Patent Publication Number: US-2021163964-A1

Title: Engineered streptomyces albus strains

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This Application is a national stage filing under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of international PCT application, PCT/US2019/025948, filed Apr. 5, 2019, which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. provisional patent application, U.S. Ser. No. 62/654,145, filed Apr. 6, 2018, the entire contents of each of which is incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH 
     This invention was made with government support under CA172310 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Genome sequencing revealed that  Streptomyces  sp. can dedicate up to ˜10% of their genomes for the biosynthesis of bioactive secondary metabolites. However, the majority of these biosynthetic gene clusters are only weakly expressed or not at all. Indeed, the biosynthesis of natural products is highly regulated through integrating multiple nutritional and environmental signals perceived by pleiotropic and pathway-specific transcriptional regulators. Generally, pathway-specific refactoring has been the predominant approach for the activation of individual gene clusters. 
     SUMMARY 
     In some aspects, the disclosure relates to certain strains of bacterial cells (e.g.,  Streptomyces  sp.) that have been genetically modified to enhance production of secondary metabolites. In some embodiments, the secondary metabolites are endogenous secondary metabolites. In some embodiments, the secondary metabolites are heterologous secondary metabolites. The disclosure is based, in part, on the discovery that modification of  Streptomyces  bacteria to lack or overexpress certain global (e.g., non-pathway-specific) metabolic regulatory genes results in a shift of bacterial metabolism to increase production of secondary metabolites. 
     Accordingly, in some aspects, the disclosure relates to a genetically engineered  Streptomyces  J1074 bacterium, wherein the bacterium comprises a nucleic acid having a modification to at least one global regulator gene selected from Table 1, wherein the modification is selected from a mutation, an insertion, or a deletion. 
     In some embodiments, a nucleic acid comprises a modification to one or more negative regulator genes. In some embodiments, one or more negative regulator gene is selected from WblA, DasR, Pfk, PhoR-PhoP, AbsA1, AbsA2, and SCO1712. In some embodiments, a modification is a deletion of WblA, a deletion of Pfk, or a deletion of WblA and Pfk. In some embodiments, a bacterium (e.g., a  Streptomyces albus  J1074 bacterium) comprises the genotype ΔwblA, Δpfk, or ΔpfkΔwblA. 
     In some embodiments, a nucleic acid comprises a modification to one or more positive regulator genes. In some embodiments, one or more positive regulator gene is selected from AdpA, AtrA, KbpA-AfrsKRS, AfsA-ArpA, CRP, AfsQ1, AfsQ2, RelA, RpoB, RpsL, and BldA. In some embodiments, a modification is an insertion of an additional copy of a positive regulator gene into a bacterium (e.g., a  Streptomyces albus  J1074 bacterium). 
     In some embodiments, a positive regulator gene is heterologous with respect to  S. albus . In some embodiments, a positive regulator gene is a CRP gene. In some embodiments, a CRP gene is a  Streptomyces coelicolor  CRP gene (e.g., CRP SC ). 
     In some embodiments, a positive regulator gene is operably linked to a constitutive promoter. In some embodiments, a constitutive promoter is an ermE* promoter. 
     In some embodiments, a bacterium (e.g., a  Streptomyces albus  J1074 bacterium) comprises the genotype +crp SC  or +ermE*crp SC . 
     In some embodiments, a bacterium (e.g., a  Streptomyces albus  J1074 bacterium) comprises a genotype selected from: +crp SC , +crp SC ΔwblA, +crp SC Δpfk, +crp SC ΔwblAΔpfk, +ermE*crp SC , +ermE*crp SC ΔwblA, +ermE*crp SC Δpfk, and +ermE*crp SC ΔAwblAΔpfk. 
     In some embodiments, a bacterium further comprises a deletion of one or more endogenous genes required for endogenous secondary metabolite production. In some embodiments, one or more endogenous genes comprise a gene cluster. In some embodiments, one or more endogenous genes are required for production of paulomycin (e.g., a plm gene cluster). 
     In some embodiments, a bacterium (e.g., a  Streptomyces albus  J1074 bacterium) comprises a genotype selected from: Δplm+crp SC , Δplm+crp SC ΔwblA, Δplm+crp SC Δpfk, Δplm+crp SC ΔwblAΔpfk, Δplm+ermE*crp SC , Δplm+ermE*crp SC ΔwblA, Δplm+ermE*crp SC Δpfk, and Δplm+ermE*crp SC ΔwblAΔpfk. 
     In some embodiments, a bacterium further comprises an isolated nucleic acid encoding one or more genes required for production of a secondary metabolite that is heterologous to  S. albus . In some embodiments, the one or more genes required for production of the secondary metabolite that is heterologous to  S. albus  comprise a gene cluster. 
     In some embodiments, a secondary metabolite that is heterologous to  S. albus  is selected from a terpene, polyketide, non-ribosomal peptide, siderophore, lantibiotic, pyrone, steroid, and beta-lactam. 
     In some aspects, the disclosure relates to methods of producing a genetically engineered  Streptomyces  J1074 bacterium, comprising transforming a  Streptomyces  J1074 bacterium with an isolated nucleic acid capable of inducing an in-frame deletion of a negative global regulator gene described in Table 1. 
     In some embodiments of the methods, the negative global regulator gene is WblA or Pfk. 
     In some embodiments, the methods further comprise the step of introducing into the bacterium an isolated nucleic acid that encodes a positive global regulator gene. In some embodiments, the positive global regulator gene is CRP. In some embodiments, the CRP gene is operably linked to an ermE* promoter. 
     In some embodiments, a bacterium (e.g., a  Streptomyces albus  J1074 bacterium) is further modified to lack a plm gene cluster. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates to secondary metabolites that are heterologously produced by a genetically engineered bacterium as described by the disclosure. 
     In some aspects, the disclosure relates to a composition comprising one or more of a genetically engineered bacterium as described by the disclosure, and a bacterial culture media. 
     In some aspects, the disclosure relates to a composition comprising a secondary metabolite that is heterologously produced by the genetically engineered bacterium as described by the disclosure, and an adjuvant. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         FIGS. 1A-1C  show pfk genetic engineering of  S. albus  J1074 bacteria.  FIG. 1A  is a schematic depicting a strategy for in-frame deletion of pfk gene in  S. albus .  FIG. 1B  shows PCR confirmation of pfk deletion; M, 1 kb ladder. Solid black arrows represent primers used for PCR screening and sizes of the PCR products are indicated.  FIG. 1C  shows a comparison of sensitivity to diamide (100 mM) between  S. albus  J1074 and the Δpfk-derivative strain using diamide disc assays. The table shows the diameter and area of the halo formed around a disk impregnated with diamide. Values are means of three replicates. ±standard deviation (p&lt;0.01). Statistical significance was calculated with Student&#39;s t-test. 
         FIGS. 2A-2C  show wblA genetic engineering of  S. albus  J1074 bacteria.  FIG. 2A  is a schematic depicting a strategy for in-frame deletion of the wblA gene in  S. albus  using λ-mediated recombineering.  FIG. 2B  shows PCR confirmation of unmarked wblA deletion in different backgrounds. M, 1 kb ladder. Solid black arrows represent primers used for PCR screening and sizes of the PCR products are indicated.  FIG. 2C  is a photograph indicating  S. albus  ΔwblA mutant showed a sporulation-deficient phenotype on MS agar media. 
         FIGS. 3A-3B  show genetic crp engineering of  S. albus  J1074 bacteria.  FIG. 3A  shows PCR confirmation of pIJ10257-ermE*crp SC  plasmid integration into various  S. albus  backgrounds. For the PCR screening, primers were used to amplify the coding region of crp SC  gene. The expected size of the PCR product was 768 bp. M, 1 kb ladder.  FIG. 3B  shows phenotypes of  S. albus  J1074 vs  S. albus +erm*crp SC  cultured on MS solid media. 
         FIGS. 4A-4C  show crp SC  genetic engineering of  S. albus  J1074 bacteria.  FIG. 4A  shows LC-MS analysis of ethyl acetate extracts derived from 50 ml R5A cultures inoculated with wild-type and  S. albus  mutant strains. Cultures were grown for 6 days at 30° C. The major peaks that are present in Δwbla and [+ermE*crp SC ] backgrounds but absent in wild-type and Δpfk strains are identified as paulomycin/paulomenol molecules. Corresponding masses (M+Na + ) and maximum UV absorption spectra are shown.  FIG. 4B  shows biomass accumulation over 6-day fermentation in R5A liquid media. 25 ml media were inoculated with inoculum directly from glycerol stocks to OD 450  0.03. Following incubation, 1 ml culture sample was removed and spun for 3 min at 14,000 rpm. Supernatants were discarded and the pellet was dried at 80 ° C. overnight and weighed. Values are means of three replicates. Error bars represent standard deviation. DCW dried cell weight. Deletion of pfk SA  gene and crp SC  overexpression has no effect on growth rate relative to wild-type whereas ΔwblA mutant accumulates ˜5 times more biomass than the wild type (p&lt;0.0001). Statistical significance was calculated with Student&#39;s t-test.  FIG. 4C  shows chemical structures of paulomenols/paulomycins compounds. Paulomenol B, calculated m/z of 661.26; paulomenol A, calculated m/z of 675.27; paulomycin B, calculated m/z of 786.25; paulomycin A, calculated m/z of 800.27. Paulic acid moiety conferring the antimicrobial activity of paulomycins is indicated with shading. 
         FIGS. 5A-5D  shows genetic engineering of the paulomycin gene cluster in  S. albus  J1074 bacteria.  FIG. 5A  is a schematic depicting a paulomycin gene cluster knockout strategy.  FIG. 5B  shows PCR confirmation of 15 kb deletion from the paulomycin gene cluster in different backgrounds. M, 1 kb ladder. Solid black arrows represent primers used for PCR screening and sizes of the PCR products are indicated. Confirmation of upregulation of paulomycin gene cluster ( FIG. 5C ) in triple mutant  S. albus  ΔpfkΔwblA+ermE*crp SC  versus  S. albus  ΔpfkΔwblAΔplm+ermE*crp SC  by LC-MS profiling of culture extracts produced following 6 days of growth in R5A media and ( FIG. 5D ) antimicrobial assay of culture extracts derived from  S. albus  and engineered strains grown for 4 days in R5A media against  Bacillus cereus . Minimum inhibition concentration for both  S. albus +ermE*crp SC  and ΔwblA derived extracts are reported to be 7.8 μg/ml. 
         FIG. 6  shows quantification of heterologous expression of actinorhodin gene cluster in  S. albus  J1074 and derivative engineered strains. Synergistic effects of crp SC  overexpression and pfk SA  deletion on the actinorhodin production were observed.  S. albus +ermE*crp SC  increases the actinorhodin production by 1.6-fold and the double engineered  S. albus  Δpfk+ermE*crp SC  strain by 2-fold relative to the  S. albus  J1074 (*p&lt;0.05, **p&lt;0.01.). Three different exconjugants from each strain were used in the experiment and values represent means of three biological replicates. Statistical significance was calculated with Student&#39;s t-test and one-way ANOVA from GraphPad Prism 6 
         FIG. 7  is a schematic depicting one embodiment of a host engineering overview for  S. albus  J1074 strain improvement for expression of silent native biosynthetic pathways and the enhancement of the heterologous expression of foreign gene clusters. HE heterologous expression, NE native expression 
         FIG. 8  shows confirmation of upregulation of paulomycin gene cluster (plm) by crp SC  overexpression and WblA SA  deletion by LC-MS analysis of organic extracts prepared from  Streptomyces albus  J1074 engineered strains grown in R5A media for 4 days. 1, paulomycin B; 2, paulomycin A; 3, paulomenol B; 4, paulomenol A. 
         FIG. 9  shows LC-MS analysis of  S. albus  ΔwblA culture extracts collected daily for 6 days from R5A fermentation broths. 1, paulomycin B; 2, paulomycin A; 3, paulomenol B; 4, paulomenol A. 
         FIG. 10  shows an MS fragmentation pattern of paulomenol A. Negative mode. 
         FIG. 11  shows an MS fragmentation pattern of paulomenol B. Negative mode. 
         FIG. 12  shows an MS fragmentation pattern of paulomycin A. Negative mode. 
         FIG. 13  shows an MS fragmentation pattern of paulomycin B. Negative mode. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The disclosure relates, in some aspects, to compositions and methods useful for production of certain bacterial secondary metabolites (e.g., endogenous secondary metabolites or heterologous secondary metabolites). 
     As used herein, the term “secondary metabolites” refers to compounds that are not directly involved in the growth, development or reproduction of a bacterium (e.g. a  Streptomyces  bacterium, such as a  S. albus  J1074 bacterium). Secondary metabolites are not essential for the function of the primary metabolic pathways of a bacterium. They often function as defense molecules (e.g., antibiotics and toxins), transport agents or pheromones. Non-limiting examples of secondary metabolites include alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, natural phenols, phenazines, biphenyls, dibenzofurans and beta-lactams, polyketides (PKs), non-ribosomal peptides (NRP) and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs). 
     The disclosure is based, in part, on genetically engineered  Streptomyces albus  J1074 bacterial cells that comprise one or more modifications to global regulatory genes which control production of secondary metabolites. 
     Genetically Engineered Bacterial Cells 
     As used herein, “genetically engineered” refers to an organism having a genome that has been manipulated experimentally in any way. An organism may be genetically engineered by the addition, subtraction or mutation of a gene or genes. For example, exogenous genetic material may be introduced or delivered to an organism via transformation, transduction or injection. The addition or subtraction may be a temporary alteration, for example a transient or episomal transformation or transfection of an organism with a gene or genes. Alternatively, the addition or subtraction may be permanent, for example the integration of a gene or genes into the genome of the organism. Generally, the subtraction of a gene from a bacterium is denoted by a delta symbol followed by the gene name. For example, a bacterium that has been genetically modified to lack the phosphofructokinase (pfk) gene may be referred to as “Δpfk”. Addition or insertion of a gene into a bacterium may be denoted by a “+” followed by the gene name. For example, a bacterium that has been genetically modified to include a  Streptomyces coelicolor  CRP gene (CRP SC ) may be referred to as “+crp SC ”. Methods of genetic engineering are generally well known in the art and are disclosed, for example in  Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual , J. Sambrook and D. W. Russell (eds.), 3 rd  Ed., Cold Spring Harbor Press, New York, 2001. 
     In some aspects, the disclosure relates to a genetically engineered  Streptomyces  J1074 bacterium, wherein the bacterium comprises a nucleic acid having a modification to at least one global regulator gene. 
       Streptomyces albus  J1074 is a strain of bacteria having the smallest genome of all completely sequenced  Streptomyces  species but maintains at least 22 putative secondary metabolic gene clusters. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, the minimal genome of  S. albus  J1074 and presence of secondary metabolic pathways renders this strain useful for production of secondary metabolites. The  Streptomyces albus  J1074 is generally described by Zaburannyi et al. (2014)  BMC Genomics  15:97. The nucleotide sequence of  S. albus  J1074 genome has been deposited in the GenBank database under accession number GenBank:CP004370. 
     As used herein, “global regulator gene” refers to a bacterial gene (e.g., a gene present in  S. albus ) that functions in a pleiotropic (e.g., non-pathway-specific) manner to regulate bacterial metabolism. Generally, pleiotropic regulators (e.g. global regulator genes) are capable of modulating multiple biosynthetic pathways in bacteria, for example to shift the balance of bacterial metabolism from primary metabolism to secondary metabolism under conditions of cellular or environmental stress. Non-limiting examples of global regulator genes are provided in Table 1. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Effect on 
               
               
                 Global 
                   
                 Secondary 
               
               
                 regulator 
                 Role 
                 Metabolism 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 WblA 
                 Antibiotic downregulator 
                 negative 
               
               
                 AdpA 
                 Central transcriptional regulator; 
                 positive 
               
               
                   
                 AdpA represses the transcription of 
               
               
                   
                 wblA in  S. coelicolor   
               
               
                 DasR 
                 Regulator of secondary metabolite 
                 negative 
               
               
                   
                 gene expression in response to 
               
               
                   
                 phosphorylated amino sugars 
               
               
                 AtrA 
                 Transcriptional activator of 
                 positive 
               
               
                   
                 actinorhodin; antagonist to DasR 
               
               
                 Pfk 
                 Phosphofructokinase; key enzyme in 
                 negative 
               
               
                   
                 glycolysis that controls metabolic 
               
               
                   
                 fluxes affecting secondary 
               
               
                   
                 metabolism 
               
               
                 KbpA-AfsKRS 
                 Gene cascade linking phosphate and 
                 positive 
               
               
                   
                 secondary metabolisms 
               
               
                 PhoR-PhoP 
                 Two component system regulating 
                 negative 
               
               
                   
                 phosphate assimilation; overlaps with 
               
               
                   
                 AfsKRS regulon 
               
               
                 AfsA-ArpA 
                 Genes required for the biosynthesis 
                 positive 
               
               
                   
                 and function of γ-butyrolactone A- 
               
               
                   
                 factor in  S. griseus   
               
               
                 CRP 
                 cAMP receptor protein; activates 
                 positive 
               
               
                   
                 transcription of biosynthetic genes 
               
               
                   
                 and controlling production of 
               
               
                   
                 precursors; partially shared regulon 
               
               
                   
                 with that of AfsKRS and PhoRP 
               
               
                 AbsA1/2 
                 Two component system controlling 
                 negative 
               
               
                   
                 antibiotic biosynthesis in 
               
               
                   
                 
                   S. coelicolor 
                 
               
               
                 AfsQ1/2 
                 Two component system controlling 
                 positive 
               
               
                   
                 antibiotic biosynthesis in  S. lividans   
               
               
                 RelA 
                 ppGpp synthetase gene; stringent 
                 positive 
               
               
                   
                 response-induced antibiotic 
               
               
                   
                 production 
               
               
                 RpoB 
                 RNA polymerase subunit; mutations 
                 positive 
               
               
                   
                 conferring rifampicin resistance and 
               
               
                   
                 mimicking stringent response- 
               
               
                   
                 induced secondary metabolism 
               
               
                   
                 activation 
               
               
                 RpsL 
                 Encodes for S12 ribosomal protein; 
                 positive 
               
               
                   
                 mutations conferring resistance to 
               
               
                   
                 streptomycin promote secondary 
               
               
                   
                 metabolism activation 
               
               
                 BldA 
                 Encodes the tRNA for the rare 
                 positive 
               
               
                   
                 leucine TTA codon found in many 
               
               
                   
                 secondary metabolite pathway- 
               
               
                   
                 specific regulators. 
               
               
                 SCO1712 
                 Antibiotic downregulator found in 
                 negative 
               
               
                   
                 
                   S. coelicolor 
                 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     A global regulator gene may be a positive regulator of secondary metabolism (e.g. a “positive regulator gene”) or a negative regulator of secondary metabolism (e.g., a “negative regulator gene”). Generally, positive regulator genes shift the balance of bacterial cellular metabolism to increase the production of secondary metabolites (e.g., shift away from primary metabolism), while negative regulator genes shift the balance of bacterial cellular metabolism to decrease production of secondary metabolites (e.g., shift towards primary metabolism). Examples of positive regulator genes include but are not limited to AdpA, AtrA, KbpA-AfrsKRS, AfsA-ArpA, CRP, AfsQ1, AfsQ2, RelA, RpoB, RpsL, and BldA. Examples of negative regulator genes include but are not limited to WblA, DasR, Pfk, PhoR-PhoP, AbsA1, AbsA2, and SCO1712. 
     The skilled artisan will appreciate that a bacterium (e.g., a  S. albus  J1074 bacterium) may be genetically engineered (e.g., modified) to lack 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more than 10 negative regulator genes and/or genetically engineered to include (or overexpress) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more than 10 additional positive regulator genes. For example, in some embodiments, a bacterium (e.g., a  S. albus  J1074 bacterium) may be genetically engineered (e.g., modified) to lack any combination of negative regulator genes set forth in Table 1 and/or to include any combination of positive regulator genes set forth in Table 1. 
     In some embodiments, a bacterium is genetically engineered to lack a Phosphofructokinase (pfk) gene. The pfk gene functions at the branching point between glycolysis (e.g., primary metabolism) and pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) (e.g., secondary metabolism). It has been observed that deletion of this gene in  S. coelicolor  confers more resistance to the thiol oxidant diamide than the wild-type strain and results in overexpression of actinorhodin by diverting fructose-6-phosphate into PPP leading to increased levels of NADPH cofactor that is necessary for the function of many biosynthetic redox enzymes. In some embodiments,  S. albus  J1074 Δpfk strain is more resistant to diamide than the wild type  S. albus  J1074, and overexpresses the pentose phosphate pathway resulting in higher intracellular NADPH availability that allows the mutant to cope more efficiently with the oxidative stress than the wild-type. In some embodiments, increased supply of the NADPH cofactor allows genetically modified  S. albus  J1074 Δpfk to improve the production of secondary metabolites, for example herbicidal thaxtomins, whose biosynthesis relies on the NADPH-dependent function of cytochrome P450 enzymes. 
     In some embodiments, a bacterium is genetically engineered to lack a WblA gene. WblA, a member of the  W hi B - l ike proteins, also has a negative effect on disulfide stress response. This family of proteins contains a [Fe—S] structural element that converts them into redox sensors. WblA has been observed to be involved in downregulation of antibiotic production. 
     In some embodiments, a bacterium is genetically engineered to contain one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or more) additional copies of a positive regulator gene. In some embodiments, the positive regulator gene is cAMP receptor protein (CRP, encoded by a crp gene). 
     Isolated Nucleic Acids 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates to genetically engineered  Streptomyces  J1074 bacterium that comprise a nucleic acid having a modification to at least one global regulator gene. As used herein “nucleic acid” refers to a DNA or RNA molecule. An “isolated nucleic acid” refers to a nucleic acid (e.g., DNA or RNA) that has been prepared in vitro, for example by recombinant technology. Nucleic acids are polymeric macromolecules comprising a plurality of nucleotides. In some embodiments, the nucleotides are deoxyribonucleotides or ribonucleotides. In some embodiments, the nucleotides comprising the nucleic acid are selected from the group consisting of adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil and inosine. In some embodiments, the nucleotides comprising the nucleic acid are modified nucleotides. Non-limiting examples of natural nucleic acids include genomic DNA and plasmid DNA. In some embodiments, the nucleic acids of the instant disclosure are synthetic. As used herein, the term “synthetic nucleic acid” refers to a nucleic acid molecule that is constructed via joining nucleotides by a synthetic or non-natural method. One non-limiting example of a synthetic method is solid-phase oligonucleotide synthesis. In some embodiments, the nucleic acids of the instant disclosure are isolated. 
     In some embodiments, an isolated nucleic acid is engineered to express a positive regulator gene. As used herein, the term “engineered to express” refers to an isolated nucleic acid that comprises a gene to be expressed (e.g., CRP, etc.) and, optionally, one or more expression control sequences. Examples of expression control sequences include but are not limited to promoter sequences, enhancer sequences, repressor sequences, poly A tail sequences, internal ribosomal entry sites, Kozak sequences, antibiotic resistance genes (e.g., ampR, kanR, a chloramphenicol resistance gene, a β-lactamase resistance gene, etc.), an origin of replication (ori), etc. 
     In some embodiments, one or more isolated nucleic acid is operably linked to a promoter sequence. A promoter can be a constitutive promoter or an inducible promoter. In some embodiments, a promoter is a constitutive promoter. Examples of constitutive promoters include but are not limited to constitutive  E. coli σ   70  promoters, constitutive  E. coli σ   S  promoters, constitutive  E. coli σ   32  promoters, constitutive  E. coli σ   54  promoters, constitutive  B. subtilis σ   A  promoters, constitutive  B. subtilis σ   B  promoters, constitutive bacteriophage T7 promoters, constitutive bacteriophage SP6 promoters, constitutive yeast promoters, etc. In some embodiments, a promoter is a constitutive  Streptomyces  promoter, for example ermE* or kasOP* as described by Wang et al. (2013)  Appl. Environ. Microbiol  79(14):4484-4492. 
     In some embodiments, a promoter is an inducible promoter (e.g., induced in the presence of a small molecule, such as IPTG or tetracycline). Examples of inducible promoters include but are not limited to a promoter comprising a tetracycline responsive element (TRE), a pLac promoter, a pBad promoter, alcohol-regulated promoters (e.g., AlcA promoter), steroid-regulated promoters (e.g., LexA promoter), temperature-inducible promoters (e.g., Hsp70- or Hsp90-derived promoters, light-inducible promoters (e.g., YFI), etc. 
     In some embodiments, an isolated nucleic acid engineered to express a protein is a component of a vector. Examples of vectors include plasmids, viral vectors, cosmids, fosmids, and artificial chromosomes. In some aspects, one or more isolated nucleic acids engineered to express a protein (e.g., CRP, etc.) are located (e.g., situated) on a plasmid, for example a bacterial plasmid such as an F-plasmid. In some embodiments, the vector is a high-copy plasmid. In some embodiments, the vector is a low-copy plasmid. In some embodiments, a bacterial cell comprises one or more plasmids comprising the one or more isolated nucleic acids. For example, a plasmid may comprise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 isolated nucleic acids. In some embodiments, a plasmid comprises 1, 2, or 3 isolated nucleic acids. 
     In some embodiments, one or more isolated nucleic acids (e.g., one or more isolated nucleic acids encoding a positive regulator gene, such as crp) are integrated into a chromosome of a bacterial cell. Methods of integrating exogenous (e.g., foreign) DNA into a bacterial chromosome are known in the art and are described, for example, by Gu et al. (2015)  Scientific Reports  5; Article number 9684. 
     Secondary Metabolites 
     In some aspects, the disclosure relates to genetically engineered  Streptomyces  bacteria (e.g.,  S. albus  J1074) that have been modified to lack one or more genes required for production of endogenous secondary metabolites. As used herein “endogenous secondary metabolite” refers to a secondary metabolite that is capable of being produced by wild-type  Streptomyces albus  J1074 bacteria (e.g., a secondary metabolite for which the gene cluster required to make the secondary metabolite is present in the genome of wild-type  S. albus ). In some embodiments, a  S. albus  J1074 bacterium is genetically engineered to lack one or more genes required for synthesis of the secondary metabolite paulomycin. In some embodiments, a  S. albus  J1074 bacterium is genetically engineered to lack a paulomycin (plm) gene cluster. 
     Strains of genetically engineered bacteria (e.g.,  S. albus  J1074 bacteria) lacking one or more genes for endogenous secondary metabolite expression may be created by random mutagenesis and/or directed evolution. Alternatively, genetically engineered bacteria may be modified to silence expression of genes and/or gene clusters encoding endogenous secondary metabolites by CRISPER and/or RNAi. In some embodiments, genes and/or gene clusters encoding for endogenous secondary metabolites are completely removed from the genome of the genetically enhanced bacterium (e.g., a  S. albus  J1074 bacterium), for example by vector-mediated excision (VEX). 
     In some aspects, the disclosure relates to genetically engineered  Streptomyces  bacteria (e.g.,  S. albus  J1074) that have been modified to express one or more genes required for production of heterologous secondary metabolites. As used herein “heterologous secondary metabolite” refers to a secondary metabolite that is not capable of being produced by wild-type  Streptomyces albus  J1074 bacteria (e.g., a secondary metabolite for which the gene cluster required to make the secondary metabolite is not present in the genome of wild-type  S. albus ). 
     As used herein, the term “gene cluster” refers to a group of two or more genes that encode for polypeptides and/or proteins that are required for the production of a secondary metabolite and are clustered together within the genome of an organism. In some embodiments, the gene cluster encodes biosynthetic proteins required for the synthesis of a bacterial secondary metabolite. Examples of biosynthetic proteins include but are not limited to enzymes, chaperone proteins, transport proteins, pre-peptides and regulatory proteins. 
     Accordingly, in some embodiments, genetically enhanced cyanobacteria described herein comprise a heterologous gene cluster encoding at least one biosynthetic protein necessary for production of a heterologous secondary metabolite. In some embodiments, the gene cluster encodes at least 2, at least 3, or at least 4, at least 5, at least 6, at least 7, at least 8 at least, 9 at least, at least 10, at least 11, at least 12, at least 13, at least 14, at least 15, at least 16, at least 17, at least 18, at least 19, or at least 20 biosynthetic proteins necessary for production of a heterologous secondary metabolite. 
     In some embodiments, a genetically engineered  Streptomyces  bacteria (e.g.,  S. albus  J1074) comprises one or more genes (e.g. a gene cluster) required for production of a secondary metabolite that is useful as an antibiotic. Examples of bacterial secondary metabolites that function as antibiotics are described, for example by Awad et al. (2012)  Jurnal Teknologi  ( Sciences and Engineering ) 59:Suppl 1: 101-111. 
     Compositions Comprising Genetically Engineered Bacterial Cells 
     In some aspects, the disclosure relates to a composition comprising one or more of a recombinant bacterial cell as described by the disclosure, and a bacterial culture media. As used herein, a “bacterial culture media” is a nutrient rich composition that supports growth and reproduction of bacterial cells. Generally, bacterial culture media can be liquid or solid (e.g., culture media mixed with agar to form a gel). In some embodiments, bacterial culture media is a liquid. Examples of bacterial culture media include but are not limited to M9, Lysogeny Broth (LB), SOC media, Terrific Broth (TB), etc. 
     The volume of bacterial culture media in a composition comprising a recombinant bacterial cell can vary depending upon several factors including but not limited to the desired amount of nitrated aromatic compounds to be produced, the concentration (density) of bacterial cells desired in the composition, the volume of the container housing the composition, etc. In some embodiments, a composition comprises between about 10 μl and 1 L bacterial culture media. In some embodiments, a composition comprises between about 10 μl and about 1 mL bacterial culture media, for example about 10 μl, about 50 μl, about 100 μl, about 500 μl, about 750 μl, or about 1 mL (e.g., any volume between 10 μl and 1 mL, inclusive). In some embodiments, a composition comprises between about 750 μl and 5 mL (e.g., any volume between 750 μl and 5 mL, inclusive). In some embodiments, a composition comprises between about 2 mL and about 20 mL bacterial culture media (e.g., any volume between 2 mL and 20 mL, inclusive). In some embodiments, a composition comprises between about 10 mL and about 200 mL bacterial culture media (e.g., any volume between 10 mL and 200 mL, inclusive). In some embodiments, a composition comprises between about 100 mL and about 500 mL bacterial culture media (e.g., any volume between 100 mL and 500 mL, inclusive). In some embodiments, a composition comprises between about 250 mL and about 1 L bacterial culture media (e.g., any volume between 250 mL and 1 L, inclusive). In some embodiments, a composition comprises more than 1 L (e.g., 5 L, 10 L, 100 L, 200 L, 1000 L, 10,000 L, 50,000 L, etc.) bacterial culture media. 
     In some embodiments, a composition further comprises one or more antibiotic agents. In some embodiments, one or more antibiotic agent is ampicillin or kanamycin. A composition may comprise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more antibiotic agents. The concentration of an antibiotic agent can vary. In some embodiments, the concentration of an antibiotic agent ranges from about 0 (e.g., lacking antibiotic) to about 125 μg/ml. 
     The skilled artisan recognizes that the conditions under which a composition as described herein is maintained may affect the production and/or stability of nitrated aromatic compounds by the recombinant bacterial cell(s). The disclosure is based, in part, on the recognition that production of nitrated aromatic compounds is reduced or absent at temperatures at which bacterial cells are generally cultured (e.g., 37° C.). In some embodiments, a composition has a temperature below 37° C. (e.g., the temperature of the bacterial culture media of a composition is below 37° C.). The disclosure is based, in part, on the recognition that production of nitrated aromatic compounds is increased at temperatures between 10 to 30° C. (e.g., 10° C., 11° C., 12° C., 13° C., 14° C., 15° C., 16° C., 17° C., 18° C., 19° C., 20° C., 21° C., 22° C., 23° C., 24° C., 25° C., 26° C., 27° C., 28° C., 29° C., or 30° C.). In some embodiments, a composition has a temperature of 28° C. (e.g., the temperature of the bacterial culture media of a composition is 28° C.). 
     In some embodiments, a composition as described by the disclosure comprises additional components, for example one or more cryopreservatives (e.g., glycol, DMSO, PEG, glycerol, etc.), antifungals, etc. 
     In some embodiments, a composition as described by the disclosure comprises additional adjuvants, for example, sugars, such as lactose, glucose and sucrose; starches such as corn starch and potato starch; cellulose and its derivatives such as sodium carboxymethycellulose, ethylcellulose and cellulose acetates; powdered tragancanth; malt; gelatin; talc; stearic acids; magnesium stearate; calcium sulfate; vegetable oils, such as peanut oils, cotton seed oil, sesame oil, olive oil, corn oil and oil of theobroma; polyols such as propylene glycol, glycerine, sorbitol, manitol, and polyethylene glycol; agar; alginic acids; pyrogen-free water; isotonic saline; and phosphate buffer solution; as well as other non-toxic compatible substances used in pharmaceutical formulations. Wetting agents and lubricants such as sodium lauryl sulfate, as well as coloring agents, flavoring agents, lubricants, excipients, tableting agents, stabilizers, anti-oxidants and preservatives, can also be present. 
     Methods of Producing Genetically Engineered Bacterial Cells 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates to methods of producing a genetically engineered bacterial cell as described by the disclosure. Typically, the methods comprise the steps of: transforming a bacterial cell with an isolated nucleic acid engineered to 1) cause a deletion (e.g., an in-frame deletion) of a negative regulator gene from the bacterium, and/or 2) insert one or more copies of a positive regulator gene into the bacterium; and culturing (e.g., growing) the bacterial cell. 
     Methods of introducing vectors into bacteria are well known in the art and described, for example, in Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Ausubel et al. (Eds), John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2007. Methods of gene deletion from a bacterial genome are also known, and are described for example by Du et al. (2015)  Sci. Rep.  5:8740. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1 
     Materials and Methods 
     Bacterial Strains and Media Used 
     Bacterial strains used were  S. albus  J1074 and derivative mutants constructed in this example.  Escherichia coli  EPI300 (Epicentre) and S17.1 strains were used for subcloning and intergeneric conjugation, respectively. Growth medium for  S. albus  was tryptone soy broth (TSB) for genomic DNA isolation, and mannitol-soy flour agar (MS) was used for sporulation and R5A as regular production medium. LB medium was used for routine  E. coli  growth. When plasmid-containing clones were grown, media were supplemented with appropriate antibiotics: ampicillin (100 μg/mL), hygromycin (100 μg/ml), apramycin (50 μg/mL), chloramphenicol (12.5 μg/mL), when required. 
       S. albus  J1074 Genomic DNA Isolation and Fosmid DNA Library Construction 
     Genomic DNA was isolated from  S. albus  mycelia collected from 2-day cultures grown in TSB. The mycelia pellet was lysed with lysozyme solution (0.5M sucrose, 25 mM Tris-HCl, 5 mM EDTA and 2 mg/ml lysozyme) at 37° C. for 30 min. EDTA and SDS were added to 50 mM and 0.5% (final concentration) respectively. After thorough mixing, ⅓ volume of phenol/chloroform was added and mixed to emulsify. The mixture was spun at 10,000 rpm for 10 min at 4° C. and DNA was precipitated from the aqueous phase with 0.7 vol isopropanol in the presence of 1/10 vol sodium acetate, pH 5.5. The DNA pellet was washed with 70% ethanol, air-dried and resuspended in TE buffer. Fosmid DNA library was constructed using the CopyControl HTP fosmid production kit (Epicentre) following the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. 
     In-Frame phosphofructokinase pfk SA  Gene (XNR_1407) Deletion 
     A suicide vector for  Streptomyces  gene deletions through homologous recombination was constructed based on pUC19 (New England Biolabs) ( FIG. 1A ). The vector was digested with ScaI and EcoRI and ligated with DraI-EcoRI fragment from pOJ436 carrying the oriT-apramycin cassette. Primers ALpfkl 5′-ATCG GGATCC TGGTCGACAACGCGATGGAGG-3 (SEQ ID NO: 1) and ALpfk2 5′-AGCAGGAGAGACAGCACGATGTGAACCGGCTCCGCGCACACG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 2) were used to amplify 1 kb flanking region downstream of pfk gene. Primers ALpfk3 5′-CGTGTGCGCGGAGCCGGTTCACATCGTGCTGTCTCTCCTGCT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 3) and ALpfk4 5′-ATCG AAGCTT GCCCAGCAGAACCGTTCCGTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 4) were used to amplify 1 kb flanking region upstream of pfk gene. Engineered restriction sites are underlined in the primer sequences and the start/stop codon fusion site is in italics. Standard 20 μl PCR reaction mix contained 1×G buffer (Epicentre), 50 pmol of each primer, 2.5UTaq polymerase (New England BioLabs), and 100 ng gDNA. A 2-step PCR protocol was used with the following conditions: 1 cycle at 95° C. followed by 30 cycles consisting of 40 s at 95° C. and 3 min at 72° C., followed by a final extension at 72° C. for 5 min. The two PCR products were gel-purified and used as a template for overlapping PCR (same protocol as before) with primers ALpfk1 and 4 to generate a 2 kb fragment. The PCR product was gel-purified and digested with BamHI and HindIII and ligated to the described suicide vector that has been similarly digested.  E. coli  S17.1 strain was transformed with the resulting plasmid and used for conjugal transfer into  S. albus . Apramycin resistant colonies carrying single crossover were streaked on MS agar plates with no selection for sporulation. Spores were diluted to yield single colonies and spread on MS agar plates. Double crossover mutants were identified by replica plating using Difco nutrient agar (DNA) plates with/out apramycin selection (10 μg/ml). Correct deletion of the target gene in the mutant chromosome was further verified via PCR amplification using primers ALpfkconfF 5′-GAGGTCGGCATCTCCCGCATC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 5) and ALpfkconfR 5′-ACTCCGACGATACCGGTGCG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 6). PCR reaction mix was the same as before and PCR protocol was 1 cycle at 95° C. followed by 30 cycles consisting of 40 s at 95° C., 40 s at 58° C. and 40 s at 72° C., followed by a final extension at 72° C. for 5 min. 
     In-Frame wblA SA  Gene (XNR_2735) Deletion 
     The  S. albus  fosmid library was screened by PCR using primers ALwblAF 5′-CCATCGGCACGTACCTGGCC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 7) and ALwblAR 5′-ATGTCCTTCCTGTCCCCGGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 8). A single fosmid containing the full-length wblA SA  gene was recovered by PCR screening of serially diluted, PCR-positive library pools. PCR reaction mix contained 1×G buffer (Epicentre), 50 pmol of each primer, 2.5UTaq polymerase (New England BioLabs) and 1 μl of the corresponding library pool and the PCR protocol was 1 cycle at 95° C. followed by 30 cycles consisting of 40 s at 95° C., 40 s at 57° C. and 40 s at 72° C., followed by a final extension at 72° C. for 5 min. The wblA ortholog was deleted using λ-mediated recombineering approach ( FIG. 2A ). The wblA SA -specific aac(3)IV-oriT resistance cassette flanking by two FRT sites was amplified from pIJ773 using primers SAwblAredF 5′-TGGGGGAGCCTCGATTCGGGAGAGGACGGCGCCGGTATGATTCCGGGGATCCGTCG ACC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 9) and SawblAredR 5′-GGTTCCCGTACTCCTCGCTCGCCCTTGCCGGCCGGTCTATGTAGGCTGGAGCTGCTT C-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 10). The amplified cassette was transformed into  E. coli  BW25113/pKD46 containing the recovered wblA SA -containing fosmid and transformants were selected on apramycin and chloramphenicol LB agar plates. Gene replacement was confirmed by PCR analysis of the mutated (ΔwblA SA ) fosmid using ALwblAF/R primers. To generate seamless gene deletion, the mutated fosmid was transformed into  E. coli  EL250 strain expressing FLP recombinase that catalyzes the recombination between the FRT sites. Following induction with L-arabinose, the excision of the apramycin resistant cassette was detected by patching single colonies on LB agar plates with/out 50 μg/ml apramycin. In-frame deletion mutants were verified by PCR using ALwblAF/R primers as before. The confirmed mutated fosmid was retrofitted with oriT-apramycin cassette by λ-mediated recombineering using primers 
                    pCCFRedF       (SEQ ID NO: 11)       5&#39;- GTAACCTCGGTGTGCGGTTGTATGCCTGCTGTGGATTGC CGCAACGT       TGTTGCCATTGC-3&#39;       and               pCCFRedR       (SEQ ID NO: 12)       5&#39;- AGCGATGAGCTCGGACTTCCATTGTTCATTCCACGGACA AATCCCCG       ATCCGCTCCACG-3&#39;.            
The cassette was amplified from pOJ436. The pCCF2 cloning vector sites targeted for recombination are underlined in the primer sequences. The final retrofitted and mutated wblA SA -containing fosmid was introduced into  E. coli  S17.1 cells for conjugation into  S. albus . Double crossover mutants were confirmed by PCR using ALwblAF/R primers.
 
Overexpression of crp SC  Gene from  S. coelicolor  M145 (SCO3571) in  S. albus  J1074
 
     A crp overexpression plasmid was made by cloning the crp SC  gene and its downstream sequence immediately downstream of the ermE* promoter in the pIJ10257 vector. The crp coding sequence was PCR amplified from  S. coelicolor  M145 gDNA using primers CrpF 5′-GAGAACT CATATG GACGACGTTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 13) and CrpR 5′-CGT AAGCTT GGCCTAGGTCGCAGGGAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 14). Engineered NdeI and HindIII sites in the forward and reverse primer, respectively, is underlined. PCR cycling conditions were 1 cycle at 95° C. followed by 30 cycles consisting of 40 s at 95° C., 40 s at 58° C. and 40 s at 72° C., followed by a final extension at 72° C. for 5 min. PCR product was gel-purified, digested with NdeI/HindIII and ligated to similarly digested pIJ10257 plasmid. Recombinant plasmid was introduced into  E. coli  S17.1 cells for conjugation into  S. albus . Exconjugants were selected on MS agar plates supplemented with 25 μg/ml nalidixic acid and 50 μg/ml hygromycin. 
     Knock-Out of Paulomycin Gene Cluster 
     For the isolation of paulomycin gene cluster, the  S. albus  fosmid library was screened by PCR using primers pml10F 5′-GGGATTCCCTGAGCGGAGTAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 15) and pml10R 5′-GGTTTCCAGGGGCCCTTCTAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 16). A single fosmid containing pml1-pml19 genes (entire gene cluster contains 42 genes) was recovered by PCR screening of serially diluted, PCR-positive library pools. PCR conditions were the same as used for wblA SA -containing fosmid isolation. The recovered plm fosmid was digested with XhoI restriction enzyme and subsequently self-ligated to eliminate 13 genes out of 19 cloned pml genes including pml10 pathway-specific regulator required for the transcriptional activation of the gene cluster ( FIG. 5A ). The resulting minimized plm fosmid was retrofitted with oriT-apramycin cassette by recombineering as before and introduced into  E. coli  S17.1 cells for conjugation into  S. albus  and derivative mutants. Double crossover mutants were confirmed by PCR using ΔpaulconfF 5′-GAAACCGCTCCGTCCGTCCGACACC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 17) and ΔpaulconfR 5′-TGCATCCGCAGCACCAGCAGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 18) primers. PCR conditions were 1 cycle at 95° C. followed by 30 cycles consisting of 40 s at 95° C., 40 s at 60° C. and 40 s at 72° C., followed by a final extension at 72° C. for 5 min. 
     Cloning and Site-Specific Integration of Actinorhodin Gene Cluster into  S. albus  J1074 and Derivative Strains 
     For the isolation of actinorhodin gene cluster, the  S. coelicolor  fosmid library was screened by PCR using primers Act85F 5′-CTTAAATCCTCGAAGGCGAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 19) and Act85R 5′-GCGCCCATCAGTTTGGCGTG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 20). PCR conditions were 1 cycle at 95° C. followed by 30 cycles consisting of 40 s at 95° C., 40 s at 55° C. and 40 s at 72° C., followed by a final extension at 72° C. for 5 min. Four PCR-positive single clones were recovered. Two clones contained partial actinorhodin gene cluster and the other two harbored actinorhodin gene cluster with different sizes of flanking regions. The fosmid with the largest DNA sequence flanking the entire actinorhodin gene cluster (SCO5067-SCO5104) was subsequently retrofitted with oriT-Apra R  cassette. For that, pOJ436 plasmid was double digested with PmlI-SmaI and 1.8 kb fragment containing the cassette was gel-purified and ligated with PsiI-digested and dephosphorylated actinorhodin-containing fosmid. Correct recombinant fosmid was confirmed by PCR using primers Act85F/R as above and used to transform  E. coli  S17.1 cells for conjugation into  S. albus  strains. Blue-pigmented exconjugants were selected on MS agar plates supplemented with 25 μg/ml nalidixic acid and 50 μg/ml apramycin and verified for the actinorhodin integration by PCR. 
     Actinorhodin Production and Antimicrobial Assays 
     Three biological replicates were tested using three confirmed colonies from each conjugation of actinorhodin cluster into  S. albus  J1074,  S. albus +pIJ10257ermE*crp and  S. albus Δpfk+pIJ10257ermE*crp. These colonies were streaked on MS agar plates to yield fully confluent spore lawns. Following 6 days of incubation at 30° C., the agar from each plate was cut into small pieces and immersed into 50 ml of 1M KOH. The tubes were left overnight at 4° C. with agitation. The samples were then spun at 4,000×g for 10 min and the absorbance of the supernatant was measured at 640 nm. Actinorhodin concentration was calculated according to the Lambert-Beer&#39;s law using molar extinction coefficient of 25,320 M −1  cm −1  that corresponds to pure actinorhodin. 
       Bacillus cereus  overnight cultures grown in LB were diluted by 10 6 -fold. Aliquots (100 μl) of the diluted culture were added to individual wells of a 96-well plate starting from the second column. Diluted culture (195 μl) were then added to the wells of the first column. Crude organic extracts were resuspended in methanol at 20 mg/ml. These solutions (5 μl) were added to the wells of the first column in the microtiter plate and then serially diluted twofold per well across the plate. The plates were incubated at 30° C. for 18-24 h. Concentration of 500, 250, 125, 62.5, 31.25, 15.6, 7.8, 3.9, 1.95, 0.97, 0.48, 0.24 μg/ml were tested for each crude extract. The final methanol concentration was kept at 2.5%. Minimum inhibitor concentrations are reported as the lowest concentration at which no bacterial growth was observed. 
     Diamide Sensitivity Assays 
     Lawns of  S. albus  J1074 wild-type and Δpfk mutant were generated by overlaying R5A plates (sucrose 100 g/l, K 2 SO 4  0.25 g/l, MgCl 2  10.12 g/l, glucose 10 g/l, Casamino acids 0.1 g/l, yeast extract 5 g/l, MOPS 21 g/l, NAOH 2 g/l, R2YE trace elements 2 ml/l, 15 g/L agar) with 3 ml soft Nutrient Agar containing 10 7  fresh spores. Immediately after plating, paper discs soaked in 100 mM diamide were added and plates were incubated at 30° C. for 24 h. 
     Crude Extract Production for Screening 
     Crude extracts for screening purposes were generated from 50-mL cultures of  S. albus  strains and derivative mutants grown in R5A liquid media. After 6 days of growth, cultures were extracted twice with an equal volume of ethyl acetate and the dried extracts were then used for screening. 
     LC-MS Profiling of Engineered  S. albus  Secondary Metabolite Content 
     Crude extracts were dissolved in LC-MS grade methanol and centrifuged for 30 min. The resulting clear supernatant (10 μl) was used for LC-MS analysis. A SHIMADZU Prominence UPLC system fitted with an Agilent Poroshell 120 EC-C18 column (2.7 μm, 4.6×50 mm) coupled with a Linear Ion Trap Quadrupole LC/MS/MS Mass Spectrometer system was used in the studies. Acetonitrile (B)/water (A) containing 0.1% formic acid were used as mobile phases with a linear gradient program (10-99% solvent B over 40 min) to separate chemicals by the above reverse phase HPLC column. The column at 30° C. was eluted first with 10% solvent B (acetonitrile with 0.1% formic acid) for 3 min and then with a linear gradient of 10-50% solvent B in 15 min, followed by another linear gradient of 50-99% solvent B in 12 min. After eluting in 99% solvent B for 5 min, the linear gradient of 99-10% solvent B in 1 min was used. The column was further re-equilibrated with 10% solvent B for 4 min. The flow rate was set as 0.5 mL/min, and the products were detected by a PDA detector. For MS detection, the turbo spray conditions included curtain gas: 30 psi; ion spray voltage: 5500 V; temperature: 600° C.; ion source gas 1:50 psi; ion source gas 2:60 psi). For MS/MS analysis, the collision energy was 12 eV. 
     Example 2 
     Genetic Engineering of  S. albus  J1074 Bacteria 
     SCO5426 was investigated as the first gene probe encoding one of the three phosphofructokinases found in the  S. coelicolor  genome that has been observed to upregulate actinorhodin through increased carbon flux into the pentose phosphate pathway. Blast analysis identified the orthologue gene in  S. albus  genome that shares 89% nucleotide homology, designated as pfk SA . The left-side flanking regions of pfk SA  are conserved in both strains as the gene is located next to a cluster of three genes (phosphate acetyltransferase, acetate kinase and pyruvate kinase) involved in pyruvate metabolism. Similarly, the gene wblA SA  was investigated and that gene showed 87% identity to wblA SC  and SCO1712 SA  with 76% sequence homology to SCO1712 SC . An in-frame deletion of pfk SA  was constructed using a pUC19-based suicide vector where the ampicillin resistance gene was replaced with oriT-apramycin cassette for transfer and selection in  Streptomyces . The vector harbors two fragments of ˜1 kb upstream and downstream flanking regions of pfk gene that have been fused together at start and stop codons of the gene by overlapping PCR. 
     The plasmid was conjugated into  S. albus  and double crossover mutants were verified by PCR of Apra S  colonies ( FIGS. 1A-1B ). Wild type and Δpfk SA  showed no difference when they grew on MS plates but Δpfk SA  mutant was less sensitive to diamide ( FIG. 1C ). Diamide is an artificial thiol oxidant that forms protein intramolecular disulfide bonds. The reduction of these toxic disulfide bonds is achieved through the action of thioredoxin/thioredoxin reductase system in the presence of NADPH. Similar to pfk deletion in  S. coelicolor , carbon flux towards pentose phosphate pathway due to pfk deletion, in some embodiments, results in a higher level of NADPH that makes  S. albus  Δpfk mutant more resistant to diamide oxidant. 
     For generating wblA SA  deletion mutant, a fosmid library of  S. albus  J1074 was constructed and screened for wblA sequences. A single fosmid containing the full-length gene was recovered and ReDirect protocol was used to replace wblA SA  gene with apramycin marker flanked by FRT sites, which was subsequently removed by FLP recombinase resulting in fosmid with seamless wblA SA  deletion ( FIGS. 2A-2B ). The resulting mutagenized fosmid was conjugated into  S. albus  and exconjugants were PCR-screened for double crossover mutant identification ( FIGS. 2A-2B ). The ΔwblA SA  mutants failed to sporulate ( FIG. 2C ). ΔwblA SA  mutants also accumulated more biomass (˜5-fold) relative to wild type when they grew in R5A media ( FIG. 4B ). Multiple attempts to knock out SCO1712 SA  using either Red/ET recombineering or CRISPR-Cas9 systems were proved fruitless, indicating that SCO1712 SA  may have an essential role in  S. albus  growth cycle. 
     In order to combine the positive role of crp global regulator on secondary metabolism to the above mutants, the crp gene from  S. coelicolor  was heterologously inserted into  S. albus  chromosome under the control of a strong constitutive promoter. The coding region of crp SC  was PCR-amplified, cloned into pIJ10257 conjugative integrative plasmid downstream of ermE*p and transferred in  S. albus  derivative strains using hygromycin selection ( FIG. 3A ). The overexpression of crp SC  gene had no effect on the growth rate of  S. albus  in R5A liquid media ( FIG. 4B ) but interfered with the sporulation process resulting in a white phenotype relative to wild type when  S. albus  grew on MS solid media ( FIG. 3B ). 
     Profiling of the Secondary Metabolite Content in Engineered  S. albus  Strains 
     Wild type and mutant strains of  S. albus  were grown in R5A media for 6 days and culture extracts were analyzed by LC-MS ( FIG. 4A ). Although the metabolic profile of Δpfk strain did not differ from that of wild type, ΔwblA and [+ermE*p-crp SC ] strains produced a set of metabolites that were absent in wild type extracts. The most dominant peaks (1-4) appeared at 13 min, 14 min, 20 min and 21 min. The [M+Na] masses of 670, 684, 795 and 809 respectively matched those of paulomenol B/A and paulomycin B/A, respectively. In addition compounds 1/2 and 3/4 showed absorption spectra with maxima at 322 and 275 nm identical to paulomenols and paulomycin, respectively. In order to genetically verify the production of paulomenols/paulomycins in ΔwblA and [+ermE*crp SC ] strains, a 15-kb region was deleted from the paulomycin (plm) gene cluster that includes the pathway-specific regulator plm10 ( FIGS. 5A-5B ). These corresponding peaks disappeared from the culture extracts of resultant strains in LC-MS analysis ( FIG. 5C  and  FIGS. 8-13 ). It is difficult to quantitate the production of paulomycins because of their partial degradation to paulomenols. Indeed the transition from paulomycin to paulomenols was observed when analyzing samples daily following inoculation from fermentation broths ( FIG. 9 ). Nonetheless, based on the most dominant paulomenol B peak (peak #1) and the biomass produced by the engineered strains, there was a 2-fold increase in the production rate of the paulomenol B per mg dry biomass in [+ermE*crp SC ] background relative to ΔwblA mutation. Paulomycins differ from paulomenols by the presence of paulic acid that gives the characteristic UV absorption maxima at 275 nm and confers antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria. Extracts of ΔwblA and [+ermE*crp SC ] strains prepared after 4 days of growth in R5A media were active against  Bacillus cereus  (as low as 7.8 μg/ml) as opposed to extracts derived from wild type and Δplm backgrounds that showed no antimicrobial activity up to 500 μg/ml tested ( FIG. 5D ). 
     Using Regulatory Sequence Analysis Tools (RSAT; http://rsat.eu/), the paulomycin gene cluster was scanned for possible CRP binding sites using the two reported sequence motifs, GTG(N) 6 GNCAC (SEQ ID NO: 21) and the one with more relaxed binding specificity GTG(N) 6 GNGAN (SEQ ID NO: 22). The first motif was found within the coding sequence of plm12, 28, 29, 35, 37 and plm40 genes while the second motif found within the coding sequences of plm2, 4, 6-10, 12, 23, 28, 32 and plm42 genes as well in the intergenic region plm7-plm8 genes (Table 2). Genes plm2 and plm10 are two of the four transcriptional regulators found in the paulomycin cluster and specifically for plm2 gene putative CRP binding site starts five bases upstream of its start codon whereas overlaps the start codon of plm42 encoding for dTDP-4-keto-6-deoxyhexose 3,5-epimerase starting nine bases upstream of the corresponding start codon (Tables 2 and 3). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Sequence scanning of paulomycin (plm) gene cluster for the detection of putative 
               
               
                 CRPSC binding sites using the GTG(N) 6 GNCAC (SEQ ID NO: 21) motif. Distance from the 
               
               
                 beginning of the motif to the start codon of the corresponding genes is reported. 
               
               
                 Negative values indicate sites upstream of start codons while positive values indicate 
               
               
                 sites within open reading frames. SEQ ID NOs: 23-28 are shown, top to bottom. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 plm gene 
                 Function 
                 distance 
                 Binding site, 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 plm 12 
                 Glycosyltransferase 
                 +130 
                 cctcGTGGACACCGCCACcggc 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 plm 28 
                 Putative sulfotransferase 
                 +628 
                 ggcgGTGGCCATGGCCACggag 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 plm 29 
                 Aminotransferase 
                  +91 
                 cctgGTGCCGCTCGTCACcggc 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 plm 35 
                 Ribulose-5-phosphate-4-epimerase 
                  +29 
                 acgcGTGAGCGAGGGCACcccg 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 plm 37 
                 Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase 
                 +763 
                 cgcgGTGGGGCTCGCCACcgcg 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 plm 40 
                 dTDP-4-keto-6-deoxy-L-hexose 2,3-reductase 
                 +301 
                 ccggGTGGTGCTGGCCACcaag 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
                     TABLE 3                  Sequence scanning of paulomycin (plm) gene cluster for the detection of putative       CRPSC binding sites using the GTG(N)6GNGAN (SEQ ID NO: 22) motif. Distance from the       beginning of the motif to the start codon of the corresponding genes is reported.       Negative values indicate sites upstream of start codons while positive values indicate       sites within open reading frames. SEQ ID NOs: 29-44 are shown, top to bottom.                             plm gene   Function   distance   Binding site               plm 2   TetR-family transcriptional regulator      -5   ggggGTGCG ATG CGGGACgcgc               plm 4   Oxidoreductase    +162   ttcgGTGGGGACGGGGACacgg               plm 6   EmrB/QacA subfamily transporter   +1230   cagcGTGCCCGCCGCGACcacg               plm 7   Elongation factor G1   +1620   gttcGTGAACAAGGTGACcggt               plm 8   Dehydrogenase E1 alpha subunit    -299   gggaGTGACCGACGCGACagcg               plm8   Dehydrogenase E1 alpha subunit    +900   gctgGTGGCGGAGGCGAGggac               plm 9   Dehydrogenase E1 beta subunit    +333   cggcGTGCCCGTGGTGACccgg               plm 9   Dehydrogenase E1 beta subunit    +507   ggtgGTGCTCATCGAGAAccgc               plm 9   Dehydrogenase E1 beta subunit    +825   cgcgGTGGTGGCCGAGAAcgta               plm 9   Dehydrogenase E1 beta subunit    +864   cccgGTGCGGCGGGTGACcctg               plm 10   SARP-family transcriptional regulator    +153   ccagGTGCTCCCGGCGACaacg               plm 12   Glycosyltransferase    +672   ggacGTGGCCGGGGAGACgctc               plm 23   C-glycosyltransferase    +204   gggcGTGCCCCTGGTGAGgtcc               plm 28   Putative sulfotransferase    +390   cctcGTGGTGTGCGCGAGcgag               plm 32   Acyl-CoA synthase   +1221   cgtgGTGCTCGAAGTGACcgac               plm 42   dTDP-4-keto-6-deoxyhexose 3,5-epimerase      -9   tgaaGTGGGGAGA GTG AGcccc                    
Heterologous Expression of Actinorhodin in  S. albus  Engineered Strains
 
     The effects of the gene-targeted engineering of S. albus genome on the expression of heterologous gene clusters was investigated. The model actinorhodin gene cluster, which encodes a diffusible pH-sensing pigment, was used in this example. A single fosmid harboring the gene cluster including flanking regions (SCO5067-SCO5104) was recovered from  S. coelicolor  M145 DNA library and retrofitted with oriT-integrase-apramycin cassette derived from pOJ436 vector. The resulting fosmid was transferred into  S. albus  mutant strains by intergeneric conjugation. The wblA SA  sporulation-deficient phenotype was not ideal to function as a recipient strain in intergeneric conjugations for routine transfer of foreign gene clusters due to very low transfer rates when using mycelia fragments. Therefore, the heterologous expression assay was performed on the [ermE*crp SC ] single mutant and Δpfk+ermE*crp SC  double mutant. 
     Increased production of actinorhodin was observed that followed the corresponding sequentially accumulated gene modifications wt&lt;[+ermE*crp SC ]&lt;Δpfk+ermE*crp SC  ( FIG. 6 ). The transcriptional control of crp SC  gene copy over actinorhodin gene cluster expression in  S. coelicolor  has been characterized. In the  S. albus  genetic context, overexpression of crp SC  gene improved the heterologous expression of actinorhodin by 1.6-fold followed by an additional 1.2-fold when combined with the pfk SA  deletion, indicating the approximately additive effect of these mutations to the actinorhodin biosynthesis. 
     Gene-targeted engineering of  S. albus  J1074 genome resulted in improved gene expression capabilities of secondary metabolism. Deletion of pfk gene supplied increased levels of NADPH reducing cofactor to the biosynthetic pathways containing NADPH-dependent enzymatic steps. Heterologous expression of actinorhodin was assisted by this genetic modification. Overexpression of the transcriptional regulator CRP from  S. coelicolor  in the  S. albus  background activated the expression of paulomycins, and functioned synergistically with global regulators controlling other modes of regulation of secondary metabolism like pfk for the heterologous expression of actinorhodin. Deletion of the global antibiotic down regulator WblA, induced the production of paulomycins in response to prolong fast growth and biomass accumulation. In sum, this example describes rational, multiplex genome engineering ( FIG. 7 ) is an efficient way to unlock the expression of native metabolites and further enhance the heterologous expression properties of  S. albus  bacteria. 
     The recitation of an embodiment for a variable herein includes that embodiment as any single embodiment or in combination with any other embodiments or portions thereof. The recitation of an embodiment herein includes that embodiment as any single embodiment or in combination with any other embodiments or portions thereof.