Patent Publication Number: US-2016235778-A1

Title: Compositions containing pufa, uridine and choline and methods of use thereof

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     The application claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/952,618, filed Mar. 13, 2014, hereby incorporated by reference. 
    
    
     FIELD OF INVENTION 
     The invention encompasses methods of enhancing brain development and/or increasing the synthesis and levels of phospholipids by a neural or brain cell in the cell or within the blood or serum of a subject by administering to the subject a composition comprising uridine, choline, and an omega-3 fatty acid, an omega-6 fatty acid, or a combination thereof. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The factors underlying correct brain development and intelligence levels are poorly defined. Therapies for pediatric and geriatric neurological disorders are urgently needed in the art. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention encompasses methods for increasing the synthesis and levels of phospholipids, in a neural or brain cell or in the blood or serum of a subject comprising administering to the subject a composition comprising uridine, a metabolic precursor thereof, choline, a metabolic precursor thereof, and an omega-3 fatty acid and/or an omega-6 fatty acid. 
     In another embodiment, the present invention encompasses methods for increasing the levels of phosphatidylcholine in the blood or serum of a subject comprising administering to the subject a composition having uridine or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid. 
     In another embodiment, the phosphatidylcholine has a glycerol portion and the glycerol portion is bonded to two fatty acids. In yet another embodiment, the total amount of carbons in the fatty acids is about 16 (e.g., lyso compounds) to 40 carbon atoms. In another embodiment, the total amount of carbons in the fatty acids is about 16-18 (e.g., lyso compounds) or 36-40 carbon atoms. In another embodiment, the total amount of carbon atoms in the fatty acid is about 16-18, 36, 38, or 40 carbon atoms. The fatty acids may have about 0-6 double bonds. 
     In yet another embodiment of the invention, the method increased phosphatidylocholine is at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
     In the method of the present invention, the omega-3 fatty acid may be docosahexaenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, docosapentaenoic acid, alpha-linolenic acid; or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid may be docosahexaenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, or a combination thereof. In yet another embodiment of the invention, the uridine may be an acyl derivative of uridine, a uridine phosphate, or CDP-choline. In one embodiment, the uridine is uridine 5′-monophosphate and the choline is a choline salt. 
     One embodiment of the invention encompasses a method for increasing phosphatidylcholine in the blood of a subject comprising administering to the subject a composition having uridine or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline; and at least one omega-3 fatty acid, wherein the phosphatidylocholine is at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
     Another embodiment of the invention encompasses a method for increasing serum phosphatidylcholine in a subject comprising administering to the subject a composition having uridine or a metabolic precursor of uridine; and choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, wherein the uridine and choline are administered in a therapeutically effective amount to increase phosphatidylcholine in the serum of the subject. The composition may further comprise at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or omega-6 fatty acid. The omega-3 fatty acid may be docosahexaenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, or a combination thereof. In this method, the phosphatidylocholine is at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
     Yet another embodiment of the invention encompasses a method for determining an increase in serum phosphatidylcholine in a subject comprising administering to the subject a composition having uridine or a metabolic precursor of uridine; and choline or a metabolic precursor of choline; obtaining a blood sample from the subject; extracting the serum from the blood sample; and determining the amount of phosphatidylcholine in the serum, wherein the uridine and choline are administered in a therapeutically effective amount to increase phosphatidylcholine in the serum of the subject. 
     In yet another embodiment, the method of the invention increases phospholipids in a subject, and the phospholipids include, but are not limited to, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol, sphingomyelin, phosphoglyceride, or combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the phospholipid is phosphatidylcholine. Phosphatidylchoilne includes, but is not limited to, phosphatidylcholine diacyl (aa), phosphatidylcholine acyl alkyl (ae), and lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa). Phosphotidylcholine diacyls include, but are not limited to, phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; and combinations thereof. Phosphatidylcholine acyl-alkyls include, but are not limited to, phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6. Lysophosphatidylcholines include, but are not limited to, lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
     In another embodiment, the invention encompasses methods of increasing synaptic membrane of a neural or brain cell of a subject comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid, wherein the composition increases phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
     In another embodiment, the present invention encompasses methods of improving intelligence of a subject comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid, wherein the composition increases phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
     In yet another embodiment, the invention encompasses methods for increasing serum phosphatidylcholine in a subject comprising administering to the subject a composition having uridine or a metabolic precursor of uridine; and choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, wherein the uridine and choline are administered in a therapeutically effective amount to increase phosphatidylcholine in the serum of the subject. The composition of the method may further at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or omega-6 fatty acid. The phosphatidylocholine may be at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
         FIG. 1 : DHA increases phospholipid synthesis in PC12 cells. PC12 cells were incubated overnight in with fatty acids, then incubated in media containing  14 C-labeled choline. Graph depicts incorporation of  14 C label into phosphatidylcholine in disintegrations per minute (dpm) per microgram (μg) DNA. DHA: docosahexaenoic acid. OA: oleic acid. PA: palmitic acid. *—p&lt;0.05. 
         FIG. 2 : DHA augmentation of phospholipid synthesis is dose-dependent. *—p&lt;0.05. **—p&lt;0.001. 
         FIG. 3A-B .  FIG. 3A . Arachidonic acid increases phospholipid synthesis in SHSY-5Y cells. DHA: docosahexaenoic acid. AA: arachidonic acid. PA: palmitic acid. *: p&lt;0.05. **: p&lt;0.001.  FIG. 3B . AA augmentation of phospholipid synthesis is dose-dependent. 
         FIG. 4A-B . DHA and UMP synergize to increase brain phospholipid levels in a whole-animal study. “*”: significantly higher than control group by one-way ANOVA.  FIG. 4A . pmol phospholipid per milligrams (mg) protein. UMP+DHA was significantly higher than control (p&lt;0.05) (one-way ANOVA [F(3,28)=4.12; p=0.015]). Two-way ANOVA revealed statistically significant effect of DHA as well, relative to the control group [F(1,28)=8.78; p=0.006].  FIG. 4B . pmol phospholipid per □g DNA. UMP+DHA was significantly higher than control (p=0.020) (one-way ANOVA [F(3,28)=3.215; p=0.038]). 
         FIG. 5A-B . Effects of DHA on brain CDP-choline levels ( FIG. 5A ) and CDP-ethanolamine levels ( FIG. 5B ). Groups of 8 gerbils received either a control or a UMP-containing diet, and, by gavage, DHA (in a vehicle of 5% gum Arabic solution) or 5% gum Arabic solution alone for 28 days. On the 29th day brains were harvested and assayed for CDP-choline. Data are presented as means±SEM. Statistical analysis was performed using one- or two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey test. a: P&lt;0.05 when compared with the values for control diet plus vehicle group; b: P&lt;0.05 when compared with values for UMP diet plus vehicle group. 
         FIG. 6A-B . Effects of UMP diet and DHA on brain NF-70 ( FIG. 6A ) and NF-M ( FIG. 6B ) levels Gerbils received the diets described in the  FIG. 5  legend for 21 (left panels) or 28 (right panels) days. On the 22nd and 29th days, brains were harvested and assayed for NF-70. Values are depicted as mean±SEM. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA and Tukey test. A. **: P&lt;0.01; ***: P&lt;0.001 compared to values for control diet+vehicle group. B). *P&lt;0.05; **P&lt;0.01. No significant differences in levels of the cytoskeletal protein beta-tubulin were observed between groups. 
         FIG. 7 . Effects of UMP diet and DHA on brain PSD-95 and Synapsin-1 levels. A) Gerbils received either a control diet plus, by gavage, 5% gum Arabic, or a UMP-containing (0.5%) diet plus, by gavage, DHA (300 mg/kg) dissolved in the vehicle for 7 (left panels) or 21 (right panels) days. On the following day, brains were harvested and assayed for PSD-95 (A) or Synapsin-1 (B). A. Values represent means±SEM. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey test. **P&lt;0.01; ***P&lt;0.001 when compared with values for control diet plus vehicle group. B). *P&lt;0.05; **P&lt;0.01. 
         FIG. 8 . Increased dendritic spine density in adult gerbil hippocampus. 
         FIG. 9 . Effect of uridine and/or DHA on learning. 
         FIG. 10 . Effect of DHA on phospholipid synthesis in cultured hippocampal neurons. Vertical axis:  14 C DPM/50 μl sample. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     Not to be limited by theory, it is believed that by providing the basic building blocks for the synthesis of phospholipids, the body stores these building blocks for future use. One example of a future use includes repair of nerve cells in response to a disease or to enhance memory or cognition in a subject. In another example, the body may use the stored building blocks to make neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine. These illustrations are merely exemplary applications, as other methods of use will be readily apparent to the skilled artisan in the discussion below. 
     This invention provides methods of enhancing brain development; increasing intelligence; increasing synthesis and levels of phospholipids, comprising administering to a subject a composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid. In particular, the composition increases phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). The increase in phosphatidylcholine can be in the brain, blood, or serum. 
     The composition of the invention includes uridine, a uridine phosphates, or CDP-choline; choline, a choline salt, or a metabolic precursor thereof; and at least one omega-3 fatty acid. The omega-3 fatty acid includes, but is not limited to docosahexaenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, docosapentaenoic acid, alpha-linolenic acid; or a combination thereof. Preferably, the composition includes an omega-3 fatty acid including docosahexaenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, or both. 
     Another method of the invention encompasses increasing the level of a phospholipid of or by a brain or neural cell of a subject comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid. The method may increase phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
     The invention also encompasses methods of increasing the level of a phospholipid in the blood or serum of a subject comprising administering to the subject a composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid. The method may increase the level of phosphatidylcholine in the subject. Phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
     As provided herein, the results presented in Examples 1 and 5 demonstrate that administration of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), an omega-3 fatty acid, to neural and brain cells increases their phospholipid synthesis, as evidenced by increased incorporation of labeled choline. Omega-3 fatty acid administration increased synthesis of total phospholipids, phosphatidylcholine, and phosphatidylethanolamine (Example 2), showing that the effect is not limited to particular phospholipids. PC12 cells display differentiated functions of neuronal cells and are commonly used in the art as a cell line model of neuronal cells. The results presented in Example 12 show that omega-3 fatty acids increase phospholipid synthesis in neurons in short-term culture. 
     The present invention encompasses methods of increasing synaptic membrane of a neural cell or brain cell of a subject comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid, wherein the composition increases phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). In another embodiment, the target is an adult not diagnosed with any cognitive or neurological disorder. 
     Methods for measuring the amount of synaptic membrane in a subject&#39;s brain are well known in the art, and are described, for example, in Oertner T G et al (Facilitation at single synapses probed with optical quantal analysis. Nat Neurosci. 2002 July; 5(7):657-64); Bloodgood B L et al (Neuronal activity regulates diffusion across the neck of dendritic spines. Science. 2005 Nov. 4; 310(5749):866-9); El Fakhri G et al (Generalized five-dimensional dynamic and spectral factor analysis. Med Phys. 2006 April; 33(4):1016-24); and Pautler R G. Biological applications of manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Methods Mol Med. 2006; 124:365-86). 
     In another embodiment of methods and compositions of the present invention, a composition that is administered increases a synthesis of a phospholipid by a neural cell or brain cell of the subject. In another embodiment, an omega-3 fatty acid increases a synthesis of a phospholipid by a neural cell or brain cell of the subject. In another embodiment, an omega-6 fatty acid increases a synthesis of a phospholipid by a neural cell or brain cell of the subject. In another embodiment, a uridine, an acyl derivative thereof, a uridine phosphate, or a CDP-choline increases a synthesis of a phospholipid by a neural cell or brain cell of the subject. In another embodiment, a choline increases a synthesis of a phospholipid by a neural cell or brain cell of the subject. In another embodiment, a choline salt increases a synthesis of a phospholipid by a neural cell or brain cell of the subject. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     The phospholipid that is increased by methods and compositions of the present invention is, in another embodiment, a phosphatidic acid. The term “phosphatidic acid” is, in another embodiment, synonymous with the term “phosphatide.” In another embodiment, the phospholipid is a phosphatidylcholine (“PC”; Example 1). In another embodiment, the phospholipid is a phosphatidylethanolamine (“PE”; Example 2). In another embodiment, the phospholipid is a phosphatidylserine (“PS”). In another embodiment, the phospholipid is a phosphatidylinositol (“PI”). In another embodiment, the phospholipid is sphingomyelin. In another embodiment, the phospholipid is a phosphoglyceride. 
     One method encompasses increasing phosphatidylcholine in the blood or serum of a subject by administering to the subject a composition having uridine or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline; and at least one omega-3 fatty acid, Optionally, the composition may include at least one omega-6 fatty acid. Preferably, the composition has uridine, choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid. More preferably, the omega-3 fatty acid is docosahexaenoic acid, eicosapentanoic acid, or both. In a most preferred embodiment, the composition has uridine (e.g. uridine 5′-monophosphate), choline, and docosahexaenoic acid. 
     The glycerol portion of the phosphatidylcholine may be bonded to two acyl groups (phosphatidylcholine aa or PC aa) or an acyl and an akyl group (phosphatidylcholine ae or PC ae). If two acyl groups are bonded to the glycerol, then the formula is defined as phosphatidylcholine aa or PC aa. If an alkyl and an acyl group are bonded to the glycerol, then the formula is defined as phosphatidylcholine ae or PC ae. A PC is defined by the total amount of carbon atoms in both fatty acid portions and the amount of double bonds in the fatty acid portion. The total amount of carbons in the fatty acid portion may have from 16 (e.g., lyso compounds) to 40 carbon atoms. Preferably, the total amount of carbons in the fatty acid portion is 16-18 (e.g., lyso compounds) or 36-40 carbon atoms. More preferably the total amount of carbons in the fatty acid portion is 16-18, 36, 38, or 40 carbon atoms. The fatty acid portion may have from 0-6 double bonds. 
     The phosphatidylcholine may be bonded to only one acyl or alkyl group, if so then the phosphatidyl is known as lysophosphatidylcholine. The total amount of carbons in the fatty acid portion may have from 16 to 40 carbon atoms. Preferably, the total amount of carbons in the fatty acid portion is 16-18 or 36-40 carbon atoms. More preferably the total amount of carbons in the fatty acid portion is 16-18, 36, 38, or 40 carbon atoms. The fatty acid portion may have from 0-6 double bonds. 
     The phospholipids include, but are not limited to, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol, sphingomyelin, phosphoglyceride, or combinations thereof. In one case, the phospholipid is phosphatidylcholine. Phosphatidylchoilne includes, but is not limited to, phosphatidylcholine diacyl (aa), phosphatidylcholine acyl alkyl (ae), and lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa). Phosphotidylcholine diacyls include, but are not limited to, phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; and combinations thereof. Phosphatidylcholine acyl-alkyls include, but are not limited to, phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6. Lysophosphatidylcholines include, but are not limited to, lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
     One method of the invention increases phosphatidylcholine diacyls (PC aa) and phosphatidylcholine acyl-alkyl (PC ae) in the blood or serum of subject by administering to the subject a composition having uridine or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline; and at least one omega-3 fatty acid. Optionally, the composition includes at least one omega-6 fatty acid. The phosphatidylcholine includes, but is not limited to, phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; and lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
     In another embodiment, PI, greatly increased by methods of the present invention, acts as a reservoir of one or more second messenger molecules. In another embodiment, the second messenger molecule is inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP 3 ). In another embodiment, the second messenger molecule is diacylglycerol (DAG). In another embodiment, protein kinase C (PKC) signaling is increased by methods and compositions of the present invention. In another embodiment, a signaling pathway downstream of IP 3  is activated by methods and compositions of the present invention. In another embodiment, intracellular calcium levels are increased by methods and compositions of the present invention. In another embodiment, a signaling pathway downstream of DAG is activated by methods and compositions of the present invention. In another embodiment, a signaling pathway downstream of PKC is activated by methods and compositions of the present invention. In another embodiment, a signaling pathway downstream of intracellular calcium is activated by methods and compositions of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, DHA and/or uridine in methods and compositions of the present invention act as bulk precursors of cellular phospholipids. In another embodiment, uridine acts by activating P2Y receptors for UMP formed from uridine. In another embodiment, DHA acts by activating syntaxin-3. In another embodiment, a combination of these mechanisms is employed. 
     As provided herein, administration of PUFA and/or uridine to gerbils, whose pyrimidine metabolism resembles that of humans, increases levels of the neurite neurofibrillar proteins NF-70 and NF-M, the postsynaptic density protein PSD-95 and the vesicular protein Synapsin-1 (Example 7). Thus, administration of PUFA increases levels of synaptic membranes in brain and neural cells. 
     The omega-3 fatty acid is an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). For example, the omega-3 fatty acid is DHA (Examples 1-2). DHA is an omega-3, polyunsaturated, 22-carbon fatty acid also referred to as 4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid. 
     In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid is α-linolenic acid (9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid is stearidonic acid (6,9,12,15-octadecatetraenoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid is eicosatrienoic acid (ETA; 11,14,17-eicosatrienoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid is eicsoatetraenoic acid (8,11,14,17-eicosatetraenoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid is eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentaenoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid is eicosahexaenoic acid (also referred to as “EPA”; 5,7,9,11,14,17-eicosahexaenoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid is docosapentaenoic acid (DPA; 7,10,13,16,19-docosapenatenoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid is tetracosahexaenoic acid (6,9,12,15,18,21-tetracosahexaenoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid is any other omega-3 fatty acid known in the art. Each omega-3 fatty acid represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid is an anti-inflammatory PUFA. In another embodiment, the anti-inflammatory PUFA is eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentaenoic acid). In another embodiment, the anti-inflammatory PUFA is DHA. In another embodiment, the anti-inflammatory PUFA is any other anti-inflammatory PUFA known in the art. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     As provided herein, DHA, EPA, and AA all increase brain phospholipid levels (Example 8). Thus, the effects described herein are not specific to a particular PUFA, but rather are, under the conditions utilized herein, generalizable to omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA as a family. 
     In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid is a metabolic precursor of DHA. In another embodiment, the metabolic precursor is EPA). In another embodiment, the metabolic precursor is docosapentaenoic acid (DPA; 7,10,13,16,19-docosapenatenoic acid). Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, “metabolic precursor” refers to a compound that increases the concentration of the fatty acid in the bloodstream or tissues. In another embodiment, “metabolic precursor” refers to a compound that is metabolized by a tissue or enzyme of the subject to the fatty acid. In another embodiment, “metabolic precursor” refers to a compound that is metabolized by the target cell to the fatty acid. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment of methods and compositions of the present invention, the metabolic precursor of an omega-3 fatty acid is an alpha-linolenic acid, which serves as a precursor to EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid). In another embodiment, the metabolic precursor is any other omega-3 fatty acid precursor known in the art. Each omega-3 fatty acid precursor represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     “PUFA” refers, in another embodiment, to omega-3 fatty acid. In another embodiment, the term refers to an omega-6 fatty acid. In another embodiment, the term refers to a fatty acid with two or more double bonds. In another embodiment, the term refers to a fatty acid with two double bonds. In another embodiment, the term refers to a fatty acid with three double bonds. In another embodiment, the term refers to a fatty acid with more than three double bonds. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     As provided herein, the results presented in Example 3 demonstrate that administration of arachidonic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid, to neural and brain cells increases their phospholipid synthesis, as evidenced by increased incorporation of labeled choline thereafter. SHSY-5Y cells are derived from a human neuroblastoma, and are used as a model system for neuronal functions. Increasing synthesis of the phospholipids results, in another embodiment, in an increase in their levels. 
     In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid is an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid is arachidonic acid (Example 3). Arachidonic acid is an omega-6, 20-carbon fatty acid that is also referred to as 5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid. In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid is a metabolic precursor of arachidonic acid. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid is linoleic acid (9,12-octadecadienoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid is conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid is γ-linolenic acid (6,9,12-octadecatrienoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid is eicosadienoic acid (11,14-eicosadienoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid is homo-γ-linolenic acid (8,11,14-eicosatrienoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid is docosadienoic acid (13,16-docosadienoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid is docosatetraenoic acid (7,10,13,16-docosatetraenoic acid). In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid is 4,7,10,13,16-docosapentaenoic acid. In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid is dihomogamma linolenic acid (DGLA). In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid is any other omega-6 fatty acid known in the art. Each omega-6 fatty acid represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment of methods and compositions of the present invention, the metabolic precursor of an omega-6 fatty acid is linoleic acid. In another embodiment, the metabolic precursor is trans-vaccenic acid (TVA), a source of linoleic acid. In another embodiment, the metabolic precursor is any other omega-6 fatty acid precursor known in the art. Each omega-6 fatty acid precursor represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     The composition of the invention includes choline. Choline may be present as a choline salt and/or a metabolic precursor of the choline salt. 
     The omega-6 fatty acid or metabolic precursor thereof present in pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention is, in another embodiment, any omega-6 fatty acid or metabolic precursor thereof disclosed herein. In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid or metabolic precursor thereof present in pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention is any omega-3 fatty acid or metabolic precursor thereof disclosed herein. In another embodiment, the uridine, acyl derivative thereof, or uridine phosphate present in pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention is any uridine, acyl derivative thereof, or uridine phosphate disclosed herein. In another embodiment, the choline or choline salt thereof present in pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention is any choline or choline salt disclosed herein. 
     In another embodiment, the omega-6 fatty acid or metabolic precursor thereof present in pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention is present at any dosage disclosed herein. In another embodiment, the omega-3 fatty acid or metabolic precursor thereof present in pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention is present at any dosage disclosed herein. In another embodiment, the uridine, acyl derivative thereof, or uridine phosphate present in pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention is present at any dosage disclosed herein. In another embodiment, the choline or choline salt thereof present in pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention is present at any dosage disclosed herein. 
     Each omega-6 fatty acid or metabolic precursor thereof; omega-3 fatty acid or metabolic precursor thereof; uridine, acyl derivative thereof, or uridine phosphate; choline or choline salt thereof; and dosage thereof represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     As provided herein, omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6 fatty acids each act synergistically with uridine (e.g. UMP) to increase phospholipid synthesis and phospholipid levels. In another embodiment, the uridine phosphate is a uridine monophosphate (UMP). 
     In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of increasing a level of a phospholipid of a brain or neural cell comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid, wherein the composition increases phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). In another embodiment, the target is an adult not diagnosed with any cognitive or neurological disorder. 
     The invention also encompasses methods of increasing synthesis of a phospholipid by a neural or brain cell comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid, wherein the composition increases phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
     The invention also encompasses methods of raising a brain PC level in a subject comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid, wherein the composition increases phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
     The invention also encompasses methods of improving cognitive function in a subject comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid, wherein the composition increases phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). The method may also increase PC in the blood of the subject. 
     As provided herein, DHA and UMP improved the performance of animals on a memory test (Example 10). Thus, methods and compositions of the present invention are efficacious in improving and enhancing memory and other cognitive functions. 
     As provided herein, administration of PUFA and/or uridine increases brain phospholipid levels and synthesis, levels of neurite neurofibrillar proteins, and amount of synaptic membranes. Thus, compositions and methods of the present invention increase and enhance cognitive function, neurological function, intelligence, synaptic transmission, and neurotransmitter levels and activity. 
     The invention also encompasses methods of improving a neurological function in a subject comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid, wherein the composition increases phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). The PC increase may be in the blood of the subject. In another embodiment, the subject is an adult not diagnosed with any cognitive or neurological disorder. 
     In another embodiment, the neurological function that is improved by a method of the present invention is a synaptic transmission. In another embodiment, the synaptic transmission is adjacent to a motor neuron. In another embodiment, the synaptic transmission is adjacent to an interneuron. In another embodiment, the synaptic transmission is adjacent to a sensory neuron. 
     The neurological function may include the function of a neurotransmitter. In one embodiment, improving or enhancing a function of a neurotransmitter occurs by means of increasing a level of the neurotransmitter in a synapse. In another embodiment, improving or enhancing a function of a neurotransmitter occurs by means of increasing the release of the neurotransmitter into a synapse. In another embodiment, improving or enhancing a function of a neurotransmitter occurs without changing the level or release of the neurotransmitter in a synapse. 
     In another embodiment, “improving” a cognitive or neurological function or intelligence refers to effecting a 10% improvement thereof. In another embodiment, the term refers to effecting a 20% improvement thereof. In another embodiment, the term refers to effecting a 30% improvement thereof. In another embodiment, the term refers to effecting a 40% improvement thereof. In another embodiment, the term refers to effecting a 50% improvement thereof. In another embodiment, the term refers to effecting a 60% improvement thereof. In another embodiment, the term refers to effecting a 70% improvement thereof. In another embodiment, the term refers to effecting an 80% improvement thereof. In another embodiment, the term refers to effecting a 90% improvement thereof. In another embodiment, the term refers to effecting a 100% improvement thereof. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, improvement of a cognitive or neurological function or intelligence is assessed relative to the function before beginning treatment. In another embodiment, the improvement is assessed relative to an untreated subject. In another embodiment, the improvement is assessed according to a standardized criterion such as, for example, a test or the like. Each type of improvement of cognitive activity represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, improvement of a cognitive or neurological function or intelligence is assessed by the number of connections between neurons in the subject&#39;s brain. In another embodiment, the improvement is assessed by the number of capillaries in the subject&#39;s brain, or in a specific region of the subject&#39;s brain. In another embodiment, the improvement is assessed by neural activity. In another embodiment, the improvement is assessed by neural function. In another embodiment, the improvement is assessed by linguistic function. In another embodiment, the improvement is assessed by ability to communicate. In another embodiment, the improvement is assessed by measurement of levels of acetylcholine or other neurotransmitters or brain chemicals correlated with cognitive function. In another embodiment, the improvement is assessed by Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scanning of the subject&#39;s brain. In another embodiment, the improvement is assessed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanning of the subject&#39;s brain. In another embodiment, the improvement is assessed by Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument (CASI) (Peila R et al, Stroke. 32: 2882-9, 2001). In another embodiment, the improvement is assessed by a test such as, for example, the tests disclosed herein (Example 13). In another embodiment, the Mini-Mental test (Tsai L et al, The Mini-Mental State Test and computerized tomography. Am J Psychiatry. 1979 April; 136(4A):436-8) is utilized. Additional methods for assessing improvement of cognitive function are well known in the art, and are described, for example in Antonova E et al (Schizophr Res. 2004 Oct. 1; 70(2-3):117-45) and in Cognitive Function Analysis (Greenwood Pub Group, 1998). 
     The invention also encompasses methods of increasing a neurotransmitter in the brain, CNS, or blood of a subject comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid, wherein the composition increases phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2), wherein the composition increases a synthesis of a phospholipid in the brain, CNS, or blood of the subject. Optionally, the composition includes at least one omega-6 fatty acid. 
     In one embodiment, the neurotransmitter whose levels or activity, or release is affected by methods of the present invention is acetylcholine. In another embodiment, the neurotransmitter is dopamine. In another embodiment, the neurotransmitter is glutamate. In another embodiment, the neurotransmitter is serotonin. In another embodiment, the neurotransmitter is 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). In another embodiment, the neurotransmitter is GABA. In another embodiment, the neurotransmitter is any other neurotransmitter known in the art. Each type of neurotransmitter represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     As provided herein, dendritic spine density increased in animals administered DHA and/or uridine (Example 9). Thus, compositions of the present invention increase the number and size of synapses in the brain and the ability of brain cells to signal via neurotransmitters. 
     As provided herein, administration of PUFA and/or uridine increases brain phospholipid levels and synthesis, levels of neurite neurofibrillar proteins, and amount of synaptic membranes. Thus, compositions and methods of the present invention increase and enhance neurotransmitter release and amounts. 
     The invention also encompasses methods of improving or enhancing intelligence of a subject comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid, wherein the composition increases phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2). 
     The invention also encompasses methods of increasing the number of dendritic spines in the brain or a region thereof of a subject comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid, wherein the composition increases phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2), thereby increasing the number of dendritic spines in the brain or a region thereof of a subject. 
     The intelligence that is improved or enhanced by methods and compositions of the present invention is, in another embodiment, linguistic intelligence. In another embodiment, the intelligence is musical intelligence. In another embodiment, the intelligence is spatial intelligence. In another embodiment, the intelligence is bodily intelligence. In another embodiment, the intelligence is interpersonal intelligence. In another embodiment, the intelligence is intrapersonal intelligence. In another embodiment, the intelligence is interpersonal intelligence. In another embodiment, the intelligence is logico-mathematical intelligence. 
     Methods for measuring and estimating the average synapse size, number of synapses, and level of synaptic activity and neurotransmitter release in the brain and CNS of a subject are well known in the art, and are disclosed, for example, in Wheeler D W et al (Estimating use-dependent synaptic gain in autonomic ganglia by computational simulation and dynamic-clamp analysis. J Neurophysiol. 2004 November; 92(5):2659-71), Viele K et al (Estimating the number of release sites and probability of firing within the nerve terminal by statistical analysis of synaptic charge. Synapse. 2003 January; 47(1):15-25), and DeFelipe J et al (Estimation of the number of synapses in the cerebral cortex: methodological considerations. Cereb Cortex. 1999 October-November; 9(7):722-32). 
     The invention encompasses methods of stimulating or enhancing production of a membrane of a brain cell or a neural cell of a subject comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition having uridine, CDP-choline, or a metabolic precursor of uridine; choline or a metabolic precursor of choline, and at least one omega-3 fatty acid and/or at least one omega-6 fatty acid, wherein the composition increases phosphatidylcholine in the subject and the phosphatidylcholine includes at least one of phosphatidylcholine diacyl aa C36:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:0; phosphatidylcholine aa C38:6; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:1; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:2; phosphatidylcholine aa C40:6; phosphatidylcholine ae C40:6; or lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPCa C18:2) and thereby stimulating or enhancing a production of a membrane of a brain cell or a neural cell of a subject. 
     In another embodiment, methods of the present invention increase phospholipid levels while substantially preserving the ratios of two or more phospholipids in the brain or neural cell or the blood of the subject. In another embodiment, methods of the present invention increase phospholipid levels while substantially preserving the ratios of three or more phospholipids in the brain or neural cell or blood of the subject. In another embodiment, methods of the present invention increase phospholipid levels while substantially preserving the ratios of four or more phospholipids in the brain or neural cell or blood of the subject. The phospholipids are selected from PC, PE, PS, and sphingomyelin (SM). The PC includes those disclosed above as well as the particular PC disclosed above. 
     “Substantially preserving” refers, in another embodiment, to a deviation of less than 10% from the previous ratio. In another embodiment, “substantially preserving” refers to a deviation of less than 15%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 20%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 25%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 30%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 35%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 40%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 45%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 50%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 55%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 60%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 65%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 70%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 75%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 80%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 85%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 90%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 95%. In another embodiment, the deviation is less than 90%. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment of methods of the present invention, stimulation of phospholipid synthesis enhances neurite branching. In another embodiment, stimulation of phospholipid synthesis enhances neurite outgrowth. In another embodiment, stimulation of phospholipid synthesis increases the pool of phospholipid moieties that can be released via the activation of phospholipases. Some of the phospholipid moieties are bioactive, such as inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP 3 ), diacylglycerol (DAG), and lyso-platelet-activating factor (lyso-PAF), which upon further metabolism, gives rise to the bioactive lipid, PAF (1-O-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-3-glycerol-3-phosphocholine). 
     Each of these effects of stimulation of phospholipid synthesis enhances, in another embodiment, neurotransmitter-mediated signaling, thus improving memory, intelligence, and other cognitive functions. Each of the above effects of stimulation of phospholipid synthesis, and each of the above consequences thereof, represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     The subject of methods of the present invention is, in one embodiment, a human. In another embodiment, the subject is a female. In another embodiment, the subject is a male. In another embodiment, the subject is a pregnant female. In another embodiment, the subject is a nursing female. In another embodiment, the subject is an infant. In another embodiment, the subject is a baby. In another embodiment, the subject is a toddler. In another embodiment, the subject is a child. In another embodiment, the subject is a young child. In another embodiment, the subject is an adult. In another embodiment, the subject is an aging adult. In another embodiment, “aging” refers to any of the embodiments enumerated above. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     “Infant” refers, in another embodiment, to a subject under the age of 6 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 5 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 4 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 3 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 2 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 1½ months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 1 month. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 10 weeks. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 9 weeks. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 7 weeks. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 6 weeks. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 5 weeks. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     “Baby” refers, in another embodiment, to a subject under the age of 1 year. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 18 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 6 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 7 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 8 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 9 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 10 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 11 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 13 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 14 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 16 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 20 months. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 2 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject that has not yet been weaned. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject that has been weaned, but is within one of the above age ranges. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     “Toddler” refers, in another embodiment, to a subject 1-2 years old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject 6-24 months old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject 8-24 months old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject 10-24 months old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject 13-24 months old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject 14-24 months old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject 16-24 months old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject 18-24 months old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject 12-18 months old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject 13-18 months old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject 15-18 months old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject 12-20 months old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject 14-20 months old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject that has yet been weaned, but is under 20 months old. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject that has yet been weaned, but is under 24 months old. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     “Child” refers, in another embodiment, to a subject under the age of 18 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 17 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 16 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 15 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 14 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 13 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 12 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 11 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 10 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 9 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 8 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 7 years. 
     “Young child” refers, in another embodiment, to a subject under the age of 7 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 6 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 5 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 4 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 3½ years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 3 years. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject under the age of 2½ years. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     “Adult” refers, in other embodiments, to a subject over one of the ages listed above as an upper limit for a child. In another embodiment, the term refers to a subject over one of the ages listed above as an upper limit for a young child. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, methods and compositions of the present invention comprise a source of uridine. In another embodiment, methods and compositions of the present invention comprise a source of choline. In another embodiment, “source” refers to a compound that increases the concentration of the desired compound (uridine, choline, etc.) in the bloodstream or tissues. In another embodiment, “source” refers to a compound that is metabolized by a tissue or enzyme of the subject to the desired compound. In another embodiment, “source” refers to a compound that is metabolized by the target cell to the desired compound. In another embodiment, the uridine source is cytidine, which is converted into uridine by the human liver. In another embodiment, the uridine source is a cytidine 5′ monophosphate. In another embodiment, the uridine source is a cytidine 5′ diphosphate. In another embodiment, the uridine source is a cytidine 5′ triphosphate. In another embodiment, the uridine source is any other cytidine phosphate known in the art. In another embodiment, the uridine source is a CDP-choline. In another embodiment, the uridine source is any other uridine source known in the art. Each uridine source represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     The uridine phosphate utilized in methods of the present invention, is, in another embodiment, a uridine 5-monophosphate. In another embodiment, the uridine phosphate is a uridine 5′-diphosphate. In another embodiment, the uridine phosphate is a uridine 5′-triphosphate. In another embodiment, the uridine phosphate is any other uridine phosphate known in the art. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In other embodiments, uridine-based compounds other than uridine itself serve as uridine sources or uridine precursors. These are, in other embodiments, uridine in UMP-rich foods or dietary products like algae; salts of uridine like uridine phosphates, acylated uridine or the like. One source of uridine includes uridine triacetate. In another embodiment, acyl derivatives of uridine or mixtures thereof, e.g. those disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,470,838, are also administered. Each precursor of uridine represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, a method of the present invention further comprises administration of a choline. In another embodiment, the method further comprises administration of a choline salt. In another embodiment, the method further comprises administration of a compound that is metabolized into choline. In another embodiment, the method further comprises administration of a choline source. In another embodiment, administration of one of the above compounds augments the effect of the omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acid and/or uridine on synthesis of membrane phospholipids. As provided herein (Examples), administration of choline and an omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acid exhibit unexpected augmentation of levels of phospholipids, synaptic proteins, and synaptic membranes in neurons and brain tissue and of memory, intelligence, and cognitive and neurological functions. 
     In another embodiment, an anti-inflammatory PUFA is included in methods and compositions of the present invention. In another embodiment, two different omega-3 fatty acids are included. In another embodiment, one of the two omega-3 fatty acids is an anti-inflammatory PUFA. In another embodiment, one of the two omega-3 fatty acids is DHA. In another embodiment, one of the two omega-3 fatty acids is EPA. In another embodiment, the two omega-3 fatty acids are EPA and DHA. 
     In another embodiment, the ratio of the 2 omega-3 fatty acids is 0.05:1. In another embodiment, is the ratio is 0.1:1. In another embodiment, is the ratio is 0.15:1. In another embodiment, is the ratio is 0.2:1. In another embodiment, is the ratio is 0.3:1. In another embodiment, is the ratio is 0.4:1. In another embodiment, is the ratio is 0.5:1. In another embodiment, is the ratio is 0.6:1. In another embodiment, is the ratio is 0.7:1. In another embodiment, is the ratio is 0.8:1. In another embodiment, is the ratio is 0.9:1. In another embodiment, is the ratio is 1:1. In another embodiment, DHA and EPA are included in one of the above ratios (DHA:EPA). In another embodiment, DHA and EPA are included in one of the above ratios (EPA:DHA). 
     In another embodiment, two different omega-6 fatty acids are included in methods and compositions of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, the ratio of an omega-3 fatty acid to an omega-6 fatty in a method or composition of the present invention is 1:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 1.5:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 2:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 3:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 4:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 5:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 6:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 8:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 10:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 12:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 15:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 20:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 30:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 40:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 50:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 60:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 80:1. In another embodiment, the ratio is 100:1. 
     Each combination of an omega-3 fatty acid, an omega-6 fatty acid, a uridine, a choline, and/or a choline salt represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. Each combination of different omega-3 fatty acids represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. Each combination of different omega-6 fatty acids represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. Each ratio represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, the choline source is lecithin. In another embodiment, the choline source is a lecithin. In another embodiment, the choline source is an acetylcholine. In another embodiment, the choline source is a citicholine or an alpha-glycerophosphorylcholine. In another embodiment, the choline source is CDP-choline. In another embodiment, the choline source is any other choline source known in the art. Each choline source represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, the choline salt is a sulfonate salt; e.g a long-alkyl chain sulfonate salt. In another embodiment, the choline salt is choline chloride. In another embodiment, the choline salt is choline bitartrate. In another embodiment, the choline salt is choline citrate. In another embodiment, the choline salt is choline tartrate. In another embodiment, the choline salt is iron-choline citrate complex. In another embodiment, the choline source is any other choline salt known in the art. Each choline salt represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, methods and compositions of the present invention exert their effects even in subjects that do not have a deficiency in omega-3 fatty acids or omega-6 fatty acids. In another embodiment, a pharmacological dose of PUFA is utilized in methods and compositions of the present invention. In another embodiment, a therapeutic dose is utilized. In another embodiment, the pharmacological doses are greater than would normally be ingested in a PUFA-rich diet. In another embodiment, membrane levels of a subject not having a PUFA deficiency are increased by administration of pharmacological doses of PUFA and/or uridine. In another embodiment, results of the present invention demonstrate that PUFA exert a biochemical effect in the brain, thus supporting the use of pharmacological doses of PUFA. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     The dosage of omega-3 fatty acid included in methods and compositions of the present invention is, in another embodiment, in the range of about 400-2000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is in the range of about 500-2000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 600-2000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 800-2000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 1000-2000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 1200-2000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 1500-2000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 400-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is in the range of about 500-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 600-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 800-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 1000-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 1200-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 1500-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 2000-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 400-4000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is in the range of about 500-4000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 600-4000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 800-4000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 1000-4000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 1200-4000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 1500-4000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 2000-4000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 3000-4000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 400-1000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 500-1000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 600-1000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 800-100 mg/day. 
     In another embodiment, the dosage of omega-3 fatty acid is at least 400 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 600 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 700 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 800 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 900 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 1 g/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 1200 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 1.5 g/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 2 g/day. 
     In another embodiment, the dosage of omega-3 fatty acid is 5-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 2-100 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 7-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 10-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 15-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 20-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 30-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 5-30 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 7-30 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 10-30 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 15-30 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 5 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 7 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 10 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 15 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 20 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 30 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 40 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 5 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 6 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 8 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 10 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 15 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 20 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 30 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 40 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is at least 70 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, one of the above doses in administered to an infant. In another embodiment, one of the above doses is administered to a baby. In another embodiment, one of the above doses is administered to a toddler. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, pregnant women are given a particular dosage to meet their needs. In another embodiment, the range is about 200-2000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 400-1700 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 600-1500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 800-1300 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 200-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 400-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 600-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 800-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 1000-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is about 2000-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage for pregnant women is about 1000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 1500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 2000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 3000 mg/day. 
     In another embodiment, subjects with elevated cholesterol are given a particular dosage to meet their needs. In another embodiment, the dosage for subjects with elevated cholesterol is in the range of about 200-4000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage for subjects with elevated cholesterol is in the range of about 400-3500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage for subjects with elevated cholesterol is in the range of about 600-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage for subjects with elevated cholesterol is in the range of about 1000-2500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage for subjects with elevated cholesterol is in the range of about 1500-2300 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage for subjects with elevated cholesterol is about 2000 mg/day. 
     In another embodiment of methods and compositions of the present invention, DHA is included at one of the above doses. In another embodiment, the dosage of DHA is 1-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage of DHA is 400-1000 mg/day. In another embodiment, EPA is included at one of the above doses. In another embodiment, the dosage of EPA is 1-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage of EPA is 400-1000 mg/day. Each dosage represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     The dosage of omega-6 fatty acid included in methods and compositions of the present invention is, in other embodiments, any of the dosages mentioned above for omega-3 fatty acid. In another embodiment, arachidonic acid is included at one of the above doses. In another embodiment, the dosage of arachidonic acid is 1-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage of arachidonic acid is 400-1000 mg/day. Each dosage represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, eicosahexaenoic acid (EPA) is administered together with, or in addition to, another omega-3 or an omega-6 fatty acid. In another embodiment, the EPA is added in a dosage of about 200 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 100-300 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is 150-250 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is 170-230 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is 100-1000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is 150-800 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is 200-600 mg/day. In another embodiment, the range is 300-500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 300 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 400 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 600 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 800 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 1000 mg/day. 
     In another embodiment, the dosage of EPA is 1-12 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1.5-12 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 2-12 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 3-12 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 4-12 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 5-12 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 6-12 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 8-12 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1-8 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1.5-8 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 3-8 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 4-8 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 1 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 1.5 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 2 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 3 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 4 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 6 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 8 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 10 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 12 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, one of the above doses in administered to an infant. In another embodiment, one of the above doses is administered to a baby. In another embodiment, one of the above doses is administered to a toddler. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, pregnant women are administered a higher dose of EPA. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 1200 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 1500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 1800 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 2000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 2500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 500-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 800-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1000-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1500-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 2000-3000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 500-2000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 800-2000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1000-2000 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1500-2000 mg/day. 
     Each dosage of an omega-3 fatty acid, an omega-6 fatty acid, or additional EPA represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     The dose of uridine included in methods and compositions of the present invention is, in another embodiment, between about 10-1000 mg. The amount of uridine may include about 100-500 mg of uridine. It is understood by the skilled artisan that the amounts of uridine would include the larger amounts of other uridine containing compounds including, but not limited to, uridine phosphate, uridine monophosphate, uridine diphosphate, uridine triacetate, their salts, etc. necessary to achieve the amount of uridine described herein. The amount of uridine also includes about 10-500 mg/day (inclusive). In another embodiment, the dose is 20-500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 30-500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 50-500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 100-500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 150-500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 200-500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 300-500 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose of uridine is between 10-400 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 20-400 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 30-400 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 50-400 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 100-400 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 150-400 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 200-400 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose of uridine is between 10-300 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 20-300 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 30-300 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 50-300 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 100-300 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 150-300 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is 200-300 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is about 50 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is about 70 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is about 100 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is about 150 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is about 200 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is about 300 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is about 400 mg/day. In another embodiment, the dose is about 500 mg/day. 
     In another embodiment, the dosage of uridine is 0.1-6 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 0.2-6 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 0.3-6 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 0.5-6 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1-6 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1.5-6 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 2-6 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 3-6 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 0.1-3 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 0.15-3 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 0.2-3 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 0.3-3 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 0.5-3 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 0.8-3 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1-3 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 0.1 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 0.15 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 0.2 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 0.3 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 0.4 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 0.6 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 0.8 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 1 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 1.5 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 2 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 3 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 4 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 6 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, one of the above doses in administered to an infant. In another embodiment, one of the above doses is administered to a baby. In another embodiment, one of the above doses is administered to a toddler. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     The dose of choline included in methods and compositions of the present invention, is, in another embodiment, between 100 mg-10 g/day (inclusive). In another embodiment, the dose is 1 g-3 g. In another embodiment, the dose is 150 mg-8 g. In another embodiment, the dose is 200 mg-6 g. In another embodiment, the dose is 300 mg-5 g. In another embodiment, the dose is 400 mg-4.5 g. In another embodiment, the dose is 500 mg-4 g. In another embodiment, the dose is 600 mg-4 g. In another embodiment, the dose is 800 mg-3.5 g. In another embodiment, the dose is 1.2 g-3 g. In another embodiment, the dose is 1.5 g-2.5 g. In another embodiment, the dose is about 0.5 g. In another embodiment, the dose is about 0.7 g. In another embodiment, the dose is about 1 g. In another embodiment, the dose is about 1.2 g. In another embodiment, the dose is about 1.5 g. In another embodiment, the dose is about 2 g. In another embodiment, the dose is about 2.5 g. In another embodiment, the dose is about 3 g. In another embodiment, the dose is about 4 g. 
     In another embodiment, the dosage of choline is 1-100 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 2-100 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 3-100 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 5-100 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 8-100 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 10-100 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 20-100 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 30-100 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 50-100 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 1.5-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 2-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 3-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 5-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 8-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is 10-50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 1 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 1.5 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 2 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 3 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 5 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 7 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 10 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 15 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 20 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 30 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 40 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 50 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 60 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 80 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, the dosage is about 100 mg/kg/day. In another embodiment, one of the above doses in administered to an infant. In another embodiment, one of the above doses is administered to a baby. In another embodiment, one of the above doses is administered to a toddler. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     Each of the above doses is the amount of choline equivalents; thus, the actual doses of a choline compound (e.g. choline chloride or choline tartrate) will be correspondingly greater. 
     In another embodiment, a composition of the present invention is administered chronically. “Chronically” refers, in another embodiment, to administration for at least 1 week. In another embodiment, the term refers to administration for at least 2 weeks. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 10 days. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 3 weeks. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 4 weeks. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 5 weeks. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 6 weeks. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 2 months. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 3 months. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 4 months. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 6 months. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 6 months. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 1 year. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 2 years. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 3 years. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 5 years. In another embodiment, the time period is at least 10 years. 
     In another embodiment, the time period is 1 week. In another embodiment, the term refers to administration for 2 weeks. In another embodiment, the time period is 10 days. In another embodiment, the time period is 3 weeks. In another embodiment, the time period is 4 weeks. In another embodiment, the time period is 5 weeks. In another embodiment, the time period is 6 weeks. In another embodiment, the time period is 2 months. In another embodiment, the time period is 3 months. In another embodiment, the time period is 4 months. In another embodiment, the time period is 6 months. In another embodiment, the time period is 6 months. In another embodiment, the time period is 1 year. In another embodiment, the time period is 2 years. In another embodiment, the time period is 3 years. In another embodiment, the time period is 5 years. In another embodiment, the time period is 10 years. 
     In another embodiment, the PUFA component of a composition of the present invention is administered for one of the above time periods. In another embodiment, the omega-3 component of a composition of the present invention is administered for one of the above time periods. In another embodiment, the omega-6 component of a composition of the present invention is administered for one of the above time periods. In another embodiment, the uridine component of a composition of the present invention is administered for one of the above time periods. In another embodiment, the choline or choline salt component of a composition of the present invention is administered for one of the above time periods. 
     “Contacting,” in another embodiment, refers to directly administering to the subject or brain cell with a composition of the present invention. In another embodiment, “contacting” refers to indirectly administering to the subject or brain cell with a composition of the present invention. Thus, in another embodiment, methods of the present invention include methods in which the subject is contacted with a compound or composition that is metabolized into an omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acid in the cerebrospinal fluid, the bloodstream, etc, after which the omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acid is brought in contact with the brain cell by diffusion or any other active transport or passive transport process known in the art by which compounds circulate within the body. In another embodiment, the compound is metabolized by the target cells into an omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acid. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, a derivative of an omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acid is utilized in the methods and compositions of the present invention. In another embodiment, the derivative is the omega-6 fatty acid derivative gamma-linolenic acid. In another embodiment, the derivative is any other derivative of an omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acid known in the art. Each derivative represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of increasing neurite branching of a neural cell or brain cell of a subject, comprising administering to the subject an omega-3 fatty acid or a metabolic precursor thereof, whereby the omega-3 fatty acid or metabolic precursor thereof increases a synthesis of a phospholipid by the neural cell, thereby increasing neurite branching thereof. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of increasing neurite branching of a neural cell or brain cell of a subject, comprising administering to the subject an omega-6 fatty acid or a metabolic precursor thereof, whereby the omega-6 fatty acid or metabolic precursor thereof increases a synthesis of a phospholipid by the neural cell, thereby increasing neurite branching of a neural cell. In another embodiment, the target of this method is a developing brain or a neural cell thereof. In another embodiment, the target is an adult not diagnosed with any cognitive or neurological disorder. Each possibility represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     “Pharmaceutical composition” refers, in another embodiment, to a dietary supplement or medical food. In another embodiment, the term refers to an infant formula. In another embodiment, the term refers to a processed baby food. In another embodiment, the term refers to a nutritional supplement. In another embodiment, the term refers to a foodstuff of any sort that has been enriched with an omega-3 fatty acid. In another embodiment, the term refers to a foodstuff that has been enriched with an omega-6 fatty acid. In another embodiment, the term refers to a foodstuff that has been enriched with a uridine. In another embodiment, the term refers to a foodstuff that has been enriched with a choline. In another embodiment, the term refers to a foodstuff that has been enriched with a choline salt. 
     “Foodstuff” refers, in another embodiment, to a solid food. In another embodiment, the term refers to a drink. In another embodiment, the term refers to a powdered drink mix. In another embodiment, the term refers to a food-based preparation, functional food, dietary supplement or nutraceutical. 
     In another embodiment, a foodstuff can be of several forms including liquid, suspension, powder, semi-solid, and solid. Semi-solid is meant to include custards, dessert puddings, thick creams, mousses, parfaits, yogurts, and sweetened gelatins. Without limiting to particular embodiments, the solid form can be prepared as a bar similar to a energy bar, a chip, a cookie, a cracker, pasta or a puffed material, e.g. popcorn or a rice-cake-like foodstuff. Some embodiments require the individual to dissolve, suspend, or rehydrate the snack foodstuff. 
     In another embodiment, the present invention relates to the use of an omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acid and/or its analog, derivative, isomer, metabolite, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, pharmaceutical product, hydrate, N-oxide, or a combination thereof. Thus, in another embodiment, the methods of the present invention comprise administering an analog of the PUFA. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention comprise administering a derivative of the PUFA. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention comprise administering an isomer of the PUFA. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention comprise administering a metabolite of the PUFA. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention comprise administering a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of the PUFA. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention comprise administering a pharmaceutical product of the PUFA. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention comprise administering a hydrate of the PUFA. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention comprise administering an N-oxide of the PUFA. In another embodiment, the methods of the present invention comprise administering any of a combination of an analog, derivative, isomer, metabolite, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, pharmaceutical product, hydrate or N-oxide of the PUFA. 
     In another embodiment of methods and compositions of the present invention, PUFA is administered as a triglyceride. 
     In another embodiment, the term “isomer” includes, but, in another embodiment, is not limited to, optical isomers and analogs, structural isomers and analogs, conformational isomers and analogs, and the like. 
     This invention further includes, in another embodiment, derivatives of a PUFA. The term “derivatives” includes but is not limited to ether derivatives, acid derivatives, amide derivatives, ester derivatives and the like. In addition, this invention further includes hydrates of the PUFA compounds. The term “hydrate” includes but is not limited to hemihydrate, monohydrate, dihydrate, trihydrate and the like. 
     This invention further includes metabolites of the PUFA compounds. The term “metabolite” means any substance produced from another substance by metabolism or a metabolic process. 
     This invention further includes pharmaceutical products of the PUFA compounds. The term “pharmaceutical product” means a composition suitable for pharmaceutical use (pharmaceutical composition), as defined herein. 
     In addition, the invention encompasses pure (Z)- and (E)-isomers of the PUFA compounds defined herein and mixtures thereof as well as pure (RR, SS)- and (RS, SR)-enantiomer couples and mixtures thereof. 
     Pharmaceutical Compositions and Methods of Administration 
     The pharmaceutical compositions containing the PUFA and/or uridine can be, in another embodiment, administered to a subject by any method known to a person skilled in the art, such as parenterally, paracancerally, transmucosally, transdermally, intramuscularly, intravenously, intra-dermally, subcutaneously, intra-peritonealy, intra-ventricularly, intra-cranially, intra-vaginally or intra-tumorally. 
     In another embodiment of methods and compositions of the present invention, the pharmaceutical compositions are administered orally, and are thus formulated in a form suitable for oral administration, i.e. as a solid or a liquid preparation. Suitable solid oral formulations include tablets, capsules, pills, granules, pellets and the like. Suitable liquid oral formulations include solutions, suspensions, dispersions, emulsions, oils and the like. In another embodiment of the present invention, the active ingredient is formulated in a capsule. In accordance with this embodiment, the compositions of the present invention comprise, in addition to the active compound and the inert carrier or diluent, a hard gelating capsule. 
     In another embodiment, the pharmaceutical compositions are administered by intravenous, intra-arterial, or intra-muscular injection of a liquid preparation. Suitable liquid formulations include solutions, suspensions, dispersions, emulsions, oils and the like. In another embodiment, the pharmaceutical compositions are administered intravenously and are thus formulated in a form suitable for intravenous administration. In another embodiment, the pharmaceutical compositions are administered intra-arterially and are thus formulated in a form suitable for intra-arterial administration. In another embodiment, the pharmaceutical compositions are administered intra-muscularly and are thus formulated in a form suitable for intra-muscular administration. 
     In another embodiment, the pharmaceutical compositions are administered topically to body surfaces and are thus formulated in a form suitable for topical administration. Suitable topical formulations include, in another embodiment, gels, ointments, creams, lotions, drops and the like. 
     In another embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is administered as a suppository, for example a rectal suppository or a urethral suppository. In another embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is administered by subcutaneous implantation of a pellet. In another embodiment, the pellet provides for controlled release of PUFA and/or uridine over a period of time. 
     In another embodiment, the active compound is delivered in a vesicle, e.g. a liposome. 
     In other embodiments, carriers or diluents used in methods of the present invention include, but are not limited to, a gum, a starch (e.g. corn starch, pregeletanized starch), a sugar (e.g., lactose, mannitol, sucrose, dextrose), a cellulosic material (e.g. microcrystalline cellulose), an acrylate (e.g. polymethylacrylate), calcium carbonate, magnesium oxide, talc, or mixtures thereof. 
     In other embodiments, pharmaceutically acceptable carriers for liquid formulations are aqueous or non-aqueous solutions, suspensions, emulsions or oils. Examples of non-aqueous solvents are propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, and injectable organic esters such as ethyl oleate. Aqueous carriers include water, alcoholic/aqueous solutions, emulsions or suspensions, including saline and buffered media. Examples of oils are those of animal, vegetable, or synthetic origin, for example, peanut oil, soybean oil, olive oil, sunflower oil, fish-liver oil, another marine oil, or a lipid from milk or eggs. 
     In another embodiment, parenteral vehicles (for subcutaneous, intravenous, intraarterial, or intramuscular injection) include sodium chloride solution, Ringer&#39;s dextrose, dextrose and sodium chloride, lactated Ringer&#39;s and fixed oils. Intravenous vehicles include fluid and nutrient replenishers, electrolyte replenishers such as those based on Ringer&#39;s dextrose, and the like. Examples are sterile liquids such as water and oils, with or without the addition of a surfactant and other pharmaceutically acceptable adjuvants. In general, water, saline, aqueous dextrose and related sugar solutions, and glycols such as propylene glycols or polyethylene glycol are preferred liquid carriers, particularly for injectable solutions. Examples of oils are those of animal, vegetable, or synthetic origin, for example, peanut oil, soybean oil, olive oil, sunflower oil, fish-liver oil, another marine oil, or a lipid from milk or eggs. 
     In other embodiments, the compositions further comprise binders (e.g. acacia, cornstarch, gelatin, carbomer, ethyl cellulose, guar gum, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, povidone), disintegrating agents (e.g. cornstarch, potato starch, alginic acid, silicon dioxide, croscarmelose sodium, crospovidone, guar gum, sodium starch glycolate), buffers (e.g., Tris-HCl, acetate, phosphate) of various pH and ionic strength, additives such as albumin or gelatin to prevent absorption to surfaces, detergents (e.g., Tween 20, Tween 80, Pluronic F68, bile acid salts), protease inhibitors, surfactants (e.g. sodium lauryl sulfate), permeation enhancers, solubilizing agents (e.g., glycerol, polyethylene glycerol), anti-oxidants (e.g., ascorbic acid, sodium metabisulfite, butylated hydroxyanisole), stabilizers (e.g. hydroxypropyl cellulose, hyroxypropylmethyl cellulose), viscosity increasing agents (e.g. carbomer, colloidal silicon dioxide, ethyl cellulose, guar gum), sweeteners (e.g. aspartame, citric acid), preservatives (e.g., Thimerosal, benzyl alcohol, parabens), lubricants (e.g. stearic acid, magnesium stearate, polyethylene glycol, sodium lauryl sulfate), flow-aids (e.g. colloidal silicon dioxide), plasticizers (e.g. diethyl phthalate, triethyl citrate), emulsifiers (e.g. carbomer, hydroxypropyl cellulose, sodium lauryl sulfate), polymer coatings (e.g., poloxamers or poloxamines), coating and film forming agents (e.g. ethyl cellulose, acrylates, polymethacrylates) and/or adjuvants. Each of the above excipients represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     In another embodiment, the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein are controlled-release compositions, i.e. compositions in which the PUFA and/or uridine is released over a period of time after administration. Controlled- or sustained-release compositions include formulation in lipophilic depots (e.g. fatty acids, waxes, oils). In another embodiment, the composition is an immediate-release composition, i.e. a composition in which all the PUFA and/or uridine is released immediately after administration. 
     In another embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is delivered in a controlled release system. For example, the agent may be administered using intravenous infusion, an implantable osmotic pump, a transdermal patch, liposomes, or other modes of administration. In one embodiment, a pump may be used (see Langer, supra; Sefton, CRC Crit. Ref. Biomed. Eng. 14:201 (1987); Buchwald et al., Surgery 88:507 (1980); Saudek et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 321:574 (1989). In another embodiment, polymeric materials are used; e.g. in microspheres in or an implant. In yet another embodiment, a controlled release system is placed in proximity to the therapeutic target, e.g. the brain, thus requiring only a fraction of the systemic dose (see, e.g., Goodson, in Medical Applications of Controlled Release, supra, vol. 2, pp. 115-138 (1984); and Langer R, Science 249: 1527-1533 (1990). 
     The compositions also include, in another embodiment, incorporation of the active material into or onto particulate preparations of polymeric compounds such as polylactic acid, polglycolic acid, hydrogels, etc, or onto liposomes, microemulsions, micelles, unilamellar or multilamellar vesicles, erythrocyte ghosts, or spheroplasts.) Such compositions will influence the physical state, solubility, stability, rate of in vivo release, and rate of in vivo clearance. 
     Also included in the present invention are particulate compositions coated with polymers (e.g. poloxamers or poloxamines) and the compound coupled to antibodies directed against tissue-specific receptors, ligands or antigens or coupled to ligands of tissue-specific receptors. 
     Also comprehended by the invention are compounds modified by the covalent attachment of water-soluble polymers such as polyethylene glycol, copolymers of polyethylene glycol and polypropylene glycol, carboxymethyl cellulose, dextran, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone or polyproline. The modified compounds are known to exhibit substantially longer half-lives in blood following intravenous injection than do the corresponding unmodified compounds (Abuchowski et al., 1981; Newmark et al., 1982; and Katre et al., 1987). Such modifications may also increase the compound&#39;s solubility in aqueous solution, eliminate aggregation, enhance the physical and chemical stability of the compound, and greatly reduce the immunogenicity and reactivity of the compound. As a result, the desired in vivo biological activity may be achieved by the administration of such polymer-compound abducts less frequently or in lower doses than with the unmodified compound. 
     The preparation of pharmaceutical compositions that contain an active component, for example by mixing, granulating, or tablet-forming processes, is well understood in the art. The active therapeutic ingredient is often mixed with excipients that are pharmaceutically acceptable and compatible with the active ingredient. For oral administration, the PUFA and/or uridine or their physiologically tolerated derivatives such as salts, esters, N-oxides, and the like are mixed with additives customary for this purpose, such as vehicles, stabilizers, or inert diluents, and converted by customary methods into suitable forms for administration, such as tablets, coated tablets, hard or soft gelatin capsules, aqueous, alcoholic or oily solutions. For parenteral administration, the PUFA and/or uridine or their physiologically tolerated derivatives such as salts, esters, N-oxides, and the like are converted into a solution, suspension, or emulsion, if desired with the substances customary and suitable for this purpose, for example, solubilizers or other substances. 
     An active component is, in another embodiment, formulated into the composition as neutralized pharmaceutically acceptable salt forms. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts include the acid addition salts (formed with the free amino groups of the polypeptide or antibody molecule), which are formed with inorganic acids such as, for example, hydrochloric or phosphoric acids, or such organic acids as acetic, oxalic, tartaric, mandelic, and the like. Salts formed from the free carboxyl groups can also be derived from inorganic bases such as, for example, sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium, or ferric hydroxides, and such organic bases as isopropylamine, trimethylamine, 2-ethylamino ethanol, histidine, procaine, and the like. 
     Each of the above additives, excipients, formulations and methods of administration represents a separate embodiment of the present invention. 
     EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS SECTION 
     Example 1 
     Treatment of PC-12 Cells with Omega-3 Fatty Acids Increases Phospholipid Synthesis 
     Materials and Experimental Methods 
     Reagents 
       14 C-labeled choline chloride was obtained from Perkin-Elmer (Boston, Mass.). DHA, oleic acid, or palmitic acid were obtained from Biomol, (Plymouth Meeting, Pa.).  14 C-choline was obtained from Amersham Biosciences Corp (Piscataway, N.J.). 
     Cell Culture 
     PC-12 cells were maintained in Dulbecco&#39;s modified Eagle&#39;s medium (DMEM)+10% fetal bovine serum (FBS). For experiments, cells were grown in quintuplicate collagen-coated 35 millimeter (mm) dishes. Cells were incubated for 18 hours (hr) in serum-free DMEM containing 28 μM choline+/−5 micromolar (μM) of DHA, oleic acid, or palmitic acid. Cells were then labeled for 2.5 hr with 0.5 microcurie (μCi)/ml  14 C-choline in serum-free DMEM containing 10-micromolar (μM) choline. 
     Quantification of Labeled Phospholipids 
     Cells were homogenized in 100 volumes of ice-cold deionized water using a tissue degrader (Polytron PT 10-35, Kinematica AG, Switzerland); 1 ml of aliquots were then mixed with 3 ml of chloroform+methanol mixture (2:1 v/v) and vortexed vigorously for 30 seconds. After cooling for 1 h on ice, the mixture was mixed sequentially with 3 ml of chloroform+methanol mixture (2:1 v/v) and 1 ml of ice-cold deionized water. The mixture was vortexed vigorously and allowed to stand overnight in the cold room (18 h). The organic (lower) and aqueous (upper) phases of the mixtures were separated by centrifugation (10 min at 4° C.; 1000 g). An aliquot (2 ml) of the upper phase was used for determination of CDP-Choline (see below), and 0.1-0.4 ml aliquots of the lower phase were dried under vacuum for phospholipid analysis. Residues of 0.1 ml aliquots of the lower phase were assayed for total phospholipid content by measuring phosphorus. Residues of 0.4 ml aliquots of the lower phase were reconstituted in 40 μl methanol and subjected to thin-layer chromatography using silica G plates (Adsorbosil Plus-1®, Alltech), and a system consisting of chloroform/ethanol/triethylamine/water (30:34:30:8) as the mobile phase. Phospholipid standards were used to identify the corresponding bands under UV light after the plates were sprayed with 0.1% diphenylhexatriene in petroleum ether. Bands for individual phospholipid classes (PC, PE, SM, PS and PI) were scraped off the plates and extracted into 1 ml of methanol; dried under vacuum; and assayed for phosphorus content. Total phosphorus was determined by comparison with standard curves by using KH 2 PO 4  run with each assay. To each sample was added 0.5 ml of 4.5% HClO 4 /27% H 2 SO 4  and tubes were heated at 180° C. for 3 h. After cooling to room temperature, 5 ml of the color reagent (a 10:1 dilution of solutions containing 2.5 mg/ml ammonium molybdate, 8.2 mg/ml sodium acetate and 100 mg/ml ascorbic acid respectively) was added and the tubes were incubated for 2 h, 37° C. Absorbance was measured spectrophotometrically at 820 nm. Phospholipid mass was determined by multiplying the phosphorus content by 25. 
     Statistical Analysis 
     Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA (analysis of variance), followed by Student&#39;s t test. 
     Results 
     In order to assess the effect of omega-3 fatty acids on phospholipid synthesis, PC-12 cells were incubated with  14 C-labeled choline, following an 18-hour pre-incubation with or without DHA. Incorporation of label into phospholipids was then measured. Oleic acid and palmitic acid, which are not omega-3 fatty acids, were used as negative controls. Phosphatidylcholine (PC) synthesis was significantly increased by pre-incubation with DHA, but not oleic acid or palmitic acid, as evidenced by increased incorporation of the label into PC ( FIG. 1 ). Thus, treatment with omega-3 fatty acids increases cellular phospholipid synthesis. 
     Example 2 
     Omega-3 Fatty Acids Increase Synthesis of a Number of Phospholipids in a Dose-Dependent Fashion 
     To further characterize the stimulation of phospholipid synthesis by omega-3 fatty acids, PC-12 cells were pre-treated with different doses of DHA and exposed to labeled choline as described in Example 1, then incorporation of  14 C-label into phospholipids was measured. Pre-treatment with DHA increased synthesis of phospholipids ( FIG. 2 ). The augmentation of synthesis was dose-dependent. Thus, omega-3 fatty acids stimulate phospholipid synthesis in a dose-dependent manner. 
     Example 3 
     Treatment of SHSY-5Y Cells with Omega-6 Fatty Acids Increases Phospholipid Synthesis 
     Materials and Experimental Methods 
     Cell Culture 
     SHSY-5Y cells were grown to near confluency in DMEM+10% FBS in 35 mm dishes. Cells were incubated for 18 hr in serum-free DMEM+1% FBS containing 30 μM choline+/−10 μM of DHA, arachidonic acid, or palmitic acid. Cells were then labeled, and labeled phospholipids were quantified as described for Example 1. 
     Preparation of DHA-BSA Complex 
     DHA was dissolved in ethanol to a 100 micromolar concentration and frozen in 10 microliter aliquots at −80° C. For each experiment, one aliquot was diluted in ethanol to 10 micromolar; the volume giving the desired final solution in incubation medium was mixed with an equal volume of BSA solution (1 gm/ml). 
     Results 
     The effect of omega-6 fatty acids on phospholipid synthesis was next examined in SHSY-5Y cells, a human neuroblastoma cell line. In this case, phospholipid synthesis was enhanced by arachidonic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid, but not by DHA or palmitic acid ( FIG. 3A ). 
     Example 4 
     Omega-6 Fatty Acids Increase Synthesis of a Number of Phospholipids in a Dose-Dependent Fashion 
     The effect of arachidonic acid on phospholipid synthesis in SHSY-5Y cells was further characterized as described for omega-3 fatty acids and PC-12 cells in Example 2. Arachidonic acid increased synthesis of total phospholipids, PC, and phosphatidylethanolamine over a range of dosages in a dose-dependent manner, as seen for DHA ( FIG. 3B ). Thus, omega-6 fatty acids stimulate synthesis of a variety of phospholipids in a dose-dependent manner. 
     Example 5 
     Administration of PUFA Increases Brain Phospholipid Levels, and Addition of Uridine Results in a Further Synergistic Increase 
     Materials and Experimental Methods 
     Diets 
     Control standard diet (Table 4) consisted of Teklad Global 16% protein rodent diet (Harlan Teklad, Madison, Wis.), which contained 0.1% choline chloride (CC), corresponding to a daily dose of 50 mg/kg/day. UMP was provided as 0.5% UMP·2Na +  weight/weight, added to the control diet, also prepared by Harlan Teklad, corresponding to 240 mg/kg/day UMP. DHA was administered as 300 mg/kg/day in 200 microliter (mcL)/day 5% Arabic Gum solution, while groups not receiving DHA were administered vehicle (5% Arabic Gum) alone. DHA was provided by Nu-Chek Prep (Elysian, MN) and UMP by Numico (Wagenigen, NL). None of the groups exhibited significant changes in body weight during the course of the experiment. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Control standard diet. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Proximate analysis (%) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Protein 
                 16.7% 
               
               
                   
                 Carbohydrate 
                 60.9% 
               
               
                   
                 Oil, fiber, ash 
                 13.7% 
               
               
                   
                 Choline 
                 0.1% 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Fatty acids (g/kg) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Saturated 
                 7.34 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Unsaturated 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 C18:1n-9 oleic acid 
                 8.96 
               
               
                   
                 C18:2n-6 linoleic acid 
                 23.12 
               
               
                   
                 C18:3n-3 linolenic acid 
                 1.53 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Brain Harvesting 
     Gerbils were anesthetized with ketamine and xylazine (80 and 10 mg/kg bwt, i.p.) and sacrificed by immersing the head into liquid nitrogen for 2 min, followed by decapitation. Brains were immediately and quickly (30 seconds) removed using a bone rongeur and stored at −80° C. 
     Brain Phospholipid Measurements 
     Frozen brain hemispheres were weighed and homogenized in 100 volumes of ice-cold deionized water using a tissue degrader (Polytron PT 10-35, Kinematica AG, Switzerland), then analyzed as described in Example 1. 
     DNA and Protein Assays 
     Protein in whole brain homogenate sample was measured for using bicinchoninic acid reagent (Perkin Elmer, Norwalk, Conn., USA). DNA was measured by measuring 460 nm emission of samples on a fluorometer in the presence of bisbenzimidizole, a fluorescent dye known as Hoechst H 33258 (American Hoechst Corporation), which has an excitation maximum at 356 nm and an emission maximum of 458 when bound to DNA. 
     Results 
     Male gerbils weighing 80-100 g were divided into 4 groups of 8 gerbils and administered the supplements depicted in Table 1: 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Treatment groups. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Group 
                 Supplement 
                 Amount/method 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1 
                 Control diet + vehicle 
                   
               
               
                   
                 (5% arabic gum) 
               
               
                 2 
                 sodium UMP + vehicle 
                 Na-UMP 0.5% of chow. 
               
               
                   
                 (5% arabic gum) 
               
               
                 3 
                 DHA 
                 300 mg/kg daily by gavage 
               
               
                 4 
                 DHA + sodium UMP 
                 As above 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     After 4 weeks, animals were sacrificed, and 1 hemisphere of the brain, minus the cerebellum and brain stem, was assayed for total phospholipids, and content of PC, phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) sphingomyelin (SM), phosphatidylinositol (PI), and phosphatidylserine (PS). Omega-3 fatty acids (DHA) increased levels of total phospholipids to levels significantly above the control group ( FIG. 4  and Tables 2 and 3). Combination of DHA with UMP resulted in a further increase (26%) that was synergistic (i.e. greater than the sum of the increases observed in the DHA (12%) and UMP (5%) groups). Similar results were observed with each individual phospholipid (Tables 2 and 3). Statistical significance was observed whether phospholipid values were normalized to amounts of protein ( FIG. 4  A and Table 2) or to DNA ( FIG. 4  B and Table 3). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Effects of DHA, UMP, or both treatments on brain phospholipid levels, 
               
               
                 normalized to protein levels. Data are presented as mean +/− standard error of the mean (SEM). 
               
               
                 Statistical analysis utilized two-way ANOVA and Tukey test. “*” indicates P &lt; 0.05; 
               
               
                 “**” - P &lt;0.01; “***” - P &lt; 0.001 relative to control group. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Treatment/ 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Lipid 
                 Total PL 
                 PC 
                 PE 
                 SM 
                 PS 
                 PI 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Control 
                 351 ± 8  
                 152 ± 6  
                 64 ± 4  
                 45 ± 2 
                 33 ± 3 
                 21 ± 2  
               
               
                 UMP 
                 367 ± 22 
                 171 ± 8* 
                 84 ± 8* 
                 52 ± 5 
                 35 ± 3 
                 31 ± 2** 
               
               
                 DHA 
                 392 ± 20 
                  185 ± 12* 
                 78 ± 5* 
                  56 ± 3* 
                 39 ± 3 
                 32 ± 2** 
               
               
                 UMP + 
                   442 ± 24*** 
                   220 ± 12*** 
                  113 ± 6*** 
                   73 ± 4*** 
                   46 ± 6*** 
                  36 ± 6*** 
               
               
                 DHA 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Effects of DHA, UMP, or both treatments on brain phospholipid levels, 
               
               
                 normalized to DNA levels. Statistical analysis/data presentation are as in Table 2. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Treatment/ 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Lipid 
                 Total PL 
                 PC 
                 PE 
                 SM 
                 PS 
                 PI 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Control 
                 885 ± 45 
                 332 ± 12  
                 176 ± 13 
                 112 ± 5 
                 79 ± 8 
                 54 ± 5   
               
               
                 UMP 
                 878 ± 18 
                 368 ± 10* 
                 195 ± 9  
                 111 ± 4 
                 86 ± 7 
                 78 ± 6**  
               
               
                 DHA 
                 909 ± 77 
                 366 ± 13* 
                 196 ± 18 
                 126 ± 8 
                 98 ± 7 
                 84 ± 13** 
               
               
                 UMP + 
                  1058 ± 25*** 
                  462 ± 26*** 
                   261 ± 30*** 
                   169 ± 11*** 
                  110 ± 5*** 
                  85 ± 10*** 
               
               
                 DHA 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     These findings confirm the results of the above Examples, showing that both omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6 fatty acids increase brain phospholipid synthesis and brain phospholipid levels, both total levels and those of individual phospholipids. These findings further show that combination of PUFA with uridine results in further synergistic increases. In addition, these findings show that stimulation of phospholipid synthesis by PUFA is a general phenomenon, not restricted to a particular phospholipid or experimental model. 
     The proportional increases in the 4 structural phospholipids that comprise the bulk of cellular membranes in the brain (the 4 phosphatides: PC, PE, PS, and sphingomyelin) were approximately equal, with levels of each of these four compounds rising by about 20%. Thus, the proportions of the 4 structural phospholipids in the membranes were maintained. Accordingly, membrane mass was increased without disrupting the normal membrane structure and function. These findings corroborate the data from previous Examples, providing further evidence that compositions of the present invention improve and enhance brain function. 
     Example 6 
     Administration of Omega-3 Fatty Acids to Gerbils Decreases Brain CDP-Choline Levels while Increasing Those of Brain Phospholipids 
     Materials and Experimental Methods 
     CDP-Choline Assay 
     Aliquots (2 ml) of the upper (aqueous) phase were dried under a vacuum, reconstituted, and injected into an HPLC. The dried samples were reconstituted in 100-200 μl water and were analyzed by HPLC on an anion exchange column (Alltech Hypersil APS-2, 5 mm, 250×4.6 mm). CDP-choline was eluted with a linear gradient of buffers A (H 3 PO 4 , 1.75 mM, pH 2.9) and B (NaH 2 PO 2 , 500 mM, pH 4.5) from 0 to 100% B over period of 30 min. With this system, CDP-choline was resolved from closely co-eluting substances such as UMP in an isocratic system over a period of 40 min. The retention time for CDP-choline was 9.5 min. The column was washed with buffer B at the end of each experiment and every several days to remove retained nucleotides. Individual nucleotide peaks were detected by UV absorption at 280 nm and were identified by comparison with the positions of authentic standards, as well as by the addition of nucleotide standards to samples. 
     Results 
     To determine the effect of PUFA administration on CDP-choline levels, brain CDP-choline levels were measured in the animals from the previous Example. Administration of DHA and/or UMP decreased CDP-choline levels ( FIG. 5A ) and CDP-ethanolamine levels ( FIG. 5B ). DHA reduced CDP-choline levels by 26% (compared with those receiving just the control diet and DHA&#39;s vehicle), and in UMP-treated gerbils by 21% (compared with those receiving UMP-containing diet and DHA&#39;s vehicle) (both P&lt;0.05). Two-way ANOVA revealed a significant effect of DHA [F(1,28)=31.7; P&lt;0.001]. 
     In another study, addition of UMP to the standard diet without concurrent DHA treatment significantly increased brain levels of PC, PE and PI by 13%, 29% and 48%, respectively (Table 5A). Administration of DHA without UMP also significantly increased brain levels of these phosphatides (by 22%, 20% and 52%, respectively), as well as of sphingomyelin (by 24%). UMP+DHA increased all of the phospholipids by more than the sum of the increases produced by UMP or DHA alone. 
     Next, the time course of these increases was examined. After 1 week of treatment, UMP produced no significant effects, while UMP+DHA caused small but significant increases in brain PC (21%) and PS (38%). Treatment with UMP+DHA for 3 weeks caused significant increases (21-48%) in all 5 of the phospholipids; UMP alone caused smaller but still significant increases (Table 5B). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Effects and UMP and/or PUFA on brain phospholipid levels. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Total PL 
                 PtdCho 
                 PtdEtn 
                 SM (nmol/ 
                 PtdSer 
                 PtdIns 
               
               
                 Treatments (groups) 
                 (nmol/mg prt) 
                 (nmol/mg prt) 
                 (nmol/mg prt) 
                 mg prt) 
                 (nmol/mg prt) 
                 (nmol/mg prt) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 A 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Control diet + Vehicle 
                 351 ± 8  
                 152 ± 6 
                 65 ± 4 
                 45 ± 2 
                 33 ± 3 
                 21 ± 2 
               
               
                 UMP diet + Vehicle 
                 367 ± 22 
                  171 ± 8* 
                  64 ± 8* 
                 52 ± 5 
                 35 ± 3 
                  31 ± 2** 
               
               
                 Control diet + DHA 
                 392 ± 20 
                  185 ± 12* 
                  78 ± 5* 
                  56 ± 3* 
                 39 ± 3 
                  32 ± 2** 
               
               
                 UMP diet + DHA 
                   442 ± 24*** 
                   220 ± 12*** 
                  113 ± 6*** 
                   73 ± 4*** 
                   46 ± 6*** 
                   36 ± 3*** 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 B 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Control + Vehicle 
                 403 ± 23 
                 155 ± 8 
                 69 ± 3 
                 47 ± 3 
                 34 ± 1 
                 20 ± 2 
               
               
                 One week 
               
               
                 UMP + Vehicle 
                 390 ± 21 
                 154 ± 6 
                 63 ± 4 
                 49 ± 3 
                 39 ± 1 
                 20 ± 4 
               
               
                 UMP + DHA 
                 436 ± 15 
                  188 ± 8* 
                 79 ± 6 
                 57 ± 6 
                   47 ± 1*** 
                 23 ± 1 
               
               
                 Three weeks 
               
               
                 UMP + Vehicle 
                  479 ± 6** 
                   199 ± 5*** 
                  87 ± 4* 
                  70 ± 4* 
                  42 ± 2* 
                 25 ± 1 
               
               
                 UMP + DHA 
                   502 ± 12*** 
                   217 ± 5*** 
                  102 ± 4*** 
                  73 ± 5** 
                  41 ± 1* 
                  27 ± 1* 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Thus, under these conditions, the effect of PUFA administration on brain phospholipids is attributable to increased conversion of CDP-choline to PC and related phosphatides. 
     Example 7 
     Administration of Omega-3 Fatty Acids and/or Uridine to Gerbils Increases Levels of Synaptic Proteins 
     Materials and Experimental Methods 
     Synaptic Protein Level Assays 
     Synaptic proteins were assayed by Slot-Blot and by Western Blot. For Western blotting, the aliquots of brain homogenates were mixed with 2×KFL loading buffer and boiled for 5 minutes prior to gel electrophoresis. Equal amounts of protein were loaded and separated using SDS-PAGE (4-20%; Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif., USA). Proteins were then transferred onto PVDF membranes (Immobilon-P, Millipore, Billerica, Mass., USA). The remaining binding sites were blocked with 4% non-fat dry milk (Varnation, Glendale, Calif., USA) for 30 min in Tris-buffered saline-Tween (TBST). 2×KFL loading buffer was prepared by combining: 3.76 ml of 1M TRIS, pH 6.8; 6 ml of 20% sodium dodecyl sulfate; 6 ml of glycerol; 1.5 ml of mercaptoethanol; 2 ml of 1% bromphenol blue; and 10.74 ml of water. 
     For slot blotting, two sets of aliquots (18-21 μl; containing 20 μg of protein) from brain homogenates in deionized water were blotted directly onto polyvinylidene difluoride membranes (Immobilon-P, Millipore, Billerica, Mass., USA) by vacuum filtration, using a slot-blot microfiltration apparatus [Minifold® II Slot Blot System (SCR 072/0); Schleicher &amp; Schuell, Inc., Keene, N.H., USA]. Remaining binding sites were blocked with 4% non-fat dry milk (Varnation, Glendale, Calif., USA) for 30 min in TBST. Membranes (from slot blots and Western blots) were then rinsed 5 times in TBST buffer and immersed in TBST solution containing the antibody of interest (mouse anti-NF-70, rabbit anti-NF-M, mouse anti-PSD-95 and mouse anti-synapsin-1). Following overnight incubation and five rinses in TBST buffer, blots were incubated for 1 h with the appropriate peroxidase-linked secondary antibody. Blots were then rinsed in TBST buffer five times, and protein-antibody complexes were detected and visualized using the ECL system (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, N.J., USA) and Kodak X-AR film. Films were digitized using a Supervista S-12 scanner with a transparency adapter (UMAX Technologies, Freemont, Calif., USA). Immuno-reactive bands were compared by densitometry using the Public Domain NIH Image program. Areas under the absorbance curve were normalized as percentages of those generated in control groups in the same blot. Protein levels expressed as the percent of these in control animals. 
     Results 
     Brain levels of 4 synaptic proteins were measured in animals (n=8) receiving both UMP and DHA in the amounts described in Example 5. After 3 or 4 weeks of treatment, the neurite neurofibrillar proteins NF-70 and NF-M rose by 43% (P&lt;0.01) or 102% (P&lt;0.001), and by 19% (P&lt;0.05) or 48% (P&lt;0.01), respectively ( FIG. 6 ). Levels of the postsynaptic density protein PSD-95 and the vesicular protein Synapsin-1 rose by 38% and 41% after 3 weeks (both P&lt;0.001) and by 35% (P&lt;0.01) or 25% (P&lt;0.05) after 1 week ( FIG. 7 ). 
     These findings provide further evidence that administration of PUFA and uridine increases the quantity of synaptic membranes. These increases were similar to those observed in phospholipid levels, showing that synapse levels were increased in the brain. 
     Example 8 
     DHA, EPA, and AA Increase Brain Phospholipid Levels 
     Materials and Experimental Methods 
     Adult gerbils were administered control standard diet (Table 4) with our without 0.5% UMP and/or 300 mg/kg/day DHA, EPA, or AA. Groups not receiving DHA were administered vehicle (5% Arabic Gum) alone. 
     Results 
     Gerbils were administered UMP and/or PUFA for 3 weeks and sacrificed, and brain levels of various phospholipid were measured. As shown in Table 6, DHA, EPA, and AA all increased phospholipid levels. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Brain phospholipid levels following administration of 
               
               
                 PUFA and/or uridine. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Treatment 
                 Total PL 
                 PC 
                 PE 
                 SM 
                 PS 
                 PI 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Ctrl + 
                 333 ± 9  
                 113 ± 6 
                 63 ± 4 
                 19 ± 1 
                 25 ± 2 
                 15 ± 1 
               
               
                 vehicle 
               
               
                 UMP + 
                 332 ± 5  
                 131 ± 2 
                 70 ± 1 
                 22 ± 1 
                 29 ± 1 
                 16 ± 1 
               
               
                 vehicle 
               
               
                 Ctrl + 
                 344 ± 16 
                 133 ± 6 
                 77 ± 2 
                 24 ± 2 
                 34 ± 3 
                 18 ± 2 
               
               
                 DHA 
               
               
                 Ctrl + 
                 347 ± 19 
                 125 ± 8 
                 76 ± 4 
                 26 ± 3 
                 31 ± 1 
                 22 ± 2 
               
               
                 EPA 
               
               
                 UMP + 
                 374 ± 17 
                 147 ± 6 
                 88 ± 3 
                 28 ± 3 
                 39 ± 2 
                 22 ± 2 
               
               
                 DHA 
               
               
                 UMP + 
                 407 ± 22 
                 148 ± 3 
                 91 ± 4 
                 30 ± 1 
                 41 ± 2 
                 26 ± 2 
               
               
                 EPA 
               
               
                 UMP + 
                 389 ± 28 
                 127 ± 8 
                  88 ± 10 
                 25 ± 2 
                 31 ± 3 
                 22 ± 2 
               
               
                 AA 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 9 
     Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Uridine Increase Numbers of Dendritic Spines in Adult and Developing Gerbil and Rat Brains 
     Normal adult gerbils were given a control diet or a diet supplemented with UMP (240 mg uridine/kg) and DHA (300 mg/kg, by gavage) daily for up to 2 weeks. Animals were decapitated, and fixed hippocampal slices were stained with the carbanocyanine membrane tracer DiI(C18)3 (“DiI,” Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.) at the end of the treatment. Images of hippocampal neurons were obtained by two-photon microcopy. In animals receiving the DHA+UMP, dendritic spine density (number of spines per unit length of dendrite) increased significantly in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons (27% increase, p=0.001 vs. control group; ( FIG. 8 ). 
     In another study, pregnant rats were allowed to consume ad libitum, for 10 days before parturition and 20 days while nursing, either a choline-containing control diet or this diet supplemented with uridine as UMP; half of each group also received DHA or its diluent daily, by gavage. Pups were then sacrificed and brain slices were examined to determine numbers of hippocampal dendritic spines. UMP alone and DHA alone each increased levels of dendritic spine numbers, while the combination resulted in further increases (Table 7). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Increases in dendritic spine numbers in developing 
               
               
                 animals in response to UMP and DHA administration. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Treatment 
                 Number of spines 
                 Increase over control (%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Control 
                 53 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 UMP 
                 68 
                 28% 
               
               
                   
                 DHA 
                 70 
                 32% 
               
               
                   
                 UMP + DHA 
                 75 
                 42% 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 10 
     DHA and UMP Improve Learning 
     Materials and Experimental Methods 
     Food and water were available ad libitum until the day of experimental testing, at which point gerbils were first fasted for 17 hours overnight and then provided with food from 11 AM to 6 PM. Gerbils ate UMP-supplemented chow and/or 300 mg/kg DHA from 3 months of age (n=8 per group), 4 weeks prior to behavioral training, until the end of the training period. Animals were first handled daily for 4 days to habituate them to routine contact. They were familiarized with the maze for an additional 4 days by placing food pellets throughout the arms and allowing 3 min for exploration. Gerbils received 1 trial/day, and all surfaces were sanitized with 10% ethanol between trials. Training consisted of placing a food pellet at the distal end of all the same 2 arms for all trials. The gerbil was placed in the center of the maze and allowed 2 min to find the food pellets. Working memory errors occurred whenever a gerbil re-entered an arm which contained a food pellet and which had previously been visited during a trial. Reference memory errors occurred whenever a gerbil entered an arm that had not contained a food pellet during previous trials. The percent of food pellets found was recorded. 
     Results 
     To determine the effect of uridine and/or DHA on learning, animals administered uridine and/or DHA containing diets and then subjected to a memory test. DHA and UMP improved the percentage of animals able to complete the task ( FIG. 9 ). 
     Example 11 
     DHA and UMP Administered to Pregnant and Nursing Mothers 
     Increase Brain Phosphatide Levels in Offspring 
     Pregnant and nursing rats were administered DHA and/or uridine as described in Example 9. At 20 days post-birth, rats were sacrificed and brain samples were obtained and assayed for phospholipids. Administration of DHA alone increased brain PC, PI, PE, and sphingomyelin (SM) per cell (DNA) by 36, 166, 38, and 78%, respectively. UMP markedly amplified the effects of DHA to 66, 210, 68, and 99% of control, respectively (Table 8). These increases were greater than those observed in adult animals. Similar results were obtained when normalizing to protein (Table 9). Thus, administration of DHA and/or uridine to pregnant and nursing mothers is able to increase phospholipid levels in the offspring. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Mean Phospholipid Levels in rat pups on postnatal day 20 (nmol/mg protein). 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Total 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Phospholipids 
                 PC 
                 PE 
                 SM 
                 PI 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Control 
                 277.3 
                 94.2 
                 76.7 
                 4.73 
                 2.28 
               
               
                 UMP 
                 282.2 
                 95.3 
                 75.6 
                 5.27 
                 3.92 
               
               
                 DHA 
                 322.8** (16) 
                 115.7 (23) 
                 95.7* (24) 
                 7.52* (59) 
                 5.49** (141) 
               
               
                 UMP + DHA 
                 348.4** (26) 
                 139.8** (48)  
                 115.6** (51)  
                 8.41* (78) 
                 6.32** (177) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *p &lt; .05; 
               
               
                 **p &lt; .001 vs. control group. 
               
               
                 Values in parentheses are percent increase over control. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 9 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Mean Phospholipid Levels in rat pups on postnatal day 20 (nmol/microgram DNA). 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Total 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Phospholipids 
                 PC 
                 PE 
                 SM 
                 PI 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Control 
                 26.05 
                 8.85 
                 7.25 
                 0.444 
                 0.215 
               
               
                 UMP 
                 24.78 
                 8.11 
                 6.56 
                 0.458 
                 0.352 
               
               
                 DHA 
                 33.80** (30) 
                 12.02* (36) 
                  9.98** (38) 
                 0.792* (78) 
                 0.571** (166) 
               
               
                 UMP + DHA 
                 36.71** (41) 
                 14.73** (66)  
                 12.21** (68) 
                 0.884* (99) 
                 0.667** (210) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *p &lt; .05; 
               
               
                 **p &lt; .001 vs. control group. 
               
               
                 Values in parentheses are percent increase over control. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 12 
     Omega-3 Fatty Acids Increase Phospholipid Synthesis in Neurons in Short-Term Culture 
     Materials and Experimental Methods 
     Rat hippocampal cells were cultured for 3 weeks in Neutrobasal plus B27 medium, to reach full maturation. On the day of the experiment, cells were incubated with DMEM+choline, with or without added DHA.  14 C-choline was added, cells were incubated for an additional 2 h, and newly-formed  14 C-labeled PC was extracted and measured as described in Example 1. 
     Results 
     To determine the effect of DHA on phospholipids in neurons in short-term culture, neurons were pre-treated with DHA+choline. DHA increased synthesis of phospholipids relative to cells administered choline alone (“control”) more than 2-fold ( FIG. 10 ; P=0.04). These findings confirm that DHA increases phospholipid levels in brain and neural cells.