Patent Publication Number: US-2011054020-A1

Title: Napthylene inhibitors of cyclooxygenase

Description:
This application claims the benefit of priority of U.S. provisional application No. 61/175,678, filed May 5, 2009, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference as if written herein in its entirety. 
    
    
     Disclosed herein are new napthylene compounds, pharmaceutical compositions made thereof, and methods to inhibit cyclooxygenase activity in a subject are also provided for, for the treatment of disorders such as arthritis, pain, inflammation, and osteoarthritis. 
     Naproxcinod (Naproxen nitroxybutyl ester, Nitronaproxen, AR-P900758XX, AZD-3582, HCT-3012, NO-naproxen, ZD-3582, CAS # 163133-43-5), (S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)propanoic acid 4-nitrooxybutyl ester, is a cyclooxygenase inhibitor. Naproxcinod is currently under investigation for the treatment of pain, arthritis, and osteoarthritis (WO 1995/009831; and Fagerholm et al.,  J. Pharm. Pharmacol.,  2005, 57(5), 587-597). 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Naproxcinod is a prodrug of naproxen, a commonly-prescribed non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, which contains a nitrobutyl ester group which also functions as a nitric oxide donor. It is postulated that cardiovascular risks associated with naproxen are caused by increases in blood pressure. The release of nitric oxide from naproxinod&#39;s nitrobutyl ester counteracts this rise in blood pressure, reducing the risk of cardiovascular events. Naproxcinod is subject to extensive CYP2D9-mediated oxidative O-demethylation. Adverse effects associated with naproxcinod administration include: heartburn, abdominal pain, nausea, constipation, diarrhea, dyspepsia, stomatitis, headache, dizziness, drowsiness, lightheadedness, vertigo, pruritus, skin eruptions, ecchymoses, sweating, purpura, tinnitus, visual disturbances, hearing disturbances, edema, palpitations, dyspnea, thirst, anaphylactoid reactions, angioneurotic edema, menstrual disorders, pyrexia (chills and fever), congestive heart failure, vasculitis, hypertension, pulmonary edema, gastrointestinal bleeding and/or perforation, hematemesis, pancreatitis, vomiting, colitis, exacerbation of inflammatory bowel disease (ulcerative colitis, Crohn&#39;s disease), nonpeptic gastrointestinal ulceration, ulcerative stomatitis, esophagitis, peptic ulceration, jaundice, abnormal liver function tests, hepatitis, eosinophilia, leucopenia, melena, thrombocytopenia, agranulocytosis, granulocytopenia, hemolytic anemia, aplastic anemia, hyperglycemia, hypoglycemia, inability to concentrate, depression, dream abnormalities, insomnia, malaise, myalgia, muscle weakness, aseptic meningitis, cognitive dysfunction, convulsions, eosinophilic pneumonitis, asthma, alopecia, urticaria, skin rashes, toxic epidermal necrolysis, erythema multiforme, erythema nodosum, fixed drug eruption, lichen planus, pustular reaction, systemic lupus erythematoses, bullous reactions, including Stevens-Johnson syndrome, photosensitive dermatitis, photosensitivity reactions, including rare cases resembling porphyria cutanea tarda (pseudoporphyria) or epidermolysis bullosa, hearing impairment, corneal opacity, papillitis, retrobulbar optic neuritis, papilledema, glomerular nephritis, hematuria, hyperkalemia, interstitial nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, renal disease, renal failure, renal papillary necrosis, raised serum creatinine, and infertility. 
     Deuterium Kinetic Isotope Effect 
     In order to eliminate foreign substances such as therapeutic agents, the animal body expresses various enzymes, such as the cytochrome P 450  enzymes (CYPs), esterases, proteases, reductases, dehydrogenases, and monoamine oxidases, to react with and convert these foreign substances to more polar intermediates or metabolites for renal excretion. Such metabolic reactions frequently involve the oxidation of a carbon-hydrogen (C—H) bond to either a carbon-oxygen (C—O) or a carbon-carbon (C—C) π-bond. The resultant metabolites may be stable or unstable under physiological conditions, and can have substantially different pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, and acute and long-term toxicity profiles relative to the parent compounds. For most drugs, such oxidations are generally rapid and ultimately lead to administration of multiple or high daily doses. 
     The relationship between the activation energy and the rate of reaction may be quantified by the Arrhenius equation, k=Ae −Eact/RT  The Arrhenius equation states that, at a given temperature, the rate of a chemical reaction depends exponentially on the activation energy (E act ). 
     The transition state in a reaction is a short lived state along the reaction pathway during which the original bonds have stretched to their limit. By definition, the activation energy E act  for a reaction is the energy required to reach the transition state of that reaction. Once the transition state is reached, the molecules can either revert to the original reactants, or form new bonds giving rise to reaction products. A catalyst facilitates a reaction process by lowering the activation energy leading to a transition state. Enzymes are examples of biological catalysts. 
     Carbon-hydrogen bond strength is directly proportional to the absolute value of the ground-state vibrational energy of the bond. This vibrational energy depends on the mass of the atoms that form the bond, and increases as the mass of one or both of the atoms making the bond increases. Since deuterium (D) has twice the mass of protium ( 1 H), a C-D bond is stronger than the corresponding C— 1 H bond. If a C— 1 H bond is broken during a rate-determining step in a chemical reaction (i.e. the step with the highest transition state energy), then substituting a deuterium for that protium will cause a decrease in the reaction rate. This phenomenon is known as the Deuterium Kinetic Isotope Effect (DKIE). The magnitude of the DKIE can be expressed as the ratio between the rates of a given reaction in which a C— 1 H bond is broken, and the same reaction where deuterium is substituted for protium. The DKIE can range from about 1 (no isotope effect) to very large numbers, such as 50 or more. Substitution of tritium for hydrogen results in yet a stronger bond than deuterium and gives numerically larger isotope effects. 
     Deuterium ( 2 H or D) is a stable and non-radioactive isotope of hydrogen which has approximately twice the mass of protium ( 1 H), the most common isotope of hydrogen. Deuterium oxide (D 2 O or “heavy water”) looks and tastes like H 2 O, but has different physical properties. 
     When pure D 2 O is given to rodents, it is readily absorbed. The quantity of deuterium required to induce toxicity is extremely high. When about 0-15% of the body water has been replaced by D 2 O, animals are healthy but are unable to gain weight as fast as the control (untreated) group. When about 15-20% of the body water has been replaced with D 2 O, the animals become excitable. When about 20-25% of the body water has been replaced with D 2 O, the animals become so excitable that they go into frequent convulsions when stimulated. Skin lesions, ulcers on the paws and muzzles, and necrosis of the tails appear. The animals also become very aggressive. When about 30% of the body water has been replaced with D 2 O, the animals refuse to eat and become comatose. Their body weight drops sharply and their metabolic rates drop far below normal, with death occurring at about 30 to about 35% replacement with D 2 O. The effects are reversible unless more than thirty percent of the previous body weight has been lost due to D 2 O, Studies have also shown that the use of D 2 O can delay the growth of cancer cells and enhance the cytotoxicity of certain antineoplastic agents. 
     Deuteration of pharmaceuticals to improve pharmacokinetics (PK), pharmacodynamics (PD), and toxicity profiles has been demonstrated previously with some classes of drugs. For example, the DKIE was used to decrease the hepatotoxicity of halothane, presumably by limiting the production of reactive species such as trifluoroacetyl chloride. However, this method may not be applicable to all drug classes. For example, deuterium incorporation can lead to metabolic switching. Metabolic switching occurs when xenogens, sequestered by Phase I enzymes, bind transiently and re-bind in a variety of conformations prior to the chemical reaction (e.g., oxidation). Metabolic switching is enabled by the relatively vast size of binding pockets in many Phase I enzymes and the promiscuous nature of many metabolic reactions. Metabolic switching can lead to different proportions of known metabolites as well as altogether new metabolites. This new metabolic profile may impart more or less toxicity. Such pitfalls are non-obvious and are not predictable a priori for any drug class. 
     Naproxcinod is a cyclooxygenase inhibitor. The carbon-hydrogen bonds of naproxcinod contain a naturally occurring distribution of hydrogen isotopes, namely  1 H or protium (about 99.9844%),  2 H or deuterium (about 0.0156%), and  3 H or tritium (in the range between about 0.5 and 67 tritium atoms per 10 18  protium atoms). Increased levels of deuterium incorporation may produce a detectable Deuterium Kinetic Isotope Effect (DKIE) that could effect the pharmacokinetic, pharmacologic and/or toxicologic profiles of naproxcinod in comparison with naproxcinod having naturally occurring levels of deuterium. 
     Based on discoveries made in our laboratory, as well as considering the literature, naproxcinod is metabolized in humans at the O-methyl group. The current approach has the potential to prevent metabolism at this site. Other sites on the molecule may also undergo transformations leading to metabolites with as-yet-unknown pharmacology/toxicology. Limiting the production of these metabolites has the potential to decrease the danger of the administration of such drugs and may even allow increased dosage and/or increased efficacy. All of these transformations can occur through polymorphically-expressed enzymes, exacerbating interpatient variability. Further, some disorders are best treated when the subject is medicated around the clock or for an extended period of time. For all of the foregoing reasons, a medicine with a longer half-life may result in greater efficacy and cost savings. Various deuteration patterns can be used to (a) reduce or eliminate unwanted metabolites, (b) increase the half-life of the parent drug, (c) decrease the number of doses needed to achieve a desired effect, (d) decrease the amount of a dose needed to achieve a desired effect, (e) increase the formation of active metabolites, if any are formed, (f) decrease the production of deleterious metabolites in specific tissues, and/or (g) create a more effective drug and/or a safer drug for polypharmacy, whether the polypharmacy be intentional or not. The deuteration approach has the strong potential to slow the metabolism of naproxcinod and attenuate interpatient variability. 
     Novel compounds and pharmaceutical compositions, certain of which have been found to inhibit cyclooxygenase have been discovered, together with methods of synthesizing and using the compounds, including methods for the treatment of cyclooxygenase-mediated disorders in a patient by administering the compounds as disclosed herein. 
     In certain embodiments of the present invention, compounds have structural Formula I: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: 
     R 1 -R 21  are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen and deuterium; and at least one of R 1 -R 21  is deuterium. 
     Certain compounds disclosed herein may possess useful cyclooxygenase inhibiting activity, and may be used in the treatment or prophylaxis of a disorder in which cyclooxygenase plays an active role. Thus, certain embodiments also provide pharmaceutical compositions comprising one or more compounds disclosed herein together with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, as well as methods of making and using the compounds and compositions. Certain embodiments provide methods for inhibiting cyclooxygenase activity. Other embodiments provide methods for treating a cyclooxygenase-mediated disorder in a patient in need of such treatment, comprising administering to said patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound or composition according to the present invention. Also provided is the use of certain compounds disclosed herein for use in the manufacture of a medicament for the prevention or treatment of a disorder ameliorated by inhibiting cyclooxygenase activity. 
     The compounds as disclosed herein may also contain less prevalent isotopes for other elements, including, but not limited to,  13 C or  14 C for carbon,  33 S,  34 S, or  36 S for sulfur,  15 N for nitrogen, and  17 O or  18 O for oxygen. 
     In certain embodiments, the compound disclosed herein may expose a patient to a maximum of about 0.000005% D 2 O or about 0.00001% DHO, assuming that all of the C-D bonds in the compound as disclosed herein are metabolized and released as D 2 O or DHO. In certain embodiments, the levels of D 2 O shown to cause toxicity in animals is much greater than even the maximum limit of exposure caused by administration of the deuterium enriched compound as disclosed herein. Thus, in certain embodiments, the deuterium-enriched compound disclosed herein should not cause any additional toxicity due to the formation of D 2 O or DHO upon drug metabolism. 
     In certain embodiments, the deuterated compounds disclosed herein maintain the beneficial aspects of the corresponding non-isotopically enriched molecules while substantially increasing the maximum tolerated dose, decreasing toxicity, increasing the half-life (T 1/2 ), lowering the maximum plasma concentration (C max ) of the minimum efficacious dose (MED), lowering the efficacious dose and thus decreasing the non-mechanism-related toxicity, and/or lowering the probability of drug-drug interactions. 
     All publications and references cited herein are expressly incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. However, with respect to any similar or identical terms found in both the incorporated publications or references and those explicitly put forth or defined in this document, then those terms definitions or meanings explicitly put forth in this document shall control in all respects. 
     As used herein, the terms below have the meanings indicated. 
     The singular forms “a”, “an”, and “the” may refer to plural articles unless specifically stated otherwise. 
     The term “about”, as used herein, is intended to qualify the numerical values which it modifies, denoting such a value as variable within a margin of error. When no particular margin of error, such as a standard deviation to a mean value given in a chart or table of data, is recited, the term “about” should be understood to mean that range which would encompass the recited value and the range which would be included by rounding up or down to that figure as well, taking into account significant figures. 
     When ranges of values are disclosed, and the notation “from n 1  . . . to n 2 ” or “n 1 -n 2 ” is used, where n 1  and n 2  are the numbers, then unless otherwise specified, this notation is intended to include the numbers themselves and the range between them. This range may be integral or continuous between and including the end values. 
     The term “deuterium enrichment” refers to the percentage of incorporation of deuterium at a given position in a molecule in the place of hydrogen. For example, deuterium enrichment of 1% at a given position means that 1% of molecules in a given sample contain deuterium at the specified position. Because the naturally occurring distribution of deuterium is about 0.0156%, deuterium enrichment at any position in a compound synthesized using non-enriched starting materials is about 0.0156%. The deuterium enrichment can be determined using conventional analytical methods known to one of ordinary skill in the art, including mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. 
     The term “is/are deuterium”, when used to describe a given position in a molecule such as R 1 -R 21  or the symbol “D”, when used to represent a given position in a drawing of a molecular structure, means that the specified position is enriched with deuterium above the naturally occurring distribution of deuterium. In one embodiment deuterium enrichment is no less than about 1%, in another no less than about 5%, in another no less than about 10%, in another no less than about 20%, in another no less than about 50%, in another no less than about 70%, in another no less than about 80%, in another no less than about 90%, or in another no less than about 98% of deuterium at the specified position. 
     The term “isotopic enrichment” refers to the percentage of incorporation of a less prevalent isotope of an element at a given position in a molecule in the place of the more prevalent isotope of the element. 
     The term “non-isotopically enriched” refers to a molecule in which the percentages of the various isotopes are substantially the same as the naturally occurring percentages. 
     Asymmetric centers exist in the compounds disclosed herein. These centers are designated by the symbols “R” or “S”, depending on the configuration of substituents around the chiral carbon atom. It should be understood that the invention encompasses all stereochemical isomeric forms, including diastereomeric, enantiomeric, and epimeric forms, as well as D-isomers and L-isomers, and mixtures thereof. Individual stereoisomers of compounds can be prepared synthetically from commercially available starting materials which contain chiral centers or by preparation of mixtures of enantiomeric products followed by separation such as conversion to a mixture of diastereomers followed by separation or recrystallization, chromatographic techniques, direct separation of enantiomers on chiral chromatographic columns, or any other appropriate method known in the art. Starting compounds of particular stereochemistry are either commercially available or can be made and resolved by techniques known in the art. Additionally, the compounds disclosed herein may exist as geometric isomers. The present invention includes all cis, trans, syn, anti, entgegen (E), and zusammen (Z) isomers as well as the appropriate mixtures thereof. Additionally, compounds may exist as tautomers; all tautomeric isomers are provided by this invention. Additionally, the compounds disclosed herein can exist in unsolvated as well as solvated forms with pharmaceutically acceptable solvents such as water, ethanol, and the like. In general, the solvated forms are considered equivalent to the unsolvated forms. 
     The term “bond” refers to a covalent linkage between two atoms, or two moieties when the atoms joined by the bond are considered to be part of larger substructure. A bond may be single, double, or triple unless otherwise specified. A dashed line between two atoms in a drawing of a molecule indicates that an additional bond may be present or absent at that position. 
     The term “disorder” as used herein is intended to be generally synonymous, and is used interchangeably with, the terms “disease”, “syndrome”, and “condition” (as in medical condition), in that all reflect an abnormal condition of the human or animal body or of one of its parts that impairs normal functioning, is typically manifested by distinguishing signs and symptoms. 
     The terms “treat”, “treating”, and “treatment” are meant to include alleviating or abrogating a disorder or one or more of the symptoms associated with a disorder; or alleviating or eradicating the cause(s) of the disorder itself. As used herein, reference to “treatment” of a disorder is intended to include prevention. The terms “prevent”, “preventing”, and “prevention” refer to a method of delaying or precluding the onset of a disorder; and/or its attendant symptoms, barring a subject from acquiring a disorder or reducing a subject&#39;s risk of acquiring a disorder. 
     The term “therapeutically effective amount” refers to the amount of a compound that, when administered, is sufficient to prevent development of, or alleviate to some extent, one or more of the symptoms of the disorder being treated. The term “therapeutically effective amount” also refers to the amount of a compound that is sufficient to elicit the biological or medical response of a cell, tissue, system, animal, or human that is being sought by a researcher, veterinarian, medical doctor, or clinician. 
     The term “subject” refers to an animal, including, but not limited to, a primate (e.g., human, monkey, chimpanzee, gorilla, and the like), rodents (e.g., rats, mice, gerbils, hamsters, ferrets, and the like), lagomorphs, swine (e.g., pig, miniature pig), equine, canine, feline, and the like. The terms “subject” and “patient” are used interchangeably herein in reference, for example, to a mammalian subject, such as a human patient. 
     The term “combination therapy” means the administration of two or more therapeutic agents to treat a therapeutic disorder described in the present disclosure. Such administration encompasses co-administration of these therapeutic agents in a substantially simultaneous manner, such as in a single capsule having a fixed ratio of active ingredients or in multiple, separate capsules for each active ingredient. In addition, such administration also encompasses use of each type of therapeutic agent in a sequential manner. In either case, the treatment regimen will provide beneficial effects of the drug combination in treating the disorders described herein. 
     The term “cyclooxygenase” refers to an enzyme which mediates the transformation of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins (mediators of inflammatory and anaphylactic reactions), thromboxanes (mediators of vasoconstriction), and prostacyclins (active in the resolution phase of inflammation). There are at least two isoforms of cycloxygenase: cycloxygenase-1 and cycloxygenase-2. Cycloxygenase-1 is present in most tissues and has been described as a ‘housekeeping’ enzyme. It is responsible for the basal synthesis of the prostaglandins for physiological processes such as gastric cytoprotection, vascular homeostasis, platelet aggregation and kidney function. Cycloxygenase-2, the second isoform, is present in brain, kidney, bone and the female reproductive system. The expression of this enzyme increases during states of inflammation. 
     The term “cyclooxygenase-mediated disorder”, refers to a disorder that is characterized by abnormal cyclooxygenase activity, or normal cyclooxygenase activity that when modulated, ameliorates other abnormal biochemical processes. A cyclooxygenase-mediated disorder may be completely or partially mediated by modulating cyclooxygenase activity. In particular, a cyclooxygenase-mediated disorder is one in which inhibition of cyclooxygenase results in some effect on the underlying disorder e.g., administration of a cyclooxygenase inhibitor results in some improvement in at least some of the patients being treated. 
     The term “cyclooxygenase inhibitor”, refers to the ability of a compound disclosed herein to alter the function of cyclooxygenase. A cyclooxygenase inhibitor may block or reduce the activity of cyclooxygenase by forming a reversible or irreversible covalent bond between the inhibitor and cyclooxygenase or through formation of a noncovalently bound complex. Such inhibition may be manifest only in particular cell types or may be contingent on a particular biological event. The term “cyclooxygenase inhibitor”, also refers to altering the function of cyclooxygenase by decreasing the probability that a complex forms between cyclooxygenase and a natural substrate. In some embodiments, inhibition of cyclooxygenase may be assessed using the methods described in WO 1995009831; and Fagerholm et al.,  J. Pharm. Pharmacol.,  2005, 57(5), 587-597. 
     The term “inhibiting cyclooxygenase activity” or “inhibition of cyclooxygenase activity” refers to altering the function of cyclooxygenase by administering a cyclooxygenase inhibitor. 
     The term “therapeutically acceptable” refers to those compounds (or salts, prodrugs, tautomers, zwitterionic forms, etc.) which are suitable for use in contact with the tissues of patients without excessive toxicity, irritation, allergic response, immunogenecity, are commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio, and are effective for their intended use. 
     The term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier”, “pharmaceutically acceptable excipient”, “physiologically acceptable carrier”, or “physiologically acceptable excipient” refers to a pharmaceutically-acceptable material, composition, or vehicle, such as a liquid or solid filler, diluent, excipient, solvent, or encapsulating material. Each component must be “pharmaceutically acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients of a pharmaceutical formulation. It must also be suitable for use in contact with the tissue or organ of humans and animals without excessive toxicity, irritation, allergic response, immunogenecity, or other problems or complications, commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio. See,  Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy,  21st Edition; Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins: Philadelphia, Pa., 2005 ; Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients,  5th Edition; Rowe et al., Eds., The Pharmaceutical Press and the American Pharmaceutical Association: 2005; and  Handbook of Pharmaceutical Additives,  3rd Edition; Ash and Ash Eds., Gower Publishing Company: 2007 ; Pharmaceutical Preformulation and Formulation , Gibson Ed., CRC Press LLC: Boca Raton, Fla., 2004). 
     The terms “active ingredient”, “active compound”, and “active substance” refer to a compound, which is administered, alone or in combination with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients or carriers, to a subject for treating, preventing, or ameliorating one or more symptoms of a disorder. 
     The terms “drug”, “therapeutic agent”, and “chemotherapeutic agent” refer to a compound, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof, which is administered to a subject for treating, preventing, or ameliorating one or more symptoms of a disorder. 
     The term “release controlling excipient” refers to an excipient whose primary function is to modify the duration or place of release of the active substance from a dosage form as compared with a conventional immediate release dosage form. 
     The term “nonrelease controlling excipient” refers to an excipient whose primary function do not include modifying the duration or place of release of the active substance from a dosage form as compared with a conventional immediate release dosage form. 
     The term “prodrug” refers to a compound functional derivative of the compound as disclosed herein and is readily convertible into the parent compound in vivo. Prodrugs are often useful because, in some situations, they may be easier to administer than the parent compound. They may, for instance, be bioavailable by oral administration whereas the parent compound is not. The prodrug may also have enhanced solubility in pharmaceutical compositions over the parent compound. A prodrug may be converted into the parent drug by various mechanisms, including enzymatic processes and metabolic hydrolysis. See Harper,  Progress in Drug Research  1962, 4, 221-294; Morozowich et al. in “Design of Biopharmaceutical Properties through Prodrugs and Analogs,” Roche Ed., APHA Acad. Pharm. Sci. 1977; “Bioreversible Carriers in Drug in Drug Design, Theory and Application,” Roche Ed., APHA Acad. Pharm. Sci. 1987; “Design of Prodrugs,” Bundgaard, Elsevier, 1985; Wang et al.,  Curr. Pharm. Design  1999, 5, 265-287; Pauletti et al.,  Adv. Drug. Delivery Rev.  1997, 27, 235-256; Mizen et al.,  Pharm. Biotech.  1998, 11, 345-365; Gaignault et al.,  Pract. Med. Chem.  1996, 671-696; Asgharnejad in “Transport Processes in Pharmaceutical Systems,” Amidon et al., Ed., Marcell Dekker, 185-218, 2000; Balant et al.,  Eur. J. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinet.  1990, 15, 143-53; Balimane and Sinko,  Adv. Drug Delivery Rev.  1999, 39, 183-209; Browne,  Clin. Neuropharmacol.  1997, 20, 1-12; Bundgaard,  Arch. Pharm. Chem.  1979, 86, 1-39; Bundgaard,  Controlled Drug Delivery  1987, 17, 179-96; Bundgaard,  Adv. Drug Delivery Rev.  1992, 8, 1-38; Fleisher et al.,  Adv. Drug Delivery Rev.  1996, 19, 115-130; Fleisher et al.,  Methods Enzymol.  1985, 112, 360-381; Farquhar et al.,  J. Pharm. Sci.  1983, 72, 324-325; Freeman et al.,  J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun.  1991, 875-877; Friis and Bundgaard,  Eur. J. Pharm. Sci.  1996, 4, 49-59; Gangwar et al.,  Des. Biopharm. Prop. Prodrugs Analogs,  1977, 409-421; Nathwani and Wood,  Drugs  1993, 45, 866-94; Sinhababu and Thakker,  Adv. Drug Delivery Rev.  1996, 19, 241-273; Stella et al.,  Drugs  1985, 29, 455-73; Tan et al.,  Adv. Drug Delivery Rev.  1999, 39, 117-151; Taylor,  Adv. Drug Delivery Rev.  1996, 19, 131-148; Valentino and Borchardt,  Drug Discovery Today  1997, 2, 148-155; Wiebe and Knaus,  Adv. Drug Delivery Rev.  1999, 39, 63-80; Waller et al.,  Br. J. Clin. Pharmac.  1989, 28, 497-507. 
     The compounds disclosed herein can exist as therapeutically acceptable salts. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salt”, as used herein, represents salts or zwitterionic forms of the compounds disclosed herein which are therapeutically acceptable as defined herein. The salts can be prepared during the final isolation and purification of the compounds or separately by reacting the compound with a suitable acid or base. Therapeutically acceptable salts include acid and basic addition salts. For a more complete discussion of the preparation and selection of salts, refer to “Handbook of Pharmaceutical Salts, Properties, and Use,” Stah and Wermuth, Ed., (Wiley-VCH and VHCA, Zurich, 2002) and Berge et al.,  J. Pharm. Sci.  1977, 66, 1-19. 
     Suitable acids for use in the preparation of pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, but are not limited to, acetic acid, 2,2-dichloroacetic acid, acylated amino acids, adipic acid, alginic acid, ascorbic acid, L-aspartic acid, benzenesulfonic acid, benzoic acid, 4-acetamidobenzoic acid, boric acid, (+)-camphoric acid, camphorsulfonic acid, (+)-(1S)-camphor-10-sulfonic acid, capric acid, caproic acid, caprylic acid, cinnamic acid, citric acid, cyclamic acid, cyclohexanesulfamic acid, dodecylsulfuric acid, ethane-1,2-disulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonic acid, formic acid, fumaric acid, galactaric acid, gentisic acid, glucoheptonic acid, D-gluconic acid, D-glucuronic acid, L-glutamic acid, α-oxo-glutaric acid, glycolic acid, hippuric acid, hydrobromic acid, hydrochloric acid, hydroiodic acid, (+)-L-lactic acid, (±)-DL-lactic acid, lactobionic acid, lauric acid, maleic acid, (−)-L-malic acid, malonic acid, (±)-DL-mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, naphthalene-2-sulfonic acid, naphthalene-1,5-disulfonic acid, 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid, nicotinic acid, nitric acid, oleic acid, orotic acid, oxalic acid, palmitic acid, pamoic acid, perchloric acid, phosphoric acid, L-pyroglutamic acid, saccharic acid, salicylic acid, 4-amino-salicylic acid, sebacic acid, stearic acid, succinic acid, sulfuric acid, tannic acid, (+)-L-tartaric acid, thiocyanic acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid, undecylenic acid, and valeric acid. 
     Suitable bases for use in the preparation of pharmaceutically acceptable salts, including, but not limited to, inorganic bases, such as magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, zinc hydroxide, or sodium hydroxide; and organic bases, such as primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary, aliphatic and aromatic amines, including L-arginine, benethamine, benzathine, choline, deanol, diethanolamine, diethylamine, dimethylamine, dipropylamine, diisopropylamine, 2-(diethylamino)-ethanol, ethanolamine, ethylamine, ethylenediamine, isopropylamine, N-methyl-glucamine, hydrabamine, 1H-imidazole, L-lysine, morpholine, 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-morpholine, methylamine, piperidine, piperazine, propylamine, pyrrolidine, 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-pyrrolidine, pyridine, quinuclidine, quinoline, isoquinoline, secondary amines, triethanolamine, trimethylamine, triethylamine, N-methyl-D-glucamine, 2-amino-2-(hydroxymethyl)-1,3-propanediol, and tromethamine. 
     While it may be possible for the compounds of the subject invention to be administered as the raw chemical, it is also possible to present them as a pharmaceutical composition. Accordingly, provided herein are pharmaceutical compositions which comprise one or more of certain compounds disclosed herein, or one or more pharmaceutically acceptable salts, prodrugs, or solvates thereof, together with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers thereof and optionally one or more other therapeutic ingredients. Proper formulation is dependent upon the route of administration chosen. Any of the well-known techniques, carriers, and excipients may be used as suitable and as understood in the art; e.g., in Remington&#39;s Pharmaceutical Sciences. The pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein may be manufactured in any manner known in the art, e.g., by means of conventional mixing, dissolving, granulating, dragee-making, levigating, emulsifying, encapsulating, entrapping or compression processes. The pharmaceutical compositions may also be formulated as a modified release dosage form, including delayed-, extended-, prolonged-, sustained-, pulsatile-, controlled-, accelerated- and fast-, targeted-, programmed-release, and gastric retention dosage forms. These dosage forms can be prepared according to conventional methods and techniques known to those skilled in the art (see,  Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy , supra;  Modified - Release Drug Deliver Technology , Rathbone et al., Eds., Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Science, Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York, N.Y., 2002; Vol. 126). 
     The compositions include those suitable for oral, parenteral (including subcutaneous, intradermal, intramuscular, intravenous, intraarticular, and intramedullary), intraperitoneal, transmucosal, transdermal, rectal and topical (including dermal, buccal, sublingual and intraocular) administration although the most suitable route may depend upon for example the condition and disorder of the recipient. The compositions may conveniently be presented in unit dosage form and may be prepared by any of the methods well known in the art of pharmacy. Typically, these methods include the step of bringing into association a compound of the subject invention or a pharmaceutically salt, prodrug, or solvate thereof (“active ingredient”) with the carrier which constitutes one or more accessory ingredients. In general, the compositions are prepared by uniformly and intimately bringing into association the active ingredient with liquid carriers or finely divided solid carriers or both and then, if necessary, shaping the product into the desired formulation. 
     Formulations of the compounds disclosed herein suitable for oral administration may be presented as discrete units such as capsules, cachets or tablets each containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient; as a powder or granules; as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous liquid or a non-aqueous liquid; or as an oil-in-water liquid emulsion or a water-in-oil liquid emulsion. The active ingredient may also be presented as a bolus, electuary or paste. 
     Pharmaceutical preparations which can be used orally include tablets, push-fit capsules made of gelatin, as well as soft, sealed capsules made of gelatin and a plasticizer, such as glycerol or sorbitol. Tablets may be made by compression or molding, optionally with one or more accessory ingredients. Compressed tablets may be prepared by compressing in a suitable machine the active ingredient in a free-flowing form such as a powder or granules, optionally mixed with binders, inert diluents, or lubricating, surface active or dispersing agents. Molded tablets may be made by molding in a suitable machine a mixture of the powdered compound moistened with an inert liquid diluent. The tablets may optionally be coated or scored and may be formulated so as to provide slow or controlled release of the active ingredient therein. All formulations for oral administration should be in dosages suitable for such administration. The push-fit capsules can contain the active ingredients in admixture with filler such as lactose, binders such as starches, and/or lubricants such as talc or magnesium stearate and, optionally, stabilizers. In soft capsules, the active compounds may be dissolved or suspended in suitable liquids, such as fatty oils, liquid paraffin, or liquid polyethylene glycols. In addition, stabilizers may be added. Dragee cores are provided with suitable coatings. For this purpose, concentrated sugar solutions may be used, which may optionally contain gum arabic, talc, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, carbopol gel, polyethylene glycol, and/or titanium dioxide, lacquer solutions, and suitable organic solvents or solvent mixtures. Dyestuffs or pigments may be added to the tablets or dragee coatings for identification or to characterize different combinations of active compound doses. 
     The compounds may be formulated for parenteral administration by injection, e.g., by bolus injection or continuous infusion. Formulations for injection may be presented in unit dosage form, e.g., in ampoules or in multi-dose containers, with an added preservative. The compositions may take such forms as suspensions, solutions or emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles, and may contain formulatory agents such as suspending, stabilizing and/or dispersing agents. The formulations may be presented in unit-dose or multi-dose containers, for example sealed ampoules and vials, and may be stored in powder form or in a freeze-dried (lyophilized) condition requiring only the addition of the sterile liquid carrier, for example, saline or sterile pyrogen-free water, immediately prior to use. Extemporaneous injection solutions and suspensions may be prepared from sterile powders, granules and tablets of the kind previously described. 
     Formulations for parenteral administration include aqueous and non-aqueous (oily) sterile injection solutions of the active compounds which may contain antioxidants, buffers, bacteriostats and solutes which render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient; and aqueous and non-aqueous sterile suspensions which may include suspending agents and thickening agents. Suitable lipophilic solvents or vehicles include fatty oils such as sesame oil, or synthetic fatty acid esters, such as ethyl oleate or triglycerides, or liposomes. Aqueous injection suspensions may contain substances which increase the viscosity of the suspension, such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, sorbitol, or dextran. Optionally, the suspension may also contain suitable stabilizers or agents which increase the solubility of the compounds to allow for the preparation of highly concentrated solutions. 
     In addition to the formulations described previously, the compounds may also be formulated as a depot preparation. Such long acting formulations may be administered by implantation (for example subcutaneously or intramuscularly) or by intramuscular injection. Thus, for example, the compounds may be formulated with suitable polymeric or hydrophobic materials (for example as an emulsion in an acceptable oil) or ion exchange resins, or as sparingly soluble derivatives, for example, as a sparingly soluble salt. 
     For buccal or sublingual administration, the compositions may take the form of tablets, lozenges, pastilles, or gels formulated in conventional manner. Such compositions may comprise the active ingredient in a flavored basis such as sucrose and acacia or tragacanth. 
     The compounds may also be formulated in rectal compositions such as suppositories or retention enemas, e.g., containing conventional suppository bases such as cocoa butter, polyethylene glycol, or other glycerides. 
     Certain compounds disclosed herein may be administered topically, that is by non-systemic administration. This includes the application of a compound disclosed herein externally to the epidermis or the buccal cavity and the instillation of such a compound into the ear, eye and nose, such that the compound does not significantly enter the blood stream. In contrast, systemic administration refers to oral, intravenous, intraperitoneal and intramuscular administration. 
     Formulations suitable for topical administration include liquid or semi-liquid preparations suitable for penetration through the skin to the site of inflammation such as gels, liniments, lotions, creams, ointments or pastes, and drops suitable for administration to the eye, ear or nose. 
     For administration by inhalation, compounds may be delivered from an insufflator, nebulizer pressurized packs or other convenient means of delivering an aerosol spray. Pressurized packs may comprise a suitable propellant such as dichlorodifluoromethane, trichlorofluoromethane, dichlorotetrafluoroethane, carbon dioxide or other suitable gas. In the case of a pressurized aerosol, the dosage unit may be determined by providing a valve to deliver a metered amount. Alternatively, for administration by inhalation or insufflation, the compounds according to the invention may take the form of a dry powder composition, for example a powder mix of the compound and a suitable powder base such as lactose or starch. The powder composition may be presented in unit dosage form, in for example, capsules, cartridges, gelatin or blister packs from which the powder may be administered with the aid of an inhalator or insufflator. 
     Preferred unit dosage formulations are those containing an effective dose, as herein below recited, or an appropriate fraction thereof, of the active ingredient. 
     Compounds may be administered orally or via injection at a dose of from 0.1 to 500 mg/kg per day. The dose range for adult humans is generally from 5 mg to 2 g/day. Tablets or other forms of presentation provided in discrete units may conveniently contain an amount of one or more compounds which is effective at such dosage or as a multiple of the same, for instance, units containing 5 mg to 500 mg, usually around 10 mg to 200 mg. 
     The amount of active ingredient that may be combined with the carrier materials to produce a single dosage form will vary depending upon the host treated and the particular mode of administration. 
     The compounds can be administered in various modes, e.g. orally, topically, or by injection. The precise amount of compound administered to a patient will be the responsibility of the attendant physician. The specific dose level for any particular patient will depend upon a variety of factors including the activity of the specific compound employed, the age, body weight, general health, sex, diets, time of administration, route of administration, rate of excretion, drug combination, the precise disorder being treated, and the severity of the disorder being treated. Also, the route of administration may vary depending on the disorder and its severity. 
     In the case wherein the patient&#39;s condition does not improve, upon the doctor&#39;s discretion the administration of the compounds may be administered chronically, that is, for an extended period of time, including throughout the duration of the patient&#39;s life in order to ameliorate or otherwise control or limit the symptoms of the patient&#39;s disorder. 
     In the case wherein the patient&#39;s status does improve, upon the doctor&#39;s discretion the administration of the compounds may be given continuously or temporarily suspended for a certain length of time (i.e., a “drug holiday”). 
     Once improvement of the patient&#39;s conditions has occurred, a maintenance dose is administered if necessary. Subsequently, the dosage or the frequency of administration, or both, can be reduced, as a function of the symptoms, to a level at which the improved disorder is retained. Patients can, however, require intermittent treatment on a long-term basis upon any recurrence of symptoms. 
     Disclosed herein are methods of treating a cyclooxygenase-mediated disorder comprising administering to a subject having or suspected of having such a disorder, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound as disclosed herein or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, or prodrug thereof. 
     Cyclooxygenase-mediated disorders, include, but are not limited to, pain, inflamation, arthritis, osteoarthritis, fever, tension-type pain, headache, migraine, lower back pain, sciatica, dental pain, muscular pain, pain associated with acute soft tissue injuries, bursitis, tendonitis, lumbago, periarthritis, tennis elbow, sprains, strains, muscular problems associated with sports injuries, muscular problems associated with accidents, menstrual pain, primary dysmenorrhoea, acute sore throat pain, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, cystic fibrosis, dementia, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, conditions mediated by levels of beta-amyloid, and/or any disorder which can lessened, alleviated, or prevented by administering a cyclooxygenase inhibitor. 
     In certain embodiments, a method of treating a cyclooxygenase-mediated disorder comprises administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound as disclosed herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, or prodrug thereof, so as to affect: (1) decreased inter-individual variation in plasma levels of the compound or a metabolite thereof; (2) increased average plasma levels of the compound or decreased average plasma levels of at least one metabolite of the compound per dosage unit; (3) decreased inhibition of, and/or metabolism by at least one cytochrome P 450  or monoamine oxidase isoform in the subject; (4) decreased metabolism via at least one polymorphically-expressed cytochrome P 450  isoform in the subject; (5) at least one statistically-significantly improved disorder-control and/or disorder-eradication endpoint; (6) an improved clinical effect during the treatment of the disorder, (7) prevention of recurrence, or delay of decline or appearance, of abnormal alimentary or hepatic parameters as the primary clinical benefit, or (8) reduction or elimination of deleterious changes in any diagnostic hepatobiliary function endpoints, as compared to the corresponding non-isotopically enriched compound. 
     In certain embodiments, inter-individual variation in plasma levels of the compounds as disclosed herein, or metabolites thereof, is decreased; average plasma levels of the compound as disclosed herein are increased; average plasma levels of a metabolite of the compound as disclosed herein are decreased; inhibition of a cytochrome P 450  or monoamine oxidase isoform by a compound as disclosed herein is decreased; or metabolism of the compound as disclosed herein by at least one polymorphically-expressed cytochrome P 450  isoform is decreased; by greater than about 5%, greater than about 10%, greater than about 20%, greater than about 30%, greater than about 40%, or by greater than about 50% as compared to the corresponding non-isotopically enriched compound. 
     Plasma levels of the compound as disclosed herein, or metabolites thereof, may be measured using the methods described by Li et al.  Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry  2005, 19, 1943-1950, Cakart et al.,  J Chromatography  2001, 916(1-2), 569; Sidelmann et al.,  J Pharm Biomed Anal  2001, 24(4), 207; or any references cited therein or any modifications made thereof. 
     Examples of cytochrome P 450  isoforms in a mammalian subject include, but are not limited to, CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP1B1, CYP2A6, CYP2A13, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C18, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1, CYP2G1, CYP2J2, CYP2R1, CYP2S1, CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP3A5P1, CYP3A5P2, CYP3A7, CYP4A11, CYP4B1, CYP4F2, CYP4F3, CYP4F8, CYP4F11, CYP4F12, CYP4×1, CYP4Z1, CYP5A1, CYP7A1, CYP7B1, CYP8A1, CYP8B1, CYP11A1, CYP11B1, CYP11B2, CYP17, CYP19, CYP21, CYP24, CYP26A1, CYP26B1, CYP27A1, CYP27B1, CYP39, CYP46, and CYP51. 
     Examples of monoamine oxidase isoforms in a mammalian subject include, but are not limited to, MAO A , and MAO B . 
     The inhibition of the cytochrome P 450  isoform is measured by the method of Ko et al.,  British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology  2000, 49, 343-351. The inhibition of the MAO A  isoform is measured by the method of Weyler et al.,  J. Biol. Chem.  1985, 260, 13199-13207. The inhibition of the MAO B  isoform is measured by the method of Uebelhack et al.,  Pharmacopsychiatry  1998, 31, 187-192. 
     Examples of polymorphically-expressed cytochrome P 450  isoforms in a mammalian subject include, but are not limited to, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP2D6. 
     The metabolic activities of liver microsomes, cytochrome P 450  isoforms, and monoamine oxidase isoforms are measured by the methods described herein. 
     Examples of improved disorder-control and/or disorder-eradication endpoints, or improved clinical effects include, but are not limited to, improved Western Ontario and McMaster Universities index of osteoarthritis (WOMAC) pain scores, improved WOMAC function scores, improved overall WOMAC scores, and improved subject&#39;s overall rating of disease status. 
     Examples of diagnostic hepatobiliary function endpoints include, but are not limited to, alanine aminotransferase (“ALT”), serum glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (“SGPT”), aspartate aminotransferase (“AST” or “SGOT”), ALT/AST ratios, serum aldolase, alkaline phosphatase (“ALP”), ammonia levels, bilirubin, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (“GGTP,” “γ-GTP,” or “GGT”), leucine aminopeptidase (“LAP”), liver biopsy, liver ultrasonography, liver nuclear scan, 5′-nucleotidase, and blood protein. Hepatobiliary endpoints are compared to the stated normal levels as given in “Diagnostic and Laboratory Test Reference”, 4 th  edition, Mosby, 1999. These assays are run by accredited laboratories according to standard protocol. 
     Besides being useful for human treatment, certain compounds and formulations disclosed herein may also be useful for veterinary treatment of companion animals, exotic animals and farm animals, including mammals, rodents, and the like. More preferred animals include horses, dogs, and cats. 
     Combination Therapy 
     The compounds disclosed herein may also be combined or used in combination with other agents useful in the treatment of cyclooxygenase-mediated disorders. Or, by way of example only, the therapeutic effectiveness of one of the compounds described herein may be enhanced by administration of an adjuvant (i.e., by itself the adjuvant may only have minimal therapeutic benefit, but in combination with another therapeutic agent, the overall therapeutic benefit to the patient is enhanced). 
     Such other agents, adjuvants, or drugs, may be administered, by a route and in an amount commonly used therefor, simultaneously or sequentially with a compound as disclosed herein. When a compound as disclosed herein is used contemporaneously with one or more other drugs, a pharmaceutical composition containing such other drugs in addition to the compound disclosed herein may be utilized, but is not required. 
     In certain embodiments, the compounds disclosed herein can be combined with one or more non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents, anilide analgesics, disease-modifying anti-rheumatic agent, and glucocorticoids. 
     In certain embodiments, the compounds disclosed herein can be combined with one or more non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents, including, but not limited to, aceclofenac, acemetacin, amoxiprin, aspirin, azapropazone, benorilate, bromfenac, carprofen, celecoxib, choline magnesium salicylate, diclofenac, diflunisal, etodolac, etoracoxib, faislamine, fenbuten, fenoprofen, flurbiprofen, ibuprofen, indometacin, ketoprofen, ketorolac, lornoxicam, loxoprofen, lumiracoxib, meclofenamic acid, mefenamic acid, meloxicam, metamizole, methyl salicylate, magnesium salicylate, nabumetone, naproxen, nimesulide, oxyphenbutazone, parecoxib, phenylbutazone, piroxicam, salicyl salicylate, sulindac, sulfinprazone, suprofen, tenoxicam, tiaprofenic acid, and tolmetin. 
     In certain embodiments, the compounds disclosed herein can be combined with one or more anilide analgesics, including, but not limited to, acetaminophen and phenacetin. 
     In certain embodiments, the compounds disclosed herein can be combined with one or more disease-modifying anti-rheumatic agents, including, but not limited to, azathioprine, cyclosporine A, D-penicillamine, gold salts, hydroxychloroquine, leflunomide, methotrexate, minocycline, sulfasalazine, cyclophosphamide, etanercept, infliximab, adalimumab, anakinra, rituximab, and abatacept. 
     In certain embodiments, the compounds disclosed herein can be combined with one or more glucocorticoids, including, but not limited to, beclometasone, budesonide, flunisolide, betamethasone, fluticasone, triamcinolone, mometasone, ciclesonide, hydrocortisone, cortisone acetate, prednisone, prednisolone, methylprednisolone, and dexamethasone. 
     The compounds disclosed herein can also be administered in combination with other classes of compounds, including, but not limited to, norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs) such as atomoxetine; dopamine reuptake inhibitors (DARIs), such as methylphenidate; serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), such as milnacipran; sedatives, such as diazepham; norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRIs), such as bupropion; serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine-reuptake-inhibitors (SNDRIs), such as venlafaxine; monoamine oxidase inhibitors, such as selegiline; hypothalamic phospholipids; endothelin converting enzyme (ECE) inhibitors, such as phosphoramidon; opioids, such as tramadol; thromboxane receptor antagonists, such as ifetroban; potassium channel openers; thrombin inhibitors, such as hirudin; hypothalamic phospholipids; growth factor inhibitors, such as modulators of PDGF activity; platelet activating factor (PAF) antagonists; anti-platelet agents, such as GPIIb/IIIa blockers (e.g., abdximab, eptifibatide, and tirofiban), P2Y(AC) antagonists (e.g., clopidogrel, ticlopidine and CS-747), and aspirin; anticoagulants, such as warfarin; low molecular weight heparins, such as enoxaparin; Factor VIIa Inhibitors and Factor Xa Inhibitors; renin inhibitors; neutral endopeptidase (NEP) inhibitors; vasopepsidase inhibitors (dual NEP-ACE inhibitors), such as omapatrilat and gemopatrilat; HMG CoA reductase inhibitors, such as pravastatin, lovastatin, atorvastatin, simvastatin, NK-104 (a.k.a. itavastatin, nisvastatin, or nisbastatin), and ZD-4522 (also known as rosuvastatin, or atavastatin or visastatin); squalene synthetase inhibitors; fibrates; bile acid sequestrants, such as questran; niacin; anti-atherosclerotic agents, such as ACAT inhibitors; MTP Inhibitors; calcium channel blockers, such as amlodipine besylate; potassium channel activators; alpha-muscarinic agents; beta-muscarinic agents, such as carvedilol and metoprolol; antiarrhythmic agents; diuretics, such as chlorothlazide, hydrochlorothiazide, flumethiazide, hydroflumethiazide, bendroflumethiazide, methylchlorothiazide, trichloromethiazide, polythiazide, benzothlazide, ethacrynic acid, tricrynafen, chlorthalidone, furosenilde, musolimine, bumetanide, triamterene, amiloride, and spironolactone; thrombolytic agents, such as tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), recombinant tPA, streptokinase, urokinase, prourokinase, and anisoylated plasminogen streptokinase activator complex (APSAC); anti-diabetic agents, such as biguanides (e.g. metformin), glucosidase inhibitors (e.g., acarbose), insulins, meglitinides (e.g., repaglinide), sulfonylureas (e.g., glimepiride, glyburide, and glipizide), thiozolidinediones (e.g. troglitazone, rosiglitazone and pioglitazone), and PPAR-gamma agonists; mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, such as spironolactone and eplerenone; growth hormone secretagogues; aP2 inhibitors; phosphodiesterase inhibitors, such as PDE III inhibitors (e.g., cilostazol) and PDE V inhibitors (e.g., sildenafil, tadalafil, vardenafil); protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors; antiinflammatories; antiproliferatives, such as methotrexate, FK506 (tacrolimus, Prograf), mycophenolate mofetil; chemotherapeutic agents; immunosuppressants; anticancer agents and cytotoxic agents (e.g., alkylating agents, such as nitrogen mustards, alkyl sulfonates, nitrosoureas, ethylenimines, and triazenes); antimetabolites, such as folate antagonists, purine analogues, and pyrridine analogues; antibiotics, such as anthracyclines, bleomycins, mitomycin, dactinomycin, and plicamycin; enzymes, such as L-asparaginase; farnesyl-protein transferase inhibitors; hormonal agents, such as glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisone), estrogens/antiestrogens, androgens/antiandrogens, progestins, and luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone anatagonists, and octreotide acetate; microtubule-disruptor agents, such as ecteinascidins; microtubule-stablizing agents, such as pacitaxel, docetaxel, and epothilones A-F; plant-derived products, such as vinca alkaloids, epipodophyllotoxins, and taxanes; and topoisomerase inhibitors; prenyl-protein transferase inhibitors; and cyclosporins; steroids, such as prednisone and dexamethasone; cytotoxic drugs, such as azathiprine and cyclophosphamide; TNF-alpha inhibitors, such as tenidap; anti-TNF antibodies or soluble TNF receptor, such as etanercept, rapamycin, and leflunimide; and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors, such as celecoxib and rofecoxib; and miscellaneous agents such as, hydroxyurea, procarbazine, mitotane, hexamethylmelamine, gold compounds, platinum coordination complexes, such as cisplatin, satraplatin, and carboplatin. 
     Thus, in another aspect, certain embodiments provide methods for treating cyclooxygenase-mediated disorders in a human or animal subject in need of such treatment comprising administering to said subject an amount of a compound disclosed herein effective to reduce or prevent said disorder in the subject, in combination with at least one additional agent for the treatment of said disorder. In a related aspect, certain embodiments provide therapeutic compositions comprising at least one compound disclosed herein in combination with one or more additional agents for the treatment of cyclooxygenase-mediated disorders. 
     General Synthetic Methods for Preparing Compounds 
     Isotopic hydrogen can be introduced into a compound as disclosed herein by synthetic techniques that employ deuterated reagents, whereby incorporation rates are pre-determined; and/or by exchange techniques, wherein incorporation rates are determined by equilibrium conditions, and may be highly variable depending on the reaction conditions. Synthetic techniques, where tritium or deuterium is directly and specifically inserted by tritiated or deuterated reagents of known isotopic content, may yield high tritium or deuterium abundance, but can be limited by the chemistry required. Exchange techniques, on the other hand, may yield lower tritium or deuterium incorporation, often with the isotope being distributed over many sites on the molecule. 
     The compounds as disclosed herein can be prepared by methods known to one of skill in the art and routine modifications thereof, and/or following procedures similar to those described in the Example section herein and routine modifications thereof, and/or procedures found in WO 1995009831, which are hereby incorporated in their entirety, and references cited therein and routine modifications thereof. 
     Deuterated naproxen analogs are disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/752,238, filed May 22, 2007, published as US 20070276042, which is hereby incorporated by reference as if written herein in its entirety. 
     Compounds as disclosed herein can also be prepared as shown in any of the following schemes and routine modifications thereof. 
     The following schemes can be used to practice the present invention. Any position shown as hydrogen may optionally be replaced with deuterium. 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Compound 1 is reacted with ethanol, in the presence of an appropriate acid, such as sulfuric acid, to give compound 2. Compound 2 is reacted with compound 3, in the presence of an appropriate activating reagent, such as an appropriate mixture of triphenylphosphine and diethylazodicarboxylate, in an appropriate solvent, such as tetrahydrofuran, to give compound 4. Compound 4 is reacted with an appropriate enzyme, such as  Candida cylindracea  lipase, in an appropriate buffer, such as a combination of pH 8.0 phosphate buffer, mercaptoethanol, and polyvinyl alcohol, to give compound 5. Compound 5 is reacted an appropriate base, such as sodium ethoxide, in an appropriate solvent, such as ethanol, to give the sodium salt of compound 5, which is then reacted with compound 6 in an appropriate solvent, such as dimethylformamide, to give compound 7. Compound 7 is reacted with an appropriate nitrating reagent, such as silver nitrate, in an appropriate solvent, such as acetonitrile, to give compound 8 of Formula I. 
     Deuterium can be incorporated to different positions synthetically, according to the synthetic procedures as shown in Scheme I, by using appropriate deuterated intermediates. For example, to introduce deuterium at one or more positions of R 4 -R 13 , compound 1 with the corresponding deuterium substitutions can be used. To introduce deuterium at one or more positions of R 1 -R 3 , compound 3 with the corresponding deuterium substitutions can be used. To introduce deuterium at one or more positions of R 14 -R 21 , compound 6 with the corresponding deuterium substitutions can be used. 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Compound 9 is treated with an appropriate reducing reagent, such as lithium aluminum hydride, in an appropriate solvent, such as tetrahydrofuran, to afford compound 10. Compound 10 is reacted with an appropriate brominating agent, such as phosphorous tribromide, in an appropriate solvent, such as ether, to afford compound 11. Compound 11 is reacted with an appropriate cyanide, such as sodium cyanide, in the presence of an appropriate phase transfer catalyst, such as N-benzyl-NN-diethylethanaminium, in an appropriate solvent, such as dichloromethane, at an elevated temperature, to give compound 12. Compound 12 is treated with an appropriate acid, such as sulfuric acid, in an appropriate solvent, such as methanol, at an elevated temperature to afford compound 13. Compound 13 is reacted with compound 14 (wherein X is an appropriate leaving group, such as iodine), in the presence of an appropriate base, such as lithium diisopropylamide, in an appropriate solvent, such as tetrahydrofuran, to give compound 15. Compound 15 treated with an appropriate acid, such as hydrogen bromide, at an elevated temperature to afford compound 1. Compound 1 is reacted with compound 16 (wherein X is an appropriate leaving group, such as iodide), in the presence of an appropriate base, such as potassium carbonate, in an appropriate solvent, such as dimethylformamide, at an elevated temperature to give compound 17. Compound 17 is treated with an appropriate base, such as sodium methoxide, in an appropriate solvent, such as methanol, at an elevated temperature to give compound 18. Compound 18 is reacted with an appropriate hydroxide base, such as sodium hydroxide, in an appropriate solvent, such as methanol, at an elevated temperature to afford compound 5. Compound 5 is reacted with compound 19, in the presence of an appropriate base, such as triethylamine, in an appropriate solvent, such as tetrahydrofuran, at an elevated temperature to give compound 20. Compound 20 is resolved with an appropriate chiral resolution method, such chiral-HPLC, to afford compound 21. Compound 21 is reacted with an appropriate nitrating reagent, such as silver nitrate, in an appropriate solvent, such as an appropriate mixture of acetonitrile and tetrahydrofuran, at an elevated temperature to give compound 8. 
     Deuterium can be incorporated to different positions synthetically, according to the synthetic procedures as shown in Scheme II, by using appropriate deuterated intermediates. For example, to introduce deuterium at one or more positions of R 4 -R 9 , compound 9 with the corresponding deuterium substitutions can be used. To introduce deuterium at one or more positions of R 1 -R 3 , compound 16 with the corresponding deuterium substitutions can be used. To introduce deuterium at one or more positions of R 11 -R 13 , compound 14 with the corresponding deuterium substitutions can be used. To introduce deuterium at R 10 , d 3 -sodium methoxide and d 4 -methanol can be used. To introduce deuterium at one or more positions of R 14 -R 21 , compound 19 with the corresponding deuterium substitutions can be used. 
     The invention is further illustrated by the following examples. All IUPAC names were generated using CambridgeSoft&#39;s ChemDraw 10.0. 
    
    
     EXAMPLE 1 
     4-(Nitrooxy)-butyl-(S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate (Naproxcinod) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-Bromo-butyl-(S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate: 1,4-Dibromobutane (1.395 g, 6.46 mmol, 3.00 equiv.) and triethylamine (658.69 mg, 3.00 equiv.) were added to a solution of (S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoic acid (500 mg, 2.17 mmol, 1.00 equiv.) in tetrahydrofuran (20 mL). The resulting mixture was stirred at about 50° C. for about 16 hours, and then water (20 mL) was added. Standard extractive workup with ethyl acetate (50 mL) gave a crude residue that was then purified silica gel column chromatography (ethyl acetate/petroleum ether (1:20)) to afford the title product (547 mg; yield=69%). LC-MS: m/z=365/367 (MH) + . 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-(Nitrooxy)-butyl-(S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate (naproxcinod): A mixture of silver nitrate (1.0 g, 6.00 mmol, 4.00 equiv.), 4-bromo-butyl-(S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate (547 mg, 1.50 mmol, 1.00 equiv.), acetonitrile (18 mL), and tetrahydrofuran (3 mL) was stirred at about 50° C. for about 4 hours. After the solvent was removed in vacuo, the resulting solution was diluted with ethyl acetate/water (30 mL/30 mL). The solution was then filtered. Standard extractive workup of the filtrate using ethyl acetate (50 mL), gave a crude a crude residue that was then purified by silica gel column chromatography (ethyl acetate/petroleum ether (1:20) to afford the title product as a colorless oil (389.2 mg; yield=75%). LC-MS: m/z=348 (MH + ) + .  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CHCl 3 ) δ: 7.71 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 2H), 7.66 (d, J=1.2 Hz, 1H), 7.40 (dd, J=8.4, 1.2 Hz, 1H), 7.11-7.16 (m, 2H), 4.33 (t, J=6.4 Hz, 2H), 4.07-4.12 (m, 2H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 3.87 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 1.60-1.70 (m, 4H), 1.59 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 3H). 
     EXAMPLE 2 
     4-(Nitrooxy)-d 8 -butyl-(S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate (Naproxcinod-d 8 ) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-Chloro-d 8 -butyl-(S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate: Potassium carbonate (291 mg, 2.11 mmol, 1.20 equiv.) was added to a solution of (S)-2-(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)propanoic acid (404 mg, 1.76 mmol, 1.00 equiv.) in acetonitrile (15 mL). The mixture was then stirred at about 25° C. for about 30 minutes, and then d 8 -1-bromo-4-chlorobutane (500 mg, 2.79 mmol, 1.60 equiv.) was added. The mixture was stirred at about 50° C. for about 16 hours, and then water (50 mL) was added. Standard extractive workup with ethyl acetate (50 mL) gave a crude residue that was then purified by silica gel column chromatography (ethyl acetate/petroleum:ether (1:30)) to give the title product as a colorless liquid (360 mg; yield=62%). LC-MS: m/z=329 (MH + ) + . 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-(Nitrooxy)-d 8 -butyl-(S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate (naproxcinod-d 8 ): The procedure of Example 1, Step 2 was followed, but substituting 4-chloro-d 8 -butyl-(S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate for 4-bromo-butyl-(S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate. The title product was isolated as a colorless oil. LC-MS: m/z=359 (MH + ) + .  1 E1 NMR (400 MHz, CHCl 3 ) δ: 7.71 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 2H), 7.66 (s, 1H), 7.40 (dd, J=8.4, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.11-7.16 (m, 2H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 3.87 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 1.59 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 3H). 
     EXAMPLE 3 
     4-(Nitrooxy)-butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate (nanroxcinod-d 3 ) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     (S)-2-(6-Hydroxynaphthalen-2-yl)propanoic acid: In a 50-mL round-bottom flask, a mixture of (S)-2-(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)propanoic acid (3 g, 13.0 mmol, 1.00 equiv.) and 40% hydrogen bromide (15 mL) was stirred at about 105° C. for about 16 hours, and then water was added. Following standard extractive workup with ethyl acetate (3×100 mL), the crude residue was purified by re-crystallization from a mixture of ethyl acetate/petroleum ether to give the title product as a white solid (2.5 g; yield=89%). LC-MS: m/z=217 (M1-1) + . 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     (S)-2-(6-d 3 -Methoxy-naphthalen-2-yl)-propionic acid d 3 -methy ester: Potassium carbonate (4.7 g, 34.1 mmol, 3.50 equiv.) was added to a solution of (S)-2-(6-hydroxynaphthalen-2-yl)propanoic acid (2.1 g, 9.72 mmol, 1.00 equiv.) in NN-dimethylformamide (21 mL). The mixture was stirred at ambient temperature for about 30 minutes, and then iodomethane (3.53 g, 24.3 mmol, 2.50 equiv.) was added. The mixture was stirred at about 40° C. for about 16 hours. The mixture was concentrated in vacuo, and then water (100 mL) was added. Standard extractive workup with ethyl acetate (3×100 mL) gave a crude residue that was then purified by silica gel column chromatography (ethyl acetate/petroleum ether (1:20)) to give the title product as a white solid (1.9 g; yield=78%). LC-MS: m/z=251 (M1-1) + . 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     2-(6-d 3 -Methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)propanoic acid: A mixture of d 6 -(S)-methyl-2-(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)propanoate (900 mg, 3.6 mmol, 1.00 equiv.), lithium hydroxide (1.51 g, 36 mmol, 10.00 equiv.), tetrahydrofuran (14 mL), methanol (2 mL) and water (2 mL) was stirred at reflux for about 2 hours. The mixture was concentrated in vacuo, and then water (100 mL) was added. After washing the solution with ethyl acetate (100 mL), the pH value was adjusted to 2 by adding 1N hydrochloric acid. Following standard extractive workup with ethyl acetate (3×100 mL), the crude product was purified by re-crystallization from a mixture of ethyl acetate/petroleum ether to afford the title product as a white solid (610 mg; yield=73%). LC-MS: m/z=234 (MH + ) + . 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     (S)-2-(6-d 3 -Methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)propanoic acid (naproxen-d 3 ): The (S)-enantiomer was resolved by chiral resolution using Prep-Chiral-HPLC with the following conditions: Instrument: Gilson G×281(HPLC-09); Column: Chiralpak IB2×25 cm, 5 um Chiral-P(IB)001IB00CJ-KE002; Wave length: 254 nm; Mobile phase: hexane/isopropyl alcohol (75:1). The (S)-enantiomer was isolated as a white solid (80 mg). LC-MS: m/z=234 (MH + ) + .  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CHCl 3 ) δ: 7.69-7.72 (m, 3H), 7.43 (dd, J=8.4, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.10-7.15 (m, 2H), 3.92 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 1.61 (d, J=6.8 Hz, 3H). 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-Bromo-butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate: The procedure of Example 1, Step 1, but substituting (S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)propanoic acid for (S)-2-(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)propanoic acid. The title product was isolated as a colorless oil (400 mg; yield=46%). LC-MS: m/z=368/370 (MH + ) + . 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-(Nitrooxy)-butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-nap hthyl)-prop ano ate (naproxcinod-dA: The procedure of Example 1, Step 2, but substituting 4-bromo-butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate for 4-bromo-butyl-(S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate. The title product was isolated as a colorless oil (160 mg; yield=64%). LC-MS: m/z=351 (MH + ) + .  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CHCl 3 ) δ: 7.66-7.71 (m, 3H), 7.40 (dd, J=8.4, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.10-7.16 (m, 2H), 4.33 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 4.06-4.15 (m, 2H), 3.87 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 1.60-1.71 (m, 4H), 1.59 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 3H). 
     EXAMPLE 4 
     4-(Nitrooxy)-d 8 -butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate (naproxcinod-d 11 ) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-Bromo-d 8 -butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate: The procedure of Example 3, Step 5 was followed, but substituting d 8 -1,4-dibromobutane for 1,4-dibromobutane. The title product was isolated as a colorless oil (363 mg; yield=61%). LC-MS: m/z=376/378 (MH + ) + . 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-(Nitrooxy)-d 8 -butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate (naproxcinod-d 11 ): The procedure of Example 1, Step 2, but substituting 4-bromo-d 8 -butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate for 4-bromo-butyl-(S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate. The title product was isolated was isolated as a colorless oil (218.6 mg; yield=63%). LC-MS: m/z=359 (MH + ) + .  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CHCl 3 ) δ: 7.71 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.40 (dd, J=8.4, 1.2 Hz, 1H), 7.10-7.16 (m, 2H), 3.87 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 1.59 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 3H). 
     EXAMPLE 5 
     4-(Nitrooxy)-butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-d 4 -propanoate (Naproxcinod-d 7 ) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     (6-d 3 -Methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)methanol: d 3 -Methyl 6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthoate (10 g, 45.0 mmol, 1.00 equiv.) in tetrahydrofuran (30 mL) was added to a suspension of lithium aluminum hydride (3.4 g, 89.5 mmol, 2.00 equiv.) in tetrahydrofuran (30 mL). The mixture was stirred at ambient temperature for about 3 hours, and then a saturated aqueous solution of ammonium chloride (100 mL) was added. Standard extractive workup with ethyl acetate (3×100 mL) gave the title product as a white solid (8.0 g; yield=93%). LC-MS: m/z=174 (ME 1 -H 2 O) + . 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     2-(Bromomethyl)-6-d 3 -methoxynaphthalene: At about −20° C., phosphorous tribromide (28.4 g, 105 mmol, 1.00 equiv.) was added to a solution of d 3 -(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)methanol (20 g, 105 mmol, 1.00 equiv.) in ether (300 mL). The mixture was stirred at ambient temperature for about 2 hours, and then water (100 mL) was added. Standard extractive workup with ethyl acetate (3×100 mL) gave the title product as a pale yellow solid (23.0 g; yield=86%). 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     2-(6-d 3 -Methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)acetonitrile: In a 2 L round-bottom flask, a mixture of 2-(bromomethyl)-6-d 3 -methoxynaphthalene (33 g, 130 mmol, 1.00 equiv.), N-benzyl-N,N-diethylethanaminium chloride (5.94 g, 26 mmol, 0.20 equiv.), sodium cyanide (26.8 g, 547 mmol, 4.20 equiv.), dichloromethane (600 mL), and water (300 mL), was stirred at reflux for about 16 hours. Standard extractive workup with dichloromethane (2×100 mL) afforded the title product as a white solid (29 g; (crude)). LC-MS: m/z=201 (MH + ) + .  1 H NMR (300 MHz, CHCl 3 ) δ: 7.72-7.80 (m, 3H), 7.51 (dd, J=8.4, 1.8 Hz, 1H), 7.14-7.20 (m, 2H), 4.68 (s, 2H). 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Methyl 2-(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)acetate: Sulfuric acid (52.7 mL) was added dropwise to a solution of d 3 -2-(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)acetonitrile (29 g, 145 mmol, 1.00 equiv.) in methanol (185 mL). The mixture was stirred at reflux for about 16 hours, and then water/ice was added. Standard extractive workup with ethyl acetate (3×200 mL) gave the title product as a pale yellow solid (21 g; yield=62%). LC-MS: m/z=231 (MH + ) + . 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Methyl 2-(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)-d 3 -propanoate: At about −20° C., 2.5M n-butyllithium in tetrahydrofuran was added to a solution of diisopropylamine (1.95 g, 19.3 mmol, 1.48 equiv.) in tetrahydrofuran (20 mL). The mixture was stirred at about 0° C. for about 30 minutes. After cooling the mixture to about −78° C., a solution of methyl 2-(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)acetate (3 g, 13 mmol, 1.00 equiv.) in tetrahydrofuran (30 mL) was then added. The mixture was stirred at about −40° C. for about 40 minutes. The mixture was cooled to about −78° C., and then iodomethane (2.24 g, 15.4 mmol, 1.18 equiv.) was added. The mixture was stirred at about −40° C. for about 1 hour, and then a saturated aqueous solution of ammonium chloride (50 mL) was added. Standard extractive workup with ethyl acetate (2×50 mL) gave the title product as a brown oil (3.2 g; (crude)). LC-MS: m/z=248 (MH + ) + .  1 E1 NMR (300 MHz, CHCl 3 ) δ: 7.69-7.74 (m, 3H), 7.51 (dd, J=8.4, 1.8 Hz, 1H), 7.14-7.18 (m, 2H), 3.94 (s, 3H), 3.87 (s, 1H), 3.69 (s, 3H). 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     2-(6-Hydroxynaphthalen-2-yl)-d 3 -propanoic acid: In a 100-mL round-bottom flask, a mixture of methyl 2-(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)-d 3 -propanoate (3.2 g, 12.9 mmol, 1.00 equiv.) and 40% hydrogen bromide (15 mL) was stirred at reflux for about 16 hours, and then water (50 mL) was added. Following standard extractive workup with ethyl acetate (3×50 mL), the crude product was purified by re-crystallization from ethyl acetate/petroleum ether to afford the title product as a white solid (2 g; yield=71%). LC-MS: m/z=220 (MH + ) + .  1 E1 NMR (400 MHz, CHCl 3 ) 7.67-7.75 (m, 3H), 7.44 (dd, J=8.4, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.10-7.15 (m, 2H), 3.90 (s, 1H). 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     d 3 -Methyl 2-(6-d 3 -methoxynap hthal en-2-yl)-d 3 -propanoate: Potassium carbonate (19 g, 138 mmol, 3.00 equiv.) was added to a solution of d 3 -2-(6-hydroxynaphthalen-2-yl)propanoic acid (10 g, 45.6 mmol, 1.00 equiv.) in dimethylformamide (100 mL). The mixture was stirred at ambient temperature for about 30 minutes, and then d 3 -iodomethane (7.3 mL, 2.50 equiv.) was added. The mixture was stirred at about 40° C. for about 16 hours. The mixture was concentrated in vacuo, and then water (100 mL) was added. Following standard extractive workup with ethyl acetate (3×100 mL), the crude product was purified by re-crystallization from ethyl acetate/petroleum ether to afford the title product as a white solid (9 g; yield=78%). LC-MS: m/z=254 (MH + ) + .  1 H NMR (300 MHz, CHCl 3 ) δ: 7.68-7.74 (m, 3H), 7.43 (dd, J=8.4, 1.2 Hz, 1H), 7.13-7.18 (m, 2H), 3.86 (s, 1H). 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     d 3 -Methyl 2-(6-d 3 -methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)-d 4 -propanoate: d 3 -Sodium methoxide (902 mg, 15.8 mmol, 2.00 equiv.) was added to a solution of d 3 -methyl 2-(6-d 3 -methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)-d 3 -propanoate (2 g, 7.9 mmol, 1.00 equiv.) in d 4 -methanol (10 mL). The mixture was stirred at reflux for about 16 hours. After cooling the mixture to about 0° C., the pH value was adjusted to 2 by adding 1N hydrogen chloride. Following standard extractive workup with ethyl acetate (3×100 mL), the crude residue was purified by silica gel column chromatography (ethyl acetate/petroleum ether (1/20-1/5)) to give the title product as a white solid (1.8 g; yield=90%). LC-MS: m/z=255(MH + ) + .  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CHCl 3 ) δ: 7.69-7.74 (m, 3H), 7.43 (dd, J=8.4, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.10-7.15 (m, 2H). 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     2-(6-d 3 -Methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)-d 4 -propanoic acid: d 1 -Sodium hydroxide (2.76M in deuterium oxide) (10 mL) was added to a solution of d 3 -methyl 2-(6-d 3 -methoxynaphthalen-2-yl) d 4 -propanoate (700 mg, 2.75 mmol, 1.00 equiv.) in d 4 -methanol (3 mL). The mixture was stirred at reflux for about 2 hours. After cooling the mixture to about 0° C., the pH value was adjusted to 2 by adding 1N hydrogen chloride. Standard extractive workup with ethyl acetate (2×30 mL) gave the title product as a white solid (650 mg; yield=99%). LC-MS: m/z=238 (MH + ) + . 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     (S)-2-(6-d 3 -Methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)propanoic acid (naproxen-d 7 ): The (S)-enantiomer was resolved by chiral resolution using prep-Chiral-HPLC with the following conditions: Instrument: Gilson G×281(HPLC-09), Column: Chiralpak IB2×25 cm, 5 um Chiral-P(IB)001IB00CJ-KE002, Wave Length: 254 nm, Mobile Phase: hexane/isopropyl alcohol (75:1). The title product was isolated as a white solid (80 mg). LC-MS: m/z=238 (MH + ) + .  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CHCl 3 ): 7.68-7.70 (m, 3H), 7.42 (dd, J=8.4, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.09-7.14 (m, 2H). 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-Bromo-butyl-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-d 4 -propanoate: The procedure of Example 1, Step 1 was followed, but substituting 2-(6-d 3 -methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)-d 4 -propanoic acid for (S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoic acid. The title product was isolated as a colorless oil (1.0 g; yield=80%). LC-MS: m/z=372/374 (MH + ) + . 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-Bromo-butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-d 4 -propanoate: The (S)-enantiomer was resolved by chiral resolution using prep-Chiral-HPLC with the following conditions: Instrument: Gilson G×281(HPLC-09), Column: Chiralpak IB2×25 cm, 5 umChiral-P(IB)001IB00CJ-KE002, Wave Length: 254 nm, Mobile Phase: hexane/isopropyl alcohol (1000:3). The title product was isolated as a colorless oil (350 mg). LC-MS: m/z=372/374 (MH + ) + . 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-(Nitrooxy)-butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-nap hthyl)-d 4 -prop ano ate (naproxcinod-d 7 ): The procedure of Example 1, Step 2 was followed, but substituting 4-bromo-butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-d 4 -propanoate for 4-bromo-butyl-(S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate. The title product was isolated as a pale yellow oil (242 mg; yield=73%). LC-MS: m/z=355 (MH + ) + .  1 1-INMR (400 MHz, CHCl 3 ) 7.65-7.71 (m, 3H), 7.40 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.11-7.15 (m, 2H), 4.32-4.33 (m, 2H), 4.11 (m, 2H), 1.65-1.66 (m, 4H). 
     EXAMPLE 6 
     4-(Nitrooxy)-d 8 -butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-d 4 -propanoate (Naproxcinod-d 15 ) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-Chloro-d 8 -butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-d 4 -propanoate: The procedure of Example 4, Step 1, but substituting 2-(6-d 3 -methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)-d 4 -propanoic acid for 2-(6-d 3 -methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)-propanoic acid. The title product was isolated as a colorless oil (770 mg; yield=69%). LC-MS: m/z=380/382 (MH + ) + .  1 H NMR (300 MHz, CHCl 3 ) δ: 7.74 (m, 3H), 7.44 (d, J=8.4, 1.5 Hz, 1H), 7.13-7.18 (m, 2H). 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-Bromo-d 4 -butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-d 4 -propanoate: The (S)-enantiomer was resolved by chiral resolution using prep-Chiral-HPLC with the following conditions: Instrument: Gilson G×281(HPLC-09); Column: Chiralpak IB2×25 cm, 5 um Chiral-P(IB)001IB00CJ-KE002; Wave Length: 254 nm; Mobile Phase: hexane/isopropyl alcohol (1000:3). The title product was isolated as a colorless oil (220 mg). LC-MS: m/z=380/382 (MH + ) + . 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     4-(Nitrooxy)-d 8 -butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-d 4 -propanoate (naproxcinod-d 15 ): The procedure of Example 1, Step 2 was followed, but substituting 4-bromo-d 4 -butyl-(S)-2-(6-d 3 -methoxy-2-naphthyl)-d 4 -propanoate for 4-bromo-butyl-(S)-2-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-propanoate. The title product was isolated as a pale yellow oil (48.5 mg; yield=23%). LC-MS: m/z=363 (MH + ) + .  1 H NMR (400 MHz, CHCl 3 ) δ: 7.65-7.69 (m, 3H), 7.40 (d, J=8.4, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.10-7.16 (m, 2H). 
     The following compounds can generally be made using the methods described above. It is expected that these compounds when made will have activity similar to those described in the examples above. 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Changes in the metabolic properties of the compounds disclosed herein as compared to their non-isotopically enriched analogs can be shown using the following assays. Compounds listed above which have not yet been made and/or tested are predicted to have changed metabolic properties as shown by one or more of these assays as well. 
     Biological Activity Assays 
     In Vitro Human Liver Microsomal Stability (HLM) Assay 
     Liver microsomal stability assays were conducted with 0.25 mg per mL liver microsome protein with an NADPH-generating system in 2% sodium bicarbonate (2.2 mM NADPH, 25.6 mM glucose 6-phosphate, 6 units per mL glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase and 3.3 mM magnesium chloride). Test compounds were prepared as solutions in methanol and added to the assay mixture (final assay concentration 100 μM) and incubated at 37° C. Aliquots (50 μL) were taken out at times 0, 8, 16, 24, and 32 minutes, and diluted with ice cold acetonitrile (200 μL) to stop the reactions. Samples were centrifuged at 12,000 RPM for 10 minutes to precipitate proteins. Supernatants were transferred to microcentrifuge tubes and stored for LC/MS/MS analysis of the degradation half-life of the test compounds. It has thus been found that certain isotopically enriched compounds disclosed herein that have been tested in this assay showed an increased degradation half-life as compared to the non-isotopically enriched drug. In certain embodiments, the increase in degradation half-life is at least 5%; at least 10%; at least 15%; at least 20%; at least 30%; or at least 40%. 
     In Vitro Metabolism Using Human Cytochrome P 450  Enzymes 
     The cytochrome P 450  enzymes are expressed from the corresponding human cDNA using a baculovirus expression system (BD Biosciences, San Jose, Calif.). A 0.25 milliliter reaction mixture containing 0.8 milligrams per milliliter protein, 1.3 millimolar NADP + , 3.3 millimolar glucose-6-phosphate, 0.4 U/mL glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 3.3 millimolar magnesium chloride and 0.2 millimolar of a compound as disclosed herein, the corresponding non-isotopically enriched compound or standard or control in 100 millimolar potassium phosphate (pH 7.4) is incubated at 37° C. for 20 minutes. After incubation, the reaction is stopped by the addition of an appropriate solvent (e.g., acetonitrile, 20% trichloroacetic acid, 94% acetonitrile/6% glacial acetic acid, 70% perchloric acid, 94% acetonitrile/6% glacial acetic acid) and centrifuged (10,000 g) for 3 minutes. The supernatant is analyzed by HPLC/MS/MS. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Cytochrome P 450   
                 Standard 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
                 CYP1A2 
                 Phenacetin 
               
               
                   
                 CYP2A6 
                 Coumarin 
               
               
                   
                 CYP2B6 
                 [ 13 C]-(S)-mephenytoin 
               
               
                   
                 CYP2C8 
                 Paclitaxel 
               
               
                   
                 CYP2C9 
                 Diclofenac 
               
               
                   
                 CYP2C19 
                 [ 13 C]-(S)-mephenytoin 
               
               
                   
                 CYP2D6 
                 (+/−)-Bufuralol 
               
               
                   
                 CYP2E1 
                 Chlorzoxazone 
               
               
                   
                 CYP3A4 
                 Testosterone 
               
               
                   
                 CYP4A 
                 [ 13 C]-Lauric acid 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Monoamine Oxidase A Inhibition and Oxidative Turnover 
     The procedure is carried out using the methods described by Weyler et al.,  Journal of Biological Chemistry  1985, 260, 13199-13207, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Monoamine oxidase A activity is measured spectrophotometrically by monitoring the increase in absorbance at 314 nm on oxidation of kynuramine with formation of 4-hydroxyquinoline. The measurements are carried out, at 30° C., in 50 mM sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.2, containing 0.2% Triton X-100 (monoamine oxidase assay buffer), plus 1 mM kynuramine, and the desired amount of enzyme in 1 mL total volume. 
     Monooamine Oxidase B Inhibition and Oxidative Turnover 
     The procedure is carried out as described in Uebelhack et al.,  Pharmacopsychiatry  1998, 31(5), 187-192, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     Determination of Naproxen and Naproxcinod Metabolites in Human Serum 
     The procedure is carried out as described in Sidelmann et al.,  J Pharm Biomed Anal  2001, 24(4), 569, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     Isotachophoretic Determination of Naproxen and Naproxcinod Metabolites in Human Serum 
     The procedure is carried out as described in Cakart et al.,  J Chromatography  2001, 916(1-2), 207, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     Cellular COX-1 Assay 
     The procedure is carried out as described in Esser et al.,  Brit. J. Pharmacol.  2005, 144(4), 538-550, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     Cellular COX-2 Assay 
     The procedure is carried out as described in Esser et al.,  Brit. J. Pharmacol.  2005, 144(4), 538-550, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     Whole Blood COX-1 Assay 
     The procedure is carried out as described in Esser et al.,  Brit. J. Pharmacol.  2005, 144(4), 538-550, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     Whole Blood COX-2 Assay 
     The procedure is carried out as described in Esser et al.,  Brit. J. Pharmacol.  2005, 144(4), 538-550, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     LPS-Stimulated PGE2 Production Assay 
     The procedure is carried out as described in Esser et al.,  Brit. J. Pharmacol.  2005, 144(4), 538-550, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     Adjuvant Arthritis Assay 
     The procedure is carried out as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,233,299, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     Ulcerogenicity Assay 
     The procedure is carried out as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,233,299, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     Inflammatory Pain Assay 
     The procedure is carried out as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,233,299, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     From the foregoing description, one skilled in the art can ascertain the essential characteristics of this invention, and without departing from the spirit and scope thereof, can make various changes and modifications of the invention to adapt it to various usages and conditions.