Patent Publication Number: US-2010111786-A1

Title: System and process for starch production

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a divisional application which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. 121 of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/142,120, filed Jun. 19, 2008, which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/946,471, filed Jun. 27, 2007, the disclosures of each of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference 
    
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
     Not Applicable. 
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present invention generally relates to the production of starch from corn, and more particularly to apparatus and methods for producing starch from corn using sulfur dioxide or bisulfite treatment. Still more particularly, the invention relates to such apparatus and methods which employ high shear mixing to reduce mass transfer limitations. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Starch is a mainstay of our food, pharmaceutical, paper, chemical, textile, cosmetic, and energy industries. It serves as a raw material in the manufacture of such basic consumer necessities as paper and textiles, and is also used in sizing, surface coating and adhesives. Corn starches and their derivatives are also used in a variety of other applications, including the manufacture of “drilling muds” that are used to cool oil well drilling bits, and in flocculating agents, anti-caking agents, mold-release agents, dusting powder and thickening agents. A developing market for corn starch is for use as a feedstock for production of a number of industrial chemicals and plastics that heretofore relied on petroleum-derived feedstocks. As the world&#39;s petroleum supply dwindles or becomes less reliable, the importance of an abundant renewable natural source of raw material such as corn starch becomes increasingly attractive. 
     The wet milling process is traditionally used to separate corn into its primary components of starch, germ, fiber and protein. The wet milling processes, for example, generally comprise four basic stages: steeping, germ separation, grinding/screening, and starch-gluten separation. After inspection and cleaning, corn kernels are steeped in a dilute aqueous SO 2  solution for 1 to 2 days to soften the corn kernels and begin breaking disulfide bonds in the protein matrix that holds the proteins and starch together. The next step in the process involves a coarse grind to separate the germ from the rest of the kernel. The resulting slurry, consisting of fiber, starch and protein, is finely ground and screened to separate the fiber from the starch and protein. The starch is separated from the remaining slurry in hydrocyclones. The starch can then can be used for making drilling mud, or can be further processed for a variety of other applications. 
     The steeping operation is a diffusion limited process. During the 24-48 hour soak, the water and SO 2  diffuse into the corn kernel through the base end of the tip cap, and then move through the pericarp to the kernel crown and into the endosperm. The absorbed SO 2  cleaves the disulfide bonds in the protein matrix that encapsulates the starch granules, dispersing the protein matrix, and enhancing starch release. The time for penetration of SO 2  into the endosperm and its reaction time with the protein matrix makes steeping a very time consuming operation in the corn wet-milling process. Steeping times shorter than 24 hours result in poor starch yields and loss of starch to fiber and protein fractions. Steeping is also one of the most capital and energy intensive parts of the corn wet-milling process. Reducing steep time would decrease energy cost, increase plant capacity and reduce the capital cost involved in construction of new corn wet-milling plants. 
     Several mechanical and chemical approaches have been investigated to decrease steep time while maintaining product yields. Such processes typically require costly modifications of existing facilities or pretreatment of kernels, resulting in increased pollution or increased energy use. It has been said that the development of a processing procedure that could reduce the steep time and decrease or eliminate the use of chemicals such as sulfur dioxide would have a significant impact on the corn wet-milling industry. 
     Processes in which dehulled and degermed dry-milled corn is mixed with water for a period of not more than 4 hours at ambient temperature to form an aqueous slurry have also been explored. In some cases, the slurry is treated with alkali, and then subjected to certain high intensity mixing to yield a high-quality starch. Sodium sulfite may be present in the alkali-containing slurry. Existing processes and production facilities for producing starch from corn are typically subject to various constraints including mass flow limitations, product yield, plant size and energy consumption. Accordingly, there is continued interest in the development of ways to improve the selectivity and yield of starch from corn. 
     SUMMARY 
     A high shear system and process for accelerating starch production from corn is disclosed. Some embodiments of the high shear process make possible a reduction in mass transfer limitations, thereby increasing the rate of hydration of protein matrix and release of starch, enabling a reduction in processing time and an increase in product yield. In accordance with certain embodiments, a process is provided that offers more optimal time, temperature and pressure conditions than are typical of other starch production processes. Embodiments of the disclosed process employs an external high shear mechanical reactor to provide enhanced time, temperature and pressure conditions resulting in accelerated release of starch granules and increased yield of starch. 
     In accordance with certain embodiments, a method for producing starch is provided which comprises obtaining a high shear mixing device; forming in the high shear mixing device a high shear mixture comprising dehulled and degermed corn kernel particles, sulfur dioxide, and an aqueous medium, wherein the high shear mixture comprises submicron-sized sulfur dioxide-containing bubbles and/or submicron-sized corn kernel particles dispersed in the aqueous medium; and causing the extraction of starch from the dispersed particles and solubilization of the starch in the aqueous medium. 
     In accordance with certain other embodiments, a system for production of starch is provided which comprises a high shear mixing device having a corn slurry inlet, a sulfur dioxide inlet and a dispersion outlet, wherein the mixing device is configured to produce a dispersion of corn kernel particles and submicron-sized sulfur dioxide bubbles and in an aqueous medium; a reactor configured for receiving the dispersion, and having a slurry outlet and a product outlet; a pump disposed between the slurry outlet and the slurry inlet of the high shear mixing device; and a starch-gluten separator configured for receiving the starch-containing product and separating the starch. These and other embodiments and potential advantages will be apparent in the following detailed description and drawings. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a process flow diagram for a high shear process for production of starch, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. 
         FIG. 2  is a longitudinal cross-section view of a multi-stage high shear device, as employed in an embodiment of the system of  FIG. 1 . 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     An improved process and system for the production of starch by modified corn wet-milling and starch extraction employs an external high shear mixer to provide rapid mixing and intimate contacting of corn grit with an aqueous SO 2  solution in a controlled environment in the high shear mixer. The high shear device reduces mass transfer limitations in the extraction process and thus increases the overall processing rate by speeding hydration of the protein matrix that encapsulates the starch, and causing the release of starch globules. The enhanced contacting of the corn particles with the SO 2  solution in a highly dispersed state potentially allows a reduced amount of SO 2  to be used in embodiments of the process without sacrificing quality or quantity of the starch product. 
     Chemical reactions involving liquids, gases and solids rely on the laws of kinetics that involve time, temperature, and pressure to define the rate of reactions. In cases where it is desirable to react two or more raw materials of different phases (e.g., solid and liquid; liquid and gas; solid, liquid and gas), one of the limiting factors in controlling the rate of reaction involves the contact time of the reactants. In conventional reactors, contact time for the reactants is often controlled by mixing, which provides contact with two or more reactants involved in a chemical reaction. A reactor assembly that comprises an external high shear mixer makes possible decreased mass transfer limitations and thereby allows the reaction to more closely approach kinetic limitations. When reaction rates are accelerated, residence times may be decreased, thereby increasing obtainable throughput. Alternatively, where the current yield is acceptable, decreasing the required residence time allows for the use of lower temperatures and/or pressures than conventional processes. Alternatively or additionally, yield of product may be increased via the high shear system and process. In some cases, it may be possible to reduce the reactor size while maintaining the same product yield due to the use of a high shear mixer. 
     System for Production of Starch 
     The high shear starch production system will now be described in relation to  FIG. 1 , which is a process flow diagram showing an embodiment of a high shear system  1  for the production of starch from corn kernels. The basic components of the system include external high shear mixing device (HSD)  40 , vessel or reactor  10 , and pump  5 . As shown in  FIG. 1 , the high shear device is located external to vessel/reactor  10 . Each of these components is described in more detail below. Line  20  is connected to pump  5  for introducing a liquid stream containing an aqueous corn slurry. Line  13  connects pump  5  to HSD  40 , and line  18  connects HSD  40  to vessel  10 . Line  22  is connected to line  13  for introducing sulfur dioxide gas, or a solution containing dissolved sulfur dioxide. Line  17  is connected to vessel  10  for removal of vent gas. Additional components or process steps may be incorporated between vessel  10  and HSD  40 , or ahead of pump  5  or HSD  40 , if desired. 
     A grinder  4  is configured for cracking the corn kernels and loosening the hulls to provide a grist of the desired particle size. The grinder  4  may be a conventional dry-type or a wet-type grinder, depending on whether a pre-soaking tank  2  is attached. In  FIG. 1  the arrow from pre-soaking tank  2  is drawn with a dashed line to indicate that the use of tank  2  is optional in some applications. A conventional germ and hull separator  6  is configured for separating out the lighter hulls of the corn and for delivering the denser corn grist to vessel  10 . Line  8  joins separator  6  to vessel  10 . Outlet line  16  from vessel  10  is configured for attaching to a screening assembly  24 , which is followed by a starch-gluten separator  26 . At least one inlet line  15  is coupled to vessel  10  for introducing water, bisulfite solution, or other materials. 
     High Shear Mixing Device. Referring still to  FIG. 1 , external high shear mixing device (HSD)  40 , also sometimes referred to as a high shear mixer, is positioned between pump  5  and reactor  10  and is configured for receiving an inlet stream via line  13 . Alternatively, system  1  may be configured with more than one inlet line (not shown). For instance, HSD  40  may be configured for separately receiving corn grist slurry and sulfur dioxide via separate inlet lines (not shown). Although only one high shear device is shown in  FIG. 1 , it should be understood that some embodiments of the system may have two or more high shear mixing devices arranged either in series or parallel flow. HSD  40  is a mechanical device that utilizes one or more generators comprising a rotor/stator combination, each of which has a fixed gap between the stator and rotor. HSD  40  is configured to produce a dispersion containing submicron—(i.e., less than one micron in diameter) and micron-sized bubbles containing SO 2  gas dispersed in an aqueous medium flowing through the mixing device. In some embodiments, HSD  40  is also configured in such a way that it is capable of producing a dispersion containing submicron—(i.e., less than one micron in diameter) and micron-sized corn particles dispersed in an aqueous medium flowing through the mixer. The high shear mixer comprises an enclosure or housing so that the pressure and temperature of the mixture may be controlled. 
     High shear mixing devices are generally divided into three general classes, based upon their ability to mix fluids. Mixing is the process of reducing the size of particles or inhomogeneous species within the fluid. One metric for the degree or thoroughness of mixing is the energy density per unit volume that the mixing device generates to disrupt the fluid particles. The classes are distinguished based on delivered energy densities. Three classes of industrial mixers having sufficient energy density to consistently produce mixtures or dispersions with particle or bubble sizes in the range of submicron to 50 microns include homogenization valve systems, colloid mills and high speed mixers. In the first class of high energy devices, referred to as homogenization valve systems, fluid to be processed is pumped under very high pressure through a narrow-gap valve into a lower pressure environment. The pressure gradients across the valve and the resulting turbulence and cavitation act to break-up any particles in the fluid. These valve systems are most commonly used in milk homogenization and can yield average particle sizes in the 0-1 micron range. 
     At the opposite end of the energy density spectrum is the third class of devices referred to as low energy devices. These systems usually have paddles or fluid rotors that turn at high speed in a reservoir of fluid to be processed, which in many of the more common applications is a food product. These low energy systems are customarily used when average particle sizes of greater than 20 microns are acceptable in the processed fluid. 
     Between the low energy devices and homogenization valve systems, in terms of the mixing energy density delivered to the fluid, are colloid mills, which are classified as intermediate energy devices. A typical colloid mill configuration includes a conical or disk rotor that is separated from a complementary, liquid-cooled stator by a closely-controlled rotor-stator gap, which is commonly between 0.0254 and 10.16 mm (0.001-0.40 inch). Rotors are usually driven by an electric motor through a direct drive or belt mechanism. As the rotor rotates at high rates, it pumps fluid between the outer surface of the rotor and the inner surface of the stator, and shear forces generated in the gap process the fluid. Many colloid mills with proper adjustment achieve average particle sizes of 0.1-25 microns in the processed fluid. These capabilities render colloid mills appropriate for a variety of applications including colloid and oil/water-based emulsion processing such as that required for cosmetics, mayonnaise, or silicone/silver amalgam formation, to roofing-tar mixing. 
     An approximation of energy input into the fluid (kW/L/min) can be estimated by measuring the motor energy (kW) and fluid output (L/min). Tip speed is the circumferential distance traveled by the tip of the rotor per unit of time. Tip speed is thus a function of the rotor diameter and the rotational frequency. Tip speed (in meters per minute, for example) may be calculated by multiplying the circumferential distance transcribed by the rotor tip, 2πR, where R is the radius of the rotor (in meters, for example) times the frequency of revolution (in revolutions per minute). A colloid mill, for example, may have a tip speed in excess of 22.9 m/sec (4500 ft/min) and may exceed 40 m/sec (7900 ft/min). For the purposes of this disclosure, the term “high shear” refers to mechanical rotor stator devices (e.g., colloid mills or rotor/stator mixers) that are capable of tip speeds in excess of 5.1 m/sec. (1000 ft/min) and require an external mechanically driven power device to drive energy into the stream of materials to be reacted. For example, in HSD  40 , a tip speed in excess of 22.9 m/sec (4500 ft/min) is achievable, and may exceed 40 m/sec (7900 ft/min). In some embodiments, HSD  40  is capable of delivering at least 300 L/h with a power consumption of about 1.5 kW at a nominal tip speed of at least 22.9 m/sec (4500 ft/min). 
     HSD  40  combines high tip speeds with a very small shear gap to produce significant shear on the material being processed. The amount of shear will be dependant on the viscosity of the fluid. Accordingly, a local region of elevated pressure and temperature is created at the tip of the rotor during operation of the high shear device. In some cases the locally elevated pressure is about 1034.2 MPa (150,000 psi). In some cases the locally elevated temperature is about 500° C. In some cases these local pressure and temperature elevations may persist for nano or pico seconds. In some embodiments, the energy expenditure of the high shear mixer is greater than 1000 W/m 3 . In embodiments, the energy expenditure of HSD  40  is in the range of from about 3000 W/m 3  to about 7500 W/m 3 . The shear rate is the tip speed divided by the shear gap width (minimal clearance between the rotor and stator). The shear rate generated in HSD  40  may be greater than 20,000 s −1 . In some embodiments the shear rate is at least 1,600,000 s −1 . In embodiments, the shear rate generated by HSD  40  is in the range of from 20,000 s −1  to 100,000 s −1 . For example, in one application the rotor tip speed is about 40 m/sec (7900 ft/min) and the shear gap width is 0.0254 mm (0.001 inch), producing a shear rate of 1,600,000 s −1 . In another application the rotor tip speed is about 22.9 msec (4500 ft/min) and the shear gap width is 0.0254 mm (0.001 inch), producing a shear rate of about 902,000 s −1 . 
     In some embodiments, HSD  40  comprises a colloid mill. Suitable colloidal mills are manufactured by IKA® Works, Inc. Wilmington, N.C. and APV North America, Inc. Wilmington, Mass. for example. In some instances, HSD  40  comprises the DISPAX REACTOR® of IKA® Works, Inc. Several models are available having various inlet/outlet connections, horsepower, nominal tip speeds, output rpm, and nominal flow rate. Selection of a particular device will depend on specific throughput requirements for the intended application, and on the desired bubble or particle size in the outlet dispersion from the high shear mixer. In some embodiments, selection of the appropriate mixing tools (generators) within HSD  40  allows for corn flour or grit size reduction and increase in particle surface area. 
     The high shear device comprises at least one revolving element that creates the mechanical force applied to the reactants. The high shear device comprises at least one stator and at least one rotor separated by a clearance. For example, the rotors may be conical or disk shaped and may be separated from a complementary-shaped stator; both the rotor and stator may comprise a plurality of circumferentially-spaced teeth. In some embodiments, the stator(s) are adjustable to obtain the desired gap between the rotor and the stator of each generator (rotor/stator set). Grooves in the rotor and/or stator may change directions in alternate stages for increased turbulence. Each generator may be driven by any suitable drive system configured for providing the necessary rotation. 
     In some embodiments, the minimum clearance between the stator and the rotor is in the range of from about 0.0254 mm to about 3.175 mm (about 0.001 inch to about 0.125 inch). In certain embodiments, the minimum clearance between the stator and rotor is about 1.524 mm (0.060 inch). In certain configurations, the minimum clearance between the rotor and stator is at least 1.778 mm (0.07 inch). The shear rate produced by the high shear mixer may vary with longitudinal position along the flow pathway. In some embodiments, the rotor is set to rotate at a speed commensurate with the diameter of the rotor and the desired tip speed. In some embodiments, the colloidal mill has a fixed clearance between the stator and rotor. Alternatively, the colloid mill has adjustable clearance. 
     In some embodiments, HSD  40  comprises a single stage dispersing chamber (i.e., a single rotor/stator combination, a single generator). In some embodiments, high shear device  40  is a multiple stage inline colloid mill and comprises a plurality of generators. In certain embodiments, HSD  40  comprises at least two generators. In other embodiments, high shear device  40  comprises at least 3 high shear generators. In some embodiments, high shear device  40  is a multistage mixer whereby the shear rate (which varies proportionately with tip speed and inversely with rotor/stator gap) varies with longitudinal position along the flow pathway, as further described herein below. 
     In some embodiments, each stage of the external high shear device has interchangeable mixing tools, offering flexibility. For example, the DR 2000/4 DISPAX REACTOR® of IKA® Works, Inc. Wilmington, N.C. and APV North America, Inc. Wilmington, Mass., comprises a three stage dispersing module. This module may comprise up to three rotor/stator combinations (generators), with choice of fine, medium, coarse, and super-fine for each stage. This allows for creation of dispersions having a narrow distribution of the desired particle size. In some embodiments, each of the stages is operated with super-fine generator. In some embodiments, at least one of the generator sets has a rotor/stator minimum clearance of greater than about 5.08 mm (0.20 inch). In some embodiments, at least one of the generator sets has a minimum rotor/stator clearance of greater than about 1.778 mm (0.07 inch). In some embodiments the rotors are 60 mm and the are stators 64 mm in diameter, providing a clearance of about 4 mm. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 2 , there is presented a longitudinal cross-section of a suitable high shear device  200 . High shear device  200  is a dispersing device comprising three stages or rotor-stator combinations,  220 ,  230 , and  240 . Three rotor/stator sets or generators  220 ,  230 , and  240  are aligned in series along drive input  250 . The first generator  220  comprises rotor  222  and stator  227 . The second generator  230  comprises rotor  223 , and stator  228 ; the third generator  240  comprises rotor  224  and stator  229 . For each generator the rotor is rotatably driven by input  250  and rotates, as indicated by arrow  265 , about axis  260 . Stator  227  is fixedly coupled to high shear device wall  255 . Each generator has a shear gap which is the distance between the rotor and the stator. First generator  220 , comprises a first shear gap  225 ; second generator  230  comprises a second shear gap  235 ; and third generator  240  comprises a third shear gap  245 . In some embodiments, shear gaps  225 ,  235 ,  245  are between about 0.025 mm and 10.0 mm wide. In some embodiments, the process comprises utilization of a high shear device  200  wherein the gaps  225 ,  235 ,  245  are between about 0.5 mm and about 2.5 mm. In certain instances the gap is maintained at about 1.5 mm. Alternatively, the gaps  225 ,  235 ,  245  are different for generators  220 ,  230 ,  240 . In certain instances, the gap  225  for the first generator  220  is greater than about the gap  235  for the second generator  230 , which is in turn greater than about the gap  245  for the third generator. As mentioned above, the generators of each stage may be interchangeable, offering flexibility. 
     Generators  220 ,  230 , and  240  may comprise a coarse, medium, fine, and super-fine characterization. Rotors  222 ,  223 , and  224  and stators  227 ,  228 , and  229  may be toothed designs. Each generator may comprise two or more sets of rotor-stator teeth. Rotors  222 ,  223 , and  224  may comprise a number of rotor teeth circumferentially spaced about the circumference of each rotor. Stators  227 ,  228 , and  229  may comprise a complementary number of stator teeth circumferentially spaced about the circumference of each stator. In some embodiments, the inner diameter of the rotor is about 11.8 cm. In embodiments, the outer diameter of the stator is about 15.4 cm. In certain embodiments, each of three stages is operated with a super-fine generator, comprising a shear gap of between about 0.025 mm and about 3 mm. For applications in which solid particles line corn flour or grit are to be sent through high shear device  200 , shear gap width may be selected for reduction in particle size and increase in particle surface area. In some embodiments, the disperser is configured so that the shear rate will increase stepwise longitudinally along the direction of the flow. The IKA® model DR 2000/4, for example, comprises a belt drive, 4M generator, PTFE sealing ring, inlet flange 25.4 mm (1 inch) sanitary clamp, outlet flange 19 mm (¾ inch) sanitary clamp, 2 HP power, output speed of 7900 rpm, flow capacity (water) approximately 300-700 L/h (depending on generator), a tip speed of from 9.4-41 m/sec (1850 ft/min to 8070 ft/min). 
     Reactor/Vessel. Vessel or reactor  10  is any type of vessel in which an aqueous slurry of grist can be prepared and subsequently removed to pump  5 . For instance, vessel  10  may be a continuous or semi-continuous stirred tank reactor, or it may comprise one or more batch reactors arranged in series or in parallel. One or more line  15  may be connected to vessel  10  for introducing the water, bisulfite solution, or other material. Vessel  10  may include one or more of the following items: stirring system, heating and/or cooling capabilities, pressure measurement instrumentation, temperature measurement instrumentation, one or more injection points, and level regulator (not shown), as are known in the art of reaction vessel design. For example, a stirring system may include a motor driven mixer. A heating and/or cooling apparatus may comprise, for example, a heat exchanger. Line  16  is connected to vessel  10  for removal of the starch product. 
     Heat Transfer Devices. In addition to the above-mentioned heating/cooling capabilities of vessel  10 , other external or internal heat transfer devices for heating or cooling a process stream are also contemplated in variations of the embodiments illustrated in  FIG. 1 . Some suitable locations for one or more such heat transfer devices are between pump  5  and HSD  40 , between HSD  40  and vessel  10 , and between vessel  10  and pump  5  when system  1  is operated in multi-pass mode. Some non-limiting examples of suitable heat transfer devices are shell, tube, plate, and coil heat exchangers, as are known in the art. 
     Pump. Pump  5  is configured for either continuous or semi-continuous operation, and may be any suitable pumping device that is capable of providing greater than 203 kPa (2 atm) pressure, preferably greater than 3 atm pressure, to allow controlled flow through HSD  40  and system  1 . For example, a Roper Type 1 gear pump, Roper Pump Company (Commerce Georgia) Dayton Pressure Booster Pump Model 2P372E, Dayton Electric Co (Niles, Ill.) is one suitable pump. Preferably, all contact parts of the pump comprise stainless steel. If corrosive substances are to be pumped it may be desirable to provide gold plated contact surfaces. In some embodiments of the system, pump  5  is capable of pressures greater than about 2027 kPa (20 atm). In addition to pump  5 , one or more additional, high pressure pump (not shown) may be included in the system illustrated in  FIG. 1 . For example, a booster pump, which may be similar to pump  5 , may be included between HSD  40  and vessel  10  for boosting the pressure into vessel  10 . As another example, a supplemental feed pump, which may be similar to pump  5 , may be included in line  15  for introducing additional water, or bisulfite solution into vessel  10 . Line  21  connects vessel  10  to line  20  for introducing the initial corn slurry into HSD  40  via pump  5  and line  13 , or for multi-pass operation, as further described herein below. As still another example, a compressor type pump may be positioned between line  17  and HSD  40  for recycling SO 2  gas from vessel  10  to an inlet of the high shear device. 
     Production of Starch from Corn Grist 
     With reference to  FIG. 1 , when the system  1  is used to produce starch, the desired quantity of ground corn kernels (referred to as grist) and water are first combined in vessel  10 , which may be a batch reactor or any other suitable vessel, to form a slurry. The grist may be prepared by conventional wet or dry grinding techniques in grinder  4  to coarsely grind the kernels to break the germ loose from other components. Grist is in the form of a meal or flour, depending on how coarsely it is ground. For example, the mean particle size of the grist may be about 2 millimeters in some applications, when it is initially introduced to vessel  10 . For some applications, especially when a more highly refined starch product is desired (i.e., containing minimal residual protein), it is preferred to grind the corn kernels in such a manner that the hulls are fractured without damaging the germ (e.g., using approximately 3-4 millimeter roller clearances). For some applications, the corn kernels are pre-soaked in water (in tank  2 ) prior to wet grinding in grinder  4 . A relatively brief soaking (e.g., about 1-6 hours) in water is employed to soften the kernels, allowing the germ to become hydrated and pliable enough to resist fracturing and breaking during coarse grinding. 
     Using known wet or dry milling techniques, the ground corn is separated to provide a grist containing coarse or fine particles that are substantially free of the hull and germ. The starch-containing grist is fed via line  8  from separator  6  into vessel  10  where it is mixed with water to form a slurry. In some applications the slurry contains about 10-40 wt % grist. The temperature of the slurry in vessel  10  may be controlled using any suitable known method. For example, the reaction stream may be maintained at a specified reaction temperature, using cooling coils in vessel  10  to maintain reaction temperature. The use of additional external heating and/or cooling heat transfer devices is also contemplated in some applications of the process. For some applications, reactor  10  may primarily serve to cool/hold the initial corn grist slurry, as much or a substantial portion of the starch extraction from the corn grist occurs in HSD  40  and during transit through system  1 , as further described below. 
     In lieu of a traditional steeping stage, the slurry in reactor  10  flows through lines  21  and  20  to pump  5  and line  13 , which delivers the slurry to high shear HSD  40 . Potential advantages of eliminating the traditional steeping stage of the process are the reduced opportunity for microbial growth and avoidance of the loss or the need to recover any starch that is released into the steep water. Pump  5  is operated to pump the liquid stream (i.e., corn slurry) from reactor/vessel  10 , via lines  21  and  20 , and to build pressure and feed HSD  40 , providing a controlled flow through line  13  and high shear mixer (HSD)  40 , and throughout high shear system  1 . In some embodiments, pump  5  increases the pressure of the liquid stream to greater than 203 kPa (2 atm), preferably greater than about 304 kPa (3 atm). In some applications, pressures greater than about 2027 kPa (20 atm) may be used to accelerate reactions, with the limiting factor being the pressure limitations of the selected pump  5  and HSD  40 . In many embodiments, it is preferred to keep the pressure high enough throughout system  1  to keep the SO 2  in solution. For the purposes of this disclosure, the terms “superficial pressure” and “superficial temperature” refer to the apparent, bulk, or measured pressure or temperature, respectively, in a vessel, conduit or other apparatus of the system. The actual temperatures and/or pressures at which the components make contact and interact in the microenvironment of a transient cavity produced by the hydrodynamic forces of the high shear mixer may be quite different, as further discussed elsewhere herein. 
     Gaseous SO 2  is injected via line  22  into feed line  13  as the aqueous corn slurry flows into HSD  40 , where the components are subjected to high shear mixing. Additional water may be introduced into line  13 , or, in some embodiments, additional water may be introduced independently into HSD  40 . Alternatively, or additionally, in some circumstances it may be desirable to initially dissolve a portion of the desired amount of sulfur dioxide in the corn slurry in vessel  10  prior to withdrawing the slurry via line  21  and transferring it to HSD  40  via lines  20  and  13 , so that the aqueous slurry contains a corresponding amount of bisulfite ions when it initially enters HSD  40 . In this case, additional SO 2  gas may be introduced into the bisulfite-containing stream via line  22  if necessary for a particular application. 
     After pumping, the corn flour slurry stream  13  mixes with sulfur dioxide gas  22  in HSD  40 , which serves to create fine mixture, emulsion or dispersion of the corn flour, sulfur dioxide gas, and aqueous bisulfite solution. The high shear mixing of the slurry components exposes particle surfaces for more intensive hydration and to facilitate chemical reactions with the dissolved SO 2  and with the emulsified gaseous SO 2 , to enhance the release of starch and gluten from the fiber matrix in the particles. 
     As used herein, the term “dispersion” refers to a liquefied mixture that contains two distinguishable substances (or phases) that will not readily mix and dissolve together. A dispersion comprises a continuous phase (or matrix), which holds therein discontinuous globules, droplets, bubbles, and/or particles of the other phase or substance. The term dispersion may thus refer to foams comprising gas bubbles suspended in a liquid continuous phase, emulsions in which droplets of a first liquid are dispersed throughout a continuous phase comprising a second liquid with which the first liquid is immiscible, and continuous liquid phases throughout which solid particles are distributed. The term “dispersion” encompasses continuous liquid phases throughout which gas bubbles are distributed, continuous liquid phases throughout which solid particles (e.g., corn flour particles) are distributed, continuous phases of a first liquid throughout which droplets of a second liquid that is substantially insoluble in the continuous phase are distributed, and liquid phases throughout which any one or a combination of solid particles, immiscible liquid globules or droplets, and gas bubbles are distributed. Hence, a dispersion can exist as a homogeneous mixture in some cases (e.g., liquid/liquid phase), or as a heterogeneous mixture (e.g., gas/liquid, solid/liquid, or gas/solid/liquid), depending on the nature of the materials selected for combination. 
     In the instant process, the SO 2  gas is highly dispersed such that nanobubbles and microbubbles of SO 2  are formed which enhance dissolution of the SO 2  into the aqueous medium. In some applications, the amount of dissolved SO 2  (sulfite) in the dispersion is no more than about 1-2 wt %, or a specific pH (e.g., 2.5). 
     In HSD  40 , the corn slurry and SO 2  are highly dispersed such that nano- and micro-bubbles containing SO 2 , together with finely dispersed particles of corn, are formed for superior dissolution into solution and/or enhancement of intimate mixing. For example, disperser IKA® model DR 2000/4, a high shear, three stage dispersing device configured with three rotors in combination with stators, aligned in series, is used to create a dispersion of dispersible SO 2  in aqueous medium comprising the corn particles and dissolved SO 2 . The rotor/stator sets may be configured as illustrated in  FIG. 2 , for example. For some applications, the direction of rotation of the generators may be opposite that shown by arrow  265  (e.g., clockwise or counterclockwise about axis of rotation  260 ). The combined reactants entering the high shear mixer via line  13  proceed to a first stage rotor/stator combination having circumferentially spaced first stage shear openings. In some applications, the direction of flow of the reactant stream entering inlet  205  corresponds to the axis of rotation  260 . The coarse dispersion exiting the first stage enters the second rotor/stator stage, having second stage shear openings. The reduced particle-size dispersion emerging from the second stage enters the third stage rotor/stator combination having third stage shear openings. 
     In some embodiments, the shear rate increases stepwise longitudinally along the direction of the flow. For example, in some embodiments, the shear rate in the first rotor/stator stage is greater than the shear rate in subsequent stage(s). In other embodiments, the shear rate is substantially constant along the direction of the flow, with the stage or stages being the same. If the high shear mixer includes a PTFE seal, for example, the seal may be cooled using any suitable technique that is known in the art. For example, the slurry stream flowing in line  13  may be used to cool the seal and in so doing be preheated as desired prior to entering the high shear mixer. 
     The rotor of HSD  40  is set to rotate at a speed commensurate with the diameter of the rotor and the desired tip speed. As described above, the high shear mixer (e.g., colloid mill) has either a fixed clearance between the stator and rotor or has adjustable clearance. HSD  40  serves to intimately mix SO 2  gas and corn particles with the liquid phase (e.g., water and dissolved SO 2 ). In some embodiments of the process, the transport resistance of the slurry components is reduced by operation of the high shear mixer such that the velocity of the reaction is increased by greater than a factor of 5. In some embodiments, the velocity of the reaction is increased by at least a factor of 10. In some embodiments, the velocity is increased by a factor in the range of about 10 to about 100 fold. In some embodiments, HSD  40  delivers at least 300 L/h with a power consumption of 1.5 kW at a nominal tip speed of at least 22.9 m/sec (4500 ft/min), and which may exceed 40 m/sec (7900 ft/min). Although measurement of instantaneous temperature and pressure at the tip of a rotating shear unit or revolving element in HSD  40  is difficult, it is estimated that the localized temperature seen by the intimately mixed reactants is in excess of 500° C. and at pressures in excess of 5000 kPa (500 kg/cm 2 ) under cavitation conditions. The high shear mixing results in dispersion of the corn particles and the SO 2  bubbles as micron or submicron-sized bubbles (i.e., mean diameter less than one micron). In some embodiments, the resultant dispersion has an average bubble size less than about 1.5 μm. In some embodiments, the mean bubble size is less than one micron in diameter. Accordingly, the dispersion exiting HSD  40  via line  18  comprises micron and/or submicron-sized gas-filled bubbles. In some embodiments, their mean size is in the range of about 0.4 μm to about 1.5 μm. In some embodiments, the mean size is less than about 400 nm, in the range of about 200 nm to about 400 nm, or is about 100 nm in some cases. In some embodiments, the sizes of the particles or bubbles in the dispersed phase are less than 1000 nanometers (i.e., submicron or &lt;1 micron in diameter). It is known in emulsion chemistry that sub-micron particles or bubbles dispersed in a liquid undergo movement primarily through Brownian motion effects. Without being limited to a specific theory to explain certain features or benefits of the present methods, it is proposed that sub-micron gas particles created by the high shear mixer have greater mobility thereby facilitating and accelerating at least the hydration reaction through greater transport of water and chemical components. In many embodiments, the dispersion is able to remain dispersed at atmospheric pressure for at least 15 minutes. 
     Once dispersed, the resulting dispersion exits high shear mixer  40  via line  18 . Extraction and solubilization of starch will occur whenever suitable time, temperature and pressure conditions exist, facilitated by the presence of the dissolved and emulsified SO 2 . In this sense, the extraction and solubilization of starch may occur at any point in the flow diagram of  FIG. 1  where temperature and pressure conditions are suitable. In some embodiments, a significant portion of the hydration, extraction and dissolution of starch takes place in the high shear mixer. A discrete reaction vessel (reactor  10 ) is usually desirable, however, to allow for increased residence time, agitation and heating and/or cooling. Accordingly, the output from HSD  40  feeds into vessel  10 , as illustrated in  FIG. 1 , wherein starch extraction and solubilization occurs or continues to take place. If desired, the dispersion may be further processed prior to entering vessel  10 . For example, further mixing in one or more successive high shear mixing devices, similar to HSD  40  with the same or different generator configurations, may be performed, before the process stream enters reactor/vessel  10 . 
     After the highly dispersed mixture is fed into reactor  10  via line  18 , starch release into the slurry may continue to take place. The dispersion may be allowed to stand in vessel  10  for a selected time to permit at least some settling of the solids and release of suspended SO 2  gas bubbles. The temperature of the dispersion in reactor  10  may be appropriately controlled. Vent gas may exit vessel  10  via line  17 . Vent gas stream  17  may comprise SO 2  and other volatile compounds, for example. If desired, the vent gas stream  17  may be further treated to absorb the SO 2  or it may be recovered for recycle to the process using techniques that are known. In some instances, it may be desirable to use a compressor type pump to recycle vent gases in line  17  back into HSD  40 . 
     For some applications of a high shear process, a superficial pressure of less than about 600 kPa and a superficial temperature less than about 200° C. is maintained in at least the high shear mixing device and reactor of system  1 . For the purposes of this disclosure, the terms “superficial pressure” and “superficial temperature” refer to the apparent or measured pressure or temperature, respectively, in a vessel, conduit or apparatus of the starch production system. The actual temperatures and/or pressures at which the reactants make contact and react in the microenvironment of a transient cavity produced by the hydrodynamic forces of the high shear mixer may be quite different. 
     In various applications, starch production is carried out as a multi-pass, continuous flow process or as a single-pass or batch process. Accordingly, the starch product may be produced either continuously, semi-continuously or batch wise, as desired. The product stream comprising extracted, solubilized starch and fully or partially extracted corn particles, and extracted gluten protein exits vessel  10  by line  16 . In some embodiments, a plurality of reactor product lines  16  are used to remove the product. In instances in which a single pass or “once through” process is desired, the use of only a single high shear mixer or a group of multiple high shear mixers in parallel arrangement may be preferred in order to avoid subjecting the extracted starch and protein molecules to excessive shear forces. 
     Multiple Pass Operation. Referring still to  FIG. 1 , the system is configured for either single pass or multi-pass operation, wherein, after the initial preparation of the corn slurry in vessel  10  and commencement of the process, the output from line  16  of vessel  10  goes directly to recovery of the starch product or to further processing, as described below. In some embodiments it may be desirable to pass the contents of vessel  10 , or a portion thereof containing fresh and/or incompletely extracted corn particles, through HSD  40  during a second pass. In this case, the dispersion and the initially solubilized starch may be returned via lines  21  and  20 , pump  5 , and line  13 , to HSD  40 , for further dispersion and reaction. Additional SO 2  may be injected via line  22  into line  13 , or it may be added directly into the high shear mixer, if needed. Additional water may be injected at line  13 , if needed. In some multi-pass embodiments, it is preferred to provide for extraction of protein and oil fractions between passes through the high shear mixer(s). For example, some embodiments may utilize a series of high shear mixing devices with progressively lower shear gaps, and provide for intervening separation of the germ protein and oil, as needed. In such embodiments, the output from line  16  is screened and separated to remove protein (e.g., gluten) and oil from the particulates, which can then be returned as a slurry to HSD  40 . 
     Alternatively, in some embodiments, two or more high shear devices like HSD  40 , or differently configured devices, are aligned in series, and are used to further enhance the reaction. Their operation may be in either batch or continuous mode. In some instances in which a single pass or “once through” process is desired, the use of multiple high shear devices in series may also be advantageous. For instance, in some applications, where shorter starch molecules are desired, the product may be recycled via lines  21  and  20 , to pump  5 , and through high shear mixer  40 , before returning via line  18  to vessel  10 . 
     After the desired processing, the resulting starch-gluten intermediate product is removed from system  1  via line  16  to screen assembly  24  and from there to starch-gluten separator  26 . Suitable screening and separator apparatus are known in the art. In some embodiments, a plurality of outlet lines similar to line  16  are used to remove the starch-gluten intermediate. In screen assembly  24  the resulting dispersion, containing starch, gluten and fiber, flows over screens that catch fiber but allow starch and gluten to pass through. The resulting starch-gluten mixture (mill starch), is transferred to one or more starch separator  26 , which may be a centrifuge or other suitable device, wherein the starch fraction is separated. Because gluten has a lower density than starch, the gluten can be centrifuged out of the starch fraction. If desired, further washing may be done to remove residual protein. The recovered starch may be dried, further processed to obtain derivative products, or it may be used directly as a feedstock to a selected downstream process, such as manufacturing of drilling mud. 
     The application of enhanced mixing of the reactants by HSD  40  potentially causes greater extraction and solubilization of starch in some embodiments of the process. In some embodiments, the enhanced mixing potentiates an increase in throughput of the process stream. In some embodiments, the high shear mixing device is incorporated into an established starch extraction process, thereby causing an increase in production (i.e., greater throughput). Without wishing to be limited to a particular theory, it is believed that the level or degree of high shear mixing is sufficient to increase rates of mass transfer and may also produce localized non-ideal conditions that enable reactions to occur that might not otherwise be expected to occur based on Gibbs free energy predictions. Localized non ideal conditions are believed to occur within the high shear device resulting in increased temperatures and pressures with the most significant increase believed to be in localized pressures. The increase in pressures and temperatures within the high shear device are instantaneous and localized and quickly revert back to bulk or average system conditions once exiting the high shear device. In some cases, the high shear mixing device induces cavitation of sufficient intensity to dissociate one or more of the reactants into free radicals, which may intensify a chemical reaction or allow a reaction to take place at less stringent conditions than might otherwise be required. Cavitation may also increase rates of transport processes by producing local turbulence and liquid micro-circulation (acoustic streaming). An overview of the application of cavitation phenomenon in chemical/physical processing applications is provided by Gogate et al., “Cavitation: A technology on the horizon,”  Current Science  91 (No. 1): 35-46 (2006). The high shear mixing device of certain embodiments of the present system and methods is operated under what is believed to be cavitation conditions effective to dissociate some reactants into free radicals which then. 
     Potential benefits of various embodiments of the present systems and methods for the production of starch include, but are not limited to, faster cycle times, increased throughput, higher extraction and solubilization rates, reduced operating costs and/or reduced capital expense due to the possibility of designing smaller reactors and/or operating the process at lower temperature and/or pressure. In some embodiments, use of the disclosed process comprising reactant mixing via external high shear mixing device  40  allows greater yield of starch and/or an increase in throughput of the reactants. In some embodiments, the method comprises incorporating external high shear mixer into an established starch production plant, thereby making possible an increase in production (greater throughput) compared to a similar process operated without an external high shear mixer. In some embodiments, a disclosed process or system makes possible the design of a smaller and/or less capital intensive process than previously possible without the incorporation of an external high shear mixer. 
     While preferred embodiments of the invention have been shown and described, modifications thereof can be made by one skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and teachings of the invention. The embodiments described herein are exemplary only, and are not intended to be limiting. Many variations and modifications of the invention disclosed herein are possible and are within the scope of the invention. For example, although extraction of starch from corn ( Zea mays ) is discussed in particular, it should be understood that the same or similar processes are applicable to other starting materials as well, including but not limited to, various cereal and root materials including milo, sorgham, wheat, rice, arrowroot, beet, potato and tapioca. “Corn” is considered to be representative of such other suitable source materials for production of starch. 
     Where numerical ranges or limitations are expressly stated, such express ranges or limitations should be understood to include iterative ranges or limitations of like magnitude falling within the expressly stated ranges or limitations (e.g., from about 1 to about 10 includes, 2, 3, 4, etc.; greater than 0.10 includes 0.11, 0.12, 0.13, and so forth). Use of the term “optionally” with respect to any element of a claim is intended to mean that the subject element is required, or alternatively, is not required. Both alternatives are intended to be within the scope of the claim. Use of broader terms such as comprises, includes, having, etc. should be understood to provide support for narrower terms such as consisting of, consisting essentially of, comprised substantially of, and the like. 
     Accordingly, it should be understood that the scope of protection is not limited by the description set out above but is only limited by the claims which follow, that scope including all equivalents of the subject matter of the claims. Each and every original claim is incorporated into the specification as an embodiment of the invention. Thus, the claims are a further description and are an addition to the preferred embodiments of the invention. The disclosures of all patents, patent applications, and publications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference, to the extent they provide exemplary, procedural or other details supplementary to those set forth herein.