Patent Publication Number: US-2007106253-A1

Title: Methods and kits for delivering pharmaceutical agents into the coronary vascular adventitia

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS  
      The present application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 10/350,314, filed Jan. 22, 2003 (Attorney Docket No. 21621-000110), which claims the benefit of each of the following provisional applications: No. 60/350,564, filed Jan. 22, 2002 (Attorney Docket No. 21621-000900); No. 60/356,670, filed Apr. 5, 2002 (Attorney Docket No. 21621-001000); No. 60/370,602, filed Apr. 5, 2002 (Attorney Docket No. 21621-000100); and No. 60/430,993, filed Dec. 3, 2002 (Attorney Docket No. 21621-001300), all of which are incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
      1. Field of the Invention  
      The present invention relates generally to medical methods and devices. More particularly, the present invention relates to medical methods and kits for distributing pharmaceutical agents in the adventitial tissue surrounding a blood vessel.  
      Coronary artery disease is the leading cause of death and morbidity in the United States and other western societies. In particular, atherosclerosis in the coronary arteries can cause myocardial infarction, commonly referred to as a heart attack, which can be immediately fatal or, even if survived, can cause damage to the heart which can incapacitate the patient. Other coronary diseases which cause death and incapacitation include congestive heart failure, vulnerable or unstable plaque, and cardiac arrhythmias. In addition to coronary artery disease, diseases of the peripheral vasculature can also be fatal or incapacitating. Blood clots and thrombus may occlude peripheral blood flow, leading to tissue and organ necrosis. Deep vein thrombosis in the legs can, in the worse cases, requiring amputation. Clots in the carotid artery can embolize and travel to the brain, potentially causing ischemic stroke.  
      While coronary artery bypass surgery is an effective treatment for stenosed arteries resulting from atherosclerosis and other causes, it is a highly invasive procedure which is also expensive and which requires substantial hospital and recovery time. Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA), commonly referred to as balloon angioplasty, is less invasive, less traumatic, and significantly less expensive than bypass surgery. Until recently, however, balloon angioplasty has not been considered to be as effective a treatment as bypass surgery. The effectiveness of balloon angioplasty, however, has improved significantly with the introduction of stenting which involves the placement of a scaffold structure within the artery which has been treated by balloon angioplasty. The stent inhibits abrupt reclosure of the artery and has some benefit in reducing subsequent restenosis resulting from hyperplasia.  
      Despite such improvement, patients who have undergone angioplasty procedures with subsequent stenting still suffer from a high incidence of restenosis resulting from hyperplasia. Very recently, however, experimental trials have demonstrated that the implanting of stents which have been coated with anti-proliferative drugs can significantly reduce the occurrence of hyperplasia, promising to make combined angioplasty and stenting a viable alternative to bypass surgery.  
      As an alternative to stent-based luminal drug delivery, the direct delivery of drug into vascular and other luminal walls has been proposed. For some time, the use of intravascular catheters having porous balloons, spaced-apart isolation balloons, expandable sleeves, and the like, have been used for releasing drugs into the inner surface of the endothelial wall of blood vessels.  
      Congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias, although sometimes related to coronary artery disease, are usually treated differently than are occlusive diseases. Congestive heart failure is most often treated pharmaceutically, although no particular drug regimens have proven to be highly effective. Proposed mechanical approaches for treating congestive heart failure include constraints for inhibiting further dilation of the heart muscle, and pace makers and mechanical devices for enhancing heart function. Cardiac arrhythmias may also be treated with drug therapies, and reasonably effective intravascular treatments for ablating aberrant conductive paths on the endocardial surfaces also exist. No one treatment, however, for either of these conditions is completely effective in all cases.  
      Of particular interest to the present invention, catheters carrying microneedles capable of delivering therapeutic and other agents deep into the adventitial layer surrounding blood vessel lumens have been described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,547,803 and 6,860,867, both having common inventorship with but different assignment than the present application, the full disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference.  
      Pharmaceutical therapies for coronary artery and other cardiac and vascular diseases can be problematic in a number of respects. First, it can be difficult to achieve therapeutically effective levels of a pharmaceutical agent in the cardiac tissues of interest. This is particularly true of systemic drug delivery, but also true of various intravascular drug delivery protocols which have been suggested. The release of a pharmaceutical agent directly on to the surface of a blood vessel wall within the heart or the peripheral vasculature frequently results in much or most of the drug being lost into the luminal blood flow. Thus, drugs which are difficult to deliver across the blood vessel wall will often not be able to reach therapeutically effective concentrations in the targeted tissue. Second, even when drugs are successfully delivered into the blood vessel wall, they will frequently lack persistence, i.e., the drug will be rapidly released back into the blood flow and lost from the targeted tissues. Third, it is frequently difficult to intravascularly deliver a pharmaceutical agent to remote and/or distributed diseased regions within a blood vessel. Most prior intravascular drug delivery systems, at best, deliver relatively low concentrations of the pharmaceutical agent into regions of the blood vessel wall which are directly in contact with the delivery catheter. Thus, diseased regions which may be remote from the delivery site(s) and/or which include multiple spaced-apart loci may receive little or no therapeutic benefit from the agent being delivered. Fourth, delivery of a pharmaceutical agent into the blood vessel wall may be insufficient to treat the underlying cause of disease. For example, delivery of anti-proliferative agents into the blood vessel wall may have limited benefit in inhibiting the smooth muscle cell migration which is believed to be a cause of intimal hyperplasia. Fifth, the etiology of the vascular disease may itself inhibit effective delivery of a pharmaceutical agent. Thus, systems and protocols which are designed to deliver drug into blood vessel wall at the site of disease may be limited in their effectiveness by the nature of the disease itself.  
      For these reasons, it would be desirable to provide additional and improved methods and kits for the intravascular delivery of pharmaceutical agents to treat coronary and other vascular diseases. In particular, it would be beneficial to provide methods which enhance the therapeutic concentrations of the pharmaceutical agents in diseased and other targeted tissues, not just the blood vessel walls. It would be further beneficial if the methods could efficiently deliver the drugs into the targeted tissue and limit or avoid the loss of drugs into the luminal blood flow. Similarly, it would beneficial to enhance the therapeutic concentrations of the pharmaceutical agent delivered to a particular targeted tissue. It would be still further beneficial if the persistence of such therapeutic concentrations of the pharmaceutical agent in the tissue were also increased, particularly in targeted tissues away from the blood vessel wall, including the adventitial tissue surrounding the blood vessel wall. Additionally, it would be beneficial to increase the uniformity and extent of pharmaceutical agent delivery over remote, extended, and distributed regions of the adventitia and other tissues surrounding the blood vessels. In some instances, it would be beneficial to provide methods which permit the delivery of pharmaceutical agents through the blood vessel walls at non-diseased sites within the blood vessel, where the agent would then be able to migrate through the adventitia or other tissues to the diseased site(s). At least some of these objectives will be met by the inventions described hereinafter. Still further, it would be desirable if such intravascular delivery of pharmaceutical agents would be useful for treating diseases and conditions of the tissues and organs in addition to those directly related to the heart or vasculature.  
      2. Description of the Background Art  
      U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,547,803 and 6,860,867, both having common inventorship with but different assignment than the present application, describe microneedle catheters which may be used in at least some of the methods described in the present application.  
     BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
      Methods and kits according to the present invention are able to achieve enhanced concentrations of many pharmaceutical agents in targeted tissues surrounding a blood vessel, particularly adventitial tissues, more particularly coronary adventitial tissues. The methods rely on intravascular delivery of the pharmaceutical agent using a catheter having a deployable microneedle. The catheter is advanced intravascularly to a target injection site (which may or may not be a diseased region) in a blood vessel. The needle is advanced through the blood vessel wall so that an aperture on the needle is positioned in a perivascular region (defined below) surrounding the injection site, and the pharmaceutical agent is delivered into the perivascular region through the microneedle.  
      This delivery protocol has been found to have a number of unexpected advantages. First, direct injection into the perivascular region has been found to immediately provide relatively high concentrations of the pharmaceutical agent in volume immediately surrounding the injected tissue. Second, following injection, it has been found that the injected agents will distribute circumferentially to substantially uniformly surround the blood vessel at the injection site as well as longitudinally to reach positions which are 1 cm, 2 cm, 5 cm, or more away from the injection site. In particular, the injected pharmaceutical agents have been found to distribute transmurally throughout the endothelial and intimal layers of the blood vessel, as well as in the media, or muscular layer, of the blood vessel wall. In the coronary arteries, in addition to circumferential and longitudinal migration, the pharmaceutical agent can migrate through the myocardium to reach the adventitia and wall structures surrounding blood vessels other than that through which the agent has been injected. Pathways for the distribution of the pharmaceutical agent are presently believed to exist through the pericardial space and the sub-epicardial space and may also exist in the vasa vasorum and other capillary channels through the muscle and connective tissues. Third, the delivered and distributed pharmaceutical agent(s) will persist for hours or days and will release back into the blood vessel wall over time. Thus, a prolonged therapeutic effect based on the pharmaceutical agent may be achieved in both the adventitia and the blood vessel wall. Fourth, after the distribution has occurred, the concentration of the pharmaceutical agent throughout its distribution region will be highly uniform. While the concentration of the pharmaceutical agent at the injection site will always remain the highest, concentrations at other locations in the peripheral adventitia around the injection site will usually reach at least about 10% of the concentration at the injection site, often being at least about 25%, and sometimes being at least about 50%. Similarly, concentrations in the adventitia at locations longitudinally separated from the injection site by about 5 cm will usually reach at least 5% of the concentration at the injection site, often being at least 10%, and sometimes being at least 25%. Finally, the methods of the present invention will allow for the injection of pharmaceutical agents through non-diseased regions of the coronary and peripheral vasculature to treat adjacent or remote diseased regions of the vasculature. The latter is of particular advantage since the diseased regions may be refractory to effective microneedle or other intravascular delivery protocols. Thus, pharmaceutical agent(s) can be delivered into the adventitia surrounding the diseased regions through remote injection sites.  
      The benefits of the present invention are achieved by delivering the pharmaceutical agents into a perivascular region surrounding a coronary artery or other blood vessel. The perivascular region is defined as the region beyond external elastic lamina of an artery or beyond the tunica media of a vein. Usually, injection will be made directly into the vasa vasorum region of the adventitia, and it has been found that the pharmaceutical agent disperses through the adventitia circumferentially, longitudinally, and transmurally from injection site. Such distribution can provide for delivery of therapeutically effective concentrations of many drugs which would be difficult to administer in other ways.  
      The adventitia is a layer of fatty tissue surrounding the arteries of the human and other vertebrate cardiovascular systems. The external elastic lamina (EEL) separates the fatty adventitial tissue from muscular tissue that forms the arterial wall. Microneedles of the present invention pass through the muscular tissue of the blood vessel and the EEL in order to reach the perivascular space into which the drug is injected. The drugs will typically either be in fluid form themselves, or will be suspended in aqueous or fluid carriers in order to permit dispersion of the pharmaceutical agents through the adventitia.  
      The adventitial tissue has a high concentration of lipids which will preferentially solubilize lipophilic pharmaceutical agents and hydrophilic or other pharmaceutical agents which are incorporated into lipophilic carriers, adjuvants, or the like. Both lipophilic and non-lipophilic pharmaceutical agents will have the ability to diffuse within and through the adventitia, with the rate and extent of such diffusion being controlled, at least in part, by the degree and nature of the lipophilic moieties present in the pharmaceutical agents. Thus, when pharmaceutical agents are injected, either by themselves or in an aqueous carrier, the agents may tend to be preferentially absorbed by the lipids in the adventitia. Pharmaceutical agents do not, however, remain localized at the site of injection, but instead will migrate and spread through the adventitia to locations remote from the injection site. The affinity between the pharmaceutical agents and the lipids in the adventitia, however, will provide for a controlled and sustained release of the lipophilic and other pharmaceutical agents over time. Thus, delivery of pharmaceutical agents into the adventitia creates a biological controlled release system for the agents. In particular, the pharmaceutical agents will slowly be released back from the adventitia into the muscle and other layers of the blood vessel wall to provide for prolonged pharmacological treatment of those areas. Such prolonged treatments can be particularly useful for inhibiting vascular hyperplasia and other conditions which are thought to initiate within the smooth muscle cells and other components of the blood vessel wall.  
      Pharmaceutical agents formulated to provide for sustained or controlled release of the pharmacologically active substances may be introduced directly into the adventitia by injection using the microneedle of the present invention. Numerous particular controlled release formulations are known in the art. Exemplary formulations include those which provide for diffusion through pores of a microcarrier or other particle, erosion of particles or barrier films, and combinations thereof. In addition, microparticles or nanoparticles of pure (neat) pharmaceutical substances may be provided. Cross-linked forms of such substances may also be utilized, and combinations thereof with erodable polymers may be employed. Other conventional formulations, such as liposomes, solubilizers (e.g. cyclodextrins), and the like, may be provided to control release of the active substance in the pharmaceutical agent.  
      In a first aspect of the present invention, a method for distributing a pharmaceutical agent in the adventitial tissue of a living vertebrate host&#39;s heart, such as a human heart, comprises positioning a microneedle through the wall of a coronary blood vessel and delivering an amount of the pharmaceutical agent therethrough. The aperture of the microneedle is located in a perivascular space surrounding the blood vessel, and the pharmaceutical agent distributes substantially completely circumferentially through adventitial tissue surrounding the blood vessel at the site of the microneedle. Usually, the agent will further distribute longitudinally along the blood vessel over a distance of at least 1 cm, often a distance of a least 5 cm, and sometimes a distance of at least 10 cm, within a time period no greater than 60 minutes, often within 5 minutes of less. While the concentration of the pharmaceutical agent in the adventitia will decrease in the longitudinal direction somewhat, usually, the concentration measured at a distance of 5 cm from the injection site will be at least 5% of the concentration measured at the same time at the injection site, often being at least 10%, frequently being as much as 25%, and sometimes being as much as 50%.  
      The aperture of the microneedle will be positioned so that it lies beyond the external elastic lamina (EEL) of the blood vessel wall and into the perivascular region surrounding the wall. Usually, the aperture will be positioned at a distance from the inner wall of the blood vessel which is equal to at least 10% of the mean luminal diameter of the blood vessel at the injection site. Preferably, the distance will be in the range from 10% to 75% of the mean luminal diameter. The amounts of the pharmaceutical agent delivered into the perivascular region may vary considerably, but will typically be in the range from 10 μl to 5000 μl, typically being from 100 μl to 1000 μl, and often being from 250 μl to 500 μl. Such methods for distributing pharmaceutical agents will be most often used in coronary arteries, typically for the treatment of hyperplasia or vulnerable plaque. The methods may further find use, however, in patients suffering from other vascular diseases, such as those in the peripheral vasculature, and in patients suffering from coronary conditions, including congestive heart failure, cardiac arrhythmias, and the like. In the latter cases, the methods of the present invention are particularly useful in delivering pharmaceutical agents widely and uniformly through the myocardium by using one or a relatively low number of injections in the coronary vasculature.  
      In a second aspect of the present invention, methods for depoting a lipophilic or other pharmaceutical agent in the adventitial tissue of a living vertebrate host, typically a human heart or other tissue, comprise positioning a microneedle through the wall of a coronary blood vessel and delivering an amount of the pharmaceutical agent into the perivascular space surrounding the blood vessel. The agent is delivered through an aperture in the microneedle directly into the perivascular space so that it distributes within the adventitial tissue surrounding the blood vessel. As described generally above, the interaction between the pharmaceutical agent and the lipid-containing adventitia provide for a depot or reservoir of the drug which is subsequently released into the blood vessel wall and other tissues in a controlled fashion over time. While the depoting pharmaceutical agent in the coronary adventitial tissue may find the greatest use, the depoting and release of drugs from other adventitial tissues located surrounding the peripheral vasculature will also find use in the treatment of peripheral vascular disease, as well as diseases of other organs and tissues.  
      Exemplary pharmaceutical agents for treating restenosis and hyperplasia include antiproliferative agents, immunosuppressive agents, anti-inflammatory agents, macrolide antibiotics, statins, anti-sense agents, metalloproteinase inhibitors, and cell cycle inhibitors and modulators. Agents for the treatment of arrhythmia include amiodarone, ibutilide, and mexiletine. Agents for the treatment of congestive heart failure include beta blockers, nitric oxide releasers, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, and calcium channel antagonists. Agents for treatment of vulnerable (unstable) plaque include macrolide antibiotics, anti-inflammatory agents, statins, and thioglitazones. Agents for the treatment of vasospasm include cerapamil, and lapararin. A more complete listing of pharmaceutical agents suitable for treating coronary, vascular, and other diseased tissues and organs in accordance with the principles of the present invention is set forth in Table I below.  
      In a third aspect of the present invention, a method for delivering a pharmaceutical agent to a diseased treatment region in a coronary blood vessel comprises positioning a microneedle through the wall of a coronary artery at a delivery site spaced-apart from the diseased treatment region. The delivery site may be located within the same blood vessel as the diseased treatment region at a location which is longitudinally spaced-apart from said region, or may be located in a different blood vessel, including a different artery, or more usually, in a cognate coronary vein. In all cases, an amount of the pharmaceutical agent is delivered through an aperture in the microneedle into a perivascular space surrounding the delivery site so that the agent distributes into adventitial tissue surrounding the diseased treatment region to provide for the desired therapy. In some instances, the diseased treatment region may have been previously stented where the delivery site is spaced away from the stent, either longitudinally away from the stent in the same coronary artery or remote from the stent in another coronary artery or vein.  
      In still further aspects of the present invention, kits for delivering pharmaceutical agents to a patient suffering from or at risk of coronary artery or other vascular or non-vascular disease comprise a catheter and instructions for use of the catheter. The catheter has a microneedle which can be advanced from a blood vessel lumen through a wall of the blood vessel to position an aperture of the microneedle at a perivascular space surrounding the blood vessel. The instructions for use set forth any of the three exemplary treatment protocols described above.  
      Finally, the present invention still further comprises the use of a catheter having a microneedle in the manufacture of an apparatus for delivering pharmaceutical agents to a patient suffering from coronary artery disease. The pharmaceutical agent is delivered from a blood vessel lumen into a perivascular space surrounding the blood vessel so that the agent distributes circumferentially through the adventitial tissue surrounding the blood vessel. Usually, the agent will also distribute longitudinally along the blood vessel over a distance of at least 5 cm within a time of no greater than 5 minutes, usually within 1 minute or less. In some cases, the agent may further distribute into regions of the adventitia surrounding other blood vessels. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       FIG. 1  is a schematic illustration of a coronary artery together with surrounding tissue illustrating the relationship between the perivascular space, the adventitia, and the blood vessel wall components.  
       FIG. 1A  is a schematic, perspective view of a microfabricated surgical device for interventional procedures in accordance with the methods and kits of the present invention in an unactuated condition.  
       FIG. 1B  is a schematic view along line  1 B- 1 B of  FIG. 1A .  
       FIG. 1C  is a schematic view along line  1 C- 1 C of  FIG. 1A .  
       FIG. 2A  is a schematic, perspective view of the microfabricated surgical device of  FIG. 1A  in an actuated condition.  
       FIG. 2B  is a schematic view along line  2 B- 2 B of  FIG. 2A .  
       FIG. 3  is a schematic, perspective view of the microfabricated surgical device of the present invention inserted into a patient&#39;s vasculature.  
       FIG. 4  is a schematic, perspective view of another embodiment of the device of the present invention.  
       FIG. 5  is a schematic, perspective view of still another embodiment of the present invention, as inserted into a patient&#39;s vasculature.  
       FIGS. 6A and 6B  illustrate the initial stage of the injection of a pharmaceutical agent into a perivascular space using the catheter of  FIG. 3 .  FIG. 6A  is a view taken across the blood vessel and  FIG. 6B  is a view taken along the longitudinal length of the blood vessel.  
       FIGS. 7A and 7B  are similar to  FIGS. 6A and 6B  showing the extent of pharmaceutical agent distribution at a later time after injection.  
       FIGS. 8A and 8B  are again similar to  FIGS. 6A and 6B  showing the extent of pharmaceutical agent distribution at a still later time following injection.  
       FIGS. 9 and 10  illustrate data described in the Experimental section herein. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION  
      The present invention will preferably utilize microfabricated catheters for intravascular injection. The following description provides two representative embodiments of catheters having microneedles suitable for the delivery of a pharmaceutical agent into a perivascular space or adventitial tissue. A more complete description of the catheters and methods for their fabrication is provided in copending applications Ser. Nos. 09/961,079 and 09/961,080, the full disclosures of which have been incorporated herein by reference.  
      The perivascular space is the potential space over the outer surface of a “vascular wall” of either an artery or vein. Referring to  FIG. 1 , a typical arterial wall is shown in cross-section where the endothelium E is the layer of the wall which is exposed to the blood vessel lumen L. Underlying the endothelium is the basement membrane BM which in turn is surrounded by the intima I. The intima, in turn, is surrounded by the internal elastic lamina IEL over which is located the media M. In turn, the media is covered by the external elastic lamina (EEL) which acts as the outer barrier separating the arterial wall, shown collectively as W, from the adventitial layer A. Usually, the perivascular space will be considered anything lying beyond the external elastic lamina EEL, including regions within the adventitia and beyond.  
      The microneedle is inserted, preferably in a substantially normal direction, into the wall of a vessel (artery or vein) to eliminate as much trauma to the patient as possible. Until the microneedle is at the site of an injection, it is positioned out of the way so that it does not scrape against arterial or venous walls with its tip. Specifically, the microneedle remains enclosed in the walls of an actuator or sheath attached to a catheter so that it will not injure the patient during intervention or the physician during handling. When the injection site is reached, movement of the actuator along the vessel terminated, and the actuator is operated to cause the microneedle to be thrust outwardly, substantially perpendicular to the central axis of a vessel, for instance, in which the catheter has been inserted.  
      As shown in  FIGS. 1A-2B , a microfabricated intravascular catheter  10  includes an actuator  12  having an actuator body  12   a  and central longitudinal axis  12   b . The actuator body more or less forms a C-shaped outline having an opening or slit  12   d  extending substantially along its length. A microneedle  14  is located within the actuator body, as discussed in more detail below, when the actuator is in its unactuated condition (furled state) ( FIG. 1B ). The microneedle is moved outside the actuator body when the actuator is operated to be in its actuated condition (unfurled state) ( FIG. 2B ).  
      The actuator may be capped at its proximal end  12   e  and distal end  12   f  by a lead end  16  and a tip end  18 , respectively, of a therapeutic catheter  20 . The catheter tip end serves as a means of locating the actuator inside a blood vessel by use of a radio opaque coatings or markers. The catheter tip also forms a seal at the distal end  12   f  of the actuator. The lead end of the catheter provides the necessary interconnects (fluidic, mechanical, electrical or optical) at the proximal end  12   e  of the actuator.  
      Retaining rings  22   a  and  22   b  are located at the distal and proximal ends, respectively, of the actuator. The catheter tip is joined to the retaining ring  22   a , while the catheter lead is joined to retaining ring  22   b . The retaining rings are made of a thin, on the order of 10 to 100 microns (μm), substantially rigid material, such as parylene (types C, D or N), or a metal, for example, aluminum, stainless steel, gold, titanium or tungsten. The retaining rings form a rigid substantially “C”-shaped structure at each end of the actuator. The catheter may be joined to the retaining rings by, for example, a butt-weld, an ultra sonic weld, integral polymer encapsulation or an adhesive such as an epoxy.  
      The actuator body further comprises a central, expandable section  24  located between retaining rings  22   a  and  22   b . The expandable section  24  includes an interior open area  26  for rapid expansion when an activating fluid is supplied to that area. The central section  24  is made of a thin, semi-rigid or rigid, expandable material, such as a polymer, for instance, parylene (types C, D or N), silicone, polyurethane or polyimide. The central section  24 , upon actuation, is expandable somewhat like a balloon-device.  
      The central section is capable of withstanding pressures of up to about 100 atmospheres upon application of the activating fluid to the open area  26 . The material from which the central section is made of is rigid or semi-rigid in that the central section returns substantially to its original configuration and orientation (the unactuated condition) when the activating fluid is removed from the open area  26 . Thus, in this sense, the central section is very much unlike a balloon which has no inherently stable structure.  
      The open area  26  of the actuator is connected to a delivery conduit, tube or fluid pathway  28  that extends from the catheter&#39;s lead end to the actuator&#39;s proximal end. The activating fluid is supplied to the open area via the delivery tube. The delivery tube may be constructed of Teflon© or other inert plastics. The activating fluid may be a saline solution or a radio-opaque dye.  
      The microneedle  14  may be located approximately in the middle of the central section  24 . However, as discussed below, this is not necessary, especially when multiple microneedles are used. The microneedle is affixed to an exterior surface  24   a  of the central section. The microneedle is affixed to the surface  24   a  by an adhesive, such as cyanoacrylate. The mesh-like structure (if included) may be-made of, for instance, steel or nylon.  
      The microneedle includes a sharp tip  14   a  and a shaft  14   b . The microneedle tip can provide an insertion edge or point. The shaft  14   b  can be hollow and the tip can have an outlet port  14   c , permitting the injection of a pharmaceutical or drug into a patient. The microneedle, however, does not need to be hollow, as it may be configured like a neural probe to accomplish other tasks.  
      As shown, the microneedle extends approximately perpendicularly from surface  24   a . Thus, as described, the microneedle will move substantially perpendicularly to an axis of a vessel or artery into which has been inserted, to allow direct puncture or breach of vascular walls.  
      The microneedle further includes a pharmaceutical or drug supply conduit, tube or fluid pathway  14   d  which places the microneedle in fluid communication with the appropriate fluid interconnect at the catheter lead end. This supply tube may be formed integrally with the shaft  14   b , or it may be formed as a separate piece that is later joined to the shaft by, for example, an adhesive such as an epoxy.  
      The needle  14  may be a 30-gauge, or smaller, steel needle. Alternatively, the microneedle may be microfabricated from polymers, other metals, metal alloys or semiconductor materials. The needle, for example, may be made of parylene, silicon or glass. Microneedles and methods of fabrication are described in U.S. patent publication 2002/0188310, entitled “Microfabricated Surgical Device”, having common inventorship with but different assignment than the subject application, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.  
      The catheter  20 , in use, is inserted through an artery or vein and moved within a patient&#39;s vasculature, for instance, an artery  32 , until a specific, targeted region  34  is reaches (see  FIG. 3 ). As is well known in catheter-based interventional procedures, the catheter  20  may follow a guide wire  36  that has previously been inserted into the patient. Optionally, the catheter  20  may also follow the path of a previously-inserted guide catheter (not shown) that encompasses the guide wire.  
      During maneuvering of the catheter  20 , well-known methods of fluoroscopy or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be used to image the catheter and assist in positioning the actuator  12  and the microneedle  14  at the target region. As the catheter is guided inside the patient&#39;s body, the microneedle remains unfurled or held inside the actuator body so that no trauma is caused to the vascular walls.  
      After being positioned at the target region  34 , movement of the catheter is terminated and the activating fluid is supplied to the open area  26  of the actuator, causing the expandable section  24  to rapidly unfurl, moving the microneedle  14  in a substantially perpendicular direction, relative to the longitudinal central axis  12   b  of the actuator body  12   a , to puncture a vascular wall  32   a . It may take only between approximately 100 milliseconds and two seconds for the microneedle to move from its furled state to its unfurled state.  
      The ends of the actuator at the retaining rings  22   a  and  22   b  remain rigidly fixed to the catheter  20 . Thus, they do not deform during actuation. Since the actuator begins as a furled structure, its so-called pregnant shape exists as an unstable buckling mode. This instability, upon actuation, produces a large-scale motion of the microneedle approximately perpendicular to the central axis of the actuator body, causing a rapid puncture of the vascular wall without a large momentum transfer. As a result, a microscale opening is produced with very minimal damage to the surrounding tissue. Also, since the momentum transfer is relatively small, only a negligible bias force is required to hold the catheter and actuator in place during actuation and puncture.  
      The microneedle, in fact, travels so quickly and with such force that it can enter perivascular tissue  32   b  as well as vascular tissue. Additionally, since the actuator is “parked” or stopped prior to actuation, more precise placement and control over penetration of the vascular wall are obtained.  
      After actuation of the microneedle and delivery of the pharmaceutical to the target region via the microneedle, the activating fluid is exhausted from the open area  26  of the actuator, causing the expandable section  24  to return to its original, furled state. This also causes the microneedle to be withdrawn from the vascular wall. The microneedle, being withdrawn, is once again sheathed by the actuator.  
      By way of example, the microneedle may have an overall length of between about 200 and 3,000 microns (μm). The interior cross-sectional dimension of the shaft  14   b  and supply tube  14   d  may be on the order of 20 to 250 um, while the tube&#39;s and shaft&#39;s exterior cross-sectional dimension may be between about 100 and 500 μm. The overall length of the actuator body may be between about 5 and 50 millimeters (mm), while the exterior and interior cross-sectional dimensions of the actuator body can be between about 0.4 and 4 mm, and 0.5 and 5 mm, respectively. The gap or slit through which the central section of the actuator unfurls may have a length of about 4-40 mm, and a cross-sectional dimension of about 50-500 μm. The diameter of the delivery tube for the activating fluid may be about 100 μm to 1000 μm. The catheter size may be between 1.5 and 15 French (Fr).  
      Methods of the present invention may also utilize a multiple-buckling actuator with a single supply tube for the activating fluid. The multiple-buckling actuator includes multiple needles that can be inserted into or through a vessel wall for providing injection at different locations or times. For instance, as shown in  FIG. 4 , the actuator  120  includes microneedles  140  and  142  located at different points along a length or longitudinal dimension of the central, expandable section  240 . The operating pressure of the activating fluid is selected so that the microneedles move at the same time. Alternatively, the pressure of the activating fluid may be selected so that the microneedle  140  moves before the microneedle  142 .  
      Specifically, the microneedle  140  is located at a portion of the expandable section  240  (lower activation pressure) that, for the same activating fluid pressure, will buckle outwardly before that portion of the expandable section (higher activation pressure) where the microneedle  142  is located. Thus, for example, if the operating pressure of the activating fluid within the open area of the expandable section  240  is two pounds per square inch (psi), the microneedle  140  will move before the microneedle  142 . It is only when the operating pressure is increased to four psi, for instance, that the microneedle  142  will move. Thus, this mode of operation provides staged buckling with the microneedle  140  moving at time t 1 , and pressure p 1 , and the microneedle  142  moving at time t 2  and p 2 , with t 1 , and p 1 , being less than t 2  and p 2 , respectively.  
      This sort of staged buckling can also be provided with different pneumatic or hydraulic connections at different parts of the central section  240  in which each part includes an individual microneedle.  
      Also, as shown in  FIG. 5 , an actuator  220  could be constructed such that its needles  222  and  224 A move in different directions. As shown, upon actuation, the needles move at angle of approximately 90° to each other to puncture different parts of a vessel wall. A needle  224 B (as shown in phantom) could alternatively be arranged to move at angle of about 180° to the needle  224 A.  
      Referring now to FIGS.  6 A/ 6 B through FIGS.  8 A/ 8 B, use of the catheter  10  of  FIGS. 1-3  for delivering a pharmaceutical agent according to the methods of the present invention will be described. The catheter  10  may be positioned so that the actuator  12  is positioned at a target site for injection within a blood vessel, as shown in FIGS.  6 A/ 6 B. The actuator penetrates the needle  14  through the wall W so that it extends past the external elastic lamina (EEL) into the perivascular space surrounding the EEL. Once in the perivascular space, the pharmaceutical agent may be injected, typically in a volume from 10 μl to 5000 μl, preferably from 100 μl to 1000 μl, and more preferably 250 μl to 500 μl, so that a plume P appears. Initially, the plume occupies a space immediately surrounding an aperture in the needle  14  and extending neither circumferentially nor longitudinally relative toward the external wall W of the blood vessel. After a short time, typically in the range from 1 to 10 minutes, the plume extends circumferentially around the external wall W of the blood vessel and over a short distance longitudinally, as shown in  FIGS. 7A and 7B , respectively. After a still further time, typically in the range from 5 minutes to 24 hours, the plume will extend substantially completely circumferentially, as illustrated in  FIG. 8A , and will begin to extend longitudinally over extended lengths, typically being at least about 2 cm, more usually being about 5 cm, and often being 10 cm or longer, as illustrated in  FIG. 8B .  
      As just described, of course, the extent of migration of the pharmaceutical agent is not limited to the immediate region of the blood vessel through which the agent is been injected into the perivascular space. Instead, depending on the amounts injected and other conditions, the pharmaceutical agent may extend further into and through the myocardium other connective tissues so that it surrounds the extravascular spaces around other blood vessels, including both arteries and veins. As also described above, such broad myocardial, epicardial, or pericardial delivery can be particularly useful for treating non-localized cardiac conditions, such as conditions associated with congestive heart failure conditions associated with vulnerable or unstable plaque and conditions associated with cardiac arrhythmias. Delivery and diffusion of a pharmaceutical agent into a peripheral extravascular space can be particularly useful for treating diffuse vascular diseases.  
      The methods and kits described above may be used to deliver a wide variety of pharmaceutical agents intended for both local and non-local treatment of the heart and vasculature. Exemplary pharmaceutical agents include antineoplastic agents, antiproliferative agents, cytostatic agents, immunosuppressive agents, anti-inflammatory agents, macrolide antibiotics, antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antibodies, lipid lowering treatments, calcium channel blockers, ACE inhibitors, gene therapy agents, anti-sense drugs, double stranded short interfering RNA molecules, metalloproteinase inhibitors, growth factor inhibitors, cell cycle inhibitors, angiogenesis drugs, anti-angiogenesis drugs, and/or radiopaque contrast media for visualization of the injection under guided X-ray fluoroscopy. Each of these therapeutic agents has shown promise in the treatment of cardiovascular disease, restenosis, congestive heart failure, and/or vulnerable plaque lesions. Particular agents are set forth in Table I.  
                   TABLE I                          1.   Antiproliferative agents, immunosuppressive agents,           cytostatic, and anti-inflammatory agents, including           but not limited to sulindac, tranilast, ABT-578, AVI-4126,           sirolimus, tacrolimus, everolimus, cortisone, dexamethosone,           cyclosporine, cytochalisin D, valsartin, methyl prednisolone,           thioglitazones, acetyl salicylic acid, sarpognelate, and           nitric oxide releasing agents, which interfere with the           pathological proliverative response after coronary           antioplasty to prevent intimal hyperplasia, smooth muscle           cell activation and migration, and neointimal thickening.       2.   Antineoplastic agents, including but not limited to           paclitaxel, actinomycin D, and latrunculin A, which           interfere with the pathological proliferative response           after coronary angioplasty to prevent intimal hyperplasia,           smooth muscle activation and migration and neointimal           thickening.       3.   Macrolide antibiotics, including but not limited to           sirolimus, tacrolimus, everolimus, azinthromycin,           clarithromycin, and erythromycin, which inhibit or kill           microorganiss that may contribute to the inflammatory           process that triggers or exacerbates restenosis and           vulnerable plaque. In addition many macrolide antibiotics,           including but not limited to sirolimus and tacrolimus, have           immunosuppressive effects that can prevent intimal           hyperplasia, neointimal proliferation, and plaque rupture.           Other antibiotics, including but not limited to sirolumus,           tacrolimus, everolimus, azithromycin, clarithromycin,           doxycycline, and erothromycin, inhibit or kill microorganisms           that may contribute to the inflammatory process that           triggers or exacerbates restenosis and vulnerable plaque.       4.   Antivirals, including but not limited to acyclovir,           ganciclovir, fancyclovir and valacyclovir, inhibit or kill           viruses that may contribute to the inflammatory process that           triggers or exacerbates restenosis and vulnerable plaque.       5.   Antibodies which inhibit or kill microorganisms that may           contribute to the inflammatory process that triggers or           exacerbates restenosis and vulnerable plaque or to inhibit           specific growth factors or cell regulators.       6.   Lipid-lowering treatments, including but not limited to           statins, such as trichostatin A, which modify plaques,           reducing inflammation and stabilizing vulnerable plaques.       7.   Gene therapy agents which achieve overexpression of genes           that may ameliorate the process of vascular occlusive           disease or the blockade of the expression of the genes that           are critical to the pathogenesis of vascular occlusive disease.       8.   Anti-sense agents, including but not limited to AVI-4126,           achieve blockade of genes and mRNA, including but not           limited to c-myc, c-myb, PCNA, cdc2, cdk2, or cdk9s,           through the use of short chains of nucleic acids known           as antisense oligodeoxynucleotides.       9.   Metalloproteinase inhibitors, including but not limited to           batimastat, inhibit constrictive vessel remodeling.       10.   Cell cycle inhibitors and modulators and growth factor           inhibitors and modulators, including but not limited to           cytokine receptor inhibitors, such as interleukin 10 or           propagermanium, and modulators of VEGF, IGF, and tubulin,           inhibit or modulate entry of vascular smooth muscle cells           into the cell cycle, cell migration, expression           chemoattractants and adhesion molecules, extracellular           matrix formation, and other factors that trigger neointimal           hyperplasia.       11.   Angiogenesis genes or agents which increase microvasculature           of the pericardium, vaso vasorum, and adventitia to increase           blood flow.       12.   Anti-angiogenesis genes or agents inhibit factors that are           associated with microvascularization of atherosclerotic           plaque and which directly or indirectly also induce smooth           muscle cell proliferation.       13.   Antithrombotics including but not limited to IIb/IIIa           inhibitors, Abciximab, heparin, clopidigrel, and warfarin.                  
 
      The following Experiments are offered by way of illustration, not by way of limitation.  
     EXPERIMENTAL  
      Studies were performed to show visual and quantitative evidence of depostion of agents in the adventitia and distribution of the deposited agents from that site.  
      Distribution of fluorescent-labeled drug: Oregon Green® 488 paclitaxel (OGP) was injected into balloon-injured or normal porcine coronary arteries (15 arteries, 6 pigs) using a microneedle injection catheter having a needle with a diameter of 150 μm. Injections were made to depths in the range from 0.8 mm to 1.2 mm. One artery was treated intraluminally with 5 mL OGP to determine background vascular uptake. Animals were sacrificed 0.5-23 hr post-procedure following IACUC-approved protocol. After sacrifice, the LAD, RCA and LCx were removed, cut into 4-5 mm sections, which were frozen and cryosectioned. The slides were counter-stained with 0.1% Evan&#39;s Blue in PBS (5 min 37 C) to quench autofluorescence, observed with a UV microscope, and scored 0-4+. Representative sections were photographed.  
      Acutely harvested tissue (&lt;2 hr post-procedure) showed 4+ staining of the adventitia when OGP was delivered with the microneedle catheter through the vessel wall. With increasing time after delivery, drug penetrated into the media and extended longitudinally 13-24 mm (mean, 15 mm) from the injection site. At 23 hr, staining was observed throughout the circumference of the artery, with longitudinal extension of 23- 32  mm (mean, 27.5 mm). OGP delivered into the lumen without needle deployment resulted in staining on the luminal surface only.  
      Distribution of silver nitrate: Two injections of 0.5 mL 5% Silver Nitrate were made into each iliac artery of a rabbit. The animal was sacrificed according to approved protocol following the last injection. The arteries were removed and placed in 10% formalin without perfusion. 2 mm segments were embedded in paraffin, sectioned, and hematoxylin-eosin stained.  
      Staining showed delivery outside the external elastic lamina of the vessels and diffusion around the circumference.  
      Distribution of a lipophilic compound (tacrolimus): Eight swine underwent angiography. Twenty-two coronary arteries (2.25-2.75 mm) received 125 micrograms tacrolimus in two 500 micrograms injections approximately 1 cm apart. The two remaining arteries served as untreated controls. An untreated heart was used as a negative control. At 48 hours arteries were dissected from the musculature and perivascular fat, cut into 5 mm sections and analyzed by Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry against tacrolimus calibration standards containing homogenized untreated porcine heart tissue.  
      In 8/8 subjects, periadventitial delivery of tacrolimus resulted in distribution to the entire coronary tree with higher concentrations at injection sites. Drug was detected in 285/293 segments, including side branches and uninjected arteries. The mean levels of tacrolimus were 5.5 ng/100 mg tissue (SD=2.5, N=15) in the confirmed injected arteries, 2.7 ng/100 mg tissue (SD=1.1, N=2) in uninjected arteries of treated hearts, and 0.08 ng/100 mg tissue (SD=0.14, N=3) in uninjected arteries of the untreated heart. Mean concentration within 1 cm of known injection sites was 6.4 ng/100 mg tissue (SD=3.7, N=13) versus 2.6 ng/100 mg tissue (SD=1.5, N=13) in the remaining segments (p&lt;0.001). Data are provided in  FIGS. 9 and 10 .  
      The microsyringe delivered agent to the adventitia, demonstrated by circumferential and longitudinal arterial distribution of fluorescent-labeled paclitaxel and silver nitrate. The paclitaxel studies showed that the distribution increased over time. Quantitative measurement of tacrolimus showed distribution of drug the full length of the artery, which was detectable 48 hours after injection.  
      A number of embodiments of the invention have been described. Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as claimed hereinafter.