Patent Publication Number: US-2023145416-A1

Title: High performance power sources integrating an ion media and radiation

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 63/278,151, filed Nov. 11, 2021, U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 63/293,816, filed Dec. 26, 2021, U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 63/293,864, filed Dec. 27, 2021, and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 63/406,079, filed Sep. 13, 2022, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This disclosure generally relates to generating electrical power using ionizing radiation from radioactive decay. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Some techniques of creating sustainable energy have negative environmental consequences. Energy generation techniques can be massive in scale, not portable, inefficient, and expensive. A hydrocarbon free, sustainable electricity generated from radioactive decay sources is desirable. Radionuclide sources have a very high-power density potential. Radionuclide sources have a smaller environmental impact compared to energy sources such as coal, oil, gas, nuclear fission reactors, nuclear fusion reactors, solar generators, wind generators, burning biomass, or any thermal conversion process that is used to make steam. 
     SUMMARY 
     In general, this disclosure relates to high performance power sources integrating an ion media and radiation. The power sources can include systems, apparatus, and devices for generating electrical power. The disclosed technology includes a fuel cell that captures the energy of emitted particles or electromagnetic radiation from any radioactive source, and converts the energy to useful electricity through a process of ionization within an electrostatic field. 
     In some examples, an ionizing, non-conductive media suspends a radioactive source within an electrostatic field between charged electrodes. The electrodes are formed from an electrically conductive material. The electrodes are connected to a voltage supply, such that the electrodes have opposite polarities. An initial starting circuit energizes the electrodes. The charged electrodes are configured to generate the electrostatic field and to function as collector plates, collecting charge generated from ionization reactions. 
     Radiation emitted from the radioactive sources ionizes the surrounding ion media, which can be gas, liquid, or solid. The ionization creates ions that are attracted to the electrically polarized collector plates. A current path is created by a load in a connecting electrical circuit with the electrodes. Excess current generated by the ionization is drawn off to, and provides electrical power to, the load in the electrical circuit. 
     In general, one innovative aspect of the subject matter described in this specification can be embodied in a device including a radioactive source that emits radiation including at least one of: electrically charged particles; electrically neutral particles; or electromagnetic radiation; ion media positioned adjacent to the radioactive source, wherein the ion media comprises a material that releases electrons in response to exposure to radiation; a set of two or more electrodes configured to: establish an electric field across the ion media; capture electrons released by the ion media in response to exposure to radiation emitted by the radioactive source; and generate electric current from the captured electrons. 
     In general, one innovative aspect of the subject matter described in this specification can be embodied in one or more systems that include an electrical load; a power supply for powering the electrical load, the power supply comprising: a radioactive source that emits radiation including at least one of: electrically charged particles; electrically neutral particles; or electromagnetic radiation; ion media positioned adjacent to the radioactive source, wherein the ion media comprises a material that releases electrons in response to exposure to radiation; a set of two or more electrodes configured to: establish an electric field across the ion media; capture electrons released by the ion media in response to exposure to radiation emitted by the radioactive source; and generate electric current from the captured electrons, wherein the electrical load is powered from the electric current generated by the set of two or more electrodes. 
     In general, one innovative aspect of the subject matter described in this specification can be embodied in methods that include the actions of establishing, by a set of two or more electrodes, an electric field across ion media positioned adjacent to a radioactive source, wherein: the radioactive source emits radiation including at least one of: electrically charged particles, electrically neutral particles, or electromagnetic radiation; and the ion media comprises a material that releases electrons in response to exposure to radiation; capturing, by the set of two or more electrodes, electrons released by the ion media in response to exposure to radiation emitted by the radioactive source; and generating, by the set of two or more electrodes, the electric current from the captured electrons. 
     The foregoing and other implementations can each optionally include one or more of the following features, alone or in combination. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the set of two or more electrodes comprises: a first electrode and a second electrode configured to establish the electric field across the ion media, wherein, when the electric field is established: the first electrode has a positive charge; and the second electrode has a negative charge. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the first electrode comprises a plate extending in a first plane; and the second electrode comprises a plate extending in a second plane that is parallel to the first plane. 
     In some implementations, the method can include each electrode of the set of two or more electrodes is formed from an electrically conductive material. 
     In some implementations, the method can include a supplemental power supply electrically connected to the first electrode and to the second electrode. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the supplemental power supply comprises a direct current or alternating current power supply. 
     In some implementations, the method can include an electrical load electrically connected to the first electrode and to the second electrode. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the electrical load comprises a direct current or alternating current load. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the radioactive source is located between the first electrode and the second electrode. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the set of two or more electrodes comprises: a first electrode and a second electrode configured to establish the electric field across the ion media; and a third electrode positioned in the electric field, the third electrode being configured to: capture electrons released by the ion media; and generate the electric current from the captured electrons. 
     In some implementations, the method can include an electrical load electrically connected to the third electrode. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the electrical load comprises a direct current or alternating current load. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the third electrode is positioned between the radioactive source and the first electrode. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the ion media is positioned between the radioactive source and the third electrode. 
     In some implementations, the method can include a supplemental power supply electrically connected to the first electrode and to the second electrode. 
     In some implementations, the method can include supplemental power supply comprises a direct current or alternating current power supply. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the set of two or more electrodes are electrically connected by a circuit and are configured to: establish the electric field across the ion media using a first electric current provided by a supplemental power supply through the circuit, wherein the electric current generated from the captured electrons comprises current through the circuit in excess of the first electric current. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the ion media is positioned between the radioactive source and each of the two or more electrodes. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the ion media comprises a non-conductive material. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the ion media comprises a material that donates electrons in response to exposure to radiation. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the ion media includes carbon. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the ion media includes at least one of low density polyethylene, high density polyethylene, petroleum jelly, butane, heavy oil, helium gas, industrial diamond including carbon, or industrial diamond including boron. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the ion media includes an electrically non-conductive gas. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the ion media includes an electrically non-conductive liquid. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the ion media includes a non-solid material. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the ion media undergoes ionization from a non-ionized form in response to exposure to radiation in the presence of the electric field. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the ion media is formed as a plate having a thickness that is: 0.000001 inches or more, and 0.1 inches or less. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the set of two or more electrodes form a first hollow sphere that encloses the ion media. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the ion media forms a second hollow sphere that encloses the radioactive source, first hollow sphere being concentric with the second hollow sphere. 
     In some implementations, the method can include at least one electrode of the set of two or more electrodes forms a first hollow cylinder that encloses the ion media. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the ion media forms a second hollow cylinder that encloses the radioactive source, the first hollow cylinder being coaxial with the second hollow cylinder. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the radioactive source includes radioactive isotopes of at least one of Carbon, Strontium, Cesium, Americium, Cobalt, Polonium, Uranium, Radium, or Plutonium. 
     In some implementations, the method can include the radioactive source is formed as a plate having a thickness that is: 0.000001 inches or more, and 0.1 inches or less. 
     In some implementations, the radioactive source has a spherical shape. 
     In some implementations, the radioactive source is surrounded by the ion media. 
     One innovative aspect is a system including the device. One innovative aspect is a system or device configured to perform operations comprising the method of the previous embodiments and its optional features. 
     The subject matter described in this specification can be implemented in various implementations and may result in one or more of the following advantages. The disclosed systems can reduce nuclear waste by repurposing nuclear waste for useful production. The disclosed techniques can be used to reduce the need for expensive waste storage management, and the environmental consequences of waste storage. 
     The disclosed fuel cell is a net negative carbon energy generation solution. The fuel cell uses radioactive decay from nuclear reactor waste by-products to produce a high current output. The fuel cell is modular in form-factor, safe, and stable. The fuel cell can be long-lasting, e.g., generating electricity for years or decades. The disclosed fuel cell can be configured into any topology or architecture that allows for the electrodes to be physically and electrically separated and configured to allow for the creation of an electrostatic field with the source and ion media material in between and within the field. 
     The fuel cell can be a direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) power source suitable for terrestrial and space applications. The fuel cell can output a larger current than is input to the fuel cell. The fuel cell can generate electricity at any temperature, with no moving parts, and no excess heat being generated. 
     The present disclosure further provides a system including the devices provided herein and methods for implementing the devices provided herein. The details of one or more implementations of the subject matter described in this specification are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, aspects, and advantages of the subject matter will become apparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES 
         FIG.  1    is an example implementation of a device including a fuel cell. 
         FIGS.  2 A,  2 B, and  2 C  show example implementations of devices including fuel cells and electrical loads. 
         FIGS.  3 A,  3 B, and  3 C  show ionization and current flow within the devices of FIGS. 
         FIG.  4    shows an example device including a fuel cell in line with a supplemental power supply and an electrical load. 
         FIG.  5    shows an example device including a fuel cell out of line with a supplemental power supply and an electrical load. 
         FIGS.  6 A and  6 B  show an example fuel cell having a spherical form. 
         FIGS.  7 A,  7 B, and  7 C  show an example fuel cell having a cylindrical form. 
         FIGS.  8 A and  8 B  show an example fuel cell having a disc form. 
         FIG.  9    shows a flow chart of an example process of using the fuel cell to generate electrical current. 
         FIG.  10    shows example systems that can be implemented with the disclosed systems and methods. 
     
    
    
     In the drawings, like reference numbers represent corresponding parts throughout. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     In general, this disclosure relates to an apparatus including a fuel cell that captures and converts the energy of radiation from any radioactive source to electrical energy through the intermediate step of ionization by means of a liquid or solid nonconductive carbon rich media (or electron donating media), in the presence of a charged electrostatic field. Electrical current generated from ionization of the media can be used to power electrical loads. The disclosed fuel cells can be used to power electrical loads and to amplify electrical current. 
     A starting voltage energizes plates of the fuel cell to create an electrostatic field that captures the energy of the charged ions created in the media by bombardment from the radioactive isotope particles. The capture is done before the ions have the chance to recombine. In some configurations, the electrostatic field may create a scalar environment to capture neutrino radiation, thus enhancing the energy of the free electrons for useful electricity. 
     Excess current generated by the ions in the electrostatic field is drawn off and utilized by a load connected to the plates in the electrical circuit. Thus, the fuel cell outputs greater electrical current than the electrical current that is supplied to the plates. The fuel cell can also be self-sustaining, as the ionization and collection of ions can continue when the starting voltage is removed. 
       FIG.  1    is an example implementation of a device  100  including a fuel cell  101 . Though the fuel cell  101  has a general plate or disc form, other forms are possible. Some example forms of fuel cells are shown in  FIGS.  6  to  8   . The device  100  includes a starting circuit including wires  126 - 1 ,  126 - 2  (“wires  126 ”) and supplemental power supply  140 . The fuel cell  101  includes electrodes  110 - 1 ,  110 - 2  (“electrodes  110 ”). The wires  126  connect the electrodes  110  to the supplemental power supply  140 . 
     The fuel cell  101  includes a radioactive source (“source  130 ”). In some examples, the source  130  is of solid form and has a plate or disc shape. The source  130  can have a thickness (e.g., in the z-direction) of 0.001 inches or less. The source  130  can have a thickness of 0.000001 inches or more. The source  130  can include any radioactive nuclide. In some examples, the source  130  includes a radioactive isotope of at least one of Carbon, Strontium, Cesium, Americium, Cobalt, Polonium, Uranium, Radium, or Plutonium. Isotopes can include, for example, Carbon 14, Strontium 90, Cesium 137, Americium 241, Cobalt 60, Polonium 210. The source  130  can emit, through radioactive decay, electrically charged particles, electrically neutral particles, electromagnetic radiation, or any combination of these. For example, the source  130  can emit any of alpha, beta, gamma, neutron, and neutrino radiation. 
     The source  130  is positioned between the electrodes  110 . In some examples, the source  130  is replaceable. For example, the source  130  depletes over time. When the source  130  is depleted such that the source  130  no longer emits a sufficient amount of radioactive emission, the source  130  can be replaced with a new radioactive source. 
     The source  130  is positioned adjacent to and between ion media layer  120 - 1  and ion media layer  120 - 2  (“ion media layers  120 ”). In some examples, the source  130  is surrounded by the ion media layers  120 . In some examples, the source  130  abuts the ion media layers  120 . 
     The ion media layers  120  include material that releases electrons in response to exposure to radiation. The ion media layers  120  can each include a non-conductive liquid, solid, or gas. The ion media layers  120  are formed from material that donates electrons in response to exposure to radiation. The ion media layers can be formed from carbon-rich material. The ion media layers  120  can include but is not limited to, low density polyethylene (LDPE), high density polyethylene (HDPE), petroleum jelly, butane, heavy oil, helium gas, industrial diamond including carbon, industrial diamond including boron, air, mineral oil, or any combination of these. In some examples, each of the ion media layers  120  includes ion media film. In some examples, each of the ion media layers is formed as a plate. The ion media layers  120  can each have a thickness of 0.000001 inches or more. The ion media layers  120  can each have a thickness of 0.1 inches or less (e.g., 0.03 inches or less, 0.003 inches or less). 
     The source  130  and the ion media layers  120  are positioned between the electrode  110 - 1  and the electrode  110 - 2 . The electrodes are energized to establish the electric field  114 . In some examples, the fuel cell includes a set of two or more electrodes  110 . The electrodes  110  function as collector plates to collect electrons freed from the ion media layers  120  due to ionizing radiation. In some examples, when energized, the electrode  110 - 1  has an opposite polarity from the electrode  110 - 2 . 
     In some examples, each electrode can be a plate extending in a plane. The electrode  110 - 1  can extend in a plane that is parallel or approximately parallel to the plane in which the electrode  110 - 2  extends. The electrodes  110  each have a surface area in the x-y plane. In some examples, the surface area of each electrode is greater than a surface area of the source  130  in the x-y plane. 
     The electrodes  110  can be formed from any electrically conductive material, e.g., a metallic material. The electrodes  110  can be formed from, for example, copper, aluminum, silver, gold, mild steel, or any combination of these. In some examples, the electrodes  110  can each be formed as a disc or plate. The electrodes  110  are connected by the wires  126  to a supplemental power supply  140 . 
     The supplemental power supply  140  can be, for example, an AC or DC voltage supply. In some examples, the supplemental power supply  140  is a battery. In some examples, the supplemental power supply  140  is integrated into the same device as the fuel cell  101 . In some examples, the supplemental power supply  140  is an external power supply. 
     The fuel cell  101  is bound together to reduce space between the source  130  and the electrodes  110 . In some examples, the electrodes  110 , ion media layers  120 , and source  130  are bolted together with plastic or metal bolts. In some examples, the fuel cell  101  is bound together with a strongback, wrap, or casing. In some examples, the fuel cell  101  includes shielding  124  around the source  130 , ion media layers  120 , and electrodes  110 . In some examples, the shielding  124  is formed from a ceramic material. 
     During operation, the supplemental power supply  140  provides a starting current to the electrodes  110  through the wires  126 . The starting current facilitates initial charging of the electrodes  110 . The starting current can also sustain the charge of the electrodes  110  during operation. When the starting current is provided to the electrodes  110 , the electrodes  110  establish the electric field  114  across the ion media layers  120 . When the supplemental power supply  140  is a DC power supply, the electrodes have opposite charges when energized. For example, the electrode  110 - 1  can have a positive charge, and the electrode  110 - 2  can have a negative charge. 
     In some examples, the supplemental power supply  140  includes a feedback loop and voltage regulation. For example, if the charge of the electrodes  110  or the strength of the electric field drops below a minimum threshold, the supplemental power supply  140  can provide current to replenish the charge. In this way, the supplemental power supply  140  can maintain the voltage across the electrodes  110  over time. In some examples, the supplemental power supply  140  is rechargeable by the fuel cell  101 . 
     In the presence of the electric field  114 , the ion media layers  120  undergo ionization from a non-ionized form in response to exposure to radiation from the source  130 . The ionizing radiation emitted by the source  130  can include radioactive particles or electromagnetic radiation. Ionizing radiation includes subatomic particles and electromagnetic waves that have sufficient energy to ionize atoms or molecules by detaching electrons from them. Gamma rays, X-rays, and the higher energy part of the electromagnetic spectrum are ionizing radiation. Ionizing subatomic particles include alpha particles, beta particles, neutrinos, and neutrons. 
     Particles and/or radiation emitted by the source  130  interact with electron clouds of carbon atoms of the ion media layers  120  through Coulomb interactions. The particles remove energetic electrons from their bound state. Those electrons eject out other electrons in secondary and tertiary reactions, enhancing ionization. Radioactive particles can affect the Coulomb field of electron clouds and neutrino radiation can interact in a scalar field. The interactions enhance the current/energy of the ionized electrons. Thus, a multitude of freed electrons are produced in the ion media layers  120  in response to exposure to ionizing radiation emitted by the source  130 . 
     Electrons released from atoms of the ion media layers  120  are attracted to the charged electrodes  110 . Ion recombination is reduced due to the presence of the electric field and the attraction between the electrons and the electrodes  110 . In the example in which the electric field  114  is a DC electric field, the electrons are attracted to the positive electrode, e.g., electrode  110 - 1 . Electrons move through the ion media layers  120  and are collected by the electrodes  110 . Current generated from the collected electrons flows from the electrodes  110  to the wires  126 . The current flowing through the wires therefore includes the starting current and the excess current from the electrons freed from the ion media layer  120 . In this way, the fuel cell  101  amplifies the starting current. The excess current can be used to power a load, as described in greater detail with respect to  FIGS.  2 A,  2 B, and  2 C . 
       FIGS.  2 A,  2 B, and  2 C  show example implementations of devices  200   a  ,  200   b  ,  200   c  (“devices  200 ”). The devices  200   a  ,  200   b  ,  200   c  including fuel cells  201   a  ,  201   b  ,  201   c  (“fuel cells  201 ”), electrical loads  250   a  ,  250   b  ,  250   c  (“loads  250 ”), and supplemental power supplies  240   a  ,  240   b  ,  240   c  (“power supplies  240 ”), respectively. 
     The devices  200  each include an electrical current path between the respective power supply  240 , fuel cell  201 , and load  250 . Electrodes of the devices  200  collect current from the charged ions and add the current to the circuit leading to the load  250 . In this way, excess current generated by the fuel cell  201  can be drawn off to power any load by any connecting electrical circuit. 
       FIG.  2 A  shows the device  200   a  including a power supply  240   a  , a fuel cell  201   a  , and a load  250   a  . The power supply  240   a  is a DC power supply and the load  250   a  is a DC load. The power supply  240   a  and the load  250   a  are electrically connected to the fuel cell  201   a  to form a circuit. Specifically, wires connect the electrode  210 - 1   a  to the power supply  240   a  and to the load  250   a  . Wires connect the electrode  210 - 2   a  to the power supply  240   a  and to the load  250   a.    
     The fuel cell  201   a  includes ion media layers  220 - 1   a  ,  220 - 2   a  . The ion media layer  220 - 1   a  is positioned between a source  230   a  and electrode  210 - 1   a  . The ion media layer  220 - 2   a  is positioned between the source  230   a  and electrode  210 - 2   a  . Operations of the device  200   a  are described with reference to  FIG.  3 A . 
       FIG.  2 B  shows the device  200   b  including a power supply  240   b  , a fuel cell  201   b  , and a load  250   b  . The power supply  240   b  is an AC power supply and the load  250   b  is an AC load. The power supply  240   b  and the load  250   b  are electrically connected to the fuel cell  201   b  to form a circuit. Specifically, wires connect the electrode  210 - 1   b  to the power supply  240   b  and to the load  250   b  . Wires connect the electrode  210 - 2   b  to the power supply  240   b  and to the load  250   b  . 
     The fuel cell  201   b  includes ion media layers  220 - 1   b  ,  220 - 2   b  . The ion media layer  220 - 1   b  is positioned between a source  230   b  and electrode  210 - 1   b  . The ion media layer  220 - 2   b  is positioned between the source  230   b  and electrode  210 - 2   b  . Operations of the device  200   b  are described with reference to  FIG.  3 B . 
       FIG.  2 C  shows the device  200   c  including a power supply  240   c  , a fuel cell  201   c  , and a load  250   c  . The power supply  240   c  is an AC power supply and the load  250   c  is an AC load. The power supply  240   c  and the load  250   c  are electrically connected to the fuel cell  201   c  to form a circuit. Specifically, wires connect the electrode  210 - 1   c  to the power supply  240   c  . Wires connect the electrode  210 - 3   c  to the load  250   c  . Wires connect the electrode  210 - 2   c  to the power supply  240   c  and to the load  250   c.    
     The fuel cell  201   c  includes ion media layers  220 - 1   c  ,  220 - 2   c  ,  220 - 3   c  . The ion media layer  220 - 1   c  is positioned between electrode  210 - 1   c  and  210 - 3   c  . The ion media layer  220 - 2   c  is positioned between source  230   c  and electrode  210 - 2   c  . The ion media layer  220 - 3   c  is positioned between the source  230   c  and electrode  210 - 3   c  . The electrode  210 - 3   c  is a “floating” electrode, that is suspended between ion media layer  220 - 1   c  and ion media layer  220 - 3   c  . Although shown in  FIG.  3 C  as being an AC power supply, in some implementations, the power supply  240   c  can be a DC power supply. Operations of the device  200   c  are described with reference to  FIG.  3 C . 
       FIGS.  3 A to  3 C  show ionization and current flow within the devices of  FIGS.  2 A,  2 B , and  2 C. Referring to  FIG.  3 A , electrodes  210 - 1   a  and  210 - 2   a  create an electric field across the ion media layers  220  and across the source  230   a  when a starting current is provided by the DC power supply  240   a  . When energized by the power supply  240   a  , electrode  210 - 1   a  has a positive charge, and electrode  210 - 1   b  has a negative charge. Arrows  202  indicate the direction of current flow in the circuit of the device  200   a.    
     The source  230   a  emits radiation in the form of radioactive particles, electromagnetic radiation, or both. In the example of  FIG.  3 A , the source  230   a  emits a particle  302  (e.g., a neutron, alpha, beta, or neutrino particle). The source  230   a  also emits an electromagnetic wave  308  (e.g., a gamma ray, X-ray, or UV ray). The particle  302  and the wave  308  travel through the ion media layer  220 - 1   a  and create ions from the electron clouds of atoms in the ion media. The particle  302  undergoes an ionization reaction  304 , freeing electron  306 . The wave  308  undergoes an ionization reaction  314 , freeing electron  312 . The electrons  306 ,  312  are attracted to the positively charged electrode  210 - 1   a  . Electrons captured by the charged electrode  210 - 1   a  amplify the current flowing through the circuit of the device  200   a.    
     Referring to  FIG.  3 B , electrodes  210 - 1   b  and  210 - 2   b  create an electric field across the ion media layers  220  and across the source  230   b  when a starting current is provided by the AC power supply  240   b  . When energized by the AC power supply  240   b  , the electrodes  210 - 1   b  ,  210 - 2   b  each alternate between having a positive charge and having a negative charge. Thus, the direction of the electric field alternates over time. 
     The source  230   b  emits radiation in the form of radioactive particles, electromagnetic radiation, or both. In the example of  FIG.  3 B , the source  230   b  emits a particle  322  and an electromagnetic wave  328 . The particle  322  and the wave  328  travel through the ion media layers  220 - 1   b  ,  220 - 2   b  , respectively, and create ions from the electron clouds of atoms in the ion media. The particle  322  undergoes an ionization reaction  324 , freeing electron  326 . The wave  328  undergoes an ionization reaction  332 , freeing electron  334 . The electrons  326 ,  334  can be attracted to the either of the electrodes  210 - 1   b  ,  210 - 2   b  , since the charges of the electrodes  210 - 1   b,    210 - 2   b  alternate over time. Electrons captured by the charged electrodes  210 - 1   b  ,  210 - 2   b  amplify the current flowing through the circuit of the device  200   a.    
     Referring to  FIG.  3 C , electrodes  210 - 1   c  and  210 - 2   c  create an electric field across the ion media layers  220  and across the source  230   c  when a starting current is provided by the AC power supply  240   c  . When energized by the AC power supply  240   c  , the electrodes  210 - 1   c  ,  210 - 2   c  each alternate between having a positive charge and having a negative charge. Thus, the direction of the electric field alternates over time. 
     The source  230   c  emits radiation in the form of radioactive particles, electromagnetic radiation, or both. In the example of  FIG.  3 C , the source  230   c  emits a particle  342  and an electromagnetic wave  348 . The particle  342  and the wave  328  travel through the ion media layers  220 - 1   c  ,  220 - 2   c  , respectively, and create ions from the electron clouds of atoms in the ion media. The particle  342  undergoes an ionization reaction  344 , freeing electron  346 . The wave  348  undergoes an ionization reaction  352 , freeing electron  354 . The electrons  346 ,  354  can be attracted to the either of the electrodes  210 - 1   c  ,  210 - 2   c  , since the charges of the electrodes  210 - 1   c,    210 - 2   c  alternate over time. 
     The electrode  210 - 3   c  is positioned between the source  230   c  and the electrode  210 - 1   c  . Thus, some electrons traveling towards the electrode  210 - 1   c  can be captured by the electrode  210 - 3   c  . The load  250   c  is electrically connected to the electrode  210 - 3   c  . Electrons that are captured by the electrode  210 - 3   c  , e.g., electron  354 , amplify current flow between the electrode  210 - 3   c  and the load  250   c  . Similarly, electrons captured by the charged electrodes  210 - 1   c  ,  210 - 2   c  amplify the current flowing through the circuit of the device  200   a.    
       FIG.  4    shows an example device  400  including a fuel cell  401  in line with a supplemental power supply  440  and a load  450 . A first wire  426 - 1  connects the power supply  440  to a first electrode of the fuel cell  401  and to the load  450 . A second wire  426 - 2  connects the power supply  440  to a second electrode of the fuel cell  401  and to the load  450 . 
       FIG.  5    shows an example device  500  including fuel cell  501  out of line with a supplemental power supply  540  and an electric load  550 . A first wire  526 - 1  and a second wire  526 - 2  connect the power supply  540  to the load  550 . A third wire  528 - 1  connects the first wire  526 - 1  to a first electrode of the fuel cell  501 . A fourth wire  528 - 2  connects the second wire  526 - 2  to a second electrode of the fuel cell  501 . 
     Compared to the device  500 , the device  400  has a more compact form, with a fewer number of wires and connections. Compared to the device  400 , the device  500  is more modular and reconfigurable. The configuration of the device  500  can implemented to permit the fuel cell  501  to be remote from the power supply  540 , the load  550 , or both. The configuration of the device  500  can be implemented to permit the fuel cell to be removable and/or replaceable from the device  500 . 
       FIGS.  6 A and  6 B  show example fuel cells having a spherical form.  FIG.  6 A  shows an example fuel cell  601   a  having a spherical form and two electrodes  610 - 1   a  ,  610 - 2   a  .  FIG.  6 B  shows an example fuel cell  601   b  having a spherical form and one electrode  610   b  . A fuel cell having a spherical form can improve efficiency of capturing radioactive emissions, compared to a fuel cell having a plate or disc form. For example, a fuel cell having a spherical form can include a radioactive source that is enclosed within an ion media layer, such that all radioactivity emitted by the source passes through the ion media layer. 
     Referring to  FIG.  6 A , the fuel cell  601   a  includes a radioactive source  630   a  . In some examples, the source  630   a  has a spherical shape. The fuel cell  601   a  includes an ion media layer  620   a  . In some examples, the ion media layer  620   a  forms a hollow sphere that encloses, or wraps around, the source  630   a.    
     The fuel cell  601   a  includes electrodes  610 - 1   a  ,  610 - 2   a  . A first wire  626 - 1   a  connects to the electrode  610 - 1   a  . A second wire  626 - 2   a  connects to the electrode  610 - 2   a  . Each of the two electrodes  610 - 1   a  ,  610 - 2   a  form a hemispherical shape or approximate hemispherical shape. An insulator  604   a  is positioned between the electrodes  610 - 1   a  ,  610 - 2   a  . The insulator  604   a  electrically insulates the electrodes  610 - 1   a  ,  610 - 2   a  from each other In some examples, the insulator  604   a  has a ring shape. In some examples, the insulator  604   a  is formed from a paper material. In some examples, the electrodes  610 - 1   a  ,  610 - 2   a  and the insulator  604   a  form a hollow sphere that encloses, or wraps around, the ion media layer  620   a  . In some examples, the hollow sphere formed by the electrodes is concentric with the hollow sphere formed by the ion media layer  620   a.    
     Operations of the fuel cell  601   a  are similar to operations of the fuel cell  101 . Due to the spherical form, the fuel cell  601   a  includes one ion media layer  620   a  instead of two ion media layers. Radiation emitted by the source  630   a  undergoes ionization reactions in the ion media layer  620   a  . Electrons freed from the ion media layer  620   a  are captured by the electrodes  610 - 1   a  ,  610 - 2   a  , amplifying current flowing through the wires  626 - 1   a  ,  626 - 2   a.    
     The fuel cell  601   a  can include a shielding  624   a  . The shielding can wrap around the electrodes  610 - 1   a  ,  610 - 2   a  . The shielding  624   a  can be formed from a non-conductive material such as ceramic. The shielding can reduce the amount of radiation escaping from the fuel cell, and can provide structural integrity to the fuel cell  601   a  . The shielding  624   a  can include apertures to permit passage of the wires  626 - 1   a  ,  626 - 2   a  through the shielding  624   a  to reach the electrodes  610 - 1   a  ,  610 - 2   a.    
     Referring to  FIG.  6 B , the fuel cell  601   b  includes a radioactive source  630   b  . In some examples, the source  630   b  has a spherical shape. The fuel cell  601   b  includes an ion media layer  620   b  . In some examples, the ion media layer  620   b  forms a hollow sphere that encloses, or wraps around, the source  630   b  . A first wire  626 - 1   b  connects to the source  630   b  . The source  630   b  can be, for example, a metal oxide. 
     The fuel cell  601   b  includes electrode  610   b  . A second wire  626 - 2   b  connects to the electrode  610   b  . The electrode  610   b  forms a spherical shape or approximate spherical shape. The electrode  610   b  includes an aperture through which the wire  626 - 1   b  passes. An insulator  604   b  is positioned in the aperture, between the wire  626 - 1   b  and the electrode  610   b  . The insulator  604   b  electrically insulates the electrode  610   b  from the wire  626 - 1   b  that connects to the source  630   b  . The electrode  610   b  and the insulator  604   b  form a hollow sphere that encloses, or wraps around, the ion media layer  620   b  . In some examples, the hollow sphere formed by the electrode  610   b  is concentric with the hollow sphere formed by the ion media layer  620   b.    
     In general, operations of the fuel cell  601   b  are similar to operations of the fuel cell  101 . The fuel cell  601   b  includes one electrode instead of two electrodes. The source  630   b  , connected to the wire  626 - 1   b  , functions as a second electrode. Electrical current from the wire  626 - 1   b  charges the source  630   b  , while the electrode  610   b  is charged by the wire  626 - 2   b  . Thus, the electrode  610   b  and the source  630   b  establish an electric field across the ion media layer  620   b  . 
     Due to the spherical form, the fuel cell  601   b  includes one ion media layer  620   b  instead of two ion media layers. Radiation emitted by the source  630   b  undergoes ionization reactions in the ion media layer  620   b  . Electrons freed from the ion media layer  620   b  are captured by the electrode  610   b  , or by the source  630   b  , amplifying current flowing through the wires  626 - 1   b,    626 - 2   b.    
     The fuel cell  601   b  can include a shielding  624   b  . The shielding can wrap around the electrode  610   b  . The shielding  624   b  can be formed from a non-conductive material such as ceramic. The shielding can reduce the amount of radiation escaping from the fuel cell, and can provide structural integrity to the fuel cell  601   b  . The shielding  624   b  can include apertures to permit passage of the wires  626 - 1   b  ,  626 - 2   b  through the shielding  624   b  to reach the source  630   b  and the electrode  610   b  , respectively. 
       FIGS.  7 A to  7 C  show an example fuel cell  701  having a cylindrical form.  FIG.  7 A  illustrates assembly of the example fuel cell  701 .  FIG.  7 B  shows a perspective view of the example fuel cell  701 .  FIG.  7 C  shows a cross-sectional view of the example fuel cell  701 . 
     Referring to  FIG.  7 A , a fuel cell can be assembled by rolling layers of thin, flat foils and papers around wires. The layers include electrode foil  710 - 1 , ion media foil  720 - 1 , source foil  730 , ion media foil  720 - 2 , electrode foil  710 - 2 , and insulation paper wrapping  724 . When wrapped, each layer forms a hollow cylinder shape. The hollow cylinders formed by the layers are coaxial with each other. 
     In some examples, the source foil  730  includes source material that is electronically printed on a silver or gold foil. In some examples, instead of or in addition to the fuel cell  701  having a separate source foil  730 , the ion media foil  720  could be embedded with flecks of source material. 
     In some examples, the fuel cell  701  can be assembled with wires  726 - 1 ,  726 - 2  rolled into the cylindrical form. For example, the electrode foil  710 - 1  can be wrapped around a first wire  726 - 1  such that the electrode foil  710 - 1  is in electrical communication with the wire  726 - 1 . A second wire  726 - 2  can be positioned between the ion media foil  720 - 2  and the electrode foil  710 - 2 , or between the electrode foil  710 - 2  and the insulation paper wrapping  724 , such that the electrode foil  710 - 2  is in electrical communication with the wire  726 - 2 . 
     In some examples, the wires  726 - 1 ,  726 - 2  can be connected to the electrode foils  710 - 1 ,  710 - 2 , after the cylindrical form of the fuel cell  701  is assembled. For example, referring to  FIG.  7 B , the wires  726 - 1 ,  726 - 2  can be connected to edges of the electrode foils  710 - 1 ,  710 - 2  at one or both ends of the cylindrical fuel cell  701 . 
     Referring to  FIG.  7 C , the electrode foils  710 - 1 ,  710 - 2  each form a hollow cylinder. The ion media foils  720 - 1 ,  720 - 2  each form a hollow cylinder. The electrode foil  710 - 2  encloses the ion media foil  720 - 2 . The ion media foil  720 - 1  encloses the electrode foil  710 - 1 . 
     In some examples, the fuel cell  701  can be placed in a cylindrical can, with the wires  726 - 1 ,  726 - 2  sticking out of an open end of the can. An insulated end cap can be placed over the open end, with the wires  726 - 1 ,  726 - 2  threaded through separate small holes. Shielding can be placed around the can to reduce radiation. In some examples, the can, the shielding, or both, can be formed form a ceramic material. 
       FIGS.  8 A and  8 B  show an example fuel cell  801  having a disc form.  FIG.  8 A  is an exploded view of the example fuel cell  801 . The fuel cell  801  includes disc-shaped electrodes  810 - 1 ,  810 - 2 . Electrode  810 - 1  is connected to wire  826 - 1 . Electrode  810 - 2  is connected to wire  826 - 2 . The fuel cell  801  includes disc-shaped ion media layers  820 - 1 ,  820 - 2 . In some examples, the electrodes  810 - 1 ,  810 - 2  have larger diameters than the ion media layers  820 - 1 ,  820 - 2 . 
     The fuel cell  801  includes radioactive source  830 . The source can have a flat, round disc shape. The ion media layers  820 - 1  can have rounded shapes with larger diameters compared to the diameter of the source  830 . In some examples, the source  830  can be grounded to one of the electrodes. In some examples, the source  830  can be embedded in the ion media or printed on a gold or silver electrode. 
     Referring to  FIG.  8 B , the fuel cell  801  can be encapsulated in a shielding  824 , e.g., a ceramic shielding. Apertures in the shielding  824  can permit passage of the wires  826 - 1 ,  826 - 2 . In some examples, the fuel cell  801  is coated with a non-conductive ceramic shielding material that also provides structural integrity. The disc shaped fuel cell  801  of  FIGS.  8 A and  8 B  can be used in implementations such as into a motherboard electronic starting and control circuit. 
       FIG.  9    shows a flow chart of an example process  900  of using the fuel cell to generate electrical current. The process  900  includes establishing an electric field across an ion media adjacent to a radioactive source ( 902 ). For example, the supplemental power supply  140  connects to electrodes  110  of the fuel cell  101 . The supplemental power supply  140  energizes the electrodes  110 , establishing the electric field  114  between the electrodes  110 . 
     The process  900  includes capturing electrons released by the ion media in response to exposure to radiation emitted by the radioactive source ( 904 ). For example, the ion media layers  120  release electrons in response to exposure to radiation emitted by the radioactive source  130 . The electrodes  110  capture electrons released by the ion media layers  120 . 
     The process  900  includes generating electric current from the captured electrons ( 906 ). For example, the electrodes  110  generate electric current from the captured electrons. The generated electric current sustains the electric field  114 . In some examples, the generated electric current recharges the supplemental power supply  140 . In some examples, the generated electric current powers an electric load. 
     The order of steps in the process  900  described above is illustrative only, and can be performed in different orders. In some implementations, the process  900  can include additional steps, fewer steps, or some of the steps can be divided into multiple steps. 
       FIG.  10    depicts example systems that can be implemented with the disclosed systems and methods. The systems can receive power from the disclosed fuel cells. In some examples, the disclosed fuel cells can amplify electrical current generated by the example systems. In some examples, the disclosed fuel calls can amplify electrical current provided to the example systems. 
     The example systems can include, e.g., computers  1002 , electronic devices  1004 , data centers  1006 , satellites  1008 , marine vessels  1010 . In some examples, the systems can include manned or unmanned vehicles. The systems can include drones  1012 , e.g., aerial, ground, or underwater drones. In some examples, the systems can include an aircraft or space craft  1014 . In some examples, the systems can include a power generation system  1016 . For example, the power generation system  1016  can generate electrical current, and the disclosed fuel cells can amplify the electrical current. 
     In some examples, multiple fuel cells can be combined into a power generation package for providing power to a load. In some examples, multiple fuel cells can be electrically connected to each other in series or in parallel. 
     The disclosed fuel cells can be used to power electronic devices such as cellular phones. A thin fuel cell can be installed in a housing of an electronic device to supply power to the device beyond the device&#39;s expected life span. The fuel cell power can be recovered from older devices and installed in newer devices for continuous use until reaching the half-life of the isotope used for the radioactive source. 
     The disclosed fuel cells can be installed into a motherboard of a laptop or desktop computer to supply power to the computer beyond the expected life span of the computer. The fuel cell can be recovered from older computers and installed in newer computers for continuous use until reaching the half-life of the isotope used for the radioactive source. 
     The disclosed fuel cells can be used as data center power supplies. As the use of data management and cloud computing grows, the disclosed fuel cells can be installed in data centers to supply the energy to the processors and to the environmental control systems the data centers are housed in. 
     The disclosed fuel cells can be used for multifunctional multi-industry remote sensor power. The disclosed fuel cells can be installed into the motherboard of a remote sensor array to supply power to the sensors. The fuel cells can be installed, for example, on satellite or aerial sensors. The sensors can be used, e.g., for military application, oil and gas applications, and space applications. The fuel cells can provide power for continuous use until reaching the half-life of the isotope used for the radioactive source. 
     The disclosed fuel cells can be used for battery amplification. For example, the fuel cell can be installed in a flow-through path coupled with battery power supplies in order to provide power amplification. The power amplifier can be used continuously and can extend the life span of the battery. 
     The disclosed fuel cells can be used to amplify power generated by solar panel arrays. For example, the fuel cell can be installed in a flow-through path coupled with solar power cells in order to provide power amplification. The power amplifier can be used continuously and can extend the life span of the solar array. 
     The disclosed fuel cells can be used to amplify power generated by electrical generators. The electrical generators can be, for example, small generators used for local, temporary, and/or emergency power uses. For example, the fuel cell can be installed in a flow-through path coupled with a generator in order to provide power amplification. The power amplifier can be used continuously and can extend the life span of the generator. 
     The disclosed fuel cells can be used to power manned and unmanned vehicles for use on land, in space, in the air, on water, or underwater. For example, the fuel cells can power drones, submarines, and aircraft. The fuel cell can be installed into the power source of a vehicle supply power to provide power to the watercraft, aircraft, space craft, terrestrial vehicle, or other vehicle. 
     The disclosed fuel cells can be used to power commercial shipping and aircraft. For example, an array of fuel cells can be used for the power source of a watercraft, submarine, or aircraft. The fuel cell-powered craft can be used in military and commercial shipping applications. The fuel cell can provide continuous power until reaching the half-life of the isotope used for the radioactive source or exhaustion of the ion media. 
     The disclosed fuel cells can be used in commercial power applications. For example, an array of fuel cells can be used for the production of commercial power. The fuel cell array can supply power to communities in a distributed power format. Thus, the fuel cells can be used for military, manufacturing, mining, and commercial power industries. The fuel cells can provide continuous power until reaching the half-life of the isotope used for the radioactive source or exhaustion of the ion media. 
     In one configuration, the ion media layers include a non-conductive liquids situated with an intake and/or drain. For example, the current generation and amplification capability of some materials may degrade over time such that performance of the device is inhibited. An ion media layer with an intake and a drain may be coupled to a reserve chamber that allows the ion media to be circulated (or recirculated) and preserve a higher performance metric for an increased period of time. The ability to circulate ion media also may be configured to support gaseous ion media. In still other configurations, the ion media may be a gelatinous compound tied to a circulation (or recirculation) pump. Expended media may be routed to a spent media chamber for disposal in accordance with an accredited maintenance program. 
     The ion media layer also may be configured to reside in sheets and packaging such that the layers are configured to reside in close proximity to the radioactive source. The packaging and ion media layer may include embedded electrodes that receive and route the current to a load. For example, the packaging may include a grid of electrodes with liquid or solid ion media embedded around the electrodes. The packaging may include a cartridge so that the ion media layer is aligned to maintain a specified proximity and orientation relative to the radioactive source. 
     Although the ion media layer was described as replaceable for maintenance purposes, the same configurations described above also may be used to support the radioactive source. For example, different radioactive sources have different half-lives. A power control circuit may either be programmed to support a given material&#39;s known half life so that performance is maintained at a designated level over a specified duration. Alternatively, the system may measure system performance so that the system compensates for change performance levels and maintains a consistent power profile. The power control circuit may regulate, add new ion media and/or radioactive source material (and remove older material) in order to maintain a designated profile. The power control circuit also may modify the I-V power characteristics to operate in a desired range. 
     In one configuration, the packaging includes a control circuit that regulates power settings that accounts for changing behavior over time. Constituent power control circuits on each of the packaging modules may communicate with one another in order to allow the system to maintain power at a designated level. The constituent power control circuits may provide measurement data to a system control to manage the underlying power consumption. The system may generate an alarm when one or more cartridges is no longer performing at a threshold level of performance. Alternatively or in addition, the system may poll an administrator to circulate or replace ion media and/or radioactive sources. 
     A number of implementations have been described. Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. For example, various forms of the flows shown above may be used, with steps re-ordered, added, or removed. While this specification contains many specifics, these should not be construed as limitations, but rather as descriptions of features specific to particular implementations. Certain features that are described in this specification in the context of separate implementations may also be implemented in combination in a single implementation. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single implementation may also be implemented in multiple implementations separately or in any suitable subcombination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination may in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of a sub combination. 
     Similarly, while operations are depicted in the drawings in a particular order, this should not be understood as requiring that such operations be performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, or that all illustrated operations be performed, to achieve desirable results. In certain circumstances, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. Moreover, the separation of various system components in the implementations described above should not be understood as requiring such separation in all implementations, and it should be understood that the described program components and systems may generally be integrated together in a single software product or packaged into multiple software products. 
     Thus, particular implementations have been described. Other implementations are within the scope of the following claims. For example, the actions recited in the claims may be performed in a different order and still achieve desirable results.