Patent Publication Number: US-2005123952-A1

Title: Methods of rapid detection and identification of bioagents using microRNA

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS  
      The present application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application Ser. No. 60/500,722 filed Sep. 4, 2003 and U.S. provisional application Ser. No. 60/504,147 filed Sep. 17, 2003, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION  
      The present invention relates to methods for rapid detection and identification of bioagents from environmental, clinical or other samples. The methods provide for detection and characterization of a unique molecular mass and/or base composition signature (BCS) from microRNA containing nucleic acid of any bioagent, including bacteria, parasites, fungi, viruses, plant cells, and animal cells. The unique molecular mass or BCS is used to rapidly identify the species of bioagent. The present invention further provides for the use of species-identifying microRNA containing nucleic acid segments to identify the species or taxon from which an unknown bioagent or known bioagent derives.  
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
      In many species, introduction of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) induces potent and specific gene silencing. This phenomenon occurs in both plants and animals and has roles in viral defense and transposon silencing mechanisms. This phenomenon was originally described more than a decade ago by researchers working with the petunia flower. While trying to deepen the purple color of these flowers, Jorgensen et al. introduced a pigment-producing gene under the control of a powerful promoter. Instead of the expected deep purple color, many of the flowers appeared variegated or even white. Jorgensen named the observed phenomenon “cosuppression”, since the expression of both the introduced gene and the homologous endogenous gene was suppressed (Napoli et al.,  Plant Cell,  1990, 2, 279-289; Jorgensen etal.,  Plant Mol. Biol.,  1996,31,957-973).  
      Cosuppression has since been found to occur in many species of plants, fungi, and has been particularly well characterized in  Neurospora crassa , where it is known as “quelling” (Cogoni and Macino,  Genes Dev.  2000, 10, 638-643; Guru,  Nature,  2000, 404, 804-808).  
      The first evidence that dsRNA could lead to gene silencing in animals came from work in the nematode,  Caenorhabditis elegans . In 1995, researchers Guo and Kemphues were attempting to use antisense RNA to shut down expression of the par-1 gene in order to assess its function. As expected, injection of the antisense RNA disrupted expression of par-1, but curiously, injection of the sense-strand control also disrupted expression (Guo and Kempheus,  Cell,  1995, 81, 611-620). This result was a puzzle until Fire et al. injected dsRNA (a mixture of both sense and antisense strands) into  C. elegans . This injection resulted in much more efficient silencing than injection of either the sense or the antisense strands alone. Injection of just a few molecules of dsRNA per cell was sufficient to completely silence the homologous gene&#39;s expression. Furthermore, injection of dsRNA into the gut of the worm caused gene silencing not only throughout the worm, but also in first generation offspring (Fire et al.,  Nature,  1998, 391, 806-811).  
      The potency of this phenomenon led Timmons and Fire to explore the limits of the dsRNA effects by feeding nematodes bacteria that had been engineered to express dsRNA homologous to the  C. elegans  unc-22 gene. Surprisingly, these worms developed an unc-22 null-like phenotype (Timmons and Fire,  Nature  1998, 395, 854; Timmons et al.,  Gene,  2001, 263, 103-112). Further work showed that soaking worms in dsRNA was also able to induce silencing (Tabara et al.,  Science,  1998, 282, 430-431). PCT publication WO 01/48183 discloses methods of inhibiting expression of a target gene in a nematode worm involving feeding to the worm a food organism which is capable of producing a double-stranded RNA structure having a nucleotide sequence substantially identical to a portion of the target gene following ingestion of the food organism by the nematode, or by introducing a DNA capable of producing the double-stranded RNA structure (Bogaert et al., 2001).  
      The posttranscriptional gene silencing defined in  Caenorhabditis elegans  resulting from exposure to double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) has since been designated as RNA interference (RNAi). This term has come to generally refer to the process of gene silencing involving dsRNA which leads to the sequence-specific reduction of gene expression. In contrast, cosuppression refers to a process in which transgenic DNA leads to silencing of both the transgene and the endogenous gene.  
      Introduction of exogenous double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) into  Caenorhabditis elegans  has been shown to specifically and potently disrupt the activity of genes containing homologous sequences. Montgomery et al. suggests that the primary interference effects of dsRNA are post-transcriptional. This conclusion was derived from examination of the primary DNA sequence after dsRNA-mediated interference and a finding of no evidence of alterations, followed by studies assessing the alteration of an upstream operon which had no effect on the activity of its downstream gene. These results argue against an effect on initiation or elongation of transcription. Finally using in situ hybridization they observed that dsRNA-mediated interference produced a substantial, although not complete, reduction in accumulation of nascent transcripts in the nucleus, while cytoplasmic accumulation of transcripts was virtually eliminated. These results indicate that the endogenous mRNA is the primary target for interference and suggest a mechanism that degrades the targeted mRNA before translation can occur. It was also found that this mechanism is not dependent on the SMG system, an mRNA surveillance system in  C. elegans  responsible for targeting and destroying aberrant messages. The authors further suggest a model of how dsRNA might function as a catalytic mechanism to target homologous mRNAs for degradation. (Montgomery et al.,  Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,  1998, 95, 15502-15507).  
      Recently, the development of a cell-free system from syncytial blastoderm  Drosophila  embryos that recapitulates many of the features of RNAi has been reported. The interference observed in this reaction is sequence specific, is promoted by dsRNA but not single-stranded RNA, functions by specific mRNA degradation, and requires a minimum length of dsRNA. Furthermore, preincubation of dsRNA potentiates its activity demonstrating that RNAi can be mediated by sequence-specific processes in soluble reactions (Tuschl et al.,  Genes Dev.,  1999, 13, 3191-3197).  
      In subsequent experiments, Tuschl et al., using the  Drosophila  in vitro system, demonstrated that 21- and 22-nt RNA fragments are the sequence-specific mediators of RNAi. These fragments, which they termed short interfering RNAs (siRNAs), were shown to be generated by an RNase III-like processing reaction from long dsRNA. They also showed that chemically synthesized siRNA duplexes with overhanging 3′ ends mediate efficient target RNA cleavage in the  Drosophila  lysate, and that the cleavage site is located near the center of the region spanned by the guiding siRNA. In addition, they suggest that the direction of dsRNA processing determines whether sense or antisense target RNA can be cleaved by the siRNA-protein complex (Elbashir et al.,  Genes Dev.,  2001, 15, 188-200). Further characterization of the suppression of expression of endogenous and heterologous genes caused by the 21-23 nucleotide siRNAs have been investigated in several mammalian cell lines, including human embryonic kidney (293) and HeLa cells (Elbashir et al.,  Nature,  2001, 411, 494-498).  
      The  Drosophila  embryo extract system has been exploited, using green fluorescent protein and luciferase tagged siRNAs, to demonstrate that siRNAs can serve as primers to transform the target mRNA into dsRNA. The nascent dsRNA is degraded to eliminate the incorporated target mRNA while generating new siRNAs in a cycle of dsRNA synthesis and degradation. Evidence is also presented that mRNA-dependent siRNA incorporation to form dsRNA is carried out by an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity (RdRP) (Lipardi et al.,  Cell,  2001, 107, 297-307).  
      The involvement of an RNA-directed RNA polymerase and siRNA primers as reported by Lipardi et al. (Lipardi et al.,  Cell,  2001, 107, 297-307) is one of the many intriguing features of gene silencing by RNA interference. This suggests an apparent catalytic nature to the phenomenon. New biochemical and genetic evidence reported by Nishikura et al. also shows that an RNA-directed RNA polymerase chain reaction, primed by siRNA, amplifies the interference caused by a small amount of “trigger” dsRNA (Nishikura,  Cell,  2001, 107, 415-418).  
      Investigating the role of “trigger” RNA amplification during RNA interference (RNAi) in  Caenorhabditis elegans , Sijen et al. revealed a substantial fraction of siRNAs that cannot derive directly from input dsRNA. Instead, a population of siRNAs (termed secondary siRNAs) appeared to derive from the action of the previously reported cellular RNA-directed RNA polymerase (RdRP) on mRNAs that are being targeted by the RNAi mechanism. The distribution of secondary siRNAs exhibited a distinct polarity (5′-3′; on the antisense strand), suggesting a cyclic amplification process in which RdRP is primed by existing siRNAs. This amplification mechanism substantially augmented the potency of RNAi-based surveillance, while ensuring that the RNAi machinery focuses on expressed mRNAs (Sijen et al.,  Cell,  2001, 107, 465-476).  
      Recently, Tijsterman et al. have shown that single-stranded RNA oligomers of antisense polarity can be potent inducers of gene silencing. As is the case for cosuppression, they showed that antisense RNAs act independently of the RNAi genes rde-1 and rde-4 but require the mutator/RNAi gene mut-7 and a putative DEAD box RNA helicase, mut-14. According to the authors, their data favor the hypothesis that gene silencing is accomplished by RNA primer extension using the mRNA as template, leading to dsRNA that is subsequently degraded suggesting that single-stranded RNA oligomers are ultimately responsible for the RNAi phenomenon (Tijsterman et al.,  Science,  2002, 295, 694-697).  
      Several recent publications have described the structural requirements for the dsRNA trigger required for RNAi activity. Recent reports have indicated that ideal dsRNA sequences are 21 nucleotides (nt) in length containing 2-nt 3′-end overhangs (Elbashir et al.,  EMBO  2001, 20, 6877-6887; Brantl,  Biochimica et Biophysica Acta,  2002, 1575, 15-25.) In this system, substitution of the 4 nucleosides from the 3′-end with 2′-deoxynucleosides has been demonstrated to not affect activity. On the other hand, substitution with 2′-deoxynucleosides or 2′-OMe-nucleosides throughout the sequence (sense or antisense) was shown to be deleterious to RNAi activity.  
      Investigation of the structural requirements for RNA silencing in  C. elegans  has demonstrated modification of the intemucleotide linkage (phosphorothioate) to not interfere with activity (Parrish et al.,  Molecular Cell,  2000, 6, 1077-1087.) It was also shown by Parrish et al., that chemical modification like 2′-amino or 5-iodouridine are well tolerated in the sense strand but not the antisense strand of the dsRNA suggesting differing roles for the 2 strands in RNAi. Base modification such as guanine to inosine (where one hydrogen bond is lost) has been demonstrated to decrease RNAi activity independently of the position of the modification (sense or antisense). Some “position independent” loss of activity has been observed following the introduction of mismatches in the dsRNA trigger. Some types of modifications, for example introduction of sterically demanding bases such as 5-iodoU, have been shown to be deleterious to RNAi activity when positioned in the antisense strand, whereas modifications positioned in the sense strand were shown to be less detrimental to RNAi activity. As was the case for the 21-nucleotide dsRNA sequences, RNA-DNA heteroduplexes did not serve as triggers for RNAi. However, dsRNA containing 2′-F-2′-deoxynucleosides appeared to be efficient in triggering RNAi response independent of the position (sense or antisense) of the 2′-F-2′-deoxynucleosides.  
      In one study, the reduction of gene expression was studied using electroporated dsRNA and a 25-mer morpholino oligomer in post implantation mouse embryos (Mellitzer et al.,  Mehanisms of Development,  2002, 118, 57-63). The morpholino oligomer did show activity but was not as effective as the dsRNA.  
      A number of PCT applications have recently been published that relate to the RNAi phenomenon. These include: PCT publication WO 00/44895; PCT publication WO 00/49035; PCT publication WO 00/63364; PCT publication WO 01/36641; PCT publication WO 01/36646; PCT publication WO 99/32619; PCT publication WO 00/44914; PCT publication WO 01/29058; and PCT publication WO 01/75164.  
      U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,898,031 and 6,107,094, each of which is commonly owned with this application and each of which is herein incorporated by reference, describe certain oligonucleotide having RNA like properties. When hybridized with RNA, these oligonucleotides serve as substrates for a dsRNase enzyme with resultant cleavage of the RNA by the enzyme.  
      In another recently published paper (Martinez et al.,  Cell,  2002, 110, 563-574) it was shown that single stranded as well as double stranded siRNA resides in the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) together with elF2Cl and elf2C2 (human GERp950) Argonaute proteins. The activity of 5′-phosphorylated single stranded siRNA was comparable to the double stranded siRNA in the system studied. In a related study, the inclusion of a 5′-phosphate moiety was shown to enhance activity of siRNA&#39;s in vivo in  Drosophilia  embryos (Boutla, et al., Curr. Biol., 2001, 11, 1776-1780). In another study, it was reported that the 5′-phosphate was required for siRNA function in human HeLa cells (Schwarz et al.,  Molecular Cell,  2002, 10, 537-548).  
      In yet another recently published paper (Chiu et al.,  Molecular Cell,  2002, 10, 549-561) it was shown that the 5′-hydroxyl group of the siRNA is essential as it is phosphorylated for activity, whereas the 3′-hydroxyl group is not essential and tolerates substitute groups such as biotin. It was further shown that bulge structures in one or both of the sense or antisense strands either abolished or severely lowered the activity relative to the unmodified siRNA duplex. Also shown was severe lowering of activity when psoralen was used to cross link an siRNA duplex.  
      RNA genes were once considered relics of a primordial “RNA world” that was largely replaced by more efficient proteins. More recently, however, it has become clear that noncoding RNA genes produce functional RNA molecules with important roles in regulation of gene expression, developmental timing, viral surveillance, and immunity. Not only the classic transfer RNAs (tRNAs) and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), but also small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs), small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), tiny noncoding RNAs (tncRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) are now known to act in diverse cellular processes such as chromosome maintenance, gene imprinting, pre-mRNA splicing, guiding RNA modifications, transcriptional regulation, and the control of mRNA translation (Eddy,  Nat Rev Genet,  2001, 2, 919-929; Kawasaki and Taira,  Nature,  2003, 423, 838-842). RNA-mediated processes are now also believed to direct heterochromatin formation, genome rearrangements, and DNA elimination (Cerutti,  Trends Genet,  2003, 19, 39-46; Couzin,  Science,  2002, 298, 2296-2297).  
      The process of RNAi can be divided into two general steps: the initiation step occurs when the dsRNA is processed into siRNAs by an RNase III-like dsRNA-specific enzyme known as Dicer, and the effector step, during which the siRNAs are incorporated into a ribonucleoprotein complex, the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). RISC is believed to use the siRNA molecules as a guide to identify complementary RNAs, and an endoribonuclease (to date unidentified) cleaves these target RNAs, resulting in their degradation (Cerutti,  Trends Genet,  2003, 19, 39-46; Grishok et al.,  Cell,  2001, 106, 23-34).  
      In addition to the siRNAs, a large class of small noncoding RNAs known as microRNAs (miRNAs) is now known to act in the RNAi pathway. In nematodes, fruit flies, and humans, miRNAs are predicted to function as endogenous posttranscriptional gene regulators. The founding members of the miRNA family are transcribed by the  Caenorhabditis elegans  genes let-7 and lin-4, and were first dubbed short temporal RNAs (stRNAs). The let-7 and lin-4 miRNAs act as antisense translational repressors of messenger RNAs that encode proteins crucial to the heterochronic developmental timing pathway in nematode larva. For example, the lin-4 RNA binds to the 3′UTR regions of its targets, the lin-14 and lin-28 mRNAs, and represses synthesis of the LIN-14 and LIN-28 proteins to cause the proper series of stage-specific developmental events in the early larval stages of  C. elegans  development (Ambros,  Cell,  2001, 107, 823-826; Ambros et al.,  Curr Biol,  2003, 13, 807-818).  
      Like siRNAs, miRNAs are processed by Dicer and are approximately the same length, and possess the characteristic 5′-phosphate and 3′-hydroxyl termini. The miRNAs are also incorporated into a ribonucleoprotein complex, the miRNP, which is similar, if not identical to the RISC (Bartel and Bartel,  Plant Physiol,  2003, 132, 709-717). More than 200 different miRNAs have been identified in plants and animals (Ambros et al.,  Curr Biol,  2003, 13, 807-818).  
      In spite of their biochemical and mechanistic similarities, there are also some key differences between siRNAs and miRNAs, based on unique aspects of their biogenesis. Biological siRNAs are generated from the cleavage of long exogenous or endogenous dsRNA molecules, such as very long hairpins or bimolecular duplexes, and numerous siRNAs accumulate from both strands of dsRNA precursors. Mature miRNAs originate from endogenous, approximately 70 nucleotide-long hairpin (also known as stem-loop or foldback) precursor transcripts that can form local hairpin structures. These miRNA hairpin precursors are processed such that a single-stranded mature miRNA molecule is generated from one arm of the hairpin precursor. Alternatively, a polycistronic miRNA precursor transcript may contain multiple hairpins, each processed into a different, single miRNA. The current model is that either the primary miRNA transcript or the hairpin precursor is cleaved by Dicer to yield a double-stranded intermediate, but only one strand of this short-lived intermediate accumulates as the mature miRNA (Ambros et al.,  RNA,  2003, 9, 277-279; Bartel and Bartel,  Plant Physiol,  2003, 132, 709-717; Shi,  Trends Genet,  2003, 19, 9-12).  
      siRNAs and miRNAs can also be functionally distinguished. While siRNAs cause gene silencing by target RNA cleavage and degradation, miRNAs are believed to direct translational repression, primarily. This functional difference may be related to the fact that miRNAs tolerate multiple base pair mismatches whereas siRNAs are perfectly complementary to their target substrates (Ambros et al.,  Curr Biol,  2003, 13, 807-818; Bartel and Bartel,  Plant Physiol,  2003, 132, 709-717; Shi,  Trends Genet,  2003, 19, 9-12).  
      A third class of small noncoding RNAs has also been identified (Ambros et al.,  Curr Biol,  2003, 13, 807-818). The tiny noncoding RNA (tncRNA) genes produce transcripts similar in length (20-21 nucleotides) to miRNAs, and are also thought to be developmentally regulated but, unlike miRNAs, tncRNAs are reportedly not processed from short hairpin precursors and are not phylogenetically conserved. Although none of these tncRNAs are believed to originate from miRNA hairpin precursors, some are predicted to form potential foldback structures reminiscent of miRNAs; these putative tncRNA precursor structures deviate significantly from the miRNA hairpins in key characteristics, i.e., they exhibit excessive numbers of bulged nucleotides in the stem or have fewer than 16 base pairs involving the small RNA (Ambros et al.,  Curr Biol,  2003, 13, 807-818).  
      The list of cellular activities now believed to be regulated by small noncoding RNAs is still growing and is quite diverse. In several plant species, dsRNA can direct methylation of homologous DNA sequences, and connections between RNAi and chromatin and/or genomic DNA modifications are starting to emerge. Some homologues in the polycomb group of proteins, which are generally involved in chromatin repression, have been shown to be required for RNAi under certain experimental conditions (Cerutti,  Trends Genet,  2003, 19, 39-46; Matzke et al.,  Science,  2001, 293, 1080-1083). Recently, several reports have implicated RNAi machinery in heterochromatin formation (Hall et al.,  Science,  2002, 297, 2232-2237; Volpe et al.,  Chromosome Res,  2003, 11, 137-146) and genome rearrangements (Mochizuki et al.,  Cell,  2002, 110, 689-699; Taverna et al.,  Cell,  2002, 110, 701-711).  
      RNAi-like processes may operate in the establishment of heterochromatic domains at centromeres and mating-type loci of the fission yeast, as well as during the lineage-specific establishment of silenced chromatin domains during eukaryotic development (Hall et al.,  Science,  2002, 297, 2232-2237). In plants, animals and fungi, centromeres are heterochromatic regions that consist of arrays of repetitive DNA sequences. In the fission yeast, components of the RNAi machinery [Dicer (Dcr1), Argonaute (Ago1), and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (Rdp1)] are required to maintain the silent heterochromatic state of functional centromeres, and are believed to be involved in processing transcripts derived from these repeats. Deletion of Dcr1, Ago1, or Rdp1 disrupts histone H3 lysine 9 methylation and recruitment of heterochromatin proteins to the centromere region and results in chromosome missegregation (Reinhart and Bartel,  Science,  2002, 297, 1831; Volpe et al.,  Chromosome Res,  2003, 11, 137-146). Similarly, the mating-type loci of fission yeast appear to have used a repetitive DNA element to organize a highly specialized chromatin structure, and similar RNAi-like processes may influence a variety of chromosomal functions important for preserving genomic integrity, such as prohibition of wasteful transcription and suppression of deleterious recombination between repetitive elements (Hall et al.,  Science,  2002, 297, 2232-2237).  
      The unicellular, ciliated eukaryote,  Tetrahymena , contains two functionally distinct nuclei: one containing the DNA expressed during the lifetime of the organism, and one carrying the DNA that passes to offspring. During the differentiation of these two nuclei, several thousand internal eliminated sequences (IESs) are precisely excised and deleted from the germline genome, and small RNAs trigger deletion or reshuffling of some DNA sequences as the  Tetrahymena  divides. RNAi appears to be targeting structures analogous to heterochromatin for elimination. Interestingly, histone H3 lysine 9 methylation is also required for the targeted DNA elimination. (Couzin,  Science,  2002, 298, 2296-2297; Mochizuki et al.,  Cell,  2002, 110, 689-699; Tavema et al.,  Cell,  2002, 110, 701-711).  
      It is currently believed that RNAi represents a form of immunity and protection from invasion by exogenous sources of genetic material such as RNA viruses and retrotransposons (Eddy,  Nat Rev Genet,  2001, 2, 919-929; Silva et al.,  Trends Mol Med,  2002, 8, 505-508). In plants, the dsRNA-mediated mechanism of posttranscriptional gene silencing has been linked to viral resistance, and is proposed to represent a primitive immune response. Infection of  Arabidopsis  by Turnip mosiac virus (TuMV) induces a number of developmental defects which resemble those in miRNA deficient dicer-like1 (dcl1) mutants. A virally encoded RNA-silencing suppressor, P1/HC-Pro, was found to be a part of a counterdefensive mechanism that enables systemic infection by interfering with miR171 (also known as miRNA39), a component of the miRNA-controlled developmental pathways that share components with the antiviral RNA-silencing pathway (Kasschau et al.,  Dev Cell,  2003, 4, 205-217).  
      In prokaryotes, antisense-RNA regulated systems have been detected mostly in so-called accessory DNA elements such as plasmids, phage, or transposons, although a few have been found to be of chromosomal origin. Some of these antisense-RNA-mediated mechanisms are remarkably similar to the translation-inhibition mechanisms mediated by miRNAs, and may involve structural elements such as a stem-loop (Brantl,  Biochim Biophys Acta,  2002, 1575, 15-25). Interestingly, by injection or expression of antiparallel dsRNA in  Escherichia coli , a potent and specific RNA-mediated gene-specific silencing effect has been observed (Tchurikov et al.,  J Biol Chem,  2000, 275, 26523-26529). Furthermore, several groups have recently reported algorithms and screens leading to the identification or computational prediction of novel small noncoding RNA transcripts in bacteria, and although the precise functions of many of them are not fully understood, it is clear that these small noncoding RNAs act as central regulators of gene expression in response to diverse environmental growth conditions (Argaman et al.,  Curr Biol,  2001, 11, 941-950; Eddy,  Nat Rev Genet,  2001, 2, 919-929; Rivas et al.,  Curr Biol,  2001, 11, 1369-1373; Wassarman,  Cell,  2002, 109, 141-144; Wassarman et al.,  Genes Dev,  2001, 15, 1637-1651).  
      A total of 201 different expressed RNA sequences potentially encoding novel small non-messenger species (smnRNAs) has been identified from mouse brain cDNA libraries. Based on sequence and structural motifs, several of these have been assigned to the snoRNA class of nucleolar localized molecules known to act as guide RNAs for rRNA modification, whereas others are predicted to direct modification within the U2, U4, or U6 small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). Some of these newly identified smnRNAs remained unclassified and have no identified RNA targets. It was suggested that some of these RNA species may have novel ftnctions previously unknown for snoRNAs, namely the regulation of gene expression by binding to and/or modifying mRNAs or their precursors via their antisense elements (Huttenhofer et al.,  Embo J,  2001, 20, 2943-2953).  
      RNA editing enzymes may also interact with components of the RNAi pathway. Adenosine deaminases that act on RNA (ADARs) are a class of RNA editing enzymes that deaminate adenosines to create inosines in dsRNA. Inosine is read as guanosine during translation, and thus, one function of editing is to generate multiple protein isoforms from the same gene. ADARs bind to dsRNA without sequence specificity, and due to the ability of ADARs to create sequence and structural changes in dsRNA, ADARs could potentially antagonize RNAi by several mechanisms, such as preventing dsRNA from being recognized and cleaved by Dicer, or preventing siRNAs from base-pairing. Recently, it was shown that the editing of dsRNA by ADARs can prevent somatic transgenes from inducing gene silencing via the RNAi pathway (Knight and Bass,  Mol Cell,  2002, 10, 809-817).  
      miRNAs are also believed to be cell death regulators, implicating them in mechanisms of human disease such as cancer. Recently, the  Drosophila  mir-14 miRNA was identified as a suppressor of apoptotic cell death and is required for normal fat metabolism. While mir-14 mutants are viable, they have elevated levels of the apoptotic effector caspase Drice, are stress sensitive and have a reduced lifespan. Furthermore, deletion of mir-14 results in animals with increased levels of triacylglycerol and diacylglycerol. Deregulation of miRNA expression may contribute to inappropriate survival that occurs in oncogenesis (Xu et al.,  Curr Biol,  2003, 13, 790-795).  
      Naturally occurring miRNAs are characterized by imperfect complementarity to their target sequences. Artificially modified miRNAs with sequences completely complementary to their target RNAs have been designed and found to function as siRNAs that inhibit gene expression by reducing RNA transcript levels. Synthetic hairpin RNAs that mimic siRNAs and miRNA precursor molecules were demonstrated to target genes for silencing by degradation and not translational repression (McManus et al.,  RNA,  2002, 8, 842-850).  
      Expression of the human mir-30 miRNA specifically blocked the translation in human cells of an mRNA containing artificial mir-30 target sites. Designed miRNAs were excised from transcripts encompassing artificial miRNA precursors and could inhibit the expression of mRNAs containing a complementary target site. These data indicate that novel miRNAs can be readily produced in vivo and can be designed to specifically inactivate the expression of selected target genes in human cells (Zeng et al.,  Mol Cell,  2002, 9, 1327-1333).  
      Hes1, a basic helix-loop-helix protein is reported to be a target of microRNA-23 during retinoic-acid-induced neuronal differentiation of human NT2 neuroepithelial cells. Synthetic siRNA-miR-23 and synthetic mutant siRNA-miR-23 were designed and introduced into undifferentiated human NT2; these small interfering RNAs resulted in accumulation of Hes1 and hindered neuronal differentiation (Kawasaki and Taira,  Nature,  2003, 423, 838-842).  
      Disclosed and claimed in PCT Publications WO 03/035667 and WO 03/034985 is a nucleic acid comprising sense and anti-sense nucleic acids, which may be covalently linked to each other, wherein said sense and anti-sense nucleic acids may comprise RNA in the form of a double-stranded interfering RNA, and wherein said sense and anti-sense nucleic acids are substantially complementary to each other and are capable of forming a double stranded nucleic acid and wherein one of said sense or antisense nucleic acids is substantially complementary to a target nucleic acid comprising telomerase RNA or mRNA encoding telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT). Also claimed is an expression vector comprising the nucleic acid, methods for inhibiting or interfering with telomerase activity, and a pharmaceutical composition. siRNAs for inhibiting telomerase activity are disclosed and claimed (Rowley, 2003; Rowley, 2003).  
      Disclosed and claimed in PCT Publications WO 03/022052 and WO 03/023015 is a method of expressing an RNA molecule within a cell by transfection of a recombinant retrovirus into a target cell line, wherein the recombinant retrovirus construct comprises an RNA polymerase III promoter region, an RNA coding region and a termination sequence and may comprise a 5′ lentiviral long terminal repeat region, a self-inactivating lentiviral 3′ LTR, wherein the RNA coding region may encode a self-complementary RNA molecule having a sense region, and antisense region and a loop region, and wherein the RNA coding region is at least about 90% identical to a target region of a pathogenic virus genome or genome transcript or a target cell gene involved in the pathogenic virus life cycle. Further claimed is a method of treating a patient infected with HIV. Small interfering RNAs are generally disclosed (Baltimore et al., 2003; Baltimore et al., 2003).  
      Disclosed and claimed in PCT Publication WO 03/029459 is an isolated nucleic acid molecule comprising a miRNA nucleotide sequence selected from Tables consisting of  Drosophila melanogaster , human, and mouse miRNAs or a precursor thereof; a nucleotide sequence which is the complement of said nucleotide sequence which has an identity of at least 80% to said sequence; and a nucleotide sequence which hybridizes under stringent conditions to said sequence. Also claimed is a pharmaceutical composition containing as an active agent at least one of said nucleic acid and optionally a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and a method of identifying microRNA molecules or precursor molecules thereof comprising ligating 5′-and 3′-adapter molecules to the ends of a size-fractionated RNA population, reverse transcribing said adapter containing RNA population and characterizing the reverse transcription products (Tuschl et al., 2003).  
      Disclosed and claimed in PCT Publication WO 03/006477 is an isolated nucleic acid molecule comprising a regulatory sequence operably linked to a nucleic acid sequence that encodes an engineered ribonucleic acid (RNA) precursor, wherein the precursor comprises a first stem portion comprising a sequence of at least 18 nucleotides that is complementary to a sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) of a target gene, a second stem portion comprising a sequence of at least 18 nucleotides that is sufficiently complementary to the first stem portion to hybridize with the first stem portion to form a duplex stem, and a loop portion that connects the two stem portions. Also claimed is an engineered RNA precursor comprising a first stem portion comprising a sequence of at least 18 nucleotides that is complementary to a sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) of a target gene, a second stem portion comprising a sequence of at least 18 nucleotides that is sufficiently complementary to the first stem portion to hybridize with the first stem portion to form a duplex stem, and a loop portion that connects the two stem portions. Further claimed is a vector comprising said nucleic acid molecule, a host cell, a transgene comprising said nucleic acid, a transgenic, non-human animal, one or more of whose cells comprise a transgene comprising said nucleic acid molecule, wherein the transgene is expressed in one or more cells of the transgenic animal resulting in the animal exhibiting ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) of the target gene by the engineered RNA precursor, a method of inducing ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) of a target gene in a cell in an animal, and a method of inducing ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) of a target gene in a cell, the method comprising obtaining a host cell, culturing the cell, and enabling the cell to express the RNA precursor to form a small interfering ribonucleic acid (siRNA) within the cell, thereby inducing RNAi of the target gene in the cell (Zamore et al., 2003).  
      Disclosed and claimed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 2003/0092180 is a process for delivering an siRNA into a cell of a mammal to inhibit nucleic acid expression, comprising making siRNA consisting of a sequence that is complementary to a nucleic acid sequence to be expressed in the mammal, inserting the siRNA into a vessel in the mammal, and delivering the siRNA to the parenchymal cell wherein the nucleic acid expression is inhibited, as well as a process for delivering siRNA to a cell in a mammal to inhibit nucleic acid expression, comprising: inserting the siRNA into a vessel, increasing volume in the mammal to facilitate delivery, delivering the siRNA to the cell, and inhibiting nucleic acid expression (Lewis et al., 2003).  
      Because RNAi has been demonstrated to suppress gene expression in adult animals, it is hoped that small noncoding RNA-mediated mechanisms might be used in novel therapeutic approaches such as attenuation of viral infection, cancer therapies (Shi,  Trends Genet,  2003, 19, 9-12; Silva et al.,  Trends Mol Med,  2002, 8, 505-508) and in regulation of stem cell differentiation (Kawasaki and Taira,  Nature,  2003, 423, 838-842).  
      Small noncoding RNA-mediated regulation of gene expression is an attractive approach to the treatment of diseases as well as infection by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses and prions. Prion infections resulting in fatal neurodegenerative disorders are associated with an abnormal isoform of the PrPc host-encoded protein. The Prnp gene encoding PrPc has been downregulated in transgenic mice, leading to viable, healthy animals which are resistant to challenge by the infectious agent. Recently, the Prnp mRNA was targeted by RNAi, and a reduction in PrPc levels in transfected cells was demonstrated (Tilly et al.,  Biochem Biophys Res Commun,  2003, 305, 548-551). Thus, regulation of gene expression using small noncoding RNAs represents a potential means of treating pathogen infection.  
      There remains a long-felt need for agents which regulate gene expression via the small noncoding RNA-mediated mechanism. Identification of modified miRNAs or miRNA mimics which can increase or decrease gene expression or activity is therefore desirable. Furthermore, because misregulation of genes is known to lead to hyperproliferation and oncogenesis, it is also desirable to target small noncoding RNAs themselves as a means of altering aberrant gene regulation.  
      Like the RNAse H pathway, the RNA interference pathway for modulation of gene expression is an effective means for modulating the levels of specific gene products and, thus, would be useful in a number of therapeutic, diagnostic, and research applications involving gene silencing. The present invention therefore provides oligomeric compounds useful for modulating gene expression pathways, including those relying on mechanisms of action such as RNA interference and dsRNA enzymes, as well as antisense and non-antisense mechanisms. One having skill in the art, once armed with this disclosure will be able, without undue experimentation, to identify preferred oligonucleotide compounds for these uses.  
      Rapid and definitive microbial identification is desirable for a variety of industrial, medical, environmental, quality, and research reasons. Traditionally, the microbiology laboratory has functioned to identify the etiologic agents of infectious diseases through direct examination and culture of specimens. Since the mid-1980s, researchers have repeatedly demonstrated the practical utility of molecular biology techniques, many of which form the basis of clinical diagnostic assays. Some of these techniques include nucleic acid hybridization analysis, restriction enzyme analysis, genetic sequence analysis, and separation and purification of nucleic acids (See, e.g., J. Sambrook, E. F. Fritsch, and T. Maniatis, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd Ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989). These procedures, in general, are time-consuming and tedious. Another option is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or other amplification procedure which amplifies a specific target DNA sequence based on the flanking primers used. Finally, detection and data analysis convert the hybridization event into an analytical result.  
      Other techniques for detection of bioagents include high-resolution mass spectrometry (MS), low-resolution MS, fluorescence, radioiodination, DNA chips and antibody techniques. None of these techniques is entirely satisfactory.  
      Mass spectrometry provides detailed information about the molecules being analyzed, including high mass accuracy. It is also a process that can be easily automated. However, high-resolution MS alone fails to perform against unknown or bioengineered agents, or in environments where there is a high background level of bioagents (“cluttered” background). Low-resolution MS can fail to detect some known agents, if their spectral lines are sufficiently weak or sufficiently close to those from other living organisms in the sample. DNA chips with specific probes can only determine the presence or absence of specifically anticipated organisms. Because there are hundreds of thousands of species of benign bacteria, some very similar in sequence to threat organisms, even arrays with 10,000 probes lack the breadth needed to detect a particular organism.  
      Antibodies face more severe diversity limitations than arrays. If antibodies are designed against highly conserved targets to increase diversity, the false alarm problem will dominate, again because threat organisms are very similar to benign ones. Antibodies are only capable of detecting known agents in relatively uncluttered environments.  
      Several groups have described detection of PCR products using high resolution electrospray ionization—Fourier transform—ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (ESI-FT-ICR MS). Accurate measurement of exact mass combined with knowledge of the number of at least one nucleotide allowed calculation of the total base composition for PCR duplex products of approximately 100 base pairs. (Aaserud et al.,  J. Am. Soc. Mass Spec.  7:1266-1269, 1996; Muddiman et al.,  Anal. Chem.  69:1543-1549, 1997; Wunschel et al.,  Anal. Chem.  70:1203-1207, 1998; Muddiman et al.,  Rev. Anal. Chem.  17:1-68, 1998). Electrospray ionization-Fourier transform-ion cyclotron resistance (ESI-FT-ICR) MS may be used to determine the mass of double-stranded, 500 base-pair PCR products via the average molecular mass (Hurst et al.,  Rapid Commun. Mass Spec.  10:377-382, 1996). The use of matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry for characterization of PCR products has been described. (Muddiman et al.,  Rapid Commun. Mass Spec.  13:1201-1204, 1999). However, the degradation of DNAs over about 75 nucleotides observed with MALDI limited the utility of this method.  
      U.S. Pat. No. 5,849,492 describes a method for retrieval of phylogenetically informative DNA sequences which comprise searching for a highly divergent segment of genomic DNA surrounded by two highly conserved segments, designing the universal primers for PCR amplification of the highly divergent region, amplifying the genomic DNA by PCR technique using universal primers, and then sequencing the gene to determine the identity of the organism.  
      U.S. Pat. No. 5,965,363 discloses methods for screening nucleic acids for polymorphisms by analyzing amplified target nucleic acids using mass spectrometric techniques and to procedures for improving mass resolution and mass accuracy of these methods.  
      WO 99/14375 describes methods, PCR primers and kits for use in analyzing preselected DNA tandem nucleotide repeat alleles by mass spectrometry.  
      WO 98/12355 discloses methods of determining the mass of a target nucleic acid by mass spectrometric analysis, by cleaving the target nucleic acid to reduce its length, making the target single-stranded and using MS to determine the mass of the single-stranded shortened target. Also disclosed are methods of preparing a double-stranded target nucleic acid for MS analysis comprising amplification of the target nucleic acid, binding one of the strands to a solid support, releasing the second strand and then releasing the first strand which is then analyzed by MS. Kits for target nucleic acid preparation are also provided.  
      PCT WO97/33000 discloses methods for detecting mutations in a target nucleic acid by nonrandomly fragmenting the target into a set of single-stranded nonrandom length fragments and determining their masses by MS.  
      U.S. Pat. No. 5,605,798 describes a fast and highly accurate mass spectrometer-based process for detecting the presence of a particular nucleic acid in a biological sample for diagnostic purposes.  
      WO 98/21066 describes processes for determining the sequence of a particular target nucleic acid by mass spectrometry. Processes for detecting a target nucleic acid present in a biological sample by PCR amplification and mass spectrometry detection are disclosed, as are methods for detecting a target nucleic acid in a sample by amplifying the target with primers that contain restriction sites and tags, extending and cleaving the amplified nucleic acid, and detecting the presence of extended product, wherein the presence of a DNA fragment of a mass different from wild-type is indicative of a mutation. Methods of sequencing a nucleic acid via mass spectrometry methods are also described.  
      WO 97/37041, WO 99/31278 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,547,835 describe methods of sequencing nucleic acids using mass spectrometry. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,622,824, 5,872,003 and 5,691,141 describe methods, systems and kits for exonuclease-mediated mass spectrometric sequencing.  
      Thus, there is a need for a method for bioagent species detection and identification which is both specific and rapid, and in which no nucleic acid sequencing is required. Furthermore, there is need for a method of grouping nucleic acids according to species, tissue type or bioagent. The present invention addresses these needs.  
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
      The present invention provides methods of identifying an unknown bioagent in a sample comprising: contacting microRNA containing nucleic acid from a sample containing or suspected of containing the bioagent with at least one pair of primers that hybridize to conserved sequences of the microRNA containing nucleic acid, wherein the conserved sequences flank a variable sequence, and wherein the primers are broad range survey primers, division-wide primers, drill-down primers, or any combination thereof; amplifying the variable sequence to produce an amplification product; determining the molecular mass or base composition of the amplification product; and comparing the molecular mass or base composition of the amplification product to one or more molecular masses or base compositions of corresponding amplification products from a plurality of known bioagents, wherein a match identifies the bioagent in the sample.  
      The identification of the bioagent can be accomplished at the genus or species level, and the primers are broad range survey primers or division-wide primers, or any combination thereof. At least one subspecies characteristic of the bioagent can be identified using drill-down primers. The subspecies characteristic can be serotype, strain type, sub-strain type, sub-species type, emm-type, presence of a bioengineered gene, presence of a toxin gene, presence of an antibiotic resistance gene, presence of a pathogenicity island, or presence of a virulence factor, or any combination thereof. The amplification can comprise polymerase chain reaction, ligase chain reaction, or strand displacement amplification. The amplification product can be ionized prior to molecular mass determination. The microRNA containing nucleic acid from the bioagent can be isolated the prior to contacting the nucleic acid with the at least one pair of primers. The one or more molecular masses or base compositions are contained in a database. The amplification product can be ionized by electrospray ionization, matrix-assisted laser desorption or fast atom bombardment. The molecular mass or base composition can be determined by mass spectrometry. The mass spectrometry can be Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS), ion trap, quadrupole, magnetic sector, time of flight (TOF), Q-TOF, or triple quadrupole. The amplification can be performed in the presence of an analog of adenine, thymidine, guanosine, or cytidine having a different molecular weight than adenosine, thymidine, guanosine, or cytidine. At least one pair of primers can comprise a base analog at positions 1 and 2 of each triplet within the primers, wherein the base analog binds with increased affinity to its complement compared to the native base. The primers can comprise a universal base at position 3 of each triplet within the primers. The base analog can be a 2,6-diaminopurine, a propyne T, a propyne G, a phenoxazine, or a G-clamp. The universal base can be inosine, guanidine, uridine, 5-nitroindole, 3-nitropyrrole, dP, dK, or 1-(2-deoxy-β-D-ribofuranosyl)-imidazole-4-carboxamide.  
      The bioagent can be a bacterium, virus, cell, parasite, mold, fungus, or spore. The bioagent can also be a plant cell or animal cell. Where the bioagent is a plant cell, the molecular mass or base composition of the amplification product obtained from the microRNA containing nucleic acid can identify the species of plant. The molecular mass or base composition of the amplification product obtained from the microRNA containing nucleic acid of the identified plant cell can provide the source of the microRNA containing nucleic acid. Where the bioagent is an animal cell, the molecular mass or base composition of the amplification product obtained from the microRNA containing nucleic acid can identify the species of animal. The molecular mass or base composition of the amplification product obtained from the microRNA containing nucleic acid of the identified animal cell can provide the source of the microRNA containing nucleic acid. The sample can be blood, mucus, hair, urine, breath, sputum, saliva, stool, nail, or tissue biopsy. The microRNA containing nucleic acid can be noncoding RNA. The microRNA containing nucleic acid can be a subset of a larger RNA molecule.  
      The present invention also provides methods of identifying at least one subspecies characteristic of a bioagent in a sample comprising: identifying the bioagent in the sample using broad range survey primers or division-wide primers; contacting microRNA containing nucleic acid from the sample with at least one pair of drill-down primers to amplify at least one nucleic acid segment which provides a subspecies characteristic of the bioagent; amplifying the at least one nucleic acid segment to produce at least one drill-down amplification product; and determining the molecular mass or base composition of the drill-down amplification product, wherein the molecular mass or base composition of the drill-down amplification product provides a subspecies characteristic of the bioagent. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION  
      The present invention provides, inter alia, methods for detection and identification of bioagents in an unbiased manner using “bioagent identifying amplicons.” “Intelligent primers” are selected to hybridize to conserved sequence regions of nucleic acids derived from a bioagent and which bracket variable sequence regions to yield a bioagent identifying amplicon which can be amplified and which is amenable to molecular mass determination. The molecular mass then provides a means to uniquely identify the bioagent without a requirement for prior knowledge of the possible identity of the bioagent. The molecular mass or corresponding “base composition signature” (BCS) of the amplification product is then matched against a database of molecular masses or base composition signatures. Furthermore, the method can be applied to rapid parallel “multiplex” analyses, the results of which can be employed in a triangulation identification strategy. The present method provides rapid throughput and does not require nucleic acid sequencing of the amplified target sequence for bioagent detection and identification.  
      In the context of this invention, a “bioagent” is any organism, cell, or virus, living or dead, or a nucleic acid derived from such an organism, cell or virus. Examples of bioagents include, but are not limited, to cells (including, but not limited to, human clinical samples, plant cells, bacterial cells and other pathogens) viruses, fungi, and protists, parasites, and pathogenicity markers (including, but not limited to, pathogenicity islands, antibiotic resistance genes, virulence factors, toxin genes and other bioregulating compounds). Samples may be alive or dead or in a vegetative state (for example, vegetative bacteria or spores) and may be encapsulated or bioengineered.  
      In the context of this invention, a “pathogen” is a bioagent that causes a disease or disorder.  
      An “unknown” bioagent can be a newly discovered bioagent (i.e., a bioagent discovered for the first time), or a bioagent in a sample for which the identity has not yet been determined (i.e., a previously discovered bioagent, such as anthrax, whose identity in the sample has not yet been determined).  
      The term “microRNA” refers to any RNA that is a fragment of a larger RNA or is a miRNA, siRNA, stRNA, sncRNA, tncRNA, snoRNA, smnRNA, snRNA, other small non-coding RNA. Thus, a microRNA containing nucleic acid molecule is any nucleic acid molecule that contains a microRNA.  
      Despite enormous biological diversity, all forms of life on earth share sets of essential, common features in their genomes. Bacteria, for example have highly conserved sequences in a variety of locations on their genomes. Most notable is the universally conserved region of the ribosome, but there are also conserved elements in other non-coding RNAs, including RNAse P and the signal recognition particle (SRP) among others. Bacteria have a common set of absolutely required genes. About 250 genes are present in all bacterial species (Mushegian et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 1996, 93, 10268; and Fraser et al., Science, 1995, 270, 397), including tiny genomes like  Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma  and  Rickettsia . These genes encode proteins involved in translation, replication, recombination and repair, transcription, nucleotide metabolism, amino acid metabolism, lipid metabolism, energy generation, uptake, secretion and the like. Examples of these proteins are DNA polymerase III beta, elongation factor TU, heat shock protein groEL, RNA polymerase beta, phosphoglycerate kinase, NADH dehydrogenase, DNA ligase, DNA topoisomerase and elongation factor G. Operons can also be targeted using the present method. One example of an operon is the bfp operon from enteropathogenic  E. coli . Multiple core chromosomal genes can be used to classify bacteria at a genus or genus species level to determine if an organism has threat potential. The methods can also be used to detect pathogenicity markers (plasmid or chromosomal) and antibiotic resistance genes to confirm the threat potential of an organism and to direct countermeasures.  
      Since genetic data provide the underlying basis for identification of bioagents by the methods of the present invention, it is prudent to select segments of nucleic acids which ideally provide enough variability to distinguish each individual bioagent and whose molecular mass is amenable to molecular mass determination. In one embodiment of the present invention, at least one polynucleotide segment is amplified to facilitate detection and analysis in the process of identifying the bioagent. Thus, the nucleic acid segments that provide enough variability to distinguish each individual bioagent and whose molecular masses are amenable to molecular mass determination are herein described as “bioagent identifying amplicons.” The term “amplicon” as used herein, refers to a segment of a polynucleotide which is amplified in an amplification reaction. In some embodiments of the present invention, bioagent identifying amplicons comprise from about 45 to about 150 nucleobases (i.e. from about 45 to about 150 linked nucleosides). One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the invention embodies compounds of 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, and 150 nucleobases in length.  
      As used herein, “intelligent primers” are primers that are designed to bind to highly conserved sequence regions that flank an intervening variable region and yield amplification products which ideally provide enough variability to distinguish each individual bioagent, and which are amenable to molecular mass analysis. By the term “highly conserved,” it is meant that the sequence regions exhibit from about 80% to 100%, or from about 90% to 100%, or from about 95% to 100% identity. The molecular mass of a given amplification product provides a means of identifying the bioagent from which it was obtained, due to the variability of the variable region. Thus, design of intelligent primers involves selection of a variable region with appropriate variability to resolve the identity of a particular bioagent. It is the combination of the portion of the bioagent nucleic acid molecule sequence to which the intelligent primers hybridize and the intervening variable region that makes up the bioagent identifying amplicon. Alternately, it is the intervening variable region by itself that makes up the bioagent identifying amplicon.  
      It is understood in the art that the sequence of a primer need not be 100% complementary to that of its target nucleic acid to be specifically hybridizable. Moreover, a primer may hybridize over one or more segments such that intervening or adjacent segments are not involved in the hybridization event (e.g., a loop structure or hairpin structure). The primers of the present invention can comprise at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, or at least 99% sequence complementarity to the target region within the highly conserved region to which they are targeted. For example, an intelligent primer wherein 18 of 20 nucleobases are complementary to a highly conserved region would represent 90 percent complementarity to the highly conserved region. In this example, the remaining noncomplementary nucleobases may be clustered or interspersed with complementary nucleobases and need not be contiguous to each other or to complementary nucleobases. As such, a primer which is 18 nucleobases in length having 4 (four) noncomplementary nucleobases which are flanked by two regions of complete complementarity with the highly conserved region would have 77.8% overall complementarity with the highly conserved region and would thus fall within the scope of the present invention. Percent complementarity of a primer with a region of a target nucleic acid can be determined routinely using BLAST programs (basic local alignment search tools) and PowerBLAST programs known in the art (Altschul et al., J. Mol. Biol., 1990, 215, 403-410; Zhang and Madden, Genome Res., 1997, 7, 649-656).  
      Percent homology, sequence identity or complementarity, can be determined by, for example, the Gap program (Wisconsin Sequence Analysis Package, Version 8 for Unix, Genetics Computer Group, University Research Park, Madison Wis.), using default settings, which uses the algorithm of Smith and Waterman (Adv. Appl. Math., 1981, 2, 482-489). In some embodiments, complementarity of intelligent primers, is between about 70% and about 80%. In other embodiments, homology, sequence identity or complementarity, is between about 80% and about 90%. In yet other embodiments, homology, sequence identity or complementarity, is about 90%, about 92%, about 94%, about 95%, about 96%, about 97%, about 98%, about 99% or about 100%.  
      The intelligent primers of this invention comprise from about 12 to about 35 nucleobases (i.e. from about 12 to about 35 linked nucleosides). One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the invention embodies compounds of 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, or 35 nucleobases in length.  
      One having skill in the art armed with the preferred bioagent identifying amplicons defined by the primers illustrated herein will be able, without undue experimentation, to identify additional intelligent primers.  
      In one embodiment, the bioagent identifying amplicon is a portion of a ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequence. With the complete sequences of many of the smallest microbial genomes now available, it is possible to identify a set of genes that defines “minimal life” and identify composition signatures that uniquely identify each gene and organism. Genes that encode core life functions such as DNA replication, transcription, ribosome structure, translation, and transport are distributed broadly in the bacterial genome and are suitable regions for selection of bioagent identifying amplicons. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes comprise regions that provide useful base composition signatures. Like many genes involved in core life functions, rRNA genes contain sequences that are extraordinarily conserved across bacterial domains interspersed with regions of high variability that are more specific to each species. The variable regions can be utilized to build a database of base composition signatures. The strategy involves creating a structure-based alignment of sequences of the small (16S) and the large (23S) subunits of the rRNA genes. For example, there are currently over 13,000 sequences in the ribosomal RNA database that has been created and maintained by Robin Gutell, University of Texas at Austin, and is publicly available on the Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology web page on the world wide web of the Internet at, for example, “rna.icmb.utexas.edu/.” There is also a publicly available rRNA database created and maintained by the University of Antwerp, Belgium on the world wide web of the Internet at, for example, “rrna.uia.ac.be.” 
      These databases have been analyzed to determine regions that are useful as bioagent identifying amplicons. The characteristics of such regions include: a) between about 80 and 100%, or greater than about 95% identity among species of the particular bioagent of interest, of upstream and downstream nucleotide sequences which serve as sequence amplification primer sites; b) an intervening variable region which exhibits no greater than about 5% identity among species; and c) a separation of between about 30 and 1000 nucleotides, or no more than about 50-250 nucleotides, or no more than about 60-100 nucleotides, between the conserved regions.  
      As a non-limiting example, for identification of  Bacillus  species, the conserved sequence regions of the chosen bioagent identifying amplicon must be highly conserved among all  Bacillus  species while the variable region of the bioagent identifying amplicon is sufficiently variable such that the molecular masses of the amplification products of all species of  Bacillus  are distinguishable.  
      Bioagent identifying amplicons amenable to molecular mass determination are either of a length, size or mass compatible with the particular mode of molecular mass determination or compatible with a means of providing a predictable fragmentation pattern in order to obtain predictable fragments of a length compatible with the particular mode of molecular mass determination. Such means of providing a predictable fragmentation pattern of an amplification product include, but are not limited to, cleavage with restriction enzymes or cleavage primers, for example.  
      Identification of bioagents can be accomplished at different levels using intelligent primers suited to resolution of each individual level of identification. “Broad range survey” intelligent primers are designed with the objective of identifying a bioagent as a member of a particular division of bioagents. A “bioagent division” is defined as group of bioagents above the species level and includes but is not limited to: orders, families, classes, clades, genera or other such groupings of bioagents above the species level. As a non-limiting example, members of the  Bacillus/Clostridia  group or gamma-proteobacteria group may be identified as such by employing broad range survey intelligent primers such as primers that target 16S or 23S ribosomal RNA.  
      In some embodiments, broad range survey intelligent primers are capable of identification of bioagents at the species level. One main advantage of the detection methods of the present invention is that the broad range survey intelligent primers need not be specific for a particular bacterial species, or even genus, such as  Bacillus  or  Streptomyces . Instead, the primers recognize highly conserved regions across hundreds of bacterial species including, but not limited to, the species described herein. Thus, the same broad range survey intelligent primer pair can be used to identify any desired bacterium because it will bind to the conserved regions that flank a variable region specific to a single species, or common to several bacterial species, allowing unbiased nucleic acid amplification of the intervening sequence and determination of its molecular weight and base composition. For example, the 16S — 971-1062, 16S — 1228-1310 and 16S — 1100-1188 regions are 98-99% conserved in about 900 species of bacteria (16S=16S rRNA, numbers indicate nucleotide position). In one embodiment of the present invention, primers used in the present method bind to one or more of these regions or portions thereof.  
      Due to their overall conservation, the flanking rRNA primer sequences serve as good intelligent primer binding sites to amplify the nucleic acid region of interest for most, if not all, bacterial species. The intervening region between the sets of primers varies in length and/or composition, and thus provides a unique base composition signature. Examples of intelligent primers that amplify regions of the 16S and 23S rRNA described in, for example, International Publication WO 02/070664, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. It is advantageous to design the broad range survey intelligent primers to minimize the number of primers required for the analysis, and to allow detection of multiple members of a bioagent division using a single pair of primers. The advantage of using broad range survey intelligent primers is that once a bioagent is broadly identified, the process of further identification at species and sub-species levels is facilitated by directing the choice of additional intelligent primers. “Division-wide” intelligent primers are designed with an objective of identifying a bioagent at the species level. As a non-limiting example, a  Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus cereus  and  Bacillus thuringiensis  can be distinguished from each other using division-wide intelligent primers. Division-wide intelligent primers are not always required for identification at the species level because broad range survey intelligent primers may provide sufficient identification resolution to accomplishing this identification objective. “Drill-down” intelligent primers are designed with an objective of identifying a sub-species characteristic of a bioagent. A “sub-species characteristic” is defined as a property imparted to a bioagent at the sub-species level of identification as a result of the presence or absence of a particular segment of nucleic acid. Such sub-species characteristics include, but are not limited to, strains, sub-types, pathogenicity markers such as antibiotic resistance genes, pathogenicity islands, toxin genes and virulence factors. Identification of such sub-species characteristics is often critical for determining proper clinical treatment of pathogen infections.  
      Chemical Modifications of Intelligent Primers  
      Ideally, intelligent primer hybridization sites are highly conserved in order to facilitate the hybridization of the primer. In cases where primer hybridization is less efficient due to lower levels of conservation of sequence, intelligent primers can be chemically modified to improve the efficiency of hybridization.  
      For example, because any variation (due to codon wobble in the 3 rd  position) in these conserved regions among species is likely to occur in the third position of a DNA triplet, oligonucleotide primers can be designed such that the nucleotide corresponding to this position is a base which can bind to more than one nucleotide, referred to herein as a “universal base.” For example, under this “wobble” pairing, inosine (I) binds to U, C or A; guanine (G) binds to U or C, and uridine (U) binds to U or C. Other examples of universal bases include nitroindoles such as 5-nitroindole or 3-nitropyrrole (Loakes et al., Nucleosides and Nucleotides, 1995, 14, 1001-1003), the degenerate nucleotides dP or dK (Hill et al.), an acyclic nucleoside analog containing 5-nitroindazole (Van Aerschot et al., Nucleosides and nucleotides, 1995, 14, 1053-1056) or the purine analog 1-(2-deoxy-β-D-ribofuranosyl)-imidazole-4-carboxamide (Sala et al., Nucl. Acids Res., 1996, 24, 3302-3306).  
      In another embodiment of the invention, to compensate for the somewhat weaker binding by the “wobble” base, the oligonucleotide primers are designed such that the first and second positions of each triplet are occupied by nucleotide analogs which bind with greater affinity than the unmodified nucleotide. Examples of these analogs include, but are not limited to, 2,6-diaminopurine which binds to thymine, propyne T which binds to adenine and propyne C and phenoxazines, including G-clamp, which binds to G. Propynylated pyrimidines are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,645,985, 5,830,653 and 5,484,908, each of which is commonly owned and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Propynylated primers are claimed in U.S. Ser. No. 10/294,203 which is also commonly owned and incorporated herein by reference in entirety. Phenoxazines are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,502,177, 5,763,588, and 6,005,096, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. G-clamps are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,007,992 and 6,028,183, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.  
      A theoretically ideal bioagent detector would identify, quantify, and report the complete nucleic acid sequence of every bioagent that reached the sensor. The complete sequence of the nucleic acid component of a pathogen would provide all relevant information about the threat, including its identity and the presence of drug-resistance or pathogenicity markers. This ideal has not yet been achieved. However, the present invention provides a straightforward strategy for obtaining information with the same practical value based on analysis of bioagent identifying amplicons by molecular mass determination.  
      In some cases, a molecular mass of a given bioagent identifying amplicon alone does not provide enough resolution to unambiguously identify a given bioagent. For example, the molecular mass of the bioagent identifying amplicon obtained using the intelligent primer pair “16S — 971” would be 55622 Da for both  E. coli  and  Salmonella typhimurium . However, if additional intelligent primers are employed to analyze additional bioagent identifying amplicons, a “triangulation identification” process is enabled. For example, the “16S — 1100”intelligent primer pair yields molecular masses of 55009 and 55005 Da for  E. coli  and  Salmonella typhimurium , respectively. Furthermore, the “23S — 855” intelligent primer pair yields molecular masses of 42656 and 42698 Da for  E. coli  and  Salmonella typhimurium , respectively. In this basic example, the second and third intelligent primer pairs provided the additional “fingerprinting” capability or resolution to distinguish between the two bioagents.  
      In another embodiment, the triangulation identification process is pursued by measuring signals from a plurality of bioagent identifying amplicons selected within multiple core genes. This process is used to reduce false negative and false positive signals, and enable reconstruction of the origin of hybrid or otherwise engineered bioagents. In this process, after identification of multiple core genes, alignments are created from nucleic acid sequence databases. The alignments are then analyzed for regions of conservation and variation, and bioagent identifying amplicons are selected to distinguish bioagents based on specific genomic differences. For example, identification of the three part toxin genes typical of  B. anthracis  (Bowen et al., J. Appl. Microbiol., 1999, 87, 270-278) in the absence of the expected signatures from the  B. anthracis  genome would suggest a genetic engineering event.  
      The triangulation identification process can be pursued by characterization of bioagent identifying amplicons in a massively parallel fashion using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), such as multiplex PCR, and mass spectrometric (MS) methods. Sufficient quantities of nucleic acids should be present for detection of bioagents by MS. A wide variety of techniques for preparing large amounts of purified nucleic acids or fragments thereof are well known to those of skill in the art. PCR requires one or more pairs of oligonucleotide primers that bind to regions which flank the target sequence(s) to be amplified. These primers prime synthesis of a different strand of DNA with synthesis occurring in the direction of one primer towards the other primer. The primers, DNA to be amplified, a thermostable DNA polymerase (e.g. Taq polymerase), the four deoxynucleotide triphosphates, and a buffer are combined to initiate DNA synthesis. The solution is denatured by heating, then cooled to allow annealing of newly added primer, followed by another round of DNA synthesis. This process is typically repeated for about 30 cycles, resulting in amplification of the target sequence.  
      Although the use of PCR is suitable, other nucleic acid amplification techniques may also be used, including ligase chain reaction (LCR) and strand displacement amplification (SDA). The high-resolution MS technique allows separation of bioagent spectral lines from background spectral lines in highly cluttered environments.  
      In another embodiment, the detection scheme for the PCR products generated from the bioagent(s) incorporates at least three features. First, the technique simultaneously detects and differentiates multiple (generally about 6-10) PCR products. Second, the technique provides a molecular mass that uniquely identifies the bioagent from the possible primer sites. Finally, the detection technique is rapid, allowing multiple PCR reactions to be run in parallel.  
      Mass spectrometry (MS)-based detection of PCR products provides a means for determination of BCS that has several advantages. MS is intrinsically a parallel detection scheme without the need for radioactive or fluorescent labels, since every amplification product is identified by its molecular mass. The current state of the art in mass spectrometry is such that less than femtomole quantities of material can be readily analyzed to afford information about the molecular contents of the sample. An accurate assessment of the molecular mass of the material can be quickly obtained, irrespective of whether the molecular weight of the sample is several hundred, or in excess of one hundred thousand atomic mass units (amu) or Daltons. Intact molecular ions can be generated from amplification products using one of a variety of ionization techniques to convert the sample to gas phase. These ionization methods include, but are not limited to, electrospray ionization (ES), matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) and fast atom bombardment (FAB). For example, MALDI of nucleic acids, along with examples of matrices for use in MALDI of nucleic acids, are described in WO 98/54751 (Genetrace, Inc.).  
      In some embodiments, large DNAs and RNAs, or large amplification products therefrom, can be digested with restriction endonucleases prior to ionization. Thus, for example, an amplification product that was 10 kDa could be digested with a series of restriction endonucleases to produce a panel of, for example, 100 Da fragments. Restriction endonucleases and their sites of action are well known to the skilled artisan. In this manner, mass spectrometry can be performed for the purposes of restriction mapping.  
      Upon ionization, several peaks are observed from one sample due to the formation of ions with different charges. Averaging the multiple readings of molecular mass obtained from a single mass spectrum affords an estimate of molecular mass of the bioagent. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) is particularly useful for very high molecular weight polymers such as proteins and nucleic acids having molecular weights greater than 10 kDa, since it yields a distribution of multiply-charged molecules of the sample without causing a significant amount of fragmentation.  
      The mass detectors used in the methods of the present invention include, but are not limited to, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS), ion trap, quadrupole, magnetic sector, time of flight (TOF), Q-TOF, and triple quadrupole.  
      In general, the mass spectrometric techniques which can be used in the present invention include, but are not limited to, tandem mass spectrometry, infrared multiphoton dissociation and pyrolytic gas chromatography mass spectrometry (PGC-MS). In one embodiment of the invention, the bioagent detection system operates continually in bioagent detection mode using pyrolytic GC-MS without PCR for rapid detection of increases in biomass (for example, increases in fecal contamination of drinking water or of germ warfare agents). To achieve minimal latency, a continuous sample stream flows directly into the PGC-MS combustion chamber. When an increase in biomass is detected, a PCR process is automatically initiated. Bioagent presence produces elevated levels of large molecular fragments from, for example, about 100-7,000 Da which are observed in the PGC-MS spectrum. The observed mass spectrum is compared to a threshold level and when levels of biomass are determined to exceed a predetermined threshold, the bioagent classification process described hereinabove (combining PCR and MS, such as FT-ICR MS) is initiated. Optionally, alarms or other processes (halting ventilation flow, physical isolation) are also initiated by this detected biomass level.  
      The accurate measurement of molecular mass for large DNAs is limited by the adduction of cations from the PCR reaction to each strand, resolution of the isotopic peaks from natural abundance  13 C and  15 N isotopes, and assignment of the charge state for any ion. The cations are removed by in-line dialysis using a flow-through chip that brings the solution containing the PCR products into contact with a solution containing ammonium acetate in the presence of an electric field gradient orthogonal to the flow. The latter two problems are addressed by operating with a resolving power of&gt;100,000 and by incorporating isotopically depleted nucleotide triphosphates into the DNA. The resolving power of the instrument is also a consideration. At a resolving power of 10,000, the modeled signal from the [M−14H+] 14−  charge state of an 84mer PCR product is poorly characterized and assignment of the charge state or exact mass is impossible. At a resolving power of 33,000, the peaks from the individual isotopic components are visible. At a resolving power of 100,000, the isotopic peaks are resolved to the baseline and assignment of the charge state for the ion is straightforward. The [ 13 C, 15 N]-depleted triphosphates are obtained, for example, by growing microorganisms on depleted media and harvesting the nucleotides (Batey et al., Nucl. Acids Res., 1992, 20, 4515-4523).  
      While mass measurements of intact nucleic acid regions are believed to be adequate to determine most bioagents, tandem mass spectrometry (MS n ) techniques may provide more definitive information pertaining to molecular identity or sequence. Tandem MS involves the coupled use of two or more stages of mass analysis where both the separation and detection steps are based on mass spectrometry. The first stage is used to select an ion or component of a sample from which further structural information is to be obtained. The selected ion is then fragmented using, e.g., blackbody irradiation, infrared multiphoton dissociation, or collisional activation. For example, ions generated by electrospray ionization (ESI) can be fragmented using IR multiphoton dissociation. This activation leads to dissociation of glycosidic bonds and the phosphate backbone, producing two series of fragment ions, called the w-series (having an intact 3′ terminus and a 5′ phosphate following internal cleavage) and the a-Base series (having an intact 5′ terminus and a 3′ furan).  
      The second stage of mass analysis is then used to detect and measure the mass of these resulting fragments of product ions. Such ion selection followed by fragmentation routines can be performed multiple times so as to essentially completely dissect the molecular sequence of a sample.  
      If there are two or more targets of similar molecular mass, or if a single amplification reaction results in a product that has the same mass as two or more bioagent reference standards, they can be distinguished by using mass-modifying “tags.” In this embodiment of the invention, a nucleotide analog or “tag” is incorporated during amplification (e.g., a 5-(trifluoromethyl) deoxythymidine triphosphate) which has a different molecular weight than the unmodified base so as to improve distinction of masses. Such tags are described in, for example, PCT WO 97/33000, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. This further limits the number of possible base compositions consistent with any mass. For example, 5-(trifluoromethyl)deoxythymidine triphosphate can be used in place of dTTP in a separate nucleic acid amplification reaction. Measurement of the mass shift between a conventional amplification product and the tagged product is used to quantitate the number of thymidine nucleotides in each of the single strands. Because the strands are complementary, the number of adenosine nucleotides in each strand is also determined.  
      In another amplification reaction, the number of G and C residues in each strand is determined using, for example, the cytidine analog 5-methylcytosine (5-meC) or propyne C. The combination of the A/T reaction and G/C reaction, followed by molecular weight determination, provides a unique base composition. This method is summarized in Table 1.  
                                           TABLE 1                                               Total   Total                   Total   Base   Base   base   base                   mass   info   info   comp.   comp.           Double strand   Single strand   this   this   other   Top   Bottom       Mass tag   sequence   Sequence   strand   strand   strand   strand   strand                  T*.mass   T*ACGT*ACGT*   T*ACGT*ACGT*   3x   3T   3A   3T   3A       (T* − T) = x   AT*GCAT*GCA                   2A   2T                               2C   2G                               2G   2C               AT*GCAT*GCA   2x   2T   2A       C*.mass   TAC*GTAC*GT   TAC*GTAC*GT   2x   2C   2G       (C* − C) = y   ATGC*ATGC*A               ATGC*ATGC*A   2x   2C   2G                  
 
      The mass tag phosphorothioate A (A*) was used to distinguish a  Bacillus anthracis  cluster. The  B. anthracis  (A 14 G 9 C 14 T 9 ) had an average MW of 14072.26, and the  B. anthracis  (A 1 ,A* 13 G 9 C 14 T 9 ) had an average molecular weight of 14281.11 and the phosphorothioate A had an average molecular weight of +16.06 as determined by ESI-TOF MS.  
      In another example, assume the measured molecular masses of each strand are 30,000.115Da and 31,000.115 Da respectively, and the measured number of dT and dA residues are (30,28) and (28,30). If the molecular mass is accurate to 100 ppm, there are 7 possible combinations of dG+dC possible for each strand. However, if the measured molecular mass is accurate to 10 ppm, there are only 2 combinations of dG+dC, and at 1 ppm accuracy there is only one possible base composition for each strand.  
      Signals from the mass spectrometer may be input to a maximum-likelihood detection and classification algorithm such as is widely used in radar signal processing. The detection processing uses matched filtering of BCS observed in mass-basecount space and allows for detection and subtraction of signatures from known, harmless organisms, and for detection of unknown bioagent threats. Comparison of newly observed bioagents to known bioagents is also possible, for estimation of threat level, by comparing their BCS to those of known organisms and to known forms of pathogenicity enhancement, such as insertion of antibiotic resistance genes or toxin genes.  
      Processing may end with a Bayesian classifier using log likelihood ratios developed from the observed signals and average background levels. The program emphasizes performance predictions culminating in probability-of-detection versus probability-of-false-alarm plots for conditions involving complex backgrounds of naturally occurring organisms and environmental contaminants. Matched filters consist of a priori expectations of signal values given the set of primers used for each of the bioagents. A genomic sequence database (e.g. GenBank) is used to define the mass basecount matched filters. The database contains known threat agents and benign background organisms. The latter is used to estimate and subtract the signature produced by the background organisms. A maximum likelihood detection of known background organisms is implemented using matched filters and a running-sum estimate of the noise covariance. Background signal strengths are estimated and used along with the matched filters to form signatures that are then subtracted. The maximum likelihood process is applied to this “cleaned up” data in a similar manner employing matched filters for the organisms and a running-sum estimate of the noise-covariance for the cleaned up data.  
      Although the molecular mass of amplification products obtained using intelligent primers provides a means for identification of bioagents, conversion of molecular mass data to a base composition signature is useful for certain analyses. As used herein, a “base composition signature” (BCS) is the exact base composition determined from the molecular mass of a bioagent identifying amplicon. In one embodiment, a BCS provides an index of a specific gene in a specific organism.  
      Base compositions, like sequences, vary slightly from isolate to isolate within species. It is possible to manage this diversity by building “base composition probability clouds” around the composition constraints for each species. This permits identification of organisms in a fashion similar to sequence analysis. A “pseudo four-dimensional plot” can be used to visualize the concept of base composition probability clouds. Optimal primer design requires optimal choice of bioagent identifying amplicons and maximizes the separation between the base composition signatures of individual bioagents. Areas where clouds overlap indicate regions that may result in a misclassification, a problem which is overcome by selecting primers that provide information from different bioagent identifying amplicons, ideally maximizing the separation of base compositions. Thus, one aspect of the utility of an analysis of base composition probability clouds is that it provides a means for screening primer sets in order to avoid potential misclassifications of BCS and bioagent identity. Another aspect of the utility of base composition probability clouds is that they provide a means for predicting the identity of a bioagent whose exact measured BCS was not previously observed and/or indexed in a BCS database due to evolutionary transitions in its nucleic acid sequence.  
      It is important to note that, in contrast to probe-based techniques, mass spectrometry determination of base composition does not require prior knowledge of the composition in order to make the measurement, only to interpret the results. In this regard, the present invention provides bioagent classifying information similar to DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis at a level sufficient to detect and identify a given bioagent. Furthermore, the process of determination of a previously unknown BCS for a given bioagent (for example, in a case where sequence information is unavailable) has downstream utility by providing additional bioagent indexing information with which to populate BCS databases. The process of future bioagent identification is thus greatly improved as more BCS indexes become available in the BCS databases.  
      Another embodiment of the present invention is a method of surveying bioagent samples that enables detection and identification of all bacteria for which sequence information is available using a set of twelve broad-range intelligent PCR primers. Six of the twelve primers are “broad range survey primers” herein defined as primers targeted to broad divisions of bacteria (for example, the  Bacillus/Clostridia  group or gamma-proteobacteria). The other six primers of the group of twelve primers are “division-wide” primers herein defined as primers that provide more focused coverage and higher resolution. This method enables identification of nearly 100% of known bacteria at the species level. A further example of this embodiment of the present invention is a method herein designated “survey/drill-down” wherein a subspecies characteristic for detected bioagents is obtained using additional primers. Examples of such a subspecies characteristic include but are not limited to: antibiotic resistance, pathogenicity island, virulence factor, strain type, sub-species type, and clade group. Using the survey/drill-down method, bioagent detection, confirmation and a subspecies characteristic can be provided within hours. Moreover, the survey/drill-down method can be focused to identify bioengineering events such as the insertion of a toxin gene into a bacterial species that does not normally make the toxin.  
      The present methods allow extremely rapid and accurate detection and identification of bioagents compared to existing methods. Furthermore, this rapid detection and identification is possible even when sample material is impure. The methods leverage ongoing biomedical research in virulence, pathogenicity, drug resistance and genome sequencing into a method which provides greatly improved sensitivity, specificity and reliability compared to existing methods, with lower rates of false positives. Thus, the methods are useful in a wide variety of fields, including, but not limited to, those fields discussed below.  
      In other embodiments of the invention, the methods disclosed herein can identify infectious agents in biological samples. At least a first biological sample containing at least a first unidentified infectious agent is obtained. An identification analysis is carried out on the sample, whereby the first infectious agent in the first biological sample is identified. More particularly, a method of identifying an infectious agent in a biological entity is provided. An identification analysis is carried out on a first biological sample obtained from the biological entity, whereby at least one infectious agent in the biological sample from the biological entity is identified. The obtaining and the performing steps are, optionally, repeated on at least one additional biological sample from the biological entity.  
      The present invention also provides methods of identifying an infectious agent that is potentially the cause of a health condition in a biological entity. An identification analysis is carried out on a first test sample from a first infectious agent differentiating area of the biological entity, whereby at least one infectious agent is identified. The obtaining and the performing steps are, optionally, repeated on an additional infectious agent differentiating area of the biological entity.  
      Biological samples include, but are not limited to, hair, mucosa, skin, nail, blood, saliva, rectal, lung, stool, urine, breath, nasal, ocular sample, or the like. In some embodiments, one or more biological samples are analyzed by the methods described herein. The biological sample(s) contain at least a first unidentified infectious agent and may contain more than one infectious agent. The biological sample(s) are obtained from a plant or animal cell. The biological sample can be obtained by a variety of manners such as by biopsy, swabbing, and the like. The biological samples may be obtained by a physician in a hospital or other health care environment. The physician may then perform the identification analysis or send the biological sample to a laboratory to carry out the analysis.  
      Animals include, but are not limited to, a mammal, a bird, or a reptile. The animal can be a cow, horse, dog, cat, or a primate, such as a human.  
      An infectious agent differentiating area is any area or location within a biological entity that can distinguish between a harmful versus normal health condition. An infectious agent differentiating area can be a region or area of the biological entity whereby an infectious agent is more likely to predominate from another region or area of the biological entity. For example, infectious agent differentiating areas may include the blood vessels of the heart (heart disease, coronary artery disease, etc.), particular portions of the digestive system (ulcers, Crohn&#39;s disease, etc.), liver (hepatitis infections), and the like. In some embodiments, one or more biological samples from a plurality of infectious agent differentiating areas is analyzed the methods described herein.  
      Infectious agents of the invention may potentially cause a health condition in a biological entity. Health conditions include any condition, syndrome, illness, disease, or the like, identified currently or in the future by medical personnel. Infectious agents include, but are not limited to, bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi, and the like.  
      In other embodiments of the invention, the methods disclosed herein can be used to screen blood and other bodily fluids and tissues for pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi and the like. Animal samples, including but not limited to, blood and other bodily fluid and tissue samples, can be obtained from living animals, who are either known or not known to or suspected of having a disease, infection, or condition. Alternately, animal samples such as blood and other bodily fluid and tissue samples can be obtained from deceased animals. Blood samples can be further separated into plasma or cellular fractions and further screened as desired. Bodily fluids and tissues can be obtained from any part of the animal or human body. Animal samples can be obtained from, for example, mammals and humans.  
      Clinical samples are analyzed for disease causing bioagents and biowarfare pathogens simultaneously with detection of bioagents at levels as low as 100-1000 genomic copies in complex backgrounds with throughput of approximately 100-300 samples with simultaneous detection of bacteria and viruses. Such analyses provide additional value in probing bioagent genomes for unanticipated modifications. These analyses are carried out in reference labs, hospitals and the LRN laboratories of the public health system in a coordinated fashion, with the ability to report the results via a computer network to a common data-monitoring center in real time. Clonal propagation of specific infectious agents, as occurs in the epidemic outbreak of infectious disease, can be tracked with base composition signatures, analogous to the pulse field gel electrophoresis fingerprinting patterns used in tracking the spread of specific food pathogens in the Pulse Net system of the CDC (Swaminathan et al., Emerging Infectious Diseases, 2001, 7, 382-389). The present invention provides a digital barcode in the form of a series of base composition signatures, the combination of which is unique for each known organism. This capability enables real-time infectious disease monitoring across broad geographic locations, which may be essential in a simultaneous outbreak or attack in different cities.  
      In other embodiments of the invention, the methods disclosed herein can be used for detecting the presence of pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi and the like in organ donors and/or in organs from donors. Such examination can result in the prevention of the transfer of, for example, viruses such as West Nile virus, hepatitis viruses, human immunodeficiency virus, and the like from a donor to a recipient via a transplanted organ. The methods disclosed herein can also be used for detection of host versus graft or graft versus host rejection issues related to organ donors by detecting the presence of particular antigens in either the graft or host known or suspected of causing such rejection. In particular, the bioagents in this regard are the antigens of the major histocompatibility complex, such as the HLA antigens. The present methods can also be used to detect and track emerging infectious diseases, such as West Nile virus infection, HIV-related diseases.  
      In other embodiments of the invention, the methods disclosed herein can be used for pharmacogenetic analysis and medical diagnosis including, but not limited to, cancer diagnosis based on mutations and polymorphisms, drug resistance and susceptibility testing, screening for and/or diagnosis of genetic diseases and conditions, and diagnosis of infectious diseases and conditions. In context of the present invention, pharmacogenetics is defined as the study of variability in drug response due to genetic factors. Pharmacogenetic investigations are often based on correlating patient outcome with variations in genes involved in the mode of action of a given drug. For example, receptor genes, or genes involved in metabolic pathways. The methods of the present invention provide a means to analyze the DNA of a patient to provide the basis for pharmacogenetic analysis.  
      The present method can also be used to detect single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), or multiple nucleotide polymorphisms, rapidly and accurately. A SNP is defined as a single base pair site in the genome that is different from one individual to another. The difference can be expressed either as a deletion, an insertion or a substitution, and is frequently linked to a disease state. Because they occur every 100-1000 base pairs, SNPs are the most frequently bound type of genetic marker in the human genome.  
      For example, sickle cell anemia results from an A-T transition, which encodes a valine rather than a glutamic acid residue. Oligonucleotide primers may be designed such that they bind to sequences that flank a SNP site, followed by nucleotide amplification and mass determination of the amplified product. Because the molecular masses of the resulting product from an individual who does not have sickle cell anemia is different from that of the product from an individual who has the disease, the method can be used to distinguish the two individuals. Thus, the method can be used to detect any known SNP in an individual and thus diagnose or determine increased susceptibility to a disease or condition.  
      In one embodiment, blood is drawn from an individual and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) are isolated and simultaneously tested, such as in a high-throughput screening method, for one or more SNPs using appropriate primers based on the known sequences which flank the SNP region. The National Center for Biotechnology Information maintains a publicly available database of SNPs on the world wide web of the Internet at, for example, “ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/SNP/.” 
      The present invention enables an emm-typing process to be carried out directly from throat swabs for a large number of samples within 12 hours, allowing strain tracking of an ongoing epidemic, even if geographically dispersed, on a larger scale than ever before achievable.  
      In another embodiment, the present invention, can be employed in the diagnosis of a plurality of etiologic agents of a disease. An “etiologic agent” is herein defined as a pathogen acting as the causative agent of a disease. Diseases may be caused by a plurality of etiologic agents. For example, recent studies have implicated both human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) and the obligate intracellular bacterium  Chlamydia pneumoniae  in the etiology of multiple sclerosis (Swanborg, Microbes and Infection, 2002, 4, 1327-1333). The present invention can be applied to the identification of multiple etiologic agents of a disease by, for example, the use of broad range bacterial intelligent primers and division-wide primers (if necessary) for the identification of bacteria such as  Chlamydia pneumoniae  followed by primers directed to viral housekeeping genes for the identification of viruses such as HHV-6, for example.  
      The present invention can be used to detect and identify any biological agent, including bacteria, viruses, fungi and toxins without prior knowledge of the organism being detected and identified. As one example, where the agent is a biological threat, the information obtained such as the presence of toxin genes, pathogenicity islands and antibiotic resistance genes for example, is used to determine practical information needed for countermeasures. In addition, the methods can be used to identify natural or deliberate engineering events including chromosome fragment swapping, molecular breeding (gene shuffling) and emerging infectious diseases. The present invention provides broad-function technology that may be the only practical means for rapid diagnosis of disease caused by a biowarfare or bioterrorist attack, especially an attack that might otherwise be missed or mistaken for a more common infection.  
      Examples of bioagents are described in, for example, International Publication WO 02/070664, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.  
      In one embodiment, the method can be used to detect the presence of antibiotic resistance and/or toxin genes in a bacterial species. For example,  Bacillus anthracis  comprising a tetracycline resistance plasmid and plasmids encoding one or both anthracis toxins (px01 and/or px02) can be detected by using antibiotic resistance primer sets and toxin gene primer sets. If the  B. anthracis  is positive for tetracycline resistance, then a different antibiotic, for example quinalone, is used.  
      Where the bioagent is a plant cell, the molecular mass or base composition of the amplification product obtained from the microRNA containing nucleic acid can identify the species of plant. Thus, the amplification product obtained from the microRNA containing nucleic acid molecule can be used to differentiate one species of plant from another. In addition, the amplification product obtained from the microRNA containing nucleic acid molecule can be used to differentiate one sub-species of plant from another (i.e., in the case of, for example, hybrid plants or other genetically engineered plants). The molecular mass or base composition of the amplification product obtained from the microRNA containing nucleic acid of the identified plant cell can also provide the source of the microRNA containing nucleic acid. For example, a particular plant microRNA containing nucleic acid molecule may be present in three different forms depending on its nucleotide sequence (e.g., via nucleotide deletions, insertions, substituions, and the like). The three different froms may be derived from different locations within the genome. Thus, the source of any particular plant microRNA containing nucleic acid molecule may be identified. In addition, the three different froms of the plant microRNA containing nucleic acid molecule may hybridize to different target molecules. Thus, the target of any particular plant microRNA containing nucleic acid molecule may also be identified.  
      Where the bioagent is an animal cell, the molecular mass or base composition of the amplification product obtained from the animal microRNA containing nucleic acid can identify the species of animal. Thus, the amplification product obtained from the microRNA containing nucleic acid molecule can be used to differentiate one species of animal from another. In addition, the amplification product obtained. from the microRNA containing nucleic acid molecule can be used to differentiate one sub-species of animal from another. The molecular mass or base composition of the amplification product obtained from the microRNA containing nucleic acid of the identified animal cell can also provide the source of the microRNA containing nucleic acid. For example, a particular animal microRNA containing nucleic acid molecule may be present in three different forms depending on its nucleotide sequence (e.g., via nucleotide deletions, insertions, substituions, and the like). The three different froms may be derived from different locations within the genome. Thus, the source of any particular animal microRNA containing nucleic acid molecule may be identified. In addition, the three different froms of the animal microRNA containing nucleic acid molecule may hybridize to different target molecules. Thus, the target of any particular animal microRNA containing nucleic acid molecule may also be identified. The sample can be blood, mucus, hair, urine, breath, sputum, saliva, stool, nail, or tissue biopsy.  
      While the present invention has been described with specificity in accordance with certain of its embodiments, the following examples serve only to illustrate the invention and are not intended to limit the same.  
     EXAMPLES  
     Example 1  
     Nucleic Acid Isolation and PCR  
      In one embodiment, nucleic acid is isolated from the organisms and amplified by PCR using standard methods prior to BCS determination by mass spectrometry. Nucleic acid is isolated, for example, by detergent lysis of bacterial cells, centrifugation and ethanol precipitation. Nucleic acid isolation methods are described in, for example,  Current Protocols in Molecular Biology  (Ausubel et al.) and  Molecular Cloning; A Laboratory Manual  (Sambrook et al.). The nucleic acid is then amplified using standard methodology, such as PCR, with primers which bind to conserved regions of the nucleic acid which contain an intervening variable sequence as described below.  
      General Genomic DNA Sample Prep Protocol:  
      Raw samples are filtered using Supor-200 0.2 μm membrane syringe filters (VWR International) . Samples are transferred to 1.5 ml eppendorf tubes pre-filled with 0.45 g of 0.7 mm Zirconia beads followed by the addition of 350 μl of ATL buffer (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.). The samples are subjected to bead beating for 10 minutes at a frequency of 19 1/s in a Retsch Vibration Mill (Retsch). After centrifugation, samples are transferred to an S-block plate (Qiagen) and DNA isolation is completed with a BioRobot 8000 nucleic acid isolation robot (Qiagen).  
      Swab Sample Protocol:  
      Allegiance S/P brand culture swabs and collection/transport system are used to collect samples. After drying, swabs are placed in 17×100 mm culture tubes (VWR International) and the genomic nucleic acid isolation is carried out automatically with a Qiagen Mdx robot and the Qiagen QIAamp DNA Blood BioRobot Mdx genomic preparation kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.).  
     Example 2  
     Mass Spectrometry  
      FTICR Instrumentation:  
      The FTICR instrument is based on a 7 tesla actively shielded superconducting magnet and modified Bruker Daltonics Apex II 70e ion optics and vacuum chamber. The spectrometer is interfaced to a LEAP PAL autosampler and a custom fluidics control system for high throughput screening applications. Samples are analyzed directly from 96-well or 384-well microtiter plates at a rate of about 1 sample/minute. The Bruker data-acquisition platform is supplemented with a lab-built ancillary NT datastation which controls the autosampler and contains an arbitrary waveform generator capable of generating complex rf-excite waveforms (frequency sweeps, filtered noise, stored waveform inverse Fourier transform (SWIFT), etc.) for sophisticated tandem MS experiments. For oligonucleotides in the 20-30-mer regime typical performance characteristics include mass resolving power in excess of 100,000 (FWHM), low ppm mass measurement errors, and an operable m/z range between 50 and 5000 m/z.  
      Modified ESI Source:  
      In sample-limited analyses, analyte solutions are delivered at 150 nL/minute to a 30 mm i.d. fused-silica ESI emitter mounted on a 3-D micromanipulator. The ESI ion optics consists of a heated metal capillary, an rf-only hexapole, a skimmer cone, and an auxiliary gate electrode. The 6.2 cm rf-only hexapole is comprised of 1 mm diameter rods and is operated at a voltage of 380 Vpp at a frequency of 5 MHz. A lab-built electro-mechanical shutter can be employed to prevent the electrospray plume from entering the inlet capillary unless triggered to the “open” position via a TTL pulse from the data station. When in the “closed” position, a stable electrospray plume is maintained between the ESI emitter and the face of the shutter. The back face of the shutter arm contains an elastomeric seal that can be positioned to form a vacuum seal with the inlet capillary. When the seal is removed, a 1 mm gap between the shutter blade and the capillary inlet allows constant pressure in the external ion reservoir regardless of whether the shutter is in the open or closed position. When the shutter is triggered, a “time slice” of ions is allowed to enter the inlet capillary and is subsequently accumulated in the external ion reservoir. The rapid response time of the ion shutter (&lt;25 ms) provides reproducible, user defined intervals during which ions can be injected into and accumulated in the external ion reservoir.  
      Apparatus for Infrared Multiphoton Dissociation:  
      A 25 watt CW CO 2  laser operating at 10.6 μm has been interfaced to the spectrometer to enable infrared multiphoton dissociation (IRMPD) for oligonucleotide sequencing and other tandem MS applications. An aluminum optical bench is positioned approximately 1.5 m from the actively shielded superconducting magnet such that the laser beam is aligned with the central axis of the magnet. Using standard IR-compatible mirrors and kinematic mirror mounts, the unfocused 3 mm laser beam is aligned to traverse directly through the 3.5 mm holes in the trapping electrodes of the FTICR trapped ion cell and longitudinally traverse the hexapole region of the external ion guide finally impinging on the skimmer cone. This scheme allows IRMPD to be conducted in an m/z selective manner in the trapped ion cell (e.g. following a SWIFT isolation of the species of interest), or in a broadband mode in the high pressure region of the external ion reservoir where collisions with neutral molecules stabilize IRMPD-generated metastable fragment ions resulting in increased fragment ion yield and sequence coverage.  
     Example 3  
     Identification of Bioagents  
      Table 2 shows a small cross section of a database of calculated molecular masses for over 9 primer sets and approximately 30 organisms. The primer sets were derived from rRNA alignment. The primer pairs are &gt;95% conserved in the bacterial sequence database (currently over 10,000 organisms). The intervening regions are variable in length and/or composition, thus providing the base composition “signature” (BCS) for each organism. Primer pairs were chosen so the total length of the amplified region is less than about 80-90 nucleotides. The label for each primer pair represents the starting and ending base number of the amplified region on the consensus diagram.  
      Included in the short bacterial database cross-section in Table 2 are many well known pathogens/biowarfare agents (shown in bold/red typeface) such as  Bacillus anthracis  or  Yersinia pestis  as well as some of the bacterial organisms found commonly in the natural environment such as  Streptomyces . Even closely related organisms can be distinguished from each other by the appropriate choice of primers. For instance, two low G+C organisms,  Bacillus anthracis  and  Staph aureus , can be distinguished from each other by using the primer pair defined by 16S — 1337 or 23S — 855 (ΔM of 4 Da).  
               TABLE 2                          Cross Section Of A Database Of Calculated Molecular Masses 1                           Primer Regions                                                     Bug Name   16S_971   16S_1100   16S_1337   16S_1294   16S_1228   23S_1021   23S_855   23S_193   23S_115                 Acinetobacter calcoaceticus     55619.1   55004   28446.7   35854.9   51295.4   30299   42654   39557.5   54999               55005       54388       28448       35238       51296       30295       42651       39560       56850           Bacillus cereus     55622.1   54387.9   28447.6   35854.9   51296.4   30295   42651   39560.5   56850.3         Bordetella bronchiseptica     56857.3   51300.4   28446.7   35857.9   51307.4   30299   42653   39559.5   51920.5         Borrelia burgdorferi     56231.2   55621.1   28440.7   35852.9   51295.4   30297   42029.9   38941.4   52524.6               58098       55011       28448       35854       50683           Campylobacter jejuni     58088.5   54386.9   29061.8   35856.9   50674.3   30294   42032.9   39558.5   45732.5               55000       55007       29063       35855       50676       30295       42036       38941       56230                 55006       53767       28445       35855       51291       30300       42656       39562       54999           Clostridium difficile     56855.3   54386.9   28444.7   35853.9   51296.4   30294   41417.8   39556.5   55612.2         Enterococcus faecalis     55620.1   54387.9   28447.6   35858.9   51296.4   30297   42652   39559.5   56849.3               55622       55009       28445       35857       51301       30301       42656       39562       54999                 53769       54385       28445       35856       51298           Haemophilus influenzae     55620.1   55006   28444.7   35855.9   51298.4   30298   42656   39560.5   55613.1         Klebsiella pneumoniae     55622.1   55008   28442.7   35856.9   51297.4   30300   42655   39562.5   55000               55618       55626       28446       35857       51303           Mycobacterium avium     54390.9   55631.1   29064.8   35858.9   51915.5   30298   42656   38942.4   56241.2         Mycobacterium leprae     54389.9   55629.1   29064.8   35860.9   51917.5   30298   42656   39559.5   56240.2         Mycobacterium tuberculosis     54390.9   55629.1   29064.8   35860.9   51301.4   30299   42656   39560.5   56243.2         Mycoplasma genitalium     53143.7   45115.4   29061.8   35854.9   50671.3   30294   43264.1   39558.5   56842.4         Mycoplasma pneumoniae     53143.7   45118.4   29061.8   35854.9   50673.3   30294   43264.1   39559.5   56843.4         Neisseria gonorrhoeae     55627.1   54389.9   28445.7   35855.9   51302.4   30300   42649   39561.5   55000               55623       55010       28443       35858       51301       30298       43272       39558       55619                 58093       55621       28448       35853       50677       30293       42650       39559       53139                 58094       55623       28448       35853       50679       30293       42648       39559       53755                 55622       55005       28445       35857       51301       30301       42658                 55623       55009       28444       35857       51301           Staphylococcus aureus     56854.3   54386.9   28443.7   35852.9   51294.4   30298   42655   39559.5   57466.4         Streptomyces     54389.9   59341.6   29063.8   35858.9   51300.4           39563.5   56864.3         Treponema pallidum     56245.2   55631.1   28445.7   35851.9   51297.4   30299   42034.9   38939.4   57473.4               55625       55626       28443       35857       52536       29063       30303       35241       50675           Vibrio parahaemolyticus     54384.9   55626.1   28444.7   34620.7   50064.2               55620       55626       28443       35857       51299                     1 Molecular mass distribution of PCR amplified regions for a selection of organisms (rows) across various primer pairs (columns). Pathogens are shown in bold. Empty cells indicate presently incomplete or missing data.             
 
      The spectra from 46mer PCR products originating at position 1337 of the 16S rRNA from  S. aureus  and  B. anthracis  were obtained. These data are from the region of the spectrum containing signals from the [M−8H+] 8−  charge states of the respective 5′-3′ strands. The two strands differ by two (AT→CG) substitutions, and have measured masses of 14206.396 and 14208.373+0.010 Da, respectively. The possible base compositions derived from the masses of the forward and reverse strands for the  B. anthracis  products are listed in Table 3.  
               TABLE 3                          Possible base composition for  B. anthracis  products                                 Calc. Mass   Error   Base Comp.                       14208.2935   0.079520   A1 G17 C10 T18           14208.3160   0.056980   A1 G20 C15 T10           14208.3386   0.034440   A1 G23 C20 T2           14208.3074   0.065560   A6 G11 C3 T26           14208.3300   0.043020   A6 G14 C8 T18           14208.3525   0.020480   A6 G17 C13 T10           14208.3751   0.002060   A6 G20 C18 T2           14208.3439   0.029060   A11 G8 C1 T26           14208.3665   0.006520   A11 G11 C6 T18           14208.3890   0.016020   A11 G14 C11 T10           14208.4116   0.038560   A11 G17 C16 T2           14208.4030   0.029980   A16 G8 C4 T18           14208.4255   0.052520   A16 G11 C9 T10           14208.4481   0.075060   A16 G14 C14 T2           14208.4395   0.066480   A21 G5 C2 T18           14208.4620   0.089020   A21 G8 C7 T10           14079.2624   0.080600   A0 G14 C13 T19           14079.2849   0.058060   A0 G17 C18 T11           14079.3075   0.035520   A0 G20 C23 T3           14079.2538   0.089180   A5 G5 C1 T35           14079.2764   0.066640   A5 G8 C6 T27           14079.2989   0.044100   A5 G11 C11 T19           14079.3214   0.021560   A5 G14 C16 T11           14079.3440   0.000980   A5 G17 C21 T3           14079.3129   0.030140   A10 G5 C4 T27           14079.3354   0.007600   A10 G8 C9 T19           14079.3579   0.014940   A10 G11 C14 T11           14079.3805   0.037480   A10 G14 C19 T3           14079.3494   0.006360   A15 G2 C2 T27           14079.3719   0.028900   A15 G5 C7 T19           14079.3944   0.051440   A15 G8 C12 T11           14079.4170   0.073980   A15 G11 C17 T3           14079.4084   0.065400   A20 G2 C5 T19           14079.4309   0.087940   A20 G5 C10 T13                      
 
 Among the 16 compositions for the forward strand and the 18 compositions for the reverse strand that were calculated, only one pair (shown in bold) are complementary, corresponding to the actual base compositions of the  B. anthracis  PCR products. 
 
     Example 4  
     BCS of Region from  Bacillus anthracis  and  Bacillus cereus    
      A conserved  Bacillus  region from  B. anthracis  (A 14 G 9 C 14 T 9 ) and  B. cereus  (A 15 G 9 C 13 T 9 ) having a C to A base change was synthesized and subjected to ESI-TOF MS. The two regions were clearly distinguished using the method of the present invention (MW=14072.26 vs. 14096.29).  
     Example 5  
     Identification of Additional Bioagents  
      In other examples of the present invention, the pathogen  Vibrio cholera  can be distinguished from  Vibrio parahemolyticus  with ΔM&gt;600 Da using one of three 16S primer sets shown in Table 2 (16S — 971, 16S — 1228 or 16S — 1294) as shown in Table 4. The two mycoplasma species in the list ( M. genitalium  and  M pneumoniae ) can also be distinguished from each other, as can the three mycobacteriae. While the direct mass measurements of amplified products can identify and distinguish a large number of organisms, measurement of the base composition signature provides dramatically enhanced resolving power for closely related organisms. In cases such as  Bacillus anthracis  and  Bacillus cereus  that are virtually indistinguishable from each other based solely on mass differences, compositional analysis or fragmentation patterns are used to resolve the differences. The single base difference between the two organisms yields different fragmentation patterns, and despite the presence of the ambiguous/unidentified base N at position 20 in  B. anthracis , the two organisms can be identified.  
      Tables 4a-b show examples of primer pairs from Table 1 which distinguish pathogens from background.  
                                   TABLE 4A                                   Organism name   23S_855   16S_1337   23S_1021                            Bacillus anthracis     42650.98   28447.65   30294.98             Staphylococcus aureus     42654.97   28443.67   30297.96                      
 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4b 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Organism name 
                 16S_971 
                 16S_1294 
                 16S_1228 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 
                   Vibrio cholerae 
                 
                 55625.09 
                 35856.87 
                 52535.59 
               
               
                 
                   Vibrio parahaemolyticus 
                 
                 54384.91 
                 34620.67 
                 50064.19 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
      Table 5 shows the expected molecular weight and base composition of region 16S — 1100-1188 in  Mycobacterium avium  and  Streptomyces  sp.  
                               TABLE 5                           Organism       Molecular           Region   name   Length   weight   Base comp.                                                    16S_1100-1188     Myco-     82   25624.1728   A 16 G 32 C 18 T 16               bacterium               avium         16S_1100-1188     Streptomyces     96   29904.871   A 17 G 38 C 27 T 14             sp.                              
 
      Table 6 shows base composition (single strand) results for 16S — 1100-1188 primer amplification reactions different species of bacteria. Species which are repeated in the table (e.g.,  Clostridium botulinum ) are different strains which have different base compositions in the 16S — 1100-1188 region.  
                           TABLE 6                       Organism name   Base comp.   Organism name   Base comp.                    Mycobacterium avium     A 16 G 32 C 18 T 16       Vibrio cholerae     A 23 G 30 C 21 T 16           Streptomyces  sp.   A 17 G 38 C 27 T 14       Aeromonas hydrophila     A 23 G 31 C 21 T 15           Ureaplasma urealyticum     A 18 G 30 C 17 T 17       Aeromonas salmonicida     A 23 G 31 C 21 T 15           Streptomyces  sp.   A 19 G 36 C 24 T 18       Mycoplasma genitalium     A 24 G 19 C 12 T 18           Mycobacterium leprae     A 20 G 32 C 22 T 16       Clostridium botulinum     A 24 G 25 C 18 T 20           M. tuberculosis     A 20 G 33 C 21 T 16       Bordetella bronchiseptica     A 24 G 26 C 19 T 14           Nocardia asteroides     A 20 G 33 C 21 T 16       Francisella tularensis     A 24 G 26 C 19 T 19           Fusobacterium necroforum     A 21 G 26 C 22 T 18       Bacillus anthracis     A 24 G 26 C 20 T 18           Listeria monocytogenes     A 21 G 27 C 19 T 19       Campylobacter jejuni     A 24 G 26 C 20 T 18           Clostridium botulinum     A 21 G 27 C 19 T 21       Staphylococcus aureus     A 24 G 26 C 20 T 18           Neisseria gonorrhoeae     A 21 G 28 C 21 T 18       Helicobacter pylori     A 24 G 26 C 20 T 19           Bartonella quintana     A 21 G 30 C 22 T 16       Helicobacter pylori     A 24 G 26 C 21 T 18           Enterococcus faecalis     A 22 G 27 C 20 T 19       Moraxella catarrhalis     A 24 G 26 C 23 T 16           Bacillus megaterium     A 22 G 28 C 20 T 18       Haemophilus influenzae  Rd   A 24 G 28 C 20 T 17           Bacillus subtilis     A 22 G 28 C 21 T 17       Chlamydia trachomatis     A 24 G 28 C 21 T 16           Pseudomonas aeruginosa     A 22 G 29 C 23 T 15       Chlamydophila pneumoniae     A 24 G 28 C 21 T 16           Legionella pneumophila     A 22 G 32 C 20 T 16       C. pneumonia  AR39   A 24 G 28 C 21 T 16           Mycoplasma pneumoniae     A 23 G 20 C 14 T 16       Pseudomonas putida     A 24 G 29 C 21 T 16           Clostridium botulinum     A 23 G 26 C 20 T 19       Proteus vulgaris     A 24 G 30 C 21 T 15           Enterococcus faecium     A 23 G 26 C 21 T 18       Yersinia pestis     A 24 G 30 C 21 T 15           Acinetobacter calcoaceti     A 23 G 26 C 21 T 19       Yersinia pseudotuberculos     A 24 G 30 C 21 T 15           Leptospira borgpeterseni     A 23 G 26 C 24 T 15       Clostridium botulinum     A 25 G 24 C 18 T 21           Leptospira interrogans     A 23 G 26 C 24 T 15       Clostridium tetani     A 25 G 25 C 18 T 20           Clostridium perfringens     A 23 G 27 C 19 T 19       Francisella tularensis     A 25 G 25 C 19 T 19           Bacillus anthracis     A 23 G 27 C 20 T 18       Acinetobacter calcoacetic     A 25 G 26 C 20 T 19           Bacillus cereus     A 23 G 27 C 20 T 18       Bacteriodes fragilis     A 25 G 27 C 16 T 22           Bacillus thuringiensis     A 23 G 27 C 20 T 18       Chlamydophila psittaci     A 25 G 27 C 21 T 16           Aeromonas hydrophila       A   23   G   29   C   21   T   16       Borrelia burgdorferi     A 25 G 29 C 17 T 19           Escherichia coli       A   23   G   29   C   21   T   16       Streptobacillus monilifor     A 26 G 26 C 20 T 16           Pseudomonas putida     A 23 G 29 C 21 T 17       Rickettsia prowazekii     A 26 G 28 C 18 T 18           Escherichia coli     A 23 G 29 C 22 T 15       Rickettsia rickettsii     A 26 G 28 C 20 T 16           Shigella dysenteriae     A 23 G 29 C 22 T 15       Mycoplasma mycoides     A 28 G 23 C 16 T 20                    
 
      The same organism having different base compositions are different strains. Groups of organisms which are highlighted or in italics have the same base compositions in the amplified region. Some of these organisms can be distinguished using multiple primers. For example,  Bacillus anthracis  can be distinguished from  Bacillus cereus  and  Bacillus thuringiensis  using the primer 16S — 971-1062 (Table 7). Other primer pairs which produce unique base composition signatures are shown in Table 6 (bold). Clusters containing very similar threat and ubiquitous non-threat organisms (e.g.  anthracis  cluster) are distinguished at high resolution with focused sets of primer pairs. The known biowarfare agents in Table 6 are  Bacillus anthracis, Yersinia pestis, Francisella tularensis  and  Rickettsia prowazekii .  
                           TABLE 7                           16S_971-   16S_1228-   16S_1100-       Organism   1062   1310   1188                    Aeromonas hydrophila     A 21 G 29 C 22 T 20     A 22 G 27 C 21 T 13     A 23 G 31 C 21 T 15           Aeromonas     A 21 G 29 C 22 T 20     A 22 G 27 C 21 T 13     A 23 G 31 C 21 T 15           salmonicida           Bacillus anthracis     A 21 G 27 C 22 T 22     A 24 G 22 C 19 T 18     A 23 G 27 C 20 T 18           Bacillus cereus     A 22 G 27 C 21 T 22     A 24 G 22 C 19 T 18     A 23 G 27 C 20 T 18           Bacillus thuringiensis     A 22 G 27 C 21 T 22     A 24 G 22 C 19 T 18     A 23 G 27 C 20 T 18           Chlamydia     A 22 G 26 C 20 T 23     A 24 G 23 C 19 T 16     A 24 G 28 C 21 T 16           trachomatis           Chlamydia     A 26 G 23 C 20 T 22     A 26 G 22 C 16 T 18     A 24 G 28 C 21 T 16           pneumoniae  AR39         Leptospira     A 22 G 26 C 20 T 21     A 22 G 25 C 21 T 15     A 23 G 26 C 24 T 15           borgpetersenii           Leptospira interrogans     A 22 G 26 C 20 T 21     A 22 G 25 C 21 T 15     A 23 G 26 C 24 T 15           Mycoplasma     A 28 G 23 C 15 T 22     A 30 G 18 C 15 T 19     A 24 G 19 C 12 T 18           genitalium           Mycoplasma     A 28 G 23 C 15 T 22     A 27 G 19 C 16 T 20     A 23 G 20 C 14 T 16           pneumoniae           Escherichia coli     A 22 G 28 C 20 T 22     A 24 G 25 C 21 T 13     A 23 G 29 C 22 T 15           Shigella dysenteriae     A 22 G 28 C 21 T 21     A 24 G 25 C 21 T 13     A 23 G 29 C 22 T 15           Proteus vulgaris     A 23 G 26 C 22 T 21     A 26 G 24 C 19 T 14     A 24 G 30 C 21 T 15           Yersinia pestis     A 24 G 25 C 21 T 22     A 25 G 24 C 20 T 14     A 24 G 30 C 21 T 15           Yersinia     A 24 G 25 C 21 T 22     A 25 G 24 C 20 T 14     A 24 G 30 C 21 T 15           pseudotuberculosis           Francisella tularensis     A 20 G 25 C 21 T 23     A 23 G 26 C 17 T 17     A 24 G 26 C 19 T 19           Rickettsia prowazekii     A 21 G 26 C 24 T 25     A 24 G 23 C 16 T 19     A 26 G 28 C 18 T 18           Rickettsia rickettsii     A 21 G 26 C 25 T 24     A 24 G 24 C 17 T 17     A 26 G 28 C 20 T 16                    
 
      The sequence of  B. anthracis  and  B. cereus  in region 16S — 971 is shown below. Shown in bold is the single base difference between the two species that can be detected using the methods of the present invention.  B. anthracis  has an ambiguous base at position  
     Example 6  
     ESI-TOF MS of sspE 56-mer Plus Calibrant  
      The mass measurement accuracy that can be obtained using an internal mass standard in the ESI-MS study of PCR products is shown in FIG. 8. The mass standard was a 20-mer phosphorothioate oligonucleotide added to a solution containing a 56-mer PCR product from the  B. anthracis  spore coat protein sspE. The mass of the expected PCR product distinguishes  B. anthracis  from other species of  Bacillus  such as  B. thuringiensis  and  B. cereus.    
     Example 7  
       B. antliracis  ESI-TOF Synthetic 16S — 1228 Duplex  
      An ESI-TOF MS spectrum was obtained from an aqueous solution containing 5 □M each of synthetic analogs of the expected forward and reverse PCR products from the nucleotide 1228 region of the  B. anthracis  16S rRNA gene. The results (FIG. 9) show that the molecular weights of the forward and reverse strands can be accurately determined and easily distinguish the two strands. The [M−2 1H + ] 21−  and [M−20H + ] 20−  charge states are shown.  
     Example 8  
     ESI-FTICR-MS of Synthetic  B. anthracis  16S — 1337 46 Base Pair Duplex  
      An ESI-FTICR-MS spectrum was obtained from an aqueous solution containing 5 μM each of synthetic analogs of the expected forward and reverse PCR products from the nucleotide 1337 region of the  B. anthracis  16S rRNA gene. The results (FIG. 10) show that the molecular weights of the strands can be distinguished by this method. The [M−16H + ] 16−  through [M−10H + ] 10−  charge states are shown. The insert highlights the resolution that can be realized on the FTICR-MS instrument, which allows the charge state of the ion to be determined from the mass difference between peaks differing by a single 13C substitution.  
     Example 9  
     ESI-TOF MS of 56-mer Oligonucleotide from saspB Gene of  B. anthracis  with Internal Mass Standard  
      ESI-TOF MS spectra were obtained on a synthetic 56-mer oligonucleotide (5 μM) from the saspB gene of  B. anthracis  containing an internal mass standard at an ESI of 1.7 μL/min as a function of sample consumption. The results (FIG. 11) show that the signal to noise is improved as more scans are summed, and that the standard and the product are visible after only 100 scans.  
     Example 10  
     ESI-TOF MS of an Internal Standard with Tributylammonium (TBA)-trifluoroacetate (TFA) Buffer  
      An ESI-TOF-MS spectrum of a 20-mer phosphorothioate mass standard was obtained following addition of 5 mM TBA-TFA buffer to the solution. This buffer strips charge from the oligonucleotide and shifts the most abundant charge state from [M−8H + ] 8−  to [M−3H +]   3−  (FIG. 12).  
     Example 11  
     Master Database Comparison  
      The molecular masses obtained through Examples 1-10 are compared to molecular masses of known bioagents stored in a master database to obtain a high probability matching molecular mass.  
     Example 12  
     Master Data Base Interrogation over the Internet  
      The same procedure as in Example 11 is followed except that the local computer did not store the Master database. The Master database is interrogated over an internet connection, searching for a molecular mass match.  
     Example 13  
     Master Database Updating  
      The same procedure as in example 11 is followed except the local computer is connected to the internet and has the ability to store a master database locally. The local computer system periodically, or at the user&#39;s discretion, interrogates the Master database, synchronizing the local master database with the global Master database. This provides the current molecular mass information to both the local database as well as to the global Master database. This further provides more of a globalized knowledge base.  
     Example 14  
     Global Database Updating  
      The same procedure as in example 13 is followed except there are numerous such local stations throughout the world. The synchronization of each database adds to the diversity of information and diversity of the molecular masses of known bioagents.  
     Example 15  
     Detection of  Staphylococcus aureus  in Blood Samples  
      Blood samples in an analysis plate were spiked with genomic DNA equivalent of 10 3  organisms/ml of  Staphylococcus aureus . A single set of 16S rRNA primers was used for amplification. Following PCR, all samples were desalted, concentrated, and analyzed by Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance (FTICR) mass spectrometry. In each of the spiked wells, strong signals were detected which are consistent with the expected BCS of the  S. aureus  amplicon. Furthermore, there was no robotic carryover or contamination in any of the blood only or water blank wells. Methods similar to this one will be applied for other clinically relevant samples including, but not limited to: urine and throat or nasal swabs.  
     Example 16  
     Biochemical Processing of Large Amplification Products for Analysis by Mass Spectrometry  
      A primer pair which amplifies a 986 bp region of the 16S ribosomal gene in  E. coli  (K12) was digested with a mixture of 4 restriction enzymes: BstN1, BsmF1, Bfa1, and Nco1. The resulting ESI-FTICR mass spectrum that contains multiple charge states of multiple restriction fragments can be complex. Upon mass deconvolution to neutral mass, the spectrum is significantly simplified and discrete oligonucleotide pairs were evident. When base compositions are derived from the masses of the restriction fragments, perfect agreement was observed for the known sequence of nucleotides 1-856; the batch of Nco1 enzyme used in this experiment was inactive and resulted in a missed cleavage site and a 197-mer fragment went undetected as it is outside the mass range of the mass spectrometer under the conditions employed. Interestingly however, both a forward and reverse strand were detected for each fragment measured (solid and dotted lines in, respectively) within 2 ppm of the predicted molecular weights resulting in unambiguous determination of the base composition of 788 nucleotides of the 985 nucleotides in the amplicon. The coverage map offers redundant coverage as both 5′ to 3′ and 3′ to 5′ fragments are detected for fragments covering the first 856 nucleotides of the amplicon.  
      This approach is in many ways analogous to those widely used in MS-based proteomics studies in which large intact proteins are digested with trypsin, or other proteolytic enzyme(s), and the identity of the protein is derived by comparing the measured masses of the tryptic peptides with theoretical digests. A unique feature of this approach is that the precise mass measurements of the complementary strands of each digest product allow one to derive a de novo base composition for each fragment, which can in turn be “stitched together” to derive a complete base composition for the larger amplicon. An important distinction between this approach and a gel-based restriction mapping strategy is that, in addition to determination of the length of each fragment, an unambiguous base composition of each restriction fragment is derived. Thus, a single base substitution within a fragment (which would not be resolved on a gel) is readily observed using this approach. Because this study was performed on a 7 Tesla ESI-FTICR mass spectrometer, better than 2 ppm mass measurement accuracy was obtained for all fragments. Interestingly, calculation of the mass measurement accuracy required to derive unambiguous base compositions from the complementary fragments indicates that the highest mass measurement accuracy actually required is only 15 ppm for the 139 bp fragment (nucleotides 525-663). Most of the fragments were in the 50-70 bp size-range which would require mass accuracy of only ˜50 ppm for unambiguous base composition determination. This level of performance is achievable on other more compact, less expensive MS platforms such as the ESI-TOF suggesting that the methods developed here could be widely deployed in a variety of diagnostic and human forensic arenas.  
      This example illustrates an alternative approach to derive base compositions from larger PCR products. Because the amplicons of interest cover many strain variants, for some of which complete sequences are not known, each amplicon can be digested under several different enzymatic conditions to ensure that a diagnostically informative region of the amplicon is not obscured by a “blind spot” which arises from a mutation in a restriction site. The extent of redundancy required to confidently map the base composition of amplicons from different markers, and determine which set of restriction enzymes should be employed and how they are most effectively used as mixtures can be determined. These parameters will be dictated by the extent to which the area of interest is conserved across the amplified region, the compatibility of the various restriction enzymes with respect to digestion protocol (buffer, temperature, time) and the degree of coverage required to discriminate one amplicon from another.  
      Various modifications of the invention, in addition to those described herein, will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing description. Such modifications are also intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims. Each reference, web site, Genebank accession number, etc. cited in the present application is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.