Patent Publication Number: US-2021186949-A1

Title: Heat shock proteins and cholesterol homeostasis

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a division of U.S. application Ser. No. 16/093,283, filed Oct. 12, 2018 (now allowed), which is a National Stage Application, filed under 35 U.S.C. 371, of International Patent Application No. PCT/DK2017/050114, filed Apr. 10, 2017, which claims priority to, and the benefit of, Denmark Application No. PA 2016 70223, filed on Apr. 13, 2016, the contents of each of which are incorporated by reference in their entirety. 
    
    
     INCORPORATION-BY-REFERENCE OF SEQUENCE LISTING 
     The contents of the text file named “ORPH-006-D01US-Sequence-Listing”, which was created on Oct. 29, 2020 and is 29 KB in size, are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. 
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present invention relates to heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) and bioactive agents that increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, and their use in the treatment of diseases associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis, such as diseases associated with cholesterol efflux and/or cholesterol accumulation. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Cholesterol is an essential component of cell membranes, brain and nerve cells, and bile, which helps the body absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins. The body uses cholesterol to make vitamin D and various hormones, such as estrogen, testosterone and cortisol. The body can produce all the cholesterol that it needs, but it also obtains cholesterol from food. To be able to circulate in blood, cholesterol and triglycerides are packaged with proteins and other substances to form lipoproteins. Lipoproteins include chylomicrons, very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and high-density lipoproteins (HDL). Cholesterol transported by LDL is called LDL cholesterol, and cholesterol transported by HDL is called HDL cholesterol. 
     ATP-binding cassette transporter ABCA1 (member 1 of human transporter sub-family ABCA), also known as the cholesterol efflux regulatory protein (CERP) is a protein which in humans is encoded by the ABCA1 gene. 
     The membrane-associated protein encoded by this gene is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. ABC proteins transport various molecules across extra- and intracellular membranes. With cholesterol as its substrate, ABCA1 functions as a cholesterol efflux pump in the cellular lipid removal pathway, and is a major regulator of cellular cholesterol and phospholipid homeostasis. 
     ABCA1 mediates the efflux of cholesterol and phospholipids to lipid-poor apolipoproteins (apo-A1 and apoE), which then form nascent high-density lipoproteins (HDL). It also mediates the transport of lipids between Golgi and cell membrane. It is expressed ubiquitously as a 220-kDa protein, and is present in higher quantities in tissues that shuttle or are involved in the turnover of lipids such as the liver, the small intestine and adipose tissue. 
     Downregulation of ABCA1 in senescent macrophages disrupts the cell&#39;s ability to remove cholesterol from its cytoplasm, leading the cells to promote the pathologic atherogenesis (blood vessel thickening/hardening) which play a central role in common age-associated diseases such as atherosclerosis and macular degeneration. 
     Mutations in ABCA1 and dysregulated cholesterol efflux have been associated with Tangier disease and familial high-density lipoprotein deficiency which features physiological deficiencies of HDL. 
     The molecular chaperones are found in all compartments of a cell where conformational rearrangements of proteins occur, and although protein synthesis is the major source of unfolded peptides in the cell, a challenge to the cell by high temperature or other stimuli that might render proteins structurally labile, and hence prone to unfolding and aggregation, is met with a specific cellular response involving the production of protective proteins. This response is a phenomenon observed in every cell type ranging from prokaryotes to eukaryotes and is referred to as the heat-shock- or stress-response. The proteins induced by this response are known as the heat shock proteins (HSPs), of which there exist several families. 
     A primary example of a family of chaperones is the Hsp70 proteins. This family has recently been implicated in other aspects of cellular homeostasis besides serving as a chaperone—most markedly through its anti-apoptotic features, its functions in immunity, and the apparent dependence of cancer cells on the upregulation of Hsp70. Furthermore, Hsp70 can serve a role in safeguarding lysosomal integrity. 
     SUMMARY 
     The present inventors have found that Hsp70 increases ABCA1 at the translational and transcriptional level. Also, Hsp70 is shown herewith to stimulate cholesterol efflux from macrophage foam cells, in particular efflux of cholesterol esters. This finding has potential in therapies involving at least ABCA1, cholesterol homeostasis and efflux, and provides a new means for restoring or enhancing cellular cholesterol efflux and increasing mature HDL. 
     It is an aspect to provide a bioactive agent that increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, for use in the treatment of a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     In one embodiment said bioactive agent that increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, is Hsp70 protein, or a functional fragment or variant thereof. 
     In one embodiment said bioactive agent that increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, is an inducer of Hsp70, such as a small molecule inducer of Hsp70, such as an inducer selected from arimoclomol, iroxanadine, bimoclomol, BGP-15, their stereoisomers and the acid addition salts thereof. 
     In one embodiment the disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis is a disease selected from the group consisting of: Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome (SLOS), Antley-Bixler Syndrome, Hydrops-Ectopic Calcification-Moth-Eaten Skeletal Dysplasia (Greenberg dysplasia), Congenital Hemidysplasia with Ichthyosiform Nevus and Limb Defects Syndrome (CHILD), CK Syndrome, Conradi-Hünermann-Happle Syndrome (CPDX2, X-linked dominant chondrodysplasia punctate type 2), Lathosterolosis, Desmosterolosis, Mevalonate Kinase Deficiency (MKD) or (HIDS), Mevalonate Aciduria, atherosclerosis, Tangier disease and familial HDL deficiency. 
    
    
     
       DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  rHSP70 stimulates the removal of cholesterol from primary human macrophage foam cells. Differentiated human macrophages were loaded with acLDL (50 μg/mL) for 3 days. Cholesterol efflux was performed for 12 h to complete medium in the presence or absence of rHSP70 (20 ug/ml). Lipids were analyzed by TLC. Pooled data from 8 blood donors from 8 independent experiments and three technical replicates, mean±SEM. 
         FIGS. 2A-2C  Effect of rHsp70 on ABCA1 transcript and protein levels in primary human macrophage foam cells. Macrophages were loaded with acLDL followed by cholesterol efflux to complete medium in the absence or presence of rHSP70. The ABCA1 mRNA levels were measured by qRT-PCR ( FIG. 2A ). Data are mean±SEM, n=6 blood donors with triplicate measurements. Cells were harvested and equal amounts of protein separated by SDS-PAGE and analyzed by Western blotting using a polyclonal anti-ABCA1 antibody ( FIG. 2B  and  FIG. 2C ). ProAct staining was used as a loading control. Data are mean±SEM, n=7 blood donors. 
         FIG. 3  The effect of rHsp70 dose and BMP binding on cholesterol efflux from primary human macrophage foam cells. Macrophages were loaded with acLDL followed by cholesterol efflux to complete medium in the absence or presence of rHSP70 as in  FIG. 1 . Either wild-type or W90F mutant (mut) rHsp70 was employed at the final concentrations of 20 or 200 μg/mL Pooled data from 2 individual donors with 3 technical replicates, mean±SEM. 
         FIGS. 4A-4B  rHSP70 speeds up BODIPY-cholesterol efflux from primary murine macrophage foam cells. Primary murine bone marrow macrophage foam cells were incubated with BODIPYcholesteryl linoleate-LDL particles. Cholesterol efflux was performed for 24 h to 6% HDL enriched serum in the presence or absence of rHSP70. Images were taken using Leica SP8 scanning confocal microscope at the indicated time points. Total cell BODIPY-cholesterol intensity changes were calculated using ImageJ and data normalized to 0 h ( FIG. 4A ). Representative images of BODIPY-cholesterol intensity changes over time. n=60-100 cells/condition. *:p&lt;0.05 ( FIG. 4B ). 
         FIG. 5  The effect of rHSP70 on transcript levels of selected LXR targets in primary human macrophage foam cells. Macrophage foam cells from 4 individual blood donors were incubated −/+rHSP70 during cholesterol efflux and RNAs were extracted. RNA sequencing was performed by Illumina NextSeq sequencer. RNASeq results were analysed using “Gene Set Enrichment Analysis”. Selected LXR pathway targets modulated by rHSP70 administration were plotted against their transcript count numbers. Front row: FABP4; middle row: GRAMD1A; back row: ABCA1. 
         FIGS. 6A-6F  The effect of rHSP70 on protein levels of selected LXR targets in primary human macrophage foam cells. Cells (as described for  FIG. 5 ) were harvested and equal amounts of protein separated by SDS-PAGE and analyzed by Western blotting. Data are mean±SEM, n=7 blood donors. *:p&lt;0.05; **:p&lt;0.01. ABCA1 ( FIGS. 6A-6B ), GRAMD1A ( FIGS. 6C-6D ), FABP4 ( FIGS. 6E-6F ). 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The effect of inducing the heat shock response, including the effect on heat shock proteins, specifically Hsp70, on ABCA1 and cholesterol efflux has potential in therapies involving at least ABCA1, cholesterol homeostasis and/or efflux, and foam cells. 
     It is thus an aspect of the present invention to provide a bioactive agent as defined herein that increases the intracellular concentration (or levels) and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, for use in the treatment of a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     In one embodiment there is provided use of a bioactive agent as defined herein that increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     In one embodiment there is provided a method of treating a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis, said method comprising one or more steps of administering a bioactive agent as defined herein that increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, to an individual in need thereof. 
     The term “Individual” or “subject” refers to vertebrates, in particular a member of a mammalian species, preferably primates including humans. In a preferred embodiment, an individual as used herein is a human being, male or female, of any age. 
     An “individual in need thereof” refers to an individual who may benefit from the present invention. In one embodiment, said individual in need thereof is a diseased individual, wherein said disease is associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis and/or cholesterol efflux such as from macrophage foam cells. 
     In one embodiment, said treatment may be prophylactic, curative or ameliorating. In one particular embodiment, said treatment is prophylactic. In another embodiment, said treatment is curative. In a further embodiment, said treatment is ameliorating. 
     The bioactive agents that increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, are defined in detail herein below, and encompasses Hsp70 protein per se and inducers of heat shock proteins including Hsp70. 
     The diseases associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis are defined in detail herein below, and encompasses diseases associated with cholesterol accumulation, diseases of cholesterol metabolism, disease of cholesterol biosynthesis and a disease associated with the cholesterol transporter ABCA1 and/or foam cells, such as Tangier disease, familial HDL deficiency and atherosclerosis. 
     The Molecular Chaperones 
     Having spent vast amounts of energy upon first transcribing and then translating the genetic code of DNA, the cell has finally produced a polypeptide, whose function presumably is required at this point in the cell&#39;s life. However, some final obstacles has to be overcome in order to achieve a fully functional protein—one of these being correct folding of this nascent polypeptide chain. The evolutionary imperatives of achieving correct folding are obvious—not only would it be a terrible waste of energy to have synthesized a peptide without the proper conformation and hence function, but also the aggregation of such proteins in the cellular lumen could prove detrimental to the cell. This aggregation is in fact a very likely outcome, considering the intracellular environment of high protein concentration, so it comes as no surprise that a complicated and sophisticated machinery of proteins exists to assist protein folding, allowing the functional state of proteins to be maintained under such conditions. These proteins are collectively called molecular chaperones, because, like their human counterparts, they prevent unwanted interactions between their immature clients. 
     The molecular chaperones are found in all compartments of a cell where conformational rearrangements of proteins occur, and although protein synthesis is the major source of unfolded peptides in the cell, a challenge to the cell by high temperature or other stimuli that might render proteins structurally labile, and hence prone to unfolding and aggregation, is met with a specific cellular response involving the production of protective proteins. This response is a phenomenon observed in every cell type ranging from prokaryotes to eukaryotes and is referred to as the heat-shock- or stress-response. The proteins induced by this response are known as the heat shock proteins (HSPs), of which there exist several families. These families are composed of both sequentially, structurally and functionally related proteins, whereas chaperones from different families can differ markedly both in structure as well as cellular function. A primary example of a family of chaperones are the Hsp70 proteins, which constitute the central part of an ubiquitous chaperone system present in most compartments of eukaryotic cells, in eubacteria, and in many archae. This family has recently been implicated in other aspects of cellular homeostasis besides serving as a chaperone—most markedly through its anti-apoptotic features, its functions in immunity, and the apparent dependence of cancer cells on the upregulation of Hsp70. 
     The Heat Shock Protein 70 Family 
     Hsp70 proteins are involved in a wide range of cellular processes including protein folding and degradation of unstable cellular proteins as well as serving other cytoprotective roles. The common function of Hsp70 in these processes appears to be the binding of short hydrophobic segments in partially folded polypeptides, thereby facilitating proper folding and preventing aggregation. In eukaryotes, Hsp70 chaperones interact in vivo with different classes of proteins that serve to regulate critical steps of their functional cycle; amongst these the J-domain family protein Hsp40. Furthermore, additional partner proteins have been identified, some of which are linking Hsp70 to other chaperone systems such as the Hsp90 system. 
     Members of the Human Hsp70 Family 
     Some of the important functions attributed to the molecular chaperones include import of proteins into cellular compartments, folding of proteins in the cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, prevention of protein aggregation and refolding of misfolded proteins. At present the human Hsp70 family includes 10 members encoded by different genes, and this section is meant to provide an overview of these family members with respect to function, expression patterns and homology. Some confusion exists about the nomenclature of the different human Hsp70 family members, although a set of general guidelines has been set forth by Tavaria et al., which provides a logical link between locus names, genes and proteins. However, as there still exists some interspecies confusion, the Hsp70 genes and proteins are referred to herein by their locus name. The name Hsp70 may refer to the two inducible Hsp70 family members with loci names HSPA1A and HSPA1B or to the whole Hsp70 family in general as evident from the consensus of the text. 
     HspA1A and HspA1B 
     The genes transcribed from the loci HSPA1A and HSPA1B are the two heat/stress-inducible Hsp70-genes and the majority of the literature concerning human Hsp70 refers to the proteins encoded by these two genes. The genes give rise to proteins consisting of 641 amino acids, having 99% homology to each other and were the first human Hsp70 family members to be cloned and characterized. The genes are linked in the MHC-class III complex at 6p21.3, are intron-less and with promoter regions containing HSEs, enabling them to bind HSFs and induce transcription in response to a variety of cellular assaults. 
     HspA1L and HspA2 
     Two Hsp70 family members have been termed “chauvinist genes” because male germ cells favor their expression with strong prejudice. The hspA1L gene is a constitutively expressed intron-less Hsp70 family member located 4 kb telomeric to the HSPA1A locus in the same MHC-class III complex on chromosome 6. It is expressed in low amounts both before and after heat shock but with the expression pattern favoring the testes in mouse, rat and humans with the 641 amino acids (aa) protein being 90% homologous to HspA1A. The hspA2 gene was first isolated from a mouse genomic library and has later been shown to be constitutively expressed albeit in low levels in various tissues in the human body including skeletal muscle, ovary, small intestine, colon, brain, placenta and the kidneys, but highly expressed in testis. Its expression, or rather lack thereof, has been connected with abnormal human spermatogenesis and male hspA2 (−/−)  mice are sterile. The gene is located on chromosome 14, giving rise to a 639 aa protein with 84% homology to HspA1A, although the exact location is subject to discussion as two papers have presented different loci positions—14q24.1 vs. 14q22. 
     HspA6 and HspA7 
     The hspA6 and hspA7 genes are heat inducible members of the Hsp70 family with no apparent counterparts in mice. They contain HSEs in their promoter-sites and the genes are intron-less. They are co-localized on chromosome 1 and are 94% homologous to each other in the nucleotide sequence. However, only HspA6 is functional as the hspA7 gene harbors a single nucleotide insertion generating a premature stop codon at +1324. The HspA6 protein is 643 aa long and shows 77% homology to HspA1A and HspA1B. 
     HspA5 and HspA9 
     The hspA5 and hspA9 genes are the two compartment-specific members of the Hsp70 family. The 655 aa HspA5 protein is located in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and facilitates folding and transport of newly synthesized proteins in this compartment. The protein is 64% homologous to HspA1A, the gene being located at 9q34. The 679 aa HspA9 protein is located in the mitochondria where it assists in folding of proteins after their transport across the mitochondrial membrane. HspA9 is located at 5q31.1, the protein being 52% homologous to HspA1A. 
     HspA8 
     The cognate Hsp70 member known as Hsc70 is encoded by a gene named hspA8 at 11q24, giving rise to a 646 aa protein with 86% homology to HspA1A, and is constitutively expressed in all tissues and cell lines. The protein is analogous to Hsp70 in its cellular functions, providing the required chaperoning under normal circumstances, but has also been ascribed a role in the un-coating of clathrin-coated vesicles as well as in chaperone-mediated autophagy. 
     HspA3 and HspA4 
     These will not be discussed here, as there is doubt as to whether HSPA3 exists at all and since HSPA4 is most likely a member of the Hsp110 family and nothing is known about it so far, except for its chromosomal location at 5q31.1-2. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 List of the Human Hsp70 Gene Family. The genes are listed according to locus name,  
               
               
                 names used herein, chromosomal location (position), amino acid homology to HspA1A  
               
               
                 as well as alternative names often seen in the literature. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 % aa  
                   
               
               
                   
                 Name Used herein, 
                   
                 Homology 
                   
               
               
                 Locus 
                 Gene/Protein 
                 Position 
                 to HSPA1A 
                 Alternative Names 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 HSPA1A 
                 hspA1A/HspA1A (Hsp70) 
                 6p23.1 
                 100  
                 Hsp70; Hsp72; Hsp70-1 
               
               
                 HSPA1B 
                 hspA1B/HspA1B (Hsp70) 
                 6p23.1 
                 99 
                 Hsp70; Hsp72; Hsp70-2 
               
               
                 HSPA1L 
                 hspA1L/HspA1L 
                 6p23.1 
                 90 
                 Hsp70-Hom; Hsp70t 
               
               
                 HSPA2 
                 hspA2/HspA2 
                 14q24.1 
                 84 
                 Hsp70-3 
               
               
                 HSPA4 
                 hspA4/HspA4 
                 5q31.1 
                 31 
                 Hsp70RY; APG-2 
               
               
                 HSPA5 
                 hspA5/HspA5 
                 9q34 
                 64 
                 BiP; GRP78 
               
               
                 HSPA6 
                 hspA6/HspA6 
                 1q 
                 84 
                 Hsp70-6; Hsp70B′ 
               
               
                 HSPA7 
                 hspA7/HspA7 
                 1q 
                 — 
                 Hsp70-7; Hsp70B 
               
               
                 HSPA8 
                 hspA8/HspA8 (Hsc70) 
                 11q24 
                 86 
                 Hsc70; Hsp73 
               
               
                 HSPA9 
                 hspA9/HspA9 
                 5q31.1 
                 52 
                 GRP75; PBP74; mtHsp75;  
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 mortalin; mot-2 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Bioactive Agent 
     A “Bioactive agent” (i. e., biologically active substance/agent) is any agent, drug, substance, compound, composition of matter or mixture which provides some pharmacologic, often beneficial, effect that can be demonstrated in vivo or in vitro. As used herein, this term further includes any physiologically or pharmacologically active substance that produces a localized or systemic effect in an individual. Further examples of bioactive agents include, but are not limited to, agents comprising or consisting of an oligosaccharide, a polysaccharide, an optionally glycosylated peptide, an optionally glycosylated polypeptide, a nucleic acid, an oligonucleotide, a polynucleotide, a lipid, a fatty acid, a fatty acid ester and secondary metabolites. 
     A bioactive agent as defined herein increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70. In one embodiment said bioactive agent is selected from:
         Hsp70 protein, or a functional fragment or variant thereof,   Inducers of heat shock proteins including Hsp70, such as Hsp70 inducers
           small molecule inducers of heat shock proteins, including Hsp70;
               hydroxylamine derivatives, e.g. bimoclomol, arimoclomol, iroxanadine and BGP-15   
               Membrane fluidizers, such as benzyl alcohol   Sub-lethal heat-therapy 42° C.) or hyperthermia   Certain anti-inflammatory and anti-neoplastic drugs   Cellular stressors;
               Reactive oxygen species (ROS); Adrenalin, noradrenalin; UV light; Radiation therapy.   
               
               

     A bioactive agent as defined herein is thus any agent, chemical or compound that increases the intracellular concentration (or level) and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins including Hsp70; and includes Hsp70 itself, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, and any Hsp70 inducer known to the skilled person. 
     A bioactive agent that increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, and a bioactive agent that increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of Hsp70, is used interchangeably with ‘Hsp70 inducer’ herein. 
     An Hsp70 inducer can amplify Hsp70 gene expression and protein expression with or without a concomitant stress. A direct Hsp70 inducer is a compound that can by itself amplify Hsp70 gene expression and protein expression without a concomitant stress. An indirect Hsp70 inducer, or an Hsp70 co-inducer, is a compound that cannot amplify Hsp70 gene expression and protein expression without a concomitant (mild) stress, but the stress-induced increase in Hsp70 levels is further elevated or enhanced by their presence. 
     It follows that a bioactive agent may increase the intracellular concentration and/or activity of Hsp70 either directly or indirectly. 
     In one embodiment, the bioactive agent is Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof. 
     In another embodiment, the bioactive agent is an inducer of heat shock proteins, including Hsp70. 
     In one embodiment the inducer of heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, is an inducer of one or more of Hsp70, Hsp40, Hsp72 and Hsp90. In one embodiment the inducer of heat shock proteins is an inducer of at least Hsp70. In one embodiment the inducer of heat shock proteins is an inducer of Hsp70. 
     Reference to an inducer of Hsp70, or inducing Hsp70, implies that at least Hsp70 is induced, and does not exclude co-induction of other proteins and effectors such as other heat shock proteins. An inducer of Hsp70 refers equally to Hsp70 inducers and co-inducers, and direct and indirect Hsp70 inducers. 
     In one embodiment, the bioactive agent comprises a combination of Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, and an inducer of heat shock proteins including Hsp70. 
     In one embodiment, the bioactive agent increases ABCA1 at the translational and transcriptional level. In another embodiment, the bioactive agent stimulates cholesterol efflux from macrophage foam cells, in particular efflux of cholesterol esters. 
     Heat Shock Protein 70 
     It is an aspect to provide Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, for use in treating a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     In one embodiment there is provided use of Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     In one embodiment there is provided a method of treating a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis, said method comprising one or more steps of administering Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, to an individual in need thereof. 
     It is understood that Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, as defined herein can be any natural or synthetic product, and may be produced by any conventional technique known to the person skilled in the art. 
     In one embodiment, Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, is purified from a natural source. Said natural source may be any plant, animal or bacteria which expresses, or may be induced to express, Hsp70 in a form suitable for administering to an individual in need thereof. 
     In a particular embodiment, Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, is made synthetically. It follows that Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, in one embodiment is a recombinant protein made by conventional techniques and as such is denoted rHsp70. 
     The Hsp70 as defined herein, synthetic or natural, in one embodiment has a sequence which is derived from any suitable species of plant, animal or bacteria. In one embodiment, said rHsp70 is derived from a mammal. Said mammal is in one embodiment selected form the group consisting of human (homo sapiens), mouse (mus musculus), cow, dog, rat, ferret, pig, sheep, and monkey. In another embodiment, said rHsp70 is derived from bacteria. 
     Hsp70 is characterized in part by having a very high degree of interspecies sequence conservation, thus possibly allowing for Hsp70 derived from one species to be used in another species without eliciting a harmful immune response. 
     In one particular embodiment, said rHsp70 has a sequence derived from human Hsp70. 
     In one particular embodiment, said rHsp70 has a sequence derived from more than one species. Said Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, may thus in one embodiment be a chimera. 
     In one embodiment Hsp70 is meant to denote any of the two inducible Hsp70 family members with loci names HSPA1A and HSPA1B. 
     In one embodiment said Hsp70 is selected from HSPA1A (SEQ ID NOs:1 and 2) and HSPA1B (SEQ ID NOs:4 and 5), or a functional fragment or variant thereof. In SEQ ID NO:2 the initiator methionine (M at position 1) of SEQ ID NO:1 is removed. In SEQ ID NO:5 the initiator methionine (M at position 1) of SEQ ID NO:4 is removed. In vivo this occurs by post-translational processing. 
     In one embodiment, the Hsp70 is selected from any one of SEQ ID NO:s 1, 2, 4 and 5, or functional fragments or variants thereof, including any naturally occurring variants thereof, such as variants derived from molecule processing and/or amino acid modifications (including any acetylation, phosphorylation and methylation). 
     In one embodiment, the Hsp70 protein has 100% identity to wild-type Hsp70 protein. In another embodiment, the Hsp70 protein has less than 100% identity to the wild-type Hsp70 protein, such as 99.9 to 95% identity, for example 95 to 90% identity, such as 90 to 85% identity, for example 85 to 80% identity, such as 80 to 75% identity, for example 75 to 60% identity to the wild-type protein. Regardless of the degree of identity, any fragment or variant of Hsp70 that retains its relevant biological effects is encompassed herewith. 
     In one embodiment said variant of Hsp70 has 99.9 to 99% identity, for example 99 to 98% identity, such as 98 to 97% identity, for example 97 to 96% identity, such as 96 to 95% identity, for example 95 to 94% identity, such as 94 to 93% identity, for example 93 to 92% identity, such as 92 to 91% identity, for example 91 to 90% identity, such as 90 to 85% identity, for example 85 to 80% identity, such as 80 to 75% identity, for example 75 to 70% identity, such as 70 to 65% identity, for example 65 to 60% identity to Hsp70 selected from HSPA1A (SEQ ID NOs:1 and 2) and HSPA1B (SEQ ID NOs: 4 and 5), or a fragment thereof. 
     In one embodiment, the bioactive agent is Hsp70. In one embodiment, said Hsp70 is full length Hsp70. In one embodiment said Hsp70 is HSPA1A, or a functional fragment or variant thereof. In one embodiment said Hsp70 is SEQ ID NO:1 or 2, or a functional fragment or variant thereof. 
     It is also an embodiment to provide a functional fragment or variant of Hsp70. As defined herein, a functional fragment or variant is any fragment or variant of Hsp70 which retains the capability of one or more of:
         i) stimulating cholesterol efflux from macrophages, such as lipid laden macrophages, such as foam cells,   ii) stimulating the decrease of cholesterol esters in macrophages, such as lipid laden macrophages, such as foam cells,   iii) facilitating cholesterol reduction during macrophage foam cell reversal,   iv) reducing intracellular cholesterol in macrophages,   v) increasing or stimulating ABCA1 levels and/or activity,   vi) increasing or stimulating ABCA1-protein levels and/or activity, and/or   vii) increasing or stimulating ABCA1-mRNA levels and/or activity.       

     In one embodiment, the bioactive agent is a functional fragment or variant of Hsp70. 
     In one embodiment, the bioactive agent is a functional fragment or variant of Hsp70, in which Hsp70 is modified by one or more deletion(s), addition(s) or substitution(s) of the wild type Hsp70. 
     In one embodiment, the bioactive agent is a naturally occurring variant of Hsp70, or a fragment of a naturally occurring variant of Hsp70. 
     In one embodiment a variant of Hsp70 comprises one or more of D→A at position 10, E→D at position 110, DΔA at position 199, K Rat position 561, N-acetylalanine at position 2, N6-acetyllysine at position 108, N6-acetyllysine at position 246, N6-acetyllysine at position 348, N6,N6,N6-trimethyllysine at position 561, phosphoserine at position 631, phosphoserine at position 633 and phosphothreonine at position 636. In one embodiment a naturally occurring variant of Hsp70 is Isoform 1 wherein amino acids of position 96-150 are missing (PODMV8-2). 
     In one embodiment, a functional fragment or variant of Hsp70 is a variant of Hsp70 in which one or more amino acids has been substituted (or mutated). Said substitution(s) comprises equivalent or conservative substitution(s), or a non-equivalent or non-conservative substitution(s). The term Hsp70 and variants thereof also embraces post-translational modifications introduced by chemical or enzyme-catalyzed reactions, as are known in the art, and chemical modifications such as ubiquitination, labeling, pegylation, glycosylation, amidation, alkylation and esterification. In one embodiment said Hsp70 has been post-translationally modified, including including acetylation, phosphorylation and methylation at any position. 
     In one embodiment 0.1 to 1% of the amino acid residues of wild type Hsp70 has been substituted, such as 1 to 2%, for example 2 to 3%, such as 3 to 4%, for example 4 to 5%, such as 5 to 10%, for example 10 to 15%, such as 15 to 20%, for example 20 to 30%, such as 30 to 40%, for example 40 to 50%, such as 50 to 60%, for example 60 to 70%, such as 70 to 80%, for example 80 to 90%, such as 90 to 100% amino acid residues. 
     In one embodiment 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5 of the amino acid residues of wild type Hsp70 has been substituted, such as 5 to 10, for example 10 to 15, such as 15 to 20, for example 20 to 30, such as 30 to 40, for example 40 to 50, such as 50 to 75, for example 75 to 100, such as 100 to 150, for example 150 to 200, such as 200 to 300, for example 300 to 400, such as 400 to 500 amino acid residues. 
     In one embodiment, the Hsp70 or functional fragment or variant of Hsp70 is a fusion protein. In one embodiment, said Hsp70 or functional fragment or variant of Hsp70 is fused to a tag. 
     An “equivalent amino acid residue” refers to an amino acid residue capable of replacing another amino acid residue in a polypeptide without substantially altering the structure and/or functionality of the polypeptide. Equivalent amino acids thus have similar properties such as bulkiness of the side-chain, side chain polarity (polar or non-polar), hydrophobicity (hydrophobic or hydrophilic), pH (acidic, neutral or basic) and side chain organization of carbon molecules (aromatic/aliphatic). As such, “equivalent amino acid residues” can be regarded as “conservative amino acid substitutions”. 
     The classification of equivalent amino acids refers in one embodiment to the following classes: 1) HRK, 2) DENQ, 3) C, 4) STPAG, 5) MILV and 6) FYW 
     Within the meaning of the term “equivalent amino acid substitution” as applied herein, one amino acid may be substituted for another, in one embodiment, within the groups of amino acids indicated herein below:
         i) Amino acids having polar side chains (Asp, Glu, Lys, Arg, His, Asn, Gln, Ser, Thr, Tyr, and Cys,)   ii) Amino acids having non-polar side chains (Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile, Phe, Trp, Pro, and Met)   iii) Amino acids having aliphatic side chains (Gly, Ala Val, Leu, Ile)   iv) Amino acids having cyclic side chains (Phe, Tyr, Trp, His, Pro)   v) Amino acids having aromatic side chains (Phe, Tyr, Trp)   vi) Amino acids having acidic side chains (Asp, Glu)   vii) Amino acids having basic side chains (Lys, Arg, His)   viii) Amino acids having amide side chains (Asn, Gln)   ix) Amino acids having hydroxy side chains (Ser, Thr)   x) Amino acids having sulphor-containing side chains (Cys, Met),   xi) Neutral, weakly hydrophobic amino acids (Pro, Ala, Gly, Ser, Thr)   xii) Hydrophilic, acidic amino acids (Gln, Asn, Glu, Asp), and   xiii) Hydrophobic amino acids (Leu, Ile, Val)       

     The wild type Hsp70 protein has a total length of 641 amino acids (640 amino acids after removal of initiator methionine at position 1). A fragment of Hsp70 is in one embodiment meant to comprise any fragment with a total length of less than the wild type protein, such as less than 625 amino acids, for example less than 600 amino acids, such as less than 575 amino acids, for example less than 550 amino acids, such as less than 525 amino acids, for example less than 500 amino acids, such as less than 475 amino acids, for example less than 450 amino acids, such as less than 425 amino acids, for example less than 400 amino acids, such as less than 375 amino acids, for example less than 350 amino acids, such as less than 325 amino acids, for example less than 300 amino acids, such as less than 275 amino acids, for example less than 250 amino acids, such as less than 225 amino acids, for example less than 200 amino acids, such as less than 175 amino acids, for example less than 150 amino acids, such as less than 125 amino acids, for example less than 100 amino acids, such as less than 75 amino acids, for example less than 50 amino acids, such as less than 25 amino acids derived from Hsp70. 
     In another embodiment a fragment of Hsp70 is meant to comprise any fragment with a total length of more than 10 amino acids, such as more than 25 amino acids, for example more than 50 amino acids, such as more than 75 amino acids, for example more than 100 amino acids, such as more than 125 amino acids, for example more than 150 amino acids, such as more than 175 amino acids, for example more than 200 amino acids, such as more than 225 amino acids, for example more than 250 amino acids, such as more than 275 amino acids, for example more than 300 amino acids, such as more than 325 amino acids, for example more than 350 amino acids, such as more than 375 amino acids, for example more than 400 amino acids, such as more than 425 amino acids, for example more than 450 amino acids, such as more than 475 amino acids, for example more than 500 amino acids, such as more than 525 amino acids, for example more than 550 amino acids, such as more than 575 amino acids, for example more than 600 amino acids, such as more than 625 amino acids derived from Hsp70. 
     In one embodiment the total length of the fragment of Hsp70 is 5 to 25 amino acids, such as 25 to 50 amino acids, for example 50 to 75 amino acids, such as 75 to 100 amino acids, for example 100 to 125 amino acids, such as 125 to 150 amino acids, for example 150 to 175 amino acids, such as 175 to 200 amino acids, for example 200 to 225 amino acids, such as 225 to 250 amino acids, for example 250 to 275 amino acids, such as 275 to 300 amino acids, for example 300 to 325 amino acids, such as 325 to 350 amino acids, for example 350 to 375 amino acids, such as 375 to 400 amino acids, for example 400 to 425 amino acids, such as 425 to 450 amino acids, for example 450 to 475 amino acids, such as 475 to 500 amino acids, for example 500 to 525 amino acids, such as 525 to 550 amino acids, for example 550 to 575 amino acids, such as 575 to 600 amino acids, for example 600 to 625 amino acids, such as 625 to 640 amino acids derived from Hsp70. 
     A fragment of Hsp70 is in one embodiment a truncated version of the wild type protein. A fragment may be truncated by shortening of the protein from either the amino-terminal or the carboxy-terminal ends of the protein, or it may be truncated by deletion of one or more internal regions of any size of the protein. 
     In one embodiment the Hsp70 is a variant of a fragment, i.e. a fragment of Hsp70 as defined herein wherein one or more amino acids are substituted as defined herein. 
     It is appreciated that the exact quantitative effect of the functional fragment or variant may be different from the effect of the full-length molecule. In some instances, the functional fragment or variant may indeed be more effective than the full-length molecule. 
     The present invention also relates to variants of Hsp70, or fragments thereof, wherein the substitutions have been designed by computational analysis that uses sequence homology to predict whether a substitution affects protein function (e.g. Pauline C. Ng and Steven Henikoff, Genome Research, Vol. 11, Issue 5, 863-874, May 2001). 
     Ectopic expression of Hsp70 
     In one embodiment, Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, is expressed from a vector. In one embodiment Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, is administered to an individual in need thereof in the form of a vector. 
     The vector used for expressing Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, is in one embodiment selected from the group consisting of: viral vectors (retroviral and adenoviral) or non-viral vectors (e.g. plasmid, cosmid, bacteriophage). 
     In one embodiment, said vector comprises one or more of an origin of replication, a marker for selection and one or more recognition sites for a restriction endonuclease. In another embodiment, said vector is operably linked to regulatory sequences controlling the transcription of said Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, in a suitable host cell. 
     In one embodiment there is provided a method for producing Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, as described herein; said method comprising the steps of providing a vector encoding said Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, and expressing said vector either in vitro, or in vivo in a suitable host organism, thereby producing said Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof. 
     In one embodiment there is provided an isolated recombinant or transgenic host cell comprising a vector encoding Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, as defined herein. 
     In one embodiment there is provided a method for generating a recombinant or transgenic host cell, said method comprising the steps of providing a vector encoding Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, introducing said vector into said recombinant or transgenic host cell and optionally also expressing said vector in said recombinant or transgenic host cell, thereby generating a recombinant or transgenic host cell producing said Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof. 
     In another embodiment there is provided a transgenic, mammalian organism comprising the host cell producing said Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof. In a further embodiment, the transgenic, mammalian organism comprising the recombinant or transgenic host cell according to the present invention is non-human. The transgenic host cell can be selected from the group consisting of a mammalian, plant, bacterial, yeast or fungal host cell. 
     To improve the delivery of the DNA into the cell, the DNA must be protected from damage and its entry into the cell must be facilitated. Lipoplexes and polyplexes, have been created that have the ability to protect the DNA from undesirable degradation during the transfection process. Plasmid DNA can be covered with lipids in an organized structure like a micelle or a liposome. When the organized structure is complexed with DNA it is called a lipoplex. There are three types of lipids that may be employed for forming liposomes; anionic (negatively charged), neutral, or cationic (positively charged). Complexes of polymers with DNA are called polyplexes. Most polyplexes consist of cationic polymers and their production is regulated by ionic interactions. 
     In one embodiment, the vector comprising Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, may be used for gene therapy. Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual&#39;s cells and tissues to treat a disease, such as a hereditary disease in which a deleterious mutant allele is replaced with a functional one. 
     In another embodiment, Hsp70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, may be administered as naked DNA. This is the simplest form of non-viral transfection. Delivery of naked DNA may be performed by use of electroporation, sonoporation, or the use of a “gene gun”, which shoots DNA coated gold particles into a cell using high pressure gas. 
     Inducers of Heat Shock Proteins, Including Hsp70 
     In one embodiment the bioactive agent activates the heat shock response. In one embodiment the bioactive agent increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70. In one embodiment the bioactive agent increases the intracellular concentration (or level) and/or activity of Hsp70. In one embodiment the bioactive agent increases the intracellular concentration (or level) of Hsp70. In one embodiment the bioactive agent is an inducer of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70. In one embodiment the bioactive agent is an inducer of Hsp70. 
     It is an aspect of the present invention to provide an inducer of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, for use in treating a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     It is an aspect of the present invention to provide an inducer of Hsp70 for use in treating a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     In one embodiment there is provided use of an inducer of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     In one embodiment there is provided a method of treating a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis, said method comprising one or more steps of administering an inducer of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, to an individual in need thereof. 
     Small Molecule Inducers of Heat Shock Proteins 
     In one embodiment the bioactive agent is an inducer of Hsp70. In one embodiment the inducer of Hsp70 is a small molecule inducer of heat shock proteins, including Hsp70. In one embodiment the inducer of Hsp70 is a small molecule inducer of Hsp70. 
     In one embodiment an inducer of Hsp70; or a small molecule inducer of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70; is a compound capable of increasing the intracellular concentration (or level) of inter alia Hsp70, such as by amplifying Hsp70 gene expression. An inducer of Hsp70 may also induce other heat shock proteins. 
     In one embodiment the bioactive agent is capable of increasing the intracellular concentration (or level) of Hsp70 by amplifying Hsp70 gene expression. In one embodiment the bioactive agent is capable of increasing the intracellular concentration (or level) of Hsp70 by amplifying Hsp70 gene expression, wherein said bioactive agent is a hydroxylamine derivative, such as a hydroxylamine derivative small molecule. 
     Examples of such hydroxylamine derivatives include arimoclomol, iroxanadine, bimoclomol, BGP-15, their stereoisomers and the acid addition salts thereof. 
     It is an aspect of the present invention to provide a small molecule inducer of Hsp70 for use in treating a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     In one embodiment there is provided use of a small molecule inducer of Hsp70 for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     In one embodiment there is provided a method of treating a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis, said method comprising one or more steps of administering a small molecule inducer of Hsp70 to an individual in need thereof. 
     Arimoclomol 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride (arimoclomol), its stereoisomers and the acid addition salts thereof. Arimoclomol is further described in e.g. WO 00/50403. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride (arimoclomol), its optically active (+) or (−) enantiomer, a mixture of the enantiomers of any ratio, and the racemic compound, furthermore, the acid addition salts formed from any of the above compounds with mineral or organic acids constitute objects of the present invention. All possible geometrical isomer forms of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride belong to the scope of the invention. The term “the stereoisomers of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride” refers to all possible optical and geometrical isomers of the compound. 
     If desired, the N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride or one of its optically active enantiomers can be transformed into an acid addition salt with a mineral or organic acid, by known methods. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is the racemate of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is an optically active stereoisomer of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is an enantiomer of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from the group consisting of (+)-R−N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride and (−)-(S)-N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is an acid addition salt of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from the group consisting of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride citrate (BRX-345), and N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride maleate (BRX-220). 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from the group consisting of (+)-R−N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride citrate; (−)-S—N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride citrate; (+)-R−N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride maleate; and (−)-S—N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride maleate. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidamide, dihydrochloride (BGP-15), its stereoisomers and the acid addition salts thereof. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidamide, dihydrochloride (BGP-15), its optically active (+) or (−) enantiomer, a mixture of the enantiomers of any ratio, and the racemic compound, furthermore, the acid addition salts formed from any of the above compounds with mineral or organic acids constitute objects of the present invention. All possible geometrical isomer forms of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidamide, dihydrochloride belong to the scope of the invention. The term “the stereoisomers of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidamide, di hydrochloride” refers to all possible optical and geometrical isomers of the compound. 
     Iroxanadine 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from 5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine (iroxanadine), its stereoisomers and the acid addition salts thereof. Iroxanadine is further described in e.g. WO 97/16439 and WO 00/35914. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from 5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine (iroxanadine), its optically active (+) or (−) enantiomer, a mixture of the enantiomers of any ratio, and the racemic compound, furthermore, the acid addition salts formed from any of the above compounds with mineral or organic acids constitute objects of the present invention. All possible geometrical isomer forms of 5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine belong to the scope of the invention. The term “the stereoisomers of 5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine” refers to all possible optical and geometrical isomers of the compound. 
     If desired, the 5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine or one of its optically active enantiomers can be transformed into an acid addition salt with a mineral or organic acid, by known methods. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is the racemate of 5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is an optically active stereoisomer of 5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is an enantiomer of 5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from the group consisting of (+)-5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine and (−)-5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is an acid addition salt of 5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from the group consisting of 5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine citrate, and 5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine maleate. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from the group consisting of (+)-5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine citrate; (−)-5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine citrate; (+)-5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine maleate; and (−)-5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine maleate. 
     Bimoclomol 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride (bimoclomol) its stereoisomers and the acid addition salts thereof. Bimoclomol is further described in e.g. WO 1997/16439. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride (bimoclomol), its optically active (+) or (−) enantiomer, a mixture of the enantiomers of any ratio, and the racemic compound, furthermore, the acid addition salts formed from any of the above compounds with mineral or organic acids constitute objects of the present invention. All possible geometrical isomer forms of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride belong to the scope of the invention. The term “the stereoisomers of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride” refers to all possible optical and geometrical isomers of the compound. 
     If desired, the N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride or one of its optically active enantiomers can be transformed into an acid addition salt with a mineral or organic acid, by known methods. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is the racemate of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is an optically active stereoisomer of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is an enantiomer of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from the group consisting of (+)-R—N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride and (−)-(S)—N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is an acid addition salt of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from the group consisting of N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride citrate, and N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride maleate. 
     In one embodiment the small molecule inducer of Hsp70 is selected from the group consisting of (+)-R—N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride citrate; (−)-S—N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride citrate; (+)-R—N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride maleate; and (−)-S—N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride maleate. 
     Inducers for Treatment 
     In one embodiment there is provided a bioactive agent capable of increasing the intracellular concentration of Hsp70 by amplifying Hsp70 gene expression, wherein said bioactive agent is a hydroxylamine derivative, 
     wherein said bioactive agent is selected from the group consisting of: 
     N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride (arimoclomol), its stereoisomers and the acid addition salts thereof, 
     5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine (iroxanadine), its stereo-isomers and the acid addition salts thereof, 
     N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride (bimoclomol) its stereo-isomers and the acid addition salts thereof, and 
     N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidamide, dihydrochloride (BGP-15), its stereoisomers and the acid addition salts thereof, 
     for use in the treatment of a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     In one embodiment there is provided a bioactive agent capable of increasing the intracellular concentration of Hsp70 by amplifying Hsp70 gene expression, wherein said bioactive agent is a hydroxylamine derivative, 
     wherein said bioactive agent is selected from the group consisting of: 
     N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride (arimoclomol), its stereoisomers and the acid addition salts thereof, 
     5,6-dihydro-5-(1-piperidinyl)methyl-3-(3-pyridyl)-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazine (iroxanadine), its stereo-isomers and the acid addition salts thereof, 
     N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidoyl chloride (bimoclomol) its stereo-isomers and the acid addition salts thereof, and 
     N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)propoxy]-3-pyridinecarboximidamide, dihydrochloride (BGP-15), its stereoisomers and the acid addition salts thereof, 
     for use in the treatment of a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis selected from the group consisting of Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome (SLOS), Antley-Bixler Syndrome, Hydrops-Ectopic Calcification-Moth-Eaten Skeletal Dysplasia (Greenberg dysplasia), Congenital Hemidysplasia with lchthyosiform Nevus and Limb Defects Syndrome (CHILD), CK Syndrome, Conradi-Hünermann-Happle Syndrome (CPDX2, X-linked dominant chondrodysplasia punctate type 2), Lathosterolosis, Desmosterolosis, Mevalonate Kinase Deficiency (MKD) or (HIDS), Mevalonate Aciduria, atherosclerosis, Tangier disease and familial HDL deficiency. 
     In one embodiment there is provided a compound selected from the group consisting of (+)-R—N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride citrate; (−)-S—N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride citrate; (+)-R—N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride maleate; and (−)-S—N-[2-hydroxy-3-(1-piperidinyl)-propoxy]-pyridine-1-oxide-3-carboximidoyl chloride maleate, for use in the treatment of a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis, such as Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome (SLOS), Antley-Bixler Syndrome, Hydrops-Ectopic Calcification-Moth-Eaten Skeletal Dysplasia (Greenberg dysplasia), Congenital Hemidysplasia with lchthyosiform Nevus and Limb Defects Syndrome (CHILD), CK Syndrome, Conradi-Hünermann-Happle Syndrome (CPDX2, X-linked dominant chondrodysplasia punctate type 2), Lathosterolosis, Desmosterolosis, Mevalonate Kinase Deficiency (MKD) or (HIDS), Mevalonate Aciduria, atherosclerosis, Tangier disease and familial HDL deficiency. 
     Other Inducers of Heat Shock Proteins 
     In one embodiment the bioactive agent is an inducer of Hsp70. Any means for inducing Hsp70 expression is envisioned to be encompassed herewith, some of which are outlined herein below. 
     In one embodiment the inducer of Hsp70 is sub-lethal heat therapy. Increasing the temperature of an individual is a potent inducer of HSPs including Hsp70, and as such sub-lethal heat therapy is a means for inducing Hsp70. In one embodiment, sub-lethal heat therapy comprises increasing the temperature of an individual to a core temperature of about 38° C., such as about 39° C., for example about 40° C., such as about 41° C., for example about 42° C., such as about 43° C. 
     Psychological stress such as predatory fear and electric shock can evoke a stress induced eHsp70 release, a process which is suggested to be dependent on cathecholamine signaling. Further, adrenaline and noradrenalin can evoke Hsp70 release. 
     A number of compounds have been shown to induce (or co-induce) HSPs, including Hsp70. In one embodiment the inducer of Hsp70 is selected from the group consisting of: membrane-interactive compounds such as alkyllysophospholipid edelfosine (ET-18-OCH3 or 1-octadecyl-2-methyl-rac-glycero-3-phosphocholine); anti-inflammatory drugs including cyclooxygenase 1/2 inhibitors such as celecoxib and rofecoxib, as well as NSAIDs such as acetyl-salicylic acid, sodium salicylate and indomethacin; dexamethasone; prostaglandins PGA1, PGj2 and 2-cyclopentene-1-one; peroxidase proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonists; tubulin-interacting anticancer agents including vincristine and paclitaxel; the insulin sensitizer pioglitazone; anti-neoplastic agents such as carboplatin, doxorubicin, fludarabine, ifosfamide and cytarabine; Hsp90 inhibitors including geldanamycin, 17-AAG, 17-DMAG, radicicol, herbimycin-A and arachidonic acid; proteasome inhibitors such as MG132, lactacystin, Bortezomib, Carfilzomib and Oprozomib; serine protease inhibitors such as DCIC, TLCK and TPCK; 
     Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors (HDACi) including SAHA/vorinostat, Belinostat/PXD101, LB-205, LBH589 (panobinostat), FK-228, CI-994, trichostatin A (TSA) and PCI-34051; anti-ulcer drugs including geranylgeranylacetone (GGA), rebamipide, carbenoxolone and polaprezinc (zinc L-carnosine); heavy metals (zinc and tin); cocaine; nicotine; alcohol; alpha-adrenergic agonists; cyclopentenone prostanoids; L-type Ca++ channel blockers, such as L-type Ca++ channel blockers that also inhibits ryanodine receptors, such as lacidipine; ryanodine receptor antagonists such as DHBP (1,1′-diheptyl-4,4′-bipyridium; as well as herbal medicines including paeoniflorin, glycyrrhizin, celastrol, dihydrocelastrol, dihydrocelastrol diacetate and curcumin. 
     In one embodiment the inducer of Hsp70 is a proteasome inhibitor. In one embodiment the proteasome inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of Bortezomib, Carfilzomib, Oprozomib, MG132 and lactacystin. 
     In one embodiment the inducer of Hsp70 is a HDAC inhibitor. In one embodiment the HDACi is selected form the group consisting of SAHA/vorinostat, Belinostat/PXD101, LB-205, LBH589 (panobinostat), FK-228, CI-994, trichostatin A (TSA) and PCI-34051. 
     Membrane Fluidizers 
     In one embodiment the inducer of Hsp70 is is a membrane fluidizer. Treatment with a membrane fluidizer may also be termed lipid therapy. 
     Besides the denaturation of a proportion of cellular proteins during heat (proteotoxicity), a change in the fluidity of membranes is also proposed as being a cellular thermosensor that initiates the heat shock response and induces HSPs. Indeed, chemically induced membrane perturbations—analogous with heat induced plasma membrane fluidization—are capable of activating HSP, without causing protein denaturation. 
     In one embodiment the inducer of Hsp70 is a membrane fluidizer selected from the group consisting of benzyl alcohol, heptanol, AL721, docosahexaenoic acid, aliphatic alcohols, oleyl alcohol, dimethylaminoethanol, A 2 C, farnesol and anaesthetics such as lidocaine, ropivacaine, bupivacaine and mepivacaine, as well as others known to the skilled person. 
     Diseases Associated with Dysregulation of Cholesterol Homeostasis 
     Provided herewith are bioactive agents as defined herein that increase the intracellular concentration (or level9 and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, for treating a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     In one embodiment a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis is a disease associated with cholesterol accumulation (or cholesterol storage), such as intracellular cholesterol accumulation. 
     In one embodiment a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis is a disease associated with abnormal cholesterol accumulation (or cholesterol storage), such as abnormal intracellular cholesterol accumulation. 
     In one embodiment a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis is a disease (or disorder) of cholesterol metabolism. In one embodiment the disease of cholesterol metabolism is an inborn error of cholesterol metabolism. 
     In one embodiment the disease of cholesterol metabolism is a disease of cholesterol biosynthesis. In one embodiment the disease of cholesterol biosynthesis is an inborn disease of cholesterol biosynthesis. 
     In one embodiment the disease of cholesterol biosynthesis is selected from the group consisting of:
         Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome (SLOS),   Antley-Bixler Syndrome,   Hydrops-Ectopic Calcification-Moth-Eaten Skeletal Dysplasia (Greenberg dysplasia),   Congenital Hemidysplasia with Ichthyosiform Nevus and Limb Defects Syndrome (CHILD),   CK Syndrome,   Conradi-Hünermann-Happle Syndrome (CPDX2, X-linked dominant chondrodysplasia punctate type 2),   Lathosterolosis,   Desmosterolosis,   Mevalonate Kinase Deficiency (MKD) also known as Hyper IgD Syndrome (HIDS), and   Mevalonate Aciduria or mevalonic aciduria (MVA).       

     In one embodiment the disease of cholesterol metabolism is a disease of cholesterol trafficking. 
     In one embodiment the disease of cholesterol metabolism is a disease of cholesterol transport. 
     In one embodiment the disease of cholesterol metabolism is a disease associated with cholesterol efflux. 
     In one embodiment the disease as defined associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis as defined herewith is not selected from the group consisting of cerebrotendinous cholesterosis, Wolman&#39;s disease and cholesteryl ester storage disease. In one embodiment the disease as defined associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis as defined herewith is not a lysosomal cholesterol storage disease. 
     In one embodiment the disease of cholesterol metabolism is a disease associated with the cholesterol transporter ABCA1. In one embodiment the disease of cholesterol metabolism is an ABCA1-related disease. In one embodiment the ABCA1-related disease is selected from the group consisting of ABCA1-deficiencies, ABCA1-mutations and diseases associated with impaired ABCA1-regulation. 
     In one embodiment the disease of cholesterol transport, or cholesterol efflux, is familial HDL deficiency. In one embodiment the disease associated with ABCA1 is familial HDL deficiency. Familial HDL deficiency is caused by a mutation in the ABCA1-gene. It is a condition characterized by low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) in the blood. Familial HDL deficiency is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means an alteration in one copy of either the ABCA1 or the APOA1 gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. People with alterations in both copies of the ABCA1 gene develop the related disorder Tangier disease. 
     In one embodiment the disease of cholesterol transport, or cholesterol efflux, is Tangier disease. In one embodiment the disease associated with ABCA1 is Tangier disease. Tangier disease is caused by a mutation in the ABCA1-gene. Patients have little or no circulating HDL and accumulate cholesterol, leading to the formation of foam cells (an early marker of atherosclerosis). 
     To date there is no specific treatment for Tangier disease. Drugs known to increase HDL levels have been shown to be ineffective in Tangier patients. 
     Provided herewith are bioactive agents that increase the intracellular concentration and/or activity of Hsp70, including Hsp70 protein and Hsp70 inducers, for treating a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis, including diseases associated with cholesterol accumulation, diseases of cholesterol metabolism, diseases of cholesterol biosynthesis, diseases of cholesterol trafficking and diseases of cholesterol transport or efflux. 
     Provided herewith are bioactive agents that increase the intracellular concentration and/or activity of Hsp70, including Hsp70 protein and Hsp70 inducers, for treating a disease selected from the group consisting of Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome (SLOS), Antley-Bixler Syndrome, Hydrops-Ectopic Calcification-Moth-Eaten Skeletal Dysplasia (Greenberg dysplasia), Congenital Hemidysplasia with Ichthyosiform Nevus and Limb Defects Syndrome (CHILD), CK Syndrome, Conradi-Hünermann-Happle Syndrome (CPDX2, X-linked dominant chondrodysplasia punctate type 2), Lathosterolosis, Desmosterolosis, Mevalonate Kinase Deficiency (MKD) or (HIDS), Mevalonate Aciduria and Tangier disease. 
     Also provided are bioactive agents that increase the intracellular concentration and/or activity of Hsp70, including Hsp70 protein and Hsp70 inducers, for treating a disease associated with foam cells. In one embodiment a disease associated with foam cells comprise atherosclerosis and Tangier disease. 
     Atherosclerosis 
     In one embodiment the disease associated with cholesterol accumulation is atherosclerosis (also known as arteriosclerotic vascular disease). 
     It is thus an aspect to provide a bioactive agent as defined herein that increase the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, for treating atherosclerosis. 
     Also encompassed are bioactive agents as defined herein for use in methods of reducing (inhibiting, reversing) atheromatous plaques and/or fatty streaks. 
     Atherosclerosis is a specific form of arteriosclerosis in which an artery-wall thickens as a result of invasion and accumulation of white blood cells (WBCs) and proliferation of intimal-smooth-muscle cell creating a fibro fatty plaque (atheromatous plaque). The accumulation of the white blood cells is termed “fatty streaks” early on, and contains both living, active WBCs (producing inflammation) and remnants of dead cells, including cholesterol and triglycerides. The plaque is divided into the atheroma, underlying areas of cholesterol crystals and calcification at the outer base of older or more advanced lesions. 
     Atherosclerosis is initiated by inflammatory processes in the endothelial cells of the vessel wall associated with retained low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles. This retention may be a cause, an effect, or both, of the underlying inflammatory process. Once inside the vessel wall, LDL particles can become more prone to oxidation. Endothelial cells respond by attracting monocyte white blood cells, causing them to leave the blood stream, penetrate into the arterial walls and transform into macrophages. The macrophages&#39; ingestion of oxidized LDL particles triggers a cascade of immune responses which over time can produce an atheroma if HDL removal of fats from the macrophages does not keep up. The immune system&#39;s specialized white blood cells (macrophages and T-lymphocytes) absorb the oxidized LDL, forming specialized foam cells. If these foam cells are not able to process the oxidized LDL and recruit HDL particles to remove the fats, they grow and eventually rupture, leaving behind cellular membrane remnants, oxidized materials, and fats (including cholesterol) in the artery wall. This attracts more white blood cells, resulting in a snowballing progression that continues the cycle, inflaming the artery. 
     ABCA1 mediates the efflux of cholesterol and phospholipids to lipid-poor apolipoproteins (apo-A1 and apoE), which then form nascent high-density lipoproteins (HDL). Downregulation of ABCA1 in senescent macrophages disrupts the cell&#39;s ability to remove cholesterol from its cytoplasm, leading the cells to promote atherogenesis. 
     Atherosclerosis is a chronic disease that may be asymptotic for years. Atherosclerosis increases the risk of thrombus formation in the lumen or complete closure of the lumen (stenosis) of vessels, of thromboembolism, and resulting ischemia or infarction. Accompanying incidents include myocardial infarction (a heart attack due to thrombosis of a coronary artery), stroke (thrombosis of cerebral and/or carotid arteries), claudication from insufficient blood supply to the legs, and thrombosis of renal and femoral arteries. 
     Also encompassed are bioactive agents as defined herein for use in methods of reducing (inhibiting, reversing) the risk of thrombus formation, thromboembolism, and resulting ischemia or infarction in individuals with atherosclerosis. 
     Methods 
     In one embodiment there is provided a method of stimulating cholesterol efflux from macrophages, such as lipid-laden macrophages, such as foam cells, said method comprising one or more steps of administering a bioactive agent that increase the intracellular concentration and/or activity of Hsp70, including Hsp70 protein and Hsp70 inducers. 
     In another embodiment there is provided a method of stimulating the decrease of cholesterol esters in macrophages, such as lipid laden macrophages, such as foam cells, said method comprising one or more steps of administering a bioactive agent that increase the intracellular concentration and/or activity of Hsp70, including Hsp70 protein and Hsp70 inducers. 
     In one embodiment there is provided a method of facilitating cholesterol reduction during macrophage foam cell reversal, and/or reducing intracellular cholesterol in macrophages, such as lipid laden macrophages, such as foam cells, said method comprising one or more steps of administering a bioactive agent that increase the intracellular concentration and/or activity of Hsp70, including Hsp70 protein and Hsp70 inducers. 
     Also provided is a method of increasing or stimulating ABCA1 levels and/or activity, said method comprising one or more steps of administering a bioactive agent that increase the intracellular concentration and/or activity of Hsp70, including Hsp70 protein and Hsp70 inducers. In one embodiment stimulating ABCA1 level and/or activity comprise increasing ABCA1-protein levels and/or activity. In one embodiment stimulating ABCA1 level and/or activity comprise increasing ABCA1-mRNA levels and/or activity. 
     In one embodiment said methods are in vivo. In another embodiment said methods are in vitro or ex vivo. 
     Composition 
     Whilst it is possible for the bioactive agents to be administered as the raw chemical, it is in some embodiments preferred to present them in the form of a pharmaceutical formulation. Accordingly, also provided herewith is a composition, such as a pharmaceutical composition, i.e. a pharmaceutically safe composition, comprising a bioactive agent as defined herein. The composition in one embodiment comprises a pharmaceutically and/or physiologically acceptable carriers or excipients. 
     Pharmaceutical compositions containing a bioactive agent of the present invention may be prepared by conventional techniques, e.g. as described in Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, 20 th  Edition, Gennaro, Ed., Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa., 2000. 
     It is thus an aspect to provide a composition, such as a pharmaceutical composition, comprising a bioactive agent that increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, for use in the treatment of a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     Administration and Dosage 
     A bioactive agent or composition comprising the same as defined herein is in one embodiment administered to individuals in need thereof in pharmaceutically effective doses or a therapeutically effective amount. 
     A therapeutically effective amount of a bioactive agent is in one embodiment an amount sufficient to cure, prevent, reduce the risk of, alleviate or partially arrest the clinical manifestations of a given disease or disorder and its complications. The amount that is effective for a particular therapeutic purpose will depend on the severity and the sort of the disorder as well as on the weight and general state of the subject. An amount adequate to accomplish this is defined as a “therapeutically effective amount”. 
     In one embodiment, the composition is administered in doses of 1 pg/day to 100 mg/day; such as 1 μg/day to 10 μg/day, such as 10 μg/day to 100 μg/day, such as 100 μg/day to 250 μg/day, such as 250 μg/day to 500 μg/day, such as 500 μg/day to 750 μg/day, such as 750 μg/day to 1 mg/day, such as 1 mg/day to 2 mg/day, such as 2 mg/day to 5 mg/day, or such as 5 mg/day to 10 mg/day, such as 10 mg/day to 20 mg/day, such as 20 mg/day to 30 mg/day, such as 30 mg/day to 40 mg/day, such as 40 mg/day to 50 mg/day, such as 50 mg/day to 75 mg/day, such as 75 mg/day to 100 mg/day, such as 100 mg/day to 150 mg/day, such as 150 mg/day to 200 mg/day, or such as 200 mg/day to 250 mg/day, such as 250 mg/day to 300 mg/day, such as 300 mg/day to 400 mg/day, such as 400 mg/day to 500 mg/day, such as 500 mg/day to 600 mg/day, such as 600 mg/day to 700 mg/day, such as 700 mg/day to 800 mg/day, such as 800 mg/day to 900 mg/day, such as 900 mg/day to 1000 mg/day. 
     In one embodiment, the bioactive agent or composition is administered at a dose of 1 μg/kg body weight to 100 mg/kg body weight; such as 1 to 10 μg/kg body weight, such as 10 to 100 μg/day, such as 100 to 250 μg/kg body weight, such as 250 to 500 μg/kg body weight, such as 500 to 750 μg/kg body weight, such as 750 μg/kg body weight to 1 mg/kg body weight, such as 1 mg/kg body weight to 2 mg/kg body weight, such as 2 to 5 mg/kg body weight, such as 5 to 10 mg/kg body weight, such as 10 to 20 mg/kg body weight, such as 20 to 30 mg/kg body weight, such as 30 to 40 mg/kg body weight, such as 40 to 50 mg/kg body weight, such as 50 to 75 mg/kg body weight, or such as 75 to 100 mg/kg body weight. 
     In one embodiment, a dose is administered one or several times per day, such as from 1 to 6 times per day, such as from 1 to 5 times per day, such as from 1 to 4 times per day, such as from 1 to 3 times per day, such as from 1 to 2 times per day, such as from 2 to 4 times per day, such as from 2 to 3 times per day. In one embodiment, a dose is administered less than once a day, such as once every second day or once a week. 
     Routes of Administration 
     It will be appreciated that the preferred route of administration will depend on the general condition and age of the subject to be treated, the nature of the condition to be treated, the location of the tissue to be treated in the body and the active ingredient chosen. 
     Systemic Treatment 
     In one embodiment, the route of administration allows for introducing the bioactive agent into the blood stream to ultimately target the sites of desired action. 
     In one embodiment the routes of administration is any suitable route, such as an enteral route (including the oral, rectal, nasal, pulmonary, buccal, sublingual, transdermal, intracisternal and intraperitoneal administration), and/or a parenteral route (including subcutaneous, intramuscular, intrathecal, intravenous and intradermal administration). 
     Appropriate dosage forms for such administration may be prepared by conventional techniques. 
     Parenteral Administration 
     Parenteral administration is any administration route not being the oral/enteral route whereby the bioactive agent avoids first-pass degradation in the liver. Accordingly, parenteral administration includes any injections and infusions, for example bolus injection or continuous infusion, such as intravenous administration, intramuscular administration or subcutaneous administration. Furthermore, parenteral administration includes inhalations and topical administration. 
     Accordingly, the bioactive agent or composition is in one embodiment administered topically to cross any mucosal membrane of an animal, e.g. in the nose, vagina, eye, mouth, genital tract, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, or rectum, for example the mucosa of the nose, or mouth, and accordingly, parenteral administration may also include buccal, sublingual, nasal, rectal, vaginal and intraperitoneal administration as well as pulmonal and bronchial administration by inhalation or installation. In some embodiments, the bioactive agent is administered topically to cross the skin. 
     In one embodiment, the intravenous, subcutaneous and intramuscular forms of parenteral administration are employed. 
     Local Treatment 
     In one embodiment, the bioactive agent or composition is used as a local treatment, i.e. is introduced directly to the site(s) of action. Accordingly, the bioactive agent may be applied to the skin or mucosa directly, or the bioactive agent may be injected into the site of action, for example into the diseased tissue or to an end artery leading directly to the diseased tissue. 
     Combination Treatment 
     It is also an aspect to provide a bioactive agent that increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, for use in the treatment of a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis, in combination with other treatment modalities. 
     Thus, in one embodiment, the bioactive agent is administered to an individual in need thereof in combination with at least one other treatment modality, such as conventional or known treatment modalities for diseases associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis. 
     Administering more than one treatment modality in combination may occur either simultaneously, or sequentially. Simultaneous administration may be two compounds comprised in the same composition or comprised in separate compositions, or may be one composition and one other treatment modality performed essentially at the same time. Sequential administration means that the more than one treatment modalities are administered at different time points, such as administering one treatment modality first, and administering the second treatment modality subsequently. The time frame for administering more than one treatment modality sequentially may be determined by a skilled person in the art for achieving the optimal effect, and may in one embodiment be between 30 minutes to 72 hours. 
     The treatment modalities in the form of chemical compounds may be administered together or separately, each at its most effective dosage. Administering more than one compound may have a synergistic effect, thus effectively reducing the required dosage of each drug. 
     It is also an aspect to provide a composition comprising, separately or together, i) a bioactive agent that increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, and ii) other treatment modalities, for use in the treatment of a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis, 
     In one embodiment other treatment modalities, or conventional or known treatment modalities for diseases associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis, are referred to as further active ingredients. 
     In one embodiment the bioactive agent that increases the intracellular concentration and/or activity of one or more heat shock proteins, including Hsp70, is administered in combination with, and/or formulated as a combination product, with one or more further active ingredients. 
     In one embodiment the further active ingredient is selected from one or more active ingredients known and/or employed in the treatment of a disease associated with dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis, such as one or more active ingredients for a disease selected from the group consisting of: Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome (SLOS), Antley-Bixler Syndrome, Hydrops-Ectopic Calcification-Moth-Eaten Skeletal Dysplasia (Greenberg dysplasia), Congenital Hemidysplasia with Ichthyosiform Nevus and Limb Defects Syndrome (CHILD), CK Syndrome, Conradi-Hünermann-Happle Syndrome (CPDX2, X-linked dominant chondrodysplasia punctate type 2), Lathosterolosis, Desmosterolosis, Mevalonate Kinase Deficiency (MKD) or (HIDS), Mevalonate Aciduria, atherosclerosis, Tangier disease and familial HDL deficiency. 
     In one embodiment the further active ingredient is a cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitor such as dalcetrapib and anacetrapib. In one embodiment the further active ingredient is reconstituted forms of HDL. In one embodiment the further active ingredient is LDL-lowering drugs. In one embodiment the further active ingredient is a low-fat diet. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Sequences 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 1: The protein sequence for  Homo sapiens  heat shock 70 kDa protein 1A 
               
               
                 (HSPA1A_HUMAN)(NM_005345.5 / UniProtKB - P0DMV8): 
               
               
                 MAKAAAIGIDLGTTYSCVGVFQHGKVEIIANDQGNRTTPSYVAFTDTERLIGDAAKNQVALNPQNTVFDAKRLIGRK 
               
               
                 FGDPVVQSDMKHWPFQVINDGDKPKVQVSYKGETKAFYPEEISSMVLTKMKEIAEAYLGYPVTNAVITVPAYFNDSQ 
               
               
                 RQATKDAGVIAGLNVLRIINEPTAAAIAYGLDRTGKGERNVLIFDLGGGTFDVSILTIDDGIFEVKATAGDTHLGGE 
               
               
                 DFDNRLVNHFVEEFKRKHKKDISQNKRAVRRLRTACERAKRTLSSSTQASLEIDSLFEGIDFYTSITRARFEELCSD 
               
               
                 LFRSTLEPVEKALRDAKLDKAINHDLVLVGGSTRIPKVQKLLQDFFNGRDLNKSINPDEAVAYGAAVQAAILMGDKS 
               
               
                 ENVQDLLLLDVAPLSLGLETAGGVMTALIKRNSTIPTKQTQIFTTYSDNQPGVLIQVYEGERAMTKDNNLLGRFELS 
               
               
                 GIPPAPRGVPQIEVTFDIDANGILNVTATDKSTGKANKITITNDKGRLSKEEIERMVQEAEKYKAEDEVQRERVSAK 
               
               
                 NALESYAFNMKSAVEDEGLKGKISEADKKKVLDKCQEVISWLDANTLAEKDEFEHKRKELEQVCNPIISGLYQGAGG 
               
               
                 PGPGGFGAQGPKGGSGSGPTIEEVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 2: The initiator methionine (M at position 1) of SEQ ID NO: 1 is removed to yield a 
               
               
                 640-amino acid long sequence (position 2-641): 
               
               
                 AKAAAIGIDLGTTYSCVGVFQHGKVEIIANDQGNRTTPSYVAFTDTERLIGDAAKNQVALNPQNTVFDAKRLIGRKF 
               
               
                 GDPVVQSDMKHWPFQVINDGDKPKVQVSYKGETKAFYPEEISSMVLTKMKEIAEAYLGYPVTNAVITVPAYFNDSQR 
               
               
                 QATKDAGVIAGLNVLRIINEPTAAAIAYGLDRTGKGERNVLIFDLGGGTFDVSILTIDDGIFEVKATAGDTHLGGED 
               
               
                 FDNRLVNHFVEEFKRKHKKDISQNKRAVRRLRTACERAKRTLSSSTQASLEIDSLFEGIDFYTSITRARFEELCSDL 
               
               
                 FRSTLEPVEKALRDAKLDKAQIHDLVLVGGSTRIPKVQKLLQDFFNGRDLNKSINPDEAVAYGAAVQAAILMGDKSE 
               
               
                 NVQDLLLLDVAPLSLGLETAGGVMTALIKRNSTIPTKQTQIFTTYSDNQPGVLIQVYEGERAMTKDNNLLGRFELSG 
               
               
                 IPPAPRGVPQIEVTFDIDANGILNVTATDKSTGKANKITITNDKGRLSKEEIERMVQEAEKYKAEDEVQRERVSAKN 
               
               
                 ALESYAFNMKSAVEDEGLKGKISEADKKKVLDKCQEVISWLDANTLAEKDEFEHKRKELEQVCNPIISGLYQGAGGP 
               
               
                 GPGGFGAQGPKGGSGSGPTIEEVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 3: The nucleic acid (DNA) sequence for  Homo sapiens  heat shock 70 kDa protein 
               
               
                 1A (HSPA1A)(NM_005345.5): 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 ataaaagccc aggggcaagc ggtccggata acggctagcc tgaggagctg ctgcgacagt 
               
               
                 61 
                 ccactacctt tttcgagagt gactcccgtt gtcccaaggc ttcccagagc gaacctgtgc 
               
               
                 121 
                 ggctgcaggc accggcgcgt cgagtttccg gcgtccggaa ggaccgagct cttctcgcgg 
               
               
                 181 
                 atccagtgtt ccgtttccag cccccaatct cagagcggag ccgacagaga gcagggaacc 
               
               
                 241 
                 ggcatggcca aagccgcggc gatcggcatc gacctgggca ccacctactc ctgcgtgggg 
               
               
                 301 
                 gtgttccaac acggcaaggt ggagatcatc gccaacgacc agggcaaccg caccaccccc 
               
               
                 361 
                 agctacgtgg ccttcacgga caccgagcgg ctcatcgggg atgcggccaa gaaccaggtg 
               
               
                 421 
                 gcgctgaacc cgcagaacac cgtgtttgac gcgaagcggc tgattggccg caagttcggc 
               
               
                 481 
                 gacccggtgg tgcagtcgga catgaagcac tggcctttcc aggtgatcaa cgacggagac 
               
               
                 541 
                 aagcccaagg tgcaggtgag ctacaagggg gagaccaagg cattctaccc cgaggagatc 
               
               
                 601 
                 tcgtccatgg tgctgaccaa gatgaaggag atcgccgagg cgtacctggg ctacccggtg 
               
               
                 661 
                 accaacgcgg tgatcaccgt gccggcctac ttcaacgact cgcagcgcca ggccaccaag 
               
               
                 721 
                 gatgcgggtg tgatcgcggg gctcaacgtg ctgcggatca tcaacgagcc cacggccgcc 
               
               
                 781 
                 gccatcgcct acggcctgga cagaacgggc aagggggagc gcaacgtgct catctttgac 
               
               
                 841 
                 ctgggcgggg gcaccttcga cgtgtccatc ctgacgatcg acgacggcat cttcgaggtg 
               
               
                 901 
                 aaggccacgg ccggggacac ccacctgggt ggggaggact ttgacaacag gctggtgaac 
               
               
                 961 
                 cacttcgtgg aggagttcaa gagaaaacac aagaaggaca tcagccagaa caagcgagcc 
               
               
                 1021 
                 gtgaggcggc tgcgcaccgc ctgcgagagg gccaagagga ccctgtcgtc cagcacccag 
               
               
                 1081 
                 gccagcctgg agatcgactc cctgtttgag ggcatcgact tctacacgtc catcaccagg 
               
               
                 1141 
                 gcgaggttcg aggagctgtg ctccgacctg ttccgaagca ccctggagcc cgtggagaag 
               
               
                 1201 
                 gctctgcgcg acgccaagct ggacaaggcc cagattcacg acctggtcct ggtcgggggc 
               
               
                 1261 
                 tccacccgca tccccaaggt gcagaagctg ctgcaggact tcttcaacgg gcgcgacctg 
               
               
                 1321 
                 aacaagagca tcaaccccga cgaggctgtg gcctacgggg cggcggtgca ggcggccatc 
               
               
                 1381 
                 ctgatggggg acaagtccga gaacgtgcag gacctgctgc tgctggacgt ggctcccctg 
               
               
                 1441 
                 tcgctggggc tggagacggc cggaggcgtg atgactgccc tgatcaagcg caactccacc 
               
               
                 1501 
                 atccccacca agcagacgca gatcttcacc acctactccg acaaccaacc cggggtgctg 
               
               
                 1561 
                 atccaggtgt acgagggcga gagggccatg acgaaagaca acaatctgtt ggggcgcttc 
               
               
                 1621 
                 gagctgagcg gcatccctcc ggcccccagg ggcgtgcccc agatcgaggt gaccttcgac 
               
               
                 1681 
                 atcgatgcca acggcatcct gaacgtcacg gccacggaca agagcaccgg caaggccaac 
               
               
                 1741 
                 aagatcacca tcaccaacga caagggccgc ctgagcaagg aggagatcga gcgcatggtg 
               
               
                 1801 
                 caggaggcgg agaagtacaa agcggaggac gaggtgcagc gcgagagggt gtcagccaag 
               
               
                 1861 
                 aacgccctgg agtcctacgc cttcaacatg aagagcgccg tggaggatga ggggctcaag 
               
               
                 1921 
                 ggcaagatca gcgaggcgga caagaagaag gtgctggaca agtgtcaaga ggtcatctcg 
               
               
                 1981 
                 tggctggacg ccaacacctt ggccgagaag gacgagtttg agcacaagag gaaggagctg 
               
               
                 2041 
                 gagcaggtgt gtaaccccat catcagcgga ctgtaccagg gtgccggtgg tcccgggcct 
               
               
                 2101 
                 gggggcttcg gggctcaggg tcccaaggga gggtctgggt caggccccac cattgaggag 
               
               
                 2161 
                 gtagattagg ggcctttcca agattgctgt ttttgttttg gagcttcaag actttgcatt 
               
               
                 2221 
                 tcctagtatt tctgtttgtc agttctcaat ttcctgtgtt tgcaatgttg aaattttttg 
               
               
                 2281 
                 gtgaagtact gaacttgctt tttttccggt ttctacatgc agagatgaat ttatactgcc 
               
               
                 2341 
                 atcttacgac tatttcttct ttttaataca cttaactcag gccatttttt aagttggtta 
               
               
                 2401 
                 cttcaaagta aataaacttt aaaattcaaa aaaaaaaaaa aaaaa 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 4: The protein sequence for  Homo sapiens  heat shock 70 kDa protein 1B 
               
               
                 (HSPA1B_HUMAN)(NM_005346.4 / UniProtKB - P0DMV9): 
               
               
                 MAKAAAIGIDLGTTYSCVGVFQHGKVEIIANDQGNRTTPSYVAFTDTERLIGDAAKNQVALNPQNTVFDAKRLIGRK 
               
               
                 FGDPVVQSDMKHWPFQVINDGDKPKVQVSYKGETKAFYPEEISSMVLTKMKEIAEAYLGYPVTNAVITVPAYFNDSQ 
               
               
                 RQATKDAGVIAGLNVLRIINEPTAAAIAYGLDRTGKGERNVLIFDLGGGTFDVSILTIDDGIFEVKATAGDTHLGGE 
               
               
                 DFDNRLVNHFVEEFKRKHKKDISQNKRAVRRLRTACERAKRTLSSSTQASLEIDSLFEGIDFYTSITRARFEELCSD 
               
               
                 LFRSTLEPVEKALRDAKLDKAQIHDLVLVGGSTRIPKVQKLLQDFFNGRDLNKSINPDEAVAYGAAVQAAILMGDKS 
               
               
                 ENVQDLLLLDVAPLSLGLETAGGVMTALIKRNSTIPTKQTQIFTTYSDNQPGVLIQVYEGERAMTKDNNLLGRFELS 
               
               
                 GIPPAPRGVPQIEVTFDIDANGILNVTATDKSTGKANKITITNDKGRLSKEEIERMVQEAEKYKAEDEVQRERVSAK 
               
               
                 NALESYAFNMKSAVEDEGLKGKISEADKKKVLDKCQEVISWLDANTLAEKDEFEHKRKELEQVCNPIISGLYQGAGG 
               
               
                 PGPGGFGAQGPKGGSGSGPTIEEVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 5: The initiator methionine (M at position 1) of SEQ ID NO: 4 is removed to yield a 
               
               
                 640-amino acid long sequence (position 2-641): 
               
               
                 AKAAAIGIDLGTTYSCVGVFQHGKVEIIANDQGNRTTPSYVAFTDTERLIGDAAKNQVALNPQNTVFDAKRLIGRKF 
               
               
                 GDPVVQSDMKHWPFQVINDGDKPKVQVSYKGETKAFYPEEISSMVLTKMKEIAEAYLGYPVTNAVITVPAYFNDSQR 
               
               
                 QATKDAGVIAGLNVLRIINEPTAAAIAYGLDRTGKGERNVLIFDLGGGTFDVSILTIDDGIFEVKATAGDTHLGGED 
               
               
                 FDNRLVNHFVEEFKRKHKKDISQNKRAVRRLRTACERAKRTLSSSTQASLEIDSLFEGIDFYTSITRARFEELCSDL 
               
               
                 FRSTLEPVEKALRDAKLDKAQIHDLVLVGGSTRIPKVQKLLQDFFNGRDLNKSINPDEAVAYGAAVQAAILMGDKSE 
               
               
                 NVQDLLLLDVAPLSLGLETAGGVMTALIKRNSTIPTKQTQIFTTYSDNQPGVLIQVYEGERAMTKDNNLLGRFELSG 
               
               
                 IPPAPRGVPQIEVTFDIDANGILNVTATDKSTGKANKITITNDKGRLSKEEIERMVQEAEKYKAEDEVQRERVSAKN 
               
               
                 ALESYAFNMKSAVEDEGLKGKISEADKKKVLDKCQEVISWLDANTLAEKDEFEHKRKELEQVCNPIISGLYQGAGGP 
               
               
                 GPGGFGAQGPKGGSGSGPTIEEVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SEQ ID NO: 6 The nucleic acid (DNA) sequence for  Homo sapiens  heat shock 70 kDa protein 1B 
               
               
                 (HSPA1B)(NM_005346.4): 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 ggaaaacggc cagcctgagg agctgctgcg agggtccgct tcgtctttcg agagtgactc 
               
               
                 61 
                 ccgcggtccc aaggctttcc agagcgaacc tgtgcggctg caggcaccgg cgtgttgagt 
               
               
                 121 
                 ttccggcgtt ccgaaggact gagctcttgt cgcggatccc gtccgccgtt tccagccccc 
               
               
                 181 
                 agtctcagag cggagcccac agagcagggc accggcatgg ccaaagccgc ggcgatcggc 
               
               
                 241 
                 atcgacctgg gcaccaccta ctcctgcgtg ggggtgttcc aacacggcaa ggtggagatc 
               
               
                 301 
                 atcgccaacg accagggcaa ccgcaccacc cccagctacg tggccttcac ggacaccgag 
               
               
                 361 
                 cggctcatcg gggatgcggc caagaaccag gtggcgctga acccgcagaa caccgtgttt 
               
               
                 421 
                 gacgcgaagc ggctgatcgg ccgcaagttc ggcgacccgg tggtgcagtc ggacatgaag 
               
               
                 481 
                 cactggcctt tccaggtgat caacgacgga gacaagccca aggtgcaggt gagctacaag 
               
               
                 541 
                 ggggagacca aggcattcta ccccgaggag atctcgtcca tggtgctgac caagatgaag 
               
               
                 601 
                 gagatcgccg aggcgtacct gggctacccg gtgaccaacg cggtgatcac cgtgccggcc 
               
               
                 661 
                 tacttcaacg actcgcagcg ccaggccacc aaggatgcgg gtgtgatcgc ggggctcaac 
               
               
                 721 
                 gtgctgcgga tcatcaacga gcccacggcc gccgccatcg cctacggcct ggacagaacg 
               
               
                 781 
                 ggcaaggggg agcgcaacgt gctcatcttt gacctgggcg ggggcacctt cgacgtgtcc 
               
               
                 841 
                 atcctgacga tcgacgacgg catcttcgag gtgaaggcca cggccgggga cacccacctg 
               
               
                 901 
                 ggtggggagg actttgacaa caggctggtg aaccacttcg tggaggagtt caagagaaaa 
               
               
                 961 
                 cacaagaagg acatcagcca gaacaagcga gccgtgaggc ggctgcgcac cgcctgcgag 
               
               
                 1021 
                 agggccaaga ggaccctgtc gtccagcacc caggccagcc tggagatcga ctccctgttt 
               
               
                 1081 
                 gagggcatcg acttctacac gtccatcacc agggcgaggt tcgaggagct gtgctccgac 
               
               
                 1141 
                 ctgttccgaa gcaccctgga gcccgtggag aaggctctgc gcgacgccaa gctggacaag 
               
               
                 1201 
                 gcccagattc acgacctggt cctggtcggg ggctccaccc gcatccccaa ggtgcagaag 
               
               
                 1261 
                 ctgctgcagg acttcttcaa cgggcgcgac ctgaacaaga gcatcaaccc cgacgaggct 
               
               
                 1321 
                 gtggcctacg gggcggcggt gcaggcggcc atcctgatgg gggacaagtc cgagaacgtg 
               
               
                 1381 
                 caggacctgc tgctgctgga cgtggctccc ctgtcgctgg ggctggagac ggccggaggc 
               
               
                 1441 
                 gtgatgactg ccctgatcaa gcgcaactcc accatcccca ccaagcagac gcagatcttc 
               
               
                 1501 
                 accacctact ccgacaacca acccggggtg ctgatccagg tgtacgaggg cgagagggcc 
               
               
                 1561 
                 atgacgaaag acaacaatct gttggggcgc ttcgagctga gcggcatccc tccggccccc 
               
               
                 1621 
                 aggggcgtgc cccagatcga ggtgaccttc gacatcgatg ccaacggcat cctgaacgtc 
               
               
                 1681 
                 acggccacgg acaagagcac cggcaaggcc aacaagatca ccatcaccaa cgacaagggc 
               
               
                 1741 
                 cgcctgagca aggaggagat cgagcgcatg gtgcaggagg cggagaagta caaagcggag 
               
               
                 1801 
                 gacgaggtgc agcgcgagag ggtgtcagcc aagaacgccc tggagtccta cgccttcaac 
               
               
                 1861 
                 atgaagagcg ccgtggagga tgaggggctc aagggcaaga tcagcgaggc ggacaagaag 
               
               
                 1921 
                 aaggttctgg acaagtgtca agaggtcatc tcgtggctgg acgccaacac cttggccgag 
               
               
                 1981 
                 aaggacgagt ttgagcacaa gaggaaggag ctggagcagg tgtgtaaccc catcatcagc 
               
               
                 2041 
                 ggactgtacc agggtgccgg tggtcccggg cctggcggct tcggggctca gggtcccaag 
               
               
                 2101 
                 ggagggtctg ggtcaggccc taccattgag gaggtggatt aggggccttt gttctttagt 
               
               
                 2161 
                 atgtttgtct ttgaggtgga ctgttgggac tcaaggactt tgctgctgtt ttcctatgtc 
               
               
                 2221 
                 atttctgctt cagctctttg ctgcttcact tctttgtaaa gttgtaacct gatggtaatt 
               
               
                 2281 
                 agctggcttc attatttttg tagtacaacc gatatgttca ttagaattct ttgcatttaa 
               
               
                 2341 
                 tgttgatact gtaagggtgt ttcgttccct ttaaatgaat caacactgcc accttctgta 
               
               
                 2401 
                 cgagtttgtt tgtttttttt tttttttttt ttttttgctt ggcgaaaaca ctacaaaggc 
               
               
                 2461 
                 tgggaatgta tgtttttata atttgtttat ttaaatatga aaaataaaat gttaaacttt 
               
               
                 2521 
                 aaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaa a 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     EXAMPLES 
     rHsp70 Upregulates ABCA1 and Stimulates Cholesterol Removal from Human Macrophage Foam Cells 
     Materials and Methods 
     Cell Culture 
     Human primary white blood cells, isolated from healthy blood donors were acquired form the Finnish Red Cross (permit number 21/2015). Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated by Ficoll layering (Boyum, A., 1964) with Ficoll-Paque Premium (GE Healthcare). PBMCs were then differentiated to macrophages during 7 days in vitro cultivation in serum-free macrophage medium (Gibco) in the presence of a differentiation factor (GM-CSF, 10 ng/mL, Invitrogen). 
     Cholesterol Loading and Efflux 
     To generate foam cells, PBMC derived macrophages were loaded with 50 μg/mL of acetylated LDL (acLDL) for 3 days, as described previously (Blom, T. et al, 2010). Cholesterol efflux was performed in complete medium (RPMI containing 10% FBS) for 12 h in the presence or absence of His-tagged recombinant wildtype or mutant (rHsp70, 20 ug/ml final concentration, if not mentioned) and W9OF mutated recombinant Hsp70 (mut rHSP70) supplied by Orphazyme ApS, Denmark. 
     Transcript and Protein Analyses 
     Cells were collected in PBS and centrifued at 2000 rpm for 10 min at 4° C. Cell pellets were lysed in either RNA lysis buffer or in RIPA buffer containing protease inhibitors for transcript or protein analysis. 
     Protein lysates were cleared by centrifugation at 12000 rpm for 10 min at 4° C. Protein concentration was determined using the Bio-Rad protein assay kit. Equal amount of total protein was loaded on 8% SDS-polyacrylamide gel and Western blotting was performed using polyclonal anti-ABCA1 antibody (1:500, Novus Biologicals). The primary antibody was detected with anti-rabbit secondary antibody (1:2000, Sigma). The blots were developed using the Enhanced Chemiluminiscense kit (Amersham). Protein bands were normalized to Proact membrane stain (Amresco). Quantitation of protein bands was performed using ImageJ program. 
     Total RNA was isolated using NucleoSpin RNA isolation kit (Macherey-Nagel). 1,5 μg of total RNA was transcribed using SuperScript VILO cDNA synthesis kit (Invitrogen). abcal primers Fwd 5′-ACATCCTGAAGCCAATCCTGA, Rev 5′-CTCCTGTCGCATGTCACTCC (Sigma) and 18S primers Fwd 5′-CGGCTACCACATCCAAGGAA, Rev 5′-CCCCGCGAGCACAGA (Sigma) were used for qRT-PCR with Light Cycler 480 SYBER Green I Master Mix (Roche). Reaction mixtures were prepared according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Reaction steps: 95° C. 15 min and 40 cycles of 95° C. 15 sec, 60° C. 30 sec and 72° C. 10 sec. PCR was performed in a LightCycler 480 II (Roche) instrument and the ΔΔ Ct method was used to calculate the results. Relative quantities of mRNAs were normalized to 18S mRNA. 
     Lipid Analysis 
     Cells were harvested in 2% NaCl solution and lipids were extracted as described in Bligh and Dyer (1959). Lipids corresponding to equal amount of protein per sample were separated by thin-layer chromatography using hexane:diethyl ether:acetic acid, 80:20:1 as the running solvent. The TLC plate was charred and free cholesterol and cholesterol ester bands were quantitated using ImageJ. 
     Results 
     Recombinant Hsp70 Stimulates the Removal of Cholesterol from Primary Human Macrophage Foam Cells 
     Differentiated macrophages were incubated with acLDL for 3 days to generate cholesterol loaded foam cells, and then incubated in complete medium (RPMI containing 10% FBS) for 12 h to induce cholesterol removal (efflux) from cells to serum acceptors. To assess the effect of rHsp70 on cholesterol efflux, acLDL loaded cells were pretreated with rHsp70 for 16 h during the last day of loading, followed by continued incubation in the presence of rHsp70 during the 12 h efflux. Cells were then harvested for lipid analysis. 
     Our results demonstrate that acLDL loading in primary human macrophages caused cholesteryl ester deposition compared to control (no load), as expected. Cholesterol efflux to complete medium resulted in decreased cholesterol ester levels, indicating that the cells are able to unload their cholesterol stores. Remarkably, cholesterol removal during the 12 h efflux was significantly enhanced in the presence of rHSP70 ( FIG. 1 ). 
     Recombinant Hsp70 Increases ABCA1 Transcript and Protein Levels in Primary Human Macrophage Foam Cells 
     A key gatekeeper of cholesterol removal from macrophage foam cells is the ATP-binding cassette transporter Al (ABCA1) (Wang, S. and Smith, J. D., 2014). It is induced in macrophages upon modified lipoprotein loading and is maintained at high levels during efflux (see  FIGS. 2A-2C , no load vs. load, efflux). ABCA1-dependent cholesterol removal is a rate-limiting factor in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) biogenesis and in the process in reverse cholesterol transport (i.e. removal of cholesterol from tissues and return via circulation via HDL carriers to the liver for excretion). We therefore investigated whether rHsp70-mediated cholesterol efflux involves ABCA1 upregulation. 
     Cells were treated as described above and harvested for transcript and protein analysis. We found a significant increase in the ABCA1 transcript and protein levels upon rHSP70 treatment, both during cholesterol loading and efflux ( FIGS. 2A-2C ). Considering the important role of ABCA1 in cholesterol removal, this is likely to be relevant for the mechanism by which rHSP70 acts to facilitate foam cell reversal. 
     rHSP70 Speeds up BODIPY-Cholesterol Efflux from Primarymurine Macrophage Foam Cells. 
     Primary murine bone marrow macrophage foam cells were incubated with BODIPYcholesteryl linoleate-LDL particles. Cholesterol efflux was performed for 24 h to 6% HDL enriched serum in the presence or absence of rHSP70. Results are shown in  FIGS. 4A-4B . 
     Effect of rHsp70 on the transcript and protein levels of LXR targets in primary human macrophage foam cells Macrophage foam cells from 4 individual blood donors were incubated −/+rHSP70 during cholesterol efflux and RNAs were extracted. RNA sequencing was performed by Illumina NextSeq sequencer. RNASeq results were analysed using “Gene Set Enrichment Analysis”. A major transcriptional re-programming of a number of targets, in particular LXR targets such as ABCA1, FABP4 and GRAMD1A, was induced by rHSP70, as shown in  FIG. 5 . These changes can also be seen at the protein level ( FIGS. 6A -6F). 
     Acid Sphingomyelinase Activation is Not Involved in Recombinant Hsp70-Mediated Cholesterol Removal from Primary Human Macrophage Foam Cells 
     rHSP70 was reported to stabilize and enhance the activity of acid sphingomyelinase (ASMase) via binding to bismonoacylglycerophosphate (BMP), a cofactor of this enzyme (Mahalka, A. K. et al, 2014). We therefore tested whether the effect of rHSP70 on cholesterol efflux was mediated through its BMP binding. To this end, the effect of a mutant rHSP70 (W9OF rHSP70; mut rHSP70) incapable of interacting with BMP was compared to that of wild-type rHSp70. Our results revealed that the mut rHSP70 produced a similar enhancement of cholesterol efflux as the wt rHSP70 ( FIG. 3 ). This argues that the mechanism by which rHsp70 promotes cholesterol removal in macrophage foam cells is distinct from that involved in rHsp70 mediated reversal of lysosomal pathology in Niemann-Pick disease. 
     Finally, we investigated whether a higher dosage of rHSP70 improves the cholesterol efflux promoting effect of rHSP70. For this, 200 ug/ml of both wt and mut rHSP70 was applied on human macrophage foam cells before and during cholesterol efflux for 12 h to compare with the effect of 20 ug/ml wt and mut rHSP70 on Chol reversal ( FIG. 3 ). This was found not to be the case ( FIG. 3 ), suggesting that rHSP70 acts in cholesterol removal via a saturable mechanism. 
     REFERENCES 
     Bligh, E. G. and Dyer, W. J., Can.  J. Biochem. Physiol.  37, 911-917 (1959) 
     Blom, T. et al,  Circ. Res.  106, 720-9 (2010) 
     Boyum, A.,  Nature  204, 793-794 (1964) 
     Mahalka, A. K. et al.  BBA  1838, 1344-1361 (2014). 
     Wang, S. and Smith, J. D.,  Biofactors  40, 547-54 (2014)