Patent Publication Number: US-7215229-B2

Title: Laminated relays with multiple flexible contacts

Description:
This is a continuation-in-part application of pending U.S. application Ser. No. 10/664,404, filed Sep. 17, 2003, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. 

   BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
   1. Field of the Invention 
   The present invention relates to electro-mechanical systems. More specifically, the present invention relates to the assembly of electro-mechanical systems by lamination of layers to form magnetic latching switches, and the like. 
   2. Background Art 
   Switches are typically electrically controlled two-state devices that open and close contacts to effect operation of devices in an electrical or optical circuit. Relays, for example, typically function as switches that activate or de-activate portions of electrical, optical or other devices. Relays are commonly used in many applications including telecommunications, radio frequency (RF) communications, portable electronics, consumer and industrial electronics, aerospace, and other systems. More recently, optical switches (also referred to as “optical relays” or simply “relays” herein) have been used to switch optical signals (such as those in optical communication systems) from one path to another. 
   Although the earliest relays were mechanical or solid-state devices, recent developments in micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) technologies and microelectronics manufacturing have made micro-electrostatic and micro-magnetic relays possible. Such micro-magnetic relays typically include an electromagnet that energizes an armature to make or break an electrical contact. When the magnet is de-energized, a spring or other mechanical force typically restores the armature to a quiescent position. Such relays typically exhibit a number of marked disadvantages, however, in that they generally exhibit only a single stable output (i.e., the quiescent state) and they are not latching (i.e., they do not retain a constant output as power is removed from the relay). Moreover, the spring required by conventional micro-magnetic relays may degrade or break over time. 
   Non-latching micro-magnetic relays are known. The relay includes a permanent magnet and an electromagnet for generating a magnetic field that intermittently opposes the field generated by the permanent magnet. The relay must consume power in the electromagnet to maintain at least one of the output states. Moreover, the power required to generate the opposing field would be significant, thus making the relay less desirable for use in space, portable electronics, and other applications that demand low power consumption. 
   The basic elements of a latching micro-magnetic switch include a permanent magnet, a substrate, a coil, and a cantilever at least partially made of soft magnetic materials. In its optimal configuration, the permanent magnet produces a static magnetic field that is relatively perpendicular to the horizontal plane of the cantilever. However, the magnetic field lines produced by a permanent magnet with a typical regular shape (disk, square, etc.) are not necessarily perpendicular to a plane, especially at the edge of the magnet. Then, any horizontal component of the magnetic field due to the permanent magnet can either eliminate one of the bistable states, or greatly increase the current that is needed to switch the cantilever from one state to the other. Careful alignment of the permanent magnet relative to the cantilever so as to locate the cantilever in the right spot of the permanent magnet field (usually near the center) will permit bi-stability and minimize switching current. Nevertheless, high-volume production of the switch can become difficult and costly if the alignment error tolerance is small. 
   What is desired are electro-mechanical devices, including latching micro-magnetic switches, that are reliable, simple in design, low-cost and easy to manufacture. Hence, what is further desired is improved methods and systems for manufacturing electro-mechanical devices. 
   BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   Methods and systems for assembling and making laminated electro-mechanical systems (LEMS), structures, and devices are described herein. In a first aspect, a system and method of assembling an electro-mechanical structure is provided. A stack of structural layers is aligned. The stack includes at least one structural layer having a movable element formed therein. Each structural layer of the stack is attached to an adjacent structural layer of the stack. 
   Numerous types of structural layers may be positioned in the stack. In an aspect, a structural layer that includes a permanent magnet is positioned in the stack. In another aspect, a structural layer that includes a high permeability magnetic material is positioned in the stack. In another aspect, a structural layer that includes at least a portion of an electromagnet is positioned in the stack. In another aspect, a structural layer that includes at least one electrical contact area formed thereon is positioned in the stack. Further structural layer types may be positioned in the stack. 
   The movable element can be a micro-machined movable element. In a further aspect, a first structural layer that includes the micro-machined movable element is positioned in the stack. 
   In a further aspect, a cavity may be formed in the stack by positioning the structural layer having the movable element between a second structural layer having an opening therethrough and a third structural layer having an opening therethrough. The cavity may be formed such that the movable element is capable of moving in the cavity during operation of the movable element. 
   In a still further aspect, the plurality of structural layers are formed. 
   In another aspect, one or more laminated electro-mechanical structures are assembled or made according to the methods and systems described herein. These structures form devices that can be vertically stacked upon one another and/or laterally spaced apart. In either case, the devices can be electrically and/or optically coupled to form a circuit. Alternatively, they can be coupled (electrically and/or optically) to other discrete or integrated circuits. 
   In another aspect of the present invention, a latching switch having two or more flexible contact members is assembled using LEMS techniques. A plurality of layers are attached together in a stack. A layer having a first flexible member is positioned/inserted into the stack. A layer having a second flexible member is positioned/inserted into the stack. During operation of the switch, the first flexible member can contact the second flexible member. For example, during contact, an electrical connection can be made between the first and second flexible members. 
   Furthermore, when the first flexible member moves into contact with the second flexible member, the second flexible member flexes in response. The flex response of the second flexible member provides many benefits for the switch, including reduced contact bounce, reduced settling time, increased lifetime and reliability, among other benefits. 
   In a further aspect, the layer having the second flexible member includes a third flexible member. During operation of the switch, the first flexible member can contact both the second and third flexible members simultaneously. For example, an electrical connection can be made between the second and third flexible members through the first flexible member. When the first flexible member moves into contact with them, the second and third flexible members both flex in response. 
   The switch may be actuated in various ways. In an example magnetic actuation aspect of the present invention, the first flexible member has a magnetic material and a longitudinal axis. A permanent magnet layer that produces a first magnetic field is positioned/inserted into the stack. The first magnetic field induces a magnetization in the magnetic material. The magnetization is characterized by a magnetization vector pointing in a direction along the longitudinal axis of the first flexible member. The first magnetic field is approximately perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. A layer that includes a coil is inserted into the stack. The coil is capable of producing a second magnetic field. The second magnetic field causes the first flexible member to switch between a first stable state and a second stable state. In first stable state, the first flexible member is in contact with the second flexible member, which flexes in response. In the second stable state, the first flexible member is not in contact with the second flexible member. 
   These and other objects, advantages and features will become readily apparent in view of the following detailed description of the invention. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS/FIGURES 
     The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and form a part of the specification, illustrate the present invention and, together with the description, further serve to explain the principles of the invention and to enable a person skilled in the pertinent art to make and use the invention. 
       FIGS. 1A–1C  show views of a laminated electro-mechanical system, according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 2A  shows side views of separated layers of the laminated electro-mechanical system shown in  FIGS. 1A–1C . 
       FIG. 2B  shows a top view of the cantilever assembly of the laminated electro-mechanical system shown in  FIGS. 1A–1C . 
       FIG. 3A  illustrates separated layers of a laminated electro-mechanical system that may be assembled to form a cavity for a movable element, according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 3B  illustrates the attachment together of the separated layers shown in  FIG. 3A , according to an example embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 4  illustrates a structure formed by the assembly process of the present invention that integrates switches with other components. 
       FIG. 5  illustrates a structure formed by the assembly process of the present invention that integrates switches with contacts on a top inner surface. 
       FIG. 6  illustrates a structure formed by the assembly process of the present invention that includes multiple switches and/or other elements integrated vertically, according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIGS. 7A and 7B  illustrate side and top views of an inductor layer that can be used in a laminated electro-mechanical system, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 8  shows a flowchart for making or assembling laminated electro-mechanical structures, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIGS. 9A and 9B  are side and top views, respectively, of an exemplary embodiment of a switch. 
       FIG. 10  illustrates the principle by which bi-stability is produced. 
       FIG. 11  illustrates the boundary conditions on the magnetic field (H) at a boundary between two materials with different permeability (1&gt;&gt;2). 
       FIG. 12A  shows an example movable element layer that includes a movable element capable of movement laterally in the movable element layer, according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 12B  shows a cross-sectional view of a laminated electro-mechanical system that includes the movable element layer shown in  FIG. 12A , according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIGS. 13A–13D  show example switches having two flexible contact members, according to embodiments of the present invention. 
       FIG. 14A  shows a switch that incorporates a magnetic actuation mechanism, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 14B  shows a plan view of portions of layers of the switch of  FIG. 14A , according to an example embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIGS. 15A–15C  show views of a switch having three flexible contact members, according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIGS. 16A and 16B  show views of a switch similar to the switch of  FIGS. 15A–15C  that incorporates a magnetic actuation mechanism, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIGS. 17A and 17B  shows views of a switch, according to an example embodiment of the present invention 
       FIGS. 18A and 18B  show views of a switch having three flexible contact members, according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIGS. 19A and 19B  show views of a switch having a bent layer with flexible contact member, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 20  shows a switch incorporating a magnetic actuation mechanism, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 21  shows a flowchart providing example steps for assembling a latching switch by attaching a plurality of layers together in a stack, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 22  shows a flowchart providing example steps for operating a magnetically actuated latching switch with multiple flexible members, according to an example embodiment of the present invention 
   

   The present invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. In the drawings, like reference numbers indicate identical or functionally similar elements. Additionally, the left-most digit(s) of a reference number identifies the drawing in which the reference number first appears. 
   DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
   It should be appreciated that the particular implementations shown and described herein are examples of the invention and are not intended to otherwise limit the scope of the present invention in any way. Indeed, for the sake of brevity, conventional electronics, manufacturing, laminated electro-mechanical and MEMS technologies and other functional aspects of the systems (and components of the individual operating components of the systems) may not be described in detail herein. Furthermore, for purposes of brevity, the invention is frequently described herein as pertaining to a micro-electronically-machined relay for use in electrical or electronic systems. It should be appreciated that the manufacturing techniques described herein could be used to create mechanical relays, optical relays, any other switching device, and other component types. Further, the techniques would be suitable for application in electrical systems, optical systems, consumer electronics, industrial electronics, wireless systems, space applications, or any other application. 
   The terms, chip, integrated circuit, monolithic device, semiconductor device, and microelectronic device, are often used interchangeably in this field. The present invention is applicable to all the above as they are generally understood in the field. 
   The terms metal line, transmission line, interconnect line, trace, wire, conductor, signal path and signaling medium are all related. The related terms listed above, are generally interchangeable, and appear in order from specific to general. In this field, metal lines are sometimes referred to as traces, wires, lines, interconnect or simply metal. Metal lines, generally aluminum (Al), copper (Cu) or an alloy of Al and Cu, are conductors that provide signal paths for coupling or interconnecting, electrical circuitry. Conductors other than metal are available in microelectronic devices. Materials such as doped polysilicon, doped single-crystal silicon (often referred to simply as diffusion, regardless of whether such doping is achieved by thermal diffusion or ion implantation), titanium (Ti), molybdenum (Mo), and refractory metal suicides are examples of other conductors. 
   The terms contact and via, both refer to structures for electrical connection of conductors from different interconnect levels. These terms are sometimes used in the art to describe both an opening in an insulator in which the structure will be completed, and the completed structure itself. For purposes of this disclosure contact and via refer to the completed structure. 
   The term vertical, as used herein, means substantially orthogonal to the surface of a substrate. Moreover, it should be understood that the spatial descriptions (e.g., “above”, “below”, “up”, “down”, “top”, “bottom”, etc.) made herein are for purposes of illustration only, and that practical latching relays can be spatially arranged in any orientation or manner. 
   The above-described micro-magnetic latching switch is further described in international patent publications WO0157899 (titled Electronically Switching Latching Micro-magnetic Relay And Method of Operating Same), and WO0184211 (titled Electronically Micro-magnetic latching switches and Method of Operating Same), to Shen et al. These patent publications provide a thorough background on micro-magnetic latching switches and are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Moreover, the details of the switches disclosed in WO0157899 and WO0184211 are applicable to implement the switch embodiments of the present invention as described below. 
   Laminated Electro-Mechanical Systems 
   The present invention relates to laminated electro-mechanical systems (LEMS) and structures. In the laminated electro-mechanical systems and structures of the present invention, various layers of materials with predefined patterns are formed. The layers are aligned relative to each other, and laminated together or built-up, to form a multilayer structure or stack. Movable mechanical elements can be created in one or more layers of the stack. A movable element is provided with space to move in the stack by creating a cavity in the stack. To create a cavity, layers with openings are aligned on one or both sides of the layer having the movable element. The movable elements are allowed to move freely in the formed cavity after lamination together of the various layers. 
   Typically, the layers are substantially planar in shape. However, in some embodiments, various layers may have features that do extend out of the plane of the layer. 
   The present invention may include any type of actuation mechanism to control movement of the movable mechanical elements. Example applicable actuation mechanisms include electrical, electrostatic, magnetic, thermal, and piezoelectric actuation mechanisms. Note that for illustrative purposes, a micro-mechanical latching switch having a magnetic actuation mechanism is described herein as being made as a laminated electro-mechanical system or structure. It is to be understood from the teachings herein that switches having other actuation mechanisms can also be made as a laminated electro-mechanical system or structure. 
   The laminated electro-mechanical systems and structures of the present invention provide numerous advantages. An advantage of the present invention includes low cost. The material(s) used for the layers of the present invention are conventional materials that are relatively inexpensive. Conventional techniques may be used to form patterns in the layers, including screen-printing, etching (e.g., photolithography or chemical), ink jet printing, and other techniques. Furthermore, conventional lamination techniques can be used to attach the layers together. 
   Another advantage of the present invention is that it is relatively easy to produce. The layers of the present invention are formed. The layers are then merely aligned and attached to each other. Complicated attachment mechanisms are not required. As described above, conventional techniques may be used to attach the layers. Furthermore, laminated electro-mechanical systems and structures may be made in large sheets that include large numbers of the devices to provide economies of scale. 
   Another advantage of the present invention is an ease in integration of laminated electro-mechanical systems and structures with other electronic components (e.g., inductors, capacitors, resistors, antenna patterns, filters). The other electronic components may be formed on one or more of the layers when they are preformed, prior to placement in the stack, for example. 
   Still another advantage of the present invention is an ease in scaling up or down the dimensions of the laminated electro-mechanical systems and structures to better handle different levels of power. The laminated electro-mechanical systems and structures may be scaled down to the level of micro-machined structures and devices, for example. Such micro-machined structures and devices require small amounts of power. The laminated electro-mechanical systems and structures may also be scaled up to larger sized structures and devices. 
   Assembling Laminated Electro-Mechanical Structures According to the Present Invention 
   Embodiments for making and assembling laminated electro-mechanical systems and structures according to the present invention are described in detail as follows. These implementations are described herein for illustrative purposes, and are not limiting. The laminated electro-mechanical systems and structures of the present invention, as described in this section, can be assembled in alternative ways, as would be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) from the teachings herein. 
     FIGS. 1A–1C  show views of a laminated electro-mechanical system  100 , according to an embodiment of the present invention.  FIG. 1A  shows a plan view of laminated electro-mechanical system  100 .  FIGS. 1B and 1C  show cross-sectional views of laminated electro-mechanical system  100 . For illustrative purposes, laminated electro-mechanical system  100  is shown as including a micro-magnetic latching switch. However, it is noted that the present invention as described herein is also applicable fabrication of latching switches with other actuation mechanisms, and to fabrication of other larger scale and micro-machined device types. 
   As shown in  FIGS. 1A–1C , laminated electro-mechanical system  100  includes a high-permeability (e.g., permalloy) layer  1 , an electromagnet or coil  2  having contacts  21  and  22 , bottom contacts  31  and  32 , a permanent magnet  4 , a cantilever assembly  5 , and further lamination layers. Cantilever assembly includes contacts  53  and  54 , a cantilever body  52  (e.g., made of a soft magnetic material such as a permalloy), and contact tips  55  and  56 , and is supported by torsion flexures  51 . Cantilever body  52  is a movable element that is positioned inside a cavity  102  so that it can toggle freely between contacts  31  and  32  during operation of the latching switch. Example operation of the latching switch is further described above. 
   To fabricate the latching switch shown in  FIGS. 1A–1C , various patterns and openings are first defined and formed on the structural lamination layers or built up with other materials. These structural layers are shown in  FIGS. 1A–1C , and are also shown in  FIG. 2A , where laminated electro-mechanical system  100  is shown in exploded form. As shown in  FIGS. 1B and 2A , laminated electro-mechanical system  100  includes a structural layer formed substantially by permanent magnet  4 , a first substrate layer  104 , a first spacer layer  106 , a movable element layer  108 , a second spacer layer  110 , a coil layer  112 , and a second substrate layer  114 .  FIG. 2B  shows a plan view of cantilever assembly  5 . 
   The structural layers can be formed from a variety of materials. For example, in an embodiment, the structural layers can be formed from thin films that are capable of at least some flexing, and have large surface areas. Alternatively, structural layers can be formed from other materials. The structural layers can be electrically conductive or non-conductive. For example, the structural layers can be formed from inorganic or organic substrate materials, including plastics, glass, polymers, dielectric materials, etc. Example organic substrate materials include “BT,” which includes a resin called bis-maleimide triazine, “FR-4,” which is a fire-retardant epoxy resin-glass cloth laminate material, and/or other materials. In electrically conductive structural layer embodiments, structural layers can be formed from a metal or combination of metals/alloy, or from other electrically conductive materials. 
   As shown in  FIG. 1B , the structural layers are aligned and stacked together to form a stack  116 . The structural layers are attached to each other in the stack with an adhesive material (not shown). The adhesive material may be an adhesive tape, or an interfacial glue layer, such as an epoxy (e.g. a B-stage epoxy) applied/located between the structural layers. If the adhesive material requires curing, such as thermal curing, stack  116  can be heated to a suitable temperature to cure the adhesive material, and attach the structural layers together. 
   As shown in  FIGS. 1B and 1C , a cavity  102  is formed aligning the openings through first and second spacer layers  106  and  110  on either side of movable element layer  108 . Cavity  102  allows the movable element of movable element layer  108  (e.g., cantilever body  52 ) to move freely to contact one or more electrical contacts, such as contacts  31  and  32  shown in  FIG. 1A . Contacts  31  and  32  are formed on coil layer  112  in the example of  FIGS. 1A–1C . 
   One or more vias may be formed in structural layers to allow electrical contact between elements in system  100  and elements exterior to system  100 . As shown in  FIG. 1B , for example, vias  41  and  42  electrically couple contact areas  31  and  32 , respectively, to contact pads  118  and  120  formed on a surface of second substrate layer  114 . Furthermore, as shown in  FIG. 1C , vias  122  and  124  electrically couple contacts  53  and  54  to contact pads  126  and  128  formed on a surface of second substrate layer  114 . Vias may be formed in any number of one or more structural layers. Vias through multiple layers can be aligned to allow electrical connections between any structural layers. 
   Note that although a single latching switch is shown in the embodiment of  FIGS. 1A–1C , it should be understood that multiple micro-mechanical devices can be patterned on the lamination layers and batch fabricated. The multiple micro-mechanical devices can be left together, or can be separated by cutting. 
     FIG. 3A  illustrates separated layers of a laminated electro-mechanical system  300  that may be assembled to form a cavity for a movable element, according to a further example embodiment of the present invention.  FIG. 3B  illustrates the attachment together of the separated layers shown in  FIG. 3A  to form laminated electro-mechanical system  300 , according to an example embodiment of the present invention. 
   Note that various electronic devices or components, including switches, inductors, capacitors, resistors, antenna patterns, and others, can also be fabricated similarly to the processes described herein. For example,  FIGS. 7A and 7B  illustrate a laminated electro-mechanical system  700  that includes a structural layer having an inductor  704  and ground plane  702  present. As shown in  FIG. 7A , inductor  704  is located in a cavity  708 . The open portion of cavity  708  is formed by first and second spacer layers  710  and  712 . As shown in  FIG. 7B , inductor  704  is formed as a planar coil. Ground plane  702  is electrically isolated from, and surrounds inductor  704  in the plane of the structural layer in which they reside. A plurality of vias  706   a – 706   d  are used to electrically couple ends of inductor  704 , and portions of ground plane  704 , to externally available contact pads on one or more surfaces of laminated electro-mechanical system  700 . As shown in  FIG. 7A , portions of inductor  704  are suspended. In such a suspended configuration, inductor  704  has a high quality factor. Furthermore, the planar configuration for inductor  704  reduces the cost of inductor  704 . 
   Furthermore, various electronic devices or components, including switches, inductors, capacitors, resistors, antenna patterns, and others may be integrated with embodiments of the present invention. For example,  FIG. 4  illustrates a laminated electro-mechanical system  400  formed by the lamination assembly process of the present invention, that integrates an inductor or antenna pattern  402  and capacitors  404 . The electrical contact areas of a latching switch of system  400  may be electrically coupled to the electrical components integrated therewith, by one or more vias, conductor lines, and/or other ways, to form a circuit on the same structure. For example, embodiments of the present invention may be combined with electrical components and/or devices to create reconfigurable filters, reconfigurable antennas, and other devices. Embodiments of the present invention may also be used with liquid crystal displays, and other display types. The laminated electro-mechanical systems and structures can be electrically and/or optically coupled with the electrical components and devices, for example. 
   Transmission lines, such as radio frequency transmission lines, can be accommodated in a laminated electro-mechanical system of the present invention. For example, in an embodiment, a radio frequency (RF) switch formed in a laminated electro-mechanical system of the present invention can be coupled to a radio frequency transmission line having a pair of conductive lines or traces. In one embodiment, the conductive lines or traces of the radio frequency transmission line can be formed in parallel on a single structural layer of a stack. In another embodiment, a first conductive line or trace of the radio frequency transmission line can be formed on a first structural layer of a stack, while a second conductive line or trace of the radio frequency transmission line can be formed on a second structural layer of the stack. An insulating or electrically non-conducting structural layer can be positioned in the stack between the first and second conductive lines or traces. 
   Note that contact areas for movable elements in laminated electro-mechanical systems  100 ,  300 , and  400  may be positioned in various locations. For example  FIG. 5  illustrates a structure or system  500  formed by the assembly process of the present invention that integrates a latching switch. Cantilever body  52  toggles to make contact with contact areas  502  and  504  on a top inner surface of cavity  102 . Furthermore, contact area may be located on top and bottom surface in a single system. 
   Note that coil  2  can be formed on both the top and bottom sides of cantilever body  52 . Furthermore, solenoid coils can be fabricated by connecting coil lines on two layers. As shown in  FIG. 5 , a coil  2  may be coated with an insulator  506  to protect the coil  2  from contact with cantilever body  52 . 
   Furthermore, a movable element can be formed that is capable of movement in the plane of the structural layer in which it is formed. In other words, the movable element may be formed to have a degree of freedom that is coplanar with the plane of the structural layer in which it resides, as opposed to the movable element shown in  FIG. 5 , which has a degree of freedom that is not coplanar with the plane of the structural layer in which it resides. 
   For example,  FIG. 12A  shows an example movable element layer  1202  that includes a movable element  1204  that is capable of movement laterally in movable element layer  1202 . Movable element  1204  is capable of moving to make contact with one or more contact areas  1206 .  FIG. 12B  shows a cross-sectional view of a laminated electro-mechanical system  1200  that includes movable element layer  1202 . As shown in  FIG. 12B , magnets and/or coils  1208  are used to actuate movement of movable element  1204  in the plane of movable element layer  1202 . Embodiments such as that shown in  FIGS. 12A and 12B  may have reduced cavity size requirements than those in which the movable element is capable of movement outside of the plane of the structural layer in which the movable element resides. 
   In an embodiment, structural layers can be configured in a stack of a laminated electro-mechanical system to provide for hermetic sealing of elements of a portion or all of the stack. For example, in an embodiment, it may be desired to hermetically seal a moveable element and related contact(s) within a stack  116 , such as those of cantilever assembly  5  shown in  FIGS. 1A–1C ,  2 A, and  2 B. In such an embodiment, one or more structural layers above and below cantilever assembly  5  can be formed from materials that are substantially impervious to moisture and/or other environmental hazards. For example, one or more of layers  104 ,  106 ,  110 ,  112 , and  114  can be made from a glass material, or other suitable hermetic sealing material mentioned elsewhere herein, or otherwise known. In such a manner, for example, a hermetically sealed cavity  102  can be formed. Hermetically sealing structural layers can be formed around any elements in a stack  116  requiring to be hermetically sealed, including moveable elements, related contacts, coils, circuit elements (e.g., capacitors, resistors, inductors), magnets, and/or other elements. Note that any elements/layers of the laminated electro-mechanical system, including coils, permalloy layers, contacts, circuit elements, or other layers/elements of the device, can be formed on the hermetically sealing structural layers. 
   Note that multiple laminated electro-mechanical devices may be made or assembled according to the present invention in a vertically spaced or stacked configuration, or in a laterally spaced or co-planar configuration. For example,  FIG. 6  illustrates a structure  600  formed by the assembly process of the present invention that includes multiple micro-mechanical systems  602  that are stacked or integrated vertically, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Multiple stacks of switches and other elements (inductors, capacitors, etc.) can be integrated vertically and laterally. 
     FIG. 8  shows a flowchart  800  providing steps for making micro-machined structures of the present invention. The steps of  FIG. 8  do not necessarily have to occur in the order shown, as will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings herein. 
   As described herein, numerous electrical and mechanical device types may be made according to the laminated electro-mechanical systems and structures of the present invention. These devices can be made in a wide range of sizes, including small-scale micro-mechanical devices and larger scale devices. These devices can also be made to include movable elements, such as latching switches. The following sections are provided to detail structure and operation of an example micro-mechanical latching switch that may be formed according to the laminated electro-mechanical systems and structures of the present invention. However, note that this description is provided for illustrative purposes, and the present invention is not limited to the embodiments shown therein. As described above, the present invention is applicable to numerous device types. 
   For example, described further below are laminated electro-mechanical system embodiments for relays having multiple flexible/moveable contacts. 
   Overview of a Latching Switch 
     FIGS. 9A and 9B  show side and top views, respectively, of a latching switch. The terms switch and device are used herein interchangeably to described the structure of the present invention. With reference to  FIGS. 9A and 9B , an exemplary latching relay  900  suitably includes a magnet  902 , a substrate  904 , an insulating layer  906  housing a conductor  914 , a contact  908  and a cantilever (moveable element)  912  positioned or supported above substrate by a staging layer  910 . 
   Magnet  902  is any type of magnet such as a permanent magnet, an electromagnet, or any other type of magnet capable of generating a magnetic field H0  934 , as described more fully below. By way of example and not limitation, the magnet  902  can be a model 59-P09213T001 magnet available from the Dexter Magnetic Technologies corporation of Fremont, Calif., although of course other types of magnets could be used. Magnetic field  934  can be generated in any manner and with any magnitude, such as from about 1 Oersted to 104 Oersted or more. The strength of the field depends on the force required to hold the cantilever in a given state, and thus is implementation dependent. In the exemplary embodiment shown in  FIG. 9A , magnetic field H0  934  can be generated approximately parallel to the Z axis and with a magnitude on the order of about 370 Oersted, although other embodiments will use varying orientations and magnitudes for magnetic field  934 . In various embodiments, a single magnet  902  can be used in conjunction with a number of relays  900  sharing a common substrate  904 . 
   Substrate  904  is formed of any type of substrate material such as silicon, gallium arsenide, glass, plastic, metal or any other substrate material. In various embodiments, substrate  904  can be coated with an insulating material (such as an oxide) and planarized or otherwise made flat. In various embodiments, a number of latching relays  900  can share a single substrate  904 . Alternatively, other devices (such as transistors, diodes, or other electronic devices) could be formed upon substrate  904  along with one or more relays  900  using, for example, conventional integrated circuit manufacturing techniques. Alternatively, magnet  902  could be used as a substrate and the additional components discussed below could be formed directly on magnet  902 . In such embodiments, a separate substrate  904  may not be required. 
   Insulating layer  906  is formed of any material such as oxide or another insulator such as a thin-film insulator. In an exemplary embodiment, insulating layer is formed of Probimide  7510  material. Insulating layer  906  suitably houses conductor  914 . Conductor  914  is shown in  FIGS. 9A and 9B  to be a single conductor having two ends  926  and  928  arranged in a coil pattern. Alternate embodiments of conductor  914  use single or multiple conducting segments arranged in any suitable pattern such as a meander pattern, a serpentine pattern, a random pattern, or any other pattern. Conductor  914  is formed of any material capable of conducting electricity such as gold, silver, copper, aluminum, metal or the like. As conductor  914  conducts electricity, a magnetic field is generated around conductor  914  as discussed more fully below. 
   Cantilever (moveable element)  912  is any armature, extension, outcropping or member that is capable of being affected by magnetic force. In the embodiment shown in  FIG. 9A , cantilever  912  suitably includes a magnetic layer  918  and a conducting layer  920 . Magnetic layer  918  can be formulated of permalloy (such as NiFe alloy) or any other magnetically sensitive material. Conducting layer  920  can be formulated of gold, silver, copper, aluminum, metal or any other conducting material. In various embodiments, cantilever  912  exhibits two states corresponding to whether relay  900  is “open” or “closed”, as described more fully below. In many embodiments, relay  900  is said to be “closed” when a conducting layer  920 , connects staging layer  910  to contact  908 . Conversely, the relay may be said to be “open” when cantilever  912  is not in electrical contact with contact  908 . Because cantilever  912  can physically move in and out of contact with contact  908 , various embodiments of cantilever  912  will be made flexible so that cantilever  912  can bend as appropriate. Flexibility can be created by varying the thickness of the cantilever (or its various component layers), by patterning or otherwise making holes or cuts in the cantilever, or by using increasingly flexible materials. 
   Alternatively, cantilever  912  can be made into a “hinged” arrangement. Although of course the dimensions of cantilever  912  can vary dramatically from implementation to implementation, an exemplary cantilever  912  suitable for use in a micro-magnetic relay  900  can be on the order of 10–1000 microns in length, 1–40 microns in thickness, and 2–600 microns in width. For example, an exemplary cantilever in accordance with the embodiment shown in  FIGS. 9A and 9B  can have dimensions of about 600 microns×10 microns×50 microns, or 1000 microns×600 microns×25 microns, or any other suitable dimensions. 
   Contact  908  and staging layer  910  are placed on insulating layer  906 , as appropriate. In various embodiments, staging layer  910  supports cantilever  912  above insulating layer  906 , creating a gap  916  that can be vacuum or can become filled with air or another gas or liquid such as oil. Although the size of gap  916  varies widely with different implementations, an exemplary gap  916  can be on the order of 1–100 microns, such as about 20 microns, Contact  908  can receive cantilever  912  when relay  900  is in a closed state, as described below. Contact  908  and staging layer  910  can be formed of any conducting material such as gold, gold alloy, silver, copper, aluminum, metal or the like. In various embodiments, contact  908  and staging layer  910  are formed of similar conducting materials, and the relay is considered to be “closed” when cantilever  912  completes a circuit between staging layer  910  and contact  908 . In certain embodiments wherein cantilever  912  does not conduct electricity, staging layer  910  can be formulated of non-conducting material such as Probimide material, oxide, or any other material. Additionally, alternate embodiments may not require staging layer  910  if cantilever  912  is otherwise supported above insulating layer  906 . 
   Principle of Operation of a Latching Switch 
   When it is in the “down” position, the cantilever makes electrical contact with the bottom conductor, and the switch is “on” (also called the “closed” state). When the contact end is “up”, the switch is “off” (also called the “open” state). These two stable states produce the switching function by the moveable cantilever element. The permanent magnet holds the cantilever in either the “up” or the “down” position after switching, making the device a latching relay. A current is passed through the coil (e.g., the coil is energized) only during a brief (temporary) period of time to transition between the two states. 
   (i) Method to Produce Bi-Stability 
   The principle by which bi-stability is produced is illustrated with reference to  FIG. 2 . When the length L of a permalloy cantilever  912  is much larger than its thickness t and width (w, not shown), the direction along its long axis L becomes the preferred direction for magnetization (also called the “easy axis”). When a major central portion of the cantilever is placed in a uniform permanent magnetic field, a torque is exerted on the cantilever. The torque can be either clockwise or counterclockwise, depending on the initial orientation of the cantilever with respect to the magnetic field. When the angle (α) between the cantilever axis (ξ) and the external field (H0) is smaller than 90°, the torque is counterclockwise; and when α is larger than 90°, the torque is clockwise. The bi-directional torque arises because of the bi-directional magnetization (i.e., a magnetization vector “m” points one direction or the other direction, as shown in  FIG. 10 ) of the cantilever (m points from left to right when α&lt;90°, and from right to left when α&gt;90°). Due to the torque, the cantilever tends to align with the external magnetic field (H0). However, when a mechanical force (such as the elastic torque of the cantilever, a physical stopper, etc.) preempts to the total realignment with H0, two stable positions (“up” and “down”) are available, which forms the basis of latching in the switch. 
   (ii) Electrical Switching 
   If the bi-directional magnetization along the easy axis of the cantilever arising from H0 can be momentarily reversed by applying a second magnetic field to overcome the influence of (H0), then it is possible to achieve a switchable latching relay. This scenario is realized by situating a planar coil under or over the cantilever to produce the required temporary switching field. The planar coil geometry was chosen because it is relatively simple to fabricate, though other structures (such as a wrap-around, three dimensional type) are also possible. The magnetic field (Hcoil) lines generated by a short current pulse loop around the coil. It is mainly the ξ-component (along the cantilever, see  FIG. 10 ) of this field that is used to reorient the magnetization (magnetization vector “m”) in the cantilever. The direction of the coil current determines whether a positive or a negative ξ-field component is generated. Plural coils can be used. After switching, the permanent magnetic field holds the cantilever in this state until the next switching event is encountered. Since the ξ-component of the coil-generated field (Hcoil-ξ) only needs to be momentarily larger than the ξ-component [H0ξ˜H0cos(α)=H0sin(φ), α=90°−φ] of the permanent magnetic field and φ is typically very small (e.g., φ≦5°), switching current and power can be very low, which is an important consideration in micro relay design. 
   The operation principle can be summarized as follows: A permalloy cantilever in a uniform (in practice, the field can be just approximately uniform) magnetic field can have a clockwise or a counterclockwise torque depending on the angle between its long axis (easy axis, L) and the field. Two bi-stable states are possible when other forces can balance die torque. A coil can generate a momentary magnetic field to switch the orientation of magnetization (vector m) along the cantilever and thus switch the cantilever between the two states. 
   Relaxed Alignment of Magnets 
   To address the issue of relaxing the magnet alignment requirement, the inventors have developed a technique to create perpendicular magnetic fields in a relatively large region around the cantilever. The invention is based on the fact that the magnetic field lines in a low permeability media (e.g., air) are basically perpendicular to the surface of a very high permeability material (e.g., materials that are easily magnetized, such as permalloy). When the cantilever is placed in proximity to such a surface and the cantilever&#39;s horizontal plane is parallel to the surface of the high permeability material, the above stated objectives can be at least partially achieved. The generic scheme is described below, followed by illustrative embodiments of the invention. 
   The boundary conditions for the magnetic flux density (B) and magnetic field (H) follow the following relationships:
 
 B 2 ·n=B 1 ·n, B 2 ×n =(μ2/μ1) B 1 ×n 
 
or
 
 H 2 ·n =(μ1/μ2) H 1 ·n, H 2 ×n=H 1 ×n 
 
   If μ1&gt;&gt;μ2, the normal component of H2 is much larger than the normal component of H1, as shown in  FIG. 11 . In the limit (μ1/μ2)→∞, the magnetic field H2 is normal to the boundary surface, independent of the direction of H1 (barring the exceptional case of H1 exactly parallel to the interface). If the second media is air (μ2=1), then B2=μ0 H2, so that the flux lines B2 will also be perpendicular to the surface. This property is used to produce magnetic fields that are perpendicular to the horizontal plane of the cantilever in a micro-magnetic latching switch and to relax the permanent magnet alignment requirements. 
   This property, where the magnetic field is normal to the boundary surface of a high-permeability material, and the placement of the cantilever (i.e., soft magnetic) with its horizontal plane parallel to the surface of the high-permeability material, can be used in many different configurations to relax the permanent magnet alignment requirement. 
   Embodiments for Laminated Relays with Multiple Movable Contacts 
   Described in this section are laminated electro-mechanical system (LEMS) embodiments for relays having multiple moveable/flexible contacts. Having multiple moveable/flexible contact members (i.e., cantilevers, contacts) provides many benefits, including in reducing undesired “bounce” when a cantilever comes into contact with another element. For example, bounce can occur due to an impact when a first contact initially touches a second contact. The first contact and/or second contact may actually bounce back, temporarily losing the connection between them one or more times. Bouncing is not desirable because it increases a settling time for the electrical connection, and reduces lifetime of the participating contacts (e.g., increasing a duration of arcing between the contacts). 
   Two and three moveable/flexible contact member embodiments are described below, for illustrative purposes. However, embodiments having more than two or three moveable/flexible contact members are also within the scope and spirit of the present invention. 
   In embodiments of the present invention, because the second contact (and/or additional contacts) is flexible in addition to the first contact being flexible, the impact of the first contact on the second contact is partially absorbed by the second contact. The second contact retracts with a spring-like effect, and moves together with the first contact, thereby reducing bounce, settling time, and improving reliability. 
     FIGS. 13A–13C  relate to an example relay or switch  1300  having two flexible contact members, according to an embodiment of the present invention.  FIG. 13A  shows a cross-sectional view of switch  1300 . As shown in  FIG. 13A , switch  1300  includes a first flexible member  1302 , a second flexible member  1304 , a top (first) cover layer  1306 , a first spacer layer  1308 , a layer  1310 , a second spacer layer  1312 , a layer  1312 , a third spacer layer  1316 , and a bottom (second) cover layer  1318 . These layers of switch  1300  form a stack  1350 , similar to stack  116  shown in  FIG. 1B . The layers of switch  1300  are attached together, such as by laminating techniques, epoxy, glue, by depositing of layers, electroplating, and/or by other techniques. 
   First, second, and third spacer layers  1308 ,  1312 , and  1316  each include an opening therethrough. First, second, and third spacer layers  1308 ,  1312 , and  1316  are similar to first and second spacer layers  106  and  110  described above with respect to  FIG. 1  for LEMS  100 . First, second, and third spacer layers  1308 ,  1312 , and  1316  collectively contribute to forming a cavity  1320  in switch  1300 . Cavity  1320  allows first and second flexible members  1302  and  1304  to move and/or flex freely to contact one or more electrical contacts (not shown in  FIG. 13A ). 
   Top cover layer  1306  and bottom cover layer  1318  are structural covers that cover the ends/sides of cavity  1320  within the spacer layers and other layers of switch  1300 . For example, in an embodiment, top cover layer  1306  and bottom cover layer  1318  are similar to first substrate layer  104  shown in  FIG. 1  for LEMS  100 . When present, top cover layer  1306  and/or bottom cover layer  1318  are useful for providing environmental protection for the internal features of switch  1300 , including hermetic protection, protection from dust and other particulate contaminants, etc. 
   In embodiments, top cover layer  1306  and/or bottom cover layer  1318  can include additional features. For example, in embodiments, top cover layer  1306  and/or bottom cover layer  1318  can include: an electromagnet, such as a coil; a magnetic material, such as a soft magnetic material (e.g. permalloy) or a permanent magnet; and electrically conductive features, such as contacts, traces, and/or vias. 
   In embodiments, various layers of switch  1300 , including top cover layer  1306 , bottom cover layer  1318 , and first, second, and third spacer layers  1308 ,  1312 , and  1316 , can be made from a variety of materials. Such materials include a glass material, substrate materials, dielectrics, a plastic, a polymer, an epoxy (e.g., FR4), a metal or combination/alloy of metals (e.g., iron, steel, copper, aluminum, titanium, etc.), or other material, including suitable hermetic sealing materials, mentioned elsewhere herein, or otherwise known. 
   As shown in  FIG. 13A , first flexible member  1302  is located in layer  1310 , and second flexible member  1304  is located in layer  1314 . First and second flexible members  1302  and  1304  can be made from the same, or a different material from the remainder of their respective layers  1310  and  1314 . Furthermore, first and second flexible members  1302  and  1304  can be multi-layered and/or can be plated to provide electrical connectivity.  FIG. 13B  shows a perspective view of first and second flexible members  1302  and  1304 , according to an example embodiment of the present invention (the remaining portions of layers  1310  and  1314  are not shown in  FIG. 13B ). In an embodiment such as shown in  FIG. 13A , first and second flexible members  1302  and  1304  each extend inwardly in their respective layers from an edge of their respective layers  1310  and  1314 . In another embodiment, first and/or second flexible members  1302  and  1304  may each be attached to their respective layers  1310  and  1314  through one or more hinge or flexure members. Example hinge/flexure member embodiments are described below. 
   Although first and second flexible members  1302  and  1304  are shown in  FIG. 13A  as extending inwardly from opposing sides of stack  1350 , first and second flexible members  1302  and  1304  can alternatively extend inwardly from adjacent sides, or even the same side, of stack  1350 . 
   According to various actuation mechanisms, either one of, or both of, first flexible member  1302  and second flexible member  1304  can be caused to move (i.e., be moveable) into contact with the other flexible member. Such actuation mechanisms include magnetic, electrostatic, and others. For purposes of illustration, switch  1300  is described below as having first flexible member  1302  being moveable (i.e., the “master”), while second flexible member  1304  is not moveable (i.e., the “slave”). However, it will be understood to persons skilled in the relevant arts(s) that either or both of flexible members  1302  and  1304  could be moveable. 
   Switch  1300  can switch between first and second stable states due to the selected actuation mechanism.  FIG. 13C  shows switch  1300  in a first stable state, where first flexible member  1302  has moved downward through its non-flexed horizontal plane shown in  FIG. 13A  into contact with second flexible member  1304 . Switch  1300  is shown in an example second stable state in  FIG. 13A , where first flexible member  1302  is not in contact with second flexible member  1304 . In another possible second stable state, such as in a magnetically actuated switch embodiment, first flexible member  1302  may actually move further away from second flexible member  1304  than is shown in  FIG. 13A , when in the second stable state. 
   Note that switch  1300  is described as having the moveable member move downward, for illustrative purposes. However, for the embodiments described herein, it is to be understood that the moveable member could alternatively move upward, sideways, etc., depending on the particular configuration of the moveable/flexible members of a switch. 
   Layers  1310  and  1314 , including first and second flexible members  1302  and  1304 , can have electrically conductive features formed thereon (traces, contacts, etc.), to support the electrical connection of signals by switch  1300 . For example, in the first stable state, shown in  FIG. 13C , an electrically conductive end portion of first flexible member  1302  touches an electrically conductive end portion of second flexible member  1304 , forming a closed electrical conduction path from first flexible member  1302  to second flexible member  1304 . Thus, the first stable state can be considered an “on” state for switch  1300 . In this manner, switch  1300  can be used to electrically connect signals that are coupled to first and second flexible members  1302  and  1304 . 
     FIG. 13D  shows the end portions of first and second flexible members  1302  and  1304  each having an electrically conductive contact  1322  and  1324 , respectively. Electrically conductive contacts  1322  and  1324  can be any kind of electrically conductive feature. Furthermore, electrically conductive contacts  1322  and  1324  may be shaped to enhance electrical connectivity between first and second flexible members  1302  and  1304 . For example, as shown in  FIG. 13D , electrically conductive contacts  1322  and  1324  can be rounded, or otherwise shaped, to enhance contact. Electrically conductive contacts  1322  and  1324  can be made of any type of electrically conductive material, including a metal, or combination of metals/alloy, such as gold, silver, Rh, tin, aluminum, copper, iron, etc. 
   In the second stable state, such as shown in  FIG. 13A , the electrically conducting end portions of first and second flexible members  1302  and  1304  are separated from each other. Thus, the second stable state can be considered an “off” state for switch  1300 . 
   As shown in  FIG. 13C , when first flexible member  1302  moves into contact with second flexible member  1304 , at least an end portion  1360  of second flexible member  1304  flexes in response (if not second flexible member  1304  entirely). Second flexible member  1304  can flex because it is made from a material that can flex, and it has room to flex in cavity  1320 . Because of the ability of second flexible member  1304  to flex, the impact of first flexible member  1302  on second flexible member  1304  is partially absorbed by the flexing of second flexible member  1304 . Second flexible member  1304  retracts, moving together with first flexible member  1302 , thereby reducing bounce, reducing settling time, and improving reliability, for switch  1300 . 
   First flexible member  1302  and second flexible member  1304 , and their respective layers  1310  and  1314 , can be made from a variety of materials. Such materials include a glass material, substrate materials, dielectrics, a plastic, a polymer, an epoxy (e.g., FR4), a metal or combination/alloy of metals (e.g., iron, steel, copper, aluminum, titanium, etc.), other materials, and combinations thereof. Furthermore, in magnetically actuated embodiments, first flexible member  1302  can include a magnetic material, including a soft magnetic material such as a permalloy. 
   As described above, various actuation mechanisms can be used for switch  1300 . For example,  FIG. 14A  shows a relay or switch  1400 , similar to switch  1300 , that incorporates a magnetic actuation mechanism that operates as more fully described elsewhere herein, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. As shown in  FIG. 14A , switch  1400  includes a first flexible member  1402 , a second flexible member  1404 , a top (first) cover layer  1406 , a first spacer layer  1408 , a layer  1410 , a second spacer layer  1412 , a layer  1414 , a third spacer layer  1416 , a bottom (second) cover layer  1418 , a permanent magnetic layer  1430 , and an optional soft magnetic layer  1440 . These layers of switch  1400  form a stack  1450 , similar to stack  1350  shown in  FIG. 13A . Elements of switch  1400  named similarly to those of switch  1300  are generally structurally and operationally similar. 
   First, second, and third spacer layers  1408 ,  1412 , and  1416  collectively contribute to forming a cavity  1420  in switch  1400 . Cavity  1420  allows first and/or second flexible members  1402  and  1404  to move and/or flex freely to contact each other, and to move away from each other. Top cover layer  1406  and bottom cover layer  1418  are structural covers that cover the ends/sides of cavity  1420  within the spacer layers and other layers of switch  1400 . 
   In the present magnetic actuation embodiment, first flexible member  1402  includes a soft magnetic material, such as a permalloy (similarly to magnetic layer  918  of cantilever  912 , described above). Permanent magnet layer  1430  produces a magnetic field  1434 , similar to magnetic field H 0    934  produced by permanent magnet  902 , shown in  FIG. 9A . As described above for magnetic field H0  934 , magnetic field  1434  induces a magnetization in the soft magnetic material of first flexible member  1402 . The magnetization is characterized by a magnetization vector pointing in a direction along a longitudinal axis  1436  of first flexible member  1402 . As shown in  FIG. 14A , magnetic field  1434  is approximately perpendicular to longitudinal axis  1436 . 
   Bottom cover layer  1418  includes a conductor, such as coil  1432 , which is similar to conductor  914 . Coil  1432  is capable of producing a second magnetic field to cause first flexible member  1402  to switch between the first stable state (“on” state, moved in contact with second flexible member  1404 ) and the second stable state (“off” state, moved away from second flexible member  1404 ). In the first stable state, first flexible member  1402  is in contact with second flexible member  1404 , which flexes in response, similarly to as shown for second flexible member  1304  shown in  FIG. 13C . As described above, flexing of second flexible member  1404  thereby reduces bounce, reduces settling time, and improves reliability, for switch  1400 . 
   Optional soft magnetic layer  1440  (also referred to as a “dipole layer”), when present, is used to relax the permanent magnet alignment requirement, as described above. Soft magnetic layer  1440  can be a permalloy or other soft magnetic material. 
   Switch  1400  can include a plurality of electrically conductive vias to couple internal signals to other internal signals and/or to externally accessible contacts. For example, an electrically conductive via  1442  couples layer  1414  to an externally accessible contact  1452 . Thus, in an embodiment, first flexible member  1402  can be coupled to an external signal present at externally accessible contact  1452  through layer  1414  and electrically conductive via  1442 . 
   Furthermore, an electrically conductive via  1446  couples layer  1410  to an externally accessible contact  1454 . Thus, in an embodiment, second flexible member  1404  can be coupled to an external signal present at externally accessible contact  1454  through layer  1410  and electrically conductive via  1446 . 
   Furthermore, as shown in  FIG. 14A , a first end of coil  1432  is coupled by an electrically conductive via  1444  to an internal signal and/or an externally accessible contact. A second end of coil  1432  is coupled by an electrically conductive via  1448  to an internal signal and/or an externally accessible contact. 
   Second flexible member  1404  can be made from a variety of materials, including a magnetic material (e.g., permalloy) or a non-magnetic material (e.g., a metal such as beryllium copper, or other material). For example, second flexible member  1404  can be made from flexible materials such as a substrate material, polymer, plastic, epoxy, dielectric material, and/or other materials described herein or otherwise known. 
   Note that the positions in stack  1450  of permanent magnetic layer  1430 , coil  1432 , and soft magnetic layer  1440  are provided for illustrative purposes, and are not limiting. It will be understood to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) from the teachings herein that permanent magnetic layer  1430 , coil  1432 , and soft magnetic layer  1440  can each be positioned above or below cavity  1420 , in numerous combinations. 
     FIG. 14B  shows a plan view of portions of layers  1410  and  1414  of switch  1400 , according to an example embodiment of the present invention. First and second flexible members  1402  and  1404  are configured in example rotating cantilever configurations, according to example embodiments of the present invention. The rotating cantilever configurations shown in  FIG. 14B  for first and second flexible members  1402  and  1404  can be used with any of the switch embodiments described herein, although other configurations can alternatively be used. Layer  1410  is described in further detail as follows. The following description of layer  1410  is also applicable to layer  1414 . 
   Layer  1410  includes a U-shaped portion  1462 , a first flexure member  1464 , a second flexure member  1466 , and first flexible member  1402 . U-shaped portion  1462  anchors or supports first flexible member  1402  by being held between layers of stack  1450 . In the embodiment of  FIG. 14B , first and second flexure members  1464  and  1466  are located opposite each other, and their axes are aligned, although in other embodiments they may be positioned differently. First flexure member  1464  is coupled between a first inner end portion  1468  of U-shaped portion  1462  and a first side of flexible member  1402 . Second flexure member  1466  is coupled between a second inner end portion  1470  of U-shaped portion  1462  and a second side of flexible member  1402 . First and second flexure members  1464  and  1466  rotationally/torsionally flex around their axes when first flexible member  1402  moves according to the magnetic actuation mechanism. 
   Note that in an alternative embodiment, U-shaped portion  1462  of layer  1414  can alternatively be a ring shaped portion, which extends substantially, including completely, around first flexible member  1402  in switch  1400 , to give greater support to first flexible member  1402 . Furthermore, other equivalent configurations are envisioned. 
   As described above, switches can have more than two moveable/flexible members, in embodiments of the present invention. For example,  FIGS. 15A–15C  relate to a switch  1500  similar to switch  1300 , having an additional third flexible member, according to an embodiment of the present invention.  FIG. 15B  shows switch  1500  in the “off” or second stable state. As shown in  FIG. 15A , switch  1500  is similar to switch  1300 . As shown in  FIG. 15A , switch  1500  includes a top (first) cover layer  1506 , a first spacer layer  1508 , a layer  1510 , a second spacer layer  1512 , a layer  1514 , a third spacer layer  1516 , a bottom (second) cover layer  1518 . These layers of switch  1500  form a stack  1550 , similar to stack  1350  shown in  FIG. 13A . Layer  1514  includes a first flexible member  1502 , similarly to layer  1314 , which includes first flexible member  1302 , as shown in  FIG. 13A . However, layer  1510  includes two flexible members, a second flexible member  1504  and a third flexible member  1580 . 
     FIG. 15C  shows a perspective view of first, second, and third flexible members  1502 ,  1504 , and  1580  of switch  1500 , according to an example embodiment of the present invention. When actuated, an end of first flexible member  1502  moves/rotates upward above the horizontal plane of layer  1514 , as indicated by arrow  1590  in  FIG. 15C . As shown in  FIG. 15B , first flexible member  1502  contacts second and third flexible members  1502  and  1580 , which both flex in response. Because of the ability of second and third flexible members  1504  and  1580  to flex, the impact of first flexible member  1502  on second and third flexible members  1504  and  1580  is partially absorbed by the flexing of second and third flexible members  1504  and  1580 . Second and third flexible members  1504  and  1580  retract with a spring-like effect, moving together with first flexible member  1502 , thereby reducing bounce, reducing settling time, and improving reliability, for switch  1500 . 
   Furthermore, an electrically conductive end portion of first flexible member  1502  touches an electrically conductive end portion of second flexible member  1504  and an electrically conductive end portion of third flexible member  1580 , forming a closed electrical conduction path between second and third flexible members  1504  and  1580  through first flexible member  1502 . Thus, the first stable state shown in  FIG. 15B  can be considered an “on” state for switch  1500 . In this manner, switch  1500  can be used to electrically connect signals that are coupled to second and third flexible members  1504  and  1580 . 
   In the second stable state, such as shown in  FIG. 15A , the electrically conductive end portions of second and third flexible members  1504  and  1580  are not coupled together by first flexible member  1502 . Thus, the second stable state can be considered an “off” state for switch  1500 . 
   As shown in  FIGS. 15A–15C , in an embodiment, second and third flexible members  1504  and  1580  can be located opposite each other in switch  1500 . First flexible member  1502  is shown located perpendicular to an imaginary axis through second and third flexible members  1504  and  1580 . In alternative embodiments, first, second, and third flexible members  1502 ,  1504 , and  1580  can be arranged in other ways. For example, second and third flexible members  1504  and  1580  can be located perpendicular to each other, or adjacent to each other on the same side of switch  1500 . Furthermore, first flexible member  1502  can be located opposite of either or both of second and third flexible members  1504  and  1580 . 
   Note that second and third flexible members  1504  and  1580  can be made from magnetic materials (e.g., permalloy) or non-magnetic materials (e.g., a metal such as beryllium copper or other electrically conducting material). For example, second and third flexible members  1504  and  1580  can be made from flexible materials such as a substrate material, polymer, plastic, epoxy, dielectric material, and/or other materials described herein or otherwise known. 
     FIG. 16A  shows a relay or switch  1600 , similar to switch  1500 , that incorporates a magnetic actuation mechanism similar to that of switch  1400  shown in  FIG. 14A , according to an example embodiment of the present invention. As shown in  FIG. 16A , switch  1600  includes a first flexible member  1602 , a second flexible member  1604 , a top (first) cover layer  1606 , a first spacer layer  1608 , a layer  1610 , a second spacer layer  1612 , a layer  1614 , a third spacer layer  1616 , a bottom (second) cover layer  1618 , a permanent magnetic layer  1630 , an optional soft magnetic layer  1640 , and a third flexible member  1680 . These layers of switch  1600  form a stack  1650 , similar to stack  1350  shown in  FIG. 13A . The operation of switch  1600  will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) from the teachings herein, including the description above related to switches  1400  and  1500 . 
     FIG. 16B  shows a perspective view of first, second, and third flexible members  1602 ,  1604 , and  1680 , according to an example embodiment of the present invention. As shown in the example of  FIG. 16B , first flexible member  1602  in layer  1614  is configured similarly to first flexible member  1402 , as shown in  FIG. 14B . 
     FIG. 17A  shows a relay or switch  1700 , similar to switch  1300  shown in  FIG. 13 , according to an example embodiment of the present invention. As shown in  FIG. 17A , switch  1700  includes a first flexible member  1702 , a second flexible member  1704 , a top (first) cover layer  1706 , a first spacer layer  1708 , a first electrically conductive layer  1732 , a first dielectric layer  1734 , a second electrically conductive layer  1736 , a second spacer layer  1712 , a third electrically conductive layer  1742 , a second dielectric layer  1744 , a soft magnetic layer  1746 , a third spacer layer  1716 , and a bottom (second) cover layer  1718 . These layers of switch  1700  form a stack  1750 , similar to stack  1350  shown in  FIG. 13A . 
   As shown in  FIG. 17A , first flexible member  1702  and second flexible member  1704  include multiple layers of stack  1750 . First flexible member  1702  includes a portion of third electrically conductive layer  1742 , second dielectric layer  1744 , and soft magnetic layer  1746 . Dielectric layer  1766  is located between third electrically conductive layer  1742  and soft magnetic layer  1746  to provide electrical isolation. Second flexible member  1704  includes a portion of first electrically conductive layer  1732 , first dielectric layer  1734 , and second electrically conductive layer  1736 . Second dielectric layer  1772  is located between second and third electrically conductive layers  1768  and  1770  to provide electrical isolation. 
   First, second, and third electrically conductive layers  1732 ,  1736 , and  1742  can be made from any suitable electrically conductive material, such as a metal or combination of metals/alloy, including aluminum, copper, gold, silver, rhodium, tin, etc. These layers can be uniformly made from the electrically conductive material, or contain features (e.g., traces, contacts, etc.) made from the electrically conductive material. These layers can be formed in any manner, including deposition, electro-plating, lamination techniques, etc. 
   Due to soft magnetic layer  1746 , first flexible member  1702  is useful in a magnetically actuated switch embodiment. In such an embodiment, soft magnetic layer  1746  operates as the magnetic material of the cantilever. Further details of a magnetically actuated switch embodiment are described above, for example, with respect to switch  1400  (shown in  FIG. 14A ). 
   Furthermore, in an embodiment, either or both of soft magnetic layer  1746  and electrically conductive layer  1732  can be coupled to a potential, such as a ground potential, to serve as a ground or other potential plane for switch  1700 . Thus, the configuration of switch  1700  can provide advantages in providing a better ground (or other potential) connection, reducing noise, switching spikes, etc. In a radio frequency signal embodiment for switch  1700 , electrically conductive plane layer  1732  and/or soft magnetic layer  1746  can operate as a line of a RF transmission line, while the path through second and third flexible members  1804  and  1880 , and electrically conductive layer  1836 , form the other line. Alternatively, other RF transmission lines (e.g., co-planar type, etc.) can be formed on the same electrically conductive layer. 
     FIG. 17B  shows a perspective view of first and second flexible members  1702  and  1704 . As indicated by arrow  1790  in  FIG. 17B , first flexible member  1702  moves/rotates upward past horizontal to contact second flexible member  1704 , when actuated. As described herein, second flexible member  1704  flexes in response. When first and second flexible members  1702  and  1704  are in contact, electrically conductive layers  1742  and  1736  contact each other. During operation of switch  1700 , electrically conductive layers  1742  and  1736  are coupled to signals that become electrically coupled when switch  1700  is “on”. When switch  1700  is “off”, electrically conductive layers  1742  and  1736  are not in contact, and thus the signals are not coupled together, and an open circuit exits. 
     FIG. 18A  relates to a switch  1800 , having an additional third flexible member similarly to switch  1500 , with features of the multi-layer cantilevers of switch  1700 , according to an embodiment of the present invention.  FIG. 18A  shows switch  1800  in the “off” or second stable state. As shown in  FIG. 15A , switch  1800  includes a top (first) cover layer  1806 , a first spacer layer  1808 , a soft magnetic layer  1832 , a dielectric layer  1834 , an electrically conductive layer  1836 , a second spacer layer  1812 , a layer  1814 , a third spacer layer  1816 , an optional electrically conductive plane layer  1842 , and a bottom (second) cover layer  1818 . These layers of switch  1800  form a stack  1850 , similar to stack  1550  shown in  FIG. 15A . 
   As shown in  FIG. 18A , first flexible member  1802  includes multiple layers of stack  1850 . First flexible member  1802  includes a portion of electrically conductive layer  1836 , second dielectric layer  1834 , and soft magnetic layer  1832 . Due to soft magnetic layer  1832 , first flexible member  1802  is useful in a magnetically actuated switch embodiment. In such an embodiment, soft magnetic layer  1832  operates as the magnetic material of the cantilever. Further details of a magnetically actuated switch embodiment are described above, for example, with respect to switch  1400  (shown in  FIG. 14A ). 
     FIG. 18B  shows a perspective view of first, second, and third flexible members  1802 ,  1804 , and  1880  of switch  1800 , according to an example embodiment of the present invention. When actuated, an end of first flexible member  1802  moves/rotates downward, as indicated by arrow  1890 , below its (un-rotated) horizontal plane, which is shown in  FIG. 18B . Similarly to as shown in  FIG. 15B  for switch  1500 , in the first stable state for switch  1800 , first flexible member  1802  contacts second and third flexible members  1804  and  1880 , which both flex in response. Because of the ability of second and third flexible members  1804  and  1880  to flex, the impact of first flexible member  1802  on second and third flexible members  1804  and  1880  is partially absorbed by the flexing of second and third flexible members  1804  and  1880 . Second and third flexible members  1804  and  1880  retract, moving together with first flexible member  1802 , thereby reducing bounce, reducing settling time, and improving reliability, for switch  1800 . 
   Furthermore, electrically conductive layer  1836  of first flexible member  1802  touches an electrically conductive end portion of second flexible member  1804  and an electrically conductive end portion of third flexible member  1880 , forming a closed electrical conduction path between second and third flexible members  1804  and  1880  through electrically conductive layer  1836 . Thus, the first stable state shown in  FIG. 18B  can be considered an “on” state for switch  1800 . In this manner, switch  1800  can be used to electrically connect signals that are coupled to second and third flexible members  1804  and  1880 . 
   In the second stable state, such as shown in  FIG. 18A , the electrically conductive end portions of second and third flexible members  1804  and  1880  are not coupled together by electrically conductive layer  1836 . Thus, the second stable state can be considered an “off” state for switch  1800 . 
   Electrically conductive plane layer  1842  is optionally present. When present, electrically conductive plane layer  1842  can be coupled to a potential, such as a ground potential, to operate as a ground plane or other potential plane for switch  1800 . Similarly, soft magnetic layer  1832  can be coupled to a potential, such as a ground potential. Thus, the configuration of switch  1800  can provide advantages in providing a better ground (or other potential) connection, reducing noise, switching spikes, etc. In a radio frequency signal embodiment for switch  1800 , electrically conductive plane layer  1842  and/or soft magnetic layer  1832  can operate as one line of a RF transmission line, while the path through second and third flexible members  1804  and  1880 , and electrically conductive layer  1836 , form the other line. Alternatively, other RF transmission lines (e.g., co-planar type, etc.) can be formed on the same electrically conductive layer. 
     FIG. 19A  shows a relay or switch  1900 , similar to switch  1300  shown in  FIG. 13 , according to an example embodiment of the present invention. As shown in  FIG. 19A , switch  1900  includes a first flexible member  1902 , a second flexible member  1904 , a top (first) cover layer  1906 , a first spacer layer  1908 , a layer  1910 , a second spacer layer  1912 , a layer  1914 , and a bottom (second) cover layer  1918 . These layers of switch  1900  form a stack  1950 , similar to stack  1350  shown in  FIG. 13A . 
   As shown in  FIG. 19A , a bend  1930  is present in layer  1914 . Second flexible member  1904  is a “bent” or curled portion of layer  1914  that provides for flex. Bend  1930  forms an acute angle between second flexible member  1904  and the rest of layer  1914 . Alternatively, in another embodiment, bend  1930  can form an obtuse angle between second flexible member  1904  and the rest of layer  1914 . Note that in an alternative embodiment, layer  1910  can instead include bend  1930  (so that first flexible member  1902  is bent), or both of layers  1910  and  1914  can include a bend  1930 . 
     FIG. 19B  shows switch  1900  in a first stable state, where first flexible member  1902  has moved into contact with second flexible member  1904 , according to an example embodiment of the present invention. Switch  1900  is in an example second stable state in  FIG. 19A , where first flexible member  1902  is not in contact with second flexible member  1904 . In another possible second stable state, such as in a magnetically actuated switch embodiment, first flexible member  1902  may actually move further away from second flexible member  1904  than is shown in  FIG. 19A , when in the second stable state. 
   As shown in  FIG. 19B , when first flexible member  1902  moves into contact with second flexible member  1904 , second flexible member  1904  flexes in response. As shown in  FIG. 19B , bend  1930  forms a smaller angle in layer  1914  due to the flex compared with  FIG. 19A . Second flexible member  1904  can flex because it is made from a material that can flex, and it has room to flex in cavity  1920 . Because of the ability of second flexible member  1904  to flex, the impact of first flexible member  1902  on second flexible member  1904  is partially absorbed by the flexing of second flexible member  1904 . Second flexible member  1904  retracts with a spring-like effect, moving together with first flexible member  1902 , thereby reducing bounce, reducing settling time, and improving reliability, for switch  1900 . 
     FIG. 20  shows a relay or switch  2000 , similar to switch  1400 , that incorporates a magnetic actuation mechanism that operates as more fully described elsewhere herein, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. As shown in  FIG. 20 , switch  2000  includes a first flexible member  2002 , a second flexible member  2004 , a top (first) cover layer  2006 , a first spacer layer  2008 , a layer  2010 , a second spacer layer  2012 , a layer  2014 , a third spacer layer  2016 , a bottom (second) cover layer  2018 , a permanent magnetic layer  2030 , and an optional soft magnetic layer  2040 . These layers of switch  2000  form a stack  2050 , similar to stack  1450  shown in  FIG. 14A . Elements of switch  2000  named similarly to those of switch  1300  are generally structurally and operationally similar. 
   Coil  2032  is capable of producing a second magnetic field to cause first flexible member  2002  to switch between the first stable state (“on” state, moved in contact with second flexible member  2004 ), indicated as position  2002   a  in  FIG. 20 , and the second stable state (“off” state, moved away from second flexible member  2004 ), indicated as position  2002   b . In the first stable state, first flexible member  2002  is in contact with second flexible member  2004 , which flexes in response. Note that as indicated in  FIG. 20 , third spacer layer  2016  can include an opening  2088 , which is smaller than openings in first and second spacer layers  2008  and  2012 . An end of second flexible member  2004  flexes into opening  2088  when contacted by first flexible member  2002 . 
   As described above, flexing of second flexible member  2004  thereby reduces bounce, reduces settling time, and improves reliability, for switch  2000 . 
   The embodiments described herein can be varied and combined in any manner. Variations of the above-described embodiments can be formed to construct multi pole, multi throw switches as well as arrays. 
     FIG. 21  shows a flowchart  2100  providing example steps for assembling a magnetically actuated latching switch by attaching a plurality of layers together in a stack, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. Other structural and operational embodiments will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the following discussion. For example, the steps of flowchart  2100  can be adapted to assembling switches with other actuation mechanisms. The steps shown in  FIG. 21  do not necessarily have to occur in the order shown. The steps of  FIG. 21  are described in detail below. 
   Flowchart  2100  begins with step  2102 . In step  2102 , a layer having a first flexible member formed therein is included into the stack, wherein said first flexible member has a magnetic material and a longitudinal axis. For example, the layer can be layer  1414  shown in  FIG. 14A , which includes first flexible member  1402  (or can be any other similarly configured layer described elsewhere herein). As described above, first flexible member  1402  includes a magnetic material, and has a longitudinal axis  1436 . Alternatively, the layer can be layer  1614  shown in  FIG. 16A , which includes first flexible member  1602 . 
   In step  2104 , a layer having a second flexible member therein is included into the stack. For example, the layer can be layer  1410  shown in  FIG. 14A , which includes second flexible member  1404  (or can be any other similarly configured layer described elsewhere herein). Alternatively, the layer can be layer  1610  shown in  FIG. 16A , which includes second flexible member  1604  (and third flexible member  1680 ), or layer  1914 , with second flexible member  1904 , for example. 
   In step  2106 , a permanent magnet layer that produces a first magnetic field is included in the stack. For example, the permanent magnet layer can be permanent magnet layer  1430  shown in  FIG. 14A  or permanent magnet layer  1630  shown in  FIG. 16A . 
   In step  2108 , a layer that includes a coil is included into the stack. For example, the layer can be layer  1418  shown in  FIG. 14A  or layer  1618  shown in  FIG. 16A . 
   In embodiments, further steps can include including spacer layers into the stack, including a soft magnetic layer into the stack, including electrically conductive layers into the stack, including dielectric layers into the stack, and/or other steps that are apparent from the description above. 
     FIG. 22  shows a flowchart  2200  providing example steps for operating a magnetically actuated latching switch with multiple flexible members, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. Other structural and operational embodiments will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the following discussion. The steps shown in  FIG. 22  do not necessarily have to occur in the order shown. The steps of  FIG. 22  are described in detail below. 
   Flowchart  2200  begins with step  2202 . In step  2202 , a first magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet, which thereby induces a magnetization in a magnetic material of a first flexible member in a layer of a stack, the magnetization characterized by a magnetization vector pointing in a direction along a longitudinal axis of the first flexible member, the first magnetic field being approximately perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. 
   For example, in an embodiment, the first magnetic field can be magnetic field  1434  produced by permanent magnet layer  1430 , as shown in  FIG. 14A . Magnetic field  1434  induces a magnetization in the magnetic material of first flexible member  1402 . Alternatively, the first magnetic field can be magnetic field  1634  produced by permanent magnet layer  1630 , as shown in  FIG. 16A . Magnetic field  1634  induces a magnetization in the magnetic material of first flexible member  1602 . 
   In step  2204 , a second magnetic field is produced to cause the first flexible member to switch between a first stable state and a second stable state, wherein in the first stable state, the first flexible member is in contact with a second flexible member in a layer of the stack, wherein the second flexible member flexes in response, wherein only temporary application of the second magnetic field is required to change direction of the magnetization vector thereby causing the first flexible member to flex into contact with the second flexible member. 
   For example, in an embodiment, the second magnetic field is produced by coil  1432 , as shown in  FIG. 14A . The second magnetic field causes first flexible member  1402  to switch between a first stable state (e.g., similarly to as shown in  FIG. 13C ) and a second stable state. Alternatively, in another embodiment, the second magnetic field is produced by coil  1632 , as shown in  FIG. 16A . The second magnetic field causes first flexible member  1602  to switch between a first stable state (e.g., similarly to as shown in  FIG. 15B ) and a second stable state (e.g., as shown in  FIG. 16A ). 
   CONCLUSION 
   While various embodiments of the present invention have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not limitation. It will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art that various changes in form and detail can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Thus, the breadth and scope of the present invention should not be limited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments, but should be defined only in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents.