Patent Publication Number: US-6710540-B1

Title: Electrostatically-addressable electrophoretic display

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 08/504,896 filed Jul. 20, 1995, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,124,851, U.S. Ser. No. 08/983,404 filed Mar. 26, 1999, and U.S. Ser. No. 08/935,800 filed Sep. 23, 1997, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,120,588, the contents of all of which are incorporated herein by reference. This application claims priority to U.S. Ser. No. 60/057,133 filed Aug. 28, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/057,716, filed Aug. 28, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/057,122, filed Aug. 28, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/057,798, filed Aug. 28, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/057,799 filed Aug. 28, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/057,163 filed Aug. 28, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/057,118, filed Aug. 28, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/059,358, filed Sep. 19, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/059,543 filed Sep. 19, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/065,629, filed Nov. 18, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/065,630 filed Nov. 18, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/065,605 filed Nov. 18, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/066,147, filed Nov. 19, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/066,245, filed Nov. 20, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/066,246, filed Nov. 20, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/066,115 filed Nov. 21, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/066,334 filed Nov. 21, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/066,418 filed Nov. 24, 1997, U.S. Ser. No. 60/070,940 filed Jan. 9, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/071,371 filed Jan. 15, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/072,390 filed Jan. 9, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/070,939 filed Jan. 9, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/070,935 filed Jan. 9, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/074,454, filed Feb. 12, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/076,955 filed Mar. 5, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/076,959 filed Mar. 5, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/076,957 filed Mar. 5, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/076,978 filed Mar. 5, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/078,363 filed Mar. 18, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/083,252 filed Apr. 27, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/085,096 filed May 12, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/090,223 filed Jun. 22, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/090,232 filed Jun. 22, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/092,046 filed Jul. 8, 1998, U.S. Ser. No. 60/092,050 filed Jul. 8, 1998, and U.S. Ser. No. 60/093,689 filed Jul. 22, 1998, the contents of all of which are incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to addressing apparatus for electronic displays and, in particular, to addressing apparatus for encapsulated electrophoretic displays that use a stylus. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Traditionally, electronic displays such as liquid crystal displays have been made by sandwiching an optoelectrically active material between two pieces of glass. In many cases each piece of glass has an etched, clear electrode structure formed using indium tin oxide. A first electrode structure controls all the segments of the display that may be addressed, that is, changed from one visual state to another. A second electrode, sometimes called a counter electrode, addresses all display segments as one large electrode, and is generally designed not to overlap any of the rear electrode wire connections that are not desired in the final image. Alternatively, the second electrode is also patterned to control specific segments of the displays. In these displays, unaddressed areas of the display have a defined appearance. 
     Electrophoretic display media, generally characterized by the movement of particles through an applied electric field, are highly reflective, can be made bistable, and consume very little power. Encapsulated electrophoretic displays also enable the display to be printed. These properties allow encapsulated electrophoretic display media to be used in many applications for which traditional electronic displays are not suitable, such as flexible displays. The electro-optical properties of encapsulated displays allow, and in some cases require, novel schemes or configurations to be used to address the displays. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     An object of the invention is to provide a highly-flexible, reflective display which can be manufactured easily, consumes little (or no in the case of bistable displays) power, and can, therefore, be incorporated into a variety of applications. The invention features a printable display comprising an encapsulated electrophoretic display medium. The resulting display is flexible. Since the display media can be printed, the display itself can be made inexpensively. 
     An encapsulated electrophoretic display can be constructed so that the optical state of the display is stable for some length of time. When the display has two states which are stable in this manner, the display is said to be bistable. If more than two states of the display are stable, then the display can be said to be multistable. For the purpose of this invention, the term bistable will be used to indicate a display in which any optical state remains fixed once the addressing voltage is removed. The definition of a bistable state depends on the application for the display. A slowly-decaying optical state can be effectively bistable if the optical state is substantially unchanged over the required viewing time. For example, in a display which is updated every few minutes, a display image which is stable for hours or days is effectively bistable for that application. In this invention, the term bistable also indicates a display with an optical state sufficiently long-lived as to be effectively bistable for the application in mind. Alternatively, it is possible to construct encapsulated electrophoretic displays in which the image decays quickly once the addressing voltage to the display is removed (i.e., the display is not bistable or multistable). As will be described, in some applications it is advantageous to use an encapsulated electrophoretic display which is not bistable. Whether or not an encapsulated electrophoretic display is bistable, and its degree of bistability, can be controlled through appropriate chemical modification of the electrophoretic particles, the suspending fluid, the capsule, and binder materials. 
     An encapsulated electrophoretic display may take many forms. The display may comprise capsules dispersed in a binder. The capsules may be of any size or shape. The capsules may, for example, be spherical and may have diameters in the millimeter range or the micron range, but is preferably from ten to a few hundred microns. The capsules may be formed by an encapsulation technique, as described below. Particles may be encapsulated in the capsules. The particles may be two or more different types of particles. The particles may be colored, luminescent, light-absorbing or transparent, for example. The particles may include neat pigments, dyed (laked) pigments or pigment/polymer composites, for example. The display may further comprise a suspending fluid in which the particles are dispersed. 
     The successful construction of an encapsulated electrophoretic display requires the proper interaction of several different types of materials and processes, such as a polymeric binder and, optionally, a capsule membrane. These materials must be chemically compatible with the electrophoretic particles and fluid, as well as with each other. The capsule materials may engage in useful surface interactions with the electrophoretic particles, or may act as a chemical or physical boundary between the fluid and the binder. 
     In some cases, the encapsulation step of the process is not necessary, and the electrophoretic fluid may be directly dispersed or emulsified into the binder (or a precursor to the binder materials) and an effective “polymer-dispersed electrophoretic display” constructed. In such displays, voids created in the binder may be referred to as capsules or microcapsules even though no capsule membrane is present. The binder dispersed electrophoretic display may be of the emulsion or phase separation type. 
     Throughout the specification, reference will be made to printing or printed. As used throughout the specification, printing is intended to include all forms of printing and coating, including: premetered coatings such as patch die coating, slot or extrusion coating, slide or cascade coating, and curtain coating; roll coating such as knife over roll coating, forward and reverse roll coating; gravure coating; dip coating; spray coating; meniscus coating; spin coating; brush coating; air knife coating; silk screen printing processes; electrostatic printing processes; thermal printing processes; and other similar techniques. A “printed element” refers to an element formed using any one of the above techniques. 
     This invention provides novel methods and apparatus for controlling and addressing particle-based displays. Additionally, the invention discloses applications of these methods and materials on flexible substrates, which are useful in large-area, low cost, or high-durability applications. 
     In one aspect, the present invention relates to an encapsulated electrophoretic display. The display includes a substrate and at least one capsule containing a highly-resistive fluid and a plurality of particles. The display also includes at least two electrodes disposed adjacent the capsule, a potential difference between the electrodes causing some of the particles to migrate toward at least one of the two electrodes. This causes the capsule to change optical properties. 
     In another aspect, the present invention relates to a colored electrophoretic display. The electrophoretic display includes a substrate and at least one capsule containing a highly-resistive fluid and a plurality of particles. The display also includes colored electrodes. Potential differences are applied to the electrodes in order to control the particles and present a colored display to a viewer. 
     In yet another aspect, the present invention relates to an electrostatically addressable display comprising a substrate, an encapsulated electrophoretic display adjacent the substrate, and an optional dielectric sheet adjacent the electrophoretic display. Application of an electrostatic charge to the dielectric sheet or display material modulates the appearance of the electrophoretic display. 
     In still another aspect, the present invention relates to an electrostatically addressable encapsulated display comprising a film and a pair of electrodes. The film includes at least one capsule containing an electrophoretic suspension. The pair of electrodes is attached to either side of the film. Application of an electrostatic charge to the film modulates the optical properties. 
     In still another aspect, the present invention relates to an electrophoretic display that comprises a conductive substrate, and at least one capsule printed on such substrate. Application of an electrostatic charge to the capsule modulates the optical properties of the display. 
     In still another aspect the present invention relates to a method for matrix addressing an encapsulated display. The method includes the step of providing three or more electrodes for each display cell and applying a sequence of potentials to the electrodes to control movement of particles within each cell. 
     In yet another aspect, the present invention relates to a matrix addressed electrophoretic display. The display includes a capsule containing charged particles and three or more electrodes disposed adjacent the capsule. A sequence of voltage potentials is applied to the three or more electrodes causing the charged particles to migrate within the capsule responsive to the sequence of voltage potentials. 
     In still another aspect, the present invention relates to a rear electrode structure for electrically addressable displays. The structure includes a substrate, a first electrode disposed on a first side of the substrate, and a conductor disposed on a second side of the substrate. The substrate defines at least one conductive via in electrical communication with both the first electrode and the conductor. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     The invention is pointed out with particularity in the appended claims. The advantages of the invention described above, together with further advantages, may be better understood by referring to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. In the drawings, like reference characters generally refer to the same parts throughout the different views. Also, the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead generally being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention. 
     FIG. 1A is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of a rear-addressing electrode structure for a particle-based display in which the smaller electrode has been placed at a voltage relative to the large electrode causing the particles to migrate to the smaller electrode. 
     FIG. 1B is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of a rear-addressing electrode structure for a particle-based display in which the larger electrode has been placed at a voltage relative to the smaller electrode causing the particles to migrate to the larger electrode. 
     FIG. 1C is a diagrammatic top-down view of one embodiment of a rear-addressing electrode structure. 
     FIG. 2A is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of a rear-addressing electrode structure having a retroreflective layer associated with the larger electrode in which the smaller electrode has been placed at a voltage relative to the large electrode causing the particles to migrate to the smaller electrode. 
     FIG. 2B is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of a rear-addressing electrode structure having a retroreflective layer associated with the larger electrode in which the larger electrode has been placed at a voltage relative to the smaller electrode causing the particles to migrate to the larger electrode. 
     FIG. 2C is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of a rear-addressing electrode structure having a retroreflective layer disposed below the larger electrode in which the smaller electrode has been placed at a voltage relative to the large electrode causing the particles to migrate to the smaller electrode. 
     FIG. 2D is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of a rear-addressing electrode structure having a retroreflective layer disposed below the larger electrode in which the larger electrode has been placed at a voltage relative to the smaller electrode causing the particles to migrate to the larger electrode. 
     FIG. 3A is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of an addressing structure in which a direct-current electric field has been applied to the capsule causing the particles to migrate to the smaller electrode. 
     FIG. 3B is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of an addressing structure in which an alternating-current electric field has been applied to the capsule causing the particles to disperse into the capsule. 
     FIG. 3C is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of an addressing structure having transparent electrodes, in which a direct-current electric field has been applied to the capsule causing the particles to migrate to the smaller electrode. 
     FIG. 3D is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of an addressing structure having transparent electrodes, in which an alternating-current electric field has been applied to the capsule causing the particles to disperse into the capsule. 
     FIG. 4A is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of a rear-addressing electrode structure for a particle-based display in which multiple smaller electrodes have been placed at a voltage relative to multiple larger electrodes, causing the particles to migrate to the smaller electrodes. 
     FIG. 4B is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of a rear-addressing electrode structure for a particle-based display in which multiple larger electrodes have been placed at a voltage relative to multiple smaller electrodes, causing the particles to migrate to the larger electrodes. 
     FIG. 5A is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of a rear-addressing electrode structure for a particle-based display having colored electrodes and a white electrode, in which the colored electrodes have been placed at a voltage relative to the white electrode causing the particles to migrate to the colored electrodes. 
     FIG. 5B is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of a rear-addressing electrode structure for a particle-based display having colored electrodes and a white electrode, in which the white electrode has been placed at a voltage relative to the colored electrodes causing the particles to migrate to the white electrode. 
     FIG. 6 is a diagrammatic side view of an embodiment of a color display element having red, green, and blue particles of different electrophoretic mobilities. 
     FIGS. 7A-7B depict the steps taken to address the display of FIG. 6 to display red. 
     FIGS. 8A-8D depict the steps taken to address the display of FIG. 6 to display blue. 
     FIGS. 9A-9C depict the steps taken to address the display of FIG. 6 to display green. 
     FIG. 10 is a perspective embodiment of a rear electrode structure for addressing a seven segment display. 
     FIG. 11 is a perspective embodiment of a rear electrode structure for addressing a three by three matrix display element. 
     FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view of a printed circuit board used as a rear electrode addressing structure. 
     FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view of a dielectric sheet used as a rear electrode addressing structure. 
     FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional view of a rear electrode addressing structure that is formed by printing. 
     FIG. 15 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a control grid addressing structure. 
     FIG. 16 is an embodiment of an electrophoretic display that can be addressed using a stylus. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     An electronic ink is an optoelectronically active material which comprises at least two phases: an electrophoretic contrast media phase and a coating/binding phase. The electrophoretic phase comprises, in some embodiments, a single species of electrophoretic particles dispersed in a clear or dyed medium, or more than one species of electrophoretic particles having distinct physical and electrical characteristics dispersed in a clear or dyed medium. In some embodiments the electrophoretic phase is encapsulated, that is, there is a capsule wall phase between the two phases. The coating/binding phase includes, in one embodiment, a polymer matrix that surrounds the electrophoretic phase. In this embodiment, the polymer in the polymeric binder is capable of being dried, crosslinked, or otherwise cured as in traditional inks, and therefore a printing process can be used to deposit the electronic ink onto a substrate. An electronic ink is capable of being printed by several different processes, depending on the mechanical properties of the specific ink employed. For example, the fragility or viscosity of a particular ink may result in a different process selection. A very viscous ink would not be well-suited to deposition by an inkjet printing process, while a fragile ink might not be used in a knife over roll coating process. 
     The optical quality of an electronic ink is quite distinct from other electronic display materials. The most notable difference is that the electronic ink provides a high degree of both reflectance and contrast because it is pigment based (as are ordinary printing inks). The light scattered from the electronic ink comes from a very thin layer of pigment close to the top of the viewing surface. In this respect it resembles an ordinary, printed image. Also, electronic ink is easily viewed from a wide range of viewing angles in the same manner as a printed page, and such ink approximates a Lambertian contrast curve more closely than any other electronic display material. Since electronic ink can be printed, it can be included on the same surface with any other printed material, including traditional inks. Electronic ink can be made optically stable in all display configurations, that is, the ink can be set to a persistent optical state. Fabrication of a display by printing an electronic ink is particularly useful in low power applications because of this stability. 
     Electronic ink displays are novel in that they can be addressed by DC voltages and draw very little current. As such, the conductive leads and electrodes used to deliver the voltage to electronic ink displays can be of relatively high resistivity. The ability to use resistive conductors substantially widens the number and type of materials that can be used as conductors in electronic ink displays. In particular, the use of costly vacuum-sputtered indium tin oxide (ITO) conductors, a standard material in liquid crystal devices, is not required. Aside from cost savings, the replacement of ITO with other materials can provide benefits in appearance, processing capabilities (printed conductors), flexibility, and durability. Additionally, the printed electrodes are in contact only with a solid binder, not with a fluid layer (like liquid crystals). This means that some conductive materials, which would otherwise dissolve or be degraded by contact with liquid crystals, can be used in an electronic ink application. These include opaque metallic inks for the rear electrode (e.g., silver and graphite inks), as well as conductive transparent inks for either substrate. These conductive coatings include semiconducting colloids, examples of which are indium tin oxide and antimony-doped tin oxide. Organic conductors (polymeric conductors and molecular organic conductors) also may be used. Polymers include, but are not limited to, polyaniline and derivatives, polythiophene and derivatives, poly3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (PEDOT) and derivatives, polypyrrole and derivatives, and polyphenylenevinylene (PPV) and derivatives. Organic molecular conductors include, but are not limited to, derivatives of naphthalene, phthalocyanine, and pentacene. Polymer layers can be made thinner and more transparent than with traditional displays because conductivity requirements are not as stringent. 
     As an example, there are a class of materials called electroconductive powders which are also useful as coatable transparent conductors in electronic ink displays. One example is Zelec ECP electroconductive powders from DuPont Chemical Co. of Wilmington, Del. 
     Referring now to FIGS. 1A and 1B, an addressing scheme for controlling particle-based displays is shown in which electrodes are disposed on only one side of a display, allowing the display to be rear-addressed. Utilizing only one side of the display for electrodes simplifies fabrication of displays. For example, if the electrodes are disposed on only the rear side of a display, both of the electrodes can be fabricated using opaque materials, because the electrodes do not need to be transparent. 
     FIG. 1A depicts a single capsule  20  of an encapsulated display media. In brief overview, the embodiment depicted in FIG. 1A includes a capsule  20  containing at least one particle  50  dispersed in a suspending fluid  25 . The capsule  20  is addressed by a first electrode  30  and a second electrode  40 . The first electrode  30  is smaller than the second electrode  40 . The first electrode  30  and the second electrode  40  may be set to voltage potentials which affect the position of the particles  50  in the capsule  20 . 
     The particles  50  represent 0.1% to 20% of the volume enclosed by the capsule  20 . In some embodiments the particles  50  represent 2.5% to 17.5% of the volume enclosed by capsule  20 . In preferred embodiments, the particles  50  represent 5% to 15% of the volume enclosed by the capsule  20 . In more preferred embodiments the particles  50  represent 9% to 11% of the volume defined by the capsule  20 . In general, the volume percentage of the capsule  20  that the particles  50  represent should be selected so that the particles  50  expose most of the second, larger electrode  40  when positioned over the first, smaller electrode  30 . As described in detail below, the particles  50  may be colored any one of a number of colors. The particles  50  may be either positively charged or negatively charged. 
     The particles  50  are dispersed in a dispersing fluid  25 . The dispersing fluid  25  should have a low dielectric constant. The fluid  25  may be clear, or substantially clear, so that the fluid  25  does not inhibit viewing the particles  50  and the electrodes  30 ,  40  from position  10 . In other embodiments, the fluid  25  is dyed. In some embodiments the dispersing fluid  25  has a specific gravity matched to the density of the particles  50 . These embodiments can provide a bistable display media, because the particles  50  do not tend to move in certain compositions absent an electric field applied via the electrodes  30 ,  40 . 
     The electrodes  30 ,  40  should be sized and positioned appropriately so that together they address the entire capsule  20 . There may be exactly one pair of electrodes  30 ,  40  per capsule  20 , multiple pairs of electrodes  30 ,  40  per capsule  20 , or a single pair of electrodes  30 ,  40  may span multiple capsules  20 . In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, the capsule  20  has a flattened, rectangular shape. In these embodiments, the electrodes  30 ,  40  should address most, or all, of the flattened surface area adjacent the electrodes  30 ,  40 . The smaller electrode  30  is at most one-half the size of the larger electrode  40 . In preferred embodiments the smaller electrode is one-quarter the size of the larger electrode  40 ; in more preferred embodiments the smaller electrode  30  is one-eighth the size of the larger electrode  40 . In even more preferred embodiments, the smaller electrode  30  is one-sixteenth the size of the larger electrode  40 . It should be noted that reference to “smaller” in connection with the electrode  30  means that the electrode  30  addresses a smaller amount of the surface area of the capsule  20 , not necessarily that the electrode  30  is physically smaller than the larger electrode  40 . For example, multiple capsules  20  may be positioned such that less of each capsule  20  is addressed by the “smaller” electrode  30 , even though both electrodes  30 ,  40  are equal in size. It should also be noted that, as shown in FIG. 1C, electrode  30  may address only a small corner of a rectangular capsule  20  (shown in phantom view in FIG.  1 C), requiring the larger electrode  40  to surround the smaller electrode  30  on two sides in order to properly address the capsule  20 . Selection of the percentage volume of the particles  50  and the electrodes  30 ,  40  in this manner allow the encapsulated display media to be addressed as described below. 
     Electrodes may be fabricated from any material capable of conducting electricity so that electrode  30 ,  40  may apply an electric field to the capsule  20 . As noted above, the rear-addressed embodiments depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B allow the electrodes  30 ,  40  to be fabricated from opaque materials such as solder paste, copper, copper-clad polyimide, graphite inks, silver inks and other metal-containing conductive inks. Alternatively, electrodes may be fabricated using transparent materials such as indium tin oxide and conductive polymers such as polyaniline or polythiopenes. Electrodes  30 ,  40  may be provided with contrasting optical properties. In some embodiments, one of the electrodes has an optical property complementary to optical properties of the particles  50 . 
     In one embodiment, the capsule  20  contains positively charged black particles  50 , and a substantially clear suspending fluid  25 . The first, smaller electrode  30  is colored black, and is smaller than the second electrode  40 , which is colored white or is highly reflective. When the smaller, black electrode  30  is placed at a negative voltage potential relative to larger, white electrode  40 , the positively-charged particles  50  migrate to the smaller, black electrode  30 . The effect to a viewer of the capsule  20  located at position  10  is a mixture of the larger, white electrode  40  and the smaller, black electrode  30 , creating an effect which is largely white. Referring to FIG. 1B, when the smaller, black electrode  30  is placed at a positive voltage potential relative to the larger, white electrode  40 , particles  50  migrate to the larger, white electrode  40  and the viewer is presented a mixture of the black particles  50  covering the larger, white electrode  40  and the smaller, black electrode  30 , creating an effect which is largely black. In this manner the capsule  20  may be addressed to display either a white visual state or a black visual state. 
     Other two-color schemes are easily provided by varying the color of the smaller electrode  30  and the particles  50  or by varying the color of the larger electrode  40 . For example, varying the color of the larger electrode  40  allows fabrication of a rear-addressed, two-color display having black as one of the colors. Alternatively, varying the color of the smaller electrode  30  and the particles  50  allow a rear-addressed two-color system to be fabricated having white as one of the colors. Further, it is contemplated that the particles  50  and the smaller electrode  30  can be different colors. In these embodiments, a two-color display may be fabricated having a second color that is different from the color of the smaller electrode  30  and the particles  50 . For example, a rear-addressed, orange-white display may be fabricated by providing blue particles  50 , a red, smaller electrode  30 , and a white (or highly reflective) larger electrode  40 . In general, the optical properties of the electrodes  30 ,  40  and the particles  50  can be independently selected to provide desired display characteristics. In some embodiments the optical properties of the dispersing fluid  25  may also be varied, e.g. the fluid  25  may be dyed. 
     In other embodiments the larger electrode  40  may be reflective instead of white. In these embodiments, when the particles  50  are moved to the smaller electrode  30 , light reflects off the reflective surface  60  associated with the larger electrode  40  and the capsule  20  appears light in color, e.g. white (see FIG.  2 A). When the particles  50  are moved to the larger electrode  40 , the reflecting surface  60  is obscured and the capsule  20  appears dark (see FIG. 2B) because light is absorbed by the particles  50  before reaching the reflecting surface  60 . The reflecting surface  60  for the larger electrode  40  may possess retroflective properties, specular reflection properties, diffuse reflective properties or gain reflection properties. In certain embodiments, the reflective surface  60  reflects light with a Lambertian distribution. The surface  60  may be provided as a plurality of glass spheres disposed on the electrode  40 , a diffractive reflecting layer such as a holographically formed reflector, a surface patterned to totally internally reflect incident light, a brightness-enhancing film, a diffuse reflecting layer, an embossed plastic or metal film, or any other known reflecting surface. The reflecting surface  60  may be provided as a separate layer laminated onto the larger electrode  40  or the reflecting surface  60  may be provided as a unitary part of the larger electrode  40 . In the embodiments depicted by FIGS. 2C and 2D, the reflecting surface may be disposed below the electrodes  30 ,  40  vis-à-vis the viewpoint  10 . In these embodiments, electrode  30  should be transparent so that light may be reflected by surface  60 . In other embodiments, proper switching of the particles may be accomplished with a combination of alternating-current (AC) and direct-current (DC) electric fields and described below in connection with FIGS. 3A-3D. 
     In still other embodiments, the rear-addressed display previously discussed can be configured to transition between largely transmissive and largely opaque modes of operation (referred to hereafter as “shutter mode”). Referring back to FIGS. 1A and 1B, in these embodiments the capsule  20  contains at least one positively-charged particle  50  dispersed in a substantially clear dispersing fluid  25 . The larger electrode  40  is transparent and the smaller electrode  30  is opaque. When the smaller, opaque electrode  30  is placed at a negative voltage potential relative to the larger, transmissive electrode  40 , the particles  50  migrate to the smaller, opaque electrode  30 . The effect to a viewer of the capsule  20  located at position  10  is a mixture of the larger, transparent electrode  40  and the smaller, opaque electrode  30 , creating an effect which is largely transparent. Referring to FIG. 1B, when the smaller, opaque electrode  30  is placed at a positive voltage potential relative to the larger, transparent electrode  40 , particles  50  migrate to the second electrode  40  and the viewer is presented a mixture of the opaque particles  50  covering the larger, transparent electrode  40  and the smaller, opaque electrode  30 , creating an effect which is largely opaque. In this manner, a display formed using the capsules depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B may be switched between transmissive and opaque modes. Such a display can be used to construct a window that can be rendered opaque. Although FIGS. 1A-2D depict a pair of electrodes associated with each capsule  20 , it should be understood that each pair of electrodes may be associated with more than one capsule  20 . 
     A similar technique may be used in connection with the embodiment of FIGS. 3A,  3 B,  3 C, and  3 D. Referring to FIG. 3A, a capsule  20  contains at least one dark or black particle  50  dispersed in a substantially clear dispersing fluid  25 . A smaller, opaque electrode  30  and a larger, transparent electrode  40  apply both direct-current (DC) electric fields and alternating-current (AC) fields to the capsule  20 . A DC field can be applied to the capsule  20  to cause the particles  50  to migrate towards the smaller electrode  30 . For example, if the particles  50  are positively charged, the smaller electrode is placed a voltage that is more negative than the larger electrode  40 . Although FIGS. 3A-3D depict only one capsule per electrode pair, multiple capsules may be addressed using the same electrode pair. 
     The smaller electrode  30  is at most one-half the size of the larger electrode  40 . In preferred embodiments the smaller electrode is one-quarter the size of the larger electrode  40 ; in more preferred embodiments the smaller electrode  30  is one-eighth the size of the larger electrode  40 . In even more preferred embodiments, the smaller electrode  30  is one-sixteenth the size of the larger electrode  40 . 
     Causing the particles  50  to migrate to the smaller electrode  30 , as depicted in FIG. 3A, allows incident light to pass through the larger, transparent electrode  40  and be reflected by a reflecting surface  60 . In shutter mode, the reflecting surface  60  is replaced by a translucent layer, a transparent layer, or a layer is not provided at all, and incident light is allowed to pass through the capsule  20 , i.e. the capsule  20  is transmissive. 
     Referring now to FIG. 3B, the particles  50  are dispersed into the capsule  20  by applying an AC field to the capsule  20  via the electrodes  30 ,  40 . The particles  50 , dispersed into the capsule  20  by the AC field, block incident light from passing through the capsule  20 , causing it to appear dark at the viewpoint  10 . The embodiment depicted in FIGS. 3A-3B may be used in shutter mode by not providing the reflecting surface  60  and instead providing a translucent layer, a transparent layer, or no layer at all. In shutter mode, application of an AC electric field causes the capsule  20  to appear opaque. The transparency of a shutter mode display formed by the apparatus depicted in FIGS. 3A-3D may be controlled by the number of capsules addressed using DC fields and AC fields. For example, a display in which every other capsule  20  is addressed using an AC field would appear fifty percent transmissive. 
     FIGS. 3C and 3D depict an embodiment of the electrode structure described above in which electrodes  30 ,  40  are on “top” of the capsule  20 , that is, the electrodes  30 ,  40  are between the viewpoint  10  and the capsule  20 . In these embodiments, both electrodes  30 ,  40  should be transparent. Transparent polymers can be fabricated using conductive polymers, such as polyaniline, polythiophenes, or indium tin oxide. These materials may be made soluble so that electrodes can be fabricated using coating techniques such as spin coating, spray coating, meniscus coating, printing techniques, forward and reverse roll coating and the like. In these embodiments, light passes through the electrodes  30 ,  40  and is either absorbed by the particles  50 , reflected by retroreflecting layer  60  (when provided), or transmitted throughout the capsule  20  (when retroreflecting layer  60  is not provided). 
     The addressing structure depicted in FIGS. 3A-3D may be used with electrophoretic display media and encapsulated electrophoretic display media. FIGS. 3A-3D depict embodiments in which electrode  30 ,  40  are statically attached to the display media. In certain embodiments, the particles  50  exhibit bistability, that is, they are substantially motionless in the absence of a electric field. In these embodiments, the electrodes  30 ,  40  may be provided as part of a “stylus” or other device which is scanned over the material to address each capsule or cluster of capsules. This mode of addressing particle-based displays will be described in more detail below in connection with FIG.  16 . 
     Referring now to FIGS. 4A and 4B, a capsule  20  of a electronically addressable media is illustrated in which the technique illustrated above is used with multiple rear-addressing electrodes. The capsule  20  contains at least one particle  50  dispersed in a clear suspending fluid  25 . The capsule  20  is addressed by multiple smaller electrodes  30  and multiple larger electrodes  40 . In these embodiments, the smaller electrodes  30  should be selected to collectively be at most one-half the size of the larger electrodes  40 . In further embodiments, the smaller electrodes  30  are collectively one-fourth the size of the larger electrodes  40 . In further embodiments the smaller electrodes  30  are collectively one-eighth the size of the larger electrodes  40 . In preferred embodiments, the smaller electrodes  30  are collectively one-sixteenth the size of the larger electrodes. Each electrode  30  may be provided as separate electrodes that are controlled in parallel to control the display. For example, each separate electrode may be substantially simultaneously set to the same voltage as all other electrodes of that size. Alternatively, the electrodes  30 ,  40  may be interdigitated to provide the embodiment shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B. 
     Operation of the rear-addressing electrode structure depicted in FIGS. 4A and 4B is similar to that described above. For example, the capsule  20  may contain positively charged, black particles  50  dispersed in a substantially clear suspending fluid  25 . The smaller electrodes  30  are colored black and the larger electrodes  40  are colored white or are highly reflective. Referring to FIG. 4A, the smaller electrodes  30  are placed at a negative potential relative to the larger electrodes  40 , causing particles  50  migrate within the capsule to the smaller electrodes  30  and the capsule  20  appears to the viewpoint  10  as a mix of the larger, white electrodes  40  and the smaller, black electrodes  30 , creating an effect which is largely white. Referring to FIG. 4B, when the smaller electrodes  30  are placed at a positive potential relative to the larger electrodes  40 , particles  50  migrate to the larger electrodes  40  causing the capsule  20  to display a mix of the larger, white electrodes  40  occluded by the black particles  50  and the smaller, black electrodes  30 , creating an effect which is largely black. The techniques described above with respect to the embodiments depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B for producing two-color displays work with equal effectiveness in connection with these embodiments. 
     FIGS. 5A and 5B depict an embodiment of a rear-addressing electrode structure that creates a reflective color display in a manner similar to halftoning or pointillism. The capsule  20  contains white particles  55  dispersed in a clear suspending fluid  25 . Electrodes  42 ,  44 ,  46 ,  48  are colored cyan, magenta, yellow, and white respectively. Referring to FIG. 5A, when the colored electrodes  42 ,  44 ,  46  are placed at a positive potential relative to the white electrode  48 , negatively-charged particles  55  migrate to these three electrodes, causing the capsule  20  to present to the viewpoint  10  a mix of the white particles  55  and the white electrode  48 , creating an effect which is largely white. Referring to FIG. 5B, when electrodes  42 ,  44 ,  46  are placed at a negative potential relative to electrode  48 , particles  55  migrate to the white electrode  48 , and the eye  10  sees a mix of the white particles  55 , the cyan electrode  42 , the magenta electrode  44 , and the yellow electrode  46 , creating an effect which is largely black or gray. By addressing the electrodes, any color can be produced that is possible with a subtractive color process. For example, to cause the capsule  20  to display an orange color to the viewpoint  10 , the yellow electrode  46  and the magenta electrode  42  are set to a voltage potential that is more positive than the voltage potential applied by the cyan electrode  42  and the white electrode  48 . Further, the relative intensities of these colors can be controlled by the actual voltage potentials applied to the electrodes. 
     In another embodiment, depicted in FIG. 6, a color display is provided by a capsule  20  of size d containing multiple species of particles in a clear, dispersing fluid  25 . Each species of particles has different optical properties and possess different electrophoretic mobilities (μ) from the other species. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 6, the capsule  20  contains red particles  52 , blue particles  54 , and green particles  56 , and                     μ   R                     〉                          μ   B                       〉                          μ   G                          
     That is, the magnitude of the electrophoretic mobility of the red particles  52 , on average, exceeds the electrophoretic mobility of the blue particles  54 , on average, and the electrophoretic mobility of the blue particles  54 , on average, exceeds the average electrophoretic mobility of the green particles  56 . As an example, there may be a species of red particle with a zeta potential of 100 millivolts (mV), a blue particle with a zeta potential of 60 mV, and a green particle with a zeta potential of 20 mV. The capsule  20  is placed between two electrodes  32 ,  42  that apply an electric field to the capsule. 
     FIGS. 7A-7B depict the steps to be taken to address the display shown in FIG. 6 to display a red color to a viewpoint  10 . Referring to FIG. 7A, all the particles  52 ,  54 ,  56  are attracted to one side of the capsule  20  by applying an electric field in one direction. The electric field should be applied to the capsule  20  long enough to attract even the more slowly moving green particles  56  to the electrode  34 . Referring to FIG. 7B, the electric field is reversed just long enough to allow the red particles  52  to migrate towards the electrode  32 . The blue particles  54  and green particles  56  will also move in the reversed electric field, but they will not move as fast as the red particles  52  and thus will be obscured by the red particles  52 . The amount of time for which the applied electric field must be reversed can be determined from the relative electrophoretic mobilities of the particles, the strength of the applied electric field, and the size of the capsule. 
     FIGS. 8A-8D depict addressing the display element to a blue state. As shown in FIG. 8A, the particles  52 ,  54 ,  56  are initially randomly dispersed in the capsule  20 . All the particles  52 ,  54 ,  56  are attracted to one side of the capsule  20  by applying an electric field in one direction (shown in FIG.  8 B). Referring to FIG. 8C, the electric field is reversed just long enough to allow the red particles  52  and blue particles  54  to migrate towards the electrode  32 . The amount of time for which the applied electric field must be reversed can be determined from the relative electrophoretic mobilities of the particles, the strength of the applied electric field, and the size of the capsule. Referring to FIG. 8D, the electric field is then reversed a second time and the red particles  52 , moving faster than the blue particles  54 , leave the blue particles  54  exposed to the viewpoint  10 . The amount of time for which the applied electric field must be reversed can be determined from the relative electrophoretic mobilities of the particles, the strength of the applied electric field, and the size of the capsule. 
     FIGS. 9A-9C depict the steps to be taken to present a green display to the viewpoint  10 . As shown in FIG. 9A, the particles  52 ,  54 ,  56  are initially distributed randomly in the capsule  20 . All the particles  52 ,  54 ,  56  are attracted to the side of the capsule  20  proximal the viewpoint  10  by applying an electric field in one direction. The electric field should be applied to the capsule  20  long enough to attract even the more slowly moving green particles  56  to the electrode  32 . As shown in FIG. 9C, the electric field is reversed just long enough to allow the red particles  52  and the blue particles  54  to migrate towards the electrode  54 , leaving the slowly-moving green particles  56  displayed to the viewpoint. The amount of time for which the applied electric field must be reversed can be determined from the relative electrophoretic mobilities of the particles, the strength of the applied electric field, and the size of the capsule. 
     In other embodiments, the capsule contains multiple species of particles and a dyed dispersing fluid that acts as one of the colors. In still other embodiments, more than three species of particles may be provided having additional colors. Although FIGS. 6-9C depict two electrodes associated with a single capsule, the electrodes may address multiple capsules or less than a full capsule. 
     In FIG. 10, the rear substrate  100  for a seven segment display is shown that improves on normal rear electrode structures by providing a means for arbitrarily connecting to any electrode section on the rear of the display without the need for conductive trace lines on the surface of the patterned substrate or a patterned counter electrode on the front of the display. Small conductive vias through the substrate allow connections to the rear electrode structure. On the back of the substrate, these vias are connected to a network of conductors. This conductors can be run so as to provide a simple connection to the entire display. For example, segment  112  is connected by via  114  through the substrate  116  to conductor  118 . A network of conductors may run multiple connections (not shown) to edge connector  122 . This connector can be built into the structure of the conductor such as edge connector  122 . Each segment of the rear electrode can be individually addressed easily through edge connector  122 . A continuous top electrode can be used with the substrate  116 . 
     The rear electrode structure depicted in FIG. 10 is useful for any display media, but is particularly advantageous for particle-based displays because such displays do not have a defined appearance when not addressed. The rear electrode should be completely covered in an electrically conducting material with room only to provide necessary insulation of the various electrodes. This is so that the connections on the rear of the display can be routed with out concern for affecting the appearance of the display. Having a mostly continuous rear electrode pattern assures that the display material is shielded from the rear electrode wire routing. 
     In FIG. 11, a 3×3 matrix is shown. Here, matrix segment  124  on a first side of substrate  116  is connected by via  114  to conductor  118  on a second side of substrate  116 . The conductors  18  run to an edge and terminate in a edge connector  122 . Although the display element of FIG. 11 shows square segments  124 , the segments may be shaped or sized to form a predefined display pattern. 
     In FIG. 12, a printed circuit board  138  is used as the rear electrode structure. The front of the printed circuit board  138  has copper pads  132  etched in the desired shape. There are plated vias  114  connecting these electrode pads to an etched wire structure  136  on the rear of the printed circuit board  138 . The wires  136  can be run to one side or the rear of the printed circuit board  138  and a connection can be made using a standard connector such as a surface mount connector or using a flex connector and anisotropic glue (not shown). Vias may be filled with a conductive substance, such as solder or conductive epoxy, or an insulating substance, such as epoxy. 
     Alternatively, a flex circuit such a copper-clad polyimide may be used for the rear electrode structure of FIG.  10 . Printed circuit board  138  may be made of polyimide, which acts both as the flex connector and as the substrate for the electrode structure. Rather than copper pads  132 , electrodes (not shown) may be etched into the copper covering the polyimide printed circuit board  138 . The plated through vias  114  connect the electrodes etched onto the substrate the rear of the printed circuit board  138 , which may have an etched conductor network thereon (the etched conductor network is similar to the etched wire structure  136 ). 
     In FIG. 12, a thin dielectric sheet  150 , such as polyester, polyimide, or glass can be used to make a rear electrode structure. Holes  152  are punched, drilled, abraded, or melted through the sheet where conductive paths are desired. The front electrode  154  is made of conductive ink printed using any technique described above. The holes should be sized and the ink should be selected to have a viscosity so that the ink fills the holes. When the back structure  156  is printed, again using conductive ink, the holes are again filled. By this method, the connection between the front and back of the substrate is made automatically. 
     In FIG. 14, the rear electrode structure can be made entirely of printed layers. A conductive layer  166  can be printed onto the back of a display comprised of a clear, front electrode  168  and a printable display material  170 . A clear electrode may be fabricated from indium tin oxide or conductive polymers such as polyanilines and polythiophenes. A dielectric coating  176  can be printed leaving areas for vias. Then, the back layer of conductive ink  178  can be printed. If necessary, an additional layer of conductive ink can be used before the final ink structure is printed to fill in the holes. 
     This technique for printing displays can be used to build the rear electrode structure on a display or to construct two separate layers that are laminated together to form the display. For example an electronically active ink may be printed on an indium tin oxide electrode. Separately, a rear electrode structure as described above can be printed on a suitable substrate, such as plastic, polymer films, or glass. The electrode structure and the display element can be laminated to form a display. 
     Referring now to FIG. 15, a threshold may be introduced into an electrophoretic display cell by the introduction of a third electrode. One side of the cell is a continuous, transparent electrode  200  (anode). On the other side of the cell, the transparent electrode is patterned into a set of isolated column electrode strips  210 . An insulator  212  covers the column electrodes  210 , and an electrode layer on top of the insulator is divided into a set of isolated row electrode strips  230 , which are oriented orthogonal to the column electrodes  210 . The row electrodes  230  are patterned into a dense array of holes, or a grid, beneath which the exposed insulator  212  has been removed, forming a multiplicity of physical and potential wells. 
     A positively charged particle  50  is loaded into the potential wells by applying a positive potential (e.g. 30 V) to all the column electrodes  210  while keeping the row electrodes  230  at a less positive potential (e.g. 15 V) and the anode  200  at zero volts. The particle  50  may be a conformable capsule that situates itself into the physical wells of the control grid. The control grid itself may have a rectangular cross-section, or the grid structure may be triangular in profile. It can also be a different shape which encourages the microcapsules to situate in the grid, for example, hemispherical. 
     The anode  200  is then reset to a positive potential (e.g. 50 V). The particle will remain in the potential wells due to the potential difference in the potential wells: this is called the Hold condition. To address a display element the potential on the column electrode associated with that element is reduced, e.g. by a factor of two, and the potential on the row electrode associated with that element is made equal to or greater than the potential on the column electrode. The particles in this element will then be transported by the electric field due to the positive voltage on the anode  200 . The potential difference between row and column electrodes for the remaining display elements is now less than half of that in the normal Hold condition. The geometry of the potential well structure and voltage levels are chosen such that this also constitutes a Hold condition, i.e., no particles will leave these other display elements and hence there will be no half-select problems. This addressing method can select and write any desired element in a matrix without affecting the pigment in any other display element. A control electrode device can be operated such that the anode electrode side of the cell is viewed. 
     The control grid may be manufactured through any of the processes known in the art, or by several novel processes described herein. That is, according to traditional practices, the control grid may be constructed with one or more steps of photolithography and subsequent etching, or the control grid may be fabricated with a mask and a “sandblasting” technique. 
     In another embodiment, the control grid is fabricated by an embossing technique on a plastic substrate. The grid electrodes may be deposited by vacuum deposition or sputtering, either before or after the embossing step. In another embodiment, the electrodes are printed onto the grid structure after it is formed, the electrodes consisting of some kind of printable conductive material which need not be clear (e.g. a metal or carbon-doped polymer, an intrinsically conducting polymer, etc.). 
     In a preferred embodiment, the control grid is fabricated with a series of printing steps. The grid structure is built up in a series of one or more printed layers after the cathode has been deposited, and the grid electrode is printed onto the grid structure. There may be additional insulator on top of the grid electrode, and there may be multiple grid electrodes separated by insulator in the grid structure. The grid electrode may not occupy the entire width of the grid structure, and may only occupy a central region of the structure, in order to stay within reproducible tolerances. In another embodiment, the control grid is fabricated by photoetching away a glass, such as a photostructural glass. 
     In an encapsulated electrophoretic image display, an electrophoretic suspension, such as the ones described previously, is placed inside discrete compartments that are dispersed in a polymer matrix. This resulting material is highly susceptible to an electric field across the thickness of the film. Such a field is normally applied using electrodes attached to either side of the material. However, as described above in connection with FIGS. 3A-3D, some display media may be addressed by writing electrostatic charge onto one side of the display material. The other side normally has a clear or opaque electrode. For example, a sheet of encapsulated electrophoretic display media can be addressed with a head providing DC voltages. 
     In another implementation, the encapsulated electrophoretic suspension can be printed onto an area of a conductive material such as a printed silver or graphite ink, aluminized mylar, or any other conductive surface. This surface which constitutes one electrode of the display can be set at ground or high voltage. An electrostatic head consisting of many electrodes can be passed over the capsules to addressing them. Alternatively, a stylus can be used to address the encapsulated electrophoretic suspension. 
     In another implementation, an electrostatic write head is passed over the surface of the material. This allows very high resolution addressing. Since encapsulated electrophoretic material can be placed on plastic, it is flexible. This allows the material to be passed through normal paper handling equipment. Such a system works much like a photocopier, but with no consumables. The sheet of display material passes through the machine and an electrostatic or electrophotographic head addresses the sheet of material. 
     In another implementation, electrical charge is built up on the surface of the encapsulated display material or on a dielectric sheet through frictional or triboelectric charging. The charge can built up using an electrode that is later removed. In another implementation, charge is built up on the surface of the encapsulated display by using a sheet of piezoelectric material. 
     FIG. 16 shows an electrostatically written display. Stylus  300  is connected to a positive or negative voltage. The head of the stylus  300  can be insulated to protect the user. Dielectric layer  302  can be, for example, a dielectric coating or a film of polymer. In other embodiments, dielectric layer  302  is not provided and the stylus  300  contacts the encapsulated electrophoretic display  304  directly. Substrate  306  is coated with a clear conductive coating such as ITO coated polyester. The conductive coating is connected to ground. The display  304  may be viewed from either side. 
     Microencapsulated displays offer a useful means of creating electronic displays, many of which can be coated or printed. There are many versions of microencapsulated displays, including microencapsulated electrophoretic displays. These displays can be made to be highly reflective, bistable, and low power. 
     To obtain high resolution displays, it is useful to use some external addressing means with the microencapsulated material. This invention describes useful combinations of addressing means with microencapsulated electrophoretic materials in order to obtain high resolution displays. 
     One method of addressing liquid crystal displays is the use of silicon-based thin film transistors to form an addressing backplane for the liquid crystal. For liquid crystal displays, these thin film transistors are typically deposited on glass, and are typically made from amorphous silicon or polysilicon. Other electronic circuits (such as drive electronics or logic) are sometimes integrated into the periphery of the display. An emerging field is the deposition of amorphous or polysilicon devices onto flexible substrates such as metal foils or plastic films. 
     The addressing electronic backplane could incorporate diodes as the nonlinear element, rather than transistors. Diode-based active matrix arrays have been demonstrated as being compatible with liquid crystal displays to form high resolution devices. 
     There are also examples of crystalline silicon transistors being used on glass substrates. Crystalline silicon possesses very high mobilities, and thus can be used to make high performance devices. Presently, the most straightforward way of constructing crystalline silicon devices is on a silicon wafer. For use in many types of liquid crystal displays, the crystalline silicon circuit is constructed on a silicon wafer, and then transferred to a glass substrate by a “liftoff” process. Alternatively, the silicon transistors can be formed on a silicon wafer, removed via a liftoff process, and then deposited on a flexible substrate such as plastic, metal foil, or paper. As another implementation, the silicon could be formed on a different substrate that is able to tolerate high temperatures (such as glass or metal foils), lifted off, and transferred to a flexible substrate. As yet another implementation, the silicon transistors are formed on a silicon wafer, which is then used in whole or in part as one of the substrates for the display. 
     The use of silicon-based circuits with liquid crystals is the basis of a large industry. Nevertheless, these display possess serious drawbacks. Liquid crystal displays are inefficient with light, so that most liquid crystal displays require some sort of backlighting. Reflective liquid crystal displays can be constructed, but are typically very dim, due to the presence of polarizers. Most liquid crystal devices require precise spacing of the cell gap, so that they are not very compatible with flexible substrates. Most liquid crystal displays require a “rubbing” process to align the liquid crystals, which is both difficult to control and has the potential for damaging the TFT array. 
     The combination of these thin film transistors with microencapsulated electrophoretic displays should be even more advantageous than with liquid crystal displays. Thin film transistor arrays similar to those used with liquid crystals could also be used with the microencapsulated display medium. As noted above, liquid crystal arrays typically requires a “rubbing” process to align the liquid crystals, which can cause either mechanical or static electrical damage to the transistor array. No such rubbing is needed for microencapsulated displays, improving yields and simplifying the construction process. 
     Microencapsulated electrophoretic displays can be highly reflective. This provides an advantage in high-resolution displays, as a backlight is not required for good visibility. Also, a high-resolution display can be built on opaque substrates, which opens up a range of new materials for the deposition of thin film transistor arrays. 
     Moreover, the encapsulated electrophoretic display is highly compatible with flexible substrates. This enables high-resolution TFT displays in which the transistors are deposited on flexible substrates like flexible glass, plastics, or metal foils. The flexible substrate used with any type of thin film transistor or other nonlinear element need not be a single sheet of glass, plastic, metal foil, though. Instead, it could be constructed of paper. Alternatively, it could be constructed of a woven material. Alternatively, it could be a composite or layered combination of these materials. 
     As in liquid crystal displays, external logic or drive circuitry can be built on the same substrate as the thin film transistor switches. 
     In another implementation, the addressing electronic backplane could incorporate diodes as the nonlinear element, rather than transistors. 
     In another implementation, it is possible to form transistors on a silicon wafer, dice the transistors, and place them in a large area array to form a large, TFT-addressed display medium. One example of this concept is to form mechanical impressions in the receiving substrate, and then cover the substrate with a slurry or other form of the transistors. With agitation, the transistors will fall into the impressions, where they can be bonded and incorporated into the device circuitry. The receiving substrate could be glass, plastic, or other nonconductive material. In this way, the economy of creating transistors using standard processing methods can be used to create large-area displays without the need for large area silicon processing equipment. 
     While the examples described here are listed using encapsulated electrophoretic displays, there are other particle-based display media which should also work as well, including encapsulated suspended particles and rotating ball displays. 
     While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to specific preferred embodiments, it should be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and detail may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.