Patent Publication Number: US-7910873-B2

Title: Biochip microsystem for bioinformatics recognition and analysis

Description:
PRIORITY CLAIM 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/856,512, filed 3 Nov. 2007. 
    
    
     GOVERNMENT INTEREST 
     The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract, and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 USC 202) in which the Contractor has elected to retain title. 
    
    
     FIELD 
     Embodiments relate to recognition of DNA material using an optical and electronic system. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Genetic material may be analyzed by placing DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) material in an array of wells (dots). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification is often used in genetic analysis, where the PCR amplification augments the amount of DNA material placed in a well. Fluorescent dyes, such as CY3 or CY5, may be added to the DNA material, so that it fluoresces when excited by monochromatic light. Because with PCR amplification there may be different growth rates of DNA material from well to well, sample and reference channels may be set up whereby in each well, there is reference DNA and sample DNA. Fluorescent dye of one type may be used for the sample DNA, and fluorescent dye of another type may be used for the reference DNA. 
     This method also reduces the sources of variability and noise due to various aspects of an individual spot that affect both specimens (DNA sample and reference) similarly. In order to accurately calculate the density of the sample DNA material in a particular well after PCR amplification, the integral of the total fluorescence intensity (presumably representing the density of the DNA material inside the well) from the topological profile of the well is usually computed. The logarithmic value of the ratio of the two intensities of the fluorescent dye labeled specimens (one value for the sample specimen, the other value for the reference specimen) measured from the same well is calculated based on the assay&#39;s fluorescence image. The ratio of the two intensities would provide the normalized population of the gene material in the well, disregarding the initial population density. 
     In most of the available commercial solutions, the assay&#39;s fluorescence image is usually scanned by a color scanner with high resolution and then transferred to a computer for image analysis. The profile analysis software usually computes the normalized intensity of each well sequentially. The intensity of the fluorescence is usually relatively low. Using higher excitation light intensity or increasing detection time may lead to brighter fluorescence patterns. However, lower power consumption and faster detection may be preferable. Furthermore, some fixed-pattern noises in the input pattern may exist (e.g., fixed pattern noises created by scattered lights, or non-uniformity of the detector array response). These noises may introduce errors in the measurement of the density of the DNA materials 
     The development of low-cost portable instruments for rapidly analyzing genetic assays in noisy environments and with relatively low intensity of fluorescence would be of utility in medical services. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  illustrates a system for recognizing a pattern among a DNA sample assay according to an embodiment. 
         FIGS. 2 and 3  illustrate adaptive neural networks according to an embodiment. 
         FIG. 4  illustrates functional blocks of a VLSI implementation according to an embodiment. 
         FIG. 5  illustrates a functional block diagram of a pixel according to an embodiment. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS 
     In the description that follows, the scope of the term “some embodiments” is not to be so limited as to mean more than one embodiment, but rather, the scope may include one embodiment, more than one embodiment, or perhaps all embodiments. 
       FIG. 1  illustrates various components of an embodiment in an exploded view. Assay array  102  comprises an array of dual-labeled gene wells (dots). For simplicity of illustration, only one well, labeled  104 , is illustrated. Each well comprises reference DNA material and sample DNA material. The method of PCR amplification is applied to the array of wells in which a first dye is added to the sample DNA material and a second dye is added to the reference DNA material. When excited by light, the reference and sample DNA material may be made to fluoresce. The intensity of the fluorescence is indicative of the amount of DNA sample or reference material. The excitation light for the sample DNA material will for many instances have a different spectrum than the excitation light for the reference DNA material. The light given off by the sample DNA material will usually have a different spectrum than the light given off by the reference DNA material, depending upon the dyes, and usually the light given off by the reference and sample DNA material will have a spectrum different from their respective excitations. For some embodiments, the excitation may be monochromatic light. The monochromatic light may be realized by using optical notch filters in front of a relatively broad light source. 
     For example, for some embodiments CY3 and CY5 dyes may be used, where the DNA material to which CY3 has been added is excited by monochromatic light having a center frequency (wavelength) of 535 nm and a bandwidth of 10 nm, and the DNA material to which CY5 has been added is excited by monochromatic light at 625 nm with a bandwidth of 10 nm. For such embodiments using CY3 and CY5 dyes, when fluorescing the CY3 dye gives off green light having a peak value at 570 nm, and the CY5 dye gives off red light having a peak value at 670 nm. The excitation of wells with CY3 and CY5 may be performed concurrently. Assay array  102  may be front-side illuminated, or backside illuminated if transparent, for example. 
     The term monochromatic is a term of art, where of course in theory no excitation source is purely monochromatic. In the examples given, the bandwidth is less than about 1/50 of the center frequency. For some embodiments, the excitation need not be monochromatic in this sense. 
     Lens system  106  images the light from the array of wells onto sensor array  110 . (Lens system  106  may comprise more than one lens element.) Sensor array  110  comprises an array of pixels, but for simplicity of illustration only one pixel, labeled  112 , is shown in  FIG. 1 . Pixel  112  comprises two optical filters,  112   a  and  112   b , where optical filter  112   a  has a pass band to allow the fluorescence from the DNA sample material to pass through but to substantially reject light outside the frequency range of this fluorescence. Similarly, optical filter  112   b  has a pass band to allow the fluorescence from the DNA reference material to pass through but to substantially reject light outside the frequency range of this fluorescence. 
     For example, for embodiments using CY3 and CY5 dyes as discussed above, one of the optical filters, say  112   a , is a thin-film micro-optical-filter having a passband centered at about 580 nm with a bandwidth of 40 nm, and the other optical filter, say  112   b , is a thin-film micro-optical-filter having a passband centered at about 765 nm with a bandwidth of 40 nm. In this way, a sensor below optical filter  112   a  is responsive to the DNA material having the CY3 dye, and a sensor below optical filter  112   b  is responsive to the DNA material having the CY5 dye. 
     An exploded view of the sensors and circuit for pixel  112  of the embodiment of  FIG. 1  is provided as circuit  114 , which may be referred to as a differential logarithm circuit. In the embodiment of  FIG. 1 , photodetector  116   a  is below optical filter  112   a , and photodetector  116   b  is below optical filter  112   b . In the particular embodiment of  FIG. 1 , photodetector  116   a  is responsive to the light imaged from the sample DNA material, and photodetector  116   b  is responsive to the light imaged from the reference DNA material. In the particular embodiment of  FIG. 1 , photodetectors  116   a  and  116   b  are NPN photodetectors, but other embodiments may use other types of photodetectors. 
     Photodetector  116   a  is connected in series with two transistors, nMOSFETs (n-Metal-Oxide-Field-Effect-Transistor)  118   a  and  120   a . The drain-source currents for nMOSFETs  118   a  and  120   a  are substantially equal to the current sourced by photodetector  116   a . The current sourced by photodetector  116   a  is proportional to the amplitude of the incident light. Transistors  118   a  and  120   a  are each diode-connected. When operating in their sub-threshold regions, their gate-to-source voltages are substantially proportional to the logarithm of the current sourced by photodetector  116   a , which in turn is proportional to the logarithm of the amplitude of the light incident on photodetector  116   a . Similar remarks apply to photodetector  116   b , and transistors  118   b  and  120   b , but where photodetector  116   b  is responsive to incident light from the reference material. 
     Differential transistor pair  112   a  and  112   b , resistors  124   a  and  124   b , and tail current transistor  126  form a differential amplifier, where the input signals are the gate voltages of transistors  118   a  and  118   b , and the output voltage is taken at the drain of one of the transistors in the differential transistor pair. For the particular embodiment of  FIG. 1 , the drain on transistor  122   b  is taken as an output port, labeled as V OUT . Denoting the amplitude of the sample incident light by A S  and the amplitude of the reference incident light by the A R , the output voltage may be written as 
                 V   OUT     =     K   ⁢           ⁢     log   ⁡     (       A   S       A   R       )           ,         
where K is some proportionality factor. It should be noted that the above equation for the output voltage is only approximate, and does not serve as an exact expression of the output voltage in terms of A S  and A R .
 
     Other embodiments may employ circuits different from the particular circuit illustrated in  FIG. 1 . For example, a circuit complementary to circuit  114  may be realized, where pMOSFETs are used instead of nMOSFETs in circuit  114 , and PNP photodetectors are used instead of photodetectors  116   a  and  116   b . Furthermore, some embodiments may employ other types of transistors, such as bipolar transistors. As another example, whereas the embodiment for circuit  114  illustrates two diode-connected transistors in series with each photodetector, other embodiments may use a different number of diode-connected transistors. Other embodiments may use other types of differential amplifiers in place of the differential amplifier represented by transistor pair  112   a  and  112   b , resistors  124   a  and  124   b , and tail current transistor  126 . For example, some embodiments may employ active devices in place of resistors  124   a  and  124   b , where such active devices have a relatively wide range linear impedance response, or other embodiments may employ a different configuration of transistors to provide the tail current provided by transistor  126 . 
     Accordingly, pixel  112  may be represented by the functional blocks indicated in  FIG. 5 . Referring to  FIG. 5 , optical filter  112   a  has a first passband to pass to optical detector  502   a  light that has been filtered by the first passband. The combination of optical detector  502   a  and logarithmic circuit  504   a  provides a voltage to differential amplifier indicative of the logarithm of the light intensity provided to optical detector  502   a . Similar remarks apply to optical filter  112   b , optical detector  502   b , and logarithmic circuit  504   b , but where optical filter  112   b  has a second passband different tuned to a different frequency spectrum from that of the first passband. The output of differential amplifier  506  is indicative of the logarithm of the ratio of the light intensities provided to optical detectors  502   a  and  502   b.    
     Given an array of voltage signals, each voltage signal indicative of the logarithm of the ratio of the sample light amplitude to the reference light amplitude for a particular pair of wells from the assay array, embodiments may use an adaptive neural network to classify the voltage signals. Classification may be viewed as pattern recognition. Some embodiments may employ an adaptive neural network structure such as that illustrated in  FIG. 2 , where the layer of neurons  202  is a layer of input neurons and the layer of neurons  204  is a layer of output neurons. Input neurons  202  pass on their input to the next layer of neurons, neurons  204 , where neurons  204  perform processing on their input. 
     Shown in  FIG. 2  is an enlarged view of a neuron  204 , indicating a summation function Σ using weights {w i , i=1, 2, . . . , M}, and a transfer function A. The integer M denotes the number of inputs to neuron  204 , which for the embodiment of  FIG. 2  is the number of input neurons  202 . Denoting the inputs to neuron  204  as {x i , i=1, 2, . . . , M}, the summation function provides an intermediate term h where
 
h=Σ i=1   M w i x i .
 
The weights depend upon the particular output neuron performing the summation, but to avoid multiple subscripts this dependency is not explicitly indicated. For some embodiments, a bias term b may be used, where
 
 h=Σ   i=1   M   w   i   x   i   −b,  
 
where the bias term depends upon the particular output neuron.
 
     The intermediate term h is fed as input to the transfer function A to provide an output y, where in general y=A(h). For some embodiments, A(h) may take the following form: 
               A   ⁡     (   h   )       =             (     1   +     exp   ⁡     (     -   h     )         )       -   1             h   &lt;   2                 -   α     ⁢           ⁢     ln   ⁡     (     β   ⁡     (     δ   -   h     )       )                 -   2     ≤   h   &lt;   0               α   ⁢           ⁢     ln   ⁡     (     β   ⁡     (     δ   +   h     )       )               0   ≤   h   &lt;   2                 (     1   +     exp   ⁡     (     -   h     )         )       -   1             2   ≤   h                 
where α, β, and δ are constants. As a particular example for some embodiments, the values α=0.050095635, β=1000, and δ=0.01 have been used in experiments. Sometimes, the transfer function is referred to as an activation function, which is the motivation for using the notation A.
 
     The particular transfer function described above may be termed a sigmoid-logarithmic transfer function, or piece-wise sigmoid-logarithmic transfer function. This is to be distinguished from the relatively common sigmoid transfer function where A(h)=(1+exp(−h)) −1  for all h. 
     For some embodiments employing digital processing to perform the adaptive neural network function, the input voltage signals to input neurons  202  are quantized by one or more analog-to-digital converters so that input neurons  202  and output neurons  204  operate in the digital domain. However, other embodiments may be mixed-signal systems, where some processing functions are performed in the analog domain, and some processing functions are performed in the digital domain. Some embodiments may be realized in which almost all functions, or all functions, are performed in the analog domain. For example, the weighted summation performed by a neuron, as well as the transfer function, may be performed in the analog domain using analog multiplier circuits and analog summation circuits. 
     For some embodiments, the adaptive neural network may comprise more than one processing layer, so that there are hidden layers. For example, illustrated in  FIG. 3  is an adaptive neural network with two input neurons (layer  301 ), a hidden layer with three neurons (layer  302 ), and an output layer with two neurons (layer  303 ), where neuron  302 ′ is a neuron in hidden layer  302  with transfer function A, and neuron  303 ′ is an output neuron in layer  303  with transfer function A. The adaptive neural network illustrated in  FIG. 3  is a feedforward network because there are no feedback paths from a neuron in one layer to another neuron in a preceding layer. Some embodiments, for example, may include feedback paths from layer  303  to layer  302  to implement a recursive adaptive neural network. 
     In  FIG. 3 , the inputs are represented by x 1  and x 2 . These are provided as inputs to the hidden layer  302 , such as for example neuron  302 ′. For neuron  302 ′, it is understood that the summation operation operates on two inputs (i.e., the inputs x 1  and x 2 ). The output of any one neuron in hidden layer  302  is provided as an input to all neurons in output layer  303 . The output of neuron  302 ′ is denoted as x i ′, where the index i=1, 2, 3 corresponds to neurons  302   a ,  302   b , and  302   c , respectively. This output is provided as one of three inputs to each neuron in output layer  303 , such as neuron  303 ′. It is understood that the summation sign in neuron  303 ′ operates on three inputs (i.e., x 1 ′, x 2 ′, and x 3 ′). For some embodiments, the transfer function A may be that as described in the previously displayed expressions for A. The transfer function need not be the same for each layer, but for ease of discussion, the same symbol A is used for neurons in the hidden layer and in the output layer. 
     During training of an adaptive neural network, a training set of input data is provided, and the weights (and perhaps biases) are updated based upon some desired output and criterion of goodness. For example, suppose for an adaptive neural network there is a set of input variables {x 1 , x, . . . , x N } and a set of output variables {y 1 , y 2 , . . . , y N }. It is convenient to define an input vector variable {right arrow over (x)}=(x 1 , x, . . . , x N ) and an output vector variable {right arrow over (y)}=(y 1 , y 2 , . . . , y N ). It is also convenient to define particular realizations of these vectors, where we define input vectors {right arrow over (x)}(i)=(x(i) 1 , x(i), . . . , x(i) N ) and output vectors {right arrow over (y)}(i)=(y(i) 1 , y(i), . . . , y(i) N ), with the index i denoting a particular realization. For example, {{right arrow over (x)}(i), i=1, 2, . . . , T} may represent T input training data vectors and {{right arrow over (y)}(i), i=1, 2, . . . , T} may represent the resulting T output vectors given by an adaptive neural network for some given set of weights (and also perhaps for some given set of biases). For ease of notation, the dependency of the output vectors on the set of weights (and perhaps biases) is not shown. 
     During training, for each {right arrow over (x)}(i) there is a corresponding desired response vector {right arrow over (d)}(i). For example, suppose the pattern recognition function performed by an adaptive neural network is to map the input into one of two classes. That is, there are two patterns to recognize. For a particular example in which there are two output neurons so that the dimension of {right arrow over (y)} is N=2, the desired response may be taken as {right arrow over (d)}(i)=(10) if {right arrow over (x)}(i) belongs to one of the two classes, and {right arrow over (d)}(i)=(0 1) if {right arrow over (x)}(i) belongs to the other one of the two classes. A criterion of goodness may be to find the set of weights (and perhaps biases) that minimize the sum of errors e(i) over the training set {{right arrow over (x)}(i), i=1, 2, . . . , T}, where e(i)=∥{right arrow over (y)}(i)−{right arrow over (d)}(i)∥. 
     For arbitrarily dimensioned vectors and desired responses, the above-described minimization is a well known mathematical problem, and various mathematical techniques for finding the set of weights (and biases) that satisfy the criterion of goodness are well known. For example, the method of steepest descents may be used, which may be used in conjunction with the error back-propagation neural network learning algorithm, well known in the art of adaptive neural networks. 
     For an adaptive neural network with a sigmoid-logarithmic transfer function as discussed previously, some embodiments may utilize the back-propagation algorithm for training as follows. First, train the adaptive neural network using a sigmoid transfer function until some criterion of goodness is satisfied. For example, some set of training input vectors {{right arrow over (x)}(i), i=1, 2, . . . , T), desired responses ({right arrow over (d)}(i), i=1, 2, . . . , T}, and threshold A is selected, where the initial set of weights are chosen randomly. The back-propagation algorithm is run until Σ i=1   T e(i)&lt;Λ is satisfied. Second, use the resulting weights as an initial set of weights for another training set (which may or may not be different from the first training set), but now where the sigmoid-logarithmic transfer function is used in the back-propagation algorithm. 
     Once the adaptive neural network has been trained, it may then be operated with static weights (pattern recognition mode) to perform pattern recognition. Post processing may be applied to the output vector from the output neurons. For some embodiments, a winner-take-all module may be applied, whereby the output neuron with the largest output is chosen as the winner. Some embodiments may perform a multiple winner-take-all module, whereby the next “highest” neuron after the winner is selected, and so on for other neurons. The final outcome (result) of the adaptive neural network may be represented by some L bit number, where L=[log 2  (N)], denoting the selected neuron, where the bracket denotes the smallest integer larger than or equal to log 2  (N). 
     Some embodiments may perform signal processing algorithms other than those described previously. For example, note that the sum h=Σ i=1   M w i x i  may be viewed as an inner product of a weight vector {right arrow over (w)}=(w 1 , w 2 , . . . , w M ) with the input vector {right arrow over (x)}. The weight vector {right arrow over (w)} may also be referred to as a codevector. For some embodiments, a processing neuron finds the square of the Euclidian distance, denoted as d, between an input vector {right arrow over (x)} and a codevector {right arrow over (w)}, that is, d({right arrow over (x)}, {right arrow over (w)})=∥{right arrow over (x)}−{right arrow over (w)}∥ 2 . The function d may be termed a distortion. It is passed on as input to the transfer function. That is, the output of the neuron employing a distortion measure is A(d). For such embodiments in which the distortion is calculated, the winning neuron will have a minimum output. Alternatively, the output may be taken as 1/A(d), so that the winning neuron will have a maximum output. 
     The weights in the weight vector {right arrow over (w)}=(w 1 , w 2 , . . . , w M ) are sometimes also referred to as synapse weights. The processing of {right arrow over (x)}·{right arrow over (w)} or d({right arrow over (x)}, {right arrow over (w)})=∥{right arrow over (x)}−{right arrow over (w)}∥ 2  may be considered as part of a synapse cell, where the neuron cell involves applying the transfer function to the result of the synapse cell. However, there is no conceptual difference whether or not the synapse cell function is considered part of a neuron cell, or is separated out from the neuron cell, although there may be implementation differences in realizing the processing in hardware. 
     Some embodiments may perform processing other than the inner product {right arrow over (x)}. {right arrow over (w)} or the distortion d({right arrow over (x)}, {right arrow over (w)})=∥{right arrow over (x)}−{right arrow over (w)}∥ 2 , so that more generally, some embodiments may pass on to a neuron some value ƒ({right arrow over (x)}, {right arrow over (w)}) where ƒ is some function mapping two vectors into a number. 
     Furthermore, some embodiments may employ a learning function other than a conventional back-propagation algorithm commonly used in adaptive neural networks. For example, some embodiments may perform the following processing operations during the learning mode of an adaptive neural network. 
     Index the weight vectors (codevectors) as {right arrow over (w)} i  where the index i refers to the neuron (or synapse cell if that terminology is being used). Furthermore, it is useful to add another index to {right arrow over (w)} i  to designate a particular learning iteration, where {right arrow over (w)} i (t) refers to the codevector for neuron i at iteration t. 
     Associate with each neuron i a winning frequency f i . It is also convenient to index f i  according to the iteration index, so that f i (t) refers to the winning frequency for neuron i at iteration index t. Following the convention that t=0 for the first iteration, initialize {right arrow over (w)} i (0) by choosing them from a set of random (or pseudorandom) numbers. Set f i ( 0 )=1 for each i. 
     Compute the distortion d i (t) (we have also indexed d according to the neuron index and the iteration index) where d i (t)=d({right arrow over (w)} i (t),{right arrow over (x)} i (t)) for each neuron (note that we have also indexed the input vector {right arrow over (x)} to refer to neuron i and the iteration index.) Select the neuron with the smallest distortion and set its output, denoted as O i (t), as follows (a value of 1 is considered high): O i (t)=1 if d i (t)&lt;d j (t), for 1≦i, j≦N, and O i (t)=1 otherwise (there are N neurons). Update the weight vectors (codevectors) with the following frequency-sensitive training rule and associated winning frequency: {right arrow over (w)} i (t+1)={right arrow over (w)} i (t)+S(t)O i (t)[{right arrow over (x)} i (t)−{right arrow over (w)} i (t)]; where S(t)=1/f i (t) if 1≦f i (t)≦f TH , and S(t)=0 otherwise; and f i (t+1)=f i (t)+O i (t). S(t) is the frequency-sensitive learning rate, and f TH  is the upper-threshold frequency. Notice that only the winning codevector is updated. The training rule moves the winning codevector toward the training vector by a fractional amount which decreases as the winning frequency increases. If f i (t) is larger than f TH , then S(t) is set to zero and no further training will be performed for the corresponding neuron. 
     The above operations are performed for the set of training vectors. Use of the upper-threshold frequency may avoid codevector under-utilization during the training process for an inadequately chosen initial codebook of codevectors. The selection of the upper-threshold frequency is heuristic and depends on source data statistics and the training sequence. Empirically, an adequate f TH  may be chosen to be two to three times larger than the average winning frequency. The initial codebooks may be created from a pseudorandom number generation function. 
     A feedforward adaptive neural network is amenable to a parallel processing architecture because all of the neurons in any one layer may process data concurrently. If the functionality of providing the inner product, distortion function, or other types of functions involving the weight vector and input vector to a neuron is to be separated out from the neuron and realized by separate circuits, e.g., the synapses as discussed previously, then the previous sentence should be modified to indicate that the synapses for a layer also may process data concurrently. Furthermore, for multiple layers in a feedforward adaptive neural network, there may be further concurrency in the sense that one or more layers (of neurons and synapses) may be processing in a pipelined fashion. As a result, an adaptive neural network is suitable for a VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) circuit that takes advantage of concurrent (parallel) processing. 
     The functional blocks of VLSI circuit  401  according to an embodiment are illustrated in  FIG. 4 . The analog voltage signals from the differential logarithmic amplifiers (e.g., the circuit illustrated in  FIG. 1 ) are provided at input port  402 . These analog signals are provided to sample and hold  404 . Host Processor  406  provides several functions to VLSI circuit  401 . For example, host processor provides weight vectors to sample and hold  408 . These weight vectors may be the weight vectors obtained after the adaptive neural network has been trained, in which case they are provided to synapse weight matrix unit  410 ; or they may be the weight vectors that are used for training during a learning mode, in which case they are provided to synapse weight matrix  412 . During learning, a training set is provided to input port  402 . The term matrix is used in the description for functional units  410  and  412  because the weight vectors may be considered rows (or columns) of a matrix. 
     Note that for the embodiment of  FIG. 4 , VLSI circuit performs much of the learning algorithm, so that the parallel processing available from functional units  410 ,  412 , and  420  may be utilized, in which case host process  406  performs some non-parallel learning functions and data-flow control. For some embodiments, all or some of the functions provided by host processor  406  may be integrated on VLSI circuit  401 . 
     Control lines  413  allow host processor  406  to select the sources of input vectors to VLSI circuit  401 , and whether weight matrix  410  (pattern recognition mode) or  412  (adaptive or learning mode) are used to store the weight vectors. For example, for some embodiments, if for control lines  413  “IV” (mnemonic for “input vector”) is set to a logic 0 (a LOW digital signal value), then the input vector is from the host processor; whereas if “IV” is set to a logic 1 (a HIGH digital signal value), then the input vector is from sensor array  110 , that is, the analog output of the differential logarithmic amplifier in circuit  114 . If for control lines  413  “WV” (mnemonic for “weight vector”) is set to a logic 1, then weight matrix  410  is selected to store weight vectors loaded from host processor  406 . These weight vectors are those that are obtained after the learning algorithm has been performed, so that the adaptive neural network is operating in its pattern recognition mode; or they may be the desired response vectors d(i) used in a supervisory learning algorithm when the neural network is operating in its adaptive or (supervisory) learning mode. 
     The particular weight vector in functional units  410  and  412  for a neuron is addressed by address decoders  414  and  416 , where the particular address is provided by host processor  406  by way of vector address bus (lines)  417 . Input neurons  418  provides the analog input vector to either synapse weight matrix  410  or  412 , depending upon whether the adaptive neural network is in a learning mode or a pattern recognition mode. The latter may be termed an encoding mode, in the sense that an input vector is encoded into a recognizable class. Functional units  410  or  412  perform the synapse function, where for the previously described embodiments may involve forming the inner product of the weight vectors with input vectors, or calculating the distortions. These results are passed to functional unit  420 . 
     Functional unit  420  performs the neuron functions discussed previously, that is, functional unit  420  applies the transfer function to the synapse result. The particular transfer function is selectable. For example, the transfer function may be a sigmoid function, or a sigmoid-logarithm as discussed previously. The outputs of these neurons are provided to functional unit  422 , which performs a winner-take-all function, or perhaps selects one among the top several neurons. This result may be encoded into a binary number, provided at output port  424 . 
     Sensor array  110 , circuit  114 , and VLSI circuit  401  may be integrated on a single die (system-on-chip) for some embodiments, whereas for other embodiments these components may reside on two or more die, or comprise a multi-chip module, for example. 
     Although the subject matter has been described in language specific to structural features and methodological acts, it is to be understood that the subject matter defined in the appended claims is not necessarily limited to the specific features or acts described above. Rather, the specific features and acts described above are disclosed as example forms of implementing the claims. Accordingly, various modifications may be made to the described embodiments without departing from the scope of the invention as claimed below. 
     It is to be understood in these letters patent that the meaning of “A is connected to B”, where A or B may be, for example, a node or device terminal, is that A and B are connected to each other so that the voltage potentials of A and B are substantially equal to each other. For example, A and B may be connected together by an interconnect (transmission line). In integrated circuit technology, the interconnect may be exceedingly short, comparable to the device dimension itself. For example, the gates of two transistors may be connected together by polysilicon, or metal interconnect, where the length of the polysilicon, or metal interconnect, is comparable to the gate lengths. As another example, A and B may be connected to each other by a switch, such as a transmission gate, so that their respective voltage potentials are substantially equal to each other when the switch is ON. 
     It is also to be understood in these letters patent that the meaning of “A is coupled to B” is that either A and B are connected to each other as described above, or that, although A and B may not be connected to each other as described above, there is nevertheless a device or circuit that is connected to both A and B. This device or circuit may include active or passive circuit elements, where the passive circuit elements may be distributed or lumped-parameter in nature. For example, A may be connected to a circuit element that in turn is connected to B. 
     It is also to be understood in these letters patent that a “current source” may mean either a current source or a current sink. Similar remarks apply to similar phrases, such as, “to source current”. 
     It is also to be understood in these letters patent that various circuit components and blocks, such as current mirrors, amplifiers, etc., may include switches so as to be switched in or out of a larger circuit, and yet such circuit components and blocks may still be considered connected to the larger circuit. 
     Throughout the description of the embodiments, various mathematical relationships are used to describe relationships among one or more quantities. For example, a mathematical relationship or mathematical transformation may express a relationship by which a quantity is derived from one or more other quantities by way of various mathematical operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc. Or, a mathematical relationship may indicate that a quantity is larger, smaller, or equal to another quantity. These relationships and transformations are in practice not satisfied exactly, and should therefore be interpreted as “designed for” relationships and transformations. One of ordinary skill in the art may design various working embodiments to satisfy various mathematical relationships or transformations, but these relationships or transformations can only be met within the tolerances of the technology available to the practitioner. 
     Accordingly, in the following claims, it is to be understood that claimed mathematical relationships or transformations can in practice only be met within the tolerances or precision of the technology available to the practitioner, and that the scope of the claimed subject matter includes those embodiments that substantially satisfy the mathematical relationships or transformations so claimed.