattern of proteins present. 
     Cancers that can be detected or characterized by such a method include, for example, bladder cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, kidney cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, including small cell lung cancer, esophageal cancer, gall-bladder cancer, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, stomach cancer, cervical cancer, thyroid cancer, prostate cancer, and skin cancer, including squamous cell carcinoma; hematopoietic tumors of lymphoid lineage, including leukemia, acute lymphocytic leukemia, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, B-cell lymphoma, T-cell-lymphoma, Hodgkin&#39;s lymphoma, non-Hodgkin&#39;s lymphoma, hairy cell lymphoma and Burkett&#39;s lymphoma; hematopoietic tumors of myeloid lineage, including acute and chronic myelogenous leukemias, myelodysplastic syndrome and promyelocytic leukemia; tumors of mesenchymal origin, including fibrosarcoma and rhabdomyosarcoma; tumors of the central and peripheral nervous system, including astrocytoma, neuroblastoma, glioma and schwannomas; other tumors, including melanoma, seminoma, teratocarcinoma, osteosarcoma, xeroderoma pigmentosum, keratoctanthoma, thyroid follicular cancer, Kaposi&#39;s sarcoma, and the like. 
     Methods of Binding or Detecting Microbes 
     In an embodiment, the invention can include methods and/or devices for binding or detecting a microbe, e.g., cell or virus. Methods and systems for detection can include methods and systems for clinical chemistry, environmental analysis, and diagnostic assays of all types. For example, the artificial receptor can be contacted with a sample including or suspected of including at least one microbe, e.g., cell or virus. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Then, binding of one or more of the microbes to the artificial receptors can be detected. Next, the binding results can be interpreted to provide information about the sample. In an embodiment, the invention includes a method for detecting a microbe, e.g., cell or virus, in a sample including contacting an artificial receptor specific to the microbe, e.g., cell or virus, with a sample suspected of containing the microbe, e.g., cell or virus. The method can also include detecting or quantitating binding of the microbe, e.g., cell or virus, to the artificial receptor. 
       FIG. 8  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for evaluating candidate artificial receptors for binding to a test ligand. This embodiment of the present method can be employed for detecting a test ligand such as a microbe, e.g., cell or virus. The method can include making an array of candidate artificial receptors. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Working artificial receptors can be identified by contacting the array with a microbe, e.g., cell or virus, and identifying which receptors bind the microbe. The method can include producing an array or device including the working artificial receptor or receptor complex. In an embodiment, the method can include employing the array or device for detecting or characterizing the microbe, e.g., cell or virus, in a sample, such as a biological, laboratory, or environmental sample. 
       FIG. 9  schematically illustrates an embodiment of the present method employing an array of candidate artificial receptors. This embodiment of the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a microbe, e.g., cell or virus. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to a microbe, e.g., cell or virus. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The microbe can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample, or characterizing or detecting the microbe, e.g., cell or virus. 
       FIG. 11  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for developing a method and system for detecting a test ligand, such as a disease causing organism. This embodiment of the present method includes evaluating a plurality (e.g. array) of candidate artificial receptors for binding to each of a plurality of test ligands, such as disease causing organisms. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligands. The method can include detecting binding of each test ligand (e.g., disease causing organism) to a subset of the plurality or array of candidate artificial receptors. This can be envisioned as developing a working artificial receptor or artificial receptor complex for each of the plurality of test ligands. 
     Thus, each test ligand (e.g., disease causing organism) can provide a pattern of bound receptors in the plurality or array. The pattern of bound receptors can be characteristic of the test ligand or a sample including the test ligand. The method can include storing a representation of the binding pattern as an image or a data structure. The representation of the binding pattern can be evaluated either by an operator or data processing system. The method can include such evaluating. A binding pattern from an unknown sample that matches the binding pattern for a particular test ligand (e.g., disease causing organism) then characterizes the unknown sample as containing that test ligand. Similarly, a binding pattern from an unknown sample can be evaluated against the patterns of a plurality of particular test ligands and the sample can be characterized as containing one or more of the test ligands. A plurality of binding patterns can be stored as a database. 
     An embodiment of the illustrated method can include creating an array of artificial receptors. This embodiment can also include compiling a database of the binding patterns of specific disease causing organisms, for example, by probing the array with a plurality of individual organisms. Contacting the array with an unidentified organism can create a test binding pattern. The method can then compare the test binding pattern with the binding patterns of known organisms in the database in order to characterize or classify the unidentified organism. In an embodiment, the database and the array of receptors has already been constructed and the method involves probing the array with an unknown organism to create a test binding pattern and then comparing this binding pattern with the binding patterns in the database in order to characterize or classify the unidentified organism. 
     In an embodiment, the method can include producing or employing the selected working artificial receptor or receptor complex on a substrate. The substrate can include working artificial receptors for a single microbe, e.g., cell or virus, or working artificial receptors for a plurality of microbes, e.g., cells or viruses. For example, a method can include contacting the artificial receptors with a sample. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a single microbe, e.g., cell or virus, can be employed in a method or system for detecting that microbe. Binding to the working artificial receptors indicates that the sample includes the microbe. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a plurality of microbes, e.g., cells or viruses can be employed in a method or system for detecting one, several, or all of the microbes. Binding to the working artificial receptors for a particular microbe or microbes indicates that the sample includes such a microbe or microbes. 
     The working artificial receptors or receptor complexes can be configured to provide a pattern indicative of the presence of one or more of the microbes, e.g., cells or viruses. The method can include detecting the binding pattern of the sample and comparing it with binding patterns from known samples.  FIG. 10  schematically illustrates binding patterns on an array of working artificial receptors. Such patterns and schemes can be employed for identifying a variety of test ligands including microbes. 
     The present method can develop or employ a plurality of working receptors specific for a particular microbe or feature on the microbe. That is, the working receptors can be specific for a particular microbe, but different receptors can interact with different distinct antigens (e.g., proteins or carbohydrates), ligands, or features of the microbe. Such a method can provide a robust test for the presence of a microbe. For example, such a robust test can reduce the chances of a false-positive or false-negative result in comparison with an assay that relies upon a single unique receptor to detect a given microbe. Further, this embodiment of the method can develop or employ working receptors that demonstrate higher binding affinity due to interaction with multiple antigens or ligands on the same microbe (e.g., multivalent binding). 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a bacterium. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the bacterium. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The bacterium can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample or characterizing or detecting the bacterium. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a virus particle. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the virus particle. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The virus particle can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample or for characterizing or detecting the virus particle. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a biohazard. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the biohazard. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The biohazard can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample, or characterizing or detecting the biohazard. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting the  Vibrio cholerae . The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to  V. cholerae . The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the  V. cholerae . The  V. cholerae  can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample, or characterizing or detecting  V. cholerae.    
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a microbe. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the microbe. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. One or more artificial receptors that bind the microbe under appropriate conditions can be selected for use on an affinity support that can bind that microbe. One or more artificial receptors that bind the microbe or cell sufficiently tightly under appropriate conditions can be selected and its building blocks incorporated onto a scaffold molecule. An embodiment of the method can employ a support with the one or more artificial receptors or scaffold-receptors on its surface for binding or immobilizing the microbe. A support with a plurality of artificial receptors, each binding to a different portion of the microbe, on its surface can be employed for multivalent capture or immobilization of the microbe. 
     The present method can include selecting artificial receptors that bind a particular microbe and/or the building blocks making up these receptors (e.g., bound to a scaffold molecule) as leads for pharmaceutical development or as active agents for modulating an activity of the microbe or as an antibiotic against that microbe. 
     In an embodiment, the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce an assay or system for characterizing or detecting a microbe of clinical or environmental interest. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for binding to the microbe of clinical or environmental interest. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The microbe of clinical or environmental interest can exhibit characteristic binding to one or several of the candidate artificial receptors from that array. The one or several artificial receptors can be selected as an artificial receptor (e.g., a working artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor complex) that can be employed in methods for characterizing a biological sample, or characterizing or detecting the microbe of clinical or environmental interest. 
     Suitable microbes of clinical or environmental interest include bacteria, mycoplasma, fungus,  rickettsia , or virus. Suitable bacteria or mycoplasma of clinical or environmental interest include  Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Acinetobacter caicoaceticus, Haemophilus influenzae, Actinobacillus actinoides, Haemophilus parahaemolyticus, Actinobacillus lignieresii, Haemophilus parainfluenzae, Actinobacillus suis, Legionella pneumophila, Actinomyces bovis, Leptospira interrogans, Actinomyces israelli, Mima polymorpha, Aeromonas hydrophila, Moraxella lacunata, Arachnia propionica, Burkholderia mallei, Burkholderia pseudomallei, Moraxella osioensis, Arizona hinshawii, Mycobacterium osioensis, Bacillus cereus, Mycobacterium leprae, Bacteroides  spp,  Mycobacterium  spp,  Bartonella bacilliformis, Plesiomonas shigelloides, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Proteus  spp,  Clostridium difficile, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium sordellii, Salmonella cholerasuis, Clostridium tetani, Salmonella enteritidis, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Salmonella typhi, Edwardsiella tarda, Serratia marcescens, Enterobacter aerogenes, Shigella  spp,  Staphylococcus epidermidis, Francisella novicida, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Haemophilus ducreyi, Haemophilus gallinarum, Haemophilus haemolyticus, Bacillus anthracis, Mycobacterium bovis, Bordetella pertussis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Borrella burgdorfit, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Borrella  spp,  Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Campylobacter, Neisseria meningitides, Chlamydia psittaci, Nocardia asteroids, Chlamydia trachomatis, Nocardia brasillensis, Clostridium botulinum, Pasteurella haemolytica, Clostridium chauvoei, Pasteurelia multocida, Clostridium haemolyticus, Pasteurella pneumotropica, Clostridium histolyticum, Pseudomonas pseudomallei, Clostridium novyl, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringens, Streptobacillus moniliformis, Clostridium septicum, Cyclospora cayatanensis, Streptococcus agalacetiae, Erysipelothrix insidiosa, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Listeria manocytogenes, Yersinia pestis, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Yersinia enterocolitica, Brucella abortus, Brucella canis, Brucella melitensis, Brucella suis , and  Francisella tularensis.    
     Suitable fungus include  Absidia, Piedraia hortae, Aspergillus, Prototheca, Candida, Paecilomyces, Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptosporidium parvum, Phialaphora, Dermatophilus congolensis, Rhizopus, Epidermophyton, Scopulariopsis, Exophiala, Sporothrix schenkii, Fusarium, Trichophyton, Madurella mycetomi, Toxoplasma, Trichosporon, Microsporum, Microsporidia, Wangiella dermatitidis, Mucor, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, Coccidioides immitis , and  Histoplasma capsulatum.    
     Suitable  rickettsia  or viruses of clinical or environmental interest include Coronaviruses, Hepatitis viruses, Hepatitis A virus, Myxo-Paramyxoviruses (Influenza viruses, Measles virus, Mumps virus, Newcastle disease virus), Picornavirus (Coxsackie viruses, Echoviruses, Poliomyelitis virus),  Rickettsia akari, Rochalimaea Quintana, Rochalimaea vinsonii , Norwalk Agent, Adenoviruses, Arenaviruses (Lymphocytic choriomenigitis, Viscerotrophic strains), Herpesvirus Group ( Herpesvirus hominis , Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, Caliciviruses, Pseudo-rabies virus, Varicella virus), Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Parainfluenza viruses (Respiratory syncytial virus, Subsclerosing panencephalitis virus), Picornaviruses (Poliomyelitis virus), Poxviruses Variola, Cowpox virus ( Molluscum contagiosum  virus, Monkeypox virus, Orf virus, Paravaccinia virus, Tanapox virus, Vaccinia virus, Yabapox virus), Papovaviruses (SV 40 virus, B-K-virus), Spongiform Encephalopathy Viruses (Creutzfeld-Jacob agent, Kuru agent, BSE), Rhabdoviruses (Rabies virus), Tobaviruses (Rubella virus),  Coxiella burnetii, Rickettsia canada, Rickettsia prowazekii, Rickettsia rickettsii, Rickettsia Tsutsugamushi, Rickettsia typhi  ( R. mooseri ), Spotted Fever Group Agents, Vesicular Stomatis Virus (VSV), and Toga, Arena (e.g., LCM, Junin, Lassa, Marchupo, Guanarito, etc.), Bunya (e.g., hantavirus, Rift Valley Fever, etc.), Flaviruses (Dengue), and Filoviruses (e.g., Ebola, Marburg, etc.) of all types, Nipah virus, viral encephalitis agents, LaCrosse, Kyasanur Forest virus, Yellow fever, and West Nile virus. 
     Suitable microbes of clinical or environmental interest include Variola Viruses, Congo-Crimean hemorrhagic fever, Tick-borne encephalitis virus complex (Absettarov, Hanzalova, Hypr, Kumlinge, Kyasanur Forest disease, Omsk hemorrhagic fever, and Russian Spring-Summer Encephalitis), Marburg, Ebola, Junin, Lassa, Machupo, Herpesvirus simiae, Bluetongue, Louping III, Rift Valley fever (Zing a), Wesselsbron, Foot and Mouth Disease, Newcastle Disease, African Swine Fever, Vesicular exanthema, Swine vesicular disease, Rinderpest, African horse sickness, Avian influenza, and Sheep pox. Other components of interest include  Ricinus communis.    
     Methods for Disrupting Binding Interactions 
     In an embodiment, the present invention can include methods and/or devices for detecting agents that disrupt binding of molecules, for example, macromolecules or a macromolecule and a small molecule. Methods and systems for detecting such agents can include methods and systems useful in developing therapeutic agents, in clinical chemistry, in environmental analysis, and in diagnostic assays of all types. In an embodiment, such a method includes decreasing binding of a test ligand to one or more working artificial receptors with one or more candidate disruptors. In an embodiment, such a method includes decreasing binding of a binding partner to a test ligand with one or more candidate disruptors, the test ligand being bound to one or more working artificial receptors. 
     In an embodiment, the present method includes selecting a working artificial receptor or receptor complex that binds a target molecule. This embodiment of the method includes binding the target molecule to the working receptor(s). The method then includes contacting the receptor with bound target molecule with one or more disruptor candidates. Contacting can occur in a high throughput screening format. The method includes selecting one or more disruptor candidates that decreases binding of the target molecule to the working receptor(s) as a lead disruptor(s). 
     Any of the general types of test ligands described herein can be a target molecule. In an embodiment, the target molecule can be one known to participate in a binding interaction with another molecule. The target molecule can be on a microbe, and the entire microbe can be employed as a target molecule. The target molecule can be a complex of two or more macromolecules, for example, a complex of two proteins. The target molecule can be a protein. The target molecule can be a polynucleotide. The target molecule be on a cell, and the entire cell can be employed as a target molecule. The target molecule can be a receptor. 
     The lead disruptor can be subjected to further evaluation for example, as a candidate therapeutic agent, candidate vaccine, or candidate antigen. A lead disruptor that disrupts binding of a microbe to an artificial receptor of the present invention can be selected for further evaluation as an antibiotic against that microbe, as a candidate immunogen against that microbe, or as a candidate vaccine against that microbe. A lead disruptor that disrupts binding of a macromolecule to an artificial receptor of the present invention can be selected for further evaluation as a therapeutic agent, as a candidate immunogen against that macromolecule or an organism including that macromolecule, or as a candidate vaccine against that macromolecule or an organism including that macromolecule. 
       FIG. 12  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for detecting an agent that disrupts a binding interaction of a target molecule. This embodiment of the present method can be employed for detecting an agent that disrupts a binding interaction of a target molecule, such as a macromolecule or a microbe. The method can include making an array of candidate artificial receptors. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Working artificial receptors can be identified by contacting the array with target molecule and identifying which receptors bind the target molecule. The method can include producing an array or device including the working artificial receptor or receptor complex. This method can include producing or employing the selected working artificial receptor or receptor complex on a substrate, such as a slide. The substrate can include working artificial receptors for a single target molecule or working artificial receptors for a plurality of target molecules. The method includes binding the target molecule(s) to the artificial receptors. 
     This illustrated embodiment includes contacting the artificial receptors with bound target molecule with one or more candidate disruptors. Release of the target molecule from the working artificial receptors or decrease in binding of the target molecule to the artificial receptors indicates that the candidate disruptor is a working or lead disruptor, and can be selected as such. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a single target molecule can be employed in a method or system for detecting disruptors of binding interactions of that target molecule. A substrate including working artificial receptors for a plurality of target molecules can be employed in a method or system for detecting disruptors of binding interactions for one, several, or all of the target molecules. The method can include washing unbound or released target molecule from the support. 
     In an embodiment, the present method includes selecting a working artificial receptor or receptor complex that binds a protein. This embodiment of the method includes binding the protein to the working receptor(s). The method then includes contacting the receptor with bound protein with one or more disrupter candidates. Contacting can occur in a high throughput screening format. The method includes selecting one or more disruptor candidates that decreases binding of the protein to the working receptor(s) as a lead disruptor(s). 
     Such a method can be employed for detecting an agent that disrupts a binding interaction of a protein. The method can include making an array of candidate artificial receptors. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Working artificial receptors can be identified by contacting the array with protein and identifying which receptors bind the protein. The method can include producing an array or device including the working artificial receptor or receptor complex. This method can include producing or employing the selected working artificial receptor or receptor complex on a substrate, such as a slide. The substrate can include working artificial receptors for a single protein or working artificial receptors for a plurality of proteins. The method includes binding the protein(s) to the artificial receptors. This embodiment of the method includes contacting the artificial receptors with bound protein with one or more candidate disruptors. Release of the protein from the working artificial receptors or decrease in binding of the protein to the artificial receptors indicates that the candidate disruptor is a working or lead disruptor, and can be selected as such. 
     In an embodiment, the disruptor disrupts a binding interaction of a protein. Such a disruptor can be envisioned as a mimic of one or more structural features to which this protein binds, for example on a microbe, tissue, or cell. The disruptor can be evaluated for such mimicry. The mimic disruptor can then be used as an antigen against the structural feature on the microbe, tissue, or cell. The mimic disruptor can be used as an idiotype or anti-idiotype against the structural feature on the microbe, tissue, or cell. 
     In an embodiment, the present method includes selecting a working artificial receptor or receptor complex that binds a microbe. This embodiment of the method includes binding the microbe to the working receptor(s). The method then includes contacting the receptor with bound microbe with one or more disruptor candidates. Contacting can occur in a high throughput screening format. The method includes selecting one or more disruptor candidates that decreases binding of the microbe to the working receptor(s) as a lead disruptor(s). 
     Such a method can be employed for detecting an agent that disrupts a binding interaction of a microbe. The method can include making an array of candidate artificial receptors. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Working artificial receptors can be identified by contacting the array with microbe and identifying which receptors bind the microbe. The method can include producing an array or device including the working artificial receptor or receptor complex. This method can include producing or employing the selected working artificial receptor or receptor complex on a substrate, such as a slide. The substrate can include working artificial receptors for a single microbe or working artificial receptors for a plurality of microbes. The method includes binding the microbe(s) to the artificial receptors. This embodiment of the method includes contacting the artificial receptors with bound microbe with one or more candidate disruptors. Release of the microbe from the working artificial receptors or decrease in binding of the microbe to the artificial receptors indicates that the candidate disrupter is a working or lead disruptor, and can be selected as such. 
     In an embodiment, the disruptor disrupts a binding interaction of a microbe. Such a disruptor can be envisioned as a mimic of one or more structural features to which this microbe binds, for example on a protein, another microbe, a tissue, or a cell. The disruptor can be evaluated for such mimicry. The mimic disruptor can then be used as an antigen against the structural feature on the protein, other microbe, tissue, or cell. The mimic disrupter can be used as an idiotype or anti-idiotype against the structural feature on the protein, other microbe, tissue, or cell. 
     In an embodiment, the present method includes selecting a working artificial receptor or receptor complex that binds a cell. This embodiment of the method includes binding the cell to the working receptor(s). The method then includes contacting the receptor with bound cell with one or more disruptor candidates. Contacting can occur in a high throughput screening format. The method includes selecting one or more disruptor candidates that decreases binding of the cell to the working receptor(s) as a lead disruptor(s). 
     Such a method can be employed for detecting an agent that disrupts a binding interaction of a cell. The method can include making an array of candidate artificial receptors. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Working artificial receptors can be identified by contacting the array with cell and identifying which receptors bind the cell. The method can include producing an array or device including the working artificial receptor or receptor complex. This method can include producing or employing the selected working artificial receptor or receptor complex on a substrate, such as a slide. The substrate can include working artificial receptors for a single cell or working artificial receptors for a plurality of cells. The method includes binding the cell(s) to the artificial receptors. This embodiment of the method includes contacting the artificial receptors with bound cell with one or more candidate disruptors. Release of the cell from the working artificial receptors or decrease in binding of the cell to the artificial receptors indicates that the candidate disrupter is a working or lead disruptor, and can be selected as such. 
     In an embodiment, the disruptor disrupts a binding interaction of a cell. Such a disruptor can be envisioned as a mimic of one or more structural features to which this cell binds, for example on a protein, another cell, a tissue, or a microbe. The disruptor can be evaluated for such mimicry. The mimic disruptor can then be used as an antigen against the structural feature on the protein, microbe, tissue, or other cell. The mimic disruptor can be used as an idiotype or anti-idiotype against the structural feature on the protein, microbe, tissue, or other cell. 
     Any of a variety of compounds can be employed as a candidate disrupter. For example, candidate disruptors can include at least one small molecule. For example, candidate disruptors can include a library of small molecules. For example, candidate disruptors can include at least one peptide. For example, candidate disruptors can include a library of peptides. 
     Disrupting a Complex 
     In an embodiment, the present method includes a method for detecting a disruptor of binding of a binding partner to a test ligand (e.g., target molecule), the test ligand being bound to one or more working artificial receptors. In an embodiment, the present method includes selecting a working artificial receptor or receptor complex that binds a complex including a target molecule. Such selecting can include evaluating artificial receptors for binding to the target molecule. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. From among those artificial receptors that bind the target molecule, the method selects those artificial receptors that can bind the complex. The complex including the target molecule can also include one or more binding partners for the target molecule. This embodiment of the method includes binding the complex to the selected working receptor(s). The method then includes contacting the receptor with bound complex with one or more disruptor candidates. Contacting can occur in a high throughput screening format. The method includes selecting one or more disruptor candidates that decrease binding of at least one binding partner to the complex as a lead disruptor(s). 
       FIG. 13  schematically illustrates an embodiment of a method for detecting an agent that disrupts a binding interaction of a complex including a target molecule. This embodiment of the present method can be employed for detecting an agent that disrupts a binding interaction of a complex, such as a protein:small molecule complex, a protein:protein complex, a protein:polynucleotide complex, a protein:polysaccharide complex, a protein:microbe complex, or a protein:cell complex. The method can include making an array of candidate artificial receptors. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. Working artificial receptors can be identified by contacting the array with target molecule and identifying which receptors bind the target molecule. The identified working artificial receptors can be contacted with the complex including the target molecule and the receptors that bind the complex can be selected. The method can include producing an array or device including the selected working artificial receptor or receptor complex. This method can include producing or employing the selected working artificial receptor or receptor complex on a substrate, such as a slide. The method includes binding the complex to the artificial receptors. 
     This illustrated embodiment includes contacting the artificial receptors with bound complex with one or more candidate disruptors. Release of the binding partner portion of the complex from the working artificial receptors but retaining the target molecule on the receptors indicates that the candidate disrupter is a working or lead complex disruptor, and can be selected as such. Decrease in binding of the binding partner portion of the complex to the artificial receptors but retaining the target molecule on the receptors indicates that the candidate disruptor is a working or lead complex disruptor, and can be selected as such. The working or lead complex disruptor can, in an embodiment, be selected as a lead for developing a therapeutic agent for a disorder mediated by the complex. The method can include washing unbound or released binding partner from the support. 
     In an embodiment, the complex disruptor disrupts a complex including at least two proteins, a first protein and a second protein.  FIG. 14  schematically illustrates a candidate disruptor disrupting a protein:protein complex. In this embodiment, one protein component remains bound to the receptor and the other dissociates and leaves the receptor. An embodiment of such a disrupter can be envisioned as a mimic of one or more structural features of the binding portion of one of the proteins included in the complex. The disruptor can be evaluated for such mimicry. For example, the disrupter can mimic a structural feature of the first protein that interacts with the second protein. The mimic disruptor can then be used as an antigen against that feature of the first protein. The mimic disruptor can be used as an idiotype or anti-idiotype against the structural feature on the first protein. 
     Methods for Making and Using Affinity Supports 
     In an embodiment, a working artificial receptor or receptor complex can be employed to produce or as an affinity support for any of the test ligands described herein. For example, the present method can include a method for producing an affinity support for a test ligand. This method can include selecting a working artificial receptor or receptor complex that binds to the test ligand. This method can also include coupling the working artificial receptor or receptor complex to a support.  FIG. 15  schematically illustrates an embodiment of such a method. The support can be suitable for use as an affinity support for, for example, chromatography, membrane filtration, electrophoresis (e.g., 1 or 2 dimensional electrophoresis), or the like. 
     The present method can include selecting artificial receptors that bind a particular test ligand and/or the building blocks making up these receptors (e.g., bound to a scaffold molecule) for isolation or analysis of a particular test ligand. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. For example, the artificial receptor can be employed as a receptor surface that can bind the test ligand and remove (e.g., purify) it from a mixture or biological sample. 
     Such a method can include contacting one or more candidate artificial receptors with a test ligand of interest. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The method can include selecting one or more of the candidate artificial receptors that bind the test ligand as working artificial receptor(s). The method can then include employing the working artificial receptor(s) to make a receptor surface. Making a receptor surface can include coupling the building blocks making up the working artificial receptor(s) to a support. The support can have sufficient area to bind a significant quantity of the test ligand of interest. The support can be a chromatography support or medium. The support can be a plate, tube, or membrane. In an embodiment, binding of the test ligand of interest to the support can be followed by eluting the test ligand of interest from the support. Eluting can employ a wash with a pH, buffer, solvent, salt concentration, or ligand concentration effective to elute the test ligand of interest from the support. 
       FIG. 16  schematically illustrates evaluating an array of candidate artificial receptors for binding of a test ligand and selecting one or more working artificial receptors. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand.  FIG. 16  illustrates that a receptor surface employing such a working artificial receptor can be employed for binding a protein, immobilizing an antibody, binding a single enantiomer, or protecting a structural feature (e.g., a functional group) on a compound. In an embodiment, the receptor surface can bind more than one structural feature on the protein. In an embodiment, the working artificial receptor can be selected to bind the constant portion, rather than the variable portions, of an antibody. In an embodiment, the receptor surface can include a catalytic moiety that can catalyze a reaction of a functional group of the bound test ligand. Such a catalytic moiety can be a building block, for example, an organometallic building block. 
     The present method can include selecting artificial receptors that bind a particular isomer of a compound and/or the building blocks making up these receptors (e.g., bound to a scaffold molecule) for isolation or analysis of a particular isomer. For example, the artificial receptor can be employed as a receptor surface that can bind the isomer and remove (e.g., purify) it from a mixture or biological sample. 
     Such a method can include contacting one or more candidate artificial receptors with an isomer of interest. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The method can include selecting one or more of the candidate artificial receptors that bind the isomer as working artificial receptor(s). The method can then include employing the working artificial receptor(s) to make a receptor surface. Making a receptor surface can include coupling the building blocks making up the working artificial receptor(s) to a support. The support can have sufficient area to bind a significant quantity of the isomer of interest. The support can be a chromatography support or medium. The support can be a plate, tube, or membrane. In an embodiment, binding of the isomer of interest to the support can be followed by eluting the isomer of interest from the support. Eluting can employ a wash with a pH, buffer, solvent, salt concentration, or ligand concentration effective to elute the isomer of interest from the support. 
     The present method can include selecting artificial receptors that bind or protect a particular structural feature of a compound and/or the building blocks making up these receptors (e.g., bound to a scaffold molecule) for isolation or analysis of the compound including the structural feature. For example, the artificial receptor can be employed as a receptor surface that can bind or protect the structural feature of the compound. Binding of the structural feature can be determined by lack of binding of an analogous compound the lacking the structural feature. Protection of the structural feature can be evaluated by that structural feature being unavailable to a, for example, solution phase reactive species when the compound is bound to the receptor surface. 
     Such a method can include contacting one or more candidate artificial receptors with a compound of interest. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The method can include selecting one or more of the candidate artificial receptors that bind the structural feature of the compound as lead artificial receptor(s). The lead artificial receptor can be evaluated for protecting the structural feature. The method can then include employing the working artificial receptor(s) to make a receptor surface. Making a receptor surface can include coupling the building blocks making up the working artificial receptor(s) to a support. The support can have sufficient area to bind a significant quantity of the compound of interest. In an embodiment, binding of the compound of interest to the support can be followed by reacting a portion of the compound that is not the bound or protected structure feature. 
     The present method can include selecting artificial receptors that bind a particular peptide or protein and/or the building blocks making up these receptors (e.g., bound to a scaffold molecule) for isolation or analysis of a particular peptide or protein. For example, the artificial receptor can be employed as a receptor surface that can bind the peptide or protein and remove (e.g., purify) it from a mixture or biological sample. 
     Such a method can include contacting one or more candidate artificial receptors with a peptide or protein of interest. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The method can include selecting one or more of the candidate artificial receptors that bind the peptide or protein as working artificial receptor(s). The method can then include employing the working artificial receptor(s) to make a receptor surface. Making a receptor surface can include coupling the building blocks making up the working artificial receptor(s) to a support. The support can have sufficient area to bind a significant quantity of the peptide or protein of interest. The support can be a chromatography support or medium. The support can be a plate, tube, or membrane. In an embodiment, binding of the peptide or protein of interest to the support can be followed by eluting the peptide or protein of interest from the support. Eluting can employ a wash with a pH, buffer, salt concentration, or ligand concentration effective to elute the peptide or protein of interest from the support. 
     In an embodiment, the present artificial receptors can be employed to form selective membranes. Such a selective membrane can be based on a molecular gate including an artificial receptor surface. For example, an artificial receptor surface can line the walls of pores in the membrane and either allow or block a target molecule from passing through the pores. For example, an artificial receptor surface can line the walls of pores in the membrane and act as “gatekeepers” on e.g. micro cantilevers/molecular cantilevers to allow gate opening or closing on binding of the target. The artificial receptors to be used in the selective membranes can be identified by exposing the target molecule to a plurality of distinct artificial receptors and then determining which ones it binds to. For example, the binding can be detected through any of the techniques described herein, including fluorescence. 
     In certain embodiments, the method can include producing one or more receptor surfaces, each receptor surface including building blocks from a working receptor for a particular test ligand. Such a method can include employing the receptor surface for chromatography of the test ligand. Chromatographing the test ligand against a plurality of such receptor surfaces can rank the affinity of the surfaces for the test ligand. Under a given set of conditions, the receptor surface that retains the chromatographed test ligand the longest exhibits the greatest affinity for the test ligand. The method can include selecting the receptor surface with suitable (e.g., the greatest) affinity for use as an affinity support for the test ligand. 
     Any of a variety of supports can be employed as the affinity support. In certain embodiments, the affinity support can be a dish, a tube, a well, a bead, a chromatography support, a microchannel, or the like. The artificial receptor affinity support can be used in various applications, such as chromatography, microchannel devices, as an immunoassay support, or the like. A microchannel with the artificial receptor on its surface can be employed as an analytical device. In an embodiment, the present artificial receptors can be employed to form bioactive surfaces. For example, receptor surfaces can be used to specifically bind antibodies or enzymes. 
     Methods for Making and Using Reaction Supports 
     In an embodiment, a working artificial receptor or receptor complex can be employed to produce or as a reaction support for any of the test ligands described herein. For example, the present method can include a method for producing a reaction support for at least one test ligand. This method can include selecting a working artificial receptor or receptor complex that binds to the test ligand under conditions suitable for a desired reaction with that test ligand. This method can also include coupling the working artificial receptor or receptor complex to a support.  FIG. 15  schematically illustrates an embodiment of such a method. The support can be suitable for use as a reaction support for, for example, oxidation, reduction, substitution, or displacement reactions. 
     The present method can include selecting artificial receptors that bind a particular test ligand and/or the building blocks making up these receptors (e.g., bound to a scaffold molecule) for reaction of a particular test ligand. For example, the artificial receptor can be employed as a receptor surface that can bind the test ligand and position it for reaction at a particular prochiral group, functional group, or orientation. 
     Such a method can include contacting one or more candidate artificial receptors with a test ligand of interest. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The method can include selecting one or more of the candidate artificial receptors that bind the test ligand as working artificial receptor(s). The method can then include employing the working artificial receptor(s) to make a receptor surface. Making a receptor surface can include coupling the building blocks making up the working artificial receptor(s) to a support. The support can have sufficient area to bind a desired quantity of the test ligand of interest. The support can be a chromatography support or medium. The support can be a plate, bead, tube, or membrane. 
     The method also includes contacting the support including bound test ligand with a reactant for the desired reaction. Suitable reactants include reducing agent, oxidizing agent, nucleophile, electrophile, solvent (e.g., aqueous or organic solvent), or the like. The method can include contacting with one or more reactants and selecting reactant or reactants suitable for participating in the desired reaction. This embodiment of the method includes reacting the test ligand with the reactant. In an embodiment, reacting can be followed by washing the reactant or side products from the support. In an embodiment, reacting can be followed by eluting the product (e.g., reacted test ligand) from the support. Eluting can employ a wash with a pH, buffer, solvent, salt concentration, or ligand concentration effective to elute the product from the support. 
       FIG. 16  schematically illustrates evaluating an array of candidate artificial receptors for binding of a test ligand and selecting one or more working artificial receptors. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand.  FIG. 16  illustrates that a receptor surface employing such a working artificial receptor can be employed for binding a test ligand. The test ligand can be bound in an orientation that leaves a reactive moiety available for reaction with a reactant placed into contact with the receptor surface. In an embodiment, the test ligand can be bound in an orientation that occludes or protects a second reactive moiety from reacting with the reactant. This embodiment includes reacting the test ligand and release of the reacted test ligand from the receptor surface. Specifically, the illustration shows the reduction of an aldehyde with sodium borohydride to produce an alcohol. In an embodiment, the receptor surface can include a catalytic moiety that can catalyze a reaction of a functional group of the bound to test ligand the catalytic reaction can also employ the reactant. Such a catalytic moiety can be a building block, for example, an organometallic building block. 
     The present method can include selecting artificial receptors that bind or protect a particular structural feature of a compound and/or the building blocks making up these receptors (e.g., bound to a scaffold molecule) for reacting the compound including the structural feature. For example, the artificial receptor can be employed as a receptor surface that can bind and protect the structural feature of the compound while another feature of the compound reacts with a reactant. Protection of the structural feature can be evaluated by that structural feature not reacting with the reactant. For example, a substrate (e.g. a steroid) can be stereospecifically bound to the artificial receptor and present a particular moiety/sub-structure/“face” for reaction with a reagent in solution. 
     In an embodiment, a first side of a molecule (or a functional group) is bound to a receptor surface while a second side is left exposed. Then a reagent is added that could react with either side (or group) but is hindered from reacting with the first side of the molecule since it is bound to the receptor surface, accordingly the reagent reacts with the second side of the molecule only. 
     Such a method can include contacting one or more candidate artificial receptors with a compound of interest. The method can include selecting one or more of the candidate artificial receptors that bind the structural feature of the compound as lead artificial receptor(s). The lead artificial receptor can be evaluated for protecting the structural feature. The method can then include employing the working artificial receptor(s) to make a receptor surface. Making a receptor surface can include coupling the building blocks making up the working artificial receptor(s) to a support. The support can have sufficient area to bind a desired quantity of the compound of interest. In an embodiment, binding of the compound of interest to the support can be followed by reacting a portion of the compound that is not the bound or protected structure feature. 
     Conventional synthesis of a chiral compound generally requires complicated procedures. In an embodiment, the present candidate artificial receptors can be employed to find receptor surfaces that provide a spatially oriented binding surface for a stereospecific reaction. For example, an artificial receptor surface can bind a small molecule so that particular functional groups are exposed to the environment, and others are obscured by the receptor. In this manner, the stereospecificity of the reaction can be controlled. Therefore, an artificial receptor surface can be employed in synthesis including chiral induction. Similarly, regiospecificity can also be controlled using receptors of the present invention. 
     The present method can include selecting artificial receptors that bind a first reaction ligand and a second reaction ligand or the building blocks making up these receptors (e.g., bound to a scaffold molecule) for a reaction including the first and second reaction ligands. For example, the artificial receptor can be employed as a receptor surface that can bind the first reaction ligand and the second reaction ligand at a distance or orientation at which these ligands can react with one another. The reaction can optionally include one or more reactants not bound to the receptor surface. 
     Such a method can include contacting one or more candidate artificial receptors with a first reaction ligand and a second reaction ligand. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the ligands. The method can include selecting one or more of the candidate artificial receptors that bind both of the reaction ligands as working artificial receptor(s). The method can then include employing the working artificial receptor(s) to make a receptor surface. Making a receptor surface can include coupling the building blocks making up the working artificial receptor(s) to a support. The support can have sufficient area to bind a desired quantity of the first and second reaction ligands. The support can be a chromatography support or medium. The support can be a plate, bead, tube, or membrane. The first and second reaction ligands can be bound to the support at one or several molar ratios, the reaction evaluated, and a molar ratio selected for conducting the reaction. 
     The method can also include contacting the support including bound reaction ligands with a reactant for the desired reaction. Suitable reactants include reducing agent, oxidizing agent, nucleophile, electrophile, or the like. This embodiment of the method includes reacting the test ligand with the reactant. In an embodiment, reacting can be followed by washing the reactant or side products from the support. In an embodiment, the first and second reaction ligands react without the reactant. In an embodiment, reacting can be followed by eluting the product (e.g., reacted test ligand) from the support. Eluting can employ a wash with a pH, buffer, solvent, salt concentration, or ligand concentration effective to elute the product from the support. 
     In an embodiment, the present candidate artificial receptors can be employed to find receptor surfaces that provide a spatially oriented binding surface for a stereospecific reaction. For example, an artificial receptor surface can bind a small molecule with particular functional groups exposed to the environment, and others obscured by the receptor. Such an artificial receptor surface can be employed in synthesis including chiral induction. For example, a substrate (e.g. a steroid) can be stereospecifically bound to the artificial receptor and present a particular moiety/sub-structure/“face” for reaction with a reagent in solution. Similarly, the artificial receptor surface can act as a protecting group where a reactive moiety of a molecule is “protected” by binding to the receptor surface so that a different moiety with similar reactivity can be transformed. 
     In an embodiment, the one or more working artificial receptors that bind a plurality (e.g., 2) of the reactants can be produced on a substrate and the reactants bound. Each receptor with a plurality of bound reactants can then be screened against one or more reagents or conditions (e.g., various molar ratios of the reactants or various solvents). The artificial receptor allowing or promoting reaction between the two or more reactants can be identified. The artificial receptor can then be produced on a substrate to provide a reactor for the reaction of interest. 
     Any of a variety of supports can be employed as the reaction support. In certain embodiments, the reaction support can be a dish, a tube, a well, a bead, a chromatography support, a microchannel, or the like. The artificial receptor reaction support can be used in various applications, such as a microchannel device. A microchannel with the artificial receptor on its surface can be employed as a reactor. 
     Methods for Making and Using Supported Catalysts 
     In an embodiment, a working artificial receptor or receptor complex can be employed to produce or as a supported catalyst for any of the test ligands described herein. For example, the present method can include a method for producing a supported catalyst for at least one test ligand. This method can include selecting a working artificial receptor or receptor complex that binds to the test ligand under conditions suitable for catalyzing a reaction with that test ligand. This method can also include coupling the working artificial receptor or receptor complex to a support.  FIG. 15  schematically illustrates an embodiment of such a method. The support can be suitable for use as a supported catalyst for any of a variety of catalytic moieties or building blocks, such as an organometallic moiety, a coenzyme, a redox active moiety, a nucleophilic moiety, an acid moiety, a base moiety, or the like. 
     The present method can include selecting artificial receptors that bind and catalyze a reaction of a particular test ligand and/or the building blocks making up these receptors (e.g., bound to a scaffold molecule) for catalyzing a reaction of a particular test ligand. For example, the artificial receptor can be employed as a receptor surface that can bind the test ligand and position it for reaction with the catalytic moiety at a particular prochiral group, functional group, or orientation. 
     Such a method can include contacting one or more candidate artificial receptors with a test ligand of interest. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand. The method can include selecting one or more of the candidate artificial receptors that bind and catalyze a desired reaction of the test ligand as working artificial receptor(s). The method can then include employing the working artificial receptor(s) to make a receptor surface. Making a receptor surface can include coupling the building blocks making up the working artificial receptor(s) to a support. The support can have sufficient area to bind a desired quantity of the test ligand of interest. The support can be a chromatography support or medium. The support can be a plate, bead, tube, or membrane. 
     The method also includes contacting the support including bound test ligand with a reactant or cofactor for the desired reaction. Suitable reactants include reducing agent, oxidizing agent, nucleophile, electrophile, solvent (e.g., aqueous or organic solvent), or the like. The method can include contacting with one or more selecting reactants and selecting reactant or reactants suitable for participating in the desired reaction. This embodiment of the method includes reacting the test ligand with the reactant. In an embodiment, reacting can be followed by washing the reactant or side products from the support. In an embodiment, reacting can be followed by eluting the product (e.g., reacted test ligand) from the support. Eluting can employ a wash with a pH, buffer, solvent, salt concentration, or ligand concentration effective to elute the product from the support. 
       FIG. 16  schematically illustrates evaluating an array of candidate artificial receptors for binding and catalysis of a reaction of a test ligand and selecting one or more working artificial receptors. The building blocks making up the artificial receptors can be naïve to the test ligand.  FIG. 16  illustrates that a receptor surface employing such a working artificial receptor can be employed for binding and catalysis of a reaction of a test ligand. The test ligand can be bound in an orientation that leaves a reactive moiety available for reaction with a the catalytic moiety of the receptor. In an embodiment, the test ligand can be bound in an orientation that occludes or protects a second reactive moiety from reacting with the catalytic moiety. This embodiment includes reacting the test ligand and release of the reacted test ligand from the receptor surface. Specifically, the illustration shows the reduction of an aldehyde with a catalytic moiety (MC) on the catalytic support to produce an alcohol. In an embodiment, the receptor surface can include a catalytic moiety that can catalyze a reaction of a functional group of the bound to test ligand the catalytic reaction can also employ the reactant. Such a catalytic moiety can be a building block, for example, an organometallic building block. 
     In an embodiment, the invention includes a method for identifying a catalyst including binding a first reaction ligand to an artificial receptor array, contacting the array with a reactant, and identifying those artificial receptors that have promoted the reaction. The array can be screened for those artificial receptors that produce (e.g., catalyze conversion of the reactant to) a desired product. 
     Any of a variety of supports can be employed as the catalytic support. In certain embodiments, the catalytic support can be a dish, a tube, a well, a bead, a chromatography support, a microchannel, or the like. The artificial receptor reaction support can be used in various applications, such as a microchannel device. A microchannel with the artificial receptor on its surface can be employed as a reactor. 
     Methods for Making or Detecting Non-Binding Surfaces or Substances 
     In an embodiment, the invention can include methods and/or devices for not binding a test ligand. Methods and systems for not binding a test ligand can be employed in systems useful in clinical chemistry, environmental analysis, and diagnostic assays of all types. In an embodiment, the invention includes a method for making a substrate that does not bind a test ligand. The method can include contacting at least one candidate artificial receptor with the test ligand, detecting binding or lack of binding of the test ligand to one or more of the artificial receptors, and selecting an artificial receptor that does not bind the test ligand as a working non-binding surface. The artificial receptor or receptors that do not bind a first test ligand can be tested against one or more additional test ligands. In such a manner, the non-binding artificial receptors can be screened for those artificial receptors that do not bind any of a plurality of test ligands. A surface covered with the building blocks making up such non-binding artificial receptors can then be employed as a working non-binding surface. 
     In an embodiment, the present method can employ an array of candidate artificial receptors. This embodiment of the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce one or more working artificial receptors or non-binding surfaces for one or more test ligands. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for not binding to at least one test ligand. Those candidate artificial receptors that do not bind to any of one or more test ligands can be selected as a non-binding surface for those one or more test ligands. 
     In an embodiment, the present method can evaluate an array of candidate artificial receptors to develop a surface that does not bind one or more proteins (e.g., plasma proteins). This embodiment of the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce one or more working artificial receptors or non-binding surfaces for one or more proteins (e.g., plasma proteins). The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for not binding to at least one protein (e.g., plasma protein). Those candidate artificial receptors that do not bind to any of one or more proteins (e.g., plasma proteins) can be selected as a non-binding surface for those proteins. Such a surface can be employed on an implantable medical device. 
     In an embodiment, the present method can evaluate an array of candidate artificial receptors to develop a surface that does not bind one or more cells. This embodiment of the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce one or more working artificial receptors or non-binding surfaces for one or more cells. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for not binding to at least one cell. Those candidate artificial receptors that do not bind to any of one or more cells can be selected as a non-binding surface for those cells. Such a surface can be employed on an implantable medical device. 
     In an embodiment, the present method can evaluate an array of candidate artificial receptors to develop a surface that does not bind one or more microbes. This embodiment of the method can employ an array including a significant number of the present artificial receptors to produce one or more working artificial receptors or non-binding surfaces for one or more microbes. The method can include evaluating an array including a significant number of candidate artificial receptors for not binding to at least one microbe. Those candidate artificial receptors that do not bind to any of one or more microbes can be selected as a non-binding surface for those microbes. Such a surface can be employed on an implantable medical device. Such a surface can be employed in a system otherwise subject to biofouling, such as water piping, reservoirs or flumes in a food processing plant, cooling towers, ship bottoms. 
     Methods for Detecting 
     Contacting an array including a plurality of artificial receptors with a test ligand can identify one or more lead or working artificial receptors. Binding of the test ligand to the lead or working artificial receptor or complex can produce a detectable signal. The detectable signal can be produced, for example, through mechanisms and properties such as scattering, absorbing or emitting light, producing or quenching fluorescence or luminescence, producing or quenching an electrical signal, and the like. Spectroscopic detection methods include use of labels or enzymes to produce light for detection by optical sensors or optical sensor arrays. The light can be ultraviolet, visible, or infrared light, which can be produced and/or detected through fluorescence, fluorescence polarization, chemiluminescence, bioluminescence, or chemibioluminescence. 
     Systems and methods for detecting electrical conduction, and changes in electrical conduction, include ellipsometry, surface plasmon resonance, capacitance, conductometry, surface acoustic wave, quartz crystal microbalance, Love-wave, infrared evanescent wave, enzyme labels with electrochemical detection, nanowire field effect transistors, MOSFETS—metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors, CHEMFETS—organic membrane metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors, ICP—intrinsically conducting polymers, FRET—fluorescence resonance energy transfer. 
     In an embodiment, the working artificial receptor or complex can be configured on the surface of an optical fiber, for example, as a series of discrete areas, spots, zones, or the like. The working artificial receptor or complex can be contacted with the test ligand or sample suspected of containing the test ligand. The test ligand sample can be in the form of a stream of air, an aerosol, or liquid (e.g., a solution or suspension). A detectable calorimetric, fluorometric, or like signal can be produced by a label incorporated into the optic fiber surface. The colorimetric or fluorogenic signal can be intrinsic to the ligand or can be produced upon binding of the ligand to the working artificial receptors. 
     Apparatus that can detect such binding to or signal from a working artificial receptor or complex includes UV, visible, or infrared spectrometer, fluorescence or luminescence spectrometer, surface plasmon resonance, surface acoustic wave or quartz crystal microbalance detectors, pH, voltammetry or amperometry meters, radioisotope detector, or the like. 
     In such an apparatus, a working artificial receptor or complex can be positioned on an optic fiber to provide a detectable signal, such as an increase or decrease in transmitted light, reflected light, fluorescence, luminescence, or the like. The detectable signal can originate from, for example, a signaling moiety incorporated into the working artificial receptor or complex or a signaling moiety added to the working artificial receptor. The signal can also be intrinsic to the working artificial receptor or to the test ligand. The signal can come from, for example, the interaction of the test ligand with the working artificial receptor, the interaction of the test ligand with a signaling moiety that has been incorporated into the working artificial receptor, into the optic fiber or onto the optic fiber. In an embodiment, the present method can include selecting an artificial receptor for which binding induces a change in the signal from the signaling moiety, e.g., a fluorescent moiety. Such a change can signal binding to the artificial receptor. 
     In an embodiment, the working artificial receptor can be on a support such as a surface of a test tube, microwell, capillary, microchannel, or the like. The test ligand or a sample suspected of containing the test ligand can be contacted with the working artificial receptor or complex by addition of a solution containing the test ligand or a sample suspected of containing the test ligand. A detectable signal can be produced by a labeled compound or conjugate of the test ligand. This labeled moiety can be reacted with the working artificial receptor or complex in competition with the solution containing the test ligand or the sample suspected of containing the test ligand. 
     In an embodiment of the system, the working artificial receptor is on a support such as the surface of a surface acoustic wave or quartz crystal microbalance or surface plasmon resonance detector. The test ligand or a sample suspected of containing the test ligand can be brought into contact with the working artificial receptor or complex by exposure to a stream of air, to an aerosol, or to a solution containing the test ligand or a sample suspected of containing the test ligand. A detectable electrical signal can be produced by the interaction of the test ligand with the working artificial receptor or complex on the active surface of the surface acoustic wave or quartz crystal microbalance or surface plasmon resonance detector. 
     In an embodiment of the system, more than one working artificial receptor, arranged as regions or spots in an array, on a support, such as a glass or plastic surface can be incorporated onto the signaling surfaces of one or more surface plasmon resonance detectors. The ligands of interest or a sample suspected of containing the ligands of interest (e.g., a sample containing a mixture of DNA segments or fragments, proteins or protein fragments, carbohydrates or carbohydrate fragments, or the like) is brought into contact with the working artificial receptors or array. Contacting can be accomplished by addition of a solution of the ligands of interest or a sample suspected of containing the ligands of interest. Detectable electrical signals can be produced by binding of the ligands of interest to the working artificial receptors array on the surface of the surface plasmon resonance detectors. Such detectors produce a signal for each working artificial receptor in the array, which produces a pattern of signal response, which is characteristic of the composition of the sample of interest. 
     The present artificial receptors can be part of products used in: analyzing a genome and/or proteome; pharmaceutical development; detectors for any of the test ligands; drug of abuse diagnostics or therapy; hazardous waste analysis or remediation; chemical warfare alert or intervention; disease diagnostics or therapy; cancer diagnostics or therapy; biowarfare alert or intervention; food chain contamination analysis or remediation; and the like. 
     More specifically, the present artificial receptors can be used in products for identification of sequence specific small molecule leads; protein isolation and identification; identification of protein to protein interactions; detecting contaminants in food or food products; clinical analysis of food contaminants; clinical analysis of prostate specific antigen; clinical and field or clinical analysis of cocaine; clinical and field or clinical analysis of other drugs of abuse; other clinical analysis systems, home test systems, or field analysis systems; monitors or alert systems for bioterrorism or chemical warfare agents; and the like. 
     Artificial Receptors 
     A candidate artificial receptor, a lead artificial receptor, or a working artificial receptor includes combination of building blocks immobilized (e.g., reversibly) on, for example, a support. An individual artificial receptor can be a heterogeneous building block spot on a slide or a plurality of building blocks coated on a slide, tube, or well. In the present embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. The building blocks can be immobilized through any of a variety of interactions, such as covalent, electrostatic, or hydrophobic interactions. For example, the building block and support or lawn can each include one or more functional groups or moieties that can form covalent, electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals, or like interactions. 
     An array of candidate artificial receptors can be a commercial product sold to parties interested in using the candidate artificial receptors as implements in developing receptors for test ligands of interest. In an embodiment, a useful array of candidate artificial receptors includes at least one glass slide, the at least one glass slide including spots of a predetermined number of combinations of members of a set of building blocks, each combination including a predetermined number of building blocks. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. 
     One or more lead artificial receptors can be developed from a plurality of candidate artificial receptors. In an embodiment, a lead artificial receptor includes a combination of building blocks and binds detectable quantities of test ligand upon exposure to, for example, several picomoles of test ligand at a concentration of 1, 0.1, or 0.01 μg/ml, or at 1, 0.1, or 0.01 ng/ml test ligand; at a concentration of 0.01 μg/ml, or at 1, 0.1, or 0.01 ng/ml test ligand; or a concentration of 1, 0.1, or 0.01 ng/ml test ligand. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. 
     Artificial receptors, particularly candidate or lead artificial receptors, can be in the form of an array of artificial receptors. Such an array can include, for example, 1.66 million spots, each spot including one combination of 4 building blocks from a set of 81 building blocks. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. Such an array can include, for example, 28,000 spots, each spot including one combination of 2 or 3 building blocks from a set of 19 building blocks. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. Each spot is a candidate artificial receptor and a combination of building blocks. The array can also be constructed to include lead artificial receptors. For example, the array of artificial receptors can include combinations of fewer building blocks and/or a subset of the building blocks. 
     In an embodiment, an array of candidate artificial receptors includes building blocks of general Formula 2 (shown hereinabove), with RE 1  being B1, B2, B3, B3a, B4, B5, B6, B7, B8, or B9 (shown hereinabove) and with RE 2  being A1, A2, A3, A3a, A4, A5, A6, A7, A8, or A9 (shown hereinabove). In an embodiment, the framework is tyrosine. 
     One or more working artificial receptors can be developed from one or more lead artificial receptors. In an embodiment, a working artificial receptor includes a combination of building blocks and binds categorizing or identifying quantities of test ligand upon exposure to, for example, several picomoles of test ligand at a concentration of 100, 10, 1, 0.1, 0.01, or 0.001 ng/ml test ligand; at a concentration of 10, 1, 0.1, 0.01, or 0.001 ng/ml test ligand; or a concentration of 1, 0.1, 0.01, or 0.001 ng/ml test ligand. In an embodiment, at least one of the building blocks includes a tether moiety. 
     In an embodiment, the artificial receptor of the invention includes a plurality of building blocks coupled to a support. In an embodiment, the plurality of building blocks can include or be building blocks of Formula 2 (shown hereinabove). An abbreviation for the building block including a linker, a tether, a tyrosine framework, and recognition elements AxBy is tether-TyrAxBy. In an embodiment, a candidate artificial receptor can include combinations of building blocks of formula tether-TyrA1B1, tether-TyrA2B2, tether-TyrA2B4, tether-TyrA2B6, tether-TyrA2B8, tether-TyrA3B3, tether-TyrA4B2, tether-TyrA4B4, tether-TyrA4B6, tether-TyrA4B8, tether-TyrA5B5, tether-TyrA6B2, tether-TyrA6B4, tether-TyrA6B6, tether-TyrA6B8, tether-TyrA7B7, tether-TyrA8B2, tether-TyrA8B4, tether-TyrA8B6, or tether-TyrA8B8. 
     Techniques for Using Artificial Receptors 
     The present invention includes a method of using artificial receptors. The present invention includes a method of screening candidate artificial receptors to find lead artificial receptors that bind a particular test ligand. Detecting test ligand bound to a candidate artificial receptor can be accomplished using known methods for detecting binding to arrays on a slide or to coated tubes or wells. For example, the method can employ test ligand labeled with a detectable label, such as a fluorophore or an enzyme that produces a detectable product. Alternatively, the method can employ an antibody (or other binding agent) specific for the test ligand and including a detectable label. One or more of the spots that are labeled by the test ligand or that are more or most intensely labeled with the test ligand are selected as lead artificial receptors. The degree of labeling can be evaluated by evaluating the signal strength from the label. The amount of signal can be directly proportional to the amount of label and binding.  FIG. 17  provides a schematic illustration of an embodiment of this process. 
     According to the present method, screening candidate artificial receptors against a test ligand can yield one or more lead artificial receptors. One or more lead artificial receptors can be a working artificial receptor. That is, the one or more lead artificial receptors can be useful for detecting the ligand of interest as is. The method can then employ the one or more artificial receptors as a working artificial receptor for monitoring or detecting the test ligand. Alternatively, the one or more lead artificial receptors can be employed in the method for developing a working artificial receptor. For example, the one or more lead artificial receptors can provide structural or other information useful for designing or screening for an improved lead artificial receptor or a working artificial receptor. Such designing or screening can include making and testing additional candidate artificial receptors including combinations of a subset of building blocks, a different set of building blocks, or a different number of building blocks. 
     The present invention includes a method of screening candidate artificial receptors to find lead artificial receptors that bind a particular test ligand. The method can include allowing movement of the building blocks that make up the artificial receptors. Movement of building blocks can include mobilizing the building block to move along or on the support and/or to leave the support and enter a fluid (e.g., liquid) phase separate from the support or lawn. 
     In an embodiment, building blocks can be mobilized to move along or on the support (translate or shuffle). Such translation can be employed, for example, to allow building blocks already bound to a test ligand to rearrange into a lower energy or tighter binding configuration still bound to the test ligand. Such translation can be employed, for example, to allow the ligand access to building blocks that are on the support but not bound to the ligand. These building blocks can translate into proximity with and bind to a test ligand. 
     Building blocks can be induced to move along or on the support or to be reversibly immobilized on the support through any of a variety of mechanisms. For example, inducing mobility of building blocks can include altering the conditions of the support or lawn. That is, altering the conditions can reverse the immobilization of the building blocks, thus mobilizing them. Reversibly immobilizing the building blocks after they have moved can include, for example, returning to the previous conditions. Suitable alterations of conditions include changing pH, changing temperature, changing polarity or hydrophobicity, changing ionic strength, changing nucleophilicity or electrophilicity (e.g. of solvent or solute), and the like. 
     A building block reversibly immobilized by hydrophobic interactions can be mobilized by increasing the temperature, by exposing the surface, lawn, or building block to a more hydrophobic solvent (e.g., an organic solvent or a surfactant), or by reducing ionic strength around the building block. In an embodiment, the organic solvent includes acetonitrile, acetic acid, an alcohol, tetrahydrofuran (THF), dimethylformamide (DMF), hydrocarbons such as hexane or octane, acetone, chloroform, methylene chloride, or the like, or mixture thereof. In an embodiment, the surfactant includes a nonionic surfactant, such as a nonylphenol ethoxylate, or the like. A building block that is mobile on a support can be reversibly immobilized by hydrophobic interactions, for example, by decreasing the temperature, exposing the surface, lawn, or building block to a more hydrophilic solvent (e.g., an aqueous solvent) or increased ionic strength. 
     A building block reversibly immobilized by hydrogen bonding can be mobilized by increasing the ionic strength, concentration of hydrophilic solvent, or concentration of a competing hydrogen bonder in the environs of the building block. A building block that is mobile on a support can be reversibly immobilized through an electrostatic interaction by decreasing ionic strength of the hydrophilic solvent, or the like. 
     A building block reversibly immobilized by an electrostatic interaction can be mobilized by increasing the ionic strength in the environs of the building block. Increasing ionic strength can disrupt electrostatic interactions. A building block that is mobile on a support can be reversibly immobilized through an electrostatic interaction by decreasing ionic strength. 
     A building block reversibly immobilized by an imine, acetal, or ketal bond can be mobilized by decreasing the pH or increasing concentration of a nucleophilic catalyst in the environs of the building block. In an embodiment, the pH is about 1 to about 4. Imines, acetals, and ketals undergo acid catalyzed hydrolysis. A building block that is mobile on a support can be reversibly immobilized by a reversible covalent interaction, such as by forming an imine, acetal, or ketal bond, by increasing the pH. 
     In an embodiment, building blocks can be mobilized to leave the support and enter a fluid (e.g., liquid) phase separate from the support or lawn (exchange). For example, building blocks can be exchanged onto and/or off of the support. Exchange can be employed, for example, to allow building blocks on a support but not bound to a test ligand to be removed from the support. Exchange can be employed, for example, to add additional building blocks to the support. The added building blocks can have structures selected based on knowledge of the structures of the building blocks in artificial receptors that bind the test ligand. The added building blocks can have structures selected to provide additional structural diversity. The added building blocks can include all of the building blocks. 
     A building block reversibly immobilized by hydrophobic interactions can be released from the support by, for example, raising the temperature, e.g., of the support and/or artificial receptor. For example, the hydrophobic interactions (e.g., the hydrophobic group on the support or lawn and on the building block) can be selected to provide immobilized building block at about room temperature or below and release can be accomplished at a temperature above room temperature. For example, the hydrophobic interactions can be selected to provide immobilized building block at about refrigerator temperature (e.g., 4° C.) or below and release can be accomplished at a temperature of, for example, room temperature or above. By way of further example, a building block can be reversibly immobilized by hydrophobic interactions, for example, by contacting the surface or artificial receptor with a fluid containing the building block and that is at or below room temperature. 
     A building block reversibly immobilized by hydrophobic interactions can be released from the support by, for example, contacting the artificial receptor with a sufficiently hydrophobic fluid (e.g., an organic solvent or a surfactant). In an embodiment, the organic solvent includes acetonitrile, acetic acid, an alcohol, tetrahydrofuran (THF), dimethylformamide (DMF), hydrocarbons such as hexane or octane, acetone, chloroform, methylene chloride, or the like, or mixture thereof. In an embodiment, the surfactant includes a nonionic surfactant, such as a nonylphenol ethoxylate, or the like. Such reversible immobilization can also be effected by contacting the surface or artificial receptor with a hydrophilic solvent and allowing the somewhat lipophilic building block to partition on to the hydrophobic surface or lawn. 
     A building block reversibly immobilized by an imine, acetal, or ketal bond can be released from the support by, for example, contacting the artificial receptor with fluid having an acid pH or including a nucleophilic catalyst. In an embodiment, the pH is about 1 to about 4. A building block can be reversibly immobilized by a reversible covalent interaction, such as by forming an imine, acetal, or ketal bond, by contacting the surface or artificial receptor with fluid having a neutral or basic pH. 
     A building block reversibly immobilized by an electrostatic interaction can be released by, for example, contacting the artificial receptor with fluid having sufficiently high ionic strength to disrupt the electrostatic interaction. A building block can be reversibly immobilized through an electrostatic interaction by contacting the surface or artificial receptor with fluid having ionic strength that promotes electrostatic interaction between the building block and the support and/or lawn. 
     Test Ligands 
     The test ligand can be any ligand for which binding to an array or surface can be detected. The test ligand can be a pure compound, a mixture, or a “dirty” mixture containing a natural product or pollutant. Such dirty mixtures can be tissue homogenate, biological fluid, soil sample, water sample, or the like. 
     Test ligands include prostate specific antigen, other cancer markers, insulin, warfarin, other anti-coagulants, cocaine, other drugs-of-abuse, markers for  E. coli , markers for  Salmonella  sp., markers for other food-borne toxins, food-borne toxins, markers for Smallpox virus, markers for anthrax, markers for other possible toxic biological agents, pharmaceuticals and medicines, pollutants and chemicals in hazardous waste, toxic chemical agents, markers of disease, pharmaceuticals, pollutants, biologically important cations (e.g., potassium or calcium ion), peptides, carbohydrates, enzymes, bacteria, viruses, mixtures thereof, and the like. In certain embodiments, the test ligand can be at least one of small organic molecules, inorganic/organic complexes, metal ion, mixture of proteins, protein, nucleic acid, mixture of nucleic acids, mixtures thereof, and the like. 
     Suitable test ligands include any compound or category of compounds described elsewhere in this document as being a test ligand, including, for example, the microbes, proteins, cancer cells, drugs of abuse, and the like described above. 
     The present invention may be better understood with reference to the following examples. These examples are intended to be representative of specific embodiments of the invention, and are not intended as limiting the scope of the invention. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1 
     Synthesis of Building Blocks 
     Selected building blocks representative of the alkyl-aromatic-polar span of the an embodiment of the building blocks were synthesized and demonstrated effectiveness of these building blocks for making candidate artificial receptors. These building blocks were made on a framework that can be represented by tyrosine and included numerous recognition element pairs. These recognition element pairs include enough of the range from alkyl, to aromatic, to polar to represent a significant degree of the interactions and functional groups of the full set of 81 such building blocks. 
     Synthesis 
     Building block synthesis employed a general procedure outlined in Scheme 7, which specifically illustrates synthesis of a building block on a tyrosine framework with recognition element pair A4B4. This general procedure was employed for synthesis of building blocks including TyrA1B1 [1-1], TyrA2B2, TyrA2B4, TyrA2B6, TyrA2B8, TyrA4B2, TyrA4B4, TyrA4B6, TyrA4B8, TyrA6B2, TyrA6B4, TyrA6B6, TyrA6B8, TyrA8B2, TyrA8B4, TyrA8B6, TyrA8B8, and TyrA9B9, respectively. 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Results 
     Synthesis of the desired building blocks proved to be generally straightforward. These syntheses illustrate the relative simplicity of preparing the building blocks with 2 recognition elements having different structural characteristics or structures (e.g. A4B2, A6B3, etc.) once the building blocks with corresponding recognition elements (e.g. A2B2, A4B4, etc) have been prepared via their X BOC intermediate. 
     The conversion of one of these building blocks to a building block with a lipophilic linker can be accomplished by reacting the activated building block with, for example, dodecyl amine. 
     Example 2 
     Preparation and Evaluation of Microarrays of Candidate Artificial Receptors 
     Microarrays of candidate artificial receptors were made and evaluated for binding several protein ligands. The results obtained demonstrate the 1) the simplicity with which microarrays of candidate artificial receptors can be prepared, 2) binding affinity and binding pattern reproducibility, 3) significantly improved binding for building block heterogeneous receptor environments when compared to the respective homogeneous controls, and 4) ligand distinctive binding patterns (e.g., working receptor complexes). 
     Materials and Methods 
     Building blocks were synthesized and activated as described in Example 1. The building blocks employed in this example were TyrA1B1 [1-1], TyrA2B2, TyrA2B4, TyrA2B6, TyrA4B2, TyrA4B4, TyrA4B6, TyrA6B2, TyrA6B4, and TyrA6B6. The abbreviation for the building block including a linker, a tyrosine framework, and recognition elements AxBy is TyrAxBy. 
     Microarrays for the evaluation of the 130 n=2 and n=3, and for evaluation of the 273 n=2, n=3, and n=4, candidate receptor environments were prepared as follows by modifications of known methods. As used herein, “n” is the number of different building blocks employed in a receptor environment. Briefly: Amine modified (amine “lawn”; SuperAmine Microarray plates) microarray plates were purchased from Telechem Inc., Sunnyvale, Calif. (www.arrayit.com). These plates were manufactured specifically for microarray preparation and had a nominal amine load of 2-4 amines per square nm according to the manufacturer. The CAM microarrays were prepared using a pin microarray spotter instrument from Telechem Inc. (SpotBot™ Arrayer) typically with 200 um diameter spotting pins from Telechem Inc. (Stealth Micro Spotting Pins, SMP6) and 400-420 um spot spacing. 
     The 9 building blocks were activated in aqueous dimethylformamide (DMF) solution as described above. For preparing the 384-well feed plate, the activated building block solutions were diluted 10-fold with a solution of DMF/H 2 O/PEG400 (90/10/10, v/v/v; PEG400 is polyethylene glycol nominal 400 FW, Aldrich Chemical Co., Milwaukee, Wis.). These stock solutions were aliquotted (10 μl per aliquot) into the wells of a 384-well microwell plate (Telechem Inc.). A separate series of controls were prepared by aliquotting 10 μl of building block with either 10 μl or 20 μl of the activated [1-1] solution. The plate was covered with aluminum foil and placed on the bed of a rotary shaker for 15 minutes at 1,000 RPM. This master plate was stored covered with aluminum foil at −20° C. when not in use. 
     For preparing the 384-well SpotBot™ plate, a well-to-well transfer (e.g. A-1 to A-1, A-2 to A-2, etc.) from the feed plate to a second 384-well plate was performed using a 4 μl transfer pipette. This plate was stored tightly covered with aluminum foil at −20° C. when not in use. The SpotBot™ was used to prepare up to 13 microarray plates per run using the 4 μl microwell plate. The SpotBot™ was programmed to spot from each microwell in quadruplicate. The wash station on the SpotBot™ used a wash solution of EtOH/H 2 O (20/80, v/v). This wash solution was also used to rinse the microarrays on completion of the SpotBot™ printing run. The plates were given a final rinse with deionized (DI) water, dried using a stream of compressed air, and stored at room temperature. 
     Certain of the microarrays were further modified by reacting the remaining amines with succinic anhydride to form a carboxylate lawn in place of the amine lawn. 
     The following test ligands and labels were used in these experiments: 
     1) r-Phycoerythrin, a commercially available and intrinsically fluorescent protein with a FW of 2,000,000. 
     2) Ovalbumin labeled with the Alexa™ fluorophore (Molecular Probes Inc., Eugene, Oreg.). 
     3) BSA, bovine serum albumin, labeled with activated Rhodamine (Pierce Chemical, Rockford, Ill.) using the known activated carboxyl protocol. BSA has a FW of 68,000; the material used for this study had ca. 1.0 rhodamine per BSA. 
     4) Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) modified with extra amines and labeled as the acetamide derivative or with a 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodixoin derivative were available through known methods. Fluorescence detection of these BRP conjugates was based on the Alexa 647-tyramide kit available from Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg. 
     5) Cholera toxin labeled with the Alexa™ fluorophore (Molecular Probes Inc., Eugene, Oreg.). 
     Microarray incubation and analysis was conducted as follows: For test ligand incubation with the microarrays, solutions (e.g. 500 μl) of the target proteins in PBS-T (PBS with 20 μl/L of Tween-20) at typical concentrations of 10, 1.0 and 0.1 μg/ml were placed onto the surface of a microarray and allowed to react for, e.g., 30 minutes. The microarray was rinsed with PBS-T and DI water and dried using a stream of compressed air. 
     The incubated microarray was scanned using an Axon Model 4200A Fluorescence Microarray Scanner (Axon Instruments, Union City, Calif.). The Axon scanner and its associated software produce a false color 16-bit image of the fluorescence intensity of the plate. This 16-bit data is integrated using the Axon software to give a Fluorescence Units value (range 0-65,536) for each spot on the microarray. This data is then exported into an Excel file (Microsoft) for further analysis including mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation calculations. 
     Results 
     The CARA™: Combinatorial Artificial Receptor Array™ concept has been demonstrated using a microarray format. A CARA microarray based on N=9 building blocks was prepared and evaluated for binding to several protein and substituted protein ligands. This microarray included 144 candidate receptors (18 n=1 controls plus 6 blanks; 36 n=2 candidate receptors; 84 n=3 candidate receptors). This microarray demonstrated: 1) the simplicity of CARA microarray preparation, 2) binding affinity and binding pattern reproducibility, 3) significantly improved binding for building block heterogeneous receptor environments when compared to the respective homogeneous controls, and 4) ligand distinctive binding patterns. 
     Reading the Arrays 
     A typical false color/gray scale image of a microarray that was incubated with 2.0 μg/ml r-phycoerythrin is shown in  FIG. 18 . This image illustrates that the processes of both preparing the microarray and probing it with a protein test ligand produced the expected range of binding as seen in the visual range of relative fluorescence from dark to bright spots. 
     The starting point in analysis of the data was to take the integrated fluorescence units data for the array of spots and normalize to the observed value for the [1-1] building block control. Subsequent analysis included mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation calculations. Additionally, control values for homogeneous building blocks were obtained from the building block plus [1-1] data. 
     First Set of Experiments 
     The following protein ligands were evaluated for binding to the candidate artificial receptors in the microarray. The resulting Fluorescence Units versus candidate receptor environment data is presented in both a 2D format where the candidate receptors are placed along the X-axis and the Fluorescence Units are shown on the Y-axis and a 3D format where the Candidate Receptors are placed in an X-Y format and the Fluorescence Units are shown on the Z-axis. A key for the composition of each spot was developed (not shown). A key for the building blocks in each of the 2D and 3D representations of the results was also developed (not shown). The data presented are for 1-2 μg/ml protein concentrations. 
       FIGS. 19 and 20  illustrate binding data for r-phycoerythrin (intrinsic fluorescence).  FIGS. 21 and 22  illustrate binding data for ovalbumin (commercially available with fluorescence label).  FIGS. 23 and 24  illustrate binding data for bovine serum albumin (labeled with rhodamine).  FIGS. 25 and 26  illustrate binding data for HRP-NH-Ac (fluorescent tyramide read-out).  FIGS. 27 and 28  illustrate binding data for HRP-NH-TCDD (fluorescent tyramide read-out). 
     These results demonstrate not only the application of the CARA microarray to candidate artificial receptor evaluation but also a few of the many read-out methods (e.g. intrinsic fluorescence, fluorescently labeled, in situ fluorescence labeling) which can be utilized for high throughput candidate receptor evaluation. 
     The evaluation of candidate receptors benefits from reproducibility. The following results demonstrate that the present microarrays provided reproducible ligand binding. 
     The microarrays were printed with each combination of building blocks spotted in quadruplicate. Visual inspection of a direct plot ( FIG. 29 ) of the raw fluorescence data (from the run illustrated in  FIG. 18 ) for one block of binding data obtained for r-phycoerythrin demonstrates that the candidate receptor environment “spots” showed reproducible binding to the test ligand. Further analysis of the r-phycoerythrin data ( FIG. 18 ) led to only 9 out of 768 spots (1.2%) being deleted as outliers. Analysis of the r-phycoerythrin quadruplicate data for the entire array gives a mean standard deviation for each experimental quadruplicate set of 938 fluorescence units, with a mean coefficient of variation of 19.8%. 
     Although these values are acceptable, a more realistic comparison employed the standard deviation and coefficient of variation of the more strongly bound, more fluorescent receptors. The overall mean standard deviation unrealistically inflates the coefficient of variation for the weakly bound, less fluorescent receptors. The coefficient of variation for the 19 receptors with greater than 10,000 Fluorescent Units of bound target is 11.1%, which is well within the range required to produce meaningful binding data. 
     One goal of the CARA approach is the facile preparation of a significant number of candidate receptors through combinations of structurally simple building blocks. The following results establish that both the individual building blocks and combinations of building blocks have a significant, positive effect on test ligand binding. 
     The binding data illustrated in  FIGS. 27-28  demonstrate that heterogeneous combinations of building blocks (n=2, n=3) are dramatically superior candidate receptors made from a single building block (n=1). For example,  FIG. 20  illustrates both the diversity of binding observed for n=2, n=3 candidate receptors with fluorescent units ranging from 0 to ca. 40,000. These data also illustrate and the ca. 10-fold improvement in binding affinity obtained upon going from the homogeneous (n=1) to heterogeneous (n=2, n=3) receptor environments. 
     The effect of heterogeneous building blocks is most easily observed by comparing selected n=3 receptor environments candidate receptors including 1 or 2 of those building blocks (their n=2 and n=1 subsets).  FIGS. 30 and 31  illustrate this comparison for two different n=3 receptor environments using the r-phycoerythrin data. In these examples, it is clear that progression from the homogeneous system (n=1) to the heterogeneous systems (n=2, n=3) produces significantly enhanced binding. 
     Although van der Waals interactions are an important part of molecular recognition, it is important to establish that the observed binding is not a simple case of hydrophobic/hydrophilic partitioning. That is, that the observed binding was the result of specific interactions between the individual building blocks and the target The simplest way to evaluate the effects of hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity is to compare building block logP value with observed binding. LogP is a known and accepted measure of lipophilicity, which can be measured or calculated by known methods for each of the building blocks.  FIGS. 32 and 33  establish that the observed target binding, as measured by fluorescence units, is not directly proportional to building block logP. The plots in  FIGS. 32 and 33  illustrate a non-linear relationship between binding (fluorescence units) and building block logP. 
     One advantage of the present methods and arrays is that the ability to screen large numbers of candidate receptor environments will lead to a combination of useful target affinities and to significant target binding diversity. High target affinity is useful for specific target binding, isolation, etc. while binding diversity can provide multiplexed target detection systems. This example employed a relatively small number of building blocks to produce ca. 120 binding environments. The following analysis of the present data clearly demonstrates that even a relatively small number of binding environments can produce diverse and useful artificial receptors. 
     The target binding experiments performed for this study used protein concentrations including 0.1 to 10 μg/ml. Considering the BSA data as representative, it is clear that some of the receptor environments readily bound 1.0 ug/ml BSA concentrations near the saturation values for fluorescence units (see, e.g.,  FIG. 24 ). Based on these data and the formula weight of 68,000 for BSA, several of the receptor environments readily bind BSA at ca. 15 picomole/ml or 15 nanomolar concentrations. Additional experiments using lower concentrations of protein (data not shown) indicate that, even with a small selection of candidate receptor environments, femptomole/ml or picomolar detection limits have been attained. 
     One goal of artificial receptor development is the specific recognition of a particular target.  FIG. 34  compares the observed binding for r-phycoerythrin and BSA. Comparison of the overall binding pattern indicates some general similarities. However, comparison of specific features of binding for each receptor environment demonstrates that the two targets have distinctive recognition features as indicated by the (*) in  FIG. 34 . 
     One goal of artificial receptor development is to develop receptors which can be used for the multiplexed detection of specific targets. Comparison of the r-phycoerythrin, BSA and ovalbumin data from this study ( FIGS. 20 ,  22 , and  24 ) were used to select representative artificial receptors for each target.  FIGS. 35 ,  36 , and  37  employ data obtained in the present example to illustrate identification of each of these three targets by their distinctive binding patterns. 
     Conclusions 
     The optimum receptor for a particular target requires molecular recognition which is greater than the expected sum of the individual hydrophilic, hydrophobic, ionic, etc. interactions. Thus, the identification of an optimum (specific, sensitive) artificial receptor from the limited pool of candidate receptors explored in this prototype study, was not expected and not likely. Rather, the goal was to demonstrate that all of the key components of the CARA: Combinatorial Artificial Receptor Array concept could be assembled to form a functional receptor microarray. This goal has been successfully demonstrated. 
     This study has conclusively established that CARA microarrays can be readily prepared and that target binding to the candidate receptor environments can be used to identify artificial receptors and test ligands. In addition, these results demonstrate that there is significant binding enhancement for the building block heterogeneous (n=2, n=3, or n=4) candidate receptors when compared to their homogeneous (n=1) counterparts. When combined with the binding pattern recognition results and the demonstrated importance of both the heterogeneous receptor elements and heterogeneous building blocks, these results clearly demonstrate the significance of the CARA Candidate Artificial Receptor-&gt;Lead Artificial Receptor-&gt;Working Artificial Receptor strategy. 
     Example 3 
     Preparation and Evaluation of Microarrays of Candidate Artificial Receptors Including Reversibly Immobilized Building Blocks 
     Microarrays of candidate artificial receptors including building blocks immobilized through van der Waals interactions were made and evaluated for binding of a protein ligand. The evaluation was conducted at several temperatures, above and below a phase transition temperature for the lawn (vide infra). 
     Materials and Methods 
     Building blocks  2 - 2 ,  2 - 4 ,  2 - 6 ,  4 - 2 ,  4 - 4 ,  4 - 6 ,  6 - 2 ,  6 - 4 ,  6 - 6  where prepared as described in Example 1. The C12 amide was prepared using the previously described carbodiimide activation of the carboxyl followed by addition of dodecylamine. This produced a building block with a 12 carbon alkyl chain linker for reversible immobilization in the C18 lawn. 
     Amino lawn microarray plates (Telechem) were modified to produce the C18 lawn by reaction of stearoyl chloride (Aldrich Chemical Co.) in A) dimethylformamide/PEG 400 solution (90:10, v/v, PEG 400 is polyethylene glycol average MW 400 (Aldrich Chemical Co.) or B) methylene chloride/TEA solution (100 ml methylene chloride, 200 μl triethylamine) using the lawn modification procedures generally described in Example 2. 
     The C18 lawn plates where printed using the SpotBot standard procedure as described in Example 2. The building blocks were in printing solutions prepared by solution of ca. 10 mg of each building block in 300 μl of methylene chloride and 100 μl methanol. To this stock was added 900 μl of dimethylformamide and 100 μl of PEG 400. The 36 combinations of the 9 building blocks taken two at a time (N9:n2, 36 combinations) where prepared in a 384-well microwell plate which was then used in the SpotBot to print the microarray in quadruplicate. A random selection of the print positions contained only print solution. 
     The selected microarray was incubated with a 1.0 μg/ml solution of the test ligand, cholera toxin subunit B labeled with the Alexa™ fluorophore (Molecular Probes Inc., Eugene, Oreg.), using the following variables: 1) the microarray was washed with methylene chloride, ethanol and water to create a control plate; and 2) the microarray was incubated at 4° C., 23° C., or 44° C. After incubation, the plate(s) were rinsed with water, dried and scanned (AXON 4100A). Data analysis was as described in Example 2. 
     Results 
     A control array from which the building blocks had been removed by washing with organic solvent did not bind cholera toxin ( FIG. 38 ).  FIGS. 39-41  illustrate fluorescence signals from arrays printed identically, but incubated with cholera toxin at 4° C., 23° C., or 44° C., respectively. Spots of fluorescence can be seen in each array, with very pronounced spots produced by incubation at 44° C. The fluorescence values for the spots in each of these three arrays are shown in  FIGS. 42-44 . Fluorescence signal generally increases with temperature, with many nearly equally large signals observed after incubation at 44° C. Linear increases with temperature can reflect expected improvements in binding with temperature. Nonlinear increases reflect rearrangement of the building blocks on the surface to achieve improved binding, which occurred above the phase transition for the lipid surface (vide infra). 
       FIG. 45  can be compared to  FIG. 51 . The fluorescence signals plotted in  FIG. 51  resulted from binding to reversibly immobilized building blocks on a support at 23° C. The fluorescence signals plotted in  FIG. 45  resulted from binding to covalently immobilized building blocks on a support at 23° C. These figures compare the same combinations of building blocks in the same relative positions, but immobilized in two different ways. 
     The binding to covalently immobilized building blocks was also evaluated at 4° C., 23° C., or 44° C.  FIG. 46  illustrates the changes in fluorescence signal from individual combinations of covalently immobilized building blocks at 4° C., 23° C., or 44° C. Binding increased modestly with temperature. The mean increase in binding was 1.3-fold. A plot of the fluorescence signal for each of the covalently immobilized artificial receptors at 23° C. against its signal at 44° C. (not shown) yields a linear correlation with a correlation coefficient of 0.75. This linear correlation indicates that the mean 1.3-fold increase in binding is a thermodynamic effect and not optimization of binding. 
       FIG. 47  illustrates the changes in fluorescence signal from individual combinations of reversibly immobilized building blocks at 4° C., 23° C., or 44° C. This graph illustrates that at least one combination of building blocks (candidate artificial receptor) exhibited a signal that remained constant as temperature increased. At least one candidate artificial receptor exhibited an approximately linear increase in signal as temperature increased. Such a linear increase indicates normal temperature effects on binding. The candidate artificial receptor with the lowest binding signal at 4° C. became one of the best binders at 44° C. This indicates that rearrangement of the building blocks of this receptor above the phase transition for the lawn, which increases the building blocks&#39; mobility, produced increased binding. Other receptors characterized by greater changes in binding between 23° C. and 44° C. (compared to between 4° C. and 23° C.) also underwent dynamic affinity optimization. 
       FIG. 48  illustrates the data presented in  FIG. 46  (lines marked A) and the data presented in  FIG. 47  (lines marked B). The increases in binding observed with the reversibly immobilized building blocks are significantly greater than the increases observed with covalently bound building blocks. Binding to reversibly immobilized building blocks increased from 23° C. and 44° C. by a median value of 6.1-fold and a mean value of 24-fold. This confirms that movement of the reversibly immobilized building blocks within the receptors increased binding (i.e., the receptor underwent dynamic affinity optimization). 
     A plot of the fluorescence signal for each of the reversibly immobilized artificial receptors at 23° C. against its signal at 44° C. (not shown) yields no correlation (correlation coefficient of 0.004). A plot of the fluorescence signal for each of the reversibly immobilized artificial receptors at 44° C. against the signal for the corresponding covalently immobilized receptor (not shown) also yields no correlation (correlation coefficient 0.004). This lack of correlation provides further evidence that movement of the reversibly immobilized building blocks within the receptors increased binding. 
       FIG. 49  illustrates a graph of the fluorescence signal at 44° C. divided by the signal at 23° C. against the fluorescence signal obtained from binding at 23° C. for the artificial receptors with reversibly immobilized receptors. This comparison indicates that the binding enhancement is independent of the initial affinity of the receptor for the test ligand. 
     Table 1 identifies the reversibly immobilized building blocks making up each of the artificial receptors, lists the fluorescence signal (binding strength) at 44° C. and 23° C., and the ratios of the observed binding at these two temperatures. These data illustrate that each artificial receptor reflects a unique attribute for each combination of building blocks relative to the role of each individual building block. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Building Blocks 
                   
                   
                 Ratio 
               
               
                 Making Up 
                   
                   
                 of Signals, 
               
               
                 Receptor 
                 Signal at 44° C. 
                 Signal at 23° C. 
                 44° C./23° C. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 22 24 
                 24136 
                 4611 
                 5.23 
               
               
                 22 26 
                 16660 
                 43 
                 387.44 
               
               
                 22 42 
                 17287 
                 −167 
                 −103.51 
               
               
                 22 44 
                 16726 
                 275 
                 60.82 
               
               
                 22 46 
                 25016 
                 3903 
                 6.41 
               
               
                 22 62 
                 13990 
                 3068 
                 4.56 
               
               
                 22 64 
                 15294 
                 3062 
                 4.99 
               
               
                 22 66 
                 11980 
                 3627 
                 3.30 
               
               
                 24 26 
                 22688 
                 1291 
                 17.57 
               
               
                 24 42 
                 26808 
                 −662 
                 −40.50 
               
               
                 24 44 
                 23154 
                 904 
                 25.61 
               
               
                 24 46 
                 42197 
                 2814 
                 15.00 
               
               
                 24 62 
                 19374 
                 2567 
                 7.55 
               
               
                 24 64 
                 27599 
                 262 
                 105.34 
               
               
                 24 66 
                 16238 
                 5334 
                 3.04 
               
               
                 26 42 
                 22282 
                 4974 
                 4.48 
               
               
                 26 44 
                 26240 
                 530 
                 49.51 
               
               
                 26 46 
                 23144 
                 4273 
                 5.42 
               
               
                 26 62 
                 29022 
                 4920 
                 5.90 
               
               
                 26 64 
                 23416 
                 5551 
                 4.22 
               
               
                 26 66 
                 19553 
                 5353 
                 3.65 
               
               
                 42 44 
                 29093 
                 6555 
                 4.44 
               
               
                 42 46 
                 18637 
                 3039 
                 6.13 
               
               
                 42 62 
                 22643 
                 4853 
                 4.67 
               
               
                 42 64 
                 20836 
                 6343 
                 3.28 
               
               
                 42 66 
                 14391 
                 9220 
                 1.56 
               
               
                 44 46 
                 25600 
                 3266 
                 7.84 
               
               
                 44 62 
                 15544 
                 4771 
                 3.26 
               
               
                 44 64 
                 25842 
                 3073 
                 8.41 
               
               
                 44 66 
                 22471 
                 5142 
                 4.37 
               
               
                 46 62 
                 32764 
                 8522 
                 3.84 
               
               
                 46 64 
                 21901 
                 3343 
                 6.55 
               
               
                 46 66 
                 23516 
                 3742 
                 6.28 
               
               
                 62 64 
                 24069 
                 7149 
                 3.37 
               
               
                 62 66 
                 15831 
                 2424 
                 6.53 
               
               
                 64 66 
                 21310 
                 2746 
                 7.76 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Conclusions 
     This experiment demonstrated that an array including reversibly immobilized building blocks binds a protein substrate, like an array with covalently immobilized building blocks. The binding increased nonlinearly as temperature increased, indicating that movement of the building blocks increased binding. Many of the candidate artificial receptors demonstrated improved binding upon mobilization of the building blocks. 
     Example 4 
     The Oligosaccharide Portion of GM1 Competes with Artificial Receptors for Binding to Cholera Toxin 
     Microarrays of candidate artificial receptors were made and evaluated for binding of cholera toxin. The arrays were also evaluated for disrupting that binding. Disrupting of binding employed a compound that binds to cholera toxin, the oligosaccharide moiety from GM1 (GM1 OS). The results obtained demonstrate that a ligand of a protein specifically disrupted binding of the protein to the microarray. 
     Materials and Methods 
     Building blocks were synthesized and activated as described in Example 1. The building blocks employed in this example were TyrA1B1 [1-1], TyrA2B2, TyrA2B4, TyrA2B6, TyrA2B8, TyrA3B3, TyrA3B5, TyrA3B7, TyrA4B2, TyrA4B4, TyrA4B6, TyrA4B8, TyrA5B3, TyrA5B5, TyrA5B7, TyrA6B2, TyrA6B4, TyrA6B6, TyrA6B8, TyrA7B3, TyrA7B5, TyrA7B7, TyrA8B2, TyrA8B4, TyrA8B6, and TyrA8B8. The abbreviation for the building block including a linker, a tyrosine framework, and recognition elements AxBy is TyrAxBy. 
     Microarrays for the evaluation of the 171 n=2 candidate receptor environments were prepared as follows by modifications of known methods. An “n=2” receptor environment includes two different building blocks. Briefly: Amine modified (amine “lawn”; SuperAmine Microarray plates) microarray plates were purchased from Telechem Inc., Sunnyvale, Calif. These plates were manufactured specifically for microarray preparation and had a nominal amine load of 2-4 amines per square nm according to the manufacturer. The microarrays were prepared using a pin microarray spotter instrument from Telechem Inc. (SpotBot™ Arrayer) typically with 200 μm diameter spotting pins from Telechem Inc. (Stealth Micro Spotting Pins, SMP6) and 400-420 μm spot spacing. 
     The 19 building blocks were activated in aqueous dimethylformamide (DMF) solution as described above. For preparing the 384-well feed plate, the activated building block solutions were diluted 10-fold with a solution of DMF/H 2 O/PEG400 (90/10/10, v/v/v; PEG400 is polyethylene glycol nominal 400 FW, Aldrich Chemical Co., Milwaukee, Wis.). These stock solutions were aliquotted (10 μl per aliquot) into the wells of a 384-well microwell plate (Telechem Inc.). Control spots included the building block [1-1]. The plate was covered with aluminum foil and placed on the bed of a rotary shaker for 15 minutes at 1,000 RPM. This master plate was stored covered with aluminum foil at −20° C. when not in use. 
     For preparing the 384-well SpotBot™ plate, a well-to-well transfer (e.g. A-1 to A-1, A-2 to A-2, etc.) from the feed plate to a second 384-well plate was performed using a 4 μl transfer pipette. This plate was stored tightly covered with aluminum foil at −20° C. when not in use. The SpotBot™ was used to prepare up to 13 microarray plates per run using the 4 μl microwell plate. The SpotBot™ was programmed to spot from each microwell in quadruplicate. The wash station on the SpotBot™ used a wash solution of EtOH/H 2 O (20/80, v/v). This wash solution was adjusted to pH 4 with 1 M HCl and used to rinse the microarrays on completion of the SpotBot™ printing run. The plates were given a final rinse with deionized (DI) water, dried using a stream of compressed air, and stored at room temperature. The microarrays were further modified by reacting the remaining amines with acetic anhydride to form an acetamide lawn in place of the amine lawn. 
     The test ligand employed in these experiments was cholera toxin labeled with the Alexa™ fluorophore (Molecular Probes Inc., Eugene, Oreg.). The candidate disruptor employed in these experiments was GM1 OS (GM1 oligosaccharide), a known ligand for cholera toxin. 
     Microarray incubation and analysis was conducted as follows: For control incubations with the microarrays, solutions (e.g. 500 μl) of the cholera toxin in PBS-T (PBS with 20 μl/L of Tween-20) at a concentrations of 1.7 pmol/ml (0.1 μg/ml) was placed onto the surface of a microarray and allowed to react for 30 minutes. For disruptor incubations with the microarrays, solutions (e.g. 500 μl) of the cholera toxin (1.7 pmol/ml, 0.1 μg/ml) and the desired concentration of GM1 OS in PBS-T (PBS with 20 μl/L of Tween-20) was placed onto the surface of a microarray and allowed to react for 30 minutes. GM1 OS was added at 0.34 and at 5.1 μM in separate experiments. After either of these incubations, the microarray was rinsed with PBS-T and DI water and dried using a stream of compressed air. 
     The incubated microarray was scanned using an Axon Model 4200A Fluorescence Microarray Scanner (Axon Instruments, Union City, Calif.). The Axon scanner and its associated software produce a false color 16-bit image of the fluorescence intensity of the plate. This 16-bit data is integrated using the Axon software to give a Fluorescence Units value (range 0-65,536) for each spot on the microarray. This data is then exported into an Excel file (Microsoft) for further analysis including mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation calculations. 
     Table 2 identifies the building blocks in each of the first 150 receptor environments. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Building Blocks 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 1 
                 22 24 
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 22 28 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 22 42 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 22 46 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 22 55 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 22 64 
               
               
                   
                 7 
                 22 68 
               
               
                   
                 8 
                 22 82 
               
               
                   
                 9 
                 22 86 
               
               
                   
                 10 
                 24 26 
               
               
                   
                 11 
                 24 33 
               
               
                   
                 12 
                 24 44 
               
               
                   
                 13 
                 26 77 
               
               
                   
                 14 
                 26 84 
               
               
                   
                 15 
                 26 88 
               
               
                   
                 16 
                 28 42 
               
               
                   
                 17 
                 22 26 
               
               
                   
                 18 
                 22 33 
               
               
                   
                 19 
                 22 44 
               
               
                   
                 20 
                 22 48 
               
               
                   
                 21 
                 22 62 
               
               
                   
                 22 
                 22 66 
               
               
                   
                 23 
                 22 77 
               
               
                   
                 24 
                 22 84 
               
               
                   
                 25 
                 22 88 
               
               
                   
                 26 
                 24 28 
               
               
                   
                 27 
                 24 42 
               
               
                   
                 28 
                 26 82 
               
               
                   
                 29 
                 26 85 
               
               
                   
                 30 
                 28 33 
               
               
                   
                 31 
                 28 44 
               
               
                   
                 32 
                 28 46 
               
               
                   
                 33 
                 28 55 
               
               
                   
                 34 
                 28 64 
               
               
                   
                 35 
                 28 68 
               
               
                   
                 36 
                 28 82 
               
               
                   
                 37 
                 28 86 
               
               
                   
                 38 
                 33 42 
               
               
                   
                 39 
                 33 46 
               
               
                   
                 40 
                 42 88 
               
               
                   
                 41 
                 44 48 
               
               
                   
                 42 
                 44 62 
               
               
                   
                 43 
                 44 66 
               
               
                   
                 44 
                 44 77 
               
               
                   
                 45 
                 44 84 
               
               
                   
                 46 
                 44 88 
               
               
                   
                 47 
                 46 55 
               
               
                   
                 48 
                 28 48 
               
               
                   
                 49 
                 28 62 
               
               
                   
                 50 
                 28 66 
               
               
                   
                 51 
                 28 77 
               
               
                   
                 52 
                 28 84 
               
               
                   
                 53 
                 28 88 
               
               
                   
                 54 
                 33 44 
               
               
                   
                 55 
                 44 46 
               
               
                   
                 56 
                 44 55 
               
               
                   
                 57 
                 44 64 
               
               
                   
                 58 
                 44 68 
               
               
                   
                 59 
                 44 82 
               
               
                   
                 60 
                 44 86 
               
               
                   
                 61 
                 46 48 
               
               
                   
                 62 
                 46 62 
               
               
                   
                 63 
                 24 46 
               
               
                   
                 64 
                 24 55 
               
               
                   
                 65 
                 24 64 
               
               
                   
                 66 
                 24 68 
               
               
                   
                 67 
                 24 82 
               
               
                   
                 68 
                 24 86 
               
               
                   
                 69 
                 26 28 
               
               
                   
                 70 
                 26 42 
               
               
                   
                 71 
                 26 46 
               
               
                   
                 72 
                 26 55 
               
               
                   
                 73 
                 26 64 
               
               
                   
                 74 
                 26 68 
               
               
                   
                 75 
                 33 48 
               
               
                   
                 76 
                 33 63 
               
               
                   
                 77 
                 33 66 
               
               
                   
                 78 
                 33 77 
               
               
                   
                 79 
                 24 48 
               
               
                   
                 80 
                 24 62 
               
               
                   
                 81 
                 24 66 
               
               
                   
                 82 
                 24 77 
               
               
                   
                 83 
                 24 84 
               
               
                   
                 84 
                 24 88 
               
               
                   
                 85 
                 26 33 
               
               
                   
                 86 
                 26 44 
               
               
                   
                 87 
                 26 48 
               
               
                   
                 88 
                 26 62 
               
               
                   
                 89 
                 26 66 
               
               
                   
                 90 
                 33 55 
               
               
                   
                 91 
                 33 64 
               
               
                   
                 92 
                 33 68 
               
               
                   
                 93 
                 33 82 
               
               
                   
                 94 
                 33 84 
               
               
                   
                 95 
                 33 88 
               
               
                   
                 96 
                 42 46 
               
               
                   
                 97 
                 42 55 
               
               
                   
                 98 
                 42 64 
               
               
                   
                 99 
                 42 68 
               
               
                   
                 100 
                 42 82 
               
               
                   
                 101 
                 42 86 
               
               
                   
                 102 
                 46 88 
               
               
                   
                 103 
                 48 62 
               
               
                   
                 104 
                 48 66 
               
               
                   
                 105 
                 46 77 
               
               
                   
                 106 
                 48 84 
               
               
                   
                 107 
                 48 88 
               
               
                   
                 108 
                 55 64 
               
               
                   
                 109 
                 55 68 
               
               
                   
                 110 
                 33 86 
               
               
                   
                 111 
                 42 44 
               
               
                   
                 112 
                 42 48 
               
               
                   
                 113 
                 42 62 
               
               
                   
                 114 
                 42 66 
               
               
                   
                 115 
                 42 77 
               
               
                   
                 116 
                 42 84 
               
               
                   
                 117 
                 48 55 
               
               
                   
                 118 
                 48 64 
               
               
                   
                 119 
                 48 68 
               
               
                   
                 120 
                 48 82 
               
               
                   
                 121 
                 48 86 
               
               
                   
                 122 
                 55 62 
               
               
                   
                 123 
                 55 66 
               
               
                   
                 124 
                 55 77 
               
               
                   
                 125 
                 46 64 
               
               
                   
                 126 
                 46 68 
               
               
                   
                 127 
                 46 82 
               
               
                   
                 128 
                 46 86 
               
               
                   
                 129 
                 62 77 
               
               
                   
                 130 
                 62 84 
               
               
                   
                 131 
                 62 88 
               
               
                   
                 132 
                 64 68 
               
               
                   
                 133 
                 64 82 
               
               
                   
                 134 
                 64 86 
               
               
                   
                 135 
                 66 68 
               
               
                   
                 136 
                 66 82 
               
               
                   
                 137 
                 66 86 
               
               
                   
                 138 
                 68 77 
               
               
                   
                 139 
                 68 84 
               
               
                   
                 140 
                 68 88 
               
               
                   
                 141 
                 46 66 
               
               
                   
                 142 
                 46 77 
               
               
                   
                 143 
                 46 84 
               
               
                   
                 144 
                 62 82 
               
               
                   
                 145 
                 62 86 
               
               
                   
                 146 
                 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 147 
                 64 77 
               
               
                   
                 148 
                 64 84 
               
               
                   
                 149 
                 64 88 
               
               
                   
                 150 
                 66 77 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Results 
     Low Concentration of GM1 OS 
       FIG. 50  illustrates binding of cholera toxin to the microarray of candidate artificial receptors followed by washing with buffer produced fluorescence signals. These fluorescence signals demonstrate that the cholera toxin bound strongly to certain receptor environments, weakly to others, and undetectably to some. Comparison to experiments including those reported in Example 2 indicates that cholera toxin binding was reproducible from array to array and from month to month. 
     Binding of cholera toxin was also conducted with competition from GM1 OS (0.34 μM).  FIG. 51  illustrates the fluorescence signals due to cholera toxin binding that were detected after this competition. Notably, many of the signals illustrated in  FIG. 51  are significantly smaller than the corresponding signals recorded in  FIG. 50 . The small signals observed in  FIG. 51  represent less cholera toxin bound to the array. GM1 OS significantly disrupted binding of cholera toxin to many of the receptor environments. 
     The disruption in cholera toxin binding caused by GM1 OS can be visualized as the ratio of the amount bound in the absence of GM1 OS to the amount bound in competition with GM1 OS. This ratio is illustrated in  FIG. 52 . The larger the ratio, the less cholera toxin remained bound to the artificial receptor after competition with GM1 OS. The ratio can be as large as about 30. The ratios are independent of the quantity bound in the control. 
     High Concentration of GM1 OS 
     Binding of cholera toxin to the microarray of candidate artificial receptors followed by washing with buffer produced fluorescence signals illustrated in  FIG. 53 . As before, cholera toxin was reproducible and it bound strongly to certain receptor environments, weakly to others, and undetectably to some.  FIG. 54  illustrates the fluorescence signals detected due to cholera toxin binding that were detected upon competition with GM1 OS at 5.1 μM. Again, GM1 OS significantly disrupted binding of cholera toxin to many of the receptor environments. 
     This disruption is presented as the ratio of the amount bound in the absence of GM1 OS to the amount bound after contacting with GM1 OS in  FIG. 56 . The ratios range up to about 18 and are independent of the quantity bound in the control. 
     Conclusions 
     This experiment demonstrated that binding of a test ligand to an artificial receptor of the present invention can be diminished (e.g., competed) by a candidate disruptor molecule. In this case the test ligand was the protein cholera toxin and the candidate disruptor was a compound known to bind to cholera toxin, GM1 OS. The degree to which binding of the test ligand was disrupted was independent of the degree to which the test ligand bound to the artificial receptor. 
     Example 5 
     GM1 Competes with Artificial Receptors for Binding to Cholera Toxin 
     Microarrays of candidate artificial receptors were made and evaluated for binding of cholera toxin. The arrays were also evaluated for disrupting that binding. Disrupting of binding employed a compound that binds to cholera toxin, the liposaccharide GM1. The results obtained demonstrate that a ligand of a protein specifically disrupts binding of the protein to the microarray. 
     Materials and Methods 
     Building blocks were synthesized and activated as described in Example 1. The building blocks employed in this example were TyrA1B1 [1-1], TyrA2B2, TyrA2B4, TyrA2B6, TyrA4B2, TyrA4B4, TyrA4B6, TyrA6B2, TyrA6B4, and TyrA6B6 in groups of 4 building blocks per artificial receptor. The abbreviation for the building block including a linker, a tyrosine framework, and recognition elements AxBy is TyrAxBy. 
     Microarrays for the evaluation of the 126 n=4 candidate receptor environments were prepared as described above for Example 4. The test ligand employed in these experiments was cholera toxin labeled with the Alexa™ fluorophore (Molecular Probes Inc., Eugene, Oreg.). Cholera toxin was employed at 5.3 nM in both the control and the competition experiments. The candidate disrupter employed in these experiments was GM1, a known ligand for cholera toxin, which competed at concentrations of 0.042, 0.42, and 8.4 μM. Microarray incubation and analysis was conducted as described for Example 4. 
     Table 3 identifies the building blocks in each receptor environment. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Building Blocks 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 1 
                 22 24 26 42 
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 22 24 26 44 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 22 24 26 46 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 22 24 26 61 
               
               
                   
                 5 
                 22 24 26 64 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 22 24 26 66 
               
               
                   
                 7 
                 22 24 42 44 
               
               
                   
                 8 
                 22 24 42 46 
               
               
                   
                 9 
                 22 24 42 62 
               
               
                   
                 10 
                 22 24 42 46 
               
               
                   
                 11 
                 22 24 42 66 
               
               
                   
                 12 
                 22 24 44 46 
               
               
                   
                 13 
                 22 24 44 62 
               
               
                   
                 14 
                 22 24 44 64 
               
               
                   
                 15 
                 22 24 44 66 
               
               
                   
                 16 
                 22 24 46 62 
               
               
                   
                 17 
                 22 24 46 64 
               
               
                   
                 18 
                 22 24 46 66 
               
               
                   
                 19 
                 22 24 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 20 
                 22 24 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 21 
                 22 24 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 22 
                 22 26 42 44 
               
               
                   
                 23 
                 22 26 42 46 
               
               
                   
                 24 
                 22 26 42 62 
               
               
                   
                 25 
                 22 26 42 64 
               
               
                   
                 26 
                 22 26 42 66 
               
               
                   
                 27 
                 22 26 44 46 
               
               
                   
                 28 
                 22 26 44 62 
               
               
                   
                 29 
                 22 26 44 64 
               
               
                   
                 30 
                 22 26 44 66 
               
               
                   
                 31 
                 22 26 46 62 
               
               
                   
                 32 
                 22 26 46 64 
               
               
                   
                 33 
                 22 26 46 66 
               
               
                   
                 34 
                 22 26 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 35 
                 22 26 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 36 
                 22 26 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 37 
                 22 42 44 46 
               
               
                   
                 38 
                 22 42 44 62 
               
               
                   
                 39 
                 22 42 44 64 
               
               
                   
                 40 
                 22 42 44 66 
               
               
                   
                 41 
                 22 42 46 62 
               
               
                   
                 42 
                 22 42 46 64 
               
               
                   
                 43 
                 22 42 46 66 
               
               
                   
                 44 
                 22 42 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 45 
                 22 42 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 46 
                 22 42 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 47 
                 22 44 46 62 
               
               
                   
                 48 
                 22 44 46 64 
               
               
                   
                 49 
                 22 44 46 66 
               
               
                   
                 50 
                 22 44 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 51 
                 22 44 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 52 
                 22 44 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 53 
                 22 46 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 54 
                 22 46 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 55 
                 22 46 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 56 
                 22 62 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 57 
                 24 26 42 44 
               
               
                   
                 58 
                 24 26 42 46 
               
               
                   
                 59 
                 24 26 42 62 
               
               
                   
                 60 
                 24 26 42 64 
               
               
                   
                 61 
                 24 26 42 66 
               
               
                   
                 62 
                 24 26 44 46 
               
               
                   
                 63 
                 24 26 44 62 
               
               
                   
                 64 
                 24 26 44 64 
               
               
                   
                 65 
                 24 26 44 66 
               
               
                   
                 66 
                 24 26 46 62 
               
               
                   
                 67 
                 24 26 46 64 
               
               
                   
                 68 
                 24 26 46 66 
               
               
                   
                 69 
                 24 26 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 70 
                 24 26 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 71 
                 24 26 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 72 
                 24 42 44 46 
               
               
                   
                 73 
                 24 42 44 62 
               
               
                   
                 74 
                 24 42 44 64 
               
               
                   
                 75 
                 24 42 44 66 
               
               
                   
                 76 
                 24 42 46 62 
               
               
                   
                 77 
                 24 42 46 64 
               
               
                   
                 78 
                 24 42 46 66 
               
               
                   
                 79 
                 24 42 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 80 
                 24 42 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 81 
                 24 42 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 82 
                 24 44 46 62 
               
               
                   
                 83 
                 24 44 46 64 
               
               
                   
                 84 
                 24 44 46 66 
               
               
                   
                 85 
                 24 44 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 86 
                 24 44 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 87 
                 24 44 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 88 
                 24 46 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 89 
                 24 46 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 90 
                 24 46 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 91 
                 24 62 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 92 
                 26 42 44 46 
               
               
                   
                 93 
                 26 42 44 62 
               
               
                   
                 94 
                 26 42 44 64 
               
               
                   
                 95 
                 26 42 44 66 
               
               
                   
                 96 
                 26 42 46 62 
               
               
                   
                 97 
                 26 42 46 64 
               
               
                   
                 98 
                 26 42 46 66 
               
               
                   
                 99 
                 26 42 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 100 
                 26 42 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 101 
                 26 42 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 102 
                 26 44 46 62 
               
               
                   
                 103 
                 26 44 46 64 
               
               
                   
                 104 
                 26 44 46 66 
               
               
                   
                 105 
                 26 44 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 106 
                 26 44 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 107 
                 26 44 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 108 
                 26 46 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 109 
                 26 46 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 110 
                 26 46 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 111 
                 26 62 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 112 
                 42 44 46 62 
               
               
                   
                 113 
                 42 44 46 64 
               
               
                   
                 114 
                 42 44 46 66 
               
               
                   
                 115 
                 42 44 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 116 
                 42 44 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 117 
                 42 44 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 118 
                 42 46 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 119 
                 42 46 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 120 
                 42 46 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 121 
                 42 62 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 122 
                 44 46 62 64 
               
               
                   
                 123 
                 44 46 62 66 
               
               
                   
                 124 
                 44 46 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 125 
                 44 62 64 66 
               
               
                   
                 126 
                 46 62 64 66 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Results 
       FIG. 56  illustrates the fluorescence signals produced by binding of cholera toxin to the microarray of candidate artificial receptors alone and in competition with each of the three concentrations of GM1. The magnitude of the fluorescence signal decreases steadily with increasing concentration of GM1. The amount of decrease is not quantitatively identical for all of the receptors, but each receptor experienced decreased binding of cholera toxin. These decreases indicate that GM1 competed with the artificial receptor for binding to the cholera toxin. 
     The decreases show a pattern of relative competition for the binding site on cholera toxin. This can be demonstrated through graphs of fluorescence signal obtained at a particular concentration of GM1 against fluorescence signal in the absence of GM1 (not shown). Certain of the receptors appear at similar relative positions on these plots as concentration of GM1 increases. 
     The disruption in cholera toxin binding caused by GM1 can be visualized as the ratio of the amount bound in the absence of GM1 OS to the amount bound upon competition with GM1. This ratio is illustrated in  FIG. 57 . The larger the ratio, the more cholera toxin remained bound to the artificial receptor upon competition with GM1. The ratio can be as large as about 14. The ratios are independent of the quantity bound in the control. 
     Interestingly, in several instances minor changes in structure to the artificial receptor caused significant changes in the ratio. For example, the artificial receptor including building blocks  24 ,  26 ,  46 , and  66  differs from that including  24 ,  42 ,  46 , and  66  by only substitution of a single building block. (xy indicates building block TyrAxBy.) The substitution of building block  42  for  26  increased binding in the presence of GM1 by about 14-fold. 
     By way of further example, the artificial receptor including building blocks  22 ,  24 ,  46 , and  64  differs from that including  22 ,  46 ,  62 , and  64  by only substitution of a single building block. The substitution of building block  24  for  62  increased binding in the presence of GM1 by about 3-fold. 
     Even substitution of a single recognition element affected binding. The artificial receptor including building blocks  22 ,  24 ,  42 , and  44  differs from that including  22 ,  24 ,  42 , and  46  by only substitution of a single recognition element. The substitution of building block  44  for  46  (a change of recognition element B6 to B4) increased binding in the presence of GM1 by about 3-fold. 
     Conclusions 
     This experiment demonstrated that binding of a test ligand to an artificial receptor of the present invention can be diminished (e.g., competed) by a candidate disruptor molecule. In this case the test ligand was the protein cholera toxin and the candidate disrupter was a compound known to bind to cholera toxin, GM1. Minor changes in structure of the building blocks making up the artificial receptor caused significant changes in the competition. 
     Example 6 
     GM1 Employed as a Building Block Alters Binding of Cholera Toxin to the Present Artificial Receptors 
     Microarrays of candidate artificial receptors were made, GM1 was bound to the arrays, and they were evaluated for binding of cholera toxin. The results obtained demonstrate that adding GM1 as a building block in an array of artificial receptors can increase binding to certain of the receptors. 
     Materials and Methods 
     Building blocks were synthesized and activated as described in Example 1. The building blocks employed in this example were those described in Example 4. Microarrays for the evaluation of the 171 n=2 candidate receptor environments were prepared as described above for Example 4. The test ligand employed in these experiments was cholera toxin labeled with the Alexa™ fluorophore (Molecular Probes Inc., Eugene, Oreg.). Cholera toxin was employed at 0.01 ug/ml (0.17 pM) or 0.1 ug/ml (1.7 pM) in both the control and the competition experiments. GM1 was employed as a test ligand for the artificial receptors and became a building block for receptors used to bind cholera toxin. The arrays were contacted with GM1 at either 100 μg/ml, 10 μg/ml, or 1 μg/ml as described above for cholera toxin and then rinsed with deionized water. The arrays were then contacted with cholera toxin under the conditions described above. Microarray analysis was conducted as described for Example 4. Table 2 identifies the building blocks in each receptor environment. 
     Results 
       FIG. 58  illustrates the fluorescence signals produced by binding of cholera toxin to the microarray of candidate artificial receptors without pretreatment with GM1. Binding of GM1 to the microarray of candidate artificial receptors followed by binding of cholera toxin produced fluorescence signals illustrated in  FIGS. 59 ,  60 , and  61  (100 μg/ml, 10 μg/ml, and 1 μg/ml GM1, respectively). 
     The enhancement of cholera toxin binding caused by pretreatment with GM1 can be visualized as the ratio of the amount bound in the presence of GM1 to the amount bound in the absence of GM1. This ratio is illustrated in  FIG. 62  for 1 μg/ml GM1. The larger the ratio, the more cholera toxin bound to the artificial receptor after pretreatment with GM1. The ratio can be as large as about 16. 
     In several instances minor changes in structure to the artificial receptor caused significant changes in the ratio. For example, the artificial receptor including building blocks  46  and  48  differs from that including  46  and  88  by only substitution of a single recognition element on a single building block. (xy indicates building block TyrAxBy.) The substitution of building block  48  for  88  (a change of recognition element A8 to A4) increased the ratio representing increased binding the presence of GM1 building block from about 0.5 to about 16. Similarly, the artificial receptor including building blocks  42  and  77  differs from that including  24  and  77  by only substitution of a single building block. The substitution of building block  42  for  24  increased the ratio representing increased binding the presence of GM1 building block from about 2 to about 14. 
     Interestingly, several building blocks that exhibited high levels of binding of cholera toxin (signals of 45,000 to 65,000 fluorescence units) and that include the building block  33  were not strongly affected by the presence of GM1 as a building block. 
     Conclusions 
     This experiment demonstrated that binding of GM1 to an artificial receptor of the present invention can significantly increase binding by cholera toxin. Minor changes in structure of the building blocks making up the artificial receptor caused significant changes in the degree to which GM1 enhanced binding of cholera toxin. 
     Discussion of Examples 4-6 
     We have previously demonstrated that an array of working artificial receptors bind to a protein target in a manner which is complementary to the specific environment presented by each region of the proteins surface topology. Thus the pattern of binding of a protein target to an array of working artificial receptors describes the proteins surface topology; including surface structures which participate in e.g., protein˜small molecule, protein˜peptide, protein-protein, protein˜carbohydrate, protein˜DNA, etc. interactions. It is thus possible to use the binding of a selected protein to a working artificial receptor array to characterize these protein˜small molecule, protein˜peptide, protein-protein, protein˜carbohydrate, protein˜DNA, etc. interactions. Moreover, it is possible to utilize the protein to array interactions to define “leads” for the disruption of these interactions. 
     Cholera Toxin B sub-unit binds to GM1 on the cell surface (structure of GM1). Studies to identify competitors to this binding event have shown that competitors to the cholera toxin: GM1 binding interaction (binding site) can utilize both a sugar and an alkyl/aromatic functionality (Pickens, et al.,  Chemistry and Biology , vol. 9, pp 215-224 (2002)). We have previously demonstrated that fluorescently labeled Cholera Toxin B sub-unit binds to arrays of working artificial receptors to give a defined binding pattern which (vida infra) reflects cholera toxin B&#39;s surface topology. For this study, we sought to demonstrate that the binding of the cholera toxin to at least some members of the array could be disrupted using cholera toxins natural ligand, GM1. 
     The results presented in the figures clearly demonstrate that these goals have been achieved. Specifically, competition between the GM1 OS pentasaccharide or GM1 and a working artificial receptor array for cholera binding clearly gave a binding pattern which was distinct from the cholera binding pattern control. Moreover, these results demonstrated the complementarity between several of the working artificial receptors which contained a naphthyl moiety when compared to working artificial receptors which only contained phenyl functionality. These results are in keeping with the active site competition studies in Pickens, et al. and indicate that the naphthyl and phenyl derivatives represent good mimics/probes for the cholera to GM1 interaction. The specificity of these interactions was particularly demonstrated by the observation that the change of a single building block out of 4 in a combination of 4 building blocks system changed a non-competitive to a significantly competitive environment. These results also indicated that selected working artificial receptors can be used to develop a high-throughput screen for the further evaluation of the cholera: GM1 interaction. 
     Additionally, we sought to demonstrate that an affinity support/membrane mimic could be prepared by pre-incubating an array of artificial receptors with GM1 which would then bind/capture cholera toxin in a binding pattern which could be used to select a working artificial receptor(s) for, for example, the high-throughput screen of lead compounds which will disrupt the “cholera: membrane˜GM1 mimic”. The GM1 pre-incubation studies clearly demonstrated that several of the working artificial receptors which were poor cholera binders significantly increased their cholera binding, presumably through an affinity interaction between the cholera toxin and both the immobilized GM1 pentasaccharide moiety and the working artificial receptor building block environment. 
     It should be noted that, as used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to a composition containing “a compound” includes a mixture of two or more compounds. It should also be noted that the term “or” is generally employed in its sense including “and/or” unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. 
     It should also be noted that, as used in this specification and the appended claims, the phrase “adapted and configured” describes a system, apparatus, or other structure that is constructed or configured to perform a particular task or adopt a particular configuration to. The phrase “adapted and configured” can be used interchangeably with other similar phrases such as arranged and configured, constructed and arranged, adapted, constructed, manufactured and arranged, and the like. 
     All publications and patent applications in this specification are indicative of the level of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains. 
     The invention has been described with reference to various specific and preferred embodiments and techniques. However, it should be understood that many variations and modifications may be made while remaining within the spirit and scope of the invention.