Patent Publication Number: US-2009226888-A1

Title: Diagnostic Primers And Method For Detecting Avian Influenza Virus Subtype H5 And H5N1

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application is a continuation-in-part of international application PCT/SG2005/000187, filed on Jun. 10, 2005, which claims benefit and priority from U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/578,353, filed on Jun. 10, 2004, the contents of both of which applications are incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to a nucleic acid based detection method, more particularly, to primers and a method of detecting avian influenza virus. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Three types of influenza viruses, types A, B, and C are known and they belong to a family of single-stranded negative-sense enveloped RNA viruses called Orthomyxoviridae (Swayne, D. E., and D. L. Suarez (2000)  Rev. Sci. Tech.  19:463-482). The viral genome is approximately 12 000 to 15 000 nucleotides in length and comprises eight RNA segments (seven in Type C). 
     Influenza A virus infects many animals such as humans, pigs, horses, marine mammals, and birds (Nicholson, K. G., et al. (2005)  Lancet  362:1733-1745). Its natural reservoir is in aquatic birds, and in avian species most influenza virus infections cause mild localized infections of the respiratory and intestinal tract. However, the virus can have high pathogenic effect in poultry, with sudden outbreaks causing high mortality rates in affected poultry populations. Highly pathogenic strains such as H5N1 cause system infections in which mortality may reach 100% (Zeitlin, G. A., and M. J. Maslow (2005)  Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep.  7:193-199). In humans, influenza viruses cause a highly contagious acute respiratory disease that have resulted in epidemic and pandemic disease in humans (Cox, N.J., and K. Subbarao (1999)  Lancet  354:1277-1282). 
     Influenza A viruses can be classified into subtypes based on allelic variations in antigenic regions of two genes that encode surface glycoproteins, namely, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) which are required for viral attachment and cellular release. Other major viral proteins include the nucleoprotein, the nucleocapsid structural protein, membrane proteins (M1 and M2), polymerases (PA, PB1 and PB2), and non-structural proteins (NS1 and NS2). Currently, fifteen subtypes of HA (H1-H15) and nine NA (N1-N9) antigenic variants are known in influenza A virus. Subtypes H5 and H7 can cause highly pathogenic infections in poultry and certain subtypes have been shown to cross the species barrier to humans. Previously, only three subtypes have been known to circulate in humans (H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2). However, in recent years, the pathogenic H5N1 subtype of avian influenza A has been reported to cross the species barrier and infect humans as documented in Hong Kong in 1997 and 2003 (Peiris, J. S. M., et al. (2004)  Lancet  363:617-619; Yuen, K. Y., et al. (1998)  Lancet  351: 467-471), leading to the death of some patients. Since late 2003, the H5N1 avian influenza A in poultry reached epidemic proportions with reports of serious outbreaks in several Asian countries including Vietnam, Thailand, South Korea, Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia, Japan and Malaysia (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2004)  Morb. Mortal Wkly. Rep.  53:100-3; Hien T. T., et al. (2004)  N. Engl. J. Med.  350:1179-1188) that resulted in massive culling of millions of poultry which had severe economic repercussions. 
     In humans, the avian influenza virus infects cells of the respiratory tract as well as the intestinal tract, liver, spleen, kidneys and other internal organs. Symptoms of avian flu infection include fever, respiratory difficulties including shortness of breath and cough, lymphopenia, diarrhea and difficulties regulating blood sugar levels. Due to the high pathogenicity of H5 subtypes, particularly H5N1, and their demonstrated ability to cross over to infect humans, there is a significant economic and public health risk associated with these viral strains, including a real epidemic and pandemic threat. 
     As a result, H5N1 avian influenza A virus represents a potential danger to human health not only in Asia but to the world. In addition to containment procedures, sensitive detection assays for early diagnosis are vital to lower the chances of spread and reduce the risk of development into an epidemic. Currently, there are a variety of techniques that can be used to detect H5 and H5N1 subtypes of avian influenza virus in biological samples, including nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA) methods that amplify RNA, viral cultures, reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) methods that amplify DNA transcribed from the viral RNA genome, hemagglutination inhibition and various fluorescence and enzyme-linked immunoassays (ELISAs). 
     In particular, PCT publication WO 02/29118 by So et al. describes a NASBA assay and kit for detecting H5 subtypes of avian flu virus. Hien et al. (2004,  New Eng. J of Med.  350(12):1179-1188) describe the use of antigen tests using various fluorescence and enzyme-linked immunoassays. Lau et al. (2003,  Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm.  313:336-342) describes a NASBA method for detection of H5 or H7 subtypes of avian influenza virus. Lee et al. (2001,  J. Virol. Methods  97:13-32) and Payungporn et al. (2004,  Viral Immunol.  17:588-593) describe RT-PCR assays for identification and subtyping or detection of avian flu virus subtypes. However, each of these methods uses genetic information derived from only a few isolates or variants of H5 or H5N1 to confirm the presence of virus. Furthermore, these assays are reported to be low in specificity and sensitivity. Clinically, the low sensitivity of these diagnostics may limit the usefulness for reliable detection of influenza A (H5N1) virus in humans. Therefore, there is an urgent need for sensitive diagnostic tests useful for rapid and early diagnosis. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     Based on sequence comparison of the HA gene from greater than 200 H5 isolates and greater than 100 H5N1 isolates, and on sequence comparison of the NA gene from approximately 70 H5N1 isolates, a series of primers directed to conserved regions within these genes has been developed. These primers are useful to screen for a wide variety of H5 and H5N1 isolates, and allow for detection methods that are rapid, specific and sensitive. 
     Thus, in one aspect, the present invention provides a primer comprising a sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114. In another aspect, there is provided a primer comprising a target annealing sequence and a non-influenza A virus sequence, wherein the target annealing sequence comprises a sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114. In a further aspect, there is provided a primer comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:118. In yet a further aspect, there is provided a primer comprising a target annealing sequence and a non-influenza A virus sequence, wherein the target annealing sequence comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:118. 
     These primers are useful for detecting the presence of avian influenza virus H5 or H5N1 in a sample, for example a sample derived from an organism suspected of carrying such a virus, and may be used in a reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction in order to detect the presence of virus in the sample. Thus, in another aspect the present invention provides a method for detecting influenza A virus subtype H5 or H5N1 in a sample comprising amplifying DNA reverse transcribed from RNA obtained from the sample using one or more primers each comprising a sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114; and detecting a product of amplification, wherein the presence of the product of amplification indicates the presence of an avian influenza virus subtype H5 or H5N1 in the sample. In a further aspect, there is provided a method for detecting influenza A virus subtype H5N1 in a sample comprising amplifying DNA reverse transcribed from RNA obtained from the sample using a primer comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 118; and detecting a product of amplification, wherein the presence of the product of amplification indicates the presence of an avian influenza virus subtype H5N1 in the sample. The methods described herein can be used to detect a wide variety of H5 and H5N1 influenza A virus isolates. Using a one-step method, in which RNA is reverse-transcribed and product is amplified in a single reaction tube, allows for a reduction in detection time, minimizes sample manipulation and lowers the risk of cross-contamination of samples. Thus, the described methods using the described primers may be useful for early detection and/or diagnosis of H5 and H5N1 influenza A infection. Furthermore, these methods can be used to determine approximate viral load in a sample, which application is useful in clinical and public health management settings. 
     The primers of the invention may be useful in other amplification methods, such as nucleic acid based sequence amplification methods to detect the presence of avian influenza virus subtype H5 or H5N1 in a sample. The primers of the invention may also be useful for sequencing DNA corresponding to the HA or NA gene of avian influenza virus subtype H5 or H5N1. In another aspect, there is provided a method of detecting influenza A virus subtype H5 or H5N1 in a sample comprising contacting the sample with a primer immobilized on a support, said primer comprising a sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114, under conditions suitable for hybridizing the primer and the sample; and detecting hybridization of the immobilized primer and the sample. In yet another aspect, there is provided a method of detecting influenza A virus subtype H5N1 in a sample comprising contacting the sample with a primer immobilized on a support, said primer comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:118, under conditions suitable for hybridizing the primer and the sample; and detecting hybridization of the primer and the sample. 
     In a further aspect, there is provided a method of detecting influenza A virus subtype H5 or H5N1 in a sample comprising contacting the sample with a nucleic acid microarray, the nucleic acid microarray comprising one or more primers, each of said primers comprising a sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114, under conditions suitable for hybridizing the one or more primers and the sample; and detecting hybridization of the one or more primers and the sample. In still a further aspect, there is provided a method of detecting influenza A virus subtype H5N1 in a sample comprising contacting the sample with a nucleic acid microarray, the nucleic acid microarray comprising one or more primers, one of said one or more primers comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:118, under conditions suitable for hybridizing the one or more primers and the sample; and detecting hybridization of the one or more primers and the sample. 
     In another aspect, there is provided a nucleic acid microarray comprising a primer, said primer comprising a sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114. In yet another aspect, there is provided a nucleic acid microarray comprising a primer, said primer comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:118. 
     In a further aspect, there is provided a kit comprising a primer as defined herein and instructions for detecting influenza A virus subtype H5 or H5N1 in a sample. 
     Other aspects and features of the present invention will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon review of the following description of specific embodiments of the invention in conjunction with the accompanying figures. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic diagram representing the HA gene, and depicting the location of exemplary forward and reverse primers of the present invention (beginning with “gisAF”) and of primers known in the art (beginning with “TW”, “VM” or “HK”); 
         FIG. 2  is a photograph of an agarose gel displaying PCR amplification products prepared by a gel-based PCR approach using exemplary primers (sets  1  to  8 ) of the invention to amplify template DNA reverse transcribed from RNA of an H5N1 isolate; 
         FIG. 3  is a photograph of an agarose gel displaying the relative amounts of amplification product obtained using varying amounts of template and primer set  3  used in  FIG. 2 ; 
         FIG. 4  is a photograph of an agarose gel displaying the relative amounts of amplification product obtained using varying amounts of template and primer set  5  used in  FIG. 2 ; 
         FIG. 5  is a photograph of an agarose gel displaying the relative amounts of amplification product obtained using varying amounts of template and primer sets  8  (upper bands) and  6  (lower bands) used in  FIG. 2 ; 
         FIG. 6  is a photograph of an agarose gel displaying PCR amplification products prepared by a real time PCR approach with SYBR green dye, using exemplary primers (sets  1  to  8 ) of the invention to amplify template DNA reverse transcribed from RNA of an H5N1 isolate; 
         FIG. 7  is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction using primer set  1  of  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIG. 8  is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction using primer set  2  of  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIG. 9  is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction using primer set  3  of  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIG. 10  is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction using primer set  4  of  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIG. 11  is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction using primer set  5  of  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIG. 12  is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction using primer set  6  of  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIG. 13  is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction using primer set  7  of  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIG. 14  is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction using primer set  8  of  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIG. 15  is a melting curve obtained at the end of the real time PCR amplification reaction using primer sets  1  and  2  of  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIG. 16  is a melting curve obtained at the end of the real time PCR amplification reaction using primer sets  3 ,  4  and  5  of  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIG. 17  is a melting curve obtained at the end of the real time PCR amplification reaction using primer sets  5  and  6  of  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIG. 18  is a melting curve obtained at the end of the real time PCR amplification reaction using primer sets  7  and  8  of  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIGS. 19  A and B are photographs of agarose gels demonstrating the detection of H5N1 avian influenza A virus by one-step RT-PCR; A: amplification of serially diluted in vitro-transcribed single-stranded RNA; B: Specific detection of H5N1 avian influenza virus from field samples; 
         FIGS. 20  A and B are photographs of agarose gels of PCR products obtained using either A: a two-step RT-PCR reaction; or B: a one-step RT-PCR reaction; 
         FIG. 20C  depicts the results of real time PCR using primer set  6 ; 
         FIGS. 21  A, B and C are photographs of agarose gels demonstrating the use of exemplary primers of the invention on field samples to detect H5N1 avian influenza virus; A: samples of allantoic fluid; B: samples of homogenized tissues; and C: comparison of an in-house H5 primer set with an H5N1 primer set; 
         FIGS. 22  A, B and C depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  9 ) directed against the NA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and C is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 23  A, B and C depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  10 ) directed against the NA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and C is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 24  A, B and C depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  11 ) directed against the NA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and C is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 25  A, B and C depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  12 ) directed against the NA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and C is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 26  A, B and C depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  13 ) directed against the NA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and C is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 27  A, B and C depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  14 ) directed against the NA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and C is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 28  A, B and C depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  15 ) directed against the NA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and C is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 29  A, B and C depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  16 ) directed against the NA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and C is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 30  A, B and C depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  17 ) directed against the NA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and C is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 31A , B and C depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  18 ) directed against the NA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and C is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 32  A, B and C depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  19 ) directed against the NA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and C is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 33  A, B and C depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  20 ) directed against the NA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and C is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 34  A B, C and D depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  21 ) directed against the HA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B is an RNA standard curve; C are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and D is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 35  A B, C and D depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  22 ) directed against the HA gene of H5N1 influenza A; A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B is an RNA standard curve; C are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and D is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIGS. 36  A, B, C and D depict the results of real time PCR with SYBR green dye using exemplary primers (set  23 ) directed against the HA gene of H5 influenza A (H5N1 (QS 1 to QS 5), H5N2 (a) and H5N3 (b)); A is an amplification curve obtained during the real time PCR amplification reaction; B is an RNA standard curve; C are melting curves obtained at the end of the amplification reaction and D is a photograph of a 1.5% agarose gel displaying the PCR amplification products; 
         FIG. 37  is a photograph of an agarose gel displaying the relative amounts of amplification product obtained by a one-step RT-PCR method, using varying amounts of template and primer set  10 ; 
         FIG. 38  is a photograph of an agarose gel displaying the relative amounts of amplification product obtained by a one-step RT-PCR method, using varying amounts of template and primer set  11 ; 
         FIG. 39  is a photograph of an agarose gel displaying the relative amounts of amplification product obtained by a one-step RT-PCR method, using varying amounts of template and primer set  13 ; 
         FIG. 40  is a photograph of an agarose gel displaying the relative amounts of amplification product obtained by a one-step RT-PCR method, using varying amounts of template and primer set  16 ; 
         FIG. 41  is a photograph of an agarose gel displaying the relative amounts of amplification product obtained by a two-step RT-PCR method, using varying amounts of template and primer set  12 ; 
         FIG. 42  is a photograph of an agarose gel displaying the relative amounts of amplification product obtained by a two-step RT-PCR method, using varying amounts of template and primer set  15 ; 
         FIGS. 43  A and B are photographs of agarose gels displaying the relative amounts of amplification product using varying amounts of template and primer set  23 , obtained by A: a one-step RT-PCR method; and B: a two-step RT-PCR method; 
         FIG. 44  is an amplification curve obtained using the Taqman™ real time PCR method and primer set  24 , directed against the HA gene of subtype H5; 
         FIG. 45  is an amplification curve obtained using the Taqman™ real time PCR method and primer set  25 , directed against the HA gene of subtype H5N1; 
         FIG. 46  is an amplification curve obtained using the Taqman™ real time PCR method and primer set  26 , directed against the HA gene of subtype H5N1; 
         FIG. 47  is a Delta Rn curve obtained using the Taqman™ real time RT-PCR method and primer set  25 , directed against the HA gene of subtype H5N1; 
         FIG. 48  is a Delta Rn curve obtained using the Taqman™ real time RT-PCR method and primer set  26 , directed against the HA gene of subtype H5N1; 
         FIG. 49  is a Delta Rn curve obtained using the Taqman™ real time RT-PCR method and primer set  27 , directed against the NA gene of subtype H5N1; 
         FIG. 50  is a Delta Rn curve obtained using the Taqman™ real time RT-PCR method and primer set  27 , directed against the NA gene of subtype H5N1; and 
         FIG. 51  is a Delta Rn curve obtained using the Taqman™ real time RT-PCR multiplex method and primer sets  25  and  27 , directed against the HA and NA genes of subtype H5N1. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     RNA viruses, including the influenza A virus, tend to have high mutation rates due to the low fidelity nature of RNA replication when compared to DNA replication. As a result, influenza viruses tend to evolve rapidly. Furthermore, influenza A viruses tend to undergo genetic reassortment between viral strains, which mechanism has contributed to the development of the various HA and NA subtypes. The inventors compared the sequence of the hemagglutinin (“HA”) gene from more than 200 influenza A H5 isolates, and more than 100 influenza A H5N1 isolates. As well, the inventors compared the sequence of the neuraminidase (“NA”) gene from approximately 70 influenza A H5N1 isolates. Surprisingly, despite the high mutation rate within influenza viruses, the inventors have discovered short regions of highly conserved sequences unique to specific subtypes, which regions are suitable to identify or detect the presence of those subtypes in a sample. 
     The sequences used in the comparison were obtained from publicly available databases and were compared using a variety of sequence comparison software, including the software ClustalW. 
     These sequence comparisons allowed the inventors to develop forward and reverse primers set out in SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114, directed to conserved regions of the HA gene or the NA gene of avian influenza virus subtypes H5 or H5N1, for use in a detection assay, for example, reverse-transcription followed by polymerase chain reaction amplification (“RT-PCR”). The comparison of such a large number of viral isolates allowed for the design of primers directed to well-conserved regions of the HA or NA gene, thus targeting regions that are less likely to be affected by mutational changes and thereby providing primers that can detect a larger pool of H5 or H5N1 variants than primers that are currently available. 
     The term “isolate” as used herein refers to a particular virus or clonal population of virus particles, isolated from a particular biological source, such as a patient, which has a particular genetic sequence. Different isolates may vary at only one or several nucleotides, and may still fall within the same viral subtype. A viral subtype refers to any of the subtypes of HA or subtypes of NA classified according to the antigenicity of these glycoproteins. 
     The inventors found that in certain conserved regions, one or more nucleotides at a specific location varied between isolates. For those regions, a family of primers has been developed, each primer within the family being based on a conserved sequence of the HA or the NA gene, but varying at one or more particular bases within the conserved sequence. 
     Thus, in one aspect the invention provides a primer comprising a sequence as set out in any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114. 
     As will be understood by a skilled person, a “primer” is a single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule of defined sequence that can base pair to a second DNA or RNA molecule that contains a complementary sequence (the target). The stability of the resulting hybrid molecule depends upon the extent of the base pairing that occurs, and is affected by parameters such as the degree of complementarity between the primer and target molecule and the degree of stringency of the hybridization conditions. The degree of hybridization stringency is affected by parameters such as the temperature, salt concentration, and concentration of organic molecules, such as formamide, and may be determined using methods that are known to those skilled in the art. Primers can be used for methods involving nucleic acid hybridization, such as nucleic acid sequencing, nucleic acid amplification by the polymerase chain reaction, single stranded conformational polymorphism (SSCP) analysis, restriction fragment polymorphism (RFLP) analysis, Southern hybridization, northern hybridization, in situ hybridization, electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA), nucleic acid microarrays, and other methods that are known to those skilled in the art. 
     The term “RNA” refers to a sequence of two or more covalently bonded, naturally occurring or modified ribonucleotides. The RNA may be single stranded or double stranded. The term “DNA” refers to a sequence of two or more covalently bonded, naturally occurring or modified deoxyribonucleotides, including cDNA and synthetic (e.g., chemically synthesized) DNA, and may be double stranded or single stranded. By “reverse transcribed DNA” or “DNA reverse transcribed from” is meant complementary or copy DNA (cDNA) produced from an RNA template by the action of RNA-dependent DNA polymerase (reverse transcriptase). 
     Avian influenza virus is a single stranded RNA virus and in some embodiments, the primer has a DNA sequence that corresponds to the RNA sequence of a conserved region of the HA gene of avian influenza virus subtype H5 or H5N1 (SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:31 and SEQ ID NO:112), as set out in Table 1. Such primers may be used as a forward primer when sequencing or amplifying DNA reverse transcribed from the HA gene of subtypes H5 or H5N1. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Forward Primers for the HA 
                   
               
               
                 Gene of Subtype H5 or H5N1 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 SEQ ID 
                   
                 Start 
                 Sequence 
                   
               
               
                 NO: 
                 Primer 
                 Nucleotide 
                 (5′ to 3′) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 gisAFH5H1aF 
                 84 
                 ATT TGC ATT GGT 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAC CAT GCA AA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 2 
                 gisAFH5H1bF 
                 84 
                 ATT TGC ATT GGT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAT CAT GCA AA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 3 
                 gisAFH5H1cF 
                 84 
                 ATC TGC ATT GGT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAT CAT GCA AA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 4 
                 gisAFH5H1dF 
                 84 
                 ATC TGC ATC GGT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAT CAT GCA AA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 5 
                 gisAFH5H1eF 
                 84 
                 ATT TGC ATC GGT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAC CAT GCA AA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 6 
                 gisAFH5H1fF 
                 84 
                 ATT TGC ATT GGT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CAT CAT GCA AA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 7 
                 gisAFH5H3aF 
                 248 
                 GCT GGA TGG CTC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CTC GGA AAC CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 8 
                 gisAFH5H3bF 
                 248 
                 GCT GGA TGG CTC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CTT GGA AAT CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 9 
                 gisAFH5H3cF 
                 248 
                 GCT GGA TGG CTC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CTC GGA AAT CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 10 
                 gisAFH5H3dF 
                 248 
                 GCT GGA TGG CTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CTT GGG AAC CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 11 
                 gisAFH5H3eF 
                 248 
                 GCT GGA TGG CTC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CTG GGA AAC CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 12 
                 gisAFH5H3fF 
                 248 
                 GCT GGA TGG CTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CTT GGA AAC CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 13 
                 gisAFH5H3gF 
                 248 
                 GCC GGA TGG CTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TTG GGG AAT CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 14 
                 gisAFH5H3hF 
                 248 
                 GCT GGG TGG CTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CTT GGA AAC CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 15 
                 gisAFH5H3iF 
                 248 
                 GCT GGG TGG CTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CTT GGA AAT CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 16 
                 gisAFH5H3jF 
                 248 
                 GCT GGA TGG CTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CTC GGA AAT CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 17 
                 gisAFH5H3kF 
                 248 
                 GCT GGG TGG CTC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CTC GGA AAC CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 18 
                 gisAFH5H31F 
                 248 
                 GCC GGA CTT GTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TTG GGG AAT CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 19 
                 gisAFH5N1H1F 
                 81 
                 CAG ATT TGC ATT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GGT TAC CAT GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 20 
                 gisAFH5N1H2aF 
                 122 
                 GTT GAC ACA ATA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ATG GAA AAG AA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 21 
                 gisAFH5N1H2bF 
                 122 
                 GTT GAT ACA ATA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ATG GAA AAG AA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 22 
                 gisAFH5N1H2cF 
                 122 
                 GTT GAC ACA ATA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ATG GAG AAG AA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 23 
                 gisAFH5N1H3F 
                 248 
                 GCT GGA TGG CTC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CTC GGA AAC CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 24 
                 gisAFH5N1H6aF 
                 366 
                 ACT ATG AAG AAC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGA AAC ACC T 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 25 
                 gisAFH5N1H6bF 
                 366 
                 ACT ATG AAG AAT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGA AAC ACC T 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 26 
                 gisAFH5N1H7aF 
                 800 
                 GAG AGT AAT GGA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AAT TTC ATT GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 27 
                 gisAFH5N1H7bF 
                 800 
                 GAG AGT AAT GGA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AAT TTT ATT GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 28 
                 gisAFH5N1H9F 
                 830 
                 TGC ATA CAA AAT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGT CAA GAA AGG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 29 
                 gisAFH5N1H12aF 
                 941 
                 ATG CCA T/CTC CAC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AAC/T ATA CAC CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 30 
                 gisAFH5N1H12bF 
                 941 
                 ATG CCA TTC CAC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AAT ATA CAC CC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 31 
                 gisAFH5N1H13F 
                 1439 
                 CAG CTT AGG GAT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AAT GCA AAG G 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 112 
                 gisAFH5N1HTqF1 
                 827 
                 GGG ACT CAA CAA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TTA TGA AAA GTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AA 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, the primer has a DNA sequence that corresponds to the RNA sequence of a conserved region of the HA gene of avian influenza virus subtype H5 or H5N1 (SEQ ID NO:32 to SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:113 and SEQ ID NO:114), as set out in Table 2. Such primers may be used as a reverse primer when sequencing or amplifying a first strand DNA reversed transcribed from the HA gene of subtypes H5 or H5N1. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Reverse Primers for the HA 
                   
               
               
                 Gene of Subtype H5 or H5N1 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 SEQ ID 
                   
                 Start 
                 Sequence 
                   
               
               
                 NO: 
                 Primer 
                 Nucleotide 
                 (5′ to 3′) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 32 
                 gisAFH5H2aR 
                 270 
                 GGG TTT CCG AGG 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGC CAT CCA GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 33 
                 gisAFH5H2bR 
                 270 
                 GGA TTT CCA AGG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGC CAT CCA GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 34 
                 gisAFH5H2cR 
                 270 
                 GGA TTT CCG AGG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGC CAT CCA GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 35 
                 gisAFH5H2dR 
                 270 
                 GGG TTC CCA AGA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGC CAT CCA GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 36 
                 gisAFH5H2eR 
                 270 
                 GGG TTT CCC AGA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGC CAT CCA GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 37 
                 gisAFH5H2fR 
                 270 
                 GGG TTT CCA AGA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGC CAT CCA GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 38 
                 gisAFH5H2gR 
                 270 
                 GGA TTC CCC AAA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGC CAT CCG GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 39 
                 gisAFH5H2hR 
                 270 
                 GGG TTT CCA AGA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGC CAC CCA GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 40 
                 gisAFH5H2iR 
                 270 
                 GGA TTT CCA AGA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGC CAC CCA GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 41 
                 gisAFH5H2jR 
                 270 
                 GGA TTT CCG AGA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGC CAT CCA GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 42 
                 gisAFH5H2kR 
                 270 
                 GGG TTT CCG AGG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGC CAC CCA GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 43 
                 gisAFH5H21R 
                 270 
                 GGA TTC CCC AAA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ACA AGT CCG GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 44 
                 gisAFH5H4aR 
                 966 
                 GGG TGT ATG TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AAT GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 45 
                 gisAFH5H4bR 
                 966 
                 GGG TGT ATA TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AAG GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 46 
                 gisAFH5H4cR 
                 966 
                 GGA TGT ATA TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AAT GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 47 
                 gisAFH5H4dR 
                 966 
                 GGA TGA ACA TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AAA GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 48 
                 gisAFH5H4eR 
                 966 
                 GGA TGG ACA TTA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AAA GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 49 
                 gisAFH5H4fR 
                 966 
                 GGG TGT ATG TTA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AAT GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 50 
                 gisAFH5H4gR 
                 966 
                 GGA TGT ACA TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGA AAA GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 51 
                 gisAFH5H4hR 
                 966 
                 GGA TGA ACA TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AAG GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 52 
                 gisAFH5H4iR 
                 966 
                 GGA TGT ATA TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AAC GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 53 
                 gisAFHSH4jR 
                 966 
                 GGA TGT ATG TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AAT GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 54 
                 gisAFH5H4kR 
                 966 
                 GGA TGT ATG TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AAC GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 55 
                 gisAFH5H41R 
                 966 
                 GGG TGT ATA TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AAT GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 56 
                 gisAFH5N1H4R 
                 270 
                 GGG TTT CCG AGG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGC CAT CCA GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 57 
                 gisAFH5N1H5aR 
                 387 
                 AGG TGT TTC AGT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TCT TCA TAG T 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 58 
                 gisAFHSN1H5bR 
                 387 
                 AGG TGT TTC AAT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TCT TCA TAG T 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 59 
                 gisAFH5N1H8aR 
                 822 
                 GCA ATG AAA TTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CCA TTA CTC TC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 60 
                 gisAFH5N1H8bR 
                 822 
                 GCA ATA AAA TTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CCA TTA CTC TC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 61 
                 gisAFH5N1H10R 
                 855 
                 CCT TTC TTG ACA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ATT TTG TAT GCA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 62 
                 gisAFH5N1H11aR 
                 963 
                 GGG TGT ATG TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AAT GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 63 
                 gisAFH5N1H11bR 
                 963 
                 GGG TGT ATA TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AGT GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 64 
                 gisAFH5N1H11cR 
                 963 
                 GGG TGT ATA TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG AAT GGC AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 65 
                 gisAFH5N1H14R 
                 1460 
                 CCT TTG CAT TAT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CCC TAA GCT G 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 66 
                 gisAFH5N1H15aR 
                 1602 
                 TCC AAT TTT ACT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CCA CTT ATT TC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 67 
                 gisAFH5N1H15bR 
                 1602 
                 TCC AAT TTT ACC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CCA CTT ATT TC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 68 
                 gisAFH5N1H15cR 
                 1602 
                 TCC AAT TTT ACT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CCA CTT ATT TT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 69 
                 gisAFH5N1H16aR 
                 1657 
                 TAG GGA ACT CGC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CAC TGT TGA AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 70 
                 gisAFH5N1H16bR 
                 1657 
                 TAG GGA ACT CGC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CAC TGC TGA AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 71 
                 gisAFH5N1H16cR 
                 1657 
                 TAG GGA ACT CGC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CAC TGT AGA AT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 113 
                 gisAFH5HTqR 
                 111 
                 GGC ATG TGT AAC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGT AAC GTT CTT T 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 114 
                 gisAFH5N1HTqR1 
                 871 
                 CAT TGG AGT TTG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ACA CTT GGT GTT 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, the primer has a DNA sequence that corresponds to the RNA sequence of a conserved region of the NA gene of avian influenza virus subtype H5N1, as set out in SEQ ID NO:72 to SEQ ID NO:93 (see Table 3). Such primers may be used as a forward primer when sequencing or amplifying DNA reversed transcribed from the NA gene of subtype H5N1. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Forward Primers for the NA Gene of Subtype H5N1 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 SEQ ID 
                   
                 Start 
                 Sequence 
                   
               
               
                 NO: 
                 Primer 
                 Nucleotide 
                 (5′ to 3′) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 72 
                 gisAFHSN1N1aF 
                 540 
                 TTT GAG TCT GTT 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GCT TGG TCA GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 73 
                 gisAFH5N1N1bF 
                 540 
                 TTT GAG TCG GTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GCT TGG TCG GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 74 
                 gisAFHSN1N1cF 
                 540 
                 TTT GAG TCT GTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GCT TGG TCG GC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 75 
                 gisAFH5N1N2aF 
                 549 
                 GTT GCT TGG TCA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GCA AGT GCT TG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 76 
                 gisAFH5N1N2bF 
                 549 
                 GTT GCT TGG TCG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GCA AGT GCT TG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 77 
                 gisAFHSN1N2cF 
                 549 
                 GTT GCT TGG TCG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GCA AGC GCT TG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 78 
                 gisAFH5N1N4aF 
                 638 
                 GAA ATA CAA TGG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CAT AAT AAC AG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 79 
                 gisAFH5N1N4bF 
                 638 
                 GAA ATA CAA CGG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CAT AAT AAC AG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 80 
                 gisAFH5N1N4cF 
                 638 
                 GAA ATA CAA TGG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CAT GAT AAC AG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 81 
                 gisAFHSN1N5aF 
                 834 
                 CCT AAT TAT CAT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAC GAG GAA T 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 82 
                 gisAFH5N1N5bF 
                 834 
                 CCT AAT TAT CAC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAT GAG GAG T 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 83 
                 gisAFH5N1N5cF 
                 834 
                 CCT AAT TAC CAC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAT GAG GAG T 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 84 
                 gisAFHSNlN5dF 
                 834 
                 CCT AAT TAC CAC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAT GAG GAA T 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 85 
                 gisAFH5N1N5eF 
                 834 
                 CCT AAT TAT CAT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAC CAG GAA T 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 86 
                 gisAFH5N1N5fF 
                 834 
                 CCT AAT TAT CAT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAC GAA GAA T 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 87 
                 gisAFH5N1N5gF 
                 834 
                 CCT AAT TAT CAC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAT GAG GAA T 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 88 
                 gisAFHSN1N8aF 
                 963 
                 GGA TAT ATA TGC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGT GGG GTT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 89 
                 gisAFH5N1N8bF 
                 963 
                 GGA TAT ATA TGC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGT GGA GTT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 90 
                 gisAFHSN1N8cF 
                 963 
                 GGA TAC ATA TGC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGT GGG GTT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 91 
                 gisAFH5N1N10aF 
                 1062 
                 GGG TTT TCA TTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AAA TAC GGC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 92 
                 gisAFH5N1N10bF 
                 1062 
                 GGG TTT TCA TTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AAG TAT GGC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 93 
                 gisAFH5N1N10cF 
                 1062 
                 GGG TTT TCA TTT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AAA TAT GGC 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, the primer has a DNA sequence that corresponds to the RNA sequence of a conserved region of the NA gene of avian influenza virus subtype H5N1, as set out in SEQ ID NO:94 to SEQ ID NO:111 and SEQ ID NO:118 (see Table 4). Such primers may be used as a reverse primer when sequencing or amplifying DNA reversed transcribed from the NA gene of subtype H5N1. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Reverse Primers for the NA Gene of Subtype H5N1 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 SEQ ID 
                   
                 Start 
                 Sequence 
                   
               
               
                 NO: 
                 Primer 
                 Nucleotide 
                 (5′ to 3′) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 94 
                 gisAFH5N1N3aR 
                 660 
                 CTG TTA TTA TGC 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CAT TGT ATT TC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 95 
                 gisAFH5N1N3bR 
                 660 
                 CTG TTA TCA TGC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CAT TGT ATT TC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 96 
                 gisAFH5N1N3cR 
                 660 
                 CTG TTA TTA TGC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CGT TGT ATT TC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 97 
                 gisAFH5N1N6aR 
                 855 
                 ATT CCT CGT AAT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GAT AAT TAG G 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 98 
                 gisAFH5N1N6bR 
                 855 
                 ACT CCT CAT AGT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GAT AAT TAG G 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 99 
                 gisAFH5N1N6cR 
                 855 
                 ACT CCT CAT AGT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GGT AAT TAG G 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 100 
                 gisAFH5N1N6dR 
                 855 
                 ATT CCT CAT AGT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GGT AAT TAG G 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 101 
                 gisAFHSN1N6eR 
                 855 
                 ATT CCT GGT AAT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GAT AAT TAG G 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 102 
                 gisAFH5N1N6fR 
                 855 
                 ATT CTT CGT AAT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GAT AAT TAG G 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 103 
                 gisAFH5N1N6gR 
                 855 
                 ATT CCT CAT AGT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GAT AAT TAG G 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 104 
                 gisAFH5N1N7aR 
                 992 
                 GTC TCC GAA AAC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CCC ACT GCA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 105 
                 gisAFH5N1N7bR 
                 992 
                 GTC TCC GAA AAC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TCC ACT GCA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 106 
                 gisAFH5N1N9aR 
                 1082 
                 GCC GTA TTT AAA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGA AAA CCC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 107 
                 gisAFH5N1N9bR 
                 1082 
                 GCC ATA CTT AAA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGA AAA CCC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 108 
                 gisAFHSN1N9cR 
                 1082 
                 GCC ATA TTT AAA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGA AAA CCC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 109 
                 gisAFH5N1N11aR 
                 1234 
                 CTC CCG CTG/A 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAT/G CCT GAC CAA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TCAG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 110 
                 gisAFH5N1N11bR 
                 1234 
                 CTC CCG CTA TAT 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CCT GAC CAA TCA G 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 111 
                 gisAFH5N1N11cR 
                 1234 
                 CTC CCG CTA TAG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CCT GAC CAA TCA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 G 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 118 
                 gisAFH5N1NTqR1 
                 95 
                 TCT GGG CCA GAA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ATT CCA AT 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Where a nucleotide in a particular position varied within the conserved region of the HA or the NA gene for the viral isolates tested, a “family” of primers was developed based on the conserved region of the gene, in which one or more residue within the family of primers varied from primer to primer. For example, SEQ ID NO: 1 to SEQ ID NO:6 are such a family. 
     Furthermore, a skilled person will understand that, although the primers are based on conserved sequences, one or more bases within the conserved sequences can be substituted, inserted or deleted, provided that the mutated primer will still hybridize with the target sequence in a sample with the same or similar stringency as the original primer sequence. Hybridization conditions may be modified in accordance with known methods depending on the sequence of interest (see Tijssen, 1993,  Laboratory Techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology—Hybridization with Nucleic Acid Probes , Part I, Chapter 2 “ Overview of principles of hybridization and the strategy of nucleic acid probe assays ”, Elsevier, N.Y.). Generally, stringent conditions are selected to be about 5° C. lower than the thermal melting point for the specific sequence at a defined ionic strength and pH. 
     A skilled person will understand that having multiple substitution mutations in a short sequence will decrease the strength of hybridization of the primer to the complement of the original, unmutated primer, and that the spacing and location of the mutations within the primer sequence will also affect the strength or stringency of hybridization. Furthermore, a skilled person will understand that insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotides in a short sequence will also decrease the strength of hybridization of the primer to the complement of the original, unmutated primer, and that having insertions or deletions of one or more nucleotides in more than one location in a short sequence may significantly alter the hybridization of the primer to the complement of the unmutated sequence. 
     The alignment of the various primers of the invention for the HA gene of avian influenza virus are set out in  FIG. 1 , along with other primers previously known to be directed against the HA gene of subtype 5. Primers TW_H5-155f and TW_H5-699r were published in Lee et al. (2001,  J. Viriol. Methods  97:13-22). Primers VM_H5/515, VM_H5-1, VM_H5/1220 and VM_H5-2 were published in Hien et al. (2004,  New Eng. J of Med.  350(12):1179-1188). Primers HK_SEQ ID1 to HK_SEQ ID3, HK_SEQ ID5 to HK_SEQ ID7 and HK_SEQ ID9 to HK_SEQ ID14 were published in WO 02/29118. 
     In some embodiments, the primer may be modified with a label to allow for detection of the primer or a DNA product synthesized or extended from the primer. For example, the label may be a fluorescent label, a chemiluminescent label, a coloured dye label, a radioactive label, a radiopaque label, a protein including an enzyme, a peptide or a ligand for example biotin. 
     In certain embodiments, the primer may comprise an additional nucleotide sequence in addition to a sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114. Such an additional sequence may be encoded by or complementary to the sequence of the HA or NA gene flanking the sequence defined by any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114, with the proviso that the term primer as used herein is not the entire influenza A genome and is not primer TW_H5-155f, primer TW_H5-699r, primer VM_H5/515, primer VM_H5-1, primer VM_H5/1220, primer VM_H5-2, or any of HK_SEQ ID1 to HK_SEQ ID3, HK_SEQ ID5 to HK_SEQ ID7 and HK_SEQ ID9 to HK_SEQ ID14, described above. 
     Alternatively, the additional sequence may not be directed to the HA or NA gene, but may be a sequence, for example, that is recognised by a protein or an enzyme, for example a restriction enzyme, or that is complementary to a nucleic acid sequence that is used for detection, for example, that is complementary to a probe that may be labelled. A skilled person will understand that there will be an optimum length and sequence for the primer, depending on the application for which the primer is to be used, so as to suitably limit the number and type of any such additional sequences. For example, a PCR primer should not be of such length or sequence that the temperature above which it no longer specifically binds to the template approaches the temperature at which the extension by polymerase occurs. 
     Therefore, in certain embodiments, the primer consists essentially of the sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114, meaning the primer may include one or more additional nucleotides, 5′ to, 3′ to, or flanking on either side, of the sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114, but that the additional nucleotides should not significantly affect the hybridization of the sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114 to a nucleic acid molecule containing the complementary sequence. For example, the addition of several nucleotides on either side of a short primer sequence should not alter the hybridization stringency of the short primer sequence to its complementary sequence even when contained within a larger sequence, to such an extent that the short primer sequence cannot hybridize with the same or similar stringency as when the additional nucleotides are not present. That is, since the regions in the influenza HA or NA gene surrounding the sequences described herein may vary among isolates, a primer consisting essentially of the sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114 should not include so much of the viral sequences flanking the conserved sequences described herein so as to affect the sensitivity and ability to detect a wide range of H5 or H5N1 isolates. In certain other embodiments the primer consists of, or is, the sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114. 
     In certain embodiments, the primer comprises a “target annealing sequence” which comprises a sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114, and a non-influenza virus A sequence. 
     The target annealing sequence will hybridize to at least a portion of a target nucleic acid in a sample, the target nucleic acid being homologous to, complementary to, transcribed or reverse transcribed from, or otherwise derived from, an influenza A H5 or H5N1 viral subtype. Thus, the target annealing sequence may also include flanking sequences encoded by or complementary to the sequence of the HA or NA gene flanking the sequence defined by any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114. The target annealing sequence may alternatively consist essentially of, or consist of, a sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114. 
     The non-influenza A virus sequence is a sequence that is not derived from or corresponding or complementary to the influenza A viral genome sequence. As described above, the non-influenza A virus sequence may be a sequence, for example, that is recognised by a protein or an enzyme, for example a restriction enzyme, or that is complementary to a nucleic acid sequence that is used for detection, for example, that is complementary to a probe that may be labelled or to a capture sequence of an immobilized nucleic acid molecule that may be used to capture the present primer. The non-influenza A virus sequences may be located 5′ to, 3′ to, or may flank on either side, the target annealing sequence. 
     The length of the primer or primers of the invention will depend on the desired use or application. For example, as will be understood, a PCR primer will typically be between about 15 and about 35 bases in length. The length of a PCR primer will be based on the sequence that is to be amplified as well as the desired melting temperature of the primer/template hybrid. However, for applications such as Southern hybridizations, the primer may be longer, for example from about 15 bases to about 1 kilobase in length or longer. Thus, the primer may be from 15 bases to about 1 kilobase in length, from 15 to about 500 bases, from 15 to about 300 bases, from 15 to about 150 bases, from 15 to about 100 bases or from 15 to 50 about bases. 
     The primers of the invention may be prepared using conventional methods known in the art. For example, standard phosphoramidite chemical ligation methods may be used to synthesize the primer in the 3′ to 5′ direction on a solid support, including using an automated nucleic acid synthesizer. Such methods will be known to a skilled person. 
     Although the term “primer” is used herein to describe single-stranded nucleotides that are used to anneal in a sequence-specific manner to a template sequence and initiate a new strand synthesis, a skilled person will understand that uses of the primers of the invention are not so limited. For example, the primers of the invention may be used as probes, to detect a complementary sequence to which the probe hybridizes. For such a use, the primer will typically be labelled for detection, for example, with a fluorescent label, a chemiluminescent label, a coloured dye label, a radioactive label, a protein including an enzyme, a peptide or a ligand for example biotin. When used as probes, the primers may be used in nucleic acid hybridization methods, single stranded conformational polymorphism (SSCP) analysis, restriction fragment polymorphism (RFLP) analysis, Southern hybridization, northern hybridization, in situ hybridization, electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA), nucleic acid microarrays, and other methods that are known to those skilled in the art. 
     The primers of the invention may be used to diagnose or detect avian influenza subtype H5 or H5N1 in a sample, for example a biological sample derived from an organism suspected of carrying the virus. 
     Thus, there is provided a method for detecting avian influenza subtype H5 in a sample comprising amplifying DNA reverse transcribed from RNA obtained from the sample using one or more reverse primers comprising any one of the sequences of SEQ ID NO:32 to SEQ ID NO:55 and one or more forward primers comprising any one of the sequences of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:18, and detecting a product of amplification, wherein the product indicates the presence of an avian influenza virus H5 subtype in the sample. There is also provided a method for detecting avian influenza subtype H5N1 in a sample comprising amplifying DNA reverse transcribed from RNA obtained from the sample using one or more reverse primers comprising any one of the sequences of SEQ ID NO:56 to SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO: 113 and SEQ ID NO: 114 and one or more forward primers comprising any one of the sequences of SEQ ID NO:19 to SEQ ID NO:31 and SEQ ID NO:112, or using one or more reverse primers comprising any one of the sequences of SEQ ID NO:94 to SEQ ID NO:111 and SEQ ID NO:118 and one or more forward primers comprising any one of the sequences of SEQ ID NO:72 to SEQ ID NO:93, and detecting a product of amplification, wherein the product indicates the presence of an avian influenza virus H5N1 subtype in the sample. 
     The term “detecting” an amplification product is intended to include determining the presence or absence, or quantifying the amount, of a product resulting from an amplification reaction that used template, primers, and an appropriate polymerase enzyme. 
     Typically, RNA from a sample is reverse transcribed so as to provide a single DNA strand that is complementary to the RNA HA gene or to the RNA NA gene. The reverse transcribing is performed using a reverse transcriptase enzyme that is capable of reading an RNA template and synthesizing a complementary DNA strand from a primer that binds to the RNA template, by polymerizing DNA nucleotides in a sequence complementary to that of the RNA template. Reverse transcriptase enzymes, for example T7 reverse transcriptase, are commercially available, and will be known to a skilled person. The reverse transcription reaction is typically performed in a buffer, under reaction conditions and at a temperature that are designed to optimize the reverse transcriptase activity. Commercially supplied reverse transcriptase enzymes may be supplied with a suitable buffer and DNA nucleotides. 
     The primer used in the reverse transcription reaction may be a mixture of random hexamers that will bind to random sites along the RNA template. Alternatively, the reverse transcription primer may be a specific primer designed to bind at a particular site within the HA gene or the NA gene. Therefore, one or more reverse primers comprising any one of SEQ ID NO:32 to SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:113, and SEQ ID NO:114 or SEQ ID NO:94 to SEQ ID NO:111 and SEQ ID NO:118, as set out in Tables 2 and 4, may be used as a primer in the reverse transcription reaction. The same reverse primer or primers of the invention may be advantageously used in the amplification step, particularly when the reverse transcription and amplification are effected in the same reaction. Where more than one primer of the invention is used, each of the primers used will have a different sequence, the sequence of each primer comprising any one of SEQ ID NO:32 to SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:113, and SEQ ID NO:114 or SEQ ID NO:94 to SEQ ID NO:111 and SEQ ID NO:118. 
     Where there is a family of primers based on the same conserved region of the HA gene or NA gene but varying at one or more nucleotides within the primer sequence, for example SEQ ID NO:32 to SEQ ID NO: 43, one or more reverse primers from such a family may be used. This allows for reverse transcription of, and therefore eventual detection of, a wide number of possible isolates or variants of avian influenza virus subtype H5 or H5N1. A “variant” as used herein refers to an H5 subtype in which the HA gene sequence may vary from that of another H5 subtype, or an H5N1 subtype in which the HA gene sequence or the NA gene sequence may vary from that of another H5N1 subtype. 
     The template RNA for the reverse transcription reaction may be obtained from a sample using RNA extraction methods known in the art. RNA extraction kits are also commercially available, for example, RNeasy kits (Qiagen), and the availability and use of such kits will be known and understood by a skilled person. 
     The sample may be a biological sample, for example any sample collected from an individual suspected of carrying avian influenza virus subtype H5 or H5N1. The sample may be any sample that contains the virus from an infected individual, and includes tissue and fluid samples, for example, blood, serum, plasma, peripheral blood cells including lymphocytes and mononuclear cells, sputum, mucous, urine, feces, throat swab samples, dermal lesion swab samples, cerebrospinal fluids, pus, and tissue including spleen, kidney and liver. 
     Once the reverse transcription reaction is completed, the single-stranded DNA molecule can be used in the amplification reaction. The term “amplifying” or “amplification” refers to a reaction in which a nucleic acid molecule that is to be detected so as to indicate the presence of avian influenza virus subtype H5 or H5N1, is reproduced in large quantities. A suitable polymerase enzyme will be used to synthesize a new strand of a template nucleic acid, either RNA or DNA as the case may be, to generate multiple copies. 
     The amplification step may be performed in the same reaction as the reverse transcription reaction, provided the conditions and reagents from the reverse transcription do not interfere with the amplification reaction. Alternatively, the reverse transcription product may be purified prior to being used as template in the amplification reaction. 
     Alternatively, a double-stranded DNA molecule, for example a double stranded DNA derived from a reverse transcribed single stranded DNA molecule, may be used as a template for the amplification reaction. If a DNA clone of a particular viral isolate has been made, the DNA clone may be used as a template for amplification. A skilled person will understand how to make a double stranded DNA clone from a viral isolate, using standard techniques. “DNA reverse transcribed from RNA” of a sample is intended to include all such DNA derived from the DNA reverse transcribed from the RNA. 
     In certain embodiments, amplification is performed by a PCR amplification reaction. Thus, the amplification step may be performed with a DNA polymerase, for example, Taq polymerase, using standard methods and techniques that are known to a person skilled in the art. DNA polymerases for use in amplification of DNA molecules are commercially available. The amplification reaction is performed under conditions and with the necessary reagents, such as deoxynucleotides, buffer and relevant forward and reverse primers, so as to optimize the polymerization activity of the DNA polymerase enzyme. 
     The PCR amplification reaction involves a denaturation segment, in which the reaction is heated to a temperature sufficient to denature the transcribed DNA strand, and the template RNA if present, and to prevent binding of the primers to either strand. The denaturation segment is followed by an annealing segment, in which the reaction temperature is ramped down to a temperature at which the primers can bind to the DNA strand. The final segment is an extension segment, in which the reaction is heated to a temperature that is optimal for extension of the primer by the DNA polymerase. These three segments are cycled through multiple times allowing for the production of the complementary strand of DNA that pairs with the reverse transcribed DNA and of the reverse transcribed strand by extension from the forward and reverse primer or primers respectively. In each successive round of the amplification reaction, more of each DNA strand is produced, which then may be used as template for the next cycle, resulting in amplification of the DNA product. A skilled person can readily determine the appropriate temperature for each segment of the amplification step and the desired number of cycles to be performed. 
     In one embodiment, the amplification reaction can be started with a “hot start” in which the template DNA from the reverse transcription reaction and the forward and reverse primers are mixed and held at a temperature of the denaturation step for a period of time to reduce non-specific binding of the primers to the reverse transcribed DNA strand. One component necessary for the reaction, for example the DNA polymerase, may be omitted from the reaction during the hot start and then added to the reaction just prior to the first cycle of the amplification reaction. 
     If desired, the amplification step can be repeated, using the amplified DNA product as a template for an additional round of amplification cycles. The template may be purified from the reaction mixture, and a second reaction may be set up with the amplified DNA product, the appropriate primers, DNA polymerase, buffer, and deoxynucleotides. The second round of amplification may be carried out under the same or similar conditions as the first amplification reaction, and the second amplification product can then be detected using an appropriate detection method as set out below. 
     If a primer or primers of the invention were used in the reverse transcription reaction, the same reverse primer or primers may be used in the amplification reaction along with a suitable forward primer or primers. Alternatively, a different reverse primer or primers of the invention may be used in the amplification reaction, each primer comprising any one of the sequences set out in SEQ ID NO:32 to SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:113 and SEQ ID NO:114 or SEQ ID NO:94 to SEQ ID NO:111 and SEQ ID NO:118. 
     The forward primers directed against conserved regions of the HA gene of avian influenza virus subtype H5 or H5N1 are set out in Table 1, and the forward primers directed against conserved regions of the NA gene of the H5N1 subtype are set out in Table 3. A skilled person will understand that the forward and reverse primers used in a particular amplification reaction need to correspond with respect to subtype and gene. Therefore, when a reverse primer is used that comprises any one of SEQ ID NO:32 to SEQ ID NO:55 and SEQ ID NO:113, a forward primer may be used that comprises any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:18. Similarly, when a reverse primer is used that comprises any one of SEQ ID NO:56 to SEQ ID NO:71 and SEQ ID NO:114, a forward primer may be used that comprises any one of SEQ ID NO:19 to SEQ ID NO:31 and SEQ ID NO:112, and when a reverse primer is used that comprises any one of SEQ ID NO:94 to SEQ ID NO:111 and SEQ ID NO:118, a forward primer may be used that comprises any one of SEQ ID NO:72 to SEQ ID NO:93. 
     It will be appreciated that only one of the forward or reverse primers used in an amplification reaction need comprise the sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114, and that such a primer may be used in combination with a reverse or forward primer that does not comprise such a sequence. However, since the sequences of the HA and NA genes may vary considerably among viral isolates, using a forward or reverse primer that does not comprise the sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114 may affect the sensitivity and detection range of the amplification step. 
     As with the reverse primer, where a family of forward primers is available according to the present invention, one or more of such primers may be used so as to enable identification of any of a wide number of subtype H5 or H5N1 isolates or variants. For example, one or more of primers having the sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:6 may be used in a single amplification reaction. 
     One or more reverse primers may be chosen from primers comprising SEQ ID NO:32 to SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:113 and SEQ ID NO:114 or SEQ ID NO:94 to SEQ ID NO:111 and SEQ ID NO:118, and one or more forward primers may be chosen from primers comprising SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:31 and SEQ ID NO:112 or SEQ ID NO:72 to SEQ ID NO:93 even where the primers do not fall within a family of primers. However, this will result in a series of amplification of products of varying lengths. If the multiple reverse and/or forward primers are carefully chosen, amplification products may be readily distinguishable from each other. It should be noted that in this embodiment, the sensitivity of the detection method may be reduced, yielding less of a particular amplification product from a given amount of template. As in the reverse transcription reaction, where more than one primer of the invention is used each of the primers used will have a different sequence, the sequence of each primer comprising any one of SEQ ID NO:32 to SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:113 and SEQ ID NO:114 or SEQ ID NO:94 to SEQ ID NO:111, SEQ ID NO:112 and SEQ ID NO:118 for the reverse primers and any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:31 or SEQ ID NO:72 to SEQ ID NO:93 for the forward primers. 
     The forward primer is chosen such that in combination with the reverse primer used, a detectable double-stranded DNA amplification product is produced. That is, the forward primer should be located sufficiently upstream in the HA or NA gene relative to the reverse primer to amplify a double stranded DNA molecule that is of sufficient size such that when produced in the amplification reaction, it is capable of being detected by whichever detection method is chosen. The size of DNA product that can be detected will vary with the specific detection method chosen. For example, if agarose gel electrophoresis is used to detect the amplification product, the end product may have to be larger than if real time PCR using lightcycling is used as the detection method. Depending on the concentration of gel used, agarose gel electrophoresis can be used to detect fragments as small as 25 base pairs. However, larger fragments, for example between 150 to 500 base pairs, are more readily detected using gel-based methods, whereas smaller fragments, for example, less than 100 base pairs are easily detected using real time PCR methods. 
     The amplified DNA product may be detected using detection methods known in the art. For example, suitable detection methods include, without limitation, incorporation of a fluorescent, chemiluminescent or radioactive signal into the amplified DNA product, or by polyacrylamide or agarose gel electrophoresis, or by hybridizing the amplified product with a probe containing an electron transfer moiety and detecting the hybridization by electronic detection methods. 
     In one embodiment, the amplified DNA product is detected by agarose gel electrophoresis, which will be known to a skilled person. A portion of the amplification product is mixed with appropriate gel loading buffer, including dye markers, and run through an agarose gel through the application of an electrical gradient to the gel. The agarose gel may be stained with ethidium bromide or another suitable dye that binds to or intercalates with DNA, and is detected for example, by exposing to ultraviolet radiation. 
     The detection method may be performed subsequent to the amplification reaction. Alternatively, the detection method may be performed simultaneously with the amplification reaction. In one embodiment, the amplified DNA product is detected using real time PCR, for example by lightcycling, for example using Roche&#39;s LightCycler™. Real time PCR techniques will be known by a skilled person and may involve the use of two probes each labelled with a specific fluorescent label, and which bind to the amplified DNA product. The probes are designed such that they bind to the DNA product in such a manner that the fluorescent label of the first probe is in close proximity to the fluorescent label of the second probe. The amplification reaction is performed in an instrument designed to emit and detect the relevant fluorescent signals, and includes an additional detection segment in which the instrument emits light at a wavelength suitable to excite the fluorescent label on the first probe, which then emits light at a wavelength suitable to excite the fluorescent label on the second probe. The light which is then emitted by the second probe&#39;s fluorescent label, and which differs in wavelength from the previous emissions, is detected by the instrument. 
     Alternatively, a fluorescent molecule that binds to double stranded DNA may be used where a single stranded template is used in the amplification reaction. This method allows for detection and fairly precise relative quantification, when compared with a known standard template, of the amplified DNA product throughout the amplification reaction. The quantification of amplified product may enable the determination of viral load in the original biological sample. As well, this method allows for the detection of smaller amounts of amplification products, and amplification products having smaller sizes than methods using conventional PCR techniques. 
     The simultaneous amplification and detection may also be performed using a detection probe that is labelled at the 5′end with a fluorophore and at the 3′ end with a quenching molecule that quenches emissions of the fluorophore when in proximity to the fluorophore, as in the Taqman™ method designed by ABI Systems. The detection probe will bind to the forward or reverse strand of the amplification template. A polymerase having 5′ exonuclease activity, for example, Taq polymerase or others (for example, synthetic version is available from Roche), is used in the amplification reaction. As the template strand having the bound detection probe is amplified, the detection probe will be digested by the 5′ exonuclease, removing the fluorophore from the proximity of the quencher and allowing the fluorophore to emit. The emissions can be quantified in standard equipment, for example, the LightCycler™ described above. 
     Alternatively, to detect H5N1 variants, a first amplification may be performed using primers directed against the HA gene, for example, using reverse primer or primers comprising any one of SEQ ID NO:32 to SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:113 and SEQ ID NO:114 and forward primer or primers comprising any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:31 and SEQ ID NO:112, and a second amplification step may be performed using reverse primer or primers comprising any one of SEQ ID NO:94 to SEQ ID NO:111 and SEQ ID NO:118 and forwards primer or primers comprising any one of SEQ ID NO:72 to SEQ ID NO:93 directed against the NA gene. To detect the presence of H5N1, the two amplifications may be performed simultaneously, in the same or different reaction, the first amplification using primers directed against the H5 or H5N1 subtype of the HA gene, and the second amplification using primers directed against the NA gene. As the NA gene is known to be expressed in lower quantities, it may be more difficult to detect in instances of low viral load. 
     The large number of primers provided by the present invention are designed to increase the possibility of detecting different variants of subtypes H5 and H5N1, and a single sample may be tested with different combinations of forward and reverse primer or primers, so as to increase the probability of detecting any particular variant. 
     Although the above embodiments have been described in the context of a PCR amplification method, a skilled person will understand that the sequences of the invention may be used to design primers for use in other amplification methods to detect avian influenza virus subtype H5 or H5N1 in a biological sample. For example, the sequences disclosed in SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114 may be used to design primers for amplification and detection by NASBA methods, as described for example in Lau et al. ( Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm.  2003 313:336-342), and which are generally known to a skilled person. 
     Briefly, in the NASBA technique the primers are designed to bind to a portion of the gene of interest, here HA or NA, and to include a promoter for an RNA polymerase, for example T7 RNA polymerase. The viral gene is reverse transcribed and a second complementary DNA strand is synthesized to produce a double stranded DNA molecule that includes an intact RNA polymerase promoter. The relevant RNA polymerase is used to generate copies of an RNA molecule corresponding to an amplified portion of the gene of interest. The amplified RNA is then bound to a detection molecule, typically a nucleic acid that is complementary to a portion of the amplified RNA and that is labelled, for example, with a radiolabel, a chemiluminescent label, a fluorescent label or an electrochemiluminescent label. The amplified RNA bound to the detection molecule is then typically captured by a capture molecule, for example an immobilized nucleic acid that is complementary to a portion of the amplified RNA product that is a different portion than that to which the detection molecule binds. The captured RNA amplification product with bound detection molecule is then detected by the relevant detection method as determined by the label on the detection molecule and the method of capture. 
     Thus, the present invention contemplates the use of a primer comprising any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114 for use in NASBA methods to detect the presence of avian influenza virus subtype H5 or H5N1 in a biological sample. 
     The primers of the invention are also useful for sequencing a DNA molecule corresponding to the HA or NA gene, or a reverse transcribed DNA molecule complementary to the HA or NA gene of the avian influenza virus subtype H5 or H5N1. A reverse primer comprising any one of SEQ ID NO: 32 to SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:113 and SEQ ID NO:114, or any one of SEQ ID NO:94 to SEQ ID NO:111 and SEQ ID NO:118 may be used to initiate a sequencing reaction using as template nucleic acid molecule corresponding to a portion of the HA or NA gene, respectively. A forward primer comprising any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:31 and SEQ ID NO:112 or any one of SEQ ID NO:72 to SEQ ID NO:93 may be used to initiate a sequencing reaction using as template a nucleic acid molecule complementary to a portion of the HA or NA gene, respectively. Sequencing reactions may be performed using standard methods known in the art, and may be performed using automated sequencing equipment. 
     The primers of the invention are also useful as probes or capture molecules to detect RNA from an H5 or H5N1 influenza virus isolate. For example, one or more primers comprising any one of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114 may be immobilized on a solid support and used to isolate nucleic acid molecules having a sequence that is complementary to some or all of the primer sequence. 
     Thus, there is presently provided a method for detecting influenza A virus subtype H5 or H5N1 in a sample comprising contacting one or more immobilized primers comprising any one of the sequences of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114 with the sample. 
     The primer may be immobilized on a solid support using standard methods for immobilizing nucleic acids, including chemical cross-linking, photocross-linking, or specific immobilization via a functional group on the primer, including a functional group that is added to or incorporated into the primer, for example biotin. 
     The solid support may be any support which may be used in a detection assay, including chromatography beads, a tissue culture plate or dish, or a glass surface such as a slide. 
     The contacting is performed under conditions that allow for hybridization between the primer and the sample so that any nucleic acids contained in the sample that contain a sequence complementary to the primer or to a portion of the primer can hybridize. A skilled person will be able to determine suitable hybridization conditions based on the sequence of the primer or the region of the primer that is to be hybridized with the sample, and will be able to vary conditions so as to increase or decrease the stringency of hybridization. For example, varying of temperature, salt or buffer concentrations and detergent concentrations will alter the stringency of conditions for hybridization between a given sequence and its complement. 
     In such an application, the primer or the nucleic acid sample, or both, may be modified with a label such as a fluorescent label, a chemiluminescent label, a coloured dye label, a protein, peptide or ligand. 
     Any hybridized nucleic acids from the sample that have been captured by immobilized primer are then detected. The method of detection will depend on the nature of any label on the sample and/or the immobilized primer. As well, standard methods for detecting and visualizing nucleic acid molecules may be used, including chromatography methods, and gel electrophoresis and staining methods. 
     One example of an immobilization and capture application is incorporation of the primer or primers in a DNA or nucleotide microarray, as is known in the art. 
     Thus, there is also provided a method of detecting influenza A virus subtype H5 or H5N1 in a sample comprising contacting a microarray containing one or more primers comprising any one of the sequences of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114 in at least one spot in the microarray with the sample, and detecting hybridization of the sample to the primer. Nucleic acid microarray technology is known in the art, including manufacture of a microarray and detection of hybridization of a sample with the capture molecules in one or more spots in the microarray. 
     The sample used may be a biological sample suspected of containing influenza A virus subtype H5 or H5N1, or containing nucleic acid generated or amplified from a biological sample suspected of containing influenza A virus subtype H5 or H5N1. Nucleic acid may be amplified using known amplification methods as described above, including RT-PCR amplification as described herein, the NASBA method described herein, as well as primer extension methods. The sample may be hybridized with the primer or primers incorporated into the microarray using known hybridization methods. 
     In order to detect hybridization, typically either the primer, which acts as a probe, or the sample is labelled. For example, the sample may be labelled by incorporating a label during an amplification step. The label may be any detectable label, including a radioactive label, a chemiluminescent label or a fluorescent label. For example, as is known in the art, Cy3- or Cy5-labelled nucleotides can be readily incorporated into an amplified nucleic acid molecule to generate a labelled sample. Using this method, hybridization is typically detected by an increase in signal at a particular spot in the microarray. 
     Alternatively, the presently described primers which are included in the microarray may be labelled. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,811,973 (issued to Reich), which is herein fully incorporated by reference, describes inclusion of a fluorescent marker into a nucleic acid probe molecule that is used as a capture molecule in a microarray, whereby hybridization of the capture nucleic acid molecule with its target nucleic acid molecule results in quenching of the fluorescent signal emitted by the fluorescent label incorporated into the capture molecule. Thus, hybridization is measured by a decrease in signal from a particular spot in the microarray. 
     The present invention also contemplates microarrays incorporating one or more primers comprising any one of the sequences of SEQ ID NO:1 to SEQ ID NO:114 at one or more spots in the microarray. Methods for manufacturing microarrays, including nucleic acid microarrays are known. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,753,144 (Hirota) and U.S. Pat. No. 6,511,849 (Wang), both of which are fully incorporated by reference herein, describe methods for making microarrays. The microarray is typically formed on a solid support by immobilizing one or more primers at a given address or spot in the microarray. 
     As with the amplification, one or more members of a family of primers may be included in a single spot, allowing for detection of a number of different variants or isolates with a single spot in the microarray. 
     Although the methods described above relate to in vitro methods of detecting influenza A virus H5 or H5N1 isolates, the primers described herein may also be used in vivo methods to detect or image an influenza A virus H5 or H5N1 subtype infection. 
     Also presently contemplated are kits or commercial packages comprising a primer as described above and instructions for detecting influenza A H5 or H5N1 subtype in a sample. The detecting may be by any of the methods described herein. 
     All documents referred to herein are fully incorporated by reference. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Experiments were performed on RNA extracted from eggs and from human clinical samples including allantoic fluid, cloacal and trachael swabs, homogenized tissue, pooled organs, blood, sputum, stools, urine and nasopharyngeal aspirates. 
     Example 1 
     Detection of Avian Influenza Virus H5 and H5N1 Using Gel-Based Detection Platform 
     The following is a general protocol for detection of avian influenza virus subtype H5 or H5N1. 
     Generally, RNA is extracted from samples according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions, using either TRIzol™ or RNA extraction kits (Qiagen). 
     The first-strand cDNA synthesis is performed on extracted RNA using the relevant reverse primer(s) (2 μl of 10 μM stock) in a 20 μl reaction volume. A first round PCR reaction is set up using 2.5 μl of the cDNA reaction, containing cDNA product as template with relevant forward and reverse primer(s) (1.25 μl total volume for each of forward and reverse) in a 25 μl reaction volume. The PCR conditions are set up as follows: incubation at 94° C. for 2 min; 35 cycles of 94° C. for 10 sec, 50° C. for 30 sec, 72° C. for 1 min; followed by an incubation at 72° C. for 7 min. A second round of PCR is performed using the product of the first round PCR (2.5 μl) as template. All other conditions and reagents are the same as for the first round PCR. 
     The products of the second round PCR are analysed on a 1.5 to 2% agarose gel by staining with ethidium bromide. 
     However, it has been established after rounds of validation that one-round of PCR will be sufficient for detection 
     The above RT-PCR protocol was performed using RNA extracted from an H5N1 viral isolate derived from Thailand (2004). The following 8 primer sets directed against the HA gene were used: (1) gisAFH5N1H1F and gisAFH5N1H4R; (2) gisAFH5N1H2aF and gisAFH5N1H4R; (3) gisAFH5N1H1F and gisAFH5N1H5bR; (4) gisAFH5N1H2aF and gisAFH5N1H5bR; (5) gisAFH5N1H3F and gisAFH5N1H8aR; (6) gisAFH5N1H6bF and gisAFH5N1H8aR; (7) gisAFH5N1H6bF and gisAFH5N1H10R; (8) gisAFH5N1H7aF and gisAFH5N1H11cR. The expected fragment sizes were 189 bp, 148 bp, 306, bp, 265 bp, 574 bp, 456 bp, 489 bp and 163 bp, respectively. The amplified products were run on a 1.5% agarose gel and visualized by ethidium bromide staining, as shown in  FIG. 2 . 
     To determine the sensitivity of this assay, reactions using 10 fold serial dilutions of template and primer sets  3  ( FIG. 3 ),  5  ( FIG. 4 ),  6  and  8  ( FIG. 5 ) were performed. The results ( FIGS. 3 to 5 ; lanes 1 to 7 are reactions performed using 50 ng, 0.5 ng, 50 pg, 0.5 pg, 0.05 pg, 5 fg and 0.5 fg of template, respectively) indicate that the PCR reactions using the primers of the invention are sensitive, although the sensitivity varies depending on the primers used. Primer sets  3  and  6  were more sensitive, and primer set  6  yielded a significant amount of amplified product, even at a template concentration as low as 5 fg (see lane 6,  FIG. 5 ). 
     Example 2 
     Detection of Avian Influenza Virus H5 and HSN1 Using Real-Time RT-PCR Detection Platform 
     The following reactions are performed in a LightCycler™ instrument. 
     The reaction master mixture is prepared on ice by mixing the following reagents in order, to a volume of 20 μl: water (volume adjusted as necessary), 50 mM manganese acetate (1.3 μl), ProbeNPrimer mix containing forward primer and reverse primer to a final concentration of 0.2 to 1 μM and fluorescently labelled probes (2.6 μl), LightCycler RNA Master Hybridization Probes (7.5 μl), which contains buffer, nucleotides and enzyme. 
     The reactions are transferred to glass capillary tubes suitable for use in the LightCycler™. 5 μl of extracted RNA template is added to each reaction and briefly centrifuged. The RT-PCR reactions are run using the following programs (Tables 5-8): 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Program 1-Reverse Transcription 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Cycle Program Data 
                 Value 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Cycles 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 Analysis Mode 
                 None 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Temperature Targets 
                 Segment 1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Target T° C. 
                 61 
               
               
                   
                 Incubation time 
                 20 min 
               
               
                   
                 T° C. transition rate (° C./s) 
                 20.0 
               
               
                   
                 Secondary Target T° C. 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Step Size (° C.) 
                 0.0 
               
               
                   
                 Step Delay (cycles) 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Acquisition Mode 
                 None 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Program 2-Denaturation 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Cycle Program Data 
                 Value 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Cycles 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 Analysis Mode 
                 None 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Temperature Targets 
                 Segment 1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Target T° C. 
                 95 
               
               
                   
                 Incubation time 
                 30 sec 
               
               
                   
                 T° C. transition rate (° C./s) 
                 20.0 
               
               
                   
                 Secondary Target T° C. 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Step Size (° C.) 
                 0.0 
               
               
                   
                 Step Delay (cycles) 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Acquisition Mode 
                 None 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Program 3-Amplification 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Cycle Program Data 
                 Value 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Cycles 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 Analysis Mode 
                 Quantification 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Temperature Targets 
                 Segment 1 
                 Segment 2 
                 Segment 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Target T° C. 
                 95 
                 50 to 55 
                 72 
               
               
                 Incubation time 
                 5 sec 
                 15 sec 
                 13 sec 
               
               
                 T° C. transition rate (° C./s) 
                 20.0 
                 20.0 
                 2.0 
               
               
                 Secondary Target T° C. 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 Step Size (° C.) 
                 0.0 
                 0.0 
                 0.0 
               
               
                 Step Delay (cycles) 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 Acquisition Mode 
                 None 
                 Single 
                 None 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Program 4-Cooling 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Cycle Program Data 
                 Value 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Cycles 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 Analysis Mode 
                 None 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Temperature Targets 
                 Segment 1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Target T° C. 
                 40 
               
               
                   
                 Incubation time 
                 30 sec 
               
               
                   
                 T° C. transition rate (° C./s) 
                 20.0 
               
               
                   
                 Secondary Target T° C. 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Step Size (° C.) 
                 0.0 
               
               
                   
                 Step Delay (cycles) 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Acquisition Mode 
                 None 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 3 
     Detection of Avian Influenza Virus H5N1 Using Real-Time RT-PCR with Various Primer Sets 
     Real time PCR reactions were performed using the 8 primer sets described in Example 2 above. The reactions were performed using SYBR green fluorescent detection kit, in accordance with standard protocols and commercially available reagent kits (Roche).  FIG. 6  displays the amplification products obtained for the reactions performed with each of the 8 primer sets as visualized on a 1.5% agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide. 
     To confirm the sensitivity of the primers using the real time PCR protocol, amplification curves were generated to monitor the production of amplification product. Results are shown in  FIGS. 7 to 14  for each of primer sets  1  to  8 , respectively. Melting curves of the amplified product were performed at the end of the amplification reaction. Generally, specific amplification products will have a higher melting temperature than non-specific products, and the melting curve profile can be used to confirm the specificity of the reaction. The melting curves shown in  FIGS. 15 to 18  are indicative of discrete expected amplification products. Thus, the primers of sets  1  to  8 , when used in real time PCR reactions are highly sensitive and specific for H5N1 isolates. 
     Example 4 
     Detection of H5N1 Influenza Virus from Field Samples Using One-Step RT-PCR Reaction 
     The performance of the primers was assessed using primer set  6  (described above in Example 1) in gel-based assays using in vitro-transcribed RNA generated by the T7 RiboMax Express in vitro transcription system (Promega, USA). The concentration of purified transcribed RNA was measured by RiboGreen RNA quantitation reagent (Invitrogen, USA) and serial dilutions of in vitro-transcribed RNA were prepared in duplicate. 
     2 μl of RNA was used in 25 μl reaction mixtures using the One-Step reverse transcription (RT)-PCR system (Qiagen, Germany) with the H5N1 specific primers (set  6 ) using the following PCR cycle: 94° C. for 10 sec; followed by 35 cycles of: 94° C. for 10 sec, 50° C. for 30 sec, and 72° C. for 1 min; and lastly followed by 72° C. for 7 min. The size of this PCR product was 456 bp and was resolved in 1% agarose gels. PCR products were sequenced directly to confirm the identity of the products. The sensitivity of the assay was found to be less than 1000 copies and was able to specifically detect H5N1 RNA ( FIG. 19A ). 
     The two-step RT-PCR method (Roche, Germany) was also used as described above and compared with the one-step RT-PCR method. Results showed both systems work well (compare  FIG. 20A  (two-step) and  20 B (one-step)). The primers were then tested using the LightCycler Real-time system (Roche, Germany) and comparable results were achieved ( FIG. 20C ) indicating equal sensitivities in terms of detection between the two assays. 
     For  FIG. 20C , amplification of RNA standards (indicated as a to e) are shown. The x axis denotes the cycle number of the quantitative PCR assay, and the y axis denotes fluorescence intensity (F2) over the background level. The non-template control (NTC) is shown. RNA standards were as follows: (a) 1×10 9  copies per reaction, (b) 1×10 8  copies per reaction, (c) 1×10 7  copies per reaction, (d) 1×10 6  copies per reaction, and (e) 1×10 5  copies per reaction. The insert graph represents the melting-curve analysis of the PCR products. Signals from RNA standards (a to e), and non-template control are shown. The x axis denotes the temperature (° C.), and the y axis denotes the fluorescence intensity over the background level. 
     To establish the specificity of the assays for H5N1 subtype detection, we then investigated the primers on field samples using several reference strains of different subtypes of influenza A viruses (H3N8, H5N3, H7N3 and H9N2) and Newcastle disease virus (NDV) as controls. Results showed that detection was specific to H5N1 only ( FIG. 19B ). Samples were extracted using TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen, USA) and QIAamp Viral RNA Mini Kit (Qiagen, Germany) according to manufacturers&#39; instructions. 
     For  FIG. 19 , Panel A depicts the results of amplification of serially diluted in vitro-transcribed single-stranded RNA (lanes 2 to 8) measured by RiboGreen RNA quantitation reagent and H5N1 RNA extracted from allantoic fluid of infected egg. The non-template control (sterile water) is indicated as “NTC”. The viral load is indicated by the number of copies per reaction: (lane 2) 1×10 9  copies per reaction, (lane 3) 1×10 8  copies per reaction, (lane 4) 1×10 7  copies per reaction, (lane 5) 1×10 6  copies per reaction, (lane 6) 1×10 5  copies per reaction, (lane 7) 1×10 4  copies per reaction, and (lane 8) 1×10 3  copies per reaction. The H5N1 RNA is estimated to be approximately 1×10 6  copies per reaction. 
     Panel B depicts the specific detection of H5N1 avian influenza virus using reference strains of different subtypes avian influenza A viruses (lanes 12 to 15), as well as Newcastle disease virus (NDV, lane 16). The H5N1, H3N8, H9N2 and NDV isolates were isolated from field samples by the Veterinary Research Institute, Malaysia, the H5N3 and H7N5 isolates were provided by the Department of Veterinary Pathology of Tottori University, Japan. Negative signals from non-H5N1 isolates and the non-template control (water) are shown. 
     A total of 145 field samples comprising of known and suspect cases from chickens, ducks and muscovy ducks isolated from Vietnam and Malaysia during the 2004 to 2005 outbreak were tested for H5N1 RNA (Table 9). Samples ranged from pooled organ tissues, allantoic fluid, cloacal and tracheal swabs, yielded positive results with 100% positive detection for allantoic fluid and pooled organs (Table 9) verifying the sensitivity of this RT-PCR assay. Viral culture isolation methods were used as confirmatory tests for all positive samples (Table 9). Homogenized tissues had the lowest detection rate of 40%, while cloacal and tracheal swabs detected 66.7% of the positive H5N1 samples. This variation in detection could be due to the different efficiencies in viral RNA recovery from the different samples, with allantoic fluid fractions having the highest efficiency for H5N1 RNA recovery and detection among the samples (Table 9). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 9 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Detection of avian influenza A H5N1 subtype from field samples 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 H5N1 viral 
                 Virus 
                 H5N1 RT- 
               
               
                 Sample Type 
                 Source 
                 Number 
                 culture 
                 isolate 
                 PCR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Allantoic 
                 Vietnam 
                 58 
                 50/58 
                 H5N1 
                 50/58 
               
               
                 Fluid 
               
               
                 Cloacal and 
                 Vietnam 
                 43 
                 15/43 
                 H5N1 
                 10/43 
               
               
                 Trachael 
               
               
                 Swab 
               
               
                 Homogenized 
                 Vietnam 
                 12 
                 10/12 
                 H5N1 
                  4/12 
               
               
                 Tissue 
               
               
                 Pooled 
                 Malaysia 
                 32 
                 32/32 
                 H5N1 
                 32/32 
               
               
                 Organs 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In an effort to validate the primers further, five positive samples from the Vietnam set were then tested in parallel with an existing in-house H5 primer set and results showed that the H5N1 primers described here (primer set  6 ) detected five out of five positive H5N1 samples while the other primer set only managed to detect three out of five ( FIG. 21C ), indicating that the H5N1 primers described herein are more sensitive and could detect weak positive samples with lower viral load. 
     In  FIG. 21 , the following data is depicted. Panel A shows the detection of H5N1 avian influenza virus from allantoic fluid of chickens, ducks and muscovy ducks (lanes 1 to 11). Panel B shows the detection of H5N1 avian influenza virus from homogenized tissues (lanes 1 to 4). Only two out of three samples were detected (lanes 3 and 4), which could be due to inefficient RNA extraction. The H5N1 positive control is indicated (lane 5). Panel C shows a comparison of an in-house H5 primer set with new H5N1 primers. The in-house H5 primer set detected three out of five positive samples that have been confirmed by viral culture isolation (lanes 1 to 5), while the H5N1 primer set detected all five samples (lanes to 11). The same batch of extracted RNA was used with both primer sets. 
     Example 5 
     Detection of H5N1 and H5 Influenza A Virus using Real Time PCR and One-Step RT-PCR Reactions 
     RT-PCR experiments were performed as described above using both the real-time PCR protocol and the one- or two-step PCR protocol. Experiments used in vitro-transcribed RNA. 
     Experiments detecting H5N1 used the following primer sets directed against the NA gene of H5N1 subtype: (9) gisAFH5N1N1aF and gisAFH5N1N3aR; (10) gisAFH5N1N1aF and gisAFH5N1N6gR; (11) gisAFH5N1N1aF and gisAFH5N1N7bR; (12) gisAFH5N1N2aF and gisAFH5N1N3aR; (13) gisAFH5N1N2aF and gisAFH5N1N6gR; (14) gisAFH5N1N2aF and gisAFH5N1N7bR; (15) gisAFH5N1N4aF and gisAFH5N1N6gR; (16) gisAFH5N1N4aF and gisAFH5N1N7bR; (17) gisAFH5N1N5gF and gisAFH5N1N7bR; (18) gisAFH5N1N8bF and gisAFH5N1N9aR; (19) gisAFH5N1N8bF and gisAFH5N1N11bR; and (20) gisAFH5N1N10aF and gisAFH5N1N11bR. The expected fragment sizes were 120 bp, 315 bp, 452 bp, 111 bp, 306 bp, 443 bp, 217 bp, 354 bp, 158 bp, 119 bp, 271 bp and 172 bp, respectively. The amplified products were run on a 1.0% or 1.5% agarose gel and visualized by ethidium bromide staining. For all reactions, QS 1=1000 ng/μl, QS 2=100 ng/μl, QS 3=10 ng/μl, QS 4=1 ng/μl, QS 5=0.1 ng/μl, QS 6=0.001 ng/μl and NTC non-template control, respectively. 
       FIGS. 22-33  shows the results of real-time PCR experiments using primer sets  9  to  20 , respectively. For each of  FIGS. 22-33 , Panel A shows the amplification curve and RNA standard curve for various concentrations of in vitro transcribed RNA template, Panel B shows the melting curves and Panel C shows the agarose gel visualization of the PCR product. 
     Similar real time PCR experiments were performed using the following primer sets directed against the HA gene of H5N1 subtype: (21) gisAFH5N1H9F and gisAFH5N1H11cR; and (22) gisAFH5N1H13F and gisAFH5N1H16cR; and the HA gene of H5 subtype (H5N1, H5N2 and H5N3): (23) gisAFH5H1aF and gisAFH5H2aR. The results obtained with sets  21  and  22  are shown in  FIGS. 34 and 35 , respectively, and the results obtained with set  23  are shown in  FIG. 36 , where a. and b. are the results for H5N2 and H5N3 RNA isolates, respectively. For these figures, Panel A shows the amplification curve for various concentrations of template. Template used was in vitro transcribed RNA for H5N1 and H5 subtypes and RNA extracted from field samples of H5N2 and H5N3. Panel B shows the RNA standard curve and Panel C shows the melting curves and Panel D shows the agarose gel visualization of the PCR product. The standard curves were generated using the LightCycler software based on QS1 to QS5, which are quantified amounts of in vitro transcribed RNA standards. 
     Next, one- or two-step RT-PCR reactions were performed using selected H5N1 NA primer sets (sets  10 ,  11 ,  13  and  16  using one-step; sets  12  and  15  using two-step) ( FIGS. 37 to 42 , respectively) and one- and two-step RT-PCR reactions were performed using the H5 HA primer set  23  ( FIGS. 43  A and B, respectively), as described above. The results were visualized using 1.5% agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide, as shown in  FIGS. 37 to 43 . 
     Example 6 
     Real Time PCR Method Using the Taqman™ Probe System 
     A master mix was prepared in 1.5 ml reaction tubes on ice by adding in the following order: 1.3 μl of 50 mM Mn(OAc) 2 , 8 μl of 1 μl probe, 1 μl of F Primer, 11 of R Primer and 7.5 μl of LightCycler RNA Master Hybridization Probes. The master mix was gently mixed and 18 μl transferred to precooled glass capillaries. 2 μl of RNA template was added and the capillaries were centrifuged at 700×g for 5 seconds. The capillaries were placed in the rotor of a LightCycler™ instrument and cycled using the programs set out in Tables 5 to 8, with 45 cycles for Program 7. 
     Real time PCR was performed using the Taqman™ (Roche) system of detection. To detect the HA gene of subtype H5, the following pair of amplification primers was used: (24) gisAFH5H1aF and gisAFH5HTqR, along with the Taqman™ probe gisAFH5HTMP. To detect the HA gene of subtype H5N1, the following pairs of amplification primers were used: (25) gisAFH5N1HTqF1 and gisAFH5N1H11cR; and (26) gisAFH5N1H9F and gisAFH5N1HTqR1, along with Taqman™ probes gisAFH5N1HTMP2 and gisAFH5N1HTMP1, respectively. The Taqman™ probes were labelled with the reporter fluorophore 6-carboxy fluorescein amidite (6-Fam) at the 5′ end and with the quencher tetramethyl rhodamine (TAMRA) at the 3′ end. The sequences of the Taqman™ probes are shown in Table 10. Amplification curve results are shown in  FIG. 44  for H5 primer set  24  and  FIGS. 45 and 46  for H5N1 primer sets  25  and  26 . 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 10 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Taqman™ Primers 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Start 
                   
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID 
                   
                 Nucleotide 
                 Sequence 
               
               
                 NO: 
                 Primer 
                 (gene) 
                 (5′ to 3′) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 115 
                 gisAFH5HTMP 
                  79 (HA) 
                 6Fam- AAC TCG ACA 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GAG CAG GTT GAG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ACA ATA A- TAMRA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 116 
                 gisAFH5N1HTMP 
                 1840 (HA) 
                 6Fam- TAT GAA AAG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGA ATT GGA ATA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TGG TAA CTG- TAMRA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 117 
                 gisAFH5N1HTMP2 
                 854 (HA) 
                 6Fam- TGG AAT ATG 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GTA ACT GCA ACA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CCA AGT GTC A- 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 TAMRA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 119 
                 gisAFH5N1NTMP1 
                 492 (NA) 
                 6Fam- AGT GCT TGC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CAT GAT GGC ACC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGT- TAMRA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 119 
                 gisAFH5N1NTMP1 
                 492 (NA) 
                 JOE- AGT GCT TGC 
               
               
                   
                 Joe 
                   
                 CAT GAT GGC ACC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGT-TAMRA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 119 
                 gisAFH5N1NTMP1 
                 492 (NA) 
                 JOE- AGT GCT TGC 
               
               
                   
                 Joe(BHQ) 
                   
                 CAT GAT GGC ACC 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGT-BHQ-1 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 7 
     DNA Microarray Using Primers 
     Particular primers of the invention were used in a DNA microarray (Attogenix, Singapore) to detect RNA from H5 and H5N1 isolates. Briefly, various HA and NA primers, specifically H5 (gisAFH5H1aF and gisAFH5H2aR), H5N1 (gisAFH5N1H2aF and gisAFH5N1H4R), and NA H5N1 (gisAFH5N1N2aF and gisAFH5N1N3aR) were immobilized on a solid surface (GAPDH was used as a positive control for RT-PCR). The microarray was then probed with sample NA or HA transcript RNA, or both, and binding of the probe to the primer in each spot in the microarray was detected using Sybr Green fluorescent probe to detect double-stranded nucleic acid. Results are shown in Table 11. As can been seen, the NA transcript was detectable at lower concentrations than the HA transcript, indicating that the NA primers used are more sensitive than the particular HA primers used. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 11 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Detection of NA and HA Gene Transcripts using DNA Microarray 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Ct Value 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Primer 
                 Primer 
                 Primer 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Sample 
                 HA H5 
                 HA H5N1 
                 NA H5N1 
                 GAPDH 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 negative 
                 nil 
                 nil 
                 nil 
                 36.15 
               
               
                   
                 NA RNA 
                 nil 
                 nil 
                 20.35 
                 34.36 
               
               
                   
                 (20 ng) 
               
               
                   
                 HA RNA 
                 nil 
                 nil 
                 nil 
                 35.71 
               
               
                   
                 (20 ng) 
               
               
                   
                 NA + HA 
                 nil 
                 41.93 
                 20.37 
                 34.80 
               
               
                   
                 RNA (10 
               
               
                   
                 ng each) 
               
               
                   
                 HA RNA 
                 41.68 
                 19.82 
                 nil 
                 34.80 
               
               
                   
                 (200 ng) 
               
               
                   
                 HA RNA 
                 38.95 
                 20.97 
                 19.74 
                 33.14 
               
               
                   
                 (100 ng) + 
               
               
                   
                 NA RNA 
               
               
                   
                 (10 ng) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 8 
     Real Time RT-PCR Method Using the Taqman™ Probe System 
     The PCR reaction mixture was prepared in 1.5 ml reaction tubes on ice by adding in the following order: 12.5 μl of 2× QuantiTect™ Probe RT-PCR Master Mix, 1.25 μl of 10 μM forward primer, 1.25 μl of 10 μM reverse primer, 0.5 μl of 10 μM probe, 0.25 μl of QuantiTect™ RT Mix. The reaction mixture was mixed gently and 2-5 μl of RNA template was added and the volume was made up to 25 μl using RNase-free water. The reaction tubes were placed in the rotor of an ABI™ cycler instrument and cycled using the following program: 50° C. for 30 minutes (reverse transcription); 95° C. for 15 minutes (hot start); 45 cycles of 94° C. for 15 seconds and 60° C. for 60 seconds. Data acquisition step was performed during the combined annealing/extension step. 
     Real time PCR was performed using the Taqman™ (Roche) system of detection. To detect the HA gene of subtype H5N1, the following pairs of amplification primers were used: (25) gisAFH5N1HTqF1 and gisAFH5N1H11cR; and (26) gisAFH5N1H9F and gisAFH5N1HTqR1, along with Taqman™ probes gisAFH5N1HTMP2 for primer set  25  and gisAFH5N1HTMP1 for primer set  26 . These Taqman™ probes are described above in Example 6.  FIGS. 47 and 48  contain Delta Rn curves for results obtained using primer sets  25  and  26 . The Delta Rn (delta reaction) curve is similar to the fluorescence versus cycle number plot in the LightCycler system. 
     To detect the NA gene of subtype H5N1, the following pair of amplification primers was used: (27) gisAFH5N1N1aF and gisAFH5N1NTqR1, along with Taqman™ probe gisAFH5N1NTMP1 (sequence shown in Table 10 above) or gisAFH5N1NTMP1Joe. gisAFH5N1NTMP1Joe has the same nucleotide sequence as gisAFH5N1NTMP1, but is labelled with the reporter molecule JOE™ (Taqman) at the 5′ end rather than 6-Fam. Additionally, the Taqman™ probes may be labelled with the quencher molecule Black Hole Quencher (BHQ) at the 3′ end.  FIGS. 49 and 50  contain Delta Rn curves for results obtained using primer set  27 , detected using Taqman™ probe gisAFH5N1NTMP1 or gisAFH5N1NTMP1Joe, respectively. 
     The above experiment was also performed as a multiplex reaction, in which two different primer sets and Taqman™ probes were used in a single reaction mixture. The reaction mix was prepared as described above, with the primer sets  25  and  27  used, with probes gisAFH5N1HTMP2 and gisAFH5N1NTMP1Joe. The Delta Rn curves are shown in  FIG. 51 . 
     Example 9 
     Real Time RT-PCR Method Using the Taqman™ Probe System 
     The following protocol may be used with an ABI 7500 or 7900 cycler machine with QuantiTect™ Probe One-Step RT-PCR system (Qiagen). 
     In a sterile 1.5 ml reaction tube on ice, prepare the PCR Mix for one 25 μl reaction by adding the following components in the following order: 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 12 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Reagents for RT-PCR protocol using Taqman ™ System 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Component 
                 Volume 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 2x QuantiTect Probe RT-PCR Master Mix 
                 12.5 μl 
               
               
                   
                 Forward primer (10 μM) 
                 1.25 μl 
               
               
                   
                 Reverse primer (10 μM) 
                 1.25 μl 
               
               
                   
                 Probe (10 μM) 
                  0.5 μl 
               
               
                   
                 QuantiTect RT Mix 
                 0.25 μl 
               
               
                   
                 RNase-free water 
                 Variable (to make 
               
               
                   
                   
                 up final volume 
               
               
                   
                   
                 to 25 μl) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     To prepare the PCR Master Mix for more than one reaction, multiply the amount in the “Volume” column above by the number of reactions. Note: always prepare at least 1 to 2 more reactions than actual number of reactions. Mix gently, aliquot required amount into each sterile PCR tubes or plates and add Template RNA (2.0 μl for RNA controls; up to 5.0 μl for RNA samples). 
     Program the ABI cycler machine according to the program below: 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 12 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 RT-PCR Real Time Program 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Step 
                 Parameters 
                 Cycles 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Reverse transcription 
                 50° C. for 30 min 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 Hot start 
                 95° C. for 15 min 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 2-step cycling: 
                   
                 45 
               
               
                   
                 Denaturation 
                 94° C. for 15 sec 
               
               
                   
                 Annealing/Extension 
                 60° C. for 60 sec 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Data acquisition step is performed during the combined annealing/extension step. View results and check for amplification curves and CT values. 
     Example 10 
     Real Time RT-PCR Method Using the Taqman™ Probe System for Multiplex Reactions 
     The following protocol may be used with an ABI 7500 or 7900 cycler machine with QuantiTect™ Probe One-Step RT-PCR system (Qiagen). 
     In a sterile 1.5 ml reaction tube on ice, prepare the PCR Mix for one 25 μl reaction by adding the following components in the following order: 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 12 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Reagents for RT-PCR protocol using Taqman ™ System 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Component 
                 Volume 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 2x QuantiTect Probe RT-PCR Master Mix 
                 12.5 
                 μl 
               
               
                   
                 Forward primer 1 (10 μM) 
                 1.25 
                 μl 
               
               
                   
                 Reverse primer 1 (10 μM) 
                 1.25 
                 μl 
               
               
                   
                 Probe 1 (10 μM) 
                 0.5 
                 μl 
               
               
                   
                 Forward primer 2 (10 μM) 
                 1.25 
                 μl 
               
               
                   
                 Reverse primer 2 (10 μM) 
                 1.25 
                 μl 
               
               
                   
                 Probe 2 (10 μM) 
                 0.5 
                 μl 
               
               
                   
                 QuantiTect RT Mix 
                 0.25 
                 μl 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 RNase-free water 
                 Variable (to make 
               
               
                   
                   
                 up final volume 
               
               
                   
                   
                 to 25 μl) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     To prepare the PCR Master Mix for more than one reaction, multiply the amount in the “Volume” column above by the number of reactions. Note: always prepare at least 1 to 2 more reactions than actual number of reactions. Mix gently, aliquot required amount into each sterile PCR tubes or plates and add Template RNA (2.0 μl for RNA controls; up to 5.0 μl for RNA samples). 
     Program the ABI cycler machine according to the program below: 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 12 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 RT-PCR Real Time Program 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Step 
                 Parameters 
                 Cycles 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Reverse transcription 
                 50° C. for 30 min 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 Hot start 
                 95° C. for 15 min 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 2-step cycling: 
                   
                 45 
               
               
                   
                 Denaturation 
                 94° C. for 15 sec 
               
               
                   
                 Annealing/Extension 
                 60° C. for 60 sec 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Data acquisition step is performed during the combined annealing/extension step. View results and check for amplification curves, CT values and melt curves. 
     Although various embodiments of the invention are disclosed herein, many adaptations and modifications may be made within the scope of the invention in accordance with the common general knowledge of those skilled in this art. Such modifications include the substitution of known equivalents for any aspect of the invention in order to achieve the same result in substantially the same way. All technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art of this invention, unless defined otherwise. 
     As can be understood by one skilled in the art, many modifications to the exemplary embodiments described herein are possible. The invention, rather, is intended to encompass all such modification within its scope, as defined by the claims.