Patent Publication Number: US-2022228259-A1

Title: Processes for producing orthopedic implants having a subsurface level ceramic layer applied via bombardment

Description:
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention generally relates to processes for producing orthopedic implants (e.g., hip, knee, shoulder replacements, etc.) having a subsurface level ceramic embedded layer applied via ion bombardment, and related implant products. More specifically, the present invention relates to using an ion beam to implant a relatively uniform layer of ceramic molecules into a subsurface of one or more target orthopedic implants. 
     Orthopedic implants (e.g., prosthetic joints to replace damaged hips, knees, shoulders, etc.) are commonly made of metal alloys such as cobalt chromium (CoCr) or titanium (Ti-6Al-4V). The mechanical properties of such metal alloys are particularly desirable for use in load-bearing applications, such as orthopedic implants. Although, when orthopedic implants are placed within the body, the physiological environment can cause the implant material to wear and corrode over time (especially articulatory surfaces), sometimes resulting in complications that require revision surgery. While hip and knee replacement surgery has been reported to be successful at reducing joint pain for 90-95% of patients, there are several complications that remain and the potential for revision surgery increases at a rate around 1% per year following a successful surgery. These complications can include infection and inflammatory tissue responses stemming from tribological debris particles from metal alloy implants, such as cobalt chromium, as a result of wear and corrosion over time. 
     To reduce the risk of complications from orthopedic implants, ceramic coatings have been applied to address the coefficient of friction of a wear couple, to specifically improve the surface roughness, and to reduce adhesion of a broad range of bacteria for purposes of reducing the rate of infection. For example, alumina (Al 2 O 3 ) and zirconia (ZrO 2 ) are ceramics that have been used to coat the surfaces of orthopedic implants. These ceramic materials provide high wear resistance, reduced surface roughness, and high biocompatibility. But, both materials are not optimal for the fatigue loading of non-spherical geometry of most orthopedic implants due to poor tensile strength and low toughness. Accordingly, the disadvantages of these ceramic coatings, while addressing issues related to high wear resistance and surface roughness, cannot address other failure modes such as tensile strength and impact stresses. 
     Conventionally, ceramic coatings such as silicon nitride have been applied to the implant surface by a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process or a physical vapor deposition (PVD) process. In one example, a PVD process is used to coat an implant joint with an external layer of silicon nitride. More specifically, such a process includes placing the implant, a silicon-containing material, and nitrogen gas (N 2 ) in a chamber that is heated to between 100-600 degrees Celsius. In response to the high temperatures, silicon atoms sputter from the silicon-containing material and subsequently react with the nitrogen gas at the heated surface of the implant to deposit a silicon nitride over-coat. One problem with this process is that there is no diffusion of the deposited silicon nitride molecules into the substrate material. That is, the silicon nitride is simply applied as an over-surface coating having a distinct boundary line between the deposited over-coating and the underlying substrate of the orthopedic implant. The adverse result is that the silicon nitride still experiences relatively poor surface adhesion and, over time, this over-surface coating can wear off, especially when the surface is an articulating surface (e.g., a ball-and-socket joint). 
     While vapor deposition of silicon nitride has been shown to work as an over-surface coating to certain orthopedic materials, such application is typically more expensive and less efficient than alumina or zirconia ceramic coatings. Moreover, it is often difficult, if not impossible, to attain a uniform application of silicon nitride to all surfaces of the orthopedic implant using known vapor deposition processes, such as those mentioned above. As a result, some areas of the over-surface coating have an undesirably thin layer of silicon nitride, wherein such areas are even more prone to reduced protection and wear. Alternatively, silicon nitride has also been used as the bulk or base material for orthopedic implants, but the production of a silicon nitride-based orthopedic implant is limited in size and inefficient to produce. 
     Recently, newer coating processes have been developed to provide greater adhesion by promoting diffusion of the coating material at the interface of the substrate and coating layers. Ion beam enhanced deposition (IBED), also known as ion beam assisted deposition (IBAD), is a process by which accelerated ions drive a vapor phase coating material into the subsurface of a substrate. Coatings applied by IBED may have greater adhesion than similar coatings applied by a conventional PVD process. Coatings applied by IBED may also have less delamination under impact stresses. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 7,790,216 to Popoola, the contents of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety, discloses a method of bombarding a medical implant with zirconium ions and then heating the implant in an oxygenated environment to induce the formation of zirconia (ZrO 2 ) at the surface. In this respect, the ion beam drives the zirconium ions to a certain depth within the surface of the implant known as the “intermix zone”. Heat treatment within the oxygenated environment results in an embedded zirconia surface layer of approximately 5 micrometer (μm) thickness. The zirconia surface layer effectively penetrates the substrate and thereby resists delamination. But, this production method can be inefficient due to the high energy requirement for the heat treatment step. Likewise, the mechanical properties of the zirconia surface layer formed are not as desirable as those of a ceramic surface layer, which is incompatible with a heat treatment step. 
     There exists, therefore, a need in the art for processes for producing orthopedic implants having a subsurface ceramic layer applied via ion bombardment that provides greater integration of ceramics into the implant, thereby providing greater resistance to the emission of tribological debris. Such processes may include placing an orthopedic implant in a vacuum chamber, vaporizing at least two different metalloid or transition metal elements within the chamber, and bombarding a surface of the orthopedic implant with an ion beam sufficient to drive ceramic molecules into the subsurface of the medical implant. The present invention fulfills these needs and provides further related advantages. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In one embodiment, a process for producing an orthopedic implant having an integrated ceramic surface layer as disclosed herein may include steps for positioning the orthopedic implant inside a vacuum chamber, vaporizing at least two different metalloid or transition metal atoms inside the vacuum chamber, emitting a relatively high energy beam into the at least two different vaporized metalloid or transition metal atoms inside the vacuum chamber to form ceramic molecules, and driving the ceramic molecules with the same beam into an outer surface of the orthopedic implant at a relatively high energy level such that the ceramic molecules implant therein and form at least a part of the molecular structure of the outer surface of the orthopedic implant, thereby forming the integrated ceramic surface layer. An intermix layer may be formed underneath the integrated ceramic surface layer, depending on the energy intensity of the beam. Here, the intermix layer may include a mixture of the ceramic molecules and a base material of the orthopedic implant. The base material may be a metal alloy selected from the group consisting of cobalt, titanium, and zirconium, a ceramic material selected from the group consisting of alumina and zirconia, an organic polymer, or a composite organic polymer. Moreover, in some embodiments, the intermix layer may be integrated with the base material such that the integrated ceramic surface layer and the base material cooperate to sandwich the intermix layer in between. 
     In one aspect of these embodiments, the beam may include an ion beam that emits nitrogen ions selected from the group consisting of N+ ions and N 2 + ions. Accordingly, the emitting step may include delivering the nitrogen ions at a rate of about 1-5 nitrogen ions for each vaporized metalloid or transition metal atom. The metalloid atoms may include silicon (Si), and the transition metal atoms may include titanium (Ti), silver (Ag), gold (Au), niobium (Nb), chromium (Cr), or Molybdenum (Mo). In one embodiment, the integrated ceramic surface layer may be a non-oxide nitride ceramic including at least two of the aforementioned elements and nitrogen. The ceramic surface layer, e.g., may include molecules selected from the group consisting of SiNAg, SiAuN, SiNbN, SiCrN, SiMoN, TiSiN, TiNAg, TiNAu, TiNbN, TiCrN, TiMoN, AgAuN, NbNAg, CrNAg, MoNAg AuNbN, AuCrN, AuMoN, NbCrN, NbMoN, and CrMoN. Of course, any combination and number of the different elements may be used so long as a ceramic is formed. For example, if titanium, niobium, and silver are used, the ceramic surface layer may be TiNbNAg. 
     During the emitting step, the relatively high energy beam may have an energy level between 0.1-100 kiloelectron volts (KeV), yet the temperature of the outer surface of the orthopedic implant may simultaneously remain below 200 degrees Celsius. The beam may propagate relative to the orthopedic implant, and the positioning step may include mounting the orthopedic implant to a selectively movable platen for repositioning an orientation of the orthopedic implant relative to the beam. 
     In other aspects of these embodiments, the outer surface of the orthopedic implant may be cleaned prior to implantation by setting the beam to an energy level between about 1-1000 electron volts. Additionally, an evaporator positioned within the vacuum chamber may vaporize metalloid or transition metal atoms off a metalloid or transition metal ingot at a rate determined by the desired ratio of nitrogen molecules to metalloid and/or transition metal atoms inside the vacuum chamber at any given time during the process. Here, for example, the formation rate of the ceramic molecules may be regulated by adjusting the beam energy or beam density. Additionally, the quantity of vaporized metalloid and/or transition metal atoms may be further controlled by backfilling the vacuum chamber with the same. The resultant integrated ceramic surface layer may have a substantially uniform thickness where the ceramic molecules are driven into the orthopedic implant. In some embodiments, the driving step may include the step of applying the integrated ceramic surface layer to less than an entire outer surface area of the orthopedic implant. The integrated ceramic surface layer may substantially include the ceramic molecules. 
     In another embodiment, a process for producing an orthopedic implant having an integrated ceramic surface layer may include steps for positioning the orthopedic implant inside a vacuum chamber, vaporizing at least two different metalloid or transition metal atoms inside the vacuum chamber, emitting ions via a relatively high energy ion beam into the at least two different vaporized metalloid or transition metal atoms in the vacuum chamber to cause a collision between the ions and the at least two different vaporized metalloid or transition metal atoms to form ceramic molecules, and driving the ceramic molecules with the ion beam into an outer surface of the orthopedic implant at a relatively high energy such that the ceramic molecules implant therein and form at least a part of the molecular structure of the outer surface of the orthopedic implant simultaneously while maintaining the outer surface of the orthopedic implant at a temperature below 200 degrees Celsius, thereby forming the integrated ceramic surface layer (e.g., substantially made from ceramic molecules). Here, an intermix layer may form underneath the integrated ceramic surface layer and include a mixture of subsurface level ceramic molecules and a base material of the orthopedic implant. In one embodiment, the intermix layer may be molecularly integrated with the base material, and the integrated ceramic surface layer and the base material may cooperate to sandwich the intermix layer in between. 
     In some embodiments, the vaporized metalloid atoms may be silicon, the transition metal atoms may be selected from the group consisting of titanium, silver, gold, niobium, chromium, or molybdenum, and the integrated ceramic surface layer may be a non-oxide nitride ceramic, including molecules selected from the group consisting of SiNAg, SiAuN, SiNbN, SiCrN, SiMoN, TiSiN, TiNAg, TiNAu, TiNbN, TiCrN, TiMoN, AgAuN, NbNAg, CrNAg, MoNAg AuNbN, AuCrN, AuMoN, NbCrN, NbMoN, and CrMoN. Additionally, the base material may be made from a metal alloy selected from the group consisting of cobalt, titanium, and zirconium, a ceramic material selected from the group consisting of alumina and zirconia, an organic polymer, or a composite organic polymer. The ion beam may include nitrogen ions selected from the group consisting of N+ ions or N2+ ions, and the emitting step may further include delivering the nitrogen ions at a rate of about 1-5 nitrogen ions for each vaporized metalloid or transition metal atom. 
     In other aspects of these embodiments, the process may include steps for cleaning the outer surface of the orthopedic implant with the ion beam at an energy level between about 1-1000 electron volts, regulating a formation rate of the ceramic molecules by adjusting an energy level or a beam density of the ion beam, propagating the ion beam, and/or backfilling the vacuum chamber with vaporized metalloid atoms or transition metal atoms. Additionally, the vaporizing step may further include evaporating the at least two different metalloid or transition metal atoms off at least two different metalloid or transition metal ingots. The positioning step may further include the step of mounting the orthopedic implant to a selectively movable platen for repositioning an orientation of the orthopedic implant relative to the ion beam, and the driving step may include applying the integrated ceramic surface layer to less than an entire outer surface area of the orthopedic implant on the selectively movable platen. To this end, the integrated ceramic surface layer may have a substantially uniform thickness where driven into the orthopedic implant. 
     In another process disclosed herein, producing an orthopedic implant having an integrated ceramic surface layer may include steps for positioning the orthopedic implant inside a vacuum chamber, vaporizing at least two different metalloid or transition metal atoms off at least two different metalloid or transition metal ingots with at least one evaporator, and emitting ions via a relatively high energy ion beam having an energy level between 0.1 and 20 kiloelectron volts (KeV) into the at least two different vaporized metalloid or transition metal atoms in the vacuum chamber to cause a collision between the ions and the at least two different vaporized metalloid or transition metal atoms, thereby forming ceramic molecules. The outer surface of the orthopedic implant may be cleaned with the ion beam by setting the initial energy level between about 1-1000 electron volts. Thereafter, the ceramic molecules may be driven with the same ion beam into the outer surface of the orthopedic implant albeit at the same or a relatively higher energy level such that the ceramic molecules implant therein and form at least a part of the molecular structure of the outer surface of the orthopedic implant simultaneously while maintaining the outer surface of the orthopedic implant at a temperature below 200 degrees Celsius. Such a process may form the integrated ceramic surface layer therein. 
     The orthopedic implant may be mounted to a selectively movable platen within the vacuum chamber for repositioning an orientation of the orthopedic implant relative to the ion beam. In this embodiment, the formation rate of the ceramic molecules may be regulated by adjusting an energy level or a density of the ion beam. The driving step may also include the step of applying the integrated ceramic surface layer to less than an entire outer surface area of the orthopedic implant. Additionally, backfilling the vacuum chamber with the vaporized metalloid and/or transition metal atoms may maintain the desired ratios, e.g., including in embodiments where the ion beam includes nitrogen ions selected from the group consisting of N+ ions or N 2 + ions. Moreover, the emitting step may include the step of delivering the nitrogen ions at a rate of about 1-5 nitrogen ions for each vaporized metalloid atom, for each transition metal atom, or for a combination of metalloid and transition metal atoms. 
     The vaporized metalloid atoms may include silicon (Si), and the vaporized transition metal atoms may include titanium (Ti), silver (Ag), gold (Au), niobium (Nb), chromium (Cr), or Molybdenum (Mo). In one embodiment, the ceramic surface layer may be a non-oxide nitride ceramic including at least two of the aforementioned elements and nitrogen. The ceramic surface layer, e.g., may be SiNAg, SiAuN, SiNbN, SiCrN, SiMoN, TiSiN, TiNAg, TiNAu, TiNbN, TiCrN, TiMoN, AgAuN, NbNAg, CrNAg, MoNAg, AuNbN, AuCrN, AuMoN, NbCrN, NbMoN, CrMoN, etc. Of course, more than two of any combination of the different elements may be used as long as a ceramic is formed. For example, if titanium, niobium, and silver are used, the ceramic surface layer may be TiNbNAg. 
     In another aspect of these embodiments, an intermix layer may be formed underneath the integrated ceramic surface layer and molecularly integrated with a base material. Here, the intermix layer may include a mixture of subsurface level ceramic molecules and the base material of the orthopedic implant. As such, in this embodiment, the integrated ceramic surface layer and the base material may cooperate to sandwich the intermix layer in between. The integrated ceramic surface layer may include a substantially uniform thickness where driven into the orthopedic implant, such as by a propagating the ion beam, and the integrated ceramic surface layer may substantially include the ceramic molecules. The base material, in particular, may be made of a metal alloy selected from the group consisting of cobalt, titanium, and zirconium, a ceramic material selected from the group consisting of alumina and zirconia, an organic polymer, or a composite organic polymer. 
     Other features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following more detailed description, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which illustrate, by way of example, the principles of the invention. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The accompanying drawings illustrate the invention. In such drawings: 
         FIG. 1  is a flowchart illustrating a process for producing orthopedic implants having a subsurface level ceramic bombardment layer, as disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 2  is a diagrammatic view of an ion beam enhanced deposition (IBED) chamber, in accordance with the embodiments disclosed herein; 
         FIG. 3 a    is a diagrammatic view illustrating interaction of an ion beam with vaporized metalloid and/or transition metal atoms; 
         FIG. 3 b    is a diagrammatic view illustrating the ion beam promoting reaction of the vaporized metalloid and/or transition metal atoms to form ceramic molecules; 
         FIG. 4 a    is a diagrammatic view illustrating the ion beam driving the ceramic molecules into the angling and/or rotating surface of the orthopedic implant, thereby forming a subsurface intermixed layer; 
         FIG. 4 b    is a diagrammatic view illustrating the ion beam further driving the ceramic molecules into the angling and/or rotating surface of the orthopedic implant, thereby forming a subsurface ceramic layer of relatively uniform thickness over the subsurface intermixed layer; and 
         FIG. 5  is a cross-sectional view of the orthopedic implant having the subsurface ceramic layer produced by the ion beam implantation or bombardment of the ceramic molecules therein. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     As shown in the exemplary drawings for purposes of illustration, the processes for producing orthopedic implants having a subsurface level ceramic bombardment layer is referred to by numeral ( 100 ) with respect to the flowchart in  FIG. 1 , while  FIGS. 2-4   b  more specifically illustrate the operation of said processes, and  FIG. 5  illustrates an exemplary orthopedic implant with a subsurface level ceramic bombardment layer  10 . More specifically, the first step ( 102 ) in the process ( 100 ), as shown in  FIG. 1 , is to mount an orthopedic implant workpiece  12  onto an angling and/or rotating part platen  14  inside a vacuum chamber  16  suitable for performing ion beam implantation (e.g., ion beam enhanced deposition (IBED)). The processes disclosed herein improve the integration of a ceramic into the orthopedic implant by kinetically driving ceramic molecules into a subsurface layer of the orthopedic implant. This improved integration of the ceramic reduces delamination and prevents future wear and corrosion. Furthermore, the processes disclosed herein can reduce energy costs by performing the IBED process at temperatures well below 200 degrees Celsius and without a heat treatment step. Accordingly, the processes disclosed herein also reduce energy costs associated with manufacturing the related implant products. 
     More specifically,  FIG. 2  illustrates the orthopedic implant workpiece  12  mounted to the angling and/or rotating part platen  14  within the vacuum chamber  16 . The orthopedic implant workpiece  10  may be made from a variety of metal alloys known in the art, such as cobalt, titanium, zirconium alloy, etc. In other embodiments, the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  may be made from ceramic materials known in the art, such as alumina (Al 2 O 3 ) or zirconia (ZrO 2 ). In still other embodiments, the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  may be made from organic polymers or composites of organic polymers. Of course, persons of ordinary skill in the art may recognize that the processes disclosed herein may be used with other types of materials, and that the scope of the present disclosure should not be limited only to those materials mentioned above. The part platen  14  may be able to rotate about a center axis  18  and/or tilt about a vertical axis  20  to facilitate maximum exposure of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  to an ion beam  22  during the ceramic implantation process. In one embodiment, the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  may couple to the part platen  14  via an attachment  24  that may include a grip, clamp, or other device having a high friction surface to retain (e.g., by compression fit) the orthopedic implant workpiece  10 . In this respect, any attachment known in the art capable of sufficiently securing the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  to the part platen  14 , as the part platen  14  rotates and/or tilts, will suffice. The vacuum chamber  16  maintains a high vacuum environment during the ceramic implantation process to promote the propagation of ions from the ion beam  22  toward the surfaces of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10 . The high vacuum environment additionally reduces the amount of contaminant gases present to prevent contamination of a ceramic layer  26  (shown best in  FIG. 5 ) subsequently bombarded or implanted into a surface  28  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10 . In further embodiments, a plurality of the part platens  12  may be present within the vacuum chamber  16  during the ceramic implantation process. In this embodiment, a plurality of the orthopedic implant workpieces  10  may be mounted in an array on each of the part platens  12  to produce multiple ceramic-implanted orthopedic implants  10  during each ceramic implantation process. 
     Once the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  has been mounted on the part platen  14 , the next step ( 104 ), as shown in  FIG. 1 , is to energize an ion beam generator  30  to produce the ion beam  22  of energized nitrogen ions capable of penetrating into the surface  28  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  as it rotates about the center axis  18  and/or pivots about the vertical axis  20 . Here,  FIG. 2  illustrates the ion beam generator  30  emitting the ion beam  22  directed at the surface  28  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10 . In one example, the ion beam generator  30  can include a Kaufman ion source (e.g., a gridded broad beam ion source of permanent magnet design). The ion beam generator  30  can be capable of delivering nitrogen ions (e.g., N+ ions and/or N 2 + ions) at beam energies up to 102 kiloelectron volts (KeV) at currents up to 6 mA. In one embodiment, the beam energy may be in the range of 0.1 to 100 KeV; and in another embodiment, the beam energy may be in the range of 0.1 to 20 KeV. The ion beam  22  initially bombards the surface  28  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  with energized nitrogen ions during an ion beam cleaning process, thereby cleaning and augmenting the surface  28  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10 . Specifically, the initial bombardment of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  during step ( 104 ) efficiently removes absorbed water vapor, hydrocarbons, and other substrate surface contaminants from the surface  28  of orthopedic implant workpiece  10 . Removal of the substrate surface contaminants results in better implantation when the ceramic layer  26  is subsequently added to the subsurface of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10 . Step ( 104 ) may also create defects in the surface  28  of orthopedic implant workpiece  10  which further promotes the subsequent implantation of the ceramic layer  26 . At step ( 104 ) of the ceramic implantation process, relatively low energy ions (e.g., at beam energies between 1-1000 eV) can be employed to minimize sputtering at the surface  28  of orthopedic implant workpiece  10 , while still being sufficiently energetic to produce the desired effects mentioned above. 
     Once the surface  28  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  has been cleaned and augmented by the ion beam  22 , the next step ( 106 ) in accordance with  FIG. 1  is to diffuse a mixture  32  of at least two different vaporized metalloid or transition metal atoms into the vacuum chamber  16 . In one embodiment, the metalloid and/or transition metal atoms vaporized into the vacuum chamber  16  may be silicon (Si), titanium (Ti), silver (Ag), gold (Au), niobium (Nb), chromium (Cr), or Molybdenum (Mo), or any combination thereof. Although, of course, any metalloid and/or transition metal atoms may be compatible with the processes disclosed herein. In this respect, a silicon, titanium, silver, gold, niobium, chromium, and/or molybdenum ingot can be used as source materials to produce the mixture  32 . In this regard, as shown in  FIG. 2 , a first evaporator  34  located within the vacuum chamber  16  may produce a quantity of a first vaporized metalloid or transition metal atom  36  by electron beam evaporation, and a second evaporator  34 ′ may produce a quantity of a second vaporized metalloid or transition metal atom  36 ′ by electron beam evaporation. Here, the evaporators  34 ,  34 ′ may direct an electron beam (not shown) at a silicon, titanium, silver, gold, niobium, chromium, and/or molybdenum ingot workpiece (also not shown) to provide a direct flux of the vaporized metalloid or transition metal atoms  36 ,  36 ′, which disperse within the vacuum chamber  16  as shown. In alternative embodiments, a single evaporator  34  may be used to produce the at least two different vaporized metalloid or transition metal elements  36 ,  36 ′. The ion beam  22  may then energize the mixture  32  to form ceramic molecules  42 , as discussed in detail herein. 
     Once the mixture  32  has been introduced into the vacuum chamber  16 , the next step ( 108 ) as shown in  FIG. 1  is to promote and control the reaction of the at least two different vaporized metalloid or transition metal atoms  36 ,  36 ′ in the mixture  32  using the ion beam  22 , as shown in  FIGS. 3 a -3 b   . First, the positively charged nitrogen ions of the ion beam  22  collide with and kinetically excite the at least two different vaporized metalloid or transition metal atoms  36 ,  36 ′ to promote the reaction process generally shown in  FIG. 3 a   . Once kinetically excited, the vaporized metalloid or transition metal atoms  36 ,  36 ′ react to form the ceramic molecules  42  as shown in  FIG. 3 b   . The ceramic molecules  42  may be non-oxide nitride ceramic molecules and, e.g., may include SiNAg, SiAuN, SiNbN, SiCrN, SiMoN, TiSiN, TiNAg, TiNAu, TiNbN, TiCrN, TiMoN, AgAuN, NbNAg, CrNAg, MoNAg, AuNbN, AuCrN, AuMoN, NbCrN, NbMoN, CrMoN, etc. Of course, any combination of the different elements may be used so long as the ceramic molecules  42  are formed. For example, if titanium, niobium, and silver are used, the ceramic molecules  42  may be TiNbNAg. The rate of formation of the ceramic molecules  42  can be controlled by varying the energy and/or the density of the ion beam  22 . For example, increasing the energy and/or density of the ion beam  22  increases the rate of formation of the ceramic molecules  42 , and vice versa. As the vaporized metalloid and/or transition metal atoms  36 ,  36 ′ react during step ( 108 ) to form ceramic molecules  42 , a controlled backfill of vaporized metalloid and/or transition metal atoms  36 ,  36 ′ may be employed to maintain the desired concentration of reactant molecules in the vacuum chamber  16 . 
     In some embodiments of the processes disclosed herein, steps ( 106 ) and ( 108 ) may be performed without halting the cleaning process described in step ( 104 ). That is, the vaporized metalloid and/or transition metal atoms  36 ,  36 ′ may be introduced into the vacuum chamber  16  without halting the ion beam cleaning process of step ( 104 ). In this way, the ion beam  22  immediately begins promoting the reaction of the vaporized metalloid and/or transition metal atoms  36 ,  36 ′ once introduced into vacuum chamber  16 . This can be more efficient from a manufacturing standpoint by reducing the duration required to perform the ceramic implantation process disclosed herein. Additionally, introducing the vaporized metalloid and/or transition metal atoms  36 ,  36 ′ without halting the cleaning process can prevent subsequent contamination of the substrate surface  28 . This may further promote generation of the subsurface ceramic layer  26  in the surface  28  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10 . 
     Once the ceramic molecules  42  are formed, the ion beam  22  subsequently drives the ceramic molecules  42  into the surface  28  of the rotating and/or pivoting orthopedic implant workpiece  10 , per step ( 110 ) in  FIG. 1 . The high-energy nitrogen ions of the ion beam  22  collide with the ceramic molecules  42  to impart kinetic energy thereto. The energized ceramic molecules  42  subsequently collide with the surface  28  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  and bombard or implant therein, thereby initially forming a subsurface intermixed layer  44 , as shown in  FIG. 4 a   . The ceramic molecules  42  bombarded or implanted therein integrate with the surface  28 , as opposed to simply be deposited on the surface  28  as an over surface coating, as is the current practice with known silicon nitride deposition procedures. The intermixed layer  44  is basically a transition region wherein the surface molecules  46  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  become intermixed with the ceramic molecules  42  as a result of the energized bombardment by way of the ion beam  22 . The accumulation of ceramic molecules  42  within the intermixed layer  44  results in alloyed ceramic molecules  42  and substrate molecules  46 . By varying the energy and/or density of the beam  22 , persons skilled in the art can vary the depth into which the ceramic molecules  42  are driven. 
     As the intermixed layer  44  develops, the ion beam  22  continues to drive the ceramic molecules  42  into the subsurface of the surface  28  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10 . As shown in  FIG. 4 b   , through time, the ceramic layer  26  subsequently begins to form above the intermixed layer  44 . The depth the ceramic layer  26  forms into the subsurface of the surface  28  varies according to various variables, including the energy and/or density of the ion beam  22  (i.e., higher energy or greater density results in a thicker or deeper ceramic layer  26 , and vice versa) and/or the duration of bombardment with the ion beam  22  (i.e., a longer bombardment in a particular area may result in a thicker or deeper ceramic layer  26 , and vice versa). Similarly, varying the rate of nitrogen ion arrival can affect the stoichiometry of the resulting ceramic layer  26 . For example, the nitrogen ion arrival rate may be in the range of about one (1) nitrogen ion to about five (5) nitrogen ions for each vaporized metalloid and/or transition metal atoms  36 ,  36 ′ in the mixture  32 . Persons of ordinary skill in the art may vary the nitrogen ion arrival rate to obtain a ceramic suitable for the desired application. 
     As a result of step ( 110 ), the ceramic layer  26  is molecularly integrated into the subsurface of the surface  28  (e.g., as shown in  FIG. 5 ) of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  and exhibits superior retention relative to silicon nitride coatings simply deposited as an over coating on the surface  28  by traditional PVD processes. This is due, at least in part, to the high strength of the alloy bond formed at an atomic level by the ion bombardment, which creates the intermixed layer  44  between the ceramic layer  26  and the surface molecules  46  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10 . As such, this ultimately changes the atomic foundation of the subsurface of the orthopedic implant workpiece  12 . As the bombardment continues, the outermost ceramic layer  26  builds up, and does so over the entire orthopedic implant workpiece  12  as it rotates and/or pivots with the part platen  14 . Although, of course, the processes disclosed herein may include application to only a part of the orthopedic implant workpiece  12 , e.g., the articulation surfaces, as opposed to the entire orthopedic implant workpiece  12 . The articulation surfaces may later be polished, along with adjacent surfaces or other fixation surfaces. The material properties of the orthopedic implant workpiece  12 , in combination with the energy intensity characteristics of the ion beam  22 , limit the penetration depth to attain a more consistently uniform ceramic layer  26 . In this regard, the ceramic layer  26  is less likely to delaminate from the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  when compared to conventional PVD coatings. As such, the processes and implants disclosed herein are able to attain the benefits of ceramics across different types of surface finishes and surface requirements of an orthopedic implant. 
     During step ( 110 ), the surface  28  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  increases in temperature as a result of bombardment by the ion beam  22 . As such, a cooler can be utilized to cool the ceramic layer  26 , the intermixed layer  44 , and/or orthopedic implant workpiece  10  in general to prevent adverse or unexpected changes in the material properties due to heating. In this respect, cooling may occur in and/or around the area of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10  being bombarded or implanted with the ceramic layer  26 , and including the part platen  14 . Water or air circulation-based coolers may be used with the processes disclosed herein to provide direct or indirect cooling of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10 . 
       FIG. 5  is a diagrammatic cross-sectional view illustrating the surface  28  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10 , including the resultant intermixed layer  44  and the ceramic layer  26  formed into the subsurface thereof. The processes disclosed herein result in the intermixed layer  44  having a thickness  48  and the ceramic layer  26  having an implantation thickness  50 , as shown in  FIG. 5 . The intermixed layer  44  is positioned generally between the unaffected surface molecules  46  and the ceramic layer  26 . Accordingly, the intermixed layer  44  may form a uniform layer immediately above the unaffected surface molecules  46 , such as designated by a boundary  52 , and the ceramic layer  26  may form a uniform layer immediately above the intermixed layer  44 , such as designated by a boundary  54 . The intermixed width  48  and the depth of the boundary  52  may vary depending on the energy and/or density of the ion beam  22 , to increase (i.e., higher energy and/or density) or decrease (i.e., lower energy and/or density) the integration or implantation of the ceramic molecules  42  into the subsurface of the surface  28  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10 . Likewise, the implantation thickness  50  and the depth of the boundary  54  may vary depending on the energy and/or density of the ion beam  22 , to increase (i.e., higher energy and/or density) or decrease (i.e., lower energy and/or density) the integration or implantation of the ceramic molecules  42  into the subsurface of the surface  28  of the orthopedic implant workpiece  10 . In an exemplary embodiment, the intermixed width  48  may be between 0.1-100 nanometers, while the implantation thickness  50  may be between 1-10,000 nanometers. 
     The resulting ceramic layer  26  may exhibit excellent tribological properties, including long-term material stability and high biocompatibility, at least relative to alumina. Likewise, the ceramics may be semitransparent to X-rays and non-magnetic, thereby allowing MRI of soft tissues proximal to ceramic coated implants. Meanwhile, the ceramics may also have wear rates comparable to alumina. Furthermore, unlike zirconia, which is a good conductor of electricity, the ceramics may advantageously have high electrical resistivity, such as on the order of 10 16  Ω·cm. Ceramics, e.g., containing silver (Ag) may have anti-microbial and/or anti-colonial properties that inhibit or prevent the growth of bacteria on the implant. 
     Although several embodiments have been described in detail for purposes of illustration, various modifications may be made without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Accordingly, the invention is not to be limited, except as by the appended claims.