Patent Publication Number: US-11662340-B1

Title: Techniques for rapid detection and quantitation of volatile organic compounds (VOCS) using breath samples

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This is a continuation in part of, and claims the benefit of priority of, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/715,576, entitled Techniques for Rapid Detection and Quantitation of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCS) Using Breath Samples, filed Dec. 16, 2019, and therethrough, of International Application Number PCT/IB2019/056456, also entitled Techniques for Rapid Detection and Quantitation of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCS) Using Breath Samples, filed Jul. 29, 2019, and therethrough, of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/712,941, filed Jul. 31, 2018, each of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference, in its entirety. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present application relates to breathalyzer systems and devices. More specifically the present application relates to breathalyzer systems and devices designed to facilitate rapid quantitative analysis of THC and other substances in the field using breath samples. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Marijuana legalization has created many judicial issues and raises concerns of safety for civilians. Daily marijuana users have increased from 9.8% of the population of the United States in 2007, to 13.39% in 2014. While this is only a 3.6% increase, the potency of Δ-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ-9-THC), the psychoactive substance in marijuana, has also increased from 5% in 2001 to over 20% in marijuana leaves and over 60% in crude extracts. The increase in potency has led to an increase in crime reports for the local population. Specifically, areas with a high density of marijuana dispensaries had higher rates of property crime among all states with dispensaries. Another problem with marijuana legalization is the influence of marijuana while operating an automobile. Marijuana users are 25% more likely to be in an automobile accident than a sober driver, and more than 10% of all drivers on the weekend are under the influence of an illegal drug. As marijuana becomes legalized in more states, proper quantitation of Δ-9-THC is required, such that an accurate and rapid determination of whether a person is under the influence of marijuana can be achieved. This will also aid the judicial system in having a device that can accurately determine a concentration, allowing a set limit of Δ-9-THC to be determined for operating a vehicle. 
     Three cannabinoid compounds are currently analyzed to determine cannabinoid concentrations in the blood; they are Δ-9-THC, 11-hydroxytetrahydrocannabinol (11-OH-THC), and carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH). Currently, techniques for determining the presence of drugs, such as cannabinoids, require analysis via a blood, blood plasma, urine, or oral fluid samples. Most analytical techniques use gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC/MS). This presents a problem of having to collect a sample and bring it back to the lab for further analysis. These techniques have a long analysis time, with most analyses taking more than 15 minutes to detect the cannabinoids. Furthermore, detecting Δ-9-THC using GC/MS can also introduce another problem because the ionization source is electron ionization (EI). Cannabidiol (CBD), an extracted resin from the hemp plant, has the same molecular weight as Δ-9-THC, as well as the same mass spectrum fragmentation patterns when ionized using electron ionization. Under the controlled substances act, CBD is classified as a Schedule I drug because of it being a derivative of marijuana. However, the agricultural act of 2014 allows industrial hemp to be cultivated and sold for purposes of marketing research. Some states view this bill as the right to contract agriculturalists to sell CBD legally. This creates a challenge in quantifying the amount of Δ-9-THC in person&#39;s breath because the signal may be a result of CBD in the person&#39;s breath, which they may have obtained legally. 
     Laws for legal limits of Δ-9-THC in the body have been established in some states. Twelve states have the zero-tolerance policy, which states that no person should have any cannabinoids in their blood while driving. However, five states allow the use of medical marijuana. This causes an issue for patients getting treatment and then having to drive later in the day or later in the week because they could be considered to driving under the influence of marijuana (DUIM). The analytical techniques that test for all three cannabinoids can be problematic because THC-COOH, which is not psychoactive, remains in the blood long after both Δ-9-THC and 11-OH-THC remain in the blood. A person can fail a cannabinoid test even though they are experiencing no psychoactive effects. Other states have adopted per se blood cannabis content (BCC) laws. These select states each have their own limit with the overall range being between 1 nanogram of THC to milliliter of blood (ng/ml) to 5 ng/ml. If the person driving has a concentration higher than those values, they are deemed DUIM, which carries similar penalties to driving while intoxicated. Unfortunately, a device that can accurately and rapidly detect Δ-9-THC concentrations has yet to be developed. 
     Detecting cannabinoids from the breath of a person is needed to allow a non-invasive rapid determination in the field. Previous methods of breath determination of cannabinoids originate back to 1972, when marijuana was detected in the breath of people under the influence using a colorimetric test. This test collected breath and used a series of reactions with quinone haloimine, 2,6-dihaloquinone-4-haloimine, sodium hydroxide, and ammonia to determine if the breath sample would change to a blue or red color. These colorimetric tests had to be done in large reaction vessels, had a broad range of colors representing a positive result, and required at least 1 microgram of THC in the breath to have a positive reaction. These tests were not capable of quantitating the level of Δ-9-THC, nor were they able to be used in the field. 
     Currently, three types of breathalyzers are being used by local law enforcement officers in the field, liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC/MS), high-field asymmetric waveform ion mobility (FAIMS), and liquid chromatography coupled to spectroscopy. A first company, Sensabues, utilizes a breath sampling kit. The person breathes into the sampling chamber and then the apparatus is sent back to the lab to be analyzed using LC/MS. While this method is useful for quantitation, it cannot be used in the field, which hinders this method. In addition, LCMS requires several minutes to analyze the sample once it has reached the lab before the cannabinoids can be seen. Two other companies provide systems that are capable of in field measurements. Cannabix Technologies Inc. has worked with the Yost research group at University of Florida to create a portable breathalyzer for Δ-9-THC that utilizes high-field asymmetric waveform ion mobility spectrometry (FAIMS). This device can analyze samples in a two-minute time window and can detect and quantitate Δ-9-THC in the sample at concentrations of 10 parts per million (ppm). While this device overcomes the portability issue, FAIMS does not contain the same resolution or peak capacity that is necessary for determining the concentration of Δ-9-THC. Without the proper resolution, the instrument would not be able to distinguish the compounds of tobacco smoke from cannabis smoke. Furthermore, without the peak capacity, other compounds, such as illicit drugs may be overlooked, allowing the driver to continue driving while under the influence of a different illicit substance. Another company, Hound Labs Inc., has developed a handheld instrument that also utilizes liquid chromatography coupled to spectroscopy to detect for the presence of Δ-9-THC by linking a fluorescent adduct to the para-position of the Δ-9-THC molecule. This device only requires picogram quantities of Δ-9-THC and works by capturing the breath of the person and condensing the breath onto C18 media. The media is then delivered to a TLC plate, where a solvent mixture is administered and after several minutes the fluorescent label is placed on the entire TLC plate. The fluorescent label will bind specifically to the Δ-9-THC, which is then excited using a diode-pumped solid-state laser. This excited state will cause a shift in the spectrum and can be referenced to a known Δ-9-THC sample. This method requires more than 8 minutes to analyze a sample and requires the use of a known reference every time an analysis takes place. 
     Since the turn of the century the number of synthetic opioid overdoses of civilians have risen 200% and from the years 2014-2016 50% of all drug overdoses were attributed to opioids. Military personnel have also had an increase in opioid overdoses as military emergency departments have recorded a steady rise of opioid overdoses increasing from 27% to 42% during the years of 2009-2012. With so many opioid overdoses occurring among both civilians and military personnel a need for improved detection methods is warranted. Most drug enforcement agencies can only analyze the opioid using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC/MS) or liquid chromatography to mass spectrometry (LC/MS). Opioids such as methadone and fentanyl are immediately hydroxylated upon entering the human body. This process of hydroxylation begins a metabolic cycle that creates volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as propionic acid. Previous methods used to detect these VOCs have been with solid phase micro extraction (SPME) techniques coupled to GC/MS. Unfortunately, these methods require long equilibration times of up to 10 minutes. 
     SUMMARY 
     Systems, apparatuses, methods, and computer-readable storage media providing techniques for improved on-site quantitation of cannabinoids and other substances from breath samples are disclosed. Exemplary breath analysis systems and apparatuses of the present disclosure may include a sampling chamber having an inlet configured to receive a breath sample and provide the breath sample to the sampling chamber. A molecule collector may be disposed within the sampling chamber. The molecule detector may be configured such that volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in the breath sample introduced to the sampling chamber adhere to the molecule collector. The breath analysis systems and apparatuses may include a heating mechanism configured to introduce or induce heat within the sampling chamber, which may cause resorption of at least a portion of the VOCs adhered to the molecule collector. The exemplary breath analysis systems and apparatuses may include an analysis device configured to identify one or more target VOCs from among at least the portion of the VOCs released from the molecule collector and generate an output representative of the identified one or more target VOCs. The output may include information that quantitates a concentration of the one or more target VOCs with respect to a source of the breath sample with respect to the breath sample provided to the sampling chamber. In aspects, the analysis device may identify the one or more target VOCs using a mass spectrometer or Terahertz (THz) spectrometer. 
     Therein, an implementation for rapidly analyzing a breath sample may include receiving, at a sampling chamber, a breath sample, via an inlet coupled to the sampling chamber. The sampling chamber may include a molecule collector disposed within the sampling chamber, and the molecule collector may be configured to adhere volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in the breath sample. The sampling chamber is heated, and concurrent with heating the sampling chamber, a vacuum may be introduced in a spectrometer. An analysis device employing the spectrometer identifies one or more target VOCs from among the VOCs present in the sampling chamber, subsequent to release of at least a portion of the VOCs from the molecule collector, where at least the portion of the VOCs are released from the molecule collector by the heating of the sampling chamber. The analysis device may generate an output representative of the target VOC(s), where the output representative of the target VOC(s) may include information that quantitates a concentration of the target VOC(s) with respect to a source of the breath sample. Concurrent with at least generating the output representative of target VOC(s), the sampling chamber is at least cleaned by further heating the sampling chamber and evacuating the sampling chamber and the spectrometer using (further) vacuum. 
     The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the features and technical advantages of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described hereinafter which form the subject of the claims of the invention. It should be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the conception and specific embodiment disclosed may be readily utilized as a basis for modifying or designing other structures for carrying out the same purposes of the present invention. It should also be realized by those skilled in the art that such equivalent constructions do not depart from the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims. The novel features which are believed to be characteristic of the invention, both as to its organization and method of operation, together with further objects and advantages will be better understood from the following description when considered in connection with the accompanying figures. It is to be expressly understood, however, that each of the figures is provided for the purpose of illustration and description only and is not intended as a definition of the limits of the present invention. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       For a more complete understanding of the present invention, reference is now made to the following descriptions taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: 
         FIG.  1 A  illustrates a block diagram of a system for analyzing breath samples in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  1 B  is a block diagram of a system for analyzing breath samples, housed in a single portable case, or the like, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  2 A  illustrates a diagram of a mass spectrometer-based system for analyzing breath samples in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  2 B  is a diagram of a mass spectrometer-based system for analyzing breath samples, deployed in a single portable case, or the like, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  3 A  illustrates a diagram of a Terahertz spectrometer-based system for analyzing breath samples in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  3 B  is a diagram of a Terahertz spectrometer-based system for analyzing breath samples, deployed in a single portable case, or the like, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  4 A  is a diagram illustrating aspects of receiving a breath sample in a system configured in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  4 B  is a diagram illustrating aspects the behavior of breath sample molecules received in a system configured in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  4 C  is a diagram illustrating aspects of analyzing breath sample molecules using a mass spectrometer-based system configured in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  4 D  is a diagram illustrating aspects of analyzing breath sample molecules using a Terahertz (THz) spectrometer-based system configured in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  5    is a graph illustrating observed VOCs for a healthy breath sample; 
         FIG.  6    is a graph illustrating observed VOCs for a breath sample of a person suffering from seasonal allergies; 
         FIG.  7    is a graph illustrating observed VOCs for a breath sample of a person after using mouthwash; 
         FIG.  8    is a graph illustrating observed VOCs for toluene, benzene, and xylene; 
         FIG.  9    is a graph illustrating observed VOCs for a marijuana sample; 
         FIG.  10    is a flow diagram of a method for analyzing a breath sample in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; and 
         FIG.  11    is a flow diagram of a method for parallel operation of analysis of a breath sample, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Various features and advantageous details are explained more fully with reference to the non-limiting embodiments that are illustrated in the accompanying drawings and detailed in the following description. Descriptions of well-known starting materials, processing techniques, components, and equipment are omitted so as not to unnecessarily obscure the invention in detail. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, and not by way of limitation. Various substitutions, modifications, additions, and/or rearrangements within the spirit and/or scope of the underlying inventive concept will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this disclosure. 
     Referring to  FIG.  1 A , a block diagram of a system for analyzing breath samples in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure is shown as a system  100 A. As shown in  FIG.  1 A , the system  100 A includes a sampling chamber  110  and an analysis device  120 . In aspects, the sampling chamber  110  may be configured as a removable and/or disposable component of the system  100 A. In such an arrangement, the sampling chamber  110  may be removably coupled to the analysis device  120 . Configuring the sampling chamber  110  as a removable component of the system  100 A may prevent contamination of consecutive breath samples analyzed by the analysis device  120 . For example, a first sampling chamber may be utilized to perform analysis of a breath sample provided by a first person and a second sampling chamber may be utilized to perform analysis of a breath sample provided by a second person. Using different sampling chambers for different breath samples prevents one breath sample from potentially contaminating another breath sample. Where the sampling chamber(s)  110  is configured as a disposable component, the sampling chamber may be discarded after use or after a desired time has elapsed, such as an amount of time required by a law enforcement agency to retain the sampling chamber (e.g., for evidentiary purposes). Where the sampling chamber(s)  110  is configured as a reusable component, the sampling chamber  110  may be cleaned and prepared for subsequent reuse as needed. In aspects, a portion of the analysis device  120  may also be configured as a disposable and/or reusable component, such as portions of the analysis device  120  that may become contaminated if utilized to analyze multiple breath samples. In an aspect, the sampling chamber may be configured as a cartridge that may be utilized to obtain a breath sample and then placed within or coupled to the sampling device  120  for analysis. For example, the analysis device  120  may be installed in a law enforcement vehicle and a law enforcement official may have a person suspected of DUIM provide a breath sample to the cartridge, and then couple the cartridge to the analysis device  120  to facilitate analysis in accordance with aspect of the present disclosure. It is noted that the exemplary configurations described above have been provided for purposes of illustration, rather than by way of limitation and that numerous other ways for arranging, coupling, and/or integrating components of breath analysis systems in accordance with the present disclosure may be utilized. 
     As shown in  FIG.  1 A , the sampling chamber  110  may comprise a housing having an outer surface  104  and an inner surface  106 . The inner surface  106  of the housing may define a volume of the sampling chamber. An inlet  112  may be coupled to the sampling chamber  110 . The inlet  112  may be configured to receive a breath sample  102  and to provide the breath sample  102  to the sampling chamber  110 , and more specifically to provide the breath sample  102  to the volume of the sampling chamber. In aspects, a disposable mouthpiece (not shown in  FIG.  1 A ) may be removably coupled to a first end of the inlet  112  and a second end of the inlet  112  may be coupled to the sampling chamber  110 . Alternatively, the first end of the inlet  112  may be utilized as the mouthpiece and the second end of the inlet  112  may be coupled to the sampling chamber  110 . A valve  113  may be disposed within an air flow path between the inlet  112  and the sampling chamber  110 . The valve  113  may be configurable to at least a first state and a second state. The first state may correspond to an open state configured to allow the breath sample  102  to flow into the sampling chamber  110  and the second state may correspond to a closed state configured to prevent contamination of the breath sample  102 , such as by preventing ambient air from entering the sampling chamber  110  once the breath sample  102  has been provided. In an aspect, the sampling chamber  110  may include an outlet configured to release non-VOCs from the sampling chamber  110 , as illustrated and described below with reference to  FIG.  4 A . The system  100 A may also include a sensor  115  configured to determine whether the breath sample satisfies one or more criterion. For example, the sensor  115  may be configured to determine whether the breath sample  102  was exerted with sufficient force, has sufficient volume, etc., which may ensure that the breath sample  102  is sufficient for facilitating analysis in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure. 
     A molecule collector  116  may disposed within the sampling chamber  110 . At least a portion of the molecule collector  116  may be disposed within the volume of the sampling chamber  110 . The molecule collector  116  may be configured to adhere to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in the breath sample. For example, the molecule collector  116  may be constructed of materials such as Carboxen®. It is noted that the molecule collector  116  may be formed from a single material (e.g., one of the above-described materials), or may be formed from multiple materials, such as a base material that has been coated with one or more of the above-described materials. In aspects, the molecule collector  116  may have a solid form factor, such as a plate or rod formed from the materials mentioned above, or may have another form factor, such as a mesh formed from the materials mentioned above. The sampling device  110  may also include or be coupled to a heating mechanism such as heating element  118  configured to introduce heat within the sampling chamber  110 . For example, the heating mechanism  118  may include a power source coupled to the molecule collector  116  and configured to apply a voltage to the molecule collector  116 . Applying the voltage to the molecule collector  116  may heat up the molecule collector, thereby introducing heat within the sampling chamber  110 . As described in more detail below, the heat introduced within the sampling chamber  110  may cause the VOCs adhered to the molecule collector  116  to be released within the volume of the sampling chamber, thereby facilitating analysis and identification of one or more of the VOCs present within the sampling chamber  110 . 
     Likewise, in accordance with various embodiments of the present systems and methods heating mechanism  118  may alternatively be a laser, photodiode array, or the like. For example, in accordance with various embodiments of the present systems and methods heating mechanism  118 , may, rather than an electric heating element, be a laser configured to ablate VOCs off of molecule collector  116 , such as to ablate VOCs off of a Carboxen coated mesh molecule collector, or the like. Alternatively, heating mechanism  118  may be a photodiode array configured to excite and/or heat molecule collector  116 , such as a Carboxen coated mesh molecule collector, across a (visible or non-visible light) spectrum and/or over time, to stage release of VOCs off of the (Carboxen coated mesh) molecule collector. 
     The system  100 A may include an analysis device. The analysis device  120  may be configured to identify one or more target VOCs from among the VOCs present in the sampling chamber  110  subsequent to release of at least a portion of the VOCs from the molecule collector  116  (e.g., due to the heat provided or introduced by the heating mechanism  118 ). Additionally, the analysis device  120  may be configured to generate an output representative of the one or more target VOCs. As shown in  FIG.  1 A , the analysis device  120  may include one or more processors  122 , a memory  130 , analysis components  124 , and one or more input/output (I/O) devices  126 . The memory  130  may store instructions  132  that, when executed by the one or more processors  122 , cause the one or more processors  122  to control operations of the analysis device  120  and possibly other components of the system  100 A, such as the heating mechanism  118 , with respect to analyzing and identifying one or more target VOCs of the breath sample  102 . The one or more target VOCs may include Δ-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ-9-THC), THC metabolites, opioids, opioid metabolites, or a combination thereof. Additionally, or alternatively, the one or more target VOCs may include metabolites, metabolite markers, or a combination thereof indicative of a particular disease and/or identification of a particular disease. For example, ketones and aldehydes (VOC&#39;s) that are relatively unique to a particular viral infection (e.g., COVID-19, influenza, rhinovirus, etc.), bacterial infection, or the like. Hence, in accordance with some example embodiments of the present systems and methods, the output may be representative of one or more target VOCs comprising metabolites, metabolite markers, or a combination thereof indicative of such disease(s), such as SARS-CoV-2 and/or Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2. 
     The I/O devices  126  may include switches, buttons, lights, display devices, or other control elements configured to receive inputs and/or provide outputs in connection with operation of the system  100 A. For example, switches and/or buttons may be provided to power the system  100 A on and off, indicate that a breath sample has been provided, identify one or more target VOCs to be identified, or other functionality and control features. Lights may be provided to indicate: the system  100 A is powered on or off, indicate whether the breath sample provided is satisfactory (e.g., based on information received from the sensor  115 ), indicate the identified VOCs (e.g., different lights may be associated with different VOCs that may be identified by the system  100 A), or to provide other information associated with operation of the system  100 A. One or more display devices may additionally be provided to display information, such as to indicate the identified VOCs, indicate an operational state of the system  100 A (e.g., provide information indicating one or more of the different features described above with respect to the lights or other status information), and the like. The analysis component  124  may include a mass spectrometer or a Terahertz (THz) spectrometer configured to identify the one or more target VOCs of the breath sample  102 . 
     Also, in accordance with various embodiments of the present systems and methods heating mechanism  118 , may, rather than an electric heating element, may be a laser configured to ablate VOCs off of molecule collector  116 , such as to ablate VOCs off of a Carboxen coated mesh molecule collector. Alternatively, heating mechanism  118  may be a photodiode array configured to excite and/or heat molecule collector  116 , such as a Carboxen coated mesh molecule collector, across a (visible or non-visible light) spectrum and/or over time, to stage release of VOCs off of the (Carboxen coated mesh) molecule collector. 
     In accordance with various embodiments of the present systems and methods heating mechanism  118  may introduce heat, and/or heat the breath sample, within the sampling chamber by ramping this heat, and/or heat of the breath sample, exciting and/or releasing lighter and/or less bound VOCs first and then exciting and/or releasing heavier and/or more strongly bound (relative to the less bound) VOCs later (or last). In such embodiments the target VOC(s) may be identified, by analysis device  120 , from among the VOCs present in the sampling chamber subsequent to release of at least a portion of the VOCs from the molecule collector, by first identifying one or more lighter and/or less bound target VOCs released first, and later identifying one or more heavier and/or more strongly bound target VOCs released later from the molecule collector by ramping heat, and/or heat of the breath sample within the sampling chamber. 
     To provide such ramping of heat, and/or heat of the breath sample, within the sampling chamber, where the heating mechanism is a heating element that employs a power source coupled to the molecule collector. The power source voltage to the molecule collector may be ramped to ramp heat within the sampling chamber. 
     Embodiments of the present system for analyzing breath samples in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure may be housed with a single housing, such as a suitcase or briefcase-like hard case, or similar protective utility case, such as may have a carry handle, weatherproof seals, and/or the like.  FIG.  1 B  is a block diagram of portable system  100 B for analyzing breath samples, housed in a single portable case, or the like,  134  in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure. Portable system  100 B is a device for analyzing a breath sample housed in portable housing  134 . As noted, housing  134  may be a hard case or similar protective utility case. Housing  134  may have a carry handle, weatherproof seals between a body and lid of the case, and/or the like. Housing  134  may be made primarily from metal (such as aluminum) or from a durable material such as polypropylene. 
     In accordance with such embodiments sampling chamber  110  may be disposed within the portable housing, with inlet  112 , operatively coupled to the sampling chamber and deployable from portable housing  134 , and configured to receive a breath sample and to provide the breath sample to the sampling chamber, within housing  134 . Molecule collector  116  is disposed within the sampling chamber, and thereby, likewise, in such embodiments, within housing  134 , as is heating mechanism  118  (which, as noted, in accordance with embodiments of the present systems and methods may be a heating element, laser, photodiode array, or the like. Consistent with the above, valve  113  disposed in an air flow path between the inlet and the sampling chamber is disposed within portable housing  134 , in accordance with such embodiments. Also, in accordance with such embodiments, sensor  115  disposed in the portable housing may be configured to determine whether the breath sample satisfies one or more criterion. 
     Likewise, analysis device  120  and its operative components, processor(s)  122 , memory  130 , analysis components  124 , and input/output (I/O) device(s)  126  are disposed in case  134 , in such embodiments. Power may be provided to system  100 B by (rechargeable) batteries disposed in housing  134  and/or external power may be supplied into housing via a cord, external or internal (switching) power supply, or the like, from a conventional outlet or other electrical system such as the electrical system of a (law enforcement) vehicle, or the like. In accordance with the above, portable analysis system  100 B may be deployed in conjunction with a law enforcement vehicle, or the like for field use, carried to a location of, such as a correctional facility, school, or other controlled-environment facility for use, and/or similarly deployed in a flexible manner, as needed. 
     As noted, in some embodiments, the sampling chamber may be configured as a cartridge that may be utilized to obtain a breath sample and then placed within or coupled to the sampling device  120  for analysis. For example, a law enforcement official may have a person provide a breath sample to the cartridge, and then the law enforcement official may take the cartridge to portable system  100 B, such as in a law enforcement vehicle, and couple the cartridge to the analysis device  120  within housing  134  to facilitate analysis in accordance with aspect of the present disclosure. Alternatively, in some embodiments a disposable mouthpiece, extending from housing  134 , may be removably coupled to a first end of inlet  112 , wherein a second end of inlet  112  is coupled to the sampling chamber disposed within portable housing  134 . 
     Referring to  FIG.  2 A , exemplary aspects of a system  100 A or  100 B utilizing mass spectrometer-based analysis components are illustrated. It is noted that in  FIGS.  1 A through  2 B , like reference numbers are utilized to refer to similar components. As shown in  FIG.  2 A , the analysis components  124  may include an ionizer  222 , a mass analyzer  224 , and a detector  226 . As described above, a breath sample  102  may be provided to the inlet  112  via a mouthpiece  210  when the valve  113  is in an open state. Subsequent to the breath sample  102  being provided to the volume of the sampling chamber  110 , the heating mechanism  118  (not shown in  FIG.  2 A ) may be activated, causing resorption of the VOCs adhered to the molecule collector  116 . An outlet  204  may be utilized to provide the released VOCs to the analysis components  124 . A valve  213  may be configurable to a first state (e.g., an open state) and a second state (e.g., a closed state) to control the providing of the VOCs to the analysis components. For example, in the first state, the VOCs may be allowed to pass through the outlet  204  to the analysis components  124  and in the second state, the VOCs may be prevented from passing through the outlet  204  to the analysis components  124 . The ionizer  222  may be configured to ionize at least the portion of the VOCs released from the molecule collector to produce one or more ionized fragments. The mass analyzer  224  may be configured to separate the one or more ionized fragments (e.g., according to a mass-to-charge ratio of the one or more ionized fragments) and the detector  226  may be configured to identify the one or more target VOCs based on the separated one or more ionized fragments. In an aspect, the mass spectrometer components (e.g., the ionizer  222 , the mass analyzer  224 , and the detector  226 ) may operate under control of, or in coordination with, a computing device, such as a computing device that includes the one or more processors  122 , the memory  130 , and the one or more I/O devices  126 . For example, the computing device may receive information from the mass spectrometer components, such as information associated with the one or more target VOCs identified in the breath sample  102 , and may generate the output representative of the one or more target VOCs based on information associated with the one or more target VOCs. Additionally, the computing device may be configured to display the output at an output device, such as a display device. 
     In mass spectrometer-based embodiments where the heating mechanism ramps the heat of the sampling chamber the mass spectrometer ionizer may ionize at least the portion of the VOCs released from the molecule collector to produce one or more ionized fragments by first ionizing one or more lighter and/or less bound VOCs released first and later ionizing one or more heavier and/or more strongly bound VOCs released later from the molecule collector by ramping heat, and/or heat of the breath sample within the sampling chamber by the heating mechanism. Likewise, the mass spectrometer mass analyzer may, in such embodiments separate the one or more ionized fragments by first separating one or more ionized fragments of the one or more lighter and/or less bound VOCs released first and later separating one or more ionized fragments of the one or more heavier and/or more strongly bound VOCs. Then, the detector of the mass spectrometer may identify the one or more target VOCs based on the separated one or more ionized fragments, by first identifying one or more lighter and/or less bound target VOCs released first and later identifying one or more heavier and/or more strongly bound target VOCs released later. Also, in such embodiments, the output device may first display information associated with the one or more lighter and/or less bound target VOCs, and later display information associated with the one or more heavier and/or more strongly bound target VOCs. 
     In embodiments where heating mechanism  118  is a laser configured to ablate VOCs off of the molecule collector (Carboxen mesh), the laser may ablate lighter and/or less bound VOCs first and then ablate heavier and/or more strongly bound (relative to the less bound) VOCs later (last), by varying tuning of the laser&#39;s frequency and/or intensity. Whereas, in embodiments where heating mechanism  118  is a photodiode array configured to excite and/or heat the molecule collector to release least a portion of the VOCs from the molecule collector the photodiode array may excite and/or heat the molecule collector, across a (visible and/or invisible light) spectrum and/or over time, to stage release of VOCs off of the molecule collector, with lighter and/or less bound VOCs released first and then heavier and/or more strongly bound (relative to the less bound) VOCs released later (last). In either such case (or where the heating mechanism is an electrically ramped heating elements, analysis device  120  may first identify one or more lighter and/or less bound target VOCs released off of the molecular collector and later identify one or more heavier and/or more strongly bound target VOCs released off of the molecular collector later (last). 
     As noted above, embodiments of the present system for analyzing breath samples in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure may be housed with a single housing, such as a hard case, or similar protective utility case.  FIG.  2 B  is a diagram of a mass spectrometer-based system for analyzing breath samples, deployed in single portable case  134 , or the like, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure. As noted, housing  134  may be a hard case or similar protective utility case, with (a) carry handle(s), weatherproof seals between a body and lid of the case, and/or the like, and may be primarily made from metal (such as aluminum) or from a durable material such as polypropylene. In such embodiments, a mass spectrometer, such as a mini-mass spectrometer, a computing device communicatively coupled to the mass spectrometer, and an output device communicatively coupled to the computing device are disposed within portable housing  134 . For example, analysis components  124  such as ionizer  222 , mass analyzer  224  and detector  226  of the (mini) mass spectrometer are operably disposed within portable housing  134 . 
     System  100 A or  100 B for rapid analysis of a breath sample may also employ a vacuum pump (in housing  134 ), which may be part of, or deployed in conjunction with the mass spectrometer, to introduce a vacuum in ionizer  222 , mass analyzer  224  and detector  226  of the mass spectrometer, such as concurrent with heating of sampling chamber  110  and to draw at least a portion of the VOCs released from the molecule collector by the heating of the sampling chamber into the mass spectrometer. As one of skill in the art will appreciate, spectrometers typically operate at very low pressure (high vacuum). This reduces the chance of ions colliding with other molecules in the mass analyzer. Any collision can cause the ions to react, neutralize, scatter, or fragment, which may interfere with the spectrum analysis. To minimize collisions, analysis is undertaken in accordance with embodiments of the present systems and methods under high vacuum conditions, typically 10 −2  to 10 −5  Pa (10 −4  to 10 −7  torr). This high vacuum may require two pumping stages. The first stage may employ a mechanical pump, or the like, that provides rough vacuum down to 0.1 Pa (10 −3  torr). The second stage may use a turbomolecular pump, or the like, to provide high vacuum. The (mechanical) vacuum pump(s) may also, subsequent to drawing at least a portion of the VOCs released from the molecule collector into the mass spectrometer, concurrent with generating output representative of the target VOC(s), or before, establish a baseline in system  100 A or  100 B support cleaning of sampling chamber  110 . This establishment of a baseline in system  100 A or  100 B by cleaning sampling chamber  110  may include further heating the sampling chamber, and, or at least, evacuating the sampling chamber and the mass spectrometer using vacuum provided by the vacuum pump. Establishment of the baseline by clean the sampling chamber by further heating the sampling chamber and evacuating the sampling chamber and the mass spectrometer, using vacuum provided by the vacuum pump(s), may take place, or at least begin, at least in part, earlier, concurrent with at least a portion of identifying target VOC(s), in some embodiments. 
     Referring to  FIG.  3 A , exemplary aspects of a system  100 A or  100 B utilizing THz spectrometer-based analysis components is illustrated. It is noted that in  FIGS.  1 A through  3 B , like reference numbers are utilized to refer to similar components. As shown in  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B , the analysis components  124  may include an excitation source  320  and a detector  322 . As described above, a breath sample  102  may be provided to the inlet  112  via a mouthpiece  310  when the valve  113  is in an open state. Subsequent to the breath sample  102  being provided to the volume of the sampling chamber  110 , the heating mechanism  118  (not shown in  FIG.  3 A ) may be activated, causing resorption of the VOCs adhered to the molecule collector  116 . The excitation source  320  may be configured to introduce an excitation signal  324  within the sampling chamber subsequent to the release of at least a portion of the VOCs from the molecule collector  116  and the detector  322  may be configured to identify the one or more target VOCs based on one or more characteristics associated with excitation of at least the portion of the VOCs released from the molecule collector  116  in response to the excitation signal  324 . In an aspect, the excitation source  320  may be a THz laser device and the excitation signal  324  may be a THz laser signal. In aspects, the one or more characteristics associated with the excitation of at least the portion of the VOCs may include at least one of an absorbance characteristic and a fluorescent emission characteristic, which may be utilized to identify the one or more target VOCs present within the breath sample  102 , as described in more detail below. In an aspect, the THz spectrometer components (e.g., the excitation source  320  and the detector  322 ) may operate under control of, or in coordination with, a computing device, such as a computing device that includes the one or more processors  122 , the memory  130 , and the one or more I/O devices  126 . For example, the computing device may receive information from the THz spectrometer components, such as information associated with the one or more target VOCs identified in the breath sample  102 , and may generate the output representative of the one or more target VOCs based on information associated with the one or more target VOCs. Additionally, the computing device may be configured to display the output at an output device, such as a display device. 
     In THz spectrometer-based embodiments where the heating mechanism ramps the heat of the sampling chamber the THz spectrometer the excitation source may introduce an excitation signal within the sampling chamber subsequent to the release of lighter and/or less bound VOCs first and then release of heavier and/or more strongly bound (relative to the less bound) VOCs later (last). The THz spectrometer may then identify the target VOC(s) based on one or more characteristics associated with excitation of at least the portion of the VOCs released from the molecule collector, in response to the excitation signal by first identifying one or more lighter and/or less bound target VOCs released first and later identifying one or more heavier and/or more strongly bound target VOCs released later (last). 
     As noted above, embodiments of the present system for analyzing breath samples in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure may be housed with a single housing, such as a hard case, or similar protective utility case.  FIG.  3 B  is a diagram of a THz spectrometer-based system for analyzing breath samples, deployed in single portable case  134 , or the like, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure. As noted, housing  134  may be a hard case or similar protective utility case, with (a) carry handle(s), weatherproof seals between a body and lid of the case, and/or the like, and may be primarily made from metal (such as aluminum) or from a durable material such as polypropylene. In such embodiments, a THz spectrometer is disposed within portable housing  134 . For example, analysis components  124  such as excitation source  320 , such as a THz laser, and detector  322  of the THz spectrometer are operably disposed within portable housing  134 . 
     System  100 A or  100 B for rapid analysis of a breath sample may also employ a vacuum pump (in housing  134 ), which may be part of, or deployed in conjunction with the Terahertz (THz) spectrometer which may introduce a vacuum in the detector of the THz spectrometer concurrent with heating of the sampling chamber and draw at least a portion of the VOCs released from the molecule collector by the heating of the sampling chamber into the THz spectrometer detector. The vacuum pump may also, subsequent to drawing at least a portion of the VOCs released from the molecule collector into the THz spectrometer, and at least concurrent with generating output representative of the target VOC(s), establish a baseline in system  100 A or  100 B by cleaning the sampling chamber by further heating the sampling chamber and evacuating the sampling chamber and the THz spectrometer (detector) using vacuum. Establishment of the baseline by clean the sampling chamber by further heating the sampling chamber and evacuating the sampling chamber (and the THz spectrometer (detector)), using vacuum provided by the vacuum pump, may take place, or at least begin, at least in part, earlier, concurrent with at least a portion of identifying target VOC(s), in some embodiments. 
     Referring back to  FIGS.  1 A and  1 B , the output representative of the one or more target VOCs may include information that quantitates a concentration of the one or more target VOCs with respect to a source of the breath sample. This information may facilitate a determination of whether a source of the breath sample, such as a person that provided the breath sample  102 , is impaired or under the influence of one or more substances (e.g., substances corresponding to the identified one or more target VOCs). By providing information that quantitates the concentration of the one or more target VOCs, more accurate determinations of whether the source is impaired or under the influence of substances may be determined. Additionally, the techniques utilized by the system  100 A or  100 B (as configured in accordance with  FIGS.  2 A through  3 B ) may facilitate more rapid identification and quantitation of the VOC levels, thereby facilitating in field determinations as to whether source is impaired or under the influence of one or more substances, such as THC. For example, unlike existing systems capable of quantitatively analyzing certain VOCs, which take a long time to complete, the system  100 A or  100 B may facilitate determination and quantization of VOCs in a few seconds, particularly when employing concurrent operation of the vacuum pump(s) and the analysis components of the present systems and methods, thereby facilitating practical use in the field, such as by law enforcement officials. 
     Referring to  FIGS.  4 A- 4 D , various aspects of systems for analyzing VOCs present in breath samples in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure are shown. As shown in  FIG.  4 A , a breath sample may be provided to the sampling chamber  110  via the inlet  112 . The breath sample may include one or more VOCs, such as the exemplary VOCs  404 ,  406 ,  408  shown in  FIG.  4 A . Additionally, the breath sample may include non-VOCs, which may include other gases, such as CO2  402 . In an aspect, the sampling chamber  110  may include an outlet  410  configured to release non-VOCs from the sampling chamber  110 . It is noted that the outlet  410  is not the same as the outlet  204  of  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B . As shown in  FIG.  4 B , the VOCs  404 ,  406 ,  408  present in the breath sample may adhere to the molecule collector  116 . In  FIG.  4 C , the heating mechanism  118  (not shown in  FIGS.  4 A- 4 D ) has been activated, introducing heat within the sampling chamber  110 , which causes the VOCs to release from the molecule collector  116 . After the VOCs are released from the molecule collector  116 , the VOCs (or at least a portion of the VOCs) may be provided to a mass spectrometer-based analysis device, such as the analysis device illustrated in  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B , via outlet  204  (not shown in  FIG.  4 C ), for analysis, as described above with reference to  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B . In  FIG.  4 D , the heating mechanism  118  (not shown in  FIGS.  4 A- 4 D ) has been activated, introducing heat within the sampling chamber  110 , which causes the VOCs to release from the molecule collector  116 . After the VOCs are released from the molecule collector  116 , the VOCs (or at least a portion of the VOCs) may be provided to a THz spectrometer-based analysis device, such as the analysis device illustrated in  FIGS.  3 A and  3 B , for analysis, as described above with reference to  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B . For example, as illustrated in  FIG.  4 D , the excitation signal  324  may be provided or projected within the sampling chamber. As described below, excitation of the VOCs by the excitation signal  324  may be utilized by the detector  322  to identify one or more target VOCs present in the breath sample provided to sampling chamber  110 . 
     It is noted that THz spectrometer based systems may provide several advantages over existing systems. For example, using a THz spectrometer may facilitate rapid analysis of breath samples, which may be completed in a matter of seconds, and may facilitate a portable system that can be transported in a local law enforcement vehicle. Additionally, THz spectroscopy-based systems are able to differentiate between Δ-9-THC and CBD because the bonds in the molecules are different. THz spectroscopy or far-infrared spectroscopy may be used to identify compounds that have dipoles that contain a rotational motion. The spectroscopic range is in-between the microwave and infrared region operating at is between 3 mm-30 μm or 0.1-10 THz. Another advantageous aspect of THz spectrometer-based systems is the granularity at which compounds, such as VOCs, may be identified. For example, THz time domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) is capable of detecting compounds with concentrations as low as parts-per-trillion. THz-TDS works by emitting a pulsed femtosecond laser, which may be a Ti:Sapphire laser. The laser is sent to two photoconductive antennas after being split in a delay line, resulting a probe beam and a pump beam. The pump beams excites a non-linear crystal, which may formed from gallium arsenide (GaAs), and focuses the signal to the sampling space, such as the volume within the sampling chamber  110 . The probe beam sends a signal to the second photoconductive antenna, which detects the THz radiation. To obtain a spectrum of a sample a blank must be taken before the sample, which acts as a reference to subtract from the THz spectra of the sample. THz-TDS is useful in determining the torsional deformations of molecules and the intermolecular bonding of molecules. The benefit of analyzing a gas phase compound, such as breath, is that intermolecular bonding interactions are weaker in the gas phase, leaving only the torsional and rotational spectroscopy signal. One challenge faced by THz-TDS for gas analysis is the large presence of water in the atmosphere, which may alter the device&#39;s accuracy depending on the altitude of the device. This issue may be overcome by the collection of background before analysis and with the use of a vacuum or a dry inert gas, such as helium, which removes the water in the signal. 
     The signal of cannabinoids in the breath may be too low for detection via THZ-TDS, however a pre-concentrator may be used to achieve a suitable signal. Previously, pre-concentration devices have been utilized in the analysis of Δ-9-THC using LC/MS. However, those pre-concentration devices utilized sorbent trapping materials which retain water and impair identification of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). To overcome this challenge, the molecule collector  116  described above may utilize carbon molecular sieves, which reduce the amount of water uptake when looking for VOCs. Carbon molecular sieves work by trapping the compound between graphitic planes, allowing molecules to diffuse fast or slow based on the size of the molecule. The molecules can be rapidly emitted when a heating mechanism is applied to the sorbent material as the graphitic planes enlarge. As described above, in the systems of the present disclosure, a conductive material formed from or coated with a carbon molecular sieve sorbent material may be used as the molecule collector. Based on the type of sorbent material, however, the material may release the VOCs at a different rate, allowing a separation to still be achieved. This process of desorption distinguishes certain carbon molecular sieves materials from others in rapid gas analysis techniques. In aspects, the molecule collector  116  may be formed form a VOC desorptive material, such as Carboxen® (e.g., Carboxen® 1000). Carboxen® may be used in rapid VOC gas analysis to identify specific molecules based on emission time. Larger molecules may not be emitted from the graphitic plane faster than the smaller molecules, allowing the smaller compounds to desorb and be analyzed faster than the larger molecules. 
     In the description that follows, a THz spectroscopy-based system for cannabinoid detection similar to the system described above with reference to  FIGS.  3 A and  3 B , was cross-referenced with a Thermo Fischer PolarisQ mass spectrometer-based system similar to the system described above with reference to  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B . In the experimental setup, a sampling chamber containing a molecule collector formed from a Carboxen® 1000 coated mesh was coupled to a heating mechanism (e.g., a 24-volt power supply). With a valve connecting an inlet and replaceable mouthpiece to the sampling chamber open, a person would exhale a breath into the sampling chamber, trapping the VOCs on the Carboxen® molecule collector. Other VOCs also adhered to the molecule collector, while non-VOC gases flowed over and out of the sampling tube ( FIG.  4 A ). After completion of the exhale, the valve was closed to prevent any extraneous compounds from depositing onto the molecule collector ( FIG.  4 B ). The molecule collector was then supplied with 24 volts to evenly heat the molecule collector and promote rapid desorption of the compounds adhered thereto. For mass spectrometry reference characterization, the released compounds were provided to the mass spectrometer for a signal to be detected ( FIG.  4 C ). Being formed from Carboxen®, the molecule collector also facilitated a separation technique, where smaller VOCs were emitted faster than larger compounds. This enabled a determination of the proper time at which the cannabinoids were emitted from the molecule collector. Once the proper time was determined, the THz spectrometer was used to determine the presence of cannabinoids without the presence of other background signals, aiding in an accurate and precise measurement. Once this time reference of cannabinoids was collected, the sampling chamber was placed in the THz spectrometer-based analysis device, allowing the excitation signal (e.g., a THz laser signal) to be used to detect the samples emitted by the molecule collector ( FIG.  4 D ). The THz spectrometer-based system may act in two manners. The first being that the compounds (e.g., the VOCs) may be emitted from the molecule collector and then be excited via the excitation signal. The excited molecule(s) may then be detected as an absorbance by the detector as it returns to ground state. The other mechanism would be that excitation of the molecule(s) due to the rapid heating of the molecule collector may result in a fluorescent signal being emitted. The system may be configured to determine the presence of cannabinoids and/or other VOCs in the breath sample based on the fluorescent signal emitted in response to the excitation of the VOCs by the excitation signal. 
     A mass spectrometer-based system was developed and utilized to analyze breath samples. Using this system, differences in the physical state of a person exhaling have already been demonstrated. Healthy breath samples, breath samples from a person suffering from seasonal allergies (allergy breath), and breath samples obtained from a person directly after washing their mouth out with Listerine were collected in sampling chambers having a molecule collector formed from a Carboxen® coated mesh attached to a PolarisQ ion trap mass spectrometer. The results of the analysis performed on each of the breath samples are illustrated in  FIG.  5    (healthy breath sample),  FIG.  6    (breath sample of a person suffering from seasonal allergies), and  FIG.  7    (breath sample from a person directly after washing with Listerine). In  FIG.  5   , cutout  504  illustrates an enlarged view of the peaks illustrated in box  502 . In  FIG.  6   , cutout  604  illustrates an enlarged view of the peaks illustrated in box  602 . In  FIG.  7   , cutout  704  illustrates an enlarged view of the peaks illustrated in box  702 . As shown in  FIG.  5   , a large 51.93 m/z value was observed, which corresponds to 1-buten-3-yne. This 1-buten-3-yne was not found in the allergy breath sample. In the allergy breath sample, the largest peak was observed at 66.93 m/z, which corresponds to isoprene, followed by peaks at 80.93 m/s (1-methyl-pyrrole) and 94.93 m/z (2-ethylpyrrole), as shown in  FIG.  6   . In the mouthwash sample, illustrated in  FIG.  7   , the peak associated with isoprene was lowered, as expected, and other peaks were established, such as the ethylmethylsulfide peak at 76.93 m/z and 1,2,3-propanetriol at 90.93 m/z. Furthermore, larger molecular weight compounds became present, such as the octadecane peak at 254.60 m/z, illustrated in cutout  604 . The samples all show a prominent 66.93 m/z peak, which denotes isoprene. Isoprene should be found in all breath samples and may be used as a reference to ensure that the instrument is sampling the breath VOCs. As shown in  FIGS.  5 - 7   , prominent changes in the observed compounds were found in the three different scenarios presented. Utilizing this instrument as a reference, determination of cannabinoids in breath samples was achieved using the terahertz spectrometer, as described below. 
     The terahertz spectra of benzene, toluene, and xylene were acquired and compared to the terahertz spectra of a gas sample of heated marijuana leaves using a MenloSystems (Martinsried, Germany) K15 Time Domain Terahertz Spectrometer. This instrument was used to pump a dry gas, Helium, into a flask, forcing the volatile vapors out and into the sampling chamber where the VOCs adhered to a Carboxen®-based molecule collector. A voltage was then applied to the molecule collector, releasing the VOCs. The results observed for benzene, toluene, and xylene are illustrated in  FIG.  8   , where lines  802  represent VOCs resulting from xylene, lines  804  represent VOCs resulting from toluene, and lines  806  represent VOCs from benzene.  FIG.  9    illustrates VOCs observed from the marijuana sample. The analysis of the gaseous samples allowed the rotational spectroscopy to be obtained, explaining the low signal obtained for benzene at any of the frequencies scanned. The marijuana sample resulted in the most number of rotational bonds, which is to be expected as it was not a pure sample. The xylene and toluene appeared to be the same peak, however the xylene consistently resulted in a lower frequency peak, while the toluene appeared at a higher frequency. This is because xylene has two methyl groups attached to the aromatic ring, while the toluene only has one methyl group attached to the aromatic ring. 
     Methods to quantitate gas based on terahertz spectra have been done using cigarette smoke using continuous wave terahertz spectroscopy. However, to do so a database to input variables for the Lorentzian fit equation is required. Cannabinoids have not yet been databased, preventing the Lorentzian fit equation from being useful in cannabinoid quantitation. However, quantitation can still be achieved using the absorbance coefficient of the terahertz spectra. Based on the transmission of the sample THz field compared to the transmission field the measured transmission t(f), the absorbance coefficient can be calculated as: 
                       n   s     (   f   )     =     1   -       c   ⁢     ϕ   ⁡   (   f   )         2   ⁢   π   ⁢   fd                 (   1   )               
were ns(f) is the sample refractive index, c us the speed of light in a vacuum, ϕ(f) is the phase difference between the transmission of the sample terahertz field and the transmission of the reference terahertz field, f is the frequency, and d is the sample thickness. The sample thickness may be the length of the sampling chamber, which was 9 cm in the above-described examples. The sample refractive index, expressed as:
 
                     α   ⁡   (   f   )     =       -     2   d       ⁢   ln   ⁢         ❘   &#34;\[LeftBracketingBar]&#34;       t   ⁡   (   f   )       ❘   &#34;\[RightBracketingBar]&#34;       RL               (   2   )                           RL   =       4   ⁢     n   s           (     1   +     n   s       )     2               (   3   )               
may be calculated the absorption coefficient α(f) can be calculated, where the loss of signal at the interface is equal to RL. Subtracting the sample spectra from the reference spectra allows the Beer-Lambert law to be used as follows:
 
                     α   ⁡   (   f   )     =     -       ln   ⁢     T   ⁡   (   f   )       d               (   4   )               
where T(f) is equal to the ratio between the intensity of the sample transmitted THz field and the reference transmitted THz field. This may allow for a rapid quantitation of Δ-9-THC. A breath sample analyzer system in accordance with the present disclosure may be configured (e.g., via software stored as instructions) to utilize these equations to calculate the concentration of cannabinoids from the breath of the person. The sample volume may change from person to person. Accordingly, the system may be configured to take the overall volume of the breath sample that the person has exhaled into consideration so as to avoid or mitigate inaccuracies in the determined concentration.
 
     Identifying and quantitating, by an analysis device in accordance with embodiments of the present systems and methods, target VOC(s) in the portion of the VOCs released from the molecule collector, may be based, at least in part, on correlation of presence and quantity of the target VOC(s) to a blood level of a substance of interest. Likewise, generation, by the analysis device, of an output representative of the target VOC(s) may include information that quantitates a concentration of the target VOC(s) with respect to a source of the breath sample and the blood level of a substance of interest. 
     Such blood-to-breath correlations may be derived mathematically or from a National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) blood-to-breath table, or the like. Further, in accordance with embodiments of the present systems and methods proprietary blood-to-breath tables may be developed for substances of interest, metabolites (thereof) and metabolite markers (thereof) and used to identify and/or quantitate target VOC(s) in the portion of the VOCs released from the molecule collector, by an analysis device, in the present systems and methods. As noted, the one or more target VOCs may include Δ-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ-9-THC), THC metabolites, opioids, opioid metabolites, or a combination thereof. Additionally, or alternatively, as noted, the one or more target VOCs may include metabolites, metabolite markers, or a combination thereof indicative of a particular disease and/or identification of a particular disease. For example, ketones and aldehydes (VOC&#39;s) that are relatively unique to a particular viral infection (e.g., COVID-19, influenza, rhinovirus, etc.), bacterial infection, or the like. Hence, in accordance with some example embodiments of the present systems and methods, the output may be representative of one or more target VOCs comprising metabolites, metabolite markers, or a combination thereof indicative of such disease(s), such as SARS-CoV-2 and/or Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2. 
     Identifying and quantitating target VOC(s) from among the VOCs present in the sampling chamber may also, or alternatively, include identifying and quantitating one or more target metabolites and/or metabolite markers, and the output representative of the target VOC(s) representative of the target VOC(s) may include information that indicates the presences and/or quantitates a concentration of one or more metabolites and/or metabolite markers. As noted, the one or more target VOCs may include Δ-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ-9-THC), THC metabolites, opioids, opioid metabolites, or a combination thereof. Thus, the output may include information that indicates the presences and/or quantitates a concentration of one or more metabolites and/or metabolite markers to establish prior use of the substance of interest, and may establish a time frame of such prior use of the substance of interest. Additionally, or alternatively, as noted, the one or more target VOCs may include metabolites, metabolite markers, or a combination thereof indicative of a particular disease and/or identification of a particular disease. For example, ketones and aldehydes (VOC&#39;s) that are relatively unique to a particular viral infection (e.g., COVID-19, influenza, rhinovirus, etc.), bacterial infection, or the like. Hence, in accordance with some example embodiments of the present systems and methods, the output may quantitate a severity of the particular disease based at least in part on a type and/or concentration of the metabolites, metabolite markers, or a combination thereof. 
     Additionally, a Fourier Transform may be used, such as by a computing device communicatively coupled to, or as a part of, the analysis device, to eliminate background noise to arrive at the correlation of presence and quantity of the target VOC(s) to a blood level of a substance of interest to identify and/or quantitate target VOC(s) from among the VOCs present in the sampling chamber. Additionally, or alternatively, a Fourier Transform may be used to eliminate background noise to generate the output representative of the VOC(s) quantitating a concentration of the target VOC(s) with respect to a source of the breath sample and the blood level of the substance of interest. 
     Referring to  FIG.  10   , a flow diagram of a method for analyzing a breath sample in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure is shown as a method  1000 . In an aspect, the method  1000  may be performed by the system  100 A and  100 B of  FIGS.  1 A and  1 B , which may utilize a mass spectrometer-based approach, as described above with reference to  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B  or a THz spectrometer-based approach, as described above with reference to  FIGS.  3 A and  3 B . In an aspect, operations or steps of the method  1000  may be realized as a program or instructions (e.g., the instructions  132  of  FIGS.  1 A- 3 B ) stored at a memory (e.g., the memory  130  of  FIGS.  1 A- 3 B ) that, when executed by one or more processors (e.g., the one or more processors  122  of  FIG.  1 A- 3 B ), cause the one or more processors to perform operations for analyzing a breath sample in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure. 
     As shown in  FIG.  10   , the method  1000  includes, at step  1010 , receiving, at a sampling chamber, a breath sample. As described above, the breath sample may be received at the sampling chamber via an inlet (e.g., the inlet  112  of  FIGS.  1 A and  1 B ) coupled to the sampling chamber (e.g., the sampling chamber  110  of  FIGS.  1 A and  1 B ) and the sampling chamber may include a molecule collector (e.g., the molecule collector  116  of  FIGS.  1 A and  1 B ) disposed within the sampling chamber. At step  1020 , the method  1000  includes introducing, via a heating mechanism, heat within the sampling chamber. In an aspect, the heat may be introduced by the heating mechanism  118  of  FIGS.  1 A and  1 B . At step  1030 , the method  1000  includes identifying, by an analysis device, one or more target VOCs from among the VOCs present in the sampling chamber subsequent to release of at least a portion of the VOCs from the molecule collector. As described above, at least the portion of the VOCs may be released from the molecule collector by the heat introduced within the sampling chamber by the heating mechanism (e.g., at step  1020 ). The analysis device may be a mass spectrometer-based device, as described above with reference to  FIGS.  2 A and  2 B , or may be a THz spectrometer-based device, as described above with reference to  FIGS.  3 A and  3 B . At step  1040 , the method  1000  includes generating, by the analysis device, an output representative of the one or more target VOCs. In an aspect, the one or more target VOCs may be associated with one or more of Δ-9-THC, 11-hydroxytetrahydrocannabinol (11-OH-THC), carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH), THC metabolites, opioids (e.g., methadone and fentanyl, opioid metabolites). Additionally, or alternatively, as noted, the one or more target VOCs may include metabolites, metabolite markers, or a combination thereof indicative of a particular disease and/or identification of a particular disease. For example, ketones and aldehydes (VOC&#39;s) that are relatively unique to a particular viral infection (e.g., COVID-19, influenza, rhinovirus, etc.), bacterial infection, or the like. Also, as described above, the output representative of the one or more target VOCs may include information that quantitates a concentration of the one or more target VOCs with respect to a source of the breath sample, such as a person providing the breath sample. Hence, in accordance with some embodiments of the present systems and methods, the output may be representative of one or more target VOCs may indicate the presences and/or quantitate a concentration of one or more metabolites and/or metabolite markers to establish prior use of a substance of interest, may establish a time frame of such prior use of the substance of interest, quantitate a severity of a particular disease, or the like, based at least in part on a type and/or concentration of the metabolites, metabolite markers, or a combination thereof. 
       FIG.  11    is a flow diagram of method  1100  for parallel operation of rapid analysis of a breath sample, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure. Therein, at  1110 , a breath sample is received at a sampling chamber, via an inlet coupled to the sampling chamber that includes a molecule collector disposed within the sampling chamber, such that VOCs present in the breath sample adhere to the molecule collector. 
     At  1120  the sampling chamber is heated and concurrently, at  1125  a vacuum is introduced in a spectrometer. For example, a first vacuum stage may employ a mechanical pump, or the like, to provide rough vacuum down to 0.1 Pa (10 −3  torr) and a second vacuum stage may use a turbomolecular pump, or the like, to provide high vacuum, 10 −2  to 10 −5  Pa (10 −4  to 10 −7  torr). At  1130  an analysis device employs the spectrometer to identify one or more target VOCs from among the VOCs present in the sampling chamber subsequent to release of at least a portion of the VOCs from the molecule collector. At least this portion of the VOCs are released from the molecule collector by the heat introduced within the sampling chamber at  1120 . 
     At  1140  the analysis device generates an output representative of the target VOC(s). This output includes information that quantitates a concentration of the target VOC(s) with respect to a source of the breath sample. 
     Concurrent with generating the output representative of the target VOC(s) at  1140 , or before, a baseline for the system is established at  1145  by cleaning the sampling chamber by further heating the sampling chamber and evacuating the sampling chamber of the spectrometer using (the) vacuum. This establishment of the baseline by cleaning the sampling chamber at  1145  may also, at least in part be carried out concurrent with at least a portion of identifying target VOCs at  1130 . 
     As shown above, breath analysis systems and methods in accordance with the present disclosure may provide devices that facilitate detection of cannabinoids and other substances from breath samples in the field. Such systems may be utilized by law enforcement personnel to rapidly and accurately identify/determine whether drivers are DUIM. The ability to make such determinations in the field greatly enhances the capabilities of the criminal justice field with respect to detecting and addressing this issue. For example, previous techniques required a sample to be obtained and then sent to a lab, taking minutes or hours. This long analysis time prevents any action from being properly taken at the scene of the event. In contrast, utilizing breath analysis systems in accordance with the present disclosure, local law enforcement agents can obtain conclusive evidence on scene. This application of the instrument challenges other fields to shift towards furthering the detection of DUIM drivers, removing them from the roads, and enhancing the safety of other drivers. Additionally, the breath analysis systems of the present disclosure may facilitate detection of other illicit drugs with rapid and portable techniques. In addition to detection in the field, the ability to accurately quantitate the concentration of cannabinoids provided by the disclosed systems may provide the ability to develop a standard concentration used to define whether a person is DUIM. 
     Although embodiments of the present application and its advantages have been described in detail, it should be understood that various changes, substitutions and alterations can be made herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. Moreover, the scope of the present application is not intended to be limited to the particular embodiments of the process, machine, manufacture, composition of matter, means, methods and steps described in the specification. As one of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate from the disclosure of the present invention, processes, machines, manufacture, compositions of matter, means, methods, or steps, presently existing or later to be developed that perform substantially the same function or achieve substantially the same result as the corresponding embodiments described herein may be utilized according to the present invention. Accordingly, the appended claims are intended to include within their scope such processes, machines, manufacture, compositions of matter, means, methods, or steps. Moreover, the scope of the present application is not intended to be limited to the particular embodiments of the process, machine, manufacture, composition of matter, means, methods and steps described in the specification.