Patent Publication Number: US-2023164113-A1

Title: Extending cloud-based virtual private networks to user equipment on radio-based networks

Description:
BACKGROUND 
     5G is the fifth-generation technology standard for broadband cellular networks, which is planned eventually to take the place of the fourth-generation (4G) standard of Long-Term Evolution (LTE). 5G technology will offer greatly increased bandwidth, thereby broadening the cellular market beyond smartphones to provide last-mile connectivity to desktops, set-top boxes, laptops, Internet of Things (IoT) devices, and so on. Some 5G cells may employ frequency spectrum similar to that of 4G, while other 5G cells may employ frequency spectrum in the millimeter wave band. Cells in the millimeter wave band will have a relatively small coverage area but will offer much higher throughput than 4G. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Many aspects of the present disclosure can be better understood with reference to the following drawings. The components in the drawings are not necessarily to scale, with emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of the disclosure. Moreover, in the drawings, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the several views. 
         FIG.  1    is a drawing of an example of a communication network that is deployed and managed according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  2 A  illustrates an example of a networked environment including a cloud provider network and further including various provider substrate extensions of the cloud provider network, which may be used in various locations within the communication network of  FIG.  1   , according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  2 B  depicts an example of cellularization and geographic distribution of the communication network of  FIG.  1    according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  3 A  illustrates an example of the networked environment of  FIG.  2 A  including geographically dispersed provider substrate extensions according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  3 B  illustrates an example of the networked environment of  FIG.  2 A  including a virtual private cloud network according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  4    is a schematic block diagram of the networked environment of  FIG.  2 A  according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  5    is a flowchart illustrating examples of functionality implemented as portions of a radio-based network and a virtual private cloud network in the networked environment of  FIG.  4    according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  6    is a flowchart illustrating examples of functionality implemented as portions of a virtual private cloud gateway executed in a radio-based network in the networked environment of  FIG.  4    according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  7    is a flowchart illustrating examples of functionality implemented as portions of a virtual private cloud application executed in a client device in the networked environment of  FIG.  4    according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  8    is a schematic block diagram that provides one example illustration of a computing environment employed in the networked environment of  FIG.  4    according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The present disclosure relates to extending cloud-based virtual private networks to user equipment on radio-based networks. A virtual private cloud (VPC) is a custom-defined, virtual network within another network, such as a cloud provider network. A VPC can provide the foundational network layer for a cloud service, for example a compute cloud or an edge cloud, or for a customer application or workload that runs on the cloud. A VPC can be defined by at least its address space, internal structure (e.g., the computing resources that comprise the VPC), and transit paths. VPC resources are typically hosted and provisioned within the cloud provider network, though customer-owned networks may be connected to the VPC through a gateway. In hosting the VPC, the cloud provide network implements a logical construct using physical, and optionally virtual, resources of the cloud provider network to provision the VPC. 
     Radio-based networks include one or more radio access networks (RANs) and an associated core network to provide network connectivity to wireless devices. The RANs may operate using Wi-Fi, 4G, 5G, sixth generation (6G), and other access technologies. A radio-based network may support network slicing to ensure quality-of-service (QoS) requirements are met for customers and their applications. An individual network slice in a radio-based network reserves network capacity in both the RAN and the associated core network for a set of applications or devices, potentially for a defined period of time, so that one or more QoS parameters are met. QoS parameters may relate to latency, bandwidth, burstable bandwidth, number of network hops, and so on, and may be defined in terms of maximum, minimum, average, or other thresholds. 
     Various embodiments of the present disclosure extend the concept of VPCs to user equipment on radio-based networks so that user equipment, such as smartphones, Internet of Things (IoT) devices, and/or other wireless devices, connected to a particular radio-based network can be placed on a VPC, thus enabling the devices to access other resources on the VPC. In this way, user equipment connected to the radio-based network can communicate with other user equipment on the radio-based network that are on the VPC, and the same user equipment can communicate with other devices and resources that are on the VPC within a cloud provider network. Furthermore, in some embodiments, individual network slices on the radio-based network may provide access, respectively, to different VPCs or different subnetworks (subnets) of VPCs, which may be associated with different resources managed by different access controls. In some scenarios, a wireless device is in data communication with a VPC via an actual network interface of the wireless device rather than through a virtual network interface such as through tunneling. 
     In some embodiments, an application on the user equipment or the operating system on the user equipment routes network traffic to the VPC via a tunnel and packet encapsulation. In such embodiments, the application or operating system may be configured to perform various VPC functions, such as enforcing security group rules for access control and maintaining a VPC routing table mapping VPC network addresses to next-hop network addresses. In other embodiments, a component in the radio-based network, either in the radio access network or in the core network, acts as a VPC proxy in order to route network traffic between the user equipment and the VPC via a tunnel and packet encapsulation. In the latter embodiments, resource consumption on the user equipment may be lessened, as the tunneling and encapsulation do not occur directly on the user equipment. 
     A VPC is a virtual network dedicated to a particular customer account (or set of related customer accounts, such as different customer accounts belonging to the same business organization). A VPC is logically isolated from other virtual networks in the cloud. Customers can launch resources, such as compute instances, into a VPC. When creating a VPC, a customer can specify a range of IPv4 and/or IPv6 addresses for the VPC in the form of a Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) block. A VPC can span all of the availability zones in a particular region. After creating a VPC, a customer can add one or more subnets in each availability zone or edge location. According to the present disclosure, a customer can also add a subnet of their VPC to a network slice. The customer can request, for example via an API call to the cloud provider network, to register a subscriber identity module of a particular client device (or set of client devices) with one or both of the network slice and the VPC. In response, the cloud provider network can assign the subscriber identity module an internet protocol (IP) address from the IP address range of the VPC. This can enable the client device to access resources in the VPC via its use of the network slice of the radio-based network, subject to any further access controls. 
     Access controls can refer to security groups or network access control lists. Security groups (also known as network security groups, application security groups, cloud security groups, or compute engine firewall rules, in various implementations) act as a virtual firewall for a virtual machine instance to control inbound and outbound traffic. Customers can define security groups as policies that can be applied to specific instances. When a customer launches an instance in a VPC, they can assign one or more security groups to the instance. Security groups may act at the instance level instead of the subnet level. Therefore, each instance in a subnet can be assigned to a different set of security groups. For each security group, the customer can add rules that control the inbound traffic to instances, and a separate set of rules that control the outbound traffic. Security groups can be stateful, in that return traffic is automatically allowed. 
     A customer can also set up network access control lists (ACLs) with rules similar to security groups in order to add an additional layer of security to a VPC. Network ACLs operate at the subnet level, support allow rules and deny rules, and automatically apply to all instances in any subnet with which it is associated. Network ACLs may not be stateful, in that return traffic must be explicitly allowed by the rules. 
     The radio-based network may use a core network infrastructure that is provisioned dynamically and used in conjunction with a plurality of different radio access networks operated by a plurality of communication service providers. While the radio-based networks are provisioned on-demand, the radio-based networks may also be scaled up or down or terminated dynamically, thereby providing organizations with the capability to create an ephemeral radio-based network that may exist during a particular time period or periodically according to a schedule. Further, cell sites may be added to or removed from the radio-based network dynamically on demand. In various scenarios, an organization may create either a private radio-based network for internal use only or a radio-based network open to third-party customers using embodiments of the present disclosure. 
     Previous deployments of radio-based networks have relied upon manual deployment and configuration at each step of the process. This proved to be extremely time consuming and expensive. Further, in previous generations, software was inherently tied to vendor-specific hardware, thereby preventing customers from deploying alternative software. By contrast, with 5G, hardware is decoupled from the software stack, which allows more flexibility, and allows components of the radio-based network to be executed on cloud provider infrastructure. Using a cloud delivery model for a radio-based network, such as a 5G network, can facilitate handling network traffic from hundreds up to billions of connected devices and compute-intensive applications, while delivering faster speeds, lower latency, and more capacity than other types of networks. 
     Historically, enterprises have had to choose between performance and price when evaluating their enterprise connectivity solutions. Cellular networks may offer high performance, great indoor and outdoor coverage, and advanced Quality of Service (QoS) connectivity features, but private cellular networks can be expensive and complex to manage. While Ethernet and Wi-Fi require less upfront investment and are easier to manage, enterprises often find that they can be less reliable, require a lot of work to get the best coverage, and do not offer QoS features such as guaranteed bit rate, latency, and reliability. 
     Enterprises can freely deploy various 5G devices and sensors across the enterprise—factory floors, warehouses, lobbies, and communications centers—and manage these devices, enroll users, and assign QoS from a management console. With the disclosed technology, customers can assign constant bit rate throughput to all their devices (such as cameras, sensors, or IoT devices), reliable low latency connection to devices running on factory floors, and broadband connectivity to all handheld devices. The disclosed service can manage all the software needed to deliver connectivity that meets the specified constraints and requirements. This enables an entirely new set of applications that have strict QoS or high IoT device density requirements that traditionally have not been able to run on Wi-Fi networks. Further, the disclosed service can provide application development application programming interfaces (APIs) that expose and manage 5G capabilities like QoS, enabling customers to build applications that can fully utilize the latency and bandwidth capabilities of their network without having to understand the details of the network. 
     Additionally, the disclosed service can provide a private zone to run local applications within a cloud provider network. This private zone can be connected to and effectively part of a broader regional zone, and allows the customer to manage the private zone using the same APIs and tools as used in the cloud provider network. Like an availability zone, the private zone can be assigned a virtual private network subnet. An API can be used to create and assign subnets to all zones that the customer wishes to use, including the private zone and existing other zones. A management console may offer a simplified process for creating a private zone. Virtual machine instances and containers can be launched in the private zone just as in regional zones. Customers can configure a network gateway to define routes, assign IP addresses, set up network address translation (NAT), and so forth. Automatic scaling can be used to scale the capacity of virtual machine instances or containers as needed in the private zone. The same management and authentication APIs of the cloud provider network can be used within the private zone. In some cases, since cloud services available in the regional zone can be accessed remotely from private zones over a secure connection, these cloud services can be accessed without having to upgrade or modify the local deployment. 
     Various embodiments of the present disclosure may also bring the concept of elasticity and utility computing from the cloud computing model to radio-based networks and associated core networks. For example, the disclosed techniques can run core and radio access network functions and associated control plane management functions on cloud provider infrastructure, creating a cloud native core network and/or a cloud native radio access network (RAN). Such core and RAN network functions can be based on the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) specifications in some implementations. By providing a cloud-native radio-based network, a customer may dynamically scale its radio-based network based on utilization, latency requirements, and/or other factors. Customers may also configure thresholds to receive alerts relating to radio-based network usage and excess capacity usage of their provisioned infrastructure, in order to more effectively manage provisioning of new infrastructure or deprovisioning of existing infrastructure based on their dynamic networking and workload requirements. 
     As one skilled in the art will appreciate in light of this disclosure, certain embodiments may be capable of achieving certain advantages, including some or all of the following: (1) improving security of radio-based networks by allowing for a combination of point-to-point and end-to-end encryption to connect devices on the radio-based networks with resources available on virtual private cloud networks; (2) enhancing flexibility of geographically dispersed networks by allowing for virtual private cloud networks to extend to radio-based networks, including 4G and 5G networks; (3) improving the reliability and performance of services on virtual private cloud networks by implementing network slicing on radio-based network segments in order to meet quality-of-service requirements; and so forth. 
     Among the benefits of the present disclosure is the ability to deploy and chain network functions together to deliver an end-to-end service that meets specified constraints and requirements. According to the present disclosure, network functions organized into microservices work together to provide end-to-end connectivity. One set of network functions are part of a radio network, running in cell towers and performing wireless signal to IP conversion. Other network functions run in large data centers performing subscriber related business logic and routing IP traffic to the internet and back. For applications to use the new capabilities of 5G such as low latency communication and reserved bandwidth, both of these types of network functions need to work together to appropriately schedule and reserve wireless spectrum, and perform real time compute and data processing. The presently disclosed techniques provide edge location hardware (as described further below) integrated with network functions that run across the entire network, from cell sites to Internet break-outs, and orchestrate the network functions to meet required Quality of Service (QoS) constraints. This enables an entirely new set of applications that have strict QoS requirements, from factory-based Internet of Things (IoT), to augmented reality (AR), to virtual reality (VR), to game streaming, to autonomous navigation support for connected vehicles, that previously could not run on a mobile network. 
     The described “elastic 5G” service provides and manages all of the hardware, software, and network functions, required to build a network. In some embodiments, the network functions may be developed and managed by the cloud service provider; however, the described control plane can manage network functions across a range of providers, so that customers can use a single set of APIs to call and manage their choice of network functions on cloud infrastructure. The elastic 5G service beneficially automates the creation of an end-to-end 5G network, from hardware to network functions thus reducing the time to deploy and the operational cost of operating the network. By providing APIs that expose network capabilities, the disclosed elastic 5G service enables applications to simply specify the desired QoS as constraints and then deploys and chains the network functions together to deliver an end-to-end service that meets the specified requirements, thus making it possible to easily build new applications. 
     The present disclosure describes embodiments relating to the creation and management of a cloud native 5G core and/or a cloud native 5G RAN, and associated control plane components. Cloud native refers to an approach to building and running applications that exploits the advantages of the cloud computing delivery model such as dynamic scalability, distributed computing, and high availability (including geographic distribution, redundancy, and failover). Cloud native refers to how these applications are created and deployed to be suitable for deployment in a public cloud. While cloud native applications can be (and often are) run in the public cloud, they also can be run in an on-premise data center. Some cloud native applications can be containerized, for example, having different parts, functions, or subunits of the application packaged in their own containers, which can be dynamically orchestrated so that each part is actively scheduled and managed to optimize resource utilization. These containerized applications can be architected using a microservices architecture to increase the overall agility and maintainability of the applications. 
     In a microservices architecture, an application is arranged as a collection of smaller subunits (“microservices”) that can be deployed and scaled independently from one another, and which can communicate with one another over a network. These microservices are typically fine-grained, in that they have specific technical and functional granularity, and often implement lightweight communications protocols. The microservices of an application can perform different functions from one another, can be independently deployable, and may use different programming languages, databases, and hardware/software environments from one another. Decomposing an application into smaller services beneficially improves modularity of the application, enables replacement of individual microservices as needed, and parallelizes development by enabling teams to develop, deploy, and maintain their microservices independently from one another. A microservice may be deployed using a virtual machine, container, or serverless function, in some examples. The disclosed core and RAN software may follow a microservices architecture such that the described radio-based networks are composed of independent subunits that can be deployed and scaled on demand. 
     Turning now to  FIG.  1   , shown is an example of a communication network  100  that is deployed and managed according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. The communication network  100  includes a radio-based network (RBN)  103 , which may correspond to a cellular network such as a High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) network, a fourth-generation (4G) Long-Term Evolution (LTE) network, a fifth-generation (5G) network, a sixth-generation (6G) network, a 4G-5G hybrid core with both 4G and 5G RANs, or another network that provides wireless network access. The radio-based network  103  may be operated by a cloud service provider for an enterprise, a non-profit, a school system, a governmental entity, or another organization. The radio-based network  103  may use private network addresses or public network addresses in various embodiments. 
     Various deployments of the radio-based network  103  can include one or more of a core network and a RAN network, as well as a control plane for running the core and/or RAN network on cloud provider infrastructure. As described above, these components can be developed in a cloud native fashion, for example using a microservices architecture, such that centralized control and distributed processing is used to scale traffic and transactions efficiently. These components may be based on the 3GPP specifications by following an application architecture in which control plane and user plane processing is separated (CUPS Architecture). 
     The radio-based network  103  provides wireless network access to a plurality of wireless devices  106 , which may be mobile devices or fixed location devices. In various examples, the wireless devices  106  may include smartphones, connected vehicles, IoT devices, sensors, machinery (such as in a manufacturing facility), hotspots, and other devices. The wireless devices  106  are sometimes referred to as user equipment (UE) or customer premises equipment (CPE). 
     In this example, two virtual private cloud networks  107   a  and  107   b  of a cloud provider network are shown as extended into the radio-based network  103  to encompass the wireless devices  106  as client devices. The virtual private cloud network  107   a  is shown as including four wireless devices  106 , while the virtual private cloud network  107   b  is shown as including two wireless devices  106 . This is to illustrate that a single radio-based network  103  may provide for access into multiple different virtual private cloud networks  107 , which may be enabled in some cases, on a per-cell basis. Individual virtual private cloud networks  107  may be assigned one or more network slices for use by the wireless devices  106  that are configured to meet one or more quality-of-service requirements. 
     The wireless devices  106  grouped within a particular virtual private cloud network  107  may communicate with each other as if they were on a single network segment, even if they are physically connected to different cells or points in the radio-based network  103 . Moreover, the wireless devices  106  within a particular virtual private cloud network  107  may communicate with services and other resources that are hosted on the virtual private cloud network  107 , as if they were on a local network. Such resources may be located within the radio-based network  103  (e.g., at cell sites, intermediate sites, or central locations) or within regional data centers of the cloud provider network. 
     The radio-based network  103  can include capacity provisioned on one or more radio access networks (RANs) that provide the wireless network access to the plurality of wireless devices  106  through a plurality of cells  109 . The RANs may be operated by different communication service providers. Each of the cells  109  may be equipped with one or more antennas and one or more radio units that send and receive wireless data signals to and from the wireless devices  106 . The antennas may be configured for one or more frequency bands, and the radio units may also be frequency agile or frequency adjustable. The antennas may be associated with a certain gain or beamwidth in order to focus a signal in a particular direction or azimuthal range, potentially allowing reuse of frequencies in a different direction. Further, the antennas may be horizontally, vertically, or circularly polarized. In some examples, a radio unit may utilize multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) technology to send and receive signals. As such, the RAN implements a radio access technology to enable radio connection with wireless devices  106 , and provides connection with the radio-based network&#39;s core network. Components of the RAN include a base station and antennas that cover a given physical area, as well as required core network items for managing connections to the RAN. 
     Data traffic is often routed through a fiber transport network consisting of multiple hops of layer  3  routers (e.g., at aggregation sites) to the core network. The core network is typically housed in one or more data centers. The core network typically aggregates data traffic from end devices, authenticates subscribers and devices, applies personalized policies, and manages the mobility of the devices before routing the traffic to operator services or the Internet. A 5G Core for example can be decomposed into a number of microservice elements with control and user plane separation. Rather than physical network elements, a 5G Core can comprise virtualized, software-based network functions (deployed for example as microservices) and can therefore be instantiated within Multi-access Edge Computing (MEC) cloud infrastructures. The network functions of the core network can include a User Plane Function (UPF), Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF), and Session Management Function (SMF), described in more detail below. For data traffic destined for locations outside of the communication network  100 , network functions typically include a firewall through which traffic can enter or leave the communication network  100  to external networks such as the Internet or a cloud provider network. Note that in some embodiments, the communication network  100  can include facilities to permit traffic to enter or leave from sites further downstream from the core network (e.g., at an aggregation site or radio-based network  103 ). 
     The UPF provides an interconnect point between the mobile infrastructure and the Data Network (DN), i.e., encapsulation and decapsulation of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) tunneling protocol for the user plane (GTP-U). The UPF can also provide a session anchor point for providing mobility within the RAN, including sending one or more end marker packets to the RAN base stations. The UPF can also handle packet routing and forwarding, including directing flows to specific data networks based on traffic matching filters. Another feature of the UPF includes per-flow or per-application QoS handling, including transport level packet marking for uplink (UL) and downlink (DL), and rate limiting. The UPF can be implemented as a cloud native network function using modern microservices methodologies, for example being deployable within a serverless framework (which abstracts away the underlying infrastructure that code runs on via a managed service). 
     The AMF can receive the connection and session information from the wireless devices  106  or the RAN and can handle connection and mobility management tasks. For example, the AMF can manage handovers between base stations in the RAN. In some examples the AMF can be considered as the access point to the 5G core, by terminating certain RAN control plane and wireless device  106  traffic. The AMF can also implement ciphering and integrity protection algorithms. 
     The SMF can handle session establishment or modification, for example by creating, updating, and removing Protocol Data Unit (PDU) sessions and managing session context within the UPF. The SMF can also implement Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and IP Address Management (IPAM). The SMF can be implemented as a cloud native network function using modern microservices methodologies. 
     Various network functions to implement the radio-based network  103  may be deployed in distributed computing devices  112 , which may correspond to general-purpose computing devices configured to perform the network functions. For example, the distributed computing devices  112  may execute one or more virtual machine instances that are configured in turn to execute one or more services that perform the network functions. In one embodiment, the distributed computing devices  112  are ruggedized machines that are deployed at each cell site. 
     By contrast, one or more centralized computing devices  115  may perform various network functions at a central site operated by the customer. For example, the centralized computing devices  115  may be centrally located on premises of the customer in a conditioned server room. The centralized computing devices  115  may execute one or more virtual machine instances that are configured in turn to execute one or more services that perform the network functions. 
     In one or more embodiments, network traffic from the radio-based network  103  is backhauled to one or more core computing devices  118  that may be located at one or more data centers situated remotely from the customer&#39;s site. The core computing devices  118  may also perform various network functions, including routing network traffic to and from the network  121 , which may correspond to the Internet and/or other external public or private networks. The core computing devices  118  may perform functionality related to the management of the communication network  100  (e.g., billing, mobility management, etc.) and transport functionality to relay traffic between the communication network  100  and other networks. 
       FIG.  2 A  illustrates an example of a networked environment  200  including a cloud provider network  203  and further including various provider substrate extensions of the cloud provider network  203 , which may be used in combination with on-premise customer deployments within the communication network  100  of  FIG.  1   , according to some embodiments. A cloud provider network  203  (sometimes referred to simply as a “cloud”) refers to a pool of network-accessible computing resources (such as compute, storage, and networking resources, applications, and services), which may be virtualized or bare-metal. The cloud can provide convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources that can be programmatically provisioned and released in response to customer commands. These resources can be dynamically provisioned and reconfigured to adjust to variable load. Cloud computing can thus be considered as both the applications delivered as services over a publicly accessible network (e.g., the Internet, a cellular communication network) and the hardware and software in cloud provider data centers that provide those services. 
     The cloud provider network  203  can provide on-demand, scalable computing platforms to users through a network, for example, allowing users to have at their disposal scalable “virtual computing devices” via their use of the compute servers (which provide compute instances via the usage of one or both of central processing units (CPUs) and graphics processing units (GPUs), optionally with local storage) and block store servers (which provide virtualized persistent block storage for designated compute instances). These virtual computing devices have attributes of a personal computing device including hardware (various types of processors, local memory, random access memory (RAM), hard-disk, and/or solid-state drive (SSD) storage), a choice of operating systems, networking capabilities, and pre-loaded application software. Each virtual computing device may also virtualize its console input and output (e.g., keyboard, display, and mouse). This virtualization allows users to connect to their virtual computing device using a computer application such as a browser, API, software development kit (SDK), or the like, in order to configure and use their virtual computing device just as they would a personal computing device. Unlike personal computing devices, which possess a fixed quantity of hardware resources available to the user, the hardware associated with the virtual computing devices can be scaled up or down depending upon the resources the user requires. 
     As indicated above, users can connect to virtualized computing devices and other cloud provider network  203  resources and services, and configure and manage telecommunications networks such as 5G networks, using various interfaces  206  (e.g., APIs) via intermediate network(s)  212 . An API refers to an interface  206  and/or communication protocol between a client device  215  and a server, such that if the client makes a request in a predefined format, the client should receive a response in a specific format or cause a defined action to be initiated. In the cloud provider network context, APIs provide a gateway for customers to access cloud infrastructure by allowing customers to obtain data from or cause actions within the cloud provider network  203 , enabling the development of applications that interact with resources and services hosted in the cloud provider network  203 . APIs can also enable different services of the cloud provider network  203  to exchange data with one another. Users can choose to deploy their virtual computing systems to provide network-based services for their own use and/or for use by their customers or clients. 
     The cloud provider network  203  can include a physical network (e.g., sheet metal boxes, cables, rack hardware) referred to as the substrate. The substrate can be considered as a network fabric containing the physical hardware that runs the services of the provider network. The substrate may be isolated from the rest of the cloud provider network  203 , for example it may not be possible to route from a substrate network address to an address in a production network that runs services of the cloud provider, or to a customer network that hosts customer resources. 
     The cloud provider network  203  can also include an overlay network of virtualized computing resources that run on the substrate. In at least some embodiments, hypervisors or other devices or processes on the network substrate may use encapsulation protocol technology to encapsulate and route network packets (e.g., client IP packets) over the network substrate between client resource instances on different hosts within the provider network. The encapsulation protocol technology may be used on the network substrate to route encapsulated packets (also referred to as network substrate packets) between endpoints on the network substrate via overlay network paths or routes. The encapsulation protocol technology may be viewed as providing a virtual network topology overlaid on the network substrate. As such, network packets can be routed along a substrate network according to constructs in the overlay network (e.g., virtual networks that may be referred to as virtual private clouds (VPCs), port/protocol firewall configurations that may be referred to as security groups). A mapping service (not shown) can coordinate the routing of these network packets. The mapping service can be a regional distributed look up service that maps the combination of overlay internet protocol (IP) and network identifier to substrate IP, so that the distributed substrate computing devices can look up where to send packets. 
     To illustrate, each physical host device (e.g., a compute server, a block store server, an object store server, a control server) can have an IP address in the substrate network. Hardware virtualization technology can enable multiple operating systems to run concurrently on a host computer, for example as virtual machines (VMs) on a compute server. A hypervisor, or virtual machine monitor (VMM), on a host allocates the host&#39;s hardware resources amongst various VMs on the host and monitors the execution of the VMs. Each VM may be provided with one or more IP addresses in an overlay network, and the VMM on a host may be aware of the IP addresses of the VMs on the host. The VMMs (and/or other devices or processes on the network substrate) may use encapsulation protocol technology to encapsulate and route network packets (e.g., client IP packets) over the network substrate between virtualized resources on different hosts within the cloud provider network  203 . The encapsulation protocol technology may be used on the network substrate to route encapsulated packets between endpoints on the network substrate via overlay network paths or routes. The encapsulation protocol technology may be viewed as providing a virtual network topology overlaid on the network substrate. The encapsulation protocol technology may include the mapping service that maintains a mapping directory that maps IP overlay addresses (e.g., IP addresses visible to customers) to substrate IP addresses (IP addresses not visible to customers), which can be accessed by various processes on the cloud provider network  203  for routing packets between endpoints. 
     As illustrated, the traffic and operations of the cloud provider network substrate may broadly be subdivided into two categories in various embodiments: control plane traffic carried over a logical control plane  218  and data plane operations carried over a logical data plane  221 . While the data plane  221  represents the movement of user data through the distributed computing system, the control plane  218  represents the movement of control signals through the distributed computing system. The control plane  218  generally includes one or more control plane components or services distributed across and implemented by one or more control servers. Control plane traffic generally includes administrative operations, such as establishing isolated virtual networks for various customers, monitoring resource usage and health, identifying a particular host or server at which a requested compute instance is to be launched, provisioning additional hardware as needed, and so on. The data plane  221  includes customer resources that are implemented on the cloud provider network  203  (e.g., computing instances, containers, block storage volumes, databases, file storage). Data plane traffic generally includes non-administrative operations such as transferring data to and from the customer resources. 
     The control plane components are typically implemented on a separate set of servers from the data plane servers, and control plane traffic and data plane traffic may be sent over separate/distinct networks. In some embodiments, control plane traffic and data plane traffic can be supported by different protocols. In some embodiments, messages (e.g., packets) sent over the cloud provider network  203  include a flag to indicate whether the traffic is control plane traffic or data plane traffic. In some embodiments, the payload of traffic may be inspected to determine its type (e.g., whether control or data plane). Other techniques for distinguishing traffic types are possible. 
     As illustrated, the data plane  221  can include one or more compute servers, which may be bare metal (e.g., single tenant) or may be virtualized by a hypervisor to run multiple VMs (sometimes referred to as “instances”) or microVMs for one or more customers. These compute servers can support a virtualized computing service (or “hardware virtualization service”) of the cloud provider network  203 . The virtualized computing service may be part of the control plane  218 , allowing customers to issue commands via an interface  206  (e.g., an API) to launch and manage compute instances (e.g., VMs, containers) for their applications. The virtualized computing service may offer virtual compute instances with varying computational and/or memory resources. In one embodiment, each of the virtual compute instances may correspond to one of several instance types. An instance type may be characterized by its hardware type, computational resources (e.g., number, type, and configuration of CPUs or CPU cores), memory resources (e.g., capacity, type, and configuration of local memory), storage resources (e.g., capacity, type, and configuration of locally accessible storage), network resources (e.g., characteristics of its network interface and/or network capabilities), and/or other suitable descriptive characteristics. Using instance type selection functionality, an instance type may be selected for a customer, e.g., based (at least in part) on input from the customer. For example, a customer may choose an instance type from a predefined set of instance types. As another example, a customer may specify the desired resources of an instance type and/or requirements of a workload that the instance will run, and the instance type selection functionality may select an instance type based on such a specification. 
     The data plane  221  can also include one or more block store servers, which can include persistent storage for storing volumes of customer data as well as software for managing these volumes. These block store servers can support a managed block storage service of the cloud provider network  203 . The managed block storage service may be part of the control plane  218 , allowing customers to issue commands via the interface  206  (e.g., an API) to create and manage volumes for their applications running on compute instances. The block store servers include one or more servers on which data is stored as blocks. A block is a sequence of bytes or bits, usually containing some whole number of records, having a maximum length of the block size. Blocked data is normally stored in a data buffer and read or written a whole block at a time. In general, a volume can correspond to a logical collection of data, such as a set of data maintained on behalf of a user. User volumes, which can be treated as an individual hard drive ranging for example from 1 GB to 1 terabyte (TB) or more in size, are made of one or more blocks stored on the block store servers. Although treated as an individual hard drive, it will be appreciated that a volume may be stored as one or more virtualized devices implemented on one or more underlying physical host devices. Volumes may be partitioned a small number of times (e.g., up to 16) with each partition hosted by a different host. The data of the volume may be replicated between multiple devices within the cloud provider network  203 , in order to provide multiple replicas of the volume (where such replicas may collectively represent the volume on the computing system). Replicas of a volume in a distributed computing system can beneficially provide for automatic failover and recovery, for example by allowing the user to access either a primary replica of a volume or a secondary replica of the volume that is synchronized to the primary replica at a block level, such that a failure of either the primary or secondary replica does not inhibit access to the information of the volume. The role of the primary replica can be to facilitate reads and writes (sometimes referred to as “input output operations,” or simply “I/O operations”) at the volume, and to propagate any writes to the secondary (preferably synchronously in the I/O path, although asynchronous replication can also be used). The secondary replica can be updated synchronously with the primary replica and provide for seamless transition during failover operations, whereby the secondary replica assumes the role of the primary replica, and either the former primary is designated as the secondary or a new replacement secondary replica is provisioned. Although certain examples herein discuss a primary replica and a secondary replica, it will be appreciated that a logical volume can include multiple secondary replicas. A compute instance can virtualize its I/O to a volume by way of a client. The client represents instructions that enable a compute instance to connect to, and perform I/O operations at, a remote data volume (e.g., a data volume stored on a physically separate computing device accessed over a network). The client may be implemented on an offload card of a server that includes the processing units (e.g., CPUs or GPUs) of the compute instance. 
     The data plane  221  can also include one or more object store servers, which represent another type of storage within the cloud provider network  203 . The object storage servers include one or more servers on which data is stored as objects within resources referred to as buckets and can be used to support a managed object storage service of the cloud provider network  203 . Each object typically includes the data being stored, a variable amount of metadata that enables various capabilities for the object storage servers with respect to analyzing a stored object, and a globally unique identifier or key that can be used to retrieve the object. Each bucket is associated with a given user account. Customers can store as many objects as desired within their buckets, can write, read, and delete objects in their buckets, and can control access to their buckets and the objects contained therein. Further, in embodiments having a number of different object storage servers distributed across different ones of the regions described above, users can choose the region (or regions) where a bucket is stored, for example to optimize for latency. Customers may use buckets to store objects of a variety of types, including machine images that can be used to launch VMs, and snapshots that represent a point-in-time view of the data of a volume. 
     A provider substrate extension  224  (“PSE”) provides resources and services of the cloud provider network  203  within a separate network, such as a telecommunications network, thereby extending functionality of the cloud provider network  203  to new locations (e.g., for reasons related to latency in communications with customer devices, legal compliance, security, etc.). In some implementations, a PSE  224  can be configured to provide capacity for cloud-based workloads to run within the telecommunications network. In some implementations, a PSE  224  can be configured to provide the core and/or RAN functions of the telecommunications network, and may be configured with additional hardware (e.g., radio access hardware). Some implementations may be configured to allow for both, for example by allowing capacity unused by core and/or RAN functions to be used for running cloud-based workloads. 
     As indicated, such provider substrate extensions  224  can include cloud provider network-managed provider substrate extensions  227  (e.g., formed by servers located in a cloud provider-managed facility separate from those associated with the cloud provider network  203 ), communications service provider substrate extensions  230  (e.g., formed by servers associated with communications service provider facilities), customer-managed provider substrate extensions  233  (e.g., formed by servers located on-premise in a customer or partner facility), among other possible types of substrate extensions. 
     As illustrated in the example provider substrate extension  224 , a provider substrate extension  224  can similarly include a logical separation between a control plane  236  and a data plane  239 , respectively extending the control plane  218  and data plane  221  of the cloud provider network  203 . The provider substrate extension  224  may be pre-configured, e.g., by the cloud provider network operator, with an appropriate combination of hardware with software and/or firmware elements to support various types of computing-related resources, and to do so in a manner that mirrors the experience of using the cloud provider network  203 . For example, one or more provider substrate extension location servers can be provisioned by the cloud provider for deployment within a provider substrate extension  224 . As described above, the cloud provider network  203  may offer a set of predefined instance types, each having varying types and quantities of underlying hardware resources. Each instance type may also be offered in various sizes. In order to enable customers to continue using the same instance types and sizes in a provider substrate extension  224  as they do in the region, the servers can be heterogeneous servers. A heterogeneous server can concurrently support multiple instance sizes of the same type and may be also reconfigured to host whatever instance types are supported by its underlying hardware resources. The reconfiguration of the heterogeneous server can occur on-the-fly using the available capacity of the servers, that is, while other VMs are still running and consuming other capacity of the provider substrate extension location servers. This can improve utilization of computing resources within the edge location by allowing for better packing of running instances on servers, and also provides a seamless experience regarding instance usage across the cloud provider network  203  and the cloud provider network-managed provider substrate extension  227 . 
     The provider substrate extension servers can host one or more compute instances. Compute instances can be VMs, or containers that package up code and all of its dependencies, so that an application can run quickly and reliably across computing environments (e.g., including VMs and microVMs). In addition, the servers may host one or more data volumes, if desired by the customer. In the region of a cloud provider network  203 , such volumes may be hosted on dedicated block store servers. However, due to the possibility of having a significantly smaller capacity at a provider substrate extension  224  than in the region, an optimal utilization experience may not be provided if the provider substrate extension  224  includes such dedicated block store servers. Accordingly, a block storage service may be virtualized in the provider substrate extension  224 , such that one of the VMs runs the block store software and stores the data of a volume. Similar to the operation of a block storage service in the region of a cloud provider network  203 , the volumes within a provider substrate extension  224  may be replicated for durability and availability. The volumes may be provisioned within their own isolated virtual network within the provider substrate extension  224 . The compute instances and any volumes collectively make up a data plane  239  extension of the provider network data plane  221  within the provider substrate extension  224 . 
     The servers within a provider substrate extension  224  may, in some implementations, host certain local control plane components, for example, components that enable the provider substrate extension  224  to continue functioning if there is a break in the connection back to the cloud provider network  203 . Examples of these components include a migration manager that can move compute instances between provider substrate extension servers if needed to maintain availability, and a key value data store that indicates where volume replicas are located. However, generally the control plane  236  functionality for a provider substrate extension  224  will remain in the cloud provider network  203  in order to allow customers to use as much resource capacity of the provider substrate extension  224  as possible. 
     The migration manager may have a centralized coordination component that runs in the region, as well as local controllers that run on the PSE servers (and servers in the cloud provider&#39;s data centers). The centralized coordination component can identify target edge locations and/or target hosts when a migration is triggered, while the local controllers can coordinate the transfer of data between the source and target hosts. The described movement of the resources between hosts in different locations may take one of several forms of migration. Migration refers to moving virtual machine instances (and/or other resources) between hosts in a cloud computing network, or between hosts outside of the cloud computing network and hosts within the cloud. There are different types of migration including live migration and reboot migration. During a reboot migration, the customer experiences an outage and an effective power cycle of their virtual machine instance. For example, a control plane service can coordinate a reboot migration workflow that involves tearing down the current domain on the original host and subsequently creating a new domain for the virtual machine instance on the new host. The instance is rebooted by being shut down on the original host and booted up again on the new host. 
     Live migration refers to the process of moving a running virtual machine or application between different physical machines without significantly disrupting the availability of the virtual machine (e.g., the down time of the virtual machine is not noticeable by the end user). When the control plane executes a live migration workflow it can create a new “inactive” domain associated with the instance, while the original domain for the instance continues to run as the “active” domain. Memory (including any in-memory state of running applications), storage, and network connectivity of the virtual machine are transferred from the original host with the active domain to the destination host with the inactive domain. The virtual machine may be briefly paused to prevent state changes while transferring memory contents to the destination host. The control plane can transition the inactive domain to become the active domain and demote the original active domain to become the inactive domain (sometimes referred to as a “flip”), after which the inactive domain can be discarded. 
     Techniques for various types of migration involve managing the critical phase—the time when the virtual machine instance is unavailable to the customer —which should be kept as short as possible. In the presently disclosed migration techniques this can be especially challenging, as resources are being moved between hosts in geographically separate locations which may be connected over one or more intermediate networks  212 . For live migration, the disclosed techniques can dynamically determine an amount of memory state data to pre-copy (e.g., while the instance is still running on the source host) and to post-copy (e.g., after the instance begins running on the destination host), based for example on latency between the locations, network bandwidth/usage patterns, and/or on which memory pages are used most frequently by the instance. Further, a particular time at which the memory state data is transferred can be dynamically determined based on conditions of the network between the locations. This analysis may be performed by a migration management component in the region, or by a migration management component running locally in the source edge location. If the instance has access to virtualized storage, both the source domain and target domain can be simultaneously attached to the storage to enable uninterrupted access to its data during the migration and in the case that rollback to the source domain is required. 
     Server software running at a provider substrate extension  224  may be designed by the cloud provider to run on the cloud provider substrate network, and this software may be enabled to run unmodified in a provider substrate extension  224  by using local network manager(s)  242  to create a private replica of the substrate network within the edge location (a “shadow substrate”). The local network manager(s)  242  can run on provider substrate extension  224  servers and bridge the shadow substrate with the provider substrate extension  224  network, for example, by acting as a virtual private network (VPN) endpoint or endpoints between the provider substrate extension  224  and the proxies  245 ,  248  in the cloud provider network  203  and by implementing the mapping service (for traffic encapsulation and decapsulation) to relate data plane traffic (from the data plane proxies  248 ) and control plane traffic (from the control plane proxies  245 ) to the appropriate server(s). By implementing a local version of the provider network&#39;s substrate-overlay mapping service, the local network manager(s)  242  allow resources in the provider substrate extension  224  to seamlessly communicate with resources in the cloud provider network  203 . In some implementations, a single local network manager  242  can perform these actions for all servers hosting compute instances in a provider substrate extension  224 . In other implementations, each of the server hosting compute instances may have a dedicated local network manager  242 . In multi-rack edge locations, inter-rack communications can go through the local network managers  242 , with local network managers  242  maintaining open tunnels to one another. 
     Provider substrate extension locations can utilize secure networking tunnels through the provider substrate extension  224  network to the cloud provider network  203 , for example, to maintain security of customer data when traversing the provider substrate extension  224  network and any other intermediate network  212  (which may include the public internet). Within the cloud provider network  203 , these tunnels are composed of virtual infrastructure components including isolated virtual networks (e.g., in the overlay network), control plane proxies  245 , data plane proxies  248 , and substrate network interfaces. Such proxies  245 ,  248  may be implemented as containers running on compute instances. In some embodiments, each server in a provider substrate extension  224  location that hosts compute instances can utilize at least two tunnels: one for control plane traffic (e.g., Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) traffic) and one for encapsulated data plane traffic. A connectivity manager (not shown) within the cloud provider network  203  manages the cloud provider network-side lifecycle of these tunnels and their components, for example, by provisioning them automatically when needed and maintaining them in a healthy operating state. In some embodiments, a direct connection between a provider substrate extension  224  location and the cloud provider network  203  can be used for control and data plane communications. As compared to a VPN through other networks, the direct connection can provide constant bandwidth and more consistent network performance because of its relatively fixed and stable network path. 
     A control plane (CP) proxy  245  can be provisioned in the cloud provider network  203  to represent particular host(s) in an edge location. CP proxies  245  are intermediaries between the control plane  218  in the cloud provider network  203  and control plane targets in the control plane  236  of provider substrate extension  224 . That is, CP proxies  245  provide infrastructure for tunneling management API traffic destined for provider substrate extension servers out of the region substrate and to the provider substrate extension  224 . For example, a virtualized computing service of the cloud provider network  203  can issue a command to a VMM of a server of a provider substrate extension  224  to launch a compute instance. A CP proxy  245  maintains a tunnel (e.g., a VPN) to a local network manager  242  of the provider substrate extension  224 . The software implemented within the CP proxies  245  ensures that only well-formed API traffic leaves from and returns to the substrate. CP proxies  245  provide a mechanism to expose remote servers on the cloud provider substrate while still protecting substrate security materials (e.g., encryption keys, security tokens) from leaving the cloud provider network  203 . The one-way control plane traffic tunnel imposed by the CP proxies  245  also prevents any (potentially compromised) devices from making calls back to the substrate. CP proxies  245  may be instantiated one-for-one with servers at a provider substrate extension  224  or may be able to manage control plane traffic for multiple servers in the same provider substrate extension  224 . 
     A data plane (DP) proxy  248  can also be provisioned in the cloud provider network  203  to represent particular server(s) in a provider substrate extension  224 . The DP proxy  248  acts as a shadow or anchor of the server(s) and can be used by services within the cloud provider network  203  to monitor the health of the host (including its availability, used/free compute and capacity, used/free storage and capacity, and network bandwidth usage/availability). The DP proxy  248  also allows isolated virtual networks to span provider substrate extensions  224  and the cloud provider network  203  by acting as a proxy for server(s) in the cloud provider network  203 . Each DP proxy  248  can be implemented as a packet-forwarding compute instance or container. As illustrated, each DP proxy  248  can maintain a VPN tunnel with a local network manager  242  that manages traffic to the server(s) that the DP proxy  248  represents. This tunnel can be used to send data plane traffic between the provider substrate extension server(s) and the cloud provider network  203 . Data plane traffic flowing between a provider substrate extension  224  and the cloud provider network  203  can be passed through DP proxies  248  associated with that provider substrate extension  224 . For data plane traffic flowing from a provider substrate extension  224  to the cloud provider network  203 , DP proxies  248  can receive encapsulated data plane traffic, validate it for correctness, and allow it to enter into the cloud provider network  203 . DP proxies  248  can forward encapsulated traffic from the cloud provider network  203  directly to a provider substrate extension  224 . 
     Local network manager(s)  242  can provide secure network connectivity with the proxies  245 ,  248  established in the cloud provider network  203 . After connectivity has been established between the local network manager(s)  242  and the proxies  245 ,  248 , customers may issue commands via the interface  206  to instantiate compute instances (and/or perform other operations using compute instances) using provider substrate extension resources in a manner analogous to the way in which such commands would be issued with respect to compute instances hosted within the cloud provider network  203 . From the perspective of the customer, the customer can now seamlessly use local resources within a provider substrate extension  224  (as well as resources located in the cloud provider network  203 , if desired). The compute instances set up on a server at a provider substrate extension  224  may communicate both with electronic devices located in the same network, as well as with other resources that are set up in the cloud provider network  203 , as desired. A local gateway  251  can be implemented to provide network connectivity between a provider substrate extension  224  and a network associated with the extension (e.g., a communications service provider network in the example of a communications service provider substrate extension  230 ). 
     There may be circumstances that necessitate the transfer of data between the object storage service and a provider substrate extension (PSE)  224 . For example, the object storage service may store machine images used to launch VMs, as well as snapshots representing point-in-time backups of volumes. The object gateway can be provided on a PSE server or a specialized storage device, and provide customers with configurable, per-bucket caching of object storage bucket contents in their PSE  224  to minimize the impact of PSE-region latency on the customer&#39;s workloads. The object gateway can also temporarily store snapshot data from snapshots of volumes in the PSE  224  and then sync with the object servers in the region when possible. The object gateway can also store machine images that the customer designates for use within the PSE  224  or on the customer&#39;s premises. In some implementations, the data within the PSE  224  may be encrypted with a unique key, and the cloud provider can limit keys from being shared from the region to the PSE  224  for security reasons. Accordingly, data exchanged between the object store servers and the object gateway may utilize encryption, decryption, and/or re-encryption in order to preserve security boundaries with respect to encryption keys or other sensitive data. The transformation intermediary can perform these operations, and a PSE bucket can be created (on the object store servers) to store snapshot data and machine image data using the PSE encryption key. 
     In the manner described above, a PSE  224  forms an edge location, in that it provides the resources and services of the cloud provider network  203  outside of a traditional cloud provider data center and closer to customer devices. An edge location, as referred to herein, can be structured in several ways. In some implementations, an edge location can be an extension of the cloud provider network substrate including a limited quantity of capacity provided outside of an availability zone (e.g., in a small data center or other facility of the cloud provider that is located close to a customer workload and that may be distant from any availability zones). Such edge locations may be referred to as “far zones” (due to being far from other availability zones) or “near zones” (due to being near to customer workloads). A near zone may be connected in various ways to a publicly accessible network such as the Internet, for example directly, via another network, or via a private connection to a region. Although typically a near zone would have more limited capacity than a region, in some cases a near zone may have substantial capacity, for example thousands of racks or more. 
     In some implementations, an edge location may be an extension of the cloud provider network substrate formed by one or more servers located on-premise in a customer or partner facility, wherein such server(s) communicate over a network (e.g., a publicly-accessible network such as the Internet) with a nearby availability zone or region of the cloud provider network  203 . This type of substrate extension located outside of cloud provider network data centers can be referred to as an “outpost” of the cloud provider network  203 . Some outposts may be integrated into communications networks, for example as a multi-access edge computing (MEC) site having physical infrastructure spread across telecommunication data centers, telecommunication aggregation sites, and/or telecommunication base stations within the telecommunication network. In the on-premise example, the limited capacity of the outpost may be available for use only by the customer who owns the premises (and any other accounts allowed by the customer). In the telecommunications example, the limited capacity of the outpost may be shared amongst a number of applications (e.g., games, virtual reality applications, healthcare applications) that send data to users of the telecommunications network. 
     An edge location can include data plane capacity controlled at least partly by a control plane of a nearby availability zone of the cloud provider network  203 . As such, an availability zone group can include a “parent” availability zone and any “child” edge locations homed to (e.g., controlled at least partly by the control plane of) the parent availability zone. Certain limited control plane functionality (e.g., features that require low latency communication with customer resources, and/or features that enable the edge location to continue functioning when disconnected from the parent availability zone) may also be present in some edge locations. Thus, in the above examples, an edge location refers to an extension of at least data plane capacity that is positioned at the edge of the cloud provider network  203 , close to customer devices and/or workloads. 
     In the example of  FIG.  1   , the distributed computing devices  112  ( FIG.  1   ), the centralized computing devices  115  ( FIG.  1   ), and the core computing devices  118  ( FIG.  1   ) may be implemented as provider substrate extensions  224  of the cloud provider network  203 . The installation or siting of provider substrate extensions  224  within a communication network  100  can vary subject to the particular network topology or architecture of the communication network  100 . Provider substrate extensions  224  can generally be connected anywhere the communication network  100  can break out packet-based traffic (e.g., IP based traffic). Additionally, communications between a given provider substrate extension  224  and the cloud provider network  203  typically securely transit at least a portion of the communication network  100  (e.g., via a secure tunnel, virtual private network, a direct connection, etc.). 
     In 5G wireless network development efforts, edge locations may be considered a possible implementation of Multi-access Edge Computing (MEC). Such edge locations can be connected to various points within a 5G network that provide a breakout for data traffic as part of the User Plane Function (UPF). Older wireless networks can incorporate edge locations as well. In 3G wireless networks, for example, edge locations can be connected to the packet-switched network portion of a communication network  100 , such as to a Serving General Packet Radio Services Support Node (SGSN) or to a Gateway General Packet Radio Services Support Node (GGSN). In 4G wireless networks, edge locations can be connected to a Serving Gateway (SGW) or Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW) as part of the core network or evolved packet core (EPC). In some embodiments, traffic between a provider substrate extension  224  and the cloud provider network  203  can be broken out of the communication network  100  without routing through the core network. 
     In some embodiments, provider substrate extensions  224  can be connected to more than one communication network associated with respective customers. For example, when two communication networks of respective customers share or route traffic through a common point, a provider substrate extension  224  can be connected to both networks. For example, each customer can assign some portion of its network address space to the provider substrate extension  224 , and the provider substrate extension  224  can include a router or gateway  251  that can distinguish traffic exchanged with each of the communication networks  100 . For example, traffic destined for the provider substrate extension  224  from one network might have a different destination IP address, source IP address, and/or virtual local area network (VLAN) tag than traffic received from another network. Traffic originating from the provider substrate extension  224  to a destination on one of the networks can be similarly encapsulated to have the appropriate VLAN tag, source IP address (e.g., from the pool allocated to the provider substrate extension  224  from the destination network address space) and destination IP address. 
       FIG.  2 B  depicts an example  253  of cellularization and geographic distribution of the communication network  100  ( FIG.  1   ) for providing highly available user plane functions (UPFs). In  FIG.  2 B , a user device  254  communicates with a request router  255  to route a request to one of a plurality of control plane cells  257   a  and  257   b . Each control plane cell  257  may include a network service API gateway  260 , a network slice configuration  262 , a function for network service monitoring  264 , site planning data  266  (including layout, device type, device quantities, etc. that describe a customer&#39;s site requirements), a network service/function catalog  268 , a network function orchestrator  270 , and/or other components. The larger control plane can be divided into cells in order to reduce the likelihood that large scale errors will affect a wide range of customers, for example by having one or more cells per customer, per network, or per region that operate independently. 
     The network service/function catalog  268  is also referred to as the NF Repository Function (NRF). In a Service Based Architecture (SBA) 5G network, the control plane functionality and common data repositories can be delivered by way of a set of interconnected network functions built using a microservices architecture. The NRF can maintain a record of available NF instances and their supported services, allowing other NF instances to subscribe and be notified of registrations from NF instances of a given type. The NRF thus can support service discovery by receipt of discovery requests from NF instances, and details which NF instances support specific services. The network function orchestrator  270  can perform NF lifecycle management including instantiation, scale-out/in, performance measurements, event correlation, and termination. The network function orchestrator  270  can also onboard new NFs, manage migration to new or updated versions of existing NFs, identify NF sets that are suitable for a particular network slice or larger network, and orchestrate NFs across different computing devices and sites that make up the radio-based network  103  ( FIG.  1   ). 
     The control plane cell  257  may be in communication with one or more cell sites  272  by way of a RAN interface  273 , one or more customer local data centers  274 , one or more local zones  276 , and one or more regional zones  278 . The RAN interface  273  may include an application programming interface (API) that facilitates provisioning or releasing capacity in a RAN operated by a third-party communication service provider at a cell site  272 . The cell sites  272  include computing hardware  280  that executes one or more distributed unit (DU) network functions  282 . The customer local data centers  274  include computing hardware  283  that execute one or more DU or central unit (CU) network functions  284 , a network controller  285 , a UPF  286 , one or more edge applications  287  corresponding to customer workloads, and/or other components. 
     The local zones  276 , which may be in a data center operated by a cloud service provider, may execute one or more core network functions  288 , such as an AMF, an SMF, a network exposure function (NEF) that securely exposes the services and capabilities of other network functions, a unified data management (UDM) function that manages subscriber data for authorization, registration, and mobility management. The local zones  276  may also execute a UPF  286 , a service for metric processing  289 , and one or more edge applications  287 . 
     The regional zones  278 , which may be in a data center operated by a cloud service provider, may execute one or more core network functions  288 ; a UPF  286 ; an operations support system (OSS)  290  that supports network management systems, service delivery, service fulfillment, service assurance, and customer care; an internet protocol multimedia subsystem (IMS)  291 ; a business support system (BSS)  292  that supports product management, customer management, revenue management, and/or order management; one or more portal applications  293 , and/or other components. 
     In this example, the communication network  100  employs a cellular architecture to reduce the blast radius of individual components. At the top level, the control plane is in multiple control plane cells  257  to prevent an individual control plane failure from impacting all deployments. 
     Within each control plane cell  257 , multiple redundant stacks can be provided with the control plane shifting traffic to secondary stacks as needed. For example, a cell site  272  may be configured to utilize a nearby local zone  276  as its default core network. In the event that the local zone  276  experiences an outage, the control plane can redirect the cell site  272  to use the backup stack in the regional zone  278 . Traffic that would normally be routed from the internet to the local zone  276  can be shifted to endpoints for the regional zones  278 . Each control plane cell  257  can implement a “stateless” architecture that shares a common session database across multiple sites (such as across availability zones or edge sites). 
       FIG.  3 A  illustrates an exemplary cloud provider network  203  including geographically dispersed provider substrate extensions  224  ( FIG.  2 A ) (or “edge locations  303 ”) according to some embodiments. As illustrated, a cloud provider network  203  can be formed as a number of regions  306 , where a region  306  is a separate geographical area in which the cloud provider has one or more data centers  309 . Each region  306  can include two or more availability zones (AZs) connected to one another via a private high-speed network such as, for example, a fiber communication connection. An availability zone refers to an isolated failure domain including one or more data center facilities with separate power, separate networking, and separate cooling relative to other availability zones. A cloud provider may strive to position availability zones within a region  306  far enough away from one another such that a natural disaster, widespread power outage, or other unexpected event does not take more than one availability zone offline at the same time. Customers can connect to resources within availability zones of the cloud provider network  203  via a publicly accessible network (e.g., the Internet, a cellular communication network, a communication service provider network). Transit Centers (TC) are the primary backbone locations linking customers to the cloud provider network  203  and may be co-located at other network provider facilities (e.g., Internet service providers, telecommunications providers). Each region  306  can operate two or more TCs for redundancy. Regions  306  are connected to a global network which includes a private networking infrastructure (e.g., fiber connections controlled by the cloud service provider) connecting each region  306  to at least one other region. The cloud provider network  203  may deliver content from points of presence (PoPs) outside of, but networked with, these regions  306  by way of edge locations  303  and regional edge cache servers. This compartmentalization and geographic distribution of computing hardware enables the cloud provider network  203  to provide low-latency resource access to customers on a global scale with a high degree of fault tolerance and stability. 
     In comparison to the number of regional data centers or availability zones, the number of edge locations  303  can be much higher. Such widespread deployment of edge locations  303  can provide low-latency connectivity to the cloud for a much larger group of end user devices (in comparison to those that happen to be very close to a regional data center). In some embodiments, each edge location  303  can be peered to some portion of the cloud provider network  203  (e.g., a parent availability zone or regional data center). Such peering allows the various components operating in the cloud provider network  203  to manage the compute resources of the edge location  303 . In some cases, multiple edge locations  303  may be sited or installed in the same facility (e.g., separate racks of computer systems) and managed by different zones or data centers  309  to provide additional redundancy. Note that although edge locations  303  are typically depicted herein as within a communication service provider network or a radio-based network  103  ( FIG.  1   ), in some cases, such as when a cloud provider network facility is relatively close to a communications service provider facility, the edge location  303  can remain within the physical premises of the cloud provider network  203  while being connected to the communications service provider network via a fiber or another network link. 
     An edge location  303  can be structured in several ways. In some implementations, an edge location  303  can be an extension of the cloud provider network substrate including a limited quantity of capacity provided outside of an availability zone (e.g., in a small data center  309  or other facility of the cloud provider that is located close to a customer workload and that may be distant from any availability zones). Such edge locations  303  may be referred to as local zones (due to being more local or proximate to a group of users than traditional availability zones). A local zone may be connected in various ways to a publicly accessible network such as the Internet, for example directly, via another network, or via a private connection to a region  306 . Although typically a local zone would have more limited capacity than a region  306 , in some cases a local zone may have substantial capacity, for example thousands of racks or more. Some local zones may use similar infrastructure as typical cloud provider data centers, instead of the edge location  303  infrastructure described herein. 
     As indicated herein, a cloud provider network  203  can be formed as a number of regions  306 , where each region  306  represents a geographical area in which the cloud provider clusters data centers  309 . Each region  306  can further include multiple (e.g., two or more) availability zones (AZs) connected to one another via a private high-speed network, for example, a fiber communication connection. An AZ may provide an isolated failure domain including one or more data center facilities with separate power, separate networking, and separate cooling from those in another AZ. Preferably, AZs within a region  306  are positioned far enough away from one another such that a same natural disaster (or other failure-inducing event) should not affect or take more than one AZ offline at the same time. Customers can connect to an AZ of the cloud provider network  203  via a publicly accessible network (e.g., the Internet, a cellular communication network). 
     The parenting of a given edge location  303  to an AZ or region  306  of the cloud provider network  203  can be based on a number of factors. One such parenting factor is data sovereignty. For example, to keep data originating from a communication network in one country within that country, the edge locations  303  deployed within that communication network can be parented to AZs or regions  306  within that country. Another factor is availability of services. For example, some edge locations  303  may have different hardware configurations such as the presence or absence of components such as local non-volatile storage for customer data (e.g., solid state drives), graphics accelerators, etc. Some AZs or regions  306  might lack the services to exploit those additional resources, thus, an edge location  303  could be parented to an AZ or region  306  that supports the use of those resources. Another factor is the latency between the AZ or region  306  and the edge location  303 . While the deployment of edge locations  303  within a communication network has latency benefits, those benefits might be negated by parenting an edge location  303  to a distant AZ or region  306  that introduces significant latency for the edge location  303  to region traffic. Accordingly, edge locations  303  are often parented to nearby (in terms of network latency) AZs or regions  306 . 
       FIG.  3 B  illustrates an example of a networked environment  200  including a virtual private cloud network  107  ( FIG.  1   ) that spans a cloud provider network  203  to include client devices  215 , such as wireless devices  106  ( FIG.  1   ) or other user equipment, that are coupled to a radio-based network  103 . The cloud provider network  203  may include one or more cloud services  320 , one or more firewalls  323 , one or more gateways  326 , one or more virtual routers  329 , and/or other components. The virtual private cloud network  107  may correspond to a software-defined network that exists on top of, or virtually within, heterogeneous physical and logical networks. Although one virtual private cloud network  107  is depicted, it is understood that one or more of the client devices  215  may be connected to a plurality of virtual private cloud networks  107 . 
     The radio-based network  103  may be connected to the cloud provider network  203  by way of a private network link  332 . The private network link  332  may be a dedicated network link, such as a fiber-optic link, a microwave link, a T-carrier link, or another type of data link. The private network link  332  may be separate from the public Internet so as to provide a higher quality-of-service, such as a target latency characteristic, a target bandwidth characteristic, and so on. The private network link  332  may be terminated in the radio access network portion of the radio-based network  103  and/or the core network portion of the radio-based network  103 . In some cases, some or all of the core network functions of the radio-based network  103  are executed in the cloud provider network  203 . The use of the private network link  332  may provide improved quality-of-service (e.g., improved latency) for connectivity to the virtual private cloud network  107  as compared with the client device  215  connecting to the virtual private cloud network  107  over the public Internet. 
     The virtual private cloud network  107  may support access controls and security management that can apply across the entire virtual private cloud network  107  (e.g., ACLs, or stateless firewall rules that apply across an entire subnetwork) and within subsets of the virtual private cloud network  107  (e.g., security groups, or stateful firewall rules that apply to machine instances or network interfaces). The virtual private cloud network  107  may be operated by the cloud provider for a customer, such as an enterprise, an educational institution, a government, or another organization. The virtual private cloud network  107  may include one or more private network links to one or more on-premise networks separate from the cloud provider network  203  and operated by the customer, such that devices on those on-premise networks are also connected to the virtual private cloud network  107 . 
     The cloud services  320  may be configured to enable a wide variety of functionality. In various embodiments, the individual cloud services  320  may provide a service that allows customers to dynamically launch and manage physical or virtual computing resources, such as machine instances, an eventually consistent data storage service where data is stored in respective buckets, a database service that supports key-value and document data structures, a distributed message queuing service, a workflow management service, and/or other services. Each of the cloud services  320  may be associated with a corresponding application programming interface (API) that supports a set of calls, or operations, that the respective cloud service  320  can perform. Making a call to an API may invoke a sequence of many different services or agents to perform operations and process data. 
     The firewall  323  may be configured within a rule set to configure what type of network traffic can be sent within the virtual private cloud network  107 . The firewall  323  may support a variety of functions, such as logging, intrusion detection, denial-of-service protection, malware filtering, and so on. The gateway  326  may selectively forward network traffic to enable the virtual private cloud network  107  to communicate with external networks such as the Internet, other virtual private cloud networks, or other resources in the cloud provider network  203  that are not within the virtual private cloud network  107 . In some implementations, the gateway  326  may perform network address translation (NAT) to provide publicly routable network addresses to devices having private network addresses on the virtual private cloud network  107 . Although the firewall  323  and the gateway  326  are shown in  FIG.  3 B  as being situated in the cloud provider network  203 , the firewall  323  and/or the gateway  326  may be implemented at an edge location  303  ( FIG.  3 A ) by way of a provider substrate extension  224  ( FIG.  2 A ) in other examples. 
     In some embodiments, the client device  215  may be executing mobile device management software with a management agent. Such mobile device management software may require that the client device  215  connect only through the virtual private cloud network  107  and not though other networks to prevent data exfiltration. Alternatively, the mobile device management software may require that the sensitive applications only communicate through the virtual private cloud network  107 . 
     A given virtual router  329  includes a collection of nodes of a multi-layer packet processing service, including fast-path nodes that are configured to quickly execute locally-cached routing or forwarding actions, and exception-path nodes which determine the actions to be taken for different packet flows based on client-specified policies and connectivity requirements for the isolated networks. In scenarios in which dynamic routing is implemented for the application data traffic between pairs of isolated networks using routing information exchange protocols (e.g., protocols similar to the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)), the processing of messages containing the dynamic routing information can be offloaded from the virtual router nodes to protocol processing engines running at other devices, thereby enabling the virtual router nodes to remain dedicated to their primary tasks of rule-based packet forwarding. 
     Virtual routers  329  implemented in different geographical regions (e.g., using resources located at data centers in different states, countries or continents) can be programmatically attached (or “peered”) to one another and configured to obtain and automatically exchange dynamic routing information pertaining to isolated networks in the different regions using protocols similar to BGP, eliminating the need for clients to painstakingly configure static routes for traffic flowing between the isolated networks. Clients can specify various parameters and settings (such as the specific protocol versions to be used, rules for filtering routing information to be advertised to or from a virtual router  329 , etc.) to control the manner in which routing information is transferred between the virtual routers  329 . A wide-area networking (WAN) service can be implemented at the provider network using programmatically attached virtual routers with dynamic routing enabled, allowing clients to utilize the provider network&#39;s private fiber backbone links (already being used for traffic between data centers of the provider network on behalf of users of various other services) for traffic between client premises and cellular network slices distributed around the world, and manage their long-distance traffic using easy-to-use tools with visualization interfaces. A virtual router  329  may provide connectivity between different network slices of one or more radio-based networks  103  corresponding to different subnets of a virtual private cloud network  107 . 
     In some embodiments, the radio-based network  103  includes a VPC gateway  335 , which may act as a proxy to perform encapsulation/decapsulation and tunneling functions on behalf of the client device  215  so that the client device  215  can communicate with the virtual private cloud network  107 . The VPC gateway  335  may identify particular network traffic from the client device  215  to be forwarded to the virtual private cloud network  107  based at least in part on a rule set. For example, IoT telemetry traffic may be characterized by a certain tag or port, and this traffic may be specified in the rule set to be forwarded to a particular virtual private cloud network  107  having a corresponding telemetry service. 
     The VPC gateway  335  may perform network address translation between network addresses of virtual machine instances on the virtual private cloud network  107  and network addresses of computing devices upon which the virtual machine instances are executed in the cloud provider network  203 . The VPC gateway  335  may also perform network address translation between network addresses of the client devices  215  on the virtual private cloud network  107  and network addresses of the same client devices  215  on the radio-based network  103 . The VPC gateway  335  may also perform encryption and decryption functions using Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) and/or other protocols. In some cases, the VPC gateway  335  is used due to a resource constraint (e.g., processor, memory) on one or more of the client devices  215 . In one embodiment, the VPC gateway  335  is implemented in a customized user plane function in the core network of the radio-based network  103 . 
     The client device  215  may include a VPC application  338  and an operating system  341 . The VPC application  338  may perform the functionality described in connection with the VPC gateway  335 , but within an application of the client device  215 . For example, such functionality may include encapsulation/decapsulation, encryption/decryption, tunneling, and network address translation between the virtual private cloud network  107  and the radio-based network  103  or the cloud provider network  203 . To this end, the VPC application  338  may receive network address translation information from the virtual private cloud network  107 . Thus, when an application sends a data packet to a virtual machine instance on the virtual private cloud network  107 , the VPC application  338  may encapsulate the data packet with a destination network address corresponding to a computing device in the cloud provider network  203  upon which the virtual machine instance is executed. In some embodiments, the functionality of the VPC application  338  may be integrated into an operating system  341  of the client device  215 . 
     With reference to  FIG.  4   , shown is a networked environment  400  according to various embodiments. The networked environment  400  includes a computing environment  403 , one or more client devices  406 , one or more radio access networks (RANs)  409 , a spectrum reservation service  410 , and one or more radio-based networks  103 , which are in data communication with each other via a network  412 . The network  412  includes, for example, the Internet, intranets, extranets, wide area networks (WANs), local area networks (LANs), wired networks, wireless networks, cable networks, satellite networks, or other suitable networks, etc., or any combination of two or more such networks. The RANs  409  may be operated by a plurality of different communication service providers. In some cases, one or more of the RANs  409  may be operated by a cloud provider network  203  ( FIG.  2 A ) or a customer of the cloud provider network  203 . 
     The computing environment  403  may comprise, for example, a server computer or any other system providing computing capacity. Alternatively, the computing environment  403  may employ a plurality of computing devices that may be arranged, for example, in one or more server banks or computer banks or other arrangements. Such computing devices may be located in a single installation or may be distributed among many different geographical locations. For example, the computing environment  403  may include a plurality of computing devices that together may comprise a hosted computing resource, a grid computing resource, and/or any other distributed computing arrangement. In some cases, the computing environment  403  may correspond to an elastic computing resource where the allotted capacity of processing, network, storage, or other computing-related resources may vary over time. For example, the computing environment  403  may correspond to a cloud provider network  203 , where customers are billed according to their computing resource usage based on a utility computing model. 
     In some embodiments, the computing environment  403  may correspond to a virtualized private network within a physical network comprising virtual machine instances executed on physical computing hardware, e.g., by way of a hypervisor. The virtual machine instances and any containers running on these instances may be given network connectivity by way of virtualized network components enabled by physical network components, such as routers and switches. 
     Various applications and/or other functionality may be executed in the computing environment  403  according to various embodiments. Also, various data is stored in a data store  415  that is accessible to the computing environment  403 . The data store  415  may be representative of a plurality of data stores  415  as can be appreciated. The data stored in the data store  415 , for example, is associated with the operation of the various applications and/or functional entities described below. 
     The computing environment  403  as part of a cloud provider network offering utility computing services includes computing devices  418  and other types of computing devices. The computing devices  418  may correspond to different types of computing devices  418  and may have different computing architectures. The computing architectures may differ by utilizing processors having different architectures, such as x86, x86_64, ARM, Scalable Processor Architecture (SPARC), PowerPC, and so on. For example, some computing devices  418  may have x86 processors, while other computing devices  418  may have ARM processors. The computing devices  418  may differ also in hardware resources available, such as local storage, graphics processing units (GPUs), machine learning extensions, and other characteristics. 
     The computing devices  418  may have various forms of allocated computing capacity  421 , which may include virtual machine (VM) instances, containers, serverless functions, and so forth. The VM instances may be instantiated from a VM image. To this end, customers may specify that a virtual machine instance should be launched in a particular type of computing device  418  as opposed to other types of computing devices  418 . In various examples, one VM instance may be executed singularly on a particular computing device  418 , or a plurality of VM instances may be executed on a particular computing device  418 . Also, a particular computing device  418  may execute different types of VM instances, which may offer different quantities of resources available via the computing device  418 . For example, some types of VM instances may offer more memory and processing capability than other types of VM instances. 
     The components executed on the computing environment  403 , for example, include a virtual private cloud (VPC) management service  424 , one or more network services  427 , and other applications, services, processes, systems, engines, or functionality not discussed in detail herein. The VPC management service  424  is executed to configure and manage the operation of one or more virtual private cloud networks  107  ( FIG.  1   ) implemented by the networked environment  400 . To this end, the VPC management service  424  may generate a sequence of user interfaces or may support an application programming interface (API) that enables a virtual private cloud network  107  to be initially created and then modified. The VPC management service  424  may enable configuration of access control lists, security groupings, network slices, encryption, decryption, network address assignment and routing, elastic network interfaces, gateways, firewalls, and/or other components of a virtual private cloud network  107 . 
     The network services  427  include a variety of services supporting the virtual private cloud networks  107  and the underlying physical and logical networks. To this end, the network services  427  may perform routing, bridging, translation, firewalling, tunneling, encrypting, decrypting, logging, and/or other functions to support the flow of network traffic across the networked environment  400 . 
     The data stored in the data store  415  includes, for example, one or more network plans  439 , one or more cellular topologies  442 , one or more spectrum assignments  445 , device data  448 , one or more RBN metrics  451 , customer billing data  454 , radio unit configuration data  457 , antenna configuration data  460 , network function configuration data  463 , one or more network function workloads  466 , one or more customer workloads  469 , one or more network slices  470 , one or more quality-of-service (QoS) requirements  471 , one or more address configurations  472 , one or more access control lists  473 , one or more encryption configurations  474 , one or more firewall rulesets  475 , network address translation data  476 , one or more security groups  477 , and potentially other data. 
     The network plan  439  is a specification of a radio-based network  103  to be deployed for a customer. For example, a network plan  439  may include premises locations or geographic areas to be covered, a number of cells, device identification information and permissions, a desired maximum network latency, a desired bandwidth or network throughput for one or more classes of devices, one or more quality of service parameters for applications or services, one or more routes to be covered by the RBN  103 , a schedule of coverage for the RBN  103  or for portions of the RBN  103 , a periodic schedule of coverage for the RBN  103  or for portions of the RBN  103 , a start time for the RBN  103  or for portions of the RBN  103 , an end time for the RBN  103  or for portions of the RBN  103 , which virtual private cloud networks  107  are to be supported at various locations in the RBN  103 , and/or other parameters that can be used to create a radio-based network  103 . A customer may manually specify one or more of these parameters via a user interface. One or more of the parameters may be prepopulated as default parameters. In some cases, a network plan  439  may be generated for a customer based at least in part on automated site surveys using unmanned aerial vehicles. Values of the parameters that define the network plan  439  may be used as a basis for a cloud service provider billing the customer under a utility computing model. For example, the customer may be billed a higher amount for lower latency targets and/or higher bandwidth targets in a service-level agreement (SLA), and the customer can be charged on a per-device basis, a per-cell basis, based on a geographic area served, based on spectrum availability, etc. In some cases, the network plan  439  may incorporate thresholds and reference parameters determined at least in part on an automated probe of an existing private network of a customer. 
     The cellular topology  442  includes an arrangement of a plurality of cells for a customer that takes into account reuse of frequency spectrum where possible given the location of the cells. The cellular topology  442  may be automatically generated given a site survey. In some cases, the number of cells in the cellular topology  442  may be automatically determined based on a desired geographic area to be covered, availability of backhaul connectivity at various sites, signal propagation, available frequency spectrum, and/or on other parameters. For radio-based networks  103 , the cellular topology  442  may be developed to cover one or more buildings in an organizational campus, one or more schools in a school district, one or more buildings in a university or university system, and other areas. 
     The spectrum assignments  445  include frequency spectrum that is available to be allocated for radio-based networks  103 , as well as frequency spectrum that is currently allocated to radio-based networks  103 . The frequency spectrum may include spectrum that is publicly accessible without restriction, spectrum that is individually owned or leased by customers, spectrum that is owned or leased by the provider, spectrum that is free to use but requires reservation, and so on. 
     The device data  448  corresponds to data describing wireless devices  106  that are permitted to connect to the radio-based network  103 . This device data  448  includes corresponding users, account information, billing information, data plans, permitted applications or uses, an indication of whether the wireless device  106  is mobile or fixed, a location, a current cell, a network address, device identifiers (e.g., International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number, Equipment Serial Number (ESN), Media Access Control (MAC) address, Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) number, etc.), and so on. In one implementation, the SIM may be used to map client devices  215  ( FIG.  3 B ) to particular virtual private cloud networks  107 . Individual wireless devices  106  may use an embedded SIM (eSIM) instead of or in addition to a physical, removable SIM. Also, in some cases, a wireless device  106  may have multiple SIMs and/or multiple eSIMs, which may in turn each be associated with respective ones of multiple virtual private cloud networks  107 . 
     The RBN metrics  451  include various metrics or statistics that indicate the performance or health of the radio-based network  103 . Such RBN metrics  451  may include bandwidth metrics, dropped packet metrics, signal strength metrics, latency metrics, and so on. The RBN metrics  451  may be aggregated on a per-device basis, a per-cell basis, a per-customer basis, etc. 
     The customer billing data  454  specifies charges that the customer is to incur for the operation of the radio-based network  103  for the customer by the provider. The charges may include fixed costs based upon equipment deployed to the customer and/or usage costs based upon utilization as determined by usage metrics that are tracked. In some cases, the customer may purchase the equipment up-front and may be charged only for bandwidth or backend network costs. In other cases, the customer may incur no up-front costs and may be charged purely based on utilization. With the equipment being provided to the customer based on a utility computing model, the cloud service provider may choose an optimal configuration of equipment in order to meet customer target performance metrics while avoiding overprovisioning of unnecessary hardware. 
     The radio unit configuration data  457  may correspond to configuration settings for radio units deployed in radio-based networks  103 . Such settings may include frequencies to be used, protocols to be used, modulation parameters, bandwidth, network routing and/or backhaul configuration, and so on. 
     The antenna configuration data  460  may correspond to configuration settings for antennas, to include frequencies to be used, azimuth, vertical or horizontal orientation, beam tilt, and/or other parameters that may be controlled automatically (e.g., by network-connected motors and controls on the antennas) or manually by directing a user to mount the antenna in a certain way or make a physical change to the antenna. 
     The network function configuration data  463  corresponds to configuration settings that configure the operation of various network functions for the radio-based network  103 . In various embodiments, the network functions may be deployed in VM instances or containers located in computing devices  418  that are at cell sites, at customer aggregation sites, or in data centers remotely located from the customer. Non-limiting examples of network functions may include an access and mobility management function, a session management function, a user plane function, a policy control function, an authentication server function, a unified data management function, an application function, a network exposure function, a network function repository, a network slice selection function, and/or others. The network function workloads  466  correspond to machine images, containers, or functions to be launched in the allocated computing capacity  421  to perform one or more of the network functions. 
     The customer workloads  469  correspond to machine images, containers, or functions of the customer that may be executed alongside or in place of the network function workloads  466  in the allocated computing capacity  421 . For example, the customer workloads  469  may provide or support a customer application or service. In various examples, the customer workloads  469  relate to factory automation, autonomous robotics, augmented reality, virtual reality, design, surveillance, and so on. 
     The network slices  470  correspond to flows of network traffic that have been designated for one or more specific quality-of-service requirements  471 . The flows may correspond to flows associated with a specific application executed on a specific client device  406 , all network traffic from a specific client device  406 , flows to a specific destination from all client devices  406 , flows to a specific destination from a specific client device  406 , flows associated with a virtual private cloud network  107 , flows associated with a subnet within a virtual private cloud network  107 , and so forth. In one example, a network slice  470  is identified by a source port, a source network address, a destination port, a destination network address, and/or other information. A network slice  470  may be valid for a specific period of time or for a specific quantity of data, or the network slice  470  may be valid until cancelled or released. In one example, a network slice  470  is allocated on-demand for a specific application executed on a client device  406 . In some scenarios, a network slice  470  has specific recurring time periods of validity (e.g., every weeknight from midnight to 5 a.m.), or the quality-of-service requirement  471  for a network slice  470  may change based upon recurring time periods, current cost level, and/or other factors or events. 
     In addition, the network slices  470  may be associated with different security properties to provide differentiated management for potentially multiple network slices  470  associated with a single virtual private cloud network  107 . For example, a first network slice  470  may correspond to administrative servers having greater access, while a second network slice  470  may correspond to client devices  215  ( FIG.  3 B ) of end users having more limited access. 
     The quality-of-service requirement  471  may correspond to a minimum or maximum bandwidth, a minimum or maximum latency, a minimum or maximum reliability measure, a minimum or maximum signal strength, and so on. The quality-of-service requirement  471  may be associated with a corresponding level of cost, which may include a fixed component, a usage-based component, and/or a congestion-based component. For example, a quality-of-service requirement  471  may be associated with a recurring monthly fixed cost, a per-session or per-megabyte cost, and/or a dynamic cost based upon congestion at a cell site or a particular network link. In some cases, customers may select a quality-of-service requirement  471  that provides a high level of service. In other cases, however, customers may select a quality-of-service requirement  471  that provides a low level of cost but lowers the quality-of-service during certain times or in certain aspects. For example, a customer may choose a quality-of-service requirement  471  that allows for high throughput overnight and otherwise lower priority throughput in order to send backup data over the network at a low cost. 
     The address configuration  472  configures the assignment of network addresses to individual client devices  215  for a virtual private cloud network  107 . Such network addresses may include IPv4 addresses, IPv6 addresses, and/or other types of addresses. For example, a virtual private cloud network  107  may have a private network address space with multiple subnets, and different subnets may be associated with different access control lists  473 , security groups, network slices  470 , QoS requirements  471 , and so on. The address configuration  472  provides how particular devices identified in the device data  448  (e.g., by SIM) are to be assigned network addresses and from which network address blocks. In some cases, the address configuration  472  may indicate that publicly routable network addresses are assigned. 
     The network access control lists  473  (ACLs) correspond to a type of access control that may operate at the subnet level in a virtual private cloud network  107 , support allow rules and deny rules, and automatically apply to all instances in any subnet with which it is associated. Network ACLs  473  may not be stateful, in that return traffic must be explicitly allowed by the rules. 
     The encryption configuration  474  may define encryption and decryption to be used within the virtual private cloud network  107 . In some cases, the encryption configuration  474  may define that a combination of point-to-point encryption and end-to-end encryption will be used. End-to-end encryption may be implemented by services executed on each network host in the virtual private cloud network  107  (e.g., the VPC application  338  ( FIG.  3 B )), or the initial gateways  326  ( FIG.  3 B ) with which each host is in communication. Point-to-point encryption may be implemented for different links within the network, such as, for example, private links to on-premise networks of the customer, or links to and from a radio-based network  103  like the private network link  332  ( FIG.  3 B ). 
     The firewall rulesets  475  may define various rules used by firewalls  323  ( FIG.  3 B ) in the virtual private cloud network  107 . These rules may configure when network traffic is to be dropped, which network traffic is to be logged, denial-of-service protection, malware protection, and/or other types of firewall rules. 
     The network address translation data  476  provides information that maps network addresses on a virtual private cloud network  107  (e.g., of client device  215  or virtual machine instances) to network addresses of computing devices on the radio-based network  103  or the cloud provider network  203 . 
     The security groups  477  may define specify access controls on a per-instance, per-application or per-port basis. The security groups  477  may refer to different subsets of devices within the virtual private cloud network  107 , that are subject to management actions by the VPC management service  424  that may affect all members of the group. In one embodiment, a security group  477  acts as a virtual firewall for a virtual machine instance to control inbound and outbound traffic. Customers can define security groups  477  as policies that can be applied to specific instances. When a customer launches an instance in a virtual private cloud network  107 , they can assign one or more security groups  477  to the instance. Security groups  477  may act at the instance level instead of the subnet level as with network ACLs  473 . Therefore, each instance in a subnet can be assigned to a different set of security groups  477 . For each security group  477 , the customer can add rules that control the inbound traffic to instances, and a separate set of rules that control the outbound traffic. Security groups  477  can be stateful, in that return traffic is automatically allowed. 
     The client device  406  is representative of a plurality of client devices  406  that may be coupled to the network  412 . The client device  406  may comprise, for example, a processor-based system such as a computer system. Such a computer system may be embodied in the form of a desktop computer, a laptop computer, personal digital assistants, cellular telephones, smartphones, set-top boxes, music players, web pads, tablet computer systems, game consoles, electronic book readers, smartwatches, head mounted displays, voice interface devices, or other devices. The client device  406  may include a display comprising, for example, one or more devices such as liquid crystal display (LCD) displays, gas plasma-based flat panel displays, organic light emitting diode (OLED) displays, electrophoretic ink (E ink) displays, LCD projectors, or other types of display devices, etc. 
     The client device  406  may be configured to execute various applications such as a client application  436  and/or other applications. The client application  436  may be executed in a client device  406 , for example, to access network content served up by the computing environment  403  and/or other servers, thereby rendering a user interface on the display. To this end, the client application  436  may comprise, for example, a browser, a dedicated application, etc., and the user interface may comprise a network page, an application screen, etc. The client device  406  may be configured to execute applications beyond the client application  436  such as, for example, email applications, social networking applications, word processors, spreadsheets, and/or other applications. 
     In some embodiments, the spectrum reservation service  410  provides reservations of frequency spectrum for customers&#39; use in RANs  409 . In one scenario, the spectrum reservation service  410  is operated by an entity, such as a third party, to manage reservations and coexistence in publicly accessible spectrum. One example of such spectrum may be the Citizens Broadband Radio Service (CBRS). In another scenario, the spectrum reservation service  410  is operated by a telecommunications service provider in order to sell or sublicense portions of spectrum owned or licensed by the provider. 
     Referring next to  FIG.  5   , shown is a flowchart  500  that provides one example of the operation of a portion of the virtual private cloud network  107  ( FIG.  1   ) extended to a radio-based network  103  ( FIG.  1   ) according to various embodiments. It is understood that the flowchart  500  provides merely an example of the many different types of functional arrangements that may be employed to implement the operation of the portion of the virtual private cloud network  107  as described herein. As an alternative, the flowchart  500  may be viewed as depicting an example of elements of a method implemented in the computing environment  403  ( FIG.  4   ) according to one or more embodiments. 
     Beginning with box  501 , the VPC management service  424  ( FIG.  4   ) creates a subnet of a virtual private cloud network  107  of a radio-based network  103 . For example, the VPC management service  424  may create the subnet in response to receiving, at a cloud provider network  203  ( FIG.  2 A ), an API request to create the subnet from a customer account associated with the virtual private cloud network  107 . In some cases, the subnet may be created in a network slice  470  ( FIG.  4   ). The network slice  470  may be associated with one or more QoS requirements  471  ( FIG.  4   ) and other parameters that reserve capacity in the radio-based network  103  for the network slice  470 . Capacity may include bandwidth, network function processing capability (e.g., resources of a user plane function (UPF) or another network function), resources to provide lower latency, and so forth. 
     In box  502 , the VPC management service  424  registers one or more subscriber identity modules (SIMs) or embedded SIMs (eSIMs) associated with client devices  215  ( FIG.  3 B ) that should be permitted access to the virtual private cloud network  107  via the radio-based network  103 . Identifiers associated with the SIMs or eSIMs may be recorded in the device data  448  ( FIG.  4   ) and/or the security groups  477  ( FIG.  4   ). For example, the VPC management service  424  may register the SIM or eSIM in the network slice  470  and/or the virtual private cloud network  107  in response to receiving an API request to register the SIM or eSIM in one or both of the network slice  470  and/or the virtual private cloud network  107 . The API request may be received from a customer account associated with the virtual private cloud network  107  or the network slice  470 . 
     In box  503 , a request is received from a client device  215  for service from the radio-based network  103 . For example, the client device  215  may be a wireless device  106  ( FIG.  1   ) that is turned on and begins negotiating for network connectivity from a radio access network  409  ( FIG.  4   ) of the radio-based network  103 . The client device  215  may communicate with a radio unit at a cell site of the radio access network  409 . 
     In box  506 , the radio-based network  103  identifies the client device  215 . For example, the radio-based network  103  may determine an identifier presented by the client device  215  from a SIM or eSIM. In some cases, the client device  215  may have multiple SIMs or eSIMs. Other identifiers may include an International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number, Equipment Serial Number (ESN), Media Access Control (MAC) address, and/or other identifiers. 
     In box  507 , the VPC management service  424  or a service in the core network of the radio-based network  103  determines a virtual private cloud network  107  to which the client device  215  is permitted access. In some cases, multiple virtual private cloud networks  107  may be accessible through the radio-based network  103 . In one scenario, the radio-based network  103  is a private network operated by an organization that has a single virtual private cloud network  107 . In some cases, the client device  215  may be permitted access to multiple virtual private cloud networks  107 . The VPC management service  424  may determine whether the client device  215  has access based on a comparison of the identifier (e.g., from the SIM) to identifiers enumerated in the security groups  477 . For example, specific SIMs or eSIMs of potentially multiple SIMs or eSIMs in a client device  215  may grant access to separate virtual private cloud networks  107 . Also, while the client device  215  may be permitted access to a virtual private cloud network  107 , the virtual private cloud network  107  may be enabled or disabled on a per-cell-site basis in the radio-based network  103 . 
     In box  509 , the radio-based network  103  assigns a network address such as an internet protocol (IP) address to the client device  215  according to a rule set based at least in part on the virtual private cloud network  107 . While any client device  215  connecting to a radio-based network  103  may be assigned a network address, the network address assigned in this case is chosen based at least in part on the address configuration  472  ( FIG.  4   ), which is associated with the virtual private cloud network  107 . That is to say, other hosts on the virtual private cloud network  107  may be given network addresses within the same address block, potentially if they are not connected to the radio-based network  103  and connected to the cloud provider network  203  ( FIG.  2 A ). In some cases, different groups of client devices  215  may be assigned to different subnets within the virtual private cloud network  107 , which can then allow for differentiated treatment for access control and/or network slices  470  ( FIG.  4   ) with QoS requirements  471  ( FIG.  4   ). 
     In box  512 , the VPC management service  424  configures encryption for the network traffic to and/or from the client device  215  within the virtual private cloud network  107  according to the encryption configuration  474  ( FIG.  4   ). This may include end-to-end encryption and/or point-to-point encryption. For example, network hosts on the virtual private cloud network  107  may be configured to execute an agent or service to perform end-to-end encryption and tunneling. In addition, gateways within the radio-based network  103  and the virtual private cloud network  107  may be configured to perform point-to-point encryption and tunneling. In some cases, the encryption may employ a security key generated from or stored on the SIM of the client device  215 . 
     In box  513 , the VPC management service  424  configures a network slice  470  for the client device  215  according to a rule set, or assigns the client device  215  according to a rule set to an existing network slice  470  in the radio-based network  103  which may have one or more QoS requirements  471  relating to latency, bandwidth, etc. For example, a radio-based network  103  may be deployed in a robotic factory, where a first set of robots operate during the day to perform manufacturing tasks, and a second set of robots operate at night to perform clean-up tasks. The first set of robots may be assigned a different subnet of network address and a different network slice  470  than the second set of robots. Further, the QoS requirements  471  may change according to a time schedule, for example, such that the network capacity is primarily made available to the second set of robots at night. The network slice  470  may reserve bandwidth within the radio access network  409  as well as processing capacity in the core network, which may result in network function workloads  466  being transferred from the cloud provider network  203  to the cell sites or other edge locations  303  ( FIG.  3 A ) of a provider substrate extension  224  ( FIG.  2 A ) in order to meet the QoS requirements  471  to reduce latency. 
     In box  515 , the VPC management service  424  provides the client device  215  with access to the virtual private cloud network  107  through the radio-based network  103 . It is noted that this may differ from manually connecting the client device  215  to a virtual private cloud network  107  via a virtual private network (VPN) tunnel or a private link, in that the client device  215  simply connects to the radio-based network  103 —as connecting with 4G or 5G networks—and the client device  215  is automatically connected to the virtual private cloud network  107 . For example, additional authentication with credentials, such as a username and password, may be avoided in some implementations. Also, the network address given to the client device  215  is within the address block of the virtual private cloud network  107  and is not a public address or within other subnets of the radio-based network  103 . 
     In box  518 , the radio-based network  103  and the network services  427  route or forward network traffic between one or more cloud services  320  ( FIG.  3 B ) and the client device  215  over the virtual private cloud network  107 , potentially using one or more firewalls  323  ( FIG.  3 B ) and one or more gateways  326  ( FIG.  3 B ) that can enforce security groups  477  ( FIG.  4   ) or network ACLs  473  ( FIG.  4   ). The security groups  477  or network ACLs  473  may also control access to one or more resources hosted in a provider substrate extension  224  of the cloud provider network  203  in the radio-based network  103 . The network traffic may be subject to a network slice  470  provisioned for the client device  215  and to which one or more QoS requirements  471  apply. The network traffic may transit a private network link  332  ( FIG.  3 B ) between the client device  215  and the cloud provider network  203  rather than the public Internet, thereby improving latency. 
     The firewalls  323  may enforce rules defined in the firewall rulesets  475  ( FIG.  4   ) to filter packets, transcode data, drop or block connections, log traffic, and so on. In some scenarios, the cloud services  320 , gateways  326 , and firewalls  323  may be deployed on provider substrate extensions  224  in the radio-based network  103  (such as at cell sites, customer sites, or other intermediate locations), in order to meet quality-of-service requirements  471 . In such cases, the network traffic may stay entirely within the radio-based network  103  or edge locations/local zones within the radio-based network  103  and not cross into regional data centers. In some scenarios, the radio-based network  103  may enable communication between the client device  215  and other client devices  215  connected to the radio-based network  103  that are on the virtual private cloud network  107 . In other scenarios, the client devices  215  communicate with cloud services  320  that are on the cloud provider network  203  and the virtual private cloud network  107 , but not the radio-based network  103 . In one example, a virtual router  329  ( FIG.  3 B ) may be used to connect a first network slice  470  with a second network slice  470 , where the first and second network slices  470  are associated with different subnets of the virtual private cloud network  107 . Thereafter, the flowchart  500  ends. 
     Moving on to  FIG.  6   , shown is a flowchart that provides one example of the operation of a portion of a VPC gateway  335  ( FIG.  3 B ) in a radio-based network  103  ( FIG.  1   ) according to various embodiments. It is understood that the flowchart of  FIG.  6    provides merely an example of the many different types of functional arrangements that may be employed to implement the operation of the portion of the VPC gateway  335  as described herein. As an alternative, the flowchart of  FIG.  6    may be viewed as depicting an example of elements of a method implemented in the computing environment  403  ( FIG.  4   ) according to one or more embodiments. 
     Beginning with box  603 , the radio-based network  103  receives a request for service from the radio-based network  103  from a client device  215  ( FIG.  3 B ). The client device  215  may be identified by data from a subscriber identity module (SIM) or an embedded SIM. In box  606 , the VPC gateway  335  provides the client device  215  with access to a virtual private cloud network  107  ( FIG.  3 B ). For example, the VPC gateway  335  may authenticate the client device  215  based at least in part on the SIM or eSIM, or the client device  215  may provide a certificate, key, password, or other security credential for authentication. The VPC gateway  335  may assign a network address on the virtual private cloud network  107  to the client device  215  from a pool of network addresses corresponding to the virtual private cloud network  107 . 
     In box  609 , the VPC gateway  335  receives network traffic from the client device  215  with a destination on the virtual private cloud network  107 . For example, the destination network address may correspond to a virtual machine instance of a cloud service  320  ( FIG.  3 B ). In box  610 , the VPC gateway  335  may apply one or more VPC security group  477  ( FIG.  4   ) rules or network ACLs  473  ( FIG.  4   ) obtained via a VPC control plane to determine whether the network traffic is permitted to be forwarded to its destination. For example, network traffic from the client device  215  may be not allowed to be forwarded to the destination based upon a role or user associated with the client device  215  within an organization operating the virtual private cloud network  107 . 
     In box  612 , the VPC gateway  335  encapsulates the network traffic. For example, the VPC gateway  335  may add one or more headers to the data packets in the network traffic. Also, the VPC gateway  335  may translate the destination network address to a destination network address of a computing device  418  ( FIG.  4   ) on the cloud provider network  203  ( FIG.  3 B ) that hosts the virtual machine instance. The VPC gateway  335  may refer to the network address translation data  476  ( FIG.  4   ) to make the translation. The VPC gateway  335  may also translate a source network address of the client device  215  on the virtual private cloud network  107  into a source network address on the radio-based network  103 . The VPC gateway  335  may also encrypt the network traffic. 
     In box  615 , the VPC gateway  335  forwards the encapsulated network traffic via a network link  332  ( FIG.  3 B ) from the radio-based network  103  to the cloud provider network  203 . The VPC gateway  335  may maintain a VPC routing table populated via a control plane of the virtual private cloud network  107  in order to make the forwarding decision. In box  618 , the VPC gateway  335  receives encapsulated network traffic via the network link  332  from the cloud provider network  203 . The encapsulated network traffic is sent by one or more hosts on the virtual private cloud network  107 . 
     In box  621 , the VPC gateway  335  decapsulates the network traffic, which may include translating a source network address on the cloud provider network  203  (e.g., of a computing device) into a source network address on the virtual private cloud network  107  and translating a destination network address of the client device  215  on the radio-based network  103  into a destination network address on the virtual private cloud network  107 . This may involve simply removing the headers added by encapsulation. The VPC gateway  335  may also decrypt the network traffic. In box  624 , the VPC gateway  335  forwards the network traffic to the client device  215 . Thereafter, the operation of the portion of the VPC gateway  335  ends. 
     Turning now to  FIG.  7   , shown is a flowchart that provides one example of the operation of a portion of a VPC application  338  ( FIG.  3 B ) in a radio-based network  103  ( FIG.  1   ) according to various embodiments. It is understood that the flowchart of  FIG.  7    provides merely an example of the many different types of functional arrangements that may be employed to implement the operation of the portion of the VPC application  338  as described herein. As an alternative, the flowchart of  FIG.  7    may be viewed as depicting an example of elements of a method implemented in a client device  215  ( FIG.  3 B ) according to one or more embodiments. 
     Beginning with box  703 , the client device  215  requests service from a radio-based network  103 . The client device  215  may be identified by data from a subscriber identity module (SIM) or an embedded SIM. In box  706 , the VPC application  338  connects to a virtual private cloud network  107  ( FIG.  3 B ) via the radio-based network  103 . For example, the VPC application  338  may authenticate the client device  215  based at least in part on the SIM or eSIM, or the VPC application  338  may provide a certificate, key, password, or other security credential for authentication. The VPC application  338  may receive a network address on the virtual private cloud network  107  from a pool of network addresses corresponding to the virtual private cloud network  107 . 
     In box  709 , the VPC application  338  receives network traffic from another application on the client device  215  with a destination on the virtual private cloud network  107 . For example, the destination network address may correspond to a virtual machine instance of a cloud service  320  ( FIG.  3 B ). In box  710 , the VPC application  338  may apply one or more VPC security group  477  ( FIG.  4   ) rules or network ACLs  473  ( FIG.  4   ) obtained via a VPC control plane to determine whether the network traffic is permitted to be forwarded to its destination. For example, network traffic from the client device  215  may be not allowed to be forwarded to the destination based upon a role or user associated with the client device  215  within an organization operating the virtual private cloud network  107 . 
     In box  712 , the VPC application  338  encapsulates the network traffic. For example, the VPC application  338  may add one or more headers to the data packets in the network traffic. Also, the VPC application  338  may translate the destination network address to a destination network address of a computing device  418  ( FIG.  4   ) on the cloud provider network  203  ( FIG.  3 B ) that hosts the virtual machine instance. The VPC application  338  may refer to the network address translation data  476  ( FIG.  4   ) to make the translation. The VPC application  338  may also translate a source network address of the client device  215  on the virtual private cloud network  107  into a source network address on the radio-based network  103 . The VPC application  338  may also encrypt the network traffic. 
     In box  715 , the VPC application  338  forwards the encapsulated network traffic to the radio-based network  103 . The VPC application  338  may receive data for a VPC routing table to make the forwarding decisions via a control plane of the virtual private cloud network  107 . In box  718 , the VPC application  338  receives encapsulated network traffic from the radio-based network  103 . The encapsulated network traffic is sent by one or more hosts on the virtual private cloud network  107 . 
     In box  721 , the VPC application  338  decapsulates the network traffic, which may include translating a source network address on the cloud provider network  203  (e.g., of a computing device) into a source network address on the virtual private cloud network  107  and translating a destination network address of the client device  215  on the radio-based network  103  into a destination network address on the virtual private cloud network  107 . This may involve simply removing the headers added by encapsulation. The VPC application  338  may also decrypt the network traffic. In box  724 , the VPC application  338  forwards the network traffic to the other application on the client device  215 . For example, the VPC application  338  may use a VPC routing table in order to make the forwarding decision. Also, the VPC application  338  may refer to one or more security group  477  rules or network ACLs  473  in the virtual private cloud network  107  in order to decide whether to forward the network traffic to the other application. Thereafter, the operation of the portion of the VPC application  338  ends. 
     With reference to  FIG.  8   , shown is a schematic block diagram of the computing environment  403  according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. The computing environment  403  includes one or more computing devices  800 . Each computing device  800  includes at least one processor circuit, for example, having a processor  803  and a memory  806 , both of which are coupled to a local interface  809 . To this end, each computing device  800  may comprise, for example, at least one server computer or like device. The local interface  809  may comprise, for example, a data bus with an accompanying address/control bus or another bus structure as can be appreciated. 
     Stored in the memory  806  are both data and several components that are executable by the processor  803 . In particular, stored in the memory  806  and executable by the processor  803  are the VPC management service  424 , the network services  427 , and potentially other applications. Also stored in the memory  806  may be a data store  415  and other data. In addition, an operating system may be stored in the memory  806  and executable by the processor  803 . 
     It is understood that there may be other applications that are stored in the memory  806  and are executable by the processor  803  as can be appreciated. Where any component discussed herein is implemented in the form of software, any one of a number of programming languages may be employed such as, for example, C, C++, C#, Objective C, Java®, JavaScript®, Perl, PHP, Visual Basic®, Python®, Ruby, Flash®, or other programming languages. 
     A number of software components are stored in the memory  806  and are executable by the processor  803 . In this respect, the term “executable” means a program file that is in a form that can ultimately be run by the processor  803 . Examples of executable programs may be, for example, a compiled program that can be translated into machine code in a format that can be loaded into a random access portion of the memory  806  and run by the processor  803 , source code that may be expressed in proper format such as object code that is capable of being loaded into a random access portion of the memory  806  and executed by the processor  803 , or source code that may be interpreted by another executable program to generate instructions in a random access portion of the memory  806  to be executed by the processor  803 , etc. An executable program may be stored in any portion or component of the memory  806  including, for example, random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), hard drive, solid-state drive, USB flash drive, memory card, optical disc such as compact disc (CD) or digital versatile disc (DVD), floppy disk, magnetic tape, or other memory components. 
     The memory  806  is defined herein as including both volatile and nonvolatile memory and data storage components. Volatile components are those that do not retain data values upon loss of power. Nonvolatile components are those that retain data upon a loss of power. Thus, the memory  806  may comprise, for example, random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), hard disk drives, solid-state drives, USB flash drives, memory cards accessed via a memory card reader, floppy disks accessed via an associated floppy disk drive, optical discs accessed via an optical disc drive, magnetic tapes accessed via an appropriate tape drive, and/or other memory components, or a combination of any two or more of these memory components. In addition, the RAM may comprise, for example, static random access memory (SRAM), dynamic random access memory (DRAM), or magnetic random access memory (MRAM) and other such devices. The ROM may comprise, for example, a programmable read-only memory (PROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), an electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), or other like memory device. 
     Also, the processor  803  may represent multiple processors  803  and/or multiple processor cores and the memory  806  may represent multiple memories  806  that operate in parallel processing circuits, respectively. In such a case, the local interface  809  may be an appropriate network that facilitates communication between any two of the multiple processors  803 , between any processor  803  and any of the memories  806 , or between any two of the memories  806 , etc. The local interface  809  may comprise additional systems designed to coordinate this communication, including, for example, performing load balancing. The processor  803  may be of electrical or of some other available construction. 
     Although the VPC management service  424 , the network services  427 , and other various systems described herein may be embodied in software or code executed by general purpose hardware as discussed above, as an alternative the same may also be embodied in dedicated hardware or a combination of software/general purpose hardware and dedicated hardware. If embodied in dedicated hardware, each can be implemented as a circuit or state machine that employs any one of or a combination of a number of technologies. These technologies may include, but are not limited to, discrete logic circuits having logic gates for implementing various logic functions upon an application of one or more data signals, application specific integrated circuits (ASICs) having appropriate logic gates, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), or other components, etc. Such technologies are generally well known by those skilled in the art and, consequently, are not described in detail herein. 
     The flowcharts of  FIGS.  5 - 7    show the functionality and operation of an implementation of portions of the radio-based network  103  and the virtual private cloud network  107 . If embodied in software, each block may represent a module, segment, or portion of code that comprises program instructions to implement the specified logical function(s). The program instructions may be embodied in the form of source code that comprises human-readable statements written in a programming language or machine code that comprises numerical instructions recognizable by a suitable execution system such as a processor  803  in a computer system or other system. The machine code may be converted from the source code, etc. If embodied in hardware, each block may represent a circuit or a number of interconnected circuits to implement the specified logical function(s). 
     Although the flowcharts of  FIGS.  5 - 7    show a specific order of execution, it is understood that the order of execution may differ from that which is depicted. For example, the order of execution of two or more blocks may be scrambled relative to the order shown. Also, two or more blocks shown in succession in  FIGS.  5 - 7    may be executed concurrently or with partial concurrence. Further, in some embodiments, one or more of the blocks shown in  FIGS.  5 - 7    may be skipped or omitted. In addition, any number of counters, state variables, warning semaphores, or messages might be added to the logical flow described herein, for purposes of enhanced utility, accounting, performance measurement, or providing troubleshooting aids, etc. It is understood that all such variations are within the scope of the present disclosure. 
     Also, any logic or application described herein, including the VPC management service  424  and the network services  427 , that comprises software or code can be embodied in any non-transitory computer-readable medium for use by or in connection with an instruction execution system such as, for example, a processor  803  in a computer system or other system. In this sense, the logic may comprise, for example, statements including instructions and declarations that can be fetched from the computer-readable medium and executed by the instruction execution system. In the context of the present disclosure, a “computer-readable medium” can be any medium that can contain, store, or maintain the logic or application described herein for use by or in connection with the instruction execution system. 
     The computer-readable medium can comprise any one of many physical media such as, for example, magnetic, optical, or semiconductor media. More specific examples of a suitable computer-readable medium would include, but are not limited to, magnetic tapes, magnetic floppy diskettes, magnetic hard drives, memory cards, solid-state drives, USB flash drives, or optical discs. Also, the computer-readable medium may be a random access memory (RAM) including, for example, static random access memory (SRAM) and dynamic random access memory (DRAM), or magnetic random access memory (MRAM). In addition, the computer-readable medium may be a read-only memory (ROM), a programmable read-only memory (PROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), an electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), or other type of memory device. 
     Further, any logic or application described herein, including the VPC management service  424  and the network services  427 , may be implemented and structured in a variety of ways. For example, one or more applications described may be implemented as modules or components of a single application. Further, one or more applications described herein may be executed in shared or separate computing devices or a combination thereof. For example, a plurality of the applications described herein may execute in the same computing device  800 , or in multiple computing devices  800  in the same computing environment  403 . 
     Disjunctive language such as the phrase “at least one of X, Y, or Z,” unless specifically stated otherwise, is otherwise understood with the context as used in general to present that an item, term, etc., may be either X, Y, or Z, or any combination thereof (e.g., X, Y, and/or Z). Thus, such disjunctive language is not generally intended to, and should not, imply that certain embodiments require at least one of X, at least one of Y, or at least one of Z to each be present. 
     It should be emphasized that the above-described embodiments of the present disclosure are merely possible examples of implementations set forth for a clear understanding of the principles of the disclosure. Many variations and modifications may be made to the above-described embodiment(s) without departing substantially from the spirit and principles of the disclosure. All such modifications and variations are intended to be included herein within the scope of this disclosure and protected by the following claims.