Patent Publication Number: US-8523830-B2

Title: Disinfecting caps for medical female luer connectors

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/610,141, filed Oct. 30, 2009, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 8,172,825. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     1. Technical Field 
     The present disclosure generally relates to caps for medical connectors and more specifically relates to caps that can be used to protect the sterility of unconnected medical connectors, such as connectors that may be used for fluid flow or for fluid delivery systems. Some embodiments are directed to caps for medical connectors that include elongated male portions. 
     2. Related Art 
     Bloodstream infections, such as may be caused by microorganisms that enter patients via intravascular catheters, are a significant cause of illness and excess medical costs. A substantial number of such infections occur in U.S. intensive care units annually. Additionally, a significant fraction of these infections result in death. 
     Guidelines from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describe various ways to limit bloodstream infections in hospital, outpatient, and home care settings. The guidelines address issues such as hand hygiene, catheter site care, and admixture preparation. However, despite these guidelines, such infections continue to plague healthcare systems at relatively unchanged rates. 
     Impregnating catheters with various antimicrobial agents is one approach for reducing these infections. Impregnated catheters, however, provide less than satisfactory results. Additionally, some microbes have developed resistance to the various antimicrobial agents used in the catheters. Other systems and approaches have also been developed, but these likewise suffer from a variety of limitations and drawbacks. 
     SUMMARY 
     Disclosed herein are disinfecting caps, and related systems and methods, that can reduce the threat of microorganisms entering the bloodstream of a patient via fluid flow or fluid delivery systems, such as, for example, needleless injection sites and/or fluid transfer devices having an elongated male portion or male protrusion, such as, for example, a male luer. In some embodiments, a cap is configured to couple with and disinfect a medical connector having a male protrusion. In further embodiments, the cap can include an antiseptic, and can be configured to create a seal with the male protrusion so as prevent antiseptic from entering a lumen of the male protrusion. In some embodiments, the antiseptic may be contained within a pad prior to the coupling of the cap to the medical connector, and the act of coupling the cap to the medical connector can force at least a portion of the antiseptic from the pad and into contact with the male protrusion. Other or further features of various embodiments are also disclosed below and are set forth in the appended claims, which are hereby incorporated by reference in this summary section. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a side elevation view of an embodiment of an assembly that includes an attached pair of medical caps; 
         FIG. 1A  is an end perspective view of the caps of  FIG. 1 ; 
         FIG. 1B  is an end perspective view of the caps of  FIG. 1  shown from a vantage point opposite of that shown in  FIG. 1A ; 
         FIG. 2  is an exploded side elevation view of the medical caps of  FIG. 1 ; 
         FIG. 3  is a perspective view of a female medical cap from the assembly of  FIG. 1 , which shows internal threads; 
         FIG. 4  is a perspective view of the female cap of  FIG. 3  and an associated medical connector about to be connected therewith; 
         FIG. 5  is a perspective view of male cap from the assembly of  FIG. 1  and a luer lock connector to which the male cap may be affixed; 
         FIG. 6  is a side elevation view of an attached pair of medical caps, similar to the caps of  FIG. 1 , but having an embodiment of a sealing mechanism at connecting edges of the caps; 
         FIG. 7  is an exploded side elevation view of the cap assembly of  FIG. 6 ; 
         FIG. 7A  is a perspective view of one of the caps of  FIG. 7  with a sealing mechanism disposed thereon; 
         FIG. 7B  is a perspective view of the other cap of  FIG. 7  with a sealing mechanism disposed thereon; 
         FIG. 8A  is a side elevation view of the interconnected cap assembly of  FIG. 6  with an embodiment of a seal partially displaced about connecting edges of the cap assembly; 
         FIG. 8B  is a side elevation view of the interconnected cap assembly of  FIG. 8A  with the seal fully in place; 
         FIG. 9A  is a side elevation view of the cap portion of  FIG. 3  and an absorbent pad positioned above the cap portion; 
         FIG. 9B  is a side elevation view of the cap portion and pad of  FIG. 9A  schematically showing the absorbent pad disposed within the cap portion; 
         FIG. 9C  is a side elevation view of the cap portion and pad of  FIG. 9B  with a quantity of antiseptic material being dispensed into the cap and pad; 
         FIG. 9D  is a perspective view of the cap portion containing the pad of  FIGS. 9B and 9C  affixed to an associated complementary cap; 
         FIG. 9E  is a side elevation view of the cap portion of  FIG. 5  and an absorbent pad disposed therein; 
         FIG. 10  is a cross-sectional perspective view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes a pair of caps, which are attached to each other via a threaded interface; 
         FIG. 11  is an exploded perspective view of the assembly of  FIG. 10  showing the caps detached from each other; 
         FIG. 12  is a cross-sectional perspective view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes a pair of caps, which are attached to each other via a snapping interface; 
         FIG. 13  is a cross-sectional perspective view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes a pair of caps, which are attached to each other via a friction-fit interface; 
         FIG. 14  is a cross-sectional perspective view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes a pair of caps, which are attached to each other via a press-fit interface; 
         FIG. 15  is a cross-sectional perspective view of the assembly of  FIG. 14  showing the caps detached from each other; 
         FIG. 16  is a cross-sectional perspective view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes a pair of caps, which are attached to each other via a welded interface; 
         FIG. 17  is a cross-sectional perspective view of the assembly of  FIG. 16  showing the caps detached from each other; 
         FIG. 18  is a perspective view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes a pair of caps, which are attached to each other at least partially via a snapping interface; 
         FIG. 19  is a perspective view of the assembly of  FIG. 18  showing the caps detached from each other; 
         FIG. 20  is a perspective view from a different angle of one of the caps of  FIG. 18 ; 
         FIG. 21  is a perspective view from a different angle of another of the caps of  FIG. 18 ; 
         FIG. 22  is a perspective view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes a pair of caps, which are attached to each other via a snapping interface; 
         FIG. 23  is a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes a pair of caps and a sleeve, wherein the caps are shown attached to the sleeve; 
         FIG. 24  is a cross-sectional view of the assembly of  FIG. 23 , wherein the caps are shown detached from the sleeve; 
         FIG. 25  is a perspective view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes two cap portions integrally connected to each other; 
         FIG. 26  is an exploded perspective view of the assembly of  FIG. 25 ; 
         FIG. 27  is a perspective view focusing on one cap portion of the assembly of  FIG. 25 , with covers removed from the assembly; 
         FIG. 28  is a perspective view focusing on the other cap portion of the assembly of  FIG. 25 , with covers removed from the assembly; 
         FIG. 29  is a cross-sectional view of the assembly of  FIG. 28  taken along the view line  29 - 29 ; 
         FIG. 30  is a cross-sectional view of the assembly of  FIG. 25  showing an early stage of coupling a cap portion of the assembly with a medical connector that has a male protrusion; 
         FIG. 31  is a cross-sectional view of the assembly of  FIG. 25  showing a late stage of coupling the cap portion of the assembly with the medical connector that has a male protrusion; 
         FIG. 32  is a cross-sectional view of the assembly of  FIG. 25  showing a late stage of coupling the other cap portion of the assembly with a first embodiment of a needleless injection site; 
         FIG. 33  is a cross-sectional view of the assembly of  FIG. 25  showing a late stage of coupling the other cap portion of the assembly with a second embodiment of a needleless injection site; 
         FIG. 34  is a cross-sectional view of the assembly of  FIG. 25  showing a late stage of coupling the other cap portion of the assembly with a third embodiment of a needleless injection site; 
         FIG. 35  is a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes two cap portions integrally connected to each other, with covers removed from the assembly; 
         FIG. 36  is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes two cap portions integrally connected to each other; 
         FIG. 37  is a cross-sectional view of the assembly of  FIG. 36  similar to the view shown in  FIG. 29 ; 
         FIG. 38  is a cross-sectional view of the assembly of  FIG. 36  showing an early stage of coupling a cap portion of the assembly with a medical connector that has a male protrusion; 
         FIG. 39  is a cross-sectional view of the assembly of  FIG. 36  showing a late stage of coupling a cap portion of the assembly with a medical connector that has a male protrusion; 
         FIG. 40  is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of a cap configured for coupling with a medical connector having a male protrusion; 
         FIG. 41  is a cross-sectional view of the assembled cap of  FIG. 40  showing an early stage of coupling the cap with a medical connector that has a male protrusion in which the male protrusion has not yet contacted a sealing member of the cap; 
         FIG. 42  is a cross-sectional view such as that of  FIG. 41  showing a later stage of coupling the cap with the medical connector in which the male protrusion forms a fluid-tight seal with the sealing member of the cap; 
         FIG. 43  is a cross-sectional view such as that of  FIG. 41  showing a yet later stage of coupling the cap with the medical connector in which a pad is compressed so as to expel antiseptic therefrom through the sealing member and in which the male protrusion has not yet formed a fluid-tight seal with a sidewall of the medical connector; 
         FIG. 44  is a cross-sectional view such as that of  FIG. 41  showing a yet later stage of coupling the cap with the medical connector in which the pad is compressed further so as to expel additional antiseptic therefrom through the sealing member and in which the male protrusion has not yet formed a fluid-tight seal with a sidewall of the medical connector; 
         FIG. 45  is a cross-sectional view such as that of  FIG. 41  showing a yet later stage of coupling the cap with the medical connector in which that pad is compressed even further so as to expel additional antiseptic therefrom through the sealing member and in which the male protrusion forms a fluid-tight seal with a sidewall of the medical connector; 
         FIG. 46  is a cross-sectional view such as that of  FIG. 41  showing another embodiment of cap coupled with a medical connector having a male protrusion; 
         FIG. 47  is a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of a cap configured for coupling with a medical connector having a male protrusion; 
         FIG. 48  is a cross-sectional view of yet another embodiment of a cap configured for coupling with a medical connector having a male protrusion; 
         FIG. 49  is a cross-sectional view of the cap of  FIG. 48  coupled with a medical connector having a male protrusion; 
         FIG. 50  is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes a female cap and a male cap, which can be connected in a pre-use configuration via a sleeve; 
         FIG. 51  is a cross-sectional view of the female cap of  FIG. 50  taken along the view line  51 - 51 ; 
         FIG. 52  is a cross-sectional view of the male cap of  FIG. 49  taken along the view line  52 - 52 ; 
         FIG. 53  is a cross-sectional view of the sleeve of  FIG. 49  taken along the view line  53 - 53 ; 
         FIG. 54  is an elevation view of the assembly of  FIG. 50  shown in a pre-use configuration; 
         FIG. 55  is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes a female cap and a male cap, which can be connected in a pre-use configuration via a sleeve and that includes separation assists; 
         FIG. 56  is an elevation view of an embodiment of a cap that includes a seal inhibitor; 
         FIG. 57  is another elevation view of the cap of  FIG. 56  showing a different face thereof; 
         FIG. 58  is an elevation view of the cap of  FIG. 56  coupled with a removable cover; 
         FIG. 59  is a perspective view of another embodiment of an assembly that includes a female cap and a male cap, which can be connected in a pre-use configuration via a sleeve; 
         FIG. 60  is an exploded perspective view of the assembly of  FIG. 59 ; 
         FIG. 61  is a perspective view of an embodiment of a sleeve that is compatible with the assembly of  FIG. 59 ; 
         FIG. 62A  is a top plan view of an embodiment of a housing portion of a female cap that is compatible with the assembly of  FIG. 59 ; 
         FIG. 62B  is a side elevation view of the housing portion of the female cap of  FIG. 62A ; 
         FIG. 62C  is a front elevation view of the housing portion of the female cap of  FIG. 62A ; 
         FIG. 63A  is a top plan view of an embodiment of a housing portion of a male cap that is compatible with the assembly of  FIG. 59 ; 
         FIG. 63B  is a side elevation view of the housing portion of the male cap of  FIG. 63A ; 
         FIG. 63C  is a front elevation view of the housing portion of the male cap of  FIG. 63A ; 
         FIG. 64  is a cross-sectional view of the assembly of  FIG. 59  taken along the view line  64 - 64  in  FIG. 59 ; 
         FIG. 65A  is a top plan view of the assembly of  FIG. 59 ; 
         FIG. 65B  is a top plan view of the assembly of  FIG. 59  showing a male cap portion thereof having been rotated so as to assist in the release of the male cap from the assembly; 
         FIGS. 66A-66D  depict various stages of an illustrative method for coupling a medical connector with the male cap of  FIG. 65B ; 
         FIG. 67  is a cross-sectional view of the female cap of  FIG. 64  coupled with an embodiment of a needleless injection site; 
         FIG. 68  is a cross-sectional view of the female cap of  FIG. 64  coupled with another embodiment of a needleless injection site; and 
         FIG. 69  is a cross-sectional view of the female cap of  FIG. 64  coupled with another embodiment of a needleless injection site. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Disclosed herein are caps that can be used to protect and/or disinfect medical connectors. Systems and methods related to such caps are also disclosed. An example of medical connectors for which caps disclosed herein may be used are intravascular connectors associated with a fluid pathway, such as an IV line. Commonly, a fluid pathway is used to intermittently administer medications to a patient. For example, a fluid pathway, which communicates fluids with a patient&#39;s blood stream, may have one or more connectors associated therewith. Each of the fluid pathway connectors can be connected to other connectors, such as a connector associated with a central line. In such a situation, the medical connectors, such as luer lock connectors, are connected and disconnected at various times, and may remain disconnected for several minutes or hours. Medical connector caps are used to cover and protect the various medical connectors while the connectors are separated from one another. When the medical connectors are separated from each other, there are two connectors that each can benefit from being covered by a cap. Therefore, in some cases, it can be advantageous to have a single connector set that can be used to provide protection for both ends of a separated connection. In other or further embodiments, a cap can include an antiseptic for disinfecting a medical connector. In some cases, it can be advantageous for the cap to form a seal with the medical connector to thereby prevent the antiseptic from exiting the cap into the fluid pathway. 
     Shown in  FIGS. 1-1B , is a system, unit, or assembly  100  of a pair of separable caps  102  and  104 , which are securely, but releasably, affixed one to the other across a common interface  106 . When assembly  100  is in a pre-use or initially packaged state, the internal parts and surfaces thereof can be sterile, and these are able to reduce, prevent, or eliminate contamination of connectors with which caps  102 ,  104  can be coupled. 
     As further discussed below, in various embodiments, caps  102  and  104  can be distributed in a coupled state, such as that shown in  FIGS. 1-1B , and may be decoupled by a user (e.g., a medical professional) and subsequently coupled with separate medical connectors. Caps  102  and  104  can include features to aid in such a decoupling action and/or in the coupling of caps  102 ,  104  with the respective connectors. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, each cap  102 ,  104  includes gripping features  103 . 
     The gripping features  103  can comprise longitudinally extending lands or ridges  105  that taper from a relatively wide width near the interface  106  of the caps  102 ,  104  to a narrower width at or near an outer end of the cap  102 ,  104 . The gripping features  103  can further include longitudinally extending depressions or grooves  107  between adjacent ridges  105 . For example, as can be seen in  FIGS. 1-8B , the grooves  107  can extend radially inwardly from an outer surface of the cap  102  that comprises the ridges  105 , and the grooves  107  can also commence at a position near the interface  106  and can grow wider and deeper toward an outer end of the cap  102 . The gripping features  103  can further include longitudinally extending bumps or protrusions  108  between adjacent ridges  105 . As can be seen in  FIGS. 1-8B , the protrusions  108  can extend radially outwardly from an outer surface of the cap  104  that comprises the ridges  105 , and the protrusions  108  can also commence at a position near the interface  106  and can grow wider and taller toward an outer end of the cap  104 . The uneven surfaces provided by the ridges  105  and the grooves  107  or protrusions  108  can facilitate rotational movement of the caps  102 ,  104  (e.g., rotational movement relative to each other), which can aid in decoupling the caps  102 ,  104  from each other and/or securing the caps  102 ,  104  to separated connectors. For example, the uneven surfaces may be easily gripped by the fingertips of a medical practitioner. 
     As can be seen, for example, in  FIGS. 1A and 1B , the patterns of the ridges  105 , grooves  107 , and/or protrusions  108  can be different for the caps  102 ,  104 . In the illustrated embodiment, cap  102  includes only ridges  105  and grooves  107 , whereas cap  104  includes only ridges  105  and protrusions  108 . Such differences can aid in distinguishing the caps  102 ,  104  from each other. Other features and methods for distinguishing the caps  102 ,  104  from each other are discussed further below. 
     Caps  102  and  104  are shown as separated from each other, or in a decoupled state, in  FIG. 2 , wherein cap  104  is shown as having an insertable or male section  109 . Section  109  has an elongated portion  110  that ends at an exteriorly disposed threaded segment  112 . Threaded segment  112  comprises threads  114  that are sized and shaped to be inserted and joined by threading into cap  102 . 
     Cap  102 , as shown in  FIG. 3 , has a closed, hollow interior  116 , which may also be referred to as a disinfection cavity or chamber, which opens outwardly at a proximal end  118  to expose an interiorly disposed threaded segment  120  that includes threads  122 . Threads  122  are of a size and pitch to complementarily engage threads  114  of cap  104  for a screw or push-on tight fit with cap  104 . 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 4 , cap  102  has an interior surface  124 , an opening edge  126  and an exterior surface  128 , opening edge  126  being a common link between interior surface  124  and exterior surface  128 . Further, threads  122  also have a size and pitch to engage a threadable segment  130  of a female connector, such as for example, female luer connector  132 . Such connectors are generally and commonly used as catheter and other fluid-tight protective connectors in medical applications. As seen in  FIG. 4 , cap  102  provides a protective cover for connector  132  when encased about connector  132  (displaced in direction of arrow  134 ) whereupon threadable segment  130  engages and is drawn into a secure, but releasable connection with threads  122  of cap  102 . 
     In some embodiments, the connector  132  comprises a needleless injection site, which may sometimes referred to as a needleless injection port, hub, valve, or device, or as a needleless access site, port, hub, valve, or device, and which can include such brands as, for example, Clave® (available from ICU Medical, Inc.), SmartSite® (available from Cardinal Health, Inc.), and Q-Syte™ (available from Becton, Dickinson and Company). Stated otherwise, in some embodiments, cap  102  can be suitably connected with any of a variety of different needless injection sites, such as those previously listed. In certain embodiments, once cap  102  has been applied to or coupled with connector  132 , it is unnecessary to disinfect (e.g. treat with an alcohol swab) the connector  132  prior to each reconnection of the connector  132  with another connector, as the connector  132  will be kept in an uncontaminated state while coupled with the cap  102 . Use of the cap  102  thus can replace the standard swabbing protocol. 
     As seen in  FIG. 5 , threads  114  of cap  104  are of a size and pitch to engage threads  138  of a male luer-lock connector  136 . For example, connector  136  can comprise the end of an IV tubing set that is disconnected from an IV catheter needleless injection site. Note that cap  104  has a medially disposed, elongated hole  140 , which may also be referred to as a disinfection chamber, into which a male protrusion  141  of connector  136  may be facilely and securely inserted when cap  104  is displaced in the direction of arrow  144  to engage connector  136 . The male protrusion  141  may be of any suitable variety. The term “male protrusion” is used broadly herein, and includes any elongated structure. In the illustrated embodiment, the male protrusion  141  comprises a frustoconical luer  142 . 
     Cap  104  also has a surface  146  which continues through to a circular edge  148 . Further, distally displaced from circular edge  148 , surface  146  abruptly ends at a circular ring shaped edge  150 , which is therefrom joined to an outside surface  152 . It may be noted that opening edge  126  (see  FIG. 4 ) and ring shaped edge  150  combine to form common interface  106  (see  FIG. 1 ) when cap  102  is affixed to cap  104  to construct assembly  100 . It should also be noted that, in certain embodiments, surfaces of assembly  100 , which contact internal surfaces of a connector, such as connector  132  or connector  136 , are sufficiently sterile or aseptic to not contaminate the inner surfaces thereof. 
     Internal portions and associated edges of caps  102  and  104  can be pre-sterilized and so maintained until use. Caps  102  and  104  may be injection molded using polypropylene or other material that can be sterilized and which is impervious to contaminating agents while cap  102  is nested with cap  104 , before being opened for use. Caps  102  and  104  can be impregnated or coated with an antimicrobial substance. As an example, each cap  102  and cap  104  may be individually sterilized by ethylene oxide (ETO) before final assembly and aseptically paired, or assembly  100  may be finally consolidated as a single unit and then sterilized, such as by radiation (e.g. gamma). Assembly  100  can be kept intact until the time of use, with internal surfaces of nested parts  102  and  104  remaining clean and sterile until assembly  100  is opened for use. 
     Reference is now made to  FIGS. 6 through 7B , wherein a seal, such as an O-ring, is disposed between surfaces  126  and  150  to provide yet another barrier against internal surface contamination of caps  102  and  104 . As seen in  FIG. 6 , an O-ring  154  is disposed between surfaces  126  and  150  to provide a seal thereby. While O-ring  154  can be displaced from caps  102  and  104  as illustrated in  FIG. 7 , it is anticipated that O-ring  154  can be adapted to remain affixed to one of caps  102  and  104 . For example, as illustrated in  FIG. 7A , O-ring  154  can remain positioned adjacent surface  150  on cap  104  when caps  102  and  104  are disconnected from one another, rather than being separated when cap  104  is displaced from cap  102 , as seen in  FIG. 7 . 
     Alternatively, O-ring  154  can be associated with cap  102 , as seen in  FIG. 7B . In particular, opening edge  126  of cap  102  can have an annular groove  156  for receiving O-ring  154  therein. Annular groove  156  can be sized and shaped such that O-ring  154  sealingly engages cap  104  or a medical connector when cap  102  is coupled thereto. It will be appreciated that annular groove  156  can be disposed in opening edge  126  toward the exterior of cap  102  as illustrated in  FIG. 7B , or annular groove  126  can be disposed in opening edge  126  towards the interior of cap  102 . In some exemplary embodiments, opening edge  126  of cap  102  does not have annular groove  126  therein. In such embodiments, O-ring  154  can be mounted directly to opening edge  126 . O-ring  154  can be mounted on or to caps  102  or  104  in any suitable manner, including with the use of an adhesive, such as glue, a mechanical fastener, or a friction fitting. 
     While the seal between caps  102  and  104  has been described as being an O-ring mounted on one of caps  102  or  104 , it will be appreciated that other seals are contemplated. For example, each of caps  102  and  104  can have an O-ring mounted thereon. In such a configuration, the two O-rings abut each other when caps  102  and  104  are coupled together, thereby forming a seal to antiseptically partition the internal and external surfaces of caps  102  and  104 . In an alternate embodiment, an O-ring or other sealing mechanism can be mounted on surfaces  109   a  and  109   b . Alternatively, one or both of caps  102  and  104  can be formed with a lip, bump, or groove that provides a sealing function when caps  102  and  104  are coupled to each other or to separated medical connectors. In one exemplary embodiment, one of caps  102  and  104  has a ridge extending around its interfacing surface, and the other cap has a corresponding groove in its interfacing surface into which the ridge is received to create the seal. In yet another exemplary embodiment, one or both of caps  102  and  104  can be overmolded or comolded using any known and suitable overmolding or comolding process. For example, one or both of caps  102  and  104 , and associated surfaces  126  and  150 , can be overmolded or comolded. Thus, caps  102  and  104  can be formed of a polymer, and surfaces  126  and  150  can be formed of a softer polymer that is comolded or overmolded to the rest of caps  102  or  104 . Surfaces  126  and  150 , formed of the softer polymer, are thus able to be compressed or deformed sufficiently to create an impermeable seal when caps  102  and  104  are coupled together or coupled to separated medical connectors. Other suitable seals or sealing mechanisms are also possible, such as those described below with respect to further embodiments. 
     As noted elsewhere herein, a sealing mechanism can be used to limit or prevent evaporation or loss of an antiseptic agent disposed within caps  102  and  104  when caps  102  and  104  are coupled together. Additionally, a sealing mechanism, as described herein, can also limit or prevent evaporation or loss of an antiseptic agent disposed within caps  102  and  104  when caps  102  and  104  are coupled to separated medical connectors. Further, a sealing mechanism can limit or prevent microbial ingress within caps  102  and  104  when they are coupled to each other, or within caps  102  and  104  when caps  102  and  104  are individually coupled to separated medical connectors. Moreover, a sealing mechanism can be configured to maintain an antiseptic agent within caps  102  and  104  when caps  102  and  104  are either coupled to one another or to separated medical connectors for a predetermined amount of time. Thus, the seal may be adapted to limit or prevent microbial ingress, while also partially or completely preventing evaporation of an antiseptic agent disposed within caps  102  and  104  when caps  102  and  104  are coupled together or when caps  102  and  104  are coupled to separated medical connectors. Similarly, the seal may be configured to limit or prevent microbial ingress while not preventing evaporation of an antiseptic agent disposed within caps  102  and  104 . In yet other embodiments, no seal is provided between caps  102  and  104  when coupled together or between caps  102  and  104  when coupled to separated medical connectors. 
     Further safety in sealing against internal surface contamination may be provided by a sealing tape, or a planar or foil seal, such as tape  158  seen in  FIG. 8A . Tape  158  is disposed to fully cover exposed edges of surfaces  126  and  150 . Tape  158  may, for example, be of an impervious pliable material, such as a metallized-surface mylar. As seen in  FIG. 8B , tape  158  is wrapped about surfaces  126  and  150  to provide a secure seal. It is preferred that tape  158  frangibly divides when cap  102  is separated from cap  104  to facilitate separation of caps  102  and  104  and provide a visible indication that the seal is broken. Thus tape  158  provides both a seal to prevent microbial ingress and a mechanism for maintaining the secure connection between caps  102  and  104  prior to use. It will be appreciated, however, that any suitable sealing mechanism can be used to maintain the secure connection between caps  102  and  104  prior to use. For example, any sealing mechanism can be used that securely and selectively couples caps  102  and  104  together, requires deliberate action to break the seal, and provides a visual indication of whether the seal has been broken. By way of example and not limitation, a suitable sealing mechanism may include a heat stake, a frictional seal, a barbed seal, a ratchet seal, and the like. 
     When capping disconnected medical connectors, it can be desirable to do more than merely cover the connectors. For example, an absorbent pad, such as pad  160 , seen in  FIG. 9A , may be included within cap  102  (e.g., within the disinfection chamber  116 ), such as by displacing pad  160  into cap  102  as indicated by arrow  162 . Pad  160  is seen disposed in cap  102  in  FIG. 9B . An antiseptic  164  can also be disposed within cap  102  as illustrated in  FIG. 9C . Antiseptic  164  can be in liquid or solid form. For example, alcohol or another stable liquid antiseptic may be added from a container  166  to be received within, wet, soak, or saturate pad  160  to a predetermined concentration level. Note that once assembly  100  is fully assembled, pad  160  will substantially remain at the predetermined concentration level due to the exterior seals provided for assembly  100  as described herein. Alternatively, or additionally, pad  160  may receive or be impregnated with a dry antiseptic, such as, for example, chlorhexidine gluconate. 
     Further note that once cap  104  is securely affixed to cap  102 , as seen in  FIG. 9D , pad  160  is disposed to contact at least circular edge  148  (see also  FIG. 5 ). (In  FIG. 9D , parts of cap  104  which are internal to assembly  100  are seen with hidden or dashed lines.) Such contact provides a wiping action preferred to make contact with a surface before contact is made with an associated connector. Note also that residual antiseptic on associated internal surfaces of cap  104  may be transferred to related parts of the associated connector for cleaning and/or disinfecting purposes. 
     Pad  160  can be formed of a deformable, resilient material such that when cap  104  is coupled to cap  102 , elongated portion  110  can compress pad  160  within cap  102 , as illustrated in  FIG. 9D . Further, pad  160  can expand to its original shape when cap  104  is removed from cap  102 . Similarly, pad  160  can be compressed within cap  102  when cap  102  is coupled to a medical connector, such as medical connector  132 . More specifically, during the connection of cap  102  to a medical connector, cap  102  and pad  160  rotate relative to an opening edge of the medical connector, thereby drawing the medical connector into cap  102 . The rotation of cap  102  causes pad  160  to wipe or scrub the opening edge of the medical connector. Pad  160  and any antiseptic disposed within cap  102  can thus cleanse and disinfect the opening edges of the medical connector. Pad  160  can also be formed such that when a medical connector is coupled to cap  102 , pad  160  is deformed such that pad  160  extends around the opening edges and/or threads of the medical connector. For example, pad  160  can be formed such that as cap  102  is twisted onto medical connector  132 , pad  160  deforms around threads  130  and/or the opening edges of medical connector  132 , thereby scrubbing threads  130  and/or the opening edge of medical connector  132 . 
     Pad  160  can also provide additional functionality when a liquid antiseptic is disposed within cap  102 . In particular, pad  160  acts as a sponge to absorb or release the liquid antiseptic within cap  104 . More specifically, when pad  160  is compressed by elongate portion  110  of cap  104  ( FIG. 9D ; see also elongate portion  268  compressing pad  160  in  FIG. 14 ) or the opening edges of a medical connector coupled to cap  102 , pad  160  releases at least a portion of the antiseptic so that the antiseptic can be transferred to elongate portion  110  or the opening edges of the medical connector. Conversely, when cap  102  or a medical connector is disconnected from cap  102 , pad  160  expands and absorbs excess antiseptic so that the antiseptic does not drip or spill out of cap  102 . 
     Similar to pad  160  and antiseptic  164  disposed within cap  102 , cap  104  may also have a pad and/or an antiseptic disposed therein. For example, as illustrated in  FIG. 9E , a pad  170  may be disposed within elongate hole  140  of cap  104 . An antiseptic can also be disposed within cap  104  in a manner similar to antiseptic  164  in cap  102 . Antiseptic can be in liquid or solid form. For example, alcohol or another stable liquid antiseptic may be added from a container to saturate pad  170  to a predetermined level. Alternatively, or additionally, pad  170  may be impregnated with a dry antiseptic, such as chlorhexidine gluconate. Once assembly  100  is fully assembled, an antiseptically saturated pad  170  disposed within cap  104  will substantially remain at the predetermined saturation level due to the exterior seals for assembly  100  as described above. Once caps  102  and  104  are disconnected from each other and connected to individual medical connectors, pad  170  disposed within cap  104  may scrub related parts of the associated connector for cleaning and/or disinfecting purposes. It will be appreciated, however, that in some embodiments, pad  170  may not contact a medical connector coupled to cap  104 . Additionally, the antiseptic disposed within cap  104  may be transferred to the related parts of the associated medical connector for cleaning and/or disinfecting purposes. 
     Additional embodiments of caps such as the caps  102 ,  104  are provided in  FIGS. 10-29  and the associated written description of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/171,997, titled STERILITY-PROTECTING CAPS WITH FLUID RESERVOIR FOR SEPARATED CONNECTORS, which was filed on Jul. 11, 2008 and was published as U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2009/0062766 on Mar. 5, 2009 (“the Publication”), which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. As indicated in the Publication, any suitable feature of the illustrative embodiments of  FIGS. 16-29  of the Publication, which are described with respect to a female-type cap similar to the cap  102 , may be applied to or incorporated within a male-type cap, similar to the cap  104 . Likewise, the female-type caps described with reference to  FIGS. 16-29  of the Publication can be coupled to a male-type cap in a manner similar to that described with reference to caps  102  and  104 , in which the caps  102 ,  104  are nested with each other. In other embodiments, any suitable feature of the caps described with respect to  FIGS. 1-29  of the Publication, whether of a male or female variety, can be formed and/or employed without being nested or otherwise associated with a complementary cap. 
     Discussed hereafter are additional embodiments of caps, which can have coupling arrangements and/or other features that differ in certain respects from those of the caps  102 ,  104  described above and other caps described in the Publication. Any suitable feature of such caps can be incorporated into the caps described hereafter, and vice versa. 
       FIGS. 10 and 11  depict a system or assembly  1000  that includes a first protective medical connector, shield, or cap  1002  and a second protective medical connector, shield, or cap  1004 . As shown in  FIG. 10 , the caps  1002 ,  1004  are connected to each other when the assembly  1000  is in a shipping or pre-use state. As shown in  FIG. 11 , the caps  1002 ,  1004  can be separated from each other such that each may be coupled with a corresponding or complementary medical connector. For example, as with the cap  102 , the cap  1002  can be configured to be coupled with a female connector, such as a female luer lock or a needleless injection site (see, e.g.,  FIG. 4 ). Accordingly, the cap  1002  may be referred to as a female cap. As with the cap  104 , the cap  1004  can be configured to couple with a male connector, such as a male luer lock (see, e.g.,  FIG. 5 ). Accordingly, the cap  1004  and may be referred to as a male cap. 
     With continued reference to  FIGS. 10 and 11 , the cap  1002  can comprise a housing  1010 . The housing  1010  can be elongated, and may define a cylinder or any other suitable shape. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the housing  1010  includes a sidewall  1012  that defines a substantially cylindrical outer surface  1014 . The outer surface can be smooth, as shown, which can enhance comfort to a patient if the cap  1002  contacts the patient when coupled with a medical connector. In other embodiments, the outer surface can include gripping features, which can aid in rotating the cap  1002  relative to the cap  1004  to permit separation of the caps  1002 ,  1004  and/or aid in rotating the cap  1002  relative to a medical connector. Such gripping features can include, for example, ridges, grooves, an/or protrusions similar to the ridges  105 , grooves  107 , and protrusions  108  described above and/or an elastomeric or other coating or layer having a relatively high coefficient of friction. The sidewall  1012  can define a sealing surface  1016  at one end thereof and can define a terminal edge  1018  at an opposite end thereof. 
     The housing  1010  can further include a transverse wall or partition  1020 . In the illustrated embodiment, the partition  1020  defines a plane that is substantially perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of the sidewall  1012 . A first portion of the sidewall  1012  can cooperate with one side of the partition  1020  to define a disinfection chamber  1022 , which is closed at one end by the partition  1020  and open at an opposite end thereof (e.g., the sealing surface  1016  can define an open end of the disinfection chamber  1022 ). Similarly, a second portion of the sidewall  1012  can cooperate with an opposite side of the partition  1020  to define a coupling chamber  1024 , which likewise is closed at one end by the partition  1020  and open at an opposite end thereof (e.g., the terminal edge  1018  can define an open end of the coupling chamber  1024 ). 
     An interior surface of the sidewall  1012  can include a connecting geometry or connection interface  1030  in the region of the disinfection chamber  1022 . The connection interface  1030  can comprise inwardly projecting threads  1031  similar to the threads  122  described above, and can be configured to complementarily engage a connection interface of a medical connector, such as, for example, outwardly projecting threads of a needleless injection site. The threaded connection interface  1030  thus can allow for selective coupling of the cap  1002  to a medical connector in a secure, yet selectively removable fashion. Other configurations of the connection interface  1030  may permit the cap  1002  to be coupled with a medical connector in a secure, yet selectively removable fashion, such as friction-fit, snap-fit, or other suitable interfacing arrangements. 
     The disinfection chamber  1022  can include a pad  1032  therein. The pad  1032  can resemble the pads  160 ,  170  described above. In various embodiments, the pad  1032  can be deformable, and can also be configured to retain an antiseptic  1033 , such as, for example, the antiseptic  164  described above. In further embodiments, the pad  1032  can be resiliently deformable. For example, the pad  1032  can comprise any suitable sponge-like material, such as an elastomeric foam, any open-cell foam, felt, or non-woven fiber matrix, and can be configured to conform to the contours of a portion of a medical connector that is introduced into the disinfection chamber  1022  (e.g., uneven surfaces of an end of a needleless injection site; see also  FIGS. 32-34  and the associated written description herein). The pad  1032  can also comprise any closed-cell foam, as well as a solid elastomeric foam such as silicone or the like. 
     The pad  1032  can have a series or network of openings or spaces therein that can retain the antiseptic  1033  when the pad  1032  is in an expanded state. For example, the antiseptic  1033  can be received within, occupy, fill (or partially fill), wet, soak, or saturate at least a fraction of the pad  1032 , or stated otherwise, can fill the pad  1032  to a given concentration level. Compression of the pad  1032  can cause antiseptic  1033  to egress from the pad  1032  so as to contact the medical connector. Resilient expansion of the foam upon removal of a compressive force can allow the pad  1032  to soak up or absorb at least some of the antiseptic  1033  that had previously been forced from the pad  1032 . In some embodiments, the antiseptic  1033  can comprise any liquid antiseptic, such as alcohol (e.g., isopropyl alcohol) at various concentrations ranging from 50-90%, ethanol at various concentrations ranging from 50-95%, and combinations of any alcohols with any antiseptics, or a dry material, such as chlorhexidine, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), lodaphors, or any suitable combination thereof. Accordingly, although the antiseptic  1033  is schematically depicted in  FIG. 10  as a series of droplets, the antiseptic  1033  is not necessarily liquid and may fill the pad  1032  to a greater or lesser extent than what is shown. In the illustrated embodiment, when the disinfection chamber  1022  is in a sealed state (e.g., in its pre-use condition), the pad  1032  is in a relaxed, expanded, or uncompressed state in a longitudinal direction. It is noted that the pad  1032  may be uncompressed in one or more dimensions, yet compressed in one or more other dimensions, when the assembly  1000  is in the pre-use state. For example, the pad  1032  can be expanded or in a relaxed state in a longitudinal direction, yet compressed radially inwardly via the sidewall  1012 , when the assembly  1000  is in the pre-use state. Such a lack of compression of the pad  1032  in the longitudinal direction can result from the fact that the cap  1004  does not interact with the connection interface  1030  of the cap  1002  to seal the cap  1002 , and thus no portion of the cap  1004  contacts the pad  1032  when the caps  1002 ,  1004  are in the pre-use configuration. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the pad  1032  is substantially cylindrical and defines an outer diameter that is approximately the same size as an inner diameter of the threads  1031 . In other embodiments, the outer diameter of the pad  1032  can be larger than the inner diameter of the threads  1031  so as to be radially compressed and held tighter within the disinfection chamber  1022 . In further embodiments, the pad  1032  can include threading that projects radially inwardly and that is complementary to the threads  1031  to thereby secure the pad  1032  within the chamber  1022 . 
     The disinfection chamber  1022  can be sealed at the sealing surface  1016  via a cover  1034  that can span an open end of the disinfection chamber  1022 . The cover  1034  can be secured to the housing  1010  in any suitable manner, such as, for example, via an adhesive. Preferably, the cover  1034  can be readily removed by a practitioner. For example, in some embodiments, the cover  1034  can include a tab  1035  and a practitioner can readily remove the cover  1034  by holding the housing  1010  in one hand and pulling the tab  1035  away from the housing  1010  with the other hand. The removable cover  1034  can be formed of any suitable material, such as, for example, an impervious pliable material (e.g., foil, plastic, metallized-surface mylar, and the like). The cover  1034  can provide a hermetic seal that can assist in maintaining the sterility of the disinfection chamber  1022  prior to use of the cap  1002  and/or can prevent evaporative loss of antiseptic  1033  from the disinfection chamber  1022 . 
     When the cap  1002  is coupled with a medical connector, the coupling action can bring a portion of the medical connector into contact with the pad  1032  and can allow the pad  1032  to wipe or scrub the medical connector, as described above. Likewise, the antiseptic  1033  can be forced into contact with the medical connector during the coupling phase and can remain in contact with the medical connector, while the cap  1002  is coupled with the medical connector. The connection interface  1030  can cooperate with a connection interface of the medical connector to maintain the cap  1002  in an attached configuration relative to the connector. Moreover, the connection interface  1030  can couple with the medical connector, such as via complementary threading, so as to prevent antiseptic from leaking from the disinfection chamber  1022 . 
     In some embodiments, such as where the pad  1032  is formed of a material that is not fully elastically resilient or that requires a relatively long relaxation time in which to transition from a compressed state to a relaxed or uncompressed state (e.g., in a longitudinal direction), pre-use storage in the relaxed or uncompressed state in at least one dimension can preserve or enhance the cleaning, scrubbing, or disinfection properties of the pad  1032 . For example, as the cap  1002  is coupled with the medical connector (e.g., the medical connector  132  of  FIG. 4 ), an end of the medical connector can come into contact with a proximal surface (e.g., the surface furthest from the partition  1020 ) of the pad  1032 . Further advancement of the cap  1002  onto the medical connector can cause the pad  1032  to deform to complement a contour of the end of the medical connector as the pad  1032  is compressed, which can permit a relatively tight or continuous contact between the pad  1032  and the medical connector. In the illustrated embodiment, the cap  1002  is rotated relative to the medical connector, as it is advanced onto the medical connector. This rotational motion causes the contoured surface of the pad  1032  to rub the medical connector. In certain embodiments, increasingly greater compression of the pad  1032  yields increasingly stronger rubbing of the medical connector, coupled with greater amounts of the antiseptic  1033  being expelled from the pad  1032 . Accordingly, when the pad  1032  is uncompressed in at least one dimension (e.g., in a longitudinal direction) in a pre-use state, and thus is not plastically deformed or is not subject to time-consuming elastic recovery from pre-compression, the pad  1032  can be in disinfecting contact with the medical connector for a relatively greater portion of the coupling procedure. In some embodiments, a practitioner can more quickly couple the cap  1002  to the medical connector, as there is no need to first wait for the pad  1032  to relax to an uncompressed or expanded state to achieve better disinfection of the medical connector. 
     Various parameters can be adjusted to determine the amount of antiseptic  1033  that is expelled from the pad  1032  when the cap  1002  is coupled with a medical connector. For example, the depth to which the medical connector is received within the disinfection chamber  1022 , the concentration of antiseptic  1033  within the pad  1032 , and/or other parameters can be altered. In various embodiments, no less than about ¼, no less than about ⅓, no less than about ½, no less than about ⅔, or no less than about ¾ of the antiseptic  1033  is expelled from the pad  1032  when the cap  1002  is coupled with a medical connector. In some embodiments, all, or substantially all, of the antiseptic  1033  is expelled from the pad  1032 . 
     With reference to  FIG. 10 , an interior surface the sidewall  1012  can include another connecting geometry or connection interface  1040  in the region of the coupling chamber  1024 . The connection interface  1040  can be configured to complementarily engage a connection interface  1042  of the cap  1004 . For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the connection interface  1040  of the cap  1002  comprises inwardly projecting threads  1041 , and the connection interface  1042  of the connector  1004  comprises outwardly projecting threads  1043  complementary thereto at an exterior surface of the cap  1004 . The connection interfaces  1040 ,  1042  thus can allow the caps  1002 ,  1004  to be coupled to each other in a secure, yet selectively removable fashion. Other configurations of the connection interfaces  1040 ,  1042  may similarly permit the caps  1002 ,  1004  to be coupled with each other in a secure, yet selectively removable fashion, such as friction-fit, snap-fit, or other suitable interfacing arrangements, as discussed further below. The coupling chamber  1024  can further include a sealing member  1044 , such as an elastomeric gasket described further below. 
     With reference to  FIGS. 10 and 11 , the male cap  1004  can comprise a housing  1050 . The housing  1050  can be elongated, and may define a stepped, substantially cylindrical shape, or may define any other suitable shape. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the housing  1050  includes a sidewall  1052 , which is substantially cylindrical, and a base wall  1054  at one end of the sidewall  1052 . A sealing end  1056  of the sidewall  1052  can be located opposite the base wall  1054 , and can define an opening into a disinfection chamber  1058 . The sidewall  1052  and the base wall  1054  thus can cooperate to define the disinfection chamber  1058 . 
     In some embodiments, the housing  1050  includes a skirt  1060 , which can extend radially outwardly from the sidewall  1052 . In some embodiments, the skirt  1060  provides a convenient surface for manipulation of the cap  1004 . For example, in some embodiments, an outer diameter of the sidewall  1052  is smaller than an outer diameter of the sidewall  1012  of the cap  1002  such that the disparity between the outer diameters could complicate the gripping and rotation of the caps  1002 ,  1004  relative to each other. Moreover, in some embodiments, the sidewall  1052  defines a relatively small outer surface area, which could make it difficult to grip the cap  1004 . The larger outer diameter and corresponding larger surface area of the skirt can facilitate gripping of the cap  1004 . The outer surface of the skirt  1060  can be smooth, as shown, or may include gripping features, which can aid in rotating the cap  1004  relative to the cap  1002  to permit separation of the caps  1002 ,  1004  and/or aid in rotating the cap  1004  relative to a medical connector. Such gripping features can include, for example, ridges, grooves, and/or protrusions similar to the ridges  105 , grooves  107 , and protrusions  108  described above and/or an elastomeric or other coating having a relatively high coefficient of friction. 
     In some embodiments, a terminal edge  1062  of the skirt  1060  can be substantially coplanar with an outer surface of the base wall  1054 . In certain of such embodiments, the skirt  1060  can increase the stability of the assembly  1000 . For example, the assembly  1000  can stand uprightly on the base wall  1054 , and the skirt  1060  can inhibit tipping of the assembly  1000 . 
     With reference to  FIG. 10 , the disinfection chamber  1058  can include a pad  1070  such as the pad  1032 . The pad  1070  can be deformable, so as to conform to the contours of a portion of a medical connector that is introduced into the disinfection chamber  1058  (e.g., an outer surface of a male luer). Compression and/or decompression of the pad  1070  can cause an antiseptic  1033  to exit from and/or be absorbed by the pad  1070 , respectively, in a manner such as described above with respect to the pad  1032  (it is noted that the antiseptic  1033  used with the pad  1070  need not necessarily be the same antiseptic as that used with the pad  1032 , although such is possible). Likewise, scrubbing or sanitization of a medical connector via the pad  1070  can proceed in a manner such as that described above with respect to the pad  1032 . In the illustrated embodiment, the pad  1070  is in a relaxed or uncompressed state in at least a longitudinal direction when the disinfection chamber  1058  is in a sealed or pre-use configuration. 
     As previously discussed, the cap  1004  can include the connection interface  1042 , which can interact with the connection interface  1040  of the cap  1002 . The connection interfaces  1040 ,  1042  can cooperate to hold the cap  1004  tightly against the sealing member  1044 . For example, where the connection interfaces  1040 ,  1042  comprise threading, appropriate rotation of the cap  1004  relative to the cap  1002  can draw the sealing end  1056  of the sidewall  1052  into abutment with the sealing member  1044 , and additional rotation in the same direction may deform the sealing member  1044 . The sealing end  1056  and the sealing member  1044  can form a hermetic seal that can assist in maintaining the sterility of the disinfection chamber  1058  prior to use of the cap  1004 , and can prevent evaporative loss of an antiseptic from the disinfection chamber  1058 . In further embodiments, a sealing tape (not shown), such as the sealing tape  158  (see  FIGS. 8A and 8B ), can be positioned about the caps  1002 ,  1004  so as to contact a lower edge of the housing  1010  (e.g., an outer surface of the portion of the sidewall  1012  that defines the coupling chamber  1058 ) and an outer surface of the skirt  1060  of the housing  1050 . The tape can aid in preventing evaporative loss of the antiseptic and/or can indicate whether the caps  1002 ,  1004  have been separated or otherwise moved from their initial or pre-use configuration. For example, in some embodiments, the tape can be frangible. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the connection interface  1042  comprises outwardly projecting threads similar to the threads  114  described above, and can be configured to complementarily engage a connection interface of a medical connector, such as, for example, inwardly projecting threads of a skirt that surrounds a male luer. The threaded connection interface  1042  thus can allow for selective coupling of the cap  1004  to a medical connector in a secure, yet selectively removable fashion. Other configurations of the connection interface  1042  may permit the cap  1004  to be coupled with a medical connector in a secure, yet selectively removable fashion, such as friction-fit, snap-fit, or other suitable interfacing arrangements. 
     With continued reference to  FIG. 10 , additional description of the illustrated embodiment of the assembly  1000  in the pre-use state will now be provided. As previously discussed, each disinfection chamber  1022 ,  1058  can be defined by a separate housing  1012 ,  1050 . The chambers  1022 ,  1058  can be isolated from each other in the pre-use condition, or stated otherwise, no fluid communication may exist between the chambers  1022 ,  1058 . 
     The caps  1002 ,  1004  can cooperate to seal one of the chambers (e.g., the chamber  1058  in the illustrated embodiment) such that manipulation of the caps  1002 ,  1004  away from their pre-use configuration can unseal the chamber  1058 , whereas the other chamber (e.g., the chamber  1022  in the illustrated embodiment) can remain in a sealed orientation independent of the relative orientations of the caps  1002 ,  1004 . At least a portion of the housing  1050  of the cap  1004  can be received within, or can nest within, a portion of the housing  1010  of the cap  1002 . In the illustrated embodiment, the pad  1032  is free of any compression from the cap  1004  and the pad  1070  is free of any compression from the cap  1002  when the disinfection chambers  1022 ,  1058 , in which the pads  1032 ,  1070  are housed, are in a pre-use, sealed condition. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the caps  1002 ,  1004  are substantially coaxial with each other. As previously discussed, the disinfection chambers  1022 ,  1058  defined by the caps  1002 ,  1004  each can have an open end and a closed end, and in the pre-use configuration, the chambers  1022 ,  1058  can be oriented such that their sealed open ends face in the same direction along the common axis of the caps  1002 ,  1004 . 
     With reference to  FIG. 11 , in order to prepare the cap  1004  for use with a medical connector (e.g., the connector  136  of  FIG. 5 ), the caps  1002 ,  1004  are decoupled from each other. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the caps  1002 ,  1004  are rotated in opposite directions about a common longitudinal axis such that the connection interfaces  1040 ,  1042  urge the caps  1002 ,  1004  away from each other and are eventually released from each other. The cap  1004  can then be coupled with the medical connector via the connection interface  1042 , such as in a secure, yet selectively removable manner. 
     The cap  1002  can be prepared for use with a medical connector (e.g., the connector  132  of  FIG. 4 ) and connected to the medical connector independent of the coupling status of the caps  1002 ,  1004  relative to each other. The cover  1034  can be removed from the cap  1002 , thereby permitting the cap  1002  to be coupled with the medical connector via the connection interface  1040 , such as in a secure, yet selectively removable manner. 
     The pre-use configuration of the system  1000 , in which the caps  1002 ,  1004  are coupled with each other, can ease clinician handling of the system  1000 . As the caps  1002 ,  1004  may be used to cover female and male connectors, respectively, immediately upon decoupling of the female and male connectors from each other, having the caps  1002 ,  1004  available in a coupled yet easily separable configuration can be convenient and time saving. Moreover, the system  1000  can include relatively few parts, which can reduce manufacturing costs. In some embodiments, the pre-use coupled configuration of the caps  1002 ,  1004  likewise can reduce packaging costs of the system  1000 . 
       FIG. 12  illustrates another embodiment of an assembly  1100 , which can resemble the assembly  1000  described above in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “11.” Relevant disclosure set forth above regarding similarly identified features thus may not be repeated hereafter. Moreover, specific features of the assembly  1100  may not be identified by a reference numeral in the drawings or specifically discussed in the written description that follows. However, such features may clearly be the same, or substantially the same, as features depicted in other embodiments and described with respect to such embodiments. Accordingly, the relevant descriptions of such features apply equally to the features of the assembly  1100 . Any suitable combination of the features and variations of the same described with respect to the assembly  1000  and components thereof can be employed with the assembly  1100  and components thereof, and vice versa. This pattern of disclosure applies equally to further embodiments depicted in subsequent figures and described hereafter. 
     As with the assembly  1000 , the assembly  1100  can include a female cap  1102  and a male cap  1104  that are coupled with each other when in a pre-use state and that can be removed from each other. The cap female  1102  can be configured to couple with a female connector, and the male cap  1104  can be configured to couple with a male connector. The female cap  1102  can include a housing  1110 , which can include a sidewall  1112  and a partition  1120 . A portion of the sidewall  1112  can cooperate with the partition  1120  to define a disinfection chamber  1122  such as the disinfection chamber  1022 . In the illustrated embodiment, the disinfection chamber  1122  is somewhat shorter than the disinfection chamber  1022  (see  FIG. 10 ). The disinfection chamber  1122  can include a connection interface  1130 , which, in the illustrated embodiment, includes threading  1131 . The disinfection chamber  1122  can include a pad  1132 , such as the pad  1032 , and can be sealed via a removable cover  1134 . 
     Another portion of the sidewall  1112  can cooperate with the partition  1120  to define a coupling chamber  1124  that extends in a direction opposite the disinfection chamber  1122 . A terminal edge  1118  of the sidewall  1112  can define an opening of the disinfection chamber  1122 . The sidewall  1112  can define a connection interface  1140  that is configured to aid in coupling the caps  1102 ,  1104  with each other, as described further below. 
     With continued reference to  FIG. 12 , the cap  1104  can include a housing  1150  that includes a sidewall  1152  and a base wall  1154 . The sidewall  1152  and the base wall  1154  can cooperate to define a disinfection chamber  1158 , which can include a pad  1170  therein. The disinfection chamber  1158  can be sealed at a sealing end  1156  of the sidewall  1152  via a removable cover  1136 , which can resemble the cover  1134 . A portion of the sidewall  1152  can define a connection interface  1142 , which includes one or more threads  1143  in the illustrated embodiment. 
     The housing  1150  can define a skirt  1160  that projects radially outwardly from the sidewall  1152 . The skirt  1160  can terminate at a terminal edge  1162 . In the illustrated embodiment, the skirt  1160  is shorter than the skirt  1060  of the housing  1050  (see  FIG. 10 ) and is spaced above a plane that is defined by an outer surface of the base wall  1154 . In some embodiments, the terminal edge  1162  contacts or is in close proximity to the terminal edge  1118  of the housing  1110  when the caps  1102 ,  1104  are coupled with each other in a pre-use configuration, which can provide continuity to an outer surface of the assembly  1100  when it is in a pre-use configuration. The skirt  1160  can be rounded or beveled at the terminal edge  1162 , and an end of the sidewall  1112  can be rounded or beveled at the terminal edge  1118 , which can provide the system  1100  with an annular recess  1163  that can provide a visual and/or tactile indication of the transition from the skirt  1160  to the sidewall  1112 . The rounded ends can also enhance practitioner and/or patient comfort during use of the caps  1102 ,  1104 . 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the sidewall  1152  of the housing  1150  defines a connection interface  1180  that is configured to couple with the connection interface  1140  of the housing  1110 . In particular, the connection interface  1180  includes an outward projection  1181  and the connection interface  1140  includes a recess  1144  that extends radially outwardly relative to the connection chamber  1124  and that is sized to receive the annular projection  1181  therein in a snap-fit engagement. In the illustrated embodiment, each of the projection  1181  and the recess  1144  is annular and extends about the cap  1104  and the cap  1102 , respectively, in its entirety. In other embodiments, the projection  1181  and/or the recess  1144  extend about only a portion of the caps  1102 ,  1104 . In still other or further embodiments, the connection interface  1180  can include a recess in the sidewall  1152  and the connection interface  1140  can include an inward projection sized to fit within the recess in a snap-fit engagement. In still other or further embodiments, the connection interfaces  1140 ,  1180  can include complementary threading, such as the connection interfaces  1040 ,  1042  described above. Other coupling arrangements are also possible. 
     Features, usage, and operation of the assembly  1100  can resemble that of the assembly  1000  described above. For example, when the assembly  1100  is in the pre-use condition, each disinfection chamber  1122 ,  1158  can be defined by a separate housing  1112 ,  1150 , and the disinfection chambers  1122 ,  1158  can be fluidly isolated from one another (e.g., no fluid communication may exist between the disinfection chambers  1122 ,  1158 ). Likewise, at least a portion of the housing  1150  of the cap  1104  can be received within, or can nest within, a portion of the housing  1110  of the cap  1102 . In the illustrated embodiment, each of the pads  1132 ,  1170  is in an uncompressed or expanded state when each of the disinfection chambers  1122 ,  1158  in which it is housed is in a pre-use, sealed condition. 
     However, certain differences can exist between the assembly  1100  and the assembly  1000 . For example, each of the disinfection chambers  1122 ,  1158  can remain sealed independent of the coupling status of the caps  1102 ,  1104 . Stated otherwise, the caps  1102 ,  1104  do not cooperate to seal either of the chambers  1122 ,  1158 . Accordingly, one or both of the caps  1102 ,  1104  can be unsealed (e.g., the covers  1134 ,  1136  can be removed) and coupled with a separate medical connector (e.g., via the connection interfaces  1130 ,  1142 ) without detaching the caps  1102 ,  1104  from each other. Stated in yet another manner, either of the caps  1102 ,  1104  can be installed on a medical connector without being detached from and/or without unsealing the other cap  1102 ,  1104 . Alternatively, the caps  1102 ,  1104  can be detached from each other, one or both of the caps  1102 ,  1104  each can be connected with a separate medical connector (i.e., via the connection interfaces  1130 ,  1142 ), and the caps  1102 ,  1104  can be reattached to each other (i.e., via the connection interfaces  1140 ,  1180 ), while remaining connected to the one or more medical connectors. 
     Moreover, in the illustrated embodiment, the caps  1102 ,  1104  are substantially coaxial with each other, thus resembling the caps  1002 ,  1004 . However, the disinfection chambers  1122 ,  1158  are oriented such that their sealed open ends face away from each other (e.g., outwardly in opposite directions) along the common axis of the caps  1102 ,  1104 , when the assembly  1100  is in the pre-use configuration. 
       FIG. 13  illustrates another embodiment of an assembly  1200 , which can resemble one or more of the assemblies described above in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “12.” As with the assembly  1100 , the assembly  1200  can include a cap  1202  and cap  1204  that are coupled with each other, when in a pre-use state, and that can be removed from each other. 
     The caps  1202 ,  1204  can differ from the caps  1102 ,  1104  in the manner by which they are coupled with each other. In particular, the cap  1202  includes a housing  1210  that defines a connection chamber  1224  configured to receive a portion of a housing  1250  of the cap  1204 . The housing  1210  defines a connection interface  1240 , and the housing  1250  defines a connection interface  1280 . Rather than cooperating in a snap-fit engagement, however, the connection interfaces  1240 ,  1280  cooperate with each other in a friction-fit engagement to provide a secure attachment between the caps  1202 ,  1204  and yet to permit the caps  1202 ,  1204  to be selectively removable from each other and to permit selective reattachment of the caps  1202 ,  1204  to each other. Features, usage, and operation of the assembly  1200  can otherwise resemble that of the assembly  1100  described above. 
       FIGS. 14 and 15  illustrate another embodiment of an assembly  1300 , which can resemble one or more of the assemblies described above in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “13.” The assembly  1300  can include a cap  1302  and cap  1304  that are coupled with each other when in a pre-use state and that can be removed from each other. However, as discussed further below, the caps  1302 ,  1304  can include connection interfaces  1340 ,  1380 , respectively, that attach the caps  1302 ,  1304  to each other in a pre-use configuration, and that permit ready detachment of the caps  1302 ,  1304  one from another, but that do not themselves permit reattachment of the caps  1302 ,  1304 . 
     The cap  1302  can include a housing  1310 , which can include a sidewall  1312  and a base wall  1313 . The sidewall  1312  and the base wall  1313  can cooperate to define a disinfection chamber  1322  that can include a pad  1332  therein and that can be sealed via a removable cover  1334 . The base wall  1313  can include a terminal surface  1318  and can define the connection interface  1340 . In the illustrated embodiment, the connection interface  1340  includes a depression or recess  1345  that bows the terminal surface  1318  inwardly, or toward the disinfection chamber  1322 . The connection interface  1340  further includes a pin  1346  that extends outwardly, or away from the disinfection chamber  1322 . 
     With continued reference to  FIGS. 14 and 15 , the cap  1304  can include a housing  1350  that includes a sidewall  1352  and a base wall  1354 . The sidewall  1352  and the base wall  1354  can cooperate to define a disinfection chamber  1358 , which can include a pad  1370  therein. The disinfection chamber  1358  can be sealed via a removable cover  1336 . A portion of the sidewall  1352  can define a connection interface  1342 , which includes one or more threads  1343  in the illustrated embodiment. 
     The housing  1350  can define a skirt  1360  that projects radially outwardly from the sidewall  1352 . The skirt  1360  can terminate at a terminal edge  1362 . In the illustrated embodiment, the skirt  1360  extends past a plane that is defined by an outer surface of the base wall  1354  and is sufficiently long to permit the terminal edge  1362  thereof to contact the terminal surface  1318  of the housing  1310  when the caps  1302 ,  1304  are in a pre-use configuration. As with the skirt  1160  and the sidewall  1112 , the skirt  1360  can be rounded or beveled at its terminal edge  1362 , and the sidewall  1112  can be rounded or beveled at the terminal surface  1118 , which can provide the system  1300  with an annular recess  1363 . 
     The housing  1350  defines the connection interface  1380 , which is configured to couple with the connection interface  1340  of the housing  1310 . The connection interface  1380  includes a protrusion  1382  that extends from the base wall  1354  in a direction opposite the disinfection chamber  1358 . The protrusion  1382  is sized and shaped to receive therein at least a portion of the pin  1346 , and may be substantially annular. In various embodiments, the protrusion  1382  is joined to the pin in any suitable manner, such as, for example, press-fit or friction-fit engagement and/or any suitable adhesive. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, an additional protrusion  1384  is coaxial with and encircles the protrusion  1382 , and may also be substantially annular. The protrusion  1384  can contact the terminal surface  1318  of the housing  1310  when the caps  1302 ,  1304  are in a pre-use configuration, and can provide stability to the connection interfaces  1340 ,  1380  and assist in preventing premature separation of the caps  1302 ,  1304 . The protrusion  1384  can be said to define a connection chamber  1324  in which the connection interface  1380  is located. 
     As shown in  FIG. 15 , the caps  1302 ,  1304  can be separated from each other, which can facilitate coupling of the caps  1302 ,  1304  to separate medical connectors by removing a constraint on the range of motion of the caps  1302 ,  1304  relative to each other. In the illustrated embodiment, the pin  1346  can be sufficiently thin, sufficiently weak, or otherwise configured to break away from the housing  1310 , and can remain attached to the protrusion  1382  of the housing  1350 . In various embodiments, in order to break the pin  1346 , a practitioner can rotate the caps  1302 ,  1304  relative to each other about their common longitudinal axis and/or can rotate one or more of the caps  1302 ,  1304  about an axis perpendicular to its longitudinal axis so as to move the longitudinal axes of the caps  1302 ,  1304  out of alignment with each other. 
     Breaking the pin  1346  can leave a nub  1347  on the housing  1310 . In certain embodiments, the nub  1347  can be fully below the terminal surface  1318  of the housing  1310  due to the recess  1345 , which can prevent or reduce contact with the nub  1347 , such as by a patient or practitioner. 
     In certain embodiments, the connection interfaces  1340 ,  1380  are configured so as to not rejoin with each other once the caps  1302 ,  1304  have been separated from the pre-use configuration. For example, once the pin  1346  has been broken, the caps  1302 ,  1304  cannot readily be rejoined to each other via the pin  1346 . Accordingly, the caps  1302 ,  1304  can be configured to be attached with each other in a pre-use configuration and readily separated from each other as desired, but not readily rejoined with each other once separated. 
     Features, usage, and operation of the assembly  1300  can resemble those of one or more of the assemblies described above in other respects. For example, when the assembly  1300  is in the pre-use condition, each disinfection chamber  1322 ,  1358  can be defined by a separate housing  1312 ,  1350 , and the disinfection chambers  1322 ,  1358  can be fluidly isolated from one another. Likewise, at least a portion of one of the housings  1310 ,  1350  can be received within, or can nest within, a portion of the other housing  1310 ,  1350 . To this end, it is noted that in other embodiments of the assembly  1300 , the housing  1350  of the cap  1304  may define the pin  1346  (or, more generally, the connection interface  1340 ), and the housing  1310  of the cap  1302  may define the annular extension  1382  (or, more generally, the connection interface  1380 ). In the illustrated embodiment, each of the pads  1332 ,  1370  is in an uncompressed or expanded state when the disinfection chamber  1322 ,  1358  in which it is housed is in a pre-use, sealed condition. Like the assemblies  1100 ,  1200 , each of the disinfection chambers  1322 ,  1358  can remain sealed independent of the coupling status of the caps  1302 ,  1304 . One or both of the disinfection chambers  1322 ,  1358  can be opened and used, while the caps  1302 ,  1304  are connected with each other, or the caps  1302 ,  1304  can be separated from each other and one or both of the disinfection chambers  1322 ,  1358  can then be opened and each used with a separate medical connector. 
       FIGS. 16 and 17  illustrate another embodiment of an assembly  1400 , which can resemble the assembly  1300  described above in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “14.” The assembly  1400  can include a cap  1402  and cap  1404  that are coupled with each other when in a pre-use state, and that can be removed from each other in a manner similar to the caps  1302 ,  1304 . However, connection interfaces  1440 ,  1480  of the caps differ from the connection interfaces  1340 ,  1380  of the caps  1302 ,  1304 . 
     The connection interface  1440  can be defined by a terminal surface  1418  of a housing  1410  of the cap  1402 . The connection interface  1440  can include a depression or recess  1448  that bows the terminal surface  1418  inwardly, or toward a disinfection chamber  1422 . The recess  1448  can be annular, although other shapes and configurations are possible. 
     A sidewall  1452  of the cap  1404  can be somewhat longer than the sidewall  1352  of the cap  1304 , and a base wall  1454  of the cap  1404  can be in close proximity with or adjacent to the terminal surface  1418  of the cap  1402 . A protrusion  1485  can extend outwardly from the base wall  1454 , or in a direction away from a disinfection chamber  1458 . The protrusion  1485  can be annular so as to be received within the annular recess  1448 , although other shapes and configurations are possible. The protrusion  1485  can be joined to the recess  1448  in any suitable manner, such as via an adhesive or via welding (e.g., spin, ultra-sonic, laser, radio frequency, thermal, etc.). 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the protrusion  1485  is welded to the recess  1448 , and the weld is configured to be broken to permit separation of the caps  1402 ,  1404 . As shown in  FIG. 17 , a weld edge  1486  can remain within the recess  1448  when the caps  1402 ,  1404  are separated. In certain embodiments, the weld edge  1486  can be fully below the terminal surface  1418  of the housing  1410 , which can prevent or reduce contact with the weld edge  1486 , such as by a patient or practitioner. In order to break the weld, a practitioner can rotate the caps  1402 ,  1404  relative to each other about their common longitudinal axis and/or can rotate one or more of the caps  1402 ,  1404  about an axis perpendicular to its longitudinal axis, so as to move the longitudinal axes of the caps  1402 ,  1404  out of alignment with each other. In other embodiments, the connection interfaces  1440 ,  1480  can be reversed such that the cap  1402  includes the protrusion  1485  and the cap  1404  can includes the recess  1448 . 
       FIGS. 18-21  illustrate another embodiment of an assembly  1500 , which can resemble one or more of the assemblies described above in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “15.” As can be seen in  FIGS. 18 and 19 , and as discussed hereafter, the assembly  1500  can include a cap  1502  and cap  1504  that are coupled with each other when in a pre-use state and that can be removed from each other. The cap  1502  can be configured to couple with a female connector, and the cap  1504  can be configured to couple with a male connector. The caps  1502 ,  1504  can be in a side-by-side arrangement when connected to each other in a pre-use configuration. In the illustrated embodiment, both caps  1502 ,  1504  can be sealed shut in the pre-use configuration via a common cover  1537 . 
     The cap  1502  can include a housing  1510 , which can include a sidewall  1512  and a base wall  1513 . The sidewall  1512  can cooperate with the base wall  1513  to define a disinfection chamber  1522 . The disinfection chamber  1522  can include a connection interface  1530 , which, in the illustrated embodiment, includes threading  1531  disposed on an interior surface of the housing  1512 . The connection interface  1530  can be configured to attach the cap  1502  to a medical connector in a secure yet selectively removable manner. The disinfection chamber  1522  can include a pad  1532 . 
     The housing  1510  can further include a skirt  1561  that projects radially outwardly from the sidewall  1512  and that can also extend substantially parallel to the sidewall  1512 . The skirt  1561  can include one or more spacers or supports  1564  that can provide structural rigidity to the skirt  1561 . As shown in  FIGS. 19 and 21 , the housing  1510  can define a connection interface  1540  that is configured to aid in coupling the caps  1502 ,  1504  with each other in a pre-use configuration, as discussed further below. The connection interface  1540  can include a slot  1548  defined by the skirt  1561 , which can extend in a direction substantially parallel to a longitudinal axis of the disinfection chamber  1522 . The sidewall  1512  and the skirt  1561  can cooperate to define an open connection chamber  1524 , which is also discussed below. The slot  1548  can define a side opening of the connection chamber  1524 . 
     With reference to  FIGS. 19 and 20 , the cap  1504  can include a housing  1550  that includes a sidewall  1552  and a base wall  1554 . The sidewall  1552  and the base wall  1554  can cooperate to define a disinfection chamber  1558 , which can include a pad  1570  therein. A portion of the sidewall  1552  can define a connection interface  1542 , which includes one or more threads  1543  in the illustrated embodiment. The connection interface  1542  can be configured to attach the cap  1504  to a medical connector in a secure yet selectively removable manner. The housing  1550  can define a skirt  1560  that projects radially outwardly from the sidewall  1552  and that can also extend substantially parallel to the sidewall  1552 . In the illustrated embodiment, the skirt  1560  extends about only a portion of the cap  1504 . The skirt  1560  can include one or more spacers or supports  1565  that can provide structural rigidity to the skirt  1560 . 
     The housing  1550  can further define a connection interface  1580  that is configured to interact with the connection interface  1540  of the housing  1510  to couple the caps  1502 ,  1504 . The connection interfaces  1540  can maintain the caps  1502 ,  1504  in a pre-use configuration, and can permit the caps  1502 ,  1504  to be selectively removed from this configuration. In the illustrated embodiment, the connection interfaces  1540 ,  1580  can further interact with each other to permit selective reattachment of the caps  1502 ,  1504  to each other. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the connection interface  1580  includes a locking member, snapping member, or radial extension  1585 . The extension  1585  projects radially from the sidewall  1552  and includes an enlarged region at its outermost end. The extension  1585  is configured to be received within the slot  1548  and the connection chamber  1524  of the cap  1502 . The enlarged portion of the extension  1585  can prevent the extension  1585  from moving out of the slot  1548  in a lateral direction. Although not shown, in some embodiments, the slot  1548  and the extension  1585  can include keying, such as a protrusion and recess that cooperate in a snapping fashion, which can selectively prevent the extension  1585  from moving out of the slot  1548  in a longitudinal direction in the absence of application of sufficient force by a practitioner. In other embodiments, the connection interfaces  1540 ,  1580  can be reversed such that the cap  1402  includes the extension  1585  and the cap  1504  includes the slot  1548 . 
     In the illustrated embodiment, a terminal surface  1518  of the cap  1502  and a terminal surface  1562  of the cap  1504  are substantially coplanar when the system  1500  is in the pre-use configuration. This can contribute to the stability of the pre-use system  1500 , as the connected system  1500  can be set on a planar surface without a predisposition to tipping. Likewise, in the illustrated embodiment, a sealing end  1516  of the cap  1502  and a sealing end  1556  of the cap  1504  are substantially coplanar when the system  1500  is in the pre-use configuration. Each sealing end  1516 ,  1556  can be sealed closed via a single or common removable cover  1537 . In the illustrated embodiment, the cover  1537  includes two tabs  1538  that can permit selective opening of just one of the caps  1502 ,  1504 , or the opening both of the caps  1502 ,  1504  by beginning with opening one of the caps  1502 ,  1504  by removing a portion of the cover  1537  from that cap  1502 ,  1504  and then continuing to remove the cover  1537  from the remaining cap  1502 ,  1504 . Other arrangements are also possible. 
     The cover  1537  can assist in maintaining the caps  1502 ,  1504  coupled with each other in the pre-use configuration, as it can be sufficiently tight to resist longitudinal movement of the caps  1502 ,  1504  relative to each other. In various embodiments, the cover  1537  is removed from one or both of the caps  1502 ,  1504  prior to removing the caps  1502 ,  1504  from each other, as shown in  FIG. 19 . In other embodiments, the connection interfaces  1540 ,  1580  of the caps  1502 ,  1504  can be decoupled from each other prior to removing the cover  1537 . 
     Features, usage, and operation of the assembly  1500  can resemble that of one or more of the assemblies described above. For example, when the assembly  1500  is in the pre-use condition, each disinfection chamber  1522 ,  1558  can be defined by a separate housing  1512 ,  1550 , and the disinfection chambers  1522 ,  1558  can be fluidly isolated from one another. Likewise, at least a portion of the housing  1550  of the cap  1504  can be received within, or can nest within, a portion of the housing  1510  of the cap  1502 . In the illustrated embodiment, each of the pads  1532 ,  1570  is in an uncompressed or expanded state when the disinfection chamber  1522 ,  1558  in which it is housed is in a pre-use, sealed condition. 
     However, certain differences can exist. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the caps  1502 ,  1504  are side-by-side, rather than coaxial, when in the pre-use configuration. Stated otherwise, each cap  1502 ,  1504  can define a longitudinal axis, and the longitudinal axes can be substantially parallel with each other or non-collinear relative to each other when the caps  1502 ,  1504  are in the pre-use configuration. In the illustrated embodiment, the disinfection chambers  1522 ,  1558  are oriented such that their sealed open ends face in substantially the same direction when the assembly  1500  is in the pre-use configuration. 
       FIG. 22  illustrates another embodiment of an assembly  1600 , which can resemble one or more of the assemblies described above, particularly the assembly  1500 , in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “16.” The assembly  1600  can include caps  1602 ,  1604  such as the caps  1502 ,  1504 . Rather than including a single cover  1537 , however, an individual cover  1634 ,  1636  is provided to each of the caps  1602 ,  1604 . Such an arrangement can, in some instances, facilitate removal of the caps  1602 ,  1604  from each other while the caps  1602 ,  1604  are maintained in a sealed configuration. 
       FIGS. 23 and 24  illustrate another embodiment of an assembly  1800 , which can resemble one or more of the assemblies described above in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “18.” The assembly  1800  can include a cap  1802  and cap  1804  that are coupled with each other when in a pre-use state ( FIG. 23 ) and that can be removed from each other ( FIG. 24 ). In particular, the caps  1802 ,  1804  can be coupled with each other via a sealing mechanism. In the illustrated embodiment, the caps  1802 ,  1804  are coupled with each other via a sealing sleeve  1890 . The caps  1802 ,  1804  can have open ends facing one another, and disinfection chambers  1822 ,  1858  of the caps  1802 ,  1804  can be in fluid communication with each other, when in the pre-use configuration. 
     The cap  1802  can include a housing  1810 , which can include a sidewall  1812  and a base wall  1813 . The sidewall  1812  can cooperate with the base wall  1813  to define the disinfection chamber  1822 . The disinfection chamber  1822  can include a connection interface  1830 , which, in the illustrated embodiment, includes threading  1831  disposed on an interior surface of the housing  1812 . The connection interface  1830  can be configured to attach the cap  1802  to a medical connector in a secure yet selectively removable manner. The disinfection chamber  1822  can include a pad  1832 . 
     An exterior surface of the sidewall  1812  can define a connection interface  1840  that is configured to couple the cap  1802  with a connection interface  1891  of the sleeve  1890 . In the illustrated embodiment, the connection interfaces  1840 ,  1891  couple with each other via a friction-fit engagement. The friction fit can be sufficiently strong to provide a fluid-tight seal between the cap  1802  and the sleeve  1890 , yet can allow the cap  1802  to be removed from the sleeve  1890  via mere manipulation by a medical practitioner (e.g., without the use of ancillary tools). The fluid-tight seal can prevent evaporative loss of antiseptic from the pad  1832  and/or can maintain the sterility of the disinfection chamber  1822 . In other or further embodiments, the connection interfaces  1840 ,  1891  can include threading or other suitable attachment features. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the base wall  1813  protrudes slightly beyond an end of the sleeve  1890 , which can aid in manipulating the cap  1802  away from the sleeve  1890 . In other embodiments, the base wall  1813  can protrude even further, or can include one or more protrusions or gripping features, that can aid in removing the cap  1802  from the sleeve  1890 . 
     The cap  1802  can include a flange  1815  having an outer diameter larger than an inner diameter of the end of the sleeve  1890  that connects with the cap  1802 . The flange  1815  can prevent the cap  1802  from being inserted into the sleeve  1890  too deeply. In other or further embodiments, the flange  1815  can cooperate with an end surface of the sleeve  1890  to create a fluid-tight seal. For example, in some embodiments, a sealing member, such as an O-ring, is included between the flange  1815  and the end of the sleeve  1890  to provide the fluid-tight seal. 
     The cap  1804  can include a housing  1850  that includes a sidewall  1852  and a base wall  1854 . The sidewall  1852  and the base wall  1854  can cooperate to define a disinfection chamber  1858 , which can include a pad  1870  therein. A portion of the sidewall  1852  can define a connection interface  1842 , which includes one or more threads  1843  in the illustrated embodiment. The connection interface  1842  can be configured to attach the cap  1804  to a medical connector in a secure yet selectively removable manner. Additionally, the connection interface  1842  can cooperate with a connection interface  1892  defined by the sleeve  1890  to couple the cap  1804  with the cap  1802 . The connection interface  1892  can include threading  1893  that is complementary to the threading  1843 . The interfaces  1842 ,  1892 , when coupled with each other, can provide a fluid-tight seal between the cap  1804  and the sleeve  1890 . In other embodiments, the connection interfaces  1842 ,  1890  can instead define a friction-fit seal, such as that provided by the illustrated embodiment of the connection interfaces  1840 ,  1891  described above. In still other or further embodiments, a flange  1859  defined by the housing  1850  can cooperate with an end surface of the sleeve  1890  to create a fluid-tight seal, which can prevent evaporative loss of antiseptic from the pad  1870  and/or maintain the sterility of the disinfection chamber  1858 . For example, in some embodiments, a sealing member, such as an O-ring, is included between the flange  1859  and the end of the sleeve  1890  to provide the fluid-tight seal. 
     Features, usage, and operation of the assembly  1800  can resemble that of one or more of the assemblies described above. For example, when the assembly  1800  is in the pre-use condition, each disinfection chamber  1822 ,  1858  can be defined by a separate housing  1812 ,  1850 . Likewise, the caps  1802 ,  1804  can be coaxial with each other, and the open ends of the caps  1802 ,  1804  can face in opposite directions (e.g., towards each other). In the illustrated embodiment, each of the pads  1832 ,  1870  is in an uncompressed or expanded state when the disinfection chamber  1822 ,  1858  in which it is housed is in a pre-use, sealed condition. 
     However, certain differences can exist. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the disinfection chambers  1822 ,  1858  are in fluid communication with each other when the caps  1802 ,  1804  are in the pre-use state. Moreover, in the illustrated embodiment, no portion of the housing  1850  of the cap  1804  is received within, or nested within, any portion of the housing  1810  of the cap  1802 . 
       FIGS. 25-29  illustrate another embodiment of an assembly  1900 , which can resemble one or more of the assemblies described above in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “19.” As shown, for example,  FIGS. 25 and 26 , the assembly  1900  can include a female cap portion or female cap  1902  and a male cap portion or male cap  1904  that are integrally formed or otherwise permanently attached with each other. For example, the caps  1902 ,  1904  can include a single, integrally molded housing  1910 . The female cap  1902  can be configured to couple with a female connector, and the male cap  1904  can be configured to couple with a male connector. In the illustrated embodiment, the caps  1902 ,  1904  are in a coaxial arrangement. As shown, for example, in  FIGS. 26 and 28 , the assembly  1900  can include a pad  1970  that is received within one or more of the caps  1902 ,  1904 . As shown, for example, in  FIGS. 25 and 26 , each cap  1902 ,  1904  can be sealed shut in the pre-use configuration via a separate cover  1934 ,  1938 , respectively. Each cover  1934 ,  1938  can include a tab  1935 ,  1939 , respectively, that can aid in removal of the cover. 
     With continued reference to  FIGS. 25-29 , the housing  1910  can define at least a portion of each of the caps  1902 ,  1904 . The housing  1910  includes a first sidewall  1912  that defines a first disinfection chamber  1922  and includes a second sidewall  1952  that defines a second disinfection chamber  1958 . As shown in  FIG. 29 , the first sidewall  1912  can define larger inner and outer diameters than those defined by the second sidewall  1952 . The housing  1910  can transition from the first sidewall  1912  and the first disinfection chamber  1922  to the second sidewall  1952  and the second disinfection chamber  1958  at a constriction or abutment  1920 . The housing  1910  can be substantially hollow such that the first and second disinfection chambers  1922 ,  1958  are in fluid communication with each other. The housing  1910  can define another abutment  1921 , which is discussed further below. 
     As shown in  FIGS. 26 ,  28 , and  29 , the female cap  1902  can include a connection interface  1930  that is configured to couple with a connection interface of a medical connector, such as a needleless injection site. The connection interface  1930  can include threading  1931 , which can be disposed at an interior of the sidewall  1912 . In some embodiments, the male cap  1902  includes one or more gripping features  1903  at an exterior surface of the sidewall  1912 . In the illustrated embodiment, the gripping features  1903  are raised areas. In other embodiments, the gripping features  1903  can include depressed areas. The gripping features  1903  can be formed in the shape of a company logo or any other suitable shape. 
     As shown in  FIGS. 26 ,  27 , and  29 , the male cap  1904  can include a connection interface  1942  that is configured to couple with a connection interface of a medical connector, such as a medical attachment having a male luer. The connection interface  1942  can include threading  1943 , which can be disposed at an exterior surface of the sidewall  1952 . The cap  1904  can include one or more vents  1959 , which can be located at an end of the sidewall  1952 . The one or more vents can also extend along the length of sidewall  1952 . In the illustrated embodiment, a constriction, rim, or lip  1953  projects radially inwardly at the end of the sidewall  1952 , which can aid in maintaining the pad  1970  within the cap  1904 . In particular, the lip  1953  can define a smaller inner diameter than an outer diameter of the pad  1970  (see  FIG. 29 ). The vents  1959  can comprise notches in the lip  1953 . The illustrated embodiment includes four vents  1959 , although more or fewer vents are possible. 
     With reference to  FIG. 26 , the pad  1970  can define a shape generally resembling a series of tiered cylinders. A rim  1971  can extend transversely, or radially outwardly, from a cylinder that has the smallest diameter. Another rim  1972  can extend transversely from a cylinder having an intermediate diameter. The largest cylinder can have a recess  1973  disposed therein. In certain embodiments, such as the illustrated embodiment, one or more extensions  1974  protrude from an end of the pad  1970  in a longitudinal direction. Each extension  1974  can include a groove  1975  therein, as discussed further below. In other embodiments, the one or more extensions  1974  are omitted. 
     With reference to  FIG. 29 , the pad  1970  can be secured within the housing  1910  in any suitable manner, and thus can resist translational movement in either direction that would cause the pad  1970  to exit the housing  1910  from either open end of the housing. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, interaction of the threads  1931  with a left end of the pad  1970  can prevent the pad  1970  from moving out of the housing  1910  in a leftward direction as a portion of a medical connector (e.g., a male luer connector) is inserted into the housing  1910  from the right. As shown in  FIG. 29 , some portions of the pad  1970  can be compressed by the threads  1931 , whereas the grooves  1975  of the extensions  1974  can accommodate the threads  1931 . The enlarged tiered sections of the pad  1970 , and the resultant interaction of the rims  1971 ,  1972  with the abutments  1920 ,  1921 , respectively, can prevent the pad  1970  from moving out of the housing  1910  in the rightward direction as a portion of a medical connector (e.g., a needleless injection site) is advanced into the housing  1920  from the left. In other or further embodiments, the pad  1970  can be adhered to the housing  1910 . 
     With reference to  FIGS. 26 and 27 , the cover  1938  can be secured to the housing  1910  in any suitable manner. For example, in some embodiments, an end of the cover  1938  is adhered or otherwise sealed to a sealing surface  1956  at an end of the sidewall  1952  so as to provide a hermetic seal. A side portion of the cover  1938  thus can cover the connection interface  1942  of the cap  1904 . In other or further embodiments, a lower circumferential edge of the cover  1938  can be adhered or otherwise sealed to a sealing surface  1957  at a base end of the sidewall  1952  so as to provide a hermetic seal. With reference to  FIGS. 26 and 28 , the cover  1934  can be adhered or otherwise sealed to a sealing surface  1916  at an end of the sidewall  1912  of the housing  1910 . 
       FIG. 30  illustrates an early stage of the coupling of a medical connector  2000  with the cap  1904 . The medical connector  2000  can be of any suitable variety, and may be referred to as a male medical connector. The medical connector  2000  can include a housing  2005  that complies with ISO standards (e.g., ISO 594-1:1986 and ISO 594-2:1998). The housing  2005  can include a skirt  2010  that defines a connection interface  2012 , which itself can include threading  2014 . The housing  2005  can also include an elongated portion, a male projection, or male protrusion  2019 , which can define a fluid passageway  2022 . In the illustrated embodiment, the male protrusion  2019  is a male luer  2020 . 
     Although the illustrated embodiment of the medical connector  2000  comprises a male luer-lock connector, it is to be understood that other embodiments of the cap  1904  can be compatible with other varieties of medical connectors  2000 . For example, in some embodiments, the connection interface  2012  may comprise latches, prongs, or some other suitable attachment mechanism instead of (or in addition to) the threading  2014 . In other or further embodiments, the male protrusion  2019  may be something other than a male luer. For example, the male protrusion  2019  may be a substantially cylindrical extension, or may define some other suitable shape. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, a tip of the male luer  2020  can contact an end surface of the pad  1970  prior to engagement of the connection interfaces  1942 ,  2012  (e.g., the threadings  1943 ,  2014 ) with each other. Accordingly, some compression of the pad  1970  may occur without assistance from the connection interfaces  1942 ,  2012 . In other embodiments, the connection interfaces  1942 ,  2012  may engage one another prior to contact being made between the tip of the male luer  2020  and the end surface of the pad  1970 , such as may occur when the pad  1970  is more recessed within the housing  1910  and/or the skirt  2010  and its connection interface  2012  are longer. In either case, in some embodiments, the connection interfaces  1942 ,  2012  can assist in the compression of the pad  1970 . The desired antiseptic concentration level of the pad  1970  is determined by the volume required to fully coat and disinfect the medical connector  2000 , while taking into consideration the evaporative loss that may occur during the shelf life of cap  1904 . 
       FIG. 31  illustrates a later stage of the coupling of the medical connector  2000  with the cap  1904 . As the male luer  2020  is advanced into the disinfection chamber  1958  of the cap  1904 , it compresses the pad  1970  and causes antiseptic  1933  to egress therefrom. The pad  1970  can remain relatively fixed, rotationally, while the male luer  2020  is rotated and advanced further into the chamber  1958 , which can effect a rubbing or scrubbing of the tip of the luer  2020 , particularly as increased compression of the pad  1970  provides an increased force of the pad  1970  against the tip. The released antiseptic can fill an opening or volume of space between the sidewall  1952  of the housing  1910  and an outer surface of the male luer  2020 , and can thereby disinfect the outer surface of the male luer  2020 . Additionally, in the illustrated embodiment, the fluid passageway  2022  of the male luer  2020  is open such that antiseptic fluid  1933  may enter into it. In some instances, such as when the medical connector  2000  is connected to a fluid line  199  (see  FIG. 5 ), it may be desirable to flush a portion of the fluid line after the cap  1904  has been disconnected from the medical connector  2000  so as to clear the male luer  2020  and any portion of the fluid line  199  into which antiseptic fluid  1933  has entered. 
     In certain embodiments, a seal can form between the lip  1953  and the male luer  2020  when the luer  2020  is advanced sufficiently far into the chamber  1958 . The seal thus formed can be an interrupted seal, such that the seal is formed only at those regions where the luer  2020  and the lip  1953  are in contact with each other. Antiseptic  1933  can be permitted to exit from the chamber  1958  via the vents  1959 . In some embodiments, the vents  1959  are sufficiently large to permit antiseptic  1933  to exit from the chamber  1958  freely once the antiseptic  1933  has been expelled from the pad  1970 . Antiseptic  1933  that exits from the chamber  1958  through the vents  1959  can disinfect portions of the male luer  2020  that are proximal of the lip  1953 . 
     In other embodiments, the vents  1959  are sufficiently small to prevent antiseptic  1953  from exiting from the chamber  1958  when a pressure within the chamber  1958  is the same or approximately the same as a pressure outside of the chamber  1958  (e.g., atmospheric pressure), and yet are sufficiently large to permit antiseptic  1933  to exit the chamber  1958  when the pressure within the chamber  1958  is significantly greater than the pressure outside of the chamber  1958 , such as may result when the luer  2020  is being advanced deeper within the chamber  1958 . The vents  1959  thus can permit selective egress of the antiseptic  1933  to aid in achieving the desired positioning of the male luer  2020 , yet can maintain the antiseptic  1933  within the chamber  1958  in order to bathe a portion of the male luer  2020  once the male luer  2020  is positioned as desired. In still other embodiments, a fluid-tight seal is formed between the lip  1953  and the male luer  2020 . 
     In certain embodiments, the pad  1970  may be recessed within the chamber  1958  to a greater degree when in the uncompressed state (e.g., when in the state shown in  FIG. 30 ). Moreover, the threads  2014  of the connection interface  2012  and the threads  1943  of the connection interface  1942  can permit the antiseptic  1933  to pass through them, so as to provide additional venting of the chamber  1958 . For example, threaded connection interfaces  2012 ,  1942  can permit antiseptic  1933  that has exited from the chamber  1958  to spiral about an outer surface of the second sidewall  1952  in a distal direction. 
     Each of  FIGS. 32-34  illustrates the cap  1902  coupled with a separate needleless injection site  2040 ,  2060 ,  2080 . As with other caps disclosed herein, the cap  1902  can be versatile so as to couple with a variety of different types of medical connectors in a secure fashion that disinfects each type of medical connector. As can be seen in each of  FIGS. 32-34 , coupling of the needleless injection sites  2040 ,  2060 ,  2080  with the cap  1902  can effect compression of one end of the pad  1970  in a manner similar to that described above with respect to compression of the other end of the pad  1970 . Compression of the pad  1970  and rotation of the needleless injection site  2040 ,  2060 ,  2080  can effect rubbing, swabbing, or scrubbing of the needleless injection site and disinfection thereof via the antiseptic  1933 . 
     With reference to  FIG. 32 , the needleless injection site  2040  can comprise a Clave® port available from ICU Medical, Inc. The needleless injection site  2040  can include a housing  2042  that defines a connection interface  2044 . The needleless injection site  2040  can further include an elastomeric seal  2046 , which is shown in a closed configuration in which fluid access is not permitted into a fluid passageway  2048 . Small crevices can exist between the housing  2042  and the elastomeric seal  2046  at an end of the needleless injection site  2040  that is inserted into disinfection chamber  1922 . As the connection interface  2044  cooperates with the connection interface  1930  defined by the sidewall  1912  to draw the tip of the needleless injection site  2040  into the disinfection chamber  1922 , the pad  1970  can be compressed so as to generally conform to the crevices. Compression of the pad  1970  likewise can expel antiseptic  1933 , which, in some instances, can fill in portions of the crevices that the pad  1970  may not be able to contact directly. As the pad  1970  is compressed, the seal  2046  can remain closed so as to prevent antiseptic  1933  from entering the fluid passageway  2048 . With reference again to  FIG. 29 , if present, the one or more extensions  1974 , due to their positioning over the threads  1031 , additionally can rub or scrub the side surfaces of the needleless injection site  2040 . Thus, a thorough rubbing and disinfection of the needleless injection site  2040  can be accomplished via the cap  1902 , and the performance of the cap  1902  in this regard can exceed that achieved via standard swabbing protocols and can be less susceptible to human error. 
     With reference to  FIG. 33 , the needleless injection site  2060  can comprise a Q-Syte® port available from Becton, Dickinson and Company. The needleless injection site  2060  can include a housing  2062  and an elastomeric seal  2066 , which is shown in a closed configuration in which fluid access is not permitted into a fluid passageway  2068 . As with the needleless injection site  2040 , small crevices can exist between the housing  2062  and the elastomeric seal  2066 . However, the crevices can exist at a side portion of the needleless injection site  2060 , rather than at its tip. Nevertheless, as the needleless injection site  2060  is advanced into the cap  1902 , the pad  1970  can be compressed so as to generally conform to these differently shaped crevices. Compression of the pad  1970  likewise can expel antiseptic  1933 , which, in some instances, can fill in portions of the crevices that the pad  1970  may not be able to contact directly. The seal  2066  can be maintained in the closed position during the coupling procedure, so as to prevent any of the antiseptic  1933  from entering the fluid passageway  2068 . 
     With reference to  FIG. 34 , the needleless injection site  2080  can comprise a SmartSite® port available from Cardinal Health, Inc. The needleless injection site  2080  can include a housing  2082  and an elastomeric seal  2086 , which is shown in a closed configuration in which fluid access is not permitted into a fluid passageway  2088 . As with the needleless injection sites  2040 ,  2060 , small crevices can exist between the housing  2082  and the elastomeric seal  2086 . However, these crevices can be in yet different positions than those of the needleless injection sites  2040 ,  2060 . Nevertheless, as the needleless injection site  2080  is advanced into the cap  1902 , the pad  1970  can be compressed so as to generally conform to these differently shaped crevices. Compression of the pad  1970  likewise can expel antiseptic  1933 , which, in some instances, can fill in portions of the crevices that the pad  1970  may not be able to contact directly. The seal  2086  can be maintained in the closed position during the coupling procedure so as to prevent any of the antiseptic  1933  from entering the fluid passageway  2088 . Additionally, each of the needleless injection sites  2040 ,  2060 ,  2080  may advance into the cap  1902  by different amounts. The cap  1902  thus can be adaptable and versatile. Additional, non-limiting examples of needleless injection sites with which the cap  1902  can selectively couple include the Clearlink® Site available from Baxter and the InVision-Plus® available from Rymed. 
     Features, usage, and operation of the assembly  1900  can resemble that of one or more of the assemblies described above. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the pad  1970  is in an uncompressed or expanded state when the disinfection chambers  1922 ,  1958  in which it is housed are in a pre-use, sealed condition. Additionally, the caps  1902 ,  1904  are coaxial with each other with open ends that face in opposite directions. Likewise, the caps  1902 ,  1904  are connected to each other when the assembly  1900  is in a pre-use state. 
     However, certain differences can exist. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the caps  1902 ,  1904  cannot be removed from each other. Moreover, the assembly  1900  includes a single pad  1970  that is used in both caps  1902 ,  1904 . Although not shown in the drawings, it is understood that each cap  1902 ,  1904  can be coupled with a separate medical connector such that the pad  1970  is compressed from both ends when the caps  1902 ,  1904  are in a coupled state. 
       FIG. 35  illustrates another embodiment of an assembly  2100 , which can resemble one or more of the assemblies described above, particularly the assembly  1900 , in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “21.” The assembly  2100  can include caps  2102 ,  2104 , such as the caps  1902 ,  1904 , that are fixedly, permanently, or integrally connected with each other. Covers such as the covers  1934 ,  1938 , which are not shown in  FIG. 35 , can be used with the caps  2102 ,  2104 . The assembly  2100  can include a single housing  2110  that defines two disinfection chambers  2122 ,  2158 . The housing  2110  can include a partition  2120  that separates the disinfection chambers  2122 ,  2158  from each other such that the chambers  2122 ,  2158  are fluidly separated from one another. Each chamber  2122 ,  2158  can include a separate pad  2132 ,  2170  therein. 
       FIGS. 36 and 37  illustrate another embodiment of an assembly  2200 , which can resemble one or more of the assemblies described above, particularly the assemblies  1900  and  2100 , in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “22.” The assembly  2200  can include a female cap  2202  and a male cap  2204  that are fixedly, permanently, or integrally connected with each other. The assembly can include a housing  2210 , which can include a sidewall  2252  that defines a disinfection chamber  2258  and a connection interface  2242 . Covers  2234 ,  2238 , such as the covers  1934 ,  1938 , can be used with the caps  2202 ,  2204 . 
     The female cap  2202  can be substantially the same as the female cap  1902 . However, the male cap  2204  can differ from the male cap  1904  in certain respects. For example, the cap  2204  can include a sealing member  2290 . In the illustrated embodiment, the sealing member  2290  is shaped substantially as a conical disk. The sealing member  2290  can include a seal region  2292  which, in the illustrated embodiment, is rounded and projects toward an open end of the disinfection chamber  2258  when situated therein. In other embodiments, the sealing member  2290  can define other shapes, such as, for example, square, oval, diamond, or other non-circular shapes. Further, the sealing member  2290  and the seal region  2292  may be a separate components that are integrally connected. The sealing member  2290  can include one or more ports  2294 , which can define openings or channels  2293  that extend between opposing sides or faces of the sealing member  2290 . Other configurations of the ports  2294  are also contemplated, such as, for example, self-sealing slits. In other configurations, such as some instances in which the sealing member  2290  is a non-circular shape, the ports can be eliminated since the antiseptic can flow around the sides of the sealing member  2290 . In some embodiments, the sealing member  2290  can be relatively rigid so as to maintain a pre-formed shape, but may be configured to readily form a fluid-tight seal with a male luer of a medical connector. The sealing member  2290  can be formed of any suitable material, such as an elastomer or any thermoplastic such as polypropylene, polycarbinate, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or rigid or semi-rigid thermoset plastic. The sealing member  2290  can be formed in any suitable fashion, such as via molding or die cutting. 
     The sealing member  2290  can be coupled with a biasing element  2276 , which can be configured to resist or oppose movement of the sealing member  2290 . Stated otherwise, the biasing element  2276  can provide a bias to the sealing member  2290  in a direction of an initial position of the sealing member  2290 , such as that shown in  FIG. 37 , once the sealing member  2290  has been displaced from that initial position. Accordingly, in the embodiment depicted in  FIG. 37 , the biasing element  2276  biases the sealing member  2290  in a proximal direction when the sealing member  2290  is displaced distally. The terms “proximal” and “distal,” when used herein relative to a cap, are such that a medical device is inserted into a proximal end of the cap and advanced toward a distal end of the cap. Accordingly, in the illustrated embodiment, the proximal ends of the caps  2202 ,  2204  are at opposite ends of the assembly  2200  and the distal ends of the caps  2202 ,  2204  are fixedly joined with each other. 
     The male cap  2204  can include a rim  2253 , similar to the lip  1953 , which can include one or more vents  2259 . However, in the illustrated embodiment, the rim  2253  is more recessed from a proximal end of the cap  2204  (e.g., deeper within the cavity  2258 ). A portion of a pad  2270  that is positioned within the disinfection chamber  2258  can be shorter than a corresponding portion of the pad  1970 , so as to more readily fit below the more recessed rim  2253 . As shown in  FIG. 37 , the pad  2270  can be seated beneath the sealing member  2290 , and the sealing member  2290  can be seated beneath the rim  2253  when the male cap is in the pre-use configuration. In some embodiments, the pad  2270  is in an uncompressed state (e.g., a longitudinally uncompressed state) when situated as shown in  FIG. 37 . The pad  2270  can include an antiseptic  2233  therein. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the pad  2270  is resiliently compressible such that the biasing element  2276  comprises the pad  2270 . Stated otherwise, compression of the pad  2270  gives rise to a biasing force that tends to restore the pad  2270  to its uncompressed state. The biasing force may increase with greater compression of the pad  2270 . In some embodiments, the pad  2270  is fixedly secured to the sealing member  2290 , such as by an adhesive or any suitable lamination technique. In other embodiments, the sealing member  2290  is not secured to the pad  2270 , but movement of the sealing member  2290  within the disinfection chamber  2258  can nevertheless be constrained by a proximal end of the pad  2270  and a distal edge of the rim  2253 . 
     The sealing member  2290  can aid in maintaining the antiseptic  2233  within the pad  2270  when the cap  2204  is in a pre-use condition. For example, in some embodiments, only a small surface area of the proximal end of the pad  2270  that is directly beneath the ports  2294  of the sealing member  2290  is directly exposed to air when the proximal end of the cap  2204  is uncovered. Accordingly, evaporative loss of the antiseptic  2233  can be slowed. Moreover, in other or further embodiments, the ports  2294  may be defined by channels that are sufficiently small to prevent liquid antiseptic  2233  from passing through them when the pressure on both sides of the sealing member  2290  is balanced. However, the ports  2294  may permit liquid antiseptic  2233  to pass through them when the pressure on one side of the sealing member  2290  is greater than the pressure on the other side of the sealing member  2290 , as discussed further below. The pad  2270  itself can also be configured to retain the antiseptic  2233  until it is compressed. 
     In some embodiments, an outer edge of the sealing member  2290  can form a fluid-tight seal with an inner surface of the sidewall  2252  when the cap  2204  is in the pre-use state. In further embodiments, the seal can be maintained as the sealing member  2290  is moved distally within the disinfection chamber  2258  such that liquid antiseptic  2233  is only permitted to bypass the sealing member  2290  through the ports  2294 . In other embodiments, an outer edge of the sealing member  2290  may not form a fluid-tight seal with the sidewall  2252 , whether initially or after having been moved from the pre-use condition, such that antiseptic  2233  can bypass the sealing member  2290  around its outer edge. 
       FIG. 38  illustrates an early stage of coupling a medical connector  2000  with the cap  2204 . A tip  2021  of a male luer  2020  contacts the seal region  2292  of the sealing member  2290 . In the illustrated embodiment, a portion of the sealing member  2290  extends into a lumen  2022  of the connector  2000  such that the contact is primarily between an inner edge of the tip  2021  and a thin band of the sealing member  2290 . Such an arrangement can assist in forming a fluid-tight seal due to a relatively higher pressure that results between the tip  2021  and the sealing member  2290  when forces (e.g., an insertion force on the tip  2021  and an oppositely directed biasing force on the sealing member  2290 ) are distributed over relatively smaller areas. Such an arrangement likewise can allow antiseptic to contact much or all of an external surface of the luer  2020 , including a distal surface of the tip  2021 . 
     In the illustrated embodiment, contact between the tip  2021  and the sealing member  2290  occurs just prior to engagement of a connection  2012  of the connector  2000  with the connection interface  2242 . In other embodiments, the connection interfaces  2012 ,  2242  can engage each other prior to contact between the tip  2021  and the sealing member  2290 . In either case, as the connection interfaces  2012 ,  2242  cooperate with each other to connect the cap  2204  to the medical connector  2000  (e.g., as the cap  2204  is threaded onto the connector  2000 ), a fluid-tight seal is formed or maintained between the seal region  2292  of the sealing member  2290  and the tip  2021  of the male luer  2020 . 
       FIG. 39  illustrates a late or final stage of coupling the medical connector  2000  with the cap  2204 . To arrive at this stage, the cap  2204  is advanced over the male luer  2020  to a greater extent. As a result, the luer  2020  is advanced further into the disinfection chamber  2258 , thereby moving the sealing member  2290  distally and compressing the pad  2270 . Compression of the pad  2270  forces antiseptic  2233  out of the pad  2270 . Moreover, as the pad  2270  is compressed, the volume of the portion of the disinfection chamber  2258  that is on the distal side of the sealing member  2290  is reduced, thereby increasing the pressure in that portion of the disinfection chamber  2258 . As a result, the antiseptic  2233  is forced through the ports  2294  into the portion of the disinfection chamber  2258  on the proximal side of the sealing member  2290 . Due to the seal between the sealing member  2290  and the luer  2020 , the antiseptic  2233  is prevented from entering the lumen  2022  of the luer  2020 , and thus is prevented from contacting or mixing with medical fluid that may be within the lumen  2022  when the cap  2204  is coupled with the medical connector  2000  and/or that may flow through the lumen  2022  after the cap  2204  has been removed from the connector  2000 . The antiseptic  2233  can fill the open region of the disinfection chamber  2258  on the proximal side of the sealing member  2290 . 
     As the luer  2020  is advanced distally in the disinfection chamber  2258 , another seal, or partial seal, can be formed between an outer surface of the luer  2020  and an inner surface of the rim  2253 . Where present, the seal can be substantially fluid-tight. However, the vents  2259  can interrupt the seal so as to permit antiseptic  2233  to exit from the chamber  2258 . In further embodiments, a proximal or distal surface of the rim  2253  can be covered with a covering, such as, for example, Tyvek® or other nonwoven material, which can filter microbes from the air entering the disinfection chamber  2258  via the vents  2259 , yet can permit antiseptic  2233  to pass through it so as to exit from the disinfection chamber  2258 . In other embodiments, the rim  2253  is uninterrupted (e.g., is free of vents  2259 ) such that an uninterrupted seal can be formed between the rim  2253  and the male luer  2020 . 
     With continued reference to  FIG. 39 , when the cap  2204  is connected to the medical device  2000 , antiseptic  2233  can fill the disinfection chamber  2258  between the seals formed by contact between the luer  2020  and the sealing member  2290  and between the luer  2020  and the rim  2253 . An outer surface of the luer  2020  between these two sealed regions of the luer  2020  thus can be bathed in the antiseptic  2233  and disinfected thereby. As mentioned with respect to the assembly  1900 , the rim  2253  can be positioned at a deeper or a more shallow position relative to the housing  2252 , which can result in disinfection of a smaller or greater surface area of the luer  2020 , respectively. In certain embodiments in which the proximal seal between the rim  2253  and the male luer  2020  is interrupted (e.g., where the rim  2253  includes vents  2259 ), antiseptic  2233  can be permitted to exit from the chamber  2258 . In some embodiments, the vents  2259  are sufficiently large to permit antiseptic  2233  to exit from the chamber  2258  freely once the antiseptic  2233  has been expelled from the pad  2270 . Antiseptic  2233  that exits from the chamber  2258  through the vents  2259  can disinfect portions of the male luer  2020  that are proximal of the rim  2253 . 
     When the cap  2204  is removed from the medical device  2000 , it can naturally or automatically return to the orientation shown in  FIG. 37 . In particular, the resiliently compressible pad  2270  can move the sealing member  2290  distally to its pre-use position. In so doing, the expanding portion of the disinfection chamber  2258  that is distal of the sealing member  2290  can have a decreased pressure such that antiseptic  2233  is forced back through the ports  2294  of the sealing member  2290  in a distal direction. The expanding pad  2270  can soak up or absorb the returned antiseptic  2233 . The expanding pad  2270  can provide sufficient force to the sealing member  2290  to maintain the seal with the seal region  2292  such that antiseptic  2233  is prevented from entering into the lumen  2022  as the cap  2204  is decoupled from the medical device  2000 . 
     In other embodiments, the caps  2202 ,  2204  can more closely resemble the caps  2102 ,  2104  described above. For example, the cap  2202  can have a separate pad, which is spaced from or separated from the pad  2270  by a partition. In still other embodiments, the caps  2202 ,  2204  can be readily disconnected from each other, and in further embodiments, may be configured for selective reconnection with each other in manners such as those described with respect to other caps herein. 
       FIGS. 40-45  illustrate another embodiment of a cap  2304 , which can resemble one or more of the caps described above in certain respects. For example, the cap  2304  can replace or readily be altered to replace any of the caps  1004 ,  1104 ,  1204 ,  1304 ,  1404 ,  1504 ,  1604 ,  1804 ,  1904 ,  2104 ,  2204  in the systems  1000 ,  1100 ,  1200 ,  1300 ,  1400 ,  1500 ,  1600 ,  1800 ,  1900 ,  2100 ,  2200  described above. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “23.” 
     The cap  2304  can include a housing  2350  having a sidewall  2352  and a base wall  2354  that define a disinfection chamber  2358 . The housing  2350  can further include a coupling interface  2342 . The cap  2304  can include a biasing member  2376 , which can comprise a resiliently compressible pad  2370 , which can in turn include an antiseptic  2333  therein. The cap  2304  can further include a sealing member  2390 , which includes a sealing region  2392  and one or more ports  2394 , which include channels  2393  that extend through the sealing member  2390 . 
     The sidewall  2352  of the housing  2350  can be different from that of the illustrated embodiment of the cap  2204 . In particular, at least a portion of an inner surface of the sidewall  2352  (e.g., a proximal region thereof) can be tapered so as to form a fluid-tight seal with a male luer. For example, at least a portion of the inner surface of the sidewall  2352  can comply with ISO standards (e.g., ISO 594-1:1986 and ISO 594-2:1998) for forming a seal with a male luer. In the illustrated embodiment, the sidewall  2352  is devoid of any inwardly projecting rims that could interrupt complementarities between the sidewall  2352  and a male luer. 
       FIGS. 41-45  illustrate consecutive stages of the cap  2304  being coupled with a medical device  2000 . As shown in  FIG. 41 , a tip  2021  of a male luer  2020  can be received within the disinfection chamber  2358  prior to contacting the sealing member  2390 . Stated otherwise, the sealing member  2390  can be recessed relative to a proximal end of the sidewall  2352  by a distance that is sufficiently great to permit at least a portion of the male luer  2020  to be received within the sidewall  2352  before the male luer contacts the sealing member  2390 . 
     In  FIG. 42 , the luer  2020  has been advanced further within the disinfection chamber  2358  so as to contact the seal region  2392  of the sealing member  2390 . In the illustrated embodiment, the connection interface  2342  of the cap  2304  engages a connection interface  2012  of the medical connector  2000  just prior to contact being made between the tip  2021  of the luer  2020  and the seal region  2392 . The connection interfaces  2342 ,  2012  thus can assist in the creation of a fluid-tight seal between the luer  2020  and the sealing member  2390 . 
     The sealing member  2390  can remain in the initial or pre-use position that is shown in both  FIGS. 41 and 42  until the seal has been formed between the luer  2020  and the sealing member  2390 . Further advancement of the luer  2020  into the disinfection chamber  2358  can strengthen the seal due to the spring force that arises as the pad  2370  is compressed. When the sealing member  2390  is in the initial orientation, the ports  2394  can prevent antiseptic  2333  from passing through them. Also, the composition of the pad  2370  or the affinity of the pad  2370  to absorb antiseptic  2333  will determine the retention of the antiseptic  2333  in the pad  2370 . 
     In  FIG. 43 , the luer  2020  has been advanced slightly further into the disinfection chamber  2358 , thereby compressing the pad  2370  somewhat and forcing antiseptic  2333  through the ports  2394 . As schematically shown by wavy lines, the antiseptic  2333  begins to fill the space between the sealing member  2390  and the tip  2021  of the luer  2020 . The antiseptic  2333  does not, however, enter into a lumen of the luer  2020  due to the seal between the luer  2020  and the sealing member  2390 . 
     In  FIG. 44 , the luer  2020  has been advanced even further into the disinfection chamber  2358 , thereby compressing the pad  2370  to a greater extent and forcing additional antiseptic  2333  through the ports  2394 . Although the outer surface of the luer  2020  appears to be nearly parallel to and in contact with an inner surface of the tapered portion of the sidewall  2352 , a seal has not yet been formed in this area. Accordingly, the antiseptic  2333  can fill not only the space between the sealing member  2390  and the tip  2021  of the luer  2020 , but also the small amount of space between the luer  2020  and the sidewall  2352 . The luer  2020  thus can be covered in antiseptic  2333  and disinfected thereby. In some embodiments, the antiseptic  2333  remains within portions of the space between the luer  2020  and the sidewall  2352  only temporarily, as additional advancement of the luer  2020  can close this space to form a seal. 
       FIG. 45  illustrates a final or fully coupled stage, or an end-of-stroke orientation, in which the luer  2020  has been advanced even further into the disinfection chamber  2358  such that the luer  2020  forms a seal with the sidewall  2352 . Antiseptic  2333  can be retained in all open portions of the disinfection chamber  2358  that are between the seal formed by the luer  2020  and the sealing member  2390  and the seal formed by the luer  2020  and the sidewall  2352 . In the illustrated embodiment, only a small portion of the luer  2020 , which includes the tip  2021 , is in continual contact with the portion of the antiseptic  2333  thus retained. This portion of the luer  2020  can be bathed by the antiseptic  2333  and disinfected thereby. In other embodiments, larger portions of the luer  2020  can be bathed. 
     In some embodiments, the seal formed by the luer  2020  and the sealing member  2390 , and/or the seal formed by the luer  2020  and the sidewall  2352 , can be accomplished by appropriate sizing of the individual components. In certain embodiments, the sizing is subject to and based upon the standardized ISO luer taper specification, such as discussed elsewhere herein. 
     In certain instances, the a distance to which a particular luer  2020  is inserted into the chamber  2358  can vary from the distance to which a different luer  2020  may be inserted prior to sealing with the sidewall  2352 . Similarly, in certain manufacturing processes, the dimensions of the sidewall  2352  may vary slightly from one cap  2304  to another, within a tolerance range, such that a given luer  2020  may extend into the chamber  2358  of one cap  2304  to a greater or lesser extent than it may extend into the chamber  2358  of another cap  2304 . 
     For example, all manufactured components, such as the luer  2020  and the sidewall  2352  of the cap  2034 , can vary within tolerance limits that range between a maximum material condition and a minimum material condition. The maximum and minimum material conditions can correspond to large and small components, respectively. All combinations of maximum and minimum material conditions for interoperable components can be considered to determine a maximum mating depth and a minimum mating depth for components that are within their respective tolerance ranges. Such maximum and minimum mating depths can represent the upper and lower values of an axial range of engagement. 
     For example, where both interoperable components (e.g., the luer  2020  and the sidewall  2352 ) exhibit their respective minimum material conditions, the maximum mating depth may be achieved. This maximum mating depth may also be referred to as a maximum stroke. In other words, the minimum material condition corresponds to the loosest fit. Conversely, the maximum material condition corresponds to the tightest fit of the taper. 
     In some embodiments, the axial range of engagement for the sidewall  2352  of the cap  2304  with a luer  2020  that is within standard tolerances is about 2 millimeters. In certain of such embodiments, a minimum dispense stroke of about 1 millimeter indicates that the components have been dimensioned such that for the tightest fitting luer  2020  (i.e., maximum material condition), a minimum of about 1 millimeter dispense stroke will exist. Hence, in this example, for any luer  2020  within an acceptable tolerance range, a minimum of about 1 millimeter of movement of the seal member  2390  can exist prior to engagement between the luer  2020  and the sidewall  2352 . Other axial ranges of engagement, and other maximum and minimum dispense strokes, are also possible. For example, in various embodiments, an axial range of engagement for the cap  2304  can be no more than about 1, 2, 3, or 4 millimeters or no less than about 1, 2, 3, or 4 millimeters. In other or further embodiments, a minimum dispense stroke is no greater than about 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, or 2.0 millimeters. 
       FIG. 46  illustrates another embodiment of a cap  2304 ′ in an end-of-stroke orientation. The cap  2304 ′ is substantially the same as the cap  2304  just discussed. For example, a substantial portion of an interior surface of the sidewall  2352  is tapered so as to be complementary to the male luer  2020 . However, the sidewall  2352  includes one or more venting channels or vents  2353  therein that prevent the sidewall  2352  from fully sealing with the male luer  2020 . The illustrated vent  2353  extends from a proximal end of the sidewall  2352  in a longitudinal direction to a position just beyond (or distal of) an end-of-stroke position of the tip  2021  of the male luer  2020 . Accordingly, after liquid-impervious contact is established between the male luer  2020  and those portions of the sidewall  2352  having a taper complementary to the male luer  2020 , antiseptic  2333  can still exit the chamber  2358  via the vent  2353 . In certain embodiments, the coupled connection interfaces  2012 ,  2342  can permit the antiseptic  2333  to pass through them so as to provide additional venting of the chamber  2358 . For example, threaded connection interfaces  2012 ,  2342  can permit antiseptic  2333  that has exited from the chamber  2358  to spiral about an outer surface of the sidewall  2352  and/or otherwise seep in a distal direction. 
     In various embodiments, the cap  2304 ′ comprises one or more, two or more, three or more, or four or more vents  2353 . One or more of the vents  2353  can be substantially linear in a longitudinal direction (as shown) and/or can define alternate orientations. For example in some embodiments, one or more vents  2353  can be angled relative to a longitudinal axis of the cap  2304 ′ (e.g., can be helical), or can include a portion that is so angled. One or more of the vents  2353  can extend any suitable distance between the proximal end of the sidewall  2352  and the base wall  2354 . For example, in various embodiments, the vents  2353  extend no less than about ¼, no less than about ⅓, no less than about ½, no less than about ⅔, or no less than about ¾ the distance between the proximal end of the sidewall  2352  and the base wall  2354 . Where suitable, one or more vents  2353  can be incorporated into embodiments of the caps described above, as well as those described hereafter. 
       FIG. 47  illustrates another embodiment of a cap  2404 , which can resemble one or more of the caps described above, particularly the caps  2304 ,  2304 ′, in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “24.” The cap can include a housing  2450 , a biasing member  2476 , and a sealing member  2490 . The housing  2450  can have a sidewall  2452  and a base wall  2454  that define a disinfection chamber  2458 . The housing  2450  can further define one or more ports  2494 . In the illustrated embodiment, the port  2494  comprises a longitudinal channel or groove  2459  extending a distance along the sidewall  2452 . The longitudinal distance which the groove  2459  extends can be varied as desired. In some embodiments, the longitudinal distance is greater than or equal to a stroke length through which the sealing member  2490  is displaced when the cap  2404  is connected to a medical connector for reasons discussed hereafter, although such is not required. 
     The sealing member  2490  can be devoid of channels, and may act in a plunger-like fashion. The sealing member  2490  can form a liquid-impermeable seal with the sidewall  2452  when in the pre-use configuration shown in  FIG. 47 . However, distal displacement of the sealing member  2490  can move a proximal end of the sealing member  2490  past a proximal end of the port  2494 , thereby opening the port  2494 . This can permit an antiseptic  2433  to be forced from a pad  2470  by the displaced sealing member  2490  and moved through the port  2494 , thereby entering the portion of the disinfection chamber  2458  which is proximal to the sealing member  2490 . In embodiments where the longitudinal length of a groove  2459  is greater than or equal to a stroke length through which the sealing member  2490  is displaced, antiseptic  2433  can be permitted to pass through the groove  2459  during all stages of the displacement. As can be appreciated from the foregoing, the port  2494  can comprise an opening, spacing, or gap that exists between a periphery or outermost perimeter of the sealing member  2490  and the sidewall  2452 . The groove  2459  thus can also be described as a gap. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the biasing member  2476  includes a resiliently compressible pad  2477 , although additional or other components are possible (e.g., a compressible spring). The pad  2477  is separated from the pad  2470  by a barrier  2478 , which can comprise any suitable material capable of preventing passage of the antiseptic  2433 . For example, in some embodiments, the barrier  2478  comprises a plastic film or disk. The barrier  2478  thus can restrain the antiseptic  2433  to a predetermined portion of the disinfection chamber  2458  that is closest to the sealing member  2490 . Such an arrangement can permit the usage of less antiseptic  2433 , as a greater portion of the antiseptic  2433  can be expelled from the pad  2470 . 
     In some embodiments, both of the pads  2470 ,  2477  comprise the same material, while in other embodiments different materials may be selected for desired properties. For example, the pad  2470  may comprise a more absorbent foam while the pad  2477  may comprise a springier foam. In some embodiments, both pads  2470 ,  2477  can provide a bias to the sealing member  2490  when they are compressed such that the biasing member  2476  can be said to include both pads  2470 ,  2477 . In still other or further embodiments, the biasing member  2476  can comprise a spring or other at least somewhat resiliently deformable element in place of the pad  2477 . 
     Although in the illustrated embodiment, the sealing member  2490  is devoid of ports, other embodiments can include ports in addition to or instead of the channels  2494  in the sidewall  2452 . Likewise, it is understood that channels  2494  could be included in other embodiments of caps described herein in addition to or in place of ports through sealing members. Similar substitutions and rearrangements are possible with respect to other features of the cap  2404 , such as the two-part biasing member  2476  and the barrier  2478 . 
       FIGS. 48 and 49  illustrate another embodiment of a cap  2504 , which can resemble one or more of the caps described above, particularly the caps  2304 ,  2304 ′,  2404 , in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “25.” The cap can include a housing  2550 , a biasing member  2576 , and a sealing member  2590 . The housing  2550  can have a sidewall  2552  that defines a disinfection chamber  2558 . The housing  2550  can further define a bathing recess  2555  within the disinfection chamber  2558 , which can be included in a tapered region at a proximal end of the sidewall  2552 . As shown in  FIG. 49 , antiseptic  2533  can be retained within the bathing recess  2555  and maintained in contact with an outer surface of a male luer  2020 . Accordingly, a greater portion of the luer  2020  than just a tip  2021  thereof can be maintained in contact with the antiseptic  2533  when the luer  2020  is in an end-of-stroke position. 
     The housing  2550  can further define a vent  2598  having a cover  2599 . The vent  2598  can be defined by a channel that extends from an interior of the sidewall  2552  to an exterior thereof. A distal end of the vent  2598  can open into the bathing recess  2555 , and a proximal end of the vent  2598  can be at a proximal end of the sidewall  2552 . The vent  2598  can function in manners such as those described above with respect to other vents. 
     In some embodiments, the cover  2599  can comprise a material, such as, for example, Tyvek® or other nonwoven material, which can filter microbes from the air entering the disinfection chamber  2558  via the vent  2598  and can permit antiseptic  2533  to exit from the disinfection chamber  2558 . 
     With continued reference to  FIGS. 48 and 49 , the antiseptic  2533  can be held within the disinfection chamber  2533  without pads. A biasing member  2576  can include a compression spring  2579 . A sealing member  2590  can form a fluid-tight seal with the sidewall  2552  to retain the antiseptic  2533  within a reservoir portion of the chamber  2533 . While the sealing member  2590  can resemble any of the sealing members discussed above, the illustrated embodiment includes ports  2594  that have two-way valves  2597  therein. In various embodiments, the two-way valves  2597  are formed of self-sealing slits and/or the two-way valves  2597  can be disposed within channels through the sealing member  2590 . 
       FIG. 50  illustrates another embodiment of an assembly  2600 , which can resemble one or more of the assemblies described above, particularly the assembly  1800 , in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “26.” The assembly  2600  can include a cap  2602  and cap  2604  that are coupled with each other when in a pre-use state and that can be removed from each other. In particular, the caps  2602 ,  2604  can be coupled with each other via a sealing mechanism  2689 . In the illustrated embodiment, the caps  2602 ,  2604  are coupled with each other via a sealing sleeve  2691 . 
     With reference to  FIG. 51 , the cap  2602  can include a housing  2610 , which can include a sidewall  2612  and a base wall  2613 . The housing  2610  can include a substantially cylindrical region toward a proximal end thereof, which can be flattened and taper toward the narrower base wall  2613 . Such a shape can provide a convenient handle at a distal end of the cap  2602 . A cavity  2623  can be formed at an interior of the sidewall  2612  and the base wall  2613 , which can reduce material costs for the cap  2602 . 
     The sidewall  2612  can define a disinfection chamber  2622 , which can include a connection interface  2630  that includes threads  2631 . The connection interface  2630  can be configured to attach the cap  2602  to a medical connector in a secure yet selectively removable manner. The disinfection chamber  2622  can further include a pad  2632 . 
     A proximal surface  2624  of the sidewall  2612  can define a seal inhibitor  2625  that is configured to prevent the cap  2602  from forming a fluid-tight seal with a medical connector, such as a needleless injection site, when it is coupled therewith. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the proximal surface  2624  of the sidewall  2612  is substantially castellated such that it defines a series of offset contact regions  2626  and venting regions  2627 . In the illustrated embodiment, each of the contact regions  2626  and venting regions  2627  includes a planar surface that is substantially perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of the cap  2602 . The contact regions  2626  are at a more proximal position than are the venting regions  2627 . Accordingly, when the cap  2602  is coupled with certain embodiments of needleless injection sites, the contact regions  2626  can come into contact with surfaces of the needleless injection sites that project radially outwardly, whereas the venting regions  2627  can avoid making any such contact. 
     For example, in arrangements such as those depicted in  FIGS. 32 and 33 , the cap  2602  can be advanced onto a needleless injection site  2040 ,  2060  sufficiently to bring the planar surfaces of the contact regions  2626  into contact with radially outwardly projecting planar surfaces of the needleless injection site  2040 ,  2060 . However, in such a configuration, the venting regions  2627  would be spaced from the outwardly projecting planar surface of the needleless injection site  2040 ,  2060  so as not to form a seal therewith. The cap  2602  thus would be permitted to vent via the venting regions  2627 . As further discussed below, other configurations of the seal inhibitor  2625  are also possible. Moreover, in some embodiments, the cap  2625  is devoid of a seal inhibitor  2625 . 
     With reference to  FIGS. 51 and 53 , an exterior surface of the sidewall  2612  can define another connection interface  2640  that is configured to couple the cap  2602  with a connection interface  2695  of the sleeve  2691 . In the illustrated embodiment, the connection interfaces  2640 ,  2695  couple with each other via a friction-fit engagement. The friction fit can be sufficiently strong to provide a fluid-tight seal between the cap  2602  and the sleeve  2691 , yet can allow the cap  2602  to be removed from the sleeve  2691  via mere manipulation by a medical practitioner (e.g., without the use of ancillary tools). The fluid-tight seal can prevent evaporative loss of antiseptic from the pad  2632  and/or can maintain the sterility of the disinfection chamber  2622 . In other or further embodiments, the connection interfaces  2640 ,  2695  can include threads or other suitable attachment features. 
     The cap  2602  can include a flange  2615  having an outer diameter larger than an inner diameter of the end of the sleeve  2691  that connects with the cap  2602 . The flange  2615  can prevent the cap  2602  from being inserted into the sleeve  2691  too deeply. In other or further embodiments, the flange  2615  can cooperate with an end surface of the sleeve  2691  to create a fluid-tight seal (see  FIG. 54 ). For example, in some embodiments, a sealing member, such as an O-ring, is included between the flange  2615  and the end of the sleeve  2691  to provide the fluid-tight seal. 
     With reference to  FIG. 52 , the cap  2604  can include a housing  2650  that includes a sidewall  2652  and a base wall  2654 , which can cooperate to define a cavity  2659  similar to the cavity  2623  described above. Likewise, the housing  2650  can define a substantially cylindrical shape at a proximal end of the cap  2604 , which flattens and tapers toward the base wall  2654 . 
     The sidewall  2652  can define a disinfection chamber  2658 , which can include a sealing member  2690  and a biasing member  2676 . The sealing member  2690  and the biasing member  2676  can resemble any suitable combination of these components, and features thereof, described above. In the illustrated embodiment, the biasing member  2676  comprises a pad  2670 . 
     A portion of the sidewall  2652  can define a connection interface  2642 , which includes one or more threads  2643  in the illustrated embodiment. The connection interface  2642  can be configured to attach the cap  2604  to a medical connector in a secure yet selectively removable manner. 
     With reference to  FIGS. 52 and 53 , the sidewall  2652  can define an additional connection interface  2680 , which can cooperate with a connection interface  2692  defined by the sleeve  2691  to couple the cap  2604  with the cap  2602 . The connection interface  2680  of the cap  2604  can include a groove  2683 , which may be substantially annular and extend about a periphery of the cap  2604 . The connection interface  2692  of the sleeve  2691  can include a complementary inward projection  2693 , which likewise can be substantially annular. The interfaces  2680 ,  2692 , when coupled with each other, can provide a fluid-tight seal between the cap  2604  and the sleeve  2691 . In other embodiments, the connection interfaces  2680 ,  2692  can instead define a friction-fit seal, such as that provided by the illustrated embodiment of the connection interfaces  2640 ,  2695  described above. In still other or further embodiments, a flange  2661  defined by the housing  2650  can cooperate with an end surface of the sleeve  2691  to create a fluid-tight seal (see  FIG. 54 ), which can prevent evaporative loss of antiseptic from the pad  2670  and/or maintain the sterility of the disinfection chamber  2658 . For example, in some embodiments, a sealing member, such as an O-ring, is included between the flange  2659  and the end of the sleeve  2691  to provide the fluid-tight seal. 
     With reference to  FIG. 54 , when the assembly  2600  is in a fully coupled or pre-use state, a proximal end of the sidewall  2652  of the cap  2604  is received within the cavity  2622  defined by the sidewall  2612  of the cap  2602 . In some embodiments, the sidewall  2652  of the cap  2604  does not contact any portion of the sidewall  2612  of the cap  2602  in this pre-use configuration, nor does the sidewall  2652  contact the pad  2632  that is within the cap  2602 . Such a configuration can result in a relatively compact assembly  2600  in which each cap  2602 ,  2604  can be quickly prepared for use. In other embodiments, the sidewalls  2652 ,  2612  may contact or couple with each other (e.g., via the connection interfaces  2642 ,  2630 ) and/or the sidewall  2652  may contact the pad  2632  in the pre-use configuration. In still other embodiments, the sidewalls  2652 ,  2612  may be spaced from each other such that the sidewall  2652  is not received within the cavity  2622 . 
       FIG. 55  illustrates another embodiment of an assembly  2700 , which can resemble one or more of the assemblies described above, particularly the assemblies  1800 ,  2600 , in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “27.” The assembly  2700  can include a cap  2702  and cap  2704  that are coupled with each other when in a pre-use state via a sealing sleeve  2791 . 
     The assembly  2700  can include one or more separation assists  2707 ,  2708 , which can aid in removal of the cap  2702  and/or the cap  2704  from the sleeve  2791 . In the illustrated embodiment, the separation assists  2707 ,  2708  each includes a complementary recess/protrusion pair. In particular, a flange  2715  of the cap  2702  defines a recess  2716  that is sized and dimensioned to receive therein a protrusion  2799  that is defined by an edge  2798  of the sleeve  2791 . The recess  2716  and the protrusion  2799  cooperate with each other as a separation assist  2707 . Similarly, a flange  2761  of the cap  2704  defines a recess  2762  that is sized and dimensioned to receive therein a protrusion  2797  that is defined by an edge  2796  of the sleeve  2791 . The recess  2762  and the protrusion  2797  cooperate with each other as a separation assist  2708 . 
     Focusing now on the separation assist  2707 , the recess  2716  can include two substantially planar surfaces that meet at a rounded base. The planar surfaces can be at an angle relative to a plane that is perpendicular to a longitudinal axis (or central axis) of the cap  2702  (e.g., a plane defined by portion of the flange  2715  that does not include the recess  2716 , in the illustrated embodiment). For example, in the illustrated embodiment, each of the planar surfaces of the recess  2716  defines an angle of about 20 degrees relative to the perpendicular plane. Similarly, the protrusion  2799  can include two substantially planar surfaces that meet at a rounded apex. The planar surfaces can be at the same angle relative to the perpendicular plane as are the planar surfaces of the recess  2716 . For example, in the illustrated embodiment, each of the planar surfaces of the protrusion  2799  defines an angle of about 20 degrees relative to a plane defined by the portion of the edge  2798  of the sleeve  2791  that does not include the protrusion  2799 . 
     When the cap  2702  is joined with the sleeve  2791  in a pre-use configuration (similar to that shown in  FIG. 54 ), the planar portions of the recess  2716  and of the protrusion  2799  can be in close proximity to each other or can contact each other. In order to separate the cap  2702  from the sleeve  2791 , the cap  2702  can be rotated relative the sleeve  2791 , which can cause opposing planar surfaces of the recess  2716  and the protrusion  2799  to contact each other and slide past each other. This interaction can convert the rotational movement of the cap  2702  about a common axis of the cap  2702  and the sleeve  2791  into translational movement of the cap  2702  away from the sleeve  2791  along the common axis. Due to the symmetry of the planar surfaces of each of the recess  2716  and the protrusion  2799  of the illustrated embodiment, the cap  2702  can be rotated in either direction to achieve the same lifting action via the separation assist  2707  that tends to move the cap  2702  away from the sleeve  2791 . 
     In other embodiments, the separation assist  2707  can be configured to aid in separating the cap  2702  from the sleeve  2791  only when the cap  2702  is rotated in one predetermined direction (e.g., either clockwise or counterclockwise). For example, one planar surface may be at about 20 degrees relative to the perpendicular plane, whereas the other planar surface may be at a about 90 degrees relative to the perpendicular plane (i.e., approximately parallel to or extending through a central axis of the cap  2702 ). In other embodiments, one or more of the planar surfaces of the recess  2716  and/or the protrusion  2799  may be at larger or smaller angles relative to the perpendicular plane. For example, in various embodiments, a set of complementary planes may be at an angle of no more than about 15 degrees, no more than about 20 degrees, no more than about 30 degrees, no more than about 45 degrees, no more than about 60 degrees, or no more than about 75 degrees. Other configurations of the separation assist  2707  are also possible. For example, in some embodiments, the complementary surfaces of the recess  2716  and the protrusion  2799  can define angles as just described, but the surfaces may be rounded or otherwise non-planar. 
     The foregoing discussion regarding the separation assist  2707  applies equally to the separation assist  2708 . In the illustrated embodiment, the separation assist  2707  and the separation assist  2708  are substantially identical, such that the recess  2762  and the protrusion  2797  likewise include complementary planar surfaces that are at an angle of about 20 degrees relative to a plane oriented perpendicularly through a central axis of the cap  2704  and the sleeve  2791 . In other embodiments, the arrangements of the separation assists  2707 ,  2708  may be different from each other. For example, the planar surfaces of the separation assist  2707  may be at a larger or smaller angle than those of the separation assist  2708  so as to provide a different amount of separation force. Moreover, in some embodiments, the assembly  2700  includes a number of separation assists  2707  equal to the number of separation assists  2708 , whereas in other embodiments, the assembly  2700  may include more or fewer separation assists  2707  as compared with the number of separation assists  2708 . For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the assembly  2700  includes one separation assist  2707  and two separation assists  2708 . 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the two separation assists  2708  are at diametrically opposite positions. Such an orientation can aid in maintaining the cap  2704  and the sleeve  2791  in a substantially coaxial orientation as the cap  2704  is being removed, which can prevent an elongated sidewall  2752  from contacting an inner surface of the sleeve  2791  and thereby potentially complicating removal of the cap  2704 . In other arrangements, additional separation assists  2708  may be used, and the separation assists  2708  may be equally spaced from each other about a perimeter of the sleeve  2791 . 
     Other arrangements of the separation assists  2707 ,  2708  are contemplated. For example, in some embodiments, the caps  2702 ,  2704  include one or more of the protrusions  2799 ,  2797 , respectively, whereas the sleeve  2791  includes one or more of the recesses  2716 ,  2762 . 
       FIGS. 56 and 57  illustrate another embodiment of a cap  2802 , which in some embodiments can be used in place of the cap  2602  in the assembly  2600 . In other embodiments, the cap  2802  can be modified so as to be used in place of the cap  2702  in the assembly  2700 , such as by altering a flange  2815  of the cap  2802  to include a recess. 
     The cap  2802  can include a seal inhibitor  2825  having a different arrangement from that shown with respect to the caps  2602 ,  2702 . In the illustrated embodiment, the seal inhibitor  2825  is defined by a proximal surface  2824  of a sidewall  2812  of the cap  2802 , which defines a rounded, sinusoidal contour. In particular, the proximal surface  2824  can define two contact regions  2826  and two venting regions  2827 . In the illustrated embodiment, the contact regions  2826  are at diametrically opposite positions and the venting regions  2827  likewise are at diametrically opposite positions. The contact regions  2626  are at a more proximal position than are the venting regions  2627 . As discussed above with respect to the cap  2602 , the venting regions  2827  can prevent the cap  2802  from forming a seal with a medical connector, and can permit venting of the cap  2802  when it is coupled with the medical connector. 
     As shown in  FIG. 58 , the proximal surface  2824  of the cap  2802  can be well-suited for coupling with a removable cover  2834  such as the removable covers discussed above. Accordingly, various embodiments of the cap  2802  either can be readily fitted with a cover  2834  and distributed for individual use, or can be incorporated into an assembly, such as the assemblies  2600 ,  2700  described above, and distributed for use in a dual-cap system. Such versatility can reduce manufacturing costs, such as by eliminating tooling costs. 
       FIGS. 59-63  illustrate another embodiment of an assembly  3000 , which can resemble one or more of the assemblies described above, particularly the assemblies  2600  and  2700 , in certain respects. Accordingly, like features are designated with like reference numerals, with the leading digits incremented to “30,” and/or with identical or similar names. 
     As shown in  FIG. 59 , the assembly  3000  can include a female cap  3002  and a male cap  3004  that are coupled with each other when in a pre-use state and that can be removed from each other. In particular, the female and male caps  3002 ,  3004  can be coupled with each other via a sealing mechanism  3089 . In the illustrated embodiment, the sealing mechanism  3089  comprises a sealing sleeve  3091 . The terms “coupled” and variants thereof are used in their ordinary sense and include arrangements such as that illustrated in  FIG. 1 , in which the connecting geometries, connection interfaces, or threads  122 ,  114  of the caps  102 ,  104  directly engage one another when the assembly  100  is in the assembled or pre-use state. The terms also include arrangements such as that illustrated in  FIG. 59  where the caps  3002 ,  3004  do not directly contact one another when the assembly  3000  is in the assembled or pre-use state, yet are securely held in a fixed relationship relative to one another. Stated otherwise, each of the caps  3002 ,  3004  is separately secured to the sealing sleeve  3091 , and thus, although the caps  3002 ,  3004  are spaced from one another, they nevertheless are indirectly secured to each other. 
       FIG. 60  is an exploded view of the assembly  3000 . The female cap  3002  can include a housing  3010  into which an antiseptic reservoir or pad  3032  is received. The male cap  3004  can include a housing  3050  into which a resilient support  3077 , an antiseptic reservoir or pad  3070 , and a sealing member  3090  are received. As further discussed below, the resilient support  3077  and the pad  3070  may be considered as a multi-part biasing member  3076  that is configured to urge the sealing member  3090  toward a proximal end of the male cap  3004 . As previously mentioned, the terms “proximal” and “distal,” when used herein relative to a cap, are used relative to the coupling of the cap with a medical device, such that the medical device is inserted into a proximal end of the cap and advanced toward a distal end of the cap. Accordingly, in the illustrated embodiment, the proximal ends of the caps  3002 ,  3004  are directed toward each other and the distal ends of the caps  3002 ,  3004  are directed away from each other when the assembly  3000  is in the pre-use configuration. The female cap  3002  can define one or more recesses  3016  and the male cap  3004  can define one or more recesses  3062  at positions that are between the proximal and distal ends of the caps  3002 ,  3004 , respectively. 
     The sleeve  3091  can include end surfaces or edges  3096 ,  3098  that are configured to interact with the male and female caps  3004 ,  3002 , respectively. The sleeve  3091  can define one or more protrusions  3099  that are configured to be received in the one or more recesses  3016  of the female cap  3002 . Each protrusion  3099 /recess  3016  pair can cooperate as a decoupling feature, release mechanism, or separation assist  3007 . Similarly, the sleeve  3091  can define one or more protrusions  3097  that are configured to be received in the one or more recesses  3062  of the male cap  3004 . Each protrusion  3097 /recess  3062  pair can cooperate as a separation assist  3008 . The protrusions  3097 ,  3099  and recesses  3016 ,  3062  can have rounded edges (e.g., rounded or radiused valleys and apexes), which can facilitate their rotational movement relative to one another. 
     As shown in  FIG. 61 , each protrusion  3099  can include a portion of the edge  3098  of the sleeve  3091 . Moreover, each protrusion  3099  can define a pair of faces  3099   a ,  3099   b  that are angled in opposite directions. Here, the term “angled” refers to any suitable non-zero, non-180-degree angle relative to a transverse cross-sectional plane (not shown) that passes perpendicularly through a central axis of the sleeve  3091 . For a path that is traced along the edge  3098  in a clockwise direction (when looking toward the edge  3098 ), the path moves away from the longitudinal center of the sleeve  3091  along the faces  3099   a , and the path moves toward the longitudinal center of the sleeve  3091  along the faces  3099   b.    
     Similarly, each protrusion  3097  can include a portion of the edge  3096  of the sleeve  3091 , and each protrusion  3097  can define a pair of oppositely angled faces  3097   a ,  3097   b . For a path that is traced along the edge  3096  in a clockwise direction (when looking toward the edge  3096 ), the path moves away from the longitudinal center of the sleeve  3091  along the faces  3097   a , and the path moves toward the longitudinal center of the sleeve along the faces  3097   b.    
     The protrusions  3097 ,  3099  can be relatively flexible, as they extend a greater distance from the longitudinal center of the sleeve  3091 , and thus define longer moment arms relative thereto. In some embodiments, the sleeve  3091  includes a central band or reinforcing rib  3088  that can provide structural integrity to the sleeve  3091  and can prevent or inhibit large deformations of the sleeve  3091  during use and/or crushing of the sleeve  3091  after removal of one or more of the caps  3002 ,  3004  therefrom. The illustrated reinforcing rib  3088  projects radially inwardly at a central region of the sleeve  3091 . In other embodiments, the reinforcing rib  3088  may extend outwardly or may be omitted. For example, in some embodiments, the sleeve  3091  may define a uniform thickness along its full length. 
     The sleeve  3091  defines an external surface  3082  and an internal surface  3083 , each of which extends away from the edges  3096 ,  3098 . The internal surface  3083  can define a cavity, opening, or lumen  3084  into which proximal ends of the male and female caps  3004 ,  3002  can be received. The terms “external surface” and “internal surface” are used relative to the assembly  3000  when it is in the pre-use state (e.g., the configuration shown in  FIG. 59 ). Accordingly, when the assembly  3000  is in an assembled state, the internal surface  3083  is at an interior of the assembly  3000 , so as not to be exposed to an environment that surrounds the assembly  3000 , and the external surface  3083  is at an exterior of the assembly, such that it is exposed to the environment and may be grasped or otherwise contacted by a user. It is noted that in the foregoing portion of the present specification, the terms “interior” and “exterior” may at times be used with respect to inwardly directed surfaces and outwardly directed surfaces of certain caps, without regard to whether any portion of these surfaces is in fact internal to an assembly that includes these caps when the assembly is in the pre-use state. The internal surface  3083  of the sleeve  3091  also can define a connection interface  3093  ( FIG. 61 ) and a connection interface  3095  by which the caps  3004 ,  3002 , respectively, can be coupled to the sleeve  3091 , as discussed further below. 
     With reference to  FIGS. 62A-62C  and  64 , the housing  3010  of the female cap  3002  can extend between a closed distal end and an open proximal end. The closed distal end does not permit any fluid flow therethrough and serves as a barrier between an interior of the housing  3010  and an exterior environment. The open proximal end of the housing  3010  is configured to receive at least a portion of a medical connector therein, such as any of the medical connectors described above with respect to female caps. The housing  3010  can include a sidewall  3012 , which defines the open proximal end, and a base wall  3013 , which defines at least a portion of the closed distal end. 
     The housing  3010  can include a body region  3036  near a proximal end thereof, which is substantially cylindrically shaped in the illustrated embodiment. A handle  3037  can extend from the body region  3036  so as to be positioned at the distal end of the cap  3002 . The handle  3037  can comprise any suitable gripping features  3003 , such as any of the gripping features  103  discussed above. In the illustrated embodiment, the gripping features  3003  comprise opposing gripping regions or grasping platforms  3038  that are configured to provide a convenient surface against which a user can press so as to hold and/or twist the cap  3002 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 62B , the illustrated grasping platforms  3038  are mirrored about a longitudinal plane LP that extends along a central longitudinal axis A (shown in  FIG. 62A ) of the housing  3010 . Each grasping platform  3038  angles radially inwardly from the body region  3036  toward the longitudinal plane LP, in a proximal-to-distal direction. The grasping platforms  3038  are more steeply angled at their proximal ends than they are at their distal ends. The angled platforms  3038 , and particularly the steeply angled portions thereof, provide convenient surfaces to which forces may be applied in a distal-to-proximal direction. In the illustrated embodiment, the platforms  3038  define two substantially planar regions that are smoothly joined to each other at a rounded transition. The platforms  3038  can define a contour that is substantially complementary to fingertips that are pointed in the proximal direction. 
     As shown in  FIG. 62A , the illustrated grasping platforms  3038  also taper inwardly toward the central longitudinal axis A of the housing  3010  in a proximal-to-distal direction. In the elevation view that is shown, the platforms  3038  are substantially ovoid. The platforms  3038  are sized and shaped to be held between the fingertips of a thumb and another finger (e.g., the index finger) of a user, although other grasping configurations may also be efficiently employed with the illustrated arrangement. The platforms  3038  provide convenient surfaces to which torque may be applied so as to rotate the cap  3002  about the longitudinal axis A. 
     With reference to  FIGS. 62A-62C , the cap  3002  can include a lip, rim, or flange  3015  that extends radially inwardly at a proximal end of the body region  3036 . The flange  3015  can contact the edge  3098  of the sleeve  3091  to prevent the cap  3002  from being inserted into the sleeve  3091  too deeply. The flange  3015  can define the one or more recesses  3016  mentioned above. 
     With reference again to  FIG. 62B , each recess  3016  can be at least partially defined by a pair of faces  3016   a ,  3016   b  of the flange  3015  that are angled in opposite directions. The angles can be any suitable non-zero, non-180-degree angles relative to a transverse cross-sectional plane TP that passes perpendicularly through the a central axis A of the housing  3010 . In particular, the faces  3016   a  can define an angle α relative to the transverse plane TP, and the faces  3016   b  can define an angle β relative to the transverse plane TP. In the illustrated embodiment, the angles α, β are the same, although other arrangements are possible (as discussed further below). For a path is traced along the flange  3015  in a clockwise direction (when looking toward the flange  3015 ), the path moves proximally along the faces  3016   a  and the path moves distally along the faces  3016   b . The faces  3016   a ,  3016   b  can be substantially planar over at least a portion thereof, and can be configured to complementarily contact the faces  3099   a ,  3099   b , respectively, of the sleeve  3091 . Additional discussion of the faces  3016   a ,  3016   b  is provided below with respect to  FIGS. 65A-65B . 
     The housing  3010  defines an external surface  3018  and an internal surface  3019 , each of which extends away from the flange  3015 . The internal surface  3019  of the cap  3002  can include an outwardly directed surface of the sidewall  3012 , a proximal end  3024  of the sidewall  3012 , and an inwardly directed surface of the sidewall  3012  (see  FIGS. 62C and 64 ). The outwardly directed portion of the internal surface  3019  can define a connection interface  3040  that is configured to interact with or engage the connection interface  3095  of the sleeve  3091  so as to connect the cap  3002  to the sleeve  3091 . In the illustrated embodiment, the connection interfaces  3040 ,  3095  couple with each other via a friction-fit engagement. For example, an inner diameter of the connection interface  3095  of the sleeve  3091  can be slightly smaller than an outer diameter of the connection interface  3040  of the cap  3002 . The friction fit can be sufficiently strong to provide a fluid-tight seal between the cap  3002  and the sleeve  3091 , yet can allow the cap  3002  to be removed from the sleeve  3091  via manipulation by a user (e.g., without the use of ancillary tools). The fluid-tight seal can prevent evaporative loss of antiseptic from an interior of the assembly  3000  when it is in the pre-use configuration and/or can maintain the sterility of the internal portions of the assembly  3000 . In other or further embodiments, the connection interfaces  3040 ,  3095  can include threads and/or any other suitable attachment features. In the illustrated embodiment, a proximal portion of the connection interface  3095  includes a chamfer  3020 , which can assist in centering the cap  3002  relative to the sleeve  3091  when connecting the cap  3002  to the sleeve  3091 . 
     The proximal end  3024  of the housing  3010  (which is also a proximal end of the internal surface  3019 , or more generally, of the sidewall  3012 ), can define a seal inhibitor  3025 , such as the seal inhibitor  2825  discussed above. In particular, the seal inhibitor  3025  can include one or more contact regions  3026  and one or more venting regions  3027 , such as the contact regions  2826  and the venting regions  2827  discussed above. In the illustrated embodiment, the seal inhibitor  3025  includes two contact regions  3026  that are diametrically opposite from each other, and also includes two venting regions  2827  that are diametrically opposite from each other and are angularly spaced from the contact regions. Other configurations of the seal inhibitor  3025  are also possible, such as, for example, the seal inhibitor  2625  discussed above. 
     With reference to  FIGS. 62C and 64 , the inwardly directed portion of the internal surface  3019  of the sidewall  3012  can define a disinfection chamber  3022 , which can include a connection interface  3030 . As discussed above, any suitable connection system may be used for the connection interface  3030 . In the illustrated embodiment, the connection interface includes threads  3031 . The connection interface  3030  can be configured to attach the cap  3002  to a medical connector in a secure yet selectively removable manner. For example, the cap  3002  can be connected in any suitable manner with any suitable medical connector, including those described above with respect to other embodiments of female caps. In other embodiments, the connection interface  3030  may include latches or prongs that are configured to snap over an outwardly extending rib of a connector, or may include one or more outwardly extending ribs over which one or more latches or prongs of the medical connector may snap. 
     A proximal portion of the disinfection chamber  3022  can be larger than a distal extension  3023  of the chamber. In the illustrated embodiment, the disinfection chamber  3022  defines three substantially frustoconical regions. The proximal region has a slightly tapered outer boundary that decreases in cross-sectional area in the distal direction; the intermediate region has a more pronounced tapered outer boundary that more rapidly decreases in cross-sectional area in the distal direction; and the distal region or distal extension  3023  has a slightly tapered outer boundary that decreases In cross-sectional area in the distal direction at about the same rate as the proximal region. The intermediate and distal regions correspond with the proximal and distal regions, respectively, of the grasping platforms. The sidewall  3010  in the intermediate section has by a succession of segments  3005 ,  3006 , and  3009 , for example, between the threads  3031 , that have each an acute angle with the longitudinal axis which decreases towards the interior  3023  of the chamber  3022 . 
     The constricted intermediate region of the disinfection chamber  3022  can provide a reactive force to a distal end of the pad  3032  when the cap  3002  is secured to a medical connector. The reactive force can be sufficient to prevent the pad  3032  from being forced into the distal extension  3023 . In the illustrated embodiment, the threads  3031  also provide resistive forces. Axial compression of the pad  3032  as the cap  3002  is coupled to a medical connector can swab the connector and deliver antiseptic  3033  from the pad  3032  into contact with the medical connector in manners such as described above. In some embodiments, the pad  3032  may be resiliently deformable so as to regain a pre-use shape after a medical connector is decoupled from the cap  3002 . In other embodiments, the pad  3032  may instead be plastically deformable. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the pad  3032  is substantially square in cross-section along its full longitudinal length when the pad  3032  is in a relaxed orientation (see  FIG. 60 ). Such an arrangement can facilitate and/or reduce material costs associated with the manufacture of the pad  3032 . At least a portion of the pad  3032  (e.g., the corners thereof) may be compressed radially when the pad  3032  is positioned within the housing  3012 . Other rectangular cross-sections are also possible for the pad  3032 , and in other or further embodiments, the pad  3032  may define a rectangular cross-section along only a portion of the longitudinal length thereof. In other embodiments, at least a portion of the pad  3032  may define a round cross-section, such as a circular, elliptical, or other ovoid shape. For example, the pad  3032  can be cylindrical so as to have a circular cross-section. The pad  3032  may define any other suitable shape, and may or may not be radially compressed when the assembly  3000  is in the pre-use state. 
     With reference to  FIGS. 63A-63C , the housing  3050  of the male cap  3004  can extend between a closed distal end and an open proximal end. The closed distal end does not permit any fluid flow therethrough and serves as a barrier between an interior of the housing  3050  and an exterior environment. The open proximal end of the housing  3050  is configured to receive at least a portion of a medical connector therein. In particular, the open proximal end of the housing  3050  is sized and shaped to receive at least a portion of a male protrusion of a medical connector. For example, the open proximal end of the housing  3050  can be configured to receive at least a portion of a male luer, such as the male luer  2020  described above. The housing  3050  can include a sidewall  3052 , which defines the open proximal end, and a base wall  3054 , which defines at least a portion of the closed distal end. 
     As viewed from the exterior (e.g., in  FIGS. 63A and 63B ), a shape and/or configuration of the distal end of the housing  3050  can be similar or identical to the distal end of the housing  3010  of the female cap  3002 , which is discussed above. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the housing  3050  includes a body region  3036  and a handle  3037  with grasping platforms  3038 , which when viewed exteriorly, are identical to the identically numbered features of the cap  3002 . Accordingly, as can be seen in  FIGS. 59 and 64 , when the assembly  3000  is in the pre-use state, an exterior thereof can be symmetrical about three mutually perpendicular planes. Other arrangements are also possible. 
     With continued reference to  FIGS. 63A-63C , the housing  3050  can include a lip, rim, or flange  3061  that extends radially inwardly at a proximal end of the body region  3036 . The flange  3061  can contact the edge  3096  of the sleeve  3091  to prevent the cap  3004  from being inserted into the sleeve  3091  too deeply. The flange  3061  can define the one or more recesses  3062  mentioned above. 
     With reference to  FIG. 63B , each recess  3062  can be at least partially defined by a pair of faces  3062   a ,  3062   b  of the flange  3061  that are angled in opposite directions. The angles can be any suitable non-zero, non-180-degree angles relative to a transverse cross-sectional plane TP that passes perpendicularly through the a central axis of the cap  3004 . In particular, the faces  3062   a  can define an angle α′ relative to the transverse plane TP, and the faces  3062   b  can define an angle β′ relative to the transverse plane TP. In the illustrated embodiment, the angles α′, β′ are the same, although other arrangements are possible (as discussed further below). Moreover, in the illustrated embodiment, the angles α′, β′ are identical to the angles α, β defined by the faces  3016   a ,  3016   b  of the cap  3002 . For a path is traced along the flange  3061  in a clockwise direction (when looking toward the flange  3061 ), the path moves proximally along the faces  3016   a  and the path moves distally along the faces  3016   b . The faces  3016   a ,  3016   b  can be substantially planar over at least a portion thereof, and can be configured to complementarily contact the faces  3097   a ,  3097   b , respectively, of the sleeve  3091 . 
     The male cap  3004  defines an external surface  3065  and an internal surface  3066 , each of which extends away from the flange  3061 . The internal surface  3066  of the cap  3004  can include an outwardly directed surface of the sidewall  3052 , a proximal end of the sidewall  3052 , and an inwardly directed surface of the sidewall  3052  (see  FIGS. 63C and 64 ). The outwardly directed portion of the internal surface  3066  can define a connection interface  3080  that is configured to interact with or engage the connection interface  3093  of the sleeve  3091  so as to connect the cap  3004  to the sleeve  3091 . The connection interfaces  3080 ,  3093  can resemble the connection interfaces  3040 ,  3095  discussed above. In addition, a portion of the sidewall  3052  that is at a proximal end of the connection interface  3080  can include a chamfer  3067 , which can assist in centering the cap  3004  relative to the sleeve  3091  during connection of these components. 
     The sidewall  3052  of the cap  3004  can define an extension, elongated portion, or projection  3055  that extends proximally from the connection interface  3080 . The projection  3055  can be configured to couple with a medical connector that includes a male protrusion. The projection  3055  includes a connection interface  3042  that is configured to effect the coupling. In the illustrated embodiment, the projection  3055  is substantially cylindrical, and the connection interface  3042  comprises one or more threads  3043  that are positioned at an outwardly facing surface of the cylinder. Any other suitable connection interface  3042 , such as any of those described above, is possible. As shown in  FIG. 64 , when the assembly  3000  is in the pre-use state, a proximal end of the projection  3055  can extend into a proximal end of the disinfection chamber  3022  of the female cap  3022  in a manner such as described above with respect to the assembly  2600 . In the illustrated embodiment, the reinforcement rib  3088  of the sleeve  3091  can be at a longitudinal center of the assembly  3000 , and the projection  3055  can extend through the reinforcement rib  3088 . 
     With reference to  FIGS. 63C and 64 , an inwardly directed portion of the internal surface  3066  of the sidewall  3052  can define a disinfection chamber  3058 , which can extend from the proximal end of the projection  3055  (i.e., the open proximal end of the cap  3004 ) to the base wall  3054 . A proximal portion of the disinfection chamber  3058  can include a proximal seal region  3071 , which can be configured to form a fluid-tight seal with the male protrusion portion of a medical connector. For example, the seal region  3071  may be shaped complementarily to an outer surface of a male protrusion of a medical connector with which the male cap  3004  is configured to be used. In the illustrated embodiment, the proximal seal region  3071  comprises a substantially frustoconical surface  3072  that complies with ISO luer standards, as discussed above, such that a portion of a male luer can form a seal with the seal region  3071 . The frustoconical surface  3072  can be tapered so as to decrease in diameter in a distal direction. In other embodiments, the proximal portion of the disinfection chamber  3058  may not be configured to form a fluid-tight seal with a male protrusion of a medical connector. 
     The disinfection chamber  3058  can further include an intermediate seal region  3073 . In the illustrated embodiment, the intermediate seal region is formed by a rim, ridge, lip, or shelf  3074 , which is defined by a short, substantially frustoconical portion of the sidewall  1052  that increases in diameter in the distal direction. An outer edge of a proximal surface of the sealing member  3090  can define a greater outer diameter than a minimum inner diameter of the shelf  3074  such that the shelf  3074  can maintain the sealing member  3090  within the chamber  3058 . The shelf  3074  also can cooperate with the sealing member  3090  to seal the chamber  3058  when the assembly  3000  is in the pre-use state, as further discussed below. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, a long distal extension  3075  of the disinfection chamber  3022  can extend distally from the shelf  3074 . The distal extension  3023  has a slightly tapered outer boundary that gradually decreases in cross-sectional area in the distal direction. The disinfection chamber  3022  can include a support post  3068  within a distal region thereof. The support post  3068  can be integrally formed with both the base wall  3054  and the sidewall  3052 , and can provide a rigid surface against which the resilient support  3077  can rest. The support post  3068  can act as a stop that prevents the resilient support  3077  from moving distally within the chamber  3022  past a proximal end of the support post  3068 . In some instances, however, a distal portion of the resilient support  3077  may deform so as to extend distally slightly past the proximal end of the support post  3068  when a medical connector is coupled with the cap  3004 . The support post  3068  can reduce the amount of material that might otherwise be used to form the handle  3037  portion of the cap  3004 . 
     The resilient support  3077 , which may also be referred to as a post or a base element, can be configured to provide a base against which the antiseptic reservoir or pad  3070  can be compressed so as to force antiseptic  3033  thereform. Accordingly, the resilient support  3077  can be harder, stiffer, or less compliant than the pad  3070 , and can be configured to compress, under a given force, to a smaller extent than the pad  3070  does under the same force. For example, in various embodiments, the resilient support  3077  can be no less than about 2, 3, or 4 times harder than the pad  3070 . 
     The resilient support  3077  can be elastically deformable such that compression of the support  3077  from a relaxed orientation gives rise to a restorative force. The resilient support  3077  can naturally return to the relaxed orientation upon removal of the compressive force. The resilient support  3077  can comprise any suitable elastically deformable material. In some embodiments, the resilient support  3077  comprises an elastomeric material, such as silicone. In certain embodiments, the resilient support  3077  comprises a closed configuration (e.g., closed cell foam) or is otherwise nonabsorbent such that little or no antiseptic  3033  that is expelled from the pad  3070  is received into the resilient support  3077 . In other or further embodiments, the resilient support  3077  may comprise a spring (e.g., a compression coil spring). 
     In the illustrated embodiment, a distal end of the resilient support  3077  seats snugly against the inner surface  3066  of the sidewall  3052 . The resilient support  3077  may form a fluid-tight seal with the sidewall  3052 , which may prevent antiseptic  3033  that is expelled from the pad  3070  from migrating into the distal regions of the disinfecting chamber  3058 . Rather, the antiseptic  3033  can be restrained to the proximal regions of the disinfecting chamber  3058  where it can be urged into contact with a male protrusion of a medical connector. 
     The pad  3070  can comprise any suitable material, such as those described above with respect to other pads (including plastically deformable materials, in some instances), and may be elastically or resiliently deformable. In some embodiments, the pad  3070  is attached to the resilient support  3077  via any suitable adhesive or other attachment mechanism, although in other embodiments, no such attachment mechanisms are used. For example, the pad  3070  and the resilient support  3077  may be maintained in contact with each other due to a slight longitudinal compression of one or more of these components once the cap  3004  is assembled (e.g., once the support  3077 , the pad  3070 , and the sealing member  3090  are positioned between the support post  3068  and the shelf  3074 ). Similarly, the pad  3070  may be attached to the sealing member  3090 , or it may maintain a substantially fixed orientation relative to the sealing member  3090  without such attachment due to the resilience of the pad  3070  and/or the support  3077 , which are in a slightly compressed state. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the pad  3070  is substantially square in cross-section along its full longitudinal length when the pad  3070  is in a relaxed orientation (see  FIG. 60 ). Such an arrangement can facilitate and/or reduce material costs associated with the manufacture of the pad  3070 . At least a portion of the pad  3070  (e.g., the corners thereof) may be compressed radially when the pad  3070  is positioned within the housing  3052 . Other rectangular cross-sections are also possible for the pad  3070 , and in other or further embodiments, the pad  3070  may define a rectangular cross-section along only a portion of the longitudinal length thereof. In other embodiments, at least a portion of the pad  3070  may define a round cross-section, such as a circular, elliptical, or other ovoid shape. For example, the pad  3070  can be cylindrical so as to have a circular cross-section. The pad  3070  may define any other suitable shape, and may or may not be radially compressed when the assembly  3000  is in the pre-use state. 
     As previously mentioned, the pad  3070  and the support  3077  can, in some embodiments, cooperate as a two-part biasing member  3076 . It is to be understood that any other suitable biasing member  3076  may be used, such as those described above. The biasing member  3076  can urge the sealing member  3090  in the proximal direction into sealing contact with the shelf  3074 . The seal thus formed may be fluid-tight, and may prevent antiseptic  3033 , whether in liquid or vapor form, from exiting the disinfecting chamber  3058  through the proximal end of the cap  3004  prior to coupling of the cap  3004  to a medical connector. This proximal seal may be in place when the assembly  3000  is in the pre-use configuration, as well as after the separation of the male and female caps  3004 ,  3002  when the assembly  3000  is opened. 
     The illustrated sealing member  3090  comprises unitary piece of material that includes a cylindrical region and a conical region. The conical region can be well-suited to form a seal with a tip of the projection of a male medical connector in manners such as described above. In some instances, an apex of the conical region can be received within a lumen  2022  of a luer  2020  when a medical connector is coupled with the cap  3004  (see, e.g.,  FIG. 66A ). The sealing member  3090  can be formed of any suitable material, such as, for example, silicone and/or any of the materials discussed above with respect to other seals. In some embodiments, the sealing member  3090  can be harder, more rigid, and/or less compliant than the pad  3070 . 
       FIGS. 65A and 65B  illustrate stages in a method of removing the male cap  3004  from the assembly  3000 . In some embodiments, it can be particularly advantageous to use the separation assists  3008  in the removal process. For example, in some instances, the fluid-tight seal between the cap  3004  and the sleeve  3091  can be relatively tight and/or a slight vacuum may be present within the assembly  3000  (and/or may arise as the cap  3004  is removed from the assembly  3000 ), such that the separation assists  3008  can facilitate removal of the cap  3004 . 
       FIG. 65A  illustrates the assembly  3000  in the pre-use state, with the faces  3062   a ,  3097   a  and  3062   b ,  3097   b  of the surfaces  3061 ,  3096  in contact with each other. Each paired set of surfaces constitutes a separation assist  3008 . In the illustrated embodiment the assembly  3000  includes four separation assists  3008  rotationally spaced from each other at intervals of approximately 90 degrees. Focusing now on the upper separation assist  3008  that includes the faces  3062   b ,  3097   b , the face  3062   b  can define an angle β′ (see  FIG. 63B ) of about 20 degrees. The face  3097   b  of the sleeve  3091  is at the same angle, although oppositely directed. 
     In order to separate the cap  3004  from the sleeve  3091 , the cap  3004  can be rotated relative the sleeve  3091 . In the illustrated embodiment, the cap  3004  is rotated counterclockwise, which can cause the faces  3062   b ,  3097   b  to interact with each other and slide past each other. The cap  3004  thus cams relative to the sleeve  3091  as the rotational motion is converted into translational movement of the cap  3004  away from the sleeve  3091 , as shown by the arrow in  FIG. 65B . 
     Where the angles α′, β′ (see  FIG. 63B ) of the surfaces  3062   a ,  3062   b  are identical, the same mechanical advantage may be present whether the cap  3004  is rotated in the clockwise or counterclockwise directions. In other embodiments, the separation assists  3008  can be configured to aid in separating the cap  3004  from the sleeve  3091  only when the cap  3004  is rotated in one predetermined direction (e.g., either clockwise or counterclockwise). For example, the pair of faces  3062   a  or the pair of faces  3062   b  may define an angle α′ or β′, respectively, of 20 degrees so as to allow separation as shown in  FIG. 63B , whereas the other pair of faces  3062   a ,  3062   b  may be at an angle of about 90 degrees (i.e., approximately parallel to or extending through a central axis of the cap  3004 ) so as to prevent rotation and separation of the cap  3004 . In other embodiments, one or more of the faces  3062   a ,  3062   b  may be at larger or smaller angles α′, β′. For example, one or more of the angles α′, β′ may be no more than about 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, or 75 degrees or no less than about 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, or 75 degrees. Other configurations of the separation assists  3008  are also possible. For example, in some embodiments, the complementary surfaces of the recess  3062  and the protrusion  3099  can define angles as just described, but the surfaces may be rounded or otherwise non-planar. 
     The foregoing discussion regarding the separation assists  3008  applies equally to the separation assists  3007 . In the illustrated embodiment, the separation assists  3007 ,  3008  are substantially identical. The sleeve  3091  may be reversible, as either end thereof may connect with either cap  3002 ,  3004 . In other embodiments, the arrangements of the separation assists  3007 ,  3008  may be different from each other. For example, the planar surfaces of the separation assist  3007  may be at a larger or smaller angle than those of the separation assist  3008  so as to provide a different amount of separation force. Moreover, in some embodiments, the assembly  3000  includes a number of separation assists  3007  equal to the number of separation assists  3008 , whereas in other embodiments, the assembly  3000  may include more or fewer separation assists  3007  as compared with the number of separation assists  3008 . Other arrangements of the separation assists  3007 ,  3008  are contemplated, including those discussed above with respect to the assembly  2700 . Other embodiments may be devoid of the separation assists  3007 ,  3008 . Moreover, in some instances, a user may remove one or more of the caps  3002 ,  3004  from the assembly  3000  in a substantially longitudinal direction only (e.g., without rotating the caps  3002 ,  3004  relative to each other). 
       FIGS. 66A-66D  illustrate consecutive stages of the cap  3004  being coupled with a medical device  2000  that includes a male protrusion  2019 , which in the illustrated embodiment is a male luer  2020 . As mentioned above, other arrangements of the male protrusion  2019  are also contemplated. A tip  2021  of the protrusion  2019 , can be received within the disinfection chamber  3058  prior to contacting the sealing member  3090 . Stated otherwise, the sealing member  3090  can be recessed relative to a proximal end of the sidewall  3052  by a distance that is sufficiently great to permit at least a portion of the male luer  2020  to be received within the sidewall  3052  before the male luer contacts the sealing member  3090 . 
     In the illustrated stage of the procedure, the luer  2020  has been advanced sufficiently far into the disinfection chamber  3058  to contact the sealing member  3090  and to form a seal therewith. The connection interface  3042  of the cap  3004  has not yet engaged a connection interface  2012  of the medical connector  2000  at this stage, and the sealing member  3090  is just beginning to move distally within the disinfection chamber  3058  so as to break the proximal seal between the sealing member  3090  and the shelf  3074 . 
     In  FIG. 66B , the luer  2020  has been advanced slightly further into the disinfection chamber  3058 , thereby compressing the pad  3070  somewhat and forcing antiseptic  3033  out of the pad  3070 . The sealing member  3090  can define an outer diameter than is smaller than an inner diameter of this portion of the disinfection chamber  3058  such that a fluid path is present about an exterior of the sealing member  3090 . Stated otherwise, the sealing member  3090  has been urged distally to a position where a periphery or outermost perimeter of the sealing member  3090  is spaced from the sidewall  3052  such that an opening, spacing, or gap that exists between the sealing member  2490  and the sidewall  2452 . This opening may function as a fluid port. 
     Antiseptic  3033  thus can flow about the sealing member  3090  and/or any other portion of an open region that exists between the inner surface  3066  of the sidewall  3052  and the outer surfaces of the resilient support  3077 , the pad  3070 , the sealing member  3090 , and the luer  2020 . Further advancement of the luer  2020  into the disinfection chamber  3058  can cause the antiseptic  3033  to fill this open region. However, the antiseptic  3033  does not enter into the lumen  2022  of the luer  2020  due to the seal between the luer  2020  and the sealing member  3090 . Further advancement of the luer  2020  into the disinfection chamber  3058  also can strengthen the seal between the luer  2020  and the sealing member  3090  due to the increasing restorative forces that arise as the pad  3070  is compressed. 
     As the pad  3070  is softer or more compliant than the resilient support  3077 , the pad  3070  has been compressed to a much greater extent than the resilient support  3077  at this stage. Indeed, in some embodiments, the resilient support  3077  may compress only slightly or not at all at this stage. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the interfaces  3042 ,  2012  have not yet coupled with each other at this stage. However, in other embodiments, the interfaces  3042 ,  2010  may already cooperate with each other at this or at a previous stage so as to draw the luer  2020  into the disinfection chamber  3058 . 
     In  FIG. 66C , the luer  2020  has been advanced even further into the disinfection chamber  3058 , thereby compressing the pad  3070  to a greater extent and forcing additional antiseptic  3033  into the interior regions of the disinfection chamber  3058 . In the illustrated embodiment, the resilient support  3077  is shown as having been slightly compressed relative to its configuration in the stage shown in  FIG. 66C , whereas the pad  3070  has been nearly completely compressed, such that all or nearly all of the antiseptic  3033  has been forced therefrom. Cooperation between the connection interfaces  3042 ,  2012  can facilitate compression of the pad  3070  and/or the resilient support  3077 . 
     Although the outer surface of the luer  2020  appears to be nearly parallel to and in contact with the luer-tapered surface  3072  of the sidewall  3052 , a fluid-tight seal may not have formed yet in this area. Accordingly, the antiseptic  3033  may be permitted to cover the portion of the luer  2020  that is within the chamber  3058 , while in some embodiments, a small portion of antiseptic  3033  may also be permitted to exit from the disinfection chamber  3058 . The portion of the luer  2020  that is within the disinfection chamber  3058  thus may contact the antiseptic  3033  so as to be disinfected thereby. 
       FIG. 66D  illustrates a final or fully coupled stage, or an end-of-stroke orientation, in which the luer  2020  has been advanced even further into the disinfection chamber  3058  such that the luer  2020  forms a seal with the luer-tapered surface  3072  of the sidewall  3052 . Antiseptic  3033  can be retained in all open portions of the disinfection chamber  3058  that are between the seal formed by the luer  2020  and the sealing member  3090  and the seal formed by the luer  2020  and the sidewall  3052 . In the illustrated embodiment, a relatively large portion of the luer  2020 , which includes all or most of the tip  2021 , is in continual contact with the portion of the antiseptic  3033  thus retained. This portion of the luer  2020  can be bathed by the antiseptic  3033  and disinfected thereby. In other embodiments, larger portions of the luer  2020  can be bathed. 
     The deformable nature of the resilient support  3077  can allow for distal movement of the pad  3070 , even after the pad  3070  has been fully compressed. Such an arrangement can allow for a range of acceptable lengths for the luer  2020 . For example, shorter luers  2020  than that illustrated in the drawings may still be able to fully compress the pad  3070  so as to expel all antiseptic therefrom. 
     In other embodiments, the medical connector  2000  may include a male protrusion other than a luer  2020 , such as discussed above. In some embodiments, the surface  3072  may be shaped complementarily to the outer surface of such protrusions so as to for a seal therewith. In still other embodiments, the sidewall  3052  may not form a seal with the protrusion. 
     When the luer  2020  is removed from the chamber  3058 , the restoration forces of the pad  3070  and/or the resilient support  3077  (i.e., the biasing member  3076 ) can maintain the seal between the luer  2020  and the sealing member  3090 , which can prevent antiseptic from entering into the lumen  2022  of the luer  2020 . 
     Each of  FIGS. 67-69  illustrates the female cap  3002  coupled with a different needleless injection site  2040 ,  2060 ,  2080  in manners such as that described above with respect to the cap  1902  in  FIGS. 32-34 . More generally, the female cap  3002  can be coupled with any of a variety of different types of medical connectors in a secure fashion that disinfects each type of medical connector, such as in manners discussed above with respect to other female caps. 
     As shown in  FIG. 68 , in some arrangements, a portion of the seal inhibitor  3025  can contact an outwardly projecting surface  2069  of a needleless injection site  2060 . In particular, the proximal end  3024  of the cap  3002  can contact the surface  2069  at two separate contact regions  3026  when the cap  3002  is fully coupled with the needleless injection site  2060 . In the venting regions  3027  (not shown in  FIG. 68 , see  FIGS. 62A and 62B ), the proximal end  3024  of the cap  3002  can be spaced from the surface  2069 . 
     The caps described herein, and components thereof, can be formed of, or coated with various colored materials or coatings. In some embodiments, the caps each include the same color. In other embodiments, the caps include different colors. Coloring the caps can, in some instances, provide advantages, such as ready identification of the type of cap, ready matching of a particularly colored cap with a particular type of medical connector, and the like. 
     The foregoing disclosure recites various embodiments that include systems configured for use with a pair of separated medical connectors. Examples of first means for coupling a male cap with a first medical connector include the connection interfaces  1042 ,  1142 ,  1342 ,  1542 ,  1842 ,  1942 ,  2242 ,  2342 ,  2642 , and  3042  of the caps  1004 ,  1104 ,  1304 ,  1504 ,  1804 ,  1904 ,  2204 ,  2304 ,  2304 ′,  2604 , and  3004 . Examples of first means for disinfecting a male luer of a first medical connector include the pads  1070 ,  1170 ,  1370 ,  1570 ,  1870 ,  2170 ,  2270 ,  2370 ,  2470 ,  2670 , and  3070 . Examples of second means for coupling the female cap with a second medical connector include the connection interfaces  1030 ,  1130 ,  1530 ,  1830 ,  1930 ,  2230 ,  2630 , and  3030  of the caps  1002 ,  1102 ,  1502 ,  1802 ,  1902 ,  2202 ,  2602 , and  3002 . Examples of second means for disinfecting at least a portion of a second medical connector include the pads  1032 ,  1132 ,  1332 ,  1532 ,  1832 ,  2132 ,  2632 ,  3032 . Examples of means for coupling the male and female caps in a pre-use configuration include the connection interfaces  1040  and  1042 ;  1140  and  1180 ;  1240  and  1280 ;  1340  and  1380 ;  1440  and  1480 ;  1540  and  1580 ;  1840  and  1891 ,  1842  and  1892 ;  2640  and  2695 ,  2680  and  2692 ; and  3040  and  3095 ,  3080  and  3092 . Examples of means for sealing a lumen of a male luer include the sealing members  2290 ,  2390 ,  2490 ,  2590 ,  2690 , and  3090 . Examples of means for biasing a means for sealing a lumen of a male luer include the biasing members  2276 ,  2376 ,  2476 ,  2576 ,  2676 , and  3076 . 
     It will be understood by those having skill in the art that many changes may be made to the details of the above-described embodiments without departing from the underlying principles presented herein. For example, any suitable combination of features of the various embodiments of assemblies described above is contemplated. 
     Any methods disclosed herein comprise one or more steps or actions for performing the described method. The method steps and/or actions may be interchanged with one another. In other words, unless a specific order of steps or actions is required for proper operation of the embodiment, the order and/or use of specific steps and/or actions may be modified. 
     It should be appreciated that in the above description of embodiments, various features are sometimes grouped together in a single embodiment, figure, or description thereof for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. This method of disclosure, however, is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that any claim require more features than those expressly recited in that claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive aspects lie in a combination of fewer than all features of any single foregoing disclosed embodiment. Thus, the claims following this Detailed Description are hereby expressly incorporated into this Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate embodiment. This disclosure includes all permutations of the independent claims with their dependent claims. 
     References to approximations are made throughout this specification, such as by use of the terms “about” or “approximately.” For each such reference, it is to be understood that, in some embodiments, the value, feature, or characteristic may be specified without approximation. For example, where qualifiers such as “about,” “substantially,” and “generally” are used, these terms include within their scope the qualified words in the absence of their qualifiers. For example, where the term “substantially planar” is recited with respect to a feature, it is understood that in further embodiments, the feature can have a precisely planar orientation. 
     Recitation in the claims of the term “first” with respect to a feature or element does not necessarily imply the existence of a second or additional such feature or element. Elements recited in means-plus-function format are intended to be construed in accordance with 35 U.S.C. §112 ¶ 6. It will be apparent to those having skill in the art that changes may be made to the details of the above-described embodiments without departing from the underlying principles of the invention.