Patent Publication Number: US-2023140906-A1

Title: Methods and apparatuses for raman addressing of disjointed transition sets in d-manifold

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     The current application is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 17/865,138 filed Jul. 14, 2022 and entitled METHODS AND APPARATUSES FOR TRAP DOOR LOADING,” which claims priority to, and the benefit of, U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/286,846 filed Dec. 7, 2021 and entitled “METHODS AND APPARATUSES FOR TRAP DOOR LOADING FOR DUAL-SPACE, SINGLE-SPECIES ARCHITECTURE FOR TRAPPED-ION QUANTUM INFORMATION PROCESSING,” and U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/222,765 filed Jul. 16, 2021 and entitled “DUAL-SPACE, SINGLE SPECIES ARCHITECTURE FOR TRAPPED-ION QUANTUM INFORMATION PROCESSING, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in its entireties. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     Aspects of the present disclosure relate generally to quantum information processing (QIP) architectures, and more particularly, to dual-space, single-species architecture for trapped-ion QIP. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Trapped atoms are one of the leading implementations for quantum information processing or quantum computing. Atomic-based qubits can be used as quantum memories, as quantum gates in quantum computers and simulators, and can act as nodes for quantum communication networks. Qubits based on trapped atomic ions enjoy a rare combination of attributes. For example, qubits based on trapped atomic ions have very good coherence properties, can be prepared and measured with nearly 100% efficiency, and are readily entangled with each other by modulating their Coulomb interaction with suitable external control fields such as optical or microwave fields. These attributes make atomic-based qubits attractive for extended quantum operations such as quantum computations or quantum simulations. 
     It is therefore important to have architectures that take advantage of atomic-based qubits, including architectures that support different types of trapped-ion techniques. 
     SUMMARY 
     The following presents a simplified summary of one or more aspects to provide a basic understanding of such aspects. This summary is not an extensive overview of all contemplated aspects and is intended to neither identify key or critical elements of all aspects nor delineate the scope of any or all aspects. Its sole purpose is to present some concepts of one or more aspects in a simplified form as a prelude to the more detailed description that is presented later. 
     The dual-space, single-species architecture for trapped-ion for quantum information processing described herein is flexible and has several advantages over architectures that rely on dual species. For example, a single chain of ions is reconfigurable as needed without physical shuttling. Also, sympathetic cooling can be perfectly mass-matched. The exemplary aspect does not require narrow line cooling, which itself may be a risk, and may not get as cold as (electromagnetically-induced-transparency) EIT cooling. This exemplary aspect also enables mid-algorithm readout and remote entanglement generation (REG) on dipole-allowed (broad) transitions for high speed. Moreover, no mixed-species two-qubit (2 q) gate is needed for remote entanglement (RE) distribution. 
     The use of a global 1762-nm optical beam for dual-space, single-species architectures is already considered for shelving during readout. Only the short-wavelength Raman beam need be focused tightly for addressing. But for the approach using g-type gates (ground qubit gates), another independent tone may be needed 10 GHz away. This may be accomplished with an electro-optic modulator (EOM) and/or a second laser and a high frequency acousto-optic modulator (AOM). AC Stark shifts of the m-type (metastable qubit), including from the ion trap RF, needs to be considered/managed. The global 1762 optical beam would also allow for integrated photonics down the road. 
     The dual-space, single-species architecture described herein can also support m-type Raman operations, which can produce higher-fidelity and more efficient gates. Such an approach only needs the 1762 tones spaced by ˜80 MHz (not 10 GHz) with local m-type and g-type Raman. Additionally, exemplary aspects of the present disclosure includes using a continuous wave (CW) Raman system. An advantage includes that, since EIT cooling occurs in the g state, performing circuits in the m state may obviate the need to shuttle the qubits and the ancillae back and forth between the g state and the m state during computation. 
     Aspects of the present disclosure may include a method and/or a system for identifying an ion chain having a plurality of trapped ions, selecting at least two non-consecutive trapped ions in the ion chain for implementing a qubit, applying at least a first Raman beam to shuttle at least one neighbor ion of the at least two non-consecutive trapped ions from a ground state to a metastable state, and applying at least a second Raman beam to one or more of the at least two non-consecutive trapped ions, after shuttling the at least one neighbor ion to the metastable state, to transition from a first manifold to a second manifold. 
     To the accomplishment of the foregoing and related ends, the one or more aspects comprise the features hereinafter fully described and particularly pointed out in the claims. The following description and the annexed drawings set forth in detail certain illustrative features of the one or more aspects. These features are indicative, however, of but a few of the various ways in which the principles of various aspects may be employed, and this description is intended to include all such aspects and their equivalents. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The disclosed aspects will hereinafter be described in conjunction with the appended drawings, provided to illustrate and not to limit the disclosed aspects, wherein like designations denote like elements, and in which: 
         FIG.  1    illustrates an example of a dual-space, single species implementation in 133Ba+ in connection with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  2    illustrates a first class of features related to qubits plus coolant/calibration ions in connection with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  3    illustrates a second class of features related to qubits plus ancillas plus coolant ions in connection with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  4    illustrates an example of sympathetic cooling/calibration in connection with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  5    illustrates an example of an alternative sympathetic cooling/calibration in connection with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  6    illustrates an example of an ancilla readout in connection with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  7    illustrates an example of mid-algorithm calibration via ancilla readout in connection with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIGS.  8  and  9    illustrate an example of a REG and distribution via ancilla in connection with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  10    illustrates an example of m-type Raman gates in connection with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  11    illustrates a first class of features with m-type Raman related to qubits plus coolant/calibration ions in connection with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  12    illustrates a second class of features with m-type Raman related to qubits plus ancillas plus coolant ions in connection with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  13    illustrates an example of scheme for performing an echo sequence according to aspects of the present disclosure 
         FIG.  14    illustrates an example of an alternative scheme for performing a double echoed sequence according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  15    illustrates an example of a first lock and key scheme according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  16    illustrates an example of a second lock and key scheme according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  17    illustrates examples of trajectories of Ω R  and Ω C  according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  18    illustrates a laser scheme for high-fidelity dual-space operation in connection with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  19    illustrates an example of a quantum information processing (QIP) system in which a dual-space, single species architecture can be implemented according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  20    illustrates an example of a computer device in which a dual-space, single species architecture can be implemented for quantum information processing according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  21    illustrate an example of a scheme to mitigate cross-talk according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  22    illustrates an example of a control system according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  23    illustrates an example of a method for mitigating cross-talk according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  24    illustrates an example of Ba-137 level structure with allowed transitions between the clock states in accordance with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  25    illustrates an example of trap-door readout in accordance with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  26    illustrates an example of trap-door loading in accordance with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  27    illustrates an example of a method for trap-door loading in accordance with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  28    illustrates another example of a method for trap-door loading in accordance with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  29    illustrates an example of transitions between S-manifold qubit states, transfer states, and/or D-manifold qubit states for barium 133 in accordance with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  30    illustrates an example of a schematic of Raman transitions driven between the S-manifold qubit states in accordance with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  31    illustrates an example of a scheme of driving Raman transitions between the D-manifold FOFI qubit states and potential transfer states in accordance with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  32    illustrates an example of a scheme for shelving trapped ions in accordance with aspects of this disclosure. 
         FIG.  33    illustrates an example of a method  3300  for shelving ions in transfer states in the D-manifold in accordance with aspects of this disclosure. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The detailed description set forth below in connection with the appended drawings is intended as a description of various configurations and is not intended to represent the only configurations in which the concepts described herein may be practiced. The detailed description includes specific details for the purpose of providing a thorough understanding of various concepts. However, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that these concepts may be practiced without these specific details. In some instances, well known components are shown in block diagram form in order to avoid obscuring such concepts. 
     In general, dual-species trapped-ion quantum computing is considered advantageous for practical, high-fidelity systems. This approach can be used to mitigate decoherence of data and syndrome qubits during sympathetic cooling in the middle of long algorithms and/or after ion transport, mid-algorithm qubit readout of a subset of the quantum processor, mid-algorithm remote entanglement generation (REG), and mid-algorithm calibration. This approach relies on having different species with very different transition frequencies. These differences need to be large compared with transition linewidths and transition rates. 
     But the use of dual-species in trapped-ion quantum computing can have some challenges. For example, more lasers and optical beams are needed, chain (e.g., linear arrangement of ions) order matters both for ion addressability and mode structure, and more complicated loading, and unintended chain reordering may cause some issues. Moreover, sympathetic cooling in mixed species chains (especially radial modes) can be inefficient, while shuttling and split/merge operations in mixed species chains is challenging due to different pseudopotentials seen by ions of different mass. Mixed-species two-qubit (2 q) gates (needed for REG distribution) can have lower fidelity. 
     The Dual-Space Concept 
     The dual-space concept is described in connection with  FIG.  1   . For this approach, there is the use of two Hilbert spaces in one ion species to gain dual-species functionality. These spaces are naturally decoupled but can be coupled through application of optical fields. Spaces either consist of ground state or metastable state. 
     This approach is sometimes referred to as the “omg” or “OMG” concept because it involves an optical qubit (i.e., o-type, shown as a circle with vertical lines in  FIG.  1   ) for high-fi measurement, a metastable qubit (i.e., m-type, shown as a circle with dots in  FIG.  1   ) for protected memory with low-field clock states, T1˜30 s, and a ground qubit (i.e., g-type, shown as a circle with horizontal lines in  FIG.  1   ) for processing, cooling, and remote entanglement generation. This approach involves arrow quadrupole transitions for changing types: “Hilbert space shuttling” (HSS). 
     Sympathetic Cooling 
     In a trapped-ion quantum computer, the collective motional modes of a chain of ions must be cooled to enable high-fidelity manipulation of the atomic qubits. However, during a calculation, electric field noise leads to heating of these motional modes, which can degrade the system&#39;s performance over the course of the calculation. Additionally, to perform a calculation that involves ions in multiple chains, the chains must be shuttled spatially during the calculation, which can also lead to heating of the motional modes. Sympathetic cooling is typically used to cool these motional modes during a calculation. This involves performing the calculation using one set of “qubit” ions while simultaneously performing laser-cooling operations on a separate set of “coolant” ions, which has the effect of cooling the collective motional modes of the entire chain. This has been demonstrated by using two separate elements (e.g., Yb and Ba) or two isotopes of the same element (e.g., Yb-171 and Yb-172) for the qubit and coolant ions. 
     However, one problem is that the coupling of individual ions to the collective motional modes depends on those ions&#39; masses, and so ions that have different masses—as different elements or isotopes do—couple differently to the motional modes, degrading the effectiveness of the sympathetic cooling scheme. Further, the presence of ions with different masses complicates the design of quantum gates, which are highly sensitive to properties of the collective motional modes. A second significant technical problem is that collision with background gas molecules can cause the ions in the chain to reorder, scrambling the qubit and coolant ions and forcing the slow and costly operation of either re-ordering or rebuilding the chain. A third problem, for chains composed of two isotopes of the same element, is that the frequencies of the optical transitions involved in cooling the coolant ions are typically close to those of the qubit ions, and so light that is emitted by the coolant ions can be absorbed by the qubit ions, degrading the calculation. 
     There are some of the advantages to the approach described herein in connection with sympathetic cooling. Because the qubit and coolant ions are identical, the problems related to different masses and chain reordering are eliminated. Further, because all ions in the chain are identical until they are assigned to be either qubit or coolant ions, the assignment can be determined dynamically for each calculation to optimize the number and positions of coolant ions without reloading a new chain. 
     High-Fidelity Readout 
     At the end of a computation the states of all qubit ions must be read out optically. Generally, this is done by applying a global detection laser, which will cause ions that are in the “bright” state to fluoresce but not ions that are in the “dark” state. Because the bright and dark states for a hyperfine qubit are generally part of the same manifold (i.e., the S 1/2  states in  133 Ba +  or  171 Yb), the transition(s) addressed by the detection laser must be chosen carefully to avoid exciting the ion out of the dark state, thereby leading to erroneous fluorescence, and also to avoid pumping the ion from the bright state to the dark state, thereby leading to an erroneous lack of fluorescence. Often, the rates at which these errors occur are set by the intrinsic atomic properties of the ion, placing a fundamental limit on the fidelity with which the ion&#39;s state can be read out. 
     There are various advantages to the approach described herein in connection with the read out. For example, these errors can be avoided by transferring one of the qubit states into a separate manifold (i.e., the D 5/2  states in  133 Ba + ), a process known as shelving. The ion can then be illuminated in such a way so that all states in the original manifold fluoresce. Because the two manifolds are decoupled, the rate at which the dark state (the state that has been shelved) can be caused to erroneously fluoresce and the rate at which the bright state (the state that has not been shelved) can erroneously stop fluorescing are extremely small. As a result, the readout fidelity can be made to be extremely high. 
     Mid-Id-Circuit Calibration 
     The fidelity of a quantum computation is extremely sensitive to a wide variety of experimental factors, such as optical beam alignment, laser intensity at the ions, the strength of the confining potential that traps the ions, the presence of stray electric fields, and many others. These factors are likely to drift or change over time, so calibrations need to be performed to account for this drift. 
     Because these calibrations require reading the states of the ions to extract information about these factors, they are typically performed between computations, during which it is forbidden to read the states of the qubit ions involved in the computation. However, this limits the speed at which these calibrations can be performed, limiting the bandwidth of the calibration feedback. 
     Alternatively, calibrations can be performed during the computation using ancilla ions that are not involved in the computation itself. However, because these calibration routines collect fluorescence from the ancilla ions to read out their states, it has formerly been required to use either a different atomic element or different isotope for the ancilla ions so that this fluorescence does not disturb the states of the qubit ions that are involved in the computation. Consequently, various properties of the ancilla ions may be different from those of the qubit ions, which causes them to be influenced by these experimental factors in subtly different ways and may limit the predictive value of ancilla-based calibrations. 
     There are various advantages to the approach described herein in connection with mid-circuit calibration. For example, the ancilla and qubit ions are identical, and the calibration routines are performed by precisely the same techniques that are used to run the computation. Therefore, the calibration results do not need to be adjusted to account for physical differences between the calibration routines run on the ancilla ions and the computation run on the qubit ions. 
     Mid-Circuit Partial Readout 
     Many quantum algorithms or circuits involve measuring a fraction of the qubits mid-circuit while requiring that the unmeasured fraction remain coherent. Such mid-circuit measurement can be a critical component of quantum error correction (QEC). In QEC, ancilla qubits, which are entangled with data qubits, are measured to herald and identify errors in the data qubits. The error in the data qubits can then be corrected by subsequent quantum operations, but this only works if the quantum information in the data qubits is not destroyed during the measurement of the ancillas. This presents a challenge for single-species trapped-ion-qubit systems because measurement of ancillas typically requires the scattering of many photons from a readout laser, and these photons can be reabsorbed by nearby data ions causing their quantum information to be lost. One standard approach to solve this problem is to move the ancilla ions far away from the data ions after they are entangled with them, but before (and during) measurement. However, this dynamic, mid-circuit reconfiguration of ion-qubit positions can be impractical or undesirable in many situations. The use of dual-species trapped-ion systems, where ancillas and data ions are different species, also mitigates this problem and allows ions to stay close to one another. However, the disadvantages of dual species operation have already been elucidated earlier. In this mid-circuit partial readout protocol for QEC, dual-species entangling (two-qubit) gates may be required, which may typically have a fidelity that is not as good as that of single-species entangling gates. 
     There are various advantages to the approach described herein in connection with mid-circuit partial readout. For example, data qubits can be stored in the m-type space while ancillas are measured. This protects the quantum information in the data qubits from absorption of photons emitted from nearby ancilla qubits. As a result, there is no decoherence from this measurement process and mid-circuit partial readout of the ion register can be performed without any constraints on the distance between data and ancilla ion qubits. Furthermore, only a single species ion is used, so entangling gates between data and ancilla ions will typically be of higher fidelity. 
     Mid -Circuit Remote Entanglement Generation 
     Ion-based quantum computers will need to scale to numbers of qubits that are larger than can be worked with in a single trap. A technique called “remote entanglement generation” (REG) may be required to enable communication between the registers of ions held in separate traps. A common method of remote entanglement generation involves combining single photons emitted by “ancilla” ions in separate traps onto a beamsplitter and measuring the output of that beamsplitter. During the process of REG, ancilla ions are typically kept in the g-type space and emit many photons, only a small fraction of which can be typically collected and used in the beamsplitter interference protocol mentioned above. The remainder of these photons are scattered in all directions and can be reabsorbed by neighboring quantum data ions that are also in the g-type space. If these neighboring data ions have quantum information in them (as would be the case for REG attempted in the middle of a quantum algorithm as might often be desirable), this information will be lost. If all ions are in the g-type space (which is the standard approach), REG cannot be carried out without suffering decoherence or without keeping the ancilla ions very far away from the data ions (the latter of which is not practical or desirable in many situations). The use of dual-species trapped-ion systems, where ancillas and data ions are different species, also mitigates this problem and allows ions to stay close to one another. However, the disadvantages of dual-species operation have already been elucidated earlier. In mid-circuit REG using dual-species, entangling (two-qubit) gates would be required to distribute the quantum information around the quantum register, and such dual-species gates typically have worse fidelity than single-species entangling gates. 
     There are various advantages to the approach described herein in connection with mid-circuit remote entanglement generation. For example, it is possible to protect the neighboring ions in the m-type space during REG, as the m-type ions cannot absorb photons emitted from g-type ions. As a result, REG can be performed in the middle of a quantum circuit using REG ancilla ions without causing decoherence of nearby quantum data ions. Furthermore, in our approach, only a single species ion is used, so entangling gates between data and ancilla ions will typically be higher fidelity. 
     Advantages of Dual Spaces Over Dual Species 
     The advantages of dual spaces over dual species are described, at least partially, in connection with  FIG.  1   . For example, using the dual-space approach, m-type qubits are protected from stray control or scattered light in entropic operations (e.g., sympathetic Doppler, EIT cooling, REG) in neighbors. The dual-space approach enables mid-circuit cooling, calibration, readout, REG. The use of one species means fewer lasers and optical paths, standard, efficient sympathetic cooling, more straightforward shuttling, chain reordering accomplished via HSS (dynamic reconfigurability of the chain with lasers), and RE distribution accomplished via HSS and not a mixed-species two-qubit (2 q) gate. 
     Two Classes of Feature: Class I—Qubits Plus Coolant/Calibration Ions 
     The first class of features, CLASS I, is described in connection with  FIG.  2   . In connection with CLASS I the following scheme can be performed (as illustrated in  FIG.  2   ): 
     (0 1 ) Initialize: Separate qubits and coolant ions into g (e.g., S 1/2  in  133 Ba + ) and m (e.g., D 5/2 ) manifolds. Transfer only coolant ions to m manifold. 
     (2) Perform part of algorithm on g-type qubits. 
     (3) Mid-algorithm, flip-flop (HSS) all ions between g and m manifolds, with qubits and coolant ions in opposite manifolds at all times. The g-type has Raman, laser cooling, low-fidelity readout, pumping. The m-type has storage. Repeat 2-3 until the algorithm completes. 
     (4) Transfer qubits to o-type for high-fidelity readout. 
     The use of CLASS I enables: (1) Sympathetic cooling of any flavor with perfect mass-matching, coolant ion placement reconfigurable on a per-circuit basis without physical shuttling, and (2) mid-circuit calibration routines on coolant ions that have hyperfine qubit states identical to those of the qubits. 
     Two Classes of Features: Class II—Qubits Plus Ancillas Plus Coolant Ions 
     The second class of features, CLASS II, is described in connection with  FIG.  3   . In connection with CLASS II the following scheme can be performed (as illustrated in  FIG.  3   ): 
     (1) Perform partial algorithm with data qubits and ancillas in g-type. 
     (2) Transfer only ancillas to o-type and data to m-type via HSS and hi-fidelity readout of ancillas. 
     (3) Move ancilla qubits back to qubit manifold and continue circuit. 
     (4) Sympathetic cooling/calibration can also be interspersed at any time (See Classes I and II). 
     CLASS II functions require more HSS than CLASS I, but both need ONLY local g-type Raman and global HSS, cooling, and readout. 
     The use of CLASS II enables: (1) Mid-circuit partial high-fi readout of quantum register without physical shuttling, and (2) mid-circuit REG without physical shuttling (not depicted). 
     Example—(A) Sympathetic Cooling/Calibration 
     An example of sympathetic cooling/calibration is described in connection with  FIG.  4   . In connection with  FIG.  4    the following scheme can be performed (which follows the diagrammatic flow in  FIG.  4    from top to bottom): 
     (1) Initialize all to |0&gt; g  via optical pumping (OP). 
     (2) Local g-type Raman of data to |1&gt; g . 
     (3) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m . 
     (4) Algorithm via g-type 1 and 2-qubit Raman gates. 
     (5A) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m ; |1&gt; g ↔|1&gt; m  (m-type). 
     (6Ai) Global sympathetic cooling in g-type space. 
     (6Aii) Calibration via local Raman and “low-fi” or low-fidelity readout on coolant: Ramsey, carrier Rabi (B-field, etc.), sideband Rabi (trap frequency). 
     (7A) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m ; |1&gt; g  ↔|1&gt; m . 
     Repeat 4-7. 
     Example—(A—Alternative) Sympathetic Cooling/Calibration 
     An example of an alternative sympathetic cooling/calibration requiring HSS beam with only m-type splitting is described in connection with  FIG.  5   . In connection with  FIG.  5    the following scheme can be performed (which follows the diagrammatic flow in  FIG.  5    from top to bottom): 
     (1) Initialize all to |0&gt; g  via OP. 
     (2) Local g-type Raman of data to |1&gt; g . 
     (3) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m . 
     (4) Algorithm via g-type 1 and 2-qubit Raman gates. 
     (5A) Global HSS of | 0 &gt; g ↔|0&gt; m  (o-type). 
     (6A) Local OR global g-type Raman of all ions; since global is OK, this could be u-wave driven. 
     (7A) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|1&gt; m  (m-type). 
     (8Ai/ii) Global sympathetic cooling in g-type space/cal. 
     (9A) Reverse steps 7A-5A. 
     Example—(B) Ancilla Readout 
     An example of an ancilla readout is described in connection with  FIG.  6   . In connection with  FIG.  6    the following scheme can be performed (which follows the diagrammatic flow in  FIG.  6    from top to bottom): 
     (1) Initialize all to |0&gt; g  via OP. 
     (2) Local g-type Raman of data to |1&gt; g . 
     (3) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m . 
     (4) Algorithm via g-type 1 and 2-qubit Raman gates. 
     (5B) Global HSS of |1&gt; g  ↔|1&gt; m  (both qubits o-type). 
     (6B) Local g-type Raman of ancilla to |1&gt; g . 
     (7B) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m  (o-type ancilla, m-type data). 
     (8B) Readout only ancilla with global detection lasers and pump to |0&gt; g . 
     (9B1) Global HSS of |1&gt; m ↔|1&gt; g . 
     (9B2) Local g-type Raman on ancilla conditioned on ancilla readout. 
     (10B) Global HSS of |0&gt; m ↔|0&gt; g →5A. 
     Example—(C) Mid-Algorithm Calibration Via Ancilla 
     An example of a mid-algorithm calibration via ancilla is described in connection with  FIG.  7   . In connection with  FIG.  7    the following scheme can be performed (which follows the diagrammatic flow in  FIG.  7    from top to bottom): 
     (1) Initialize all to |0&gt; g  via OP. 
     (2) Local g-type Raman of data to |1&gt; g . 
     (3) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m . 
     (4C) Calibration via local Raman on ancilla: Ramsey, carrier Rabi (B -field, etc.), sideband Rabi (trap frequency). 
     (5B) Global HSS of |1&gt; g ↔|1&gt; m . 
     (6B) Local g-type Raman of ancilla |1&gt; g . 
     (7B) Global HSS of | 0 &gt; g ↔|0&gt; m  (creates o-type ancilla). 
     (8B) Readout only ancilla with global detection lasers. 
     (9B1) Global HSS of |1&gt; m |1&gt; g . 
     (9B2) Local g-type Raman on ancilla conditioned on ancilla readout. 
     (10B) Global HSS of | 0 &gt; m ↔|0&gt; g →5A. 
     Example—(D) Reg and Distribution Via Ancilla 
     An example of a REG and distribution via ancilla is described in connection with  FIGS.  8  and  9   . In connection with  FIG.  8    the following scheme can be performed (which follows the diagrammatic flow in  FIG.  8    from top to bottom): 
     (1) Initialize all to |0&gt; g  via OP. 
     (2) Local g-type Raman of data to |1&gt; g . 
     (3) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m . 
     (4C) Calibration via local Raman on ancilla: Ramsey, carrier Rabi (B-field, etc.), sideband Rabi (trap frequency). 
     (5B) Global HSS of |1&gt; g ↔|1&gt; m . 
     (6B) Local g-type Raman of ancilla |1&gt; g . 
     (7B) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m  (creates o-type ancilla). 
     (8B) Readout only ancilla with global detection laser. 
     (9D) REG attempts and sympathetic cooling interleaved. 
     In connection with  FIG.  9    the scheme described above is continued (by following the diagrammatic flow in  FIG.  9    from top to bottom): 
     Step (9D) is now shown at the top and was last step shown in  FIG.  9   . ( 9 D) REG attempts and sympathetic cooling interleaved. 
     (10D) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m    
     (11D) Local g-type Raman on REG ancilla. 
     (12Di) Global HSS of |1&gt; g ↔|1&gt; m    
     (12Dii) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m    
     (13D) Local g-type Raman on REG ancilla. 
     (14D) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m    
     (15D) Entanglement distribution in g-type using single species 2q gates. 
     Hilbert Space Shutting (HSS) 
     In connection with HSS, questions may come up about how good the 1762-nm pulses are. Blatt/Home claim fidelities of 5e −5  in  40 Ca +  (729 nm) and others have been able to do ˜4e −4  in  88 Sr +  (674 nm, GST). One aspect includes potentially using composite pulses to improve. Moreover, the 1762 pulse is likely to be better than 674, 729 pulses due to smaller Debye-Waller factors (DWs). But probably may want to use the global 1762 along radial direction to keep DWs low. 
     Another possible consideration relates to the 1762 pulse phase. The optical phase gets imprinted on the o-type but gets removed when converting back to g-type as long as laser is coherent over o-type dwell time. For the o-type, coherence times of 10-100 milliseconds (ms) are achievable. 
     For the m-type, only the phase difference between the |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m  and |1&gt; g ↔|1&gt; m  beams matters. One approach is to derive both beams from same laser, minimize path length differences. 
     Another question that may come up is the AC Stark shifts from global 1762 pulses. For the g-type: Δ=10 GHz gives δ Ac ˜25 Hz. For the m-type δ=80 MHz gives δ AC ˜3 kHz. Only occurs for F=1 to F′=3 beam (F=0 to F′=3 is quadrupole forbidden). Can potentially use spin echo to cancel, or just keep track of the Zgate rotation 
     Yet another question that may come up is the number of 1762 tones/lasers that may be needed. The scheme described above needs independent 1762 tones separated by ˜10 GHz. An example of such implementation is described below. A modified version only requires 1762 tones separated by ˜80 MHz mid-circuit REG is given up. However, REG is a longer-term goal with other technical challenges to consider. 
     M-Type Raman Gates 
     Other aspects of the present disclosure may include implementing m-type Raman gates. M-type Raman gates may implement the same classes of features as in the g-type Raman scheme as described below. An example of m-type Raman gates is described in connection with  FIG.  10   . Fundamentally higher-fidelity gates for  133 Ba +  with Raman laser at 532 nm. D 5/2  only couples to P 3/2  so it is possible to get 1/Δ Rabi rate even for Δ&gt;&gt;ω HFS . Wins the war against spontaneous emission (˜1/4 2 )→˜5× error reduction. 
     This approach is technically simpler, with straightforward CW Raman if desired. CW Raman also can be used for g-type Raman. Can use AOM instead of EOM to span qubit frequency. 
     In addition, circuit performance is largely insensitive to imperfect HSS. The need for HSS transfers during the computation is either reduced (Class II functions) or eliminated altogether (Class I functions), which significantly reduces the impact of imperfect HSS transfer on the computation fidelity. 
     Two Classes of Features with M-Type Raman: Class I—Qubits Plus Coolant/Calibration Ions 
     The first class of features with m-type Raman, CLASS I, is described in connection with  FIG.  11    shown below. In connection with CLASS I the following scheme can be performed (as illustrated in  FIG.  11   ): 
     (1) Initialize: Separate qubits and coolant ions into g (S 1/2 ) and m (D 5/2 ) manifolds with global HSS. Transfer only qubit ions to m manifold. 
     (2) Run circuit in m manifold (now has Raman) while interspersing cooling/calibration with ions in g manifold (has Raman, EIT cooling, readout, pumping). No HSS required during circuit/cooling/calibration. 
     (3) Transfer one qubit state to o-type for high-fidelity readout of qubits with global HSS. 
     The use of CLASS I enables (without HSS during circuit/cooling/calibration): (1) Sympathetic cooling of any flavor with perfect mass-matching, coolant ion placement reconfigurable on a per-circuit basis without physical shuttling, and (2) Mid-circuit calibration routines on coolant ions that have hyperfine qubit states identical to those of the qubits. The use of CLASS I requires only |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m  transitions for HSS, no m-type AC Stark shifts. Also, it requires only m-type Raman, not g-type. 
     Two Classes of Features with M-Type Raman: Class II—Qubits Plus Ancillae Plus Coolant Ions 
     The second class of features with m-type Raman, CLASS II, is described in connection with  FIG.  12   . In connection with CLASS II the following scheme can be performed (as illustrated in  FIG.  12   ): 
     (1) Perform partial algorithm with data qubits and ancillas in m-type. 
     (2) Transfer only ancillas to o-type and data to m-type via HSS and hi-fi readout of ancillas. 
     (3) Move ancilla qubits back to qubit manifold and continue circuit. 
     (4) Sympathetic cooling/calibration can also be interspersed at any time (Class A is a subset of B). 
     As before, Class II functions require more HSS than Class I, but both need ONLY local m- and g-type Raman and global HSS, cooling, and readout. 
     The use of CLASS II enables: (1) Mid-circuit partial readout of quantum register without physical shuttling, and (2) mid-circuit REG without physical shuttling. 
     Scheme for Nulling HSS Laser Phase Noise by Driving both HSS Transitions Simultaneously (Class I Functions ) 
     One source of error in this approach can be phase noise in the laser used to drive the HSS transition. This noise is technical but intrinsic; it can be reduced by locking the laser phase to a suitably stable reference, but it cannot be completely eliminated. In particular, this laser phase noise might impart phase noise onto our qubits every time a swap of the ancilla and qubit ions between the g and m manifolds takes place. For example, by driving the |0&gt; g  to |0&gt; m  HSS transition followed sequentially by the |1&gt; g  to |1&gt; m  transition (or vice versa), then any drift in the laser phase between the times of these two transitions is imprinted into a relative phase between |0&gt; m  and |1&gt; m , which enters into and degrades the fidelity of the calculation. 
     In other words, in performing the two HSS transitions sequentially, there is a brief storage of the qubit information in the optical qubit, when the qubit is divided between the g and m manifolds. During this time, any drift between the phases of the optical qubit and laser is imprinted on the qubit phase when the transfer is completed to the m manifold. 
     The techniques described herein can be used as a solution to the problem outlined above. The impact of laser phase noise on the qubit phase can be nulled by driving the |0&gt; g  to |0&gt; m  and |1&gt; g  to |1&gt; m  transitions simultaneously. The laser phase at the transition is common to both |0&gt; m  and |1&gt; m  and therefore does not introduce an erroneous phase into the calculation. In other words, the qubit information is at no time stored in the optical qubit, eliminating the opportunity for laser phase noise to be converted into qubit phase error. 
     If the laser phase noise is sufficiently large, it can cause imperfect transfer (i.e., the population in |0&gt; g  is not fully transferred to |0&gt; m ), but, as elucidated elsewhere, this scheme is sufficiently general so as to enable to use BB 1 or other pulse sequences, which are designed to optimize transfer even in the presence of experimental imperfections like phase noise. Further, an error of imperfect transfer, unlike an error of laser phase being imprinted onto the qubit, can be easily detected, in which case it is possible to choose to either reject the calculation result if it is impacted by the error or accept the calculation result if it is not. 
     This solution is particularly useful for the Class I functions in the scheme that does not use m-state Raman, wherein it always drives the two HSS transitions together in the midst of the calculation (i.e., not during initialization and readout). Therefore, this technique can eliminate the impact of laser phase noise on the qubit phase for algorithms that use only Class I functions. 
     Scheme for Nulling HSS Laser Phase Noise by Performing an Echo Sequence (Ckass II Functions) 
     The technique of driving the |0&gt; g  to |0&gt; m  and |1&gt; g  to |1&gt; m  transitions simultaneously to prevent laser phase noise from being imprinted on the qubit only works when no other operations need to be performed in between these two transitions. This is not the case for Class II transitions. For example, for ancilla readout, one HSS transition (either |0&gt; g  to |0&gt; m  or |1&gt; g  to |1&gt; m ) is driven, then select out the ancilla ions to read out by applying a Raman pulse to those ions, and then drive the other HSS transition. Because the Raman transition inevitably has a finite duration, this sequence is susceptible to imprinting laser phase noise onto the qubit phase noise. 
     In other words, storing the qubit information in an optical qubit for a finite amount of time will be needed, creating the opportunity for laser phase noise to be converted into qubit phase error. 
     The techniques described herein can be used as a solution to the problem outlined above. For example, a technique called “spin echoing,” which is common in the NMR and quantum information communities, can be adapted for use with the scheme/architecture described herein. The basic concept is that the phase noise in the laser is transferred to the qubit when the qubit information is imprinted on the optical qubit during the Raman pulse. To “echo out” this phase error, an echo pulse is applied to the optical qubit after the Raman pulse by driving the |0&gt; g  to |0&gt; m  and |1&gt; g  to |1&gt; m  transitions simultaneously, which has the effect of flipping the optical qubit. This causes the laser phase noise to be imprinted on the optical qubit with the opposite sign. There is a wait after the echo pulse for a period of time equal to the duration of the Raman pulse before completing the transition to the m manifold, so the errors imprinted before and after the echo pulse cancel each other. If the rate at which the laser phase drifts is constant, then this cancellation can, in principle, be perfect. This echo technique therefore eliminates the OMG scheme&#39;s susceptibility to a laser phase that drifts at a constant rate, rendering the scheme instead susceptible only to the change in the rate at which the laser phase drifts over the course of the echo sequence. 
     An additional level of echoing can be applied to further reduce the OMG&#39;s scheme&#39;s susceptibility to laser phase noise over the course of performing a Class II function. In the case of mid-circuit ancilla readout, it is possible to echo the phase noise as described above while separating out the readout ancillae from the other qubits. We also Aspects of the present disclosure may also include reversing this operation after performing the readout in order to fold the readout ancillae back into the qubit register. By applying additional echo pulses to this second operation, it is possible to null the scheme&#39;s susceptibility not only to a laser phase that drifts at a constant rate but also to a laser phase that drifts at a rate that is itself changing at a constant rate over the course of the entire readout operation. Essentially, the sequence of HSS transitions is driven in such a way that if, for example, the optical qubit acquired phase noise with a positive sign followed by a negative sign for the initial ancillae-separation sequence, it acquires phase error with a negative sign followed by a positive sign for the ancillae-refolding sequence. Therefore, not only are the ancillae-separation and ancillae-refolding sequences themselves individually echoed to cancel phase error acquired within each sequence, but they are constructed in such a way that the phase noise acquired during the ancillae-refolding sequence cancels that acquired during the ancillae-separation sequence. 
       FIG.  13    illustrates an example of scheme for performing an echo sequence according to aspects of the present disclosure. Specifically,  FIG.  13    may illustrate an example of in-circuit, echoed partial readout without shuttling or D-state Raman. In connection with  FIG.  13    the following scheme may be performed (which follows the diagrammatic flow in  FIG.  13    from top to bottom): 
     1) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m . 
     2) Wait time T, then global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m ; |1&gt; g ↔|1&gt; m . 
     3) Local g-type Raman of ancilla to |1&gt; g , duration T. 
     4) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m . 
     5) Readout only ancilla with global detection lasers and pump to |0&gt; g . 
     6) Global HSS of |1&gt; g ↔|1&gt; m . 
     7) Local g-type Raman on ancilla conditioned on ancilla readout, duration T. 
     8) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m ; |1&gt; g |1&gt; m . 
     9) Wait time T, then global HSS of |1&gt; g ↔|1&gt; m . 
       FIG.  14    illustrates an example of an alternative scheme for performing a double echoed sequence according to aspects of the present disclosure. The scheme may continue after step 4 of the scheme shown in  FIG.  13   . In connection with  FIG.  14    the following scheme may be performed (which follows the diagrammatic flow in  FIG.  14    from top to bottom): 
     5) After partial readout. 
     6) Global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m ; |1&gt; g ↔|1&gt; m . 
     7) Global HSS of |1&gt; g ↔|1&gt; m . 
     8) Wait time T, then global HSS of |0&gt; g ↔|0&gt; m ; |1&gt; g ↔|1&gt; m . 
     9) Local g-type Raman on ancilla conditioned on ancilla readout, duration T. 
     10) Global HSS of |1&gt; g ↔|1&gt; m . 
     Schemes for Locl-And -Key Clock Pulse for DSSS Architecture 
     In the implementation of the DSSS architecture, there is a class of features that may require separating a set of ancillae qubits out of the qubit register, performing an operation on them, and then folding them back into the register. These operations include reading out the states of the ancillae qubits and using the ancillae qubits to generate remote entanglement between distant qubit registers. 
     As described above, the processes of separating out the ancillae and then folding them back into the register may require us to apply a sequence of global clock pulses, Raman pulses on the ancillae only (and not the other qubits, such as the data qubits), and/or then more global clock pulses. If the global clock pulses and individual Raman pulses are applied separately and in sequence, then there may be periods of time when both the ancilla and data qubits are stored as optical qubits, with parts of their population in the ground and metastable manifolds. As a result, any optical phase noise on the clock laser during these periods may be imprinted as either phase or population error on the data qubits, which may be undesirable. Some aspects include using a series of additional wait times and clock pulses to echo out the impact of optical phase noise to successive orders. However, these additional waits and clock pulses may slow the computation and/or introduce more opportunities for errors to occur. Therefore, improvements may be desirable. 
     An aspect of the present disclosure is to devise a method to separate out the ancilla qubits without the need to transfer portions of the population of the data qubits between the ground and metastable manifolds. For example, one aspect of the present disclosure includes applying the global clock and individual Raman pulses contemporaneously, with the clock pulses designed to suppress driving the clock transition except in ions that are also being addressed by a Raman beam. Here, the clock transition may be “locked” but can be driven by using the Raman beam as the “key.” 
     Turning to  FIG.  15   , a first aspect of the present disclosure may include selectively driving a narrow optical transition in ions or trapped atoms by using an individually-addressed beam to apply a Stark shift to the specific ions or trapped atoms, which may bring them into resonance with a narrow optical transition that is driven by a global beam. Specifically, the Stark shift scheme discusses herein may include using a detuned Raman beam to cause a Stark shift in the |1 g    state from the unshifted energy (dashed line in  FIG.  15   ). For example, aspects of the present disclosure start with both the data and ancilla qubits shelved in the metastable manifold, and the transfer of the population of the ancilla qubits only from the metastable state |m  to one of the ground qubit states. In this technique, the Raman beam may be detuned away from the transition between the ground qubit states |0 g    and |1 g    by a frequency Δ. This may have the effect of applying a Stark shift δ to the |1 g z, 21   state, which is given by 
       δ=−Ω R   2 /Δ,   (1)
 
     where Ω R  is the Raman Rabi frequency. Next, the clock laser is detuned, which couples the metastable state |m  with the Stark-shifted state | g    to match. The clock transition is then driven at its Rabi rate Ω C  in the ion that is addressed by the Raman beam, but the off-resonant transition may be suppressed in the other ions to which a Stark shift is not applied. 
     In some aspects, there may be a probability of 
       ε˜(Ω C /δ) 2    (2)
 
     that the data qubits are erroneously transferred to |1 g   . It may be desirable to increase δ to as large as possible by raising the Raman Rabi frequency Ω R  while lowering the Raman detuning Δ. However, this may be limited by a limitation of not actually driving the Raman transition while attempting to drive the clock transition. If the ratio (Ω R /Δ) 2  is not sufficiently small, an aspect may include transferring the population from |1 g    to |0 g    while transferring the population from |m  to |1 g   . The dynamics of this three-level system may be more complex, and it may be difficult to find a region in parameter space that satisfies the simultaneous criteria for driving the clock transition in the ancilla qubits and not driving the clock transition in the data qubits with very high fidelities. 
     However, the DSSS architecture is relatively forgiving of the error where population is transferred from |m  to |0 g    instead of |1 g   . If this error occurs as we are separating out the ancilla qubit from the register prior to performing partial readout or REG, then it is immaterial whether the ancilla qubit ends up in |0 g    or |1 g    because the next step is to either perform a projective readout of whether the ancilla qubit is in the ground manifold or initialize the ancilla qubit in order to generate remote entanglement, both of which are insensitive to which S-manifold qubit state the ancilla is in. 
     If, on other hand, this error occurs as we are folding the ancilla qubit back into the register, then having the ancilla end up in |0 g    instead of |1 g    does represent an error. However, this error can be detected by performing a projective readout that determines which ions are in the ground manifold while the data qubits are shelved in the metastable manifold. This concept is expanded upon elsewhere, but this technique would enable us to detect a failure in the transition technique we describe here. Upon detecting this failure, we could disregard the result of the run on which the failure occurred. Alternatively, we could correct the failure in real time by reinitializing the ancilla qubit or regenerating remote entanglement and then attempting to fold the ancilla qubit into the register again. 
     Turning to  FIG.  16   , a second aspect of the present disclosure may include a three-photon scheme where the Raman and clock beams are both detuned by Δ and the population may be transferred directly from |m  to |0 g   , where the signs of Δ for the Raman and clock beams are selected so that the Raman and clock beams together are resonant with the frequency difference between |m  and |0 g   . An aspect of the present disclosure may include taking advantage of the three-level nature of the |0 g   -|1 g   -|m  system. In this method, both the Raman and clock beams may be detuned by the same frequency Δ, which is larger than Ω R  and Ω C . In this regime, the population may be transferred directly from | m      to | 0 g    at a rate of 
       Ω m0 =Ω R *Ω C/Δ.    (3)
 
     Aspects of the present disclosure may be a three-photon Raman process where one of the two interactions is itself a two-photon Raman process. 
     In this scheme, the probability of erroneously transferring a data qubit to the ground state is 
       ε˜(Ω C /Δ) 2 .   (4)
 
     To minimize this error, aspects of the present disclosure include increasing the magnitude of Δ, which may undesirably reduce the transition rate. It may be possible to mitigate this slowdown by increasing Ω R , but that comes at the cost of degrading the assumption that |1 g    is populated only virtually. As a result, it might be challenging to reduce ε to an acceptable level in the data qubits while transferring the ancilla qubits from |m  to |0 g    with an acceptable fidelity in an acceptable time. 
     In a third aspect of the present disclosure, the Raman and clock pulses may be offset in time and have variable intensities. In the second aspect, the Raman and clock pulses may be applied simultaneously with static amplitudes, which results in population oscillating between |m  and |0 g   . If the pulses are offset and applied with slowly-varying amplitudes that result in Ω R  and Ω C  following trajectories that are similar to those depicted in  FIG.  17   , then the population may be transferred adiabatically from |m  to |0 g    and no population may be transferred to |1 g   . This may be referred to as the stimulated Raman adiabatic passage (STIRAP) process. 
     In some aspects, both the Raman and clock drives may be detuned away from resonance by a nonzero frequency Δ in order to avoid driving any unwanted clock transitions in the data qubits. The STIRAP process may be the most efficient at Δ=0, so the nonzero detuning may result in a slower transition. In general, the Rabi frequency trajectories may be traversed at a rate that is slower than the Rabi frequencies themselves. Specifically, to drive a faster transition, Δ should be small and both Ω R  and Ω C  (at the maximum points of their respective trajectories) should be large, but this may cause larger errors in the form of transferring some proportion of the ancilla qubits to 1 g    rather than |0 g    or driving the clock transition in the data qubits. 
     A fourth aspect of the present disclosure includes using an echoing technique to coherently cancel erroneous transfer of the data qubits from |m  to the ground state manifold. This cancellation may relax the requirements on Ω R , Ω C , and Δ, enabling the optimization for speed and minimizing the unwanted population in |1 g   . 
     Aspects of the present disclosure include the second aspect above, and periodically changing the phase of the optical beam by π and simultaneously change the sign of the detuning Δ that is applied to both the clock and Raman beams. This may reverse any unwanted population transfer in the data qubits. The optical beam may cause a small rotation on the Bloch sphere about an axis that, because Δ » Ω C , may be close to the z axis. Changing both the phase and detuning of the optical beam may invert this rotation axis through the origin, so any small rotation that occurred in the first period may be canceled in the second period. 
     In certain aspects, this echoing process described above may be performed at a high frequency (e.g., 1, 10, or 100 kilohertz) pursuant to technical limitations and the requirement of applying an even number of segments. This cancellation is susceptible to phase or amplitude noise on the clock beam that is faster than the inverse of the echo period, so echoing faster may enhance the degree of cancellation that can be achieved. 
     In some aspects, this scheme may have the ancillary benefit of canceling any Stark shift in the data qubits due to off-resonant driving of the specific optical transition we are using. Note that smaller Stark shifts in the data qubits due to other clock transitions may not be canceled, and they may be required to be calibrated and compensated. However, these shifts may be small because those transitions should be several megahertz away relative to a typical Rabi frequency of a few tens of kilohertz. 
     In some aspects, this echoing does not inhibit transfer of the ancilla qubits from |m  to |0 g    because, with reference to Eq. (3), this echoing process inverts the signs of both Ω C  and Δ, which together leave the sign of Ω m0  unchanged. The echoing of the clock beam may an odd-parity process that nulls the unwanted transfer of the data qubits due to the clock beam alone, but combining that echoing with the odd-parity process of flipping the detuning of the Raman beam may result in the desired transition from |m  to |0 g    remained allowed. 
     In a fifth aspect of the present disclosure, the STIRAP procedure described in the third aspect can be echoed in a similar way. If the phase of the clock drive is reversed and the sign of Δ is changed at a rate is much faster than the rate of change of Ω C , then the clock transition may be suppressed for the data qubits. 
     Similar to the fourth aspect above, the Raman drive may be modulated in such a way as to allow the STIRAP transition for the ancilla qubits that are addressed by the Raman beams. STIRAP functions because the Raman and clock interactions together create a dark state 
       | D     = (Ω C ( t ) |0 g   −Ω R ( t ) | m   )/(Ω C ( t ) 2 +Ω R ( t ) 2 ) 1/2    (5)
 
     that evolves in time as Ω R  and Ω C  traverse their respective trajectories. If the phases of Ω C (t) and Ω R (t) are both changed simultaneously, then the dark state will remain unchanged (other than an irrelevant global phase). 
     Aspects of the present disclosure includes an advantage such that the echoing, in suppressing the clock transition in the data qubits, relaxes the requirements on Ω C  and Δ, and enabling the optimization for speed and the minimization of the unwanted population in |1 g   . 
     In some implementations, the aspects described above may be integrated into the DSSS architecture. Any one or more of the described techniques may be extended to enable 1) the simultaneous transfer of multiple ancilla qubits by the simultaneous application of individual Raman beams to each ancilla qubit, 2) the transfer of population from one of the ground states to one metastable state rather vice versa, as is described here, and/or 3) an echoing technique that is implemented by applying two simultaneous, symmetrically detuned tones on both the Raman and clock drives rather than one tone on each whose phase and detuning are periodically inverted. 
     An aspect of the present disclosure includes one or more of the Lock and Key techniques described above being implemented to the DSSS architecture. 
     An aspect of the present disclosure includes the aspects above, with two constituent transitions being a Raman transition and narrow optical transition. 
     An aspect of the present disclosure includes any of the aspects above, further including the fourth aspect and/or the use of an echoing technique to suppress population transfer by the first drive in a lambda system in qubits to which the second drive is not applied. 
     An aspect of the present disclosure includes any of the aspects above, further including the approach of applying a matching echo to the second drive in a lambda system to enable the composite transition in qubits to which both drives are applied. 
     An aspect of the present disclosure includes any of the aspects above, further including the STIRAP technique as described in the fifth aspect. 
     Schemes for High-Fidelity HSS with a Global Beam 
     A problem that may arise is that for a laser beam of finite size globally addressing a long chain of ions from a direction that is not along the chain axis, there will be a limit to the fidelity of the pi-pulses due to inhomogeneity of the laser intensity over the chain. For example, a 32-ion chain with 3-micron ion spacing; global beam with 85-micron radius centered on chain, propagating normal to the chain axis gives pi-pulse fidelity of only 0.84 for the edge ions (1 and 32) if the laser intensity is chosen to drive a perfect pi-pulse on the center ion. 
     This disclosure provides two exemplary embodiments (e.g., exemplary schemes or aspects) that address the problem outlined above. 
     Scheme 1: Make the laser beam larger only in the direction along the chain axis (high-eccentricity elliptical beam). In the example above, make the beam radius 600 microns to get HSS error on outer ions to &lt;1e-4. This will require 2.66× the time for the pi-pulse HSS transfer for the same laser power. 
     Scheme 2: Use a coherent quantum pulse sequence to minimize pi-pulse infidelity due to inhomogeneous laser intensity. One can use the BB1 sequence (e.g., http://cds.cern.ch/record/599468/files/0301019.pdf for a general outline of BB1) and the same (e.g., 85 micron) beam size (low-eccentricity elliptical beam). This can also achieve &lt;1e-4 HSS errors but would take 1.9× longer than scheme. 
     Scheme 1 vs Scheme 2: Scheme 2 is better if it is undesirable to have a large beam for optical access reasons. Scheme 1 is better if one wants faster HSS transfer (for fixed laser power) or smaller required laser power (for fixed transfer time). Another advantage of Scheme 1 is that by not requiring BB1, pulse sequences can be used that are optimized for other kinds of transfer errors (e.g., frequency or phase noise). 
     Laser Scheme for High-Fidelity Dual-Space Operation 
     A laser scheme for high-fidelity dual-space operation is described in connection with  FIG.  18   . This laser beam scheme (propagation direction/polarizations/B-field orientation) is very well suited to high-fidelity dual-space operation. 
     Individual Raman configuration minimizes deleterious AC Stark shifts when using pulsed lasers. 
     Global HSS is typically driven by an atomic quadrupole transition. The HSS beam orientations shown in  FIG.  18    maximize the transition rate. For long-wavelength HSS laser (e.g., 1762 nanometer (nm) for Ba+ ions), the small Lamb-Dicke parameter results in small HSS transfer errors (&lt;1e-4) even for significant thermal population of axial modes (nbar=50) in a 32-ion chain. 
     The polarization of the HSS beam depends on the specific sattes in the m-state manifold that are used during the HSS sequence. For clock states (i.e., those with m F  =0), a polarization perpendicular to the magnetic field may be utilized to maximize the transition rate. However, there are other states (so-called “first-order field-insensitive” or “FOFI” states) that have nonzero values of m F  but whose relative frequencies are insensitive to magnetic fields to first order. For these states, which have |m F |=1, the transition rate is maximized by setting the polarization to lie in the plane defined by the direction of beam propagation and the magnetic field. 
     Scheme to Enable Simultaneous Driving of One or Two HSS Transitions using an AOM and EOM 
     There is a need to implement a technical solution that enables driving either (1) the |0&gt; g  to |0&gt; m  and |1&gt; g  to |1&gt; m  transitions simultaneously or (2) transition individually. Because these transitions can be separated in frequency by many GHz for many ion species, this may be technically challenging. 
     In an exemplary aspect, this is accomplished by using an electro-optic modulator (EOM) to apply two sets of sidebands so that one sideband from each set addressed each transition. These two sets of sidebands could then be turned on together or individually to drive one or both transitions. However, this would unavoidably divide the optical power between five tones (two in each set of sidebands plus the carrier), which would raise the power that is required from the optical system upstream of the EOM. 
     Alternatively, this is accomplished in an exemplary aspect by using an acousto-optic modulator (AOM) and EOM in series. The EOM would modulate the laser frequency to address the two transitions, one with the EOM carrier and one with one sideband. This reduces the amount of power that would be wasted since only one set of sidebands would need to be generated. However, since the power in the carrier cannot be nulled, the AOM is needed to modulate the overall power in the beam. For this approach, it would be easy to address both transitions and to address only the transition addressed by the EOM carrier by turning off the EOM sideband, but it would be difficult to address only the transition addressed by the EOM sideband. To accomplish this, the drive frequencies of both the EOM and AOM could be shifted by equal amounts to detune the carrier away from its transition but leave the carrier resonant with its transition. However, in this case, the finite bandwidth of the AOM, which is often limited to a few tens of MHz unless special measures are taken, would force us to balance off-resonant excitation of the unwanted transition versus the speed at which the transition is driven. 
     A solution to the problem outlined above is to use an AOM and EOM in sequence, as in the second scheme listed above, but with the extension of using independent control of the AOM and EOM phases to cancel excitation of the unwanted transition. The phase of the optical tone corresponding to the EOM carrier is given by the phase of the AOM drive phase alone, but the phase of the optical tone corresponding to the EOM sideband is given by the sum of the phases of the AOM and EOM drive tones. As described elsewhere, the BB 1 and related composite pulse sequences consist of a nominal rotation pulse followed by some correction pulses whose rotation angles are fixed but whose phases depend on the nominal rotation angle. Halfway through the nominal rotation pulse, it is possible to change the phases of the AOM and EOM drive tones by pi. This results in the phase of the carrier optical tone changing by pi and the phase of the sideband optical tone changing by 2*pi, which is equivalent to its phase remaining unchanged. Thus, the sideband transition gets a nominal rotation angle of pi, and the carrier transition gets a nominal rotation angle of 0. Then the correction pulses are applied on both transitions, using the same technique with the AOM and EOM phases to give the correction pulses the proper phases for nominal angles of 0 and pi. 
     This scheme can be extended to the case where the strengths of the two HSS transitions are equal (i.e., the two transitions are driven at equal rates for a given optical power). In this case, the two transitions can be driven with the same set of EOM sidebands, which are intrinsically power-matched. This obviates the need to precisely calibrate the power of the optical powers of the EOM sidebands to match that of the EOM carrier. In this case, the phase of one optical tone is given by the sum of the phases of the AOM and EOM drives, and the phase of the other optical tone is given by their difference. Halfway through the nominal rotation pulse, it is possible to change the phase of the AOM drive by +pi/2 and the phase of the EOM drive by either +pi/2 or −pi/2. This results in the phase of one of the optical tones changing by pi and the phase of the other remaining unchanged. As above, one of the transitions gets a nominal rotation angle of pi, and the other gets a nominal rotation angle of 0. Then the correction pulses are applied on both transitions, again setting the phases of the AOM and EOM drive to give the correction pulses the proper phases for nominal angles of 0 and pi. This technique enables to drive either transition, and it is possible to drive both by not changing the phases of the AOM and EOM drives. 
     In general, the dual-space, single-species architecture for trapped-ion for quantum information processing described herein is flexible and has several advantages over architectures that rely on dual species. For example, a single chain of ions is reconfigurable as needed without physical shuttling. Also, sympathetic cooling can be perfectly mass-matched. It should be appreciated that the exemplary aspects herein do not require narrow line cooling, which itself may be a risk, and may not get as cold as (electromagnetically-induced-transparency) EIT cooling. This approach also enables mid-algorithm readout and remote entanglement generation (REG) on dipole-allowed (broad) transitions for high speed. Moreover, no mixed-species two-qubit (2q) gate for RE distribution. 
     The use of a global 1762 optical beam for dual-space, single-species architectures is already considered for shelving during readout. Only the short-wavelength Raman need be focused tightly for addressing. But for the approach using g-type gates (ground qubit gates), another independent tone may be needed 10 GHz away. This may be accomplished with a second laser and a high frequency acousto-optic modulator (AOM). AC Stark shifts of the m-type (metastable qubit), including from the ion trap RF, needs to be considered/managed. The global 1762 optical beam would also allow for integrated photonics down the road. 
     The dual-space, single-species architecture can also support m-type Raman operations, which can produce higher-fidelity and more efficient gates. Such an approach only needs the 1762 tones spaced by ˜80 MHz (not 10 GHz) with local m-type and g-type Raman. 
       FIG.  19    is a block diagram that illustrates an example of a QIP system  1900  in accordance with aspects of this disclosure in which the techniques described above for a dual-space, single species trapped-ion architecture can be implemented. The QIP system  1900  may also be referred to as a quantum computing system, a computer device, a trapped ion system, or the like. 
     The QIP system  1900  can include a source  1960  that provides atomic species (e.g., a plume or flux of neutral atoms) to a chamber  1950  having an ion trap  1970  that traps the atomic species once ionized (e.g., photoionized). The ion trap  1970  may be part of a processor or processing portion of the QIP system  1900 . The source  1960  may be implemented separate from the chamber  1950 . 
     The imaging system  1930  can include a high-resolution imager (e.g., CCD camera) for monitoring the atomic ions while they are being provided to the ion trap or after they have been provided to the ion trap  1970 . In an aspect, the imaging system  1930  can be implemented separate from the optical and trap controller  1920 , however, the use of fluorescence to detect, identify, and label atomic ions using image processing algorithms may need to be coordinated with the optical and trap controller  1920 . 
     The QIP system  1900  may also include an algorithms component  1910  that may operate with other parts of the QIP system  1900  (not shown) to perform quantum algorithms or quantum operations, including a stack or sequence of combinations of single qubit operations and/or multi-qubit operations (e.g., two-qubit operations) as well as extended quantum computations. As such, the algorithms component  1910  may provide instructions to various components of the QIP system  1900  (e.g., to the optical and trap controller  1920 ) to enable the implementation of the quantum algorithms or quantum operations. 
     Referring now to  FIG.  20   , illustrated is an example computer system or device  2000  in accordance with aspects of the disclosure. The computer device  2000  can represent a single computing device, multiple computing devices, or a distributed computing system, for example. The computer device  2000  may be configured as a quantum computer (e.g., a QIP system), a classical computer, or a combination of quantum and classical computing functions. For example, the computer device  2000  may be used to process information using quantum algorithms based on trapped ion technology and may therefore implement the dual-space, single species architecture described herein. A generic example of the computer device  2000  as a QIP system is illustrated in the QIP system  1900  shown in  FIG.  19   . 
     In one example, the computer device  2000  may include a processor  2010  for carrying out processing functions associated with one or more of the features described herein. The processor  2010  may include a single or multiple set of processors or multi-core processors. Moreover, the processor  2010  may be implemented as an integrated processing system and/or a distributed processing system. The processor  2010  may include a central processing unit (CPU), a quantum processing unit (QPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU), or combination of those types of processors. In one aspect, the processor  2010  may refer to a general processor of the computer device  2000 , which may also include additional processors  2010  to perform more specific functions such as functions for individual beam control. 
     In an example, the computer device  2000  may include a memory  2020  for storing instructions executable by the processor  2010  for carrying out the functions described herein. In an implementation, for example, the memory  2020  may correspond to a computer-readable storage medium that stores code or instructions to perform one or more of the functions or operations described herein. Just like the processor  2010 , the memory  2020  may refer to a general memory of the computer device  2000 , which may also include additional memories  2020  to store instructions and/or data for more specific functions such as instructions and/or data for individual beam control. 
     Further, the computer device  2000  may include a communications component  2030  that provides for establishing and maintaining communications with one or more parties utilizing hardware, software, and services as described herein. The communications component  2030  may carry communications between components on the computer device  2000 , as well as between the computer device  2000  and external devices, such as devices located across a communications network and/or devices serially or locally connected to computer device  2000 . For example, the communications component  2030  may include one or more buses, and may further include transmit chain components and receive chain components associated with a transmitter and receiver, respectively, operable for interfacing with external devices. 
     Additionally, the computer device  2000  may include a data store  2040 , which can be any suitable combination of hardware and/or software, which provides for mass storage of information, databases, and programs employed in connection with implementations described herein. For example, the data store  2040  may be a data repository for operating system  2060  (e.g., classical OS, or quantum OS). In one implementation, the data store  2040  may include the memory  2020 . 
     The computer device  2000  may also include a user interface component  2050  operable to receive inputs from a user of the computer device  2000  and further operable to generate outputs for presentation to the user or to provide to a different system (directly or indirectly). The user interface component  2050  may include one or more input devices, including but not limited to a keyboard, a number pad, a mouse, a touch-sensitive display, a digitizer, a navigation key, a function key, a microphone, a voice recognition component, any other mechanism capable of receiving an input from a user, or any combination thereof. Further, the user interface component  2050  may include one or more output devices, including but not limited to a display, a speaker, a haptic feedback mechanism, a printer, any other mechanism capable of presenting an output to a user, or any combination thereof. 
     In an implementation, the user interface component  2050  may transmit and/or receive messages corresponding to the operation of the operating system  2060 . In addition, the processor  2010  may execute the operating system  2060  and/or applications or programs, and the memory  2020  or the data store  2040  may store them. 
     When the computer device  2000  is implemented as part of a cloud-based infrastructure solution, the user interface component  2050  may be used to allow a user of the cloud-based infrastructure solution to remotely interact with the computer device  2000 . 
       FIG.  21    illustrates an example of a scheme for cross-talk mitigation. In quantum computers based on the optical manipulation of a chain of trapped ions, one source of error may be caused by the optical crosstalk of the control beams. That is, when a control beam is intended to address one ion, the control beam may have non-negligible intensity at the locations of the neighboring ions. This may unintentionally drive qubit transitions in the neighboring ions, which may lead to computational error. This error may be reduced by using composite pulses sequences to drive single-qubit gates, but such a remedy is may not possible for two-qubit gates. The problem of crosstalk may worsen as the length of the ion chain increases, because a longer ion chain may require the spacing between neighboring ions to be reduced, leading to higher levels of crosstalk. Crosstalk may be minimized through careful optical engineering of the control beam, but alternative methods of mitigating the impact of optical crosstalk may be desirable. 
     In some aspects, one method of mitigating the impact of optical crosstalk is by selecting ions that will not serve as qubits for a particular computation and making them insensitive to optical manipulation. Therefore, if there is some crosstalk onto these ions, the crosstalk has no effect on the outcome of the computation. This can be done, for example, by making those ions different isotopes or chemical elements. However, for these methods, the number of non-qubit ions cannot be changed without reloading the entire chain, which is not feasible to do dynamically between computations. 
     Aspects of the present disclosure include techniques that are based on DSSS trapped-ion control with a global HSS beam plus individually addressable Raman beams. This method works by coherently transferring ions in a single-species chain between different atomic manifolds. Specifically, aspects of the present disclosure include strategically selecting qubit ions and shelving some or all remaining ions into the metastable state. Consequently, the non-qubit ions may be insensitive to the optical control beam, vastly reducing the impact of optical crosstalk. 
     Depending on the number of ions in the chain and/or the number of qubits needed for a particular calculation, aspects of the present disclosure include dynamically selecting the set of “buffer” ions to shelve. When fewer than half the ions in the chain are allocated as qubits, every other ion may be shelved to improve nearest-neighbor crosstalk suppression. When most but not all of the ions are needed, aspects of the present disclosure include strategically selecting the buffer ions depending on the participation of different ions in certain motional modes, particulars of the optical crosstalk profile across the chain, or any other consideration. 
     The technique described above may be less sensitive to the quality of the shelving pulses. In the certain techniques, the qubit ions are transferred from the ground state to the metastable state and back multiple times throughout a sequence. Such techniques may require the error rate and phase noise of the shelving pulses be low. In the current scheme, however, there is no need to retrieve the non-qubit ions from the metastable state once the non-qubit ions are shelved there. Thus, it may be possible to drive multiple shelving pulses to different metastable states. The error rate of the shelving operation is therefore the product of the error rates of the individual shelving pulses, which may be made negligibly small with very loose requirements on the quality of the individual shelving pulses. 
     Further, since the selective shelving operation requires only single-qubit Raman manipulation, aspects of the present disclosure may include using composite pulse sequences for the selective shelving operation, which are constructed to suppress sensitivity to crosstalk, to separate out the non-qubit ions. Therefore, the crosstalk-suppression scheme can itself be made to be relatively insensitive to crosstalk. 
     One aspect of the present disclosure includes selecting non-adjacent trapped ions to participate in qubit operations. The neighboring trapped ions of the non-adjacent trapped ions may be shuttled to the metastable manifold to reduce the impacts of optical cross-talk. 
     Still referring to  FIG.  21   , in some aspects, an example quantum computer implemented based on DSSS trapped ion control scheme may include an ion chain  2100  having  10  trapped ions  2101 ,  2102 ,  2103 ,  2104 ,  2105 ,  2106 ,  2107 ,  2108 ,  2109 ,  2110 . A global HSS beam (not shown) may be applied to the trapped ions  2101 - 1610 , with individual Raman beams applied for transitioning among the manifolds. When a first Raman beam  2150  is applied to the trapped ion  2102 , a portion of the first Raman beam  2150  may “leak” into the neighboring trapped ions (trapped ions  2101 ,  2103 ), which may lead to optical cross-talk and/or noise. The “leaks” may be caused by scattering, diffusion, reflection, refraction, and/or diffraction of the first Raman beam  2150 , or the spatial extent of beam  2150 , independent of any optical errors, may be such that it has non-negligible intensity at the location of ions  2101  and  2103 . Such “leaks” may cause errors in the states of the neighboring trapped ions. According to an aspect of the present disclosure, prior to the addressing of the trapped ion  2102 , the neighboring trapped ions (i.e., trapped ions  2101 ,  2103 ) may be shuttled from the ground state manifold to the metastable manifold (e.g., using one or more m-type Raman beams). Consequently, during the addressing of the trapped ion  2102 , any “leak” of the first Raman beam  2150  into the neighboring trapped ions may not negatively impact the computation since the neighboring trapped ions are in the metastable manifold. 
     In another aspect, a qubit may be implemented by the trapped ions  2102 ,  2106 . As such, the trapped ion  2102  may be entangled with the trapped ion  2106 . Further, the trapped ion  2102  may be slightly entangled with the trapped ions  2105  and  2107  (slightly entangled may mean less entangled than the entanglement between trapped ions  2102 ,  2106 ). The trapped ion  2106  may be slightly entangled with the trapped ions  2101 ,  2103 . Therefore, if the neighboring trapped ions of the trapped ions  2102 ,  2106  are shelved to the metastable manifold, less error will be introduced into the computation during the addressing of the trapped ions  2102 ,  2106 . 
     In other aspects of the present disclosure, a measurement process may be implemented to measure the severity of the cross-talk (to the neighboring trapped ions) caused by the Raman beam during the addressing of each trapped ion in an ion chain. If a qubit operation requires more than half of the available trapped ions in the ion chain, aspects of the present disclosure may including selecting the trapped ions having Raman beams that cause the less optical cross-talk to the neighboring trapped ions. 
     Still referring to  FIG.  21   , in one aspect of the present disclosure, a qubit operation may require six of the ten qubits in the ion chain  2100 . During the measurement process described above, it may be determined that the addressing of the trapped ions  2102 ,  2104 ,  2106 ,  2108 ,  2109 ,  2110  by the corresponding Raman beams  2150 ,  2151 ,  2152 ,  2153 ,  2154 ,  2155  cause less optical cross-talk to the neighboring ions than the addressing of the trapped ions  2101 ,  2103 ,  2105 ,  2107 . Consequently, aspects of the present disclosure may include selecting the trapped ions  2102 ,  2104 ,  2106 ,  2108 ,  2109 ,  2110  for the qubit operation to reduce overall noise/error during the qubit operation. The remaining trapped ions not participating in the qubit operation (i.e., trapped ions  2101 ,  2103 ,  2105 ,  2107 ) may be shelved to the metastable manifolds as described above. 
       FIG.  22    illustrates an example of a control system  2200  configured to control the ion chain  2100  according to aspects of the present disclosure. In some aspects, the control system  2200  may include first light source  2202  configured to emit a global optical beam  2204  toward the ion chain  2100 . The control system  2200  may include a second light source  2212  configured to emit individual Raman beams toward the ion chain  2100 . The control system  2200  may include a magnetic system  2222  configured to apply a magnetic field  2224  across the ion chain  2100 . The control system  2200  may include a biasing system  2226  configured to apply one or more of a direct current (DC) and/or a radio frequency (RF) bias on the ion chain  2100 . The biasing system  2226  may include one or more electrodes configured to apply DC and/or the RF fields. In some aspects, the biasing system  2226  may trap one or more ions in the ion chain  2100 . 
     Turning to  FIG.  23   , a method  2300  of reducing cross-talk in a QIP system may be performed by the control system  2200 , subcomponents of the control system  2200 , the laser scheme of  FIG.  18   , the QIP system  1900 , subcomponents of the QIP system  1900 , the computer device  2000 , and/or subcomponents of the computer device  2000 . 
     At block  2305 , the method  2300  may identify an ion chain having a plurality of trapped ions. For example, the QIP system  1900  and/or the computer device  2000  may identify an ion chain having a plurality of trapped ions. 
     At block  2310 , the method  2300  may select at least two non-consecutive trapped ions in the ion chain for implementing a qubit. For example, the QIP system  1900 , subcomponents of the QIP system  1900 , the computer device  2000 , and/or subcomponents of the computer device  2000  may select the trapped ions  2102 ,  2104  of the ion chain  2100  for implementing a qubit. 
     At block  2315 , the method  2300  may apply at least a first Raman beam to shuttle at least one neighbor ION of the at least two non-consecutive trapped ions from a ground state to a metastable state. For example, the first light source  2202  and/or the second light source  2212  may apply the individual Raman beams  2214  to the neighboring trapped ion  2103  to transition the neighboring trapped ion  2103  to the metastable state. 
     At block  2320 , the method  2300  may apply at least a second Raman beam to one or more of the at least two non-consecutive trapped ions, after shuttling the at least one neighbor ION to the metastable state, to transition from a first manifold to a second manifold. For example, the second light source  2212  may apply the individual Raman beams  2214  to the trapped ions  2102 ,  2104 . 
     In some aspects, a sensitive method of compensating unwanted static electric fields (i.e., stray fields) in an ion trap may be to directly probe the micromotion that results when the stray field pushes the ion into a region with non-zero RF-field. In some instances, the qubit rotations may be excited using Raman transitions on an RF sideband of the carrier resonant frequency. The stray field may be compensated when this excitation is minimized. In some aspects, it may be necessary that the Raman laser that excites the qubit has a component of its propagation direction parallel to the direction of micromotion. In some aspects, in a surface electrode ion trap, Raman lasers may be typically aligned so that the propagation directions are nominally parallel to the trap surface. Therefore, it may be difficult to implement traditional methods of operating Raman lasers to compensate stray fields. 
     In certain aspects, there may be instances during the operation of a QIP system that require multiple shuttling of the ions between the S manifold and the D manifold. However, many of these instances may only require the shuttling of non-qubit ions (e.g., cooling ions). However, a global beam applied to an ion chain for the shuttling may transfer both the qubit ions and the non-qubit ions, which may unnecessarily introduce noise into the qubit ions. Aspects of the present disclosure include using a “trap-door” to perform readout and/or loading of non-qubit ions without shuttling the qubit ions between the S and D manifolds. Consequently, the use of trap-door may reduce the addition of noise to the qubit ions. 
     In some aspects of the present disclosure, states associated with the “trap-door” may be coupled to certain states (e.g., states within the same manifold) via Raman transitions and other states (e.g., states of a different manifold) via clock transitions. By selectively applying Raman beams and global beams to the ions (i.e., qubit ions and non-qubit ions such as cooling/ancillary ions), the scheme used in the current application reduces the addition of noise to the qubit ions during the clock transitions of the non-qubit ions. 
       FIG.  24    illustrates an example of Ba- 137  level structure with allowed transitions between clock states according aspects of the present disclosure. Aspects of the present disclosure may including performing Raman in the D states and working with clock states. For Ba- 133 , there may be two clock states in both the S and D manifolds. At least some of the states may be used as qubit states. In Ba- 137 , there may be a larger set of states and transitions as shown in  FIG.  24   . 
     In some aspects, 1′ and 2′ may be selected as the D-state qubit states because 3′ and 4′ are separated by approximately 500 kilohertz (kHz). The 3′ and 4′ states, though not used as qubit states, may be coupled to the D-state qubit states 1′ and 2′ by Raman transitions, and to the S-state qubit states 1 and 2 by clock transitions. Therefore, the 3′ and 4′ states may provide a “trap-door” out of the qubit subspace by which the population may be shuttled back and forth between S and D. 
       FIG.  25    illustrates an example of trap-door mid-circuit readout. In some aspects, the scheme shown in  FIG.  25    illustrates a technique for using the trap-door to perform a mid-circuit measurement. First, the ancilla ions are driven from 1′ state to 3′ state via Raman transitions. Next, the 1′ component of the ancilla ions population state may be transferred from 3′ state to 1 state in the S states. The ancilla ions may be separated from the qubit ions with individually-addressed Raman first, and then the global clock beam second. This may allow for the transfer of only the ancilla ions to the S state. The qubit ions may not be driven in the clock transition, and therefore, they do not experience clock-related errors. The coolant ions in S may be pumped from the 1 state to the 2 state prior to starting the readout sequence. 
     In some aspects, the scheme for Ba-133 may not include the spare empty states shown here, and the 0 components of both the ancilla ions and the qubit ions may be transferred to the S state. Afterward, the two ion types with individually-addressed Raman pulses were separated. Finally, the qubit ions may be moved back to D. As a result, the qubit ions may be susceptible to both phase noise from the clock laser because they are split between the S and D states during the application of the Raman pulses, and the transfer error because of the S-D round trip. While some of the phase noises may be echoed out, that process may require more S-D round trips and may increase transfer errors for the qubits. 
     According to aspects of the present disclosure, under the trap-door scheme, the qubits ions are not addressed with the clock laser and thus avoid the problem described above. 
     In some aspects, the ancilla ions may be susceptible to clock transfer error when performing partial readout. However, the clock transfer error may be reduced by driving repeated clock pi pulses from 3′ to 1 with optical pumping from 1 to 2 in between. Optical pumping in the S states may be bi-directional and may depend on the location of the carrier (e.g., 493 carrier). This method may ignore collecting population in the clock states. Alternatively or additionally to repeated discrete clock and pump pulses, a weak clock drive may be applied and pump beam simultaneously, continuously pumping population from 3′ state to the 2 state in the S manifold. In some instances, the phase coherence in the ancilla ions may be negatively impacted. However, the projective measurement may allow the error-reduction methods described above. 
     In some instances, the error reduction techniques described herein may be used to readout the qubit ions at the end of the measurement. Specifically, the clock transition is to be driven from 1′ to 1 directly without using the trap door. However, the error-reduction techniques of applying either repeated pulses or continuous drives may still be implemented. 
       FIG.  26    illustrates an example of trap-door loading according aspects of the present disclosure. In some aspects, this technique may be implemented toward an end of the partial readout sequence to fold the ancilla ions back into the qubit array. In other aspects, this technique may be utilized at the beginning of the sequence to ensure efficient and verifiable preparation of qubit ions in 1′. In some implementations, at (1), one or more ions may be pumped to 1. Next, at (2), an imperfect clock transition drives the one or more ions to 3′. At (3), one or more Raman pulses are used to transfer the qubit ions to 1′. Next, at (4) and (5), the ions in 3′ are flushed back to S using a high fidelity pumping method described above. At (6), both the 1 and 2 manifolds are illuminated to check that only the coolant ions have been pumped to S. If any qubit ion has failed to initialize into 1′, the sequence may be run again, applying the Raman pulses only to the qubit ions that were not successfully initialized previously. The dynamic method (i.e., making a second attempt at initializing only those ions that failed on the first attempt), may be more scalable than other methods of trying to initialize the entire register until all qubit ions are successfully initialized in the same attempt. 
     In some aspects of the present disclosure, the dynamic attempt approach may be similar in spirit to the neutral atom array experiments. Specifically, cold atoms may be loaded into an array of optical tweezers with some non-unity per-tweezer success rate. The size of the array is such that the odds of successfully loading into every tweezer in one try may be small. As a result, measurements may be done to tweezers with atoms. Empty tweezers tones may be eliminated. Remaining tweezers may be condensed into a smaller array (than initial) with complete filling. However, according to aspects of the current disclosure, unsuccessful qubit ions are not eliminated. Rather, unsuccessful qubit ions are re-initialized, without disturbing the previously-initialized qubit ions using the methods described above. 
       FIG.  27    illustrates an example of a method  2700  for trap-door loading that may be performed by the control system  2200 , the computer device  2000 , the QIP system  1900 , and/or one or more subcomponents of the control system  2200 , the computer device  2000 , the QIP system  1900 . 
     At block  2702 , the method  2700  may pump at least one ancilla ion of a plurality of ions from a first state of a first manifold to a second state of the first manifold. For example, the first light source  2202  and/or the second light source  2212  of the control system  2200  may pump (e.g., individual Raman beams and/or global clock beam) at least one ancilla ion of a plurality of ions from the ‘1 state of the D manifold to the ‘3 state of the D manifold. 
     At block  2704 , the method  2700  may apply a global clock beam to the at least one ancilla ion to transfer the at least one ancilla ion from the second state to a third state of a second manifold. For example, the first light source  2202  and/or the second light source  2212  of the control system  2200  may apply a global clock beam to the at least one ancilla ion to transfer the at least one ancilla ion from the ‘3 state of the D manifold to the 1 state of the S manifold. 
       FIG.  28    illustrates another example of a method  2800  for trap-door loading may be performed by the control system  2200 , the computer device  2000 , the QIP system  1900 , and/or one or more subcomponents of the control system  2200 , the computer device  2000 , the QIP system  1900 . 
     At block  2802 , the method  2800  may pump a plurality of ions from a first state of a first manifold to a second state of the first manifold. For example, the first light source  2202  and/or the second light source  2212  of the control system  2200  may pump (e.g., individual Raman beams and/or global clock beam, or other suitable light beams) a plurality of ions from the 2 state of the S manifold to the 1 state of the S manifold. 
     At block  2804 , the method  2800  may drive, via a clock transition, the plurality of ions to a third state of a second manifold. For example, the first light source  2202  and/or the second light source  2212  of the control system  2200  may drive, via a clock transition, the plurality of ions to from the 1 state of the S manifold to the 3′ state of the D manifold. 
     At block  2806 , the method  2800  may apply one or more Raman pulses to transfer at least one qubit ion of the plurality of ions to a fourth state of the second manifold. For example, the first light source  2202  and/or the second light source  2212  of the control system  2200  may apply one or more Raman pulses to transfer at least one qubit ion of the plurality of ions from the 3′ state of the D manifold to the 1′ state of the D manifold. 
     At block  2808 , the method  2800  may apply a global clock beam to one or more remaining ions of the plurality of ions to transfer the one or more remaining ions from the third state of the second manifold to the second state of the first manifold. For example, the first light source  2202  and/or the second light source  2212  of the control system  2200  may apply a global clock beam to one or more remaining ions of the plurality of ions to transfer the one or more remaining ions from the 3′ state of the D manifold back to the 1 state of the S manifold. The transfer of the ions back to the S manifold may enable the measurements of which ions were initialized properly as described above. For ions that were not initialized properly, the method  2800  may re-initialized those ions again. 
     In some atomic elements, such as barium, there is a metastable D-state manifold into which some ions may be shelved while various operations are performed on other ions in the ground S-state manifold. This principle may be used in the dual-space single-species (DSSS) architecture. In one aspect of the DSSS architecture, the qubit ions may remain in the D 5/2  manifold for the entire duration of the computation, which may be performed using Raman beams within the D-state qubit subspace. 
     As part of the DSSS architecture, aspects of the present disclosure include a scheme to enable heralded, per-ion state initialization of the D-state qubit, and partial readout of a register of D-state qubits that minimizes the idle error rate experienced by the qubits that are not being read out. 
       FIG.  29    illustrates an example of transitions between S-manifold qubit states, transfer states, and/or D-manifold qubit states for barium 133. The S-manifold qubit states may be the clock states, and the D-manifold qubit states may be the first-order field insensitive (FOFI) states. The schemes described above may rely on the ability to drive Raman transitions within the D manifold, both between the two qubit states and from the qubit states to transfer states. As shown in  FIG.  29   , these transfer states, which are also coupled to the S-manifold qubit states by the optical clock transition, may be used to shuttle population between the S- and the D-manifold qubit states. In an aspect, the current schemes do not require more than two D 512  hyperfine manifolds, and may be used with barium 133, barium 137, and/or other isotopes with suitably similar atomic structures. 
       FIG.  30    illustrates an example of a schematic of Raman transitions driven between the S-manifold qubit states. In some aspects of the present disclosure, Raman beams (e.g., counter propagating Raman beams) may be used to drive the Raman transitions among qubit states. When driving the qubit-qubit transition, the Raman beams may cause a light shift of the qubit frequency if the beams are off-resonantly coupled to other transitions. As shown in  FIG.  30   , Raman transitions may be driven between the S-manifold qubit states |0 S   =|F=0, m F =0  and |1 S   =|F=1, m F =0 . The beams (e.g., two frequency components of the same beam) that couple to the two qubit states are indicated by the solid and long dashed arrows, and the different polarization components are grouped by short dashed circles.  FIG.  30    may illustrate a scheme associated with barium 133, but the scheme is applicable to other ions, such as barium 137. 
     In the current application, m F  represents the projection along the direction of the magnetic field of the combined angular momentum vector of the nuclear and electronic spin of the corresponding ion. Am F  represents the change in the combined angular momentum vector projection. 
     To drive the S-manifold qubit transition (which has Δm F =0), two beams (or frequency components of the same beam) having σ +  and/or σ −  polarizations may be used. Any π polarization (i.e., with electric field having a projection along the quantization direction set by the magnetic field) may enable coupling to the Zeeman states |F=1, m F =±1 , which is a transition with |Δm F |=1. This off-resonant coupling may lead to unwanted light shifts. Therefore, it may be desirable for the Raman beams to align parallel to the magnetic field to reduce 7C polarization. Raman transitions with |Δm F |=2 are forbidden in the S manifold with certain isotopes with a nuclear spin of 
     
       
         
           
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     (e.g., barium 133). iii mutupes with 
     
       
         
           
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     (e.g., barium 137), Raman transitions with |Δm F |=2 may be heavily suppressed in the S manifold. 
     In one aspect of the present disclosure, qubit transition in the S manifold may be driven by two beams with orthogonal linear polarizations, which combine the σ +  σ −  polarizations with the correct phases to enable the transition. However, each beam individually may not be sufficient to off-resonantly drive the qubit transition, which further reduces unwanted light shifts. This may be important when the Raman beams are produced by a pulsed laser, where each beam includes frequency components that span a range larger than the qubit frequency splitting. 
     To implement the schemes mentioned above, an aspect includes driving the transitions in the D manifold both between the two qubit states, and from the qubit states to one or more of the transfer states. In an example, for barium 133 (which has a nuclear spin of 
     
       
         
           
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     and only two hyperfine manifolds in the D 5/2  manifold), implementing the scheme above would require driving the Raman transitions with Δm F =0 to couple the two qubit states, and Raman transitions with Δm F ≠0 to couple to the transfer states. This may be achieved by selectively driving the two Raman transitions (Δm F =0 and Δm F ≠0). Specifically, it may be advantageous to drive the qubit transition with Δm F =0 using Raman beams not coupled to other transitions with Δm F ≠0 that may lead to light shifts. One option would be to apply a beam with π polarization to drive the transitions to the transfer states with |Δm F |=1. However, this may require an additional, individually-addressed Raman beam, in addition to the Raman beams used to drive the qubit transitions. In certain QIP systems, it may be difficult to add additional Raman beams due to geometrical constrains (e.g., a planar ion trap QIP system). 
       FIG.  31    illustrates an example of a scheme of driving Raman transitions between the D-manifold FOFI qubit states and potential transfer states. The beams (e.g., two frequency components of the same beam) that couple to the two hyperfine manifolds are indicated by the solid and long dashed arrows, and the different polarization components are grouped by short dashed circles. The diagram shown in  FIG.  31    may be associated with barium 133, but the scheme is applicable to other ions and/or isotopes. 
     In certain aspects, Raman configuration of applying two beams (and/or two beat notes of a beam) with orthogonal linear polarization may be capable of driving transitions with both |Δm F |=0 and |Δm F =2. As shown in  FIG.  31   , the σ +  or σ −  components of the both beams may together drive the |Δm F |=0 qubit transition (e.g., S-manifold qubit states. However, the σ +  component of one beam and the σ −  component of another beam may drive the transitions with |Δm F |=2, which are allowed in the D-manifold. Both types of transition may be simultaneously allowed, which may result in the off-resonant |Δm F |=2 transitions causing unwanted light shifts when driving the |Δm F |=0 qubit transition. 
     An aspect of the present disclosure includes a scheme for selectively driving either Raman transitions with |Δm F |=0 between the two qubit states, or Raman transitions with |Δm F |=2 between the qubit and transfer states. The scheme may be performed using the same light sources used for driving only the qubit transition, and does not require fast polarization switching. An advantage of the current scheme includes improved Raman manipulation of ions without added complexity to the light source. 
       FIG.  32    illustrates a scheme for Raman manipulation of trapped ions according to aspects of the present disclosure, In  FIG.  32   , beams L 1 , L 2 , R 1 , R 2  used for the scheme may be steered to address any of ions in an ion chain  3210 . More than one of the beams L 1 , L 2 , R 1 , R 2  may address the same ion simultaneously. Example of the beams L 1 , L 2 , R 1 , R 2  may be the first light source  2202  and/or the second light source  2212 . The beams L 1 , L 2 , R 1 , R 2  may propagate parallel to the magnetic field B, which enables the beams L 1 , L 2 , R 1 , R 2  to be circularly polarized. The frequencies of the beams L 1 , R 1  are tuned so that they address the upper hyperfine manifold, and the frequencies of the beams L 2 , R 2  are tuned so that they address the lower hyperfine manifold. The beams L 1 , R 2  may have σ +  polarization, and the beams L 2 , R 1  have σ −  polarization. 
     In some aspects of the present disclosure, to drive the qubit transition |Δm F |=0, the beams L 1 , R 2  may be applied, or the beams L 2 , R 1  may be applied. Both beam pairs may be counter-propagating, which enables them to drive two-qubit entangling gates that depend on addressing the motional modes of the ion chain  3210 . Because the applied beams (e.g., the beams L 1 , R 2  or the beams L 2 , R 1 ) have the same polarization, they cannot address any |Δm F |=2 transitions and do not create unwanted light shifts. 
     In an aspect of the present disclosure, to drive transitions from the qubit states to one of the transfer states, the beams L 1 , L 2  may be applied, or the beams R 1 , R 2  may be applied, depending on which specific qubit-transfer transition is to be addressed. It may be desirable for the beams L 1 , L 2  or the beams R 1 , R 2  are co-propagating to avoid performing entangling gates using the qubit-transfer transition. An advantage of the scheme above includes making the transitions described relatively insensitive to the motion or temperature of the ions. 
     In some instances, each of the beams L 1 , L 2 , R 1 , R 2  may individually drive the qubit transition. However, because the frequency of the qubit transition is typically larger than the frequency difference between the qubit transition and the various |Δm F =2 transitions, the light shift resulting from this scheme will likely be smaller than those resulting from the traditional Roman configuration where the beams have orthogonal linear polarizations. 
     In some aspects of the present disclosure include analyzing a specific isotope and magnetic field strength. Interpolating between the schemes (i.e., adapting the scheme shown in  FIG.  32    so that the beams L 1 , L 2 , R 1 , R 2  are elliptically rather than circularly polarized) may result in smaller overall light shifts. Therefore, the scheme presented above may provide the flexibility to reduce the total light shift. 
       FIG.  33    illustrates an example of a method  3300  for driving Raman transition to transfer states in the D-manifold according to aspects of the present disclosure. The method  3300  may be performed by one or more of the QIP system  1900 , the computer device  2000 , the control system  2200 , and/or one or more subcomponents of the QIP system  1900 , the computer device  2000 , or the control system  2200 . 
     At  3305 , the method  3300  may apply, to one or more ions in an ion chain, a first light beam having a first polarization and a second light beam having a second polarization to transfer the one or more ions from a first state of a first manifold to a second state of the first manifold, wherein the one or more ions in the first state includes a first angular momentum different than a second angular momentum in the second state. For example, the second light source  2212  may apply, to one or more ions in an ion chain, a first light beam having a first polarization and a second light beam having a second polarization to transfer the one or more ions from a first state of a first manifold to a second state of the first manifold, wherein the one or more ions in the first state includes a first angular momentum different than a second angular momentum in the second state. 
     At  3310 , the method  3300  may apply, to the one or more ions, the first light beam and the second light beam to transfer the one or more ions from the second state back to the first state. For example, the second light source  2212  may apply, to the one or more ions, the first light beam and the second light beam to transfer the one or more ions from the second state back to the first state. 
     At  3315 , the method  3300  may apply, to the one or more ions, a third light beam to transition the one or more ions from the first state to a third state in a second manifold. For example, the first light source  2202  may apply, to the one or more ions, a third light beam to transition the one or more ions from the first state to a third state in a second manifold. 
     In optional implementations, the method  3300  may apply the third light beam to transition the one or more ions from the first state to a third state in the first manifold. For example, if the method  3300  applies a Raman beam having the same polarization as the first beam, but illuminates the one or more ions from a counter-propagating direction, the one or more ions may be transitioned to other qubit states in the first manifold. In another example, if the method  3300  applies a global clock beam to the one or more ions, the one or more ions may be transitioned to a different manifold. 
     Aspects of the present disclosure include a method for applying, to one or more ions in an ion chain, a first light beam having a first polarization and a second light beam having a second polarization to transfer the one or more ions from a first state of a first manifold to a second state of the first manifold, wherein the one or more ions in the first state includes a first angular momentum different than a second angular momentum in the second state, applying, to the one or more ions, the first light beam and the second light beam to transfer the one or more ions from the second state back to the first state, and applying, to the one or more ions, a third light beam to transition the one or more ions from the first state to a third state in a second manifold. 
     Aspects of the present disclosure include the method above, wherein applying the first light beam and the second light beam to transfer the one or more ions from the first state to the second state or from the second state to the first state comprises applying the first light beam in a co-propagating direction as the second light beam. 
     Aspects of the present disclosure include any of the methods above, wherein the first light beam and the second light beam are circularly polarized light beams or elliptically polarized light beams. 
     Aspects of the present disclosure include any of the methods above, wherein the third beam is a global beam. 
     Aspects of the present disclosure include any of the methods above, further comprises applying a magnetic field parallel to the first light beam and the second light beam. 
     Aspects of the present disclosure include any of the methods above, wherein the first light beam is σ+ polarized and the second light beam is σ− polarized. 
     Aspects of the present disclosure include any of the methods above, wherein applying the first light beam and the second light beam to transfer the one or more ions from the first state to the second state or from the second state to the first state comprises applying a single light beam having a first beat note associated with the first light beam and a second beat note associated with the second light beam. 
     The previous description of the disclosure is provided to enable a person skilled in the art to make or use the disclosure. Various modifications to the disclosure will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art, and the common principles defined herein may be applied to other variations without departing from the spirit or scope of the disclosure. Furthermore, although elements of the described aspects may be described or claimed in the singular, the plural is contemplated unless limitation to the singular is explicitly stated. Additionally, all or a portion of any aspect may be utilized with all or a portion of any other aspect, unless stated otherwise. Thus, the disclosure is not to be limited to the examples and designs described herein but is to be accorded the widest scope consistent with the principles and novel features disclosed herein.