Patent Publication Number: US-2022231282-A1

Title: Negative-electrode active material for secondary battery, and secondary battery

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present disclosure relates to a negative-electrode active material for a secondary batter and a secondary battery using the negative-electrode active material. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Patent Literature 1 discloses a negative-electrode active material for a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery composed of a composite graphite material, wherein a titanium-containing inorganic oxide capable of intercalating a lithium ion is present on the surfaces and insides of the graphite particles, and the titanium-containing inorganic oxide observed by element mapping of a cross section of the graphite particle is present from the surface to the depth of 4% or more of the average particle size of the graphite particles. Moreover, Patent Literature 1 describes that the use of the negative-electrode active material improves the input characteristics and the cycle characteristics of the non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery. 
     CITATION LIST 
     Patent Literature 
     PATENT LITERATURE 1: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2014-22041  
     SUMMARY 
     By the way, it is an important subject to inhibit heat generation when abnormality such as an internal short circuit occurs in a secondary battery such as a lithium ion battery. The technique of Patent Literature 1 is expected to exert the above effect, but there is room for improvement on inhibiting heat generation upon occurrence of the abnormality such as an internal short circuit. 
     A negative-electrode active material for a secondary battery that is one aspect of the present disclosure includes a core particle including a material that intercalates and releases a metal ion, a first layer including at least one selected from amorphous carbon, carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, and conductive polymer, and formed on a surface of the core particle described above, and a second layer including at least one inorganic compound selected from an oxide, a phosphoric acid compound, a silicic acid compound, and a boric acid compound, and formed on the aforementioned first layer. 
     The secondary battery that is another aspect of the present disclosure comprises a negative electrode including the aforementioned negative-electrode active material, a positive electrode, and an electrolyte. 
     According to the negative-electrode active material that is one aspect of the present disclosure, a secondary battery inhibiting heat generation upon occurrence of abnormality such as an internal short circuit may be provided. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a sectional view of a secondary battery that is an example of an embodiment.  
         FIG. 2A  is a view showing a cross section of a particle of a negative-electrode active material that is an example of an embodiment. 
         FIG. 2B  is a view showing a cross section of a particle of a negative-electrode active material that is an example of another embodiment. 
         FIG. 2C  is a view showing a cross section of a particle of a negative-electrode active material that is an example of still another embodiment. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS 
     The present inventors have succeeded, as a result of diligent experimentation to solve the aforementioned problem, in significantly inhibiting heat generation upon occurrence of abnormality of a battery by using a negative-electrode active material in which the aforementioned first layer and the second layer are formed on the surfaces of core particles such as graphite particles. By coating the surfaces of the graphite particles with an inorganic compound such as a metal oxide, thermal stability of the negative electrode is expected to be improved to exhibit inhibition effect of heat generation, but due to almost complete absence of surface functional groups on the surfaces of the graphite particles (basal surface), a layer of the inorganic compound is considered to be hardly formed. The present inventors have found that by covering the surfaces of the core particles such as the graphite particles with the first layer composed of amorphous carbon or the like, the second layer is stably formed. 
     Hereinafter, an example of embodiments of the negative-electrode active material for a secondary battery according to the present disclosure and the secondary battery using the negative-electrode active material will be described in detail. In the following, a cylindrical battery in which a wound electrode assembly  14  is housed in a bottomed cylindrical outer can  16  is illustrated, but an outer housing is not limited to the cylindrical outer can, and may be, for example, a square outer can or an outer housing composed of a  laminated sheet including a metal layer and a resin layer. Moreover, the electrode assembly may be a stacked electrode assembly in which a plurality of positive electrodes and a plurality of negative electrodes are alternately stacked one by one with separators sandwiched therebetween. 
       FIG. 1  is a sectional view of a secondary battery  10  that is all example of an embodiment. As illustrated in  FIG. 1 , the secondary battery  10  comprises a wound electrode assembly  14 , an electrolyte, and an outer can  16  for housing the electrode assembly  14  and the electrolyte. The electrode assembly  14  has a positive electrode  11 , a negative electrode  12 , and a separator  13 , and has a wound structure, in which the positive electrode  11  and the negative electrode  12  are spirally wound via the separator  13 . The outer can  16  is a bottomed cylindrical metal container having an opening on one side in the axial direction, and the opening of the outer can  16  is clogged by a sealing assembly  17 . In the following, for convenience of explanation, the battery on the sealing assembly  17  side is an upper side and on the bottom side of the outer can  16  is a lower side. 
     The electrolyte may be an aqueous electrolyte, but is preferably a non-aqueous electrolyte including a non-aqueous solvent and an electrolyte salt dissolved in the non-aqueous solvent. As the non-aqueous solvent, for example, esters, ethers, nitriles, amides, and a mixed solvent of two or more of these are used. The non-aqueous solvent may contain a halogen substituent which substitutes at least a portion of hydrogen in these solvents with a halogen atom such as fluorine. As the electrolyte salt, for example, a lithium salt such as LiPF 6  is used. The electrolyte is not limited to the liquid electrolyte and may be a solid electrolyte using a gel polymer or the like. 
     The positive electrode  11 , the negative electrode  12 , and the separator  13 , constituting the electrode assembly  14  are all belt-shaped long bodies and are alternately stacked in the radial direction of the electrode assembly  14  by being wound in a spiral  shape. The negative electrode  12  is formed so as to have one size larger than the positive electrode  11  in order to prevent precipitation of lithium. Namely, the negative electrode  12  is formed longer than the positive electrode  11  in the longitudinal direction and the width direction (shorter direction). Two separators  13  are formed one size larger than at least the positive electrode  11  and are arranged so as to sandwich the positive electrode  11 , for example. The electrode assembly  14  has a positive electrode lead  20  connected to the positive electrode  11  by welding or the like, and a negative electrode lead  21  connected to the negative electrode  12  by welding or the like. 
     Insulating plates  18  and  19  are arranged above and below the electrode assembly  14 , respectively. In the example shown in  FIG. 1 , the positive electrode lead  20  extends to the sealing assembly  17  side through a through hole of the insulating plate  18 , and the negative electrode lead  21  extends to the bottom side of the outer can  16  through the outside of the insulating plate  19 . The positive electrode lead  20  is connected to the lower surface of an internal terminal plate  23  of the sealing assembly  17  by welding or the like, and a cap  27  that is a top plate of the sealing assembly  17  electrically connected to the internal terminal plate  23 , serves as a positive electrode terminal. The negative electrode lead  21  is connected to the inner surface of the bottom of the outer can  16  by welding or the like, and the outer can  16  serves as a negative electrode terminal. 
     A gasket  28  is arranged between the outer can  16  and the sealing assembly  17  to secure a airtightness inside the battery. The outer can  16  has a grooved portion  22  that partially projects inward on the side surface of the outer can  16  and that supports the sealing assembly  17 . The grooved portion  22  is preferably formed in an annular shape along the circumferential direction of the outer can  16  and supports the sealing assembly  17  on the upper surface thereof. The sealing assembly  17  is fixed to the upper part of the outer can  16  by the grooved portion  22  and an opening end portion of the outer can  16  crimped for the sealing assembly  17 .  
     The sealing assembly  17  has a structure in which the internal terminal plate  23 , a lower vent member  24 , an insulating member  25 , an upper vent member  26 , and the cap  27  are stacked in this order from the electrode assembly  14  side. Each member constituting the sealing assembly  17  has, for example, a disk shape or a ring shape, and each member except the insulating member  25  is electrically connected to one another. The lower vent member  24  and the upper vent member  26  are connected at their respective central portions, and the insulating member  25  is interposed between the respective peripheral portions. When the internal pressure of the battery rises due to abnormal heat generation, the lower vent member  24  deforms and breaks so as to push the upper vent member  26  toward the cap  27  side, so that the current path between the lower vent member  24  and the upper vent member  26  is blocked. When the internal pressure further rises, the upper vent member  26  breaks and a gas is discharged from the opening of the cap  27 . 
     Hereinafter, the positive electrode  11 , the negative electrode  12 , and the separator  13  constituting the electrode assembly  14  will be described in detail, and in particular the negative-electrode active material constituting the negative electrode  12  will be described in detail. 
     Positive Electrode 
     The positive electrode  11  has a positive electrode core body and a positive electrode mixture layer arranged on the surface of the positive electrode core body. As the positive, electrode core body, a metal foil stable in the potential range of the positive electrode  11  such as aluminum or an aluminum alloy, a film in which the metal is arranged on the surface layer, etc., can be used. The positive electrode mixture layer includes a positive-electrode active material, a binder, and a conductive agent, and is preferably arranged on both sides of the positive electrode core body excluding the portion to which the positive electrode lead  20  is connected. The thickness of the positive electrode mixture layer is,  for example, from 50 μm to 150 μm on one side of the positive electrode core body. The positive electrode  11  can be fabricated by for example, coating a surface of the positive electrode core body with a positive electrode mixture slurry including the positive-electrode active material, the binder, the conductive agent, etc., drying the coated film, and then compressing it to form positive electrode mixture layers on both sides of the positive electrode core body. 
     The positive-electrode active material is composed mainly of a lithium transition metal composite oxide. Examples of the metal element other than Li contained in the lithium transition metal composite oxide includes Ni, Co, Mn, Al, B, Mg, Ti, V, Cr, Fe, Cu, Zn, Ga, Sr, Zr, Nb, In, Sn, Ta, and W. An example of a suitable lithium transition metal composite oxide is a composite oxide containing at least one of Ni, Co, and Mn. Specific examples thereof include a lithium transition metal composite oxide containing Ni, Co and Mn, and a lithium transition metal composite oxide containing Ni, Co and Al. 
     As the conductive agent included in the positive electrode mixture layer, a carbon material such as carbon black, acetylene black, Ketjen black, or graphite can be exemplified. As the binder included in the positive electrode mixture layer, a fluororesin such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) or polyvinylidene difluoride (PVdF), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), a polyimide resin, an acrylic resin, or a polyolefin resin can be exemplified. These resins may be combined for use with cellulose derivatives such as carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) or salts thereof, polyethylene oxide (PEO), etc. 
     Negative Electrode 
     The negative electrode  12  has a negative electrode core body and a negative electrode mixture layer arranged on the surface of the negative electrode core body. As the negative electrode core, a metal foil stable in the potential range of the negative electrode  12  such as copper or a copper alloy, a film in which the metal is arranged on the  surface layer, etc., can be used. The negative electrode mixture layer includes a negative-electrode active material and a binder, and is preferably arranged on both sides of the negative electrode core body excluding the exposed core body portion to which the negative electrode lead  21  is connected. The thickness of the negative electrode mixture layer is, for example, from 50 μm to 150 μm on one side of the negative electrode core body. The negative electrode  12  can be fabricated by for example, coating the surface of the negative electrode core body with a negative electrode mixture slurry including the negative-electrode active material, the binder, etc., drying the coated film, and then compressing it to form negative electrode mixture layers on both sides of the negative electrode core body. 
       FIGS. 2A to 2C  are schematic views of a negative-electrode active material  30  that is an example of embodiments. The negative-electrode active material  30  is a particulate substance and has a core particle  31  including a material that intercalates and releases a metal ion such as a lithium ion, a first layer  32  formed on the surface of the core particle  31 , and a second layer  33  formed on the first layer  32 . The first layer  32  includes at least one selected from amorphous carbon, carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, and conductive polymer. The second layer  33  includes at least one inorganic compound selected from an oxide, a phosphoric acid compound, a silicic acid compound, and a boric acid compound. The first layer  32  is formed directly on the surface of the core particle  31 . The second layer  33  is formed on the surface of the core particle  31  via the first layer  32 , but a portion of the second layer  33  may be formed directly on the surface of the core particle  31 . 
     The negative-electrode active material  30  can be said to be a core-shell particle in which the core particle  31 /the first layer  32 /the second layer  33  are present in this order from the particle center side, and a two-layered structure shell consisting of the first layer  32  and the second layer  33  is formed on the surface of the core particle  31 . By covering the surface of the core particle  31  with the first layer  32 , a good-quality second layer  33  is  formed, and the thermal stability of the negative electrode  12  is improved to inhibit heat generation at the time of occurrence of abnormality The negative-electrode active material  30  may have a layer other than the first layer  32  and the second layer  33  provided that the object of the present disclosure is not impaired. 
     The core particle  31  is preferably composed of a material containing carbon or silicon (Si). Examples of the carbon-containing material includes natural graphite such as scaly graphite, and artificial graphites such as massive artificial graphite and graphitized mesophase carbon microbeads. Graphite is a particle having a volume-based median diameter (D50) of, for example, from 5 μm to 30 μm and preferably from 10 μm to 25 μm. D50 refers to a particle diameter corresponding to the cumulative frequency reaching 50% from the smallest particle diameter in the volume-based particle diameter distribution and is also called a medium diameter. D50 can be measured by using water as a dispersion medium with a laser diffraction particle size distribution analyzer (for example, Microtrac HRA manufactured by Nikkiso Co., Ltd.). 
     The Si-containing material applied to the core particle  31  may be a Si particle but is preferably a compound containing a silicon oxide phase and Si dispersed in the silicon oxide phase (hereinafter, referred to as “SiO”), or a compound containing a lithium silicate phase and Si dispersed in in the lithium silicate phase (hereinafter referred to as “LSX”). SiO and LSX are each in the form of particles having, for example, D50 that is smaller than that of graphite. The volume-based D50 of SiO and LSX is preferably from 1 μm to 15 μm and more preferably from 4 μm to 10 μm. 
     SiO has, for example, a sea-island structure in which fine Si particles are substantially uniformly dispersed in an amorphous silicon oxide matrix and are represented by the general formula SiO x  (0.5≤x≤1.6). The content of the Si particles is preferably from 35 to 75% by mass based on the total mass of SiO, from the viewpoint of achieving  both battery capacity and cycle characteristics. LSX has, for example, a sea-island structure in which fine Si particles are substantially uniformly dispersed in a lithium silicate matrix and are represented by the general formula Li 2z SiO (2+z)  (0&lt;z&lt;2). The content of the Si particles is preferably from 35 to 75% by mass based on the total mass of LSX, as in the case of SiO. 
     For the negative-electrode active material  30 , the material containing carbon such as graphite and the Si-containing material such as SiO and LSX may be combined for use as the core particle  31 . For example, when graphite and SiO are combined for use, an example of the mixing ratio is from 60:40 to 95:5 in terms of mass ratio. 
     As described above, the first layer  32  is composed mainly of at least one selected from amorphous carbon, carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, and conductive polymer. Above all, the first layer  32  is preferably composed of amorphous carbon, The first layer  32  may be substantially composed of the amorphous carbon alone or may include a material other than the amorphous carbon provided that the object of the present disclosure is not impaired. The first layer  32  has conductivity equal to or higher than that of the core particle  31 , and also contributes to lowering the resistance of the battery. 
     The first layer  32  may be formed so as to cover the entire surface of the core particle  31  as illustrated in  FIGS. 2A and 2B , may be dotted on the surface of the core particle  31  as illustrated in  FIG. 2C , or may be formed in a mesh pattern. In the example shown in  FIG. 2C , a portion of the surface of the core particle  31  is exposed without being covered by the first layer  32 . The thickness of the first layer  32  is, for example, 1 μm or less, preferably from 1 nm to 500 nm, and more preferably from 10 nm to 100 nm. The thickness of the first layer  32  can be measured by observing the particle cross section of the negative-electrode active material  30  with a transmission electron microscope (TEM) (the same applies to the second layer  33 ).  
     The first layer  32  is preferably formed in an amount of from 0.1 to 5% by mass based on the mass of the core particle  31 . In this case, a wide area of the surface of the core particle  31  is covered with the first layer  32 . The percentage of the surface of the core particle  31  covered with the first layer  32 , i.e., the coverage of the surface of the core particle  31  with the first layer  32  is preferably 60% or more and more preferably 70% or more, and it may be substantially 100%. The coverage is measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) or Auger electron spectroscopy (AES). Further, the first layer  32  is more preferably formed on a portion without surface functional groups, for example, on a basal surface or the like, in the case of graphite. The presence of the first layer  32  as a buffer layer facilitates the formation of the second layer  33 , which is normally difficult to be formed on a surface having no surface functional groups. 
     The first layer  32  can be formed by mixing coal pitch, petroleum pitch, a phenol resin conductive polymer paste or the like with the core particle  31  and carrying out heat treatment. Alternatively, it can be formed by a CVD method using acetylene, methane or the like. Further, the first layer  32  may be formed by fixing carbon powder such as carbon black on the surface of the core particle  31  by using a binder. 
     As described above, the second layer  33  is composed mainly of at least one inorganic compound selected from an oxide, a phosphoric acid compound, a silicic acid compound, and a boric acid compound. The inorganic compound constituting the second layer  33  is preferably a compound having no lithium ion conductivity from the viewpoint of improving safety, etc. The presence or absence of lithium ion conductivity can be evaluated as follows. A pellet is produced based on the compound and lithium foils are attached to both ends of the pellet. The presence or absence of lithium ion conductivity can be evaluated based on the value of the flowing current by applying a constant voltage  to the Li/pellet/Li stack (when no current flows, the lithium ion conductivity is determined to be zero.). 
     The inorganic compound constituting the second layer  33  preferably contains at least one metal element selected from titanium, aluminum, zirconium, and magnesium. The second layer  33  has better adhesion to the first layer  32  than the surface of the core particle  31  and is evenly formed on the surface of the core particle  31  covered with the first layer  32 . The second layer  33  may be less conductive than the first layer  32 . 
     Specific examples of the inorganic compound constituting the second layer  33  include metal oxides such as titanium oxide, aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide, magnesium oxide and silicon oxide, metal phosphates such as sodium phosphate, potassium phosphate, calcium phosphate, magnesium phosphate, and aluminum phosphate, phosphate esters such as ammonium polyphosphate, condensed phosphates such as melamine polyphosphate, metal borates such as sodium borate, potassium borate, calcium borate, magnesium borate, and aluminum borate, condensed borates such as borate ester and melamine borate, and metal silicates such as sodium silicate, potassium silicate, calcium silicate, magnesium silicate, barium silicate and manganese silicate. 
     The second layer  33  is formed on the surface of the core particle  31  via the first layer  32  and may be formed so as to cover the entire surface of the core particle  31  as illustrated in  FIG. 2A , and as illustrated in  FIGS. 2B and 2C , it may be dotted on the surface of the core particle  31  or may be formed in a mesh pattern on the surface. In the example shown in  FIG. 2B , the first layer  32  is formed over the substantially entire surface of the core particle  31 , and the second layer  33  is formed over a wide area except for a portion on the first layer  32 . In the example shown in  FIG. 2C , the first layer  32  is formed over a wide area except for a portion of the surface of the core particle  31 , and the second layer  33  is formed on the first layer  32  and directly on the surface of the core  particle  31 . In both cases, a portion of the first layer  32  is not covered with the second layer  33  and is exposed on the outermost surface of the negative-electrode active material  30 . 
     The thickness of the second layer  33  is, for example, from 1 μm or less, preferably from 1 nm to 500 nm, and more preferably from 10 nm to 100 nm. The second layer  33  is preferably formed in an amount of from 0.1 to 5% by mass based on the mass of the core particle  31 . In this case, a wide area of the surface of the core particle  31  is covered with the second layer  33 . The percentage of the surface of the core particle  31  covered with the second layer  33 , i.e., the coverage of the surface of the core particle  31  with the second layer  33  is preferably 50% or more and more preferably 60% or more, and it may be substantially 100%. The coverage of the first layer  32  with the second layer  33  is, for example, from 60% to 95% and preferably from 60% to 80%. 
     The second layer  33  can be formed by mixing an alkoxide corresponding to titanium oxide, aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide, silicon oxide, magnesium oxide or the like with the core particle  31  having the first layer  32  formed on the surfaces thereof and adding a small mount of water followed by heat treatment. This method is generally called a sol-gel method. The second layer  33  can be formed by mixing any one of other various phosphoric acid compounds, boric acid compounds, silicic acid compounds and the like with the core particle  31  having the first layer  32  formed on the surfaces thereof, and filtering the impurities followed by drying. 
     As the binder included in the negative electrode mixture layer, fluororesin, PAN, polyimide, acrylic resin, polyolefin, or the like can be used as in the case of the positive electrode  11 , however, styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is preferably used. Further, the negative electrode mixture layer preferably further includes CMC or a salt thereof, a  polyacrylic acid (PAA) or a salt thereof, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), or the like. Among them, SBR and CMC or a salt thereof, PAA or a salt thereof are suitably combined for use. 
     Separator 
     A porous sheet having ion permeability and insulating property is used for the separator  13 . Specific examples of the porous sheet include a microporous thin film, a woven fabric, and a nonwoven fabric. As materials for the separator  13 , polyolefins such as polyethylene and polypropylene, cellulose, and the like are suitably used. The separator  13  may have either a single-layer structure or a multilayer structure. A heat-resistant layer or the like may be formed on the surface of the separator  13 . 
     EXAMPLES 
     Hereinafter, the present disclosure will be further described with reference to Examples, but the present disclosure is not limited to these Examples. 
     Example 1 
     Preparation of Positive Electrode 
     A lithium transition metal composite oxide represented by the general formula: LiNi 0.82 Co 0.15 Al 0.03 O 2  was used as the positive-electrode active material. The positive-electrode active material, acetylene black, and polyvinylidene difluoride were mixed at a solid content mass ratio of 97:2:1, and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) was used as a dispersion medium to prepare a positive electrode mixture slurry. Next, both sides of a positive electrode core body made of aluminum foil were coated with this positive electrode mixture slurry, and the coated film was dried and compressed, and then cut into a predetermined electrode size to fabricate a positive electrode in which positive electrode mixture layers were formed on both sides of the positive electrode core body.  
     Fabrication of Negative-Electrode Active Material 
     Graphite having a D50 of about 50 μm was used as the core particle. After immersing the core particle consisting of graphite in petroleum pitch, it was calcinated at 800° C. in a reducing atmosphere such as an Ar gas to form a first layer consisting of amorphous carbon on the substantially entire surface of the core particle. The first layer was formed in an amount of 0.5% by mass based on the core particle. The core particle on which the first layer was formed, and a titanium oxide (TiO 2 ) sol were mixed and calcinated at 400° C. to obtain a negative-electrode active material in which a second layer consisting of TiO 2  was formed on the first layer. The second layer was formed in an amount of 1% by mass based on the core particle. 
     Fabrication of Negative Electrode 
     The obtained negative-electrode active material, a dispersion of styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC-Na) were mixed at a solid content mass ratio of 98:1:1 and water was used as a dispersion medium to prepare a negative electrode mixture slurry. Next, both sides of a negative electrode core body made of copper foil were coated with this negative electrode mixture slurry, the coated film was dried and compressed, and then cut into a predetermined electrode size to fabricate a negative electrode having negative electrode mixture layers formed on both sides of the negative electrode core body. 
     Preparation of Non-Aqueous Electrolyte Solution 
     Ethylene carbonate (EC), methyl ethyl carbonate (EMC), and dimethyl carbonate (DMC) were mixed in a volume ratio of 2:1:7. A non-aqueous electrolyte was prepared by dissolving LiPF 6  in the mixed solvent to a concentration of 1.4 mol/L. 
     Fabrication of Secondary Battery  
     The positive electrode to which an aluminum positive electrode lead was attached and the negative electrode to which a nickel negative electrode lead was attached were spirally wound with a polyethylene separator interposed therebetween and formed into a flat shape to fabricate a wound electrode assembly. This electrode assembly was housed in an outer housing composed of an aluminum laminate, and after injecting the aforementioned non-aqueous electrolyte solution, the opening of the outer housing was sealed to fabricate a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery. 
     Example 2 
     A negative electrode and a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery were fabricated in the same manner as in Example 1 except that aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ) was used instead of TiO 2  in the fabrication of the negative-electrode active material. 
     Example 3 
     A negative electrode and a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery were fabricated in the same manner as in Example 1 except that zirconium oxide (ZrO 2 ) was used instead of TiO 2  in the fabrication of the negative-electrode active material. 
     Example 4 
     A negative electrode and a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery were fabricated in the same manner as in Example 1 except that magnesium oxide (MgO) was used instead of TiO 2  in the fabrication of the negative-electrode active material. 
     Example 5 
     A negative electrode and a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery were fabricated in the same manner as in Example 1 except that silicon oxide (SiO 2 ) was used instead of TiO 2  in the fabrication of the negative-electrode active material.  
     Example 6 
     A negative electrode and a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery were fabricated in the same manner as in Example 1 except that aluminum phosphate (AlPO 4 ) was used instead of TiO 2  in the fabrication of the negative-electrode active material. 
     Example 7 
     A negative electrode and a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery were fabricated in the same manner as in Example 1 except that aluminum phosphate (Al 2 (PO 4 ) 2 ) was used instead of TiO 2  in the fabrication of the negative-electrode active material. 
     Example 8 
     A negative electrode and a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery were fabricated in the same manner as in Example 1 except that potassium silicate (K 2 SiO 3 ) was used instead of TiO 2  in the fabrication of the negative-electrode active material. 
     Example 9 
     A negative electrode and a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery were fabricated in the same manner as in Example 1 except that a mixture of the carbon-based active material used in Example 1 and the Si-based active material represented by SiO x  (x=1) at a mass ratio of 94:6 were used as the core particle of the negative-electrode active material. 
     Comparative Example 1 
     A negative electrode and a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery were fabricated in the same manner as in Example 1 except that the first layer and the second layer were not formed on the surface of the core particle in the fabrication of the negative-electrode active material.  
     Comparative Example 2 
     A negative electrode and a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery were fabricated in the same manner as in Example 1 except that the second layer was not formed on the surface of the core particle in the fabrication of the negative-electrode active material. 
     Comparative Example 3 
     A negative electrode and a non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery were fabricated in the same manner as in Example 1 except that the first layer was not formed on the surface of the core particle in the fabrication of the negative-electrode active material. 
     Measurement of Coverage of Core Particle Surface with Second Layer 
     For each of the negative-electrode active materials of Examples and Comparative Examples, a plurality of regions of 100 μmϕ arbitrarily selected were measured with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and the coverage of the surface of the core particle with the second layer formed thereon was determined in consideration of the atomic and molecular radii from the various atomic ratios obtained. Another method for determining the coverage may be a method for determining it by carrying out element mapping measurement on an arbitrary region of 100 μmϕ with Auger electron spectroscopy (AES). 
     The evaluation results are shown in Table 1. 
     Measurement of Battery Resistance (DC-IR) 
     Each of the secondary batteries of Examples and Comparative Examples was charged in a temperature environment of 25° C. at a constant current of 0.3 C until the battery voltage reached 4.2 V, and then was charged at a constant voltage until the current  value was down to 0.05 C. Following that, the battery was discharged at a constant current of 0.3 C to adjust the state of charge (SOC) to 50%. Next, the voltage values when applying discharge currents of 0 A, 0.1 A, 0.5 A, and 1.0 A for 10 seconds, were acquired. DC-IR was calculated from the absolute value of the slope when the voltage values after 10 seconds for each discharge current value were linearly approximated by the least-squares method. The evaluation results are shown in Table 1. 
     Nail Puncture Test 
     A nail puncture test was carried out for each of the secondary batteries of Examples and Comparative Examples according to the following procedure. The evaluation results are shown in Table 1. 
     (1) In an environment of 25° C., battery charge was carried out at a constant current of 600 mA until the battery voltage reached 4.2 V, and then the charge was continued at a constant voltage until the current value reached 90 mA.
 
(2) In an environment of 25° C., the tip of a round nail having a thickness of 2.7 mmϕ was brought into contact with the center of the side surface, of the battery charged in (1), and the round nail was punctured into the electrode assembly of the battery in the stacked direction thereof at a speed of 1 mm/sec and immediately after detecting a battery voltage drop due to an internal short circuit, the round nail was stopped puncturing. (3) The battery surface temperature was measured 1 minute after the battery started short-circuiting by the round nail. 
 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Battery 
                 Battery temperature 
               
               
                   
                 Core 
                   
                   
                 Coverage with 
                 resistance 
                 after nail puncture 
               
               
                   
                 particle 
                 First layer 
                 Second layer 
                 second layer (%) 
                 (mΩ) 
                 test (° C.) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Example 1 
                 Graphite 
                 Amorphous carbon 
                 TiO 2   
                 90 
                 30 
                 50 
               
               
                 Example 2 
                 Graphite 
                 Amorphous carbon 
                 Al 2 O 3   
                 95 
                 32 
                 60 
               
               
                 Example 3 
                 Graphite 
                 Amorphous carbon 
                 ZrO 2   
                 80 
                 31 
                 55 
               
               
                 Example 4 
                 Graphite 
                 Amorphous carbon 
                 MgO 
                 75 
                 30 
                 70 
               
               
                 Example 5 
                 Graphite 
                 Amorphous carbon 
                 SiO 2   
                 85 
                 28 
                 60 
               
               
                 Example 6 
                 Graphite 
                 Amorphous carbon 
                 AlPO 4   
                 80 
                 30 
                 55 
               
               
                 Example 7 
                 Graphite 
                 Amorphous carbon 
                 Al 2 (BO 4 ) 2   
                 65 
                 33 
                 60 
               
               
                 Example 8 
                 Graphite 
                 Amorphous carbon 
                 K 2 SiO 3   
                 70 
                 34 
                 80 
               
               
                 Example 9 
                 Graphite + 
                 Amorphous carbon 
                 TiO 2   
                 85 
                 30 
                 60 
               
               
                   
                 SiO 
               
               
                 Comparative 
                 Graphite 
                 None 
                 None 
                 — 
                 32 
                 100 
               
               
                 Example 1 
               
               
                 Comparative 
                 Graphite 
                 Amorphous carbon 
                 None 
                 — 
                 28 
                 120 
               
               
                 Example 2 
               
               
                 Comparative 
                 Graphite 
                 None 
                 TiO 2   
                 30 
                 38 
                 110 
               
               
                 Example 3 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
      As shown in Table 1, the temperature rise of all the batteries of Examples after the nail puncture test was smaller than that of the batteries of Comparative Examples. Namely, the batteries of Examples significantly inhibit heat generation upon occurrence of the internal short circuit as compared with the batteries of Comparative Examples. Not only when the negative-electrode active material in which none of the first layer and the second layer are present is used on the surface of the graphite particle (Comparative Example 1), but also when the negative-electrode active material in which one of the layers is not present is used (Comparative Examples 2 and 3), the inhibition effect of heat generation cannot be obtained either. 
     The batteries of Examples had lower battery resistance and inhibited the battery temperature rise after the nail puncture test as compared with the batteries of Comparative Examples 1 and 3. Further, the batteries of Examples inhibited the battery temperature rise after the nail puncture test as compared with the battery of Comparative Example 2. The battery resistance of the battery of Comparative Example 2 is, on the other hand, lower than that of the batteries of Examples. 
     In the batteries of Comparative Examples 2 and 3, the battery temperature after the nail puncture test rose than that of the battery of Comparative Example 1, but because the first layer or the second layer was formed on the surface of the core particle, the battery temperature after the nail puncture test is assumed not to be likely to rise. When the negative-electrode active materials of Examples each in which the first layer and the second layer were formed in this order on the surface of the core particle was used, the battery temperature rise after the nail puncture test was significantly inhibited. 
     In the negative-electrode active materials of Examples, the first layer is considered to function as a cushioning material between the core particle and the second layer.  Namely, the substance constituting the second layer is considered to have adhered sufficiently on the surface of the core particle with the first layer interposed between the core particle and the second layer. Therefore, due to the presence of the second layer in the sufficient amount on the surface of the core particle in the negative-electrode active materials of Examples and use of the negative-electrode active materials of Examples, the inhibition effect on temperature rise that cannot be obtained with the negative-electrode active material of Comparative Example 3, can be obtained. 
     TiO 2  is included in the second layer of each of the negative-electrode active materials of Example 1 and Comparative Example 3. When the negative-electrode active material of Comparative Example 3 in which the second layer was directly formed on the surface of the core particle was used, the battery resistance was significantly increased as compared with the battery of Comparative Example 1. In the battery of Example 1, on the contrary, the increase in battery resistance as in the battery of Comparative Example 3 can be inhibited because the first layer was formed between the core particle and the second layer, and further the battery resistance could be lowered more than in the case where the second layer was not present (Comparative Example 1). 
     REFERENCE SIGNS LIST 
     
         
           10  secondary battery 
           11  positive electrode 
           12  negative electrode 
           13  separator 
           14  electrode assembly. 
           16  outer can 
           18 , 19  insulating plate 
           20  positive electrode lead  
           21  negative electrode lead 
           22  grooved portion 
           23  internal terminal plate 
           24  lower vent member 
           25  insulating member 
           26  upper vent member 
           27  cap 
           28  gasket 
           30  negative-electrode active material 
           31  core particle 
           32  first layer 
           33  second layer