Patent Publication Number: US-2009235390-A1

Title: Isoforms of eIF-5A: senescence-induced eIF-5A; wounding-induced eIF-5A; growth eIF-5A: and DHS

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a divisional application of Ser. No. 09/725,019, filed Nov. 29, 2000, which is a continuation-in-part of 09/597,771, filed Jun. 19, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,538,182, which is a continuation in part of 09/348,675, filed Jul. 6, 1999, now abandoned. This application claims priority to and herein incorporates by reference U.S. provisional applications 60/479,968 and 60/479,969 both filed Jun. 20, 2003, and U.S. provisional applications 60/570,833 and 60/570,835, both filed on May 14, 2004. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to unique isoforms of eukaryotic initiation Factor 5A (“eIF-5A”) and polynucleotides that encode eIF-5A and deoxyhypusine synthase (“DHS”), and polynucleotides that encode DHS, and methods involving modulating the expression of the isoforms eIF-5A and DHS. 
     DESCRIPTION OF THE PRIOR ART 
     Senescence is the terminal phase of biological development in the life of a plant. It presages death and occurs at various levels of biological organization including the whole plant, organs, flowers and fruit, tissues and individual cells. 
     The onset of senescence can be induced by different factors both internal and external. Senescence is a complex, highly regulated developmental stage in the life of a plant or plant tissue, such as fruit, flowers and leaves. Senescence results in the coordinated breakdown of cell membranes and macromolecules and the subsequent mobilization of metabolites to other parts of the plant. 
     In addition to the programmed senescence which takes place during normal plant development, death of cells and tissues and ensuing remobilization of metabolites occurs as a coordinated response to external, environmental factors. External factors that induce premature initiation of senescence, which is also referred to as necrosis or apoptosis, include environmental stresses such as temperature, drought, poor light or nutrient supply, as well as pathogen attack. Plant tissues exposed to environmental stress also produce ethylene, commonly known as stress ethylene (Buchanan-Wollaston, V., 1997, J. Exp. Botany, 48:181-199; Wright, M., 1974, Plant, 120:63-69). Ethylene is known to cause senescence in some plants. 
     Senescence is not a passive process, but, rather, is an actively regulated process that involves coordinated expression of specific genes. During senescence, the levels of total RNA decrease and the expression of many genes is switched off (Bate et al., 1991, J. Exper. Botany, 42, 801-11; Hensel et al., 1993, The Plant Cell, 5, 553-64). However, there is increasing evidence that the senescence process depends on de novo transcription of nuclear genes. For example, senescence is blocked by inhibitors of mRNA and protein synthesis and enucleation. Molecular studies using mRNA from senescing leaves and green leaves for in vitro translation experiments show a changed pattern of leaf protein products in senescing leaves (Thomas et al., 1992, J. Plant Physiol., 139, 403-12). With the use of differential screening and subtractive hybridization techniques, many cDNA clones representing senescence-induced genes have been identified from a range of different plants, including both monocots and dicots, such as  Arabidopsis , maize, cucumber, asparagus, tomato, rice and potato. Identification of genes that are expressed specifically during senescence is hard evidence of the requirement for de novo transcription for senescence to proceed. 
     The events that take place during senescence appear to be highly coordinated to allow maximum use of the cellular components before necrosis and death occur. Complex interactions involving the perception of specific signals and the induction of cascades of gene expression must occur to regulate this process. Expression of genes encoding senescence related proteins is probably regulated via common activator proteins that are, in turn, activated directly or indirectly by hormonal signals. Little is known about the mechanisms involved in the initial signaling or subsequent co-ordination of the process. 
     Coordinated gene expression requires factors involved in transcription and translation, including initiation factors. Translation initiation factor genes have been isolated and characterized in a variety of organisms, including plants. Translation initiation factors can control the rate at which mRNA populations are moved out of the nucleus, the rate at which they are associated with a ribosome and to some extent can affect the stability of specific mRNAs. (Zuk, et al., EMBO J. 17:2914-2925 (1998). Indeed, one such translation initiation factor, which is not required for global translation activity, is believed to shuttle specific subsets of mRNAs from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for translation. Jao, et al., J. Cell. Biochem. 86: 590-600, (2002); Wang et al., J Biol Chem 276:17541-17549 (2001); Rosorius et al., J. Cell Sci., 112, 2369-2380 (1999). This translation factor is known as the eukaryotic initiation factor 5A (eIF-5A), and is the only protein known to contain the amino acid hypusine. Park, et al., J Biol Chem 263:15264-15269 (1988). 
     Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF-5A) is an essential protein factor approximately 17 KDa in size, which is involved in the initiation of eukaryotic cellular protein synthesis. It is characterized by the presence of hypusine [N-(4-amino-2-hydroxybutyl) lysine], a unique modified amino acid, known to be present only in eIF-5A. Hypusine is formed post-translationally via the transfer and hydroxylation of the butylamino group from the polyamine, spermidine, to the side chain amino group of a specific lysine residue in eIF-5A. Activation of eIF-5A involves transfer of the butylamine residue of spermidine to the lysine of eIF-5A, forming hypusine and activating eIF-5A. In eukaryotes, deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS) mediates the post-translational synthesis of hypusine in eIF-5A. The hypusine modification has been shown to be essential for eIF-5A activity in vitro using a methionyl-puromycin assay. 
     Hypusine is formed on eIF-5A post-translationally through the conversion of a conserved lysine residue by the action of deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS; EC 1.1.1.249) and deoxyhypusine hydroxylase (DHH; EC 1.14.99.29). DHS has been isolated from several plant species, including tomato (GenBank Accession Number AF296077),  Arabidopsis thaliana  (AT-DHS; GenBank Accession Number AF296078), tobacco (Ober and Hartmann, 1999), carnation (GenBank Accession Number AF296079) and banana (GenBank Accession Number AF296080), whereas the gene for DHH has not been recognized. 
     DHS converts a conserved lysine residue of eIF-5A to deoxyhypusine through the addition of a butylamine group derived from spermidine. This intermediate form of eIF-5A is then hydroxylated by DHH to become hypusine. Park et al., Biol. Signals 6, 115-123 (1997). Both the deoxyhypusine and the hypusine form of eIF-5A are able to bind mRNA in vitro. Liu et al., Biol Signals 6:166-174 (1997). Although the function of eIF-5A is not fully understood, there is some evidence that it may regulate cell division (Park et al., J Biol Chem 263:15264-15269 (1998); Tome et al., Biol Signals 6:150-156, (1997)) and senescence. (Wang et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276(20): 17541-17549 (2001)). See also U.S. Pat. No. 6,538,182 and U.S. application Ser. No. 09/725,019, which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. It appears that several organisms are known to have more than one isoform of eIF-5A, which would suit the premise that each isoform is a specific shuttle to specific suites of mRNAs that are involved in such processes as cell division and senescence. 
     Wang et al. demonstrated that an increased level of DHS mRNA correlates with fruit softening and natural and stress-induced leaf senescence of tomato. Wang et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276(20): 17541-17549 (2001). Furthermore when the expression of DHS was suppressed in transgenic tomato plants by introducing a DHS antisense cDNA fragment under the regulation of a constitutive promoter, the tomato fruit from these transgenic plants exhibited dramatically delayed senescence as evidenced by delayed fruit softening and spoilage. See U.S. Pat. No. 6,538,182 and U.S. application Ser. No. 09/725,019, filed Nov. 29, 2003, incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Since DHS is known to activate eIF-5A, these data suggest that the hypusine-modified eIF-5A (active eIF-5A) may regulate senescence through selective translation of mRNA species required for senescence. This is further demonstrated through the down-regulation of DHS in  Arabidopsis thaliana  (“AT”) by antisense of the full length or 3′UTR cDNA under the control of a constitutive promoter. By down regulating  Arabidopsis thaliana  DHS (“AT-DHS”) expression and making it less available for eIF-5A activation, senescence was delayed by approximately 2 weeks (See U.S. Pat. No. 6,538,182). Not only was senescence delayed, but also an increase in seed yield, an increase in stress tolerance and an increase in biomass were observed in the transgenic plants, where the extent of each phenotype was determined by the extent of the down-regulation of DHS. Since tomato and  Arabidopsis thaliana  only have one copy of DHS in their genome, as shown by Southern blot (Wang et al., 2001) and BLAST analysis, in order to target the specific eIF-5A isoform responsible for shuttling of senescence transcripts out of the nucleus, the senescence specific isoform of eIF-5A must be identified and specifically down-regulated through the antisense constructs of senescence-induced eIF-5A (of the 3′ UTR) or by taking advantage of the plant&#39;s natural ability for down-regulation of an over expressed gene (i.e. creating over-expression through the use of sense polynucleotides). 
     Plants lack immune systems and thus, have a unique way of dealing with viruses—called co-suppression, which results in sequence-specific degradation of the viral RNA. When a transgene is under a strong constitutive promoter, like the cauliflower mosaic virus double 35S promoter, it appears as a viral transcript to the plant and sequence-specific degradation occurs, but not just of the transgene, but also the endogenous gene. (reviewed in Fagard and Vaucheret, Annual Review. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol., June; 51:167-194 (2000). There is some evidence that co-suppression may be as effective, if not more effective, than antisense suppression of expression for the down-regulation of an endogenous gene. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention provides isoforms of eukaryotic initiation Factor 5A (“eIF-5A”): senescence-induced eIF-5A; wounding-induced eIF-5A; and growth eIF-5A as well as polynucleotides that encode these three factors. The present invention provides antisense polynucleotides of the three eIF-5A isoforms. The invention also provide expression vectors comprising sense and antisense polynucleotides of the three eIF-5A isoforms. The present invention also relates to methods involving modulating (increasing/up-regulating or inhibiting) the expression of these factors. 
     The present invention also relates to deoxyhypusine synthase (“DHS”) and polynucleotides that encode DHS. The present invention also provides antisense polynucleotides of DHS. The invention also provide expression vectors comprising sense and antisense polynucleotides of DHS. The present invention also relates to methods involving modulating (increasing/up-regulating or inhibiting) the expression of DHS. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  shows the alignment of three isoforms of eIF-5A isolated  Arabidopsis thaliana  senescence-induced eIF-5A (line 1) (SEQ ID NO: 58)(previously described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,538,182 and pending application Ser. No. 09/725,019); wounding-induced eIF-5A (line 2) (SEQ ID NO: 59); and growth eIF-5A (line 3) (SEQ ID NO: 60). 
         FIG. 2  shows the alignment of the coding regions of these three  Arabidopsis thaliana  isoforms. Line 1 is senescence-induced eIF-5A (SEQ ID NO: 61). Line 2 is wounding-induced eIF-5A (SEQ ID NO: 62). Line 3 is growth eIF-5A (SEQ ID NO: 63). 
         FIG. 3  provides the genomic sequence (SEQ ID NO: 78) of the senescence-induced eIF-5A of  Arabidopsis thaliana.    
         FIG. 4  provides the genomic sequence (SEQ ID NO: 79) of the wounding-induced eIF5A of  Arabidopsis thaliana.    
         FIG. 5  provides the genomic sequence (SEQ ID NO: 52) of the growth eIF5A of  Arabidopsis thaliana.    
         FIG. 6  is a map of binary vector pKYLX71-35S 2  (SEQ ID NO: 80). 
         FIG. 7  is a map of binary vector pGEM®-T Easy Vector. 
         FIG. 8  shows Western blots of all three isoforms of eIF-5A in different tissues of  Arabidopsis thaliana  wild type of the Columbia ecotype. 
         FIG. 9  are Western blots for the senescence-induced eIF-5A and the wounding-induced eIF-5A of infected leaves after 72 hours of  Arabidopsis thaliana  wild type of the Columbia ecotype. 
         FIG. 10  are Northern blots for the three isoforms of eIF-5A in wounded leaves after 72 hours of  Arabidopsis thaliana  wild type of the Columbia ecotype. 
         FIG. 11  depicts PCR products from genomic DNA of senescence-induced AteIF-5A, wounding-induced AteIF-5A, and growth AteIF-5A in lanes 1, 2 and 3 respectively. 
         FIG. 12  shows an agarose gel with senescence-induced AteIF-5A, wounding-induced AteIF-5A, and growth AteIF-5A genomic sequences in pGEM. 
         FIG. 13  shows an agarose gel with wounding-induced AteIF-5A, growth AteIF-5A, genomic sequences in pKYLX71. 
         FIG. 14  is a picture of a T1 plate for plants transformed with a construct having sense wounding-induced AteIF-5A. 
         FIG. 15  is a picture of T1 plants transformed with Sense wounding-induced AteIF-5A at 4 weeks of age. 
         FIG. 16  is a picture of T1 plants transformed with Sense wounding-induced AteIF-5A at 5.5 weeks of age. 
         FIG. 17  is a picture of T2 plants transformed with Sense wounding-induced AteIF-5A at 10 days post seeding. 
         FIG. 18  is a picture of T1 plants transformed with Sense growth AteIF-5A at 10 days post seeding. 
         FIG. 19  is a picture of T1 plants transformed with Sense growth AteIF-5A at 4 weeks of age. 
         FIG. 20  is a Western blot of T2 plants transformed with Sense growth AteIF-5A lines. 
         FIG. 21  are T2 plants transformed with Sense growth AteIF-5A (Lines 1A-1D) at 4 weeks of age (top), 5 weeks of age (bottom left) and 6 weeks of age (bottom right). 
         FIG. 22  are T2 plants transformed with Sense growth AteIF-5A (Lines 2A-1D) at 4 weeks of age (top), 5 weeks of age (bottom left) and 6 weeks of age (bottom right). 
         FIG. 23  are T2 plants transformed with Sense growth AteIF-5A (Lines 4A-D) at 4 weeks of age (top), 5 weeks of age (bottom left) and 6 weeks of age (bottom right). 
         FIG. 24  are T2 plants transformed with Sense growth AteIF-5A (Lines 15A-D) at 4 weeks of age (top), 5 weeks of age (bottom left) and 6 weeks of age (bottom right). 
         FIG. 25  are T2 plants transformed with Sense growth AteIF-5A (Lines 8A-D) at 4 weeks of age (top), 5 weeks of age (bottom left) and 6 weeks of age (bottom right). 
         FIG. 26  are T2 plants transformed with Sense growth AteIF-5A (Lines 9E-H) at 4 weeks of age (top), 5 weeks of age (bottom left) and 6 weeks of age (bottom right). 
         FIG. 27  are T2 plants transformed with Sense growth AteIF-5A (Lines 11A-D) at 4 weeks of age (top), 5 weeks of age (bottom left) and 6 weeks of age (bottom right). 
         FIG. 28  are T2 plants transformed with Sense growth AteIF-5A (Lines 16A-D) at 4 weeks of age (top), 5 weeks of age (bottom left) and 6 weeks of age (bottom right). 
         FIG. 29  are photographs of  Arabidopsis thaliana  seeds from various plant lines (including wild type control and plant lines having been transformed with sense growth AteIF-5A. 
         FIG. 30  is a bar graph of average seed size for each plant subline having been transformed with sense growth AteIF-5A. 
         FIG. 31  is a bar graph of individual seed weight for each plant subline having been transformed with sense growth AteIF-5A. 
         FIG. 32  is a graph showing the proportional relationship between the weight of the individual seeds versus the volume of individual seeds. 
         FIG. 33  is a bar graph showing seed yield per plant for each plant subline having been transformed with sense growth AteIF-5A. 
         FIG. 34  is a summary of phenotypes displayed in sense growth AteIF-5A plants. 
         FIG. 35  shows a comparison of transgenic  arabidopsis  plant (transformed with antisense full length senescence-induced eIF-5A) with a wild type plant. The transgenic plant exhibits delayed senescence. 
         FIGS. 36-38  show photographs of a plant (transformed with antisense growth eIF-5A). 
         FIG. 39  shows the primers (SEQ ID NOS 81-82, respectively) used to construct the vector for generating antisense  arabidopsis thaliana  3′ DHS. Amplified  Arabidopsis  sequences are shown in (SEQ ID NOS 83-84, respectively) 
         FIG. 40  shows the vector construct. 
         FIG. 41  shows the sequence for wounding factor eIF-5A (DNA shown in SEQ ID NO: 54, Amino Acid sequence shown in SEQ ID NO: 55) isolated from  arabidopsis  and the location of the antisense construct. The primer sequences are shown in SEQ ID NOS 85-86, respectively. 
         FIG. 42  shows the vector construct (nucleotide sequences shown in SEQ ID NOS 87-89, respectively). 
         FIG. 43  shows plate counts of leaf discs inoculated with pseudomonas. 
         FIG. 44  shows a graph of CFUs in antisense transgenic plants versus wild-type. 
         FIG. 45  depict the nucleotide sequence of the tomato leaf DHS cDNA sequence (SEQ ID NO:1) and the derived amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO. 2) obtained from a tomato leaf cDNA library. 
         FIG. 46  depicts the nucleotide sequence of an  Arabidopsis  DHS gene obtained by aligning the tomato DHS sequence with unidentified genomic sequences in the  Arabidopsis  gene bank (SEQ ID NO:5). The gaps between amino acid sequences are predicted introns.  FIG. 46B  depicts the derived  Arabidopsis  DHS amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:6).  FIG. 46C  depicts the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 26) of a 600 base pair  Arabidopsis  DHS cDNA obtained by PCR.  FIG. 46D  depicts the derived amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 92) of the  Arabidopsis  DHS cDNA fragment. 
         FIG. 47  is an alignment of the derived full length tomato leaf DHS amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO. 2) and the derived full length  Arabidopsis  (SEQ ID NO: 6) senescence-induced DHS amino acid sequence with sequence of DHS proteins of human (SEQ ID NO: 3), yeast (SEQ ID NO: 45), fungi (SEQ ID NO: 44), and  Archaeobacteria  (SEQ ID NO: 46). Identical amino acids among three or four of the sequences are boxed. 
         FIG. 48  is a restriction map of the tomato DHS cDNA. 
         FIG. 49  is a Southern blot of genomic DNA isolated from tomato leaves and probed with  32 P-dCTP-labeled full length tomato DHS cDNA. 
         FIG. 50  is a Northern blot of RNA isolated from tomato flowers at different stages of development. The top panel is the ethidium bromide stained gel of total RNA. Each lane contains 10 μg RNA. The bottom panel is an autoradiograph of the Northern blot probed with  32 P-dCTP-labeled full length tomato DHS cDNA. 
         FIG. 51  is a Northern blot of RNA isolated from tomato fruit at various stages of ripening that was probed with  32 P-dCTP-labeled full length tomato DHS cDNA. Each lane contains 10 μg RNA. 
         FIG. 52  is a Northern blot of RNA isolated from tomato leaves that had been drought-stressed by treatment with 2 M sorbitol for six hours. Each lane contains 10 μg RNA. The blot was probed with  32 P-dCTP-labeled full length tomato DHS cDNA. 
         FIG. 53  is a Northern blot of RNA isolated from tomato leaves that had been exposed to chilling temperature.  FIG. 53A  is the ethidium bromide stained gel of total RNA. Each lane contained 10 μg RNA.  FIG. 53B  is an autoradiograph of the Northern blot probed with  32 P-dCTP-labeled full length tomato DHS cDNA.  FIG. 53C  shows corresponding leakage data measured as conductivity of leaf diffusates. 
         FIG. 54  is the carnation DHS full-length (1384 base pairs) cDNA clone nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 9) not including the PolyA tail and 5′ end non-coding region. The derived amino acid sequence is shown below the nucleotide sequence (373 amino acids). (SEQ ID NO: 10) 
         FIG. 55  is a Northern blot of total RNA from senescing  Arabidopsis  leaves probed with  32 P-dCTP-labeled full-length  Arabidopsis  DHS cDNA. The autoradiograph is at the top, the ethidium stained gel below. 
         FIG. 56  is a Northern blot of total RNA isolated from petals of carnation flowers at various stages. The blot was probed with  32 P-dCTP-labeled full-length carnation DHS cDNA. The autoradiograph is at the top, the ethidium stained gel below. 
         FIG. 57  is the nucleotide (top) (SEQ ID NO: 11) and derived amino acid (bottom) (SEQ ID NO: 12) sequence of the tomato fruit senescence-induced eIF-5A gene. 
         FIG. 58  is the nucleotide (top) (SEQ ID NO:13) and derived amino acid (bottom) (SEQ ID NO: 14) sequence of the carnation senescence-induced eIF-5A gene. 
         FIG. 59  is the nucleotide (top) (SEQ ID NO: 15) and derived amino acid (bottom) (SEQ ID NO: 16) sequence of the  Arabidopsis  senescence-induced eIF-5A gene. 
         FIG. 60  is a Northern blot of total RNA isolated from leaves of  Arabidopsis  plants at various developmental stages. The blot was probed with  32 P-dCTP-labeled full-length  Arabidopsis  DHS cDNA and full-length senescence-induced eIF-5A. The autoradiograph is at the top, the ethidium stained gel below. 
         FIG. 61  is a Northern blot of total RNA isolated from tomato fruit at breaker (BK), red-firm (RF) and red-soft (RS) stages of development. The blot was probed with  32 P-dCTP-labeled full-length DHS cDNA and full-length senescence-induced eIF-5A. DHS and eIF-5A are up-regulated in parallel in red-soft fruit coincident with fruit ripening. The autoradiograph is at the top, the ethidium stained gel below. 
         FIG. 62  is a Northern blot of total RNA isolated from leaves of tomato that were treated with sorbitol to induce drought stress. C is control; S is sorbitol treated. The blot was probed with  32 P-dCTP-labeled full-length DHS cDNA and full-length senescence-induced eIF-5A. Both eIF-5A and DHS are up-regulated in response to drought stress. The autoradiograph is at the top, the ethidium stained gel below. 
         FIG. 63  is a Northern blot of total RNA isolated from flower buds and open senescing flowers of tomato plants. The blot was probed with  32 P-dCTP-labeled full-length senescence-induced DHS cDNA and full-length senescence-induced eIF-5A. Both eIF-5A and DHS are up-regulated in open/senescing flowers. The autoradiograph is at the top, the ethidium stained gel below. 
         FIG. 64  is a Northern blot of total RNA isolated from chill-injured tomato leaves. The blot was probed with  32 P-dCTP-labeled full-length DHS cDNA and full-length senescence-induced eIF-5A. Both eIF-5A and DHS are up-regulated with the development of chilling injury during rewarming The autoradiograph is at the top, the ethidium stained gel below. 
         FIG. 65  is a photograph of 3.1 week old  Arabidopsis  wild-type (left) and transgenic plants expressing the 3′-end of the DHS gene (sequence shown in  FIG. 80 ) in antisense orientation showing increased leaf size in the transgenic plants. 
         FIG. 66  is a photograph of 4.6 week old  Arabidopsis  wild-type (left) and transgenic plants expressing the 3′-end of the DHS gene (sequence shown in  FIG. 80 ) in antisense orientation showing increased leaf size in the transgenic plants. 
         FIG. 67  is a photograph of 5.6 week old  Arabidopsis  wild-type (left) and transgenic plants expressing the 3′-end of the DHS gene (sequence shown in  FIG. 80 ) in antisense orientation showing increased leaf size in the transgenic plants. 
         FIG. 68  is a photograph of 6.1 week old  Arabidopsis  wild-type (left) and transgenic plants expressing the 3′-end of the DHS gene (sequence shown in  FIG. 80 ) in antisense orientation showing increased size of transgenic plants. 
         FIG. 69  is a graph showing the increase in seed yield from three T 1  transgenic  Arabidopsis  plant lines expressing the DHS gene in antisense orientation. Seed yield is expressed as volume of seed. SE for n=30 is shown for wild-type plants. 
         FIG. 70  is a photograph of transgenic tomato plants expressing the 3′-end of the DHS gene (sequence shown in  FIG. 80 ) in antisense orientation (left) and wild-type plants (right) showing increased leaf size and increased plant size in the transgenic plants. The photograph was taken 18 days after transfer of the plantlets to soil. 
         FIG. 71  is a photograph of transgenic tomato plants expressing the 3′-end of the DHS gene (sequence shown in  FIG. 36 ) in antisense orientation (left) and wild-type plants (right) showing increased leaf size and increased plant size in the transgenic plants. The photograph was taken 32 days after transfer of the plantlets to soil. 
         FIGS. 72 through 79  are photographs of tomato fruit from wild-type (top panels) and transgenic plants expressing the full-length DHS gene in antisense orientation (bottom panels). Fruit were harvested at the breaker stage of development and ripened in a growth chamber. Days after harvest are indicated in the upper left corner of each panel. 
         FIG. 80  is the nucleotide (top) (SEQ ID NO:30) and derived amino acid (bottom) sequence (SEQ ID NO: 90) of the 3′-end of the  Arabidopsis  senescence-induced DHS gene used in antisense orientation to transform plants. 
         FIG. 81  is the nucleotide (top) (SEQ ID NO:31) and derived amino acid (bottom) sequence (SEQ ID NO: 91) of the 3′-end of the tomato DHS gene used in antisense orientation to transform plants. 
         FIG. 82  is the nucleotide (top) (SEQ ID NO:26) and derived amino acid (bottom) sequence (SEQ ID NO: 92) of a 600 base pair  Arabidopsis  DHS probe used to isolate the full-length  Arabidopsis  gene. 
         FIG. 83  is the nucleotide (top) (SEQ ID NO:27) and derived amino acid (bottom) sequence (SEQ ID NO: 93) of the 483 base pair carnation DHS probe used to isolate the full-length carnation gene. 
         FIGS. 84  ( a ) and ( b ) are photographs of tomato fruits from transgenic tomato plants expressing the 3′-end of the DHS gene (sequence shown in  FIG. 81 ) in antisense orientation (right) and tomato fruits from wild-type plants (left). While the wild-type fruit exhibits blossom end rot, the transgenic fruit does not. 
         FIG. 85  shows the alignment of various isoforms of eIF-5A from several plant species. It also provides alignment of the hypusine conserved region. See SEQ ID NOS 4 &amp; 94-125, respectively, in order of appearance. 
         FIG. 86  provides tomato senescence-induced eIF-5A polynucleotide (SEQ ID NO: 126) and amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 127) sequences. 
         FIG. 87  provides  Arabidopsis  senescence-induced eIF-5A and the construction of pKYLX71-sense senescence-induced eIF-5A. The primer sequences are shown in SEQ ID NOS 128-129, respectively, while the vector sequences are shown in SEQ ID NOS 130-132, respectively. 
         FIG. 88  provides tomato senescence-induced eIF-5A and the construction of pKYLX71-sense senescence-induced eIF-5A. 
         FIG. 89  provides photographs of a comparison of  Arabidopsis thaliana  control and transgenic plants comprising a sense polynucleotide senescence-induced eIF-5A. The transgenic plant has thicker inflorescence stems over that of the control plant. 
         FIGS. 90 and 91  shows that transgenic plants comprising an sense polynucleotide senescence-induced eIF-5A (FIG.  90 —arabidopsis and FIG.  91 —tomato) have increased xylogenesis as indicated by the increased xylem in the transgenic plant. 
         FIG. 92  provides photographs of a comparison of  Arabidopsis thaliana  control and  Arabidopsis thaliana  transgenic plants comprising a sense polynucleotide senescence-induced eIF-5A. A tomato sense polynucleotide senescence-induced eIF-5A was used in  Arabidopsis thaliana . The transgenic plant has thicker inflorescence stems over that of the control plant. 
         FIGS. 93 and 94  are bar graphs that show increased xylogenesis in transgenic plants comprising a sense polynucleotide senescence-induced eIF-5A.  FIG. 94  concerned tomato sense polynucleotide senescence-induced eIF-5A. 
         FIG. 95  provides canola growth eIF-5A amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 67) and polynucleotide (SEQ ID NO: 66) sequences. 
         FIG. 96  provides canola growth eIF-5A and the construction of pKYLX71-sense growth eIF-5A. The primer sequence is shown in SEQ ID NO: 138, while the vector sequences are shown in SEQ ID NOS139-141, respectively. 
         FIG. 97  provides canola DHS amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 71) and polynucleotide (SEQ ID NO: 70) sequences. 
         FIG. 98  provides canola DHS and the construction of pKYLX71-sense DHS. The 3′-UTR sequence is shown in SEQ ID NO: 142, while the vector sequences are shown in SEQ ID NOS 143-145, respectively. 
         FIG. 99  shows in bar graph form that inhibition of DHS expression increases seed yield in canola. 
         FIG. 100  shows in bar graph form that up regulation of growth isoforms of eIF-5A from left to right  arabidopsis , canola, tomato, and up regulation of tomato DHS. 
         FIG. 101  provides tomato growth eIF-5A amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 65) and polynucleotide (SEQ ID NO: 64) sequences. 
         FIG. 102  provides tomato growth eIF-5A and the construction of pKYLX71-sense tomato growth eIF-5A. The primer sequences are shown in SEQ ID NOS 146-147, respectively, while the vector sequences are shown in SEQ ID NOS 148-150, respectively. 
         FIG. 103  provides tomato wounding-induced eIF-5A amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 57) and polynucleotide (SEQ ID NO: 56) sequences. 
         FIGS. 104   a  and  b  provides tomato wounding-induced eIF-5A and the construction of pKYLX71-sense tomato wounding-induced eIF-5A. The primer sequences are shown in SEQ ID NOS 151-152, respectively, while the vector sequences are shown in SEQ ID NOS 153-155, respectively. 
         FIG. 105  provides portions of lettuce DHS polynucleotide sequences. The primer sequences are shown in SEQ ID NOS 156-157, respectively, while the Lettuce sequences are shown in SEQ ID NOS 158-159, respectively. 
         FIG. 106  provides the construct of pTA7001-3′UTR antisense lettuce DHS. 
         FIGS. 107A  and B provides alfalfa DHS amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 73) and polynucleotide (SEQ ID NO: 72) sequences. 
         FIGS. 108  A and B provides banana DHS amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 75) and polynucleotide (SEQ ID NO: 74) sequences. 
         FIGS. 109  A and B provides cottonwood DHS amino acid (SEQ ID NO: 77) and polynucleotide (SEQ ID NO: 76) sequences. 
         FIG. 110  provides partial  mycosphaerella fijiensis  DHS amino acid and polynucleotide sequences. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     As used herein, the term “plant” refers to either a whole plant, a plant part, a plant cell or a group of plant cells. The type of plant which can be used in the methods of the invention is not limited and includes, for example, ethylene-sensitive and ethylene-insensitive plants; fruit bearing plants such as apricots, apples, oranges, bananas, grapefruit, pears, tomatoes, strawberries, avocados, etc.; vegetables such as carrots, peas, lettuce, cabbage, turnips, potatoes, broccoli, asparagus, etc.; flowers such as carnations, roses, mums, etc.; agronomic crop plants such as corn, rice, soybean, alfalfa and the like, and forest species such as deciduous trees, conifers, evergreens, etc., and in general, any plant that can take up and express the DNA molecules of the present invention. It may include plants of a variety of ploidy levels, including haploid, diploid, tetraploid and polyploid. The plant may be either a monocotyledon or dicotyledon. 
     A transgenic plant is defined herein as a plant which is genetically modified in some way, including but not limited to a plant which has incorporated heterologous or homologous senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, growth eIF-5A or DHS into its genome. The altered genetic material may encode a protein, comprise a regulatory or control sequence, or may be or include an antisense sequence or sense sequence or encode an antisense RNA or sense RNA which is antisense or sense to senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, growth eIF-5A or DHS DNA or mRNA sequence or portion thereof of the plant. A “transgene” or “transgenic sequence” is defined as a foreign gene or partial sequence that has been incorporated into a transgenic plant. 
     The term “hybridization” as used herein is generally used to mean hybridization of nucleic acids at appropriate conditions of stringency as would be readily evident to those skilled in the art depending upon the nature of the probe sequence and target sequences. Conditions of hybridization and washing are well known in the art, and the adjustment of conditions depending upon the desired stringency by varying incubation time, temperature and/or ionic strength of the solution are readily accomplished. See, for example, Sambrook, J. et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd edition, Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989. The choice of conditions is dictated by the length of the sequences being hybridized, in particular, the length of the probe sequence, the relative G-C content of the nucleic acids and the amount of mismatches to be permitted. Low stringency conditions are preferred when partial hybridization between strands that have lesser degrees of complementarity is desired. When perfect or near perfect complementarity is desired, high stringency conditions are preferred. What is meant herein as high stringency conditions is as follows: the hybridization solution contains 6×S.S.C., 0.01 M EDTA, 1×Denhardt&#39;s solution and 0.5% SDS. Hybridization is carried out at about 68° C. for about 3 to 4 hours for fragments of cloned DNA and for about 12 to about 16 hours for total eukaryotic DNA. For lower stringencies the temperature of hybridization is reduced to about 42° C. below the melting temperature (T M ) of the duplex. The T M  is known to be a function of the G-C content and duplex length as well as the ionic strength of the solution. 
     As used herein, the term “substantial sequence identity” or “substantial homology” is used to indicate that a nucleotide sequence or an amino acid sequence exhibits substantial structural or functional equivalence with another nucleotide or amino acid sequence. Any structural or functional differences between sequences having substantial sequence identity or substantial homology will be de minimis; that is, they will not affect the ability of the sequence to function as indicated in the desired application. Differences may be due to inherent variations in codon usage among different species, for example. Structural differences are considered de minimis if there is a significant amount of sequence overlap or similarity between two or more different sequences or if the different sequences exhibit similar physical characteristics even if the sequences differ in length or structure. Such characteristics include, for example, ability to hybridize under defined conditions, or in the case of proteins, immunological crossreactivity, similar enzymatic activity, etc. Each of these characteristics can readily be determined by the skilled practitioner by art known methods. 
     Additionally, two nucleotide sequences are “substantially complementary” if the sequences have at least about 70 percent, more preferably, 80 percent and most preferably about 90 percent sequence similarity between them. Two amino acid sequences are substantially homologous if they have at least 70% similarity between the active portions of the polypeptides. 
     As used herein, the phrase “hybridizes to a corresponding portion” of a DNA or RNA molecule means that the molecule that hybridizes, e.g., oligonucleotide, polynucleotide, or any nucleotide sequence (in sense or antisense orientation) recognizes and hybridizes to a sequence in another nucleic acid molecule that is of approximately the same size and has enough sequence similarity thereto to effect hybridization under appropriate conditions. For example, a 100 nucleotide long antisense molecule from the 3′ coding or non-coding region of tomato wounding-induced eIF-5A will recognize and hybridize to an approximately 100 nucleotide portion of a nucleotide sequence within the 3′ coding or non-coding region, respectively of AT wounding-induced eIF-5A gene or any other plant wounding-induced eIF-5A gene so long as there is about 70% or more sequence similarity between the two sequences. It is to be understood that the size of the “corresponding portion” will allow for some mismatches in hybridization such that the “corresponding portion” may be smaller or larger than the molecule which hybridizes to it, for example 20-30% larger or smaller, preferably no more than about 12-15% larger or smaller. 
     The term “functional derivative” of a nucleic acid (or polynucleotide) as used herein means a fragment, variant, homolog, or analog of the gene or nucleotide sequence encoding senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, growth eIF-5A or DHS. A functional derivative retains at least a portion of the function of the senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, growth eIF-5A or DHS encoding DNA, which permits its utility in accordance with the invention. Such function may include the ability to hybridize under high stringency conditions with native isolated senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, growth eIF-5A or DHS or substantially homologous DNA from another plant or an mRNA transcript thereof, and which senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, growth eIF-5A or DHS in antisense orientation inhibits expression of senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, growth eIF-5A or DHS. 
     A “fragment” of the gene or DNA sequence refers to any subset of the molecule, e.g., a shorter polynucleotide or oligonucleotide. A “variant” refers to a molecule substantially similar to either the entire gene or a fragment thereof, such as a nucleotide substitution variant having one or more substituted nucleotides, but which maintains the ability to hybridize with the particular gene or to encode mRNA transcript which hybridizes with the native DNA. A “homolog” refers to a fragment or variant sequence from a different plant genus or species. An “analog” refers to a non-natural molecule substantially similar to or functioning in relation to either the entire molecule, a variant or a fragment thereof. 
     By “modulating expression” it is meant that either the expression is inhibited or up-regulated. “Inhibition of expression” refers to the absence or detectable decrease in the level of protein and/or mRNA product from a target gene, such as senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, growth eIF-5A or DHS. “Up-regulation” or “over expression” refers to a detectable increase in the level of protein and/or mRNA product from a target gene, such as senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, growth eIF-5A or DHS. 
     Isolated polynucleotides of the present invention include those isolated from natural sources, recombinantly produced or synthesized. 
     Isolated peptides of the present invention include those isolated from natural sources, recombinantly produced or synthesized. Isolated proteins of the present invention include senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, growth eIF-5A or DHS expressed as a fusion protein, preferably comprising eIF-5A or DHS fused with maltose binding protein. 
     “Functional derivatives” of the senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, growth eIF-5A, or DHS peptides of the present invention include fragments, variants, analogs, or chemical derivatives of senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, growth eIF-5A or DHS, which retain at least a portion of the activity or immunological cross reactivity with an antibody specific for the eIF-5A isoform or DHS. A fragment of eIF-5A or DHS peptide refers to any subset of the molecule. Variant peptides may be made by direct chemical synthesis, for example, using methods well known in the art. An analog of eIF-5A or DHS peptide refers to a non-natural protein substantially similar to either the entire protein or a fragment thereof. Chemical derivatives of eIF-5A or DHS contain additional chemical moieties not normally a part of the peptide or peptide fragment. Modifications may be introduced into peptides or fragments thereof by reacting targeted amino acid residues of the peptide with an organic derivatizing agent that is capable of reacting with selected side chains or terminal residues. 
     A eIF-5A or DHS peptide according to the invention may be produced by culturing a cell transformed with a nucleotide sequence of this invention (in the sense orientation), allowing the cell to synthesize the protein and then isolating the protein, either as a free protein or as a fusion protein, depending on the cloning protocol used, from either the culture medium or from cell extracts. Alternatively, the protein can be produced in a cell-free system. Ranu, et al., Meth. Enzymol., 60:459-484, (1979). 
     Preparation of Plasmid DNA, Restriction Enzyme Digestion, Agarose gel electrophoresis of DNA, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of protein, PCR, RT-PCR, Southern blots, Northern blots, DNA ligation and bacterial transformation were carried out using conventional methods well-known in the art. See, for example, Sambrook, J. et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed., Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989. Techniques of nucleic acid hybridization are disclosed by Sambrook. 
     Procedures for constructing recombinant nucleotide molecules in accordance with the present invention are disclosed in Sambrook, et al., In: Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed., Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989), and Maniatis, T. et al., Molecular mechanisms in the Control of Gene expression, eds., Nierlich, et al., eds., Acad. Press, N.Y. (1976), which are both incorporated herein in its entirety. 
     Transgenic plants made in accordance with the present invention may be prepared by DNA transformation using any method of plant transformation known in the art. Plant transformation methods include direct co-cultivation of plants, tissues or cells with  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  or direct infection (Miki, et al., Meth. in Plant Mol. Biol. and Biotechnology, (1993), p. 67-88); direct gene transfer into protoplasts or protoplast uptake (Paszkowski, et al., EMBO J., 12:2717 (1984); electroporation (Fromm, et al., Nature, 319:719 (1986); particle bombardment (Klein et al., BioTechnology, 6:559-563 (1988); injection into meristematic tissues of seedlings and plants (De LaPena, et al., Nature, 325:274-276 (1987); injection into protoplasts of cultured cells and tissues (Reich, et al., BioTechnology, 4:1001-1004 (1986)). 
     Generally a complete plant is obtained from the transformation process. Plants are regenerated from protoplasts, callus, tissue parts or explants, etc. Plant parts obtained from the regenerated transgenic plants in which the expression of the eIF-5A isoform or DHS is altered, such as leaves, flowers, fruit, seeds and the like are included in the definition of “plant” as used herein. Progeny, variants and mutants of the regenerated plants are also included in the definition of “plant.” 
     eIF-5A Generally 
     The present invention relates to three different isoforms of eIF-5A: senescence-induced eIF-5A; wounding induced eIF-5A; and growth eIF-5A. The present invention provides various isoforms of eIF-5A isolated from various plant species and methods of isolating the various isoforms eIF-5A. The present invention also provides polynucleotides that encode these various isoforms of eIF-5A of the present invention. The invention also provides antisense polynucleotides of the isoforms of eIF-5A and expression vectors containing such polynucleotides or antisense polynucleotides. In some embodiments, there are provided methods of inhibiting expression of endogenous eIF-5As through the use of expression vectors containing antisense polynucleotides of the isoforms of eIF-5A to transform plants. In some embodiments, there are provided methods of up-regulating endogenous eIF-5A isoforms by providing expression vectors containing polynucleotides of the isoforms of eIF-5A in the sense orientation. 
     The different isoforms are naturally up or down-regulated depending upon the life stage of the plant or the plant&#39;s condition. For example in senescing tissues, the senescence-induced eIF-5A isoform is up-regulated. The senescence-induced eIF-5A is thought to participate in further senescence of the plant or plant tissues by shuttling specific subsets of mRNAs (those involved in the senescence pathway) from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for translation. By down regulating or inhibiting the expression of senescence-induced eIF-5A, senescence can be delayed in the plant and/or plant tissues. Delayed senescence is manifested in the transformed/transgenic plants by having a larger bio-mass, increased shelf life for fruit, increased shelf life of flowers, increased seed size and increased seed yield as compared to non-transformed or wild type plants. 
     When a plant and/or plant tissues are exposed to a wounding event, such as chilling, dehydration, or mechanical forces, wounding-induced eIF-5A isoform is up-regulated. By down regulating the expression of wounding-induced eIF-5A, an increased resistance to virulent damage arising from pathogen ingression is conferred on the plants as compared to resistance to virulent damage in non-transformed or wild type plants. 
     When a plant is in the growth phase, growth eIF-5A isoform is up-regulated. By up-regulating growth eIF-5A, the resulting transgenic plants have an increased seed size, increased biomass and increased seed yield. 
       FIG. 1  shows the alignment of three isoforms of eIF-5A isolated from  Arabidopsis thaliana  (“At”).  FIG. 2  shows the alignment of the coding regions of these three isoforms.  FIGS. 3-5  provide the genomic sequence of the three isoforms. 
     Western blots (see  FIG. 8 ) show the expression in these three isoforms at different plant life stages.  FIG. 8  reveals that the amount of the senescence-induced factor eIF-5A isoform increases as the ages of the leaves increases. It is not seen in the unopened flower buds, siliques or stems but it is seen in the imbibed seeds. In the imbibed seeds there is cotyledon tissue as well as growing embryo. Thus, senescence-induced eIF-5A is present in the imbibed seeds because the cotyledon tissue is senescing as the embryo is growing. Growth eIF-5A is seen in the imbibed seeds because there the embryo is actively growing. The wounding-induced eIF-5A is seen in the siliques, seeds and stems as the harvesting of these tissues induces some wounding. 
     Although there is a high degree of homology (about 85%) between the different isoforms and between the isoforms in different plant species, the different isoforms vary from each other in the 3′UTR. One region that is highly conserved between the isoforms and between species as well, is the area that is believed to be the hypusine site. The hypusine site is believed to be the following amino acids: 5′-CKVVEVSTSKTGKHGHAKCHFV-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 32). See  FIG. 85  for alignment of various eIF-5A isoforms and of several plant species. 
     Senescence-Induced eIF-5A 
     Senescence-induced eIF-5A is expressed in senescing tissues. The present invention relates to the discovery of senescence-induced eIF-5A in  Arabidopsis thaliana , tomato, and carnation plants. Senescence-induced eIF-5A is up-regulated in senescing tissues and is involved in the induction of senescence related morphological changes in plants and plant tissues. Inhibiting expression of senescence-induced eIF-5A in plants can be used to alter senescence and senescence-related processes in plants. Down-regulation may occur through either the use of antisense constructs or through use of sense constructs to achieve co-suppression. Inhibiting expression of senescence-induced eIF-5A results in various morphological changes in the transgenic plants, including increased plant bio-mass, delayed fruit softening or spoilage, delayed browning of cut flowers or plant tissues, such as lettuce leaves, increased seed yield and increased seed size. 
     Thus, one embodiment of the present invention is isolated senescence-induced eIF-5A from  Arabidopsis thaliana . The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIG. 59  and is SEQ ID NO: 16. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIG. 59  and is SEQ ID NO: 15. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention is isolated senescence-induced eIF-5A from tomato. The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIG. 57  and is SEQ ID NO: 12. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIG. 57  and is SEQ ID NO: 11. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention is isolated senescence-induced eIF-5A from carnation. The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIG. 58  and is SEQ ID NO: 14. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIG. 58  and is SEQ ID NO: 13. 
     The present invention also provides isolated polynucleotides of senescence-induced eIF-5A that have 90% sequence homology to the above enumerated SEQ ID NOs, and hybridize under high stringency conditions to the complement of the enumerated SEQ ID NOs and which encode senescence-induced eIF-5A. 
     The present invention also provides antisense polynucleotides of the senescence-induced eIF-5As. The antisense polynucleotides may be of any length as long as they are able to inhibit expression. In some embodiments the antisense polynucleotides comprise the full length coding sequence and in other particularly preferred embodiments the antisense polynucleotides are directed at the 3′UTR since the different isoforms of eIF-5A have a higher degree of variation in the isoforms at the 3′UTR. In some embodiments the antisense polynucleotides are directed at the 5′-non-coding sequence Antisense polynucleotides primarily complementary to 5′-non-coding sequences are known to be effective inhibitors of expression of genes encoding transcription factors. Branch, M. A., Molec. Cell Biol., 13:4284-4290 (1993). 
     The term “antisense polynucleotide of senescence-induced eIF5A” as used herein and in the claims encompasses not only those antisense polynucleotides that share 100% homology of the complement of an enumerated SEQ ID NO but also includes those antisense polynucleotides that are a functional variants. Functional variants are those variants, either natural or man made, that have at least 80% sequence homology to and hybridizes under high stringency conditions with the corresponding portion of the senescence-induced eIF-5A. Further the variant must have the function as intended by the present invention, that is it is capable of modulating expression of endogenous senescence-induced eIF-5A when introduced into an expression vector and wherein such vector is incorporated into the genome of at least one plant cell. One skilled in the art can appreciate that insubstantial changes can be made in the sequence that would not effect detrimentally the ability of the antisense polynucleotide to bind to the transcript and reduce or inhibition expression of the gene. Thus, the term “antisense polynucleotide” encompasses those polynucleotides that are substantially complementary to the transcript and that still maintain the ability to specifically bind to the transcript and inhibit or reduce gene expression. For a general discussion of antisense see Alberts, et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 2nd ed., Garland Publishing, Inc. New York, N.Y., 1989 (in particular pages 195-196, incorporated herein by reference). 
     One embodiment of the present invention provides expression vectors comprising either the senescence-induced eIF-5A polynucleotides (of the present invention as described above) or antisense polynucleotides of senescence-induced eIF-5A (of the present invention as described above). Vectors can be plasmids, preferably, or may be viral or other vectors known in the art to replicate and express genes encoded thereon in plant cells or bacterial cells. The vector becomes chromosomally integrated such that it can be transcribed to produce the desired antisense polynucleotide of senescence-induced eIF-5A RNA. Such plasmid or viral vectors can be constructed by recombinant DNA technology methods that are standard in the art. For example, the vector may be a plasmid vector containing a replication system functional in a prokaryotic host and an antisense polynucleotide according to the invention. Alternatively, the vector may be a plasmid containing a replication system functional in  Agrobacterium  and an antisense polynucleotide according to the invention. Plasmids that are capable of replicating in  Agrobacterium  are well known in the art. See, Miki, et al., Procedures for Introducing Foreign DNA Into Plants, Methods in Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Eds. B. R. Glick and J. E. Thompson. CRC Press (1993), PP. 67-83. 
     The vector further comprises regulatory sequences operatively linked to the polynucleotides to allow expression of such polynucleotides. The regulatory sequences may include a promoter functional in the transformed plant cell. The promoter may be inducible, constitutive, or tissue specific. Such promoters are known by those skilled in the art. 
     Promoter regulatory elements that are useful in combination with the various isoforms of eIF-5A and DHS of the present invention to generate sense or antisense transcripts of the gene include any plant promoter in general, and more particularly, a constitutive promoter such as the fig wart mosaic virus 35S promoter, the cauliflower mosaic virus promoter, CaMV35S promoter, or the MAS promoter, or a tissue-specific or senescence-induced promoter, such as the carnation petal GST1 promoter or the  Arabidopsis  SAG12 promoter (See, for example, J. C. Palaqui et al., Plant Physiol., 112:1447-1456 (1996); Morton et al., Molecular Breeding, 1:123-132 (1995); Fobert et al., Plant Journal, 6:567-577 (1994); and Gan et al., Plant Physiol., 113:313 (1997), incorporated herein by reference). Preferably, the promoter used in the present invention is a constitutive promoter. The SAG12 promoter is preferably preferred when using antisense polynucleotides of senescence-induced eIF-5A. See example 23. 
     Expression levels from a promoter which is useful for the present invention can be tested using conventional expression systems, for example by measuring levels of a reporter gene product, e.g., protein or mRNA in extracts of the leaves, flowers, fruit or other tissues of a transgenic plant into which the promoter/reporter gene have been introduced. An exemplary reporter gene is GUS. 
     Optionally, the regulatory sequences include a 5′ non-translated leader sequence or a polyadenylation signal or enhancers. The present invention further contemplates other regulatory sequences as known by those skilled in the art. 
     The invention also provides a transgenic plant cell transformed with a vector or combination of vectors of the present invention comprising polynucleotides of senescence-induced eIF-5A in sense or antisense orientation, a transgenic plantlet or mature transgenic plant generated from such a cell, or a plant part, such as a flower, fruit, leaves, seeds, etc. of the transgenic plant. 
     The present invention also provides methods of inhibiting expression of endogenous senescence-induced eIF-5A. These methods comprise integrating into the genome of at least one cell of a plant, expression vectors of the present invention comprising antisense polynucleotides of senescence-induced eIF-5A. The antisense polynucleotides of senescence-induced eIF-5A are transcribed and inhibit expression of endogenous senescence-induced eIF-5A. 
     In another method of inhibiting expression of endogenous senescence-induced eIF-5A, an expression vector containing a senescence-induced eIF-5A polynucleotide of the present invention in a sense orientation is integrated into the genome of at least one cell of a plant. The polynucleotide of senescence-induced eIF-5A is transcribed and the resulting co-expression of exogenous senescence-induced eIF-5A causes a down-regulation or inhibition of expression of endogenous senescence-induced eIF-5A. 
     Wounding-Induced eIF-5A 
     Wounding-induced eIF-5A is expressed in wounded tissues. The present invention relates to the discovery of wounding-induced eIF-5A in  Arabidopsis thaliana  and tomato. The present inventors have discovered that this isoform is upregulated during a wounding event to the plant. The up-regulation occurs at the transcriptional level. Further, it is up-regulated exclusively at the protein level following virulent infection, which then gives rise to cell death, leading to the inference that wounding-induced eIF-5A is driving cell death in the event of ingression by pathogens.  FIG. 9  shows that senescence-induced eIF-5A remains constant in the control plant, the mock treated plant, the Avr treated plant and the Vir treated plant (it is detected as the plants were 4 weeks old). But wounding-induced eIF-5A is up-regulated in the Vir treated plant. 
       FIG. 10  shows the results of an experiment where leaves of a plant were wounded with a hemostat. Levels of senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A and growth eIF-5A in  arabidopsis thaliana  (“At”) were measured immediately after the wounding, 1 hour, and 9 hours after the wounding. The Northern Blots show that senescence-induced eIF-5A remained constant, but there was a noticeable increase in the levels expression of the wounding-induced eIF-5A. The levels of expression of the growth eIF-5A began to decrease in the event of wounding. 
     The present inventors have demonstrated that when wounding-induced eIF-5A is up-regulated and a wounding event is imposed upon the plants (such as occurs when the seedlings are transplanted), this wounding results in a very strong suppression of growth eIF-5A. See  FIGS. 14-17 . The resulting plants have very stunted growth. But when the seeds are soaked in kanomycin and are planted directly into the soil (no need to transplant and thus no transplant wounding), the seeds develop into normal sized plants. 
     The differences seen between the various test plants all having a sense wounding-induced eIF-5A construct ( FIG. 15 ) incorporated is due to varying degrees of expression of the wounding-induced eIF-5A. One skilled in the art will appreciate that when a gene is introduced (either sense or antisense) one gets varying degrees of either gene up-regulation or down-regulation. The degree of differences depends on where the gene gets incorporated and how many copies get incorporated. By having varying degrees of expression, one can correlate the various phenotypes to the gene expression. Once the desired phenotype is produced, that plant can be picked and used to create the desired progeny. Thus in  FIG. 15 , the plants that were strongly up-regulated for wounding-induced eIF-5A barely grew after the wounding event (plant tag 10), but the plants that grew a little better (but not as good as wild type) (plant tag 4) were not as strongly up-regulated. 
     One embodiment of the present invention is isolated wounding-induced eIF-5A from  Arabidopsis thaliana . The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIG. 41  and is SEQ ID NO: 55. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIG. 41  and is SEQ ID NO: 54. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention is isolated wounding-induced eIF-5A from tomato. The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIG. 103  and is SEQ ID NO: 57. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIG. 103  and is SEQ ID NO: 56. 
     The present invention also provides isolated polynucleotides of wounding-induced eIF-5A that have 90% sequence homology to the above enumerated SEQ ID NOs, and hybridize under high stringency conditions to the complement of the enumerated SEQ ID NOs and which encode wounding-induced eIF-5A. 
     The present invention also provides antisense polynucleotides of the wounding-induced eIF-5As. The antisense polynucleotides may be of any length as long as they are able to inhibit expression. In some embodiments the antisense polynucleotides comprise the full length coding sequence and in other particularly preferred embodiments the antisense polynucleotides are directed at the 3′UTR since the different isoforms of eIF-5A have a higher degree of variation in isoforms at the 3′UTR. In some embodiments the antisense polynucleotides are directed at the 5′-non-coding sequence Antisense polynucleotides primarily complementary to 5′-non-coding sequences are known to be effective inhibitors of expression of genes encoding transcription factors. Branch, M. A., Molec. Cell Biol., 13:4284-4290 (1993). 
     The term “antisense polynucleotide of wounding-induced eIF5A” as used herein and in the claims encompasses not only those antisense polynucleotides that share 100% homology of the complement of an enumerated SEQ ID NO but also includes those antisense polynucleotides that are a functional variants. Functional variants are those as described above. The variant functions as intended by the present invention, that is it is capable of modulating expression of endogenous wounding-induced eIF-5A when introduced into an expression vector and wherein such vector is incorporated into the genome of at least one plant cell. 
     One embodiment of the present invention provides expression vectors comprising either wounding-induced eIF-5A polynucleotides (of the present invention as described above) or antisense polynucleotides of wounding-induced eIF-5A (of the present invention as described above). Vectors are as described above. 
     The invention also provides a transgenic plant cell transformed with a vector or combination of vectors of the present invention comprising polynucleotides of wounding-induced eIF-5A in sense or antisense orientation, a transgenic plantlet or mature transgenic plant generated from such a cell, or a plant part, such as a flower, fruit, leaves, seeds, etc. of the transgenic plant. 
     The present invention also provides methods of inhibiting expression of endogenous wounding-induced eIF-5A. These methods comprise integrating into the genome of at least one cell of a plant, expression vectors of the present invention comprising antisense polynucleotides of wounding-induced eIF-5A. The antisense polynucleotides of wounding-induced eIF-5A are transcribed and inhibit expression of endogenous wounding-induced eIF-5A. 
     In another method of inhibiting expression of endogenous wounding-induced eIF-5A, an expression vector containing a wounding-induced eIF-5A polynucleotide of the present invention in a sense orientation is integrated into the genome of at least one cell of a plant. The polynucleotide of wounding-induced eIF-5A is transcribed and the resulting co expression of exogenous wounding-induced eIF-5A causes a down-regulation or inhibition of expression of endogenous wounding-induced eIF-5A. 
     By inhibiting expression of endogenous eIF-5A, resulting transgenic plants have an increased resistance to virulent damage arising from pathogen ingression. See example 16 and  FIGS. 43 and 44 . 
     Growth eIF-5A 
     The present invention also relates to growth eIF-5A. Growth eIF-5A is expressed in growing tissues. When eIF-5A is up-regulated with polynucleotides of growth eIF-5A in sense orientation, three phenotypic changes are noticed: increased seed size, increased biomass, and increased seed yield. 
     One embodiment of the present invention is isolated growth eIF-5A from  Arabidopsis thaliana . The amino acid sequences are provided in  FIG. 1  and are SEQ ID NOS 58-60, respectively. The polynucleotides encoding the amino acid sequences are provided in  FIG. 2  and are shown in SEQ ID NOS 61-63, respectively, in order of appearance. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention is isolated growth eIF-5A from tomato. The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIG. 101  and is SEQ ID NO: 65. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIG. 101  and is SEQ ID NO: 64. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention is isolated growth eIF-5A from canola. The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIG. 95  and is SEQ ID NO: 67. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIG. 95  and is SEQ ID NO: 66. 
     The present invention also provides isolated polynucleotides of growth eIF-5A that have 90% sequence homology to the above enumerated SEQ ID NOs, and hybridize under high stringency conditions to the complement of the enumerated SEQ ID NOs and which encode growth eIF-5A. 
     The present invention also provides antisense polynucleotides of the growth eIF-5As. The antisense polynucleotides may be of any length as long as they are able to inhibit expression. In some embodiments the antisense polynucleotides comprise the full length coding sequence and in other particularly preferred embodiments the antisense polynucleotides are directed at the 3′UTR since the different isoforms of eIF-5A have a higher degree of variation in isoforms at the 3′UTR. In some embodiments the antisense polynucleotides are directed at the 5′-non-coding sequence. Antisense polynucleotides primarily complementary to 5′-non-coding sequences are known to be effective inhibitors of expression of genes encoding transcription factors. Branch, M. A., Molec. Cell Biol., 13:4284-4290 (1993). 
     The term “antisense polynucleotide of growth eIF5A” as used herein and in the claims encompasses not only those antisense polynucleotides that share 100% homology of the complement of an enumerated SEQ ID NO but also includes those antisense polynucleotides that are a functional variants. Functional variants are those as described above. The variant functions as intended by the present invention, that is it is capable of modulating expression of endogenous growth eIF-5A when introduced into an expression vector and wherein such vector is incorporated into the genome of at least one plant cell. One embodiment of the present invention provides expression vectors comprising either growth eIF-5A polynucleotides (of the present invention as described above) or antisense polynucleotides of growth eIF-5A (of the present invention as described above). Vectors are as described above. 
     The invention also provides a transgenic plant cell transformed with a vector or combination of vectors of the present invention comprising polynucleotides of growth eIF-5A either in sense or antisense orientation, a transgenic plantlet or mature transgenic plant generated from such a cell, or a plant part, such as a flower, fruit, leaves, seeds, etc. of the transgenic plant. 
     The present invention also provides methods of inhibiting expression of endogenous growth eIF-5A. These methods comprise integrating into the genome of at least one cell of a plant, expression vectors of the present invention comprising antisense polynucleotides of growth eIF-5A. The antisense polynucleotides of growth eIF-5A are transcribed and inhibit expression of endogenous growth eIF-5A. 
     In another method of inhibiting expression of endogenous growth eIF-5A, an expression vector containing a growth eIF-5A polynucleotide of the present invention in a sense orientation is integrated into the genome of at least one cell of a plant. The polynucleotide of growth eIF-5A is transcribed and the resulting co-expression of exogenous growth eIF-5A causes a down-regulation or inhibition of expression of endogenous growth eIF-5A. 
     In another embodiment of the present invention there is provided a method of up-regulating expression of growth eIF-5A. An expression vector containing a growth eIF-5A polynucleotide of the present invention in a sense orientation is integrated into the genome of at least one cell of a plant. The polynucleotide of growth eIF-5A is transcribed and the resulting co-expression of exogenous growth eIF-5A causes the cells to express more growth eIF-5A than non-transgenic cells. 
       FIG. 19  shows that plants that were up-regulated for growth eIF-5A had an increased biomass over that of the control plants. Growth eIF-5A was inserted into  Arabidopsis thaliana  plants in a sense orientation to up-regulate the expression of growth eIF-5A. Sixteen mother lines (1-16) were assayed to determine the general level of growth eIF-5A expression. From each mother line, 8 sister lines were produced (A-H). The level of expression of growth eIF-5A in each mother line was tested and the results shown in  FIG. 20 . Various degrees of expression are noticed throughout the mother lines. For example, lines 2 and 10 have very high levels of expression whereas lines 11 and 16 have very low or no expression. 
       FIGS. 21 and 22  show the plants from lines 1 and 2. These plants are bigger than the control plants. Because the growth eIF-5A is a cell-division isoform and because it is constitutively expressed, there is increased cell division. A reduction in senescence occurs because the plant is locked into a growth mode and can not make the switch to the senescence pathway. 
       FIGS. 23 and 24  are from lines that had medium level of expression of growth eIF-5A. They appear to have bigger leaves and delayed senescence. 
       FIGS. 25 and 26  are from lines that had low levels of up-regulation. They have large leaves and large rosettes. 
       FIGS. 27 and 28  are from lines that have no up-regulation (which may be due to co-suppression of the gene). Since the plant is kanomycin resistant, the gene must be present in order for the plants to grow on the media. It appears that the senescence-induced eIF-5A is also co-suppressed as well thus giving rise to an increase in size. 
     In addition to increased biomass, there is also increased seed size in plants having growth eIF-5A up-regulated. The seed size of all of the lines was measured. In the lines having the highest levels of growth eIF-5A expression, a greater than 3× increase in seed size is seen. This occurs because up-regulation of growth eIF-5A, increases cell division and thus increases seed size. 
     The growth eIF-5A (from  Arabidopsis thaliana ) in the above examples was being constitutively expressed, i.e. is being expressed everywhere in the plant through the use of a universal promoter. In contrast, by using a tissue specific promoter, one may direct the up-regulation in particular tissues. For example, by using a seed specific promoter, the growth eIF-5A would only be up-regulated in the seed, allowing the leaves to grow normally, but produce an increase in the amount of seeds. Thus, using a specific promoter, the growth eIF-5A can be up-regulated in the desired plant part to get a desired phenotype. 
     By up-regulating growth eIF-5A, three phenotypes result—increased biomass, increased seed yield, or increased seed size, but not all three phenotypes are present at the same time (or in the same plant). For example, if a plant exhibits an increase in seed size, a smaller plant will be present. In the plant lines that had the highest up-regulation of growth eIF-5A, the biggest seeds were produced, but the plants were smaller because there was massive cell division going on throughout the whole plant, which was at the expense of cell enlargement (needed for bigger leaves). At lower levels of up-regulation of expression of growth AteIF-5A, one sees an impact on the leaves (bigger) without impacting the seed. Thus, one may use tissue specific expression and pick the phenotype desired. For example, one may place growth eIF-5A under a xylem specific promoter to achieve an increase in the amount of xylem produced. Thus, any desired promoter may be used to achieve the desired tissue-specific up-regulation. 
     DHS 
     DHS is necessary for the activation of eIF-5A and is expressed in senescing tissues. The present invention thus provides isolated DHS from  Arabidopsis thaliana , tomato, carnation, canola, lettuce, alfalfa, banana, cottonwood, and  mycosphaerella.    
     Thus one embodiment of the present invention is isolated DHS from  Arabidopsis thaliana . The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIG. 46B  and is SEQ ID NO: 6. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIG. 46A  and is SEQ ID NO: 5. The nucleotide sequence in  FIG. 46C  is shown in SEQ ID NO: 26, while the amino acid sequence in  FIG. 46D  is shown in SEQ ID NO: 92. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention is isolated DHS from tomato. The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIGS. 45  A and B and is SEQ ID NO: 2. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIGS. 45  A and B and is SEQ ID NO: 1. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention is isolated DHS from carnation. The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIG. 54  and is SEQ ID NO: 10. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIG. 54  and is SEQ ID NO: 9. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention is isolated DHS from canola. The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIG. 97  and is SEQ ID NO: 71. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIG. 97  and is SEQ ID NO: 70. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention is isolated DHS from lettuce.  FIG. 105  provides a portion of lettuce DHS polynucleotide sequence. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention is isolated DHS from alfalfa. The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIGS. 107  A and B and is SEQ ID NO: 73. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIGS. 107  A and B and is SEQ ID NO: 72. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention is isolated DHS from banana. The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIGS. 108  A and B and is SEQ ID NO: 75. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIGS. 108  A and B and is SEQ ID NO: 74. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention is isolated DHS from cottonwood. The amino acid sequence is provided in  FIGS. 109  A and B and is SEQ ID NO: 77. The polynucleotide encoding the amino acid is provided in  FIGS. 109  A and B and is SEQ ID NO: 76. 
     Another embodiment of the present invention is isolated DHS from  mycosphaerella .  FIG. 110  provides a portion of lettuce DHS polynucleotide sequence. 
     The present invention also provides isolated polynucleotides of DHS that have 90% sequence homology to the above enumerated SEQ ID NOs, and hybridize under high stringency conditions to the complement of the enumerated SEQ ID NOs and which encode DHS. 
     The present invention also provides antisense polynucleotides of DHS. The antisense polynucleotides may be of any length as long as they are able to inhibit expression. In some embodiments the antisense polynucleotides comprise the full length coding sequence, directed at the 3′UTR, or directed at the 5′-non-coding sequence Antisense polynucleotides primarily complementary to 5′-non-coding sequences are known to be effective inhibitors of expression of genes encoding transcription factors. Branch, M. A., Molec. Cell Biol., 13:4284-4290 (1993). 
     The term “antisense polynucleotide of DHS” as used herein and in the claims encompasses not only those antisense polynucleotides that share 100% homology of the complement of an enumerated SEQ ID NO but also includes those antisense polynucleotides that are a functional variants. Functional variants are as described above. The variant functions as intended by the present invention, that is it is capable of modulating expression of endogenous DHS when introduced into an expression vector and wherein such vector is incorporated into the genome of at least one plant cell. 
     One embodiment of the present invention provides expression vectors comprising either DHS polynucleotides (of the present invention as described above) or antisense polynucleotides of DHS (of the present invention as described above). Vectors are as described above. 
     The invention also provides a transgenic plant cell transformed with a vector or combination of vectors of the present invention comprising a polynucleotide of DHS either in the sense or antisense orientation, a transgenic plantlet or mature transgenic plant generated from such a cell, or a plant part, such as a flower, fruit, leaves, seeds, etc. of the transgenic plant. 
     The present invention also provides methods of inhibiting expression of endogenous DHS. These methods comprise integrating into the genome of at least one cell of a plant, expression vectors of the present invention comprising antisense polynucleotides of DHS. The antisense polynucleotides of DHS are transcribed and inhibit expression of endogenous DHS. 
     In another method of inhibiting expression of endogenous DHS, an expression vector containing a DHS polynucleotide of the present invention in a sense orientation is integrated into the genome of at least one cell of a plant. The polynucleotide of DHS is transcribed and the resulting co-expression of exogenous DHS causes a down-regulation or inhibition of expression of endogenous DHS. 
     By inhibiting expression of endogenous DHS, resulting transgenic plants have no or substantially less DHS protein to activate eIF-5A. As discussed earlier, eIF-5A must be activated to render it biologically useful. Thus, by inhibiting or reducing the expression of DHS either by antisense polynucleotides or by co-suppression with sense polynucleotides, the resulting transgenic plants will either have no active eIF-5A or reduced active eIF-5A. These transgenic plants will exhibit an increase in biomass of the plant, increased seed yield and/or increased seed size. Transgenic plants having antisense polynucleotides of DHS show an increase in photosynthesis and also have an increased starch content. See Examples 24 and 25. 
     Further evidence to support the contention that DHS and eIF-5A play regulatory roles in senescence was provided by treating carnation flowers with inhibitors that are specific for DHS. Spermidine and eIF-5A are the substrates of DHS reaction (Park et al., 1993; Park et al., 1997). Several mono-, di-, and polyamines that have structural features similar to spermidine inhibit DHS activity in vitro (Jakus et al., 1993). Some polyamines, such as spermidine, putrescine, and spermine, have been generally used to extend carnation vase life (Wang and Baker, 1980). Through treatment with different polyamines at different concentrations Wang et al (unpublished b) were able to extend the vase life of carnation flowers by 2 fold. Further studies employing a transient infection system to down-regulate DHS is in progress. Preliminary data indicates that the percent survival rate is almost 4 fold higher at day 8 in cut carnations that were vacuum infiltrated with a transient infection system expressing antisense DHS than untreated flowers (Wang et al., unpublished b). 
     A further major loss in agriculture besides the loss of growth due to stress is post harvest stress-induced senescence (McCabe et al., 2001). This is especially true for plants that are partially processed such as cut lettuce. A symptom of cutting lettuce is browning which is a result of phenolics production (Matile et al., 1999). A field trial of lettuce with antisense polynucleotides of lettuce eIF-5A (LeIF-5A) or antisense full length DHS demonstrated that the transgenic lettuce was significantly more resistant to browning after cutting than the control lettuce. It appears that even though stress induced senescence due to harvesting has distinct circuitry (Page et al., 2001), the translational control upstream of browning and likely other senescence symptoms is regulated at least in part by DHS and eIF-5A. Downstream of the regulation of senescence are the execution genes. These are the effectors of senescence and cause the metabolic changes that bring on the senescence syndrome. It appears that eIF-5A and DHS when down-regulated are capable of dampening down a whole range of symptoms caused by senescence. 
     The present invention also relates to antibodies that recognize the three isoforms of eIF-5A (senescence-induced factor eIF-5A); (wounding factor eiF-5A) and (growth factor eIF-5A). 
     The present invention also provides a method of identifying senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, growth eIF-5A and DHS in other plants and fungi. By using the methods described herein and the sequences provided, probes are designed to isolate/identify the desired isoforms or DHS. Since the isoforms of eIF-5A (senescence-induced eIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A, and growth eIF-5A) are often highly homologous in the coding region (see  FIG. 2 ), to ensure identification and even alter amplification of the desired isoform, probes or primers are preferably designed from the beginning of the 5′UTR and at the end of the 3″ UTR. (See  FIGS. 3 ,  4  and  5 ). A preferred set of primers for amplification of wounding-induced eIF-5A or probes for identification of wounding-induced eIF-5A are as follows. The downstream primer is 5′ GAG CTC AAG AAT AAC ATC TCA TAA GAAAC3′ (SEQ ID NO: 33) The upstream primer is 5′ CTC GAG TGC TCA CTT CTC TCT CTT AGG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 34). 
     Before isolating wounding-induced eIF5A from a plant or plant part, it is best to introduce a wounding event to allow the plant to begin expressing wounding-induced eIF-5A. Any wounding event is acceptable and one such exemplary wound events included crushing the leaves at the central vein. Similarly, before isolating senescence-induced eIF-5A, it best to stress the plant tissue to induce senescence. 
     Having now generally described the invention, the same will be more readily understood through reference to the following examples, which are provided by way of illustration, and are not intended to be limiting to the present invention. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1 
     Messenger RNA (mRNA) Isolation 
     Total RNA was isolated from tomato flowers and tomato fruit at various developmental stages and from leaves (untreated or after chilling or sorbitol treatment). The tissue (5 g) was briefly ground in liquid nitrogen. The ground powder was mixed with 30 ml guanidinium buffer (4 M guanidinium isothiocyanate, 2.5 mM NaOAc pH 8.5, 0.8%-mercaptoethanol). The mixture was filtered through four layers of cheesecloth and centrifuged at 10,000×g at 4° C. for 30 minutes. The supernatant was then subjected to cesium chloride density gradient centrifugation at 26,000 Xg for 20 hours. The pelleted RNA was rinsed with 75% ethanol, resuspended in 600 μl DEPC-treated water and the RNA precipitated at −70° C. with 0.75 ml 95% ethanol and 30 μl of 3M NaOAc. Ten μg of RNA were fractionated on a 1.2% denaturing formaldehyde agarose gel and transferred to a nylon membrane. Randomly primed  32 P-dCTP-labeled full length DHS cDNA (SEQ ID NO: 1) was used to probe the membrane at 42° C. overnight. The membrane was then washed once in 1×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at room temperature for 15 minutes and three times in 0.2×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at 65° C. for 15 minutes each. The membrane was exposed to x-ray film overnight at −70° C. 
     PolyA +  mRNA was isolated from total RNA using the PolyA +  tract mRNA Isolation System available from Promega. PolyA +  mRNA was used as a template for cDNA synthesis using the ZAP Express® cDNA synthesis system available from Stratagene (La Jolla, Calif.) 
     Tomato Leaf cDNA Library Screening 
     A cDNA library made using mRNA isolated from Match F1 hybrid tomato leaves that had been exposed to 2 M sorbitol for six hours was diluted to approximately 5×10 6  PFU/ml. The cDNA library was screened using a  32 P-labeled 600 bp RT-PCR fragment. Three positive cDNA clones were excised and recircularized into a pBK-CMV® (Stratagene) phagemid using the method in the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The full length cDNA was inserted into the pBK-CMV vector. 
     Plasmid DNA Isolation, DNA Sequencing 
     The alkaline lysis method described by Sambrook et al., (Supra) was used to isolate plasmid DNA. The full length positive cDNA clone was sequenced using the dideoxy sequencing method. Sanger, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 74:5463-5467. The open reading frame was compiled and analyzed using BLAST search (GenBank, Bethesda, Md.) and alignment of the five most homologous proteins with the derived amino acid sequence of the encoded gene was achieved using a BCM Search Launcher: Multiple Sequence Alignments Pattern-Induced Multiple Alignment Method (See F. Corpet, Nuc. Acids Res., 16:10881-10890, (1987)). Functional motifs present in the derived amino acid sequence were identified by MultiFinder. 
     Northern Blot Hybridizations of Tomato RNA 
     Ten μg of total RNA isolated from tomato flowers at various stages (bud and blossom and senescing petals that are open widely or drying), tomato leaves, and tomato fruit at various stages of ripening (breaker, i.e., green fruit with less than 10% red color, pink, i.e., the entire fruit is orange or pink, and red, either soft or firm) were separated on 1% denatured formaldehyde agarose gels and immobilized on nylon membranes. The full length tomato cDNA labeled with  32 P-dCTP using a random primer kit (Boehringer Mannheim) was used to probe the filters (7×10 7  cpm). The filters were washed once with 1×SSC, 0.1% SDS at room temperature and three times with 0.2×SSC, 0.1% SDS at 65° C. The filters were dried and exposed to X-ray film overnight at −70° C. The results are shown in  FIGS. 50-52 . 
     Northern Blot Hybridization of  Arabidopsis  RNA 
     Total RNA from leaves of  Arabidopsis  plants at five weeks of age (lane 1), six weeks (lane 2) and seven weeks (lane 3) was isolated as above, separated on 1% denatured formaldehyde agarose gels and immobilized on nylon membranes. The full-length  Arabidopsis  senescence-induced DHS cDNA labeled with  32 P-dCTP using a random primer kit (Boehringer Mannheim) was used to probe the filters (7×10 7  cpm). The filters were washed once with 1×SSC, 0.1% SDS at room temperature and three times with 0.2×SSC, 0.1% SDS at 65° C. The filters were dried and exposed to X-ray film overnight at −70° C. The results are shown in  FIG. 55 . 
     Northern Blot Hybridization of Carnation RNA 
     Total RNA from petals of carnation plants at various stages of flower development, i.e., tight-bud flowers (lane 1), beginning to open (lane 2), fully open flowers (lane 3), flowers with inrolling petals (lane 4), was isolated as above, separated on 1% denatured formaldehyde agarose gels and immobilized on nylon membranes. The full-length carnation senescence-induced DHS cDNA labeled with  32 P-dCTP using a random primer kit (Boehringer Mannheim) was used to probe the filters (7×10 7  cpm). The filters were washed once with 1×SSC, 0.1% SDS at room temperature and three times with 0.2×SSC, 0.1% SDS at 65° C. The filters were dried and exposed to X-ray film overnight at −70° C. The results are shown in  FIG. 56 . 
     Example 2 
     Sorbitol Induction of Tomato Senescence-Induced DHS Gene 
     Tomato leaves were treated with 2 M sorbitol in a sealed chamber for six hours. RNA was extracted from the sorbitol treated leaves as follows. 
     Leaves (5 g) were ground in liquid nitrogen. The ground powder was mixed with 30 ml guanidinium buffer (4 M guanidinium isothiocyanate, 2.5 mM NaOAc pH 8.5, 0.8%-mercaptoethanol). The mixture was filtered through four layers of cheesecloth and centrifuged at 10,000×g at 4° C. for 30 minutes. The supernatant was then subjected to cesium chloride density gradient centrifugation at 26,000×g for 20 hours. The pelleted RNA was rinsed with 75% ethanol, resuspended in 600 μl DEPC-treated water and the RNA precipitated at −70° C. with 0.75 ml 95% ethanol and 30 μl of 3M NaOAc. Ten μg of RNA were fractionated on a 1.2% denaturing formaldehyde agarose gel and transferred to a nylon membrane. Randomly primed  32 P-dCTP-labeled full length DHS cDNA (SEQ ID NO: 1) was used to probe the membrane at 42° C. overnight. The membrane was then washed once in 1×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at room temperature for 15 minutes and three times in 0.2×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at 65° C. for 15 minutes each. The membrane was exposed to x-ray film overnight at −70° C. 
     The results are shown in  FIG. 52 . As can be seen, transcription of DHS is induced in leaves by sorbitol. 
     Example 3 
     Induction of the Tomato DHS Gene in Senescing Flowers 
     Tight flower buds and open, senescing flowers of tomato plants were harvested, and RNA was isolated as in Example 2. Ten μg RNA were fractionated on a 1.2% denaturing formaldehyde agarose gel and transferred to a nylon membrane. Randomly primed  32 P-dCTP-labeled full length DHS cDNA (SEQ ID NO.1) was used to probe the membrane at 42° C. overnight. The membrane then was washed once in 1×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at room temperature for 15 minutes and then washed three times in 0.2×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at 65° C. for fifteen minutes each. The membrane was exposed to x-ray film overnight at −70° C. 
     The results are shown in  FIG. 50 . As can be seen, transcription of DHS is induced in senescing flowers. 
     Example 4 
     Induction of the Tomato DHS Gene in Ripening Fruit 
     RNA was isolated from breaker, pink and ripe fruit as in Example 2. Ten μg RNA were fractionated on a 1.2% denaturing formaldehyde agarose gel and transferred to a nylon membrane. Randomly primed  32 P-dCTP-labeled full length DHS cDNA (SEQ ID NO.1) ( FIG. 45 ) was used to probe the membrane at 42° C. overnight. The membrane then was washed once in 1×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at room temperature for 15 minutes and then washed three times in 0.2×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at 65° C. for fifteen minutes each. The membrane was exposed to x-ray film overnight at −70° C. 
     The results are shown in  FIG. 51 . As can be seen, transcription of DHS is strongest in ripe, red fruit just prior to the onset of senescence leading to spoilage. 
     Example 5 
     Induction of Tomato Senescence-Induced DHS Gene by Chilling 
     Tomato plants in pots (7-8 weeks old) were exposed to 6° C. for two days, three days or six days in a growth chamber. The light cycle was set for eight hours of dark and sixteen hours of light. Plants were rewarmed by moving them back into a greenhouse. Plants that were not rewarmed were harvested immediately after removal from the growth chamber. RNA was extracted from the leaves as follows. 
     Leaves (5 g) were ground in liquid nitrogen. The ground powder was mixed with 30 ml guanidinium buffer (4 M guanidinium isothiocyanate, 2.5 mM NaOAc pH 8.5, 0.8%-mercaptoethanol). The mixture was filtered through four layers of cheesecloth and centrifuged at 10,000 g at 4° C. for 30 minutes. The supernatant was then subjected to cesium chloride density gradient centrifugation at 26,000 g for 20 hours. The pelleted RNA was rinsed with 75% ethanol, resuspended in 600 μl DEPC-treated water and the RNA precipitated at −70° C. with 0.75 ml 95% ethanol and 30 μl of 3M NaOAc. Ten μg of RNA were fractionated on a 1.2% denaturing formaldehyde agarose gel and transferred to a nylon membrane. Randomly primed  32 P-dCTP-labeled full length DHS cDNA (SEQ ID NO:1) was used to probe the membrane at 42° C. overnight. The membrane was then washed once in 1×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at room temperature for 15 minutes and three times in 0.2×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at 65° C. for 15 minutes each. The membrane was exposed to x-ray film overnight at −70° C. 
     The results are shown in  FIG. 53 . As can be seen, transcription of DHS is induced in leaves by exposure to chilling temperature and subsequent rewarming, and the enhanced transcription correlates with chilling damage measured as membrane leakiness. 
     Example 6 
     Generation of an  Arabidopsis  PCR Product Using Primers Based on Unidentified  Arabidopsis  Genomic Sequence 
     A partial length senescence-induced DHS sequence from an  Arabidopsis  cDNA template was generated by PCR using a pair of oligonucleotide primers designed from  Arabidopsis  genomic sequence. The 5′ primer is a 19-mer having the sequence, 5′-GGTGGTGT5TGAGGAAGATC (SEQ ID NO:7); the 3′ primer is a 20 mer having the sequence, GGTGCACGCCCTGATGAAGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:8). A polymerase chain reaction using the Expand High Fidelity PCR System (Boehringer Mannheim) and an  Arabidopsis  senescing leaf cDNA library as template was carried out as follows. 
     Reaction Components: 
       
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
                 cDNA 
                 1 
                 μl (5 × 10 7  pfu) 
               
               
                   
                 dNTP (10 mM each) 
                 1 
                 μl 
               
               
                   
                 MgCl 2  (5 mM) + 10x buffer 
                 5 
                 μl 
               
               
                   
                 Primers 1 and 2 (100 μM each) 
                 2 
                 μl 
               
               
                   
                 Expand High Fidelity DNA polymerase 
                 1.75 
                 U 
               
               
                   
                 Reaction volume 
                 50 
                 μl 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Reaction Parameters: 
     94° C. for 3 min 
     94° C./1 min, 58° C./1 min, 72° C./2 min, for 45 cycles 
     72° C. for 15 min. 
     Example 7 
     Isolation of Genomic DNA and Southern Analysis 
     Genomic DNA was extracted from tomato leaves by grinding 10 grams of tomato leaf tissue to a fine powder in liquid nitrogen. 37.5 ml of a mixture containing 25 ml homogenization buffer [100 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 100 mm EDTA, 250 mM NaCl, 1% sarkosyl, 1% 2-mercaptoethanol, 10 μg/ml RNase and 12.5 ml phenol] prewarmed to 60° C. was added to the ground tissue. The mixture was shaken for fifteen minutes. An additional 12.5 ml of chloroform/isoamyl alcohol (24:1) was added to the mixture and shaken for another 15 minutes. The mixture was centrifuged and the aqueous phase reextracted with 25 ml phenol/chloroform/isoamylalcohol (25:24:1) and chloroform/isoamylalcohol (24:1). The nucleic acids were recovered by precipitation with 15 ml isopropanol at room temperature. The precipitate was resuspended in 1 ml of water. 
     Genomic DNA was subjected to restriction enzyme digestion as follows: 10 μg genomic DNA, 40 μl 10× reaction buffer and 100 U restriction enzyme (XbaI, EcoRI, EcoRV or HinDIII) were reacted for five to six hours in a total reaction volume of 400 μl. The mixture was then phenol-extracted and ethanol-precipitated. The digested DNA was subjected to agarose gel electrophoresis on a 0.8% agarose gel at 15 volts for approximately 15 hours. The gel was submerged in denaturation buffer [87.66 g NaCl and 20 g NaOH/Liter] for 30 minutes with gentle agitation, rinsed in distilled water and submerged in neutralization buffer [87.66 g NaCl and 60.55 g tris-HCl, pH 7.5/Liter] for 30 minutes with gentle agitation. The DNA was transferred to a Hybond-N +  nylon membrane by capillary blotting. 
     Hybridization was performed overnight at 42° C. using 1×10 6  cpm/ml of  32 P-dCTP-labeled full length DHS cDNA or 3′-non-coding region of the DHS cDNA clone. Prehybridization and hybridization were carried out in buffer containing 50% formamide, 6×SSC, 5×Denhardt&#39;s solution, 0.1% SDS and 100 mg/ml denatured salmon sperm DNA. The membrane was prehybridized for two to four hours; hybridization was carried out overnight. 
     After hybridization was complete, membranes were rinsed at room temperature in 2×SSC and 0.1% SDS and then washed in 2×SSC and 0.1% SDS for 15 minutes and 0.2×SSC and 0.1% SDS for 15 minutes. The membrane was then exposed to x-ray film at −80° C. overnight. The results are shown in  FIG. 49 . 
     Example 8 
     Isolation of a Senescence-Induced eIF-5A Gene from  Arabidopsis    
     A full-length cDNA clone of the senescence-induced eIF-5A gene expressed in  Arabidopsis  leaves was obtained by PCR using an  Arabidopsis  senescing leaf cDNA library as template. Initially, PCR products corresponding to the 5′- and 3′-ends of the gene were made using a degenerate upstream primer &lt;AAARRYCGMCCYTGCAAGGT&gt; (SEQ ID NO:17) paired with vector T7 primer &lt;AATACGACTCACTATAG&gt; (SEQ ID NO:18), and a degenerate downstream primer &lt;TCYTTNCCYTCMKCTAAHCC&gt; (SEQ ID NO: 19) paired with vector T3 primer &lt;ATTAACCCTCACTAAAG&gt; (SEQ ID NO: 20). The PCR products were subcloned into pBluescript for sequencing. The full-length cDNA was then obtained using a 5′-specific primer &lt;CTGTTACCAAAAAATCTGTACC&gt; (SEQ ID NO: 21) paired with a 3′-specific primer &lt;AGAAGAAGTATAAAAACCATC&gt; (SEQ ID NO: 22), and subcloned into pBluescript for sequencing. 
     Example 9 
     Isolation of a Senescence-Induced eIF-5A Gene from Tomato Fruit 
     A full-length cDNA clone of the senescence-induced eIF-5A gene expressed in tomato fruit was obtained by PCR using a tomato fruit cDNA library as template. Initially, PCR products corresponding to the 5′- and 3′-ends of the gene were made using a degenerate upstream primer (SEQ ID NO: 17) paired with vector T7 primer (SEQ ID NO:18), and a degenerate downstream primer (SEQ ID NO:19) paired with vector T3 primer (SEQ ID NO: 20). The PCR products were subcloned into pBluescript for sequencing. The full-length cDNA was then obtained using a 5′-specific primer &lt;AAAGAATCCTAGAGAGAGAAAGG&gt; (SEQ ID NO: 23) paired with vector T7 primer (SEQ ID NO: 18), and subcloned into pBluescript for sequencing. 
     Example 10 
     Isolation of a Senescence-Induced eIF-5A Gene from Carnation 
     A full-length cDNA clone of the senescence-induced eIF-5A gene expressed in carnation flowers was obtained by PCR using a carnation senescing flower cDNA 
     library as template. Initially, PCR products corresponding to the 5′- and 3′-ends of the gene were made using a degenerate upstream primer (SEQ ID NO: 17) paired with vector T7 primer (SEQ ID NO: 18), and a degenerate downstream primer (SEQ ID NO: 19) paired with vector T3 primer (SEQ ID NO: 20). The PCR products were subcloned into pBluescript for sequencing. The full-length cDNA was then obtained using a 5′-specific primer &lt;TTTTACATCAATCGAAAA&gt; (SEQ ID NO: 24) paired with a 3′-specific primer &lt;ACCAAAACCTGTGTTATAACTCC&gt; (SEQ ID NO: 25), and subcloned into pBluescript for sequencing. 
     Example 11 
     Isolation of a Senescence-Induced DHS Gene from  Arabidopsis    
     A full-length cDNA clone of the senescence-induced DHS gene expressed in  Arabidopsis  leaves was obtained by screening an  Arabidopsis  senescing leaf cDNA library. The sequence of the probe (SEQ ID NO: 26) that was used for screening is shown in  FIG. 82 . The probe was obtained by PCR using the senescence leaf cDNA library as a template and primers designed from the unidentified genomic sequence (AB017060) in GenBank. The PCR product was subcloned into pBluescript for sequencing. 
     Example 12 
     Isolation of a Senescence-Induced DHS Gene from Carnation 
     A full-length cDNA clone of the senescence-induced DHS gene expressed in carnation petals was obtained by screening a carnation senescing petal cDNA library. The sequence of the probe (SEQ ID NO: 27) that was used for screening is shown in  FIG. 83 . The probe was obtained by PCR using the senescence petal cDNA library as a template and degenerate primers (upstream: 5′ TTG ARG AAG ATY CAT MAA RTG CCT 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 28); downstream: 5′ CCA TCA AAY TCY TGK GCR GTG TT 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 29). The PCR product was subcloned into pBluescript for sequencing. 
     Example 13 
     Transformation of  Arabidopsis  with Full-Length or 3′ Region of  Arabidopsis  DHS in Antisense Orientation 
       Agrobacteria  were transformed with the binary vector, pKYLX71, containing the full-length senescence-induced  Arabidopsis  DHS cDNA sequence or the 3′ end of the DHS gene (SEQ ID NO:30) ( FIG. 80 ), both expressed in the antisense configuration, under the regulation of double 35S promoter.  Arabidopsis  plants were transformed with the transformed  Agrobacteria  by vacuum infiltration, and transformed seeds from resultant T 0  plants were selected on ampicillin. 
       FIGS. 65-68  are photographs of the transformed  Arabidopsis  plants, showing that expression of the DHS gene or 3′ end thereof in antisense orientation in the transformed plants results in increased biomass, e.g., larger leaves and increased plant size.  FIG. 69  illustrates that the transgenic  Arabidopsis  plants have increased seed yield. 
     Example 14 
     Transformation of Tomato Plants with Full-Length or 3′ Region of Tomato DHS in Antisense Orientation 
       Agrobacteria  were transformed with the binary vector, pKYLX71, containing the full-length senescence-induced tomato DHS cDNA sequence or the 3′ end of the DHS gene (SEQ ID NO:31) ( FIG. 81 ), both expressed in the antisense configuration, under the regulation of double 35S promoter. Tomato leaf explants were formed with these  Agrobacteria , and transformed callus and plantlets were generated and selected by standard tissue culture methods. Transformed plantlets were grown to mature fruit-producing T 1  plants under greenhouse conditions. 
       FIGS. 70-79  are photographs showing that reduced expression of the senescence-induced tomato DHS gene in the transformed plants results in increased biomass, e.g., larger leaf size and larger plants as seen in the transformed  Arabidopsis  plants, as well as delayed softening and spoilage of tomato fruit. 
     Example 15 
     Transformation of Tomato Plants with the 3′ Region of Tomato DHS in Antisense Orientation 
       Agrobacteria  were transformed with the binary vector, pKYLX71, containing the 3′ end of the DHS gene ( FIG. 81 ) expressed in the antisense configuration, under the regulation of double 35S promoter. Tomato leaf explants were formed with these  Agrobacteria , and transformed callus and plantlets were generated and selected by standard tissue culture methods. Transformed plantlets were grown to mature fruit producing T 1  plants under green house conditions. 
     Fruit from these transgenic plants with reduced DHS expression were completely free of blossom end rot under conditions in which about 33% of fruit from control plants developed this disease. Blossom end rot is a physiological disease attributable to nutrient stress that causes the bottom (blossom) end of the fruit to senesce and rot.  FIGS. 84A and 84B  are photographs showing a control fruit exhibiting blossom end rot and a transgenic fruit that is free of blossom end rot. 
     The results indicate that reducing the expression of DHS prevents the onset of tissue and cell death arising from physiological disease. 
     Example 16 
     Expression of  Arabidopsis thaliana  Translation Initiation Factor 5A (AteIF-5A) Isoforms in Wild Type Columbia—Plant Material 
     Seeds of  Arabidopsis thaliana , ecotype Columbia, were grown in Promix BX soil (Premier Brands, Brampton, ON, Canada) in 6-inch pots. Freshly seeded pots were maintained at 4° C. for 2 days and then transferred to a growth chamber operating at 22° C. with 16-h light/8-h dark cycles. Lighting at 150 μmol radiation m −2 s −1  was provided by cool-white fluorescent bulbs. Whole rosettes were collected one week intervals at 2 weeks to 7 weeks of age, cauline leaves were collected at 5 weeks, stem, siliques, buds, and flowers were collected at 6 weeks and imbibed seeds (24 hours in water) were also collected, flash frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at −80° C. 
     Infection of  Arabidopsis thaliana  Plants with  Pseudomonas syringae    
     Seeds of  Arabidopsis thaliana  ecotype Columbia were sown onto Promix BX soil (Premier Brands, Brampton, ON, Canada) in flats containing 64 growth cells. The seeded flats were maintained at 4° C. for 2 days and transferred to a growth chamber with photoperiod of 9-h light/15-h dark. All plants were treated at 4 weeks of age, though physiologically due to the shortened photoperiod these appear to be slower in development. 
     Rosette leaves of 4-week-old plants were infected with avirulent (avr) and virulent (vir) strains  Pseudomonas syringae  pv. Tomato DC 3000 obtained from Dr. Robin Cameron (university of Toronto, Toronto, Canada). The abaxial surface of the rosette leaves of each plant was inoculated using 1 ml syringe without a needle. Plants were treated using one of four treatments: no inoculation, mock-inoculation with 10 mM MgCl 2 , inoculation with avr  P. syringae  strain (10 6  cfu/ml 10 mM MgCl 2 ) or inoculation with vir  P. syringae  strain (10 6  cfu/ml 10 mM MgCl 2 ). Two bacterial counts were made, one immediately after inoculation and the second 3 days later, to ensure that a sufficient amount of bacteria was infiltrated to induce systemic acquired resistance in the avr treatment. The inoculated leaves were harvested at predetermined time points for subsequent analysis. 
     Plants with reduced DHS or wounding-induced eIF-5A expression were developed using antisense T-DNA insertions for either gene. These plant lines have shown marked resistance to  Pseudomonas syringae  pv Tomato DC 300, with transgenic lines exhibiting up to a 99% decrease in bacterial load, relative to the wild type plants. See  FIGS. 43 and 44 . Data using crop plants have also indicated enhanced pathogen resistance. 
     Wounding of  Arabidopsis thaliana  Plants with Hemostat 
     4-week-old plants grown under normal lighting conditions were wounded by crushing with hemostat along the midvein (approximately 10% of the leaf surface) according to Stotz et al (2000). Tissue was harvested at 0 minutes, 1 hour and 9 hours and immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at −80° C. for further analysis. 
     RNA Isolation and Northern Blotting 
     Total RNA for Northern blot analysis was isolated from  Arabidopsis thaliana  rosette leaves according to Davis et al. (1986). The RNA was fractionated on a 1% agarose gel and transferred to nylon membranes. (Davis et. al., 1986). Immobilized RNA was hybridized overnight at 42° C. with radiolabeled 3′UTR portions of senescence-induced AteIF-5A, wounding-induced AteIF-5A or growth AteIF-5A. The 3′UTRs were labeled with [α- 32 P]-dCTP using a random primer kit (Boehringer Mannheim). The hybridized membranes were washed twice in 2×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at 42° C. for 15 minutes and twice in 1×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at 42° C. for 30 minutes. Hybridization was visualized by autoradiography after an overnight exposure at −80° C. 
     Antibody Production and Purification 
     Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF-5A) isoforms of  Arabidopsis thaliana  (At) are highly homologous at the amino acid level, especially at the N-terminal region and the central region of the proteins ( FIG. 1 ). In order to obtain antibodies that will be isoform specific, peptides were designed against regions in the isoforms of AteIF-5A that appeared to be unique to each other. An additional cysteine residue was added to each peptide at the N-terminus for conjugation with KLH. The sequences used were: CNDDTLLQQIKS (SEQ ID NO: 35) for senescence-induced AteIF-5A, CTDDGLTAQMRL (SEQ ID NO: 36) for wounding-induced AteIF5A, and CTDEALLTQLKN (SEQ ID NO: 37) for growth AteIF-5A. When these sequences were submitted to protein BLAST (short nearly exact sequences; limited by  Arabidopsis thaliana ; expected number 20000; word size 2; Matrix PAM90; Gap cost 91) the significant sequences that found in the database were only the matched AteIF-5A and no other. The peptides were synthesized at the University of Western Ontario Peptide Synthesis facility. The carrier protein, Keyhole Limpet Hemocyanin (Sigma), was conjugated to the N-terminal cysteine of the peptide using m-maleimidobenzoyl-N-hydroxysuccinimide ester according to Drenckhahn et al. (1993) and Collawn and Patterson (1999). The rabbits were injected four times at two-week intervals with the linked peptide. Two weeks after the final injection blood is collected by exsanguination of the rabbits and clotting of the collected blood in order to amass the antisera. 
     Protein Fractionation and Western Blotting 
     Tissues list above were homogenized (˜0.5 g/ml) in buffer (50 mM EPPS, pH 7.4, 0.25M sorbitol, 10 mM EDTA, 2 mM EGTA, 1 mM DTT, 10 mM amino-n-caproic acid, Protease Inhibitor Cocktail for Plant tissues (Sigma)) in an eppendorf tube with a small pestle, or in a large mortar and pestle. The homogenates were centrifuged briefly in the microcentrifuge at maximum speed and the pellet was discarded. The total protein was quantified according to Ghosh et al. (1988). SDS-PAGE was performed on Mini protein Dual Slab cells (BioRad, Mississauga, Ontario), and the gels (12% polyacrlyamide) were stained with Coomassie brilliant blue R250 (Fairbanks et. al. 1971) or transferred to polyvinyldiene difluoride (PVDF) membranes using the semi-dry transfer method (semi-dry transfer cell, Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). The blots were blocked for 30 s in 1 mg/ml polyvinyl alcohol (Miranda et. al., 1993) and for 1 hour in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) containing 0.1% (v/v) Tween 20 and 5% (w/v) powdered milk. Primary antibody (from bleeds after second injection) was diluted 1:50 in PBS containing 0.1% (v/v) Tween 20 and 1% (w/v) powdered milk. Antigen was visualized using secondary antibody made in goat against rabbit antibody coupled to alkaline phosphatase (Bioshop, Burlington, Ontario) and the phosphatase substrates, NBT and BCIP (BioRad, Mississauga, ON). 
     Example 17 
     Production of Transformed  Arabidopsis thaliana  Plants Over Expressing the Three eIF-5A Isoforms 
     Primer Design 
     Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF-5A) isoforms of  Arabidopsis thaliana  (At) are highly homologous in the coding region ( FIG. 2 ). To avoid problems with amplification of the correct genes, primers for senescence-induced AteIF-5A, wounding-induced eIF-5A and growth eIF-5A were designed from the approximate beginning of the 5′UTR and at the end of the 3′UTR as shown in  FIGS. 3 ,  4  and  5  respectively. The 5′UTR and 3′UTR were estimated based on EST information and other sequence information in the GenBank database. The appropriate restriction sites were added to the ends of the primers for ligation in the sense orientation in the pKYLX71 binary vector ( FIG. 6 ). For senescence-induced AteIF-5A the upstream primer is 5′ AAGCTT GATCGTGGTCAACTTCCTCTGTTACC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 38) and the downstream primer is 5′ GAGCT CAGAAGAAGTATAAAAACCATC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 39). For wounding-induced AteIF-5A the upstream primer is 5′ CTC GAGTGCTCACTTCTCTCTCTTAGG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 40) and the downstream primer is 5′ GAGCTCA AGAATAACATCTCATAAGAAAC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 41). The upstream primer for growth AteIF-5A is 5′ CTC GAGCTAAACTCCATTCGCTGACTTCGC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 42) and the downstream primer is 5′ GAGC TCTAGTAAATATAAGAGTGTCTTGC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 43). The restriction sites that were added into the primers were HindIII and SacI for senescence-induced AteIF-5A, XhoI and SacI for wounding-induced AteIF-5A, and XhoI and SacI for growth AteIF-5A as indicated by underlining in the primers listed above. 
     Isolation of Genomic DNA from  Arabidopsis thaliana    
     Genomic DNA was isolated from 3-week-old rosette leaf. The tissue was homogenized in extraction buffer (200 mM Tris pH 7.5, 250 mM NaCl, 25 mM EDTA, 0.5% SDS) and the resulting homogenate was vortexed for 15 seconds. The remaining debris was removed by centrifugation in a microcentrifuge at maximum speed for 1 minute. The supernatant was collected and mixed in a 1:1 ratio with isopropanol, vortexed and left at room temperature for 2 minutes. A pellet was collected by centrifugation in a microcentrifuge at maximum speed for 5 minutes, washed with 70% ethanol and vacuum dried for 2 minutes. The dried pellet was resuspended in water and treated with 1:1 volume of chloroform and vortexed. After centrifugation in a microcentrifuge at maximum speed for 2 minutes the top layer was collected and treated with 20 μl salt (3M sodium acetate) and 2 volumes of ethanol for precipitation at −20° C. for 30 minutes. The purified genomic DNA was then centrifuged at maximum speed for 30 minutes in a microcentrifuge, dried and resuspended in water for PCR. 
     PCR from Genomic DNA 
     PCR was performed with the primers described above. The PCR reaction mixture contained 1×Tsg or Taq polymerase reaction buffer, 1 U of Tsg or Taq polymerase, 0.2 mM dNTP, 2 mM MgCl 2 , and 15 pmols of each specific primer accordingly. The reaction began with a hot start at 95° C. for 10 minutes and first cycle consisted of 1 minute denaturing temperature of 95° C., 2 minutes annealing temperature of 55° C., and a 2 minute extension temperature of 72° C. The following 29 cycles proceeded a touchdown program where the annealing temperature was decreased by 0.5° C. per cycle, and the final cycle had an annealing temperature of 40° C. The final extension of 72° C. was held for 10 minutes. The PCR products were separated by 1% agarose gel electrophoresis, cut out and retrieved by Millipore Ultrafree-DA for DNA Extraction from Agarose spin columns (Millipore Corporation, Bedford, Mass.) according to directions. 
     Ligation into pGEM®-T Easy 
     Purified PCR products were ligated into pGEM®-T Easy Vector ( FIG. 7 ) according to directions provided by Promega. Briefly, PCR products were mixed in a 3:1 ratio with pGEM T-Easy Vector, 3 Weiss Units T4 DNA ligase in Rapid Ligation Buffer (30 mM Tris-HCl, 10 mM MgCl 2 , 10 mM DTT, 1 mM ATP, and 5% polyethylene glycol (MW8000, ACS Grade) pH 7.8) provided in the Promega pGEM®-T Easy Vector System (Promega Corporation, Madison Wis.). The ligation reaction was incubated overnight at 15° C. and transformed into competent  E. coli  DH5-α cell suspension (made competent using RbCl/CaCl; Kushner, 1978). The transformation mixture was first incubated on ice for 30 minutes, heat shocked for 90 seconds at 42° C., and allowed to recover at 37° C. for 1 hour after the addition of 1 ml 2×YT broth. The transformed cells were pelleted, resuspended in a small volume of 2×YT broth and plated on agar plates containing 50 μg/ml ampicillin for selection. Only transformants are able to grow on the ampicillin-containing plates as the pGEM®-T Easy Vector provides ampicillin resistance to the cells. Transformants were selected and screened for the PCR product insert ligated into the pGEM®-T Easy Vector. 
     Screening for PCR Product Inserts in pGEM®-T Easy Vector Through Restriction Enzyme Digestions 
     Colonies that grew on selection media were grown in 5 ml 2×YT broth containing 50 μg/ml ampicillin overnight at 37° C. The recombinant plasmids from the selected colonies were purified using Wizard Prep DNA Purification Kit (Promega). The plasmid DNA was digested with EcoRI for 1 hour at 37° C. and visualized on a 1% agarose gel for verification that the AteIF-5As insert sizes were present. The positive plasmids were then sequenced by the Core Molecular Biology Facility (University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON) for confirmation that the sequence is suitable for over expression in planta. 
     Ligation into pKYLX71 
     The constructs of pGEM:wounding-induced AteIF-5A, and pGEM:growth AteIF-5A were double digested with XhoI and SacI and sub-cloned into the binary vector, pKYLX71 that had also been digested with XhoI and SacI. These enzyme digestions ensured that wounding-induced AteIF-5A and growth AteIF-5A would be inserted in the sense orientation in the binary vector pKYLX71 under the control of the cauliflower mosaic virus double 35S promoter. The ligation reactions used 1 μg of binary vector and 3 μg of either wounding-induced AteIF-5A or growth AteIF-5A. Ligation took place in ligation buffer (30 mM Tris-HCl, 10 mM MgCl 2 , 10 mM DTT, 1 mM ATP, and 5% polyethylene glycol (MW8000, ACS Grade) pH 7.8) with 3 Weiss units of T4 DNA Ligase (Fermentas). The ligation reaction was incubated overnight at 15° C. and transformed into competent  E. coli  DH5-α cell suspension (made competent using RbCl/CaCl; Kushner, 1978). The transformation mixture was first incubated on ice for 30 minutes; heat shocked for 90 seconds at 42° C. and allowed to recover at 37° C. for 1 hour after the addition of 1 ml 2×YT broth. The transformed cells were pelleted, resuspended in a small volume of 2×YT broth and plated on agar plates containing 50 μg/ml tetracycline for selection. Only transformants are able to grow on the tetracycline-containing plates as the binary vector pKYLX71 provides tetracycline resistance to bacterial cells. Transformants were selected and screened for wounding-induced AteIF-5A or growth AteIF5A insert by PCR and double digestion with XhoI and SacI. Following PCR amplification (same as was done with genomic DNA explained above) and digestion, the products were separated using 1% agarose electrophoresis for conformation of the correct sized insert. 
       Agrobacterium  Electroporation and Selection 
     The constructs pKYLX71:wounding-induced AteIF-5A and pKYLX71:growth AteIF-5A was electroporated into competent  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  GV3010. The preparation of competent  Agrobacterium  cells a single colony was inoculated in 5 ml of 2×YT broth containing 50 μg/ml of rifampicin, and 50 μg/ml gentamycin. This grew overnight at 28° C. in a Form a Scientific Orbital Shaker (Fisher Scientific) at 280 rpm and was used to inoculate 30 ml cultures of 2×YT also with 50 μg/ml of rifampicin, and 50 μg/ml gentamycin at various dilutions (1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000). The newly inoculated cultures grew until OD 600  was between 0.5 and 0.8 before being cooled and centrifuged down in an SS-34 rotor (Sorvall) at 2000 g for 15 minutes. The pellets were resuspended in 50 ml of ice-cold water and centrifuged at 2000 g for 15 minutes. This washing procedure was repeated for a total of four times to remove the salts and the dead cells from the culture. The final pellet was resuspended in 40 ml ice cold 10% (v/v) glycerol and centrifuged at 2000 g for 15 minutes and repeated once. The pellet was then resuspended in 100 μl ice-cold 10% glycerol and mixed well. Cells were split up into aliquots of 100 μl and stored on ice. 
     For electroporation of the DNA constructs into the competent  Agrobacterium  cells the 100 μl aliquots were each mixed well with 500 ng of DNA construct. The bacteria:vector mixture was then transferred to a pre-cooled electroporation cuvette and placed in the Gene Pulser (Biorad) adjusted to the following settings: 2.5 kV, 25 μF, and 200Ω. After electroporation 1 ml 2×YT broth was added and the whole suspension was transferred to a culture tube. The electroporated cultures were incubated at 28° C., 280 rpm, for 3 hours to allow them to recover and then 2 ml 2×YT both was added as well as 50 μg/ml of rifampicin, and 50 μg/ml gentamycin. After 2 days of growing in culture the electroporated cells were plated on tetracycline, gentamycin and rifampicin (all at 50 μg/ml) and colonies grew after an addition 2 days. The resulting colonies were screened for pKYLX71:wounding-induced AteIF-5A or pKYLX71:growth AteIF-5A by PCR and double digestion with SacI and XhoI, and visualized by separation on a 1% agarose gel. 
     Plant Transformation 
     A positive colony of  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  GV3010 containing either pKYLX71:wounding-induced AteIF-5A or pKYLX71:growth AteIF-5A were used for the transformation of wild type  Arabidopsis thaliana  ecotype Columbia. In preparation of the bacterial slurry used for plant transformation a single colony positive for pKYLX71:wounding-induced AteIF-5A or pKYLX71:growth AteIF-5A construct was inoculated in 5 ml of 2×YT broth containing 50 μg/ml of tetracycline, 50 μg/ml of rifampicin, and 50 μg/ml gentamycin. This grew for 2 days at 28° C. in a Form a Scientific Orbital Shaker (Fisher Scientific) at 280 rpm and was used to inoculate 35 ml (total) 2×YT also with 50 μg/ml of rifampicin, and 50 μg/ml gentamycin. The 35 ml culture was grown overnight at 28° C., 280 rpm, and used to inoculate 535 ml (total) 2×YT with 50 μg/ml of rifampicin, and 50 μg/ml gentamycin. Again the culture was grown overnight at 28° C., 280 rpm, to an OD 600  of about 2.0. 
     The cultures were transferred to two 250 ml tubes before centrifugation for 15 minutes at 1945 g at 4° C. in a GSA rotor (Sorvall). The pellets were resuspended in 500 ml of infiltration media (1.1 g MS salts, 25 g sucrose, 0.25 g MES, pH5.7 with KOH, 100 ng/ml benzylaminopurine and 50 μl Vac-In-Stuff (Silwet L-77; Lehle Seeds)) and placed in a large plastic dish in a vacuum desiccator with 4 large rubber stoppers. Five pots containing 8 plants each at the right stage of development were used sequentially for infiltration. Each pot was first inverted over a trash can to remove any loose soil, then was placed (still inverted) into plastic container in the glass desiccator so that the 4 large rubber stoppers acted as stand for the inverted pot thus allowing the bolts to be dipped into the  Agrobacterium  slurry, but not the rosettes. The plants were then subjected to a vacuum (400 mm Hg) in this inverted state for 10 minutes. The vacuum infiltrated plants were then allowed to recover and grown as usual in the growth chamber conditions explained in the plant material section. After several weeks when the siliques were dry and seed matured, the seeds were collected with each pot pooled together. 
     Selecting Plant Transformants and Segregation Analysis 
     To identify primary transformants, seeds from the vacuum-infiltrated plants were surface sterilized in a solution of 1% (v/v) sodium hypochlorite and 0.1% (v/v) Tween 80 for 20 minutes on a rotator (Barnstead/Thermolyne), rinsed four times with sterile water, and resuspended in a sterile 0.8% agar. The resuspended seeds were then planted onto sterile, half-strength Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium (2.2 g/L) supplemented with 1% (w/v) sucrose, 0.5 g/L 2-[N-Morpholino]ethanesulfonic acid (MES), 0.7% (w/v) bacteriological agar and 40 to 50 μg/ml kanamycin (Murashige and Shoog, 1962). Only transformants are able to grow on the kanamycin-containing plates since the binary vector provides the kanamycin resistance gene to the transformant seedlings ( FIG. 6 ). Seedlings that do not harbour the binary vector become yellow and die, as there is no kanamycin resistance gene. Wild-type seedlings were used as controls and plated onto MS medium without kanamycin added to the medium, as well seeds from a homozygous line containing empty pKYLX71 vectors were seeded as controls on kanamycin containing plates. The empty vector control is useful in demonstrating the effect kanamycin has on growth of the seedlings as well as the effect of random integration of the binary vector into the genome of  Arabidopsis thaliana . A small amount of wild type seed was plated onto a small area of each plate containing MS medium and 40 to 50 μg/ml kanamycin. This was done in order to make sure the medium was selective enough for the transformants and to test the strength of the kanamycin. 
     The seeded plates were kept at 4° C. for 3 days to synchronize the germination. After 3 days the plates were transferred to growth chambers where they grew for an additional 7 days under 16-h light/8-h dark cycles at 20±2° C. Lighting was maintained at 150 μmol radiation m −2 s −1  and was provided by cool-white fluorescent bulbs. The efficiency for transformation of  Arabidopsis thaliana  plants with the pKYLX71:wounding-induced AteIF-5A and pKYLX71:growth AteIF-5A vectors was determined. 
     After a total of 10 days since seeding, the 14 transformants or the 16 transformants for Sense wounding-induced AteIF-5A and Sense growth AteIF-5A respectively were transplanted to Promix BX soil (Premier Brands, Brampton, ON, Canada) in flats containing 32 cells. These transplanted T1 generation plants were then transferred into another growth chamber operating at 22° C. with 16-h light/8-h dark cycles. Lighting at 150 μmol radiation m −2 s −1  was provided by cool-white fluorescent bulbs. The T1 generation plants grew to maturity and produced T2 generation seeds. These were harvested and stored at −20° C. until further screening was done. The T1 generation was named 1, 2, 3, etc. All 16 lines of Sense growth AteIF-5A plants survived and produced seeds, but only 9 out of 14 transformants of the Sense wounding-induced AteIF-5A plants survived and produced seeds. 
     The selection of T2 generation transformants was conducted in the same way as the T1 generation transformants. Line 12 of the Sense growth AteIF-5A plants produced no transformants on the selectable media and was not included in any further work. Lines 1 through to 16 (minus line 12) of the Sense growth AteIF-5A plants each had 8 sublines carried through. These were named A through H so that for example in the T1 line 1, the T2 generation plants were named 1A, 1B, 1C, etc. Lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, and 11 of the Sense wounding-induced AteIF-5A plants each had 8 sublines (A-H) carried through. Line 12 T1 plants had only produced about 30 T2 seeds and only 1 subline in the T2 generation will be carried through. T2 plants of Sense wounding-induced AteIF-5A are still growing and being characterized. The T2 plants for the Sense growth AteIF-5A have matured and produced seeds, which were harvested and stored at −20° C. until further analysis. 
     The selection of the T3 generation transformants of Sense growth AteIF-5A was conducted in the same manner as the T2. Eight lines were chosen based on phenotype analysis as well as the degree of over expression of Sense growth AteIF-5A. The levels of expression were broken down into four categories: high-level expression, medium-level expression, low-level expression, and no expression (due to co-suppression). Two lines were chosen for each of the levels of expression and 12 plants from each line were transplanted. The corresponding lines for these four levels of expression are: 1A, 2D, 4D, 15A, 8D, 9H, 11C and 16C. The T3 generation for Sense growth AteIF-5A plants are still growing and being characterized. 
     Example 18 
     Phenotype Analysis of Sense Wounding-Induced AteIF5A and Sense Growth AteIF5A: Photographic Record 
     Morphological phenotypes of the Sense wounding-induced AteIF-5A and Sense growth AteIF-5A lines were recorded photographically during segregation, as were the phenotypes of the corresponding control wild type plants ( Arabidopsis thaliana  ecotype Columbia) and plants transformed with an empty binary vector pKYLX71. 
     Seed Measurements 
     T3 seeds collected from T2 plants of Sense growth AteIF-5A were measured for total seed yield (both weight and volume), seed size (length and width), and calculated individual weight and volume of produced seed. Total seed yield by weight was measured on a Sartorius analytical digitized scale, and the volume was determined by pouring and packing down the total seed yielded by each plant into a glass 1 ml syringe that was graduated every 100 μl. To determine the seed size by length, width and calculated volume, the seeds were placed on a slide containing a micrometer and viewed on an Olympus BX51 Microscope. Photographs of the seeds on the micrometer were taken with a Spot Insight Color Camera (Diagnostic Instruments Inc.) attached to a Compaq Evo D500 (Compaq Company Corporation; Intel® Pentium 4 CPU 1.7 GHz, 262 MG RAM, running Windows 2000). Using Image-Pro Express Version 4.0 for Windows. Measurements of 10 seeds in each subline were made using the micrometer in the image for size calibration. The measurements were imported into Microsoft Excel, and calculations such as standard error and volume were performed. 
     Example 19 
     Biochemical Analysis of Sense Wounding-Induced AteIF5A and Sense Growth AteIF5A-Protein Fractionation and Western Blotting 
     The first cauline leaf from each subline of Sense growth AteIF-5A T2 plants were collected and proteins extracted as described above. Total protein from lines 1A, 2A, up to 16A were fractionated by 12% SDS-PAGE and transferred to a PVDF membrane. The blot was probed with growth αAteIF-5A at a 1:50 dilution. Control total protein was extracted from the first cauline leaf from wild type and empty binary vector control plants. 
     Example 20 
     Expression of  Arabidopsis thaliana  Translation Initiation Factor 5A (AteIF-5A) Isoforms in Wild Type Columbia 
     Several tissues were collected at different developmental stages and the extracted proteins from these tissues were used for Western blotting. The Western blot in  FIG. 8  demonstrates that senescence-induced AteIF-5A is not present in the 2 week old rosette leaves, but is upregulated in the 3 week old rosette leaves and increases in abundance until 5 weeks and declines in abundance, but is still present at 7 weeks. No senescence AteIF-5A was detected in the PEG treated plants or control, but was present in the flower lane (which included senescent flowers) and in the imbibed seed lane reflecting senescence of cotyledonary tissues. When the blot was probed with the wounding-induced αATeIF-5A antibody, faint bands appeared in the siliques, imbibed seed and stem lanes. The band seen in the siliques and stem lanes may be due to the wounding that occurred with collection of the tissue. Since it is difficult to collect the siliques and stem, they were not flash frozen immediately allowing for some up-regulation of the wounding-induced isoform of AteIF-5A. The only band that appeared when the blot was probed with growth αAT-eIF5A was imbibed seeds, keeping with the notion that this is the isoform involved in cell division. 
     Plants that were treated with either no treatment, mock inoculation with MgCl 2 , avr  P. syringae  or with vir  P. syringae  were collected at several time points to analyze the expression of the AteIF-5As during pathogen ingress. The avr strain is recognizable by the plant and induces the hypersensitive response that leads to cell death or necrosis in the region of infection, thus disallowing the pathogen to cause disease. Furthermore the localized response eventually becomes a systemic response in order to protect the plant from further ingress. This is known as Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR), which involves the expression of a suite of genes known as the Pathogenesis Response (PR) genes. On the other hand the vir strain will not be recognized by the plant, and will not induce a hypersensitive response and will lead to disease. The diseased state of  Arabidopsis thaliana  includes yellowing leaves and cell death after a few days post infection. After 72 hours post treatment control plants, mock treated plants, avr treated plants and vir treated plants were collected for western blotting with the three αAteIF-5A antibodies ( FIG. 9 ). At this point both SAR and disease were visible in the avr treated and the vir treated plants respectively. When probed with the senescence-induced αAteIF-5A antibody, a band that was relatively the same in all the samples was observed. Since all of the plants were 4 weeks old this came with no surprise, since the senescence isoform was seen starting at 3 weeks in  FIG. 8 . When the blot was then probed with the wounding-induced αAteIF-5A antibody, a faint band was detectable in the untreated, mock treated and avr treated plants where there was a strong band detected in the vir treated plants. This upregulation of the wounding isoform may be due to cell death caused by disease (also a type of cellular wounding). The blot probed with growth αAteIF-5A did not show any bands and thus was not included in the figure. As the senescence-induced AteIF-5A did not change in expression during these treatments demonstrates its specificity for natural senescence. The increase in wounding-induced AteIF-5A expression also demonstrates its specificity for death due to wounding. To further investigate this possibility, an experiment was performed with wounding leaves of  Arabidopsis thaliana.    
     The wounding experiment showed similar results as the pathogenesis experiment ( FIG. 10 ). Northern blots were used to show the transcriptional change in of senescence-induced AteIF-5A, wounding-induced AteIF-5A and growth AteIF-5A. The probes were specific to each of the AteIF-5As and consisted of the 3′ UTR of each. It was observed that like the pathogenesis experiment senescence-induced AteIF-5A expression did not change, as these were 4-week-old plants and samples were only taken over a 9-hour interval. This again is consistent with the fact that senescence-induced AteIF-5A is natural senescence specific isoform. The expression of wounding-induced AteIF-5A however did increase after 9 hours. There is probably some translational control occurring, as the transcript appears fairly constitutive ( FIG. 10 ), but the protein does not appear as highly expressed when not induced ( FIG. 9 ). The transcript for growth AteIF-5A was barely detectable in all the samples, and shows a decline in expression post wounding. 
     Example 21 
     Production of Transformed  Arabidopsis thaliana  Plants Over Expressing the Three eIF-5A Isoforms 
     The AteIF-5As were isolated from genomic DNA by PCR ( FIG. 11 ). The products were ligated in pGEM ( FIG. 12 ) and the sequence was verified for suitability for over-expression in planta. Wounding-induced AteIF-5A and growth AteIF-5A were double digested out of pGEM with XhoI and SacI and ligated in the sense orientation behind the cauliflower mosaic virus 35 S 2  promoter in pKYLX71. Positive ligation was confirmed by digestion and PCR ( FIG. 13 ). The pKYLX71:senescence-induced AteIF-5A and the pKYLX71: growth AteIF-5A were then electroporated into  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  GV3010 for transformation via vacuum infiltration of  Arabidopsis thaliana  wild type of the ecotype Columbia. After plant transformation the seeds were collected and transformants selected for on Kanamycin containing MS plates. 
       Arabidopsis Thaliana  Plants Over Expressing Wounding-Induced AteIF-5A (Sense Wounding-Induced AteIF-5A) 
     T1 generation plants were seeded on MS plates containing 50 μg/ml Kanamycin and were stored at 4° C. for 3 days and in the growth chamber for 7 days ( FIG. 14 ). There were 14 transformants that were transplanted to soil. A common phenotype in these 14 T1 generation plants was stunted growth. Lines 1, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 were severely stunted in their growth and 6, 8, 10, 13 and 14 did not produce any seed. Lines 2 and 3 were moderately stunted whereas lines 5, 7 and 9 grew similarly to wild type plants ( FIG. 15  and  FIG. 16 ). Some other phenotypes observed in the T1 generation of Sense wounding-induced AteIF-5A plants included yellow leaves, purple cotyledons, curled up leaves and differences in flower shape. It is interesting to note that the appearance in the stunted growth was not observed until the plants were transplanted to soil. A possible explanation of this would be that during transplant the roots are damaged slightly (a consequence of transplanting that is unavoidable) and were unable to recover. In fact a preliminary experiment where seeds were soaked in a Kanamycin solution and seeded to soil directly no stunted plants were observed (whereas previously 70% of the plants had some degree of stunting), as no root damage would be invoked without transplantation. 
     Lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11 and 12 produced T2 seeds and were carried through ( FIG. 17 ). Each T2 line has sublines A-H, except for 12, which only grew one transformant, and are currently being analyzed. 
       Arabidopsis Thaliana  Plants Over Expressing Growth AteIF-5A (Sense Growth AteIF-5A) 
     The T1 generation seeds of Sense growth AteIF-5A were grown on selective media and 16 transformants grew ( FIG. 18 ). The transformants were photographed over their lifetime. The phenotypes varied from similar to wild type (Lines 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16) to moderately stunted and yellow (Lines 2, 4 and 9;  FIG. 19 ). All the lines were carried through to T2 and each line had 8 sublines labeled A-H. Line 12 did not produce any transformants in T2 and was deemed to be wild type. The T2 generation plants had much more exaggerated phenotypes than that of T1 generation plants. The lines that were carried to T3 will be discussed in detail. 
     The Sense growth AteIF-5A T2 generation lines were characterized in groups according to the level of expression of the growth AteIF-5A transgene. A Western blot was performed on protein extracted from cauline leaves from each line ( FIG. 20 ). Since most of the sublines A-H demonstrated similar phenotypes within a line, the Western blot was only done with subline A of each line to get a general overview of level of expression of growth AteIF-5A. Protein from the cauline leaves of wild type plants and plants containing the empty binary vector were used as controls on the gels. The level of expression observed in these sublines can be categorized as high (Lines 1, 2, 3, 10, 13), medium (Lines 4, 5, 6, 15), low (Lines 7, 8, 9, 14) or none (Lines 11, 16, wild type and binary control). The blots were also probed with antibodies against senescence-induced AteIF-5A and wounding-induced AteIF-5A. These westerns indicated that the increase in expression in the Sense growth AteIF-5A lines is due to growth AteIF-5A and not a general upregulation of other AteIF-5A isoforms, as no significant amount of either isoform was detected. This also demonstrated that the specificity of the isoform specific antibodies is acceptable. 
     The Sense growth AteIF-5A lines be carried through to the T3 generation were chosen based on phenotype as well as the level of expression of growth AteIF-5A (See Table 1 for a summary of phenotypes within each line). Two lines from each category of level of expression were chosen. The lines that will be carried through are 1A, 2D, 4D, 15A, 8D, 9H, 11C, and 16C. 
     Line 1 according to the western blot in  FIG. 20 , has a high level of growth AteIF-5A expression. These plants had large, dark green rosettes with leaves that were quite round in comparison to wild type plants ( FIG. 21 ). The rosettes of line 1 also had a whorled phenotype, where the leaves all curl in the same direction. These Sense growth AteIF-5A plants bolted slightly later than wild type. Line 2 also demonstrated high level of growth AteIF-5A expression, but differed from line 1 in that these plants were small and yellowed ( FIG. 22 ). Line 2 plants also bolted later than the wild type and binary control plants, as well produced smaller bolts (about half the size) and fewer siliques. 
     Of the medium level of expression lines, line 4 appeared similar to wild type in leaf/rosette size and in bolt size, though appeared to bolt just a few days before the wild type and binary control plants. The second line with a medium level of expression of growth AteIF-5A is line 15. These plants are, like line 4, very similar to wild type, but the area that the rosette occupied was larger than the controls ( FIGS. 23 and 24 ). The leaves of the rosette also appeared to be rounder at the tips than the controls. The bolts however did not appear to have any distinctive phenotype. 
     The low expressing Sense growth AteIF-5A lines that will be carried through to T3 are from lines 8 and 9. Line 8 had very large leaves and large rosettes compared to the control plants ( FIG. 25 ). The leaves also appeared to be wider and rounder than the control plants. The time of bolting, bolt size and number seemed to be consistent with the controls. The Sense growth AteIF-5A line 9 had similar leaf shape as in line 8, but was far more yellow and smaller ( FIG. 26 ). As in line 2 (one of the high expressing lines), these plants show stunted growth, shorter bolts, but unlike line 2, line 9 bolted about the same time as the control plants. 
     The two lines 11 and 16 of the Sense growth AteIF-5A plants according to the western blot ( FIG. 20 ) have no upregulated expression of growth AteIF-5A. This may be due to cosuppression of the transgene as well as the endogenous gene. Though these plants do look similar to the controls ( FIG. 27  and  FIG. 28 ), it is believed that the transgene is incorporated into the genome of lines 11 and 16 for several reasons. Firstly, they do have Kanamycin resistance as demonstrated by the selectivity on the Kanamycin containing MS plates. Secondly, the rosette size, leaf size, and bolt size of line 16 ( FIG. 28 ) are at least 50% larger than the controls. But the strongest evidence is in the size and composition of the T3 seeds that they produced. 
     The T3 seeds were measured from all lines of T2 Sense growth AteIF-5A plants. Photographs were taken of each line (the largest and the smallest highlighted in  FIG. 29 ), and measurements were made in silico with a micrometer in the photographs used for calibration. For each line and for the controls, ten of the largest seeds in the field of view were measured and used for calculations. It was found that the high expression line 2 had seeds that were up to 3 times as large as the wild type and binary controls. Whereas the lines that demonstrated the lowest expression (Lines 11 and 16) had some of the smallest seeds that were only about 88% the size of wild type or binary control seeds. The average seed size for each line was expressed as nm 3  (FIG.  30 ) and was calculated using an equation for the volume of an ellipsoid as seeds from  Arabidopsis thaliana  are approximately ellipsoid. The measured size of the control seeds fell into published guidelines as determined by Boyes et al (2001). From the measured size of individual seeds and the total seed yield (both weight and volume), the average individual seed weight was calculated and plotted ( FIG. 31 ). It appeared that most of the lines that demonstrated a different size than that of the control seeds also had the same trend in individual seed weight. In fact when the seed weight was plotted against the seed size (volume) the relationship was mostly linear with an R 2 =0.7412. There were 5 lines that were outliers that had either an increased density (3 of them) or a decreased density (2 of them). One of the lines with the increased density is 8D and will be carried through T3 generation. The total seed yield from all the T2 generation plants were quite variable, with few trends. One notable line however is the medium expressing Sense growth AteIF-5A line 4D, which produced the most seeds (both weight and volume). In fact 4D produced 2.5 fold more than the control plants and will be carried through T3. 
     T3 seeds were plated on selection media as described previously. Lines 1A, 2D, 4D, 15A, 8D, 9H, 11C and 16C were transplanted to soil. Several other sublines of Sense growth AteIF-5A line 1 did not germinate, as well as line 2H, which had the largest seeds of all the sublines did not germinate. Plants from line 11 (one of the cosuppression lines) were not as healthy as typically found at this age. These seeds were also one of the smallest measured. It appears that these lines are still segregating, as there were still non-Kanamycin resistant plants as well as seeds that did not germinate from all the lines. This is probably a side effect of the transgene and not technique as the control seeds that were treated in the same manner, all germinated. 
     Example 22 
     Characterization of  Arabidopsis  Senescence-Induced eIF-5A 
     Methodology for Obtaining Full-Length  Arabidopsis  Senescence-Induced eIF-5A 
     Degenerate primers based on several plant eIF-5A genes, in combination with vector primers T3 &amp; T7 were used in order to PCR an eIF-5A gene from an  Arabidopsis  cDNA library. Specifically, the 5′ region of the eIF-5A gene was obtained from a PCR reaction utilizing both the T3 primer (located upstream of the F5A gene in the library vector) and one of the downstream (reverse-orientation) degenerate primers. Likewise, the 3′ region of the gene was obtained from a PCR reaction utilizing both the T7 primer (located downstream of the eIF-5A gene in the library vector) and one of the upstream (forward-orientation) degenerate primers. The full-length eIF-5A gene was derived from alignment analysis of the 5′ region and 3′ region of the gene. 
     There are 2-3 major products for each PCR reaction. These fragments were cloned to pBluescript plasmid and sequenced. The eIF-5A positive PCR fragments were identified based on the mapping analysis against the gene bank. There is only one upstream and downstream positive eIF-5A PCR fragments for  Arabidopsis.    
     The specific 5′- and 3′-end primers for the  Arabidopsis  eIF-5A gene were designed according to the 5′ and 3′ PCR fragment sequencing results. The full-length  Arabidopsis  eIF-5A gene was obtained from a PCR reaction utilizing their specific 5′- and 3′-end primers and the corresponding cDNA library as a template. The full-length gene was further confirmed by sequencing. In the end, we cloned one  Arabidopsis  eIF-5A isoform gene, which was termed senescence-induced eIF-5A. 
                        T3 and T7 Primers:                             T3: 5′-ATT AAC CCT CAC TAA AG-3′   (SEQ ID NO: 20)           T7: 5′-AAT ACG ACT CAC TAT AG-3′   (SEQ ID NO: 18)                             Degenerate Primers for Arabidopsis eIF5A:           Forward (upstream) primer:                             5′-AAA RRY CGM CCY TGC AAG GT-3′   (SEQ ID NO: 17)                                 Reverse (downstream) primer:                             5′-TCY TTN CCY TCM KCT AAH CC-3′   (SEQ ID NO: 19)                
Subcloning  Arabidopsis  Antisense Full-Length Senescence-Induced eIF-5A into pKYLX71 Vector (Containing the SAG12 Promoter)
 
     Specific (Homologous) Primers for  Arabidopsis  senescence-induced eIF-5A, antisense full-length construct: Forward Full-length senescence-induced eIF-5A primer (30-mer): 
     5′-CCGAGCTCCTGTTACCAAAAAATCTGTACC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 48) (note: underlined portion is the SacI recognition sequence, used for ligating the 5′-end of the PCR fragment into the SacI site in the Multiple Cloning Site (MCS) of pBluescript). Reverse full-length senescence-induced eIF-5A primer (36-mer): 5′-ACCTCGAGCGGCCGCAGAAGAAGTATAAAAACCATC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 49) (note: underlined portion is the NotI recognition sequence, used for ligation into the MCS of pBluescript). 
     The orientation of the SacI and NotI sites within the MCS of the pBluescript vector was such that the gene was subcloned in its antisense orientation (i.e. the NotI site is upstream of the SacI site). 
     Example 23 
     SAG 12 Promoter was Used to Express the Antisense Senescence-Induced  Arabidopsis  Full-Length eIF-5A) 
     Experimental evidence shows that transcription of a set of “senescence-associated genes” or SAGs increases during the onset of senescence (Lohman et al., 1994; Weaver et al., 1998). In fact, senescence appears to begin with the synthesis of new mRNAs and probably down-regulation of other mRNAs, indicating that selective synthesis of proteins is necessary for senescence (Nooden, 1988). That the leaf senescence program is accompanied by changes in gene expression was first demonstrated by Watanabe and Imaseki (1982) using in vitro translation followed by gel electrophoresis to detect changes occurring in translatable mRNA populations. This initial work and subsequent analysis of the in vitro translated proteins revealed the abundance of most mRNAs diminished significantly during the progression of senescence while other translatable mRNAs increased (Watanabe and Imaseki, 1982; Davies and Grierson, 1989; Becker and Apel, 1993; Buchanan-Wollaston, 1994; Smart et al., 1995). Differential screening of cDNA libraries made from mRNAs of senescent leaf tissues also demonstrated that the expression of many genes is down-regulated, whereas the expression of other genes is up-regulated during senescence. SAGs have been identified from a variety of plant species, including  Arabidopsis  (Hensel et al., 1993; Taylor et al., 1993; Lohman et al., 1994; Oh et al., 1996), asparagus (King et al., 1995), barley (Becker and Apel, 1993),  Brassica napus  (Buchanan-Wollaston, 1994), maize (Smart et al., 1995), radish (Azumi and Watanabe, 1991) and tomato (Davies and Grierson, 1989; Drake et al., 1996). 
     Senescence can be morphologically identified as a characteristically patterned leaf yellowing that begins at the edges of a leaf and reaches the veins last (Weaver et al., 1998). Visible senescence in  Arabidopsis thaliana  rosette leaves appears approximately 21 days after germination with dramatic upregulation of SAG 12 at the time (Noh an Amasino, 1999). SAG 12 is a gene with the closest specificity for natural senescence and is thus termed a senescence marker. With no detectable expression in young leaves, SAG 12 is induced in older leaves after they are 20% yellow but cannot be induced by treatment that does not induce yellowing of leaves (Weaver et al., 1998). Its high degree of specificity for natural senescence can be explained by the fact that the gene product of SAG 12 shows similarity to cysteine proteases and may be involved in protein turnover during senescence (Lohman et al., 1994; Weaver et al., 1998). 
     Description of Transgenic Plants 
     Transgenic  Arabidopsis  plants were generated expressing the full-length antisense senescence-induced eIF-5A transgene under the control of the SAG 12 (leaf senescence-specific) promoter, which is activated at the onset of natural leaf senescence, approximately 21 days after germination (Noh and Amasino, 1994), but not in the event of stress-induced senescence. At this point, the transgenic plants express phenotypes characteristic of suppressed full-length senescence-induced eIF-5A expression. Rosette leaves were harvested from 3 to 8-week-old transgenic  Arabidopsis  antisense full-length senescence-induced eIF-5A plants. 
     Methodology for the Production of Homozygous Transgenic Antisense Senescence-Induced eIF-5A  Arabidopsis thaliana  Plants Under Control of the SAG 12 Promoter
 
Inserting the SAG 12-Antisense-Full-Length Senescence-Induced eIF-5A Construct in pKYLX71
 
     First, the plasmid pKYLX71 was cut with EcoRI and HindIII to remove its double 35S promoter, and resultant sticky ends were filled in with Klenow enzyme to create blunt ends. pKYLX71 without the promoter was then ligated to re-circularize the plasmid. 
     Secondly, the  Arabidopsis  SAG 12 promoter was amplified from genomic DNA by PCR using primers containing SalI and XbaI, as described below. This promoter sequence was then inserted into the Multiple Cloning Site (MCS) of pBlueScript using the restriction enzymes SalI and XbaI followed by ligation with T4 DNA ligase. 
     The forward SAG 12 Primer was 5′-GGC CGTCGACGATATCTCTTTTTATATTCAAAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 50) (underlined portion is SalI recognition site, used for ligating the 5′-end of the PCR fragment into the SalI site in the Multiple Cloning Site (MCS) of pBluescript). The Reverse SAG 12 Primer was 5′-CGTCTAGACATTGTTTTAGGAAAGTTAAATGA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 51) (underlined portion is the XbaI recognition site, used for ligating the 5′-end of the PCR fragment into the SacI site in the Multiple Cloning Site (MCS) of pBluescript). 
     Thirdly, to create the pBlueScript-SAG 12:antisense-full length-senescence-induced eIF-5A construct, full length senescence-induced eIF-5A was amplified by PCR from the  Arabidopsis  cDNA library using primers with SacI and NotI restriction sites, as outlined below, and subcloned into the pBluescript-SAG 12 described in the previous paragraph. Note that the orientation of the SacI and NotI sites within the MCS of the pBluescript-SAG 12 vector was such that the gene was subcloned in its antisense orientation (i.e. the NotI site is upstream of the SacI site). 
     The forward full-length senescence-induced eIF-5A Primer was 5′-CCGAGCTCCTGTTACCAAAAAATCTGTACC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 48)(note: underlined portion is the SacI recognition sequence, used for ligating the 5′-end of the PCR fragment into the SacI site in the Multiple Cloning Site (MCS) of pBluescript-SAG 12 vector). The reverse Full-length senescence-induced eIF-5A Primer was 5′-ACCTCGAGCGGCCGCAGAAGAAGTATAAAAACCATC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 49) (note: underlined portion is the NotI recognition sequence, used for ligation into the Multiple Cloning Site (MCS) of pBluescript-SAG 12 vector). 
     Finally, the desired construct was created in the binary vector, pKYLX71, by digesting pKYLX71 was digested with SacI and XhoI, and also cutting out the SAG 12:full-length senescence-induced eIF-5A cassette from pBluescript with SalI and SacI. The XhoI and SalI sticky ends are partially complementary. Hence, these two sets of digested overhangs (specifically, SacI with SacI, and XhoI with SalI) were able to be ligated together with T4 DNA ligase, creating the final construct (SAG 12:antisense-senescence-induced eIF-5A in pKYLX71). 
     Transformation and T1 Seed Harvest 
     The pKYLX71-SAG 12:antisense-eIF-5A construct was proliferated in  E. coli  DHα cells, isolated and electroporated into a competent  Agrobacterium  strain. The bacteria were then used to infiltrate 4.5 week old wildtype  Arabidopsis  plants and the resulting infiltrated plants were designated as “T 0 ” plants, which were then grown to the end of their life-cycle. Seeds were harvested, collected and designated as T 1  seeds. 10 plates of T 1  seeds were plated and screened for kanamycin resistance (½ MS salt and 50 μg kanamycin/mL) with wildtype as a control; only those seeds containing pKYLX71-SAG 12-antisense-eIF-5A construct survive and grow on kanamycin (K50) media. 24 T 1  seedlings were chosen from these plates and placed in soil. The seeds harvested from T 1  transgenic plants were labeled as T 2  seeds. Each seedling yielded one plant line (#1=1 line containing 1 plant, #2=1 line containing 1 plant, etc.). 
     Screening and Identification of Phenotypes 
     Once kanamycin resistant T 1  seeds were identified, successive generations of T 2 , T 3  and T 4  plants were grown. By screening seeds on K50 media, it was possible to distinguish between those plants which inherited the genetic construct and were homozygous for the construct. A phenotypic expression of stunted growth was observed in one T 3  plant line when grown in a pot. However, when the same set of seeds was re-grown in identical conditions, the phenotype was not observed. 
     From the 24 T 1  plants, 4 lines were chosen on the basis of high seed yield (lines T2.14, T2.18, T2.19 and T2.23) and plated on K50 media with wildtype seeds as a control. Approximately 75% of the seeds from each line survived on K50 media and fell into size categories of Small, Medium and Large. From each line, small, medium and large seedlings were removed from plates and planted in soil. Under greenhouse conditions, the Small seedlings did not recover as quickly as their Medium and Large counterparts. At week 6, the Small plants were just beginning to show signs of bolting while the other plants had bolted and flowered. In total, six transgenic T 2  plants (from a total of 3 lines×8 plants=96 transgenic plants) demonstrated dramatic delay in bolting and were deemed “Late Bolt” plants. The seed yields of these plants were also dramatically lower than other transgenics. 
     From the 96 T 2  plants, 3 lines were selected to produce T 3  plants (T3.19.S8 and T3.14.L7 which were Late Bolts; and, T3.23.S3 which was not a Late Bolt). When planted on K50 media plates, these lines showed homozygous survival. 13 seedlings were transplanted into pots (10 seedlings per pot). From this set of plants, a dramatic dwarf phenotype was observed in T3.14.L7 plant line. T 4  seeds were collected, and lower seed yield was observed in that line. A dense growth (dense silique growth, more branches) phenotype was observed in line T3.19.S8, while a phenotype similar to wildtype was observed in line T3.23.S3. Seed sizes from the 3 transgenic lines were compared but no statistically significant differences were determined. Chlorophyll levels were also analyzed but no statistically significant differences from wildtype control were determined. 
     T 4  seeds of lines T3.19.S8, T3.14.L7 and T3.23.S3 were screened on K50 to obtain the next generation of plants and showed evidence of inherited gene construct (uniform green growth on plates) compared with wild-type seed that died. However, when planted in individual flats, the dwarf phenotype was not expressed suggesting that the eIF-F5A antisense transgene had been lost. Finally, seeds collected from all T 5  plants were screened on K50 plates and showed evidence of kanamycin resistance. Work is now underway to confirm that the antisense transgene has been lost, and these T4 plants are azygous. 
     Eight daughter lines were chosen from mother lines T2.14, T2.19 and T2.23 and screened on K50 media with wild-type seeds as a control. Three lines were chosen based on low seed yield: T3.14.L8, T3.14.S8, and T3.23.S1. The other five lines chosen are: T3.18.S7, T3.18.S2, T3.19.S1, T3.19.S5, and T3.23.S6. All the lines screened on K50 media showed homozygous survival, while T3.14.L8, T3.14.S8 and T3.23.S6 showed heterozygous survival. Seedlings from lines T3.14.L8 and T3.14.S8 that survived were white in color with green vascular tissue, while seedlings from T3.23.S6 that survived were entirely dark green in color. These seedlings were selected for transplantation. In total, 28 seedlings from each line were transplanted into cells and grown in greenhouse conditions. 
     At week 3, all lines started bolting except for lines T3.14.L8 and T3.23.51 and several plants within lines T3.18.S7, T3.18.S2, T3.19.S1, T3.19.S5, T3.23.S1 and T3.23.S6. An irregular rosette leaf morphology (elongation of 2 nd  pair leaves phenotype) was observed in T3.14.L8 and T3.14.S8 lines. At week 5, additional irregular leaf morphologies of increased number of rosette leaves and crinkle-edged rosette leaves phenotypes were also observed in lines T3.18.S7 and T3.23.S6. Rosettes smaller than wild-type were observed in lines T3.23.S1, T3.19.S1, and T3.19.S5. At week 7, spindly stem and no stem elongation phenotypes were observed in lines T3.18.S7, T3.18.S2, T3.19.S1, T3.19.S5, T3.23.S1 and T3.23.S6. The first and second cauline leaf of each plant was collected at week 5 and 6, respectively, for investigation of senescence eIF-5A protein expression. 
     Example 24 
     Determination of Oxygen Output 
     The leaves were harvested and the areas were measured before they were weighed. The leaves were ground to a fine powder using 1 mL of cold degassed grinding buffer with a mortar and pestle. Then the homogenate was transferred into an eppendorf tube and placed immediately on ice. For tomato leaves, the homogenate isolated required to be filtered through a piece of Miracloth. 
     50 μl of homogenate from all samples were added into 10 ml test tubes containing 5 ml grinding buffer and 25 μl DCPIP (2,6-dichlorophenol indophenol). The samples were shaken well and then one set of samples were placed for 15 mins under illumination by a pair of lamps and the second set of samples were placed in the dark for 15 mins. After the 15 minute incubation, 50 μL of DCMU(3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1 dimethylurea) was added to both set of samples in order to stop the reaction and then centrifuged in a microcentrifuge for 2 mins at 14,000 g. The absorbencies of the supernatant collected were read at 590 nm using grinding buffer as a blank. 
     The molar extinction coefficient for this assay is 16×10 3 , that is, a change in concentration of 1 mole per liter changes the absorbance of the solution by 16×10 3  μmole of DCPIP reduced/h/ml=(difference in absorbance)×[1/16×10 3  (moles/l)]×[reaction volume (ml)/10 3  (ml/l)]×[10 6  (μmole/mole)]×[60 (min/hr)/reaction time (min)]×[1/sample volume (ml)]. 
     For every 2 moles of DCPIP that are reduced, 1 mole of O 2  is generated. 
     Reference: Allen J. F. and Holmes N. G., 1986 Electron Transport and Redox Titration s in Photosynthesis: Energy Transduction. Edited by M. F. Hipkins &amp; N. R. Baker., IRL Press, Oxford Pp 107-108. 
     Example 25 
     Quantitative Determination of Starch 
     Starch content in tomato stems was determined using a method adapted from Lustinec et al. Quantitative determination of starch, amylose, and amylopectin in plant tissues using glass fiber paper. Anal. Biochem. 132:265-271 (1983). Tomato stem tissue was homogenized in three volumes of water using an Omnimixer (12 reps of 5 sec each), followed by a Polytron homogenizer (30 sec). Homogenate was stored in 10 ml aliquots at −20° C. prior to analysis. For analysis, 10 ml homogenate was thawed and mixed with an equal volume of concentrated perchloric acid (HClO 4 , 70% w/w) and incubated for 20 min at room temperature to dissolve the starch. Simultaneously, several solutions of potato starch (in the range of 0.1-1.0 mg/ml) were processed alongside the tomato stem sample to generate a standard curve. The homogenate (or potato starch standard solution) was stirred and filtered through Whatman GF/A glass microfiber paper (9.0 cm diameter) using a vacuum flask attached to an aspirator. One ml of filtrate was mixed with 3 ml of iodine solution A (8 mM I 2 , 17 mM KI, 514 mM NaCl) and incubated for 30 min at 4° C. to form a starch-iodine precipitate. The precipitate was collected on Whatman GF/A glass microfiber paper (9.0 cm diameter) using a vacuum flask attached to an aspirator, and then wash the filtrate with the following solutions: once with 10 mL iodine solution B (83 mM I 2 , 180 mM KI, 8% perchloric [HClO 4 ] acid); once with 5 mL ethanol-NaCl solution (67% ethanol, 342 mM NaCl); twice with 3 ml ethanol-NaOH solution (67% ethanol, 250 mM NaOH). Once ethanol had evaporated, the microfiber paper was removed from aspirator and inserted into screw-capped glass tube. Sulfuric [H 2 SO 4 ] acid (9 mL of 0.75 M solution) was added to the tube and the tube was incubated in a boiling water bath for 30 min. Three 1 mL-aliquots of eluate were pipetted into glass test tubes and mixed with 1 mL of 5% phenol, quickly followed by 5 mL of concentrated H 2 SO 4 . The tubes were vortexed and incubated at room temperature for 30 min to allow the color to develop. Simultaneously, a blank for the spectrophotometer measurements was prepared by mixing 1 mL of 0.75 M H 2 SO 4  with 1 mL of 5% phenol, and quickly adding 5 mL concentrated H 2 SO 4 ; the blank was also incubated at room temperature for 30 min. A spectrophotometer was calibrated at 480 nm using the blank, and the O.D. of all samples and potato starch standards were measured and recorded. A standard curve was prepared using the potato starch solutions, and used to interpolate the quantity of starch in each sample. 
     Example 26 
       Arabidopsis thaliana  (Columbia ecotype) was transformed by the  Arabidopsis thaliana  sense Senescence-induced eIF-5A (At-eIF) and Tomato sense senescence-induced eIF-5A genes independently. These genes were constitutively expressed in the whole life cycle of the transgenic plants. The inflorescence stems of these plants exhibited a significant increase of xylem development. See  FIGS. 89-94 . 
     The seeds of transgenic and control plants were sown on ½ MS medium agar plates, and kept in a growth chamber at 22° C., 80% rh, and 16 h light/day, for 9 days. Then, the seedlings were transferred to 32-well-flats with a commercial soil, and were maintained under the same conditions as above, for 48 days. The main inflorescence stems were selected for microscopic observation. Cross sections were hand-cut from the base of the stems within 2 mm above the rosette. The sections were stained with the phloroglucinol-HCl method. We found that the stem xylem at this age has achieved its maximum development. A comparison was made between transgenic and control plants in the sizes (sectional areas) of xylem. In addition, measurements were done for phloem and pith in both transgenic and control plants. 
     Measurement of tissue areas was as follows. Cross sections were photographed with a Zeiss microscope, and the micrographs were digitalized using Photoshop®. These images were printed out on paper and different tissues were cut out, and their areas were measured by an area-measuring meter. To calculate the actual area of each tissue, the following formula was used: The actual area=(The area of an individual tissue on paper)/(Magnification) 2    
     It thus appears that senescence-induced eIF-5A is also involved in programmed cell death associated with xylogenesis. Constitutive antisense suppression of senescence-induced AteIF-5A in  Arabidopsis  reduced the thickness of the inflorescence stem as well as the number of xylem cell layers. By contrast, the inflorescence stems of plants in which  Arabidopsis  or tomato senescence-induced eIF-5A was constitutively over-expressed were, on average, 1.7-fold thicker than those of corresponding wild-type plants, and the total xylem area per cross-section of inflorescence stem was 2 fold higher. The over-expressing transgenic plants also had greatly increased rosette leaf biomass and grew faster than wild-type plants, which may reflect enhanced nutrient uptake. The same phenotype was observed when the senescence-induced isoform of eIF-5A from tomato was over-expressed in  Arabidopsis  plants. These results collectively indicate that the senescence-induced isoform of eIF-5A not only regulates leaf and flower senescence, but is also involved in xylogenesis. 
     Example 27 
     Suppression of Deoxyhypusine Synthase Delays Browning of Pre-Packaged Cut Lettuce in Ambient Atmosphere 
     Commercially-available pre-packaged salad is commonly stored under conditions of controlled atmosphere, whereby the level of oxygen is greatly reduced below its atmospheric concentration in order to extend the shelf life of the product. The most common symptom of spoiled pre-packaged salad is browning on the cut surfaces of lettuce. Although controlled atmosphere packaging does achieve a delay in browning, it can also result in off-odour and off-flavour. In this study, down-regulation of deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS) was shown to have potential as an alternative strategy for delaying browning on the cut surfaces of lettuce. DHS catalyzes the activation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF5A), which acts as a nucleocytoplasmic shuttle protein for select populations of mRNAs. DHS appears to play a role in browning of cut lettuce inasmuch as suppression of DHS expression (by antisense technology) resulted in a significant delay in the onset of browning under atmospheric conditions. Specifically, 80% of the cut segments of wildtype lettuce plants showed browning at 6 days after cutting, whereas only 27%, on average, of the cut segments of transgenic plants from 5 segregating lines turned brown over the same period, with some individual plants showing 0% browning. See  FIGS. 51 and 53 . 
     Example 28 
     Suppression of Deoxyhypusine Synthase Expression in Canola Increases Seed Yield 
     Deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS) mediates the first of two enzymatic reactions that convert inactive eukaryotic translation initiation factor-5A (eIF-5A) to an activated form able to facilitate translation. A full-length cDNA clone encoding canola ( Brassica napus  cv Westar) DHS was isolated from a cDNA expression library prepared from senescing leaves. DHS was suppressed in transgenic canola plants by expressing the antisense 3′-UTR of canola DHS cDNA under the regulation of the constitutive cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV-35S) promoter. Plants expressing this antisense transgene had reduced levels of leaf DHS protein and exhibited delayed natural leaf senescence. Suppression of DHS expression also increased rosette leaf size by 1.5 to 2 fold, and enhanced seed yield by up to 90%. These pleiotropic effects of DHS suppression in canola are in agreement with results obtained previously for  Arabidopsis  (Wang et al., 2003, Plant Mol. Biol. 52: 1223-1235), and indicate that this protein plays a central role in plant development and senescence. 
     Example 29 
     Extending the Vase Life of Carnation Flowers by Administering Inhibitors of Deoxyhypusine Synthase and by Antisense Suppression of Deoxyhypusine Synthase 
     A full-length cDNA clone (AF296079) encoding deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS) was isolated from carnation petals. DHS mediates the first of two enzymatic reactions that convert inactive eukaryotic translation initiation factor-5A (eIF-5A) to an activated form able to facilitate translation. Northern analysis revealed that DHS expression is correlated with senescence of carnation flower petals. Treatment of cut carnation flowers with inhibitors of the DHS reaction, including diaminobutane (putrescine), diaminopropane, diaminohexane, diaminooctane and spermidine, extended the vase life of the flowers by up to 83%. In order to evaluate the role of DHS in carnation flower senescence more definitively, expression of the protein was suppressed in transgenic plants by introducing the antisense 3′-UTR of carnation DHS cDNA under regulation of the constitutive cauliflower mosaic virus promoter through  Agrobacterium  transformation. Three lines of transgenic flowers with reduced DHS expression were analyzed and found to have longer vase-life relative to wild-type flowers. Indeed, one of the lines exhibited an increase in vase life of &gt;100%. These findings indicate that DHS plays a central role in flower senescence. 
     Example 30 
     The Delayed Bolting Phenotype Induced by Suppression of Deoxyhypusine Synthase in  Arabidopsis  can be Rescued by Treatment with GA3 
     Deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS) is a ubiquitous enzyme required for post-translational activation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (elF-5A) and appears to be essential for normal plant growth and development. DHS was suppressed in  Arabidopsis  by expressing full-length antisense  Arabidopsis  DHS cDNA in transgenic plants under the regulation of the senescence-specific SAG12 promoter. Plants expressing the transgene had reduced levels of leaf DHS protein, and exhibited delayed bolting and a pronounced delay (2 to 5 weeks) in the onset of leaf senescence. The bolts were also shorter, although this did not result in a reduction in biomass or seed yield. Treatment of the transgenic plants with GA3 reversed the delayed bolting phenotype. A similar phenotype was obtained by antisense suppression of DHS under the regulation of GCI, a glucacorticoid-inducible promoter that can be activated by administering dexamethasone (DEX). Again, administering GA3 rescued this phenotype; that is, the GA3-treated transgenic plants bolted normally, the bolts were of normal size and there was no delay in the onset of leaf senescence. These results collectively indicate that DHS, through activation of one or more of the three isoforms of eIF-5A in  Arabidopsis , influences GA metabolism. 
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