Patent Publication Number: US-11039179-B2

Title: Use of simultaneously received videos by a system to generate a quality of experience value

Description:
BACKGROUND 
     Arrangements described herein relate to streaming of video content over Internet Protocol (IP) based communication networks. 
     Internet Protocol television (IPTV) is a system through which television services are delivered using the Internet protocol suite over a packet-switched network, such as the Internet, instead of being delivered through traditional terrestrial, satellite signal, and cable television formats. IPTV is distinguished from Internet television by its on-going standardization process (e.g., European Telecommunications Standards Institute) and preferential deployment scenarios in subscriber-based telecommunications networks with high-speed access channels into end-user premises via set-top boxes or other customer-premises equipment. Nonetheless, both IPTV and Internet television may be transmitted over the Internet using IP based communications. 
     SUMMARY 
     A method includes simultaneously transmitting a primary video and a second instance of a reference video to a system through at least a first node of a communication network, the second instance of the reference video configured to be compared to a first instance of the reference video stored by the system to generate at least one quality of experience value that infers a perceptual quality of the primary video as received by the system. The method also can include receiving from the system the at least one quality of experience value that infers the perceptual quality of the primary video as received by the system. The method also can include determining whether the at least one quality of experience value is less than a threshold value. The method also can include, responsive to determining that the at least one quality of experience value is less than the threshold value, improving the perceptual quality of the primary video by allocating greater bandwidth for transmission of the primary video. 
     A system includes a processor programmed to initiate executable operations. The executable operations include simultaneously transmitting a primary video and a second instance of a reference video to a system through at least a first node of a communication network, the second instance of the reference video configured to be compared to a first instance of the reference video stored by the system to generate at least one quality of experience value that infers a perceptual quality of the primary video as received by the system. The executable operations also can include receiving from the system the at least one quality of experience value that infers the perceptual quality of the primary video as received by the system. The executable operations also can include determining whether the at least one quality of experience value is less than a threshold value. The executable operations also can include, responsive to determining that the at least one quality of experience value is less than the threshold value, improving the perceptual quality of the primary video by allocating greater bandwidth for transmission of the primary video. 
     A computer program includes a computer readable storage medium having program code stored thereon. The program code is executable by a processor to perform a method. The method includes simultaneously transmitting, by the processor, a primary video and a second instance of a reference video to a system through at least a first node of a communication network, the second instance of the reference video configured to be compared to a first instance of the reference video stored by the system to generate at least one quality of experience value that infers a perceptual quality of the primary video as received by the system. The method also can include receiving, by the processor, from the system the at least one quality of experience value that infers the perceptual quality of the primary video as received by the system. The method also can include determining, by the processor, whether the at least one quality of experience value is less than a threshold value. The method also can include, responsive to determining that the at least one quality of experience value is less than the threshold value, improving, by the processor, the perceptual quality of the primary video by allocating greater bandwidth for transmission of the primary video. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a communication system in which a QoE value is generated. 
         FIG. 2  depicts frames of a first instance of reference video and frames of a second instance of reference video. 
         FIG. 3  is a block diagram illustrating example architecture of a video display system. 
         FIG. 4  is a block diagram illustrating example architecture of a video server. 
         FIG. 5  is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method for generating a QoE value. 
         FIG. 6  is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method for processing a QoE value. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     While the disclosure concludes with claims defining novel features, it is believed that the various features described herein will be better understood from a consideration of the description in conjunction with the drawings. The process(es), machine(s), manufacture(s) and any variations thereof described within this disclosure are provided for purposes of illustration. Any specific structural and functional details described are not to be interpreted as limiting, but merely as a basis for the claims and as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the features described in virtually any appropriately detailed structure. Further, the terms and phrases used within this disclosure are not intended to be limiting, but rather to provide an understandable description of the features described. 
     Arrangements described herein relate to streaming of video content over internet protocol (IP) based communication networks. Existing digital video broadcasting systems, such as cable and satellite systems, have a dedicated infrastructure which strives to provide error-free delivery of video content. In the case of internet protocol television (IPTV), however, digital broadcasting shares its network infrastructure with other IP based services, such as voice over IP (VoIP) and IP data services. Variations in the ability of bandwidth and queue lengths adversely affect the ability to deliver IPTV services with minimal delay and without information loss. 
     In accordance with the inventive arrangements disclosed herein, a reference video is streamed to a video display system in parallel with of a primary video being streamed to the video display system. The primary video contains media content being presented to one or more users via the video display system. The reference video, however, need not be displayed. Instead, the reference video is processed to determine whether any quality of experience (QoE) issues exist with the primary video. Specifically, the reference video can be one instance (e.g., a second instance) of a video to which another instance (e.g., a first instance) of the same video, which may be stored locally on the video display system, is compared. By comparing the first instance of the reference video to the second instance, frames and/or pixels corrupted in the second instance of the video, or lost, during transmission can be identified. Based on this comparison, a QoE value can be generated that indicates a quality of the second instance of the reference video. For example, if no frames or pixels are corrupted or lost, the QoE value can be a high value. If all frames are lost, the QoE can be a low value. If some frames or pixels are lost or corrupted, the QoE value can be some value between the low value and the high value. 
     Since the second instance of the reference video is communicated in parallel with the primary video, it is reasonable to assume that any transmission errors occurring in the transmission of the second instance of the video also may occur in the transmission of the primary video. Accordingly, the QoE value can infer a perceptual quality of the primary video as received by the video display system. The video display system can communicate the QoE value to a video server providing the primary video and/or to a QoE management entity that manages transmission of the primary video. If the QoE value is less than a threshold value, the video server and/or QoE management entity can automatically implement, in real time, a corrective action to improve the perceptual quality of the primary video. For example, greater bandwidth can be allocated for transmission of video to the video display system, the video can be routed through different nodes of a communication network, error protection schemes can be implemented or changed, etc. 
     Several definitions that apply throughout this document now will be presented. 
     As defined herein, the term “quality of experience,” also represented by the acronym “QoE,” means is a quality of a video with regard to how the content of the video is, or would be, subjectively perceived by a user viewing the video content. A video need not actually be presented to a user to determine a QoE value for the video, however. Instead, various metrics can be generated based on, for example, lost and/or corrupted frames and/or pixels occurring during transmission of the video. Other metrics also can be generated to determine a QoE value and the present arrangements are not limited in this regard. 
     As defined herein, the term “primary video” means a video comprising video content transmitted to a video display system for presentation to one or more users by the video display system. 
     As defined herein, the term “reference video” means a video comprising video content for use in generating a quality of experience value that infers a perceptual quality of a primary video. 
     As defined herein, the term “simultaneously transmit” means to transmit at least one video while another video is being transmitted. For example, data packets for one video can be interspersed between data packets for another video. In another example, data packets may include data from each of the videos. 
     As defined herein, the term “simultaneously receive” means to receive at least one video while another video is being received. For example, data packets for one video can be interspersed between data packets for another video. In another example, data packets may include data from each of the videos. 
     As defined herein, the term “user” means a person (i.e., human being), for example a person using a device and/or system described herein. 
     As defined herein, the term “real time” means a level of processing responsiveness that a user or system senses as sufficiently immediate for a particular process or determination to be made, or that enables the processor to keep up with some external process. 
     As defined herein, the term “metric” means a value generated based on a measurement and/or comparison that is made. 
     As defined herein, the term “computer readable storage medium” means a storage medium that contains or stores program code for use by or in connection with an instruction execution system, apparatus, or device. As defined herein, a “computer readable storage medium” is not a transitory propagating signal per se. 
     As defined herein, the term “processor” means at least one integrated circuit configured to carry out instructions of program code. Examples of a processor include, but are not limited to, a central processing unit (CPU), an array processor, a vector processor, a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) and a controller. 
       FIG. 1  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a communication system (hereinafter “system”)  100  in which a QoE value is generated. The system  100  can include a video display system  130  configured to receive videos from at least one video server  120  via one or more communication networks  110 , and present the videos to one or more users. The communication network(s)  110  provide the medium used to provide communications links between various nodes of the system  100 , such as the video display system  130  and the video server  120 . The communication network(s)  110  may include connections, such as wire, wireless communication links, and/or fiber optic cables. The communication network(s)  110  can be implemented as, or include, any of a variety of different communication technologies such as a wide area network (WAN), a local area network (LAN), a wireless network, a mobile network, a Virtual Private Network (VPN), the Internet, the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), and/or the like. In this regard, the communication network(s)  110  can include one or more trunk lines, routers, switches, transceivers and/or the like. The communication network(s)  110  can support Internet Protocol (IP) communications through which various IP based services may be provided. These services may include, but are not limited to, Internet television, Internet Protocol television (IPTV) and Web television (Web TV). 
     The video server  120  can include at least processing system, which includes at least one processor and memory, configured to transmit primary videos  140  and reference videos  150  to video display systems, such as the video display system  130 , via the communication network(s)  110 . In one arrangement, the video server  120  can comprise a plurality of processing systems communicatively linked via a communication network, such as the communication network(s)  130 . The video server  120  can include a video streaming application  122  configured to stream videos  140 ,  150  to client devices, such as the video display system  130 . The video streaming application  122  can include a corrective action module  124  configured to process QoE values received from the client devices. When a QoE value infers that perceptual quality of a primary video  140  as received by a client device is less than optimal, the corrective action module  124  can implement corrective actions to improve the quality of transmission, as will be further described herein. 
     In one aspect, the video server  120  can provide the videos  140 ,  150  as Internet television transmissions, IPTV transmissions or Web TV transmissions. The primary videos  140  include both video content and audio content. The reference videos  150  include video content and can include audio content, but this need not be the case. 
     The video display system  130  can be a terminal node of the communication network(s)  110 . For example, the video display system  130  can be a set-top box (e.g., an IPTV receiver), a television, a computer (e.g., a desktop computer, a workstation, a notebook computer, a laptop computer, a tablet computer, a netbook, etc.), a smart phone, or any other system, device or apparatus configured to receive videos via a communication network and present the videos to one or more users. In this regard, the video display system  130  can include a display, or can be communicatively linked to a display, via which the video display system  130  presents the videos. The video display system  130  can include a video presentation application  132  that processes primary videos  140  received via the communication network(s)  110 , for example from the video server  120 , and processes the primary videos  140  for presentation on the display. Such processing can include both audio and video processing. Further, the video presentation application  132  can include a QoE module  134  that generates QoE values based on comparing different instances of reference videos  150 , as will be described herein. As noted, the QoE values can infer perceptual qualities of the primary videos  140  as received by the video display system  130 . 
     In illustration, when transmitting a particular primary video  142  to the video display system  130  via the communication network(s)  110 , the video server  120  can, in parallel, also transmit a particular reference video  152  to the video display system  130 . In one arrangement, the video server  120  can multiplex both the primary video  142  and the reference video  152  into a single data stream. In another arrangement, the video server  120  can transmit the primary video  142  in a first data stream and transmit the reference video  152  in a second data stream. The reference video  152  may not be as long as the primary video  142 . Hence, transmission of the reference video  152  may complete while transmission of the primary video  142  continues. In one aspect, transmission of the reference video  152  can repeat, any number of times, while the primary video  142  is still transmitting, as is further described herein. 
     In one arrangement, the video server  120  can select reference video  152  from the reference videos  150  based on a type of the primary video  142 . For example, if the primary video  142  comprises numerous action sequences in the video content, the reference video  152  that is selected also can comprise numerous action sequences in the video content. Similarly, if the primary video  142  is a documentary comprising numerous interviews of people, the reference video  152  that is selected also can comprise at least one interview. Accordingly, the compression rate of the videos  142 ,  152  likely will be similar. In illustration, if the primary video  142  and reference video  152  are compressed into a particular Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) format, such as MPEG-4, action sequences may require more data for each predicted picture (P-frame) and bi-predictive picture (B-frame) than non-action action sequences. Thus, if the primary video  142  includes many action sequences, selecting the reference video  152  to have at least one action sequence can ensure that the reference video  152  represents a relatively good approximation of the amount of data contained in the P-frames and B-frames of the primary video  142 , and thus the amount of bandwidth used for transmission of these frame. Further, the number of lost or corrupted frames and/or lost or corrupted pixels in the reference video  152 , as well as the impact of such, can infer the number of lost or corrupted frames and/or lost or corrupted pixels in the primary video  142  and the resulting impact on video presentation quality. 
     Stored on and/or by the video display system  130  can be another instance of the reference video  152 . Indeed, the video display system  130  can store an instance of each of the reference videos  150  that potentially may be transmitted to the video display system  130  with primary videos  140 . In this regard, each of the instances of the reference videos  150  stored on by the video display system  130  can correspond to a respective type of primary video  140  anticipated to be received by the video display system  130 . 
     For purposes of explanation, hereinafter the instance of the reference video  152  stored by the video display system  130  will be referred to as the “first instance of reference video  152 - 1 ” or, more simply, “first instance  152 - 1 ,” and the instance of the reference video  152  received from the video server  120  will be referred to as the “second instance of reference video  152 - 2 ” or, more simply, “second instance  152 - 2 .” In one arrangement, the video display system  130  can receive the first instance  152 - 1  from the video server  120  prior to the primary video  142  being received. In another arrangement, the reference video  152  can be a standardized video and the first instance  152 - 1  can stored to the video display system  130  a priori. For example, the first instance  152 - 1  can be stored by the video display system  130  when the video presentation application  132  is installed. 
     In operation, the video display system  130  can receive the primary video  142  and the second instance of reference video  152 - 2  from the video server  120  via the communication network(s)  110 . In an arrangement in which the primary video  142  and second instance of reference video  152 - 2  are multiplexed into a single data stream, the video display system can de-multiplex the data stream to extract the primary video and the second instance of reference video  152 - 2 . Further, the video display system  130  also can decompress the primary video  142  and the second instance of reference video  152 - 2 . Such processing can be performed by the video presentation application  132 . The video presentation application  132  also can begin presentation of the primary video  142  on a display. 
     While decompressing the second instance of reference video  152 - 2 , the video presentation application  132  also can decompress the first instance of reference video  152 - 1 , and the QoE module  134  can compare the first instance  152 - 1  to the second instance  152 - 2  on a frame-by-frame, pixel-by-pixel, basis and determine whether each pixel and each frame contained in the first instance  152 - 1  is contained in the second instance  152 - 2 . Suitable markers or identifiers contained in the reference video  152  can be identified and used to synchronize the first instance  152 - 1  and the second instance  152 - 2  when performing the comparison. 
       FIG. 2  depicts frames of the first instance of reference video  152 - 1  and frames of the second instance of reference video  152 - 2 . Referring to  FIGS. 1 and 2 , the QoE module  134  can identify a first identifier or marker contained in the second instance  152 - 2 , and identify the same identifier or marker contained in the first instance  152 - 2 . The QoE module  134  can identify the first frame  210  contained in the first instance  152 - 1  following the identifier or marker, and determine whether that same frame  212  is contained in the second instance  152 - 2 . If not, this can indicate that the frame  212  was lost during transmission of the second instance  152 - 2 . If the frame  212  was not lost, the QoE module  134  further can determine whether the frame  212  is corrupted in the second instance  152 - 2  (e.g., determine whether the frame has sufficient structure to be rendered). If the frame  212  is not lost and not corrupted, the QoE module  134  can determine whether each pixel contained in the frame  210  is contained in the frame  212 . Further, the QoE module  134  can determine whether any of the pixels are corrupted (e.g., not renderable). Optionally, the value assigned to each pixel contained in the frame  210  can be compared to the value assigned to a corresponding pixel contained in the frame  212  to determine whether the pixel values match. If each of the pixels contained in the frame  210  are present in the frame  212 , none of the pixels are corrupted and, optionally, the values assigned to corresponding pixels match, then the frames  210 ,  212  can be considered to correlate, as depicted in the example of  FIG. 2 , and a corresponding metric can be generated for use in generating at least one QoE value  160 . 
     In this example, the first instance of reference video  152 - 1  includes a frame  220 , but a corresponding frame is not included in the second instance  152 - 2 . This can indicate a lost frame in the second instance of the reference video  152 - 1  and a corresponding metric can be generated based on identifying the lost frame. Continuing with the example, a frame  232  contained in the second instance  152 - 2  that corresponds to a frame  230  contained in the first instance  152 - 1  can be found to be corrupted, and a corresponding metric can be generated based on identifying that the frame  232  is corrupted. Further, a frame  242  contained in the second instance  152 - 2  that corresponds to a frame  240  contained in the first instance  152 - 1  can be found not to be corrupted, but to have lost pixels. A corresponding metric can be generated based on identifying that there are lost pixels and how many pixels are lost. Also, a frame  252  contained in the second instance  152 - 2  that corresponds to a frame  250  contained in the first instance  152 - 1  can be found not to be corrupted, and not to have lost pixels, but one or more pixels can be corrupted. Again, a corresponding metric can be generated based on identifying that there are corrupted pixels and how many pixels are corrupted. Some frames may have both lost pixels and corrupted pixels, and a corresponding metric can be generated. The process of verifying each frame and each pixel can continue until each frame contained in first instance of reference video  152 - 1  has been compared to the second instance  152 - 2  as described. 
     In addition to frame-by-frame, pixel-by-pixel comparison of the first instance of reference video  152 - 1  to the second instance  152 - 2 , other frame information also can be compared and corresponding metrics can be generated. For example, frame headers, frame footers and other information in the first instance of reference video  152 - 1  can be compared to corresponding information in the second instance  152 - 2 . 
     Based on the generated metrics, the QoE module  134  can generate test results and process the test results to generate at least one QoE value  160 . As noted, since the second instance of reference video  152 - 2  is communicated in parallel with the primary video  142 , it is reasonable to assume that any transmission errors occurring in the transmission of the second instance  152 - 2  also may occur in the transmission of the primary video  142 . Accordingly, the QoE value  160  can infer a perceptual quality of the primary video  142  as received by the video display system. 
     The video display system  130  can communicate the QoE value  160  to the video server  120 . For example, the video display system  130  can communicate the QoE value  160  to the video server  120  in response to the QoE value  160  being generated, or store the QoE value  160  to a storage medium and provide the QoE value  160  to the video server  120  in response to a polling request received from the video server  120 . In lieu of, or in addition to, communicating the QoE value  160  to the video server  120 , the video display system  130  can communicate the QoE value  160  to a QoE management entity  170 , such as another server or system that participates in transmission of the primary video  142  to the video display system  130 . The QoE management entity  170  can be, for example, infrastructure of the communication network(s)  110 . 
     If the QoE value  160  is less than a threshold value, the video server  120  (e.g., the corrective action module  124 ) and/or the QoE management entity  170  can automatically implement, in real time, at least one corrective action to improve the perceptual quality of the primary video  142 . For example, greater bandwidth can be allocated for transmission of primary video  142  to the video display system  130 , the primary video  142  can be routed through different nodes of the communication network(s)  110 , error protection schemes can be implemented or changed, etc. 
     This process can repeat while the primary video  142  continues to be streamed to the video display system. In one arrangement, when each successive transmission of the second instance of reference video  152 - 2  is communicated to the video display system  130  can be based on the QoE value  160 . For example, if the QoE value  160  is greater than a particular threshold value, the next transmission of the second instance of reference video  152 - 2  may commence ten minutes after the previous transmission has completed. If, however, the QoE value  160  is relatively low, the next transmission of the second instance of reference video  152 - 2  may commence very soon after, or immediately after, the previous transmission has completed. For example, the second instance of reference video  152 - 2  may be looped in a data stream so as to continuously repeat. Accordingly, a determination can be made as to whether any corrective actions taken to improve the perceptual quality of the primary video  142  have been successful. Each time the second instance  152 - 2  is re-transmitted, a new QoE value can be generated and communicated to the video server and/or the QoE management entity  170  as described. 
       FIG. 3  is a block diagram illustrating example architecture of the video display system  130 . The video display system  130  can include at least one processor  305  coupled to memory elements  310  through a system bus  315  or other suitable circuitry. As such, the video display system  130  can store program code within the memory elements  310 . The processor  305  can execute the program code accessed from the memory elements  310  via the system bus  315 . It should be appreciated that the video display system  130  can be implemented in the form of any system including a processor and memory that is capable of performing the functions and/or operations described within this specification with regard to the video display system  130 . 
     The memory elements  310  can include one or more physical memory devices such as, for example, local memory  320  and one or more bulk storage devices  325 . Local memory  320  refers to random access memory (RAM) or other non-persistent memory device(s) generally used during actual execution of the program code. The bulk storage device(s)  325  can be implemented as a hard disk drive (HDD), solid state drive (SSD), or other persistent data storage device. The video display system  130  also can include one or more cache memories (not shown) that provide temporary storage of at least some program code in order to reduce the number of times program code must be retrieved from the bulk storage device  325  during execution. 
     A display  330  can be coupled to the video display system  130 . The display  330  can be coupled to the video display system  130 . For example, the display  330  can be coupled to the video display system  130  via a graphics processing unit (GPU), which may be a component of the processor  305  or a discrete device. Optionally, the video display system  130  further can include one or more output audio transducers and/or output audio interfaces. One or more network adapters  335  also can be coupled to video display system  130  to enable video display system  130  to become coupled to other systems, such as the video server  120 , and/or remote storage devices. Modems, cable modems, transceivers, and Ethernet cards are examples of different types of network adapters  335  that can be used with video display system  130 . The video display system  130  also can include a user interface  340  configured to receive user inputs to access and display videos. The user interface can include one or more input/output (I/O) devices, for example a radio frequency (RF) and/or infrared (IR) receiver or transceiver configured to receive RF and/or IR signals from a remote control or other wireless device, one or more input ports configured to receive signals from a keyboard, a mouse, a touch pad, a touch screen, or the like, etc. 
     As pictured in  FIG. 3 , the memory elements  310  can store the components of the video display system  130  of  FIG. 1 , namely the first instance of reference video  152 - 1  and the video presentation application  132  which, as noted, can include the QoE module  134 . Being implemented in the form of executable program code, the video presentation application  132  and the QoE module  134  can be executed by the video display system  130  and, as such, can be considered part of the video display system  130 . Moreover, the first instance of reference video  152 - 1 , the video presentation application  132  and the QoE module  134  are functional data structures that impart functionality when employed as part of the video display system  130  of  FIG. 3 . 
       FIG. 4  is a block diagram illustrating example architecture of the video server  120 . The video server  120  can include at least one processor  405  coupled to memory elements  410  through a system bus  415  or other suitable circuitry. As such, the video server  120  can store program code within the memory elements  410 . The processor  405  can execute the program code accessed from the memory elements  410  via the system bus  415 . It should be appreciated that the video server  120  can be implemented in the form of any system including a processor and memory that is capable of performing the functions and/or operations described within this specification. 
     The memory elements  410  can include one or more physical memory devices such as, for example, local memory  420  and one or more bulk storage devices  425 . Local memory  420  refers to RAM or other non-persistent memory device(s) generally used during actual execution of the program code. The bulk storage device(s)  425  can be implemented as a HDD, SSD, or other persistent data storage device. The video server  120  also can include one or more cache memories (not shown) that provide temporary storage of at least some program code in order to reduce the number of times program code must be retrieved from the bulk storage device  425  during execution. 
     One or more network adapters  430  can be coupled to video server  120  to enable video server  120  to become coupled to other systems, such as the video display system  130 , and/or remote storage devices through intervening private or public networks. Modems, cable modems, transceivers, and Ethernet cards are examples of different types of network adapters  430  that can be used with video server  120 . 
     As pictured in  FIG. 4 , the memory elements  410  can store the primary videos  140 , the reference videos  150  and the video streaming application  122  which, as noted, can include the corrective action module  124 . Being implemented in the form of executable program code, the video streaming application  122  and corrective action module  124  can be executed by the video server  120  and, as such, can be considered part of the video server  120 . Moreover, the primary videos  140 , reference videos  150 , video streaming application  122  and corrective action module  124  are functional data structures that impart functionality when employed as part of the video server  120  of  FIG. 4 . 
       FIG. 5  is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method  500  for generating a QoE value. At step  505 , a first instance of a reference video can be stored by a video display system comprising at least one processor. At step  510 , a primary video and a second instance of the reference video are simultaneously received. At step  515 , at least one quality of experience value is generated using a processor. The quality of experience value infers a perceptual quality of the primary video as received by a system by comparing the first instance of the reference video to the second instance of the reference video on a pixel-by-pixel, frame-by-frame, basis and determining whether each pixel and each frame contained in the first instance of the reference video are contained in the second instance of the reference video. At step  520 , the quality of experience value can be communicated from the system to a video server and/or a quality of experience management entity. 
       FIG. 6  is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method for processing a QoE value. At step  605 , a primary video and a second instance of a reference video are simultaneously transmitted to a system. The second instance of the reference video is configured to be compared to a first instance of the reference video stored by the system on a pixel-by-pixel, frame-by-frame, basis to determine whether each pixel and each frame contained in the first instance of the reference video are contained in the second instance of the reference video, wherein at least one quality of experience value that infers a perceptual quality of the primary video as received by the system is generated based on the comparison. At step  610 , at least one quality of experience value is received from the system. The quality of experience value infers the perceptual quality of the primary video as received by the system. At step  615 , based on the at least one quality of experience value that infers the perceptual quality of the primary video as received by the system, at least one corrective action can be implemented in real time, using a processor, to improve the perceptual quality of the primary video. 
     For purposes of simplicity and clarity of illustration, elements shown in the figures have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements may be exaggerated relative to other elements for clarity. Further, where considered appropriate, reference numbers are repeated among the figures to indicate corresponding, analogous, or like features. 
     As will be appreciated by one skilled in the art, aspects of the present invention may be embodied as a system, method or computer program product. Accordingly, aspects of the present invention may take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment (including firmware, resident software, micro-code, etc.) or an embodiment combining software and hardware aspects that may all generally be referred to herein as a “circuit,” “module” or “system.” Furthermore, aspects of the present invention may take the form of a computer program product embodied in one or more computer readable medium(s) having computer readable program code embodied thereon. 
     Any combination of one or more computer readable medium(s) may be utilized. The computer readable medium may be a computer readable signal medium or a computer readable storage medium. A computer readable storage medium may be, for example, but not limited to, an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system, apparatus, or device, or any suitable combination of the foregoing. More specific examples (a non-exhaustive list) of the computer readable storage medium would include the following: an electrical connection having one or more wires, a portable computer diskette, a hard disk, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or Flash memory), an optical fiber, a portable compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), an optical storage device, a magnetic storage device, or any suitable combination of the foregoing. In the context of this document, a computer readable storage medium may be any tangible medium that can contain, or store a program for use by or in connection with an instruction execution system, apparatus, or device. 
     A computer readable signal medium may include a propagated data signal with computer readable program code embodied therein, for example, in baseband or as part of a carrier wave. Such a propagated signal may take any of a variety of forms, including, but not limited to, electro-magnetic, optical, or any suitable combination thereof. A computer readable signal medium may be any computer readable medium that is not a computer readable storage medium and that can communicate, propagate, or transport a program for use by or in connection with an instruction execution system, apparatus, or device. 
     Program code embodied on a computer readable medium may be transmitted using any appropriate medium, including but not limited to wireless, wireline, optical fiber cable, RF, etc., or any suitable combination of the foregoing. 
     Computer program code for carrying out operations for aspects of the present invention may be written in any combination of one or more programming languages, including an object oriented programming language such as Java, Smalltalk, C++ or the like and conventional procedural programming languages, such as the “C” programming language or similar programming languages. The program code may execute entirely on the user&#39;s computer, partly on the user&#39;s computer, as a stand-alone software package, partly on the user&#39;s computer and partly on a remote computer or entirely on the remote computer or server. In the latter scenario, the remote computer may be connected to the user&#39;s computer through any type of network, including a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN), or the connection may be made to an external computer (for example, through the Internet using an Internet Service Provider). 
     Aspects of the present invention are described below with reference to flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams of methods, apparatus (systems) and computer program products according to embodiments of the invention. It will be understood that each block of the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, and combinations of blocks in the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, can be implemented by computer program instructions. These computer program instructions may be provided to a processor of a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, or other programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer or other programmable data processing apparatus, create means for implementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. 
     These computer program instructions may also be stored in a computer readable medium that can direct a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other devices to function in a particular manner, such that the instructions stored in the computer readable medium produce an article of manufacture including instructions which implement the function/act specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. 
     The computer program instructions may also be loaded onto a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other devices to cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer, other programmable apparatus or other devices to produce a computer implemented process such that the instructions which execute on the computer or other programmable apparatus provide processes for implementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. 
     The flowchart and block diagrams in the Figures illustrate the architecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementations of systems, methods and computer program products according to various embodiments of the present invention. In this regard, each block in the flowchart or block diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portion of code, which comprises one or more executable instructions for implementing the specified logical function(s). It should also be noted that, in some alternative implementations, the functions noted in the block may occur out of the order noted in the figures. For example, two blocks shown in succession may, in fact, be executed substantially concurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality involved. It will also be noted that each block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, can be implemented by special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specified functions or acts, or combinations of special purpose hardware and computer instructions. 
     The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms “includes,” “including,” “comprises,” and/or “comprising,” when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. 
     Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment,” “an embodiment,” or similar language means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment disclosed within this specification. Thus, appearances of the phrases “in one embodiment,” “in an embodiment,” and similar language throughout this specification may, but do not necessarily, all refer to the same embodiment. 
     The term “plurality,” as used herein, is defined as two or more than two. The term “another,” as used herein, is defined as at least a second or more. The term “coupled,” as used herein, is defined as connected, whether directly without any intervening elements or indirectly with one or more intervening elements, unless otherwise indicated. Two elements also can be coupled mechanically, electrically, or communicatively linked through a communication channel, pathway, network, or system. The term “and/or” as used herein refers to and encompasses any and all possible combinations of one or more of the associated listed items. It will also be understood that, although the terms first, second, etc. may be used herein to describe various elements, these elements should not be limited by these terms, as these terms are only used to distinguish one element from another unless stated otherwise or the context indicates otherwise. 
     The term “if” may be construed to mean “when” or “upon” or “in response to determining” or “in response to detecting,” depending on the context. Similarly, the phrase “if it is determined” or “if [a stated condition or event] is detected” may be construed to mean “upon determining” or “in response to determining” or “upon detecting [the stated condition or event]” or “in response to detecting [the stated condition or event],” depending on the context. 
     The descriptions of the various embodiments of the present invention have been presented for purposes of illustration, but are not intended to be exhaustive or limited to the embodiments disclosed. Many modifications and variations will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the described embodiments. The terminology used herein was chosen to best explain the principles of the embodiments, the practical application or technical improvement over technologies found in the marketplace, or to enable others of ordinary skill in the art to understand the embodiments disclosed herein.