Patent Publication Number: US-2018034081-A1

Title: Electrolytic storage of hydrogen

Description:
PRIORITY DOCUMENTS 
     The present application claims priority from the following applications:
         Australian Provisional Patent Application No. 2015900617 titled “Electrolytic Storage of Hydrogen and Oxygen” filed on 23 Feb. 2015;   Australian Provisional Patent Application No. 2015901232 titled “Hydrogen Storage in Metal Particles or Ions in a Liquid” and filed on 7 Apr. 2015; and   Australian Innovation Patent No. 2015101511 titled “Electrolytic Storage of Hydrogen” and filed on 15 Oct. 2015.       

     The contents of each of these documents are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. 
     INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE 
     The following publications are referred to in the present application and their contents are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety:
         U.S. Pat. No. 7,326,329 “Commercial Production of Hydrogen from Water” in the name of Rodolfo Antonio M. Gomez;   U.S. Pat. No. 6,475,653 “Non-diffusion Fuel Cell and a Process of Using a Fuel Cell” in the name of RMG Services Pty Ltd; and   U.S. Pat. No. 5,882,502 “Electrochemical System and Method” in the name of RMG Services Pty Ltd.       

     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present invention relates to the electrolytic storage of hydrogen as a proton and the recovery of the proton as hydrogen gas as fuel for hydrogen fuel cells. 
     BACKGROUND 
     To meet the World&#39;s requirement for clean renewable energy, the present applicant has shown that hydrogen can be produced by the unipolar electrolysis of water as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,326,329 (“Unipolar electrolysis”). In unipolar electrolysis, theoretically 6.13 times more hydrogen is produced from the same energy to produce 1 mole of hydrogen as compared to the conventional electrolysis of water. Also, U.S. Pat. No. 6,475,653 describes an efficient and scalable fuel cell that will allow clean electrical energy and transport energy to be derived from renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind. 
     To complete the economical use of hydrogen for continuous electric power generation and for transport energy, a method is required to store large quantities of hydrogen economically so that the hydrogen fuel can be economically used for land transport vehicles, sea transport vessels and air transport vessels. Economical and practical methods of storing energy are also required for renewable energy, such as solar and wind, to enable electricity to be delivered continuously. 
     Hydrogen can be stored and recovered by compressing the gas but, even at very high pressure, the amount of hydrogen stored is not sufficient to provide storage for a reasonable range of transport vehicles. The high pressure also creates problems of safety and the weight of the container housing the compressed hydrogen gas is also a problem. 
     Advances have been made in storing hydrogen in metal hydride alloys and, more recently, the use of alloys of rare earth elements such as lanthanum-nickel alloys. The Shanghai Astronomical Observatory of the Chinese Academy of Sciences has estimated that 1 kilogram of lanthanum nickel alloy (LaNi 5 ) can store 153 litres of hydrogen at 2-3×10 5  Pascals of pressure. To recover the hydrogen, heating is required and this is a major disadvantage of this process.  FIG. 1  herein provides data from the China Hydrogen Fuel Cell R&amp;D Centre for the comparative storage of 4 kilograms of hydrogen in several different media compared to the size of a motor vehicle. The best storage for the 4 kilograms of hydrogen is 44 litres of magnesium nickel hydride. 
     Better systems and processes for the storage of hydrogen are required to advance the use of hydrogen as a clean fuel. 
     SUMMARY 
     The present disclosure is based on the fact that hydrogen gas has a volume of 22.4 litres per mole or per 2 grams of hydrogen at standard temperature and pressure but the hydrogen proton has a volume of only 4.2×10 −45  cubic metre or 4.2×10 −42  litres (Table 1). There are 6.022×10 −23  protons in 1 gram of hydrogen. The volume of 1 gram of hydrogen proton is (6.022×10 23 ×4.2×10 −42 )=2.52924×10 −18  litres. The volume of 4 kilograms of hydrogen protons is 1.012×10 −14  litres. The data shows there is a very large difference in the volumes of hydrogen gas and the hydrogen proton. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Properties of hydrogen protons 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Volume of single Hydrogen proton (m 3 ) 
                 4.2 ×  
                 10 −45   
               
               
                   
                 Volume of single Hydrogen proton (L) 
                 4.2 ×  
                 10 −42   
               
               
                   
                 Number of protons in 1 mole 
                 6.02 ×  
                 10 23   
               
               
                   
                 Volume of 1 mole of proton (L) 
                 2.53 ×  
                 10 −18   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Weight of 1 mole of proton (grams) 
                 1.0 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Volume of 2 mole of proton (L) 
                 5.06 ×  
                 10 −18   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Weight of 2 mole of proton (grams) 
                 2.0 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Volume of 4 kilograms of proton (L) 
                 1.012 ×  
                 10 −14   
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     To make full use of this scientific fact, a process is required to remove electrons from hydrogen gas for storage as hydrogen protons and add electrons to the hydrogen protons when hydrogen gas is required. 
     The storage of the oxygen ion is more complex as the ion contains 8 protons and 8 neutrons. The volume of 2 moles of oxygen ions (64 grams) is 0.010 litres and the volume of 1 mole liquid oxygen is 0.028 litres at −183° C. It may be more practical to use liquid oxygen as discussed below and storage of hydrogen proton and using liquid oxygen is a practical combination. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Properties of oxygen 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Calculated volume 
                 O 2−   
                 O 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Radius (m) 
                 1.26 ×  
                 10 −10   
                 7.3 ×  
                 10 −11   
               
               
                 Volume (m 3 ) 
                 8.38 ×  
                 10 −30   
                 1.63 ×  
                 10 −30   
               
               
                 Volume (L) 
                 8.38 ×  
                 10 −27   
                 1.63 ×  
                 10 −27   
               
               
                 Number of O 2−  in 1 mole Oxygen 
                 1.2 ×  
                 10 24   
                 1.2 ×  
                 10 24   
               
               
                 Mole volume of 1 mole (m 3 ) 
                 1.01 ×  
                 10 −5   
                 1.96 ×  
                 10 −6   
               
               
                 Mole volume of 1 mole (L) 
                 1.01 ×  
                 10 −2   
                 1.01 ×  
                 10 −3   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Mole volume of 1 kilogram of  
                 0.315625 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Oxygen ions (L) 
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Real Volume 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Liquid Oxygen (kg/L) 
                   
                   
                 1.141   
               
               
                 1 mole (32 grams) of liquid oxygen (L) 
                   
                   
                 0.0279965 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In a first aspect, the present disclosure provides a process for storing hydrogen as a proton, the process comprising:
         providing an electrolytic cell comprising an anode cell having an anode electrode and a cathode cell having a cathode electrode, the anode cell and the cathode cell being electrically connected via a diaphragm or electronic membrane between the anode cell and the cathode cell or via an anode solution electrode in the anode cell connected by an external conductor to a cathode solution electrode in the cathode cell;   feeding hydrogen to the anode cell and applying a DC current from a DC power source to the anode electrode to generate hydrogen protons from the hydrogen gas in the anode cell;   storing the generated hydrogen protons in a hydrogen proton storage medium; and   feeding oxygen to the cathode cell and applying a DC current from the DC power source to the cathode electrode to generate oxygen anions from the oxygen gas in the cathode cell and storing the generated oxygen anions, or   feeding hydrogen to the cathode cell and applying a DC current from the DC power source to the cathode solution electrode to generate hydrogen protons from the hydrogen gas in the cathode cell and storing the generated hydrogen protons in a hydrogen proton storage medium.       

     In certain embodiments of the first aspect, the hydrogen proton storage medium is an electrode with high surface area and/or a conducting aqueous or non-aqueous conductive liquid that contains hydrogen proton receptors comprising metal ions, particles of metal alloys, a metal coated with another metal, or an activated carbon particle infused with metal oxides and reduced by hydrogen. 
     In certain embodiments of the first aspect, the process further comprises generating hydrogen gas from the hydrogen protons by changing the electrical circuit so that electrons are added to the anode electrode and/or the cathode electrode under conditions to form hydrogen gas from the hydrogen protons. 
     In certain embodiments of the first aspect, the anode cell comprises a conductive gel between the anode electrode and the anode solution electrode and/or the cathode cell comprises a conductive gel between the cathode electrode and the cathode solution electrode. 
     In certain embodiments of the first aspect, the process further comprises feeding the hydrogen gas produced to a non-diffusion hydrogen fuel cell to produce electricity. 
     In certain embodiments of the first aspect, the hydrogen that is fed to the cell(s) is produced by unipolar electrolysis of water. 
     In a second aspect, the present disclosure provides an apparatus to store hydrogen as a proton, the apparatus comprising a diaphragm-less anode cell to produce hydrogen protons from hydrogen wherein the anode cell has an anode electrode and an anode solution electrode, the anode electrode being connected to a DC power source, a diaphragm-less cathode cell to produce hydrogen protons from hydrogen wherein the cathode cell has a cathode electrode and a cathode solution electrode, the cathode being connected to a DC power source, the anode solution electrode connected to the cathode solution electrode by an external conductor, means to apply a DC current from the DC power source to the anode electrode and the cathode electrode to produce hydrogen protons, and a hydrogen proton storage medium for storing the generated hydrogen protons. 
     In certain embodiments of the second aspect, the hydrogen proton storage medium comprises an electrode with high surface area and/or a conducting aqueous or non-aqueous conductive liquid that contains hydrogen proton receptors comprising metal ions, particles of metal alloys, a metal coated with another metal, or an activated carbon particle infused with metal oxides and reduced by hydrogen. 
     In certain embodiments of the second aspect, the apparatus further comprises means for generating hydrogen gas from the hydrogen protons by changing the electrical circuit so that electrons are added to the anode electrode and the cathode electrode under conditions to form hydrogen gas from the hydrogen protons. 
     In certain embodiments of the second aspect, the anode cell comprises a conductive gel between the anode electrode and the anode solution electrode and/or the cathode cell comprises a conductive gel between the cathode electrode and the cathode solution electrode. 
     In certain embodiments of the second aspect, the apparatus further comprises a non-diffusion hydrogen fuel cell configured to produce electricity from the hydrogen gas produced. 
     In certain embodiments of the second aspect, the apparatus further comprises a unipolar water electrolysis apparatus configured to produce hydrogen to be fed to the cell(s). 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
       Embodiments of the present invention will be discussed with reference to the accompanying drawings wherein: 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic diagram showing the comparative volume of 4 kilograms of hydrogen stored in different ways (data obtained from China Fuel Cell R&amp;D Centre); 
         FIG. 2  shows schematic diagrams showing the electrolytic storage of H 2  and O 2  ( FIG. 2A ) and the electrolytic recovery of H 2  and O 2  ( FIG. 2B ) using diaphragm electrolytic cells; 
         FIG. 3  shows schematic diagrams showing the electrolytic storage of H 2  and O 2  ( FIG. 3A ) and the electrolytic recovery of H 2  and O 2  ( FIG. 3B ) using diaphragm-less electrolytic cells; 
         FIG. 4  shows schematic diagrams showing the electrolytic storage of H 2  ( FIG. 4A ) and the electrolytic recovery of H 2  ( FIG. 4B ) using diaphragm-less electrolytic cells; 
         FIG. 5  shows schematic diagrams showing the electrolytic storage of H 2  ( FIG. 5A ) and the electrolytic recovery of H 2  ( FIG. 5B ) using a gel in unipolar cells; 
         FIG. 6  shows schematic diagrams showing hydrogen proton receptors in a liquid; 
         FIG. 7  shows schematic diagrams showing conceptually hydrogen protons attaching to a metal particle or ions.  FIG. 7A  depicts hydrogen protons attached to a magnesium nickel alloy,  FIG. 7B  depicts hydrogen protons attached to magnesium metal coated with nickel metal, and  FIG. 7C  depicts hydrogen protons attached to magnesium and nickel ions; 
         FIG. 8  is a schematic diagram showing conceptually hydrogen protons clustered around a Mg 2 Ni 6 Co 4 H 6  carbon particle; 
         FIG. 9  shows schematic diagrams of an apparatus for electrolytic storage of H 2  ( FIG. 9A ) and the electrolytic recovery of H 2  ( FIG. 9B ); 
         FIG. 10  is a schematic diagram showing the application of hydrogen proton storage in renewable energy power generation; 
         FIG. 11  is a schematic diagram showing a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle; 
         FIG. 12  is a schematic diagram showing commercial hydrogen fuel cell operations; 
         FIG. 13  is a schematic diagram showing a hydrogen ion liquid and non-diffusion fuel cell for transport vehicles; 
         FIG. 14  is a schematic diagram showing a submarine powered by hydrogen fuel cell(s) as disclosed herein; and 
         FIG. 15  is a schematic diagram showing a jet liner powered by hydrogen and oxygen as disclosed herein. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS 
     Provided herein is a process for storing hydrogen as a proton. The process comprises:
         providing an electrolytic cell  10  comprising an anode cell  12  having an anode electrode  16  and a cathode cell  14  having a cathode electrode  18 , the anode cell  12  and the cathode cell  14  being electrically connected via a diaphragm or electronic membrane  24  between the anode cell and the cathode cell or via an anode solution electrode  34  in the anode cell  12  connected by an external conductor  38  to a cathode solution electrode  36  in the cathode cell  14 ;   feeding hydrogen to the anode cell  12  and applying a DC current from a DC power source  30  to the anode electrode  16  to generate hydrogen protons from the hydrogen gas in the anode cell  12 ;   storing the generated hydrogen protons in a hydrogen proton storage medium; and   feeding oxygen to the cathode cell  14  and applying a DC current from a DC power source  30  to the cathode electrode  18  to generate oxygen anions from the oxygen gas in the cathode cell  14  and storing the generated oxygen anions, or   feeding hydrogen to the cathode cell  14  and applying a DC current from a DC power source  30  to the cathode solution electrode  36  to generate hydrogen protons from the hydrogen gas in the cathode cell  14  and storing the generated hydrogen protons in a hydrogen proton storage medium.       

       FIG. 2  is a schematic diagram of a process of the present disclosure based on the storage and recovery of hydrogen and oxygen using a diaphragm or membrane type electrolytic cell  10 . The cell  10  comprises an anode cell  12  and a cathode cell  14 . The anode cell  12  comprises an anode electrode  16  and an acid electrolyte  20 . The cathode cell  14  comprises a cathode electrode  18  and an alkaline electrolyte  22 . The anode cell  12  and cathode cell  14  are separated by a diaphragm or electronic membrane  24 . The structure and materials of components  12  to  24  can be any of those known to the skilled person. In use, hydrogen is loaded into the anode cell  12  and electrons are removed from the hydrogen gas producing hydrogen protons as shown in  FIG. 2A . The hydrogen protons are stored in a hydrogen proton storage medium in the anode cell  12 . The hydrogen proton storage medium may be any one or more of the following:
         An electrode  16  constructed from a very high surface area material such as expanded metal, gauze, sponge or sintered fine metal powders and made up of or coated with a material that attracts hydrogen, such as magnesium-nickel-cobalt hydride;   An electrolyte  20  that is an aqueous or non-aqueous conductive liquid that holds hydrogen protons; and/or   An electrolyte  20  that contains ions, or fine particles of alloys of magnesium-nickel and cobalt hydride that hold the hydrogen protons.       

     Oxygen is loaded into the cathode cell  14  and electrons are added to the oxygen converting it to oxygen ions. The oxygen ions are stored in the electrolyte  22 . 
     The hydrogen and oxygen can be produced or provided using any known method. In the illustrated embodiments, the hydrogen and oxygen are produced by unipolar electrolysis of water using electrolysis apparatus  26  as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,326,329. 
     The electrolytic cell  10  also comprises an electrical circuit  28  comprising a DC power source  30  and modulator  32  in electrical connection with the electrodes  16  and  18 . The circuit  28 , DC power source  30  and modulator  32  can be formed from materials known in the art. 
     To recover the hydrogen as a gas, the electrical circuit  28  is changed so that electrons are added to the hydrogen proton as shown in  FIG. 2B . Similarly, electrons are removed from the oxygen ion to form oxygen gas. The hydrogen gas and oxygen gas produced are then fed to a non-diffusion hydrogen fuel cell  34  to produce electricity and water as a by-product. The non-diffusion hydrogen fuel cell  34  can be any suitable cell, such as the one described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,475,653. 
     Thus, the present disclosure provides a process for storing hydrogen as a proton. The process comprises: providing an electrolytic cell  10  comprising an anode cell  12  having an anode electrode  16  and a cathode cell  14  having a cathode electrode  18  with a diaphragm or electronic membrane  24  between the anode cell  12  and the cathode cell  14 . The anode electrode  16  and cathode electrode  18  are connected to a DC power source  30 . In the illustrated embodiments, a single DC power source  30  is shown. However, it will be appreciated that each electrode  16  and  18  may also be connected to separate DC power sources. Hydrogen is fed to the anode cell  12  and a DC current is applied from the DC power source  30  to the anode electrode  16  and the cathode electrode  18  to generate hydrogen protons from the hydrogen gas in the anode cell  12 . The generated hydrogen protons are stored in a hydrogen proton storage medium. 
       FIG. 3  shows the electrolytic storage and recovery of the hydrogen and oxygen carried out using a diaphragm-less electrolytic cell  10  based on U.S. Pat. No. 5,882,502. The cell  10  comprises an anode cell  12  and a cathode cell  14 . The anode cell  12  comprises an anode electrode  16 , an anode solution electrode  34  and an acid electrolyte  20 . The cathode cell  14  comprises a cathode electrode  18 , a cathode solution electrode  36  and an alkaline electrolyte  22 . As shown in  FIG. 3A , hydrogen gas is fed into the anode cell  12  and electrons are removed from the hydrogen to produce the hydrogen proton. The hydrogen proton may be stored in a hydrogen proton storage medium in the anode cell  12 . The hydrogen proton storage medium may be any one or more of the following:
         An electrode  16  constructed from a very high surface area material such as expanded metal, gauze, sponge or sintered fine metal powders and made up of or coated with a material that attracts hydrogen, such as magnesium-nickel-cobalt hydride;   An electrolyte  20  that is an aqueous or non-aqueous conductive liquid that holds hydrogen protons; and/or   An electrolyte  20  that contains ions, or fine particles of alloys of magnesium-nickel and cobalt hydride that hold the hydrogen protons.       

     Oxygen is loaded into the cathode cell  14  and electrons are added to the oxygen converting it to oxygen ions. The oxygen ions are stored in the electrolyte  22 . 
     The hydrogen and oxygen can be produced or provided using any known method. In the illustrated embodiments, the hydrogen and oxygen are produced by unipolar electrolysis of water using electrolysis apparatus  26  as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,326,329. 
     The electrolytic cell  10  also comprises an electrical circuit  28  comprising a DC power source  30 , a modulator  32 , the anode solution electrode  34  and the cathode solution electrode  36  in electrical connection with the electrodes  16  and  18 . The circuit  28 , DC power source  30 , modulator  32  and solution electrodes  34  and  36  can be formed from materials known in the art. 
     To recover the hydrogen as a gas, the electrical circuit  28  is changed so that electrons are added to the hydrogen proton a shown in  FIG. 3B . Similarly, electrons are removed from the oxygen ions to form oxygen gas. The hydrogen gas and oxygen gas are then fed to a non-diffusion hydrogen fuel cell  34  to produce electricity and water as a by-product. The non-diffusion hydrogen fuel cell  34  can be any suitable cell, such as the one described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,475,653. 
     Thus, the present disclosure provides a process for storing hydrogen as a proton. The process comprises feeding hydrogen to a diaphragm-less anode cell  12  wherein the anode cell  12  has an anode electrode  16  and an anode solution electrode  34 . The anode electrode  16  is connected to a DC power source  30 . Oxygen is fed to a diaphragm-less cathode cell  14  wherein the cathode cell  14  has a cathode electrode  18  and a cathode solution electrode  36 . The cathode electrode  18  is connected to the DC power source  30 . The anode solution electrode  34  is connected to the cathode solution electrode  36  by an external conductor  38 . A DC current is applied from the DC power source  30  to the anode electrode  16  and the cathode electrode  18  to generate hydrogen protons from the hydrogen gas in the anode cell  12  and oxygen anions from the oxygen gas in the cathode cell  14 . The generated hydrogen protons are stored in a hydrogen proton storage medium comprising the electrode  16  with high surface area and/or a conducting aqueous or non-aqueous conductive liquid  20  that contains hydrogen proton receptors comprising metal ions, particles of metal alloys, a metal coated with another metal, or an activated carbon particle infused with metal oxides and reduced by hydrogen. 
     In some embodiments, oxygen generated during unipolar electrolysis of water can be vented to the atmosphere and the hydrogen generated can be used for electric power generation and powering land vehicles and water surface vessels. In these applications, unipolar electrolysis is used to store the hydrogen as shown in  FIG. 4 . As shown in  FIG. 4A , electrons are removed from the hydrogen as it is fed into the anode  12  and cathode cells  14 . The hydrogen proton may be stored in a hydrogen proton storage medium in the anode  12  and cathode cells  14 . The hydrogen proton storage medium may be any one or more of the following:
         An electrode  16  constructed from a very high surface area material such as expanded metal, gauze, sponge or sintered fine metal powders and made up of or coated with a material that attracts hydrogen, such as magnesium-nickel-cobalt hydride;   An electrolyte  20  that is an aqueous or non-aqueous conductive liquid that holds hydrogen protons; and/or   An electrolyte  20  that contains ions, or fine particles of alloys of magnesium-nickel and cobalt hydride that hold the hydrogen protons.       

     The oxygen produced in the unipolar electrolysis of water can be discharged to the atmosphere. 
     The details of the components of the electrolytic cell  10  shown in  FIG. 4  are the same as those shown in  FIG. 3 . 
     Thus, the present disclosure provides a process for storing hydrogen as a proton. The process comprises feeding hydrogen to a diaphragm-less anode cell  12  wherein the anode cell  12  has an anode electrode  16  and an anode solution electrode  34 . The anode electrode  16  is connected to a DC power source  30 . Hydrogen is also fed to a diaphragm-less cathode cell  14  wherein the cathode cell  14  has a cathode electrode  18  and a cathode solution electrode  36 . The anode electrode  16  and the cathode solution electrode  36  are connected to the DC power source  30 . The anode solution electrode  34  is connected to the cathode electrode  18  by an external conductor  38 . A DC current is applied from the DC power source  30  to the anode electrode  16  and the cathode solution electrode  36  to generate hydrogen protons from the hydrogen gas in the anode cell  12  and the cathode cell  14 . The generated hydrogen protons are stored in a hydrogen proton storage medium comprising the electrodes  16  and  18  with high surface area and/or a conducting aqueous or non-aqueous conductive liquids  20  and  22  that contain hydrogen proton receptors comprising metal ions, particles of metal alloys, a metal coated with another metal, or activated carbon particles infused with metal oxides and reduced by hydrogen. 
     In the hydrogen recovery shown in  FIG. 4B , the electrical circuit  28  is changed so that electrons are added to the hydrogen proton via the anode solution electrode  34  and the cathode electrode  18 . The hydrogen gas from the anode cell  12  and the cathode cell  14  is then fed to the non-diffusion hydrogen fuel cell  34  to produce electricity and water as a by-product. Oxygen is accessed from the atmosphere for the fuel cell reaction. As the fuel cell operates at no more 250° C., there is no chance of forming harmful nitrous oxide so that the waste product of the fuel cell  34  is water. 
     An alternative apparatus  10  is shown in  FIG. 5 . The apparatus  10  uses an acidic conductive gel  40  to connect the electrodes  16  and  18  in unipolar mode. The electrodes  16  and  18  are constructed of high surface area materials such as expanded metal, gauze, sponge or fine metal powder sintered together and made of alloys or coatings of magnesium nickel cobalt hydride. The hydrogen proton is stored on or in the surface of the electrodes  16  and  18 . During storage as shown in  FIG. 5A , electrons are removed from the hydrogen gas and the protons are stored on the surface of the electrodes  16  and  18 . During recovery as shown in  FIG. 5B , electrons are added to the protons at the electrodes to produce hydrogen gas. 
     The liquids that may be used to store the hydrogen proton include: aqueous liquids, such as solutions of sulfuric or phosphoric acid and weaker acids such as boric acid; and conducting non-aqueous conductive liquids. 
     Aqueous liquids increase their acidity as more hydrogen protons are dissolved in the liquid and this limits the amount of hydrogen protons that can be stored. 
     Conducting non-aqueous liquids may be able to dissolve a greater amount of hydrogen protons. According to Andreas Heintz, Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany (15 Apr. 2005), non-aqueous liquids are mixtures of ionic liquids with organic solvents. These have applications in electrically conductive liquids in electrochemistry. 
     There are many potential conducting non-aqueous liquids that can be used, such as sulfolane, 1-n-butyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium tetra-fluoroborate, and 1-n-butyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate. Potential non-aqueous liquids can be trialed in the apparatus shown in  FIG. 9 . 
     Hydrogen is attracted to metals such as magnesium nickel cobalt hydride. Therefore, the hydrogen proton will have greater attraction to these metals. One way to increase the proton storage capacity of a liquid is to add hydrogen proton carriers such as:
         Metal ions in the liquid;   Metal alloy particles in the liquid;   Metal particles coated with another metal; and/or   Activated carbon particles infused with metal alloys.       

       FIG. 6  shows metal alloy particles in a conductive liquid in  FIG. 6A , metal particles coated with another metal in a conductive liquid in  FIG. 6B  and  FIG. 6C  shows metal ions in a conductive liquid. 
       FIG. 7  shows more details of the hydrogen proton carriers.  FIG. 7A  shows an alloy made of magnesium, nickel and cobalt,  FIG. 7B  shows a magnesium particle coated with nickel and cobalt, while  FIG. 7C  shows magnesium, nickel and cobalt ions in a conductive liquid. 
       FIG. 8  shows a hydrogen proton carrier of a specific construction. It is a very fine activated carbon particle of about 30 to 40 micron size and infused with magnesium, nickel and cobalt in the ratio shown in an autoclave. The particle is then reduced in a hydrogen atmosphere at 1,000° C. for 1 hour. A procedure for producing the particles is as follows: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 1.  
                 Screen out 2.0 kilogram of activated carbon on 1,400 micron screen. 
               
               
                 2.  
                 Dry the material. 
               
               
                 3.  
                 Grind in a high speed grinder to talcum powder size. 
               
               
                 4.  
                 Feed into an autoclave with the following mixtures 
               
               
                   
                 (MgSO 4 ) 2  = 104.38 × 2 = 208.76 
               
               
                   
                 (NiSO 4 ). 6  = 138.76 × 0.6 = 83.26 
               
               
                   
                 (CoSO 4 ) .4  = 139.06 × 0.4 = 55.63 
               
               
                 5.  
                 Autoclave is 260H x 150D, say 160 H x 150 D: 
               
               
                   
                 Vol = 2,827 mls. 
               
               
                 6.  
                 Vol of 2 kg of fine activated carbon = 2000/1.7 = 1,176 mls. 
               
               
                 7.  
                 Vol. of Liquid allowed is = 2827 − 1176 = 1,651 mls 
               
               
                 8.  
                 Specific Gravity of: 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 2MgSO 4 •7H 2 O 
                 MW = 492.98 
                 Grams =  
                 985.96 
               
               
                   
                 NiSO 4 •7H 2 O 
                 MW = 280.86 
                 Grams =  
                 561.72 
               
               
                   
                 CoSO 4 •7H 2 O 
                 MW = 281.11 
                 Grams =  
                 562.22 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Total  
                 2,109.90 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 9.  
                 Vol of liquid is= 
               
               
                 10.  
                 Put into autoclave and stir at 200 psig for 30 minutes with Hydrogen. 
               
               
                 11.  
                 Depressurise and screen on SS Screen 
               
               
                 12.  
                 Dry and then break up into indvidual pieces. 
               
               
                 13.  
                 Charge into rotary furnace 
               
               
                 14.  
                 Purge with nitrogen. 
               
               
                 15 
                 Reduce with hydrogen at 1000 C. for 30 minutes. 
               
               
                 16.  
                 Cool and prepare for use in electrolytic hydrogen storage autoclave. 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     This particle can be tested for its capacity to hold hydrogen protons along with the particles described in  FIG. 7 . 
     The apparatus to test the proton holding capacity of the proton carriers is shown in  FIG. 9  where  FIG. 9A  shows the storage process. The apparatus can be used to produce hydrogen protons and oxygen ions but  FIG. 9  shows the apparatus being used to produce hydrogen protons at the cathode cell and anode cell. In  FIG. 9A , electrons are removed from the hydrogen to produce the protons.  FIG. 9B  shows the hydrogen recovery process where electrons are added to the protons. 
     The methods and apparatus of the present disclosure allow the storage and recovery of hydrogen at a very small volume. While 4 kilograms of hydrogen has a volume of 1.012×10 −14 , it is not necessary to go to this extent; it may be sufficient in practice, for example to go to a volume for the 4 kilograms of hydrogen to 1.012×10 −5  that is about ⅓ of the minimum volume. 
     Applications of the electrolytic storage of hydrogen methods and apparatus of the present disclosure include (but are not limited to):
         Storage for renewable energy systems;   Land transport vehicles such as cars;   Water craft such as ships and submarines; and   Aircraft such as jet airliners.       

     Renewable energy systems such as solar and wind are cyclic and require an efficient storage system to provide useful continuous electric power.  FIG. 10  shows the application of the hydrogen proton storage to a solar farm that allows continuous electric power to be delivered over 24 hours and even when there is little sunlight for several days. Solar energy is uneven, being low in the morning, rising to mid-day and declining in the afternoon; the hydrogen proton storage will even out the power delivery according to the load demand and not according to the time of day. 
     Most car manufacturers already have developed fuel cell cars and buses such as Mercedes Benz, Toyota, Ford, GM, Hyundai and others. What they require to make these vehicles practical is an efficient hydrogen storage system according to the present disclosure and the efficient fuel cell such as the non-diffusion hydrogen fuel cell described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,475,653.  FIG. 11  shows a concept car using the hydrogen storage of the present disclosure and the non-diffusion hydrogen fuel cell. Hydrogen comes from the storage system while oxygen is accessed from the atmosphere. 
       FIG. 12  shows the operation of a fuel cell vehicle in loading the hydrogen ion liquid where the hydrogen is stored as protons. The hydrogen ion liquid is prepared at the service point and a car drops its depleted hydrogen ion liquid into the service point and then takes in fully charged hydrogen ion liquid. This hydrogen ion liquid may last for about 1 to 3 months. 
       FIG. 13  shows more technical details of the operation of the hydrogen ion liquid and how electrons are added through the unipolar electrolysis. The depleted hydrogen ion liquid may be delivered to the same tank or to another tank. Oxygen for the fuel cell is accessed from the atmosphere. The efficiency of the hydrogen system can be calculated based on 80% efficiency for the fuel cell and a conservative voltage of 0.3 volts for the unipolar electrolysis of the hydrogen ion liquid, shown in the Table 3. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
                 Basis: 
                   
               
               
                   
                  1. H 2  + 1/2O 2  fi H 2 O H O , KJ/mol 
                 286 
               
               
                   
                  2. 1 Faraday, ampere-seconds (Coulombs) 
                 96,484 
               
               
                   
                  3. 1 kilojoule, joules 
                 1,000 
               
               
                   
                  4. 1 kilo Watt-hour, joules 
                 3,600,700.00 
               
               
                   
                  5. 1 kilowatt-hour = Calories 
                 860,420.65 
               
               
                   
                  6. 1 calorie, joules 
                 4.18 
               
               
                   
                  7. 1 kwh, joules 
                 3,600,000 
               
               
                   
                  8. Hydrogen Fuel Cell Efficiency, % 
                 80 
               
               
                   
                 Calculations: 
                   
               
               
                   
                  9. Input kw into the Hydrogen Fuel cell, kw 
                 85.00 
               
               
                   
                 10. For 1 hour operation, calories required, cals 
                 73,135,755.25 
               
               
                   
                 11. Hydrogen mole produces calories 
                 68,421.05 
               
               
                   
                 12. Moles of hydrogen required per hour, moles 
                 1,068.91 
               
               
                   
                 13. Grams of hydrogen required per hour, grams 
                 2,137.81 
               
               
                   
                 14. Ampere seconds required, ampere seconds 
                 206,264,883.05 
               
               
                   
                 15. Ampere required, ampere 
                 57,295.80 
               
               
                   
                 16. Current in Unipolar Mode, ampere hours 
                 28,647.90 
               
               
                   
                 17. KW if voltage is assumed as 0.3 volts 
                 8.59 
               
               
                   
                 18. Output Rating of Hydrogen fuel Cell, kw 
                 59.41 
               
               
                   
                 19. Nett Efficiency, % 
                 70 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     This nett efficiency that includes the fuel cell efficiency and the energy to reclaim the hydrogen from storage is very good compared to the current systems which may be about less than half the efficiency of the present disclosure. 
     Water vessels including pleasure and military vessels may be supplied with the hydrogen ion liquid and the oxygen is accessed from the atmosphere. It is different with submarines where part of the air may be accessed from the atmosphere but the submarine must carry liquid oxygen for use during submerged cruising.  FIG. 14  is a diagram of a submarine fitted with the non-diffusion hydrogen fuel cell to power the motors of the submarine and provided with hydrogen ion liquid. During surface cruising, the submarine may use the hydrogen ion liquid and access oxygen from the atmosphere. An important feature of the hydrogen fuel cell powered submarine over a diesel power submarine is the quietness and ease of operation. During submerged cruising, the submarine must rely on the liquid oxygen and the hydrogen ion for propulsion. Table 4 shows the difference in performance of the diesel powered Collins Class submarine. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Collins Class Submarine 
                 Collins Class 
                 H 2 -Fuel Cell 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Range, nautical miles 
                 11,000 
                 11,000 
               
               
                 Speed, knots 
                 21 
                 21 
               
               
                 Operational time, hours 
                 524 
                 524 
               
               
                 Power, 3 × 1,400 kw 
                 4,200 
                 4,200 
               
               
                 Kilowatt-hours Operation, kwh 
                   
                 2,200,000 
               
               
                 Watt-hours 
                   
                 2,200,000,000 
               
               
                 No. of Kilojoules 
                   
                 7,921,540,000 
               
               
                 No. of Reactions 
                   
                 13,848,846 
               
               
                 Tonnes of Oxygen, tonnes 
                   
                 443.16 
               
               
                 Tonnes Hydrogen, tonnes 
                   
                 55.40 
               
               
                 To double the range: 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Liquid Oxygen, tonnes 
                   
                 886 
               
               
                 Hydrogen, tonnes 
                   
                 111 
               
               
                 Range, Submerged—Nautical Miles 
                 480 
                 11,000 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The hydrogen fuel cell submarine is not only quiet and reliable but its submerged range is 11,000 nautical miles against 480 nautical miles for the diesel-battery submarine. 
     Jet airliners are a major cause of pollution not only for the carbon dioxide they produce but also more toxic materials such as nitrous oxide and unburnt hydrocarbons. 
       FIG. 15  is a diagram of an airliner using the hydrogen storage of the present disclosure. By using liquid oxygen and hydrogen only, there are no harmful products and the waste of the operation is only water even though the temperature of the rocket engine is white heat. The advantage of this is that there are no moving parts and the rocket engine is fully enclosed except for the exhaust. Aside from an easy retro-fit to existing jet airliners, the resulting airliner will be much safer and more economical to operate. 
     Table 5 shows the practicality of a rocket airliner using methods and apparatus of the present disclosure. It is based on a rocket airliner travelling from Melbourne to London a distance of 16,000 kilometers in one flight. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Range of a Jet Airliner—Boeing 787 
                 H 2  Airliner 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Energy Capacity-, kw 
                 72,000 
               
               
                 Distance Melbourne to London, km 
                 16,000 
               
               
                 Average speed of a 787 Dreamliner, kph 
                 954 
               
               
                 2H 2  + O 2  fi 2H 2 O, heat of reaction, kilojoules 
                 572 
               
               
                 1 Watt-hour, joules 
                 3,601 
               
               
                 Operating Hours of Boeing 787 Melbourne to  
                 17 
               
               
                 London, hrs 
                   
               
               
                 787 Operating for 30 hours, kwh 
                 1,207,547 
               
               
                 Watt-hours 
                 1,207,547,170 
               
               
                 No. of Kilojoules 
                 4,348,015,094 
               
               
                 No. of 2H 2  + O 2  reactions 
                 7,601,425 
               
               
                 Tonnes of O 2 , tonnes 
                 243.25 
               
               
                 Tonnes of Hydrogen, tonnes 
                 30.41 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Air travel in the future will be safer, more convenient, and cheaper plus the immeasurable benefit of using a non-carbon fuel. 
     The foregoing calculations are based on assumptions that can be confirmed by pilot plant or commercial plant tests. 
     Throughout the specification and the claims that follow, unless the context requires otherwise, the words “comprise” and “include” and variations such as “comprising” and “including” will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated integer or group of integers, but not the exclusion of any other integer or group of integers. 
     The reference to any prior art in this specification is not, and should not be taken as, an acknowledgement of any form of suggestion that such prior art forms part of the common general knowledge. 
     It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the invention is not restricted in its use to the particular application described. Neither is the present invention restricted in its preferred embodiment with regard to the particular elements and/or features described or depicted herein. It will be appreciated that the invention is not limited to the embodiment or embodiments disclosed, but is capable of numerous rearrangements, modifications and substitutions without departing from the scope of the invention as set forth and defined by the following claims.