Patent Publication Number: US-11380492-B1

Title: Solid electrolytic capacitor

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     The present application claims filing benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/777,928 having a filing date of Dec. 11, 2018, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Solid electrolytic capacitors (e.g., tantalum capacitors) are typically made by pressing a metal powder (e.g., tantalum) around a metal lead wire, sintering the pressed part, anodizing the sintered anode, and thereafter applying a solid electrolyte. Intrinsically conductive polymers are often employed as the solid electrolyte due to their advantageous low equivalent series resistance (“ESR”) and “non-burning/non-ignition” failure mode. For example, such electrolytes can be formed through in situ chemical polymerization of a 3,4-dioxythiophene monomer (“EDOT”) in the presence of a catalyst and dopant. However, conventional capacitors that employ in situ polymerized polymers tend to have a relatively high leakage current (“DCL”) and fail at high voltages, such as experienced during a fast switch on or operational current spike. In an attempt to overcome these issues, dispersions have also been employed that are formed from a complex of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) and poly(styrene sulfonic acid (“PEDOT:PSS”). While some benefits have been achieved with these capacitors, problems nevertheless remain. For many applications, it is often desirable to use metal powders having a high specific charge—i.e., about 50,000 microFarads*Volts per gram (“μF*V/g”) or more. Such high “CV/g” powders are generally formed from particles having a nano-scale size, which results in the formation of very small pores between the particles. Unfortunately, it is often difficult to impregnate premade polymer slurries into these small pores, which has traditionally led to relatively poor electrical performance of the capacitor. As such, a need exists for an improved solid electrolytic capacitor that can have a high capacitance and yet still exhibit relatively stable electrical properties at certain extreme conditions, such as at a high temperature and/or dry atmosphere. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, a solid electrolytic capacitor comprising a capacitor element that contains a sintered porous anode body formed from a valve metal powder having a specific charge of about 50,000 μF*V/g or more, a dielectric that overlies the anode body, and a solid electrolyte that overlies the dielectric that includes a conductive polymer. The capacitor exhibits an anomalous charging current of about 0.25 amps or less when charged at a constant voltage rate increase of 120 volts per second, determined at a temperature of 23° C. and voltage of 16 volts. 
     Other features and aspects of the present invention are set forth in greater detail below. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       A full and enabling disclosure of the present invention, including the best mode thereof, directed to one of ordinary skill in the art, is set forth more particularly in the remainder of the specification, which makes reference to the appended figures in which: 
         FIG. 1  is a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of a capacitor of the assembly of the present invention; 
         FIG. 2  is a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of a capacitor of the assembly of the present invention; 
         FIG. 3  is a cross-sectional view of yet another embodiment of a capacitor of the assembly of the present invention; and 
         FIG. 4  is a top view of still another embodiment of a capacitor of the assembly of the present invention. 
     
    
    
     Repeat use of references characters in the present specification and drawings is intended to represent same or analogous features or elements of the invention. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF REPRESENTATIVE EMBODIMENTS 
     It is to be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that the present discussion is a description of exemplary embodiments only, and is not intended as limiting the broader aspects of the present invention, which broader aspects are embodied in the exemplary construction. 
     Generally speaking, the present invention is directed to a solid electrolytic capacitor that contains a capacitor element including a sintered porous anode body, a dielectric overlying the anode body, and a solid electrolyte overlying the dielectric that includes a conductive polymer. The sintered porous body is formed from a valve metal powder having a high specific charge. The specific charge of the powder may, for instance be about 50,000 microFarads*Volts per gram (“μF*V/g”) or more, in some embodiments about 60,000 μF*V/g or more, in some embodiments from about 70,000 to about 500,000 μF*V/g, and in some embodiments, from about 80,000 to about 300,000 μF*V/g. As is known in the art, the specific charge may be determined by multiplying capacitance by the anodizing voltage employed, and then dividing this product by the weight of the anodized electrode body. Despite being formed from a powder having a high specific charge, the present inventors have nevertheless discovered that a capacitor having excellent electrical properties can still be formed through selective control over the solid electrolyte. The dielectric, for instance, may be formed with anodically oxidizing the anode body in an electrolyte that contains an ionic compound and oxidizing agent. In this manner, the present inventors have discovered the anodization process can result in a dielectric with improved quality, which in turn can lead to a capacitor having excellent electrical properties even when exposed to high temperatures and/or a dry atmosphere. 
     The capacitor may, for instance, exhibit a low anomalous charging current during charging of the capacitor at a constant voltage rate increase (e.g., 120 volts per second), as determined at a temperature of 23° C. and at a voltage of 16 volts. The anomalous charging current may, for example, be about 0.25 amps or less, in some embodiments about 0.2 amps or less, in some embodiments about 0.15 amps or less, and in some embodiments, from 0 to about 0.1 amps. Notably, the ability of the capacitor to exhibit a low anomalous charging current can be maintained under a variety of conditions. For example, the capacitor may exhibit a low anomalous charging current even after being exposed to a higher temperature, such as from about 80° C. to about 300° C., in some embodiments from about 100° C. to about 280° C., and in some embodiments, from about 200° C. to about 270° C. (e.g., 240 to 250° C.) for a period of time from about 30 minutes to about 20 hours, in some embodiments from about 1 hour to about 18 hours, and in some embodiments, from about 4 hours to about 16 hours. As an example, the capacitor exhibit a low anomalous charging current when exposed to reflow with a peak temperature from 240° C. to 255° C. with a minimum recovery of 1 hour. The capacitor may also exhibit a low anomalous charging current under dry conditions, such as when placed into contact with an atmosphere having a relative humidity of about 10% or less, in some embodiments about 5% or less, and in some embodiments, from about 0.001% to about 1%. Relative humidity may, for instance, be determined in accordance with ASTM E337-02, Method A (2007). The dry atmosphere may be part of the internal atmosphere of the capacitor itself, or it may be an external atmosphere to which the capacitor is exposed during storage and/or use. 
     The capacitor can also exhibit other improved electrical properties. For instance, after being subjected to an applied voltage (e.g., 120 volts) for a period of time from about 30 minutes to about 20 hours, in some embodiments from about 1 hour to about 18 hours, and in some embodiments, from about 4 hours to about 16 hours, the capacitor may exhibit a leakage current (“DCL”) of only about 100 microamps (“μA”) or less, in some embodiments about 70 μA or less, and in some embodiments, from about 1 to about 50 μA. Notably, the capacitor may exhibit such low DCL values even under dry conditions, such as described above. 
     Other electrical properties of the capacitor may also be good and remain stable under various conditions. For example, the capacitor may exhibit a relatively low equivalence series resistance (“ESR”), such as about 200 mohms, in some embodiments less than about 150 mohms, in some embodiments from about 0.01 to about 125 mohms, and in some embodiments, from about 0.1 to about 100 mohms, measured at an operating frequency of 100 kHz and temperature of 23° C. The capacitor may also exhibit a dry capacitance of about 30 nanoFarads per square centimeter (“nF/cm 2 ”) or more, in some embodiments about 100 nF/cm 2  or more, in some embodiments from about 200 to about 3,000 nF/cm 2 , and in some embodiments, from about 400 to about 2,000 nF/cm 2 , measured at a frequency of 120 Hz at temperature of 23° C. Notably, such electrical properties (e.g., ESR and/or capacitance) can still remain stable even at high temperatures and/or dry conditions as noted above. For example, the capacitor may exhibit an ESR and/or capacitance value within the ranges noted above even after being exposed to a temperature of from about 80° C. or more, in some embodiments from about 100° C. to about 150° C., and in some embodiments, from about 105° C. to about 130° C. (e.g., 105° C. or 125° C.) for a substantial period of time, such as for about 100 hours or more, in some embodiments from about 150 hours to about 3000 hours, and in some embodiments, from about 200 hours to about 2500 hours (e.g., 240 hours). In one embodiment, for example, the ratio of the ESR and/or capacitance value of the capacitor after being exposed to the high temperature (e.g., 125° C.) for 240 hours to the initial ESR and/or capacitance value of the capacitor (e.g., at 23° C.) is about 2.0 or less, in some embodiments about 1.5 or less, and in some embodiments, from 1.0 to about 1.3. 
     Further, the capacitor may exhibit a high percentage of its wet capacitance, which enables it to have only a small capacitance loss and/or fluctuation in the presence of atmosphere humidity. This performance characteristic is quantified by the “wet-to-dry capacitance percentage”, which is determined by the equation:
 
Wet-to-Dry Capacitance=(Dry Capacitance/Wet Capacitance)×100
 
     The capacitor may exhibit a wet-to-dry capacitance percentage of about 50% or more, in some embodiments about 60% or more, in some embodiments about 70% or more, and in some embodiments, from about 80% to 100%. 
     It is also believed that the dissipation factor of the capacitor may be maintained at relatively low levels. The dissipation factor generally refers to losses that occur in the capacitor and is usually expressed as a percentage of the ideal capacitor performance. For example, the dissipation factor of the capacitor is typically about 250% or less, in some embodiments about 200% or less, and in some embodiments, from about 1% to about 180%, as determined at a frequency of 120 Hz. The capacitor may also be able to be employed in high voltage applications, such as at rated voltages of about 35 volts or more, in some embodiments about 50 volts or more, and in some embodiments, from about 60 volts to about 200 volts. The capacitor may, for example, exhibit a relatively high “breakdown voltage” (voltage at which the capacitor fails), such as about 60 volts or more, in some embodiments about 70 volts or more, in some embodiments about 80 volts or more, and in some embodiments, from about 100 volts to about 300 volts. Likewise, the capacitor may also be able to withstand relatively high surge currents, which is also common in high voltage applications. The peak surge current may be, for example, about 100 Amps or more, in some embodiments about 200 Amps or more, and in some embodiments, and in some embodiments, from about 300 Amps to about 800 Amps. 
     Various embodiments of the capacitor will now be described in more detail. 
     I. Capacitor Element 
     A. Anode Body 
     The capacitor element includes an anode that contains a dielectric formed on a sintered porous body. The porous anode body may be formed from a powder that contains a valve metal (i.e., metal that is capable of oxidation) or valve metal-based compound, such as tantalum, niobium, aluminum, hafnium, titanium, alloys thereof, oxides thereof, nitrides thereof, and so forth. The powder is typically formed from a reduction process in which a tantalum salt (e.g., potassium fluotantalate (K 2 TaF 7 ), sodium fluotantalate (Na 2 TaF 7 ), tantalum pentachloride (TaCl 5 ), etc.) is reacted with a reducing agent. The reducing agent may be provided in the form of a liquid, gas (e.g., hydrogen), or solid, such as a metal (e.g., sodium), metal alloy, or metal salt. In one embodiment, for instance, a tantalum salt (e.g., TaCl 5 ) may be heated at a temperature of from about 900° C. to about 2,000° C., in some embodiments from about 1,000° C. to about 1,800° C., and in some embodiments, from about 1,100° C. to about 1,600° C., to form a vapor that can be reduced in the presence of a gaseous reducing agent (e.g., hydrogen). Additional details of such a reduction reaction may be described in WO 2014/199480 to Maeshima, et al. After the reduction, the product may be cooled, crushed, and washed to form a powder. 
     The powder may be a free-flowing, finely divided powder that contains primary particles. The primary particles of the powder generally have a median size (D50) of from about 5 to about 500 nanometers, in some embodiments from about 10 to about 400 nanometers, and in some embodiments, from about 20 to about 250 nanometers, such as determined using a laser particle size distribution analyzer made by BECKMAN COULTER Corporation (e.g., LS-230), optionally after subjecting the particles to an ultrasonic wave vibration of 70 seconds. The primary particles typically have a three-dimensional granular shape (e.g., nodular or angular). Such particles typically have a relatively low “aspect ratio”, which is the average diameter or width of the particles divided by the average thickness (“D/T”). For example, the aspect ratio of the particles may be about 4 or less, in some embodiments about 3 or less, and in some embodiments, from about 1 to about 2. In addition to primary particles, the powder may also contain other types of particles, such as secondary particles formed by aggregating (or agglomerating) the primary particles. Such secondary particles may have a median size (D50) of from about 1 to about 500 micrometers, and in some embodiments, from about 10 to about 250 micrometers. 
     Agglomeration of the particles may occur by heating the particles and/or through the use of a binder. For example, agglomeration may occur at a temperature of from about 0° C. to about 40° C., in some embodiments from about 5° C. to about 35° C., and in some embodiments, from about 15° C. to about 30° C. Suitable binders may likewise include, for instance, poly(vinyl butyral); poly(vinyl acetate); poly(vinyl alcohol); poly(vinyl pyrollidone); cellulosic polymers, such as carboxymethylcellulose, methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, and methylhydroxyethyl cellulose; atactic polypropylene, polyethylene; polyethylene glycol (e.g., Carbowax from Dow Chemical Co.); polystyrene, poly(butadiene/styrene); polyamides, polyimides, and polyacrylamides, high molecular weight polyethers; copolymers of ethylene oxide and propylene oxide; fluoropolymers, such as polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinylidene fluoride, and fluoro-olefin copolymers; acrylic polymers, such as sodium polyacrylate, poly(lower alkyl acrylates), poly(lower alkyl methacrylates) and copolymers of lower alkyl acrylates and methacrylates; and fatty acids and waxes, such as stearic and other soapy fatty acids, vegetable wax, microwaxes (purified paraffins), etc. 
     The resulting powder may be compacted to form a pellet using any conventional powder press device. For example, a press mold may be employed that is a single station compaction press containing a die and one or multiple punches. Alternatively, anvil-type compaction press molds may be used that use only a die and single lower punch. Single station compaction press molds are available in several basic types, such as cam, toggle/knuckle and eccentric/crank presses with varying capabilities, such as single action, double action, floating die, movable platen, opposed ram, screw, impact, hot pressing, coining or sizing. The powder may be compacted around an anode lead, which may be in the form of a wire, sheet, etc. The lead may extend in a longitudinal direction from the anode body and may be formed from any electrically conductive material, such as tantalum, niobium, aluminum, hafnium, titanium, etc., as well as electrically conductive oxides and/or nitrides of thereof. Connection of the lead to the anode body may also be accomplished using other known techniques, such as by welding the lead to the body or embedding it within the anode body during formation (e.g., prior to compaction and/or sintering). 
     Any binder may be removed after pressing by heating the pellet under vacuum at a certain temperature (e.g., from about 150° C. to about 500° C.) for several minutes. Alternatively, the binder may also be removed by contacting the pellet with an aqueous solution, such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,197,252 to Bishop, et al. Thereafter, the pellet is sintered to form a porous, integral mass. The pellet is typically sintered at a temperature of from about 700° C. to about 1600° C., in some embodiments from about 800° C. to about 1500° C., and in some embodiments, from about 900° C. to about 1200° C., for a time of from about 5 minutes to about 100 minutes, and in some embodiments, from about 8 minutes to about 15 minutes. This may occur in one or more steps. If desired, sintering may occur in an atmosphere that limits the transfer of oxygen atoms to the anode. For example, sintering may occur in a reducing atmosphere, such as in a vacuum, inert gas, hydrogen, etc. The reducing atmosphere may be at a pressure of from about 10 Torr to about 2000 Torr, in some embodiments from about 100 Torr to about 1000 Torr, and in some embodiments, from about 100 Torr to about 930 Torr. Mixtures of hydrogen and other gases (e.g., argon or nitrogen) may also be employed. 
     B. Dielectric 
     The anode is also coated with a dielectric. As indicated above, the dielectric is formed by anodically oxidizing (“anodizing”) the sintered anode so that a dielectric layer is formed over and/or within the anode. For example, a tantalum (Ta) anode may be anodized to tantalum pentoxide (Ta 2 O 5 ). 
     Typically, anodization is performed by initially applying an electrolyte to the anode, such as by dipping anode into the electrolyte. The electrolyte is generally in the form of a liquid, such as a solution (e.g., aqueous or non-aqueous), dispersion, melt, etc. A solvent is generally employed in the electrolyte, such as water (e.g., deionized water); ethers (e.g., diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran); glycols (e.g., ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, etc.); alcohols (e.g., methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, isopropanol, and butanol); triglycerides; ketones (e.g., acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, and methyl isobutyl ketone); esters (e.g., ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, diethylene glycol ether acetate, and methoxypropyl acetate); amides (e.g., dimethylformamide, dimethylacetamide, dimethylcaprylic/capric fatty acid amide and N-alkylpyrrolidones); nitriles (e.g., acetonitrile, propionitrile, butyronitrile and benzonitrile); sulfoxides or sulfones (e.g., dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and sulfolane); and so forth. The solvent(s) may constitute from about 50 wt. % to about 99.9 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 75 wt. % to about 99 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 80 wt. % to about 95 wt. % of the electrolyte. Although not necessarily required, the use of an aqueous solvent (e.g., water) is often desired to facilitate formation of an oxide. In fact, water may constitute about 1 wt. % or more, in some embodiments about 10 wt. % or more, in some embodiments about 50 wt. % or more, in some embodiments about 70 wt. % or more, and in some embodiments, about 90 wt. % to 100 wt. % of the solvent(s) used in the electrolyte. 
     The electrolyte is electrically conductive and may have an electrical conductivity of about 1 milliSiemens per centimeter (“mS/cm”) or more, in some embodiments about 30 mS/cm or more, and in some embodiments, from about 40 mS/cm to about 100 mS/cm, determined at a temperature of 25° C. To enhance the electrical conductivity of the electrolyte, an ionic compound is generally employed that is capable of dissociating in the solvent to form ions. Suitable ionic compounds for this purpose may include, for instance, acids, such as hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, polyphosphoric acid, boric acid, boronic acid, etc.; organic acids, including carboxylic acids, such as acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, salicylic acid, sulfosalicylic acid, adipic acid, maleic acid, malic acid, oleic acid, gallic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, formic acid, acetic acid, glycolic acid, oxalic acid, propionic acid, phthalic acid, isophthalic acid, glutaric acid, gluconic acid, lactic acid, aspartic acid, glutaminic acid, itaconic acid, trifluoroacetic acid, barbituric acid, cinnamic acid, benzoic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, aminobenzoic acid, etc.; sulfonic acids, such as methanesulfonic acid, benzenesulfonic acid, toluenesulfonic acid, trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, styrenesulfonic acid, naphthalene disulfonic acid, hydroxybenzenesulfonic acid, dodecylsulfonic acid, dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid, etc.; polymeric acids, such as poly(acrylic) or poly(methacrylic) acid and copolymers thereof (e.g., maleic-acrylic, sulfonic-acrylic, and styrene-acrylic copolymers), carageenic acid, carboxymethyl cellulose, alginic acid, etc.; and so forth. The concentration of ionic compounds is selected to achieve the desired electrical conductivity. For example, an acid (e.g., phosphoric acid) may constitute from about 0.01 wt. % to about 5 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 0.05 wt. % to about 0.8 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 0.1 wt. % to about 0.5 wt. % of the electrolyte. If desired, blends of ionic compounds may also be employed in the electrolyte. 
     As indicated above, an oxidizing agent is also employed in the electrolyte to help improve the quality of the dielectric. While a variety of oxidizing agents may be employed, it is generally desired that such agents have a standard oxidation potential (“E o ”) of about 1 V or more, in some embodiments about 1.2 V or more, in some embodiments from about 1.3 to about 2 V, and in some embodiments, from about 1.4 to about 1.8 V, as determined at a temperature of 25° C. For instance, suitable oxidizing agents may include peroxides (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, lithium peroxide, sodium peroxide, potassium peroxide, ammonium peroxide, calcium peroxide, rubidium peroxide, cesium peroxide, strontium peroxide, barium peroxide, magnesium peroxide, mercury peroxide, silver peroxide, zirconium peroxide, hafnium peroxide, titanium peroxide, phosphorus peroxide, sulphur peroxide, rhenium peroxide, iron peroxide, cobalt peroxide, and nickel peroxide); hydroperoxides (e.g., tert-butyl hydroperoxide, cumyl hydroperoxide, 2,4,4-trimethylpentyl-2-hydroperoxide, di-isopropylbenzene-monohydroperoxide, tert-amyl hydroperoxide and 2,5-dimethyl-hexane-2,5-dihydroperoxide); perborates (e.g., sodium perborate, potassium perborate, and ammonium perborate); persulphates (e.g., sodium persulphate, potassiumdipersulphate, and potassium persulphate); percarbonates; peroxyacids; ozonides; periodates; nitrates (e.g., ammonium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, manganese nitrate, etc.); sulphates (e.g., sodium sulphate); etc., as well as combinations thereof. The concentration of oxidizing agents in the electrolyte may be from about 0.01 wt. % to about 5 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 0.05 wt. % to about 0.8 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 0.1 wt. % to about 0.5 wt. % of the electrolyte. If desired, blends of oxidizing agents may also be employed in the electrolyte. For example, a peroxide may be employed in combination with an inorganic salt, such as a perborate, nitrate, and/or sulphate. 
     To form the dielectric, a current is typically passed through the electrolyte while it is in contact with the anode body. The value of the formation voltage manages the thickness of the dielectric layer. For example, the power supply may be initially set up at a galvanostatic mode until the required voltage is reached. Thereafter, the power supply may be switched to a potentiostatic mode to ensure that the desired dielectric thickness is formed over the entire surface of the anode. Of course, other known methods may also be employed, such as pulse or step potentiostatic methods. The voltage at which anodic oxidation occurs typically ranges from about 4 to about 250 V, and in some embodiments, from about 5 to about 200 V, and in some embodiments, from about 10 to about 150 V. During oxidation, the electrolyte can be kept at an elevated temperature, such as about 30° C. or more, in some embodiments from about 40° C. to about 200° C., and in some embodiments, from about 50° C. to about 100° C. Anodic oxidation can also be done at ambient temperature or lower. The resulting dielectric layer may be formed on a surface of the anode and within its pores. 
     Although not required, in certain embodiments, the dielectric layer may possess a differential thickness throughout the anode in that it possesses a first portion that overlies an external surface of the anode and a second portion that overlies an interior surface of the anode. In such embodiments, the first portion is selectively formed so that its thickness is greater than that of the second portion. It should be understood, however, that the thickness of the dielectric layer need not be uniform within a particular region. Certain portions of the dielectric layer adjacent to the external surface may, for example, actually be thinner than certain portions of the layer at the interior surface, and vice versa. Nevertheless, the dielectric layer may be formed such that at least a portion of the layer at the external surface has a greater thickness than at least a portion at the interior surface. Although the exact difference in these thicknesses may vary depending on the particular application, the ratio of the thickness of the first portion to the thickness of the second portion is typically from about 1.2 to about 40, in some embodiments from about 1.5 to about 25, and in some embodiments, from about 2 to about 20. 
     To form a dielectric layer having a differential thickness, a multi-stage process may be employed. In each stage of the process, the sintered anode is anodically oxidized (“anodized”) to form a dielectric layer (e.g., tantalum pentoxide). During the first stage of anodization, a relatively small forming voltage is typically employed to ensure that the desired dielectric thickness is achieved for the inner region, such as forming voltages ranging from about 1 to about 90 volts, in some embodiments from about 2 to about 50 volts, and in some embodiments, from about 5 to about 20 volts. Thereafter, the sintered body may then be anodically oxidized in a second stage of the process to increase the thickness of the dielectric to the desired level. This is generally accomplished by anodizing in an electrolyte at a higher voltage than employed during the first stage, such as at forming voltages ranging from about 50 to about 350 volts, in some embodiments from about 60 to about 300 volts, and in some embodiments, from about 70 to about 200 volts. During the first and/or second stages, the electrolyte may be kept at a temperature within the range of from about 15° C. to about 95° C., in some embodiments from about 20° C. to about 90° C., and in some embodiments, from about 25° C. to about 85° C. 
     The electrolytes employed during the first and second stages of the anodization process may be the same or different. Typically, however, the electrolyte employed during at least one stage of the dielectric development process contains an ionic compound and oxidizing agent as explained above. In one particular embodiment, it may be desired that the electrolyte employed in the second stage has a lower ionic conductivity than the electrolyte employed in the first stage to prevent a significant amount of oxide film from forming on the internal surface of anode. In this regard, the electrolyte employed during the first stage may contain an ionic compound that is an acid, such as hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, polyphosphoric acid, boric acid, boronic acid, etc. Such an electrolyte may have an electrical conductivity of from about 0.1 to about 100 mS/cm, in some embodiments from about 0.2 to about 20 mS/cm, and in some embodiments, from about 1 to about 10 mS/cm, determined at a temperature of 25° C. The electrolyte employed during the second stage may likewise contain an ionic compound that is a salt of a weak acid so that the hydronium ion concentration increases in the pores as a result of charge passage therein. Ion transport or diffusion is such that the weak acid anion moves into the pores as necessary to balance the electrical charges. As a result, the concentration of the principal conducting species (hydronium ion) is reduced in the establishment of equilibrium between the hydronium ion, acid anion, and undissociated acid, thus forms a poorer-conducting species. The reduction in the concentration of the conducting species results in a relatively high voltage drop in the electrolyte, which hinders further anodization in the interior while a thicker oxide layer, is being built up on the outside to a higher formation voltage in the region of continued high conductivity. Suitable weak acid salts may include, for instance, ammonium or alkali metal salts (e.g., sodium, potassium, etc.) of boric acid, boronic acid, acetic acid, oxalic acid, lactic acid, adipic acid, etc. Particularly suitable salts include sodium tetraborate and ammonium pentaborate. Such electrolytes typically have an electrical conductivity of from about 0.1 to about 20 mS/cm, in some embodiments from about 0.5 to about 10 mS/cm, and in some embodiments, from about 1 to about 5 mS/cm, determined at a temperature of 25° C. The electrolyte employed in the first and/or second stages may also contain an oxidizing agent, such as described above. 
     If desired, each stage of anodization may be repeated for one or more cycles to achieve the desired dielectric thickness. Furthermore, the anode may also be rinsed or washed with another solvent (e.g., water) after the first and/or second stages to remove the electrolyte. 
     C. Solid Electrolyte 
     A solid electrolyte overlies the dielectric and generally functions as the cathode for the capacitor. The solid electrolyte generally includes a conductive polymer, such as a polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyaniline, and so forth. Thiophene polymers are particularly suitable for use in the solid electrolyte. In certain embodiments, for instance, an “extrinsically” conductive thiophene polymer may be employed in the solid electrolyte that has repeating units of the following formula (I): 
                         
wherein,
 
     R 7  is a linear or branched, C 1  to C 18  alkyl radical (e.g., methyl, ethyl, n- or iso-propyl, n-, iso-, sec- or tert-butyl, n-pentyl, 1-methylbutyl, 2-methylbutyl, 3-methylbutyl, 1-ethylpropyl, 1,1-dimethylpropyl, 1,2-dimethylpropyl, 2,2-dimethylpropyl, n-hexyl, n-heptyl, n-octyl, 2-ethylhexyl, n-nonyl, n-decyl, n-undecyl, n-dodecyl, n-tridecyl, n-tetradecyl, n-hexadecyl, n-octadecyl, etc.); C 5  to C 12  cycloalkyl radical (e.g., cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, cyclooctyl, cyclononyl, cyclodecyl, etc.); C 6  to C 14  aryl radical (e.g., phenyl, naphthyl, etc.); C 7  to C 18  aralkyl radical (e.g., benzyl, o-, m-, p-tolyl, 2,3-, 2,4-, 2,5-, 2-6, 3-4-, 3,5-xylyl, mesityl, etc.); and 
     q is an integer from 0 to 8, in some embodiments, from 0 to 2, and in one embodiment, 0. In one particular embodiment, “q” is 0 and the polymer is poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene). One commercially suitable example of a monomer suitable for forming such a polymer is 3,4-ethylenedioxthiophene, which is available from Heraeus under the designation Clevios™ M. 
     The polymers of formula (I) are generally considered to be “extrinsically” conductive to the extent that they typically require the presence of a separate counterion that is not covalently bound to the polymer. The counterion may be a monomeric or polymeric anion that counteracts the charge of the conductive polymer. Polymeric anions can, for example, be anions of polymeric carboxylic acids (e.g., polyacrylic acids, polymethacrylic acid, polymaleic acids, etc.); polymeric sulfonic acids (e.g., polystyrene sulfonic acids (“PSS”), polyvinyl sulfonic acids, etc.); and so forth. The acids may also be copolymers, such as copolymers of vinyl carboxylic and vinyl sulfonic acids with other polymerizable monomers, such as acrylic acid esters and styrene. Likewise, suitable monomeric anions include, for example, anions of C 1  to C 20  alkane sulfonic acids (e.g., dodecane sulfonic acid); aliphatic perfluorosulfonic acids (e.g., trifluoromethane sulfonic acid, perfluorobutane sulfonic acid or perfluorooctane sulfonic acid); aliphatic C 1  to C 20  carboxylic acids (e.g., 2-ethyl-hexylcarboxylic acid); aliphatic perfluorocarboxylic acids (e.g., trifluoroacetic acid or perfluorooctanoic acid); aromatic sulfonic acids optionally substituted by C 1  to C 20  alkyl groups (e.g., benzene sulfonic acid, o-toluene sulfonic acid, p-toluene sulfonic acid or dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid); cycloalkane sulfonic acids (e.g., camphor sulfonic acid or tetrafluoroborates, hexafluorophosphates, perchlorates, hexafluoroantimonates, hexafluoroarsenates or hexachloroantimonates); and so forth. Particularly suitable counteranions are polymeric anions, such as a polymeric carboxylic or sulfonic acid (e.g., polystyrene sulfonic acid (“PSS”)). The molecular weight of such polymeric anions typically ranges from about 1,000 to about 2,000,000, and in some embodiments, from about 2,000 to about 500,000. 
     Intrinsically conductive polymers may also be employed that have a positive charge located on the main chain that is at least partially compensated by anions covalently bound to the polymer. For example, one example of a suitable intrinsically conductive thiophene polymer may have repeating units of the following formula (II): 
                         
wherein,
 
     R is (CH 2 ) a —O—(CH 2 ) b -L, where L is a bond or HC([CH 2 ] c H); 
     a is from 0 to 10, in some embodiments from 0 to 6, and in some embodiments, from 1 to 4 (e.g., 1); 
     b is from 1 to 18, in some embodiments from 1 to 10, and in some embodiments, from 2 to 6 (e.g., 2, 3, 4, or 5); 
     c is from 0 to 10, in some embodiments from 0 to 6, and in some embodiments, from 1 to 4 (e.g., 1); 
     Z is an anion, such as SO 3   − ; C(O)O − ; BF 4   − ; CF 3 SO 3   − ; SbF 6   − ; N(SO 2 CF 3 ) 2   − ; C 4 H 3 O 4   − ; ClO 4   − ; etc.; 
     X is a cation, such as hydrogen, an alkali metal (e.g., lithium, sodium, rubidium, cesium or potassium), ammonium, etc. 
     In one particular embodiment, Z in formula (II) is a sulfonate ion such that the intrinsically conductive polymer contains repeating units of the following formula (III): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein, R and X are defined above. In formula (II) or (III), a is preferably 1 and b is preferably 3 or 4. Likewise, X is preferably sodium or potassium. 
     If desired, the polymer may be a copolymer that contains other types of repeating units. In such embodiments, the repeating units of formula (II) typically constitute about 50 mol. % or more, in some embodiments from about 75 mol. % to about 99 mol. %, and in some embodiments, from about 85 mol. % to about 95 mol. % of the total amount of repeating units in the copolymer. Of course, the polymer may also be a homopolymer to the extent that it contains 100 mol. % of the repeating units of formula (II). Specific examples of such homopolymers include poly(4-(2,3-dihydrothieno-[3,4-b][1,4]dioxin-2-ylmethoxy)-1-butane-sulphonic acid, salt) and poly(4-(2,3-dihydrothieno-[3,4-b][1,4]dioxin-2-ylmethoxy)-1-propanesulphonic acid, salt). 
     The conductive polymer may be incorporated into the capacitor element in a variety of ways. In certain embodiments, for example, the conductive polymer may be polymerized in situ over the dielectric. In other embodiments, the conductive polymer may be applied in the form of pre-polymerized particles. One benefit of employing such particles is that they can minimize the presence of ionic species (e.g., Fe 2+  or Fe 3+ ) produced during conventional in situ polymerization processes, which can cause dielectric breakdown under high electric field due to ionic migration. Thus, by applying the conductive polymer as pre-polymerized particles rather through in situ polymerization, the resulting capacitor may exhibit a relatively high “breakdown voltage.” If desired, the solid electrolyte may be formed from one or multiple layers. When multiple layers are employed, it is possible that one or more of the layers includes a conductive polymer formed by in situ polymerization. However, when it is desired to achieve very high breakdown voltages, the solid electrolyte may desirably be formed primarily from the conductive particles described above, such that it is generally free of conductive polymers formed via in situ polymerization. Regardless of the number of layers employed, the resulting solid electrolyte typically has a total a thickness of from about 1 micrometer (μm) to about 200 μm, in some embodiments from about 2 μm to about 50 μm, and in some embodiments, from about 5 μm to about 30 μm. 
     When employed, the conductive polymer particles typically have an average size (e.g., diameter) of from about 1 to about 80 nanometers, in some embodiments from about 2 to about 70 nanometers, and in some embodiments, from about 3 to about 60 nanometers. The diameter of the particles may be determined using known techniques, such as by ultracentrifuge, laser diffraction, etc. The shape of the particles may likewise vary. In one particular embodiment, for instance, the particles are spherical in shape. However, it should be understood that other shapes are also contemplated by the present invention, such as plates, rods, discs, bars, tubes, irregular shapes, etc. 
     Although not necessarily required, the conductive polymer particles may be applied in the form of a dispersion. The concentration of the conductive polymer in the dispersion may vary depending on the desired viscosity of the dispersion and the particular manner in which the dispersion is to be applied to the capacitor element. Typically, however, the polymer constitutes from about 0.1 to about 10 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 0.4 to about 5 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 0.5 to about 4 wt. % of the dispersion. The dispersion may also contain one or more components to enhance the overall properties of the resulting solid electrolyte. For example, the dispersion may contain a binder to further enhance the adhesive nature of the polymeric layer and also increase the stability of the particles within the dispersion. The binder may be organic in nature, such as polyvinyl alcohols, polyvinyl pyrrolidones, polyvinyl chlorides, polyvinyl acetates, polyvinyl butyrates, polyacrylic acid esters, polyacrylic acid amides, polymethacrylic acid esters, polymethacrylic acid amides, polyacrylonitriles, styrene/acrylic acid ester, vinyl acetate/acrylic acid ester and ethylene/vinyl acetate copolymers, polybutadienes, polyisoprenes, polystyrenes, polyethers, polyesters, polycarbonates, polyurethanes, polyamides, polyimides, polysulfones, melamine formaldehyde resins, epoxide resins, silicone resins or celluloses. Crosslinking agents may also be employed to enhance the adhesion capacity of the binders. Such crosslinking agents may include, for instance, melamine compounds, masked isocyanates or crosslinkable polymers, such as polyurethanes, polyacrylates or polyolefins, and subsequent crosslinking. Dispersion agents may also be employed to facilitate the ability to apply the layer to the anode. Suitable dispersion agents include solvents, such as aliphatic alcohols (e.g., methanol, ethanol, i-propanol and butanol), aliphatic ketones (e.g., acetone and methyl ethyl ketones), aliphatic carboxylic acid esters (e.g., ethyl acetate and butyl acetate), aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., toluene and xylene), aliphatic hydrocarbons (e.g., hexane, heptane and cyclohexane), chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g., dichloromethane and dichloroethane), aliphatic nitriles (e.g., acetonitrile), aliphatic sulfoxides and sulfones (e.g., dimethyl sulfoxide and sulfolane), aliphatic carboxylic acid amides (e.g., methylacetamide, dimethylacetamide and dimethylformamide), aliphatic and araliphatic ethers (e.g., diethylether and anisole), water, and mixtures of any of the foregoing solvents. A particularly suitable dispersion agent is water. 
     In addition to those mentioned above, still other ingredients may also be used in the dispersion. For example, conventional fillers may be used that have a size of from about 10 nanometers to about 100 micrometers, in some embodiments from about 50 nanometers to about 50 micrometers, and in some embodiments, from about 100 nanometers to about 30 micrometers. Examples of such fillers include calcium carbonate, silicates, silica, calcium or barium sulfate, aluminum hydroxide, glass fibers or bulbs, wood flour, cellulose powder carbon black, electrically conductive polymers, etc. The fillers may be introduced into the dispersion in powder form, but may also be present in another form, such as fibers. 
     Surface-active substances may also be employed in the dispersion, such as ionic or non-ionic surfactants. Furthermore, adhesives may be employed, such as organofunctional silanes or their hydrolysates, for example 3-glycidoxypropyltrialkoxysilane, 3-aminopropyl-triethoxysilane, 3-mercaptopropyl-trimethoxysilane, 3-metacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane, vinyltrimethoxysilane or octyltriethoxysilane. The dispersion may also contain additives that increase conductivity, such as ether group-containing compounds (e.g., tetrahydrofuran), lactone group-containing compounds (e.g., γ-butyrolactone or γ-valerolactone), amide or lactam group-containing compounds (e.g., caprolactam, N-methylcaprolactam, N,N-dimethylacetamide, N-methylacetamide, N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), N-methylformamide, N-methylformanilide, N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), N-octylpyrrolidone, or pyrrolidone), sulfones and sulfoxides (e.g., sulfolane (tetramethylenesulfone) or dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO)), sugar or sugar derivatives (e.g., saccharose, glucose, fructose, or lactose), sugar alcohols (e.g., sorbitol or mannitol), furan derivatives (e.g., 2-furancarboxylic acid or 3-furancarboxylic acid), an alcohols (e.g., ethylene glycol, glycerol, di- or triethylene glycol). 
     The dispersion may be applied using a variety of known techniques, such as by spin coating, impregnation, pouring, dropwise application, injection, spraying, doctor blading, brushing, printing (e.g., ink-jet, screen, or pad printing), or dipping. The viscosity of the dispersion is typically from about 0.1 to about 100,000 mPas (measured at a shear rate of 100 s −1 ), in some embodiments from about 1 to about 10,000 mPas, in some embodiments from about 10 to about 1,500 mPas, and in some embodiments, from about 100 to about 1000 mPas. 
     i. Inner Layers 
     The solid electrolyte is generally formed from one or more “inner” conductive polymer layers. The term “inner” in this context refers to one or more layers that overly the dielectric, whether directly or via another layer (e.g., pre-coat layer). One or multiple inner layers may be employed. For example, the solid electrolyte typically contains from 2 to 30, in some embodiments from 4 to 20, and in some embodiments, from about 5 to 15 inner layers (e.g., 10 layers). The inner layer(s) may, for example, contain intrinsically and/or extrinsically conductive polymer particles such as described above. For instance, such particles may constitute about 50 wt. % or more, in some embodiments about 70 wt. % or more, and in some embodiments, about 90 wt. % or more (e.g., 100 wt. %) of the inner layer(s). In alternative embodiments, the inner layer(s) may contain an in-situ polymerized conductive polymer. In such embodiments, the in-situ polymerized polymers may constitute about 50 wt. % or more, in some embodiments about 70 wt. % or more, and in some embodiments, about 90 wt. % or more (e.g., 100 wt. %) of the inner layer(s). 
     ii. Outer Layers 
     The solid electrolyte may also contain one or more optional “outer” conductive polymer layers that overly the inner layer(s) and are formed from a different material. For example, the outer layer(s) may contain extrinsically conductive polymer particles. In one particular embodiment, the outer layer(s) are formed primarily from such extrinsically conductive polymer particles in that they constitute about 50 wt. % or more, in some embodiments about 70 wt. % or more, and in some embodiments, about 90 wt. % or more (e.g., 100 wt. %) of a respective outer layer. One or multiple outer layers may be employed. For example, the solid electrolyte may contain from 2 to 30, in some embodiments from 4 to 20, and in some embodiments, from about 5 to 15 outer layers, each of which may optionally be formed from a dispersion of the extrinsically conductive polymer particles. 
     D. External Polymer Coating 
     An external polymer coating may also overly the solid electrolyte. The external polymer coating may contain one or more layers formed from pre-polymerized conductive polymer particles such as described above (e.g., dispersion of extrinsically conductive polymer particles). The external coating may be able to further penetrate into the edge region of the capacitor body to increase the adhesion to the dielectric and result in a more mechanically robust part, which may reduce equivalent series resistance and leakage current. Because it is generally intended to improve the degree of edge coverage rather to impregnate the interior of the anode body, the particles used in the external coating typically have a larger size than those employed in the solid electrolyte. For example, the ratio of the average size of the particles employed in the external polymer coating to the average size of the particles employed in any dispersion of the solid electrolyte is typically from about 1.5 to about 30, in some embodiments from about 2 to about 20, and in some embodiments, from about 5 to about 15. For example, the particles employed in the dispersion of the external coating may have an average size of from about 80 to about 500 nanometers, in some embodiments from about 90 to about 250 nanometers, and in some embodiments, from about 100 to about 200 nanometers. 
     If desired, a crosslinking agent may also be employed in the external polymer coating to enhance the degree of adhesion to the solid electrolyte. Typically, the crosslinking agent is applied prior to application of the dispersion used in the external coating. Suitable crosslinking agents are described, for instance, in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2007/0064376 to Merker, et al. and include, for instance, amines (e.g., diamines, triamines, oligomer amines, polyamines, etc.); polyvalent metal cations, such as salts or compounds of Mg, Al, Ca, Fe, Cr, Mn, Ba, Ti, Co, Ni, Cu, Ru, Ce or Zn, phosphonium compounds, sulfonium compounds, etc. Particularly suitable examples include, for instance, 1,4-diaminocyclohexane, 1,4-bis(amino-methyl)cyclohexane, ethylenediamine, 1,6-hexanediamine, 1,7-heptanediamine, 1,8-octanediamine, 1,9-nonanediamine, 1,10-decanediamine, 1,12-dodecanediamine, N,N-dimethylethylenediamine, N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylethylenediamine, N,N,N′,N′-tetramethyl-1,4-butanediamine, etc., as well as mixtures thereof. 
     The crosslinking agent is typically applied from a solution or dispersion whose pH is from 1 to 10, in some embodiments from 2 to 7, in some embodiments, from 3 to 6, as determined at 25° C. Acidic compounds may be employed to help achieve the desired pH level. Examples of solvents or dispersants for the crosslinking agent include water or organic solvents, such as alcohols, ketones, carboxylic esters, etc. The crosslinking agent may be applied to the capacitor body by any known process, such as spin-coating, impregnation, casting, dropwise application, spray application, vapor deposition, sputtering, sublimation, knife-coating, painting or printing, for example inkjet, screen or pad printing. Once applied, the crosslinking agent may be dried prior to application of the polymer dispersion. This process may then be repeated until the desired thickness is achieved. For example, the total thickness of the entire external polymer coating, including the crosslinking agent and dispersion layers, may range from about 1 to about 50 μm, in some embodiments from about 2 to about 40 μm, and in some embodiments, from about 5 to about 20 μm. 
     E. Cathode Coating 
     If desired, the capacitor element may also employ a cathode coating that overlies the solid electrolyte and other optional layers (e.g., external polymer coating). The cathode coating may contain a metal particle layer includes a plurality of conductive metal particles dispersed within a polymer matrix. The particles typically constitute from about 50 wt. % to about 99 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 60 wt. % to about 98 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 70 wt. % to about 95 wt. % of the layer, while the polymer matrix typically constitutes from about 1 wt. % to about 50 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 2 wt. % to about 40 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 5 wt. % to about 30 wt. % of the layer. 
     The conductive metal particles may be formed from a variety of different metals, such as copper, nickel, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, lead, copper, aluminum, molybdenum, titanium, iron, zirconium, magnesium, etc., as well as alloys thereof. Silver is a particularly suitable conductive metal for use in the layer. The metal particles often have a relatively small size, such as an average size of from about 0.01 to about 50 micrometers, in some embodiments from about 0.1 to about 40 micrometers, and in some embodiments, from about 1 to about 30 micrometers. Typically, only one metal particle layer is employed, although it should be understood that multiple layers may be employed if so desired. The total thickness of such layer(s) is typically within the range of from about 1 μm to about 500 μm, in some embodiments from about 5 μm to about 200 μm, and in some embodiments, from about 10 μm to about 100 μm. 
     The polymer matrix typically includes a polymer, which may be thermoplastic or thermosetting in nature. Typically, however, the polymer is selected so that it can act as a barrier to electromigration of silver ions, and also so that it contains a relatively small amount of polar groups to minimize the degree of water adsorption in the cathode coating. In this regard, the present inventors have found that vinyl acetal polymers are particularly suitable for this purpose, such as polyvinyl butyral, polyvinyl formal, etc. Polyvinyl butyral, for instance, may be formed by reacting polyvinyl alcohol with an aldehyde (e.g., butyraldehyde). Because this reaction is not typically complete, polyvinyl butyral will generally have a residual hydroxyl content. By minimizing this content, however, the polymer can possess a lesser degree of strong polar groups, which would otherwise result in a high degree of moisture adsorption and result in silver ion migration. For instance, the residual hydroxyl content in polyvinyl acetal may be about 35 mol. % or less, in some embodiments about 30 mol. % or less, and in some embodiments, from about 10 mol. % to about 25 mol. %. One commercially available example of such a polymer is available from Sekisui Chemical Co., Ltd. under the designation “BH-S” (polyvinyl butyral). 
     To form the cathode coating, a conductive paste is typically applied to the capacitor that overlies the solid electrolyte. One or more organic solvents are generally employed in the paste. A variety of different organic solvents may generally be employed, such as glycols (e.g., propylene glycol, butylene glycol, triethylene glycol, hexylene glycol, polyethylene glycols, ethoxydiglycol, and dipropyleneglycol); glycol ethers (e.g., methyl glycol ether, ethyl glycol ether, and isopropyl glycol ether); ethers (e.g., diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran); alcohols (e.g., benzyl alcohol, methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, iso-propanol, and butanol); triglycerides; ketones (e.g., acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, and methyl isobutyl ketone); esters (e.g., ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, diethylene glycol ether acetate, and methoxypropyl acetate); amides (e.g., dimethylformamide, dimethylacetamide, dimethylcaprylic/capric fatty acid amide and N-alkylpyrrolidones); nitriles (e.g., acetonitrile, propionitrile, butyronitrile and benzonitrile); sulfoxides or sulfones (e.g., dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and sulfolane); etc., as well as mixtures thereof. The organic solvent(s) typically constitute from about 10 wt. % to about 70 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 20 wt. % to about 65 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 30 wt. % to about 60 wt. %. of the paste. Typically, the metal particles constitute from about 10 wt. % to about 60 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 20 wt. % to about 45 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 25 wt. % to about 40 wt. % of the paste, and the resinous matrix constitutes from about 0.1 wt. % to about 20 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 0.2 wt. % to about 10 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 0.5 wt. % to about 8 wt. % of the paste. 
     The paste may have a relatively low viscosity, allowing it to be readily handled and applied to a capacitor element. The viscosity may, for instance, range from about 50 to about 3,000 centipoise, in some embodiments from about 100 to about 2,000 centipoise, and in some embodiments, from about 200 to about 1,000 centipoise, such as measured with a Brookfield DV-1 viscometer (cone and plate) operating at a speed of 10 rpm and a temperature of 25° C. If desired, thickeners or other viscosity modifiers may be employed in the paste to increase or decrease viscosity. Further, the thickness of the applied paste may also be relatively thin and still achieve the desired properties. For example, the thickness of the paste may be from about 0.01 to about 50 micrometers, in some embodiments from about 0.5 to about 30 micrometers, and in some embodiments, from about 1 to about 25 micrometers. Once applied, the metal paste may be optionally dried to remove certain components, such as the organic solvents. For instance, drying may occur at a temperature of from about 20° C. to about 150° C., in some embodiments from about 50° C. to about 140° C., and in some embodiments, from about 80° C. to about 130° C. 
     F. Other Components 
     If desired, the capacitor may also contain other layers as is known in the art. In certain embodiments, for instance, a carbon layer (e.g., graphite) may be positioned between the solid electrolyte and the silver layer that can help further limit contact of the silver layer with the solid electrolyte. In addition, a pre-coat layer may also be employed that overlies the dielectric and includes an organometallic compound, such as described in more detail below. 
     II. Terminations 
     Once formed, the capacitor element may be provided with terminations, particularly when employed in surface mounting applications. For example, the capacitor may contain an anode termination to which an anode lead of the capacitor element is electrically connected and a cathode termination to which the cathode of the capacitor element is electrically connected. Any conductive material may be employed to form the terminations, such as a conductive metal (e.g., copper, nickel, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, palladium, lead, copper, aluminum, molybdenum, titanium, iron, zirconium, magnesium, and alloys thereof). Particularly suitable conductive metals include, for instance, copper, copper alloys (e.g., copper-zirconium, copper-magnesium, copper-zinc, or copper-iron), nickel, and nickel alloys (e.g., nickel-iron). The thickness of the terminations is generally selected to minimize the thickness of the capacitor. For instance, the thickness of the terminations may range from about 0.05 to about 1 millimeter, in some embodiments from about 0.05 to about 0.5 millimeters, and from about 0.07 to about 0.2 millimeters. One exemplary conductive material is a copper-iron alloy metal plate available from Wieland (Germany). If desired, the surface of the terminations may be electroplated with nickel, silver, gold, tin, etc. as is known in the art to ensure that the final part is mountable to the circuit board. In one particular embodiment, both surfaces of the terminations are plated with nickel and silver flashes, respectively, while the mounting surface is also plated with a tin solder layer. 
     The terminations may be connected to the capacitor element using any technique known in the art. In one embodiment, for example, a lead frame may be provided that defines the cathode termination and anode termination. To attach the electrolytic capacitor element to the lead frame, a conductive adhesive may initially be applied to a surface of the cathode termination. The conductive adhesive may include, for instance, conductive metal particles contained with a resin composition. The metal particles may be silver, copper, gold, platinum, nickel, zinc, bismuth, etc. The resin composition may include a thermoset resin (e.g., epoxy resin), curing agent (e.g., acid anhydride), and coupling agent (e.g., silane coupling agents). Suitable conductive adhesives may be described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2006/0038304 to Osako, et al. Any of a variety of techniques may be used to apply the conductive adhesive to the cathode termination. Printing techniques, for instance, may be employed due to their practical and cost-saving benefits. The anode lead may also be electrically connected to the anode termination using any technique known in the art, such as mechanical welding, laser welding, conductive adhesives, etc. Upon electrically connecting the anode lead to the anode termination, the conductive adhesive may then be cured to ensure that the electrolytic capacitor element is adequately adhered to the cathode termination. 
     III. Housing 
     The capacitor element may be incorporated within a housing in various ways. In certain embodiments, for instance, the capacitor element may be enclosed within a case, which may then be filled with a resinous material, such as a thermoset resin (e.g., epoxy resin) that can be cured to form a hardened housing. The resinous material may surround and encapsulate the capacitor element so that at least a portion of the anode and cathode terminations are exposed for mounting onto a circuit board. When encapsulated in this manner, the capacitor element and resinous material form an integral capacitor. 
     Of course, in alternative embodiments, it may be desirable to enclose the capacitor element within a housing that remains separate and distinct. In this manner, the atmosphere of the housing can be selectively controlled so that it is dry, which limits the degree of moisture that can contact the capacitor element. For example, the moisture content of the atmosphere (expressed in terms of relative humidity) may be about 10% or less, in some embodiments about 5% or less, in some embodiments about 3% or less, and in some embodiments, from about 0.001 to about 1%. For example, the atmosphere may be gaseous and contain at least one inert gas, such as nitrogen, helium, argon, xenon, neon, krypton, radon, and so forth, as well as mixtures thereof. Typically, inert gases constitute the majority of the atmosphere within the housing, such as from about 50 wt. % to 100 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 75 wt. % to 100 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 90 wt. % to about 99 wt. % of the atmosphere. If desired, a relatively small amount of non-inert gases may also be employed, such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, water vapor, etc. In such cases, however, the non-inert gases typically constitute 15 wt. % or less, in some embodiments 10 wt. % or less, in some embodiments about 5 wt. % or less, in some embodiments about 1 wt. % or less, and in some embodiments, from about 0.01 wt. % to about 1 wt. % of the atmosphere within the housing. 
     Any of a variety of different materials may be used to form the housing, such as metals, plastics, ceramics, and so forth. In one embodiment, for example, the housing includes one or more layers of a metal, such as tantalum, niobium, aluminum, nickel, hafnium, titanium, copper, silver, steel (e.g., stainless), alloys thereof (e.g., electrically conductive oxides), composites thereof (e.g., metal coated with electrically conductive oxide), and so forth. In another embodiment, the housing may include one or more layers of a ceramic material, such as aluminum nitride, aluminum oxide, silicon oxide, magnesium oxide, calcium oxide, glass, etc., as well as combinations thereof. 
     The housing may have any desired shape, such as cylindrical, D-shaped, rectangular, triangular, prismatic, etc. Referring to  FIG. 1 , for example, one embodiment of a capacitor  100  is shown that contains a housing  122  and a capacitor element  120 . In this particular embodiment, the housing  122  is generally rectangular. Typically, the housing and the capacitor element have the same or similar shape so that the capacitor element can be readily accommodated within the interior cavity. In the illustrated embodiment, for example, both the capacitor element  120  and the housing  122  have a generally rectangular shape. 
     If desired, the capacitor of the present invention may exhibit a relatively high volumetric efficiency. To facilitate such high efficiency, the capacitor element typically occupies a substantial portion of the volume of an interior cavity of the housing. For example, the capacitor element may occupy about 30 vol. % or more, in some embodiments about 50 vol. % or more, in some embodiments about 60 vol. % or more, in some embodiments about 70 vol. % or more, in some embodiments from about 80 vol. % to about 98 vol. %, and in some embodiments, from about 85 vol. % to 97 vol. % of the interior cavity of the housing. To this end, the difference between the dimensions of the capacitor element and those of the interior cavity defined by the housing are typically relatively small. 
     Referring to  FIG. 1 , for example, the capacitor element  120  may have a length (excluding the length of the anode lead  6 ) that is relatively similar to the length of an interior cavity  126  defined by the housing  122 . For example, the ratio of the length of the anode to the length of the interior cavity ranges from about 0.40 to 1.00, in some embodiments from about 0.50 to about 0.99, in some embodiments from about 0.60 to about 0.99, and in some embodiments, from about 0.70 to about 0.98. The capacitor element  120  may have a length of from about 5 to about 10 millimeters, and the interior cavity  126  may have a length of from about 6 to about 15 millimeters. Similarly, the ratio of the height of the capacitor element  120  (in the −z direction) to the height of the interior cavity  126  may range from about 0.40 to 1.00, in some embodiments from about 0.50 to about 0.99, in some embodiments from about 0.60 to about 0.99, and in some embodiments, from about 0.70 to about 0.98. The ratio of the width of the capacitor element  120  (in the −x direction) to the width of the interior cavity  126  may also range from about 0.50 to 1.00, in some embodiments from about 0.60 to about 0.99, in some embodiments from about 0.70 to about 0.99, in some embodiments from about 0.80 to about 0.98, and in some embodiments, from about 0.85 to about 0.95. For example, the width of the capacitor element  120  may be from about 2 to about 7 millimeters and the width of the interior cavity  126  may be from about 3 to about 10 millimeters, and the height of the capacitor element  120  may be from about 0.5 to about 2 millimeters and the width of the interior cavity  126  may be from about 0.7 to about 6 millimeters. 
     Although by no means required, the capacitor element may be attached to the housing in such a manner that an anode termination and cathode termination are formed external to the housing for subsequent integration into a circuit. The particular configuration of the terminations may depend on the intended application. In one embodiment, for example, the capacitor may be formed so that it is surface mountable, and yet still mechanically robust. For example, the anode lead may be electrically connected to external, surface mountable anode and cathode terminations (e.g., pads, sheets, plates, frames, etc.). Such terminations may extend through the housing to connect with the capacitor. The thickness or height of the terminations is generally selected to minimize the thickness of the capacitor. For instance, the thickness of the terminations may range from about 0.05 to about 1 millimeter, in some embodiments from about 0.05 to about 0.5 millimeters, and from about 0.1 to about 0.2 millimeters. If desired, the surface of the terminations may be electroplated with nickel, silver, gold, tin, etc. as is known in the art to ensure that the final part is mountable to the circuit board. In one particular embodiment, the termination(s) are deposited with nickel and silver flashes, respectively, and the mounting surface is also plated with a tin solder layer. In another embodiment, the termination(s) are deposited with thin outer metal layers (e.g., gold) onto a base metal layer (e.g., copper alloy) to further increase conductivity. 
     In certain embodiments, connective members may be employed within the interior cavity of the housing to facilitate connection to the terminations in a mechanically stable manner. For example, referring again to  FIG. 1 , the capacitor  100  may include a connection member  162  that is formed from a first portion  167  and a second portion  165 . The connection member  162  may be formed from conductive materials similar to the external terminations. The first portion  167  and second portion  165  may be integral or separate pieces that are connected together, either directly or via an additional conductive element (e.g., metal). In the illustrated embodiment, the second portion  165  is provided in a plane that is generally parallel to a lateral direction in which the lead  6  extends (e.g., −y direction). The first portion  167  is “upstanding” in the sense that it is provided in a plane that is generally perpendicular the lateral direction in which the lead  6  extends. In this manner, the first portion  167  can limit movement of the lead  6  in the horizontal direction to enhance surface contact and mechanical stability during use. If desired, an insulative material  7  (e.g., Teflon™ washer) may be employed around the lead  6 . 
     The first portion  167  may possess a mounting region (not shown) that is connected to the anode lead  6 . The region may have a “U-shape” for further enhancing surface contact and mechanical stability of the lead  6 . Connection of the region to the lead  6  may be accomplished using any of a variety of known techniques, such as welding, laser welding, conductive adhesives, etc. In one particular embodiment, for example, the region is laser welded to the anode lead  6 . Regardless of the technique chosen, however, the first portion  167  can hold the anode lead  6  in substantial horizontal alignment to further enhance the dimensional stability of the capacitor  100 . 
     Referring again to  FIG. 1 , one embodiment of the present invention is shown in which the connective member  162  and capacitor element  120  are connected to the housing  122  through anode and cathode terminations  127  and  129 , respectively. More specifically, the housing  122  of this embodiment includes an outer wall  123  and two opposing sidewalls  124  between which a cavity  126  is formed that includes the capacitor element  120 . The outer wall  123  and sidewalls  124  may be formed from one or more layers of a metal, plastic, or ceramic material such as described above. In this particular embodiment, the anode termination  127  contains a first region  127   a  that is positioned within the housing  122  and electrically connected to the connection member  162  and a second region  127   b  that is positioned external to the housing  122  and provides a mounting surface  201 . Likewise, the cathode termination  129  contains a first region  129   a  that is positioned within the housing  122  and electrically connected to the solid electrolyte of the capacitor element  120  and a second region  129   b  that is positioned external to the housing  122  and provides a mounting surface  203 . It should be understood that the entire portion of such regions need not be positioned within or external to the housing. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, a conductive trace  127   c  extends in the outer wall  123  of the housing to connect the first region  127   a  and second region  127   b . Similarly, a conductive trace  129   c  extends in the outer wall  123  of the housing to connect the first region  127   a  and second region  127   b . The conductive traces and/or regions of the terminations may be separate or integral. In addition to extending through the outer wall of the housing, the traces may also be positioned at other locations, such as external to the outer wall. Of course, the present invention is by no means limited to the use of conductive traces for forming the desired terminations. 
     Regardless of the particular configuration employed, connection of the terminations  127  and  129  to the capacitor element  120  may be made using any known technique, such as welding, laser welding, conductive adhesives, etc. In one particular embodiment, for example, a conductive adhesive  131  is used to connect the second portion  165  of the connection member  162  to the anode termination  127 . Likewise, a conductive adhesive  133  is used to connect the cathode of the capacitor element  120  to the cathode termination  129 . 
     Optionally, a polymeric restraint may also be disposed in contact with one or more surfaces of the capacitor element, such as the rear surface, front surface, upper surface, lower surface, side surface(s), or any combination thereof. The polymeric restraint can reduce the likelihood of delamination by the capacitor element from the housing. In this regard, the polymeric restraint may possesses a certain degree of strength that allows it to retain the capacitor element in a relatively fixed positioned even when it is subjected to vibrational forces, yet is not so strong that it cracks. For example, the restraint may possess a tensile strength of from about 1 to about 150 Megapascals (“MPa”), in some embodiments from about 2 to about 100 MPa, in some embodiments from about 10 to about 80 MPa, and in some embodiments, from about 20 to about 70 MPa, measured at a temperature of about 25° C. It is normally desired that the restraint is not electrically conductive. Referring again to  FIG. 1 , for instance, one embodiment is shown in which a single polymeric restraint  197  is disposed in contact with an upper surface  181  and rear surface  177  of the capacitor element  120 . While a single restraint is shown in  FIG. 1 , it should be understood that separate restraints may be employed to accomplish the same function. In fact, more generally, any number of polymeric restraints may be employed to contact any desired surface of the capacitor element. When multiple restraints are employed, they may be in contact with each other or remain physically separated. For example, in one embodiment, a second polymeric restraint (not shown) may be employed that contacts the upper surface  181  and front surface  179  of the capacitor element  120 . The first polymeric restraint  197  and the second polymeric restraint (not shown) may or may not be in contact with each other. In yet another embodiment, a polymeric restraint may also contact a lower surface  183  and/or side surface(s) of the capacitor element  120 , either in conjunction with or in lieu of other surfaces. 
     Regardless of how it is applied, it is typically desired that the polymeric restraint is also in contact with at least one surface of the housing to help further mechanically stabilize the capacitor element against possible delamination. For example, the restraint may be in contact with an interior surface of one or more sidewall(s), outer wall, lid, etc. In  FIG. 1 , for example, the polymeric restraint  197  is in contact with an interior surface  107  of sidewall  124  and an interior surface  109  of outer wall  123 . While in contact with the housing, it is nevertheless desired that at least a portion of the cavity defined by the housing remains unoccupied to allow for the inert gas to flow through the cavity and limit contact of the solid electrolyte with oxygen. For example, at least about 5% of the cavity volume typically remains unoccupied by the capacitor element and polymer restraint, and in some embodiments, from about 10% to about 50% of the cavity volume. 
     Once connected in the desired manner, the resulting package is hermetically sealed as described above. Referring again to  FIG. 1 , for instance, the housing  122  may also include a lid  125  that is placed on an upper surface of side walls  124  after the capacitor element  120  and the polymer restraint  197  are positioned within the housing  122 . The lid  125  may be formed from a ceramic, metal (e.g., iron, copper, nickel, cobalt, etc., as well as alloys thereof), plastic, and so forth. If desired, a sealing member  187  may be disposed between the lid  125  and the side walls  124  to help provide a good seal. In one embodiment, for example, the sealing member may include a glass-to-metal seal, Kovar® ring (Goodfellow Camridge, Ltd.), etc. The height of the side walls  124  is generally such that the lid  125  does not contact any surface of the capacitor element  120  so that it is not contaminated. The polymeric restraint  197  may or may not contact the lid  125 . When placed in the desired position, the lid  125  is hermetically sealed to the sidewalls  124  using known techniques, such as welding (e.g., resistance welding, laser welding, etc.), soldering, etc. Hermetic sealing generally occurs in the presence of inert gases as described above so that the resulting assembly is substantially free of reactive gases, such as oxygen or water vapor. 
     It should be understood that the embodiments described are only exemplary, and that various other configurations may be employed in the present invention for hermetically sealing a capacitor element within a housing. Referring to  FIG. 2 , for instance, another embodiment of a capacitor  200  is shown that employs a housing  222  that includes an outer wall  123  and a lid  225  between which a cavity  126  is formed that includes the capacitor element  120  and polymeric restraint  197 . The lid  225  includes an outer wall  223  that is integral with at least one sidewall  224 . In the illustrated embodiment, for example, two opposing sidewalls  224  are shown in cross-section. The outer walls  223  and  123  both extend in a lateral direction (−y direction) and are generally parallel with each other and to the lateral direction of the anode lead  6 . The sidewall  224  extends from the outer wall  223  in a longitudinal direction that is generally perpendicular to the outer wall  123 . A distal end  500  of the lid  225  is defined by the outer wall  223  and a proximal end  501  is defined by a lip  253  of the sidewall  224 . 
     The lip  253  extends from the sidewall  224  in the lateral direction, which may be generally parallel to the lateral direction of the outer wall  123 . The angle between the sidewall  224  and the lip  253  may vary, but is typically from about 60° to about 120°, in some embodiments from about 70° to about 110°, and in some embodiments, from about 80° to about 100° (e.g., about 90°). The lip  253  also defines a peripheral edge  251 , which may be generally perpendicular to the lateral direction in which the lip  253  and outer wall  123  extend. The peripheral edge  251  is located beyond the outer periphery of the sidewall  224  and may be generally coplanar with an edge  151  of the outer wall  123 . The lip  253  may be sealed to the outer wall  123  using any known technique, such as welding (e.g., resistance or laser), soldering, glue, etc. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, a sealing member  287  is employed (e.g., glass-to-metal seal, Kovar® ring, etc.) between the components to facilitate their attachment. Regardless, the use of a lip described above can enable a more stable connection between the components and improve the seal and mechanical stability of the capacitor. 
     Still other possible housing configurations may be employed in the present invention. For example,  FIG. 3  shows a capacitor  300  having a housing configuration similar to that of  FIG. 2 , except that terminal pins  327   b  and  329   b  are employed as the external terminations for the anode and cathode, respectively. More particularly, the terminal pin  327   a  extends through a trace  327   c  formed in the outer wall  323  and is connected to the anode lead  6  using known techniques (e.g., welding). An additional section  327   a  may be employed to secure the pin  327   b . Likewise, the terminal pin  329   b  extends through a trace  329   c  formed in the outer wall  323  and is connected to the cathode via a conductive adhesive  133  as described above. 
     The embodiments shown in  FIGS. 1-3  are discussed herein in terms of only a single capacitor element. It should also be understood, however, that multiple capacitor elements may also be hermetically sealed within a housing. The multiple capacitor elements may be attached to the housing using any of a variety of different techniques. Referring to  FIG. 4 , for example one particular embodiment of a capacitor  400  that contains two capacitor elements is shown and will now be described in more detail. More particularly, the capacitor  400  includes a first capacitor element  420   a  in electrical communication with a second capacitor element  420   b . In this embodiment, the capacitor elements are aligned so that their major surfaces are in a horizontal configuration. That is, a major surface of the capacitor element  420   a  defined by its width (−x direction) and length (−y direction) is positioned adjacent to a corresponding major surface of the capacitor element  420   b . Thus, the major surfaces are generally coplanar. Alternatively, the capacitor elements may be arranged so that their major surfaces are not coplanar, but perpendicular to each other in a certain direction, such as the −z direction or the −x direction. Of course, the capacitor elements need not extend in the same direction. 
     The capacitor elements  420   a  and  420   b  are positioned within a housing  422  that contains an outer wall  423  and sidewalls  424  and  425  that together define a cavity  426 . Although not shown, a lid may be employed that covers the upper surfaces of the sidewalls  424  and  425  and seals the assembly  400  as described above. Optionally, a polymeric restraint may also be employed to help limit the vibration of the capacitor elements. In  FIG. 4 , for example, separate polymer restraints  497   a  and  497   b  are positioned adjacent to and in contact with the capacitor elements  420   a  and  420   b , respectively. The polymer restraints  497   a  and  497   b  may be positioned in a variety of different locations. Further, one of the restraints may be eliminated, or additional restraints may be employed. In certain embodiments, for example, it may be desired to employ a polymeric restraint between the capacitor elements to further improve mechanical stability. 
     In addition to the capacitor elements, the capacitor also contains an anode termination to which anode leads of respective capacitor elements are electrically connected and a cathode termination to which the cathodes of respective capacitor elements are electrically connected. Referring again to  FIG. 4 , for example, the capacitor elements are shown connected in parallel to a common cathode termination  429 . In this particular embodiment, the cathode termination  429  is initially provided in a plane that is generally parallel to the bottom surface of the capacitor elements and may be in electrical contact with conductive traces (not shown). The capacitor  400  also includes connective members  427  and  527  that are connected to anode leads  407   a  and  407   b , respectively, of the capacitor elements  420   a  and  420   b . More particularly, the connective member  427  contains an upstanding portion  465  and a planar portion  463  that is in connection with an anode termination (not shown). Likewise, the connective  527  contains an upstanding portion  565  and a planar portion  563  that is in connection with an anode termination (not shown). Of course, it should be understood that a wide variety of other types of connection mechanisms may also be employed. 
     The present invention may be better understood by reference to the following examples. 
     Test Procedures 
     Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) 
     Equivalence series resistance may be measured using a Keithley 3330 Precision LCZ meter with Kelvin Leads 2.2 volt DC bias and a 0.5 volt peak to peak sinusoidal signal. The operating frequency was 100 kHz and the temperature was 23° C.±2° C. 
     Dissipation Factor 
     The dissipation factor may be measured using a Keithley 3330 Precision LCZ meter with Kelvin Leads with 2.2 volt DC bias and a 0.5 volt peak to peak sinusoidal signal. The operating frequency may be 120 Hz and the temperature may be 23° C.±2° C. 
     Capacitance 
     The capacitance was measured using a Keithley 3330 Precision LCZ meter with Kelvin Leads with 2.2 volt DC bias and a 0.5 volt peak to peak sinusoidal signal. The operating frequency was 120 Hz and the temperature may be 23° C.±2° C. 
     Leakage Current 
     Leakage current may be measured using a leakage test meter at a temperature of 23° C.±2° C. and at the rated voltage after a minimum of 60 seconds. 
     Anomalous Charging Current (ACC) 
     Anomalous charging current may be measured using an Autolab PGSTAT302N with voltage multiplier, differential electrometer and diode 1N4148 in measurement circuit. The voltage ramp may be set to value 120 V/s and the temperature may be 23° C.±2° C. Units subjected to ACC testing may be conditioned at 125° C. for 12 hours to remove humidity. Upon conditioning, samples may then be sealed into a vacuum pack. The samples may then be mounted onto a printed circuit board and subjected to reflow. The reflow temperature profile may have a maximum preheat temperature of 180° C., a time period above 217° C. in the range of 40 to 50 seconds, a time period above 230° C. in the range of 30 to 40 seconds, and a peak temperature in the range of 250° to 255° C. The temperature gradient may range from 1.8 to 3.0° C., and the cooling gradient was may range from 4 to 8° C. Reflow may be followed by recovery at room temperature for 55 to 65 minutes. Test samples may be stored at dry conditions during such periods (e.g. dessicator). Upon recovery at room temperature, the ACC measurement may performed. The size of a test group for such a sequence is typically 10 to 15 samples. 
     Example 1 
     100,000 μFV/g tantalum powder was used to form anode samples. Each anode sample was embedded with a tantalum wire, pressed to a density of 5.8 g/cm 3  and sintered at 1270° C. The resulting pellets had a size of 1.85×2.50×0.45 mm. The pellets were anodized to 31.0 volts in water/phosphoric acid electrolyte with a conductivity of 8.6 mS at a temperature of 85° C. to form the dielectric layer. The pellets were anodized again to 70 volts in a water/boric acid/disodium tetraborate with a conductivity of 2.0 mS at a temperature of 30° C. for 5 seconds to form a thicker oxide layer built up on the outside. 
     Two pre-coat layers of organometallic compound were formed from a solution of γ-glycidoxypropyl-trimethoxysilane in ethanol (1.0%). A conductive polymer coating was then formed by dipping the anode into a butanol solution of iron (III) toluenesulfonate (Clevios™ C, H.C. Starck) for 5 minutes and consequently into 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (Clevios™ M, H.C. Starck) for 10 seconds. After 45 minutes of polymerization, a thin layer of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) was formed on the surface of the dielectric. The anode was washed in methanol to remove reaction by-products, anodized in a liquid electrolyte, and washed again in methanol. This process was repeated 6 times. Thereafter, the parts were dipped into a dispersed poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) having a solids content 2.0% and viscosity 20 mPa·s (Clevios™ K, Heraeus). Upon coating, the parts were dried at 125° C. for 20 minutes. This process was repeated 5 times. Thereafter, the parts were dipped into a dispersed poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) having a solids content of 2% and viscosity 160 mPa·s (Clevios™ K, Heraeus). Upon coating, the parts were dried at 125° C. for 20 minutes. This process was repeated 14 times. The parts were then dipped into a graphite dispersion and dried. Finally, the parts were dipped into a silver dispersion and dried. Multiple parts (2000) of 33 μF/16V capacitors were made in this manner and encapsulated in a silica resin. 
     Example 2 
     Capacitors were formed in the manner described in Example 1, except that the anodization electrolyte also contained 1 wt. % hydrogen peroxide and the anodization temperature was decreased to 40° C. and voltage increased to 35V. Multiple parts (2,000) of 33 μF/16V capacitors were formed and encapsulated in a silica resin. 
     Example 3 
     Capacitors were formed in the manner described in Example 2, except that the anodization electrolyte also contained 0.1 mol/L of ammonium pentaborate. Multiple parts (2000) of 33 μF/16V capacitors were formed and encapsulated in a silica resin. 
     Example 4 
     Capacitors were formed in the manner described in Example 2, except that the anodization electrolyte also contained 0.1 mol/L of manganese(II) nitrate. Multiple parts (2,000) of 33 μF/16V capacitors were formed and encapsulated in a silica resin. 
     Example 5 
     Capacitors were formed in the manner described in Example 2, except that the anodization electrolyte also contained 0.1 mol/L of sodium sulphate. Multiple parts (2,000) of 33 μF/16V capacitors were formed and encapsulated in a silica resin. 
     Example 6 
     Capacitors were formed in the manner described in Example 2, except that the anodization electrolyte also contained 0.1 mol/L ammonium nitrate. Multiple parts (2,000) of 33 μF/16V capacitors were formed and encapsulated in a silica resin. 
     Example 7 
     Capacitors were formed in the manner described in Example 2, except that the anodization electrolyte also contained 0.1 mol/l of magnesium nitrate. Multiple parts (2000) of 33 μF/16V capacitors were formed and encapsulated in a silica resin. 
     Example 8 
     70,000 μFV/g tantalum powder was used to form anode samples. Each anode sample was embedded with a tantalum wire, pressed to a density of 6.2 g/cm 3  and sintered at 1305° C. The resulting pellets had a size of 2.30×2.20×0.66 mm. The pellets were anodized to 30.5 volts in water/phosphoric acid electrolyte with a conductivity of 8.6 mS at a temperature of 85° C. to form the dielectric layer. The pellets were anodized again to 50 volts in a water/boric acid/disodium tetraborate with a conductivity of 2.0 mS at a temperature of 30° C. for 5 seconds to form a thicker oxide layer built up on the outside. 
     Two pre-coat layers of organometallic compound were formed from a solution of γ-glycidoxypropyl-trimethoxysilane in ethanol (1.0%). A conductive polymer coating was then formed by dipping the anode into a butanol solution of iron (III) toluenesulfonate (Clevios™ C, H.C. Starck) for 5 minutes and consequently into 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (Clevios™ M, H.C. Starck) for 10 seconds. After 45 minutes of polymerization, a thin layer of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) was formed on the surface of the dielectric. The anode was washed in methanol to remove reaction by-products, anodized in a liquid electrolyte, and washed again in methanol. This process was repeated 6 times. Thereafter, the parts were dipped into a dispersed poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) having a solids content 2.0% and viscosity 20 mPa·s (Clevios™ K, Heraeus). Upon coating, the parts were dried at 125° C. for 20 minutes. This process was repeated 5 times. Thereafter, the parts were dipped into a dispersed poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) having a solids content of 2% and viscosity 160 mPa·s (Clevios™ K, Heraeus). Upon coating, the parts were dried at 125° C. for 20 minutes. This process was repeated 14 times. The parts were then dipped into a graphite dispersion and dried. Finally, the parts were dipped into a silver dispersion and dried. Multiple parts (2000) of 47 μF/16V capacitors were made in this manner and encapsulated in a silica resin. 
     Example 9 
     Capacitors were formed in the manner described in Example 8, except that the anodization electrolyte also contained 1 wt. % hydrogen peroxide and 0.1 mol/L of ammonium nitrate. The anodization temperature was decreased to 40° C. and voltage increased to 35V. Multiple parts (2,000) of 47 μF/16V capacitors were formed and encapsulated in a silica resin. 
     Example 10 
     70,000 μFV/g tantalum powder was used to form anode samples. Each anode sample was embedded with a tantalum wire, pressed to a density of 5.8 g/cm 3  and sintered at 1320° C. The resulting pellets had a size of 5.40×5.00×1.10 mm. The pellets were anodized to 31 volts in water/phosphoric acid electrolyte with a conductivity of 8.6 mS at a temperature of 85° C. to form the dielectric layer. The pellets were anodized again to 80 volts in a water/boric acid/disodium tetraborate with a conductivity of 2.0 mS at a temperature of 30° C. for 10 seconds to form a thicker oxide layer built up on the outside. 
     Two pre-coat layers of organometallic compound were formed from a solution of γ-glycidoxypropyl-trimethoxysilane in ethanol (1.0%). A conductive polymer coating was then formed by dipping the anode into a butanol solution of iron (III) toluenesulfonate (Clevios™ C, H.C. Starck) for 5 minutes and consequently into 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (Clevios™ M, H.C. Starck) for 10 seconds. After 45 minutes of polymerization, a thin layer of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) was formed on the surface of the dielectric. The anode was washed in methanol to remove reaction by-products, anodized in a liquid electrolyte, and washed again in methanol. This process was repeated 6 times. Thereafter, the parts were dipped into a dispersed poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) having a solids content 2.0% and viscosity 20 mPa·s (Clevios™ K, Heraeus). Upon coating, the parts were dried at 125° C. for 20 minutes. This process was repeated 3 times. Thereafter, the parts were dipped into a dispersed poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) having a solids content of 2% and viscosity 160 mPa·s (Clevios™ K, Heraeus). Upon coating, the parts were dried at 125° C. for 20 minutes. This process was repeated 14 times. The parts were then dipped into a graphite dispersion and dried. Finally, the parts were dipped into a silver dispersion and dried. Multiple parts (2000) of 330 μF/16V capacitors were made in this manner and encapsulated in a silica resin. 
     Example 11 
     Capacitors were formed in the manner described in Example 10, except that the anodization electrolyte also contained 1 wt. % hydrogen peroxide and 0.1 mol/L of ammonium nitrate. The anodization temperature was decreased to 40° C. and voltage increased to 35V. Multiple parts (2,000) of 330 μF/16V capacitors were formed and encapsulated in a silica resin. 
     The results of ACC test sequence and subsequently measured ACC (median) are set forth below in Table 1. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 ACC Results 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Nominal  
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Capacitance  
                   
                 ACC @  
               
               
                   
                 and  
                   
                 16 V 
               
               
                   
                 Voltage 
                 Anodization Electrolyte 
                 [A] 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Example 1 
                 33 μF/16 V 
                 Phosphoric acid (PA) 
                 0.2686 
               
               
                 Example 2 
                 33 μF/16 V 
                 PA + 1% H 2 O 2   
                 0.1690 
               
               
                 Example 3 
                 33 μF/16 V 
                 PA + 1% H 2 O 2  + 0.1M NH 4 B 5 O 8   
                 0.0405 
               
               
                 Example 4 
                 33 μF/16 V 
                 PA + 1% H 2 O 2  + 0.1M  
                 0.0240 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Mn(NO 3 ) 2   
                   
               
               
                 Example 5 
                 33 μF/16 V 
                 PA + 1% H 2 O 2  + 0.1M Na 2 SO 4   
                 0.0204 
               
               
                 Example 6 
                 33 μF/16 V 
                 PA + 1% H 2 O 2  + 0.1M NH 4 NO 3   
                 0.0220 
               
               
                 Example 7 
                 33 μF/16 V 
                 PA + 1% H 2 O 2  + 0.1M  
                 0.0300 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Mg(NO 3 ) 2   
                   
               
               
                 Example 8 
                 47 μF/16 V 
                 PA 
                 0.3140 
               
               
                 Example 9 
                 47 μF/16 V 
                 PA + 1% H 2 O 2  + 0.1M NH 4 NO 3   
                 0.0462 
               
               
                 Example 10 
                 330 μF/16 V  
                 PA 
                 0.7780 
               
               
                 Example 11 
                 330 μF/16 V  
                 PA + 1% H 2 O 2  + 0.1M NH 4 NO 3   
                 0.1540 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     These and other modifications and variations of the present invention may be practiced by those of ordinary skill in the art, without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. In addition, it should be understood that aspects of the various embodiments may be interchanged both in whole or in part. Furthermore, those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the foregoing description is by way of example only, and is not intended to limit the invention so further described in such appended claims.