Patent Publication Number: US-9841403-B2

Title: Differentiating analytes detected using fast scan cyclic voltammetry

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/510,366, filed Jul. 21, 2011. The disclosure of the prior application is considered part of (and is incorporated by reference in) the disclosure of this application. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     1. Technical Field 
     This document relates to methods and materials involved in differentiating analytes detected using a fast scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) method. For example, this document relates to methods and materials for using paired pulse voltammetry (PPV) to discriminate analytes on the basis of their adsorption characteristics to an electrode (e.g., a carbon fiber electrode). 
     2. Background Information 
     Cyclic voltammetry (CV) is a type of potentiodynamic electrochemical measurement that can be used to evaluate the electrochemical properties of an analyte in solution. CV generally involves ramping the potential of a working electrode linearly versus time like linear sweep voltammetry. Unlike linear sweep voltammetry, which ends when it reaches a set potential, the working electrode&#39;s potential ramp in CV is inverted when it reaches a set potential. The inversion can happen multiple times during a single evaluation. The current at the working electrode can be plotted versus the applied voltage to give the cyclic voltammogram trace. 
     SUMMARY 
     This document provides methods and materials involved in differentiating analytes detected using a FSCV method. For example, this document provides methods and materials for using PPV to discriminate analytes on the basis of their adsorption characteristics to an electrode (e.g., a carbon fiber electrode). As described herein, PPV methods can be used to obtain differential information related to adsorption characteristics of multiple analytes or metabolites within a sample or testing environment (e.g., within the brain of a mammal) by controlling the electrical potential repetition cycle time using a device or system such as a wireless instantaneous neurotransmitter concentration system (WINCS). Using PPV as described herein can allow for improved estimation of specific analyte and metabolite concentrations in complex electrochemical environments. 
     In general, one aspect of this document features a method for assessing a concentration of an analyte present within an environment. The method comprises, or consists essentially of, (a) obtaining voltammetric data for a primary pulse and a secondary pulse of a binary waveform, (b) determining a primary voltammogram and a secondary voltammogram from the data, (c) determining a difference between one of the primary voltammogram and the secondary voltammogram, wherein the difference provides an indication about the concentration, and (d) providing information about the difference or the concentration for display to a user. The analyte can be a chemical capable of being measured by electrochemistry (e.g., dopamine or adenosine). The environment can be brain tissue in vivo. The environment can be human brain tissue in vivo. The repetition time of the binary waveform can be between 1 milliseconds and 5 seconds. The gap time between each pairing of the primary pulse and the secondary pulse can be between 10 μseconds and 2.5 seconds. The determining the difference can comprise subtracting the secondary voltammogram from the primary voltammogram. 
     In another aspect, this document features a method for assessing a concentration of an analyte present within an environment. The method comprises, or consists essentially of, (a) obtaining a primary voltammogram and a secondary voltammogram, wherein the primary voltammogram was determined from voltammetric data for a primary pulse of a binary waveform, and wherein the secondary voltammogram was determined from voltammetric data for a secondary pulse of the binary waveform, (b) determining a difference between the primary voltammogram and the secondary voltammogram, wherein the difference provides an indication about the concentration, and (c) providing information about the difference or the concentration for display to a user. The analyte can be a chemical capable of being measured by electrochemistry (e.g., dopamine or adenosine). The environment can be brain tissue in vivo. The environment can be human brain tissue in vivo. The repetition time of the binary waveform can be between 1 milliseconds and 5 seconds. The gap time between each pairing of the primary pulse and the secondary pulse can be between 10 μseconds and 2.5 seconds. The determining the difference can comprise subtracting the secondary voltammogram from the primary voltammogram. 
     In another aspect, this document features a computer-implemented method for assessing a concentration of an analyte within a sample. The method comprises, or consists essentially of, (a) determining, by a computing system, a difference between a primary voltammogram and a secondary voltammogram, wherein the difference provides an indication about the concentration, wherein the primary voltammogram was determined from voltammetric data for a primary pulse of a binary waveform, and wherein the secondary voltammogram was determined from voltammetric data for a secondary pulse of the binary waveform, and (b) providing information about the difference or the concentration for display to a user. The analyte can be a chemical capable of being measured by electrochemistry (e.g., dopamine or adenosine). The sample can be brain tissue. The sample can be human brain tissue. The repetition time of the binary waveform can be between 1 milliseconds and 5 seconds. The gap time between each pairing of the primary pulse and the secondary pulse can be between 10 μseconds and 2.5 seconds. The determining the difference can comprise subtracting the secondary voltammogram from the primary voltammogram. 
     In another aspect, this document features a computerized system for assessing a concentration of an analyte within a sample, comprising, or consisting essentially of, (a) a communication port configured to receive voltammetric data for a primary pulse and a secondary pulse of a binary waveform applied to the sample, (b) one or more computer-readable storage media having recorded thereon instructions that, when executed, determines: (i) a primary voltammogram and a secondary voltammogram from the data, and (ii) a difference between the primary voltammogram and the secondary voltammogram, wherein the difference provides an indication about the concentration of the analyte, and (c) a communication port configured to provide information about the difference or the concentration for display to a user. The analyte can be a chemical capable of being measured by electrochemistry (e.g., dopamine or adenosine). The sample can be brain tissue. The sample can be brain tissue within a human. The repetition time of the binary waveform can be between 1 milliseconds and 5 seconds. The gap time between each pairing of the primary pulse and the secondary pulse can be between 10 μseconds and 2.5 seconds. The difference can comprise a voltammogram determined by subtracting the secondary voltammogram from the primary voltammogram. 
     In another aspect, this document features a tangible, non-transitory computer program product comprising, or consisting essentially of, instructions that, when executed, determines: (a) a primary voltammogram from voltammetric data for a primary pulse of a binary waveform applied to an environment, (b) a secondary voltammogram from voltammetric data for a secondary pulse of the binary waveform, and (c) a difference between the primary voltammogram and the secondary voltammogram, wherein the difference provides an indication about a concentration of an analyte within the environment. The analyte can be a chemical capable of being measured by electrochemistry (e.g., dopamine or adenosine). The environment can be brain tissue in vivo. The environment can be brain tissue within a human. The repetition time of the binary waveform can be between 1 milliseconds and 5 seconds. The gap time between each pairing of the primary pulse and the secondary pulse can be between 10 μseconds and 2.5 seconds. The difference can be determined by subtracting the secondary voltammogram from the primary voltammogram. 
     Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used to practice the invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. 
     The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. 
    
    
     
       DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1A  is a diagram of a conventional FSCV waveform. 
         FIG. 1B  is a diagram of an exemplary paired pulse voltammetry (PPV) waveform. This PPV waveform includes a selected binary waveform with a specific time gap between each of its two comprising pulses, such that each binary wave is repeated, while holding the working electrode at a constant potential between the waves. The primary pulse can have a long effective repetition time compared with the secondary pulse effective repetition time. 
         FIG. 2  is a diagram of data analysis using PPV techniques. Three types of voltammograms can be reconstructed using PPV. The primary voltammogram (P voltammogram) was constructed with the voltammetric data set acquired at the primary pulse of the binary waveform. The secondary voltammogram (S voltammogram) was constructed with the data set acquired from voltammetry at the second pulse of the binary waveform. The difference voltammogram (P-S voltammogram) was constructed by subtracting the S voltammogram from the P voltammogram. 
         FIG. 3  contains data from the analysis of (A) dopamine (DA), (B) adenosine, and (C) ΔpH responses in PPV using flow injection analysis. The three pseudo-color plots for each of the panels (A)-(C) consist of a P voltammogram, a S voltammogram, and their difference in PPV. Panel A shows PPV responses to DA 1 μM. The peak current of the background subtracted S voltammogram at 0.6 V potential had decreased by approximately 50% when compared to the background subtracted P voltammogram. Panel B shows PPV responses to adenosine 5 μM. The first oxidation current of S voltammogram at 1.35V decreased up to 80% compared to S voltammogram, which lead to clear current changes in the P-S voltammogram. Panel C shows PPV responses to 0.1 ΔpH. The P voltammogram and S voltammogram of pH change were very similar to each other, such that only a small amount of signal change was noticeable in the P-S voltammogram. 
         FIG. 4  contains three graphs plotting the effect of secondary pulse effective repetition time on PPV. Panel A contains a graph plotting DA peak currents at 0.65V from the S voltammogram using six secondary pulse effective repetition times (12.3, 14.8, 24.8, 39.8, 59.8, and 99.2 ms, respectively, n=3). The curve shown was fitted using an exponential curve (R-squared values&gt;0.88). Panel B, similarly contains a graph plotting the adenosine (ADO) peak current of an S voltammogram at 1.45V potential. Panel C, similarly contains a graph plotting the ΔpH peak current of an S voltammogram at −0.1V potential. 
         FIG. 5  contains data of PPV responses in mixtures. PPV was evaluated for resolving mixture solutions of 1 μM DA with 0.1 ΔpH (Panel A) and 5 μM ADO with 0.1 ΔpH (Panel B). Panel A shows PPV with a 2.5 ms gap in a DA 1 μM and 0.1 ΔpH mixture solution. The P-S voltammogram revealed the DA oxidation peak as significant, with minimized ΔpH influence. Panel B shows PPV with a 2.5 ms gap in an ADO 5 μM and 0.1 ΔpH mixture solution. The reduced influence of ΔpH was more evident in the mixture containing ADO than the mixture containing DA. 
         FIG. 6  contains three graphs of an evaluation of PPV in an in vivo experiment. After insertion of the cerebral function monitoring (CFM) electrode in the thalamus of a rat brain, the surface was lightly touched in order to evoke an ADO release while recording. By applying PPV with a 2.5 ms gap, only ADO responses were realized, while minimizing the effect of electrode environmental condition changes on the P-S voltammetry. 
         FIG. 7  is a block diagram of computing devices that may be used to implement the systems and methods described in this document, as either a client or as a server or plurality of servers. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     This document provides methods and materials involved in differentiating analytes detected using a FSCV method. For example, this document provides methods and materials for using PPV to discriminate analytes based on their adsorption characteristics to an electrode (e.g., a carbon fiber electrode). As described herein, PPV can be used to assess a concentration of an analyte present within a tissue in vivo or in vitro. For example, the methods and materials provided herein can be used to assess the concentration of an analyte (e.g., a chemical such as a neurochemical or an ion) within brain tissue. In some cases, the methods and materials provided herein can be used to assess the concentration of an analyte during deep brain stimulation. Examples of analytes that can be detected using the methods and materials provided herein include, without limitation, ions such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, protons (pH), iron, copper, chromium, lead, mercury, cobolt, gold, lithium, cesium, barium, zinc, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate, bromide, iodide, sulfide, oxide, sulfide, and fluoride and chemicals such as dopamine, serotonin, adenosine, adenine mono- or tri-phosphate, norepinephrine, GABA, histamine, acetylcholine, glutamate, aspartate, epinephrine, nitric oxide, glycine, trace amines (e.g., tryptamine, phenylethylamine, tyramine, and octopamine), and amino acid-based neuropeptides (e.g., endorphins, enkephalins, and vasopressin). For example, PPV can be used to assess the concentration of one or more chemicals (e.g., dopamine or adenosine). 
     In some cases, the methods and materials provided herein can be used in a FSCV process to obtain voltammetric data for a primary pulse  124  and a secondary pulse  126  of a binary waveform ( FIG. 1B ). From this data, a primary voltammogram and a secondary voltammogram can be constructed. Once constructed, a difference between primary and secondary voltammograms indicative of the concentration of an analyte can be determined. For example, the secondary voltammogram can be subtracted from the primary voltammogram to create a difference voltammogram that provides an indication about the concentration of the analyte being assessed. 
     Any appropriate device with the ability to do variable timing of voltammetry can be used to obtain PPV data by applying a binary waveform to a tissue being assessed. For example, a WINCS device can be used to obtain voltammetric data pertaining to a tissue being assessed. In some cases, a voltammetry device can include one or more electrodes or sensors to detect one or more analytes. In some cases, a single electrode or sensor can be used to detect a single chemical. For example, a voltammetry device can include a first electrode designed to detect dopamine and a second electrode designed to detect glutamate. Another design uses a singular sensing electrode to detect different chemicals by applying different voltage ramps at slightly different times. 
     In some cases, a device (e.g., a WINCS device) can be implanted within a patient. For example, a WINCS device can be implanted within a patient&#39;s skull. In some cases, a device can include a single electrode for FSCV that contains two independent areas of active electrode such as pyrolytic carbon or carbon fiber. Then by varying the FSCV impressed voltage, signals representing different neurochemicals can be determined. If the active electrode areas are too close together, which would cause interference, the signals can be multiplexed such that the signal is detected quasi simultaneously by measuring one chemical directly after a preceding chemical. The device can also be used to determine the effect of stimulation. For example, stimulation of two different areas of the brain can produce a release of different neurochemicals (such as histamine, adenosine, glutamate, and dopamine). The ratio or absolute amount changes of the released neurochemicals can provide a physiologic effect of interest, such as creating long-term memory in patients with short-term memory loss. 
     In some cases, one or more chemicals (e.g., dopamine, adenosine, serotonin, and norepinephrine) can be detected using FSCV with various scan waveforms applied to one or more electrodes or sensors. The scan waveforms can be varied by manipulating physical aspects of the waveforms such as the peak voltage, voltage ramp, and repetition time. 
     When using PPV to assess the concentration of a particular analyte within a tissue in vivo, any appropriate PPV repetition time  132  and any appropriate gap time  122  of a binary waveform can be used (refer to  FIG. 1B ). For example, PPV repetition times ranging from about 30 milliseconds to about 1000 milliseconds (e.g., from about 30 milliseconds to about 750 milliseconds, from about 30 milliseconds to about 500 milliseconds, from about 30 milliseconds to about 250 milliseconds, from about 30 milliseconds to about 100 milliseconds, from about 40 milliseconds to about 1000 milliseconds, from about 50 milliseconds to about 1000 milliseconds, from about 100 milliseconds to about 1000 milliseconds, or from about 150 milliseconds to about 1000 milliseconds) and gap times ranging from about 1 millisecond to about 100 milliseconds (e.g., from about 1 millisecond to about 90 milliseconds, from about 1 millisecond to about 80 milliseconds, from about 1 millisecond to about 70 milliseconds, from about 2 millisecond to about 100 milliseconds, from about 3 millisecond to about 100 milliseconds, from about 5 millisecond to about 100 milliseconds, or from about 10 millisecond to about 100 milliseconds) can be used. Any appropriate form of pulse shape  124 / 126  can be used, such as a triangle shape pulse ( FIG. 1B ) or an N shape pulse. 
       FIG. 7  is a block diagram of computing devices  1000 ,  1050  that may be used to implement the systems and methods described herein, as either a client or as a server or plurality of servers. Computing device  1000  is intended to represent various forms of digital computers, such as laptops, desktops, workstations, personal digital assistants, servers, blade servers, mainframes, and other appropriate computers. Computing device  1050  is intended to represent various forms of mobile devices, such as personal digital assistants, cellular telephones, smartphones, and other similar computing devices. The components shown here, their connections and relationships, and their functions, are meant to be exemplary only, and are not meant to limit implementations described and/or claimed in this document. 
     Computing device  1000  includes a processor  1002 , memory  1004 , a storage device  1006 , a high-speed interface  1008  connecting to memory  1004  and high-speed expansion ports  1010 , and a low speed interface  1012  connecting to low speed bus  1014  and storage device  1006 . Each of the components  1002 ,  1004 ,  1006 ,  1008 ,  1010 , and  1012 , are interconnected using various buses, and may be mounted on a common motherboard or in other manners as appropriate. The processor  1002  can process instructions for execution within the computing device  1000 , including instructions stored in the memory  1004  or on the storage device  1006  to display graphical information for a GUI on an external input/output device, such as display  1016  coupled to high speed interface  1008 . In other implementations, multiple processors and/or multiple buses may be used, as appropriate, along with multiple memories and types of memory. Also, multiple computing devices  1000  may be connected, with each device providing portions of the necessary operations (e.g., as a server bank, a group of blade servers, or a multi-processor system). 
     The memory  1004  stores information within the computing device  1000 . In one implementation, the memory  1004  is a volatile memory unit or units. In another implementation, the memory  1004  is a non-volatile memory unit or units. The memory  1004  may also be another form of computer-readable medium, such as a magnetic or optical disk. 
     The storage device  1006  is capable of providing mass storage for the computing device  1000 . In one implementation, the storage device  1006  may be or contain a computer-readable medium, such as a floppy disk device, a hard disk device, an optical disk device, or a tape device, a flash memory or other similar solid state memory device, or an array of devices, including devices in a storage area network or other configurations. A computer program product can be tangibly embodied in an information carrier. The computer program product may also contain instructions that, when executed, perform one or more methods, such as those described herein. The information carrier is a computer- or machine-readable medium, such as the memory  1004 , the storage device  1006 , or memory on processor  1002 . 
     The high speed controller  1008  manages bandwidth-intensive operations for the computing device  1000 , while the low speed controller  1012  manages lower bandwidth-intensive operations. Such allocation of functions is exemplary only. In one implementation, the high-speed controller  1008  is coupled to memory  1004 , display  1016  (e.g., through a graphics processor or accelerator), and to high-speed expansion ports  1010 , which may accept various expansion cards (not shown). In the implementation, low-speed controller  1012  is coupled to storage device  1006  and low-speed expansion port  1014 . The low-speed expansion port, which may include various communication ports (e.g., USB, Bluetooth, Ethernet, wireless Ethernet) may be coupled to one or more input/output devices, such as a keyboard, a pointing device, a scanner, or a networking device such as a switch or router, e.g., through a network adapter. 
     The computing device  1000  may be implemented in a number of different forms, as shown in the figure. For example, it may be implemented as a standard server  1020 , or multiple times in a group of such servers. It also may be implemented as part of a rack server system  1024 . In addition, it may be implemented in a personal computer such as a laptop computer  1022 . Alternatively, components from computing device  1000  may be combined with other components in a mobile device (not shown), such as device  1050 . Each of such devices may contain one or more of computing device  1000 ,  1050 , and an entire system may be made up of multiple computing devices  1000 ,  1050  communicating with each other. 
     Computing device  1050  includes a processor  1052 , memory  1064 , an input/output device such as a display  1054 , a communication interface  1066 , and a transceiver  1068 , among other components. The device  1050  may also be provided with a storage device, such as a microdrive or other device, to provide additional storage. Each of the components  1050 ,  1052 ,  1064 ,  1054 ,  1066 , and  1068 , are interconnected using various buses, and several of the components may be mounted on a common motherboard or in other manners as appropriate. 
     The processor  1052  can execute instructions within the computing device  1050 , including instructions stored in the memory  1064 . The processor may be implemented as a chipset of chips that include separate and multiple analog and digital processors. Additionally, the processor may be implemented using any of a number of architectures. For example, the processor  410  may be a CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computers) processor, a RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) processor, or a MISC (Minimal Instruction Set Computer) processor. The processor may provide, for example, for coordination of the other components of the device  1050 , such as control of user interfaces, applications run by device  1050 , and wireless communication by device  1050 . 
     Processor  1052  may communicate with a user through control interface  1058  and display interface  1056  coupled to a display  1054 . The display  1054  may be, for example, a TFT (Thin-Film-Transistor Liquid Crystal Display) display or an OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) display, or other appropriate display technology. The display interface  1056  may comprise appropriate circuitry for driving the display  1054  to present graphical and other information to a user. The control interface  1058  may receive commands from a user and convert them for submission to the processor  1052 . In addition, an external interface  1062  may be provide in communication with processor  1052 , so as to enable near area communication of device  1050  with other devices. External interface  1062  may provide, for example, for wired communication in some implementations, or for wireless communication in other implementations, and multiple interfaces may also be used. 
     The memory  1064  stores information within the computing device  1050 . The memory  1064  can be implemented as one or more of a computer-readable medium or media, a volatile memory unit or units, or a non-volatile memory unit or units. Expansion memory  1074  may also be provided and connected to device  1050  through expansion interface  1072 , which may include, for example, a SIMM (Single In Line Memory Module) card interface. Such expansion memory  1074  may provide extra storage space for device  1050 , or may also store applications or other information for device  1050 . Specifically, expansion memory  1074  may include instructions to carry out or supplement the processes described above, and may include secure information also. Thus, for example, expansion memory  1074  may be provide as a security module for device  1050 , and may be programmed with instructions that permit secure use of device  1050 . In addition, secure applications may be provided via the SIMM cards, along with additional information, such as placing identifying information on the SIMM card in a non-hackable manner. 
     The memory may include, for example, flash memory and/or NVRAM memory, as discussed below. In one implementation, a computer program product is tangibly embodied in an information carrier. The computer program product contains instructions that, when executed, perform one or more methods, such as those described herein. The information carrier is a computer- or machine-readable medium, such as the memory  1064 , expansion memory  1074 , or memory on processor  1052  that may be received, for example, over transceiver  1068  or external interface  1062 . 
     Device  1050  may communicate wirelessly through communication interface  1066 , which may include digital signal processing circuitry where necessary. Communication interface  1066  may provide for communications under various modes or protocols, such as GSM voice calls, SMS, EMS, or MMS messaging, CDMA, TDMA, PDC, WCDMA, CDMA2000, or GPRS, among others. Such communication may occur, for example, through radio-frequency transceiver  1068 . In addition, short-range communication may occur, such as using a Bluetooth, WiFi, or other such transceiver (not shown). 
     Device  1050  may also communicate audibly using audio codec  1060 , which may receive spoken information from a user and convert it to usable digital information. Audio codec  1060  may likewise generate audible sound for a user, such as through a speaker, e.g., in a handset of device  1050 . Such sound may include sound from voice telephone calls, may include recorded sound (e.g., voice messages) and may also include sound generated by applications operating on device  1050 . 
     The computing device  1050  may be implemented in a number of different forms, as shown in the figure. For example, it may be implemented as a cellular telephone  1080 . It may also be implemented as part of a smartphone  1082 , personal digital assistant, or other similar mobile device. 
     Additionally computing device  1000  or  1050  can include Universal Serial Bus (USB) flash drives. The USB flash drives may store operating systems and other applications. The USB flash drives can include input/output components, such as a wireless transmitter or USB connector that may be inserted into a USB port of another computing device. 
     Various implementations of the systems and techniques described herein can be realized in digital electronic circuitry, integrated circuitry, specially designed ASICs (application specific integrated circuits), computer hardware, firmware, software, and/or combinations thereof. These various implementations can include implementation in one or more computer programs that are executable and/or interpretable on a programmable system including at least one programmable processor, which may be special or general purpose, coupled to receive data and instructions from, and to transmit data and instructions to, a storage system, at least one input device, and at least one output device. 
     These computer programs (also known as programs, software, software applications or code) include machine instructions for a programmable processor, and can be implemented in a high-level procedural and/or object-oriented programming language, and/or in assembly/machine language. As used herein, the terms “machine-readable medium” and “computer-readable medium” refer to any computer program product, apparatus and/or device (e.g., magnetic discs, optical disks, memory, Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)) used to provide machine instructions and/or data to a programmable processor, including a machine-readable medium that receives machine instructions as a machine-readable signal. The term “machine-readable signal” refers to any signal used to provide machine instructions and/or data to a programmable processor. 
     To provide for interaction with a user, the systems and techniques described herein can be implemented on a computer having a display device (e.g., a CRT (cathode ray tube) or LCD (liquid crystal display) monitor) for displaying information to the user and a keyboard and a pointing device (e.g., a mouse or a trackball) by which the user can provide input to the computer. Other kinds of devices can be used to provide for interaction with a user as well; for example, feedback provided to the user can be any form of sensory feedback (e.g., visual feedback, auditory feedback, or tactile feedback); and input from the user can be received in any form, including acoustic, speech, or tactile input. 
     The systems and techniques described herein can be implemented in a computing system that includes a back end component (e.g., as a data server), or that includes a middleware component (e.g., an application server), or that includes a front end component (e.g., a client computer having a graphical user interface or a Web browser through which a user can interact with an implementation of the systems and techniques described herein), or any combination of such back end, middleware, or front end components. The components of the system can be interconnected by any form or medium of digital data communication (e.g., a communication network). Examples of communication networks include a local area network (“LAN”), a wide area network (“WAN”), peer-to-peer networks (having ad-hoc or static members), grid computing infrastructures, and the Internet. 
     The computing system can include clients and servers. A client and server are generally remote from each other and typically interact through a communication network. The relationship of client and server arises by virtue of computer programs running on the respective computers and having a client-server relationship to each other. 
     The invention will be further described in the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1—Paired Pulse Voltammetry (PPV) for Differentiating Complex Analytes Using a Wireless Instantaneous Neurotransmitter Concentration System (WINCS) 
     Since adsorption is a property specific to each analyte, adsorption could be a factor for discriminating various analytes in FSCV. The adsorption peak current (i a   p ) is known to follow the following equation (Bard and Faulkner, Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications, New York, John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc., (2001)).
 
 i   p   a =(9.39×10 5 ) n   2   AvΓ   0   (1)
 
     Where n is the number of electrons involved in electrode reaction, A is the electrode surface area, v is the sweep rate, and Γ 0  is the amount of adsorbed analyte. As described in the equation (1), adsorption current is linearly proportional to the amount of adsorbed analyte. If the time is sufficiently short and the analyte concentration is constant within that short time, the adsorption current will become a function of time. In FSCV, the time between cyclic voltage waveform pulses at which a constant potential is held ( FIG. 1A ) also affects the amplitude of a species that adsorbs to the electrode surface (Bath et al.,  Analytical Chemistry,  72:5994-6002 (2000)). The greater the time between scans, the more the adsorption processes is prone to occur—and to approach equilibrium. For a specific repetition time, analyte adsorption depends upon the intrinsic properties of the analyte, such as molecular mass and charge. Thus, the repetition time can be used for differentiating various analytes by utilizing the analytes&#39; adsorption characteristics in FSCV. 
     Paired Pulse Voltammetry 
     The following describes the use of Paired Pulse Voltammetry (PPV) as a FSCV method to obtain differential information related to adsorption characteristics of analytes and metabolites by controlling the scan repetition time of a WINCS device. 
     The most widely used conventional FSCV waveform for the detection of adenosine and dopamine is a triangle shaped voltammetric pulse ( FIG. 1A ). Repeating 10 times per second, the applied potential sweeps from −0.4V to +1.5V and back to −0.4 V, at a voltage ramp rate of 400 V/s. The working electrode is held at a holding potential of −0.4V between voltammetric pulses. 
     Unlike conventional FSCV, PPV involves using a paired pulse (e.g., primary pulse  124  and secondary pulse  126 ). The primary pulse is defined as the first pulse of the binary waves, and the secondary pulse is defined as the following pulse ( FIG. 1B ). This binary waveform has a specific gap time  122  between the two pulses  124 / 126  of each binary wave. A negative holding potential  134  between the paired pulses/binary waves is used similarly to conventional FSCV. The primary pulse effective repetition time  128  is the time lapse between the start of a primary pulse and the start of the secondary pulse of the previous binary waveform ( FIG. 1B ). The secondary pulse effective repetition time  130  is the time lapse between the start of a primary pulse  124  of a binary wave and the start of a secondary pulse  126  of the same binary wave. For example, if PPV is used with a PPV repetition time of 5 Hz (200 ms between two binary waveforms), a 400 V/s voltage ramp rate (9.8 ms per single pulse from −0.4V to 1.5V and back to −0.4V), and a 2.2 ms gap time between primary and second pulses of the binary waveform, then the primary pulse effective repetition time will be 188 ms (=200 ms−9.8 ms−2.2 ms), and the secondary pulse effective repetition time will be 12 ms (=9.8 ms+2.2 ms). The difference between two pulses reflects the amount of adsorbed analyte due to the discrepancy between the primary and secondary effective repetition times. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 2B , three types of voltammograms were reconstructed using PPV: (1) the primary voltammogram (P voltammogram)  210 , constructed with the voltammetric data set acquired at the primary pulse of the binary waveform (2) the secondary voltammogram (S voltammogram)  212 , constructed with the data set acquired from voltammetry at the secondary pulse of the binary waveform, and (3) the difference voltammogram (P-S voltammogram)  214 , constructed by subtracting the S voltammogram from P voltammogram at each time point of data acquisition. In addition, three background subtracted cyclic voltammograms  216  were calculated by subtracting each subtraction background current obtained at the same time point. 
     Data Acquisition 
     All experiments were performed using a WINCS device, which is described elsewhere (Bledsoe et al.,  J. Neurosurgery,  111:712-23 (2009)) and Shon et al.,  J. Neurosurgery,  112:539-48 (2010)). The acquired data was displayed in several graphical formats for nearly real-time analysis by engineered software (WINCSware) running on the WINCS base station computer. 
     Electrodes 
     For FSCV, a carbon fiber microelectrode (CFM) was constructed by aspirating a single carbon fiber (d=7 μm) (Cytec Thornel® T300) into a borosilicate glass capillary and pulling to a microscopic tip using a pipette puller (P-2000, Sutter Instruments, CA, USA). The exposed carbon fiber was trimmed to a final length of ˜100 μm using a scalpel (Cahill et al.,  Analytical Chemistry,  68:3180-6 (1996)). The Ag/AgCl reference electrode was fabricated by chloridizing a 31 gauge silver wire (Garris et al.,  J. Neurochemistry,  68:152-61 (1997)). 
     Flow Injection Apparatus 
     Flow injection analysis was used for in vitro measurements with FSCV at a CFM. In this procedure, well established for device testing and microsensor calibration, a CFM was placed in a flowing stream of buffer, and analyte was injected as a bolus. The buffer solution, composed of 150 mM sodium chloride and 12 mM Trizma base at pH 7.4, was pumped across the CFM at a rate of 2 mL/minute. An electronic loop injector, locally fabricated, introduced a bolus of analyte into the flowing stream at defined test concentrations. 
     Chemicals 
     Drugs were dissolved in distilled water at a stock concentration of 10 mM, diluted with flow injection analysis buffer. Adenosine and DA hydrochloride were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis, Mo.). 
     In Vivo Experiments 
     Three adult male Sprague-Dawley rats, weighing 300 to 400 g, were used for the in vivo study. Rats were housed under standard conditions with ad libitum access to food and water. 
     Results 
     Paired Pulse Voltammetry for Dopamine, pH Changes, and Adenosine 
     PPV was applied to solutions of: (i) dopamine (DA) 1 μM, (ii) adenosine (ADO) 5 μM, and (iii) ΔpH+0.1. The PPV used the following parameters: −0.4V rest/holding potential, 1.5V peak potential, 400 V/s scan rate, 2.2 ms gap time, and 5 Hz repetition rate (200 ms PPV repetition time). The primary pulse effective repetition time was 188 ms (=200 ms−9.8 ms−2.2 ms), and the secondary pulse effective repetition time was 12 ms (=9.8 ms+2.2 ms). 
     For DA, the P-S voltammogram exhibited a clear DA signal, presumably since catecholamines like DA tend to be adsorbed on the CFM surface under a negative holding potential and are more dependent on effective repetition time when compared to the smaller H +  ions ( FIG. 3 ; panel A). The peak current of the background subtracted S voltammogram at 0.6 V potential had decreased by approximately 50% when compared to the background subtracted P voltammogram. The background subtracted P-S voltammogram therefore exhibited a clear DA signal at the same potential. An interesting result was that the changes occurring at the reduction potential around −0.2V seemed to be unnoticeable in the P-S voltammogram. This could be explained by the two different sources of current changes and their time dependence. The oxidation current changes were from the DA getting adsorbed on the CFM surface during the gap time (e.g., “holding time”) between each triangular pulse/the effective repetition time, whereas the source of reduction current is DA-o-quinone formed at the CFM surface, just after DA oxidation at 0.6V in an anodic sweep, and is unlikely to be significantly influenced by the repetition time. 
     The first oxidative peak current of adenosine, occurring at 1.35V, decreased by up to 80% in the S voltammogram when compared to the P voltammogram ( FIG. 3 ; panel B). It resulted in clearer difference signal in the P-S voltammogram. Although DA was well known for adsorption at carbon surface during a −0.4V holding potential, the comparison of difference (P-S) voltammograms between DA and ADO revealed that ADO had a larger difference signal than DA. A possible explanation was that the difference signal may come from not how well but how fast the molecules were adsorbed at CFM surface due to diffusional limitations of mass transport. The slower diffusion and adsorption of ADO compared to DA may lead to smaller amounts of adenosine adsorption during the given effective repetition time of the secondary voltammogram and thus resulting in smaller current. Another interesting finding was that the second peak oxidation current of ADO at 1.2V was nearly the same between the P and S voltammograms, similar to the reduction currents of DA at −0.2 V. A similar explanation was proposed assuming that the second oxidation peak current, arising from the adenosine already adsorbed at the CFM surface was unlikely to be influenced by the effective repetition time. 
     PPV responses to pH changes exhibited a different pattern than that of both DA and ADO ( FIG. 3 ; panel C). The Primary and secondary voltammograms were very similar, such that only a small amount of signal change was noticeable in the P-S voltammogram. This may be due to the high mobility and thus faster adsorption of the H+ ions to the CFM, quick enough to adsorb to near saturation even with the comparatively short repetition time of the secondary voltammetry. 
     Effect of Repetition Time on PPV 
     In order to further investigate the effect of PPV repetition time, PPV data were obtained using six different gap times (2.5, 5, 15, 30, 50, and 90 ms), which respectively corresponded to the secondary pulse effective repetition times (12.3, 14.8, 24.8, 39.8, 59.8, and 99.2 ms), at a 5 Hz PPV repetition time. Three measurements for each gap time were conducted for dopamine (1 μM), adenosine (5 μM), and ΔpH 0.1. The average and standard deviation of the three oxidation current measurements were plotted against gap time for each DA, ADO, and pH secondary voltammograms ( FIG. 4 ). The current in the S voltammogram at 0.6V potential for DA was 9.8 nA with 12.3 ms of effective repetition time, reaching a plateau of approximately 17.0 nA with an effective repetition time of 59.8 ms. DA initially adsorbed at high rate, and then slowed, nearing saturation as the time gap between the two pulses comprising the binary waveform increased ( FIG. 4 ; panel A). The curve fit well with the following exponential equation (R-squared values&gt;0.88): 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
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     where t is the effective repetition time, and a and b are fitting coefficients such that ‘a’ is the saturated current value when repetition time would be infinite, and ‘b’ is the coefficient of adsorption time, or the time required to reach approximately 63% of the saturated current value. 
     The DA current response with respect to PPV repetition time fit with the above exponential function with a 0.94 R-squared value. For ADO, the current versus repetition time curve fit with equation (2) with an R-square value of 0.88. The adsorption time constant ‘b’ for DA at 0.6V was about 14.9 ms, whereas the adsorption time constant of ADO at 1.49V potential was 35.9 ms, approximately two times slower than DA ( FIG. 4 ; panel B). Comparatively, adsorption response for pH change was the fastest, measuring at approximately 6.5 ms. The fast H+ ion adsorption to the CFM surface resulted in near complete removal of pH change visible in the difference (P-S) voltammogram ( FIG. 4 ; panel C). 
     The adsorption time coefficient described herein, is useful for characterizing each analyte and aiding in distinguishing molecules from one another in otherwise complicated or ambiguous conventional FSCV datasets. The adsorption time can be influenced by the analyte&#39;s molecular size, mass, charge, and other characteristics, which can be investigated to understand the complex dynamics of microelectrode species detection. 
     Evaluation of PPV in Mixtures 
     To further test its capability, PPV was evaluated for resolving mixture solutions of 1 μM DA with 0.1 ΔpH and 5 μM ADO with 0.1 ΔpH. The combination of ΔpH and DA produced visually complicated P and S voltammograms in which it was difficult to differentiate individual components ( FIG. 5 ; panel A). However, the P-S voltammogram revealed the DA oxidation peak as significant, with minimized ΔpH influence. The reduced influence of ΔpH was more evident in the mixture solution with ADO than with DA, because the adsorption time coefficient ‘b’ of ADO is greater than that of DA ( FIG. 5 ; panel B). Although pH change was nearly completely removed, only the first oxidation peak of ADO was detected in the P-S voltammogram. The second oxidation peak appeared independent of the effective repetition time and had similar intensity in the primary and secondary voltammograms, therefore cancelling out in the P-S voltammogram. 
     Another finding was that the P-S voltammogram appeared stable around the switching potential; whereas conventional FSCV can often exhibit noticeable current changes ( FIG. 5 ). There were no detectable current changes due to background drift or electrode surface environmental changes. Since these changes related to electrode conditioning were unlikely to depend on the repetition time, they reflected equally on the P and S voltammetry, only to cancel out and result in very reliable P-S voltammetry. 
     The properties of P-S voltammetry can be used in evaluating in vivo recordings, especially in human electro-chemistry where the data sets often get complex by numerous changes occurring at the microelectrode surface. 
     Evaluation of PPV In Vivo 
     To evaluate the performance of PPV in vivo, PPV was applied in rat brain experiments for ADO detection. There are large pools of adenosine stored in the astrocytes that can be released by mechanical stimulation (Tawfik et al.,  Neurosurgery,  67:367-75 (2010); Halassa et al.,  Neuron,  61:213-219 (2009)). In order to release adenosine, mechanical stimulation of the rat brain was used. After insertion of the CFM electrode in the thalamus, the surface was lightly touched in order to evoke ADO release while recording. CFM touching induced current changes from ADO release as well as variations due to micro-environmental electrode condition changes ( FIG. 6 ). By applying PPV with a 2.5 ms gap time, only ADO responses were realized, while minimizing the effect of electrode environmental condition changes on the P-S voltammetry. An interesting finding was the clear second oxidation peak at 1.2V in the P-S voltammogram, which was not observed in the in vitro ADO detection experiments ( FIG. 3 ; panel B). This might be due to a different micro-environment around the electrode during the in vivo experiments, altering the analyte adsorption at CFM surface when compared to in vitro experiments. It could also be a response to the other metabolites being released in the brain during mechanical stimulation. 
     In conventional FSCV, the time-varying potential is a brief pyramidal waveform, typically repeated 10 times per second. The CFM is otherwise maintained at a specified holding potential with respect to the reference electrode. As described herein, PPV was used where the waveforms are paired in doublets—two identical waveforms (“pulses”), separated in time by an arbitrary but short interval at the holding potential. The results provided herein demonstrate that PPV can discriminate analytes based on their adsorption characteristics. When the voltammogram for one of the pulses comprising a doublet is subtracted from the voltammogram for the other pulse, the effects of pH change, for example, were largely eliminated. 
     Other Embodiments 
     It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of the following claims.