Patent Publication Number: US-10776400-B2

Title: Clustering using locality-sensitive hashing with improved cost model

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/163,555, entitled “CLUSTERING USING LOCALITY-SENSITIVE HASHING WITH IMPROVED COST MODEL,” filed on Jan. 24, 2014, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This patent application generally relates to clustering data, and more specifically, to using a locality sensitive hashing operation in a K-means clustering algorithm to improve the speed of the clustering and the quality of its output. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Data “clustering” involves grouping data in such a way that data in the same group (“cluster”) are more similar across one or more attributes to each other than to those in other clusters. Data clustering is commonly used in in many fields, including image analysis, machine learning, pattern recognition, information retrieval, and bioinformatics. Data clustering can be performed using various clustering methods of computation, including “K-means” clustering. 
     K-means clustering partitions a dataset of observations into K clusters in which each observation belongs to the cluster with the nearest mean, which serves as a prototype or “centroid” of the cluster. The observations may be represented using high-dimensional data vectors. As one example in the field of image recognition, the dataset may comprise a number of images of various apparel, e.g., jackets, with each data point in the dataset being a 64×64 grayscale pixel image. K-means clustering algorithm can be used to find groups of images that represent similar-looking jackets. 
       FIG. 1  is a flow diagram illustrating a typical K-means clustering routine  100 . At block  105 , given a dataset of N data vectors and a specific value K, the routine  100  may randomly classify the N data vectors into K initial clusters. At block  110 , the system computes the centroids of the K clusters. Though referred to as a “centroid”, one with ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the terms “average”, “mean”, or “Nth-moment” are equivalent. At block  115 , the routine  100  determines K new clusters by associating each data vector with a nearest centroid. Various measures can be used to represent the distance between a data vector and a centroid, e.g., the Euclidian distance or the cosine distance. At decision block  120 , the routine  100  determines if an appropriate end condition has been reached. For example, the routine  100  may stop after a predetermined number of iterations, or when each successive centroid is less than a threshold distance from its predecessor in the previous iteration. If the end condition has not been reached, the routine  100  proceeds to another iteration returning to block  110 , where the centroids of the K new clusters are determined. 
     Although K-means clustering produces good results for clustering, applying it can be computationally difficult because its computation is said to be “NP-complete.” 
    
    
     
       BASIC DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The techniques introduced here may be better understood by referring to the following Detailed Description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numerals indicate identical or functionally similar elements: 
         FIG. 1  is a flow diagram illustrating an example K-Means algorithm. 
         FIG. 2  is a flow diagram illustrating an example locally sensitive hashing (“LSH”) operation. 
         FIG. 3  is a data flow diagram illustrating the example LSH operation. 
         FIG. 4  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process of setting parameters. 
         FIG. 5  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process of a K-means clustering algorithm. 
         FIG. 6  is a block diagram illustrating example components of a computer system that may be used to implement various features of the disclosed embodiments. 
     
    
    
     The headings provided herein are for convenience only and do not necessarily affect the scope or meaning of the claimed embodiments. Further, the drawings have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figures may be expanded or reduced to help improve the understanding of the embodiments. Similarly, some components and/or operations may be separated into different blocks or combined into a single block for the purposes of discussion of some of the embodiments. Moreover, while the various embodiments are amenable to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments have been shown by way of example in the drawings and are described in detail below. The intention, however, is not to limit the particular embodiments described. On the contrary, the embodiments are intended to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the scope of the disclosed embodiments as defined by the appended claims. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Embodiments are disclosed for using an improved LSH operation to reduce the computational complexity of K-means clustering. In various embodiments, parameters of an LSH operation are optimized with respect to a new cost model. In various embodiments, an LSH function is applied with optimized parameters for K-means clustering. 
     The disclosed embodiments provide a cost model for an LSH operation that accurately captures the computational cost of the LSH operation and an approach of setting the parameters of the LSH operation to reduce the computational cost. The disclosed embodiments can also apply the resulting LSH operation to a K-means clustering to approximate the clustering results with high quality and efficiency. 
     Because K-means clustering computations are complex, an LSH operation can be added to find data points that are proximate (e.g., close) to one another and thereby simultaneously reduce computational complexity and increase performance. 
     LSH involves reducing high-dimensional data by hashing N input items into M buckets so that nearby items are mapped to the same buckets with high probability, where M is much less than N. This is different from conventional hashing functions that attempt to avoid collisions. 
     As an example, given a collection of data points (e.g., a dataset), the LSH operation hashes the data points into a number of buckets such that those data points that are closer to one another are more likely to fall in the same bucket. Therefore, for a specific data point, all the other data points that are hashed into the same bucket are very likely to be close to the specific data point. 
     The LSH operation generally has three parameters: w, the quantization factor; m, the number of projections; and L, the number of repetitions.  FIG. 2  contains a flowchart illustrating a typical LSH operation  200 , and  FIG. 3  contains a diagram illustrating the typical LSH operation graphically. At block  205 , given a dataset of H data vectors, a system implementing the LSH operation may create a new hash table, such as one of the tables  325 . At block  210 , the system may generate m random vectors with the same dimensionality as the data vectors for projection purposes and, optionally, with a scalar term to reduce bias. Each coordinate of each of the m random vectors may be a Gaussian random variable N(0, 1), such as the vectors  310   a - c . In some embodiments, a uniform, rather than a Gaussian random variable, may be used without bias. 
     At block  215 , the system may select the next data vector, project it upon each of the m random vectors, and quantize each projection based on a quantization factor w. For example, the data point  305   c  may be projected onto the random vectors  310   a - c , and the quantization results may respectively be A 3 , B 3  and C 3 . The data point  305   b  is close to the data point  305   c  and thus may lead to the same quantization results. However, the data point  305   a  is away from the data points  305   b  and  305   c , and thus the quantization results may respectively be A 2 , B 1  and C 2  instead. At block  220 , the system may place the data vector in the bucket that corresponds to the m projections and also reduce the index of the m-dimensional bucket into a one-dimensional index. In that way, the number of buckets would correspond to the number of unique sets of m projections. In the example, the data points  305   a  and  305   c  would be placed in the bins  320   b  and  320   a , respectively. 
     If not all the data vectors have been processed, then at block  225 , the system may repeat the operations for the next data vector. If all the data vectors have been considered, the system may proceed to block  230 . If at block  230  the desired number of hash tables (i.e., L) has been generated, the process may end. Conversely, if additional tables are to be generated, the process may repeat from block  205  such that a new collection of hashes are generated for a new table. 
     Generally, given a dataset and a query point, the LSH operation is applied to find the data points in the dataset that are close to the query data point by searching all the data points that are in the union of the L buckets to which the query point has been hashed. By virtue of the features described above, especially with m projections and L hash tables, extensive classifications may be performed with randomized hashes across successive tables to achieve a more accurate, aggregate categorization of the data vectors than would be achieved with a single projection by a single table. 
     In order to carry out the LSH operation, it is first necessary to set the three parameters. Typically, the setting of the parameters is formulated as an optimization problem: Given a cost model which indicates a computational cost associated with the LSH operation and an error probability which indicates a likelihood of incorrect hashing such that a query point is not hashed to the same bucket as its nearest data point, find the values for the parameters that would minimize the value of the cost model while guaranteeing that the probability of a hashing error would be below the error probability. There is significant prior art on how to define the cost model and how to set the parameters, but there is no definitive answer to these questions. 
     It would be helpful to work with a cost model that accurately captures the computational cost of a LSH operation, to optimally set the three parameters for the LSH operation, and to apply the resulting LSH operation to a K-means clustering algorithm to approximate the clustering results with high quality and efficiency. 
     Various examples of the techniques introduced above will now be described in further detail. The following description provides specific details for a thorough understanding and enabling description of these examples. One skilled in the relevant art will understand, however, that the techniques discussed herein may be practiced without many of these details. Likewise, one skilled in the relevant art will also understand that the techniques can include many other obvious features not described in detail herein. Additionally, some well-known structures or functions may not be shown or described in detail below, so as to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the relevant description. 
     The terminology used below is to be interpreted in its broadest reasonable manner, even though it is being used in conjunction with a detailed description of certain specific examples of the embodiments. Indeed, certain terms may even be emphasized below; however, any terminology intended to be interpreted in any restricted manner will be overtly and specifically defined as such in this section. 
     In the embodiments, a computer system may be used to implement various features. Details of the computer system are discussed in detail below. Initially, a new cost model for the LSH operation is proposed. It characterizes the cost of hashing a query vector using the LSH operation as well as the cost of searching other data vectors in the union of buckets to which the query vector has been hashed for the nearest to the query vector. Specifically, when searching for a nearest point for a query vector, it takes time proportional to m to hash the query vector into one of the w buckets, each containing a subset of the data vectors, for each of the L functions. It also takes time to compute the cross-distance product between the query vector and every data vector in the union of the L buckets to which the query vector has been hashed. The system defines the new cost model for the LSH operation as follows:
 
L*m+expCrossProdBucketUnion(w,m,L))  (1)
 
where expCrossProdBucketUnion(w, m, L) gives the expected number of cross products to be computed for the data vectors in the union of the buckets to which the query vector has been hashed. In some embodiments, expCrossProdBucket(w, m, L) can be empirically estimated by sampling, as discussed in detail below.
 
     Given this new cost model and an error probability of E, the system may set the parameters for the LSH operation as follows.  FIG. 4  is a flowchart illustrating an example process of setting the parameters. In one embodiment, the system searches in the space of all possible values of w and m, and for each pair of values, finds the corresponding value of L such that the triple of values minimizes the value of the new cost model while guaranteeing that the probability of a hashing error would be below E. At block  402 , the system initializes the variables in preparation for the search. At block  404 , for given values wc of w and mc of m, the system computes a value L opt  of L, that guarantees that the probability of a hashing error would be below the error probability E. Given w, m, and L, the system computes the probability of a hashing error as follows:
 
1−(1−probNearest(w){circumflex over ( )}m){circumflex over ( )}L  (2)
 
where probNearest(wc) (which is an example of a “hit probability”) is the probability that a random query vector and its nearest neighbor falls into the same bucket with a quantization factor of wc, one random projection and one repetition. In one embodiment, probNearest(wc) can be empirically estimated by sampling. For example, as the LSH operation is to be applied in each iteration of the K-means clustering algorithm, the system may use the K current centroids as the potential nearest neighbors, generate one random vector for the projection, and randomly choose some of the query vectors. For each of the chosen query vectors, the system may determine whether the query vector and the centroid of the cluster to which it currently belongs would be hashed to the same bucket through projection and quantization. Therefore, the system computes L opt  as follows:
 
 L   opt =log( E )/log(1−probNearest( wc ){circumflex over ( )} mc )  (3)
 
     At block  406 , the system computes the value C of the new cost model for the current (wc, mc, L opt ) according to formula 1. As discussed above, in one embodiment, expCrossProdBucket(wc, mc, L opt ) can be empirically estimated by sampling. For example, the system may again use the K current centroids as the potential nearest neighbors, generate m random vectors for the projection, and randomly choose some of the query vectors. For each of the chosen query vectors, the system may determine the number of centroids that would be hashed in the bucket to which the query vector has been hashed through projection and quantization. It is possible to distribute the computation, specifically of expCrossProdBucket(wc, mc, L opt ), which can involve sampling of the query vectors, into separate computations, each involving sampling a distinct set of the query vectors. The results of the separate computations for every possible wc and mc (and the corresponding L opt ) would be aggregated to ultimately determine the value of expCrossProdBucket(wc, mc, L opt ). The system may carry out the separate computations with multiple processors simultaneously for increased performance. Furthermore, it may adjust the amount of computation assigned to each of these processors to achieve optimal load balancing. 
     At step  408 , it determines whether the cost C is less than the current minimum value Min. If the determination outcome is positive, at block  410 , the system records (wc, mc, L opt ) and updates Min to be the cost C. At blocks  412  through  418 , the system moves on to the rest of the search space until the search is complete. In one embodiment, w max  is 255, and m max  is a number that results in one data vector in each bucket on average. At block  420 , the system outputs w, m and L, which have been set to the optimal values. 
     Using the LSH operation, the system may implement the K-means clustering algorithm to cluster N query vectors into K clusters as follows. It may use the LSH operation in an attempt to quickly find the closest centroid for each query vector by running the LSH operation on the query vectors and the centroids and limiting the scope of the search for each query vector to those centroids in the union of the buckets to which the query vector has been hashed. 
       FIG. 5  is a flow diagram illustrating an example process of such K-means clustering algorithms. At step  502 , the system initializes the variables, including the error probability for the LSH operation. The initial value can be 0.95, for example. The system also sets up K initial clusters, such as by randomly distributing the N query vectors into K groups. At block  504 , the system computes the centroid of each of the K clusters at the beginning of an iteration. 
     Blocks  506 - 520  then correspond to block  115  in  FIG. 1 . At block  506 , the system re-computes the parameters of the LSH operation, as described in  FIG. 4 . This re-computation may reduce the chance of accumulating classification errors over multiple iterations of the K-means clustering algorithm due to the imprecise nature of the LSH operation. At block  508 , the system hashes each of the K centroids using the LSH operation with the re-computed parameters. 
     At blocks  510 - 518 , the system considers each of the query vectors for reassignment into a different cluster. At block  512 , it hashes the current query vector using the LSH operation with the re-computed parameters. At block  514 , it identifies the union of buckets to which the current query vector is hashed, computes the distance between the current query vector and each of the centroids in the union of the buckets, and determines the centroid corresponding to the shortest distance. It is possible that the union of buckets is empty. In that case, the system performs an exhaustive search of all the centroids for the one nearest to the current query vector. 
     At block  516 , the system generally assigns the current query vector to the cluster with the centroid corresponding to the shortest distance. However, due to the imprecise nature of the LSH operation, it is possible that the set of centroids in the union of the buckets does not include the centroid that is nearest the current query vector in reality. Therefore, the system may perform tests to ensure that the centroid corresponding to the shortest distance that it has computed is at least reasonably close to the current query vector. One test the system may perform is to compare the computed shortest distance with a certain threshold, such as the 99th percentile of the distribution of the distance to a centroid, which may be pre-computed by sampling. If the computed shortest distance is no less than the 99th percentile, the system may perform an exhaustive search of all the centroids for the nearest one. Another test the system may perform is to compare the computed shortest distance d_c with the computed shortest distance in the previous iteration d_p 1 . To perform this comparison, the system would save the computed shortest distance in each iteration for use in the next iteration or re-compute the distance in the next iteration. If d_c is no less than the d_p 1 , the system may skip the block of assigning the current query vector to a new cluster. A similar test would be to compare d_c with the distance to the centroid corresponding to the shortest distance computed in the previous iteration d_p 2 . For this comparison, the system would record the centroid corresponding to the shortest distance computed in each iteration for use in the next iteration. If d_c is no less than d_p 2 , the system may skip the block of assigning the current query vector to a new cluster. 
     At block  518 , when all the query vectors have been considered for reassignment (and one or more have been reassigned as a result), the system gets ready to move on to the next iteration at block  520 , including shrinking the error probability. The value of the decay can be 0.6, for example. If a termination condition is reached at block  522 , however, the process ends. 
       FIG. 6  is a block diagram illustrating example components of a computer system that may be used to implement various features of the embodiments. The computing system  600  may include one or more central processing units (“processors”)  605 , memory  610 , input/output devices  625  (e.g., keyboard and pointing devices, display devices), storage devices  620  (e.g., disk drives), and network adapters  630  (e.g., network interfaces) that are connected to an interconnect  615 . The interconnect  615  is illustrated as an abstraction that represents any one or more separate physical buses, point to point connections, or both connected by appropriate bridges, adapters, or controllers. The interconnect  615 , therefore, may include, for example, a system bus, a Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus or PCI-Express bus, a HyperTransport or industry standard architecture (ISA) bus, a small computer system interface (SCSI) bus, a universal serial bus (USB), IIC (I2C) bus, or an Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) standard 1394 bus, also called “Firewire”. 
     The memory  610  and storage devices  620  are computer-readable storage media that may store instructions that implement at least portions of the various embodiments. In addition, the data structures and message structures may be stored or transmitted via a data transmission medium, such as a signal on a communications link. Various communications links may be used, such as the Internet, a local area network, a wide area network, or a point-to-point dial-up connection. Thus, computer readable media can include computer-readable storage media (e.g., “non transitory” media) and computer-readable transmission media. 
     The instructions stored in memory  610  can be implemented as software and/or firmware to program the processor(s)  605  to carry out actions described above. In some embodiments, such software or firmware may be initially provided to the processing system  600  by downloading it from a remote system through the computing system  600  (e.g., via network adapter  630 ). 
     The various embodiments introduced herein can be implemented by, for example, programmable circuitry (e.g., one or more microprocessors) programmed with software and/or firmware, or entirely in special-purpose hardwired (non-programmable) circuitry, or in a combination of such forms. Special-purpose hardwired circuitry may be in the form of, for example, one or more ASICs, PLDs, FPGAs, etc. 
     Remarks 
     The above description and drawings are illustrative and are not to be construed as limiting. Numerous specific details are described to provide a thorough understanding of the disclosure. However, in certain instances, well-known details are not described in order to avoid obscuring the description. Further, various modifications may be made without deviating from the scope of the embodiments. Accordingly, the embodiments are not limited except as by the appended claims. 
     Reference in this specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the disclosure. The appearances of the phrase “in one embodiment” in various places in the specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment nor are separate or alternative embodiments mutually exclusive of other embodiments. Moreover, various features are described which may be exhibited by some embodiments and not by others. Similarly, various requirements are described which may be requirements for some embodiments but not for other embodiments. 
     The terms used in this specification generally have their ordinary meanings in the art, within the context of the disclosure, and in the specific context where each term is used. Certain terms that are used to describe the disclosure are discussed below, or elsewhere in the specification, to provide additional guidance to the practitioner regarding the description of the disclosure. For convenience, certain terms may be highlighted, for example, by using italics and/or quotation marks. The use of highlighting has no influence on the scope and meaning of a term; the scope and meaning of a term is the same, in the same context, whether or not it is highlighted. It will be appreciated that the same thing can be said in more than one way. One will recognize that “memory” is one form of a “storage,” and that the terms may on occasion be used interchangeably. 
     Consequently, alternative language and synonyms may be used for any one or more of the terms discussed herein nor is any special significance to be placed upon whether or not a term is elaborated or discussed herein. Synonyms for certain terms are provided. A recital of one or more synonyms does not exclude the use of other synonyms. The use of examples anywhere in this specification, including examples of any term discussed herein, is illustrative only and is not intended to further limit the scope and meaning of the disclosure or of any exemplified term. Likewise, the disclosure is not limited to various embodiments given in this specification. 
     Without intent to further limit the scope of the disclosure, examples of instruments, apparatus, methods and their related results according to the embodiments of the present disclosure are given below. Note that titles or subtitles may be used in the examples for convenience of a reader, which in no way should limit the scope of the disclosure. Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure pertains. In the case of conflict, the present document, including definitions will control.