Patent Publication Number: US-2022215686-A1

Title: Systems and methods for performing fingerprint based user authentication using imagery captured using mobile devices

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     The present application is based on and claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/431,629 entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PERFORMING FINGERPRINT BASED USER AUTHENTICATION USING IMAGERY CAPTURED USING MOBILE DEVICES”, filed Dec. 8, 2016, and is a continuation in part of U.S. Non-Provisional patent application Ser. No. 15/704,561 entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PERFORMING FINGERPRINT BASED USER AUTHENTICATION USING IMAGERY CAPTURED USING MOBILE DEVICES”, filed Sep. 14, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. Pat. No. 9,785,823, entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PERFORMING FINGERPRINT BASED USER AUTHENTICATION USING IMAGERY CAPTURED USING MOBILE DEVICES”, filed Jul. 18, 2016 and issued Oct. 10, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. Pat. No. 9,424,458, entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PERFORMING FINGERPRINT BASED USER AUTHENTICATION USING IMAGERY CAPTURED USING MOBILE DEVICES”, filed Jan. 6, 2016 and issued Aug. 23, 2016, which is a continuation in part of U.S. Pat. No. 9,361,507, entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PERFORMING FINGERPRINT BASED USER AUTHENTICATION USING IMAGERY CAPTURED USING MOBILE DEVICES”, filed Aug. 6, 2015 and issued on Jun. 7, 2016, which is based on and claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/112,961, entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PERFORMING FINGERPRINT BASED USER AUTHENTICATION USING IMAGERY CAPTURED USING MOBILE DEVICES”, filed Feb. 6, 2015, the contents of each of which are hereby incorporated by reference as if set forth expressly in its entirety herein. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to systems and methods for capturing and characterizing biometric features, in particular, systems and methods for capturing and characterizing biometric features using images of fingers captured by an embedded camera of a mobile device such as a smartphone. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     As a biometric is a biological characteristic (such as a fingerprint, the geometry of a hand, retina pattern, iris texture, etc.) of an individual, biometric techniques can be used as an additional verification factor since biometrics are usually more difficult to obtain than other non-biometric credentials. Biometrics can be used for identification and/or authentication (also referred to as identity assertion and/or verification). 
     Biometric identity assertion can require a certain level of security as dictated by the application. For example, authentication in connection with a financial transaction or gaining access to a secure location requires higher security levels. As a result, preferably, the accuracy of the biometric representation of a user is sufficient to ensure that the user is accurately authenticated and security is maintained. 
     Moreover, missing, swapping, mixing, and illegal adoption of newborns is a global challenge and using automated biometric systems has been proposed to identify new borns based on their face, iris, fingerprint, footprint, and/or palmprint. 
     However, to the extent iris, face, finger, and voice identity assertion systems exist and provide the requisite level of accuracy, such systems require dedicated devices and applications and are not easily implemented on conventional smartphones, which have limited camera resolution and light emitting capabilities. 
     Electronic fingerprint sensors have already been added to smartphone devices, the iPhone 6 smartphone by Apple Inc. of Cupertino Calif. and the Samsung S5 smartphone by Samsung Co. of Samsung Korea are examples of this. In these devices, the user must enroll their fingerprint data by placing their finger on the sensor, at a later date the user may verify their identity by repositioning their finger on the sensor, the fingerprint data is compared with the enrollment data and if it matches the identity of the user is confirmed. Should the fingerprint not match then the user can be identified as an imposter. A disadvantage of these systems is that the fingerprint sensor adds size weight and cost to the device. Furthermore, for these reasons it is advantageous to minimize the size of the fingerprint sensor, and as such the fingerprint sensor typically captures only a portion of the fingerprint which reduces the effectiveness of the identification. The smaller the region of capture for the fingerprint sensor, the more chance there is that another finger will match by chance, and the more likely that any error in the fingerprint data will cause a false rejection of the authentic user. 
     Moreover, Capturing newborns&#39; fingerprints by using the traditional fingerprint sensors is challenging because of the size of the finger and the difficulty of holding the newborn hand and placing it on the sensor. 
     In practical terms this means that the users (i.e., adults and newborns) suffer a higher level of inconvenience from false rejections, and the application of the sensor is limited to non-critical usage such as low value payments. Fingerprint sensors may also be subject of spoof attacks, where for example a mold of the authentic users fingerprint is placed in the fingerprint sensor to enable an imposter to pass authentication. This provides a further reason to restrict usage to non-critical applications. 
     A further challenge is that only a few mobile devices are equipped with fingerprint sensors which limits the numbers of people who have access to fingerprint authorization systems, and causes an inconsistency in authentication method between devices. 
     Systems have been proposed that analysis the image of a single finger using the camera of a mobile device, these systems are potentially more convenient, however, the lowest false accept rates and false reject rates for such systems for imaging and analyzing a single finger are still not reliable enough for applications requiring higher security such as medium to high value purchases and enterprises systems (i.e., large scale systems). 
     As such there is a need for a more reliable, and more ubiquitous finger recognition system. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     Technologies are presented herein in support of a system and method for performing fingerprint recognition. 
     According to a first aspect, a method for performing fingerprint recognition is provided. The method includes the step of capturing, by a mobile device having a camera, a storage medium, instructions stored on the storage medium, and a processor configured by executing the instructions, images depicting a plurality of fingers of a subject. The method also includes detecting, using a finger detection algorithm, a plurality of fingers depicted in one or more of the images. The method also includes processing at least one image using a segmentation algorithm to identify a respective fingertip segment for one or more fingers depicted in the at least one image. In addition, the method includes extracting features of the one or more fingers from the identified respective fingertip segment for the one or more fingers, generating a biometric identifier based on the extracted features and storing the biometric identifier in the memory. 
     According to another aspect, a method for performing fingerprint recognition is provided. The method includes the step of capturing, by a mobile device having a camera, a storage medium, instructions stored on the storage medium, and a processor configured by executing the instructions, images depicting a plurality of fingers of a subject. The method also includes detecting, using a finger detection algorithm, one or more fingers depicted in at least one of the images. The method also includes processing at least one image using a segmentation algorithm to identify a respective fingertip segment for at least one finger depicted therein. In addition, the method includes measuring one or more features of the at least one finger from the identified respective fingertip segment and scaling the at least one image based on the measured feature. In addition, the method includes the step of generating a biometric identifier comprising at least a portion of the scaled image depicting the respective fingertip segment and storing the biometric identifier in the memory. 
     These and other aspects, features, and advantages can be appreciated from the accompanying description of certain embodiments of the invention and the accompanying drawing figures and claims. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a high-level diagram of a computer system for authenticating a user according to the user&#39;s biometric features in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 2A  is a block diagram of a computer system for authenticating a user according to the user&#39;s biometric features in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 2B  is a block diagram of software modules for authenticating a user according to the user&#39;s biometric features in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 2C  is a block diagram of a computer system for authenticating a user according to the user&#39;s biometric features in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 3  is a flow diagram showing a routine for generating a biometric identifier according to the user&#39;s biometric features and enrolling or authenticating the user in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 4A  is a flow diagram showing a routine for detecting fingers from visual imagery and corresponding images in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 4B  is a flow diagram showing a routine for filtering fingertip regions detected within from visual imagery in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 4C  depicts images captured and generated in accordance with the routine for filtering fingertip regions of  FIG. 4B ; 
         FIG. 5A  is a flow diagram showing a routine for detecting liveness from visual imagery of fingers in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 5B  is a series of images captured in accordance with the routine for detecting liveness from visual imagery of fingers; 
         FIG. 5C  is a series of images captured in accordance with the routine for detecting liveness from visual imagery of fingers; 
         FIG. 6A  depicts a captured image of fingers and corresponding ridge reflectivity image generated in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 6B  depicts a captured image of fingers and corresponding ridge reflectivity image generated in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 6C  depicts a captured image of fingers and corresponding ridge reflectivity image generated in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 6D  depicts a captured image of fingers and corresponding ridge reflectivity image generated in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 6E  depicts a captured image of fingers and corresponding ridge reflectivity image generated in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; and 
         FIG. 6F  depicts a captured image of fingers and corresponding ridge reflectivity image generated in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein. 
         FIG. 7A  depicts a captured image of fingers and corresponding minutiae points that can be falsely detected between fingers in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 7B  depicts a captured image of fingers and processed image data throughout an exemplary pipeline for minutiae selection in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 8A  depicts (a) Two finger images collected from the user at different locations (shift along the finger); (b) vertical edge maps are generated to align corresponding fingers; (c) horizontal edge maps are generated to align corresponding fingers; (d) Cropped and enhanced middle fingers from two images in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 8B  depicts disparity maps for a real finger and a 2D spoof picture in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 8C  depicts a disparity map and fitted surface for an image of a real finger in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 8D  depicts a disparity map and fitted surface for a 2D spoof picture in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 9  depicts a dataset modifications using rotation in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein; and 
         FIG. 10  depicts “center,” “left,” and “right” images captured at the enrollment stage in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION 
     By way of example only and for the purpose of overview and introduction, embodiments of the present invention are described below which concern a system and method for capturing a user&#39;s biometric features and generating an identifier characterizing the user&#39;s biometric features using a mobile device such as a smartphone. The biometric identifier is preferably generated using imagery captured of a plurality of fingers of a user for the purposes of authenticating/identifying the user according to the captured biometrics and determining the user&#39;s liveness. The present disclosure also describes additional techniques for preventing erroneous authentication caused by spoofing. In some examples, the anti-spoofing techniques may include capturing one or more images of a user&#39;s biometrics and analyzing the captured images for indications of liveness. 
     In some implementations, the system includes a cloud based system server platform that communicates with fixed PC&#39;s, servers, and devices such as laptops, tablets and smartphones operated by users. As the user attempts to access a networked environment that is access controlled, for example, a website which requires a secure login, the user is prompted to authenticate using the user&#39;s preregistered mobile device. Authentication can include verifying the user&#39;s identity and/or verifying that the user is alive (e.g., determining liveness) by capturing biometric information in the form of at least images of the user&#39;s fingers, extracting unique features and encoding the features as a biometric identifier that is indicative of the user&#39;s biometric features and/or liveness using the mobile device. Accordingly, the users identity and/or liveness can be verified by the mobile device and/or the system server or a combination of the foregoing by analyzing the imagery, the generated biometric identifier and/or comparing the imagery and/or biometric identifier to a biometric identifier generated during the user&#39;s initial enrollment with the system. 
     According to an aspect of the subject application, the disclosed embodiments provide a reliable means of user identification/authentication using finger based biometric recognition on mobile devices that are ubiquitous and convenient to use. The disclosed embodiments perform four-finger based recognition using cameras that are typically present on mobile devices, so that no additional volume, cost, or weight is incurred on the design, and usage can be ubiquitous. A further aim of the system is to provide a defense against spoof attacks. 
     The present invention captures biometric information from multiple fingers simultaneously, and captures large print areas from each finger. Furthermore, the present invention may also be used to capture print information from other regions of the hand, including palm prints and hand prints to further increase the reliability of the system. Also, in the case of newborns identification, the present invention may be used to capture the toes. Moreover, the proposed innovation can be combined with existing mobile face recognition systems. By way of non-limiting example, exemplary systems and methods for biometrics based user authentication from imagery of facial features are described herein and in co-pending and commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/668,352, entitled “SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR AUTHORIZING ACCESS TO ACCESS CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENTS” filed May 13, 2015 which is a continuation of U.S. patent Ser. No. 9/003,196, entitled “SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR AUTHORIZING ACCESS TO ACCESS CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENTS” filed May 13, 2014; and U.S. Pat. No. 9,208,492, entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR BIOMETRIC AUTHENTICATION OF TRANSACTIONS” filed on Mar. 7, 2014, which are hereby incorporated by reference as if set forth in their respective entireties herein. Further, the present invention may be used to process the acquired finger photo using the camera presented on mobile devices in order to generate a fingerprint images that correspond to acquired finger photos and that can be matched with the rolled and plain fingerprint images that are used in the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (IAFIS). IAFIS is a national automated fingerprint identification and criminal history system maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). IAFIS provides automated fingerprint search capabilities, latent searching capability, electronic image storage, and electronic exchange of fingerprints and responses. 
     Disclosed embodiments can be referred as a multimodal biometric authentication system. Hence, the presence of multiple, independent pieces of biometrics (i.e., 4-10 fingers) offers the following advantages over the single finger mobile recognition systems either using finger images or fingerprint captured by embedded sensors in smartphones. 
     1. Performance: A combination of uncorrelated modalities (e.g., four fingers of a person and ten fingers of a newborn) can result in a better improvement in performance than a single finger recognition system. This accuracy improvement happens due to two reasons. First, the fusion of biometric evidences from different fingers effectively increases the discriminatory features and reduces the overlap between the features of different users. In other words, a combination of multiple fingers is more discriminative to an individual than a single finger. Second, the noise (caused by factors like dirt or ink smudge) and imprecision during the acquisition of a subset of the fingers can be addressed by the information provided by the remaining fingers.
 
2. Universality: Solve the non-universality problem and reduce the failure to enroll errors. For example, if a person cannot enroll a particular finger due to an amputated finger, a finger cut, injury, or worn-out ridges (i.e., the worn-out ridges can physically occur in one or more fingers of subjects), he can still be identified using his other fingers.
 
3. Spoof attack: Using the disclosed embodiments, in which enrolling multiple fingers of a user is performed, will improve the resistance of authentication systems to spoof attacks. This is because it becomes increasingly difficult to circumvent or spoof multiple fingers simultaneously.
 
     An exemplary system for authenticating a user and/or determining the user&#39;s liveness according to imagery of the user&#39;s biometric features  100  is shown as a block diagram in  FIG. 1 . In one arrangement, the system consists of a system server  105  and user devices including a mobile device  101   a  and a user computing device  101   b . The system  100  can also include one or more remote computing devices  102 . 
     The system server  105  can be practically any computing device and/or data processing apparatus capable of communicating with the user devices and remote computing devices and receiving, transmitting and storing electronic information and processing requests as further described herein. Similarly, the remote computing device  102  can be practically any computing device and/or data processing apparatus capable of communicating with the system server and/or the user devices and receiving, transmitting and storing electronic information and processing requests as further described herein. It should also be understood that the system server and/or remote computing device can be a number of networked or cloud based computing devices. 
     In some implementations, computing device  102  can be associated with an enterprise organization, for example, a bank or a website, that maintain user accounts (“enterprise accounts”) and provide services to enterprise account holders and require authentication of the user prior to providing the user access to such systems and services. 
     The user devices, mobile device  101   a  and user computing device  101   b , can be configured to communicate with one another, the system server  105  and/or remote computing device  102 , transmitting electronic information thereto and receiving electronic information therefrom as further described herein. The user devices can also be configured to receive user inputs as well as capture and process biometric information, for example, digital images and voice recordings of a user  124 . 
     The mobile device  101   a  can be any mobile computing devices and/or data processing apparatus capable of embodying the systems and/or methods described herein, including but not limited to a personal computer, tablet computer, personal digital assistant, mobile electronic device, cellular telephone or smart phone device and the like. The computing device  101   b  is intended to represent various forms of computing devices that a user can interact with, such as workstations, a personal computer, laptop computer, dedicated point-of-sale systems, ATM terminals, access control devices or other appropriate digital computers. 
     As further described herein, the system  100 , facilitates the authentication of a user  124  according to a user&#39;s biometric features using a mobile device  101   a . In some implementations, identification and/or authentication according to a user&#39;s biometric features utilizes a user&#39;s biometric information in a two stage process. The first stage is referred to as enrollment. In the enrollment stage samples (e.g., images) of appropriate biometric(s) is/are collected from an individual. These samples of biometrics are analyzed and processed to extract features (or characteristics) present in each sample. The set of features present in the imaged biometric of an individual constitutes an identifier for the person and are useable to authenticate the user and in some implementations determine whether the user is a live subject. These identifiers are then stored to complete the enrolment stage. In the second stage the same biometric of the individual is measured. Features from this biometric are extracted just like in the enrollment phase to obtain a current biometric identifier. If the goal is determining liveness, the features or characteristics can be analyzed to determine if they are representative of a live subject. As further described herein, other features and characteristics of the captured imagery of the biometrics can be analyzed to determine liveness. If the goal is identification, then this identifier is searched for in the database of identifiers generated in the first phase. If a match occurs, the identification of the individual is revealed, otherwise identification fails. If the goal is authentication, then the identifier generated in the second stage is compared with the identifier generated in the first stage for the particular person. If a match occurs, authentication is successful, otherwise authentication fails. 
     It should be noted that while  FIG. 1  depicts the system for authenticating a user  100  with respect to a mobile device  101   a  and a user computing device  101   b  and a remote computing device  102 , it should be understood that any number of such devices can interact with the system in the manner described herein. It should also be noted that while  FIG. 1  depicts a system for authenticating a user  100  with respect to the user  124 , it should be understood that any number of users can interact with the system in the manner described herein. 
     It should be further understood that while the various computing devices and machines referenced herein, including but not limited to mobile device  101   a  and system server  105  and remote computing device  102  are referred to herein as individual/single devices and/or machines, in certain implementations the referenced devices and machines, and their associated and/or accompanying operations, features, and/or functionalities can be combined or arranged or otherwise employed across a number of such devices and/or machines, such as over a network connection or wired connection, as is known to those of skill in the art. 
     It should also be understood that the exemplary systems and methods described herein in the context of the mobile device  101   a  (also referred to as a smartphone) are not specifically limited to the mobile device and can be implemented using other enabled computing devices (e.g., the user computing device  102   b ). 
     In reference to  FIG. 2A , mobile device  101   a  of the system  100 , includes various hardware and software components that serve to enable operation of the system, including one or more processors  110 , a memory  120 , a microphone  125 , a display  140 , a camera  145 , an audio output  155 , a storage  190  and a communication interface  150 . Processor  110  serves to execute a client application in the form of software instructions that can be loaded into memory  120 . Processor  110  can be a number of processors, a central processing unit CPU, a graphics processing unit GPU, a multi-processor core, or any other type of processor, depending on the particular implementation. 
     Preferably, the memory  120  and/or the storage  190  are accessible by the processor  110 , thereby enabling the processor to receive and execute instructions encoded in the memory and/or on the storage so as to cause the mobile device and its various hardware components to carry out operations for aspects of the systems and methods as will be described in greater detail below. Memory can be, for example, a random access memory (RAM) or any other suitable volatile or non-volatile computer readable storage medium. In addition, the memory can be fixed or removable. The storage  190  can take various forms, depending on the particular implementation. For example, the storage can contain one or more components or devices such as a hard drive, a flash memory, a rewritable optical disk, a rewritable magnetic tape, or some combination of the above. Storage also can be fixed or removable. 
     One or more software modules  130  are encoded in the storage  190  and/or in the memory  120 . The software modules  130  can comprise one or more software programs or applications having computer program code or a set of instructions (also referred to as the “mobile authentication client application”) executed in the processor  110 . As depicted in  FIG. 2B , preferably, included among the software modules  130  is a user interface module  170 , a biometric capture module  172 , an analysis module  174 , an enrollment module  176 , a database module  178 , an authentication module  180  and a communication module  182  that are executed by processor  110 . Such computer program code or instructions configure the processor  110  to carry out operations of the systems and methods disclosed herein and can be written in any combination of one or more programming languages. 
     The program code can execute entirely on mobile device  101 , as a stand-alone software package, partly on mobile device, partly on system server  105 , or entirely on system server or another remote computer/device. In the latter scenario, the remote computer can be connected to mobile device  101  through any type of network, including a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN), mobile communications network, cellular network, or the connection can be made to an external computer (for example, through the Internet using an Internet Service Provider). 
     It can also be said that the program code of software modules  130  and one or more computer readable storage devices (such as memory  120  and/or storage  190 ) form a computer program product that can be manufactured and/or distributed in accordance with the present invention, as is known to those of ordinary skill in the art. 
     It should be understood that in some illustrative embodiments, one or more of the software modules  130  can be downloaded over a network to storage  190  from another device or system via communication interface  150  for use within the system  100 . In addition, it should be noted that other information and/or data relevant to the operation of the present systems and methods (such as database  185 ) can also be stored on storage. Preferably, such information is stored on an encrypted data-store that is specifically allocated so as to securely store information collected or generated by the processor executing the secure authentication application. Preferably, encryption measures are used to store the information locally on the mobile device storage and transmit information to the system server  105 . For example, such data can be encrypted using a 1024 bit polymorphic cipher, or, depending on the export controls, an AES 256 bit encryption method. Furthermore, encryption can be performed using remote key (seeds) or local keys (seeds). Alternative encryption methods can be used as would be understood by those skilled in the art, for example, SHA256. 
     In addition, data stored on the mobile device  101   a  and/or system server  105  can be encrypted using a user&#39;s biometric information, liveness information, or mobile device information as an encryption key. In some implementations, a combination of the foregoing can be used to create a complex unique key for the user that can be encrypted on the mobile device using Elliptic Curve Cryptography, preferably at least 384 bits in length. In addition, that key can be used to secure the user data stored on the mobile device and/or the system server. 
     Also preferably stored on storage  190  is database  185 . As will be described in greater detail below, the database contains and/or maintains various data items and elements that are utilized throughout the various operations of the system and method for authenticating a user  100 . The information stored in database can include but is not limited to user biometric templates and profile information, as will be described in greater detail herein. It should be noted that although database is depicted as being configured locally to mobile device  101   a , in certain implementations the database and/or various of the data elements stored therein can, in addition or alternatively, be located remotely (such as on a remote device  102  or system server  105 —not shown) and connected to mobile device through a network in a manner known to those of ordinary skill in the art. 
     A user interface  115  is also operatively connected to the processor. The interface can be one or more input or output device(s) such as switch(es), button(s), key(s), a touch-screen, microphone, etc. as would be understood in the art of electronic computing devices. User Interface serves to facilitate the capture of commands from the user such as an on-off commands or user information and settings related to operation of the system for authenticating a user  100 . For example, interface serves to facilitate the capture of certain information from the mobile device  101  such as personal user information for enrolling with the system so as to create a user profile. 
     The computing device  101   a  can also include a display  140  which is also operatively connected to processor the processor  110 . The display includes a screen or any other such presentation device which enables the system to instruct or otherwise provide feedback to the user regarding the operation of the system for authenticating a user  100 . By way of example, the display can be a digital display such as a dot matrix display or other 2-dimensional display. 
     By way of further example, the interface and the display can be integrated into a touch screen display. Accordingly, the display is also used to show a graphical user interface, which can display various data and provide “forms” that include fields that allow for the entry of information by the user. Touching the touch screen at locations corresponding to the display of a graphical user interface allows the person to interact with the device to enter data, change settings, control functions, etc. So, when the touch screen is touched, user interface communicates this change to processor, and settings can be changed or user entered information can be captured and stored in the memory. 
     Mobile device  101   a  also includes a camera  145  capable of capturing digital images. The camera can be one or more imaging devices configured to capture images of at least a portion of the user&#39;s body including the user&#39;s eyes and/or face while utilizing the mobile device  101   a . The camera serves to facilitate the capture of images of the user for the purpose of image analysis by the mobile device processor  110  executing the secure authentication client application which includes identifying biometric features for (biometrically) authenticating the user from the images and determining the user&#39;s liveness. The mobile device  101   a  and/or the camera  145  can also include one or more light or signal emitters (e.g., LEDs, not shown) for example, a visible light emitter and/or infra-red light emitter and the like. The camera can be integrated into the mobile device, such as a front-facing camera or rear facing camera that incorporates a sensor, for example and without limitation a CCD or CMOS sensor. As would be understood by those in the art, camera  145  can also include additional hardware such as lenses, light meters (e.g., lux meters) and other conventional hardware and software features that are useable to adjust image capture settings such as zoom, focus, aperture, exposure, shutter speed and the like. Alternatively, the camera can be external to the mobile device  101   a . The possible variations of the camera and light emitters would be understood by those skilled in the art. In addition, the mobile device can also include one or more microphones  104  for capturing audio recordings as would be understood by those skilled in the art. 
     Audio output  155  is also operatively connected to the processor  110 . Audio output can be any type of speaker system that is configured to play electronic audio files as would be understood by those skilled in the art. Audio output can be integrated into the mobile device  101  or external to the mobile device  101 . 
     Various hardware devices/sensors  160  are also operatively connected to the processor. The sensors  160  can include: an on-board clock to track time of day, etc.; a GPS enabled device to determine a location of the mobile device; an accelerometer to track the orientation and acceleration of the mobile device; Gravity magnetometer to detect the Earth&#39;s magnetic field to determine the 3-dimensional orientation of the mobile device; proximity sensors to detect a distance between the mobile device and other objects; RF radiation sensors to detect the RF radiation levels; and other such devices as would be understood by those skilled in the art. 
     Communication interface  150  is also operatively connected to the processor  110  and can be any interface that enables communication between the mobile device  101   a  and external devices, machines and/or elements including system server  105 . Preferably, communication interface includes, but is not limited to, a modem, a Network Interface Card (NIC), an integrated network interface, a radio frequency transmitter/receiver (e.g., Bluetooth, cellular, NFC), a satellite communication transmitter/receiver, an infrared port, a USB connection, and/or any other such interfaces for connecting the mobile device to other computing devices and/or communication networks such as private networks and the Internet. Such connections can include a wired connection or a wireless connection (e.g. using the 802.11 standard) though it should be understood that communication interface can be practically any interface that enables communication to/from the mobile device. 
     At various points during the operation of the system for authenticating a user  100 , the mobile device  101   a  can communicate with one or more computing devices, such as system server  105 , user computing device  101   b  and/or remote computing device  102 . Such computing devices transmit and/or receive data to/from mobile device  101   a , thereby preferably initiating maintaining, and/or enhancing the operation of the system  100 , as will be described in greater detail below. 
       FIG. 2C  is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary configuration of system server  105 . System server  105  can include a processor  210  which is operatively connected to various hardware and software components that serve to enable operation of the system for authentication of a user  100 . The processor  210  serves to execute instructions to perform various operations relating to user authentication and transaction processing as will be described in greater detail below. The processor  210  can be a number of processors, a multi-processor core, or some other type of processor, depending on the particular implementation. 
     In certain implementations, a memory  220  and/or a storage medium  290  are accessible by the processor  210 , thereby enabling the processor  210  to receive and execute instructions stored on the memory  220  and/or on the storage  290 . The memory  220  can be, for example, a random access memory (RAM) or any other suitable volatile or non-volatile computer readable storage medium. In addition, the memory  220  can be fixed or removable. The storage  290  can take various forms, depending on the particular implementation. For example, the storage  290  can contain one or more components or devices such as a hard drive, a flash memory, a rewritable optical disk, a rewritable magnetic tape, or some combination of the above. The storage  290  also can be fixed or removable. 
     One or more of the software modules  130  are encoded in the storage  290  and/or in the memory  220 . One or more of the software modules  130  can comprise one or more software programs or applications (collectively referred to as the “secure authentication server application”) having computer program code or a set of instructions executed in the processor  210 . Such computer program code or instructions for carrying out operations for aspects of the systems and methods disclosed herein can be written in any combination of one or more programming languages, as would be understood by those skilled in the art. The program code can execute entirely on the system server  105  as a stand-alone software package, partly on the system server  105  and partly on a remote computing device, such as a remote computing device  102 , mobile device  101   a  and/or user computing device  101   b , or entirely on such remote computing devices. As depicted in  FIG. 2B , preferably, included among the software modules  130  are an analysis module  274 , an enrollment module  276 , an authentication module  280 , a database module  278 , and a communication module  282 , that are executed by the system server&#39;s processor  210 . 
     Also preferably stored on the storage  290  is a database  280 . As will be described in greater detail below, the database  280  contains and/or maintains various data items and elements that are utilized throughout the various operations of the system  100 , including but not limited to, user profiles as will be described in greater detail herein. It should be noted that although the database  280  is depicted as being configured locally to the computing device  205 , in certain implementations the database  280  and/or various of the data elements stored therein can be stored on a computer readable memory or storage medium that is located remotely and connected to the system server  105  through a network (not shown), in a manner known to those of ordinary skill in the art. 
     A communication interface  255  is also operatively connected to the processor  210 . The communication interface  255  can be any interface that enables communication between the system server  105  and external devices, machines and/or elements. In certain implementations, the communication interface  255  includes, but is not limited to, a modem, a Network Interface Card (NIC), an integrated network interface, a radio frequency transmitter/receiver (e.g., Bluetooth, cellular, NFC), a satellite communication transmitter/receiver, an infrared port, a USB connection, and/or any other such interfaces for connecting the computing device  205  to other computing devices and/or communication networks, such as private networks and the Internet. Such connections can include a wired connection or a wireless connection (e.g., using the 802.11 standard) though it should be understood that communication interface  255  can be practically any interface that enables communication to/from the processor  210 . 
     The operation of the system for authenticating a user  100  and the various elements and components described above will be further appreciated with reference to the method for facilitating the capture of biometric information and authentication as described below. The processes depicted herein are shown from the perspective of the mobile device  101   a  and/or the system server  105 , however, it should be understood that the processes can be performed, in whole or in part, by the mobile device  101   a , the system server  105  and/or other computing devices (e.g., remote computing device  102  and/or user computing device  101   b ) or any combination of the foregoing. It should be appreciated that more or fewer operations can be performed than shown in the figures and described herein. These operations can also be performed in a different order than those described herein. It should also be understood that one or more of the steps can be performed by the mobile device  101   a  and/or on other computing devices (e.g. computing device  101   b , system server  105  and remote computing device  102 ). 
     Turning now to  FIG. 3 , a flow diagram illustrates a routine  300  for detecting the user&#39;s biometric features from one or more images in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein. In general, the routine includes capturing and analyzing one or more images of at least multiple fingers of a user. Preferably four fingers are captured, however more or less fingers can be captured and analyzed as described herein. As noted above, the capture process can be performed during enrollment of a user, as well as during subsequent authentication sessions, which are also described in relation to  FIG. 3 . 
     It should be understood that, according to the disclosed embodiments, the images can be captured and the biometric identifier that is indicative of the user&#39;s unique biometric features and/or liveness can be generated using mobile devices (e.g. mobile device  101   a ) that are widely available and having digital cameras  145  capable of capturing images of the user&#39;s fingers in at least the visible spectral bands. 
     The process begins at step  305 , where the mobile device processor  110  configured by executing one or more software modules  130 , including, preferably, the capture module  172 , causes the camera  145  to capture one or more images of at least a portion of the user&#39;s ( 124 ) capturing all four (4) fingers of one hand. Preferably the camera captures high resolution imagery, for example using a rear facing camera of a conventional smartphone device. If available, the imagery can be captured with flash illumination for increased detail. 
     In some implementations, during the capture process, the user is prompted to position their fingers in front of the camera. During this procedure the user can be given visual feedback from the camera on the device display so that the users can position their fingers appropriately. In some implementations, markings displayed on the display can be used to guide the users to place their fingers at a specific location in the camera&#39;s field of view, and at a particular distance away. For example the users could be asked to align their fingers with a four (4) finger outline overlaid on the camera image preview screen, accordingly, the users would know that their fingers are at an appropriate distance from the camera when they fill the fingers&#39; outline on the camera preview. In some implementations, the users can hold their index, middle, ring and little fingers together rather than having them spaced apart. Then, in some implementations, the users could be asked to capture the thumb of each both hands separately. In some implementations, the user will be a new born who will be helped by an adult to capture images of the fingers. The focus of the camera can be set by the configured processor to focus on the fingers, which could be assumed to be the location of the on-screen finger position guide. In some implementations, a classifier will be trained to detect the fingers in images and this classifier can trigger the camera to capture the image once the fingers are detected and in focus. The classifier that may be used to detect fingers in images, in some implementation, can be Haar Cascade classifier that have been trained using regular Haar features or predefined and predesigned filters that are suitable for detecting fingers in hand images (as well as feet images, e.g., in the case of newborns identification systems). In some implementations, image enhancement procedures may be applied to the image before using a classifier to detect fingers in the captured images. In some implementation, image enhancement procedures that may be applied before applying finger classifier, may be designed to be a band pass filters that passes finger print ridges frequencies but minimize the out of focus background frequencies. 
     Then, the captured image can be examined, and the quality of the captured biometric sample will be determined by analyzing the fingers&#39; ridges. This quality measure can be a fused measure of the following ridges properties: frequency, orientation, sharpness, and connectivity. If the quality measure was below a predetermined threshold, the user could be advised and guided to repeat the capture process again. 
     After the capture of the fingers, then at step  310 , the regions of each finger will be identified. Then, at step  315 , the regions are enhanced and at then, at step  320 , the discriminatory feature space of each finger can be extracted independently and stored separately. More specifically, at step  310 , the configured processor  110  can execute an automatic fingers detection algorithm to detect the fingers in the imagery. For example an exemplary finger detection algorithm can include the application of segmentation algorithms to distinguish the fingers from the background. This could be performed, for example, by dividing the image into homogeneous regions and then examining each region and classify it as finger or non-finger region. Moreover, this could be performed, for example, by using a classifier that detect and classify finger and finger tips. In some implementation, the classifiers that may be used to detect different fingers, classify them, and detect finger tips, can be trained Haar Cascade classifiers, HOG Cascade classifiers, LBP Cascade classifiers, or combination of these classifiers. Training of the classifiers could be performed on known example images as is known in the art. Note that a classifier trained to find the hand could first be used to narrow the search region for the other finger finding classifiers to improve speed and accuracy. Note also that such classifiers could be used in conjunction with other fingertip location finding techniques to provide improved accuracy. In some implementations, the regions that are identified using the classifier(s) can be highlighted by a border and displayed to the user on the mobile device display. For instance, a region identified as a fingertip segment can be bounded by a border in the image that highlights the identified region. The border can be various shapes including rectangular or elliptical borders and different segments can be highlighted including, fingertips, the hand, a group of fingers, other finger regions and the like. The users enrolment data could be used to help train the classifier once finger-tip positions have been confirmed by the user. For example, in some implementations, the process of capturing and detecting fingers and finger tips may be summarized in the following steps. (1) capture hand image, then (2) invoke a cascade classifier that is trained to find the first finger tip region, then another classifier that is trained to find the second finger tip region and so on. 
     By way of example and without limitation, use of a classifier (such as an LBP classifier) can be implemented to find the finger tips in the image, further to this it can also be advantageous to first use a classifier to find a major region of the hand such as the whole hand or the 4 fingers of the hand, then a secondary method to locate a minor region (such as the finger tips or intermediate phalanges) within the major region. The secondary method could be another classifier trained to locate each of the minor regions. The results of the minor classifier could further be filtered using a knowledge of the expected relationships (e.g., prescribed relationships_between each minor region (for example the four (4) fingers when the hand is held flat with closed fingers have a known positional relationship that can be used to exclude false matches). Further filtering could be applied by finding the positions of other prominent hand features (such as the joins between the fingers), and using this information to filter the results from the classifier. Moreover, the major classifier could be used in real time to follow the fingers as the user presents them to the camera and ensure that focus, and exposure are optimized for the hand before automatically triggering image capture and/or biometric matching. 
     As previously noted and further described herein, the processor can be configured to detect and track the fingers in real-time as the user is presenting the fingers to the camera and imagery is being captured using the camera. The tracked position of the images can be used to detect when fingers are sufficiently positionally stable and improve the quality of the verification image and the reliability of finger recognition. 
     In some implementations, the processor can be configured to accelerate real time finger detection by dynamically switching between an object detection method and a faster, tracking method, such as template matching or optical flow. For instance, when a set of four finger tips have been detected, and they have been determined to represent a hand, the configured processor can track the fingers using an optical flow algorithm. As a result, the finger positions can be tracked with significantly lower latency, and higher frame rate, than if, for example, a Cascade Classifier was also applied to subsequent image frames. High speed can be achieved by restricting the search space in the image that is searched by the processor to local image regions and the processor can be configured to only match pixels that represent distinct features, such as the center of a finger. 
     If a finger displaces too far, or leaves the field of view, object tracking may fail. Upon detecting a failure by the processor, the processor can revert to the initial object detection method, say, a Cascasde classifier. In the case of tracking four fingers, the processor can measure the relative positions of the fingers (for example, distance between finger centers) and if the distance has been determined to have altered significantly (e.g., above a prescribed threshold value), the system can revert to object detection. 
     Preferably, the capture system is able to detect when a user&#39;s fingers are held stationary (within a certain tolerance) to prevent motion blur in the verification image. This can be achieved, for example, by tracking an object between frames (e.g., computing a vector of travel) and capturing the high-resolution verification image when the object&#39;s speed falls below a threshold velocity. 
     Small errors in locating an objects position can propagate into the calculation of a velocity vector. Methods such as Cascade Classifiers often introduce artificial fluctuations in an objects position from frame to frame (the objects centre ‘jiggles’). This positional noise interferes with determining when an object is stationary. Tracking using optical flow, however, as described above, has lower noise and provides faster updates of an objects positon, and can make stationary object detection significantly more reliable. 
     Furthermore, in some implementations, finger length information could be stored and used as part of the fingertip identification algorithm, some weight could be placed on the fact that the finger prints are expected at particular relative locations in the image, and this could improve the reliability of the finger print finding algorithm, and for example help to reject print matches that are made in error. The same is true for information about the height and width of each of the fingers. In addition, the color of the users skin could be stored on enrolment and used as a further biometric identification and/or liveness verification measures. This has the advantage that spoof prints which possess the correct print but not the correct skin tone can be rejected as spoofs (for example pink silicone molds, or black and white laser prints from recovered latent fingerprints). 
       FIG. 4  depicts an exemplary routine  400  for fingertip detection from captured imagery of fingers and the corresponding imagery. As shown, at step  405  captured imagery including a plurality of fingers is obtained. The exemplary high-resolution image is shown as image  405   a  At step  410 , the imagery is down-scaled/converted to greyscale imagery and a major cascade is applied to detect the hand within the image. The exemplary greyscale image and a plurality of borders depicted around the detected hand regions are depicted in image  410   a . At step  415  the largest detected hand region is selected and the region is enlarged to include the surrounding area (e.g., an expanded region) further fingertip detection. The exemplary greyscale image and border depicted around the selected and expanded finger region is depicted in image  415   a . Then at step  420 , one or more higher sensitivity cascade classifiers are applied to detect minor regions, i.e., fingertip regions for each of the fingers. The exemplary greyscale image and borders depicted around a plurality of detected fingertip regions is depicted in image  420   a . As shown, the detected fingertip regions can exceed the number of actual fingertips in the image. Then at step  425 , the fingertip regions are filtered. Filtering is further described herein in relation to  FIG. 4B . The exemplary greyscale image and borders depicted around the filtered detected fingertip regions are depicted in image  425   a . Then at step  430 , the fingertip regions of interest (ROI) are adjusted (e.g., resized or extended downwards) to correct aspect ratio. The exemplary greyscale image and borders depicted around the detected and resized ROIs are depicted in image  430   a.    
     The finger detection is preferably robust to indoor and outdoor lighting, where images taken with illumination can be substantially different. For example, in low light environments the background often underexposes and becomes dark, while in strong, diffuse sunlight, background brightness can exceed that of the fingers and shading can be significantly different. Accordingly, in some implementations, the finger detection method can be improved by determining, by the mobile device processor, the amount of ambient light and, based on the detected light level, switching to a more optimal pathway for a particular light level in real time. Light levels, for example, could be read from a hardware based lux meter, such as that found on mobile phones for adjusting screen brightness, or estimated from camera exposure settings. 
     In one such implementation, one or more classifiers that are specific to respective light levels can be stored and available to the processor to perform finger segmentation. For instance a first Cascade classifier, that is used to detect one or more regions of the fingers, can be trained on images taken in high ambient light, while a second Cascade classifier is trained on images taken in low ambient light. Based on the measured light level, the configured mobile device processor can apply the appropriate classifier. More specifically, the first classifier can be used by the processor for detection as a default, unless light levels exceed a threshold, in which case the second classifier can be used. Switching between classifiers can occur in real time, for example, if a sequence of image frames having different ambient lighting levels is being captured and analyzed. It can also be appreciated that the foregoing method of applying ambient light-specific classifiers can be applied to images that are initially captured during the process (e.g., low resolution images captured while the user is positioning their fingers at the appropriate location in front of the camera) or subsequent high resolution image captures (e.g., high resolution images captured after the fingers are detected in the initial image captures and determined to be in focus). 
     Moreover, in some implementations, based on the measured light level, the configured mobile device processor can selectively implement artificial flash image pre-processing steps as further described below. For instance, when light levels are sufficiently high, the artificial flash process can be applied so as to avoid utilizing the flash bulb to illuminate the subject. 
     No single approach to finger detection is guaranteed to be 100% successful, however, the processor can be configured to calculate a metric for detection quality, and based on the metric, apply a series of detection methods until a result of high enough quality is achieved. For example, in the case of detecting all four fingers, the configured processor can compute a score to determine which set of four detections most likely represents a hand, as further described herein. If this score is poor (e.g., does not meet a prescribed threshold), or fingers are missing, the configured processor can apply further detections techniques. The further detection techniques can be in the form of a differently trained classifier, or some other unrelated approach. Moreover, in some implementations, the configured processor can estimate missing finger locations according to the users known hand metrics, for instance, as determined from previous enrollment or authentication captures. It can be appreciated that the particular order in which these approaches are applied does not have to be invariable, and the particular detection techniques that are implemented and the order of application can be selectively applied by the processor as a function of measured environmental conditions, hardware capabilities of the particular mobile device, or tailored over time to a specific user (e.g., based on training and/or machine learning algorithms). In view of the foregoing, it can be appreciated that, to improve speed of detection, the processor can be configured to apply tiered segmentation approach in which faster (and potentially less accurate) segmentation algorithms are first applied and, in the event the quality of the results are not sufficient, transition to more robust (and sometimes more processing intensive) segmentation algorithms to more accurately detect fingertip segments. 
     As noted above and further described herein, the exemplary finger-based recognition algorithms implemented by the mobile device processor can include one or more image enhancement steps to improve finger detection and feature extraction. Because detection methods such as Cascade Classifiers often function on greyscale images, therefore, color information is lost, for example, if only luma is used as an input. Accordingly, methods for detecting objects with known color characteristics, such as the human hand, can be beneficially improved by enhancing regions that represent the expected color prior to conversion to greyscale. 
     In one exemplary implementation, an image pre-processing method applicable to finger detection implemented by the processor includes Adaptive Skin Models. More specifically, the processor can be configured to analyze one or more of the captured images and locate a region of known skin tone, for example by detecting a hand within an image, and then a color model is computed. The image is then converted into HSV color space and a probability density function (PDF) is fitted to both the distribution of hue and saturation values of pixels within the predetermined skin region. The remaining pixels in the image are located within the PDF and a probability (p-value) is extracted representing the likelihood that a pixel represents skin. Preferably, the process is iterative in that all pixels that exceed a threshold p-value are used to refine the previous model, and the updated model is then applied, using the processor, to all pixels. In some implementations, by assuming skin regions are continuous, pixels with low p-values, but which are surrounded by pixels with high p-values, can also be included in the model. The process can be halted after a fixed number of iterations or when the number of skin pixels no long increases significantly (i.e., no longer increases a prescribed amount, convergence). The converged p-values can then either be used directly (converted to a greyscale image) as input for further detection algorithms or, in addition or alternatively, can be used to brighten skin regions in the image relative to background, non-skin regions (e.g., acting as an ‘artificial flash’). 
     In the case of fingers being presented to the mobile device camera in a relatively predetermined location (e.g., as guided using an on-screen guide), the processor can be configured to assume a particular region is highly likely to represent skin tone (for example, a centralized region of the hand in the guide). Accordingly, this assumed region can act as the initial region for building a skin model. In addition or alternatively, skin tone can be recorded when a user enrolls with system (e.g., completed without the use of a skin model). 
       FIG. 4B  depicts an exemplary routine  450  for filtering detected fingertip regions/segments (i.e., step  425  of  FIG. 4A ). Filtering generally refers to selection of a best set of fingertip segments (i.e., select a fingertip segment for each fingers that is most likely to corresponds to the actual fingertip segment). 
     The process begins at step  455  in which the fingertip detections are sorted in the horizontal (“X”) direction (e.g., arranged in a direction that is perpendicular to the orientation of the fingers according to the order of the fingers). Then at step  460 , combinations of four fingertip regions are generated using the plurality of detected fingertip regions. The exemplary greyscale image and borders depicted around a combination of four detected fingertip regions are depicted in image  460   a.    
     Then at steps  465 - 480 , each of the combined sets of four fingertip regions are scored. The scoring includes analyzing the fingertip regions to determine physical characteristics of individual fingertip regions and/or multiple fingertip regions and comparing the measured characteristics to expected characteristics. As further described herein, the scoring can be based on a comparative analysis of the physical characteristics of one or more fingertip segments relative to other fingertip segments and, in addition or alternatively, relative to physical characteristics of the plurality of fingers such as the total width of the previously detected hand region (e.g., “hand width” as detected at step  415 ). 
     More specifically, in some implementations, the combined width of the detections in a set can be compared to the hand width and scored based on the comparison. In addition or alternatively the distribution of widths of the detections (e.g., the center to center distance between adjacent finger segments) can also be scored relative to an expected width-distribution of finger segments in view of the hand width. The expected width distribution can be determined as an average from a training set of previously identified fingers. The training sets and the set can be normalized according to hand width for accurate comparison. For example, image  470   a , an exemplary greyscale image of four fingers, the borders depicted around a combination of four detected fingertip regions/segments and the measured middle-to-middle distance between the adjacent segments d1, d2, and d3. 
     In some implementations, each particular comparison can be assigned a weight, such that the calculated score is a function of the weights. For instance, less conclusive/important measures (e.g., measurements with lower precision or accuracy or having less reliability) can be discounted by being assigned a lower weight so as to not skew the overall results of the scoring. By example and without limitation, as the relative length of the little finger has higher variance between individuals, the influence of the measured distance in Y determined relating to the little finger can be ‘down weighted’ accordingly. Table  470   b  in  FIG. 4B  depicts exemplary widths, weights and expected widths used to score the relative distance characteristics. As shown in table  470   b , an exemplary expected relative distance between adjacent fingers is ¼ of the total width of the four fingers and each is assigned a weight of 1. 
     At step  475 , widths of the fingertip segments can also be scored relative to other fingertip segments. The comparison of finger widths can be based on expected relative widths of particular fingers. For example, index fingers are expected to be larger relative to the end fingers, accordingly, the relative width of the fingertip regions/segments can be scored according to such individual finger segment comparisons. The exemplary greyscale image of the fingers and four possible detected fingertip regions corresponding to the two middle fingers (index and middle finger) are depicted in image  475   a.    
     Similarly, at step  480 , the relative position of the fingertip regions in the Y direction can be scored according to expected length of the respective fingertip segments. For instance, the middle two fingers are generally expected to be higher in the Y direction relative to the end fingers and the fingertip segments can be scored according to such expected relative position characteristics. Accordingly, the distribution of height of the fingertip segments in the Y direction (i.e., the direction that is parallel to the orientation of the fingers) can be analyzed. More specifically, analyzing the distribution in Y includes analyzing the ‘length pattern’ of the fingers as depicted in  480   a . That is, the index finger is expected to be shorter than the middle finger, the middle finger longer than the ring finger, and ring finger longer than the little finger. Hence the regions of interest for the subject should have positions that follow an ‘up, down, down’ pattern in Y, from index to little finger. The precise expected pattern can be determined as an average from a training set of previously identified fingers. It can be appreciated that the training set and the set of fingertip segments can be normalized according to respective finger and/or hand dimensions for accurate comparison of relative lengths and/or positions in Y. Accordingly, the processor can be configured to compute the distance in Y between top boundaries of the various regions/segments of interest, thereby giving three distances: index to middle, middle to ring, ring to little. The processor can then use the hand width to normalize the distances, making them comparable across different scales of hand. Thereafter the distances can be compared to the expected pattern and the combination of fingers can be scored as a function of the comparison. The exemplary greyscale image of the fingers and four possible detected fingertip regions being compared in the Y direction are depicted in image  480   a . It can also be appreciated that the relative height, width, Y-position and X-position of fingertip regions can also be weighted according to importance and/or reliability. 
     In addition to the foregoing measures the configured processor can also score the combinations of fingertip segments according to illumination characteristics of the depicted fingertip segments. More specifically, it can be expected that the fingers appear with roughly equal illumination in the image. Accordingly, the configured processor can, for each combination of fingertip segments, measure the illumination across the combination of fingertip segments and score the variance in illumination. For speed and accuracy, only the pixel values at the center of each fingertip segment (for example, within a 10 by 16 rectangle) can be summed and the variance of the 4 summations determined. High variance implies that one or more of the fingertip segments are incorrectly positioned and a worse score can be assigned. 
     Then at step  485 , the cumulative scores of the combinations of fingertip regions are weighted, summed and the best combination of segments is identified according to the calculated score. The exemplary greyscale image of the fingers and the borders depicted around the best scoring combination of four detected fingertip regions are depicted in image  485   a.    
     Further, in some implementations, the examination can be performed by analyzing the frequencies and orientations of edges within each region. In addition or alternatively, the segment of the image containing the fingers can be identified as the segment(s) that primarily fill the location of the on-screen finger positioning guide. 
     In some implementation, in the case of using for example only four (4) fingers for identification, A robust procedure for enrolling and verifying the four (4) finger prints could run as follows: a). Guide the user to position their four (4) fingers in front of the camera and capture a flash image. b). Optionally use an image processing algorithm (as previously explained) to identify the location of the four prints (and other regions of interest). c). Highlight these regions to the user by for example super imposing ellipses over the print regions, and request that the user either accepts the finger print recognition as accurate, or adjust the mis-located finger print ellipses by dragging the ellipses to the correct position. This way accurate enrolment prints are assured. d). Use the accurate enrolled prints for future verification procedures. This may include the process of using the enrolled prints to find the verification prints in the verification image. 
     Moreover, in some implementations, in the case of capturing four (4) fingers, the detected image of the four fingers can then be split into four individual fingers by defining seams between each of the adjacent fingers, for example, by locating points where there are perturbation in the ridges orientations. These points are referred as singular points. Then, a K-mean clustering algorithm can be utilized to cluster the determined points into four (4) clusters representing the four fingers. In some implementation, K-mean can use a special distance function to compute the distance matrix that will be used in the clustering algorithm. This special function will results in less distance measures to points that locate on the same finger even if they are far with respect to the traditional Euclidian distance. Then, region growing segmentation algorithms can be utilized to segment individually each finger. 
     Then, for each finger, at least a region of the distal phalange of each finger can be identified within the imagery. Preferably, the finger region which is located between the tip of the finger segment and the thicker lines between the intermediate and distal phalanges is identified as it contains the most discriminative characteristics which are minutiae. 
     Both fingers and hands have a relatively constrained space of possible shapes making, accordingly, in some implementations, Active Shape Models and Active Appearance Models can be useful approaches for implementing contactless fingerprint recognition. For example, to locate and segment a hand from a target image, a Point Distribution Model is first computed by placing sets of points over hand features, such as fingertip boundaries, within example images. The model is then initialized within the target image by forming an initial estimation as to the hands position using a guide to user hand placement, or other image processing technique. For example, a Cascade Classifier can be used to provide an initial estimate to the hands location. The best fit for the model is then found by iteratively comparing it to image data and updating point positions. 
     Points of the fitted model are used to extract regions of interest for recognition. For example, points describing fingertip boundaries are used to extract fingerprints. 
     Similarly, an Active Shape Model describing the shape of a finger can be used to segment individual finger tips. For example, image regions containing finger tips are first found using a Cascade Classifier and then segmented using the model to remove both background and neighboring fingers. Furthermore, Active Shape Models can be tailored to individual users. For example, given a correct model fit, confirmed by the user during system enrolment, the model is adjusted to better describe that individuals hand and finger shape. This increases speed and reliability of recognition, and deviations from the model can be used to identify spoofs. 
     For maximal finger print extraction quality a user can be prompted to place their hand and fingers at an optimal location relative to the position of both the illuminating light source and camera, for example, providing a visual guide or outline of the optimal finger-placement on the display of the device. This could be to position the fingerprints near the center of the camera&#39;s field of view, with prints subtending a maximum angle to the camera of about +/−20 degrees. For example, fingers can be placed far enough from the light source as to minimize the angle of incidence with illuminating rays, preventing loss of detail on angled surfaces, while being close enough for sufficiently intense illumination. Concurrently, fingers are orientated to maximally reflect illumination towards the camera and positioned close enough to the camera to ensure sufficient pixel density for recognition. 
     Captured print quality can be further enhanced by adding additional illumination sources, or extended sources to the smartphone camera system to spread the spatial extent of the illumination source. For example by adding 4 LEDs in the corners of the smartphone or tablet light will be reflected favorably by more regions of the finger print leading to a higher print capture quality. 
     Once the relevant regions of the fingers are identified, at step  315 , the relevant regions can be enhanced. More specifically, the mobile device processor  110 , which is configured by executing the software modules  130 , including, preferably, the analysis module  172 , can process the portions of the imagery to enhance the detail of the imagery, for example, using a set of Gabor filters, tuned to the smoothed ridge orientation maps. In some implementation, the main objective of this image enhancing is generating fingerprint images that are similar to the images of fingerprint impression which captured using live scan sensor and usually stored in legacy databases as IAFIS. This similarity means that image captured using mobile devices are mimicking the same quality and attributes as images captured from live scan sensors. This similarity is desirable to guarantee the possibility of matching the images captured by mobile devices against images of fingerprint impression stored in legacy databases such as IAFIS. 
     To improve the extraction of discriminatory features from finger tips it can be advantageous to use enhancement filters to boost the contrast between ridges and furrows. In some implementations, the mobile device processor can apply Histogram Equalization to boost local image contrast by evenly distributing intensities over the possible range of values (typically [0,255] in greyscale images). This can be achieved by computing a cumulative histogram of pixel intensities, normalizing to the maximal value in the allowed range, and remapping source pixels according to their location in this distribution. 
     Contrast enhancement has the drawback of being indiscriminate and so enhancing background noise as well as the signal of interest. As such it can be beneficial to isolate only those signals of interest by filtering prior to contrast enhancement. For example, the processor can apply a Bandpass Filter to remove signals with frequencies that do not correspond to the expected frequency of fingerprint ridges. One such implementation removes high frequencies by subtracting a Gaussian Blur filtered source image from the raw source image. The result can then filtered again to remove low frequencies by applying another Gaussian Blur filter with appropriately smaller radius. A Histogram Equalisation can then be applied to the result of the Band-pass to attain an optimal image for feature extraction. 
     At step  320 , the minutiae of each of the fingers is extracted and a biometric identifier is generated. As would be understood by those in the art, minutia refers to the points where the ridges of a fingerprint end, and texture refers to the pattern defined by the ridges. More specifically, the mobile device processor  110 , which is configured by executing the software modules  130 , including, preferably, the analysis module  172 , analyzes the enhanced imagery to extract features from at least the distal region of each finger using an algorithm such as Minutiae extraction algorithm. 
     Most automatic systems for fingerprint comparison are based on minutiae matching; therefore, reliable minutiae extraction is an important task. Many such methods require the fingerprint gray-scale image to be converted into a skeleton image. Then, a simple image scan allows the detection of pixels that correspond to minutiae where the fingerprint ridges end and bifurcate. Extracted minutiae may be stored as sets of points in the two dimensional plane. 
     Finally, a minutiae-based matching algorithm can be performed by the configured processor to generate the similarity score between fingerprints. These matching algorithms calculate the similarity score between fingerprints by finding the alignment between the template and the input minutiae sets that result in the maximum number of minutiae pairings. 
     Features extracted from the distal region can be stored along with other features that are similarly extracted from the remaining identified regions of the fingers and/or the hand. Such features can be characterized in one or more biometric identifiers which include one or more feature vectors. 
     During enrollment, at step  325 , such feature vectors are stored in memory as a biometric identifier (e.g., template) for use in ensuring user verification steps. Alternatively, during user verification (step  330 ), the biometric identifier is compared to the version stored during enrollment. 
     More specifically, during the verification process, the fingers of the user are captured and the biometric identifier is generated as described in relation to steps  305 - 320 . However, at step  330 , the query feature vectors are then compared with the enrolled and stored feature vectors. Based on the comparison a match score is generated by the configured processor  110  relating to the similarity of the match. If the match score represents a sufficiently close match, the user can be determined to pass the verification procedure. 
     In one or more implementations, the match score can be a combined match score based on matching query fingerprints (e.g., query feature vectors) to enrolled fingerprints individually and determining a combined match score. More specifically, from a database of hand images, images can be paired up, with two distinct classes of pairs: pairs of images of the same hand, and pairs of images of different hands. For each pair of finger on these hands (e.g. index with index), a matching score can be calculated which measures the closeness of these hand images, with higher scores representing a closer match. 
     These scores can be plotted to form score distributions. For each type of finger (e.g. ring finger), there are two distributions, those scores from matching images of the same finger from the same hand, and the same finger from a different hand (i.e. an imposter). 
     These score distributions can be considered as probability distributions, which give the probability that a given matching score belongs to one of the distributions. These empirically derived distributions can be smoothed of noise and compactly characterized by fitting them to a known distribution, for instance, the gamma distribution. 
     Given an uncharacterized pair of finger images, the exemplary identification system can be configured to determine a matching score. These fitted probability distributions can then be used to determine the ratio of probability (likelihood ratio) that the pair of finger images belong to the same finger or a different finger. 
     When doing a full four-finger match, the configured system can test one unknown image (the ‘probe’ image) against previously enrolled images of a known subject (the ‘gallery’ images). For each pair of probe finger against gallery finger, the system can determine a likelihood ratio. These ratios can then be multiplied together, and the final result provides an overall measure of the chance that the probe image belongs to the subject who provided the gallery image. 
     This method has the advantage of not being degraded by specific fingers having poor predictive ability; in particular the little finger is less likely to provide a clearly predictive match than the other fingers. It also allows some tolerance against bad images; if one finger makes a poor match, it can be compensated if another finger makes a particularly good match. 
     While combining scores across multiple fingers provides tolerance against bad images, it is theoretically possible for a single probe/gallery matching score to be large enough to cause an overall pass. This could make it easier to produce spoofs, for instance, if an attacker is capable of producing a very high-quality facsimile of one of the authorized user&#39;s fingers. An exemplary method to mitigate this problem can include requiring, by the processor during the matching and scoring process, a minimum number of the probe fingers to individually produce matching scores that cross a secondary threshold, as well as requiring that the combination of matching scores passes the primary matching threshold in order to determine a positive match. Accordingly, this measure would require that any successful spoof successfully duplicates that minimum number of fingers, which is a more difficult task than duplicating a single finger successfully. It can be appreciated that the minimum number of fingers scoring above the secondary threshold required by the authentication process and the value of the secondary threshold can be adjusted to trade risk of spoofing against resilience to degraded image quality, as suits the security needs of the implementation. 
     Typically when comparing query finger data with enrolled finger data it is important to ensure that the scales of the respective images are similar. Accordingly, during the analysis of the fingerprint imagery at step  320 , the configured processor  110  can determine the fundamental frequency of the fingerprint ridges. During enrollment (e.g., step  325 ), the configured processor can store the fundamental frequency. During verification (e.g., step  330 ), the configured processor can scale the fundamental frequency of the verification print to match the fundamental frequency of the enrolled print before comparison. In addition or alternatively, the processor can normalize the frequency of the print to a prescribed reference frequency e.g., one (1), such that the actual frequency does not have to be stored. Accordingly, during recognition, the query print can be normalized to the prescribed reference value. 
     It should be understood that one or more pre-processing operations can be performed on the image frames prior to generating the feature vectors or prior to comparing feature vectors during authentication. By example and without limitation, pre-processing of the image data prior to analysis can include orienting the image frames in coordinate space and the like as would be understood by those skilled in the art. 
     Existing technologies concerning image based fingerprint identification implementing existing scaling algorithms generally miss-scale about 2% of the fingerprints resulting in false rejects during authentication. This is due in part to those algorithms using an insufficient number of reference points in an image (i.e., using only two points, the tip/starting-point of the fingerprint and the base/end-point of the print) to deduce size and scale accordingly. To improve scaling operations, according to one or more of the disclosed embodiments, the processor can implement an algorithm that analyses the average frequency of a finger print (e.g., typical number of lines per inch) and normalizes the scale of the print(s) accordingly. Since this technique judges scaling based on a larger set of the print&#39;s pixels, taken at many points across the area of the print, considerably higher reliability can be achieved during the scaling process. 
     Before and/or after enrollment and verification steps, the method can also include a step of detecting liveness. Liveness detection is depicted as step  335  in  FIG. 3 . A liveness detection method can be implemented to verify that the captured four (4) fingers image is from real fingers rather than, for example, a printed spoof or mold of the fingers. More specifically, in some implementations, the mobile device processor  110 , which is configured by executing the software modules  130 , including, preferably, the analysis module  172 , can analyze the image quality of the fingers and determine whether they are consistent with images from live fingers and/or fake fingers, which typically have noticeable artifacts such as reduced resolution and sharpness. 
     For example, as further described herein, one liveness detection technique can be to prompt the user to rotate the hand during imaging and the configured processor can determine that the imaged hand is appropriately three dimensional using, for example, depth from motion techniques and depth from focus techniques. Alternatively, the system can implement techniques for passive liveness detection, for instance, to analyze the image quality to check that it is sufficiently sharp and not a low resolution (e.g., from a spoof print of the hand). The configured processor can also analyze the color of the fingers to determine whether the coloring is consistent with a live hand image and/or the known color of the user&#39;s hand. Therefore, in some implementations, the color consistence, in other words, color uniformity of the hand can be performed by detecting the fingertips and the hand simultaneously. Then, separating the area of the hand that doesn&#39;t contain the fingertips which consists of the palm and lower phalanges (i.e, the proximal and intermediate) and then determining the color histogram of this area and the color histogram of the 4 detect fingertips areas. Finally, in some implementation, comparing these two histograms can be utilized as a test for the color uniformity of the hand and fingers to determine the liveness measure, especially, if the attacker is using molds (i.e., fake fingers) to spoof the system. In addition, the configured processor can also request that user make one or more gestures with their fingers, for example, spread and close fingers or move certain fingers in a particular manner. 
     Moreover, in some implementations, a classifier can be trained to distinguish live from spoof. The classifier can be trained so that it learns the difference between real finger images and various spoof images. The processor implementing the classifier would then be configured to provide a pass fail result based in its training. 
     Further, in some implementations, as an extra factor of biometrics liveness, the positions of the finger prints in the image could be taken into account, i.e. the genuine user will have first, second, third and fourth fingers of particular lengths. So that when the user holds their hand with fingers outstretched and closed together, the positions of the four (4) finger prints should have a relative positioning that is consistent with that particular user. This information could be used as an additional security check to help prevent spoof attack. For example a hacker who finds latent prints on a phone screen is unlikely to be able to deduce the lengths of the users&#39; fingers, and so would be unlikely to present them correctly. 
     Further to the exemplary systems and method described in relation to  FIG. 3 , various alternatives and variations are contemplated. In some implementations, the enrollment images of the user&#39;s fingers are not necessarily captured by the mobile device camera. Instead, the fingers feature vectors could be acquired from an alternative source such as a pre-recorded database of finger images. 
     In some implementations, during the enrollment process, for capture of the fingers (for example and without limitation, four or ten fingers with improved resolution, the image of each finger may be captured sequentially in individual images. In this case, during the enrollment procedure, the configured processor displaying an on screen finger guide can prompt the user to position one finger on screen at a time and the segmentation algorithm can be used to identify the distal phalange and fingerprint region of the fingers individually. 
     In some implementations, instead of limiting the matching process (e.g., step  330 ) to the comparison of the fingertip (e.g., distal phalange) regions, the comparison could include other parts of the hand in addition to the fingerprints or instead of the fingerprints. For example the region of interest could include any parts of the hand with detectable patterning, or the distal and intermediate phalanges, or the metacarpals. Some of these regions have the added advantage that they are more resistance to spoof attack thus providing a higher level of security. For instance the user&#39;s fingertip prints can often be found on the smartphone case or other surfaces that the user has touched. These latent finger prints can be copied by an imposter, and a mold created that could pass verification. However, the prints at the metacarpals are much harder to find since it is less common for these regions of the hand to contact surfaces to leave latent prints. 
     In some implementations, instead of using singular points to separate the four finger cluster into separate fingers, the user could be prompted to spread their fingers during capture. The fingers could then be isolated using a segmentation algorithm, and a contour deformation method could be used to identify the positions of each fingertip. 
     In some implementations, segmentation of the pertinent finger regions could be performed using skin color, frequency and orientation. For example, a Sobel operator could be implemented by the configured processor to emphasize regions that are in focus (i.e. the fingers rather than the background), to aid the segmentation process. In addition or alternatively, segmentation could also be done by simply extracting fixed regions from the captured image relating to regions that the user was guided to place their fingers during the capture process. 
     In some implementations, during the authentication process, segmentation can be performed using the enrolled print information. By segmenting and identifying and/or matching fingerprint features based on a print template generated during enrollment can provide improvements over existing techniques. For example existing image based fingerprint identification techniques isolate a fingerprint in the same manner during enrollment and authentication and, as a result, isolates a single fingerprint from imagery with unsatisfactory success for reliable use. In some instances, successful isolation using the existing methods occurs only 96% of the time resulting in 4% false rejects during authentication. By using that technique separately on multiple fingers, this problem is compounded. 
     However, according to one or more of the disclosed embodiments, a different algorithm for fingerprint isolation is performed by the configured processor, namely, one that uses the enrolled print to find the finger(s) and isolate/match the prints during authentication. This provides significantly more robust performance. In some implementations, the configured processor can implement the segmentation process, for example, by extracting finger features (such as minutiae) from the entire four finger image, and locating the finger regions by exhaustively comparing all locations in the image with the finger features from the enrolled prints. The finger region will be known to be located where the enrolled finger is found to match the finger features in the image. Furthermore to minimize the possibility of a false match by random features in the image, the validity of the matched regions could be checked, for example in the case of capturing four (4) fingers procedure, by ensuring that 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th fingers are found roughly as expected from the user guidance overlay image, the skin color is as expected, and the like (e.g, template matching using enrollment template to guide the comparison). Moreover, rather than using this process to search the whole image for finger locations, the search range could be restricted to the areas that fingers are anticipated from the user guidance overlay image. 
     In addition or alternatively to basing the finger scaling on the fundamental ridges frequency, the processor  110  can be configured to scale the print based on one or more of: the width of the segmented four finger cluster, the width or length of each fingers region of interest, or on specific points on the finger such as singular points and the thicker lines at a phalange joint. 
     As well as (or instead of) matching finger based on minutiae, the processor  110  can also be configured to match prints based on texture. 
     Moreover, in some implementations, instead of using one image for the fingers, several images could be used to enroll or authenticate a user. The multiple images can be captured by the configured processor  110  using the camera  145  at various exposures, and/or focal distances to create an image with enhanced depth of field and/or dynamic range. Capturing imagery with such varying exposures and/or focal distances can help to ensure that the focus of the prints at various locations across the hands is optimal. Accordingly, the configured processor can select and analyze the image(s) or portions of the image that have optimal focus on the finger portion of interest. 
     In addition or alternatively, liveness detection can be implemented by checking that other metrics are consistent with that of a real finger rather than a print or video or molded finger spoof. These metrics could include analysis of specular reflections from the flash captured in the imagery, analysis of specular reflections from the flash in comparison to an image taken without the flash, color, colorfulness metrics (so as to reject black and white and monochrome spoofs). 
     In some implementations, liveness can be detected by the analysis of specular reflections or depth from focus information obtained from imagery of the fingers. By way of non-limiting example, exemplary systems and methods for liveness determination based on specular reflections and depth-from-focus information are described herein and in co-pending and commonly assigned U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 62/066,957 titled SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PERFORMING IRIS IDENTIFICATION AND VERIFICATION USING MOBILE DEVICES UTILIZING VISIBLE SPECTRUM LIGHTING, filed on Oct. 15, 2014, which is hereby incorporated by reference as if set forth in its entirety herein. Liveness can also be detected by the analysis of dynamic movement of the fingers (e.g., finger gestures) such as tilting the fingers, or spreading/narrowing the fingers as depicted throughout a sequence of images captured by the camera. By way of non-limiting example, exemplary systems and methods for liveness determination based on dynamic movement of biometric features and gestures are described herein and in co-pending and commonly assigned U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 62/041,803, entitled “SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR DETERMINING LIVENESS” filed Aug. 26, 2014, which is hereby incorporated by reference as if set forth in its entirety herein. 
     In some implementations, liveness can be detected by performing a reflectivity analysis of light emitted onto the finger ridges during capture of imagery of the fingers. Live finger ridges reflect flash non uniformly, whereas printed fingers reflect flash uniformly. Accordingly, ridge reflectivity properties captured in the imagery of the fingers can be analyzed to determine liveness. An exemplary process for determining liveness based on the reflectivity is further described herein in relation to the flow-diagram of  FIG. 5 , and corresponding images in  FIGS. 5B-5C . At step  505 , the inputs to the liveness detection algorithm are obtained. The inputs include high-resolution image(s) of one or more of the fingers captured with the flash on, as well high resolution imagery of the fingers captured with the flash off. Exemplary flash-on  505 A and flash-off images  505 B of the finger(s) are shown in  FIG. 5B . At steps  510 , the flash-on image(s) is resized such that the fingerprint within the image is isolated. At steps  515 , the regions in the flash-off image(s) that includes the corresponding finger is segmented (for example according to the exemplary fingerprint segmentation algorithms described above). Accordingly, the fingerprint depicted in the flash-on image and the corresponding fingerprint in the flash-off images are isolated for further processing. Exemplary isolated flash-on and flash-off images of the fingertip are shown as image  510 A and  515 B, respectively, in  FIG. 5B . Then at step  520  a high pass filter is applied to retain the portion of the images that depict the ridges. Exemplary filtered flash-on and flash-off images of the fingertip are shown as images  520 A and  520 B in  FIG. 5B . Then at step  525 , the liveness score is calculated. In one exemplary arrangement, the liveness score is calculated as a function of the standard deviation (a) of the histogram generated from the filtered flash-off image and the corresponding standard deviation (b) of the histogram generated from the filtered flash-on image (i.e., liveness score=a/b). By way of example, similar images obtained during the application of the process  500  on spoof images of the fingerprints are depicted in  FIG. 5C . In other implementation, other measures can be computed from the histograms of the filtered flash-on and flash-off images to calculate the liveness score. The following is some examples of the measures that can be used: (1) the difference between the means of the histograms, (2) the difference between the means of the histogram frequencies, (3) the ratio of the standard deviation of the histogram frequencies, (4) the difference between the kurtosis of the histograms, and/or (5) the number of the corresponding key points in the filtered flash-on and flash-off images. In some implementation, the difference in the pixel intensities of the background of the flash-on and flash-off images can be used as a liveness measure. 
       FIGS. 6A-6F  depict exemplary ridge images of fingers captured at various positions in relation to the camera field of view. In particular,  FIG. 6A  depicts a captured image and corresponding ridge image for fingers that are too far from the camera and have low print resolution.  FIG. 6B  depicts a captured image and corresponding ridge image for fingers that are too far from the camera and have low print resolution.  FIG. 6C  depicts a captured image and corresponding ridge image showing good resolution due to finger placement that is central in the field of view and sufficiently close to the camera.  FIG. 6D  depicts a captured image and corresponding ridge image showing a loss of reflections at the edges of the index and little finger due to high angle LED reflections.  FIG. 6E  depicts a captured image and corresponding ridge image showing a loss of reflections at the tips of the fingers due to high angle LED reflections as fingers are placed near the edge of the camera field of view.  FIG. 6F  depicts a captured image and corresponding ridge image showing a loss of reflections at the tips of the fingers due to high angle LED reflections as fingers are placed near the edge of the camera field of view. 
     In some implementations, fingerprint based authentication can further be combined with facial identification to provide the enhanced security/reliability of multi-modal biometrics. For example, in the case of a smartphone, the user&#39;s four fingers could be captured using a smartphones rear facing camera simultaneously or sequentially as face and/or iris capture is made using the front facing camera. By way of non-limiting example, exemplary systems and methods for generating hybrid biometric identifiers and performing identification/authentication using hybrid biometric identifiers are described in co-pending and commonly assigned U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 62/156,645, entitled SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR GENERATING HYBRID BIOMETRIC IDENTIFIERS, filed on May 4, 2015, which is hereby incorporated by reference as if set forth in its entirety herein. 
     By way of further example, in addition to characterizing a user by generating a finger feature vectors according to routine  300 , as described above, additional biometric features can be extracted from the image(s) captured at step  305 , or biometric information captured separately. Such additional biometric features can include by way of example and without limitation, soft biometric traits and hard biometric traits. “Soft biometric” traits are physical, behavioral or adhered human characteristics whereas hard biometrics such as, fingerprint, iris, periocular characteristics and the like are generally invariant. By way of further example, soft biometric traits can include physical traits such as skin textures, or skin colors. Soft biometrics can also include motion as detected by smartphone gyroscope/accelerometer, eye motion characteristics as detected by eye tracking algorithms and head motion characteristics as detected by tracking the movement of a face and/or head. Such biometric features can be extracted and characterized according to the foregoing method as well as existing biometric analysis algorithms. In addition, the additional characterizations of the user&#39;s biometric features can be encoded as part of the biometric identifier generated at step  320 , or otherwise included in a composite biometric identifier which includes the fingerprint biometric identifier, for example by fusing multiple biometric identifiers. 
     In one or more exemplary embodiments, image capture of the fingers can be performed at a greater distance than typically performed by a user using a hand-held device such as a smartphone. The exemplary embodiments can be similarly implemented using systems configured to capture imagery using short-range to long-range image acquisition modalities possible. Image acquisition at a distance can be performed with optical modalities such as optical based systems of various kinds, for example using telephoto-lens, as well as laser focused based systems, and sonar-based systems. Applications of these types of longer range image capture modalities can be critical in law enforcement, military and intelligence, and can ultimately be deployed in commercial environments. 
     Moreover, image capture can be performed while the subject is not stationary, such implementations are referred to herein as Fingerprint on the move (FOM) systems. This type of opportunistic capture can happen concurrently over time as a person&#39;s fingerprints become visible to special operators tasked with this job in covert operation and/or surveillance modes. 
     For capture at a distance super resolution techniques can be implemented to increase print quality by using data from multiple frames, and to stitch partial print regions from different frames together into a larger print image. By way of non-limiting example, exemplary systems and methods for performing super-resolution techniques to generate identifiers based on multiple image captures and performing identification/authentication using same are described herein and in co-pending and commonly assigned U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 62/066,957 titled SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PERFORMING IRIS IDENTIFICATION AND VERIFICATION USING MOBILE DEVICES UTILIZING VISIBLE SPECTRUM LIGHTING, filed on Oct. 15, 2014 which was previously incorporated by reference herein. 
     In addition, it can be appreciated that the foregoing procedures for performing fingerprint acquisition and identification can be similarly performed using imagery captured in the NIR light and IR light spectrum, and using devices equipped with NIR and/or IR light emitters. This implementation can be especially useful for incorporating vein pattern identification as an additional biometric factor. By way of non-limiting example, exemplary systems and methods for capturing biometric imagery in the NIR and IR spectral bands using NIR and IR light emitters and performing identification/authentication are described herein and in co-pending and commonly assigned U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 62/129,277, entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PERFORMING IRIS IDENTIFICATION AND VERIFICATION USING MOBILE DEVICES” filed Mar. 6, 2015, which is hereby incorporated by reference as if set forth in its entirety herein. 
     The following discussion describes exemplary approaches for improving performance of optical fingerprint capture systems, in accordance with one or more disclosed embodiments of the invention, described here in the context of mobile devices with cameras, and methods for matching the output of a contactless optical system to prints captured using other types of sensors, for example, those captured using contact scanners. Images captured using a contactless optical system (e.g., a camera) are referred to herein as “4F” or “4F images.” Because such images are captured using an optical system and without contact between the finger and the sensor/detector, they are images of a three dimensional object. Images captured using traditional contact scanners are referred to herein as “Flat” or “Flat images.” Because such “flat images” are typically captured with the finger contacting the scanner/sensor, the images represent a two-dimensional surface of an object. 
     To improve performance provided herein are methods to optimize the selection of the highest quality minutiae, combine match scores across multiple fingers and templates while accounting for variation in individual finger matching performance (referred to as score fusion), circumventing the issues of unknown scale/estimating fingerprint scale, and detail improved schemes for user enrollment. 
     To match prints captured with different devices, the exemplary systems and methods solve the problems of print distortion. Each capture technique introduces its own types of distortion and hence degrades matching performance. Also described herein are methods for applying Convolutional Neural Networks in the fingerprint matching domain which can be made robust to distortion through the process of training and therefore outperform traditional fingerprint matchers. 
     In addition, further described herein are methods to detect presentation spoofs for optical print capture with a single camera by digital reconstruction of the 3D shape of the fingers from multiple images. This is particularly applicable to capture on mobile devices due to the limited hardware available. 
     Exemplary Minutiae Selection Pipeline 
     Minutiae are extracted from optically captured prints in uncontrolled environments and with varying hardware; lighting, background and lenses. As such, images may contain features that are detected as minutiae points which are in fact artefacts of optical print capture. Although flatbed scanners also suffer from similar issues (dirt, smudging etc.), additional artefacts can be caused by background objects, regions of bad focus, marks on the lens, as well as other hand features not normally captured in a scanned capture. For example, the edges of the fingers, clearly visible in photos, are not present in flatbed scanned prints, and can cause false minutiae to appear where ridges terminate at the finger borders. 
     The exemplary systems and methods employ a series of operations to optimally select against artificial and/or poor quality minutiae, while preventing failure in unforeseen environments; to still select the best minutiae in cases where a large percentage may incorrectly be deemed artificial/of poor quality. 
     Detected minutiae are assigned quality scores that are impacted by several filtering algorithms. Minutiae are not deleted, only ordered into a selection list according to their quality, from which the top minutiae, given some threshold, are selected. This provides robustness in cases where many minutiae may have been erroneously discarded, while maintaining reliable selection of minutiae in typical cases. 
     Initial Quality Scores 
     Minutiae extraction algorithms, such as that included in the Bozorth NIST matcher, typically provide a quality score determined by algorithms that are designed to assess the quality of a contact print. For example, determining regions where the print has smudged. The same algorithms apply equally well to optically captured prints as blurred regions or lens dirt can have similar effects on ridge contrast. As such, the exemplary systems and methods use the quality score produced by off-the-shelf minutiae extractors as our initial quality scores for minutiae. 
     Minutiae Chain Filtering 
       FIG. 7A  illustrates a captured image  700  of fingers and corresponding minutiae points detected on and between fingers in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein. As illustrated in  FIG. 7A , numerous minutiae points can be detected on and around the finger tips. The minutia points are illustrated by a point (e.g.,  702 ) showing the location of the minutia and a tail (e.g.,  704 ) oriented in the direction of the minutia feature. As shown, for example, the minutia can be depicted using various points that signify a corresponding quality score (i.e., a round point  702  symbolizes a higher quality minutia point, a square point (not shown) symbolizes mediocre quality and a triangle  706  point symbolizes the lowest quality minutia).  FIG. 7A  illustrates minutia that are falsely detected between fingers  710  (falsely detected/poor minutia points illustrated as a triangle point). By using the algorithm detailed below, the systems can find connected chains of minutia points (e.g.,  712 ,  714 ) based on constraints and substantially suppress the effects of such falsely detected minutiae points, greatly enhancing performance and speed of the matching process. The high reliability of this method allows all offending minutiae to be moved to the bottom of the quality ordered selection list by multiplying their quality scores by zero. 
     The algorithm for finding chains of false minutiae works by creating longer chains given certain constraints. Specifically, the system can use a level-wise mining technique where initially at level one, the system constructs a subset of chains of minutiae by obtaining all pairs of minutiae points and then remove pairs from this subset if (i) the pair has a distance larger than a threshold d and (ii) if the angle difference between the minutiae orientations is larger than threshold θ. In the second level, and similarly for future levels, the system constructs longer chains by merging smaller chains. That is, if two chains each have a length of N minutiae points and they share N−1 minutiae in their chains, the two chains are combined and merged into a single N+1 chain. In future levels the N+1 length chains will be merged to create N+2 length chains and so on. Testing has shown that, in some implementations, running the algorithm until length 5 chains are obtained can be sufficient and running the algorithm to obtain longer chains can be redundant. However, in some implementations running the algorithm to obtain longer chains can be beneficial. 
     Background Minutiae Augmentation 
     Background image pixels can often be interpreted as fingerprint minutiae, although typically the background is not in focus and minutiae appear to be of low quality. However, such minutiae can be identified by segmenting the background from the foreground finger and lowering the quality score of minutiae. For example, a threshold segmentation on the luminance channel of the image can be performed, assuming that the finger is highly illuminated by the light source. 
     A more reliable approach, for example, is to use Skin Detection Models (previously described). In particular, implementation of a Skin Detection Model can be employed to artificially brighten the skin tones of the hand. The same model can be applied to segment the foreground finger. 
     In one such application, the result of the finger detection system (for example, cascade classifiers) provides an ROI for each finger (regions of interest/bounding boxes). A fingertip image is created by cropping the original image with the appropriate ROI. A central, square region covering 20% of the image can then be selected and a model computed. This generates the initial skin model which is applied in the first iteration of the detection algorithm. This works on the assumption that the finger detection system correctly identified the finger location, and the center of the image almost certainly contains only pixels representing skin. The skin detection algorithm then proceeds as previously described, applying the model and updating the model at each iteration. 
     In some implementations, the result is a probability map (p-map), where pixels representing skin are valued close to 1, while pixels of the background are valued close to zero. The p-map can further require thresholding, for example at 0.5, to create a binary map. 
     Minutiae that lie in background regions have their quality values multiplied by a small value (for example, 0.01). This approach maintains the order of minutiae in terms of quality and also their position above those determined to be part of chains (which have values of zero). In cases where errors occur (for example, the whole image is mistakenly determined to be background) minutiae selection is unaffected. 
     Finally, because fixed thresholding can be unreliable, the system can apply, for example, Otus&#39;s thresholding method (as would be understood by those in the art) to dynamically determine the threshold within the bi-modal histogram produced by background and skin. This algorithm is robust to cases where, for example, only skin is present in the image. 
     Minutiae Selection Pipeline 
       FIG. 7B  depicts a captured image of fingers and processed image data throughout stages of an exemplary pipeline for minutiae selection in accordance with at least one embodiment disclosed herein. An exemplary pipeline for minutiae selection can be as follows and is depicted in  FIG. 7B : 
     1. A cropped finger undergoes ridge enhancement and all possible minutiae extracted (results illustrated by image  722 ). 
     2. Binary segmentation using a Skin Detection Model (results illustrated by image  724 ). 
     3. Quality values of minutiae in background regions are reduced (multiplication by 0.01) (results illustrated by image  726 ). 
     4. Chain filtering applied to all minutiae, quality scores set to zero (results illustrated by image  728 ). 
     5. Top 40%, in terms of quality score, minutiae are selected for the template (results illustrated by image  724 ). 
     Exemplary Scaling Method 
     As captured images from the 4F fingerprint recognition system or the scanning device may be at different scales, to increase the matching performance the images are preferably brought to a similar scale. Further presented herein are different approaches to overcome this problem. 
     Minimum Cost Scaling 
     This approach aims at minimizing the distance between correct corresponding minutiae by applying different scales and thereby minimizing the effects of mis-scaled prints. By finding the best scale with the highest matching score the system can reduce the effects of print scale on the matching process. 
     For example the test print can be tested using the system over a scale range of 80% to 120% in 10% steps, with the best matching score taken. These parameters can be adjusted depending on factors such as the scale tolerance of the matcher. It can also be advantageous to scale X and Y axis independently, especially when matching against prints taken with a contact scanner that may have been stretched predominantly in one direction. 
     Ridge Scaling 
     Alternatively, the scaling of the enhanced cropped finger image can be done by utilizing the local ridges frequencies of the probe and gallery images being matched/compared (applicable in scenarios: 4F against 4F, or 4F against Flat). 
     Local ridge frequencies are the inverse of the average distance between ridges in the local area in a direction perpendicular to the local orientation. As would be understood by a person of ordinary skill in the art, various methods exist for determine ridge frequency. For example, in some configurations, as an approach described by Hong et al., (L. Hong, Y. Wan, and A. Jain. Fingerprint image enhancement: algorithm and performance evaluation. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 20(8):777-789, August 1998.) can be used to find the local ridge frequencies of a fingerprint image. However, the local ridge frequency can vary across different fingers, and may also noticeably vary across different regions of the same fingerprint. Therefore, it is can be preferable to use the median of the local ridge frequencies of a finger image as the metric to scale images. 
     Assume the median frequency of the probe finger image is f1 and the median frequency of the gallery finger image is f2. For example, to scale the probe based on the frequency information, the scale factor S=f2/f1. By using this scaling factor to scale the width and height of the probe image, the resolution of the fingerprint ridges will be much closer to the resolution of the gallery image. 
     This approach can be extended to normalize the probe finger image without the need of the gallery image or calculating the median frequency if the gallery image. In literature, it has been recommended that an image resolution of 500 points per inch (ppi), wherein a point is a pixel or a dot, is necessary for successful processing and matching in biometric application. At this resolution, for example, the distance between adjacent ridges is approximately 9 pixels. By considering 9 pixels as the wavelength to acquire a fingerprint image that has 500 ppi resolution, the system can scale the probe fingerprint image based on its median frequency. Therefore, the normalization can be done by scaling the probe image with normalization scaling factor, NS=f2*9. Based on empirical results, it has been found that some type of fingerprint (middle, ring, little) will get better matching results if the wavelength that used for normalization is 8 pixels instead of 9 pixels. 
     Exemplary Score Fusion Process 
     After obtaining various matching scores for each fingerprint, it can be important to combine these scores for a better overall score for the hand as a whole. The following discussion presents various approaches to combine scores, whether between fingers on a single hand or multiple instances of the same hand. 
     Score Fusion Via Multiple Fingerprints 
     One approach to determining if a single finger matches another is to determine a cut-off threshold, based on computing scores from tested data, which provides a particular false acceptance rate. However, investigations show that the distributions of genuine and imposter matches differs between fingers, hence, to combine the results of all four fingers using a single threshold can lead to diminished results (e.g., result of camera angle, angle to illumination, focus across the ccd etc). Consequently, combining scores across fingerprints by adding scores together can in some cases yield poor results. 
     One exemplary method of resolving this problem is to deduce probability models for each finger independently, and then combine probabilistically these scores into one probability of a whole hand match. Hence, using probabilities, the system can theoretically accurately combine the match results from individual fingers accounting for the differing distributions. 
     For example, this may be done by fitting probability distributions (for example gamma distributions), for each finger, to both imposter and genuine score distributions. This approach is based on the likelihood ratio test and it requires explicit estimation of genuine and impostor match score densities. The density-based approach has the advantage that it directly achieves optimal performance at any desired operating point (FAR), provided the score densities are estimated accurately. 
     The likelihood of a score given that a user is genuine (P(S|G)) can be determined using the fitted curve as a probability density function, as can the likelihood of the score given the user is an imposter (P(S|I)). In the simple case, the probability that a single finger is genuine given the match score (P(G|S)) can be computed using Bayes Theorem as: 
     
       
         
           
             
               
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         P ( S )= P ( S|G= 0)· P ( G= 0)+ P ( S|G= 1)· P ( G= 1).
 
     To compute the probability of the whole hand being genuine the system can apply the product across the four fingers: 
     
       
         
           
             
               
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     Note that when computing on a processor it is necessary safeguard against numerical instability when probabilities a very small. This can be done, for example, by computing in logarithmic space. 
     Score Fusion via Multiple Templates 
     In this approach, multiple templates for the enrollment and/or the verification are used. By matching all (or a sub set of) combinations of enrollment and verification templates, the system&#39;s ability to discern genuine from imposter is improved. The use of multiple templates both minimizes the impact of poor quality regions that may reside within a single template and better covers sources of variation (for example angle of capture) that may result in better/worse capture of regions within a finger. 
     As an example, the system can capture three enrollment templates; that is to say three images of a user&#39;s hand, extracting four finger templates per hand, totaling 12 finger templates. To authenticate, a single verification template can be used (4 finger templates). For each finger, the system performs three matches, the scores from which can be combined. The combination of scores could take any form, for example, summation, median, or via probabilistic approaches (Score Fusion via Multiple Fingerprints). 
     Multiple Templates Schema—Capture at Enrolment 
     Capturing multiple templates at enrollment increases the time required by the user to complete enrollment but provides two important benefits. Firstly, the verifying user is required to capture only a single template, which is fast. Secondly, the system can process enrollment templates to assess the user&#39;s suitability by cross matching the templates. This allows early rejection of those people with degraded prints or attempts to enroll arbitrary objects. This helps mitigate security holes during verification due to poor quality enrollments. 
     Exemplary Finger-Based Liveness Detection Method 
     A method of determining the difference between a real hand and a spoof is to check that the three-dimensional (3D) shape of the hand or fingers is as expected, and/or is not as would be expected for a spoof. 
     In one exemplary embodiment, two images of the user&#39;s finger(s) can be taken from different angles, the shape of the fingers are deduced and a metric made relating to the closeness of fit to a real finger. If the shape is close enough to the shape expected from a real finger then the liveness test is passed. 
     Two images could be collected from the user by first displaying a hand guide on the screen in one location. After the user has positioned their hand in the guide an image is taken, the guide is then moved to another location encouraging the user to move their hand to a new location. When the user has moved their hand to the new location the second image is captured. More than two (2) images could be used to build a more robust 3D model of the hand. A computationally efficient method of generating a 3D hand model is to collect two (2) finger images from horizontally displaced locations, then performing correspondence matching to create depth map as is well known in the prior art. 
       FIG. 8A  depicts (a) Two finger images collected from the user at different locations (shift along the finger); (b) and (c) Vertical and horizontal edge maps are generated to align corresponding fingers; (d) Cropped and enhanced middle fingers from two images. 
     The correspondence matching can be made more efficient if these two finger images are rotationally and vertically aligned, and are identically scaled. This alignment can be carried out by locating the shadow lines between the fingers, and rotating them until they are horizontal. The vertical alignment can be carried out by locating and aligning the tips of the fingers. Scaling could be carried out by normalizing the distance between the shadow lines between each finger. After proper alignment, the finger images are cropped and enhanced using histogram equalization algorithm. 
     The disparity map between two finger images can be computed pixel by pixel using block-mapping technique. Only the disparities along finger direction are used for liveness detection. The map is then fitted using second order polynomial surface model to reduce noises.  FIG. 8B  shows the disparity maps from a real finger ( 800   a ) and a 2D picture ( 800   b ). Due to the 3D property of the finger, a curved surface can be seen in the direction perpendicular to the finger in the disparity map  800   a . In contrast, the disparity map  800   b  from spoofing picture is much more flat since all points are from 2D surface. The curvatures of each of the vertical lines are then calculated and used to determine the liveness and the final decision of liveness is made by checking the liveness of each finger.  FIG. 8C  illustrates disparity map data (points,  810 ) and a mathematically fitted surface  815  for a real finger ( 800   c ) and  FIG. 8D  illustrates disparity map data (points,  820 ) and a mathematically fitted surface  835  for a 2D spoofing picture ( 800   d ). 
     Exemplary Distortion Correction Method 
     Various approaches have been applied to resolve the challenge of fingerprint matching in distorted images. This distortion changes the spatial relationships between fingerprint minutiae and prevents fingerprint matchers finding a correct match. While previous approaches have been somewhat successful, they have mostly focused on matching fingerprints obtained from the same sensor. Moreover the distortions they are dealing with mostly arise from artefacts in the image. 
     The exemplary systems and methods disclosed herein aim at resolving this problem on a more challenging level. Firstly, in addition to a single capturing device, the system is configured to make additional attempts to match fingerprints obtained from two different image capturing techniques. Specifically, for example, the first technique captures images of fingers using a camera on a mobile phone device for verification while the second may also use a fingerprint scanning device rather than the camera for enrolment. Secondly the distortion types introduced by these devices vary significantly and introduce new problems in matching. 
     While both aforementioned image capturing techniques include image distortions, each technique also introduces its own distortion types, thereby introducing new challenges. 
     In an image captured with a mobile phone using exemplary contactless finger recognition technology disclosed herein, the center of the image can be least distorted while the outermost region of the finger can be more highly distorted. This emerges due to the curvature of the finger where the highest distortion comes from the region with the highest curvature, i.e. the boundary of the finger. 
     In an image obtained from the flatbed scanner, henceforth referred to as Flat, while there is little to no curvature distortion, there are however local distortions in different parts of the fingerprint. This is due to different pressure points being applied by the finger on to the surface of the scanner. Moreover these local distortions may vary significantly throughout the fingerprint. 
     In the case of matching using a single sensor type both the enrollment and verification fingerprints are of the same distortion type. However, in the case of different capture devices, the enrolment images can be from, say, a scanner and the verification images can be from a mobile camera (e.g., “4F” or “4F Images”). Therefore the matching process is configured to attempt to find correct matches between different types of distortions. 
     While the aforementioned techniques described can be used to help tackle the finger image to Flat matching problem, the following discussion is directed to, inter alia, solving this problem and can improve the performance of the finger recognition system significantly. 
     Distortion Modelling Using Thin Plate Spline 
     As would be understood by a person of ordinary skill in the art, various methods exist for distortion modelling. For example, in some configurations, an approach described by Ross and Nadgir (Ross A. and Nadgir R., “A thin-plate spline calibration model For fingerprint sensor interoperability,” IEEE Transaction Data and Knowledge Engineering, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 1097-1110, 2008.), a mapping between the two distortion types using a thin plate spline can be modeled. By applying this model onto minutiae obtained from a mobile phone image, the system can be configured to map them onto their correct corresponding minutiae on the surface image and use them for verification. This allows the matcher to find more corresponding matches between the two image types. 
     Distortion Robust Matcher 
     Previous approaches are typically applied either before or after the matching process. In applying this distortion robust matcher approach, however, the parameters in the matcher can be adjusted to allow for higher levels of distortion. This allows correct matches that undergo higher degrees of distortion to be matched, resulting in more correct matches. 
     Distortion Correction Using Scanning Device: 
     In this approach the exemplary systems and methods are configured such that the distortion problem is solved at the image capturing stage. Using a scanner, simultaneously while capturing a fingerprint, the system stores the pressure applied by the person&#39;s finger in terms of its direction and magnitude. This results in vectors across the finger and by applying it onto the image and its minutiae, the system can thus diffuse and remap any distortion caused as a result of the pressure. 
     Exemplary Fingerprint Matching Methods Using CNNs 
     As an alternative to using minutiae based extractors and matchers, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) can also be applied using the system to match a verification fingerprint to an enrolled image. Various networks such as existing “GoogleNet” or “AlexNet” can be used for the training process. Each dataset with which the system trains on may consist of images of the following types: 
     1) RGB Images: These types of images are the cropped fingerprints of the 4 Finger or Slap images 
     2) Grayscale: RGB images converted to grayscale. 
     3) Ridge enhanced Images: We use the grayscale image and perform enhancements using our Fingerprint Enhancement technique outlined in our previous patent. 
     4) Ridge Images: We perform Ridge Creation on enhanced images where we search for and create ridges from a fingerprint image. This produces a binary image of fingerprint ridges. 
     5) Combined Enhanced Ridge Images: We combine the enhanced and the ridge images to maximize useful information from the enhanced images. 
     The following Embodiments describe different approaches using CNNs to perform matching fingerprints in the finger(s) image (4F) to 4F or 4F to Flat applications. 
     Embodiment A 
     CNNs can be used as part of a fingerprint matching process. This approach involves training a CNN where each person&#39;s finger is a class. The training can include various instances of the person&#39;s fingerprints and the testing/matching will be performed on an unseen instance of a previously seen person. Therefore, by using this approach a test fingerprint will be classified to a previously seen person. 
     Embodiment B 
     The system can also use the previous model to identify and verify a previously unseen person. In this approach a new person will obtain a vector of probabilities where each value in this vector represents how similar the person is to a particular person. This vector may be used to represent the person in identification and verification. 
     Embodiment C 
     In the previous case, the model has been trained for a fixed number of people. While this provides high classification performance for previously seen people, if a new person needs to be authenticated, the CNN may not be able to fully represent them. To change the CNN features from person specific features to generic fingerprint features, a two-step training process can be used. The first involves training a CNN similar to the classification of the one-to-many case. However, a second training phase is performed based on similarity learning which continues the training of the classification model. This new model can be used on previously unseen people that were not present in the classification stage. 
     For example, by applying the CNN with the trained similarity learning model, a feature vector for both a previously unseen verification fingerprint and an enrolled fingerprint can be obtained. By comparing the two fingerprints we can perform verification where the more similar they are, the more likely they are a correct match. Therefore this approach can be used for any new people where we would like to enroll and authenticate. 
     Embodiment D 
     CNNs can also be used for the purpose of large scale identification. For example, the previous approach can be applied to perform identification in a one-to-many case. Here, vectors for all people that are desired to identify are obtained. Given a new set of fingerprints, a vector to represent the new person&#39;s fingerprints may be obtained. By comparing this vector against all other people vectors and obtaining a similarity measure (such as euclidean distance) for each comparison, the pair with the highest similarity can be identified. In this case the person will be identified as the person they obtained the highest similarity with. 
     Embodiment E 
     To apply CNNs on the 4F to Flat scenario, in addition to the previous approaches, one may place images of both 4F and Flat examples together within the training data, given they are the same type of images, e.g. combined enhanced ridge images. This will enable the CNN to learn common features among both types of fingerprints. 
     Embodiment F 
     Another approach to the 4F to Flat scenario is to train individual models for 4F and Flat images, retrain each model using similarity learning and then to find a mapping between the 4F and Flat vectors. This mapping can then be used to predict genuine or imposter vectors in matching. 
     4F Fingerprint to Flat Converter 
     To improve the performance of matching a verification 4F image against an enrolled Flat image, a CNN can be used to convert the 4F verification image to a Flat verification image. This will allow the system to match a converted verification Flat image against an enrolled Flat image. For instance, methods proposed by Gatys et al. (Leon A. Gatys, Alexander S. Ecker, Matthias Bethge; The IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2016, pp. 2414-2423) can be used to transform an image to another style. In this case the system can make a 4F image transform and look like a Flat image. 
     CNN Minutiae Extraction and Filtering 
     CNNs can also be used to detect certain patterns within fingerprints. By training a CNN, the system can detect and extract minutiae. This can involve training on patches of fingerprint images that contain a variety of minutiae types, their different rotations, scales, and translated center locations. Additionally, a similar approach to filter minutiae patches that obtain a low score as a result of applying the trained model can be used. 
     CNN Fingerprint Type Classifier 
     Using this approach the system can classify the type of a fingerprint (whorl, arch, etc.) and use this information to avoid matching incompatible fingerprints. The system can perform this by creating a dataset where each folder will represent a class of a fingerprint type. By training the CNN, the system can learn what each fingerprint looks like and by applying the model on a test fingerprint the system can predict its fingerprint type class. 
     CNN Based Blur Classification 
     CNNs can also be trained and utilized to determine if an image is not within the quality standards required by a system. One example is to automatically detect blurry and unusable images that may be captured using the 4F system. The CNN will classify based on two classes namely, Sharp and Blur. If an image is classified as Blurry and deemed unusable, the 4F system will request another image capture from the user. This would require training a CNN on a dataset consisting of two folders each representing Blurry and Sharp classes, where in each folder the images representing each class will be present. 
     CNN Liveness Detection 
     A CNN network can be trained to detect and distinguish between genuine and spoof images. In this approach, a network is trained on a dataset that consists of two types of images, (i) genuine, which may be captured using any technique and (ii) spoof, which may consist of images taken from a variety of presentation attacks. This can require training a CNN on a dataset consisting of two folders each representing genuine and spoof classes, where in each folder the images representing each class will be present. 
     Finding Optimal Threshold 
     Using CNNs the system can separate genuine and imposter scores using a hyperplane rather than a fixed threshold. In the CNN case rather than taking the sum of Euclidean distances, the system can perform an element-wise subtraction and then feed genuine and imposter vectors to a machine learning algorithm (e.g SVM) to fit a hyperplane instead of a fixed one dimensional threshold. In this way each feature in the feature vector is preserved, unlike before where they were combine all into a single score. Additionally, as it is possible for some features to be less discriminative, the machine learning algorithm can give more attention to the more discriminating features. 
     CNN Dataset Expansion 
     CNNs typically rely on large datasets to obtain reliable models. Datasets can be expanded by modifying existing instances in the datasets to generate new ones. These modifications can include rotating, translating, scaling, cropping, changing the aspect ratio or the color space of images. In an exemplary approach, as illustrated in  FIG. 9 , numerous instances of only a single fingerprint can be obtained by rotating, scaling and changing the aspect ratio.  FIG. 9  illustrates such expanded data sets based on fingerprint modifications. 
     CNN Based Individual Face Classifiers 
     For the purpose of facial recognition, while traditionally CNNs are trained on full face images, the system can also train individual CNNs on particular regions of the face, and then combine all scores from each model. For example different CNNs can be trained for eyebrows, eyes, mouth, nose, etc. When performing recognition the system can run each model separately on a test image where it obtains scores and/or vectors from each model. The system can then combine the scores and vectors to obtain the final recognition score. 
     Exemplary Optimal Enrollment Process 
     Having a good enrollment stage is of high importance for authentication performance. The follow discussion describes approaches to ensure data gathered during enrollment is optimal. 
     Maximizing Template Variation 
     One method to improve enrolment quality is to capture multiple templates. Improvements from using multiple templates arises from the templates containing variation. If all templates were identical, even if they are of high quality, performance would not increase. Hence, maximizing variation leads to improved performance as there is a greater likelihood that both the enrolment and verification representations both contain the same features. 
     There are three prominent sources of variation when capturing images using mobile device cameras; lighting/environment, angle/position of the hand during capture, how the user holds together their fingers (do they obscure certain print regions when doing so). As an example, an enrolment scheme that encourages the user to remove their hand from the camera view between captures will capture more of the previously described variation than simply taking rapid, consecutive images. 
     A more sophisticated approach that can be implemented by the system in combination with the above, is to use templates from successful authentication attempts, with the assumption that the user is authenticating in many different environments. For example, a basic approach would be to capture two templates at enrolment and add a third template when the user first authenticates (preferably care is taken to parameterize the system correctly for matching 1, 2, or 3 templates). However, this approach can be extended further, to continuously update the enrollment templates with greater variation with the added benefit of adapting to a user&#39;s changing prints over longer periods of time. 
     As previously described the angle of incidence of the illumination source (typically the point source LED flash) and the print ridges, has a significant effect on ridge contrast. Noticeably, for example, the little finger is typically less well illuminated than the middle or index fingers, but positioning the hand higher can remedy this. As such it is beneficial for the user to place their hand in various positions relative to the illumination. 
     One such enrolment scheme implemented using the system would be as follows: The user is required to capture two image of their hand. For the first image the on screen hand guide is positioned off center towards the top of the screen, and real-time feedback from finger tracking directs the user to place their hand in this slightly elevated position. The user removes their hand and is then asked to verify the first enrolment image. For this second capture the hand guide is positioned off center towards the bottom of the screen. This adds the required positional variation to the enrolment. For additional performance a probabilistic model can be independently computed for these different positions, each encoding the optimal way to combine matching scores from different fingers when the user&#39;s hand is in specific locations. This is, of course, not limited to two positions and can be extended into a full 2D array of hand positions. 
     Multiview Data Capture 
     When capturing a 4F image of a hand placed at the center of the image, certain areas of the fingers may not provide as much minutiae information due blurriness from the focus and lack of light hitting certain regions. This is particularly the case for the little finger. To avoid these issues the system can implement a “Multiview” technique where, instead of capturing three enrollment images of hands all in center position, the system is configured to capture the hand in different locations namely, center, left and right as illustrated in  FIG. 10 , which depicts “Center”, “left” and “right” images captured at the enrollment stage to maximize minutiae data from each fingerprint. 
     This approach helps to ensure that each finger has been cleanly seen in at least one image and has been captured in the highest quality for minutiae extraction. By matching a verification image against each of the three multiview images, three sets of fingerprint scores may be obtained and when the maximum value for each finger (or any other score fusion technique) is used, a more reliable score for each finger can be obtained since the system possess a much better representation of each finger from the multiview images. 
     Whether the system is configured to use a standard enrollment or Multiview, this approach combines minutiae information for each finger across the three enrollment images to find an optimal template. This can be done by: 
     1. Ordering the different templates based on their quality or by matching them against each other and determining the one the give the highest matching score with others template. 
     2. Aligning the second best template (register template) with the first (reference template) by utilizing iterative closest point to find the correspondences minutiae and then use thin late spline to register them. 
     3. Merging the two templates by using a bounding box to find minutiae that are very close to each other and choose one from the best template (the reference template) to be kept and the quality measure of the kept minutiae can be updated to reflect its consistence. 
     4. Step 2 and 3 can be repeated until all the templates are merged. 
     At this juncture, it should be noted that although much of the foregoing description has been directed to systems and methods for authenticating a user according to the user&#39;s biometric features that are captured using conventional smartphone devices, the systems and methods disclosed herein can be similarly deployed and/or implemented in scenarios, situations, and settings beyond the referenced scenarios. 
     While this specification contains many specific implementation details, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of any implementation or of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of features that may be specific to particular embodiments of particular implementations. Certain features that are described in this specification in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable subcombination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of a subcombination. 
     Similarly, while operations are depicted in the drawings in a particular order, this should not be understood as requiring that such operations be performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, or that all illustrated operations be performed, to achieve desirable results. In certain circumstances, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. Moreover, the separation of various system components in the embodiments described above should not be understood as requiring such separation in all embodiments, and it should be understood that the described program components and systems can generally be integrated together in a single software product or packaged into multiple software products. 
     The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms “comprises” and/or “comprising”, when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. It should be noted that use of ordinal terms such as “first,” “second,” “third,” etc., in the claims to modify a claim element does not by itself connote any priority, precedence, or order of one claim element over another or the temporal order in which acts of a method are performed, but are used merely as labels to distinguish one claim element having a certain name from another element having a same name (but for use of the ordinal term) to distinguish the claim elements. Also, the phraseology and terminology used herein is for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting. The use of “including,” “comprising,” or “having,” “containing,” “involving,” and variations thereof herein, is meant to encompass the items listed thereafter and equivalents thereof as well as additional items. It is to be understood that like numerals in the drawings represent like elements through the several figures, and that not all components and/or steps described and illustrated with reference to the figures are required for all embodiments or arrangements. 
     Thus, illustrative embodiments and arrangements of the present systems and methods provide a computer implemented method, computer system, and computer program product for authenticating a user according to the user&#39;s biometrics. The flowchart and block diagrams in the figures illustrate the architecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementations of systems, methods and computer program products according to various embodiments and arrangements. In this regard, each block in the flowchart or block diagrams can represent a module, segment, or portion of code, which comprises one or more executable instructions for implementing the specified logical function(s). It should also be noted that, in some alternative implementations, the functions noted in the block may occur out of the order noted in the figures. For example, two blocks shown in succession may, in fact, be executed substantially concurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality involved. It will also be noted that each block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, can be implemented by special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specified functions or acts, or combinations of special purpose hardware and computer instructions. 
     The subject matter described above is provided by way of illustration only and should not be construed as limiting. Various modifications and changes can be made to the subject matter described herein without following the example embodiments and applications illustrated and described, and without departing from the true spirit and scope of the present invention, which is set forth in the following claims.