Patent Publication Number: US-2021162339-A1

Title: High temperature co2 steam and h2 reactions for environmental benefits.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional applications 62/942,767 filed on Dec. 3, 2019 and 62/969,722 filed on Feb. 4, 2020 the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. Also features of the present application are based upon U.S. Pat. No. 10,088,149, entitled “One Atmosphere Boiler Instant Superheated Steam Apparatus And Method”; U.S. Pat. No. 9,643,877, entitled “Thermal Plasma Treatment Method”; U.S. Pat. No. 9,261,273, entitled “Pressurized Point-of-Use Superheated Steam Generation Apparatus and Method”; U.S. Pat. No. 8,895,888, entitled “Anti-Smudging, Better Gripping, Better Shelf-Life Of Products And Surfaces”; U.S. Pat. No. 8,652,403, entitled “Heating And Sterilizing Apparatus And Method For Using Same”; U.S. Pat. No. 6,816,671, entitled “Mid Temperature Plasma Device” and US patent application; US 2017-0347440, entitled “Industrial Heating Apparatus And Method Employing Fermion And Boson Mutual Cascade Multiplier For Beneficial Material Processing Kinetics” all of which are incorporated by reference in their entireties as well. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     It is well known that the amount, or concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as CO 2 , need to be reduced. This can be done, at high temperatures, with a system where thermal plasma (containing ions) generators, fiber free refractories and high temperature steam generators are integrated. Very slow kinetics, low temperature processes, such as obtaining fuel from algae by CO 2  absorption, are also being considered but these will not make a substantial reduction. There exists a need for rapid reduction of these gasses. This application presents a process and method where equipment for air-plasma (hot gas with vibrationally energized species that are not fully ionic) and superheated steam generation are integrated to reduce CO 2  and produce valuable oxygen and oxygen compounds. 
     A new plasma conversion method is herein proposed for CO 2  transformation into useful products. CO 2  will be converted into Syngas with this plasma method. Three major advances over the current technology are contemplated by this method. These are: development of an energy efficient plasma process with high yield; development of a highly tunable and selective process with easy design inputs into the apparatus/equipment; and the provision for ease of scalability from the modular design. 
     Climate change has become a major world-wide challenge. The CO 2  production imbalance is a major part of this issue, leading to increasing global temperatures. Closing the carbon cycle by utilizing excess CO 2  is an appropriate intermediate step towards a carbon-free future. Several techniques have already been reported, such as conventional plasma and direct electrochemical conversion of CO 2  to useful products. However, none have proven to be reliable or scalable enough. Often the competing reactions limit the conversion yield to single-digit percentages. It has been reported that the conversion to useful products including carbon monoxide (CO), formic acid (HCOOH), methane (CH 4 ) and ethylene (C 2 H 4 ) or ethane (C 2 H 6 ) is feasible. However high efficiency and adequate selectivity in conversion remain elusive. 
     Apart from climate considerations, the fact that 5 billion metric tons of CO 2  emissions were produced in the United States alone in 2017, the utilization and conversion of CO 2  into value-added chemicals, fuels, polymers, building materials, and other carbon-based products represents a key economic opportunity. Thus, CO 2  utilization technologies can reduce the overall CO 2  emissions and offset CO 2  capture costs by generating valuable products. In addition to CO 2  emissions from electric power production, industrial CO 2  emissions provide an opportunity for utilization of CO 2  under different conditions and concentrations. Although society at large is expected to become cost insensitive to the cost of the process, the commercial processes that offer the lowest cost of conversion per unit volume of CO 2  will naturally be preferred. The new technology presented in this application will greatly assist the conversion and use challenges, based on the anticipated processing price and scalability. 
     SUMMARY 
     In particular, it is known that 6CO 2 (g)+6H 2 O(g)=C 6 H 12 O 6 (Sugar-GAa)+6O 2 (g) and yields a negative free energy at 1600° C. However, this process has not been considered, as the process temperature is too high. Shown herein is that such temperatures can easily be managed by direct thermal catalysis or aided by activated species from low energy intake plasmas like electroshear plasma. The use and application of more than one type of activated species produced by electroshear and vibroshear plasma (among others) is contemplated. Also described is a method of providing ionic activated catalysts to further reduce the required temperature below 1600° C. This is a high temperature photosynthesis reaction generally that can occur at 1600° C. Proposed is an air catalyst in the form of activated ions that can reduce this temperature below the previously required 1600° C. Fundamentally, by using an activated nitrogen species, one can catalyze the above reaction (when hot H 2  is available) in order to reduce atmospheric CO 2 . Waste to fuel reactions may also be considered and there currently exists a push to make liquid fuels by using a multitude of reactions. The entire focus of these types of reactions has changed because of the CO 2  and CH 4  green house problems. Eliminating CO 2  with high temperature and thermal plasma (ion containing) or energized state gasses, reactions with hot activated CO 2  and steam will assist CO 2  reduction. Additional embodiments of methods concerning hot gases for energy production or CO 2  reduction are contemplated and are presented below. 
     The employed plasma is a wide-area electro-shear-vibratory-thermal plasma which is expected to primarily enhance vibrational excitations in a flowing gas with phonon-boson interactions that produce a stable plasma beam. This type of plasma, due to lack of electrodes in its generation, has the advantage of scalability and of allowing rapid input for sundry part-introduction and change-out. The main benefits of this plasma are wide-area stable plasma conditions including the very difficult open-plume stable configurations. This plasma has no combustion requirements (thus highly environmentally positive) and offers a clear reduced cost of processing in all configurations (inline or open discharge configurations). 
     The ionic or highly energized radical character of the plasma beam places it at 10 21  activated species per cubic meter. Additionally, the beam power density of the open plasma beam, assuming just equivalent of 0.1-1% ionization, is 10 6 -10 9  W/m 2 , which is higher than most high-power lasers. A laser beam generally offers only a few mm wide beam, whereas comparatively, the open plasma beams are about 200 mm long with diameters ranging from a few mm to over 400 mm with multiple plasma filaments when required for very wide beams. There is no combustion, microwave or RF that is required. The plasma is produced at about 1 m 3  flow of gas per 10-15 KW unit. The velocity is about 1-10 m/s, or in other words 0.02 to 0.2 m 3  is produced per second. For air, one mole is 0.0224 m 3 . Thus, about ˜10 20 -10 22  ions are available per cubic meter. This can be enabled either with a small number of fully dissociated ions or a greater abundance of vibro-shear excited species in order to complete useful reactions. It is anticipated that a hybrid system of RF and electroshear plasma can also be used along with thermal catalysis where required. 
     DESCRIPTION 
     Chemical and Fuel Production: Many steam reactions are beneficial to energy production and biomass. Super-heated steam offers high kinetics and clean chemistry. Waste-to-fuel conversion, discrete community fuel production and hydrogen supplying are contemplated applications of such reactions. Plastics are hydrocarbons made from petroleum that can be converted back to liquid fuel. For example, pyrolysis could be used to accomplish this. When subjected to high heat and pressure, water breaks down the plastic and converts it into oil. An attractive method of converting these waste materials into useful form is anaerobic digestion with steam heating which produces biogas that may be used as a fuel. Waste can also be converted to methanol and ethanol. Garbage can be converted with the application of thermal plasma to break down organic materials into syngas, which is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Organic waste, via the Fischer-Tropsch reaction, can be converted into fuel as well. A mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, from municipal solid waste and other renewable biomass, can be converted to long-chain hydrocarbon molecules that make up diesel and jet fuels. 
     Gasification: Gasification is a thermochemical process which results in the conversion of waste materials and takes place in the presence of limited amounts of oxygen. Steam or the oxygen in the air is reacted at high temperature with the available carbon in the waste material to produce gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane. Gasification processes produce syngas which is used for generating electrical power. Thermal gasification of the waste materials allows the production of a gaseous fuel that can be easily collected and transported. Gasification typically takes place at temperatures between 750-1100° C. 
     Pyrolysis: Pyrolysis is also a thermal process similar to gasification which involves the thermal degradation of organic waste in the absence of free oxygen to produce combustible gases. Pyrolysis uses heat to break down organic materials in the absence of oxygen (e.g. with steam heating to 1250° C.). Materials suitable for pyrolysis processing include coal, animal and human waste, food scraps, paper, cardboard, plastics and rubber. The pyrolytic process produces oil which can be used as a synthetic bio-diesel fuel or refined to produce other useful products. Sometimes the byproduct of pyrolysis is a type of fine-grained bio-charcoal called “biochar”, which retains most of the carbon and nutrients contained in biomass and may be used as a soil enhancement. During pyrolysis, volatile gases are released from a dry biomass at temperatures ranging up to about 700° C. These gases are non-condensable vapors such as CH 4 , CO, CO 2  and H 2 . Cellulose can break down into char, H 2 O, CO 2  and methane. 
     Combustion: Municipal and household waste is directly combusted in large waste-to-energy incinerators as a fuel with minimal processing known as mass burning. Combustion can be with a solid, liquid or gas reactant with oxidation. The Boudouard reaction (solid combustion) is stable above 700° C. to eliminate CO 2  because CO 2 (g)+C=2CO(g). CO(g) above 700° C. can be used as a reductant for oxides as is done for iron oxide reduction. 
     Digestion: Landfills are the primary method of disposal of municipal solid waste and if left undisturbed, will produces significant amounts of gaseous byproducts, consisting mainly of carbon dioxide and combustible methane (CH 4 ). Such landfill gas or bio-gas is produced by the (oxygen-free) anaerobic digestion of organic matter. In such cases, treatment by steam is often recommended for elimination of certain harmful bacteria. Anaerobic digestion to produce bio-gas can either occur naturally producing a landfill gas, or inside a controlled environment such as a biogas digester. A digester is a warmed, sealed, airless container where bacteria ferment organic material such as liquid and semi-solid slurries, animal wastes and manures in oxygen-free conditions for bio-gas production. An advantage of anaerobic digestion for converting waste to energy fuel is that it employs semi-solid or wet waste. This is normally a small-scale operation. The bio-gas produced can be burned in a conventional gas boiler to produce heat or as fuel in a gas engine to generate electricity or fuel used in some of farm vehicles. 
     Fermentation: Fermentation uses various microorganisms and yeasts to produce liquid ethanol, a type of alcohol, from biomass and bio-waste materials. The conversion of waste to energy by fermentation requires a series of chemical reactions to produce the ethanol biofuel. Here steam can be directly introduced for rapid kinetics. Multiple reactions occur. The first reaction is called hydrolysis, which converts organic materials into sugars. The sugars can then be fermented to make dilute ethanol, which is then further distilled to produce a bio-fuel ethanol. 
     Some of the reactions contemplated and their associated applications are: 
     (1) 2CH 2 O(g)+2H 2 O(g)=CH 3 OH(l)+O 2 (g) above 1320° C., formaldehyde to methanol. 
     (2) CO 2 (g)+3H 2 (g)=CH 3 OH(l)+H 2 O(g) above 1320° C. methanol by heating syngas or just CO 2 (g). Greenhouse gas CO 2  can be converted to an alcohol. Waste to fuel reactions can also be considered. 
     (3) Reactions possible above 1435° C.+2C+4H 2 O(g)=2CH 3 OH(l)+O 2 (g) carbon to methanol (solid to liquid fuel type reaction with hot steam—(Using activated boson and fermion catalysts)). 
     (4) Photosynthesis: 6CO 2 (g)+6H 2 O(g)=C 6 H 12 O 6 (Sugar-GAa)+6O 2 (g) 
     (5) Typical high temperature steam i.e., H 2 O(g), CO(g) and CO 2 (g) reactions for consideration for CO 2  removal (one atmosphere) or for making H 2  (gas). 
     (6) (CH 4 (g)+H 2 O(g)=CO(g)+3H 2 (g) steam reforming above 750° C. The opposite direction reaction is sometimes called the Fischer-Tropsch process. 
     (7) CO 2 (g)+H 2 (g)=CO(g)+H 2 O(g) water shift. Feasible above 820° C. 
     (8) Combination of greenhouse gases (also called high temperature greenhouse gas reactions): CO 2 (g)+CH 4 (g)=2CO(g)+2H 2 (g) feasible above 650° C. or via the steam reforming and water shift shown above. Again, the products are reducing gases that can be used for various reducing reactions including cleaning and shiny metal production such as Fe 2 O 3 +3CO(g)=2Fe+3CO 2 (g) (weak) or Fe 2 O 3 +3H 2 (g)=2Fe+3H 2 O(g) above 515° C. Note also that CO 2 (g)+CH 4 (g)=2C+2H 2 O(g) is always feasible at &gt;100° C. but is extremely weak. 
     (9) Fe 2 O 3 +2CO(g)+H2(g)=2Fe+2CO2(g)+H 2 O(g) is always feasible but best above 1000° C. 
     (10) Combination of greenhouse-gases (also called high temperature greenhouse gas reactions): CO 2 (g)+CH 4 (g)=2CO(g)+2H 2 (g) is feasible above 650° C. or via the steam reforming and water shift shown above. Again, the products are reducing gases that can be used for various reducing reactions including cleaning and shiny metal production such as Fe 2 O 3 +3CO(g)=2Fe+3CO 2 (g) (weak) or Fe 2 O 3 +3H 2 (g)=2Fe+3H 2 O(g) above 515° C. Note also that CO 2 (g)+CH 4 (g)=2C+2H 2 O(g) is always feasible at &gt;100° C. but is extremely weak. Some of the most potent greenhouse gases such as methane can be converted to non-greenhouse gases CO and H 2 . These reducing gases can be used for reducing reactions including the reduction of metal oxides. Either the application of superheated steam or thermal plasma (or a combination) may be used. At this point catalysts (activated fermions and bosons) become important. Hot gas with vibrationally energized (activated) species not fully ionic is another form of catalyst and enables a very low cost solution compared to full ionization. 
     It is contended that the greenhouse gas, methane, can be converted to non-greenhouse gases CO and H 2 . These reducing gases can be used for reducing some metal oxides. Either a superheated steam generator or thermal plasma generator possibly employing activated bosons and fermions may be used to achieve these reactions. At this point catalysts become important. 
     Waste to fuel reactions can also be considered and there is a push to make liquid fuels by using a multitude of reactions. The entire focus of these types of reactions has changed because of the CO 2  and CH 4  green house problems. 
     Hot CO 2  or CO can easily be reacted with azides of Na, Ca, Li etc.) and other reactive compounds to make useful solids or liquids with the oxides of the alkali metal being recoverable. NaN 2 +CO 2  or Ca—N or Li—N compounds can be reacted with hot CO 2 , or oxides with hot CO for clean metal production. 
     For example: 
     Hot CO 2 (g)+NaN 3 =C+NaO 2 +1.5N 2 (g) and results in negative free energy and good kinetics at 980° C. 
     Similarly, Fe 2 O 3 +hot CO(g) can yield clean Fe. 
     Devices contemplated for the heating of such reactions above include a simple, but highly energy efficient industrial heating device and method for rapid heating and high temperature gradient production whereby fermions and bosons are introduced into an adjoining fluid which may be boundary layered and consequently produce an amplifiable activated condition even at room pressure and high temperature. This heating device uses a comparatively long current carrying member which may have some curvature with penetration of the current carrying members into spaces that could have any cross-sectional geometry in a high temperature resistant stable material as presented in US 2017-0347440 A1. 
     A possible means for the application of plasma consists of a method for the rapid thermal treatment of surfaces in a non-vacuum environment comprising generating a thermal plasma plume through the heating of a gaseous flow, placing of the surfaces in the thermal plasma plume, applying thermal plasma to the surfaces and encasing the surfaces with a wrapping material during the applying of the thermal plasma, whereby the surfaces under the wrapping material experience a rapid heat-up (U.S. Pat. No. 9,643,877). Other applications contemplate immersion in a plasma plume where the surface is not encased in a wrapping material. 
     Superheated steam generators for the heating of the above reactions to temperatures over 1500° C. are contemplated as well, including: An apparatus and method for the instant generation of superheated steam at normal atmospheric pressure with such an apparatus includes a water source, a means to convert the water to a mist or atomized droplets and a means to superheat the mist for application onto surfaces and objects. 
     Thermal plasma and superheated steam may be applied together to attain a temperature of over 1500° C. by the use of a device to provide improved anti-smudging, better gripping and longer shelf-life to products and surfaces includes an electric superheated steam generator and an electric low-ion plasma generator to provide superheated steam and low-ion plasma to the surfaces of products including plastics. The superheated steam and low-ion plasma may be applied individually, simultaneously or sequentially (U.S. Pat. No. 8,895,888). 
     The above method and apparatus include features from the following patents and patent applications: (US 2017-0347440), “Industrial Heating Apparatus and Method Employing Fermion and Boson Mutual Cascade Multiplier for Beneficial Material Processing Kinetics”; (U.S. Pat. No. 10,088,149), “One Atmosphere Boiler Instant Superheated Steam Apparatus and Method”; (U.S. Pat. No. 9,643,877), “Thermal Plasma Treatment Method”; (U.S. Pat. No. 9,261,273), “Pressurized Point-of-Use Superheated Steam Generation Apparatus and Method”; (U.S. Pat. No. 8,895,888), “Anti-Smudging, Better Gripping, Better Shelf-Life of Products and Surfaces”; (U.S. Pat. No. 8,652,403), “Heating and Sterilizing Apparatus and Method for Using Same”; (U.S. Pat. No. 8,435,459), “Heating and Sterilizing Apparatus and Method of Using Same”; (U.S. Pat. No. 6,816,671), “Mid Temperature Plasma Device” all of which are incorporated by reference in their entireties. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     CO 2  Conversion Employing Activated Species or Radicals Embodiment 
     Plasma technologies have many advantages over traditional CO 2  conversion pathways and may provide a unique and economical process for the utilization of anthropogenic CO 2 . Plasma technologies provide gas activation by energetic electrons instead of heat, allowing thermodynamically difficult reactions, such as CO 2  splitting, to occur with reasonable energy costs. Plasma technologies can also be easily switched on and off which is compatible with intermittent renewable energy and load-following applications. The most common types of plasma reported in the literature are dielectric barrier discharges (DBDs), microwave (MW), and gliding arc (GA); however, other types, such as radiofrequency, corona, glow, spark, and pulsed electron beam (PEB), have also been studied. Depending on the type of plasma, different CO 2  conversions and energy efficacies have been reported. In terms of energy efficiency, a target of at least 60 percent energy efficiency has been suggested for plasma CO 2  conversion to be competitive with other technologies. Plasma tends to be very reactive and not selective in the production of targeted compounds. Therefore, plasma CO 2  conversion technologies may need a catalyst to increase selectivity and produce targeted compounds. Low conversion of CO 2  could also require postreaction separation of the products from the reactants and may be cost prohibitive. methods are sought to convert CO 2  to high value chemicals or fuels using plasma technologies in an economically viable process, overcoming challenges associated with energy efficiency, CO 2  conversion and selectivity. 
     Key Reactions for this Embodiment 
     When it is shown that this process offers acceptable cost for CO 2  conversion, then a wide range of potential industrial applications of the decomposition, such as treatment of waste, power plant exhausts that can lead to the synthesis of new materials including transportation fuels, will become feasible. CO 2  conversion is an endothermic process. The main endothermic chemical processes of interest for carbon dioxide or assisted carbon dioxide decomposition (dry reforming of methane DMR reaction) can be presented by the reactions: 
       CO 2 →CO+1/2O 2 , ΔH=2.9 eV/molecule.  (R1)
 
       CH 4 ( g )+CO 2 ( g )→2CO( g )+2H 2 ( g )ΔH°=2.55 eV/molecule  (R2)
 
       2CH 4 ( g )+CO 2 ( g )+0.5O2( g )→3CO( g )+4H 2 ( g )+ΔG=0@280° C.  (R3)
 
     Note that reactions R1 to R3 show an increase in entropy when converted, thus overcoming the endothermic barrier which should be enough to enable the reactions. Several of these reactions are possible at very high temperatures, however the possibilities of carrying them out at a lower temperature with either solid or plasma catalysts offers a cost reduction possibility. In this application, task one is directed towards plasma decomposition of reaction (R1) and task two towards a combination of plasma and solid catalysts for reactions (R2), but with an additional reaction (R4) that may be included in the method, namely: 
       2CH 4 ( g )+CO 2 ( g )+O*( g )→3CO( g )+4H 2 ( g )ΔG=0 even at room temperature  (R4)
 
     With O* (activated species or radical) from plasma reaction R1 the 3CO(g)+4H 2 (g) ratioed syngas is immediately feasible. This implies no further energy input is required downstream. ΔG=0, even at room temperature, and remains negative as the temperature increases. Therefore, if R1 is proven with a high efficiency adjustments can be made to get 100% yield of the syngas by manipulating the sequence of sub reactions with positioning the inlet or temperatures. 
     Energy Efficiency and the Yield Landscape with Known Plasma Methods 
     Plasma processes accelerate dissociation with vibrational and ionization excitations. The plasma to be employed for the anticipated processes is an electro-shear-thermal plasma which is expected to primarily enhance vibrational excitations with phonon-boson interactions. The generating unit produces strong plasma plumes (a feature of vibro-ionizable plasmas) for Air, CO 2 , N 2 , N 2 —H 2  and Steam. This type of plasma has also shown potential for use in plasma-nitriding applications. A reasonably high energy efficiency for reaction (R1) has been observed by plasma dissociation. The process efficiency η, of the process for reaction (R1), is the ratio of the dissociation enthalpy ΔH=2.9 eV/molecule to the actual specific energy requirement (called SER or total energy cost) to produce one molecule of CO in the plasma system i.e., η=ΔH/SER. The best η results, to date, appear to have been achieved in experiments with RF and microwave discharges at low pressure. A value of 60% energy efficiency has been achieved in non-equilibrium RF discharge at reduced pressure and with the GAP (gliding arc plasma). Notably, the cost of processing is not well reported. An average transferred arc plasma operates at about 20% efficiency which is low compared to simple heating to get a high η. Regardless, performing the process in subsonic flow has led to reports of energy efficiencies at 80%. In very costly supersonic flows, the energy efficiencies have reportedly reached 90%. 
     The reaction sequences for thermally excited but not fully ionized plasmas are known only in a speculative manner. The specific energy per molecule for the best conversion efficiency for reaction (R1) and the energy efficiencies at any conversion efficiency, is over several tests. When the temperature reaches the level that is high enough to support chemical reactions in a system (one can think of this as a sustainable ignition temperature), chemical reactions produce high concentrations of excited molecules, that could form a basis for stepwise ionization. This results in a significant drop in the energy necessary to support electric discharge in the system for two reasons. First, stepwise ionization that requires relatively low electron energy overcomes the requirement for complete direct ionization. Ionization is typical for low-temperature non-equilibrium plasmas requiring much higher ionization energy. Second, the high temperature of surrounding gas reduces heat losses from the discharge channel, whereas a significant portion of the discharge energy in semi-warm plasma systems should be spent to compensate these losses. Thus, an intensive chemical reaction, e.g. combustion, supports the existence of a warm electric discharge. However, another possibility to reduce SER can be realized in a process, in which a charged particle before recombination transfers virtually all the energy obtained from the electric field to a very efficient chemical channel. A unique example of such an efficient chemical channel is a class of reactions stimulated by a vibrational excitation of molecules. 
     Thus, this mechanism can be thought to possibly provide the highest energy efficiency of endothermic plasma-chemical reactions under non-equilibrium conditions because of the following four factors when discussing drawbacks to conventional and GAP plasmas. (1) The major fraction (70-95%) of discharge power in many molecular gases (including N 2 , H 2 , CO, CO 2 , etc.) that happens at the electron temperature Te≈1 eV can be transferred from plasma electrons to the vibrational excitation of molecules. (2) The rate of vibrational-translational (VT) relaxation is usually low, at low gas temperatures, thus spending most of the vibrational energy on stimulation of chemical reactions. (3) The vibrational energy of molecules is the most effective for stimulation of endothermic chemical processes. (4) The vibrational energy necessary for an endothermic reaction is usually equal to the activation barrier of the reaction and is significantly smaller than the energy threshold of the corresponding electronic excitation processes. 
     A good example of reduction to hydrogen is, therefore, now recognized, but it is not yet clear for CO 2  dissociation. As an example, note that the dissociation of H 2  through ionic processes requires 4.4 eV. On the other hand, dissociation of H 2  with plasma can be done at ˜1-2 eV. Regardless, previous investigations have indicated that stimulation of vibrational excitation of CO 2  molecules is the most effective route for CO 2  dissociation in plasma. It is also well known that vibrational energy losses through vibrational-translational (VT) relaxation are relatively slow for CO 2  molecules thus it is possible that the CO conversion is selectively enabled. Thus, there is a fair expectation that the vibro-shear plasma should be studied particularly as it has shown potential for large scale plasma-nitriding and aluminum dross reduction. 
     Importance of Selectivity 
     The combined conversion of CO 2  and CH 4 , known as the dry reforming of methane (DMR), is analogous to the steam reforming of methane (SMR: Steam Methane Reforming and Methanol Synthesis: CH 4 +H 2 O→CH 3 OH+H 2 +122.0 kJ/mole), indicating the replacement of water by carbon dioxide. The DMR process is, however, not as straightforward as the steam reforming of methane, because CO 2  is a highly oxidized, thermodynamically stable molecule, while its reaction partner, CH 4 , is chemically inert. Hence, the process needs to be carried out at high temperatures (900-1200° K) in the presence of a catalyst, typically containing Ni, Nickel Ferrite, Co, precious metals or Mo 2 C. as the active phase. At 1500° K, complete conversion is achieved, with an energy efficiency of 60%. However, the maximum energy efficiency of 70% is obtained before this at 1000° K, reaching a conversion of maximum of 83%, but this then decreases with increasing the temperature. 
     The DMR reaction was first studied by Fischer and Tropsch in 1928, and since has been a challenge for chemical engineering ever since. With the beginning of a new millennium and the increasing concern regarding climate change, DRM was a way to convert the major greenhouse gas CO 2  into useful products with the aid of natural gas. To date, a true mixture of environmental and economical motivations are seen that include (i) the conversion of the greenhouse gas CO 2 , (ii) the capability of using biogas as a feedstock, and (iii) the search for a convenient way to liquefy CH 4  for easier transport, and the availability of cheap CH 4  through shale gas. There is one major pitfall, namely, the inherent susceptibility for soot deposition and the detrimental effect this has on the process through deactivation of the usable catalyst. Due to this drawback, DRM is to date not yet (widely) used on an industrial scale. Nevertheless, the inability to transform the alluring promises of DRM into reality through the traditional thermal methods, among other reasons, has sparked and fueled the growing interest for alternative reforming technologies and may prove to be more applicable for CO 2  utilizations technologies. Potentially large benefits and volarization could arise from a continuous but two-step linear process where: 
     CO 2 (g)→CO(g)+0.5O 2 (g) leading to 
       2CH 4 ( g )+CO 2 ( g )+0.5O 2 ( g )→3CO( g )+4H 2 ( g )ΔG=0 at 280° C.
 
     It is well known that various combinations if CO/H 2  are suitable for different end products thus removing the need for additional separation sequences. Based on the literature it is now thought that this versatile plasma could be exactly what could assist CO 2  conversion technologies. 
     More Product Reactions 
       CO 2 +C==&gt;&gt;2CO 
     Carbon monoxide acts as a reducing agent and reacts with iron ore to give molten iron, which trickles to the bottom of the furnace where it is collected. 
       Fe 2 O 3 +3CO==&gt;&gt;2Fe+3CO 2    
     The limestone in the furnace decomposes, forming calcium oxide. This is a fluxing agent and combines with impurities to make slag, which floats on top of the molten iron and can be removed. 
       CaO+SiO 2 ==&gt;&gt;CaSiO 3    
     1.5H 2 (g)+1.5CO(g)+Fe 2 O 3 =2Fe+1.5H 2 O(g)+1.5CO 2 (g): Feasible above 300° C. Good at 600° . Now recycle the CO 2 .
 
2H 2 (g)+2CO(g)+Fe 3 O4=3Fe+2H 2 O(g)+2CO 2 (g): Not feasible.
 
H 2 (g)+CO(g)+2FeO=2Fe+H 2 O(g)+CO 2 (g): Not feasible.
 
FeO+CO(g)=Fe+CO 2 (g): Negative free energy up to 500° C. Not reduced by H 2  
 
Fe 2 O 3 +3CO(g)=2Fe+3CO 2 (g): Negative free energy reduced by H 2  above 600° C.
 
Fe 3 O 4 +4CO(g)=3Fe+4CO 2 (g): Negative free energy up to 500° C. Not reduced by H 2 .
 
Fe 2 O 3 +2CO(g)+H 2 (g)=2Fe+3CO 2 (g)+H 2 O(g) at 600° C. DG=−26.46 KJ/mol=−0.2 eV/molecule: (reaction is mildly exothermic).
 
CO(g)+2H 2 (g)=CH 3 OH(g): Negative free energy to 100° C.
 
     Plasma Valorization of CO 2  and CH 4    
     Plasma coupling of CO 2  using CH 4  as a reducing co-reactant has been reported for a variety of plasma systems. Many value-added products, such as methanol, ethanol, and various carboxylic acids like formic, acetic, and propanoic acids, have been identified as feasible liquid products. Among those gaseous products, syngas (primarily CO and H 2 ) was reported as the prominent products. In addition, catalysts have been frequently reported showing beneficial effects in plasma catalytic transformation of CH 4  and CO 2  mixture and a common strategy is to use catalysts that are compatible for conventional thermal catalysis. 
     Depending on their respective dissociation rate, CO 2  and CH 4  may exhibit distinctive capability in producing reactive species. 
     Since Cu, Ni, MoSi 2 , Co, Nickel Ferrite and Mo-based catalysts have been widely used in thermal catalytic conversion of CO 2  and/or CH 4  into valuable products like CH 3 OH. Copper is anticipated to adsorb CO 2  as COO species on its surface, which will then reduce to a crucial intermediate HCOO. This is an important advantage of Cu in the plasma catalytic conversion CO 2  into alcohols. 
     Plasma Valorization of CO 2  in the Presence of H 2    
     Different from CH 4 , H 2  is frequently employed as a reducing reagent in chemical industry. It has been reported that plasma conversion of CO 2  to syngas could be achieved with the co-introduction of H 2 . 
     A broad spectrum of materials have already been investigated for the plasma-catalytic DRM, of which Ni is by far the most commonly used active phase, such as in Ni/γ-Al 2 O 3 , Ni/SiO, Ni—Fe/γ Al 2 O 3 , Ni—Fe/SiO 2 , Ni—Cu/γ-Al 2 O 3 , Ni 0 /La 2 O 3 ; Ni/MgO, Ni/TiO 2 , NiFe 2 O 4 , NiFe 2 O 4 #SiO 2 , LaNiO 3 /SiO 2 , LaNiO 3  and LaNiO 3 @SiO 2 . Furthermore, alumina is the most commonly used support, i.e. in Ni/γ-Al 2 O 3 , Ni—Fe/γ-Al 2 O 3 , Mn/γ-Al 2 O 3 , Cu/γ-Al 2 O 3 , Co/γ-Al 2 O 3 , La 2 O 3 /γ-Al 2 O 3 , Ag/γ-Al 2 O 3 , Pd/γ-Al 2 O 3 , Fe/γ-Al 2 O 3  and Cu—Ni/γ-Al 2 O 3 , or even in its pure form. 
     Many other catalytic systems are based on zeolites, e.g. 3A, A4, NaX, NaY and Na-ZSM-5. Besides, studies have also been conducted using BaTiO 3 , a mixture of BaTiO 3  and NiSiO 2 , ceramic foams (92% Al 2 O 3 , 8% SiO 2 ) coated with Rh, Ni or NiCa, quartz wool, glass beads, a stainless steel mesh, starch, BZT (BaZr 0.75 T 0.25 O 3 ) and BFN (BaFe 0.5 Nb 0.5 O 3 ). For a regular AC-packed DBD, the best result was obtained for the Zeolite Na-ZSM-5, with a total conversion of 37% and an energy cost of 24 eV per converted molecule. As for pure CO 2  splitting, the addition of a catalyst does not seem to make the process more energy efficient, but it does yield higher conversions at the same energy cost. The best overall results in a packed-bed DBD were obtained for a quasi-pulsed DBD packed with BFN and BZN, with total conversions in the range of 45-60% and an energy cost in the range of 13-16 eV per converted molecule, which is lower than that for a DBD without packing, but this might also be due to the pulsed operation. Syngas is considered a renewable fuel since its origins mainly come from biological materials such as organic waste. Putting a carbonic waste stream through syngas synthesis converts waste to power through combustion. Benefits include renewable power, reduction of carbon emissions, problematic wastes to usable fuel, and onsite power production. 
     Besides the experimental work, major insights have been obtained in recent years based on modelling of the DRM process for a DBD. Different kinds of models and computational techniques have been successfully developed, including semi-empirical kinetic models, zero-dimensional chemical kinetic models with both simplified and extensive chemistry sets, a one-dimensional fluid model, a so-called 3D Incompressible Navier-Stokes model combined with a convection-diffusion model, a hybrid artificial neural network-genetic algorithm, a model focusing on a more accurate description of the electron kinetics and density functional theory (DFT) studies, to investigate the reaction mechanisms. Due to the complex chemistry taking place in a DRM, the development of accurate multidimensional models with extensive chemistry is currently restricted by computational limits.