Patent Publication Number: US-2013233718-A1

Title: Material surface treatment method using concurrent electrical and photonic stimulation

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/688,630, filed Jan. 15, 2010. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The invention relates to surface treatment of materials, and in particular to preparation of the surface of a material in a liquid medium in order to facilitate certain desirable exothermic reactions using 1-5 such material. 
     BACKGROUND ART 
     U.S. Pat. No. 7,442,287 describes a surface treatment method of preparing materials, such as palladium, at or near their surfaces in order to facilitate their use, e.g., for generating exothermic reactions. In that treatment method, a solution in water of an electrolyte, a surfactant, and a pH-adjusting agent (to maintain the pH of the solution between 6.5 and 8.9) is heated to and maintained at or just below the boiling point in an open glass beaker. A pair of electrodes, at least one of which has the surface to be treated, is immersed in the solution with a gap between them. The electrodes are then electrically (and vibrationally) stimulated as a series of pulses, while simultaneously being photonically stimulated by a light source. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the treated electrodes show that the concurrent stimulations of the electrode material while immersed in the hot solution leave a silica coating with a stratified and sponge-like texture and in some instances form crater sites on the electrode surface. 
     The metallic surface treated by the method provides enhanced sites for facilitating desired reactions, e.g., hydrogen absorption and release, hydrogenation, catalytic reactions, and exothermic reactions. Palladium, e.g., is known to have a large capacity for hydrogen storage and release, useful for fuel cells and the like, the level of performance of which depends on the presence of certain surface sites for efficient hydrogen exchange. 
     SUMMARY DISCLOSURE 
     The present invention is an improvement of our previous method set forth in the aforementioned &#39;287 patent. Similar to before, the protocol consists of a specific series of steps applying electrical and photonic stimuli between conductive electrodes immersed in a solution maintained at an elevated temperature at or near the boiling point. In the present protocol, the solution includes a lithium silicate and is heated to within 5° C. of the solution&#39;s boiling point (as defined for standard atmospheric pressure). 
     As the work on the protocol described in our previous patent has progressed, we have moved it from an open glass beaker into a sealed reactor to prevent the escape of steam, along with other constituents in the solution or reaction products. As higher temperature boiling points were obtained under pressure, the treatment protocol proved to be more robust when taking place in such a sealed container with specific refinements. 
     Having the treatment reactions occur in the presence of silicaceous material proved to be very beneficial. In particular, we obtained better results (1) when we lined the inner surface of the reaction reactor with a glass beaker, (2) when we put a quartz cap over the beaker, (3) when we replaced our stainless-steel thermocouple wells with glass ones, (4) when we threaded glass beads onto the electrodes, and (5) the solution contained either a soluble form of silica or a silica compound in suspension. When conducted in such a glass reactor, the use of a DC stimulus and a vibrational stimulus in the protocol proved to be optional. 
     The electrode material immersed in the hot solution is subject to electrical and photonic stimulation. It has been found that the treatment works better when some RF frequencies are used as electrical stimuli than others, indicating a possible resonance phenomenon that has proved to be beneficial. Stimulating the system at one or more resonant frequencies can cause the underlying oscillation to amplify. In particular, an effective RF electrical stimulus was shown to be an amplified replication of a signal emitted during the reaction, which was a 43.4 MHz sine wave added to a 3.1 MHz sine wave. 
     Temperature spikes were observed with electrodes made of four different metals: palladium, silver, platinum, and gold, and using different silica compounds: Mega H-™, Super Hydrate™, lithium metasilicate, sodium metasilicate, and octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a data log for a first experiment using a palladium electrode in a predominately heavy water (99.9% D 2 O) solution and being stimulated in accord with the method of the present invention. 
         FIG. 2  is an SEM images of an electrode surface resulting from treatment by the protocol recorded in  FIG. 1 . 
         FIGS. 3 ,  4 , and  5  are respective Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS) spectral analyses of the deposited layer and bare metal for the treated electrode surface and of the cross-sectioned electrode. 
         FIGS. 6 ,  7 , and  8  are SEM images of the cross-sectioned treated electrode surface ( 6  and  7 ) and of the electrode metal itself ( 8 ). 
         FIGS. 9 and 10  are EDS spectral analyses of the sectioned electrode metal. 
         FIG. 11  is a data log for a replication of the test protocol, using a palladium electrode in a solution of anionic silica hydride and lithium sulfate in predominately heavy water, and stimulated with a modulated pulse stream. 
         FIG. 12  is a table of atomic concentrations for the electrode obtained from Auger analysis after conclusion of the protocols for  FIGS. 3-10 . 
         FIG. 13  is a data log for a replication of the test protocol, again using a palladium electrode in a predominately heavy water solution and stimulated in accord with the present invention. 
         FIG. 14  is an EDS spectral analysis of the electrode resulting from the protocol for  FIG. 13 . 
         FIGS. 15 ,  16 , and  17  are respective data log, and SEM photos of two pieces of the electrode from another experiment using glass beads threaded over palladium electrodes in a predominately heavy water solution and stimulated in accord with the present invention. 
         FIG. 18  is a data log for yet another experiment conducted using glass-bead-threaded palladium electrodes, but in a predominately light water solution and stimulated in accord with the present invention. 
         FIGS. 19 and 20  are data logs for experiments of the surface treatment method respectively using silver and platinum electrodes in predominately heavy water. 
         FIGS. 21 and 22  are data logs for experiments of the surface treatment method, using palladium electrodes in heavy water, wherein lithium metasilicate and sodium silicate, respectively, were dissolved in the solution. 
         FIG. 23  is an SEM photo and accompanying EDS spectrum for the electrode resulting from the experiment corresponding to  FIG. 22 . 
         FIG. 24  is a data log for an experiment using a palladium electrode in a solution of lithium metasilicate and lithium sulfate in heavy water, and stimulated with a modulated pulse stream. 
         FIG. 25  is a data log for an experiment using a palladium electrode in a solution of lithium metasilicate and lithium sulfate in heavy water, and stimulated with a 3.1 MHz sine wave added to a 43.4 MHz sine wave. 
         FIG. 26  is a SEM image of an electrode used in that experiment. 
         FIG. 27  is a data log for an experiment using a palladium electrode in a solution of lithium silicate and a siloxane in heavy water, and stimulated with a simultaneous time-varying electrical and photonic signal. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The treatment protocol is performed in an electrolytic cell consisting of two or more electrodes, composed of similar or dissimilar metals, for example of palladium, silver, platinum, or gold, or even conductive material other than metal. One or more of the electrodes have material surfaces to be treated. At least one of the electrodes is in intimate contact with a source of silicaceous material, and thus, for example, may be coated with silica or a silicate, threaded with silica or glass beads, or the electrode may consist of sintered metal and silica. The electrodes are immersed in a solution or suspension of an electrolyte in a liquid, such as predominately heavy water (D 2 O), lithium sulfate (Li 2 SO 4 ), and a silica compound either in solution or in suspension. We say “predominately heavy water” when Flanagan&#39;s “Super Hydrate™” is used in the protocol since it is made with light water. The drawing legends should be understood in that sense, since they say “heavy water” in the interest of brevity. Alternatively, less active results have also been observed using predominately light water (H 2 O). We say “predominately light, water” since our citric acid solution was made with heavy water. Again, the drawing legends should be understood in that sense, since they say “light water” in the interest of brevity. Thus, combinations of both light and heavy water have been used. A pH-buffering agent, as used in our aforementioned &#39;287 patent, was found to be optional. The buffering agent might comprise either EDTA, citric acid, sodium bicarbonate, or lithium hydroxide in quantities sufficient when needed to maintain a pH in a range from 6.5 to 8.9. 
     As before, the electrolytic cell may be of any size needed to accommodate a work piece whose surface is to be treated by this protocol. However, the reactor now used in the present invention was a stainless steel cylinder with a central well 5.08 cm deep and 5.08 cm in diameter, having a closed bottom and a removable top. Ultimately, it was dimensioned to accommodate a glass beaker capped with a quartz top. Alternatively, the reactor may be a glass- or silica-lined metallic reactor. The reactor could also be lined with a piezoelectric material, in the form, e.g., of a porcelain glaze. A sealed reactor prevented the escape of steam or very slight escape of steam, along with other constituents in the solution or reaction products, and allowed higher temperatures to be obtained under pressure for a given aqueous solution. The sealed reactor also made it much more practical to instrument the experiments and to data log their results. Ports in the top allowed electrodes and thermocouples to pass through it, while sealed glass ports in the reactor wall allowed for the concurrent photonic stimulation by exterior illumination. The reactor weighed more than five kilograms, thereby providing considerable thermal mass to ensure that measured temperature transients were generated within the reactor and not the result of external impulses. As a safety practice appropriate when working with exothermic reactions in a sealed reactor at or near the boiling point of water, our reactor was equipped with a pair of pressure relief valves set to lift sequentially at different pressures. 
     An embodiment of the surface treatment method in accord with the present invention uses either of two commercial products called “Mega H-™” and “Super Hydrate™”, which are believed to be one source of silica with which the electrodes to be treated are in intimate contact. These compositions are respectively the powdered and dissolved form of an anionic silica hydride, with additives. The following points can be made about these two products: They are described in their marketing literature as 1) an anionic hydride organosiloxane; 2) a silsequioxane having hydroxyl-terminated constituents; 3) sources of ionized hydrogen contained within soluble microclusters of silica hydride; and 4) consisting of tetrahedral frameworks that encapsulate hydrogen anions. Pure samples of the products without additives were not available. According to its package label, Mega H-™ has potassium citrate, potassium carbonate, and oleic acid added. Super Hydrate™ has potassium carbonate, magnesium sulfate, and oleic acid added. 
     Alternative embodiments of the surface treatment method in accord with the present invention have as sources of silica either sodium metasilicate Na 2 SiO 3  in solution, lithium metasilicate Li 2 SiO 3  in suspension. A chelating agent, such as EDTA, may be used to facilitate the suspension of the silica compound. 
     An additional alternative embodiment of the surface treatment method in accord with the present invention has as a source of silica either octamethyl-cyclotetrasiloxane or decamethylcyclopentasiloxane. 
     The liquid within the reactor was blanketed during the experiments with one or a combination of hydrogen and helium gases, for example in approximately equal percentages, which were introduced through two inlet valves. The atmosphere was vented through an outlet valve. The saturation of the liquid with these gases is optional. 
     A heating coil was located in a cavity in the bottom of the reactor, and its input voltage and current measured to monitor input power. The temperature of the reactor was first raised to 102° C.±1°, then maintained until the temperature of the liquid had remained stable near the boiling point over an hour or more to establish a thermal equilibrium. A pair of thermocouples monitored the temperature of the liquid via thermocouple wells projecting into the liquid. The wells were first made of stainless steel and later of glass, which is preferred. The thermocouples also passed through the ports in the reactor&#39;s cap via Teflon® seals compressed with Swagelok® fittings. 
     Through experimentation, it was determined over time that the exothermic reaction had a characteristic and readily identifiable temperature response. In later experiments, there was less concern about establishing steady temperature and the reactor was driven more quickly to the operating range of the reaction and the stimuli were applied sooner. No attempt was made to make calorimetric measurements due to the difficulty of making such measurements near the phase change of a boiling liquid; the temperature transients were judged to be sufficient evidence of heat generation. 
     Two or more electrodes were immersed in the liquid. The work piece or pieces to be treated are used as one or more of these electrodes, which can be of any shape and size, such as that of a nozzle. The material being surface treated by this method may be a conductive material such as a solid metal or alloy, containing for example palladium, or may be metallically plated with the desired surface material. Any of the electrodes may also be surface coated with other materials, such as silicates, with either the underlying metal or the coating or both to be treated by the protocol. 
     RF electrical and photonic stimuli were applied in manner similar to that previously described in our earlier patent. For example, in some of our experiments, the electrical stimuli were provided via three palladium electrodes of 0.063 mm diameter: an anode for the RF stimulus, a second anode for the DC stimulus, and a common cathode. The electrodes were parallel and formed a triangle with sides 2.3, 3.7, and 3.7 cm long. The shortest side lay between the RF anode and the common cathode. The electrical stimulation may, therefore, consist of either or both direct current and alternating current, where the alternating current can be modulated with frequencies in the RF range, preferably including frequencies that coincide with absorptive spectra of components of the solution. The electrical stimulation may be a combination of direct current voltage and alternating current voltage applied, either concurrently or sequentially, between either separate anodes or a common anode and a common cathode. The electrodes and the thermocouples were equally spaced on a bolt circle, so thermocouples would be 2.3 and 3.7 cm away from the cathode. All electrodes were isolated from the reactor and sheathed in glass tubing to the surface of the liquid in order to keep them straight and to concentrate the RF stimulus in the liquid. The electrodes passed through the reactor&#39;s top via Teflon® seals compressed with Swagelok® fittings. 
     Four “Ultrabright” white light-emitting diodes (LEDs) capable of generating 15,000 mcd were spaced equally around the reactor below the surface of the liquid as photonic stimuli. These stimuli were provided through sealed glass ports in the reactor wall. The LEDs are pulse-modulated between their on and off states during the same period when the electrical stimulation is applied. Electrical and photonic stimulation may be applied either concurrently or sequentially. 
     Having the treatment reactions occur in the presence of silica or glass proved to be very beneficial. Attempts to run the protocol within reactors of stainless steel and Teflon® were not successful, even with silicates added. We obtained better results (1) when we lined the inner surface of the reaction reactor with a glass beaker, (2) when we put a quartz cap over the beaker, (3) when we replaced our stainless-steel thermocouple wells with glass ones, and (4) when we threaded glass beads onto the palladium electrodes. When conducted in such a glass reactor, the use of a DC stimulus in the protocol proved to be optional. When only the AC stimulus was used, the word “cathode” is used to describe the grounded side of the AC signal. The AC stimulus was applied across the two closest electrodes, i.e., those that were 2.3 cm apart. 
     Additionally, our solution contained a form of silica. We had noted that the first step in the protocol described in our earlier patent consisted of heating the solution until the bubbles had cleared from its surface. Those bubbles, of course, were characteristic of surfactants, and the Mega H-™ and Super Hydrate™ had originally been chosen for their reported surfactant properties. 
     The protocol typically requires at least two hours of treatment before bursts of heat are observed. It is suspected that something must be happening to either the solution or to the electrodes in that period to facilitate the observed reaction. Lithium salts, such as lithium sulfate (Li 2 SO 4 ), are used as an electrolyte in the solution. Since the reaction does not occur immediately, it is possible that the silica and the lithium in our protocol are bonding in some way before the bursts of heat are observed. In particular, the lithium may be combining with the silica compound in the solution over the time frame of the treatment protocol to form a lithium silicate, possibly Li 2 SiO 3  (lithium metasilicate). Alternatively, since silsesquioxanes were used in the anionic silica hydride in the solution for the experiments, perhaps the lithium is either bonding to resulting siliceous cage structures or entering the center of the silica cage when that compound is used as the source of the silica. 
     Octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane has a silica ring structure of four silicon atoms alternating with four oxygen atoms. It is known that lithium ions bonds with the octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane, entering and leaving the center of the ring in a dynamic process that reaches a stochastic equilibrium over time. (For example, see: Ritch, J. S., Chivers T.;  Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.  2007, 46, 4610-4613; and Decken, A., Passmore, J., Wang, X.;  Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.  2006, 45, 2773-2777.) Decamethyl-cyclopentasiloxane might also be used. 
     There is also a class of commercial products marketed as “lithium silicates”. These are generally water-based silicaceous solutions. One of their commercial uses is to harden and seal concrete surfaces. They are highly basic. An example would be LithiSil™, marketed by the PQ Corporation of Valley Forge, Pa. The term “lithium silicate” in this application is not used in that commercial sense. We experimented with those commercial products and they did not generate the desired reaction. 
     We also performed experiments with lithium orthosilicate, which were not successful. 
     It was found that the treatment works better when some RF frequencies are used as electrical stimuli than others and that the protocol yielded heat bursts in the sealed reactor in more or less time when different frequencies were used as stimuli. Given how important the presence of silica is to the effectiveness of the treatment protocol, it is speculated that certain natural frequencies of vibration of the silica bonds in the solution are being driven to vibrational resonance by the RF electrical stimuli, the photonic stimuli, or both. As a general statement, resonance is the tendency of a system or phenomena to oscillate at larger amplitude at some frequencies than others. Such systems and phenomena absorb energy at these resonant frequencies, such that stimulating a system or a phenomena at a resonant frequency or set of resonant frequencies can cause the underlying oscillation to amplify, often dramatically so. For example, the electrical stimulation may comprise one sinusoidal signal having a frequency between 1 MHz and 20 MHz added to another sinusoidal signal having a frequency between 25 MHz and 100 MHz. When viewed with an Agilent 4195A spectrum analyzer, one of the effective RF electrical stimuli described in the &#39;287 patent was shown to be a rich comb of spectra in the range of 1 MHz to 200 MHz, spaced at 6.2 MHz and having peaks in the profile of the spectral comb at 3.1 MHz and 50 MHz, which were the frequencies of the underlying pulses and the sinusoidal modulation of those pulses. That stimulus provided literally dozens of spectra that could have been at resonant frequencies. 
     Some experiments were conducted in a glass reactor of similar dimensions to the steel one described above that permitted the reaction to be observed as it was taking place. During the reaction, the RF stimulus was turned off and an attempt made to capture any signals emitted by the reaction with an Agilent model DSO5054A high-speed digitizing oscilloscope. Although the emitted signals proved to be very transient and elusive, one of them was captured. It resembled a 43.4 MHz sine wave added to a 3.1 MHz one, distorted by considerable noise. Subsequently, a cleaner version of that signal generated by an Agilent 81150A waveform generator was used as a stimulus to the reaction. That stimulus proved to be effective. 
     Through experimentation, it was determined that white LEDs were necessary to stimulate the reaction. Red and blue LEDs were used and proved not to be effective. It may be significant that white LEDs generate light at three frequencies. 
     The Specific Steps of a Representative Protocol are Shown Below: 
     Step 1. Prepare a solution by first adding 30 ml of heavy water (D 2 O) in an open beaker. Light water (H 2 O) can be used, but will have a lower boiling point and generate a less robust reaction. Add an electrolyte of 110 mg of Lithium Sulfate Monohydrate (Li 2 SO 4 .H 2 O). Another lithium salt could be used. Add 40 mg of lithium metasilicate (Li 2 SiO 3 ). Alternatively, one can use an unadulterated form of anionic silica hydride in equivalent amounts, if available. Other forms of silicates might be used instead or in addition, such as lithium or sodium silicate. The solution with lithium metasilicate will be basic. Buffer the solution with EDTA, which is a chelating agent, until it has a pH within the range of 6.5 to 8.9. The lithium metasilicate is only very slightly soluble, and the EDTA serves to increase the solubility. It is normal for some lithium metasilicate to remain suspended (i.e., incomplete dissolution).
 
Step 2. Immerse two or more electrodes, e.g., of palladium wire, into the solution with sufficient spacing to avoid contact. In the case of palladium wire, the electrodes are preferably immersed to at least 1.0 cm depth, are separated by a gap at a distance of 2.3 cm. At least one of the electrodes will have a surface to be treated by the protocol. The electrode(s) to be treated are also preferably threaded with glass beads or coated with silica to provide intimate contact with another source of silica.
 
Step 3. Condition the surface of the electrodes with the following process: Stimulate electrodes immersed in the liquid with electrical and photonic stimuli while the solution is at a temperature between 90° and 100° C. Stir (e.g., with a magnetic stirrer) and/or swirl gently to keep the lithium metasilicate in suspension. The electrical stimulation may preferably consist of a 43.4 MHz sine wave added to a 3.1 MHz one with an amplitude of 8 Volts when driven from two 50-ohm differential outputs. This signal was generated with an Agilent 81150A arbitrary waveform generator. When this stimulus is applied to the electrodes, the impedance across them will vary depending upon the characteristics of the solution. Simultaneously photonically stimulate the electrodes and the gap between them using, e.g., two banks of five white “Ultrabrite” LEDs with a maximum luminous intensity of 15,000 mcd each. The LEDs are preferably pulse-modulated by frequency-hopping through the following six frequencies, dwelling at each for five minutes: 464, 1234, 1289, 2008, 3176, and 5000 Hz with 50% duty cycles. Continue stimulating concurrently with both electrical and photonic stimuli at an elevated temperature for fifteen minutes. After fifteen minutes, substitute a 4 Volt DC stimulus for the time-varying one and apply it for five minutes. After that, re-apply the time-varying one for fifteen more minutes, followed by reversing the polarities of the DC one and applying it for five minutes. Additionally, monitor the solution temperature with the thermocouples throughout this conditioning process to keep the solution within the preferred range of 90° to 100° C.
 
Step 4. Transfer the solution from the open beaker to a sealed reactor. The pH may have shifted during the conditioning process. If it has, buffer it with EDTA or an appropriate base (e.g., sodium bicarbonate) to bring it back into the preferred range of 6.5 to 8.9. Install the electrodes in the reactor. Seal the reactor and introduce a blanket of helium and hydrogen gases above the solution to create saturation with those gases and to maintain such saturation for the duration of the protocol. Then heat the solution to bring it to a temperature between 100° C. and 103° C. and to maintain that elevated temperature for the duration of the protocol.
 
Step 5. Then treat the surface of the electrodes with the following process: Stimulate electrodes immersed in the liquid with a time-varying electrical signal. The electrical stimulation may again preferably consist of a 43.4 MHz sine wave added to a 3.1 MHz one with an amplitude of 8 Volts when driven from two 50-ohm differential outputs. This signal was generated with an Agilent 81150A arbitrary waveform generator. Again, simultaneously photonically stimulate the electrodes and the gap between them using, e.g., the four LEDs capable of 15,000 mcd each through the ports in the reactor wall described above. The LEDs are preferably pulse-modulated by frequency-hopping through the following six frequencies, dwelling at each for five minutes: 464, 1234, 1289, 2008, 3176, and 5000 Hz with 50% duty cycles. The four LEDs were powered in parallel with 14.5 Volts and drew 0.02 amps each, averaged over the pulse modulation. Continue stimulating concurrently with both electrical and photonic stimuli at an elevated temperature within 2° C. of the boiling point for at least 40 minutes and preferably for two or more hours. After two hours, raise the input power to the reactor through the heating coil to increase the temperature of the solution to within 1° C. the boiling point. Additionally, monitor the solution temperature with the thermocouples throughout the process. The surface treatment protocol should last at least for a duration that provides some specified minimum number of heat bursts of at least 1° C., e.g., at least four such bursts.
 
     the Specific Steps of the Protocol Using Octamethylcyclo-Tetrasiloxane are Shown Below: 
     Step 1: Prepare a solution by first adding 30 ml of heavy water and 110 mg of Lithium Sulfate Monohydrate (Li 2 SO 4 .H 2 O) in an open beaker. Add two drops of octamethyl-cyclotetrasiloxane. Heat for approximately twenty minutes and test the pH; the solution will be acidic and below the desired range for the pH. Buffer the solution with lithium hydroxide to bring into the range of 6.5 to 8.9, preferably slightly above the middle of that range.
 
Step 2: Place the solution in the reactor described above and place two palladium electrodes into the solution as previously described, one of them being threaded with glass beads. Seal the reactor and introduce a blanket of helium and hydrogen gases above the solution to create saturation with those gases and to maintain such saturation for the duration of the protocol. Then heat the solution to bring it to a temperature within 2° C. of the boiling point and to maintain that elevated temperature. Monitor the solution temperature with the thermocouples throughout the process.
 
Step 3. Then treat the surface of the electrodes with the following process: Stimulate electrodes immersed in the liquid with a time-varying electrical signal. The electrical stimulation may again preferably consist of a 43.4 MHz sine wave added to a 3.1 MHz one with an amplitude of 8 Volts when driven from two 50-ohm differential outputs. This signal was generated with an Agilent 33250A arbitrary waveform generator. Again, simultaneously photonically stimulate the electrodes and the gap between them using, e.g., the four LEDs capable of 15,000 mcd each through the ports in the vessel wall described above. The LEDs are preferably pulse-modulated by frequency-hopping through the following six frequencies, dwelling at each for five minutes: 464, 1234, 1289, 2008, 3176, and 5000 Hz with 50% duty cycles. The four LEDs were powered with 12.5 Volts and drew 0.02 amps each, averaged over the pulse modulation. Continue stimulating concurrently with both electrical and photonic stimuli at an elevated temperature within 2° C. of the boiling point octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane. After eight hours, raise the input power to the vessel to increase the temperature of the solution to within 1° C. the boiling point. Additionally, monitor the solution temperature with the thermocouples throughout the process. This protocol using octamethylcyclotetra-siloxane required the surface treatment protocol to last for multiple days before some specified minimum number of heat bursts of at least 1° C. were observed.
 
     It should be noted that this protocol with octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane was employed in four experiments. Only two of those yielded the desired heat transients. In contrast, the protocol with anionic silica hydride yielded those desired heat transients in more than 90% of the experiments. 
     It should also be noted that octamethyl-cyclotetrasiloxane is only marginally soluble. Its Material Safety Data Sheet says that its water solubility is 0.07 g/l at 25° C., presumably in pure water. Under the conditions of the protocol above, the solubility is apparently higher than that and sufficient to facilitate the reaction. 
     Three things appear to inhibit the reaction in all of the protocols reported above: rubber, Teflon®, and ultra-pure palladium, i.e., palladium with a purity of 99.999%. While we used Teflon® to seal the lights and electrodes, care was taken to trim it so as to minimize the surface area exposed inside the reactor. 
     Here are some representative results from experiments conducted on the dates shown. The protocol evolved over time, as indicated below, culminating in the preferred protocol described above: 
     Dec. 28, 2008 
     
         
         
           
             The electrodes for this experiment were palladium in a solution of heavy water. The electrolyte was lithium sulfate and the silica reagent was anionic silica hydride. The time-varying electrical stimulus was the sinusoidally modulated pulse stream described in the aforementioned &#39;287 patent. 
             All data logs with this application show a portion of the complete data log, focusing on the area of interest when the reaction was taking place. The portion of data log for the experiment on this date is shown in  FIG. 1 . The time scale is two minutes per division, as it is for all of the data logs included with this application. Data was logged at ten second intervals. 
             Traces  108  and  101  show the supply voltage (1V per division) and supply current (100 mA per division) that were applied to the heating coil for the duration of the experiment. The current is measured as the voltage drop across a 1Ω resistor. Trace  103  records the reactor wall temperature (1° C. per division). 
             Traces  107  and  109  show the DC stimulus voltage (2V per division) and DC stimulus current (15 mA per division), that were applied to the electrodes for 40 minutes duration after the baseline temperature of the solution had been reached. 
             Traces  104  and  105  record the respective temperatures (1° C. per division) from the two thermocouples inside the beaker. The boiling point for heavy water is 1.4° C. above that for light water, so the baseline temperature for traces  104  and  105  is 102° C. 
             The two temperature traces  104  and  105  were observed to converge shortly after the DC stimulus was applied, overlay tightly (“temperature coherence”) during the stimulus, and again diverge after the stimulus was removed. Note that at least five “bursts” of heat were recorded by the thermocouple traces  104  and  105 . Each heat burst shows a ramp up to a peak and a nearly symmetrical ramp down. The largest increase was a rise of 1.6° C. to 104.7° in less than four minutes. 
             The electrodes were prepared for analysis at Evans Analytical Group in Sunnyvale, Calif.  FIG. 2  is a SEM photo of the surface of the cathode showing that some portions of it were coated with a mat deposited from the solution used in the protocol, while other portions were bare. From above, the deposit looked like a field of spheres of varying sizes. From the side, it resembled a row of teeth. 
             Spectral analyses were taken of both the deposited layer and the bare metal, as shown in  FIGS. 3 and 4 . The bare metal was revealed to be predominantly palladium, with traces of silver. The presence of silver was not limited to a single site, but was detected at twenty-three sites by EDS analyses of this sample. At a later date, we cross-sectioned the same electrode and examined its interior at several places to see if there was any silver present. As shown in  FIG. 5 , there was none. We also tested an untreated electrode from the same coil as the piece used in this experiment for silver on its surface. There was none. We only found silver at the surface of the treated electrode or in the mat as discussed below. 
             We cross-sectioned the deposited mat with a Focused Ion Beam (FIB) cut to examine the structure of the “teeth”. As shown in  FIGS. 6 and 7 , they are solid rather than hollow, with some spaces between them. In  FIG. 7 , one can also clearly see several strata in the cross section. At the bottom of the picture is the palladium electrode. Then there is a band of palladium that has separated from the electrode and adhered to the inner surface of the deposited mat. The SEM operator&#39;s interpretation of that separated band is that there may have been either grain growth or a phase change near the surface of the electrode. The mat is at the top of the picture. The separated palladium adheres preferentially to the mat above it and there is a very thin stratum of lighter color at the interface of the separated palladium and the mat where something else is going on. 
             Note that there are lighter areas between the teeth at some points on their surfaces. Those were areas where metal was found to be present between the teeth. The metal areas are raised approximately 7 μm above the electrode surface. Those were areas of metal that appeared to have seeped or wicked up between the teeth.  FIGS. 8 and 9  show a SEM photo of the metal and an EDS spectrum taken concurrently showing that metal to consist of both palladium and silver. 
             The verbs “to seep” and “to wick” above both imply movement by liquids. If that is actually what is happening here, it is worth noting that the melting point of palladium is 1555° C. The implications are obvious; that&#39;s a very high temperature for a reaction that is otherwise at or near the boiling point of the solution, and it is consistent with a nuclear reaction. 
               FIGS. 8 and 9  show a SEM photo of the raised metal and an EDS spectrum taken concurrently showing that metal to consist of both palladium and silver. For background electron scattering, the threshold of detection of an element is generally considered to be 1% of the sample mass. 
               FIG. 10  is another EDS analysis of the sample. Note that it shows the presence of fluorine. This was one of four sites that showed fluorine to be present. We shall say more about that below. 
             The SEM operator for most of these measurements has more than fifteen years experience operating SEM equipment. Although the EDS spectra lines of palladium and silver are close to each other, in his opinion, the presence of the silver was “irrefutable”. This palladium electrode was never used as the cathode with a silver anode. 
           
         
       
    
     Jan. 3, 2009 
     
         
         
           
             The electrodes for this experiment were palladium in a solution of heavy water. The electrolyte was lithium sulfate and the silica reagent was anionic silica hydride. The time-varying electrical stimulus was the sinusoidally modulated pulse stream described in the aforementioned &#39;287 patent. 
             The purpose of the experiment was to create a sample for Auger and Raman testing of its surface. 
             The data logs are shown in  FIG. 11 . Although we didn&#39;t see the temperature coherence observed in other experiments, there were some distinct bursts of energy. They were broader and less abrupt than in some other experiments. One of the two thermocouples recorded a burst that rose almost 4° C. and lasted fourteen minutes. Note also that the final burst of heat occurred after the input power to the heating coil was secured. 
             The summary report from the Auger analysis is shown in  FIG. 12 . We will discuss it further below. 
             The Raman testing showed lithium sulfate on the surface, which was washed away when the sample was rinsed with distilled water. Curiously, the analysis did not show the presence of silica, suggesting, according to the operator, that it was either “not present, or because it was a disordered amorphous SiO x  compound that was not able to produce Raman spectra”. 
             Subsequent EDS testing of this sample did not show evidence of silver in the palladium, but that may only mean that it was not present in sufficient amounts to rise above the 1% detection threshold of sample mass discussed above. 
           
         
       
    
     Jan. 19, 2009 
     
         
         
           
             The experiment was conducted with palladium electrodes in heavy water. The electrolyte was lithium sulfate and the silica reagent was anionic silica hydride. The time-varying electrical stimulus was the sinusoidally modulated pulse stream described in the aforementioned &#39;287 patent. 
             The data log in  FIG. 13  shows replication of the bursts of heat, as seen by the thermal signatures of the recorded temperatures (traces  204  and  205 ). These bursts had exceptional periodicity, occurring at intervals of approximately thirteen minutes. 
             Note that the temperatures of the heating coil (trace  202 ) and the reactor wall (trace  203 ) drop after each burst, possibly caused by one or both of the relief valves lifting and venting some steam. Although the reactor was not observed directly during any of these experiments because it was enclosed within an insulated box for safety reasons, venting through the relief valves would be consistent with the loss of approximately one-third of the liquid in the reactor during the experiment. 
             Note also that the DC stimulus current (trace  209 ) spikes concurrent with or slightly before the bursts occur. Those current spikes suggest that the resistance between the DC anode and the common cathode decreased at the same time the temperature spikes were occurring. (We logged the DC stimulus voltage and current for most of the experiments. Current variations were seen in some other cases, but not as large as those shown here.) 
               FIG. 14  is included to show the one of the EDS results from the cathode in this experiment. We did not find silver on these samples, but note the presence of aluminum. We will say more about that below. 
           
         
       
    
     Jan. 30, 2009 
     
         
         
           
             The electrodes for this experiment were palladium in a solution of heavy water. The electrolyte was lithium sulfate and the silica reagent was anionic silica hydride. The time-varying electrical stimulus was the sinusoidally modulated pulse stream described in the aforementioned &#39;287 patent. 
             This experiment featured four small glass beads threaded onto the cathode. For example, Hirschberg Schutz &amp; Co., Inc., of Warren, N.J., markets such beads. The glass beads used in this experiment proved to have been coated with pure silver by the manufacturer. The manufacturer makes other glass beads that are not coated, and we used those in later experiments. 
             The data log for the experiment is shown in  FIG. 15 . The reaction commenced at a relatively low temperature (baseline temperature just above 100° C.) and showed some sustained bursts lasting as long as five minutes. The temperature of the solution (traces  304  and  305 ) peaked at 102.4° C. Note that the temperature spikes last longer than the ones in the previous tests, corresponding to more heat being generated with the threaded beads than with bare electrodes. There is a strong reaction before the DC stimulus voltage (indicated by trace  307 ) was even applied, indicating that the DC stimulus is optional in the protocol. For that reason, we only used two electrodes, the RF anode and the cathode, in most of our later experiments. 
             When viewed in the SEM with the glass beads removed, there were no deposits on this electrode and significant portions of the electrode had spalled and peeled away, again providing evidence of local high temperatures.  FIG. 16  shows a piece of the electrode that has been twisted, as though by extreme heat.  FIG. 17  shows a small piece of palladium that was smooth on one side and textured on the other. The textured side does not appear to be the result of shear or etching, and it may have been melted. If that is verified with additional experiments, it will be very significant because it would confirm that, with the bead covering, the electrode attained melting temperature (1555° C. for palladium). 
             We found numerous Pd fragments had adhered to the surface of the beads. One site was seen that was predominately palladium, with silver present in trace amounts. 
             It should be noted that spalling was observed in several experiments where glass beads were threaded on an electrode. It was not observed on electrodes which did not have glass beads threaded, thus indicating that the physical contact between the electrode and the glass caused the spalling. 
           
         
       
    
     Feb. 21, 2009 
     
         
         
           
             The electrodes for this experiment were palladium in a solution of predominately light water. The electrolyte was lithium sulfate and the silica reagent was anionic silica hydride. The time-varying electrical stimulus was the sinusoidally modulated pulse stream described in the aforementioned &#39;287 patent. (The citric acid solution added to balance the pH in this experiment was made with heavy water. Because less than four drops were added into 30 ml of solution, we describe the water as being “predominately” light.) 
             Glass beads were threaded onto the electrode as described above. 
             Because the boiling point of light water is lower than for heavy water by about 1.4° C., the temperatures were deliberately kept lower for this experiment to stay just below the lower boiling point. 
             The data log for the experiment is shown in  FIG. 18 . Although the temperatures recorded are lower than those in the previous experiments with heavy water, the centerline for the two traces ( 404  and  405 ) show the temperature of the solution is still 102° C. There were definite bursts of energy recorded in the data logs in the now-characteristic thermal signature, although they were not as regular or robust as the experiments using heavy water. The temperatures of the heating coil (trace  402 ) and the reactor wall (trace  403 ) drop with the bursts of heat, again suggesting that the relief valves have lifted. 
           
         
       
    
     Feb. 28, 2009 
     
         
         
           
             The electrodes for this experiment were silver in a solution of heavy water. The electrolyte was lithium sulfate and the silica reagent was anionic silica hydride. The time-varying electrical stimulus was the sinusoidally modulated pulse stream described in the aforementioned &#39;287 patent. 
             As shown in  FIG. 19 , there were again several distinct bursts of heat (traces  504  and  505 ) that included the “temperature coherence” observed with the palladium electrode. 
             The electrodes were tested with SEM and EDS. The silver proved to have been corroded by the treatment. However, the presence of fluorine was detected at four sites. 
             The significance of these results is that the contemporary model regarding LENRs observed in similar electrolytic cells requires palladium. The crystal lattice of palladium is spacious enough to absorb both hydrogen and deuterium atoms, thus holding them in proximity. That model further hypothesizes that this containment permits adjacent deuterium atoms to interact in ways that are not otherwise stochastically possible at low temperatures. These assumptions then imply an interaction that is believed to permit the deuterium nuclei to get close enough to each other that they fuse. The protocol described in the patent referenced above and the present application does not depend upon that model. Silver does not absorb either hydrogen or deuterium atoms, so something is happening in the protocol described herein that must follow a completely different model. We did not measure the D/Pd atom ratio, so there is no such experimental evidence to report in that regard. 
           
         
       
    
     Mar. 5, 2009 
     
         
         
           
             The electrodes for this experiment were platinum in a solution of heavy water. The electrolyte was lithium sulfate and the silica reagent was anionic silica hydride. The time-varying electrical stimulus was the sinusoidally modulated pulse stream described in the aforementioned &#39;287 patent. 
             As shown in  FIG. 20 , there were several distinct bursts of heat (seen in traces  604  and  605 ), although the recorded temperatures did not demonstrate the “temperature coherence” observed with the palladium and silver electrode. The bursts of heat showed a periodicity of approximately six minutes. Of particular interest is the fact that after the input power to the reactor (traces  601  and  608 ) and the stimuli were secured (right side of the data log), the temperature of the solution continued to rise for more than eight minutes while the temperature of the heating coil (trace  602 ) and the reactor sidewall (trace  603 ) fell. Clearly, there was some delayed exothermic reaction occurring inside the reactor. 
             The cathode from this experiment was examined with SEM and EDS. The surface of the electrode was clean rather than corroded as the silver had been. No transmutation products were detected. Again, that may only mean that they were present, but not in sufficient amounts to rise above the 1% detection threshold. 
             As above with silver, according to the contemporary model for LENRs, there should not have been any evidence of heat because of the size of the platinum crystal lattice. 
           
         
       
    
     Aug. 9, 2009 
     
         
         
           
             In an effort to test whether the anionic silica hydride and lithium sulfate in the solution were reacting to produce a form of lithium silicate, we substituted reagent grade lithium metasilicate, Li 2 SiO 3 , for the anionic silica hydride. Because lithium metasilicate is essentially insoluble in water, it settled immediately to the bottom of the beaker without dissolving. We therefore used EDTA, a chelating agent, to get some of the lithium metasilicate to dissolve or suspend in the water. 
           
         
       
    
     Specifically, we made a solution consisting of 30 ml of D2O, 350 mg of Li 2 SiO 3 , 850 mg of Li 2 SO 4 , and 700 mg of EDTA. That formed a cloudy solution, suggesting that the Li 2 SiO 3  was either in solution or suspension. EDTA is acidic, so we buffered the solution with sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO 3 , to bring it back into the pH range called for in the protocol. After heating and stirring, we added another 350 mg of EDTA and buffered again with NaHCO 3 . The electrodes were palladium.
         The data log for this experiment is shown in  FIG. 21 . The boiling point of this solution was higher than that in the standard protocol, so the centerline of the two traces ( 704  and  705 ) for the thermocouples is 104° C. There were some bursts of heat, but they were not periodic. One of those bursts was almost 1° C. in less than ten seconds.   The electrodes used in this experiment were later analyzed with SEM and EDS. There was a coating on the cathode that included carbon, oxygen, sodium, silicon, and sulfur. The coating was not as well organized as that shown on some of the earlier SEMS.   The pH of the solution at the beginning of the experiment was 7.45. At the end, it was 9.70, so it is apparent that some chemical reaction took place in the solution during the course of the experiment.       

     Aug. 15, 2009 
     
         
         
           
             In a further effort to confirm that silica was a critical part of the protocol, we conducted another experiment with 30% sodium silicate (“water glass”), Na 2 SiO 3 , as the source of the silicate. Na 2 SiO 3  is readily soluble in water, producing an alkaline solution. The sodium silicate tended to congeal at higher temperatures, so we finally used only one drop of it in 30 ml. of heavy water. The other ingredients were 350 mg of Li 2 SO 4  and 150 mg of EDTA. This yielded a highly acidic solution that we again buffered into the desired range of 6.9 to 8.9 with sodium bicarbonate. The electrodes were palladium, and the time-varying electrical stimulus was the sinusoidally modulated pulse stream described in the aforementioned &#39;287 patent. 
             A portion of the data log for this experiment is shown in  FIG. 22 . Again, the centerline for the thermocouple traces ( 804  and  805 ) was 104° C., because the boiling point of this solution was higher than that of the solution in the standard protocol. There were a small number of bursts of heat during the experiment. These heat bursts were rather feeble, but nevertheless were present. 
             A SEM photo and the accompanying EDS spectrum are shown in  FIG. 23 . Note the presence of magnesium, which could either be a transmutation product of sodium or a contaminant. We did not test the raw materials in this experiment for contaminants. 
           
         
       
    
     Nov. 15, 2009 
     
         
         
           
             The electrodes for this experiment were palladium in a solution of heavy water. The electrolyte was lithium sulfate and the silica reagent was lithium metasilicate, Li 2 SiO 3 . The time-varying electrical stimulus was the sinusoidally modulated pulse stream described in the aforementioned &#39;287 patent. 
             This was a version of the protocol intermediate between the one described in the described in the &#39;287 patent and the one described above. 
             The cell began to respond much more rapidly than previous experiments.  FIG. 24  shows the data log for this experiment. The pulses of heat were not very large, but there were many of them, and they tended to repeat every three to five minutes. 
             The electrodes from this experiment were analyzed with SEM and EDS. They proved to be relatively clean and showed no evidence of transmutation products. 
           
         
       
    
     Dec. 31, 2009 
     
         
         
           
             The electrodes for this experiment were palladium in a solution of heavy water. The protocol in this experiment was the one described above as the preferred embodiment of the invention. This experiment included glass beads on one of the electrodes; these beads were not coated in silver. 
             The data logs of the experiment are shown in  FIG. 25 . Some smaller burst of heat had preceded the portion of the data log shown in that figure. The large burst shown in the figure raised the temperature reading of one of the thermocouples by approximately 2° C. in twenty seconds and lasted more than six minutes. 
               FIG. 26  shows a site in a SEM photo of one of the palladium electrodes from this date. Lighter areas are radiating from a central point. There was no difference between the lighter areas and the neighboring surface in EDS analysis. This was one of several sites with a similar appearance on this sample that show what could be ejecta from a localized burst of heat on the electrode. 
             There is also a piece of electrode that has separated at the right side of the photo. It partially covers a deposit of sulfate that was laid down during the protocol, indicating that the separation occurred during or after the protocol. There is no indication that mechanical action caused the separation, so it may have been caused by thermal stresses. 
             Note that if there was a localized burst of heat on the electrode sufficient to melt, or even to vaporize, the palladium, it would also be intense enough to vaporize the water in the immediate vicinity, forming a burst of steam. That burst of steam would expand out from the origin of the heat in a compression shock wave until it lost heat to the surrounding solution. At some point it would collapse back upon the center. When the bubble collapsed back, it could press the ejecta back upon the surface of the electrode in the manner shown in the picture. 
             Roger Stringham has reported on Pd/D 2 O cavitation experiments that yield transient bubbles in such a manner. He has shown that the bubble originates in a fusion event within a palladium lattice and contains D 2 O, D 2 , and O 2  and describes the dynamics of the high-energy transient bubbles in detail. H is report can be found at this URL: http://www.lenr-canr.org/acrobat/StringhamRcavitationb.pdf. 
             We rinsed the electrode tested above in distilled water to remove the sulfate and re-examined it. The later testing did not show pore sites of ejecta and the radial patterns were no longer visible. 
           
         
       
    
     Dec. 15, 2013 
     
         
         
           
             This was the third day of an experiment using palladium electrodes in a solution of heavy water, lithium silicate, and a siloxane. The protocol in this experiment was the one described above for octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane. This experiment included glass beads on one of the electrodes. 
             The data logs of the experiment are shown in  FIG. 27 . Some smaller burst of heat had preceded the portion of the data log shown in that figure. The large burst shown in the figure raised both of the thermocouples approximately 1.4° C. in twenty-five seconds and lasted several minutes. 
             Note that  FIG. 27  includes a temperature trace not shown in earlier data logs. That trace shows the temperature in the headspace above the liquid surface in the reactor. It closely tracks the two temperatures recorded in the liquid, thus indicating that the entire volume of the reactor is experiencing a simultaneous increase. 
           
         
       
    
     Taken together, we believe the experiments conducted with anionic silica hydride, lithium metasilicate, sodium silicate, and siloxane support the reasoning that silica is critical to the reaction and that a lithium silicate promotes a stronger reaction. 
     One of the things that caught our attention in the experiments above was the frequent indication of fluorine in the EDS analyses. The Feb. 28, 2009, experiment showed F at four sites. Several samples showed traces of aluminum and one showed gallium at multiple sites. Flanagan&#39;s anionic silica hydride includes several additives. H is “Mega H-™” powder contains potassium citrate (K 3 C 6 H 5 O 7 ), potassium carbonate (K 2 CO 3 ), and oleic acid (C 18 H 34 O 2 ). H is “Super Hydrate™” solution also contains potassium carbonate and oleic acid, plus magnesium sulfate (MgSO 4 ). We tested Flanagan&#39;s products with EDS analysis to clarify their elemental composition. Sodium and copper were found to also be present, although they were not disclosed as ingredients on the product labels. Lithium sulfate (Li 2 SO 4 ) is used in our protocol as an electrolyte. However, the identified original ingredients for the protocol do not account for the presence of fluorine, aluminum and gallium in the post-experiment EDS analyses. 
     Now return to  FIG. 12 , the Atomic Concentration Table from the Auger analysis of the Jan. 3, 2009 experiment. Note the presence of nitrogen, aluminum, chlorine, calcium and zinc. Each of these could be a transmutation product of one of the elements added to the reactor, assuming those elements undergo Beta decay or a reaction similar to Beta decay. Specifically:
           6 C transmutes into  7 N     12 Mg transmutes into  13 Al     16 S transmutes into  17 Cl     19 K transmutes in  20 Ca     29 Cu transmutes into  30 Zn       

     Further, the  9 F found above in the EDS analyses is the transmutation product of  8 O. 
     If hydrogen or lithium had transmuted to helium and beryllium, EDS would not have detected them, because it does not detect elements with atomic numbers below five. 
     The gallium in the various samples is an escape peak of palladium in EDS, so it can be dismissed as a false positive for that element. 
     We now have found strong evidence of transmutation products of six different elements using two different techniques for elemental analysis, with aluminum having been found with both of them. Taken together, the data supports a claim that our protocol has induced nuclear reactions on numerous occasions. While that claim will doubtless be controversial, we assert that the evidence for it is strong. 
     Further, we calculated the energy density of one of the reactions logged on Dec. 31, 2009, assuming the active region of the reaction detected was within 7 μm of the surface of the electrode. That is consistent with the visual evidence in the SEM image shown in  FIG. 6 , where the metal has coated the interior surfaces of the deposited mat. 
     Energy density is the energy per unit volume or mass. The temperature increase during the first 20 seconds of the temperature pulse shown in  FIG. 21  averaged 1.86° C. Raising 30 ml of water that much requires approximately 56 calories. This converts to 234 joules in SI units. 
     Given that the electrodes have a diameter D of 0.063 mm and that they are immersed to a depth  1  of 15 mm in the solution, the volume of the active region of the two electrodes can be calculated with the formula below, which approximates the formula for the volume of a hollow cylinder: 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   V 
                   = 
                     
                    
                   
                     π 
                     × 
                     D 
                     × 
                     1 
                     × 
                     2 
                   
                 
               
             
             
               
                 
                   = 
                     
                    
                   
                     3.14 
                     × 
                     .063 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     mm 
                     × 
                     15 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     mm 
                     × 
                     7 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     µm 
                     × 
                     2 
                   
                 
               
             
             
               
                 
                   = 
                     
                    
                   
                     41.5 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     
                       10 
                       
                         - 
                         12 
                       
                     
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     
                       m 
                       3 
                     
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     The energy density of the reaction shown in the data log is thus 234 Joules/41.5×10 −12  m 3  or 5.64×10 3  MJ/L. 
     Making the worst-case assumption that the active region of the reaction has the 12.0 g/cm 3  density of fully dense palladium, that converts to 470 MJ/kg. 
     That energy density is several times greater than molecular energy densities, thus providing further evidence that the reaction is not a molecular chemical reaction. 
     At the present state of the research in LENRs, it is not known whether the lithium silicate is a reactant, in which case it would be consumed in the reaction, or a catalyst, in which case it would not be consumed. 
     The nature and shape of the bursts of heat recorded in our data logs, together with the condition of the electrode surfaces seen from SEM analyses, indicate that the surface temperature of the electrodes may locally approach or even attain the 1555° C. melting point of palladium, such that the solution at the surface of that electrode can locally flash to steam. A continuous reaction requires the on-going replenishment of solution in the liquid phase, which naturally occurs in the test reaction reactor. An alternative protocol may be to provide fresh solution at that inlet of a nozzle where the steam is exhausted. 
     There is no evidence in any of our experiments that the exothermic reaction being induced is anything other than a surface effect. Given the apparent energy densities of that reaction, that could be very important because it indicates that, for whatever reason, the reaction is self-limiting to the surface area of the electrodes. 
     Finally, we note that the concept of “boiling point” is ambiguous inside a sealed reactor. If the reactor is perfectly sealed, the pressure inside the reactor will increase with temperature to a point that is equal to the vapor pressure of the water. We found over time, that our reactor was not perfectly sealed by conducting leak tests. It is difficult to seal such a reactor if one is denied the use of rubber and Teflon™ for gaskets, and we had wanted to avoid rubber and minimize Teflon since they appear to inhibit the reaction, as noted above. 
     This suggests a possible model for the reaction detected in our experiments where a slight leak might have momentarily lowered the pressure within the reactor and allowed steam bubbles to form on an electrode. Those bubbles might be the site of the reaction, and the heat from an initial spark of such a reaction could cause a cascading reaction, which would quench when the reactor regained its seal. 
     Over a period of several months, we improved the seal of the reactor. Over that period, we also noted that the temperature spikes became smaller. Where increases of almost 2 degrees C. had been common, we rarely saw increases much greater than 1 degree C. That suggests that a superior seal might be undesirable if the reaction is occurring in the solution at the locus of phase change. 
     Others attempting to reproduce our results should be alert to the possibility the reaction occurs at the phase change interface of water and steam. Accordingly, they may want to try experiments with and without a very slight leakage. 
     We have use the term “boiling point” in the protocols above to mean the boiling point of the solution at standard atmospheric pressure.