Patent Publication Number: US-11048162-B2

Title: Method and apparatus for neutral beam processing based on gas cluster ion beam technology

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is continuation of co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 14/496,412, filed on Sep. 25, 2014 and entitled METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR NEUTRAL BEAM PROCESSING BASED ON GAS CLUSTER ION BEAM TECHNOLOGY, which is a divisional of co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 13/215,514, filed on Aug. 23, 2011, which in turn claims priority to and benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/376,225, filed Aug. 23, 2010, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/490,675, filed May 27, 2011, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/473,359, filed Apr. 8, 2011, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/484,421, filed May 10, 2011, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention relates generally to methods and apparatus for low energy, Neutral Beam processing and more specifically to high beam purity methods and systems for deriving an accelerated neutral monomer and/or neutral gas cluster beam from an accelerated gas cluster ion beam. The invention also includes certain new or improved materials and devices made by the materials. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     During the past decade, the gas cluster ion beam (GCIB) has become well known and widely used for a variety of surface and subsurface processing applications. Because gas cluster ions typically have a large mass, they tend to travel at relatively low velocities (compared to conventional ions) even when accelerated to substantial energies. These low velocities, combined with the inherently weak binding of the clusters, result in unique surface processing capabilities that lead to reduced surface penetration and reduced surface damage compared to conventional ion beams and diffuse plasmas. 
     Gas cluster ion beams have been employed to smooth, etch, clean, form deposits on, grow films on, or otherwise modify a wide variety of surfaces including for example, metals, semiconductors, and dielectric materials. In applications involving semiconductor and semiconductor-related materials, GCIBs have been employed to clean, smooth, etch, deposit and/or grow films including oxides and others. GCIBs have also been used to introduce doping and lattice-straining atomic species, materials for amorphizing surface layers, and to improve dopant solubility in semiconductor materials. In many cases such GCIB applications have been able to provide results superior to other technologies that employ conventional ions, ion beams, and plasmas. Semiconductor materials include a wide range of materials that may have their electrical properties manipulated by the introduction of dopant materials, and include (without limitation) silicon, germanium, diamond, silicon carbide, and also compound materials comprising group III-IV elements, and group II-VI elements. Because of the ease of forming GCIBs using argon (Ar) as a source gas and because of the inert properties of argon, many applications have been developed for processing the surfaces of implantable medical devices such as coronary stents, orthopedic prostheses, and other implantable medical devices using argon gas GCIBs. In semiconductor applications, a variety of source gases and source gas mixtures have been employed to form GCIBs containing electrical dopants and lattice-straining species, for reactive etching, physical etching, film deposition, film growth, and other useful processes. A variety of practical systems for introducing GCIB processing to a wide range of surface types are known. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,676,989 C1 issued to Kirkpatrick et at. teaches a GCIB processing system having a workpiece holder and manipulator suited for processing tubular or cylindrical workpieces such as vascular stents. In another example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,491,800 B2 issued to Kirkpatrick et al. teaches a GCIB processing system having workpiece holders and manipulators for processing other types of non-planar medical devices, including for example, hip joint prostheses. A further example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,486,478 B1 issued to Libby et al. teaches an automated substrate loading/unloading system suitable for processing semiconductor wafers. U.S. Pat. No. 7,115,511 issued to Hautala, teaches the use of a mechanical scanner for scanning a workpiece relative to an un-scanned GCIB. In still another example. U.S. Pat. No. 7,105,199 B2 issued to Blinn et al. teaches the use of GCIB processing to improve the adhesion of drug coatings on medical devices and to modify the elution or release rate of a drug from the medical devices. 
     Although GCIB processing has been employed successfully for many applications, there are new and existing application needs not fully met by GCIB or other state of the art methods and apparatus. In many situations, while a GCIB can produce dramatic atomic-scale smoothing of an initially somewhat rough surface, the ultimate smoothing that can be achieved is often less than the required smoothness, and in other situations GCIB processing can result in roughening moderately smooth surfaces rather than smoothing them further. 
     Other needs/opportunities also exist as recognized and resolved through the present invention. In the field of drug-eluting medical implants, GCIB processing has been successful in treating surfaces of drug coatings on medical implants to bind the coating to a substrate or to modify the rate at which drugs are eluted from the coating following implantation into a patient. However, it has been noted that in some cases where GCIB has been used to process drug coatings (which are often very thin and may comprise very expensive drugs), there may occur a weight loss of the drug coating (indicative of drug loss or removal) as a result of the GCIB processing. For the particular cases where such loss occurs (certain drugs and using certain processing parameters) the occurrence is generally undesirable and having a process with the ability to avoid the weight loss, while still obtaining satisfactory control of the drug elution rate, is preferable. 
     In semiconductor applications, GCIBs have been employed with varying degrees of success in many surface-processing improvements, however opportunities for improvement exist. In conventional GCIB processing, often the result, though significantly improved over earlier conventional technologies, is still riot of the quality that is required by the most demanding applications. For example, in smoothing processes, for many materials the final degree of smoothness practically obtainable using GCIB processing does not always meet requirements. In applications where other materials are introduced into semiconductor materials (sometimes called GCIB infusion) for purposes of doping, lattice-straining, and other applications such as film deposition, film growth, and amorphization, the interface between the infused, grown, amorphized, or deposited material often has a roughness or non-uniformity at the interface between the irradiated layer and the underlying substrate that impairs optimal performance of the GCIB-modified layer. 
     Ions have long been favored for many processes because their electric charge facilitates their manipulation by electrostatic and magnetic fields. This introduces great flexibility in processing. However, in some applications, the charge that is inherent to any ion (including gas cluster ions in a GCIB) may produce undesirable effects in the processed surfaces. GCIB has a distinct advantage over conventional ion beams in that a gas cluster ion with a single or small multiple charge enables the transport and control of a much larger mass-flow (a cluster may consist of hundreds or thousands of molecules) compared to a conventional ion (a single atom, molecule, or molecular fragment.) Particularly in the case of insulating materials, surfaces processed using ions often suffer from charge-induced damage resulting from abrupt discharge of accumulated charges, or production of damaging electrical field-induced stress in the material (again resulting from accumulated charges.) In many such cases, GCIBs have an advantage due to their relatively low charge per mass, but in some instances may not eliminate the target-charging problem. Furthermore, moderate to high current intensity ion beams may suffer from a significant space charge-induced defocusing of the beam that tends to inhibit transporting a well-focused beam over long distances. Again, due to their lower charge per mass relative to conventional ion beams, GCIBs have an advantage, but they do not fully eliminate the space charge transport problem. 
     A further instance of need or opportunity arises from the fact that although the use of beams of neutral molecules or atoms provides benefit in some surface processing applications and in space charge-free beam transport, it has not generally been easy and economical to produce intense beams of neutral molecules or atoms except for the case of nozzle jets, where the energies are generally on the order of a few milli-electron-volts per atom or molecule, and thus have limited processing capabilities. 
     In U.S. Pat. No. 4,935,623 of Hughes Electronics Corporation, Knauer has taught a method for forming beams of energetic (1 to 10 eV) charged and/or neutral atoms. Knauer forms a conventional GCIB and directs it at grazing angles against solid surfaces such as silicon plates, which dissociates the cluster ions, resulting in a forward-scattered beam of atoms and conventional ions. This results in an intense but unfocused beam of neutral atoms and ions that may be used for processing, or that following electrostatic separation of the ions may be used for processing as a neutral atom beam. By requiring the scattering of the GCIB off of a solid surface to produce dissociation, a significant problem is introduced by the Knauer techniques. Across a wide range of beam energies, a GCIB produces strong sputtering in surfaces that it strikes. It has been clearly shown (see for example Aoki, T and Matsuo, J, “Molecular dynamics simulations of surface smoothing and sputtering process with glancing-angle gas cluster ion beams,” Nucl. Instr. &amp; Meth. in Phys. Research B 257 (2007), pp. 645-648) that even at grazing angles as employed by Knauer, GCIBs produce considerable sputtering of solids, and thus the forward-scattered neutral beam is contaminated by sputtered ions and neutral atoms and other particles originating in the solid surface used for scattering/dissociation. In a multitude of applications including medical device processing applications and semiconductor processing applications, the presence of such sputtered material contaminating the forward-scattered beam renders it unsuitable for use. 
     In U.S. Pat. No. 7,060,989, Swenson et al. teach the use of a gas pressure cell having gas pressure higher than the beam generation pressure to modify the gas cluster ion energy distribution in a GCIB. The technique lowers the energy of gas cluster ions in a GCIB and modifies some of the surface processing characteristics of such modified GCIBs. Such gas modification of GCIB gas cluster ion energy distribution is helpful, but does not reduce problems caused by charges deposited in the workpiece by the ions in the GCIB and does not solve certain processing problems, as for example, the weight loss of drug coatings during GCIB processing. Although the techniques of Swenson et al. can improve the ultimate surface smoothing characteristics of a GCIB, the result is still less than ideal. 
     Gas clusters and gas cluster ion sizes are typically characterized by N, the number of atoms or molecules (depending on whether the gas is atomic or molecular and including variants such as ions, monomers, dimmers, trimers, ligands) comprising the individual cluster. Many of the advantages contributed by conventional GCIB processing are believed to derive from the low velocities of ions in the GCIB and from the fact that large, loosely bound clusters disintegrate on collision with a solid surface, causing transient heating and pressure but without excessive penetration, implantation, or damage to the substrate beneath the surface. Effects of such large clusters (having N monomers—as defined below—on the order of a few thousand or more) are generally limited to a few tens of Angstroms. However, it has been shown that smaller clusters (having N on the order of a few hundred to about a thousand) produce more damage to an impacted surface and are capable of producing discrete impact craters in a surface (see for example, Houzumi, H., et al. “Scanning tunneling microscopy observation of graphite surfaces irradiated with size-selected Ar cluster ion beams”, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. V44(8), (2005), p 6252 ff). This crater-forming effect can roughen and remove material from surfaces (etch) in undesirable competition with the surface smoothing effects of the larger clusters. In many other surface processing applications for which GCIB have been found useful, it is believed that the effects of large gas cluster ions and smaller gas cluster ions may compete in counter-productive ways to reduce processing performance. Unfortunately, the readily applied techniques for forming GCIBs all result in generation of beams having a broad distribution of cluster sizes having size, N, ranging from around 100 to as much as several tens of thousands. Often the mean and/or peak of the size distribution lies in the range of from several hundred to a few thousand, with distribution tails gradually diminishing to zero at the size extremes of the distribution. The cluster-ion size distribution and the mean cluster size, NMean, associated with the distribution is dependent on the source gas employed and can be significantly influenced by selection of the parameters of the nozzle used to form the cluster jet, by the pressure drop through the nozzle, and by the nozzle temperature, all according to conventional GCIB formation techniques. Most commercial GCIB processing tools routinely employ magnetic or occasionally electrostatic size separators to remove the smallest ions and clusters (monomers, dimers, trimers, etc. up to around N=10 or more), which are the most damaging. Such filters are often referred to as “monomer filters”, although they typically also remove somewhat larger ions as well as the monomers. Certain electrostatic cluster ion size selectors (as for example the one employed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,935,623, by Knauer) require placing grids of electrical conductors into the beam, which introduces a strong disadvantage due to potential erosion of the grids by the beam, introducing beam contamination while reducing reliability and resulting in the need for additional maintenance to the apparatus. For that reason, monomer and low-mass filters are now typically of the magnetic type (see for examples, U.S. Pat. No. 6,635,883, to Torti et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 6,486,478, to Libby et al.) Aside from the smallest ions (monomers, dimers, etc.), which are effectively removed by magnetic filters, it appears that most GCIBs contain few or no gas cluster ions of sizes below about N=100. It may be that such sizes do not readily form or after forming are not stable. However, clusters in the range from about N=100 to a few hundred seem to be present in the beams of most commercial GCIB processing tools. Values of NMean in the range of from a few hundred to several thousand are commonly encountered when using conventional techniques. Because, for a given acceleration potential the intermediate size clusters travel much faster than the larger clusters, they are more likely to produce craters, rough interfaces, and other undesirable effects, and probably contribute to less than ideal processing when present in a GCIB. 
     It is therefore an object of this invention to provide apparatus and methods for forming high purity neutral gas cluster beams for workpiece processing. 
     It is a further object of this invention to provide apparatus and methods to provide high purity gas cluster beams that are substantially free of intermediate size clusters. 
     Yet another object of this invention is to provide apparatus and methods for forming high purity, focused, intense beams of neutral atoms or molecules with energies in the range of from about 1 eV to as much as a few thousand eV. 
     Still another object of this invention is to provide apparatus and methods for forming beams capable of improved surface smoothing compared to conventional GCIBs. 
     An object of this invention is to provide apparatus and methods for forming doped and/or strained films and/or for introducing foreign atomic species into the surfaces of semiconductor or other materials, wherein the processed surface have interfaces to the underlying substrate material that are superior to those formed using conventional GCIB processing. 
     Another object of this invention is to provide apparatus and methods for forming amorphous regions at the surface of a semiconductor or other material using a Neutral Beam and wherein the interface to the underlying substrate material is superior to one formed using conventional GCIB processing. 
     A further object of this invention is to provide apparatus and methods for etching surfaces with superior final smoothness as compared to conventional GCIB processing. 
     Yet another object of this invention is to provide apparatus and methods for forming and/or growing films on surfaces of semiconductor and/or other materials, having interfaces to the underlying substrate material that are superior to those formed using conventional GCIB processing. 
     Another object of this invention is to provide apparatus and methods for treating drug coatings on drug eluting medical devices to control drug elution rate characteristics with reduced drug weight loss compared to processing with conventional GCIBs. 
     An additional object of this invention is to provide apparatus and methods for treating electrically insulating materials with Neutral Beams of gas clusters and/or monomers for processing such materials without damage induced by beam transported electrical charges. 
     One more object of this invention is to provide apparatus and methods for producing very shallow doped layers in semiconductor substrates by implanting high purity neutral monomer beams comprising dopant atoms, wherein the doped layers have much smoother interfaces to the underlying semiconductor material compared to interfaces produced by conventional GICB doping processes. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The objects set forth above as well as further and other objects and advantages of the present invention are achieved by the invention described herein below. 
     One embodiment of the present invention provides method of treating a surface of a workpiece comprising the steps of: providing a reduced pressure chamber; forming a gas cluster ion beam comprising gas cluster ions within the reduced pressure chamber; accelerating the gas cluster ions to form an accelerated gas cluster ion beam along a beam path within the reduced pressure chamber; promoting fragmentation and/or dissociation of at least a portion of the accelerated gas cluster ions along the beam path; removing charged particles from the beam path to form an accelerated neutral beam along the beam path in the reduced pressure chamber; holding a workpiece in the beam path; and treating at least a portion of a surface of the workpiece by irradiating it with the accelerated neutral beam. 
     The step of removing can remove essentially all charged particles from the beam path. The neutral beam may be substantially free of intermediate sized clusters. The neutral beam may consist essentially of gas from the gas cluster ion beam. The step of promoting may include raising an acceleration voltage in the step of accelerating or improving ionization efficiency in the forming of the gas cluster ion beam. The step of promoting may include increasing the range of velocities of ions in the accelerated gas cluster ion beam. The step of promoting may include introducing one or more gaseous elements used in forming the gas cluster ion beam into the reduced pressure chamber to increase pressure along the beam path. The step of promoting may include increasing the size of a skimmer aperture used in the step of forming the gas cluster ion beam. The step of promoting may include irradiating the accelerated gas cluster ion beam or the neutral beam with radiant energy. The neutral beam treating at least a portion of a surface of the workpiece may include a substantial number of monomers having an energy between 1 eV and several thousand eV. The method may further comprise the step of repositioning the workpiece with a workpiece holder to treat plural portions of the surface. The method may further comprise the step of scanning the workpiece with a workpiece holder to treat extended portions of the surface. The irradiating step may irradiate the workpiece with a predetermined dose. The holding step may introduce a workpiece that comprises any of: a medical device or component; a medical instrument; a medical device or component having a drug coating; a drug eluting medical device or component; a semiconductor material; a metal material; a plastic material; a ceramic material; a an electrical device; an optical device; an integrated circuit device; an electrically insulating material; a high electrical resistivity material; or a micro-electrical mechanical system device. 
     The removing step may deflect the charged particles away from the beam path by using an electric or magnetic field. The removing step may deflect the charged particles away from the beam path by using a deflection plate or an electrostatic mirror. The removing step may use a bias voltage to deflect charged particles away from the beam path, and may further comprise the steps of measuring a beam current at a workpiece site with the bias voltage being inoperative and adjusting the bias voltage until the measured beam current is zero. 
     The method may further comprise the steps of: providing a thermal energy sensor; and using the thermal energy sensor to characterize the accelerated neutral beam. The thermal energy sensor&#39;s characterization of the beam may be used to control the irradiated dose. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention provides an apparatus for providing an accelerated neutral beam comprising: a vacuum enclosure; means for generating a gas cluster ion beam within the vacuum enclosure; means for accelerating the gas cluster ion beam to form an accelerated gas cluster ion beam along a beam path; means for promoting fragmentation or at least partial dissociation of gas clusters within the accelerated gas cluster ion beam, producing accelerated neutral gas clusters and/or gas monomers; and means for removing charged particles from the beam path forming an accelerated neutral beam along the beam path, the neutral beam comprising accelerated neutral gas clusters and/or accelerated neutral gas monomers. 
     The apparatus may further comprise workpiece holding means for repositioning the workpiece to irradiate plural portions of the surface of the workpiece with the accelerated neutral beam. The workpiece holding means may further comprise scanning means for scanning the workpiece through the beam path so as to irradiate an extended portion of the surface of the workpiece with the accelerated neutral beam. 
     The removing means may remove charged particles using an electric field or a magnetic field to deflect the charged particles. The accelerated neutral beam may essentially consist of neutral gas monomers. The means for generating a gas cluster ion beam may comprise means for ionizing gas clusters by electron bombardment and the promoting means may comprise means for controlling the ionizing means to provide intense ionization conditions that form a high proportion of multiply ionized gas clusters in the gas cluster ion beam. The promoting means may comprise any of: means for providing a background gas for colliding with the gas cluster ion beam; means for heating the accelerated gas cluster ion beam; means for irradiating the accelerated gas cluster ion beam; means for crossing the gas cluster ion beam with a gas jet; or means for exciting the gas cluster ion beam with electrons. The promoting means may promotes the evolution of neutral monomers from accelerated gas cluster ions. 
     The apparatus may further comprise means for holding a workpiece and disposing it in the beam path so as to irradiate at least a portion of a surface of the workpiece with the accelerated neutral beam. The workpiece holding means may be adapted for holding a workpiece that is any of: a semiconductor water workpiece; a medical device or component workpiece; a drug coated medical device workpiece; a medical instrument or component workpiece; an electrically insulating workpiece; a high electrical resistivity material workpiece; a metal workpiece; a plastic workpiece; a ceramic workpiece; an optical device workpiece; an electrical device workpiece; or a micro-electrical mechanical system workpiece. 
     The apparatus may further comprise means for controlling neutral beam dosimetry. The means for controlling neutral beam dosimetry may comprise thermal measurement means for measuring beam induced heating. The means for controlling neutral beam dosimetry may comprise means for capturing and measuring electrical current in at least a sample of the charged particles removed from the beam. The thermal measurement means may be adapted to measure beam induced heating along the beam path. 
     Yet another embodiment of the present invention provides an article having a portion improved by irradiation with an accelerated neutral beam derived from an accelerated gas cluster ion beam. The portion improved by irradiation may have been cleaned, smoothed, sterilized, abraded, etched, implanted, doped, modified, made more or less wettable, made more or less biologically active or compatible by the irradiation. The article may comprise any of: a medical device or component; a biological material; a medical instrument; a medical device or component having a drug coating; a drug eluting medical device or component; a semiconductor material; a metal material; a plastic material; a ceramic material; a an electrical device; an optical device; an integrated circuit device; an electrically insulating material; a high electrical resistivity material; or a micro-electrical mechanical system device. The article may further comprise a semiconductor material having a layer formed on the semiconductor material and an interface located therebetween, wherein the interface has peak-to-peak atomic level smoothness, the layer having been formed from irradiation by a neutral beam comprised of gas monomers derived from a gas cluster ion beam. The article may further comprise a single crystalline semiconductor material having an amorphous surface layer and an interface located between the single crystalline semiconductor material and the amorphous layer, wherein the interface has peak-to-peak atomic level smoothness the layer having been formed by irradiation with a neutral beam comprised of gas monomers derived from a gas cluster ion beam. The may further comprise a substrate and a carbon layer deposited directly on the substrate, the carbon layer having been formed by irradiation with a neutral beam comprised of gas monomers derived from a gas cluster ion beam. The carbon layer may be diamond-like carbon. 
     The present invention provides a high beam purity method and system for deriving from an accelerated gas cluster ion beam an accelerated neutral gas cluster and/or preferably monomer beam that can be employed for a variety of types of surface and shallow subsurface materials processing and which is capable, for many applications, of superior performance compared to conventional GCIB processing. It can provide well-focused, accelerated, intense neutral monomer beams with particles having energies in the range of from about 1 eV to as much as a few thousand eV. In this energy range neutral particles can be beneficial or necessary in many applications, for example when it is desirable to break surface or shallow subsurface bonds to facilitate cleaning, etching, smoothing, deposition, amorphization, or to produce surface chemistry effects. In such cases, energies of from about an eV up to a few thousands of eV per particle can often be useful. This is an energy range in which it has been impractical with simple, relatively inexpensive apparatus to form intense neutral beams. In various embodiments, the accelerated Neutral Beam is employed for a variety of surface and shallow subsurface materials processing and to make enhanced materials and devices by such processing methods. 
     These accelerated Neutral Beams are generated by first forming a conventional accelerated GCIB, then partly or essentially fully dissociating it by methods and operating conditions that do not introduce impurities into the beam, then separating the remaining charged portions of the beam from the neutral portion, and subsequently using the resulting accelerated Neutral Beam for workpiece processing. Depending on the degree of dissociation of the gas cluster ions, the Neutral Beam produced may be a mixture of neutral gas monomers and gas clusters or may essentially consist entirely or almost entirely of neutral gas monomers. It is preferred that the accelerated Neutral Beam is an essentially fully dissociated neutral monomer beam. 
     An advantage of the Neutral Beams that may be produced by the methods and apparatus of this invention, is that they may be used to process electrically insulating materials without producing damage to the material due to charging of the surfaces of such materials by beam transported charges as commonly occurs for all ionized beams including GCIB. For example, in semiconductor and other electronic applications, ions often contribute to damaging or destructive charging of thin dielectric films such as oxides, nitrides, etc. The use of Neutral Beams can enable successful beam processing of polymer, dielectric, and/or other electrically insulating or high resistivity materials, coatings, and films in other applications where ion beams may produce unacceptable side effects due to surface charging or other charging effects. Examples include (without limitation) processing of corrosion inhibiting coatings, and irradiation cross-linking and/or polymerization of organic films. In other examples, Neutral Beam induced modifications of polymer or other dielectric materials (e.g. sterilization, smoothing, improving surface biocompatibility, and improving attachment of and/or control of elution rates of drugs) may enable the use of such materials in medical devices for implant and/or other medical/surgical applications. Further examples include Neutral Beam processing of glass, polymer, and ceramic bio-culture labware and/or environmental sampling surfaces where such beams may be used to improve surface characteristics like, for example, roughness, smoothness, hydrophilicity, and biocompatibility. 
     Since the parent GCIB, from which accelerated Neutral Beams may be formal by the methods and apparatus of the invention, comprises ions, it is readily accelerated to desired energy and is readily focused using conventional ion beam techniques. Upon subsequent dissociation and separation of the charged ions from the neutral particles, the Neutral Beam particles tend to retain their focused trajectories and may be transported for extensive distances with good effect. 
     When neutral gas clusters in a jet are ionized by electron bombardment, they become heated and/or excited. This may result in subsequent evaporation of monomers from the ionized gas cluster, after acceleration, as it travels down the beamline. Additionally, collisions of gas cluster ions with background gas molecules in the ionizer, accelerator and beamline regions, also heat and excite the gas cluster ions and may result in additional subsequent evolution of monomers from the gas cluster ions following acceleration. When these mechanisms for evolution of monomers are induced by electron bombardment and/or collision with background gas molecules (and/or other gas clusters) of the same gas from which the GCIB was formed, no contamination is contributed to the beam by the dissociation processes that results in evolving the monomers. 
     There are other mechanisms that can be employed for dissociating (or inducing evolution of monomers from) gas cluster ions in a GCIB without introducing contamination into the beam. Some of these mechanisms may also be employed to dissociate neutral gas clusters in a neutral gas cluster beam. One mechanism is laser irradiation of the cluster-ion beam using infra-red or other laser energy. Laser-induced heating of the gas cluster ions in the laser irradiated GCIB results in excitement and/or heating of the gas cluster ions and causes subsequent evolution of monomers from the beam. Another mechanism is passing the beam through a thermally heated tube so that radiant thermal energy photons impact the gas cluster ions in beam. The induced heating of the gas cluster ions by the radiant thermal energy in the tube results in excitement and/or heating of the gas cluster ions and causes subsequent evolution of monomers from the beam. In another mechanism, crossing the gas cluster ion beam by a gas jet of the same gas or mixture as the source gas used in formation of the GCIB (or other non-contaminating gas) results in collisions of monomers of the gas in the gas jet with the gas clusters in the ion beam producing excitement and/or heating of the gas cluster ions in the beam and subsequent evolution of monomers from the excited gas cluster ions. By depending entirely on electron bombardment during initial ionization and/or collisions (with other cluster ions, or with background gas molecules of the same gas(es) as those used to form the GCIB) within the beam and/or laser or thermal radiation and/or crossed jet collisions of non-contaminating gas to produce the GCIB dissociation and/or fragmentation, contamination of the beam by collision with other materials is avoided. 
     As a neutral gas cluster jet from a nozzle travels through an ionizing region where electrons are directed to ionize the clusters, a cluster may remain un-ionized or may acquire a charge state, q, of one or more charges (by ejection of electrons from the cluster by an incident electron). The ionizer operating conditions influence the likelihood that a gas cluster will take on a particular charge state, with more intense ionizer conditions resulting in greater probability that a higher charge state will be achieved. More intense ionizer conditions resulting in higher ionization efficiency may result from higher electron flux and/or higher (within limits) electron energy. Once the gas cluster has been ionized, it is typically extracted from the ionizer, focused into a beam, and accelerated by falling through an electric field. The amount of acceleration of the gas cluster ion is readily controlled by controlling the magnitude of the accelerating electric field. Typical commercial GCIB processing tools generally provide for the gas cluster ions to be accelerated by an electric field having an adjustable accelerating potential. V Acc , typically of, for example, from about 1 kV to 70 kV (but not limited to that range—V Acc  up to 200 kV or even more may be feasible). Thus a singly charged gas cluster ion achieves an energy in the range of from 1 to 70 keV (or more if larger VA cc  is used ) and a multiply charged (for example, without limitation, charge state, q=3 electronic charges) gas cluster ion achieves an energy in the range of from 3 to 210 keV (or more for higher V Acc ). For other gas cluster ion charge states and acceleration potentials, the accelerated energy per cluster is qV Acc  eV. From a given ionizer with a given ionization efficiency, gas cluster ions will have a distribution of charge states from zero (not ionized) to a higher number such as for example 6 (or with high ionizer efficiency, even more), and the most probable and mean values of the charge state distribution also increase with increased ionizer efficiency (higher electron flux and/or energy). Higher ionizer efficiency also results in increased numbers of gas cluster ions being formed in the ionizer. In many cases, GCIB processing throughput increases when operating the ionizer at high efficiency results in increased GCIB current. A downside of such operation is that multiple charge states that may occur on intermediate size gas cluster ions can increase crater and/or rough interface formation by those ions, and often such effects may operate counterproductively to the intent of the processing. Thus for many GCIB surface processing recipes, selection of the ionizer operating parameters tends to involve more considerations than just maximizing beam current. In some processes, use of a “pressure cell” (see U.S. Pat. No. 7,060,989, to Swenson et al.) may be employed to permit operating an ionizer at high ionization efficiency while still obtaining acceptable beam processing performance by moderating the beam energy by gas collisions in an elevated pressure “pressure cell.” 
     With the present invention there is no downside to operating the ionizer at high efficiency—in fact such operation is sometimes preferred. When the ionizer is operated at high efficiency, there may be a wide range of charge states in the gas cluster ions produced by the ionizer. This results in a wide range of velocities in the gas cluster ions in the extraction region between the ionizer and the accelerating electrode, and also in the downstream beam. This may result in an enhanced frequency of collisions between and among gas cluster ions in the beam that generally results in a higher degree of fragmentation of the largest gas cluster ions. Such fragmentation may result in a redistribution of the cluster sizes in the beam, skewing it toward the smaller cluster sizes. These cluster fragments retain energy in proportion to their new size (N) and so become less energetic while essentially retaining the accelerated velocity of the initial unfragmented gas cluster ion. The change of energy with retention of velocity following collisions has been experimentally verified (as for example reported in Toyoda, N. et al., “Cluster size dependence on energy and velocity distributions of gas cluster ions after collisions with residual gas,”  Nucl. Instr . &amp;  Meth. in Phys. Research  B 257 (2007), pp 662-665). Fragmentation may also result in redistribution of charges in the cluster fragments. Some uncharged fragments likely result and multi-charged gas cluster ions may fragment into several charged gas cluster ions and perhaps some uncharged fragments. It is understood by the inventors that design of the focusing fields in the ionizer and the extraction region may enhance the focusing of the smaller gas cluster ions and monomer ions to increase the likelihood of collision with larger gas cluster ions in the beam extraction region and in the downstream beam, thus contributing to the dissociation and/or fragmenting of the gas cluster ions. 
     In an embodiment of the present invention, background gas pressure in the ionizer, acceleration region, and beamline may optionally be arranged to have a higher pressure than is normally utilized for good GCIB transmission. This can result in additional evolution of monomers from gas cluster ions (beyond that resulting from the heating and/or excitement resulting from the initial gas cluster ionization event). Pressure may be arranged so that gas cluster ions have a short enough mean-free-path and a long enough flight path between ionizer and workpiece that they must undergo multiple collisions with background gas molecules. 
     For a homogeneous gas cluster ion containing N monomers and having a charge state of q and which has been accelerated through an electric field potential drop of V Acc  volts, the cluster will have an energy of approximately qV Acc /N 1  eV per monomer, where N 1  is the number of monomers in the cluster ion at the time of acceleration. Except for the smallest gas cluster ions, a collision of such an ion with a background gas monomer of the same gas as the cluster source gas will result in additional deposition of approximately qV Acc /N 1  eV into the gas cluster ion. This energy is relatively small compared to the overall gas cluster ion energy (qV Acc ) and generally results in excitation or heating of the cluster and in subsequent evolution of monomers from the cluster. It is believed that such collisions of larger clusters with background gas seldom fragment the cluster but rather heats and/or excites it to result in evolution of monomers by evaporation or similar mechanisms. Regardless of the source of the excitation that results in the evolution of a monomer or monomers from a gas cluster ion, the evolved monomer(s) have approximately the same energy per particle, qV Acc /N 1  eV, and retain approximately the same velocity and trajectory as the gas cluster ion from which they have evolved. When such monomer evolutions occur from a gas cluster ion, whether they result from excitation or heating due to the original ionization event, a collision, or radiant heating, the charge has a high probability of remaining with the larger residual gas cluster ion. Thus after a sequence of monomer evolutions, a large gas cluster ion may be reduced to a cloud of co-traveling monomers with perhaps a smaller residual gas cluster ion (or possibly several if fragmentation has also occurred). The co-traveling monomers following the original beam trajectory all have approximately the same velocity as that of the original gas cluster ion and each has energy of approximately qV Acc /N 1  eV. For small gas cluster ions, the energy of collision with a background gas monomer is likely to completely and violently dissociate the small gas cluster and it is uncertain whether in such cases the resulting monomers continue to travel with the beam or are ejected from the beam. 
     To avoid contamination of the beam by collisions with the background gas, it is preferred that the background gas be the same gas as the gas constituting the gas cluster ions. Nozzles for forming gas cluster jets are typically operated with high gas flow on the order of 100-600 sccm. The portion of this How that does not condense into gas clusters raises the pressure in the source chamber. In addition to the gas transmitted through the skimmer aperture in the form of gas clusters, unclustered source gas from the source chamber can flow through the skimmer aperture to the downstream beamline or beam path chamber(s). Selecting the skimmer aperture diameter to provide an increased flow of unclustered source gas from the source chamber to the beamline is a convenient way to provide the added beamline pressure to induce background gas collisions with the GCIB. Because of the high source gas flow (unclustered gas through the skimmer aperture and gas transported to the target by the beam) atmospheric gases are quickly purged from the beamline. Alternatively, gas may be leaked into the beamline chamber, or as pointed out above, introduced as a jet crossing the GCIB path. In such case, the gas is preferably the same as the source gas (or inert or otherwise non-contaminating). In critical applications a residual gas analyzer can be employed in the beamline to confirm the quality of the background gas, when background gas collisions play a role in the evolution of monomers. 
     Prior to the GCIB reaching the workpiece, the remaining charged particles (gas cluster ions, particularly small and intermediate size gas cluster ions and some charged monomers, but also including any remaining large gas cluster ions) in the beam are separated from the neutral portion of the beam, leaving only a Neutral Beam for processing the workpiece. 
     In typical operation, the fraction of power in the Neutral Beam relative to that in the full (charged plus neutral) beam delivered at the processing target is in the range of from about 5% to 95%, so by the separation methods and apparatus of the present invention it is possible to deliver that portion of the kinetic energy of the full accelerated charged beam to the target as a Neutral Beam. 
     The dissociation of the gas cluster ions and thus the production of high neutral monomer beam energy is facilitated by: 
     1) Operating at higher acceleration voltages. This increases qV Acc /N for any given cluster size; 2) Operating at high ionizer efficiency. This increases qV Acc /N for any given cluster size by increasing q and increases cluster-ion on cluster-ion collisions in the extraction region due to the differences in charge states between clusters; 3) Operating at a high ionizer, acceleration region, or beamline pressure or operating with a gas jet crossing the beam, or with a longer beam path, all of which increase the probability of background gas collisions for a gas cluster ion of any given size; 4) Operating with laser irradiation or thermal radiant heating of the beam, which directly promote evolution of monomers from the gas cluster ions; and 
     5) Operating at higher nozzle gas flow, which increases transport of gas, clustered and perhaps unclustered into the GCIB trajectory, which increases collisions resulting in greater evolution of monomers. 
     For producing background gas collisions, the product of the gas cluster ion beam path length from extraction region to workpiece times the pressure in that region contributes to the degree of dissociation of the gas cluster ions that occurs. For 30 kV acceleration, ionizer parameters that provide a mean gas cluster ion charge stale of 1 or greater, and a pressure times beam path length of 6×10 −3  torr-cm (0.8 pascal-cm) (at 25 deg C.) provides a Neutral Beam (after separation from the residual charged ions) that is essentially fully dissociated to neutral energetic monomers. It is convenient and customary to characterize the pressure times beam path length as a gas target thickness. 6×10 −3  torr-cm (0.8 pascal-cm) corresponds to a gas target thickness of approximately 1.94×10 14  gas molecules/cm 2 . In one exemplary (not for limitation) embodiment the background gas pressure is 6×10 −5  torr (8×10 −3  pascal) and the beam path length is 100 cm, the acceleration potential is 30 kV, and in this case the Neutral Beam is observed to be essentially fully dissociated into monomers at the end of the beam path. This is without laser or radiant beam heating and without employing a gas jet crossing the beam. The fully dissociated accelerated Neutral Beam condition results from monomer evolution from cluster heating due to the cluster ionization event, collisions with residual gas monomers, and collisions between clusters in the beam. 
     Using the dissociated Neutral Beam produces improved smoothing results on smoothing a gold film compared to the full beam. In another application, using the dissociated Neutral Beam on a drug surface coating on a medical device, or on drug-polymer-mixture layer on a medical device or on a drug-poly-mixture body of a medical device provides improved drug attachment and modification of a drug elution rate without the drug weight loss that occurs when the full GCIB is used. 
     Measurement of the Neutral Beam cannot be made by current measurement as is convenient for gas cluster ion beams. A Neutral Beam power sensor is used to facilitate dosimetry when irradiating a workpiece with a Neutral Beam. The Neutral Beam sensor is a thermal sensor that intercepts the beam (or optionally a known sample of the beam). The rate of rise of temperature of the sensor is related to the energy flux resulting from energetic beam irradiation of the sensor. The thermal measurements must be made over a limited range of temperatures of the sensor to avoid errors due to thermal re-radiation of the energy incident on the sensor. For a GCIB process, the beam power (watts) is equal to the beam current (amps) times V Acc , the beam acceleration voltage. When a GCIB irradiates a workpiece for a period of time (seconds), the energy (joules) received by the workpiece is the product of the beam power and the irradiation time. The processing effect of such a beam when it processes an extended area is distributed over the area (for example, cm 2 ). For ion beams, it has been conveniently conventional to specify a processing dose in terms of irradiated ions/cm 2 , where the ions are either known or assumed to have at the time of acceleration an average charge state, q, and to have been accelerated through a potential difference of, V Acc  volts, so that each ion carries an energy of q V Acc  eV (an eV is approximately 1.6×10  −19  joule). Thus an ion beam dose for an average charge state, q, accelerated by V Acc  and specified in ions/cm 2  corresponds to a readily calculated energy dose expressible in joules/cm 2 . For an accelerated Neutral Beam derived from an accelerated GCIB as utilized in the present invention, the value of q at the time of acceleration and the value of V Acc  is the same for both of the (later—formed and separated) charged and uncharged fractions of the beam. The power in the two (neutral and charged) fractions of the GCIB divides proportional to the mass in each beam fraction. Thus for the accelerated Neutral Beam as employed in the invention, when equal areas are irradiated for equal times, the energy dose (joules/cm 2 ) deposited by the Neutral Beam is necessarily less than the energy dose deposited by the full GCIB. By using a thermal sensor to measure the power in the full GCIB, P G , and that in the Neutral Beam, P N , (which is commonly found to be from about 5% to about 95% that of the full GCIB) it is possible to calculate a compensation factor for use in the Neutral Beam processing dosimetry. When P N  is equal to aP G , then the compensation factor is, k=1/a. Thus if a workpiece is processed using a Neutral Beam derived from a GCIB, for a time duration is made to be k times greater than the processing duration for the full GCIB (including charged and neutral beam portions) required to achieve a dose of D ions/cm 2 , then the energy doses deposited in the workpiece by both the Neutral Beam and the full GCIB are the same (though the results may be different due to qualitative differences in the processing effects due to differences of particle sizes in the two beams.) As used herein, a Neutral Beam process dose compensated in this way is sometimes described as having an energy/cm 2  equivalence of a dose off) ions/cm 2 . 
     Use of a Neutral Beam derived from a gas cluster ion beam in combination with a thermal power sensor for dosimetry in many cases has advantages compared with the use of the full gas cluster ion beam or an intercepted or diverted portion, which inevitably comprises a mixture of gas cluster ions and neutral gas clusters and/or neutral monomers, and which is conventionally measured for dosimetry purposes by using a beam current measurement. Some advantages are as follows: 
     1) The dosimetry can be more precise with the Neutral Beam using a thermal sensor for dosimetry because the total power of the beam is measured. With a GCIB employing the traditional beam current measurement for dosimetry, only the contribution of the ionized portion of the beam is measured and employed for dosimetry. Minute-to-minute and setup-to-setup changes to operating conditions of the GCIB apparatus may result in variations in the fraction of neutral monomers and neutral clusters in the GCIB. These variations can result in process variations that may be less controlled when the dosimetry is done by beam current measurement. 
     2) With a Neutral Beam, a wide variety of materials may be processed, including highly insulating materials and other materials that may be damaged by electrical charging effects, without the necessity of providing a source of target neutralizing electrons to prevent workpiece charging due to charge transported to the workpiece by an ionized beam. When employed with conventional GCIB, target neutralization to reduce charging is seldom perfect, and the neutralizing electron source itself often introduces problems such as workpiece heating, contamination from evaporation or sputtering in the electron source, etc. Since a Neutral Beam does not transport charge to the workpiece, such problems are reduced. 
     3) There is no necessity for an additional device such as a large aperture high strength magnet to separate energetic monomer ions from the Neutral Beam. In the case of conventional GCIB the risk of energetic monomer ions (and other small cluster ions) being transported to the workpiece, where they penetrate producing deep damage, is significant and an expensive magnetic filter is routinely required to separate such particles from the beam. In the case of the Neutral Beam apparatus of the invention, the separation of all ions from the beam to produce the Neutral Beam inherently removes all monomer ions. 
     As used herein, the term “drug” is intended to mean a therapeutic agent or a material that is active in a generally beneficial way, which can be released or eluted locally in the vicinity of an implantable medical device to facilitate implanting (for example, without limitation, by providing lubrication) the device, or to facilitate (for example, without limitation, through biological or biochemical activity) a favorable medical or physiological outcome of the implantation of the device. The meaning of “drug” is intended to include a mixture of a drug with a polymer that is employed for the purpose of binding or providing coherence to the drug, attaching the drug to the medical device, or for forming a barrier layer to control release or elution of the drug. A drug that has been modified by ion beam irradiation to densify, carbonize or partially carbonize, partially denature, cross-link or partially cross-link, or to at least partially polymerize molecules of the drug is intended to be included in the “drug” definition. 
     As used herein, the term “intermediate size”, when referring to gas cluster size or gas cluster ion size is intended to mean sizes of from N=10 to N=1500. 
     As used herein, the terms “GCIB”, “gas cluster ion beam” and “gas cluster ion” are intended to encompass not only ionized beams and ions, but also accelerated beams and ions that have had all or a portion of their charge states modified (including neutralized) following their acceleration. The terms “GCIB” and “gas cluster ion beam” are intended to encompass all beams that comprise accelerated gas clusters even though they may also comprise non-clustered particles. As used herein, the term “Neutral Beam” is intended to mean a beam of neutral gas clusters and/or neutral monomers derived from an accelerated gas cluster ion beam and wherein the acceleration results from acceleration of a gas cluster ion beam. 
     As used herein in referencing a particle in a gas or a particle in a beam, the term “monomer” refers equally to either a single atom or a single molecule. The terms “atom,” “molecule,” and “monomer” may be used interchangeably and all refer to the appropriate monomer that is characteristic of the gas under discussion (either a component of a cluster, a component of a cluster ion, or an atom or molecule). For example, a monatomic gas like argon may be referred to in terms of atoms, molecules, or monomers and each of those terms means a single atom. Likewise, in the case of a diatomic gas like nitrogen, it may be referred to in terms of atoms, molecules, or monomers, each term meaning a diatomic molecule, furthermore a molecular gas like CO 2  or B 2 H 6 , may be referred to in terms of atoms, molecules, or monomers, each term meaning a polyatomic molecule. These conventions are used to simplify generic discussions of gases and gas clusters or gas cluster ions independent of whether they are monatomic, diatomic, or molecular in their gaseous form. In referring to a constituent of a molecule or of a solid material, “atom” has its conventional meaning. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       For a better understanding of the present invention, together with other and further objects thereof, reference is made to the accompanying drawings, wherein: 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic illustrating elements of a prior art apparatus for processing a workpiece using a GCIB; 
         FIG. 2  is a schematic illustrating elements of another prior art apparatus for workpiece processing using a GCIB, wherein scanning of the ion beam and manipulation of the workpiece is employed; 
         FIG. 3  is a schematic of an apparatus according to an embodiment of the invention, which uses electrostatic deflection plates to separate the charged and uncharged beam components; 
         FIG. 4  is a schematic of an apparatus according to the an embodiment of the invention, using a thermal sensor for Neutral Beam measurement; 
         FIG. 5  is a schematic of an apparatus according to an embodiment of the invention which uses deflected ion beam current collected on a suppressed deflection plate as a component of a dosimetry scheme; 
         FIG. 6  is a schematic of an apparatus according to an embodiment of the invention which uses a sample of the deflected ion beam collected in a faraday cup as a component of a dosimetry scheme; 
         FIG. 7  shows a schematic of an apparatus according to an embodiment of the invention, employing mechanical scanning for irradiating an extended workpiece uniformly with a Neutral Beam; 
         FIG. 8  shows a schematic of an apparatus according to an embodiment of the invention with means for controlling the gas target thickness by injecting gas into the beamline chamber; 
         FIG. 9  shows a schematic of an apparatus according to an embodiment of the invention, which uses an electrostatic mirror to separate charged and neutral beam components; 
         FIG. 10  shows a schematic of an apparatus according to an embodiment of the invention wherein an accelerate-decelerate configuration is used to separate the charged beam from the neutral beam components; 
         FIG. 11  shows a schematic of an apparatus according to an embodiment of the invention wherein an alternate accelerate-decelerate configuration is used to separate the charged beam from the neutral beam components; 
         FIGS. 12A, 12B, 12C, and 12D  show processing results indicating that for a metal film, processing by a neutral component of a beam produces superior smoothing of the film compared to processing with either a full GCIB or a charged component of the beam; 
         FIGS. 13A and 13B  show comparison of a drug coating on a cobalt-chrome coupon representing a drug eluting medical device, wherein processing with a Neutral Beam produces a superior result to processing with a full GCIB; 
         FIG. 14  is a schematic of a Neutral Beam processing apparatus according to an embodiment of the invention wherein magnetic separation is employed; 
         FIGS. 15A, 15B, and 15C  are TEM images illustrating the superior interfaces produced when using embodiments of the invention as compared to gas cluster ion beams; 
         FIG. 16  is a graph showing a SIMS profile of a shallow boron implantation suitable for forming shallow junctions, using an embodiment of the invention; 
         FIG. 17  is a TEM image showing a high quality interface formed when an embodiment of the invention is used in forming a boron doped semiconductor; 
         FIG. 18  is a graph illustrating the etching of SiO 2  and Si using an embodiment of the invention; 
         FIGS. 19A and 19B  are TEM images illustrating the use of embodiments of the invention in forming amorphous layers in semiconductor materials; 
         FIGS. 20A and 20B  are TEM images illustrating the application of accelerated Neutral Beams derived from GCIBs for forming films in semiconductors; and 
         FIG. 21  is a graph illustrating the deposition of a diamond-like carbon film on a silicon substrate using an accelerated Neutral Beam derived from an accelerated GCIB. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     Reference is now made to  FIG. 1 , which shows a schematic configuration for a prior art GCIB processing apparatus  100 . A low-pressure vessel  102  has three fluidly connected chambers: a nozzle chamber  104 , an ionization/acceleration chamber  106 , and a processing chamber  108 . The three chambers are evacuated by vacuum pumps  146   a,    146   b,  and  146   c , respectively. A pressurized condensable source gas  112  (for example argon) stored in a gas storage cylinder  111  flows through a gas metering valve  113  and a feed tube  114  into a stagnation chamber  116 . Pressure (typically a few atmospheres) in the stagnation chamber  116  results in ejection of gas into the substantially lower pressure vacuum through a nozzle  110 , resulting in formation of a supersonic gas jet  118 . Cooling, resulting from the expansion in the jet, causes a portion of the gas jet  118  to condense into clusters, each consisting of from several to several thousand weakly bound atoms or molecules. A gas skimmer aperture  120  is employed to control flow of gas into the downstream chambers by partially separating gas molecules that have not condensed into a cluster jet from the cluster jet. Excessive pressure in the downstream chambers can be detrimental by interfering with the transport of gas cluster ions and by interfering with management of the high voltages that may be employed for beam formation and transport. Suitable condensable source gases  112  include, but are not limited to argon and other condensable noble gases, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and many other gases and/or gas mixtures. After formation of the gas clusters in the supersonic gas jet  118 , at least a portion of the gas clusters are ionized in an ionizer  122  that is typically an electron impact ionizer that produces electrons by thermal emission from one or more incandescent filaments  124  (or from other suitable electron sources) and accelerates and directs the electrons, enabling them to collide with gas clusters in the gas jet  118 . Election impacts with gas clusters eject electrons from some portion of the gas clusters, causing those clusters to become positively ionized. Some clusters may have more than one electron ejected and may become multiply ionized. Control of the number of electrons and their energies after acceleration typically influences the number of ionizations that may occur and the ratio between multiple and single ionizations of the gas clusters. A suppressor electrode  142 , and grounded electrode  144  extract the cluster ions from the ionizer exit aperture  126 , accelerate them to a desired energy (typically with acceleration potentials of from several hundred V to several tens of kV), and focuses them to form a GCIB  128 . The region that the GCIB  128  traverses between the ionizer exit aperture  126  and the suppressor electrode  142  is referred to as the extraction region. The axis (determined at the nozzle  110 ), of the supersonic gas jet  118  containing gas clusters is substantially the same as the axis  154  of the GCIB  128 . Filament power supply  136  provides filament voltage Vf to heat the ionizer filament  124 . Anode power supply  134  provides anode voltage VA to accelerate thermoelectrons emitted from filament  124  to cause the thermoelectrons to irradiate the cluster-containing gas jet  118  to produce cluster ions. A suppression power supply  138  supplies suppression voltage V S  (on the order of several hundred to a few thousand volts) to bias suppressor electrode  142 . Accelerator power supply  140  supplies acceleration voltage V Acc  to bias the ionizer  122  with respect to suppressor electrode  142  and grounded electrode  144  so as to result in a total GCIB acceleration potential equal to V Acc . Suppressor electrode  142  serves to extract ions from the ionizer exit aperture  126  of ionizer  122  and to prevent undesired electrons from entering the ionizer  122  from downstream, and to form a focused GCIB  128 . 
     A workpiece  160 , which may (for example) be a medical device, a semiconductor material, an optical element, or other workpiece to be processed by GCIB processing, is held on a workpiece holder  162 , that disposes the workpiece in the path of the GCIB  128 . The workpiece holder is attached to but electrically insulated from the processing chamber  108  by an electrical insulator  164 . Thus, GCIB  128  striking the workpiece  160  and the workpiece holder  162  flows through an electrical lead  168  to a dose processor  170 . A beam gate  172  controls transmission of the GCIB  128  along axis  154  to the workpiece  160 . The beam gate  172  typically has an open state and a closed state that is controlled by a linkage  174  that may be (for example) electrical, mechanical, or electromechanical. Dose processor  170  controls the open/closed state of the beam gate  172  to manage the GCIB dose received by the workpiece  160  and the workpiece holder  162 . In operation, the dose processor  170  opens the beam gate  172  to initiate GCIB irradiation of the workpiece  160 . Dose processor  170  typically integrates GCIB electrical current arriving at the workpiece  160  and workpiece holder  162  to calculate an accumulated GCIB irradiation dose. At a predetermined dose, the dose processor  170  closes the beam gate  172 , terminating processing when the predetermined dose has been achieved. 
     In the following description, for simplification of the drawings, item numbers from earlier figures may appear in subsequent figures without discussion. Likewise, items discussed in relation to earlier figures may appear in subsequent figures without item numbers or additional description. In such cases items with like numbers are like items and have the previously described features and functions and illustration of items without item numbers shown in the present figure refer to like items having the same functions as the like items illustrated in earlier numbered figures. 
       FIG. 2  shows a schematic illustrating elements of another prior art GCIB processing apparatus  200  for workpiece processing using a GCIB, wherein scanning of the ion beam and manipulation of the workpiece is employed. A workpiece  160  to be processed by the GCIB processing apparatus  200  is held on a workpiece holder  202 , disposed in the path of the GCIB  128 . In order to accomplish uniform processing of the workpiece  160 , the workpiece holder  202  is designed to manipulate workpiece  160 , as may be required for uniform processing. 
     Any workpiece surfaces that are non-planar, for example, spherical or cup-like, rounded, irregular, or other un-flat configuration, may be oriented within a range of angles with respect to the beam incidence to obtain optimal GCIB processing of the workpiece surfaces. The workpiece holder  202  can be fully articulated for orienting all non-planar surfaces to be processed in suitable alignment with the GCIB  128  to provide processing optimization and uniformity. More specifically, when the workpiece  160  being processed is non-planar, the workpiece holder  202  may be rotated in a rotary motion  210  and articulated in articulation motion  212  by an articulation/rotation mechanism  204 . The articulation/rotation mechanism  204  may permit  360  degrees of device rotation about longitudinal axis  206  (which is coaxial with the axis  154  of the GCIB  128 ) and sufficient articulation about an axis  208  perpendicular to axis  206  to maintain the workpiece surface to within a desired range of beam incidence. 
     Under certain conditions, depending upon the size of the workpiece  160 , a scanning system may be desirable to produce uniform irradiation of a large workpiece. Although often not necessary for GCIB processing, two pairs of orthogonally oriented electrostatic scan plates  130  and  132  may be utilized to produce a raster or other scanning pattern over an extended processing area. When such beam scanning is performed, a scan generator  156  provides X-axis scanning signal voltages to the pair of scan plates  132  through lead pair  159  and Y-axis scanning signal voltages to the pair of scan plates  130  through lead pair  158 . The scanning signal voltages are commonly triangular waves of different frequencies that cause the GCIB  128  to be converted into a scanned GCIB  148 , which scans the entire surface of the workpiece  160 . A scanned beam-defining aperture  214  defines a scanned area. The scanned beam-defining aperture  214  is electrically conductive and is electrically connected to the low-pressure vessel  102  wall and supported by support member  220 . The workpiece holder  202  is electrically connected via a flexible electrical lead  222  to a faraday cup  216  that surrounds the workpiece  160  and the workpiece holder  202  and collects all the current passing through the defining aperture  214 . The workpiece holder  202  is electrically isolated from the articulation/rotation mechanism  204  and the faraday cup  216  is electrically isolated from and mounted to the low-pressure vessel  102  by insulators  218 . Accordingly, all current from the scanned GCIB  148 , which passes through the scanned beam-defining aperture  214  is collected in the faraday cup  216  and flows through electrical lead  224  to the dose processor  170 . In operation, the dose processor  170  opens the beam gate  172  to initiate GCIB irradiation of the workpiece  160 . The dose processor  170  typically integrates GCIB electrical current arriving at the workpiece  160  and workpiece holder  202  and faraday cup  216  to calculate an accumulated GCIB irradiation dose per unit area. At a predetermined dose, the dose processor  170  closes the beam gate  172 , terminating processing when the predetermined dose has been achieved. During the accumulation of the predetermined dose, the workpiece  160  may be manipulated by the articulation/rotation mechanism  204  to ensure processing of all desired surfaces. 
       FIG. 3  is a schematic of a Neutral Beam processing apparatus  300  according to an embodiment of the invention, which uses electrostatic deflection plates to separate the charged and uncharged portions of a GCIB. A beamline chamber  107  encloses the ionizer and accelerator regions and the workpiece processing regions. The beamline chamber  107  has high conductance and so the pressure is substantially uniform throughout. A vacuum pump  146   b  evacuates the beamline chamber  107 . Gas flows into the beamline chamber  107  in the form of clustered and unclustered gas transported by the gas jet  118  and in the form of additional unclustered gas that leaks through the gas skimmer aperture  120 . A pressure sensor  330  transmits pressure data from the beamline chamber  107  through an electrical cable  332  to a pressure sensor controller  334 , which measures and displays pressure in the beamline chamber  107 . The pressure in the beamline chamber  107  depends on the balance of gas flow into the beamline chamber  107  and the pumping speed of the vacuum pump  146   b.  By selection of the diameter of the gas skimmer aperture  120 , the flow of source gas  112  through the nozzle  110 , and the pumping speed of the vacuum pump  146   b,  the pressure in the beamline chamber  107  equilibrates at a pressure, P B , determined by design and by nozzle flow. The GCIB flight path from grounded electrode  144  to workpiece holder  162 , is for example, 100 cm. By design and adjustment P B  may be approximately 6×10 −5  torr (8×10 −3  pascal). Thus the product of pressure and beam path length is approximately 6×10 −3  torr-cm (0.8 pascal-cm) and the gas target thickness for the beam is approximately 1.94×10 14  gas molecules per cm 2 , which combined with monomer evolution due to the initial ionization of the gas clusters in the ionizer  122  and collisions that occur between gas cluster ions in the GCIB  128  is observed to be effective for dissociating the gas cluster ions in the GCIB  128  and results in a fully dissociated accelerated Neutral Beam  314 . V Acc  may be for example 30 kV and the GCIB  128  is accelerated by that potential. A pair of deflection plates ( 302  and  304 ) is disposed about the axis  154  of the GCIB  128 . A deflector power supply  306  provides a positive deflection voltage V D  to deflection plate  302  via electrical lead  308 . Deflection plate  304  is connected to electrical ground by electrical lead  312  and through current sensor/display  310 . Deflector power supply  306  is manually controllable. V D  may be adjusted from zero to a voltage sufficient to completely deflect the ionized portion  316  of the GCIB  128  onto the deflection plate  304  (for example a few thousand volts). When the ionized portion  316  of the GCIB  128  is deflected onto the deflection plate  304 , the resulting current, I D  flows through electrical lead  312  and current sensor/display  310  for indication. When V D  is zero, the GCIB  128  is undeflected and travels to the workpiece  160  and the workpiece holder  162 . The GCIB beam current I B  is collected on the workpiece  160  and the workpiece holder  162  and flows through electrical lead  168  and current sensor/display  320  to electrical ground. I B  is indicated on the current sensor/display  320 . A beam gate  172  is controlled through a linkage  338  by beam gate controller  336 . Beam gate controller  336  may be manual or may be electrically or mechanically timed by a preset value to open the beam gate  172  for a predetermined interval. In use, V D  is set to zero, and the beam current, I B , striking the workpiece holder is measured. Based on previous experience for a given GCIB process recipe, an initial irradiation time for a given process is determined based on the measured current, I B . V D  is increased until all measured beam current is transferred from I B  to I D  and I D  no longer increases with increasing V D . At this point a Neutral Beam  314  comprising energetic dissociated components of the initial GCIB  128  irradiates the workpiece holder  162 . The beam gate  172  is then closed and the workpiece  160  placed onto the workpiece holder  162  by conventional workpiece loading means (not shown). The beam gate  172  is opened for the predetermined initial radiation time. After the irradiation interval, the workpiece may be examined and the processing time adjusted as necessary to calibrate the desired duration of Neutral Beam processing based on the measured GCIB beam current I B . Following such a calibration process, additional workpieces may be processed using the calibrated exposure duration. 
     The Neutral Beam  314  contains a repeatable fraction of the initial energy of the accelerated GCIB  128 . The remaining ionized portion  316  of the original GCIB  128  has been removed from the Neutral Beam  314  and is collected by the grounded deflection plate  304 . The ionized portion  316  that is removed from the Neutral Beam  314  may include monomer ions and gas cluster ions including intermediate size gas cluster ions. Because of the monomer evaporation mechanisms due to cluster heating during the ionization process, intra-beam collisions, background gas collisions, and other causes (all of which result in erosion of clusters) the Neutral Beam substantially consists of neutral monomers, while the separated charged particles are predominately cluster ions. The inventors have confirmed this by suitable measurements that include re-ionizing the Neutral Beam and measuring the charge to mass ratio of the resulting ions. The separated charged beam components largely consist of cluster ions of intermediate size as well as monomer ions and perhaps some large cluster ions. As will be shown below, certain superior process results are obtained by processing workpieces using this Neutral Beam. 
       FIG. 4  is a schematic of a Neutral Beam processing apparatus  400  according to an embodiment of the invention, which uses a thermal sensor for Neutral Beam measurement. A thermal sensor  402  attaches via low thermal conductivity attachment  404  to a rotating support arm  410  attached to a pivot  412 . Actuator  408  moves thermal sensor  402  via a reversible rotary motion  416  between positions that intercept the Neutral Beam  314  or GCIB  128  and a parked position indicated by  414  where the thermal sensor  402  does not intercept any beam. When thermal sensor  402  is in the parked position (indicated by  414 ) the GCIB  128  or Neutral Beam  314  continues along path  406  for irradiation of the workpiece  160  and/or workpiece holder  162 . A thermal sensor controller  420  controls positioning of the thermal sensor  402  and performs processing of the signal generated by thermal sensor  402 . Thermal sensor  402  communicates with the thermal sensor controller  420  through an electrical cable  418 . Thermal sensor controller  420  communicates with a dosimetry controller  432  through an electrical cable  428 . A beam current measurement device  424  measures beam current I B  flowing in electrical lead  168  when the GCIB  128  strikes the workpiece  160  and/or the workpiece holder  162 . Beam current measurement device  424  communicates a beam current measurement signal to dosimetry controller  432  via electrical cable  426 . Dosimetry controller  432  controls setting of open and closed stales for beam gate  172  by control signals transmitted via linkage  434 . Dosimetry controller  432  controls deflector power supply  440  via electrical cable  442  and can control the deflection voltage V D  between voltages of zero and a positive voltage adequate to completely deflect the ionized portion  316  of the GCIB  128  to the deflection plate  304 . When the ionized portion  316  of the GCIB  128  strikes deflection plate  304 , the resulting current I D  is measured by current sensor  422  and communicated to the dosimetry controller  432  via electrical cable  430 . In operation dosimetry controller  432  sets the thermal sensor  402  to the parked position  414 , opens beam gate  172 , sets V D  to zero so that the full GCIB  128  strikes the workpiece holder  162  and/or workpiece  160 . The dosimetry controller  432  records the beam current I B  transmitted from beam current measurement device  424 . The dosimetry controller  432  then moves the thermal sensor  402  from the parked position  414  to intercept the GCIB  128  by commands relayed through thermal sensor controller  420 . Thermal sensor controller  420  measures the beam energy flux of GCIB  128  by calculation basal on the heat capacity of the sensor and measured rate of temperature rise of the thermal sensor  402  as its temperature rises through a predetermined measurement temperature (for example 70 degrees C.) and communicates the calculated beam energy flux to the dosimetry controller  432  which then calculates a calibration of the beam energy flux as measured by the thermal sensor  402  and the corresponding beam current measured by the beam current measurement device  424 . The dosimetry controller  432  then parks the thermal sensor  402  at parked position  414 , allowing it to cool and commands application of positive V D  to deflection plate  302  until all of the current I D  due to the ionized portion of the GCIB  128  is transferred to the deflection plate  304 . The current sensor  422  measures the corresponding I D  and communicates it to the dosimetry controller  432 . The dosimetry controller also moves the thermal sensor  402  from parked position  414  to intercept the Neutral Beam  314  by commands relayed through thermal sensor controller  420 . Thermal sensor controller  420  measures the beam energy flux of the Neutral Beam  314  using the previously determined calibration factor and the rate of temperature rise of the thermal sensor  402  as its temperature rises through the predetermined measurement temperature and communicates the Neutral Beam energy flux to the dosimetry controller  432 . The dosimetry controller  432  calculates a neutral beam fraction, which is the ratio of the thermal measurement of the Neutral Beam  314  energy flux to the thermal measurement of the full GCIB  128  energy flux at sensor  402 . Under typical operation, a neutral beam fraction of about 5% to about 95% is achieved. Before beginning processing, the dosimetry controller  432  also measures the current, I D , and determines a current ratio between the initial values of I B  and I D . During processing, the instantaneous I D  measurement multiplied by the initial I B /I D  ratio may be used as a proxy for continuous measurement of the I B  and employed for dosimetry during control of processing by the dosimetry controller  432 . Thus the dosimetry controller  432  can compensate any beam fluctuation during workpiece processing, just as if an actual beam current measurement for the full GCIB  128  were available. The dosimetry controller uses the neutral beam fraction to compute a desired processing time for a particular beam process. During the process, the processing time can be adjusted based on the calibrated measurement of I D  for correction of any beam fluctuation during the process. 
       FIG. 5  is a schematic of a Neutral Beam processing apparatus  500  according to an embodiment of the invention that uses deflected ion beam current collected on a suppressed deflection plate as a component of a dosimetry scheme. Referring briefly to  FIG. 4 , the dosimetry scheme shown in  FIG. 4  can suffer from the fact that the current, I D , includes the current due to the ionized portion  316  of the GCIB  128  as well as secondary electron currents resulting from ejection of secondary electrons emitted when the ionized portion  316  of the beam strikes deflection plate  304 . The secondary electron yield can vary depending on the distribution of cluster ion sizes in the ionized portion  316 . It can also vary depending on the surface state (cleanliness, etc.) of the impacted surface of the deflection plate  304 . Thus, in the scheme described in  FIG. 4 , the magnitude of I D  is not a precise representation of the current due to the ionized portion  316  of the GCIB  128 . Referring again now to  FIG. 5 , an improved measurement of the ionized portion  316  of GCIB  128  can be realized at deflection plate  304  by adding an electron suppressor grid electrode  502  proximal to the surface of deflection plate  304  that receives the ionized portion  316 . The electron suppressor grid electrode  502  is highly transparent to the ionized portion  316 , but is biased negative with respect to the deflection plate  304  by second suppressor voltage V S2  provided by second suppressor power supply  506 . Effective suppression of secondary electrons is typically achieved by a V S2  on the order of several tens of volts. By suppressing the emission of secondary electrons, the current loading of deflector power supply  440  is reduced and the precision of the I D  representation of the current in the ionized portion  316  of the GCIB  128  is increased. Electron suppressor grid  502  is insulated from and maintained in proximity to deflection plate  304  by insulating supports  504 . 
       FIG. 6  is a schematic of a Neutral Beam processing apparatus  550  according to an embodiment of the invention that uses a sample of deflected ion beam current collected in a faraday cup as a component of a dosimetry scheme. In this embodiment of the invention, a sample  556  of the ionized portion  316  (as shown in  FIG. 5 ) is captured in a faraday cup  558  Sample current, I S , collected in the faraday cup  558  is conducted via electrical lead  560  to current sensor  562  for measurement, and the measurement is communicated to a dosimetry controller  566  via electrical cable  564 . Faraday cup  558  provides a superior current measurement to that obtained by measuring the current I D  collected by deflection plate  304  (as shown in FIG.  5 ). Current sensor  562  operates substantially as previously described for the current sensor  422  (as shown in  FIG. 5 ) except that current sensor  562  has increased sensitivity to accommodate the smaller magnitude of I S  as compared to I D . Dosimetry controller  566  operates substantially as previously described for dosimetry controller  432  (as shown in  FIG. 5 ) except that it is designed to accommodate a smaller current measurement I S  (as compared to I D  of  FIG. 5 ). 
       FIG. 7  is a schematic of a Neutral Beam processing apparatus  600  according to an embodiment of the invention that uses mechanical scanner  602  to scan a spatially extended workpiece  160  through the Neutral Beam  314  to facilitate uniform Neutral Beam scanning of a large workpiece. Since the Neutral Beam  314  cannot be scanned by magnetic or electrostatic techniques, when the workpiece  160  to be processed is spatially larger than the extent of the Neutral Beam  314  and uniform processing of the workpiece  160  is required, a mechanical scanner  602  is employed to scan the workpiece  160  through the Neutral Beam  314 . Mechanical scanner  602  has a workpiece holder  616  for holding workpiece  160 . The mechanical scanner  602  is disposed so that either the Neutral Beam  314  or the GCIB  128  can be incident on the workpiece  160  and/or the workpiece holder  616 . When the deflection plates ( 302 ,  304 ) deflect the ionized portion  316  out of the GCIB  128 , the workpiece  160  and/or the workpiece holder  616  receive only the Neutral Beam  314 . When the deflection plates ( 302 ,  304 ) do not deflect the ionized portion  316  of the GCIB  128 , the workpiece  160  and/or the workpiece holder  616  receives the full GCIB  128 . Workpiece holder  616  is electrically conductive and is insulated from ground by insulator  614 . Beam current (I B ) due to GCIB  128  incident on the workpiece  160  and/or the workpiece holder  616  is conducted to beam current measurement device  424  via electrical lead  168 . Beam current measurement device  424  measures  1   b  and communicates the measurement to dosimetry controller  628 . Mechanical scanner  602  has an actuator base  604  containing actuators controlled by mechanical scan controller  618  via electrical cable  620 . Mechanical scanner  602  has a Y-displacement table  606  capable of reversible motion in an Y-direction  610 , and it has an X-displacement table  608  capable of reversible motion in an X-direction  612 , indicated as in and out of the plane of the paper of  FIG. 7 . Movements of the Y-displacement table  606  and of the X-displacement table  608  are actuated by actuators in the actuator base  604  under control of the mechanical scan controller  618 . Mechanical scan controller  618  communicates via electrical cable  622  with dosimetry controller  628 . Function of dosimetry controller  628  includes all functions previously described for dosimetry controller  432 , with additional function for controlling the mechanical scanner  602  via communication with mechanical scan controller  618 . Based on measured Neutral Beam energy flux rate, dosimetry controller  628  calculates and communicates to mechanical scan controller  618  the Y- and X-scanning rates for causing an integral number of complete scans of the workpiece  160  to be completed during processing of a workpiece  160 , insuring complete and uniform processing of the workpiece and insures a predetermined energy flux dose to the workpiece  160 . Except for the use of a Neutral Beam, and the use of a Neutral Beam energy flux rate measurement, such scanning control algorithms are conventional and commonly employed in, for examples, conventional GCIB processing tools and in ion implantation tools. It is noted that the Neutral Beam processing apparatus  600  can be used as a conventional GCIB processing tool by controlling the deflection plates ( 302 ,  304 ) so that GCIB  128  passes without deflection, allowing the full GCIB  128  to irradiate the workpiece  160  and/or the workpiece holder  616 . 
       FIG. 8  is a schematic of a Neutral Beam processing apparatus  700  according to an embodiment of the invention that provides active setting and control of the gas pressure in the beamline chamber  107 . A pressure sensor  330  transmits pressure measurement data from the beamline chamber  107  through an electrical cable  332  to a pressure controller  716 , which measures and displays pressure in the beamline chamber. The pressure in the beamline chamber  107  depends on the balance of gas flow into the beamline chamber  107  and the pumping speed of the vacuum pump  146   b.  A gas bottle  702  contains a beamline gas  704  that is preferably the same gas species as the source gas  112 . Gas bottle  702  has a remotely operable leak valve  706  and a gas feed tube  708  for leaking beamline gas  704  into the beamline chamber  107  through a gas diffuser  710  in the beamline chamber  107 . The pressure controller  716  is capable of receiving an input set point (by manual entry or by automatic entry from an system controller (not shown)) in the form of a pressure set point, a pressure times beam path length set point (based on predetermined beam path length), or a gas target thickness set point. Once a set point has been established for the pressure controller  716 , it regulates the flow of beamline gas  704  into the beamline chamber  107  to maintain the set point during operation of the Neutral Beam processing apparatus. When such a beamline pressure regulation system is employed, the vacuum pump  146   b  is normally sized so that in the absence of beamline gas  704  being introduced into the beamline chamber  107 , the baseline pressure in the beamline chamber  107  is lower than the desired operating pressure. If the baseline pressure is chosen so that the conventional GCIB  128  can propagate the length of the beam path without excessive dissociation, then the Neutral Beam processing apparatus  700  can also be used as a conventional GCIB processing tool. 
       FIG. 9  is a schematic of a Neutral Beam processing apparatus  800  according to an embodiment of the invention that employs an electrostatic mirror for separation of the charged and neutral beam portions. A reflecting electrode  802  and a substantially transparent electrical grid electrode  804  are disposed displaced from each other, parallel to each other, and at a 45-degree angle to the beam axis  154 . The reflecting electrode  802  and the substantially transparent electrical grid electrode  804  both have holes ( 836  and  838  respectively) centered on the beam axis  154  for permitting passage of the Neutral Beam  314  through the two electrodes. A mirror power supply  810  provides a mirror electrical potential V M  across the gap between the reflecting electrode  802  and the substantially transparent electrical grid electrode  804  via electrical leads  806  and  808 , with polarity as indicated in  FIG. 9 . V M  is selected to be slightly greater than V Acc +V R  (V R  being the retarding potential required to overcome the thermal energy the gas cluster jet has before ionization and acceleration—V R  is typically on the order of a few kV). The electric field generated between the reflecting electrode  802  and the substantially transparent electrical grid electrode  804  deflects the ionized portion  814  of the GCIB  128  through approximately a 90-degree angle with respect to the axis  154 . A faraday cup  812  is disposed to collect the ionized portion  814  of the GCIB  128 . A suppressor electrode grid electrode  816  prevents escape of secondary electrons from the faraday cup  812 . The suppressor grid electrode  816  is biased with a negative third suppressor voltage V S3  provided by third suppressor power supply  822 . V S3  is typically on the order of several tens of volts. The faraday cup current, representing current in the deflected ionized portion  814  of the GCIB  128  (and thus the current in the GCIB  128 ) flows through electrical lead  820  to current sensor  824 . Current sensor  824  measures the current I D2  and transmits the measurement to dosimetry controller  830  via electrical lead  826 . The function of dosimetry controller  830  is as previously described for dosimetry controller  432 , except that dosimetry controller  830  receives I D2  current measurement information from current sensor  824  and dosimetry controller  830  does not control deflector power supply  440 , but instead controls mirror power supply  810  via electrical cable  840 . By setting mirror power supply  810  to output either zero volts or V M , dosimetry controller  830  controls whether the full GCIB  128 , or only the Neutral Beam  314  of GCIB  128  is transmitted to the workpiece  160  and/or workpiece holder  616  for measurement and/or processing. 
       FIG. 10  is a schematic of a Neutral Beam processing apparatus  940  according to an embodiment of the invention, which has the advantage of both the ionizer  122  and the workpiece  160  operating at ground potential. The workpiece  160  is held in the path of Neutral Beam  314  by electrically conductive workpiece holder  162 , which in turn is supported by electrically conductive support member  954  attached to a wall of the low-pressure vessel  102 . Accordingly, workpiece holder  162  and the workpiece  160  are electrically grounded. An acceleration electrode  948  extracts gas cluster ions from ionizer exit aperture  126  and accelerates the gas cluster ions through a voltage potential V Acc  provided by acceleration power supply  944  to form a GCIB  128 . The body of ionizer  122  is grounded and V Acc  is of negative polarity. Neutral gas atoms in the gas jet  118  have a small energy on the order of several tens of milli-electron-volts. As they condense into clusters, this energy accumulates proportional to cluster size, N. Sufficiently large clusters gain non-negligible energies from the condensation process and when accelerated through a voltage potential of V Acc , the final energy of each ion exceeds V Acc  by its neutral cluster jet energy. Downstream of the acceleration electrode  948 , a retarding electrode  952  is employed to ensure deceleration of the ionized portion  958  of the GCIB  128 . Retarding electrode  952  is biased at a positive retarding voltage, V R , by retarding voltage power supply  942 . A retarding voltage V R  of a few kV is generally adequate to ensure that all ions in the GCIB  128  are decelerated and returned to the acceleration electrode  948 . Permanent magnet arrays  950  are attached to the acceleration electrode  948  to provide magnetic suppression of secondary electrons that would otherwise be emitted as a result of the returned ions striking the acceleration electrode  948 . A beam gate  172  is a mechanical beam gate and is located upstream of the workpiece  160 . A dosimetry controller  946  controls the process dose received by the workpiece. A thermal sensor  402  is placed into a position that intercepts the Neutral Beam  314  for Neutral Beam energy flux measurement or in the parked position for Neutral Beam processing of the workpiece under control of the thermal sensor controller  420 . When thermal sensor  402  is in the beam sensing position, the Neutral Beam energy flux is measured and transmitted to the dosimetry controller  946  over electrical cable  956 . In normal use, the dosimetry controller  946  closes the beam gate  172  and commands the thermal sensor controller  420  to measure and report the energy flux of the Neutral Beam  314 . Next, a conventional workpiece loading mechanism (not shown) places a new workpiece on the workpiece holder. Based on the measured Neutral Beam energy flux, the dosimetry controller  946  calculates an irradiation time for providing a predetermined desired Neutral Beam energy dose. The dosimetry controller  946  commands the thermal sensor  402  out of the Neutral Beam  314  and opens the beam gate  172  for the calculated irradiation time and then closes the beam gate  172  at the end of the calculated irradiation time to terminate the processing of the workpiece  160 . 
       FIG. 11  is a schematic of a Neutral Beam processing apparatus  960  according to an embodiment of the invention, wherein the ionizer  122  operates at a negative potential V R  and wherein the workpiece operates at ground potential. An acceleration electrode  948  extracts gas cluster ions from ionizer exit aperture  126  and accelerates the gas cluster ions toward a potential of V Acc  provided by acceleration power supply  944  to form a GCIB  128 . The resulting GCIB  128  is accelerated by a potential V Acc −V R .A ground electrode  962  decelerates the ionized portion  958  of the GCIB  128  and returns it to the acceleration electrode  948 . 
       FIG. 14  is a schematic of a Neutral Beam processing apparatus  980  according to an embodiment of the invention. This embodiment is similar to that shown in  FIG. 8 , except that the separation of the charged beam components from the neutral beam components is done by means of a magnetic field, rather than an electrostatic field. Referring again to  FIG. 14 , a magnetic analyzer  982  has magnetic pole faces separated by a gap in which a magnetic ET field is present. Support  984  disposes the magnetic analyzer  982  relative to the GCIB  128  such that the GCIB  128  enters the gap of the magnetic analyzer  982  such that the vector of the B-field is transverse to the axis  154  of the GCIB  128 . The ionized portion  990  of the GCIB  128  is deflected by the magnetic analyzer  982 . A baffle  986  with a Neutral Beam aperture  988  is disposed with respect to the axis  154  so that the Neutral Beam  314  can pass through the Neutral Beam aperture  988  to the workpiece  160 . The ionized portion  990  of the GCIB  128  strikes the baffle  986  and/or the walls of the low-pressure vessel  102  where it dissociates to gas that is pumped away by the vacuum pump  146   b.    
       FIGS. 12A through 12D  show the comparative effects of full and charge separated beams on a gold thin film. In an experimental setup, a gold film deposited on a silicon substrate was processed by a full GCIB (charged and neutral components), a Neutral Beam (charged components deflected out of the beam), and a deflected beam comprising only charged components. All three conditions are derived from the same initial GCIB, a 30 kV accelerated Ar GCIB. Gas target thickness for the beam path after acceleration was approximately 2×10 14  argon gas atoms per cm 2 . For each of the three beams, exposures were matched to the total energy carried by the full beam (charged plus neutral) at an ion dose of 2×10 15  gas cluster ions per cm 2 . Energy flux rates of each beam were measured using a thermal sensor and process durations were adjusted to ensure that each sample received the same total thermal energy dose equivalent to that of the full (charged plus neutral) GCIB dose. 
       FIG. 12A  shows an atomic force microscope (AFM) 5 micron by 5 micron scan and statistical analysis of an as-deposited gold film sample that had an average roughness, Ra, of approximately 2.22 nm.  FIG. 12B  shows an AFM scan of the gold surface processed with the full GCIB—average roughness, Ra, has been reduced to approximately 1.76 nm.  FIG. 12C  shows an AFM scan of the surface processed using only charged components of the beam (after deflection from the neutral beam components)—average roughness, Ra, has been increased to approximately 3.51 nm.  FIG. 12D  shows an AFM scan of the surface processed using only the neutral component of the beam (after charged components were deflected out of the Neutral Beam)—average roughness, Ra, is smoothed to approximately 1.56 nm. The full GCIB processed sample (B) is smoother than the as deposited film (A). The Neutral Beam processed sample (D) is smoother than the full GCIB processed sample (B). The sample (C) processed with the charged component of the beam is substantially rougher than the as-deposited film. The results support the conclusion that the neutral portions of the beam contribute to smoothing and the charged components of the beam contribute to roughening. 
       FIGS. 13A and 13B  show comparative results of full GCIB and Neutral Beam processing of a drug film deposited on a cobalt-chrome coupon used to evaluate drug elution rate for a drug eluting coronary stent.  FIG. 13A  represents a sample irradiated using an argon GCIB (including the charged and neutral components) accelerated using V Acc  of 30 kV with an irradiated dose of 2×10 15  gas cluster ions per cm 2 .  FIG. 13B  represents a sample irradiated using a Neutral Beam derived from an argon GCIB accelerated using V Acc  of 30 kV. The Neutral Beam was irradiated with a thermal energy dose equivalent to that of a 30 kV accelerated, 2×10 15  gas duster ion per cm 2  dose (equivalent determined by beam thermal energy flux sensor). The irradiation for both samples was performed through a cobalt chrome proximity mask having an array of circular apertures of approximately 50 microns diameter for allowing beam transmission.  FIG. 13A  is a scanning electron micrograph of a 300 micron by 300 micron region of the sample that was irradiated through the mask with full beam.  FIG. 13B  is a scanning electron micrograph of a 300 micron by 300 micron region of the sample that was irradiated through the mask with a Neutral Beam. The sample shown in  FIG. 13A  exhibits damage and etching caused by the full beam where it passed through the mask. The sample shown in  FIG. 13B  exhibits no visible effect. In elution rate tests in physiological saline solution, the samples processed like the Figure B sample (but without mask) exhibited superior (delayed) elution rate compared to the samples processed like the  FIG. 13A  sample (but without mask). The results support the conclusion that processing with the Neutral Beam contributes to the desired delayed elution effect, while processing with the full GCIB (charged plus neutral components) contributes to weight loss of the drug by etching, with inferior (less delayed) elution rate effect. 
     To further illustrate the ability of an accelerated Neutral Beam derived from an accelerated GCIB to aid in attachment of a drug to a surface and to provide drug modification in such a way that it results in delayed drug elution, an additional test was performed. Silicon coupons approximately 1 cm by 1 cm (1 cm2) were prepared from highly polished clean semiconductor-quality silicon wafers for use as drug deposition substrates. A solution of the drug Rapamycin (Catalog number R-5000, LC Laboratories, Woburn, Mass. 01801, USA) was formed by dissolving 500 mg of Rapamycin in 20 ml of acetone. A pipette was then used to dispense approximately 5 micro-liter droplets of the drug solution onto each coupon. Following atmospheric evaporation and vacuum drying of the solution, this left approximately 5 mm diameter circular Rapamycin deposits on each of the silicon coupons. Coupons were divided into groups and either left un-irradiated (controls) or irradiated with various conditions of Neutral Beam irradiation. The groups were then placed in individual baths (bath per coupon) of human plasma for 4.5 hours to allow elution of the drug into the plasma. After 4.5 hours, the coupons were removed from the plasma baths, rinsed in deionized water and vacuum dried. Weight measurements were made at the following stages in the process: 1) pre-deposition clean silicon coupon weight; 2) following deposition and drying, weight of coupon plus deposited drug; 3) post-irradiation weight; and 4) post plasma-elution and vacuum drying weight. Thus for each coupon the following information is available: 1) initial weight of the deposited drug load on each coupon; 2) the weight of drug lost during irradiation of each coupon; and 3) the weight of drug lost during plasma elution for each coupon. For each irradiated coupon it was confirmed that drug loss during irradiation was negligible. Drug loss during elution in human plasma is shown in Table 1. The groups were as follows: Control Group—no irradiation was performed; Group 1—irradiated with a Neutral Beam derived from a GCIB accelerated with a V Acc  of 30 kV. The Group 1 irradiated beam energy dose was equivalent to that of a 30 kV accelerated, 5×10 14  gas cluster ion per cm 2  dose (energy equivalence determined by beam thermal energy flux sensor); Group 2—irradiated with a Neutral Beam derived from a GCIB accelerated with a V Acc  of 30 kV. The Group 2 irradiated beam energy dose was equivalent to that of a 30 kV accelerated, 1×10 14  gas cluster ion per cm 2  dose (energy equivalence determined by beam thermal energy flux sensor); and Group 3—irradiated with a Neutral Beam derived from a GCIB accelerated with a V Acc  of 25 kV. The Group 3 irradiated beam energy dose was equivalent to that of a 25 kV accelerated, 5×10 14  gas cluster ion per cm 2  dose (energy equivalence determined by beam thermal energy flux sensor). 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Group 
                   
                   
                   
                 Group 1 
                 Group 2 
                 Group 3 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 [Dose] 
                 Control [0001] 
                 [5 × 10 14 ] {30 kV} 
                 [1 × 10 14 ] {30 kV} 
                 [5 × 10 14 ] {25 kV} 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 {V Acc ] 
                 Start 
                 Elution 
                 Elution 
                 Start 
                 Elution 
                 Elution 
                 Start 
                 Elution 
                   
                 Start 
                 Elution 
                 Elution 
               
               
                 Coupon 
                 Load 
                 Loss 
                 Loss 
                 Load 
                 Loss 
                 Loss 
                 Load 
                 Loss 
                 Loss 
                 Load 
                 Loss 
                 Loss 
               
               
                 # 
                 (μg) 
                 (μg) 
                 % 
                 (μg) 
                 (μg) 
                 % 
                 (μg) 
                 (μg) 
                 % 
                 (μg) 
                 (μg) 
                 % 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 83 
                 60 
                 72 
                 88 
                 4 
                 5 
                 93 
                 10 
                 11 
                 88 
                 — 
                 0 
               
               
                 2 
                 87 
                 55 
                 63 
                 100 
                 7 
                 7 
                 102 
                 16 
                 16 
                 82 
                 5 
                 6 
               
               
                 3 
                 88 
                 61 
                 69 
                 83 
                 2 
                 2 
                 81 
                 35 
                 43 
                 93 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 4 
                 96 
                 72 
                 75 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
                 93 
                 7 
                 8 
                 84 
                 3 
                 4 
               
               
                 Mean 
                 89 
                 62 
                 70 
                 90 
                 4 
                 5 
                 92 
                 17 
                 19 
                 87 
                 2 
                 3 
               
               
                 σ 
                 5 
                 7 
                   
                 9 
                 3 
                   
                 9 
                 13 
                   
                 5 
                 2 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 p value 
                   
                   
                   
                 0.00048 
                 0.014 
                 0.00003 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Table 1 shows that for every case of Neutral Beam irradiation (Groups 1 through 3), the drug lost during a 4.5-hour elution into human plasma was much lower than for the un-irradiated Control Group. This indicates that the Neutral Beam irradiation results in better drug adhesion and/or reduced elution rate as compared to the un-irradiated drug. The p values (heterogeneous unpaired T-test) indicate that for each of the Neutral Beam irradiated Groups 1 through 3, relative to the Control Group, the difference in the drug retention following elution in human plasma was statistically significant. 
       FIGS. 15A through 15C  show the comparative effects of full beam (charged plus uncharged components) and charge separated beam on a single crystal silicon wafer as may be typically employed in semiconductor applications. The silicon substrate had an initial native oxide layer of approximately 1.3 nm. In separate instances, the silicon substrate was processed using a full GCIB (charged and neutral components), a Neutral Beam derived from a GCIB (charged components removed from the beam by deflection), and a charged cluster beam comprising only the charged components of a GCIB following their separation from the neutral components. All three conditions were derived from the same initial GCIB conditions, a 30 kV accelerated GCIB formed from a mixture of 98% Ar with 2% O 2 . For each of the three beams, irradiated doses were matched to the total energy carried by the full beam (charged plus neutral) at an ion dose of 2×10 15  gas cluster ions per cm 2 . Energy flux rates of each beam were measured using a thermal sensor and process durations were adjusted to ensure that each sample received the same total thermal energy dose equivalent to that of the full (charged plus neutral) GCIB The three samples were evaluated by sectioning followed by imaging by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). 
       FIG. 15A  is a TEM image  1000  of a section of a silicon substrate irradiated by the full GCIB (charged and neutral beam components). The irradiation was incident on the silicon substrate from the direction of the top of the image toward the bottom of the image. Prior to sectioning for TEM imaging, the top surface (irradiated surface) of the silicon substrate was coated with an epoxy overcoat to facilitate the sectioning operation and to avoid damage to the substrate during the sectioning process. In the TEM image  1000 , the epoxy overcoat  1006  is seen at the top of the image. The irradiation formed an amorphous region  1004  comprising silicon and oxygen having a minimum thickness of approximately 4.6 nm. A rough interface  1008  having a peak-to-peak variation of approximately 4.8 nm was formed between the amorphous region  1004  and the underlying single crystalline silicon  1002 , as a result of the irradiation process. 
       FIG. 15B  is a TEM image  1020  of a section of a silicon substrate irradiated by the separated charged component of the GCIB (charged portion only). The irradiation was incident on the silicon substrate from the direction of the top of the image toward the bottom of the image. Prior to sectioning for TEM imaging, the top surface (irradiated surface) of the silicon substrate was coated with an epoxy overcoat to facilitate the sectioning operation and to avoid damage to the substrate during the sectioning process. In the TEM image  1020 , the epoxy-overcoat  1026  is seen at the top of the image. The irradiation formed an amorphous region  1024  comprising silicon and oxygen having a minimum thickness of approximately 10.6 nm. A rough interface  1028  having a peak-to-peak variation of approximately 5.9 nm was formed between the amorphous region  1024  and the underlying single crystalline silicon  1022 , as a result of the irradiation process. 
       FIG. 15C  is a TEM image  1040  of a section of a silicon substrate irradiated by the neutral portion (charged components separated by deflection and discarded). The irradiation was incident on the silicon substrate from the direction of the top of the image toward the bottom of the image. Prior to sectioning for TEM imaging, the top surface (irradiated surface) of the silicon substrate was coated with an epoxy overcoat to facilitate the sectioning operation and to avoid damage to the substrate during the sectioning process. In the TEM image  1040 , the epoxy overcoat  1046  is seen at the top of the image. The irradiation formed an amorphous region  1044  comprising silicon and oxygen having a substantially uniform thickness of approximately 3.0 nm. A smooth interface  1048  having a peak-to-peak variation on an atomic scale was formed between the amorphous region  1044  and the underlying single crystalline silicon  1042 , as a result of the irradiation process. 
     The results of processing shown in  FIGS. 15A through 15C  indicate that in semiconductor applications, the use of an accelerated Neutral Beam derived from accelerated GCIB by charge separation results in superior interfaces between the irradiation processed and unprocessed regions as compared to either a full GCIB or only the charged portion of a GCIB. The data also shows that a smooth uniform oxide film can be formed on silicon using a Neutral Beam derived from a GCIB and that such film is free of the rough interlace often associated with the use of conventional GCIB. Without wishing to be bound to a particular theory, it is believed that the improvement likely results from the elimination of intermediate size clusters or from the elimination of all or most clusters from the beam. 
       FIG. 16  is a graph  1060  showing results of secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) depth profile measurement of a shallow boron implantation in a silicon substrate preformed using a Neutral Beam according to an embodiment the invention. The graph plots boron concentration  1062  measured in boron atoms/cc (atoms/cm 3 ) as a function of depth measured in nm. Using apparatus similar to that shown in  FIG. 4 , a 30 kV accelerated GCIB was formed from a mixture of 99% Ar with 1% diborane (B 2 H 6 ). Stagnation chamber pressure was 80 psi (5.5×10 5  pascal), nozzle flow was 200 standard cm 3 /minute (3.3 standard cm 3 /sec). Full beam current (charged plus neutral components prior to separation by deflection was approximately 0.55 microA (μA). The pressure in the beam path was maintained at approximately 6.9×10 −5  torr (9.2×10 −3  pascal) and the background gas forming that pressure was essentially argon/diborane. The argon/diborane gas target thickness for the region between the accelerator and the workpiece was approximately 2.23×10 14  argon/diborane gas monomers/cm 2 , and the accelerated Neutral Beam was observed to consist essentially of fully dissociated neutral monomers at the target. Using electrostatic deflection, all charged particles were deflected away from the beam axis and out of the beam, forming the essentially fully dissociated Neutral Beam. Thus the Neutral Beam was an accelerated monomer neutral argon/diborane beam. Dosimetry was done using a thermal sensor to calibrate the total Neutral Beam dose delivered to the silicon substrate such that a Neutral Beam deposited energy equivalent to that energy which would be deposited by a 6.3×10 14  gas cluster ions/cm 2  irradiation dose by an accelerated (30 kV) GCIB including both the charged and uncharged particles (without neutralization by charge separation). The depth profile shown in  FIG. 16  indicates that the Neutral Beam boron ion implantation resulting from using a Neutral Beam derived from a GCIB, results in a very shallow boron implantation. The junction depth estimated from the 10 18  boron atoms/cm 3  concentration depth occurs at about 12 nm depth, a very shallow junction. Integrating the boron dose over depth indicates an areal density of approximately 7.94×10 14  boron atoms/cm 2 . 
       FIG. 17  is a TEM image  1100  of a section of a silicon substrate irradiated by the neutral portion (charged components separated by deflection and discarded) derived from a GCIB. Using apparatus similar to that shown in  FIG. 4 , a 30 kV accelerated GCIB was formed from a mixture of 99% Ar with 1% diborane (B 2 H 6 ). Stagnation chamber pressure was 88 psi (6.05×10 5  pascal), nozzle flow was 200 standard cm 3 /minute (3.3 standard cm 3 /sec). Full beam current (charged plus neutral components prior to separation by deflection was approximately 0.55 microA (μA). The pressure in the beam path was maintained at approximately 6.8×10 −5  torr (9.07×10 −3  pascal) and the background gas forming that pressure was essentially argon/diborane. The argon/diborane gas target thickness for the region between the accelerator exit aperture and the workpiece was therefore approximately 2.2×10 14  argon/diborane gas monomers/cm 2 , and the accelerated Neutral Beam was observed to consist essentially of fully dissociated neutral monomers at the target. Using electrostatic deflection all charged particles were deflected away from the beam axis and out of the beam, forming a Neutral Beam, which was essentially fully dissociated. Thus the Neutral Beam was an accelerated monomer neutral argon/diborane beam. Dosimetry was done using a thermal sensor to calibrate the total Neutral Beam dose delivered to the silicon substrate such that a Neutral Beam deposited energy equivalent to that energy which would be deposited by a 1.8×10 14  gas cluster ions/cm 2  irradiation dose by an accelerated (30 kV) GCIB including both the charged and uncharged particles (without neutralization by charge separation). The irradiation was incident on the silicon substrate from the direction of the top of the image toward the bottom of the image. Prior to sectioning for TEM imaging, the top surface (irradiated surface) of the silicon substrate was coated with an epoxy overcoat to facilitate the sectioning operation and to avoid damage to the substrate during the sectioning process. Referring again to  FIG. 17 , in the TEM image  1100 , the epoxy overcoat  1106  is seen at the top of the image. The irradiation formed an amorphous region  1104  comprising silicon and boron having a substantially uniform thickness of approximately 1.9 nm. A smooth interface  1108  having a peak-to-peak variation on an atomic scale was formed between the amorphous region  1104  and the underlying single crystalline silicon  1102 , as a result of the irradiation process. Prior art GCIB irradiation of semiconductor materials for introducing dopants, strain inducing species, etc. are known to form rougher interfaces between the processed film and the underlying substrate, similar to the interface  1008  shown in  FIG. 15A . It is shown that diborane can be employed to effectively dope a semiconductor with boron, with a high quality interface between the doped film and the underlying substrate. By using other gases containing other dopant and/or lattice-straining species, species for increasing the solid solubility limit of a dopant, or species for promoting surface amorphization, high quality Elms with superior interfaces between film and substrate may be obtained as compared to conventional GCIB technology, where the presence of intermediate-sized cluster ions in the beam may result in a rough interface. Some dopant-containing gases that may be employed alone or in mixtures for introducing dopants are, diborane (B 2 H 6 ), boron trifluoride (BF 3 ), phosphine (PH 3 ), phosphorous pentafluoride (PF 5 ), arsine (AsH 3 ), and arsenic pentafluoride (AsF 5 ), as examples without limitation, may be employed for incorporating dopant atoms into gas clusters. Some gases that may be employed alone or in mixtures for introducing lattice-straining species are germane (GeH 4 ), germanium tetrafluoride (GeF 4 ), silane (SiH 4 ), silicon tetrafluoride (SiF 4 ), methane, (CH 4 ). Some gases that may be employed alone or in mixtures for promoting amorphization are, without limitation, argon (Ar), germane (GeH 4 ), germanium tetrafluoride (GeF 4 ), and fluorine (F 2 ). Some gases that may be employed alone or in mixtures for promoting dopant solubility are germane (GeH 4 ) and germanium tetrafluoride (GeF 4 ). Dopant-containing gases, gases containing lattice-straining species, gases containing amorphizing species, and/or gases containing species for improving dopant solubility (and optionally inert or other gases) may be employed in mixtures for simultaneous formation of combinations of benefits by the accelerated Neutral Beam process. In  FIG. 17 , the lead line connecting the numeric designator  1108  to its object changes color to maintain contrast on regions in the figure having differing backgrounds. 
       FIG. 18  illustrates a depth profile measurement graph  1200  obtained after using an accelerated Neutral Beam derived from a GCIB to etch a silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) film on a silicon substrate and to etch the silicon substrate. Using apparatus similar to that shown in  FIG. 4 , a 30 kV accelerated GCIB was formed using argon. Stagnation chamber pressure was 28 psi (1.93×10 5  pascal), nozzle flow was 200 standard cm 3 /minute (3.3 standard cm 3 /sec). Full beam current (charged plus neutral components prior to separation by deflection was approximately 0.50 microA (μA). The argon gas target thickness for the region between the accelerator and the workpiece was approximately 1.49×10 14  argon gas monomers/cm 2 , and the accelerated Neutral Beam was observed to consist essentially of fully dissociated neutral monomers at the target. Using electrostatic deflection all charged particles were deflected away from the beam axis and out of the beam, forming a Neutral Beam. Thus the Neutral Beam was essentially an accelerated neutral argon monomer beam. Dosimetry was done using a thermal sensor to calibrate the total Neutral Beam dose delivered to the silicon substrate such that a Neutral Beam deposited energy equivalent to that energy which would be deposited by a 2.16×10 16  gas cluster ions/cm 2  irradiation dose by an accelerated (30 kV) GCIB including both the charged and uncharged particles (without neutralization by charge separation). A silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) film (approximately 0.5 micron [μm] thick) on a silicon substrate was partially masked with a narrow (approximately 0.7 mm wide) strip of polyimide film tape and then irradiated with the accelerated Neutral Beam. Following the irradiation the polyimide tape was removed. Referring again to  FIG. 18 , the depth profile measurement graph  1200  was generated using a TENCOR Alpha-Step 250 profilometer to measure the step profile, in a direction along the surface of the SiO 2  film (on silicon substrate) and across the region masked by the polyimide film tape, due to the etching resulting from the accelerated Neutral Beam. Plateau  1202  represents the unetched surface of the SiO 2  film beneath the polyimide film (after film removal and cleaning), while the regions  1204  represent the etched portion. The accelerated Neutral Beam produced an etch depth of approximately 2.4 microns (μm), etching all the way through the 0.5 micron SiO 2  film and an additional 1.9 microns into the underlying crystalline silicon substrate, producing the step shown in depth profile measurement graph  1200 . Argon and other inert gases may be used as source gases to etch by physical means. By using a reactive source gas or using a source gas incorporating a reactive gas in a mixture, reactive etching can also be performed using a Neutral Beam. Typical reactive gases that may be used alone or in mixture with inert gases are (without limitation) oxygen (O 2 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), nitrogen (N 2 ), ammonia (NF 3 ), fluorine (F 2 ), chlorine (Cl 2 ), sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ), tetrafluoromethane (CF 4 ), and other condensable halogen-containing gases. 
       FIGS. 19A and 19B  are TEM images illustrating production of amorphous layers in crystalline semiconductor material by irradiating with accelerated Neutral Beams derived from GCIBs. Prior to sectioning for TEM imaging, the top surface of each sample was coated with an epoxy overcoat to facilitate the sectioning operation and to avoid damage to the surface during the sectioning process. Native oxide forms spontaneously in air or water when bare silicon is exposed. 
       FIG. 19A  is a TEM image  1220  of a section of a silicon substrate with a film of native SiO 2 . In the TEM image  1220 , the epoxy overcoat  1226  is seen at the top of the image. A thin (approximately 1.3 nm) native oxide film  1224  is seen on the underlying silicon substrate  1222 . 
       FIG. 19B  is a TEM image  1240  showing results of irradiation of a silicon substrate by an accelerated argon Neutral Beam derived from a GCIB. A silicon wafer having a native oxide film similar to that shown in  FIG. 19A  was cleaned in 1% aqueous solution of hydrofluoric acid to remove the native oxide. The cleaned silicon substrate was irradiated using a Neutral Beam derived from a 30 kV accelerated GCIB (charged components removed from the beam by deflection) formed from argon. The irradiated dose was matched in energy to the total energy carried by a full beam (charged plus neutral) at an ion dose of 5×10 14  gas-cluster ions per cm 2  by using a thermal sensor to match the total energy deposited by the Neutral Beam to that of the full 5×10 14  gas-cluster ions per cm 2  beam. Referring again to  FIG. 19B , the TEM image  1240  shows the epoxy overcoat  1246 , a 2.1 nm thick amorphous film  1244  in the surface of the silicon formed by the accelerated Neutral Beam irradiation, overlying the crystalline silicon substrate material  1242 . A smooth interface  1248  having a peak-to-peak variation on an atomic scale was formed between the amorphous film  1244  and the underlying crystalline silicon material  1242 , as a result of the irradiation process. This shows that the noble gas, argon (Ar), may be employed to form an amorphous layer in a crystalline semiconductor material. Some other gases (without limitation) that may be used to form amorphous layers by employing them in formation of the accelerated Neutral Beams of the invention include, xenon (Xe), germane (GeH 4 ), and germanium tetrafluoride (GeF 4 ). Such source gases may be used alone or in mixtures with argon or other noble gases. In  FIG. 19B , the lead line connecting the numeric designator  1248  to its object changes color to maintain contrast on regions in the figure having differing backgrounds. 
       FIGS. 20A and 20B  are TEM images illustrating the growth of an oxide film on silicon by the use of accelerated Neutral Beams derived from GCIBs. Prior to sectioning for TEM imaging, the top surface of each sample was coated with an epoxy overcoat to facilitate the sectioning operation and to avoid damage to the surface during the sectioning process. 
       FIG. 20A  is a TEM image  1260  showing results of irradiation of a silicon substrate by an accelerated Neutral Beam derived from a GCIB. A silicon wafer having a native oxide film similar to that shown in  FIG. 19A  was cleaned in 1% aqueous solution of hydrofluoric acid to remove the native oxide. The cleaned, bare silicon substrate was then irradiated using a Neutral Beam derived from a 30 kV accelerated GCIB (charged components removed from the beam by deflection) formed from a source gas mixture of 98% Ar with 2% O 2 . The irradiated Neutral Beam dose was energetically equivalent (energy equivalence determined by beam thermal energy flux sensor) to a 30 kV accelerated GCIB at an ion dose of 2.4×10 13  gas cluster ions per cm 2 . Referring again to  FIG. 20A , the TEM image  1260  shows the epoxy overcoat  1266 , a 2 nm thick oxide film  1264  in the surface of the silicon formed by the accelerated Neutral Beam irradiation, overlying the crystalline silicon substrate material  1262 . A smooth interface  1268  having a peak-to peak variation on an atomic scale was formed between the oxide film  1264  and the underlying crystalline silicon material  1262 , as a result of the irradiation process. In  FIG. 20A , the lead line connecting the numeric designator  1268  to its object changes color to maintain contrast on regions in the figure having differing backgrounds. 
       FIG. 20B  is a TEM image  1280  showing results of irradiation of a silicon substrate by an accelerated Neutral Beam derived from a GCIB. A silicon wafer having a native oxide film similar to that shown in  FIG. 19A  was cleaned in 1% aqueous solution of hydrofluoric acid to remove the native oxide. The cleaned, bare silicon substrate was then irradiated using a Neutral Beam derived from a 30 kV accelerated GCIB (charged components removed from the beam by deflection) formed from a source gas mixture of 98% Ar with 2% O 2 . The irradiated Neutral Beam dose was energetically equivalent (energy equivalence determined by beam thermal energy flux sensor) to a 30 kV accelerated GCIB at an ion dose of 4.7×10 14  gas cluster ions per cm 2 . Referring again to  FIG. 20B , the TEM image  1280  shows the epoxy overcoat  1286 , a 3.3 nm thick oxide film  1284  in the surface of the silicon formed by the accelerated Neutral Beam irradiation, overlying the crystalline silicon substrate material  1282 . A smooth interface  1288  having a peak-to-peak variation on an atomic scale was formed between the oxide film  1284  and the underlying crystalline silicon material  1282 , as a result of the irradiation process. This shows that a Neutral Beam comprising oxygen may be employed to form an oxide layer at the surface of a semiconductor material. The thickness of the film grown may be varied by varying the irradiated dose. By using source gases comprising other reactive species in forming the accelerated Neutral Beam, other types of films may be grown on semiconductor or other surfaces, for examples (without limitation), oxygen (O 2 ), nitrogen (N 2 ), or ammonia (NH 3 ), alone or in mixture with argon (Ar) or other noble gas may be employed. In  FIG. 20B , the lead line connecting the numeric designator  1288  to its object changes color to maintain contrast on regions in the figure having differing backgrounds. 
       FIG. 21  illustrates a depth profile measurement graph  1300  obtained after using an accelerated Neutral Beam derived from a GCIB to deposit a diamond like carbon film on a silicon substrate. Using apparatus similar to that shown in  FIG. 4 , a 30 kV accelerated GCIB was formed using a source gas mixture of 10% methane (CH 4 ) with 90% argon. The accelerated Neutral Beam was observed to consist essentially of fully dissociated neutral monomers at the target. Using electrostatic deflection all charged particles were deflected away from the beam axis and out of the beam, forming a neutral methane/argon beam. Thus the Neutral Beam was essentially an accelerated neutral methane/argon monomer beam. Dosimetry was done using a thermal sensor to calibrate the total Neutral Beam delivered to the silicon substrate such that the Neutral Beam deposited energy equivalent to that energy which would be deposited by a 2.8 microA gas cluster ions/cm 2  irradiation dose by an accelerated (30 kV) GCIB, including both the charged and uncharged particles (without neutralization by charge separation). A silicon substrate was partially masked with a narrow (approximately 1 mm wide) strip of polyimide film tape and then the substrate and mask were irradiated with the accelerated Neutral Beam for 30 minutes, depositing a diamond-like carbon film. Following irradiation the mask was removed. Referring again to  FIG. 21 , the depth profile measurement graph  1300  was generated using a TENCOR Alpha-Step 250 profilometer to measure the step profile, in a direction along the surface of the silicon substrate and across the region masked by the polyimide film tape, due to the deposition resulting from the accelerated Neutral Beam. Flat region  1302  represents the original surface of the silicon substrate beneath the polyimide film (after film removal and cleaning), while the regions  1304  represent the deposited diamond-like carbon portion. The accelerated Neutral Beam produced a deposition thickness of approximately 2.2 microns (μm), producing the step shown in depth profile measurement graph  1300 . The deposition rate was approximately 0.45 nm/sec for each micro A/cm 2  of GCIB current (the energetic equivalent, as determined by thermal sensor as mentioned above in this paragraph). In other tests, 5% mixture and 7.5% mixtures of CH 4  in argon, gave similar results, but with lower deposition rates resulting from lower CH 4  percentage in the source gas. Selection of gas mixture and dose permit repeatable deposition of films with predetermined thicknesses. CH 4 , alone or in mixture with argon or other noble gas is an effective source gas for depositing carbon using an accelerated neutral monomer beam. Other typical gases that may be used alone or in mixture with inert gases for film deposition using accelerated neutral monomer beams are (without limitation) germane (GeH 4 ), germanium tetrafluoride (GeF 4 ), silane (SiH 4 ), and silicon tetrafluoride (SiF 4 ). 
     The use of an accelerated Neutral Beam derived from an accelerated GCIB by separation of charged components from uncharged components is shown to be capable of numerous applications in the field of semiconductor processing, with an added benefit that the interface between the layer formed by the irradiation and the underlying semiconductor is extremely smooth and superior to results obtained by conventional GCIB irradiation. 
     Although the invention has been described with respect to silicon semiconductor materials, it is understood by the inventors that it is equally applicable to other semiconductor materials including germanium, and compound semiconductors including, without limitation, group III-V and group II-VI and related materials and it is intended that the scope of the invention is intended to include those materials. 
     It is understood by the inventors that although the invention has been shown for exemplary purposes to be useful for processes such a smoothing, etching, film growth, film deposition, amorphization, and doping by using silicon semiconductor wafers, it is understood by the inventors that the benefits of the invention are not limited only to processes done on bare semiconductor surfaces, but are equally useful for processing portions of electrical circuits, electrical devices, optical elements, integrated circuits, micro-electrical mechanical systems (MEMS) devices (and portions thereof) and other devices that are commonly constructed using conventional modern technologies on silicon substrates, other semiconductor substrates, and substrates of other materials, and it is intended that the scope of the invention includes such applications. 
     Although the benefits of applying the Neutral Beam of the invention for electrical charging-free processing have been described with respect to processing various electrically insulating and/or non-electrically-conductive materials such as insulating drug coatings, dielectric films such as oxides and nitrides, insulating corrosion inhibitor coatings, polymers, organic films, glasses, ceramics, it is understood by the inventors that all materials of poor or low electrical conductivity may benefit from using the Neutral Beam of the invention as a substitute for processing with charge transferring processing techniques like ion beams, plasmas, etc., and it is intended that the scope of the invention includes such materials. It is further understood by the inventors that Neutral Beam processing is advantageous not only because of its reduced charging characteristics, but also for processing many materials that are electrically conductive, where other advantages of Neutral Beam processing, especially neutral monomer beam processing, which produces less surface damage, better smoothing, and smoother interfaces between processed and underlying unprocessed regions, even in metals and highly conductive materials. It is intended that the scope of the invention includes processing of such materials. 
     Although the benefits of applying the Neutral Beam of the invention for electrical charging-free processing have been described with respect to processing various insulating and/or non-electrically-conductive materials, it is understood by the inventors that the charge-free Neutral Beam processing benefits apply equally to the processing of electrically conductive, semiconductive, or slightly conductive materials that exist in the form of coatings or layers or other forms overlying insulating layers or disposed upon insulating substrates, wherein the at least slightly conductive materials have no reliable ground connection or other pathway for removing surface charges that may be induced by processing using charge transferring processing techniques. In such cases, charging of the at least slightly conductive materials during processing may produce damage to those materials or to the underlying insulating materials. The charging and damage may be avoided by using the Neutral Beam processing of the invention. It is intended by the inventors that the scope of the invention includes processing of such dissimilar material arrangements where an at least slightly conductive material overlays an insulating material. 
     Although the invention has been described with respect to various embodiments, it should be realized this invention is also capable of a wide variety of further and other embodiments within the spirit and scope of the invention.