Patent Publication Number: US-9894556-B2

Title: Methods, systems and apparatus for managing and/or enforcing policies for managing internet protocol (“IP”) traffic among multiple accesses of a network

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/446,685, filed 13 Apr. 2012, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Pat. Appln. Ser. Nos. 61/475,023, filed on 13 Apr. 2011, and 61/546,543, filed on 12 Oct. 2011; all of which are incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Field 
     This application is related to wireless communications. 
     Related Art 
     In its initial response to an ever increasing bandwidth crunch, the wireless industry has been experimenting with a number of ad-hoc data offloading and tariffing schemes—some offering partial temporary relief, but no scalability for broad deployments. More efficient and robust solutions will be required to meet the future data needs of, potentially, billions of Smartphone users around the world. 
     Experts envision a “Network of Networks” with connectivity and mobility across multiple access networks (such as, for example, cellular and Wi-Fi accesses), a richer multimedia experience and new mobile broadband capabilities. It is believed by the inventors of the presently claimed and/or unclaimed subject matter herein that innovative policy-driven bandwidth management (“BWM”) and radio-agnostic technologies across devices (e.g., mobile devices), networks, and services are among a multitude of advancements in the art likely needed for achieving such vision. 
     SUMMARY 
     Provided herein are methods, systems and apparatus for managing and/or enforcing one or more policies for managing internet protocol (“IP”) traffic among multiple accesses of a network, including accesses employing different radio access technologies (“RAT”), in accordance with a policy for managing bandwidth among the multiple accesses (“BWM policy”). Such methods, systems and apparatus may be useful, for instance, for performing multi-access flow management, and/or bandwidth aggregation among the multiple accesses. 
     Among the methods, systems and apparatus is a method that may include obtaining performance metrics associated with the multiple accesses. The method may also include adapting one or more rules of one or more the policies for managing IP traffic among the plurality of accesses based, at least in part, on the performance metrics and the policy for managing bandwidth among the plurality of accesses. The method may further include managing IP traffic associated with at least one wireless transmit and/or receive unit (“WTRU”) among the plurality of accesses responsive to the adapted rules. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       A more detailed understanding may be had from the detailed description below, given by way of example in conjunction with drawings appended hereto. Figures in such drawings, like the detailed description, are examples. As such, the Figures and the detailed description are not to be considered limiting, and other equally effective examples are possible and likely. Furthermore, like reference numerals in the Figures indicate like elements, and wherein: 
         FIG. 1A  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a communications system in which one or more disclosed embodiments may be implemented and/or carried out; 
         FIG. 1B  is a block diagram illustrating an example wireless transmit/receive unit (WTRU) that may be used within the communications system illustrated in  FIG. 1A ; 
         FIG. 1C  is a block diagram illustrating an example radio access network (“RAN”) and an example core network (“CN”) that may be used within the communications system illustrated in  FIG. 1A ; 
         FIG. 1D  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a RAN and a example of a CN; 
         FIG. 1E  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a RAN and a example of a CN; 
         FIG. 2  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a communications system in which one or more disclosed embodiments may be implemented and/or carried out; 
         FIGS. 3A-3C  are block diagrams illustrating an example of a communications system in which one or more disclosed embodiments may be implemented and/or carried out; 
         FIG. 4  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a communications system in which one or more disclosed embodiments may be implemented and/or carried out; 
         FIG. 5  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a distributed network monitoring and control function (“NMCF”); 
         FIG. 6  is a block diagram illustrating an example communications system with enhancements for bandwidth management (“BWM”) policies in a local area and/or hotspot served by a CGW; 
         FIG. 7  is a block diagram illustrating an example communications system with enhancements for BWM policies in a local area and/or hotspot served by a CGW; 
         FIGS. 8-9  are flow diagrams illustrating an example process for ANDSF discovery; 
         FIG. 10  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process for performing network-initiated IFOM using ANDSF information; 
         FIG. 11  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process for performing WTRU-initiated IFOM using ANDSF information; 
         FIG. 12  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process for managing and/or enforcing polices for IP traffic management among multiple accesses; 
         FIG. 13  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process for managing and/or enforcing polices for IP traffic management among multiple accesses; 
         FIG. 14  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process for enabling interaction among access network discovery and selection function (“ANDSF”) and policy control and charging (“PCC”) entities; 
         FIGS. 15-18  are flow diagrams illustrating example processes  1500 - 1800  for enabling interaction among ANDSF and PCC entities; 
         FIG. 19  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a communications system in which one or more disclosed embodiments may be implemented and/or carried out; 
         FIG. 20  is a chart illustrating Table 1 listing various information that may be collected by the WTRU ICF and/or an ANDSF configured in accordance with various embodiments; 
         FIG. 21  is a chart illustrating Table 2 listing information that may be collected at cell edge and be reported to any of a ANDSF and a PCRF; 
         FIG. 22  is a chart illustrating Table 3 listing information that may be collected from WTRU-to-GW tunnels and be reported to any of a ANDSF and a PCRF; 
         FIG. 23  is a chart illustrating Table 4 listing information that be collected at the CN gateway from each access network tunnel; 
         FIG. 24  is a chart illustrating Table 5 listing backhaul information that may be collected, reported and/or used for managing IP traffic; 
         FIG. 25  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process for managing and/or enforcing polices for IP traffic management among multiple accesses; 
         FIG. 26  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process for managing and/or enforcing polices for IP traffic management among multiple accesses; and 
         FIG. 27  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process for managing and/or enforcing polices for IP traffic management among multiple accesses. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     In the following detailed description, numerous specific details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of embodiments and/or examples disclosed herein. However, it will be understood that such embodiments and examples may be practiced without some or all of the specific details set forth herein. In other instances, well-known methods, procedures, components and circuits have not been described in detail, so as not to obscure the following description. Further, embodiments and examples not specifically described herein may be practiced in lieu of, or in combination with, the embodiments and other examples disclosed herein. 
     Moreover, in the following description, various standards are referred to and/or incorporated by reference herein in connection with the embodiments and/or examples disclosed herein. Unless otherwise indicated, details of the various standards (incorporated herein or otherwise) are set forth as examples. Incorporated by reference herein are 3rd Generation Partnership Project (“3GPP”) Technical Specification (“TS”) 23.203, v11.1.0, (Policy and Charging Control (“PCC”) architecture); 3GPP TS 23.261, v10.1.0, (Internet Protocol (“IP”) flow mobility (“IFOM”) and Seamless WLAN Offload); 3GPP TS 23.402, v10.3.0, (Architecture Enhancements for Non-3GPP Accesses); 3GPP TS 24.302, v10.3.1, (Access to the 3GPP Evolved Packet Core (EPC) via non-3GPP access); 3GPP TS 23.401, v10.4.0, (GPRS Enhancements for E-UTRAN); 3GPP TS 24.312, v10.3.0, (Access Network Discovery and Selection Function (“ANDSF”) Management Object (MO)); 3GPP Technical Report (“TR”) 23.861, v1.3.0, (Multi-access PDN Connectivity and IFOM); and 3GPP TR 23.813, v0.5.0 (2011-02) (Study on Policy Solutions and Enhancements (Release 10)). 
     Overview 
     Policy management is already viewed as an important tool used by operators to control how their networks get utilized, manage user behavior and maximize whatever measure or metric of network utility is used by the operator (e.g. capacity). In general, policies may be characterized by specification of rules and expected enforcement of the rules by various entities in the network. The rules may be statically configured or dynamically updated; specified by end users, network operators, or service providers; and may be considered as guidelines or mandates depending on particular policy enforcement requirements. 
     As data consumption by mobile/wireless users continues to increase, and as the range of mobile network access options grows to include different radio access technologies (cellular, Wi-Fi, WiMAX, etc.), different backhaul mechanisms (TDM, carrier Ethernet, fiber/cable/DSL, etc.), and different network infrastructures (mobile core networks, public Internet, IMS networks, private networks including enterprise and residential, etc.), operator policies become a critical tool for managing all available network resources in a way that benefits network operators while maintaining the expected user experience for subscribers. 
     The role of measurement in such policies is ever increasing. In various embodiments, a policy rule does not fully specify a network elements behavior, rather it does so conditional on some set of observations, measurements, metrics of what is going on in the network. This flexibility is may allow operators to maintain centralized control over the network, while distributing actual real-time decision making across the network to reduce complexity and control signaling overhead. 
     Provided herein are methods, systems and apparatus for managing and/or enforcing one or more policies for managing internet protocol (“IP”) traffic among multiple accesses of a network, including accesses employing different radio access technologies (“RAT”), in accordance with a policy for managing bandwidth among the multiple accesses (“BWM policy”). Policy-driven BWM across the multiple accesses may rely on intelligent and comprehensive policies that are driven by numerous criteria, such as, for example, operator policy, user subscription parameters, application requirements, network conditions, location, available power, etc. 
     The methods, systems and apparatus provided herein may be useful, for instance, for performing multi-access flow management, and/or bandwidth aggregation among the multiple accesses. Among the methods, systems and apparatus provided herein is a method that may include obtaining performance metrics associated with the multiple accesses. The method may also include adapting one or more rules of one or more the policies for managing IP traffic among the plurality of accesses based, at least in part, on the performance metrics and the policy for managing bandwidth among the plurality of accesses. The method may further include managing IP traffic associated with at least one wireless transmit and/or receive unit (“WTRU”) among the plurality of accesses responsive to the adapted rules. 
     Also provided herein are methods, systems and apparatus for enabling interaction among access network discovery and selection function (“ANDSF”) and policy control and charging (“PCC”) entities. As described in more detail below, such interaction may also be useful for multi-access flow management, and/or bandwidth aggregation among the multiple accesses. 
     Example Architecture 
       FIGS. 1A-1E  (collectively “ FIG. 1 ”) are block diagrams illustrating an example communications system  100  in which one or more disclosed embodiments may be implemented. The communications system  100 , for example, may be suitable for implementing and/or carrying out, for example, any of bandwidth management (“BWM”), bandwidth aggregation (“BWA”), flow management, internet protocol (“IP”) flow mobility (“IFOM”), and the like to IP traffic that may be carried over, across and/or among (collectively “among”) multiple accesses and/or access systems; some, all or none of which use different access technologies. The IFOM may be based on IP-level protocols. Such IP-level protocols may include, for example, general-packet-radio service (“GPRS”) tunneling protocol (“GTP”), and/or protocols based and/or built on Mobile-IP (“MIP”), such as, for example, dual-stack MIP version 6 (“DSMIPv6”) and proxy MIP version 6 (“PMIPv6”). 
     In general, the communications system  100  defines an architecture that supports multiple access systems over which multiple wireless users may access and/or exchange (e.g., send and/or receive) content, such as voice, data, video, messaging, broadcast, etc. The architecture also supports having two or more of the multiple access systems use and/or be configured in accordance with different access technologies. This way, the communications system  100  may service both wireless users capable of using a single access technology, and wireless users capable of using multiple access technologies. 
     The multiple access systems may include respective accesses; each of which may be, for example, an access network, access point and the like. In various embodiments, all of the multiple accesses may be configured with and/or employ the same radio access technologies (“RATs”). Some or all of such accesses (“single-RAT accesses”) may be owned, managed, controlled, operated, etc. by either (i) a single mobile network operator and/or carrier (collectively “MNO”) or (ii) multiple MNOs. In various embodiments, some or all of the multiple accesses may be configured with and/or employ different RATs. These multiple accesses (“multi-RAT accesses”) may be owned, managed, controlled, operated, etc. by either a single MNO or multiple MNOs. 
     The communications system  100  may enable the wireless users to access the content through sharing and/or distribution of system resources, including, for example, wireless bandwidth. The communications system  100 , for example, may employ one or more channel access methods, such as code division multiple access (CDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), frequency division multiple access (FDMA), orthogonal FDMA (OFDMA), single-carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA), and the like. 
     The communications system  100  may include wireless transmit/receive units (“WTRUs”)  102   a ,  102   b ,  102   c  and  102   d , a radio access network (“RAN”)  104 , a core network  106 , a public switched telephone network (“PSTN”)  108 , an internet  110 , and other networks  112 , though it will be appreciated that the disclosed embodiments contemplate any number of WTRUs, base stations, networks, and/or network elements. 
     Each of the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b ,  102   c  and  102   d  may be any type of device configured to operate and/or communicate in a wireless environment. By way of example, the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b ,  102   c  and  102   d  may be configured to transmit and/or receive wireless signals, and may include user equipment (“UE”), a mobile station, a fixed or mobile subscriber unit, a pager, a cellular telephone, a personal digital assistant (“PDA”), a Smartphone, a laptop, a netbook, a personal computer, a wireless sensor, consumer electronics, and the like. 
     The communications system  100  may also include a base station  114   a  and a base station  114   b . Each of the base stations  114   a ,  114   b  may be any type of device configured to wirelessly interface with at least one of the WTRUs and  102   d , and may facilitate access to one or more communication networks, such as the core network  106 , the internet  110 , and/or the other networks  112 . The base stations  114   a ,  114   b  may be, for example, any of a base transceiver station (“BTS”), Node-B (“NB”), evolved NB (“eNB”), Home NB (“HNB”), Home eNB (“HeNB”), enterprise NB (“ENT-NB”), enterprise eNB (“ENT-eNB”), a site controller, an access point (“AP”), a wireless router, and the like. Although depicted as a single element, each of the base stations  114   a ,  114   b  may nonetheless include any number of communicatively coupled base stations and/or network elements. The term “H/E(e)NB” is used hereinafter, for simplicity of exposition, to refer to a HNB, a HeNB, an ENT-NB, an ENT-eNB, a base station of a trusted-3GPP access network or the like. 
     The base station  114   a  may be part of the RAN  104 . As described in more detail below, the RAN  104  may include base stations and/or network elements other than the base station  114   a  (not shown), such as a base station controller (“BSC”), a radio network controller (“RNC”), relay nodes, etc. The base station  114   a  and/or the base station  114   b  may be configured to transmit and/or receive wireless signals within a particular geographic region, which may be referred to as a cell (not shown). The cell may further be divided into cell sectors. For example, the cell associated with the base station  114   a  may be divided into three sectors. Thus, in one embodiment, the base station  114   a  may include three transceivers, i.e., one for each sector of the cell. In another embodiment, the base station  114   a  may employ multiple-input multiple output (“MIMO”) technology and, therefore, may utilize multiple transceivers for each sector of the cell. 
     The base stations  114   a ,  114   b  may communicate with one or more of the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b ,  102   c  and  102   d  over an air interface  116 , which may be any suitable wireless communication link (e.g., radio frequency (“RF”), microwave, infrared (“IR”), ultraviolet (“UV”), visible light, etc.). The air interface  116  may be established using any suitable RAT. 
     More specifically, as noted above, the communications system  100  may be a multiple access system and may employ one or more channel access schemes, such as CDMA, TDMA, FDMA, OFDMA, SC-FDMA, and the like. For example, the base station  114   a  in the RAN  104  and the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  may implement a radio technology such as Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (“UMTS”) Terrestrial Radio Access (“UTRA”), which may establish the air interface  116  using wideband CDMA (“WCDMA”). WCDMA may include communication protocols such as High-Speed Packet Access (“HSPA”) and/or Evolved HSPA (“HSPA+”). HSPA may include High-Speed DL Packet Access (“HSDPA”) and/or High-Speed UL Packet Access (“HSUPA”). 
     In another embodiment, the base station  114   a  and the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  may implement a radio technology such as Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (“E-UTRA”), which may establish the air interface  116  using Long Term Evolution (“LTE”) and/or LTE-Advanced (“LTE-A”). 
     In other embodiments, the base station  114   a  and the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  may implement radio technologies such as IEEE 802.16 (i.e., Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (“WiMAX”)), CDMA2000, CDMA2000 12X, CDMA2000 EV-DO, Interim Standard 2000 (“IS-2000”), Interim Standard 95 (“IS-95”), Interim Standard 856 (“IS-856”), Global System for Mobile communications (“GSM”), Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (“EDGE”), GSM EDGE (“GERAN”), and the like. 
     The base station  114   b  in  FIG. 1A  may be a wireless router, Home Node-B, Home eNodeB, or access point, for example, and may utilize any suitable RAT for facilitating wireless connectivity in a localized area, such as a place of business, a home, a vehicle, a campus, and the like. In one embodiment, the base station  114   b  and the WTRUs  102   c ,  102   d  may implement a radio technology such as IEEE 802.11 to establish a wireless local area network (“WLAN”). In another embodiment, the base station  114   b  and the WTRUs  102   c ,  102   d  may implement a radio technology such as IEEE 802.15 to establish a wireless personal area network (“WPAN”). In yet another embodiment, the base station  114   b  and the WTRUs  102   c ,  102   d  may utilize a cellular-based RAT (e.g., WCDMA, CDMA2000, GSM, LTE, LTE-A, etc.) to establish a picocell or femtocell. As shown in  FIG. 1A , the base station  114   b  may have a direct connection to the Internet  110 . Thus, the base station  114   b  may not be required to access the Internet  110  via the core network  106 . 
     The RAN  104  may be in communication with the core network  106 , which may be any type of network configured to provide voice, data, applications, and/or voice over internet protocol (“VoIP”) services to one or more of the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b ,  102   c  and  102   d . For example, the core network  106  may provide call control, billing services, mobile location-based services, pre-paid calling, Internet connectivity, video distribution, etc., and/or perform high-level security functions, such as user authentication. Although not shown in  FIG. 1A , it will be appreciated that the RAN  104  and/or the core network  106  may be in direct or indirect communication with other RANs that employ the same RAT as the RAN  104  or a different RAT. For example, in addition to being connected to the RAN  104 , which may be utilizing an E-UTRA radio technology, the core network  106  may also be in communication with another RAN (not shown) employing a GSM radio technology. 
     The core network  106  may also serve as a gateway for the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b ,  102   c  and  102   d  to access the PSTN  108 , the Internet  110 , and/or other networks  112 . The PSTN  108  may include circuit-switched telephone networks that provide plain old telephone service (“POTS”). The Internet  110  may include a global system of interconnected computer networks and devices that use common communication protocols, such as the transmission control protocol (“TCP”), user datagram protocol (“UDP”) and the internet protocol (“IP”) in the TCP/IP internet protocol suite. The networks  112  may include wired or wireless communications networks owned and/or operated by other service providers. For example, the networks  112  may include another core network connected to one or more RANs, which may employ the same RAT as the RAN  104  or a different RAT. 
     Some or all of the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b ,  102   c  and  102   d  of the communications system  100  may include multi-mode capabilities, i.e., the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b ,  102   c  and  102   d  may include multiple transceivers for communicating with different wireless networks over different wireless links. For example, the WTRU  102   c  shown in  FIG. 1A  may be configured to communicate with the base station  114   a , which may employ a cellular-based radio technology, and with the base station  114   b , which may employ an IEEE 802 radio technology. 
       FIG. 1B  is a block diagram illustrating example architecture of a WTRU, such as the WTRU  102  of  FIG. 1A . As shown in  FIG. 1B , the WTRU  102  may include a processor  118 , a transceiver  120 , a transmit/receive element  122 , a speaker/microphone  124 , a keypad  126 , a display/touchpad  128 , a non-removable memory  130 , a removable memory  132 , a power source  134 , a global positioning system (“GPS”) chipset  136 , and other peripherals  138 . It will be appreciated that the WTRU  102  may include any sub-combination of the foregoing elements while remaining consistent with an embodiment. 
     The processor  118  may be a general purpose processor, a special purpose processor, a conventional processor, a digital signal processor (“DSP”), a plurality of microprocessors, one or more microprocessors in association with a DSP core, a controller, a microcontroller, Application Specific Integrated Circuits (“ASICs”), Field Programmable Gate Array (“FPGAs”) circuits, any other type of integrated circuit (“IC”), a state machine, and the like. The processor  118  may perform signal coding, data processing, power control, input/output processing, and/or any other functionality that enables the WTRU  102  to operate in a wireless environment. The processor  118  may be coupled to the transceiver  120 , which may be coupled to the transmit/receive element  122 . While  FIG. 1B  depicts the processor  118  and the transceiver  120  as separate components, it will be appreciated that the processor  118  and the transceiver  120  may be integrated together in an electronic package or chip. 
     The transmit/receive element  122  may be configured to transmit signals to, or receive signals from, a base station (e.g., the base station  114   a ) over the air interface  116 . For example, in one embodiment, the transmit/receive element  122  may be an antenna configured to transmit and/or receive RF signals. In another embodiment, the transmit/receive element  122  may be an emitter/detector configured to transmit and/or receive IR, UV, or visible light signals, for example. In yet another embodiment, the transmit/receive element  122  may be configured to transmit and receive both RF and light signals. It will be appreciated that the transmit/receive element  122  may be configured to transmit and/or receive any combination of wireless signals. 
     In addition, although the transmit/receive element  122  is depicted in  FIG. 1B  as a single element, the WTRU  102  may include any number of transmit/receive elements  122 . More specifically, the WTRU  102  may employ MIMO technology. Thus, in one embodiment, the WTRU  102  may include two or more transmit/receive elements  122  (e.g., multiple antennas) for transmitting and receiving wireless signals over the air interface  116 . 
     The transceiver  120  may be configured to modulate the signals that are to be transmitted by the transmit/receive element  122  and to demodulate the signals that are received by the transmit/receive element  122 . As noted above, the WTRU  102  may have multi-mode capabilities. Thus, the transceiver  120  may include multiple transceivers for enabling the WTRU  102  to communicate via multiple RATs, such as UTRA and IEEE 802.11, for example. 
     The processor  118  of the WTRU  102  may be coupled to, and may receive user input data from, the speaker/microphone  124 , the keypad  126 , and/or the display/touchpad  128  (e.g., a liquid crystal display (“LCD”) display unit or organic light-emitting diode (“OLED”) display unit). The processor  118  may also output user data to the speaker/microphone  124 , the keypad  126 , and/or the display/touchpad  128 . In addition, the processor  118  may access information from, and store data in, any type of suitable memory, such as the non-removable memory  130  and/or the removable memory  132 . The non-removable memory  130  may include random-access memory (“RAM”), read-only memory (“ROM”), a hard disk, or any other type of memory storage device. The removable memory  132  may include a subscriber identity (“ID”) module (“SIM”) card, a memory stick, a secure digital (“SD”) memory card, and the like. In other embodiments, the processor  118  may access information from, and store data in, memory that is not physically located on the WTRU  102 , such as on a server or a home computer (not shown). 
     The processor  118  may receive power from the power source  134 , and may be configured to distribute and/or control the power to the other components in the WTRU  102 . The power source  134  may be any suitable device for powering the WTRU  102 . For example, the power source  134  may include one or more dry cell batteries (e.g., nickel-cadmium (“NiCd”), nickel-zinc (“NiZn”), nickel metal hydride (“NiMH”), lithium-ion (“Li-ion”), etc.), solar cells, fuel cells, and the like. 
     The processor  118  may also be coupled to the GPS chipset  136 , which may be configured to provide location information (e.g., longitude and latitude) regarding the current location of the WTRU  102 . In addition to, or in lieu of, the information from the GPS chipset  136 , the WTRU  102  may receive location information over the air interface  116  from a base station (e.g., base stations  114   a ,  114   b ) and/or determine its location based on the timing of the signals being received from two or more nearby base stations. It will be appreciated that the WTRU  102  may acquire location information by way of any suitable location-determination method while remaining consistent with an embodiment. 
     The processor  118  may further be coupled to other peripherals  138 , which may include one or more software and/or hardware modules that provide additional features, functionality and/or wired or wireless connectivity. For example, the peripherals  138  may include an accelerometer, an e-compass, a satellite transceiver, a digital camera (for photographs or video), a universal serial bus (“USB”) port, a vibration device, a television transceiver, a hands free headset, a Bluetooth® module, a frequency modulated (“FM”) radio unit, a digital music player, a media player, a video game player module, an Internet browser, and the like. 
       FIG. 1C  is a block diagram illustrating example architectures of the RAN  104  and core network  106  according to an embodiment. The RAN  104  may be an access service network (“ASN”) that employs IEEE 802.16 radio technology to communicate with the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  over the air interface  116 . As will be further discussed below, the communication links between the different functional entities of the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c , the RAN  104 , and the core network  106  may be defined as reference points. 
     As shown in  FIG. 1C , the RAN  104  may include base stations  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c , and an ASN gateway  142 , though it will be appreciated that the RAN  104  may include any number of base stations and ASN gateways while remaining consistent with an embodiment. The base stations  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  may each be associated with a particular cell (not shown) in the RAN  104  and may each include one or more transceivers for communicating with the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  over the air interface  116 . In one embodiment, the base stations  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  may implement MIMO technology. Thus, the base station  140   a , for example, may use multiple antennas to transmit wireless signals to, and receive wireless signals from, the WTRU  102   a . The base stations  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  may also provide mobility management functions, such as handoff triggering, tunnel establishment, radio resource management, traffic classification, quality of service (“QoS”) policy enforcement, and the like. The ASN gateway  142  may serve as a traffic aggregation point and may be responsible for paging, caching of subscriber profiles, routing to the core network  106 , and the like. 
     The air interface  116  between the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  and the RAN  104  may be defined as an R 1  reference point that implements the IEEE 802.16 specification. In addition, each of the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  may establish a logical interface (not shown) with the core network  106 . The logical interface between the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  and the core network  106  may be defined as an R 2  reference point, which may be used for authentication, authorization, IP host configuration management, and/or mobility management. 
     The communication link between each of the base stations  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  may be defined as an R 8  reference point that includes protocols for facilitating WTRU handovers and the transfer of data between base stations. The communication link between the base stations  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  and the ASN gateway  142  may be defined as an R 6  reference point. The R 6  reference point may include protocols for facilitating mobility management based on mobility events associated with each of the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b ,  100   c.    
     As shown in  FIG. 1C , the RAN  104  may be connected to the core network  106 . The communication link between the RAN  104  and the core network  106  may be defined as an R 3  reference point that includes protocols for facilitating data transfer and mobility management capabilities, for example. The core network  106  may include a mobile IP (“MIP”) home agent (“MIP-HA”)  144 , an authentication, authorization, accounting (“AAA”) server  146 , and a gateway  148 . While each of the foregoing elements is depicted as part of the core network  106 , it will be appreciated that any one of these elements may be owned and/or operated by an entity other than the core network operator. 
     The MIP-HA may be responsible for IP address management, and may enable the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  to roam between different ASNs and/or different core networks. The MIP-HA  144  may provide the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  with access to packet-switched networks, such as the Internet  110 , to facilitate communications between the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  and IP-enabled devices. The AAA server  146  may be responsible for user authentication and for supporting user services. The gateway  148  may facilitate interworking with other networks. For example, the gateway  148  may provide the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  with access to circuit-switched networks, such as the PSTN  108 , to facilitate communications between the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  and traditional land-line communications devices. In addition, the gateway  148  may provide the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  with access to the networks  112 , which may include other wired or wireless networks that are owned and/or operated by other service providers. 
     Although not shown in  FIG. 1C , it will be appreciated that the RAN  104  may be connected to other ASNs and the core network  106  may be connected to other core networks. The communication link between the RAN  104  the other ASNs may be defined as an R 4  reference point, which may include protocols for coordinating the mobility of the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  between the RAN  104  and the other ASNs. The communication link between the core network  106  and the other core networks may be defined as an R 5  reference, which may include protocols for facilitating interworking between home core networks and visited core networks. 
       FIG. 1D  is a block diagram illustrating an example of the RAN  104  and the core network  106 . As noted above, the RAN  104  may employ a UTRA radio technology to communicate with the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  over the air interface  116 . The RAN  104  may also be in communication with the core network  106 . As shown in  FIG. 1D , the RAN  104  may include Node-Bs  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c , which may each include one or more transceivers for communicating with the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  over the air interface  116 . The Node-Bs  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  may each be associated with a particular cell (not shown) within the RAN  104 . The RAN  104  may also include RNCs  142   a ,  142   b . It will be appreciated that the RAN  104  may include any number of Node-Bs and RNCs while remaining consistent with an embodiment. 
     As shown in  FIG. 1D , the Node-Bs  140   a ,  140   b  may be in communication with the RNC  142   a . Additionally, the Node-B  140   c  may be in communication with the RNC  142   b . The Node-Bs  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  may communicate with the respective RNCs  142   a ,  142   b  via an Iub interface. The RNCs  142   a ,  142   b  may be in communication with one another via an Iur interface. Each of the RNCs  142   a ,  142   b  may be configured to control the respective Node-Bs  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  to which it is connected. In addition, each of the RNCs  142   a ,  142   b  may be configured to carry out or support other functionality, such as outer loop power control, load control, admission control, packet scheduling, handover control, macrodiversity, security functions, data encryption, and the like. 
     The core network  106  shown in  FIG. 1D  may include a media gateway (“MGW”)  144 , a mobile switching center (“MSC”)  146 , a serving GPRS support node (“SGSN”)  148 , and/or a gateway GPRS support node (“GGSN”)  150 . While each of the foregoing elements is depicted as part of the core network  106 , it will be appreciated that any one of these elements may be owned and/or operated by an entity other than the core network operator. 
     The RNC  142   a  in the RAN  104  may be connected to the MSC  146  in the core network  106  via an IuCS interface. The MSC  146  may be connected to the MGW  144 . The MSC  146  and the MGW  144  may provide the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  with access to circuit-switched networks, such as the PSTN  108 , to facilitate communications between the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  and traditional land-line communications devices. 
     The RNC  142   a  in the RAN  104  may also be connected to the SGSN  148  in the core network  106  via an IuPS interface. The SGSN  148  may be connected to the GGSN  150 . The SGSN  148  and the GGSN  150  may provide the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  with access to packet-switched networks, such as the Internet  110 , to facilitate communications between and the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  and IP-enabled devices. 
     As noted above, the core network  106  may also be connected to the networks  112 , which may include other wired or wireless networks that are owned and/or operated by other service providers. 
       FIG. 1E  is a block diagram illustrating an example of the RAN  104  and the core network  106 . As noted above, the RAN  104  may employ an E-UTRA radio technology to communicate with the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  over the air interface  116 . The RAN  104  may also be in communication with the core network  106 . 
     The RAN  104  may include eNode-Bs  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c , though it will be appreciated that the RAN  104  may include any number of eNode-Bs while remaining consistent with an embodiment. The eNode-Bs  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  may each include one or more transceivers for communicating with the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  over the air interface  116 . In one embodiment, the eNode-Bs  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  may implement MIMO technology. Thus, the eNode-B  140   a , for example, may use multiple antennas to transmit wireless signals to, and receive wireless signals from, the WTRU  102   a.    
     Each of the eNode-Bs  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  may be associated with a particular cell (not shown) and may be configured to handle radio resource management decisions, handover decisions, scheduling of users in the uplink and/or downlink, and the like. As shown in  FIG. 1E , the eNode-Bs  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  may communicate with one another over an X2 interface. 
     The core network  106  shown in  FIG. 1E  may include a mobility management gateway (“MME”)  142 , a serving gateway  144 , and a packet data network (“PDN”) gateway  146 . While each of the foregoing elements is depicted as part of the core network  106 , it will be appreciated that any one of these elements may be owned and/or operated by an entity other than the core network operator. 
     The MME  142  may be connected to each of the eNode-Bs  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  in the RAN  104  via an S1 interface and may serve as a control node. For example, the MME  142  may be responsible for authenticating users of the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c , bearer activation/deactivation, selecting a particular serving gateway during an initial attach of the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c , and the like. The MME  142  may also provide a control plane function for switching between the RAN  104  and other RANs (not shown) that employ other radio technologies, such as GSM or WCDMA. 
     The serving gateway  144  may be connected to each of the eNode Bs  140   a ,  140   b  and  140   c  in the RAN  104  via the S1 interface. The serving gateway  144  may generally route and forward user data packets to/from the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c . The serving gateway  144  may also perform other functions, such as anchoring user planes during inter-eNode B handovers, triggering paging when downlink data is available for the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c , managing and storing contexts of the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c , and the like. 
     The serving gateway  144  may also be connected to the PDN gateway  146 , which may provide the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  with access to packet-switched networks, such as the Internet  110 , to facilitate communications between the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  and IP-enabled devices. 
     The core network  106  may facilitate communications with other networks. For example, the core network  106  may provide the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  with access to circuit-switched networks, such as the PSTN  108 , to facilitate communications between the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  and traditional land-line communications devices. For example, the core network  106  may include, or may communicate with, an IP gateway (e.g., an IP multimedia subsystem (“IMS”) server) that serves as an interface between the core network  106  and the PSTN  108 . In addition, the core network  106  may provide the WTRUs  102   a ,  102   b  and  102   c  with access to the networks  112 , which may include other wired or wireless networks that are owned and/or operated by other service providers. 
       FIG. 2  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a communications system  200  in which one or more disclosed embodiments may be implemented and/or carried out. The communications system  200  may be suitable for implementing and/or carrying out any of BWM, BWA, flow management, IFOM and the like to IP traffic that may be carried among multiple accesses and/or access systems. And like the communications system  100  of  FIGS. 1A-E , the communications system  200  may include multiple access systems configured in accordance with different access technologies. 
     The communications system  200  may include a WTRU  202  and a network  203 . The network  203  may be configured, for example, in accordance with a home mobility service architecture for interworking WLAN (“I-WLAN”) mobility. The network  203  may include first and second access systems  205   1 ,  205   2 , a home agent (“HA”)  207 , an authentication, authorization and accounting (“AAA”) server  246 , a home subscriber server (“HSS”)  218  and network control nodes  230  interfacing with the HA  207 . The AAA server  246  may be, for example, a 3GPP AAA server. As shown, the HA  207  may communicate with an external PDN  210  via an HGi interface. The external PDN  210  may be, for example, any of a public internet network and an operator service network. 
     The first access system  205   1  may be configured in accordance with at least one release of 3GPP, and/or an access technology protocol of a non-3GPP cellular or cellular-like protocol (collectively hereinafter “3GPP/Cellular access system  205   1 ”). The 3GPP/Cellular access system  205   1  may include, for example, a GERAN/UTRAN  204   1 , a SGSN  248  and a GGSN/access router (“AR”)  250 . 
     The GERAN/UTRAN  204   1  may communicate with the WTRU  202  via a Uu/Um interface, and with the SGSN  248  via an lu_ps/Gb interface. The SGSN  248  may communicate with the GGSN/AR  250  using a Gn interface. The GGSN/AR  250  may communicate with the HA  207  via a connection established using an H3 reference point (“H3 connectivity”). 
     The second access system  205   2  may be configured in accordance with an access technology of a WLAN, WPAN and like-type wireless networks (collectively hereinafter “WLAN access system  205   2 ”). The WLAN access system  205   2  may include a WLAN access network  204   2 , a WLAN access gateway (“WAG”)  242  and a PDG/AR  216 . The WLAN access network  205   2  may communicate with the WTRU  202  via a Ww interface, and with the WAG  242  via a Wn interface. The WAG  1314 , in turn, may communicate with the PDG/AR  216  using a Wp interface. The PDG/AR  216  may communicate with the HA  207  using H3 connectivity. 
     The WTRU  202  may communicate with the PDG/AR  216  via a Wu interface. The Wu interface may be a defined interface of the WLAN access network  205   2 , for example. The WTRU  202  and the HA  207  may communicate via a connection established using, for example, an H1 reference point (“H2connection”). The H1 connection may be established via any of the 3GPP/Cellular and WLAN access systems  205   1 ,  205   2 . The H1 interface may be realized via a Dual Stack MIP (“DSMIP”) tunnel between the WTRU  202  and HA  207  inside an IPSec tunnel between the WTRU  202  and PDG/AR  216 . 
     The HA  207  and WTRU  202  may, for example, exchange signaling messages over the H1 connection. The signaling messages may include DSMIPv4 signaling messages; DSMIPv6 signaling messages; signaling messages that are based on, extensions of, related to, modifications of the DSMIPv4 and DSMIPv6 signaling messages; and other like-type signaling messages (collectively “DSMIP signaling messages”). Examples of the DSMIP signaling messages include a binding update (“BU”) message, a binding acknowledgment (“BA”) message, a reject binding update (“Rej-BU”) message, a modify binding update request (“Mod-BU”) message and a binding confirmation (“BC”) message. 
     The HA  207  and WTRU  202  may use the DSMIP signaling messages, for example, to keep track of which of the 3GPP/Cellular and WLAN access systems  205   1 ,  205   2  the WTRU  220  is camping on and/or has recently camped on. The HA  207  and WTRU  202  may also use the DSMIP signaling messages to facilitate multi access PDN connectivity (“MAPCON”) and IFOM (“MAPIM”). Both WTRU-initiated and network-initiated MAPIM may be carried out, such as described in detail in, for example, U.S. Prov. Pat. Appln. Ser. No. 61/514,895, filed on 3 Aug. 2011, and entitled “Network-Initiated and/or Network-Managed Internet Protocol Flow Mobility across Multiple-Access Technologies” and PCT International Patent Application Number PCT/US2011/50577, filed on 7 Sep. 2011, and entitled “Bandwidth Management, Aggregation and Internet Protocol Flow Mobility across Multiple-Access Technologies”. The DSMIP signaling messages may traverse the H1 connection using UDP over IP, and may be transparent to the GGSN/AR  250  and the PDG/AR  216 . 
     Although the HA  207  is shown as a stand-alone entity in  FIG. 2 , the HA  207  may be co-located with and/or distributed among any of the GGSN/AR  250 , PDG/AR  216  or another entity of the 3GPP/Cellular and/or WLAN access systems  205   1 ,  205   2  (not shown). Alternatively, functionality of the HA  207  may be distributed among any of the GGSN/AR  250 , PDG/AR  216  or another entity of the 3GPP/Cellular and/or WLAN access systems  205   1 ,  205   2 . 
       FIGS. 3A-3C  are block diagrams illustrating an example of a communications system  300  in which one or more disclosed embodiments may be implemented and/or carried out. The communications system  300  may be suitable for implementing and/or carrying out any of BWM, BWA, flow management, IFOM and the like to IP traffic that may be carried over among multiple accesses and/or access systems; some, all or none of which use different access technologies. 
     The communications system  300  may include a WTRU  302  and an enhanced packet core (“EPC”) network (shown generally  303 ). The EPC network  303  may include a 3GPP access  304   1 , a trusted non-3GPP access  304   2 , an untrusted non-3GPP access  304   3 ; a HA  307  ( FIG. 3B ), a HSS and/or a subscriber profile repository (“SPR”) (collectively “HSS/SPR”)  318 , Policy and Charging Control (“PCC”) architecture shown generally as  319  ( FIG. 3C ), an access network discovery and selection function (“ANDSF”)  322 , a network monitoring and control function (“NMCF”)  324 , an evolved PDG (“ePDG”)  326 , a 3GPP AAA server  346 , a SGW  364 , a PGW  366  and a retransmission coordination function (“RCF”)  368 . 
     The PCC architecture  319  may support both 3GPP networks and non-3GPP networks interfacing with the EPC network  303 . The PCC architecture  319  may also support dynamic PCC for IFOM among multiple simultaneous 3GPP and non-3GPP access connections, e.g., among any of the 3GPP access  304   1 , trusted non-3GPP access  304   2 , and untrusted non-3GPP access  304   3  (collectively “accesses  304   1-3 ”). The PCC architecture  319  may include, as a baseline, the 3GPP PCC architecture due to general acceptance of such framework by non-3GPP and fixed broadband networks as well as 3GPP, but the concepts may be applied to other architectures as well. The overall PCC architecture  319  may include elements in addition to and/or in lieu of the 3GPP PCC architecture. 
     The PCC architecture  319  may handle policy and charging for the IP Multimedia Subsystem (“IMS”) over operator IP networks, for example, QoS policy control and flow-based charging. The PCC architecture  319  may also handle policy and charging for non-IMS services, including over-the-top services (e.g., video streaming services on the Internet). In various embodiments, preconfigured PCC rules may be used on specific types of IP traffic identified via packet inspection (e.g., deep packet inspection (“DPI”)) and/or some other technique or method. 
     The PCC architecture  319  may perform QoS policy control. The QoS policy control may be used to ensure that delivery of one or more specified sets of IP user plane packets, defined as a service data flow (“SDF”), is maintained at or above a guaranteed bit rate (if specified), and/or to ensure that such delivery does not exceed a specified maximum bit rate. In various embodiments, the guaranteed bit rate may be used to allocate network resources, while the maximum bit rate may be used to enforce the maximum bit rate that the SDF may consume. The SDF may be identified by a 5-tuple. The 5-tuple may include, for example, a source IP address, a destination IP address, a source port number, a destination port number, and a transport protocol (TCP/UDP). 
     The PCC policy rules may be maintained in a policy and charging rules function (“PCRF”)  320  and enforced by a policy charging and enforcement function (“PCEF”)  370  ( FIG. 3B ). The PCEF  370  may be a function of, or collocated in the PGW  366  (or, alternatively, in a GGSN of a packet-switched core network (“PS CN”)). The PCEF  370  may reside in the user plane, and may function to ensure that the PCC policy rules are followed. The PCEF  370  may apply, for example, (i) QoS policies related to gating (block/allow) and traffic shaping (reduce the bandwidth), and (ii), online and offline charging policies. The QoS policies may be at SDF-level or other level of granularity. 
     The PCC architecture  319  may include several (e.g., open) interfaces. These interfaces may include, for example, an Rx interface and a Gx interface. The Rx interface may allow an application function (“AF”)  372  ( FIG. 3C ) in any of the PDNs  310  to provide SDF information, including QoS requirements, to the PCRF  320  using a Diameter protocol. The PCRF  320  may use such information as input to PCC rule generation. 
     The PCRF  320  may receive a request containing media level information about a flow from the AF  372 . The PCRF  320  may analyze the offered characteristics (set forth in the request) against operator defined policy, and authorize a certain QoS reservation and/or reject the request from the AF  372 . The PCRF may download service-related and/or subscriber-related information from the HSS/SPR  318 . As described in more detail below, the PCRF  320  may also provide rules (e.g., PCC rules, event report triggers, etc.) to the PCEF  370 . 
     The PCRF  320  may have dynamic control over PCC behavior at a PCEF  370 . Such dynamic control may be enabled by the Gx interface. Some PCC rules may be pre-configured, and the PCEF  370  may apply these rules to specific types of IP traffic. The specific types of IP traffic may be identified by way of packet inspection, for example. 
     In addition to using GPRS Tunneling Protocol (“GTP”) to provide access to the PGW  366  (or, a GGSN), the PCC architecture  319  may use Internet Engineering Task Force (“IETF”) based Mobile IP (“MIP”) protocols (e.g., any of MIPv4, PMIPv6 and DSMIPv6) to facilitate convergence of the trusted non-3GPP access  304   2 , untrusted non-3GPP access  304   3 , and other systems, such as 3GPP2, WLAN, and WiMAX (not shown) with the non-3GPP systems. To facilitate the use of MIP protocols that do not support the QoS-related signaling inherent in GTP, the PCC architecture  319  may include a Bearer Binding and Event Reporting Function (“BBERF”)  374 . The BBERF  374  may include a Diameter-based Gxx interface for QoS information conveyed from the PCRF  320 . 
     The PCC architecture  319  may also support access to home services or direct local services when roaming in a visited Private Land Mobile Network (“PLMN”) (not shown). This support may be enabled by PCC policy peering via a Diameter-based S9 interface between Home and Visited PCRFs, for example. 
     Although not shown, the EPC network  303  may include a User Data Repository (“UDR”), instead of the HSS/SPR  318 , to store PCC related subscription data, if, for example, a User Data Convergence (“UDC”) architecture is employed. The PCC architecture  319  may include a Traffic Detection Function (“TDF”)  376 . The TDF  376  may perform application traffic detection, notification, and policy control for traffic detected on the 3GPP access  304   1 , trusted non-3GPP access  304   2 , and untrusted non-3GPP access  304   3 . The PCC architecture  319  may support an SPR-based architecture for roaming with home-routed access, which may be facilitated by S9 roaming interfaces and the TDF  376 . 
     The PCC architecture  319  may handle multiple simultaneous access connections, and support for DSMIPv6 based IFOM, including both WTRU-initiated and/or network-initiated IFOM. The support for such IFOM may involve the PCEF  370  keeping the PCRF  320  up to date about a current routing address and IFOM routing rules for each IP flow. The IFOM routing rules may include information that the PCRF  320  may use to install, in the PCEF  370 , the QoS rules for SDFs subject to flow mobility. The IFOM routing rules may be provided to the PCRF  320  from the PCEF  370  during session establishment or modification. The PCEF  370  may derive the IFOM routing rules based on flow binding information received from the WTRU  302 . 
     The PCC architecture  319  may also include an Event Reporting Function (“ERF”) (not shown). The ERF may perform event trigger detection. The ERF, for example, may report an event to the PCRF  320  responsive to the event matching the event trigger. The ERF may be integrated into, integral to, combined with co-located with any of the PCEF  370 , BBERF  374  and TDF  376  for solicited application reporting (if applicable). 
     The PCRF  320  may accept input for PCC decision-making from any of the PCEF  370 , BBERF  374 , TDF  376 , the HSS/SPR  318 , AF  372 , and itself. One or more PCC policy rules, QoS control rules, IP-CAN bearer/session policy information rules, usage monitoring control information rules, IFOM routing rules and application detection and control (ADC) rules may be handled by the PCC architecture  319 . For example, the SDFs may be mapped to PCC policy rules sent to the PCEF  370 . These PCC policy rules may include a rule name, a service identifier, one or more SDF filters, precedence, gate status (open/closed), QoS parameters, charging key (rating group), other charging parameters, and the like. 
     The QoS control rules sent to BBERF  374  may include a subset of the PCC policy rules. As an example, the QoS control rules may include the rule name, one or more of the SDF filters, the precedence and the QoS parameters. Alternatively, the QoS control rules may be the same as the PCC policies rules. The QoS parameters provided in both of the PCC policy rules and the QoS control rules may include a QoS Class Identifier (“QCI”), reserved bit rates for guaranteed bearers, maximum bit rates for best effort bearers, allocation/retention priority (“ARP”), APN-Aggregated Maximum Bit Rate (“AMBR”), and the like. The QoS parameters may include other parameters, as well. 
     Bearer binding may involve association of PCC policy rules to an access bearer. For GTP-based access, both charging and QoS rule enforcement may be carried out by the PCEF  370 . For PMIPv6 access, the QoS information might not be conveyed using GTP-based protocols. A Diameter-based control protocol may be used over the Gxx interface instead to convey the QoS rules to the BBERF  374 . In various embodiments, the bearer binding may occur in the BBERF  374 , but charging and/or gating may be carried out in the PCEF  370 . 
     The ANDSF  322  may provide 3GPP/non-3GPP interworking information for the WTRU  302  over an IP-based S14 interface, for example. In general, the ANDSF  322  may enable carrier to balance subscribers among the available accesses  304   1-3  using best access selection criteria based on current requirements of the WTRU  302 . The ANDSF  322  may provide support for IFOM as currently standardized using DSMIPv6 or otherwise. 
     The ANDSF  322  may assist the WTRU  302  in discovery of the non-3GPP accesses, such as the trusted and untrusted non-3GPP accesses  304   2 ,  304   3 . The ANDSF  322  may provide the WTRU  302  with rules for policing the connection to these networks, such as, inter-system mobility policies (“ISMP”) and inter-system routing policies (“ISRP”) using, for example, a management object (“MO”) (“ANDSF MO”). The relation between the ISMP, the ISRP and discovery information may be that (i) the ISMP prioritize accesses  304   1-3  when the WTRU  302  is not capable of connecting to the EPC network  303  through multiple accesses, (ii) the ISRP indicate how to distribute traffic among available accesses  304   1-3  when the WTRU  302  is capable of connecting to the EPC network  303  through the multiple accesses (e.g., the WTRU  302  is configured for IFOM, MAPCON, non-seamless WLAN offload or any combination of these capabilities); and (iii) and the discovery information provides further information for the WTRU  302  to access the accesses  304   1-3  defined in the ISMP and/or the ISRP. 
     The ISMP may enable IP flow level control. The ISMP may be provided by a MNO, and may be defined per access point name (“APN”), per IP flow class under any APN or per IP flow class under a specific APN. The ISMP may be defined in other ways, as well. The IP flow class may be identified via any of a media type (e.g. audio), IMS Communication Service Identifier (e.g., MMTEL) for IMS applications and respective 5-tuple (IP source address, IP destination address, source port, destination port, protocol type) for any type of application. The 5-tuple may include wildcard values in any of the possible fields. For example, the ANDSF  322  may indicate that 3GPP access  304   1  has a highest priority access for a given IP flow class, and the untrusted-non-3GPP access  304   3  has a highest priority access for another IP flow class. 
     The ISRP may provide the capability to identify traffic based on types of information, including extrinsic information available to the WTRU  302 , such as the APN, and IP packet header information. The IP packet header information may include, for example, transport protocol, destination port and destination IP address. 
     The ANDSF  322  may also be adapted to perform traffic identification and/or record traffic-identification information. Identification of the traffic may be based on (i) throughput (e.g., identifying traffic based on the total amount of data sent/received); (ii) an application (e.g., identifying traffic based on an application ID/name/etc.); (iii) content type (e.g., identifying traffic based on the type of content (e.g. video, audio, data, control, etc.); and (iv) destination domain (e.g., identifying traffic based on the destination domain, such as the fully qualified destination name (“FQDN”) in the web request). The traffic-detection information may be stored in the ANDSF MO along with other ANDSF information described herein and/or set forth in 3GPP TS 24.312. 
     The ANDSF  322  may receive from the WTRU  302  an indication of its capability to support ISMP and/or ISRP when, for example, the WTRU  302  is in the process of establishing a connection. The ANDSF  322  may provide the policies (e.g., the ISMP and/or ISRP) to the WTRU  302 , and, based on the provided policies, the WTRU  302  may request the PGW  366  (e.g., the HA  307  per DSMIPv6-based IFOM) to route IP flows to the 3GPP access  304   1 , trusted non-3GPP access  304   2 , and/or untrusted non-3GPP access  304   3 ; as appropriate 
     In various embodiments, the communications system  300  may include support (e.g., any of an interface or reference point) for establishing and/or exploiting interaction (direct or otherwise) between the PCC architecture  319  and ANDSF  322  including, for example, handling of potential policy-related conflicts. The ANDSF  322 , PCC architecture  319  and functionality provided herein may include elements and functions to permit interaction between the ANDSF  322  and PCC architecture  319  to facilitate policy-based flow management among any of the accesses  304   1-3 . The policy-based flow management may allow MNOs to provide users with an expected quality of experience (“QoE”). The expected QoE may be obtained through, for example, one or more polices (“BWM policies”) for managing bandwidth among any of the accesses  304   1-3 . Some or all of the BWM policies may be configured to make flexible and/or efficient use of network resources. The interaction may be manifested as control plane functionality (e.g., signaling) between ANDSF  322  and entities of the PCC architecture  319 , such as, for example, between the ANDSF  322  and the PCRF  320 . The control plane signaling may subsequently affect user plane paths delivering data services. 
     Depending on capabilities of the WTRU  302  and network, policy-based traffic management may be employed to 1) identify and segregate IP data flows (“IP flows”) based on a type of service in use (e.g., “flow identification” and “flow filtering”, respectively), and/or 2) assign specific flows or sub-flows over at least two of the accesses  304   1-s imultaneously (“flow routing” and “sub-flow routing”, respectively). 
     Mobility signaling may be used to provide routing information to the network (e.g., PGW/HA  366 / 307  in the EPC network  303 ), resulting in possible establishment, modification, or deletion of bearers carrying IP flows. The PCC signaling may used to provide QoS rules and event report triggers to the appropriate gateways (e.g., e.g., PGW/PCEF  366 / 370  in the EPC network  303 ) at a SDF or other level based on a current routing of IP flows. 
     In addition to WTRU-initiated mobility signaling to the DSMIPv6 Home Agent (HA)  307  to trigger the PCEF-to-PCRF PCC signaling, signaling between the WTRU  302  and ANDSF  322 , and between the ANDSF  322  and PCRF  320  may be carried out. For example, measurements or metrics about (e.g., performance of) the network (e.g., local operating environments) may be collected by the WTRU  302  and one or more RANs. These measurements and/or metrics (collectively “measurements”) may be extracted from RAT drivers, application statistics, etc., for example. 
     Once collected, various reporting mechanism may be used by the WTRU  302  and/or RANs to report the measurements to any of the ANDSF  322  and PCRF  320 . As an example, the measurements may be reported back to the ANDSF  322  by storing the measurements in the ANDSF MO (“UE-MO”) at the WTRU  302 , and synchronizing the ANDSF MO (“NETWORK-MO”) at the ANDSF  322  using any of a push and/or pull model. 
     To facilitate reporting the measurements along with other information (e.g., policy information) to the PCRF  320 , the PCRF  320  may establish a connection (direct or otherwise) with the ANDSF  322  over a defined interface. This interface may be defined in accordance with a standardized or proprietary protocol. For example, the interface may be defined in accordance with any of a Diameter protocol, Diameter application and a protocol based on the Diameter protocol. Alternatively the interface may be defined in accordance with a device management (“DM”) protocol, such as, for example, Open-Mobile Alliance (“OMA”) DM protocol. The PCRF  320  may also establish a connection with the WTRU  302  via the connection with the ANDSF  322 . 
     Although the PGW  366  includes the functionality of HA  307 , as shown in  FIG. 3B , such functionality of the HA  307  may be implemented as a stand-alone entity or as an entity of the EPC network  303  other than the PGW  366 . As an alternative, the functionality of the HA  307  may be distributed among a number of entities of the EPC network  303 . As another alternative, the HA  307  may be co-located with any of the PGW  366  and another entity of the EPC network  303  (not shown). 
     The EPC network  303  may define a 3GPP access system  305   1 , a trusted-non-3GPP-access system  305   2  (e.g., a levDo access system) and an untrusted-non-3GPP-access system  305   3  (e.g., a WLAN access system) As shown, the 3GPP access system  305   1  may include the 3GPP access  304   1 , the SGW  364  and the PGW  366 . The trusted-non-3GPP-access system  305   2  may include the trusted non-3GPP access  304   2 , and the PGW  366 . The trusted non-3GPP access  304   2  may include an access gateway (“AGW”)  375  communicatively coupled with the PGW  366  and one or more of the base stations of the trusted non-3GPP access  304   2  (not shown). The untrusted-non-3GPP-access system  305   3  may include the untrusted non-3GPP access  304   3 , the ePDG  326  and the PGW  366 . 
     The WTRU  302  may exchange DSMIP signaling messages with the HA  307  via any of the 3GPP access system  305   1 , trusted-non-3GPP-access system  305   2  and untrusted-non-3GPP-access system  305   3  The DSMIP signaling messages may be carried via an S2c interface or any other suitable interface. 
     The NMCF  324  may obtain performance metrics associated with any of the accesses  304   1-3 . The NMCF  324  may, for example, collect performance metrics, such as, congestion, connectivity, loading, latency, etc. associated with local radio and/or backhaul links, via interfaces on the accesses  304   1-3 . Alternatively, the NMCF  324  may garner the performance metrics from one or more network condition reports (e.g., radio reports) associated with the accesses  304   1-3 . The network condition reports may emanate from any of (i) the WTRU(s)  302  (“WTRU network condition report(s)”); (ii) the untrusted non-3GPP access  304   3  (“untrusted-access network condition report(s)”), trusted non-3GPP access  304   2  (“trusted-access network condition report(s)”) and the 3GPP access  304   1  (“3GPP network condition report(s)”). The NMCF  324  may receive the network condition reports directly from the WTRUs  302  and/or the accesses  304   1-3 . Alternatively and/or additionally, the NMCF  324  may receive the network condition reports by way of one or more network entities, such as any of the PCRF  320 , ANDSF  322 , HSS/SPR  318  and PGW  366 . 
     The WTRU network condition reports, individually or collectively, may include one or more of the performance metrics associated with one or more of the accesses  304   1-3 , as detected, measured or otherwise obtained by the WTRUs  302 . The WTRU network condition reports, individually or collectively, may include, in addition to or in lieu of such performance metrics, information from which one or more performance metrics may be derived, generated or otherwise obtained (hereinafter “performance information”). 
     The untrusted-access network condition reports, individually or collectively, may include one or more of the performance metrics and/or performance information associated with the untrusted non-3GPP access  304   3 , as detected, measured or otherwise obtained by one or more BSs (e.g., WLAN APs) of the untrusted non-3GPP access  304   3 . The trusted-access network condition reports may include one or more of the performance metrics and/or performance information associated with the trusted non-3GPP access  304   2 , as detected, measured or otherwise obtained by one or more BSs (e.g., H/E(e)NBs) of the trusted non-3GPP access  304   2 . The 3GPP-RAN reports, individually or collectively, may include one or more of the performance metrics and/or performance information associated with the 3GPP access  304   1 , as detected, measured or otherwise obtained by one or more BSs (e.g., NBs and/or eNBs) of the 3GPP access  304   1 . 
     For scalability, the performance metrics, performance information and/or the network condition reports may be aggregated by network edge nodes (aggregation points) for exchange with the NMCF  324 . In various embodiments, the ePDG  326  may be the aggregation point for the performance metrics, performance information and/or network condition reports associated with the untrusted non-3GPP access  304   3 . The AGW  375  may be the aggregation point for the performance metrics, performance information and/or network condition reports associated with the trusted non-3GPP access  304   2 . The SGW  364  may be the aggregation point for the performance metrics, performance information and/or network condition reports associated with the 3GPP access  304   1 . Aggregation may be carried out using, for example, an OMA-type interface. The OMA-type interface may permit exchange of the performance metrics, performance information and/or network condition reports, including, for example, alarm notifications. 
     In various embodiments, the NMCF  324  may obtain the performance metrics, performance information and/or network condition reports on a real-time and/or a near real-time basis. The real-time and/or near real-time basis may allow for decisions to be made more accurately than those made using a non-real-time and/or non-near-real-time basis. 
     The NMCF  324  may use probing and/or passive monitoring techniques to collect, derive, generate or otherwise obtain the performance metrics. The NMCF  324  may, for example, probe and/or passively monitor the performance information and/or network condition reports, and generate performance metrics based, at least in part, on the performance information and/or network condition reports. The NMCF  324  may evaluate the performance metrics, and provide the performance metrics and/or an evaluation of the performance metrics to various entities of the communications system  100 . For example, the NMCF  324  may monitor and generate, from the performance information and/or network condition reports, performance metrics related to packet retransmissions (“retransmission metrics”) for any of the accesses  304   1-3 . Such retransmission metrics may include, for example, statistics related to the packet retransmissions, such as, a number or rate of the packet transmissions. 
     The NMCF  324  may also send the retransmission metrics to the RCF  368  responsive to such metrics (e.g., the number or rate of retransmissions) for any of the accesses  304   1-3  exceeding, approaching and/or satisfying a threshold (“retransmission threshold”). The retransmission threshold may be and/or be based on a maximum number or rate of retransmissions, and may be defined by a MNO. Values of the retransmission threshold may be defined as policies per access in the PCRF  320 . The performance metrics related to packet retransmission may be sent on a per access basis or otherwise. 
     The RCF  368  may receive the retransmission metrics the NCMF  324  and may decide whether or not to switch retransmitted packets from one of the accesses  304   1-3  to another. When the number of retransmissions on any of the accesses  304   1-3  exceeds, approaches and/or satisfies the retransmission-threshold policy value, the RCF  368  may decide to re-route one or more retransmitted packets from one of the accesses  304   1-3  to another. The RCF  368  may make such decision based on a comparison of values of the retransmission threshold of each of the accesses and values of the retransmission metrics. The RCF  368  may use retransmission rates (e.g., as defined by MNO policies in the PCRF  320 ). The RCF  368  may receive values of the retransmission threshold of each of the accesses and values of the retransmission metrics as policies. As an example, if the untrusted-3GPP (e.g., a 2 Mbps Wi-Fi) access  304   3  is transmitting packets of 1000 bits, and the retransmission threshold of  250  retransmissions per second is satisfied (i.e., a large number of packets are retransmitted), the RCF  368  may decide to switch the packets to any of the 3GPP access  304   1  and trusted non-3GPP access  304   2 , exhibiting a lower retransmission rate. 
     In cellular systems, advanced retransmission technologies, e.g., chase combining or incremental redundancy, may enable a high probability of successful retransmissions. Since such technologies might not be deployed in WLAN systems, the RCF  368  may decide when retransmission packet traffic may be switched from one of the accesses  304   1-3  to another with support of (i) operator-based policies stored in the PCRF  320 , and (ii) any of the performance metrics, performance information and network condition reports sent from the NMCF  324 . 
     The NMCF  324  may provide any of the performance metrics, performance information and/or network condition reports to the PCEF  370  ( FIG. 3B ). The NMCF  324  may directly exchange such information with the PCRF  320  via an interface defined between the NMCF  324  and PCRF  320 . This interface may be, for example, an S7a interface. The S7a interface may be based on (e.g., a modification of) a S7/Gx interface. Alternatively, may be a S7/Gx interface. 
     The NMCF  324  may provide any of the performance metrics, performance information and/or network condition reports to the ANDSF  322 . The NMCF  324  may directly exchange such information with the ANDSF  322  via an interface defined between the NMCF  324  and ANDSF  322 , such as, for example, an S7a interface. 
     The NMCF  324  may also send to the ANDSF  322  information for updating, modifying or otherwise adapting one or more policies (“policy-adapting information”), including, for example, WTRU-specific policies, based on the performance metrics, performance information and/or network condition reports. The WTRU  302  may request the policy-adapting information from the ANDSF  322 , or, alternatively, the policy-adapting information may be pushed to the WTRU  302  based on some event trigger and/or via synchronization. 
     Alternatively, the NMCF  324  may send the policy-adapting information to the SPR  318 , if, for example, a direct interface between NMCF  324  and ANDSF  322  is not available. The SPR  318  may provide the policy-adapting information to the ANDSF  322  so as to allow to the ANDSF  322  to modify the policies, including the WTRU-specific policies, based on the performance metrics (e.g., current network loads). An interface between ANDSF  322  and SPR  318  may be realized as a manifestation of the Ud interface. The interface between the NMCF  324  and PCRF may  320  also be realized via Ud interface (not shown) or an S7a interface, for example. 
     Although not shown in  FIGS. 3A-3C , the AGW  375  may include the BBERF  374  to facilitate using PMIPv6 between the PGW  366  and the non-3GPP accesses  304   1-2 . As another alternative, the BBERF  374  may be disposed in the SGW  364  to facilitate using PMIPv6 between the PGW  366  and the 3GPP access  304   1 . 
       FIG. 4  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a communications system  400  in which one or more disclosed embodiments may be implemented and/or carried out. The communications system  400  may be suitable for implementing and/or carrying out any of BWM, BWA, flow management, IFOM and the like to IP traffic that may be carried over among multiple accesses and/or access systems; some, all or none of which use different access technologies. The communications system  400  of  FIG. 4  is similar to the communications system  300  of  FIGS. 3A-3C . 
     The Gx interface between the PCRF  320  and PCEF  370  is adapted to support BWM-based policies. For network-initiated BWM, rules may include IP flow identification requirements and flow mobility and/or aggregation policies (e.g., as defined below). 
     The PCEF  370  may be adapted to support interaction with a Bandwidth Management Function (BWMF)  402 . The adapted PCEF  370  may use information from the BWMF  402  to dynamically establish, modify, or release bearers of the accesses  304   1-3  (“multi-RAT bearers”) being used by the WTRU  302  based on the policy rules provided by the PCRF  320 . 
     The BWMF  402  may include inputs that may enable the PCEF  370  to enforce the BWM policies among any of the accesses  304   1-3 . The BWMF  402  may perform packet-based measurements from any of the accesses  304   1-3  routes (e.g., by monitoring the GTP traffic). The BWMF  402  may also receive input from the NCMF  324 . The BWMF  324  may provide the inputted performance metrics, performance information and/or network condition reports to the PCEF  370 , enabling it to modify allowed QoS associated with each RAT based on the BWM policies. 
     The NCMF  324  shown in  FIGS. 3A-3C and 4  may be a multi-RAT functional entity in that it stores and processes information regarding both the Femto/Macro-Cellular networks as well as Wi-Fi network conditions.  FIG. 5  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a distributed NMCF  500 . As shown, the distributed NMCF  500  may include separate functions for the cellular and Wi-Fi networks, for example, C-NMCF  502  and W-NMCF  504  respectively. Each of the C-NMCF  502  and W-NMCF  504  may communicate with the PGW  366  using interfaces similar to those between the NCMF  324  and PGW  366  of  FIGS. 3A-3C and 4 . 
     Alternatively, the C-NMCF  502  and W-NMCF  504  may communicate using the interface used for direct communication between NCMF  324  and the PCRF  320 . Direct communication may be replaced by communication via the SPR  318  as an intermediary. The NCMF  324  may support an Ud interface to SPR  318 , which in turn may communicate with the PCRF  320  via a Sp interface. Such indirect communication may be used where a single Multi-RAT NCMF is replaced by multiple single-RAT NMCFs, namely, C-NMCF  502  and W-NCMF  504 . 
     The ANDSF  322  may store information regarding various Wi-Fi APs (“WAPs”) and geo-locates them at a cell-ID level. Here, a number of enhancements are disclosed that may make the information in the ANDSF database dynamic to keep track of changes in the network environment as well as to make it capable of handling both Wi-Fi and Femto network environments. 
     The ANDSF  322  may be made more dynamic by obtaining inputs from F-NCMF  506  and W-NCMF  504 , which may report the turning on and/or off of Femto-APs (FAPs) and Wi-Fi APs (WAPs) of the trusted non-3GPP access  304   2  and the untrusted non-3GPP access  304   3 , respectively. 
     In addition to on/off status, the FAP information may also include additional parameters, such as those indicating the access mode (e.g. hybrid vs. Open), etc. To accommodate such additional fields of information, the format of the data stored in the ANDSF  322  may be suitably configured. The ANDSF  322  may obtain these inputs using direct interfaces or via the SPR-Front End (“SPR-FE”)  508  (e.g., as illustrated in  FIG. 5 ). 
     The various NMCFs  502 - 506  and/or the ANDSF  322  may report any of the performance metrics, performance information and network condition reports to the PCRF  320  via the SPR-FE  508  using, for example, the Ud interface. The ANDSF  322  may also support the Sp interface, which may allow it to directly query SPR-FE  506  and/or obtain any of the performance metrics, performance information and network condition reports from the various NMCFs  502 - 506 . Also, as shown in  FIG. 5 , each of the NMCFs  502 - 506  may support a Sp interface, as well, allowing the NMCFs  502 - 506  to query and receive information back from the SPR-FE  508 . 
     In various embodiments, information for storage in an ANDSF client of the WTRU  302  may be supplied to the WTRU  302  by the network as follows. The ANDSF  322  may trigger a network-initiated PDP context activation, followed by transfer of updated information to the WTRU  302 . To facilitate this, an interface between ANDSF  322  and SGW  365  may be established. The ANDSF  322  may also communicate the trigger information via the PCRF  320 , using interfaces illustrated in  FIG. 5 . 
       FIG. 6  is a block diagram illustrating a 3GPP EPC-based communications system  600  with enhancements for BWM policies in a local area/hotspot served by a CGW  601 . The CGW  601  may have multiple accesses and/or access systems; some, all or none of which use different access technologies among multiple accesses and/or access systems. The CGW  601  may provide (e.g. QoS, gating, etc.) control policy enforcement performed for access  603 ,  605  of the CGW  601 . 
     The CGW  601  may include a local PCRF  607 , a local ANDSF Server  609 , a remote PCRF  620  of a CN, a local ANDSF Client Proxy  611 , a local PCEF  613 , a local NCMF  615 , and a local AF (not shown). The local PCRF  607  may maintain the policy and charging rules to be followed by the CGW  601 . This may include local BWM policies related to user priorities, service priorities, etc. The local PCRF  607  may also interface with the remote PCRF  620  via, for example, an extended S9 (eS9) interface. When BWM related services are to be initiated in the CGW  601 , the local PCRF  607  may consult the remote PCRF  620  and update the rules. Such update may be mandated by a higher authority. 
     The local ANDSF Server  609  may provide local policies to authorized WTRUs, such as the WTRU  602 . The local ANDSF Client Proxy  611  may act on behalf of authorized WTRUs to exchange WTRU-specific information with external ANDSF servers  622  accessible by the WTRUs. 
     The CGW  601  may include a capability to intercept WTRU-specific core network control plane signaling (e.g., NAS, RANAP, S1, etc.). It may also be able to intercept WTRU-specific user plane data and route packets over multiple RATs per a WTRU BWM policy. These capabilities may allow the CGW  601  to act as the local PCEF  613  to enforce multi-RAT BWM policies provided by the local PCRF  607 . 
     By being a local network element in an immediate vicinity of the serviced terminals, an MNO-managed CGW, such as the CGW  601 , may be in a position to provide a broader set of measurements than possible from a remote RNC/eNB in a macro cell. For example, the CGW  601  may offer multi-technology and technology-independent metrics based on its supported capabilities. Such function may be realized via the local NCMF  615 . For instance, radio frequency (RF) measurements from IEEE 802.11 (e.g., Wi-Fi) and IEEE 802.15-based (e.g., Bluetooth) devices may be aggregated, as may measurements from a dedicated RF sensing board. This information may be used along with the local policies to influence the usage of various RATs within the CGW  601 . The same and/or similar information may be used by MNOs to optimize utilization of network resources, including licensed and unlicensed spectrum, while maintaining a required QoS. 
       FIG. 7  is a block diagram illustrating an example 3GPP EPC-based communications system  700  with enhancements for BWM policies in a local area/hotspot served by a CGW  701 . The CGW  701  may have multiple accesses and/or access systems; some, all or none of which use different access technologies among multiple accesses and/or access systems. The communications system  700  of  FIG. 7  is similar to the communications system  600  of  FIG. 6 . The communications system  700  of  FIG. 7  may differ from the communications system  600  of  FIG. 6  in that the communications system  700  may include an edge node  703  at the edge of the CN, and the edge node  703  includes PCRF relay  705  for interacting with the local PCEF  707 . 
     Provided below are examples of a three sets of BWM policies that may be provided to various network components in an evolved multi-RAT mobile network, such as in any of the communications systems  100 ,  200 ,  300 ,  400 ,  600  and  700 . The first set of policies may include policies provided to WTRUs. These policies may provide a network with control over how a WTRU makes decisions that it is “free to make.” The policies provided to WTRUs may also provide a network operator with control over behavior of the WTRUs at all times. These policies provided to WTRUs may be provided to the WTRUs via an ANDSF. 
     The second set of policies may include policies residing in the network&#39;s own PCRF and/or PCEF (e.g., policies describing how a network controls its own operation). And the third set of policies may include policies residing in the CGWs. These policies, which may reside in the local PCRF and/or local PCEF at the CGW (e.g. a FAP), may allow the mobile network to indicate preference over an approach that the CGW takes to managing local spectrum. 
     One aspect of WTRU-decision making is whether the WTRU  302  makes decisions per connection or whether a finer (per flow) granularity is supported. For per-connection decisions, the policy may contain one or more elements, including, for example, any of a policy owner; policy access characteristics; policy activation time (e.g., immediate, for new sessions only, etc.); policy persistence (e.g., overwrite default; revert to default after timeout expiry, etc.); user permissions, policy granularity (e.g., per connection or flow based); flow identification process and policy properties. 
     The policy owner may be, for example, a network issuing the policy. The policy owner may be used as a criterion for looking up a policy when connected to this network. The policy access characteristics may specify under which condition(s) the policy is to be used when connecting to the policy owner. Examples of the policy access characteristics may include (i) “always”, (ii) “when macro-BS connection is the only one available”, and (iii) “when a trusted Wi-Fi AP is available”, (iv) etc. 
     The flow identification process may be used if flow-based policy granularity is used. The flow identification process may specify how “hard” the WTRU  302  should try to identify the flow. Example settings of the flow identification process may include packet inspection level (the packet inspection level may be commonly understood by a WTRU  302  and the network); use of well-known port mappings (e.g., TCP port  80  is always HTTP); use of deep packet inspection (if available) and identification of application sub-flows. 
     The policy properties may include properties to be used for per connection granularity. The policy properties may also be used as a “default” policy for flow-based granularity. Examples of properties of the policy properties may include (i) which initial connection to use (e.g., Cellular, Wi-Fi, peer-to-peer or Bluetooth), and (ii) which access procedure to configure (e.g., network-controlled mobility, mobile IP, BW aggregation, static TCP/IP, etc.). 
     If flow-based policies are used, for each flow, a sub-policy may be provided that may include a flow description and/or policy properties. A flow description may include a flow name (e.g., HTTP, video, voice, VoIP, etc.) and/or a flow identifier. The flow identifier may include a destination port used (e.g., TCP Port  80  for HTTP) or a DPI signature; for example The policy properties may be the same as for a master policy, which may include, for example, which initial connection to use (e.g., Cellular, Wi-Fi, peer-to-peer or Bluetooth) and which access procedure to configure (e.g., network-controlled mobility, mobile IP, BW aggregation, static TCP/IP, etc.). 
     If flow-based policies are used, the policy framework may allow for the WTRU  32  to not be able to identify all (or many) flows. A default policy may be provided. The default policy may be explicit provided (e.g., using a flow-specific policy with “default” in a flow description). Alternatively, the master policy may include policy properties that are treated as default. 
     Policies in the network may be structured around the WTRU  302  or around flows. WTRU-centric policies may apply to all flows associated with a WTRU  302 . Flow-based policies may apply to all flows or to a particular type of flow associated with any WTRU  302 . Examples of WTRU-centric policies and associated parameters that may be defined for controlling multi-RAT BWM-enabled behavior in macro and CGW environments may include any of a policy activation time (e.g., immediate, for new sessions only, etc.); policy persistence (e.g., overwrite default, revert to default after timer expiry, etc.); user permissions; BWM flow mobility thresholds; BWM flow aggregation thresholds; and RCF retransmission thresholds. 
     The BWM flow mobility policies may include any of a WTRU identity (e.g., IMSI); WTRU priority for uplink and downlink (e.g., high, low, or the like); service classification and/or identification requirements (e.g., video based on specified IP address, flash videos based on DPI, etc.); preferred access per service for uplink and downlink (e.g., cellular, Wi-Fi, etc.); minimum QoS per IP flow (e.g., bit rate, packet latency, packet loss, etc.); and maximum QoS per IP flow (e.g., bit rate, packet latency, packet loss, etc.). 
     The BWM flow aggregation policies may include any of a WTRU identify (e.g., IMSI); WTRU priority (e.g., high, low, or the like); service classification and/or identification requirements (e.g., video based on specified IP address, flash videos based on DPI, etc.); minimum QoS per service (e.g., bit rate, packet latency, packet loss, etc.); and maximum QoS per service (e.g., bit rate, packet latency, packet loss, etc.). Execution of these policies may assume that any BWM-enabled capabilities have been communicated between the WTRU  302  and the macro/CGW systems, either explicitly or implicitly. 
     The CGW may service users in a residence or enterprise. As such, the users may be localized in the vicinity of the CGW, and location-based policies may be employed based on the expected behavior of these users. 
     Example ANDSF and PCRF Discovery 
     Referring now to  FIG. 8 , a flow diagram illustrating an example process  800  for ANDSF discovery. The process  800  is described with reference to the communications system  300  of  FIGS. 3A-3C , for simplicity of exposition. The process  800  may be carried out in other communications systems, as well. 
     The PCRF  320  may be configured with fully qualified domain names (“FQDNs”) and/or IP addresses of one or more ANDSFs, as shown at  802 . When a WTRU  302  establishes a bearer through the EPC network  303 , the PGW  366  (or more particularly, the PCEF  370 ) may provide the PCRF  320  with information related to the subscriber connection (“subscriber connection information”), as shown at  804 . The subscriber connection information may include for example, a subscriber ID, UE IP address, subscriber location, PDN ID, PLMN ID; etc. Based on the subscriber connection information, the PCRF  320  may be able to narrow a search for the ANDSF(s) serving the WTRU  302  (subscriber), as shown at  806 . The search may be narrowed, e.g., based on subscriber location, PLMN ID, etc. Thereafter, the PCRF  320  may query the narrowed set of configured ANDSFs for the ANDSF(s) serving the WTRU  302  (subscriber), as shown at  808 . Alternatively, the PCRF may query each the configured ANDSFs for the ANDSF(s) serving the WTRU  302  (subscriber) to determine which serve the WTRU  302  (subscriber). 
       FIG. 9  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process  900  for ANDSF discovery. The process  900  is described with reference to the communications system  300  of  FIGS. 3A-3C , for simplicity of exposition. The process  900  may be carried out in other communications systems, as well. The process  900  of  FIG. 9  is similar to the process  800  of  FIG. 8 , except as described herein. 
     The SPR may be configured with the FQDNs or IP addresses of the ANDSFs provisioned for the WTRU  302  (subscriber), as shown at  902 . When a UE establishes a bearer through the EPC, the PCRF may retrieve subscriber-specific ANDSF information from the SPR, as shown at  904 . Based on this subscriber-specific ANDSF information, the PCRF may narrow the search for applicable ANDSF(s) serving the subscriber, as shown at  906 . Thereafter, the PCRF  320  may query the narrowed set of configured ANDSFs for the ANDSF(s) serving the WTRU  302  (subscriber), as shown at  908 . Alternatively, the PCRF may query the SPR to determine ANDSF(s) that serve the WTRU  302  (subscriber) 
     Example Information Provided by ANDSF to PCRF 
     The information exchanged between the ANDSF  322  and the PCRF  320  may be the ANDSF MO. Since the ANDSF MO contains policy information and/or policy-related information (collectively “policy information”) regarding non-3GPP Network Selection, ISMP and ISRP, the PCRF may obtain (e.g., using a ‘get’ method) the policy information of interest. Assuming the interface between the PCRF  302  and ANDSF  322  uses a Diameter based protocol, then Diameter messages may be defined, and these messages may encapsulate the ANDSF MO (in whole or in part, as needed). Alternately, assuming the interface between the PCRF  302  and ANDSF  322  is similar to S14, e.g., S14a, then existing MO-synchronization messages (such as Get, Alert, etc) may be used 
     The ANDSF information may include other information in addition to information stored in the ANDSF MO in accordance with 3GPP TS 24.312, v11.0.0 (“conventional ANDSF MO”), this other information may be and/or include information derived, at least in part, from the conventional ANDSF MO. For example, the ANDSF server may retrieve WTRU-network information (from both conventional ANDSF MO information and information set forth above and below) from individual WTRUs based on capabilities of each of the WTRUs. These capabilities may include perceived congestion via specific cells, access points, or PDNs; application detection; etc.). To enable consistent behavior and interoperability, such information may be specified with a level of confidence expected from such reports. An “always-on” IP connection over 3GPP access may be used to convey this information between WTRUs and the ANDSF  322 . 
     The ANDSF  322  may then use this individual WTRU-network information, “as is” or aggregated with other WTRU-network information, including reports from multiple WTRUs. The ANDSF  322  may acquire this other WTRU-network information, which may include, for example, near-real-time subscriber information, via an interface with the HSS/SPR  318 . The ANDSF  322  may then provide network status information to the PCRF  320  related to one or more individual WTRUs; one or more individual cells and/or access points (e.g. BSSIDs/AP MAC addresses); one or more individual access networks (as in, for example the case of a Wi-Fi Hotspot where multiple access points use the same SSID); and Individual PDNs. 
     In addition to the conventional ANDSF MO information, the ANDSF  322  may provide any of the following other WTRU-network information to the PCRF  320 , with a specified level of confidence: a timestamp; report type (initial, modification, etc.); subscriber ID (e.g., IMSI, NAI); IPv4 address and/or IPv6 network prefix assigned to the WTRU; subscriber location; PDN ID(s) (e.g., as indicated by APNs); PLMN ID; IP flow routing information (if, for example, WTRU-initiated IP flow mobility is used); detected IP flow description, e.g. 5-tuple (for WTRUs with traffic detection capability, for instance); WTRU-specific cell/AP air interface pre-congestion/congestion information for specified cells/APs (for WTRUs with congestion detection capability, for instance); WTRU-specific cell/AP backhaul pre-congestion/congestion information for specified cells/APs (for WTRUs with congestion detection capability, for instance); WTRU-specific PDN pre-congestion/congestion information for specified PDN (for WTRUs with congestion detection capability, for instance); detected applications, flows (for WTRUs with traffic detection capability, for example) 
     Example Information Provided by PCRF to ANDSF 
     As noted above, the PCRF  320  may accept input for PCC decision making. This input may emanate from any of the PCEF  370 , BBERF  374 , TDF  375 , SPR  318  and AF  370 , from the reporting air interface status from the RAN/eNodeB/WLAN AP/etc, as well as the its own information. The PCRF  320  may also accept input from the NMCF  345  (of distributed NMCF  500 ) 
     Based on this information, the PCRF  320  may inform the ANDSF  322  about the access network(s) currently used for a particular WTRU connection, potentially triggering a “get” from the WTRU  302 , e.g., to obtain updated location or IFOM information. The ANDSF  322  may then provide the WTRU  302  with a policy update, if required. The PCRF  320  may also inform the ANDSF  322  when an IP flow has been moved successfully. 
     Example Mechanisms for Providing ANDSF Information to PCRF 
     The PCRF  320  may query the ANDSF  322  for specific information on demand. Alternatively, the ANDSF  322  may report events to the PCRF  320  unconditionally and/or based on PCRF subscription for event reports. For instance, the ANDSF  322  may be pre-configured to report some events to the PCRF  320  based on a specified trigger or at a periodic rate. Alternatively, the PCRF  320  may subscribe to reporting of specific events from the ANDSF  322  based on a specified trigger or at a periodic rate. 
     An event report is a notification of an event which occurs that corresponds with an event trigger. The event report may include information in addition to the notification. An event trigger is a rule specifying the event reporting behavior of the ANDSF  322 . The ANDSF  622  may perform event trigger detection. For example, each time the AND SF  322  updates a particular policy of a WTRU  302 , the ANDSF  322  may check event report filters to determine if such information should also be reported to the PCRF  320 . 
     Examples of events that may trigger generation of a report to the PCRF  302  may include any of a WTRU policy update from the ANDSF  322  (e.g., based on UE request for policy update based on expiration of policy validity (location-based, time-based, etc.)), a PLMN change, a QoS change; an IFOM routing change; an access network change; an access link up/down; a UE IP address change; a location update; an application detection; etc. 
     Example Mechanisms for Providing PCRF Information to ANDSF 
     The PCRF  320  may provide information to the ANDSF  322  at any time. Event triggers may be set up in the ANDSF  322  that may cause the ANDSF  322  to retrieve specific information from the PCRF  320  whenever the specified event is triggered. Similar to the event reporting mechanism described above with respect to ANDSF-to-PCRF event reporting, the ANDSF  322  may subscribe to trigger-based event reports from the PCRF  320 . The reports may be based on, for example, any of a detection of congestion in the network; detection of specific application types; detection of cell-based congestion; etc. 
     Example Use of ANDSF Information by PCRF 
     In various embodiments, the PCRF  320  may use the ANDSF information in addition to the inputs described in 3GPP TS 23.203, v11.2.0 for PCC decision-making and policy rule generation. The PCRF  320  may accept such additional input from, for example, any of the PCEF  370 , the BBERF  374  (if present), the TDF  376  (if present), the HSS/SPR  318  and the AF  372  (if involved). The PCRF  320  may use its own pre-defined information as input, as well. The PCRF  320  may also accept input from the NMCF  324 , (or distributed NMCF  500 ) 
     When using network-based mobility (“NBM”) protocols such as PMIPv6 or GTP, the PCRF  320  may use the ANDSF information to enhance either WTRU-initiated or network-initiated IFOM. For WTRU-initiated IFOM with NBM, for example, the PCRF  32  may use the ANDSF information to re-negotiate the WTRU-initiated IFOM. This way, the PCRF  320  may (e.g., in accordance with 3GPP TS 23.861 v1.3.0) determine through which access to route the SDF, by, for example, providing the PCC rules, including the access network information, to the PCEF  320 . For network-initiated IP flow mobility, the ANDSF information may be used to update the PCRF  320  to include expanded IFOM rules. 
       FIG. 10  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process  1000  for performing network-initiated IFOM using ANDSF information. The process  1000  is described with reference to the communications system  300  of  FIGS. 3A-3C . The process  1000  may be carried out in other communications systems, as well. 
     At  1002 , the WTRU  302  and a first access, such as, the 3GPP access  304   1  may exchange flow “A” via a first interface of the WTRU  302 . At  1004 , the WTRU  302  and a second access, such as, trusted-non-3GPP access  304   2 , may exchange flow “B” via a second interface of the WTRU  302 . At  1006 , the WTRU  302  may detect QoS of flow “A” QoS has degraded below an acceptable limit, and passes this performance metric (“QoS-degradation metric”) to the ANDSF client of the WTRU  302 . At  1008 , the ANDSF client may alert the ANDSF server  322  and may pass the QoS-degradation metric to the ANDSF server  322 . At  1010 , the ANDSF server  322  may convey the QoS-degradation metric to PCRF  320 . 
     At  1012 , the PCRF  320  may use the QoS-degradation metric to update the policy for the WTRU  302 . At  1014 , the PCRF  320  may send updated routing rules to the PCEF  370  for the flows “A” and “B”, and to the ANDSF  322  to update the ISRP. At  1016 , the PCEF  370  may initiate a network-controlled flow mobility to switch flow “A” to the trusted-non-3GPP access  304   2  and to the second interface of the WTRU  302 , and the ANDSF  322  may update the ISRP (which may possibly prevent a contention issue). At  1018 , the flow mobility procedure is determined successful. At  1020 , the flow “A” is sent via the trusted-non-3GPP access  304   2 , and the second interface of the WTRU. At  1022 , the flow “B” continues unchanged. 
     Example Use of PCRF Information by ANDSF 
     The PCRF  320  may provide information to the ANDSF  322 , which may also potentially get propagated to the WTRU  302 . The PCRF  320  may be able to, for example, adjust ANDSF policies (e.g., ISMP, ISRP, etc.). The MNO may designate the ANDSF polices and parameters that are allowed to be modified by the PCRF  320 . 
     In one embodiment, the ANDSF policies may be mechanism for providing “coarse” control of the overall system policies. For example, at some point, the WTRU  302  acts upon the ANDSF policies. Based on a particular trigger, for instance, the WTRU  302  may initiate a connection to a preferred Wi-Fi hotspot either for idle reselection, active handover, or active multi-RAT IP flow mobility. The network may ensure that the procedure is permissible based on (i) the latest operator policies (which might not necessarily be reflected in the WTRU  320  (e.g., UE-MO or other structure)), (ii) current subscriber profile, (iii) current network resources, (iv) etc. 
     The PCC policies provided by the PCRF  320  may operate as “fine” control of the overall system policies. The PCRF  320  may, for example, modify the allowed parameters in the ANDSF  322  to change the coarse ANDSF policies and re-align WTRU behavior with the latest network conditions (e.g., based on, for example, the network information obtained via the ANDSF  322  and/or the NMCF  324 ). 
     For MNO-implemented ANDSF-based WTRU-initiated IP flow mobility, the WTRU  302  may initiate movement of an IP flow from 3GPP access  304   1  to the untrusted-non-3GPP (Wi-Fi) access  304   3 , for example. If, however, dynamic PCC is implemented in the network and the subscribed QoS cannot be ensured on the untrusted-non-3GPP (Wi-Fi) access  304   3 , the PCRF  320  may update the ANDSF  322  and update an associated policy for that service. The update may include, for example, re-prioritizing Wi-Fi SSIDs; assigning higher priority to the 3GPP access  304   1 ; blocking untrusted-non-3GPP (Wi-Fi) access  304   3  completely; etc. In this way, conflict resolution for a mismatch between the ANDSF policies and PCRF policies may be performed. 
       FIG. 11  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process  1100  for performing network-initiated IFOM using ANDSF information. The process  1100  is described with reference to the communications system  300  of  FIGS. 3A-3C . The process  1100  may be carried out in other communications systems, as well. 
     At  1102 , the WTRU  302  and a first access, such as, the 3GPP access  304   1  may exchange flow “A” via a first interface of the WTRU  302 . At  1104 , the WTRU  302  and a second access, such as, trusted-non-3GPP access  304   2 , may exchange flow “B” via a second interface of the WTRU  302 . At  1106 , the PCEF  320  may detect QoS of flow “A” QoS has degraded below an acceptable limit. At  1108 , the PCEF  320  reports the associated QoS-degradation metric to the PCRF  320 . At  1110 , the PCRF  320  uses the QoS-degradation metric to update the ANDSF policies. 
     At  1112 , the PCRF conveys updated ANDSF policy information to ANDSF server  322 . At  1114 , the ANDSF server  322  sends updated routing rules for flow A to the ANDSF client of the WTRU  302 . At  1116 , the WTRU  302  may initiates flow mobility to switch of flow “A” to the untrusted-non-3GPP (Wi-Fi) access  304   3  and the second interface of the WTRU  302 , and the flow mobility procedure is determined to be successful. At  1118 , the WTRU  302  and the untrusted-non-3GPP (Wi-Fi) access  304   3  may exchange flow “A” via the second interface of the WTRU  302 . At  1120 , the flow “B” continues unchanged. 
     As an alternative, the PCEF  370  (operating as a QoS enforcer) detects the QoS degradation on a particular flow and reports the associated QoS-degradation metric to the PCRF  320 . Using this information, the PCRF  320  may determine that there is congestion in the network. The PCRF  370  may again modify the allowed parameters in the ANDSF  322 . For example, the PCRF  370  may modify the allowed parameters in the ANDSF  322  to, for example, prioritize offload to the untrusted-non-3GPP (Wi-Fi) access  304   3 . 
     Example of Information Exchanged between ANDSF and PCRF 
     Congestion Information 
     Various embodiments herein provide mechanisms for congestion management in the user plane to enable a more efficient use of network resources. In various embodiments, the ANDSF  322  may obtain network information from one or more WTRUs and from the NMCF  324 , and provide it “as is” or aggregated to the PCRF  320  for decision making and policy rule generation. In various embodiments, the PCRF  320  may use the WTRU-network information in its decision making and/or NBM decisions, for example. 
     Application Flow Identification Information 
     As noted above, the ANDSF  322  is capable of identifying flows using an IP filter. This IP filter may be the IP header 5-tuple (and/or additional optional 3GPP-specific info) provided by the network. Proposed 3GPP R11 extensions (DIDA Work Item) may extend this capability to allow a WTRU to identify such flow according to specific criteria. The WTRU  302  may determine the 5-tuple based on higher-level descriptors (“video flows,” “flows with average rate above given threshold,” etc.), as an endpoint. The derived flow identities may then be stored in the ANDSF MO at the WTRU  302 , and then provided to ANDSF  322  as a measurement and/or report of an event (e.g., “detected a flow according to the defined criteria”). The ANDSF  322  may then provide the flow identifies to the PCRF  320 . The PCRF  320  may use the flow identifies from the ANDSF  322 , instead of using TDF to derive the same. As an alternative, the HA  307  may derive the flow identifies, and pass them to the PCEF  370 . The PCEF  370  may then pass them to the PCRF  320 . 
     Example Operations 
       FIG. 12  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process  1200  for managing and/or enforcing polices for IP traffic management among multiple accesses of a network. The process  1200  is described with reference to the communications system  300  of  FIGS. 3A-3C , for simplicity of exposition. The process  1200  may be carried out in other communications systems, as well. 
     The WTRU  302  may establish one or more sessions to the EPC network  303  via any of the 3GPP access  304   1  trusted-non-3GPP (Femto) access  304   2  and untrusted-non-3GPP (Wi-Fi) access  304   3 , as shown at  1202  The PCRF  320  may perform discovery to determine whether there are any ANDSFs associated with the WTRU  302  using, for example, the ANDSF discovery process noted above, as shown at  1204 . After discovering one or more associated ANDSFs, the PCRF  320  may subscribe to specific event notifications from such ANDSFs, including, for example, the ANDSF  322 , as shown at  1206 . 
     At some point, the WTRU  302  may detect an event that should be reported to the ANDSF  322 , e.g., based on criteria previously specified to the WTRU  302  by the ANDSF  322 , as shown at  1208 . In turn, the WTRU  302  may report this event to the ANDSF  322 , as shown at  1208 . Based on the WTRU report and/or other events known to the ANDSF  322 , the ANDSF  322  may generate a report to the PCRF  320 , as shown at  1210 . As shown at  1212 , the PCRF  320  may then process the received ANDSF information along with other available information, and take an action to initiate management IP traffic among the accesses  304   1-3 . The action may be to initiate any of the following: a new bearer establishment, modification, or deletion over the same or different access system; blocking of an SDF by updating the Gating Control in the PCC rule; updating of event reporting and/or triggers to the ANDSF  322 , PCEF  370 , and/or BBERF  374 ; updating of QoS rules sent to the ANDSF  322 , PCEF  370 , and/or BBERF  374 ; and redirection (e.g., steering) of packets, belonging to an application defined by the ANDSF-provided application identifier, to the specified redirection address. 
       FIG. 13  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process  1300  for managing and/or enforcing polices for IP traffic management among multiple accesses of a network. For simplicity of exposition, the process  1300  is described with reference to the communications systems  300 ,  400  of  FIGS. 3A-3C and 4 , respectively. The process  1300  may be carried out in other communications systems, as well. 
     At  1302 , the NMCF  324  may obtain performance metrics associated with any of the accesses  304   1-3 . The performance metrics may include any of usage, congestion, connectivity, loading and latency. The performance metrics may be provided via respective interfaces of the accesses  304   1-3 , and may be collected, derived, generated, garnered or otherwise obtained from network condition reports and/or other measurements provided from one or more of the accesses  304   1-3 . In various embodiments, the NMCF  324  may obtain performance information associated with one or more of the accesses  304   1-3 ; and in turn, generate the performance metrics from the obtained performance information. In various embodiments, the performance metrics may be retransmission metrics associated with at least one access of the plurality of accesses  304   1-3 . The performance metrics may include other metrics, as well. 
     At  1304 , any of the ANDSF  322  and PCRF  320  may adapt one or more rules of one or more policies for managing IP traffic associated with the WTRU  302  (“WTRU-IP traffic”) among the plurality of accesses  304   1-3  based, at least in part, on the performance metrics and a policy for managing bandwidth among the accesses  304   1-3 . For example, the PCRF  320  may adapt rules of QoS policy control of the WTRU IP traffic. Alternatively, the PCRF  320  may adapt rules of gating policy control of the WTRU IP traffic. As another alternative, the PCRF  320  may adapt rules of any of QoS and gating policy control of IP traffic not associated with the WTRU  302  (“non-WTRU-IP traffic”) 
     The ANDSF  322  may, for example, adapt rules of policies for managing connections to the any of the accesses  304   1-3 . The ANDSF  322  may, alternatively, adapt rules of policies for managing any of discovery and selection of the accesses  304   1-3  for the WTRU-IP traffic and/or the non-WTRU-IP traffic. Alternatively, the ANDSF may adapt rules of the ISMP and/or the ISRP for any of the WTRU-IP traffic and non-WTRU-IP traffic. 
     As another alternative, the ANDSF  322  may adapt rules of one or more policies for causing dynamic adaptation of bearers for the WTRU-IP traffic and/or the non-WTRU-IP traffic. Adaptation of the bearers may include any of establishment, modification and release of such bearers. 
     Once the ANDSF  322  and/or PCRF  320  adapt their respective rules, one or more of the adapted rules may be provided to the WTRU  302 . The adapted rules provided to the WTRU  302  from the ANDSF  322  may be carried out through synchronization of the NETWORK MO and the UE MO, for example. In some instances, the adapted rules provided to the WTRU  302  from the ANDSF  322  may cause the WTRU  302  to adapt one or more locally-maintained rules of one or more policies for the WTRU-IP traffic among the plurality of accesses. 
     At  506 , the PCEF  370  and/or the WTRU  302  may manage the WTRU-IP traffic among the accesses  304   1-3  responsive to the adapted rules for managing IP traffic. The PCEF  370  may, for example, apply one of more of the adapted rules to the WTRU-IP traffic. The adapted rules may include one or more rules for QoS and/or gating policy control of the IP traffic, including, for example, managing one or more data flow of WTRU-IP traffic among the plurality of accesses and/or aggregating bandwidth from at least two of the accesses  304   1-3  for the WTRU-IP traffic and/or the non-WTRU-IP traffic. 
     In some instances, the reception of the adapted rules at the WTRU  302  from the ANDSF  322  may cause the WTRU  302  to not only adapt one or more locally-maintained rules of one or more policies for managing the WTRU-IP traffic among the plurality of accesses, but also cause the WTRU  302  to apply one or more of the locally-maintained rules to the WTRU-IP traffic. 
     In various embodiments, the PCEF  370  (via the HA  307 ) and/or the WTRU  302  may re-route at least one retransmitted packet from one of accesses  304   1-3  to another on a condition that the performance metric relating to packet retransmissions satisfies a threshold. 
       FIG. 14  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process  1400  for enabling interaction among access network discovery and selection function (“ANDSF”) and policy control and charging (“PCC”) entities. Such interaction may be useful for multi-access flow management, and/or bandwidth aggregation among the multiple accesses. For simplicity of exposition, the process  1400  is described with reference to the communications systems  300 ,  400  of  FIGS. 3A-3C and 4 , respectively. The process  1400  may be carried out in other communications systems, as well. 
     At  1402 , a connection may be established between the PCRF  320  and the ANDSF  322 . At  1402 , information about the network (“network information”) may be obtained at the PCRF  320 , via the connection between the ANDSF  322  and the PCRF  320 . At  1406 , policy-configuration information for configuring a policy for facilitating flow management among the multiple accesses  304   1-3  may be generated based, at least in part, on the network information obtained at the PCRF  320 . At  1408 ; the policy-configuration information sending to any of the ANDSF  322 , the WTRU  302 , and the PCEF  370 . 
     Although not shown, in various embodiments, information defining the policy (“policy definition information”) may be obtained, at the PCRF  320 , via the connection between the ANDSF  322  and PCRF  320 . In various embodiments, the policy-configuration information may be generated based, at least in part, on the network information and the obtained by the PCRF  320  and the policy-definition information. 
     In various embodiments, the connection between the PCRF  320  and the ANDSF  322  may be established in accordance with any of a Diameter protocol, a Diameter application and a protocol based on the Diameter protocol. In various embodiments, the connection between the PCRF  320  and the ANDSF  322  may be established in accordance with a device management (“DM”) protocol. This DM protocol may include a DM protocol in accordance with an Open-Mobile Alliance (“OMA”) DM protocol. 
     In various embodiments, the obtained network information may include any of static and dynamically updated network information garnered from the policy-definition information, access network discovery information, network status information, subscriber information and traffic-identification information. 
     In various embodiments, the obtained network information may include network information detected by one or more WTRUs. In various embodiments, the WTRU-detected network information may be obtained by the ANDSF  322  via respective connections between the ANDSF  322  and the WTRUs. 
       FIGS. 15-18  are flow diagrams illustrating example processes  1500 - 1800  for enabling interaction among the ANDSF  322  and the PCC entities. Such interaction may be useful for multi-access flow management, and/or bandwidth aggregation among the multiple accesses. For simplicity of exposition, the processes  1500 - 1800  are described with reference embodiments disclosed under a heading entitled “Embodiments” (below). 
     The measurements and/or metrics identified below may be reported by the WTRU  302  and Trusted or untrusted accesses may be used to enhance policy-based Session Management, including any IP flow management, such a MAPCON), IFOM, Operator Policies for IP Interface Selection (“OPIIS”). 
     In various embodiments, the measurements and/or metrics may be use to perform policy-based flow management across the multiple accesses  304   1-3 . The measurements and/or metrics may be extracted from RAT drivers, application statistics, etc. 
     A mechanism to discover Extended Service Set (“ESS”) measurements-based PCC is provided; along with a process to make the ANQP information retrieved over Wi-Fi available to others technologies. Various embodiments of network-controlled and WTRU-initiated flow mobility are provided as well. 
     Measurements Based PCC Architecture Example 
       FIG. 19  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a communications system  1900  in which one or more disclosed embodiments may be implemented and/or carried out. The communications system  1900  may be suitable for implementing and/or carrying out any of BWM, BWA, flow management, IFOM and the like to IP traffic that may be carried over among multiple accesses and/or access systems; some, all or none of which use different access technologies. The communications system  1900  of  FIG. 19  is similar to the communications system  300  of  FIGS. 3A-3C , except as described herein. 
     As shown, the WTRU  302 , SGSN  248 , eNB  1902 , trusted-non-3GPP access  304   2 , PGW  366  and ePDG  326  may include respective information collection functions (“ICF(s)”), and the WTRU  302 , PCRF  320 , ANDSF  322  and PCEF  370  may include respective policy update functions (“PUF(s)”). Each of the WTRU ICF, SGSN ICF, GGSN-ICF, eNB ICF, trusted-non-3GPP access ICF, PDN-GW ICF and ePDG ICF may monitor radio and/or network conditions available to such devices, and may obtain performance metrics associated with the available radio and/or network conditions. 
     As an example, the WTRU ICF may monitor radio and/or network conditions at the WTRU  302 , and collect, derive, generate or otherwise obtain performance metrics, performance information and/or network condition reports associated with such conditions (collectively “WTRU-ICF performance metrics”). The WTRU ICF may report or otherwise provide the WTRU-ICF performance metrics to any of the WTRU PUF, PCRF PUF and ANDSF PUF. The WTRU ICF may, for example, report the WTRU-ICF performance metrics to the ANDSF  322  over the S14 interface. Similarly, the WTRU ICF may report the WTRU-ICF performance metrics to the PCRF  320  via an intermediate node, such as, ANDSF  322  or PDN GW  366  using appropriate interfaces indicated in  FIG. 19 . 
     The ANDSF  322  may store the WTRU-ICF performance metrics in an appropriate location using a suitable data structure. The ANDSF PUF, in turn, may obtain the stored WTRU-ICF performance metrics from the ANDSF data structure, and adapt (e.g., update) rules of policies using the ANDSF MO for managing IP traffic among accesses  304   1-3  and  1904   1-2  based, at least in part, on the obtained performance metrics and a BWM policy for managing bandwidth among accesses  304   1-3  and  1904   1-2 . 
     The WTRU ICF may alternatively and/or additionally report the WTRU-ICF performance metrics to the PCRF  320 . The WTRU ICF may report the WTRU-ICF performance metrics via the PCEF  370 , for instance. The PCRF  320  may provide the WTRU-ICF performance metrics to the PCRF PUF. The PCRF may use the obtained WTRU-ICF performance metrics to adapt one or more of the rules of one or more of the policies for managing IP traffic among the accesses  304   1-3  and  1904   1-2  based, at least in part, on the obtained performance metrics and a policy for managing bandwidth among the plurality of accesses  304   1-3  and  1904   1-2 . 
     The PGW ICF may monitor radio and/or network conditions at the PGW  366 , and collect, derive, generate or otherwise obtain any of performance metrics, performance information and other measurements associated with the monitored conditions (collectively “PGW-ICF performance metrics”). The PGW-ICF may report or otherwise provide the PGW-ICF performance metrics to any of the WTRU PUF, PCRF PUF and ANDSF PUF. The PGW-ICF may be a sub-task of PGW  366  or a separate entity with an interface to the PGW  366 . 
     The ePDG ICF may collect information about the un-trusted non-3GPP access  304   3 . The ePDG ICF, for example, may collect measurements related to a secure tunnel (e.g., an IPsec tunnel) that terminates at the ePDG  326 . These measurements may include keep-alive messaging and other parameters used to maintain the tunnel. The ePDG ICF may determine performance metrics (“ePDG-ICF performance metrics”), such as, end-to-end network latency, latency over the untrusted non-3GPP access network and tunnel throughput, from the collected measurements. The ePDG ICF may report the ePDG-ICF performance metrics to any of the WTRU PUF, PCRF PUF and ANDSF PUF. The WTRU PUF may relay or otherwise provide the ePDG-ICF performance metrics to the PCRF PUF and/or ANDSF PUF. The PCRF PUF and ANDSF PUF may use the ePDG-ICF performance metrics to adapt one or more rules of one or more policies for managing IP traffic among the accesses  304   1-3  and  1904   1-2  based, at least in part, on the obtained performance metrics and a policy for managing bandwidth among the accesses  304   1-3  and  1904   1-2 . Similarly, the WTRU PUF may relay or otherwise provide the PDN-GW-ICF or eNB-ICF or trusted-non-3GPP-IP-access performance metrics to the PCRF PUF and/or ANDSF PUF. More generally, any PUF may relay the performance metrics that it receives to any other PUF using appropriate interfaces. 
     Like the ePDG ICF, the PCEFs  370  of the PGW  366 , SGW  364 , and GGSN  270  may include ICF functionally for collection performance information for use in determining the end-to-end network latency and tunnel throughput. 
     Although being shown as included within the WTRU  302 , PCRF  320  and ANDSF  322 , the PUF(s) may be included on other points of the PCC architecture  319 . 
     The architecture of the communications system  1900  may include (1) H/E(e)NB (e.g., Femto APs) and (2) CGW (e.g., an integrated Femto and Wi-Fi (IFW) AP). The H/E(e)NB and CGW may be in local premises, which may be residential, outdoor metro/campus/enterprise, indoor malls, etc. Such architecture is different from the interworked 3GPP and non-3GPP (Wi-Fi) access which interworking occurs in the PGW  366 , which is located in the EPC network  303 . Each of the H(e)NB and CGW may include both an ICF and PUF, which is different from the interworked 3GPP and non-3GPP access, where in the eNB  1902 , trusted-non-3GPP access  1902 , and ePDG  326  may include respective ICFs, but not respective PUFs. In various embodiments where edge-based′ APs (e.g., Femto only or IFW), some policies may also be resident in edge (or local premises), which may interact and/or coordinate with the policy entities of the EPC network  303 . If the Wi-Fi in the IFW-AP is not trusted and managed by a mobile network operator (“MNO”), then the IFW-AP might not include an ICF on the Wi-Fi of the IFW-AP. 
     In various embodiments, where the Wi-Fi AP is not trusted (e.g., no trust relationship exists between the MNO and the AP-provider, be they the end user or some HotSpot provider), the WTRU ICF may obtain AP-related measurement information, and relay it to the EPC network  303 , since the WTRU  302  is a trusted entity of the MNO. 
     PCC Related Information 
     Example Information Stored in PUFs 
       FIG. 20  is a chart illustrating a Table 1 listing (i) various policy related information stored as ANDSF MOs at any of the PUFs, namely at WTRU, PCRF or ANDSF entities and (ii) other information that may be collected by any of the ICFs and stored in the ANDSF MO in any of the PUFs. ANDSF MOs enhanced to store any such other information is referred to as EANDSF or eANDSF. 
     Example RAN Information Provided by ICFs 
       FIG. 21  is a chart illustrating a Table 2 listing information that may be collected about the 3GPP RAN cell and be reported to any of the PUFs at WTRU  302 , ANDSF  322  and PCRF  320 . 
     Example 3G Specific Information 
     The 3G specific information that may be collected by any of the ICFs and stored at any of the PUFs may include one or more physical measurements set forth in 3GPP TS 25.215. For WTRU reported measurements, the 3G specific information may include CPICH RSCP, PCCPCH RSCP, UTRA carrier RSSI, GSM carrier RSSI, CPICH Ec/No, Transport channel BLER, UE transmitted power, UE GPS Information, E-UTRA RSRP, etc. For UTRAN reported measurements, the 3G specific information may include received total wide band power, SIR, SIR error, Transmitted carrier power, Transmitted code power, Transport channel BER, physical channel BER, Round trip time, etc. . . . 
     Example Wi-Fi Specific Information 
     The Wi-Fi specific information that may be collected by any of the ICFs and stored at any of the PUFs may include one or more measurements set forth in IEEE STD 802.11-2007. Examples of such collectable Wi-Fi specific information may include RTS Success and Failure Count, ACK Rate, FCS Error Count, etc . . . 
     Example Information Provided by Gateways (GWs) Entities 
     GWs entities may play an important role in the operation of the CN. They may serve as tunnel termination points, termination points for certain protocols, NATs, etc. As such, the gateway may possess some information useful for policy decision making. 
     One type of information available at the GWs is information about a specific WTRU, which may be (e.g., implicitly) obtained when a tunnel exists between the WTRU and the GWs. Such tunnel may be secured (e.g., with IPsec) or, alternatively, unsecured. The tunnel between a GW and the WTRU  302  provides a connection that encompasses all the non-CN intermediate steps involved in communication between CN and the WTRU  302 . Thus, end-to-end performance metrics associated with the tunnel may be used as an indicator of how well non-CN controlled networks can be used to provide mobile network services to the WTRU  302 . This information may be used to provide proper network management. An example of this is the tunnel between ePDG  326  and the WTRU  302 , which tunnel is generally required for access over non-trusted non-3GPP accesses. Table 3 of  FIG. 22  provides information that may be collected from WTRU-to-GW tunnels (e.g., WTRU-to-ePDG tunnels). 
     Another type of tunnel is one that exists between the access network gateway (e.g. HeNB or a trusted Wi-Fi AP/GW) and the corresponding GW in the CN (SGW for HeNB, PDN GW for Trusted Wi-Fi AP/GW). Like the per UE tunnel, such tunnel is typically secured, and carries aggregated user data from the access network GW and signaling, as well. A GTP is a frequently used as the transport protocol in such tunnels. Like the per-UE tunnel, the tunnel between an access network GW and the CN may be an indicator of a quality of connection between the two over what is, frequently, a third party network—or even the Internet (although, unlike the per-UE tunnel, the air-interface performance metrics might not be included in these metrics). The air-interface performance metrics may be provided by the network access gateway using measurements described in more detail below. Table 4 of  FIG. 23  provides information that be collected at the CN gateway from each access network tunnel. 
     Example Backhaul Information 
     The access to a specific technology may be based, at least in part, on the state (e.g., load, IP protocol supported, etc.) of the backhaul. Under certain conditions, the radio interface can provide a high bandwidth with good quality of transmission, but the backhaul may be a bottleneck. Obtaining this information in advance may result in the WTRU  302  being prevented to connect to an AP that might not provide an expected QoS. Table 5 of  FIG. 24  provides backhaul information that may be collected, reported and/or used for managing IP traffic. 
     Example ANQP Information 
     ANQP through Wi-Fi may provide the WTRU  302  with information related to the services and capabilities of the local AP, such as venue name information, emergency call number information, IP address type availability, etc . . . 
     While such information may be related to the Wi-Fi AP, the information may be relevant, for example, for neighboring networks. The WTRU  302  may operate as a relay for the ANQP information. The WTRU  302  may retrieve ANQP information received over Wi-Fi, and store the ANQP information locally, e.g. into ANDSF MO, to be further retrieved by an entity of the 3GPP network (e.g., the ANDSF Server) and/or other network. 
     Example Session &amp; User Experience Information 
     The WTRU  302  may collect statistics of individual sessions, including PS &amp; CS, as well as User Experience metrics and communicate such analytics to the network. 
     Examples of session-based analytics may include average throughput, average latency, TCP retransmission counts, any time-outs etc. The User Experience metrics may include dropped call and/or overall quality metric quantified into a set of numbers or descriptors (such as poor to excellent), etc. 
     The communication of such analytics to the network may be direct, via suitable NAS messages, or by updating the UE-MO, which may be subsequently synchronized with the ANDSF-Server. 
     Example Measurements-based PCC Functions 
     The policies may help the WTRU to adequately select an appropriate radio access based on the ISMP, and Discovery Information. For IP Flow mobility, PCC provides guidelines to ensure IP Flow Continuity and expected QoE. 
     While the WTRU information may provide good information about each individual WTRU, global information related to all WTRUs served by the same RAN may be used to provide a better policy decision. The WTRU  302  and RAN information can be used to optimize PCC functions, for instance. 
     The measurements received by ANDSF  322  through s14 and the measurements received at the PCRF  320  may be exchanged between both entities. The decisions about which measurements need to be available at the ANDSF  320  and/or at the PCRF  320  may depend on the requirements of the measurements-based PCC functions. 
     Example Multi-Network Load Balancing 
     In various embodiments, both of the ANDSF  322  and PCRF  320  may consider an overall system condition in determining appropriate policies or updating existing policies for managing IP traffic associated with each WTRU  302  among a set of the multiple accesses  304 . 
     As shown in procedure  2500  of  FIG. 25 , an operator might make a decision that all video calls should be processed over a local/high-speed radio access, such as Wi-Fi. To facilitate this, the policies (ISMP, ISRP) may be provisioned accordingly. If, however, all WTRUs in the same Wi-Fi cell strictly follow this policy, the Wi-Fi cell may become quickly constrained and/or overloaded. 
     The PCC polices may be provisioned to consider the cell information and the UE capabilities so that the operator may balance video calls between Wi-Fi (e.g., for the devices that support only Wi-Fi) and cellular (for the devices that supports only cellular or both Wi-Fi and cellular). 
     The ANDSF  322  may configure the WTRU with pre-defined operator policy to the WTRU  302 , which provide the ANDSF with its own capabilities. After the WTRU  302  starts a video, and based on received ANDSF MO, the video may start over Wi-Fi. Meanwhile, others WTRUs join the Wi-Fi network, based on their own policies received too from the ANDSF. 
     All WTRUs may run their applications, and the Wi-Fi AP may detect that the load reaches a threshold, which may be previously provisioned by the operator or through policies. The Wi-Fi AP may report this event back to the PCRF  320  over S2a interface, and provide the load information to the PCRF  320 . PCRF  320  may share the information with the ANDSF  322 , which may perform a load balancing function to determine which WTRU(s) and related application(s) to de-place. Based on the load balancing decision, the ANDSF  320  may update the policies to the selected WTRU so that it performs flow mobility on the detected application. 
       FIG. 25  implicitly assumes that the Wi-Fi AP is trusted. If not trusted, the ICF in the Wi-Fi AP may inform the WTRU  302  of the load conditions, and the WTRU may relay it to the ANDSF  322 . Subsequent steps in the procedure  2500  may be identical to the ones shown in  FIG. 3 . 
     Flow-based Traffic Management 
     The procedure  2600  of  FIG. 26  may consider a Wi-Fi hot-spot owned by the operator (and thus “trusted”). The hot-spot may be currently supporting about 20 smart-phone devices browsing the Internet, using Facebook (which requires presence) and running other low-rate, high-signaling web-based services. By offloading web-browsing flows to the Wi-Fi network, the operator may significantly reduce the impact of the associated signaling on its network, while delivering the required QoE to all 20 users. 
     At some point, one of the users initiates a large video streaming session. If this session remains on Wi-Fi (which may be likely with a typical use of WTRU-centered approaches), it may significantly degrade the QoE for the remaining 19 users (as well as the web-browsing QoE of the “offending” user, should such user decide to continue browsing while streaming). Depending on their policy, the users may remain on the Wi-Fi network (unhappily); or move to the cellular network bringing all the issues associated with support of signaling load with them. In various embodiments, the video-stream flow may be moved to the cellular network where a dedicated channel may be allocated for it. By doing so, the network load introduced may be controllable (e.g., the operator may have full control over what the WTRU  302  actually received). 
     Moving a high-rate streaming data traffic from an offload access network (e.g., Wi-Fi) to the operator network may be counter to the traditional approach taken to high-rate data traffic (which is traditionally offloaded) and is desirable in this case because, for example, a number of very specific network conditions (presence of a large number of low-rate high-signaling users in the same location, relative availability of the licensed spectrum). 
     According to the procedure  2600  carried out, a flow segregation decision (flow-mapping) is made at the WTRU  302 . Thus, WTRU IFOM flow-mobility mechanisms, such as those in 3GPP TS 23.261 as well as ANDSF may be utilized. Prior to making the decision, the PCRF  320  may have obtained a number of network measurements, such as, for example, (i) network air interface traffic characteristics from the Wi-Fi AP, indicating that the traffic is highly spiky; (ii) network air interface report from HNB indicating general availability of system capacity and (iii) a measurement from PGW  366  indicating that the Wi-Fi AP is supporting a large number of low-rate users, but such users tend to deliver heavy intermittent signaling load. Based on these measurements, the PCRF  320  was able to determine that in mapping flows to access networks, the WTRUs in this location may follow a non-standard policy. Such a policy was computed, provided to ANDSF  322 , which distributed it to the WTRUs. When one of the WTRUs initiated a video-streaming flow, it was now-following a non-standard ANDSF policy, which was arrived at by (i) taking advantage of the numerous measurements available in the network, and (ii) taking advantage of the ability of the interactions between PCRF  320  and ANDSF  322 . 
     Although  FIG. 26  illustrates the HNB and Wi-Fi AP as separate entities, the HNB and Wi-Fi AP may be integrated or otherwise combined into an IFW-AP and located in the local premises. The local premises may also include a local policy function (PUF), which will interwork with the policy functions in the CN. Such hierarchical policy architecture may be implemented by designating certain policy rules as being entirely local, whereas another set of policy rules are decided locally only after consulting with the CN-based policies and a third set of policy rules, which are transparently communicated to and decided by the CN. 
     Enhanced UE-initiated IFOM 
     As shown in the procedure  2700  of  FIG. 27 , for WTRU-initiated IFOM, the WTRU may rely on operator ISRP policies provided by the network to perform interface selection. The WTRU  302 , however, may be aware of which type of connection (untrusted network or private network available not known by the network) are available to it. The ANDSF MO combined with WTRU  302  measurement may be used by the WTRU to decide to re-route any of all the active flows, and to decide on which interface to send any new (seamless and/or non seamless) flow. 
     The ANDSF  322  may configure the WTRU  302  with pre-defined operator policy to the WTRU  302 , which may provide the ANDSF  322  with its own capabilities. The ISRP may be setup to run video over Wi-Fi. When the WTRU  302  starts a video, the only access available to it is 3G, so it runs it over the 3G access. Eventually, the WTRU crosses a Wi-Fi HotSpot. In various embodiments the Wi-Fi version is 802.11u for both WTRU  302  and the AP. The 802.11u provides additional information to WTRU  302  about Wi-Fi network selection. Based on ISRP information, the WTRU may decide to move the active session to Wi-Fi network and notify the PCRF  320  of the decision. PCRF  320 , in turn, may perform an IP-CAN Session Modification as stated in TS 23.203 and move the application to the Wi-Fi network. 
     Measurements-based PCC Service Discovery 
     At an initial link set, either over Wi-Fi or 3GPP accesses, for the WTRU  302  to enable or disable the measurements reports for PCC, the WTRU may perform discovery to determine if the Measurements-based PCC service is available in the network. 
     One method for Wi-Fi AP is by introducing information into beacon frames, or by adding new fields in a Generic Advertisement Service (GAS) messages. For 3GPP, the network can add a measurement-based PCC capability field into the ANDSF MO and push the information to the WTRU when connected. 
     CONCLUSION 
     Embodiments 
     In an embodiment, a method may include obtaining performance metrics associated with a plurality of accesses of a network. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include adapting one or more rules of one or more policies for managing internet protocol (IP) traffic among the plurality of accesses based, at least in part, on the performance metrics and a policy for managing bandwidth among the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include managing IP traffic associated with at least one wireless transmit and/or receive unit (“WTRU”) among the plurality of accesses responsive to the adapted rules. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include adapting one or more rules of one or more policies for managing quality of service (“QoS”) of the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU among the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include adapting one or more rules of one or more policies for managing gating of the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU among the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include adapting one or more rules of one or more policies for managing quality of service (“QoS”) of IP traffic not associated with the at least one WTRU among the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include adapting one or more rules of one or more policies for managing gating of IP traffic not associated with the at least one WTRU among the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include adapting one or more rules of one or more policies for managing connections to the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include adapting one or more rules of one or more policies for managing connections to the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic not associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include adapting one or more rules of one or more policies for managing selection of the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include adapting one or more rules of one or more policies for managing selection of the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic not associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include adapting one or more rules of one or more policies for managing discovery of the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include adapting one or more rules of one or more policies for managing discovery of the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic not associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include adapting one or more rules of one or more policies so as to cause dynamic adaptation of bearers for the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include adapting one or more rules of one or more policies so as to cause dynamic adaptation of bearers for the IP traffic not associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, adaptation of bearers may include any of establishment, modification and release of the bearers. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include providing one or more of the adapted rules to the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, adapting one or more rules may include providing one or more of the adapted rules to the at least one WTRU so as to cause the at least one WTRU to adapt one or more locally-maintained rules of one or more policies for managing IP traffic among the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, managing IP traffic may include causing the at least one WTRU to apply one or more of the locally-maintained rules. 
     In an embodiment, the applied locally-maintained rules may include at least one adapted rule. 
     In an embodiment, managing IP traffic may include applying one of more of the adapted rules to the IP traffic. 
     In an embodiment, the applied adapted rules may include at least one adapted rule of at least one policy for managing QoS of the IP traffic. 
     In an embodiment, the applied adapted rules may include at least adapted rule of at least one policy for managing gating of the IP traffic. 
     In an embodiment, the applied adapted rules may include at least adapted rule of at least one policy for managing connections to the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the applied adapted rules may include at least adapted rule of at least one policy for managing selection of the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic. 
     In an embodiment, the applied adapted rules may include at least adapted rule of at least one policy for managing discovery of the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic. 
     In an embodiment, managing IP traffic may include managing a data flow of IP traffic among the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, a data flow may include a data flow of the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, managing a data flow may include managing QoS for the data flow. 
     In an embodiment, managing IP traffic may include aggregating bandwidth from at least two accesses of the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, managing IP traffic may include aggregating bandwidth from at least two accesses of the plurality of accesses for IP traffic not associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, aggregating bandwidth from the plurality of accesses may include distributing respective portions of the IP traffic among the at least two accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the policy for managing bandwidth among the plurality of accesses may include: one or more rules for causing adaption of one or more rules of one or more policies for managing any of QoS of IP traffic among the plurality of accesses; gating of the IP traffic among the plurality of accesses; connections to the plurality of accesses; selection of the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic; and discovery of the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic. 
     In an embodiment, managing IP traffic may include: gating at least a portion of the IP traffic from at least one of the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, at least two accesses of the plurality of accesses use different access technologies. 
     In an embodiment, the plurality of accesses may include any of a 3GPP access, a non-3GPP trusted access and a non-3GPP untrusted access. 
     In an embodiment, the performance metrics may include: any of usage, congestion, connectivity, loading and latency. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining the usage of the plurality of accesses may include obtaining packet-based measurements from at least one access of the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the performance metrics are obtained via respective interfaces of the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the performance metrics are obtained from radio reports provided from one or more of the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining the performance metrics may include obtaining information for generating the performance metrics; and generating the performance metrics from the obtained information. 
     In an embodiment, the performance metrics may include performance metrics relating to packet retransmissions associated with at least one access of the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the performance metrics relating to packet retransmissions may include a number of retransmissions. 
     In an embodiment, the performance metrics relating to packet retransmissions may include rate of retransmissions. 
     In an embodiment, the performance metrics relating to packet retransmissions may include performance metrics relating to packet retransmissions by the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, the performance metrics relating to packet retransmissions may include performance metrics relating to packet retransmissions by at least one base station of the at least one access of the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, managing IP traffic associated with at least one WTRU among the plurality of access networks may include re-routing at least one retransmitted packet from a first access of the plurality of accesses to a second access of the plurality of access networks on a condition that the performance metric relating to packet retransmissions satisfies a threshold. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include triggering adaptation of the one or more rules responsive to the performance metrics relating to packet retransmissions satisfying the threshold. 
     In an embodiment, the policy for managing bandwidth among the plurality of accesses is stored in database of an Access Network Discovery and Selection Function (“ANDSF”) entity. 
     In an embodiment, at least one rule of the one or more rules of one or more policies for managing IP traffic among the plurality of accesses is maintained in the database of the ANDSF entity. 
     In an embodiment, at least one rule of the one or more rules of one or more policies for managing IP traffic among the plurality of accesses is maintained in a Policy and Charging Enforcement Function (“PCEF”) entity. 
     In an embodiment, at least policy of the one or more policies for managing IP traffic among the plurality of accesses is maintained in a Policy and Charging Rules Function (“PCRF”). 
     In an embodiment, at least one rule of the one or more rules of one or more policies for managing IP traffic among the plurality of accesses is maintained in a database of an Access Network Discovery and Selection Function (“ANDSF”) entity. 
     In an embodiment, at least one rule of the one or more rules of one or more policies for managing IP traffic among the plurality of accesses is maintained in the database of the ANDSF entity. 
     In an embodiment, at least one rule of the one or more rules of one or more policies for managing IP traffic among the plurality of accesses is maintained in a Policy and Charging Enforcement Function (“PCEF”) entity. 
     In an embodiment, at least policy of the one or more policies for managing IP traffic among the plurality of accesses is maintained in a Policy and Charging Rules Function (“PCRF”). 
     In an embodiment, the PCEF entity is a PCEF entity of a converged gateway (“CGW”). 
     In an embodiment, the PCRF entity is a PCRF entity of the CGW. 
     In an embodiment, the policy for managing bandwidth among the plurality of accesses may include: any of policy activation time, policy persistence, user permissions, WTRU identity, WTRU priority for uplink and downlink, service classification/identification requirements, preferred access per service for uplink and downlink, minimum QoS per IP flow and maximum QoS per IP flow. 
     In an embodiment, the plurality of access networks includes at least two of (i) wireless local area networks (WLANs), (ii) cellular networks, (iii) Bluetooth networks and (iii) peer-to-peer networks. 
     In an embodiment, a system may include a network monitoring and control function (“NMCF”) entity configured to obtain performance metrics associated with a plurality of accesses of a network. 
     In an embodiment, the system may further include a policy and charging rules function (“PCRF”) entity configured to adapt rules of at least one policy for managing internet protocol (IP) traffic associated with a wireless transmit and/or receive unit (“WTRU”) among the plurality of accesses based, at least in part, on the performance metrics and a policy for managing bandwidth among the plurality of accesses; and 
     In an embodiment, the system may further include a policy and charging enforcement function (“PCEF”) configured to manage IP traffic associated with the WTRU among the plurality of accesses responsive to the rules for managing IP traffic. 
     In an embodiment, the PCEF may include a bandwidth management (“BWM”) function (“BWMF”). 
     In an embodiment, the BWMF is configured to (i) obtain packet-based measurements from the IP traffic, (ii) obtain the performance metrics from the NMCF entity, and (iii) provide the packet-based measurements and performance metrics to the PCEF. 
     In an embodiment, the PCRF entity is configured to adapt one or more rules of one or more policies for managing quality of service (“QoS”) of the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU among the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the PCRF entity is configured to adapt one or more rules of one or more policies for managing gating of the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU among the plurality of accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the ANDSF entity is configured to adapt one or more rules of one or more policies for managing connections to the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, the ANDSF entity is configured to adapt one or more rules of one or more policies for managing connections to the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic not associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, the ANDSF entity is configured to adapt one or more rules of one or more policies for managing selection of the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, the ANDSF entity is configured to adapt one or more rules of one or more policies for managing discovery of the plurality of accesses for the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, the ANDSF entity is configured to adapt one or more rules of one or more policies so as to cause dynamic adaptation of bearers for the IP traffic associated with the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, adaptation of bearers may include any of establishment, modification and release of the bearers. 
     In an embodiment, any of the ANDSF and PCRF entities is configured to provide one or more of the adapted rules to the at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, a converged gateway may include a network monitoring and control function (“NMCF”) entity configured to obtain performance metrics associated with a plurality of accesses of a network. 
     In an embodiment, the converged gateway may further include a policy and charging rules function (“PCRF”) entity configured to adapt rules of at least one policy for managing internet protocol (IP) traffic associated with a wireless transmit and/or receive unit (“WTRU”) among the plurality of accesses based, at least in part, on the performance metrics and a policy for managing bandwidth among the plurality of accesses; and 
     In an embodiment, the converged gateway may further include a policy and charging enforcement function (“PCEF”) configured to manage IP traffic associated with the WTRU among the plurality of accesses responsive to the rules for managing IP traffic. 
     In an embodiment, a method may include establishing a connection between a policy charging and rules function (“PCRF”) and an access network discovery and selection function (“ANDSF”) of a network may include multiple accesses; 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include obtaining information about the network (“network information”), at the PCRF, via the connection between the ANDSF and the PCRF; and 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include generating based, at least in part, on the network information obtained at the PCRF, policy-configuration information for configuring a policy for facilitating flow management across the multiple accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include sending the policy-configuration information to any of the ANDSF, a wireless transmit and/or receive unit (“WTRU”), and a policy and charging enforcement function (“PCEF”). 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include obtaining, at the PCRF via the connection between the ANDSF and PCRF, information defining the policy (“policy definition information”), wherein generating policy-configuration information may include: generating the policy-configuration information based, at least in part, on the network information and the obtained by the PCRF and the policy-definition information. 
     In an embodiment, establishing a connection between a PCRF and an ANDSF may include establishing a connection between the PCRF and the ANDSF in accordance with any of a Diameter protocol, a Diameter application and a protocol based on the Diameter protocol. 
     In an embodiment, establishing a connection between a PCRF and an ANDSF may include establishing a connection between the PCRF and the ANDSF in accordance with a device management (“DM”) protocol. 
     In an embodiment, the DM protocol may include a DM protocol in accordance with an open-mobile alliance (“OMA”) DM protocol. 
     In an embodiment, the obtained network information may include any of static and dynamically updated network information garnered from policy-definition information, access network discovery information, network status information, subscriber information and traffic-identification information. 
     In an embodiment, the obtained network information may include network information detected by at least one WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, the WTRU detected network information is obtained by the ANDSF via at least one connection between the ANDSF and the at least one WTRU, respectively. 
     In an embodiment, the at least one connection between the ANDSF and the WTRU may include a connection in accordance with an OMA DM protocol. 
     In an embodiment, the WTRU detected network information obtained by the ANDSF from a WTRU may include any of the policy-definition information, access network discovery information, network status information and traffic-identification information. 
     In an embodiment, the network status information may include any of a measurement and metric associated with congestion detected by (i) the WTRU for any of a cell, access point and PDN; and (ii) an application. 
     In an embodiment, the information available to the ANDSF may include information obtained by the ANDSF from a repository of subscriber information. 
     In an embodiment, the repository of subscriber information may include any of a home location register (“HLR”), visitor location register (“VLR”), home subscriber server (“HSS”) and subscriber profile repository (“SPR”). 
     In an embodiment, the policy-definition information may include information related to any of an inter-system mobility policy and an inter-system routing policy. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining network information, at the PCRF, via the connection between the ANDSF and the PCRF may include: receiving the network information responsive to a request from the PCRF. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining network information, at the PCRF, via the connection between the ANDSF and the PCRF may include: receiving the network information responsive to a synchronization routing among any of the PCRF, ANDSF and WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining network information, at the PCRF, via the connection between the ANDSF and the PCRF may include: receiving the network information responsive to an event detected at the ANDSF. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include receiving an event notification, wherein the event notification may include the network information, and wherein obtaining network information, at the PCRF, via the connection between the ANDSF and the PCRF may include: extracting the network information from the event notification. 
     In an embodiment, the PCRF subscribes to an event report for generating the event notification. 
     In an embodiment, the event may include any of a policy update from the ANDSF, PLMN change, QoS change, IFOM routing change, access change, access link condition, WTRU IP address change, location update, application detection, and traffic-identification detection. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining network information, at the PCRF, via the connection between the ANDSF and the PCRF may include: receiving the network information without a request for the network information. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining policy-definition information, at the PCRF, via the connection between the ANDSF and the PCRF may include: receiving the policy-definition information responsive to a request from the PCRF. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining policy-definition information, at the PCRF, via the connection between the ANDSF and the PCRF may include: receiving the policy-definition information responsive to a synchronization routing among any of the PCRF, ANDSF and WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining policy-definition information, at the PCRF, via the connection between the ANDSF and the PCRF may include: receiving the policy-definition information responsive to an event detected at the ANDSF. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include receiving an event notification, wherein the event notification may include the policy-definition information, and wherein obtaining policy-definition information, at the PCRF, via the connection between the ANDSF and the PCRF may include: extracting the policy-definition information from the event notification. 
     In an embodiment, the PCRF subscribes to an event report for generating the event notification. 
     In an embodiment, the event may include any of a policy update from the ANDSF, PLMN change, QoS change, IFOM routing change, access change, access link condition, WTRU IP address change, location update, application detection, and traffic-identification detection. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining policy-definition information, at the PCRF, via the connection between the ANDSF and the PCRF may include: receiving the policy-definition information without a request for the policy-definition information. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include using the policy-configuration information at any of the WTRU and PCEF to perform IP flow management (“IFOM”) across the multiple accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the network information may include network information aggregated by the ANDSF. 
     In an embodiment, the obtained network information may include network information detected by a plurality of WTRUs, and wherein the WTRU detected network information is aggregated by the ANDSF. 
     In an embodiment, the obtained network information may include network information detected by a plurality of WTRUs and network information detected by a network monitoring and control function (“NMCF”), and wherein the WTRU-detected and NMCF-detected network information is aggregated by the ANDSF. 
     In an embodiment, a method may include establishing a connection between a PCRF and an ANDSF of a network may include multiple accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include establishing a connection between the PCRF and a WTRU via the connection between the PCRF and ANDSF. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include obtaining network information from the WTRU at the PCRF. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include generating, based, at least in part, on the network information obtained at the PCRF, policy-configuration information for configuring a policy for facilitating flow management across the multiple accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include sending the policy-configuration information to any of the ANDSF, a wireless transmit and/or receive unit (“WTRU”), and a policy and charging enforcement function (“PCEF”). 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include obtaining policy definition information at the PCRF via the connection between the ANDSF and PCRF, wherein generating policy-configuration information may include generating the policy-configuration information based, at least in part, on the network information and the obtained by the PCRF and the policy-definition information. 
     In an embodiment, a method may include establishing a connection among a WTRU and a PCRF and an ANDSF of a network may include multiple accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include synchronizing network and policy-definition information among the WTRU and a PCRF and an ANDSF. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include generating, based, at least in part, on the network information obtained at the PCRF, policy-configuration information for configuring a policy for facilitating flow management across the multiple accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include sending the policy-configuration information to any of the ANDSF, a wireless transmit and/or receive unit (“WTRU”), and a policy and charging enforcement function (“PCEF”). 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include obtaining policy definition information, at the PCRF via the connection between the ANDSF and PCRF, wherein generating policy-configuration information may include generating the policy-configuration information based, at least in part, on the network information and the obtained by the PCRF and the policy-definition information. 
     In an embodiment, a method may include establishing a connection between a PCRF and an ANDSF of a network may include multiple accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include obtaining network information from a WTRU at the PCRF. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include generating, based, at least in part, on the network information obtained at the PCRF, policy-configuration information for configuring a policy for facilitating flow management across the multiple accesses. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include sending the policy-configuration information to any of the ANDSF, a wireless transmit and/or receive unit (“WTRU”), and a policy and charging enforcement function (“PCEF”). 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include obtaining policy definition information at the PCRF via the connection between the ANDSF and PCRF, wherein generating policy-configuration information may include generating the policy-configuration information based, at least in part, on the network information and the obtained by the PCRF and the policy-definition information. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include any of the network information and the policy information is maintained in an ANDSF Managed Object (“MO”). 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include obtaining other network information at the PCRF from any of the a WTRU, PCEF, a bearer binding and event reporting function (“BBERF”), subscription profile repository (“SPR”), a traffic detection function (“TDF”), an application function (“AF”), a base station, and a network monitoring and control function (“NMCF”). 
     In an embodiment, the network information obtained from any of the WTRU, PCEF, BBERF, SPR, TDF, AF, base station, and NMCF may include any of (i) perceived congestion via any of a cell, an access point and PDN; (ii) detected applications; and (iii) detected flows. 
     In an embodiment, the policy-configuration information may include policy-configuration information for configuring an ANDSF MO managed by the ANDSF. 
     In an embodiment, the policy-configuration information may include: any of (i) information identifying an access of the multiple accesses being used for a connection of a WTRU; and (ii) information identifying an IP flow associated with the connection. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include receiving, from the ANDSF, a request for the policy-configuration information, wherein sending the policy-related information may include: sending the requested policy-related information responsive to the request. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include detecting, at the PCRF, an event corresponding to an event trigger for triggering the PCRF to notify the ANDSF of the event; and sending, from the PCRF to the ANDSF, a notification of the event, wherein sending policy-configuration information may include: sending the requested policy-configuration information responsive to the notification of the event. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include detecting, at the PCRF, an event corresponding to an event trigger for triggering the PCRF to send to the ANDSF the policy-configuration information, wherein sending policy-configuration information may include: sending the requested policy-related information responsive to the detected event. 
     In an embodiment, a method for discovering an ANDSF serving a WTRU may include configuring a PCRF with an address of each of a plurality of AND SFs; receiving, at the PCRF from a PCEF, information related to a connection of the WTRU obtained when the WTRU establishes a bearer; and querying one or more of the plurality of ANDSFs to determine the ANDSF serving the WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, a method for discovering an ANDSF serving a WTRU may include configuring a PCRF with an address of each of a plurality of AND SFs; receiving, at the PCRF from a PCEF, information related to a connection of the WTRU obtained by the PCEF when the WTRU establishes a bearer; limiting a search of the plurality of ANDSFs to a subset of the plurality of ANDSFs based on the received information related to a connection of the WTRU; and querying the subset of the plurality of ANDSFs to determine the ANDSF serving the WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, a method for discovering an ANDSF serving a WTRU may include: configuring an SPR with an address of each of a plurality of ANDSFs; obtaining, at the PCRF from the SPR, information related to the WTRU obtained by the SPR when the WTRU establishes a bearer; querying the SPR for the address of at least one ANDSF of the plurality of ANDSFs; and querying, based on the address of at least one ANDSF, the at least one ANDSF to determine the ANDSF serving the WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, a method for discovering an ANDSF serving a WTRU may include: configuring a SPR with an address of each of a plurality of ANDSFs; obtaining, at the PCRF from the SPR, information related to the WTRU obtained by the SPR when the WTRU establishes a bearer; limiting a search of the plurality of ANDSFs to a subset of the plurality of ANDSFs based on the obtained information related to the WTRU; querying the SPR for the address of at least one ANDSF of the subset of the plurality of ANDSFs; and querying, based on the address of at least one ANDSF, the at least one ANDSF to determine the ANDSF serving the WTRU. 
     In an embodiment, a method may include obtaining, at a PCRF, a metric associated with at least one link formed in a network may include multiple accesses; and responsive to the metric, configuring a policy directed to any of inter-system mobility and inter-system routing. 
     In an embodiment, configuring a policy directed to any of inter-system mobility and inter-system routing may include: generating policy-configuration information based, at least in part, on the metric. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include establishing a connection between the PCRF and an access network discovery and selection function (“ANDSF”); and sending the policy-configuration information from the PCRF to the ANDSF. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include establishing a connection between the PCRF and the ANDSF; and sending, from the PCRF to the ANDSF, policy-configuration information based, at least in part, on the metric. 
     In an embodiment, the policy-configuration information may include any of a rule, parameter, setting, attribute, variable, expression, characteristic, directive, command, subscription and event trigger for implementing the policy. 
     In an embodiment, the policy-configuration information may include: any of (i) information identifying an access of the multiple accesses being used for a connection of a “WTRU”; and (ii) information identifying an IP flow associated with the connection. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include receiving the configuration information at the ANDSF; and storing the configuration information in memory. 
     In an embodiment, the memory may include a data structure, and wherein storing the configuration information in memory may include: storing the configuration information in the data structure. 
     In an embodiment, the data structure may include an ANDSF management object (“ANDSF MO”), and wherein storing the policy-configuration information in the data structure may include: storing the policy-configuration information in the ANDSF MO. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include obtaining, at the ANDSF from the WTRU, any of updated location and IP flow mobility (“IFOM”) information. 
     In an embodiment, the method may further include managing IFOM across the multiple accesses responsive to the configured policy. 
     In an embodiment, at least one link may include a link of a data path between a WTRU and a data source 
     In an embodiment, the multiple accesses may include respective radio access technologies (“RATs”), and wherein the at least one link may include: at least one link of the multiple RATs. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining information associated with a condition of a network may include: receiving the information from a PCEF. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining information associated with a condition of a network may include: receiving the information via a policy and charging enforcement function PCEF. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining information associated with a condition of a network may include: receiving the information from an ANDSF. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining information associated with a condition of a network may include: receiving the information from a WTRU via an ANDSF. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining information associated with a condition of a network may include: receiving the information from a NMCF. 
     In an embodiment, obtaining information associated with a condition of a network may include: establishing an interface between the PCRF and AND SF. 
     In an embodiment, the policy may include any of a policy and charging control (“PCC”) rule, quality-of-service (“QoS”) control rule, IP-CAN bearer and/or session policy information rule, usage monitoring control information rule, an IFOM routing rule and an application detection and control (“ADC”) rule. 
     In an embodiment, managing a policy associated with IFOM across the multiple accesses may include: generating, responsive to the information associated with a condition of a network, a rule for enforcing the policy; and sending the rule to a PCEF. 
     In an embodiment, managing a policy associated with IFOM across the multiple accesses may include: generating, responsive to the information associated with a condition of a network, a rule for enforcing the policy; and sending the rule to a PCEF. 
     In an embodiment, the metric may include a measure of any of congestion, connectivity, loading and latency associated with the at least one link. 
     In an embodiment, an apparatus may be configured to perform any of the above methods. 
     In an embodiment, a system may be configured to perform be configured to perform any of the above methods. 
     In an embodiment, a converged gateway may be configured to perform be configured to perform any of the above methods. 
     In an embodiment, a tangible computer readable storage medium having stored thereon computer executable instructions for performing any of the above methods. 
     Variations of the method, apparatus and system described above are possible without departing from the scope of the invention. In view of the wide variety of embodiments that can be applied, it should be understood that the illustrated embodiments are exemplary only, and should not be taken as limiting the scope of the following claims. For instance, in the exemplary embodiments described herein include handheld devices, which may include or be utilized with any appropriate voltage source, such as a battery and the like, providing any appropriate voltage. 
     Although features and elements are described above in particular combinations, one of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that each feature or element can be used alone or in any combination with the other features and elements. In addition, the methods described herein may be implemented in a computer program, software, or firmware incorporated in a computer-readable medium for execution by a computer or processor. Examples of computer-readable media include electronic signals (transmitted over wired or wireless connections) and computer-readable storage media. Examples of computer-readable storage media include, but are not limited to, a read only memory (ROM), a random access memory (RAM), a register, cache memory, semiconductor memory devices, magnetic media such as internal hard disks and removable disks, magneto-optical media, and optical media such as CD-ROM disks, and digital versatile disks (DVDs). A processor in association with software may be used to implement a radio frequency transceiver for use in a WTRU, UE, terminal, base station, RNC, or any host computer. 
     Moreover, in the embodiments described above, processing platforms, computing systems, controllers, and other devices containing processors are noted. These devices may contain at least one Central Processing Unit (“CPU”) and memory. In accordance with the practices of persons skilled in the art of computer programming, reference to acts and symbolic representations of operations or instructions may be performed by the various CPUs and memories. Such acts and operations or instructions may be referred to as being “executed,” “computer executed” or “CPU executed.” 
     One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the acts and symbolically represented operations or instructions include the manipulation of electrical signals by the CPU. An electrical system represents data bits that can cause a resulting transformation or reduction of the electrical signals and the maintenance of data bits at memory locations in a memory system to thereby reconfigure or otherwise alter the CPU&#39;s operation, as well as other processing of signals. The memory locations where data bits are maintained are physical locations that have particular electrical, magnetic, optical, or organic properties corresponding to or representative of the data bits. It should be understood that the exemplary embodiments are not limited to the above-mentioned platforms or CPUs and that other platforms and CPUs may support the described methods. 
     The data bits may also be maintained on a computer readable medium including magnetic disks, optical disks, and any other volatile (e.g., Random Access Memory (“RAM”)) or non-volatile (e.g., Read-Only Memory (“ROM”)) mass storage system readable by the CPU. The computer readable medium may include cooperating or interconnected computer readable medium, which exist exclusively on the processing system or are distributed among multiple interconnected processing systems that may be local or remote to the processing system. It should be understood that the exemplary embodiments are not limited to the above-mentioned memories and that other platforms and memories may support the described methods. 
     No element, act, or instruction used in the description of the present application should be construed as critical or essential to the invention unless explicitly described as such. Also, as used herein, each of the articles “a” and “an” are intended to include one or more items. Where only one item is intended, the terms “a single” or similar language is used. Further, the terms “any of” followed by a listing of a plurality of items and/or a plurality of categories of items, as used herein, are intended to include “any of,” “any combination of,” “any multiple of,” and/or “any combination of” multiples of the items and/or the categories of items, individually or in conjunction with other items and/or other categories of items. Further, as used herein, the term “set” is intended to include any number of items, including zero. Further, as used herein, the term “number” is intended to include any number, including zero. 
     Moreover, the claims should not be read as limited to the described order or elements unless stated to that effect. In addition, use of the term “means” in any claim is intended to invoke 35 U.S.C. §112, ¶6, and any claim without the word “means” is not so intended.