Patent Publication Number: US-2022220008-A1

Title: A composite material and a water purifying system

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention pertains to a composite material, particularly a composite material that can separate purified water from a contaminated water source comprising a low-boiling-point contaminant. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Water plays a crucial role in human survival and civilization development. For example, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world. Much of the long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil, natural gas, and manufactured products) is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is also an excellent solvent for a wide variety of substances both mineral and organic. Water, ice and snow are also central to many sports and entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating and skiing. 
     Although water covers approximately 70.9% of the Earth&#39;s surface, the lack of clean water is still one of the major social concerns in the world, particularly in areas that lack regular raining most of the time or that lack water purification facilities. In particular, according to a 2007 World Health Organization (WHO) report, 1.1 billion people lack access to safe drinking water supply; 88% of the 4 billion annual cases of diarrheal disease are attributed to unsafe water and inadequate sanitation and hygiene, while 1.8 million people die from diarrheal disease each year. WHO estimates that 94% of these diarrhea cases are preventable through modifications to the environment, including access to safe water. Simple techniques for treating water at home, such as chlorination, filters, and solar disinfection, and for storing it in safe containers could save a huge number of lives each year. Reducing deaths from waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in developing countries. 
     However, current water purification and sterilization techniques generally suffer from the tedious instrumentation setup and the high costs. In view of these problems, renewable-energy-powered water purification system, particularly solar powered water purification systems, extensively develop in the past few years. In atypical solar powered water purification system, a solar absorber converts optical energy and radiation into heat for nearby water evaporation, in which the evaporated water (i.e. water vapor) will be condensed and collected, and therefore obtaining purified water. Thus, the solar powered water purification system may also be referred as solar steam generation system. In general, materials with a high photothermal conversion efficiency (PCE) are used for constructing high-performance solar steam generation system. For example, by using such kind of materials, the surface temperatures of the system may rise to over 60° C. under 1 sun illumination, and therefore a high water evaporation rate may be readily-achieved. However, at the same time, it would cause organic contaminants, particularly low-boiling-point contaminants, to be at least partially evaporated with the water, leading to a compromised purification performance. 
     Accordingly, there remains a strong need for improved water purifiers and methods for purifying water. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     An aspect of the present invention relates to a composite material for floating on a contaminated water source, particularly a contaminated water source containing a low-boiling point contaminant. The composite material includes: A) a polymeric structure including a network of interconnected porous channels; and B) a carbonous material dispersed within the polymeric structure and the carbonous material has a functionalized surface. The polymeric structure draws contaminated water from the contaminated water source into the polymeric structure via capillary action, and the functionalized surface removes the low-boiling-point contaminant from the contaminated water. 
     In another aspect the present invention provides a method for purifying water including the steps of: A) drawing, via capillary action, contaminated water from a contaminated water source into the composite material according to an aspect of the present invention. The contaminated water source includes a low-boiling-point contaminant; B) applying radiation to the composite material to generate water vapor therefrom; C) condensing the water vapor into water droplets; and D) collecting the water droplets to form purified water. 
     Further provided in the present invention is a kit for harvesting purified water. The kit includes: A) a composite material according to an aspect of the present invention; B) a contaminated water unit; and C) a purified water collecting unit. 
     Without intending to be limited by theory, the inventors have, through their own researches, trials, and experiments, devised a composite material that can overcome or at least to mitigate the problem as mentioned above. In particular, the composite material may possess several advantages such as a high evaporation rate of 2.1 kg m −2  h −1  with 93% solar evaporation efficiency under 1 sun irradiation. The composite material may be capable of removing various contaminants including heavy metals, organic dyes, low-boiling-point contaminants and the like, while maintaining a high evaporation rate for water. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1A  shows the appearance of active carbon powder of an embodiment of the present invention; 
         FIG. 1B  shows a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of  FIG. 1A , with a scale bar of 50 μm; 
         FIG. 1C  shows a SEM image of  FIG. 1 a   , with a scale bar of 10 μm; 
         FIG. 2A  shows a Raman spectrum of active carbon of  FIG. 1A ; 
         FIG. 2B  shows a Reflectance spectrum of active carbon of  FIG. 1A ; 
         FIG. 2C  shows the temperature profiles of active carbon of  FIG. 1A  under various irradiation power; 
         FIG. 2D  shows an Infrared (IR) image of active carbon of  FIG. 1A  confined into a CityU logo grooves; 
         FIG. 3A  shows an SEM image of blank PVA gel; 
         FIG. 3B  shows an SEM image of a PVA gel loaded with 5 wt % active carbon; 
         FIG. 3C  shows a series of SEM images carbon hybrid aerogel (CHA) at different layers; 
         FIG. 4  shows the measurement of porosity of CHA by volume change after absorbing water; 
         FIG. 5  shows the N 2  adsorption-desorption isotherms of CHA with 5 wt % active carbon; 
         FIG. 6A  shows the water contact angles of CHA at different timeframes; 
         FIG. 6B  shows the water contact angles of blank polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) network at different timeframes; 
         FIG. 7  shows the wettability of the CHA; 
         FIG. 8  shows the appearance of CHA being cut into pieces and soaked in water and subjected to overnight sonication; 
         FIG. 9A  shows the appearance of CHA being put into an acidic solution of pH≈1.04 for 7 days; 
         FIG. 9B  shows the appearance of CHA of  FIG. 9A  being put into an alkaline solution of pH≈13.35 for further 7 days; 
         FIG. 10  shows the appearance of CHA upon subjecting to flexibility test; 
         FIG. 11A  shows images of PVA hydrogel loaded with different wt % of active carbon; i) 0 wt %; ii) 0.01 wt %; iii) 1 wt %; and iv) 5 wt %; 
         FIG. 11B  shows images of the PVA hydrogels of  FIG. 11A  after freezing-drying; 
         FIG. 12A  shows absorption spectra of blank PVA and carbon hybrid aerogel; 
         FIG. 12B  shows reflectance spectra of carbon hybrid aerogel doped with 2.5 wt % active carbon powder (the upper curve) and blank PVA (the low curve); 
         FIG. 13A  shows an image of a solar simulator; 
         FIG. 13B  shows temperature profiles of CHA surface under 1 sun irradiation; 
         FIG. 13C  shows surface temperature profiles of CHA upon light on and light off of the solar simulator of  FIG. 13A ; 
         FIG. 13D  shows IR images of CHA under illumination of solar simulator of  FIG. 13A  (solar irradiation density: 1 kW m −2 , AM 1.5 G). 
         FIG. 14  shows an IR image of CHA after heating for 1 h on a 50° C. heating plate; 
         FIG. 15A  shows images of organic dyes (upper: crystal violet; lower: Sudan III) removal by CHA; 
         FIG. 15B  shows removal efficiency of crystal violet and Sudan III by CHA; 
         FIG. 16A  shows adsorption kinetic plots and curve fitting by pseudo-first-order kinetic models of CHA adsorption for crystal violet at room temperature; 
         FIG. 16B  shows adsorption kinetic plots and curve fitting by pseudo-first-order kinetic models of CHA adsorption for Sudan III at room temperature; 
         FIG. 17A  shows images of adsorption performance of active carbon powder for crystal violet solution (50 μM); 
         FIG. 17B  shows images of adsorption performance of blank PVA for crystal violet solution (50 μM); 
         FIG. 18A  shows IR images of CHA upon adsorbing crystal violet (upper) and Sudan III (lower) in the dark and under Xe lamp irradiation; 
         FIG. 18B  shows adsorption capacity of CHA toward crystal violet and Sudan III in dark conditions, room temperature of about 22° C., and upon Xe lamp irradiation; 
         FIG. 18C  shows change in adsorption performance of CHA toward crystal violet and Sudan III at different regeneration cycles; 
         FIG. 19A  shows an image of solar steaming process of CHA by solar simulator under 5 kW m −2 ; 
         FIG. 19B  shows a top view of CHA floating on bulk water in a beaker; 
         FIG. 19C  shows a side view of CHA of  FIG. 19B  floating on bulk water in a beaker; 
         FIG. 20A  shows IR images of top and side views of CHA of  FIGS. 19B and 19C , respectively, under 1 kW m −2  irradiation for 30 min; 
         FIG. 20B  shows surface temperature distribution of CHA of  FIG. 19B  under one sun irradiation; 
         FIG. 20C  shows temperature distribution along the vertical direction of CHA of  FIG. 19C  under one sun irradiation; 
         FIG. 21A  shows temperature profiles of different CHA samples floating on water in a beaker under one sun irradiation (1 kW m −2 ); 
         FIG. 21B  shows IR images of CHA samples of  FIG. 21A ; 
         FIG. 22A  shows temperature profiles of solar evaporation system (CHA with 5 wt % active carbon (CHA-5)) under various irradiation intensities and without CHA under one sun irradiation as a blank control; 
         FIG. 22B  shows IR images of CHA-5 floating on water in a beaker under various solar irradiation intensities; 
         FIG. 22C  shows mass loss of water for CHA-5 over time at various solar irradiation intensities, and without CHA under one sun irradiation as a blank control; 
         FIG. 23A  shows change of surface temperature of CHA with 0.1 wt % active carbon (CHA-0.1) with time under different solar irradiation intensities; 
         FIG. 23B  shows mass loss of water for CHA-0.1 over time at various solar irradiation intensities; 
         FIG. 23C  shows change of surface temperature of CHA with 1 wt % active carbon (CHA-1) with time under different solar irradiation intensities; 
         FIG. 23D  shows mass loss of water for CHA-1 over time at various solar irradiation intensities; 
         FIG. 24A  shows evaporation rate of pure water and CHA under conditions with no light irradiation); 
         FIG. 24B  shows evaporation rate and energy efficiency of different CHA samples under one sun optical density; 
         FIG. 25A  shows an image of CHA with 15 wt % active carbon (CHA-15); 
         FIG. 25B  shows an image illustrating water contact experiment of CHA-15 of  FIG. 25A ; 
         FIG. 25C  shows temperature change of CHA-15 of  FIG. 25A  with time under 1 kW m −2  solar irradiation with a solar simulator; 
         FIG. 25D  shows mass loss of CHA-15 of  FIG. 25A  with time under 1 kW m −2  solar irradiation with a solar simulator; 
         FIG. 26A  shows images and corresponding IR images of blank CHA without organic contaminants adsorption, adsorbed crystal violet, and Sudan III in the process of solar evaporation process under on sun irradiation (1 kW m −2 , scale bar: 10 mm); 
         FIG. 26B  shows temperature profiles of black CHA without organic contaminants adsorption, adsorbed with crystal violet, and Sudan III of  FIG. 26A ; 
         FIG. 26C  shows mass loss of water for black CHA without organic contaminants adsorption, adsorbed with crystal violet, and Sudan III of  FIG. 26A ; 
         FIG. 26D  shows evaporation stability of CHA after its adsorption or organic contaminants of  FIG. 26A  reached an adsorption equilibrium under one sun irradiation for ten cycle (each cycle lasted for one hour); 
         FIG. 27  shows absorption spectra of dye polluted water before and after purification by CHA. The inserts shows images of dye polluted water before and after purification. Said spectra and images were recorded after the same stimulated solar irradiation so as to exclude the possibility of dye degradation due to stimulated solar irradiation; 
         FIG. 28A  shows absorption spectra of methyl blue before and after one sun irradiation for 2 hours; 
         FIG. 28B  shows absorption spectra of Rhodamine B before and after one sun irradiation for 2 hours; 
         FIG. 28C  shows absorption spectra of methyl orange before and after one sun irradiation for 2 hours; 
         FIG. 29A  shows an image of pH papers tested in acidic water before and after purification by CHA; 
         FIG. 29B  shows an image of pH papers tested in alkaline water before and after purification by CHA; 
         FIG. 29C  shows change of pH values of acidic and alkaline water before and after purification by CHA, corresponding to  FIGS. 29A and 29B , respectively; 
         FIG. 30A  shows removal performance of CHA toward different metal ions; 
         FIG. 30B  shows ion concentrations of seawater before and after desalination through solar driven seawater purification by CHA; 
         FIG. 30C  shows images of electrical resistance measurements of seawater, purified water by CHA, and domestic water; 
         FIG. 31A  shows molecular formula and boiling point of three kinds of pesticides; 
         FIG. 31B  shows removal efficiency of AuHA and CHA toward pesticides of  FIG. 31A  with solar evaporation; 
         FIG. 32A  shows mercury ion removal efficiency by AuHA and CHA through direct adsorption; 
         FIG. 32B  shows mercury ion removal efficiency by AuHA and CHA through solar evaporation; 
         FIG. 33  shows SEM images and element mapping of CHA after adsorbed with Hg 2+ , dimethoate, omethoate, and malathion; 
         FIG. 34  shows images of a large-scale CHA with a dimension of 20 cm*20 cm. 
         FIG. 35A  shows a schematic diagram of setup for outdoor water purification using the CHA of  FIG. 34  according to an embodiment of the present invention; 
         FIG. 35B  shows an image of the actual setup of  FIG. 35A ; 
         FIG. 35C  shows measured results of contaminants removal and water purification by the setup of  FIG. 35B  under natural sunlight; 
         FIG. 36  shows stability of water collection efficiency of the setup of  FIG. 35B  over 7-day evaporation. Each cycle lasted for 10 h from 8:00 to 18:00; and 
         FIG. 37  shows a schematic diagram of preparation of carbon hybrid aerogel. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     Unless otherwise specifically provided, all tests herein are conducted at standard conditions which include a room and testing temperature of 25° C., sea level (1 atm.) pressure, pH 7, and all measurements are made in metric units. Furthermore, all percentages, ratios, etc. herein are by weight, unless specifically indicated otherwise. It is understood that unless otherwise specifically noted, the materials compounds, chemicals, etc. described herein are typically commodity items and/or industry-standard items available from a variety of suppliers worldwide. 
     As used herein, the forms “a”, “an”, and “the” are intended to include the singular and plural forms unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. 
     The term “purified water” generally describes water that has been subjected to a purification process, and by which one or more of undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids, and gases is removed from said water body. The purified water separated by the composite material of the present invention may meet some or most of the requirements of an international standard for a particular type of water quality. For example, in an embodiment, the purified water may at least having a resistivity that meets an international standard for a particular type of water quality. In particular, the purified water as described herein may have a resistivity that meets the requirements for Type IV, Type III, or Type II water as defined by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D1191-91. Preferably, the purified water may have a resistivity that meets the requirements for Type III or Type II water as defined by ASTM. More preferably, the purified water may have a resistivity that substantially meets the requirements for Type II water as defined by ASTM, i.e. at least 1 MΩ·cm. The term “purification process” generally means a chemical process, a physical process and/or a biological process that can trap, hold, neutralize, reduce, and/or eliminate one or more of contaminants from the contaminated water. 
     The term “contaminated water source” generally means a water body into which a contaminant is introduced, and it is introduced in such a manner that reduces the ability of the body of water to provide its intended functions (e.g. as drinkable water, for medical, pharmacological, chemical, and industrial applications, etc.) that it would otherwise provide. The water body as described herein may include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs, groundwater, and domestic water. The term “contaminant” generally means a single constituent or a mixture of constituents that spoils, corrupts, infects, makes unfit, or makes inferior a material or a physical body. The term “contaminant” as used herein may comprise organic and inorganic compounds, particularly comprising organic dyes, metal ions, low-boiling-point contaminants and the combination thereof. 
     The term “low-boiling-point contaminant” generally means any chemical substances that can be evaporated along with water under standard atmospheric pressure of about 101.3 kPa. In particular, the low-boiling-point contaminant as described herein may be organic compounds having an initial boiling point less than or equal to about 250° C. (about 482° F.) measured at a standard atmospheric pressure of about 101.3 kPa. Alternatively, the low-boiling-point contaminant as described herein may further refer to mercury ion (Hg 2+ ) that can be evaporated along with water under standard atmospheric pressure of about 101.3 kPa, particularly the mercury ion from mercury dichloride (HgCl 2 ). 
     In the first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a composite material that is capable of separating purified water from a contaminated water source containing a low-boiling-point contaminant. The composite material may have a density of less than 1 g/cm 3  such that it can float on the contaminated water source surface to perform water purification. The composite material includes a polymeric structure and a carbonous material dispersed within the polymeric structure. The polymeric structure includes a network of interconnected porous channels that allows the polymeric structure to draw contaminated water from the contaminated water source into the polymeric structure via capillary action whereas the carbonous material includes a functionalized surface that can remove the contaminant from the contaminated water being drawn into the polymeric structure. 
     In an embodiment herein the composite material has a density of less than 1 g/cm 3 ; or from about 0.01 g/cm 3  to about 1 g/cm 3 ; or from about 0.05 g/cm 3  to about 0.99 g/cm 3 ; or from about from about 0.07 g/cm 3  to about 0.98 g/cm 3 ; or from about from about 0.1 g/cm 3  to about 0.9 g/cm 3 . Preferably, the composite material may have a density of about 0.79 g/cm 3 . 
     The network of interconnected porous channels may include a first network of porous channels and a second network of porous channels. In particular, the first network of porous channels may be infiltrated with the second porous channels, i.e. the porous channels of the first network may be interconnected with one another via the porous channels of the second network. The first network of porous channels may include pores with a pore size at least about 20 times larger than the pores of the second network of porous channel. In particular, the first network of porous channels may include pores with pore size between about 20 to about 60 times larger than the pores of the second network of porous channel. Preferably, the first network of porous channels may include pores with pore size between about 20 to about 100 times larger than the pores of the second network of porous channel. For example, the first network of porous channels may include pores with pore size from about 30 μm to about 150 μm, from about 50 μm to about 150 μm, from about 80 μm to about 150 μm, or particularly about 100 μm; whereas the second network of porous channels may comprise pores with pore size from about 0.1 μm to about 7.5 μm, from about 0.5 μm to about 6 μm, from about 0.7 μm to about 5.5 μm, or in particular from about 1 μm to about 5 μm. 
     The functionalized surface of the carbonous material generally means that a surface that is intrinsically incorporated with or is artificially incorporated with functional groups for serving a specific purpose. As referred herein, the functionalized surface may describe a surface that is intrinsically incorporated with or is artificially incorporated with functional groups that are able to form a physical bond, such as a hydrogen bonding with the contaminant, such that the contaminant is adsorbed to the functionalized surface. In particular, the functionalized surface may include a functional group selected from the group consisting of a hydroxyl group, a carboxyl group, a carbonyl group, an amino group, and a combination thereof, or a carboxyl group. 
     The composite material may has a porosity greater than about 70%. In particular, the composite material has a porosity from about 70% to about 85%, from about 77% to about 85%, or from about 77% to about 80%. Preferably, the composite material has a porosity of about 77%. The composite material may further has a specific surface area greater than about 5 m 2 g −1 . In particular, the composite material may have a specific surface area from about 1.0 m 2 g −1  to about 20 m 2 g −1 , from about 1.0 m 2 g −1  to about 15 m 2 g −1 , from about 1.0 m 2 g −1  to about 12 m 2 g −1 , from about 1.0 m 2 g −1  to about 10 m 2 g −1 , from about 1.5 m 2 g −1  to about 10 m 2 g −1 , from about 2.0 m 2 g −1  to about 10 m 2 g −1 , from about 3.0 m 2 g −1  to about 8.0 m 2 g −1 , from about 4.0 m 2 g −1  to about 7.0 m 2 g −1 , or from about 5.0 m 2 g −1  to about 6.5 m 2 g −1 . Preferably, the composite material has a specific surface area of about 6.33 m 2 g −1 . 
     It is appreciated that porosity, specific surface area, and the pore size are some of the core factors that govern the permeability of a material toward a particular liquid. The composite material of the present invention with the aforementioned porosity, specific surface area, and a wide range of pore size distribution may be advantageous in facilitating the capillary action, ensuring a continuous supply of water into the composite material for water purification. As such, by simply deploying the composite material to the surface of the contaminated water source or by immersing a portion of the composite material into the contaminated water source, the contaminated water can be readily drawn into the composite material for purification. In one example embodiment, the composite material may be placed into an organic dye solution to perform purification. The composite material may draw the organic dye solution into its polymeric structure via capillary action and the organic dye may then be captured and trapped by the carbonous material upon being transported along the porous channels of the polymeric structure, and therefore purified water is separated from the organic dye. Any purified water retained in the composite material may be retrieved by squeezing the composite material. In another example embodiment, the composite material may be deployed on the surface of an immiscible organic dye solution-water mixture, in particular the organic dye solution floats on the water surface. The composite material may substantially draw the organic dye solution into its polymeric structure via capillary action, capture and trap the organic dye solution by the carbonous material, leaving the purified water behind. 
     In a particular embodiment, the composite material may be an aerogel. In an embodiment herein, the composite material may be a carbon-based aerogel. In an embodiment herein, the composite material may be an aerogel consists essentially of polyvinyl alcohol and active carbon. 
     The carbonous material may be selected from the group consisting of active carbon, amorphous carbon, carbonized biomass, carbonized wood material, and a combination thereof. In particular, the carbonous material may be selected from active carbon, amorphous carbon, or carbonized biomass. Preferably, the carbonous material is selected from active carbon. 
     The composite material may include at least 0.1 wt % of the carbonous material. In particular, the composite material may include from about 0.1 wt % to about 5 wt %, from about 0.5 wt % to about 5 wt %, or from about 1 wt % to about 5 wt % of the carbonous material. Preferably, the composite material may include about 5 wt % of the carbonous material. 
     In a particular embodiment, the polymeric structure further includes an evaporation region which is adapted to evaporate the purified water within the polymeric structure. The evaporation region may be formed when the composite material is exposed to radiation. For example, when radiation is applied substantially right on the top of the composite material or applied to the top of the composite material at an angle less than about 45° with respect to the vertical axis of the composite material, the carbonous material may absorb and convert the radiation into heat, which in turn heating up the polymeric structure, Owing to the direction of radiation applied to the composite material, the temperature at the top of the composite material would be developed more easily as compared with the bottom. As such it would develop a temperature gradient along the depth of the network of porous channels. That being said, there would be a gradual decrease of temperature from the top of the porous channels down to the bottom thereof. The depth of the network of porous channels may be about 0.2 cm to about 2 cm, about 0.2 cm to about 1 cm, about 0.2 cm to 0.8 cm, or particularly 0.5 cm. Such a temperature gradient would suggest that most of the heat absorbed by the carbonous material is localized at the top region of the polymeric structure, i.e. the evaporation region. Advantageously, on the one hand, it would ensure water within the polymeric structure to be evaporated readily, which in turn allowing contaminated water to be drawn into the composite material continuously; on the other hand, it may ensure the contaminated water within the composite material less likely to convert into water vapor prior reaching the evaporation region, such that providing sufficient time for the carbonous material to adsorb the contaminants, thereby enhancing contaminant removal efficiency of the composite material. In a n embodiment herein, the highest temperature of the temperature gradient may be at least 50° C. 
     The radiation applied to the composite material may be solar radiation. The solar radiation may be generated by natural sun irradiation, artificial solar radiation, and a combination thereof. In one example, the solar radiation may be artificially generated by the solar simulator and such stimulated solar radiation may have an intensity from about 1 sun irradiation unit to about 5 sun irradiation units. 
     The polymeric structure may include a hydrophilic polymer, particularly a hydrophilic polymer having a hydrophilic-lipophilic scale of at least 10 or from about 10 to about 18 on the HLB scale. In particular, the hydrophilic polymer may be selected from the group consisting of polyvinyl alcohol, poly(acrylamide), poly(ethylene glycol), poly-N-vinylpyrrolidone, polyurethanes, polyacrylic acid, polyethylene oxide, a co-polymer thereof, and a combination thereof. Preferably, the hydrophilic polymer may be selected from from the group consisting of polyvinyl alcohol, poly(acrylamide), poly(ethylene glycol), a co-polymer thereof, and a combination thereof. More preferably, the hydrophilic polymer is polyvinyl alcohol. Alternatively, the polymeric structure may include a polymer of polydimethylsiloxane, polyvinylidene fluoride and a combination thereof. 
     In the second aspect of the present invention, there is provided with a method for purifying water using the composite material as described above. The method includes the following steps:
         A) drawing, via capillary action, contaminated water from a contaminated water source into the composite material as described herein, the contaminated water source includes a low-boiling-point contaminant;   B) applying radiation to the composite material to generate water vapor therefrom;   C) condensing the water vapor into water droplets; and   D) collecting the water droplets to form purified water.       

     In step A), the composite material is deployed on the surface, typically floated, of the contaminated water source such that the contaminated water can be drawn into the composite material via capillary action as a result of the network of interconnected porous channels as described above. In one embodiment, the composite material may be deployed directly on the surface of the contaminated water source. In another embodiment, the composite material may be deployed to a container containing a portion of contaminated water obtained from the contaminated water source. For example, the composite material may be deployed to a plastic container which contains a portion of contaminated water collected from the contaminated water source. Alternatively, the composite material may be deployed to a plastic container connected with a reservoir which supplies contaminated water to the container. In particular, step A) further includes the step of capturing and/or neutralizing; or capturing, the low-boiling-point contaminant by the carbonous material. As mentioned above, the carbonous material includes a functionalized surface that may form, for example, hydrogen or other type of permanent or temporary bond with the contaminant. Thus, as the contaminated water travels along the network of porous channels of the composite material, the contaminant may be adsorbed, and removed by the carbonous material. In an alternative embodiment, the carbonous material may chemically neutralize (i.e. render the contaminant inactive, or convert it to a harmless material) the low-boiling-point contaminant. 
     The low-boiling-point contaminant may include mercury ion, an organic solvent, an organic pesticide, and a combination thereof. In a particular embodiment, is the low-boiling-point contaminant may be an organic solvent, and it may be selected from the group consisting of ketone with C3-C5, alcohol with C2-C4, and a combination thereof. Preferably, the organic solvent is selected from the group consisting of acetone, ethanol, isopropanol, propanol, tert-butyl alcohol, and a combination thereof. In a further particular embodiment, the low-boiling-point contaminant may be an organic pesticide selected from the group consisting of omethoate, dimethoate, malathion, and a combination thereof. In an embodiment herein, the low-boiling-point contaminant may further refer to mercury ion (Hg 2+ ) that can be evaporated along with water under standard atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kPa, preferably, the mercury ion may be from mercury dichloride. 
     In another example embodiment, the contaminated water source may include an organic dye, such as used in the textile industry, or metal ions other than mercury ion. In particular, the organic dye may be selected from the group of Methylene blue (MB), Rhodamine B (RhB), Crystal violet, benzidine, Sudan III, and a combination thereof. The organic dye may have a concentration from about 0.001 mg/L to about 100 mg/L. The metal ions other than mercury ion particularly include Fe 3+ , Cu 2+ , Cd 2+ , Pb 2+ , Zn 2+ , Ni 2+ , Al 3+ , Se 2+ , Mn 2+ , Sn 3+ , V 5+ , Li + , Na + , K + , Mg 2+ , and Ca 2+ . The contaminated water source may have a metal ion concentration of from about 0.001 mg/L to about 1000 mg/L. In another example, the contaminated water source may include an acidic solution, and the acidic solution may cause the contaminated water source to have a pH of about 4 or below, from about 1 to about 3, from about 1 to about 2, or particularly below 2. In another example embodiment, the contaminated water source may include an alkaline solution, and the alkaline solution may cause the contaminated water source to have a pH of about 10 or above, from about 10 to about 13, from about 11 to about 13, or particularly above 11. 
     In step B), the radiation may be applied to the composite material by illuminating the composite material with a radiation from a particular direction. In particular, the radiation illuminates the composite material from a position substantially directly above the composite material or a position at an angle less than about 450 with respect to an axis vertically-perpendicular to the surface of the contamination water source. As mentioned above, the radiation applied to the composite material may be solar radiation. The solar radiation may be generated from a source selected from the group consisting of natural sun irradiation, a solar simulator, and a combination thereof. In particular, when the solar radiation is generated by the solar simulator, the intensity of such stimulated solar radiation may be of about 1 sun irradiation unit to about 5 sun irradiation units. In a preferred embodiment, the solar radiation generated by the solar simulator is of about 1 sun irradiation unit. The radiation may be applied to the composite material as long as the amount of purified water vapor generated meets the skilled person&#39;s requirements. For example, the radiation may be applied to the composite material for about 25 minutes, about 30 minutes, about 45 minutes, about 1 hour, about 3 hours, about 5 hours, about 10 hours, about 1 day, about 3 days, about 7 days, etc. A person skilled in the art would recognize to reduce the application time for generating the substantially same amount of vapor when the radiation intensity increases. 
     In step C), the water vapor generated from step B) may be condensed by providing a medium that has a temperature lower than the water vapor; or at or below the water condensation point, such that when the water vapor contacts the medium, it turns into water droplets, which can be collected in subsequent step D). In one example, a condensation chamber may be used to cover the container for condensing water vapor generated from the composite material. The condensation chamber may be a three-dimensional space enclosed by a plurality of walls, plates, panels, and the like, to help condense the water vapor into water droplets. The condensation chamber is preferably at least partially transparent such that solar radiation can be transmitted through the condensation chamber to the composite material during operation. In particular, the condensation chamber may be configured in a shape of a square frustum, a triangular prism, a square pyramid, a rectangular prism, and a combination thereof. In an embodiment herein, the condensation chamber may be configured in a house-shape, i.e. the top of the condensation chamber is in the shape of a triangular prism (i.e. a roof-like structure) and the bottom of the condensation chamber is a shape of rectangular prism. 
     In step D), the water droplets (i.e. condensate) in step C) may be collected, for example, by grooves or troughs, within the condensation chamber. In one example, where the condensation chamber is configured in a house-shaped. The grooves or troughs may be configured in parallel to each other, and in parallel with the horizontal plane of the condensation chamber. In particular, the grooves or troughs may be further connected to a purified water collecting unit such as a plastic bottle or a tank via plastic or other piping. As such, purified water is obtained. 
     In a third aspect of the present invention, there is provided a kit, particularly a portable kit, for harvesting purified water includes A) the composite material as described herein; B) a contaminated water unit; and C) a purified water collecting unit. The contaminated water unit may be a container of any shape that can store or hold a particular volume of contaminated water collected from a contaminated water source, and allows the composite material to fit thereupon. The contaminated water unit may be made of any materials known in the art that are not dissolved by the contaminated water and do not absorb the contaminated water. In particular, the contaminated water unit may be made of flexible polymer such as but not limited to silicon, such that the contaminated water unit may be foldable for storage purposes. 
     The purified water collecting unit may be a container that receives, hold, and/or store any purified water obtained from the composite material of the present invention. The purified water collecting unit may be of any form that is known in the art, such as but not limited to a plastic/metallic bottle, a cup, and the like. 
     In one embodiment, the kit may be operated by collecting a portion of contaminated water with the contaminated water unit from a contaminated water source, following by deploying the composite material to the surface of the contaminated water or immersing the composite material into the contaminated water. The composite material may therefore draw the contaminated water into its polymeric structure for contaminant capturing by the carbonous material dispersed within the polymeric structure. The purified water separated by the composite material may then, for example, be collected with the purified water collecting unit by squeezing the composite material. 
     In another embodiment, the kit may further include a condensation chamber as described above, a plurality of plastic pipings, and a solar simulator. The condensation chamber preferably includes hinges or any other mechanical components known in the art so as to configure the condensation chamber to be foldable. In operation, the condensation chamber may cover the contaminated water unit, which contains a portion of contaminated water with the composite material being deployed thereon or immersed therein. The condensation chamber may also be connected to the purified water collecting unit via the plurality of plastic pipings. The kit may then put under natural sunlight or under the illumination of the solar simulator in case natural sunlight is not available, for water purification. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Materials and Reagents Used 
     Active carbon powder (1800 m 2 g −1 ) was obtained from Nanjing XFNANO Materials Tech Co., Ltd (Nanjing, China). Hydrochloric acid (HCl, 37 wt %) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. PVA (Mw=13 000-23 000) was obtained from Sigma-Aldrich. Methylene blue (MB) was brought from J&amp;K chemical (Beijing, China), Rhodamine B (RhB) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. HgCl 2 , AgNO 3 , Pb(NO 3 ) 2 , Cd(NO 3 ) 2 , and NiCl 2  were obtained from Sinopram Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Omethoate, dimethoate, and malathion were purchased from AccuStanard (New Haven, Conn.). Unless otherwise special declared, all chemicals were used as received. Deionized water (18.2 MΩ·cm) was used for all the following experiments. 
     Instrumentation and Methods Applied 
     Characterization 
     SEM images were recorded using scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Philps XL-30 FEG) at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV. Pore size (diameter of the pore) of the carbon-hybrid aerogel (CHA) was measured by comparison between a distance obtained from a two-point measurement with standard ruler in SEM. A solid absorption spectrum was measured by SolidSpec-3700/3700DUV (Shimadzu). The concentration of heavy metal ions in both pollution water and purified water was determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), Optima 8000, PerkinElmer). The temperature distribution on the evaporation surface and along the thickness direction were captured by an infrared camera (Fluke Ti400). All the IR data were processed by SmartView 4.0, and the temperature change and mass change data were processed by Origin 8.5. 
     Preparation of CHA 
     The process of fabricating an embodiment of the carbon-hybrid aerogel (CHA) is illustrated in Scheme 1 of  FIG. 37 . 0.05 g of active carbon was added into a 25 mL beaker containing 5 mL of PVA solution (10 wt %); then, 4.5 mL of deionized water was added into the mixture. After that, the mixture was stirred with a magnet for 10 min. Finally, 1.5 mL of hydrochloric acid (1.2 M) was added into the above-mentioned mixture for gelation. After the gelation was carried out for 2 h at room temperature, the hybrid gel was immersed into deionized water overnight to get the pure hybrid hydrogel. Then, the hybrid gel was placed in a −20° C. freezer to freeze the hybrid hydrogel, which was then thawed in a water bath at 37° C. The freeze-thaw process was repeated at least 10 times. After undergoing a freeze-drying process, the obtained network was placed into hydrazine aqueous solution at 65° C. for 8 h. Finally, the network was washed with deionized water three times to remove extra hydrazine. 
     Stability of CHA 
     The mechanical stability of the CHA was investigated by tearing the CHA into small pieces, followed by subjecting to sonication for at least 8 h at room temperature. The pH stability of the CHA was investigated by soaking a piece of CHA in an acidic solution with a pH value of 1.04 for 7 days. After that, the acid-treated CHA was transferred to and soaked in an alkaline solution with a pH value of 13.36 for another 7 days. 
     Adsorption Measurement 
     The adsorption tests were carried out in two different temperature models. One is contaminant adsorption at room temperature, another is adsorption under Xe lamp irradiation at 1 kW m −2 . Crystal violet and Sudan III were used as organic contaminants to evaluate the water purification performance of CHA. For crystal violet, first, an aqueous solution of crystal violet (concentration: 50 μM) was prepared in a plastic dish with a diameter of 60 mm. Then, a piece of CHA was carefully placed into the crystal violet solution. After the crystal violet solution was completely adsorbed into the CHA, the solution was squeezed out from the CHA for concentration measurements. For Sudan III, an aqueous solution of Sudan III was prepared by first dissolving Sudan III into cyclohexane with a concentration of 100 μM, followed by slowly pouring 0.4 mL of the Sudan III-cyclohexane solution into 6 mL of water. A piece of CHA was then placed on the Sudan III-cyclohexane water surface. After the Sudan III-cyclohexane solution was completely adsorbed by the CHA, the residual solution in the plastic dish was subjected to concentration measurements. The concentrations of the samples were analyzed by an Agilent Cary 8454 UV-vis spectrophotometer at fixed time intervals. 
     The experimental procedures for studying the influence of illumination on the adsorption capacity of CHA with respect to the referred two contaminants were generally the same as those studying at room temperature, except that the experiments were conducted under illumination of a Xe-lamp with a light intensity of 1 kW m −2 . 
     The apparent concentrations of crystal violet and Sudan III were measured and calculated by absorbance. The adsorption capacities of the adsorbent were calculated according to the following equation: 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   e 
                   = 
                   
                     
                       
                         ( 
                         
                           
                             C 
                             0 
                           
                           - 
                           
                             C 
                             e 
                           
                         
                         ) 
                       
                       ⁢ 
                       V 
                     
                     m 
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   1 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     where C 0  and C e  represent the initial and equilibrium concentrations of contaminants, respectively, V is the volume of the solution (6 mL), and m is the amount of the adsorbent. 
     Solar Driven Steam Generation 
     The prepared 3D hybrid network was molded with a diameter of 28 mm, and then, the network was floated on the surface of bulk water in a glass baker. A steam generation experiment was performed by using a solar light simulator, which was configured with an optical filter for a standard AM 1.5G spectrum. The networks were irradiated under a solar simulator (PLS-SXE300D/300DUV, Beijing Perfectlight, Bejing, China) at various light densities (1, 3, and 5 kW m −2 ), and the mass change was calculated by measuring the weight of the evaporation system using an electronic mass balance every 5 min (Shimadzu, AUW22OD, 0.01 mg in accuracy) for 1 h under steady-state conditions. Meanwhile, the evaporation process of each network under different light density were recorded by an IR camera, respectively. The ambient temperature was 20° C., and the ambient humidity was 55%. The evaporation rate of pure water under dark conditions was subtracted from all the measured evaporation rates to eliminate the effect of natural water evaporation. The corresponding energy efficiency (η) for solar to steam generation could then be calculated using the following formula: 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   η 
                   = 
                   
                     
                       m 
                       ⁢ 
                       
                         h 
                         v 
                       
                     
                     
                       
                         C 
                         
                           o 
                           ⁢ 
                           p 
                           ⁢ 
                           t 
                         
                       
                       ⁢ 
                       
                         P 
                         o 
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   2 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     where m is the solar steam generation rate, h v  is the evaporation enthalpy of water, and P o  is the power density of solar illumination. For pure water evaporation, the evaporation rate in dark condition was 0.012 kg m −2  h −1  and the pure water evaporation rate under 1 sun irradiation was 0.033 kg m −2  h −1 . For blank PVA network, the evaporation rate was 0.031 kg m −2  h −1  without solar illumination; the evaporation rate under 1 sun (1 kW m −2 ) was measured as 0.641 kg m −2  h −1  in this work. h v  can be calculated using eq 3: 
         h   v   =CΔT+Δh   (3)
 
     where, C is the specific heat capacity of water, ΔT is the temperature increase of water, and Δh is the enthalpy of vaporization on the relative temperature. 
     Water Purification for Low-Boiling-Point Contaminants 
     Mercury contaminated water purification was conducted as follows: Mercury chloride solutions (15.56 mg/L, 50 mL) were treated as contaminated water. Apiece of CHA was placed on the bulk mercury chloride solutions under solar irradiation (1 kW m −2 ); the steam was collected by a condensing system and the mercury concentration in the purified water was measured by ICP. As comparison, same experiments were conducted on a piece of plasmonic aerogel network. 
     Adsorption removal of mercury was carried out by dropping 1.5 mL of mercury solution on CHA; after 30 min, water was squeezed out from the CHA and subjected to mercury concentration measurements by ICP. 
     Three kinds of pesticides, namely, omethoate, dimethoate, and malathion were selected as the model for controlling the low-boiling-point contaminants that escaped in the evaporation process. The solar evaporation was conducted as mentioned above, and the concentrations of pesticides were determined by GC-FID. 
     Wastewater Purification 
     Contaminated water purification was conducted by collecting the condensed steam that was generated by the CHA upon solar illumination. A homemade all-in-one device was fabricated to simulate the industrial contaminated water purification process in reality. Three water-soluble dyes, methylene blue (MB, 50 mg L −1 ) Rhodamine B (Rh B, 50 mg L −1 ), and methylene orange (MO, 50 mg L −1 ), were treated as simulated wastewater. The absorbance changes were recorded after solar purification. For heavy ions wastewater purification, 11 kinds of metal ions (Fe 3+ , Cu 2+ , Cd 2+ , Pb 2+ , Zn 2+ , Ni 2+ , Al 3+ , Se 2+ , Mn 2+ , Sn 3 , V 5+ , and Li + ) were added to the as-simulated wastewater. The concentration of the metal ions in the purified water was determined by ICP-OES. 
     Outdoor Evaporation of CHA 
     Outdoor purification of dye-contaminated water was conducted by a lab-made device. A piece of CHA with a dimension of 20 cm×30 cm was floated on the contaminated water in an inset container of the outdoor device. The generated steam condensed on the roof of the device and was collected by the designed trough. The mass change and temperature of the device were measured every 60 min in the range 8:00-18:00. The corresponding solar irradiation intensity were record simultaneously. 
     Example 1A 
     Preparation and Structural Characterization of CHA 
     The carbon hybrid aerogel (CHA) was fabricated by an in situ gelation method of commercially available active carbon and PVA, followed by a freeze-drying process. The characterization of the active carbon, blank PVA (i.e., without active carbon), and CHA are illustrated in  FIGS. 1A-1C, 2A-2D, and 3A-3C . 
     As illustrated in  FIGS. 1A-1C  and  FIGS. 2A-2D , the active carbon particles have a general size of about 10 μm to about 20 μm, and is capable of acting as a solar absorber upon receiving solar radiation of different intensities. The internal morphology and microstructure of blank PVA and CHA were characterized with scanning electronic microscopy (SEM). The prepared blank PVA foam shows a porous architecture with a pore size around 100 μm ( FIG. 3A , left). In addition, small pores with sizes ranging from 1 to 5 μm were distributed on the three-dimensional (3D) framework wall ( FIG. 3A , right). As revealed by  FIG. 3B , the active carbon particles were dispersed into the self-supporting PVA frameworks with uniform distribution. These results confirm that the PVA network serves as a scaffold to support the active carbon particles. Furthermore, the morphology of porous architecture across the upper, middle, and bottom layer of CHA is generally the same ( FIG. 3C ). 
     The porosity and the surface area of the CHA were determined by measuring the volume change after absorbing water, and by using BET method, respectively. It was deduced that the porosity of CHA reaches up to 76.8% with a specific surface area of 6.33 m 2  g −1  ( FIGS. 4 and 5 ). 
     Example 1B 
     Wettability and Capillary Action of CHA 
     Wettability experiments indicate that the CHA shows an increasing hydrophobic trend compared with the blank PVA aerogel ( FIGS. 6A and 6B ), which is ascribed to the hydrophobic properties of active carbon. In order to illustrate the capillary wicking process, several pieces of tissue paper were placed on the CHA surface. Red-ink water was readily wicked and transported to the surface of CHA by capillary force upon floating the CHA on the water. The white tissue paper turned to red owing to soaking of the wicked red-ink water ( FIG. 7 ). As a result, it can be confirmed that the CHA network has superior capillary action, ensuring a continuous replenishment of water supply to the evaporation regions (i.e. the top surface of CHA). 
     Example 1C 
     Stability of CHA 
     Additionally, the stability of CHA is crucial for practical applications. Thus, it is important to ensure that the active carbon particles are firmly adhered to the PVA network. To verify this, a piece of CHA network was torn into several fragments and then continuously ultrasonicated (power: ˜120 W) in a water bath for 9 h at room temperature ( FIG. 8 ). After ultrasonication, the water showed no observable change in color, confirming a negligible loss of active carbon from the PVA network. Moreover, to verify the long-term stability of CHA in harsh conditions, a piece of CHA was placed into an acidic solution (pH=1) for 7 days. Then, the same CHA was rinsed with water and then placed into an alkaline solution (pH=13) for another 7 days. As reveled in  FIGS. 9A and 9B , there is no observable damage on the CHA. The CHA also possesses excellent elasticity. As illustrated in  FIG. 10 , the CHA network is capable of recovering to its original shape after releasing the pressure. 
     Example 1D 
     Photophysical and Photothermal Properties of CHA 
     After loading active carbon, the color of PVA foam changed from white to dark ( FIGS. 11A and 11B ). The reflection and absorption spectra of blank PVA foam, active carbon powder, and CHA were measured using a spectrophotometer. As shown in  FIG. 12A , the blank PVA network shows negligible light absorption due to its high reflection intensity. Compared with blank PVA network, the CHA shows a much stronger light absorption from UV to IR with an averaged absorption of 98% (weighted by AM 1.5G solar spectrum). A reflection spectrum of the CHA network confirms that only less than 5% of light is reflected ( FIG. 12B ). These results imply that the CHA can effectively harvest solar energy over the full solar spectrum. 
     The photothermal properties of CHA were investigated using the setup as illustrated in  FIG. 13A . As revealed by  FIGS. 13B-13D , it is manifest that a hot region was present on the surface of CHA and such region was rapidly established upon illumination with a solar simulator. In particular, the surface temperature of CHA quickly rose to 54.3° C. upon 1 sun irradiation, where in sharp contrast, the CHA without irradiation showed negligible temperature change (22.3° C.). 
     Next, the thermal insulation property of the porous framework was tested. The time-dependent thermal resistance property was evaluated by recording the thermal images of the network being put onto a heating plate at about 180° C. The surface temperature of the CHA sample reached a steady value of only 33° C. on a heating plate at 50° C. for 1 h, which demonstrates the good heat-insulating property of CHA ( FIG. 14 ). The excellent thermal insulation property can be ascribed to the inner porous structure that endows CHA with a low thermal conductivity, which is important for building a high-performance photothermic evaporation system. 
     Example 1E 
     Purification of Wastewater Containing Organic Pollutants Using CHA 
     Two kinds of organics dyes, which are common contaminants in textile industry, are selected for demonstrating the ability of CHA on organic contaminants removal. In particular, the ability is demonstrated by way of removing crystal violet (water-soluble) dissolved in water and a cyclohexane solution of Sudan III (oil-soluble) floating on water. As illustrated in  FIG. 15A , top row, crystal violet was swiftly adsorbed (&lt;10 s) into the CHA after placing the CHA into the crystal violet solution (50 μM). The purified water can be further obtained by squeezing the CHA. The Sudan III-cyclohexane solution did not mix with the water but floated on the water as a separate layer. After placing the CHA onto the surface of polluted water, the CHA freely floats on the bulk water surface as a consequence of the low density of CHA. The CHA exhibited quick adsorption toward Sudan III-cyclohexane (&lt;10 s) without shaking and rotation ( FIG. 15A , bottom row). 
     As revealed by  FIG. 15B , the adsorption capability of CHA for the two organic dyes were found to be: 96.4% for crystal violet and 94.7% for Sudan III. These results imply that CHA has a strong adsorption capacity for the organic dyes, and the results are comparable to other reported work (Table 1). Whilst the CHA of this work exhibited a comparable adsorption capacity as other reported work, the inventors noted that none of those reported work could adsorb low-boiling-point as this work does (which will be discussed in later part of this disclosure). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Comparison adsorption capacity of reported materials 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Adsorption 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Efficiency 
                   
               
               
                 Material 
                 Substance 
                 (%) 
                 Reference 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Amyloid fibrils 
                 Bentazone 
                   92 
                 Adv. Mater. 32 (2020) 1907932 
               
               
                 g-C 3 N 4 @TiO 2   
                 Soybean oil 
                 99.5 
                 Adv. Funct. Mater.28 (2018) 
               
               
                   
                 Diesel 
                 88.7 
                 1706545 
               
               
                 RGO/CNF aerogel 
                 Ethanol 
                 78.0 
                 Small 13(2017) 1700453 
               
               
                 Graphdiyne 
                 Dichloromethane 
                 98.0 
                 Adv. Mater. 28 (2016)168-173 
               
               
                 h-BN cellular net 
                 Hexane 
                 99.0 
                 ACS Nano 11(2017) 558-568 
               
               
                 works 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 RF-GO aerogel 
                 Methylene Blue 
                 97.9 
                 Angew. Chem. Inte.r Ed. 54 (2015) 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 2397-2401 
               
               
                 CNF Hydrogels 
                 Methylene Blue 
                 98.5 
                 Angew. Chem. Inte.r Ed. 51(2012) 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 5101-5105 
               
               
                 CHA 
                 Crystal violet 
                 96.4 
                 This work 
               
               
                   
                 Sudan III 
                 94.7 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The adsorption kinetics of CHA with respect to the above two organic dyes were studied by measuring the concentrations of dye in the contaminated water samples. As revealed in  FIGS. 16A and 16B , an adsorption equilibrium was reached at around 6 min for both contaminants. For comparison, same amount of active carbon powder was added into the water samples for dye adsorption. As illustrated in  FIGS. 17A and 17B , the purple color of the contaminated water cannot be completely removed after 6 min even using the same amount of active carbon powder as the CHA, suggesting the CHA shows a much better adsorption performance compared to the native active carbon powder. Similarly, the blank PVA sample exhibits insufficient dye removal performance under the same experimental conditions (FIG.  17 B). These results suggest that the excellent dye adsorption property of CHA is attributed to a synergetic effect of the active carbon and the PVA network. 
     To demonstrate the temperature influences on the adsorption performance of CHA, the organic dye removal experiments were carried out at room temperature (dark condition) and under Xe lamp irradiation, respectively. The IR images of CHA at different irradiation conditions for the adsorption experiment indicate that, under 1 sun irradiation, the surface temperature of CHA increases up to about 50° C., accompanied by significant improvements in adsorption capacity for both crystal violet and Sudan III compared to that in dark conditions ( FIGS. 18A and 18B ). One possible reason is that a higher temperature improves the activity of functional groups in CHA, which can speed up the random thermal motion of contaminant molecules, thereby accelerating the coordination between CHA and contaminants. This illumination-enhanced adsorption of CHA is much different from common carbon materials, endowing it with a wide range of temperature adaptation. 
     Other factors that influence the practical application of wastewater purification material are regeneration and ease of reuse. To demonstrate the reusability of CHA, the removal efficiency of Sudan III was measured after washing CHA with cyclohexane, whereas the removal efficiency of crystal violet was measured after washing CHA with a water/ethanol (1:1, v/v) mixture. As revealed by  FIG. 18C , the regenerated CHA retained &gt;90% of its original adsorption capacity after 10 adsorption-desorption cycles for both crystal violet and Sudan III, which further confirms the high adsorption capacity and good cycle stability of CHA. 
     Example 1F 
     Solar-Driven Water Purification Using CHA 
     Solar-driven water evaporation was first evaluated at laboratory conditions by freely floating a piece of CHA onto a glass beaker with certain volume of water. Under solar simulator irradiation at 5 sun, water steam can be clearly observed after 60 s ( FIG. 19A ). 
     During the steam generation, converted heat could be inevitably lost to water and surrounding environment via three pathways: convective heat loss, conduction to bulk water, and thermal irradiation, which may weaken solar steaming efficiency. To study the heat loss from CHA upon solar steaming, an independent solar steam generation system is designed, which includes a CHA with a diameter of 20 mm and a thickness of 9 mm, freely floating on the surface of water contained in a glass beaker (internal diameter, 25 mm) ( FIGS. 19B and 19C ). As revealed by  FIGS. 20A and 20B , the surface temperature of CHA increased to about 45° C. after 20 min of irradiation of 1 sun illumination, which is much higher than that of CHA without solar illumination. As shown in  FIG. 20C , the temperature decreased obviously along with the depth of the evaporation system, which indicates that the generated heat is localized in network and heat loss to water is minimized. 
     PVA networks with different amounts of loading active carbon, including CHA-0.1 (0.1 wt % AC), CHA-1 (1 wt % AC), and CHA-5 (5 wt % AC), were prepared and their steam generation efficiency were studied. As shown in  FIG. 21A , the surface temperatures of three samples increase rapidly after solar illumination (AM 1.5G) started. After about 5 min of solar illumination, it reached a stable stage ( FIG. 21B ). The temperature profiles and corresponding IR images of CHA-5 under irradiation with various power densities are shown in  FIGS. 22A and 22B . The water evaporation rates of CHA-5 under different solar illuminations of 1, 3, and 5 sun were calculated to be 2.12, 5.45, and 11.25 kg m −2  h −1 , respectively ( FIG. 22C ). The curves of time-dependent temperature increase and mass change of water of CHA-0.1 and CHA-1 under 1, 3, and 5 sun are shown in  FIGS. 23A-23D . As could be calculated from the slopes of the curves, the evaporation rates are 0.87 (CHA-0.1), 1.54 (CHA-1), and 2.12 kg m −2  h −1  (CHA-5), which are 6.9, 12.3, and 16.9 times higher than that of blank PVA network without solar illumination, respectively. 
     A blank control experiment was carried out by measuring the evaporation rate with and without solar irradiation ( FIG. 24A ). The CHA-5 shows the highest evaporation rate with an energy conversion efficiency of 89.8% under 1 sun irradiation ( FIG. 24B ). In this work, reported vaporization latent enthalpy method was used to evaluate the vaporization latent enthalpy and solar vapor conversion. (Li, X.; Li, J.; Lu, J.; Xu, N.; Chen, C.; Min, X.; Zhu, B.; Li, H.; Zhou, L.; Zhu, S.; Zhang, T.; Zhu, J. Enhancement of Interfacial Solar Vapor Generation by Environmental Energy.  Joule  2018, 2, 1331-1338.) CHA with 15 wt % AC content shows less evaporation rate and energy efficiency ( FIGS. 25A-25D ). Based on the above, CHA-5 was chosen as the optimal ratio for AC content for further studies. A comparison of the evaporation rate and total cost with other reported works is listed in Table 2. In general, none of the reported material could achieve such a high evaporation rate with considerably low cost. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Comparison of evaporation rate and cost various solar steam generation 
               
               
                 materials under 1 sun irradiation 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Solar evaporation 
                 Evaporation rate 
                 Total cost 
                   
               
               
                 system 
                 (kg m −2  h −1 ) 
                 ($ m −2 ) 
                 Reference 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Salt-rejecting still 
                 0.6 
                 3 
                 Energy Environ. Sci. 11 (2018) 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 1510-1519 
               
               
                 LASH 
                 3.6 
                 293.21 
                 ACS Nano 13 (2019) 7913-919 
               
               
                 Micro-rafts 
                 0.95 
                 31.4 
                 Sci. Adv. 3 (2017) 1602522- 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 1602530 
               
               
                 HHNDL membrane 
                 1.65 
                 41.5 
                 Adv. Mater. 29 (2017) 1702590- 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 1702596 
               
               
                 Graphene films 
                 1.45 
                 20 
                 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 113 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 (2016)13953-3958 
               
               
                 Black gold 
                 0.67 
                 6636 
                 Nat. Commun. 6 (2015) 10103- 
               
               
                 membranes 
                   
                   
                 10111 
               
               
                 HNG 
                 3.2 
                 98.83 
                 Nat. Nanotechnol. 13 (2018) 489- 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 495 
               
               
                 Floating solar 
                 0.5 
                 54 
                 Nat. Energy 1 (2016) 16126-16127 
               
               
                 receiver 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 PPy nanosheets 
                 1.35 
                 20 
                 Adv. Mater. 31 (2019) 1807716- 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 1807724 
               
               
                 HHEs 
                 3.2 
                 14.9 
                 Adv. Mater. 32 (2020) 1907061- 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 1907068 
               
               
                 PPy origami 
                 2.12 
                 22 
                 Adv. Mater. 31 (2019) 1900720- 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 1900726 
               
               
                 Carbonized 
                 1.27 
                 3 
                 J. Mater. Chem. A 6 (2018) 4642- 
               
               
                 melamine 
                   
                   
                 4648 
               
               
                 Carbon sponges 
                 1.98 
                 12.5 
                 Nano Energy 58 (2019) 322-330 
               
               
                 MoS2/C @ PU 
                 1.95 
                 33 
                 Adv. Energy Mater. 8 (2018) 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 1802108-1802118 
               
               
                 CHA 
                 2.12 
                 4.08 
                 This work 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The solar evaporation performance of CHA after it adsorbed excess organic contaminants has been studied. The corresponding photographs and IR images of CHA without dye adsorption and adsorbed with crystal violet and Sudan III are shown in  FIGS. 26A-26C . Under 1 sun irradiation, both CHA and dye-loaded CHA indicated the same temperature increment and similar solar-driven evaporation performance, which verifies that dye-loading has little influence on the solar evaporation rate and long-time stability of CHA ( FIG. 26D ). 
     The solar-driven purification ability of the CHA toward practical contaminated water has been evaluated. Three typical dyes, methylene blue (MB), Rhodamine B (Rh B), and methylene orange (MO), which are common in the textile industry were employed to prepare simulated wastewater samples. The absorption intensities of wastewater samples before and after the evaporation process were recorded, and the concentrations of the organic dyes were determined by using the standard absorption spectrum method. As shown in  FIG. 27 , the absorbance of the three dyes decreased dramatically in the purified water. Correspondingly, the dye solution turned substantially transparent after purification ( FIG. 27 , inserts). As a control, the photostability of the three dyes under 1 sun irradiation has been studied, and as revealed by  FIGS. 28A-28C , these dyes remain stable after said irradiation. 
     For other kinds of wastewater like acidic and alkaline solution, the CHA also exhibited good antifouling capacity. As illustrated in  FIGS. 29A-29C , the pH values of the acidic and alkaline solutions resumed to about pH=7 after solar-driven purification by CHA. Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) results showed that the concentrations of metal ions (Fe 3+ , Cu 2+ , Cd 2+ , Pb 2+ , Zn 2+ , Ni 2+ , Al 3+ , Se 2+ , Mn 2+ , Sn 3+ , V 5+ , and Li + ) in water were reduced by 3 orders of magnitude via the evaporation process ( FIG. 30A ). The quality of the purified water has been evaluated by testing the metal ions concentrations (Na + , K + , Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ ) after solar-driven seawater purification. After purification, the metal ions concentrations in the purified water were 0.7845 (Na + ), 0.4022 (K + ), 0.0319 (Mg 2+ ), and 0.0512 mg/L (Ca 2+ ), which meet the WHO standard of drinkable water ( FIG. 30B ). Meanwhile, the electrical resistance of purified water increased from 0.050 MQ (seawater) to 1.57 MΩ ( FIG. 30C ), which is comparable to Type II water standard as defined by ASTM. These results confirm that the CHA has excellent purification performance. 
     Example 1G 
     Removal of Low-Boiling-Point Contaminants 
     The removal of low-boiling-point contaminants including pesticides and Hg 2+  ion in contaminated water was explored. Three pesticides omethoate, dimethoate, and amalathion with low boiling points of 135, 117, and 156° C., respectively, were dissolved in water with concentrations of 17.4, 11.4, and 15.3 mg kg −1  ( FIG. 31A ). CHA samples with a diameter of 3 cm and a thickness of 0.5 cm were floated onto the 25 mL of contaminated water. Water samples were collected from the evaporated steam upon 1 sun irradiation for 2 h. As revealed by Table 3, the concentration of three pesticides remained substantially the same before and after irradiation. In addition, mass balance experiment conducted further on malathion indicates that the mass balance of malathion was maintained under irradiation (Table 4). Taken together, it indicates that the pesticides remained substantially stable and maintained a mass balance (i.e. did not decompose) under irradiation. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Comparison of pesticide concentration before and after irradiation 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Pesticide 
                 Concentration before 
                 Concentration after 
                 Error bar 
               
               
                 species 
                 irradiation (mg/kg) 
                 irradiation (mg/kg) 
                 (mg/kg) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Omethoate 
                 53.2 
                 50.0 
                 1.75 
               
               
                 Dimethoate 
                 25.9 
                 22.4 
                 1.26 
               
               
                 Malathion 
                 48.6 
                 41.8 
                 1.49 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 The verification of mass balance of these pesticides during the solar 
               
               
                 evaporation process 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Before 
                 After 
                   
                 Residual in 
               
               
                 Pesticide 
                 evaporation 
                 evaporation 
                 Adsorbed by 
                 bulk water 
               
               
                 species 
                 (mg/kg) 
                 (mg/kg) 
                 CHA 
                 (mg/kg) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Malathion 
                 56.332 
                 0.236 
                 12.428 
                 42.365 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The same experiments were also carried out with a PVA framework embedded with gold nanoparticles instead of active carbon (hereafter referred as AuHA). As revealed by  FIG. 31B , the pesticides in steam is efficiently removed by using CHA. However, water purified with AuHA still contains a substantial amount of pesticides because of its weak adsorption capacity. Moreover, this evaporation suppression effect was further applied to contaminated water with organic solvents (Table 5). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Comparison of water purification performance by steaming of water solution 
               
               
                 of various organic solvents 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Before purification 
                 After purification 
                 After purification 
               
               
                 Organic solvent 
                 (mg/L) 
                 by AuHA (mg/L) 
                 by CHA (mg/L) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Acetone 
                 165.35 
                 6.55 
                 0.99 
               
               
                 Ethanol 
                 156.88 
                 5.20 
                 0.75 
               
               
                 Isopropanol 
                 172.18 
                 7.94 
                 1.53 
               
               
                 Propanol 
                 105.99 
                 13.09 
                 6.66 
               
               
                 Tert-butyl alcohol 
                 145.80 
                 49.74 
                 11.03 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The elimination of mercury ion in steam by direct adsorption using CHA were investigated. Water (1.5 mL) with a Hg 2+  concentration of 1.54 mg L −1  was dropped onto each of CHA and AuHA aerogel samples (˜3 cm diameter, 0.5 cm thick). After 30 min of soaking, water was squeezed from the soaked aerogel samples. It is shown that [Hg 2+ ] in water squeezed from AuHA decreased to 0.48 mg L −1 , while CHA shows a much more effective removal of Hg 2+  to 0.09 mg L −1  ( FIG. 32A ). 
     The efficiency of Hg 2+  removal of CHA under the synergetic action of adsorption and solar steaming has been investigated. A water sample with a much higher [Hg 2+ ] of 15.56 mg mL −1  was used for this experiment. CHA and AuHA aerogel samples (˜3 cm diameter, 0.5 cm thick) were, respectively, floated on 25 mL of the Hg 2+ -contaminated water samples. Purified water samples were collected from the steam generated from the CHA and AuHA aerogels under 1 sun irradiation for 2 h. As shown in  FIG. 32B , the synergetic action of adsorption and solar steaming is even more effective as compared with adsorption alone. Even the initial [Hg 2+ ] is much higher, the synergistically treated water samples contain much less [Hg 2+ ] (0.17 μg L −1 ) compared with the case of direct adsorption alone. The CHA is much more effective compared to AuHA in eliminating Hg 2+ . CHA can decrease the [Hg 2+ ] from 15.56 to 0.17 μg L −1 , with a 35-fold improvement compared with AuHA (6 μg L −1 ). 
     The retention effect of CHA was confirmed by the fact that the CHA has a typical element residue in element determination and mapping of SEM after postevaporation of low-boiling-point contaminants ( FIG. 33  and Table 6), which demonstrated the evaporation suppression effect. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Summary of element content in CHA after adsorption various contaminants 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Composition 
                   
                 CHA sample after purifying water contaminated with 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 (wt %) 
                 Pristine CHA 
                 Hg ion 
                 Dimethoate 
                 Omethoate 
                 Malathion 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 C 
                 56 
                 58 
                 58 
                 56 
                 55 
               
               
                 O 
                 40 
                 39 
                 36 
                 41 
                 42 
               
               
                 Cl 
                 3.58 
                 2.12 
                 5.58 
                 2.39 
                 1.77 
               
               
                 Hg 
                 — 
                 0.57 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 P 
                 — 
                 — 
                 0.53 
                 0.14 
                 0.23 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 1H 
     Scalable Production of Fresh Water 
     A large-area panel of CHA device was achieved by a one-step modeling method with a dimension of 20 cm×20 cm for practical solar water purification ( FIG. 34 ). The design and the components of the water purification device is illustrated in  FIG. 35A . A wastewater tanker was connected to evaporation chamber (30 cm×20 cm) to transport wastewater to the solar evaporator. The prototype consists of a roof-like transparent panel (or a chamber with a roof-like structure) that allows light to transmit. The panel also allows vapor to be condensed thereon, to collect the condensate and to export the condensate via plastic piping ( FIG. 35B ). The solar-driven wastewater purification happens at the bottom of container; the water vapor will condense at the slope of the roof and naturally flow into the designed grooves on the side wall. 
     An outdoor water purification experiment was carried out on a sunny day. Evidently, condensed water was observed on the transparent PVC cover after 25 min under natural sunlight. The outdoor time-dependent solar intensity, ambient air temperature under the sun, and condensate produced by the prototype CHA reactor were illustrated in  FIG. 35C . The maximum purified generation rate reached as high as 1.3 kg m −2  h −1 , which is comparable with or higher than other reported work (Table 7). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Summary of purified water collection rate under nature solar irradiation 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Water collection 
                   
               
               
                 Solar evaporator 
                 rate (kg m −2  h −1 ) 
                 Reference 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 CHA 
                 1.3 
                 This work 
               
               
                 Al—Ti—O PVDF 
                 0.49 
                 Nano Energy 41(2017) 600-608 
               
               
                 Cu x S/Cu foam 
                 0.52 
                 Nano Energy 69 (2020) 104465 
               
               
                 MF-PPy 
                 0.5-0.8 
                 Nano Energy 58 (2019) 322-330 
               
               
                 Hierarchical copper- 
                 0.7 
                 Nano Energy 60 (2019) 841-849 
               
               
                 silicon (HCS) 
                   
                   
               
               
                 AAM 
                 0.88 
                 Nat. Photonics 10 (2016) 10 393 
               
               
                 Plasmonic paper 
                 0.97 
                 J. Mater. Chem. AS (2017) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 20044-20052 
               
               
                 LASH 
                 1.3 
                 Nat. Energy 1 (2016) 16126- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 16127 
               
               
                 HVAC 
                 1.6 
                 Nano Energy 67 (2020) 104255 
               
               
                 HNG 
                 1.61 
                 Nat. Nanotech. 13 (2018) 489-9 
               
               
                 PSH 
                 2.1 
                 Adv. Mater. 31 (2019) 1900720- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 1900726 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Over the 10 h period, a total of 0.67 kg of water was obtained with a CHA of 600 cm 2 , giving a figure of 11.2 kg/m 2  of water generation on a sunny day. The long-time outdoor test was carried out by measuring the water collection performance during 7 d; the water collection efficiency is shown in  FIG. 36 , indicating its stable outdoor water collection capacity. Additionally, the cost-effectiveness and scalability are important factors for practical applications. The market prices of PVA and active carbon are $13.2/kg and $0.81/kg, respectively. The total cost of this CHA prototype with a thickness of 0.5 cm was estimated to be around $4.08/m 2  (only materials cost was accounted). 
     It should be understood that the above only illustrates and describes examples whereby the present invention may be carried out, and that modifications and/or alterations may be made thereto without departing from the spirit of the invention. 
     It should also be understood that certain features of the invention, which are, for clarity, described in the context of separate embodiments, may also be provided in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features of the invention which are, for brevity, described in the context of a single embodiment, may also be provided separately, or in any suitable subcombination. 
     All references specifically cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. However, the citation or incorporation of such a reference is not necessarily an admission as to its appropriateness, citability, and/or availability as prior art to/against the present invention.