Patent Publication Number: US-2021177875-A1

Title: Methods and compositions for treating childhood or teen obesity

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/593605, filed on Dec. 1, 2017; hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     One third of children in the U.S. are overweight or obese, and this number is continuing to rise. Children become overweight and obese for a variety of reasons. The most common causes are genetic factors, lack of physical activity, unhealthy eating patterns, or a combination of these factors. 
     Overweight children are at high risk of becoming overweight adolescents and adults, placing them at risk of developing chronic and sometimes fatal diseases such as heart disease and diabetes later in life. Additionally, obese children are more at risk for high cholesterol and high blood pressure. They are also more prone to develop liver disease, early puberty or menarche, eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia, skin infections, and asthma and other respiratory problems. Thus, there is a need for improved and novel therapies to treat childhood or teen obesity. 
     SUMMARY 
     Provided herein are methods and compositions related to treating or preventing obesity in children, adolescents, and teenagers. In some aspects, the methods and compositions are related to treating or preventing obesity and/or a condition associated with obesity in a subject (e.g., a subject whose age is 20 years old or younger, such as under 18 years old or under 12 years old) by administering to a subject (e.g., orally administering to the subject) a composition comprising a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside), and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). 
     Also provided herein are compositions and methods related to promoting or inducing weight loss, boosting or increasing metabolism, and/or preventing or slowing weight gain in a subject (e.g., a subject whose age is 20 years old or younger, such as under 18 years old or under 12 years old) by administering to a subject (e.g., orally administering to the subject) a composition comprising a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside), and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). 
     The subject may have a BMI in the 85 th  percentile or above. In some embodiments, the subject has a BMI that is in the 95 th  percentile or above. The subject may be on a calorie restriction diet. The methods or compositions disclosed herein may be administered conjointly with a calorie restriction diet. 
     In certain embodiments of the compositions and methods provided herein, the composition comprises a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside) (e.g., at least 100 mg, at least 125 mg, at least 150 mg, at least 175 mg, at least 200 mg, at least 225 mg, at least 250 mg, at least 275 mg, at least 300 mg, at least 325 mg, at least 350 mg, at least 375 mg, at least 400 mg, at least 425 mg, at least 450 mg, at least 475 mg, at least 500 mg, at least 525 mg, at least 550 mg, at least 575 mg or at least 600 mg of a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside)). In some embodiments, the composition comprises a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene) (e.g., at least 15 mg, at least 20 mg, at least 25 mg, at least 30 mg, at least 35 mg, at least 40 mg, at least 45 mg, at least 50 mg, at least 55 mg, at least 60 mg, at least 65 mg, at least 70 mg, at least 75 mg, at least 80 mg, at least 85 mg, at least 90 mg, at least 95 mg, at least 100 mg, at least 125 mg or at least 150 mg of a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene)). In certain embodiments, the composition comprises both a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside) (e.g., at least 100 mg, at least 125 mg, at least 150 mg, at least 175 mg, at least 200 mg, at least 225 mg, at least 250 mg, at least 275 mg, at least 300 mg, at least 325 mg, at least 350 mg, at least 375 mg, at least 400 mg, at least 425 mg, at least 450 mg, at least 475 mg, at least 500 mg, at least 525 mg, at least 550 mg, at least 575 mg or at least 600 mg of a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside)) and a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene) (e.g., at least 15 mg, at least 20 mg, at least 25 mg, at least 30 mg, at least 35 mg, at least 40 mg, at least 45 mg, at least 50 mg, at least 55 mg, at least 60 mg, at least 65 mg, at least 70 mg, at least 75 mg, at least 80 mg, at least 85 mg, at least 90 mg, at least 95 mg, at least 100 mg, at least 125 mg or at least 150 mg of a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene)). 
     In certain embodiments, the method comprises administering a plurality of doses of the composition. In some embodiments, at least 7 doses of the composition are administered. In some embodiments, at least 30 doses of the composition are administered. In some embodiments, at least 60 or more doses of the composition are administered. In some embodiments, each dose comprises at least 100 mg, at least 125 mg, at least 150 mg, at least 175 mg, at least 200 mg, at least 225 mg, at least 250 mg, at least 275 mg, at least 300 mg, at least 325 mg, at least 350 mg, at least 375 mg, at least 400 mg, at least 425 mg, at least 450 mg, at least 475 mg, at least 500 mg, at least 525 mg, at least 550 mg, at least 575 mg or at least 600 mg of a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside). In some embodiments, each dose comprises at least 15 mg, at least 20 mg, at least 25 mg, at least 30 mg, at least 35 mg, at least 40 mg, at least 45 mg, at least 50 mg, at least 55 mg, at least 60 mg, at least 65 mg, at least 70 mg, at least 75 mg, at least 80 mg, at least 85 mg, at least 90 mg, at least 95 mg, at least 100 mg, at least 125 mg or at least 150 mg of a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). In certain embodiments, each dose comprises at least 100 mg, at least 125 mg, at least 150 mg, at least 175 mg, at least 200 mg, at least 225 mg, at least 250 mg, at least 275 mg, at least 300 mg, at least 325 mg, at least 350 mg, at least 375 mg, at least 400 mg, at least 425 mg, at least 450 mg, at least 475 mg, at least 500 mg, at least 525 mg, at least 550 mg, at least 575 mg or at least 600 mg of a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside) at least 15 mg, at least 20 mg, at least 25 mg, at least 30 mg, at least 35 mg, at least 40 mg, at least 45 mg, at least 50 mg, at least 55 mg, at least 60 mg, at least 65 mg, at least 70 mg, at least 75 mg, at least 80 mg, at least 85 mg, at least 90 mg, at least 95 mg, at least 100 mg, at least 125 mg or at least 150 mg of a compound of formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). 
     In certain embodiments, a dose of the composition is administered at regular intervals over a period of time. In some embodiments, a dose of the composition is administered at least once a week. In some embodiments, a dose of the composition is administered at least twice a week. In certain embodiments, a dose of the composition is administered at least three times a week. In some embodiments, a dose of the composition is administered at least once a day. In some embodiments, a dose of the composition is administered at least twice a day. In some embodiments, doses of the composition are administered for at least 1 week, for at least 2 weeks, for at least 3 weeks, for at least 4 weeks, for at least 1 month, for at least 2 months, for at least 3 months, for at least 4 months, for at least 5 months, for at least 6 months or for at least 1 year. 
     In certain embodiments, the composition is formulated for oral delivery. In some embodiments, the composition is formulated as a pill, a tablet, or a capsule. In some embodiments, the composition is administered orally. In certain embodiments, the composition is self-administered. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     General 
     Provided herein are methods and compositions related to treating or preventing obesity and/or conditions associated with obesity in a subject that is 20 years old or younger by administering to the subject (e.g., orally administering to the subject) a composition comprising a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside), and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). Also provided herein are methods and compositions for promoting or inducing weight loss and/or preventing weight gain in a subject that is 20 years old or younger, by administering to the subject (e.g., orally administering to the subject) a composition comprising a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside), and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). Provided herein are methods of increasing or boosting metabolism in a subject that is 20 years old or younger by administering to the subject (e.g., orally administering to the subject) a composition comprising a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside), and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). 
     Definitions 
     For convenience, certain terms employed in the specification, examples, and appended claims are collected here. 
     The articles “a” and “an” are used herein to refer to one or to more than one (i.e., to at least one) of the grammatical object of the article. By way of example, “an element” means one element or more than one element. 
     As used herein, the term “administering” means providing a pharmaceutical agent or composition to a subject, and includes, but is not limited to, administering by a medical professional and self-administering. Administration of a substance, a compound or an agent to a subject can be carried out using one of a variety of methods known to those skilled in the art. For example, a compound or an agent can be administered, intravenously, arterially, intradermally, intramuscularly, intraperitoneally, subcutaneously, ocularly, sublingually, orally (by ingestion), intranasally (by inhalation), intraspinally, intracerebrally, and transdermally (by absorption, e.g., through a skin duct). A compound or agent can also appropriately be introduced by rechargeable or biodegradable polymeric devices or other devices, e.g., patches and pumps, or formulations, which provide for the extended, slow or controlled release of the compound or agent. Administering can also be performed, for example, once, a plurality of times, and/or over one or more extended periods. 
     Appropriate methods of administering a substance, a compound or an agent to a subject will also depend, for example, on the age and/or the physical condition of the subject and the chemical and biological properties of the compound or agent (e.g., solubility, digestibility, bioavailability, stability and toxicity). In some embodiments, a compound or an agent is administered orally, e.g., to a subject by ingestion. In some embodiments, the orally administered compound or agent is in an extended release or slow release formulation, or administered using a device for such slow or extended release. 
     The phrase “pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier” as used herein means a pharmaceutically-acceptable material, composition or vehicle, such as a liquid or solid filler, diluent, excipient, or solvent encapsulating material. 
     As used herein, the term “subject” means a human or non-human animal selected for treatment or therapy. 
     The phrases “therapeutically-effective amount” and “effective amount” as used herein means the amount of an agent which is effective for producing the desired therapeutic effect in at least a sub-population of cells in a subject at a reasonable benefit/risk ratio applicable to any medical treatment. 
     “Treating” a disease in a subject or “treating” a subject having a disease refers to subjecting the subject to a pharmaceutical treatment, e.g., the administration of a drug, such that at least one symptom of the disease is decreased or prevented from worsening. 
     As used herein, a therapeutic that “prevents” a disorder or condition refers to a compound that, when administered to a statistical sample prior to the onset of the disorder or condition, reduces the occurrence of the disorder or condition in the treated sample relative to an untreated control sample, or delays the onset or reduces the severity of one or more symptoms of the disorder or condition relative to the untreated control sample. 
     Compositions 
     Provided herein are pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside) and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). 
     Nicotinamide riboside is a pyridine-nucleoside form of niacin (i.e., vitamin B 3 ) that serves as a precursor to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD + ). As used herein, “nicotinamide riboside” also includes nicotinamide riboside salts, such as nicotinamide riboside chloride. The chemical structure of nicotinamide riboside is provided below: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, provided herein are pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound represented by Formula (I) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein, independently for each occurrence: 
     R 1 , R 2 , and R 3  are selected from hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO 2 , —OR 14 , —N(R 14 ) m , —R 13 , substituted or unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl; 
     R 4  and R 5  are selected from hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO 2 , —OR 14 , —N(R 14 ) m , substituted or unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl; 
     R 6 , R 8 , R 11 , and R 12  are selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, -((C 1 -C 6 )alkylene)N(R 14 ) m , —C(O)((C 1 -C 6 )alkylene)N(R 14 ) m , cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, —OR 14 , and —N(R 14 ) m ; 
     R 7 , R 9 , and R 10  are selected from -((C 1 -C 6 )alkylene)N(R 14 ) m , —OR 14 , and —N(R 14 ) m ; 
     R 13  is selected from —OR 14 , —N(R 14 ) m , —C(O)(R 14 ), —C(O)(OR 14 ), —C(O)N(R 14 ) m , —S(O) 2 (OR 14 ), —S(O)OR 14 , and —S(O) 2 N(R 14 ) m ; 
     R 14  is selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl; and 
     X is O, S, or N(R 14 ); 
     m is 2 or 3; 
     provided that at least one of R 1 , R 2 , and R 3  is R 13 . 
     In some embodiments, R 1  is R 13 . In some embodiments, R 2  is R 13 . In some embodiments, R 3  is R 13 . 
     In some embodiments, R 13  is selected from —OR 14 , —N(R 14 ) m , —C(O)(R 14 ), —C(O)(OR 14 ), and —C(O)N(R 14 ) m . In some embodiments, R 13  is selected from —C(O)(R 14 ), —C(O)(OR 14 ), and —C(O)N(R 14 ) m . In some embodiments, R 13  is —C(O)N(R 14 ) m . 
     In some embodiments, R 7 , R 9 , and R 10  are each independently —OR 14  or —N(R 14 ) m . In some embodiments, R 7 , R 9 , and R 10  are —OR 14 . 
     In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) is represented by Formula (II) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein, independently for each occurrence: 
     R 2  and R 3  are selected from hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO 2 , —OR 14 , —N(R 14 ) m , —R 13 , substituted or unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl; 
     R 4  and R 5  are selected from hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO 2 , —OR 14 , substituted or unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl; 
     R 6 , R 8 , R 11 , and R 12  are selected from hydrogen, —OR 14 , —N(R 14 ) m , substituted or unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, -((C 1 -C 6 )alkylene)N(R 14 ) m , —C(O)((C 1 -C 6 )alkylene)N(R 14 ) m , cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl; 
     R 13  is selected from —OR 14 , —N(R 14 ) m , —C(O)(R 14 ), —C(O)(OR 14 ), —C(O)N(R 14 ) m , —S(O) 2 (OR 14 ), —S(O)OR 14 , and —S(O) 2 N(R 14 ) m ; 
     R 14  is selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl; and 
     m is 2 or 3. 
     In some embodiments of the compounds of formula (I) or (II), R 1 , R 2 , and R 3  are each independently, if present, selected from hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO 2 , —OR 14 , —N(R 14 ) m , —R 13 , and substituted or unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl. In some embodiments, R 1 , R 2 , and R 3  are each independently, if present, selected from hydrogen, —OR 14 , —N(R 14 ) m , and unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl. In some embodiments, R 1 , R 2 , and R 3  are each independently, if present, selected from substituted or unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl. In some embodiments, R 1 , R 2 , and R 3  are each independently, if present, hydrogen. 
     In some embodiments of the compounds of formula (I) or (II), R 4  and R 5  are each independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO 2 , —OR 14 , —N(R 14 ) m , and substituted or unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl. In some embodiments, R 4  and R 5  are each independently selected from hydrogen, —OR 14 , —N(R 14 ) m , and unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl. In some embodiments, R 4  and R 5  are each independently selected from substituted or unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl. In some embodiments, R 4  and R 5  are each hydrogen. 
     In some embodiments of the compounds of formula (I) or (II), R 6 , R 8 , R 11 , and R 12  are selected from hydrogen, —OR 14 , —N(R 14 ) m , unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, -((C 1 -C 6 )alkylene)N(R 14 ) m , —C(O)((C 1 -C 6 )alkylene)N(R 14 ) m , cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl. In some embodiments, R 6 , R 8 , R 11 , and R 12  are each independently selected from hydrogen, —OR 14 , —N(R 14 ) m , unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, -((C 1 -C 6 )alkylene)N(R 14 ) m , and —C(O)((C 1 -C 6 )alkylene)N(R 14 ) m . In some embodiments, R 6 , R 8 , R 11 , and R 12  are each independently selected from hydrogen, —OR 14 , and —N(R 14 ) m . In some embodiments, R 6 , R 8 , R 11 , and R 12  are each independently selected from unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl. In some embodiments, R 6 , R 8 , R 11 , and R 12  are each hydrogen. 
     In some embodiments, R 7 ,  9 , and R 10  are each independently —OR 14  or —N(R 14 ) m . In some embodiments, R 7 , R 9 , and R 10  are each —OR 14 . In some embodiments, R 7 , R 9 , and R 10  are each —OH. 
     In some embodiments of the compounds of formula (I) or (II), R 10  is hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl. 
     In some embodiments of the compounds of formula (I) or (II), X is O or N(R 14 ). In some embodiments, X is O. 
     In some embodiments of the compounds of formula (I) or (II), the compound is 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Pterostilbene is a stilbenoid and an analog of polyphenol reservatrol that has better bioavailability due to the presence of two methoxy groups that allow it to have increased lipophilic and oral absorption as well as a longer half-life due to reduced oxidation. The chemical structure of pterostilbene is provided below: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, provided herein are pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound represented by Formula (III) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein, independently for each occurrence: 
     R 15  is selected from halogen, —CN, —NO 2 , —OR 16 , —N(R 16 ) p , —S(O) 2 (OR 16 ), —S(O)OR 16 , substituted or unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl; 
     R 16  is selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl; 
     n is an integer from 0 to 5; and 
     p is 2 or 3; 
     provided that at least one n is 1; and at least one R 15  is —OR 16 ; 
     provided that the compound of formula (III) is not 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In some embodiments of the compounds of formula (III), R 15  is selected from, halogen, —CN, —NO 2 , —OR 16 , —N(R 16 ) p , and substituted or unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl. In some embodiments, R 15  is selected from —OR 16 , —N(R 16 ) p , and unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl. In some embodiments, R 15  is selected from substituted or unsubstituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl. In some embodiments, R 15  is —OR 16 . In some embodiments, R 15  is —OR 16 , and R 16  is hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl. In some embodiments, R 16  is —OR 16 ; and R 16  is (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aralkyl, and heteroaralkyl. In some embodiments, R 15  is —OR 16 ; and R 16  is (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl. In some embodiments, R 15  is —OR 16 , and R 16  is (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, cycloalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl. 
     In some embodiments, n is 1, 2, or 3. In some embodiments, n is 1 or 2. 
     In some embodiments, p is 2. In some embodiments, p is 3. 
     In one aspect, the provided herein are pharmaceutically acceptable compositions which comprise a therapeutically-effective amount of one or more of the compounds described herein (e.g., nicotinamide riboside and/or pterostilbene), formulated together with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers (additives) and/or diluents. In another aspect, the agents described herein can be administered as such, or administered in mixtures with pharmaceutically acceptable carriers and can also be administered in conjunction with other agents. Conjunctive therapy thus includes sequential, simultaneous and separate, or co-administration of one or more compounds of the invention, wherein the therapeutic effects of the first administered has not entirely disappeared when the subsequent compound is administered. 
     As described in detail below, the pharmaceutical compositions described herein may be specially formulated for administration in solid or liquid form, including those adapted for the following: (1) oral administration, for example, drenches (aqueous or non-aqueous solutions or suspensions), tablets, e.g., those targeted for buccal, sublingual, and systemic absorption, boluses, powders, granules, pastes for application to the tongue; (2) parenteral administration, for example, by subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous or epidural injection as, for example, a sterile solution or suspension, or sustained-release formulation; or (3) sublingually. 
     In some embodiments, the composition comprises additional agents. For example, the composition may comprise a nutritional agent, such as an antioxidant. Examples of pharmaceutically-acceptable antioxidants include: (1) water soluble antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid, cysteine hydrochloride, sodium bisulfate, sodium metabisulfite, sodium sulfite and the like; (2) oil-soluble antioxidants, such as ascorbyl palmitate, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), lecithin, propyl gallate, alpha-tocopherol, and the like; and (3) metal chelating agents, such as citric acid, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), sorbitol, tartaric acid, phosphoric acid, and the like. 
     The formulations of the compounds described herein may be presented in unit dosage form and may be prepared by any methods well known in the art of pharmacy. The amount of active ingredient which can be combined with a carrier material to produce a single dosage form will vary depending upon the host being treated and the particular mode of administration. The amount of active ingredient which can be combined with a carrier material to produce a single dosage form will generally be that amount of the agent which produces a therapeutic effect. 
     In certain embodiments, a formulation described herein comprises an excipient, including, but not limited to, cyclodextrins, liposomes, micelle forming agents, e.g., bile acids, and polymeric carriers, e.g., polyesters and polyanhydrides; and an agent of the invention. In some embodiments, an aforementioned formulation renders orally bioavailable an agent of the invention. Methods of preparing these formulations or compositions may include the step of bringing into association a compound of the invention with the carrier and, optionally, one or more accessory ingredients. 
     Liquid dosage forms for oral administration of the formulations provided herein include pharmaceutically acceptable emulsions, microemulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups and elixirs. In addition to the active ingredient, the liquid dosage forms may contain inert diluents commonly used in the art, such as, for example, water or other solvents, solubilizing agents and emulsifiers, such as ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, ethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, propylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol, oils (in particular, cottonseed, groundnut, corn, germ, olive, castor and sesame oils), glycerol, tetrahydrofuryl alcohol, polyethylene glycols and fatty acid esters of sorbitan, and mixtures thereof. 
     Besides inert diluents, the oral compositions can also include adjuvants such as wetting agents, emulsifying and suspending agents, sweetening, flavoring, coloring, perfuming and preservative agents. 
     Suspensions, in addition to the active compounds, may contain suspending agents as, for example, ethoxylated isostearyl alcohols, polyoxyethylene sorbitol and sorbitan esters, microcrystalline cellulose, aluminum metahydroxide, bentonite, agar-agar and tragacanth, and mixtures thereof. 
     Formulations provided herein suitable for oral administration may be in the form of capsules, cachets, pills, tablets, lozenges (using a flavored basis, usually sucrose and acacia or tragacanth), powders, granules, or as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous or non-aqueous liquid, or as an oil-in-water or water-in-oil liquid emulsion, or as an elixir or syrup, or as pastilles (using an inert base, such as gelatin and glycerin, or sucrose and acacia) and/or as mouth washes and the like, each containing a predetermined amount of a compound of the invention as an active ingredient. A compound of the invention may also be administered as a bolus, electuary, or paste. 
     In solid dosage forms of the invention for oral administration (e.g., capsules, tablets, pills, dragees, powders, granules and the like), the active ingredient is mixed with one or more pharmaceutically-acceptable carriers, such as sodium citrate or dicalcium phosphate, and/or any of the following: (1) fillers or extenders, such as starches, lactose, sucrose, glucose, mannitol, and/or silicic acid; (2) binders, such as, for example, carboxymethylcellulose, alginates, gelatin, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, sucrose and/or acacia; (3) humectants, such as glycerol; (4) disintegrating agents, such as agar-agar, calcium carbonate, potato or tapioca starch, alginic acid, certain silicates, and sodium carbonate; (5) solution retarding agents, such as paraffin; (6) absorption accelerators, such as quaternary ammonium compounds; (7) wetting agents, such as, for example, cetyl alcohol, glycerol monostearate, and non-ionic surfactants; (8) absorbents, such as kaolin and bentonite clay; (9) lubricants, such a talc, calcium stearate, magnesium stearate, solid polyethylene glycols, sodium lauryl sulfate, and mixtures thereof; and (10) coloring agents. In the case of capsules, tablets and pills, the pharmaceutical compositions may also comprise buffering agents. Solid compositions of a similar type may also be employed as fillers in soft and hard-shelled gelatin capsules using such excipients as lactose or milk sugars, as well as high molecular weight polyethylene glycols and the like. 
     A tablet may be made by compression or molding, optionally with one or more accessory ingredients. Compressed tablets may be prepared using binder (for example, gelatin or hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose), lubricant, inert diluent, preservative, disintegrant (for example, sodium starch glycolate or cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose), surface-active or dispersing agent. Molded tablets may be made by molding in a suitable machine a mixture of the powdered compound moistened with an inert liquid diluent. 
     The tablets, and other solid dosage forms of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein, such as dragees, capsules, pills and granules, may optionally be scored or prepared with coatings and shells, such as enteric coatings and other coatings well known in the pharmaceutical-formulating art. They may also be formulated so as to provide slow or controlled release of the active ingredient therein using, for example, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose in varying proportions to provide the desired release profile, other polymer matrices, liposomes and/or microspheres. Compositions described herein may also be formulated for rapid release, e.g., freeze-dried. They may be sterilized by, for example, filtration through a bacteria-retaining filter, or by incorporating sterilizing agents in the form of sterile solid compositions which can be dissolved in sterile water, or some other sterile injectable medium immediately before use. These compositions may also optionally contain opacifying agents and may be of a composition that they release the active ingredient(s) only, or preferentially, in a certain portion of the gastrointestinal tract, optionally, in a delayed manner. Examples of embedding compositions which can be used include polymeric substances and waxes. The active ingredient can also be in micro-encapsulated form, if appropriate, with one or more of the above-described excipients. 
     Pharmaceutical compositions provided herein suitable for parenteral administration comprise one or more compounds of the invention in combination with one or more pharmaceutically-acceptable sterile isotonic aqueous or nonaqueous solutions, dispersions, suspensions or emulsions, or sterile powders which may be reconstituted into sterile injectable solutions or dispersions just prior to use, which may contain sugars, alcohols, antioxidants, buffers, bacteriostats, solutes which render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient or suspending or thickening agents. 
     Examples of suitable aqueous and nonaqueous carriers which may be employed in the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention include water, ethanol, polyols (such as glycerol, propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, and the like), and suitable mixtures thereof, vegetable oils, such as olive oil, and injectable organic esters, such as ethyl oleate. Proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of coating materials, such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersions, and by the use of surfactants. 
     Therapeutic Methods 
     Provided herein are methods and compositions related to treating or preventing obesity and/or a condition associated with obesity in a subject by administering to the subject (e.g., orally administering to the subject) a composition comprising a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside), and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). Also provided herein are methods of promoting or inducing weight loss, boosting or increasing metabolism, regulating appetite, and/or preventing or slowing weight gain in a subject by administering to a subject (e.g., orally administering to the subject) a composition comprising a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside), and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). The subject may be overweight. The subject may be obese. The subject may be morbidly obese. The subject may be male or female. The subject may be under 20 years of age. The subject may be under 18 years of age. The subject may be under 12 years of age. In some embodiments, the subject is a pediatric subject. As used herein, a pediatric subject is a subject that is under 20 years of age. The subject may be 1 year old, 2 years old, 3 years old, 4 years old, 5 years old, 6 years old, 7 years old, 8 years old, 9 years old, 10 years old, 11 years old, 12 years old, 13 years old, 14 years old, 15 years old, 16 years old, 17 years old, 18 years old, 19 years old, or 20 years old. 
     Body mass index (BMI) is a widely used method to define the relationship between weight and height. The BMI provides a practical clinical tool to classify individuals with normal and those with various degrees of obesity. The BMI system of classification of obesity is important because it denotes the risk for medical complications of obese patients. Adult individuals with a BMI above 27 have a markedly increased risk for hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and diabetes mellitus. In contrast, when the BMI index is less than 25, there are no apparent physical effects of obesity. However, the use of BMI has limited applications in the assessment of overweight children or teenagers since its calculation is based primarily on a stable height, which is not applicable to growing children. 
     Body mass index (BMI) is a measure used to determine childhood and teen overweight and obesity. Overweight is defined as a BMI at or above the 85th percentile and below the 95th percentile for children and teenagers of the same age and sex. Obesity is defined as a BMI at or above the 95th percentile for children and teens of the same age and sex. BMI is calculated by dividing a person&#39;s weight in kilograms by the square of height in meters. For children and teenagers, BMI is age- and sex-specific and is often referred to as BMI-for-age. A child&#39;s weight status is determined using an age- and sex-specific percentile for BMI rather than the BMI categories used for adults. This is because children&#39;s body composition varies as they age and varies between boys and girls. Therefore, BMI levels among children and teens need to be expressed relative to other children of the same age and sex. BMI-for-age percentile charts for male and female children and teenagers may be found at the end of this application (Table 1 and 2). 
     In some embodiments, the subject has a BMI in the 85 th  percentile or above. In other embodiments, the subject has a BMI in the 95 th  percentile or above. 
     In some aspects, provided herein are methods of promoting or inducing weight loss and/or preventing or slowing weight gain in a subject (e.g., a subject whose age is 20 years of age or younger, such as under 18 years of age or under 12 years of age) by administering to a subject a composition comprising a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside), and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). 
     Provided herein are methods of boosting or increasing metabolism in a subject (e.g., a subject whose age is 20 years of age or younger, such as under 18 years of age or under 12 years of age) by administering to a subject a composition comprising a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside), and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). 
     Also provided herein are methods of controlling or suppressing appetite in a subject (e.g., a subject whose age is 20 years of age or younger, such as under 18 years of age or under 12 years of age) by administering to a subject a composition comprising a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside), and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). 
     The subject may be on a calorie restriction diet. The methods or compositions disclosed herein may be administered conjointly with a calorie restriction diet. A calorie restriction diet may be any diet or conventional dieting method employing caloric restriction (e.g., eating a daily amount of calories to induce weight loss and/or eating a daily amount of calories that is recommended to maintain current weight). 
     In some embodiments, the methods and compositions disclosed herein comprise preventing or treating a condition that is co-morbid with obesity. Obesity results in several alterations that have been linked as co-morbidities of the disease. Hyperinsulinemia is prevalent in obesity and is strongly linked with cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, and hypertension. With few exceptions, the clinical features of cardiovascular heart disease are not apparent until the third or fourth decade of life. However, there is substantial evidence that the atherosclerotic process is initiated during childhood. Even when obese individuals secrete enough insulin to remain non-diabetic, they present an altered glucose mediated disposal and remain at increased risk to develop a cluster of abnormalities that have been given various names, best described as insulin resistance syndrome or most often referred to as metabolic syndrome. Impaired glucose tolerance is highly prevalent among obese children and is associated with insulin resistance. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods of preventing or reducing the risk of a condition associated with obesity, such as insulin resistance, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, and hypertension in a subject (e.g., a subject under 20 years of age) by administering to the subject a composition comprising a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside), and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). 
     Obesity in adolescence is a significant predictor of several diseases or disorders in adulthood. Low-grade systemic inflammation, elevated leptin concentration and low adiponectin level are described in very young obese children, correlating with a range of variables of metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of conditions, including increased blood pressure, high blood sugar, excess body fat around the waist, and abnormal cholesterol or triglyceride levels. An individual is deemed to have metabolic syndrome is these conditions occur together, and metabolic syndrome increases the risk of heart disease, stroke and diabetes. In some embodiments, the methods provided herein include preventing or reducing the risk of metabolic syndrome or a condition associated with metabolic disorder (e.g., increased blood pressure, high blood sugar, excess body fat around the waist, and abnormal cholesterol or triglyceride levels) in a subject (e.g., a subject under 20 years of age) by administering to the subject a composition comprising a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside), and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene). 
     Actual dosage levels and administration regimen of the compositions disclosed herein may be varied so as to obtain an amount of a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside) and/or a compound of Formula III (e.g., pterostilbene) that is effective to achieve the desired therapeutic response for a particular patient, composition, and mode of administration, without being toxic to the patient. In some embodiments, the subject continuously self-administers the compounds disclosed herein. In other embodiments, the subject may take a compound disclosed herein as needed. 
     In some embodiments, administration of the composition comprises administration of the composition in one or more dose(s). In some embodiments, administration of the composition comprises administration of the composition in one or more, five or more, ten or more, twenty or more, thirty or more, forty or more, fifty or more, one hundred or more, or one thousand or more dose(s). In some embodiments, the dose comprises at least 25 mg, at least 50 mg, at least 75 mg, at least 100 mg, at least 125 mg, at least 150 mg, at least 200 mg, at least 225 mg, at least 250 mg, at least 275 mg, at least 300 mg, at least 325 mg, at least 350 mg, at least 375 mg, at least 400 mg, at least 425 mg, at least 450 mg, at least 475 mg, at least 500 mg, at least 550 mg, at least 600 mg, at least 650 mg, at least 700 mg, at least 750 mg, at least 800 mg, or at least 850 mg of a compound of Formula I or Formula II (e.g., nicotinamide riboside). In some embodiments, the dose comprises at least 5 mg, at least 10 mg, at least 15 mg, at least 20 mg, at least 25 mg, at least 30 mg, at least 35 mg, at least 40 mg, at least 45 mg, at least 50 mg, at least 55 mg, at least 60 mg, at least 65 mg, at least 70 mg, at least 75 mg, at least 80 mg, at least 90 mg, at least 95 mg, at least 100 mg, at least 110 mg, at least 120 mg, at least 130 mg, at least 140 mg, at least 150 mg, at least 160 mg, least 170 mg, at least 180 mg, at least 190 mg, at least 200 mg, or at least 250 mg of a compound of formula III (e.g., pterostilbene) . 
     The compositions disclosed herein may be administered over any period of time effective to achieve the desired therapeutic response for a particular patient, composition, and mode of administration, without being toxic to the patient. The period of time may be at least 1 day, at least 10 days, at least 20 days, at least 30, days, at least 60 days, at least three months, at least six months, at least a year, at least three years, at least five years, or at least ten years. The dose may be administered when needed, sporadically, or at regular intervals. For example, the dose may be administered monthly, weekly, biweekly, triweekly, once a day, or twice a day. 
     INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE 
     All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety as if each individual publication, patent or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. In case of conflict, the present application, including any definitions herein, will control. 
     Equivalents 
     Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following claims.