Patent Publication Number: US-11027592-B2

Title: Vehicle thermal management systems and methods

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/923,930 filed Oct. 27, 2015 issuing as U.S. Pat. No. 9,975,399 on May 22, 2018, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated in their entirety by reference herein. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present disclosure relates to operation of a vehicle climate control system. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Vehicle thermal management systems may include climate control systems that use waste heat generated by a combustion engine to aid in warming the passenger cabin. The climate control system redirects the heat to keep windows clear and ensure thermal comfort for passengers. Different engines may require various durations of time to warm up and develop the necessary heat generation to aid in passenger cabin heating. 
     SUMMARY 
     According to aspects of the present disclosure, a vehicle climate control system includes a heat exchanger to heat ambient air using engine waste heat, and a plurality of positive temperature coefficient (PTC) heating elements to heat air passed through the heat exchanger. The vehicle also includes a controller programmed to, while the vehicle is driven without engine propulsion, issue a command to sequentially de-energize the PTC heating elements before an upcoming engine activation. The sequential de-energization of the PTC heating elements is performed according to a schedule that is based upon a power surge dissipation time. 
     According to other aspects of the present disclosure, a method of controlling a vehicle climate control system includes sequentially energizing a plurality of positive temperature coefficient (PTC) heating elements in response to vehicle operation while an ambient temperature is less than a threshold. The method also includes sequentially de-energizing the PTC heating elements prior to activating an engine for propulsion. The method further includes sequentially re-energizing the PTC heating elements following activation of the engine. Each subsequent energization and subsequent de-energization is performed according to a schedule that is based upon a power surge dissipation time. 
     According to further aspects of the present disclosure, a vehicle includes a climate control system having a plurality of positive temperature coefficient (PTC) heating elements. The vehicle also includes a controller programmed to issue a command to sequentially energize each of the plurality of heating elements in response to an engine operating temperature that is less than an engine temperature threshold. Energization of the PTC heating elements is performed according to schedule that is based upon a power load surge dissipation time associated with an individual PTC heating element. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a fragmentary side view schematic of a vehicle having a thermal management system, 
         FIG. 2  is a system schematic of a vehicle powertrain and thermal management system. 
         FIGS. 3A through 3E  correspond in time and depict operational parameters of a vehicle thermal management system. 
         FIG. 4  is a flowchart of a control method of a thermal management system according to an embodiment. 
         FIG. 5  is a flowchart of a control method of a thermal management system according to an alternative embodiment. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     As required, detailed embodiments of the present invention are disclosed herein; however, it is to be understood that the disclosed embodiments are merely exemplary of the invention that may be embodied in various and alternative forms. The figures are not necessarily to scale; some features may be exaggerated or minimized to show details of particular components. Therefore, specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, but merely as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the present invention. 
     Referring to  FIG. 1 , a vehicle  10  includes a passenger cabin  12  for transporting occupants. The vehicle  10  includes a climate control system  14  to thermally manage the internal environment of the vehicle passenger cabin  12 . The climate control system  14  takes in ambient air indicated by arrow  16  and influences the temperature of the air before passing the air into the passenger cabin. The climate control system  14  may include one or more blowers  18  to force air through the climate control system  14  to the passenger cabin. The climate control system  14  also may include an evaporator  20  and a heat exchanger  22 . The heat exchanger  22  may be in fluid flow connection with the vehicle internal combustion engine (not shown) to receive waste heat to heat ambient air passing into the climate control system  14 . 
     There may be several operational states where the internal combustion engine is unable to generate sufficient heat to warm the passenger cabin to a comfortable temperature and clear the vehicle windows for visibility. For example, following a cold start the engine may require several minutes to generate sufficient waste heat to warm up air passed through the heat exchanger. Additionally, during low temperature ambient conditions the engine may take additional time to warm up. Further, a hybrid powertrain having both an internal combustion and an electric machine as propulsion sources may operate for extended periods with the engine turned off. The climate control system  14  includes an auxiliary heating source to quickly warm air supplied to the passenger cabin independent of any waste heat provided by the engine. An electric auxiliary heater  24  may be provided within the climate control system  14  downstream of the heat exchanger  22  to further heat air prior to entering the vehicle passenger cabin  12 . Warmed air is then exhausted from the climate control system through one or more vents. A first vent  26  is located adjacent to the vehicle windshield  28  to defrost and/or defog the glass and enhance driver visibility. A second vent  30  may be located and oriented to direct warmed air into the main portion of the passenger cabin to enhance passenger comfort. 
     In at least one embodiment, the auxiliary heater  24  includes a plurality of positive temperature coefficient (PTC) heating elements. The heating elements may be grouped into banks and arranged to focus warmed air to desired locations in one example, two PTC heater banks are dedicated to warming the windshield, and four PTC heater banks are dedicated to warming the main portion of the passenger cabin. 
     The PTC heating elements may be constructed from a ceramic material having a low value of electrical resistance at low temperatures. When a voltage is applied to the cold PTC elements, a high current is generated and the value of resistance rises with the temperature. As current flows through the PTC elements, heat is produced by electrical dissipation until a steady state is reached and the resistive PTC elements have reached their working temperature. As the steady state working temperature is approached, the resistance increases dramatically, allowing much less current to flow. The resistance change near the working temperature can be significant within a temperature span of only a few degrees. If the voltage remains constant, the current will stabilize at a certain value as the PTC element reaches thermal equilibrium. The value of the equilibrium temperature depends on the voltage applied, the material selected, as well as the degree of thermal dissipation. For increased heat transfer, the ceramic heating elements may be mounted on aluminum heat sinks or grids. 
     The steady state temperature operation of PTC heating elements offers several advantages. The maximum surface temperature eliminates the need for separate components for over-temperature protection. The steady state working temperature is far below the ignition temperatures of adjacent components within the thermal management system. Therefore damage to the PTC element itself and surrounding components related to elevated temperatures is avoided due to the internal temperature being limited. 
     PTC heating elements as used in the present disclosure provide a solution for plug-in hybrid vehicles, mode-switching hybrid electric vehicles, and all-electric vehicles. In each case, the electrified powertrain may not generate sufficient heat on its own to warm up the passenger cabin. A powertrain-independent heating system provides an adequate supply of heat for passenger comfort as well as window clearing for visibility. 
     The hybrid vehicle of the present disclosure also includes a high voltage traction battery to power an electric machine used for propulsion. The PTC heaters may be powered directly by the high voltage traction battery. The voltage may be regulated, or stepped down to an appropriate level to power the PTC heating elements. Alternatively, the PTC heating elements may be powered using standard vehicle voltage, for example powered using the 12 Volt standard battery bus. Further still, the power source could be split such that certain PTC heater banks are powered by the high voltage battery, and others powered by the 12 Volt standard battery. In at least one embodiment, the PTC heater banks dedicated to thermally regulating the windshield require 400 Watts each, and the PTC heaters dedicated to thermally regulating the passenger cabin environment are 250 Watts each. 
     Referring to  FIG. 2 , a schematic of vehicle  100  is depicted. A powertrain controller module (PCM)  102  is shown as one controller, but may include several different system controllers which govern the operation of the powertrain. The PCM  102  is in electrical connection with powertrain systems, such as an internal combustion engine (ICE)  104 , an electric machine  106 , and a high voltage traction battery  108 . The high voltage traction battery  108  provides power to the electric machine  106  for vehicle propulsion. The PCM  102  may also receive signals from a number of sensors, including an ambient temperature sensor  110  and an engine temperature sensor  112 . Based on various operating conditions, including at least torque demand, traction battery state of charge, vehicle speed, and fuel efficiency, the PCM  102  may control selection of operation modes of the hybrid powertrain. More specifically, the PCM  102  may issue commands to selectively propel the vehicle  100  in any one of several different modes including: (i) operating only the ICE  104 ; (ii) operating both of the ICE  104  and the electric machine  106  in “Hybrid” mode; or (iii) operating only the electric machine  106  in electric vehicle “EV” mode. 
     The vehicle  100  also includes a climate control system controller  114  to control operation of the climate control system. The climate control system controller  114  is in electrical connection with a heat exchanger  116  which receives waste heat from the operation of the ICE  104 . A blower  118  is provided to force air across the heat exchanger and through a duct system into the passenger cabin. The heat exchanger  116  may also include a temperature sensor to monitor air temperature exiting the heat exchanger. 
     Auxiliary heating is provided by the climate control system through the operation of one or more PTC heating elements. In the example of  FIG. 2 , a plurality of PTC heating elements is included within each of a number of passenger cabin PTC banks  120  which are in fluid flow communication with air ducts  122 . The air ducts  122  are arranged to direct heated air to a main portion  124  of the passenger cabin. Similarly, a plurality of PTC heating elements is combined within each of a number of heated windshield PTC banks  126  which are in fluid flow communication with air ducts  128  that direct heated air to defrost and defog a windshield  130  of the vehicle for enhanced visibility. Each of the individual PTC banks may be powered though its own dedicated relay to allow for independently activating and deactivating the separate banks. 
     The climate control system controller  114  also receives signals indicative of temperature from each of the ambient temperature sensor  110  and the engine temperature sensor  112 . As discussed in more detail below the controller  114  may cause operation of either the primary heating portion using heat supplied by the engine, the auxiliary heating PTC banks  120 ,  126 , or a combination of the primary heating elements and the auxiliary heating elements based on values indicated by each of the temperature signals. Also discussed in more detail below, the climate control system controller  114  issues commands to cause activation and deactivation of the PTC heating elements based on the operational state of the powertrain. For example, the PTC heating elements draw high current that may impact the ability for the engine to auto-start and for auto-stop. The systems and methods of the present disclosure manage the high current operation of the PTC heating elements while avoiding conflicts with power required by the hybrid powertrain during propulsion mode switching. 
       FIGS. 3A through 3E  correspond to each other with respect to time as measured along the horizontal axis. The figures show various operating parameters of the climate control system.  FIG. 3A  depicts curve  302  which represents states of support electrical power to the PTC heating elements as communicated across the vehicle CAN bus.  FIG. 3B  depicts curve  304  which represents a state of operation of the PTC heating elements as it relates to the powertrain state of operation.  FIG. 3C  depicts curve  306  which represents a commanded current limit as applied to the climate control system.  FIG. 3D  depicts curve  308  which represents actual current supplied to the PTC heating elements of the climate control system.  FIG. 3E  depicts curve  310  which represents power surges within the vehicle electrical system related to activation and deactivation of the PTC heating elements. Each of the operating parameters is discussed below with respect to their concurrent states. 
     Between time T 0  and time T 1 , region  312  of  FIG. 3A  represents a state of vehicle power support where power supply to the PTC heating elements is supported. Correspondingly, region  314  of  FIG. 3B  indicates a “normal” state of operation of the PTC heating elements. Region  316  of curve  306  indicates a command signal provided to the climate control system controller to allow sufficient current to supply all of the PTC heater banks, as well as the blower to pass air to the passenger cabin. In the example provided, the PTC heater banks collectively draw  160 A of current. Region  318  of curve  308  indicates that  160 A is actually supplied to the PTC heater banks such that all banks are activated and providing heat. Region  320  of curve  310  indicates that at steady state operation, the PTC heaters cause no power surges in the vehicle electrical system. 
     At time T 1 , the powertrain controller forecasts an upcoming engine auto-stop and broadcasts a control message such that the climate control system can prepare to adjust its electrical load to facilitate a smooth transition between powertrain states. At region  322  of curve  302 , a CAN message is broadcast that PTC heating power draw will not be supported at an upcoming powertrain mode change. In turn, the climate control controller changes state of operation of the PTC heaters to correspond to an “auto stopped” state. Likewise, at region  326  of curve  306  the climate control controller issues a command to decrease the limit of current draw of the PTC heater banks and blower down to zero to begin to reduce electrical demands of the climate control system. Following the command to change the current draw limit, the climate control controller sequentially de-energizes the plurality of PTC heating elements. At time T 2  corresponding to region  328  of curve  308  the current draw of one PTC heating bank is halted. In the example shown, the first PTC bank de-energized may correspond to a dedicated heated windshield PTC bank. It can be seen at region  330  of curve  310  that a temporary power surge occurs in the electrical system related to excess power circulating which was previously drawn by the de-energized individual PTC bank. In the example provided, the heated windshield PTC banks each draw 400 Watts of power. 
     Once the excess power of de-energized heating bank is dissipated, the power surge is no longer present in the vehicle electrical system. At time T 3  corresponding to region  332  of curve  308 , the climate control controller de-energizes a second PTC bank further reducing the current draw of the climate control system. The de-energization of the second PTC bank is performed at a timing based on the time required for the power surge to dissipate. The climate control controller imparts a delay between the de-energization of each PTC bank. In at least one embodiment, subsequent commands are spaced apart by a time duration of about 50-100 milliseconds to allow for any power surge to dissipate. A second corresponding power surge occurs at region  334  of curve  310 . In the example depicted, a second heated windshield PTC bank causes a 400 Watts temporary surge. 
     The climate control controller sequentially de-energizes the remaining PTC heater banks allowing time for power surges to dissipate between each command prior to shut down a subsequent bank. As can be seen in region  336  of  FIG. 3D , the example system includes four remaining PTC banks. Also shown in  FIG. 3D , the current draw of all PTC banks is reduced to zero following region  336 . The remaining four PTC banks correspond to passenger cabin warming and each draws 250 W. As can be seen in region  338  of curve  310  a 400 Watts surge is created in response to de-energization of each of the subsequent individual PTC banks. It should also be appreciated that a different duration of time delays may be employed depending on the magnitude of particular power surges caused by the de-energization individual PTC banks, as well as the particular electrical system at issue. In the context of the example provided, a delay associated with dissipation of a 250 Watt surge may be shorter than a delay associated with a 400 Watt surge. Additionally, six total PTC banks are discussed for illustration, but the systems and methods of the present disclosure may operate with any number of banks. According to an aspect of the present disclosure, the controller sequentially de-energizes the PTC heating elements according to a predetermined schedule that is based upon a power surge dissipation time. 
     At time T 4  corresponding to region  340  of curve  302 , a CAN message is broadcast that PTC heating power draw is not supported as the powertrain undergoes a mode change. In the example provided the ICE is de-activated as part of a powertrain auto-stop procedure. If the PTC heaters were allowed to de-energize during this process, the power surges may cause undesirable harshness such as a spike in engine output just prior to shut down. The spike in output may be perceived by a customer as a speed flair and detract from drivability and customer satisfaction. As can be seen in  FIGS. 3B and 3C , the PTC heaters are commanded to remain in a de-energized mode throughout the powertrain mode switch. As can be seen in  FIG. 3D  the PTC heating banks draw substantially zero current during the powertrain mode switch. 
     At time T 5  a CAN message is broadcast at region  342  that a low voltage event is to imminently occur. In the example provided, the low-voltage event corresponds to an engine start or “re-crank.” Prior to the re-crank, the electric machine may be the sole propulsion source. The climate control system enters a re-crank state of operation such that the PTC heating elements remain de-energized while the engine is restarted. If the PTC heating banks are energized and operating while the engine is off and the electric machine is a sole propulsion source, an upcoming re-crank broadcast triggers a sequential de-activation of the PTC heating banks in advance of the upcoming engine start as described above. 
     Once the engine re-crank process is completed, at time T 0  a CAN message is broadcast at region  346  indicating a state of vehicle power support where power supply to the PTC heating elements is supported. At time T 6  corresponding to region  348  of  FIG. 3B , the climate control system returns to a “normal” state of operation of the PTC heating banks. Also at time T 6 , corresponding to region  350  of curve  306 , the climate control controller issues a command to increase the limit of current drawn by the PTC heater banks and blower to a sufficient limit to satisfy the electrical demands of the climate control system. Region  352  of curve  306  indicates a command signal provided to the climate control system controller to allow sufficient current to supply all of the PTC heater banks, as well as the blower to pass air to the passenger cabin. As discussed above, the example system of the present disclosure allocates about 160 Amps to the PTC heating banks. 
     Much like de-energization process described above, the PTC heating banks are sequentially re-energized to minimize any effects caused by surges in power demand. Following the command to increase the current draw limit shown at region  350 , the climate control controller sequentially energizes each of the plurality of PTC heating elements. At time T 7  corresponding to region  354  of  FIG. 3D  a first PTC bank is energized and begins to draw current. At this time a power load surge occurs as depicted at region  356  of curve  310 . In the example provided a PTC heater bank corresponding to the heated windshield is activated and causes a 400 Watts spike in the power demand. 
     Once the surge in power demand is dissipated, the climate control controller energizes a second PTC heater bank. At time T 8  corresponding to region  358  of  FIG. 3D  a second PTC bank is energized and begins to draw current. At this time a power load surge occurs as depicted at region  360  of curve  310  in the example provided the second PTC heater bank activated also corresponds to the heated windshield and causes a 400 Watts spike in the power demand. Similar to the discussion above, the controller may store in a memory a predetermined schedule for sequentially energizing the various PTC heater banks. The timing of the schedule is based upon a power load surge dissipation time associated with each individual PTC heating element. 
     Once the surge in power demand caused by energization of the second bank dissipates, the climate control controller progresses through a similar sequence to energize each of the remaining PTC heater banks. In the example provided in  FIG. 3D  four remaining banks are sequentially energized at region  362 . The four remaining PTC banks correspond to heating of the main portion of the passenger cabin at times T 9  through T 12 . As can be seen in  FIG. 3E , a power surge occurs corresponding to the timing of energization of each of the subsequent PTC banks. A time delay between each command for energization may be set to a predetermined duration of time based upon the time required for each respective power surge caused by the individual PTC heater banks to dissipate. The delay implemented during energization may not have the same duration used during de-energization. According to an aspect of the present disclosure, the PTC heater banks dedicated to passenger cabin heating each draw about 400 Watts and cause a surge in power load of about the same magnitude when each is energized. 
     The systems and methods of the present disclosure avoid the need for additional components to compensate for the power surges within the electrical system caused by activation and de-activation of the PTC heaters. Sequentially energizing and de-energizing the PTC heater banks allows the system to manage the overall magnitude of the surges to an amount which can be handled by the electrical system without perceivable effects on powertrain operation. 
     Referring to  FIG. 4 , a method  400  of managing PTC heater operation relative to state of the powertrain is depicted according to an aspect of the present disclosure. At step  402  the vehicle is started. At step  404  if the ambient temperature is greater than a temperature threshold Temp_ 1 , there may not be a need for auxiliary heating from the PTC heaters for either windshield defrost or passenger cabin heating. A vehicle controller then issues a command at step  406  to allow the engine to auto-stop according to other powertrain operating parameters without regard to power demands of PTC heaters. 
     At step  404  if the ambient temperature is sufficiently cold (i.e., less than threshold Temp_ 1 ) there is a need for auxiliary heating to quickly condition the passenger cabin environment. At step  408  the controller issues a command to sequentially energize each of the PTC heater banks. In this way, the power demanded from the collection of PTC heater banks does not adversely affect powertrain drivability. 
     At step  410  the controller assesses the temperature of the engine relative to its ability to produce sufficient waste beat to be utilized to warm the passenger cabin. If at step  410  the engine temperature is greater than temperature threshold Temp_ 2  there may no longer be a need for auxiliary beating from the PTC heater banks. At step  412  the controller then issues a command to sequentially de-energize each of the PTC heater banks. Once all PTC heater banks are deactivated the controller then issues a command at step  406  to allow the engine to auto-stop according to other powertrain operating parameters without regard to power demands of PTC heaters. 
     If at step  410  the engine temperature is insufficient to produce adequate waste heat to warm the passenger cabin (i.e., engine temperature less than predetermined engine temperature threshold Temp_ 2 ) the controller may assess other powertrain factors that suggest whether the engine will imminently be warm enough to produce sufficient waste heat to warm the passenger cabin. At step  414  the controller assesses whether the vehicle has been driven for a time duration greater than Time_ 1  without stopping, if so the controller assesses at step  416  whether the speed during this time duration exceeded speed threshold Speed_ 1 . The combination of sufficient time of continuous operation and sufficient vehicle speed indicates that the engine is imminently able to produce sufficient heat to warm the passenger cabin. The controller then issues a command at step  412  to begin to sequentially de-energize the plurality of PTC heater blocks. 
     If at step  414  the vehicle has not been driven continuously for sufficient time, of if at step  416  the speed during this time was not sufficiently high, the controller assesses whether other abnormal conditions warrant shutting down the PTC heater banks. At step  418  the controller determines whether the vehicle is undergoing an abrupt deceleration. If the vehicle speed is greater than a speed threshold Speed_ 2  and the brake is applied, it may indicate an imminent engine auto stop. The powertrain operation related to the auto-stop, for example such as regenerative braking from the electric machine, may take priority over auxiliary PTC heating. In this case the controller forces a shutdown of all the PTC heater banks at step  420 . Specifically, the controller may issue a command to simultaneously de-energize each individual PTC bank. Since the vehicle is rapidly decelerating, the power surge related to simultaneous de-energization of the PTC heater banks may be imperceptible to a driver. Once the PTC heater banks are deactivated the controller then issues a command at step  406  to allow the engine to auto-stop according, to other powertrain operating parameters without regard to power demands of PTC heaters. 
     Referring to  FIG. 5 , a method  500  is depicted according, to an aspect of the present disclosure. According to method  500  the PTC heater banks may be deactivated before and after an engine start-stop event. At step  502  the vehicle is running and the PTC heater banks are energized. At step  504  a vehicle controller may assess whether a low speed braking condition is present. If there is no low speed braking at step  504  the controller then assesses the external ambient temperature at step  506 . If the external ambient temperature is sufficiently cold at step  508  (i.e., ambient temperature less than predetermined temperature threshold Temp_ 3 ), the controller causes the PTC heating banks to remain on at step  508 . The controller then continues to monitor vehicle operation for low speed braking and for an external ambient temperature warm enough to obviate the need for auxiliary PTC heating. If the external ambient temperature is warmer than Temp_ 3  at step  506 , the controller issues a command to begin sequentially deactivating the PTC heater banks at step  510 . 
     If at step  504  the vehicle is going sufficiently slow while the brakes are applied (i.e., vehicle speed less than predetermined speed threshold Speed_ 3 ) it may be indicative of an imminent auto stop of the engine. At step  510  the controller issue a command to begin sequentially deactivating the PTC heater banks at step  510 . Once the PTC heaters are de-energized, the controller issues a command at step  512  to allow the engine to auto-stop according to other powertrain operating parameters without regard to power demands of PTC heaters. 
     At step  514  the controller monitors powertrain operation for whether the engine needs to be restarted, tear example in response to a high torque demand from the driver. If no engine restart is required at step  514  the engine remains deactivated at step  516 . 
     At step  518  the controller issues a command to restart the engine. As discussed above, the cranking of the engine may cause a temporary voltage drop. For example the electrical bus may normally be at 12 Volts, but during re-crank the engine starter in-rush current may cause the voltage to reduce to about 6 Volts. The duration of the temporary drop may vary between different engine and starter configurations. At step  520  the controller monitors the electrical bus for the voltage to stabilize to nominal values. 
     If the voltage level is returned to normal at step  520  the controller may monitor for other conditions that require activation of PTC heaters. For example if the engine was de-activated for an extended period in cold ambient conditions and underwent a cooldown, there may not be sufficient waste heat generated to warm the passenger cabin to a comfortable level. If at step  522  auxiliary PTC heating is not required, the controller keeps the PTC heater banks deactivated at step  524  and monitors for conditions which may require auxiliary heating. If at step  522  auxiliary PTC heating is required, the controller issues a command to sequentially energize each of the plurality of PTC banks in order to limit the magnitude of any corresponding spikes in power demand. 
     The present disclosure provides representative control strategies and/or logic that may be implemented using one or more processing strategies such as event-driven, interrupt-driven, multi-tasking, multi-threading, and the like. As such, various steps or functions illustrated herein may be performed in the sequence illustrated, in parallel, or in some cases omitted. Although not always explicitly illustrated, one of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that one or more of the illustrated steps or functions may be repeatedly performed depending upon the particular processing strategy being used. Similarly, the order of processing is not necessarily required to achieve the features and advantages described herein, but it is provided for ease of illustration and description. 
     The control logic may be implemented primarily in software executed by a microprocessor-based vehicle, engine, and/or powertrain controller. Of course, the control logic may be implemented in software, hardware, or a combination of software and hardware in one or more controllers depending upon the particular application. When implemented in software, the control logic may be provided in one or more computer-readable storage devices or media having stored data representing code or instructions executed by a computer to control the vehicle or its subsystems. The computer-readable storage devices or media may include one or more of a number of known physical devices which utilize electric, magnetic, and/or optical storage to keep executable instructions and associated calibration information, operating variables, and the like. Alternatively, the processes, methods, or algorithms can be embodied in whole or in part using suitable hardware components, such as Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), state machines, controllers or other hardware components or devices, or a combination of hardware, software and firmware components. 
     While examples are described above, it is not intended that these embodiments describe all possible forms encompassed by the claims. The words used in the specification are words of description rather than limitation, and it is understood that various changes can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. As previously described, the features of various embodiments can be combined to form further embodiments of the invention that may not be explicitly described or illustrated. While various embodiments could have been described as providing advantages or being preferred over other embodiments or prior art implementations with respect to one or more desired characteristics, those of ordinary skill in the art recognize that one or more features or characteristics can be compromised to achieve desired overall system attributes, which depend on the specific application and implementation. These attributes can include, but are not limited to cost, strength, durability, life cycle cost, marketability, appearance, packaging, size, serviceability, weight, manufacturability, ease of assembly, etc. As such, embodiments described as less desirable than other embodiments or prior art implementations with respect to one or more characteristics are not outside the scope of the disclosure and can be desirable for particular applications. The words used in the specification are words of description rather than limitation, and it is understood that various changes may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. As previously described, the features of various embodiments may be combined to form further embodiments of the invention that may not be explicitly described or illustrated. While various embodiments could have been described as providing advantages or being preferred over other embodiments or prior art implementations with respect to one or more desired characteristics, those of ordinary skill in the art recognize that one or more features or characteristics may be compromised to achieve desired overall system attributes, which depend on the specific application and implementation. These attributes may include, but are not limited to cost, strength, durability, life cycle cost, marketability, appearance, packaging, size, serviceability, weight, manufacturability, ease of assembly, etc. As such, embodiments described as less desirable than other embodiments or prior art implementations with respect to one or more characteristics are not outside the scope of the disclosure and may be desirable for particular applications.