Patent Publication Number: US-2020292294-A1

Title: Strain gauge and sensor module

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present invention relates to a strain gauge and a sensor module. 
     BACKGROUND ART 
     A strain gauge is known to be attached to a measured object to detect strain on the measured object. The strain gauge includes a resistor that detects strain, and as resistor material, for example, material including Cr (chromium) or Ni (nickel) is used. The resistor is formed on a substrate made of, for example, an insulating resin (see, for example, Patent document 1). 
     CITATION LIST 
     Patent Document 
     [Patent document 1] Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2016-74934 
     SUMMARY 
     However, when a flexible substrate is used, a stable resistor is not easily formed on the substrate, and thus there is a problem in instability of gauge characteristics (a gauge factor, a gauge factor temperature coefficient TCS, and a temperature coefficient of resistance TCR). 
     In view of the point described above, an object of the present invention is to improve stability of gauge characteristics of a strain gauge including a resistor formed above a flexible substrate. 
     A strain gauge includes a flexible substrate; a functional layer formed of a metal, an alloy, or a metal compound, on one surface of the substrate; a resistor formed of material including at least one from among chromium and nickel, on one surface of the functional layer; and an insulating resin layer with which the resistor is coated. 
     Effects of the Invention 
     According to the disclosed technique, with respect to a strain gauge including a resistor formed above a flexible substrate, stability of gauge characteristics can be improved. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a plan view of an example of a strain gauge according to a first embodiment; 
         FIG. 2  is a cross-sectional view of an example of the strain gauge according to the first embodiment; 
         FIG. 3A  is a diagram (part 1) illustrating an example of a process of manufacturing the strain gauge according to the first embodiment; 
         FIG. 3B  is a diagram (part 2) illustrating an example of the process of manufacturing the strain gauge according to the first embodiment; 
         FIG. 3C  is a diagram (part 3) illustrating an example of the process of manufacturing the strain gauge according to the first embodiment; 
         FIG. 4  is a cross-sectional view of an example of a strain gauge according to modification 1 of the first embodiment; 
         FIG. 5  is a plan view of an example of a strain gauge according to a second embodiment; 
         FIG. 6  is a cross-sectional view of an example of the strain gauge according to the second embodiment; 
         FIG. 7A  is a diagram (part 1) illustrating an example of a process of manufacturing the strain gauge according to the second embodiment; 
         FIG. 7B  is a diagram (part 2) illustrating an example of the process of manufacturing the strain gauge according to the second embodiment; 
         FIG. 7C  is a diagram (part 3) illustrating an example of the process of manufacturing the strain gauge according to the second embodiment; 
         FIG. 7D  is a diagram (part 4) illustrating an example of the process of manufacturing the strain gauge according to the second embodiment; 
         FIG. 8A  is a diagram (part 5) illustrating an example of the process of manufacturing the strain gauge according to the second embodiment; 
         FIG. 8B  is a diagram (part 6) illustrating an example of the process of manufacturing the strain gauge according to the second embodiment; 
         FIG. 8C  is a diagram (part 7) illustrating an example of the process of manufacturing the strain gauge according to the second embodiment; 
         FIG. 8D  is a diagram (part 8) illustrating an example of the process of manufacturing the strain gauge according to the second embodiment; 
         FIG. 9  is a cross-sectional view of an example of a strain gauge according to modification 1 of the second embodiment; 
         FIG. 10  is a cross-sectional view of an example of a strain gauge according to modification 2 of the second embodiment; 
         FIG. 11  is a cross-sectional view of an example of a sensor module according to a third embodiment; 
         FIG. 12  is a diagram illustrating a result of X-ray fluorescent analysis for a functional layer; 
         FIG. 13  is a diagram illustrating a result of X-ray diffraction for a resistor; 
         FIG. 14  is a diagram illustrating a relationship between an expansion coefficient of a substrate and internal stress of a resistor; and 
         FIG. 15  is a diagram illustrating a relationship between surface unevenness of a substrate and the number of pinholes of a resistor. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS 
     One or more embodiments will be hereinafter described with reference to the drawings. In each figure, the same numerals denote the same components; accordingly, duplicative explanations may be omitted. 
     First Embodiment 
       FIG. 1  is a plan view of an example of a strain gauge according to a first embodiment.  FIG. 2  is a cross-sectional view of an example of the strain gauge according to the first embodiment, and illustrates a cross section taken along the A-A line in  FIG. 1 . With reference to  FIGS. 1 and 2 , the strain gauge  1  includes a substrate  10 , a functional layer  20 , a resistor  30 , terminal sections  41 , and a cover layer  60 . Note that in  FIG. 1 , an outer edge of the cover layer  60  is only expressed by a dashed line in order to indicate the resistor  30 , for the sake of convenience. 
     Note that in the present embodiment, for the sake of convenience, with respect to the strain gauge  1 , the side of the substrate  10  where the resistor  30  is provided is referred to as an upper side or one side; and the side of the substrate  10  where the resistor  30  is not provided is referred to as a lower side or another side. Further, for each component, the surface on the side where the resistor  30  is provided is referred to as one surface or an upper surface; and the surface on the side where the resistor  30  is not provided is referred to as another surface or a lower surface. However, the strain gauge  1  can be used in a state of being upside down, or be disposed at any angle. Further, a plan view means that an object is viewed from a normal direction of an upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 , and a planar shape refers to a shape of an object when viewed from the normal direction of the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 . 
     The substrate  10  is a member that is a base layer for forming the resistor  30  or the like and is flexible. The thickness of the substrate  10  is not particularly restricted, and can be appropriately selected for any purpose. For example, such a thickness can be approximately between 5 μm and 500 μm. In particular, when the thickness of the substrate  10  is between 5 μm and 200 μm, it is preferable in terms of strain transfer from a flexure element surface that is bonded to a lower surface of the substrate  10  via an adhesive layer or the like; and dimensional stability with respect to environment, and when the thickness is 10 μm or more, it is further preferable in terms of insulation. 
     The substrate  10  can be formed of an insulating resin film such as a PI (polyimide) resin, an epoxy resin, a PEEK (polyether ether ketone) resin, a PEN (polyethylene naphthalate) resin, a PET (polyethylene terephthalate) resin, a PPS (polyphenylene sulfide) resin, or a polyolefin resin. Note that the film refers to a flexible member having a thickness of about 500 μm or less. 
     Here, the “formed of an insulating resin film” is not intended to preclude the substrate  10  from containing fillers, impurities, or the like in the insulating resin film. The substrate  10  may be formed of, for example, an insulating resin film containing fillers such as silica or alumina. 
     The functional layer  20  is formed, as a lower layer of the resistor  30 , on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 . In other words, a planar shape of the functional layer  20  is approximately the same as the planar shape of the resistor  30  illustrated in  FIG. 1 . The thickness of the functional layer  20  can be approximately between 1 nm and 100 nm, for example. 
     In the present application, the functional layer refers to a layer that has a function of promoting crystal growth of the resistor  30  that is at least an upper layer. The functional layer  20  preferably further has a function of preventing oxidation of the resistor  30  caused by oxygen and moisture included in the substrate  10 , as well as a function of improving adhesion between the substrate  10  and the resistor  30 . The functional layer  20  may further have other functions. 
     The insulating resin film that constitutes the substrate  10  contains oxygen and moisture. In this regard, particularly when the resistor  30  includes Cr (chromium), it is effective for the functional layer  20  to have a function of preventing oxidation of the resistor  30 , because Cr forms an autoxidized film. 
     The material of the functional layer  20  is not particularly restricted as long as it is material having a function of promoting crystal growth of the resistor  30  that is at least an upper layer. Such material can be appropriately selected for any purpose, and includes one or more types of metals selected from a group consisting of, for example, Cr (chromium), Ti (titanium), V (vanadium), Nb (niobium), Ta (tantalum), Ni (nickel), Y (yttrium), Zr (zirconium), Hf (hafnium), Si (silicon), C (carbon), Zn (zinc), Cu (copper), Bi (bismuth), Fe (iron), Mo (molybdenum), W (tungsten), Ru (ruthenium), Rh (rhodium), Re (rhenium), Os (osmium), Ir (iridium), Pt (platinum), Pd (palladium), Ag (silver), Au (gold), Co (cobalt), Mn (manganese), and Al (aluminum); an alloy of any metals from among the group; or a compound of any metal from among the group. 
     Examples of the above alloy include FeCr, TiAl, FeNi, NiCr, CrCu, and the like. Examples of the above compound include TiN, TaN, Si 3 N 4 , TiO 2 , Ta 2 O 5 , SiO 2 , and the like. 
     The resistor  30  is a thin film formed in a predetermined pattern and above the upper surface of the functional layer  20 , and is a sensitive section where resistance varies according to strain. Note that in  FIG. 1 , for the sake of convenience, the resistor  30  is illustrated in a crepe pattern. 
     The resistor  30  can be formed of, for example, material including Cr (chromium); material including Ni (nickel); or material including both of Cr and Ni. In other words, the resistor  30  can be formed of material including at least one from among Cr and Ni. An example of the material including Cr includes a Cr composite film. An example of the material including nickel includes Cu—Ni (copper nickel). An example of the material including both of Cr and Ni includes Ni—Cr (nickel chromium). 
     Here, the Cr composite film is a composite film of Cr, CrN, Cr 2 N, and the like. The Cr composite film may include incidental impurities such as chromium oxide. A portion of the material that constitutes the functional layer  20  may also be diffused into the Cr composite film. In this case, the material that constitutes the functional layer  20 , and nitrogen may form a compound. For example, when the functional layer  20  is formed of Ti, the Cr composite film may include Ti or TiN (titanium nitride). 
     The thickness of the resistor  30  is not particularly restricted, and can be appropriately selected for any purpose. The thickness can be, for example, approximately between 0.05 μm and 2 μm. In particular, when the thickness of the resistor  30  is 0.1 μm or more, it is preferable in terms of improvement in crystallinity (e.g., crystallinity of α-Cr) of a crystal that constitutes the resistor  30 , and when the thickness of the resistor  30  is 1 μm or less, it is further preferable in terms of reduction in cracks of a given film caused by internal stress of the film that constitutes the resistor  30 , or reduction in warp in the substrate  10 . 
     With the resistor  30  being formed on the functional layer  20 , the resistor  30  can be formed by a stable crystalline phase and thus stability of gauge characteristics (a gauge factor, a gauge factor temperature coefficient TCS, and a temperature coefficient of resistance TCR) can be improved. 
     For example, when the resistor  30  is the Cr composite film, in a case of providing the functional layer  20 , the resistor  30  can be formed with α-Cr (alpha-chromium) as the main component. Because α-Cr has a stable crystalline phase, the stability of the gauge characteristics can be improved. 
     Here, a main component means that a target substance has 50% by weight or more of total substances that constitute the resistor. When the resistor  30  is the Cr composite film, the resistor  30  preferably includes α-Cr of 80% by weight or more, from the viewpoint of improving the gauge characteristics. Note that α-Cr is Cr having a bcc structure (body-centered cubic structure). 
     Also, by diffusing a metal (e.g., Ti) that constitutes the functional layer  20  into the Cr composite film, the gauge characteristics can be improved. Specifically, the gauge factor of the strain gauge  1  can be 10 or more, as well as the gauge factor temperature coefficient TCS and temperature coefficient of resistance TCR can be each in the range of from −1000 ppm/° C. to +1000 ppm/° C. 
     Note that the expansion coefficient of the substrate  10  is preferably between 7 ppm/K and 20 ppm/K, from the viewpoint of reducing warp in the substrate  10 , where the internal stress of the resistor  30  is assumed to be close to zero. The expansion coefficient of the substrate  10  can be adjusted by, for example, selecting the material of the substrate  10 , selecting the material of the filler contained in the substrate  10 , adjusting the content, and the like. 
     When the resistor  30  is formed above the substrate  10 , pinholes may be generated in the resistor  30 . If the number of pinholes generated in the resistor  30  exceeds a predetermined value, the gauge characteristics might deteriorate, or the resistor might not serve as a strain gauge. The inventors have recognized that one of causes of a pinhole being generated in the resistor  30  relates to filler protruding from the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 . 
     In other words, when the substrate  10  includes a filler, a portion of the filler protrudes from the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 , so that surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  increases. As a result, the number of pinholes that are generated in the resistor  30  formed above the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  increases, which results in deterioration of the gauge characteristics, and the like. 
     The inventors have found that, when the thickness of the resistor  30  is 0.05 μm or more, in a case where the surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  is 15 nm or less, the number of pinholes that are generated in the resistor  30  can be suppressed to maintain the gauge characteristics. 
     In other words, when the thickness of the resistor  30  is 0.05 μm or more, the surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  is preferably 15 nm or less, from the viewpoint of reducing the number of pinholes that are generated in the resistor  30  formed above the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  to maintain the gauge characteristics. When the surface unevenness is 15 nm or less, even in a case where the substrate  10  includes fillers, the gauge characteristics do not deteriorate. Note that the surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  may be 0 nm. 
     The surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  can be reduced by, for example, heating the substrate  10 . Alternatively, instead of heating of the substrate  10 , a method of scraping a protrusion by approximately vertically irradiating the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  with laser light; a method of cutting a protrusion by moving a water cutter or the like to be parallel to the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 ; a method of polishing the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  with a grinding wheel; a method of pressing the substrate  10  while heating (heat press); or the like, may be used. 
     Note that the surface unevenness means arithmetical mean roughness, and is generally expressed by Ra. The surface unevenness can be measured by, for example, three-dimensional optical interferometry. 
     The terminal sections  41  respectively extend from both end portions of the resistor  30  and are each wider than the resistor  30  to be in an approximately rectangular shape, in a plan view. The terminal sections  41  are a pair of electrodes from which a change in a resistance value of the resistor  30  according to strain is output externally, where, for example, a lead wire for an external connection, or the like is joined. For example, the resistor  30  extends zigzagged back and forth from one of the terminal sections  41  to another terminal section  41 . The upper surface of each terminal section  41  may be coated with a metal allowing for better solderability than the terminal section  41 . Note that for the sake of convenience, the resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41  are expressed by different numerals. However, the resistor and the terminal sections can be integrally formed of the same material, in the same process. 
     The cover layer  60  is an insulating resin layer, which is disposed on and above the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 , such that the resistor  30  is coated and the terminal sections  41  are exposed. With the cover layer  60  being provided, mechanical damage, and the like can be prevented from occurring in the resistor  30 . Additionally, with the cover layer  60  being provided, the resistor  30  can be protected against moisture, and the like. Note that the cover layer  60  may be provided to cover the entire portion except for the terminal sections  41 . 
     The cover layer  60  can be formed of an insulating resin such as a PI resin, an epoxy resin, a PEEK resin, a PEN resin, a PET resin, or a PPS resin, a composite resin (e.g., a silicone resin or a polyolefin resin). The cover layer  60  may contain fillers or pigments. The thickness of the cover layer  60  is not particularly restricted, and can be appropriately selected for any purpose. For example, the thickness may be approximately between 2 μm and 30 μm. 
       FIGS. 3A to 3C  are diagrams illustrating a process of manufacturing the strain gauge according to the first embodiment, and each illustrate a cross section corresponding to  FIG. 2 . In order to manufacture the strain gauge  1 , first, in the process illustrated in  FIG. 3A , the substrate  10  is prepared and the functional layer  20  is formed on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 . The material and thickness for each of the substrate  10  and the functional layer  20  are the same as the material and thickness described above. 
     The functional layer  20  can be vacuum-deposited by, for example, conventional sputtering in which a raw material capable of forming the functional layer  20  is the target and in which an Ar (argon) gas is supplied to a chamber. By using conventional sputtering, the functional layer  20  is deposited while the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  is etched with Ar. Thus, a deposited amount of film of the functional layer  20  is minimized and thus an effect of improving adhesion can be obtained. 
     However, this is an example of a method of depositing the functional layer  20 , and the functional layer  20  may be formed by other methods. For example, before depositing the functional layer  20 , the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  is activated by plasma treatment using Ar, etc. or the like to thereby obtain the effect of improving the adhesion; subsequently, the functional layer  20  may be vacuum-deposited by magnetron sputtering. 
     Next, in the process illustrated in  FIG. 3B , the resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41  are formed on the entire upper surface of the functional layer  20 , and then the functional layer  20 , the resistor  30 , and the terminal sections  41  are each patterned in the planar shape as illustrated in  FIG. 1 , by photolithography. The material and thickness for each of the resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41  are the same as the material and thickness described above. The resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41  can be integrally formed of the same material. The resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41  can be deposited by, for example, magnetron sputtering in which a raw material capable of forming the resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41  is a target. Instead of the magnetron sputtering, the resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41  may be deposited by reactive sputtering, vapor deposition, arc ion plating, pulsed laser deposition, or the like. 
     A combination of the material of the functional layer  20  and the material of the resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41  is not particularly restricted, and can be appropriately selected for any purpose. For example, Ti is used for the functional layer  20 , and a Cr composite film formed with α-Cr (alpha-chromium) as the main component can be deposited as the resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41 . 
     In this case, each of the resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41  can be deposited by, for example, magnetron sputtering in which a raw material capable of forming the Cr composite film is the target and in which an Ar gas is supplied to a chamber. Alternatively, the resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41  may be deposited by reactive sputtering in which pure Cr is the target and in which an appropriate amount of nitrogen gas, as well as an Ar gas, are supplied to a chamber. 
     In such methods, a growth face of the Cr composite film is defined by the functional layer  20  formed of Ti, and a Cr composite film that is formed with α-Cr as the main component having a stable crystalline structure can be deposited. Also, Ti that constitutes the functional layer  20  is diffused into the Cr composite film, so that the gauge characteristics are improved. For example, the gauge factor of the strain gauge  1  can be 10 or more, as well as the gauge factor temperature coefficient TCS and temperature coefficient of resistance TCR can be each in the range of from −1000 ppm/° C. to +1000 ppm/° C. 
     Note that when the resistor  30  is a Cr composite film, the functional layer  20  formed of Ti includes all functions being a function of promoting crystal growth of the resistor  30 ; a function of preventing oxidation of the resistor  30  caused by oxygen or moisture contained in the substrate  10 ; and a function of improving adhesion between the substrate  10  and the resistor  30 . Instead of Ti, when the functional layer  20  is formed of Ta, Si, Al, or Fe, the functional layer also includes the same functions. 
     Next, in the process illustrated in  FIG. 3C , the cover layer  60  is formed on and above the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 , such that the resistor  30  is coated and the terminal sections  41  are exposed. The material and thickness of the cover layer  60  are the same as the material and thickness described above. For example, the cover layer  60  can be fabricated, such that a thermosetting insulating resin film in a semi-cured state is laminated on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 , and such that the resistor  30  is coated and the terminal sections  41  are exposed; subsequently, heat is added and curing is performed. The cover layer  60  may be formed, such that a thermosetting insulating resin that is liquid or paste-like is applied to the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 , and such that the resistor  30  is coated and the terminal sections  41  are exposed; subsequently, heat is added and curing is performed. In the above process, the strain gauge  1  is completed. 
     As described above, with the functional layer  20  being provided in the lower layer of the resistor  30 , the crystal growth of the resistor  30  can be promoted and thus the resistor  30  having a stable crystalline phase can be fabricated. As a result, with respect to the strain gauge  1 , the stability of the gauge characteristics can be improved. Also, the material that constitutes the functional layer  20  is diffused into the resistor  30 , so that the gauge characteristics of the strain gauge  1  can be thereby improved. 
     &lt;Modification 1 of the First Embodiment&gt; 
     Modification 1 of the first embodiment provides an example of a strain gauge in which an insulating layer is provided in a lower layer of the cover layer. Note that in the modification 1 of the first embodiment, the explanation for the same components as the embodiment that has been described may be omitted. 
       FIG. 4  is a cross-sectional view illustrating an example of the strain gauge according to the modification 1 of the first embodiment, and illustrates a cross section corresponding to  FIG. 2 . With reference to  FIG. 4 , the strain gauge  1 A differs from the strain gauge  1  (see  FIGS. 1 and 2 , etc.) in that an insulating layer  50  is provided in the lower layer of the cover layer  60 . Note that the cover layer  60  may be provided to cover all portions except for the terminal sections  41 . 
     The insulating layer  50  is provided on and above the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 , such that the resistor  30  is coated and the terminal sections  41  are exposed. For example, the cover layer  60  can be provided to cover a portion of a side surface of the insulating layer  50 , and an upper surface thereof. 
     The material of the insulating layer  50  is not particularly restricted as long as the material has higher resistance than the resistor  30  and the cover layer  60 . The material can be appropriately selected for any purpose. For example, an oxide or a nitride, such as Si, W, Ti, or Ta, can be used. The thickness of the insulating layer  50  is not particularly restricted, and can be appropriately selected for any purpose. For example, the thickness can be approximately between 0.05 μm and 1 μm. 
     The method of forming the insulating layer  50  is not particularly restricted, and can be appropriately selected for any purpose. For example, a vacuum process such as sputtering or chemical vapor deposition (CVD), or, a solution process such as spin coating or a sol-gel process can be used. 
     In such a manner, with the insulating layer  50  being provided in the lower layer of the cover layer  60 , insulation and environmental sealing can be improved in comparison to the case where the cover layer  60  alone is used. In such a manner, the insulating layer  50  can be appropriately provided according to a specification required for the insulation and environmental sealing. 
     Second Embodiment 
     The second embodiment provides an example of a strain gauge in which each electrode has a laminated structure. Note that in the second embodiment, the explanation for the same components as the embodiment that has been described may be omitted. 
       FIG. 5  is a plan view illustrating an example of a strain gauge according to the second embodiment.  FIG. 6  is a cross-sectional view illustrating an example of the strain gauge according to the second embodiment, and illustrates a cross section taken along the line B-B in  FIG. 5 . With reference to  FIGS. 5 and 6 , the strain gauge  2  includes electrodes  40 A in each of which a plurality of layers are laminated. Note that the cover layer  60  may be provided to cover all portions except for the electrodes  40 A. 
     Each electrode  40 A has a laminated structure in which a plurality of metallic layers are laminated. Specifically, each electrode  40 A includes a terminal section  41  extending from a corresponding end portion from among both end portions of the resistor  30 ; a metallic layer  42  formed on an upper surface of the terminal section  41 ; a metallic layer  43  formed on an upper surface of the metallic layer  42 ; and a metallic layer  44  formed on an upper surface of the metallic layer  43 . The metallic layer  43  is a typical example of a first metallic layer according to the present invention, and the metallic layer  44  is a typical example of a second metallic layer according to the present invention. 
     The material of the metallic layer  42  is not particularly restricted, and can be appropriately selected for any purpose. For example, Cu (copper) can be used. The thickness of the metallic layer  42  is not particularly restricted, and can be appropriately selected for any purpose. For example, the thickness can be approximately in the range of from 0.01 μm to 1 μm. 
     Preferably, the material of the metallic layer  43  includes Cu, a Cu alloy, Ni, or a Ni alloy. The thickness of the metallic layer  43  is determined in consideration of solderability to the electrode  40 A, and is preferably 1 μm or more, and more preferably 3 μm or more. When the material of the metallic layer  43  includes Cu, a Cu alloy, Ni, or a Ni alloy and the thickness of the metallic layer  43  is 1 μm or more, dissolution of metallization is ameliorated. Also, when the material of the metallic layer  43  includes Cu, a Cu alloy, Ni, or a Ni alloy and the thickness of the metallic layer  43  is 3 μm or more, dissolution of metallization is further ameliorated. Note that the thickness of the metallic layer  43  is preferably 30 μm or less in terms of ease of electrolytic plating. 
     Here, the dissolution of metallization means that the material constituting the electrode  40 A is dissolved in solder for jointing the electrode  40 A, and that the thickness of the electrode  40 A is reduced or the material disappears. When the dissolution of metallization occurs, adhesion strength or tensile strength with a lead wire, or the like to be jointed to the electrode  40 A may be reduced. Thus, it is preferable that no dissolution of metallization occur. 
     For the material of the metallic layer  44 , material having better solder wettability than the metallic layer  43  can be selected. For example, when the material of the metallic layer  43  includes Cu, a Cu alloy, Ni, or a Ni alloy, the material of the metallic layer  44  can include Au (gold). When the surface of Cu, a Cu alloy, Ni, or a Ni alloy is coated with Au, oxidation and corrosion for Cu, a Cu alloy, Ni, or a Ni alloy can be prevented, as well as good solder wettability can be provided. Instead of Au, when the material of the metallic layer  44  includes Pt (platinum), the metallic layer  44  has the same effect. The thickness of the metallic layer  44  is not particularly restricted, and can be appropriately selected for any purpose. For example, the thickness can be approximately between 0.01 μm and 1 μm. 
     Note that each terminal section  41  is exposed around a given laminated section of the metallic layers  42 ,  43 , and  44 , in a plan view. However, each terminal section  41  may have the same planar shape as the laminated section of the metallic layers  42 ,  43 , and  44 . 
       FIGS. 7A to 8D  illustrate a process of manufacturing a strain gauge according to a second embodiment, and illustrate a cross section corresponding to  FIG. 6 . In order to manufacture the strain gauge  2 , a process that is similar to that in  FIG. 3A  according to the first embodiment is first performed, and then in the process illustrated in  FIG. 7A , a metallic layer  300  is formed on an upper surface of the functional layer  20 . The metallic layer  300  is a layer that is finally patterned to serve as the resistor  30  and terminal sections  41 . In such a manner, the material and thickness of the metallic layer  300  are the same as the material and thickness for each of the above resistor  30  and terminal sections  41 . 
     The metallic layer  300  can be deposited by magnetron sputtering in which, for example, a raw material capable of forming the metallic layer  300  is the target. Instead of the magnetron sputtering, the metallic layer  300  may be deposited by reactive sputtering, vapor deposition, arc ion plating, pulsed laser deposition, or the like. 
     Next, in the process illustrated in  FIG. 7B , a seed layer  420  as the metallic layer  42  is formed by, for example, sputtering, electroless plating, or the like, to cover an upper surface of the metallic layer  300 . 
     Next, in the process illustrated in  FIG. 7C , a photosensitive resist  800  is formed on the entire upper surface of the seed layer  420 , and by exposing and developing, an opening  800   x  for exposing a region in which each electrode  40 A is to be formed is formed. As the resist  800 , for example, a dry film resist, or the like can be used. 
     Next, in the process illustrated in  FIG. 7D , a given metallic layer  43  is formed on the seed layer  420  that is exposed in the opening  800   x,  by for example, electrolytic plating in which the seed layer  420  is set as a power supply path, and further, a given metallic layer  44  is formed on the metallic layer  43 . The electrolytic plating is suitable because it has high takt and allows for formation of a low stress electrolytic plating layer as the metallic layer  43 . When the electrolytic plating layer whose thickness is increased has low stress, warp in the strain gauge  2  can be prevented. Note that the metallic layer  44  may be formed on the metallic layer  43 , by electroless plating. 
     Note that in forming the metallic layer  44 , side surfaces of the metallic layer  43  are coated with the resist  800 , so that the metallic layer  44  is formed only on the upper surface of the metallic layer  43  and is not on the side surfaces thereof. 
     Next, in the process illustrated in  FIG. 8A , the resist  800  illustrated in  FIG. 7D  is removed. The resist  800  can be removed by, for example, immersing the material of the resist  800  in a dissolvable solution. 
     Next, in the process illustrated in  FIG. 8B , a photosensitive resist  810  is formed on the entire upper surface of the seed layer  420 , and by exposing and developing, a planar shape that is the same as that of the resistor  30  and terminal sections  41  in  FIG. 5  is patterned. As the resist  810 , for example, a dry film resist, or the like can be used. 
     Next, in the process illustrated in  FIG. 8C , the resist  810  is used as an etch mask, and the functional layer  20 , the metallic layer  300 , and the seed layer  420  that are exposed from the resist  810  are removed, so that the functional layer  20 , the resistor  30 , and the terminal sections  41  each of which has the planar shape in  FIG. 5  are formed. For example, with wet etching, unwanted portions of the functional layer  20 ; the metallic layer  300 ; and the seed layer  420  can be removed. Note that at this point, the seed layer  420  is formed on the resistor  30 . 
     Next, in the process illustrated in  FIG. 8D , the metallic layer  43  and the metallic layer  44  are used as etch masks, and an unwanted seed layer  420  that is exposed from the metallic layer  43  and the metallic layer  44  is removed, so that the metallic layer  42  is formed. For example, by wet etching using etching liquid with which the seed layer  420  is etched and with which the functional layer  20  and the resistor  30  are not etched, the unwanted seed layer  420  can be removed. 
     After the process illustrated in  FIG. 8D , as is the case with the process in  FIG. 3C , the cover layer  60  with which the resistor  30  is coated and that exposes the electrodes  40 A is formed on and above the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 , so that the strain gauge  2  is completed. 
     As described above, as each electrode  40 A, a given metallic layer  43  formed of a thick film (1 μm or more), which is formed of Cu, a Cu alloy, Ni, or a Ni alloy, is formed above a given terminal section  41 , and further, a given metallic layer  44  formed of material (Au or Pt) that has better solder wettability than the metallic layer  43  is formed in the outermost surface layer. Thereby, dissolution of metallization can be prevented, as well as improving solder wettability. 
     &lt;Modification 1 of the Second Embodiment&gt; 
     Modification 1 of the second embodiment provides an example of electrodes each having a layer structure different from that in the second embodiment. Note that in the modification 1 of the second embodiment, the explanation for the same components as the embodiments that have been described may be omitted. 
       FIG. 9  is a cross-sectional view illustrating an example of a strain gauge according to the modification 1 of the second embodiment, and illustrates a cross section corresponding to  FIG. 6 . With reference to  FIG. 9 , the strain gauge  2 A differs from the strain gauge  2  (see  FIG. 6 , etc.) in that the electrodes  40 A are replaced with electrodes  40 B. Additionally, the cover layer  60  is provided to approximately cover all portions except for the electrodes  40 B, which differs from the strain gauge  2  (see  FIG. 6 , etc.). 
     Each electrode  40 B has a laminated structure in which a plurality of metallic layers are laminated. Specifically, each electrode  40 B includes a terminal section  41  extending from a corresponding end portion from among both end portions of the resistor  30 ; a metallic layer  42  formed on an upper surface of the terminal section  41 ; a metallic layer  43  formed on an upper surface of the metallic layer  42 ; a metallic layer  45  formed on an upper surface of the metallic layer  43 ; and a metallic layer  44  formed on an upper surface of the metallic layer  45 . In other words, each electrode  40 B has a structure in which the metallic layer  45  is provided between the metallic layer  43  and the metallic layer  44  of a given electrode  40 A. 
     The material of the metallic layer  45  is not particularly restricted, and can be appropriately selected for any purpose. For example, Ni can be used. Instead of Ni, NiP (nickel phosphorus) or Pd may be used. Also, as the metallic layer  45 , Ni/Pd (a metallic layer in which a Ni layer and a Pd layer are laminated in this order) may be used. The thickness of the metallic layer  45  is not particularly restricted, and can be appropriately selected for any purpose. For example, the thickness is approximately between 1 μm and 2 μm. 
     In the process illustrated in  FIG. 7D , the metallic layer  45  can be formed on the metallic layer  43  by, for example, electrolytic plating in which the seed layer  420  is set as a power supply path. 
     In such a manner, the number of electrode layers is not particularly restricted, and the number of layers may be increased as necessary. In this case as well, a given metallic layer  43  formed of a thick film (1 μm or more), which is formed of Cu, a Cu alloy, Ni, or a Ni alloy, is formed above a given terminal section  41 , and further, a given metallic layer  44  formed of material (Au or Pt) that has better solder wettability than the metallic layer  43  is formed in the outermost surface layer. Thereby, as is the case with the second embodiment, the dissolution of metallization can be prevented, as well as improving the solder wettability. 
     &lt;Modification 2 of the Second Embodiment&gt; 
     Modification 2 of the second embodiment provides another example of electrodes each having a different layer structure from that in the second embodiment. Note that in the modification 2 of the second embodiment, the explanation for the same components as the embodiments that have been described may be omitted. 
       FIG. 10  is a cross-sectional view illustrating an example of a strain gauge according to the modification 2 of the second embodiment, and illustrates a cross section corresponding to  FIG. 6 . With reference to  FIG. 10 , the strain gauge  2 B differs from the strain gauge  2 A (see  FIG. 9 ) in that the electrodes  40 B are replaced with electrodes  40 C. Additionally, the cover layer  60  is provided to approximately cover all portions except for the electrodes  40 C, which differs from the strain gauge  2  (see  FIG. 6 , etc.). 
     Each electrode  40 C has a laminated structure in which a plurality of metallic layers are laminated. Specifically, each electrode  40 C includes a terminal section  41  extending from a corresponding end portion from among both end portions of the resistor  30 ; a metallic layer  42  formed on an upper surface of the terminal section  41 ; a metallic layer  43  formed on an upper surface of the metallic layer  42 ; a metallic layer  45 A formed on an upper surface and side surfaces of the metallic layer  43  and on side surfaces of the metallic layer  42 ; and a metallic layer  44 A formed on an upper surface and side surfaces of the metallic layer  45 A. For example, the material and thickness for each of the metallic layers  44 A and  45 A can be the same as the material and thickness of the metallic layers  44  and  45 . Note that the metallic layer  44 A is a typical example of a second metallic layer according to the present invention. 
     In order to form each electrode  40 C, first, in the process illustrated in  FIG. 7D , for example, a given metallic layer  43  is formed by, for example, electrolytic plating in which the seed layer  420  is set as a power supply path, and then the resist  800  is removed as is the case with the process illustrated in  FIG. 8A , without forming a given metallic layer  44 . Next, the same process as that in  FIGS. 8B to 8D  is performed. Subsequently, a given metallic layer  45 A can be formed on the upper surface and side surfaces of the metallic layer  43  and on the side surfaces of the metallic layer  42 , by electroless plating, for example. Additionally, a given metallic layer  44 A can be formed on the upper surface and side surfaces of the metallic layer  45 A, by electroless plating, for example. 
     As described above, each electrode can be fabricated by appropriately using both of electrolytic plating and electroless plating. In the structure of each electrode  40 C, a given metallic layer  43  formed of a thick film (1 μm or more), which is formed of Cu, a Cu alloy, Ni, or a Ni alloy, is formed above a given terminal section  41 , and further, a given metallic layer  44 A formed of material (Au or Pt) that has better solder wettability than the metallic layer  43  is formed in the outermost layer. Note, however, that the metallic layer  44 A of the outermost layer is formed, via the metallic layer  45 A, toward the side surfaces of each of the metallic layers  42  and  43 , in addition to the upper surface of the metallic layer  43 . Thus, in comparison to the electrodes  40 A or the electrodes  40 B, the effect of preventing oxidation and corrosion of Cu, a Cu alloy, Ni, or a Ni alloy that constitutes the metallic layer  43  can be further enhanced, as well as the solder wettability can be further improved. 
     Note that the same effect is obtained even when a given metallic layer  44 A is formed directly on the upper surface and side surfaces of a given metallic layer  43  and on the side surfaces of a given metallic layer  42 , without forming a given metallic layer  45 A. In other words, the metallic layer  44 A may directly or indirectly cover the upper surface and side surfaces of the metallic layer  43  and the side surfaces of the metallic layer  42 . 
     Third Embodiment 
     A third embodiment provides an example of a sensor module using a strain gauge. Note that in the third embodiment, the explanation for the same components as the embodiments that have been described may be omitted. 
       FIG. 11  is a cross-sectional view illustrating an example of the sensor module according to the third embodiment, and illustrates a cross section corresponding to  FIG. 2 . With reference to  FIG. 11 , the sensor module  5  includes the strain gauge  1 , a flexure element  110 , and an adhesive layer  120 . Note that the cover layer  60  may be provided to cover all portions except for the terminal sections  41 . 
     In the sensor module  5 , an upper surface  110   a  of the flexure element  110  is secured to the lower surface  10   b  of the substrate  10 , via the adhesive layer  120 . For example, the flexure element  110  is an object that is formed of a metal such as Fe, SUS (stainless steel), or Al, or, a resin such as PEEK, and that is deformed (causes strain) according to force that is applied. The strain gauge  1  can detect strain generated in the flexure element  110 , as a change in a resistance value of the resistor  30 . 
     The material of the adhesive layer  120  is not particularly restricted as long as it has a function of securing the flexure element  110  to the strain gauge  1 . The material can be appropriately selected for any purpose. For example, an epoxy resin, a modified epoxy resin, a silicone resin, a modified silicone resin, a urethane resin, a modified urethane resin, or the like can be used. Also, material such as a bonding sheet may be used. The thickness of the adhesive layer  120  is not particularly restricted, and can be appropriately selected for any purpose. For example, the thickness can be approximately between 0.1 μm and 50 μm. 
     In order to manufacture the sensor module  5 , after the strain gauge  1  is fabricated, for example, any material described above, which constitutes the adhesive layer  120 , is applied to the lower surface  10   b  of the substrate  10  and/or the upper surface  110   a  of the flexure element  110 . Then, the lower surface  10   b  of the substrate  10  is situated facing the upper surface  110   a  of the flexure element  110 , and the strain gauge  1  is disposed above the flexure element  110 , through the applied material. Alternatively, the bonding sheet may be interposed between the flexure element  110  and the substrate  10 . 
     Next, the strain gauge  1  is heated to a predetermined temperature while being pressed toward the flexure element  110 , and the applied material is cured, so that the adhesive layer  120  is formed. Thereby, the lower surface  10   b  of the substrate  10  is secured to the upper surface  110   a  of the flexure element  110 , through the adhesive layer  120 , so that the sensor module  5  is completed. For example, the sensor module  5  can be applied in measurement of load, pressure, torque, acceleration, or the like. 
     Note that for the sensor module  5 , the strain gauge  1 A,  2 ,  2 A, or  2 B may be used instead of the strain gauge  1 . 
     EXAMPLE 1 
     First, in an advance test, Ti as the functional layer  20  was vacuum-deposited on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  formed of a polyimide resin that had a thickness of 25 μm, by conventional sputtering. In this case, five samples for each of which Ti was deposited were fabricated in order to target multiple film thicknesses. 
     Next, for the fabricated five samples, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis was performed to obtain the result as illustrated in  FIG. 12 . From an X-ray peak in  FIG. 12 , it was confirmed that Ti was present, and from X-ray intensity of each sample at the X-ray peak, it was confirmed that a film thickness of a given Ti film could be controlled to be in the range of from 1 nm to 100 nm. 
     Next, in Example 1, Ti as the functional layer  20 , which had a film thickness of 3 nm, was vacuum-deposited on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  formed of a polyimide resin that had a thickness of 25 μm, by conventional sputtering. 
     Subsequently, a Cr composite film, as the resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41 , was deposited on the entire upper surface of the functional layer  20 , by magnetron sputtering, and then the functional layer  20 , the resistor  30 , and the terminal sections  41  were patterned by photolithography, as illustrated in  FIG. 1 . 
     In comparative example 1, without forming the functional layer  20 , a Cr composite film, as the resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41 , was deposited on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  formed of a polyimide resin that had a thickness of 25 μm, by magnetron sputtering. Then, patterning was performed by photolithography, as illustrated in  FIG. 1 . Note that for the sample used in Example 1 and the sample used in comparative example 1, all deposition conditions for the resistor  30  and the terminal sections  41  are the same. 
     Next, for a given sample used in Example 1 and a given sample used in comparative example 1, X-ray diffraction evaluation was performed to obtain the result illustrated in  FIG. 13 .  FIG. 13  illustrates an X-ray diffraction pattern at a diffraction angle of 2θ being in the range of from 36 to 48 degrees, and a diffraction peak in Example 1 is shifted to the right in comparison to a diffraction peak in comparative example 1. Further, the diffraction peak in Example 1 is greater than the diffraction peak in comparative example 1. 
     The diffraction peak in Example 1 is situated in proximity to a diffraction line of α-Cr (110). This is considered that when the functional layer  20  formed of Ti was provided, crystal growth of α-Cr was promoted to thereby form a Cr composite film with α-Cr as the main component. 
     Next, multiple samples used in Example 1 and comparative example 1 were fabricated, and gauge characteristics were measured. As a result, a gauge factor for each sample in Example 1 was between 14 and 16. In contrast, a gauge factor for each sample in comparative example 1 was less than 10. 
     Also, for each sample in Example 1, the gauge factor temperature coefficient TCS and temperature coefficient of resistance TCR were each in the range of from −1000 ppm/° C. to +1000 ppm/° C. In contrast, for each sample in comparative example 1, the gauge factor temperature coefficient TCS and temperature coefficient of resistance TCR were not each in the range of from −1000 ppm/° C. to +1000 ppm/° C. 
     As described above, with the functional layer  20  formed of Ti being provided, crystal growth of α-Cr was promoted and a Cr composite film was formed with α-Cr as the main component, so that a strain gauge that had a gauge factor of 10 or more, and that had the gauge factor temperature coefficient TCS and temperature coefficient of resistance TCR being each in the range of from −1000 ppm/° C. to +1000 ppm/° C., was fabricated. Note that the diffusion effect of Ti into the Cr composite film is considered to cause the improvement in the gauge characteristics. 
     EXAMPLE 2 
     In Example 2, multiple substrates  10  each formed of a polyimide resin that had a thickness of 25 μm and that had a different expansion coefficient were prepared. Then, when a Cr-composite film, as a given resistor  30 , was deposited, a relationship between an expansion coefficient of a given substrate  10  and internal stress of the resistor  30  was checked, to thereby obtain the result illustrated in  FIG. 14 . 
     The internal stress of the resistor  30  was estimated by measuring warp in an evaluation sample and using the Stoney formula given by Formula (1). Note that as can be seen from Formula (1), the internal stress of the resistor  30  illustrated in  FIG. 14  indicates a value per unit thickness and does not depend on the thickness of the resistor  30 . 
       [Math. 1] 
       INTERNAL STRESS= ED 2/6(1−ν) tR    (1)
 
     Note that in Formula (1), E denotes Young&#39;s modulus, ν denotes Poisson&#39;s ratio, D denotes the thickness of the substrate  10 , t denotes the thickness of the resistor  30 , and R denotes change in radius of curvature in the substrate  10 . 
     From  FIG. 14 , when the expansion coefficient of the substrate  10  is in the range of from 7 ppm/K to 20 ppm/K, the internal stress of the resistor  30  can be maintained to be in the range of ±0.4 GPa. Where, ±0.4 GPa indicates values expressing a permittable warp in the strain gauge  1  for functioning, and was experimentally determined by the inventors. 
     In other words, when the expansion coefficient of the substrate  10  is out of the range of from 7 ppm/K to 20 ppm/K, the internal stress of the resistor  30  is out of the range of ±0.4 GPa and thus warp in the strain gauge  1  would increase, so that the strain gauge  1  would not function as a strain gauge. Therefore, the expansion coefficient of the substrate  10  is required to be in the range of from 7 ppm/K to 20 ppm/K. Note that the material of the substrate  10  does not necessarily include a polyimide resin. 
     The expansion coefficient of the substrate  10  can be in the range of from 7 ppm/K to 20 ppm/K, by selecting the material of the substrate  10 , selecting the material of the filler contained in the substrate  10 , adjusting the content, and the like. 
     As described above, with the expansion coefficient of the substrate  10  being in the range of from 7 ppm/K to 20 ppm/K, a difference in the expansion coefficient between the substrate  10  and the resistor  30 , as well as other factors, are absorbed, so that the internal stress of the resistor  30  can be in the range of ±0.4 GPa. As a result, warp in the strain gauge  1  is reduced to thereby cause the strain gauge  1  to be able to function stably in a manner such that good gauge characteristics are maintained. 
     EXAMPLE 3 
     In Example 3, multiple substrates  10  each formed of a polyimide resin that had a thickness of 25 μm and that contained fillers were prepared. Three sets of samples, each of which included a sample not being subject to heat treatment; a sample being subject to heat treatment at a temperature of 100° C.; a sample being subject to heat treatment at a temperature of 200° C.; and a sample being subject to heat treatment at a temperature of 300° C., were fabricated. Then, the samples were returned to be at normal temperature, and surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of each substrate  10  was measured by three-dimensional optical interference. 
     Next, the resistor  30  having a film thickness of 0.05 μm was deposited on the upper surface  10   a  of each substrate  10 , by magnetron sputtering, and patterning was performed by photolithography, as illustrated in  FIG. 1 . Then, the number of pinholes that were generated in the resistor  30  was measured by a light transmission method in which light was transmitted from a back surface of a given sample. 
     Next, based on a measured result, a relationship between surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of a given substrate  10  and the number of pinholes that were generated in a given resistor  30  was summarized in  FIG. 15 . Note that each bar graph illustrated in  FIG. 15  shows surface unevenness, and a line graph shows the number of pinholes. Additionally, for the horizontal axis, 100° C., 200° C., and 300° C. each indicate a temperature when a given substrate  10  was subject to heat treatment, and Incomplete indicates that heat treatment is not carried out. 
       FIG. 15  indicates that when a given substrate  10  is heated at temperatures between 100° C. and 300° C., the surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  is 15 nm or less, which is about half of surface unevenness in a case of being incomplete, and that as a result, the number of pinholes in the resistor  30  is drastically reduced to about 1/7. Note, however, that in consideration of resistance to thermal temperature of a polyimide resin, when heat treatment is carried out at temperatures exceeding 250° C., alteration or deterioration may occur. Accordingly, it is preferable that the heat treatment be carried out at temperatures between 100° C. and 250° C. Note that it is considered that the surface unevenness is reduced by heat treatment because fillers are contained in a polyimide resin that constitutes the substrate  10 , during thermal shrinkage caused by the heat treatment. 
     According to consideration by the inventors, the number of pinholes (about 140) in the case of Incomplete, as illustrated in  FIG. 15 , indicates a level of the gauge characteristics deteriorating. In contrast, the number of pinholes (about 20) after heat treatment, indicates a level of the gauge characteristics not being adversely affected. In other words, when the resistor  30  having a film thickness of 0.05 μm is used, in a case where the surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  is 15 nm or less, it was confirmed that the number of pinholes that were generated in the resistor  30  could be reduced to indicate a level of the gauge characteristics not being adversely affected. 
     Note that when the resistor  30  having a film thickness of greater than 0.05 μm is used, it is obvious that when the surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  is 15 nm or less, the number of pinholes that are generated in the resistor  30  can be reduced to indicate a level of the gauge characteristics not being adversely affected. In other words, with the surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  being 15 nm or less, when the resistor  30  having a film thickness of 0.05 μm or more is used, the number of pinholes that are generated in the resistor  30  can be reduced to indicate a level of the gauge characteristics not being adversely affected. 
     As described above, with the substrate  10  being subject to heat treatment, the surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  can be 15 nm or less, and as a result, the number of pinholes that are generated in the resistor  30  having a film thickness of 0.05 μm or more can be significantly reduced. As a result, the strain gauge  1  can function stably in a manner such that good gauge characteristics are maintained. 
     Note that in order to reduce the number of pinholes that are generated in the resistor  30 , it is important to reduce the surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 , and a method of reducing surface unevenness is not important. In the above description, the method of reducing surface unevenness by heat treatment has been described, but is not limited to this case. Any method may be used as long as the surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  can be reduced. 
     The surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  can be reduced by, for example, a method of scraping a protrusion by approximately vertically irradiating the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 , with laser light; a method of cutting a protrusion by moving a water cutter or the like to be parallel to the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 ; a method of polishing the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  with a grinding wheel; a method of pressing the substrate  10  while heating (heat press); or the like. 
     Further, in order to reduce the number of pinholes that are generated in the resistor  30 , it is important to reduce the surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10 , and is not necessarily limited to being directed to surface unevenness caused by the fillers that are present. It is effective to reduce surface unevenness not being caused by the fillers that are present, by various methods described above. For example, when surface unevenness on the substrate  10  without containing fillers is greater than 15 nm, in a case where the surface unevenness on the upper surface  10   a  of the substrate  10  is 15 nm or less, by various methods described above, the number of pinholes that are generated in the resistor  30  having a film thickness of 0.05 μm or more can be reduced to a level of the gauge characteristics not being adversely affected. 
     EXAMPLE 4 
     In Example 4, the process illustrated in  FIGS. 7A to 8D  was modified as described in the modification 1 of the second embodiment, the strain gauge  2 A with the electrodes  40 B was fabricated, and the presence or absence of dissolution of metallization was checked. Specifically, 10 types of samples in each of which Cu was used for the metallic layers  42  and  43 , in each of which NiP was used for the metallic layer  45 , in each of which Au was used for the metallic layer  44 , and in each of which the thickness of a given metallic layer was changed were fabricated (samples No. 1 to No. 10), and then the presence or absence of dissolution of metallization was checked. 
     Table 1 shows results. Note that in Table 1, the film thickness “0” indicates that no metallic layer was formed. The “poor” indicates that dissolution of metallization occurred in soldering being first performed. The “good” indicates that although no dissolution of metallization occurred in soldering being first performed, little dissolution of metallization occurred in soldering being performed second (where soldering refinement, etc. was assumed). Additionally, the “excellent” indicates that dissolution of metallization occurred neither in soldering being performed first nor second. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 EACH FILM THICKNESS 
                   
               
               
                 SAMPLE 
                 [μm] 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 No. 
                 Cu 
                 NiP 
                 Au 
                 SOLDERABILITY 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 0.5 
                 0 
                 0 
                 POOR PRESENCE OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DISSOLUTION OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 METALLIZATION 
               
               
                 2 
                 0.5 
                 0 
                 0.1 
                 POOR PRESENCE OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DISSOLUTION OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 METALLIZATION 
               
               
                 3 
                 0.5 
                 0 
                 0.8 
                 POOR PRESENCE OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DISSOLUTION OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 METALLIZATION 
               
               
                 4 
                 1 
                 1 
                 0.1 
                 GOOD ABSENCE OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DISSOLUTION OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 METALLIZATION 
               
               
                 5 
                 3 
                 0 
                 0 
                 EXCELLENT ABSENCE OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DISSOLUTION OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 METALLIZATION 
               
               
                 6 
                 3 
                 0 
                 0.1 
                 EXCELLENT ABSENCE OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DISSOLUTION OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 METALLIZATION 
               
               
                 7 
                 3 
                 0 
                 0.8 
                 EXCELLENT ABSENCE OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DISSOLUTION OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 METALLIZATION 
               
               
                 8 
                 3 
                 1 
                 0.1 
                 EXCELLENT ABSENCE OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DISSOLUTION OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 METALLIZATION 
               
               
                 9 
                 5 
                 1 
                 0.1 
                 EXCELLENT ABSENCE OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DISSOLUTION OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 METALLIZATION 
               
               
                 10 
                 8 
                 1 
                 0.1 
                 EXCELLENT ABSENCE OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DISSOLUTION OF 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 METALLIZATION 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     As shown in Table 1, it was confirmed that when the thickness of Cu was 1 μm or more, dissolution of metallization was improved, and that when the thickness was 3 μm or more, the dissolution of metallization was further improved. Additionally, from the results for sample 1 and sample 5, it was confirmed that the presence or absence of dissolution of metallization was determined only according to the thickness of Cu and was not determined upon the presence or absence of each of NiP and Au. Note, however, that as described above, in order to prevent dissolution of metallization and improve solder wettability, a metallic layer formed of Au or an equivalent material (Pt, etc.) is required. 
     The preferred embodiments and the like have been described above in detail, but are not limited thereto. Various modifications and alternatives to the above embodiments and the like can be made without departing from a scope set forth in the claims. 
     This International application claims priority to Japanese Patent Application Nos. 2017-191824, filed Sep. 29, 2017, and 2018-052422, filed Mar. 20, 2018, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. 
     REFERENCE SIGNS LIST 
       1 ,  1 A,  2 ,  2 A,  2 B strain gauge,  5  sensor module,  10  substrate,  10   a  upper surface,  20  functional layer,  30  resistor,  41  terminal section,  40 A,  40 B,  40 C electrode,  42 ,  43 ,  44 ,  44 A,  45 ,  45 A metallic layer,  50  insulating layer,  60  cover layer,  110  flexure element,  120  adhesive layer