Patent Publication Number: US-10315952-B2

Title: Geopolymer cement

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a U.S. National Stage Filing of PCT Application No. PCT/AU2013/001309 filed on Nov. 13, 2013, and published in English as WO 2014/075134 A1 on May 22, 2014, and claims priority of Australian patent application number 2012904996 filed on Nov. 13, 2012, the entire disclosure of these applications being hereby incorporated herein by reference. 
     FIELD OF INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to a geopolymer cement. In one form, the present invention relates to a geopolymer cement which is a substitute for Portland cement. In one form, the present invention relates to a geopolymer cement which includes a solid component activator. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Concrete made from Portland cement (also known as Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)) is a material that can be used in civil engineering infrastructures. However, the production of Portland cement concrete typically results in large carbon dioxide emissions and consequently has a large carbon footprint. In an attempt to address these shortcomings, other materials such as, for example, geopolymers have been used as a substitute for Portland cement. 
     Geopolymer concrete provides an alternative low carbon footprint option to Portland cement concrete. Generally, geopolymer concrete is formed by mixing a binder (also known as cement) and aggregates (such as gravel and sand) with water. The binder typically includes metallurgical slags and/or coal fly ash mixed with an alkali liquid activator such as sodium hydroxide (also known as caustic soda). The alkali liquid activator serves to increase the reactivity of the solid components during the concrete preparation step. 
     A disadvantage of using alkali liquid activators is that they pose an Occupational Health and Safety (OH&amp;S) hazard and may cause severe injuries such as chemical burns if spilt during transportation and/or concrete manufacture. These liquid activators may also pose an environmental hazard if they leak from their containment vessels and/or when they are discarded or disposed of. 
     Thus, there is a need for an activator for the production of geopolymer cement that makes it safe and easy to handle. Preferably, this geopolymer cement can produce concrete with comparable properties to concrete made with geopolymer cement made using a liquid alkali activator or with Portland cement. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In one form of the invention, there is provided a solid component activator for use in a geopolymer cement comprising a silico-aluminate material comprising a mixture of sodium silicate and sodium carbonate for activating the geopolymer cement by increasing reactivity of the silico-aluminate material in the geopolymer cement when forming geopolymer concrete. 
     The solid component activator of the present invention is stable in the atmosphere unlike activators such as hygroscopic sodium hydroxide that readily absorb moisture from the atmosphere. Accordingly, the solid component activator can be pre-mixed with silico-aluminate material to create a cement and the cement can be stored stably before being transported and/or sold in a ready-for-use dry powder form. 
     Additionally, the solid component activator does not possess a Dangerous Goods classification. The solid component activator may also yield a product with a similar level of alkalinity to OPC. This provides a safer manufacturing process as well as a safer work environment when the geopolymer cement is used in the preparation or manufacture of concrete. 
     The sodium silicate of the solid component activator may have a modulus ranging from 1.5-3.3. The modulus in this range improves reactivity of the geopolymer cement. 
     The sodium carbonate of the solid component activator may have a median particle size ranging from 80 to 500 microns. In one form of the invention, the median particle size ranges from 80 to 200 microns. In another form of the invention, the median particle size ranges from 200 to 300 microns. In a further form of the invention, the median particle size ranges from 300 to 500 microns. 
     The solid component activator provides a high pH solution when mixed with water or an aqueous solution to activate the silico-aluminate material in the geopolymer cement, thereby increasing the reactivity of the silico-aluminate material (i.e. activating the geopolymer cement) and enabling it to form concrete with desirable or required properties or characteristics. 
     In another form of the invention, there is provided a geopolymer cement comprising at least one silico-aluminate material, a solid component activator comprising sodium carbonate and sodium silicate for activating the at least one silico-aluminate material for forming a geopolymer concrete. 
     The at least one silico-aluminate material may comprise any one or a combination of fly ash, pitchstone, blast furnace slag, ground glass or zeolite. Preferably, the at least one silico-aluminate material comprises fly ash and granulated blast furnace slag. 
     The geopolymer cement may include mineral additives such as, for example, limestone to adjust the properties of the cement. 
     The silico-aluminate material may have a median particle size ranging from 3 to 25 microns. Preferably, the fly ash has a median particle size ranging from 3 to 20 microns. More preferably, the slag has a median particle size ranging from 5 to 20 microns. 
     It was found that using silico-aluminate material with a median particle size range from 3 to 10 microns increases the reactivity of the silico-aluminate material by increasing the surface area:volume ratio of the particles. A fly ash with a median particle size range from 3 to 10 microns also increases the reactivity of the fly ash. It was also found that slag with a median particle size range from 5 to 10 microns increases the early age reactivity of the geopolymer cement and the compressive strength of the geopolymer concrete formed using the geopolymer cement. Preferably, the slag is ground to a median particle size range from 5 to 10 microns. 
     The geopolymer cement may further include a retarder comprising either boric acid or salts of boric acid for increasing concrete setting time. Alternatively, the geopolymer cement may further include an accelerator comprising soluble calcium-based material such as hydrated lime, quicklime or Portland cement for reducing concrete setting time. 
     The solid component activator in the geopolymer cement allows the use of separate retarders or accelerators to control the setting time of the geopolymer cement. The retarders or accelerators may also control the setting time of the concrete made using the geopolymer cement. 
     In another form of the invention, there is provided a method for preparing a geopolymer cement including the steps of: mixing at least one silico-aluminate material with sodium carbonate; grinding the at least one silico-aluminate material and sodium carbonate to a median particle size ranging from 3 to 20 microns to form a powdered mixture; and mixing sodium silicate with the powdered mixture to form the geopolymer cement. Preferably, the at least one silico-aluminate material and sodium carbonate is ground to a median particle size ranging from 3 to 15 microns. 
     The grinding and mixing processes increase the fineness and homogeneity of the powdered mixture to improve properties including solubility and reactivity when water is added to the powdered mixture. Although sodium silicate can be ground and mixed with other components when preparing the geopolymer cement, it is preferable that the sodium silicate is not ground to avoid exposing the sodium silicate to heat degradation. In this respect, mixing the sodium silicate with the powdered mixture reduces heat degradation of sodium silicate by not exposing the sodium silicate to heat generated during the grinding process. 
     The geopolymer cement may be prepared at a temperature ranging from 10° C. to 40° C. 
     The geopolymer cement may be prepared at ambient temperature without heating. Particularly, the activator comprising sodium silicate and sodium carbonate can be combined at ambient temperature without heating. 
     The method may include a step of adding a retarder to the powdered mixture for increasing concrete setting time. Alternatively, the retarder may be added to the geopolymer cement after mixing sodium silicate with the powdered mixture. The retarder may comprise either boric acid or salts of boric acid. 
     The method may include a step of adding an accelerator to the powdered mixture for reducing concrete setting time. Alternatively, the accelerator may be added to the geopolymer cement after mixing sodium silicate with the powdered mixture. The accelerator may comprise soluble calcium-based material such as, for example, hydrated lime, quicklime or Portland cement. 
     In another form of the invention, there is provided a geopolymer concrete comprising at least one silico-aluminate material, a solid component activator comprising sodium carbonate and sodium silicate, an aggregate and water, wherein the water solubilises the solid component activator to form an alkaline environment for activating the at least one silico-aluminate material to bind the at least one silico-aluminate material with the aggregate to form the geopolymer concrete. 
     The alkaline environment requires a pH ranging from 12 to 14 to provide an adequate rate of activation. 
     The geopolymer concrete may flow at up to 650 mm spread without segregating components of the geopolymer concrete. 
     In another form of the invention, there is provided a method for preparing a geopolymer concrete including the steps of: mixing at least one silico-aluminate material with sodium carbonate; grinding the at least one silico-aluminate material and sodium carbonate to a median particle size ranging from 3 to 20 microns to form a powdered mixture; mixing sodium silicate with the powdered mixture; and adding water to the sodium silicate and the powdered mixture to form the geopolymer concrete. Preferably, the at least one silico-aluminate material and sodium carbonate is ground to a median particle size ranging from 3 to 15 microns. 
     The geopolymer concrete produced may have comparable strength properties such as, for example, compressive and tensile strengths, to Portland cement concrete. The geopolymer concrete produced may also have comparable strength properties to geopolymer concrete made using liquid alkali activators. 
     The method may include a step of adding an aggregate such as gravel and sand to form the geopolymer concrete. Preferably, the aggregate is inert and does not react with water or cement. 
     The method may include a step of adding a retarder for increasing concrete setting time to the geopolymer concrete, the retarder comprising either boric acid or salts of boric acid. 
     The method may include a step of adding an accelerator for reducing concrete setting time to the geopolymer concrete, the accelerator comprising soluble calcium-based material such as, for example, hydrated lime, quicklime or Portland cement. 
     The step of adding water may provide a flowing geopolymer concrete at up to 650 mm spread without segregating components of the geopolymer concrete. 
     The method may include a step of curing the geopolymer concrete at a temperature ranging from 10° C. to 40° C. to achieve strength growth rates similar to Portland cement concrete. 
     The geopolymer concrete may include a step of curing the geopolymer concrete at a temperature ranging from 40° C. to 70° C. to accelerate strength growth rates. For example, the geopolymer concrete heated at 70° C. for 4 hours can achieve about 40% maximum compressive strength. In another example, the geopolymer concrete heated at 70° C. for 12 hours can achieve about 80% maximum compressive strength. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
       A preferred embodiment of the present invention is hereinafter described by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying figures, wherein: 
         FIGS. 1A and 1B  are process flow diagrams illustrating the production of geopolymer cement according to one form of the present invention. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The geopolymer cement of the present invention is manufactured according to the process flow diagram of  FIGS. 1A and 1B . 
     Silico-aluminate material in the form of fly ash in hopper  10  and granulated slag in hopper  12  are milled in grinder  14  before being blended with sodium carbonate  16  and sodium silicate  20  in blender  18  ( FIG. 1A ). Alternatively, the sodium carbonate  16  may be milled and mixed together in grinder  14  ( FIG. 1B ). 
     The fly ash can be obtained from coal-fired power stations (such as for example the Gladstone Power Station in Central Queensland). Fly ash from the Gladstone Power Station typically possesses a high glass content, a median particle size of about 10 microns and a high degree of sphericity. These properties make the fly ash suitable for preparing geopolymer cement according to the present invention. However, it can be appreciated that the fly ash used to prepare the geopolymer cement does not need to possess all these properties. 
     Table 1 compares the compressive strengths of geopolymer concrete made using fly ash from different sources in geopolymer cement G1 according to the present invention. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Fly Ash Trials - Australian Fly Ash Sources 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Geopolymer Concrete: 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Binder Type 
                 G1 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Binder Quantity 
                 440 
                 kg · m −3   
               
               
                   
                 Concrete Curing Temperature 
                 23° 
                 C. 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Slump 
                 Compressive Strength (MPa) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Fly Ash 
                 W/C 
                 (mm) 
                 7 days 
                 28 days 
                 56 days 
                 90 days 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Swanbank 
                 0.46 
                 70 
                 14.4 
                 39.9 
                 50.3 
                 50.0 
               
               
                 Tarong 
                 0.29 
                 180 
                 28.9 
                 54.7 
                 62.4 
                 — 
               
               
                 Mt Piper 
                 0.37 
                 90 
                 29.6 
                 56.3 
                 67.9 
                 64.6 
               
               
                 Eraring 
                 0.34 
                 75 
                 34.4 
                 61.7 
                 72.8 
                 75.9 
               
               
                 Callide 
                 0.33 
                 200 
                 36.8 
                 59.9 
                 69.0 
                 74.4 
               
               
                 Bayswater 
                 0.30 
                 155 
                 39.0 
                 66.5 
                 73.2 
                 78.7 
               
               
                 Collie 
                 0.31 
                 135 
                 36.0 
                 61.3 
                 74.2 
                 80.8 
               
               
                 Gladstone 
                 0.30 
                 230 
                 37.5 
                 61.3 
                 70.5 
                 71.2 
               
               
                 Melbourne 
                 0.30 
                 150 
                 40.1 
                 63.4 
                 72.6 
                 79.2 
               
               
                 Port Augusta 
                 0.28 
                 180 
                 39.9 
                 68.1 
                 81.6 
                 — 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     It is preferable that the fly ash has a median particle size ranging from 3 to 10 microns to improve its reactivity. This particle size range can be achieved by milling the fly ash or classifying the fly ash by centrifugation before being stored in hopper  10 . 
     The slag may be obtained from iron blast furnaces and subsequently quenched to maximise its glass content. The granulated (quenched) slag has a median particle size ranging from 5 to 10 microns to improve its early age reactivity. Granulated slag with a median particle size ranging from 5 to 10 microns also increases the compressive strength of the prepared geopolymer concrete. This particle size range can be achieved by milling the granulated slag before storing in hopper  12 . However, it can be appreciated that silico-aluminate material of any particle size can also be used for preparing the geopolymer cement. Additionally, other silico-aluminate material such as zeolites, pitchstone and ground glass can be added or substitute the fly ash in particular. 
     The fly ash and granulated slag are ground in grinder  14  to improve intermixing and homogeneity of the two components and further increase the reactivity of both components ( FIG. 1A ). Alternatively, the fly ash, granulated slag and sodium carbonate may be ground in grinder  14  to improve intermixing of the three components and further increase the reactivity of the components ( FIG. 1B ). The grinding also increases the strength performance of the geopolymer cement. Additives such as limestone and other inert minerals may also be added to alter the properties of the geopolymer cement. 
     When the fly ash and granulated slag are ground in grinder  14  ( FIG. 1A ), the mixture from grinder  14  is subsequently mixed with sodium carbonate from hopper  16  and sodium silicate from hopper  20  in blender  18  to form the geopolymer cement in the form of a powdered mixture. The mixing process improves the homogeneity of the components and product uniformity. The sodium silicate has a modulus of 1.5-3.3. The sodium silicate is not ground in grinder  14  to prevent sodium silicate degrading from the heat generated during the grinding process. 
     When the fly ash, granulated slag and sodium carbonate are ground in grinder  14  ( FIG. 1B ), the mixture from grinder  14  is subsequently mixed with sodium silicate from hopper  20  in blender  18  to form the geopolymer cement in the form of a powdered mixture. 
     The sodium carbonate in the powdered mixture has a median particle size ranging from 80 to 200 microns to improve its solubility. This median particle size range can be achieved by milling the sodium carbonate prior to storage in hopper  16 . 
     The geopolymer cement from blender  18  is stored in silo  22  before transport to a concrete plant. The geopolymer cement composition is typically (by mass) 8% sodium silicate; 8% sodium carbonate; and 84% fly ash and granulated slag. 
     The content of each of sodium silicate and sodium carbonate can range from 2% to 20% (by mass) of the geopolymer cement composition. Preferably, the content of each of sodium silicate and sodium carbonate ranges from 4% to 15% (by mass) of the geopolymer cement composition. 
     A retarder including boric acid or salts of boric acid, or an accelerator including calcium-based material such as hydrated lime, quicklime or Portland cement may be added to the geopolymer cement during the cement manufacturing process. The retarder or accelerator can be added to either blender  18  or silo  22 . 
     The use of a solid component activator allows the raw material and the finished product of the geopolymer cement manufacture to be transported using the same equipment, such as powder tankers, that are used for transporting Portland cement. In contrast, special equipment is required for handling liquid alkali activators. Additionally, none of the raw materials used to produce the geopolymer cement of the present invention possess Dangerous Goods classification. The geopolymer cement product also has an alkalinity similar to OPC. 
     The use of the solid component activator also allows the finished product of the geopolymer cement to be stored in the same silos at the concrete batching plant as are used for Portland cement. The finished geopolymer cement can also be weighed using the same weighing equipment as used for Portland cement. In contrast, special equipment is required for the storage of liquid activators and their dosing into the concrete mixes. 
     The geopolymer cement is mixed with water and aggregates such as gravel and sand to form geopolymer concrete. Mixing water with the geopolymer cement creates a high pH environment to activate the fly ash and granulated slag. Water can be added to provide a no-slump concrete with a slump value of 0 mm. Additional water may be added to provide a normal slumping concrete with a slump of 80 mm to 200 mm. Further water addition provides a flowing geopolymer concrete at up to 650 mm spread without segregating the component materials. Activating the geopolymer cement increases the reactivity of the fly ash and granulated slag and binds these components with the aggregate to form concrete. 
     The setting time of the geopolymer concrete can be controlled by adding retarders or accelerators to the mixture. 
     The geopolymer concrete can be cured without heating. For example, curing can occur at an ambient temperature ranging from 10° C. to 40° C. Alternatively, the geopolymer concrete can be heat cured at a temperature ranging from 40° C. to 70° C. 
     Heat curing accelerates the strength growth rates of the geopolymer concrete. Table 2A provides formulations for G1 and G2, Table 2B provides data showing the effect of composition and curing temperature on concrete strength and  FIG. 2C  compares the properties of geopolymer concrete subjected to heat and ambient curing according to one form of the present invention. 
     As provided in Table 2C, heat curing Mix 1 at 70° C. for 4 hours imparts a heat cured compressive strength of 15-40 MPa. This value is comparable to a heat curing compressive strength of 20-40 MPa obtained by ambient curing the same geopolymer concrete for 3 days. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2A 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Geopolymer Cement Formulations 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Sodium 
                 Sodium 
               
               
                 Product 
                 Slag (%) 
                 Fly Ash (%) 
                 Silicate (%) 
                 Carbonate (%) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 G1 
                 34 
                 50 
                 8 
                 8 
               
               
                 G2 
                 50 
                 34 
                 8 
                 8 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2B 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Geopolymer Cement Formulations and Concrete Strength 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Curing/Strength 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Cement Composition (%) 
                 Concrete Data 
                 75° C./ 
                 23° C./ 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Fly 
                   
                   
                 Cement 
                   
                 Slump 
                 16 hr 
                 28 d 
               
               
                 Slag 
                 Ash 
                 SS 
                 SC 
                 kg · m −3   
                 W/C 
                 (mm) 
                 MPa 
                 MPa 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 25 
                 61 
                 6 
                 8 
                 390 
                 0.28 
                 150 
                 17.0 
                 54.9 
               
               
                 25 
                 61 
                 7 
                 7 
                 390 
                 0.29 
                 75 
                 36.1 
                 48.5 
               
               
                 25 
                 61 
                 8 
                 6 
                 390 
                 0.28 
                 170 
                 50.9 
                 56.0 
               
               
                 25 
                 59 
                 8 
                 8 
                 390 
                 0.28 
                 85 
                 58.6 
                 59.9 
               
               
                 35 
                 49 
                 6 
                 10 
                 390 
                 0.29 
                 160 
                 25.3 
                 72.9 
               
               
                 35 
                 51 
                 7 
                 7 
                 390 
                 0.28 
                 150 
                 30.0 
                 61.9 
               
               
                 35 
                 49 
                 8 
                 8 
                 390 
                 0.29 
                 160 
                 66.0 
                 73.0 
               
               
                 35 
                 49 
                 10 
                 6 
                 390 
                 0.32 
                 110 
                 53.4 
                 64.3 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2C 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Ranges of Composition/Compressive Strength Performance 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Major 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Heat Curing (70° C.) 
                 Ambient Curing (23°) 
               
               
                   
                 silico- 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Comp. Strength (MPa) 
                 Comp. Strength (MPa) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 aluminate 
                 Slag 
                 Fly Ash 
                 SS 
                 SC 
                 2 
                 4 
                 12 
                 3 
                 7 
                 28 
               
               
                 Mix 
                 material 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 hours 
                 hours 
                 hours 
                 days 
                 days 
                 days 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1 
                 Fly Ash 
                 21-40 
                 63-44 
                 4-10 
                 4-10 
                  5-15 
                 15-40 
                 40-60 
                 20-40 
                 50-60 
                 60-80 
               
               
                 2 
                 Slag 
                 40-84 
                 24-44 
                 6-10 
                 6-10 
                 10-30 
                 30-50 
                 50-70 
                 30-50 
                 50-70 
                 70-80 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Notes: 
               
               
                 SS = sodium silicate 
               
               
                 SC = sodium carbonate 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Similarly, heat curing Mix 2 at 70° C. for 4 hours imparts a heat curing compressive strength of 30-50 MPa. This value is the same as the heat curing compressive strength obtained by ambient curing the same geopolymer concrete for 3 days. 
     It was found that the compressive strengths after curing for 4 hours at 70° C. is about 40% the maximum strength of the concrete, and curing for 12 hours at 70° C. is about 80% the maximum strength of the concrete. 
     Table 3 provides trial results of geopolymer concrete manufactured in the field, at a precast concrete operation, using geopolymer cement G2 as defined in Table 2A and provides a comparison of the compressive strengths of Mix 1 and Mix 2 when (i) steam cured for 1 and 2 hours, and (ii) then cured at 23° C. for 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Precast Concrete - Field Trial Mixes 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Mix 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 1 
                 2 
               
               
                   
                 Components 
                 kg · m −3   
                 kg · m −3   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 10 mm aggregate 
                 650 
                 880 
               
               
                   
                 Coarse Sand 
                 915 
                 500 
               
               
                   
                 Fine Sand 
                 255 
                 355 
               
               
                   
                 Cement 
                 366 
                 503 
               
               
                   
                 Water 
                 144 
                 154 
               
               
                   
                 Density 
                 2330 
                 2390 
               
               
                   
                 Flow (mm) 
                 400 
                 600 
               
               
                   
                 w:c 
                 0.39 
                 0.31 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Precast Concrete - Field Trial* - Concrete Strengths 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Mix 1 
                 Mix 2 
               
               
                   
                 MPa 
                 MPa 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 1 hr steam @ 60° C. 
                 &lt;1 
                 &lt;1 
               
               
                   
                 2 hr steam @ 60° C. 
                 &lt;1 
                 27 
               
               
                   
                 Overnight (60° C. to ambient - 
                 9.5 
                 40.5 
               
               
                   
                 steam off after 2 hrs) 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 7 days @ 23° C.* 
                 43.1 
                 53.5 
               
               
                   
                 14 days @ 23° C.* 
                 53.5 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 21 days @ 23° C.* 
                 58.6 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 28 days @ 23° C.* 
                 63.4 
                 73.1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *Note: Box culverts cast under typical plant conditions. 
               
               
                 **Note: Precast elements stored under ambient conditions after overnight cooling. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Table 4 provides laboratory trial test results for (i) Concrete containing Portland cement (OPC)(denoted as GP, GBF, GBS and GBFS), (ii) geopolymer concrete made using a solid component activator (denoted as G1 and G2) and (iii) geopolymer concrete with made using liquid alkali activators (denoted as L1 and L2). 
     Table 4 reveals that the compressive and tensile strengths of G1 and G2 are at least comparable with the corresponding properties of the Portland cement concrete and geopolymer concrete made using a liquid alkali activator. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SLUMPING CONCRETE 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Laboratory Trials - Portland cement based concretes (OPC alone and OPC plus 
               
               
                   
                 various supplementary cementitious materials versus geopolymer concretes 
               
               
                   
                 (solid component activated geopolymers) &amp; liquid activated geopolymers 
               
               
                   
                 Cementitious Contents - 400 kg/m −3  for all mixes 
               
               
                   
                 Concrete Curing Conditions - Ambient (23° C.) 
               
               
                   
                 Cementitious Material Combinations: 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Type GP - 100% OPC 
               
               
                   
                 Type GBF - 75% OPC + 25% fly ash 
               
               
                   
                 Type GBS - 60% OPC + 40% slag 
               
               
                   
                 Type GBFS - 55% OPC + 25% fly ash + 20% slag 
               
               
                   
                 G1 - Solid component activator - dry powder geopolymer cement 
               
               
                   
                 G2 - Solid component activator - dry powder geopolymer cement 
               
               
                   
                 L1 - Liquid activated geopolymer - lime/fly ash blend 
               
               
                   
                 L2 - Liquid activated geopolymer - slag/fly ash blend 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Cement/Binder ID 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 W/C RATIOS 
                 GP 
                 GBF 
                 GBS 
                 GBFS 
                 G1 
                 G2 
                 L1 
                 L2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Constant Flow w/c Ratios 
                 0.476 
                 0.411 
                 0.467 
                 0.427 
                 0.300 
                 0.333 
                 0.297 
                 0.297 
               
               
                 Concrete w/c Ratios 
                 0.455 
                 0.407 
                 0.455 
                 0.414 
                 0.264 
                 0.283 
                 0.237 
                 0.237 
               
               
                 Slump (mm) 
                 85 
                 85 
                 75 
                 90 
                 185 
                 210 
                 225 
                 220 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Tensile 
                 Drying 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Strength 
                 Shrinkage 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Compressive Strength (MPa) 
                 (MPa) 
                 (microstrain) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Cement 
                 3 days 
                 7 days 
                 28 days 
                 47 days 
                 47 days 
                 56 days 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 GP 
                 36 
                 43 
                 50 
                 51 
                 4.6 
                 480 
               
               
                   
                 GBF 
                 30 
                 40 
                 51 
                 57 
                 5.3 
                 440 
               
               
                   
                 GBS 
                 27 
                 40 
                 55 
                 56 
                 5.2 
                 530 
               
               
                   
                 GBFS 
                 24 
                 36 
                 55 
                 58 
                 5.0 
                 460 
               
               
                   
                 G1 
                 36 
                 59 
                 84 
                 95 
                 6.9 
                 520 
               
               
                   
                 G2 
                 51 
                 71 
                 92 
                 100 
                 7.1 
                 540 
               
               
                   
                 L1 
                 23 
                 44 
                 73 
                 83 
                 7.0 
                 420 
               
               
                   
                 L2 
                 20 
                 40 
                 72 
                 80 
                 7.0 
                 425 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     For example, the compressive strengths of G1 and G2 after 47 days of curing are greater than that of Portland cement concrete and geopolymer concrete made using a liquid alkali activator. In Table 4, the compressive strengths of G1 and G2 range from 95-100 MPa, whereas the compressive strengths for (i) GP, GBF, GBS and GBFS range from 50-58 MPa and (ii) L1 and L2 range from 80-83 MPa. 
     The tensile strengths of G1 and G2 after 47 days of curing are comparable to that of geopolymer concrete made using a liquid alkali activator and greater than that of Portland cement concrete. For example, in Table 4, the tensile strengths of G1 and G2 are about 7 MPa, which is similar to L1 and L2. In contrast, the tensile strengths for GP, GBF, GBS and GBFS are lower, ranging from 4.5-5.5 MPa. 
     Table 5 provides the properties of dry cast Portland cement concrete and geopolymer concrete made using geopolymer cement G2. 
     A comparison of the drying shrinkage of different concrete samples in Table 5 reveals that G1 and G2 have a U strain  value of about 550 after 60 days, while the U strain  values of (i) GP, GBF, GBS and GBFS range from 450 to 550 and (ii) L1 and L2 is about 450 after 60 days. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 DRY CAST (ZERO SLUMP) CONCRETE 
               
               
                 Concrete Compressive Strength Results for 
               
               
                 “Dry Cast” Concrete Mixes - Binder Type G2. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Curing at 23° C. (MPa) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Dry Cast Mix 
                 Cement 
                   
                 Slump 
                 Modified 
                 3 
                 7 
                 28 
               
               
                 Description 
                 (kg/m 3 ) 
                 W/C 
                 (mm) 
                 Vebe (s) 
                 days 
                 days 
                 days 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Plant OPC 
                 525 
                 0.35 
                 0 
                 20 
                   
                 50.8 
                 53.5 
               
               
                 Control Lab Mix - 
               
               
                 Lab Aggregate 
               
               
                 Geopolymer 
                 525 
                 0.24 
                 0 
                 20 
                 49.4 
                 67.9 
                 80.3 
               
               
                 Cement Lab Mix - 
               
               
                 Lab Aggregate 
               
               
                 Geopolymer 
                 525 
                 0.34 
                 0 
                 20 
                 43.0 
               
               
                 Cement Lab Mix - 
               
               
                 Plant Aggregate 
               
               
                 Geopolymer 
                 525 
                 0.4 
                 0 
                 N/A 
                 36.7 
               
               
                 Cement Plant Trial - 
               
               
                 Plant Aggregate 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Note 
               
               
                 Cylinders air cured - ambient temperature 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Properties of dry cast (zero slump) and flowing geopolymer concrete made using a solid component activator is further provided in Tables 5 and 6. 
     Table 6 compares the properties of flowing geopolymer concrete made using geopolymer cement G2 at different water/cement (w:c) ratios. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 SUPER WORKABLE FLOWING CONCRETE 
               
               
                 Concrete Compressive Strength Results for “Super 
               
               
                 Workable” Concrete Mixes - Binder Type G2. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Super 
                 Curing at 75° C. (MPa) 
                 Curing at 23° C. (MPa) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Workable 
                 Cement 
                   
                 Spread 
                 3 
                 4 
                 5 
                 16 
                 1 
                 3 
                 7 
                 28 
                 56 
               
               
                 Mix Description 
                 (kg/m 3 ) 
                 W/C 
                 (mm) 
                 hrs 
                 hrs 
                 hrs 
                 hrs 
                 day 
                 days 
                 days 
                 days 
                 days 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Geopolymer 
                 550 
                 0.29 
                 580 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 62.0 
                 77.0 
                 99.0 
                   
               
               
                 Cement Lab 
               
               
                 Mix - Lab 
               
               
                 Aggregate 
               
               
                 Geopolymer 
                 550 
                 0.32 
                 645 
                 33.8 
                   
                 45.6 
                 66.8 
                   
                   
                 45.9 
                 83.0 
                 91.2 
               
               
                 Cement Lab 
               
               
                 Mix - Plant 
               
               
                 Aggregate 
               
               
                 Geopolymer 
                 500 
                 0.38 
                 600 
                   
                 44.7 
                   
                 75.8 
                 17.2 
               
               
                 Cement Lab 
               
               
                 Mix - Plant 
               
               
                 Aggregate 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Table 7 provides field trial data showing the transverse breaking load performance of various roof tiles made in a conventional roof tile plant using Portland cement concrete and geopolymer concrete made using a solid component activator and using the same aggregate:cement ratios and under the same manufacturing and curing conditions. 
     The tests in Table 7 were conducted on different roof tile types, specifically, (A) ridge cap and (B) low-profile double roman tiles. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 CONCRETE ROOF TILES 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Concrete roof tiles produced using the same sand:cement ratio and 
               
               
                 to similar plastic concrete consistency as normal OPC mix. The 
               
               
                 concrete is extruded through a conventional industrial roof tile plant. 
               
               
                 All roof tiles are subjected to the same curing conditions in the roof 
               
               
                 tile factory. Testing was carried out by the roof tile manufacturer. 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Tile Type A: 
                 Ridge Cap (Trim) 
               
               
                 Aggregate:Cement 
                 3.75:1 
               
               
                 Ratio: 
                   
               
               
                 Water Content(%): 
                 7.4 
               
               
                 Curing Conditions: 
                 Typical concrete roof tile kiln; maximum 40° C. 
               
               
                   
                 @ 90% relative humidity for 10-12 hours before 
               
               
                   
                 testing (Day 1); then kept on shelf under ambient 
               
               
                   
                 conditions until testing at ages of 4 days and 7 days 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Strength Performance: 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Transverse Breaking Load (N)* 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Time (days) 
                 OPC Control 
                 Geopolymer Trial 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1 
                 1179 
                 1568 
               
               
                 4 
                 1435 
                 1673 
               
               
                 7 
                 1484 
                 1645 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 *Note: TBL values are the mean of at least six specimens 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Tile Type B: 
                 Low-Profile Double Roman (Curve) 
               
               
                 Aggregate:Cement 
                 3.5:1 
               
               
                 Ratio: 
                   
               
               
                 Water Content(%): 
                 7.4 
               
               
                 Curing Conditions: 
                 Typical concrete roof tile kiln, maximum 40° C. 
               
               
                   
                 @ 90% relative humidity for 10-12 hours before 
               
               
                   
                 testing (Day 1); then kept on shelf under ambient 
               
               
                   
                 conditions until testing at age of 9 days 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Strength Performance: 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Transverse Breaking Load (N)* 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Time (days) 
                 OPC Control 
                 Geopolymer Trial 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1 
                 1350 
                 1840 
               
               
                 9 
                 2037 
                 2172 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 *Note: TBN results are mean of at least five samples 
               
               
                 Effect of Various Curing Conditions: 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Curing Conditions: 
                 Times - as per table 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperatures (various) - as per table 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Humidity - 90% RH 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Strength Performance: 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Transverse Breaking 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Load (N)* 
               
               
                 Time (Hours) 
                 Temperature (° C.) 
                 Geopolymer Trial 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 3 
                 70 
                 1977 
               
               
                 4 
                 70 
                 2037 
               
               
                 5 
                 70 
                 2071 
               
               
                 24 
                 28 
                 1717 
               
               
                 24 
                 36 
                 1798 
               
               
                 24 
                 40 
                 1968 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 *Note: TBN results are mean of at least three samples 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The results from both tests reveal that the transverse breaking load for the geopolymer concrete roof tiles made using a solid component activator is greater than that of Portland cement concrete roof tiles regardless of curing time. Accordingly, the various test results demonstrate that the properties of geopolymer concrete made using a solid component activator is comparable to both Portland cement concrete and geopolymer concrete made using a liquid alkali activator. 
     The use of a solid component activator also increases the ease in handling and storage of the raw materials and the finished product of the geopolymer cement manufacturing process. In contrast, liquid components often require special equipment and risk leakage that may cause safety and environmental issues. 
     The geopolymer cement according to the present invention can be used to produce a range of products including (a) slumping concrete, (b) dry cast concrete, (c) flowing concrete, (d) medium strength concrete (40-50 MPa), (e) high strength concrete (80-100 MPa), (f) low heat concrete and (g) ASR-resistant concrete. 
     Advantageously, the present invention provides a geopolymer cement that is as safe and easy to handle as OPC. The geopolymer cement of the present invention may also produce concrete with comparable properties to concrete produced using geopolymer cement made using a liquid alkali activators or concrete made using Portland cement. 
     The geopolymer cement of the present invention may also be used as a universal substitute for Portland cement in a variety of applications. Additionally, the concrete prepared from the geopolymer cement of the present invention also has a reduced carbon footprint compared to concrete prepared using Portland cement.