Patent Publication Number: US-2023135486-A1

Title: Circulating rna signatures specific to preeclampsia

Description:
CONTINUING APPLICATION DATA 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/939,324, filed Nov. 22, 2019, which is incorporated by reference herein. 
    
    
     FIELD OF INVENTION 
     The present invention relates generally to methods and materials for use in the detection and early risk assessment for the pregnancy complication preeclampsia. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Preeclampsia is a condition that occurs only during pregnancy, affecting 5% to 8% of all pregnancies. It is the direct cause of 10%-15% of maternal deaths and 40% of fetal deaths. The three main symptoms of preeclampsia may include high blood pressure, swelling of hands and feet, and excess protein in the urine (proteinuria), occurring after week 20 of pregnancy. Other signs and symptoms of preeclampsia may include severe headaches, changes in vision (including temporary loss of vision, blurred vision or light sensitivity), nausea or vomiting, decreased urine output, decreased platelets levels (thrombocytopenia), impaired liver function, and shortness of breath, caused by fluid in the lung. 
     The more severe the preeclampsia and the earlier it occurs in pregnancy, the greater the risks for mother and baby. Preeclampsia may require induced labor and delivery or delivery by cesarean delivery. Left untreated, preeclampsia can lead to serious, even fatal, complications for both the mother and baby. Complications of preeclampsia include fetal growth restriction, low birth weight, preterm birth, placental abruption, HELLP syndrome (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count syndrome), eclampsia (a severe form of preeclampsia that leads to seizures), organ damage, including kidney, liver, lung, heart, or eye damage, stroke or other brain injury. See, for example, “Preeclampsia—Symptoms and causes—Mayo Clinic,” Apr. 3, 2018, available at on the worldwide web at mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/preeclampsia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355745. 
     With early detection and treatment, most women can deliver a healthy baby if preeclampsia is detected early and treated with regular prenatal care. Although various protein biomarkers display changed levels in maternal serum at presymptomatic stages, these biomarkers lack discriminative and predictive power in individual patients (Karumanchi and Granger, 2016 , Hypertension;  67(2): 238-242). Thus, the identification of biomarkers for the early detection of preeclampsia is critical for the early diagnosis and treatment of preeclampsia. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention includes a method of detecting preeclampsia and/or determining an increased risk for preeclampsia in a pregnant female, the method including: 
     identifying in a biosample obtained from the pregnant women a plurality of circulating RNA (C-RNA) molecules; 
     wherein a plurality of C-RNA molecules is selected from:
         (a) a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, up to all seventy-five of ARRDC2, JUN, SKIL, ATP13A3, PDE8B, GSTA3, PAPPA2, TIPARP, LEP, RGP1, USP54, CLEC4C, MRPS35, ARHGEF25, CUX2, HEATR9, FSTL3, DDI2, ZMYM6, ST6GALNAC3, GBP2, NES, ETV3, ADAM17, ATOH8, SLC4A3, TRAF3IP1, TTC21A, HEG1, ASTE1, TMEM108, ENC1, SCAMPI, ARRDC3, SLC26A2, SLIT3, CLIC5, TNFRSF21, PPP1R17, TPST1, GATSL2, SPDYE5, HIPK2, MTRNR2L6, CLCN1, GINS4, CRH, C10orf2, TRUB1, PRG2, ACY3, FAR2, CD63, CKAP4, TPCN1, RNF6, THTPA, FOS, PARN, ORAI3, ELMO3, SMPD3, SERPINF1, TMEM11, PSMD11, EBI3, CLEC4M, CCDC151, CPAMD8, CNFN, LTLRA4, ADA, C22orf39, PI4KAP1, and ARFGAP3; or   (b) a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty six of more, or all twenty-seven of TIMP4, FLG, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, CLEC4C, KRT5, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, and VSIG4; or   (c) a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, up to all one hundred twenty-two of CYP26B1, IRF6, MYH14, PODXL, PPP1R3C, SH3RF2, TMC7, ZNF366, ADCY1, C6, FAM219A, HAO2, IGIP, IL1R2, NTRK2, SH3PXD2A, SSUH2, SULT2A1, FMO3, FSTL3, GATA5, HTRA1, C8B, H19, MN1, NFE2L1, PRDM16, AP3B2, EMP1, FLNC, STAG3, CPB2, TENC1, RP1L1, A1CF, NPR1, TEK, ERRFI1, ARHGEF15, CD34, RSPO3, ALPK3, SAMD4A, ZCCHC24, LEAP2, MYL2, NRG3, ZBTB16, SERPINA3, AQP7, SRPX, UACA, ANO1, FKBP5, SCN5A, PTPN21, CACNA1C, ERG, SOX17, WWTR1, AIF1L, CA3, HRG, TAT, AQP7P1, ADRA2C, SYNPO, FN1, GPR116, KRT17, AZGP1, BCL6B, KIF1C, CLIC5, GPR4, GJA5, OLAH, C14orf37, ZEB1, JAG2, KIF26A, APOLD1, PNMT, MYOM3, PITPNM3, TIMP4, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, VSIG4, HBG2, CADM2, LAMP5, PTGDR2, NOMO1, NXF3, PLD4, BPIFB3, PACSIN1, CUX2, FLG, CLEC4C, and KRT5; or   (d) a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, any twenty-four or more, any twenty-five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, or all thirty of VSIG4, ADAMTS2, NES, FAM107A, LEP, DAAM2, ARHGEF25, TIMP3, PRX, ALOX15B, HSPA12B, IGFBP5, CLEC4C, SLC9A3R2, ADAMTS1, SEMA3G, KRT5, AMPH, PRG2, PAPPA2, TEAD4, CRH, PITPNM3, TIMP4, PNMT, ZEB1, APOLD1, PLD4, CUX2, and HTRA4; or   (e) a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, any twenty-four or more, any twenty-five or more, or all twenty-six of ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, AMPH, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HSPA12B, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PACSIN1, PAPPA2, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, and VSIG4; or   (f) a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, or all twenty-two of ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, and VSIG4; or   (g) a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, or all eleven of CLEC4C, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, LEP, ARRDC2, SKIL, PAPPA2, VSIG4, ARRDC4, CRH, and NES (including in some embodiments, the seven of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, and VSIG4; the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, and VSIG4; the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, NES, SKIL, and VSIG4;   the ten of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, CRH, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, and VSIG4; the of six of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, and SKIL; or the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, and SKIL); or   (h) a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, or all twenty-four of LEP, PAPPA2, KCNA5, ADAMTS2, MYOM3, ATP13A3, ARHGEF25, ADA, HTRA4, NES, CRH, ACY3, PLD4, SCT, NOX4, PACSIN1, SERPINF1, SKIL, SEMA3G, TIPARP, LRRC26, PHEX, LILRA4, and PER1; or   (i) a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, any thirty or more, any thirty-one or more, any thirty-two or more, any thirty-three or more, any thirty-four or more, any thirty-five or more, any thirty-six or more, any thirty-seven or more, any thirty-eight or more, any thirty-nine or more, any forty or more, any forty-one or more, any forty-two or more, any forty-three or more, any forty-four or more, any forty-five or more, any forty-six or more, any forty-seven or more, any forty-eight or more, or all forth-nine of those listed in Table S9 of Example 7; or   (j) a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, or all thirteen of AKAP2, ARRB1, CPSF7, INO80C, JAG1, MSMP, NR4A2, PLEK, RAP1GAP2, SPEG, TRPS1, UBE2Q1, and ZNF768 is indicative of preeclampsia and/or an increased risk for preeclampsia in the pregnant women.       

     The present invention includes a method of detecting preeclampsia and/or determining an increased risk for preeclampsia in a pregnant female, the method including: 
     obtaining a biosample from the pregnant female; 
     purifying a population of circulating RNA (C-RNA) molecules from the biosample; 
     identifying protein coding sequences encoded by the C-RNA molecules within the purified population of C-RNA molecules; 
     wherein protein coding sequences encoded by the C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein is selected from:
         (a) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any fifty or more, any seventy or more, or all seventy-five of ARRDC2, JUN, SKIL, ATP13A3, PDE8B, GSTA3, PAPPA2, TIPARP, LEP, RGP1, USP54, CLEC4C, MRPS35, ARHGEF25, CUX2, HEATR9, FSTL3, DDI2, ZMYM6, ST6GALNAC3, GBP2, NES, ETV3, ADAM17, ATOH8, SLC4A3, TRAF3IP1, TTC21A, HEG1, ASTE1, TMEM108, ENC1, SCAMPI, ARRDC3, SLC26A2, SLIT3, CLIC5, TNFRSF21, PPP1R17, TPST1, GATSL2, SPDYE5, HIPK2, MTRNR2L6, CLCN1, GINS4, CRH, C10orf2, TRUB1, PRG2, ACY3, FAR2, CD63, CKAP4, TPCN1, RNF6, THTPA, FOS, PARN, ORAI3, ELMO3, SMPD3, SERPINF1, TMEM11, PSMD11, EBI3, CLEC4M, CCDC151, CPAMD8, CNFN, LILRA4, ADA, C22orf39, PI4KAP1, and ARFGAP3; or   (b) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty six of more, or all twenty-seven of TIMP4, FLG, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, CLEC4C, KRT5, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, and VSIG4; or   (c) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any fifty or more, any seventy-five or more, any one hundred or more, or all one hundred twenty-two of CYP26B1, IRF6, MYH14, PODXL, PPP1R3C, SH3RF2, TMC7, ZNF366, ADCY1, C6, FAM219A, HAO2, IGIP, IL1R2, NTRK2, SH3PXD2A, SSUH2, SULT2A1, FMO3, FSTL3, GATA5, HTRA1, C8B, H19, MN1, NFE2L1, PRDM16, AP3B2, EMP1, FLNC, STAG3, CPB2, TENC1, RP1L1, A1CF, NPR1, TEK, ERRFI1, ARHGEF15, CD34, RSPO3, ALPK3, SAMD4A, ZCCHC24, LEAP2, MYL2, NRG3, ZBTB16, SERPINA3, AQP7, SRPX, UACA, ANO1, FKBP5, SCN5A, PTPN21, CACNA1C, ERG, SOX17, WWTR1, AIF1L, CA3, HRG, TAT, AQP7P1, ADRA2C, SYNPO, FN1, GPR116, KRT17, AZGP1, BCL6B, KIF1C, CLIC5, GPR4, GJA5, OLAH, C14orf37, ZEB1, JAG2, KIF26A, APOLD1, PNMT, MYOM3, PITPNM3, TIMP4, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, VSIG4, HBG2, CADM2, LAMP5, PTGDR2, NOMO1, NXF3, PLD4, BPIFB3, PACSIN1, CUX2, FLG, CLEC4C, and KRT5; or   (d) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, any twenty-four or more, any twenty-five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, or all thirty of VSIG4, ADAMTS2, NES, FAM107A, LEP, DAAM2, ARHGEF25, TIMP3, PRX, ALOX15B, HSPA12B, IGFBP5, CLEC4C, SLC9A3R2, ADAMTS1, SEMA3G, KRT5, AMPH, PRG2, PAPPA2, TEAD4, CRH, PITPNM3, TIMP4, PNMT, ZEB1, APOLD1, PLD4, CUX2, and HTRA4; or   (e) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, any twenty-four or more, any twenty-five or more, or all twenty-six of ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, AMPH, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HSPA12B, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PACSIN1, PAPPA2, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, and VSIG4; or   (f) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, or all twenty-two of ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, and VSIG4; or   (g) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, or all eleven of CLEC4C, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, LEP, ARRDC2, SKIL, PAPPA2, VSIG4, ARRDC4, CRH, and NES (including in some embodiments, the seven of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, and VSIG4; the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, and VSIG4; the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, NES, SKIL, and VSIG4; the ten of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, CRH, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, and VSIG4; the of six of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, and SKIL; or the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, and SKIL); or   (h) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, or all twenty-four of LEP, PAPPA2, KCNA5, ADAMTS2, MYOM3, ATP13A3, ARHGEF25, ADA, HTRA4, NES, CRH, ACY3, PLD4, SCT, NOX4, PACSIN1, SERPINF1, SKIL, SEMA3G, TIPARP, LRRC26, PHEX, LILRA4, and PER1; or   (i) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, any thirty or more, any thirty-one or more, any thirty-two or more, any thirty-three or more, any thirty-four or more, any thirty-five or more, any thirty-six or more, any thirty-seven or more, any thirty-eight or more, any thirty-nine or more, any forty or more, any forty-one or more, any forty-two or more, any forty-three or more, any forty-four or more, any forty-five or more, any forty-six or more, any forty-seven or more, any forty-eight or more, or all forth-nine of those listed in Table S9 of Example 7; or   (j) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, or all thirteen of AKAP2, ARRB1, CPSF7, INO80C, JAG1, MSMP, NR4A2, PLEK, RAP1GAP2, SPEG, TRPS1, UBE2Q1, and ZNF768 is indicative of preeclampsia and/or an increased risk for preeclampsia in the pregnant women.       

     In some aspects, identifying protein coding sequences encoded by C-RNA molecules within the biosample includes hybridization, reverse transcriptase PCR, microarray chip analysis, or sequencing. 
     In some aspects, identifying protein coding sequences encoded by the C-RNA molecules within the biosample includes sequencing, including, for example, massively parallel sequencing of clonally amplified molecules and/or RNA sequencing. 
     In some aspects, the method further includes removing intact cells from the biosample; treating the biosample with a deoxynuclease (DNase) to remove cell free DNA (cfDNA); synthesizing complementary DNA (cDNA) from C-RNA molecules in the biosample; and/or enriching the cDNA sequences for DNA sequences that encode proteins by exome enrichment prior to identifying protein coding sequence encoded by the circulating RNA (C-RNA) molecules. 
     The present invention includes a method of detecting preeclampsia and/or determining an increased risk for preeclampsia in a pregnant female, the method including: 
     obtaining a biological sample from the pregnant female; 
     removing intact cells from the biosample; 
     treating the biosample with a deoxynuclease (DNase) to remove cell free DNA (cfDNA); 
     synthesizing complementary DNA (cDNA) from RNA molecules in the biosample; 
     enriching the cDNA sequences for DNA sequences that encode proteins (exome enrichment); 
     sequencing the resulting enriched cDNA sequences; and 
     identifying protein coding sequences encoded by enriched C-RNA molecules; 
     wherein protein coding sequences encoded by the C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from:
         (a) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, up to all seventy-five of ARRDC2, JUN, SKIL, ATP13A3, PDE8B, GSTA3, PAPPA2, TIPARP, LEP, RGP1, USP54, CLEC4C, MRPS35, ARHGEF25, CUX2, HEATR9, FSTL3, DDI2, ZMYM6, ST6GALNAC3, GBP2, NES, ETV3, ADAM17, ATOH8, SLC4A3, TRAF3IP1, TTC21A, HEG1, ASTE1, TMEM108, ENC1, SCAMPI, ARRDC3, SLC26A2, SLIT3, CLIC5, TNFRSF21, PPP1R17, TPST1, GATSL2, SPDYE5, HIPK2, MTRNR2L6, CLCN1, GINS4, CRH, C10orf2, TRUB1, PRG2, ACY3, FAR2, CD63, CKAP4, TPCN1, RNF6, THTPA, FOS, PARN, ORAI3, ELMO3, SMPD3, SERPINF1, TMEM11, PSMD11, EBI3, CLEC4M, CCDC151, CPAMD8, CNFN, LILRA4, ADA, C22orf39, PI4KAP1, and ARFGAP3; or   (b) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty six of more, or all twenty-seven of TIMP4, FLG, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, CLEC4C, KRT5, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, and VSIG4; or   (c) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, up to all one hundred twenty-two of CYP26B1, IRF6, MYH14, PODXL, PPP1R3C, SH3RF2, TMC7, ZNF366, ADCY1, C6, FAM219A, HAO2, IGIP, IL1R2, NTRK2, SH3PXD2A, SSUH2, SULT2A1, FMO3, FSTL3, GATA5, HTRA1, C8B, H19, MN1, NFE2L1, PRDM16, AP3B2, EMP1, FLNC, STAG3, CPB2, TENC1, RP1L1, A1CF, NPR1, TEK, ERRFI1, ARHGEF15, CD34, RSPO3, ALPK3, SAMD4A, ZCCHC24, LEAP2, MYL2, NRG3, ZBTB16, SERPINA3, AQP7, SRPX, UACA, ANO1, FKBP5, SCN5A, PTPN21, CACNA1C, ERG, SOX17, WWTR1, AIF1L, CA3, HRG, TAT, AQP7P1, ADRA2C, SYNPO, FN1, GPR116, KRT17, AZGP1, BCL6B, KIF1C, CLIC5, GPR4, GJA5, OLAH, C14orf37, ZEB1, JAG2, KIF26A, APOLD1, PNMT, MYOM3, PITPNM3, TIMP4, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, VSIG4, HBG2, CADM2, LAMP5, PTGDR2, NOMO1, NXF3, PLD4, BPIFB3, PACSIN1, CUX2, FLG, CLEC4C, and KRT5; or   (d) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, any twenty-four or more, any twenty-five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, or all thirty of VSIG4, ADAMTS2, NES, FAM107A, LEP, DAAM2, ARHGEF25, TIMP3, PRX, ALOX15B, HSPA12B, IGFBP5, CLEC4C, SLC9A3R2, ADAMTS1, SEMA3G, KRT5, AMPH, PRG2, PAPPA2, TEAD4, CRH, PITPNM3, TIMP4, PNMT, ZEB1, APOLD1, PLD4, CUX2, and HTRA4; or   (e) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, any twenty-four or more, any twenty-five or more, or all twenty-six of ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, AMPH, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HSPA12B, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PACSIN1, PAPPA2, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, and VSIG4; or   (f) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, or all twenty-two of ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, and VSIG4; or   (g) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, or all eleven of CLEC4C, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, LEP, ARRDC2, SKIL, PAPPA2, VSIG4, ARRDC4, CRH, and NES (including in some embodiments, the seven of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, and VSIG4; the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, and VSIG4; the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, NES, SKIL, and VSIG4; the ten of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, CRH, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, and VSIG4; the of six of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, and SKIL; or the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, and SKIL); or   (h) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, or all twenty-four of LEP, PAPPA2, KCNA5, ADAMTS2, MYOM3, ATP13A3, ARHGEF25, ADA, HTRA4, NES, CRH, ACY3, PLD4, SCT, NOX4, PACSIN1, SERPINF1, SKIL, SEMA3G, TIPARP, LRRC26, PHEX, LILRA4, and PER1; or   (i) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, any thirty or more, any thirty-one or more, any thirty-two or more, any thirty-three or more, any thirty-four or more, any thirty-five or more, any thirty-six or more, any thirty-seven or more, any thirty-eight or more, any thirty-nine or more, any forty or more, any forty-one or more, any forty-two or more, any forty-three or more, any forty-four or more, any forty-five or more, any forty-six or more, any forty-seven or more, any forty-eight or more, or all forth-nine of those listed in Table S9 of Example 7; or   (j) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, or all thirteen of AKAP2, ARRB1, CPSF7, INO80C, JAG1, MSMP, NR4A2, PLEK, RAP1GAP2, SPEG, TRPS1, UBE2Q1, and ZNF768 is indicative of preeclampsia and/or an increased risk for preeclampsia in the pregnant women.       

     The present invention includes a method of identifying a circulating RNA signature associated with an increased risk of preeclampsia, the method including obtaining a biological sample from the pregnant female; removing intact cells from the biosample; treating the biosample with a deoxynuclease (DNase) to remove cell free DNA (cfDNA); synthesizing complementary DNA (cDNA) from RNA molecules in the biosample; enriching the cDNA sequences for DNA sequences that encode proteins (exome enrichment); sequencing the resulting enriched cDNA sequences; and identifying protein coding sequences encoded by enriched C-RNA molecules. 
     The present invention includes a method including: 
     obtaining a biological sample from the pregnant female; 
     removing intact cells from the biosample; 
     treating the biosample with a deoxynuclease (DNase) to remove cell free DNA (cfDNA); 
     synthesizing complementary DNA (cDNA) from RNA molecules in the biosample; 
     enriching the cDNA sequences for DNA sequences that encode proteins (exome enrichment); 
     sequencing the resulting enriched cDNA sequences; and 
     identifying protein coding sequences encoded by the enriched C-RNA molecules; 
     wherein the protein coding sequences include at least a portion of a protein selected from:
         (a) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five up to all seventy-five ARRDC2, JUN, SKIL, ATP13A3, PDE8B, GSTA3, PAPPA2, TIPARP, LEP, RGP1, USP54, CLEC4C, MRPS35, ARHGEF25, CUX2, HEATR9, FSTL3, DDI2, ZMYM6, ST6GALNAC3, GBP2, NES, ETV3, ADAM17, ATOH8, SLC4A3, TRAF3IP1, TTC21A, HEG1, ASTE1, TMEM108, ENC1, SCAMPI, ARRDC3, SLC26A2, SLIT3, CLIC5, TNFRSF21, PPP1R17, TPST1, GATSL2, SPDYE5, HIPK2, MTRNR2L6, CLCN1, GINS4, CRH, C10orf2, TRUB1, PRG2, ACY3, FAR2, CD63, CKAP4, TPCN1, RNF6, THTPA, FOS, PARN, ORAI3, ELMO3, SMPD3, SERPINF1, TMEM11, PSMD11, EBI3, CLEC4M, CCDC151, CPAMD8, CNFN, LILRA4, ADA, C22orf39, PI4KAP1, and ARFGAP3; or   (b) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty six of more, or all twenty-seven of TIMP4, FLG, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, CLEC4C, KRT5, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, and VSIG4; or   (c) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, up to all one hundred twenty-two of CYP26B1, IRF6, MYH14, PODXL, PPP1R3C, SH3RF2, TMC7, ZNF366, ADCY1, C6, FAM219A, HAO2, IGIP, IL1R2, NTRK2, SH3PXD2A, SSUH2, SULT2A1, FMO3, FSTL3, GATA5, HTRA1, C8B, H19, MN1, NFE2L1, PRDM16, AP3B2, EMP1, FLNC, STAG3, CPB2, TENC1, RP1L1, A1CF, NPR1, TEK, ERRFI1, ARHGEF15, CD34, RSPO3, ALPK3, SAMD4A, ZCCHC24, LEAP2, MYL2, NRG3, ZBTB16, SERPINA3, AQP7, SRPX, UACA, ANO1, FKBP5, SCN5A, PTPN21, CACNA1C, ERG, SOX17, WWTR1, AIF1L, CA3, HRG, TAT, AQP7P1, ADRA2C, SYNPO, FN1, GPR116, KRT17, AZGP1, BCL6B, KIF1C, CLIC5, GPR4, GJA5, OLAH, C14orf37, ZEB1, JAG2, KIF26A, APOLD1, PNMT, MYOM3, PITPNM3, TIMP4, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, VSIG4, HBG2, CADM2, LAMP5, PTGDR2, NOMO1, NXF3, PLD4, BPIFB3, PACSIN1, CUX2, FLG, CLEC4C, and KRT5; or   (d) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, any twenty-four or more, any twenty-five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, or all thirty of VSIG4, ADAMTS2, NES, FAM107A, LEP, DAAM2, ARHGEF25, TIMP3, PRX, ALOX15B, HSPA12B, IGFBP5, CLEC4C, SLC9A3R2, ADAMTS1, SEMA3G, KRT5, AMPH, PRG2, PAPPA2, TEAD4, CRH, PITPNM3, TIMP4, PNMT, ZEB1, APOLD1, PLD4, CUX2, and HTRA4; or   (e) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, any twenty-four or more, any twenty-five or more, or all twenty-six of ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, AMPH, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HSPA12B, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PACSIN1, PAPPA2, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, and VSIG4; or   (f) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, or all twenty-two of ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, and VSIG4; or   (g) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, or all eleven of CLEC4C, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, LEP, ARRDC2, SKIL, PAPPA2, VSIG4, ARRDC4, CRH, and NES (including in some embodiments, the seven of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, and VSIG4; the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, and VSIG4; the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, NES, SKIL, and VSIG4; the ten of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, CRH, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, and VSIG4; the of six of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, and SKIL; or the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, and SKIL); or   (h) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, or all twenty-four of LEP, PAPPA2, KCNA5, ADAMTS2, MYOM3, ATP13A3, ARHGEF25, ADA, HTRA4, NES, CRH, ACY3, PLD4, SCT, NOX4, PACSIN1, SERPINF1, SKIL, SEMA3G, TIPARP, LRRC26, PHEX, LILRA4, and PER1; or   (i) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, any thirty or more, any thirty-one or more, any thirty-two or more, any thirty-three or more, any thirty-four or more, any thirty-five or more, any thirty-six or more, any thirty-seven or more, any thirty-eight or more, any thirty-nine or more, any forty or more, any forty-one or more, any forty-two or more, any forty-three or more, any forty-four or more, any forty-five or more, any forty-six or more, any forty-seven or more, any forty-eight or more, or all forth-nine of those listed in Table S9 of Example 7; or   (j) any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, or all thirteen of AKAP2, ARRB1, CPSF7, INO80C, JAG1, MSMP, NR4A2, PLEK, RAP1GAP2, SPEG, TRPS1, UBE2Q1, and ZNF768.       

     In some aspects, the biosample includes plasma. 
     In some aspects, the biosample is obtained from a pregnant female at less than 16 weeks gestation or at less than 20 weeks gestation. 
     In some aspects, the biosample is obtained from a pregnant female at greater than 20 weeks gestation. 
     The present invention includes a circulating RNA (C-RNA) signature for an elevated risk of preeclampsia, the C-RNA signature encoding at least a portion of any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any fifty or more, any seventy or more, up to all seventy-five ARRDC2, JUN, SKIL, ATP13A3, PDE8B, GSTA3, PAPPA2, TIPARP, LEP, RGP1, USP54, CLEC4C, MRPS35, ARHGEF25, CUX2, HEATR9, FSTL3, DDI2, ZMYM6, ST6GALNAC3, GBP2, NES, ETV3, ADAM17, ATOH8, SLC4A3, TRAF3IP1, TTC21A, HEG1, ASTE1, TMEM108, ENC1, SCAMPI, ARRDC3, SLC26A2, SLIT3, CLIC5, TNFRSF21, PPP1R17, TPST1, GATSL2, SPDYE5, HIPK2, MTRNR2L6, CLCN1, GINS4, CRH, C10orf2, TRUB1, PRG2, ACY3, FAR2, CD63, CKAP4, TPCN1, RNF6, THTPA, FOS, PARN, ORAI3, ELMO3, SMPD3, SERPINF1, TMEM11, PSMD11, EBI3, CLEC4M, CCDC151, CPAMD8, CNFN, LILRA4, ADA, C22orf39, PI4KAP1, and ARFGAP3. 
     The present invention includes a circulating RNA (C-RNA) signature for an elevated risk of preeclampsia, the C-RNA signature encoding at least a portion of any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty six of more, or all twenty-seven of TIMP4, FLG, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, CLEC4C, KRT5, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, and VSIG4. 
     The present invention includes a circulating RNA (C-RNA) signature for an elevated risk of preeclampsia, the C-RNA signature encoding a least a portion of a plurality of CYP26B1, IRF6, MYH14, PODXL, PPP1R3C, SH3RF2, TMC7, ZNF366, ADCY1, C6, FAM219A, HAO2, IGIP, IL1R2, NTRK2, SH3PXD2A, SSUH2, SULT2A1, FMO3, FSTL3, GATA5, HTRA1, C8B, H19, MN1, NFE2L1, PRDM16, AP3B2, EMP1, FLNC, STAG3, CPB2, TENC1, RP1L1, A1CF, NPR1, TEK, ERRFI1, ARHGEF15, CD34, RSPO3, ALPK3, SAMD4A, ZCCHC24, LEAP2, MYL2, NRG3, ZBTB16, SERPINA3, AQP7, SRPX, UACA, ANO1, FKBP5, SCN5A, PTPN21, CACNA1C, ERG, SOX17, WWTR1, AIF1L, CA3, HRG, TAT, AQP7P1, ADRA2C, SYNPO, FN1, GPR116, KRT17, AZGP1, BCL6B, KIF1C, CLIC5, GPR4, GJA5, OLAH, C14orf37, ZEB1, JAG2, KIF26A, APOLD1, PNMT, MYOM3, PITPNM3, TIMP4, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, VSIG4, HBG2, CADM2, LAMP5, PTGDR2, NOMO1, NXF3, PLD4, BPIFB3, PACSIN1, CUX2, FLG, CLEC4C, and KRT5. 
     The present invention includes a circulating RNA (C-RNA) signature for an elevated risk of preeclampsia, the C-RNA signature encoding at least a portion of any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, any twenty-four or more, any twenty-five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, or all thirty of VSIG4, ADAMTS2, NES, FAM107A, LEP, DAAM2, ARHGEF25, TIMP3, PRX, ALOX15B, HSPA12B, IGFBP5, CLEC4C, SLC9A3R2, ADAMTS1, SEMA3G, KRT5, AMPH, PRG2, PAPPA2, TEAD4, CRH, PITPNM3, TIMP4, PNMT, ZEB1, APOLD1, PLD4, CUX2, and HTRA4. 
     The present invention includes a circulating RNA (C-RNA) signature for an elevated risk of preeclampsia, the C-RNA signature encoding at least a portion of any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, any twenty-four or more, any twenty-five or more, or all twenty-six of ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, AMPH, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HSPA12B, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PACSIN1, PAPPA2, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, and VSIG4. 
     The present invention includes a circulating RNA (C-RNA) signature for an elevated risk of preeclampsia, the C-RNA signature encoding at least a portion of any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, or all twenty-two of ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, and VSIG4. 
     The present invention includes a circulating RNA (C-RNA) signature for an elevated risk of preeclampsia, the C-RNA signature encoding at least a portion of any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, or all eleven of CLEC4C, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, LEP, ARRDC2, SKIL, PAPPA2, VSIG4, ARRDC4, CRH, and NES, including in some embodiments, the seven of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, and VSIG4; the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, and VSIG4; the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, NES, SKIL, and VSIG4; the ten of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, CRH, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, and VSIG4; the of six of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, and SKIL; or the eight of ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, and SKIL. 
     The present invention includes a circulating RNA (C-RNA) signature for an elevated risk of preeclampsia, the C-RNA signature encoding at least a portion of any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty-one or more, any twenty-two or more, any twenty-three or more, or all twenty-four of LEP, PAPPA2, KCNA5, ADAMTS2, MYOM3, ATP13A3, ARHGEF25, ADA, HTRA4, NES, CRH, ACY3, PLD4, SCT, NOX4, PACSIN1, SERPINF1, SKIL, SEMA3G, TIPARP, LRRC26, PHEX, LILRA4, and PER1. 
     The present invention includes a circulating RNA (C-RNA) signature for an elevated risk of preeclampsia, the C-RNA signature encoding at least a portion of any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, any thirty or more, any thirty-one or more, any thirty-two or more, any thirty-three or more, any thirty-four or more, any thirty-five or more, any thirty-six or more, any thirty-seven or more, any thirty-eight or more, any thirty-nine or more, any forty or more, any forty-one or more, any forty-two or more, any forty-three or more, any forty-four or more, any forty-five or more, any forty-six or more, any forty-seven or more, any forty-eight or more, or all forth-nine of those listed in Table S9 of Example 7. 
     The present invention includes a circulating RNA (C-RNA) signature for an elevated risk of preeclampsia, the C-RNA signature encoding at least a portion of any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, or all thirteen of AKAP2, ARRB1, CPSF7, INO80C, JAG1, MSMP, NR4A2, PLEK, RAP1GAP2, SPEG, TRPS1, UBE2Q1, and ZNF768. 
     The present invention includes a solid support array comprising a plurality of agents capable of binding and/or identifying a C-RNA signature as described herein. 
     The present invention includes a kit comprising a plurality of probes capable of binding and/or identifying a C-RNA signature as described herein. 
     The present invention includes a kit comprising a plurality of primers for selectively amplifying a C-RNA signature as described herein. 
     As used herein, the term “nucleic acid” is intended to be consistent with its use in the art and includes naturally occurring nucleic acids or functional analogs thereof. Particularly useful functional analogs are capable of hybridizing to a nucleic acid in a sequence specific fashion or capable of being used as a template for replication of a particular nucleotide sequence. Naturally occurring nucleic acids generally have a backbone containing phosphodiester bonds. An analog structure can have an alternate backbone linkage including any of a variety of those known in the art. Naturally occurring nucleic acids generally have a deoxyribose sugar (e.g. found in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)) or a ribose sugar (e.g. found in ribonucleic acid (RNA)). A nucleic acid can contain any of a variety of analogs of these sugar moieties that are known in the art. A nucleic acid can include native or non-native bases. In this regard, a native deoxyribonucleic acid can have one or more bases selected from the group consisting of adenine, thymine, cytosine or guanine and a ribonucleic acid can have one or more bases selected from the group consisting of uracil, adenine, cytosine or guanine. Useful non-native bases that can be included in a nucleic acid are known in the art. The term “template” and “target,” when used in reference to a nucleic acid, is intended as a semantic identifier for the nucleic acid in the context of a method or composition set forth herein and does not necessarily limit the structure or function of the nucleic acid beyond what is otherwise explicitly indicated. 
     As used herein, “amplify,” “amplifying” or “amplification reaction” and their derivatives, refer generally to any action or process whereby at least a portion of a nucleic acid molecule is replicated or copied into at least one additional nucleic acid molecule. The additional nucleic acid molecule optionally includes sequence that is substantially identical or substantially complementary to at least some portion of the target nucleic acid molecule. The target nucleic acid molecule can be single-stranded or double-stranded and the additional nucleic acid molecule can independently be single-stranded or double-stranded. Amplification optionally includes linear or exponential replication of a nucleic acid molecule. In some embodiments, such amplification can be performed using isothermal conditions; in other embodiments, such amplification can include thermocycling. In some embodiments, the amplification is a multiplex amplification that includes the simultaneous amplification of a plurality of target sequences in a single amplification reaction. In some embodiments, “amplification” includes amplification of at least some portion of DNA and RNA based nucleic acids alone, or in combination. The amplification reaction can include any of the amplification processes known to one of ordinary skill in the art. In some embodiments, the amplification reaction includes polymerase chain reaction (PCR). 
     As used herein, “amplification conditions” and its derivatives, generally refers to conditions suitable for amplifying one or more nucleic acid sequences. Such amplification can be linear or exponential. In some embodiments, the amplification conditions can include isothermal conditions or alternatively can include thermocycling conditions, or a combination of isothermal and thermocycling conditions. In some embodiments, the conditions suitable for amplifying one or more nucleic acid sequences include polymerase chain reaction (PCR) conditions. Typically, the amplification conditions refer to a reaction mixture that is sufficient to amplify nucleic acids such as one or more target sequences, or to amplify an amplified target sequence ligated to one or more adapters, e.g., an adapter-ligated amplified target sequence. Generally, the amplification conditions include a catalyst for amplification or for nucleic acid synthesis, for example a polymerase; a primer that possesses some degree of complementarity to the nucleic acid to be amplified; and nucleotides, such as deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs) to promote extension of the primer once hybridized to the nucleic acid. The amplification conditions can require hybridization or annealing of a primer to a nucleic acid, extension of the primer and a denaturing step in which the extended primer is separated from the nucleic acid sequence undergoing amplification. Typically, but not necessarily, amplification conditions can include thermocycling; in some embodiments, amplification conditions include a plurality of cycles where the steps of annealing, extending and separating are repeated. Typically, the amplification conditions include cations such as Mg ++  or Mn ++  and can also include various modifiers of ionic strength. 
     As used herein, the term “polymerase chain reaction” (PCR) refers to the method of K. B. Mullis U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,683,195 and 4,683,202, which describes a method for increasing the concentration of a segment of a polynucleotide of interest in a mixture of genomic DNA without cloning or purification. This process for amplifying the polynucleotide of interest consists of introducing a large excess of two oligonucleotide primers to the DNA mixture containing the desired polynucleotide of interest, followed by a series of thermal cycling in the presence of a DNA polymerase. The two primers are complementary to their respective strands of the double-stranded polynucleotide of interest. The mixture is denatured at a higher temperature first and the primers are then annealed to complementary sequences within the polynucleotide of interest molecule. Following annealing, the primers are extended with a polymerase to form a new pair of complementary strands. The steps of denaturation, primer annealing and polymerase extension can be repeated many times (referred to as thermocycling) to obtain a high concentration of an amplified segment of the desired polynucleotide of interest. The length of the amplified segment of the desired polynucleotide of interest (amplicon) is determined by the relative positions of the primers with respect to each other, and therefore, this length is a controllable parameter. By virtue of repeating the process, the method is referred to as the “polymerase chain reaction” (hereinafter “PCR”). Because the desired amplified segments of the polynucleotide of interest become the predominant nucleic acid sequences (in terms of concentration) in the mixture, they are said to be “PCR amplified.” In a modification to the method discussed above, the target nucleic acid molecules can be PCR amplified using a plurality of different primer pairs, in some cases, one or more primer pairs per target nucleic acid molecule of interest, thereby forming a multiplex PCR reaction. 
     As used herein, the term “primer” and its derivatives refer generally to any polynucleotide that can hybridize to a target sequence of interest. Typically, the primer functions as a substrate onto which nucleotides can be polymerized by a polymerase; in some embodiments, however, the primer can become incorporated into the synthesized nucleic acid strand and provide a site to which another primer can hybridize to prime synthesis of a new strand that is complementary to the synthesized nucleic acid molecule. The primer can include any combination of nucleotides or analogs thereof. In some embodiments, the primer is a single-stranded oligonucleotide or polynucleotide. The terms “polynucleotide” and “oligonucleotide” are used interchangeably herein to refer to a polymeric form of nucleotides of any length, and may comprise ribonucleotides, deoxyribonucleotides, analogs thereof, or mixtures thereof. The terms should be understood to include, as equivalents, analogs of either DNA or RNA made from nucleotide analogs and to be applicable to single stranded (such as sense or antisense) and double-stranded polynucleotides. The term as used herein also encompasses cDNA, that is complementary or copy DNA produced from an RNA template, for example by the action of reverse transcriptase. This term refers only to the primary structure of the molecule. Thus, the term includes triple-, double- and single-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (“DNA”), as well as triple-, double- and single-stranded ribonucleic acid (“RNA”). 
     As used herein, the terms “library” and “sequencing library” refer to a collection or plurality of template molecules which share common sequences at their 5′ ends and common sequences at their 3′ ends. The collection of template molecules containing known common sequences at their 3′ and 5′ ends may also be referred to as a 3′ and 5′ modified library. 
     The term “flowcell” as used herein refers to a chamber comprising a solid surface across which one or more fluid reagents can be flowed. Examples of flowcells and related fluidic systems and detection platforms that can be readily used in the methods of the present disclosure are described, for example, in Bentley et al., Nature 456:53-59 (2008), WO 04/018497; U.S. Pat. No. 7,057,026; WO 91/06678; WO 07/123744; U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,329,492; 7,211,414; 7,315,019; 7,405,281, and U.S. 2008/0108082. 
     As used herein, the term “amplicon,” when used in reference to a nucleic acid, means the product of copying the nucleic acid, wherein the product has a nucleotide sequence that is the same as or complementary to at least a portion of the nucleotide sequence of the nucleic acid. An amplicon can be produced by any of a variety of amplification methods that use the nucleic acid, or an amplicon thereof, as a template including, for example, PCR, rolling circle amplification (RCA), ligation extension, or ligation chain reaction. An amplicon can be a nucleic acid molecule having a single copy of a particular nucleotide sequence (e.g. a PCR product) or multiple copies of the nucleotide sequence (e.g. a concatameric product of RCA). A first amplicon of a target nucleic acid is typically a complimentary copy. Subsequent amplicons are copies that are created, after generation of the first amplicon, from the target nucleic acid or from the first amplicon. A subsequent amplicon can have a sequence that is substantially complementary to the target nucleic acid or substantially identical to the target nucleic acid. 
     As used herein, the term “array” refers to a population of sites that can be differentiated from each other according to relative location. Different molecules that are at different sites of an array can be differentiated from each other according to the locations of the sites in the array. An individual site of an array can include one or more molecules of a particular type. For example, a site can include a single target nucleic acid molecule having a particular sequence or a site can include several nucleic acid molecules having the same sequence (and/or complementary sequence, thereof). The sites of an array can be different features located on the same substrate. Exemplary features include without limitation, wells in a substrate, beads (or other particles) in or on a substrate, projections from a substrate, ridges on a substrate or channels in a substrate. The sites of an array can be separate substrates each bearing a different molecule. Different molecules attached to separate substrates can be identified according to the locations of the substrates on a surface to which the substrates are associated or according to the locations of the substrates in a liquid or gel. Exemplary arrays in which separate substrates are located on a surface include, without limitation, those having beads in wells. 
     The term “Next Generation Sequencing (NGS)” herein refers to sequencing methods that allow for massively parallel sequencing of clonally amplified molecules and of single nucleic acid molecules. Non-limiting examples of NGS include sequencing-by-synthesis using reversible dye terminators, and sequencing-by-ligation. 
     The term “sensitivity” as used herein is equal to the number of true positives divided by the sum of true positives and false negatives. 
     The term “specificity” as used herein is equal to the number of true negatives divided by the sum of true negatives and false positives. 
     The term “enrich” herein refers to the process of amplifying nucleic acids contained in a portion of a sample. Enrichment includes specific enrichment that targets specific sequences, e.g., polymorphic sequences, and non-specific enrichment that amplifies the whole genome of the DNA fragments of the sample. 
     As used herein, the term “each,” when used in reference to a collection of items, is intended to identify an individual item in the collection but does not necessarily refer to every item in the collection unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. 
     As used herein, “providing” in the context of a composition, an article, a nucleic acid, or a nucleus means making the composition, article, nucleic acid, or nucleus, purchasing the composition, article, nucleic acid, or nucleus, or otherwise obtaining the compound, composition, article, or nucleus. 
     The term “and/or” means one or all of the listed elements or a combination of any two or more of the listed elements. 
     The words “preferred” and “preferably” refer to embodiments of the disclosure that may afford certain benefits, under certain circumstances. However, other embodiments may also be preferred, under the same or other circumstances. Furthermore, the recitation of one or more preferred embodiments does not imply that other embodiments are not useful, and is not intended to exclude other embodiments from the scope of the disclosure. 
     The terms “comprises” and variations thereof do not have a limiting meaning where these terms appear in the description and claims. 
     It is understood that wherever embodiments are described herein with the language “include,” “includes,” or “including,” and the like, otherwise analogous embodiments described in terms of “consisting of” and/or “consisting essentially of” are also provided. 
     Unless otherwise specified, “a,” “an,” “the,” and “at least one” are used interchangeably and mean one or more than one. 
     Also herein, the recitations of numerical ranges by endpoints include all numbers subsumed within that range (e.g., 1 to 5 includes 1, 1.5, 2, 2.75, 3, 3.80, 4, 5, etc.). 
     Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment,” “an embodiment,” “certain embodiments,” or “some embodiments,” etc., means that a particular feature, configuration, composition, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the disclosure. Thus, the appearances of such phrases in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily referring to the same embodiment of the disclosure. Furthermore, the particular features, configurations, compositions, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. 
     For any method disclosed herein that includes discrete steps, the steps may be conducted in any feasible order. And, as appropriate, any combination of two or more steps may be conducted simultaneously. 
     The above summary of the present disclosure is not intended to describe each disclosed embodiment or every implementation of the present disclosure. The description that follows more particularly exemplifies illustrative embodiments. In several places throughout the application, guidance is provided through lists of examples, which examples can be used in various combinations. In each instance, the recited list serves only as a representative group and should not be interpreted as an exclusive list. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
         FIG.  1   . A schematic of the relationships between placental health, maternal response, and fetal response. 
         FIG.  2   . Origins of circulating RNA (C-RNA). 
         FIG.  3   . Library prep workflow for C-RNA. 
         FIG.  4   . Validation of C-RNA approach comparing 3rd trimester pregnant and non-pregnant samples. 
         FIG.  5   . Validation of C-RNA approach using longitudinal pregnancy samples. 
         FIG.  6   . Description of clinical studies. 
         FIG.  7   . Sequencing data characteristics. 
         FIG.  8   . Classification of PE without any selection of genes, relying of entire data set. 
         FIG.  9   . Description of bootstrapping method. 
         FIG.  10   . Classification of preeclampsia samples with bootstrapping approach. 
         FIG.  11   . Examination of over-abundant preeclampsia genes. 
         FIG.  12   . Standard Adaboost Model. 
         FIG.  13   . Independent cohort allows further validation of preeclampsia signature. 
         FIG.  14   . Performance of standard adaboost model in classification of preeclampsia. 
         FIG.  15   . Classification of preeclampsia with standard DEX TREAT analysis. 
         FIG.  16   . Selection of genes and classification of preeclampsia with jackknifing approach. 
         FIG.  17   . Validation of TREAT, Bootstrapping, and Jackknifing approaches in independent PEARL biobank cohort. 
         FIG.  18   . A diagram of the bioinformatic approach to build AdaBoost Refined models. 
         FIG.  19   . Relative abundance of genes utilized by AdaBoost Refined model and their predictive capability on independent datasets. 
         FIG.  20   . Identifying C-RNA signatures specific to preeclampsia in Nextera Flex generated libraries using standard TREAT analysis and jackknifing approach. 
         FIG.  21   . Relative abundance of genes utilized by AdaBoost Refined model on Nextera Flex generated libraries and their predictive power in RGH14 dataset. 
         FIGS.  22 A- 22 D . Validation of a clinic-friendly, whole-exome C-RNA analysis method.  FIG.  22 A  is a schematic of the sequencing library preparation method; all steps after blood collection can be performed in a centralized processing lab. Temporal changes of transcripts altered throughout the course of pregnancy ( FIG.  22 B ). Overlap of genes identified in C-RNA pregnancy progression studies ( FIG.  22 C ). Tissues expressing the 91 genes unique to the pregnancy time course study ( FIG.  22 D ). 
         FIGS.  23 A- 23 C . Sample collection for PE clinical studies. Panels illustrate the time of blood collection (triangles) and gestational age at birth (squares) for each individual in the iPC study ( FIG.  23 A ) and the PEARL study ( FIG.  23 B ). The red line indicates the threshold for term birth. Preterm birth rates are significantly elevated in early-onset PE cohorts ( FIG.  23 C ). *** p&lt;0.001 by Fisher&#39;s exact test. 
         FIGS.  24 A- 24 G . Differential analysis of C-RNA identifies preeclampsia biomarkers. Fold change and abundance of transcripts altered in PE ( FIG.  24 A ). One-sided confidence p-value intervals were calculated after jackknifing for each gene detected by standard analysis methods ( FIG.  24 B ). Transcript abundance fold-change determined by whole exome sequencing and by qPCR for (21) genes ( FIG.  24 C ). * p&lt;0.05 by Student&#39;s T-test. Tissue distribution of affected genes ( FIG.  24 D ). Hierarchical clustering of iPC samples (average linkage, squared Euclidean distance) ( FIG.  24 E ). Clustering of early-onset PE ( FIG.  24 F ) and late-onset PE ( FIG.  24 G ) samples from the PEARL study. 
         FIGS.  25 A- 25 E . AdaBoost classifies preeclampsia samples across cohorts. Heatmap illustrating the relative abundance of the transcripts used by machine learning in each cohort ( FIG.  25 A ). The height of each block reflects each gene&#39;s importance. ROC curves for each dataset ( FIG.  25 B ). Distributions (KDE) of AdaBoost Scores. The orange line indicates the optimal boundary to discriminate PE and control samples ( FIG.  25 C ). Concordance of genes identified by differential analysis and those used in AdaBoost ( FIG.  25 D ). Tissue distribution of AdaBoost genes ( FIG.  25 E ). 
         FIGS.  26 A- 26 C . C-RNA data integrity when blood is stored in different collection tubes. Comparing the abundance of previously detected C-RNA pregnancy markers from blood stored overnight in different tube types to immediate processing after collection in EDTA tubes ( FIG.  26 A ). Scatterplots comparing transcript FPKM values for C-RNA prepared from the same individual after different blood storage durations ( FIG.  26 B ). Pearson&#39;s correlation coefficient, R, is more variable when using EDTA tubes (cf, Cell-Free) ( FIG.  26 C ). 
         FIGS.  27 A and  27 B . The effect of plasma volume on C-RNA data quality. A meta-analysis was performed with data from nine independent studies to determine the appropriate plasma input for the protocol. Noise (biological coefficient of variation, EdgeR) was calculated from biological replicates within each study ( FIG.  27 A ). Library complexity (bound population, Preseq) was calculated for each sample ( FIG.  27 B ). ** p&lt;0.01, *** p&lt;0.001 by ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s HSD correction, with study as a blocking variable. 
         FIGS.  28 A- 28 C . Pregnancy marker tissue specificity. Pie charts showing tissue specificity of the genes detected in pregnancy by three independent studies, using either the full set of altered genes ( FIG.  28 A ), the transcripts unique to each study ( FIG.  28 B ), or intersecting gene sets ( FIG.  28 C ). 
         FIGS.  29 A- 29 E . Jackknifing excludes genes that are not universally altered in preeclampsia. Schematic of the jackknifing approach used to determine how consistently transcripts were altered across PE samples ( FIG.  29 A ). Average abundance and noise for each differentially abundant gene ( FIG.  29 B ). ROC area under the curve values for each affected transcript provide a measure of how separated C-RNA transcript abundance distributions are for control and PE samples ( FIG.  29 C ). * p&lt;0.05 by Mann-Whitney U test. Hierarchical clustering of iPC samples using the genes excluded after jackknifing ( FIG.  29 D ). Tissue distribution of excluded transcripts ( FIG.  29 E ). The decreased contribution of the fetus and placenta may suggest the maternal component of PE is most variable between individuals. 
         FIGS.  30 A- 30 D . AdaBoost model development strategy. The RGH014 dataset was divided into 6 pieces ( FIG.  30 A ). The “Holdout Subset” contained 10% of the samples (randomly selected) as well as the 3 samples which were incorrectly clustered when using differentially abundant genes (as with  FIG.  24 C ) and was fully excluded from model building. The remaining samples were divided at random into 5 evenly sized “Test Subsets.” For each test subset, training data was composed of all non-holdout and non-testing samples. Gene counts for training and testing data were TMM-normalized in edgeR, and then standardized to mean 0 and standard deviation 1 for each gene. For each train/test sample set, AdaBoost models (90 estimators, 1.6 learning rate) were built 10 times from the training data ( FIG.  30 B ). Feature pruning was performed, removing genes below an incrementally increasing importance threshold and assessing performance by Matthew&#39;s correlation coefficient when predicting testing data. The model with the best performance—and fewest genes, in the case of a tie—was retained. Estimators from all 50 independent models were combined into a single AdaBoost model ( FIG.  30 C ). Feature pruning was performed on the resulting ensemble, this time using the percent of models which used a gene to set threshold values and performance measured by average log loss value across test subsets. ROC curve after applying the final AdaBoost model to the holdout data ( FIG.  30 D ). All samples segregated correctly, except for two of the three samples which also misclustered by HCA. 
         FIGS.  31 A- 31 E . The effect of hyperparameter selection and feature pruning on machine learning performance. Heatmap of a grid search to identify the optimal hyperparameters for AdaBoost ( FIG.  31 A ). Matthew&#39;s correlation coefficient was used as a measure of performance. Flattened views of performance for each hyperparameter ( FIG.  31 B ). Arrows indicate the values selected for model construction.  FIG.  31 C  shows the impact of pruning individual AdaBoost models on performance (as in  FIG.  30 B ). Solid lines are the average for all 10 models, and the shaded region shows the standard deviation. The number of AdaBoost models using each gene observed in the pre-pruned ensemble ( FIG.  31 D ). Model performance when pruning the combined AdaBoost ensemble ( FIG.  31 E ). The orange lines in  FIG.  31 D  and  FIG.  31 E  show the threshold applied to generate the final AdaBoost model. 
         FIGS.  32 A- 32 C . Changes in the C-RNA transcriptome track with pregnancy progression.  FIG.  32 A  shows temporal changes in transcripts significantly altered throughout the course of pregnancy. Each row corresponds to a transcript, the abundance of which was normalized across all samples (N=152) prior to clustering. Orange signifies elevated abundance; purple indicates decreased abundance.  FIG.  32 B  shows the overlap of transcripts identified in three independent C-RNA pregnancy progression analyses. N=number of plasma samples collected from a pregnant woman in cohort.  FIG.  32 C  shows tissues expressing the 91 genes that were only detected with the PEARL HCC cohort. 
         FIGS.  33 A- 33 C . Sample collection but not clinical outcome is matched for control and PE samples. Panels illustrate the time of blood collection (triangles) and gestational age at birth (squares) for each individual in the iPEC study ( FIG.  33 A ) and the PEARL PEC study ( FIG.  33 B ). The red line indicates the threshold for term birth at 37 weeks. As shown in  FIG.  33 C , preterm birth rates are significantly elevated in early-onset PE cohorts. *** p&lt;0.001 by Fisher&#39;s exact test. iPEC, Control N=73, PE N=40; PEARL PEC, N=12 for each group. 
         FIGS.  34 A- 34 F . Applying jackknifing to differential expression analysis excludes genes with lower sensitivity for identifying PE samples.  FIG.  34 A  shows fold change and abundance of transcripts altered in PE.  FIG.  34 B  shows one-sided, normal-based 95% confidence intervals of the p-value for each transcript that was detected as altered by standard analyses.  FIG.  34 C  is a schematic of the jackknifing approach, wherein 90% of samples were randomly selected for analysis over many iterations to quantify p-value stability.  FIG.  34 D  shows average abundance and noise for each differentially abundant gene (p&gt;0.05 for both variables by Mann-Whitney U; N=30,12).  FIG.  34 E  shows ROC area under the curve values for each affected transcript reflect how separated C-RNA transcript abundance distributions are for control versus PE samples (* p&lt;0.05 by Mann-Whitney U; Included, N=30; Excluded, N=12).  FIG.  34 F  shows hierarchical clustering of iPEC samples using the genes excluded after jackknifing (sensitivity=73%; specificity=99%; N=113). For  FIGS.  34 A,  34 B,  34 D, and  34 E  orange and blue datapoints reflect transcripts considered statistically altered in PE by standard differential expression analysis, but only orange datapoint were identified by the jackknifing approach. Sample status is shown by the blue (PE) and gray (control) rectangles along the right side of the heatmap. 
         FIGS.  35 A- 35 E . Ubiquitously altered C-RNA transcripts segregate early-onset PE samples from controls.  FIG.  35 A  shows the fold-change between PE and control pregnancies was assessed both by sequencing (orange) and by qPCR (purple) for 20 transcripts (* p&lt;0.05 by Student&#39;s T-test; N=19 for control and for PE).  FIG.  35 B  shows tissue expression of affected genes.  FIG.  35 C  shows hierarchical clustering of the iPEC samples (average linkage, squared Euclidean distance; PE, N=40; control, N=73). Clustering of early-onset ( FIG.  35 D ) and late-onset ( FIG.  35 E ) PE and control pregnancy samples from the PEARL PEC (N=12 for each group). 
         FIGS.  36 A- 36 E . Machine learning accurately classifies PE across independent cohorts.  FIG.  36 A  shows average ROC curve for iPEC validation samples (dashed line=SD; N=10).  FIG.  36 B  shows accuracy, sensitivity and specificity measurements if iPEC hold out samples and independent PEARL PEC samples (N=10).  FIG.  36 C  is a heatmap of the relative transcript abundance in the iPEC cohort for the genes used by AdaBoost model. The graph on the right indicates how many cross-validation models a given transcript appeared in.  FIG.  36 D  shows concordance of transcripts identified by differential analysis and AdaBoost.  FIG.  36 E  shows tissue expressing elevated levels of transcripts selected by AdaBoost models. 
         FIGS.  37 A and  37 B . The C-RNA sample preparation workflow.  FIG.  37 A  shows the approach used for sequencing library preparation. Blood is shipped overnight prior to plasma processing and nucleic acid extraction. cfDNA is digested with Dnase, then cDNA is synthesized from all RNA. Whole transcriptome enrichment is performed prior to sequencing. In  FIG.  37 B , three methods were assessed for C-RNA transcriptome analyses. rRNA depletion did not consistently enrich the exonic C-RNA fraction; many libraries contain numerous unaligned reads. Likewise, rRNA overwhelmed sequencing datasets when not removed. Enrichment generated libraries with the highest proportion of reads from exonic C-RNA. For all bar graphs, orange shows reads aligned to the human genome, gray shows reads aligned to an rRNA sequence, and pink shows reads that do not align to the human genome (including both non-human RNA and low quality sequences). 
         FIGS.  38 A- 38 C . The effect of plasma volume on C-RNA data quality.  FIG.  38 A  shows the C-RNA yield in plasma from 122 samples was quantified with the Quant-iT RiboGreen assay (Thermo Fisher). Measurements from 23 samples were below the detection threshold and are excluded from the graph. Bars show mean±SD from 2 technical replicates. Data from 9 independent experiments was used for a meta-analysis evaluating the effect of plasma input on data quality.  FIG.  38 B  shows noise (biological coefficient of variation, edgeR) calculated from biological replicates within each study.  FIG.  38 C  shows library complexity (bound population, preseq) of each sample. ** p&lt;0.01, *** p&lt;0.001 by ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s HSD correction, using the study as a blocking variable. 0.5 mL, N=8, 95; 1 mL, N=7, 83; 2 mL, N=7, 33; 4 mL, N=17, 267 for  FIGS.  38 B and  38 C , respectively. 
         FIGS.  39 A- 39 E . The integrity of C-RNA pregnancy signal after storage in different BCTs.  FIG.  39 A  is a heatmap of the abundance of known C-RNA pregnancy markers after overnight storage in 4 BCTs compared to immediate processing from EDTA BCTs.  FIG.  39 B  shows an integrated measure of pregnancy signal obtained by summing transcript abundance in  FIG.  39 A  discriminates between pregnant and non-pregnant samples. ** p&lt;0.01, *** p&lt;0.001 by ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s HSD correction. EDTA immediate, N=4, 8; EDTA overnight, N=7, 7; ACD overnight, N=16, 16; Cell-Free RNA overnight, N=10, 9; Cell-Free DNA overnight, N=8, 8; for non-pregnant and pregnant groups, respectively.  FIG.  39 C  shows correlation of transcriptomic profiles from blood samples collected from the same individual and stored for 0, 1 or 5 days in Cell-free DNA BCTs (Streck, Inc) prior to processing. Bars show mean±range; N=2. The AdaBoost scores assigned to control samples ( FIG.  39 D ) or to PE samples ( FIG.  39 E ) from the iPEC cohort versus the number of days blood was stored at room temperature prior to plasma processing. AdaBoost scores are normalized to range from −1 to +1, with control samples expected to have a score &lt;0, and PE samples to have a score &gt;0. No significant differences in AdaBoost score were observed (ANOVA for controls; T-Test for PE). Control 1 day, N=60; 2 days, N=4; 3 days, N=1, 5 days, N=2. PE 1 day, N=37; 2 days, N=3. 
         FIGS.  40 A- 40 D . C-RNA transcripts can be altered during specific stages of pregnancy. Dynamic changes in transcripts that primarily change early in pregnancy ( FIG.  40 A , −14 weeks), throughout gestation ( FIG.  40 B ), or predominantly late in pregnancy ( FIG.  40 C , −33 weeks). Note how transcripts which change from the first to second trimester do not return to baseline levels but remain at the altered abundance for the remainder of gestation.  FIG.  40 D  is an ontology and pathway enrichment analysis for transcripts which change during healthy pregnancy. Each filled in box signifies significant enrichment of the corresponding term or pathway. “All Genes” shows analysis of all 156 differentially abundant transcripts. Too few genes were altered late in pregnancy to perform ontological analysis. 
         FIGS.  41 A- 41 C . Comparing pregnancy-associated transcript tissue specificity for three independent C-RNA studies.  FIG.  41 A  shows tissue specificity for the full set of genes detected in each study.  FIG.  41 B  shows the transcripts unique to each study.  FIG.  41 C  shows intersecting gene sets. 
         FIGS.  42 A and  42 B . AdaBoost hyperparameter optimization. Performance, measured by Matthew&#39;s Correlation Coefficient, versus the number of estimators ( FIG.  42 A ) or the learning rate ( FIG.  42 B ). Each dot shows the average value obtained from 3-fold cross validation during the random search. 
         FIGS.  43 A- 43 D . AdaBoost training strategy. In  FIG.  43 A , the training samples are divided into 5 evenly sized subsets, corresponding to five iterations of model construction. For the first iteration, the samples in subset 1 are used for pruning while the samples in subsets 2, 3, 4, and 5 are combined for AdaBoost fitting; for the second iteration the samples in subset 2 are used for pruning while those in subsets 1, 3, 4, and 5 are used for AdaBoost fitting; and so on for the remaining 3 iterations. As shown in  FIG.  43 B , for each iteration, an AdaBoost model is fit to the “Fitting Samples.” Then the impact of removing genes below an incrementally increasing importance threshold on classification performance is assessed with the “Pruning Samples.” The model with the best performance and fewest genes is retained. In  FIG.  43 C , the process in  FIG.  43 B  is repeated 10 times for each set of fitting and pruning samples, generating a total of 50 models. In  FIG.  43 D , estimators from all models are then aggregated into a single AdaBoost ensemble. Feature pruning of the aggregate model is performed to identify the minimal gene set required for optimal classification. 
         FIGS.  44 A- 44 D . AdaBoost output is significantly impacted by sample selection.  FIG.  44 A  shows classification performance (log-loss) of the individual models generated from each AdaBoost subset (* p&lt;0.05, *** p&lt;0.001 by ANOVA with Tukey&#39;s HSD correction; N=10 each). In  FIG.  44 B , the frequency each transcript was included in one of the 50 separate AdaBoost models.  FIG.  44 C  is a Venn diagram of the transcripts incorporated in each training subset&#39;s models. While 5 transcripts are utilized in models from all subsets, 40 are unique to a single subset.  FIG.  44 D  shows the effect of pruning estimators on classification performance (log-loss) for the final, fully aggregated AdaBoost model also shows distinct behavior for each set of samples. These trends are particularly striking when considering that 75% of the data used for fitting AdaBoost models were shared by any two sets of samples used for fitting AdaBoost. Note these data were generated separately from the final machine learning analysis presented in  FIG.  41   . 
     
    
    
     The schematic drawings are not necessarily to scale. Like numbers used in the figures may refer to like components. However, it will be understood that the use of a number to refer to a component in a given figure is not intended to limit the component in another figure labeled with the same number. In addition, the use of different numbers to refer to components is not intended to indicate that the different numbered components cannot be the same or similar to other numbered components. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Provided herein are signatures of circulating RNA found in the maternal circulation that are specific to preeclampsia and the use of such signatures in noninvasive methods for the diagnosis of preeclampsia and the identification of pregnant women at risk for developing preeclampsia. 
     While most of the DNA and RNA in the body is located within cells, extracellular nucleic acids can also be found circulating freely in the blood. Circulating RNA, also referred to herein as “C-RNA,” refers to extracellular segments of RNA found in the bloodstream. C-RNA molecules originate predominately from two sources: one, released into the circulation from dying cells undergoing apoptosis, and two, contained within exosomes shed by living cells into the circulation. Exosomes are small membranous vesicles about 30-150 nm of diameter released from many cell types into the extracellular space and are found in a wide variety of body fluids, including serum, urine, and breast milk and carrying protein, mRNA, and microRNA. The lipid bilayer structure of exosomes protects the RNAs contained within from degradation by RNases, providing for stability in blood. See, for example, Huang et al., 2013 , BMC Genomics;  14:319; And Li et al., 2017 , Mol Cancer;  16:145). Evidence is accumulating that exosomes have specialized functions and play a role in such processes as coagulation, intercellular signaling, and waste management (van der Pol et al., 2012 , Pharmacol Rev;  64(3):676-705). See, also, Samos et al., 2006 , Ann NY Acad Sci;  1075:165-173; Zernecke et al., 2009 , Sci Signal;  2:ra81; Ma et al., 2012 , J Exp Clin Cancer Res;  31:38; and Sato-Kuwabara et al., 2015 , Int J Oncol;  46:17-27. 
     With the methods described herein, the C-RNA molecules found in maternal circulation function as biomarkers of fetal, placental, and maternal health and provide a window into the progression of pregnancy. Described herein are C-RNA signatures within the maternal circulation that are indicative of pregnancy, C-RNA signatures within the maternal circulation that are temporally associated with the gestational stage of pregnancy, and C-RNA signatures within the maternal circulation that are indicative of the pregnancy complication preeclampsia. 
     A C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia includes a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a plurality of proteins selected from ARRDC2, JUN, SKIL, ATP13A3, PDE8B, GSTA3, PAPPA2, TIPARP, LEP, RGP1, USP54, CLEC4C, MRPS35, ARHGEF25, CUX2, HEATR9, FSTL3, DDI2, ZMYM6, ST6GALNAC3, GBP2, NES, ETV3, ADAM17, ATOH8, SLC4A3, TRAF3IP1, TTC21A, HEG1, ASTE1, TMEM108, ENC1, SCAMPI, ARRDC3, SLC26A2, SLIT3, CLIC5, TNFRSF21, PPP1R17, TPST1, GATSL2, SPDYE5, HIPK2, MTRNR2L6, CLCN1, GINS4, CRH, C10orf2, TRUB1, PRG2, ACY3, FAR2, CD63, CKAP4, TPCN1, RNF6, THTPA, FOS, PARN, ORAI3, ELMO3, SMPD3, SERPINF1, TMEM11, PSMD11, EBI3, CLEC4M, CCDC151, CPAMD8, CNFN, LILRA4, ADA, C22orf39, PI4KAP1, and ARFGAP3. This C-RNA signature is the Adaboost General signature obtained with the TruSeq library prep method shown in Table 1 below, also referred to herein as “list (a)” or “(a).” 
     A C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia includes a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a plurality of proteins selected from TIMP4, FLG, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, CLEC4C, KRT5, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, and VSIG4. This C-RNA signature is the Bootstrapping signature obtained with the TruSeq library prep method shown in Table 1 below, also referred to herein as “list (b)” or “(b).” 
     A C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia includes a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from CYP26B1, IRF6, MYH14, PODXL, PPP1R3C, SH3RF2, TMC7, ZNF366, ADCY1, C6, FAM219A, HAO2, IGIP, IL1R2, NTRK2, SH3PXD2A, SSUH2, SULT2A1, FMO3, FSTL3, GATA5, HTRA1, C8B, H19, MN1, NFE2L1, PRDM16, AP3B2, EMP1, FLNC, STAG3, CPB2, TENC1, RP1L1, A1CF, NPR1, TEK, ERRFI1, ARHGEF15, CD34, RSPO3, ALPK3, SAMD4A, ZCCHC24, LEAP2, MYL2, NRG3, ZBTB16, SERPINA3, AQP7, SRPX, UACA, ANO1, FKBP5, SCN5A, PTPN21, CACNA1C, ERG, SOX17, WWTR1, AIF1L, CA3, HRG, TAT, AQP7P1, ADRA2C, SYNPO, FN1, GPR116, KRT17, AZGP1, BCL6B, KIF1C, CLIC5, GPR4, GJA5, OLAH, C14orf37, ZEB1, JAG2, KIF26A, APOLD1, PNMT, MYOM3, PITPNM3, TIMP4, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, VSIG4, HBG2, CADM2, LAMP5, PTGDR2, NOMO1, NXF3, PLD4, BPIFB3, PACSIN1, CUX2, FLG, CLEC4C, and KRT5. This C-RNA signature is the Standard DEX Treat signature obtained with the TruSeq library prep method shown in Table 1 below, also referred to herein as “list (c)” or “(c).” 
     A C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia includes a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from VSIG4, ADAMTS2, NES, FAM107A, LEP, DAAM2, ARHGEF25, TIMP3, PRX, ALOX15B, HSPA12B, IGFBP5, CLEC4C, SLC9A3R2, ADAMTS1, SEMA3G, KRT5, AMPH, PRG2, PAPPA2, TEAD4, CRH, PITPNM3, TIMP4, PNMT, ZEB1, APOLD1, PLD4, CUX2, and HTRA4. This C-RNA signature is the Jackknifing signature obtained with the TruSeq library prep method shown in Table 1 below, also referred to herein as “list (d)” or “(d).” 
     A C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia includes a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, AMPH, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HSPA12B, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PACSIN1, PAPPA2, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, and VSIG4. This C-RNA signature is the Standard DEX Treat signature obtained with the Nextera Flex for Enrichment library prep method shown in Table 1 below, also referred to herein as “list (e)” or “(e).” 
     A C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia includes a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, and VSIG4. This C-RNA signature is the Jackknifing signature obtained with the Nextera Flex for Enrichment library prep method shown in Table 1 below, also referred to herein as “list (f)” or “(f).” 
     A C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia includes a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from CLEC4C, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, LEP, ARRDC2, SKIL, PAPPA2, VSIG4, ARRDC4, CRH, and NES. This C-RNA signature is the Adaboost Refined TruSeq signature obtained with the TruSeq library prep method shown in Table 1 below, also referred to herein as “AdaBoost Refined 1,” “list (g),” or “(g).” 
     In some embodiments, a C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia includes C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, and VSIG4 (also referred to herein as “AdaBoost Refined 2”), ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, and VSIG4 (also referred to herein as “AdaBoost Refined 3”), ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, NES, SKIL, and VSIG4 (also referred to herein as “AdaBoost Refined 4”), ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, CRH, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, and VSIG4 (also referred to herein as “AdaBoost Refined 5”), ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, and SKIL (also referred to herein as “AdaBoost Refined 6”), or ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, and SKIL (also referred to herein as “AdaBoost Refined 7”). 
     A C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia includes a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from LEP, PAPPA2, KCNA5, ADAMTS2, MYOM3, ATP13A3, ARHGEF25, ADA, HTRA4, NES, CRH, ACY3, PLD4, SCT, NOX4, PACSIN1, SERPINF1, SKIL, SEMA3G, TIPARP, LRRC26, PHEX, LILRA4, and PER1. This C-RNA signature is the Adaboost Refined Nextera Flex signature obtained with the Nextera Flex for Enrichment library prep method shown in Table 1 below, also referred to herein as “list (h)” or “(h).” 
     A C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia includes a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from any of those shown Table S9 of Example 7, also referred to herein as “list (i)” or “(i).” 
     A C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia includes a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from AKAP2, ARRB1, CPSF7, INO80C, JAG1, MSMP, NR4A2, PLEK, RAP1GAP2, SPEG, TRPS1, UBE2Q1, and ZNF768, also referred to herein as “list (j)” or “(j).” 
     In some embodiments, a C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia includes a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from of any one or more of any of (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (g), (h), (i), and/or (j) in combination with any one or more of any of (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (g), (h), (i), and/or (j). 
     The Examples provided herewith describe the eight gene lists summarized above that distinguish preeclampsia and control pregnancies. Each was identified by using different analysis methods and/or distinct datasets. However, there is a high degree of concordance between many of these gene sets. Identifying a transcript as altered in preeclampsia C-RNA with multiple approaches indicates that said transcript has higher predictive value for classification of this disease. Thus, the importance of the transcripts identified by all differential expression analyses and by all AdaBoost models was combined and ranked. Genes assigned lower ranks are not unimportant or uninformative, but they may be less robust for classification of preeclampsia across cohorts and sample preparations. 
     First, the transcripts identified when using all differential expression analyses (Standard DEX Treat, bootstrapping and the jackknifing) for both library preparation methods (TruSeq and Nextera Flex for Enrichment) were combined. Table 2 below shows the relative importance for all of the 125 transcripts identified by the different analysis methods. Transcripts identified across every analysis method and both library preparations are the strongest classifiers and assigned an importance ranking of 1. Transcripts that were identified by three or more analysis methods and were detected with both library preparations were given an importance ranking of 2. Transcripts identified by the most stringent analysis method, jackknifing but only one of the library preparations were assigned an importance ranking of 3. Transcripts identified in two of the five analysis methods were given an importance ranking of 4. Transcripts that were only identified in the Standard DEX Treat method, the most broad and inclusive analysis, were given the lowest importance ranking of 5. 
     Then, the 91 transcripts identified across all AdaBoost models (AdaBoost General and AdaBoost Refined) and both library preparations (Table 3 below) were combined. When generating the refined AdaBoost models for each library preparation, observed slight variations had been observed in the gene set obtained each time a model was built from the same data. This is a natural result of randomness used by AdaBoost to search through the large whole-exome C-RNA data. To obtain a representative list of genes, model building for refined AdaBoost was run a minimum of nine separate times and all genes used by one or more models reported. The percent of models that included each transcript are reported in Table 3 (Frequency Used By AdaBoost). AdaBoost assigns its own “importance” value to each transcript, which reflects how much the abundance of that transcript influences determining whether a sample is from a preeclampsia patient. These AdaBoost importance values were averaged across each refined AdaBoost model a given transcript was used by (Table 3, Average AdaBoost Model Importance). 
     Transcripts identified across all AdaBoost analyses and library preparations were assigned the highest importance ranking of 1. Transcripts identified in the refined AdaBoost model for a single library preparation method with over 90% frequency used by AdaBoost were assigned an importance ranking of 2. Generally, these transcripts also have higher AdaBoost model importance, consistent with increased predictive capabilities. Transcripts identified in the refined AdaBoost model for a single library preparation method but used by less than 90% of AdaBoost models were assigned an importance ranking of 3. Transcripts identified only in the general AdaBoost model for a single library preparation were given the lowest importance ranking of 4. 
     Table 2 lists every gene identified by DEX analysis across all analysis approaches and library preps. Rank 1=Transcript identified across every analysis method and library prep method. Rank 2=Transcript identified both library preps, and ⅗ analysis methods. Rank 3=Identified in one library prep method, in jackknifing, are most stringent analysis. Rank 4=identified in ⅖ analyses. And Rank 5=Only identified in Standard DEX Treat method, our most relaxed analysis method. 
     Table 3 lists every gene identified by Adaboost analysis across both library preps. Rank 1=identified in both library prep methods and the refined adaboost models. Rank 2=Identified in one library prep method, present in refined adaboost model with high model importance and frequency. Rank 3=identified in one library prep method, present in refined adaboost model with medium model importance and frequency. And Rank 4=Identified in one library prep, not present in the refined adaboost model. 
     Table 4 below is a glossary of all of the various genes recited herein. The information was obtained from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee at the European Bioinformatics Institute. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Composite Gene Listing 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Machine Learning Approaches 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Adaboost 
               
               
                   
                 Adaboost 
                 Refined 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 DIFFERENTIAL EXPRESSION APPROACHES 
                   
                 Refined 
                 Nextera Flex 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Standard DEX 
                 Jackknifing 
                   
                 TruSeq 
                 Library Prep: 
               
               
                   
                 Bootstrapping 
                 Jackknifing 
                 TREAT 
                 Library Prep: 
                   
                 Library Prep: 
                 Nextera Flex for 
               
               
                   
                 Library Prep: 
                 Library Prep: 
                 Library Prep: 
                 Nextera Flex 
                 Adaboost 
                 TruSeq 
                 Enrichment 
               
               
                 Standard DEX 
                 TruSeq 
                 TruSeq 
                 Nextera Flex 
                 for Enrichment 
                 General 
                 Imrpoved model 
                 Imrpoved model 
               
               
                 TREAT 
                 Refined 
                 Refined 
                 for Enrichment 
                 Refined subset of 
                 Library Prep: 
                 building for 
                 building for 
               
               
                 Library Prep: TruSeq 
                 subset 
                 subset 
                 Broadest 
                 Standard DEX 
                 TruSeq 
                 Adaboost, to 
                 Adaboost, to 
               
               
                 Broadest DEX list 
                 of Standard 
                 of Standard 
                 DEX list 
                 TREAT for 
                 Broadest 
                 improve 
                 improve unverisal 
               
               
                 for TST170 
                 DEX TREAT 
                 DEX TREAT 
                 for Nextera 
                 Nextera 
                 adaboost 
                 unverisal signal 
                 signal 
               
               
                 122 genes 
                 27 genes 
                 30 genes 
                 26 genes 
                 22 genes 
                 75 genes 
                 11 genes 
                 24 genes 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FLG 
                 FLG 
                 VSIG4 
                 ADAMTS1 
                 ADAMTS1 
                 ARHGEF25 
                 CLEC4C 
                 LEP 
               
               
                 KRT5 
                 KRT5 
                 ADAMTS2 
                 ADAMTS2 
                 ADAMTS2 
                 CLEC4C 
                 ARHGEF25 
                 PAPPA2 
               
               
                 HBG2 
                 CLEC4C 
                 NES 
                 ALOX15B 
                 ALOX15B 
                 CRH 
                 ADAMTS2 
                 KCNA5 
               
               
                 NXF3 
                 TEAD4 
                 FAM107A 
                 AMPH 
                 ARHGEF25 
                 CUX2 
                 LEP 
                 ADAMTS2 
               
               
                 CLEC4C 
                 SEMA3G 
                 LEP 
                 ARHGEF25 
                 CELF4 
                 LEP 
                 ARRDC2 
                 MYOM3 
               
               
                 BPIFB3 
                 ADAMTS1 
                 DAAM2 
                 CELF4 
                 DAAM2 
                 NES 
                 SKIL 
                 ATP13A3 
               
               
                 LAMP5 
                 IGFBP5 
                 ARHGEF25 
                 DAAM2 
                 FAM107A 
                 PAPPA2 
                 PAPPA2 
                 ARHGEF25 
               
               
                 CADM2 
                 HSPA12B 
                 TIMP3 
                 FAM107A 
                 HTRA4 
                 PRG2 
                 VSIG4 
                 ADA 
               
               
                 CUX2 
                 SLC9A3R2 
                 PRX 
                 HSPA12B 
                 IGFBP5 
                 ACY3 
                 ARRDC4 
                 HTRA4 
               
               
                 PACSIN1 
                 PRX 
                 ALOX15B 
                 HTRA4 
                 KCNA5 
                 ADA 
                 CRH 
                 NES 
               
               
                 PTGDR2 
                 TIMP3 
                 HSPA12B 
                 IGFBP5 
                 KRT5 
                 ADAM17 
                 NES 
                 CRH 
               
               
                 PLD4 
                 ARHGEF25 
                 IGFBP5 
                 KCNA5 
                 LCN6 
                 ARFGAP3 
                   
                 ACY3 
               
               
                 NOMO1 
                 HTRA4 
                 CLEC4C 
                 KRT5 
                 LEP 
                 ARRDC2 
                   
                 PLD4 
               
               
                 SH3RF2 
                 NES 
                 SLC9A3R2 
                 LCN6 
                 LRRC26 
                 ARRDC3 
                   
                 SCT 
               
               
                 ZNF366 
                 TIMP4 
                 ADAMTS1 
                 LEP 
                 NES 
                 ASTE1 
                   
                 NOX4 
               
               
                 SH3PXD2A 
                 PAPPA2 
                 SEMA3G 
                 LRRC26 
                 OLAH 
                 ATOH8 
                   
                 PACSIN1 
               
               
                 SULT2A1 
                 FAM107A 
                 KRT5 
                 NES 
                 PRX 
                 ATP13A3 
                   
                 SERPINF1 
               
               
                 FAM219A 
                 PRG2 
                 AMPH 
                 OLAH 
                 PTGDR2 
                 C10orf2 
                   
                 SKIL 
               
               
                 PPP1R3C 
                 AMPH 
                 PRG2 
                 PACSIN1 
                 SEMA3G 
                 C22orf39 
                   
                 SEMA3G 
               
               
                 NFE2L1 
                 DAAM2 
                 PAPPA2 
                 PAPPA2 
                 SLC9A3R2 
                 CCDC151 
                   
                 TIPARP 
               
               
                 PODXL 
                 LCN6 
                 TEAD4 
                 PRX 
                 TIMP3 
                 CD63 
                   
                 LRRC26 
               
               
                 HTRA1 
                 ALOX15B 
                 CRH 
                 PTGDR2 
                 VSIG4 
                 CKAP4 
                   
                 PHEX 
               
               
                 EMP1 
                 CRH 
                 PITPNM3 
                 SEMA3G 
                   
                 CLCN1 
                   
                 LILRA4 
               
               
                 H19 
                 VSIG4 
                 TIMP4 
                 SLC9A3R2 
                   
                 CLEC4M 
                   
                 PER1 
               
               
                 IGIP 
                 LEP 
                 PNMT 
                 TIMP3 
                   
                 CLIC5 
               
               
                 SSUH2 
                 ADAMTS2 
                 ZEB1 
                 VSIG4 
                   
                 CNFN 
               
               
                 C6 
                 ARMS2 
                 APOLD1 
                   
                   
                 CPAMD8 
               
               
                 ARHGEF15 
                   
                 PLD4 
                   
                   
                 DDI2 
               
               
                 IRF6 
                   
                 CUX2 
                   
                   
                 EBI3 
               
               
                 NPR1 
                   
                 HTRA4 
                   
                   
                 ELMO3 
               
               
                 ALPK3 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ENC1 
               
               
                 ZCCHC24 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ETV3 
               
               
                 SAMD4A 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 FAR2 
               
               
                 STAG3 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 FOS 
               
               
                 RP1L1 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 FSTL3 
               
               
                 A1CF 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 GATSL2 
               
               
                 MN1 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 GBP2 
               
               
                 CD34 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 GINS4 
               
               
                 MYH14 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 GSTA3 
               
               
                 TENC1 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 HEATR9 
               
               
                 FSTL3 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 HEG1 
               
               
                 PRDM16 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 HIPK2 
               
               
                 FMO3 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 JUN 
               
               
                 UACA 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 LILRA4 
               
               
                 TEK 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 MRPS35 
               
               
                 SOX17 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 MTRNR2L6 
               
               
                 FLNC 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ORAI3 
               
               
                 TMC7 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 PARN 
               
               
                 KIF1C 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 PDE8B 
               
               
                 CLIC5 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 PI4KAP1 
               
               
                 SYNPO 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 PPP1R17 
               
               
                 CACNA1C 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 PSMD11 
               
               
                 ERG 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 RGP1 
               
               
                 PTPN21 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 RNF6 
               
               
                 NTRK2 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SCAMP1 
               
               
                 WWTR1 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SERPINF1 
               
               
                 CYP26B1 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SKIL 
               
               
                 ZEB1 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SLC26A2 
               
               
                 AIF1L 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SLC4A3 
               
               
                 C8B 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SLIT3 
               
               
                 KIF26A 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SMPD3 
               
               
                 ZBTB16 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SPDYE5 
               
               
                 BCL6B 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ST6GALNAC3 
               
               
                 FKBP5 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 THTPA 
               
               
                 FN1 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 TIPARP 
               
               
                 AQP7 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 TMEM108 
               
               
                 IL1R2 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 TMEM11 
               
               
                 ERRFI1 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 TNFRSF21 
               
               
                 SRPX 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 TPCN1 
               
               
                 GJA5 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 TPST1 
               
               
                 GPR116 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 TRAF3IP1 
               
               
                 JAG2 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 TRUB1 
               
               
                 MYL2 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 TTC21A 
               
               
                 ADCY1 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 USP54 
               
               
                 NRG3 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ZMYM6 
               
               
                 GPR4 
               
               
                 PITPNM3 
               
               
                 SERPINA3 
               
               
                 CPB2 
               
               
                 ADRA2C 
               
               
                 ANO1 
               
               
                 CA3 
               
               
                 C14orf37 
               
               
                 TEAD4 
               
               
                 TAT 
               
               
                 LEAP2 
               
               
                 HAO2 
               
               
                 SEMA3G 
               
               
                 ADAMTS1 
               
               
                 APOLD1 
               
               
                 IGFBP5 
               
               
                 HSPA12B 
               
               
                 GATA5 
               
               
                 SLC9A3R2 
               
               
                 RSPO3 
               
               
                 AQP7P1 
               
               
                 PRX 
               
               
                 PNMT 
               
               
                 MYOM3 
               
               
                 HRG 
               
               
                 TIMP3 
               
               
                 ARHGEF25 
               
               
                 HTRA4 
               
               
                 SCN5A 
               
               
                 OLAH 
               
               
                 NES 
               
               
                 TIMP4 
               
               
                 PAPPA2 
               
               
                 AZGP1 
               
               
                 FAM107A 
               
               
                 PRG2 
               
               
                 AMPH 
               
               
                 AP3B2 
               
               
                 KRT17 
               
               
                 DAAM2 
               
               
                 LCN6 
               
               
                 ALOX15B 
               
               
                 CRH 
               
               
                 VSIG4 
               
               
                 LEP 
               
               
                 ADAMTS2 
               
               
                 ARMS2 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 DEX Analysis 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 TruSeq 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Standard 
                   
                 Nextera Flex for enrichment 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Importance 
                 DEX 
                 Fold 
                   
                   
                 Standard 
                 Fold 
                   
               
               
                 Gene 
                 Ranking 
                 TREAT 
                 Change 
                 Bootstrapping 
                 Jackknifing 
                 DEX 
                 Change 
                 Jackknifing 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 ADAMTS1 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 1.79 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +3.2 
                 Y 
               
               
                 ADAMTS2 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 3.61 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +12.2  
                 Y 
               
               
                 ALOX15B 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 2.51 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +5.3 
                 Y 
               
               
                 ARHGEF25 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 2.02 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +3.8 
                 Y 
               
               
                 DAAM2 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 2.48 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +5.4 
                 Y 
               
               
                 FAM107A 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 2.31 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +4.3 
                 Y 
               
               
                 HTRA4 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 2.03 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +4.0 
                 Y 
               
               
                 IGFBP5 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 1.81 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +3.4 
                 Y 
               
               
                 KRT5 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 −2.52 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 −4.8 
                 Y 
               
               
                 LEP 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 3.48 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +8.1 
                 Y 
               
               
                 NES 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 2.15 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +4.2 
                 Y 
               
               
                 PRX 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 1.93 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +3.3 
                 Y 
               
               
                 SEMA3G 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 1.78 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +3.5 
                 Y 
               
               
                 SLC9A3R2 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 1.85 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +3.4 
                 Y 
               
               
                 TIMP3 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 2.01 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +3.7 
                 Y 
               
               
                 VSIG4 
                 1 
                 Y 
                 3.03 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +8.2 
                 Y 
               
               
                 PAPPA2 
                 2 
                 Y 
                 2.20 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +4.2 
                 N 
               
               
                 AMPH 
                 2 
                 Y 
                 2.37 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +4.1 
                 N 
               
               
                 HSPA12B 
                 2 
                 Y 
                 1.82 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 +3.2 
                 N 
               
               
                 PTGDR2 
                 2 
                 Y 
                 −1.67 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 −3.5 
                 Y 
               
               
                 LCN6 
                 2 
                 Y 
                 2.49 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 +4.4 
                 Y 
               
               
                 OLAH 
                 2 
                 Y 
                 2.07 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 +5.2 
                 Y 
               
               
                 APOLD1 
                 3 
                 Y 
                 1.80 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 CUX2 
                 3 
                 Y 
                 −1.73 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 PITPNM3 
                 3 
                 Y 
                 1.66 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 PLD4 
                 3 
                 Y 
                 −1.59 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 PNMT 
                 3 
                 Y 
                 1.98 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 CLEC4C 
                 3 
                 Y 
                 −1.86 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 CRH 
                 3 
                 Y 
                 2.54 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 PRG2 
                 3 
                 Y 
                 2.36 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 TEAD4 
                 3 
                 Y 
                 1.74 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 TIMP4 
                 3 
                 Y 
                 2.17 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 CELF4 
                 3 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 +5.3 
                 Y 
               
               
                 KCNA5 
                 3 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 −4.0 
                 Y 
               
               
                 LRRC26 
                 3 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 −4.4 
                 Y 
               
               
                 ARMS2 
                 4 
                 Y 
                 4.43 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 FLG 
                 4 
                 Y 
                 −3.05 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 PACSIN1 
                 4 
                 Y 
                 −1.70 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 −3.4 
                 N 
               
               
                 A1CF 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.37 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 ADCY1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.62 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 ADRA2C 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.69 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 AIF1L 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.48 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 ALPK3 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.35 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 ANO1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.69 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 AP3B2 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 2.40 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 AQP7 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.51 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 AQP7P1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.88 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 ARHGEF15 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.33 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 AZGP1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 2.27 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 BCL6B 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.50 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 BPIFB3 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 −1.80 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 C14orf37 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.73 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 C6 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.33 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 C8B 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.49 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 CA3 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.72 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 CACNA1C 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.42 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 CADM2 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 −1.76 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 CD34 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.37 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 CLIC5 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.41 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 CPB2 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.69 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 CYP26B1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.48 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 EMP1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.30 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 ERG 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.43 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 ERRFI1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.54 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 FAM219A 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.24 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 FKBP5 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.50 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 FLNC 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.40 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 FMO3 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.39 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 FN1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.51 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 FSTL3 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.38 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 GATA5 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.82 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 GJA5 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.55 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 GPR116 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.56 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 GPR4 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.65 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 H19 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.32 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 HAO2 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.75 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 HBG2 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 −2.15 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 HRG 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.99 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 HTRA1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.29 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 IGIP 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.32 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 IL1R2 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.53 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 IRF6 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.34 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 JAG2 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.57 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 KIF1C 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.41 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 KIF26A 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.49 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 KRT17 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 2.47 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 LAMP5 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 −1.77 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 LEAP2 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.74 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 MN1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.37 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 MYH14 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.38 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 MYL2 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.60 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 MYOM3 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.99 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 NFE2L1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.26 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 NOMO1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 −1.49 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 NPR1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.34 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 NRG3 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.62 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 NTRK2 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.45 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 NXF3 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 −1.96 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 PODXL 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.27 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 PPP1R3C 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.25 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 PRDM16 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.38 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 PTPN21 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.44 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 RP1L1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.36 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 RSPO3 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.87 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 SAMD4A 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.35 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 SCN5A 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 2.03 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 SERPINA3 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.67 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 SH3PXD2A 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.23 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 SH3RF2 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.18 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 SOX17 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.40 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 SRPX 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.55 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 SSUH2 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.33 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 STAG3 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.36 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 SULT2A1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.23 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 SYNPO 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.42 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 TAT 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.74 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 TEK 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.39 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 TENC1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.38 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 TMC7 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.40 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 UACA 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.39 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 WWTR1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.47 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 ZBTB16 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.50 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 ZCCHC24 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.35 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 ZEB1 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.48 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                 ZNF366 
                 5 
                 Y 
                 1.23 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 NA 
                 N 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Adaboost Analysis 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Fold Change in 
                 Frequency Used By 
                 Average AdaBoost Model 
               
               
                   
                 Importance 
                 Preeclampsia 
                 Adaboost 
                 Importance 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Ranking 
                 TruSeq 
                 Nextera Flex 
                 TruSeq 
                 Nextera Flex 
                 TruSeq 
                 Nextera Flex 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 ADAMTS2 
                 1 
                 +11.6  
                 +12.2  
                 100%  
                 100% 
                 9% 
                 8% 
               
               
                 ARHGEF25 
                 1 
                 +4.1 
                 +3.8 
                 100%  
                 100% 
                 11%  
                 5% 
               
               
                 CRH 
                 1 
                 +5.7 
                 +3.9 
                 14% 
                 100% 
                 2% 
                 4% 
               
               
                 LEP 
                 1 
                 +10.7  
                 +8.1 
                 100%  
                 100% 
                 8% 
                 17%  
               
               
                 NES 
                 1 
                 +4.5 
                 +4.2 
                  7% 
                 100% 
                 4% 
                 4% 
               
               
                 PAPPA2 
                 1 
                 +4.9 
                 +4.2 
                 64% 
                 100% 
                 3% 
                 8% 
               
               
                 SKIL 
                 1 
                 +1.5 
                 +1.4 
                 86% 
                  78% 
                 3% 
                 3% 
               
               
                 ACY3 
                 2 
                 ND 
                 −2.3 
                 ND 
                 100% 
                 ND 
                 3% 
               
               
                 ADA 
                 2 
                 ND 
                 −1.6 
                 ND 
                 100% 
                 ND 
                 5% 
               
               
                 ARRDC2 
                 2 
                 +1.8 
                 ND 
                 93% 
                 ND 
                 3% 
                 ND 
               
               
                 ATP13A3 
                 2 
                 ND 
                 +1.5 
                 ND 
                 100% 
                 ND 
                 5% 
               
               
                 CLEC4C 
                 2 
                 −3.6 
                 ND 
                 100%  
                 ND 
                 18%  
                 ND 
               
               
                 HTRA4 
                 2 
                 ND 
                 +4.0 
                 ND 
                 100% 
                 ND 
                 5% 
               
               
                 KCNA5 
                 2 
                 ND 
                 −4.0 
                 ND 
                 100% 
                 ND 
                 8% 
               
               
                 MYOM3 
                 2 
                 ND 
                 +4.2 
                 ND 
                 100% 
                 ND 
                 7% 
               
               
                 NOX4 
                 2 
                 ND 
                 −1.8 
                 ND 
                 100% 
                 ND 
                 2% 
               
               
                 PACSIN1 
                 2 
                 ND 
                 −3.4 
                 ND 
                 100% 
                 ND 
                 2% 
               
               
                 PLD4 
                 2 
                 ND 
                 −2.7 
                 ND 
                 100% 
                 ND 
                 3% 
               
               
                 SCT 
                 2 
                 ND 
                 −3.3 
                 ND 
                 100% 
                 ND 
                 3% 
               
               
                 SERPINF1 
                 2 
                 ND 
                 −1.6 
                 ND 
                 100% 
                 ND 
                 2% 
               
               
                 VSIG4 
                 3 
                 +8.1 
                 ND 
                 43% 
                 ND 
                 3% 
                 ND 
               
               
                 ARRDC4 
                 3 
                 +2.0 
                 ND 
                 36% 
                 ND 
                 4% 
                 ND 
               
               
                 LILRA4 
                 3 
                 ND 
                 −2.7 
                 ND 
                  33% 
                 ND 
                 1% 
               
               
                 LRRC26 
                 3 
                 ND 
                 −4.4 
                 ND 
                  56% 
                 ND 
                 2% 
               
               
                 PER1 
                 3 
                 ND 
                 +2.2 
                 ND 
                  33% 
                 ND 
                 1% 
               
               
                 PHEX 
                 3 
                 ND 
                 −2.2 
                 ND 
                  56% 
                 ND 
                 2% 
               
               
                 SEMA3G 
                 3 
                 ND 
                 +3.5 
                 ND 
                  67% 
                 ND 
                 5% 
               
               
                 TIPARP 
                 3 
                 ND 
                 +1.2 
                 ND 
                  67% 
                 ND 
                 2% 
               
               
                 ADAM17 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 ARFGAP3 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 ARRDC3 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 ASTE1 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 ATOH8 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 C10orf2 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 C22orf39 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 CCDC151 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 CD63 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 CKAP4 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 CLCN1 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 CLEC4M 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 CLIC5 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 CNFN 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 CPAMD8 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 CUX2 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 DDI2 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 EBI3 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 ELMO3 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 ENC1 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 ETV3 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 FAR2 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 FOS 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 FSTL3 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 GATSL2 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 GBP2 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 GINS4 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 GSTA3 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 HEATR9 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 HEG1 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 HIPK2 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 JUN 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 MRPS35 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 MTRNR2L6 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 ORAI3 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 PARN 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 PDE8B 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 PI4KAP1 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 PPP1R17 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 PRG2 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 PSMD11 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 RGP1 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 RNF6 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 SCAMP1 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 SLC26A2 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 SLC4A3 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 SLIT3 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 SMPD3 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 SPDYE5 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 ST6GALNAC3 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 THTPA 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 TMEM108 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 TMEM11 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 TNFRSF21 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 TPCN1 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 TPST1 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 TRAF3IP1 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 TRUB1 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 TTC21A 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 USP54 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                 ZMYM6 
                 4 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
                 ND 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Gene Glossary 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Gene Symbol Used 
                 Official Gene 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 in Patent 
                 Symbol 
                 Approved Name 
                 HGNC ID 
                 Location 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KRT5 
                 KRT5 
                 keratin 5 
                 HGNC:6442 
                 12q13.13 
               
               
                 CUX2 
                 CUX2 
                 cut like homeobox 2 
                 HGNC:19347 
                 12q24.11-q24.12 
               
               
                 CLEC4C 
                 CLEC4C 
                 C-type lectin domain family 4 member C 
                 HGNC:13258 
                 12p13.31 
               
               
                 PLD4 
                 PLD4 
                 phospholipase D family member 4 
                 HGNC:23792 
                 14q32.33 
               
               
                 ALOX15B 
                 ALOX15B 
                 arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase type B 
                 HGNC:434 
                 17p13.1 
               
               
                 PRG2 
                 PRG2 
                 proteoglycan 2, pro eosinophil major basic protein 
                 HGNC:9362 
                 11q12.1 
               
               
                 HTRA4 
                 HTRA4 
                 HtrA serine peptidase 4 
                 HGNC:26909 
                 8p11.22 
               
               
                 AMPH 
                 AMPH 
                 amphiphysin 
                 HGNC:471 
                 7p14.1 
               
               
                 PNMT 
                 PNMT 
                 phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase 
                 HGNC:9160 
                 17q12 
               
               
                 LEP 
                 LEP 
                 leptin 
                 HGNC:6553 
                 7q32.1 
               
               
                 PAPPA2 
                 PAPPA2 
                 pappalysin 2 
                 HGNC:14615 
                 1q25.2 
               
               
                 CRH 
                 CRH 
                 corticotropin releasing hormone 
                 HGNC:2355 
                 8q13.1 
               
               
                 TIMP4 
                 TIMP4 
                 TIMP metallopeptidase inhibitor 4 
                 HGNC:11823 
                 3p25.2 
               
               
                 APOLD1 
                 APOLD1 
                 apolipoprotein L domain containing 1 
                 HGNC:25268 
                 12p13.1 
               
               
                 ARHGEF25 
                 ARHGEF25 
                 Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor 25 
                 HGNC:30275 
                 12q13.3 
               
               
                 TIMP3 
                 TIMP3 
                 TIMP metallopeptidase inhibitor 3 
                 HGNC:11822 
                 22q12.3 
               
               
                 SEMA3G 
                 SEMA3G 
                 semaphorin 3G 
                 HGNC:30400 
                 3p21.1 
               
               
                 IGFBP5 
                 IGFBP5 
                 insulin like growth factor binding protein 5 
                 HGNC:5474 
                 2q35 
               
               
                 PRX 
                 PRX 
                 periaxin 
                 HGNC:13797 
                 19q13.2 
               
               
                 PITPNM3 
                 PITPNM3 
                 PITPNM family member 3 
                 HGNC:21043 
                 17p13.2-p13.1 
               
               
                 FAM107A 
                 FAM107A 
                 family with sequence similarity 107 member A 
                 HGNC:30827 
                 3p14.3-p14.2 
               
               
                 TEAD4 
                 TEAD4 
                 TEA domain transcription factor 4 
                 HGNC:11717 
                 12p13.33 
               
               
                 HSPA12B 
                 HSPA12B 
                 heat shock protein family A (Hsp70) member 12B 
                 HGNC:16193 
                 20p13 
               
               
                 NES 
                 NES 
                 nestin 
                 HGNC:7756 
                 1q23.1 
               
               
                 SLC9A3R2 
                 SLC9A3R2 
                 SLC9A3 regulator 2 
                 HGNC:11076 
                 16p13.3 
               
               
                 ZEB1 
                 ZEB1 
                 zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 1 
                 HGNC:11642 
                 10p11.22 
               
               
                 ADAMTS1 
                 ADAMTS1 
                 ADAM metallopeptidase with thrombospondin type 1 motif 1 
                 HGNC:217 
                 21q21.3 
               
               
                 DAAM2 
                 DAAM2 
                 dishevelled associated activator of morphogenesis 2 
                 HGNC:18143 
                 6p21.2 
               
               
                 ADAMTS2 
                 ADAMTS2 
                 ADAM metallopeptidase with thrombospondin type 1 motif 2 
                 HGNC:218 
                 5q35.3 
               
               
                 VSIG4 
                 VSIG4 
                 V-set and immunoglobulin domain containing 4 
                 HGNC:17032 
                 Xq12 
               
               
                 ARRDC2 
                 ARRDC2 
                 arrestin domain containing 2 
                 HGNC:25225 
                 19p13.11 
               
               
                 SKIL 
                 SKIL 
                 SKI like proto-oncogene 
                 HGNC:10897 
                 3q26.2 
               
               
                 ARRDC4 
                 ARRDC4 
                 arrestin domain containing 4 
                 HGNC:28087 
                 15q26.2 
               
               
                 KCNA5 
                 KCNA5 
                 potassium voltage-gated channel subfamily A member 5 
                 HGNC:6224 
                 12p13.32 
               
               
                 MYOM3 
                 MYOM3 
                 myomesin 3 
                 HGNC:26679 
                 1p36.11 
               
               
                 ATP13A3 
                 ATP13A3 
                 ATPase 13A3 
                 HGNC:24113 
                 3q29 
               
               
                 ADA 
                 ADA 
                 adenosine deaminase 
                 HGNC:186 
                 20q13.12 
               
               
                 ACY3 
                 ACY3 
                 aminoacylase 3 
                 HGNC:24104 
                 11q13.2 
               
               
                 SCT 
                 SCT 
                 secretin 
                 HGNC:10607 
                 11p15.5 
               
               
                 NOX4 
                 NOX4 
                 NADPH oxidase 4 
                 HGNC:7891 
                 11q14.3 
               
               
                 PACSIN1 
                 PACSIN1 
                 protein kinase C and casein kinase substrate in neurons 1 
                 HGNC:8570 
                 6p21.3 
               
               
                 SERPINF1 
                 SERPINF1 
                 serpin family F member 1 
                 HGNC:8824 
                 17p13.3 
               
               
                 TIPARP 
                 TIPARP 
                 TCDD inducible poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 
                 HGNC:23696 
                 3q25.31 
               
               
                 LRRC26 
                 LRRC26 
                 leucine rich repeat containing 26 
                 HGNC:31409 
                 9q34.3 
               
               
                 PHEX 
                 PHEX 
                 phosphate regulating endopeptidase homolog X-linked 
                 HGNC:8918 
                 Xp22.11 
               
               
                 LILRA4 
                 LILRA4 
                 leukocyte immunoglobulin like receptor A4 
                 HGNC:15503 
                 19q13.42 
               
               
                 PER1 
                 PER1 
                 period circadian regulator 1 
                 HGNC:8845 
                 17p13.1 
               
               
                 CELF4 
                 CELF4 
                 CUGBP Elav-like family member 4 
                 HGNC:14015 
                 18q12.2 
               
               
                 LCN6 
                 LCN6 
                 lipocalin 6 
                 HGNC:17337 
                 9q34.3 
               
               
                 OLAH 
                 OLAH 
                 oleoyl-ACP hydrolase 
                 HGNC:25625 
                 10p13 
               
               
                 PTGDR2 
                 PTGDR2 
                 prostaglandin D2 receptor 2 
                 HGNC:4502 
                 11q12.2 
               
               
                 JUN 
                 JUN 
                 Jun proto-oncogene, AP-1 transcription factor subunit 
                 HGNC:6204 
                 1p32.1 
               
               
                 PDE8B 
                 PDE8B 
                 phosphodiesterase 8B 
                 HGNC:8794 
                 5q13.3 
               
               
                 GSTA3 
                 GSTA3 
                 glutathione S-transferase alpha 3 
                 HGNC:4628 
                 6p12.2 
               
               
                 RGP1 
                 RGP1 
                 RGP1 homolog, RAB6A GEF complex partner 1 
                 HGNC:21965 
                 9p13.3 
               
               
                 USP54 
                 USP54 
                 ubiquitin specific peptidase 54 
                 HGNC:23513 
                 10q22.2 
               
               
                 MRPS35 
                 MRPS35 
                 mitochondrial ribosomal protein S35 
                 HGNC:16635 
                 12p11.22 
               
               
                 HEATR9 
                 HEATR9 
                 HEAT repeat containing 9 
                 HGNC:26548 
                 17q12 
               
               
                 FSTL3 
                 FSTL3 
                 follistatin like 3 
                 HGNC:3973 
                 19p13.3 
               
               
                 DDI2 
                 DDI2 
                 DNA damage inducible 1 homolog 2 
                 HGNC:24578 
                 1p36.21 
               
               
                 ZMYM6 
                 ZMYM6 
                 zinc finger MYM-type containing 6 
                 HGNC:13050 
                 1p34.3 
               
               
                 ST6GALNAC3 
                 ST6GALNAC3 
                 ST6 N-acetylgalactosaminide alpha-2,6-sialyltransferase 3 
                 HGNC:19343 
                 1p31.1 
               
               
                 GBP2 
                 GBP2 
                 guanylate binding protein 2 
                 HGNC:4183 
                 1p22.2 
               
               
                 ETV3 
                 ETV3 
                 ETS variant 3 
                 HGNC:3492 
                 1q23.1 
               
               
                 ADAM17 
                 ADAM17 
                 ADAM metallopeptidase domain 17 
                 HGNC:195 
                 2p25.1 
               
               
                 ATOH8 
                 ATOH8 
                 atonal bHLH transcription factor 8 
                 HGNC:24126 
                 2p11.2 
               
               
                 SLC4A3 
                 SLC4A3 
                 solute carrier family 4 member 3 
                 HGNC:11029 
                 2q35 
               
               
                 TRAF3IP1 
                 TRAF3IP1 
                 TRAF3 interacting protein 1 
                 HGNC:17861 
                 2q37.3 
               
               
                 TTC21A 
                 TTC21A 
                 tetratricopeptide repeat domain 21A 
                 HGNC:30761 
                 3p22.2 
               
               
                 HEG1 
                 HEG1 
                 heart development protein with EGF like domains 1 
                 HGNC:29227 
                 3q21.2 
               
               
                 ASTE1 
                 ASTE1 
                 asteroid homolog 1 
                 HGNC:25021 
                 3q22.1 
               
               
                 TMEM108 
                 TMEM108 
                 transmembrane protein 108 
                 HGNC:28451 
                 3q22.1 
               
               
                 ENC1 
                 ENC1 
                 ectodermal-neural cortex 1 
                 HGNC:3345 
                 5q13.3 
               
               
                 SCAMP1 
                 SCAMP1 
                 secretory carrier membrane protein 1 
                 HGNC:10563 
                 5q14.1 
               
               
                 ARRDC3 
                 ARRDC3 
                 arrestin domain containing 3 
                 HGNC:29263 
                 5q14.3 
               
               
                 SLC26A2 
                 SLC26A2 
                 solute carrier family 26 member 2 
                 HGNC:10994 
                 5q32 
               
               
                 SLIT3 
                 SLIT3 
                 slit guidance ligand 3 
                 HGNC:11087 
                 5q34-q35.1 
               
               
                 CLIC5 
                 CLIC5 
                 chloride intracellular channel 5 
                 HGNC:13517 
                 6p21.1 
               
               
                 TNFRSF21 
                 TNFRSF21 
                 TNF receptor superfamily member 21 
                 HGNC:13469 
                 6p12.3 
               
               
                 PPP1R17 
                 PPP1R17 
                 protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunit 17 
                 HGNC:16973 
                 7p14.3 
               
               
                 TPST1 
                 TPST1 
                 tyrosylprotein sulfotransferase 1 
                 HGNC:12020 
                 7q11.21 
               
               
                 GATSL2 
                 CASTOR2 
                 cytosolic arginine sensor for mTORC1 subunit 2 
                 HGNC:37073 
                 7q11.23 
               
               
                 SPDYE5 
                 SPDYE5 
                 speedy/RINGO cell cycle regulator family member E5 
                 HGNC:35464 
                 7q11.23 
               
               
                 HIPK2 
                 HIPK2 
                 homeodomain interacting protein kinase 2 
                 HGNC:14402 
                 7q34 
               
               
                 MTRNR2L6 
                 MTRNR2L6 
                 MT-RNR2 like 6 
                 HGNC:37163 
                 7q34 
               
               
                 CLCN1 
                 CLCN1 
                 chloride voltage-gated channel 1 
                 HGNC:2019 
                 7q34 
               
               
                 GINS4 
                 GINS4 
                 GINS complex subunit 4 
                 HGNC:28226 
                 8p11.21 
               
               
                 C10orf2 
                 TWNK 
                 twinkle mtDNA helicase 
                 HGNC:1160 
                 10q24.31 
               
               
                 TRUB1 
                 TRUB1 
                 TruB pseudouridine synthase family member 1 
                 HGNC:16060 
                 10q25.3 
               
               
                 FAR2 
                 FAR2 
                 fatty acyl-CoA reductase 2 
                 HGNC:25531 
                 12p11.22 
               
               
                 CD63 
                 CD63 
                 CD63 molecule 
                 HGNC:1692 
                 12q13.2 
               
               
                 CKAP4 
                 CKAP4 
                 cytoskeleton associated protein 4 
                 HGNC:16991 
                 12q23.3 
               
               
                 TPCN1 
                 TPCN1 
                 two pore segment channel 1 
                 HGNC:18182 
                 12q24.13 
               
               
                 RNF6 
                 RNF6 
                 ring finger protein 6 
                 HGNC:10069 
                 13q12.13 
               
               
                 THTPA 
                 THTPA 
                 thiamine triphosphatase 
                 HGNC:18987 
                 14q11.2 
               
               
                 FOS 
                 FOS 
                 Fos proto-oncogene, AP-1 transcription factor subunit 
                 HGNC:3796 
                 14q24.3 
               
               
                 PARN 
                 PARN 
                 poly(A)-specific ribonuclease 
                 HGNC:8609 
                 16p13.12 
               
               
                 ORAI3 
                 ORAI3 
                 ORAI calcium release-activated calcium modulator 3 
                 HGNC:28185 
                 16p11.2 
               
               
                 ELMO3 
                 ELMO3 
                 engulfment and cell motility 3 
                 HGNC:17289 
                 16q22.1 
               
               
                 SMPD3 
                 SMPD3 
                 sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 3 
                 HGNC:14240 
                 16q22.1 
               
               
                 TMEM11 
                 TMEM11 
                 transmembrane protein 11 
                 HGNC:16823 
                 17p11.1 
               
               
                 PSMD11 
                 PSMD11 
                 proteasome 26S subunit, non-ATPase 11 
                 HGNC:9556 
                 17q11.2 
               
               
                 EBI3 
                 EBI3 
                 Epstein-Barr virus induced 3 
                 HGNC:3129 
                 19p13.3 
               
               
                 CLEC4M 
                 CLEC4M 
                 C-type lectin domain family 4 member M 
                 HGNC:13523 
                 19p13.2 
               
               
                 CCDC151 
                 CCDC151 
                 coiled-coil domain containing 151 
                 HGNC:28303 
                 19p13.2 
               
               
                 CPAMD8 
                 CPAMD8 
                 C3 and PZP like alpha-2-macroglobulin domain containing 8 
                 HGNC:23228 
                 19p13.11 
               
               
                 CNFN 
                 CNFN 
                 cornifelin 
                 HGNC:30183 
                 19q13.2 
               
               
                 C22orf39 
                 C22orf39 
                 chromosome 22 open reading frame 39 
                 HGNC:27012 
                 22q11.21 
               
               
                 PI4KAP1 
                 PI4KAP1 
                 phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase alpha pseudogene 1 
                 HGNC:33576 
                 22q11.21 
               
               
                 ARFGAP3 
                 ARFGAP3 
                 ADP ribosylation factor GTPase activating protein 3 
                 HGNC:661 
                 22q13.2 
               
               
                 FLG 
                 FLG 
                 filaggrin 
                 HGNC:3748 
                 1q21.3 
               
               
                 ARMS2 
                 ARMS2 
                 age-related maculopathy susceptibility 2 
                 HGNC:32685 
                 10q26.13 
               
               
                 CYP26B1 
                 CYP26B1 
                 cytochrome P450 family 26 subfamily B member 1 
                 HGNC:20581 
                 2p13.2 
               
               
                 IRF6 
                 IRF6 
                 interferon regulatory factor 6 
                 HGNC:6121 
                 1q32.2 
               
               
                 MYH14 
                 MYH14 
                 myosin heavy chain 14 
                 HGNC:23212 
                 19q13.33 
               
               
                 PODXL 
                 PODXL 
                 podocalyxin like 
                 HGNC:9171 
                 7q32.3 
               
               
                 PPP1R3C 
                 PPP1R3C 
                 protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunit 3C 
                 HGNC:9293 
                 10q23.32 
               
               
                 SH3RF2 
                 SH3RF2 
                 SH3 domain containing ring finger 2 
                 HGNC:26299 
                 5q32 
               
               
                 TMC7 
                 TMC7 
                 transmembrane channel like 7 
                 HGNC:23000 
                 16p12.3 
               
               
                 ZNF366 
                 ZNF366 
                 zinc finger protein 366 
                 HGNC:18316 
                 5q13.1 
               
               
                 ADCY1 
                 ADCY1 
                 adenylate cyclase 1 
                 HGNC:232 
                 7p12.3 
               
               
                 C6 
                 C6 
                 complement C6 
                 HGNC:1339 
                 5p13.1 
               
               
                 FAM219A 
                 FAM219A 
                 family with sequence similarity 219 member A 
                 HGNC:19920 
                 9p13.3 
               
               
                 HAO2 
                 HAO2 
                 hydroxyacid oxidase 2 
                 HGNC:4810 
                 1p12 
               
               
                 IGIP 
                 IGIP 
                 IgA inducing protein 
                 HGNC:33847 
                 5q31.3 
               
               
                 IL1R2 
                 IL1R2 
                 interleukin 1 receptor type 2 
                 HGNC:5994 
                 2q11.2 
               
               
                 NTRK2 
                 NTRK2 
                 neurotrophic receptor tyrosine kinase 2 
                 HGNC:8032 
                 9q21.33 
               
               
                 SH3PXD2A 
                 SH3PXD2A 
                 SH3 and PX domains 2A 
                 HGNC:23664 
                 10q24.33 
               
               
                 SSUH2 
                 SSUH2 
                 ssu-2 homolog 
                 HGNC:24809 
                 3p25.3 
               
               
                 SULT2A1 
                 SULT2A1 
                 sulfotransferase family 2A member 1 
                 HGNC:11458 
                 19q13.33 
               
               
                 FMO3 
                 FMO3 
                 flavin containing dimethylaniline monoxygenase 3 
                 HGNC:3771 
                 1q24.3 
               
               
                 GATA5 
                 GATA5 
                 GATA binding protein 5 
                 HGNC:15802 
                 20q13.33 
               
               
                 HTRA1 
                 HTRA1 
                 HtrA serine peptidase 1 
                 HGNC:9476 
                 10q26.13 
               
               
                 C8B 
                 C8B 
                 complement C8 beta chain 
                 HGNC:1353 
                 1p32.2 
               
               
                 H19 
                 H19 
                 H19 imprinted maternally expressed transcript 
                 HGNC:4713 
                 11p15.5 
               
               
                 MN1 
                 MN1 
                 MN1 proto-oncogene, transcriptional regulator 
                 HGNC:7180 
                 22q12.1 
               
               
                 NFE2L1 
                 NFE2L1 
                 nuclear factor, erythroid 2 like 1 
                 HGNC:7781 
                 17q21.3 
               
               
                 PRDM16 
                 PRDM16 
                 PR/SET domain 16 
                 HGNC:14000 
                 1p36.32 
               
               
                 AP3B2 
                 AP3B2 
                 adaptor related protein complex 3 subunit beta 2 
                 HGNC:567 
                 15q25.2 
               
               
                 EMP1 
                 EMP1 
                 epithelial membrane protein 1 
                 HGNC:3333 
                 12p13.1 
               
               
                 FLNC 
                 FLNC 
                 filamin C 
                 HGNC:3756 
                 7q32.1 
               
               
                 STAG3 
                 STAG3 
                 stromal antigen 3 
                 HGNC:11356 
                 7q22.1 
               
               
                 CPB2 
                 CPB2 
                 carboxypeptidase B2 
                 HGNC:2300 
                 13q14.13 
               
               
                 TENC1 
                 TNS2 
                 tensin 2 
                 HGNC:19737 
                 12q13.13 
               
               
                 RP1L1 
                 RP1L1 
                 RP1 like 1 
                 HGNC:15946 
                 8p23.1 
               
               
                 A1CF 
                 A1CF 
                 APOBEC1 complementation factor 
                 HGNC:24086 
                 10q11.23 
               
               
                 NPR1 
                 NPR1 
                 natriuretic peptide receptor 1 
                 HGNC:7943 
                 1q21.3 
               
               
                 TEK 
                 TEK 
                 TEK receptor tyrosine kinase 
                 HGNC:11724 
                 9p21.2 
               
               
                 ERRFI1 
                 ERRFI1 
                 ERBB receptor feedback inhibitor 1 
                 HGNC:18185 
                 1p36.23 
               
               
                 ARHGEF15 
                 ARHGEF15 
                 Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor 15 
                 HGNC:15590 
                 17p13.1 
               
               
                 CD34 
                 CD34 
                 CD34 molecule 
                 HGNC:1662 
                 1q32.2 
               
               
                 RSPO3 
                 RSPO3 
                 R-spondin 3 
                 HGNC:20866 
                 6q22.33 
               
               
                 ALPK3 
                 ALPK3 
                 alpha kinase 3 
                 HGNC:17574 
                 15q25.3 
               
               
                 SAMD4A 
                 SAMD4A 
                 sterile alpha motif domain containing 4A 
                 HGNC:23023 
                 14q22.2 
               
               
                 ZCCHC24 
                 ZCCHC24 
                 zinc finger CCHC-type containing 24 
                 HGNC:26911 
                 10q22.3 
               
               
                 LEAP2 
                 LEAP2 
                 liver enriched antimicrobial peptide 2 
                 HGNC:29571 
                 5q31.1 
               
               
                 MYL2 
                 MYL2 
                 myosin light chain 2 
                 HGNC:7583 
                 12q24.11 
               
               
                 NRG3 
                 NRG3 
                 neuregulin 3 
                 HGNC:7999 
                 10q23.1 
               
               
                 ZBTB16 
                 ZBTB16 
                 zinc finger and BTB domain containing 16 
                 HGNC:12930 
                 11q23.2 
               
               
                 SERPINA3 
                 SERPINA3 
                 serpin family A member 3 
                 HGNC:16 
                 14q32.13 
               
               
                 AQP7 
                 AQP7 
                 aquaporin 7 
                 HGNC:640 
                 9p13.3 
               
               
                 SRPX 
                 SRPX 
                 sushi repeat containing protein X-linked 
                 HGNC:11309 
                 Xp11.4 
               
               
                 UACA 
                 UACA 
                 uveal autoantigen with coiled-coil domains and ankyrin repeats 
                 HGNC:15947 
                 15q23 
               
               
                 ANO1 
                 ANO1 
                 anoctamin 1 
                 HGNC:21625 
                 11q13.3 
               
               
                 FKBP5 
                 FKBP5 
                 FKBP prolyl isomerase 5 
                 HGNC:3721 
                 6p21.31 
               
               
                 SCN5A 
                 SCN5A 
                 sodium voltage-gated channel alpha subunit 5 
                 HGNC:10593 
                 3p22.2 
               
               
                 PTPN21 
                 PTPN21 
                 protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 21 
                 HGNC:9651 
                 14q31.3 
               
               
                 CACNA1C 
                 CACNA1C 
                 calcium voltage-gated channel subunit alpha1 C 
                 HGNC:1390 
                 12p13.33 
               
               
                 ERG 
                 ERG 
                 ETS transcription factor ERG 
                 HGNC:3446 
                 21q22.2 
               
               
                 SOX17 
                 SOX17 
                 SRY-box 17 
                 HGNC:18122 
                 8q11.23 
               
               
                 WWTR1 
                 WWTR1 
                 WW domain containing transcription regulator 1 
                 HGNC:24042 
                 3q25.1 
               
               
                 AIF1L 
                 AIF1L 
                 allograft inflammatory factor 1 like 
                 HGNC:28904 
                 9q34.12-q34.13 
               
               
                 CA3 
                 CA3 
                 carbonic anhydrase 3 
                 HGNC:1374 
                 8q21.2 
               
               
                 HRG 
                 HRG 
                 histidine rich glycoprotein 
                 HGNC:5181 
                 3q27.3 
               
               
                 TAT 
                 TAT 
                 tyrosine aminotransferase 
                 HGNC:11573 
                 16q22.2 
               
               
                 AQP7P1 
                 AQP7P1 
                 aquaporin 7 pseudogene 1 
                 HGNC:32048 
                 9q13 
               
               
                 ADRA2C 
                 ADRA2C 
                 adrenoceptor alpha 2C 
                 HGNC:283 
                 4p16.3 
               
               
                 SYNPO 
                 SYNPO 
                 synaptopodin 
                 HGNC:30672 
                 5q33.1 
               
               
                 FN1 
                 FN1 
                 fibronectin 1 
                 HGNC:3778 
                 2q35 
               
               
                 GPR116 
                 ADGRF5 
                 adhesion G protein-coupled receptor F5 
                 HGNC:19030 
                 6p12.3 
               
               
                 KRT17 
                 KRT17 
                 keratin 17 
                 HGNC:6427 
                 17q21.2 
               
               
                 AZGP1 
                 AZGP1 
                 alpha-2-glycoprotein 1, zinc-binding 
                 HGNC:910 
                 7q22.1 
               
               
                 BCL6B 
                 BCL6B 
                 BCL6B transcription repressor 
                 HGNC:1002 
                 17p13.1 
               
               
                 KIF1C 
                 KIF1C 
                 kinesin family member 1C 
                 HGNC:6317 
                 17p13.2 
               
               
                 GPR4 
                 GPR4 
                 G protein-coupled receptor 4 
                 HGNC:4497 
                 19q13.32 
               
               
                 GJA5 
                 GJA5 
                 gap junction protein alpha 5 
                 HGNC:4279 
                 1q21.2 
               
               
                 C14orf37 
                 ARMH4 
                 armadillo like helical domain containing 4 
                 HGNC:19846 
                 14q23.1 
               
               
                 JAG2 
                 JAG2 
                 jagged canonical Notch ligand 2 
                 HGNC:6189 
                 14q32.33 
               
               
                 KIF26A 
                 KIF26A 
                 kinesin family member 26A 
                 HGNC:20226 
                 14q32.33 
               
               
                 HBG2 
                 HBG2 
                 hemoglobin subunit gamma 2 
                 HGNC:4832 
                 11p15.4 
               
               
                 CADM2 
                 CADM2 
                 cell adhesion molecule 2 
                 HGNC:29849 
                 3p12.1 
               
               
                 LAMP5 
                 LAMP5 
                 lysosomal associated membrane protein family member 5 
                 HGNC:16097 
                 20p12.2 
               
               
                 NOMO1 
                 NOMO1 
                 NODAL modulator 1 
                 HGNC:30060 
                 16p13.11 
               
               
                 NXF3 
                 NXF3 
                 nuclear RNA export factor 3 
                 HGNC:8073 
                 Xq22.1 
               
               
                 BPIFB3 
                 BPIFB3 
                 BPI fold containing family B member 3 
                 HGNC:16178 
                 20q11.21 
               
               
                 CGB8 
                 CGB8 
                 chorionic gonadotropin subunit beta 8 
                 HGNC:16453 
                 19q13.33 
               
               
                 CGB5 
                 CGB5 
                 chorionic gonadotropin subunit beta 5 
                 HGNC:16452 
                 19q13.33 
               
               
                 ZSCAN23 
                 ZSCAN23 
                 zinc finger and SCAN domain containing 23 
                 HGNC:21193 
                 6p22.1 
               
               
                 HSPA1A 
                 HSPA1A 
                 heat shock protein family A (Hsp70) member 1A 
                 HGNC:5232 
                 6p21.33 
               
               
                 PMAIP1 
                 PMAIP1 
                 phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate-induced protein 1 
                 HGNC:9108 
                 18q21.32 
               
               
                 C8orf4 
                 TCIM 
                 transcriptional and immune response regulator 
                 HGNC:1357 
                 8p11.21 
               
               
                 ITM2B 
                 ITM2B 
                 integral membrane protein 2B 
                 HGNC:6174 
                 13q14.2 
               
               
                 IFIT2 
                 IFIT2 
                 interferon induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 2 
                 HGNC:5409 
                 10q23.31 
               
               
                 CD74 
                 CD74 
                 CD74 molecule 
                 HGNC:1697 
                 5q33.1 
               
               
                 HSPA6 
                 HSPA6 
                 heat shock protein family A (Hsp70) member 6 
                 HGNC:5239 
                 1q23.3 
               
               
                 TFAP2A 
                 TFAP2A 
                 transcription factor AP-2 alpha 
                 HGNC:11742 
                 6p24.3 
               
               
                 TRPV6 
                 TRPV6 
                 transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 6 
                 HGNC:14006 
                 7q34 
               
               
                 EXPH5 
                 EXPH5 
                 exophilin 5 
                 HGNC:30578 
                 11q22.3 
               
               
                 CAPN6 
                 CAPN6 
                 calpain 6 
                 HGNC:1483 
                 Xq23 
               
               
                 ALDH3B2 
                 ALDH3B2 
                 aldehyde dehydrogenase 3 family member B2 
                 HGNC:411 
                 11q13.2 
               
               
                 RAB3B 
                 RAB3B 
                 RAB3B, member RAS oncogene family 
                 HGNC:9778 
                 1p32.3 
               
               
                 MUC15 
                 MUC15 
                 mucin 15, cell surface associated 
                 HGNC:14956 
                 11p14.3 
               
               
                 GRHL2 
                 GRHL2 
                 grainyhead like transcription factor 2 
                 HGNC:2799 
                 8q22.3 
               
               
                 CSHL1 
                 CSHL1 
                 chorionic somatomammotropin hormone like 1 
                 HGNC:2442 
                 17q23.3 
               
               
                 CSH2 
                 CSH2 
                 chorionic somatomammotropin hormone 2 
                 HGNC:2441 
                 17q23.3 
               
               
                 KISS1 
                 KISS1 
                 KiSS-1 metastasis suppressor 
                 HGNC:6341 
                 1q32.1 
               
               
                 CGA 
                 CGA 
                 glycoprotein hormones, alpha polypeptide 
                 HGNC:1885 
                 6q14.3 
               
               
                 PLAC4 
                 PLAC4 
                 p1acenta enriched 4 
                 HGNC:14616 
                 21q22.2 
               
               
                 PSG1 
                 PSG1 
                 pregnancy specific beta-1-glycoprotein 1 
                 HGNC:9514 
                 19q13.2 
               
               
                 GH2 
                 GH2 
                 growth hormone 2 
                 HGNC:4262 
                 17q23.3 
               
               
                 PSG3 
                 PSG3 
                 pregnancy specific beta-1-glycoprotein 3 
                 HGNC:9520 
                 19q13.2 
               
               
                 PSG4 
                 PSG4 
                 pregnancy specific beta-1-glycoprotein 4 
                 HGNC:9521 
                 19q13.31 
               
               
                 PSG7 
                 PSG7 
                 pregnancy specific beta-1-glycoprotein 7 (gene/pseudogene) 
                 HGNC:9524 
                 19q13.31 
               
               
                 PSG11 
                 PSG11 
                 pregnancy specific beta-1-glycoprotein 11 
                 HGNC:9516 
                 19q13.31 
               
               
                 CSH1 
                 CSH1 
                 chorionic somatomammotropin hormone 1 
                 HGNC:2440 
                 17q23.3 
               
               
                 PSG2 
                 PSG2 
                 pregnancy specific beta-1-glycoprotein 2 
                 HGNC:9519 
                 19q13.31 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxy-delta-5-steroid dehydrogenase, 
               
               
                 HSD3B1 
                 HSD3B1 
                 3 beta- and steroid delta-isomerase 1 
                 HGNC:5217 
                 1p12 
               
               
                 LGALS14 
                 LGALS14 
                 galectin 14 
                 HGNC:30054 
                 19q13.2 
               
               
                 FCGR1C 
                 FCGR1CP 
                 Fc fragment of IgG receptor Ic, pseudogene 
                 HGNC:3615 
                 1q21.1 
               
               
                 PSG5 
                 PSG5 
                 pregnancy specific beta-l-glycoprotein 5 
                 HGNC:9522 
                 19q13.31 
               
               
                 LAGALS13 
                 LGALS13 
                 galectin 13 
                 HGNC:15449 
                 19q13.2 
               
               
                 GCM1 
                 GCM1 
                 glial cells missing transcription factor 1 
                 HGNC:4197 
                 6p12.1 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The term “plurality” refers to more than one element. For example, the term is used herein in reference to a number of C-RNA molecules that serve as a signature indicative of preeclampsia. 
     A plurality may include any two, any three, any four, any five, any six, any seven, any eight, any nine, any ten, any eleven, any twelve, any thirteen, any fourteen, any fifteen, any sixteen, any seventeen, any eighteen, any nineteen, any twenty, any twenty-one, any twenty-two, any twenty-three, any twenty-four, any twenty-five, any twenty-six, any twenty-seven, any twenty-eight, any twenty-nine, any thirty, any thirty-one, any thirty-two, any thirty-three, any thirty-four, any thirty-five, any thirty-six, any thirty-seven, any thirty-eight, any thirty-nine, any forty, any forty-one, any forty-two, any forty-three, any forty-four, any forty-five, any forty-six, any forty-seven, any forty-eight, any forty-nine, any fifty, any fifty-one, any fifty-two, any fifty-three, any fifty-four, any fifty-five, any fifty-six, any fifty-seven, any fifty-eight, any fifty-nine, any sixty, any sixty-one, any sixty-two, any sixty-three, any sixty-four, any sixty-five, any sixty-six, any sixty-seven, any sixty-eight, any sixty-nine, any seventy, any seventy-one, any seventy-two, any seventy-three, any seventy-four, any seventy-five, any seventy-six, any seventy-seven, any seventy-eight, any seventy-nine, any eighty, any eighty-one, any eighty-two, any eighty-three, any eighty-four, any eighty-five, any eighty-six, any eighty-seven, any eighty-eight, any eighty-nine, any ninety, any ninety-one, any ninety-two, any ninety-three, any ninety-four, any ninety-five, any ninety-six, any ninety-seven, any ninety-eight, any ninety-nine, any one hundred, any one hundred and one, any one hundred and two, any one hundred and three, any one hundred and four, any one hundred and five, any one hundred and six, any one hundred and seven, any one hundred and eight, any one hundred and nine, any one hundred ten, any one hundred eleven, any one hundred twelve, any one hundred thirteen, any one hundred fourteen, any one hundred fifteen, any one hundred sixteen, any one hundred seventeen, any one hundred eighteen, any one hundred nineteen, any one hundred twenty, any one hundred twenty-one, or any one hundred twenty-two of the molecules recited in a list described herein. A plurality may include a least any of the numbers recited above. A plurality may include more than any of the numbers recited above. A plurality may include a range of any of those recited above. In some embodiments, a C-RNA signature indicative of preeclampsia includes just one of the biomarkers recited above. 
     The identification and/or quantification of one of these C-RNA signatures within a sample obtained from a subject can be used to determine that the subject suffers from preeclampsia or is at a risk of developing preeclampsia. 
     A sample may be a biological sample or biosample, including but not limited to blood, serum, plasma, sweat, tears, urine, sputum, lymph, saliva, amniotic fluid, a tissue biopsy, swab, or smear, including for example, but not limited to, a placental tissue sample. In some preferred embodiments, a biological sample is a cell free plasma sample. A biological sample may be a maternal sample obtained from a pregnant female subject. 
     As used herein, the term “subject” refers to a human subject as well as a non-human mammalian subject. Although the examples herein concern humans and the language is primarily directed to human concerns, the concept of this disclosure is applicable to any mammal, and is useful in the fields of veterinary medicine, animal sciences, research laboratories and such. 
     A subject may be a pregnant female, including a pregnant female in any gestational stages of pregnancy. The gestational stage of pregnancy may be, for example, the first trimester, the second trimester, including late second trimester, or the third trimester, including early third trimester. The gestational stage of pregnancy may be, for example, before 16 weeks of pregnancy, before 20 weeks of pregnancy, or after 20 weeks of pregnancy. The gestational stage of pregnancy may be, for example, 8-18 weeks of pregnancy, 10-14 weeks of pregnancy, 11-14 weeks of pregnancy, 11-13 weeks, or 12-13 weeks of pregnancy. 
     The discovery of cell-free fetal nucleic acids in maternal plasma has opened up new possibilities for noninvasive prenatal diagnosis. Over the last few years, a number of approaches have been demonstrated to allow such circulating fetal nucleic acids to be used for the prenatal detection of chromosomal aneuploidies. Any of the methods described for example in Poon et al., 2000 , Clin Chem;  1832-4; Poon et al., 2001 , Ann NY Acad Sci;  945:207-10; Ng et al., 2003 , Clin Chem;  49(5):727-31; Ng et al., 2003 , Proc Natl Acad Sci USA; 100(8):4748-53; Tsui et al., 2004 , J Med Genet;  41(6):461-7; Go et al., 2004 , Clin Chem;  50(8):1413-4; Smets et al., 2006 , Clin Chim Acta;  364(1-2):22-32; Tsui et al., 2006 , Methods Mol Biol;  336:123-34; Purwosunu et al., 2007 , Clin Chem;  53(3):399-404; Chim et al., 2008 , Clin Chem;  54(3):482-90; Tsui and Lo, 2008 , Methods Mol Biol;  444:275-89; Lo, 2008 , Ann NY Acad Sci;  1137:140-143; Miura et al., 2010 , Prenat Diagn;  30(9):849-61; Li et al., 2012 , Clin Chim Acta;  413(5-6):568-76; Williams et al., 2013 , Proc Natl Acad Sci USA;  110(11):4255-60; Tsui et al., 2014 , Clin Chem;  60(7):954-62; Tsang et al., 2017 , Proc Natl Acad Sci USA;  114(37):E7786-E7795, and U.S. patent Publication U.S. 2014/0243212 may be used in the methods described herein. 
     The detection and identification of biomarkers of a C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia or a risk for developing preeclampsia may involve any of a variety of technologies. For example, biomarkers may be detected in serum by radioimmunoassay or the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique may be used. 
     In various embodiments, the identification of the biomarkers of a C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia or a risk for developing preeclampsia may involve sequencing the C-RNA molecules. Any of a number of sequencing technologies can be utilized, including, but not limited to, any of a variety of high-throughput sequencing techniques. 
     In some embodiments, the C-RNA population within a maternal biosample may be subject to enrichment of RNA sequences the include protein-coding sequences prior to sequencing. Any of a variety of platforms available for whole-exome enrichment and sequencing may be used, including but not limited to the Agilent SureSelect Human All Exon platform (Chen et al., 2015a,  Cold Spring Harb Protoc;  2015(7):626-33. doi: 10.1101/pdb.prot083659); the Roche NimbleGen SeqCap EZ Exome Library SR platform (Chen et al., 2015b,  Cold Spring Harb Protoc;  2015(7):634-41. doi: 10.1101/pdb.prot084855); or the Illumina TruSeq Exome Enrichment platform (Chen et al., 2015c,  Cold Spring Harb Protoc;  2015(7):642-8. doi:10.1101/pdb.prot084863). See also “TruSeq™ Exome Enrichment Guide,” Catalog #FC-930-1012 Part #15013230 Rev. B November 2010 and Illumina&#39;s “TruSeq™ RNA Sample Preparation Guide,” Catalog #RS-122-9001DOC Part #15026495 Rev. F March 2014. 
     In particular embodiments, biomarkers of a C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation indicative of preeclampsia or a risk for developing preeclampsia may be detected and identified using microarray techniques. In this method, polynucleotide sequences of interest are plated, or arrayed, on a microchip substrate. The arrayed sequences are then hybridized with a maternal biosample, or a purified and/or enriched portion thereof. Microarrays may include a variety of solid supports including, but not limited to, beads, glass microscope slides, glass wafers, gold, silicon, microchips, and other plastic, metal, ceramic, or biological surfaces. Microarray analysis can be performed by commercially available equipment, following manufacturer&#39;s protocols, such as by using Illumina&#39;s technology. 
     With obtaining, shipping, storing, and/or processing blood samples for the preparation of circulating RNA, steps may be taken to stabilize the sample and/or prevent the disruption of cell membranes resulting in the release of cellular RNAs into the sample. For example, in some embodiments, blood samples may be collected, shipped, and/or stored in tubes that have cell- and DNA-stabilizing properties, such as Streck Cell-Free DNA BCT® blood collection tubes, prior to processing into plasma. In some embodiments, blood samples are not exposed to EDTA. See, for example, Qin et al., 2013 , BMC Research Notes;  6:380 and Medina Diaz et al., 2016 , PLoS ONE;  11(11):e0166354. 
     In some embodiments, blood samples are processed into plasma within about 24 to about 72 hours of the blood draw, and in some embodiments, within about 24 hours of the blood draw. In some embodiments, blood samples are maintained, stored, and/or shipped at room temperature prior to processing into plasma. 
     In some embodiments, blood samples are maintained, stored, and/or shipped without exposure to chilling (for example, on ice) or freezing prior to processing into plasma. 
     The disclosure includes kits for use in the diagnosis of preeclampsia and the identification of pregnant women at risk for developing preeclampsia. A kit is any manufacture (e.g. a package or container) including at least one reagent, e.g. a probe, for specifically detecting a C-RNA signature within the maternal circulation as described herein that is indicative of preeclampsia or a risk for developing preeclampsia. The kit may be promoted, distributed, or sold as a unit for performing the methods of the present disclosure. 
     The use of signatures of circulating RNA found in the maternal circulation specific to preeclampsia in noninvasive methods for the diagnosis of preeclampsia and the identification of pregnant women at risk for developing preeclampsia may be combined with appropriate monitoring and medical management. For example, further tests may be ordered. Such test may include, for example, blood tests to measure liver function, kidney function, and/or platelet and various clotting proteins, urine analysis to measure protein or creatinine levels, fetal ultrasound to measure monitor fetal growth, weight, and amniotic fluid, a nonstress test to measure how fetal heart rate with fetal movement, and/or a biophysical profile using ultrasound to measure your fetal breathing, muscle tone, and movement and the volume of amniotic fluid may be ordered. Therapeutic interventions may include, for example, increasing the frequency of prenatal visits, antihypertensive medications to lower blood pressure, corticosteroid medications, anticonvulsant medications, bed rest, hospitalization, and/or early delivery. See, for example, Townsend et al., 2016 “Current best practice in the management of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy,”  Integr Blood Press Control;  9: 79-94. 
     Therapeutic interventions may include the administration of low dose aspirin to pregnant women identified at risk of for developing preeclampsia. A recent multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial demonstrated that treatment of women at high risk for preterm preeclampsia with low-dose aspirin resulted in a lower incidence of this diagnosis compared to placebo (Rolnik et al., 2017, “Aspirin versus Placebo in Pregnancies at High Risk for Preterm Preeclampsia,”  N Engl J Med;  377(7):613-622). Dosages of low dose aspirin include, but are not limited to, about 50 to about 150 mg per day, about 60 to about 80 mg per day, about 100 or more mg per day, or about 150 mg per day. Administration may begin, for example, at or before 16 weeks of gestation or from 11 to 14 weeks of gestation. Administration may continue thru 36 weeks of gestation. 
     The invention is defined in the claims. However, below is provided a non-exhaustive list of non-limiting embodiments. Any one or more of the features of these embodiments may be combined with any one or more features of another example, embodiment, or aspect described herein. 
     Embodiment 1 includes a method of detecting preeclampsia and/or determining an increased risk for preeclampsia in a pregnant female, the method comprising: 
     identifying in a biosample obtained from the pregnant women a plurality of circulating RNA (C-RNA) molecules; 
     wherein a plurality of C-RNA molecules selected from: 
     a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, any thirty or more, any thirty-one or more, any thirty-two or more, any thirty-three or more, any thirty-four or more, any thirty-five or more, any thirty-six or more, any thirty-seven or more, any thirty-eight or more, any thirty-nine or more, any forty or more, any forty-one or more, any forty-two or more, any forty-three or more, any forty-four or more, any forty-five or more, any forty-six or more, any forty-seven or more, any forty-eight or more, or all forth-nine of those listed in Table S9 of Example 7; or 
     a plurality of C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, or all thirteen of AKAP2, ARRB1, CPSF7, INO80C, JAG1, MSMP, NR4A2, PLEK, RAP1GAP2, SPEG, TRPS1, UBE2Q1, and ZNF768 
     is indicative of preeclampsia and/or an increased risk for preeclampsia in the pregnant women. 
     Embodiment 2 includes a method of detecting preeclampsia and/or determining an increased risk for preeclampsia in a pregnant female, the method comprising: 
     obtaining a biosample from the pregnant female; 
     purifying a population of circulating RNA (C-RNA) molecules from the biosample; 
     identifying protein coding sequences encoded by the C-RNA molecules within the purified population of C-RNA molecules; 
     wherein the protein coding sequences encoded by the C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein are selected from: 
     any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, any thirty or more, any thirty-one or more, any thirty-two or more, any thirty-three or more, any thirty-four or more, any thirty-five or more, any thirty-six or more, any thirty-seven or more, any thirty-eight or more, any thirty-nine or more, any forty or more, any forty-one or more, any forty-two or more, any forty-three or more, any forty-four or more, any forty-five or more, any forty-six or more, any forty-seven or more, any forty-eight or more, or all forth-nine of those listed in Table S9 of Example 7; or 
     any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, or all thirteen of AKAP2, ARRB1, CPSF7, INO80C, JAG1, MSMP, NR4A2, PLEK, RAP1GAP2, SPEG, TRPS1, UBE2Q1, and ZNF768 
     is indicative of preeclampsia and/or an increased risk for preeclampsia in the pregnant women. 
     Embodiment 3 includes a method of Embodiment 1 or 2, wherein identifying protein coding sequences encoded by C-RNA molecules within the biosample comprises hybridization, reverse transcriptase PCR, microarray chip analysis, or sequencing. 
     Embodiment 4 includes the method of Embodiment 1 or 2, wherein identifying protein coding sequences encoded by the C-RNA molecules within the biosample comprises sequencing. 
     Embodiment 4 includes the method of Embodiment 4, wherein sequencing comprises massively parallel sequencing of clonally amplified molecules. 
     Embodiment 6 includes the method of Embodiment 4 or 5, wherein sequencing comprises RNA sequencing. 
     Embodiment 7 includes the method of any one of Embodiments 1 to 6, further comprising: 
     removing intact cells from the biosample; 
     treating the biosample with a deoxynuclease (DNase) to remove cell free DNA (cfDNA); 
     synthesizing complementary DNA (cDNA) from C-RNA molecules in the biosample; and/or 
     enriching the cDNA sequences for DNA sequences that encode proteins by exome enrichment; 
     prior to identifying protein coding sequence encoded by the circulating RNA (C-RNA) molecules. 
     Embodiment 8 includes a method of detecting preeclampsia and/or determining an increased risk for preeclampsia in a pregnant female, the method comprising: 
     obtaining a biological sample from the pregnant female; 
     removing intact cells from the biosample; 
     treating the biosample with a deoxynuclease (DNase) to remove cell free DNA (cfDNA); 
     synthesizing complementary DNA (cDNA) from RNA molecules in the biosample; 
     enriching the cDNA sequences for DNA sequences that encode proteins (exome enrichment); 
     sequencing the resulting enriched cDNA sequences; and 
     identifying protein coding sequences encoded by enriched C-RNA molecules; 
     wherein protein coding sequences encoded by the C-RNA molecules encoding at least a portion of a protein selected from: 
     any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, any thirty or more, any thirty-one or more, any thirty-two or more, any thirty-three or more, any thirty-four or more, any thirty-five or more, any thirty-six or more, any thirty-seven or more, any thirty-eight or more, any thirty-nine or more, any forty or more, any forty-one or more, any forty-two or more, any forty-three or more, any forty-four or more, any forty-five or more, any forty-six or more, any forty-seven or more, any forty-eight or more, or all forth-nine of those listed in Table S9 of Example 7; or 
     any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, or all thirteen of AKAP2, ARRB1, CPSF7, INO80C, JAG1, MSMP, NR4A2, PLEK, RAP1GAP2, SPEG, TRPS1, UBE2Q1, and ZNF768 
     is indicative of preeclampsia and/or an increased risk for preeclampsia in the pregnant women. 
     Embodiment 9 includes a method comprising: 
     obtaining a biological sample from the pregnant female; 
     removing intact cells from the biosample; 
     treating the biosample with a deoxynuclease (DNase) to remove cell free DNA (cfDNA); 
     synthesizing complementary DNA (cDNA) from RNA molecules in the biosample; 
     enriching the cDNA sequences for DNA sequences that encode proteins (exome enrichment); 
     sequencing the resulting enriched cDNA sequences; and 
     identifying protein coding sequences encoded by the enriched C-RNA molecules; 
     wherein the protein coding sequences encoded by the C-RNA molecules includes at least a portion of a protein are selected from: 
     any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, any thirty or more, any thirty-one or more, any thirty-two or more, any thirty-three or more, any thirty-four or more, any thirty-five or more, any thirty-six or more, any thirty-seven or more, any thirty-eight or more, any thirty-nine or more, any forty or more, any forty-one or more, any forty-two or more, any forty-three or more, any forty-four or more, any forty-five or more, any forty-six or more, any forty-seven or more, any forty-eight or more, or all forth-nine of those listed in Table S9 of Example 7; or 
     any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, or all thirteen of AKAP2, ARRB1, CPSF7, INO80C, JAG1, MSMP, NR4A2, PLEK, RAP1GAP2, SPEG, TRPS1, UBE2Q1, and ZNF768. 
     Embodiment 10 includes the method of any one of Embodiments 1 to 9, wherein the biosample comprises plasma. 
     Embodiments 11 includes the method of any one of Embodiments 1 to 10, wherein the biosample is obtained from a pregnant female at less than 16 weeks gestation or at less than 20 weeks gestation. 
     Embodiment 12 includes the method of any one of Embodiments 1 to 10, wherein the biosample is obtained from a pregnant female at greater than 20 weeks gestation. 
     Embodiment 13 includes a circulating RNA (C-RNA) signature for an elevated risk of preeclampsia, the C-RNA signature comprising any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve, any thirteen or more, any fourteen or more, any fifteen or more, any sixteen or more, any seventeen or more, any eighteen or more, any nineteen or more, any twenty or more, any twenty one or more, any twenty two or more, any twenty three or more, any twenty four or more, any twenty five or more, any twenty-six or more, any twenty-seven or more, any twenty-eight or more, any twenty-nine or more, any thirty or more, any thirty-one or more, any thirty-two or more, any thirty-three or more, any thirty-four or more, any thirty-five or more, any thirty-six or more, any thirty-seven or more, any thirty-eight or more, any thirty-nine or more, any forty or more, any forty-one or more, any forty-two or more, any forty-three or more, any forty-four or more, any forty-five or more, any forty-six or more, any forty-seven or more, any forty-eight or more, or all forth-nine of those listed in Table S9 of Example 7. 
     Embodiment 14 includes a circulating RNA (C-RNA) signature for an elevated risk of preeclampsia, the C-RNA signature comprising any one or more, any two or more, any three or more, any four or more, any five or more, any six or more, any seven or more, any eight or more, any nine or more, any ten or more, any eleven or more, any twelve or more, or all thirteen of AKAP2, ARRB1, CPSF7, INO80C, JAG1, MSMP, NR4A2, PLEK, RAP1GAP2, SPEG, TRPS1, UBE2Q1, and ZNF768. 
     Embodiment 15 includes a solid support array comprising a plurality of agents capable of binding and/or identifying a C-RNA signature of Embodiment 13 or 14. 
     Embodiment 16 includes a kit comprising a plurality of probes capable of binding and/or identifying a C-RNA signature of Embodiment 13 or 14. 
     Embodiment 17 includes a kit comprising a plurality of primers for selectively amplifying a C-RNA signature of Embodiment 13 or 14. 
     Embodiment 18 includes the method of any one of Embodiments 1 to 12, wherein sample is a blood sample and the blood samples is collected, shipped, and/or stored in a tube that has cell- and DNA-stabilizing properties prior to processing the blood sample into plasma. 
     Embodiment 19 includes the method of Embodiment 18, wherein the tube comprises a Streck Cell-Free DNA BCT© blood collection tube. 
     The present invention is illustrated by the following examples. It is to be understood that the particular examples, materials, amounts, and procedures are to be interpreted broadly in accordance with the scope and spirit of the invention as set forth herein. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1 
     C-RNA Signatures Unique to Pregnancy 
     The presence of circulating nucleic acid in maternal plasma provides a window into the progression and health of the fetus and the placenta ( FIG.  1   ). Circulating RNA (C-RNA) is detected in maternal circulation and originates from two predominant sources. A significant fraction of C-RNA originates from apoptotic cells, which release vesicles containing C-RNA into the blood stream. C-RNA also enters maternal circulation through the shedding of active signaling vesicles such as exosomes and microvesicles from a variety of cell types. As shown in  FIG.  2   , C-RNA is therefore comprised of the byproducts of cell death as well as active signaling products. Characteristics of C-RNA include generation through common processes, release from cells throughout the body, and stable and contained in vesicles. It represents a circulating transcriptome that reflects tissue-specific changes in gene expression, signaling, and cell death. 
     C-RNA has the potential to be an excellent biomarker for at least the following reasons: 
     1) All C-RNA is contained within membrane bound vesicles, which protects the C-RNA from degradation, making it quite stable in the blood.
 
2) C-RNA originates from all cell types. For example, C-RNA has been shown to contain transcripts from both the placenta and the developing fetus. The diverse origins of C-RNA give it the potential to be a rich repository for accessing information on both fetal and overall maternal health.
 
     C-RNA libraries were prepared from plasma samples using standard Illumina library prep and whole exome enrichment technology. This is shown in  FIG.  3   . Specifically, Illumina TruSeq™ library prep and RNA Access Enrichment were used. Using this approach, libraries were generated that have 90% of the reads aligning to the human coding region ( FIG.  3    and  FIG.  7   ). Samples were downsampled to 50 M reads and ≥40 M mapped reads were used for downstream analysis. Samples were processed using the C-RNA workflow shown in  FIG.  3   . Dual Indexed libraries. Sequenced 50X50 on Hiseq2000 
     As shown in  FIG.  4   , comparing results from plasma samples from third trimester pregnant women to plasma samples from non-pregnant women provides a clear signature unique to pregnancy. The top twenty differential abundance genes of this signature are CSHL1, CSH2, KISS1, CGA, PLAC4, PSG1, GH2, PSG3, PSG4, PSG7, PSG11, CSH1, PSG2, HSD3B1, GRHL2, LGALS14, FCGR1C, PSG5, LGALS13, and GCM1. The majority of the genes identified in the pregnancy signature are placentally expressed and also correlate with published data. These results also confirm that placental RNA can be accessed in in the maternal circulation. 
     Example 2 
     C-RNA Signatures Across Gestational Age 
     This example characterized C-RNA signatures across different gestational ages throughout pregnancy. It is expected that the changes in C-RNA signatures at different time points longitudinally across pregnancy will be more subtle than the differences between C-RNA signatures of pregnant and non-pregnant samples noted in Example 1. As shown in  FIG.  5   , clear temporal changes in C-RNA profiles of the signature genes were observed as pregnancy progressed, with a clear group of genes upregulated in the first trimester and clear group of genes that increase in the third trimester. 
     These genes included CGB8, CGB5, ZSCAN23, HSPA1A, PMAIP1, C8orf4, ITM2B, IFIT2, CD74, HSPA6, TFAP2A, TRPV6, EXPH5, CAPN6, ALDH3B2, RAB3B, MUC15, GSTA3, GRHL2, and CSHL1, as listed in  FIG.  5   . 
     These genes may also include CSHL1, CSH2, KISS1, CGA, PLAC4, PSG1, GH2, PSG3, PSG4, PSG7, PSG11, CSH1, PSG2, HSD3B1, GRHL2, LGALS14, FCGR1C, PSG5, LGALS13, and GCM1. 
     These changes throughout the course of pregnancy correlate with published data from both Steve Quake and Dennis Lo. See, for example, Maron et al., 2007, “Gene expression analysis in pregnant women and their infants identifies unique fetal biomarkers that circulate in maternal blood,”  J Clin Invest;  117(10):3007-3019; Koh et al., 2014, “Noninvasive in vivo monitoring of tissue-specific global gene expression in humans,”  Proc Natl Acad Sci USA;  111(20):7361-6; and Ngo et al., 2018, “Noninvasive blood tests for fetal development predict gestational age and preterm delivery,” Science; 360(6393):1133-1136. C-RNA signatures correlating with patterns of gene expression of the placenta were found. Thus, this approach is able to detect subtle changes within pregnancy and provides non-invasive means to monitor placental health. 
     Example 3 
     C-RNA Signatures of Preeclampsia 
     With this example, C-RNA signatures unique to preeclampsia were identified. C-RNA signatures were determined in samples collected from pregnant women diagnosed with preeclampsia from two studies, the RGH14 Study (registered with clinical trials.gov as NCT0208494) and the Pearl Study (also referred to herein as the Pearl Biobank; registered with clinical trials.gov as NCT02379832)), were assayed ( FIG.  6   ). Two tubes of blood were collected at the time of diagnosis for preeclampsia. Eighty controls samples matched for gestational age were collected to minimize transcriptional variability not related to the preeclampsia disease state and to control for gestational age differences in C-RNA signatures. Samples from the RGH14 study were used to identify a set of biologically relevant genes, and the predictive value of these biomarkers was validated in an independent cohort of samples from the Pearl Biobank. 
     In the analysis of the RGH14 data, C-RNA signatures unique to preeclampsia (PE) were identified using four different methods, the TREAT method, a Bootstrap method, a jackknifing method, and the Adaboost method. Example 3 focuses on the first 3 analysis methods and Example four focuses on the Adaboost method. 
     The t-test relative to threshold (TREAT) statistical method utilizing the EDGR program allows researchers to formally test (with associated p-values) whether the differential expression in a microarray experiment is greater than a given (biologically meaningful) threshold. See McCarthy and Smyth, 2009 “Testing significance relative to a fold-change threshold is a TREAT,”  Bioinformatics;  25(6):765-71 for a more detailed description of the TREAT statistical method and Robinson et al., 2010, “edgeR: a Bioconductor package for differential expression analysis of digital gene expression data,”  Bioinformatics;  26:139-140 for a more detailed description of the EDGR program. See Freund and Schapire, 1997, “A Decision-Theoretic Generalization of On-Line Learning and an Application to Boosting,”  Journal of Computer and Systems Sciences;  55(1):119-139 and Pedregosa et al., 2011, “Scikit-learn: Machine Learning in Python,”  JMLR;  12:2825-2830 for a more detailed description of the Adaboost method. The Adaboost method will be discussed in Example 4. 
     In the first method, standard statistical testing (TREAT method) was used to identify genes that are statistically different in the RGH14 preeclampsia cohort of 40 patients as compared to a subset of matched controls (40 patients). 122 genes were identified as statistically different in the preeclampsia cohort (40 patients) as compared to a subset of matched controls (40 patients) ( FIG.  8   , right panel). These genes include CYP26B1, IRF6, MYH14, PODXL, PPP1R3C, SH3RF2, TMC7, ZNF366, ADCY1, C6, FAM219A, HAO2, IGIP, IL1R2, NTRK2, SH3PXD2A, SSUH2, SULT2A1, FMO3, FSTL3, GATA5, HTRA1, C8B, H19, MN1, NFE2L1, PRDM16, AP3B2, EMP1, FLNC, STAG3, CPB2, TENC1, RP1L1, A1CF, NPR1, TEK, ERRFI1, ARHGEF15, CD34, RSPO3, ALPK3, SAMD4A, ZCCHC24, LEAP2, MYL2, NRG3, ZBTB16, SERPINA3, AQP7, SRPX, UACA, ANO1, FKBP5, SCN5A, PTPN21, CACNA1C, ERG, SOX17, WWTR1, AIF1L, CA3, HRG, TAT, AQP7P1, ADRA2C, SYNPO, FN1, GPR116, KRT17, AZGP1, BCL6B, KIF1C, CLIC5, GPR4, GJA5, OLAH, C14orf37, ZEB1, JAG2, KIF26A, APOLD1, PNMT, MYOM3, PITPNM3, TIMP4, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, VSIG4, HBG2, CADM2, LAMP5, PTGDR2, NOMO1, NXF3, PLD4, BPIFB3, PACSIN1, CUX2, FLG, CLEC4C, and KRT5. 
     The TREAT method did not identify a set of genes that 100% accurately classifies the preeclampsia patients into a separate group ( FIG.  15   ). However, focusing in on these identified genes did improve classification compared to using the entire data set of all measured genes ( FIG.  8   , left panel). This highlights the value of focusing in on a subset of genes for prediction. However, with the TREAT method, a significant amount of variability was observed in the genes identified depending on which controls were selected. To deal with this biological variability and further improve the predictive value of our gene list, a second bootstrapping approach was developed. 
     In the RGH14 study more control samples (80) are available than preeclampsia patient samples (40). Thus, the RGH14 cohort of 40 preeclampsia patient samples was compared to a random selection of 40 controls samples (still matched for gestational age) and a gene list that is statistically different in the preeclampsia cohort was identified. As shown in  FIG.  9   , this was then repeated 1,000 times, to identify how often a set of genes was identified. A significant subset of genes only show up less than 10 times out of the 1,000 iterations (less than 1% of the 1,000 iterations). These low frequency genes most likely are due to biological noise and may not reflect a gene that is universally specific to preeclampsia. So, the gene list was further downselected by requiring a gene to be considered as statistically different in the preeclampsia cohort only if identified in 50% of the 1,000 iterations performed ( FIG.  9   , right panel). As shown in  FIG.  10   , differential transcript abundance with the additional bootstrapping selection distinguishes preeclampsia samples from healthy controls. Using this additional requirement helped address biological variability and further improved the ability to classify preeclampsia samples correctly. 
     Using this Bootstrap method, 27 genes were identified as statistically associated with preeclampsia. These genes include TIMP4, FLG, HTRA4, AMPH, LCN6, CRH, TEAD4, ARMS2, PAPPA2, SEMA3G, ADAMTS1, ALOX15B, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, IGFBP5, HSPA12B, CLEC4C, KRT5, PRG2, PRX, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, DAAM2, FAM107A, LEP, NES, and VSIG4. The genes identified with this bootstrapping method had excellent concordance with published data. Approximately 75% of these genes are expressed by the placenta. As shown in  FIG.  11   , there is overlap with known markers of preeclampsia, including PAPPA and CRH. And, a significant number of these genes are involved in embryo development, extracellular matrix remodeling, immune regulation, and cardiovascular function, all pathways known to be dysregulated in preeclampsia. 
     A third jackknifing approach was also developed to capture the subset of genes with the highest predictive value. This approach is similar to the bootstrapping method. Patients from both preeclampsia and control groups were randomly subsampled and differentially abundant genes identified 1,000 times. Instead of using the frequency with which a gene is identified as statistically different, the jackknifing approach calculated confidence intervals (95%, one-sided) for the p-value of each transcript. Genes where this confidence interval exceeded 0.05 were excluded. ( FIG.  16   , left panel). 
     Using the jackknifing approach, 30 genes were identified as predictive of preeclampsia: VSIG4, ADAMTS2, NES, FAM107A, LEP, DAAM2, ARHGEF25, TIMP3, PRX, ALOX15B, HSPA12B, IGFBP5, CLEC4C, SLC9A3R2, ADAMTS1, SEMA3G, KRT5, AMPH, PRG2, PAPPA2, TEAD4, CRH, PITPNM3, TIMP4, PNMT, ZEB1, APOLD1, PLD4, CUX2, HTRA4. 
     As shown in  FIG.  16    right panel, this approach gave good classification of preeclampsia patients in the RGH14 data set (compare  FIG.  15    (TREAT),  FIG.  10    (bootstrapping) and  FIG.  16    (jackknifing)). Each identified gene list was also used to classify preeclampsia samples in the independent Pearl Biobank dataset. As shown in  FIG.  17   , each gene list was able to classify preeclampsia samples. 
     All genes identified by the bootstrapping and jackknifing methods are represented in the 122 TREAT method genes (Table 2, DEX analysis, TruSeq library prep method). The bootstrapping and jackknifing approach gene lists are highly concordant, with over 70% of genes in common. Nearly 90% of transcripts identified by any approach exhibit increased transcript abundance in preeclampsia patients, consistent with elevated signaling and/or cell death in this disease. 
     Example 4 
     Identification of C-RNA Signatures with Adaboost 
     With this example an alternative approach, a publicly available machine learning algorithm called adaboost, was used to identify a specific C-RNA signature associated with preeclampsia. As shown in  FIG.  12   , this approach identifies a set of genes that has the most predictive power to classify a sample as preeclampsia (PE) or normal. Using this gene list, the clearest separation of a preeclampsia cohort from healthy controls was observed. However, this approach can also be very susceptible to overtraining to the samples used to build the model. Thus, the predictive model was validated using a completely independent data set from the PEARL study ( FIG.  13   ). Using this Adaboost gene list, 85% of the preeclampsia samples were accurately classify with 85% specificity ( FIG.  14   ). Overall, the Adaboost machine learning approach built the most accurate predictive model for preeclampsia. 
     Using the Adaboost method, 75 genes were identified as statistically associated with preeclampsia (Table 3, AdaBoost Analysis, TruSeq library prep method). These genes include ARRDC2, JUN, SKIL, ATP13A3, PDE8B, GSTA3, PAPPA2, TIPARP, LEP, RGP1, USP54, CLEC4C, MRPS35, ARHGEF25, CUX2, HEATR9, FSTL3, DDI2, ZMYM6, ST6GALNAC3, GBP2, NES, ETV3, ADAM17, ATOH8, SLC4A3, TRAF3IP1, TTC21A, HEG1, ASTE1, TMEM108, ENC1, SCAMPI, ARRDC3, SLC26A2, SLIT3, CLIC5, TNFRSF21, PPP1R17, TPST1, GATSL2, SPDYE5, HIPK2, MTRNR2L6, CLCN1, GINS4, CRH, C10orf2, TRUB1, PRG2, ACY3, FAR2, CD63, CKAP4, TPCN1, RNF6, THTPA, FOS, PARN, ORAI3, ELMO3, SMPD3, SERPINF1, TMEM11, PSMD11, EBI3, CLEC4M, CCDC151, CPAMD8, CNFN, LILRA4, ADA, C22orf39, PI4KAP1, and ARFGAP3. 
     A refined AdaBoost model was also developed for robust classification of PE samples. In order to create a generalized machine learning model that could accurately predict new samples, we used a rigorous approach that avoided overfitting to a single dataset and validated the final classifier with samples not used for model building. As illustrated in  FIG.  18   , the RGH14 dataset was divided into 6 pieces by random selection: a holdout subset with 12% of samples which was excluded from model building, and 5 evenly sized test subsets. For each iteration subsets were designated as training data or test samples. This process, starting at building the AdaBoost model was repeated for a minimum of 10 times on this data subset. After 50 high performing models were built for the 5 test-train subsets, the estimators from all models were merged into a single AdaBoost model. 
     Using the refined AdaBoost model, 11 genes were identified as statically associated with preeclampsia. These genes include CLEC4C, ARHGEF25, ADAMTS2, LEP, ARRDC2, SKIL, PAPPA2, VSIG4, ARRDC4, CRH and NES. The performance of this predictive model was validated using the hold out data set from RGH14 as well as in the completely independent Pearl Biobank cohort ( FIG.  19   ). 
     AdaBoost Model Creation Description. The AdaBoost classification approach was refined in order to obtain more specific gene sets (AdaBoost Refined 1-7) by the following approach, also illustrated in  FIG.  18   . The RGH14 dataset was divided into 6 pieces by random selection: a holdout subset with 12% of samples which was excluded from model building, and 5 evenly sized test subsets. 
     For each of the test subsets, training data was assigned as all samples in neither the holdout or test samples. Gene counts for the test and training samples were TMM-normalized in edgeR, then standardized such that the training data has mean of 0 and standard deviation of 1 for each gene. An AdaBoost model with 90 estimators and 1.6 learning rate was then fit to the training data. Feature pruning was then performed by determining the feature importance of each gene in the model and testing the impact of eliminating estimators using genes with importance below a threshold value. The threshold resulting in the best performance (as measured by Matthew&#39;s correlation coefficient on test data classification) with the fewest genes was selected, and that model retained. This process, starting at building the AdaBoost model was repeated for a minimum of 10 times on this data subset. 
     After all 50 plus models were built for the 5 test-train subsets, the estimators from all models were merged into a single AdaBoost model. Feature pruning was performed again, this time using the percent of models incorporating a gene to for threshold values and assessing performance with the average negative log loss value for the classification of each test subset. The model which obtained the maximal negative log loss value with the fewest genes was selected as the final AdaBoost model. 
     AdaBoost Gene Lists. Upon repetition of this process, slight variations were observed in the genes selected for the final model, due to innate randomization in the AdaBoost algorithm implementation, however performance remained high for predicting the test data, holdout data, and independent (Pearl) datasets. 
     Eleven total genes were observed in at least one of 14 AdaBoost Refined models generated: ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, CRH, LEP, NES, PAPPA2, SKIL, VSIG4 (AdaBoost Refined 1), although no models were generated that included all simultaneously. 
     Two observed gene sets offered the highest performance on classification of independent data. These are AdaBoost Refined 2: ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, VSIG4 and AdaBoost Refined 3: ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, VSIG4. 
     Four additional gene sets performed almost as highly as AdaBoost Refined 2-3. These are AdaBoost Refined 4: ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, NES, SKIL, VSIG4; AdaBoost Refined 5: ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, CRH, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL, VSIG4; AdaBoost Refined 6: ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, CLEC4C, LEP, SKIL; and AdaBoost Refined 7: ADAMTS2, ARHGEF25, ARRDC2, ARRDC4, CLEC4C, LEP, PAPPA2, SKIL. 
     Example 5 
     Identification of C-RNA Signature with Transposome Based Library Prep 
     The RGH14 samples were also processed through the Illumina Nextera Flex for Enrichment protocol, enriched for whole exome and sequenced to &gt;40 million reads. This approach is more sensitive and robust for low inputs, thus likely to identify additional genes predictive of preeclampsia. This dataset was run through three analysis methods, standard differential expression analysis (TREAT), jackknifing, and the refined Adaboost model. See Example 3 and Example 4 for detailed description of these analysis methods. 
     Changing the method for generating libraries altered the genes detected in all three analysis methods. For the TREAT method, 26 genes were identified as differentially abundant in preeclampsia, with the majority again showing elevated abundance in preeclampsia (See Table 2, DEX Analysis, Nextera Flex for Enrichment library prep method). These genes include ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, AMPH, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HSPA12B, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PACSIN1, PAPPA2, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, VSIG4.  FIG.  20    shows classification of the RGH14 samples with this gene list. 
     Applying the jackknifing analysis method downselected the TREAT list to 22 genes identified as differentially abundant in preeclampsia. These genes included ADAMTS1, ADAMTS2, ALOX15B, ARHGEF25, CELF4, DAAM2, FAM107A, HTRA4, IGFBP5, KCNA5, KRT5, LCN6, LEP, LRRC26, NES, OLAH, PRX, PTGDR2, SEMA3G, SLC9A3R2, TIMP3, VSIG4. The improved performance of this list is shown in  FIG.  20   . 
     The refined AdaBoost model approach was applied to this data, as described in Example 4. Using this method, 24 genes are identified as statically associated with preeclampsia (Table 3, AdaBoost Analysis, Nextera Flex for Enrichment library prep method). These genes include LEP, PAPPA2, KCNA5, ADAMTS2, MYOM3, ATP13A3, ARHGEF25, ADA, HTRA4, NES, CRH, ACY3, PLD4, SCT, NOX4, PACSIN1, SERPINF1, SKIL, SEMAG3, TIPARP, LRRC26, PHEX, LILRA4, and PER1. The performance of this predictive model is indicated in  FIG.  21   . 
     Example 6 
     Circulating Transcriptome Measurements from Maternal Blood Detects Early-Onset Preeclampsia Signature 
     Molecular tools to non-invasively monitor pregnancy health from conception to birth would enable accurate detection of pregnancies at risk for adverse outcomes. Circulating RNA (C-RNA) is released by all tissues into the bloodstream, offering an accessible, comprehensive measurement of placental, fetal and maternal health (Koh et al., 2014 , Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences;  111:7361-7366; and Tsui et al., 2014 , Clinical Chemistry;  60:954-962). Preeclampsia (PE), a prevalent and potentially fatal pregnancy complication, is placental in origin but gains a substantial maternal component as the disease progresses (Staff et al., 2013 , Hypertension;  61:932-942; and Chaiworapongsa et al., 2014 , Nature Reviews Nephrology;  10, 466-480). Yet purported biomarkers have shown limited clinical utility (Poon and Nicolaides, 2014 , Obstetrics and Gynecology International;  2014:1-11; Zeisler et al., 2016 , N Engl J Med;  374:13-22; and Duhig et al., 2018 , F 1000 Research;  7:242). Hypothesizing that characterization of the circulating transcriptome may identify better biomarkers, C-RNA was analyzed from 113 pregnancies, 40 at the time of early-onset PE diagnosis. Using a novel workflow, differences were identified in the abundance of 30 transcripts which are consistent with the biology of PE and represent placental, fetal, and maternal contributions. Further, a machine learning model was developed, demonstrating that only seven C-RNA transcripts are required to classify PE in two independents cohorts (92-98% accuracy). The global measurements of C-RNA disclosed in this example highlight the utility in monitoring both maternal and fetal health and hold great promise for the diagnosis and prediction of at-risk pregnancies. 
     Several studies have begun to investigate and identify potential biomarkers in C-RNA for a range of pregnancy complications (Pan et al., 2017 , Clinical Chemistry;  63:1695-1704; Whitehead et al., 2016 , Prenatal Diagnosis;  36:997-1008; Tsang et al., 2017 , Proc Natl Acad Sci USA;  114: E7786-E7795; and Ngo et al., 2018 , Science;  360:1133-1136). However, these studies have involved few patients and have been limited to monitoring small numbers of genes—almost exclusively placental and fetal derived transcripts. Measurements of the entire circulating transcriptome are difficult to perform because they require specific upfront sample collection and processing to minimize variability and contamination from cell lysis (Chiu et al., 2001 , Clinical Chemistry;  47:1607-1613; and Page et al., 2013 , PLoS ONE;  8: e77963). This complex workflow makes large clinical sample collections difficult to achieve because the labor required for immediate processing of blood samples is infeasible for many clinics (Marton and Weiner, 2013 , BioMed Research International;  2013:891391). Therefore, with this example, a method was established that allows overnight shipment of blood to a processing lab where every step of sample preparation is performed in a controlled environment, providing a scalable platform for clinical trial level assessments ( FIG.  22 A ). 
     The lynchpin of this method is the ability to ship blood overnight to a processing lab. The C-RNA pregnancy signal was assessed after overnight, room-temperature shipping in several tube types ( FIGS.  26 A- 26 C ). Blood stored in EDTA tubes, the gold standard used by prior C-RNA studies, exhibited a reduction in the abundance of pregnancy-associated transcripts and overall instability of the transcriptomic profile (Qin et al., 2013 , BMC Research Notes;  6:380). In contrast, the predominant tube type used for Non-Invasive Prenatal Testing (NIPT), Cell-Free DNA BCT (Streck), retained the signal from placental transcripts and had improved technical reproducibility ( FIG.  26 B ) (Medina Diaz et al., 2016 , PLoS ONE;  11:e0166354). 
     Shipment of blood allowed us to easily obtain an average of 5 mL plasma per patient from a single tube of blood. The difference in C-RNA data quality was assessed when using varying plasma volumes and determined that using &lt;2 mL plasma significantly increased noise and decreased library complexity ( FIGS.  27 A and  27 B ). Thus 4 mL of plasma was used for the studies of this example to maximize confidence in data quality. 
     This novel workflow was validated by recapitulating previous work monitoring C-RNA dynamics of &gt;10,000 transcripts per healthy pregnancy from first to third trimester. Using 152 samples collected serially from 45 healthy pregnancies (Pre-Eclampsia and Growth Restriction Longitudinal Study Control Cohort—PEARL; NCT02379832; Table 5), 156 significantly altered transcripts were identified, with the majority increasing in abundance as pregnancy progresses ( FIG.  22 B ). 42% of the altered genes were identified in prior C-RNA studies ( FIG.  22 C ) (Koh et al., 2014 , Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences;  111:7361-7366; and Tsui et al., 2014 , Clinical Chemistry;  60:954-962). Of the 91 transcripts identified only in this study, 64% are expressed by placental and/or fetal tissues ( FIGS.  22 D and  28 A- 28 C ). Presumably, the remaining genes reflect the maternal response to pregnancy. 
     Study Design 
     For the next phase of investigation, the workflow was applied on clinical samples to measure C-RNA changes in PE (iPC, Illumina Preeclampsia Cohort). PE is a heterogeneous disorder and associated with different severity and patient outcomes based on whether it manifests before (early-onset) or after (late-onset) 34 gestational weeks (Staff et al., 2013 , Hypertension;  61:932-942; Chaiworapongsa et al., 2014 , Nature Reviews Nephrology;  10, 466-4803; and Dadelszen et al., 2003 , Hypertension in Pregnancy;  22:143-148). This study to focused on the more severe early-onset form of PE and defined strict diagnostic criteria with clear inclusion and exclusion requirements—most critically excluding any individuals with a history of chronic hypertension—in order to obtain a clean cohort (Table 6) (Nakanishi et al., 2017 , Pregnancy Hypertension;  7:39-43; and Hiltunen et al., 2017 , PLoS ONE;  12:e0187729). Maternal characteristics, pregnancy outcomes, and medications in use were recorded throughout the study (Table 7). 113 samples were collected across 8 sites (Table 8), 40 at the time of PE diagnosis, and 73 controls gestationally-age matched within 1 week ( FIG.  23 A ). All but one woman with PE gave birth prematurely, in contrast to 9.5% of controls, confirming these diagnostic criteria as identifying individuals severely impacted by this disease ( FIG.  23 C ). 
     All samples were randomly distributed across multiple processing batches, then sequenced to ≥40 M reads. Standard differential expression analysis using the full cohort identified 42 altered transcripts, with 37 increased in PE ( FIG.  24 A , blue and orange). However, of concern was the high variability observed in the genes detected as altered when different subsets of controls were selected for analysis. 
     To address this discrepancy, a jackknifing approach was incorporated which allowed the identification of the genes that are most consistently altered ( FIGS.  24 A and  24 B , orange). 1,000 iterations of differential analysis with randomly selected sample subsets were performed, which allowed the construction of confidence intervals for the p-values associated with each putatively altered transcript ( FIG.  29 A ). 12 genes whose confidence interval exceeded 0.05 were excluded ( FIG.  24 B ). These genes would not have been excluded by simply setting a threshold for baseline abundance or biological variance ( FIG.  29 B ), however it was observed that these transcripts have lower predictive value ( FIG.  29 C ). Hierarchical clustering indicates these genes are not altered universally in the PE cohort, and thus lack sensitivity (73%) for accurate classification of this condition ( FIG.  29 D ). 
     The analysis then focused on the refined 30 gene set, 60% of which have previously been associated with PE (Namli et al., 2018 , Hypertension in Pregnancy;  37: 9-17; Than et al., 2018 , Frontiers in Immunology;  9:1661; Kramer et al., 2016 , Placenta;  37:19-25; Winn et al., 2008 , Endocrinology;  150:452-462; and Liu et al., 2018 , Molecular Medicine Reports;  18:2937-2944). qPCR analysis confirmed 19 of 20 genes as significantly altered in PE ( FIG.  24 C , Table 9). Strikingly, 40% of these genes encode for extracellular or secreted protein products. Additionally, nearly all genes are involved in PE relevant processes, including extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, pregnancy duration, placental/fetal development, angiogenesis, and hypoxia response (Table 10). 67% of these transcripts were expressed by the placenta and/or fetus ( FIG.  24 D ). In the remaining maternally expressed transcripts, cardiovascular and immune functions were well represented (Table 10). Hierarchical clustering of these genes effectively segregated PE and control samples with 98% sensitivity and 97% specificity ( FIG.  24 E ). Intriguingly, clinical data for the two misidentified controls indicated potentially confounding health problems, as suggested by their use of hypertensive medication (Table 7). 
     Using the genes identified in iPC, the ability to cluster a cohort of samples obtained from an independent biobank was assessed—the Pre-Eclampsia and Growth Restriction Longitudinal Study (PEARL; NCT02379832;  FIGS.  23 B and  23 C , Table 11). This cohort consisted of both early—(diagnosed at &lt;34 weeks); and late-onset PE with gestationally age-matched controls. Early-onset PE samples clustered separately from matched controls with 83% sensitivity and 92% specificity, further validating the relevance of these transcripts ( FIG.  24 F ). In contrast, no clustering was observed for the late-onset PE and matched control samples ( FIG.  24 G ). 
     The iPC data was then used to build an AdaBoost model for robust classification of PE samples. In order to create a generalized machine learning model that could accurately predict new samples, a rigorous approach was used that avoided overfitting to a single dataset and validated the final classifier with samples not used for model building ( FIGS.  30 A- 30 D  and  FIGS.  31 A- 31 E ). Surprisingly, the final model only utilized 7 genes, 3 of which have not been previously reported ( FIG.  25 A ). For the entire iPC cohort, this model classified samples with extremely high accuracy (AUC=0.99, sensitivity=98%, specificity=99%;  FIGS.  25 B and  25 C , blue). Early-onset PE PEARL samples were also accurately classified (AUC=0.88, sensitivity=100%, specificity=83%;  FIGS.  25 B and  25 C , pink). Unexpectedly, late-onset PE PEARL samples were also classified with reasonable accuracy (AUC=0.74, sensitivity=75%, specificity=67%;  FIGS.  25 B and  25 C , green). 
     This gene set was highly concordant with transcripts identified by differential abundance analysis ( FIG.  25 D ; Table 10). The classifier relied on both placentally and maternally expressed transcripts ( FIG.  25 E ). All genes used by the model form protein products that are either extracellular or membrane bound. Despite the small number of genes selected by AdaBoost, a diversity of PE-relevant functions was observed, specifically cardiovascular function and angiogenesis, immune regulation, fetal development, and ECM remodeling. 
     Methods 
     Prospective Clinical Sample Collection. Pregnant patients were recruited in an Illumina sponsored clinical study protocol in compliance with the International Conference on Harmonization for Good Clinical Practice. Following informed consent, 20 mL whole blood samples were collected from 40 pregnant women with a diagnosis of preeclampsia before 34 weeks gestation with severe features defined per ACOG guidelines (Table 6). Samples from 76 healthy pregnancies were also collected and were matched for gestational age to the preeclampsia group. Three control samples developed term preeclampsia after blood collection and were excluded from data analysis. For detailed inclusion and exclusion criteria, see Table 6. Patient clinical history, treatment and birth outcome information were also recorded (Table 7). 
     Patients were recruited across 8 different clinical sites, including University of Texas Medical Branch (Galveston, Tex.), Tufts Medical Center (Boston, Mass.), Columbia University Irving Medical Center (New York, N.Y.), Winthrop University Hospital (Mineola, N.Y.), St. Peter&#39;s University Hospital (New Brunswick, N.J.), Christiana Care (Newark, Del.), Rutgers University Robert Wood Johnson Medical School (New Brunswick, N.J.) and New York Presbyterian/Queens (New York, N.Y.). The clinical protocol and informed consent were approved by each clinical site&#39;s Institutional Review Board. See Table 8 for patient distribution across clinical sites. 
     PEARL Validation Cohort Study Design. Illumina obtained plasma samples from the Preeclampsia and Growth Restriction Longitudinal study (PEARL; NCT02379832) to be used as an independent validation cohort. Plasma samples were obtained after the study had reached completion. PEARL samples were collected at the Centre hospitalier universitaire de Quebec (CHU de Quebec) with principal investigator Emmanual Bujold, MD, MSc. A group of 45 control pregnancies and 45 case pregnancies were recruited in this study and written informed consent was obtained for all patients. Only participants above 18 years of age were eligible, and all pregnancies were singleton. 
     Preeclampsia Group. The criteria for preeclampsia was defined based on the Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists of Canada (SOGC) June 2014 criteria for preeclampsia, with a gestational age requirement between 20 and 41 weeks. A blood sample was taken once at the time of diagnosis. 
     Control Group. 45 pregnant women who were expected to have a normal pregnancy were recruited between 11 and 13 weeks gestational age. Each enrolled patient was followed longitudinally with blood drawn at 4 timepoints throughout pregnancy until birth. The control women were divided into three subgroups and subsequent follow up blood draws were staggered to cover the entire range of gestational ages throughout pregnancy (Table 5). 
     The PEARL control samples were used for two purposes. 153 longitudinal samples from 45 individual women were used to monitor placental dynamics throughout pregnancy. Additionally, control samples were selected for comparison to the preeclampsia cohort, which were matched for gestational age and used to validate the model. 
     Study Sample Processing. All samples from the Illumina prospective collection and the PEARL samples were processed identically by investigators blinded to disease status. Two tubes of blood were collected per patient in Cell-Free DNA BCT tubes (Streck) following the manufacturer instructions. Blood samples were stored and shipped at room temperature overnight and processed within 72 hours. Blood was centrifuged at 1,600×g for 20 minutes at room temperature, plasma transferred to a new tube and centrifuged additional 10 minutes at 16,000×g to remove residual cells. Plasma was stored at −80° C. until use. Circulating RNA was extracted from 4.5 mL of plasma using the Circulating Nucleic Acid Kit (Qiagen) followed by DNAse I digestion (Thermofisher) according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. 
     cDNA Synthesis and Library Prep. Circulating RNA was fragmented at 94° C. for 8 minutes followed by random hexamer primed cDNA synthesis using the Illumina TruSight Tumor 170 Library Prep kit (Illumina). Illumina sequencing library prep was carried out according to TST170 Tumor Library Prep Kit for RNA, with the following modifications to accommodate low RNA inputs. All reactions were reduced to 25% of original volume and the ligation adaptor was used at 1 in 10 dilution. Library quality was assessed using High Sensitivity DNA Analysis kits on the Agilent Bioanalyzer 2100 (Agilent). 
     Whole Exome Enrichment. Sequencing libraries were quantified using Quant-iT PicoGreen dsDNA Kit (ThermoFisher Scientific), normalized to 200 ng input and pooled to 4 samples per enrichment reaction. Whole exome enrichment was carried out according to the TruSeq RNA Access Library Prep guide (Illumina). Additional blocking oligos lacking the 5′ biotin designed against hemoglobin genes HBA1, HBA2, and HBB were included in the enrichment reaction to reduce enrichment of these genes in the sequencing libraries. Final enrichment libraries were quantified using Quant-IT Picogreen dsDNA Kit (ThermoFisher Scientific), normalized and pooled for paired end 50 by 50 sequencing on Illumina HiSeq 2000 platforms to a minimum depth of 40 million reads per sample. 
     Data Analysis. Unless otherwise noted, all statistical testing was two-sided. Non-parametric testing was used when data were not normally distributed. Sequencing reads were mapped to human reference genome (hg19) with tophat (v2.0.13), and transcript abundance quantified with featureCounts (subread-1.4.6) against RefGene coordinates (obtained Oct. 27, 2014). Tissue expression data were obtained from Body Atlas (CorrelationEngine, BaseSpace, Illumina, Inc) (Kupershmidt, et al., 2010 , PLoS ONE  5; 10.1371/journal.pone.0013066). vGenes with expression ≥2-fold higher than the median expression across all tissues in the placenta or any of the fetal tissues (brain, liver, lung, and thyroid) were assigned to that group. Subcellular localization was obtained from UniProt. 
     Differential expression analysis was performed in R (v3.4.2) with edgeR (v3.20.9), after exclusion of genes with a CPM≤0.5 in &lt;25% of samples. The dataset was normalized by the TMM method, and differentially abundant genes identified by the glmTreat test for a log fold change ≥1 followed by Bonferroni-Holm p-value correction. The same process was used for each jackknifing iteration, using 90% of samples in each group selected by random sampling without replacement. After 1,000 jackknifing iterations, the one-sided 95% confidence interval for gene-wise p-values was calculated with statsmodels (v0.8.0). Hierarchical clustering analysis was performed with squared Euclidean distance and average linkage. 
     AdaBoost was performed in python with scikit-learn (v0.19.1, sklearn.ensemble. AdaBoostClassifier). Optimal hyperparameter values (90 estimators, 1.6 learning rate) were determined by grid search, using Matthew&#39;s correlation coefficient to quantify performance. The overall AdaBoost model development strategy is illustrated in  FIGS.  31 A- 31 E . Datasets (TMM-normalized log CPM values of genes with a CPM≤0.5 in &lt;25% of samples) were standardized (sklearn.preprocessing.StandardScaler) prior to fitting classifiers. The same scaler fit on training data was applied to the corresponding testing dataset; all 5 scalers for the 5 training datasets were averaged for use with the final model. The decision_function score was used to construct ROC curves and determine sample classification. 
     RT-qPCR validation assay and analysis. C-RNA was isolated and converted to cDNA from 2 mls of plasma from 19 Preeclampsia (PE) and 19 matched control samples, which were selected randomly. The cDNA was pre-amplified using the TaqMan Preamp master Mix (cat: 4488593) for 16 cycles and diluted 10-fold to a final volume of 500 μL. For qPCR, the reaction mixture contained 5 μL of diluted pre-amplified cDNA, 10 μL of TaqMan gene expression master mix (cat: 4369542), 1 μL of TaqMan Probe, and 4 μL of water using the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. For each TaqMan probe (Table 9), three qPCR reactions were carried out per diluted cDNA sample and the Cq values were determined using Bio-Rad CFX manager software. To determine gene abundance for each target gene, the ΔΔCq=2{circumflex over ( )}-(target Cq−ref Cq avg ) was calculated using the mean Cq values between five reference gene probes (ref Cq avg ). To determine the fold change (PE/CTRL) for each probe, the ΔΔCq values for each sample was divided by the average ΔΔCq value for the matched control group. 
     Tube type study. To assess the effects of tube type and overnight shipping on circulating RNA quality, blood was drawn from pregnant and non-pregnant females in the following tube types: K2 EDTA (Beckton Dickinson), ACD (Beckton Dickinson), Cell Free RNA BCT tube (Streck), and 1 Cell Free DNA BCT tube (Streck). 8 mL of blood was drawn into each tube and shipped overnight either on ice packs (EDTA and ACD) or shipped at room temperature (Cell Free RNA and DNA BCT tubes). All shipped blood tubes were processed into plasma within 24 hours of the blood draw. As a reference, 8 mL of blood was also drawn into K2 EDTA tubes and processed within 4 hours into plasma on site and shipped as plasma on dry ice. All plasma processing and circulating RNA extraction was carried out as described in the methods section. 3 mL of plasma was used per condition to generate sequencing libraries for enrichment using Illumina protocols as described. 
     Reproducibility Study. Plasma was obtained from 10 individuals and split into 4 mL, 1 mL, and 0.5 mL volumes, with 3 replicates for each volume. Circulating RNA extraction (Qiagen Circulating Nucleic Acid Kit) and random primed cDNA synthesis were carried out on all samples as previously described. For libraries using 4.5 mL plasma inputs, sequencing libraries were generated using the TST170 Tumor Library Prep Kit as described above. For 1 mL and 0.5 mL inputs, the Accel-NGS 1S Plus DNA Library Kit (Swift Biosciences) was used to generate libraries. Whole exome enrichment and sequencing was carried out on all samples using as described above. 
     DISCUSSION 
     This study focused on identifying differences that are universal to early-onset PE, supporting the ultimate goal of clinically actionable biomarker discovery. This required tailoring the analysis methods to account for the variability observed in the data. This variance stems from both the substantial biological noise in C-RNA measurements as well as the phenotypic diversity of PE. C-RNA is inherently more variable than single tissue transcriptomics because it represents a combination of cell death, signaling, and gene expression across all organs. Furthermore, PE exhibits a wide range of maternal and fetal outcomes which may be associated with different underlying molecular causes. While the genes that were eliminated may be biologically relevant in PE, they were not universal in the cohort. Interestingly, the excluded transcripts were elevated in specific women, who may represent a molecular subset of PE. Larger cohorts will help elucidate if C-RNA can delineate PE subtypes, which is crucial to understanding the diverse pathophysiology of this condition. 
     The most universal set of transcripts was identified by AdaBoost. The success of this method was underscored by highly accurate classification of an independent early-onset PE cohort (PEARL). These samples were collected from a different population with significantly relaxed inclusion and exclusion criteria, for instance including women in the control group who had chronic hypertension, gestational diabetes, or Alport syndrome—none of which were misidentified as having PE. In contrast to hierarchical clustering, 17 of 24 individuals from the late-onset PE cohort were correctly classified by machine learning model of this example, surprising given the suggestion that early- and late-onset PE are distinct conditions. The findings of this example suggest there may be some pathways universally altered in all PE. 
     In every assessment, C-RNA revealed changes in placental, fetal, and maternally expressed transcripts. One of the most striking trends observed in PE samples was the increased abundance of myriad ECM remodeling and cell migration/invasion proteins (FAM107A, SLC9A3R2, TIMP4, ADAMTS1, PRG2, TIMP3, LEP, ADAMTS2, ZEB1, HSPA12B), tracking with dysfunctional extravillous trophoblast invasion and remodeling of maternal vessels characteristic in this disease. The maternal side of early-onset PE manifests as cardiovascular dysfunction, inflammation, and preterm birth (PNMT, ZEB1, CRH), all of which show molecular signs of aberrant behavior in the data of this example. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 PEARL Control Cohort Gestational Age Distribution for 45 healthy pregnancies 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Control 
                   
                 Follow up 
                 Follow up 
                 Follow up 
               
               
                 Groups 
                 Recruitment 
                 visit #1 
                 visit #2 
                 visit #3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Group 1 (n = 15) 
                 11 0/7 -13 6/7  weeks 
                 14 0/7 -17 6/7  weeks 
                 26 0/7 -28 6/7  weeks 
                 35 0/7 -37 6/7  weeks 
               
               
                 Group 2 (n = 15) 
                 11 0/7 -13 6/7  weeks 
                 18 0/7 -21 6/7  weeks 
                 29 0/7 -31 6/7  weeks 
                 35 0/7 -37 6/7  weeks 
               
               
                 Group 3 (n = 15) 
                 11 0/7 -13 6/7  weeks 
                 22 0/7 -25 6/7  weeks 
                 32 0/7 -34 6/7  weeks 
                 35 0/7 -37 6/7  weeks 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Diagnostic Criteria for Preeclampsia with Severe 
               
               
                 Features and Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Blood 
                 1) 
                 Systolic BP ≥160 mmHG or diastolic BP ≥110 mmHg measured on at 
               
               
                 Pressure 
                   
                 least 2 occasions 4 hours apart while on bedrest but before the onset of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 labor or measured on 1 occasion only, if antihypertensive therapy is 
               
               
                   
                   
                 initiated due to severe hypertension 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Measured by one of the following: 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Proteinuria 
                 1) 
                 Excretion of ≥300 mg of protein in a 24 hr period 
               
               
                   
                 2) 
                 Protein/creatinine value of at least 0.3 
               
               
                   
                 3) 
                 qualitative determination with urine dipstick of ≥1+ 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 OR 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Blood Pressure 
                 1) 
                 Systolic BP ≥140 mmHg or diastolic ≥90 mmHG 
               
               
                 With one of the 
                 1) 
                 Thombocytopenia (&lt;100,000 p1atelets/mL) 
               
               
                 following features 
                 2) 
                 Impaired liver function 
               
               
                   
                 3) 
                 Newly developed renal insufficiency 
               
               
                   
                 4) 
                 Pulmonary edema 
               
               
                   
                 5) 
                 New onset cerebral disturbances or scotomata 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Preeclampsia Cohort 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Inclusion Criteria 
                 Exclusion Criteria 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1. 
                 Women 18 years of age or older 
                 1. 
                 Known Malignancy 
               
               
                 2. 
                 Pregnant women with a viable singleton 
                 2. 
                 History of maternal organ or bone marrow 
               
               
                   
                 gestation 
                   
                 transp1ant 
               
               
                 3. 
                 Gestational age between 20 0/7 and 33 
                 3. 
                 Maternal blood transfusion in the last 8 
               
               
                   
                 6/7 weeks determined by ultrasound 
                   
                 weeks 
               
               
                   
                 and/or LMP per ACOG guidelines. 
                 4. 
                 Chronic Hypertension diagnosed prior to 
               
               
                 4. 
                 Preeclampsia diagnosed with severe 
                   
                 current pregnancy 
               
               
                   
                 features per ACOG guidelines 
                 5. 
                 Type I, II or gestational diabetes 
               
               
                   
                   
                 6. 
                 Fetal anomaly or known chromosome 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 abnonnality 
               
               
                   
                   
                 7. 
                 Active Labor 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Control Cohort 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Inclusion Criteria 
                 Exclusion Criteria 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1. 
                 Women 18 years of age or older 
                 1. 
                 Known Malignancy 
               
               
                 2. 
                 Pregnant women with a viable singleton 
                 2. 
                 History of maternal organ or bone marrow 
               
               
                   
                 gestation 
                   
                 transp1ant 
               
               
                 3. 
                 Gestational age between 20 0/7 and 33 
                 3. 
                 Maternal blood transfusion in the last 8 
               
               
                   
                 6/7 weeks determined by ultrasound 
                   
                 weeks 
               
               
                   
                 and/or LMP per ACOG guidelines. 
                 4. 
                 Chronic Hypertension diagnosed prior to 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 current pregnancy 
               
               
                   
                   
                 5. 
                 Type I, II or gestational diabetes 
               
               
                   
                   
                 6. 
                 Fetal anomaly or known chromosome 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 abnormality 
               
               
                   
                   
                 7. 
                 Active Labor 
               
               
                   
                   
                 8. 
                 Thrombocytopenia (&lt;100,000 plts/mL) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 9. 
                 Impaired liver function 
               
               
                   
                   
                 10. 
                 Newly developed renal insufficiency 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 (serum creatine &gt;1.1 mg/dL) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 11. 
                 Pulmonary edema 
               
               
                   
                   
                 12. 
                 New Onset cerebral disturbances or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 scotomata 
               
               
                   
                   
                 13. 
                 Preeclampsia in prior or current 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 pregnancy 
               
               
                   
                   
                 14. 
                 Fetal growth restriction 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Study characteristics for Illumina Preeclampsia Cohort 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Early Onset PE Cohort 
                 Control Cohort 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Sample Size 
                 n = 40 
                 n = 73 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Gestational Age at Sample 
                 30.5 
                 (+/−2.6) 
                 30.5 
                 (+/−2.6) 
               
               
                 Collection (weeks · days) 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Maternal Characteristics 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Ethnicity 
                 (% Hispanic) 
                 35% 
                 (n = 14) 
                 41.1% 
                 (n = 30) 
               
               
                 Race 
                 % Caucasian 
                 35% 
                 (n = 14) 
                 46.6% 
                 (n = 34) 
               
               
                   
                 % African 
                 27.5% 
                 (n = 11) 
                 17.8% 
                 (n = 13) 
               
               
                   
                 American 
               
               
                   
                 % Asian 
                 7.5% 
                 (n = 3) 
                 13.7% 
                 (n = 10) 
               
               
                   
                 % Unknown 
                 30% 
                 (n = 12) 
                 20.5% 
                 (n = 15) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 % Other 
                 0.0% 
                 1.4% 
                 (n = 1) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Maternal Age (years, mean +/− SD) 
                 30.4 
                 (+/−5.7) 
                 29.7 
                 (+/−5.3) 
               
               
                 Maternal BMI (kg/m2, mean +/− SD) 
                 34.2 
                 (+/−5.8) 
                 30.1 
                 (+/−5.6) 
               
               
                 Gravida (% Nulliparous) 
                 32.5% 
                 (n = 13) 
                 38.4% 
                 (n = 28) 
               
               
                 Chronic Hypertension 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
               
                 Type I, II Diabetes 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
               
                 Gestational Diabetes 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Birth Outcomes 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Gestational Age at Birth (weeks · days) 
                 31.5 
                 (+/−3.1) 
                 38.9 
                 (+/−1.8) 
               
               
                 Full Term 
                 2.5% 
                 (n = 1) 
                 90.4% 
                 (n = 66) 
               
               
                 Preterm (&lt;37 weeks) 
                 97.5% 
                 (n = 39) 
                 9.6% 
                 (n = 7) 
               
               
                 Sex (% male) 
                 37.5% 
                 (n = 15) 
                 42.5% 
                 (n = 31) 
               
               
                 Birth Weight (kg) 
                 1.4 
                 (+/−0.52) 
                 3.2 
                 (+/−0.55) 
               
               
                 Small for Gestational Age* 
                 45% 
                 (n = 18) 
                 9.6% 
                 (n = 7) 
               
               
                 Stillbirth 
                 2.5% 
                 (n = 1) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Medications for treatment of: 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 PE/Hypertension 
                 MgSO4 
                 82.5% 
                 (n = 33) 
                 4.1% 
                 (n = 3) 
               
               
                   
                 Antenatal Steroids 
                 95.0% 
                 (n = 38) 
                 6.8% 
                 (n = 5) 
               
               
                   
                 Anti-Hypertensive 
                 75.0% 
                 (n = 30) 
                 5.3% 
                 (n = 4) 
               
               
                   
                 Aspirin 
                 20.0% 
                 (n = 8) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
               
                 Other Conditions 
                 Analgesics 
                 60.0% 
                 (n = 24) 
                 11.8% 
                 (n = 9) 
               
               
                   
                 Antimicrobials 
                 12.5% 
                 (n = 5) 
                 5.5% 
                 (n = 4) 
               
               
                   
                 Antihistamines 
                 32.5% 
                 (n = 13) 
                 13.7% 
                 (n = 10) 
               
               
                   
                 Asthma 
                 10.0% 
                 (n = 4) 
                 2.7% 
                 (n = 2) 
               
               
                   
                 Psychoactive 
                 15.0% 
                 (n = 6) 
                 5.5% 
                 (n = 4) 
               
               
                   
                 Hypothyroidism 
                 7.5% 
                 (n = 3) 
                 2.7% 
                 (n = 2) 
               
               
                   
                 Antiemetics 
                 25.0% 
                 (n = 10) 
                 5.5% 
                 (n = 4) 
               
               
                 Pregnancy 
                 Antacids 
                 27.5% 
                 (n = 11) 
                 8.2% 
                 (n = 6) 
               
               
                 Symptoms 
                 Anti-constipation 
                 15.0% 
                 (n = 6) 
                 11.8% 
                 (n = 9) 
               
               
                   
                 Prenatal Vitamins 
                 17.5% 
                 (n = 7) 
                 31.5% 
                 (n = 23) 
               
               
                   
                 Iron Supplement 
                 10% 
                 (n = 4) 
                 12.3% 
                 (n = 9) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *Defined as birthweight &lt;10% of population for male or female fetus 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Medical Center Collection Site Patient Distribution 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Number 
                 Number 
               
               
                   
                   
                 PE 
                 of 
               
               
                 Clinical Site 
                 Location 
                 patients 
                 controls 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 University of Texas Medical 
                 Galveston, Texas 
                 4 
                 11 
               
               
                 Branch 
               
               
                 Tufts Medical Center 
                 Boston, MA 
                 10 
                 17 
               
               
                 Columbia University Irving 
                 New York, NY 
                 4 
                 9 
               
               
                 Medical Center 
               
               
                 Winthrop University Hospital 
                 Mineola, NY 
                 5 
                 9 
               
               
                 St. Peter&#39;s University Hospital 
                 New Brunswick, NJ 
                 3 
                 6 
               
               
                 Christiana Care 
                 Newark, DE 
                 7 
                 13 
               
               
                 Rutgers University Robert Wood 
                 New Brunswick, NJ 
                 5 
                 8 
               
               
                 Johnson Medical School 
               
               
                 New York Presbyterian/Queens 
                 New York, NY 
                 2 
                 3 
               
               
                   
                 Total Samples 
                 40 
                 76 
               
               
                   
                 collected 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 9 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Genes validated by TaqMan qPCR 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Gene Name 
                 Assay ID 
                 Type 
                 RefSeq 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ABHD12 
                 Hs01018050_m1 
                 Reference 
                 NM_001042472.2 
               
               
                 ABHD12 
                 Hs01018050_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_001042472.2 
               
               
                 ADAMTS2 
                 Hs01029111_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_014244.4 
               
               
                 ALOX15B 
                 Hs00153988_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_001039130.1 
               
               
                 ARHGEF25 
                 Hs00384780_g1 
                 Target 
                 NM_001111270.2 
               
               
                 ARRDC2 
                 Hs01006434_g1 
                 Target 
                 NM_001286826.1 
               
               
                 CLEC4C 
                 Hs01092460_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_130441.2 
               
               
                 DAAM2 
                 Hs00322497_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_001201427.1 
               
               
                 FAM107A 
                 Hs00200376_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_001076778.2 
               
               
                 HSPA12B 
                 Hs00369554_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_001197327.1 
               
               
                 HTRA4 
                 Hs00538137_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_153692.3 
               
               
                 IGFBP5 
                 Hs00181213_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_000599.3 
               
               
                 KRBOX4 
                 Hs01063506_gH 
                 Reference 
                 NM_001129898.1 
               
               
                 KRT5 
                 Hs00361185_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_000424.3 
               
               
                 LEP 
                 Hs00174877_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_000230.2 
               
               
                 NES 
                 Hs00707120_s1 
                 Target 
                 NM_006617.1 
               
               
                 NME3 
                 Hs01573872_g1 
                 Reference 
                 NM_002513.2 
               
               
                 PAPPA2 
                 Hs01060983_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_020318.2 
               
               
                 PITPNM3 
                 Hs01107787_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_001165966.1 
               
               
                 PLD4 
                 Hs00975488_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_001308174.1 
               
               
                 PRG2 
                 Hs00794928_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_001243245.2 
               
               
                 TIMP3 
                 Hs00165949_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_000362.4 
               
               
                 TIMP4 
                 Hs00162784_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_003256.3 
               
               
                 VSIG4 
                 Hs00907325_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_001184830.1 
               
               
                 WNT7A 
                 Hs00171699_m1 
                 Reference 
                 NM_004625.3 
               
               
                 ZEB1 
                 Hs01566408_m1 
                 Target 
                 NM_001128128.2 
               
               
                 ZNF138 
                 Hs00864088_gH 
                 Reference 
                 NM_001271638.1 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 10 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Previous 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Gene 
                   
                 Literature 
                 Change 
                   
                 Sub-Cellular 
               
               
                 Symbol 
                 Analysis 
                 Reports 
                 in PE 
                 Tissue Expression Category 
                 Location 
                 Function(s) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 ARRDC2 
                 AdaBoost 
                 No 
                 Increase* 
                 Other (Skeletal Muscle; 
                 Membrane 
                 Protein Trafficking 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Globus Pallidus; Lung) 
               
               
                 ALOX15B 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Fetal 
                 Nucleus; Cytoskeleton; 
                 Cell Cycle; Immune Function; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Cytosol; Membrane 
                 Cardiovascular Function 
               
               
                 AMPH 
                 DEX 
                 No 
                 Increase 
                 Fetal 
                 Cytoskeleton; 
                 Synaptic Vesicle Endocytosis 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Membrane 
               
               
                 CUX2 
                 DEX 
                 No 
                 Decrease 
                 Fetal 
                 Nucleus 
                 Cell Cycle; Fetal Development; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DNA Damage Response 
               
               
                 FAM107A 
                 DEX 
                 No 
                 Increase 
                 Fetal 
                 Cytoskeleton; 
                 Cell Migration/Invasion; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Membrane; Nucleus 
                 Cell Cycle; ECM Regulation 
               
               
                 IGFBP5 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Fetal 
                 Extracellular 
                 Fetal Development; IGF Signaling 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 or Secreted 
               
               
                 NES 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Fetal 
                 Cytoskeleton 
                 Fetal Development; Cell Cycle 
               
               
                 PITPNM3 
                 DEX 
                 No 
                 Increase 
                 Fetal 
                 Membrane 
                 Phosphatidylinositol Regulation 
               
               
                 PRX 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Fetal 
                 Membrane 
                 Cell Structure/Composition 
               
               
                 TEAD4 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Fetal 
                 Nucleus 
                 Placental Development 
               
               
                 PNMT 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Other (Adrenal Gland 
                 Cytosol 
                 Epinephrine Synthesis; Cardiovascular 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Cortex; Adrenal Gland; 
                   
                 Function; Pregnancy Duration 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Skeletal Muscle Psoas) 
               
               
                 DAAM2 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Other (Corpus Callosum; 
                 Extracellular 
                 Fetal Development 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Globus Pallidum External; 
                 or Secreted 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Nodose Nucleus) 
               
               
                 SLC9A3R2 
                 DEX 
                 No 
                 Increase 
                 Other (Heart Ventricle; 
                 Membrane; Nucleus 
                 ECM Regulation; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Liver; Parotid Gland) 
                   
                 Cell Structure/Composition 
               
               
                 HSPA12B 
                 DEX 
                 No 
                 Increase 
                 Other (Heart Ventricle; 
                 unknown 
                 Angiogenesis; Cardiovascular Function; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Lung; Spleen) 
                   
                 Cell Migration/Invasion; Hypoxia Response 
               
               
                 PLD4 
                 DEX 
                 No 
                 Decrease 
                 Other (Nodose Nucleus; 
                 Membrane 
                 Phosphatidylinositol 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Subthalamic Nucleus; 
                   
                 Regulation; Immune Function 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Corpus Callosum) 
               
               
                 TIMP4 
                 DEX 
                 No 
                 Increase 
                 Other (Omental Adipose 
                 Extracellular 
                 ECM Regulation; Immune Function 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Tissue; Subcutaneous 
                 or Secreted 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Adipose Tissue; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Joint Synovium) 
               
               
                 KRT5 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Decrease 
                 Other (Oral Mucosa; 
                 Cytoskeleton 
                 Cell Structure/Composition 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Pharyngeal Mucosa; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Esophagus) 
               
               
                 ZEB1 
                 DEX 
                 No 
                 Increase 
                 Other (Synovial Membrane; 
                 Nucleus 
                 Immune Function; Cell Migration/Invasion; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Aorta; Myometrium) 
                   
                 Fetal Development; Pregnancy Duration 
               
               
                 APOLD1 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Placental 
                 Plasma Membrane 
                 Angiogenesis; Cardiovascular Function; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Hypoxia Response; Fetal Development 
               
               
                 HTRA4 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Placental 
                 Extracellular 
                 IGF Signaling; Placental Development 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 or Secreted 
               
               
                 SEMA3G 
                 DEX 
                 No 
                 Increase 
                 Placental 
                 Extracellular 
                 Cell Migration/Invasion 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 or Secreted 
               
               
                 ADAMTS1 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Placental/Fetal 
                 Extracellular 
                 ECM Regulation; Fetal Development; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 or Secreted 
                 Angiogenesis 
               
               
                 CRH 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Placental/Fetal 
                 Extracellular 
                 Pregnancy Duration; Fetal Development; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 or Secreted 
                 Cardiovascular Function 
               
               
                 PRG2 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Placental/Fetal 
                 Extracellular 
                 Immune Function; ECM Regulation; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 or Secreted 
                 IGF Signaling 
               
               
                 TIMP3 
                 DEX 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Placental/Fetal 
                 Extracellular 
                 ECM Regulation; Immune Function; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 or Secreted 
                 Angiogenesis 
               
               
                 ARHGEF25 
                 DEX &amp; 
                 No 
                 Increase 
                 Other (Hippocampus; 
                 Membrane; Sarcomere 
               
               
                   
                 AdaBoost 
                   
                   
                 Myometrium; Cerebellum) 
               
               
                 CLEC4C 
                 DEX &amp; 
                 Yes 
                 Decrease 
                 Other (Rectum Colon; 
                 Membrane 
                 Immune Function 
               
               
                   
                 AdaBoost 
                   
                   
                 Ascending Colon; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Substantia Nigra Reticulata) 
               
               
                 LEP 
                 DEX &amp; 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Placental 
                 Extracellular 
                 Energy Homeostasis; Immune Function; 
               
               
                   
                 AdaBoost 
                   
                   
                   
                 or Secreted 
                 Angiogenesis; Fetal Development; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ECM Regulation 
               
               
                 PAPPA2 
                 DEX &amp; 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Placental 
                 Extracellular 
                 Fetal Development; IGF Signaling 
               
               
                   
                 AdaBoost 
                   
                   
                   
                 or Secreted 
               
               
                 VSIG4 
                 DEX &amp; 
                 Yes 
                 Increase 
                 Placental 
                 Membrane 
                 Immune Function 
               
               
                   
                 AdaBoost 
               
               
                 ADAMTS2 
                 DEX &amp; 
                 No 
                 Increase 
                 Placental/Fetal 
                 Extracellular 
                 ECM Regulation; Angiogenesis; 
               
               
                   
                 AdaBoost 
                   
                   
                   
                 or Secreted 
                 Fetal Development 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Key 
               
               
                 Increase* indicates the change was not statistically different 
               
               
                 CorrelationEngine Body Atlas was used to find the 3 top tissues expressing genes in the “Other” category 
               
               
                 UniProt was used to determine sub-cellular localization . . . as a note; I merged all “membrane” classifications to one category (so Plasma Membrane; ER Membrane; etc are not distinct) 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 11 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Study characteristics for Illumina Preeclampsia Cohort 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Early Onset 
                 Early Onset 
                 Late Onset 
                 Late Onset 
               
               
                   
                 PE 
                 Control 
                 PE 
                 Control 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Sample Size 
                 n = 12 
                 n = 12 
                 n = 12 
                 n = 12 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Gestational Age at Sample 
                 29.2 
                 (+/−2.3) 
                 29.3 
                 (+/−2.3) 
                 35.6 
                 (+/−1.3) 
                 35.9 
                 (+/−0.8) 
               
               
                 Collection (weeks · days) 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Maternal Characteristics 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Ethnicity 
                 (% Hispanic) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
               
                 Race 
                 % Caucasian 
                 91.7% 
                 (n = 11) 
                 100% 
                 (n = 12) 
                 100% 
                 (n = 12) 
                 100% 
                 (n = 12) 
               
               
                   
                 % African 
                 8.3% 
                 (n = 1) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Maternal Age (years, mean +/− SD) 
                 29.3 
                 (+/−3.5) 
                 30.1 
                 (+/−3.8) 
                 30.2 
                 (+/−4.8) 
                 29.4 
                 (+/−3.2) 
               
               
                 Maternal BMI (kg/m2, mean +/− SD) 
                 33.6 
                 (+/−9.0) 
                 28.5 
                 (+/−7.0) 
                 32.2 
                 (+/−4.9) 
                 27.9 
                 (+/−4.5) 
               
               
                 Gravida (% Nulliparous) 
                 60% 
                 (n = 6) 
                 58.3% 
                 (n = 7) 
                 75% 
                 (n = 9) 
                 75% 
                 (n = 9) 
               
               
                 Chronic Hypertension 
                 13.3% 
                 (n = 2) 
                 8.3% 
                 (n = 1) 
                 8.3% 
                 (n = 1) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
               
                 Type I, II Diabetes 
                 13.3% 
                 (n = 2) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 25.0% 
                 (n = 3) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
               
                 Gestational Diabetes 
                 13.3% 
                 (n = 2) 
                 33.3% 
                 (n = 4) 
                 8.3% 
                 (n = 1) 
                 16.7% 
                 (n = 2) 
               
               
                 Other Health Condition 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 8.3% 
                 (n = 1) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Birth Outcomes 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Gestational Age at Birth (weeks · days) 
                 30.3 
                 (+/−3.4) 
                 39.0 
                 (+/−1.5) 
                 37.0 
                 (+/−1.4) 
                 39.7 
                 (+/−1.6) 
               
               
                 Full Term 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 91.7% 
                 (n = 11) 
                 75.0% 
                 (n = 9) 
                 91.7% 
                 (n = 11) 
               
               
                 Preterm (&lt;37 weeks) 
                 100% 
                 (n = 12) 
                 8.3% 
                 (n = 1) 
                 25.0% 
                 (n = 3) 
                 8.3% 
                 (n = 1) 
               
               
                 Sex (% male) 
                 75% 
                 (n = 9) 
                 58.3% 
                 (n = 7) 
                 66.7% 
                 (n = 8) 
                 58.3% 
                 (n = 7) 
               
               
                 Birth Weight (kg) 
                 1.3 
                 (+/−0.54) 
                 3.2 
                 (+/−0.40) 
                 2.7 
                 (+/−0.55) 
                 3.4 
                 (+/−0.54) 
               
               
                 Fetal Growth Restriction 
                 50.0% 
                 (n = 6) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 8.3% 
                 (n = 1) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
               
                 Small for Gestational Age* 
                 25% 
                 (n = 3) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 33.3% 
                 (n = 4) 
                 25% 
                 (n = 3) 
               
               
                 Stillbirth 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
               
                 HELLP 
                 25.0% 
                 (n = 3) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Medications for treatment of: 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 PE/Hypertension 
                 MgSO4 
                 83.3% 
                 (n = 10) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 33.3% 
                 (n = 4) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
               
                   
                 Antenatal Steroids 
                 100% 
                 (n = 12) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
                 25.0% 
                 (n = 3) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
               
                   
                 Anti-Hypertensive 
                 100% 
                 (n = 12) 
                 8.3% 
                 (n = 1) 
                 75% 
                 (n = 9) 
                 0% 
                 (n = 0) 
               
               
                   
                 Aspirin 
                 8.3% 
                 (n = 1) 
                 25.0% 
                 (n = 3) 
                 25.0% 
                 (n = 3) 
                 8.3% 
                 (n = 1) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *Defined as birthweight &lt;10% of population for male or female fetus 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 7 
     Circulating Transcriptome Measurements from Maternal Blood Detect A Molecular Signature of Early-Onset Preeclampsia 
     Circulating RNA (C-RNA) is continually released into the bloodstream from tissues throughout the body, offering an opportunity to non-invasively monitor all aspects of pregnancy health from conception to birth. This example determines that C-RNA analysis can detect aberrations in patients diagnosed with preeclampsia (PE), a prevalent and potentially fatal pregnancy complication. As an initial examination, the circulating transcriptome from 40 pregnancies was sequenced at the time of severe, early-onset PE diagnosis along, with 73 gestational age-matched controls. 30 transcripts consistent with the biology of PE were altered, and likely represent placental, fetal, and maternal contributions to the disease. Further, machine learning identified a combination of C-RNA transcripts which robustly classified PE patients in two independent cohorts (85%-89% accuracy). The ability of C-RNA to reflect maternal, placental and fetal health holds great promise for improving the diagnosis and identification of at-risk pregnancies. In summary, the circulating transcriptome reflects biologically relevant changes in patients with early-onset severe preeclampsia and can be used to accurately classify patient status. 
     Preeclampsia (PE) is one of the most common and serious complications of pregnancy, affecting an estimated 4-5% of pregnancies worldwide (Abalos et al., 2013 , Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol;  170:1-7; and Ananth et al., 2013 , BMJ;  347:f6564) and is associated with substantial maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality (Kuklina et al., 2009 , Obstet Gynecol;  113:1299; and Basso et al., 2006 , JAMA;  296:1357-1362). In the United States, the incidence of PE is increasing due to advanced maternal age and the increasing prevalence of comorbid conditions such as obesity (Spradley et al., 2015 , Biomolecules;  5:3142-3176), costing the US healthcare system an estimated 2 billion dollars annually (Stevens et al., 2017 , Am J Obstet Gynecol;  217:237-248.e16). 
     PE is diagnosed as new-onset hypertension accompanied by maternal end-organ damage occurring after 20 weeks&#39; gestation (Hypertension in Pregnancy: Executive Summary, 2013 , Obstet Gynecol;  122:1122; and Tranquilli et al., 2014 , Pregnancy Hypertens;  4(2): 97-104). However, there is significant heterogeneity in the presentation and progression of PE, including timing of disease onset, symptom severity, clinical manifestations, and maternal and neonatal outcomes (Lisonkova and Joseph, 2013 , Am J Obstet Gynecol;  209:544.el-544.e12). PE is primarily delineated based on whether it manifests before (early-onset) or after (late-onset) 34 weeks and if it presents with severe features, such as sustained elevation in blood pressure ≥160/110 mmHg, neurological symptoms, and/or severe liver or kidney injury (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Task Force on Hypertension in Pregnancy, 2013 , Obstet Gynecol;  122:1122-1131). 
     The pathophysiology of early-onset PE is incompletely understood, but is thought to occur in two phases (Phipps et al., 2019 , Nature Reviews Nephrology;  15:275). Early-onset PE originates with abnormal implantation and placentation in the first trimester, related to maternal immune dysfunction (Hiby et al., 2010 , J Clin Invest;  120:4102-4110; Rätsep et al., 2015 , Reproduction;  149:R91-R102; and Girardi, 2018 , Semin Immunopathol;  40:103-111), incomplete cytotrophoblast differentiation (Zhou et al., 1997 , J Clin Invest;  99:2152-2164), and/or oxidative stress at the maternal-placental interface (Burton and Jauniaux, 2011 , Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol;  25:287-299), resulting in incomplete remodeling of the maternal spiral arteries and failure to establish the definitive uteroplacental circulation (Lyall et al., 2013 , Hypertension;  62:1046-1054). This leads to inadequate placental perfusion after 20 weeks&#39; gestation. The resultant placental dysregulation triggers phase two, which manifests predominantly as maternal systemic vascular dysfunction with negative consequences for the fetus, including fetal growth restriction and iatrogenic preterm birth (Hecht et al., 2017 , Hypertens Pregnancy;  36:259-268; Young et al., 2010 , Annu Rev Pathol;  5:173-192; and Backes et al., 2011 , J Pregnancy;  2011:doi:10.1155/2011/214365. In contrast, the placental dysfunction in late-onset PE is thought to be due not to abnormal placentation, but to disturbance in placental perfusion resulting from maternal vascular disease, such as that seen in patients with chronic hypertension, pregestational diabetes (Vambergue and Fajardy, 2011 , World J Diabetes;  2:196-203), and collagen vascular disorders (“Placental pathology in maternal autoimmune diseases-new insights and clinical implications,” 2017 , International Journal of Reproduction, Contraception, Obstetrics and Gynecology;  6:4090-4097). 
     The heterogeneity and complexity of this disease have made it difficult to diagnose, to predict risk, and to develop treatments. Further, the inability to easily interrogate the primary affected organ, the placenta, has limited molecular characterization of disease progression. Circulating RNA (C-RNA) has shown great promise for non-invasive monitoring of maternal, placental and fetal dynamics during pregnancy (Tsui et al., 2014 , Clin Chem;  60:954-962; and Koh et al., 2014 , Proc Natl Acad Sci USA;  111:7361-7366). C-RNA is released by many tissues into the bloodstream via multiple cellular processes of apoptosis, microvesicle shedding, and exosomal signaling (van Niel et al., 2018 , Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol;  19:213-228). Due to these diverse origins, C-RNA measurements reflect tissue-specific changes in gene expression, intercellular signaling, as well as the degree of cell death occurring within different tissues throughout the body. Thus, C-RNA has the potential to elucidate the molecular underpinnings of PE and ultimately identify predictive, prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers of the disease (Hahn et al., 2011 , Placenta;  32:S17-20). 
     Several studies have begun to investigate and identify potential C-RNA-based biomarkers for a range of pregnancy complications, including preterm birth, PE, and infectious disease (Pan et al., 2017 , Clin Chem;  63:1695-1704; Ngo et al., 2019 , Science;  360:1133-1136; and Whitehead et al., 2016 , Prenat Diagn;  36:997-1008). However, the significant interindividual variability in this sample type threatens to obscure subtle changes in disease specific biomarkers (Meder et al. 2014 , Clin Chem;  60:1200-1208). Therefore, many PE-focused C-RNA studies have measured RNA of previously identified serum protein biomarkers, including soluble FLT1, soluble endoglin, and oxidative stress and angiogenic markers (Nakamura et al., 2009 , Prenat Diagn;  29:691-696; Purwosunu et al., 2009 , Reprod Sci;  16:857-864; and Paiva et al., 2011 , J Clin Endocrinol Metab;  96:E1807-1815). While protein measurements of these serum markers are known to be altered in PE (Maynard et al., 2003 , J Clin Invest;  111:649-658; Venkatesha et al., 2006 , Nat Med;  12:642-649; and Rana et al., 2018 , Pregnancy Hypertens;  13:100-106), it is unknown whether they will serve as the most effective predictors in C-RNA, thus warranting a broader discovery approach. 
     In this example, global measurements of the circulating transcriptome detect unique molecular signatures specific to early-onset severe PE. To facilitate discovery, the performance of whole transcriptome enrichment for high throughput sequencing was optimized, allowing for measurement of &gt;14,000 C-RNA transcripts per sample with high confidence. C-RNA profiles were then globally characterized from a preliminary cohort of 113 pregnancies, 40 of which were diagnosed with early-onset severe PE. All analysis methods were tailored to address the high biological variance inherent to C-RNA and identified altered transcripts concordant with PE biology that can classify across cohorts with high accuracy, highlighting that this sample type offers an avenue to developing robust tests for assessing preeclampsia. 
     Results 
     Establishing a Reproducible Whole-Transcriptome Workflow for C-RNA. 
     C-RNA is present in plasma in relatively low abundance, dominated by ribosomal (rRNA) and globin RNA, and is a mixture of fragmented and full-length transcripts (Crescitelli et al., 2013 , J Extracell Vesicles;  2:doi:10.3402/jev.v2i0.20677), all of which can affect the efficiency of library preparation methods for next generation sequencing. Thus, workflow was optimized to minimize variability and maximize exonic C-RNA signal ( FIG.  37 A ). 
     Highly abundant globin and rRNA does not inform biomarker discovery and must be removed. However, standard depletion methods such as Ribo-Zero (Illumina, Inc) or NEBNext rRNA Depletion (New England Biolabs) are not well suited for low starting amounts of RNA (Adiconis et al., 2013 , Nat Methods;  10:623-629). While upfront depletion with these methods successfully removed unwanted ribosomal sequences from C-RNA ( FIG.  37 B , gray), sequencing libraries did not consistently exhibit an increase in exonic C-RNA signal ( FIG.  37 B , orange). Instead, samples varied in the proportion of reads mapping to a complex and variable population of non-human RNA sequences such as GB Virus C ( FIG.  37 B , pink) (Manso et al., 2017 , Sci Rep;  7:doi:10.1038/s41598-017-02239-5; and Whittle et al., 2019 , Front Microbiol;  9:doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.03266). Additionally, removal of highly abundant rRNA and globin RNA results in extremely low RNA inputs which increases the failure rate of ligation-based library preparation methods. To avoid these problems, a whole-transcriptome enrichment approach was selected which generates a library from all C-RNA followed by probe-assisted enrichment targeting the whole human exome ( FIG.  37 A ). This method consistently generated high quality sequencing libraries that were composed of &gt;90% exonic C-RNA with minimal contaminating signal from transcripts of limited interest ( FIG.  37 B , orange). 
     There is significant interindividual variability in C-RNA plasma concentrations ( FIG.  38 A ), which can vary by an order of magnitude (average 1.1 ng/mL plasma; SD 0.7; range &lt;0.1-5 ng/mL plasma). To ensure reproducible results, the effects of plasma volume input on C-RNA data quality was evaluated. Using less than 2 mL plasma significantly increased the biological coefficient of variation and decreased library complexity ( FIGS.  38 B and  38 C ), leading to a decrease in sensitivity. Therefore, a 4 mL plasma input was selected to minimize noise, maximize confidence in data quality and to ensure successful data generation from all individuals regardless of C-RNA plasma concentrations. 
     To achieve consistent handling of all samples across diverse collection sites, all processing was centralized and required shipping of the collected blood samples to a single lab. This necessitated an assessment of the impact of overnight shipping on C-RNA data quality. Blood from nonpregnant and pregnant women (gestational age, GA, &gt;28 weeks) was collected in four blood collection tubes (BCTs) and stored overnight at the manufacturer-indicated temperature prior to processing: BD Vacutainer K 2 EDTA (Beckton Dickinson; 4° C.), BD Vacutainer ACD-A (Beckton Dickinson, 4° C.), Cell-Free DNA BCT (Streck, Inc., RT), Cell-Free RNA BCT (Streck, Inc., RT). A set of samples collected in EDTA BCTs was processed at the clinic within 2 hours to provide a baseline. The C-RNA pregnancy signal in each sample was measured by summing the normalized abundance level of 155 transcripts identified as pregnancy markers in two prior C-RNA publications (Tsui et al., 2014 , Clin Chem;  60:954-962; and Koh et al., 2014 , Proc Natl Acad Sci USA;  111:7361-7366). After overnight storage, the C-RNA pregnancy signal was clearly detectable in pregnant samples despite a reduction in overall signal intensity as compared to immediate processing of the EDTA samples ( FIGS.  39 A and  39 B ). No major differences were observed between the different BCTs after overnight storage, indicating all are appropriate for C-RNA analysis. Cell-Free DNA BCTs (Streck, Inc) were selected for subsequent sample collections as this enables room temperature shipping. Furthermore, correlation of transcriptomic profiles in a time course experiment confirmed that there is no increase in technical variance after room temperature storage up to five days in these BCTs ( FIG.  39 C ). 
     The complete workflow was validated by recapitulating previous work monitoring C-RNA dynamics in healthy pregnancies from first to third trimester. Using 152 samples collected serially from 41 healthy pregnancies (Pre-Eclampsia and Growth Restriction Longitudinal Study Control Cohort—PEARL CC; NCT02379832; Table 13), 156 significantly altered transcripts were identified, with the majority increasing in abundance as pregnancy progresses ( FIG.  32 A ; Table 14). 51% of identified transcripts changed primarily during the first trimester, 6% in the 3 rd  trimester, and 43% were differentially regulated throughout gestation ( FIG.  40   ; Table 14). First trimester genes were enriched for placental steroidogenesis and regulation of trophoblast differentiation, while third trimester genes were involved in the onset of labor. Transcripts that increase throughout gestation are associated with tissue and organ development and morphogenesis (Chatuphonprasert et al., 2018 , Front Pharmacol;  9:doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.01027; Debieve et al., 2011 , Mol Hum Reprod;  17:702-9; Grammatopoulos and Hillhouse, 1999 , Lancet;  354:1546-1549; and Marshall e al., 2017 , Reprod Sci;  24:342-354). The results from the PEARL CC were highly concordant with the literature, as 42% of the altered genes were identified in prior C-RNA studies ( FIG.  32 B ) (Tsui et al., 2014 , Clin Chem;  60:954-962; and Koh et al., 2014 , Proc Natl Acad Sci USA;  111:7361-7366). Of the 91 transcripts identified only in this study, 64% are expressed by placental and/or fetal tissues (tissue specificity defined as &gt;2 fold higher than median of all tissues in Body Atlas) ( FIG.  32 C  and  FIG.  17   )(Kupershmidt et al., 2010 , PLOS ONE;  5:e13066). The remaining genes are hypothesized to reflect maternal tissue responses to pregnancy (Table 14). 
     Clinical Study Design for Early-Onset Severe PE 
     After confirming this workflow robustly detects pregnancy-related C-RNA dynamics, changes in C-RNA associated with pregnancy complications were then identified. The workflow was applied to samples collected from two independent PE cohorts, the Illumina Preeclampsia Cohort (iPEC; NCT02808494) and the PEARL Preeclampsia Cohort (PEARL PEC; NCT02379832). The iPEC was used for biomarker identification while the PEARL PEC was used for independent confirmation of our findings. Importantly, all samples in both cohorts were collected in Streck Cell-Free DNA BCTs and libraries were generated in the same manner as discussed in the previous section. 
     The iPEC study focused on early-onset PE with severe features and excluded women diagnosed with additional health complications such as chronic hypertension or diabetes, to prevent additional heterogeneity from obscuring a consistent PE-associated C-RNA signal (Table 15). 113 samples were collected across 8 sites (Table 17), 40 at the time of early-onset PE diagnosis, and 73 controls that were gestational age-matched to within 1 week ( FIG.  33 A ). Maternal characteristics, pregnancy outcomes, and medications were recorded throughout the study (Table 12 and Table 16). Fetal gender, maternal age, and nulliparity were not significantly different between the PE and control groups. In contrast, BMI was significantly higher in the PE cohort, (p value=0.0007) (O&#39;Brien et al., 2003, Epidemiology; 14:368-374). All but one patient with PE gave birth prematurely, in contrast to 9.5% of controls, confirming that our diagnostic criteria identified individuals severely impacted by this disease ( FIG.  33 C ). 
     The PEARL PEC samples were collected by an independent institution (CHU de Québec-Université Laval) and consisted of 12 early- and 12 late-onset PE pregnancies with equal numbers of gestational age-matched controls ( FIG.  33 B ). Maternal characteristics, pregnancy outcomes, and medications in use were recorded throughout the study (Table 18). As in iPEC, 100% of early-onset patients delivered prematurely while 75% delivered at term in the late-onset cohort, confirming the differences in severity associated with early- and late-onset PE. Chronic hypertension, diabetes and other maternal health conditions were not grounds for exclusion, making this cohort more representative of the heterogeneity inherent to the pregnant population. 
     Identification of Transcripts Consistently Altered in Early-Onset PE 
     Standard differential expression analysis (Robinson et al., 2010 , Bioinformatics;  26:139-140) using the full iPEC cohort identified 42 transcripts with altered abundance in plasma, 37 of which were increased in PE ( FIG.  34 A , blue and orange). However, variability in the differentially abundant transcripts was observed when different subsets of samples were selected for analysis. A jackknifing approach (Library, 1958 , Ann Math Statist;  29:614-623) was therefore incorporated, enabling the identification of transcript abundances that are most consistently altered when comparing PE to control samples ( FIGS.  34 A and  34 B , orange). One thousand iterations of differential analysis with randomly selected PE and control sample subsets were performed, resulting in the construction of confidence intervals for the p-values associated with each putatively altered transcript ( FIG.  34 C ). Twelve transcripts whose p-value confidence interval exceeded 0.05 were subsequently excluded ( FIG.  34 B ). These transcripts would not have been excluded by simply setting a threshold for baseline abundance or biological variance ( FIG.  34 D ), however these transcripts were observed to have lower predictive value ( FIG.  34 E ). Hierarchical clustering indicates these transcripts are not universally altered in the PE cohort, and thus lack sensitivity (73%) for accurate classification of this condition ( FIG.  34 F ). 
     A representative set of 20 transcripts altered in PE were independently quantified by qPCR in a subset of affected and control iPEC patient samples. Fold changes measured by qPCR were highly concordant with the sequencing data, validating our findings ( FIG.  35 A  and Table 19). 58% of the transcripts in the refined list have previously been associated with PE (Table 20). Additionally, nearly all genes can be linked to PE relevant processes, including extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, pregnancy duration, placental/fetal development, angiogenesis, and hypoxia response (Table 20). 67% of these genes were expressed by the placenta and/or fetus ( FIG.  35 B ). In the remaining maternally expressed genes, cardiovascular and immune functions were well represented, both of which are altered in PE (Table 20) (Phipps et al., 2019 , Nature Reviews Nephrology;  15:275). 
     Hierarchical clustering of these transcripts effectively segregated PE and control samples from iPEC with 98% sensitivity and 97% specificity ( FIG.  35 C ). The refined list of 30 transcripts was validated with the independent PEARL PEC. Early-onset PE samples clustered separately from matched controls with 83% sensitivity and 92% specificity, further validating the relevance of these transcripts ( FIG.  35 D ). In contrast, no clustering was observed for the late-onset PE and matched control samples indicating that late-onset PE has a potentially weaker or more likely a different C-RNA signature ( FIG.  35 E ) (Redman, 2017 , An International Journal of Women&#39;s Cardiovascular Health;  7:58; and Hahn et al., 2015 , Expert Rev Mol Diagn;  15:617-629). 
     Upon closer inspection of the clinical data for the three misclustered iPEC samples, it was discovered that two controls suffered from potentially confounding health problems, including hypertension and in one case accompanied by preterm delivery. These controls should not have been enrolled in the iPEC due to our stringent exclusion criteria, thus they were excluded from further analyses. The misclustered PE sample showed no clinical abnormalities and was retained in our iPEC dataset. 
     Development of a Robust Machine Learning Classifier for Early-Onset PE 
     Differential expression analysis confirmed that C-RNA detects biologically relevant changes in PE patients. To assess if C-RNA signatures can robustly classify PE, the data from the iPEC cohort were used to build an AdaBoost model (Freund and Schapire, 1997 , J Comp Sys Sci;  55:119-139; McPherson et al., 2011 , PLoS Comput Biol;  7:doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1001138; and Lu et al., 2015 , PLOS ONE;  10:e0130622). A randomly selected 10% of samples were excluded as a holdout set from the entire machine learning process to assess the final model performance. Then, a nested cross-validation approach was used for hyperparameter optimization ( FIG.  42   ) and AdaBoost model building ( FIG.  43   ) (Cawley and Talbot, 2010 , J Machine Learning Res;  11:2079-2107). 
     While developing the machine learning approach, a high degree of variability was observed in AdaBoost performance and in the genes selected depending on which samples were included in training ( FIG.  44   ). These observations indicate that different subsets of samples significantly impact model construction (Assessing and improving the stability of chemometric models in small sample size situations | SpringerLink (available on the world wide web at link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00216-007-1818-6)) which is likely due in part to the heterogeneity of PE. To account for this diversity, AdaBoost models were fit to multiple combinations of the training samples. The estimators from these orthogonally generated models were then combined into a single aggregate and pruned to obtain a minimal gene set ( FIG.  43   ) (Martínez-Muñoz and Suárez, 2007 , Pattern Recognition Letters;  28:156-165; and AveBoost2: Boosting for Noisy Data | SpringerLink ((available on the world wide web at link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-25966-4_3))). This allowed the capture of wide diversity of PE manifestations in a refined machine learning model with the potential to accurately classify independent samples from a broad pregnancy population. 
     Within each fold of the cross-validation, a threshold AdaBoost score was identified for discriminating PE and control samples which maximized both sensitivity and specificity. Across all ten folds, we obtained an average ROC of 0.964 (+/−0.068 SD) ( FIG.  36 A ). Performance was first assessed in the holdout iPEC samples obtaining 89% (+/−5% SD) accuracy, with 88% (+/−13% SD) sensitivity and 92% (+/−6% SD) specificity ( FIG.  36 B , blue). AdaBoost classification performance was not affected by the amount of time prior to plasma processing, further supporting the robustness of our sample preparation protocol and analyses ( FIGS.  40 D and  40 E ). The model&#39;s capabilities to classify the independent PEARL PEC cohort were subsequently investigated. Early-onset PEARL PEC samples achieved 85% (+/−4% SD) accuracy, with 77% (+/−9% SD) sensitivity and 92% (+/−7% SD) specificity ( FIG.  36 B , pink). Unexpectedly, late-onset PEARL PEC samples were also classified with a reasonable accuracy of 72% (+/−6% SD), sensitivity of 59% (+/−10% SD) and specificity of 80% (+/−10% SD) ( FIG.  36 B , green). 
     49 total transcripts were used by AdaBoost, with 63% selected in at least 2 rounds of model building ( FIG.  36 C ). Concordance was observed with prior analyses, as 40% of the genes identified in the jackknifing analysis were also used in machine learning ( FIG.  36 D , Table 21). 38% of the transcripts used by the classifiers have elevated expression in the placenta and/or fetus ( FIG.  36 E ). Transcripts reflecting a diversity of PE-relevant pathways were observed, particularly genes associated with immune regulation and fetal development (Table 21). 
     DISCUSSION 
     Whole transcriptome C-RNA analysis casts the wide net necessary for effective biomarker discovery, capturing a molecular snapshot of the diverse and complex interactions of pregnancy at a single point in time. Workflow and analyses were tailored to minimize technical noise, obtain high quality C-RNA measurements, and ultimately detect biologically relevant alterations. Importantly, molecular changes were detected specific to the complex pathophysiology of early-onset severe PE at the time of diagnosis, supporting robust classification across cohorts. The altered C-RNA transcripts identified represent contributions from maternal, placental and fetal tissues, many of which would not be captured in studies focusing on placental tissues collected after delivery. These discoveries highlight the power of C-RNA to comprehensively monitor signals contributed by diverse tissues of origin while the pregnancy is ongoing. 
     To identify the best method capable of detecting global and potentially subtle changes in pregnancy, the effects of plasma input, library preparation methods, and BCTs on C-RNA data quality were determined. As the majority of transcripts appear to be present in plasma at low abundance, the use 4 mL plasma inputs was chosen in protocols to minimize noise due to sampling error and poor library conversion, both of which plague low input sequencing applications. Upfront depletion of abundant RNA did not eliminate all contaminating RNA species, which were numerous and diverse in our sample population. This made targeted depletion infeasible, thus we selected a whole transcriptome enrichment approach to consistently isolate the exonic C-RNA signal of interest. Overnight shipping was a logistical requirement of the protocol, but runs the risk of introducing both signal loss due to C-RNA degradation as well as contamination with additional RNA from cell lysis. Streck Cell Free DNA BCTs, which inhibit cell lysis at room temperature (Zhao et al., 2019 , J Clin Lab Anal;  33:e22670), were selected. This BCT is not specifically designed for RNA stabilization, but little evidence of C-RNA degradation was observed after storage for several days. Previous studies have shown that C-RNA has sufficient endogenous protection from extracellular nucleases (Tsui et al., 2002 , Clin Chem;  48:1647-1653) thus additional precautions to protect the RNA are unnecessary. Together, these optimizations identified a workflow that maximizes C-RNA transcriptomic signal and minimizes technical variability, as illustrated by the numerous biologically relevant alterations observed across healthy and PE pregnancies. 
     Analyses next focused our analyses on identifying differences in circulating transcriptomes that are ubiquitous to the most extreme phenotype of the disorder, namely early-onset PE with severe features. This required tailoring our approach to account for the variability observed in our data that stems from both the substantial biological noise in C-RNA measurements as well as the phenotypic diversity of PE. C-RNA is inherently more variable than single tissue transcriptomics, because it interrogates RNA from diverse tissues and biological processes, not only detecting changes in gene expression but also differences in the rates of cell death and intercellular signaling. Furthermore, PE exhibits a wide range of maternal and fetal manifestations and outcomes, which may be associated with different underlying molecular causes and responses. While the genes eliminated after jackknifing may be biologically relevant in PE, they were not universally altered in the affected cohort. These transcripts may indicate a molecular subset of the disease and larger cohorts will help elucidate whether C-RNA can further delineate PE subtypes, which is crucial to understanding the diverse pathophysiology of this syndrome. 
     The transcripts identified by jackknifing represent a diversity of functions spanning the maternal-fetal interface. A majority of the identified changes relate to placental dysfunction and altered fetal development. One of the most striking trends was an increased abundance of ECM remodeling and cell migration proteins (N=10), tracking with dysfunctional extravillous trophoblast invasion characteristic of early-onset PE (Yang et al., 2019 , Gene;  683:225-232; Zhu et al., 2012 , Rev Obstet Gynecol;  5:e137-e143; and Wang et al., 2019 , Scientific Reports;  9:2728). 20% of dysregulated genes identified encode for angiogenic proteins, consistent with a number of observations that the balance of angiogenic factors play a crucial role in regulating placental vascular development (Cerdeira et al., 2012 , Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine;  2:a006585-a006585) and can identify early-onset PE with severe features (Zeisler et al., 2016 , N Engl J Med;  374:13-22). The data presented here indicated that fetal growth and development was also perturbed in early-onset severe PE, as evidenced by increased abundance of 4 transcripts encoding regulators of IGF signaling (Argente et al., 2017 , EMBO Mol Med;  9:1338-1345; and Weyer and Glerup, 2011 , Biol. Reprod;  84:1077-1086), a critical pathway for fetal development (Forbes and Westwood, 2008 , Horm Res;  69(3):129-137). The remaining transcripts captured the maternal component of PE, namely immune and cardiovascular system dysregulation. Evidence of maternal immune imbalance, a hallmark of PE, appeared as altered abundance of immunological tolerance and pro- and anti-inflammatory factors (Chistiakov et al., 2014 , Front Physiol;  5 (2014), doi:10.3389/fphys.2014.00279; Kumar et al., 2012 , Cancers  ( Basel ); 4:1252-1299; Qi et al., 2003 , Nature Medicine;  9:407; and Yang et al., 2014 , Biochim Biophys Acta;  1840:3483-3493). Transcripts important to blood pressure regulation as well as several genes linked to atherosclerosis were also identified as altered in PE C-RNA profiles, consistent with maternal vascular disease as an underlying mechanism predisposing some patients to PE (Caló et al., 2014 , J Hypertens;  32:331-338; and Magnusson et al., 2012 , PLOS ONE;  7:e43142). The transcripts identified captured a diversity of PE-relevant functions and highlights the ability of C-RNA to simultaneously monitor the numerous molecular processes implicated in complex disease. 
     Next, it was determined if C-RNA could not only detect biologically relevant changes but also accurately classify pregnancies affected by early-onset severe PE. The careful approach to AdaBoost model building described herein identified combinations of transcripts that can classify across distinct patient subsets, while excluding features that could lead to overfitting and bias in our model. Although 76% of transcripts used by AdaBoost were not identified as differentially abundant, they still reflect the same PE-relevant pathways that were captured in our jackknifing analysis. The success of this strategy was illustrated by the highly accurate classification of the independent early-onset PEARL PEC. These samples were collected at the time of diagnosis from a different population than the one used for training, with less stringent inclusion and exclusion criteria. For example, this cohort included 5 women who had chronic hypertension or gestational diabetes only 1 of which was misclassified by a few AdaBoost models, indicating the C-RNA changes utilized in machine learning were highly specific to PE. 
     This example provides an important step towards improved understanding and diagnosis of PE. The limited size of our clinical cohorts does not capture the phenotypic diversity of the global pregnant population and this is reflected in the lower values obtained for sensitivity than specificity in the classification analyses. Larger cohorts will better encompass the heterogeneity of PE, identifying signals for diverse manifestations of disease. A second limitation is the targeted nature of whole transcriptome enrichment and as such, does not capture the full range of non-coding or non-human transcripts present in plasma. Certain infections and miRNAs have been associated with PE (Nourollahpour Shiadeh et al., 2017 , Infection;  45:589-600; and Skalis et al., 2019 , Microrna;  8:28-35). Thus, future studies should aim to incorporate these measurements with C-RNA transcriptomic data. While the findings of this example are highly consistent with what is reported in the literature, alterations in transcripts of widely reported serum protein biomarkers such as soluble FLT1 (sFLT), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) or placental growth factor (PIGF) were not observed (Phipps et al., 2019 , Nature Reviews Nephrology;  15:275). This result is unsurprising given that gene expression is not always correlated with protein abundance or release into the circulation. 
     The iPEC sample collection was focused specifically on early-onset PE with severe features at the time of diagnosis. While this is the most extreme phenotype of the disease, it represents a small percent of PE cases and further in-depth exploration across the clinical PE spectrum is warranted. As a preliminary examination, the AdaBoost model was applied to the late-onset PEARL PEC cohort and achieved reasonably good accuracy (72%). This is surprising, given the substantial evidence that early- and late-onset PE are distinct conditions, despite sharing a final common phenotype of placental dysfunction (Burton et al., 2019 , BMJ;  366:12381). Thus, some of the transcripts identified by AdaBoost likely reflect the response to uteroplacental insufficiency rather than its source and therefore may not have predictive value early in disease progression. In contrast, alterations in transcripts involved in angiogenesis and trophoblast invasion (Xie et al., 2018 , Res Commun;  506:692-697; Hunkapiller et al., 2011 , Development;  138:2987-2998; and Chrzanowska-Wodnicka, 2017 , Curr Opin Hematol;  24; 248:255), known molecular drivers of PE initiation, were observed, and may have predictive value early in disease progression. Regardless of whether the changes detected represent cause or effect, or even a combination thereof, the methods and findings described herein show that C-RNA provides a unique opportunity to build robust diagnostic algorithms and investigate mechanisms of disease that were never considered before. 
     The successful classification of PE patients at the time of diagnosis showcases how C-RNA profiles can be used to robustly monitor maternal, fetal and placental functions in real-time. Future studies should focus earlier in pregnancy to evaluate the potential of this approach to improve prognostication and prediction of outcomes for women with PE. Indeed, such studies hold great promise for uncovering predictive biomarkers for early stratification of all at-risk pregnancies, informing prophylactic interventions or more vigilant monitoring of the pregnancy. The application of C-RNA will ultimately provide comprehensive molecular monitoring of maternal and fetal health throughout the course of pregnancy. 
     Materials and Methods 
     Study Design 
     The objective of this example was to determine whether C-RNA can detect molecular markers associated with early onset PE with severe features. This goal was achieved by (i) optimizing a protocol to obtain robust whole transcriptome C-RNA measurements, (ii) analyzing blood plasma C-RNA profiles from patients at the time of PE diagnosis and gestationally age-matched control pregnancies, and (iii) validating our findings with C-RNA data generated from an independent cohort. The clinical protocol and informed consent forms for the iPEC study were approved by each clinical site&#39;s Institutional Review Board; inclusion and exclusion criteria are specified in Table 15. Investigators were blinded to sample status through the bioinformatic processing of sequencing data. 
     Clinical Sample Collection 
     iPEC. Pregnant patients were recruited in an Illumina sponsored clinical study protocol (NCT02808494) in compliance with the International Conference on Harmonization for Good Clinical Practice. Participants were recruited across 8 different clinical sites: University of Texas Medical Branch (Galveston, Tex.), Tufts Medical Center (Boston, Mass.), Columbia University Irving Medical Center (New York, N.Y.), Winthrop University Hospital (Mineola, N.Y.), St. Peter&#39;s University Hospital (New Brunswick, N.J.), Christiana Care (Newark, Del.), Rutgers University Robert Wood Johnson Medical School (New Brunswick, N.J.) and New York Presbyterian/Queens (New York, N.Y.). 
     After obtaining informed consent, 20 mL whole blood samples were collected from 40 singleton pregnancies with a diagnosis of PE before 34 weeks&#39; gestation with severe features defined per ACOG guidelines (Table 15) (Hypertension in Pregnancy: Executive Summary, 2013 , Obstet Gynecol;  122:1122). Samples from 76 healthy pregnancies were also collected and were matched for gestational age to the PE group. Three control samples developed term PE after blood collection and were excluded from the study. Maternal characteristics, birth outcomes (Table 32) and medications (Table 16) in use were all recorded during the study. 
     PEARL. Plasma samples from the PEARL study (NCT02379832) were used as an independent validation cohort. PEARL samples were collected at the Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Quebec (CHU de Québec). Only participants above 18 years of age were eligible, and all pregnancies were singleton. A group of 45 control pregnancies (PEARL Healthy Control Cohort; PEARL HCC) and 45 case pregnancies (PEARL Preeclampsia Cohort; PEARL PEC) were recruited in this study and written informed consent was obtained for all patients. A selection of plasma samples was obtained after the study had reached completion. 
     The criteria for PE was defined based on the Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists of Canada (SOGC) June 2014 criteria for PE, with a gestational age requirement between 20 and 41 weeks, encompassing both early (diagnosed &lt;34 weeks; N=12) and late onset (diagnosed &gt;34 weeks, N=12) PE. A blood sample was taken once at the time of diagnosis from the PEARL PEC samples. The PEARL HCC included 45 pregnant women who were expected to have a normal pregnancy and were recruited between 11- and 13-weeks&#39; gestation. Each enrolled patient was followed longitudinally with blood drawn at 4 timepoints throughout pregnancy until birth. The control women were divided into three subgroups and subsequent follow up blood draws were staggered to cover the entire range of gestational ages throughout pregnancy (Table 13). In addition to using the PEARL HCC samples to assess C-RNA in healthy pregnancy, samples from 24 unique individuals in the PEARL HCC were selected to serve as gestational age-matched controls for both the early- and late-onset PE cohort. 
     Sample Preparation 
     Plasma processing. All samples from the iPEC and the PEARL cohorts were processed in randomized batches by investigators blinded to disease status. Two tubes of blood were collected per patient in Cell-Free DNA BCT tubes (Streck, Inc.). Blood samples collected in iPEC were stored and shipped at room temperature overnight and processed within 120 hours. PEARL blood samples were collected, processed into plasma within 24 hours and stored at −80° C. until shipped to Illumina on dry ice. All blood was centrifuged at 1,600×g for 20 minutes at room temperature, plasma transferred to a new tube and centrifuged additional 10 minutes at 16,000×g. The plasma supernatant was stored at −80° C. until use. 
     Sequencing library preparation. C-RNA was extracted from 4.5 mL of plasma with the Circulating Nucleic Acid Kit (Qiagen) followed by DNAse I digestion (Thermo Fisher Scientific) according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. C-RNA was fragmented at 94° C. for 8 minutes followed by random hexamer primed cDNA synthesis using the Illumina TruSight Tumor 170 Library Preparation kit (TST170; Illumina, Inc.). Illumina sequencing library preparation was carried out according to the TST170 kit for RNA, with two modifications: all reactions were reduced to 25% of original volume, and the ligation adaptor was used at a 1 in 10 dilution. Library quality was assessed with the High Sensitivity DNA Analysis chips on the Agilent Bioanalyzer 2100 (Agilent Technologies). 
     Whole-transcriptome enrichment. Sequencing libraries were quantified with Quant-iT PicoGreen dsDNA Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific), normalized to 200 ng input and 4 samples pooled per enrichment reaction. The Illumina TruSeq RNA Enrichment kit (Illumina, Inc) was used to carry out whole exome enrichment. Briefly, biotinylated oligos targeting the exome were hybridized to sequencing libraries and pulled down by magnetic streptavidin beads to enrich libraries for exonic RNA. This process was performed two times to maximize exonic enrichment. Final enriched library was then re-amplified by PCR to provide sufficient yield for sequencing. Blocking oligos lacking the 5′ biotin designed against hemoglobin genes HBA1, HBA2, and HBB were included in the enrichment reaction to minimize contributions from highly abundant hemoglobin. Final enrichment libraries were quantified using Quant-IT Picogreen dsDNA Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific), normalized and pooled for paired end 50 by 50 sequencing on Illumina HiSeq 2000 platforms to a minimum depth of 40 million reads per sample. 
     Sequencing Data Analysis 
     Bioinformatic processing of sequencing data. Fastq files containing over 50 million reads were downsampled to 50 million reads with seqtk (v1.2-r102-dirty). Sequencing reads were mapped to human reference genome (hg19) with TopHat2 (v2.0.13) (Yang et al., 2014 , Biochim Biophys Acta;  1840:3483-3493), and transcript abundance quantified with featureCounts (subread-1.4.6) (Calo et al., 2014 , J Hypertens;  32:331-338) against RefGene coordinates (obtained Oct. 27, 2014). Tissue expression data were obtained from Body Atlas (Correlation Engine, Base Space, Illumina, Inc) (Whittle et al., 2019 , Front Microbiol;  9:doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.03266). Genes with expression ≥2-fold higher than the median expression across all tissues in the placenta or any of the fetal tissues (brain, liver, lung, and thyroid) were assigned to that group. Subcellular localization was obtained from UniProt (Magnusson et al., 2012 , PLOS ONE;  7:e43142). Functional enrichment analyses were performed with gProfiler (v e97_eg44_p13_d22abce) (Raudvere et al., 2019 , Nucleic Acids Res;  47:W191-W198). 
     Differential expression analysis. Differential expression analysis was performed in R (v3.4.2) with edgeR (v3.20.9), after excluding genes with ≤0.5 counts per million reads sequenced (CPM) in &gt;25% of samples. Datasets were normalized by the TMM method (Debieve et al., 2011 , Mol Hum Reprod;  17:702-9), and differentially abundant genes identified by the glmTreat test (Shiadeh et al., 2017 , Infection;  45:589-600) for a log fold change ≥1, followed by Bonferroni-Holm p-value correction. For the iPEC data, this same process was used for each jackknifing iteration, which used 90% of samples in each group selected by random sampling without replacement. After 1,000 jackknifing iterations, the one-sided, normal-based 95% confidence interval for gene-wise p-values was calculated with statsmodels (v0.8.0) (Skalis et al., 2019 , Microrna;  8:28-35). The one-sided calculation was used because only transcripts with a p-value &lt;0.05 were of interest. Hierarchical clustering analysis was performed with squared Euclidean distance and average linkage. 
     AdaBoost. AdaBoost was performed in python with scikit-learn (v0.19.1, sklearn.ensemble.AdaBoostClassifier) (Burton et al., 2019 , BMJ;  366:12381). A 10% holdout subset of iPEC samples were excluded from all machine learning activities. The remaining samples available for training machine learning were filtered to remove genes with a CPM≤0.5 in &gt;25% of samples and TMM-normalized. The log(CPM) values of transcripts were then standardized (sklearn.preprocessing.StandardScaler) to mean 0 and standard deviation 1 prior to fitting classifiers. 
     Optimal hyperparameter values were determined by random search over 1,000 iterations with 3-fold stratified cross-validation and using Matthew&#39;s correlation coefficient to quantify performance ( FIG.  42   ) (Bergstra et al., 2012 , J Machine Learning Res;  13:281-305). The number of estimators was sampled from a geometric distribution (scipy.stats.geom, p=0.004, loc=7) while the learning rate was sampled from an exponential distribution (scipy.stats.expon, loc=0.08, scale=2). Three iterations of the search showed the highest performance, and the median value for each hyperparameter was selected for further use (500 estimators and 1.6 learning rate). 
     AdaBoost models were trained with 10-fold stratified cross-validation to obtain robust estimates of PE classification capabilities. The full AdaBoost model training strategy is illustrated in  FIG.  43   . This strategy followed a two-step approach. In the first step, five subsets of samples were created from the training data. Four subsets (80% of training data) were combined and used to fit AdaBoost and one subset (20% of the training data) was used to assess performance during feature pruning. During feature pruning, the performance measure was Matthew&#39;s correlation coefficient, and the model with the highest value was retained. In the case of a tie, the model with the fewest transcripts was retained. Due to the probabilistic nature of AdaBoost, model composition varied each time a model was fit. Therefore, to increase the likelihood that the most robust estimators were highly represented, fitting and feature pruning was repeated ten times, generating ten models for a subset. This process was repeated five times, in each round holding out one subset for pruning and combining the four others for fitting. This step ultimately produced 50 total models. 
     In the second step, the estimators from all 50 models were combined to generate a single aggregate AdaBoost model. This ensemble then underwent feature pruning, in which the importance measure for each transcript was the number of models in which it appeared, and the performance measure was log loss. The model with the best log-scaled average performance across all pruning subsets was selected as the final ensemble. 
     Within each fold, the validation samples were fully excluded from model training, but were used to construct ROC curves and determine the score threshold which maximized both sensitivity and specificity. The status of the iPEC holdout samples and the PEARL PEC independent cohorts were then classified with each of the 10 AdaBoost models from the cross-validation. 
     RT-qPCR 
     25 TaqMan probes (Table 19; Thermo Fisher Scientific) were selected to validate sequencing results in a subset of patients from the iPEC cohort (N=19 PE, N=19 controls). 5 reference probes were used for normalization of fold change differences. These targeted a set of transcripts unchanged between control and PE samples and covered a range of abundances from 0.2 to 20 CPM. Table S20 shows probes selected to span exon junctions. 
     C-RNA was isolated and converted to cDNA from 2 mL of plasma. cDNA was pre-amplified using the TaqMan Preamp master Mix (Thermo Fisher Scientific) for 16 cycles, then diluted 10-fold. Triplicate TaqMan qPCR reactions were carried out for all probes per the manufacturer&#39;s protocol (Thermo Fisher Scientific). Cq values were determined using Bio-Rad CFX manager software. To determine transcript abundance, the ΔΔCq was calculated using the mean Cq values of the reference probes. To determine the fold change in PE samples for each probe, the average ΔΔCq value for PE samples was divided by the average ΔΔCq value for the matched control samples. 
     Sample Preparation Protocol Optimization 
     rRNA and globin depletion. C-RNA was extracted from 2 mL plasma and DNAse treated prior to depletion. Use of the TruSeq Total RNA Library kit with RiboZero (Illumina, Inc.) followed the manufacturer&#39;s protocol. RNAseH depletion followed previously published protocols (Crescitelli et al., 2013 , J Extracell Vesicles;  2:doi:10.3402/jev.v2i0.20677), except for hybridization which was performed in 6 uL total volume with a final concentration 125 pM/oligo for the depletion oligos. 
     C-RNA quantification. C-RNA was extracted from 4.5 mL plasma and DNAse treated. One tenth of the extracted C-RNA was used for quantification with the Quant-iT RiboGreen RNA Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific). C-RNA was diluted 100-fold and quantified against the low range standard curve as recommended by the manufacture. 
     Plasma input comparison. Although no single experiment simultaneously assessed use of 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 mL plasma input, multiple datasets utilizing different plasma inputs were generated during protocol optimization. A meta-analysis was performed on the data from eight separate experiments to assess the impact of this variable. Biological coefficient of variation (BCV, edgeR) was used to quantify noise (Debieve et al., 2011 , Mol Hum Reprod;  17:702-9). For every experiment, a BCV measurement was obtained for each set of samples composing a biologically distinct group. The bound population function from Preseq provided library complexity estimates (v2.0.0) (Xie et al., 2018 , Res Commun;  506:692-697) for each individual sample. All sample preparation was performed as previously described with one exception: for 1 mL and 0.5 mL inputs, the Accel-NGS 1S Plus DNA Library Kit (Swift Biosciences) was used to generate libraries, following manufacturer instructions. 
     BCT comparison. 8 mL blood was drawn from pregnant and non-pregnant women in the following tube types: K2 EDTA (Beckton Dickinson), ACD (Beckton Dickinson), Cell Free RNA BCT tube (Streck), and Cell Free DNA BCT tube (Streck, Inc.). Blood was shipped overnight either on ice packs (EDTA and ACD) or at room temperature (Cell Free RNA and DNA BCT tubes). As a reference, 8 mL of blood was collected in K2 EDTA tubes and processed within 4 hours into plasma on site and shipped as plasma on dry ice. All other blood samples were processed after shipping after 1 or 5 days of storage at the preferred temperature. 3 mL of plasma was used per condition to generate sequencing libraries for enrichment using Illumina protocols as described previously. To compare pregnant and non-pregnant samples, pregnancy signal was quantified using 155 transcripts reported in prior C-RNA pregnancy studies (Tsui et al., 2014 , Clin Chem;  60:954-962; and Koh et al., 2014 , Proc Natl Acad Sci USA;  111:7361-7366) with the following equation: 
     
       
         
           
             
               ∑ 
               
                 i 
                 = 
                 1 
               
               155 
             
             
               
                 
                   x 
                   i 
                 
                 - 
                 
                   m 
                   i 
                 
               
               
                 S 
                 i 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     Where i denotes a single transcript, x is the log(CPM) value for the sample of interest, and m and s are the mean and standard deviation, respectively, for non-pregnant samples collected in the same BCT. 
     Pregnancy Timecourse analysis. Differential expression analysis was performed as described previously, without jackknifing. Transcripts altered during specific stages of gestation were identified as follows. The CPM values for each transcript were normalized within each patient using the first trimester sample (11-14 weeks gestational age) as baseline. The consensus values across all patients was obtained by Lowess smoothing (statsmodels.nonparametric.smoothers_lowess.lowess). A transcript was classified as altered earlier in pregnancy if the slope of the Lowess curve was ≥2-fold higher in absolute magnitude at 14 weeks than at 34 weeks gestational age; transcripts were categorized as altered later in pregnancy if the slope of the Lowess curve was ≥2-fold higher in absolute magnitude at 34 weeks than at 14 weeks gestational age. The remaining transcripts were categorized as altered throughout pregnancy. 
     Statistical Analysis 
     Unless otherwise noted, all statistical testing was two-sided. Non-parametric testing was used when data were not normally distributed. P-values were adjusted for multiple comparisons via Bonferroni-Holm or Tukey HSD calculations. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 12 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Study characteristics for the Illumina Preeclampsia Cohort (iPEC). 
               
               
                 Continuous measurements presented as mean +− SD. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Sample and Maternal Characteristics 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Sample 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Sample 
                 Gestational 
                 Male 
                 Maternal 
                 Maternal 
               
               
                   
                 Size 
                 Age 
                 Fetus 
                 Age 
                 BMI 
                 Nulliparous 
               
               
                   
                 (N) 
                 (weeks) 
                 (%) 
                 (years) 
                 (kg/m 2 ) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Control 
                 73 
                 30.5 ± 2.6 
                 42.5 
                 29.7 ± 5.3 
                 30.1 ± 5.6 
                 38.4 
               
               
                 PE 
                 40 
                 30.4 ± 2.6 
                 37.5 
                 30.4 ± 5.7 
                 34.2 ± 5.8 
                 32.5 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Ethnicity/Race 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 African 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Hispanic 
                 Caucasian 
                 American 
                 Asian 
                 Other 
                 Unknown 
               
               
                   
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Control 
                 41.1 
                 46.6 
                 17.8 
                 13.7 
                 1.4 
                 20.5 
               
               
                 PE 
                 35 
                 35 
                 27.5 
                 7.5 
                 0 
                 30 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Birth Outcomes 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Birth 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Gestational 
                 Preterm 
                   
                 Birth 
               
               
                   
                 Age 
                 Delivery 
                 Stillbirth 
                 Weight 
                 SGA* 
               
               
                   
                 (weeks) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (kg) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Control 
                 38.9 ± 1.8 
                 9.6 
                 0 
                 3.2 ± 0.6 
                 9.6 
               
               
                 PE 
                 31.5 ± 3.2 
                 97.5 
                 2.5 
                 1.4 ± 0.5 
                 45 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *SGA, small for gestational age, defined as birthweight &lt;10% of population for male or female neonate. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 13 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 PEARL HCC Gestational Age Distribution. 45 women with healthy pregnancies 
               
               
                 were divided into three groups and blood collected at 4 time points. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Patient 
                 Number of 
                 Collection 1 
                 Collection 2 
                 Collection 3 
                 Collection 4 
               
               
                 Group 
                 Patients 
                 (weeks*) 
                 (weeks*) 
                 (weeks*) 
                 (weeks*) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 14 
                 11 0/7 -13 6/7 †   
                 14 0/7 -17 6/7   
                 26 0/7 -28 6/7    
                 35 0/7 -37 6/7 †   
               
               
                 2 
                 13 
                 11 0/7 -13 6/7 †   
                     18 0/7 -21 6/7 †   
                 29 0/7 -31 6/7 †   
                 35 0/7 -37 6/7 ‡   
               
               
                 3 
                 14 
                 11 0/7 -13 6/7 §   
                 22 0/7 -25 6/7   
                 32 0/7 -34 6/7 †   
                 35 0/7 -37 6/7 †   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *Indicated as a range from the minimum gestational age to the maximal gestational age, both in [weeks days/7 ]. 
               
               
                   † 1 sample failed library preparation 
               
               
                   ‡ 2 samples failed library preparation 
               
               
                   § 3 samples failed library preparation 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 14 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 PEARL HCC pregnancy progression transcripts. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Timing of 
                 Tissue 
               
               
                   
                 Gene 
                 Fold 
                 Alteration in 
                 Expression 
               
               
                   
                 Symbol 
                 Change* 
                 Pregnancy** 
                 Category 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 ACOXL 
                 +27 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 ADAMI2 
                 +5.9 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 AIM1L 
                 +8.1 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 AKR1B15 
                 +12.7 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 ALDH3B2 
                 +26 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 ALPP 
                 +64.5 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 ANK3 
                 +3.5 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 ANKFN1 
                 +12.1 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 ANKRD33 
                 +9.1 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 AOC1 
                 +6.1 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 ATP6V1C2 
                 +11.5 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 BCAR4 
                 +12.9 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 C2orf72 
                 +20.6 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 C4orf19 
                 +8.9 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 CAMSAP3 
                 +6.1 
                 Late 
                 Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 CAP2 
                 +4.6 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 CAPN6 
                 +26.4 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 CDO1 
                 +3.7 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 CFB 
                 +3.6 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 CGB5 
                 −17.0 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 CGB8 
                 −22.0 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 CRH 
                 +54.4 
                 Late 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 CRYAB 
                 +8.2 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 CSH1 
                 +7.5 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 CSHL1 
                 +48.4 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 CYP11A1 
                 +14.5 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 CYP19A1 
                 +7 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 DACT2 
                 +9.2 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 DBET 
                 +9.9 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 DDX3Y 
                 +19.9 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 DEPDC1B 
                 +4 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 DLG5 
                 +4.9 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 DLX3 
                 +9 
                 Late 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 DUSP4 
                 +3.7 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 EFHD1 
                 +6.7 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 EFS 
                 +7 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 EGFR 
                 +4.3 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 ELF3 
                 +11 
                 Early 
                 Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 EPS8L1 
                 +6.7 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 EPS8L2 
                 +3.6 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 ERVV-1 
                 +8.5 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 ERVV-2 
                 +7.5 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 ESRP2 
                 +11.5 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 ESRRG 
                 +12.3 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 EXPH5 
                 +37.7 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 FBN2 
                 +5.6 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 FER1L6 
                 +8.3 
                 Late 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 FOLR1 
                 +7 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 FRZB 
                 +6 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 FXYD3 
                 +9.1 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 GADD45G 
                 +5.6 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 GCM1 
                 +5.7 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 GDA 
                 +11.2 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 GLDN 
                 +8.2 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 GOLGA8K 
                 −932.4 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 GPC3 
                 +6.1 
                 Throughout 
                 Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 GRAMD2 
                 +10.4 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 GRB7 
                 +11.6 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 GRHL2 
                 +26.8 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 GRIP1 
                 +4.3 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 GSTA3 
                 +32.1 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 HES2 
                 +12.5 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 HSD17B1 
                 +9.5 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 HSD3B1 
                 +12.7 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 HSPB8 
                 +4.6 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 IL36RN 
                 +9.9 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 KIAA1522 
                 +3.2 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 KIF1A 
                 +18.7 
                 Throughout 
                 Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 KLF5 
                 +3.4 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 KRT18 
                 +3.9 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 KRT19 
                 +4.2 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 KRT8 
                 +4.4 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 KRT80 
                 +10.3 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 KRT81 
                 +13 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 LAD1 
                 +8.6 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 LEP 
                 −46.2 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 LGALS13 
                 +7.7 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 LGALS14 
                 +12.2 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 LIN28B 
                 +7.2 
                 Late 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 LINC00967 
                 +22.5 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 LINC01118 
                 +6.4 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 LY6G6C 
                 +11.2 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 MAGEA4 
                 +10.4 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 MFSD2A 
                 +3.6 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 MMP8 
                 +4.8 
                 Early 
                 Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 MOCOS 
                 +5.1 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 MORN3 
                 +4 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 MSX2 
                 +7.2 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 MT1G 
                 −68.8 
                 Early 
                 Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 MUC15 
                 +23.1 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 NCCRP1 
                 +5.7 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 NCMAP 
                 +25 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 NRK 
                 +13.3 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 OLAH 
                 +7.1 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 OVOL1 
                 +13.2 
                 Throughout 
                 Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 PACSIN3 
                 +7.5 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 PAGE4 
                 +11.5 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 PAPPA 
                 +15.9 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 PAPPA2 
                 +7 
                 Late 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 PCDH11X 
                 +7.3 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 PCDH11Y 
                 +20.3 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 PDZD2 
                 +3.1 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 PGF 
                 +9.5 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 PHYHIPL 
                 +12.5 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 PKIB 
                 +5.6 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 PKP3 
                 +10.5 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 PLAC1 
                 +32.7 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 PLAC4 
                 +6.9 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 PLEKHG6 
                 +10.5 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 PLEKHH1 
                 +5.2 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 POU2F3 
                 +10.9 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 PPP1R14C 
                 +10.9 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 PTPN3 
                 +7.4 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 PVRL3 
                 +4.1 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 PVRL4 
                 +7.8 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 RAB25 
                 +7.8 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 RAB3B 
                 +43.7 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 RETN 
                 +4.1 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 RHOD 
                 +10.6 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 RLN2 
                 −125.4 
                 Late 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 S100P 
                 +4.1 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 SCIN 
                 +7.1 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 SEMA3B 
                 +4 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 SERPINB2 
                 +13.4 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 SLC27A6 
                 +10.1 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 SLC28A1 
                 +10.4 
                 Late 
                 Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 SLC30A2 
                 +7.5 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 SLC6A2 
                 +6.4 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 SLC7A2 
                 +6.2 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 SMOC2 
                 +14.2 
                 Throughout 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 SPIRE2 
                 +18.3 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 SPTLC3 
                 +5.6 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 STRA6 
                 +7.5 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 SULT2B1 
                 +35.4 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 SVEP1 
                 +12.5 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 TACC2 
                 +36 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 TBX20 
                 +9.4 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 TEAD3 
                 +9.5 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 TFAP2A 
                 +17.9 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 TFAP2C 
                 +9.4 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 TGM2 
                 +3.9 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 TMEM54 
                 +11.2 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 TNS4 
                 +12.7 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 TPPP3 
                 +6.2 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 TPRXL 
                 +12.3 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 TRIM29 
                 +18.5 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 TRPV6 
                 +16.7 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 TWIST1 
                 +19.7 
                 Throughout 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 USP43 
                 +11.1 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 UTY 
                 +18.6 
                 Early 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 VGLL1 
                 +7.1 
                 Early 
                 Placental/Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 VGLL3 
                 +13.6 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 WWC1 
                 +6.1 
                 Early 
                 Fetal 
               
               
                   
                 XAGE3 
                 +11 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                 ZFY 
                 +16.3 
                 Late 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
                 ZNF750 
                 +12.4 
                 Early 
                 Placental 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 *Reporting the maximal fold change observed between any pairwise comparison of age groups. All changes are relative to the lower GA group-positive change indicates increased abundance later in pregnancy. 
               
               
                   
                 **If the slope of the log2(Fold Change) for a transcript is &gt;2-fold higher at 14 weeks GA than at 34 weeks GA, it is considered altered early in pregnancy; if &gt;2-fold higher at 34 weeks than at 14 weeks, it is considered altered late in pregnancy; if both fold changes are &lt;2, it is considered altered throughout pregnancy. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 15 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 The iPEC diagnostic and inclusion/exclusion criteria for PE with severe features. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Diagnostic Criteria 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Measurement 
                 Manifestation 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Blood Pressure 
                 1. 
                 Systolic BP ≥160 mmHG or diastolic BP ≥160 mmHg measured 
               
               
                   
                   
                 on at least 2 occasions 4 hours apart while on bedrest but 
               
               
                   
                   
                 before the onset of labor, or measured on 1 occasion only if 
               
               
                   
                   
                 antihypertensive therapy is initiated due to severe hypertension 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Defined by one of the following: 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Proteinuria 
                 1. 
                 Excretion of ≥300 mg of protein in a 24 hr period 
               
               
                   
                 2. 
                 Protein/creatinine value of at least 0.3 
               
               
                   
                 3. 
                 Qualitative determination with urine dipstick of ≥1+, if the 
               
               
                   
                   
                 above measurements were not available 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 OR 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Blood Pressure 
                 1. 
                 Systolic BP ≥140 mmHg or diastolic ≥90 mmHg on at least 2 
               
               
                   
                   
                 occasions 4 hours apart while on bedrest but before the onset of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 labor 
               
               
                 With one of the 
                 1. 
                 Thrombocytopenia (&lt;100,000 platelets/mL) 
               
               
                 following features 
                 2. 
                 Impaired liver function 
               
               
                   
                 3. 
                 Newly developed renal insufficiency 
               
               
                   
                 4. 
                 Pulmonary edema 
               
               
                   
                 5. 
                 New-onset cerebral disturbances or scotomata 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Category 
                   
                 Requirements 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PE Inclusion 
                 1. 
                 Women 18 years of age or older 
               
               
                   
                 2. 
                 Pregnant women with a viable singleton gestation 
               
               
                   
                 3. 
                 Gestational age between 20 0/7 and 33 6/7 weeks determined 
               
               
                   
                   
                 by ultrasound and/or LMP per ACOG guidelines 
               
               
                   
                 4. 
                 Preeclampsia diagnosed with severe features per ACOG 
               
               
                   
                   
                 guidelines 
               
               
                 PE Exclusion 
                 1. 
                 Known malignancy 
               
               
                   
                 2. 
                 History of maternal organ or bone marrow transplant 
               
               
                   
                 3. 
                 Maternal blood transfusion in the last 8 weeks 
               
               
                   
                 4. 
                 Chronic hypertension diagnosed prior to current pregnancy 
               
               
                   
                 5. 
                 Type I, II or gestational diabetes 
               
               
                   
                 6. 
                 Fetal anomaly or known chromosome abnormality 
               
               
                 Control Inclusion 
                 1. 
                 Women 18 years of age or older 
               
               
                   
                 2. 
                 Pregnant women with a viable singleton gestation 
               
               
                   
                 3. 
                 Gestational age between 20 0/7 and 33 6/7 weeks determined 
               
               
                   
                   
                 by ultrasound and/or LMP per ACOG guidelines. 
               
               
                 Control Exclusion 
                 1. 
                 Known malignancy 
               
               
                   
                 2. 
                 History of maternal organ or bone marrow transplant 
               
               
                   
                 3. 
                 Maternal blood transfusion in the last 8 weeks 
               
               
                   
                 4. 
                 Chronic hypertension diagnosed prior to current pregnancy 
               
               
                   
                 5. 
                 Type I, II or gestational diabetes 
               
               
                   
                 6. 
                 Fetal anomaly or known chromosome abnormality 
               
               
                   
                 7. 
                 Active labor 
               
               
                   
                 8. 
                 Thrombocytopenia (&lt;100,000 plts/mL) 
               
               
                   
                 9. 
                 Impaired liver function 
               
               
                   
                 10. 
                 Newly developed renal insufficiency (serum creatine &gt;1.1 
               
               
                   
                   
                 mg/dL) 
               
               
                   
                 11. 
                 Pulmonary edema 
               
               
                   
                 12. 
                 New-onset cerebral disturbances or scotomata 
               
               
                   
                 13. 
                 Preeclampsia in prior or current pregnancy 
               
               
                   
                 14. 
                 Fetal growth restriction 
               
               
                   
                 15. 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 16 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Medications in use in the iPEC. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Treatment 
                   
                 PE 
                 Control 
               
               
                 Purpose 
                 Medication* 
                 Cohort (%) 
                 Cohort (%) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 PE/Hypertension 
                 Magnesium sulfate 
                 82.5 
                 4.1 
               
               
                   
                 Antenatal Steroids 
                 95 
                 6.8 
               
               
                   
                 Anti-Hypertensive 
                 75 
                 5.3 
               
               
                   
                 Aspirin 
                 20 
                 0 
               
               
                 Pregnancy Symptoms 
                 Antiemetics 
                 25 
                 5.5 
               
               
                   
                 Antacids 
                 27.5 
                 8.2 
               
               
                   
                 Anti-constipation 
                 15 
                 11.8 
               
               
                   
                 Prenatal Vitamins 
                 17.5 
                 31.5 
               
               
                   
                 Iron Supplement 
                 10 
                 12.3 
               
               
                 Other Conditions 
                 Analgesics 
                 60 
                 11.8 
               
               
                   
                 Antimicrobials 
                 12.5 
                 5.5 
               
               
                   
                 Antihistamines 
                 32.5 
                 13.7 
               
               
                   
                 Antiasthmatics 
                 10 
                 2.7 
               
               
                   
                 Psychoactive 
                 15 
                 5.5 
               
               
                   
                 Hormone Therapy 
                 7.5 
                 2.7 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *Medication category listed for most drugs rather that enumerating all specific pharmaceuticals. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 17 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Medical center collection site patient distribution for the iPEC. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 PE 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Location 
                 patients 
                 Controls 
               
               
                 Clinical Site 
                 (city, state) 
                 (N) 
                 (N) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 University of Texas Medical 
                 Galveston, Texas 
                 4 
                 11 
               
               
                 Branch 
               
               
                 Tufts Medical Center 
                 Boston, MA 
                 10 
                 17 
               
               
                 Columbia University Irving 
                 New York, NY 
                 4 
                 9 
               
               
                 Medical Center 
               
               
                 Winthrop University Hospital 
                 Mineola, NY 
                 5 
                 9 
               
               
                 St. Peter&#39;s University Hospital 
                 New Brunswick, 
                 3 
                 6 
               
               
                   
                 NJ 
               
               
                 Christiana Care 
                 Newark, DE 
                 7 
                 13 
               
               
                 Rutgers University Robert Wood 
                 New Brunswick, 
                 5 
                 8 
               
               
                 Johnson Medical School 
                 NJ 
               
               
                 New York Presbyterian/Queens 
                 New York, NY 
                 2 
                 3 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 18 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Study characteristics for PEARL PEC. Continuous measurements 
               
               
                 presented as mean +− SD. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Sample and Maternal Characteristics 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Sample 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Sample 
                 Gestational 
                 Male 
                 Maternal 
                 Maternal 
               
               
                   
                 Size 
                 Age 
                 Fetus 
                 Age 
                 BMI 
                 Nulliparous 
               
               
                   
                 (N) 
                 (weeks) 
                 (%) 
                 (years) 
                 (kg/m 2 ) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Early-Onset Control 
                 12 
                 29.3 ± 2.3 
                 58.3 
                 30.1 ± 3.8 
                 28.5 ± 7     
                 58.3 
               
               
                 Early-Onset PE 
                 12 
                 29.2 ± 2.3 
                 75 
                 29.3 ± 3.5 
                 33.6 ± 9     
                 60 
               
               
                 Late-Onset Control 
                 12 
                 35.9 ± 0.8 
                 58.3 
                 29.4 ± 3.2 
                 27.9 ± 4.5 
                 75 
               
               
                 Late-Onset PE 
                 12 
                 35.6 ± 1.3 
                 66.7 
                 30.2 ± 4.8 
                 32.2 ± 4.9 
                 75 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Ethnicity/Race 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 African 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Hispanic 
                 Caucasian 
                 American 
                 Asian 
                 Other 
                 Unknown 
               
               
                   
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Early-Onset Control 
                 0 
                 100 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 Early-Onset PE 
                 0 
                 91.7 
                 8.3 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 Late-Onset Control 
                 0 
                 100 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 Late-Onset PE 
                 0 
                 100 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Birth Outcomes 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Birth 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Gestational 
                 Term 
                 Preterm 
                   
                 Birth 
               
               
                   
                 Age 
                 Delivery 
                 Delivery 
                 Stillbirth 
                 Weight 
                 SGA* 
               
               
                   
                 (weeks) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (kg) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Early-Onset Control 
                 39.1 ± 1.5 
                 91.7 
                 8.3 
                 0 
                 3.2 ± 0.4 
                 0 
               
               
                 Early-Onset PE 
                 30.3 ± 3.4 
                 0 
                 100 
                 0 
                 1.3 ± 0.5 
                 25 
               
               
                 Late-Onset Control 
                 39.7 ± 1.6 
                 91.7 
                 8.3 
                 0 
                 3.4 ± 0.5 
                 25 
               
               
                 Late-Onset PE 
                     37 ± 1.4 
                 75 
                 25 
                 0 
                 2.7 ± 0.6 
                 33.3 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Additional Health Issues 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Chronic 
                 Type I, II 
                 Gestational 
                 Fetal Growth 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Hypertension 
                 Diabetes 
                 Diabetes 
                 Restriction 
                 HELLP 
                 Other 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Early-Onset Control 
                 8.3 
                 0 
                 33.3 
                 0 
                 0 
                 8.3 
               
               
                 Early-Onset PE 
                 16.7 
                 16.7 
                 16.7 
                 50 
                 25 
                 0 
               
               
                 Late-Onset Control 
                 0 
                 0 
                 16.7 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 Late-Onset PE 
                 8.3 
                 25 
                 8.3 
                 8.3 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 PE/Hypertension Medications 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Magnesium 
                 Antenatal 
                 Anti- 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Sulfate 
                 Steroids 
                 Hypertensive 
                 Aspirin 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Early-Onset Control 
                 0 
                 0 
                 8.3 
                 25 
               
               
                 Early-Onset PE 
                 83.3 
                 100 
                 100 
                 8.3 
               
               
                 Late-Onset Control 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 8.3 
               
               
                 Late-Onset PE 
                 33.3 
                 25 
                 75 
                 25 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *SGA, small for gestational age, defined as birthweight &lt;10% of population for male or female neonate. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 19 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 TaqMan Probes for qPCR validation. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Gene 
                   
                   
                 Control CPM* 
                 PE CPM* 
               
               
                 Symbol 
                 Assay ID 
                 RefSeq 
                 (mean ± SD) 
                 (mean ± SD) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Reference Probes 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 ABHD12 
                 Hs01018050_m1 
                 NM_001042472.2 
                 20.7 ± 6.5  
                 20.5 ± 4.7  
               
               
                 KRBOX4 
                 Hs01063506_gH 
                 NM_001129898.1 
                 5.1 ± 2     
                 5.4 ± 1.8 
               
               
                 NME3 
                 Hs01573872_g1 
                 NM_002513.2 
                 1.6 ± 0.8 
                 1.8 ± 0.8 
               
               
                 WNT7A 
                 Hs00171699_m1 
                 NM_004625.3 
                  0.3 ± 0.03 
                 0.3 ± 0.1 
               
               
                 ZNF138 
                 Hs00864088_gH 
                 NM_001271638.1 
                 8.1 ± 3.3 
                 7.5 ± 3.2 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Target Probes 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 ADAMTS2 
                 Hs01029111_m1 
                 NM_014244.4 
                 0.6 ± 1.2 
                 7.8 ± 7.5 
               
               
                 ALOX15B 
                 Hs00153988_m1 
                 NM_001039130.1 
                 0.3 ± 0.3 
                 1.9 +± .1  
               
               
                 ARHGEF25 
                 Hs00384780_g1 
                 NM_001111270.2 
                 1.3 ± 1     
                 5.5 ± 2.6 
               
               
                 CLEC4C 
                 Hs01092460_m1 
                 NM_130441.2 
                 4.3 ± 2.3 
                 1.3 ± 0.9 
               
               
                 DAAM2 
                 Hs00322497_m1 
                 NM_001201427.1 
                 1.6 ± 1.8 
                 9.6 ± 9.6 
               
               
                 FAM107A 
                 Hs00200376_m1 
                 NM_001076778.2 
                 8.3 ± 5.5 
                 44.2 ± 35.4 
               
               
                 HSPA12B 
                 Hs00369554_m1 
                 NM_001197327.1 
                 5.9 ± 3.5 
                 22.4 ± 11.7 
               
               
                 HTRA4 
                 Hs00538137_m1 
                 NM_153692.3 
                 0.4 ± 0.4 
                 1.6 ± 1.2 
               
               
                 IGFBP5 
                 Hs00181213_m1 
                 NM_000599.3 
                 10.3 ± 5.8  
                 39.9 ± 26.1 
               
               
                 KRT5 
                 Hs00361185_m1 
                 NM_000424.3 
                 3.1 ± 3.3 
                 0.6 ± 0.7 
               
               
                 LEP 
                 Hs00174877_m1 
                 NM_000230.2 
                 0.2 ± 0.5 
                 1.8 ± 1.5 
               
               
                 NES 
                 Hs00707120_s1 
                 NM_006617.1 
                 20.8 ± 12.5 
                 101.6 ± 61   
               
               
                 PAPPA2 
                 Hs01060983_m1 
                 NM_020318.2 
                 5.9 ± 9.3 
                 26.1 ± 16.6 
               
               
                 PITPNM3 
                 Hs01107787_m1 
                 NM_001165966.1 
                 22.6 ± 12.9 
                 76.5 ± 43.6 
               
               
                 PLD4 
                 Hs00975488_m1 
                 NM_001308174.1 
                 5.5 ± 2.6 
                     2 ± 1.3 
               
               
                 PRG2 
                 Hs00794928_m1 
                 NM_001243245.2 
                 0.6 ± 0.5 
                 3.3 ± 5.6 
               
               
                 TIMP3 
                 Hs00165949_m1 
                 NM_000362.4 
                 3.7 ± 2.3 
                 15.8 ± 10.7 
               
               
                 TIMP4 
                 Hs00162784_m1 
                 NM_003256.3 
                 0.4 ± 0.4 
                     2 ± 1.9 
               
               
                 VSIG4 
                 Hs00907325_m1 
                 NM_001184830.1 
                 3.6 ± 3.8 
                 30.9 ± 32.9 
               
               
                 ZEB1 
                 Hs01566408_m1 
                 NM_001128128.2 
                 245.9 ± 108.7 
                 752.6 ± 434     
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *Calculated from the iPEC sequencing data 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 20 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Transcripts with C-RNA abundances altered in early-onset PE with severe 
               
               
                 features. Delineates the protein expression, functional characteristics, 
               
               
                 and PE-relevant literature of the genes identified by differential 
               
               
                 expression analysis with jackknifing (DEX) from the iPEC samples. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Changes in PE 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 PMID of 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Fold 
                 Manuscripts 
               
               
                   
                 Gene 
                   
                 Change 
                 Describing a 
               
               
                   
                 Symbol 
                 Analysis 
                 in PE 
                 Role in PE 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 ALOX15B 
                 DEX 
                 +5.7 
                 22078795 
               
               
                   
                 AMPH 
                 DEX 
                 +5.0 
                 NA 
               
               
                   
                 CUX2 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 −3.3 
                 NA 
               
               
                   
                 FAM107A 
                 DEX 
                 +5.0 
                 NA 
               
               
                   
                 IGFBP5 
                 DEX 
                 +3.6 
                 28049695 
               
               
                   
                 NES 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 +4.5 
                 17653873 
               
               
                   
                 PITPNM3 
                 DEX 
                 +3.2 
                 NA 
               
               
                   
                 PRX 
                 DEX 
                 +3.8 
                 24657793 
               
               
                   
                 TEAD4 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 +3.3 
                 NA 
               
               
                   
                 PNMT 
                 DEX 
                 +3.8 
                 NA 
               
               
                   
                 DAAM2 
                 DEX 
                 +5.6 
                 20934677 
               
               
                   
                 SLC9A3R2 
                 DEX 
                 +3.6 
                 NA 
               
               
                   
                 HSPA12B 
                 DEX 
                 +3.5 
                 NA 
               
               
                   
                 PLD4 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 −3.0 
                 NA 
               
               
                   
                 TIMP4 
                 DEX 
                 +4.3 
                 29231756 
               
               
                   
                 KRT5 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 −5.8 
                 24657793 
               
               
                   
                 ZEB1 
                 DEX 
                 +2.8 
                 30315928 
               
               
                   
                 APOLD1 
                 DEX 
                 +3.4 
                 22013081 
               
               
                   
                 HTRA4 
                 DEX 
                 +3.9 
                 25946029 
               
               
                   
                 SEMA3G 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 +3.5 
                 NA 
               
               
                   
                 ADAMTS1 
                 DEX 
                 +3.5 
                 29135310 
               
               
                   
                 CRH 
                 DEX 
                 +5.7 
                 12709362 
               
               
                   
                 PRG2 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 +5.2 
                 28347715 
               
               
                   
                 TIMP3 
                 DEX 
                 +4.1 
                 30715128 
               
               
                   
                 ARHGEF25 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 +4.1 
                 NA 
               
               
                   
                 CLEC4C 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 −3.6 
                 12699426 
               
               
                   
                 LEP 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 +10.7 
                 23544093 
               
               
                   
                 PAPPA2 
                 DEX 
                 +4.9 
                 26748159 
               
               
                   
                 VSIG4 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 +8.1 
                 24349325 
               
               
                   
                 ADAMTS2 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 +11.6 
                 NA 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Protein Characteristics 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Gene 
                 Tissue 
                 Sub-Cellular 
                   
               
               
                 Symbol 
                 Expression 
                 Localization * 
                 Function 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ALOX15B 
                 Fetal 
                 Nucleus; 
                 Cell Cycle; Immune Function; 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Cytoskeleton; 
                 Cardiovascular Function 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Cytosol; 
               
               
                 AMPH 
                 Fetal 
                 Membrane 
                 Synaptic Vesicle Endocytosis 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Cytoskeleton; 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Membrane 
               
               
                 CUX2 
                 Fetal 
                 Nucleus 
                 Cell Cycle; Fetal 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Development; DNA Damage 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Response 
               
               
                 FAM107A 
                 Fetal 
                 Cytoskeleton; 
                 Cell Migration/Invasion; Cell 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Membrane; 
                 Cycle; ECM Regulation 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Nucleus 
               
               
                 IGFBP5 
                 Fetal 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Fetal Development; IGF 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
                 Signaling 
               
               
                 NES 
                 Fetal 
                 Cytoskeleton 
                 Fetal Development; Cell 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Cycle 
               
               
                 PITPNM3 
                 Fetal 
                 Membrane 
                 Phosphatidylinositol 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Regulation 
               
               
                 PRX 
                 Fetal 
                 Membrane 
                 Cell Structure/Composition 
               
               
                 TEAD4 
                 Fetal 
                 Nucleus 
                 Placental Development 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Epinephrine Synthesis; 
               
               
                 PNMT 
                 Other 
                 Cytosol 
                 Cardiovascular Function; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Pregnancy Duration 
               
               
                 DAAM2 
                 Other 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Fetal Development 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
               
               
                 SLC9A3R2 
                 Other 
                 Membrane; 
                 ECM Regulation; Cell 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Nucleus 
                 Structure/Composition 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Angiogenesis; Cardiovascular 
               
               
                 HSPA12B 
                 Other 
                 unknown 
                 Function; Cell 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Migration/Invasion; Hypoxia 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Response 
               
               
                 PLD4 
                 Other 
                 Membrane 
                 Phosphatidylinositol 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Regulation; Immune Function 
               
               
                 TIMP4 
                 Other 
                 Extracellular or 
                 ECM Regulation; Immune 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
                 Function 
               
               
                 KRT5 
                 Other 
                 Cytoskeleton 
                 Cell Structure/Composition 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Immune Function; Cell 
               
               
                 ZEB1 
                 Other 
                 Nucleus 
                 Migration/Invasion; Fetal 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Development; Pregnancy 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Duration 
               
               
                 APOLD1 
                 Placental 
                 Plasma 
                 Angiogenesis; Cardiovascular 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Membrane 
                 Function; Hypoxia Response; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Fetal Development 
               
               
                 HTRA4 
                 Placental 
                 Extracellular or 
                 IGF Signaling; Placental 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
                 Development 
               
               
                 SEMA3G 
                 Placental 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Cell Migration/Invasion 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
               
               
                 ADAMTS1 
                 Placental/Fetal 
                 Extracellular or 
                 ECM Regulation; Fetal 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
                 Development; Angiogenesis 
               
               
                 CRH 
                 Placental/Fetal 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Pregnancy Duration; Fetal 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
                 Development; Cardiovascular 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Function 
               
               
                 PRG2 
                 Placental/Fetal 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Immune Function; ECM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
                 Regulation; IGF Signaling 
               
               
                 TIMP3 
                 Placental/Fetal 
                 Extracellular or 
                 ECM Regulation; Immune 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
                 Function; Angiogenesis 
               
               
                 ARHGEF25 
                 Other 
                 Membrane; 
                 Cardiovascular function 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Sarcomere 
               
               
                 CLEC4C 
                 Other 
                 Membrane 
                 Immune Function 
               
               
                 LEP 
                 Placental 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Energy Homeostasis; Immune 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
                 Function; Angiogenesis; Fetal 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Development; ECM 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Regulation 
               
               
                 PAPPA2 
                 Placental 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Fetal Development; IGF 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
                 Signaling 
               
               
                 VSIG4 
                 Placental 
                 Membrane 
                 Immune Function 
               
               
                 ADAMTS2 
                 Placental/Fetal 
                 Extracellular or 
                 ECM Regulation; 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
                 Angiogenesis; Fetal 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Development 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 * All “membrane” classifications were collapsed to a single category. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 21 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Transcripts used by AdaBoost for classification of early-onset PE with severe 
               
               
                 features. Delineates the protein expression, functional characteristics, and 
               
               
                 PE-relevant literature of the genes identified with the iPEC model samples. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Changes in PE 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 PMID of 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Manuscripts 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Average 
                 Fold 
                 Describing 
               
               
                 Gene 
                   
                 Number of 
                 Relative 
                 Change 
                 a Role 
               
               
                 Symbol 
                 Analysis 
                 Models 
                 Importance* 
                 in PE 
                 in PE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ADA 
                 AdaBoost 
                 3 
                 0% 
                 −1.44 
                 27939490 
               
               
                 ADAMTS2 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 6 
                 18%  
                 +11.57 
                 NA 
               
               
                 AKAP2 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 1% 
                 +1.95 
                 NA 
               
               
                 ARHGEF25 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 10 
                 25%  
                 +4.09 
                 NA 
               
               
                 ARRB1 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 19%  
                 −1.17 
                 30503206 
               
               
                 ARRDC2 
                 AdaBoost 
                 8 
                 7% 
                 +1.78 
                 NA 
               
               
                 ATOH8 
                 AdaBoost 
                 5 
                 2% 
                 +2.22 
                 30301918 
               
               
                 CLEC4C 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 8 
                 8% 
                 −3.64 
                 12699426 
               
               
                 CPSF7 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 1% 
                 +1.2 
                 NA 
               
               
                 CUX2 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 3 
                 1% 
                 −3.3 
                 NA 
               
               
                 FKBP5 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 0% 
                 +2.8 
                 26268791 
               
               
                 FSTL3 
                 AdaBoost 
                 2 
                 1% 
                 +2.57 
                 30454705 
               
               
                 GSTA3 
                 AdaBoost 
                 4 
                 1% 
                 −2.54 
                 28232601 
               
               
                 HEG1 
                 AdaBoost 
                 3 
                 3% 
                 +2.06 
                 NA 
               
               
                 IGIP 
                 AdaBoost 
                 4 
                 1% 
                 +2.49 
                 25802182 
               
               
                 INO80C 
                 AdaBoost 
                 2 
                 2% 
                 −1.13 
                 NA 
               
               
                 JAG1 
                 AdaBoost 
                 3 
                 2% 
                 +2.13 
                 21693515 
               
               
                 JUN 
                 AdaBoost 
                 6 
                 3% 
                 +1.75 
                 20800894 
               
               
                 KRT5 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 2 
                 3% 
                 −5.78 
                 24657793 
               
               
                 LEP 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 9 
                 8% 
                 +10.75 
                 23544093 
               
               
                 LILRA4 
                 AdaBoost 
                 4 
                 2% 
                 −2.57 
                 19368561 
               
               
                 MRPS35 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 0% 
                 −1.18 
                 NA 
               
               
                 MSMP 
                 AdaBoost 
                 7 
                 9% 
                 +1.37 
                 29059175 
               
               
                 NES 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 6 
                 9% 
                 +4.5 
                 17653873 
               
               
                 NFE2L1 
                 AdaBoost 
                 3 
                 7% 
                 +2.39 
                 26089598 
               
               
                 NR4A2 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 1% 
                 +1.42 
                 18533121 
               
               
                 NTRK2 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 1% 
                 +2.67 
                 21537405 
               
               
                 PACSIN1 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 1% 
                 −3.22 
                 NA 
               
               
                 PER1 
                 AdaBoost 
                 3 
                 5% 
                 +2.33 
                 NA 
               
               
                 PLD4 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 4 
                 2% 
                 −3.03 
                 NA 
               
               
                 PLEK 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 19%  
                 −1.37 
                 NA 
               
               
                 PRG2 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 1% 
                 +5.24 
                 28347715 
               
               
                 RAP1GAP2 
                 AdaBoost 
                 6 
                 2% 
                 −1.23 
                 29643944 
               
               
                 RGP1 
                 AdaBoost 
                 3 
                 1% 
                 +1.26 
                 NA 
               
               
                 SEMA3G 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 0% 
                 +3.48 
                 NA 
               
               
                 SH3PXD2A 
                 AdaBoost 
                 2 
                 4% 
                 +2.36 
                 23544093 
               
               
                 SKIL 
                 AdaBoost 
                 7 
                 7% 
                 +1.46 
                 20934677 
               
               
                 SMPD3 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 0% 
                 −2.3 
                 23465879 
               
               
                 SPEG 
                 AdaBoost 
                 3 
                 2% 
                 +1.87 
                 NA 
               
               
                 SRPX 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 1% 
                 +2.89 
                 20934677 
               
               
                 SYNPO 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 1% 
                 +2.67 
                 17255128 
               
               
                 TEAD4 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 3 
                 5% 
                 +3.3 
                 NA 
               
               
                 TIPARP 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 0% 
                 +1.28 
                 28347715 
               
               
                 TNFRSF21 
                 AdaBoost 
                 4 
                 1% 
                 −1.52 
                 NA 
               
               
                 TPST1 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 0% 
                 +1.69 
                 NA 
               
               
                 TRPS1 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 0% 
                 +1.18 
                 NA 
               
               
                 UBE2Q1 
                 AdaBoost 
                 1 
                 50%  
                 −1.1 
                 NA 
               
               
                 VSIG4 
                 DEX &amp; AdaBoost 
                 3 
                 3% 
                 +8.13 
                 24349325 
               
               
                 ZNF768 
                 AdaBoost 
                 2 
                 7% 
                 +1.6 
                 NA 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Protein Characteristics 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Gene 
                 Tissue 
                 Sub-Cellular 
                   
               
               
                 Symbol 
                 Expression 
                 Localization 
                 Function 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ADA 
                 Other 
                 Lysosome; Membrane 
                 Metabolism; Inflammation 
               
               
                 ADAMTS2 
                 Placental/Fetal 
                 Extracellular or 
                 ECM regulation; Angiogenesis; Fetal 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
                 Development 
               
               
                 AKAP2 
                 Other 
                 Membrane 
                 Cardiovascular Function 
               
               
                 ARHGEF25 
                 Other 
                 Membrane; 
                 Cardiovascular Function 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Sarcomere 
               
               
                 ARRB1 
                 Other 
                 Cytosol 
                 GPCR Signaling; Cardiovascular 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Function; Immune Function 
               
               
                 ARRDC2 
                 Other 
                 Membrane 
                 Protein Trafficking 
               
               
                 ATOH8 
                 Other 
                 Nucleus 
                 Transcription Factor; Pregnancy 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Duration; Trophoblast Regulation 
               
               
                 CLEC4C 
                 Other 
                 Membrane 
                 Immune Function 
               
               
                 CPSF7 
                 Other 
                 Nucleus; Cytoplasm 
                 mRNA Processing 
               
               
                 CUX2 
                 Fetal 
                 Nucleus 
                 Cell Cycle; Fetal Development; DNA 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Damage Response 
               
               
                 FKBP5 
                 Other 
                 Nucleus; Cytoplasm 
                 Immune Function; Steroid Hormone 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Receptor Trafficking 
               
               
                 FSTL3 
                 Placental 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Fetal Development; Trophoblast 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted; Nucleus 
                 Regulation 
               
               
                 GSTA3 
                 Placental 
                 Cytoplasm 
                 Steroid Hormone Biosynthesis; Placental 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Development 
               
               
                 HEG1 
                 Other 
                 Membrane; 
                 Fetal Development 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Extracellular or 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
               
               
                 IGIP 
                 Other 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Cardiovascular Function 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
               
               
                 INO80C 
                 Placental 
                 Nucleus 
                 Transcription Regulation; DNA Repair 
               
               
                 JAG1 
                 Other 
                 Membrane 
                 Fetal Development; Angiogenesis; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Trophoblast Regulation 
               
               
                 JUN 
                 Other 
                 Nucleus 
                 Transcription Factor; Trophoblast 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Regulation 
               
               
                 KRT5 
                 Other 
                 Cytoskeleton 
                 Cell Structure/Composition 
               
               
                 LEP 
                 Placental 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Energy Homeostasis; Immune Function; 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
                 Angiogenesis; Fetal Development; ECM 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Regulation 
               
               
                 LILRA4 
                 Other 
                 Membrane 
                 Immune Function 
               
               
                 MRPS35 
                 Other 
                 Mitochondria 
                 Energy Homeostasis; Cell 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Structure/Composition 
               
               
                 MSMP 
                 Other 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Angiogenesis 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
               
               
                 NES 
                 Fetal 
                 Cytoskeleton 
                 Fetal Development; Cell Cycle 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Cardiovascular Function; Oxidative 
               
               
                 NFE2L1 
                 Other 
                 Membrane; Nucleus 
                 Stress Response; Energy Homeostasis; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Transcription Factor 
               
               
                 NR4A2 
                 Other 
                 Nucleus; Cytoplasm 
                 Fetal Development; Steroid Hormone 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Response; Transcription Factor 
               
               
                 NTRK2 
                 Fetal 
                 Membrane 
                 Trophoblast Regulation; Fetal 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Development 
               
               
                 PACSIN1 
                 Fetal 
                 Membrane 
                 Cell Structure/Composition; Synaptic 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Vesicle Endocytosis 
               
               
                 PER1 
                 Fetal 
                 Nucleus; Cytoplasm 
                 Circadian Rhythm 
               
               
                 PLD4 
                 Other 
                 Membrane 
                 Phosphatidylinositol Regulation; Immune 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Function 
               
               
                 PLEK 
                 Fetal 
                 Cytosol 
                 Phosphatidylinositol Regulation; Immune 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Function; Cell Structure/Composition 
               
               
                 PRG2 
                 Placental/Fetal 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Immune Function; ECM Regulation; IGF 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
                 Signaling 
               
               
                 RAP1GAP2 
                 Placental/Fetal 
                 Cytoplasm 
                 Immune Function; Angiogenesis; Fetal 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Development 
               
               
                 RGP1 
                 Other 
                 Cytosol; Membrane 
                 Protein Trafficking 
               
               
                 SEMA3G 
                 Placenta 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Cell Migration/Invasion 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
               
               
                 SH3PXD2A 
                 Other 
                 Cytoplasm 
                 ECM Regulation; Fetal Development 
               
               
                 SKIL 
                 Placenta 
                 Nucleus 
                 Transcription Factor; Placenta 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Development 
               
               
                 SMPD3 
                 Fetal 
                 Membrane 
                 Lipid Metabolism 
               
               
                 SPEG 
                 Other 
                 Nucleus 
                 Fetal Development 
               
               
                 SRPX 
                 Other 
                 Extracellular or 
                 Angiogenesis 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Secreted 
               
               
                 SYNPO 
                 Placenta 
                 Cytskeleton; Cytosol 
                 Cell Structure/Composition 
               
               
                 TEAD4 
                 Fetal 
                 Nucleus 
                 Placental Development 
               
               
                 TIPARP 
                 Other 
                 Nucleus 
                 Metabolism; Protein Processing 
               
               
                 TNFRSF21 
                 Other 
                 Membrane 
                 Immune Function; Apoptosis 
               
               
                 TPST1 
                 Other 
                 Membrane 
                 Protein Processing 
               
               
                 TRPS1 
                 Other 
                 Nucleus 
                 Transcription Factor 
               
               
                 UBE2Q1 
                 Other 
                 Nucleus; Cytosol 
                 Protein Processing 
               
               
                 VSIG4 
                 Placenta 
                 Membrane 
                 Immune Function 
               
               
                 ZNF768 
                 Other 
                 Nucleus 
                 Transcription Factor 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *Average for when included in an AdaBoost model. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The complete disclosure of all patents, patent applications, and publications, and electronically available material (including, for instance, nucleotide sequence submissions in, e.g., GenBank and RefSeq, and amino acid sequence submissions in, e.g., SwissProt, PIR, PRF, PDB, and translations from annotated coding regions in GenBank and RefSeq) cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. Supplementary materials referenced in publications (such as supplementary tables, supplementary figures, supplementary materials and methods, and/or supplementary experimental data) are likewise incorporated by reference in their entirety. In the event that any inconsistency exists between the disclosure of the present application and the disclosure(s) of any document incorporated herein by reference, the disclosure of the present application shall govern. The foregoing detailed description and examples have been given for clarity of understanding only. No unnecessary limitations are to be understood therefrom. The disclosure is not limited to the exact details shown and described, for variations obvious to one skilled in the art will be included within the disclosure defined by the claims. 
     Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of components, molecular weights, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about.” Accordingly, unless otherwise indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the specification and claims are approximations that may vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the present disclosure. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims, each numerical parameter should at least be construed in light of the number of reported significant digits and by applying ordinary rounding techniques. 
     Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forth the broad scope of the disclosure are approximations, the numerical values set forth in the specific examples are reported as precisely as possible. All numerical values, however, inherently contain a range necessarily resulting from the standard deviation found in their respective testing measurements. 
     All headings are for the convenience of the reader and should not be used to limit the meaning of the text that follows the heading, unless so specified.