Patent Publication Number: US-2015072384-A1

Title: Genetically Modified Organisms for Increased Microbial Production of 3-Hydroxypropionic Acid Involving an Oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application 61/246,140, filed Sep. 27, 2009. The entire contents of this application are hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     SEQUENCE LISTING 
     The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted in ASCII format via EFS-Web and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Feb. 10, 2011, is named OPXX2005.txt and is 234,626 bytes in size. 
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention relates to metabolically engineered microorganisms, such as bacterial strains, in which an identified functional variant of oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase is provided for production of a chemical product, 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) and products made from 3-HP. The metabolically engineered microorganisms may be adapted to exhibit increased tolerance to 3-HP. Production of products made from 3-HP so produced also is disclosed. 
     SEQUENCE LISTING 
     This provisional patent application provides a paper copy of sequence listings that are to be provided on compact disk in appropriate format in a later filing or submission. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     There are various approaches to increasing a genetically modified microorganism&#39;s productivity of 3-hydroxypropionic acid (“3-HP”). These approaches may be applied to a microorganism intended to be used in a production strain having the purpose of 3-HP production in an industrial microbial production system, whether or not 3-HP is the intended final product. 
     For example, without being limiting, various 3-HP production pathways are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,852,517, WO2002/042418 (PCT/US01/43607), and U.S. Patent Publication No. US2008/0199926. 
     Nonetheless, notwithstanding these and other various microbial 3-HP production pathways, there remains a need in the art for alternative 3-HP production pathways. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     According to one embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for producing an acrylic acid-based consumer product, said method comprising i) combining a carbon source and a microorganism cell culture to produce 3-hydroxypropionic acid, wherein a) wherein said microorganism is genetically modified for increased enzymatic activity in the organism by introduction of a heterologous nucleic acid sequence coding for a polypeptide having oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase enzymatic activity, the heterologous nucleic acid sequence expressing a mutated oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylaseoxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase. 
     The carbon source according to the invention may be predominantly glucose, sucrose, fructose, dextrose, lactose, or a combination thereof. Alternatively, the carbon source is glycerol. 
     Included within the invention are embodiments where the cell culture comprises a genetically modified microorganism. The genetically modified microorganism may be modified for increased activity and specificity to convert oxaloacetate to malonate semialdehyde, increased tolerance to 3-hydroxypropionic acid, increased enzymatic activity in the organism&#39;s NADPH-dependent transhydrogenase pathway, increased intracellular bicarbonate levels, and combinations thereof. 
     In various embodiments, the genetically modified microorganism is modified for increased tolerance to 3-hydroxypropionic acid. The increase in tolerance to 3-hydroxypropionic acid may occur in one or more components of the 3-HP toleragenic complex (3HPTGC) complex. 
     The genetically modified bacteria may be further modified to decrease activity of, lactate dehydrogenase, phosphate acetyltransferase, pyruvate oxidase, or pyruvate-formate lyase, alcohol dehydrogenase, and combinations thereof. 
     The method according to the invention may further comprise separating and/or purifying 3-hydroxypropionic acid from said cell culture by extraction of 3-hydroxypropionic acid from said culture in the presence of a tertiary amine. 
     The method of the invention may include production of a consumer product, such as diapers, carpet, paint, adhesives, and acrylic glass. The invention includes biologically-produced 3-hydroxypropionic acid, where the 3-hydroxypropionic acid is produced according to the method of the invention. Such 3-hydroxypropionic acid may be essentially free of chemical catalyst, including a molybdenum and/or vanadium based catalyst. The 3-hydroxypropionic acid is produced according to the method of the invention may have a ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 of about 1.0×10 −14  or greater. In various aspects, the 3-hydroxypropionic acid contains less than about 10% carbon derived from petroleum. In addition, 3-hydroxypropionic acid according to the invention may contain a residual amount of organic material related to its method of production. In various embodiments, the 3-hydroxypropionic acid contains a residual amount of organic material in an amount between 1 and 1,000 parts per million of the 3-hydroxypropionic acid. 
     Acrylic acid and a polymer produced from acrylic acid, where such are produced according to the method of the invention, are also included within the invention. Products, including commercial and consumer products, obtained from the polymers are also encompassed. For example, diapers, carpet, paint, adhesives, and acrylic glass are encompassed. 
     In addition, the invention encompasses a system for bioproduction of acrylic acid according to claim  40 , said system comprising:a tank for saccharification of biomass; a line for passing the product of saccharification to a fermentation tank optionally via a pre-fermentation tank; a fermentation tank suitable for microorganism cell culture; a line for discharging contents from the fermentation tank to an extraction and/or separation vessel; an extraction and/or separation vessel suitable for removal of 3-hydroxypropionic acid from cell culture waste; a line for transferring 3-hydroxypropionic acid to a dehydration vessel; and a dehydration vessel suitable for conversion of 3-hydroxypropionic acid to acrylic acid. In various embodiments, the system further comprises one or more pre-fermentation tanks, distillation columns, centrifuge vessels, back extraction columns, mixing vessels, or combinations thereof. In various embodiments, the system has a minimum production capacity of at least 1 ton acrylic acid per year. 
     In various embodiments, a further genetic modification has been made that increases NADH/NADPH transhydrogenase activity. For example, the transhydrogenase activity may be soluble, may be membrane bound, may have a further genetic modification that has been made that increases cyanase activity, may include a further genetic modification that increases carbonic anhydrase activity, and/or may include a further genetic modification that increases pyruvate dehydrogenase activity. 
     In various embodiments, the invention includes a culture system comprising a carbon source in an aqueous medium and a genetically modified microorganism according to any one of claims, wherein said genetically modified microorganism is present in an amount selected from greater than 0.05 gDCW/L, 0.1 gDCW/L, greater than 1 gDCW/L, greater than 5 gDCW/L, greater than 10 gDCW/L, greater than 15 gDCW/L or greater than 20 gDCW/L, such as when the volume of the aqueous medium is selected from greater than 5 mL, greater than 100 mL, greater than 0.5 L, greater than 1 L, greater than 2 L, greater than 10 L, greater than 250 L, greater than 1000 L, greater than 10,000 L, greater than 50,000 L, greater than 100,000 L or greater than 200,000 L, and such as when the volume of the aqueous medium is greater than 250 L and contained within a steel vessel. 
     Variously, the carbon source for such culture systems is selected from dextrose, sucrose, a pentose, a polyol, a hexose, both a hexose and a pentose, and combinations thereof. 
     In various embodiments, the invention is an aqueous broth obtained from a culture system according to any one of claims, wherein said aqueous broth comprises i) a concentration of 3-hydroxypropionate selected from greater than 5 g/L, greater than 10 g/L, greater than 15 g/L, greater than 20 g/L, greater than 25 g/L, greater than 30 g/L, greater than 35 g/L, greater than 40 g/L, greater than 50 g/L, greater than 60 g/L, greater than 70 g/L, greater than 80 g/L, greater than 90 g/L, or greater than 100 g/L 3-hydroxypropionate; and ii) a concentration of 1,3-propanediol selected from less than 30 g/L; less than 20 g/L; less than 10 g/L; less than 5 g/L; less than 1 g/L; or less than 0.5 g/L. In some aspects, the aqueous broth comprises an amount of biomass selected from less than 20 gDCW/L biomass, less than 15 gDCW/L biomass, less than 10 gDCW/L biomass, less than 5 gDCW/L biomass or less than 1 gDCW/L biomass. Alternatively, the aqueous broth according to the invention is such that the 3-HP/succinate ratio (g3-HP/g succinate) is greater than 3, greater than 10 greater than 30, greater than 60, greater than 100, greater than 150 or greater than 200. In various aspects, the 3-HP/fumarate ratio (g3-HP/g fumarate) is greater than 3, greater than 10 greater than 30, greater than 60, greater than 100, greater than 150 or greater than 200, or the 3-HP/glycerol ratio (g3-HP/g glycerol) is greater than 3, greater than 10, greater than 30, greater than 60, greater than 100, greater than 150 or greater than 200, or the 3-HP/acetate ratio (g3-HP/g acetate) is greater than 1.5, greater than 3, greater than 10, greater than 30, greater than 60, greater than 100, greater than 150 or greater than 200, or the 3-HP/alanine ratio (g3-HP/g alanine) is greater than 3, greater than 10, greater than 30, greater than 60, greater than 100, greater than 150 or greater than 200, or the 3-HP/beta-alanine ratio (g3-HP/g beta-alanine) is greater than 1.5, greater than 3, greater than 10, greater than 30, greater than 60, greater than 100, greater than 150 or greater than 200, or the 3-HP/glutamate ratio (g3-HP/g glutamate) is greater than 3, greater than 10, greater than 30, greater than 60, greater than 100, greater than 150 or greater than 200, or the 3-HP/glutamine ratio (g3-HP/g glutamine) is greater than 3, greater than 10, greater than 30, greater than 60, greater than 100, greater than 150 or greater than 200, or the 3-HP/3-hydroxypropionaldehyde ratio (g3-HP/g 3-hydroxypropioaldehyde) is greater than 1.5, greater than 3, greater than 10, greater than 30, greater than 60, greater than 100, greater than 150 or greater than 200, or the 3-HP/1,3-propanediol ratio (g3-HP/g 1,3-propanediol) is greater than 1.5, greater than 3, greater than 10, greater than 30, greater than 60, greater than 100, greater than 150 or greater than 200, and/or the 3-HP/lactate ratio (g3-HP/g lactate) is greater than 3, greater than 10, greater than 30, greater than 60, greater than 100, greater than 150 or greater than 200. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which: 
         FIG. 1  depicts a CLUSTAL 2.0.12 multiple sequence alignment of Carbonic Anhydrase Polypeptides. 
         FIG. 2  depicts the reaction catalyzed by an oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase enzyme. 
         FIG. 3A  depicts the natural mixed acid fermentation routes in  E. coli    
         FIG. 3B  depicts the proposed 3-HP fermentation pathway of the present invention 
         FIG. 4  depicts metabolic pathways of a microorganism related to aspects of the present invention, more particularly related to 3-HP production, with gene names of  E. coli  shown at certain enzymatic steps, the latter for example and not meant to be limiting. 
         FIG. 5  depicts the reaction catalyzed by the YdfG enzyme. 
         FIG. 6A  depicts diaper manufacture. 
         FIG. 6B  depicts diaper manufacture and diaper wear. 
         FIG. 7  provides a schematic of processing from biomass to polymerized acrylic acid. 
         FIG. 8  is a Western blot of purified Kgd, Oad, and Pdc proteins 
         FIG. 9  are the results of GC-MS analysis of 3-HP production by various Oad-2 candidate enzymes 
     
    
    
     Tables also are provided herein and are part of the specification. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention is related to various production methods and/or genetically modified microorganisms that have utility for fermentative production of 3-hydroxypropionic acid (“3-HP”, CAS No. 503-66-2), which may be converted to a number of basic building blocks for polymers used in a wide range of industrial and consumer products. The present invention also is directed to methods of making 3-HP that utilize populations of these microorganisms in vessels, and to systems for chemical production that employ these microorganisms and methods. As noted herein, various aspects of the present invention are directed to a microorganism cell comprises a metabolic pathway from oxaloacetate to malonate semialdehyde, and also in various embodiments the capability to convert malonate semialdehyde to 3-HP, whether native and/or provided by a heterologous nucleic acid sequence encoding a protein having such activity. 
     Functional variants of an oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylaseoxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase are provided herein, with a demonstration of improved enzymatic conversion using these variant forms. In particular, three identified functional variant forms of an oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase from  Leuconostoc mesenteroides  are shown to have increased enzymatic activity. These may be provided in microorganisms that may also be provided with other genetic modifications described herein, resulting in improved capacity to produce 3-HP, which thereafter is converted to other chemicals, including acrylic acid, which is utilized for a number of industrial and consumer products. 
     Further as to the microorganisms of the present invention, in various embodiments additional genetic modifications may be made, such as to 1) increase intracellular bicarbonate levels, such as by increasing carbonic anhydrase, 2) increase enzymatic activity of NADPH-dependent transhydrogenase. 
     Additionally, genetic modifications for increasing tolerance may be combined with the present invention. Moreover, genetic modifications to increase expression and/or enzymatic activity of carbonic anhydrase and/or cyanase may provide dual-functions to advantageously improve both 3-HP production and 3-HP tolerance. 
     Other additional genetic modifications are disclosed herein for various embodiments. 
     Definitions 
     As used in the specification and the claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to an “expression vector” includes a single expression vector as well as a plurality of expression vectors, either the same (e.g., the same operon) or different; reference to “microorganism” includes a single microorganism as well as a plurality of microorganisms; and the like. 
     As used herein, dry cell weight (DCW) for  E. coli  strains is calculated as 0.33 times the measured OD 600  value, based on baseline DCW to OD 600  determinations. 
     As used herein, “reduced enzymatic activity,” “reducing enzymatic activity,” and the like is meant to indicate that a microorganism cell&#39;s, or an isolated enzyme, exhibits a lower level of activity than that measured in a comparable cell of the same species or its native enzyme. That is, enzymatic conversion of the indicated substrate(s) to indicated product(s) under known standard conditions for that enzyme is at least 10, at least 20, at least 30, at least 40, at least 50, at least 60, at least 70, at least 80, or at least 90 percent less than the enzymatic activity for the same biochemical conversion by a native (non-modified) enzyme under a standard specified condition. This term also can include elimination of that enzymatic activity. A cell having reduced enzymatic activity of an enzyme can be identified using any method known in the art. For example, enzyme activity assays can be used to identify cells having reduced enzyme activity. See, for example,  Enzyme Nomenclature,  Academic Press, Inc., New York 2007. 
     The term “heterologous DNA,” “heterologous nucleic acid sequence,” and the like as used herein refers to a nucleic acid sequence wherein at least one of the following is true: (a) the sequence of nucleic acids is foreign to (i.e., not naturally found in) a given host microorganism; (b) the sequence may be naturally found in a given host microorganism, but in an unnatural (e.g., greater than expected) amount; or (c) the sequence of nucleic acids comprises two or more subsequences that are not found in the same relationship to each other in nature. For example, regarding instance (c), a heterologous nucleic acid sequence that is recombinantly produced will have two or more sequences from unrelated genes arranged to make a new functional nucleic acid. 
     The term “heterologous” is intended to include the term “exogenous” as the latter term is generally used in the art. With reference to the host microorganism&#39;s genome prior to the introduction of a heterologous nucleic acid sequence, the nucleic acid sequence that codes for the enzyme is heterologous (whether or not the heterologous nucleic acid sequence is introduced into that genome). 
     As used herein, the term “gene disruption,” or grammatical equivalents thereof (and including “to disrupt enzymatic function,” “disruption of enzymatic function,” and the like), is intended to mean a genetic modification to a microorganism that renders the encoded gene product as having a reduced polypeptide activity compared with polypeptide activity in or from a microorganism cell not so modified. The genetic modification can be, for example, deletion of the entire gene, deletion or other modification of a regulatory sequence required for transcription or translation, deletion of a portion of the gene which results in a truncated gene product (e.g., enzyme) or by any of various mutation strategies that reduces activity (including to no detectable activity level) the encoded gene product. A disruption may broadly include a deletion of all or part of the nucleic acid sequence encoding the enzyme, and also includes, but is not limited to other types of genetic modifications, e.g., introduction of stop codons, frame shift mutations, introduction or removal of portions of the gene, and introduction of a degradation signal, those genetic modifications affecting mRNA transcription levels and/or stability, and altering the promoter or repressor upstream of the gene encoding the enzyme. 
     In various contexts, a gene disruption is taken to mean any genetic modification to the DNA, mRNA encoded from the DNA, and the corresponding amino acid sequence that results in reduced polypeptide activity. Many different methods can be used to make a cell having reduced polypeptide activity. For example, a cell can be engineered to have a disrupted regulatory sequence or polypeptide-encoding sequence using common mutagenesis or knock-out technology. See, e.g.,  Methods in Yeast Genetics  (1997 edition), Adams et al., Cold Spring Harbor Press (1998). One particularly useful method of gene disruption is complete gene deletion because it reduces or eliminates the occurrence of genetic reversions in the genetically modified microorganisms of the invention. Accordingly, a disruption of a gene whose product is an enzyme thereby disrupts enzymatic function. Alternatively, antisense technology can be used to reduce the activity of a particular polypeptide. For example, a cell can be engineered to contain a cDNA that encodes an antisense molecule that prevents a polypeptide from being translated. Further, gene silencing can be used to reduce the activity of a particular polypeptide. 
     The term “antisense molecule” as used herein encompasses any nucleic acid molecule or nucleic acid analog (e.g., peptide nucleic acids) that contains a sequence that corresponds to the coding strand of an endogenous polypeptide. An antisense molecule also can have flanking sequences (e.g., regulatory sequences). Thus, antisense molecules can be ribozymes or antisense oligonucleotides. 
     As used herein, a ribozyme can have any general structure including, without limitation, hairpin, hammerhead, or axhead structures, provided the molecule cleaves RNA. 
     The term “reduction” or “to reduce” when used in such phrase and its grammatical equivalents are intended to encompass a complete elimination of such conversion(s). 
     Bio-production, as used herein, may be aerobic, microaerobic, or anaerobic. Also as used herein, the terms “production” and “bio-production” are used interchangeably when referring to microbial synthesis of 3-HP. 
     As used herein, the language “sufficiently homologous” refers to proteins or portions thereof that have amino acid sequences that include a minimum number of identical or equivalent amino acid residues when compared to an amino acid sequence of the amino acid sequences provided in this application (including the SEQ ID Nos./sequence listings) such that the protein or portion thereof is able to achieve the respective enzymatic reaction and/or other function. To determine whether a particular protein or portion thereof is sufficiently homologous may be determined by an assay of enzymatic activity, such as those commonly known in the art. 
     Descriptions and methods for sequence identity and homology are intended to be exemplary and it is recognized that these concepts are well-understood in the art. Further, it is appreciated that nucleic acid sequences may be varied and still encode an enzyme or other polypeptide exhibiting a desired functionality, and such variations are within the scope of the present invention. 
     Further to nucleic acid sequences, “hybridization” refers to the process in which two single-stranded polynucleotides bind non-covalently to form a stable double-stranded polynucleotide. The term “hybridization” may also refer to triple-stranded hybridization. The resulting (usually) double-stranded polynucleotide is a “hybrid” or “duplex.” “Hybridization conditions” will typically include salt concentrations of less than about 1M, more usually less than about 500 mM and less than about 200 mM. Hybridization temperatures can be as low as 5° C., but are typically greater than 22° C., more typically greater than about 30° C., and often are in excess of about 37° C. Hybridizations are usually performed under stringent conditions, i.e. conditions under which a probe will hybridize to its target subsequence. Stringent conditions are sequence-dependent and are different in different circumstances. Longer fragments may require higher hybridization temperatures for specific hybridization. As other factors may affect the stringency of hybridization, including base composition and length of the complementary strands, presence of organic solvents and extent of base mismatching, the combination of parameters is more important than the absolute measure of any one alone. Generally, stringent conditions are selected to be about 5° C. lower than the T m  for the specific sequence at a defined ionic strength and pH. Exemplary stringent conditions include salt concentration of at least 0.01 M to no more than 1 M Na ion concentration (or other salts) at a pH 7.0 to 8.3 and a temperature of at least 25° C. For example, conditions of 5×SSPE (750 mM NaCl, 50 mM NaPhosphate, 5 mM EDTA, pH 7.4) and a temperature of 25-30° C. are suitable for allele-specific probe hybridizations. For stringent conditions, see for example, Sambrook and Russell and Anderson “Nucleic Acid Hybridization” 1 st  Ed., BIOS Scientific Publishers Limited (1999), which are hereby incorporated by reference for hybridization protocols. “Hybridizing specifically to” or “specifically hybridizing to” or like expressions refer to the binding, duplexing, or hybridizing of a molecule substantially to or only to a particular nucleotide sequence or sequences under stringent conditions when that sequence is present in a complex mixture (e.g., total cellular) DNA or RNA. 
     The term “identified enzymatic functional variant” means a polypeptide that is determined to possess an enzymatic activity and specificity of an enzyme of interest but which has an amino acid sequence different from such enzyme of interest. A corresponding “variant nucleic acid sequence” may be constructed that is determined to encode such an identified enzymatic functional variant. For a particular purpose, such as increased tolerance to 3-HP via genetic modification to increase enzymatic conversion at one or more of the enzymatic conversion steps of the 3HPTGC in a microorganism, one or more genetic modifications may be made to provide one or more heterologous nucleic acid sequence(s) that encode one or more identified 3HPTGC enzymatic functional variant(s). That is, each such nucleic acid sequence encodes a polypeptide that is not exactly the known polypeptide of an enzyme of the 3HPTGC, but which nonetheless is shown to exhibit enzymatic activity of such enzyme. Such nucleic acid sequence, and the polypeptide it encodes, may not fall within a specified limit of homology or identity yet by its provision in a cell nonetheless provide for a desired enzymatic activity and specificity. The ability to obtain such variant nucleic acid sequences and identified enzymatic functional variants is supported by recent advances in the states of the art in bioinformatics and protein engineering and design, including advances in computational, predictive and high-throughput methodologies. Functional variants more generally include enzymatic functional variants, and the nucleic acids sequences that encode them, as well as variants of non-enzymatic polypeptides, wherein the variant exhibits the function of the original (target) sequence. 
     The use of the phrase “segment of interest” is meant to include both a gene and any other nucleic acid sequence segment of interest. One example of a method used to obtain a segment of interest is to acquire a culture of a microorganism, where that microorganism&#39;s genome includes the gene or nucleic acid sequence segment of interest. 
     When the genetic modification of a gene product, i.e., an enzyme, is referred to herein, including the claims, it is understood that the genetic modification is of a nucleic acid sequence, such as or including the gene, that normally encodes the stated gene product, i.e., the enzyme. 
     In some embodiments a truncated respective polypeptide has at least about 90% of the full length of a polypeptide encoded by a nucleic acid sequence encoding the respective native enzyme, and more particularly at least 95% of the full length of a polypeptide encoded by a nucleic acid sequence encoding the respective native enzyme. By a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence at least, for example, 95% “identical” to a reference amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is intended that the amino acid sequence of the claimed polypeptide is identical to the reference sequence except that the claimed polypeptide sequence can include up to five amino acid alterations per each 100 amino acids of the reference amino acid of the polypeptide. In other words, to obtain a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence at least 95% identical to a reference amino acid sequence, up to 5% of the amino acid residues in the reference sequence can be deleted or substituted with another amino acid, or a number of amino acids up to 5% of the total amino acid residues in the reference sequence can be inserted into the reference sequence. These alterations of the reference sequence can occur at the amino or carboxy terminal positions of the reference amino acid sequence or anywhere between those terminal positions, interspersed either individually among residues in the reference sequence or in one or more contiguous groups within the reference sequence. In other embodiments truncation may be more substantial, as described elsewhere herein. 
     Species and other phylogenic identifications are according to the classification known to a person skilled in the art of microbiology. 
     Where methods and steps described herein indicate certain events occurring in certain order, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the ordering of certain steps may be modified and that such modifications are in accordance with the variations of the invention. Additionally, certain steps may be performed concurrently in a parallel process when possible, as well as performed sequentially. 
     Prophetic examples provided herein are meant to be broadly exemplary and not limiting in any way. This applies to the examples regarding separation and purification of 3-HP, and conversions of 3-HP to downstream compounds, since there are numerous possible approaches to such steps and conversions, including those disclosed in references recited and incorporated herein. 
     The meaning of abbreviations is as follows: “C” means Celsius or degrees Celsius, as is clear from its usage, DCW means dry cell weight, “s” means second(s), “min” means minute(s), “h,” “hr,” or “hrs” means hour(s), “psi” means pounds per square inch, “nm” means nanometers, “d” means day(s), “μL” or “uL” or “ul” means microliter(s), “mL” means milliliter(s), “L” means liter(s), “mm” means millimeter(s), “nm” means nanometers, “mM” means millimolar, “μM” or “uM” means micromolar, “M” means molar, “mmol” means millimole(s), “μmol” or “uMol” means micromole(s)”, “g” means gram(s), “μg” or “ug” means microgram(s) and “ng” means nanogram(s), “PCR” means polymerase chain reaction, “OD” means optical density, “OD 600 ” means the optical density measured at a photon wavelength of 600 nm, “kDa” means kilodaltons, “g” means the gravitation constant, “bp” means base pair(s), “kbp” means kilobase pair(s), “% w/v” means weight/volume percent, “% v/v” means volume/volume percent, “IPTG” means isopropyl-μ-D-thiogalactopyranoiside, “RBS” means ribosome binding site, “rpm” means revolutions per minute, “HPLC” means high performance liquid chromatography, and “GC” means gas chromatography. As disclosed herein, “3-HP” means 3-hydroxypropionic acid and “3HPTGC” means the 3-HP toleragenic complex. Also, 10̂5 and the like are taken to mean 10 5  and the like. 
     I. Carbon Sources 
     Bio-production media, which is used in the present invention with recombinant microorganisms having a biosynthetic pathway for 3-HP, must contain suitable carbon sources or substrates for the intended metabolic pathways. Suitable substrates may include, but are not limited to, monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose, oligosaccharides such as lactose or sucrose, polysaccharides such as starch or cellulose or mixtures thereof and unpurified mixtures from renewable feedstocks such as cheese whey permeate, cornsteep liquor, sugar beet molasses, and barley malt. Additionally the carbon substrate may also be one-carbon substrates such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, or methanol for which metabolic conversion into key biochemical intermediates has been demonstrated. In addition to one and two carbon substrates methylotrophic organisms are also known to utilize a number of other carbon containing compounds such as methylamine, glucosamine and a variety of amino acids for metabolic activity. 
     Although it is contemplated that all of the above mentioned carbon substrates and mixtures thereof are suitable in the present invention as a carbon source, common carbon substrates used as carbon sources are glucose, fructose, and sucrose, as well as mixtures of any of these sugars. Other suitable substrates include xylose, arabinose, other cellulose-based C-5 sugars, high-fructose corn syrup, and various other sugars and sugar mixtures as are available commercially. Sucrose may be obtained from feedstocks such as sugar cane, sugar beets, cassava, bananas or other fruit, and sweet  sorghum.  Glucose and dextrose may be obtained through saccharification of starch based feedstocks including grains such as corn, wheat, rye, barley, and oats. Also, in some embodiments all or a portion of the carbon source may be glycerol. Alternatively, glycerol may be excluded as an added carbon source. 
     In one embodiment, the carbon source is selected from glucose, fructose, sucrose, dextrose, lactose, glycerol, and mixtures thereof. Variously, the amount of these components in the carbon source may be greater than about 50%, greater than about 60%, greater than about 70%, greater than about 80%, greater than about 90%, or more, up to 100% or essentially 100% of the carbon source. 
     In addition, methylotrophic organisms are known to utilize a number of other carbon containing compounds such as methylamine, glucosamine and a variety of amino acids for metabolic activity. For example, methylotrophic yeast are known to utilize the carbon from methylamine to form trehalose or glycerol (Hellion et al., Microb. Growth Cl Compd. (Int. Symp.), 7th (1993), 415-32. Editor(s): Murrell, J. Collin; Kelly, Don P. Publisher: Intercept, Andover, UK). Similarly, various species of  Candida  will metabolize alanine or oleic acid (Sulter et al., Arch. Microbiol. 153:485-489 (1990)). Hence it is contemplated that the source of carbon utilized in embodiments of the present invention may encompass a wide variety of carbon-containing substrates. 
     In addition, fermentable sugars may be obtained from cellulosic and lignocellulosic biomass through processes of pretreatment and saccharification, as described, for example, in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2007/0031918A1, which is herein incorporated by reference. Biomass refers to any cellulosic or lignocellulosic material and includes materials comprising cellulose, and optionally further comprising hemicellulose, lignin, starch, oligosaccharides and/or monosaccharides. Biomass may also comprise additional components, such as protein and/or lipid. Biomass may be derived from a single source, or biomass can comprise a mixture derived from more than one source; for example, biomass could comprise a mixture of corn cobs and corn stover, or a mixture of grass and leaves. Biomass includes, but is not limited to, bioenergy crops, agricultural residues, municipal solid waste, industrial solid waste, sludge from paper manufacture, yard waste, wood and forestry waste. Examples of biomass include, but are not limited to, corn grain, corn cobs, crop residues such as corn husks, corn stover, grasses, wheat, wheat straw, barley, barley straw, hay, rice straw, switchgrass, waste paper, sugar cane bagasse,  sorghum,  soy, components obtained from milling of grains, trees, branches, roots, leaves, wood chips, sawdust, shrubs and bushes, vegetables, fruits, flowers and animal manure. Any such biomass may be used in a bio-production method or system to provide a carbon source. Various approaches to breaking down cellulosic biomass to mixtures of more available and utilizable carbon molecules, including sugars, include: heating in the presence of concentrated or dilute acid (e.g., &lt;1% sulfuric acid); treating with ammonia; treatment with ionic salts; enzymatic degradation; and combinations of these. These methods normally follow mechanical separation and milling, and are followed by appropriate separation processes. 
     In various embodiments, any of a wide range of sugars, including, but not limited to sucrose, glucose, xylose, cellulose or hemicellulose, are provided to a microorganism, such as in an industrial system comprising a reactor vessel in which a defined media (such as a minimal salts media including but not limited to M9 minimal media, potassium sulfate minimal media, yeast synthetic minimal media and many others or variations of these), an inoculum of a microorganism providing one or more of the 3-HP biosynthetic pathway alternatives, and the a carbon source may be combined. The carbon source enters the cell and is cataboliized by well-known and common metabolic pathways to yield common metabolic intermediates, including phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). (See Molecular Biology of the Cell, 3rd Ed., B. Alberts et al. Garland Publishing, New York, 1994, pp. 42-45, 66-74, incorporated by reference for the teachings of basic metabolic catabolic pathways for sugars; Principles of Biochemistry, 3rd Ed., D. L. Nelson &amp; M. M. Cox, Worth Publishers, New York, 2000, pp 527-658, incorporated by reference for the teachings of major metabolic pathways; and Biochemistry, 4th Ed., L. Stryer, W. H. Freeman and Co., New York, 1995, pp. 463-650, also incorporated by reference for the teachings of major metabolic pathways.) 
     Bio-based carbon can be distinguished from petroleum-based carbon according to a variety of methods, including without limitation ASTM D6866, or various other techniques. For example, carbon-14 and carbon-12 ratios differ in bio-based carbon sources versus petroleum-based sources, where higher carbon-14 ratios are found in bio-based carbon sources. In various embodiments, the carbon source is not petroleum-based, or is not predominantly petroleum based. In various embodiments, the carbon source is greater than about 50% non-petroleum based, greater than about 60% non-petroleum based, greater than about 70% non-petroleum based, greater than about 80% non-petroleum based, greater than about 90% non-petroleum based, or more. In various embodiments, the carbon source has a carbon-14 to carbon-12 ratio of about 1.0×10 −14  or greater. 
     Various components may be excluded from the carbon source. For example, in some embodiments, acrylic acid, 1,4-butanediol, and/or glycerol are excluded or essentially excluded from the carbon source. As such, the carbon source according to some embodiments of the invention may be less than about 50% glycerol, less than about 40% glycerol, less than about 30% glycerol, less than about 20% glycerol, less than about 10% glycerol, less than about 5% glycerol, less than about 1% glycerol, or less. For example, the carbon source may be essentially glycerol-free. By essentially glycerol-free is meant that any glycerol that may be present in a residual amount does not contribute substantially to the production of the target chemical compound. 
     II. Microorganisms 
     Features as described and claimed herein may be provided in a microorganism selected from the listing herein, or another suitable microorganism, that also comprises one or more natural, introduced, or enhanced 3-HP bio-production pathways. Thus, in some embodiments the microorganism comprises an endogenous 3-HP production pathway (which may, in some such embodiments, be enhanced), whereas in other embodiments the microorganism does not comprise an endogenous 3-HP production pathway. 
     Varieties of these genetically modified microorganisms may comprise genetic modifications and/or other system alterations as may be described in other patent applications of one or more of the present inventor(s) and/or subject to assignment to the owner of the present patent application. 
     The examples describe specific modifications and evaluations to certain bacterial and yeast microorganisms. The scope of the invention is not meant to be limited to such species, but to be generally applicable to a wide range of suitable microorganisms. Generally, a microorganism used for the present invention may be selected from bacteria, cyanobacteria, filamentous fungi and yeasts. 
     For some embodiments, microbial hosts initially selected for 3-HP toleragenic bio-production should also utilize sugars including glucose at a high rate. Most microbes are capable of utilizing carbohydrates. However, certain environmental microbes cannot utilize carbohydrates to high efficiency, and therefore would not be suitable hosts for such embodiments that are intended for glucose or other carbohydrates as the principal added carbon source. 
     As the genomes of various species become known, the present invention easily may be applied to an ever-increasing range of suitable microorganisms. Further, given the relatively low cost of genetic sequencing, the genetic sequence of a species of interest may readily be determined to make application of aspects of the present invention more readily obtainable (based on the ease of application of genetic modifications to an organism having a known genomic sequence). 
     More particularly, based on the various criteria described herein, suitable microbial hosts for the bio-production of 3-HP that comprise tolerance aspects provided herein generally may include, but are not limited to, any gram negative organisms, more particularly a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae, such as  E. coli,  or  Oligotropha carboxidovorans,  or  Pseudomonas  sp.; any gram positive microorganism, for example  Bacillus subtilis, Lactobaccilus  sp. or  Lactococcus  sp.; a yeast, for example  Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia pastoris  or  Pichia stipitis;  and other groups or microbial species. More particularly, suitable microbial hosts for the bio-production of 3-HP generally include, but are not limited to, members of the genera  Clostridium, Zymomonas, Escherichia, Salmonella, Rhodococcus, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Lactobacillus, Enterococcus, Alcaligenes, Klebsiella, Paenibacillus, Arthrobacter, Corynebacterium, Brevibacterium, Pichia, Candida, Hansenula  and  Saccharomyces.  Hosts that may be particularly of interest include:  Oligotropha carboxidovorans  (such as strain OM5),  Escherichia coli, Alcaligenes eutrophus  ( Cupriavidus necator ),  Bacillus licheniformis, Paenibacillus macerans, Rhodococcus erythropolis, Pseudomonas putida, Lactobacillus plantarum, Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus gallinarium, Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus subtilis  and  Saccharomyces cerevisiae.    
     More particularly, suitable microbial hosts for the bio-production of 3-HP generally include, but are not limited to, members of the genera  Clostridium, Zymomonas, Escherichia, Salmonella, Rhodococcus, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Lactobacillus, Enterococcus, Alcaligenes, Klebsiella, Paenibacillus, Arthrobacter, Corynebacterium, Brevibacterium, Pichia, Candida, Hansenula  and  Saccharomyces.    
     Hosts that may be particularly of interest include:  Oligotropha carboxidovorans  (such as strain OM5 T ),  Escherichia coli, Alcaligenes eutrophus  ( Cupriavidus necator ),  Bacillus licheniformis, Paenibacillus macerans, Rhodococcus erythropolis, Pseudomonas putida, Lactobacillus plantarum, Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus gallinarium, Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus subtilis  and  Saccharomyces cerevisiae.  Also, any of the known strains of these species may be utilized as a starting microorganism, as may any of the following species including respective strains thereof— Cupriavidus basilensis, Cupriavidus campinensis, Cupriavidus gilardi, Cupriavidus laharsis, Cupriavidus metallidurans, Cupriavidus oxalaticus, Cupriavidus pauculus, Cupriavidus pinatubonensis, Cupriavidus respiraculi,  and  Cupriavidus taiwanensis.    
     In some embodiments, the recombinant microorganism is a gram-negative bacterium. In some embodiments, the recombinant microorganism is selected from the genera  Zymomonas, Escherichia, Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes,  and  Klebsiella . In some embodiments, the recombinant microorganism is selected from the species  Escherichia coli, Cupriavidus necator, Oligotropha carboxidovorans,  and  Pseudomonas putida.  In some embodiments, the recombinant microorganism is an  E. coli  strain. 
     In some embodiments, the recombinant microorganism is a gram-positive bacterium. In some embodiments, the recombinant microorganism is selected from the genera  Clostridium, Salmonella, Rhodococcus, Bacillus, Lactobacillus, Enterococcus, Paenibacillus, Arthrobacter, Corynebacterium,  and  Brevibacterium.  In some embodiments, the recombinant microorganism is selected from the species  Bacillus licheniformis, Paenibacillus macerans, Rhodococcus erythropolis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus gallinarium, Enterococcus faecalis,  and  Bacillus subtilis.  In particular embodiments, the recombinant microorganism is a  B. subtilis  strain. 
     In some embodiments, the recombinant microorganism is a yeast. In some embodiments, the recombinant microorganism is selected from the genera  Pichia, Candida, Hansenula  and  Saccharomyces.  In particular embodiments, the recombinant microorganism is  Saccharomyces cerevisiae.    
     III. Media and Culture Conditions 
     In addition to an appropriate carbon source, such as selected from one of the herein-disclosed types, bio-production media must contain suitable minerals, salts, cofactors, buffers and other components, known to those skilled in the art, suitable for the growth of the cultures and promotion of the enzymatic pathway necessary for 3-HP production, or other products made under the present invention. 
     Another aspect of the invention regards media and culture conditions that comprise genetically modified microorganisms of the invention and optionally supplements. 
     Typically cells are grown at a temperature in the range of about 25° C. to about 40° C. in an appropriate medium, as well as up to 70° C. for thermophilic microorganisms. Suitable growth media in the present invention are common commercially prepared media such as Luria Bertani (LB) broth, M9 minimal media, Sabouraud Dextrose (SD) broth, Yeast medium (YM) broth, (Ymin) yeast synthetic minimal media, and minimal media as described herein, such as M9 minimal media. Other defined or synthetic growth media may also be used, and the appropriate medium for growth of the particular microorganism will be known by one skilled in the art of microbiology or bio-production science. In various embodiments a minimal media may be developed and used that does not comprise, or that has a low level of addition of various components, for example less than 10, 5, 2 or 1 g/L of a complex nitrogen source including but not limited to yeast extract, peptone, tryptone, soy flour, corn steep liquor, or casein. These minimal medias may also have limited supplementation of vitamin mixtures including biotin, vitamin B12 and derivatives of vitamin B12, thiamin, pantothenate and other vitamins. Minimal medias may also have limited simple inorganic nutrient sources containing less than 28, 17, or 2.5 mM phosphate, less than 25 or 4 mM sulfate, and less than 130 or 50 mM total nitrogen. 
     Bio-production media, which is used in embodiments of the present invention with genetically modified microorganisms, must contain suitable carbon substrates for the intended metabolic pathways. As described hereinbefore, suitable carbon substrates include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and various monomeric and oligomeric sugars. 
     Suitable pH ranges for the bio-production are between pH 3.0 to pH 10.0, where pH 6.0 to pH 8.0 is a typical pH range for the initial condition. However, the actual culture conditions for a particular embodiment are not meant to be limited by these pH ranges. 
     Bio-productions may be performed under aerobic, microaerobic, or anaerobic conditions, with or without agitation. 
     The amount of 3-HP or other product(s) produced in a bio-production media generally can be determined using a number of methods known in the art, for example, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC), or GC/Mass Spectroscopy (MS). Specific HPLC methods for the specific examples are provided herein. 
     IV. Bio-Production Reactors and Systems 
     Fermentation systems utilizing methods and/or compositions according to the invention are also within the scope of the invention. 
     Any of the recombinant microorganisms as described and/or referred to herein may be introduced into an industrial bio-production system where the microorganisms convert a carbon source into 3-HP in a commercially viable operation. The bio-production system includes the introduction of such a recombinant microorganism into a bioreactor vessel, with a carbon source substrate and bio-production media suitable for growing the recombinant microorganism, and maintaining the bio-production system within a suitable temperature range (and dissolved oxygen concentration range if the reaction is aerobic or microaerobic) for a suitable time to obtain a desired conversion of a portion of the substrate molecules to 3-HP. Industrial bio-production systems and their operation are well-known to those skilled in the arts of chemical engineering and bioprocess engineering. 
     Bio-productions may be performed under aerobic, microaerobic, or anaerobic conditions, with or without agitation. The operation of cultures and populations of microorganisms to achieve aerobic, microaerobic and anaerobic conditions are known in the art, and dissolved oxygen levels of a liquid culture comprising a nutrient media and such microorganism populations may be monitored to maintain or confirm a desired aerobic, microaerobic or anaerobic condition. When syngas is used as a feedstock, aerobic, microaerobic, or anaerobic conditions may be utilized. When sugars are used, anaerobic, aerobic or microaerobic conditions can be implemented in various embodiments. 
     Any of the recombinant microorganisms as described and/or referred to herein may be introduced into an industrial bio-production system where the microorganisms convert a carbon source into 3-HP, and optionally in various embodiments also to one or more downstream compounds of 3-HP in a commercially viable operation. The bio-production system includes the introduction of such a recombinant microorganism into a bioreactor vessel, with a carbon source substrate and bio-production media suitable for growing the recombinant microorganism, and maintaining the bio-production system within a suitable temperature range (and dissolved oxygen concentration range if the reaction is aerobic or microaerobic) for a suitable time to obtain a desired conversion of a portion of the substrate molecules to 3-HP. 
     In various embodiments, syngas components or sugars are provided to a microorganism, such as in an industrial system comprising a reactor vessel in which a defined media (such as a minimal salts media including but not limited to M9 minimal media, potassium sulfate minimal media, yeast synthetic minimal media and many others or variations of these), an inoculum of a microorganism providing an embodiment of the biosynthetic pathway(s) taught herein, and the carbon source may be combined. The carbon source enters the cell and is catabolized by well-known and common metabolic pathways to yield common metabolic intermediates, including phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). (See  Molecular Biology of the Cell,  3 rd  Ed., B. Alberts et al. Garland Publishing, New York, 1994, pp. 42-45, 66-74, incorporated by reference for the teachings of basic metabolic catabolic pathways for sugars;  Principles of Biochemistry,  3 rd  Ed., D. L. Nelson &amp; M. M. Cox, Worth Publishers, New York, 2000, pp. 527-658, incorporated by reference for the teachings of major metabolic pathways; and  Biochemistry,  4 th  Ed., L. Stryer, W. H. Freeman and Co., New York, 1995, pp. 463-650, also incorporated by reference for the teachings of major metabolic pathways.). 
     Further to types of industrial bio-production, various embodiments of the present invention may employ a batch type of industrial bioreactor. A classical batch bioreactor system is considered “closed” meaning that the composition of the medium is established at the beginning of a respective bio-production event and not subject to artificial alterations and additions during the time period ending substantially with the end of the bio-production event. Thus, at the beginning of the bio-production event the medium is inoculated with the desired organism or organisms, and bio-production is permitted to occur without adding anything to the system. Typically, however, a “batch” type of bio-production event is batch with respect to the addition of carbon source and attempts are often made at controlling factors such as pH and oxygen concentration. In batch systems the metabolite and biomass compositions of the system change constantly up to the time the bio-production event is stopped. Within batch cultures cells moderate through a static lag phase to a high growth log phase and finally to a stationary phase where growth rate is diminished or halted. If untreated, cells in the stationary phase will eventually die. Cells in log phase generally are responsible for the bulk of production of a desired end product or intermediate. 
     A variation on the standard batch system is the fed-batch system. Fed-batch bio-production processes are also suitable in the present invention and comprise a typical batch system with the exception that the nutrients, including the substrate, are added in increments as the bio-production progresses. Fed-Batch systems are useful when catabolite repression is apt to inhibit the metabolism of the cells and where it is desirable to have limited amounts of substrate in the media. Measurement of the actual nutrient concentration in Fed-Batch systems may be measured directly, such as by sample analysis at different times, or estimated on the basis of the changes of measurable factors such as pH, dissolved oxygen and the partial pressure of waste gases such as CO 2 . Batch and fed-batch approaches are common and well known in the art and examples may be found in Thomas D. Brock in  Biotechnology: A Textbook of Industrial Microbiology,  Second Edition (1989) Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Mass., Deshpande, Mukund V., Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol., 36:227, (1992), and  Biochemical Engineering Fundamentals,  2 nd  Ed. J. E. Bailey and D. F. Ollis, McGraw Hill, New York, 1986, herein incorporated by reference for general instruction on bio-production. 
     Although embodiments of the present invention may be performed in batch mode, or in fed-batch mode, it is contemplated that the invention would be adaptable to continuous bio-production methods. Continuous bio-production is considered an “open” system where a defined bio-production medium is added continuously to a bioreactor and an equal amount of conditioned media is removed simultaneously for processing. Continuous bio-production generally maintains the cultures within a controlled density range where cells are primarily in log phase growth. Two types of continuous bioreactor operation include a chemostat, wherein fresh media is fed to the vessel while simultaneously removing an equal rate of the vessel contents. The limitation of this approach is that cells are lost and high cell density generally is not achievable. In fact, typically one can obtain much higher cell density with a fed-batch process. Another continuous bioreactor utilizes perfusion culture, which is similar to the chemostat approach except that the stream that is removed from the vessel is subjected to a separation technique which recycles viable cells back to the vessel. This type of continuous bioreactor operation has been shown to yield significantly higher cell densities than fed-batch and can be operated continuously. Continuous bio-production is particularly advantageous for industrial operations because it has less down time associated with draining, cleaning and preparing the equipment for the next bio-production event. Furthermore, it is typically more economical to continuously operate downstream unit operations, such as distillation, than to run them in batch mode. 
     Continuous bio-production allows for the modulation of one factor or any number of factors that affect cell growth or end product concentration. For example, one method will maintain a limiting nutrient such as the carbon source or nitrogen level at a fixed rate and allow all other parameters to moderate. In other systems a number of factors affecting growth can be altered continuously while the cell concentration, measured by media turbidity, is kept constant. Methods of modulating nutrients and growth factors for continuous bio-production processes as well as techniques for maximizing the rate of product formation are well known in the art of industrial microbiology and a variety of methods are detailed by Brock, supra. 
     It is contemplated that embodiments of the present invention may be practiced using either batch, fed-batch or continuous processes and that any known mode of bio-production would be suitable. It is contemplated that cells may be immobilized on an inert scaffold as whole cell catalysts and subjected to suitable bio-production conditions for 3-HP production, or be cultured in liquid media in a vessel, such as a culture vessel. Thus, embodiments used in such processes, and in bio-production systems using these processes, include a population of genetically modified microorganisms of the present invention, a culture system comprising such population in a media comprising nutrients for the population, and methods of making 3-HP and thereafter, a downstream product of 3-HP. 
     Embodiments of the invention include methods of making 3-HP in a bio-production system, some of which methods may include obtaining 3-HP after such bio-production event. For example, a method of making 3-HP may comprise: providing to a culture vessel a media comprising suitable nutrients; providing to the culture vessel an inoculum of a genetically modified microorganism comprising genetic modifications described herein such that the microorganism produces 3-HP from syngas and/or a sugar molecule; and maintaining the culture vessel under suitable conditions for the genetically modified microorganism to produce 3-HP. 
     It is within the scope of the present invention to produce, and to utilize in bio-production methods and systems, including industrial bio-production systems for production of 3-HP, a recombinant microorganism genetically engineered to modify one or more aspects effective to increase tolerance to 3-HP (and, in some embodiments, also 3-HP bio-production) by at least 20 percent over control microorganism lacking the one or more modifications. 
     In various embodiments, the invention is directed to a system for bioproduction of acrylic acid as described herein, said system comprising: a tank for saccharification of biomass; a line for passing the product of saccharification to a fermentation tank optionally via a pre-fermentation tank; a fermentation tank suitable for microorganism cell culture; a line for discharging contents from the fermentation tank to an extraction and/or separation vessel; an extraction and/or separation vessel suitable for removal of 3-hydroxypropionic acid from cell culture waste; a line for transferring 3-hydroxypropionic acid to a dehydration vessel; and a dehydration vessel suitable for conversion of 3-hydroxypropionic acid to acrylic acid. In various embodiments, the system includes one or more pre-fermentation tanks, distillation columns, centrifuge vessels, back extraction columns, mixing vessels, or combinations thereof. 
     The following published resources are incorporated by reference herein for their respective teachings to indicate the level of skill in these relevant arts, and as needed to support a disclosure that teaches how to make and use methods of industrial bio-production of 3-HP, or other product(s) produced under the invention, from sugar sources, and also industrial systems that may be used to achieve such conversion with any of the recombinant microorganisms of the present invention (Biochemical Engineering Fundamentals, 2 nd  Ed. J. E. Bailey and D. F. Ollis, McGraw Hill, New York, 1986, entire book for purposes indicated and Chapter 9, pages 533-657 in particular for biological reactor design; Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 5 th  Ed., W. L. McCabe et al., McGraw Hill, New York 1993, entire book for purposes indicated, and particularly for process and separation technologies analyses; Equilibrium Staged Separations, P. C. Wankat, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. USA, 1988, entire book for separation technologies teachings). 
     V. Genetic Modifications, Nucleotide Sequences, and Amino Acid Sequences 
     Embodiments of the present invention may result from introduction of an expression vector into a host microorganism, wherein the expression vector contains a nucleic acid sequence coding for an enzyme that is, or is not, normally found in a host microorganism. 
     The ability to genetically modify a host cell is essential for the production of any genetically modified (recombinant) microorganism. The mode of gene transfer technology may be by electroporation, conjugation, transduction, or natural transformation. A broad range of host conjugative plasmids and drug resistance markers are available. The cloning vectors are tailored to the host organisms based on the nature of antibiotic resistance markers that can function in that host. Also, as disclosed herein, a genetically modified (recombinant) microorganism may comprise modifications other than via plasmid introduction, including modifications to its genomic DNA. 
     It has long been recognized in the art that some amino acids in amino acid sequences can be varied without significant effect on the structure or function of proteins. Variants included can constitute deletions, insertions, inversions, repeats, and type substitutions so long as the indicated enzyme activity is not significantly adversely affected. Guidance concerning which amino acid changes are likely to be phenotypically silent can be found, inter alia, in Bowie, J. U., et al., “Deciphering the Message in Protein Sequences: Tolerance to Amino Acid Substitutions,” Science 247:1306-1310 (1990). This reference is incorporated by reference for such teachings, which are, however, also generally known to those skilled in the art. 
     In various embodiments polypeptides obtained by the expression of the polynucleotide molecules of the present invention may have at least approximately 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% identity to one or more amino acid sequences encoded by the genes and/or nucleic acid sequences described herein for the 3-HP tolerance-related and biosynthesis pathways. 
     As a practical matter, whether any particular polypeptide is at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% identical to any reference amino acid sequence of any polypeptide described herein (which may correspond with a particular nucleic acid sequence described herein), such particular polypeptide sequence can be determined conventionally using known computer programs such the Bestfit program (Wisconsin Sequence Analysis Package, Version 8 for Unix, Genetics Computer Group, University Research Park, 575 Science Drive, Madison, Wis. 53711). When using Bestfit or any other sequence alignment program to determine whether a particular sequence is, for instance, 95% identical to a reference sequence according to the present invention, the parameters are set such that the percentage of identity is calculated over the full length of the reference amino acid sequence and that gaps in homology of up to 5% of the total number of amino acid residues in the reference sequence are allowed. 
     For example, in a specific embodiment the identity between a reference sequence (query sequence, i.e., a sequence of the present invention) and a subject sequence, also referred to as a global sequence alignment, may be determined using the FASTDB computer program based on the algorithm of Brutlag et al. (Comp. App. Biosci. 6:237-245 (1990)). Preferred parameters for a particular embodiment in which identity is narrowly construed, used in a FASTDB amino acid alignment, are: Scoring Scheme=PAM (Percent Accepted Mutations) 0, k-tuple=2, Mismatch Penalty=1, Joining Penalty=20, Randomization Group Length=0, Cutoff Score=1, Window Size=sequence length, Gap Penalty=5, Gap Size Penalty=0.05, Window Size=500 or the length of the subject amino acid sequence, whichever is shorter. According to this embodiment, if the subject sequence is shorter than the query sequence due to N- or C-terminal deletions, not because of internal deletions, a manual correction is made to the results to take into consideration the fact that the FASTDB program does not account for N- and C-terminal truncations of the subject sequence when calculating global percent identity. For subject sequences truncated at the N- and C-termini, relative to the query sequence, the percent identity is corrected by calculating the number of residues of the query sequence that are lateral to the N- and C-terminal of the subject sequence, which are not matched/aligned with a corresponding subject residue, as a percent of the total bases of the query sequence. A determination of whether a residue is matched/aligned is determined by results of the FASTDB sequence alignment. This percentage is then subtracted from the percent identity, calculated by the FASTDB program using the specified parameters, to arrive at a final percent identity score. This final percent identity score is what is used for the purposes of this embodiment. Only residues to the N- and C-termini of the subject sequence, which are not matched/aligned with the query sequence, are considered for the purposes of manually adjusting the percent identity score. That is, only query residue positions outside the farthest N- and C-terminal residues of the subject sequence are considered for this manual correction. For example, a 90 amino acid residue subject sequence is aligned with a 100 residue query sequence to determine percent identity. The deletion occurs at the N-terminus of the subject sequence and therefore, the FASTDB alignment does not show a matching/alignment of the first 10 residues at the N-terminus. The 10 unpaired residues represent 10% of the sequence (number of residues at the N- and C-termini not matched/total number of residues in the query sequence) so 10% is subtracted from the percent identity score calculated by the FASTDB program. If the remaining 90 residues were perfectly matched the final percent identity would be 90%. In another example, a 90 residue subject sequence is compared with a 100 residue query sequence. This time the deletions are internal deletions so there are no residues at the N- or C-termini of the subject sequence which are not matched/aligned with the query. In this case the percent identity calculated by FASTDB is not manually corrected. Once again, only residue positions outside the N- and C-terminal ends of the subject sequence, as displayed in the FASTDB alignment, which are not matched/aligned with the query sequence are manually corrected for. 
     More generally, nucleic acid constructs can be prepared comprising an isolated polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide having enzyme activity operably linked to one or more (several) control sequences that direct the expression of the coding sequence in a microorganism, such as  E. coli,  under conditions compatible with the control sequences. The isolated polynucleotide may be manipulated to provide for expression of the polypeptide. Manipulation of the polynucleotide&#39;s sequence prior to its insertion into a vector may be desirable or necessary depending on the expression vector. The techniques for modifying polynucleotide sequences utilizing recombinant DNA methods are well established in the art. 
     The control sequence may be an appropriate promoter sequence, a nucleotide sequence that is recognized by a host cell for expression of a polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide of the present invention. The promoter sequence contains transcriptional control sequences that mediate the expression of the polypeptide. The promoter may be any nucleotide sequence that shows transcriptional activity in the host cell of choice including mutant, truncated, and hybrid promoters, and may be obtained from genes encoding extracellular or intracellular polypeptides either homologous or heterologous to the host cell. Examples of suitable promoters for directing transcription of the nucleic acid constructs, especially in an  E. coli  host cell, are the lac promoter (Gronenborn, 1976, Mol. Gen. Genet. 148: 243-250), tac promoter (DeBoer et a/., 1983, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 80: 21-25), trc promoter (Brosius et al, 1985, J. Biol. Chem. 260: 3539-3541), T7 RNA polymerase promoter (Studier and Moffatt, 1986, J. Mol. Biol. 189: 113-130), phage promoter p L  (Elvin et al., 1990, Gene 87: 123-126), tetA prmoter (Skerra, 1994, Gene 151: 131-135), araBAD promoter (Guzman et al., 1995, J. Bacteriol. 177: 4121-4130), and rhaP BAD  promoter (Haldimann et al., 1998, J. Bacteriol. 180: 1277-1286). Other promoters are described in “Useful proteins from recombinant bacteria” in Scientific American, 1980, 242: 74-94; and in Sambrook and Russell, “Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual,” Third Edition 2001 (volumes 1-3), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. 
     The control sequence may also be a suitable transcription terminator sequence, a sequence recognized by a host cell to terminate transcription. The terminator sequence is operably linked to the 3′ terminus of the nucleotide sequence encoding the polypeptide. Any terminator that is functional in an  E. coli  cell may be used in the present invention. It may also be desirable to add regulatory sequences that allow regulation of the expression of the polypeptide relative to the growth of the host cell. Examples of regulatory systems are those that cause the expression of the gene to be turned on or off in response to a chemical or physical stimulus, including the presence of a regulatory compound. Regulatory systems in prokaryotic systems include the lac, tac, and trp operator systems. 
     For various embodiments of the invention the genetic manipulations may be described to include various genetic manipulations, including those directed to change regulation of, and therefore ultimate activity of, an enzyme or enzymatic activity of an enzyme identified in any of the respective pathways. Such genetic modifications may be directed to transcriptional, translational, and post-translational modifications that result in a change of enzyme activity and/or selectivity under selected and/or identified culture conditions and/or to provision of additional nucleic acid sequences such as to increase copy number and/or mutants of an enzyme related to 3-HP production. Specific methodologies and approaches to achieve such genetic modification are well known to one skilled in the art, and include, but are not limited to: increasing expression of an endogenous genetic element; decreasing functionality of a repressor gene; introducing a heterologous genetic element; increasing copy number of a nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide catalyzing an enzymatic conversion step to produce 3-HP; mutating a genetic element to provide a mutated protein to increase specific enzymatic activity; over-expressing; under-expressing; over-expressing a chaperone; knocking out a protease; altering or modifying feedback inhibition; providing an enzyme variant comprising one or more of an impaired binding site for a repressor and/or competitive inhibitor; knocking out a repressor gene; evolution, selection and/or other approaches to improve mRNA stability as well as use of plasmids having an effective copy number and promoters to achieve an effective level of improvement. Random mutagenesis may be practiced to provide genetic modifications that may fall into any of these or other stated approaches. The genetic modifications further broadly fall into additions (including insertions), deletions (such as by a mutation) and substitutions of one or more nucleic acids in a nucleic acid of interest. In various embodiments a genetic modification results in improved enzymatic specific activity and/or turnover number of an enzyme. Without being limited, changes may be measured by one or more of the following: K M ; k cat ; and K avidity . 
     In various embodiments, to function more efficiently, a microorganism may comprise one or more gene deletions. For example, in  E. coli,  the genes encoding the lactate dehydrogenase (ldhA), phosphate acetyltransferase (pta), pyruvate oxidase (poxB), and pyruvate-formate lyase (pflB) may be disrupted, including deleted. Such gene disruptions, including deletions, are not meant to be limiting, and may be implemented in various combinations in various embodiments. Gene deletions may be accomplished by mutational gene deletion approaches, and/or starting with a mutant strain having reduced or no expression of one or more of these enzymes, and/or other methods known to those skilled in the art. Gene deletions may be effectuated by any of a number of known specific methodologies, including but not limited to the RED/ET methods using kits and other reagents sold by Gene Bridges (Gene Bridges GmbH, Dresden, Germany, &lt;&lt;www.genebridges.com&gt;&gt;). 
     More particularly as to the latter method, use of Red/ET recombination, is known to those of ordinary skill in the art and described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,355,412 and 6,509,156, issued to Stewart et al. and incorporated by reference herein for its teachings of this method. Material and kits for such method are available from Gene Bridges (Gene Bridges GmbH, Dresden, Germany, &lt;&lt;www.genebridges.com&gt;&gt;), and the method may proceed by following the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The method involves replacement of the target gene by a selectable marker via homologous recombination performed by the recombinase from X-phage. The host organism expressing λ-red recombinase is transformed with a linear DNA product coding for a selectable marker flanked by the terminal regions (generally ˜50 bp, and alternatively up to about ˜300 bp) homologous with the target gene. The marker could then be removed by another recombination step performed by a plasmid vector carrying the FLP-recombinase, or another recombinase, such as Cre. 
     Targeted deletion of parts of microbial chromosomal DNA or the addition of foreign genetic material to microbial chromomes may be practiced to alter a host cell&#39;s metabolism so as to reduce or eliminate production of undesired metabolic products. This may be used in combination with other genetic modifications such as described herein in this general example. In this detailed description, reference has been made to multiple embodiments and to the accompanying drawings in which is shown by way of illustration specific exemplary embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention, and it is to be understood that modifications to the various disclosed embodiments may be made by a skilled artisan. 
     Further, for 3-HP production, such genetic modifications may be chosen and/or selected for to achieve a higher flux rate through certain enzymatic conversion steps within the respective 3-HP production pathway and so may affect general cellular metabolism in fundamental and/or major ways. 
     It will be appreciated that amino acid “homology” includes conservative substitutions, i.e. those that substitute a given amino acid in a polypeptide by another amino acid of similar characteristics. Typically seen as conservative substitutions are the following replacements: replacements of an aliphatic amino acid such as Ala, Val, Leu and Ile with another aliphatic amino acid; replacement of a Ser with a Thr or vice versa; replacement of an acidic residue such as Asp or Glu with another acidic residue; replacement of a residue bearing an amide group, such as Asn or Gln, with another residue bearing an amide group; exchange of a basic residue such as Lys or Arg with another basic residue; and replacement of an aromatic residue such as Phe or Tyr with another aromatic residue. 
     For all nucleic acid and amino acid sequences provided herein, it is appreciated that conservatively modified variants of these sequences are included, and are within the scope of the invention in its various embodiments. Functionally equivalent nucleic acid and amino acid sequences (functional variants), which may include conservatively modified variants as well as more extensively varied sequences, which are well within the skill of the person of ordinary skill in the art, and microorganisms comprising these, also are within the scope of various embodiments of the invention, as are methods and systems comprising such sequences and/or microorganisms. In various embodiments, nucleic acid sequences encoding sufficiently homologous proteins or portions thereof are within the scope of the invention. More generally, nucleic acids sequences that encode a particular amino acid sequence employed in the invention may vary due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, and nonetheless fall within the scope of the invention. The following table provides a summary of similarities among amino acids, upon which conservative and less conservative substitutions may be based, and also various codon redundancies that reflect this degeneracy. 
     Degeneracy of the Amino Acid Code 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Amino Acid 
                 Relationships 
                 DNA codons 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Alanine 
                 N, Ali 
                 GCT, GCC, GCA, GCG 
               
               
                 Proline 
                 N 
                 CCT, CCC, CCA, CCG 
               
               
                 Valine 
                 N, Ali 
                 GTT, GTC, GTA, GTG 
               
               
                 Leucine 
                 N, Ali 
                 CTT, CTC, CTA, CTG, TTA, TTG 
               
               
                 Isoleucine 
                 N, Ali 
                 ATT, ATC, ATA 
               
               
                 Methionine 
                 N 
                 ATG 
               
               
                 Phenylalanine 
                 N, Aro 
                 TTT, TTC 
               
               
                 Tryptophan 
                 N 
                 TGG 
               
               
                 Glycine 
                 PU 
                 GGT, GGC, GGA, GGG 
               
               
                 Serine 
                 PU 
                 TCT, TCC, TCA, TCG, AGT, AGC 
               
               
                 Threonine 
                 PU 
                 ACT, ACC, ACA, ACG 
               
               
                 Asparagine 
                 PU, Ami 
                 AAT, AAC 
               
               
                 Glutamine 
                 PU, Ami 
                 CAA, CAG 
               
               
                 Cysteine 
                 PU 
                 TGT, TGC 
               
               
                 Aspartic acid 
                 NEG, A 
                 GAT, GAC 
               
               
                 Glutamic acid 
                 NEG, A 
                 GAA, GAG 
               
               
                 Arginine 
                 POS, B 
                 CGT, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG 
               
               
                 Lysine 
                 POS, B 
                 AAA, AAG 
               
               
                 Histidine 
                 POS 
                 CAT, CAC 
               
               
                 Tyrosine 
                 Aro 
                 TAT, TAC 
               
               
                 Stop Codons 
                   
                 TAA, TAG, TGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Legend: side groups and other related properties: A = acidic; B = basic; Ali = aliphatic; Ami = amine; Aro = aromatic; N = nonpolar; PU = polar uncharged; NEG = negatively charged; POS = positively charged. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Also, variants and portions of particular nucleic acid sequences, and respective encoded amino acid sequences recited herein may be exhibit a desired functionality, e.g., enzymatic activity at a selected level, when such nucleic acid sequence variant and/or portion contains a 15 nucleotide sequence identical to any 15 nucleotide sequence set forth in the nucleic acid sequences recited herein including, without limitation, the sequence starting at nucleotide number 1 and ending at nucleotide number 15, the sequence starting at nucleotide number 2 and ending at nucleotide number 16, the sequence starting at nucleotide number 3 and ending at nucleotide number 17, and so forth. It will be appreciated that the invention also provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a nucleotide sequence that is greater than 15 nucleotides (e.g., 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 or more nucleotides) in length and identical to any portion of the sequence set forth in nucleic acid sequences recited herein. For example, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a 25 nucleotide sequence identical to any 25 nucleotide sequence set forth in any one or more (including any grouping of) nucleic acid sequences recited herein including, without limitation, the sequence starting at nucleotide number 1 and ending at nucleotide number 25, the sequence starting at nucleotide number 2 and ending at nucleotide number 26, the sequence starting at nucleotide number 3 and ending at nucleotide number 27, and so forth. Additional examples include, without limitation, isolated nucleic acids that contain a nucleotide sequence that is 50 or more nucleotides (e.g., 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, or more nucleotides) in length and identical to any portion of any of the sequences disclosed herein. Such isolated nucleic acids can include, without limitation, those isolated nucleic acids containing a nucleic acid sequence represented in any one section of discussion and/or examples, such as regarding 3-HP production pathways, nucleic acid sequences encoding enzymes of the fatty acid synthase system, or 3-HP tolerance. For example, the invention provides an isolated nucleic acid containing a nucleic acid sequence listed herein that contains a single insertion, a single deletion, a single substitution, multiple insertions, multiple deletions, multiple substitutions, or any combination thereof (e.g., single deletion together with multiple insertions). Such isolated nucleic acid molecules can share at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 97, 98, or 99 percent sequence identity with a nucleic acid sequence listed herein (i.e., in the sequence listing). 
     Additional examples include, without limitation, isolated nucleic acids that contain a nucleic acid sequence that encodes an amino acid sequence that is 50 or more amino acid residues (e.g., 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, or more amino acid residues) in length and identical to any portion of an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein. 
     In addition, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a nucleic acid sequence that encodes an amino acid sequence having a variation of an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein. For example, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid containing a nucleic acid sequence encoding an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein that contains a single insertion, a single deletion, a single substitution, multiple insertions, multiple deletions, multiple substitutions, or any combination thereof (e.g., single deletion together with multiple insertions). Such isolated nucleic acid molecules can contain a nucleic acid sequence encoding an amino acid sequence that shares at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 97, 98, or 99 percent sequence identity with an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein. 
     Examples of properties that provide the bases for conservative and other amino acid substitutions are exemplified in Table 1. Accordingly, one skilled in the art may make numerous substitutions to obtain an amino acid sequence variant that exhibits a desired functionality. BLASTP, CLUSTALP, and other alignment and comparison tools may be used to assess highly conserved regions, to which fewer substitutions may be made (unless directed to alter activity to a selected level, which may require multiple substitutions). More substitutions may be made in regions recognized or believed to not be involved with an active site or other binding or structural motif. In accordance with Table 1, for example, substitutions may be made of one polar uncharged (PU) amino acid for a polar uncharged amino acid of a listed sequence, optionally considering size/molecular weight (i.e., substituting a serine for a threonine). Guidance concerning which amino acid changes are likely to be phenotypically silent can be found, inter alia, in Bowie, J. U., et Al., “Deciphering the Message in Protein Sequences: Tolerance to Amino Acid Substitutions,” Science 247:1306-1310 (1990). This reference is incorporated by reference for such teachings, which are, however, also generally known to those skilled in the art. Recognized conservative amino acid substitutions comprise (substitutable amino acids following each colon of a set): ala:ser; arg:lys; asn:gln or his; asp:glu; cys:ser; gln:asn; glu:asp; gly:pro; his:asn or gln; ile:leu or val; leu:ile or val; lys:arg or gln or glu; met:leu or ile; phe:met or leu or tyr; ser:thr; thr:ser; trp:tyr; tyr:trp or phe; val:ile or leu. 
     It is noted that codon preferences and codon usage tables for a particular species can be used to engineer isolated nucleic acid molecules that take advantage of the codon usage preferences of that particular species. For example, the isolated nucleic acid provided herein can be designed to have codons that are preferentially used by a particular organism of interest. Numerous software and sequencing services are available for such codon-optimizing of sequences. 
     The invention provides polypeptides that contain the entire amino acid sequence of an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein. In addition, the invention provides polypeptides that contain a portion of an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein. For example, the invention provides polypeptides that contain a 15 amino acid sequence identical to any 15 amino acid sequence of an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein including, without limitation, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 1 and ending at amino acid residue number 15, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 2 and ending at amino acid residue number 16, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 3 and ending at amino acid residue number 17, and so forth. It will be appreciated that the invention also provides polypeptides that contain an amino acid sequence that is greater than 15 amino acid residues (e. g., 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 or more amino acid residues) in length and identical to any portion of an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein For example, the invention provides polypeptides that contain a 25 amino acid sequence identical to any 25 amino acid sequence of an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein including, without limitation, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 1 and ending at amino acid residue number 25, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 2 and ending at amino acid residue number 26, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 3 and ending at amino acid residue number 27, and so forth. Additional examples include, without limitation, polypeptides that contain an amino acid sequence that is 50 or more amino acid residues (e.g., 100, 150, 200, 250, 300 or more amino acid residues) in length and identical to any portion of an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein. Further, it is appreciated that, per above, a 15 nucleotide sequence will provide a 5 amino acid sequence, so that the latter, and higher-length amino acid sequences, may be defined by the above-described nucleotide sequence lengths having identity with a sequence provided herein. 
     In addition, the invention provides polypeptides that an amino acid sequence having a variation of the amino acid sequence set forth in an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein. For example, the invention provides polypeptides containing an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein that contains a single insertion, a single deletion, a single substitution, multiple insertions, multiple deletions, multiple substitutions, or any combination thereof (e.g., single deletion together with multiple insertions). Such polypeptides can contain an amino acid sequence that shares at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 97, 98 or 99 percent sequence identity with an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein. A particular variant amino acid sequence may comprise any number of variations as well as any combination of types of variations. 
     The invention includes, in various embodiments, an amino acid sequence having a variation of any of the polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences disclosed herein. As one example, variations are exemplified for the carbonic anhydrase ( E. coli  cynT) amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:57.  FIG. 1  provides a CLUSTAL multiple sequence alignment of the  E. coli  carbonic anhydrase aligned with carbonic anhydrases of eleven other species that had relatively high homology, based on low E values, in a BLASTP comparison. SEQ ID NO:57 is the fifth sequence shown. Multiple conservative and less conservative substitutions are shown (i.e., by the “:” and “.” designations, respectively), which can lead to additional modifications by one skilled in the art. Thus, examples of variations of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:57 include, without limitation, any variation of the sequences as set forth in  FIG. 1 . Such variations are provided in  FIG. 1  in that a comparison of the amino acid residue (or lack thereof) at a particular position of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:57 with the amino acid residue (or lack thereof) at the same aligned position of any of the other eleven amino acid sequences of  FIG. 1  provides a list of specific changes for the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:57. For example, the “E” glutamic acid at position 14 of SEQ ID NO:57 can be substituted with a “D” aspartic acid or “N” asparagine as indicated in  FIG. 1 . It will be appreciated that the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:57 can contain any number of variations as well as any combination of types of variations. It is noted that the amino acid sequences provided in  FIG. 1  can be polypeptides having carbonic anhydrase activity. 
     As indicated herein, polypeptides having a variant amino acid sequence can retain enzymatic activity. Such polypeptides can be produced by manipulating the nucleotide sequence encoding a polypeptide using standard procedures such as site-directed mutagenesis or various PCR techniques. As noted herein, one type of modification includes the substitution of one or more amino acid residues for amino acid residues having a similar chemical and/or biochemical property. For example, a polypeptide can have an amino acid sequence set forth in an amino acid sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein comprising one or more conservative substitutions. 
     More substantial changes can be obtained by selecting substitutions that are less conservative, and/or in areas of the sequence that may be more critical, for example selecting residues that differ more significantly in their effect on maintaining: (a) the structure of the polypeptide backbone in the area of the substitution, for example, as a sheet or helical conformation; (b) the charge or hydrophobicity of the polypeptide at the target site; or (c) the bulk of the side chain. The substitutions that in general are expected to produce the greatest changes in polypeptide function are those in which: (a) a hydrophilic residue, e.g., serine or threonine, is substituted for (or by) a hydrophobic residue, e.g., leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, valine or alanine; (b) a cysteine or proline is substituted for (or by) any other residue; (c) a residue having an electropositive side chain, e.g., lysine, arginine, or histidine, is substituted for (or by) an electronegative residue, e.g., glutamic acid or aspartic acid; or (d) a residue having a bulky side chain, e.g., phenylalanine, is substituted for (or by) one not having a side chain, e.g., glycine. The effects of these amino acid substitutions (or other deletions or additions) can be assessed for polypeptides having enzymatic activity by analyzing the ability of the polypeptide to catalyze the conversion of the same substrate as the related native polypeptide to the same product as the related native polypeptide. Accordingly, polypeptides having 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 or less conservative substitutions are provided by the invention. 
     Polypeptides and nucleic acids encoding polypeptides can be produced by standard DNA mutagenesis techniques, for example, M13 primer mutagenesis. Details of these techniques are provided in Sambrook and Russell, 2001. Nucleic acid molecules can contain changes of a coding region to fit the codon usage bias of the particular organism into which the molecule is to be introduced. 
     Alternatively, the coding region can be altered by taking advantage of the degeneracy of the genetic code to alter the coding sequence in such a way that, while the nucleic acid sequence is substantially altered, it nevertheless encodes a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence identical or substantially similar to the native amino acid sequence. For example, alanine is encoded in the open reading frame by the nucleotide codon triplet GCT. Because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, three other nucleotide codon triplets—GCA, GCC, and GCG—also code for alanine. Thus, the nucleic acid sequence of the open reading frame can be changed at this position to any of these three codons without affecting the amino acid sequence of the encoded polypeptide or the characteristics of the polypeptide. Based upon the degeneracy of the genetic code, nucleic acid variants can be derived from a nucleic acid sequence disclosed herein using standard DNA mutagenesis techniques as described herein, or by synthesis of nucleic acid sequences. Thus, for various embodiments the invention encompasses nucleic acid molecules that encode the same polypeptide but vary in nucleic acid sequence by virtue of the degeneracy of the genetic code. 
     The invention also provides an isolated nucleic acid that is at least about 12 bases in length (e.g., at least about 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 100, 250, 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2000, 3000, 4000, or 5000 bases in length) and hybridizes, under hybridization conditions, to the sense or antisense strand of a nucleic acid having a sequence listed or otherwise disclosed herein. The hybridization conditions can be moderately or highly stringent hybridization conditions. Also, in some embodiments the microorganism comprises an endogenous 3-HP production pathway (which may, in some such embodiments, be enhanced), whereas in other embodiments the microorganism does not comprise a 3-HP production pathway, but is provided with one or more nucleic acid sequences encoding polypeptides having enzymatic activity or activities to complete a pathway, described herein, resulting in production of 3-HP. In some embodiments, the particular sequences disclosed herein, or conservatively modified variants thereof, are provided to a selected microorganism, such as selected from one or more of the species and groups of species or other taxonomic groups listed herein. 
     VI. Specific Mutations, Genetic Modifications, and Combinations Thereof 
     The present invention, in its various embodiments, is directed to making one, or a combination of, genetic modifications in a microorganism to increase production therein of the commercially important compound 3-hydroxypropionic acid (“3-HP,” CAS No. 503-66-2). More generally the present invention relates to methods, systems and compositions, including genetically modified microorganisms, e.g., recombinant microorganisms, comprising one or more genetic modifications directed to increased production of 3-HP based on introduction of a polynucleotide encoding identified functional variant polypeptides exhibiting increased oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylaseoxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase activity, and methods of making various products from 3-HP made by cultures of such microorganisms. 
     Choice of candidate oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase enzymes: The desired oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase activity catalyzes the conversion of oxaloacetate to malonate semialdehyde (see  FIG. 2 ), and may be referred to more explicitly as an oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase. Candidate enzymes were identified and chosen according to their reported activities as decarboxylases of alpha-ketoacids and by their reported substrate preference for shorter chain molecules. The genes for pyruvate decarboxylase from  Zymomonas mobilis  (pdc), 2-oxoglutarate decarboxylase (SEQ ID NO:035), (oad) from  Leuconostoc mesenteroides  (SEQ ID NO:036) and alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase (kgd) from  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  (SEQ ID NO:037)were chosen for further evaluation. 
     Through such evaluation, three functional variants were identified from the 2-oxoglutarate decarboxylase (oad) of  Leuconostoc mesenteroides  (SEQ ID NO:036) These, respectively, have the following mutations of that sequence: N45T, R249L, D302G, V418A and L476Q (SEQ ID NO:054), T479N (SEQ ID NO:055), and R394C, D434G and T511A (SEQ ID NO:056). These respectively showed a 1.6, 2.2 and 2.8 fold improvement in enzymatic conversion of oxaloacetate to malonate semialdehyde compared with a control native enzyme lacking mutations in an in vitro system (see Examples). 
     In various embodiments additional genetic modifications may be made to increase metabolic flux at one or more specified enzymatic conversion steps, and/or to reduce or eliminate an enzymatic conversion along certain metabolic pathways. In some embodiments, a genetic modification is provided to a selected microorganism cell to increase an oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylaseoxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase enzyme activity. Such genetic modification may supplement an existing enzymatic activity, or may provide such activity in a selected microorganism that previously lacked such enzymatic activity (whether inherently or due or other genetic modifications). 
     As disclosed in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/246,140, filed Sep. 27, 2009 and to which priority is claimed, SEQ ID NO:001 provides one non-limiting example of an amino acid sequence of an oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylaseoxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase enzyme, obtained from  Leuconostoc mesenteroides.  This sequence is observed to have lacked a small portion of the N-terminal, and SEQ ID NO:036 is provided herein as the entire sequence. 
       FIG. 2  graphically depicts a reaction catalyzed by a oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase. A polynucleotide encoding such polypeptide sequence, or variants, including conservative variants thereof, exhibiting such enzymatic activity (hereinafter referred to as “oad-2”), may be provided into a selected microorganism to increase 3-HP production. This is described in more detail below. In various embodiments, such provision, by genetic modification, is practiced in combination with other genetic modifications so as to further increase 3-HP production. 
     Such sequence may be encoded by a polynucleotide that may be provided to a selected microorganism by a genetic modification, so as to provide or increase such enzymatic activity in the selected microorganism. For example, in some embodiments such genetic modification may comprise providing a plasmid, or other vector (e.g., cosmids, bacteria artificial chromosome (“BAC”), viruses (e.g., bacteriophage, animal viruses, plant viruses), and artificial chromosomes (e.g., yeast artificial chromosomes (YAC)), that comprises a polynucleotide that encodes a sequence as described herein and further comprises appropriate promoter(s), binding site(s), and stop codon, such that the amino acid sequence is expressed to a desirable level in the selected microorganism. 
       FIG. 3A  depicts the natural metabolic pathways utilize by  E. coli  during bio-production which results in the natural products lactate, formate and acetate. By disruptions of appropriate genes, the production of these natural products are reduced or eliminated. 
       FIG. 3B  depicts a proposed metabolic pathway to produce 3-HP as a bio-production product. Arrows represent enzymatic activities. Enzyme activities for  FIGS. 3A and 3B  are as follows: [i] glucokinase, [ii] phosphoglucose isomerase, [iii] 6-phosphofructose kinase, [iv] fructose bisphosphate aldolase, [v] triose-phosphate isomerase, [vi] glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, [vii] phosphoglycerate kinase, [viii] phosphoglycerate mutase, [ix] enolase, [x] pyruvate dehydrogenase, -, [xi] lactate dehydrogenase, [xii] pyruvate oxidase, [xiii] pyruvate-formate lyase, [xiv] phosphate acetyltransferase, [xv] acetate kinase, [xvi] phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, [xvii] the proposed oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase (oad-2), [xviii] 3-hydroxypropionate dehydrogenase, [xix] pyruvate carboxylase. 
       FIG. 4  depicts a generalized embodiment comprising various metabolic modifications, some of which are optional for various embodiments of a genetically modified microorganism of the present invention. For various embodiments, an underlined gene name indicates that genetic modification is made to increase expression and/or enzymatic activity of the respective gene product (i.e., enzyme), a “Δ” before a gene name signifies that this gene is disrupted to decrease or eliminate expression and/or enzymatic activity of the respective gene product, and an asterisk indicates that this gene may be mutated to obtain a mutated form of the encoded gene product that exhibits increased enzymatic activity and/or specificity. Not all such genetic modifications need be made in a particular embodiment, and this full set of genetic modifications would be made for culture under anaerobic conditions. 
     As noted, the oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase is identified as “oad-2” or a grammatically equivalent identification. As shown in  FIG. 2 , oad-2 converts an oxaloacetate molecule to form malonate semialdehyde (“MSA”). The MSA is converted to 3-HP by a suitable enzyme (native, supplemented, or added), such as mmsB from  Pseudomonas aeruginosa  (SEQ ID NO:002) noting that the predominant reported reaction for this enzyme is conversion of 3-hydroxyisobutyrate to methylmalonate semialdehyde, and that in some embodiments mutant forms of mmsB may be produced, evaluated and identified that have greater, or more specific, activity for the conversion of MSA to 3-HP, such as by use of mutation and selection approaches described herein and/or known to those skilled in the art. Other enzymes for this latter conversion may be selected from enzymes capable of reductive conversions from MSA to 3-HP, such as a native or mutated form of ydfG or its functional equivalent in other species. This reaction is depicted in FIG. 
     The types of additional genetic modifications are generally divided into two groups—those that are made to increase enzymatic activity and/or specificity, generally so as to increase flux through a particular pathway and/or enzymatic conversion step, and those that are made to decrease or eliminate enzymatic activity at particular enzymatic conversion steps, thereby decreasing or eliminating conversion to particular metabolic intermediates or products. Various embodiments may include combinations of such genetic modifications from these two groups, in combination with the above-described genetic modification of a decarboxylase able to convert oxaloacetate to MSA. 
     Accordingly, in some embodiments, one or more of the genetic modifications in Table 1 may be provided to the selected microorganism that also is provided with the oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase enzymatic activity. Genetic modifications to the microorganism of these enzymes are made to increase enzymatic activity and/or specificity. One or more of these enzymatic functions may be native, and/or genetic modifications may be provided to supplement such native activity, or to provide such activity to a microorganism not previously demonstrating such activity. As described in a section below, there are various approaches to obtaining homologies that may be determined to exhibit a desired functional equivalence. 
     In some embodiments, one of the enzymatic activities of Table 1, the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (“PEP”) to OAA, is provided via providing a mutated enzyme exhibiting such activity to a great level than a non-mutated enzyme. For example, the Ppc enzyme of  E. coli,  phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, may be mutated, such as by constructing a mutant library of ppc by use of an error-inducing PCR site-directed mutagenesis method. For example, use of the XL1-Red mutator strain, which is deficient in several repair mechanisms necessary for accurate DNA replication and generates mutations in plasmids at a rate 5,000 times that of the wild-type mutation rate, may be employed using appropriate materials following a manufacturer&#39;s instructions (see Stratagene QuikChange Mutagenesis Kit, Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif. USA). This technique or other techniques known to those skilled in the art, may be employed and then a population of such mutants, e.g., in a library, is evaluated, such as by a screening or selection method, to identify clones having a suitable or favorable mutation. 
     In other cases, such as for galP and pckA, genetic modifications can be made to increase overall expression of these protein functions in a microorganism cell. Various methods are known in the art for such types of genetic modifications, and are described in a section below. 
     In some embodiments a genetic modification provides increased enzymatic activity of pyruvate carboxylase (e.g., pyc from  Corynebacterium glutamicum  or  Rhizobium etli ). 
     Table 2 lists a number of protein functions, also providing enzyme classes and specific examples (with corresponding SEQ ID NOs.) in the group for which genetic modifications are made to reduce or eliminate the respective enzymatic activity. Once these protein functions are reduced or eliminated, more carbon and energy may flow to production of 3-HP (and also to biomass formation, to an extent, in some embodiments) rather than to the formation of metabolic products such as lactate, acetate, and formate. 
     Also, as gleaned from Tables 1 and 2, in various embodiments genetic modifications are made to increase enzymatic expression of galP and to decrease or eliminate enzymatic expression of all or part of the ptsHlcrr operon, or their equivalents in a selected species. 
     Deletions of the polynucleotides encoding the polypeptides exhibiting enzymatic activities or other protein functions in Table 2 may be made in a selected  E. coli  strain using a RED/ET homologous recombination method, such as with kits supplied by Gene Bridges (Gene Bridges GmbH, Heidelberg, Germany, www.genebridges.com) according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The successful deletion of these genes, as confirmed by standard methodologies, such as PCR, or DNA sequencing, results in a genetically modified microorganism having reduced or eliminated respective enzymatic activities or other protein functions. Methods for gene disruption in other species are known to those skilled in the art. 
     In view of Tables 1 and 2, it will be recognized that there are many possible combinations of increases in one or more protein functions, optionally with reductions in one or more protein functions. Protein functions can be independently varied, and any combination (i.e., a full factorial) of protein functions in Table 1 and Table 2 herein can be adjusted in various embodiments. In various embodiments of the present invention, these various combinations are provided in combination with one or more genetic modifications to provide, or to increase existing levels of, oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase enzymatic activity. 
     In various independent groupings of such embodiments, one or more protein functions selected from Table 1 may be added or increased, however excluding any substantial addition or change to any one of galP and its homologues, Ppc and its homologues, pckA and its homologues, or excluding two, three, four, or more, of such protein functions and their homologues from such smaller list or sub-list. In other independent groupings of embodiments, the various sub-lists developed from the list of Table 1 exclude one or more of the above-indicated protein functions but not their homologues. 
     In various independent groupings of such embodiments, one or more protein functions selected from Table 2 may be deleted or disrupted, however excluding any substantial reduction or change to any one of aceE and its homologues, aceF and its homologues, lpd and its homologues, ldhA and its homologues, pflB and its homologues, poxB and its homologues, Pta and its homologues, ptsH and its homologues, ptsI and its homologues, Crr and its homologues, pykA and its homologues, pykF and its homologues, or excluding two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven twelve, or more, of such protein functions and their homologues from such smaller list or sub-list. In other independent groupings of embodiments, the various sub-lists developed from the list of Table 2 exclude one or more of the above-indicated protein functions but not their homologues. 
     In addition to the above-described genetic modifications, in various embodiments genetic modifications also are provided to increase the pool and availability of the cofactor NADPH, and/or, consequently, the NADPH/NADP +  ratio. For example, in various embodiments for  E. coli,  this may be done by increasing activity, such as by genetic modification, of one or more of the following genes: pgi (in a mutated form), pntAB, overexpressed, gapA:gapN substitution/replacement, and disrupting or modifying a soluble transhydrogenase such as sthA, and/or genetic modifications of one or more of zwf, gnd, and edd. 
     Specific nucleic acid and amino acid sequences corresponding to the enzyme names and activities provided herein (e.g., for 3-HP production, and in Tables 1 and 2), including the claims, are readily found at widely used databases including www.metacyc.org, www.brenda-enzymes.org, and www.ncbi.gov. Also, the particular enzymatic activities by enzymes, and other protein functions (and the nucleic acid sequences encoding them) that are disclosed herein are not meant to be limiting particularly in view of the various known approaches, standard in the art, to achieve desired metabolic conversions and to identify functionally analogous enzymes in different species. Different enzymes for different species may also be found on these web sites. The enzyme functions disclosed herein may be related to the stated E.C. numbers provided herein, including Table 1 and 2, which are incorporated into this section. However, it is noted that some protein functions disclosed herein, including in the Tables 1 and 2, are not enzyme functions, and those functions are only stated in the “Protein Function” columns, and in various embodiments may be further limited by the function of the stated  E. coli  gene (which may be applied, in various embodiments, to functionally equivalent homologues in other species). Also, all information of Tables 1 and 2 are incorporated into the claims referring to these tables. Also, based on the teachings provided herein, it is appreciated that the members of a respective table are functionally related as to their overall metabolic effects on production of 3-HP through the 3-HP production pathway that includes oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase. 
     Thus, in various embodiments a genetically modified microorganism comprises a first set of genetic modification(s) to introduce and/or increase enzymatic activity of an oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase (such as SEQ ID NO:001 or SEQ ID NO:036), and optionally one or more enzymes capable of converting MSA to 3-HP (such as mmsB and a native or mutated ydfG). In some embodiments, a genetically modified microorganism demonstrates increased production of 3-HP compared to a control microorganism lacking such genetic modification(s). In some embodiments, a genetically modified microorganism comprises one or more genetic modifications to increase enzymatic activities or other protein functions identified in Table 1, and/or comprising one or more genetic modifications to reduce or eliminate enzymatic activities or other protein functions identified in Table 2, and optionally also comprising genetic modifications disclosed herein to increase microorganism NADPH pools and/or availability. Using approaches described herein, genes encoding enzymes having the enzyme activities described herein may be identified in other species, and evaluated as may be appropriate to the circumstance, toward obtaining a genetically modified microorganism of that species that comprises the genetic modifications taught herein to obtain a microorganism that exhibits higher production of 3-HP compared to a relevant control microorganism lacking the genetic modifications. 
     In some particular embodiments, a combination of genetic modifications are made to an  E. coli  strain, the combination comprising providing a polynucleotide encoding oad-2 and the combination also comprising other genetic modifications shown in  FIGS. 3B and 4 , as well as described for Tables 1 and 2. In some of these embodiments, at least one of additions of mmsB or a native or mutated ydfG are provided to increase enzymatic conversion of MSA to 3-HP. 
     Other aspects of the scope of the invention are described in the following paragraphs. 
     In various embodiments, to function more efficiently, a microorganism may comprise one or more gene deletions. These are summarized in Table 2, described above. For example, in  E. coli,  the genes encoding lactate dehydrogenase (ldhA), phosphate acetyltransferase (pta), pyruvate oxidase (poxB) and pyruvate-formate lyase (pflB), may be disrupted, including deleted. Such gene disruptions, including deletions, are not meant to be limiting, and may be implemented in various combinations in various embodiments. Gene deletions may be accomplished by mutational gene deletion approaches, and/or starting with a mutant strain having reduced or no expression of one or more of these enzymes, and/or other methods known to those skilled in the art. Gene deletions may be effectuated by any of a number of known specific methodologies, including but not limited to the RED/ET methods using kits and other reagents sold by Gene Bridges (Gene Bridges GmbH, Heidelberg, Germany, www.genebridges.com). Further, for 3-HP production, such genetic modifications may be chosen and/or selected for to achieve a higher flux rate through certain basic pathways within the respective 3-HP production pathway and so may affect general cellular metabolism in fundamental and/or major ways. 
     In some embodiments, the genetically modified microorganism that so possesses oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase genetic modification(s) additionally comprises at least one genetic modification to increase, in the genetically modified microorganism, a protein function selected from the protein functions of Table 1 (Glucose transporter function (such as by galP), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase). In certain embodiments, the genetically modified microorganism comprises at least one genetic modification to increase two or three protein functions selected from the protein functions of Table 1. 
     In some embodiments, such genetically modified microorganism additionally comprises at least one genetic modification to decrease protein functions selected from the protein functions of Table 2 (pyruvate dehydrogenase E1p, dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase, pyruvate dehydrogenase E3, lactate dehydrogenase, pyruvate formate lyase, pyruvate oxidase, phosphate acetyltransferase, histidyl phosphorylatable protein (of PTS), phosphoryl transfer protein (of PTS), polypeptide chain (of PTS), pyruvate kinase I, and pyruvate kinase II). 
     In various embodiments, such genetically modified microorganism comprises at least one genetic modification to decrease enzymatic activity of two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, or twelve protein functions selected from the protein functions of Table 2. 
     It will be appreciated that, in various embodiments, there can be many possible combinations of increases in one or more protein functions of Table 1, with reductions in one or more protein functions of Table 2 in the genetically modified microorganism comprising at least one genetic modification to provide or increase oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase protein function (i.e, enzymatic activity). Protein functions can be independently varied, and any combination (i.e., a full factorial) of genetic modifications of protein functions in Table 1 and Table 2 herein can be adjusted by the methods taught and provided into the genetically modified microorganism. 
     In some embodiments, at least one genetic modification to decrease enzymatic activity is a gene disruption. In some embodiments, at least one genetic modification to decrease enzymatic activity is a gene deletion. 
     In various embodiments, to obtain 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) as a desired product, the genetically modified microorganism comprises a protein function effective for converting malonate semialdehyde to 3-HP. The protein function effective for converting malonate semialdehyde to 3-HP can be native to the microorganism, but that is by no means necessary. 
     In some embodiments, the protein function effective for converting malonate semialdehyde to 3-HP is a native or mutated form of mmsB from  Pseudomonas aeruginosa,  or a functional equivalent thereof. Alternatively, or additionally, this protein function can be a native or mutated form of ydfG, or a functional equivalent thereof. 
     Certain embodiments of the invention additionally comprise a genetic modification to increase the availability of the cofactor NADPH, which can increase the NADPH/NADP+ ratio as may be desired. Non-limiting examples for such genetic modification are pgi (E.C. 5,3.1.9, in a mutated form), pntAB (E.C. 1.6.1.2), overexpressed, gapA (E.C. 1.2.1.12):gapN (E.C. 1.2.1.9, from  Streptococcus mutans ) substitution/replacement, and disrupting or modifying a soluble transhydrogenase such as sthA (E.C. 1.6.1.2), and/or genetic modifications of one or more of zwf (E.C. 1.1.1.49), gnd (E.C. 1.1.1.44), and edd (E.C. 4.2.1.12). Sequences of these genes are available at www.metacyc.org. 
     In some embodiments, the genetic modification increases microbial synthesis of 3-HP above a rate or titer of a control microorganism lacking said at least one genetic modification to produce 3-HP. In some embodiments, the genetic modification is effective to increase enzymatic conversions to 3-HP by at least about 5 percent, at least about 10 percent, at least about 20 percent, at least about 30 percent, or at least about 50 percent above the enzymatic conversion of a control microorganism lacking the genetic modification. 
     Variations of the present invention also provide a culture system comprising a population of a genetically modified microorganism as described herein, and a media comprising nutrients for the population. 
     Variations of this invention additionally include methods. In some variations, the invention provides a method of making a genetically modified microorganism comprising providing to a selected microorganism at least one genetic modification to introduce oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase enzymatic activity. 
     In some embodiments, the method additionally comprises introducing at least one genetic modification to increase enzymatic activity of a protein function selected from the protein functions of Table 1. In various embodiments, the method comprises introducing at least one genetic modification to increase two or three protein functions selected from the protein functions of Table 1 (Glucose transporter function (such as by galP), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase). 
     In some embodiments, the method additionally comprises introducing at least one genetic modification to decrease a protein function selected from the protein functions of Table 2. In various embodiments, the method comprises introducing at least one genetic modification to decrease two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, or twelve protein functions selected from the protein functions of Table 2 (pyruvate dehydrogenase E1p, dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase, pyruvate dehydrogenase E3, lactate dehydrogenase, pyruvate formate lyase, pyruvate oxidase, phosphate acetyltransferase, histidyl phosphorylatable protein (of PTS), phosphoryl transfer protein (of PTS), polypeptide chain (of PTS), pyruvate kinase I, and pyruvate kinase II). 
     Again, there are many possible combinations of increases in one or more protein functions, optionally with reductions in one or more protein functions, that may be provided in combination with at least one genetic modification to provide or increase oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase enzymatic function, so as to increase 3-HP production in a genetically modified microorganism. Protein functions can be independently varied, and any combination (i.e., a full factorial) of protein functions in Table 1 and Table 2 herein can be adjusted in various methods of the invention. Enzyme-activity and other protein function reductions can be accomplished by gene disruptions, such as gene deletions, or other modifications. 
     Additionally, genetic modifications and/or media supplements directed to improving tolerance to 3-HP may be provided, such as are taught in PCT Patent Publication No. US/2010/052748, published Jan. 28, 2010, and incorporated by reference for its teachings of tolerance-related genetic modifications and media supplements. 
     In some embodiments, the invention contemplates a culture system comprising: a) a population of a genetically modified microorganism as described herein; and b) a media comprising nutrients for the population. In some such embodiments the media additionally comprises at least 1 gram/liter of 3-HP. 
     As described in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/246,140, filed Sep. 27, 2009, incorporated by reference and to which priority is claimed, various combinations of genetic modifications may be implemented in various embodiments of the invention. These are described in the following paragraphs and also in Tables 1 and 2. 
     In some embodiments, the genetically modified microorganism that so possesses oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase genetic modification(s) additionally comprises at least one genetic modification to increase, in the genetically modified microorganism, a protein function selected from the protein functions of Table 1 (Glucose transporter function (such as by galP in  E. coli ), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (such as by pckA in  E. coli ), and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (such as by ppc in  E. coli ). In certain embodiments, the genetically modified microorganism comprises at least one genetic modification to increase two, three, or four protein functions selected from the protein functions of Table 2. 
     In some embodiments, such genetically modified microorganism additionally comprises at least one genetic modification to decrease protein functions selected from the protein functions of Table 2, pyruvate dehydrogenase E1p, lipoate acetyltransferase/dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase, pyruvate dehydrogenase E3 (lipoamide dehydrogenase), lactate dehydrogenase, pyruvate formate lyase, pyruvate oxidase, phosphate acetyltransferase, histidyl phosphorylatable protein (of PTS), phosphoryl transfer protein (of PTS), the polypeptide chain (of PTS), pyruvate kinase I, and pyruvate kinase II. 
     In various embodiments, such genetically modified microorganism comprises at least one genetic modification to decrease enzymatic activity of two, three, four, five, six, or seven protein functions selected from the protein functions of Table 2. 
     It will be appreciated that, in various embodiments, there can be many possible combinations of increases in one or more protein functions of Table 1, with reductions in one or more protein functions of Table 2 in the genetically modified microorganism comprising at least one genetic modification to provide or increase oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase protein function (i.e, enzymatic activity). Protein functions can be independently varied, and any combination (i.e., a full factorial) of genetic modifications of protein functions in Tables 1 and 2 herein can be adjusted by the methods taught and provided into said genetically modified microorganism. 
     In some embodiments, at least one genetic modification to decrease enzymatic activity is a gene disruption. In some embodiments, at least one genetic modification to decrease enzymatic activity is a gene deletion. 
     In various embodiments, to obtain 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) as a desired product, the genetically modified microorganism comprises a protein function effective for converting oxaloacetate to malonate semialdehyde, i.e., an oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase, and also a protein function effective for converting malonate semialdehyde to 3-HP. The latter can be native to the microorganism, but that is by no means necessary. 
     In some embodiments, the protein function effective for converting malonate semialdehyde to 3-HP is a native or mutated form of mmsB from  Pseudomonas aeruginosa,  or a functional equivalent thereof. Alternatively, or additionally, this protein function can be a native or mutated form of ydfG, or a functional equivalent thereof. 
     Certain embodiments of the invention additionally comprise a genetic modification to increase the availability of the cofactor NADPH, which can increase the NADPH/NADP+ ratio as may be desired. Non-limiting examples for such genetic modification are pgi (E.C. 5,3.1.9, in a mutated form), pntAB (E.C. 1.6.1.2), overexpressed, gapA (E.C. 1.2.1.12):gapN (E.C. 1.2.1.9, from  Streptococcus mutans ) substitution/replacement, and disrupting or modifying a soluble transhydrogenase such as sthA (E.C. 1.6.1.2), and/or genetic modifications of one or more of zwf (E.C. 1.1.1.49), gnd (E.C. 1.1.1.44), and edd (E.C. 4.2.1.12). Sequences of these genes are available at www.metacyc.org, and also are available at www.ncbi.gov. 
     It is appreciated that any combination of genetic modifications described herein may be used in embodiments of the present invention. Also included within the scope of the invention are isolated nucleic acid and amino acid sequences encoding or comprising the mutations to the polypeptide sequences described herein. 
     Additional genetic modifications may be provided in a microorganism strain of the present invention. Many such modifications may be provided to impart a particular phenotype. 
     As one example, a deletion, of multifunctional 2-keto-3-deoxygluconate 6-phosphate aldolase and 2-keto-4-hydroxyglutarate aldolase and oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase (eda in  E. coli ), may be provided to various strains. 
     For example, the ability to utilize sucrose may be provided, and this would expand the range of feed stocks that can be utilized to produce 3-HP. Common laboratory and industrial strains of  E. coli,  such as the strains described herein, are not capable of utilizing sucrose as the sole carbon source. Since sucrose, and sucrose-containing feed stocks such as molasses, are abundant and often used as feed stocks for the production by microbial fermentation, adding appropriate genetic modifications to permit uptake and use of sucrose may be practiced in strains having other features as provided herein. Various sucrose uptake and metabolism systems are known in the art (for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,960,455), incorporated by reference for such teachings. These and other approaches may be provided in strains of the present invention. The examples provide at least two approaches. 
     Also, genetic modifications may be provided to add functionality for breakdown of more complex carbon sources, such as cellulosic biomass or products thereof, for uptake, and/or for utilization of such carbon sources. For example, numerous cellulases and cellulase-based cellulose degradation systems have been studied and characterized (see, for example, and incorporated by reference herein for such teachings, Beguin, P and Aubert, J-P (1994) FEMS Microbial. Rev. 13: 25-58; Ohima, K. et al. (1997) Biotechnol. Genet. Eng. Rev. 14: 365414). 
     In addition to the above-described genetic modifications, in various embodiments genetic modifications also are provided to increase the pool and availability of the cofactor NADPH, and/or, consequently, the NADPH/NADP+ ratio. For example, in various embodiments for  E. coli,  this may be done by increasing activity, such as by genetic modification, of one or more of the following genes—pgi (in a mutated form), pntAB, overexpressed, gapA:gapN substitution/replacement, and disrupting or modifying a soluble transhydrogenase such as sthA, and/or genetic modifications of one or more of zwf, gnd, and edd. 
     Any such genetic modifications may be provided to species not having such functionality, or having a less than desired level of such functionality. 
     More generally, and depending on the particular metabolic pathways of a microorganism selected for genetic modification, any subgroup of genetic modifications may be made to decrease cellular production of fermentation product(s) selected from the group consisting of acetate, acetoin, acetone, acrylic, malate, fatty acid ethyl esters, isoprenoids, glycerol, ethylene glycol, ethylene, propylene, butylene, isobutylene, ethyl acetate, vinyl acetate, other acetates, 1,4-butanediol, 2,3-butanediol, butanol, isobutanol, sec-butanol, butyrate, isobutyrate, 2-OH-isobutryate, 3-OH-butyrate, ethanol, isopropanol, D-lactate, L-lactate, pyruvate, itaconate, levulinate, glucarate, glutarate, caprolactam, adipic acid, propanol, isopropanol, fusel alcohols, and 1,2-propanediol, 1,3-propanediol, formate, fumaric acid, propionic acid, succinic acid, valeric acid, and maleic acid. Gene deletions may be made as disclosed generally herein, and other approaches may also be used to achieve a desired decreased cellular production of selected fermentation products. 
     VII. Separation and Purification of the Chemical Product 3-HP 
     When 3-HP is the chemical product, the 3-HP may be separated and purified by the approaches described in the following paragraphs, taking into account that many methods of separation and purification are known in the art and the following disclosure is not meant to be limiting. Osmotic shock, sonication, homogenization, and/or a repeated freeze-thaw cycle followed by filtration and/or centrifugation, among other methods, such as pH adjustment and heat treatment, may be used to produce a cell-free extract from intact cells. Any one or more of these methods also may be employed to release 3-HP from cells as an extraction step. 
     Further as to general processing of a bio-production broth comprising 3-HP, various methods may be practiced to remove biomass and/or separate 3-HP from the culture broth and its components. Methods to separate and/or concentrate the 3-HP include centrifugation, filtration, extraction, chemical conversion such as esterification, distillation (which may result in chemical conversion, such as dehydration to acrylic acid, under some reactive-distillation conditions), crystallization, chromatography, and ion-exchange, in various forms. Additionally, cell rupture may be conducted as needed to release 3-HP from the cell mass, such as by sonication, homogenization, pH adjustment or heating. 3-HP may be further separated and/or purified by methods known in the art, including any combination of one or more of centrifugation, liquid-liquid separations, including extractions such as solvent extraction, reactive extraction, two-phase aqueous extraction and two-phase solvent extraction, membrane separation technologies, distillation, evaporation, ion-exchange chromatography, adsorption chromatography, reverse phase chromatography and crystallization. Any of the above methods may be applied to a portion of a bio-production broth (i.e., a fermentation broth, whether made under aerobic, anaerobic, or microaerobic conditions), such as may be removed from a bio-production event gradually or periodically, or to the broth at termination of a bio-production event. Conversion of 3-HP to downstream products, such as described herein, may proceed after separation and purification, or, such as with distillation, thin-film evaporation, or wiped-film evaporation optionally also in part as a separation means. 
     For various of these approaches, one may apply a counter-current strategy, or a sequential or iterative strategy, such as multi-pass extractions. For example, a given aqueous solution comprising 3-HP may be repeatedly extracted with a non-polar phase comprising an amine to achieve multiple reactive extractions. 
     When a culture event (fermentation event) is at a point of completion, the spent broth may transferred to a separate tank, or remain in the culture vessel, and in either case the temperature may be elevated to at least 60° C. for a minimum of one hour in order to kill the microorganisms. (Alternatively, other approaches to killing the microorganisms may be practiced.) By spent broth is meant the final liquid volume comprising the initial nutrient media, cells grown from the microorganism inoculum (and possibly including some original cells of the inoculum), 3-HP, and optionally liquid additions made after providing the initial nutrient media, such as periodic additions to provide additional carbon source, etc. It is noted that the spent broth may comprise organic acids other than 3-HP, such as for example acetic acid and/or lactic acid. 
     A centrifugation step may then be practiced to filter out the biomass solids (e.g., dead microorganism cells). This may be achieved in a continuous or batch centrifuge, and solids removal may be at least about 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% in a single pass, or cumulatively after two or more serial centrifugations. 
     An optional step is to polish the centrifuged liquid through a filter, such as microfiltration or ultrafiltration, or may comprise a filter press or other filter device to which is added a filter aid such as diatomaceous earth. Alternative or supplemental approaches to this and the centrifugation may include removal of cells by a flocculent, where the cells floc and are allowed to settle, and the liquid is drawn off or otherwise removed. A flocculent may be added to a fermentation broth after which settling of material is allowed for a time, and then separations may be applied, including but not limited to centrifugation. 
     After such steps, a spent broth comprising 3-HP and substantially free of solids is obtained for further processing. By “substantially free of solids” is meant that greater than 98%, 99%, or 99.5% of the solids have been removed. 
     In various embodiments this spent broth comprises various ions of salts, such as Na, Cl, SO 4 , and PO 4 . In some embodiments these ions may be removed by passing this spent broth through ion exchange columns, or otherwise contacting the spent broth with appropriate ion exchange material. Here and elsewhere in this document, “contacting” is taken to mean a contacting for the stated purpose by any way known to persons skilled in the art, such as, for example, in a column, under appropriate conditions that are well within the ability of persons of ordinary skill in the relevant art to determine. As but one example, these may comprise sequential contacting with anion and cation exchange materials (in any order), or with a mixed anion/cation material. This demineralization step should remove most such inorganic ions without removing the 3-HP. This may be achieved, for example, by lowering the pH sufficiently to protonate 3-HP and similar organic acids so that these acids are not bound to the anion exchange material, whereas anions, such as Cl and SO 4 , that remain charged at such pH are removed from the solution by binding to the resin. Likewise, positively charged ions are removed by contacting with cation exchange material. Such removal of ions may be assessed by a decrease in conductivity of the solution. Such ion exchange materials may be regenerated by methods known to those skilled in the art. 
     In some embodiments, the spent broth (such as but not necessarily after the previous demineralization step) is subjected to a pH elevation, after which it is passed through an ion exchange column, or otherwise contacted with an ion exchange resin, that comprises anionic groups, such as amines, to which organic acids, ionic at this pH, associate. Other organics that do not so associate with amines at this pH (which may be over 6.5, over 7.5, over 8.5, over 9.5, over 10.5, or higher pH) may be separated from the organic acids at this stage, such as by flushing with an elevated pH rinse. Thereafter elution with a lower pH and/or elevated salt content rinse may remove the organic acids. Eluting with a gradient of decreasing pH and/or increasing salt content rinses may allow more distinct separation of 3-HP from other organic acids, thereafter simplifying further processing. 
     This latter step of anion-exchange resin retention of organic acids may be practiced before or after the demineralization step. However, the following two approaches are alternatives to the anion-exchange resin step. 
     A first alternative approach comprises reactive extraction (a form of liquid-liquid extraction) as exemplified in this and the following paragraphs. The spent broth, which may be at a stage before or after the demineralization step above, is combined with a quantity of a tertiary amine such as Alamine336® (Cognis Corp., Cincinnati, Ohio USA) at low pH. Co-solvents for the Alamine336 or other tertiary amine may be added and include, but are not limited to benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, cyclohexane, disobutyl ketone, ethanol, #2 fuel oil, isopropanol, kerosene, n-butanol, isobutanol, octanol, and n-decanol that increase the partition coefficient when combined with the amine. After appropriate mixing a period of time for phase separation transpires, after which the non-polar phase, which comprises 3-HP associated with the Alamine336 or other tertiary amine, is separated from the aqueous phase. 
     When a co-solvent is used that has a lower boiling point than the 3-HP/tertiary amine, a distilling step may be used to remove the co-solvent, thereby leaving the 3-HP-tertiary amine complex in the non-polar phase. 
     Whether or not there is such a distillation step, a stripping or recovery step may be used to separate the 3-HP from the tertiary amine. An inorganic salt, such as ammonium sulfate, sodium chloride, or sodium carbonate, or a base such as sodium hydroxide or ammonium hydroxide, is added to the 3-HP/tertiary amine to reverse the amine protonation reaction, and a second phase is provided by addition of an aqueous solution (which may be the vehicle for provision of the inorganic salt). After suitable mixing, two phases result and this allows for tertiary amine regeneration and re-use, and provides the 3-HP in an aqueous solution. Alternatively, hot water may also be used without a salt or base to recover the 3HP from the amine. 
     In the above approach the phase separation and extraction of 3-HP to the aqueous phase can serve to concentrate the 3-HP. It is noted that chromatographic separation of respective organic acids also can serve to concentrate such acids, such as 3-HP. In similar approaches other suitable, non-polar amines, which may include primary, secondary and quaternary amines, may be used instead of and/or in combination with a tertiary amine. 
     A second alternative approach is crystallization. For example, the spent broth (such as free of biomass solids) may be contacted with a strong base such as ammonium hydroxide, which results in formation of an ammonium salt of 3-HP. This may be concentrated, and then ammonium-3-HP crystals are formed and may be separated, such as by filtration, from the aqueous phase. Once collected, ammonium-3-HP crystals may be treated with an acid, such as sulfuric acid, so that ammonium sulfate is regenerated, so that 3-HP and ammonium sulfate result. 
     Also, various aqueous two-phase extraction methods may be utilized to separate and/or concentrate a desired chemical product from a fermentation broth or later-obtained solution. It is known that the addition of polymers, such as dextran and glycol polymers, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) and polypropylene glycol (PPG) to an aqueous solution may result in formation of two aqueous phases. In such systems a desired chemical product may segregate to one phase while cells and other chemicals partition to the other phase, thus providing for a separation without use of organic solvents. This approach has been demonstrated for some chemical products, but challenges associated with chemical product recovery from a polymer solution and low selectivities are recognized (See “Extractive Recovery of Products from Fermentation Broths,” Joong Kyun Kim et al., Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng., 1999(4)1-11, incorporated by reference for all of its teachings of extractive recovery methods). 
     Various substitutions and combinations of the above steps and processes may be made to obtain a relatively purified 3-HP solution. Also, methods of separation and purification disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,534,679, issued Mar. 18, 2003, and incorporated by reference herein for such methods disclosures, may be considered based on a particular processing scheme. Also, in some culture events periodic removal of a portion of the liquid volume may be made, and processing of such portion(s) may be made to recover the 3-HP, including by any combination of the approaches disclosed above. 
     As noted, solvent extraction is another alternative. This may use any of a number of and/or combinations of solvents, including alcohols, esters, ketones, and various organic solvents. Without being limiting, after phase separation a distillation step or a secondary extraction may be employed to separate 3-HP from the organic phase. 
     The following published resources are incorporated by reference herein for their respective teachings to indicate the level of skill in these relevant arts, and as needed to support a disclosure that teaches how to make and use methods of industrial bio-production of 3-HP, and also industrial systems that may be used to achieve such conversion with any of the recombinant microorganisms of the present invention ( Biochemical Engineering Fundamentals,  2 nd  Ed. J. E. Bailey and D. F. Ollis, McGraw Hill, New York, 1986, entire book for purposes indicated and Chapter 9, pp. 533-657 in particular for biological reactor design; Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 5 th  Ed., W. L. McCabe et al., McGraw Hill, New York 1993, entire book for purposes indicated, and particularly for process and separation technologies analyses; Equilibrium Staged Separations, P. C. Wankat, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. USA, 1988, entire book for separation technologies teachings). 
     VII. Conversion of 3-HP to Acrylic Acid and Downstream Products 
     As discussed herein, various embodiments described herein are related to production of a particular chemical product, 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP). This organic acid, 3-HP, may be converted to various other products having industrial uses, such as but not limited to acrylic acid, esters of acrylic acid, and other chemicals obtained from 3-HP, referred to as “downstream products.” Under some approaches the 3-HP may be converted to acrylic acid, acrylamide, and/or other downstream chemical products, in some instances the conversion being associated with the separation and/or purification steps. Many conversions to such downstream products are described herein. The methods of the invention include steps to produce downstream products of 3-HP. 
     As a C 3  building block, 3-HP offers much potential in a variety of chemical conversions to commercially important intermediates, industrial end products, and consumer products. For example, 3-HP may be converted to acrylic acid, acrylates (e.g., acrylic acid salts and esters), 1,3-propanediol, malonic acid, ethyl-3-hydroxypropionate, ethyl ethoxy propionate, propiolactone, acrylamide, or acrylonitrile. 
     For example, methyl acrylate may be made from 3-HP via dehydration and esterification, the latter to add a methyl group (such as using methanol); acrylamide may be made from 3-HP via dehydration and amidation reactions; acrylonitrile may be made via a dehydration reaction and forming a nitrile moiety; propriolactone may be made from 3-HP via a ring-forming internal esterification reaction (eliminating a water molecule); ethyl-3-HP may be made from 3-HP via esterification with ethanol; malonic acid may be made from 3-HP via an oxidation reaction; and 1,3-propanediol may be made from 3-HP via a reduction reaction. Also, acrylic acid, first converted from 3-HP by dehydration, may be esterified with appropriate compounds to form a number of commercially important acrylate-based esters, including but not limited to methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, methyl acrylate, 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, butyl acrylate, and lauryl acrylate. Alternatively, 3HP may be esterified to form an ester of 3HP and then dehydrated to form the acrylate ester. 
     Additionally, 3-HP may be oligomerized or polymerized to form poly(3-hydroxypropionate) homopolymers, or co-polymerized with one or more other monomers to form various co-polymers. Because 3-HP has only a single stereoisomer, polymerization of 3-HP is not complicated by the stereo-specificity of monomers during chain growth. This is in contrast to (S)-2-Hydroxypropanoic acid (also known as lactic acid), which has two (D, L) stereoisomers that must be considered during its polymerizations. 
     As will be further described, 3-HP can be converted into derivatives starting (i) substantially as the protonated form of 3-hydroxypropionic acid; (ii) substantially as the deprotonated form, 3-hydroxypropionate; or (iii) as mixtures of the protonated and deprotonated forms. Generally, the fraction of 3-HP present as the acid versus the salt will depend on the pH, the presence of other ionic species in solution, temperature (which changes the equilibrium constant relating the acid and salt forms), and to some extent pressure. Many chemical conversions may be carried out from either of the 3-HP forms, and overall process economics will typically dictate the form of 3-HP for downstream conversion. 
     Also, as an example of a conversion during separation, 3-HP in an amine salt form, such as in the extraction step herein disclosed using Alamine 336 as the amine, may be converted to acrylic acid by contacting a solution comprising the 3-HP amine salt with a dehydration catalyst, such as aluminum oxide, at an elevated temperature, such as 170 to 180 C, or 180 to 190 C, or 190 to 200 C, and passing the collected vapor phase over a low temperature condenser. Operating conditions, including 3-HP concentration, organic amine, co-solvent (if any), temperature, flow rates, dehydration catalyst, and condenser temperature, are evaluated and improved for commercial purposes. Conversion of 3-HP to acrylic acid is expected to exceed at least 80 percent, or at least 90 percent, in a single conversion event. The amine may be re-used, optionally after clean-up. Other dehydration catalysts, as provided herein, may be evaluated. It is noted that U.S. Pat. No. 7,186,856 discloses data regarding this conversion approach, albeit as part of an extractive salt-splitting conversion that differs from the teachings herein. However, U.S. Pat. No. 7,186,856 is incorporated by reference for its methods, including extractive salt-splitting, the latter to further indicate the various ways 3-HP may be extracted from a microbial fermentation broth. 
     Further as to embodiments in which the chemical product being synthesized by the microorganism host cell is 3-HP, made as provided herein and optionally purified to a selected purity prior to conversion, the methods of the present invention can also be used to produce “downstream” compounds derived from 3-HP, such as polymerized-3-HP (poly-3-HP), acrylic acid, polyacrylic acid (polymerized acrylic acid, in various forms), methyl acrylate, acrylamide, acrylonitrile, propiolactone, ethyl 3-HP, malonic acid, and 1,3-propanediol. Numerous approaches may be employed for such downstream conversions, generally falling into enzymatic, catalytic (chemical conversion process using a catalyst), thermal, and combinations thereof (including some wherein a desired pressure is applied to accelerate a reaction). 
     As noted, an important industrial chemical product that may be produced from 3-HP is acrylic acid. Chemically, one of the carbon-carbon single bonds in 3-HP must undergo a dehydration reaction, converting to a carbon-carbon double bond and rejecting a water molecule. Dehydration of 3-HP in principle can be carried out in the liquid phase or in the gas phase. In some embodiments, the dehydration takes place in the presence of a suitable homogeneous or heterogeneous catalyst. Suitable dehydration catalysts are both acid and alkaline catalysts. Following dehydration, an acrylic acid-containing phase is obtained and can be purified where appropriate by further purification steps, such as by distillation methods, extraction methods, or crystallization methods, or combinations thereof. 
     Making acrylic acid from 3-HP via a dehydration reaction may be achieved by a number of commercial methodologies including via a distillation process, which may be part of the separation regime and which may include an acid and/or a metal ion as catalyst. More broadly, incorporated herein for its teachings of conversion of 3-HP, and other β-hydroxy carbonyl compounds, to acrylic acid and other related downstream compounds, is U.S. Patent Publication No. 2007/0219390 A1, published Sep. 20, 2007, now abandoned. This publication lists numerous catalysts and provides examples of conversions, which are specifically incorporated herein. Also among the various specific methods to dehydrate 3-HP to produce acrylic acid is an older method, described in U.S. Pat. No. 2,469,701 (Redmon). This reference teaches a method for the preparation of acrylic acid by heating 3-HP to a temperature between 130 and 190° C., in the presence of a dehydration catalyst, such as sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid, under reduced pressure. U.S. Patent Publication No. 2005/0222458 A1 (Craciun et al.) also provides a process for the preparation of acrylic acid by heating 3-HP or its derivatives. Vapor-phase dehydration of 3-HP occurs in the presence of dehydration catalysts, such as packed beds of silica, alumina, or titania. These patent publications are incorporated by reference for their methods relating to converting 3-HP to acrylic acid. 
     The dehydration catalyst may comprise one or more metal oxides, such as Al 2 O 3 , SiO 2 , or TiO 2 . In some embodiments, the dehydration catalyst is a high surface area Al 2 O 3  or a high surface area silica wherein the silica is substantially SiO 2 . High surface area for the purposes of the invention means a surface area of at least about 50, 75, 100 m 2 /g, or more. In some embodiments, the dehydration catalyst may comprise an aluminosilicate, such as a zeolite. 
     For example, including as exemplified from such incorporated references, 3-HP may be dehydrated to acrylic acid via various specific methods, each often involving one or more dehydration catalysts. One catalyst of particular apparent value is titanium, such as in the form of titanium oxide, TiO(2). A titanium dioxide catalyst may be provided in a dehydration system that distills an aqueous solution comprising 3-HP, wherein the 3-HP dehydrates, such as upon volatilization, converting to acrylic acid, and the acrylic acid is collected by condensation from the vapor phase. 
     As but one specific method, an aqueous solution of 3-HP is passed through a reactor column packed with a titanium oxide catalyst maintained at a temperature between 170 and 190 C and at ambient atmospheric pressure. Vapors leaving the reactor column are passed over a low temperature condenser, where acrylic acid is collected. The low temperature condenser may be cooled to 30 C or less, 2 C or less, or at any suitable temperature for efficient condensation based on the flow rate and design of the system. Also, the reactor column temperatures may be lower, for instance when operating at a pressure lower than ambient atmospheric pressure. It is noted that Example 1 of U.S. Patent Publication No. 2007/0219390, published Sep. 20, 2007, now abandoned, provides specific parameters that employs the approach of this method. As noted, this publication is incorporated by reference for this teaching and also for its listing of catalysts that may be used in a 3-HP to acrylic acid dehydration reaction. 
     Further as to dehydration catalysts, the following table summarizes a number of catalysts (including chemical classes) that may be used in a dehydration reaction from 3-HP (or its esters) to acrylic acid (or acrylate esters). Such catalysts, some of which may be used in any of solid, liquid or gaseous forms, may be used individually or in any combination. This listing of catalysts is not intended to be limiting, and many specific catalysts not listed may be used for specific dehydration reactions. Further without being limiting, catalyst selection may depend on the solution pH and/or the form of 3-HP in a particular conversion, so that an acidic catalyst may be used when 3-HP is in acidic form, and a basic catalyst may be used when the ammonium salt of 3-HP is being converted to acrylic acid. Also, some catalysts may be in the form of ion exchange resins. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Dehydration Catalysts 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Catalyst by 
                   
               
               
                 Chemical Class 
                 Non-limiting Examples 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Acids (including 
                 H 2 SO 4 , HC1, titanic acids, metal oxide hydrates, 
               
               
                 weak and strong) 
                 metal sulfates (MSO 4 , where M = Zn, Sn, Ca, Ba, 
               
               
                   
                 Ni, Co, or other transition metals), metal oxide 
               
               
                   
                 sulfates, metal phosphates (e.g., M 3 , (PO 4 ) 2 , where 
               
               
                   
                 M = Ca, Ba), metal phosphates, metal oxide 
               
               
                   
                 phosphates, carbon (e.g., transition metals on a 
               
               
                   
                 carbon support), mineral acids, carboxylic acids, 
               
               
                   
                 salts thereof, acidic resins, acidic zeolites, clays, 
               
               
                   
                 SiO 2 /H 3 PO 4 , fluorinated Al 2 O 3 , Nb 2 O 3 /PO 5   −3 , 
               
               
                   
                 Nb 2 O 3 /SO4 −2 , Nb 2 O 5 H 2 O, phosphotungstic acids, 
               
               
                   
                 phosphomolybdic acids, silicomolybdic acids, 
               
               
                   
                 silicotungstic acids, carbon dioxide 
               
               
                 Bases (including 
                 NaOH, ammonia, polyvinylpyridine, metal 
               
               
                 weak and strong) 
                 hydroxides, Zr(OH) 4 , and substituted amines 
               
               
                 Oxides (generally 
                 TiO 2 , ZrO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , SiO 2 , ZnO 2 , SnO 2 , WO 3 , MnO 2 , 
               
               
                 metal oxides) 
                 Fe 2 O 3 , V 2 O 5   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     As to another specific method using one of these catalysts, concentrated sulfuric acid and an aqueous solution comprising 3-HP are separately flowed into a reactor maintained at 150 to 165° C. at a reduced pressure of 100 mm Hg. Flowing from the reactor is a solution comprising acrylic acid. A specific embodiment of this method, disclosed in Example 1 of US2009/0076297, incorporated by reference herein, indicates a yield of acrylic acid exceeding 95 percent. 
     Based on the wide range of possible catalysts and knowledge in the art of dehydration reactions of this type, numerous other specific dehydration methods may be evaluated and implemented for commercial production. 
     The dehydration of 3-HP may also take place in the absence of a dehydration catalyst. For example, the reaction may be run in the vapor phase in the presence of a nominally inert packing such as glass, ceramic, a resin, porcelain, plastic, metallic or brick dust packing and still form acrylic acid in reasonable yields and purity. The catalyst particles can be sized and configured such that the chemistry is, in some embodiments, mass-transfer-limited or kinetically limited. The catalyst can take the form of powder, pellets, granules, beads, extrudates, and so on. When a catalyst support is optionally employed, the support may assume any physical form such as pellets, spheres, monolithic channels, etc. The supports may be co-precipitated with active metal species; or the support may be treated with the catalytic metal species and then used as is or formed into the aforementioned shapes; or the support may be formed into the aforementioned shapes and then treated with the catalytic species. 
     A reactor for dehydration of 3-HP may be engineered and operated in a wide variety of ways. The reactor operation can be continuous, semi-continuous, or batch. It is perceived that an operation that is substantially continuous and at steady state is advantageous from operations and economics perspectives. The flow pattern can be substantially plug flow, substantially well-mixed, or a flow pattern between these extremes. A “reactor” can actually be a series or network of several reactors in various arrangements. 
     For example, without being limiting, acrylic acid may be made from 3-HP via a dehydration reaction, which may be achieved by a number of commercial methodologies including via a distillation process, which may be part of the separation regime and which may include an acid and/or a metal ion as catalyst. More broadly, incorporated herein for its teachings of conversion of 3-HP, and other 0-hydroxy carbonyl compounds, to acrylic acid and other related downstream compounds, is U.S. Patent Publication No. 2007/0219390 A1, published Sep. 20, 2007, now abandoned. This publication lists numerous catalysts and provides examples of conversions, which are specifically incorporated herein. 
     For example, including as exemplified from such incorporated references, 3-HP may be dehydrated to acrylic acid via various specific methods, each often involving one or more dehydration catalysts. One catalyst of particular apparent value is titanium, such as in the form of titanium oxide, TiO 2 . A titanium dioxide catalyst may be provided in a dehydration system that distills an aqueous solution comprising 3-HP, wherein the 3-HP dehydrates, such as upon volatilization, converting to acrylic acid, and the acrylic acid is collected by condensation from the vapor phase. 
     As but one specific method, an aqueous solution of 3-HP is passed through a reactor column packed with a titanium oxide catalyst maintained at a temperature between 170 and 190° C. and at ambient atmospheric pressure. Vapors leaving the reactor column are passed over a low temperature condenser, where acrylic acid is collected. The low temperature condenser may be cooled to 30° C. or less, 20° C. or less, 2° C. or less, or at any suitable temperature for efficient condensation based on the flow rate and design of the system. Also, the reactor column temperatures may be lower, for instance when operating at a pressure lower than ambient atmospheric pressure. It is noted that Example 1 of U.S. Patent Publication No. 2007/0219390, published Sep. 20, 2007, now abandoned, provides specific parameters that employs the approach of this method. As noted, this publication is incorporated by reference for this teaching and also for its listing of catalysts that may be used in a 3-HP to acrylic acid dehydration reaction. 
     Crystallization of the acrylic acid obtained by dehydration of 3-HP may be used as one of the final separation/purification steps. Various approaches to crystallization are known in the art, including crystallization of esters. 
     As noted above, in some embodiments, a salt of 3-HP is converted to acrylic acid or an ester or salt thereof. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 7,186,856 (Meng et al.) teaches a process for producing acrylic acid from the ammonium salt of 3-HP, which involves a first step of heating the ammonium salt of 3-HP in the presence of an organic amine or solvent that is immiscible with water, to form a two-phase solution and split the 3-HP salt into its respective ionic constituents under conditions which transfer 3-HP from the aqueous phase to the organic phase of the solution, leaving ammonia and ammonium cations in the aqueous phase. The organic phase is then back-extracted to separate the 3-HP, followed by a second step of heating the 3-HP-containing solution in the presence of a dehydration catalyst to produce acrylic acid. U.S. Pat. No. 7,186,856 is incorporated by reference for its methods for producing acrylic acid from salts of 3-HP. Various alternatives to the particular approach disclosed in this patent may be developed for suitable extraction and conversion processes. 
     Methyl acrylate may be made from 3-HP via dehydration and esterification, the latter to add a methyl group (such as using methanol), acrylamide may be made from 3-HP via dehydration and amidation reactions, acrylonitrile may be made via a dehydration reaction and forming a nitrile moiety, propriolactone may be made from 3-HP via a ring-forming internal esterification reaction (eliminating a water molecule), ethyl-3-HP may be made from 3-HP via esterification with ethanol, malonic acid may be made from 3-HP via an oxidation reaction, and 1,3-propanediol may be made from 3-HP via a reduction reaction. 
     Malonic acid may be produced from oxidation of 3-HP as produced herein. U.S. Pat. No. 5,817,870 (Haas et al.) discloses catalytic oxidation of 3-HP by a precious metal selected from Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir or Pt. These can be pure metal catalysts or supported catalysts. The catalytic oxidation can be carried out using a suspension catalyst in a suspension reactor or using a fixed-bed catalyst in a fixed-bed reactor. If the catalyst, preferably a supported catalyst, is disposed in a fixed-bed reactor, the latter can be operated in a trickle-bed procedure as well as also in a liquid-phase procedure. In the trickle-bed procedure the aqueous phase comprising the 3-HP starting material, as well as the oxidation products of the same and means for the adjustment of pH, and oxygen or an oxygen-containing gas can be conducted in parallel flow or counter-flow. In the liquid-phase procedure the liquid phase and the gas phase are conveniently conducted in parallel flow. 
     In order to achieve a sufficiently short reaction time, the conversion is carried out at a pH equal or greater than 6, preferably at least 7, and in particular between 7.5 and 9. According to a preferred embodiment, during the oxidation reaction the pH is kept constant, preferably at a pH in the range between 7.5 and 9, by adding a base, such as an alkaline or alkaline earth hydroxide solution. The oxidation is usefully carried out at a temperature of at least 10° C. and maximally 70° C. The flow of oxygen is not limited. In the suspension method it is important that the liquid and the gaseous phase are brought into contact by stirring vigorously. Malonic acid can be obtained in nearly quantitative yields. U.S. Pat. No. 5,817,870 is incorporated by reference herein for its methods to oxidize 3-HP to malonic acid. 
     1,3-Propanediol may be produced from hydrogenation of 3-HP as produced herein. U.S. Patent Publication No. 2005/0283029 (Meng et al.) is incorporated by reference herein for its methods to hydrogenation of 3-HP, or esters of the acid or mixtures, in the presence of a specific catalyst, in a liquid phase, to prepare 1,3-propanediol. Possible catalysts include ruthenium metal, or compounds of ruthenium, supported or unsupported, alone or in combination with at least one or more additional metal(s) selected from molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, zirconium, niobium, vanadium or chromium. The ruthenium metal or compound thereof, and/or the additional metal(s), or compound thereof, may be utilized in supported or unsupported form. If utilized in supported form, the method of preparing the supported catalyst is not critical and can be any technique such as impregnation of the support or deposition on the support. Any suitable support may be utilized. Supports that may be used include, but are not limited to, alumina, titania, silica, zirconia, carbons, carbon blacks, graphites, silicates, zeolites, aluminosilicate zeolites, aluminosilicate clays, and the like. 
     The hydrogenation process may be carried out in liquid phase. The liquid phase includes water, organic solvents that are not hydrogenatable, such as any aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbon, alcohols, ethers, toluene, decalin, dioxane, diglyme, n-heptane, hexane, xylene, benzene, tetrahydrofuran, cyclohexane, methylcyclohexane, and the like, and mixtures of water and organic solvent(s). The hydrogenation process may be carried out batch wise, semi-continuously, or continuously. The hydrogenation process may be carried out in any suitable apparatus. Exemplary of such apparatus are stirred tank reactors, trickle-bed reactors, high pressure hydrogenation reactors, and the like. 
     The hydrogenation process is generally carried out at a temperature ranging from about 20 to about 250° C., more particularly from about 100 to about 200° C. Further, the hydrogenation process is generally carried out in a pressure range of from about 20 psi to about 4000 psi. The hydrogen containing gas utilized in the hydrogenation process is, optionally, commercially pure hydrogen. The hydrogen containing gas is usable if nitrogen, gaseous hydrocarbons, or oxides of carbon, and similar materials, are present in the hydrogen containing gas. For example, hydrogen from synthesis gas (hydrogen and carbon monoxide) may be employed, such synthesis gas potentially further including carbon dioxide, water, and various impurities. 
     As is known in the art, it is also possible to convert 3-HP to 1,3-propanediol using biological methods. For example, 1,3-propanediol can be created from either 3-HP-CoA or 3-HP via the use of polypeptides having enzymatic activity. These polypeptides can be used either in vitro or in vivo. When converting 3-HP-CoA to 1,3-propanediol, polypeptides having oxidoreductase activity or reductase activity (e.g., enzymes from the 1.1.1.-class of enzymes) can be used. Alternatively, when creating 1,3-propanediol from 3-HP, a combination of a polypeptide having aldehyde dehydrogenase activity (e.g., an enzyme from the 1.1.1.34 class) and a polypeptide having alcohol dehydrogenase activity (e.g., an enzyme from the 1.1.1.32 class) can be used. 
     Another downstream production of 3-HP, acrylonitrile, may be converted from acrylic acid by various organic syntheses, including by not limited to the Sohio acrylonitrile process, a single-step method of production known in the chemical manufacturing industry 
     Also, addition reactions may yield acrylic acid or acrylate derivatives having alkyl or aryl groups at the carbonyl hydroxyl group. Such additions may be catalyzed chemically, such as by hydrogen, hydrogen halides, hydrogen cyanide, or Michael additions under alkaline conditions optionally in the presence of basic catalysts. Alcohols, phenols, hydrogen sulfide, and thiols are known to add under basic conditions. Aromatic amines or amides, and aromatic hydrocarbons, may be added under acidic conditions. These and other reactions are described in Ulmann&#39;s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Acrylic Acid and Derivatives, WileyVCH Verlag GmbH, Wienham (2005), incorporated by reference for its teachings of conversion reactions for acrylic acid and its derivatives. 
     Acrylic acid obtained from 3-HP made by the present invention may be further converted to various chemicals, including polymers, which are also considered downstream products in some embodiments. Acrylic acid esters may be formed from acrylic acid (or directly from 3-HP) such as by condensation esterification reactions with an alcohol, releasing water. This chemistry described in Monomeric Acrylic Esters, E. H. Riddle, Reinhold, N.Y. (1954), incorporated by reference for its esterification teachings. Among esters that are formed are methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, n-butyl acrylate, hydroxypropyl acrylate, hydroxyethyl acrylate, isobutyl acrylate, and 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, and these and/or other acrylic acid and/or other acrylate esters may be combined, including with other compounds, to form various known acrylic acid-based polymers. Although acrylamide is produced in chemical syntheses by hydration of acrylonitrile, herein a conversion may convert acrylic acid to acrylamide by amidation. 
     Acrylic acid obtained from 3-HP made by the present invention may be further converted to various chemicals, including polymers, which are also considered downstream products in some embodiments. Acrylic acid esters may be formed from acrylic acid (or directly from 3-HP) such as by condensation esterification reactions with an alcohol, releasing water. This chemistry is described in Monomeric Acrylic Esters, E. H. Riddle, Reinhold, N.Y. (1954), incorporated by reference for its esterification teachings. Among esters that are formed are methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, n-butyl acrylate, hydroxypropyl acrylate, hydroxyethyl acrylate, isobutyl acrylate, and 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, and these and/or other acrylic acid and/or other acrylate esters may be combined, including with other compounds, to form various known acrylic acid-based polymers. Although acrylamide is produced in chemical syntheses by hydration of acrylonitrile, herein a conversion may convert acrylic acid to acrylamide by amidation. 
     Direct esterification of acrylic acid can take place by esterification methods known to the person skilled in the art, by contacting the acrylic acid obtained from 3-HP dehydration with one or more alcohols, such as methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, n-butanol, tert-butanol or isobutanol, and heating to a temperature of at least 50, 75, 100, 125, or 150° C. The water formed during esterification may be removed from the reaction mixture, such as by azeotropic distillation through the addition of suitable separation aids, or by another means of separation. Conversions up to 95%, or more, may be realized, as is known in the art. 
     Several suitable esterification catalysts are commercially available, such as from Dow Chemical (Midland, Mich. US). For example, Amberlyst™ 131Wet Monodisperse gel catalyst confers enhanced hydraulic and reactivity properties and is suitable for fixed bed reactors. Amberlyst™ 39Wet is a macroreticular catalyst suitable particularly for stirred and slurry loop reactors. Amberlyst™ 46 is a macroporous catalyst producing less ether byproducts than conventional catalyst (as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,426,199 to Rohm and Haas, which patent is incorporated by reference for its teachings of esterification catalyst compositions and selection considerations). 
     Acrylic acid, and any of its esters, may be further converted into various polymers. Polymerization may proceed by any of heat, light, other radiation of sufficient energy, and free radical generating compounds, such as azo compounds or peroxides, to produce a desired polymer of acrylic acid or acrylic acid esters. As one example, an aqueous acrylic acid solution&#39;s temperature raised to a temperature known to start polymerization (in part based on the initial acrylic acid concentration), and the reaction proceeds, the process frequently involving heat removal given the high exothermicity of the reaction. Many other methods of polymerization are known in the art. Some are described in Ulmann&#39;s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Polyacrylamides and Poly(Acrylic Acids), WileyVCH Verlag GmbH, Wienham (2005), incorporated by reference for its teachings of polymerization reactions. 
     For example, the free-radical polymerization of acrylic acid takes place by polymerization methods known to the skilled worker and can be carried out either in an emulsion or suspension in aqueous solution or another solvent. Initiators, such as but not limited to organic peroxides, often are added to aid in the polymerization. Among the classes of organic peroxides that may be used as initiators are diacyls, peroxydicarbonates, monoperoxycarbonates, peroxyketals, peroxyesters, dialkyls, and hydroperoxides. Another class of initiators is azo initiators, which may be used for acrylate polymerization as well as co-polymerization with other monomers. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,470,928; 5,510,307; 6,709,919; and 7,678,869 teach various approaches to polymerization using a number of initiators, including organic peroxides, azo compounds, and other chemical types, and are incorporated by reference for such teachings as applicable to the polymers described herein. 
     Accordingly, it is further possible for co-monomers, such as crosslinkers, to be present during the polymerization. The free-radical polymerization of the acrylic acid obtained from dehydration of 3-HP, as produced herein, in at least partly neutralized form and in the presence of crosslinkers is practiced in certain embodiments. This polymerization may result in hydrogels which can then be comminuted, ground and, where appropriate, surface-modified, by known techniques. 
     An important commercial use of polyacrylic acid is for superabsorbent polymers. This specification hereby incorporates by reference Modern Superabsorbent Polymer Technology, Buchholz and Graham (Editors), Wiley-VCH, 1997, in its entirety for its teachings regarding superabsorbent polymers components, manufacture, properties and uses. Superabsorbent polymers are primarily used as absorbents for water and aqueous solutions for diapers, adult incontinence products, feminine hygiene products, and similar consumer products. In such consumer products, superabsorbent materials can replace traditional absorbent materials such as cloth, cotton, paper wadding, and cellulose fiber. Superabsorbent polymers absorb, and retain under a slight mechanical pressure, up to 25 times or their weight in liquid. The swollen gel holds the liquid in a solid, rubbery state and prevents the liquid from leaking. Superabsorbent polymer particles can be surface-modified to produce a shell structure with the shell being more highly crosslinked. This technique improves the balance of absorption, absorption under load, and resistance to gel-blocking. It is recognized that superabsorbent polymers have uses in fields other than consumer products, including agriculture, horticulture, and medicine. 
     Superabsorbent polymers are prepared from acrylic acid (such as acrylic acid derived from 3-HP provided herein) and a crosslinker, by solution or suspension polymerization. Exemplary methods include U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,145,906; 5,350,799; 5,342,899; 4,857,610; 4,985,518; 4,708, 997; 5,180,798; 4,666,983; 4,734,478; and 5,331,059, each incorporated by reference for their teachings relating to superabsorbent polymers. 
     Among consumer products, a diaper, a feminine hygiene product, and an adult incontinence product are made with superabsorbent polymer that itself is made substantially from acrylic acid converted from 3-HP made in accordance with the present invention. 
     Diapers and other personal hygiene products may be produced that incorporate superabsorbent polymer made from acrylic acid made from 3-HP which is bio-produced by the teachings of the present application. The following provides general guidance for making a diaper that incorporates such superabsorbent polymer. The superabsorbent polymer first is prepared into an absorbent pad that may be vacuum formed, and in which other materials, such as a fibrous material (e.g., wood pulp) are added. The absorbent pad then is assembled with sheet(s) of fabric, generally a nonwoven fabric (e.g., made from one or more of nylon, polyester, polyethylene, and polypropylene plastics) to form diapers. 
     More particularly, in one non-limiting process, above a conveyor belt multiple pressurized nozzles spray superabsorbent polymer particles (such as about 400 micron size or larger), fibrous material, and/or a combination of these onto the conveyor belt at designated spaces/intervals. The conveyor belt is perforated and under vacuum from below, so that the sprayed on materials are pulled toward the belt surface to form a flat pad. In various embodiments, fibrous material is applied first on the belt, followed by a mixture of fibrous material and the superabsorbent polymer particles, followed by fibrous material, so that the superabsorbent polymer is concentrated in the middle of the pad. A leveling roller may be used toward the end of the belt path to yield pads of uniform thickness. Each pad thereafter may be further processed, such as to cut it to a proper shape for the diaper, or the pad may be in the form of a long roll sufficient for multiple diapers. Thereafter, the pad is sandwiched between a top sheet and a bottom sheet of fabric (one generally being liquid pervious, the other liquid impervious), such as on a conveyor belt, and these are attached together such as by gluing, heating or ultrasonic welding, and cut into diaper-sized units (if not previously so cut). Additional features may be provided, such as elastic components, strips of tape, etc., for fit and ease of wearing by a person.  FIG. 6A  depicts aspects of diaper manufacture and FIG. B depicts aspects of diaper manufacture and diaper wear.  FIG. 7  provides a general, non-limiting depiction of the overall processes leading from biomass to a polymerized acrylic acid-based polymer such as may be used in diapers in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. 
     The ratio of the fibrous material to polymer particles is known to effect performance characteristics. In some embodiments, this ratio is between 75:25 and 90:10 (see U.S. Pat. No. 4,685,915, incorporated by reference for its teachings of diaper manufacture). Other disposable absorbent articles may be constructed in a similar fashion, such as for adult incontinence, feminine hygiene (sanitary napkins), tampons, etc. (see, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,009,653, 5,558,656, and 5,827,255 incorporated by reference for their teachings of sanitary napkin manufacture). 
     Low molecular-weight polyacrylic acid has uses for water treatment, flocculants, and thickeners for various applications including cosmetics and pharmaceutical preparations. For these applications, the polymer may be uncrosslinked or lightly crosslinked, depending on the specific application. The molecular weights are typically from about 200 to about 1,000,000 g/mol. Preparation of these low molecular-weight polyacrylic acid polymers is described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,904,685; 4,301,266; 2,798,053; and 5,093,472, each of which is incorporated by reference for its teachings relating to methods to produce these polymers. 
     Acrylic acid may be co-polymerized with one or more other monomers selected from acrylamide, 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid, N,N-dimethylacrylamide, N-isopropylacrylamide, methacrylic acid, and methacrylamide, to name a few. The relative reactivities of the monomers affect the microstructure and thus the physical properties of the polymer. Co-monomers may be derived from 3-HP, or otherwise provided, to produce co-polymers. Ulmann&#39;s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Polyacrylamides and Poly(Acrylic Acids), WileyVCH Verlag GmbH, Wienham (2005), is incorporated by reference herein for its teachings of polymer and co-polymer processing. 
     Acrylic acid can in principle be copolymerized with almost any free-radically polymerizable monomers including styrene, butadiene, acrylonitrile, acrylic esters, maleic acid, maleic anhydride, vinyl chloride, acrylamide, itaconic acid, and so on. End-use applications typically dictate the co-polymer composition, which influences properties. Acrylic acid also may have a number of optional substitutions on it, and after such substitutions be used as a monomer for polymerization, or co-polymerization reactions. As a general rule, acrylic acid (or one of its co-polymerization monomers) may be substituted by any substituent that does not interfere with the polymerization process, such as alkyl, alkoxy, aryl, heteroaryl, benzyl, vinyl, allyl, hydroxy, epoxy, amide, ethers, esters, ketones, maleimides, succinimides, sulfoxides, glycidyl and silyl (see U.S. Pat. No. 7,678,869, incorporated by reference above, for further discussion). The following paragraphs provide a few non-limiting examples of copolymerization applications. 
     Paints that comprise polymers and copolymers of acrylic acid and its esters are in wide use as industrial and consumer products. Aspects of the technology for making such paints can be found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,687,885 and 3,891,591, incorporated by reference for its teachings of such paint manufacture. Generally, acrylic acid and its esters may form homopolymers or copolymers among themselves or with other monomers, such as amides, methacrylates, acrylonitrile, vinyl, styrene and butadiene. A desired mixture of homopolymers and/or copolymers, referred to in the paint industry as ‘vehicle’ (or ‘binder’) are added to an aqueous solution and agitated sufficiently to form an aqueous dispersion that includes sub-micrometer sized polymer particles. The paint cures by coalescence of these ‘vehicle’ particles as the water and any other solvent evaporate. Other additives to the aqueous dispersion may include pigment, filler (e.g., calcium carbonate, aluminum silicate), solvent (e.g., acetone, benzol, alcohols, etc., although these are not found in certain no VOC paints), thickener, and additional additives depending on the conditions, applications, intended surfaces, etc. In many paints, the weight percent of the vehicle portion may range from about nine to about 26 percent, but for other paints the weight percent may vary beyond this range. 
     Acrylic-based polymers are used for many coatings in addition to paints. For example, for paper coating latexes, acrylic acid is used from 0.1-5.0%, along with styrene and butadiene, to enhance binding to the paper and modify rheology, freeze-thaw stability and shear stability. In this context, U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,875,101 and 3,872,037 are incorporated by reference for their teachings regarding such latexes. Acrylate-based polymers also are used in many inks, particularly UV curable printing inks. For water treatment, acrylamide and/or hydroxy ethyl acrylate are commonly co-polymerized with acrylic acid to produce low molecular-weight linear polymers. In this context, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,431,547 and 4,029,577 are incorporated by reference for their teachings of such polymers. Co-polymers of acrylic acid with maleic acid or itaconic acid are also produced for water-treatment applications, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,135,677, incorporated by reference for that teaching. Sodium acrylate (the sodium salt of glacial acrylic acid) can be co-polymerized with acrylamide (which may be derived from acrylic acid via amidation chemistry) to make an anionic co-polymer that is used as a flocculant in water treatment. 
     For thickening agents, a variety of co-monomers can be used, such as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,268,641 and 3,915,921, incorporated by reference for description of these co-monomers. U.S. Pat. No. 5,135,677 describes a number of co-monomers that can be used with acrylic acid to produce water-soluble polymers, and is incorporated by reference for such description. 
     Also as noted, some conversions to downstream products may be made enzymatically. For example, 3-HP may be converted to 3-HP-CoA, which then may be converted into polymerized 3-HP with an enzyme having polyhydroxyacid synthase activity (EC 2.3.1.-). Also, 1,3-propanediol can be made using polypeptides having oxidoreductase activity or reductase activity (e.g., enzymes in the EC 1.1.1.-class of enzymes). Alternatively, when creating 1,3-propanediol from 3HP, a combination of (1) a polypeptide having aldehyde dehydrogenase activity (e.g., an enzyme from the 1.1.1.34 class) and (2) a polypeptide having alcohol dehydrogenase activity (e.g., an enzyme from the 1.1.1.32 class) can be used. Polypeptides having lipase activity may be used to form esters. Enzymatic reactions such as these may be conducted in vitro, such as using cell-free extracts, or in vivo. 
     Thus, various embodiments of the present invention, such as methods of making a chemical, include conversion steps to any such noted downstream products of microbially produced 3-HP, including but not limited to those chemicals described herein and in the incorporated references (the latter for jurisdictions allowing this). For example, one embodiment is making 3-HP molecules by the teachings herein and further converting the 3-HP molecules to polymerized-3-HP (poly-3-HP) or acrylic acid, and such as from acrylic acid then producing from the 3-HP molecules any one of polyacrylic acid (polymerized acrylic acid, in various forms), methyl acrylate, acrylamide, acrylonitrile, propiolactone, ethyl 3-HP, malonic acid, 1,3-propanediol, ethyl acrylate, n-butyl acrylate, hydroxypropyl acrylate, hydroxyethyl acrylate, isobutyl acrylate, 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, and acrylic acid or an acrylic acid ester to which an alkyl or aryl addition is made, and/or to which halogens, aromatic amines or amides, and aromatic hydrocarbons are added. 
     Also as noted, some conversions to downstream products may be made enzymatically. For example, 3-HP may be converted to 3-HP-CoA, which then may be converted into polymerized 3-HP with an enzyme having polyhydroxyacid synthase activity (EC 2.3.1.-). Also, 1,3-propanediol can be made using polypeptides having oxidoreductase activity or reductase activity (e.g., enzymes in the EC 1.1.1.-class of enzymes). Alternatively, when creating 1,3-propanediol from 3HP, a combination of (1) a polypeptide having aldehyde dehydrogenase activity (e.g., an enzyme from the 1.1.1.34 class) and (2) a polypeptide having alcohol dehydrogenase activity (e.g., an enzyme from the 1.1.1.32 class) can be used. Polypeptides having lipase activity may be used to form esters. Enzymatic reactions such as these may be conducted in vitro, such as using cell-free extracts, or in vivo. 
     Thus, various embodiments of the present invention, such as methods of making a chemical, include conversion steps to any such noted downstream products of microbially produced 3-HP, including but not limited to those chemicals described herein and in the incorporated references (the latter for jurisdictions allowing this). For example, one embodiment is making 3-HP molecules by the teachings herein and further converting the 3-HP molecules to polymerized-3-HP (poly-3-HP) or acrylic acid, and such as from acrylic acid then producing from the 3-HP molecules any one of polyacrylic acid (polymerized acrylic acid, in various forms), methyl acrylate, acrylamide, acrylonitrile, propiolactone, ethyl 3-HP, malonic acid, 1,3-propanediol, ethyl acrylate, n-butyl acrylate, hydroxypropyl acrylate, hydroxyethyl acrylate, isobutyl acrylate, 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, and acrylic acid or an acrylic acid ester to which an alkyl or aryl addition is made, and/or to which halogens, aromatic amines or amides, and aromatic hydrocarbons are added. 
     Reactions that form downstream compounds such as acrylates or acrylamides can be conducted in conjunction with use of suitable stabilizing agents or inhibiting agents reducing likelihood of polymer formation. See, for example, U.S. Patent Publication No. 2007/0219390 A1. Stabilizing agents and/or inhibiting agents include, but are not limited to, e.g., phenolic compounds (e.g., dimethoxyphenol (DMP) or alkylated phenolic compounds such as di-tert-butyl phenol), quinones (e.g., t-butyl hydroquinone or the monomethyl ether of hydroquinone (MEHQ)), and/or metallic copper or copper salts (e.g., copper sulfate, copper chloride, or copper acetate). Inhibitors and/or stabilizers can be used individually or in combinations as will be known by those of skill in the art. Also, in various embodiments, the one or more downstream compounds is/are recovered at a molar yield of up to about 100 percent, or a molar yield in the range from about 70 percent to about 90 percent, or a molar yield in the range from about 80 percent to about 100 percent, or a molar yield in the range from about 90 percent to about 100 percent. Such yields may be the result of single-pass (batch or continuous) or iterative separation and purification steps in a particular process. 
     Acrylic acid and other downstream products are useful as commodities in manufacturing, such as in the manufacture of consumer goods, including diapers, textiles, carpets, paint, adhesives, and acrylic glass. 
     In some embodiments, the invention contemplates a culture system comprising: a) a population of a genetically modified microorganism as described herein; and b) a media comprising nutrients for the population. In some such embodiments the media additionally comprises at least 1 gram/liter of 3-HP. 
     The teachings and results of the Examples that follow are hereby incorporated into this section for all applicable purposes. 
     Also, and more generally, in accordance with disclosures, discussions, examples and embodiments herein, there may be employed conventional molecular biology, cellular biology, microbiology, and recombinant DNA techniques within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature. (See, e.g., Sambrook and Russell, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Third Edition 2001 (volumes 1-3), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.; Animal Cell Culture, R. I. Freshney, ed., 1986). These published resources are incorporated by reference herein for their respective teachings of standard laboratory methods found therein. Further, all patents, patent applications, patent publications, and other publications referenced herein (collectively, “published resource(s)”) are hereby incorporated by reference in this application. Such incorporation, at a minimum, is for the specific teaching and/or other purpose that may be noted when citing the reference herein. If a specific teaching and/or other purpose is not so noted, then the published resource is specifically incorporated for the teaching(s) indicated by one or more of the title, abstract, and/or summary of the reference. If no such specifically identified teaching and/or other purpose may be so relevant, then the published resource is incorporated in order to more fully describe the state of the art to which the present invention pertains, and/or to provide such teachings as are generally known to those skilled in the art, as may be applicable. However, it is specifically stated that a citation of a published resource herein shall not be construed as an admission that such is prior art to the present invention. Also, in the event that one or more of the incorporated published resources differs from or contradicts this application, including but not limited to defined terms, term usage, described techniques, or the like, this application controls. 
     While various embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it is emphasized that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes and substitutions may be made without departing from the invention herein in its various embodiments. Specifically, and for whatever reason, for any grouping of compounds, nucleic acid sequences, polypeptides including specific proteins including functional enzymes, metabolic pathway enzymes or intermediates, elements, or other compositions, or concentrations stated or otherwise presented herein in a list, table, or other grouping (such as metabolic pathway enzymes shown in a figure), unless clearly stated otherwise, it is intended that each such grouping provides the basis for and serves to identify various subset embodiments, the subset embodiments in their broadest scope comprising every subset of such grouping by exclusion of one or more members (or subsets) of the respective stated grouping. Moreover, when any range is described herein, unless clearly stated otherwise, that range includes all values therein and all sub-ranges therein. Accordingly, it is intended that the invention be limited only by the spirit and scope of appended claims, and of later claims, and of either such claims as they may be amended during prosecution of this or a later application claiming priority hereto. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1  
     Preparing a Genetically Modified  E. Coli  Host Cell Comprising an Oxaloacetate Alpha-Decarboxylase (oad-2) in Combination with Other Genetic Modifications to Increase 3-HP Production Relative to a Control  E. Coli  Cell (Prophetic) 
     Referring to  FIG. 4  and Tables 1 and 2, genetic modifications are made to introduce a polypeptide that encodes SEQ ID NO:001 or SEQ ID NO:036, or its functional equivalents, and also to introduce a vector that encodes mmsB (SEQ ID NO:002). Vectors comprising galP and a native or mutated Ppc also may be introduced by methods known to those skilled in the art (see, e.g., Sambrook and Russell, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Third Edition 2001 (volumes 1-3), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., “Sambrook and Russell, 2001”), additionally recognizing that mutations may be made by a method using the XL1-Red mutator strain, using appropriate materials following a manufacturer&#39;s instructions (Stratagene QuikChange Mutagenesis Kit, Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif. USA) and selected for or screened under standard protocols. 
     Also, genetic modifications are made to reduce or eliminate the enzymatic activities of the  E. coli  genes listed in Table 2. These genetic modifications are achieved by using the RED/ET homologous recombination method with kits supplied by Gene Bridges (Gene Bridges GmbH, Dresden, Germany, www.genebridges.com) according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. 
     The so-genetically modified microorganism is evaluated and found to exhibit higher productivity of 3-HP compared with a control  E. coli  lacking said genetic modifications. Productivity is measured by standard metrics, such as volumetric productivity (grams of 3-HP/hour) under similar culture conditions. 
     Example 2  
     General Example of Genetic Modification to a Host Cell (Prophetic and Non-Specific) 
     This example is meant to describe a non-limiting approach to genetic modification of a selected microorganism to introduce a nucleic acid sequence of interest. Alternatives and variations are provided within this general example. The methods of this Example are conducted to achieve a combination of desired genetic modifications in a selected microorganism species, such as a combination of genetic modifications selected from those shown in  FIG. 4 , and their equivalents in species other than  E. coli.    
     A gene or other nucleic acid sequence segment of interest is identified in a particular species (such as  E. coli  as described above) and a nucleic acid sequence comprising that gene or segment is obtained. For clarity below the use of the term “segment of interest” below is meant to include both a gene and any other nucleic acid sequence segment of interest. One example of a method used to obtain a segment of interest is to acquire a culture of a microorganism, where that microorganism&#39;s genome includes the gene or nucleic acid sequence segment of interest. 
     Based on the nucleic acid sequences at the ends of or adjacent the ends of the segment of interest, 5′ and 3′ nucleic acid primers are prepared. Each primer is designed to have a sufficient overlap section that hybridizes with such ends or adjacent regions. Such primers may include enzyme recognition sites for restriction digest of transposase insertion that could be used for subsequent vector incorporation or genomic insertion. These sites are typically designed to be outward of the hybridizing overlap sections. Numerous contract services are known that prepare primer sequences to order (e.g., Integrated DNA Technologies, Coralville, Iowa USA). 
     Once primers are designed and prepared, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is conducted to specifically amplify the desired segment of interest. This method results in multiple copies of the region of interest separated from the microorganism&#39;s genome. The microorganism&#39;s DNA, the primers, and a thermophilic polymerase are combined in a buffer solution with potassium and divalent cations (e.g., Mg or Mn) and with sufficient quantities of deoxynucleoside triphosphate molecules. This mixture is exposed to a standard regimen of temperature increases and decreases. However, temperatures, components, concentrations, and cycle times may vary according to the reaction according to length of the sequence to be copied, annealing temperature approximations and other factors known or readily learned through routine experimentation by one skilled in the art. 
     In an alternative embodiment the segment of interest may be synthesized, such as by a commercial vendor, and prepared via PCR per above, rather than obtaining from a microorganism or other natural source of DNA. 
     The nucleic acid sequences then are purified and separated, such as on an agarose gel via electrophoresis. Optionally, once the region is purified it can be validated by standard DNA sequencing methodology and may be introduced into a vector. Any of a number of vectors may be used, which generally comprise markers known to those skilled in the art, and standard methodologies are routinely employed for such introduction. Commonly used vector systems are pSMART (Lucigen, Middleton, Wis.), pET  E. coli  EXPRESSION SYSTEM (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.), pSC-B StrataClone Vector (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.), pRANGER-BTB vectors (Lucigen, Middleton, Wis.), and TOPO vector (Invitrogen Corp, Carlsbad, Calif., USA). Similarly, the vector then is introduced into any of a number of host cells. Commonly used host cells are  E. cloni  10G (Lucigen, Middleton, Wis.),  E. cloni  10GF′ (Lucigen, Middleton, Wis.), StrataClone Competent cells (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.),  E. coli  BL21,  E. coli  BW25113, and  E. coli  K12 MG1655. Some of these vectors possess promoters, such as inducible promoters, adjacent the region into which the sequence of interest is inserted (such as into a multiple cloning site), while other vectors, such as pSMART vectors (Lucigen, Middleton, Wis.), are provided without promoters and with dephosporylated blunt ends. The culturing of such plasmid-laden cells permits plasmid replication and thus replication of the segment of interest, which often corresponds to expression of the segment of interest. 
     Various vector systems comprise a selectable marker, such as an expressible gene encoding a protein needed for growth or survival under defined conditions. Common selectable markers contained on backbone vector sequences include genes that encode for one or more proteins required for antibiotic resistance as well as genes required to complement auxotrophic deficiencies or supply critical nutrients not present or available in a particular culture media. Vectors also comprise a replication system suitable for a host cell of interest. 
     The plasmids containing the segment of interest can then be isolated by routine methods and are available for introduction into other microorganism host cells of interest. Various methods of introduction are known in the art and can include vector introduction or genomic integration. In various alternative embodiments the DNA segment of interest may be separated from other plasmid DNA if the former will be introduced into a host cell of interest by means other than such plasmid. 
     While steps of the above general prophetic example involve use of plasmids, other vectors known in the art may be used instead. These include cosmids, viruses (e.g., bacteriophage, animal viruses, plant viruses), and artificial chromosomes (e.g., yeast artificial chromosomes (YAC) and bacteria artificial chromosomes (BAC)). 
     Host cells into which the segment of interest is introduced may be evaluated for performance as to a particular enzymatic step, and/or tolerance or bio-production of a chemical compound of interest. Selections of better performing genetically modified host cells may be made, selecting for overall performance, tolerance, or production or accumulation of the chemical of interest. 
     It is noted that this procedure may incorporate a nucleic acid sequence for a single gene (or other nucleic acid sequence segment of interest), or multiple genes (under control of separate promoters or a single promoter), and the procedure may be repeated to create the desired heterologous nucleic acid sequences in expression vectors, which are then supplied to a selected microorganism so as to have, for example, a desired complement of enzymatic conversion step functionality for any of the herein-disclosed metabolic pathways. However, it is noted that although many approaches rely on expression via transcription of all or part of the sequence of interest, and then translation of the transcribed mRNA to yield a polypeptide such as an enzyme, certain sequences of interest may exert an effect by means other than such expression. 
     The specific laboratory methods used for the above approaches are well-known in the art and may be found in various references known to those skilled in the art, such as Sambrook and Russell, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Third Edition 2001 (volumes 1-3), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (hereinafter, Sambrook and Russell, 2001). 
     As an alternative to the above, other genetic modifications may also be practiced, such as a deletion of a nucleic acid sequence of the host cell&#39;s genome. One non-limiting method to achieve this is by use of Red/ET recombination, known to those of ordinary skill in the art and described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,355,412 and 6,509,156, issued to Stewart et al. and incorporated by reference herein for its teachings of this method. Material and kits for such method are available from Gene Bridges (Gene Bridges GmbH, Dresden, Germany, www.genebridges.com), and the method may proceed by following the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Targeted deletion of genomic DNA may be practiced to alter a host cell&#39;s metabolism so as to reduce or eliminate production of undesired metabolic products, such as gene deletions for particular genes shown in  FIG. 4 . This may be used in combination with other genetic modifications such as described above in this general example. 
     The above-described approaches and compositions may be combined with other approaches and compositions that are directed to providing, or to improving, a desired property (e.g. productivity improvements in a microorganism). Various bio-production pathways, and methods of incorporating them into a microorganism, are known in the art and also are described in other patent applications having a common co-inventor with the present patent application. Any of such may be combined with any of the above-described approaches and combinations. 
     Example 3  
     Mutational Development of Selected Polynucleotides (Prophetic) 
     A selected gene sequence is subjected to a mutation development protocol, starting by constructing a mutant library of a native or previously evolved and/or codon-optimized polynucleotide by use of an error-inducing PCR site-directed mutagenesis method. 
     A polynucleotide exhibiting enzymatic activity of the selected gene (which may be any disclosed herein, e.g., a decarboxylase or mmsB) will be cloned into an appropriate expression system for  E. coli.  This sequence may be codon optimized. Cloning of a codon-optimized polynucleotide and its adequate expression of the will be accomplished via gene synthesis supplied from a commercial supplier using standard techniques. The gene will be synthesized with an eight amino acid C-terminal tag to enable affinity based protein purification. Once obtained using standard methodology, the gene will be cloned into an expression system using standard techniques. 
     The plasmid containing the above-described polynucleotide will be mutated by standard methods resulting in a large library of mutants (&gt;10 6 ). The mutant sequences will be excised from these plasmids and again cloned into an expression vector, generating a final library of greater than 10 6  clones for subsequent screening. These numbers ensure a greater than 99% probability that the library will contain a mutation in every amino acid encoded by sequence. It is acknowledged that each method of creating a mutational library has its own biases, including transformation into mutator strains of  E. coli,  error prone PCR, and in addition more site directed mutagenesis. In some embodiments, various methods may be considered and possibly several explored in parallel. 
     One such method is the use of the XL1-Red mutator strain, which is deficient in several repair mechanisms necessary for accurate DNA replication and generates mutations in plasmids at a rate 5,000 times that of the wild-type mutation rate, may be employed using appropriate materials following a manufacturer&#39;s instructions (See Stratagene QuikChange Mutagenesis Kit, Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif. USA). This technique or other techniques known to those skilled in the art, may be employed and then a population of such mutants, e.g., in a library, is evaluated, such as by a screening or selection method, to identify clones having a suitable or favorable mutation. 
     With the successful construction of a mutant library, it will be possible to screen this library for increased activity. The screening process will be designed to screen the entire library of greater than 106 mutants. This is done by screening methods suited to the particular enzymatic reaction. 
     Example 4  
     Cloning of Oxaloacetate Alpha-Decarboxylase Candidate Enzymes 
     Candidate oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase genes were synthesized using codons optimized for expression in  E. coli  and sub-cloned into expression vectors to provide protein for oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase assays. For gene synthesis, the protein sequences for pyruvate decarboxylase (pdc) from  Zymomonas mobilis  (SEQ ID NO:035), 2-oxoglutarate decarboxylase (oad) from  Leuconostoc mesenteroides  (SEQ ID NO:036), and alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase (kgd) from  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  (SEQ ID NO:037) were used to create codon optimized genes for expression in  E. coli  by the service provided by DNA 2.0 (Menlo Park, Calif. USA). Additionally, the protein coding regions of the codon optimized PDC and OAD genes were augmented with six histidines and five histidines, respectively. These additional amino acids provide a C-terminal histidine-tag for protein purification via immobilized metal-affinity chromatography. These plasmids were designated pJ201:pdc (SEQ ID NO:038), pJ251:oad (SEQ ID NO:039), and pJ206:kgd (SEQ ID NO:040), respectively. 
     The pdc and oad genes were individually sub-cloned into a pTrc-HisB expression vector obtained from Invitrogen (SEQ ID NO:041) (Carlsbad, Calif.). Sub-cloning for pdc gene was accomplished as follows: First, the expression vector was subjected to enzymatic restriction digestion with the restriction enzymes NcoI and NheI. Restriction enzymes were obtained from New England BioLabs (Ipswich, Mass. USA), and used according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The digestion mixtures were separated by agarose gel electrophoresis, and visualized under UV transillumination as described in the Common Methods Section. Agarose gel slices containing the DNA piece corresponding to the cut vector product were cut from the gel and the DNA recovered with a standard gel extraction protocol and components from Qiagen according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The gene inserts were amplified by polymerase chain reactions, cut with restriction enzymes, purified, and ligated to the cut vector. For the pdc gene containing insert, a polymerase chain reaction was performed with the forward primer being GGGATATCAT GAGCTATACC GTTGG (SEQ ID NO:042), and the reverse primer being GAAATAGTTC TCTAGAGAAG CTTC (SEQ ID NO:043) and the pJ201:pdc plasmid was used as template. These primers provide a BspHI site at the start codon and an XbaI site after the stop codon. This PCR product was prepared for restriction digest using a PCR purification kit from Qiagen Corporation (Valencia, Calif., USA) using the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The PCR product was prepared by restriction digest with BspHI and XbaI obtained from New England BioLabs (Ipswich, Mass. USA), and used according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. After digestion, mixtures were separated by agarose gel electrophoresis, and visualized under UV transillumination as described in the Common Methods Section. An agarose gel slice containing the DNA piece corresponding to the amplified pdc gene fusion was cut from the gel and the DNA recovered with a standard gel extraction protocol and components from Qiagen according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The recovered product and the prepared vector backbone were ligated together with T4 DNA ligase obtained from New England BioLabs (Ipswich, Mass. USA) according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Ligation mixtures were transformed into chemically competent 100 cells (Lucigen, Middleton, Wis.) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Colonies possibly containing the new plasmid were cultured, and their DNA was isolated using a standard miniprep protocol and components from Qiagen (Valencia, Calif. USA) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instruction. Isolated plasmids were checked by restriction digests and confirmed by sequencing. The sequenced-verified isolated plasmids produced with this procedure were designated pTrc:pdc-his (SEQ ID NO:044). 
     Sub-cloning for oad gene was accomplished as follows: First, the expression vector was subjected to enzymatic restriction digestion with the restriction enzymes NcoI and NheI. Restriction enzymes were obtained from New England BioLabs (Ipswich, Mass. USA), and used according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The digestion mixtures were separated by agarose gel electrophoresis, and visualized under UV transillumination as described in the Common Methods Section. Agarose gel slices containing the DNA piece corresponding to the cut vector product were cut from the gel and the DNA recovered with a standard gel extraction protocol and components from Qiagen according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The gene inserts were amplified by polymerase chain reactions, cut with restriction enzymes, purified, and ligated to the cut vector. For the oad gene containing insert, a polymerase chain reaction was performed with the forward primer being GGAGAATTACCATGGCGGATACCCTG (SEQ ID NO:045), and the reverse primer being GGGAATCTAG ACTAATGATG ATGGTGG (SEQ ID NO:046), and the pJ251:oad plasmid was used as template. These primers provide an NcoI site and the start codon and an XbaI site after the stop codon. This PCR product was prepared for restriction digest purified using a PCR purification kit from Qiagen Corporation (Valencia, Calif., USA) using the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The PCR product was prepared by restriction digest with NcoI and XbaI obtained from New England BioLabs (Ipswich, Mass. USA), and used according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. After digestion, mixtures were separated by agarose gel electrophoresis, and visualized under UV transillumination as described in the Common Methods Section. An agarose gel slice containing the DNA piece corresponding to the amplified pdc gene fusion was cut from the gel and the DNA recovered with a standard gel extraction protocol and components from Qiagen according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The recovered product and the prepared vector backbone were ligated together with T4 DNA ligase obtained from New England BioLabs (Ipswich, Mass. USA) according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Ligations were transformed into chemically competent 100 cells from Lucigen according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Colonies possibly containing the new plasmid were cultured, and their DNA was isolated using a standard miniprep protocol and components from Qiagen (Valencia, Calif. USA) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instruction. Isolated plasmids were checked by restriction digests and confirmed by sequencing. The sequenced-verified isolated plasmids produced with this procedure were designated pTrc:oad-his (SEQ ID NO:047). 
     The kgd gene was sub-cloned into a pKK223:cterm-His expression vector. Sub-cloning for kdg gene was accomplished as follows: First, the pKK223:c-term-His expression vector (SEQ ID NO:050) was subjected to enzymatic restriction digestion with the restriction enzymes NcoI and HindIII. Restriction enzymes were obtained from New England BioLabs (Ipswich, Mass. USA), and used according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The digestion mixtures were separated by agarose gel electrophoresis, and visualized under UV transillumination as described in the Common Methods Section. Agarose gel slices containing the DNA piece corresponding to the cut vector product were cut from the gel and the DNA recovered with a standard gel extraction protocol and components from Qiagen according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The gene inserts were amplified by polymerase chain reactions, cut with restriction enzymes, purified, and ligated to the cut vector. For the kgd gene containing insert, a polymerase chain reaction was performed with the forward primer being AGGTTCCCA TGGTGACTCA GGACCCG (SEQ ID NO:048), and the reverse primer being GTAAGCTTAG TGGTGATGGT GATGACCGAA CGCTTCGTCC (SEQ ID NO:049), and the pJ206:kgd plasmid was used as template. These primers provide an NcoI site and the start codon, and penta-histidine coding sequence for affinity purification of protein followed by a stop codon as well as a HindIll site. This PCR product was prepared for restriction digest purified using a PCR purification kit from Qiagen Corporation (Valencia, Calif., USA) using the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The PCR product was prepared by restriction digest with NcoI and HindIIII obtained from New England BioLabs (Ipswich, Mass. USA), and used according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. After digestion, mixtures were separated by agarose gel electrophoresis, and visualized under UV transillumination as described in the Common Methods Section. An agarose gel slice containing the DNA piece corresponding to the amplified pdc gene fusion was cut from the gel and the DNA recovered with a standard gel extraction protocol and components from Qiagen according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The recovered product and the prepared vector backbone were ligated together with T4 DNA ligase obtained from New England BioLabs (Ipswich, Mass. USA) according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Ligations were transformed into chemically competent 100 cells from Lucigen according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Colonies possibly containing the new plasmid were cultured, and their DNA was isolated using a standard miniprep protocol and components from Qiagen (Valencia, Calif. USA) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instruction. Isolated plasmids were checked by restriction digests and confirmed by sequencing. The sequenced-verified isolated plasmids produced with this procedure were designated pKK223:kgd-his (SEQ ID NO:053). 
     Example 5  
     Preparation and Evaluation of Over-Expressed Oxaloacetate Alpha-Decarboxylase Candidate Enzymes and Selected Mutant Enzymes 
     In order to evaluate candidate enzymes for native oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase function, each of the protein was purified. Plasmids containing each of the genes were individually transformed into electro-competent BW25113 cells. For each enzyme that was tested, starter cultures from single colonies were grown overnight at 37° C. with 250 rpm agitation in 20 mL of LB media with 200 ug/mL ampicillin selection. The next morning, these cultures were used to inoculate a 1 L of TB media with 200 ug/mL ampicillin selection. Cultures were grown at 37° C. with 250 rpm agitation. Protein induction was initiated when the optical density of the culture measured at 600 nm reached between 0.5 and 0.7—(about 4 to 6 hr) with addition of IPTG to a final concentration of 1 mM. The cultures allowed to grow overnight at 30° C. The cells were harvested by centrifugation (6000×g for 15 minutes) and kept frozen at −70° C. until purification. 
     Purification was performed as follows: Cells were thawed on ice and then resuspended in 40 mL of Buffer A (25 mM Trizma base pH 8.0, 500 mM NaCl, and 1 mM Imidazole) supplemented with lysozyme (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.), Dnase I (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.), and Complete EDTA-free protease inhibitor cocktail (EMD, Gibbstown, N.J.). Resuspend cells were incubated on ice for at least 5 minutes or until the culture showed signs of lysis. To completely lyse the cells, the suspension was sonicated (85% power on a Branson probe tip sonicator) with five 10 second burst intervened by resting on ice for at least a minute. The cell lysate was diluted to 50 mL with Buffer A and clarified by centrifugation at 10000×g for 15 minutes. 
     Proteins were purified from the lysate as follows: The clarified lysate was subjected to affinity purification with a nickel-charged fast flow column (Pharmacia). Clarified cell lysates was loaded on to the column at 1 mL per minute. The column was then washed with at least 50 column volumes of Buffer A until the flow through had an absorption at 260 nm equal to that of Buffer A. The protein was eluted with Elution Buffer (25 mM Trizma base pH 8.0, 100 mM NaCl, and 300 mM Imidazole) at 1 mL per minute and collected in 1.0 mL fractions. Fractions containing protein were identified using the BioRad Total Protein Assay method. Fractions showing protein were combined and concentrated by centrifugation using a Amicon ultra concentration unit (10 kDa cutoff) (Millipore, Milford Mass.). Concentrated proteins were further purified to remove imidazole using a pre-equilibrated (25 mM Trizma base pH 8.0, 100 mM NaCl) PD Miditrap G25 column (GE Lifesciences, Piscataway, N.J.) according the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Proteins were concentrated a final time, glycerol was added to about 10% volume, protein aliquots were snap frozen on dry ice, and the proteins were stored at −70° C. until use. Final protein concentrations were measured using BioRad Total Protein Assay (BioRad, Hercules, Calif.) 
     The purification of each candidate protein was confirmed by SDS-PAGE and by SDS-PAGE followed by visualization via western blot analysis. Protein samples were prepared for SDS-PAGE by dilution in 100 uL of SDS sample buffer (Tris-Cl pH6.8, SDS, glycerol, β-mercaptoethanol, Bromophenol blue), boiled for 5 minutes and spun at 17,000G for 5 minutes. A portion of the sample was loaded on a 10% pre-cast SDS-PAGE gel (BioRad Ready Gel Tris-HCl Gel-161-1101). Electrophoresis was carried out using a BioRad Mini-Protean II system according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. SDS gels were either stained with Coomassie Stain or transferred to nitrocellulose membrane using the same BioRad Mini-Protean II wet transfer system according to manufacturer&#39;s specifications for western blot visualization. Membranes were blocked for 1 hour at room temperature using PBST (NaCl, KCl, Na 2 HPO 4 , KH 2 PO 4 , Tween 20)+5% w/v nonfat dry milk Blots were then probed with a rabbit polyclonal anti-6× HIS-HRP antibody (AbCam Ab1187, 1:5000 dilution) in PBST+5% w/v nonfat dry milk for 1 hour at room temperature, washed 4 times in PBST for 5 minutes, and followed by developing with TMB substrate (Promega TMB Stabilized Substrate for HRP, cat #W4121). Protein expression was assessed by the presence or absence of bands at the expected molecular weight for each proteins of interest. The presence of each enzyme was confirmed in this manner ( FIG. 8 ). 
     Example 6  
     Evaluation of Native Oxaloacetate Alpha-Decarboxylase Function Via a Spectrophotometric Assay to Determine the Specific Activities of the Native Candidate Enzymes 
     A coupled assay was developed in order to biochemically assess the oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase activity of the candidate enzymes. The coupled assay used exogenously-added purified  E. coli  YdfG protein, which converts malonate semialdehyde to 3-HP with the concomitant conversion of NADPH to NADP+ ( FIG. 5 ). As the reduced form, NADPH, has a strong absorbance peak at 340 nm and the oxidized form does not, it is possible to monitor the progress of these coupled reactions via a spectrophotometric assay. 3-HP is also detectable by standard analytical methods, for example HPLC and GS-MS. 
     Assays were performed as 200 microliter reactions in a 96-well plate format using a Molecular Dynamics SpectraMax 384 microplate reader with SoftmaxPro software (Molecular Dynamics, Sunnyvale, Calif.) to quantitate the rate of change in the 340 nm absorbance. All assays were conducted at 37° C., and the instrument was allowed to mix the plate for 1 second prior to each measurements. The progress of each reaction was monitored for 20 minutes during which measurements were made every 20 seconds. Reaction conditions consisted of 50 mM PIPES pH 6.8 (unless otherwise stated), 2 mM thymidine pyrophosphate, 10 mM dithiothreitol, 4 mM magnesium chloride, 1 mM NADPH (EMD Bioscience), 0.075 mg/mL purified YdfG (Molecular Throughput), and 5 mM oxaloacetate (unless otherwise stated). All chemicals were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, Mo.) unless otherwise stated. Reactions were initiated with the addition of 10 microliters of concentrated purified protein to each reaction well. In addition, a negative control was performed with each experimental set to control for the rate of background NADPH oxidation. Once the reaction time course was read and the slopes of each well were calculated, the specific activities over the negative control of each candidate protein were calculated. All values reported are the average specific activities measured in triplicate. The following table shows the native specific activities of PDC and OAD determined by this method at varying oxaloacetate concentrations. 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Specific Activities as Measured by the 
               
               
                 Spectrophotometric Assay at pH 6.8 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 average PDC 
                   
                 Average OAD 
                   
               
               
                 [OAA] 
                 Specific activity 
                 standard 
                 Specific activity 
                 standard 
               
               
                 (mM) 
                 (units/mg) 
                 deviation 
                 (units/mg) 
                 deviation 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 10 
                 0.0076 
                 0.0024 
                 0.0144 
                  0.0012. 
               
               
                 5 
                 0.003 
                 0.0001 
                 0.006 
                 0.0003 
               
               
                 2.5 m 
                 0.0025 
                 0.0003 
                 0.003 
                 0.0007 
               
               
                 1 
                 0.0015 
                 0.0002 
                 0.0017 
                 0.0009 
               
               
                 0.5 
                 0.002 
                 0.0002 
                 0 
                 0.0004 
               
               
                 0.1 
                 0.0004 
                 0.0003 
                 0.0014 
                 0.001  
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Activity of KGD was not measured by the spectrophotometric assay. These reactions were subjected to GC-MS analysis to confirm that 3-HP was produced, and that the candidate oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase enzymes were able to convert oxaloacetate to malonate semialdehyde. These results are shown in the following table. 3-HP was produced by PDC, OAD, and KGD in the presence of 5 mM oxaloacetate. These results show that these enzymes possess low levels of native oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase function. 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Production of 3HP from spectrophotometric assay samples 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Enzyme 
                 Beginning [OAA] 
                 Final [3HP] (g/L) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Pdc (pH 6.0) 
                 5 mM 
                 0.041 +/− 0.003 
               
               
                   
                 Oad2 (pH 6.8) 
                 5 mM 
                 0.004 +/− 0.001 
               
               
                   
                 Kgd (pH 6.8) 
                 5 mM 
                 0.004 +/− 0.001 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 7  
     Confirmation of Oxaloacetate Alpha-Decarboxylase Enzyme Activity—Using GC-MS— 
     Conformation of 3-HP production as well as assessment of the pH dependence of each candidate enzyme was performed as described above, except that coupled reactions with YdfG were evaluated for 3-HP production by GC-MS. Reaction conditions consisted of 50 mM PIPES pH 6.8, 2 mM thymidine pyrophosphate, 10 mM dithiothreitol, 4 mM magnesium chloride, 1 mM NADPH (EMD Bioscience), 0.075 mg/mL purified YdfG (Molecular Throughput), and 5 mM oxaloacetate (unless otherwise stated). All chemicals were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich unless otherwise stated. Reactions were performed at 0.6 mL volumes in triplicate and were initiated with the addition of 600 micrograms of purified protein. In addition, a negative control lacking protein was also performed with each set. Reactions were allowed to proceed at 37° C. for at least 12 hours. 
     The following method is used for GC-MS analysis of 3-HP. Soluble monomeric 3-HP is quantified using GC-MS after a single exaction with ethyl acetate from a reaction sample. Once the 3-HP has been extracted into the ethyl acetate, the active hydrogens on the 3-HP are replaced with trimethylsilyl groups using N,O-Bis-(Trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide to make the compound volatile for GC analysis. A standard curve of known 3-HP concentrations is prepared at the beginning of the run and a known quantity of ketohexanoic acid (1 g/L) is added to both the standards and the samples to act as an internal standard for Quantitation, with tropic acid as an additional internal standard. The 3-HP content of individual samples is then assayed by examining the ratio of the ketohexanoic acid ion (m/z=247) to the 3-HP ion (219) and compared to the standard curve. 3-HP is quantified using a 3HP standard curve at the beginning of the run and the data are analyzed using HP Chemstation. The GC-MS system consists of a Hewlett Packard model 5890 GC and Hewlett Packard model 5972 MS. The column is Supelco SPB-1 (60 m×0.32 mm×0.25 um film thickness). The capillary coating is a non-polar methylsilicone. The carrier gas is helium at a flow rate of 1 mL/min. The 3-HP as derivatized is separated from other components in the ethyl acetate extract using either of two similar temperature regimes. In a first temperature gradient regime, the column temperature starts with 40° C. for 1 minute, then is raised at a rate of 10° C./minute to 235° C., and then is raised at a rate of 50° C./minute to 300° C. In a second temperature regime, which was demonstrated to process samples more quickly, the column temperature starts with 70° C. which is held for 1 min, followed by a ramp-up of 10° C./minute to 235° C. which is followed by a ramp-up of 50° C./minute to 300° C.  FIG. 9  shows the detected amount of each candidate enzyme at pH 5.5, pH 6.0, and pH 6.8. PDC showed optimal activity at pH 5.5 while OAD and KGD showed optimal activity at pH 6.8. 
     Example 8  
     Variants with Increased Oxaloacetate Alpha-Decarboxylase Activity 
     Three variants derived from the oad gene were identified that had an increase in oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase activity when evaluated in the spectrophotometric assay. Results are provided in the following table. The variants had 1.6 fold, 2.2 fold, and 2.8 fold increases in oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase specific activity, respectively. The variants carried the following changes relative to the parent oad gene: N45T, R249L, D302G, V418A, and L476Q; T479N; and: R394C, D434G, and T511A, respectively, where the first amino acid is the one found in the parent sequence at the specified site, and the second amino acid is the one found at that site in the variant (using single-letter codes for the amino acid). It is known in the art that various combinations of any and all of these mutations may be used to produce enzymes with increased oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase activity over the parental OAD enzyme. As is also known in the art, substitutions of other amino acids at these sites could also increase oxaloacetate alpha-decarboxylase specific activity relative to that of the parental enzyme. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Average 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Specific 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Activity 
                 Standard 
                 Fold 
               
               
                 Enzymes 
                 Mutations 
                 (units/mg) 
                 Deviation 
                 Increase 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Native Oad 
                 None 
                 0.0078 
                 0.0008 
                 — 
               
               
                 Mutant Oad 1 
                 N45T, R249L, 
                 0.0121 
                 0.0001 
                 1.6 
               
               
                   
                 D302G, V418A, and 
               
               
                   
                 L476Q 
               
               
                 Mutant Oad2 
                 T479N 
                 0.0173 
                 0.0009 
                 2.2 
               
               
                 Mutant Oad 3 
                 R394C, D434G, and 
                 0.0222 
                 0.0012 
                 2.8 
               
               
                   
                 T511A 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The following are non-limiting general prophetic examples directed to practicing the present invention in other microorganism species. 
     General Prophetic Example 9 
     Improvement of 3-HP Tolerance and/or Bio-Production in  Rhodococcus Erythropolis    
     A series of  E. coli - Rhodococcus  shuttle vectors are available for expression in  R. erythropolis,  including, but not limited to, pRhBR17 and pDA71 (Kostichka et al., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 62:61-68(2003)). Additionally, a series of promoters are available for heterologous gene expression in  R. erythropolis  (see for example Nakashima et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:5557-5568 (2004), and Tao et al., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2005, DOI 10.1007/s00253-005-0064). Targeted gene disruption of chromosomal genes in  R. erythropolis  may be created using the method described by Tao et al., supra, and Brans et al. (Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66: 2029-2036 (2000)). These published resources are incorporated by reference for their respective indicated teachings and compositions. 
     The nucleic acid sequences required for providing an increase in 3-HP tolerance, as described herein, optionally with nucleic acid sequences to provide and/or improve a 3-HP biosynthesis pathway, are cloned initially in pDA71 or pRhBR71 and transformed into  E. coli.  The vectors are then transformed into  R. erythropolis  by electroporation, as described by Kostichka et al., supra. The recombinants are grown in synthetic medium containing glucose and the tolerance to and/or bio-production of 3-HP are followed using methods known in the art or described herein. 
     General Prophetic Example 10  
     Improvement of 3-HP Tolerance and/or Bio-Production in  B. Licheniformis    
     Most of the plasmids and shuttle vectors that replicate in  B. subtilis  are used to transform  B. licheniformis  by either protoplast transformation or electroporation. The nucleic acid sequences required for improvement of 3-HP tolerance, and/or for 3-HP biosynthesis are isolated from various sources, codon optimized as appropriate, and cloned in plasmids pBE20 or pBE60 derivatives (Nagarajan et al., Gene 114:121-126 (1992)). Methods to transform  B. licheniformis  are known in the art (for example see Fleming et al. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 61(11):3775-3780 (1995)). These published resources are incorporated by reference for their respective indicated teachings and compositions. 
     The plasmids constructed for expression in  B. subtilis  are transformed into  B. licheniformis  to produce a recombinant microorganism that then demonstrates improved 3-HP tolerance, and, optionally, 3-HP bio-production. 
     General Prophetic Example 11  
     Improvement of 3-HP Tolerance and/or Bio-Production in  Paenibacillus Macerans    
     Plasmids are constructed as described herein for expression in  B. subtilis  and used to transform  Paenibacillus macerans  by protoplast transformation to produce a recombinant microorganism that demonstrates improved 3-HP tolerance, and, optionally, 3-HP bio-production. 
     General Prophetic Example 12  
     Expression of 3-HP Tolerance and/or Bio-Production in  Alcaligenes  ( Ralstonia )  Eutrophus  (Currently Referred to as  Cupriavidus Necator ) 
     Methods for gene expression and creation of mutations in  Alcaligenes eutrophus  are known in the art (see for example Taghavi et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 60(10):3585-3591 (1994)). This published resource is incorporated by reference for its indicated teachings and compositions. Any of the nucleic acid sequences identified to improve 3-HP tolerance, and/or for 3-HP biosynthesis are isolated from various sources, codon optimized as appropriate, and cloned in any of the broad host range vectors described herein, and electroporated to generate recombinant microorganisms that demonstrate improved 3-HP tolerance, and, optionally, 3-HP bio-production. The poly(hydroxybutyrate) pathway in  Alcaligenes  has been described in detail, a variety of genetic techniques to modify the  Alcaligenes eutrophus  genome is known, and those tools can be applied for engineering a 3-HP toleragenic or, optionally, a 3-HP-gena-toleragenic recombinant microorganism. 
     General Prophetic Example 13  
     Improvement of 3-HP Tolerance and/or Bio-Production in  Pseudomonas Putida    
     Methods for gene expression in  Pseudomonas putida  are known in the art (see for example Ben-Bassat et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,586,229, which is incorporated herein by reference for these teachings). Any of the nucleic acid sequences identified to improve 3-HP tolerance, and/or for 3-HP biosynthesis are isolated from various sources, codon optimized as appropriate, and cloned in any of the broad host range vectors described herein, and electroporated to generate recombinant microorganisms that demonstrate improved 3-HP tolerance, and, optionally, 3-HP biosynthetic production. For example, these nucleic acid sequences are inserted into pUCP18 and this ligated DNA are electroporated into electrocompetent  Pseudomonas putida  KT2440 cells to generate recombinant  P. putida  microorganisms that exhibit increased 3-HP tolerance and optionally also comprise 3-HP biosynthesis pathways comprised at least in part of introduced nucleic acid sequences. 
     General Prophetic Example 14  
     Improvement of 3-HP Tolerance and/or Bio-Production in  Lactobacillus Plantarum    
     The  Lactobacillus  genus belongs to the Lactobacillales family and many plasmids and vectors used in the transformation of  Bacillus subtilis  and  Streptococcus  are used for  Lactobacillus.  Non-limiting examples of suitable vectors include pAM.beta.1 and derivatives thereof (Renault et al., Gene 183:175-182 (1996); and O&#39;Sullivan et al., Gene 137:227-231 (1993)); pMBB1 and pHW800, a derivative of pMBB1 (Wyckoff et al. Appl. Environ. Microbiol 62:1481-1486 (1996)); pMG1, a conjugative plasmid (Tanimoto et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:5800-5804 (2002)); pNZ9520 (Kleerebezem et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63:4581-4584 (1997)); pAM401 (Fujimoto et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67:1262-1267 (2001)); and pAT392 (Arthur et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38:1899-1903 (1994)). Several plasmids from  Lactobacillus plantarum  have also been reported (e.g., van Kranenburg R, Golic N, Bongers R, Leer R J, de Vos W M, Siezen R J, Kleerebezem M. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005 March; 71(3): 1223-1230). 
     General Prophetic Example 15  
     Improvement of 3-HP Tolerance and/or Bio-Production in  Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus gallinarium,  and  Enterococcus faecalis    
     The  Enterococcus  genus belongs to the Lactobacillales family and many plasmids and vectors used in the transformation of  Lactobacillus, Bacillus subtilis,  and  Streptococcus  are used for  Enterococcus.  Non-limiting examples of suitable vectors include pAM.beta.1 and derivatives thereof (Renault et al., Gene 183:175-182 (1996); and O&#39;Sullivan et al., Gene 137:227-231 (1993)); pMBB1 and pHW800, a derivative of pMBB1 (Wyckoff et al. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:1481-1486 (1996)); pMG1, a conjugative plasmid (Tanimoto et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:5800-5804 (2002)); pNZ9520 (Kleerebezem et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63:4581-4584 (1997)); pAM401 (Fujimoto et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67:1262-1267 (2001)); and pAT392 (Arthur et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38:1899-1903 (1994)). Expression vectors for  E. faecalis  using the nisA gene from  Lactococcus  may also be used (Eichenbaum et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:2763-2769 (1998). Additionally, vectors for gene replacement in the  E. faecium  chromosome are used (Nallaapareddy et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:334-345 (2006)). 
     For each of the General Prophetic Examples 65-71, the following 3-HP bio-production comparison may be incorporated thereto: Using analytical methods for 3-HP such as are described in Subsection III of Common Methods Section, 3-HP is obtained in a measurable quantity at the conclusion of a respective bio-production event conducted with the respective recombinant microorganism (see types of bio-production events, incorporated by reference into each respective General Prophetic Example). That measurable quantity is substantially greater than a quantity of 3-HP produced in a control bio-production event using a suitable respective control microorganism lacking the functional 3-HP pathway so provided in the respective General Prophetic Example. Tolerance improvements also may be assessed by any recognized comparative measurement technique, such as by using a MIC protocol provided in the Common Methods Section. 
     Common Methods Section 
     All methods in this Section are provided for incorporation into the Examples where so referenced. 
     Subsection I. Microorganism Species and Strains, Cultures, and Growth Media 
     Bacterial species, that may be utilized as needed, are as follows: 
       Acinetobacter calcoaceticus  (DSMZ #1139) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as a vacuum dried culture. Cultures are then resuspended in Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) Broth (RPI Corp, Mt. Prospect, Ill., USA). Serial dilutions of the resuspended  A. calcoaceticus  culture are made into BHI and are allowed to grow for aerobically for 48 hours at 37° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Bacillus subtilis  is a gift from the Gill lab (University of Colorado at Boulder) and is obtained as an actively growing culture. Serial dilutions of the actively growing  B. subtilis  culture are made into Luria Broth (RPI Corp, Mt. Prospect, Ill., USA) and are allowed to grow for aerobically for 24 hours at 37° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Chlorobium limicola  (DSMZ #245) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as a vacuum dried culture. Cultures are then resuspended using Pfennig&#39;s Medium I and II (#28 and 29) as described per DSMZ instructions.  C. limicola  is grown at 25° C. under constant vortexing. 
       Citrobacter braakii  (DSMZ #30040) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as a vacuum dried culture. Cultures are then resuspended in Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) Broth (RPI Corp, Mt. Prospect, Ill., USA). Serial dilutions of the resuspended  C. braakii  culture are made into BHI and are allowed to grow for aerobically for 48 hours at 30° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Clostridium acetobutylicum  (DSMZ #792) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as a vacuum dried culture. Cultures are then resuspended in  Clostridium acetobutylicum  medium (#411) as described per DSMZ instructions.  C. acetobutylicum  is grown anaerobically at 37° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Clostridium aminobutyricum  (DSMZ #2634) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as a vacuum dried culture. Cultures are then resuspended in  Clostridium aminobutyricum  medium (#286) as described per DSMZ instructions.  C. aminobutyricum  is grown anaerobically at 37° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Clostridium kluyveri  (DSMZ #555) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as an actively growing culture. Serial dilutions of  C. kluyveri  culture are made into  Clostridium kluyveri  medium (#286) as described per DSMZ instructions.  C. kluyveri  is grown anaerobically at 37° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Cupriavidus metallidurans  (DMSZ #2839) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as a vacuum dried culture. Cultures are then resuspended in Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) Broth (RPI Corp, Mt. Prospect, Ill., USA). Serial dilutions of the resuspended  C. metallidurans  culture are made into BHI and are allowed to grow for aerobically for 48 hours at 30° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Cupriavidus necator  (DSMZ #428) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as a vacuum dried culture. Cultures are then resuspended in Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) Broth (RPI Corp, Mt. Prospect, Ill., USA). Serial dilutions of the resuspended  C. necator  culture are made into BHI and are allowed to grow for aerobically for 48 hours at 30° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. As noted elsewhere, previous names for this species are  Alcaligenes eutrophus  and  Ralstonia eutrophus.    
       Desulfovibrio fructosovorans  (DSMZ #3604) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as a vacuum dried culture. Cultures are then resuspended in  Desulfovibrio fructosovorans  medium (#63) as described per DSMZ instructions.  D. fructosovorans  is grown anaerobically at 37° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Escherichia coli  Crooks (DSMZ #1576) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as a vacuum dried culture. Cultures are then resuspended in Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) Broth (RPI Corp, Mt. Prospect, Ill., USA). Serial dilutions of the resuspended  E. coli  Crooks culture are made into BHI and are allowed to grow for aerobically for 48 hours at 37° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Escherichia coli  K12 is a gift from the Gill lab (University of Colorado at Boulder) and is obtained as an actively growing culture. Serial dilutions of the actively growing  E. coli  K12 culture are made into Luria Broth (RPI Corp, Mt. Prospect, Ill., USA) and are allowed to grow for aerobically for 24 hours at 37° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Halobacterium salinarum  (DSMZ #1576) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as a vacuum dried culture. Cultures are then resuspended in  Halobacterium  medium (#97) as described per DSMZ instructions.  H. salinarum  is grown aerobically at 37° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Lactobacillus delbrueckii  (#4335) is obtained from WYEAST USA (Odell, Oreg., USA) as an actively growing culture. Serial dilutions of the actively growing  L. delbrueckii  culture are made into Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) broth (RPI Corp, Mt. Prospect, Ill., USA) and are allowed to grow for aerobically for 24 hours at 30° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Metallosphaera sedula  (DSMZ #5348) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as an actively growing culture. Serial dilutions of  M. sedula  culture are made into  Metallosphaera medium (# 485) as described per DSMZ instructions.  M. sedula  is grown aerobically at 65° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Propionibacterium freudenreichii  subsp.  shermanii  (DSMZ #4902) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as a vacuum dried culture. Cultures are then resuspended in PYG-medium (#104) as described per DSMZ instructions.  P. freudenreichii  subsp.  shermanii  is grown anaerobically at 30° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Pseudomonas putida  is a gift from the Gill lab (University of Colorado at Boulder) and is obtained as an actively growing culture. Serial dilutions of the actively growing  P. putida  culture are made into Luria Broth (RPI Corp, Mt. Prospect, Ill., USA) and are allowed to grow for aerobically for 24 hours at 37° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
       Streptococcus mutans  (DSMZ #6178) is obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures (Braunschweig, Germany) as a vacuum dried culture. Cultures are then resuspended in Luria Broth (RPI Corp, Mt. Prospect, Ill., USA).  S. mutans  is grown aerobically at 37° C. at 250 rpm until saturated. 
     Subsection II: Gel Preparation, DNA Separation, Extraction, Ligation, and Transformation Methods: 
     Molecular biology grade agarose (RPI Corp, Mt. Prospect, Ill., USA) is added to 1× TAE to make a 1% Agarose in TAE. To obtain 50× TAE add the following to 900 ml distilled H 2 O:242 g Tris base (RPI Corp, Mt. Prospect, Ill., USA), 57.1 ml Glacial Acetic Acid (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo., USA), 18.6 g EDTA (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, Pa. USA), and adjust volume to 1 L with additional distilled water. To obtain 1× TAE, add 20 mL of 50× TAE to 980 mL of distilled water. The agarose-TAE solution is then heated until boiling occurred and the agarose is fully dissolved. The solution is allowed to cool to 50° C. before 10 mg/mL ethidium bromide (Acros Organics, Morris Plains, N.J., USA) is added at a concentration of 5 ul per 100 mL of 1% agarose solution. Once the ethidium bromide is added, the solution is briefly mixed and poured into a gel casting tray with the appropriate number of combs (Idea Scientific Co., Minneapolis, Minn., USA) per sample analysis. DNA samples are then mixed accordingly with 5× TAE loading buffer. 5× TAE loading buffer consists of 5× TAE (diluted from 50× TAE as described herein), 20% glycerol (Acros Organics, Morris Plains, N.J., USA), 0.125% Bromophenol Blue (Alfa Aesar, Ward Hill, Mass., USA), and adjust volume to 50 mL with distilled water. Loaded gels are then run in gel rigs (Idea Scientific Co., Minneapolis, Minn., USA) filled with 1× TAE at a constant voltage of 125 volts for 25-30 minutes. At this point, the gels are removed from the gel boxes with voltage and visualized under a UV transilluminator (FOTODYNE Inc., Hartland, Wis., USA). 
     The DNA isolated through gel extraction is then extracted using the QIAquick Gel Extraction Kit following manufacturer&#39;s instructions (Qiagen (Valencia, Calif. USA)). Similar methods are known to those skilled in the art. 
     The thus-extracted DNA then may be ligated into pSMART (Lucigen Corp, Middleton, Wis., USA), StrataClone (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif., USA) or pCR2.1-TOPO TA (Invitrogen Corp, Carlsbad, Calif., USA) according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. These methods are described in the next subsection of Common Methods. 
     Ligation Methods: 
     For ligations into pSMART Vectors: 
     Gel extracted DNA is blunted using PCRTerminator (Lucigen Corp, Middleton, Wis., USA) according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Then 500 ng of DNA is added to 2.5 uL 4× CloneSmart vector premix, 1 ul CloneSmart DNA ligase (Lucigen Corp, Middleton, Wis., USA) and distilled water is added for a total volume of 10 ul. The reaction is then allowed to sit at room temperature for 30 minutes and then heat inactivated at 70° C. for 15 minutes and then placed on ice.  E. cloni  10G Chemically Competent cells (Lucigen Corp, Middleton, Wis., USA) are thawed for 20 minutes on ice. 40 ul of chemically competent cells are placed into a microcentrifuge tube and 1 ul of heat inactivated CloneSmart Ligation is added to the tube. The whole reaction is stirred briefly with a pipette tip. The ligation and cells are incubated on ice for 30 minutes and then the cells are heat shocked for 45 seconds at 42° C. and then put back onto ice for 2 minutes. 960 ul of room temperature Recovery media (Lucigen Corp, Middleton, Wis., USA) and places into microcentrifuge tubes. Shake tubes at 250 rpm for 1 hour at 37° C. Plate 100 ul of transformed cells on Luria Broth plates (RPI Corp, Mt. Prospect, Ill., USA) plus appropriate antibiotics depending on the pSMART vector used. Incubate plates overnight at 37° C. 
     General Transformation and Related Culture Methodologies: 
     Chemically competent transformation protocols are carried out according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions or according to the literature contained in Molecular Cloning (Sambrook and Russell, 2001). Generally, plasmid DNA or ligation products are chilled on ice for 5 to 30 min. in solution with chemically competent cells. Chemically competent cells are a widely used product in the field of biotechnology and are available from multiple vendors, such as those indicated in this Subsection. Following the chilling period cells generally are heat-shocked for 30 seconds at 42° C. without shaking, re-chilled and combined with 250 microliters of rich media, such as S.O.C. Cells are then incubated at 37° C. while shaking at 250 rpm for 1 hour. Finally, the cells are screened for successful transformations by plating on media containing the appropriate antibiotics. 
     Alternatively, selected cells may be transformed by electroporation methods such as are known to those skilled in the art. 
     The choice of an  E. coli  host strain for plasmid transformation is determined by considering factors such as plasmid stability, plasmid compatibility, plasmid screening methods and protein expression. Strain backgrounds can be changed by simply purifying plasmid DNA as described herein and transforming the plasmid into a desired or otherwise appropriate  E. coli  host strain such as determined by experimental necessities, such as any commonly used cloning strain (e.g., DH5α, Top10F′,  E. cloni  10G, etc.). 
     Plasmid DNA was prepared using the commercial miniprep kit from Qiagen (Valencia, Calif. USA) according to manufacturer&#39;s instructions. 
     Subsection IIIa. 3-HP Preparation 
     A 3-HP stock solution was prepared as follows. A vial of β-propriolactone (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo., USA) was opened under a fume hood and the entire bottle contents was transferred to a new container sequentially using a 25-mL glass pipette. The vial was rinsed with 50 mL of HPLC grade water and this rinse was poured into the new container. Two additional rinses were performed and added to the new container. Additional HPLC grade water was added to the new container to reach a ratio of 50 mL water per 5 mL β-propriolactone. The new container was capped tightly and allowed to remain in the fume hood at room temperature for 72 hours. After 72 hours the contents were transferred to centrifuge tubes and centrifuged for 10 minutes at 4,000 rpm. Then the solution was filtered to remove particulates and, as needed, concentrated by use of a rotary evaporator at room temperature. Assay for concentration was conducted, and dilution to make a standard concentration stock solution was made as needed. 
     Subsection IIIb. HPLC, GC/MS and Other Analytical Methods for 3-HP Detection (Analysis of Cultures for 3-HP Production) 
     For HPLC analysis of 3-HP, the Waters chromatography system (Milford, Mass.) consisted of the following: 600S Controller, 616 Pump, 717 Plus Autosampler, 486 Tunable UV Detector, and an in-line mobile phase Degas ser. In addition, an Eppendorf external column heater is used and the data are collected using an SRI (Torrance, Calif.) analog-to-digital converter linked to a standard desk top computer. Data are analyzed using the SRI Peak Simple software. A Coregel 64H ion exclusion column (Transgenomic, Inc., San Jose, Calif.) is employed. The column resin is a sulfonated polystyrene divinyl benzene with a particle size of 10 um and column dimensions are 300×7.8 mm. The mobile phase consisted of sulfuric acid (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, Pa. USA) diluted with deionized (18 MSkm) water to a concentration of 0.02 N and vacuum filtered through a 0.2 μm nylon filter. The flow rate of the mobile phase is 0.6 mL/min. The UV detector is operated at a wavelength of 210 nm and the column is heated to 60° C. The same equipment and method as described herein is used for 3-HP analyses for relevant prophetic examples. 
     The following method is used for GC-MS analysis of 3-HP. Soluble monomeric 3-HP is quantified using GC-MS after a single extraction of the fermentation media with ethyl acetate. Once the 3-HP has been extracted into the ethyl acetate, the active hydrogens on the 3-HP are replaced with trimethylsilyl groups using N,O-Bis-(Trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide to make the compound volatile for GC analysis. A standard curve of known 3-HP concentrations is prepared at the beginning of the run and a known quantity of ketohexanoic acid (1 g/L) is added to both the standards and the samples to act as an internal standard for Quantitation, with tropic acid as an additional internal standard. The 3-HP content of individual samples is then assayed by examining the ratio of the ketohexanoic acid ion (m/z=247) to the 3-HP ion (219) and compared to the standard curve. 3-HP is quantified using a 3HP standard curve at the beginning of the run and the data are analyzed using HP Chemstation. The GC-MS system consists of a Hewlett Packard model 5890 GC and Hewlett Packard model 5972 MS. The column is Supelco SPB-1 (60 m×0.32 mm×0.25 μm film thickness). The capillary coating is a non-polar methylsilicone. The carrier gas is helium at a flow rate of 1 mL/min. The 3-HP as derivatized is separated from other components in the ethyl acetate extract using either of two similar temperature regimes. In a first temperature gradient regime, the column temperature starts with 40° C. for 1 minute, then is raised at a rate of 10° C./minute to 235° C., and then is raised at a rate of 50° C./minute to 300° C. In a second temperature regime, which was demonstrated to process samples more quickly, the column temperature starts with 70° C. which is held for 1 min, followed by a ramp-up of 10° C./minute to 235° C. which is followed by a ramp-up of 50° C./minute to 300° C. 
     The embodiments, variations, sequences, and figures described herein should provide an indication of the utility and versatility of the present invention. Other embodiments that do not provide all of the features and advantages set forth herein may also be utilized, without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. Such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of the invention. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 E.C. 
                 Gene 
                 SEQ ID NO. 
                 SEQ ID NO. 
               
               
                 Protein 
                 Classi- 
                 Name in 
                 of  E. coli   
                 of Expressed 
               
               
                 Function 
                 fication 
                 
                   E. coli 
                 
                 gene 
                 Enzyme 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Glucose 
                 N/A 
                 galP 
                 003 
                 004 
               
               
                 transport 
               
               
                 Phosphoenol- 
                 4.1.1.49 
                 pckA 
                 007 
                 008 
               
               
                 pyruvate 
               
               
                 carboxykinase 
               
               
                 Phosphoenol- 
                 4.1.1.49 
                 ppc 
                 009 
                 010 
               
               
                 pyruvate 
               
               
                 carboxylase 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 E.C. 
                 Gene 
                 SEQ ID NO. 
                 SEQ ID NO. 
               
               
                 Protein 
                 Classi- 
                 Name in 
                 of  E. coli   
                 of Expressed 
               
               
                 Function 
                 fication 
                 
                   E. coli 
                 
                 gene 
                 Enzyme 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Pyruvate 
                 1.2.4.1 
                 aceE 
                 011 
                 012 
               
               
                 dehydrogenase 
               
               
                 E1p 
               
               
                 l ipoate 
                 2.3.1.12 
                 aceF 
                 013 
                 014 
               
               
                 acetyltransferase/ 
               
               
                 dihydrolipoamide 
               
               
                 acetyltransferase 
               
               
                 Pyruvate 
                 1.8.1.4 
                 l pd 
                 015 
                 016 
               
               
                 dehydrogenase E3 
               
               
                 (lipoamide 
               
               
                 dehydrogenase) 
               
               
                 Lactate 
                 1.1.1.28 
                 ldhA 
                 017 
                 018 
               
               
                 dehydrogenase 
               
               
                 Pyruvate formate 
                 2.3.1.— 
                 pflB 
                 019 
                 020 
               
               
                 lyase (B 
               
               
                 “inactive”) 
               
               
                 Pyruvate oxidase 
                 1.2.2.2 
                 poxB 
                 021 
                 022 
               
               
                 Phosphate 
                 2.3.1.8 
                 Pta 
                 023 
                 024 
               
               
                 acetyltransferase 
               
               
                 Heat stable, 
                 N/A 
                 ptsH 
                 025 
                 026 
               
               
                 histidyl 
                   
                 (HPr) 
               
               
                 phosphorylatable 
               
               
                 protein (of PTS) 
               
               
                 Phosphoryl 
                 N/A 
                 ptsI 
                 027 
                 028 
               
               
                 transfer protein 
               
               
                 (of PTS) 
               
               
                 Polypeptide chain 
                 N/A 
                 Crr 
                 029 
                 030 
               
               
                 (of PTS) 
               
               
                 Pyruvate kinase I 
                 2.7.1.40 
                 pykA 
                 031 
                 032 
               
               
                 Pyruvate kinase II 
                 2.7.1.40 
                 pykF 
                 033 
                 034