Patent Publication Number: US-2005118151-A1

Title: Proteins in diabetes proteome anlysis

Description:
FIELD OF INVENTION  
      Proteome analysis has allowed for the identification of selected proteins associated to diabetes. Thus, these proteins, in themselves, either up-regulated or down-regulated, are indicators of diabetes in a patient. The pattern of regulation of a group of these proteins also serves as an indicator of diabetes. These proteins can be used as targets for the treatment of diabetes or for treatment itself. The proteins were identified by monitoring changes in protein expression during β-cell maturation.  
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
      Development of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) is characterized by mononuclear cell infiltration in the islets of Langerhans (Insulitis) and selective destruction of the insulin producing β-cells [ 1 ,  2 ]. It is generally accepted that the autoimmune destruction of the β-cells results from interactions between various environmental factors and immune mechanisms in genetically susceptible individuals [ 3 ]. The very first events initiating the destructive process have not been described yet. Cytokines, in particular intedeukin-1β (IL-1β), are known to be released within the islets in low concentrations by a limited number of nonendocrine cells in sufficient quantities to inhibit and modulate the β-cell function in vitro [ 4 ]. In response to low concentrations of IL-1β islets increase insulin release but insulin release is decreased at high concentrations. Furthermore IL-1β influences many important cellular functions such as decreasing DNA synthesis, decreasing protein synthesis and intracellular energy production and induction of apoptosis. Many of these effects are mediated through induction of the inducible NO syntase (INOS) and its product, the free radical nitric oxide (NO.) [ 5 ]. The present investigators hypothesize that the β-cell when exposed to IL-1β initiates a self protective response in competition with a series of deleterious events, and that in β-cells the deleterious prevail [ 3 ]. In support of this, overexpression of scavengers of free radicals such as catalase and glutatione peroxidase reduces the deleterious effects of cytokines on β-cells [ 6 ].  
      During development of the pancreas, all four endocrine cell-types, (the insulin producing β-cells, the glucagon producing α-cells, the somatostatin producing δ-cells and the pancreatic polypeptide producing PP-cells) are generally believed to arise from the same stem cell [Pictet, 1972]. This is further supported by the demonstration of double positive glucagon and insulin producing cells during the early stages of β-cell development. However, later in the maturation process the double positive stem cells maturate into two distinct cell-types producing either glucagon or insulin [Alpert, 1988; Hashimoto, 1988]. β-cell specific sensitivity to cytokines and free radicals, may therefore represent an acquired trait during maturation of the stem-cells into mature insulin producing β-cells, since sensitivity to cytokines is not found in the other endocrine cell-types. In all cells expressing cytokine-receptors, both protective and deleterious processes are induced by cytokines.  
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
      The high-resolution proteome technology effectively separates and identifies proteins with high success rate. Compared to analyses of mRNA expression, proteome analysis offers the possibility of relative quantification of changes in protein expression as well as identification of post-translattion protein modifications such as phosphorylation, methylation and cleavage. Post-translational modifications are often required for the functional activation of a protein and hence, may be of pathogenenic importance. The present investigators illustrate this point herein wherein at least 24 percent of the identified proteins reflect post-translational modification.  
      In investigating whether changes in the protein expression pattern increasing the sensitivity to cytokines is a consequence of β-cell maturation, the present investigators used two different cell-types: a glucagon producing pre-β-cells (NHI-glu), which maturate to an insulin producing β-cells (NHI-Ins). Without being bound to a particular theory, the maturation process of these two phenotypes is believed to resemble separate stages in the maturation of the α-cell phenotype and the β-cell phenotype during normal islet cell development. Previous analyses of these two phenotypes by the present investigators demonstrated that this maturation process was accompanied with acquired sensitivity to the toxic effect of high concentrations of IL-1β [Nielsen, 1999].  
      For this purpose, proteome analysis is a useful approach. The present investigators previously used proteome analysis to identify changes in rat and human islet protein expression in response to cytokines. Here, proteome analysis is used to identify changes in the protein expression profile accompanying maturation of the IL-1β sensitive β-cell phenotype.  
      A first aspect of the invention relates to a method for diagnosing diabetes in a human. The method comprises determining the presence or level of expression of at least one marker protein in a biological sample from the human, wherein the marker protein is selected from the group consisting of  
                                       TABLE 1                       Gel spot       Database       Theor       Theor       no:   Protein   Acc #   MW   MW   pI   pI                                                            NEPHGE 76   Phosphoglycerate   P16617   37.1   44.4   8.3   7.5           kinase*       NEPHGE   Fructose-bisphosphate   P05065   20.7,   39.2   8.6, 8.9,   8.4       124, 193,   aldolase A*       35.4,       8.9, 8.3       241, 105#           34.9,                   35.6       NEPHGE 568   Glyceraldehyde-3-   P04797   35.7   35.7   7.8   8.4           phophate-           dehydrogenase*#       IEF 166*   Enolase α   P04764   49.6   47.0   5.7   6.2       IEF 193,   Enolase γ*   P07323   47.8,   47.0   5.0, 5.1   5.0       1219           62.8       lEF 255*   Transaldolase   Q93092   37.7   37.4   6.1   6.6       IEF 794   Glyceraldehyde-3-   M17701   35.9   35.7   6.8   8.4           phophate-           dehydrogenase       IEF 1472*,   Puruvate kinase, M1   P11980   53.5,   57.7   7.2, 7.1   6.7       1473*   isozyme       53.5       NEPHGE   Argininosuccinate   P00966   40.1   46.4   8.1   8.4       77*   synthase       NEPHGE   Heterogeneous nuclear   P51991   35.6   39.7   8.3   8.7       105#   ribonucleoprotein A3       NEPHGE   Poly (RC) binding   Q61990   35.6   38.2   8.3   6.3       105#   protein 2       NEPHGE   EIF-2-gamma Y   Q9Z0N2   42.6   51.0   8.8   8.8       230*       NEPHGE   40S ribisomal protein   P25111   20.1   13.7   7.7   10.1       357#   S25       NEPHGE   40S ribosomal protein   P25232   20.1   17.7   7.7   11.0       357#   S18       NEPHGE   Heterogeneous nuclear   P22626   35.1   37.4   9.0   9.0       551   ribonucleoprotein           A2/B1#       NEPHGE   60S ribisomal protein   P12746   21.0   17.3   8.0   10.6       4410*   L26       NEPHGE   Ubiquitin-conjucating   O76069   21.0   20.9   8.0   7.6       4410*   enzyme E2       IEF 255*   60S Acidic ribisomal   P19945   37.7   34.2   6.1   5.9           protein P0       IEF 256   Pyridoxal kinase   O35331   39.1   34.9   6.3   6.3       IEF 383*   Isovaleryl-CoA   P12007   46.4   46.4   6.2   8.0           dehydrogenase.       IEF 383*   Ubiquitin fusion   P70362   46.4   34.5   6.2   7.0           degradetion protein 1           homolog       IEF 403,   26S protease   Q63347   48.6,   48.6   5.6, 5.8,   5.6       1039*,   regulatory subunit 7       36.8,       5.8       1500*           39.5       IEF 12315*   Translation initiation   Q07205   77.7   49.0   4.8   5.4           factor 5       NEPHGE   Isocitrate   P54071   39.8   58.7   8.6   8.9       14   dehydrogenase       NEPHGE   Citrate synthase   O75390   40.1   51.7   8.1   8.1       77*       NEPHGE   Voltage-dependent   Q60932   30.6,   30.6   8.0, 8.0   8.6       252, 4234*   anion-selective channel       30.5           protein 1       NEPHGE   Phosphoenolpyruvate   P29195   22.4   109.4   7.6   5.8       335*   carboxylase       NEPHGE   ATP synthase alpha   P15999   56.8,   58.8   8.0, 8.1   9.2       377, 516   chain#       51.6       NEPHGE   Voltage-dependent   P81155   31.6,   31.7   7.4, 8.0,   7.4       582, 4234*,   anion-selective channel       30.5,       7.9       45124   protein 2#       32.6       NEPHGE   Fumarate hydratase   P14408   42.9   54.5   8.1   9.1       20140       IEF 123   cAMP-depend. protein   P09456   48.3   43.0   5.3   5.3           kinase type I-alpha           regu. chain       IEF 359   Isocitrate   P41562   48.7   46.7   6.5   6.5           dehydrogenase       IEF 616*   Creatine kinase, B   P07335   43.5   42.7   5.3   5.3           chain#       IEF 700,   G25 GTP-binding   P25763   21.3,   21.3   6.1, 6.2   6.2       1296   protein       23.4       NEPHGE   RAN   P17080   24.9   37.8   8.0   9.4       59*       NEPHGE   T-complex protein 1,   Q99832   47.5,   59.4   8.4, 8.3   7.6       156*, 303*   beta subunit       47.7       NEPHGE   RAS-related protein   P51148   23.6   23.6   8.3   8.9       332   RAB-5C       NEPHGE   Peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans   P10111   17.7   17.7   8.4   8.4       453   isomerase A       IEF 82,   Hsc 70-ps1   CAA49670   61.9,   70.9   5.4, 5.1,   5.4       85*, 1463*           72.3,       5.4                   62.0       IEF 85*,   78 Kda glucose-related   P06761   72.3,   72.3   5.1, 5.1,   5.1       775*, 846*,   protein*#       70.0,       6.1, 4.9       1358           40.5,                   96.0       IEF 109*,   Probable protein   P11598   54.7,   56.6   5.6, 5.7,   5.9       542, 806,   disulfide isomerase       59.5,       4.6, 6.3       973*   ER-60*#       24.1,                   58.3       IEF 109*   T-complex protein 1,   P42932   54.7   59.6   5.6   5.4           theta sububit       IEF151   ERJ3 protein   Q9UBS4   49.7   40.5   6.1   5.8       IEF 376   N-ethylmaleimide   Q9QUL6   65.2   82.7   6.4   6.6           sensitive factor       IEF 408   Clatrin light chain   AAA40891   59.6   25.1   4.6   4.6       IEF 463   RAS-related protein   P46638   25.2   24.5   6.3   5.6           RAB-11B       IEF 469#,   T-complex protein, zeta   P80317   59.7,   58.0   6.3, 7.2,   6.6       1472*,   subunit*       53.5,       7.1       1473*           53.5       IEF 583   Vesicular-fusion protein   P46460   64.5   82.6   6.4   6.5           NSF       IEF 728{circumflex over ( )},   T-complex protein 1,   P49368   67.4,   60.3   6.0, 6.2   6.2       881#   gamma subunit       62.9       IEF 728{circumflex over ( )},   P60 protein   O35814   67.4,   62.6   6.0, 6.3,   6.4       469#,           59.7,       6.2, 7.4       881#, NEP           62.9,       282           61.1       IEF 730   Hsc 70-interacting   P50503   49.5   41.3   5.1   5.3           protein       IEF 871*,   Coatomer delta subunit   P53619   70.1,   57.2   6.0, 6.0   5.9       728{circumflex over ( )}   (bovin, human)*       67.4       IEF 922   Kinesin heavy chain   P33176   92.1   109.9   5.9   6.1       IEF 1014*   Amphiphysin-like   O08839   84.2   64.5   5.0   5.0           protein       IEF 1039*,   Sorting Nexin 6   Q9UNH7   36.8,   46.6   5.8, 5.8   5.8       1500*           39.5       IEF 1451*   Apolipoprotein A-I   P02647   58.2   30.8   6.9   5.6       IEF 1463*   Mortalin (GRP75)*   P48721   62.0   73.9   5.4   6.0       IEF 1513   Alpha-soluble NSF   P54921   16.0   33.2   6.0   5.3           attachment protein       IEF 9224   Heat-shock protein 105   Q61699   87.6   96.5   5.5   5.4           Kda       NEPHGE   Transgelin 2   P37802   22.4   22.4   8.2   8.4       356       NEPHGE   Neurofilament triplet H   P16884   21.3   89.5   7.9   5.6       447   protein       NEPHGE   Complement   Q29439   18.0   14.5   8.3   5.3       454   component C4       NEPHGE   Destrin   JE0223   18.0   18.4   8.3   7.8       454       NEPHGE   Caldesmon   Q05682   58.8   93.3   8.1   5.6       19991       IEF 104,   Keratin, type II   Q10758   53.9,   53.9   5.7, 5.5,   5.8       612, 616*   cytoskeletal 8#       45.3,       5.3                   43.5       IEF   Alpha-2-macroglobulin   Q99068   43.5,   41.7   6.5, 6.7   6.9       202, 1193   receptor-associated       45.4           protein       IEF 215   Serine/threonine   P37140   37.2   37.2   6.2   5.8           protein phosphatase           PP1-beta       IEF 232   PKCq-interacting   AAF28843   40.9   31.4   5.8   4.9           protein PICOT       IEF 330*   Cofilin, non-muscle   P45592   18.3   18.5   6.5   8.2           isoform       IEF 469#   Dihydropyrimidase   Q62950   59.7   62.2   6.3   6.6           related protein-1           (CRMP-1)       IEF 565,   Protein disulfide   P04785   86.6,   57.0   4.9, 4.8,   4.8       12315*,   isomerase       77.7,       5.0       12340           116.3       IEF 604,   Ezrin   P26040   76.2,   69.2   6.0, 5.8   5.8       1438           81.0       IEF 662   Nonmuscle myosin   AAF61445   94.4   22.9   5.7   5.5           heavy chain-B       IEF 900   Reticulocalbin 1   Q05186   105.7   38.1   4.7   4.7       IEF 728{circumflex over ( )},   Turned on after division   P47942   67.4,   62.3   6.0, 6.0,   6.0       871*, 881#   64 (TOAD 64) (CRMP-       70.1,       6.2           3)*#       62.9       IEF 935,   Endoplasmin   P08113   98.5,   92.5   4.7, 5.0   4.7       1014*           84.5       IEF 973*,   Lamin A*   P48679   58.3,   74.3   6.3, 6.2   6.5       1351           66.0       IEF 1020   Myosin heavy chain   Q90337   72.4   221.1   4.6   5.6       IEF 1154   Lamin B1   P70615   68.4   66.6   5.2   5.2       IEF 1451*   Fibrinogen gamma-a   P02679   58.2   49.5   6.9   5.6           chain       IEF 1482   Vitamin D-binding   P04276   46.6   53.5   5.5   5.7       IEF 1564   Fatty acid-binding   P55053   11.6   15.1   6.3   6.7           protein, epidermal       NEPHGE   PAX 1   P15863   24.9   24.4   8.0   6.6       59*       NEPHGE   Lamina-associated   Q62733   47.5   50.3   8.4   9.4       156*   poypeptide 2       NEPHGE   Flag structure-specific   AAF81265   42.6,   42.6   8.8, 8.6   8.8       230*,   endonuclease       41.2       20127#       NEPHGE   RNA polymerase II   Q63396   20.1   13.7   7.7   9.7       357#   transsacriptional           coactivator P15       NEPHGE   Lupus la protein   P38656   19.4   47.8   8.0   9.7       458   homolog       NEPHGE   DNA-polymerase   P78988   42.9   99.5   9.4   8.9       526       NEPHGE   Septin-like protein   Q9QZR6   54.5,   63.8   8.4, 7.8   8.7       19980,           64.4       45036       NEPHGE   Hypothetical 44.7   CAB66481   41.2   44.7   8.6   7.6       20127#   protein       NEPHGE   CDC10 protein   Q9WVC0   41.2   50.5   8.6   8.8       20127#   homolog       IEF 156   NEDD 5 protein   P42208   38.0   41.5   6.1   6.1       IEF 166*   Histidyl-tRNA   Q61035   49.6   57.4   5.7   5.7           synthetase       IEF 313   Zinc Finger protein 43   P28160   27.2   93.5   6.4   9.4       IEF 330*   Nucleoside diphophate   P19804   18.3   17.3   6.5   6.9           kinase B       IEF 462   Cytidylate kinase#   P30085   23.3   22.2   6.3   5.4       IEF 775*   Heterogeneous nuclear   Q07244   70.0   51.0   5.1   5.4           ribonucleoprotein K       IEF 846*   Zinc finger protein 26   P10076   40.5   48.9   6.0   9.3       IEF 850*   Reverse transcriptase   Q9YQW2   57.8   27.9   6.1   9.3       IEF 885   Importin alpha   Q9Z0N9   48.5   57.8   5.4   5.4       IEF 1209   FUSE binding protein 2   Q92945   71.7   68.4   6.5   8.5       IEF 5223   Dynactin, 50 Kda   Q13561   50.2   44.8   5.1   5.1           isoform       NEPHGE   Coding region   O88477   47.7   63.5   8.3   9.3       303*   determinant binding           protein       NEPHGE   Polyubiquitin   Q63654   22.4   11.2   7.6   5.4       335*       NEPHGE   Glutathione S-   P46524   23.5   23.5   8.0   8.1       441   transferase P       NEPHGE   Glutathione S-   P04905   25.9   25.9   8.8   8.4       605   transferase YB1       IEF 482   Neurolysin   P42676   80.3   80.3   5.6   6.0       IEF 850*   Proteasome   P18420   57.8   29.5   6.1   6.1           component C2       IEF 1508   Arginase 1   P07824   43.1   35.0   6.8   6.8                  
 
 and marker proteins further consisting of modifications and derivatives of marker proteins of Table 1, so as to have at least 80% homology with marker proteins of Table 1, wherein pI is the isoelectric point of the marker protein as determined by isoelectric focusing, and the molecular weight (MW) is determined on a polyacrylamide gel. 
 
      The invention further relates to a method of treating diabetes in a human comprising administering a marker protein of Table 1, a nucleotide sequence coding for a marker protein of Table 1, an antibody for a protein of Table 1, a nucleic acid fragment capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1, or a compound capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1 to said human.  
      An interesting object of the invention relates to a method for determining the predisposition in a human for diabetes, the method comprising determining the presence or relative level in a biological sample from the human of at least one marker protein wherein the marker protein being indicative of a predisposition for having diabetes is selected from the group consisting of (Table 1) and marker proteins further consisting of modifications and derivatives of marker proteins of Table 1, so as to have at least 80% homology with marker proteins of Table 1, wherein pI is the isoelectric point of the marker protein as determined by isoelectric focusing, and the molecular weight (MW) is determined on a polyacrylamide gel.  
      A further object of the invention is to provide a method for diagnosing the predisposition in a human for diabetes, the method comprising 
          I) establishing the increased expression in a biological sample from the human of at least one marker protein from a biological sample from the human, said marker protein selected from the group consisting of proteins of Table 2; or comprising     II) establishing the decreased expression of at least one marker protein down-regulated marker protein in a biological sample from the human said marker protein selected from the group consisting of proteins of Table 1. or combinations of steps I) and II)        

      An interesting object of the invention relates to a method of preventing or delaying the onset or of diabetes in a human comprising administering a marker protein of Table 1, a nucleotide sequence coding for a marker protein of Table 1, an antibody for a protein of Table 1, a nucleic acid fragment capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1, or a compound capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1 to said human.  
      A further object of the invention is to provide for a method of determining the likelihood of an agent having a therapeutic effect in the treatment of diabetes comprising determining the level of expression of one or more proteins of Table 1 before and after exposing a test model to said agent and comparing said levels. Similarly, the invention relates to a method of determining the effect of a compound in the treatment of diabetes comprising determining the level of expression of proteins of one or more proteins of Table 1 and to a methods of determining the level of effect of a compound used in the treatment of diabetes comprising determining the level of expression of one or more proteins of Table 1 before and after exposing a test model to said agent. The present contribution to the art allows for a method of determining the nature or cause of diabetes in a human having or susceptible to said disease comprising establishing the level of expression of a protein of Table 1 in relation to a model.  
      A further aspect of the invention is directed to a nucleic acid fragment comprising a nucleotide sequence (whether DNA, RNA, LNA or other substituted nucleic acid) which codes for a peptide defined in Table 1.  
      An antibody including antiomere, hybrid molecules, peptides, ligands and other synthetic molecules hybrid molecule, peptides ligands and other synthetic molecules able to bind to a protein defined in Table 1 is anticipated by the present invention as well as the use of such an antibody for detecting the presence of a peptide defined in Table 1.  
      A particularly interesting aspect of the invention relates to a test kit for diagnosing diabetes or a genetic predisposition for diabetes in a mammal, comprising: 
          a) a binding mean which specifically binds to at least one marker protein shown in Table 1 or an antibody for a protein of Table 1, a nucleic acid fragment capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1, or a compound capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1 to said human,     b) means for detecting binding, if any, or the level of binding, of the binding means to at least one of the marker proteins or at least one of the peptides or at least one of the nucleic acid fragments (where the nucleic acid is DNA, RNA, LNA or other substituted nucleic acid), and     c) means for correlating whether binding, if any, or the level of binding, to said binding means is indicative of the individual mammal having a significantly higher likelihood of having diabetes or a genetic predisposition for having diabetes.        

      The invention further relates to a method for determining the effect of a substance, the method comprising using a mammal which has been established to be an individual having a high likelihood of having diabetes or a genetic predisposition for having diabetes by use of the method of claim  1 , the method comprising administering the substance to the individual and determining the effect of the substance.  
      A pharmaceutical composition which comprises a substance which is capable of regulating the expression of a nucleic acid fragment coding for at least part of a protein of Table 1, or at least one marker protein in Table 1, an antibody, including antiomere, hybrid molecules, peptides, ligands and other synthetic molecules hybrid molecule, peptides ligands and other synthetic molecules for a protein of Table 1, a nucleic acid fragment (whether DNA, RNA, LNA or other substituted nucleic acid) capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1, or a compound capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1 to said human is further anticipated by the present investigators.  
      The invention also relates to the use of a gene expressing a protein of table 1 in a method for manufacturing an artificial or improved beta-cell, such as a cell for transplantation into a human, and the engineered cells as such. Specifically, the invention relates to a method for engineering self-cells into beta-cells (sensing glucose and secreting insulin) or improving existing or new “beta-cell lines” or other cell-lines in that direction. In addition, the beta-cells can be made more resistant to an immunological attack by the immunesystem, e.g. more resistant to cytokines. The cell is useful for drug testing or treatment by introduction into a person suffering from diabetes, and can be a part of a pharmaceutical composition.  
     GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION  
      Proteome analysis has allowed for the identification of proteins and their association to diabetes. These proteins, in themselves, either up-regulated or down-regulated, are indicators of diabetes in a patient. The pattern of regulation of a grouping of these proteins also serves as an indicator of diabetes. These proteins can be used as targets for the treatment of diabetes or for treatment itself. The proteins were identified monitoring changes in protein expression during β-cell maturation.  
      Maturation of the β-cells in the pancreas is a complex and still unknown mechanism. Many different proteins are involved and their specific functional importance for β-cell maturation needs to be elucidated.  
      By using mass spectrometry, 108 protein-spots were positively identified given rise to 109 different proteins (Table 1), whereas neither positive protein identification, nor useful mass spectra could be obtained for 27 of the altered protein-spots. The present investigators have found that at least 24% of the observed changes in protein expression levels may reflect post-translational modification, since 15 proteins were present in two protein-spots (gamma enolase, pyrvuvate kinase M1 Isozyme, voltage-dependent anion-selective channel protein  1 , ATP synthase alpha chain, G25 GTP-binding protein, septin-like protein, T-complex protein  1  eta and gamma, coatomer delta subunit, sorting nexin  6 , flag structure-specific endonuclease, alpha-2-macroglobulin receptor-associated protein, endoplasmin, lamin A and ezrin), 7 proteins were present in three spots (26S protease regulatory subunit, voltage-dependent anion-selective channel protein  2 , Hsc70-ps1, T-complex protein  1  zeta, protein disulfide isomerase, keratin type II cytoskeletal  8  and turned on after division  64  (TOAD  64 )) and 4 proteins were present  
      In four spots (fructose-bisphosphate aldolase A, 78 Kda glucose regulated protein, probable protein disulfide isomerase ER-60 and P60 protein). Some protein-spots contained more than one protein; 23 protein-spots contained two identified proteins (NEPHGE 59, 77, 156, 230, 303, 335, 454, 4234, 4410 and IEF 85, 109, 166, 255, 330, 383, 616, 775, 846, 850, 871, 973, 1014, 1039, 1451, 1463, 1472, 1473, 1500 and 12315), 5 protein-spots (NEHPGE 105, 357, 20127 and IEF 469 and 881) contained three identified proteins and 1 protein-spot (IEF 728) contained four identified proteins.  
      Only minor inconsistencies were found between observed and theoretical calculated MW. These inconsistencies may reflect post-translational modifications or could be due to relatively imprecise MW determination at the edge of the gels (NEPHGE 335 and IEF 408, 900, 1020, 1451, 12315). In contrast, no significant differences between observed and theoretical calculated pI values were detected.  
      The identified proteins have been assigned in 6 groups according to their major known or putative functions: 1) glycolytic enzymes, 2) aminoacid pathway and protein synthesis/degradation, 3) energy transduction, 4) cytokinesis, nucleoacid synthesis, transcription and nuclear transport, 5) chaperones, translocation, protein folding and cellular transport and 6) signal transduction, regulation, growth, differentiation and apoptosis. The function and possible importance for β-cell maturation and T1DM pathogenesis are discussed below for selected proteins.  
      Thus, the present investigators have identified proteins associated with diabetes by detecting the absolute or relative presence of the proteins of Table 1 in a biological sample. Typically, the biological sample is selected from the group consisting of urine, blood, lymphatic fluids, secretions into the duodenum and tissue. Suitably, the tissue is pancreatic tissue.  
      Much research has been done to characterize the molecular mechanisms involved during the development of the pancreas. It is generally believed that the endocrine, exocrine and ductal cell-types are derived from endodermal cells [Pictet, 1972, Le Douarin, 1888] Sander1997, St-Onge 1997). But the early steps that control the development of the pancreas and later the mechanisms that specify the different pancreatic cell-types are, however, not well understood. Some analysis is based on the knowledge that during the development of the pancreas co-appearance of different islet hormones is first expressed in mixed phenotypes and later in mature single-hormone-expressing phenotypes [Alpert, 1988; De Krijger, 1992; Teltelman, 1993; Guz, 1995]. However, several additional studies have demonstrated that the pro-endocrine cells require different transcription factors (PDX-1, Nkx-2.2, beta-2/Neuro-D, GLUT-2, Pax4 and Pax6) to mature into the single-expression phenotypes, but it is still under discussion whether co-expressing cells occur during the maturation of the specific cell-types in the pancreas.  
      The NHI-cell-system is a unique cell-system to analyze mechanisms involved during β-cell maturation accompanied with acquired sensitivity to the toxic effect of IL-1β, since the NHI-ins phenotype is sensitive to IL-1β compared to the NHI-glu phenotype [Nielsen, 1999]. Despite the difference in the sensitivity between the two phenotypes the glucagon-producing NHI-glu phenotype is closely related to the β-cell phenotype according to the mRNA expression profile [Jensen, 1996]. This means that it is necessary to look for a small difference in the protein pattern that makes the NHI-ins phenotype sensitive to the toxic effect of IL-1β in contrast to NHI-glu phenotype.  
      According to the data presented here a magnitude of protein expression changes is observed during maturation from the pre-β-cell to the β-cell phenotype. Some of these proteins may be of importance for the development of the native mature β-cell and others for the acquired sensitivity to cytokines. In table 1 the proteins are grouped according to their known or putative functions. It is not possible to discuss in detail all the identified proteins, but a few selected proteins, which may be relevant for β-cell maturation or β-cell destruction is discussed below.  
      Many different genes have been demonstrated to be involved in β-cell maturation, such as pancreatic duodenal homeobox 1 gene (Pdx-1) [Madsen, 1997; Offield, 1996], members of the notch [Lammert, 2000; Jensen, 2000] and paired-homeodomain box (Pax) family. In the Pax family the transcription factors Pax-8/9 have been found in the foregut, which give rise to thyroid follicle cells [Mansouri, 1998] and cells in the thymus [Peters, 1998], respectively. Pax-4/6 were expressed in the fore/midgut and gave rise to δ/β-cells [Sosa-Pineda, 1997] and α-cells [St-Onge, 1997], respectively. Pax-1 has been demonstrated to be involved in T-cell maturation [Wallin, 1996]. Mutation in Pax-1 resulted in reduced ability to mature CD4/8 negative thymocytes into CD4/8 positive thymocytes [Su, 2000]. Furthermore, pax-1 is expressed in the notochord to maintain proliferation of scierotome cells during the development of the vertebral column [Furumoto, 1999]. In the present study Pax-1 was down-regulated (0.7) after maturation of the β-cell phenotype, suggesting that this transcription factor is no longer needed in the mature β-cell, but may have been involved earlier in the maturation of the β-cells.  
      Under physiological conditions, heat shock proteins (Hsp) are expressed in a constitutive manner, and exert housekeeping and homeostatic functions. They act as molecular chaperones playing a role in protein folding, transport, translocation and degradation (rewieved in [Langer, 1994]. Furthermore, Hsp may be activated after exposure to several toxic compounds such as heat [Gabal, 1993], cytokines [De Vera, 1996; Scarim, 1998] and free radicals (NO) [Bellmann, 1995; Bellmann, 1996], thus acting as a protective mechanism against these stress factors. Chaperoning functions of the Hsp-70 family members have been demonstrated to be dependent on the ATP level [Beckmann, 1990], since when the ATP level is depleted by an uncoupler (CCCP) Hsp 68/70 are induced [Gabal, 1993]. After β-cell maturation the proteins in the energy generation pathway are down-regulated (isocitrate 0.7, citrate synthase 0.2, voltage-dependent anlon-selctive channel protein 1 0.3, cAMP-dependent protein kinase 0.4, isocitrate dehydrogenase 0.3, creatine kinase B 0.5 and G25 GTP-binding protein 0.5), which results in low ATP production. In contrast, to compensate for the low ATP level ATP synthase α chain was highly up-regulated (5.1). After β-cell maturation Hsp were up-regulated (Hsc-70-ps1 (4.4/16.7), 78 Kda glucose-related protein (GRP78, 4.0/1.6/2.6), Hsc-70interacting protein (2.9) and mortalin (GRP75, 16.7)) this could be a result of low ATP level. Despite the higher amount of Hsp in the β-cell phenotype compared to the pre-β-cell phenotype, it has been demonstrated in previous analysis that the β-cell phenotype is more sensitive to IL-1β [Nielsen, 1999]. In this context, Hsp has been demonstrated to be expressed 3-4 fold higher in human islets compared to rodents islets [Welsh, 1995], despite this, human islets are still sensitive to cytokines [Eizirik, 1996]. The higher amount of Hsp in the β-cells could reflect a defense mechanism activated by the β-cells to protect themselves against toxic compounds. In contrast, gluthatione-S-tranferase (GST) (0.5/0.3), which is involved in the glutathione pathway is down-regulated, suggesting that the β-cells are less able to reduce the toxic H 2 O 2  compared to the pre-β-cell phenotype. Glutathione has been demonstrated to protect a human Insulinoma cell-line against the toxic effect of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) [Cavallo, 1997], and together with catalase, glutathione protects RIN cells against H 2 O 2 , reactive oxygen species and cytokines [Tiedge, 1998; Tiedge, 1999]. Another function of GST is inhibition of the Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activity [Adler, 1999]. JNK is activated in response of different stress factors such as cytokine, heat and oxidative compounds. Dependent upon the stimulation, signaling through JNK activates cell death (apoptosis), differentiation/proliferation or tumor development (reviewed in [Davis, 2000]. PKC-Interacting cousin of thioredoxin (PICOT) is another JNK Inhibitor [Witte, 2000], which was down-regulated (0.5) during β-cell maturation. After exposure to different stress factors the β-cells express a higher level of JNK activity due to low amount of both GST and PICOT, making the β-cells more sensitive to different stress factors compared to the preβ-cells.  
      Another specific function of Hsc70 is uncoating of clatrin-coated vesicles. Secreted proteins are transported in clatrin-coated vesicles to the plasma membrane and before fusion of the vesicles with the plasma membrane the coat formed by clatrin triskellon is removed by Hsc70 [DeLuca-Flaherty, 1990]. The Hsc70 mediated uncoating of clatrin-coated vesicles is dependent upon ATP hydrolysis [Greene, 1190]. After maturation of the β-cell phenotype an increased level of clatrin light chain (5.2), a component in clatrin triskellon was detected suggesting an increased level of exocytosis in the β-cells. This correlates well with maturation of the β-cell phenotype and associated increased insulin-production secretion through exocytosis in clatrin-coated vesicles [Turner, 2000]. The ATP-synthase alpha chain was highly up-regulated (5.1/2.2 fold) during β-cell maturation. This may represent a mechanism to compensate for the low level of ATP and the need for ATP hydrolysis during exocytosis.  
      Mortalin, a member of the Hsp70 family, was highly up-regulated (16.7) during maturation of the β-cell phenotype. Mortalin was first identified as a 66 kDa protein present in cytosolic fragments of normal mouse and absent in immortal cells [Wadhwa, 1991]. Stable transfection with mortalin in NIH 3T3 cells induced senescence, suggesting an anti-proliferative role of this protein in vitro [Wadhwa, 1993]. Furthermore, mortalin has been demonstrated to associate with the IL-1 receptor type 1 in an ATP dependent process [Sacht, 1999]. As a consequence of this association it is suggested that activation of the IL-1 receptor type 1 cascade after IL-1β exposure is highly up-regulated, since the β-cell phenotype express a high amount of mortalin.  
      Programmed cell death (apoptosis) plays an important role during cell maturation (reviewed in [Ellis, 1991]). It has been characterized by a set of cellular events including cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation and DNA fragmentation. Many factors have been demonstrated to be involved in this process including FAS, bcl-2, lamins, ICE and other caspases (reviewed in [Schulze-Osthoff, 1998; Cohen, 1997]). Cytokines and other toxic compounds have been demonstrated to induce apoptosis [Kaneto, 1995; Friedlander, 1996; Delaney, 1997; Matteo, 1997; Karlsen, 2000]. After maturation of the β-cell phenotype both lamin A and B were up-regulated (1.4 and 2.6, respectively). The proteolysis of lamins, the major structural proteins of the nuclear envelope, is observed in different cells undergoing apoptosis [Oberhammer, 1994; Greidinger, 1996]. This suggests that the β-cells compared to the pre-β-cell phenotype may enter the apoptotic pathway more frequently dependent upon activation. It has been demonstrated that inhibitors of lamin cleavage prevent apoptosis [Lazebnik, 1995; Neamati, 1995].  
      TOAD 64 has been shown to be involved during neural development [Minturn, 1995], but its importance for β-cell maturation is still unknown. TOAD 64 has furthermore been characterized to make a complex of 5 proteins (NADH oxidoreductase homologues to GADPH, enolase c, enolase γ and Hsc70) [Bulliard, 1997] defied as the PMO complex, involved in cellular defense in response to oxidative stress. TOAD 64 was both up-regulated and down-regulated (2.6/1.6/0.6) after maturation of the β-cell phenotype, suggesting post-translational modification, which may result in several different functions.  
      Citrullinaemia is an autosomal disorder of the urea metabolism characterized by a high level of citrulline as a result of deficiency in the activity of the urea cycle enzyme argininosuccinate synthetase (ASS) [Kobayashi, 1991]. Ammonia (NH3) inters the urea cycle and is converted to citrulline, ASS catalyzes the reaction of citrulline to argininosuccinate, argininosuccinate is converted to arginine and the end product is urea [Rochvansky, 1967]. Defect or mutation in ASS causes high level of both NH 3  and citrulline. The expression level of ASS (0.2) was significantly lower in the β-cell phenotype compared to the preβ-cell phenotype, resulting in an increased level of NH 3  and citrulline in the β-cell phenotype, which would make the β-cell phenotype more sensitive when exposed to cytokines and toxic compounds. Cytokines activate the formation of nitric oxide (NO), which may contribute to pancreatic β-cell damage. The inducible form of nitric oxide synthase (INOS) catalyzes the conversion of arginine to citrulline and NO. Arginine can be provided extracellularly by protein degradation or synthesis from citrulline [Morris, 1994]. It is possible that due to the down-regulated ASS expression and resulting high level of citrulline in the β-cell phenotype, the β-cells may convert citrulline to arginine. The pool of arginine may then serve as substrate for INOS and further production of NO and other free radicals derivates. Indeed it has been demonstrated that IL-1β exposed β-cells induce the citrulline-NO cycle, and extracellular arginine or citrulline are required for NO production [Flodström, 1999]. Furthermore, accumulation of arginine was shown to be higher in the IL-1β exposed β-cells compared to the control cells [Flodström, 1999]. It is possible that the higher concentration of citrulline in the β-cell phenotype due to low ASS is an acquired trait during β-cell maturation, which makes the β-cells more sensitive to IL-1β because the citrulline-NO cycle is increased.  
      A first aspect of the invention relates to a method for diagnosing diabetes in a human, the method comprising determining the presence or level of expression of at least one marker protein in a biological sample from the human, wherein the marker protein is selected from the group consisting of  
                                       TABLE 1                               Database       Theor       Theor       Gel spot no:   Protein   Acc #   MW   MW   pI   pI                                                            NEPHGE 76   Phosphoglycerate kinase*   P16617   37.1   44.4   8.3   7.5       NEPHGE   Fructose-bisphosphate   P05065   20.7,   39.2   8.6, 8.9,   8.4       124, 193,   aldolase A*       35.4,       8.9, 8.3       241, 105#           34.9, 35.6       NEPHGE   Glyceraldehyde-3-   P04797   35.7   35.7   7.8   8.4       568   phophate-dehydrogenase*#       IEF 166*   Enolase α   P04764   49.6   47.0   5.7   6.2       IEF 193,   Enolase γ*   P07323   47.8, 62.8   47.0   5.0, 5.1   5.0       1219       IEF 255*   Transaldolase   Q93092   37.7   37.4   6.1   6.6       IEF 794   Glyceraldehyde-3-   M17701   35.9   35.7   6.8   8.4           phophate-dehydrogenase       IEF 1472*,   Puruvate kinase, M1   P11980   53.5, 53.5   57.7   7.2, 7.1   6.7       1473*   isozyme       NEPHGE   Argininosuccinate synthase   P00968   40.1   46.4   8.1   8.4       77*       NEPHGE   Heterogeneous nuclear   P51991   35.6   39.7   8.3   8.7       105#   ribonucleoprotein A3       NEPHGE   Poly (RC) binding protein 2   Q61990   35.6   38.2   8.3   6.3       105#       NEPHGE   EIF-2-gamma Y   Q9Z0N2   42.6   51.0   8.8   8.8       230*       NEPHGE   40S ribisomal protein S25   P25111   20.1   13.7   7.7   10.1       357#       NEPHGE   40S ribosomal protein S18   P25232   20.1   17.7   7.7   11.0       357#       NEPHGE   Heterogeneous nuclear   P22626   35.1   37.4   9.0   9.0       551   ribonucleoprotein A2/B1#       NEPHGE   60S ribisomal protein L26   P12746   21.0   17.3   8.0   10.6       4410*       NEPHGE   Ubiquitin-conjucating   O76069   21.0   20.9   8.0   7.6       4410*   enzyme E2       IEF 255*   60S Acidic ribisomal   P19945   37.7   34.2   6.1   5.9           protein P0       IEF 256   Pyridoxal kinase   O35331   39.1   34.9   6.3   6.3       IEF 383*   Isovaleryl-CoA   P12007   46.4   46.4   6.2   8.0           dehydrogenase       IEF 383*   Ubiquittin fusion   P70362   46.4   34.5   6.2   7.0           degradetion protein 1           homolog       IEF 403,   26S protease regulatory   Q63347   48.6,   48.6   5.6, 5.8,   5.6       1039*, 1500*   subunit 7       36.8, 39.5       5.8       IEF 12315*   Translation initiation factor 5   Q07205   77.7   49.0   4.8   5.4       NEPHGE 14   Isocitrate dehydrogenase   P54071   39.8   58.7   8.6   8.9       NEPHGE   Citrate synthase   O75390   40.1   51.7   8.1   8.1       77*       NEPHGE   Voltage-dependent anion-   Q60932   30.6, 30.5   30.6   8.0, 8.0   8.6       252, 4234*   selective channel protein 1       NEPHGE   Phosphoenolpyruvate   P29195   22.4   109.4   7.6   5.8       335*   carboxylase       NEPHGE   ATP synthase alpha chain#   P15999   56.8, 51.6   58.8   8.0, 8.1   9.2       377, 516       NEPHGE   Voltage-dependent anion-   P81155   31.6,   31.7   7.4, 8.0,   7.4       582, 4234*,   selective channel protein 2#       30.5, 32.6       7.9       45124       NEPHGE   Fumarate hydratase   P14408   42.9   54.5   8.1   9.1       20140       IEF 123   cAMP-depend. protein   P09466   48.3   43.0   5.3   5.3           kinase type I-alpha regu.           chain       IEF 359   Isocitrate dehydrogenase   P41562   48.7   46.7   6.5   6.5       IEF 616*   Creatine kinase, B chain#   P07335   43.5   42.7   5.3   5.3       IEF 700,   G25 GTP-binding protein   P25763   21.3, 23.4   21.3   6.1, 6.2   6.2       1296       NEPHGE   RAN   P17080   24.9   37.8   8.0   9.4       59*       NEPHGE   T-complex protein 1, beta   Q99832   47.5, 47.7   59.4   8.4, 8.3   7.6       156*, 303*   subunit       NEPHGE   RAS-related protein RAB-   P51148   23.6   23.6   8.3   8.9       332   5C       NEPHGE   Peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans   P10111   17.7   17.7   8.4   8.4       453   isomerase A       IEF 82, 85*,   Hsc 70-ps1   CAA49670   61.9,   70.9   5.4, 5.1,   5.4       1463*           72.3, 62.0       5.4       IEF 85*,   78 Kda glucose-related   P06761   72.3,   72.3   5.1, 5.1,   5.1       775* 846*,   protein*#       70.0,       6.1, 4.9       1358           40.5, 96.0       IEF 109*,   Probable protein disulfide   P11598   54.7,   56.6   5.6, 5.7,   5.9       542, 806,   isomerase ER-60*#       59.5,       4.6, 6.3       973*           24.1, 58.3       IEF 109*   T-complex protein 1, theta   P42932   54.7   59.6   5.6   5.4           sububit       IEF151   ERJ3 protein   Q9UBS4   49.7   40.5   6.1   5.8       IEF 376   N-ethylmaleimide sensitive   Q9QUL6   65.2   82.7   6.4   6.6           factor       IEF 408   Clatrin light chain   AAA40891   59.6   25.1   4.6   4.6       IEF 463   RAS-related protein RAB-   P46638   25.2   24.5   6.3   5.6           11B       IEF 469#,   T-complex protein, zeta   P80317   59.7,   58.0   6.3, 7.2,   6.6       1472*, 1473*   subunit*       53.5, 53.5       7.1       IEF 583   Vesicular-fusion protein   P46460   64.5   82.6   6.4   6.5           NSF       IEF 728{circumflex over ( )},   T-complex protein 1,   P49368   67.4, 62.9   60.3   6.0, 6.2   6.2       881#   gamma subunit       IEF 728{circumflex over ( )},   P60 protein   O35814   67.4,   62.6   6.0, 6.3,   6.4       469#, 881#,           59.7,       6.2, 7.4       NEP 282           62.9, 61.1       IEF 730   Hsc 70-interacting protein   P50503   49.5   41.3   5.1   5.3       IEF 871*,   Coatomer delta subunit   P53619   70.1, 67.4   57.2   6.0, 6.0   5.9       728{circumflex over ( )}   (bovin, human)*       IEF 922   Kinesin heavy chain   P33176   92.1   109.9   5.9   6.1       IEF 1014*   Amphiphysin-like protein   O08839   84.2   64.5   5.0   5.0       IEF 1039*,   Sorting Nexin 6   Q9UNH7   36.8, 39.5   46.6   5.8, 5.8   5.8       1500*       IEF 1451*   Apolipoprotein A-I   P02647   58.2   30.8   6.9   5.6       IEF 1463*   Mortalin (GRP75)*   P48721   62.0   73.9   5.4   6.0       IEF 1513   Alpha-soluble NSF   P54921   16.0   33.2   6.0   5.3           attachment protein       IEF 9224   Heat-shock protein 105   Q61699   87.6   96.5   5.5   5.4           Kda       NEPHGE   Transgelin 2   P37802   22.4   22.4   8.2   8.4       356       NEPHGE   Neurofilament triplet H   P16884   21.3   89.5   7.9   5.6       447   protein       NEPHGE   Complement component   Q29439   18.0   14.5   8.3   5.3       454   C4       NEPHGE   Destrin   JE0223   18.0   18.4   8.3   7.8       454       NEPHGE   Caldesmon   Q05682   58.8   93.3   8.1   5.6       19991       IEF 104,   Keratin, type II cytoskeletal   Q10758   53.9,   53.9   5.7, 5.5,   5.8       612, 616*   8#       45.3, 43.5       5.3       IEF   Alpha-2-macroglobulin   Q99068   43.5, 45.4   41.7   6.5, 6.7   6.9       202, 1193   receptor-associated protein       IEF 215   Serine/threonine protein   P37140   37.2   37.2   6.2   5.8           phosphatase PP1-beta       IEF 232   PKCq-interacting protein   AAF28843   40.9   31.4   5.8   4.9           PICOT       IEF 330*   Cofilin, non-muscle isoform   P45592   18.3   18.5   6.5   8.2       IEF 469#   Dihydropyrimidase related   Q62950   59.7   62.2   6.3   6.6           protein-1 (CRMP-1)       IEF 565,   Protein disulfide isomerase   P04785   86.6,   57.0   4.9, 4.8,   4.8       12315*,           77.7,       5.0       12340           116.3       IEF 604,   Ezrin   P26040   76.2, 81.0   69.2   6.0, 5.8   5.8       1438       IEF 662   Nonmuscle myosin heavy   AAF61445   94.4   22.9   5.7   5.5           chain-B       IEF 900   Reticulocalbin 1   Q05186   105.7   38.1   4.7   4.7       IEF 728{circumflex over ( )},   Turned on after division 64   P47942   67.4,   62.3   6.0, 6.0,   6.0       871*, 881#   (TOAD 64) (CRMP-3)*#       70.1, 62.9       6.2       IEF 935,   Endoplasmin   P08113   98.5, 84.5   92.5   4.7, 5.0   4.7       1014*       IEF 973*,   Lamin A*   P48679   58.3, 66.0   74.3   6.3, 6.2   6.5       1351       IEF 1020   Myosin heavy chain   Q90337   72.4   221.1   4.6   5.6       IEF 1154   Lamin B1   P70615   68.4   66.6   5.2   5.2       IEF 1451*   Fibrinogen gamma-a chain   P02679   58.2   49.5   6.9   5.6       IEF 1482   Vitamin D-binding   P04276   46.6   53.5   5.5   5.7       IEF 1564   Fatty acid-binding protein,   P55053   11.6   15.1   6.3   6.7           epidermal       NEPHGE   PAX 1   P15863   24.9   24.4   8.0   6.6       59*       NEPHGE   Lamina-associated   Q62733   47.5   50.3   8.4   9.4       156*   poypeptide 2       NEPHGE   Flag structure-specific   AAF81265   42.6, 41.2   42.6   8.8, 8.6   8.8       230*, 20127#   endonuclease       NEPHGE   RNA polymerase II   Q63396   20.1   13.7   7.7   9.7       357#   transcriptional coactivator           P15       NEPHGE   Lupus la protein homolog   P38656   19.4   47.8   8.0   9.7       458       NEPHGE   DNA-polymerase   P78988   42.9   99.5   9.4   8.9       526       NEPHGE   Septin-like protein   Q9QZR6   54.5, 64.4   63.8   8.4, 7.8   8.7       19980,       45036       NEPHGE   Hypothetical 44.7 protein   CAB66481   41.2   44.7   8.6   7.6       20127#       NEPHGE   CDC10 protein homolog   Q9WVC0   41.2   50.5   8.6   8.8       20127#       IEF 156   NEDD 5 protein   P42208   38.0   41.5   6.1   6.1       IEF 166*   Histidyl-tRNA synthetase   Q61035   49.6   57.4   5.7   5.7       IEF 313   Zinc Finger protein 43   P28160   27.2   93.5   6.4   9.4       IEF 330*   Nucleoside diphophate   P19804   18.3   17.3   6.5   6.9           Kinase B       IEF 462   Cytidylate kinase#   P30085   23.3   22.2   6.3   5.4       IEF 775*   Heterogeneous nuclear   Q07244   70.0   51.0   5.1   5.4           ribonucleoprotein K       IEF 846*   Zinc finger protein 26   P10076   40.5   48.9   6.0   9.3       IEF 850*   Reverse transcriptase   Q9YQW2   57.8   27.9   6.1   9.3       IEF 885   Importin alpha   Q9Z0N9   48.5   57.8   5.4   5.4       IEF 1209   FUSE binding protein 2   Q92945   71.7   68.4   6.5   8.5       IEF 5223   Dynactin, 50 Kda isoform   Q13561   50.2   44.8   5.1   5.1       NEPHGE   Coding region determinant   O88477   47.7   63.5   8.3   9.3       303*   binding protein       NEPHGE   Polyubiquitin   Q63654   22.4   11.2   7.6   5.4       335*       NEPHGE 441   Glutathione S-transferase P   P46524   23.5   23.5   8.0   8.1       NEPHGE   Glutathione S-transferase   P04905   25.9   25.9   8.8   8.4       605   YB1       IEF 482   Neurolysin   P42676   80.3   80.3   5.6   8.0       IEF 850*   Proteasome component C2   P18420   57.8   29.5   6.1   6.1       IEF 1508   Arginase 1   P07824   43.1   35.0   6.8   6.8                  
 
 and marker proteins further consisting of modifications and derivatives of marker proteins of Table 1, so as to have at least 80% homology with marker proteins of Table 1, wherein pI is the isoelectric point of the marker protein as determined by isoelectric focusing, and the molecular weight (MW) is determined on a polyacrylamide gel. 
 
      A further aspect relates to a method for diagnosing diabetes in a human, wherein the method further comprises establishing the increased expression of at least one marker protein (an up-regulated marker protein) or establishing the decreased expression of at least one marker protein (a down-regulated marker protein) selected from the group consisting of proteins or combinations of up- and down-regulated marker proteins.  
      The invention further relates to a method of treating diabetes by the up-regulation of a down-regulated protein, the down-regulation of an up-regulated protein, or combinations thereof. That is to say that the invention relates to a method of treating diabetes in a human comprising altering the expressing of marker proteins of Table 1. Furthermore, the invention relates to method of treating diabetes in a human comprising administering a marker protein of Table 1, a nucleotide sequence-coding for a marker protein of Table 1, an antibody for a protein of Table 1, a nucleic acid fragment capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1, or a compound capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1 to said human.  
      A further aspect relates to the use of novel proteins and proteins of Table 1 as markers or indicators for diabetes as well as to the use of known proteins whose presence, absence or prevalence has previously not been associated with diabetes. The changes in protein expression and patterns of protein expression are considered to be important markers for diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic applications and targets.  
      The method of the present invention may be further used to determine the predisposition in a human for diabetes, the method comprising determining the presence or relative level in a biological sample from the human of at least one marker protein wherein the marker protein being indicative of a predisposition for having diabetes is selected from the group consisting of (Table 1) and marker proteins further consisting of modifications and derivatives of marker proteins of Table 1, so as to have at least 80% homology with marker proteins of Table 1, wherein pI is the isoelectric point of the marker protein as determined by isoelectric focusing, and the molecular weight (MW) is determined on a polyacrylamide gel.  
      A method for diagnosing the predisposition in a human for diabetes, may comprise determining the increased expression in a biological sample from the human of at least one marker protein selected from the a biological sample from the human, said marker protein selected from the group consisting of proteins of Table 2 establishing the decreased expression of at least one marker protein (a down-regulated marker protein) in a biological sample from the human, or combinations of up- and down-regulated marker proteins.  
      Thus, the determination of whether a protein is up-regulated or down-regulated serves as useful indicators of diabetes susceptibility. The pattern of up and down regulation may also serve as an indicator. That is to say that the level of expression of more than one protein is established and the pattern of expression of a grouping of proteins is used as an indicator.  
      In a suitably embodiment, at least one marker protein is selected from the group consisting of one or more proteins present in a significantly lower or significantly higher amount on a polyacrylamide gel of proteins from said biological sample in relation to a control, one or more proteins present on a polyacrylamide gel of proteins from said biological sample and absent on polyacrylamide gel of proteins of a control, one or more proteins absent on a polyacrylamide gel of proteins from said biological sample and present on polyacrylamide gel of proteins of a control.  
      Similarly, with regards to a method of treating diabetes, a single protein may be targeted for therapy or a grouping of proteins may be targeted. The level of expression of these targeted proteins may be altered or the proteins themselves may be interfered with in order to alter their activity. Thus, an interesting embodiment of a method of treating diabetes in a human comprises altering the expressing of a marker protein of Table 1. 9. A method of treating diabetes in a human comprising administering a marker protein of Table 1, a nucleotide sequence coding for a marker protein of Table 1, an antibody for a protein of Table 1, a nucleic acid fragment capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1, or a compound capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1 to said human.  
      A method of preventing or delaying the onset or of diabetes in a human according to the present invention may comprise administering a marker protein of Table 1, a nucleotide sequence coding for a marker protein of Table 1, an antibody for a protein of Table 1, a nucleic acid fragment capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1, or a compound capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1 to said human.  
      Thus a particularly interesting aspect of the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition which comprises a substance which is capable of regulating the expression of a nucleic acid fragment coding for at least part of a protein of Table 1, or at least one marker protein in Table 1, an antibody for a protein of Table 1, a nucleic acid fragment capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1, or a compound capable of binding to a marker protein of Table to said human.  
      The invention further relates to a method of determining the likelihood of an agent having a therapeutic effect in the treatment of diabetes comprising determining the level of expression of one or more proteins of Table 1 before and after exposing a test model to said agent and comparing said levels.  
      In the testing of compounds, knowledge about the activity or target of an agent is useful for understanding the therapeutic activity of said agent and may assist in improving the desired therapy. The developments of the present investigators allows for a method of determining the effect of a compound in the treatment of diabetes comprising determining the level of expression of proteins of one or more proteins of Table 1 and to a method of determining the level of effect or level of activity of a compound used in the treatment of diabetes comprising determining the level of expression of one or more proteins of Table 1 before and after exposing a test model to said agent.  
      Thus, the invention further relates to a method for determining the physiological effect of a substance, the method comprising using a mammal which has been established to be an individual having a high likelihood of having diabetes or a genetic predisposition for having diabetes by use of the method according to the invention, the method comprising administering the substance to the individual and determining the effect of the substance. The present investigators anticipate that a method of determining the nature or cause of diabetes in a human having or susceptible to said disease comprising establishing the level of expression of a protein of Table 1 in relation to a model serves for understanding the disease and potential therapies.  
      A further interesting application of the present invention would be the construction of transfected cells with one or more of the genes identified here with the goal to produce a cell with desirable characteristics that could mimic the normal function of the β-cell in the health condition. These cells could then be used for transplantation or introduction into the human organism for cell therapy (as for bone transplants). The cells used could be modified so that the immune system does not recognise them as foreign (possibly the patients own cells). Furthermore the cells could be of β-cell or non β-cell origin (e.g. α-cell, stem cell, pleuripotent cell). Suitable regulatory elements would need to be inserted together with the genes—and one source of these might be the natural regulatory element for the genes themselves. This would result in a long lasting therapy for the patient.  
      Each of the methods of the present invention relates to the use of a protein according to Table 1 or having least 80% homology therewith.  
      The invention further relates to a nucleic acid fragment comprising a nucleotide sequence which codes for a peptide defined in Table 1 as well as to a nucleic acid fragment which hybridises with said nucleic acid fragment or a part thereof. The use of said nucleic acid fragment may serve to detecting the presence of a peptide of Table 1.  
      The invention further relates to an antibody able to bind to a protein defined in Table 1. The antibody may be a polyclonal antibody or a monoclonal antibody. The use of an antibody may serve for detecting the presence of a peptide shown in Table 1.  
      An interesting aspect of the present invention relates to a test kit for diagnosing diabetes or a genetic predisposition for diabetes in a mammal, comprising: 
          a) a binding mean which specifically binds to at least one marker protein shown in Table 1 or an antibody for a protein of Table 1, a nucleic acid fragment capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1, or a compound capable of binding to a marker protein of Table 1 to said human,     b) means for detecting binding, if any, or the level of binding, of the binding means to at least one of the marker proteins or at least one of the peptides or at least one of the nucleic acid fragments, and     c) means for correlating whether binding, if any, or the level of binding, to said binding means is indicative of the individual mammal having a significantly higher likelihood of having diabetes or a genetic predisposition for having diabetes.        

    
    
     EXAMPLES  
     Example 1  
      Cell Culture  
      The NHI-cell system [Nielsen, 1999] is based on the subclone NHI-glu derived from the glucagon producing MSL-G2 culture [Madsen, 1986]. Following in vivo passage by transplantation in syngeneic NEDH rats, the NHI-glu maturates into Insulinomas [Madsen, 1988; Madsen, 1993; Blume, 1995]. Insulinomas re-established in vitro display a more mature insulin producing phenotype (NHI-Ins) for prolonged periods [Serup, 1995], which closely resembles β-cells with respect to the mRNA expression profile [Jensen, 1996].  
      The two NHI-phenotypes were cultured in RPMI 1640 Glutamax (GibcoBRL) supplemented with 10% FCS (GibcoBRL) and 1% penicillin/streptomycin (GibcoBRL) at 37° C. in a 5% CO 2  atmosphere. For 2D-gel electrophoresis 2×10 5  cells/well were cultured in 24 well plates (Costar, Cambridge, USA) and for protein identification by mass spectrometry (MALDI) 1×10 5  cells/well were cultured in 96 well plates and 20×10 6  cells/bottle were cultured in tissue culture flasks with and without [ 35 S]-methionine, respectively.  
      Cell Labeling  
      The cells were cultured in 68 h to allow cells to grow in 24 well plates. Then the cells were washed twice in HBSS and labeled for 4 h in 250 μl/well methionine-free Dulbecco&#39;s modified Eagle&#39;s medium (DMEM) [Andersen, 1995] with 10% NHS dialyzed for amino acid, and 500 μCl/ml [ 35 S]-methionine (Amersham Corp.). To eliminate 2-mercaptoethanol, [ 35 S]-methionine was freeze-dried 24 h before labeling. After labeling the cells were washed twice in HBSS, pelleted, lysed with 100 μl lysis buffer (8.5 M urea, 2% nonidet P-40, 5% 2-mercaptoethanol and 2% carrier ampholytes, pH range 7-9) and frozen at −80° C.  
      Determination of [ 35 S]-methionine incorporation  
      The amount of [ 35 S]-methionine incorporation was quantitated in duplicate by adding 10 μL BSA (0.2 μg/mL H 2 O) as a carrier to 5 μL of a 1:10 dilution of each sample, followed by 0.5 mL of 10% TCA. This was left to precipitate for 30 min at 4° C. before being filtered through 0.25 μm filters. The HAWP filters were dried and placed into scintillation liquid for counting.  
      2D-gel Electrophoresis  
      The procedure was essentially as previously described [O&#39;Farrell, 1977; Fey, 1984; Fey, 1997]. Briefly, first-dimensional gels contained 4% acrylamide, 0.25% bisacrylamide and carrier ampholytes (the actual ratio depending upon the batch) and were 175 mm long and 1.55 mm in diameter. An equal number of counts (10 6  cpm) of each sample were applied to the gels. In case of lower amounts of radioactivity it was necessary to regulate the exposure time of the gel so that comparable total optical densities were obtained. The samples were analyzed on both isoelectric focusing (IEF; pH 3.5-7) and nonequilibrium pH-gradient electrophoresis (NEPHGE; pH 6.5-10.5) gels. IEF gels were prefocused for approximately 4 h at 140 μA/gel (limiting current); the sample was then applied and focused for 18 h at 1200 V (limiting voltage). NEPHGE gels were focused for approximately 6.5 h using 140 μA/gel and 1200 V as the limiting parameters. Second-dimension gels, 1×200×185 mm, contained either 15% acrylamide and 0.075% Bis, or 10% acrylamide and 0.05% Bis, and were run overnight. This separation protocol was optimized for hydrophilic proteins, thus a detailed characterization of hydrophobic (membrane) proteins is not possible. After electrophoresis, the gels were fixed in 45% methanol and 7.5% acetic acid for 45 min and treated for fluorography with Amplify® for 45 min before being dried. The gels were placed in contact with X-ray films and exposed at −70° C. for 1-40 days. Each gel was exposed for at least three time periods to compensate for the lack of dynamic range of X-ray films.  
      2D-gel Analyzing and Statistical Analysis  
      The Bio Image computer program (version 6.1) was used to identify and quantitate protein-spots. The computer program assist in the matching of the spots between the four independent gels in a composite image, but further manual editing is necessary to ensure correct matching of computer found spots. After correct matching of the entire computer found spots statistical analysis were used to analyze the significantly changed % IOD level after maturation from the NHI-glu to the NHI-Ins phenotype. For statistical evaluation a double-sided non-paired t-test was used and the level of significance was chosen at p&lt;0.01.  
      Protein Characterization  
      Preparatory 2D-gels were produced from the pool of cells, prepared and separated on gels as described above. For localization of the spots, 10% of the cells were radioactively labeled and used as tracer. Since initial attempts to identify the proteins in the gel resulted in very few positive identifications by direct micro sequencing, the method of choice became mass spectrometry.  
      Protein Identification by Mass Spectrometry (MALDI)  
      Briefly, protein spots of interest were obtained by cutting them out of the dried gel using a scalpel. One hundred and thirty five spots could technically be cut out of the gels for analysis. The proteins were enzymatically digested in the gel as described [Rosenfeld, 1992; Shevchenko, 1996] with minor modifications [Nawrocki, 1998]. The excised gel plugs were washed in 50 mM NH4HCO 3 /acetonitrile (60/40) and dried by vacuum centrifugation. Modified porcine trypsin (12 ng/μL, Promega, sequencing grade) in digestion buffer (50 mM NH 4 HCO 3 ) was added to the dry gel pieces and incubated on ice for 1 h for reswelling. After removing the supernatant, 20-40 μL digestion buffer was added and the digestion was continued at 37° C. for 4-18 hours. The peptides were extracted as described [Shevchenko, 1996] and dried in a vacuum centrifuge. The residue was dissolved in 5% Formic acid and analyzed by matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry. Delayed extraction MALDI mass spectra of the peptide mixtures resulting from in-gel digestion were acquired using a PerSeptive Biosystems Voyager Elite reflector time-of-flight mass spectrometer (PerSeptive Biosystems, Framingham, Mass.). Samples were prepared using α-cyano-4-hydroxy cinnamic acid as matrix. When appropriate, nitrocellulose was mixed with the matrix [Kussmann, 1997]. Protein identification was performed to search for the peptide-mass maps in a comprehensive, non-redundant protein sequence database (NRDB, European BioInformatics Institute, Hinxton, UK) using the PeptideSearch software ([Mann, 1993] further developed at EMBL (Heidelberg, Germany)). The protein identifications were examined using the “second pass search” feature of the software and critical evaluation of the peptide mass map as described [Jensen, 1998]. The following protein databases were searched for matches: SWISS-PROT, PIR, NIH, and GENEBANK  
      Determination of Mw and pI  
      Theoretical pI and Mw were calculated using the ‘Compute pI/Mw tool’ at the ExPASy Molecular Biology Server (www.expasy.ch/tools/pI tool.html). pI/Mw for the individual proteins on the gel were determined by plotting the theoretical pI/Mw against the running length of the gel. The proteins outside the line were removed and proteins on the line were used in the BioImage Program to calculate all the unknown pI and Mw on the gel.  
      LEGEND TO TABLE 1  
      In Table 1 the spot numbers refer to the numbers assigned by the Bio Image computer program, when the gels are matched together. Protein-spots containing 2, 3 or 4 proteins are demonstrated by *, # and {circumflex over ( )}, respectively (column 1). The specific protein matching the database Acc. number is assigned according to the major known function of the specific protein. Proteins assigned by * has been shown also to be altered after IL-1β exposure of Wistar Wurth rat islets, and proteins assigned by # were also altered after IL-1β exposure of BB rat islets (column 2). The IOD ratio of the protein is given relative to the expression level in the pre-β-cell phenotype, thus values below 1 represent proteins that are down-regulated and values above 1 represent proteins that are up-regulated during maturation from the pre-β-cell to the β-cell phenotype. Theoretical pI and Mw were calculated using the ‘Compute pI/Mw tool’ at the ExPASy Molecular Biology Server and the observed pI and Mw are defined in the methods.  
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