Patent Publication Number: US-2022220479-A1

Title: Modulators of telomere disease

Description:
CLAIM OF PRIORITY 
     This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/768,424, filed Apr. 13, 2018, which is the 371 U.S. National Phase Application of PCT/US2016/057409, filed Oct. 17, 2016, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/242,970, filed on Oct. 16, 2015, U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/308,427, filed on Mar. 15, 2016, and is a continuation-in-part of PCT Application PCT/US2016/057229 filed on Oct. 14, 2016. The entire contents of the foregoing are incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
     This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. R01 DK107716-01 and T32 HL007574 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The disclosure relates to treating and diagnosing telomere diseases. 
     BACKGROUND 
     A telomere is a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromosome, which protects the end of the chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighboring chromosomes. The length of a telomere is a key determinant of cellular self-renewal capacity. The telomerase ribonucleoprotein maintains telomere length in tissue stem cells, and its function is critical for human health and longevity. 
     Short telomeres, due to genetic or acquired insults, cause a loss of cellular self-renewal and result in life-threatening diseases, for which there are few if any effective medical therapies. In these diseases involving short telomeres, e.g., aplastic anemia, pulmonary fibrosis, hepatic cirrhosis, bone marrow failure, etc., there is an unmet clinical need for new therapies. 
     SUMMARY 
     The disclosure is based, in part, on the discovery that poly(A) ribonuclease (PARN) mutations can result in the accumulation of 3′ oligo-adenylated forms of nascent Telomerase RNA Component (TERC) RNA transcripts, which are targeted for destruction, thus causing telomerase deficiency and telomere diseases, and disruption of the non-canonical poly(A) polymerase PAP Associated Domain Containing 5 (PAPD5; also known as Topoisomerase-related function protein 4-2 (TRF4-2)) restores TERC levels, telomerase activity, and telomere elongation in PARN-mutant patient cells. 
     In one aspect, the disclosure relates to methods of treating a disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction in a subject. The methods include the steps of identifying the subject as having a disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction; and administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising an agent that decreases the level or activity of PAP Associated Domain Containing 5 (PAPD5), thereby treating the disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction in the subject. 
     In some embodiments, the disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction is dyskeratosis congenital, aplastic anemia, pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, hematological disorder, or hepatic disease. 
     In some embodiments, the agent increases the level or activity of telomerase RNA component (TERC). 
     In some embodiments, the agent can be a PAPD5 inhibitor. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is an anti-PAPD5 antibody or anti-PAPD5 antibody fragment. The agent can also be an antisense molecule or a small interfering nucleic acid which is specific for a nucleic acid encoding PAPD5. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is a shRNA. The shRNA can have a sequence that is selected from the group of SEQ ID NOs: 79-83. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is an aminoglycoside or a nucleoside analogue. 
     The agent can be a vector comprising guide RNAs (gRNAs) that target PAPD5 for CRISPR/Cas9, wherein CRISPR/Cas9 creates null mutations in PAPD5, thereby decreasing the level of PAPD5. The guide RNA can have a sequence that is selected from the group of SEQ ID NO: 84, 86, and 88. 
     In some embodiments, the agent includes a fusion protein or a nucleic acid encoding the fusion protein, wherein the fusion protein comprises an DNA-binding domain that binds to PAPD5, and a catalytic domain, wherein the catalytic domain decreases the expression level of PAPD5. 
     In some embodiments, the methods further include the steps of administering to the subject an agent that increases the level or activity of Poly(A) specific ribonuclease (PARN). 
     The present disclosure also provides methods of treating a disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction in a subject. The methods include the steps of identifying the subject as having a disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction; and administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising an agent that increases the level or activity of PARN, thereby treating the disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction in the subject. The disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction can be dyskeratosis congenital, aplastic anemia, pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, hematological disorder, or hepatic disease. 
     In some embodiments, the agent increases the level or activity of TERC. The agent can be a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes PARN. 
     In some embodiments, the agent includes a fusion protein or a nucleic acid encoding the fusion protein, wherein the fusion protein comprises an DNA-binding domain that targets PARN, and a catalytic domain, wherein the catalytic domain increases the expression level of PARN. 
     In some embodiments, the methods further include the step of administering to the subject an agent that decreases the level or activity of PAPD5. 
     In another aspect, the disclosure provides methods of treating cancer in a subject. The methods include the steps of identifying the subject as having a cancer; and administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising an agent that increases the level or activity of PAPD5, thereby treating the cancer in the subject. 
     In some embodiments, the agent decreases the level or activity of TERC. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes PAPD5. 
     In some embodiments, the agent includes a fusion protein or a nucleic acid encoding the fusion protein, wherein the fusion protein comprises an DNA-binding domain that binds to PAPD5, and a catalytic domain, wherein the catalytic domain increases the expression level of PAPD5. 
     In some embodiments, the methods further include the step of administering to the subject an agent that decreases the level or activity of PARN. 
     In some embodiments, the agent that decreases the level or activity of PARN is an anti-PARN antibody or anti-PARN antibody fragment. 
     In some embodiments, the agent that decreases the level or activity of PARN is an antisense molecule or a small interfering nucleic acid which is specific for a nucleic acid encoding PARN. 
     In some embodiments, the agent that decreases the level or activity of PARN is a shRNA. The shRNA can have a sequence that is selected from the group of SEQ ID NO: 74 and SEQ ID NO: 75. 
     In some embodiments, the agent that decreases the level or activity of PARN is an aminoglycoside or a nucleoside analogue. 
     In some embodiments, the agent that decreases the level or activity of PARN is a vector comprising guide RNAs (gRNAs) that targets PARN, wherein CRISPR/Cas9 creates null mutations in PARN, thereby decreasing the level of PARN. The gRNA that targets PARN can have a sequence that is selected from the group of SEQ ID NOs: 90, 92, and 94. 
     The present disclosure also provides methods of treating a subject having a disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction. The methods include the steps of identifying the subject as having a mutation at PARN; and administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition that alters the level or activity of Telomerase RNA Component (TERC), thereby treating the disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction in the subject. 
     The mutation can be a deletion in PARN. In some embodiments, the amino acid residue at position 87 of PARN in the subject is not serine. In some embodiments, the amino acid residue at position 7 of PARN in the subject is not asparagine. 
     In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition has a nucleotide acid that encodes PARN. 
     In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) associated protein 9 (Cas9) protein, or DNA or RNA encoding Cas9; a guide RNA that target PARN locus, or a vector that encodes guide RNA; and a nucleic acid sequence that encodes PARN without the mutation. 
     The present disclosure also provides methods of identifying an agent for modulating the level or activity of TERC. The methods include the steps of contacting a cell with a test agent; determining the level or activity of TERC in the cell; comparing the level or activity of TERC in the cell to a reference level or activity; and identifying the test agent as an agent that modulates the level or activity of TERC if the level or activity of TERC in the cell is significantly different from the reference level or activity. 
     In some embodiments, the reference level or activity is the level or activity of TERC in a cell that has not been treated with the test agent. 
     In some embodiments, the test agent is a nucleic acid, a vector comprising a nucleic acid, a small molecule, an antibody, an antibody fragment, an aminoglycoside, or a nucleoside analogue. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is a modulator of PARN, or a modulator of PAPD5. 
     In some embodiments, the cell is an induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cell or a primary human cell. In some embodiments, the cell is derived from skin, bone marrow, or blood. In some embodiments, the cell is derived from a subject having or suspected of having a disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction. The disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction can be dyskeratosis congenital, aplastic anemia, pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, hematological disorder, or hepatic disease. 
     In another aspect, the disclosure provides methods of identifying a candidate agent for modulating the level or activity of TERC. The methods include the steps of contacting a cell with a test agent; determining that the test agent modulates the level or activity of PARN or PAPD5; and identifying the test agent as a candidate agent that modulates the level or activity of TERC. 
     In some embodiments, the test agent is a nucleic acid, a vector comprising a nucleic acid, a small molecule, an antibody, an antibody fragment, an aminoglycoside or a nucleoside analogue. 
     In some embodiments, the test agent binds to PARN or binds to PAPD5. 
     In some embodiments, the cell is an induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cell or a primary human cell. In some embodiments, the cell is derived from skin, bone marrow, or blood. The cell can also be derived from a subject having or suspected of having a disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction. The disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction can be dyskeratosis congenital, aplastic anemia, pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, hematological disorder, or hepatic disease. 
     In one aspect, the disclosure provides methods of identifying a subject as having a disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction. The methods include the steps of determining the level or activity of TERC, PARN, or PAPD5 in a cell from the subject; comparing the level or activity of TERC, PARN, or PAPD5 to the reference level or reference activity of TERC, PARN, or PAPD5, respectively; and identifying the subject as having a disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction if the level or activity of TERC, PARN, or PAPD5 is significantly different from the reference level or activity of TERC, PARN, or PAPD5, respectively. 
     The disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction can be, e.g., dyskeratosis congenital, aplastic anemia, pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, hematological disorder, or hepatic disease. 
     The level or activity of TERC is determined by the level of TERC RNA in the cell, by the telomere size in the cell, and/or by the telomerase activity in the cell. 
     In another aspect, the disclosure provides methods of treating a subject having a disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction. The methods include the steps of identifying the subject as having a mutation at PARN; and treating the subject for the disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction. 
     The disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction can be dyskeratosis congenital, aplastic anemia, pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, hematological disorder, or hepatic disease. 
     In some embodiments, the mutation is a deletion in PARN. In some embodiments, the amino acid residue at position 87 of PARN in the subject is not serine. In some embodiments, the amino acid residue at position 7 of PARN in the subject is not asparagine. 
     The present disclosure also provides methods of killing or inhibiting the proliferation of a cancer cell. The methods include the steps of contacting the cancer cell with an effective amount of an agent that increases the level or activity of PAPD5, thereby killing or inhibiting the proliferation of the cancer cell. 
     In some embodiments, the agent decreases the level or activity of TERC. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes PAPD5. 
     In some embodiments, the agent includes a fusion protein or a nucleic acid encoding the fusion protein, wherein the fusion protein comprises an DNA-binding domain that binds to PAPD5, and a catalytic domain, wherein the catalytic domain increases the expression level of PAPD5. 
     In some embodiments, the methods further include the step of contacting the cancer cell with an agent that decreases the level or activity of PARN. The agent that decreases the level or activity of PARN can be an anti-PARN antibody, anti-PARN antibody fragment, an antisense molecule or a small interfering nucleic acid which is specific for a nucleic acid encoding PARN. 
     In some embodiments, the agent that decreases the level or activity of PARN is a shRNA. The shRNA can have a sequence that is selected from the group of SEQ ID NO: 74 and SEQ ID NO: 75. 
     In some embodiments, the agent that decreases the level or activity of PARN is an aminoglycoside or a nucleoside analogue. 
     In some embodiments, the agent that decreases the level or activity of PARN is a vector comprising guide RNAs (gRNAs) that targets PARN, wherein CRISPR/Cas9 creates null mutations in PARN, thereby decreasing the level of PARN. The gRNA can have a sequence that is selected from the group of SEQ ID NOs: 90, 92, and 94. 
     In some embodiments, the aminoglycoside is kanamycin B sulfate, pramycin sulfate, spectinomycin dihydrochloride pentahydrate, ribostamycin sulfate, sisomicin sulfate, amikacin disulfide, dihydrostreptomycin sesquisulfate, hygromycin B, netilmicin sulfate, paromomycin sulfate, kasugamycin, neomycin, gentamicin, tobramycin sulfate, streptomycin sulfate, or neomycin B. 
     In one aspect, the disclosure relates to methods of treating a disorder associated with aging in a subject, or at least one symptom associated with such a disorder. The methods include the steps of identifying the subject as having a disorder associated with aging; and administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising an agent that decreases the level or activity of PAP Associated Domain Containing 5 (PAPD5), thereby treating the disorder associated with aging, or at least one symptom associated with such a disorder, in the subject. 
     In some embodiments, the disorder associated with aging is macular degeneration, diabetes mellitus, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, sarcopenia, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, ischemia/reperfusion injury, cancer, premature death, or age-related decline in cognitive function, cardiopulmonary function, muscle strength, vision, or hearing. 
     In some embodiments, the disorder associated with aging is a neurodegenerative disorder. 
     In some embodiment, the agent increases the level or activity of telomerase RNA component (TERC). In some embodiments, the agent is a PAPD5 inhibitor. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is an anti-PAPD5 antibody or anti-PAPD5 antibody fragment. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is an antisense molecule or a small interfering nucleic acid which is specific for a nucleic acid encoding PAPD5. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is a shRNA. In some embodiments, the shRNA can have a sequence that is selected from the group of SEQ ID NOs: 79-83. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is an aminoglycoside or a nucleoside analogue. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is a vector including guide RNAs (gRNAs) that target PAPD5 for CRISPR/Cas9, wherein CRISPR/Cas9 creates null mutations in PAPD5, thereby decreasing the level of PAPD5. 
     In some embodiments, the guide RNA has a sequence that is selected from the group of SEQ ID NO: 84, 86, and 88. 
     In some embodiments, the agent includes a fusion protein or a nucleic acid encoding the fusion protein, wherein the fusion protein comprises an DNA-binding domain that binds to PAPD5, and a catalytic domain, wherein the catalytic domain decreases the expression level of PAPD5. 
     In some embodiments, the methods further include the step of administering to the subject an agent that increases the level or activity of Poly(A) specific ribonuclease (PARN). 
     In one aspect, the disclosure relates to methods of treating a disorder associated with aging, or at least one symptom associated with such a disorder, in a subject. The methods include the steps of identifying the subject as having a disorder associated with aging; and administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising an agent that increases the level or activity of PARN, thereby treating the disorder associated with aging, or at least one symptom associated with such a disorder, in the subject. 
     In some embodiments, the disorder associated with aging is macular degeneration, diabetes mellitus, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, sarcopenia, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, ischemia/reperfusion injury, cancer, premature death, age-related decline in cognitive function, cardiopulmonary function, muscle strength, vision, or hearing. 
     In some embodiments, the disorder associated with aging is a neurodegenerative disorder. 
     In some embodiments, the agent increases the level or activity of TERC. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence that encodes PARN. 
     In some embodiments, the agent includes a fusion protein or a nucleic acid encoding the fusion protein, wherein the fusion protein comprises an DNA-binding domain that targets PARN, and a catalytic domain, wherein the catalytic domain increases the expression level of PARN. 
     In some embodiments, the methods further include the step of administering to the subject an agent that decreases the level or activity of PAPD5. 
     In one aspect the present disclosure provides a method of identifying a candidate compound for the treatment of telomere disease. In some embodiments, the method comprises providing a first isolated cell; contacting it with a test compound to determine Telomerase RNA Component (TERC) levels in the cell; comparing the TERC level in the cell to a reference level; to then select a candidate compound that is associated with altered TERC level. In some embodiments, the test compound is a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the test compound is a vector comprising a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the test compound is a nucleic acid that encodes an RNA. In some embodiments, the test compound is a nucleic acid that encodes a fusion protein. In some embodiments, the test compound is a small molecule. In some embodiments, the cell is contacted with a test compound comprising a nucleic acid encoding a specific protein, e.g., PARN. In some embodiments, the cell is contacted with a test compound comprising a nucleic acid encoding a specific protein, e.g., TRF4-2 (also known as PAPD5). In yet other instances, the test compound is a vector comprising a nucleic acid and the cell is contacted with the vector construct comprising a nucleic acid. 
     In some embodiments, the test compound can be a test nucleic acid, e.g., short hairpin RNA. In some embodiments, the test compound is a small molecule, e.g., modulates TRF4-2. 
     In some embodiments, the test compound is an isolated cDNA fragment e.g., PARN cDNA. In some embodiments, the test compound modulates topoisomerase-related function protein 4-2 (TRF4-2). In some embodiments, the test compound can bind to TRF4-2. In some embodiments, the test compound modulates TERC activity. In yet other instances, the modulation by the test compound is at the level of gene expression, e.g., TERC. In yet other instances, the modulation is at the level of activity, e.g., telomerase activity. Modulation by the test compound can be at the level of protein expression, e.g., telomerase, TERC, TRF4-2 or PARN. Modulation by the test compound can be at the level of telomere size or maturity. Modulation by the test compound can be at the level of altering telomere ends. In some embodiments, a test compound contacted with an isolated cell, can also be used to identify a candidate compound to treat a patient. 
     In some embodiments, the test compound modulates mature TERC species. In some embodiments, test compounds can alter specific RNA species, e.g., TERC, but not a housekeeping gene. 
     In some embodiments, a test compound can be administered in a high dose. The subject can be a patient or a cell isolated from a patient having a disease. In some embodiments, the test compound is administered to a iPS cell. In some embodiments, the test compound is administered to a iPS cell derived from patient&#39;s skin. In some embodiments, the test compound is administered to a iPS cell derived from patient&#39;s tumor. 
     In some embodiments, the test compound modulates TERC levels in the IPS cells. In some embodiments, the test compound modulates telomerase activity and also modulates telomere size. In some embodiments, the test compound promotes accumulation of mature RNA, e.g., TERC. In some embodiments, test compounds can alter specific RNA species, e.g., TERC, but not a housekeeping gene. 
     In some embodiments, the cell is an isolated human cell. In some embodiments, the cell is derived from a patient&#39;s skin. In some embodiments, the isolated human cell is derived from a patient&#39;s bone marrow. In some embodiments, the cell is an isolated human cell and is derived from a patient&#39;s blood. 
     In some embodiments, the cell used to contact a compound is an isolated human cell that is derived from a patient having telomere disease. In some embodiments, the patient is suspected of having telomere disease. In some embodiments, the patient has symptoms of aplastic anemia. In some embodiments, the patient is diagnosed as having telomere deficiency. 
     In some embodiments, the patient has a mutation of a locus, e.g., PARN locus. In some embodiments, the patient has a deletion in a locus, e.g., PARN. In some embodiments, the patient has symptoms of hepatic cirrhosis. 
     In some embodiments, the patient has symptoms of pulmonary fibrosis. In some embodiments, the patient has dyskeratosis congenita (DC). In some embodiments, the cell is isolated from a patient having or suspected of having a hematological disorder. In some embodiments, the isolated cell is from a patient having or suspected of having dyskeratosis congenita. In some embodiments, the isolated cell is screened in the presence of a test compound comprising at least one of the following agents: a nucleic acid, a small molecule or an antibody. In some embodiments, the test compound is a vector. 
     Vectors include viral vectors and can comprise nucleic acid. Exemplary vectors also include plasmid vectors that comprise nucleic acids that encode proteins, e.g., PARN. 
     In some embodiments, the method of screening can be performed in an isolated cell, e.g., human cell, obtained from a patient having or suspected of having a hematological disorder. 
     In some embodiments, the methods disclosed herein also involve identifying compounds that treat telomere deficiency. In some embodiments, the method comprises a primary human cell isolated from a patient who has an altered poly(A)-specific ribonuclease locus. An instant method also includes contacting the isolated cell, e.g., an iPS cell, with a compound that modulates telomere size. 
     In some embodiments, the method includes a comparison of an altered level or activity of Topoisomerase-Related Function Protein 4-2 (TRF4-2) in a human cell to determine the TRF4-2 protein expression. In some embodiments, the test compound that alters the level of TRF4-2 can be a small molecule. In some embodiments, the test compound can be a modulator of TRF4-2 binding. In some embodiments, the cell can be a fibroblast cell. In some embodiments, the cell can be any human cells, e.g., tumor cell. The cell can be isolated from a patient and converted to an iPS cell. In some embodiments, an iPS cell is used to contact a test compound to detect TERC levels in the cells. The test compound modulates by inhibition or by increasing expression, e.g., RNA or protein. The expression or activity of a RNA, e.g., TERC can be modulated by using a test compound that inhibits TRF4-2. In some embodiments, the compound used to contact a cell, also alters TERC processing. In some embodiments, the compound that alters TRF4-2 in a cell, also alters mature TERC levels in the cell. The compound can be an inhibitory nucleic acid, e.g., shRNA or an isolated cDNA e.g., PARN cDNA. In some embodiments, the compound can alter specifically TRF4-2 RNA, without altering any housekeeping RNA e.g., beta actin or GAPDH. In some embodiments, the compound can alter specifically PARN RNA/protein levels, without altering any housekeeping RNA, e.g., beta actin or GAPDH. Exemplary test compounds can be vector constructs, e.g., viral vector comprising a nucleic acid encoding a protein. 
     In one aspect, the present disclosure relates to methods for identifying a candidate compound for altering telomerase activity. In some embodiments, the method includes a cell with PARN deficiency, e.g., human cell with a PARN gene alteration. In some embodiments, the cell can be an iPS cell. In some embodiments, the cell can be obtained from a human tissue, e.g., a tumor. In some embodiments, the method includes a cell that is contacted with a nucleic acid comprising poly(A)-specific ribonuclease. In some embodiments, the levels of TERC and PARN in the cells are low at baseline. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid increases the level of PARN mRNA and protein. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid increases the level of TERC. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid comprising poly(A)-specific ribonuclease is an inhibitory nucleic acid that reduces the level of PARN protein. In some embodiments, the test compound alters the level or activity of poly(A)-specific ribonuclease in a human cell isolated from a patient who is suspected of having a telomere disease. 
     In one aspect, the invention discloses methods of identifying a subject as having telomere disease. The method comprises as a first step, a means to determine a level of Telomerase RNA Component (TERC) in the cell e.g., by gene expression. In some embodiments, the cell obtained from the patient is an iPS cell. 
     The methods further include comparing the level of Telomerase RNA Component (TERC) in an isolated cell to a reference level; to essentially identify a subject who has a level of TERC below the reference level, as having telomere disease. 
     In some embodiments, determining the level of TERC comprises determining the level of TERC RNA in the cell. In some embodiments, determining the level of TERC comprises determining the telomere size in the cell. In another instance, determining the level of TERC comprises determining the telomerase activity in the cell. 
     The disclosure also provides methods of treating a patient having telomere disease. The method can comprise administering to the patient an effective amount of a nucleic acid that alters the level or activity of Poly(A)-specific Ribonuclease (PARN) in an amount sufficient to alter Telomerase RNA Component (TERC) levels or telomerase activity in the patient. This method includes steps to treat the telomere disease. The steps include a treatment step. In some embodiments, the composition used in treatment is a small molecule. In some embodiments, the composition is a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the composition comprises a nucleic acid that encodes a fusion-protein. In some embodiments, the composition is a nucleic acid that encodes an RNA. In some embodiments, the composition comprises a small molecule that binds TRF4-2. In some embodiments, the composition includes a small molecule that binds PARN. 
     In yet another aspect, the disclosure provides methods of treating a patient having telomere disease, the method comprising administering to a patient an effective amount of a composition that alters the level or activity of Topoisomerase-Related Function Protein 4-2 (TRF4-2) in an amount sufficient to alter Telomerase RNA Component (TERC) levels or telomerase activity in the patient; to thereby treat the telomere disease. In some embodiments, the composition can be a small molecule. In some embodiments, the composition comprises a small molecule that binds TRF4-2. In some embodiments, the composition includes a small molecule that binds PARN. In some embodiments, the composition is a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid encodes a fusion-protein. In some embodiments, the composition is a nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the telomere disease is aplastic anemia. In some embodiments, the telomere disease is dyskeratosis congenita. In some embodiments, the telomere disease is pulmonary fibrosis or hepatic disease. In some embodiments, the composition includes a small molecule that binds TRF4-2. In some embodiments, the composition includes a small molecule that binds PARN. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid comprises an RNA. 
     In some embodiments, the method of treatment can comprise administering to the patient an RNA that alters TERC levels. 
     Also disclosed herein are methods of treating cancer in a patient. The method comprises administering to the patient a composition. In some embodiments, the composition can be a modulator of the level or activity of Poly(A)-specific Ribonuclease (PARN). In some embodiments, the composition can be a modulator of the level or activity of topoisomerase-related function protein 4-2 (TRF4-2). In some embodiments, the composition can be a modulator of the level or activity of TERC RNA. In some instance the compound alters telomere size. In some embodiments, the compound is administered in an amount sufficient to alter Telomerase RNA Component (TERC) levels in the patient, to thereby treat the cancer. In some embodiments, the compound alters telomere size. In some embodiments, the compound is administered in an amount sufficient to alter TRF4-2 levels in the patient, to thereby treat the cancer. 
     In one aspect, the present disclosure relates to methods of treating cancer in a patient. The method comprises administering to the patient a composition comprising a modulator of the level or activity of topoisomerase-related function protein 4-2 (TRF4-2) in an amount sufficient to alter Telomerase RNA Component (TERC) levels or telomerase activity in the patient, to thereby treat the cancer. In some embodiments, the composition includes a modulator that alters telomerase activity. In some embodiments, the cancer is a hematological cancer. In some embodiments, the composition includes a small molecule or a nucleic acid modulator that does not alter all RNA species. In some embodiments, the composition includes a small molecule or a nucleic acid modulator that specifically alters RNA species. In some embodiments, the RNA is a non-coding RNA, e.g., TERC. 
     The disclosure also provides methods of identifying a candidate compound for treating cancer. The methods include steps of providing a tumor cell from a patient having cancer and contacting the tumor cell with a test compound. The methods further include steps of determining telomere size in the tumor cell in the presence of the test compound and comparing telomere size in the tumor cell to a reference level. The methods also include selecting a test compound as a candidate compound that alters telomere size in the tumor cell. 
     The present disclosure also provides methods of identifying a candidate compound for treating cancer. In some embodiments, the method includes the following steps: providing an isolated cell from a tumor, providing the cell from a patient having cancer in a system whereby it is contacted with a test compound; determining telomerase activity in the tumor cell in the presence of the test compound; comparing the activity of telomerase in the tumor cell to a reference level; selecting a test compound as a candidate compound if the test compound alters telomerase activity in the tumor cell. In some embodiments, the test compound is a nucleic acid, and the cell is contacted with a vector comprising the nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the test compound is a modulator of the level or activity of topoisomerase-related function protein 4-2 (TRF4-2). In some embodiments, the test compound is a modulator of the level or activity of poly(A)-specific ribonuclease (PARN). In some embodiments, the test compound is small molecule. In some embodiments, the test compound is a nucleic acid encoding a fusion protein, and the tumor cell is contacted with a vector comprising the nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the test compound is an expression vector comprising a nucleic acid encoding a fusion protein, and the cell is contacted with the expression vector. 
     Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Methods and materials are described herein for use in the present invention; other, suitable methods and materials known in the art can also be used. The materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. All publications, patent applications, patents, sequences, database entries, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. 
     Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description and figures, and from the claims. 
     The entire content of each of these files is hereby incorporated by reference. 
    
    
     
       DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1A  is a schematic diagram showing segregation analysis of compound heterozygous PARN mutations in patient families 1 and 2. 
         FIG. 1B  is a graph showing flow cytometry-fluorescence assessment of telomere length measurement in lymphocytes (upper panel) and granulocytes (lower panel). 
         FIG. 1C  is a graph showing quantitative PCR (qPCR) of peripheral blood genomic DNA from controls (ctrl) and members of family 1. 
         FIG. 1D  is a graph showing a representative RT-PCR of cDNA using an allele-specific primer that distinguishes the wild type (WT; c.260C) versus mutant (c.260T) transcripts (n=2). 
         FIG. 1E  is a graph showing a qPCR of PARN transcripts from patient and normal fibroblasts (n=3). 
         FIG. 1F  is a photograph showing a representative Western blot of PARN, dyskerin and actin proteins in fibroblasts from normal individuals, patients 1 and 2 with PARN mutations, and a dyskeratosis congenita patient without PARN mutations (DC ctrl). 
         FIG. 2A  is a graph showing quantitative PCR (qPCR) of TERC transcripts in patient and normal (WT) fibroblasts (n=2). 
         FIG. 2B  is a graph showing qPCR of PARN transcripts in iPS cells (n=2). 
         FIG. 2C  is a photograph showing a representative western blot of PARN, dyskerin and actin proteins in iPS cells (left) and a graph showing quantitation of PARN and dyskerin protein levels normalized to actin (n=4; right). 
         FIG. 2D  is a photograph showing a Northern blot of TERC following denaturing agarose gel electrophoresis of RNA from iPS cells. 
         FIG. 2E  is a photograph showing a telomerase activity (TRAP) assay for telomerase activity in iPS cells. 
         FIG. 2F  is a photograph showing a Southern blot of telomere length by terminal restriction fragment length analysis in normal and patient iPS clones (cl), as well as control TERC haploinsufficient (TR+/−) iPS cells. 
         FIG. 2G  is a graph showing a qPCR of PARN, TERC, and DKC1 transcripts from 293 cells transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA directed against PARN versus luciferase as a control (ctrl) (n=3). 
         FIG. 2H  is a photograph showing a representative western blot of PARN, dyskerin and actin proteins in 293 cells transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA directed against PARN versus luciferase (left). 
         FIG. 3A  is a bar graph showing a quantitative PCR (qPCR) of TERC transcripts in cDNA from normal (WT) and patient fibroblasts, using hexamer-versus oligo(dT)10-priming. 
         FIG. 3B  is a bar graph showing estimated proportion of oligo(A) TERC forms in fibroblasts and iPS cells (n=2). 
         FIG. 3C  is a schematic diagram showing a 3′ RACE strategy using PCR using linker- and TERC-specific primers. 
         FIG. 3D  is a photograph showing agarose gel analysis of the 3′ RACE products from normal and patient (Pt) fibroblasts (left) and iPS clones (cl; middle), and 293 cells subjected to shRNA-mediated knockdown of PARN versus luciferase (ctrl) (right). 
         FIG. 3E  is a photograph showing a Northern blot of TERC using RNA from iPS cells, separated by denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. U1 snRNA represents loading control. 
         FIG. 3F  is a photograph showing a Northern blot of TERC using RNA from 293 cells subjected to shRNA-mediated knockdown of PARN (sh) versus luciferase. 
         FIG. 4A  is a bar graph showing TERC 3′ end reads in fibroblasts. 
         FIG. 4B  is a bar graph showing TERC 3′ end reads in iPS cells. 
         FIG. 5A  is a photograph showing a representative Northern blot of TERC RNA levels in normal versus patient iPS cells, at 0, 1, 2 and 4 hours (h) following actinomycin treatment. 
         FIG. 5B  is a graph showing TERC decay rate in normal and patient iPS cells, 
         FIG. 5C  is a photograph showing a Northern blot of TERC RNA in 293 cells subjected to shRNA-mediated knockdown of PARN (sh) versus control (ctrl). 
         FIG. 5D  is a graph showing decay rates of TERC RNA in 293 cells subjected to shRNA-mediated knockdown of PARN (sh) versus control (ctrl). 
         FIG. 6A  is a photograph showing a Northern blot of TERC RNA from 293 cells transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA directed against PARN versus luciferase (ctrl), and then rescued with lentivirus expressing PARN versus EGFP as a control. 
         FIG. 6B  is a photograph showing 3′RACE products from 293 cells subjected to shRNA-mediated knockdown of PARN versus luciferase, and rescued with PARN versus EGFP, separated by agarose gel electrophoresis. 
         FIG. 6C  is a photograph showing a Northern blot of TERC RNA from patient fibroblasts transduced with lentivirus encoding PARN versus EGFP control. 
         FIG. 6D  is a graph showing 3′RACE products from PARN mutant patient fibroblasts cells rescued with lentivirus expressing PARN versus EGFP. 
         FIG. 6E  is a graph showing data from deep sequencing of 3′RACE PCR products from 293 cells in which PARN is disrupted by shRNA and rescued by lentivirus expressing PARN or EGFP. 
         FIG. 6F  is a graph showing data deep sequencing of 3′ RACE PCR products from 293 control cells transduced with lentivirus overexpressing PARN or EGFP. 
         FIG. 7  is a bar graph showing categorized TERC reads from deep sequencing of 3′ RACE products. 
         FIG. 8  is a graph showing PARN disruption in 293 cells results in increased 3′-extended and oligo-adenylated forms of TERC. 
         FIG. 9  is a diagram showing an exemplary model for TERC 3′ end maturation by PARN. 
         FIG. 10A  is a photograph of Southern blot showing telomere restriction fragment (TRF) length analysis in HEK293 cells infected with lentivirus encoding shRNAs targeting luciferase (control) versus PARN. 
         FIG. 10B  is a photograph of Southern blot showing TRF length analysis in PARN knockdown HEK293 cells stably transduced with lentivirus encoding TERC versus control (ctrl). 
         FIG. 10C  is a graph showing TRF length analysis of immortalized, PARN-mutant patient fibroblasts stably transduced with lentivirus encoding TERC versus control. 
         FIG. 11A  is a schematic diagram showing strategy for 3′ rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE). 
         FIG. 11B  is a photograph of agarose gel electrophoresis showing 3′ RACE TERC products from HEK 293 cells transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA against PAPD5, PARN or luciferase (ctrl). 
         FIG. 11C  is a graph showing 3′ RACE PCR products that were subjected to deep sequencing and aligned to the TERC gene. 
         FIG. 11D  is a bar graph showing oligo(An) species as a proportion of total reads in control versus PAPD5 knockdown cells. The A-tail length in nucleotides (nt) averaged over the population of oligo(An) species is indicated. 
         FIG. 11E  is a photograph of Northern blot of TERC from HEK293 cells transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA against PAPD5 versus luciferase, followed by transfection with plasmids expressing PAPD5 versus EGFP cDNAs. 
         FIG. 11F  is a graph showing 3′ RACE TERC amplicons from HEK 293 cells stably transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA directed against PARN versus luciferase, followed by transduction with lentivirus encoding shRNA directed against PAPD5 or luciferase. 
         FIG. 11G  is a photograph of Northern blot of TERC RNA from cells stably transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA directed against PARN versus luciferase, followed by transduction with lentivirus encoding shRNA directed against PAPD5 versus luciferase. 
         FIG. 11H  is a graph showing TRAP assay for telomerase activity in control versus PAPD5 knockdown, PARN deficient HEK293 cells, using 3-fold dilutions of input cell extract. 
         FIG. 12A  is a graph showing 3′ RACE TERC amplicons from normal (WT) versus PARN-mutant iPSCs stably transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA directed against PAPD5 versus luciferase as a control (ctrl). n=3 biological replicates. 
         FIG. 12B  is a graph showing representative Northern blot of TERC RNA from normal versus PARN-mutant iPSCs stably transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA directed against PAPD5 versus luciferase. 
         FIG. 12C  is a bar graph showing relative TERC levels are normalized to those in normal cells with control knockdown. Average of n=3 biological replicates, standard deviations indicated. P values (*≤0.05; n.s. not significant). 
         FIG. 12D  is a graph showing representative Northern blot of TERC levels in PARN-mutant patient iPSCs after transduction with PAPD5 versus control shRNA, at 0-4 hours following actinomycin treatment. 
         FIG. 12E  is a graph of TERC decay rate in PARN-mutant patient iPSCs after transduction with PAPD5 versus control shRNA. 
         FIG. 12F  is a graph showing TRAP assay in normal versus PARN-mutant iPSCs stably transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA directed against PAPD5 versus luciferase. 
         FIG. 12G  are graphs showing TRF length analysis of normal (WT) and PARN-mutant patient iPSCs, stably transduced with lentivirus expressing shRNA against PAPD5 versus luciferase (ctrl), over time in culture (20 passages; ˜10 weeks) (left), and TRF length analysis of additional clones of PARN-mutant patient iPSCs, 12 passages (˜6 weeks) after transduction (right). 
         FIG. 13  is a graph showing telomere length in PARN kd 293 cells after PARN overexpression. 
         FIG. 14  is a graph showing telomere elongation in immortalized PARN-mutant fibroblasts after PARN rescue. 
         FIG. 15A  is a bar graph showing quantitative PCR (qPCR) of PAPD5 transcripts from HEK 293 cells transduced with lentiviruses expressing shRNAs against luciferase (ctrl) versus PAPD5. 
         FIG. 15B  is a photograph of immunoblot of PAPD5 and actin protein levels in HEK293 cells transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA against luciferase (ctrl) or PAPD5. 
         FIG. 16  is a photograph of Western blots showing overexpression of PAPD5 in control and PAPD5 knockdown cells. 
         FIG. 17A  is a graph showing 3′ RACE PCR products from PARN knockdown HEK 293 cells transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA against PAPD5 versus control were subjected to deep sequencing, as in  FIG. 11C . 
         FIG. 17B  is a bar graph showing oligo(An) species as a proportion of total reads are indicated in control versus PAPD5 knockdown, PARN-deficient HEK293 cells. 
         FIG. 18  is a photograph of Northern blot showing relative TERC transcript levels in control and PARN-deficient cells with PAPD5 knockdown. 
         FIG. 19  is a schematic diagram showing an exemplary model of reciprocal regulation of TERC maturation by PARN and PAPD5. 
         FIG. 20A  is a bar graph showing PARN transcript levels by qPCR after CRISPR targeting. 
         FIG. 20B  is a bar graph showing TERC transcript levels by qPCR after CRISPR targeting. 
         FIG. 21A  is a bar graph showing PAPD5 transcript levels by qPCR after CRISPR targeting. 
         FIG. 21B  is a bar graph showing TERC transcript levels by qPCR after CRISPR targeting. 
         FIG. 22  is a photograph of Western blots showing PARN protein levels in PARN CRISPR iPS clones. 
         FIG. 23  is a photograph of Western blots showing PAPD5 protein levels in PAPD5 CRISPR iPS clones. 
         FIG. 24  is a bar graph showing TERC levels in PAPD5 CRISPR iPS Clones. 
         FIG. 25  is a graph showing telomere length in PAPD5 CRISPR iPS Clones. 
         FIG. 26  is a graph showing inhibition of recombinant PAPD5 by aminoglycosides. 
         FIG. 27  shows an exemplary nucleotide sequence of PARN (accession no. NM_002582). 
         FIG. 28  shows an exemplary amino acid sequence of PARN (accession no. 095453). 
         FIG. 29  shows an exemplary nucleotide sequence of PAPD5 (TRF4-2) (accession number NM_001040284). 
         FIG. 30  shows an exemplary amino acid sequence of PAPD5 (TRF4-2) (accession number Q8NDF8). 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     A telomere is a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromosome. For vertebrates, the sequence of nucleotides in telomeres is TTAGGG. In humans, this sequence of TTAGGG is repeated approximately 2,500 times. Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein that adds the telomere repeat sequence to the 3′ end of telomeres. Cells with impaired telomerase function often have limited capacity for self-renewal, i.e., an abnormal state or condition characterized by an inability of cells (e.g., stem cells) to divide sufficiently. This deficiency in cells can, for example, lead to various diseases and disorders. The present disclosure provides, among other things, methods of screening for agents that modulate TERC levels and activity. Also provided are methods of diagnosing patients and methods of treating patients having telomere disease. 
     Telomere Disease 
     The term “telomere disease,” “telomere syndrome” or “disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction” refers to a disorder associated with abnormal telomeres. They include, but not are limited to, dyskeratosis congenital (DC), Revesz syndrome, Hoyeraal-Hreidarrson syndrome, Coats plus syndrome, and some forms of inherited aplastic anemia/myelodysplastic syndrome, aplastic anemia, pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, bone marrow failure, hematological disorder, hepatic disease (e.g., chronic liver disease, and hepatic cirrhosis) etc. Telomere diseases also include those affecting the blood and immune systems, lungs, liver, skin, mucosal surfaces, bones, cardiovascular system, endocrine system, and/or gastrointestinal system, as cells with the impaired self-renewal capacity can affect the normal function of organs or systems. Some of these disorders include aplastic anemia, pulmonary fibrosis, hepatic cirrhosis, osteoporosis and osteonecrosis, vascular malformations, diabetes, primary immunodeficiency, and inflammatory bowel disease. This group of diseases is often associated with a cellular state marked with decreased self-renewal capacity that can be attributed to an alteration in telomere length. Thus, the term “telomere deficiency” as used herein refers to a cellular state in the body, including stem cells, induced pluripotent cells and fibroblasts, and is often marked by a perturbation in expression or activity of an enzyme that is involved in regulating telomere size. As used herein, the term “telomerase dysfunction” refers to abnormal levels or function of telomerase in a cell or patient. For example, telomerase dysfunction can include telomerase deficiency, such as where telomerase levels are lower than normal due to excess or unwanted telomerase degradation, and telomerase over-activity, such as where telomerase levels are higher than normal due to deficient telomerase degradation. 
     Telomere diseases or disorders associated with telomerase dysfunction are typically associated with changes in the size of telomere. Many proteins and RNA components are involved in the telomere regulatory pathway, including TERC, PARN and PAPD5 (also known as TRF4-2). This disclosure provides how these proteins or RNA components work in the regulatory pathway and how they are related to telomere diseases. Also provided are methods of screening agents that modulate these proteins or RNA components. 
     Among these telomere diseases, dyskeratosis congenita (DC) is a rare, progressive bone marrow failure syndrome characterized by the triad of reticulated skin hyperpigmentation, nail dystrophy, and oral leukoplakia. Early mortality is often associated with bone marrow failure, infections, fatal pulmonary complications, or malignancy. Short-term treatment options for bone marrow failure in patients include anabolic steroids (e.g., oxymetholone), granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, and erythropoietin. Other treatments include hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (SCT). 
     Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is a chronic and ultimately fatal disease characterized by a progressive decline in lung function. In some appropriate cases, the following agents are used to treat idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: nintedanib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor that targets multiple tyrosine kinases, including vascular endothelial growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, and PDGF receptors; and pirfenidone. Other treatments include lung transplantation. In some cases, lung transplantation for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) has been shown to confer a survival benefit over medical therapy. 
     The Telomerase RNA Component (TERC) 
     Telomerase has been a therapeutic target of great interest for over two decades, based on its activity in numerous cancers. Much of the focus has been on Telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT), given its restricted expression in self-renewing cells, and its ability to confer immortality and transformation when introduced into non-self-renewing cells. TERC is expressed more broadly and has largely been overlooked as a potential target for manipulation. 
     The telomerase RNA component (TERC) serves two critical functions: it encodes the template sequence used by telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) for the addition of hexanucleotide repeats to telomeres, and it is the scaffold that nucleates multiple proteins that target telomerase to the Cajal body, where telomeres are extended. 
     In addition, TERC contains a box H/ACA domain at its 3′ end, a motif that is functionally separable from the template domain and dispensable for telomerase activity in vitro. In vivo, the H/ACA motif is bound by a heterotrimer of dyskerin, NOP10, and NHP2 which stabilize TERC, and also by TCAB1, which is responsible for localizing the telomerase complex to Cajal bodies (Venteicher, A. S. et al. A human telomerase holoenzyme protein required for Cajal body localization and telomere synthesis. Science 323, 644-8 (2009)). Disruption of any of these interactions can also compromise telomere maintenance and cause telomere disease (Mitchell, J. R., Wood, E. &amp; Collins, K A telomerase component is defective in the human disease dyskeratosis congenita. Nature 402, 551-5 (1999); Vulliamy, T. et al. Mutations in the telomerase component NHP2 cause the premature ageing syndrome dyskeratosis congenita. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105, 8073-8 (2008); Walne, A. J. et al. Genetic heterogeneity in autosomal recessive dyskeratosis congenita with one subtype due to mutations in the telomerase-associated protein NOP10. Human molecular genetics 16, 1619-29 (2007)). The H/ACA motif serve as guides for pseudouridylation of other RNAs by dyskerin (Kiss, T., Fayet-Lebaron, E. &amp; Jady, B. E. Box H/ACA small ribonucleoproteins. Molecular cell 37, 597-606 (2010)). Interestingly, the 3′ ends of snoRNAs and TERC terminate in a similar context—precisely 3 nt downstream of the ACA sequence. However, most snoRNAs are encoded in the introns of other genes, whereas TERC is an autonomous RNA pol II transcript, indicating major differences in the initial and possibly latter stages of biogenesis. 
     Increasing telomerase activity can be beneficial in several degenerative and age-related disorders. Conversely, inhibiting telomerase activity would be of significant utility for the treatment of cancer and disorders in which hyper-proliferative cells depend on telomerase for self-renewal. 
     The strategies to manipulate modulators of TERC levels can provide important advances in treatment strategies for a broad array of telomere diseases or disorders associated with telomerase dysfunction, e.g., dyskeratosis congenital, aplastic anemia, pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, hematological disorder, hepatic disease (e.g., chronic liver disease), and cancer, e.g., hematological cancer and hepatocarcinoma, etc. 
     Identification of agents that modulate TERC or telomerase in cell lines that recapitulate the human condition, such as iPS cells or tumor cells derived from cancer patients, can provide mechanisms to manipulate cellular function at a fundamental level. 
     Poly(A) Specific Ribonuclease (PARN) 
     PARN is known as a 3′-5′ exoribonuclease responsible for degradation of the poly(A) tails of eukaryotic mRNAs, which is a rate-limiting step in mRNA turnover (Korner, C. G. &amp; Wahle, E. Poly(A) tail shortening by a mammalian poly(A)-specific 3′-exoribonuclease. The Journal of biological chemistry 272, 10448-56 (1997)). PARN is stimulated by presence of a m7G-cap, and requires a minimal substrate of adenosine di- or tri-nucleotides—in other words, oligo(A) rather than strictly poly(A). PARN is a widely-expressed cap-dependent, poly(A) deadenylase with a canonical role in regulating global mRNA levels during development, and additional, more specialized functions including end-trimming of the Dicer-independent microRNA (miR)-451 and deadenylation of small nucleolar (sno)RNAs. PARN loss-of-function mutations are implicated in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and dyskeratosis congenita. The disclosure provides methods and agents that modulate the level or activity of human PARN. The nucleotide sequence of human PARN is NM_002582 (SEQ ID NO: 1) and the amino acid sequence of PARN is 095453 (SEQ ID NO: 96) (Table 9;  FIG. 27  and  FIG. 28 ). 
     Topoisomerase-Related Function Protein 4-2 (TRF4-2) 
     TRF4-2 (also known as PAP Associated Domain Containing 5 or PAPD5) is one of the seven members of the family of noncanonical poly(A) polymerases in human cells. TRF4-2 has been shown to act as a polyadenylase on abnormal pre-ribosomal RNAs in vivo in a manner analogous to degradation-mediating polyadenylation by the non canonical poly(A) polymerase Trf4p in yeast. PAPD5 is also involved in the uridylation-dependent degradation of histone mRNAs. 
     Using somatic cells (fibroblasts) and induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells from dyskeratosis congenita (DC) patients with genetic mutations, the present disclosure shows that PARN and TRF4-2 are involved in the 3′-end maturation of the telomerase RNA component (TERC). Patient cells, fibroblast cells as well as converted fibroblasts (iPS cells) in which PARN is disrupted show decreased levels of TERC which can be restored by decreasing levels of TRF4-2. Deep sequencing of TERC RNA 3′ termini or ends, reveals that PARN and TRF4-2 are critically important for processing of post-transcriptionally acquired oligo(A) tails that target nuclear RNAs for degradation. Diminished TERC levels and the increased oligo(A) forms of TERC are normalized by restoring PARN or inhibiting TRF4-2. The disclosure describes reveals PARN and TRF4-2 as important players in the regulation and biogenesis of TERC ( FIG. 9 ).  FIG. 9  shows 3′ ends of nascent TERC RNA are subject to TRF4-2-mediated oligo-adenylation, which targets transcripts for degradation by the exosome. PARN counteracts the degradation pathway by removing oligo(A) tails and/or trimming genomically-encoded bases (green) of nascent TERC to yield a mature 3′ end. Mature TERC is protected from further oligo-adenylation and exonucleolytic processing, possibly by the dyskerin/NOP10/NHP2/GAR1 complex (colored ovals), and assembles into the telomerase holoenzyme to maintain telomeres. PARN deficiency tips the balance in favor of degradation, leading to reduced TERC levels and telomere dysfunction. Thus, the disclosure also provides methods and agents that modulate the level or activity of human TRF4-2. The nucleotide sequence of human TRF4-2 is NM_001040284 (SEQ ID NO: 2), and the amino acid sequence is Q8NDF8 (SEQ ID NO: 97) (Table 9;  FIG. 29  and  FIG. 30 ). 
     Modulating TERC Levels 
     Partly based on the role of PARN and TRF4-2 in the regulation and biogenesis of TERC, the disclosure provides methods to modulating TERC levels, e.g., by using agents that target TERC or agents that modulate the level or activity of TRF4-2 and/or PARN. 
       FIG. 19  is a diagram demonstrating the reciprocal regulation of TERC levels by PAPD5 and PARN, and the potential for therapeutic manipulation of telomerase in degenerative or malignant disorders. As shown in  FIG. 19 , a PAPD5 inhibitor can inhibit PAPD5-mediated oligo-adenylation, which targets nascent TERC RNA for degradation by the exosome, thus increases the level or activity of TERC. In contrast, as PARN counteracts the degradation pathway by removing oligo(A) tails and/or trimming genomically-encoded bases of nascent TERC to yield a mature 3′ end, PARN inhibitor will decrease the level or activity of TERC. In addition, increasing the level or activity of PARN can increase the level or activity of TERC, and increasing the level or activity of PAPD5 can decrease the level or activity of TERC. 
     In one aspect, the present disclosure provides methods of modulating TERC levels in cells. The cells can be, e.g., primary human cells, stem cells, induced pluripotent cells, fibroblasts, etc. The cells can be isolated from a sample obtained from the subject, e.g., the cells can be derived from any part of the body including, but not limited to, skin, blood, and bone marrow. The cells can also be cultured in vitro using routine methods with commercially available cell reagents (e.g., cell culture media). In some embodiments, the cells are obtained from a subject, having a telomere disease, being at risk of developing a telomere disease, or being suspected of having a telomere disease. In some embodiments, the subject has no overt symptoms. 
     The level or activity of TERC can be determined by various means, e.g., by determining the size of telomere in the cell, by determining the stability of TERC, by determining the amount of RNA, by measuring the activity of telomerase function, and/or by measuring oligo-adenylated (oligo(A)) forms of TERC. TERC stability can be assessed, e.g., by measuring the TERC decay rates. Oligo-adenylated (oligo(A)) forms of TERC can be measured, e.g., using rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) coupled with targeted deep sequencing (e.g., at the TERC 3′ end) to detect oligo-adenylated (oligo(A)) forms of TERC. The size of a telomere can be measured, e.g., using Flow-fluorescent in-situ hybridization (Flow-FISH) technique. 
     In some methods, the modulation of endogenous TERC is performed. Such methods can include, e.g., altering telomerase activity, e.g., increasing or decreasing telomerase activity. The methods can involve reducing RNA expression in cells, e.g., non-coding RNA in TERC. Telomerase activity can be, e.g., regulated by modulating TERC levels by contacting cells with test compounds known to modulate protein synthesis. The methods may involve targeting post-processing activity of the endogenous TERC locus. These methods involve manipulating TERC including identifying subjects with genetic mutation (e.g., mutation in PARN), isolating cells (e.g., fibroblast), and treating cells with agents that modulate TERC levels. 
     The present disclosure shows that TERC levels are modulated at the post-transcriptional level. Thus, in one aspect, methods of modulating the level or activity of TERC involve modulating the level or activity of PARN and TRF4-2. 
     In some embodiments, the methods involve an agent that modulates the level or activity of PARN, thereby altering the level or activity of TERC. In some cases, the agent increases the level or activity of PARN. Alternatively, the agent decreases the level or activity of PARN. In some embodiments, the agent is a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes PARN. The agent can also be an anti-PARN antibody or anti-PARN antibody fragment. In some embodiments, the agent is an antisense molecule or a small interfering nucleic acid which is specific for a nucleic acid encoding PARN. The antisense molecule can be an oligonucleotide. In some cases, the agent binds to PARN. In some embodiments, the method involves genome editing technology that target PARN. 
     In some embodiments, the methods involve an agent that modulates the level or activity of TRF4-2, thereby altering the level or activity of TERC. In some embodiments, the agent increases the level or activity of TRF4-2. Alternatively, the agent decreases the level or activity of TRF4-2. In some embodiments, the agent is a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes TRF4-2. The agent can also be an anti-TRF4-2 antibody or anti-TRF4-2 antibody fragment. In some embodiments, the agent is an antisense molecule or a small interfering nucleic acid which is specific for a nucleic acid encoding TRF4-2. The antisense molecule can be an oligonucleotide. In some cases, the agent binds to TRF4-2. In some embodiments, the method involves genome editing technology that target TRF4-2. 
     In some embodiments, the agents that decrease the level of PARN are shRNA that target PARN, e.g., SEQ ID NO: 74 and SEQ ID NO: 75. 
     In some embodiments, the agents that decrease the level of PAPD5 are shRNA that target PAPD5, e.g., SEQ ID NOs: 79-83. In some embodiments, the agent is SEQ ID NO: 79 or SEQ ID NO: 83. 
     In some embodiments, the agent that increase the level of PARN is a vector that includes a nucleic acid sequence that encodes PARN (SEQ ID NO: 96), e.g., a lentiviral vector that encodes PARN. 
     In some embodiments, the agent that increase the level of TRF4-2 is a vector that includes a nucleic acid sequence that encodes TRF4-2 (SEQ ID NO: 97), e.g., a lentiviral vector that encodes TRF4-2. 
     In some embodiments, CRISPR/Cas9 genome targeting can be performed to create biallelic null mutations. These mutations can decrease the level of PARN or TRF4-2. In some embodiments, lentiviral vectors containing guide RNAs (gRNAs) to PARN (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 90, 92, 94) are designed and used to transduce cells in order decrease the level of PARN. In some embodiments, lentiviral vectors containing guide RNAs (gRNAs) to TRF4-2 (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 84, 86, 88) are designed and used to transduce cells in order decrease the level of TRF4-2. 
     In some embodiments, a PAPD5 inhibitor and/or a PARN inhibitor can be used to modulate the level or activity of TERC. These agents include, but are not limited to, adenosine analogues, aminoglycosides, and purine nucleotides, etc. 
     In some cases, the aminoglycoside can be a member of the neomycin and kanamycin families. The aminoglycoside can be, for example, kanamycin B sulfate, pramycin sulfate, spectinomycin dihydrochloride pentahydrate, ribostamycin sulfate, sisomicin sulfate, amikacin disulfide, dihydrostreptomycin sesquisulfate, hygromycin B, netilmicin sulfate, paromomycin sulfate, kasugamycin, neomycin, gentamicin, tobramycin sulfate, streptomycin sulfate, or neomycin B, or derivatives thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the agent is a nucleoside analogue, e.g., a adenosine analogue, 8-chloroadenosine (8-Cl-Ado) and 8-aminoadenosine (8-amino-Ado), or the triphosphate derivative thereof, synthetic nucleoside analogues bearing a fluoroglucopyranosyl sugar moiety, benzoyl-modified cytosine or adenine, adenosine- and cytosine-based glucopyranosyl nucleoside analogues, or glucopyranosyl analogues bearing uracil, 5-fluorouracil or thymine, etc. 
     Adenosine analogues, aminoglycosides, and purine nucleotides are known in the art, and they are described, e.g., in Kim, Kyumin, et al. “Exosome Cofactors Connect Transcription Termination to RNA Processing by Guiding Terminated Transcripts to the Appropriate Exonuclease within the Nuclear Exosome.” Journal of Biological Chemistry (2016): jbc-M116; Chen, Lisa S., et al. “Chain termination and inhibition of mammalian poly (A) polymerase by modified ATP analogues.” Biochemical pharmacology 79.5 (2010): 669-677; Ren, Yan-Guo, et al. “Inhibition of Klenow DNA polymerase and poly (A)-specific ribonuclease by aminoglycosides.” Rna 8.11 (2002): 1393-1400; Thuresson, Ann-Charlotte, Leif A. Kirsebom, and Anders Virtanen. “Inhibition of poly (A) polymerase by aminoglycosides.” Biochimie 89.10 (2007): 1221-1227; AA Balatsos, N., et al. “Modulation of poly (A)-specific ribonuclease (PARN): current knowledge and perspectives.” Current medicinal chemistry 19.28 (2012): 4838-4849; Balatsos, Nikolaos A A, Dimitrios Anastasakis, and Constantinos Stathopoulos. “Inhibition of human poly (A)-specific ribonuclease (PARN) by purine nucleotides: kinetic analysis.” Journal of enzyme inhibition and medicinal chemistry 24.2 (2009): 516-523; Balatsos, Nikolaos A A, et al. “Competitive inhibition of human poly (A)-specific ribonuclease (PARN) by synthetic fluoro-pyranosyl nucleosides.” Biochemistry 48.26 (2009): 6044-6051; and Balatsos, Nikolaos, et al. “Kinetic and in silico analysis of the slow-binding inhibition of human poly (A)-specific ribonuclease (PARN) by novel nucleoside analogues.” Biochimie 94.1 (2012): 214-221; each of which is incorporate by reference in its entirety. 
     Subjects 
     The terms “subject” and “patient” are used interchangeably throughout the specification and describe an animal, human or non-human. Veterinary and non-veterinary applications are contemplated by the present invention. Human patients can be adult humans or juvenile humans (e.g., humans below the age of 18 years old). In addition to humans, patients include but are not limited to mice, rats, hamsters, guinea-pigs, rabbits, ferrets, cats, dogs, and primates. Included are, for example, non-human primates (e.g., monkey, chimpanzee, gorilla, and the like), rodents (e.g., rats, mice, gerbils, hamsters, ferrets, rabbits), lagomorphs, swine (e.g., pig, miniature pig), equine, canine, feline, bovine, and other domestic, farm, and zoo animals. 
     In some embodiments, the methods described in this disclosure involves identifying a subject as having, being at risk of developing, or suspected of having a disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction. The methods include determining the level or activity of TERC, PARN, or TRF4-2 in a cell from the subject; comparing the level or activity of TERC, PARN, or TRF4-2 to the reference level or reference activity of TERC, PARN, or TRF4-2; and identifying the subject as having, being at risk of developing, or suspected of having a disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction if the level or activity of TERC, PARN, or TRF4-2 is significantly different from the reference level or activity of TERC, PARN, or TRF4-2. In some embodiments, there reference level or activity of TERC, PARN, or TRF4-2 are determined by cells obtained from subjects without disorders associated with telomerase dysfunction. 
     The level or activity of TERC, PARN, or TRF4-2 can be determined in various types of cells from a subject. The methods can include obtaining cells from a subject, and transforming these cells to iPS cells, and these iPS cells can be used to determine the level or activity of TERC, PARN, or TRF4-2. These cells can be, e.g., primary human cells or tumor cells 
     The subject may be one having a mutation at PARN, e.g., a deletion containing part of PARN gene or the entire PARN gene. For example, the mutation may be one wherein the amino acid residue at position 7 of PARN is not asparagine or serine. For example, the subject can have a missense variant c.19A&gt;C, resulting in a substitution of a highly conserved amino acid p.Asn7His. The subject can have a missense mutation c.260C&gt;T, encoding the substitution of a highly conserved amino acid, p.Ser87Lett 
     Methods of Treatment 
     The methods described herein include methods for the treatment of disorders associated with telomerase dysfunction or at least one symptom associated with such disorders. The disorder can be, e.g., dyskeratosis congenital, aplastic anemia, pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, hematological disorder, hepatic disease (e.g., chronic liver disease), or cancer, e.g., hematological cancer or hepatocarcinoma. 
     Generally, the methods include administering a therapeutically effective amount of agents that modulate the level or activity of TERC as described herein, to a subject who is in need of, or who has been determined to be in need of, such treatment. 
     As used in this context, to “treat” means to ameliorate at least one symptom of the disorder associated with telomerase dysfunction. In some embodiments, the treatment results in an increase the telomerase level or activity; thus, a treatment can ameliorate symptoms that are associated with abnormal telomerase function or telomerase deficiency. 
     A subject can be administered at least one (e.g., at least 2, 3, 4, or 5) dose of the agent. The agent can be administered to the subject at least once a day (e.g., twice a day, three times a day, and four times a day), at least once a week (e.g., twice a week, three times a week, four times a week), and/or at least once a month. A subject can be treated (e.g., periodically administered the agent) for a prolonged period of time (e.g., at least one month, two months, six months, one year, two years, three years, four years, or five years). As described in detail herein, the dosage of the agent to be administered to the subject can be determined by a physician by consideration of a number of physiological factors including, but not limited to, the sex of the subject, the weight of the subject, the age of the subject, and the presence of other medical conditions. The agent can be administered to the subject orally, intravenously, intraarterially, subcutaneously, intramuscularly, intracranially, or via injection into the cerebrospinal fluid. Likewise, the agent may be formulated as a solid (e.g., for oral administration) or a physiologically acceptable liquid carrier (e.g., saline) (e.g., for intravenous, intraarterial, subcutaneous, intramuscular, or cerebrospinal administration). 
     In some embodiments, methods of treatment can include administering to a subject at least one (e.g., at least two, three, four, five, or six) agents (e.g., a nucleic acid) that increases the expression level or activity of one or more nucleic acids, e.g., PARN. Such methods of treatment can also include administering an agent to a subject (e.g., a small molecule) that can inhibit the expression or activity of one of more nucleic acids, e.g., TRF4-2. 
     In some embodiments, the agents are administered to a subject in any combination with treatments for telomere diseases that are known in the art. 
     Also provided are methods of treating a telomere, which includes administering to a subject at least one (e.g., at least two, three, four, five, or six) agent (e.g., a nucleic acid) that alters (e.g., decreases or increases) the expression (e.g., protein) or activity of one or more (e.g., at least two, three, four, five, or six) of the genes listed in Tables 3-7 (e.g., an inhibitory nucleic acid or antibody). 
     Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells 
     Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC or iPS), are somatic cells (e.g., derived from patient skin or other cell) that have been genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem cell-like state by being forced to express genes and factors important for maintaining the defining properties of embryonic stem cells. These cells are generated by methods known in the art. 
     It is known that mouse iPSCs demonstrate important characteristics of pluripotent stem cells, including expressing stem cell markers, forming tumors containing cells from all three germ layers, and being able to contribute to many different tissues, when injected into mouse embryos at a very early stage in development. 
     Human iPSCs also express stem cell markers and are capable of generating cells characteristic of all three germ layers. iPSCs can be generated from human fibroblasts and are already useful tools for drug development and modeling of diseases. Viruses are currently used to introduce the reprogramming factors into adult cells (e.g., lentiviral vectors disclosed herein), and this process can be carefully controlled and tested in cultured, isolated cells first to then treat cells (e.g., by contacting with a test compound) to express altered markers, e.g., iPSCs from tumor cells can be manipulated to differentiate or iPSCs from cardiomyocytes can be manipulated to de-differentiate. 
     The iPSC manipulation strategy can be applied to any cells obtained from a subject to test whether the compound can alter the level or activity of TERC, PARN, or TRF4-2. The cells are contacted with test compounds (e.g., small molecules). In some embodiments, these iPSC cells can be used for screening compounds that modulate TERC. In some embodiments, the iPSC cells are converted from patient skin fibroblasts. 
     Cancer 
     As used herein, the term “cancer” refers to cells having the capacity for autonomous growth, i.e., an abnormal state or condition characterized by rapidly proliferating cell growth. The term is meant to include all types of cancerous growths or oncogenic processes, metastatic tissues or malignantly transformed cells, tissues, or organs, irrespective of histopathologic type or stage of invasiveness. The term “tumor” as used herein refers to cancerous cells, e.g., a mass of cancerous cells. 
     Many cancer cells have abnormal telomeres. Thus, treatments described herein can also be used to treat cancers. Cancers that can be treated or diagnosed using the methods described herein include malignancies of the various organ systems, such as affecting lung, breast, thyroid, lymphoid, gastrointestinal, and genito-urinary tract, as well as adenocarcinomas which include malignancies such as most colon cancers, renal-cell carcinoma, prostate cancer and/or testicular tumors, non-small cell carcinoma of the lung, cancer of the small intestine and cancer of the esophagus. 
     In some embodiments, the methods described herein are used for treating or diagnosing a carcinoma in a subject. The term “carcinoma” is art recognized and refers to malignancies of epithelial or endocrine tissues including respiratory system carcinomas, gastrointestinal system carcinomas, genitourinary system carcinomas, testicular carcinomas, breast carcinomas, prostatic carcinomas, endocrine system carcinomas, and melanomas. In some embodiments, the cancer is renal carcinoma or melanoma. Exemplary carcinomas include those forming from tissue of the cervix, lung, prostate, breast, head and neck, colon and ovary. The term also includes carcinosarcomas, e.g., which include malignant tumors composed of carcinomatous and sarcomatous tissues. An “adenocarcinoma” refers to a carcinoma derived from glandular tissue or in which the tumor cells form recognizable glandular structures. The term “sarcoma” is art recognized and refers to malignant tumors of mesenchymal derivation. Cancers treatable using the methods described herein are cancers that have increased levels of TERC, an increased expression of genes such as TERC and/or TERT, or increased activity of a telomerase relative to normal tissues or to other cancers of the same tissues. 
     In some embodiments, the tumor cells isolated from subjects diagnosed with cancer can be used to screen test for compounds that alter TERC levels. In some embodiments, the tumor cells can be used to screen test compounds that alter the expressive or activity of PARN or TRF4-2. The cancer cells used in the methods can be, e.g., cancer stem cells. Such methods can be used to screen a library of test compounds, e.g., compounds that alter or change expression of protein or RNA of telomere-associated genes (e.g., TERC, PARN, TRF4-2/PAPD5). 
     In some embodiments, agents that decrease the level or activity of TERC (e.g., PANR inhibitors) are used to treat cancer. In some embodiments, these agents are used in combination with other cancer treatments, e.g., chemotherapies, surgery, or radiotherapy. 
     Aging 
     Telomeres shorten over the human life span. In large population based studies, short or shortening telomeres are associated with numerous diseases. Thus, telomeres have an important role in the aging process, and can contribute to various diseases. The role of telomeres as a contributory and interactive factor in aging, disease risks, and protection is described, e.g., in Blackburn, Elizabeth H., Elissa S. Epel, and Jue Lin. “Human telomere biology: A contributory and interactive factor in aging, disease risks, and protection,” Science 350.6265 (2015): 1193-1198, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     As used herein, the term “aging” refers to degeneration of organs and tissues over time, in part due to inadequate replicative capacity in stem cells that regenerate tissues over time. Aging may be due to natural disease processes that occur over time, or those that are driven by cell intrinsic or extrinsic pressures that accelerate cellular replication and repair. Such pressures include natural chemical, mechanical, and radiation exposure; biological agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungus, and toxins; autoimmunity, medications, chemotherapy, therapeutic radiation, cellular therapy. As the telomere is an important factor in aging and disease development, the methods described herein can be used for treating, mitigating, or minimizing the risk of, a disorder associated with aging (and/or one or more symptoms of a disorder associated with aging) in a subject. The methods include the step of identifying a subject as having, or being at risk of a disorder associated with aging; and administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subject. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes an agent that alters the level or activity of TERC, e.g., increase the level or activity of TERC. 
     As used herein, the term “disorders associated with aging” refers to disorders that are associated with the ageing process. Exemplary disorders include, e.g., macular degeneration, diabetes mellitus (e.g., type 2 diabetes), osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, sarcopenia, cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, ischemia/reperfusion injury, cancer, premature death, as well as age-related decline in cognitive function, cardiopulmonary function, muscle strength, vision, and hearing. 
     The disorder associated with aging can be a degenerative disorder, e.g., a neurodegenerative disorder. Exemplary neurodegenerative disorders include Motor Neuron Disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Machado-Joseph disease, Spino-cerebellar ataxia, Multiple sclerosis (MS), Parkinson&#39;s disease, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Huntington&#39;s disease, hearing and balance impairments, ataxias, epilepsy, mood disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression, dementia, Pick&#39;s Disease, stroke, CNS hypoxia, cerebral senility, and neural injury such as head trauma. Recent studies have shown the association between shorter telomeres and Alzheimer&#39;s disease. The relationship between telomere length shortening and Alzheimer&#39;s disease is described, e.g., in Zhan, Yiqiang, et al. “Telomere length shortening and Alzheimer disease—a Mendelian Randomization Study,” JAMA neurology 72.10 (2015): 1202-1203, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. In some embodiments, the neurodegenerative disorder is dementia, e.g., Alzheimer&#39;s disease. 
     It has also been determined that there an inverse association between leucocyte telomere length and risk of coronary heart disease. This relationship is described, e.g., in Haycock, Philip C., et al. “Leucocyte telomere length and risk of cardiovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis.” (2014): g4227; and Codd, Veryan, et al. “Identification of seven loci affecting mean telomere length and their association with disease.” Nature genetics 45.4 (2013): 422-427; each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. Thus, there is strong evidence for a causal role of telomere-length variation in cardiovascular disease (CVD), or coronary artery disease (CAD), In some embodiments, the disorder is a cardiovascular disease (CVD), and/or coronary artery disease (CAD), and the present disclosure provides methods of treating, mitigating, or minimizing the risk of, these disorders. In some cases, the disorder is an atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. 
     Furthermore, a meta-analysis of 5759 cases and 6518 controls indicated that shortened telomere length was significantly associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus risk. The relationship between telomere length and type 2 diabetes mellitus is described, e.g., in Zhao, Jinzhao, et al. “Association between telomere length and type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis.” PLoS One 8.11 (2013): e79993, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. In some embodiments, the disorder is a metabolic disorder, e.g., type 2 diabetes mellitus. 
     The methods described herein can be used for treating or diagnosing degenerative disorders in a subject. Degenerative disorders that can be treated or diagnosed using the methods described herein include those of various organ systems, such as affecting brain, heart, lung, liver, muscles, bones, blood, gastrointestinal and genito-urinary tracts. In some cases, degenerative disorders are those that have shortened telomeres, decreased levels of TERC, and/or decreased levels of telomerase relative to normal tissues. 
     In some embodiments, aged cells can be used to screen test compounds that alter the expressive or activity of PARN or TRF4-2. The aged cells used in the methods can be, e.g., those with genetic lesions in telomere biology genes, those isolated from elderly subjects, or those that undergo numerous rounds of replication in the lab. Such methods can be used to screen a library of test compounds, e.g., compounds that alter or change expression of protein or RNA of telomere-associated genes (e.g., TERC, PARN, TRF4-2/PAPD5). Exemplary methods of screening and screening techniques are described herein. 
     In some embodiments, agents that increase the level or activity of TERC (e.g., TRF4-2/PAPD5 inhibitors) are used to treat age-related degenerative disorders due to natural causes or environmental causes. In some embodiments, these agents are used in combination with other treatments. 
     Methods of Screening 
     Included herein are methods for screening test compounds, e.g., polypeptides, nucleic acids, fusion proteins, polynucleotides, inorganic or organic large or small molecule test compounds, to identify agents useful in the treatment of telomere diseases e.g., diseases associated with altered levels of TERC, activity and/or telomerase function. Also included are methods for screening test compounds, e.g., polypeptides, nucleic acids, fusion proteins, polynucleotides, inorganic or organic large or small molecule test compounds, to identify agents that modulate the level or activity of TERC, PARN, and/or TRF4-2. 
     The small molecules can be, e.g., natural products or members of a combinatorial chemistry library. A set of diverse molecules should be used to cover a variety of functions such as charge, aromaticity, hydrogen bonding, flexibility, size, length of side chain, hydrophobicity, and rigidity. Combinatorial techniques suitable for synthesizing small molecules are known in the art, e.g., as exemplified by Obrecht and Villalgordo, Solid-Supported Combinatorial and Parallel Synthesis of Small-Molecular-Weight Compound Libraries, Pergamon-Elsevier Science Limited (1998), and include those such as the “split and pool” or “parallel” synthesis techniques, solid-phase and solution-phase techniques, and encoding techniques (see, for example, Czamik, Curr. Opin. Chem. Bio. 1:60-6 (1997)). In addition, a number of small molecule libraries are commercially available. A number of suitable small molecule test compounds are listed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,503,713, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     Libraries screened using the methods of the present invention can comprise a variety of types of test compounds. A given library can comprise a set of structurally related or unrelated test compounds. In some embodiments, the test compounds are nucleic acids (e.g., shRNA). In some embodiments, the test compounds are nucleic acids (e.g., isolated cDNA). In some embodiments, the test compounds are small molecules. In some embodiments, the test compounds are vectors comprising nucleic acids that can encode fusion proteins (e.g., CRSPR-based fusion proteins). In some embodiments, the fusion proteins can encode modified TRF4-2. In some embodiments, the fusion proteins can encode an active domain of PARN protein. In some embodiments, the test compounds can be peptides or peptidomimetic molecules e.g., molecules that bind TRF4-2. In some embodiments, the test compounds are viral encoded nucleic acids e.g., PARN cDNA. 
     As used herein, “nucleic acids” refers to isolated DNA fragments (e.g., cDNA), RNA (e.g., coding and non-coding RNA), nucleic acids or fragments thereof, vectors comprising nucleic acids (e.g., viral and plasmid vectors). The nucleic acids can be short or long comprising at least 10 to 100 nucleotides. The nucleic acids can be labelled at either ends (5′-tag or 3′ tag). The nucleic acids can encode nuclear localization signal at their 3′ and 5′ ends. 
     Generally, the methods of screening involve isolating a cell, e.g., human or an animal cell, contacting the cell with a test compound, e.g., small molecules and/or nucleic acids, comparing levels or activity of TERC, PARN, and/or TRF4-2 to a reference level. The term “reference” level is an art-known term and typically refers to a baseline value. Skilled practitioners will appreciate that baseline values can be established by standard methods and generally are determined in the absence of a test compound, treatment step, or disease. Often the reference level from a patient derived cell is compared to a reference level from a human or other eukaryotic cell that is recognized by a skilled artisan as a control level or a baseline level for the cell. For example, it is art recognized that normal cultured fibroblast cell with known characteristic levels of housekeeping genes, e.g., beta actin. All such levels are generally detectable, but can also be low or undetectable. 
     In the presently described methods, reference levels can include baseline RNA or protein levels that generally known to occur in a cell, in a “naïve” state, e.g., in absence of an administrative or a treatment step or disease. In some embodiments, a reference level is determined at baseline in a patient who is identified with a telomere disease. In some embodiments, the reference level is determined by way of determining amount of mature TERC species, before a compound is administered into a cell, e.g., a patient-derived iPS cell. In some embodiments, the reference level is the baseline RNA or protein level in a cell derived from a subject without telomere diseases. 
     The cells can be treated with commercially available reagents by standard methods, wherein the cells will be further manipulated with test compounds that modulate TERC in the cells. The desired effect is not limiting to any condition but in some embodiments can be to alter TERC levels. In some embodiment the desired effect can be to alter telomere size in the cell. In some embodiment the desired effect can restore or alter telomerase activity in the cell. In some embodiments, the desired effect can include alteration (increase or decrease) TERC species but not all RNA species in a cell. 
     In some embodiments, a test compound is applied to a cell, e.g., an isolated fibroblast cell, e.g., a normal fibroblast cell or a diseased fibroblast cell, and one or more effects of the test compound is evaluated, e.g., using a quantitative RT-PCR assay or, a polyacrylamide gel based telomerase activity assay (TRAP) in the presence of reducing agents including dithiothreitol (DTT) or mercaptoethanol, which detects change or modulation of telomerase activity by rendering fragments of telomeres that can be separated on a polyacrylamide gel. 
     A candidate compound that has been selected from the screening methods can be further validated and purified to test in animal models by further screening (in vivo screening methods). 
     A test compound can also be used to screen a library to develop a “probe” compound that may be further used in a counter-screen, e.g., sequencing probes. Such test compounds are not necessarily structurally or functionally similar but when contacted with a cell have an effect that is rendered in a robust manner, e.g., TERC levels are altered at desirable levels at any treatment time-point or upon repetition. By using a first screen and a counter-screen, the method disclosed will select a therapeutic compound that can be administered to treat one or more cellular defect of a said disorder (e.g., telomere size, TERC decay rate, TERC expression or telomerase maturation in the aspect of telomere disease), and can be considered a candidate therapeutic agent. Candidate therapeutic agents, once screened in an animal model and clinical setting, are therapeutic agents. Candidate compounds, candidate therapeutic agents, and therapeutic agents can be optionally optimized and/or derivatized, and formulated with physiologically acceptable excipients to form pharmaceutical compositions. 
     The candidate compound (e.g., test compounds that decrease TRF4-2 and restore steady-state levels of TERC and optionally, that also do not reduce cell proliferation or viability, and so not affect non-specific targets, and optionally that also have activity in an in vivo model) can be selected and systematically altered, e.g., using rational design, to optimize binding affinity, avidity, specificity, or other parameter for use in therapy. A variety of techniques useful for determining the structures of candidate compounds can be used, e.g., NMR, mass spectrometry, gas chromatography equipped with electron capture detectors, fluorescence and absorption spectroscopy. 
     The disclosure also provides methods for screening modulators of TERC, PARN and/or TRF4-2. In some embodiments, methods of screening include contacting a cell with a test compound, e.g., a nucleic acid or a small molecule; determining the level or activity of TERC, PARN or TRF4-2 in the cell; comparing the level or activity of TERC, PARN or TRF4-2 in the cells to a reference level. If the level or activity of TERC, PARN or TRF4-2 in the cells is significantly different from the reference level, the test compound will be selected as a candidate compound. 
     As used herein, the term “significant” or “significantly” refers to statistical significance (or a statistically significant result) is attained when a p-value is less than the significance level (denoted a, alpha). The p-value is the probability of obtaining at least as extreme results given that the null hypothesis is true whereas the significance level a is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis given that it is true. In some embodiments, the significance level is 0.05, 0.01, 0.005, 0.001, 0.0001, or 0.00001, etc. In some embodiments, “significantly altered” or “significantly different” refers to the difference between the two groups have attained the statistical significance. 
     In some embodiments, the methods of screening involve determining whether the test compound can achieve a desired effect. In some embodiments, the “desired effect” is determined by the quality, density or source of cells (e.g., human or animal), and herein are provided in the various examples of cells that are contacted with a test compound, to elicit a desired effect. 
     These cells can be obtained from various sources, e.g., from a patient diagnosed with cancer, from a control subject, or from a cell line. In some embodiments, the cells are iPSC cells. In some embodiments, the iPSC cells are obtained from a subject who has telomere disease. In some embodiments, the cells are PARN deficient cells. The test compounds will be selected as a candidate compound if the test compound restores the level or activity of PARN to a normal level (the level or activity of PARN in a cell without PAN deficiency). In some embodiments, the test compound restores the level or activity or TERC to a normal level (the level or activity of PARN in a cell without PAN deficiency). In some embodiments, these cells are tumor cells or cancer cells. 
     The presence and/or level of a nucleic acid can be evaluated using methods known in the art, e.g., using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), quantitative or semi-quantitative real-time RT-PCR, digital PCR i.e. BEAMing ((Beads, Emulsion, Amplification, Magnetics) Diehl (2006) Nat Methods 3:551-559); RNAse protection assay; Northern blot; various types of nucleic acid sequencing (Sanger, pyrosequencing, NextGeneration Sequencing); fluorescent in-situ hybridization (FISH); or gene array/chips) (Lehninger Biochemistry (Worth Publishers, Inc., current addition; Sambrook, et al, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (3. Sup.rd Edition, 2001); Bernard (2002) Clin Chem 48(8): 1178-1185; Miranda (2010) Kidney International 78:191-199; Bianchi (2011) EMBO Mol Med 3:495-503; Taylor (2013) Front. Genet. 4:142; Yang (2014) PLOS One 9(11):e110641); Nordstrom (2000) Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. 31(2):107-112; Ahmadian (2000) Anal Biochem 280:103-110. In some embodiments, high throughput methods, e.g., protein or gene chips as are known in the art (see, e.g., Ch. 12, Genomics, in Griffiths et al., Eds. Modern genetic Analysis, 1999, W. H. Freeman and Company; Ekins and Chu, Trends in Biotechnology, 1999, 17:217-218; MacBeath and Schreiber, Science 2000, 289(5485):1760-1763; Simpson, Proteins and Proteomics: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 2002; Hardiman, Microarrays Methods and Applications: Nuts &amp; Bolts, DNA Press, 2003), can be used to detect the presence and/or level of PARN, TERC or TRF4-2 Measurement of the level of a biomarker can be direct or indirect. For example, the abundance levels of TERC can be directly quantitated. For example, the RNA levels of PSRN or TRF4-2 can be directly quantitated using quantitative PCR. Alternatively, the amount of a protein or RNA can be determined indirectly by measuring abundance levels of cDNA, amplified RNAs or DNAs, or by measuring quantities or activities of other RNAs associated with the protein or protein-associated molecules (e.g., sno RNAs that interact with TERC RNA) that are indicative of the expression level of the protein or RNA. In some embodiments, a technique suitable for the detection of alterations in the structure or sequence of nucleic acids, such as the presence of deletions, amplifications, or substitutions, can be used for the detection of biomarkers of this invention. 
     Methods of Diagnosing 
     The present specification provides methods of diagnosing a subject as having telomere disease. As an example, if the level or activity of TERC, PARN, and/or TRF4-2 in a subject is comparable to the level or activity of TERC, PARN, and/or TRF4-2 in a subject having the telomere disease and, optionally, the subject has one or more symptoms associated with telomere disease (e.g., aplastic anemia, pulmonary fibrosis, hepatic cirrhosis), then the subject can be diagnosed as having or being at risk of developing a telomere disease. 
     In some embodiments, if the level or activity of TERC, PARN, and/or TRF4-2 in a subject is comparable to the level or activity of TERC, PARN, and/or TRF4-2 in a control subject who does not have a telomere disease, then the subject can be diagnosed as not having telomere disease or not being at risk of developing a telomere disease. 
     In some embodiments, the subject is determined to have or being at risk of developing a telomere disease if there is a mutation at PARN. The mutation can be a deletion containing part of PARN gene or the entire PARN gene. The mutation can also be a mutation at position 7 and/or 87 of PARN, e.g., the amino acid residue at position 7 is not asparagine, and/or the amino acid residue at position 87 of PARN is not serine. For example, the mutation can be a missense variant c.19A&gt;C, resulting in a substitution of a highly conserved amino acid p.Asn7His. In some cases, the mutation is a missense mutation c.260C&gt;T, encoding the substitution of a highly conserved amino acid, p. Ser87Leu. 
     In some embodiments, a subject has no overt signs or symptoms of a telomere disease, but the level or activity of TERC, PARN or TRF4-2 may be associated with the presence of a telomeres disease, then the subject has an increased risk of developing telomere disease. In some embodiments, once it has been determined that a person has telomere disease, or has an increased risk of developing telomere disease, then a treatment, e.g., with a small molecule or a nucleic acid encoded by a construct, as known in the art or as described herein, can be administered. 
     Suitable reference values can be determined using methods known in the art, e.g., using standard clinical trial methodology and statistical analysis. The reference values can have any relevant form. In some cases, the reference comprises a predetermined value for a meaningful level of TRF4-2 protein, e.g., a control reference level that represents a normal level of TRF4-2 protein, e.g., a level in an unaffected subject or a subject who is not at risk of developing a disease described herein, and/or a disease reference that represents a level of the proteins associated with conditions associated with telomere disease, e.g., a level in a subject having telomere disease (e.g., pulmonary fibrosis, hepatic cirrhosis or aplastic anemia). In another embodiment, the reference comprises a predetermined value for a meaningful level of PARN protein, e.g., a control reference level that represents a normal level of PARN protein, e.g., a level in an unaffected subject or a subject who is not at risk of developing a disease described herein, and/or a disease reference that represents a level of the proteins associated with conditions associated with telomere disease, e.g., a level in a subject having telomere disease (e.g., pulmonary fibrosis, hepatic cirrhosis or aplastic anemia). 
     The predetermined level can be a single cut-off (threshold) value, such as a median or mean, or a level that defines the boundaries of an upper or lower quartile, tertile, or other segment of a clinical trial population that is determined to be statistically different from the other segments. It can be a range of cut-off (or threshold) values, such as a confidence interval. It can be established based upon comparative groups, such as where association with risk of developing disease or presence of disease in one defined group is a fold higher, or lower, (e.g., approximately 2-fold, 4-fold, 8-fold, 16-fold or more) than the risk or presence of disease in another defined group. It can be a range, for example, where a population of subjects (e.g., control subjects) is divided equally (or unequally) into groups, such as a low-risk group, a medium-risk group and a high-risk group, or into quartiles, the lowest quartile being subjects with the lowest risk and the highest quartile being subjects with the highest risk, or into n-quantiles (i.e., n regularly spaced intervals) the lowest of the n-quantiles being subjects with the lowest risk and the highest of the n-quantiles being subjects with the highest risk. 
     In some embodiments, the predetermined level is a level or occurrence in the same subject, e.g., at a different time point, e.g., an earlier time point. 
     Subjects associated with predetermined values are typically referred to as reference subjects. For example, in some embodiments, a control reference subject does not have a disorder described herein. In some embodiments, it may be desirable that the control subject is deficient in PARN gene (e.g., Dyskeratosis Congenita), and in other embodiments, it may be desirable that a control subject has cancer. In some cases, it may be desirable that the control subject has high telomerase activity, and in other cases it may be desirable that a control subject does not have substantial telomerase activity. 
     In some embodiments, the level of TERC or PARN in a subject being less than or equal to a reference level of TERC or PARN is indicative of a clinical status (e.g., indicative of a disorder as described herein, e.g., telomere disease). In some embodiments, the activity of TERC or PARN in a subject being greater than or equal to the reference activity level of TERC or PARN is indicative of the absence of disease. 
     The predetermined value can depend upon the particular population of subjects (e.g., human subjects or animal models) selected. For example, an apparently healthy population will have a different ‘normal’ range of levels of TERC than will a population of subjects which have, are likely to have, or are at greater risk to have, a disorder described herein. Accordingly, the predetermined values selected may take into account the category (e.g., sex, age, health, risk, presence of other diseases) in which a subject (e.g., human subject) falls. Appropriate ranges and categories can be selected with no more than routine experimentation by those of ordinary skill in the art. In characterizing likelihood, or risk, numerous predetermined values can be established. 
     Nucleic Acid Composition 
     Agents useful in the methods of treatment or screening described herein include nucleic acid molecules that increase or decrease the level of TERC, or the expression or activity of any of the proteins (e.g., TRF4-2 and PARN) listed in Examples and Tables 3-8, or increase or decrease the expression or activity of any of the mRNAs encoding another marker listed in Table 3, 5 or 6. A sense nucleic acid can contain a sequence that is at least 80% (e.g., at least 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) identical to the sequence of any one of the genes (e.g., mature TERC, TRF4-2 and PARN) listed in Tables 3-8, or the sequence of any one of the mRNAs listed in Tables 6-8. Sense nucleic acids can contain one or more of any of the modifications (e.g., backbone modifications, nucleobase modifications, sugar modifications, or one or more conjugated molecules) described herein without limitation. Methods of making and administering sense nucleic acids are known in the art. Additional methods of making and using sense nucleic acids are described herein. 
     The methods of treatment include administration of composition comprising inhibitory nucleic acid molecules that are designed to inhibit a target RNA, e.g., antisense, shRNA, siRNA. The methods of screening include use of test compounds comprising various compositions, also comprising inhibitory nucleic acid molecules that are designed to inhibit a specific target RNA, e.g., antisense, shRNA, siRNA. RNA interference methods comprise modulating levels by inhibiting any one or more of TERC, PARN, or TRF4-2 or interacting protein, in a specific disease context but not global stead state levels of all RNA species. In some embodiments, the inhibitory nucleic acids inhibit TRF4-2 to treat symptoms of telomere disease or deficiency; in some embodiments, inhibitory nucleic acids inhibit binding of an interaction partner of TRF4-2, or TERC, e.g., a RNA species, by blocking its functional domain. 
     The inhibitory nucleic acids useful in the present methods are sufficiently complementary to the target genes, i.e., hybridize sufficiently well and with sufficient specificity, to give the desired effect. “Complementary” refers to the capacity for pairing, through hydrogen bonding, between two sequences comprising naturally or non-naturally occurring bases or analogs thereof. For example, if a base at one position of an inhibitory nucleic acid is capable of hydrogen bonding with a base at the corresponding position of an RNA, then the bases are considered to be complementary to each other at that position. In some embodiments, 100% complementarity is not required. In some embodiments, 100% complementarity is required. Routine methods can be used to design an inhibitory nucleic acid that binds to the target sequence with sufficient specificity. 
     While the specific sequences of certain exemplary target segments are set forth herein, one of skill in the art will recognize that these serve to illustrate and describe particular embodiments within the scope of the present invention. Additional target segments are readily identifiable by one having ordinary skill in the art in view of this disclosure. Target segments of 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more nucleotides in length comprising a stretch of at least five consecutive nucleotides within the seed sequence, or immediately adjacent thereto, are considered to be suitable for targeting as well. In some embodiments, target segments can include sequences that comprise at least the 5 consecutive nucleotides from the 5 ‘-terminus of one of the seed sequence (the remaining nucleotides being a consecutive stretch of the same RNA beginning immediately upstream of the 5’-terminus of the seed sequence and continuing until the inhibitory nucleic acid contains about 5 to about 30 nucleotides). In some embodiments, target segments are represented by RNA sequences that comprise at least the 5 consecutive nucleotides from the 3 ‘-terminus of one of the seed sequence (the remaining nucleotides being a consecutive stretch of the same miRNA beginning immediately downstream of the 3’-terminus of the target segment and continuing until the inhibitory nucleic acid contains about 5 to about 30 nucleotides). One having skill in the art armed with the sequences provided herein will be able, without undue experimentation, to identify further preferred regions to target. 
     Once one or more target regions, segments or sites have been identified, inhibitory nucleic acid compounds are chosen that are sufficiently complementary to the target, i.e., that hybridize sufficiently well and with sufficient specificity (i.e., do not substantially bind to other non-target RNAs), to give the desired effect. 
     In the disclosure, hybridization means hydrogen bonding, which may be Watson-Crick, Hoogsteen or reversed Hoogsteen hydrogen bonding, between complementary nucleoside or nucleotide bases. For example, adenine and thymine are complementary nucleobases which pair through the formation of hydrogen bonds. Complementary, as used herein, refers to the capacity for precise pairing between two nucleotides. For example, if a nucleotide at a certain position of an oligonucleotide is capable of hydrogen bonding with a nucleotide at the same position of a miRNA molecule or an mRNA molecule, then the inhibitory nucleic acid and the miRNA or mRNA are considered to be complementary to each other at that position. The inhibitory nucleic acids and the miRNA or mRNA are complementary to each other when a sufficient number of corresponding positions in each molecule are occupied by nucleotides which can hydrogen bond with each other. Thus, “specifically hybridizable” and “complementary” are terms which are used to indicate a sufficient degree of complementarity or precise pairing such that stable and specific binding occurs between the inhibitory nucleic acid and the miRNA target. For example, if a base at one position of an inhibitory nucleic acid is capable of hydrogen bonding with a base at the corresponding position of a miRNA or a mRNA, then the bases are considered to be complementary to each other at that position. 100% complementarity is not required. 
     In general, the inhibitory nucleic acids useful in the methods described herein have at least 80% sequence complementarity to a target region within the target nucleic acid, e.g., 90%, 95%, or 100% sequence complementarity to the target region within an miRNA. For example, an antisense compound in which 18 of 20 nucleobases of the antisense oligonucleotide are complementary, and would therefore specifically hybridize, to a target region would represent 90 percent complementarity. Percent complementarity of an inhibitory nucleic acid with a region of a target nucleic acid can be determined routinely using basic local alignment search tools (BLAST programs) (Altschul et al., J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410, 1990; Zhang and Madden, Genome Res. 7:649-656, 1997). 
     In some embodiments, the inhibitory nucleic acid is a shRNA. shRNA mediated RNA interference is a process whereby double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) induces the sequence-specific degradation of homologous mRNA in mammalian cells. These nucleic acid molecules or constructs can include dsRNA molecules comprising 10-60, e.g., 10, 11-15, 16-18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 or 45 or 60 nucleotides in each strand, wherein one of the strands is substantially identical, e.g., at least 80% (or more, e.g., 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100%) identical, e.g., having 3, 2, 1, or 0 mismatched nucleotide(s), to a target region in the mRNA, and the other strand is complementary to the first strand. The dsRNA molecules can be chemically synthesized, or can be transcribed in vitro from a DNA template, or in vivo from, e.g., small hairpin RNAs (shRNAs). The dsRNA molecules can be designed using any method known in the art; a number of algorithms are known, and are commercially available. Gene walk methods can be used to optimize the inhibitory activity of the siRNA. 
     The nucleic acid compositions can include both siRNA and modified siRNA derivatives, e.g., siRNAs modified to alter a property such as the pharmacokinetics of the composition, for example, to increase half-life in the body, as well as engineered RNAi precursors. The morpholino oligos can also be used for delivery of gene constructs. 
     shRNAs are be delivered into cells by methods known in the art, e.g., viral vectors, transduction, cationic liposome transfection, and can be delivered viaelectroporation. shRNA duplexes can be expressed within cells from engineered precursors, e.g., recombinant DNA constructs using mammalian Pol III promoter systems (e.g., H1 or U6/snRNA promoter systems (Tuschl (2002), supra) capable of expressing functional double-stranded siRNAs; (Bagella et al., J. Cell. Physiol. 177:206-213 (1998); Lee et al. (2002), supra; Miyagishi et al. (2002), supra; Paul et al. (2002), supra; Yu et al. (2002), supra; Sui et al. (2002), supra). Transcriptional termination by RNA Pol III occurs at runs of four consecutive T residues in the DNA template, providing a mechanism to end the shNA transcript at a specific sequence. The shRNA is complementary to the sequence of the target gene in 5′-3′ and 3′-5′ orientations, and the two strands of the siRNA can be expressed in the same construct or in separate constructs. siRNAs, driven by H1 or U6 shRNA promoter and expressed in cells, can inhibit target gene expression (Bagella et al. (1998), supra; Lee et al. (2002), supra; Miyagishi et al. (2002), supra; Paul et al. (2002), supra; Yu et al. (2002), supra; Sui et al. (2002) supra). Constructs containing shRNA sequence under the control of T7 promoter also make functional shRNAs when transduced into the cells with a vector expression T7 RNA polymerase (Jacque (2002), supra). The vector constructs can further include plasmid vectors for transient transfection of cells. 
     Antisense and other compounds of the invention that hybridize to a miRNA or a mRNA are identified through routine experimentation. In general, the inhibitory nucleic acids must retain specificity for their target, i.e., must not directly bind to, or directly significantly affect expression levels of, transcripts other than the intended target. 
     Methods of introducing PARN shRNA and TRF4-2 shRNA into cells are described in Moon, Diane H., et al. “Poly (A)-specific ribonuclease (PARN) mediates 3 [prime]-end maturation of the telomerase RNA component,” Nature genetics 47.12 (2015): 1482-1488; and Boyraz, Bans, et al. “Posttranscriptional manipulation of TERC reverses molecular hallmarks of telomere disease.” The Journal of Clinical Investigation 126.9 (2016): 3377-3382, each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     For further disclosure regarding inhibitory nucleic acids, please see US2010/0317718 (antisense oligos); US2010/0249052 (double-stranded ribonucleic acid (dsRNA)); US2009/0181914 and US2010/0234451 (LNAs); US2007/0191294 (siRNA analogues); US2008/0249039 (modified siRNA); and WO2010/129746 and WO2010/040112 (inhibitory nucleic acids). 
     Antibodies and Recombinant Fusion Proteins 
     Antibodies that specifically bind to TERC, PARN or TRF4-2 can be generated using standard methods known in the art. For example, a polyclonal antibody that specifically binds to a protein TERC, PARN or TRF4-2 can be generated by immunizing a mammal with the purified protein and isolating antibodies from the mammal that specifically bind to the purified protein. The antibodies used can be a monoclonal or polyclonal antibody. The antibodies administered can be an immunoglobulin G or immunoglobulin M. The antibodies administered can be chimeric (e.g., a humanized antibody) or a human antibody. The antibodies used can also be an antibody fragment (e.g., a Fab, F(ab′)2, Fv, and single chain Fv (scFv) fragment). 
     Gene Therapy 
     The nucleic acids described herein, e.g., nucleic acids encoding TERC, TRF4-2, or PARN or active fragment thereof, or a nucleic acid encoding a protein or a RNA that modulates expression, level or activity of RNA or proteins associated with telomere size, can be incorporated into a construct to be used as a part of a gene therapy protocol. Patients can be identified by methods disclosed whereby gene alterations are first assessed, for example, diagnosed with a PARN deletion, or mutation, that leads to a telomere deficiency. Such patients can be used to draw or isolate cells from their body, and to test the efficacy of the gene constructs that will correct the alteration or mitigate the effects of genetic alteration. The methods include targeted expression vectors for in vitro transfection and expression of a polynucleotide, e.g., TRF4-2 and PARN, which can be translated into a gene construct for in vivo delivery e.g., via transfection or infection, into animal models, that mimic the cellular conditions identified in patient-derived cells, e.g., iPS cells. These constructs can encode a fusion polypeptide or active fragment thereof, or a protein, and alter the level or activity of TERC. They can also be delivered into cancer cells to treat cancers. Both cells and media can be collected for analysis. 
     One or more proteins listed in Table 4, and Examples, can also be administered to a subject for the treatment of a telomere disorder. Several methods are known in the art for the production of a fusion protein using molecular biology and cell culture techniques. In some embodiments, CRISPR based fusion proteins can be used to modulate TERC levels and or activity. For example, PARN protein encoded by a nucleic acid, can be ectopically transfected into a bacterial, yeast, or mammalian cell (using a protein expression plasmid or viral vector) that allows for the overexpression of the protein by the transfected cell. The transfected cells or the culture medium can be collected, and the recombinant protein or RNA can be isolated and purified using methods known in the art. The telomere associated proteins, e.g., TRF4-2 administered to the subject can contain a sequence having at least 80% (e.g., at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) identity to TRF4-2 or another protein in the TERC pathway, e.g., Table 4 and Experimental model  FIG. 9 . The fusion proteins administered to the subject can further include a modification (e.g., a polyethylene glycol or an HIV tat protein, or dCas9- or TET fusion or any other moiety that increases the cellular permeability of the inflammatory marker protein). 
     Expression constructs, e.g., expression constructs of telomere or associated genes, e.g., TRF4-2 and PARN, can be administered in any effective carrier, e.g., any formulation or composition capable of effectively delivering the component gene to cells in vivo. Approaches include insertion of the gene in viral vectors, including recombinant retroviruses, adenovirus, adeno-associated virus, lentivirus, or herpes simplex virus-1 virus vectors, or recombinant bacterial or eukaryotic plasmids. Viral vectors transfect cells directly; plasmid DNA can be delivered naked or with the help of, for example, cationic liposomes (lipofectamine) or derivatized (e.g., antibody conjugated), polylysine conjugates, gramacidin S, artificial viral envelopes or other such intracellular carriers, as well as direct injection of the gene construct or CaPO 4  precipitation carried out in vivo. 
     In some embodiments, infection of cells with a viral vector has the advantage that a large proportion of the targeted cells can receive the nucleic acid. Additionally, molecules encoded within the viral vector, e.g., by a cDNA contained in the viral vector, are expressed efficiently in cells that have taken up viral vector nucleic acid. Retrovirus vectors, adenoviral and adeno-associated virus vectors can be used as a recombinant gene delivery system for the transfer of exogenous genes in vivo, particularly into humans. These vectors provide efficient delivery of genes into cells, and the transferred nucleic acids are stably integrated into the chromosomal DNA of the host. The development of specialized cell lines (termed “packaging cells”) which produce only replication-defective retroviruses has increased the utility of retroviruses for gene therapy, and defective retroviruses are characterized for use in gene transfer for gene therapy purposes (for a review see Miller, Blood 76:271 (1990)). A replication defective retrovirus can be packaged into virions, which can be used to infect a target cell through the use of a helper virus by standard techniques. Protocols for producing recombinant retroviruses and for infecting cells in vitro or in vivo with such viruses can be found in Ausubel, et al., eds., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Greene Publishing Associates, (1989), Sections 9.10-9.14, and other standard laboratory manuals. Examples of suitable retroviruses include pLJ, pZIP, pWE and pEM which are known to those skilled in the art. Examples of suitable packaging virus lines for preparing both ecotropic and amphotropic retroviral systems are art recognized. Retroviruses have been used to introduce a variety of genes into many different cell types, including epithelial cells, in vitro and/or in vivo (see for example Eglitis, et al. (1985) Science 230:1395-1398; Danos and Mulligan (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:6460-6464; Wilson et al. (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:3014-3018; Armentano et al. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:6141-6145; Huber et al. (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:8039-8043; Ferry et al. (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:8377-8381; Chowdhury et al. (1991) Science 254:1802-1805; van Beusechem et al. (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:7640-7644; Kay et al. (1992) Human Gene Therapy 3:641-647; Dai et al. (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:10892-10895; Hwu et al. (1993) J. Immunol. 150:4104-4115; U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,868,116; 4,980,286; PCT Application WO 89/07136; PCT Application WO 89/02468; PCT Application WO 89/05345; and PCT Application WO 92/07573). 
     Another viral gene delivery system useful in the present methods utilizes adenovirus-derived vectors. The genome of an adenovirus can be manipulated, such that it encodes and expresses a gene product of interest but is inactivated in terms of its ability to replicate in a normal lytic viral life cycle. See, for example, Berkner et al., BioTechniques 6:616 (1988); Rosenfeld et al., Science 252:431-434 (1991); and Rosenfeld et al., Cell 68:143-155 (1992). Suitable adenoviral vectors derived from the adenovirus strain Ad type 5 dl324 or other strains of adenovirus (e.g., Ad2, Ad3, or Ad7 etc.) are known to those skilled in the art. Recombinant adenoviruses and adeno-associated viruses can be advantageous in certain circumstances, in that they are not capable of infecting non-dividing cells and can be used to infect a wide variety of cell types, including epithelial cells (Rosenfeld et al., (1992) supra). Furthermore, the virus particle is relatively stable and amenable to purification and concentration, and as above, can be modified so as to affect the spectrum of infectivity. Additionally, introduced adenoviral DNA (and foreign DNA contained therein) is not integrated into the genome of a host cell but remains episomal, thereby avoiding potential problems that can occur as a result of insertional mutagenesis in situ, where introduced DNA becomes integrated into the host genome (e.g., retroviral DNA). Moreover, the carrying capacity of the adenoviral genome for foreign DNA is large (up to 8 kilobases) relative to other gene delivery vectors (Berkner et al., supra; Haj-Ahmand and Graham, J. Virol. 57:267 (1986). 
     Yet another viral vector system useful for delivery of nucleic acids is the adeno-associated virus (AAV). Adeno-associated virus is a naturally occurring defective virus that requires another virus, such as an adenovirus or a herpes virus, as a helper virus for efficient replication and a productive life cycle. (For a review see Muzyczka et al., Curr. Topics in Micro. and Immunol. 158:97-129 (1992). It is also one of the few viruses that may integrate its DNA into non-dividing cells, and exhibits a high frequency of stable integration (see for example Flotte et al., Am. J. Respir. Cell. Mol. Biol. 7:349-356 (1992); Samulski et al., J. Virol. 63:3822-3828 (1989); and McLaughlin et al., J. Virol. 62:1963-1973 (1989). Vectors containing as little as 300 base pairs of AAV can be packaged and can integrate. Space for exogenous DNA is limited to about 4.5 kb. An AAV vector such as that described in Tratschin et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 5:3251-3260 (1985) can be used to introduce DNA into cells. A variety of nucleic acids have been introduced into different cell types using AAV vectors (see for example Hermonat et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81:6466-6470 (1984); Tratschin et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 4:2072-2081 (1985); Wondisford et al., Mol. Endocrinol. 2:32-39 (1988); Tratschin et al., J. Virol. 51:611-619 (1984); and Flotte et al., J. Biol. Chem. 268:3781-3790 (1993). 
     In addition to viral transfer methods, such as those illustrated above, non-viral methods can also be employed to cause expression of a nucleic acid compound described herein (e.g., a nucleic acid or a nucleic acid encoding a compound that expression, levels or activity) in the tissue of a subject. Typically non-viral methods of gene transfer rely on the normal mechanisms used by mammalian cells for the uptake and intracellular transport of macromolecules. In some embodiments, non-viral gene delivery systems can rely on endocytic pathways for the uptake of the subject gene by the targeted cell. Exemplary gene delivery systems of this type include liposomal derived systems, poly-lysine conjugates, and artificial viral envelopes. Other embodiments include plasmid injection systems such as are described in Meuli et al., J. Invest. Dermatol. 116(1):131-135 (2001); Cohen et al., Gene Ther. 7(22):1896-905 (2000); or Tam et al., Gene Ther. 7(21):1867-74 (2000). 
     In some embodiments, a gene encoding a compound described herein, e.g., TERC or TRF4-2 or PARN or a compound modulating telomerase expression, level or activity, is entrapped in liposomes bearing positive charges on their surface (e.g., lipofectins), which can be tagged with antibodies against cell surface antigens of the target tissue (Mizuno et al., No Shinkei Geka 20:547-551 (1992); PCT publication WO91/06309; Japanese patent application 1047381; and European patent publication EP-A-43075). 
     In clinical settings, the gene delivery systems for the therapeutic gene can be introduced into a subject by any of a number of methods, each of which is familiar in the art. For instance, a pharmaceutical preparation of the gene delivery system can be introduced systemically, e.g., by intravenous injection, and specific transduction of the protein in the target cells will occur predominantly from specificity of transfection, provided by the gene delivery vehicle, cell-type or tissue-type expression due to the transcriptional regulatory sequences controlling expression of the receptor gene, or a combination thereof. In other embodiments, initial delivery of the recombinant gene is more limited, with introduction into the subject being quite localized. For example, the gene delivery vehicle can be introduced by catheter (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,328,470) or by stereotactic injection (e.g., Chen et al., PNAS USA 91: 3054-3057 (1994)). 
     The pharmaceutical preparation of the gene therapy construct can consist essentially of the gene delivery system in an acceptable diluent, or can comprise a slow release matrix in which the gene delivery vehicle is embedded. Alternatively, where the complete gene delivery system can be produced intact from recombinant cells, e.g., retroviral vectors, the pharmaceutical preparation can comprise one or more cells, which produce the gene delivery system. 
     Pharmaceutical Compositions and Methods of Administration 
     The methods described herein include the use of pharmaceutical compositions comprising an agent that modulates the level or activity of TERC, PARN, or PAPD5 (e.g., PAPD5 shRNA). As used herein, an agent can be any number of agents, e.g., a small molecule, a nucleic acid, a polypeptide peptide, or a fragment thereof. In some embodiments, the agent can modulate the level or activity of PARN or PAPD5, e.g., a compound that can alter the level of a protein, e.g., PARN or PAPD5 protein (e.g., shRNA). 
     The terms “effective amount,” “effective dose”, and “effective to treat,” as used herein, refer to an amount or a concentration of an agent, or composition comprising the agent, utilized for a period of time (including acute or chronic administration and periodic or continuous administration) that is effective within the context of its administration for causing an intended effect or physiological outcome. 
     Pharmaceutical compositions typically include a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. As used herein the language “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includes saline, solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents, and the like, compatible with pharmaceutical administration. 
     Pharmaceutical compositions are typically formulated to be compatible with its intended route of administration. Examples of routes of administration include parenteral, e.g., intravenous, intradermal, subcutaneous, oral (e.g., inhalation), transdermal (topical), transmucosal, and rectal administration. 
     Pharmaceutical compositions are typically formulated to be compatible with its intended route of administration into subjects. Examples of routes of administration include parenteral, e.g., intravenous, intradermal, subcutaneous, oral (e.g., inhalation), transdermal (topical), transmucosal, and rectal administration. 
     Methods of formulating suitable pharmaceutical compositions are known in the art, see, e.g., Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, 21st ed., 2005; and the books in the series Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Sciences: a Series of Textbooks and Monographs (Dekker, N Y). For example, solutions or suspensions used for parenteral, intradermal, or subcutaneous application can include the following components: a sterile diluent such as water for injection, saline solution, fixed oils, polyethylene glycols, glycerine, propylene glycol or other synthetic solvents; antibacterial agents such as benzyl alcohol or methyl parabens; antioxidants such as ascorbic acid or sodium bisulfate; chelating agents such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; buffers such as acetates, citrates or phosphates and agents for the adjustment of tonicity such as sodium chloride or dextrose. pH can be adjusted with acids or bases, such as hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide. The parenteral preparation can be enclosed in ampoules, disposable syringes or multiple dose vials made of glass or plastic. 
     Dosage 
     Dosage, toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of the therapeutic compounds can be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals, e.g., for determining the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population). The dose ratio between toxic and therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index and it can be expressed as the ratio LD50/ED50. Compounds which exhibit high therapeutic indices are preferred. While compounds that exhibit toxic side effects may be used, care should be taken to design a delivery system that targets such compounds to the site of affected tissue in order to minimize potential damage to uninfected cells and, thereby, reduce side effects. 
     The data obtained from cell culture assays and animal studies can be used in formulating a range of dosage for use in humans. The dosage of such compounds lies preferably within a range of circulating concentrations that include the ED50 with little or no toxicity. The dosage may vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized. For any compound used in the method of the invention, the therapeutically effective dose can be estimated initially from cell culture assays, e.g., human cell or cell lines. The cell based assays can employ patient-derived fibroblasts or iPS cells. A dose may be formulated in animal models to achieve a circulating plasma concentration range that includes the IC50 (i.e., the concentration of the test compound which achieves a half-maximal inhibition of symptoms) as determined in cell culture. A compound that is tested in a cell-based assay can display a low or high potency, defined by the range of concentration at which it is effective. The dosage of such compounds lies preferably within a range of circulating concentrations that include the IC50 with little or no toxicity. The dosage may vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized. Such information derived from initial cell based assays can be used to more accurately determine useful doses in humans. In some embodiments, prior to treatment, patients can be identified with genetic mutations, e.g., alterations in genes associated with telomere disease, and selected to be treated with composition, e.g., to treat telomere disease. 
     EXAMPLES 
     The disclosure further describes the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the invention. 
     Example 1. Generation of iPS Cell Lines from Patients Identified with Short Telomeres 
     Fibroblasts derived from patients with PARN mutations had decreased steady-state levels of TERC ( FIG. 2A ), not attributable to reduction in dyskerin protein. To overcome limitations of cell numbers and to study the effects of PARN mutations in telomerase-expressing cells, iPS cells from the fibroblasts of patients 1 and 2 with identified mutations and short telomere were generated and cultured in vitro for assessing TERC levels. These iPS cells showed PARN deficiency and reduced TERC levels compared to normal iPS cells, without diminished dyskerin protein ( FIGS. 2C-2D ). Furthermore, PARN-mutant iPS cells manifested decreased telomerase activity and impaired telomere elongation capacity compared to normal cells ( FIGS. 2E-2F ), but continuous self-renewal (&gt;25 passages to date for all clones). 
     Example 2. Identification of Loss-of-Function Mutations in PARN in Patients from Two Families with Dyskeratosis Congenita (DC) and Short Telomeres 
     By candidate gene sequencing in the subjects with genetically uncharacterized dyskeratosis congenita/telomere disease in the Pediatric Myelodysplastic Syndrome/Bone Marrow Failure registry at Boston Children&#39;s Hospital, biallelic defects in PARN in two families were identified ( FIG. 1A ), representing ˜15% of the unrelated families in this disease category. The probands manifested classic features of dyskeratosis congenita and associated findings, including bone marrow failure and very short peripheral blood cell telomere length (Table 1 and  FIG. 1B ). Patient 1 was found to carry an undescribed missense variant c.19A&gt;C on one allele, inherited from his mother, resulting in a substitution of a highly conserved amino acid p.Asn7His, and a large deletion encompassing the entire PARN gene on the other allele, inherited from his father ( FIG. 1D  and Table 2). The proband appears homozygous (“horn.”) for c.19A&gt;C and the father appears normal (“WT”). The proband manifests features of the Hoyeraal-Hreidarrson syndrome (HHS), a severe form of dyskeratosis congenita. Patient 2 was found to carry a heterozygous missense variant c.260C&gt;T, encoding the substitution of a highly conserved amino acid, p. Ser87Leu, inherited from his unaffected mother (Table 2). He and his affected brother had no other potentially pathogenic exon-encoded variants. However, decreased PARN mRNA transcripts from the “normal” allele, indicated a non-coding defect on the allele inherited from his father ( FIGS. 1D, and 2C ). The proband, his affected brother and their unaffected mother are heterozygous for the variant. To explain this, expression of the individual alleles by RT-PCR of cDNA from the family members was investigated, which revealed a defect in accumulation of intact transcripts of the paternally-inherited allele in the brothers. RT-PCR of PARN exon 5 from cDNA shows expression of wild-type (c.260C) versus mutant (c.260T) alleles. The proband&#39;s mother shows equal representation of transcripts from both alleles, but the proband and affected brother show accumulation of transcripts predominantly from the mutant allele. The lack of detection of transcripts from the paternally-inherited allele by allele-specific qPCR ( FIG. 1D ) could be explained by alternative splicing that excludes exon 5. However, RT-PCR of cDNA from patient 2 fibroblasts and iPS cells reveals no major amplicon size variants that would indicate loss of exon 5 (*). 
     In keeping with these findings, PARN mRNA levels were diminished in fibroblasts from both patients ( FIG. 1E ), and PARN protein levels even more severely compromised ( FIG. 1F ). The primers used in sequencing PARN gene are compiled in Table 5. These data taken together show compound heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in PARN in two families with dyskeratosis congenita (DC) and very short telomeres can be detected. Diminished TERC levels can result from disruption of dyskerin, which binds and stabilizes TERC, but cells from these patients did not carry mutations in DKC1 nor demonstrate reductions in dyskerin protein ( FIG. 1F ). 
     The following methods are used in the Examples. 
     Patient Material 
     The probands and families were enrolled in the Pediatric Myelodysplastic Syndrome and Bone Marrow Failure registry at Boston Children&#39;s Hospital. Biological samples were procured under protocols approved by the Institutional Review Board at Boston Children&#39;s Hospital, and after written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. 
     Telomere Length Measurements 
     By using Flow-FISH technique, telomere length in peripheral blood cell subsets was measured by flow cytometry-fluorescence in situ hybridization by Repeat Diagnostics, Vancouver, B.C. 
     Primary Cells and Cell Lines 
     Fibroblasts were cultured from skin biopsies obtained from patients and healthy volunteer subjects under approved protocols. Briefly 2 mm punch biopsies were diced and placed under a coverslip in DMEM media with 15% fetal calf serum (FCS) until keratinocyte and fibroblast outgrowths were apparent. Fibroblasts were sub-cultured and expanded using trypsin 0.05% and DMEM 15% FCS. Normal skin fibroblasts used in these experiments were from a healthy adult volunteer. HEK 293 (293) cells were sub-cultured and expanded using trypsin 0.05% and DMEM 10% FCS. Derivation, characterization, and culture conditions of iPS cells from fibroblasts for patient 1 was performed as described. NHSF2 and patient 2 fibroblasts were reprogrammed using the 4-in-1-dTomato lentiviral reprogramming vector. “WT1” iPS cells are derived from NHSF2. For feeder-free culture, iPS cells were maintained in Essential 8 medium (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) on hES-qualified Matrigel matrix (BD Biosciences, San Jose, Calif.). 
     Northern Blots 
     Formaldehyde/agarose gel electrophoresis. 4-10 μg of total RNA was separated on 1.5% agarose/formaldehyde gels, transferred to Hybond N+ membranes (Amersham) in 10×SSC by capillary transfer, and hybridized with α-32P-dCTP-labeled full-length TERC probe in ULTRAhyb buffer (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.). Signals were normalized to 18S rRNA based on ethidium bromide staining. Quantification was performed using ImageJ. 
     TERC RNA Decay 
     0.5-1×106 iPS cells or 293 cells were treated with 5 μg/ml of actinomycin D (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) and harvested in TRIzol at 0, 1, 2, and 4 hours following treatment. Purified RNA was subjected to Northern blot by 1.5% formaldehyde/agarose gel electrophoresis, and transferred to nylon membranes and hybridized as described above. TERC signals were normalized to 18S rRNA. Decay slopes were determined by simple linear regression and transcript half-life was calculated as the x-intercept at y=0.5, using GraphPad Prism. 
     Telomerase Activity Assay 
     293 and iPS cells were lysed in CHAPS lysis buffer and protein was quantified by the Bradford assay (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). Three-fold dilutions (90 ng, 45 ng and 15 ng) of cell extracts were subjected to the telomere repeat amplification protocol (TRAP) using the TRAPeze Telomerase Detection kit (Millipore, Billerica, Mass.). Products were resolved on 10% TBE polyacrylamide gels and visualized by staining with GelRed (Biotium, Fremont, Calif.). 
     3′ Rapid Amplification of cDNA Ends (RACE) 
     500 ng of total RNA was ligated to 5 μM of 5′-adenylated, 3′-blocked adapter (Universal miRNA cloning linker, New England Biolabs, Ipswich, Mass.) with 280 units of T4 RNA ligase truncated KQ (New England Biolabs, Ipswich, Mass.), 25% PEG 8000, and 1 μl RNaseOUT (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) in a 20 μl reaction at 25 degrees C. for 16-24 hr. After cleanup with RNA Clean and Concentrator columns (Zymo Research), followed by DNase treatment, cDNA was synthesized with 5 pmol of universal RT primer and SuperScript III. PCR amplification was carried out using 5 μM of TERC_L/universal RT primer sets (Table 6) with SsoAdvanced Universal SYBR Green Supermix (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). PCR products were directly analyzed run on 3% agarose gels to visualize mature and extended TERC transcripts. 
     Lentiviral RNA Interference and cDNA Expression of TRF4-2 
     Short-hairpin RNA (shRNA) constructs. Duplex oligonucleotides encoding shRNA targeting human TRF4-2 (ENA accession number: FR872509) and human PARN (NM_002582) or luciferase control (Table 6) were cloned into the pLKO.1-puro vector (Addgene #10878), and pLKO.1-blast vector (Addgene #26655). Lentiviral vector production and transduction of cells. 
     Lentiviral vectors encoding shRNAs were produced by co-transfection of 293 cells with lentiviral plasmids described above, pCMV_dR8.91 and pCMV_VSV-G, using branched polyethylenimine (Sigma). Supernatants were harvested, filtered and frozen in aliquots on days 3-4 following transfection. For knockdown experiments, cells were transduced with lentivirus and harvested 6 days after selection in puromycin (2 μg/ml for 293 cells; 0.2 μg/ml for iPS cells) or blasticidin (10 μg/ml for 293 cells). The primers used to amplify transcripts specific to TRF4-2 (i.e., PAPD5) and RNA interference constructs are shown in Table 8, and includes the shRNA constructs PAPD5 shRNA1 and PAPD5 shRNA2, that knocked-down PAPD5 to significant levels and restored the TERC levels in their presence in fibroblasts and patient-derived cells. 
     Terminal Restriction Fragment (TRF) Length Analysis. 
     1.8 μg of genomic DNA was digested with HinfI/RsaI restriction enzymes and separated on 0.8% agarose gels, followed by Southern blot using the TeloTAGGG telomere length assay kit (Roche, Basel, Switzerland). 
     DNA Sequencing and Genetic Analysis 
     DNA isolation and sequencing. Genomic DNA from primary cells and cell lines was extracted using Gentra Puregene kit (Qiagen). DNA from research subject saliva samples was extracted with prepIT kit (Oragene DNA Genotek). Primers for PARN gene amplification and sequencing are provided in Table 5. Sanger sequencing was performed by Genewiz. 
     Copy Number Determination by Quantitative PCR (qPCR) 
     PARN locus copy number in fibroblast, peripheral blood or saliva genomic DNA from family 1 was determined by performing qPCR using primers spanning PARN exon 1, PARN exon 24, and a control diploid locus (GPR15) (PARNcopy_ex1L/R; PARNcopy_ex24L/R; GPR15copy_L/R; Table 6). A standard curve was generated for each primer pair and used to calculate relative copy number of each PARN amplicon, calibrated to GPR15. Quantification results were normalized to genomic DNA from a healthy volunteer. 
     Genome-Wide SNP Microarray Analysis. 
     Microarray analysis was performed on peripheral blood DNA from patient 1 using the Infinium Assay with the Illumina CytoSNP-850K BeadChip platform by the Cytogenetics program, Cincinnati Children&#39;s Hospital Medical Center. 
     RNA Isolation, cDNA Synthesis and Quantitative RT-PCR 
     RNA from patient blood samples was processed using the PAXgene blood RNA kit (Qiagen). RNA from cultured cells was recovered using TRIzol (Ambion). After DNase treatment (Turbo DNA-free, Ambion), cDNA was synthesized using 1 μg of total RNA, 50 ng random hexamers or 7.5 ng oligo(dT)10, and 1 μl SuperScript III Reverse Transcriptase (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) in a total volume of 20 μl for 1 hr at 50° C. qPCR was performed using SsoAdvanced Universal SYBR Green Supermix (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.) and primers in Table 6 (PARN_L/R, TERC_L1/R1, DKC1_L/R, POLR2A_L/R, ACTB_L/R) in a CFX96 Real-Time PCR detection system (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). Quantification of PARN, TERC, and DKC1 was normalized to POLR2A and/or ACTB, which in direct comparisons gave similar results. Graphing and statistical analysis of qPCR results were performed using GraphPad Prism. Sequences of primers used for wild type allele-specific qPCR of the PARN gene in patient 2 (PARNcDNA_ex3L, PARNcDNA_ex5RWT), and for cDNA sequencing of PARN transcripts from peripheral blood cell cDNA from family 2 (PARNcDNA_ex4L, PARNcDNA_ex6R) are provided in Table 6. 
     To estimate the proportion of TERC that is oligo-adenylated relative to total TERC ( FIG. 3B ), standard curves were generated for TERC amplification using hexamer-primed cDNA and oligo(dT)-10-primed cDNA, after normalizing to β-actin. Oligo(A) TERC levels were derived from oligo(dT)-10-primed cDNA, and represented as a percentage of total TERC levels which were derived from hexamer primed cDNA. Primers: TERC_L/R, ACTB_L/R (Table 6). 
     Denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of in vitro transcribed TERC specific amplicons Formaldehyde/agarose gel electrophoresis. 4-10 μg of total RNA was separated on 1.5% agarose/formaldehyde gels, transferred to Hybond N+ membranes (Amersham) in 10×SSC by capillary transfer, and hybridized with α-32P-dCTP-labeled full-length TERC probe in ULTRAhyb buffer (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.). Signals were normalized to 18S rRNA based on ethidium bromide staining. Quantification was performed using ImageJ. 
     Denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). 1-2 μg of total RNA was separated on 5% polyacrylamide-TBE/Urea gels, transferred to Hybond N+ membranes by electroblotting, and hybridized with α-32P-dCTP-labeled full-length TERC or U1 snRNA probes. 20 μg of in vitro-transcribed TERC RNA was loaded as a control. Signals were normalized to U1 snRNA. Quantification was performed using ImageJ. Primers used to amplify probes are TERC: TERC_L4/TERC_R2; U1:U1snRNA_L/U1snRNA_R (Table 6). 
     In Vitro Transcription of TERC RNA 
     Full-length TERC transcripts used for denaturing PAGE/Northern blots were generated by in vitro transcription using a T7-promoter-TERC PCR amplicon template (MAXIscript T7, Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.). Primers used to generate the T7-promoter-TERC template: T7_TERC_L/TERC_R2 (Table 6). 
     TERC RNA Decay to Determine Stability of TERC mRNA 
     0.5-1×106 iPS cells or 293 cells were treated with 5 μg/ml of Actinomycin D (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) and harvested in TRIzol at 0, 1, 2, and 4 hours following treatment. Purified RNA was subjected to Northern blot by 1.5% formaldehyde/agarose gel electrophoresis, and transferred to nylon membranes and hybridized as described above. TERC signals were normalized to 18S rRNA. Decay slopes were determined by simple linear regression and transcript half-life was calculated as the x-intercept at y=0.5, using GraphPad Prism. 
     Telomerase Activity Assay (TRAP Assay) 
     2×105 iPS cells were lysed in CHAPS lysis buffer and protein was quantified by the Bradford assay (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). Five-fold dilutions (100 ng, 20 ng and 4 ng) of cell extracts were subjected to the telomere repeat amplification protocol (TRAP) using the TRAPeze Telomerase Detection kit (Millipore, Billerica, Mass.). Products were resolved on 10% TBE polyacrylamide gels and visualized by staining with GelRed (Biotium, Fremont, Calif.). 
     3′ Rapid Amplification of cDNA Ends (RACE) of TERC 
     600 ng of total RNA was ligated to 5 μM of 5′-adenylated, 3′-blocked adapter (Universal miRNA cloning linker, New England Biolabs, Ipswich, Mass.) with 280 units of T4 RNA ligase truncated KQ (New England Biolabs, Ipswich, Mass.), 25% PEG 8000, and 1 μl RNaseOUT (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) in a 20 μl reaction at 25 degrees C. for 16-24 hr. After cleanup with RNA Clean and Concentrator columns (Zymo Research, Irvine, Calif.), followed by DNase treatment, cDNA was synthesized with 5 pmol of universal RT primer and SuperScript III. PCR amplification was carried out using 5 μM of TERC_L2/universal RT or TERC_L3/universal RT primer sets (Table 6) with SsoAdvanced Universal SYBR Green Supermix (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). PCR products were directly analyzed run on 2.5% agarose gels to visualize mature and extended TERC transcripts, or subject to Qiaquick PCR purification columns (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) for library preparation for deep sequencing. For Sanger sequencing, 3′ RACE PCR products were directly cloned into the pCR4_TOPO vector (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.), and individual clones were sequenced using the TERC_L2 or TERC_L3 primers. 
     MiSeq Library Preparation and Analysis for Mapping of TERC End Processing by Sanger Sequencing 
     RACE products were prepared for deep sequencing using the TruSeq Nano DNA LT Library Prep Kit (Illumina, San Diego, Calif.). Briefly, for each sample, linkers carrying unique barcodes were ligated to RACE products with DNA ligase, amplified using Illumina adapters, and size selected using magnetic beads (Ampure). The completed libraries were submitted to the Tufts University Genomics Core for sequencing and data analysis. The quality and quantity of each library was determined on an Advanced Analytical Fragment Analyzer. The libraries were then pooled to equimolar concentrations. The pooled library was sequenced on an Illumina MiSeq with paired-end 250 bases using the Illumina TruSeq V2 500 cycles kit. The reads were de-multiplexed with CASAVA 1.8.2 and the read 1 and read 2 fastq files for each sample were generated. For data analysis, the Illumina adapter sequence was first removed from the end of each read using Trimmomatic50. The resulting unbroken pair was then joined using FLASH51. The joined-reads from each sample were then mapped to the TERC gene (NR_001566; SEQ ID NO: 99) with the Bowtie2 mapper52, and outputted to a SAM file. The SAM file from each sample was then used as input for custom developed Perl scripts to remove the 3′ RACE universal adapter sequence, determine the position at which the genomic sequenced ended, and the position and length of the oligo(A) tail. Code availability: Perl scripts for TERC RNA end analysis will be made available upon request. 
     RNA-Seq Library Preparation and Analysis for Transcriptome Profiling for Estimation of Non-Coding and Protein Coding RNAs 
     RNA integrity was verified using the Advanced Analytical Fragment Analyzer (FA). 0.5-1 μg of total RNA was used as input for library preparation using TruSeq Stranded Total RNA with RiboZero Gold kit (Illumina, San Diego, Calif.). The molar concentrations of the libraries were determined using the FA, and pooled at equimolar concentrations. The pooled libraries were sequenced on two lanes of HiSeq 2500 High Output single read 50 bases format. Sequence reads were aligned to the human transcriptome using HISAT version 0.1.653. The transcriptome file consisted of protein-coding and ncRNA sequences downloaded from ENSEMBL (release 80). To estimate transcript abundances, Salmon version 0.3.254 was applied to the aligned reads and summarized transcript abundances into gene-level expression levels by summing all transcript expression levels mapping to the same gene. Gene-to-transcript mappings, and transcript type annotations (e.g., assignment of transcript to categories such as snRNA, snoRNA, etc.) were downloaded also from ENSEMBL. Auto-annotation was manually adjusted by annotating TERC and other scaRNAs as snoRNAs, for the purpose of this analysis. 
     Two approaches were undertaken to find genes that were commonly differentially expressed between normal and PARN-deficient cell lines. First, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test was performed on the 13,508 genes that had expression levels of at least 1 transcripts per million (TPM) in one sample, using the following pairs of samples: WT1 FIB versus Patient 1 FIB; WT1 IPS versus Patient 1 cl2 iPS; WT2 iPS versus Patient 2 cl 1 iPS; 293 control KD versus 293 PARN KD. No genes were nominally significantly differentially expressed across all pairs using this approach, or using the paired t-test. Second, because TERC levels are decreased in PARN-deficient cell lines by quantitative RT-PCR and Northern blot, it was reasoned that its fold change magnitude would be an appropriate threshold to define other genes as differentially expressed in a paired comparison manner. The comparison-specific thresholds in absolute values, which was referred to as TERC-defined thresholds, are provided in Table 7. Only one transcript, a snoRNA (SCARNA13), showed a fold-change in all 7 comparisons to an extent exceeding TERC (Table 4). The stringency of the ad hoc metric of differential expression was lessened, by allowing genes to be considered differentially expressed if they exceeded TERC-defined thresholds in fewer (5 or 6) than all 7 pairwise comparisons. In this analysis, the question was whether the number of genes in each category of transcript was different than would be expected by chance given the total number of genes differentially expressed using the Chi-squared test (Table 3). 
     Western Blot Analysis 
     Total cellular lysates were subjected to SDS-PAGE and transfer to PVDF membranes using standard procedures. Detection of PARN and dyskerin was performed using primary antibodies to human PARN (Abcam ab-188333, dilution 1:5000) and dyskerin (Santa Cruz sc-48794, dilution 1:1000) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated goat anti-rabbit secondary antibody (Biorad 170-5046, dilution 1:15,000), followed by chemiluminescent detection using Clarity Western ECL substrate (Biorad, Hercules, Calif.). Protein loading was determined using HRP-conjugated actin antibodies (Santa Cruz sc-1615, dilution 1:1000) on the same membranes and used for normalization. Imaging and quantification of chemiluminescent signals was performed using the Biorad ChemiDoc Touch imaging system. Graphing and statistical analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism. 
     Short-Hairpin RNA (shRNA) Constructs 
     Duplex oligonucleotides encoding shRNA targeting human PARN (NM_002582) or luciferase control (Table 6) were cloned into the pLKO.1-puro vector (Addgene #10878). 
     cDNA expression constructs. cDNAs encoding the PARN open reading frame (NM_002582; bases 147-2066) or enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) were PCR amplified and cloned into the BsrGI/AgeI sites of pLX301 (puromycin resistance; Addgene plasmid #25895) and pLX304 (blasticidin resistance; Addgene plasmid #25890). 
     Lentiviral vector production and transduction. Lentiviral vectors encoding shRNAs and cDNAs were produced by co-transfection of 293T cells with lentiviral plasmids described above, pCMV_dR8.91 and pCMV_VSV-G, using branched polyethylenimine (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.). Supernatants were harvested, filtered and frozen in aliquots on days 3-4 following transfection. cDNA expressing lentiviral vectors were concentrated by centrifugation. Titers, knockdown efficiency, and cDNA expression were determined by infecting 293T cells for 16-24 hrs using varying quantities of viral supernatant in the presence of 10 μg/ml protamine sulfate. After 24-36 hr, infected cells were selected with 2 μg/ml of puromycin or 10 μg/ml of blasticidin for 3-5 days and RNA and/or protein was harvested for analysis. For knockdown experiments, cells were transduced with lentivirus and harvested 5-6 days after selection in puromycin (2 μg/ml for 293 cells; 1 μg/ml for fibroblasts; 0.2 μg/ml for iPS cells). For rescue experiments, control or knockdown cells that were selected for 5-6 days after shRNA transduction were infected with pLX304-based lentiviral vectors expressing PARN or EGFP, and harvested 4 days after selection in blasticidin (10 μg/ml for 293 cells; 5 μg/ml for fibroblasts). 
     Patient Material Used for TRF4-2 Studies 
     Biological samples were procured under protocols approved by the Institutional Review Board at Boston Children&#39;s Hospital, and after written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. 
     Primary Cells and Cell Lines for TRF4-2 Studies 
     Fibroblasts were cultured from skin biopsies obtained from patients and healthy volunteer subjects under approved protocols. Briefly 2 mm punch biopsies were diced and placed under a coverslip in DMEM media with 15% fetal calf serum (FCS) until keratinocyte and fibroblast outgrowths were apparent. Fibroblasts were sub-cultured and expanded using trypsin 0.05% and DMEM 15% FCS. Normal skin fibroblasts used in these experiments were from a healthy adult volunteer: NHSF2. HEK 293 (293) cells were sub-cultured and expanded using trypsin 0.05% and DMEM 10% FCS. Derivation, characterization, and culture conditions of iPS cells from fibroblasts for patient 1 was performed as described. NHSF2 and patient 2 fibroblasts were reprogrammed using the 4-in-1-dTomato lentiviral reprogramming vector. “WT1” iPS cells are derived from NHSF2. For feeder-free culture, iPS cells were maintained in Essential 8 medium (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) on hES-qualified Matrigel matrix (BD Biosciences, San Jose, Calif.). 
     RNA Isolation, cDNA Synthesis and Quantitative RT-PCR 
     RNA from cultured cells was recovered using TRIzol (Ambion). After DNase treatment (Turbo DNA-free, Ambion), cDNA was synthesized using 1 μg of total RNA, 50 ng random hexamers or 7.5 ng oligo(dT)10, and 1 μl SuperScript III Reverse Transcriptase (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) in a total volume of 20 μl for 1 hr at 50° C. qPCR was performed using SsoAdvanced Universal SYBR Green Supermix (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.) and primers in Table 5, 6 and 8 (PARN_L/R, TRF4-2_L/R, POLR2A_L/R) in a CFX96 Real-Time PCR detection system (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). Quantification of TRF4-2 and PARN was normalized to POLR2A. 
     Graphing and statistical analysis of qPCR results were performed using GraphPad Prism. 
     Northern Blots 
     Formaldehyde/agarose gel electrophoresis. 4-10 μg of total RNA was separated on 1.5% agarose/formaldehyde gels, transferred to Hybond N+ membranes (Amersham) in 10×SSC by capillary transfer, and hybridized with α- 32 P-dCTP-labeled full-length TERC probe in ULTRAhyb buffer (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.). Signals were normalized to 18S rRNA based on ethidium bromide staining. Quantification was performed using ImageJ. 
     TERC RNA Decay 
     0.5-1×10 6  iPS cells or 293 cells were treated with 5 μg/ml of actinomycin D (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) and harvested in TRIzol at 0, 1, 2, and 4 hours following treatment. Purified RNA was subjected to Northern blot by 1.5% formaldehyde/agarose gel electrophoresis, and transferred to nylon membranes and hybridized as described above. TERC signals were normalized to 18S rRNA. Decay slopes were determined by simple linear regression and transcript half-life was calculated as the x-intercept at y=0.5, using GraphPad Prism. 
     Telomerase Activity Assay 
     293 and iPS cells were lysed in CHAPS lysis buffer and protein was quantified by the Bradford assay (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). Three-fold dilutions (90 ng, 45 ng and 15 ng) of cell extracts were subjected to the telomere repeat amplification protocol (TRAP) using the TRAPeze Telomerase Detection kit (Millipore, Billerica, Mass.). Products were resolved on 10% TBE polyacrylamide gels and visualized by staining with GelRed (Biotium, Fremont, Calif.). 
     3′ Rapid Amplification of cDNA Ends (RACE) 
     500 ng of total RNA was ligated to 5 μM of 5′-adenylated, 3′-blocked adapter (Universal miRNA cloning linker, New England Biolabs, Ipswich, Mass.) with 280 units of T4 RNA ligase truncated KQ (New England Biolabs, Ipswich, Mass.), 25% PEG 8000, and 1 μl RNaseOUT (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) in a 20 μl reaction at 25 degrees C. for 16-24 hr. After cleanup with RNA Clean and Concentrator columns (Zymo Research), followed by DNase treatment, cDNA was synthesized with 5 pmol of universal RT primer and SuperScript III. PCR amplification was carried out using 5 μM of TERC_L/universal RT primer sets (Table 6) with SsoAdvanced Universal SYBR Green Supermix (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). PCR products were directly analyzed run on 3% agarose gels to visualize mature and extended TERC transcripts. 
     Lentiviral RNA Interference and cDNA Expression 
     short-hairpin RNA (shRNA) constructs. Duplex oligonucleotides encoding shRNA targeting human TRF4-2 (ENA accession number: FR872509; SEQ ID NO: 2) and human PARN (NM_002582; SEQ ID NO: 1) or luciferase control (Table 6) were cloned into the pLKO.1-puro vector (Addgene #10878), and pLKO.1-blast vector (Addgene #26655). 
     Lentiviral vector production and transduction. Lentiviral vectors encoding shRNAs were produced by co-transfection of 293 cells with lentiviral plasmids described above, pCMV_dR8.91 and pCMV_VSV-G, using branched polyethylenimine (Sigma). Supernatants were harvested, filtered and frozen in aliquots on days 3-4 following transfection. For knockdown experiments, cells were transduced with lentivirus and harvested 6 days after selection in puromycin (2 μg/ml for 293 cells; 0.2 μg/ml for iPS cells) or blasticidin (10 μg/ml for 293 cells). 
     Example 3. Knocking Down PARN in Cell Lines Reduces TERC Levels 
     To further investigate how PARN affects TERC levels, PARN was knocked down in HEK293 (293) cells, and again showed reductions in TERC levels but not DKC1 or dyskerin ( FIGS. 2G-2H ). In  FIG. 2H , quantitation of PARN and dyskerin protein levels normalized to actin (n=4; right). For all panels, error bars represent standard deviations and significance is indicated by p-values (*≤0.05; **≤0.01; ***≤0.001; n.s. not significant). These studies demonstrate that PARN deficiency results in diminished TERC levels independent of DKC1/dyskerin, as well as deficits in telomerase activity and telomere maintenance. Table 6 shows the 2 sh RNA constructs (SEQ ID NO: 74 and 75) used for PARN knockdown among primers and constructs that were generated to investigate the role of PARN in cell lines specifically manipulated using vector constructs that comprise PARN specific shRNAs. It also reveals the PARN-specific primers that were used to amplify regions of PARN locus to measure alteration in PARN levels and further used the cells with deficiency of PARN to compare TERC levels to the reference level found HEK293 or 293 fibroblast cells. 
     Example 4. PARN Deficiency Results in Abnormal TERC RNA Species with Modified Tails in Patient Derived Cells (iPS) and Cell Lines (293 Fibroblasts) 
     Box H/ACA snoRNAs are intron-encoded and undergo maturation by exonucleolytic processing of spliced intermediates. Nascent snoRNAs are subject to oligo-adenylation by TRF4-2, a component of the TRAMP (TRF4-2, AIR2, MTR4) complex, which stimulates degradation of nuclear RNAs by the exosome. PARN counteracts snoRNA oligo-adenylation and promotes 3′ end maturation, which may prevent further TRAMP-mediated oligo(A) addition and subsequent degradation8. TERC is transcribed by RNA polymerase II (pol II) as an autonomous genetic unit. It has a 7-methylguanosine cap and a precise 3′ end, but unlike other pol II transcripts, TERC RNA does not contain a long poly(A) tail, and the mechanisms of its 3′ end maturation are unknown. Based on the box H/ACA architecture shared between snoRNAs and TERC, and the recent finding that TERC exists in oligo(A)-containing forms, it was hypothesized that PARN participates in TERC 3′ end maturation and stabilization by removing oligo(A) in nascent transcripts. 
     The presence of oligo(A) forms of TERC by oligo(dT)10-priming of total RNA was verified for cDNA synthesis ( FIG. 3A ), and compared the relative proportions of oligo(A) versus total TERC. It was found a higher proportion of oligo(A) TERC in PARN mutant fibroblasts and iPS cells compared to normal cells ( FIG. 3B ). 
     Because TERC oligo(A) tails average 6-7 nucleotides in length and may not be quantified accurately using oligo(dT), 3′ rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) was performed ( FIG. 3C ). The data shows a significant alteration in the size distribution of TERC 3′ ends in both patient fibroblasts and iPS cells compared to normal cells, in that the intensity of the amplicon at the expected size was reduced, and larger, extended transcripts predominated ( FIG. 3D ). These results were recapitulated in 293 cells upon transient PARN knockdown ( FIG. 3D ). By Northern blot using denaturing polyacrylamide gels, in vitro transcribed TERC and endogenous, mature TERC transcripts migrate as multiple bands. In addition to these, slowly migrating species in PARN-deficient cells were discovered, in a high proportion (˜50%) of total TERC compared to normal cells, which are likely to represent the extended TERC transcripts ( FIGS. 3E-3F ). These data indicate that PARN deficiency results not only in diminished TERC steady-state levels but also in increased TERC RNA species with abnormal 3′ ends or tails. 
     As further revealed in Table 7 TERC mRNA levels (TERC-defined threshold fold-change in RNA) in Wild Type (WT) versus patient derived cells (e.g., Patient for 2 indicate patient fibroblasts or iPS, with PARN alteration locus). The patient 1 and 2 noted in this below Table were identified via exon sequencing of PARN locus. The TERC data complements data derived from shRNA mediated knockdown of PARN in cell lines and demonstrates that PARN deficiency, both in vivo, from patients, and using cell lines that mimic such human condition as PARN deficiency, show diminished TERC levels compared to control groups (with no known PARN deficiency). Reference levels are determined from control groups. Upon further comparison across cell lines and as shown in  FIG. 7 , the percentages of mature TERC forms were significantly decreased in patient-derived cells (iPS or fibroblasts), thus altering the normal distribution of TERC. In  FIG. 7 , TERC forms other than mature TERC are increased in PARN-mutant patient cells. Of total trimmed reads, the proportion representing mature TERC is in black, and the proportion representing all extended forms of TERC, including genomically and non-genomically encoded bases, is in grey. Error bars represent standard deviation. Paired t-test calculations were performed between WT and patient cells for each cell type, with p values shown by asterisks (*≤0.05; **≤0.01; ***≤0.001). 
     Example 5. Profiling Oligo(A) Forms of TERC Ends Demonstrate that PARN Deficiency Results in Increased TERC RNA Species with Abnormal (Extended) 3′ Ends 
     To investigate TERC maturation more closely, the 3′ ends of TERC RNA were profiled in fibroblasts and iPS cells by deep sequencing ( FIG. 4 ). A significant increase in the proportion of TERC species other than mature TERC in patient cells versus normal cells, including transcripts extended beyond the canonical 3′ end (5′ . . . ACAUGC-3′ TERC canonical end), and a diverse range of non-genomically encoded additions ( FIG. 4 ). 
     The data above shows the distribution and frequency of two classes of TERC species: those containing up to eight genomically-encoded bases beyond the canonical TERC end, and the corresponding oligo(A) forms, which together comprised the majority of TERC forms across all samples. In patient fibroblasts, the percentage of mature TERC (i.e. ending at the canonical 5′ . . . ACAUGC-3′ sequence) was markedly reduced compared to normal fibroblasts (59% versus 84%;  FIG. 4A ). In  FIG. 4A , 3′ RACE PCR products from normal and PARN mutant patient fibroblasts were subjected to deep sequencing and aligned to the TERC gene. 
     Because the total amount of TERC in patient fibroblasts is −45% of normal fibroblasts ( FIG. 2 ), the level of mature TERC in patient fibroblasts is approximately one-third of that found in normal fibroblasts (27% versus 84%). At the same time, a significant increase in the proportion of oligo(A) forms of TERC were noted, including transcripts with genomically-encoded sequences beyond the mature TERC 3′ end ( FIG. 4A ). 
     Haploinsufficiency due to deletion of one PARN allele in fibroblasts from patient 1&#39;s father yielded an intermediate phenotype. In iPS cells, mature TERC comprised ˜70% of all species in normal cells but only ˜40% in patient cells ( FIG. 4B ). In  FIG. 4B , 3′ RACE PCR products from normal and PARN mutant patient iPS cells were subjected to deep sequencing and aligned to the TERC gene. 
     Again, significant increases in oligo(A) forms of TERC transcripts that extended beyond the mature 3′ terminus were found, which in aggregate, comprised the majority of total TERC species in patient iPS cells ( FIG. 3 ). Next, 293 cells were profiled in which PARN had been disrupted by RNA interference (using PARN specific shRNA constructs depicted in Table 6), and similarly diminished levels of mature TERC and increased oligo(A) forms ( FIG. 8 ) in PARN deficient cells were found. In  FIG. 8 , total RNA prepared from 293 cells transduced with lentivirus-encoded shRNAs directed against PARN (shRNA1) versus control (ctrl) was subjected to 3′ RACE and deep sequencing. The canonical TERC RNA terminus is indicated in red, in the context of the gene sequence. Genomically-encoded termini are in black, mature TERC with a single A (which may or may not be genomically-encoded) is hatched, and oligo(A) additions of any length (n) are solid blue. Profiles represent the averages from three independent experiments using two different TERC-specific primers. The total number of trimmed reads for each group is shown in parentheses. Error bars represent standard deviations and significance is indicated by p-values (*≤0.05; **≤0.01; ***≤0.001; n.s. not significant). 
     Sanger sequencing of 3′ RACE products corroborated the deep sequencing results. 3′ RACE products from PARN-deficient versus control cells were PCR amplified, cloned and subjected to Sanger sequencing. Consistently across all profiling experiments in patient cells and PARN knockdown cells, it was observed a significant enrichment of oligo(A) forms of nascent TERC transcripts that were extended at +3, +4, and +6 bases beyond the canonical 3′ end. Collectively, the analyses performed in the setting of PARN deficiency revealed intermediates in TERC biogenesis, and indicated a critical and non-redundant function for PARN in counteracting the oligo-adenylation of nascent TERC transcripts. 
     Example 6. PARN Knockdown Results in Decreased Half-Life and Destabilization of TERC RNA 
     Oligo-adenylation is predicted to target nuclear RNA transcripts for degradation, and therefore the decay rate of TERC RNA was determined in PARN-deficient versus normal cells. The pol II transcription machinery of the cells was fully inhibited using Actinomycin and TERC RNA was quantified by a Northern blot. The data showed a decreased half-life of TERC transcripts in patient iPS cells compared to normal iPS cells, and also in PARN-knockdown 293 cells compared to control knockdown 293 cells ( FIG. 5 ). In  FIG. 5B , TERC decay rate is calculated from Northern blot analysis as shown in  FIG. 5A . (n=2 for each group; error bar represent standard deviation). The dashed line reflects the slope determined by simple linear regression, and half-life is the calculated x-intercept at y=0.5. These results indicate that PARN deficiency results in destabilization of TERC RNA, and provide a mechanism for the observed decrease in steady-state TERC levels. 
     Example 7. Assessment of PARN Knockdown Specificity to TERC 
     PARN is widely expressed in a wide variety of cells. As such PARN&#39;s canonical role is believed to be in mRNA turnover. To isolate the effect of PARN deficiency as a specific manifestation at the level of telomere deficiency and TERC, RNA-Seq was performed to assess the global effects of PARN deficiency. Remarkably, no global change in no protein-coding mRNAs was manifested—(increase or decrease) that consistently exceeded the change in TERC levels in all 7 sample pairs (Table 3). These results suggest that the degree of PARN deficiency that is sufficient to disrupt TERC RNA transcript levels, 3′ end processing, and stability and such deficiency in PARN does not result in changes of a similar magnitude in the levels of mRNAs expressed across cell types. This data confirms that the effect of PARN is highly specific to TERC and inhibiting it or deficiency of it does not affect global mRNA steady state levels. 
     Further gene transcript analysis (Table 4) using RNA from PARN deficient cells reveal specific genes that are alter in the setting of PARN deficiency revealing a gene expression profile that includes both increases and decreases in genes across seven types of pairwise comparisons. Interestingly, snoRNAs are highly modulated increased and decreased, revealing a regulatory pattern that distinguishes normal cell transcription from PARN deficient cells. 
     Example 8. Overexpression of PARN Rescues TERC Steady State Levels and 3′-End Processing in Patient Cells 
     The effects of ectopic PARN expression on TERC 3′ end processing by using lentiviral vectors to overexpress PARN in 293 cells where PARN had been knocked-down using a hairpin (shRNA1) targeting the 3′ untranslated region. The knockdown was highly specific for PARN compared to control cells expressing EGFP. Quantification of PARN is normalized to actin (n=3). The data shows a rescue of the diminished TERC steady-state levels ( FIG. 6A ), and also a restoration of TERC processing, as evidenced by an increased proportion of 3′ RACE amplicons of the expected size relative to extended forms ( FIG. 6B ). Ethidium bromide staining of 18S rRNA is used as a loading control. Normalized TERC levels relative to control knockdown/EGFP-transduced 293 cells are shown. Similar results were obtained in patient fibroblasts ( FIGS. 6C-6E ). In  FIG. 6C , normalized TERC levels are also indicated. Deep sequencing confirmed an increased proportion of mature TERC (72% versus 45%) and decreased oligo(A) forms after PARN rescue in 293 cells ( FIG. 6E ), and partial restoration of 3′ end processing with ectopic PARN expression in patient fibroblasts. In  FIG. 6E , statistical comparisons were between cells ectopically expressing PARN versus EGFP. Significance is indicated by p-values (*≤0.05; **≤0.01; ***≤0.001; n.s. not significant; black for mature TERC, blue for extended, oligo(An) forms). 
     There were no increase levels of PARN protein in patient iPS cells using lentivirus vectors, possibly due to silencing or toxicity. Importantly, when PARN was overexpressed in control 293 cells, there was a significant increase in the proportion of mature TERC (92%, versus 75%) as well as a decrease in extended species and oligo(A) forms ( FIG. 6F ). 
     Furthermore, the effect of knockdown of PARN in iPS cells shown at the level of protein suggesting effective knockdown of protein activity for PARN. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that the defects in TERC biogenesis in patients with PARN mutations can be restored by ectopic expression of PARN and effect of shRNAs transduced into cells or 293 cell lines or primary cells derived from skin fibroblasts yield a highly specific reduction in both PARN mRNA and protein These data also reveal that PARN is limiting for TERC post-transcriptional processing, and thus can play a pivotal role in determining telomerase levels in cells. Equally, PARN activation using overexpression constructs (lentiviral constructs comprising PARN specific isolated cDNA) in iPS cells or fibroblasts or cell lines such as 293 reveal that augmenting PARN expression, rescues TERC levels and activity, e.g., TERC end processing. The data also demonstrate that TERC ends are highly relevant in cellular capacity to maintain telomere ends (mature ends), and that the cells that are deficient in PARN accumulate extended immature forms beyond the canonical C at the 3′end. 
     Example 9. PARN Deficiency in Human Patients Causes a Specific Impairment in the Processing of Nascent TERC, Resulting in Decreased TERC Levels, Impaired Telomerase Function and DC 
     In two patients with classic DC, BMF and very short telomere length, biallelic defects in the PARN gene were identified. One patient carried a missense mutation c.19A&gt;C encoding the substitution of a highly conserved amino acid, p.Asn7His, a variant that is not described in databases (Exome Variant Server and 1000 genomes), and which is predicted to be pathogenic by in silico (PolyPhen2) analysis ( FIG. 5A ). He appeared to be homozygous for the variant but SNP array analysis (not shown) and genomic qPCR indicate that he has inherited a large deletion encompassing the entire PARN gene from his father. Second patient carried a heterozygous missense mutation c.260C&gt;T encoding the substitution of a highly conserved amino acid, p.Ser87Leu, from his healthy mother, also not described in variant databases, and which is predicted to be pathogenic at the amino acid level. He had no other potentially pathogenic exonic variants, nor does his healthy father. To find an explanation for this, the PARN mRNA was transcribed from the “wild-type” allele (without the exonic variant) and quantified. The PARN mRNA transcripts from that allele accumulated at only ˜10% of the predicted amount in patient fibroblasts and iPS cells. These data and studies of the family demonstrate that this patient (patient 2) inherited a non-coding defect on the other PARN allele from his father that affects accumulation of its mRNA. Therefore, both patients have compound heterozygous mutations in PARN with defects in gene expression and missense mutations. 
     iPS cells were from the skin fibroblasts of these patients. It was noted that there were lower levels of PARN mRNA in both patients, commensurate with the deletion in patient 1, and in keeping with defective transcription from one allele in patient 2. Importantly, both patients show low TERC levels ( FIG. 6 ). These findings are recapitulated by shRNA in 293 cells, wherein disrupting PARN results in significant reductions in TERC level. Importantly, decreases in DKC1 transcripts were not observed, nor in other telomere biology associated genes including TERF1 and RTEL1 (not shown). These data indicate defects in TERC levels in the setting of PARN deficiency that are independent of reductions in other telomere biology genes, most importantly DKC1. 
     The Examples set forth above provide a basis of a therapeutic strategy whereby a skilled practitioner can manipulate any number of genes that are modulated in cells, including TRF4-2, PARN or TERC RNA and would be in a position to interrogate cells with compounds known in the art; contact cells with compound to detect oligo(A) form of TERC, compare the proportion of this oligo(A) forms of TERC to total cellular TERC RNA in the provided cell; and further restore mature TERC levels to steady state levels, to thereby promote or restore the cell&#39;s ability to self-renew or regenerate and more specifically, restore levels or activity of TERC or other non-coding RNA, also by contributing to post-transcriptional processing. 
     This possibility is validated by data shown above and throughout the application that the mature forms of TERC in PARN deficient cells is at least or about 4-fold higher than that in normal cells (47% versus 12%). What can also be estimated is the exact proportion of the extended or oligo(A) form of TERC is present in an iPS cell compared to fibroblasts (45% versus 17%). Remarkably, these studies indicate that the vast majority of total cellular TERC in PARN mutant patient iPS cells is of the oligo(A) form. This strategy overall comprises methods to identify compounds that mitigate the effect of the decreased steady-state TERC levels and deficits in telomerase function by measurement of total TERC levels and different forms of TERC, and to optionally, treat telomere or other diseases. 
     Example 10. Post-Transcriptional Manipulation of TERC Reverses Molecular Hallmarks of Telomere Disease 
     Poly(A) specific ribonuclease (PARN) is required for post-transcriptional maturation of the telomerase RNA component, TERC. PARN mutations result in the accumulation of 3′ oligo-adenylated forms of nascent TERC RNA transcripts, which are targeted for destruction, thus causing telomerase deficiency and telomere diseases. It is hypothesized that inhibiting post-transcriptional oligo-adenylation of TERC would counteract the effects of PARN deficiency and restore telomere homeostasis. Here, it is shown that disruption of the non-canonical poly(A) polymerase PAPD5 restores TERC levels, telomerase activity and telomere elongation in PARN-mutant patient cells. Overexpression of TERC RNA resulted in telomere elongation in PARN-mutant patient cells. The noncanonical poly(A) polymerase PAPD5 oligo-adenylates nuclear RNAs including TERC post-transcriptionally. It shows that disruption of PAPD5 increased TERC stability and steady state levels in PARN-mutant patient cells. Furthermore, in patient induced pluripotent stem cells, PAPD5 knockdown increased telomerase activity and restored telomere length, without a pronounced impact on the transcriptome or cellular viability. The results indicate that TERC levels depend on the balance of PARN and PAPD5 in human stem cells, which in turn are key regulators of telomerase activity and telomere maintenance. PAPD5 is identified as a component of the post-transcriptional machinery potentially amenable to pharmacological inhibition, to restore telomere maintenance in patients with DC and IPF caused by PARN mutations. The results demonstrate that manipulation of post-transcriptional regulatory pathways can reverse molecular hallmarks of telomere disease. 
     Methods 
     Primary Cells and Cell Lines 
     Fibroblast cultures and iPSCs were generated from NHSF2 and PARN-mutant skin fibroblasts as described, e.g., in Agarwal, Suneet, et al. “Telomere elongation in induced pluripotent stem cells from dyskeratosis congenita patients.” Nature 464.7286 (2010): 292-296.; Moon, Diane H., et al. “Poly (A)-specific ribonuclease (PARN) mediates 3 [prime]-end maturation of the telomerase RNA component.” Nature genetics 47.12 (2015): 1482-1488. PARN-mutant patient fibroblasts were immortalized by transduction with pBABE-hTERT-puro retroviral vectors. iPSCs were maintained in E8 medium (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) on hES-qualified Matrigel matrix (BD Biosciences, San Jose, Calif.). HEK 293 were sub-cultured and expanded using trypsin 0.05% and DMEM 10% FCS. 
     RNA Interference and cDNA Expression 
     short-hairpin RNA (shRNA) constructs. Duplex oligonucleotides encoding shRNA targeting human PAPD5 (ENA accession: FR872509) or luciferase control (Table 13) were cloned into the pLKO.1-puro vector and pLKO.1-blast vectors (Addgene #10878 and #26655). shRNA constructs targeting human PARN (NM_002582) were as described, e.g., in Moon, Diane H., et al. “Poly (A)-specific ribonuclease (PARN) mediates 3 [prime]-end maturation of the telomerase RNA component.” Nature genetics 47.12 (2015): 1482-1488. 
     cDNA expression constructs. Codon-optimized cDNA encoding the PAPD5 open reading frame (ENA accession: FR872509) with an N-terminal FLAG tag was synthesized (Integrated DNA Technologies), and cloned into pLX304 (blasticidin; Addgene #25890). Lentiviral vectors encoding EGFP and PARN were cloned into pLX301 (puromycin; Addgene #25895) and pLX304. Retroviral and lentiviral vectors pBABE-hTERT-puro (Addgene #1171), p-MIG-DKC1 and pHIV7/SF-U3-TER-500 and controls were described in e.g., Agarwal, Suneet, et al. “Telomere elongation in induced pluripotent stem cells from dyskeratosis congenita patients.” Nature 464.7286 (2010): 292-296. 
     Viral vector production and transduction. Retroviral particles were produced by co-transfection of HEK 293T cells with retroviral vectors, VSV-G and Gag-Pol packaging plasmids as described in e.g., Agarwal, Suneet, et al. “Telomere elongation in induced pluripotent stem cells from dyskeratosis congenita patients.” Nature 464.7286 (2010): 292-296. Lentiviral particles were produced by co-transfection of HEK 293T cells with lentiviral vectors, pCMV_dR8.91 and pCMV_VSV-G. For knockdown and overexpression experiments, HEK 293 cells, fibroblasts and iPSCs were transduced with viral vectors in the presence of protamine sulfate (10 μg/ml) for 8-12 hours. For TERC and DKC1 experiments, transduced HEK 293 cells and fibroblasts were sorted for mCherry or EGFP expression and cultured without further selection. For antibiotic selection in shRNA and other overexpression experiments, HEK 293 cells and fibroblasts were cultured in puromycin (1-2 μg/ml) and/or blasticidin (5-10 μg/ml), and iPSCs were cultured in puromycin (0.2 μg/ml) and/or blasticidin (3-5 μg/ml). 
     RNA Isolation, cDNA Synthesis and Quantitative RT-PCR 
     RNA was isolated using TRIzol (Ambion). After DNase treatment (Turbo DNA-free, Ambion), cDNA was synthesized using SuperScript III Reverse Transcriptase (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). qPCR was performed using SsoAdvanced Supermix (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.) and primers PAPD5_L/R and POLR2A_L/R (Table 13) in a CFX96 Real-Time PCR detection system (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). Quantification of PAPD5 was normalized to POLR2A. Graphing and statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism. 
     Western Blot Analysis 
     Cell lysates were subjected to SDS-PAGE and transferred to PVDF membranes using standard procedures. Proteins were detected using antibodies in Table 14 and Clarity Western ECL reagent (Biorad, Hercules, Calif.). Quantification was performed using the ChemiDoc Touch imaging system (Biorad, Hercules, Calif.). 
     Northern Blots 
     Formaldehyde/agarose gel electrophoresis. Total RNA was separated on 1.5% agarose/formaldehyde gels, transferred to Hybond N+ membranes (Amersham), and hybridized with α- 32 P-dCTP-labeled TERC probe (TERC_L2/TERC_R (Table 13)) in ULTRAhyb (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.). Signals were normalized to 18S rRNA by ethidium bromide staining. Quantification was performed using ImageJ. 
     TERC RNA Decay 
     10 6  iPSCs were treated with 5 μg/ml of actinomycin D (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) and harvested in TRIzol. Purified RNA was subjected to Northern blot. TERC signals were normalized to 18S rRNA. Decay slopes were determined by simple linear regression and transcript half-life was calculated as the x-intercept at y=0.5, using GraphPad Prism. 
     3′ Rapid Amplification of cDNA Ends (RACE) 
     3′ RACE was performed as described (Moon, Diane H., et al. “Poly (A)-specific ribonuclease (PARN) mediates 3 [prime]-end maturation of the telomerase RNA component.” Nature genetics 47.12 (2015): 1482-1488). Total RNA was ligated to 5′-adenylated, 3′-blocked adapter (New England Biolabs, Ipswich, Mass.) with T4 RNA ligase KQ (New England Biolabs, Ipswich, Mass.). cDNA was synthesized using universal RT primer and SuperScript III. PCR amplification was carried out using TERC_L/universal RT primers (Table 13) with SsoAdvanced Supermix (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). PCR products were run on 3% agarose gels. 
     RNA Profiling and Transcriptome Analysis by Next Generation Sequencing 
     3′ End Sequencing of TERC RNA 
     TERC RNA 3′ ends were profiled as described in e.g., Moon, Diane H., et al. “Poly (A)-specific ribonuclease (PARN) mediates 3 [prime]-end maturation of the telomerase RNA component.” Nature genetics 47.12 (2015): 1482-1488. Briefly, RACE products were ligated and amplified using barcoded Illumina adapters, and sequenced on an Illumina MiSeq platform. Reads mapping to the TERC gene were analyzed using custom developed Perl scripts. 
     RNA-Seq 
     Transcriptome analysis of the alterations in coding and non-coding RNAs from pairs of PAPD5 versus luciferase control knockdown cell lines (HEK 293, WT iPSC, Patient 1 clone 1 and clone 2 iPSCs) was performed using methods described in e.g., Moon, Diane H., et al. “Poly (A)-specific ribonuclease (PARN) mediates 3 [prime]-end maturation of the telomerase RNA component.” Nature genetics 47.12 (2015): 1482-1488. Briefly, total RNA was processed using the Total RNA with RiboZero Gold kit, and barcoded libraries were pooled and sequenced on two lanes of HiSeq 2500 High Output single read 50 bases format. 
     Mapping and analysis were performed to find genes that were commonly differentially expressed after PAPD5 knockdown. The fold-change was used in TERC in HEK 293 and Patient 1 clone 1 and clone 2 iPSCs as a threshold to define genes as differentially expressed in a paired comparison manner. The TERC-defined thresholds (ln(1+TPM)), were: HEK 293 (0.25); Patient 1 clone 1 iPSC (0.67); Patient 1 clone 2 iPSC (1.24). Individual transcripts altered by PAPD5 knockdown to a degree exceeding this fold change were compared to define those that were commonly altered in all 3 cell types or in 2 of 3 comparisons (Table 11-12). The next question is whether the number of commonly altered genes in each category of transcript was different than what would be expected by chance using the Chi-squared test (Table 10). 
     Telomerase Activity and Telomere Length 
     Telomere repeat amplification protocol (TRAP) and terminal restriction fragment (TRF) length analysis were performed as described in e.g., Moon, Diane H., et al. “Poly (A)-specific ribonuclease (PARN) mediates 3 [prime]-end maturation of the telomerase RNA component.” Nature genetics 47.12 (2015): 1482-1488. 
     Results 
     TERC is Limiting for Telomere Maintenance in PARN Deficient Cells 
     To directly assess the effects of PARN deficiency on telomere maintenance, PARN was disrupted in HEK 293 cells using lentivirus-encoded short-hairpin RNAs (shRNAs), and continuously cultured the transduced cells under antibiotic selection. In PARN knockdown cells, using two independent shRNAs, it was observed telomere attrition over time as compared to control cell lines ( FIG. 10A ). When a PARN cDNA was overexpressed, which is not susceptible to knockdown by one of the shRNAs that targets the 3′ untranslated region, it was observed telomere length increased as compared to control cells ( FIG. 13 ). In  FIG. 13 , southern blot of telomere length by telomere restriction fragment length analysis in PARN kd 293 cells. Cell were transduced with lentivirus containing vector alone (ctrl) or encoding PARN. Telomere length was followed for 12 passages. (˜6 weeks). Next, the effects of restoring PARN expression on telomere maintenance in patient cells was evaluated. In TERT-immortalized fibroblasts from patients with DC caused by PARN loss-of-function mutations, PARN expression restored telomere elongation. These results confirm that PARN deficiency compromises telomere maintenance, and indicate that PARN is limiting for telomere maintenance in human cells, despite the presence of TERT ( FIG. 14 ). In  FIG. 14 , Southern blot of telomere length by telomere restriction fragment length analysis in TERT-immortalized, PARN-mutant patient fibroblasts. Cells were transduced with lentivirus encoding either EGFP or PARN and also carrying a blasticidin resistance cassette. Blasticidin selection was performed at the time point indicated by the arrowhead. 
     To determine whether PARN deficiency affects telomere elongation primarily via effects on TERC, TERC was stably overexpressed via lentiviral vectors in PARN deficient cells and analyzed telomere length over time. Expression of TERC in PARN-knockdown HEK 293 cells led to rapid elongation of telomeres ( FIG. 10B ). Similarly, expression of TERC in TERT-immortalized fibroblasts from patients with PARN mutations led to elongation of telomeres ( FIG. 10C ). 
     To determine whether dyskerin deficiency plays a role in PARN-mutant cells, a DKC1 cDNA was ectopically expressed in PARN-knockdown HEK 293 cells, but did not observe a restoration of telomere length. These data demonstrate that PARN deficiency impairs telomere maintenance via a direct impact on TERC RNA, and suggest that enhancing TERC will restore telomere elongation in PARN-mutant cells. 
     PAPD5 Negatively Regulates TERC Via Oligo-Adenylation and Opposes PARN-Mediated Maturation of TERC 
     It is hypothesized that if the primary role of PARN in telomere biology is to counteract oligo-adenylation and degradation of TERC, then PAPD5 inhibition should be sufficient restore TERC processing and increase telomerase activity in human cells. To investigate this, a comprehensive analysis of the effects of PAPD5 loss-of-function and gain-of-function on TERC was performed. PAPD5 in HEK 293 cells was disrupted using lentivirus-encoded shRNAs and performed rapid amplification of complementary DNA ends (RACE) to characterize TERC 3′ ends ( FIG. 11A ;  FIG. 15 ). In  FIG. 15A , quantitative PCR (qPCR) of PAPD5 transcripts from HEK 293 cells transduced with lentiviruses expressing shRNAs against luciferase (ctrl) versus PAPD5. n=3 biological replicates. Error bar indicates standard deviation, and significance is indicated by P value≤0.001 (***). 
     With PAPD5 knockdown, there was an alteration in the size distribution of TERC 3′ ends, in that the intensity of the amplicon corresponding to the mature form of TERC was increased relative to the immature, extended form of TERC that predominates in PARN knockdown cells ( FIG. 11B ). In  FIG. 11B , immunoblot of PAPD5 and actin protein levels in HEK293 cells transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA against luciferase (ctrl) or PAPD5. The expected amplicon representing mature TERC and the extended forms are indicated (arrows) (n=4). 3′ ends of TERC RNA was profiled by deep sequencing with and without PAPD5 knockdown. PAPD5 inhibition significantly reduced the proportion of genomically extended TERC species that were oligo-adenylated, as well as the average oligo(A) tail length of nascent TERC transcripts ( FIGS. 11C-11D ). In  FIG. 11C , the canonical TERC 3′ terminus is shown in red. The relative proportions of mature TERC and TERC RNA species extending up to 8 bases into the genomic sequence, with or without post-transcriptionally added oligo(A) tails, are depicted. Genomically-encoded termini are in black, mature TERC with a single A (which may or may not be genomically-encoded) is hatched, and oligo(A) additions of any length (n) are in solid blue. Total trimmed reads in parentheses. n=2 biological replicates. Error bars=standard deviation. For statistical evaluations, mature TERC forms and oligo(An) ends for all genomically extended TERC species were compared between control and PAPD5 knockdown cells in a two-tailed t-test. P values: *≤0.05; **≤0.01; ***≤0.001; n.s. not significant; blue for extended, oligo(An) forms. 
     Conversely, both the percentage of mature TERC ( FIGS. 11C-11D ) and steady-state levels of TERC transcripts were increased in PAPD5 knockdown cells ( FIG. 11E ; lanes 1 and 3). When PAPD5 cDNA was overexpressed in cells ( FIG. 16 ), total TERC RNA transcript levels were decreased to approximately one-third of those found in control cells within 48 hours ( FIG. 11E ; lanes 1 and 2). In PAPD5 knockdown cells, expression of PAPD5 cDNA (which is codon-optimized and insensitive to PAPD5 shRNAs) also reduced TERC levels to less than those found in control cells ( FIG. 11E ; lanes 3 and 4). In  FIG. 11E , ethidium bromide staining of 18S rRNA is used as a loading control. TERC levels are normalized to those in cells with control knockdown and EGFP expression. n=3 biological replicates. These data confirm that PAPD5 negatively regulates TERC via oligo-adenylation of nascent RNA transcripts. In  FIG. 16 , Western blots of cell lysates from control knockdown versus PAPD5 knockdown HEK 293 cells, with lentiviral overexpression of either a cDNA encoding FLAG-tagged, codon-optimized PAPD5 or EGFP. Actin is shown as a loading control. Cells are those used in  FIG. 11E . 
     To establish the relationship between PAPD5 and PARN in post-transcriptional regulation of TERC, PAPD5 was disrupted in the setting of PARN deficiency. By 3′ RACE, PARN knockdown results in an accumulation of extended TERC forms ( FIG. 11F , lane 3 versus lane 1). PAPD5 inhibition in PARN deficient cells restored the distribution of TERC 3′ ends to that observed in control cells ( FIG. 11F ; compare lanes 4 and 1). Double antibiotic selection was employed. n=3 biological replicates. 
     By deep sequencing of 3′ RACE products, it was noted that the proportion of mature TERC was significantly increased after PAPD5 knockdown in PARN deficient cells (65% versus 32%, P≤0.05). Moreover, the increased proportion (˜60%) of oligo(A) TERC species found in PARN deficient cells was decreased by 3-fold after inhibiting PAPD5, and the average length of oligo(A) tails was also reduced ( FIG. 17 ). In  FIG. 17A, 3 ′ RACE PCR products from PARN knockdown HEK 293 cells transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA against PAPD5 versus control were subjected to deep sequencing. Proportions are averaged from 2 biological replicates for each group. Error bars represent standard deviations. For statistical evaluations, mature TERC forms and oligo(An) ends for all genomically-extended TERC species were compared between control and PAPD5 knockdown cells in a two-tailed t-test. Significance for difference in proportion of mature TERC is indicated by P value≤0.05 (*). In  FIG. 17B , oligo(An) species as a proportion of total reads are indicated in control versus PAPD5 knockdown, PARN-deficient HEK293 cells. The A-tail length in nucleotides (nt) was averaged (avg) over the entire population of oligo(An) species for each condition and is indicated. 
     By Northern blot, it was noted that steady state levels of TERC transcripts were increased by PAPD5 inhibition in both normal and PARN deficient cells ( FIG. 11G ;  FIG. 18 ). In  FIG. 18 , Northern blot of RNA from control versus PARN-deficient HEK 293 cells, with lentiviral knockdown using either control (ctrl) shRNA or shRNA targeting PAPD5. Ethidium bromide staining of 18S rRNA is shown as a control for loading. Results using PAPD5 shRNA2 shown here are consistent with the results using PAPD5 shRNA1. 
     Notably, TERC RNA was restored in PARN deficient cells by PAPD5 knockdown to levels found in control cells ( FIG. 11G ).  FIG. 11G  shows Northern blot of TERC RNA from cells stably transduced with lentivirus encoding shRNA directed against PARN versus luciferase, followed by transduction with lentivirus encoding shRNA directed against PAPD5 versus luciferase. TERC levels are normalized to those in cells with control knockdown. n=3 biological replicates. Standard deviations are indicated. P values: *≤0.05; ***≤0.001; n.s. not significant. To determine the effects of changes in TERC on telomerase function, the telomerase repeat amplification protocol (TRAP) assay was performed and it was noted that PAPD5 knockdown increased telomerase activity in PARN-deficient cells ( FIG. 11H ). In  FIG. 11H , internal control (IC) amplification standard is indicated. n=3 biological replicates. 
     These data indicate that PAPD5 and PARN mediate opposing and non-redundant effects in the post-transcriptional maturation of nascent TERC transcripts. Despite the presence of other poly(A) polymerases and deadenylases in cells, the manipulation of these two factors significantly impacts TERC RNA levels and cellular telomerase activity. 
     PAPD5 Inhibition Restores TERC Processing, TERC Levels, Telomerase Activity and Telomere Elongation in DC Patient Cells 
     The results indicate that TERC is limiting in PARN-deficient cells due to inadequate deadenylation of nascent TERC transcripts, and that this effect can be reversed by inhibiting the major adenylating activity, PAPD5. Therefore, it is important to determine whether inhibiting post-transcriptional adenylation by PAPD5 could reverse molecular features of telomere disease in PARN-mutant DC patient cells. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) were transduced from two DC patients harboring pathogenic PARN mutations with lentiviral vectors encoding PAPD5 shRNA. By 3′ RACE, PARN-mutant patient cells show a predominance of extended TERC forms ( FIG. 12A , lanes 1, 3, and 5). This altered distribution of TERC species in PARN-mutant patient cells was normalized by PAPD5 knockdown, as evidenced by an increase in the proportion of amplicons corresponding to the mature form of TERC ( FIG. 12A ). Accordingly, by Northern blot, PAPD5 inhibition rescued total TERC levels in patient iPSCs ( FIG. 12B-12C ). The increased TERC steady state levels were due to higher stability of RNA transcripts, which were demonstrated by inhibiting Pol II transcription using actinomycin D in patient iPSCs with or without PAPD5 inhibition. When decay rates by Northern blot was compared, it was noted that PAPD5 knockdown increased the half-life of TERC transcripts in PARN-mutant patient iPSCs compared to cells expressing control shRNA ( FIG. 12D-12E ). In  FIG. 12D , normalized TERC levels relative to time 0 for each sample are indicated. In  FIG. 12E , n=2 biological replicates. Dashed line reflects slope determined by simple linear regression. Collectively, these results indicate that PAPD5 inhibition is sufficient to restore TERC processing, stability and steady-state levels in the setting of PARN mutations. 
     The next question was whether PAPD5 inhibition would be sufficient to rescue telomerase activity and telomere elongation. Using TRAP assays, it was noted that PAPD5 inhibition in PARN-mutant patient iPSCs using a lentivirus-encoded shRNA increased cellular telomerase activity ( FIG. 12F ; n=3 biological replicates). Remarkably, when telomere length was assayed by Southern blot, it was noted that PAPD5 knockdown in PARN-mutant patient iPSCs led to a rapid increase in telomere lengths, approximating those found in control iPSCs ( FIG. 12G ). Patient iPSCs with stable PAPD5 knockdown showed continuous self-renewal in culture. A global analysis of transcriptional changes after PAPD5 knockdown was performed by RNA sequencing. In patient iPSCs, it was noted that only a small number of transcripts (11 genes) whose levels were altered to a degree that exceeded the increase in TERC; of those, only non-coding RNAs were commonly affected more than would be predicted by chance (Tables 10-12). Taken together, the data indicate that PAPD5 inhibition restores TERC levels, telomerase activity and telomere length in cells from patients with PARN mutations. 
     Post-Transcriptional Regulation of TERC: A Target for Therapeutic Manipulation 
     Low TERC levels may be sufficient to explain telomere disease in patients with PARN mutations. Consistent with this hypothesis, TERC expression can restore telomere length in PARN deficient cell lines and PARN-mutant patient cells. These results support the hypothesis that TERC deficiency underlies defective telomere maintenance in patients with PARN mutations. Given the findings of increased oligo-adenylation and destabilization of TERC RNA species in the setting of PARN mutations, the focus is on reversing this post-transcriptional modification as a means of normalizing TERC levels. 
     The results indicate a critical role for PAPD5 in regulating human TERC biogenesis, a discovery that stems from the findings of PARN mutations in patients with telomere diseases. It was noted that PAPD5 oligo-adenylates and destabilizes nascent TERC transcripts in cells. From modulating PARN and PAPD5 individually or in combination, it shows that their functions in TERC maturation are largely non-redundant, despite the presence of other poly(A) polymerases and deadenylases in the cell. The data further show that the increases in TERC levels due to PAPD5 inhibition are sufficient to augment telomerase activity and telomere length in PARN-mutant patient cells, but without a pronounced impact on the transcriptome or cellular viability. A model is proposed where the balance of PARN and PAPD5 activities serves to establish TERC steady state levels, which in turn plays a major role in determining telomerase activity and telomere maintenance in TERT-expressing cells, such as stem cells and cancer cells ( FIG. 19 ). The results provide a novel example of how enzymes that regulate non-coding RNA processing might be targeted to reverse disease phenotypes. Although non-coding RNAs play a variety of roles in diseases, prospective therapies generally depend on delivery of the RNA or anti-sense strategies. 
     Ectopically expressing TERC is sufficient to extend telomere length in cells from patients with various forms of DC, but this approach poses significant challenges for clinical translation. The results presented here identify PAPD5 as a component of the post-transcriptional machinery potentially amenable to pharmacological inhibition, to restore telomere maintenance in patients with DC and IPF caused by PARN mutations. More broadly, the results suggest an unanticipated therapeutic window for PARN and PAPD5 manipulation that might be exploited to alter telomerase activity and self-renewal in a range of degenerative and malignant diseases ( FIG. 19 ). 
     Example 11. Post-Transcriptional Manipulation of TERC Reverses Molecular Hallmarks of Telomere Disease 
     Experiments were performed to determine the requirement of PARN and PAPD5 for viability and function of human stem cells. CRISPR/Cas9 genome targeting was performed to create biallelic null mutations. Lentiviral vectors containing guide RNAs (gRNAs; Table 15) to PARN or PAPD5 were designed and used to transduce normal (WT) and PARN mutant induced pluripotent stems (iPSCs), and the frequency of insertion/deletions (indels) were assessed. PARN gRNA 91 created a high frequency of indels and led to reductions in PARN RNA transcript levels as well as TERC RNA levels in WT iPSCs ( FIGS. 20A and 20B ). For PAPD5, gRNA 451 created the highest frequency of indels and reductions in PAPD5 transcript levels and increases in TERC RNA levels in PARN mutant cells ( FIGS. 21A and 21B ). Populations of stable lentiviral transduced PARN or PAPD5 targeted iPSCs were subcloned to identify lines with biallelic inactivation of PARN or PAPD5. In cell transduced with PARN gRNAs, only clones with in-frame indels and retained PARN protein expression could be recovered, suggesting a requirement for PARN protein for viability of iPSCs ( FIG. 22 ). In contrast, iPSCs with indels causing frameshifts in PAPD5 and lacking PAPD5 protein could be isolated ( FIG. 23 ). Inactivation of PAPD5 by CRISPR/Cas9 augmented TERC levels in iPSC clones ( FIG. 24 ). Southern blot of telomere length by terminal restriction fragment length analysis shows increase in telomere length in PARN mutant IPSCs deficient in PAPD5 ( FIG. 25 ). These results suggest that PAPD5 inactivation is tolerated in human stem cells and augments TERC levels and telomere length, indicating a potentially broad window for therapeutic inhibition of PAPD5 in telomere diseases such as DC and IPF. 
     Example 12. PAPD5 Inhibitors 
     Experiments were performed to determine whether aminoglycosides can be used to inhibit PAPD5. 10 μM each of the following are used, (1) Kanamycin B sulfate; (2) Apramycin sulfate; (3) Spectinomycin dihydrochloride pentahydrate; and (4) Ribostamycin sulfate. These results show that each of them can inhibit PAPD5 ( FIG. 26 ). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Clinical characteristics of patients with PARM mutations 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Patient 1 
                 Patient 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Sex 
                 M 
                 M 
               
               
                 Age at first 
                 Infancy 
                  6 yeas old 
               
               
                 presentation 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Age at diagnosis of 
                 14 years old 
                 15 years old 
               
               
                 bone marrow failure 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Age at diagnosis 
                 18 years old 
                 20 years old 
               
               
                 of DC 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Current age 
                 24 years old 
                 28 years old 
               
               
                 Manifestations 
                 abnormal skin pigmentation 
                 oral leukoplakia 
               
               
                   
                 nail ridging 
                 abnormal skin pigmentation 
               
               
                   
                 gross motor/speech delay 
                 nail dystrophy 
               
               
                   
                 cerebellar hypoplasia 
                 recurrent urethral strictures 
               
               
                   
                 microcephaly 
                 lacrimal duct obstruction 
               
               
                   
                 short stature 
                 early graying and hair loss 
               
               
                   
                 delayed puberty 
                 bone marrow failure 
               
               
                   
                 dental abnormalities 
                 cirrhosis 
               
               
                   
                 bone marrow failure status post 
                 decreased diffusion 
               
               
                   
                 bone marrow transplantation 
                 capacity of the lung 
               
               
                   
                 osteopenia/pathological fracture 
                   
               
               
                   
                 progressive hypoxia due to 
                   
               
               
                   
                 pulmonary arteriovenous 
                   
               
               
                   
                 malformations 
                   
               
               
                 Relevant family 
                 Pulmonary fibrosis 
                 Pulmonary fibrosis 
               
               
                 history 
                 (paternal grandfather) 
                 (maternal grandfather) 
               
               
                 Diagnosis 
                 DC/Hoyeraal Hreidarrson 
                 Classic DC 
               
               
                   
                 syndrome (HHS) overlap 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 In silico evaluation of PARN missense notations 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Patient 1 
                 Patient 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Chromosome 
                 chr16:14723964 
                 chr16:14721000 
               
               
                 position 
                   
                   
               
               
                 annotation 
                 NM_002582:exon1: 
                 NM_002582:exon1: 
               
               
                   
                 c. 19A &gt; C 
                 c. 260C &gt; T 
               
               
                 region 
                 exonic; splicing 
                 exonic 
               
               
                 dbSNP139 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 Exome 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 variant server 
                   
                   
               
               
                 1000G 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 change 
                 nonsynonymous; p.N7H 
                 nonsynonymous; p.S67L 
               
               
                 Polyphen2 
                 Probably damaging/ 
                 Probably damaging/ 
               
               
                 (HumDiv/ 
                 probably damaging 
                 probably damaging 
               
               
                 HumVar) 
                 (1.000/0.985) 
                 (0.963/0.799) 
               
               
                 SIFT 
                 Damaging (0.03) 
                 Damaging (0.02) 
               
               
                 PROVEAN 
                 Deleterious (−4.041) 
                 Deleterious (−3.153) 
               
               
                 (cutoff = −2.5) 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Mutation Taster 
                 Disease-causing 
                 Disease-causing 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 RNA-Seq transcriptome analysis in PARN deficient cells 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Altered across 
                 Altered in any 
                 Altered in any 
               
               
                   
                   
                 all 7 pair-wise 
                 6 of 7 pair-wise 
                 5 of 7 pair-wise 
               
               
                   
                 Total genes 
                 comparisons 
                 comparisons 
                 comparisons 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 analyzed 
                 Obs 
                 Exp 
                 p-value 
                 Obs 
                 Exp 
                 p-value 
                 Obs 
                 Exp 
                 p-value 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Decreased 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 mRNA 
                 12937 
                 
                   0 
                 
                 
                   0.96 
                 
                 
                   0.02 
                 
                 
                   1 
                 
                 
                   3.83 
                 
                 
                   7.0E−09 
                 
                 
                   4 
                 
                 
                   10.5 
                 
                 
                   1.5E−19 
                 
               
               
                 rRNA 
                 63 
                 0 
                 0 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0.02 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0.05 
                 1 
               
               
                 snoRNA 
                 249 
                 
                   1 
                 
                 
                   0.02 
                 
                 
                   0.0003 
                 
                 
                   3 
                 
                 
                   0.07 
                 
                 
                   1.9E−19 
                 
                 
                   6 
                 
                 
                   0.2 
                 
                 
                   1.5E−32 
                 
               
               
                 snRNA 
                 259 
                 0 
                 0.02 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0.08 
                 1 
                 1 
                 0.21 
                 0.52 
               
               
                 Increased 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 mRNA 
                 12937 
                 0 
                   
                 NA 
                 1 
                 1.92 
                 0.14 
                 9 
                 10.5 
                 0.12 
               
               
                 rRNA 
                 63 
                 0 
                   
                 NA 
                 0 
                 0.01 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0.05 
                 1 
               
               
                 snoRNA 
                 249 
                 0 
                   
                 NA 
                 
                   1 
                 
                 
                   0.04 
                 
                 
                   0.01 
                 
                 
                   2 
                 
                 
                   0.2 
                 
                 
                   0.004 
                 
               
               
                 snRNA 
                 259 
                 0 
                   
                 NA 
                 0 
                 0.04 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0.21 
                 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 mRNA: protein-coding mRNA; 
               
               
                 rRNA: ribosomal RNA; 
               
               
                 snoRNA: small nucleolar RNA (includes box H/ACA, C/D, scaRNA); 
               
               
                 snRNA: small nuclear RNA 
               
               
                 Obs: observed; 
               
               
                 Exp: expected by chance; 
               
               
                 NA: not analyzed 
               
               
                 Bold: significantly more than expected; 
               
               
                 Italic: significantly fewer than expected 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Genes whose transcript levels are consistently altered in excess of the fold-change 
               
               
                 in TERC levels, in 7 pair-wise comparisons of PARN deficient versus normal cells 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Across all 7 
                 Across any 6 of 7 
                 Across any 5 of 7 
               
               
                   
                 comparisons 
                 comparisons 
                 comparisons 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Decreased 
                 SCARNA13 
                 SCARNA13 
                 SCARNA13 
               
               
                   
                   
                 FAM248 
                 FAM248 
               
               
                   
                   
                 SCARNA22 
                 SCARNA22 
               
               
                   
                   
                 SNORA42 
                 SNORA42 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 HIST1H2AK 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 MTRNR2L1 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 RNU6-767P 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 SNORA73 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 SNORD114-21 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 SNORD7 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 23WM7 
               
               
                 Increased 
                 none 
                 SNORA7A 
                 SNORA7A 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 UPK2BL 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ANKRD1 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CYR81 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 DACT1 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 EIF6A2 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 FLT1 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 LGMN 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 NDUFV1 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 SNORA77 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TA32R31 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Primers for sequencing the human PARN gene 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Name 
                 SEQ ID NO: 
                 Primer Sequence 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex1,2_L 
                  3 
                 GAGGGAAAGGAGCCCAGCCTTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex1,2_R 
                  4 
                 TGAAGGAGCCTTGGCTATGCACTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex3_L 
                  5 
                 GGGTTTAACCTGGTGGCCACTGAA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex3_R 
                  6 
                 ATTGGCTGGGCACAGTGGCTTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex4,5_L 
                  7 
                 AGCCCACCTGTTTGAGAATG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex4,5_R 
                  8 
                 CCCCAAAGCCCAAAGTTAAT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex6_L 
                  9 
                 TCCTGCCGCTAACATCCCCAAA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex6_R 
                 10 
                 GGCTGCATATGTGTACTGGCTGCAC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex7_L 
                 11 
                 CTAAGCGTGCATTGTGTGCT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex7_R 
                 12 
                 GCACTTATGCTGTGCCAAAG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex8,9_L 
                 13 
                 TCTTGGTTGATGACTTCATTCC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex8,9_R 
                 14 
                 CCGCAGAATTTCAAAAAGGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex10_L 
                 15 
                 GAGCAAGGGTAAGGAAACATTTAGCA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex10_R 
                 16 
                 TAGCCAAGCATGGTGGCACGAG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex11_L 
                 17 
                 TAATCGCTTGAACCCAGGAG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex11_R 
                 18 
                 CCAGGTTTTTCTGCCAATTC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex12_L 
                 19 
                 CGCAAAGCACAGGAAACTAA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex12_R 
                 20 
                 CAAGGCTCCCTGAAAATTGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex13_L 
                 21 
                 CCAAAATGGAGGAGGAATGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex13_R 
                 22 
                 TCTGGGAACATGCTGCATAC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex14_L 
                 23 
                 CCCAACAGCTTGTTTGAGAAG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex14_R 
                 24 
                 CTCCTGGGTTCAAGCAATTC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex15,16_L 
                 25 
                 TCAAAATGGCCAATGTGTTT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex15,16_R 
                 26 
                 CCAGAGCCATTCTGCTTTTC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex17_L 
                 27 
                 GATTGGTAGGGCAATGTGCT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex17_R 
                 28 
                 CCATCTGCAAACCAGGAAGT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex18_L 
                 29 
                 TGTTTTGGTCTGAACTTTCAGGCTTGG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex18_R 
                 30 
                 ACACCCGGCCCCTCATAGGAAA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex19_L 
                 31 
                 GTTGCAGTGAGCCAAGATCA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex19_R 
                 32 
                 CACAGCCCAATTTTGAGTGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex20_L 
                 33 
                 TTCAAGTTGTTGTGGGTTCTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex20_R 
                 34 
                 TCTTTTATACGCAGGCCAAAA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex21_L 
                 35 
                 GCCTTTGAACAGGCTAACTCTC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex21_R 
                 36 
                 AAAACAAACGAGGCAGCAAT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex22_L 
                 37 
                 TTGACCACCTTAGGCCACAT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex22_R 
                 38 
                 AGGCCATCTTTCCCAAAAGT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex23_L 
                 39 
                 TGATGGCTGGCTGAGTGTTA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex23_R 
                 40 
                 CACCAAGTGAAGCCTTGCTA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex24_L 
                 41 
                 CTCTTGTGAGGCCTTTCCTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN ex24_R 
                 42 
                 AGCATGACATGACCAGCAGA 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Oligonucleotides and primers 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 SEQ ID 
                   
               
               
                 Primer Name 
                 NO: 
                 Sequence 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN_L 
                 43 
                 CCCTTAGCCAGCCCGAGCAAGT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN_R 
                 44 
                 ACTCCGTCCTCCAGGCCAGCTT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN_L2 
                 45 
                 CAGGCCATAGAGGAGGCCGACTT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN_R2 
                 46 
                 CTCCTGCACCATTCGCCTGTGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN 
                 47 
                 AAGTCGCGGCCGGCGTCACC 
               
               
                 copy_ex1L 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN copy 
                 48 
                 TGGCCTGGTACACTTTGTGAAGA 
               
               
                 ex1R 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN copy 
                 49 
                 GGTACGGCAGCGTGTGTGCGTA 
               
               
                 ex24L 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN copy 
                 50 
                 TCTGAAGCGGGTGGAGCAAAGC 
               
               
                 ex24R 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN 
                 51 
                 TCAGTGATGGACCTTCAGTCTCTGCAT 
               
               
                 cDNA_ex3L 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN 
                 52 
                 TGCTATTTCAGTTTGGCCTTTGCAC 
               
               
                 cDNA_ex4L 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN cDNA 
                 53 
                 GGTTTCGGGAAAACATAGAAGTTAAATG 
               
               
                 ex5RWT 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN cDNA 
                 54 
                 TCAATGCTGGAGCTCTGACAAACA 
               
               
                 ex6R 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TERC_L1 
                 55 
                 GGGAGGGGTGGTGGCCATTTTT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TERC_L2 
                 56 
                 CACCGCGAAGAGTTGGGCTCTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TERC_L3 
                 57 
                 CTCTGTCAGCCGCGGGTCTCTC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TERC_L4 
                 58 
                 GGGTTGCGGAGGGTGGGCCT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TERC_R1 
                 59 
                 GAACGGGCCAGCAGCTGACATT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TERC_R2 
                 60 
                 GCATGTGTGAGCCGAGTCCTGG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 T7 TERC_L 
                 61 
                 TAATACGACTCACTATAGGGGGG TTGCGGAGGGTGGGCCTGG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Universal RT 
                 62 
                 CTACGTAACGATTGATGGTGCCTACAG 
               
               
                 primer 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GPR15 
                 63 
                 TGCATTGCAAGGAAGCTGTGTGC 
               
               
                 copy_L 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GPR15 
                 64 
                 TTGCCGCAACOCAGAGACAATG 
               
               
                 copy_R 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 POLR2A_L 
                 65 
                 GCTTGATGCGGGTGCTGAGTGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 POLR2A_R 
                 66 
                 GTCCTGGCGGTTGACTCCGTGT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 DKC1_L 
                 67 
                 ACAGGGTGAAGAGTTCTGGCACAT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 DKC1_R 
                 68 
                 TGAAGGTGAGGCTTCCCAACTCAA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ACTB_L 
                 69 
                 ATGATGATATCGCCGCGCTCGT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ACTB_R 
                 70 
                 TGCCGTGCTCGATGGGGTACTT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 U1 SnRNA_L 
                 71 
                 ATACTTACCTGGCAGGGGAGATA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 U1 SnRNA_R 
                 72 
                 GGGAAAGCGCGAACGCAGTC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 pLIKO_seq_L 
                 73 
                 CCCCCTTCACCGAGGGCCTA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN shRNA1 
                 74 
                 CCGGCC GCACTGTATTTAACTTAAT CTCGAGATTAAGTTAAATACAGTGCGGTTTTTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN shRNA2 
                 75 
                 CCGG GCCTTTGGTAACATTCAGATA CTCGAGTATC 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CAATCTCTATATGTGGCTTTTTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 luciferase 
                 76 
                 CCGGC GCTGAGTACTTCGAAATGTC CTCGAGGACA 
               
               
                 shRNA 
                   
                 TTTCGAAGTACTCAGCGTTTTTG 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 TERC-defined thresholds 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 TERC-deined 
               
               
                   
                   
                 threshold fold- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 change in 
               
               
                 Group 1 
                 Group 2 
                 (in (1 + TPM)) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WT1 FIB 
                 Patient 1 FIB 
                 0.86 
               
               
                 WT2 FIB 
                 Patient 1 FIB 
                 0.91 
               
               
                 WT1 IPS 
                 Patient 1 cl2 IPS 
                 0.57 
               
               
                 WT1 IPS 
                 Patient 2 cl2 IPS 
                 0.36 
               
               
                 WT2 IPS 
                 Patient 1 cl2 IPS 
                 0.51 
               
               
                 WT2 IPS 
                 Patient 2 cl2 IPS 
                 0.30 
               
               
                 293 control KD 
                 293 PARN KD 
                 0.85 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Primers and shRNA sequences for PAPD5 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Name 
                 SEQ ID NO: 
                 Sequence 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN_L 
                 43 
                 CCCTTAGCCAGCCCGAGCAAGT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN_R 
                 44 
                 ACTCCGTCCTCCAGGCCAGCTT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5_L 
                 77 
                 AGGGAGTCGTGGGTCTGCATGAA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5_R 
                 78 
                 ATATCTGGACGTCAGCGCTGGG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TERC_L 
                 57 
                 CTCTGTCAGCCGCGGGTCTCTC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Universal RT 
                 62 
                 CTACGTAACGATTGATGGTGCCTACAG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 POLR2A_L 
                 65 
                 GCTTGATGCGGGTGCTGAGTGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 POLR2A_R 
                 66 
                 GTCCTGGCGGTTGACTCCGTGT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN shRNA1 
                 74 
                 CCGGCC GCACTGTATTTAACTTAAT CTCGAGATTAAGTTAAATACAGTGCGGTTTTTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 luciferase 
                 76 
                 CCGG CGCTGAGTACTTCGAAATGTC CTCGAGGACATTTCGAAGTACT 
               
               
                 shRNA 
                   
                 CAGCGTTTTTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5 shRNA2 
                 79 
                 CCGG GCCACATATAGAGATTGGATA CTCGAGTATCCAATCTCTATAT 
               
               
                   
                   
                 GTGGCTTTTTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5 shRNA3 
                 80 
                 CCGG CCAACAAATCTCAGCATGGAT CTCGAGATCCATGCTGAGATTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                 GTTGGTTTTTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5 shRNA4 
                 81 
                 CCGG CGCCTGTAATCCCAGCACTTT CTCGAGAAAGTGCTGGGATTAC 
               
               
                   
                   
                 AGGCGTTTTTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5 shRNA5 
                 82 
                 CCGG GCCTGTAATCCCAGCACTTTA CTCGAGTAAAGTGCTGGGATTA 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CAGGCTTTTTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5 shRNA1 
                 83 
                 CCGG CGATGTTGGAAGGAGTTCATA CTCGAGTATGAACTCCTTCCAA 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CATCGTTTTTG 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 9 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Accession numbers for genes, RNA and proteins 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Nucleotide 
                 Protein ID(s) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 sequence(s) and 
                 and varants 
               
               
                   
                   
                 variants therein 
                 therein 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (RefSeq unless 
                 (Uniprot unless 
               
               
                   
                   
                 otherwise 
                 otherwise 
               
               
                 Gene 
                 Ensembl Gene D 
                 indicated) 
                 indicated) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TERC 
                 ENSG00000270141 
                 NR_001566   
                 N/A 
               
               
                 PARN 
                 ENSG00000140694 
                 NM_002582   
                 O95453 
               
               
                   
                   
                 NM_001242992 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 NM_001134477 
                   
               
               
                 TRF4-2 
                 ENSG00000121274 
                 NM_001040284 
                 Q6NOF8 
               
               
                 a.k.a. 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 NM_001040285 
                 H3BQM0 
               
               
                   
                   
                 FR872509.1 
                 CCB84642.1 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (GenBank) 
                 (GenBank) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 10 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 RNA-Seq transcriptome analysis of the effects of PAPD5 knockdown: 
               
               
                 transcripts altered in excess of the fold increase in TERC RNA 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Altered in any 2 of 3 
                 Altered in both pair- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 pair-wise comparisons: 
                 wise PARN-mutant 
               
               
                   
                   
                 HEK 293 and PARN-mutant 
                 comparisons: 
               
               
                   
                 Total genes 
                 Patient 1 IPSC clones 1 and 2 
                 Patient 1 IPSC clones 1 and 2 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 analyzed 
                 Obs 
                 Exp 
                 P-value 
                 Obs 
                 Exp 
                 P-value 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Decreased 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 mRNA 
                 19698 
                 30 
                 33.7 
                 0.34 
                 4 
                 3.97 
                 1 
               
               
                 lincRNA 
                 7670 
                 7 
                 13.1 
                 0.07 
                 1 
                 1.55 
                 0.97 
               
               
                 snoRNA 
                 454 
                 
                   7 
                 
                 
                   0.78 
                 
                 
                   5.9E−11 
                 
                 0 
                 0.09 
                 1 
               
               
                 snRNA 
                 1848 
                 7 
                 3.2 
                 0.05 
                 1 
                 0.37 
                 0.83 
               
               
                 Increased 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 mRNA 
                 19698 
                 47 
                 53.6 
                 0.15 
                 3 
                 3.31 
                 1 
               
               
                 lincRNA 
                 7670 
                 
                   12 
                 
                 
                   20.9 
                 
                 
                   0.03 
                 
                 0 
                 1.29 
                 0.42 
               
               
                 snoRNA 
                 454 
                 
                   11 
                 
                 
                   1.2 
                 
                 
                   4.0E−17 
                 
                 
                   2 
                 
                 
                   0.08 
                 
                 
                   2.0E−7 
                 
               
               
                 snRNA 
                 1848 
                 
                   11 
                 
                 
                   5.0 
                 
                 
                   0.01 
                 
                 0 
                 0.31 
                 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 mRNA: protein-coding mRNA; 
               
               
                 lincRNA: long intergenic non-coding RNA; 
               
               
                 snoRNA: small nucleolar RNA (indudes box H/ACA, C/D, scaRNA); 
               
               
                 snRNA: small nuclear RNA 
               
               
                 Obs: observed; 
               
               
                 Exp: expected by chance 
               
               
                 Bold: significantly more than expected by chance 
               
               
                 Italic: signficant fewer than expected by chance 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 11 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Genes whose transcript levels are altered in excess of the 
               
               
                 fold-change in TERC levels, in pair-wise comparisons 
               
               
                 of PAPD5 knockdown versus control cells 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Altered in all 3 of 3 
                   
               
               
                   
                 pair-wise comparisons: 
                 Altered in both pair-wise 
               
               
                   
                 HEK 293 and PARN-mutant 
                 PARN-mutant comparisons: 
               
               
                   
                 Patient 1 IPSC clones 1 and 2 
                 Patient 1 IPSC clones 1 and 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Decreased 
                 none 
                 CHURC1-FNTB 
               
               
                   
                   
                 DEC1 
               
               
                   
                   
                 GARS 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RNU6-39P 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RP4-533D7.6 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RP4-794H19.1 
               
               
                 Increased 
                 SNORD100 
                 AC018867.1 
               
               
                   
                   
                 GPAA1 
               
               
                   
                   
                 SNORA73 
               
               
                   
                   
                 SNORD100 
               
               
                   
                   
                 USP7 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 12 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Genes whose transcript levels are altered in excess of the fold-change in TERC 
               
               
                 levels, in any 2 of 3 pair-wise comparisons of PAPD5 knockdown 
               
               
                 versus control: HEK 293 cells and PARN-mutant Patient 1 clones 1 and 2 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Decreased 
                 Increased 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 AARSD1 
                 RNU6-48P 
                 AC004076.7 
                 PACRG 
                 RPAP1 
               
               
                 AC069499.1 
                 RNU6-606P 
                 AC018867.1 
                 PIAS3 
                 SCARNA12 
               
               
                 AL592183.1 
                 RP11-101E3.5 
                 AC112719.2 
                 PMM2 
                 SIGIRR 
               
               
                 ANP32B 
                 RP11-2B6.3 
                 ANKMY1 
                 PRKAB1 
                 SLC25A16 
               
               
                 AP001628.6 
                 RP11-397H6.1 
                 AP001059.7 
                 PTCD3 
                 SLC6A6 
               
               
                 BASP1 
                 RP11-686D22.5 
                 BPI 
                 PVR 
                 SLX1B 
               
               
                 CD52 
                 RP11-70F11.11 
                 BRPF3 
                 RFXANK 
                 SMTNL2 
               
               
                 CHURC1-FNTB 
                 RP11-895M11.3 
                 C12orf79 
                 RMRP 
                 SNORA13 
               
               
                 CTC-273B12.7 
                 RP4-533D7.6 
                 C16orf59 
                 RNU4-86P 
                 SNORA5C 
               
               
                 DDX56 
                 RP4-794H19.1 
                 C16orf93 
                 RNU6-1099P 
                 SNORA73 
               
               
                 DEC1 
                 SCARNA1 
                 C18orf8 
                 RNU6-1275P 
                 SNORD100 
               
               
                 DXO 
                 SNORA21 
                 C1orf127 
                 RNU6-373P 
                 SNORD116-15 
               
               
                 FKSG63 
                 SNORA31 
                 C5orf22 
                 RNU6-45P 
                 SNORD33 
               
               
                 G0S2 
                 SNORA55 
                 CGRRF1 
                 RNU6-714P 
                 SNORD38A 
               
               
                 GARS 
                 SNORA68 
                 CH507-513H4.5 
                 RNU7-140P 
                 SNORD46 
               
               
                 HLA-DPA1 
                 SNORD11 
                 COMMD3-BMI1 
                 RNU7-154P 
                 SNORD89 
               
               
                 MILR1 
                 snoU13 
                 CTC-435M10.3 
                 RNU7-181P 
                 SNORD92 
               
               
                 MTRR 
                 SPRR2G 
                 CTD-2302E22.2 
                 RNU7-77P 
                 SULT1A3 
               
               
                 MVP 
                 TARS 
                 CTD-2313N18.7 
                 RNVU1-15 
                 TRMT1 
               
               
                 NDUFS7 
                 TMEM141 
                 CYBA 
                 RP11-160E2.6 
                 UBE2F 
               
               
                 NPIPA1 
                 U2AF1L4 
                 DNASE1L1 
                 RP11-171I2.3 
                 USP7 
               
               
                 OFCC1 
                   
                 DPP7 
                 RP11-245A18.1 
                   
               
               
                 POLR3GL 
                   
                 EIF4ENIF1 
                 RP11-338N10.3 
                   
               
               
                 PRR4 
                   
                 FXYD1 
                 RP11-38C17.1 
                   
               
               
                 PSMC3IP 
                   
                 GABARAP 
                 RP11-430H10.1 
                   
               
               
                 RNU6-24P 
                   
                 GEMIN4 
                 RP11-577B7.1 
                   
               
               
                 RNU6-307P 
                   
                 GPAA1 
                 RP11-644F5.10 
                   
               
               
                 RNU6-314P 
                   
                 LINC01360 
                 RP3-526F5.2 
                   
               
               
                 RNU6-341P 
                   
                 NDUFA7 
                 RP4-539M6.19 
                   
               
               
                 RNU6-39P 
                   
                 NOMO3 
                 RP6-24A23.6 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 13 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 DNA oligos and primers 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Oligo/primer name 
                 SEQ ID NO: 
                 DNA Sequence 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5_L 
                 77 
                 AGGGAGTCGTGGGTCTGCATGAA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5_R 
                 78 
                 ATATCTGGACGTCAGCGCTGGG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 POLR2A_L 
                 65 
                 GCTTGATGCGGGTGCTGAGTGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 POLR2A_R 
                 66 
                 GTCCTGGCGGTTGACTCCGTGT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TERC_L 
                 57 
                 CTCTGTCAGCCGCGGGTCTCTC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Universal RT primer 
                 62 
                 CTACGTAACGATTGATGGTGCCTACAG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TERC_L2 
                 58 
                 GGGTTGCGGAGGGTGGGCCT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TERC_R 
                 60 
                 GCATGTGTGAGCCGAGTCCTGG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Luciferase shRNA 
                 76 
                 CCGG CGCTGAGTACTTCGAAATGTC CTCGAGGACA 
               
               
                   
                   
                 TTTCGAAGTACTCAGCGTTTTTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5 shRNA 1 
                 83 
                 CCGG CGATGTTGGAAGGAGTTCATA CTCGAGTATGAACTCCTTCCAACATC 
               
               
                   
                   
                 GTTTTTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5 shRNA2 
                 79 
                 CCGG GCCACATATAGAGATTGGATA CTCGAGTATC 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CAATCTCTATATGTGGCTTTTTG 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 14 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Antibodies used for Western blot 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Antibody 
                 Source 
                 Catalog # 
                 Dilution 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Anti-FLAG HRP 
                 Sigma 
                 A8592 
                 1:1000 
               
               
                   
                 Anti-PAPD5 
                 Atlas antibodies 
                 HPA042968 
                 1:1000 
               
               
                   
                 Goat anti-rabbit 
                 Bio-rad 
                 170-5046 
                  1:15000 
               
               
                   
                 Anti-actin HRP 
                 Santa Cruz 
                 Sc-1615 
                 1:1000 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Biotechnology 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 15 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN and PAPD5 targeting guide RNAs for CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 gRNA 
                 SEQ ID NO: 
                 TARGET SEQ + PAM 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5_227 
                 84 
                 CGGAGCGATACATGCCGGCC   GGG     
               
               
                   
                 85 
                 CGGAGCGATACATGCCGGCC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5_428 
                 86 
                 CGCCGCCGATCCAGCCGATT   CGG     
               
               
                   
                 87 
                 CGCCGCCGATCCAGCCGATT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAPD5_451 
                 88 
                 CCTCTTGTTGCTGCTGCCCG   AGG     
               
               
                   
                 89 
                 CCTCTTGTTGCTGCTGCCCG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PARN_17 
                 90 
                 TAATCTTCACAAAGTGTACC   AGG     
               
               
                   
                 91 
                 TAATCTTCACAAAGTGTACC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAR N_47 
                 92 
                 GTATGATGAAAAACGTTCAC   AGG     
               
               
                   
                 93 
                 GTATGATGAAAAACGTTCAC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PAR N_91 
                 94 
                 TGAAGTGTTAGGAGATACAT   AGG     
               
               
                   
                 95 
                 TGAAGTGTTAGGAGATACAT 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
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     OTHER EMBODIMENTS 
     It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of the following claims.