Patent Publication Number: US-7592269-B2

Title: Method and apparatus for depositing charge and/or nanoparticles

Description:
The present application is a Continuation-In-Part of U.S. Ser. No. 10/982,179, filed Nov. 4, 2004 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,232,771 which is based on and claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/517,327, filed Nov. 4, 2003, the content of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 

   GOVERNMENT RIGHTS 
   The United States government has certain rights in this invention pursuant to Agency Grant No. DMI-0217538 awarded by DMII Grant NSF. This research was also directly supported by NSF DMI-0556161, and NSF DMI-0621137. 

   BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
   The present invention relates to nanoparticles. More specifically, the present invention relates to the deposition of charge and/or nanoparticles. 
   There is an ongoing trend to miniaturize components and devices. Smaller components and devices allow more complex functions to be performed in a smaller volume and, in some configurations, can increase speed and reduce power consumption of a device. Small components have also found use in the biological and medical sciences. Today&#39;s forefront of miniaturization is generally referred to as “nanotechnology”. One technique used in nanotechnology is based upon the use of organic and inorganic “nanoparticles”. 
   Nanoparticles are considered the building blocks of many future nanotechnological devices. Nanoparticles are typically created in the gas or liquid phase. Most well known techniques include metal evaporation, laser ablation, solution vaporization, wire explosion, pyrolysis, colloidal and electrochemical synthesis, and generation from plasmas. Nanoparticles are of current interest for electronic and optoelectronic device applications, Silicon nanoparticles generated by silane pyrolysis or electrochemical reaction of hydrogen-fluoride with hydrogen-peroxide are used for non-volatile memories, lasers; and biological markers. Evaporated gold, indium, and ion sputtered aluminum nanoparticles are used for single electron transistors; and electron beam evaporated gold and silver particles are used for plasmonic waveguides. However, devices do not hold the only interest in nanoparticle generation. Nanoparticles also provide the foundation for the development of new materials and act as catalysts in nanowire synthesis. 
   The use of nanoparticles as building blocks, regardless of the application, requires new assembling strategies. Most actively studied approaches include: i) single particle manipulation, ii) random particle deposition, and iii) parallel particle assembly-based on self-assembly. Single particle manipulation and random particle deposition are useful to fabricate and explore new device architectures. However, inherent disadvantages such as the lag in yield and speed, will have to be overcome in the future to enable the manufacturing of nanotechnological devices. Fabrication strategies that rely on mechanisms of self-assembly can overcome these difficulties. Self-assembly techniques have begun to be used to assemble nanoparticles onto substrates. Current areas of investigation use geometrical templates, copolymer scaffolds, protein 
   Recognition, DNA hybridization, hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity, magnetic interactions, and electrostatic interactions. 
   Stimulated by the success of atomic force based charge patterning, high resolution patterns have been used as templates for self assembly and as nucleation sites for molecules and small particles. Several serial charge-patterning processes have been explored to enable the positioning of nanoparticles. Scanning probe based techniques, for example, have been developed to pattern charge in silicon dioxide and Teflon like thin films. Serial techniques, however, remain slow—the fastest scanning probe-based system needs 1.5 days to pattern an area of 1 cm 2 . This experimental bottleneck has led to the development of electric nanocontact printing to pattern charge in parallel. Electric nanocontact printing generates a charge pattern based on the same physical principles used in scanning probes but forms multiple electric contacts of different size and shape to transfer charge in a single step. With this method, patterning of charge with 100 nm scale resolution and transfer of 50 nm to 20 μm sized particles including iron oxide, graphite carbon, iron beads, and toner can be achieved. As a result several research groups have began investigating charge based printing. Krinke et al. assembled indium particles from the gas phase onto charged areas created by contact charging using a scanning stainless steel needle (T. J. Krinke et al.,  Applied Physics Letters,  2001, 78, 3708); Mesquida and Stemmer demonstrated the assembly of silica beads and gold colloids from the liquid phase onto charged areas created by contact charging using a scanning probe (P. Mesquida et al.,  Microelectronic Engineering,  2002, 61-62, 671; and P. Mesquida et al.,  Surface and Interface Analysis,  2002, 33, 159); and Fudouzi et al. demonstrated the assembly of SiO 2  and TiO 2  particles from both the liquid and gas phase onto charged areas created by focused ion and electron beams (H. Fudouzi et al.,  Langmuir,  2002, 18, 7648; and H. Fudouzi et al.,  Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings,  2001, 636, D9.8/1). 
   However, there is an ongoing need for improved techniques and apparatus for the deposition and formation of nanoparticles and devices which use nanoparticles. One example technique is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/316,997, entitled ELECTRET MICROCONTACT PRINTING METHOD AND APPARATUS. 
   SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   A method of forming a charge pattern includes treating a stamp layer with a plasma, applying the treated stamp layer to a surface of a substrate to thereby form a charge pattern on the surface of the substrate, and separating the stamp layer from the surface of the substrate. In one aspect, the method includes depositing nanoparticles on the surface of the substrate. An apparatus made in accordance with the method is also provided. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       FIG. 1A  is a perspective view of a stamp including a flexible substrate in accordance with the present invention. 
       FIG. 1B  is a perspective view showing the stamp of  FIG. 1A  applied to a substrate. 
       FIG. 1B-1  is a cross-sectional view of the structure of  FIG. 1B . 
       FIG. 1C  is a perspective view of the substrate of  FIG. 1B  showing a resultant charge pattern deposited on the surface of the substrate. 
       FIG. 1D  is a perspective view of the substrate of  FIG. 1C  showing nanoparticles attracted to the charge pattern. 
       FIGS. 1E ,  1 F and  1 G are views of charge patterns carried on a substrate. 
       FIG. 2A  is a side cross-sectional view of a vertical flow field effect transistor made in accordance with the invention. 
     FIGS.  2 B 1 - 2 B 2  and  2 C 1 - 2 C 2  show alternative techniques for depositing a nanoparticle in accordance with the invention. 
       FIG. 2D  is a perspective view showing the field effect transistor showing deposition of a subsequent layer. 
       FIG. 2E  is a perspective view of the field effect transistor showing deposition of a contact. 
       FIGS. 3A ,  3 B 1 ,  3 B 2  and  3 C are perspective views showing deposition of nanoparticles using an aerosol and a solvent, respectively. 
       FIG. 4A  shows a more detailed view of the charge patterning process of the invention using a thin silicon electrode. 
     FIGS.  4 B 1  and  4 B 2  are similar to  FIG. 4A  and show a configuration which does not use a separate voltage source. 
       FIG. 5A  is a simplified diagram showing an apparatus for use in depositing nanoparticles onto a substrate in accordance with the invention. 
       FIG. 5B  is a diagram similar to  FIG. 5A  in which nanoparticles are carried in a gas which is blown across the surface of a pattern substrate. 
       FIG. 6  is a more detailed view of the generic nanoparticle printer assembly module of the present invention that is adaptable to any particle source. 
       FIG. 7  is a perspective view of a pre-patterned substrate as another embodiment of a stamp or as its own mechanism in accordance with the present invention in which dissimilar materials are used to form a charge pattern. 
       FIGS. 8A and 8B  are perspective views showing steps in accordance with one aspect of the present invention. 
       FIGS. 9A and 9B  are side views showing one example explanation of the operation of the present invention. 
       FIG. 10  is a graph showing measured charge density for various materials. 
       FIG. 11  are images which illustrate the present invention. 
   

   DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
   Non-Traditional Parallel Nanofabrication is a fast growing field that uses alternative methods to fabricate and pattern nanostructures at low cost. It is believed that these techniques will become an important part of future micro- and nanofabrication. Most of these techniques use a master to replicate nanostructures in parallel. Current research focuses on microcontact printing, molding, embossing, near-field photolithography topographically directed etching and topographically directed photolithography. 
     FIGS. 1A ,  1 B and  1 C illustrate steps of a stamping process in accordance with one aspect of the present invention. A flexible conducting stamp  100  is illustrated which includes surface features  102  formed thereon.  FIG. 1B  is a perspective view showing stamp  100  positioned in contact with a rigid support substrate  110 . Rigid support substrate  110  is covered by a layer of photoresist, electret or other material  112  carried on conductive support  113  and a voltage pulse is applied between stamp  100  and rigid support  110  by voltage source  114 . In the perspective view of  FIG. 1C , the flexible stamp  100  has been removed and the pattern  120  has been transferred to the resist layer  112  carried on the rigid substrate  110 . 
   In the configuration illustrated in  FIGS. 1A-1D , an electrical contact  130  connects the copper plate to a coating of gold  132  which overlies the flexible electrode  134 . The flexible electrode is carried on a copper plate  136 . The interaction between the support  110  and the stamp  100  is better illustrated in the inset shown in  FIG. 1B-1 . This stamping process can be used in accordance with the techniques set forth herein. 
   Once the charge pattern  120  is formed on the substrate  110  as illustrated in  FIG. 1C , nanoparticles can be deposited in accordance with any appropriate technique. For example,  FIG. 1D  is an example deposition process in which nanoparticles  130  are deposited and attracted to the charged region  120  on substrate  110 . 
     FIGS. 1E ,  1 F and  1 G are views of various charge patterns  120  carried on substrate  110  along with dimensions. 
   In the configuration shown in  FIG. 1A , the gold layer  132  has a thickness of 60 nm, the width of the stamp is 15 mm, the height of the flexible electrode is 5 mm and the thickness of the copper plate is 5 mm. 
   In this configuration, the stamp is used to expose a predefined area to electrons and electric fields. The stamp is placed onto the substrate surface and a voltage potential pulse is applied between the stamp and the substrate to expose the surface of the substrate material. Preferably, the stamp  100  is of a electrically conductive material and has sufficient flexibility to conform and contact a rigid surface  110 . The stamp should support a pattern in bas relief with a minimal feature size of 100 nm or less. The electrical contact that is formed between the stamp and the substrate surface preferably provides uniform exposure across the surface. One example material is polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). PDMS is a flexible polymer that can be cured by heating. A bas relief pattern can be formed using E-beamlithography and molding. A patterned surface of the PDMS stamp can be made electrically conductive by applying a conductive layer, for example by thermal evaporation of chromium (7 nm) as an adhesion promoter followed by an 80 nm layer of gold. The metal coated PDMS stamp can be used to apply a charge pattern on a thin electret film. 
   Once the charge pattern  120  is applied to the rigid substrate  110 . The pattern  120  is used to attract nanoparticles generated using known techniques. The nanoparticles can be carried in a gas, fluid, or other medium and will adhere to the charged pattern  120 .  FIG. 1D  is a perspective view of the substrate  110  showing nanoparticles  130  attracted to and adhering to charge pattern  120 . 
   The process to pattern charge is illustrated in  FIGS. 1A-1D . In one example, a silicon chip coated with a thin film electret was placed on top of a flexible conductive stamp. The stamp forms multiple electric contacts of different size and shape to the rigid surface and was used to electrically expose the selected surface areas. The stamp was poly(dimethylsiloxane)(PDMS), patterned in bas relief using procedures described before, it was −5 mm thick and supported on a copper plate. The patterned surface of the PDMS stamp was made electrically conducting by thermal evaporation of 80 nm of gold onto it. Thermal expansion of the PDMS stamps during the evaporation can cause the metal coating to buckle on cooling. To prevent buckling due to thermal expansion and contraction of the PDMS stamp, eight successive evaporation cycles each 1 min long were used, with 4 min waiting periods in between for cooling. The copper plates supporting the PDMS stamps were mounted 15 cm away from the metal source in our resistive thermal evaporator. (TSH 180H, Pfeiffer/Balzers, Germany). To electrically connect the stamp with the copper plate, InGa was applied onto the side walls of the stamp and at the interface between the stamp and the copper plate. 
   The charge storage medium was poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA, an 80 nm film, on a silicon wafer); PMMA is commercially available and is an electret with good charge storage capabilities. A 2% solution of 950 K PMMA in chlorobenzene (MicroChem. Co.) and spin coating at 5000 rpm was used to form the film on the wafer. The wafers were &lt;100&gt; n-doped silicon with a resistivity of 3 Ωcm that were cleaned in 1% solution of hydrofluoric acid to remove the native oxide prior to spin coating. The spin-coated PMMA was baked at 90° C. for 1 h under vacuum. The wafer was cut into 1 cm 2  squares. To contact the chips electrically liquid InGa was spread onto the back side of the chip. 
   A metallic needle is attached to a micromanipulator to contact the liquid InGa on the backside of the chip. Upon contact the InGa wets the needle and forms a low resistance electrical contact. To generate a pattern of trapped charge, an external potential for (1-10 seconds) was applied between the needle and the copper plate. During the exposure the electric current that flowed through the junction was monitored and the voltage adjusted (10-30 V) to obtain −10 mAcm −2  exposure current. To lift off the chip after exposure, the surface tension of the liquid InGa that forms a bond between the silicon and the metallic needle was used. This bond typically allows the chip to be lifted off by retracting the needle using the micromanipulator. In some cases, the use of tweezers is required. After lift off, the charge patterns can be characterized using Kelvin probe force microscopy (KFM). KFM uses the probe of an atomic force microscope (AFM) to detect electrostatic forces. A KFM procedure can be used to measure the charge and surface potential distribution with 100 nm scale resolution. 
   To assemble nanoparticles onto charged areas, three different procedures were investigated. In the first procedure, PMMA-coated chips carrying a charged pattern were dipped into dry powders of nanoparticles and the pattern developed by blowing away the loosely held material in a stream of dry nitrogen. In the second procedure, chips carrying a charge pattern were exposed to a cloud of nanoparticles. The particle cloud was formed inside a cylindrical glass chamber (10 cm in diameter and 5 cm high) using a fan to mix the nanoparticles with the surrounding gas (air or nitrogen). A laser pointed was used to visualize (due to scattering of light) the suspended nanoparticles in the chamber. This particular configuration can be used to test whether nanoparticles can be assembled onto charged areas directly from the gas phase. In the third procedure, a liquid suspension of nanoparticles was used. As a solvents, perfluorodecalin (#601, Sigma-Aldrich, USA) and Fluorinert FC-77 were used, which are non-polar solvents with relative dielectric constants of 1.8. To agitate the nanoparticles, an ultrasonic bath (Branson 3510, DanBury, Conn.) was used. Commercially available carbon toner, red iron oxide particles, and graphitized carbon particles were used. 
   The nanoparticles  130  can be deposited in accordance with any appropriate technique. In accordance with various examples of the present invention, a PMMA substrate having a charge pattern can be dipped into dry powders, liquids, or placed in a flow, such as a liquid or air flow, of nanoparticles to thereby deposit the nanoparticles on the charge pattern. One advantage of using an aerosol over a liquid suspension for carrying the nanoparticles is that in the aerosol it is possible to control the charge the particle. Particles in an aerosol can be charged to an upper limit, which depends upon the particle diameter. For a 100 nm sized particle, a typical number for most materials is between 50 and 200 elementary charges. To trap a single 100 nm size particle at a charged surface site, it is necessary to have about the same amount of charge on both the particle and the charged surface. Using the techniques of the present invention, a charged density of 100 elementary charges per surface area of 100 nm by 100 nm can be achieved. 
   One aspect of the present invention includes fabrication of devices using the techniques set forth herein, along with devices fabricated with such techniques. For example,  FIG. 2A  is a side cross-sectional view of a vertical flow field effect transistor  200 . Transistor  200  includes a source metal  202 , a gate oxide  204  such as SiO 2 , a gate metal  206 , a drain alloy (ohmic)  208  and a drain metal  210 . The vertical flow field effect transistor consists of an oxide silicon nanoparticle of less than 100 nm that is embedded between three electrodes. The source  214  is of a silicide. As illustrated in FIG.  2 B 1 , in one configuration, a voltage source  220  is applied between the source metal  202  and the gate metal  206 . In the illustrated configuration, a negative charge is formed which attracts the charged nanoparticle  22 . The charged nanoparticle is seated in the opening as illustrated in FIG.  2 B 2 . In an alternative configuration, different patterns of surface charge are exploited to fabricate the transistor. In this configuration, a charge is patterned onto the gate dielectric to generate a stray field. This charge pattern can be formed using the techniques described above. As illustrated in FIG.  2 C 1 , the charge pattern attracts the nanoparticle  222  to the location illustrated in FIG.  2 C 2 . In  FIG. 2D , the transistor structure is shown after depositing and polishing an upper insulating layer  226 . The top electrode  210  is illustrated in  FIG. 2E  deposited on the top surface of transistor  200 . 
   Various different techniques can be used to deposit the nanoparticles upon the substrate  110 .  FIG. 3A  is a perspective view showing one example embodiment in which nanoparticles are carried in a gas phase. For example, 100 nm sized nanoparticles can be contained in a container  300 . A fan  302  is configured to blow the nanoparticles within the container  300 . The nanoparticles can be visualized, for example, using a laser which is scattered by the particles. FIGS.  3 B 1  and  3 B 2  show another example embodiment in which the nanoparticles are carried in a solution  310  contained in a vessel  312 . The nanoparticles can be suspended in a desired solvent with different polarities and dielectric constants. For example, in one specific experiment, graphitized carbon particles having a mean diameter of 30 nm were suspended in an non-polar solvent (perfluorodecalin). In order to prevent coagulation of the carbon particles, the container  310  can be placed in a ultrasonic bath  314  in which a sonicater  316  agitates the solution  310 . 
     FIG. 3C  is a view of another example embodiment in which the substrate  310  is placed into a container  322  containing nanoparticles  324  in a powdered form. Following dipping the substrate  310  into the powder, the substrate  310  can be removed and placed in, for example, a stream of dry nitrogen to remove any excess particles that did not assemble onto the surface of the substrate. 
   In another example embodiment, two different flexible electrodes were used to accomplish charge transfer. The first electrode prototype was made out of a 5 mm thick poly-(dimethylsiloxane)(PDMS) stamp, patterned in bas relief using procedures described before. To make the stamp electrically conducting, it was supported on a copper plate and a 60 nm thick gold film was thermally evaporated onto it. InGa (a liquid metal alloy, Aldrich) was applied to the sidewalls of the stamp to provide a good contact to the copper plate. The second electrode prototype was made from a 3 inch in diameter, 10 μm thick, n-doped silicon wafer (Virginia Semiconductors). Patterns in bas-relief, consisting of features as small as 50 nm were transferred into the silicon by photolithography and etching in a 98% CF 6 , 2% O 2  plasma. The n-doped silicon is sufficiently conductive and does not require a metal coating. To provide an equal pressure distribution and uniform electric contact, the non-patterned side of the thin silicon electrode was placed on a gold-coated flat piece of PDMS on a copper plate. 
   As the electret, two different dielectric materials, poly-(methylmethacrylate)(PMMA), a commercially available electret with good charge storage capabilities, and SiO 2  were used. For the PMMA electret, a 2% solution of 950 K PMMA in chlorobenzene (MicroChem. Co.) was used and spin coating at 5000 rpm to form a thin film on a silicon wafer. The wafer was cleaned in a 1% solution of Hydrofluoric acid to remove the native oxide prior to spin coating. The spin-coated wafer was bake in an over at 90° C. for 1 hour. For the SiO 2  electret, a 50 nm thick wet oxide was thermally grown in an oxygen furnace at 1100° C. for 30 minutes. Both electrets were formed on &lt;100&gt; n-doped silicon wafers with a resistivity of 3 ohm cm that were cut into 0.5-1 cm 2  sized chips after processing. To form an electrical connection liquid InGa was spread on the backside of these chips. The chips were placed on the flexible electrode by hand and contacted with a metallic needle attached to a micromanipulator. 
   To generate a pattern of trapped charge, an external potential was applied for 1-10 seconds. During the exposure current of 0.1-1 mA. After exposure, the charge patterns were characterized using Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KFM). KFM involves the use of an Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) probe to detect electrostatic forces. A KFM procedure was used that enables measuring the charge and surface potential distribution with 100 nm scale resolution. 
     FIG. 4A  provides a perspective view of the stamping process discussed above in which a thin silicon electrode is used in place of a PDMS electrode. In this configuration, the stamp  400  includes a copper or otherwise conductive plate  402  having a thickness of 10 mm which carries a support layer of PDMS  404 . The support layer  404  has a thickness of about 5 mm. A conductive contact coating  406 , for example of gold, is provided. Coating  406  is covered with a flexible layer  407  of silicon. The substrate  420  is formed of silicon, which provides a conductive support  422 . The support  422  is covered with an electret layer  424 . The pattern  408  contacts the electret  424 . A voltage is applied using voltage source  430 . When the stamp  400  is removed, a charge pattern  432  is left on the electret layer  424 . FIG.  4 B 1  and FIG.  4 B 2  are similar to  FIG. 4A  and show a configuration in which a voltage source  430  and the resulting voltage pulse are not used to transfer charge. Instead, charge is transferred purely through contact between the stamp and the substrate. 
   Following the application of the charge pattern  432  onto the surface of the electret  424 , the support structure  420  is placed into a nanoparticle deposition apparatus in accordance with any of the techniques discussed herein, for example, the apparatus  450  illustrated in  FIGS. 5A and 5B . The deposition apparatus  450  includes a nanoparticle source  452 , in which the material to be assembled is suspended in a solution. A platinum electrode wire, intertwined with a silica capillary, is inserted into the solution vial  452  after being placed in a sealed chamber of the apparatus. The chamber pressure is increased and a potential of 0-5 kV is applied to the platinum electrode. The pressure difference forces the solution up through the capillary and out to the tip. The applied potential is adjusted until a cone jet mode is achieved that releases a stream of droplets. A sheath gas mixture of compressed air and CO 2  carry the electrosprayed material from the capillary tip through chamber  453  to the deposition chamber  460 . Chamber  453  includes a charge neutralizer  455  which reduces the charge on the droplets as they evaporate. An aerosol of nanoparticles, containing only a few charges per particle, forms and enters the deposition chamber  460 . In this configuration, a top electrode  470  and a bottom electrode  472  within the deposition chamber  460  provide an electric field which is perpendicular to the direction of flow of the nanoparticles across the surface of the support  420 . In one configuration, an optional window  476  is provided into the chamber  460  for use in monitoring the deposition process. For example, a laser can be directed into the chamber and the scattering due to nanoparticles monitored. Further, the deposition of nanoparticles can be directly observed through the window. Another monitoring technique is the use of the support  420  as a faraday cup  478  during the deposition process. This faraday cup  478  can be used to monitor the amount of nanoparticles which have been deposited. An electrometer  480  is illustrated for use in measuring the amount of assembled, charged particles during the assembly process.  FIG. 5B  is another example embodiment in which the nanoparticles are introduced in a gaseous form generated by nanoparticle source  490  in which a gas such as N 2  is introduced through a tube furnace  492  which is used to generate nanoparticles. The nanoparticles, carried in the N 2 , are blown across the surface of the substrate  420  in the nanoparticle assembly module  460 . During operation, a constant flow of nanoparticles is generated by evaporation of matter in the tube furnace, transport of the atoms to the outlet by an inert gas (such as nitrogen or argon), and condensation. The directed assembly of the nanoparticles occurs in the particle assembly module. An external potential, V DC , is applied to the top electrode and directs incoming nanoparticles to the charged sample surface. The electrometer measures the amount of assembled charged particles during the assembly process. 
     FIG. 6  is a simplified diagram showing the adaptable generic nanoparticle printer assembly module  460  in greater detail. 
   Assembly of nanoparticles from the gas phase can be used. A particle assembly module was used which consists of a cavity that holds the sample, two electrodes to generate a global electric field that directs incoming charged particles towards the sample surface, and an electrometer to count the charge of the assembled particles. This module is attached to a tube furnace that generates the nanoparticles by evaporation and condensation. 
   The particle assembly module can be constructed mainly out of PDMS. PDMS is transparent and can be molded around readily available objects in successive steps to form 3-dimensional structures. In the first step, the cavity is formed by molding PDMS around a 20 nm in diameter and 8 mm tall disk that was removed after curing the PDMS at 60° C. In the second step, a sample exchange unit is formed by attaching a rigid polyethylene tube to the cavity using PDMS. The tube holds the retractable cylinder that carries the sample. To form a particle inlet and outlet a stainless steel tube 5 mm in diameter was inserted into each side of the PDMS shell. 
   To direct the assembly of incoming charged particles two electrodes are integrated in the transparent assembly module. A 2 cm long and 1 cm wide electrode located at the top of the cavity and a 1.5 cm by 1 cm wide electrode underneath the sample. During operation, the electrodes are spaced by approximately 7 mm and an external voltage is applied of up to ±1000V to bring charged particles of one polarity into the proximity of the charged sample surface. 
   To monitor the amount of particles that assembled onto the sample under different assembly conditions a faraday cup in the assembly module can be used. In a faraday cup arrangement, the sample forms the cup electrode and is connected to ground with the electrometer (Keithley 6517A) in between. During assembly, image charges flow from the ground through the electrometer into the sample to the location of assembled, charged particles. As a result, the electrometer measures the charge of the assembled particles. 
   The particles were generated in a tube furnace. The material to be evaporated was placed inside the quartz tube at the center of the furnace. Pure nitrogen was the carrier gas that flowed through the system during operation. The evaporation was carried out at 1100° C. for gold and silver, and 850° C. for NaCl, KCL, and MgCl. A vapor containing atoms of the evaporated material forms within the furnace. The nitrogen carrier gas transports the atoms out of the furnace where they nucleate and condense into particles due to the change in temperature. The gas flow carries the nanoparticles into the particle assembly module through a 1-meter long Tygon tube. 
   A first order estimate of the trapped charge density can be calculated from the recorded surface potential distribution. Trapped charge inside or on the surface of the PMMA film will attract mobile charge carriers inside the silicon substrate, resulting in the formation of a double layer. For a double layer separated by a distinct distance d, the charge density σ can be calculated with σ=∈ΔV/d, where ∈ is the permittivity, and ΔV is the voltage drop across the layer. For ∈=8*10 −12  C/(Vm) (permittivity of PMMA), ΔV=1V (measured potential change), and d=50 nm (assumed intermediate distance between the counter charges), a first-order estimate of the effective charge density of σ eff =100 elementary charges per surface area of 100 nm by 100 nm is obtained. Based on these assumptions a fully charged 0.5 cm 2 -sized chip will contain 40 nC. The exact number of this upper limit depends on the actual distribution of the charges inside the PMMA film and the silicon substrate, and on the portion of the chip surface that is patterned. 
   These charge patterns attract nanoparticles. The resolution achieved over large areas is 190 nm. The highest resolution achieved is 60 nm. Along with silver, ordering of gold, indium, gallium, magnesium, iron oxide, graphitized carbon, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, magnesium chloride, silica beads, polystyrene beads, colloidal particles, silicon particles, and proteins was observed. 
   The global electric field and the electrometer reading are two important parameters to control the assembly process, the particle polarity that assembles on the surface, the speed of the assembly, and the coverage. Nanoparticles assembled well on positively charged areas by applying a negative potential to the top electrode, whereas for negatively charged areas, a positive potential was required. The polarity of the external potential also defined which majority, positively or negatively charged particles, assembled onto the sample. At a positive potential of 1 kV and a flow rate of 1 ccm/s the charge on the sample, recorded by the electrometer, increased by +4 nC in one minute, whereas at a negative bias of −1 kV the charge increased by −4 nC. No increase in charge was observed without flow. This result can be explained by the coexistence of positively and negatively charged particles that are transported through the system. This result is interesting because it is not obvious how the particles become charged in the evaporative system. One possible explanation is that the nanoparticles as well as the carrier gas are charged by thermal ionization and natural radiation ionization. Both mechanisms are known in aerosol systems. The global electric field also effected how fast the assembly took place. At 1 kV the assembly time to get good coverage was 1 minute whereas at 100V it took 10 minutes to obtain the same coverage. A clear proportionality between the electrometer reading and the coverage was also observed. Excellent coverage and high selectivity were obtained when 4 nC of charged particles accumulated on the sample, whereas at 10 nC the sample would be fully coated. 
   These nanoprinting techniques depend on a high resolution charge patterning technique. To enable such nanoprinting, a parallel charge patterning strategy that extends previous serial techniques for patterning charge into a parallel method and provides a parallel method for patterning charge in electrets. The charge patterning is based on a flexible electrode structure that forms multiple electric contacts of different size and shape to an electret surface. The resolution is currently limited by the smallest possible feature size that can be fabricated on the electrode structure. For the PDMS based electrode structure, this limit is approximately 100 nm. Smaller features tend to collapse. Higher resolution may be accomplished with the thin silicon based electrode prototype. Silicon is capable of supporting 10 nm sized features. Changing the exposure time and current has little effect on the amount of charge transferred. In several experiments, the surface potential remained the same whether the sample was exposed to a current of 100 μA for 2 seconds or to a current of 10 mA for 30 seconds. This result suggests that the maximum charge level might be achieved with even smaller exposure times and currents. 
   With the present invention, nanoprinting 10-200 nm sized nanoparticles can be achieved from the gas phase. The resolution is typically between 100-200 nm, which is 500-1000 times the resolution of traditional xerographic printers, but sub-100 nm resolution has been accomplished. A particle assembly module that selects and directs charged particles towards the sample surface is used. This assembly module could be attached to other gas phase particle systems. The module allows the study of particle assembly as a function of the global external field and flow rate. The ability of monitoring how many charged particles have assembled on the chip surface during the experiment has been very useful in optimizing this procedure. The assembly process probably depends on the actual charge on the particle, the electric polarizability of the particle, the thermal energy of the particle, the electric field strength at the substrate surface, the Van de Waals interaction between the particles and substrate surface, the surrounding medium, and the pressure. 
   Returning to the description of  FIG. 1 , various other techniques for charging the flexible substrate are provided in accordance with the present invention. In another example technique, stamp  100  is formed of two different materials, one insulating and one conducting. Such a configuration is illustrated in  FIG. 7  in which a stamp  500  is formed of a silicon substrate  502  and a patterned layer  504 . In the illustrated embodiment, the patterned layer  504  comprises PMMA.  FIG. 7  also illustrates a positive charge carried on substrate  502  and a corresponding negative charge carried on the patterned layer  504 . The materials are charged by irradiating them with electrons, ions, X-rays, ultraviolet light, or from some other source. Such a source is illustrated at  520 . Prior to irradiation, the conducting and non-conducting materials are patterned using, for example, lithography. The charging from the irradiation will reflect the pattern formed in the material. For example, non-conducting materials which are patterned on a conducting support will become highly charged by direct irradiation with ions or electrons. In another example, the pattern in the stamp is formed using pattern materials having differing electrical properties and differing work functions. The patterned material exposes a charge pattern to compensate for the work function differences between the materials. This charge pattern creates a fringing electrostatic field. In another example, an electrostatic force due to a high resolution externally biased electrode and electrode arrays can be used. The patterning can be formed by either raised areas or by recessed areas. 
   Although a silicon overlayer is shown, any appropriate overlayer can be used in accordance with the present invention. In one embodiment, the overlayer comprises a semiconductor. With a silicon overlayer, features as small as 10 nm can be etched into the overlayer for use in the stamping process. Thinness of the overlayer allows the overlayer to flex and thereby provide improved stamping properties. Other semiconductor materials include GaN GaaS or Germanium. In one embodiment, the thin Si layer is a wafer having a thickness of 10 micrometers. Other thicknesses can be used. The Si layer can also be grown on the surface of the stamp. 
   One aspect of the invention relates to the transfer of charge between conformal material interfaces through contact electrification. The contact charging occurs between plasma activated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and dielectric materials (PMMA, SiO2, etc.) yielding well defined charge patterns on surfaces with a minimal feature size of 100 nm and an average charge density ranging between 1 to 10 nC/cm 2 . The process is explained in terms of acid-base reactions leading to proton exchange at the interface and a subsequent increase of the electrostatic force of adhesion reaching 0.1N/cm 2 . The process can be used in connection with nanotransfer, microcontact, and nanoxerographic printing that use localized forces to print or transfer nano and micrometer sized objects. The charge patterned substrates have been applied to direct the assembly of nanoparticles from the gas-phase as well as to selectively transfer regions of nanoparticles and mm sized objects from one substrate to another. 
   Electrets are materials than can retain trapped electrical charge or polarization. Trapped charges are used in a variety of applications ranging from photocopiers, charged based datastorge, flash memory, to electrostatic filters. The creation and investigation of high-resolution charge patterns on surface has become possible using serial scanning probes and parallel electric nanocontact lithography. Both use an intimate electrical contact to inject charge into dielectric thin films and require a conducting substrate and the application of an external voltage (see, Barry, C. R.; Lwin, N. Z.; Zheng, W.; Jacobs, H. O., Printing nanoparticle building blocks from the gas-phase using nanoxerography.  Appl. Phys. Lett.  2003, 83, 5527 and Barry, C. R.; Gu, J.; Jacobs, H. O., Charging Process and Coulomb-Force-Directed Printing of Nanoparticles with Sub-100-nm Lateral Resolution.  Nano Letters  2005, 5, (10), 2078-2084. Resulting charge patterns have led to the development of charge directed printing referred to as Nanoxerography. Contrasting these developments contact electrification has not yet been explored to create high-resolution patterns of charge. Likewise, there remains a limited understanding on the fundamental charge transfer mechanism between insulating surfaces (see, Jacobs, H. O.; Whitesides, G. M., Submicrometer patterning of charge in thin-film electrets.  Science  2001, 291, (5509), 1763-1766) and its role it plays in the adhesion during interfacial fracture (see, Barry, C. R.; Gu, J.; Jacobs, H. O., Charging Process and Coulomb-Force-Directed Printing of Nanoparticles with Sub-100-nm Lateral Resolution.  Nano Letters  2005, 5, (10), 2078-2084). The prediction of the polarity cannot be done on the basis of electron negativity alone and requires the consideration of the chemical nature of all functional groups which becomes increasingly complicated for polymeric electrets [Duke and Fabish, 1976]. Horn et al. was the first to correlate the electrostatic force of adhesion with contact charge measurements between crossed cylinders whereby the electrostatic force of adhesion exceeded 6 to 9 joules per m2 which is comparable to the fracture energies of ionic-covalent materials. In the context of soft-lithography and nanotransfer printing, conformal contacts have become mainstream and are no longer limited in size. This aspect of the invention relates to the mechanism of charging and electrostatic force of adhesion between extended elastomer—solid contacts. High levels of contact electrification was observed for oxygen plasma functionalized PDMS that is brought in contact with many materials including PMMA, SiO2 exceeded the breakdown strength of air in most cases, referred to herein as conformal nano-contact electrification (nCE) The resulting electrostatic force of adhesion exceeded 500N/m 2  and can be detected over mm—distances using a balance. The contact electrification is explained by interfacial acid-base proton exchange which is mediated by the presence of surface water. No measurable degradation of the PDMS charging ability was recorded after 100 subsequent charging steps suggesting that the amorphous silica layer of plasma activated PDMS provides an abundance of chemical groups to participate in the proton exchange reaction. 
   The yielding charge patterns remained stable for hours and no lateral diffusion was recorded by Kelvin probe force microscopy (KFM)(see, Langowski, B. A.; Uhrich, K. E., Oxygen Plasma-Treatment Effects on Si Transfer.  Langmuir  2005, 21, (14), 6366-6372 and Terris, B. D.; Stern, J. E.; Rugar, D.; Mamin, H. J., Contact electrification using force microscopy.  Physical Review Letters  1989, 63, (24), 2669-2672). We have used nCE to direct the assembly of nanoparticles and to transfer (pick and place) nanoparticles and mm sized objects from one substrate to another. 
     FIGS. 8A and 8B  illustrate the basic procedure. The PDMS was patterned in base relief through molding (see, Barry, C. R.; Steward, M. G.; Lwin, N. Z.; Jacobs, H. O., Printing nanoparticles from the liquid and gas phases using nanoxerography.  Nanotechnology  2003, 14, (10), 1057-1063 and Barry, C. R.; Lwin, N. Z.; Zheng, W.; Jacobs, H. O., Printing nanoparticle building blocks from the gas-phase using nanoxerography.  Appl. Phys. Lett.  2003, 83, 5527) or left flat to contact the entire surface. We used a pure oxygen plasma etcher (SFI Plasma Prep II) operating at 80-100 watts at 100 mTorr to activate the PDMS surface for 40 seconds. This process creates an energetic, hydrophilic surface that reduced material transfer during contact when compared to untreated PDMS [Youn, 2003; Kim, 2004; Bhattacharya, 2005; Uhrich, 2005]. Non-plasma treated substrates left residues on the contacted surface and did not function as well in our charging experiments. To initiate charging electret coated chips were placed onto the PDMS stamp and left in contact for 1 minute before removal. The chips were typically 1 cm by 1 cm to be characterized by Kelvin probe force microscopy using a multimode RPM (Veeco Metrology). As electrets we tested polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polymethacrylate (PMA), polymethylmethacrylate-co-polymethacrylate (PMMA-co-PMA), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Shipley 1805 photoresist (PR), and SiO2. All polymers were spin-coated and baked according to standard procedures to produce thicknesses on the order of 100-200 nm except for the Shipley 1805 photoresist, which produced a 450 nm thick layer. The SiO2 substrates were fabricated with 1 um thick oxide and dry thermal oxidation (160 nm thick oxide) on top of the silicon wafer. The electrometers ( FIG. 8B ) are not required to obtain charging but provide a direct measure of the amount of charge that is transferred at the interface. In the electrometer arrangement, charged surfaces are placed onto metallic plates which act as faraday cups that accumulate image charges equal but opposite in sign that flow from the ground through the electrometer into the metallic plates. A sufficient separation of more than 15 cm for 1 cm sized chips ensures a correct reading without interference of the oppositely charged surface underneath. To measure the electrostatic force of attraction a microbalance was used and a micromanipulator to adjust the spacing between the charged electrets. The metal plates were removed to prevent the influence of image charges on this measurement. 
   Patterns of localized charge were recorded by Kelvin probe force microscopy (KFM) for a number of different electrets including PMMA, PMMA-co-PMA, dry thermal SiO 2 , PVC, and PR on top of a semiconducting and insulating substrate. Trapped surface charge will form a double layer if a semiconducting substrate is underneath with strong attractive forces in between. The measured KFM potential is directly related to the charge density. Contact charging can occur due to a number of reasons including material transfer. No measurable material transfer between plasma treated PDMS and untreated PMMA or PR was observed using XPS which is consistent with prior work by Uhrich et al. and concluded that material transfer in not the dominant mechanism of charging. Topographical images taken by atomic force microscopy also showed no change in the surface topography after contact. 
   One hypothesis of the mechanism of contact charging is illustrated in  FIGS. 9A and 9B  for PMMA and SiO2 and involves hydrogen proton exchange similar to acid-base reactions in solution. Plasma treatment attacks the Si—CH 3  bonds on the surface of the PDMS leaving very reactive silyl radicals that capture O, OH, COOH (see, Youn, B.-H.; Huh, C.-S., Surface analysis of plasma-treated polydimethylsiloxane by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and surface voltage decay.  Surface and Interface Analysis  2003, 35, (5), 445-449 and Bhattacharya, S.; Datta, A.; Berg, J. M.; Gangopadhyay, S., Studies on surface wettability of poly(dimethyl) siloxane (PDMS) and glass under oxygen-plasma treatment and correlation with bond strength.  Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems  2005, 14, (3), 590-597) and oxygen radicals, forming a mildly acidic and highly polar (see, Youn, B.-H.; Huh, C.-S., Surface analysis of plasma-treated polydimethylsiloxane by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and surface voltage decay.  Surface and Interface Analysis  2003, 35, (5), 445-449) surface. Many polymers, such as PMMA, contain polar end groups that can be ironically charged. PMMA&#39;s ester end group is slightly positive, giving it a lower electronegativity than PDMS. PMMA can be considered as being “less acidic” than plasma treated PDMS and contains fewer surface hydrogen atoms. Therefore, as the two materials are brought into contact, the end groups on PMMA are polarized toward the surface to counteract the ionically negative hydroxyl and carboxylic acid groups. This creates a chemical potential difference that allows hydrogen protons to transfer during contact. After separation, the hydrogen atoms remain trapped on the PMMA surface leaving those areas positively charged. Silicon oxide has been included in the picture since it should give the opposite sign. Silicon oxide has an abundance of hydroxyl groups leading to an increased electronegativity than PDMS. We expect a reaction to take place with the oxygen ions on the PDMS, leaving a negative charge on the SiO 2  surface at the contact points. An increased electrostatic force of adhesion is to be expected in both cases. The prediction of the polarity by looking at the concentration of acid end groups and hydrogen proton concentration worked well in all cases that we looked at. Polyacrylic acid as an example with a standard ph of 3.5 was chosen by this ideology and predictably resulted in an increase in negative charge on the surface. The concept of acid-base reactions reveals striking analogies to pH driven charging in solution chemistry and similar approaches can be used to adjust the amount and polarity. For example it was possible to reverse the polarity of polyacrylic acid by loading the surface with a substance to change the “pH”. 
   The proposed proton exchange reactions could be influenced by the presence of surface water that mediates the diffusion of ions across the interface. Changing the relative humidity from 6% to 30% increase the charge differential in all cases as evidenced by electrometer reading ( FIG. 10 ). The changes were not as dramatic outside the 6-30% window. This dependence again points towards charging that is driven by ion exchange rather than material or electron transfer. 
   The histogram also shows values for the estimate electric field strength E and electrostatic force of adhesion F between separated charges. We used E=σ/∈ and F=Aσ 2 /∈ achviliy book] with contact area A, surface charge density σ, and permittivity ∈ of air to derive a first order estimates after separation. The calculated electric field strength ranged between 0.5-3 times the dielectric breakdown strength of air published for macroscopic electrodes. This is very large and leads us to believe that the charging might be self-limited by dielectric discharge during the process of separation which has been evidenced by surface force apparatus measurements. The electrostatic force of adhesion is similarly strong estimated to exceed 500 N/m 2  or 50 kg/m 2 . This could likely be a conservative estimate if discharge did indeed occur during the separation process. 
   The strength and long range nature of the forces can be measured by attaching a piece of glass that is coated with PMMA to a microbalance. No long range forces between the plasma activate stamp are recorded prior contact. Upon separation the microbalance reads −0.7 g for a cm 2  sized contact which represents 70 kg/m 2 . The force is long range and decreases slowly as the separation increases. The force distance curve shown in  FIG. 11  was recorded by analyzing video footage of this experiment. These forces are strong and exceeded the weight (0.4 g) of the 4 mm thick PDMS stamp used in this experiment. The stamp can be picked up without bringing it into conformal contact. 
   The stability of the charge patterns was limited and depends strongly on the environmental conditions. Ions in the air attach to the charged surface leading to a gradual discharge. We recorded a drop of the surface potential difference using KFM for charge patterned PMMA that was left uncovered which improved to when being stored in a Petri dish. We did not observe a measurable lateral diffusion over this period of time. 
   The plasma activated PDMS can be used multiple times without reactivation. No degradation was recorded after 100 charging experiments which can be explained if we consider the required charge densities to exceed the dielectric breakdown strength of air. The required charge density of 10 nC/cm 2  reflects about 1 elementary charge on a 40 nm by 40 nm size lattice. 40 nm is a large spacing considering molecular scales. For example the area per silynol group is estimated to be 0.7 nm×7 nm leading to an abundance of surface groups on the PDMS that can take part in the reaction. The plasma activated PDMS, however, did age over time losing most of its charging ability after a number of days. This observation agrees with an unrelated study that reported the diffusion of oligomers from the bulk to the surface of PDMS, (see, Hillborg, H.; Gedde, U. W., Hydrophobicity changes in silicone rubbers.  IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation  1999, 6, (5), 703-717) returning it to its pre-treated state. This process typically takes 5-7 days when the PDMS is stored in air and up to 90 days when stored in water (see, Kim, H.-M.; Cho, Y.-H.; Lee, H.; Kim, S. I.; Ryu, S. R.; Kim, D. Y.; Kang, T. W.; Chung, K. S., High-Brightness Light Emitting Diodes Using Dislocation-Free Indium Gallium Nitride/Gallium Nitride Multiquantum-Well Nanorod Arrays.  Nano Letters  2004, 4, (6), 1059-1062). 
   Although this process is not suited for long-term data storage, it provides a simple way of patterning various surfaces with charge for electrostatic assembly purposes; one of these being Nanoxerography. We placed several contact charged PMMA and SiO 2  coated chips into a nanoparticle assembly module that we developed for use in Nanoxerography. The Nanoxerographic process used to direct the assembly of nanoparticles onto the charge patterned chips is described in detail elsewhere (see, Barry, C. R.; Steward, M. G.; Lwin, N. Z.; Jacobs, H. O., Printing nanoparticles from the liquid and gas phases using nanoxerography.  Nanotechnology  2003, 14, (10), 1057-1063 and Barry, C. R.; Lwin, N. Z.; Zheng, W.; Jacobs, H. O., Printing nanoparticle building blocks from the gas-phase using nanoxerography.  Appl. Phys. Lett.  2003, 83, 5527).  FIG. 11  shows two KFM images of a PMMA coated silicon chip contacted with a plasma treated microcontact printing stamp along with the corresponding SEM images of silver nanoparticles assembled onto these contact charged areas. The images show patterning and assembly of areas 200 nm to several microns in size at the same time. The local electrostatic assembly and selectivity of these samples comparable to those made by other charging methods. 
   This aspect relates to a new application of contact electrification between two dissimilar materials that will have an impact on several innovative micro and nanotechnological research areas including nanoxerography, nanotransfer printing, and micro contact printing. The contact charging was performed between patterned PDMS stamps and dielectric materials such as PMMA and SiO2 but could theoretically be applied to any insulating material. 
   Although the present invention has been described with reference to preferred embodiments, workers skilled in the art will recognize that changes may be made in form and detail without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.