Patent Publication Number: US-2022230815-A1

Title: Solid Electrolytic Capacitor

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     The present application claims filing benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 63/137,825 having a filing date of Jan. 15, 2021, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Solid electrolytic capacitors (e.g., tantalum capacitors) are typically made by pressing a metal powder (e.g., tantalum) around a metal lead wire, sintering the pressed part, anodizing the sintered anode, and thereafter applying a solid electrolyte. Intrinsically conductive polymers are often employed as the solid electrolyte due to their advantageous low equivalent series resistance (“ESR”) and “non-burning/non-ignition” failure mode. For example, such electrolytes can be formed through in situ chemical polymerization of a 3,4-dioxythiophene monomer (“EDOT”) in the presence of a catalyst and dopant. However, conventional capacitors that employ in situ polymerized polymers tend to have a relatively high leakage current (“DCL”) and fail at high voltages, such as experienced during a fast switch on or operational current spike. In an attempt to overcome these issues, dispersions have also been employed that are formed from a complex of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) and poly(styrene sulfonic acid (“PEDOT:PSS”). While some benefits have been achieved with these capacitors, problems nevertheless remain. For example, when the anode is immersed into the conductive polymer dispersion, gaseous bubbles can form in the polymer layer due to the presence of moisture from the slurry. The gaseous bubbles effectively become trapped within the fully applied polymer layer. Therefore, when they are evaporated during drying, they can actually cause portions of the polymer layer to tear away and leave behind inhomogeneities or “blisters” in the surface that reduce the ability of the layer to adhere to the anode body. Upon exposure to high humidity and/or temperature environments, these blisters can cause the layer to delaminate from the anode body, thereby reducing the degree of electrical contact and resulting in increased leakage current and ESR. 
     To help protect the capacitor from the exterior environment and provide it with good mechanical stability, the capacitor element is also encapsulated with a casing material (e.g., epoxy resin) so that a portion of the anode and cathode terminations remain exposed for mounting to a surface. Unfortunately, it has been discovered that high temperatures that are often used during manufacture of the capacitor (e.g., reflow) can cause residual moisture to vaporize as steam, which may exit the case with considerable force and cause micro-cracks to form in the casing material. These micro-cracks can lead to delamination of the casing material from the capacitor element and also a rapid deterioration of the electrical properties. Further, oxygen may also diffuse into the cathode, further enhancing the degradation of electrical properties at high temperatures, particularly when the capacitor is exposed to high temperatures. 
     As such, a need exists for an improved solid electrolytic capacitor that is capable of exhibiting better electrical performance, particularly at high temperatures. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, a solid electrolytic capacitor is disclosed that comprises a capacitor element that contains a sintered porous anode body, a dielectric that overlies the anode body, and a solid electrolyte that overlies the dielectric; an anode lead extending from a surface of the capacitor element; an anode termination that is in electrical connection with the anode lead; a cathode termination that is in electrical connection with the solid electrolyte; and a casing material that encapsulates the capacitor element and anode lead. A barrier coating is disposed on at least a portion of the capacitor element and is in contact with the casing material. The coating contains a polymeric material that includes a fluorinated component and a non-fluorinated component. The polymeric material has a glass transition temperature of from about 10° C. to about 120° C. and a thermal decomposition temperature of about 200° C. to about 300° C. 
     Other features and aspects of the present invention are set forth in greater detail below. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING 
       A full and enabling disclosure of the present invention, including the best mode thereof, directed to one of ordinary skill in the art, is set forth more particularly in the remainder of the specification, which makes reference to the appended drawing in which: 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic illustration of one embodiment of a solid electrolytic capacitor that may be formed in accordance with the present invention. 
       Repeat use of references characters in the present specification and drawing is intended to represent same or analogous features or elements of the invention. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF REPRESENTATIVE EMBODIMENTS 
     It is to be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that the present discussion is a description of exemplary embodiments only, and is not intended as limiting the broader aspects of the present invention, which broader aspects are embodied in the exemplary construction. 
     Generally speaking, the present invention is directed to a solid electrolytic capacitor that contains a capacitor element including a porous anode body, dielectric overlying the anode body, and solid electrolyte overlying the dielectric. An anode lead extends from the anode body and is in electrical contact with an anode termination. A cathode termination is likewise in electrical contact with the solid electrolyte. Further, a casing material encapsulates the capacitor element and anode lead and leaves exposed at least a portion of the anode termination and cathode termination for external contact. To help minimize the likelihood of delamination and oxygen diffusion, a barrier coating is also employed in the capacitor that covers at least a portion of the capacitor element and is in contact with the casing material. 
     The barrier coating contains a polymeric material having a glass transition temperature of from about 10° C. to about 120° C., in some embodiments from about 20° C. to about 100° C., in some embodiments from about 30° C. to about 80° C., and in some embodiments, from about 35° C. to about 50° C., such as determined in accordance with JIS K 7121:2012 (e.g., at a rate of temperature increase of 10° C./min). The thermal decomposition temperature of the polymeric material is also relatively high, such as from about 200° C. to about 300° C., in some embodiments from about 210° C. to about 290° C., and in some embodiments, from about 220° C. to about 280° C. The thermal decomposition temperature may be determined from a graph obtained by measuring the change in the mass of the polymeric material when heated from 50° C. to 450° C. at a rate of 5° C./min using a differential thermal weight simultaneous measuring device (e.g., TG/DTA6300, Hitachi). The thermal decomposition temperature is the temperature of the extrapolation at the point where the weight begins to decrease and the point where the slope of the curve is the largest. Without intending to be limited by theory, it is believed that materials having such controlled glass transition and thermal decomposition temperatures may not only act as a barrier to moisture and oxygen, but they can also help impart the resulting coating with an enhanced degree of adhesion to to the casing material, which makes it less likely to delaminate from the capacitor element when exposed to the high temperatures often experienced during manufacturing of the capacitor (e.g., reflow). 
     Any of a variety of polymeric materials having the desired properties may be employed in the barrier coating. The polymeric material, for instance, typically contains at least one fluorinated component and at least one non-fluorinated component. The components may be separate materials (e.g., polymers, oligomers, or non-polymeric compounds) that are simply blended together to form the polymeric material. Alternatively, the components may be separate and distinct monomeric repeating units of a single copolymer. Regardless, the fluorinated component typically constitutes from about 30 wt. % to about 80 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 40 wt. % to about 75 wt. % of the polymeric material, and the non-fluorinated component constitutes from about 20 wt. % to about 70 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 25 wt. % to about 60 wt. %. 
     The fluorinated component may, for instance, be a fluorocarbon. The fluorocarbon typically contains a fluoroalkyl group having 1 to 12 carbon atoms, in some embodiments from 1 to 8 carbon atoms, and in some embodiments, from 1 to 6 carbon atoms, such as —CF 3 , —CF 2 CF 3 , —(CF 2 ) 2 CF 3 , —CF(CF 3 ) 2 , —(CF 2 ) 3 CF 3 , —CF 2 CF(CF 3 ) 2 , —C(CF 3 ) 3 , —(CF 2 ) 4 CF 3 , —(CF 2 ) 2 CF(CF 3 ) 2 , —CF 2 C(CF 3 ) 3 , —CF(CF 3 )CF 2 CF 2 CF 3 , —(CF 2 ) 5 CF 3 , and —(CF 2 ) 3 CF(CF 3 ) 2 . The fluorocarbon may also contain an ethylenically unsaturated group having a carbon chain length of from 3 to 20 atoms, in some embodiments from 6 to 12 carbon atoms in length, and in some embodiments, from 8 to 10 carbon atoms in length. Examples of such groups may include olefins (e.g. linear, cyclic, etc.), (meth)acrylates, etc. As used herein, the term “(meth)acrylate” includes acrylics and methacrylics, as well as salts or esters thereof, such as acrylates and methacrylates. The (meth)acrylate may be unsubstituted or substituted with an alkyl group (e.g., linear olefin, cycloolefin, etc.). Examples of such (meth)acrylates may include methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, n-propyl acrylate, i-propyl acrylate, n-butyl acrylate, s-butyl acrylate, 1-butyl acrylate, t-butyl acrylate, n-amyl acrylate, i-amyl acrylate, isobornyl acrylate, n-hexyl acrylate, 2-ethylbutyl acrylate, 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, n-octyl acrylate, n-decyl acrylate, n-stearyl acrylate, methylcyclohexyl acrylate, behenyl acrylate, cyclopentyl acrylate, cyclohexyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate, ethyl methacrylate, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate, n-propyl methacrylate, n-butyl methacrylate, i-propyl methacrylate, i-butyl methacrylate, n-amyl methacrylate, n-hexyl methacrylate, i-amyl methacrylate, s-butyl-methacrylate, t-butyl methacrylate, 2-ethylbutyl methacrylate, methylcyclohexyl methacrylate, n-octyl methacrylate, n-decyl methacrylate, n-stearyl methacrylate, cinnamyl methacrylate, crotyl methacrylate, cyclohexyl methacrylate, cyclopentyl methacrylate, 2-ethoxyethyl methacrylate, isobornyl methacrylate, behenyl methacrylate, etc., as well as combinations thereof. In one particular embodiment, for instance, the fluorocarbon is a fluoroalkyl-substituted (meth)acrylate, such as perfluorobutyl (meth)acrylate, perfluorohexyl (meth)acrylate, perfluoroheptyl (meth)acrylate, perfluorooctyl (meth)acrylate, perfluorononyl (methacrylate), perfluorodecyl (meth)acrylate, perfluoroundecyl (meth)acrylate, perfluorododecyl (meth)acrylate, etc., as well as mixtures thereof. 
     As indicated above, the polymeric material also includes a non-fluorinated component, which may be a separate material (e.g., polymer, oligomer, non-polymeric compound) or a separate and distinct monomeric repeating unit of a copolymer containing both the fluorinated component and non-fluorinated component. Of course, in embodiments in which the fluorinated component is not a polymer or a monomeric repeating unit of a copolymer, it is typically desired that the non-fluorinated component is a polymer or a monomeric repeating unit of a copolymer. Regardless, the non-fluorinated component typically contains an ethylenically unsaturated group, such as a (meth)acrylate as described above. 
     Alkyl-substituted (meth)acrylates are particularly suitable, such as n-stearyl methacrylate, n-stearyl acrylate, cyclohexyl methacrylate, behenyl methacrylate, etc. In one particular embodiment, the polymeric material includes a copolymer that contains fluorinated monomeric repeating units, such as a fluoroalkyl-substituted (meth)acrylate as described above, as well as non-fluorinated monomeric repeating units, such as an alkyl-substituted (meth)acrylate as described above. Such a polymer may be produced using any known technique, such as solution polymerization, suspension polymerization, or emulsion polymerization. If desired, a polymerization initiator may be employed to facilitate the polymerization process, such as 2,2′-azobis-2-methylbutyronitrile, dimethyl-2,2′-azobis-2-methylpropionate, 2,2′-azobisisobutyronitrile, lauroyl peroxide, etc. Specific examples of such polymerization techniques are described, for instance, in Japanese Patent Publication Nos. 2020-10080A and 2017-132830A. 
     To help aid in its application, the barrier coating may be initially provided in the form of a coating formulation that contains the polymeric material in combination with an organic solvent, which is typically a liquid at room temperature. When employed, such solvents typically constitute from about 70 wt. % to about 99.9 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 80 wt. % to about 99.8 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 90 wt. % to about 99.5 wt. % of the formulation, while the polymeric material may constitute from about 0.1 wt. % to about 30 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 0.2 wt. % to about 20 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 0.5 wt. % to about 10 wt. % of the solution. The solvent(s) employed will depend in part on the nature of the polymeric material, but generally include organic alcohols, hydrocarbon solvents, fluorinated hydrocarbon solvents, etc. For example, particularly suitable solvents for use with fluoropolymers include fluorinated hydrocarbon solvents, such as hydrofluoroethers, fluorinated ketones, fluorinated aliphatic olefins, fluorinated aromatic olefins (e.g., xylene hexafluoride), etc. In one particular embodiment, for instance, the coating formulation may contain a hydrofluoroether having the following general formula: 
       (R 1 —O) x —R 2  
 
     wherein: 
     x is 1 or 2; 
     one of R 1  and R 2  is a perfluoroaliphatic or perfluorocyclic group and the other is an aliphatic or a cyclic hydrocarbon group. For example, R 1  and/or R 2  may include substituted and nonsubstituted alkyl, aryl, and alkylaryl groups and their derivatives. Representative examples of suitable hydrofluoroethers include the following compounds: C5F 11 OC 2 H 5 , C 3 F 7 OCH 3,  C 4 F 9 OCH 3 , C 4 F 9 OCH 5 , C 3 F 70 CF(CF 3 )CF 2 OCH 3 , C 4 F 9 OC 2 F 4 OC 2 F 4 OC 2 H 5 , C 4 F 9 O(CF 2 ) 3 OCH 3 , C 3 F 7 CF(OC 2 H 5 )CF(CF 3 ) 2 , C 2 F 5 CF(OCH 3 )CF(CF 3 ) 2 , C 4 F 9 OC 2 H 4 OC 4 F 9 , etc. Particularly suitable are ethyl perfluoroisobutyl ether and ethyl perfluorobutyl ether, both of which are represented by the structure, C 4 F 9 OC 2 H 5 . Once applied, the coating may be dried, heated, and/or cured to remove any remaining solvent(s) and leave a coating of the polymeric material at the desired location. 
     Through selective control over the particular nature of the barrier coating, the resulting capacitor may be resistant to delamination during manufacturing and can thus exhibit excellent electrical properties under a variety of conditions. For example, when subjected to the “Moisture/Reflow Sensitivity Classification for Non-Hermetic Surface Mount Devices” (J-STD-020E, December 2014) test, the resulting capacitor can exhibit a Moisture Sensitive Level of at least 5 (e.g., 5, 4, 3, 2a, 2, or 1), in some cases at least 4 (e.g., 4, 3, 2a, 2, or 1), in some cases at least 3 (e.g., 3, 2a, 2, or 1), in some cases at least 2a (e.g., 2a, 2, or 1), in some cases at least 2 (e.g., 2 or 1), and in some cases equal to 1, according to the following criteria: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Moisture 
                 Soak Requirements 
                 Floor Life 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Sensitive 
                 Time 
                 Temp/Relative 
                   
                 Temp/Relative 
               
               
                 Level 
                 (hours) 
                 Humidity 
                 Time 
                 Humidity 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 168 
                 85° C./85% 
                 Unlimited 
                 ≤30° C./85% 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 2 
                 168 
                 85° C./60% 
                 1 
                 year 
                 ≤30° C./60% 
               
               
                 2a 
                 696 
                 30° C./60% 
                 4 
                 weeks 
                 ≤30° C./60% 
               
               
                 3 
                 192 
                 30° C./60% 
                 168 
                 hours 
                 ≤30° C./60% 
               
               
                 4 
                 96 
                 30° C./60% 
                 72 
                 hours 
                 ≤30° C./60% 
               
               
                 5 
                 72 
                 30° C./60% 
                 48 
                 hours 
                 ≤30° C./60% 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The capacitor may also exhibit a dry capacitance of about 20 microFarads (μF) or more, in some embodiments about 25 μF or more, in some embodiments from about 30 to about 100 μF, and in some embodiments, from about 40 to about 80 μF, measured at a frequency of 120 Hz at temperature of about 23° C. The capacitance values can still remain stable even at high temperatures. For example, the capacitor may exhibit an aged capacitance value at a temperature of about 23° C. within the ranges noted above even after being exposed to “high temperature storage” testing at a temperature of from about 80° C. or more, in some embodiments from about 100° C. to about 180° C., and in some embodiments, from about 105° C. to about 150° C. (e.g., about 105° C., 125° C., or 150° C.) fora substantial period of time, such as for about 100 hours or more, and in some embodiments, from about 150 hours to about 3,000 hours (e.g., 500, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000, 2,500, or 3,000 hours), and then being allowed to recover for about 1 to 2 hours. In one embodiment, for example, the capacitor may exhibit an aged capacitance value (at 23° C.) within the ranges noted above after being exposed to high temperature storage testing at a temperature of 150° C. for 3,000 hours (recovery time of from 1 to 2 hours). In this regard, the ratio of the aged capacitance at 23° C. after being subjected to “high temperature storage testing” to the initial capacitance at 23° C. prior to “high temperature storage testing” may be from about 0.6 to 1, in some embodiments about from about 0.7 to 1, in some embodiments from about 0.8 to 1, and in some embodiments, from about 0.9 to 1. 
     The capacitor may exhibit other good electrical properties. For instance, the capacitor may exhibit a relatively low equivalence series resistance (“ESR”), such as about 200 mohms or less, in some embodiments about 150 mohms or less, in some embodiments from about 0.01 to about 100 mohms, and in some embodiments, from about 0.1 to about 60 mohms, measured at an operating frequency of 100 kHz and temperature of about 23° C. Similar to the capacitance values, the aged ESR after “high temperature storage” testing as described above may also remain stable and within the ranges noted above. In one embodiment, for example, the ratio of the aged ESR at 23° C. after being subjected to “high temperature storage testing” to the initial ESR at 23° C. prior to “high temperature storage testing” may be about 10 or less, in some embodiments about 8 or less, in some embodiments about 5 or less, in some embodiments about from about 0.7 to 4, in some embodiments from about 0.8 to 3, and in some embodiments, from 1 to about 2. 
     The capacitor may also exhibit a DCL of only about 50 microamps (“μA”) or less, in some embodiments about 40 μA or less, in some embodiments about 30 μA or less, in some embodiments about 20 μA or less, in some embodiments about 10 μA or less, in some embodiments from about 9 μA or less, and in some embodiments, from about 0.01 to about 8 μA at a temperature of about 23° C. after being subjected to an applied voltage (e.g., rated voltage or a multiple of the rated voltage, such as 1.1× rated voltage) for a period of time of about 60 seconds. Notably, the low DCL values can still remain stable even at temperatures. For example, the capacitor may exhibit a low DCL within the ranges noted above after being exposed to high temperatures, such as of from about 80° C. to about 150° C. (e.g., about 85° C.) for a substantial period of time, such as for about 100 hours or more, and in some embodiments, from about 120 hours to about 1,500 hours (e.g., 120, 250, 500, 1,000, or 1,500 hours), and then being allowed to recover for about 1 to 2 hours. In one embodiment, for example, the capacitor may exhibit an aged 
     DCL value (at 23° C.) within the ranges noted above after being exposed to testing at a temperature of 85° C. for 1,500 hours (recovery time of from 1 to 2 hours). In this regard, the ratio of the aged DCL at 23° C. after being subjected to “high temperature testing” to the initial DCL at 23° C. prior to “high temperature testing” may be about 10 or less, in some embodiments about 5 or less, in some embodiments about 2 or less, in some embodiments about 1 or less, in some embodiments from about 0.05 to about 0.8, and in some embodiments, from about 0.1 to about 0.5. 
     The DCL may also remain stable after being exposed to “high humidity testing” at a high relative humidity level (without or without the high temperatures indicated above), such as about 40% or more, in some embodiments about 45% or more, in some embodiments about 50% or more, and in some embodiments, about 70% or more (e.g., about 85% to 100%) for a substantial period of time as noted above. Relative humidity may, for instance, be determined in accordance with ASTM E337-02, Method A (2007). For example, the capacitor may exhibit an aged DCL value (at 23° C.) within the ranges noted above after being exposed to a humidity level of 85% and temperature of 85° C. for a substantial period of time, such as for about 100 hours or more, and in some embodiments, from about 120 hours to about 1,500 hours (e.g., 120, 250, 500, 1,000, or 1,500 hours), and then being allowed to recover for about 1 to 2 hours. For example, the ratio of the aged 
     DCL (23° C.) of the capacitor after being exposed to a high humidity level (e.g., about 85%) and high temperature (e.g., about 85° C.) for 1,500 hours (recovery time of 1 to 2 hrs) to the initial DCL prior to such testing may be about 10 or less, in some embodiments about 5 or less, in some embodiments about 2 or less, in some embodiments about 1 or less, in some embodiments from about 0.05 to about 0.8, and in some embodiments, from about 0.1 to about 0.5. 
     Various embodiments of the capacitor will now be described in more detail. 
     I. Capacitor Element 
     A. Anode Body 
     The capacitor element includes an anode that contains a dielectric formed on a sintered porous body. The porous anode body may be formed from a powder that contains a valve metal (i.e., metal that is capable of oxidation) or valve metal-based compound, such as tantalum, niobium, aluminum, hafnium, titanium, alloys thereof, oxides thereof, nitrides thereof, and so forth. The powder is typically formed from a reduction process in which a tantalum salt (e.g., potassium fluorotantalate (K 2 TaF 7 ), sodium fluorotantalate (Na 2 TaF 7 ), tantalum pentachloride (TaCl 5 ), etc.) is reacted with a reducing agent. The reducing agent may be provided in the form of a liquid, gas (e.g., hydrogen), or solid, such as a metal (e.g., sodium), metal alloy, or metal salt. In one embodiment, for instance, a tantalum salt (e.g., TaCl 5 ) may be heated at a temperature of from about 900° C. to about 2,000° C., in some embodiments from about 1,000° C. to about 1,800° C., and in some embodiments, from about 1,100° C. to about 1,600° C., to form a vapor that can be reduced in the presence of a gaseous reducing agent (e.g., hydrogen). Additional details of such a reduction reaction may be described in WO 2014/199480 to Maeshima, et al. After the reduction, the product may be cooled, crushed, and washed to form a powder. 
     The specific charge of the powder typically varies from about 2,000 to about 600,000 microFarads*Volts per gram (“μF*V/g”) depending on the desired application. For instance, in certain embodiments, a high charge powder may be employed that has a specific charge of from about 100,000 to about 550,000 μF*V/g, in some embodiments from about 120,000 to about 500,000 μF*V/g, and in some embodiments, from about 150,000 to about 400,000 μF*V/g. In other embodiments, a low charge powder may be employed that has a specific charge of from about 2,000 to about 100,000 μF*V/g, in some embodiments from about 5,000 to about 80,000 μF*V/g, and in some embodiments, from about 10,000 to about 70,000 μF*V/g. As is known in the art, the specific charge may be determined by multiplying capacitance by the anodizing voltage employed, and then dividing this product by the weight of the anodized electrode body. 
     The powder may be a free-flowing, finely divided powder that contains primary particles. The primary particles of the powder generally have a median size (D50) of from about 5 to about 500 nanometers, in some embodiments from about 10 to about 400 nanometers, and in some embodiments, from about 20 to about 250 nanometers, such as determined using a laser particle size distribution analyzer made by BECKMAN COULTER Corporation (e.g., LS-230), optionally after subjecting the particles to an ultrasonic wave vibration of 70 seconds. The primary particles typically have a three-dimensional granular shape (e.g., nodular or angular). Such particles typically have a relatively low “aspect ratio”, which is the average diameter or width of the particles divided by the average thickness (“D/T”). For example, the aspect ratio of the particles may be about 4 or less, in some embodiments about 3 or less, and in some embodiments, from about 1 to about 2. In addition to primary particles, the powder may also contain other types of particles, such as secondary particles formed by aggregating (or agglomerating) the primary particles. Such secondary particles may have a median size (D50) of from about 1 to about 500 micrometers, and in some embodiments, from about 10 to about 250 micrometers. 
     Agglomeration of the particles may occur by heating the particles and/or through the use of a binder. For example, agglomeration may occur at a temperature of from about 0° C. to about 40° C., in some embodiments from about 5° C. to about 35° C., and in some embodiments, from about 15° C. to about 30° C. Suitable binders may likewise include, for instance, poly(vinyl butyral); poly(vinyl acetate); poly(vinyl alcohol); poly(vinyl pyrollidone); cellulosic polymers, such as carboxymethylcellulose, methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, and methylhydroxyethyl cellulose; atactic polypropylene, polyethylene; polyethylene glycol (e.g., Carbowax from Dow Chemical Co.); polystyrene, poly(butadiene/styrene); polyamides, polyimides, and polyacrylamides, high molecular weight polyethers; copolymers of ethylene oxide and propylene oxide; fluoropolymers, such as polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinylidene fluoride, and fluoro-olefin copolymers; acrylic polymers, such as sodium polyacrylate, poly(lower alkyl acrylates), poly(lower alkyl methacrylates) and copolymers of lower alkyl acrylates and methacrylates; and fatty acids and waxes, such as stearic and other soapy fatty acids, vegetable wax, microwaxes (purified paraffins), etc. 
     The resulting powder may be compacted to form a pellet using any conventional powder press device. For example, a press mold may be employed that is a single station compaction press containing a die and one or multiple punches. Alternatively, anvil-type compaction press molds may be used that use only a die and single lower punch. Single station compaction press molds are available in several basic types, such as cam, toggle/knuckle and eccentric/crank presses with varying capabilities, such as single action, double action, floating die, movable platen, opposed ram, screw, impact, hot pressing, coining or sizing. The powder may be compacted around an anode lead, which may be in the form of a wire, sheet, etc. The lead may extend in a longitudinal direction from the anode body and may be formed from any electrically conductive material, such as tantalum, niobium, aluminum, hafnium, titanium, etc., as well as electrically conductive oxides and/or nitrides of thereof. Connection of the lead may also be accomplished using other known techniques, such as by welding the lead to the body or embedding it within the anode body during formation (e.g., prior to compaction and/or sintering). 
     Any binder may be removed after pressing by heating the pellet under vacuum at a certain temperature (e.g., from about 150° C. to about 500° C.) for several minutes. Alternatively, the binder may also be removed by contacting the pellet with an aqueous solution, such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,197,252 to Bishop, et al. Thereafter, the pellet is sintered to form a porous, integral mass. The pellet is typically sintered at a temperature of from about 700° C. to about 1800° C., in some embodiments from about 800° C. to about 1700° C., and in some embodiments, from about 900° C. to about 1400° C., for a time of from about 5 minutes to about 100 minutes, and in some embodiments, from about 8 minutes to about 15 minutes. This may occur in one or more steps. If desired, sintering may occur in an atmosphere that limits the transfer of oxygen atoms to the anode. For example, sintering may occur in a reducing atmosphere, such as in a vacuum, inert gas, hydrogen, etc. The reducing atmosphere may be at a pressure of from about 10 Torr to about 2000 Torr, in some embodiments from about 100 Torr to about 1000 Torr, and in some embodiments, from about 100 Torr to about 930 Torr. Mixtures of hydrogen and other gases (e.g., argon or nitrogen) may also be employed. 
     B. Dielectric 
     The anode is also coated with a dielectric. The dielectric may be formed by anodically oxidizing (“anodizing”) the sintered anode so that a dielectric layer is formed over and/or within the anode. For example, a tantalum (Ta) anode may be anodized to tantalum pentoxide (Ta 2 O 5 ). Typically, anodization is performed by initially applying a solution to the anode, such as by dipping anode into the electrolyte. A solvent is generally employed, such as water (e.g., deionized water). To enhance ionic conductivity, a compound may be employed that is capable of dissociating in the solvent to form ions. Examples of such compounds include, for instance, acids, such as described below with respect to the electrolyte. For example, an acid (e.g., phosphoric acid) may constitute from about 0.01 wt. % to about 5 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 0.05 wt. % to about 0.8 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 0.1 wt. % to about 0.5 wt. % of the anodizing solution. If desired, blends of acids may also be employed. 
     A current is passed through the anodizing solution to form the dielectric layer. The value of the formation voltage manages the thickness of the dielectric layer. For example, the power supply may be initially set up at a galvanostatic mode until the required voltage is reached. Thereafter, the power supply may be switched to a potentiostatic mode to ensure that the desired dielectric thickness is formed over the entire surface of the anode. Of course, other known methods may also be employed, such as pulse or step potentiostatic methods. The voltage at which anodic oxidation occurs typically ranges from about 4 to about 250 V, and in some embodiments, from about 5 to about 200 V, and in some embodiments, from about 10 to about 150 V. During oxidation, the anodizing solution can be kept at an elevated temperature, such as about 30° C. or more, in some embodiments from about 40° C. to about 200° C., and in some embodiments, from about 50° C. to about 100° C. Anodic oxidation can also be done at ambient temperature or lower. The resulting dielectric layer may be formed on a surface of the anode and within its pores. 
     Although not required, in certain embodiments, the dielectric layer may possess a differential thickness throughout the anode in that it possesses a first portion that overlies an external surface of the anode and a second portion that overlies an interior surface of the anode. In such embodiments, the first portion is selectively formed so that its thickness is greater than that of the second portion. It should be understood, however, that the thickness of the dielectric layer need not be uniform within a particular region. Certain portions of the dielectric layer adjacent to the external surface may, for example, actually be thinner than certain portions of the layer at the interior surface, and vice versa. Nevertheless, the dielectric layer may be formed such that at least a portion of the layer at the external surface has a greater thickness than at least a portion at the interior surface. Although the exact difference in these thicknesses may vary depending on the particular application, the ratio of the thickness of the first portion to the thickness of the second portion is typically from about 1.2 to about 40, in some embodiments from about 1.5 to about 25, and in some embodiments, from about 2 to about 20. 
     To form a dielectric layer having a differential thickness, a multi-stage process is generally employed. In each stage of the process, the sintered anode is anodically oxidized (“anodized”) to form a dielectric layer (e.g., tantalum pentoxide). During the first stage of anodization, a relatively small forming voltage is typically employed to ensure that the desired dielectric thickness is achieved for the inner region, such as forming voltages ranging from about 1 to about 90 volts, in some embodiments from about 2 to about 50 volts, and in some embodiments, from about 5 to about 20 volts. Thereafter, the sintered body may then be anodically oxidized in a second stage of the process to increase the thickness of the dielectric to the desired level. This is generally accomplished by anodizing in an electrolyte at a higher voltage than employed during the first stage, such as at forming voltages ranging from about 50 to about 350 volts, in some embodiments from about 60 to about 300 volts, and in some embodiments, from about 70 to about 200 volts. During the first and/or second stages, the electrolyte may be kept at a temperature within the range of from about 15° C. to about 95° C., in some embodiments from about 20° C. to about 90° C., and in some embodiments, from about 25° C. to about 85° C. 
     The electrolytes employed during the first and second stages of the anodization process may be the same or different. Typically, however, it is desired to employ different solutions to help better facilitate the attainment of a higher thickness at the outer portions of the dielectric layer. For example, it may be desired that the electrolyte employed in the second stage has a lower ionic conductivity than the electrolyte employed in the first stage to prevent a significant amount of oxide film from forming on the internal surface of anode. In this regard, the electrolyte employed during the first stage may contain an acidic compound, such as nitric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, polyphosphoric acid, boric acid, boronic acid, etc. Such an electrolyte may have an electrical conductivity of from about 0.1 to about 100 mS/cm, in some embodiments from about 0.2 to about 20 mS/cm, and in some embodiments, from about 1 to about 10 mS/cm, determined at a temperature of 25° C. The electrolyte employed during the second stage typically contains a salt of a weak acid so that the hydronium ion concentration increases in the pores as a result of charge passage therein. Ion transport or diffusion is such that the weak acid anion moves into the pores as necessary to balance the electrical charges. As a result, the concentration of the principal conducting species (hydronium ion) is reduced in the establishment of equilibrium between the hydronium ion, acid anion, and undissociated acid, thus forms a poorer-conducting species. The reduction in the concentration of the conducting species results in a relatively high voltage drop in the electrolyte, which hinders further anodization in the interior while a thicker oxide layer, is being built up on the outside to a higher formation voltage in the region of continued high conductivity. Suitable weak acid salts may include, for instance, ammonium or alkali metal salts (e.g., sodium, potassium, etc.) of boric acid, boronic acid, acetic acid, oxalic acid, lactic acid, adipic acid, etc. Particularly suitable salts include sodium tetraborate and ammonium pentaborate. Such electrolytes typically have an electrical conductivity of from about 0.1 to about 20 mS/cm, in some embodiments from about 0.5 to about 10 mS/cm, and in some embodiments, from about 1 to about 5 mS/cm, determined at a temperature of 25° C. 
     If desired, each stage of anodization may be repeated for one or more cycles to achieve the desired dielectric thickness. Furthermore, the anode may also be rinsed or washed with another solvent (e.g., water) after the first and/or second stages to remove the electrolyte. 
     C. Solid Electrolyte 
     A solid electrolyte overlies the dielectric and generally functions as the cathode for the capacitor. The solid electrolyte may include materials as is known in the art, such as conductive polymers (e.g., polypyrroles, polythiophenes, polyanilines, etc.), manganese dioxide, and so forth. In one embodiment, for example, the solid electrolyte contains one or more layers containing extrinsically and/or intrinsically conductive polymer particles. One benefit of employing such particles is that they can minimize the presence of ionic species (e.g., Fe 2+  or Fe 3+ ) produced during conventional in situ polymerization processes, which can cause dielectric breakdown under high electric field due to ionic migration. Thus, by applying the conductive polymer as pre-polymerized particles rather through in situ polymerization, the resulting capacitor may exhibit a relatively high “breakdown voltage.” If desired, the solid electrolyte may be formed from one or multiple layers. When multiple layers are employed, it is possible that one or more of the layers includes a conductive polymer formed by in situ polymerization. However, when it is desired to achieve very high breakdown voltages, the solid electrolyte may desirably be formed primarily from the conductive particles described above, such that it is generally free of conductive polymers formed via in situ polymerization. Regardless of the number of layers employed, the resulting solid electrolyte typically has a total a thickness of from about 1 micrometer (μm) to about 200 μm, in some embodiments from about 2 μm to about 50 μm, and in some embodiments, from about 5 μm to about 30 μm. 
     Thiophene polymers are particularly suitable for use in the solid electrolyte. In certain embodiments, for instance, an “extrinsically” conductive thiophene polymer may be employed in the solid electrolyte that has repeating units of the following formula (I): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein, 
     R 7  is a linear or branched, C 1  to C 18  alkyl radical (e.g., methyl, ethyl, n- or iso-propyl, n-, iso-, sec- or tert-butyl, n-pentyl, 1-methylbutyl, 2-methylbutyl, 3-methylbutyl, 1-ethylpropyl, 1,1-dimethylpropyl, 1,2-dimethylpropyl, 2,2-dimethylpropyl, n-hexyl, n-heptyl, n-octyl, 2-ethylhexyl, n-nonyl, n-decyl, n-undecyl, n-dodecyl, n-tridecyl, n-tetradecyl, n-hexadecyl, n-octadecyl, etc.); C 5  to C 12  cycloalkyl radical (e.g., cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, cyclooctyl, cyclononyl, cyclodecyl, etc.); C 6  to C 14  aryl radical (e.g., phenyl, naphthyl, etc.); C 7  to C 18  aralkyl radical (e.g., benzyl, o-, m-, p-tolyl, 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2-6, 3-4-, 3,5-xylyl, mesityl, etc.); and 
     q is an integer from 0 to 8, in some embodiments, from 0 to 2, and in one embodiment, 0. In one particular embodiment, “q” is 0 and the polymer is poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene). One commercially suitable example of a monomer suitable for forming such a polymer is 3,4-ethylenedioxthiophene, which is available from Heraeus under the designation Clevios™ M. 
     The polymers of formula (I) are generally considered to be “extrinsically” conductive to the extent that they typically require the presence of a separate counterion that is not covalently bound to the polymer. The counterion may be a monomeric or polymeric anion that counteracts the charge of the conductive polymer. Polymeric anions can, for example, be anions of polymeric carboxylic acids (e.g., polyacrylic acids, polymethacrylic acid, polymaleic acids, etc.); polymeric sulfonic acids (e.g., polystyrene sulfonic acids (“PSS”), polyvinyl sulfonic acids, etc.); and so forth. The acids may also be copolymers, such as copolymers of vinyl carboxylic and vinyl sulfonic acids with other polymerizable monomers, such as acrylic acid esters and styrene. Likewise, suitable monomeric anions include, for example, anions of C 1  to C 20  alkane sulfonic acids (e.g., dodecane sulfonic acid); aliphatic perfluorosulfonic acids (e.g., trifluoromethane sulfonic acid, perfluorobutane sulfonic acid or perfluorooctane sulfonic acid); aliphatic C 1  to C 20  carboxylic acids (e.g., 2-ethyl-hexylcarboxylic acid); aliphatic perfluorocarboxylic acids (e.g., trifluoroacetic acid or perfluorooctanoic acid); aromatic sulfonic acids optionally substituted by C 1  to C 20  alkyl groups (e.g., benzene sulfonic acid, o-toluene sulfonic acid, p-toluene sulfonic acid or dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid); cycloalkane sulfonic acids (e.g., camphor sulfonic acid or tetrafluoroborates, hexafluorophosphates, perchlorates, hexafluoroantimonates, hexafluoroarsenates or hexachloroantimonates), and so forth. Particularly suitable counteranions are polymeric anions, such as a polymeric carboxylic or sulfonic acid (e.g., polystyrene sulfonic acid (“PSS”)). The molecular weight of such polymeric anions typically ranges from about 1,000 to about 2,000,000, and in some embodiments, from about 2,000 to about 500,000. 
     Intrinsically conductive polymers may also be employed that have a positive charge located on the main chain that is at least partially compensated by anions covalently bound to the polymer. For example, one example of a suitable intrinsically conductive thiophene polymer may have repeating units of the following formula (II): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein, 
     R is (CH 2 ) a —O—(CH 2 ) b -L, where L is a bond or HC([CH 2 ] c H), 
     a is from 0 to 10, in some embodiments from 0 to 6, and in some embodiments, from 1 to 4 (e.g., 1); 
     b is from 1 to 18, in some embodiments from 1 to 10, and in some embodiments, from 2 to 6 (e.g., 2, 3, 4, or 5); 
     c is from 0 to 10, in some embodiments from 0 to 6, and in some embodiments, from 1 to 4 (e.g., 1); 
     Z is an anion, such as SO 3   − , C(O)O − , BF 4   − , CF 3 SO 3   − , SbF 6   − , N(SO 2 CF 3 ) 2   − , C 4 H 3 O 4   − , ClO 4   − , etc.; 
     X is a cation, such as hydrogen, an alkali metal (e.g., lithium, sodium, rubidium, cesium, or potassium), ammonium, etc. 
     In one particular embodiment, Z in formula (II) is a sulfonate ion such that the intrinsically conductive polymer contains repeating units of the following formula (III): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein, R and X are defined above. In formula (II) or (III), a is preferably 1 and b is preferably 3 or 4. Likewise, X is preferably sodium or potassium. 
     If desired, the polymer may be a copolymer that contains other types of repeating units. In such embodiments, the repeating units of formula (II) typically constitute about 50 mol. % or more, in some embodiments from about 75 mol. % to about 99 mol. %, and in some embodiments, from about 85 mol. % to about 95 mol. % of the total amount of repeating units in the copolymer. Of course, the polymer may also be a homopolymer to the extent that it contains 100 mol. % of the repeating units of formula (II). Specific examples of such homopolymers include poly(4-(2,3-dihydrothieno-[3,4-b][1,4]dioxin-2-ylmethoxy)-1-butane-sulphonic acid, salt) and poly(4-(2,3-dihydrothieno-[3,4-b][l,4]dioxin-2-ylmethoxy)-l-propanesulphonic acid, salt). 
     Regardless of the particular nature of the polymer, the resulting conductive polymer particles typically have an average size (e.g., diameter) of from about 1 to about 80 nanometers, in some embodiments from about 2 to about 70 nanometers, and in some embodiments, from about 3 to about 60 nanometers. The diameter of the particles may be determined using known techniques, such as by ultracentrifuge, laser diffraction, etc. The shape of the particles may likewise vary. In one particular embodiment, for instance, the particles are spherical in shape. However, it should be understood that other shapes are also contemplated by the present invention, such as plates, rods, discs, bars, tubes, irregular shapes, etc. 
     Although not necessarily required, the conductive polymer particles may be applied in the form of a dispersion. The concentration of the conductive polymer in the dispersion may vary depending on the desired viscosity of the dispersion and the particular manner in which the dispersion is to be applied to the capacitor element. Typically, however, the polymer constitutes from about 0.1 to about 10 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 0.4 to about 5 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 0.5 to about 4 wt. % of the dispersion. The dispersion may also contain one or more components to enhance the overall properties of the resulting solid electrolyte. For example, the dispersion may contain a binder to further enhance the adhesive nature of the polymeric layer and also increase the stability of the particles within the dispersion. The binder may be organic in nature, such as polyvinyl alcohols, polyvinyl pyrrolidones, polyvinyl chlorides, polyvinyl acetates, polyvinyl butyrates, polyacrylic acid esters, polyacrylic acid amides, polymethacrylic acid esters, polymethacrylic acid amides, polyacrylonitriles, styrene/acrylic acid ester, vinyl acetate/acrylic acid ester and ethylene/vinyl acetate copolymers, polybutadienes, polyisoprenes, polystyrenes, polyethers, polyesters, polycarbonates, polyurethanes, polyamides, polyimides, polysulfones, melamine formaldehyde resins, epoxide resins, silicone resins or celluloses. Crosslinking agents may also be employed to enhance the adhesion capacity of the binders. Such crosslinking agents may include, for instance, melamine compounds, masked isocyanates or crosslinkable polymers, such as polyurethanes, polyacrylates or polyolefins, and subsequent crosslinking. Dispersion agents may also be employed to facilitate the ability to apply the layer to the anode. Suitable dispersion agents include solvents, such as aliphatic alcohols (e.g., methanol, ethanol, i-propanol and butanol), aliphatic ketones (e.g., acetone and methyl ethyl ketones), aliphatic carboxylic acid esters (e.g., ethyl acetate and butyl acetate), aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., toluene and xylene), aliphatic hydrocarbons (e.g., hexane, heptane and cyclohexane), chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g., dichloromethane and dichloroethane), aliphatic nitriles (e.g., acetonitrile), aliphatic sulfoxides and sulfones (e.g., dimethyl sulfoxide and sulfolane), aliphatic carboxylic acid amides (e.g., methylacetamide, dimethylacetamide and dimethylformamide), aliphatic and araliphatic ethers (e.g., diethylether and anisole), water, and mixtures of any of the foregoing solvents. A particularly suitable dispersion agent is water. 
     In addition to those mentioned above, still other ingredients may also be used in the dispersion. For example, conventional fillers may be used that have a size of from about 10 nanometers to about 100 micrometers, in some embodiments from about 50 nanometers to about 50 micrometers, and in some embodiments, from about 100 nanometers to about 30 micrometers. Examples of such fillers include calcium carbonate, silicates, silica, calcium or barium sulfate, aluminum hydroxide, glass fibers or bulbs, wood flour, cellulose powder carbon black, electrically conductive polymers, etc. The fillers may be introduced into the dispersion in powder form, but may also be present in another form, such as fibers. 
     Surface-active substances may also be employed in the dispersion, such as ionic or non-ionic surfactants. Furthermore, adhesives may be employed, such as organofunctional silanes or their hydrolysates, for example 3-glycidoxypropyltrialkoxysilane, 3-aminopropyl-triethoxysilane, 3-mercaptopropyl-trimethoxysilane, 3-metacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane, vinyltrimethoxysilane or octyltriethoxysilane. The dispersion may also contain additives that increase conductivity, such as ether group-containing compounds (e.g., tetrahydrofuran), lactone group-containing compounds (e.g., γ-butyrolactone or γ-valerolactone), amide or lactam group-containing compounds (e.g., caprolactam, N-methylcaprolactam, N,N-dimethylacetamide, N-methylacetamide, N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), N-methylformamide, N-methylformanilide, N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), N-octylpyrrolidone, or pyrrolidone), sulfones and sulfoxides (e.g., sulfolane (tetramethylenesulfone) or dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO)), sugar or sugar derivatives (e.g., saccharose, glucose, fructose, or lactose), sugar alcohols (e.g., sorbitol or mannitol), furan derivatives (e.g., 2-furancarboxylic acid or 3-furancarboxylic acid), an alcohols (e.g., ethylene glycol, glycerol, di- or triethylene glycol). 
     The dispersion may be applied using a variety of known techniques, such as by spin coating, impregnation, pouring, dropwise application, injection, spraying, doctor blading, brushing, printing (e.g., ink-jet, screen, or pad printing), or dipping. The viscosity of the dispersion is typically from about 0.1 to about 100,000 meas (measured at a shear rate of 100 s −1 ), in some embodiments from about 1 to about 10,000 meas, in some embodiments from about 10 to about 1,500 meas, and in some embodiments, from about 100 to about 1000 meas.
         i. Inner Layers       

     The solid electrolyte is generally formed from one or more “inner” conductive polymer layers. The term “inner” in this context refers to one or more layers that overly the dielectric, whether directly or via another layer (e.g., pre-coat layer). One or multiple inner layers may be employed. For example, the solid electrolyte typically contains from 2 to 30, in some embodiments from 4 to 20, and in some embodiments, from about 5 to 15 inner layers (e.g., 10 layers). The inner layer(s) may, for example, contain intrinsically and/or extrinsically conductive polymer particles such as described above. For instance, such particles may constitute about 50 wt. % or more, in some embodiments about 70 wt. % or more, and in some embodiments, about 90 wt. % or more (e.g., 100 wt. %) of the inner layer(s). In alternative embodiments, the inner layer(s) may contain an in-situ polymerized conductive polymer. In such embodiments, the in-situ polymerized polymers may constitute about 50 wt. % or more, in some embodiments about 70 wt. % or more, and in some embodiments, about 90 wt. % or more (e.g., 100 wt. %) of the inner layer(s).
         ii. Outer Layers       

     The solid electrolyte may also contain one or more optional “outer” conductive polymer layers that overly the inner layer(s) and are formed from a different material. For example, the outer layer(s) may contain extrinsically conductive polymer particles. In one particular embodiment, the outer layer(s) are formed primarily from such extrinsically conductive polymer particles in that they constitute about 50 wt. % or more, in some embodiments about 70 wt. % or more, and in some embodiments, about 90 wt. % or more (e.g., 100 wt. %) of a respective outer layer. One or multiple outer layers may be employed. For example, the solid electrolyte may contain from 2 to 30, in some embodiments from 4 to 20, and in some embodiments, from about 5 to 15 outer layers, each of which may optionally be formed from a dispersion of the extrinsically conductive polymer particles. 
     D. External Polymer Coating 
     An external polymer coating may also overly the solid electrolyte. The external polymer coating may contain one or more layers formed from pre-polymerized conductive polymer particles such as described above (e.g., dispersion of extrinsically conductive polymer particles). The external coating may be able to further penetrate into the edge region of the capacitor body to increase the adhesion to the dielectric and result in a more mechanically robust part, which may reduce equivalent series resistance and leakage current. Because it is generally intended to improve the degree of edge coverage rather to impregnate the interior of the anode body, the particles used in the external coating typically have a larger size than those employed in the solid electrolyte. For example, the ratio of the average size of the particles employed in the external polymer coating to the average size of the particles employed in any dispersion of the solid electrolyte is typically from about 1.5 to about 30, in some embodiments from about 2 to about 20, and in some embodiments, from about 5 to about 15. For example, the particles employed in the dispersion of the external coating may have an average size of from about 80 to about 500 nanometers, in some embodiments from about 90 to about 250 nanometers, and in some embodiments, from about 100 to about 200 nanometers. 
     If desired, a crosslinking agent may also be employed in the external polymer coating to enhance the degree of adhesion to the solid electrolyte. Typically, the crosslinking agent is applied prior to application of the dispersion used in the external coating. Suitable crosslinking agents are described, for instance, in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2007/0064376 to Merker, et al. and include, for instance, amines (e.g., diamines, triamines, oligomer amines, polyamines, etc.); polyvalent metal cations, such as salts or compounds of Mg, Al, Ca, Fe, Cr, Mn, Ba, Ti, Co, Ni, Cu, Ru, Ce or Zn, phosphonium compounds, sulfonium compounds, etc. Particularly suitable examples include, for instance, 1,4-diaminocyclohexane, 1,4-bis(amino-methyl)cyclohexane, ethylenediamine, 1,6-hexanediamine, 1,7-heptanediamine, 1,8-octanediamine, 1,9-nonanediamine, 1,10-decanediamine, 1,12-dodecanediamine, N, N-dimethylethylenediamine, N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylethylenediamine, N,N,N′,N′-tetramethyl-1,4-butanediamine, etc., as well as mixtures thereof. 
     The crosslinking agent is typically applied from a solution or dispersion whose pH is from 1 to 10, in some embodiments from 2 to 7, in some embodiments, from 3 to 6, as determined at 25° C. Acidic compounds may be employed to help achieve the desired pH level. Examples of solvents or dispersants for the crosslinking agent include water or organic solvents, such as alcohols, ketones, carboxylic esters, etc. The crosslinking agent may be applied to the capacitor body by any known process, such as spin-coating, impregnation, casting, dropwise application, spray application, vapor deposition, sputtering, sublimation, knife-coating, painting, or printing, for example inkjet, screen or pad printing. Once applied, the crosslinking agent may be dried prior to application of the polymer dispersion. This process may then be repeated until the desired thickness is achieved. For example, the total thickness of the entire external polymer coating, including the crosslinking agent and dispersion layers, may range from about 1 to about 50 μm, in some embodiments from about 2 to about 40 μm, and in some embodiments, from about 5 to about 20 μm. 
     E. Cathode Coating 
     If desired, the capacitor element may also employ a cathode coating that overlies the solid electrolyte and other optional layers (e.g., external polymer coating). The cathode coating may contain a metal particle layer includes a plurality of conductive metal particles dispersed within a polymer matrix. The particles typically constitute from about 50 wt. % to about 99 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 60 wt. % to about 98 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 70 wt. % to about 95 wt. % of the layer, while the polymer matrix typically constitutes from about 1 wt. % to about 50 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 2 wt. % to about 40 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 5 wt. % to about 30 wt. % of the layer. 
     The conductive metal particles may be formed from a variety of different metals, such as copper, nickel, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, lead, copper, aluminum, molybdenum, titanium, iron, zirconium, magnesium, etc., as well as alloys thereof. Silver is a particularly suitable conductive metal for use in the layer. The metal particles often have a relatively small size, such as an average size of from about 0.01 to about 50 micrometers, in some embodiments from about 0.1 to about 40 micrometers, and in some embodiments, from about 1 to about 30 micrometers. Typically, only one metal particle layer is employed, although it should be understood that multiple layers may be employed if so desired. The total thickness of such layer(s) is typically within the range of from about 1 μm to about 500 μm, in some embodiments from about 5 μm to about 200 μm, and in some embodiments, from about 10 μm to about 100 μm. 
     The polymer matrix typically includes a polymer, which may be thermoplastic or thermosetting in nature. Typically, however, the polymer is selected so that it can act as a barrier to electromigration of silver ions, and also so that it contains a relatively small amount of polar groups to minimize the degree of water adsorption in the cathode coating. In this regard, the present inventors have found that vinyl acetal polymers are particularly suitable for this purpose, such as polyvinyl butyral, polyvinyl formal, etc. Polyvinyl butyral, for instance, may be formed by reacting polyvinyl alcohol with an aldehyde (e.g., butyraldehyde). Because this reaction is not typically complete, polyvinyl butyral will generally have a residual hydroxyl content. By minimizing this content, however, the polymer can possess a lesser degree of strong polar groups, which would otherwise result in a high degree of moisture adsorption and result in silver ion migration. For instance, the residual hydroxyl content in polyvinyl acetal may be about 35 mol. % or less, in some embodiments about 30 mol. % or less, and in some embodiments, from about 10 mol. % to about 25 mol. %. One commercially available example of such a polymer is available from Sekisui Chemical Co., Ltd. under the designation “BH-S” (polyvinyl butyral). 
     To form the cathode coating, a conductive paste is typically applied to the capacitor that overlies the solid electrolyte. One or more organic solvents are generally employed in the paste. A variety of different organic solvents may generally be employed, such as glycols (e.g., propylene glycol, butylene glycol, triethylene glycol, hexylene glycol, polyethylene glycols, ethoxydiglycol, and dipropyleneglycol); glycol ethers (e.g., methyl glycol ether, ethyl glycol ether, and isopropyl glycol ether); ethers (e.g., diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran); alcohols (e.g., benzyl alcohol, methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, iso-propanol, and butanol); triglycerides; ketones (e.g., acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, and methyl isobutyl ketone); esters (e.g., ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, diethylene glycol ether acetate, and methoxypropyl acetate); amides (e.g., dimethylformamide, dimethylacetamide, dimethylcaprylic/capric fatty acid amide and N-alkylpyrrolidones); nitriles (e.g., acetonitrile, propionitrile, butyronitrile and benzonitrile); sulfoxides or sulfones (e.g., dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and sulfolane); etc., as well as mixtures thereof. The organic solvent(s) typically constitute from about 10 wt. % to about 70 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 20 wt. % to about 65 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 30 wt. % to about 60 wt. %. of the paste. Typically, the metal particles constitute from about 10 wt. % to about 60 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 20 wt. % to about 45 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 25 wt. % to about 40 wt. % of the paste, and the resinous matrix constitutes from about 0.1 wt. % to about 20 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 0.2 wt. % to about 10 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 0.5 wt. % to about 8 wt. % of the paste. 
     The paste may have a relatively low viscosity, allowing it to be readily handled and applied to a capacitor element. The viscosity may, for instance, range from about 50 to about 3,000 centipoise, in some embodiments from about 100 to about 2,000 centipoise, and in some embodiments, from about 200 to about 1,000 centipoise, such as measured with a Brookfield Dy-1 viscometer (cone and plate) operating at a speed of 10 rpm and a temperature of 25° C. If desired, thickeners or other viscosity modifiers may be employed in the paste to increase or decrease viscosity. Further, the thickness of the applied paste may also be relatively thin and still achieve the desired properties. For example, the thickness of the paste may be from about 0.01 to about 50 micrometers, in some embodiments from about 0.5 to about 30 micrometers, and in some embodiments, from about 1 to about 25 micrometers. Once applied, the metal paste may be optionally dried to remove certain components, such as the organic solvents. For instance, drying may occur at a temperature of from about 20° C. to about 150° C., in some embodiments from about 50° C. to about 140° C., and in some embodiments, from about 80° C. to about 130° C. 
     F. Other Components 
     If desired, the capacitor may also contain other layers as is known in the art. 
     In certain embodiments, for instance, a carbon layer (e.g., graphite) may be positioned between the solid electrolyte and the silver layer that can help further limit contact of the silver layer with the solid electrolyte. In addition, a pre-coat layer may also be employed that overlies the dielectric and includes an organometallic compound, such as described in more detail below. 
     II. Terminations 
     Once the desired layers are formed, the capacitor may be provided with terminations as indicated above. More particularly, the capacitor contains an anode termination to which an anode lead of the capacitor element is electrically connected and a cathode termination to which the solid electrolyte of the capacitor element is electrically connected. Any conductive material may be employed to form the terminations, such as a conductive metal (e.g., copper, nickel, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, palladium, lead, copper, aluminum, molybdenum, titanium, iron, zirconium, magnesium, and alloys thereof). Particularly suitable conductive metals include, for instance, copper, copper alloys (e.g., copper-zirconium, copper-magnesium, copper-zinc, or copper-iron), nickel, and nickel alloys (e.g., nickel-iron). The thickness of the terminations is generally selected to minimize the thickness of the capacitor. For instance, the thickness of the terminations may range from about 0.05 to about 1 millimeter, in some embodiments from about 0.05 to about 0.5 millimeters, and from about 0.07 to about 0.2 millimeters. One exemplary conductive material is a copper-iron alloy metal plate available from Wieland (Germany). If desired, the surface of the terminations may be electroplated with nickel, silver, gold, tin, etc. as is known in the art to ensure that the final part is mountable to the circuit board. In one particular embodiment, both surfaces of the terminations are plated with nickel and silver flashes, respectively, while the mounting surface is also plated with a tin solder layer. 
     The terminations may be connected to the capacitor element using any technique known in the art. In one embodiment, for example, a lead frame may be provided that defines the cathode termination and anode termination. To attach the capacitor element to the lead frame, a conductive adhesive may initially be applied to a surface of the cathode termination. The conductive adhesive may include, for instance, conductive metal particles contained with a resin composition. The metal particles may be silver, copper, gold, platinum, nickel, zinc, bismuth, etc. The resin composition may include a thermoset resin (e.g., epoxy resin), curing agent (e.g., acid anhydride), and coupling agent (e.g., silane coupling agents). Suitable conductive adhesives may be described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2006/0038304 to Osako, et al. Any of a variety of techniques may be used to apply the conductive adhesive to the cathode termination. Printing techniques, for instance, may be employed due to their practical and cost-saving benefits. The anode lead may also be electrically connected to the anode termination using any technique known in the art, such as mechanical welding, laser welding, conductive adhesives, etc. Upon electrically connecting the anode lead to the anode termination, the conductive adhesive may then be cured to ensure that the electrolytic capacitor is adequately adhered to the cathode termination. 
     Referring to  FIG. 1 , for example, a capacitor  30  is shown as including an anode termination  62  and a cathode termination  72  in electrical connection with a capacitor element  33  having an upper surface  37 , lower surface  39 , front surface  36 , rear surface  38 , first side surface  35 , and opposing side surface (not shown). The cathode termination  72  may be provided in electrical contact with any surface of the capacitor element, such as via a conductive adhesive. In the illustrated embodiment, for example, the cathode termination  72  contains a first component  73  that is generally parallel and adjacent to the upper surface  37  and a second component  75  that is generally parallel and adjacent to the lower surface  39 . The first component  73  is also in electrical contact with the upper surface  37 . The cathode termination  72  may also contain a third component  77  generally extends in a direction perpendicular to the first component  73  and second component  75 . If desired, the third component  77  may also be provided in electrical contact with the rear surface  38  of the capacitor element  33 . The anode termination  62  likewise contains a first component  63  that is generally parallel to the lower surface  39  of the capacitor element  33  and a second component  67  that is generally parallel to the anode lead  16 . Further, the anode termination  62  may include a third component  64  that is generally perpendicular to the first component  63  and a fourth component  69  that is generally perpendicular to the second component  67  and located adjacent to the anode lead  16 . In the illustrated embodiment, the second component  67  and fourth component  69  define a region  51  for connection to the anode lead  16 . Although not depicted in  FIG. 1 , the region  51  may possess a “U-shape” to further enhance surface contact and mechanical stability of the lead  16 . 
     The terminations may be connected to the capacitor element using any technique known in the art. In one embodiment, for example, a lead frame may be provided that defines the cathode termination  72  and anode termination  62 . To attach the capacitor element  33  to the lead frame, a conductive adhesive  49  may initially be applied to a surface of the cathode termination  72 . In one embodiment, the anode termination  62  and cathode termination  72  are folded into the position shown in  FIG. 1 . Thereafter, the capacitor element  33  is positioned on the cathode termination  72  so that its lower surface  39  contacts the adhesive  49  and the anode lead  16  contacts the region  51 . The anode lead  16  is then electrically connected to the region  51  using any technique known in the art, such as mechanical welding, laser welding, conductive adhesives, etc. For example, the anode lead  16  may be welded to the anode termination  62  using a laser. Lasers generally contain resonators that include a laser medium capable of releasing photons by stimulated emission and an energy source that excites the elements of the laser medium. One type of suitable laser is one in which the laser medium consist of an aluminum and yttrium garnet (YAG), doped with neodymium (Nd). The excited particles are neodymium ions Nd 3+ . The energy source may provide continuous energy to the laser medium to emit a continuous laser beam or energy discharges to emit a pulsed laser beam. Upon electrically connecting the anode lead  16  to the anode termination  62 , the conductive adhesive may then be cured. For example, a heat press may be used to apply heat and pressure to ensure that the electrolytic capacitor element  33  is adequately adhered to the cathode termination  72  by the adhesive  49 . ps III. Barrier Coating 
     As indicated above, a barrier coating is disposed on at least a portion of the capacitor element and is in contact with the casing material. One or multiple coatings may be employed. For example, the coating may contact at least a portion of a surface of the capacitor element, such as a front surface, bottom surface, and/or top surface of the capacitor element. Optionally, the barrier coating may also be disposed on at least a portion of the anode termination and/or cathode termination. In one embodiment, for instance, a barrier coating may be employed that covers at least a portion of the anode termination. Likewise, the coating may also contact at least a portion of the anode lead. In another embodiment, a barrier coating may be employed that covers at least a portion of the cathode termination. In such embodiments, the coating may also contact at least a portion of a surface of the capacitor element, such as a rear surface, top surface, and/or bottom surface. Referring again to  FIG. 1 , for example, the capacitor  30  is shown with a barrier coating  90  that is on the anode termination  62 . More particularly, in the illustrated embodiment, the coating  90  is in contact with the second component  67  and the fourth component  69  of the anode termination  62  so that the region  51  is generally covered. The coating  90  is also in contact with at least a portion of the anode lead  16 , particularly at those locations surrounding the region  51  at which the lead  16  is connected to the anode termination  62 . Of course, it should be understood that the coating may also be provided in other configurations and disposed on any surface desired. In one embodiment, for example, the coating may contact only the second component  67  of the anode termination  62 . 
     Regardless of its location, the barrier coating may be formed by applying a coating formulation to the part using a variety of known techniques, such as by spin coating, impregnation, pouring, dropwise application, injection, spraying, doctor blading, brushing, printing (e.g., ink-jet, screen, or pad printing), or dipping. Once applied, the coating formulation may be dried, heated, and/or cured to remove any remaining solvent(s) and leave a coating of the polymeric material at the desired location. 
     IV. Casing Material 
     As indicated, the capacitor element and anode lead are generally encapsulated with a casing material so that at least a portion of the anode and cathode terminations are exposed for mounting onto a circuit board. Referring again to  FIG. 1 , for instance, the capacitor element  33  and anode lead  16  may be encapsulated within a casing material  28  so that a portion of the anode termination  62  and a portion of the cathode termination  72  remain exposed. Further, as noted above, at least a portion of the casing material  28  is also in contact with the barrier coating  90 . 
     The casing material may be formed from a wide variety of materials. In one embodiment, for instance, the casing material may be formed from a curable resinous matrix, which may be hydrophobic. In certain embodiments, for example, the resinous matrix may contain a polycyanate containing at least two cyanate ester groups. When cured, for example, the polycyanate may form a polycyanurate having a triazine ring. Due to the high degree of symmetry in the triazine ring, where dipoles associated with the carbon-nitrogen and carbon-oxygen bonds are counterbalanced, the resulting polycyanurate can have a relatively high degree of moisture resistance. Suitable polycyanates may include, for instance, bisphenol A dicyanate; the dicyanates of 4,4′-dihydroxydiphenyl, 4,4′-dihydroxydiphenyl oxide, resorcinyl, hydroquinone, 4,4′-thiodiphenol, 4,4′-sulfonyldiphenyl, 3,3′,5,5′-tetrabromobisphenol A, 2,2′,6,6′-tetrabromobisphenol A, 2,2′-dihydroxydiphenyl, 3,3′-dimethoxybisphenol A, 4,4′-dihydroxydiphenylcarbonate, dicyclopentadiene diphenol, 4,4′-dihydroxybenzophenone, 4,4′-dihydroxydiphenylmethane, tricyclopentadiene diphenol, etc.; the tricyanate of tris(hydroxyphenyl)methane, the tetracyanate of 2,2′,4,4′-tetrahydroxydiphenyl methane, the polycyanate of a phenolformaldehyde condensation product (novolac); the polycyanate of a dicyclopentadiene and phenol condensation product; and so forth. If desired, the polycyanate may also contain one or more polycyclic aliphatic radicals containing two or more cyclic rings, such as a C 7 -C 20  polycyclic aliphatic radical, including cyclopentadiene, norbornane, bornane, norbornadiene, trahydroindene, methyltetrahydroindene, dicyclopentadiene, bicyclo-(2,2,l)-hepta-2,5-diene, 5-methylene-2-norbornene, 5-ethylidene-2-norbornene, 5-propenyl-2- norbornene, 5-(4-cyclopentenyl)-2-norbornene, 5-cyclohexylidene-2-norbornene, 5-vinyl-2-norbornene, etc. In one particular embodiment, for instance, the polycyanate may be a dicyclopentadiene bisphenol cyanate ester. Without intending to be limited by theory, it is believed such polycyclic radicals can act as a nonpolar bridging group for the polycyanate, which helps improve moisture resistance. 
     The resinous matrix may also contain an epoxy resin, either alone or in combination with a polycyanate. When used in combination, the epoxy resin can react with the polycyanate to form a copolymer and/or crosslink with the polycyanate resin when cured. Examples of suitable epoxy resins include, for instance, bisphenol A type epoxy resins, bisphenol F type epoxy resins, phenol novolac type epoxy resins, orthocresol novolac type epoxy resins, brominated epoxy resins and biphenyl type epoxy resins, cyclic aliphatic epoxy resins, glycidyl ester type epoxy resins, glycidylamine type epoxy resins, cresol novolac type epoxy resins, naphthalene type epoxy resins, phenol aralkyl type epoxy resins, cyclopentadiene type epoxy resins, heterocyclic epoxy resins, etc. To help provide the desired degree of moisture resistance, however, it is particularly desirable to employ epoxy phenol novolac (“EPN”) resins, which are glycidyl ethers of phenolic novolac resins. These resins can be prepared, for example, by reaction of phenols with an excess of formaldehyde in the presence of an acidic catalyst to produce the phenolic novolac resin. Novolac epoxy resins are then prepared by reacting the phenolic novolac resin with epichlorihydrin in the presence of sodium hydroxide. Specific examples of the novolac-type epoxy resins include a phenol-novolac epoxy resin, cresol-novolac epoxy resin, naphthol-novolac epoxy resin, naphthol-phenol co-condensation novolac epoxy resin, naphthol-cresol co-condensation novolac epoxy resin, brominated phenol-novolac epoxy resin, etc. Regardless of the type of resin selected, the resulting phenolic novolac epoxy resins typically have more than two oxirane groups and can be used to produce cured coating compositions with a high crosslinking density, which can be particularly suitable for enhancing moisture resistance. One such phenolic novolac epoxy resin is poly[(phenyl glycidyl ether)-co-formaldehyde]. Other suitable resins are commercially available under the trade designation ARALDITE (e.g., GY289, EPN 1183, EP 1179, EPN 1139, and EPN 1138) from Huntsman. 
     The polycyanate and/or epoxy resin may be crosslinked with a co-reactant (hardener) to further improve the mechanical properties of the composition and also enhance its overall moisture resistance as noted above. Examples of such co-reactants may include, for instance, polyamides, amidoamines (e.g., aromatic amidoamines such as aminobenzamides, aminobenzanilides, and aminobenzenesulfonamides), aromatic diamines (e.g., diaminodiphenylmethane, diaminodiphenylsulfone, etc.), aminobenzoates (e.g., trimethylene glycol di-p-aminobenzoate and neopentyl glycol di-p-amino-benzoate), aliphatic amines (e.g., triethylenetetramine, isophoronediamine), cycloaliphatic amines (e.g., isophorone diamine), imidazole derivatives, guanidines (e.g., tetramethylguanidine), carboxylic acid anhydrides (e.g., methylhexahydrophthalic anhydride), carboxylic acid hydrazides (e.g., adipic acid hydrazide), phenolic-novolac resins (e.g., phenol novolac, cresol novolac, etc.), carboxylic acid amides, etc., as well as combinations thereof. Phenolic-novolac resins may be particularly suitable for use in the present invention. 
     The casing material may also contain an inorganic oxide filler. Such fillers are typically maintained at a high level of the casing material, such as from about 75 wt. % to about 99.5 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 76 wt. % to about 99 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 77 wt. % to about 90 wt. % of the casing material, while the resinous matrix typically constitutes from about 0.5 wt. % 
     to about 25 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 1 wt. % to about 24 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 10 wt. % to about 23 wt. % of the casing material. The nature of the inorganic oxide fillers may vary, such as silica, alumina, zirconia, magnesium oxides, iron oxides (e.g., iron hydroxide oxide yellow), titanium oxides (e.g., titanium dioxide), zinc oxides (e.g., boron zinc hydroxide oxide), copper oxides, zeolites, silicates, clays (e.g., smectite clay), etc., as well as composites (e.g., alumina-coated silica particles) and mixtures thereof. Regardless of the particular fillers employed, however, a substantial portion, if not all, of the inorganic oxide fillers is typically in the form of vitreous silica, which is believed to further improve the resistance of the casing material to thermal expansion due to its high purity and relatively simple chemical form. Vitreous silica may, for instance, constitute about 30 wt. % or more, in some embodiments from about 35 wt. % to about 90 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 40 wt. % to about 80 wt. % of the total weight of fillers employed in the composition, as well as from about 20 wt. % to about 70 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 25 wt. % to about 65 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 30 wt. % to about 60 wt. % of the entire composition. Of course, other forms of silica may also be employed in combination with the vitreous silica, such as quartz, fumed silica, cristabolite, etc. 
     Apart from the components noted above, it should be understood that still other additives may also be employed in the casing material, such as photoinitiators, viscosity modifiers, suspension aiding agents, pigments, stress reducing agents, coupling agents (e.g., silane coupling agents), stabilizers, etc. When employed, such additives typically constitute from about 0.1 to about 20 wt. % of the total composition. 
     The particular manner in which the casing material is applied to the capacitor element may vary as desired. In one particular embodiment, the capacitor element is placed in a mold and the casing material is applied to the capacitor element so that it occupies the spaces defined by the mold and leaves exposed at least a portion of the anode and cathode terminations. The casing material may be initially provided in the form of a single or multiple compositions. For instance, a first composition may contain the resinous matrix and filler and the second composition may contain a co-reactant. Regardless, once it is applied, the casing material may be heated or allowed to stand at ambient temperatures so that the resinous matrix is allowed to crosslink with the co-reactant, which thereby causes the casing material to cure and harden into the desired shape of the case. For instance, the casing material may be heated to a temperature of from about 15° C. to about 150° C., in some embodiments from about 20° C. to about 120° C., and in some embodiments, from about 25° C. to about 100° C. 
     The present invention may be better understood by reference to the following examples. 
     Test Procedures 
     Capacitance 
     The capacitance may be measured using a Keithley 3330 Precision LCZ meter with Kelvin Leads with 2.2 volt DC bias and a 0.5 volt peak to peak sinusoidal signal. The operating frequency may be 120 Hz and the temperature may be 23° C.±2° C. In some cases, the “wet-to-dry” capacitance can be determined. The “dry capacitance” refers to the capacitance of the part before application of the solid electrolyte, graphite, and silver layers, while the “wet capacitance” refers to the capacitance of the part after formation of the dielectric, measured in 14% nitric acid in reference to 1 mF tantalum cathode with 10 volt DC bias and a 0.5 volt peak to peak sinusoidal signal after 30 seconds of electrolyte soaking. 
     Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) 
     Equivalence series resistance may be measured using a Keithley 3330 Precision LCZ meter with Kelvin Leads 2.2 volt DC bias and a 0.5 volt peak to peak sinusoidal signal. The operating frequency may be 100 kHz and the temperature may be 23° C.±2° C. 
     Dissipation Factor 
     The dissipation factor may be measured using a Keithley 3330 Precision LCZ meter with Kelvin Leads with 2.2 volt DC bias and a 0.5 volt peak to peak sinusoidal signal. The operating frequency may be 120 Hz and the temperature may be 23° C.±2° C. 
     Leakage Current 
     Leakage current may be measured using a leakage test meter at a temperature of 23° C.±2° C. and at the rated voltage after a minimum of 60 seconds. 
     Load Humidity Testing 
     Humidity testing may be based on standard IEC 68-2-67:1995 (85° C./85% relative humidity). 25 test parts (mounted on a printed circuit board substrate) may be loaded with rated voltage at the aforementioned humidity test conditions. Capacitance and ESR may be measured at 0, 120, 250, 500, 1000 and 1500 hours at a temperature of 23° C.±2° C. after 2 to 24 hours from recovery of the humidity test conditions. 
     High Temperature Storage Testing 
     High temperature storage testing may be based on IEC 60068-2-2:2007 (condition Bb, temperature 150° C.). 25 test parts (not mounted on a printed circuit board substrate) may be tested at the aforementioned temperature conditions. All measurements of capacitance and ESR may be conducted at a temperature of 23° C.±2° C. after 1 to 2 hours from recovery of the temperature test conditions. 
     Sensitivity Level (MSL) Testing 
     MSL may be tested according to IPC/JEDEC J-STD 020E (December 2014) to Level 4 and 3 with reflow for Pb-free assembly. Reflow peak temperature (Tp) may be 260° C. Visual evaluation of cracks may be measured with 40 times magnification. 
     Example 1 
     40,000 μFV/g tantalum powder was used to form anode samples. Each anode sample was embedded with a tantalum wire, pressed to a density of 5.3 g/cm3 and sintered at 1380° C. The resulting pellets had a size of 5.20×3.60×0.75 mm. The pellets were anodized to 75.0 volts in water/phosphoric acid electrolyte with a conductivity of 8.6 mS at a temperature of 40° C. to form the dielectric layer. The pellets were anodized again to 130 volts in a water/boric acid/disodium tetraborate with a conductivity of 2.0 mS at a temperature of 30° C. for 10 seconds to form a thicker oxide layer built up on the outside. Upon anodization, four pre-coat layers of organometallic compound were used that contained a solution of (3-aminopropyl)trimethoxysilane in ethanol (1.0%). A conductive polymer coating was formed by dipping the anodes into a solution of poly(4-(2,3-dihydrothieno-[3,4-b][1,4]dioxin-2-ylmethoxy)-1-butane-sulphonic acid having a solids content of 2.0% (Clevios™ K, Heraeus). Upon coating, the parts were dried at 125° C. for 15 minutes. This process was repeated 2 times. Thereafter, the parts were dipped into a dispersed poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) having a solids content 1.1% and viscosity 20 mPa·s (Clevios™ K, Heraeus). Upon coating, the parts were dried at 125° C. for 15 minutes. This process was repeated 8 times. Thereafter, the parts were dipped into a dispersed poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) having a solids content 2.0% and viscosity 20 mPa·s (Clevios™ K, Heraeus). Upon coating, the parts were dried at 125° C. for 15 minutes. This process was repeated 3 times. Thereafter, the parts were dipped into a dispersed poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) having a solids content of 2% and viscosity 160 mPa·s (Clevios™ K, Heraeus). Upon coating, the parts were dried at 125° C. for 15 minutes. This process was repeated 14 times. The parts were then dipped into a graphite dispersion and dried. Finally, the parts were dipped into a silver dispersion and dried. Multiple parts (950) of 47pF/35V capacitors were made in this manner and encapsulated in a silica resin. 
     Example 2 
     Capacitors were formed in the manner described in Example 1, except that capacitor elements were coated by a polymeric material as described above prior to encapsulation. Multiple parts (3300) of 47pF/35V capacitors were made in this manner and encapsulated in a silica resin. 
     Moisture sensitivity level was tested for each sample after 96 hours (MSL4) and 192 hours (MSL3) according to IPC/JEDEC J-STD 020E (December 2014). The ratio of the cracked parts is set forth below in Table 1. The sample size was 100 units minimum for each humidification time. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 MSL Testing - Failed Parts Ratio 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Crack Fail Ratio (%) 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 96 hrs 30° C./60% RH 
                 192 hrs 30° C./60% RH 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Example 1 
                 22 
                 26 
               
               
                   
                 Example 2 
                 0 
                 2 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     These and other modifications and variations of the present invention may be practiced by those of ordinary skill in the art, without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. In addition, it should be understood that aspects of the various embodiments may be interchanged both in whole or in part. Furthermore, those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the foregoing description is by way of example only, and is not intended to limit the invention so further described in such appended claims.