Patent Publication Number: US-9426429-B2

Title: Scanning projective lensless microscope system

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This is a non-provisional application of, and claims priority to, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/406,916 entitled “Scanning Projective Microscopy System for 2D and 3D Imaging” filed on Oct. 26, 2010 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/482,531 entitled “ePetri: An On-Chip Cell Imaging Platform based on Sub-Pixel Perspective Sweeping Microscopy” filed on May 4, 2011. Those provisional applications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. 
     This non-provisional application is related to the following co-pending and commonly-assigned patent application, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes:
         U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/398,050 entitled “Optofluidic Microscope Device with Photosensor Array” filed on Mar. 4, 2009.   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/069,651 entitled “Super Resolution Optofluidic Microscopes for 2D and 3D Imaging” filed on Mar. 23, 2011.       

    
    
     STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
     This invention was made with government support under Grant No. AI096226 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Embodiments of the present invention generally relate to high resolution (HR) (e.g., sub-pixel resolution) microscope devices and other HR imaging devices. More specifically, certain embodiments relate to scanning projective lensless microscopy (SPLM) devices, SPLM systems and SPLM methods for two-dimensional (2D) monochromatic HR imaging, 2D HR color imaging, three-dimensional (3D) monochromatic HR imaging, and/or 3D color HR imaging. 
     The miniaturization of biomedical imaging tools has the potential to vastly change methods of medical diagnoses and scientific research. More specifically, compact, low-cost microscopes could significantly extend affordable healthcare diagnostics and provide a means for examining and automatically characterizing a large number of cells, as discussed in Psaltis, D., et al., “ Developing optofluidic technology through the fusion of microfluidics and optics ,” Nature, Vol. 442, pp. 381-386 (2006), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. Conventional optical microscopes have bulky optics, and have proven to be expensive and difficult to miniaturize. 
     Rapid advances and commercialization efforts in complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) imaging sensor technology has led to broad availability of cheap and high pixel density imaging sensor chips. In the past few years, these imaging sensor chips enabled the development of new microscopy implementations that are significantly more compact and less expensive than conventional microscopy designs with bulky optics. The optofluidic microscope and the digital in-line holographic microscope are two examples of these new developments. Some examples of optofluidic microscope technologies can be found in Heng, X., et al., “ Optofluidic microscopy—method for implementing a high resolution optical microscope on a chip ,” Lab Chip, Vol. 6, pp. 1274-1276, Cui, Xiquan, et al., “ Lensless high - resolution on - chip optofluidic microscopes for Caenorhabditis elegans and cell imaging ,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, Vol. 105, p. 10670 (2008), and Zheng, G., Lee, S A., Yang, S., Yang, C., “ Sub - pixel resolving optofluidic microscope for on - chip cell imaging. Lab Chip ,” Lab Chip, Vol. 10, pp. 3125-3129 (2010) (“Zheng”), which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. Some examples of digital in-line holographic microscopy can be found in Repetto, L., Piano, E., Pontiggia, C., “Lensless digital holographic microscope with light-emitting diode illumination,” Opt. Lett., Vol. 29, pp. 1132-1134 (2004), (“Repetto”), Mudanyali, O., et al., “ Compact, light - weight and cost - effective microscope based on lensless incoherent holography for telemedicine applications ,” Lab Chip, Vol. 10, pp. 1417-1428 (2010) (“Mudanyali”), Xu, W., Jericho, M., Meinertzhagen, I., Kreuzer, H., “ Digital in - line holography for biological applications ,” Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, Vol. 98, pp. 11301-11305 (2001) (“Xu”), Garcia-Sucerquia, J., et al., “ Digital in - line holographic microscopy ,” Appl. Opt., Vol. 45, pp. 836-850 (2006) (“Garcia-Sucerquia”), Malek M., Allano, D., Coëtmellec, S., Lebrun, D., “ Digital in - line holography: Influence of the shadow density on particle field extraction ,” Opt. Express, Vol. 12, pp. 2270-2279 (2004) (“Malek”), Isikman, S.O., et al., “ Lens - free optical tomographic microscope with a large imaging volume on a chip ,” Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, Vol. 108, pp. 7296-7301 (2011), which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. 
     Both optofluidic and in-line holographic microscopy technologies are designed to operate without lenses and, therefore, circumvent their optical limitations, such as aberrations and chromaticity. Both technologies are suitable for imaging dispersible samples, such as blood, fluid cell cultures, and other suspensions of cells or organisms. However, neither can work well with confluent cell cultures or any sample in which cells are contiguously connected over a sizable length scale. 
     In the case of an optofluidic microscope device, imaging requires fluidic (e.g., microfluidic) flow of specimens across a scanning area. Adherent, confluent, or contiguously arranged specimens are usually incompatible with imaging in a fluidic mode. In addition, the field of view may be limited by the geometry of the fluid channel. 
     In digital in-line holographic microscopy, the interference intensity distribution of a target under controlled light illumination is measured and then an image reconstruction algorithm is applied to render microscopy images of the target. Two examples of algorithms can be found in Liu, G., Scott, P., “ Phase retrieval and twin - image elimination for in - line Fresnel holograms ,” J Opt Soc Am A, Vol. 4, pp. 159-165 (1987) (“Liu”), Fienup, JR., “ Reconstruction of an object from the modulus of its Fourier transform ,” Opt Lett, Vol. 3, pp. 27-29 (1978) (“Fienup”), Koren, G., Polack, F., Joyeux, D., “ Iterative algorithms for twin - image elimination in in - line holography using finite - support constraints ,” J Opt Soc Am A, Vol. 10, pp. 423-433 (1993), which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. The image quality depends critically on the extent of the target, the scattering property and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the measurement processes, which are described in Mudanyali, and Garcia-Sucerquia, Malek, Fienup, and also in Lai, S., King, B., Neifeld, M A, “ Wave front reconstruction by means of phase - shifting digital in - line holography ,” Opt Commun., Vol. 173, pp. 155-160 (2000) (“Lai”), and Rodenburg, J., Hurst, A., Cullis, A., “ Transmission microscopy without lenses for objects of unlimited size ,” Ultramicroscopy, Vol. 107, pp. 227-231 (2007) (“Rodenburg”), which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. The method works well for well-isolated targets, such as diluted blood smear slides. However, such approaches appear to have not been applied to targets that occupy more than 0.1 mm2 in total contiguous area coverage with submicron resolution, as found in Repetto, Madanyali, Xu, Garcia-Sucerquia, and also in Biener, G., et al., “ Combined reflection and transmission microscope for telemedicine applications in field settings ,” Lab Chip, Vol. 11, pp. 2738-2743 (2011), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. 
     The reason for this limitation is well-known: the loss of phase information during the intensity recording process. In order to recover the phase information, object support has to be used in the iterative phase recovery algorithm, which involves the light field propagation back and forth between the imaging domain (where the intensity data are applied) and object domain (where a priori object constrains are applied), as discussed in Liu. When the test object is real or nonnegative, it is easy to apply the powerful normegativity support constraint to extract the phase information from the recorded diffraction intensity, as discussed in Liu. However, for digital in-line holography, light field in the object domain is complex valued and, therefore, the phase recovery is possible only if the support of the object is sufficiently isolated (i.e., sparsity constrains) or the edges are sharply defined (true boundary), as discussed in Rodenburg and Fienup and also in Denis, L., Lorenz, D., Thiébaut, E., Fournier, C., Trede, D., “ Inline hologram reconstruction with sparsity constraints ,” Opt Lett, Vol. 34, pp. 3475-3477 (2009), Zhang, F., Pedrini, G., Osten, W., “ Phase retrieval of arbitrary complex - valued fields through aperture - plane modulation ,” Phys Rev A, Vol. 75, p. 043805 (2007), which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. Furthermore, the interference nature of the technique implies that coherence-based noise sources, such as speckles and cross-interference, would be present and would need to be addressed, as discussed in Garcia-Sucerquia and Malek, and also in Xu, L., Miao, J., Asundi, A., “ Properties of digital holography based on in - line configuration,” Opt Eng, Vol.  39, pp. 3214-3219 (2000), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. Methods for mitigating problems in digital in-line holographic microscopy have been reported in Lai, Rodenburg and Mico, V., García, J., Zalevsky, Z., Javidi, B., “ Phase - Shifting Gabor Holographic Microscopy,” J Disp Technol, Vol.  6, pp. 484-489 (2010), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. The generated images based on these mitigating methods have artifacts that may arise from interference, and are identifiably different and of lower quality than images acquired with conventional microscopes due to coherence based noise sources. 
     BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     Embodiments of the present invention relate to SPLM devices, SPLM systems, and methods for generating HR (e.g., sub-pixel resolution) monochromatic 2D images, HR monochromatic 3D images, HR color 2D images, and/or HR color 3D images. An SPLM device includes a specimen surface for an object being imaged, a scanning illumination source, a light detector (e.g., CMOS imaging sensor) having a sensing surface, and a processor. The scanning illumination source sweeps a light element (e.g., set of pixels) to different locations above the object to provide illumination from different angles. The illumination generates sub-pixel shifted projections of the object on the sensing surface of the light detector. The light detector records one or more sequences of sub-pixel shifted low resolution (LR) projection images of the object. The processor can use a super-resolution algorithm to construct an HR image of the object based on a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images. 
     One embodiment is directed to a SPLM device comprising a specimen surface, a scanning illumination source comprising a light element, a light detector outside the specimen surface, and a processor. The scanning illumination source scans the light element to a plurality of scanning locations to provide illumination from different illumination angles to a specimen on the specimen surface. The light detector samples a sequence of sub-pixel shifted projection images of the specimen. The sequence of sub-pixel shifted projection images correspond to the plurality of scanning locations. The processor can construct a high resolution image of the specimen based on the sequence of sub-pixel shifted projection images and a motion vector of the projections. 
     Another embodiment is directed to an SPLM system comprising an SPLM device and a processor. The SPLM device comprises a specimen surface, a scanning illumination source comprising a light element, a light detector outside the specimen surface, and a processor. The scanning illumination source scans the light element to a plurality of scanning locations to provide illumination from different illumination angles to a specimen on the specimen surface. The light detector samples a sequence of sub-pixel shifted projection images of the specimen. The sequence of sub-pixel shifted projection images correspond to the plurality of scanning locations. The processor can construct a high resolution image of the specimen based on the sequence of sub-pixel shifted projection images and a motion vector of the projections. 
     Another embodiment is directed to a method of generating a high resolution image of an object using a SPLM device having a specimen surface, an illuminating display, a light detector outside the specimen surface, and a processor. The method receives the object on the specimen surface. The method also sequentially illuminates one or more pixels of the illuminating display at a plurality of scanning locations to provide illumination from different illumination angles to the object. The method also captures a sequence of sub-pixel shifted projection images associated with the plurality of scanning locations. The method also determines a motion vector of the sub-pixel shifted projection images at a plane and constructs a high resolution image of the object based on the sequence of sub-pixel shifted projection images and the motion vector. 
     These and other embodiments of the invention are described in further detail below. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic diagram of components and partial components of a SROFM, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 2  is a drawing of a perspective view of components and partial components of an SPLM device, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIGS. 3( a ), 3( b ), and 3( c )  are drawings of perspective views of components and partial components of an SPLM device during a scanning cycle of an imaging run, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 4( a )  and  FIG. 4( b )  are diagrams illustrating a scanning pattern on an illuminating display, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 5( a )  is an LR projection image captured by a light detector of an SPLM system at a single sampling time, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 5( b )  is an HR image reconstructed by the SPLM system, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 6( a )  is an LR projection image of a portion of a HeLa cell specimen captured by a light detector of an SPLM system at a single sampling time, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 6( b )  is an HR image reconstructed by the SPLM system, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 7( a )  is a large field of view color HR image of a confluent HeLa cell specimen constructed by an SPLM system, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 7 ( b   1 ) is an LR projection image from a small region of  FIG. 7( a ) , captured by the light detector of an SPLM system, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 7 ( c   1 ) is an LR projection image from a small region of  FIG. 7 ( b   1 ), captured by the light detector of an SPLM system, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 7 ( b   2 ) is a reconstructed HR image from the same small region of  FIG. 7( a )  constructed by an SPLM system, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 7 ( c   2 ) is a reconstructed HR image from a small region of  FIG. 7 ( b   2 ) constructed by an SPLM system, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 7( d )  is a conventional microscopy image of similar cells using a microscope with 40×, NA=0.66 objective lens. 
         FIG. 8( a )  is an HR image of a specimen having 500 nm microspheres (Polysciences) as constructed by an SPLM system, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 8( b )  is an HR image of a magnified small feature of the stained HeLa cell specimen of  FIG. 7  as constructed by an SPLM system, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 9  is a flow chart of an exemplary operation of an SPLM device, according to embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 10  is a schematic drawing of three projections on a light detector from three different illumination angles, θ 1 , θ 2 , and θ 3 , according to an embodiment of the invention. 
         FIG. 11  is a block diagram of subsystems that may be present in the SPLM system, according to embodiments of the invention. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     Embodiments of the present invention will be described below with reference to the accompanying drawings. Some embodiments include an SPLM device having a specimen surface with an object being imaged, a scanning illumination source (e.g. a smartphone), a light detector (e.g., CMOS imaging sensor) having a sensing surface, a thin transparent layer between the sensing surface and the specimen surface, and a processor. During a scanning cycle, the scanning illumination source scans (sweeps) or otherwise translates a light element (e.g., one or more pixels of an LCD) to different scanning locations to illuminate the object from different illumination angles. For example, different sets of pixels on an LCD may be sequentially illuminated. The illumination from the light element generates sub-pixel shifted projections of the object on the sensing surface of the light detector. The light detector records a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images associated with the locations of the light element at different times during the scanning cycle. Using a suitable super-resolution (SR) algorithm, the processor can construct an HR image of the object based on the sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images and a motion vector of the projections. Under different imaging schemes, the SPLM device can generate HR monochromatic 2D images, HR monochromatic 3D images, HR color 2D images, and/or HR color 3D images. In a digital focusing scheme, the SPLM device can focus an HR image of the object at a plane through the object by using a motion vector at that plane to construct the HR image. 
     Embodiments of the invention provide one or more technical advantages. In an SPLM system of embodiments, the scanning illumination source is located at a larger distance from the sensing surface as compared to the distance between the object and the sensing surface. Thus, small translations of the light element correspond to larger translations of the projections on the sensing surface. With this geometry, the scanning illumination source can easily and accurately control and maintain sub-pixel shifts of the projections. This can provide an advantage over other systems, such as prior microscanning systems, that used actuators and controller to control sub-pixel movements of the object or a platform holding the object. Another advantage of embodiments is that this method may provide an autonomous, cost effective, high quality microscopic solution for high resolution imaging of confluent samples and other samples in which objects (e.g., cells) are contiguously connected over a sizable length. 
     I. Scanning Projective Lensless Microscope (SPLM) System 
       FIG. 1  is a schematic diagram of components and partial components of an SPLM system  10 , according to embodiments of the invention. The SPLM system  10  includes an SPLM device  100  and a host computer  200 . 
     The SPLM device  100  includes a specimen surface  140  for receiving a specimen (e.g., confluent sample). The SPLM system  10  can image at least a portion of the specimen  150 . In the illustrated example, a specimen  150  with five objects  152  (e.g., cells) is located on the specimen surface  140 . Although five objects  152  are shown, the specimen  150  may have any suitable number (e.g., 1, 2, 10, 100, 1000, etc.) or portion(s) of objects  152 . 
     The SPLM device  100  also includes a scanning illumination source  110  having a first processor  112 , a first computer readable medium (CRM)  114 , and an illuminating display  116  (e.g., an LCD, a light emitting diode (LED) display, etc.). The first processor  112  is in electronic communication with the illuminating display  116  and with the first CRM  114 . The illuminating display  116  includes a light element  117  (e.g., one or more pixels of an LCD or LED display)) capable of generating illumination  118  (e.g., incoherent light). The illuminating display  116  also includes a display surface  119 . The light element  117  is located at the display surface  119  in the illustrated example. In other embodiments, a transparent layer may be located between the display surface  119  and the light element  117 . Also, a transparent layer may be located outside the display surface  119  in some embodiments. The scanning illumination source  110  also includes an x-axis, a y-axis (not shown), and a z-axis. The x-axis and y-axis lie in a plane at the display surface  119 . The z-axis is orthogonal to this plane. 
     The scanning illumination source  110  can scan (sweep) or otherwise translate the light element  117  to different scanning locations across the display surface  119  in order to provide illumination  118  to the specimen  150  from different illumination angles. The shifting light element  117  (source) of the illumination  118  generates shifting projections  170  (as shown in  FIG. 3 ) of a specimen  150  on the sensing surface  162 . In  FIG. 1 , the light element  117  is shown at a scanning position at a time, t during the scanning cycle of an imaging run. Each scanning cycle can refer to a time interval during which the scanning illumination source  110  scans or otherwise translates the light element  117  to the scanning locations in that particular scanning cycle. An imaging run can refer a time interval during which one or more operations of the SPLM system  10  generates an HR image based on light data collected during one or more scanning cycles. In embodiments, the light element  117  may shift during a scanning cycle to n×m scanning locations in a two-dimensional (n×m) array of scanning locations: (x i=1 to n , y j=1 to m ) on the display surface  119 . 
     The SPLM device  100  also includes a light detector  160  for capturing projection images. The light detector  160  includes a sensing surface  162  having a sensing area  164 . The sensing surface  162  is located at a distance, d, from the display surface  119 . The light detector  160  also includes a transparent layer  165  (e.g., thin transparent passivation layer) located between the specimen surface  140  and the sensing surface  162 . During a scanning cycle, the illumination  118  from the light element  117  generates projections  170  (shown in  FIG. 3 ) of the specimen  150  on the sensing surface  162 . The light detector  160  can sample (capture) one or more sequences of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images of the specimen  150  during a scanning cycle. Each sub-pixel shifted LR projection image can refer to an LR projection image that has shifted a sub-pixel distance from a neighboring LR projection image in the sequence. Neighboring LR projection images in a sequence can refer to two LR projection images that are proximal in distance. In some cases, neighboring LR projection images may also be projection images that have been sequentially captured in time during a scanning cycle. 
     As shown by a dotted line, the light detector  160  may optionally be in electronic communication with the first processor  112  for synchronization of sampling by the light detector  160  with scanning by the scanning illumination source  110 . The light detector  160  also includes an x′-axis, a y′-axis (not shown), a z′-axis. The x′-axis and y′-axis lie in a plane at the sensing surface  162  of the light detector  160 . The z′-axis is orthogonal to this plane. 
     The SPLM system  10  also includes a host computer  200  having a second processor  210 , a second CRM  220  in electronic communication with the second processor  210 , and an image display  230  in electronic communication with the second processor  210 . The second processor  210  can receive data associated with one or more sequences of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images from the light detector  150 . The second processor  210  can also determine a motion vector of the projections  170  at the sensing surface  162  based on the data. The second processor  210  can then use a suitable super resolution algorithm (SR algorithm) to generate one or more HR (e.g., sub-pixel resolution) images of the specimen  150  based on the motion vector and data of one or more sequences of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images. The second processor  210  is in electronic communication with the second processor  210  to display the HR images and/or other images. 
     In an exemplary imaging run of the SPLM system  10  of  FIG. 1 , the scanning illumination source  110  scans or otherwise translates the light element  117  to a two-dimensional (n×m) array of n×m scanning positions having the coordinates (x i=1 to n , y j=1 to m ) on the display surface  119 . The scanning illumination source  110  scans (sweeps) or otherwise translates the light element  117  to scanning positions according to a scanning pattern. Illumination  118  from the light element  117  at the different scanning locations generates shifted projections  170  of the specimen  150  on the sensing surface  162  of the light detector  160 . During scanning, the light detector  160  captures one or more sequences of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images at the sensing area  164 . The second processor  210  receives data for at least one of the sequences from the light detector  160 . The second processor  210  can determine a motion vector of the sub-pixel shifted projections  170  at the sensing surface  162  from the data. The second processor  210  can also construct one or more HR images of the specimen  150  using a suitable super-resolution algorithm with the data from at least one of the sequences of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images of the specimen  150  and/or the determined motion vector. 
       FIG. 2  is a drawing of a perspective view of components and partial components of an SPLM device  100 , according to embodiments of the invention. The SPLM device  100  includes a scanning illumination source  110  in the form of a mobile communication device (e.g., cell phone, tablet, etc.) and a light detector  160  in the form of a two-dimensional array of light detecting elements  166  (e.g., CMOS imaging sensor). The light detector  160  has a sensing surface  162  and a thin transparent layer  165 . A specimen  150  comprising a single object  152  (e.g., cell) is located on the specimen surface  140  (not shown). The thin transparent layer  165  lies between the sensing surface  162  and the specimen surface  140 . In this example, scanning illumination device  110  includes an illuminating display  116  (not shown) in the form of an LCD. The LCD includes a two-dimensional array of light emitting elements (e.g., pixels). The scanned light element  117  is in the form of subsequent sets of light emitting elements on the LCD  116  providing illumination  118  according to a scanning pattern. Each set may include one or more light emitting elements. The subsequent sets of light emitting elements provide illumination  118  at the two-dimensional (n×m) array of n×m scanning locations at (x i=1 to n , y j=1 to m ) on the display surface  119 . In  FIG. 2 , the light element  117  is shown at a single scanning location in the scanning cycle. The illumination  118  from the light element  117  generates a single projection  170  of the object  152  on the sensing surface  162  of the light detector  160 . 
       FIGS. 3( a ), 3( b ), and 3( c )  are drawings of perspective views of components and partial components of an SPLM device  100  during a scanning cycle of an imaging run, according to embodiments of the invention. The SPLM device  100  includes a scanning illumination source  110  providing illumination  118  and a light detector  160  in the form of a two-dimensional array of light detecting elements  166 . The light detector  160  has a sensing surface  162  and a thin transparent layer  162 . A specimen  150  comprising a single object  152  (e.g., cell) is located on the specimen surface  140 . The thin transparent layer  165  lies between the sensing surface  162  and the specimen surface  140 . The SPLM device  10  also includes an x-axis, a y-axis, and a z-axis. The x-axis and y-axis lie in the plane at the sensing surface  162  of the light detector  160 . The z-axis is orthogonal to this plane. The light element (not shown)  117  provides illumination  118  and generates light spots on the light detector  160 . 
     In  FIGS. 3( a ), 3( b ), and 3( c ) , the light element  117  (not shown) is located at three scanning positions along the x′-axis at times: t=t a , t b , and  t   c  (a&gt;b&gt;c), respectively. Illumination  118  is shown from three different scanning position to generate three shifted projections  170 ( a ),  170 ( b ), and  170 ( c ) on the sensing surface  162 , respectively. With certain shifts of the light element  117 , the object&#39;s projection (shadow) can be shifted at sub-pixel (i.e. smaller than pixel size) increments across the light detecting elements  166  (e.g. sensor pixels) of the light detector array. At times: t=t 1 , t 2 , and t 3 , the light detector  160  captures a sequence of three LR projection images corresponding to the three projections  170 ( a ),  170 ( b ), and  170 ( c ), respectively. Any suitable number of sub-pixel shifted projections may have been captured at scanning times between times, t a  and t b  or between times, t b  and t c . A motion vector of the projections  170 ( a ),  170 ( b ), and  170 ( c ) at the sensing surface  162  can be determined based on the data from a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images. An HR image of the object  152  can be constructed using a suitable SR algorithm and based on the data from a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images captured by the light detector  160 . 
     Any suitable specimen  150  may be imaged by the SPLM system  10  or the SPLM device  100 . In most cases, the specimen  150  is stationary during a scanning cycle. An example of a suitable specimen  150  is a confluent sample (e.g., confluent cell cultures) having one or more objects  152  (e.g., cells). Another example of a suitable specimen  150  is a sample in which the objects  152  are contiguously connected. The specimen  150  being imaged may include any suitable type(s) of object(s)  150  and may include any suitable number (e.g., 1, 10, 100, 1000, etc.) of objects  150  or portion(s) of an object  150 . Suitable types of objects  150  can be biological or inorganic entities. Examples of biological entities include whole cells, cell components, microorganisms such as bacteria or viruses, cell components such as proteins, etc. Inorganic entities may also be imaged by embodiments of the invention. 
     As used herein, a scanning illumination source  110  can refer to any suitable device or combination of devices capable of scanning or otherwise translating a light element  117  to n scanning positions to generate sub-pixel shifted projections  170  of a specimen  150  being imaged at a sensing surface  162  of a light detector  160 . Any number, n, of scanning positions can be used (n=1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 20, 100 etc.). By moving the light element  117 , the scanning illumination source  110  changes the illumination angles of the illumination  118  provided to the specimen  150 . In embodiments, the scanning illumination source  110  moves the light element  117  to scanning locations that generate a small range of illumination angles (e.g., +/−2 degrees) in X/Y around the normal to the sensing surface or other plane of interest. 
     An example of a suitable scanning illumination device  110  is a mobile communication device (e.g., cell phone, tablet, etc.). Suitable scanning illumination sources  110  commercially available. Illustrated examples of a suitable scanning illumination device  110  in the form of a smartphone are shown in  FIGS. 2 and 4 . Another example of a suitable scanning illumination device  110  may be a tomographic phase microscope that uses a spatial light modulator to scan illumination. 
     In embodiments, the scanning illumination source  110  may include an illuminating display  116  for scanning the light element  117  to generate sub-pixel shifted projections  170  at the sensing surface  162 . An illuminating display  116  can refer to any suitable display capable of translating a light element  117  to scanning locations across at least a portion of a display surface  119 . Suitable illuminating displays  116  are commercially available. Some examples of suitable illuminating displays  116  include monochromatic, color, or gray-scale LCDs, LED displays (e.g., display panels), television screens, LCD matrixes, etc. In these embodiments, the illuminating display  116  may include a two-dimensional array of light emitting elements (e.g., pixels). The array of light emitting elements may have any suitable dimension (e.g., 1000×1000, 1000×4000, 3000×5000 etc.). The display surface  119  can refer to a surface of the illuminating display  116  that provides illumination  118 . For example, the scanning illumination source  110  may be in the form of a smartphone with an illuminating display  116  in the form of an LCD screen, as shown in  FIGS. 2 and 4 . In other embodiments, the scanning illumination source  110  may include another device or combination of devices capable of scanning the light element  117  to generate sub-pixel shifted projections  170  at the sensing surface  162 . 
     The scanning illumination source  110  may be held at a fixed position relative to the light detector  160  and the transparent layer  165  during scanning in some embodiments. In these embodiments, the SPLM  100  may include a suitable structure (e.g., platform, frame, etc.) or structures to hold the scanning illumination source  110  and light detector  160  in a fixed position. In some cases, such as the illustrated example of  FIG. 1 , the scanning illumination source  110  may be held such that the display surface  119  is kept approximately parallel to the sensing surface  162  of the light detector  160  and at a distance, d, from the sensing surface  162  during scanning. In these cases, the illuminating display  116  may provide illumination  118  at angles normal to the display surface  119 . In other cases, the scanning illumination source  110  may be held so that the display surface  119  may be tilted at an angle from normal. At this angle, projections  170  from more extreme illumination angles to be captured, leading to a more complete 3D reconstruction in some cases. In one embodiment, the scanning illumination source  110  may include actuator(s) and controller(s) or other mechanism to reposition the illuminating display  116  (e.g., LCD array) at an angle from normal. 
     A light element  117  can refer to a suitable device capable of providing illumination  118 . The properties of the illumination  118  generated by the light element  117  can have any suitable values. Some properties of the illumination  118  include intensity, wavelength, frequency, polarization, phase, spin angular momentum and other light properties associated with the illumination  118  generated by the light element  117 . In embodiments, the illumination  118  is incoherent light. 
     In embodiments with an illuminating display  116  in the form of a two-dimensional array of light emitting components (e.g., pixels), a light element  117  at a particular scanning time, t may be a set of a suitable number (e.g., 1, 5, 10, 100, etc.) of illuminated light emitting components (e.g., LCD lit/pixel) in the two-dimensional array (e.g., LCD array). Each light emitting component may have a scanning location denoted as (x i , y j ) where i=1 . . . N; and j=1 . . . N. The light element  117  may be the illuminated pixels in the array at a scanning time in the scanning cycle. The scanning location of a light element  117  can refer to the coordinates of the center of the set of illuminated light emitting elements in this case. In these embodiments, sequentially illuminated sets of light emitting components(s) on an illuminating display  116  can generate light elements  117  at different scanning locations during a scanning cycle. 
     The properties (e.g., size, properties of the illumination  118 , shape, etc.) of the light element  117  may have any suitable value. In embodiments, one or more properties of the light element  117  may vary at different scanning locations in a scanning cycle. In other embodiments, the properties of the light element  117  may be constant during the scanning cycle. Some examples of suitable shapes of a light element  117  are a rectangle, circle, spot, bar, etc. In embodiments with an illuminating display  116  in the form of a two-dimensional array of light emitting elements, the properties of the light element  117  can be varied by varying the number of light emitting components in the set of light emitting components (e.g., pixels) forming the light element  117 . For example, the intensity of the illumination  118  generated by the light element  117  can be varied by changing its number of light emitting components (e.g., pixels). In embodiments, one or more properties of the illumination  118  generated by the light element  117  may change at different scanning locations. 
     In embodiments, the intensity of the illumination  118  generated by the light element  117  may be controlled by varying the size of the light element  117 . In one embodiment, the size of the light element  117  may vary at different scanning locations to generate light at approximately the same intensity at a single point at the plane of the sensing surface  162 . In this embodiment, the size, S of the light element  117  at a scanning location can be proportional to the distance, L, from the scanning location to a suitable location such as: a) the center of the array of scanning locations, or b) the center of an illuminating display  116  such as the center of an LCD on a smartphone. For example, the size, S of the light element  117  at a scanning location may be defined as: S=S center ×(1+L), where S center  is the size of the light element  117  at the center of the array of scanning locations. In this way, the light intensity received at a location at the sensing surface  162  normal to the center of the scanning locations on the display surface  119  can be kept about constant in some cases. As another example, the size S of the light element  117  at a scanning location in a scanning cycle may be defined as: S=S A ×(1+A), where S A  is the size of the light element  117  at a location A of an illuminating display  116 , A is the distance from the scanning location to the location A. 
     In one embodiment, the light element  117  can provide illumination  118  of n different wavelengths λ 1 , . . . , λ n  at different scanning times during a scanning cycle. The illumination  118  may be sequentially cycled through a series of different wavelengths as the light element  117  moves through scanning locations in a scanning cycle in some examples. In one example, the light element  117  can provide RGB illumination of three wavelengths λ 1 , λ 2 , and λ 3  corresponding to red, green, blue colors, respectively. The light element  117  may provide illumination  118  of the three wavelengths λ 1 , λ 2 , and λ 3  sequentially during scanning times of a scanning cycle. In one case, at a scanning time t 1  illumination  118  may have a wavelength of λ 1 , at t 2  illumination  118  may have an wavelength of λ 2 , at t 3  illumination  118  may have a wavelength of λ 3 , at t 4  illumination  118  may have a wavelength of λ 1 , at t 5  illumination  118  may have a wavelength of λ 2 , etc. 
     A scanning location can refer to the center of the light element  117 . Any suitable number (e.g., 1, 100, 1000, etc.) of scanning locations may be used in a scanning cycle. As a group, the scanning locations in a scanning cycle may cover any suitable area. In embodiments with a display surface  119 , the scanning locations may cover the entire display surface  119  or may cover a portion of the display surface  119 . 
     To shift projections  170  of the specimen  152  at the sensing surface  162 , the scanning illumination source  110  can translate the light element  117  to different scanning locations generating different illumination angles. To generate a sequence of sub-pixel shifted projections  170  of the specimen  152  at the sensing surface  162  in some embodiments, the scanning illumination source  110  may move the light element  117  to a plurality of scanning locations designed to generate sub-pixel shifted projections  170 . In this case, neighboring scanning locations in the plurality of scanning locations correspond to a sub-pixel shift of neighboring projections images  170  in the sequence of projection images. Neighboring scanning locations can refer to two scanning locations that are proximal in distance. In some cases, neighboring scanning locations may also be locations that are sequential in time having sequential scanning times during a scanning cycle. 
     The scanning locations may form any suitable arrangement (e.g., array, circle, square, triangle, etc.). In embodiments, the scanning locations may be in the form of an array (e.g., one-dimensional array, two-dimensional array, or combination of one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays) of scanning locations. In these embodiments, the array of scanning locations may have any suitable dimension (e.g. 1×100, 1×10, 100×100, 3000×20, 400×300 etc.). For example, the scanning locations may be arranged in a two-dimensional (n×m) array of n×m scanning locations at (x i=1 to n , y j=1 to m ). 
     In embodiments with an illuminating display  116  (e.g., LCD display) in the form of a two-dimensional array of light emitting elements (e.g. pixels), the scanning locations of the light element  117  can refer to subsequently illuminated light emitting elements in the two-dimensional array. In these embodiments, the scanning locations of the light element  117  may be located at the display surface  119 . For example, the scanning locations may be in the form of a two-dimensional (n×m) array of n×m scanning locations at (x i=1 to n , y j=1 to m ) on the display surface  119 . 
     In embodiments, the scanning illumination source  110  the light element  117  during a scanning cycle according to a scanning pattern. A scanning pattern can refer to a description of the scanning locations (i.e. locations of the light element  117 ) at different times during a scanning cycle and properties (e.g., size, shape, etc.) of the light element  117  at each scanning location in the scanning cycle. For example, a scanning pattern may include a two-dimensional array of scanning locations and a description that the light element  117  moves through each row sequentially at a constant rate. In another example, the scanning pattern may include a two-dimensional array of scanning locations and a description that the element moves through each column sequentially at a constant rate. As another example, the scanning pattern may include a two-dimensional array of scanning locations and a description that the element moves through the array randomly. The scanning pattern may also include the amount of sub-pixel shift desired between subsequent LR images. The scanning pattern may also include the total number of LR projection images and/or HR images desired. The scanning pattern may be stored as code on the first CRM  114  or the second CRM  220 . In embodiments with a scanning illumination source  110  in the form of a smartphone such as in  FIG. 4 , the scanning pattern may be an application (App) stored in the memory of the smartphone. 
     In embodiments such as the illustrated example of  FIG. 1 , the SPLM device  100  also includes a transparent layer  165  located between the specimen surface  140  and the sensing surface  162 . The transparent layer  165  can separate the specimen  150  from the light sensitive region of the light detector  160 . The transparent layer  165  may be made of any suitable material such as Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). The transparent layer  165  may have any suitable thickness (e.g., thickness in the range of several hundred nanometers to microns). In some cases, the transparent layer  165  may be a layer placed on the light detector  160 . For example, the transparent layer  165  may be a passivation layer coated or deposited on top of an imaging sensor chip. In other cases, the transparent layer  165  may be separate from the light detector  160 . In other embodiments, the SPLM device  100  does not have a transparent layer  165  and the sensing surface  162  is coincident with the specimen surface  140 . 
     The distance between neighboring projections  170  is proportional to the thickness of the transparent layer  165  and the tilt/shift extent of the light element  117 . The tilt/shift extent of the light element  117  can refer to the distance or illumination angle change between neighboring scanning locations. In some embodiments, the distance between neighboring scanning locations in a plurality of the scanning locations of a scanning cycle can be designed to generate sub-pixel shifted projections  170 . In these cases, the distance between the neighboring scanning locations can be determined based on the thickness of the transparent layer  165  and the required incremental sub-pixel shifts between neighboring projections  170 . 
     In embodiments, the distance between neighboring scanning locations in a plurality of scanning locations may be determined to generate sub-pixels shifts between neighboring projections  170  in a sequence of projection images. In these embodiments, the determined distance between neighboring scanning locations in the plurality of scanning locations directly corresponds to a sub-pixel shift of a projection  170  at the sensing surface  162 . In these embodiments, the plurality of scanning locations directly corresponds to a sequence of sub-pixel shifted projection images. 
     In embodiments, the distance between neighboring scanning locations may be a suitable value. In some cases, the distance between neighboring scanning locations in a given scanning cycle may be constant. In other cases, it may vary. 
     A scanning rate can refer to the rate of shifting between sequential scanning locations in a scanning cycle per unit in time. A sampling rate can refer to a rate of projection images (frames) captured by the light detector  160  per unit in time such as frames per second. The sampling/scanning rate may be constant in some embodiments and may vary in other embodiments. In embodiments, the scanning rate and sampling rate are synchronized. 
       FIG. 4( a )  and  FIG. 4( b )  are diagrams illustrating a scanning pattern on an illuminating display  116 , according to embodiments of the invention. In this example, the scanning illumination source  110  is in the form of a smartphone and the illuminating display  116  is in the form of an LCD screen of the smartphone. The LCD screen includes a two-dimensional array of pixels of a 640×640 pixel size. During scanning, the smartphone may be located at a suitable distance, d above the light detector  160  (e.g., image sensor chip). The display surface  119  of the illuminating display  116  and the sensing surface  162  of the light detector  160  may be kept approximately parallel. The smartphone may be located so that the center of the display surface  119  of the illuminating display  116  is above the sensing area  164  of the sensing surface  162  of the light detector  160 . The illuminating display  116  includes an x-axis and a y-axis. The x-axis and y-axis lie in the plane at the display surface  119  of the illuminating display  116 . 
       FIG. 4( a )  shows a light element  117  comprising a set of about 640 pixels in the form of a bright circular spot of about 1 cm in diameter on the illuminating display  116 . The light element  117  is shown at a scanning location at a scanning time during a scanning cycle. The light element  117  may be located at the display surface  119  of the illuminating display  116 . 
     In  FIG. 4( b ) , the diagram of the scanning pattern includes a 15×15 array of scanning locations (steps) of the light element  117  during the scanning cycle. The scanning locations are shown at locations along the x-axis and y-axis in the plane of the display surface  119  of the illuminating display  116 . In the illustrated example, the scanning pattern includes 15 scanning locations in the x-direction and 15 scanning locations in the y-direction. In this example, the light detector  160  may capture 225 LR projection images based on the 225 scanning locations in the scanning patter. The array of scanning positions may be centrally located within the illuminating display  116 . The arrows in  FIG. 4( b )  designate the order of the scanning locations during the scanning cycle. In this case, the light element  117  moves sequentially through each row of the two-dimensional array of scanning locations in the scanning pattern. If the light element  117  remains a constant size as it moves away from the center of the display surface  119 , the intensity readout from the light detector  160  (e.g., image sensor chip) will decrease because of the large incident angle. To maintain a more constant intensity readout, the size of the light element  117  (e.g., bright spot size) can be linearly increased as it moves away from the center of the illuminating display  116  (e.g., smartphone screen) in one embodiment. 
     Returning to  FIG. 1 , the scanning illumination source  110  includes a first processor  112  in electronic communication with the illuminating display  116  and a first CRM  114  in communication with the first processor  112 . The first processor  112  (e.g., microprocessor) can execute code stored on the first CRM  114  (e.g., memory) to perform some of the functions of the scanning illumination source  110 . For example, the first processor  112  may execute code with a scanning pattern stored on the first CRM  114 . The CRM  114  may include, for example, code with a scanning pattern, other code for scanning a light element  117 , and other codes for other functions of the scanning illumination source  110 . The first CRM  114  may also include code for performing any of the signal processing or other software-related functions that may be created by those of ordinary skill in the art. The code may be in any suitable programming language including C, C++, Pascal, etc. 
     In embodiments, the light detector  160  may be in electronic communication with the first processor  112  of the scanning illumination source  110  to synchronize sampling of the light detector  160  with the light element  117  being located at a scanning position. In these embodiments, the sampling rate of the light detector  160  may be synchronized with the scanning rate of the scanning illumination source  110  to capture at least one projection image  170  at each scanning location. In one embodiment, an electronic start sampling signal may be sent to the light detector  160  from scanning illumination source  110  to capture an LR projection image when the light element  117  is at a scanning location. 
     The SPLM device  100  also includes a light detector  160  (e.g., CMOS imaging sensor). A light detector  160  can refer to any suitable device or combination of devices capable of capturing projection images  170  and generating one or more signals with data associated with the projection images  160  captured and other data associated with imaging. The signals with data may be in the form of an electrical current from the photoelectric effect. 
     The light detector  160  includes a sensing surface  162 . A sensing surface  162  can refer to the active sensing layer of the light detector  160 . The sensing surface  162  includes a sensing area  164 . The sensing area  164  refers to a suitable area of the sensing surface  162  that actively captures projections  170  during a scanning cycle. In some cases, the entire area of a sensing surface  162  is the sensing area  164 . In embodiments, the specimen  150  being imaged may be located in an area of the specimen surface  140  proximal the sensing area  162 . The light detector  160  also includes a local x′ axis and y′ axis at a plane of the sensing surface  162 . 
     In embodiments, the light detector  160  includes discrete light detecting elements  166  (e.g., pixels) in the form of a two-dimensional array of light detecting elements  166 , as shown in  FIGS. 2 and 3 . The light detecting elements  166  may be located on or within a surface layer of the light detector  160  at the sensing surface  162 . Although the two-dimensional array of light detecting elements  166  is oriented so that the x′-axis is parallel to the x-axis of the illuminating display  116  as shown in  FIGS. 2 and 3 , the two-dimensional array may be oriented at any suitable angle in other embodiments. 
     Any suitable light detector  160  can be used. Some examples of suitable light detectors  160  having two-dimensional arrays of light detecting elements  166  include a charge coupled device (CCD) array, a CMOS imaging sensor array, an avalanche photo-diode (APD) array, a photo-diode (PD) array, and a photomultiplier tubes (PMT) array. These light detectors  160  and others are commercially available. Also, the light detector  160  can be a monochromatic detector or a color detector (e.g., RGB detector). 
     The light detecting elements  166  may be of any suitable size (e.g., 1-10 microns) and any suitable shape (e.g., circular, rectangular, square, etc.). For example, a CMOS or CCD light detecting element  166  may be 1-10 microns and an APD or PMT light detecting element  166  may be as large as 1-4 mm. 
     Due to the scattering angle of light  118  passing through a specimen  150  being imaged, projection image quality can be degraded if the specimen  150  is located away from the sensing surface  162  of the light detector  160 . In embodiments, the light detector  160  does not have a color filter and microlens layer in order to decrease the acceptance angle of each light detecting element and the distance between the object  152  and the sensing surface  120  (i.e. the active sensing layer). If the light detector  160  (e.g., a CMOS imaging sensor chip) was prefabricated with a color filter and a microlens layer, these components may be removed to decrease the acceptance angle of each pixel and the distance between the object  152  and the surface layer. 
     In embodiments, the transparent layer  165  may be placed, during fabrication, on the light detector  160 . Semiconductor and/or micro/nanofabrication procedures may be used to place the transparent layer  165  on the light detector  160 . In some cases, the transparent layer  165  may be placed on the light detector  160  after the color filter and microlens layer have been removed. In one case, the color filter and microlens layer may be removed by treating the pre-fabricated imaging sensor under oxygen plasma for a period of time (e.g., 10 minutes at 80W). The transparent layer  165  may be placed onto the imaging sensor after the removal of the color filter and microlens layer or may be placed on a light detector with the layer. In one case, the transparent layer  165  may be prepared by mixing 1:10 with base and curing agent, then spin coated on a 3 in. silicon wafer followed by baking at 80 degrees C. 
     Light data can refer to any suitable information related to the one or more projections  170  captured by the light detecting elements  166  of the light detector  160 . For example, light data may include information about the properties of the projection light received such as the intensity(ies) of the light, the wavelength(s) of the light, the frequency or frequencies of the light, the polarization(s) of the light, the phase(s) of the light, the spin angular momentum(s) of the light, and/or other light properties associated with the light received by the light detecting element  166 . Light data may also include the location of the receiving light detecting element(s)  166 , the time that the light was received (sampling time or scanning time), or other information related to the projection  170  received. In embodiments, each light detecting element  166  can generate a signal with light data based on light associated with the projection  170  and received by the light detecting element  166 . 
     An LR projection image (frame) can refer to a snapshot image sampled (captured) by the light detector  160  at a sampling time occurring during a scanning cycle. In embodiments, the light detector  160  captures a LR projection image at each scanning time. Each LR projection image sampled by the light detector  160  can be used to display a2D, LR projection image. In embodiments with a color light detector  160 , the LR projection image may be a color image. In embodiments with a monochromatic light detector  160 , the LR projection image may be a black and white image. 
     Each sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images can refer to n LR projection images sampled at n sampling times where neighboring projection images in time are separated by less than a pixel size (i.e. sub-pixel shift). During a scanning cycle, n LR projection images (I 1 , . . . , I n ) may be captured at n sequential sampling times (t 1 , . . . t n ). Any suitable number, n (e.g., 1, 3, 5, 10, 100, etc.) of LR projection images may be captured during a scanning cycle. Also, any suitable number (e.g., 1, 3, 5, 10, 100, etc.) of sequences of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images may be captured by the light detector  160  during a scanning cycle. If multiple sequences are captured, the sequences can include different groups of LR projection images or the sequences can overlap sharing one or more LR projection images. In one example, 9 LR images (I 1 , I 2 , I 3 , I 4 , I 5 , I 6 , I 7 , I 8 , I 9 ) may be captured at 9 sequential sampling times (t 1 , t 2 , t 3 , t 4 , t 5 , t 6 , t 7 , t 8 , t 9 ). In an overlapping case of the above example, sequences could be: 1) I 1 , I 2 , I 6 , and I 8 , and, 2) I 6 , I 7 , I 8 , and I 9 . In a non-overlapping case, sequences could be: 1) I 1 , I 2 , I 3 , and I 4 , and 2) I 5 , I 6 , I 7 , and I 8 . In others examples, a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images may be based on non-sequential sampling times. For example, 9 LR images (I 1 , I 2 , I 3 , I 4 , I 5 , I 6 , I 7 , I 8 , I 9 ) may be captured at 9 sequential sampling times (t 1 , t 2 , t 3 , t 4 , t 5 , t 6 , t 7 , t 8 , t 9 ) and the sequence of projection images may be (I 6 , I 2 , I 9 , I 1 ). 
     In embodiments, the light detector  160  may capture a LR projection image at each scanning time during a scanning cycle. For example, a light detector  160  may capture an LR projection image associated with each scanning location in the scanning pattern shown in  FIG. 4( b ) . In this example, the light detector  160  may capture an LR projection image at each scanning time as the light element  117  moves through each row sequentially of the two-dimensional array of scanning locations in the scanning pattern. If scanning locations in each row are associated with sub-pixel shifted projections  170 , the light detector  160  may capture 15 sequences of sub-pixel shifted projection images during the scanning cycle. In this case, each sequence is associated with a row of scanning locations in the scanning pattern. 
     A motion vector can refer to the translational motion of projection images in a sequence of LR projection images, collectively termed the motion vector of the sequence of LR projection images. The motion vector is based on the amount of shifting of the projection images at a plane. A motion vector of a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images can be calculated from the associated projection images captured by the light detector  160 . The motion vector may be calculated at any plane of interest. For example, the motion vector can be determined at the plane at the sensing surface  162 . In this example, the motion vector is determined in terms of the local x′-axis and y′-axis at the sensing surface  162  of the light detector  160 . As another example, the motion vector can be calculated at other planes through an object  152  being examined. The planes through the object  152  may be parallel to the plane of the sensing surface  162  in some cases. 
     In embodiments, an HR image of a specimen  150  can be constructed using a suitable super resolution (SR) algorithm based on data associated with a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images and a motion vector of the sub-pixel shifted LR projections in the sequence. An example of image resolution obtainable by embodiments of the SPLM system  10  may be about 0.66 micron. 
     An SR algorithm can refer to an image processing technique that constructs a HR image (e.g., sub-pixel resolution image) from a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images. Any suitable SR algorithm can be used by embodiments of the SPLM system  10 . An example of a suitable SR algorithm is a shift-and-add pixel SR algorithm. Some examples of suitable SR algorithms can be found in Lange, D., Storment, C. W., Conley, C. A., and Kovacs, G. T. A., “ A microfluidic shadow imaging system for the study of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans in space ,” Sensors and Actuators B Chemical, Vol. 107, pp. 904-914 (2005) (“Lange”), Wei, L., Knoll, T., and Thielecke, H., “On-chip integrated lensless microscopy module for optical monitoring of adherent growing mammalian cells,” Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), 2010 Annual International Conference of the IEEE, pp. 1012-1015 (2010) (“Wei”), Milanfar, P., Super-Resolution Imaging, (CRC Press, 2010) (“Milanfar”), and Hardie, R., Barnard, K., and Armstrong, E., “ Joint MAP registration and high - resolution image estimation using a sequence of undersampled images ,” IEEE Transactions on Image Processing 6, pp. 1621-1633 (1997) (“Hardie”), which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. An example of a suitable super algorithm is the general pixel super resolution model and solution described in Section V. 
     The SPLM system  10  of  FIG. 1  also includes a host computer  200  communicatively coupled to the light detector  160 . The host computer  200  comprises a second processor  210  (e.g., microprocessor), a second CRM  220 , and an image display  230 . The image display  230  and the second CRM  220  are communicatively coupled to the second processor  210 . Alternatively, the host computer  200  can be a separate device from the SPLM system  10 . The host computer  200  can be any suitable computing device (e.g., smartphone, laptop, tablet, etc.) 
     The second processor  230  executes code stored on the second CRM  220  to perform some of the functions of SPLM  10  such as, for example: interpreting data from one or more sequences of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images captured and communicated in one or more signals from the light detector  160 , determining a motion vector of a sequence of sub-pixel shifted projections, constructing a 2D HR image from data associated with a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images, constructing a 3D HR image from data associated with a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images, displaying one or more HR images on the image display  230 , etc. 
     The second processor  210  can receive one or more signals with light data and other data from the light detector  122 . For example, the processor  210  can receive one or more signals with light data associated with one or more sequences of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images sampled at a corresponding sequence of n scanning times (t 1 , t 2 , t 3 , . . . t n ). The second processor  210  can also determine a motion vector based on the sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images. The second processor  210  can also construct HR images and associated image data based the determined motion vector and data associated with at least one sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images. In some cases, the constructed HR image of the object  150  is a black and white 2D/3D image. In other cases, the constructed HR image of the object  150  is a color 2D/3D image. 
     In one embodiment, a HR color image can be generated by using different wavelengths of illumination  118  at different sampling times to generate a multiple sequences of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images at a light detector  160 . Each sequence is associated with a different wavelength. The second processor  210  can generate HR color image and associated image data based on the different sequences associated with different wavelengths. For example, three wavelengths of light (e.g., wavelengths associated with red, green, blue (RGB) colors) can be sequentially generated by a light element  117  to generate three sequences of sub-pixel shifted projection images associated with three wavelengths of light. The processor  210  can combine the image data from the sequences associated with the different wavelengths to generate multi-wavelength or color image data (e.g., RGB color image data). The multi-wavelength or color HR image data can be used to generate a multi-wavelength or color HR image on the image display  230 . 
     The second CRM (e.g., memory)  220  can store code for performing some functions of the SPLM system  10 . The code is executable by the second processor  210 . For example, the second CRM  220  of embodiments may include: a) code with a SR algorithm, b) code with a tomography algorithm, c) code for interpreting light data received in one or more signals from the light detector  122 , d) code for generating a 3D HR image, e) code for constructing a color sub-pixel image, f) code for displaying SR two-dimensional and/or three-dimensional images, g) and/or any other suitable code for performing functions of the SPLM system  10 . The second CRM  220  may also include code for performing any of the signal processing or other software-related functions that may be created by those of ordinary skill in the art. The code may be in any suitable programming language including C, C++, Pascal, etc. 
     The SPLM system  10  also includes an image display  230  communicatively to the processor  210  to receive data and provide output such as HR images to a user of the SPLM system  10 . Any suitable display may be used. For example, the image display  230  may be a color display or a black and white display. In addition, the image display  230  may be a two-dimensional display or a three-dimensional display. In one embodiment, the image display  230  may be capable of displaying multiple views of an object  150 . 
     Modifications, additions, or omissions may be made to SPLM system  10  or the SPLM device  100  without departing from the scope of the disclosure. In addition, the components of SPLM  10  or SPLM device  100  may be integrated or separated according to particular needs. For example, the second processor  210  may be integrated into the light detector  160  so that the light detector  160  performs one or more of the functions of the second processor  160  in some embodiments. As another example, the second processor  160 , second CRM  220 , and image display  230  may be components of a computer separate from the SPLM system  10  and in communication with the SPLM system  10 . As another example, the second processor  160 , second CRM  220 , and/or image display  230  may be integrated into parts of the SPLM device  100 . For example, the image display  230  may be part of the illumination display  116 , the first processor  112  and second processor  210  may be integrated into a single processor, and/or the first CRM  114  and second CRM  220  may be integrated into a single CRM. 
     II. Principle and Resolution of Scanning Projection Lensless Microscopy 
     Nyquist criterion considerations dictate that the raw projection (shadow) image resolution from an image sensor (e.g., CMOS image sensor) may be no better than two times the pixel size. SPLM systems  10  of embodiments use a high sampling rate in the time domain to offset the sub-Nyquist rate sampling in the spatial domain of the projection images, combining work done in super resolution imaging with advanced sensor (e.g., CMOS) technology to produce a low cost, HR microscopy device with significant resolution enhancement. 
     In embodiments, the SPLM device  100  includes a thin transparent layer  165  between the light detector  160  and the object  152  being imaged. The transparent layer  165  separates the objects  152  (e.g., cells) from the actual light sensitive region of the light detector  160  (e.g., sensor chip). During scanning, the scanning illumination source  110  shifts/scans a light element  117  to scanning locations to provide illumination  118  (e.g., incoherent light) from different illumination angles above the specimen  150 . The light detector  160  acquires one or more sequences of LR projection images. With the movement of the illumination  118 , the projection image shifts across the light detecting elements  166  (e.g., sensor pixels), as shown in  FIG. 3 . The amount of shadow shift is proportional to the thickness of the transparent layer  165  tilt/shift extent of the light element  117 . As long as the shift between each raw projection image in each sequence of LR projection images is smaller than the physical size of the light detecting element (e.g., pixel size), the information from multiple sub-pixel-shifted LR shadow images can be used to create a single HR image with a suitable super-resolution algorithm. 
     In previous super resolution microscanning systems, a specimen was mounted to a stage and the stage was scanned in sub-pixel increments. In this prior approach, the position of the stage needed to be accurately controlled in precise sub-pixel steps. Typically, controllers and actuators were used to control the required precise position of the stage. High precision meant high cost of setup and alignment was required by these systems. 
     In a previous super resolution optofluidic system, optofluidics are incorporated to generate HR images from LR projection images in a high throughput manner. In this system, an optofluidic sample-delivery scheme is employed to capture a sequence of images of the sample translating across a CMOS imaging sensor (pixel) array. The system uses super-resolution processing techniques to achieve HR images from the sequences of LR projection images as described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/069,651, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes, and described in Zheng. This method relies upon capturing a sequence of LR projection images of objects (e.g., cells) as they flow through a fluid channel, across a light detector (e.g., CMOS imaging sensor array). However, imaging in this system requires fluidic (e.g., microfluidic) flow of specimens across a scanning area. Adherent, confluent, or contiguously arranged specimens are simply incompatible with imaging in a fluidic mode. For example, in order to make an object flow across the fluid channel, an object cannot attach to the surface of image pixel (i.e. there is distance between the object and the image pixel). Such a distance results in a blurry image of the object. In addition, the field of view can be limited by the geometry of the fluid channel. 
     In SPLM systems  10 , the SPLM devices  100  use a scanning illumination source  110  to scan a light element  117  over the specimen  150 . In this approach, there may be no need for precise alignment. The scanning illumination source  110  is located at a much larger distance from the sensing surface  162  than the object  152 . Thus, small shifts of the light element  117  correspond to larger shifts of the projections  170  on the sensing surface  162 . The scanning illumination source  110  can control the sub-pixel shifts of the projections at the sensing surface  162  directly with more controllable larger shifts of the light element  117  at the scanning illumination source  110 . In this way, the scanning illumination source  110  can easily and accurately keep the projection shifts at sub-pixel values than previous systems such as microscanning systems, optofluidic systems, etc. Moreover, without the need of mechanical scanning or microfluidic flow, the speed of scanning can be much faster. The scanning illumination source  110  can scan light at speeds up to the range of kHz regions. This is two orders of magnitude higher than prior mechanical microscanning schemes. In addition, the cost of the SPLM device  100  can be much lower since it uses a scanning illumination source  110  such as a LED screen or LED matrix. 
       FIG. 5( a )  is an LR projection image captured by a light detector  160  of an SPLM system  10  at a single sampling time, according to embodiments of the invention. In this example, the specimen  150  being imaged by the SPLM system  10  includes a group of 3 μm microspheres.  FIG. 5( b )  is an HR image reconstructed by the SPLM system  10 , according to embodiments of the invention. The SPLM system  10  reconstructed the HR image based on data from a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images including the LR projection image shown in  FIG. 5( a ) . 
       FIG. 6( a )  is an LR projection image of a portion of a HeLa cell specimen captured by a light detector  160  of an SPLM system  10  at a single sampling time, according to embodiments of the invention.  FIG. 6( b )  is an HR image reconstructed by the SPLM system  10 , according to embodiments of the invention. The SPLM system  10  reconstructed the HR image based on data from a sequence of 225 sub-pixel shifted LR projection images including the LR projection image shown in  FIG. 6( a ) . 
       FIG. 7( a )  is a large field of view color HR image of a confluent HeLa cell specimen  150  constructed by an SPLM system  10 , according to embodiments of the invention. The specimen  150  was stained with Giemsa. During reconstruction, each pixel at the LR projection image level (2.2 μm) was enhanced into a 13*13 pixel block in the reconstructed HR image. The color HR image contains about 8.45×10 8  pixels. The sensing area  164  (image area) was 6 mm×4 mm. A 15×15 array of scanning locations for each color illumination  118  was used.  FIG. 7 ( b   1 ) is an LR projection image from a small region of  FIG. 7( a )  and  FIG. 7 ( c   1 ) is an LR projection image from a small region of  FIG. 7 ( b   1 ), captured by the light detector  160  of an SPLM system  10 , according to embodiments of the invention.  FIG. 7 ( b   2 ) is a reconstructed HR image from the same small region of  FIG. 7( a )  and  FIG. 7 ( c   2 ) is a reconstructed HR image from a small region of  FIG. 7 ( b   2 ) constructed by an SPLM system  10 , according to embodiments of the invention.  FIG. 7( d )  is a conventional microscopy image of similar cells using a microscope with 40×, NA=0.66 objective lens. From the reconstructed HR images in  FIGS. 7 ( b   2 ) and  7 ( c   2 ), organelles within the HeLa cell can be discerned such as multiple nuclear granules (indicated by red arrows), and the nucleus. The reconstructed HR images also closely corresponded to conventional microscopy images acquired from similar cells. 
       FIG. 8( a )  is an HR image of a specimen  150  having 500 nm microspheres (Polysciences) as constructed by an SPLM system  10 , according to embodiments of the invention. The imaging process used to construct the HR image was identical the one used to construct the HR images in  FIG. 7 . For a single 500 nm microsphere, the bright center of the microsphere was clearly resolved as shown in  FIG. 8( a ) , with the full-width at half maximum (FWHM) of 690 nm.  FIG. 8( b )  is an HR image of a magnified small feature of the stained HeLa cell specimen  150  of  FIG. 7  as constructed by an SPLM system  10 , according to embodiments of the invention. 
     Since microscopy resolution may be defined in some cases based on a given microscope&#39;s ability to resolve two closely spaced feature points, the case of two closely spaced microspheres can be analyzed to establish a resolution of an SPLM system  10  of embodiments.  FIG. 8( a )  shows the reconstructed images of two closely packed 500 nm microspheres with center-to-center distance of 660 nm. The data trace in  FIG. 8( a )  shows a valley between the two peaks and, thus, establishes that the resolution may be 660 nm or better in some embodiments. To further verify this point,  FIG. 8( b )  shows the magnified small feature of the stained HeLa cell specimen of  FIG. 7  and the FWHM of this feature was estimated to be about 710 nm. 
     III. Concept 
     In embodiments such as the example shown in  FIG. 1 , the specimen  150  is placed on a specimen surface  140  located slightly above the active sensing area  164  of the sensing surface  162 . The illuminating display  116  (e.g., a monochromatic or color LCD) of a scanning illumination device  110  (e.g., mobile communication device) is located at a distance, d, (e.g., about 5-10 mm) away from the sensing surface  162 . A light element  117  (e.g., one or more light emitting elements (e.g., pixels)) of the illuminating display  117  provide illumination  118  (e.g., incoherent light). The illumination  118  generates a projection  170  (shadow) on the light detector  162 . The light detector  160  can capture a LR projection image. This LR projection image is the best achievable given the size limitations (e.g., pixel size limitations) of the light detecting elements  166  (as shown in  FIG. 2 ), but “low resolution” in that features sizes of the specimen  150  may be much smaller than the size (e.g., pixel size) of the light detecting element  166 . 
     In embodiments, to improve the resolution, a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images is captured, for which light emitting elements (e.g., pixels) on the illuminating display  116  (e.g., an LCD) provide illumination  118 . Each of these LR projection images is a sub-pixel shifted projection image of the specimen  150 . The sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images can be based on the scanning locations of the light element  117  during a scanning cycle. For a known sub-pixel displacement, these sub-pixel shifted LR projection images can be used to create a HR (e.g., sub-pixel resolution) 2D image using pixel super-resolution techniques. This HR image can further be deconvolved with the point spread function of the pixel and optical system to recover a focused image of the specimen. The SPLM system  10  has made possible precise scanning of the light element  117  in conjunction with pixel super-resolution image processing techniques. 
     Furthermore, this concept of imaging can be extended beyond two dimensions. Computed tomography using different incident angles of light to generate multiple projections can be used to create a three dimensional reconstruction of the object. An example of using tomography to generate a 3D image can be found in Miao, J. R. R. Qin, Tourovskaia, Anna, Meyer, Michael G., Neumann, Thomas, Nelson, Alan C., and Seibel, Eric J., “ Dual - modal three - dimensional imaging of single cells with isometric high resolution using an optical projection tomography microscope ,” J. Biomed., Opt., Vol. 14, 064034 (Dec. 21, 2009), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. In our scheme, the shifting light element  117  (e.g., sets of pixels) across the illuminating display  119  (e.g. LC) can provide different angles of incident light necessary for 3D imaging. 
     IV. Operating Principles 
     In one operation, the specimen  150  is placed slightly (e.g., in the range of several hundred nanometers to microns) above the sensing surface  162  (e.g., outer surface) of the light detector  160  (e.g., CMOS imaging sensor array). Individuals or small sets of light emitting elements  166  (e.g., pixels) on the illuminating display (e.g., an LCD) are illuminated in succession to illuminate the specimen  150  at distance (e.g. 5 mm-10 mm) away, allowing the light detector  160  to record one or more sequences of sub-pixel-shifted LR projection images, which are “pixilated.” One or more sequences of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images can be processed using super resolution techniques to combine many LR projection images to create a smaller sequence of HR images. An example of a super resolution technique can be found in Richard, L. M., Shultz, R., Stevenson, Robert L., “ Subpixel motion estimation for superresolution image sequence enhancement ,” Journal of Visual Communication and Image Representation (1998), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. 
     Super resolution or super resolution techniques refer to a general name for the many promising new techniques for imaging processing that can involve creating a single HR image from a sequence of lower resolution images. Some super resolution techniques can be found in Park, Sung Cheol, Park, and Min Kyu, Kang, Moon Gi, “Super-resolution image reconstruction: a technical overview,” IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, pp. 21-36 (May 2003) (“Park”), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. The general principle involves taking a sequence of LR projection images in which the target is sampled at below the Nyquist rate, but for which subsequent frames involve a slight sub-pixel translational shift. This principle can be found in Russell, K. J. B., Hardie, C., Bognar, John G., Armstrong, and Ernest E., Watson, Edward A., “ High resolution image reconstruction from a sequence of rotated and translated frames and its application to an infrared imaging system ,” Optical Engineering (1997), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. If this translational shift is known, then a system of matrix equations can be established from the low resolution sequence to solve for sub-pixel values to create a single HR image. In general, the original HR image can theoretically be recovered even from a significantly decimated, blurred, translated, and rotated low resolution image sequence; resolution is limited only by the diffraction limit and noise, as described in Park. 
       FIG. 9  is a flow chart of an exemplary operation of an SPLM device  100 , according to embodiments of the invention. The SPLM  100  includes a scanning illumination source  110  for shifting or otherwise scanning a light element  117  across an object  152  being imaged. The SPLM  100  also includes a specimen surface  140 , a light detector  160  having a sensing surface  162 , a thin transparent layer  165  between the sensing surface  162  and the specimen surface  140 , and a processor (first processor  112  and/or second processor  210 ). The scanning illumination source  110  is located at a distance, d, from the sensing surface  162 . This exemplary operation includes an imaging run having a single scanning cycle. Other embodiments may have an imaging run with multiple scanning cycles. 
     In step  310 , the object  152  is placed onto the specimen surface  140  of the SPLM  100 . The object  152  may be located proximal a sensing area  164  of the sensing surface  162  at the active layer of the light detector  160 . 
     In step  320 , the processor determines a scanning pattern. An example of a scanning pattern is shown in  FIGS. 4( a ) and 4( b ) . The scanning pattern may include scanning locations at different times during a scanning cycle and properties (e.g., wavelength(s) of light used, the size and shape of the light element, the intensity(ies) of the light element, etc.) of the light element  117  at different scanning locations, the amount of sub-pixel shift desired between subsequent LR projection images, the total number of LR projection images desired in the scan and/or in the sequence of LR projection images, the total number of HR images desired in an imaging run, and other suitable information related to the operation of the SPLM system  10 . The processor may retrieve a predetermined scanning pattern from the CRM (first CRM  114  or second CRM  220 ) or the processor may determine a scanning pattern based on input from a user of the SPLM system  10 . For example, the user may provide information such as properties of the light element, the amount of sub-pixel shift desired between subsequent LR projection images, the total number of HR images desired, and other suitable input. 
     The scanning locations in the scanning pattern can be determined to generate a sequence of sub-pixel shifted projections at the sensing surface  162 . The shift of a projection  170  is proportional to the thickness of the transparent layer  165  and the tilt/shift extent (i.e. distance or illumination angle change between neighboring scanning locations). The amount of translation of the light element  117  between neighboring scanning positions that will result in sub-pixel shifting of the projections  170  can be determined based on the thickness of the transparent layer  165  and the required sub-pixel shift value. The scanning locations in the scanning pattern can be based on the amount of translation of the light element  117  between neighboring scanning positions. 
     In step  330 , the scanning illumination source  110  scans the light element  117  and modifies the properties of the light element  117  according to the scanning pattern. In one embodiment, the scanning illumination source  110  (e.g., smartphone) has an illuminating display  116  in the form of a LCD. In this example, the scanning pattern includes a two-dimensional array of scanning positions and the scanning times associated with the scanning positions. During scanning the light element  117  may be a set of light emitting components (e.g. pixels) in the LCD which are sequentially illuminated to shift the light element  117  through each row of the two-dimensional array of scanning locations. The properties of the light element  117  may vary at different locations. For example, the size (number of light emitting components) of the light element  117  may vary to maintain approximately the same intensity level at a location at the sensing surface  162 . 
     In one embodiment, the light element  117  can provide illumination  118  of n different wavelengths λ 1 , . . . , λ n  at different times during a scanning cycle to obtain a sequence of projection images for each wavelength. Any suitable number of wavelengths may be used (e.g., n=1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . , 20). In one embodiment, the light element  117  may provide illumination  118  of three wavelengths λ 1 , λ 2 , and λ 3  corresponding to red, green, blue colors at different sampling times. In some cases, the illumination  118  from one scanning location to a neighboring scanning location may have different wavelengths. In other cases, the illumination  118  may have a first wavelength during a first series of scanning positions, and then provide illumination  118  of a second wavelength during a second series of scanning positions, and so forth until n sequences of projection images corresponding to n different wavelengths have been captured. 
     In step  340 , the light detector  160  captures one or more sequences of sub-pixel shifted LR images of the object  152  as the light element  117  translates to different scanning positions. The light detector  160  captures an LR projection image for each scanning location. Any suitable number of images (e.g., 3, 5, 10, 50, 100, etc.) may be in each sequence. In one example, the scanning locations may be in the form of a two-dimensional array of scanning positions, where each row/column of scanning positions can generate a row of sub-pixel shifted projections  170 . In this example, a sequence of sub-pixel LR images may be captured as the light element  117  shifts across each row/column in the two-dimensional array of scanning positions. 
     In step  350 , the processor uses a suitable method to determine the motion vector of the projections  170  at the sensing surface  162 . In some cases, the processor may also determine motion vectors of the projections  170  at other parallel planes through the object  152 . Any suitable method of determining a motion vector can be used. In one example, the motion vector of the projections at the sensing surface  162  may be determined based on the distance between neighboring scanning positions and the thickness of the transparent layer  165 . In another example, the motion vector of the projections at planes parallel to the sensing surface  162  may be determined based on the distance between neighboring scanning positions and the thickness of the transparent layer  165  and the distance between the plane and the sensing surface  162 . 
     In step  360 , the processor uses an appropriate SR algorithm to construct a HR image of the object  152  from data from a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images and corresponding motion vector(s). For example, the processor can construct a 2D image of the object  152  at a plane through the object  152  by using a motion vector at that plane. In one example, the processor can generate a 3D HR image by stacking the 2D HR images constructed based on motion vectors at different planes. If the light detector  160  is a monochromatic light detector, the HR image will be a monochromatic HR image (black and white HR image). If the light detector  122  is a color light detector (e.g., a color CMOS imaging sensor), the image resulting from this reconstruction is a color image. 
     In one embodiment, a shift-and-add SR algorithm may be used to construct an HR image with data from a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images. In this embodiment, an HR image grid is formed with an enhancement factor of n, where each n-by-n pixel area of the HR image grid corresponds to a 1-by-1 pixel area of the LR frame grid. Then, the HR image grid is filled with the corresponding pixel values from the sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images. The mapping of the pixels within the n-by-n grid is determined from the known, estimated sub-pixel shift of each image from the motion vector determined. In other words, each LR projection image is shifted by the relative sub-pixel shift of the object  152  from its original position and then added together to form a HR image. Finally, deblurring using the wiener deconvolution method may be used to remove blurring and noise in the final HR image. 
     In one embodiment, the light element  117  can provide illumination  118  of n different wavelengths λ 1 , . . . , λ n  at different times during a scanning cycle to obtain a sequence of projection images for each wavelength. In this embodiment, the processor can use an appropriate SR algorithm to reconstruct an HR image for each wavelength or color based on each sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images and the motion vector. The SPLM device  100  can combine the HR images of different wavelengths or colors to obtain a computed color HR image. For example, an SPLM device  100  using RGB illumination from can be used to construct a computed color (RGB) HR image. 
     In step  370 , the processor can display one or more HR images to a suitable image display  230  (e.g., two-dimensional display (color or monochromatic), three-dimensional display (color or monochromatic)). Any suitable image generated by the SPLM device  10  can be displayed. Some examples of suitable images include: LR projection images, 2D black and white HR images, 2D color HR images, 3D black and white HR images, and/or 3D color HR images. 
     V. A Super Resolution Model and Solution 
     Embodiments of the SPLM system  10  use a SR algorithm to reconstruct an HR image. One example of a SR algorithm is the general pixel super resolution model and solution described in this Section. This general pixel super resolution model and solution has a simple, fast and non-iterative method that preserves the estimation optimality in the Maximum-Likelihood sense. Some details of this super-resolution model and solution can be found in Hardie, Elad, M., and Hel-Or, Y., “ A fast super - resolution reconstruction algorithm for pure translational motion and common space - invariant blur ,” IEEE Transactions on Image Processing, Vol. 10, pp. 1187-1193 (2001) (“Elad”), Farsiu, Sina, et al., “ Fast and robust multiframe super resolution,”  IEEE Trans Image Process, vol. 13, pp. 1327-1344 (2004), and Farsiu S, et al., “ Multiframe demosaicing and super - resolution of color images ,” IEEE Trans Image Process, vol. 15, pp. 141-159 (2006), which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. 
     In an scanning cycle, a sequence of N captured LR projection images, Y k  (k=1, 2 . . . N) can be used to reconstruct an improved HR image, X. The images may be represented by lexicographically ordered column vectors. The LR projection image can be modeled by the following equation:
 
 Y   k   =DHF   k   X+V   k ( k= 1, 2  . . . N )  (Eqn. 1)
 
The matrix F k  stands for the sub-pixel shift operation for the image X. The matrix H is the pixel transfer function of the light detector  160  (e.g., CMOS image sensor). The matrix D stands for the decimation operation, representing the reduction of the number of observed pixels in the measured images. V k  represents Gaussian additive measurement noise with zeros mean and auto-correlation matrix: W k =E{V k V k   T }.
 
     The Maximum-Likelihood estimation of X can be described as the following expression: 
                     X   ⋒     =     Arg   ⁢           ⁢   Min   ⁢     {       ∑     k   =   1     N     ⁢         (       Y   k     -       DHF   k     ⁢   X       )     T     ⁢       W   k     -   1       ⁡     (       Y   k     -       DHF   k     ⁢   X       )           }               (     Eqn   .           ⁢   2     )               
And the closed-from solution for {circumflex over (X)} is shown to be:
 
 {circumflex over (X)}=H   −1   R   −1   P   (Eqn. 3)
 
     where, R=Σ k=1   N F k   T D T DF k , P=Σ k=1   N F k   T D T Y k    
     R can be a diagonal matrix and the computation complexity of this approach may be: O(n*log(n)). 
     VI. Different Schemes 
     A. Scheme 1-2D Monochromatic SPLM Systems 
     In a first scheme, SPLM systems  10  of embodiments may be designed to generate 2D monochromatic HR images of a specimen  150  using a suitable SR algorithm based on a sequence of LR projection images and a motion vector. For this case, there is only the known translational shift and space invariant point spread function of the system, H, which is also known. Hence, more effective and computationally efficient super resolution techniques can be applied, such as the following as proposed in Elad. For an original HR image, X, of a specimen  150  that is the desired output of the SPLM system  10 , a low resolution image sequence of the sample:
 
 Y   k   =DHF   k   X+V   k ( k= 1, 2  . . . N )  (Eqn. 4)
 
is obtained, where F k  is the translational shift, H is the point spread function of the optical system, D k  is the downsampling of the original LR projection image and V k  is white noise with auto-correlation: W k =E{V k V k   T }. Hence, by minimizing the least square error, the computed high resolution image {circumflex over (X)} is obtained from a sequence of N LR projection images as follows:
 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
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     This optimization can be done computationally with iterative methods described in Elad. The end result of this optimization can be an in-focus HR image or sequence of HR images of the specimen generated from the original LR projection images captured by the light detector  160 . (e.g., CMOS image sensor). 
     In embodiments, an SPLM system  10  may include an illuminating display  116  in the form of a pixel array (e.g., rectangular pixel array). For example, the illuminating display  116  may be a rectangular pixel array of an LCD. In these embodiments, the sub-pixel shifts between subsequent LR projection images of a sequence may be related by a characteristic sub-pixel spacing, α, related to the illumination scanning sequence, the detector array pixel sizes, and the distances between the specimen  150  and source/detector. The distance between the specimen  150  and the illumination source  110  may be the distance, d, between the top of the transparent layer  140  and the display surface  119 . The distance between the specimen  150  and the light detector  160  may be the thickness of the transparent layer  165 . 
     For an SPLM system  10  having an illumination display  116  with a display surface  119  parallel to the sensing surface  162  of the light detector  160  and the specimen surface  140 , the projection of a point on the plane of the specimen surface  140  onto the detection plane (i.e. plane of the sensing surface  162 ) will be shifted in increments related to sin θ. The angle, θ is the angle of a line from the light element  117  (e.g., the center of a set of illuminated pixels on an LCD) to the point of the specimen  150 , with respect to the specimen surface plane normal vector. For small angles, the sub-pixel shifts can be approximated as equal and the solution for the motion vector of the LR sequence can be found by a simple one-dimensional optimization of, α. In cases where the illumination (LCD) plane and detector planes are parallel, the sub-pixel shifts should be ‘exactly’ equal. 
     B. Scheme 2-2D Color SPLM Systems 
     In a second scheme, an SPLM system  10  of embodiments may be designed to generate 2D color HR images of a specimen  150  using a suitable SR algorithm based on a sequence of LR color projection images captured by a color light detector  160 . In this scheme, the SPLM system  10  includes a color light detector  112  (e.g., a color CMOS sensor) that can capture a sequence of sub-pixel shifted color LR projection images. The processor  210  can generate one or more SR color images using a suitable color super resolution technique with the sequence of sub-pixel shifted color LR projection images. The simplest technique involves using a monochromatic super resolution technique on each of the color components independently. In another example, a more complicated super resolution technique can be used that involves transforming to a different color space, such as the one found in Farsiu, Sina, et al., “ Advances and challenges in super - resolution ,” Wiley Periodicals (2004), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entiredy for all purposes. 
     C. Scheme 3-2D Computed Color SPLM Systems 
     In a third scheme, an SPLM system  10  of embodiments may be designed to generate 2D color HR images of a specimen  150  using a suitable SR algorithm based on multiple sequences of LR frames, each sequence associated with a different wavelength or color of illumination  118 . The SPLM system  10  can construct a 2D color HR image based on each sequence associated with a different wavelength/color. The SPLM system  10  can combine the 2D color HR images associated with the different wavelengths to create a 2D multi-color HR image of the specimen  150 . The SPLM system  10  of these embodiments includes a scanning illumination source  100  with a color illumination display  116  (e.g., color LCD) or another device that can generate color illumination  118 . Any suitable wavelengths and number of wavelengths may be used. In one example, wavelengths of light may be chosen that cover the widest viewable color range. In some cases, separate scans using different wavelengths/colors can be used to capture separate RGB sequences of LR projection images. In other cases, the light element  117  may sequentially alternate between the different wavelengths/colors in a single scan. 
     In one embodiment, the SPLM system  10  may include a scanning illumination source  100  having a RGB illumination display  116  (e.g., a RGB LCD). In this embodiment, separate red, green, and blue (RBB) scans can be used to capture separate RGB sequences of LR projection images (i.e. red sequence, green sequence, and blue sequence). The SPLM system  10  of this embodiment can generate an HR RGB image based each sequence. The SPLM system  10  can combine the 2D color HR images based on each sequence to generate a RGB image. 
     D. Scheme 4-3D SPLM Systems with 3D display 
     In a fourth scheme, an SPLM system  10  of embodiments may be designed for 3D imaging on a 3D display  230 . In this scheme, the SPLM system  10  can generate n 2D HR images at n different incidence angles to generate different views of the object  152  based on the different locations of the light element  117 . 
     In this scheme, the scanning illumination source  110  scans the light element  117  to locations that generate illumination  118  from illumination angles in a range around each of the n different incidence angles of interest. For example, if a view of the object  152  from 30 is desired, the scanning illumination source  110  may scan the light element  117  to generate illumination  118  from illumination angles in the range of 30+/−2 degrees in X/Y. As another example, if a view of the object  152  from −30 degrees is desired, the scanning illumination source  110  may scan the light element  117  to generate illumination  118  from illumination angles in the range of −30+/−2 degrees in X/Y. The “angular” scan range for a single HR image may be constant and small (4 degrees in this example) relative to the large angle displacements used to get different views for 3D imaging. Each of the HR images is still obtained from reconstructing from a LR image sequence, captured by scanning the illumination, but at a much larger angle away. 
     The 2D HR images from different incidence angles can be combined and displayed on a 3D display  230  (e.g., 3D monitor), or as a rotating gif or video file. This can be achieved by using different regions of the illumination LCD to generate high resolution projection images of a sample, but from different angles. 
     In imaging schemes where a view at a plane parallel to the sensing surface may be desired, the scanning illumination source  110  may scan the light element  117  to locations that generate illumination  118  from illumination angles in a range around normal to the sensing surface. For example, the scanning illumination source  110  may scan the light element  117  to generate illumination  118  from illumination angles in the range of +/−2 degrees in X/Y. 
     D. Scheme 5-3D Focusing SPLM Systems 
     In a fifth scheme, an SPLM system  10  of embodiments may be designed to “focus” 2D HR images at different planes of interest through the specimen  150 . The SPLM system  10  can also stack the “focused” 2D HR images at different planes to generate a 3D HR image. For a three-dimensional specimen, the SPLM system  10  can construct HR images from sequences of sub-pixel shifted LR images based on different motion vectors associated with different sub-pixel shifts in order to achieve “focusing” at different planes within the three-dimensional sample. 
     Under this scheme, the SPLM system  10  can construct each focused 2D image at a plane based on a captured sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images and the determined motion vector at the plane. For example, the SPLM system  10  may create a 2D HD image of a slice of a specimen  150  at a plane. In this example, the SPLM system  10  determines the motion vector of the LR projection images at that plane. The SPLM system  10  constructs the focused 2D HD image based on the determined motion vector at the plane of interest and a sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images captured by the light detector  160 . The SPLM system  10  can also refocus at multiple planes by constructing HR images using multiple motion vectors and the same sequence of sub-pixel shifted LR projection images. 
     Since the quality of the focus of the reconstructed image depends on the correct estimation of the sub-pixel shifts of the LR projection images, and these sub-pixel shifts depend on the distance of the specimen  150  between the light detector  160  and the illumination planes, using different sub-pixel shifts (i.e. motion vectors) in the reconstruction step can allow for refocusing to specific specimen planes above the light detector  160 . This effectively allows for a single, extensive scan sequence of LR projection images to not only provide three dimensional data with projection images from different angles (previous scheme), but also focusing to specific three dimensional planes. 
     In one embodiment, the scanning illumination device  110  sweep the light element  117  to generate illumination  118  between a wide range of illumination angles in order to generate an extensive scan sequence of LR projection images.  FIG. 10  is a schematic drawing of three projections on a light detector  160  from three wide ranging incidence angles, θ 1 , θ 2 , and θ 3 , according to an embodiment of the invention. Changing the illumination angle of the light  118  from the light element  117  can generates a sequence of three projections associated with different views View  1 , View  2 , and View  3  of the object  152 . In  FIG. 10 , θ 1= 0 degrees, and is in the direction of a negative z-axis. The light detector  160  can capture a sequence of LR projection images associated with the shifting projections. The light detector  160  can also capture multiple sequences of sub-pixels LR projection images associated with the illumination sweeping between the wide ranging incidence angles. This extensive scan sequence of LR projection images may be used to generate 3D data with projection images from the different views (previous scheme), but also to provide focusing to specific 3D planes. 
     VI. Subsystems 
       FIG. 11  is a block diagram of subsystems that may be present in the SPLM system  10 , according to embodiments of the invention. For example, the SPLM system  10  includes a processor  410 . The processor  410  may include first processor  112  and/or second processor  210 . The processor  410  may be a component of the light detector  122  in some cases. The processor  410  may be a component of the scanning illumination source  100  in some cases. 
     The various components previously described in the Figures may operate using one or more of the subsystems to facilitate the functions described herein. Any of the components in the Figures may use any suitable number of subsystems to facilitate the functions described herein. Examples of such subsystems and/or components are shown in a  FIG. 11 . The subsystems shown in  FIG. 11  are interconnected via a system bus  425 . Additional subsystems such as a printer  430 , keyboard  432 , fixed disk  434  (or other memory comprising computer readable media), display  436 , which is coupled to display adapter  438 , and others are shown. The display  436  may include the illuminating display  116  and/or the image display  230 . Peripherals and input/output (I/O) devices, which couple to I/O controller  440 , can be connected to the computer system by any number of means known in the art, such as serial port  442 . For example, serial port  442  or external interface  444  can be used to connect the computer apparatus to a wide area network such as the Internet, a mouse input device, or a scanner. The interconnection via system bus allows the processor  410  to communicate with each subsystem and to control the execution of instructions from system memory  446  or the fixed disk  434 , as well as the exchange of information between subsystems. The system memory  446  and/or the fixed disk  434  may embody a first CRM  114  and/or a second CRM  220 . Any of these elements may be present in the previously described features. 
     In some embodiments, an output device such as the printer  430  or display  436  of the SPLM system  10  can output various forms of data. For example, the SPLM system  10  can output 2D/3D HR color/monochromatic images, data associated with these images, or other data associated with analyses performed by the SPLM system  10 . 
     It should be understood that the present invention as described above can be implemented in the form of control logic using computer software in a modular or integrated manner. Based on the disclosure and teachings provided herein, a person of ordinary skill in the art will know and appreciate other ways and/or methods to implement the present invention using hardware and a combination of hardware and software. 
     Any of the software components or functions described in this application, may be implemented as software code to be executed by a processor using any suitable computer language such as, for example, Java, C++ or Perl using, for example, conventional or object-oriented techniques. The software code may be stored as a series of instructions, or commands on a CRM, such as a random access memory (RAM), a read only memory (ROM), a magnetic medium such as a hard-drive or a floppy disk, or an optical medium such as a CD-ROM. Any such CRM may reside on or within a single computational apparatus, and may be present on or within different computational apparatuses within a system or network. 
     A recitation of “a”, “an” or “the” is intended to mean “one or more” unless specifically indicated to the contrary. 
     The above description is illustrative and is not restrictive. Many variations of the disclosure will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon review of the disclosure. The scope of the disclosure should, therefore, be determined not with reference to the above description, but instead should be determined with reference to the pending claims along with their full scope or equivalents. 
     One or more features from any embodiment may be combined with one or more features of any other embodiment without departing from the scope of the disclosure. Further, modifications, additions, or omissions may be made to any embodiment without departing from the scope of the disclosure. The components of any embodiment may be integrated or separated according to particular needs without departing from the scope of the disclosure. 
     All patents, patent applications, publications, and descriptions mentioned above are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. None is admitted to be prior art.