Patent Publication Number: US-2003225011-A1

Title: Phospholipase A2 expression and activity and use thereof for diagnosis, prognostication, prevention and treatment of neural inflammatory and demyelinating disease

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION  
       [0001] The invention relates to phospholipase A 2  expression and activity and uses thereof for diagnosis, prognostication, prevention and treatment of neural inflammatory and/or demyelinating disease.  
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
       [0002] Etiology and Pathogenesis of MS and EAE  
       [0003] Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory demyelinating disease, which typically strikes young adults, and is characterized by demyelinating episodes ranging from relapsing-remitting to chronic progressive in nature. The lesions are multi-focal and confined to the central nervous system (CNS) which includes the brain, spinal cord and optic nerve. Despite extensive studies, the etiology of the disease still remains obscure and its pathogenesis is not fully understood. The consensus is that unknown environmental agent(s) initiate the disease in genetically susceptible individuals. Several genes are thought to be involved in conferring susceptibility to MS. These include HLA class II (likely the DR2, DQ6 locus) (Tienari, 1994) and the T-cell receptor (TCR) genes (Tienari, 1994). However, a definite set of genetic markers for MS remains unknown. Nevertheless, genetic factors are thought to be important contributors to the onset of the disease because MS shows familial clustering and racial differences in risk (Oger and Lai, 1994; Sadovnick et al., 1996; Ebers, 1996).  
       [0004] A number of environmental factors have also been suspected in MS, such as viral and bacterial infections. Elevated antibody titers against a number of viruses have been reported in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum of MS patients (Allen and Brankin, 1993). However, viruses have not been detected in the CNS parenchyma in MS.  
       [0005] MS is studied using the established, generally accepted animal model system of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE), in for example rodents such as rats and mice (Ruuls et al, 1996; Ewing and Bernard, 1998; van der Meide et al, 1998, Smith et al, 2000. As with MS, EAE is also more easily induced in certain strains of mice and rats.  
       [0006] Target Autoantigens and Cytokines in MS and EAE  
       [0007] An important clue to the pathogenesis of MS is the detection of myelin basic protein (MBP)-reactive T-cells in MS in plaques. Injection of MBP peptides into experimental animals can induce EAE (Richert et al., 1989; Martin et al., 1990). Different regions of MBP are encephalogenic in different animal species, e.g., residues 87-106 in Lewis rats and SJL mice, and 1-9 in PL/J and B10.PL mice. Strong evidence for MBP and additional environmental agents in the pathogenesis of MS comes from studies showing that transgenic mice expressing TCR specific for MBP spontaneously develop EAE but only when exposed to a non-sterile environment (Goverman et al., 1993). Thus, exposure to some infectious agent(s) triggers the breakdown of myelin resulting in the availability of MBP and other myelin components for presentation to the TCR via antigen-presenting cells. T-cells that secrete interferon gamma (IFNγ) with reactivities to MBP, PLP (proteolipid protein), MOG (myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein), and MAG (myelin-associated glycoprotein) have been detected in the CSF of MS patients (Olsson et al., 1990; Sun et al., 1991; Zhang et al., 1993). Anti-PLP antibodies have been detected in about 3% of MS patients (Warren et al., 1994), and PLP has been shown to be encephalitogenic (Tuohy, 1994). Studies also show that MOG may be as effective as MBP or PLP in the pathogenesis of MS and EAE (Adelmann et al., 1995; Johns et al., 1995). Thus, a number of CNS myelin components may serve as target autoantigens.  
       [0008] It is thought that autoantigen specific T-cells sensitized in the periphery migrate into the CNS where they initiate the inflammatory changes leading to CNS tissue damage and functional impairment (Bansil et al., 1995). EAE can be induced by injecting mice with MOG or MBP or by the passive transfer of T-cells from affected animals (Moktarian et al., 1984; Zamvil et al., 1985). The findings to date may be taken to indicate that an initial breakdown of myelin by some yet unknown cause, results in the release of myelin components which are then presented by antigen presenting cells to T-cells with receptor specificity for MBP or other myelin antigens. These interactions result in a variety of immune cell responses leading to antibody production and cytotoxicity.  
       [0009] Proinflammatory cytokines such as IFN-γ, TNF-α and β, IL-12 and IL-1β also increase in the CNS of rats with EAE (Issazadeh et al., 1996) and in the brain in MS (Hofman et al., 1989). IL-2 and IFN-γ mRNA levels were shown to be increased in CSF cells from SJL/J mice during MBP-induced EAE (Renno et al., 1994). IFN-γ increases the severity of the rate of relapse in patients with MS (Panitch et al., 1987). TNF-α and β are present in acute and chronic lesions (Hofman et al., 1989). Furthermore, transgenic mice over expressing TNF-αdevelop a chronic inflammatory demyelination (Probert et al., 1995; Taupin et al., 1997), although other studies on TNF null mice showed similar results (Liu et al., 1998). There are strong similarities in the pathogenesis of MS and EAE (Ewing and Bernard, 1998). As such, EAE is a generally accepted animal model system for MS, and studies on EAE animals have contributed significantly to the understanding of the involvement of the cellular and humoral immune responses in MS (Ewing and Bernard, 1998).  
       [0010] Pathology of MS and EAE Lesions  
       [0011] The CNS lesions in MS and EAE are characterized by widespread focal lesions particularly in perivascular, periventricular and subpial white matter. The pathology varies in acute and chronic lesions. Demyelination is a characteristic feature of acute MS lesions. However, the loss of oligodendrocytes in acute lesions is variable (Bruck et al., 1994; Ozawa et al., 1994). Loss of myelin and oligodendrocytes is more extensive in chronic stages (Prineas et al., 1993; Bruck et al., 1994; Ozawa et al., 1994). The focal lesions also contain inflammatory infiltrates, which consist of T cells and macrophages. In chronic lesions, there is a significant increase in the number of antibody producing plasma cells (Ozawa et al., 1994). CD4 +  T-cells are found at the edge of the lesions, while macrophages are numerous in and around MS lesions (Traugott et al., 1983; Bo et al., 1994). Activated T-cells are also present in the lesion (Hofman, et al., 1986). Many of these changes in inflammatory cell influx is also seen in EAE lesions in the CNS (Norton et al., 1990; Ewing and Bernard, 1998). However, the inflammatory changes in the CNS rather than demyelination are more prominent in EAE.  
       [0012] Current Approaches in EAE and MS Therapy  
       [0013] Several experimental approaches have been tested in an effort to ameliorate EAE symptoms. Most of these involve immune modulation. These include treatments to block various chemokines or cytokines. Studies performed in blocking chemokines involve the development of anti-MIP-1α, anti-MCP-1 and anti-IP-10 antibodies for treatment of EAE. When the treatment was given before the occurrence of clinical symptoms, anti-MIP-1α antibodies reduced disease incidence by 80% and decreased disease severity from a clinical score of 2.6 in untreated mice to a score of about a 0.5 in treated mice. When this treatment was given after symptoms began, the severity decreased to a score of 1.25. The anti-MCP-1 treatment only had a minimal effect (Karpus et al, 1995). Treatment with anti-IP-10 tested in only a small experimental group decreased incidence by about 65% and reduced the clinical score to a 0.8 compared to a 3.9 in untreated animals (Fife et al, 2001).  
       [0014] Treatments used to block cytokines have also been tested. These involve blocking lymphotoxin, TNF and IFN-γ. In mice given anti-LT/TNFα antibodies before symptoms appeared reduced disease severity from a score of 3.9 in controls to a 0.2 in treated animals (Ruddle et al, 1990). Similar studies using a TNF binding protein completely prevented EAE in animals treated before symptoms were seen. When this treatment was given after symptoms occurred, the treated animals followed a course from a grade 2 to 0, while control animals went from a grade 2 to 3 to 1 (Selmaj, et al, 1998). Treatments performed using anti-IFN-γ antibodies actually worsened disease severity (Leonard et al, 1996).  
       [0015] Other immunomodulatory treatments evaluated were those done to prevent the actions of macrophages and T cells. Animals treated with liposomes (Cl 2 MDP) to eliminate macrophages showed a 40% reduction of EAE incidence (Tran, et al, 1998; Bauer et al, 1995, Huitinga et al, 1990). Disease severity was also reduced, from a mean clinical score of 3.4 in controls to a 0.8 in treated animals, when treatment was given before symptoms occurred (Huitinga et al, 1990). Another method to prevent the actions of lymphocytes is to prevent their entry into the CNS by blocking adhesion molecules at the blood-brain barrier. Studies such as these have been performed using antibodies to ICAM-1, LFA-1 and the α4 integrin. Animals treated with anti-ICAM1 or anti-LFA 1 did not show a significant effect in disease reduction. When they were combined, however, their effect reduced a score of 2.5 in control animals to below 0.5 in the treated group (Kawai et al, 1996). Treatments using anti-α4 integrin antibodies reduced clinical incidence by 75% (Yednock et al, 1992) and reduced disease severity from a 1.5 to a 0.5 (Kent et al, 1995). Other experiments in attempts to block proper if T-cell activation and function were also performed. The use of the copper chelator, cuprizone, was used to block IL-2 synthesis and therefore T-cell activation. Treated mice showed decreased disease severity from a score of 4.3 in controls to a 3.3 in mice treated one week before EAE induction. Piperonyl butoxide, an insecticide that is known to deplete T cells delivered before symptoms occurred reduced disease score from a 4.2 in controls to a 2.2. Animals treated after symptoms occurred showed reduced severity to 3.7 (Emerson, et al, 2001).  
       [0016] Oral tolerance has also been evaluated as a treatment for EAE. By feeding animals with myelin antigens, a Th2 response is elicited while Th1 inflammatory responses are reduced. An 80% reduction of EAE incidence was reported in animals fed MBP prior to disease induction. In addition, disease severity was reduced from a maximum score of 4 in control to a 1.4 in treated rats (Popovich et al, 1997). In mice, disease severity was reduced from a 1.6 in control to a 0.6 in treated animals (Meyer et al, 1996). Other methods of switching the Th1 inflammatory cell response to a Th2 cell type response have also been extensively studied. One such treatment is with estrogen. It is known that in pregnant women there is a switch from a Th1 to a Th2 response because of increased levels of this hormone. Mice treated with estrogen showed about a 30% reduction of EAE incidence, a delay of disease onset of about 10 days, and a reduction in disease severity from a 4.5 in untreated animals to a 1.5 (Ito et al, 2001). Mesopram, a type IV phosphodiesterase-specific inhibitor, has also been shown to produce a Th1 to Th2 switch. EAE was prevented in rats treated before the onset of symptoms. Mice treated starting at the first signs of clinical symptoms showed a reduction of a mean clinical score of 4.7 in control animals to a 2.7 in treated animals (Dinter, et al, 2000).  
       [0017] Retinoids, which are ligands of the steroid receptor superfamily, are also thought to favor Th2 cytokine production. They are also thought to increase TGFβ secretion, which is immunosuppressive. When retinamide was given prior to EAE induction, control animals reached a mean clinical score of 3 during relapses, while treated animals went up only to a grade 2 but came down to a 0.75 with no sign of relapse. When retinamide was given after disease symptoms appeared, control animals went from a grade 3.5 to a grade 3 with relapse while treated animals went from a grade 4 to a grade 2 with no relapse (Racke, et al, 1995). Interferon is another molecule thought to serve an immunomodulatory function. Treatment of mice with IFNβ decreases the amount of relapse/mouse from 2.17 in controls to 1.17 in treated animals. Disease severity was also reduced. Control animals progressed from a 3.5 to a 3.8 while treated animals showed a mean clinical score of 3.0 reducing down to a 2.5 (Yu, et al, 1996).  
       [0018] Many signaling pathways are involved in the complex immune reactions seen in EAE and MS. Various kinases are needed to turn-on many of these pathways. Tyrosine kinases mediate the activation of various molecules such as TNFα, prostaglandins (PGE2), and nitric oxide. Tyrosine kinase-blockers have therefore also been evaluated as a possible treatment strategy. These studies have shown about a 60% reduction in incidence of EAE. Also, disease severity was decreased in animals treated before symptoms were seen from a mean clinical score of 3 in controls to a 0.5 in those which received the inhibitor. Mice treated after symptoms occurred reduced severity from a 3 to a 1.5 (Brenner, et al, 1998).  
       [0019] Recent efforts have also focused on decreasing axonal damage in EAE. One way to do this is to reduce the amount of oxidative stress. An inhibitor of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) given to mice before EAE symptoms appeared decreased symptoms from a 1.3 mean score in controls to a 0.5 in treated animals (Brenner et al, 1997). Metallothinine (MT) is thought to protect cells from reactive oxygen species. Rats treated with MT-II starting at the day of onset of symptoms reduced the score from a 4.5 in controls to a 2 in treated animals (Penkowa and Hidalgo, 2000).  
       [0020] Another way to reduce axonal damage is by blocking glutamate production, which can damage oligodendrocytes and myelin. Experiments using the AMPA/kainate glutamate receptor antagonist NBQX reduced severity from a score of 3 in controls to a 1.5 in treated animals (Smith et al, 2000; Pitt et al, 2000), while MPQX resulted in a greater reduction from a score of 3 to a 0.8. Treating mice during recovery reduced the occurrence of a relapse (Smith et al, 2000).  
       [0021] Of these efforts to develop new treatments for MS, only a few have been approved and are in use. MS therapies currently being used consist of immunomodulatory drugs such as corticosteroids, Interferon beta, and Glatiramer acetate. Corticosteroids have anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects, which also transiently restores the blood-brain barrier (Noseworthy et al, 2000). They shorten the duration of the relapse and accelerate recovery. Since they are only effective as a short-term treatment, they are most commonly used to treat an acute relapse (Anderson and Goodkin, 1998; Bansil et al, 1995). Further,the responsiveness to corticosteroids declines over time, and extended use may lead to adrenal suppression, cardiovascular collapse and arrhythmias. (C. F. Lacy, L. L. Armsrtong, M. P. Goldman, L. L. Lance. Drug information hand book 8 th  Edition, 2001, 549-551).  
       [0022] Interferonβ has been used as a therapy for patients with active Relapsing/Remitting Multiple Sclerosis (RRMS) since the 1980&#39;s. It is recently being used for secondary progressive patients as well. The exact mode of action of this drug is not yet known. It is thought to play an immunomodulatory role by suppressing T cell mediated inflammation (Stinissen et al, 1997). Recombinant IFNβ is available in 3 drugs: IFNβ-1b (Betaseron) and two IFNβ-1a preparations (Avonex and Rebif) (Polman and Uitedehaag, 2000). These drugs reduce rate of clinical relapse. However, neutralizing antibodies develop against these drugs rendering them ineffective with time. Also, flu-like symptoms are a prominent side effect early on in the treatment.  
       [0023] Glatiramer acetate (copaxone) is a synthetic co-polymer of tyrosine, glutamate, alanine and lysine, thought to mimic MBP and thus, block T cell recognition of MBP (Steinman, et al, 1994). This drug is therefore beneficial in RRMS but not progressive MS. This drug also decreases the rate of relapse and appears to be better tolerated by patients than interferon therapy. Further, treatment with this drug may cause cardiovascular problems such as chest pain, flushing and tachycardia, and respiratory problems such as dyspnea. (C. F. Lacy, L. L. Armsrtong, M. P. Goldman, L. L. Lance. Drug information hand book 8 th  Edition, 2001, 777-779).  
       [0024] Recently, another drug that has been approved for the use in RRMS and secondary progressive MS is mitroxantrone. This drug is used to arrest the cell cycle and prevent cellular division. It is primarily used in leukemias (Rolak, 2001). In MS it reduces relapse rate and increases the length between exacerbations. This drug however has long-term side effects causing cardiac toxicity. Another treatment that has limits to its usefulness is intravenous immunoglobulin. It acts to alter the immune system in a beneficial way and it has shown to cut relapses in half (Rolak et al, 2001). However, the treatments are very expensive.  
       [0025] As discussed above, there are a few moderately effective treatments for RRMS and secondary progressive MS that have shown to reduce both the frequency of the disease and severity of exacerbations. However, problems still exist in treating MS, and there are still no proven treatments, for example, for primary progressive MS. There is therefore a continued need for improved materials and methods for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as MS.  
       [0026] The area of MS diagnosis is significantly less developed, as no measurable biochemical/genetic markers of the disease state exist. As a result, MS diagnosis relies on examining the pathology of the affected tissue by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) methods. MRI is very costly, and as such its availability is severely limited, typically leading to long waiting lists for testing. Increased cost also limits availability of MRI equipment and expertise to larger communities, thus necessitating travel for those patients residing elsewhere. Further, to justify performing such a costly test, patients are chosen which appear to already exhibit relatively severe symptoms associated with MS, and as such this type of diagnosis is performed significantly later than disease onset, and thus does not provide the opportunity for earlier detection and treatment. There therefore further exists a continued need for improved methods and materials for the diagnosis and prognostication of neurodegenerative diseases such as MS.  
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
       [0027] In a first aspect, the invention provides a method of preventing or treating a neural inflammatory or demyelinating disease in an animal, said method comprising inhibiting the activity of a phospholipase A 2  in the animal.  
       [0028] In another aspect, the invention further provides a method for identifying and/or characterizing a compound for the prevention or treatment of a neural inflammatory or demyelinating disease, said method comprising assaying the activity or expression of a phospholipase A 2  in the presence of a test compound, to identify a compound that inhibits phospholipase A 2  activity or expression, wherein inhibition is indicative that the test compound may be useful for the prevention or treatment of a neural inflammatory or demyelinating disease.  
       [0029] In another aspect, the invention further provides a method of assessing a neural inflammatory or demyelinating disease in an animal, said method comprising:  
       [0030] (a) determining a test level of phospholipase A 2  protein or phospholipase A 2  encoding mRNA or phospholipase A 2  enzyme activity in tissue or body fluid of the animal; and  
       [0031] (b) comparing said test level of phospholipase A 2  protein or phospholipase A 2  encoding mRNA or phospholipase A 2  activity to an established standard; or to a corresponding level of phospholipase A 2  protein or phospholipase A 2  encoding mRNA or phospholipase A 2  enzyme activity in tissue or body fluid of a control animal; or to a corresponding level of phospholipase A 2  protein or phospholipase A 2  encoding mRNA or phospholipase A 2  enzymatic activity in tissue or body fluid obtained from said animal at an earlier time;  
       [0032] wherein an increase in said test level is indicative of the neural inflammatory or demyelinating disease. In an embodiment, the method further comprises the step of assaying the compounds for activity in the prevention or treatment of a neural inflammatory or demyelinating disease. In embodiments, the tissue or body fluid is selected from the group consisting of blood, plasma, cerebrospinal fluid, endothelia, macrophages and lymphocytes.  
       [0033] In an embodiment the above-noted method comprises administering to the animal an effective amount of a phospholipase A 2  inhibitor. In an embodiment the inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of arachidonic acid analogues, benzenesulfonamide derivatives, bromoenol lactone, p-bromophenyl bromide, bromophenacyl bromide, trifluoromethylketones, sialoglycolipids and proteoglycans. In further embodiments, the inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of arachidonyl trifluoromethyl ketone, methyl arachidonyl fluorophosphonate and palmitoyl trifluoromethyl ketone.  
       [0034] In an embodiment the method comprises inhibiting the expression of a phospholipase A 2 . In an embodiment the method comprises administering to the animal an effective amount of an inhibitor of phospholipase A 2  expression, such as an antisense molecule. In an embodiment the antisense molecule is a nucleic acid that is substantially complementary to a portion of an mRNA encoding a phospholipase A 2 . In an embodiment the antisense molecule is complementary to a portion of a nucleic acid sequence substantially identical to a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO. 1 and SEQ ID NO. 3. In an embodiment the portion of an mRNA comprises at least 5 contiguous bases. In an embodiment the phospholipase A 2  is a mammalian phospholipase A 2 , in a further embodiment, human phospholipase A 2 . In an embodiment the phospholipase A 2  is a cytosolic phospholipase A 2 .  
       [0035] In an embodiment the animal is a mammal, in a further embodiment, a human.  
       [0036] In an embodiment the neural inflammatory or demyelinating disease is Multiple Sclerosis.  
       [0037] In an embodiment the phospholipase A 2  is a cytosolic phospholipase A 2 .  
       [0038] The invention further provides uses and commercial packages (comprising the relevant reagent(s) and appropriate instructions to carry out the method) corresponding to the above-mentioned methods. 
     
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
     [0039]FIG. 1: Schematic illustration of PLA 2  enzyme activity.  
     [0040]FIG. 2: Endothelial cells in EAE lesions express cPLA 2 . Spinal cord tissue of mice with EAE at clinical grades 1-4. Arrows indicate cPLA 2   +  elongated cells in EAE lesions. cPLA 2  positive cells are seen in grades 1-3. No cPLA 2  labeling of endothelial cells is seen in grade 4 micrograph. Slides were counterstained with methyl green which gives a grey staining in the black and white pictures.  
     [0041]FIG. 3: Immune cells in EAE infiltrates also express cPLA 2 . cPLA 2   +  immune cells in the infiltrates were seen at all clinical grades. Arrows point to positive immune cells. Slides counterstained with methyl green.  
     [0042]FIG. 4: Changes in the number of cPLA 2   +  endothelial cells in EAE lesions. High numbers of endothelial cells, between 45%-85% express cPLA 2  during the earlier stages of the disease, i.e., at grades 1 to 3. The numbers peaked at 85% in grade 3 and reduced to less than 20% at grades 4 and 5.  
     [0043]FIG. 5: Changes in the number of cPLA 2   +  immune cells in EAE lesions. Between 25% to 50% of the immune cells in the CNS infiltrates were cPLA 2   + at all clinical grades.  
     [0044]FIG. 6: Histogram showing total numbers of immune cells in EAE lesions. Total number of immune cells infiltrating the CNS at different clinical grades. The number of cells in EAE lesions increases at grades 4 and 5.  
     [0045]FIG. 7: Total number of cPLA 2   +  immune cells in EAE lesions at different clinical grades. The total number of cPLA 2  positive immune cells increases at later grades of 4 and 5.  
     [0046]FIG. 8: Cell types expressing cPLA 2  in EAE lesions The cell types expressing cPLA 2  in the spinal cords were assessed using double immunofluorescence. GFAP +  astrocytes (row 1), CD34 +  endothelial cells (row 2), Mac-1 + macrophages (row 3) and CD4 +  T cells (row 4) were cPLA 2   +  at and near the EAE lesions. Double labelling of these cells is shown in the column labelled “merge”.  
     [0047]FIG. 9: Incidence of EAE. In the control group, 100% of the mice showed clinical signs of EAE induced paralysis. In contrast to the controls, mice treated with either 2 or 4 mM AACOCF 3  had EAE incidence of 57% and 28%, respectively.  
     [0048]FIG. 10: Clinical course of EAE. Graph showing changes in the clinical course of the disease. EAE was induced in all groups of mice. Mice in the control group (Ctl) that did not receive any treatment reached a peak clinical score of almost 3 at days 12-14 during the first paralytic episode. Compared to the control group, mice treated with 2 and 4 mM AACOCF 3  only reached scores of 1.5 and 0.4, respectively. Furthermore, the control group relapsed into a second paralytic episode between days 26 and 34, while the 4 mM treated group remained unaffected.  
     [0049]FIG. 11: Effect of delayed (i.e. after the peak of the first attack of EAE symptoms) PLA 2  inhibitor treatment of mice. Mice that develop a milder form of the disease, i.e., reach a mean clinical score of 3, while recovering to a grade 2 on day of treatment, show complete recovery and lack of subsequent relapses when treated with 4 mM AACOCF 3  (treat-gr2) In contrast control mice that reach a mean clinical score of 3, while recovering to a grade 2 or less after the first paralytic episode, suffer subsequent paralytic episodes, reaching a mean clinical score of 2.5 (Ctl-gr2).  
     [0050]FIG. 12: Human cPLA 2  DNA sequence (GenBank #: M72393; Sharp et al., 1991).  
     [0051]FIG. 13: Mouse cPLA 2  DNA sequence (GenBank #: M72394; Nalefski et al., 1994) 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION  
     [0052] Although a variety of environmental factors are thought to induce the onset of MS in genetically susceptible individuals, it is proposed herein that these factors likely trigger the activation of a common mechanism that leads to infiltration of immune cells into the CNS, neural tissue damage and myelin breakdown. It is described herein that a likely candidate that could mediate such a common mechanism is the enzyme phospholipase A 2  (PLA 2 ). One of the metabolic products of PLA 2  is arachidonic acid, which gives rise to eicosanoids such as prostaglandins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes that are potent mediators of inflammatory responses. Another metabolic product of PLA 2  is lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) which has potent detergent-like properties. Injection of LPC into the CNS and PNS causes myelinolysis (Hall, 1993, Jeffery and Blakemore, 1995; Ousman and David, 2000). LPC is also a chemoattractant for human T cells and monocytes (Ryborg et al., 1994; Prokazova et al., 1998). LPC also induces expression of a number of chemokines and cytokines that are involved in immune cell influx and activation in the CNS (Ousman and David, 2001). Some of these cytokines and chemokines are known to induce the expression of PLA 2 . Therefore, LPC produced by PLA 2 -mediated hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine could result in expression of chemokines and cytokines that induce further expression of PLA 2 . This cascade could result in inducing severe inflammation (via arachidonic acid)and demyelination (via LPC). Blocking arachidonic acid derivatives such as prostaglandins have been shown to reduce the severity of EAE (Reder et al., 1994). It is proposed herein that blocking a more upstream target i.e., PLA 2  itself would have a profound effect on the induction and progression of EAE as it would block the production not only of arachidonic acid and its derivatives but also the generation of LPC and LPC-induced chemokine and cytokine expression.  
     [0053] Phospholipase A 2    
     [0054] Phospholipase A 2  hydrolyzes the fatty acyl ester bond at the sn-2 position of glycerophospholipids (FIG. 1). The immediate products of a PLA 2 -catalyzed reaction are a free fatty acid (e.g., arachidonic acid), and a lysophospholipid (e.g., lysophosphatidylcholine). Phospholipase A 2  has 2 major physiological functions: (1) membrane turnover; (2) potent mediator in the activation of inflammatory processes (Dennis, 1994). Ten different PLA 2  have been identified which fall into two major types: secreted (sPLA 2 ), and cytosolic (cPLA 2 ). Various forms of PLA 2  are found in different tissues and cell types or are unique to the venom of reptiles and insects.  
     [0055] Secreted PLA2: Several forms of sPLA 2  exist all of which have molecular weights of about 14 kDa. Group IB sPLA 2  is the pancreatic form that is secreted in digestive juices. It is not expressed in the CNS. Group IIA sPLA 2  is produced by many other cells of the body including neutrophils, thymus, bone a marrow, spleen, astrocytes, Schwann cells, etc., (Kramer et al., 1989; Komada et al., 1989; Ishizake et al., 1989; Wright et al., 1989; Murakami et al., 1990; Nakano and Arita, 1990). Group IIA sPLA 2  is detected in exudates from sites of inflammation or tissue injury such as ascites fluid suggesting that macrophages are a source (Kramer et al., 1989; Trotter and Smith, 1986; Forst et al., 1986; Chang et al., 1987; Seilhamer et al., 1989). Group IIA sPLA 2  from various sources have been purified. It is expressed widely in the brain (Molloy et al., 1998). Another form of sPLA 2 , group V is expressed mainly in the heart, lung and placenta, and in very low levels in the brain, except in the hippocampus where it may play a specific physiological role (Molloy et al., 1998). Group X is found mainly in human leukocytes. Groups IA, IIB and III are found only in certain venoms, and group IX in the marine snail (Dennis, 2000). Pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF and IL induce expression of sPLA 2  in cultured astrocytes (Oka and Arita, 1991), chondrocytes (Lyons-Giordano et al., 1989) and vascular smooth muscle cells, (Nakano et al., 1990; Arbibe et al., 1997). In addition, human endothelial cells from the umbilical vein express type II sPLA 2  when treated with TNF (Murakami et al., 1993). sPLA 2  require millimolar concentrations of calcium for their activation. U.S. Pat. No. 6,103,469 (Hawkins et al., Aug. 15, 2000) relates to a sPLA 2 . The activity of sPLA 2  can be blocked by p-bromophenacyl bromide (Glaser et al., 1993). Other inhibitors are currently being tested by Eli Lilly in preclinical trials in non-CNS models of inflammation (Ogata et al., 2001).  
     [0056] Cytosolic PLA 2 : Three forms of cPLA 2  have been identified in recent years. The calcium-dependent form of cPLA 2  (group IV) is found in a variety of mammalian cells and tissues (Glaser et al., 1993). It has a molecular weight of 85 kDa. Group IV cPLA 2  requires micromolar concentrations of calcium and is widely expressed in the brain (Molloy et al., 1998), as well as in neutrophils and endothelial cells (Arbibe et al., 1997; Fujimori et al., 1992; Lautens et al., 1998). It prefers arachidonic acid at the sn-2 position, which means it is capable of selectively releasing arachidonic acid (Glaser et al., 1993). cPLA 2  is phosphorylated and its activation increased by MAP kinase (Lin et al., 1993). Group IV cPLA 2  has been purified from a variety of cellular sources. U.S. Pat. No. 6,242,206 (Choiu et al., Jun. 5, 2001) relates to a cPLA 2 .  
     [0057] cPLA 2  expression is increased in neurons in the hippocampus after transient global ischemia (Owada et al., 1994). In addition, mice deficient in cPLA 2  (group IV) are resistant to cerebral ischemia (Bonventre et al., 1997) and MPTP neurotoxicity (Klivenyl et al., 1998). Like sPLA 2 , the expression of cPLA 2  in a variety of cells is increased by pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF, IFN-γ, IL-1 and CSF-1 (Hulkower et al., 1992; Goppelt-Struebe and Rehfeldt, 1992; Lin, Lin and DeWitt, 1992; Xu et al., 1994; Wu et al., 1994). It can be inhibited by arachidonic acid analogues such as arachadonyl trifluromethylketone (AACOCF 3 ) and methyl arachidonyl fluorophosphonate (MAFP) (Dennis, 2000; Glaser et al., 1993). Ross et al., (1995) isolated a 180 kDa calcium-dependent form of cPLA 2  from human brain which could be inhibited by bromophenacyl bromide, as well as, AACOCF 3 .  
     [0058] Two calcium-independent forms of cPLA 2  have also been isolated from the bovine brain (Hirashima et al., 1992; Farooqui et al., 1997). The 29 kDa form is inhibited by sialoglycolipids, and various proteoglycans (Yang et al., 1994). Another 80-85 kDa calcium independent form of cPLA 2 , which exists in multimeric form of 300 kDa has been identified in macrophages. This form can be inhibited by the arachidonic acid analogue, AACOCF 3 . Other calcium-independent forms have been identified in myocardial cells and the brush border of the intestine (Murakami, Nakatani Atsumi et al., 1997) but these are not of relevance to the CNS.  
     [0059] The precise physiological role of the various forms of cPLA 2  in the CNS is not known at present. The studies described herein are particularly interested in the ability of cPLA 2  to induce inflammatory responses via production of arachidonic acid. This activity of various forms of cPLA 2  can be effectively inhibited by the arachidonic acid analogues AACOCF 3  and MAFP (Balsinde et al., 1999). Elevated levels of PLA 2  have been detected in MS tissue in an older study (Woelk and Peiler-Ichikawa, 1974), however, this study was done in vitro utilizing post mortem tissue, and thus provides no indication of conditions in living tissue. Another study found no change in the level of secreted PLA 2  activity in MS samples versus controls, and found a decrease in cytosolic PLA 2  activity in samples from MS subjects (Huterer, Tourtellotte and Wherrett, 1995). Furthermore, the downstream products of arachidonic acid and 5-lipoxygenase, such as leukotriene C 4  are elevated in the CSF of MS patients (Dore-Duffy et al., 1991). Levels of prostaglandins, which are derived from arachidonic acid by the action of cyclooxygenase, also correlate with the severity of MS (Dore-Duffy et al., 1986), and blocking these reduces the severity of EAE in mice (Reder et al., 1994). In addition, TNF and IL-β, which are capable of inducing expression of both forms of PLA 2 , are elevated in the CSF of patients with MS (Hauser et al., 1990).  
     [0060] LPC Mediates Chemokine and Cytokine Expression and Immune Cell Responses  
     [0061] LPC, another metabolic product of PLA 2 , in addition to being a strong myelinolytic agent is also a chemoattractant for T-cells and monocytes and is mitogenic for macrophages (Ryborg et al., 1994; Prokazova et al., 1998). It has been found that injection of LPC into the adult mouse spinal cord leads to the rapid expression of MCP-1, MIP-1α, GM-CSF and TNF-α as determined by RT-PCR (Ousman and David, 2001). The expression of these chemokines and cytokines mediates the rapid influx of T-cells and monocytes into the spinal cord, and to activation of macrophages (Ousman and David, 2000, 2001). These immune cell changes result in rapid demyelination at the site of LPC injection within the spinal cord in 4 days. Previous work of the applicants&#39; laboratory has shown that LPC also induces increased expression of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 in blood vessels in the mouse spinal cord, as well as, induces a marked opening of the blood-brain barrier (Ousman and David, 2000). These adhesion molecules are important in mediating the extravasation of leukocytes into the CNS parenchyma in EAE and are also expressed in active MS plaques (Lee and Benveniste, 1999; Sobel, Mitchell and Fondren, 1990; Raine and Cannella, 1992).  
     [0062] Described herein are experiments to assess the expression of cPLA 2  in EAE lesions in the spinal cord in C57BL/6 mice. This mouse strain has a naturally occurring null mutation for the major form of sPLA 2  (Group IIA) (Kennedy et al., 1995). Since EAE can be induced in these mice, it is unlikely that sPLA 2  is the only major inducer of the disease. The expression of cPLA 2  was therefore examined in EAE lesions in the spinal cord of C57BL/6 mice using immunohistochemical techniques. As a result, it is shown herein that cPLA 2  is indeed expressed in higher amounts in such lesions. Experiments were then carried out in which the activity of cPLA 2  was blocked using a chemical inhibitor. These experiments revealed that blocking cPLA 2  prevents the onset and progression of EAE.  
     [0063] Demonstrated herein is an increase in cPLA 2  in and around EAE lesions in C57BL/6 mice that have a natural disruption in the sPLA 2  gene. The increase in cPLA 2  was seen in endothelial cells and astrocytes, whose processes surround blood vessels. A high level of expression in endothelial cells was seen just prior to the highest increase in the influx of inflammatory cells into the spinal cord. cPLA 2  expression was also seen in the T cells and macrophages that accumulate at the site of immune lesions in the spinal cord. Previous studies have shown an increase of downstream products of PLA 2  action such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes in the CSF of MS patients (Gallai et al, 1995; Fretland, 1992), however, a role for PLA 2  has not been described prior to the studies described herein. Animal studies using the EAE model to assess the blocking effects of these downstream products have been shown herein to reduce the severity of EAE. A prostaglandin El analogue was shown to delay onset of EAE by a few days and reduce clinical severity from a mean grade of 2.23 in controls to 0.7 in treated rats (Reder et al, 1994). A leukotriene inhibitor, sulfasalazine, also reduced disease incidence in guinea pigs (Prosiegel et al, 1990). A COX-inhibitor, piroxicam, was shown to decrease mean clinical score from a 2.8 in untreated to a 1.5 in treated rats (Weber and Hempel, 1989). In addition, a dual COX/5-lipoxygenase inhibitor was shown to reduce the incidence of EAE (Prosiegel et al, 1989). Provided herein is direct evidence that the use of PLA 2  inhibitors markedly reduces the incidence and severity of EAE. The incidence of EAE using AACOCF3 was reduced by 72% in treated mice. Also, disease severity was reduced from a mean maximal clinical score of almost 3 in control mice to 0.4 in treated mice.  
     [0064] As described herein, the effects of blocking PLA 2  activity are not only immunosuppressive, but also prevent myelin breakdown. The results described herein demonstrate the effectiveness of this inhibitor in an animal model of MS. Therefore, blocking PLA 2  directly can be used as a new therapeutic tool for MS. By blocking PLA 2  upstream of the arachadonic acid metabolites, both the inflammatory cascade and myelin disruption through LPC will be prevented, leading to a potentially effective treatment for MS.  
     [0065] Accordingly, in an aspect, the invention provides a method for the prevention and or treatment of neural inflammatory and/or demyelinating disease in an animal, the method comprising modulating (in an embodiment, inhibiting) the activity and/or expression of a phospholipase A 2  (PLA 2 ) in the animal. Such a method may comprise administering to the animal an agent capable of modulating PLA 2  activity. In cases involving an inhibition of PLA 2  activity, such an agent is a PLA 2  inhibitor. Such administration may in embodiments occur before, at about the time of, or subsequent to the onset of the disease. An “agent capable of modulating PLA 2  activity” refers to any compound which when introduced into a system comprising a PLA 2  protein, is capable of altering at least one aspect of PLA 2  activity or function. Such an agent may be a ligand of a PLA 2  protein, such as an agonist or antagonist. Such an agent may act directly on a PLA 2  protein or indirectly by modulating a process or activity, which subsequently results in the modulation of PLA 2  activity, or may modulate PLA 2  expression. In certain systems (e.g. in vivo), such an agent may be a prodrug, which is metabolized to an active form at or prior to its arrival at the site of action.  
     [0066] In another aspect, the invention provides a method for the diagnosis and/or prognostication of neural inflammatory and/or demyelinating disease in an animal, the method comprising determining a level of PLA 2  protein or expression or activity of a PLA 2  in a tissue or body fluid obtained from the animal.  
     [0067] In embodiments, the disease is multiple sclerosis and related neural diseases. In further embodiments, the disease is selected from the group consisting of Alzheimer&#39;s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and stroke. In an embodiment, the animal is a mammal, in a further embodiment, a human. In embodiments, the PLA 2  is secreted or cytosolic, calcium dependent or independent. In an embodiment, the PLA 2  is of an average molecular weight of about 14 kDa. In an embodiment, the PLA 2  is of an average molecular weight of about 85 kDa. In an embodiment, the PLA 2  is cytosolic PLA 2  (cPLA 2 ). In an embodiment, the PLA 2  is a calcium-dependent PLA 2 . In embodiments, the PLA 2  is a type IV PLA 2 . In embodiments, the method comprises the modulation of both a secreted and a cytosolic PLA 2 . In embodiments, the PLA 2  has an activity that generates as a product (a) arachidonic acid (b) lyso-phosphatidylcholine or (c) both (a) and (b).  
     [0068] Chemokines and cytokines, are thought to mediate (play a role in) a variety of disease states. In alternative aspects, the invention relates to methods, uses and commercial packages for immunomodulation (e.g. immunosuppression) and for diagnosis, prognostication, prevention and/or treatment of T-cell mediated diseases, including autoimmune diseases, inflammation, chronic interstitial lung disease, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn&#39;s disease, ulcerative colitis, allergy, contact hypersensitivity, psoriasis, systemic lupus erythematosus, osteoarthritis, and diseases mediated by superantigen toxins such as staphylococcal enterotoxin B, and toxic shock syndrome toxin 1.  
     [0069] “Modulation/modulating” as used herein refers to both upregulation (i.e., activation or stimulation (e.g., by agonizing or potentiating)) and downregulation (i.e. inhibition or suppression (e.g., by antagonizing, decreasing or inhibiting)).  
     [0070] A wide variety of alternative genomic approaches are available to down-regulate the expression of functional PLA 2 . For example, in alternative embodiments, transformation of cells with antisense constructs may be used to inhibit expression of PLA 2 . Antisense constructs are nucleic acid molecules that may be transcribed to provide an antisense molecule that is substantially complementary to all or a portion of the mRNA encoding PLA 2 , so that expression of the antisense construct interferes with the expression of the PLA 2 . In an embodiment, the just noted antisense molecule is antisense to a DNA sequence coding PLA 2 , in an embodiment, a human PLA 2 . Shown in FIG. 12 and SEQ ID NO. 1 is a human DNA sequence encoding a cPLA 2  (Sharp et al., 1991), with the putative coding sequence shown in SEQ ID NO. 1 and the corresponding cPLA 2  protein sequence shown in SEQ ID NO. 2. Shown in FIG. 13 and SEQ ID NO. 3 is a mouse DNA sequence encoding a cPLA 2  (Nalefski et al., 1994), with the putative coding sequence shown in SEQ ID NO. 3 and the corresponding cPLA 2  protein sequence shown in SEQ ID NO. 4. In some embodiments, antisense constructs of the invention may therefore encode five or more contiguous nucleic acid residues substantially complimentary to a contiguous portion a nucleic acid sequence encoding PLA 2 , such as an mRNA encoding a PLA 2 , or said antisense constructs may encode a sequence of five or more contiguous nucleic acid residues which are antisense to the DNA sequences in SEQ ID NO. 1 and/or SEQ ID NO. 3.  
     [0071] Substantially complementary nucleic acids are nucleic acids in which the complement of one molecule is substantially identical to the other molecule. Two nucleic acid or protein sequences are considered substantially identical if, when optimally aligned, they share at least about 70% sequence identity. In alternative embodiments, sequence identity may for example be at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, or at least 95%. Optimal alignment of sequences for comparisons of identity may be conducted using a variety of algorithms, such as the local homology algorithm of Smith and Waterman, 1981,  Adv. Appl. Math  2: 482, the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman and Wunsch, 1970,  J. Mol. Biol.  48:443, the search for similarity method of Pearson and Lipman, 1988,  Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA  85: 2444, and the computerised implementations of these algorithms (such as GAP, BESTFIT, FASTA and TFASTA in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package, Genetics Computer Group, Madison, Wis., U.S.A.). Sequence identity may also be determined using the BLAST algorithm, described in Altschul et al., 1990,  J. Mol. Biol.  215:403-10 (using the published default settings). Software for performing BLAST analysis may be available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information (through the internet at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/). The BLAST algorithm involves first identifying high scoring sequence pairs (HSPs) by identifying short words of length W in the query sequence that either match or satisfy some positive-valued threshold score T when aligned with a word of the same length in a database sequence. T is referred to as the neighbourhood word score threshold. Initial neighbourhood word hits act as seeds for initiating searches to find longer HSPs. The word hits are extended in both directions along each sequence for as far as the cumulative alignment score can be increased. Extension of the word hits in each direction is halted when the following parameters are met: the cumulative alignment score falls off by the quantity X from its maximum achieved value; the cumulative score goes to zero or below, due to the accumulation of one or more negative-scoring residue alignments; or the end of either sequence is reached. The BLAST algorithm parameters W, T and X determine the sensitivity and speed of the alignment. The BLAST program may use as defaults a word length (W) of 11, the BLOSUM62 scoring matrix (Henikoff and Henikoff, 1992,  Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA  89: 10915-10919) alignments (B) of 50, expectation (E) of 10 (or 1 or 0.1 or 0.01 or 0.001 or 0.0001), M=5, N=4, and a comparison of both strands. One measure of the statistical similarity between two sequences using the BLAST algorithm is the smallest sum probability (P(N)), which provides an At indication of the probability by which a match between two nucleotide or amino acid sequences would occur by chance. In alternative embodiments of the invention, nucleotide or amino acid sequences are considered substantially identical if the smallest sum probability in a comparison of the test sequences is less than about 1, preferably less than about 0.1, more preferably less than about 0.01, and most preferably less than about 0.001.  
     [0072] An alternative indication that two nucleic acid sequences are substantially complementary is that the two sequences hybridize to each other under moderately stringent, or preferably stringent, conditions. Hybridization to filter-bound sequences under moderately stringent conditions may, for example, be performed in 0.5 M NaHPO 4 , 7% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), 1 mM EDTA at 65° C., and washing in 0.2×SSC/0.1% SDS at 42° C. (see Ausubel, et al. (eds), 1989,  Current Protocols in Molecular Biology,  Vol. 1, Green Publishing Associates, Inc., and John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc., New York, at p. 2.10.3). Alternatively, hybridization to filter-bound sequences under stringent conditions may, for example, be performed in 0.5 M NaHPO 4 , 7% SDS, 1 mM EDTA at 65° C., and washing in 0.1×SSC/0.1% SDS at 68° C. (see Ausubel, et al. (eds), 1989, supra). Hybridization conditions may be modified in accordance with known methods depending on the sequence of interest (see Tijssen, 1993,  Laboratory Techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology—Hybridization with Nucleic Acid Probes,  Part I, Chapter 2 “Overview of principles of hybridization and the strategy of nucleic acid probe assays”, Elsevier, N.Y.). Generally, stringent conditions are selected to be about 5° C. lower than the thermal melting point for the specific sequence at a defined ionic strength and pH.  
     [0073] In alternative embodiments, the invention provides antisense molecules and ribozymes for exogenous administration to bind to, degrade and/or inhibit the translation of PLA 2  mRNA. Examples of therapeutic antisense oligonucleotide applications, incorporated herein by reference, include: U.S. Pat. No. 5,135,917, issued Aug. 4, 1992; U.S. Pat. No. 5,098,890, issued Mar. 24, 1992; U.S. Pat. No. 5,087,617, issued Feb. 11, 1992; U.S. Pat. No. 5,166,195 issued Nov. 24, 1992; U.S. Pat. No. 5,004,810, issued Apr. 2, 1991; U.S. Pat. No. 5,194,428, issued Mar. 16, 1993; U.S. Pat. No. 4,806,463, issued Feb. 21, 1989; U.S. Pat. No. 5,286,717 issued Feb. 15, 1994; U.S. Pat. No. 5,276,019 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,264,423; BioWorld Today, Apr. 29, 1994, p. 3.  
     [0074] Preferably, in antisense molecules, there is a sufficient degree of complementarity to the PLA 2  mRNA to avoid non-specific binding of the antisense molecule to non-target sequences under conditions in which specific binding is desired, such as under physiological conditions in the case of in vivo assays or therapeutic treatment or, in the case of in vitro assays, under conditions in which the assays are conducted. The target mRNA for antisense binding may include not only the information to encode a protein, but also associated ribonucleotides, which for example form the 5′-untranslated region, the 3′-untranslated region, the 5′ cap region and intron/exon junction ribonucleotides. A method of screening for antisense and ribozyme nucleic acids that may be used to provide such molecules as PLA 2  inhibitors of the invention is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,932,435 (which is incorporated herein by reference).  
     [0075] Antisense molecules (oligonucleotides) of the invention may include those which contain intersugar backbone linkages such as phosphotriesters, methyl phosphonates, short chain alkyl or cycloalkyl intersugar linkages or short chain heteroatomic or heterocyclic intersugar linkages, phosphorothioates and those with CH 2 —NH—O—CH 2 , CH 2 —N(CH 3 )—O—CH 2  (known as methylene(methylimino) or MMI backbone), CH 2 —O—N (CH 3 )—CH 2 , CH 2 —N (CH 3 )—N (CH 3 )—CH 2  and O—N (CH 3 )—CH 2 —CH 2  backbones (where phosphodiester is O—P—O—CH 2 ) Oligonucleotides having morpholino backbone structures may also be used (U.S. Pat. No. 5,034,506). In alternative embodiments, antisense oligonucleotides may have a peptide nucleic acid (PNA, sometimes referred to as “protein nucleic acid”) backbone, in which the phosphodiester backbone of the oligonucleotide may be replaced with a polyamide backbone wherein nucleosidic bases are bound directly or indirectly to aza nitrogen atoms or methylene groups in the polyamide backbone (Nielsen et al., 1991, Science 254:1497 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,539,082). The phosphodiester bonds may be substituted with structures that are chiral and enantiomerically specific. Persons of ordinary skill in the art will be able to select other linkages for use in practice of the invention.  
     [0076] Oligonucleotides may also include species which include at least one modified nucleotide base. Thus, purines and pyrimidines other than those normally found in nature may be used. Similarly, modifications on the pentofuranosyl portion of the nucleotide subunits may also be effected. Examples of such modifications are 2′-O-alkyl- and 2′-halogen-substituted nucleotides. Some specific examples of modifications at the 21 position of sugar moieties which are useful in the present invention are OH, SH, SCH 3 , F, OCN, O(CH 2 ) n  NH 2  or O(CH 2 ) n  CH 3  where n is from 1 to about 10; C 1  to C 10  lower alkyl, substituted lower alkyl, alkaryl or aralkyl; Cl; Br; CN; CF 3 ; OCF 3 ; O—, S—, or N-alkyl; O—, S—, or N-alkenyl; SOCH 3 ; SO 2  CH 3 ; ONO 2 ; NO 2 ; N 3 ; NH 2 ; heterocycloalkyl; heterocycloalkaryl; aminoalkylamino; polyalkylamino; substituted silyl; an RNA cleaving group; a reporter group; an intercalator; a group for improving the pharmacokinetic properties of an oligonucleotide; or a group for improving the pharmacodynamic properties of an oligonucleotide and other substituents having similar properties. One or more pentofuranosyl groups may be replaced by another sugar, by a sugar mimic such as cyclobutyl or by another moiety which takes the place of the sugar.  
     [0077] In some embodiments, the antisense oligonucleotides in accordance with this invention may comprise from about 5 to about 100 nucleotide units. As will be appreciated, a nucleotide unit is a base-sugar combination (or a combination of analogous structures) suitably bound to an adjacent nucleotide unit through phosphodiester or other bonds forming a backbone structure.  
     [0078] A number of PLA 2  inhibitors have been described. Such inhibitors include, but are not limited to arachidonic acid analogues such as the arachidonic acid analogues AACOCF 3  and MAFP described above, sialoglycolipids, proteoglycans and p-bromophenyl bromide as noted above, and certain benzenesulfonamide derivatives (Oinuma et al, 1991; European patent application No. 468 054). Further, bromoenol lactone and trifluoromethyl ketones (such as palmitoyl trifluoromethyl ketone, arachidonyl trifluoromethyl ketone) have been reported as inhibitors of Ca ++ -independent PLA 2  (Ackermann et al, 1995) and cPLA 2  (Street et al, 1993) activity as well as bromophenacyl bromide. Accordingly, the invention further provides methods and uses of such compounds for the inhibition of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease.  
     [0079] In another aspect, the invention relates to the use of a PLA 2  as a target in screening assays that may be used to identify compounds that are useful for the prevention or fr treatment of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease. In some embodiments, such an assay may comprise the steps of  
     [0080] a) providing a test compound;  
     [0081] b) providing a source of enzymatically active PLA 2 ; and  
     [0082] c) measuring PLA 2  activity in the presence versus the absence of the test compound, wherein a lower measured activity in the presence of the test compound indicates that the compound is an inhibitor of PLA 2  and is useful for the prevention and/or treatment of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease.  
     [0083] In another aspect, the invention relates to the use of a PLA 2  as a target in screening assays that may be used to identify compounds that are useful for the prevention or treatment of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease. In some embodiments, such an assay may comprise the steps of  
     [0084] a) providing a test compound;  
     [0085] b) providing a source of enzymatically active PLA 2 ;  
     [0086] c) providing a substrate for the PLA 2 ;  
     [0087] d) assaying the activity of the PLA 2  on the substrate in the presence of the compound, to identify compounds that inhibit the PLA 2 , wherein said compound is useful for the prevention or treatment of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease. In an embodiment the substrate is a phospholipid (e.g. phosphatidylcholine) comprising an arachidonoyl group at the sn-2 position.  
     [0088] The invention also relates to similar assays based on the detection on the expression of PLA 2  and PLA 2  protein levels, which can be detected fro example by immunoassay methods or specific labeling methods, or via a reporter-based assay as noted below.  
     [0089] Such assays may further comprise the step of assaying the compounds for the reduction, abrogation or reversal of EAE symptoms. Such assays may be utilized to identify compounds that modulate expression of the PLA 2  gene, or compounds that modulate the activity of the expressed enzyme.  
     [0090] Screening assays of the invention may also be utilized to identify and/or characterize a compound for inhibiting demyelination. Therefore, the invention further provides a method for identifying and/or characterizing a compound for inhibiting demyelination, said method comprising assaying the activity of a PLA 2  in the presence of a test compound, to identify a compound that inhibits the PLA 2 , wherein inhibition is indicative that the test compound may be useful for inhibiting demyelination. In an embodiment, the just noted method may further comprise assaying the compound for inhibition of demyelination.  
     [0091] The above-noted assays may be applied to a single test compound or to a plurality or “library” of such compounds (e.g. a combinatorial library). Any such compounds may be utilized as lead compounds and further modified to improve their therapeutic, prophylactic and/or pharmacological properties for the prevention and treatment of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease.  
     [0092] Such assay systems may comprise a variety of means to enable and optimize useful assay conditions. Such means may include but are not limited to: suitable buffer solutions, for example, for the control of pH and ionic strength and to provide any necessary components for optimal PLA 2  activity and stability (e.g. protease inhibitors), temperature control means for optimal PLA 2  activity and or stability, and detection means to enable the detection of the PLA 2  reaction product, e.g. arachidonic acid and/or LPC. A variety of such detection means may be used, including but not limited to one or a combination of the following: radiolabelling (e.g.  32 P,  14 C,  3 H), antibody-based detection, fluorescence, chemiluminescence, spectroscopic methods (e.g. generation of a product with altered spectroscopic properties), various reporter enzymes or proteins (e.g. horseradish peroxidase, green fluorescent protein), specific binding reagents (e.g. biotin/(strept)avidin), and others.  
     [0093] The assay may be carried out in vitro utilizing a source of PLA 2  which may comprise naturally isolated or recombinantly produced PLA 2 , in preparations ranging from crude to pure. Recombinant PLA 2  may be produced in a number of prokaryotic or eukaryotic expression systems, which are well known in the art (see for example U.S. Pat. No. 5,354,677 [Knopf et al., Oct. 11, 1994] for the recombinant expression of cPLA 2 . Such assays may be performed in an array format. In certain embodiments, one or a plurality of the assay steps are automated.  
     [0094] A homolog, variant and/or fragment of PLA 2  which retains activity may also be used in the methods of the invention. Homologs include protein sequences, which are substantially identical to the amino acid sequence of a PLA 2 , sharing significant structural and functional homology with a PLA 2 . Variants include, but are not limited to, proteins or peptides, which differ from a PLA 2  by any modifications, and/or amino acid substitutions, deletions or additions. Modifications can occur anywhere including the polypeptide backbone, (i.e. the amino acid sequence), the amino acid side chains and the amino or carboxy termini. Such substitutions, deletions or additions may involve one or more amino acids. Fragments include a fragment or a portion of a PLA 2  or a fragment or a portion of a homolog or variant of a PLA 2 .  
     [0095] The assay may in an embodiment be performed using an appropriate host cell comprising PLA 2  as a source of PLA 2 . Such a host cell may be prepared by the introduction of DNA encoding PLA 2  into the host cell and providing conditions for the expression of PLA 2 . Such host cells may be prokaryotic or eukaryotic, bacterial, yeast, amphibian or mammalian.  
     [0096] A number of methods for measuring PLA 2  activity may be utilized, such as those described by Reynolds et al. (1994) and Currie et al. (1994) or in U.S. Pat. No. 5,464,754 (Dennis et al., Nov. 7, 1995).  
     [0097] In another embodiment of the invention, a reporter assay-based method of selecting agents which modulate PLA 2  expression is provided. The method includes providing a cell comprising a nucleic acid sequence comprising a PLA 2  transcriptional regulatory sequence operably-linked to a suitable reporter gene. The cell is then exposed to the agent suspected of affecting PLA 2  expression (e.g. a test compound) and the transcription efficiency is measured by the activity of the reporter gene. The activity can then be compared to the activity of the reporter gene in cells unexposed to the agent in question. Suitable reporter genes include but are not limited to beta-D galactosidase, luciferase, chloramphenicol acetyltransferase and fluorescent green protein.  
     [0098] “Transcriptional regulatory sequence” is a generic term that refers to DNA sequences, such as initiation and termination signals, enhancers, and promoters, splicing signals, polyadenylation signals which induce or control transcription of protein coding sequences with which they are operably linked. A first nucleic acid sequence is “operably-linked” with a second nucleic acid sequence when the first nucleic acid sequence is placed in a functional relationship with the second nucleic acid sequence. For instance, a promoter is operably-linked to a coding sequence if the promoter affects the transcription or expression of the coding sequences. Generally, operably-linked DNA sequences are contiguous and, where necessary to join two protein coding regions, in reading frame. However, since enhancers generally function when separated from the promoters by several kilobases and intronic sequences may be of variable lengths, some polynucleotide elements may be operably-linked but not contiguous. In another embodiment, the construct may comprise an in frame fusion of a suitable reporter gene within the open reading frame of a PLA 2  gene. The reporter gene may be chosen as such to facilitate the detection of its expression, e.g. by the detection of the activity of its gene product. Such a reporter construct may be introduced into a suitable system capable of exhibiting a change in the level of expression of the reporter gene in response to exposure a suitable biological sample. Such an assay would also be adaptable to a possible large scale, high-throughput, automated format, and would allow more convenient detection due to the presence of its reporter component.  
     [0099] The above-described assay methods may further comprise determining whether any compounds so identified can be used for the prevention or treatment of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease, such as examining their effect(s) on inflammatory cell influx and demyelination in lesions in the EAE animal model system.  
     [0100] In various embodiments, PLA 2  inhibitors, or pharmaceutically-acceptable salts thereof, may be used therapeutically in formulations or medicaments to prevent or treat inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease. The invention provides corresponding methods of medical treatment, in which a therapeutic dose of a PLA 2  inhibitor is administered in a pharmacologically acceptable formulation. Accordingly, the invention also provides therapeutic compositions comprising a PLA 2  inhibitor and a pharmacologically acceptable excipient or carrier. The therapeutic composition may be soluble in an aqueous solution at a physiologically acceptable pH.  
     [0101] The invention provides pharmaceutical compositions (medicaments) containing (comprising) PLA 2  inhibitors. In one embodiment, such compositions include a PLA 2  inhibitor in a therapeutically or prophylactically effective amount sufficient to treat inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease.  
     [0102] The invention further provides a use of a PLA 2  inhibitor or a composition comprising a PLA 2  inhibitor for the prevention and/or treatment of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, or for the preparation of a medicament for the prevention and/or treatment of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease.  
     [0103] A “therapeutically effective amount” refers to an amount effective, at dosages and for periods of time necessary, to achieve the desired therapeutic result, such as reduction of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease progression. A therapeutically effective amount of PLA 2  inhibitor may vary according to factors such as the disease state, age, sex, and weight of the individual, and the ability of the compound to elicit a desired response in the individual. Dosage regimens may be adjusted to provide the optimum therapeutic response. A therapeutically effective amount is also one in which any toxic or detrimental effects of the compound are outweighed by the therapeutically beneficial effects. A “prophylactically effective amount” refers to an amount effective, at dosages and for periods of time necessary, to achieve the desired prophylactic result, such as preventing or inhibiting the rate of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease onset or progression. A prophylactically effective amount can be determined as described above for the therapeutically effective amount. For any particular subject, specific dosage regimens may be adjusted over time according to the individual need and the professional judgement of the person administering or supervising the administration of the compositions.  
     [0104] As used herein “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” or “excipient” includes any and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents, and the like that are physiologically compatible. In one embodiment, the carrier is suitable for parenteral administration. Alternatively, the carrier can be suitable for intravenous, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, sublingual or oral administration. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include sterile aqueous solutions or dispersions and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersion. The use of such media and agents for pharmaceutically active substances is well known in the art. Except insofar as any conventional media or agent is incompatible with the active compound, use thereof in the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention is contemplated. Supplementary active compounds can also be incorporated into the compositions.  
     [0105] Therapeutic compositions typically must be sterile and stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage. The composition can be formulated as a solution, microemulsion, liposome, or other ordered structure suitable to high drug concentration. The carrier can be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propylene glycol, and liquid polyethylene glycol, and the like), and suitable mixtures thereof. The proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersion and by the use of surfactants. In many cases, it will be preferable to include isotonic agents, for example, sugars, polyalcohols such as mannitol, sorbitol, or sodium chloride in the composition. Prolonged absorption of the injectable compositions can be brought about by including in the composition an agent which delays absorption, for example, monostearate salts and gelatin. Moreover, the PLA 2  inhibitors can be administered in a time release formulation, for example in a composition which includes a slow release polymer. The active compounds can be prepared with carriers that will protect the compound against rapid release, such as a controlled release formulation, including implants and microencapsulated delivery systems. Biodegradable, biocompatible polymers can be used, such as ethylene vinyl acetate, polyanhydrides, polyglycolic acid, collagen, polyorthoesters, polylactic acid and polylactic, polyglycolic copolymers (PLG). Many methods for the preparation of such formulations are patented or generally known to those skilled in the art.  
     [0106] Sterile injectable solutions can be prepared by incorporating the active compound (e.g. PLA 2  inhibitor) in the required amount in an appropriate solvent with one or a combination of ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed by filtered sterilization. Generally, dispersions are prepared by incorporating the active compound into a sterile vehicle which contains a basic dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from those enumerated above. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation of sterile injectable solutions, the preferred methods of preparation are vacuum drying and freeze-drying which yields a powder of the active ingredient plus any additional desired ingredient from a previously sterile-filtered solution thereof. In accordance with an alternative aspect of the invention, a PLA 2  inhibitor may be formulated with one or more additional compounds that enhance the solubility of the PLA 2  inhibitor.  
     [0107] In accordance with another aspect of the invention, therapeutic compositions of the present invention, comprising a PLA 2  inhibitor, may be provided in containers or commercial packages which further comprise instructions for use of the PLA 2  inhibitor for the prevention and/or treatment of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease.  
     [0108] Accordingly, the invention further provides a commercial package comprising a PLA 2  inhibitor or the above-mentioned composition together with instructions for the prevention and/or treatment of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease.  
     [0109] The positive correlation of PLA 2  expression with EAE indicates that the assessment of the level of PLA 2  protein or a nucleic acid (e.g. an mRNA) encoding PLA 2  or PLA 2  enzyme activity is useful for the diagnosis or prognostication of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease. PLA 2  mRNA levels may be assessed by methods known in the art such as Northern analysis or RT-PCR (see for example Sambrook et al (1989) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (second edition), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., USA).  
     [0110] The level of PLA 2  protein or PLA 2  encoding mRNA or PLA 2  enzyme activity may be measured in a variety of tissues and body fluids including but not limited to blood, plasma, cerebrospinal fluid, endothelial cells, macrophages and lymphocytes.  
     [0111] In an embodiment, the level of PLA 2  protein or PLA 2  encoding mRNA or PLA 2  enzyme activity measured in an animal to be tested may be compared to an established standard of PLA 2  protein or PLA 2  encoding mRNA or PLA 2  enzyme activity.  
     [0112] In an embodiment, the level of PLA 2  protein or PLA 2  encoding mRNA or PLA 2  enzyme activity measured in an animal to be tested may be compared to a corresponding level of PLA 2  protein or PLA 2  encoding mRNA or PLA 2  enzyme activity measured in tissue or body fluid of a control animal. In an embodiment, the control animal is an age- and/or weight-matched animal.  
     [0113] In an embodiment, the level of PLA 2  protein or PLA 2  encoding mRNA or PLA 2  enzyme activity measured in an animal to be tested may be compared to a corresponding level of PLA 2  protein or PLA 2  encoding mRNA or PLA 2  enzyme activity measured in tissue or body fluid of the same animal at an earlier time, and such a method is used to prognosticate inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease.  
     [0114] According to a further aspect of the present invention, a commercial package is provided for the diagnosis or prognostication of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease in an animal. The commercial package comprising means for the assessment of the level of PLA 2  protein or PLA 2  encoding mRNA or PLA 2  enzyme activity in a tissue or body fluid of the animal together with instructions for the diagnosis or prognostication of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease.  
     [0115] The invention further relates to the use of anti-PLA 2  antibodies for prophylactic, therapeutic, diagnostic and/or prognostic uses. With regard to therapeutic uses, an anti-PLA 2  antibody may be used which is capable of modulating (e.g. inhibiting) the binding and/or catalytic activity of a PLA 2 . With regard to diagnostic and prognostic uses, an anti-PLA 2  antibody may be used for detecting PLA 2  and, in embodiments, quantifying the level thereof, in a sample, such as a tissue or body fluid and lymphocytes. Such detection may further be used for imaging methods.  
     [0116] Some anti-PLA 2  antibodies have already been described, such as the anti-cPLA 2  utilized in the Examples below. To prepare such antibodies, a PLA 2  or fragment/homolog/variant thereof may be used to immunize a small mammal, e.g., a mouse or a rabbit, in order to raise antibodies which recognize a PLA 2 . An anti-PLA 2  antibody may be either polyclonal or monoclonal. Methods to produce polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies are well known in the art. For a review, see Harlow and Lane (1988) and Yelton et al. (1981), both of which are herein incorporated by reference. For monoclonal antibodies, see Kohler and Milstein (1975), herein incorporated by reference.  
     [0117] Antibodies may be recombinant, e.g., chimeric (e.g., constituted by a variable region of murine origin associated with a human constant region), humanized (a human immunoglobulin constant backbone together with hypervariable region of animal, e.g., murine, origin), and/or single chain. Both polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies may also be in the form of immunoglobulin fragments, e.g., F(ab)′ 2 , Fab or Fab′ fragments. The antibodies may be of any isotype, e.g., IgG or IgA, and polyclonal antibodies are of a single isotype or a mixture of isotypes.  
     [0118] Anti-PLA 2  antibodies may be produced and identified using standard immunological assays, e.g., Western blot analysis, dot blot assay, or ELISA (see, e.g., Coligan et al. (1994), herein incorporated by reference). The antibodies are used in diagnostic methods to detect the presence of a PLA 2  in a sample, such as a biological sample.  
     [0119] Accordingly, a further aspect of the invention provides a method for assessing an inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease, in an animal, based on detecting the presence of a PLA 2  in a biological sample obtained from the animal, by contacting the biological sample with an antibody capable of recognizing a PLA 2 , such that an immune complex is formed, and by detecting such complex to indicate the presence of PLA 2  in the sample.  
     [0120] Those skilled in the art will readily understand that the immune complex is formed between a component of the sample and the antibody, and that any unbound material is removed prior to detecting the complex. It is understood that such an antibody is used for screening a sample, such as plasma, lymphocytes, macrophages, cerebrospinal fluid, urine, saliva, and endo- or epi-thelia for the presence of PLA 2 .  
     [0121] For diagnostic applications, the reagent (i.e., an anti-PLA 2  antibody) is either in a free state or immobilized on a solid support, such as a tube, a bead, or any other conventional support used in the field. Immobilization is achieved using direct or indirect means. Direct means include passive adsorption (non-covalent binding) or covalent binding between the support and the reagent. By “indirect means” is meant that an anti-reagent compound that interacts with a reagent is first attached to the solid support. Indirect means may also employ a ligand-receptor system, for example, where a molecule such as a vitamin is grafted onto the reagent and the corresponding receptor immobilized on the solid phase. This is illustrated by the biotin-(strept)avidin system. Alternatively, a peptide tail is added chemically or by genetic engineering to the reagent and the grafted or fused product immobilized by passive adsorption or covalent linkage of the peptide tail.  
     [0122] Such diagnostic agents may be included in a commercial package or kit which also comprises instructions for use. The reagent is labeled with a detection means which allows for the detection of the reagent when it is bound to its target. The detection means may be a fluorescent agent such as fluorescein isocyanate or fluorescein isothiocyanate, or an enzyme such as horseradish peroxidase or luciferase or alkaline phosphatase, or a radioactive element such as  125 I or  51 Cr.  
     [0123] A further aspect of the present invention is a diagnostic imaging method, which comprises introducing into a biological system, an anti-PLA 2  antibody, which is used in conjunction with an appropriate detection system to identify areas where PLA 2  is present or absent.  
     [0124] The invention further relates to the role of PLA 2  in a variety of in vitro and in vivo inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease systems, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease model systems, such as the EAE model Ad system, and the use of such systems for inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease research. Accordingly, the invention provides a variety of in vitro and in vivo model systems for the study of the mechanisms of the development and progression of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease, and for the development and characterization of materials and methods for the prevention, treatment, and/or diagnosis of inflammatory and/or demyelinating neural disease, such as MS and related neurodegenerative disease. In an embodiment, such a system comprises a mutation or disruption in a PLA 2  gene or other means of PLA 2  inactivation. In embodiments, the PLA 2  gene encodes a PLA 2  which is cytosolic or secreted, calcium dependent or independent. In an embodiment, the PLA 2  is a cytosolic PLA 2 . In an embodiment, both copies of the gene are mutated or disrupted. The system may comprise a transgenic non-human mammal, such as a rodent, such as a mouse.  
     [0125] Applicants have determined that immune cell influx and demyelination at neural lesions correlate with PLA 2  expression and activity. Accordingly, the invention further provides a method of inhibiting immune cell influx and demyelination at neural lesions in an biological system, via inhibiting the activity and/or expression of a PLA 2  in said system. The invention further provides a use of a PLA 2  inhibitor for the inhibition of immune cell influx and/or demyelination at neural lesions in a biological system, or for the preparation of a medicament for the inhibition of immune cell influx and/or demyelination at neural lesions in a biological system. The invention further provides a method of assessing immune cell influx and/or demyelination at neural lesions in a biological system, the method comprising:  
     [0126] (a) determining a test level of PLA 2  protein or PLA 2  encoding mRNA or PLA 2  enzyme activity in said system; and  
     [0127] (b) comparing said test level of PLA 2  protein or PLA 2  encoding mRNA or PLA 2  activity to an established standard;  
     [0128] or to a corresponding level of PLA 2  protein or PLA 2  encoding mRNA or PLA 2  enzyme activity in a control system;  
     [0129] or to a corresponding level of PLA 2  protein or PLA 2  encoding mRNA or PLA 2  enzymatic activity determined in said system at an earlier time;  
     [0130] wherein an increase in said test level is indicative of immune cell influx and/or demyelination at neural lesions.  
     [0131] The invention further provides a commercial package comprising a PLA 2  inhibitor together with instructions for inhibiting immune cell influx and/or demyelination at neural lesions. The invention further provides a commercial package comprising means for the assessment of the level of PLA 2  or PLA 2  encoding mRNA or PLA 2  enzyme activity in a biological system together with instructions for assessing immune cell influx and/or demyelination at neural lesions in biological system.  
     [0132] In embodiments, the above noted biological system is a mammal, in a further embodiment, a human.  
     [0133] Although various embodiments of the invention are disclosed herein, many adaptations and modifications may be made within the scope of the invention in accordance with the common general knowledge of those skilled in this art. Such modifications include the substitution of known equivalents for any aspect of the invention in order to achieve the same result in substantially the same way. Numeric ranges are inclusive of the numbers defining the range. In the claims, the word “comprising” is used as an open-ended term, substantially equivalent to the phrase “including, but not limited to”. The following examples are illustrative of various aspects of the invention, and do not limit the broad aspects of the invention as disclosed herein.  
     EXAMPLES  
     Example 1  
     [0134] Materials and Methods  
     [0135] Generation of EAE: EAE was induced in female C57BL/6 mice (18-20 g) by subcutaneous injections of 50 kg of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG 35-55— -MEVGWYRSPFSRVVHLYRNGK [SEQ ID NO. 5]) (Sheldon Biotechnology Centre, McGill University) in Complete Freund&#39;s Adjuvant (Incomplete Freund&#39;s adjuvant containing 1 mg heat inactivated  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  (Difco Labs)). An intravenous injection of 200 ng of pertussis toxin (List Biologicals) was also administered on days 0 and 2. The mice were monitored clinically for EAE symptoms daily using the following 5-point scale:  
     [0136] Grade 0=normal (no clinical signs).  
     [0137] Grade 1=flaccid tail.  
     [0138] Grade 2=flaccid tail and mild hindlimb weakness (fast righting after mice are placed on their backs).  
     [0139] Grade 3=flaccid tail and severe hindlimb weakness (slow righting after mice are placed on their backs).  
     [0140] Grade 4=flaccid tail and hindlimb paralysis.  
     [0141] Grade 5=flaccid tail, hindlimb paralysis plus forelimb weakness/moribund.  
     [0142] Immunohistochemistry: The mice at different clinical grades were deeply anesthetized and perfused via the heart with 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.2) followed by perfusion with 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.2). The spinal cords of the mice were post- fixed for an hour in the same fixative, and then cryoprotected overnight in 30% sucrose in phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Cryostat sections (14 μm) of cross sections of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spinal cord were incubated in 0.1% H 2 O 2  to remove endogenous peroxidases, and then blocked in 0.1% Triton-X 100 and 2% normal goat serum for 5 hours. Tissues were then incubated with an antibody against cPLA 2  (polyclonal rabbit anti-cPLA 2 —Santa Cruz Biotech) overnight. Tissue sections were then incubated with a biotinylated goat anti-rabbit antibody and then washed and incubated with the avidin-biotin complex conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (Vectastain kit). The staining was visualized using diaminodibenzidine (Sigma) using protocols described previously (Ousman and David, 2000). Sections were counterstained with 3% methyl green, and then dehydrated in ethanol. The slides were cover slipped in Permount.  
     [0143] Double Immunofluorescence: Cryostat sections of tissue obtained by perfusion as described above were blocked in 0.1% Triton-X 100 and 2% normal goat serum and then incubated overnight with an antibody against cPLA 2  (same as that described above) combined with either antibodies specific for astrocytes (mouse anti-GFAP-Sigma), endothelial cells (rat anti-CD34-BD PharMingen), T cells (rat anti CD4-PharMingen), or macrophages (monoclonal antibody Mac-1). Tissue sections were then washed and incubated with a biotinylated goat anti rabbit secondary antibody combined with the appropriate goat anti-rat/mouse rhodamine-conjugated secondary antibody. Tissue sections were then washed and incubated with fluorescein-conjugated steptavidin. The slides were washed and cover slipped in phenylenediamine containing mounting medium.  
     [0144] Quantification: Counts were done using an ocular grid. For the immunoperoxidase stained sections, two cPLA 2   +  cell types were counted: round cells (immune cells in the infiltrate at and near EAE lesions) and elongated cells (endothelial cells). Three levels of the spinal cord (cervical, thoracic and lumbar) were quantified for 3 animals in each grade (1-5). Counts were made on three sections at least 45 μm apart. The positive cells were taken as a percentage per lesion.  
     [0145] Treatment of EAE-induced mice with cPLA 2  inhibitors: EAE was induced in C57BL/6 mice as mentioned above. At days 0 and 2 a 50 μl intravenous injection of either 2 mM or 4 mM arachidonyl trifluoromethyl ketone (AACOCF3-Cayman Chemicals) diluted in 1% DMSO buffer was administered. This was followed on alternated days by intraperitoneal injections of 200 μl of the same inhibitor at 2 or 4 mM concentrations until day 24. The mice were scored clinically based on the scoring system described above. Monitoring was done in a blinded fashion so that the person doing the scoring was unaware of the treatment groups.  
     Example 2  
     [0146] Expression of cPLA 2  in the Spinal Cord in EAE  
     [0147] The expression of cPLA 2  in EAE was assessed in the C57BL/6 mouse strain, which has a naturally occurring null mutation for sPLA 2  group IIA (32), the major form of sPLA 2  in the CNS. Therefore, if PLA 2  plays a role in the onset of MOG-induced EAE in C57BL/6 mice, it has to be mediated mainly by cPLA 2 . By the immunoperoxidase technique, increased expression of cPLA 2  was observed at the site of EAE lesions in the spinal cord. The labeling occurred in endothelial cells (FIG. 2), as well as immune cells in the CNS inflammatory infiltrates (FIG. 3). The percentage of cPLA 2   +  endothelial cells ranged from 70% to 85% between clinical grades 1-3, and decreased to about 20% at clinical grades 4 and 5 (FIG. 4).  
     [0148] The percentage of cPLA 2   +  round cells in the immune cell infiltrates in EAE lesions remained at around 30%-50% in all clinical grades (FIG. 5). However, since the total number of cells in the infiltrates increases with increasing clinical grades and with higher inflammatory scores (FIG. 6), the total number of cPLA 2  cells in the spinal cord increased with increasing severity of the disease (FIG. 7). Double-immunofluorescence labeling studies indicate that T cells, macrophages and astrocytes near EAE lesions express cPLA 2  (FIG. 8). These results show that the highest number of cPLA 2   +  endothelial cells are seen at grades 1-3 which precedes the period of highest influx of inflammatory cells at grade 4.  
     Example 3  
     [0149] Blocking with a cPLA 2  Inhibitor Prevents the Onset of EAE  
     [0150] To assess if cPLA 2  is important for the onset of EAE we blocked it using a chemical inhibitor. C57BL/6 mice were treated with the cPLA 2  inhibitor AACOCF 3  on the day of immunization and on day 2 with 50 μl of 2 or 4 mM AACOCF 3  intravenously, followed by intraperitoneal injections of the inhibitor (200 μl at 2 or 4 mM) on alternate days until day 24. Mice were monitored clinically using the scoring scale described above. Treatment with the inhibitor resulted in a remarkable reduction in the onset and progression of EAE. 100% of the vehicle-treated control mice got EAE, while 57% of the 2 mM treated and only 28% of the 4 mM treated groups got EAE (FIG. 9). The progression of the disease was also markedly reduced as shown in FIG. 10. Vehicle-treated controls reached an average maximum clinical score of 2.9 at 12-14 days, while the 2 mM and 4 mM treated groups reached scores of 1.5 and 0.4, respectively (FIG. 10). Unlike the controls, which relapsed into a second paralytic episode between days 25-34, mice treated with 4 mM AACOCF 3  remained unaffected (FIG. 10). The analysis was carried out blind, so that the person doing the clinical scoring was unaware of the treatment groups. The treatment is well tolerated in that the animals do not show any side-effects. The body weight and food-intake of treated mice were unaffected compared to controls at 35 days after induction of EAE. These results provide very strong evidence that blocking PLA 2  has a profound effect in the prevention of EAE.  
     Example 4  
     [0151] Delayed Treatment of EAE-Induced Mice with a cPLA 2  Inhibitor  
     [0152] Materials and Methods:  
     [0153] EAE was induced in C57BL/6 mice as described above. A 50 μl intravenous injection of either 4 mM AACOCF 3  diluted in 1% DMSO containing buffer or vehicle (1% DMSO containing buffer) was administered on days 14, 16, 18 and 20 after induction of EAE, when animals began to remit. The mice were scored clinically in a blinded fashion as mentioned above.  
     [0154] Results:  
     [0155] Blocking with cPLA 2  inhibitor prevents further relapse: To assess if cPLA 2  plays an important role in the progression of EAE, it was blocked using the chemical inhibitor AACOCF 3  described above. EAE induced C57BL/6 mice were given a delayed treatment with the cPLA 2  inhibitor on the day the animals began to remit (day 14). The animals were given a one-week treatment ( indicated by arrows in FIG. 11) and were monitored in a blind fashion using the clinical scoring scale described above. The treated animals could be divided into two groups: those that received treatment starting at day 14 that were at clinical grades of 3 and 4 , and those that were at a grade of 2. The former group showed a chronic/primary progressive form of the disease and were unaffected by the treatment regime and were not different from control groups. These groups peaked at a mean clinical score of 3.5. The animals in the treated and untreated control groups fell to a grade 2.6 and cycled back up to a score of 3.3. Vehicle treated animals progressed to a more severe form, reaching a mean clinical score of 3.8 (FIG. 11). In contrast, animals that received treatment on day 14 that had a clinical score of 2 had a remarkable reduction in the progression of the disease. Although these animals peaked to a mean clinical score of grade 3 prior to treatment, they progressively dropped down to a grade 0.3 (FIG. 11). Their advance into a second relapse was prevented. In contrast, untreated control animals that also showed a clinical score of 2 on day 14, peaked to a score of about 3.0, then remitted to a score of between 1-2 but progressed into a second paralytic episode (score of 2.5)and remained thereafter at a score of about 2.0. This clinical picture indicates a relapsing/remitting form of the disease. These results therefore provide very strong evidence that initiating treatments to block cPLA 2  after the peak of the first paralytic episode can prevent the occurrence of subsequent paralytic episodes in relapsing/remitting forms of the disease. It is possible that the chronic/primary progressive forms of EAE could be alleviated by higher doses or more prolonged treatment with the inhibitor.  
     [0156] All references cited herein or in the references section below are herein incorporated by reference.  
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     [0293] 
    
     
       
         1 
         
           
             5  
           
           
             1  
             2846  
             DNA  
             Homo sapiens  
             
               CDS  
               (126)..(2375)  
                 
             
           
            1 

ctgaaaaagg atcctgactg aaagctagag gcattgagga gcctgaagat tctcaggttt     60 

taaagacgct agagtgccaa agaagacttt gaagtgtgaa aacatttcct gtaattgaaa    120 

ccaaa atg tca ttt ata gat cct tac cag cac att ata gtg gag cac cag    170 
      Met Ser Phe Ile Asp Pro Tyr Gln His Ile Ile Val Glu His Gln 
      1               5                   10                  15 

tat tcc cac aag ttt acg gta gtg gtg tta cgt gcc acc aaa gtg aca      218 
Tyr Ser His Lys Phe Thr Val Val Val Leu Arg Ala Thr Lys Val Thr 
                20                  25                  30 

aag ggg gcc ttt ggt gac atg ctt gat act cca gat ccc tat gtg gaa      266 
Lys Gly Ala Phe Gly Asp Met Leu Asp Thr Pro Asp Pro Tyr Val Glu 
            35                  40                  45 

ctt ttt atc tct aca acc cct gac agc agg aag aga aca aga cat ttc      314 
Leu Phe Ile Ser Thr Thr Pro Asp Ser Arg Lys Arg Thr Arg His Phe 
        50                  55                  60 

aat aat gac ata aac cct gtg tgg aat gag acc ttt gaa ttt att ttg      362 
Asn Asn Asp Ile Asn Pro Val Trp Asn Glu Thr Phe Glu Phe Ile Leu 
    65                  70                  75 

gat cct aat cag gaa aat gtt ttg gag att acg tta atg gat gcc aat      410 
Asp Pro Asn Gln Glu Asn Val Leu Glu Ile Thr Leu Met Asp Ala Asn 
80                  85                  90                  95 

tat gtc atg gat gaa act cta ggg aca gca aca ttt act gta tct tct      458 
Tyr Val Met Asp Glu Thr Leu Gly Thr Ala Thr Phe Thr Val Ser Ser 
                100                 105                 110 

atg aag gtg gga gaa aag aaa gaa gtt cct ttt att ttc aac caa gtc      506 
Met Lys Val Gly Glu Lys Lys Glu Val Pro Phe Ile Phe Asn Gln Val 
            115                 120                 125 

act gaa atg gtt cta gaa atg tct ctt gaa gtt tgc tca tgc cca gac      554 
Thr Glu Met Val Leu Glu Met Ser Leu Glu Val Cys Ser Cys Pro Asp 
        130                 135                 140 

cta cga ttt agt atg gct ctg tgt gat cag gag aag act ttc aga caa      602 
Leu Arg Phe Ser Met Ala Leu Cys Asp Gln Glu Lys Thr Phe Arg Gln 
    145                 150                 155 

cag aga aaa gaa cac ata agg gag agc atg aag aaa ctc ttg ggt cca      650 
Gln Arg Lys Glu His Ile Arg Glu Ser Met Lys Lys Leu Leu Gly Pro 
160                 165                 170                 175 

aag aat agt gaa gga ttg cat tct gca cgt gat gtg cct gtg gta gcc      698 
Lys Asn Ser Glu Gly Leu His Ser Ala Arg Asp Val Pro Val Val Ala 
                180                 185                 190 

ata ttg ggt tca ggt ggg ggt ttc cga gcc atg gtg gga ttc tct ggt      746 
Ile Leu Gly Ser Gly Gly Gly Phe Arg Ala Met Val Gly Phe Ser Gly 
            195                 200                 205 

gtg atg aag gca tta tac gaa tca gga att ctg gat tgt gct acc tac      794 
Val Met Lys Ala Leu Tyr Glu Ser Gly Ile Leu Asp Cys Ala Thr Tyr 
        210                 215                 220 

gtt gct ggt ctt tct ggc tcc acc tgg tat atg tca acc ttg tat tct      842 
Val Ala Gly Leu Ser Gly Ser Thr Trp Tyr Met Ser Thr Leu Tyr Ser 
    225                 230                 235 

cac cct gat ttt cca gag aaa ggg cca gag gag att aat gaa gaa cta      890 
His Pro Asp Phe Pro Glu Lys Gly Pro Glu Glu Ile Asn Glu Glu Leu 
240                 245                 250                 255 

atg aaa aat gtt agc cac aat ccc ctt tta ctt ctc aca cca cag aaa      938 
Met Lys Asn Val Ser His Asn Pro Leu Leu Leu Leu Thr Pro Gln Lys 
                260                 265                 270 

gtt aaa aga tat gtt gag tct tta tgg aag aag aaa agc tct gga caa      986 
Val Lys Arg Tyr Val Glu Ser Leu Trp Lys Lys Lys Ser Ser Gly Gln 
            275                 280                 285 

cct gtc acc ttt act gat atc ttt ggg atg tta ata gga gaa aca cta     1034 
Pro Val Thr Phe Thr Asp Ile Phe Gly Met Leu Ile Gly Glu Thr Leu 
        290                 295                 300 

att cat aat aga atg aat act act ctg agc agt ttg aag gaa aaa gtt     1082 
Ile His Asn Arg Met Asn Thr Thr Leu Ser Ser Leu Lys Glu Lys Val 
    305                 310                 315 

aat act gca caa tgc cct tta cct ctt ttc acc tgt ctt cat gtc aaa     1130 
Asn Thr Ala Gln Cys Pro Leu Pro Leu Phe Thr Cys Leu His Val Lys 
320                 325                 330                 335 

cct gac gtt tca gag ctg atg ttt gca gat tgg gtt gaa ttt agt cca     1178 
Pro Asp Val Ser Glu Leu Met Phe Ala Asp Trp Val Glu Phe Ser Pro 
                340                 345                 350 

tac gaa att ggc atg gct aaa tat ggt act ttt atg gct ccc gac tta     1226 
Tyr Glu Ile Gly Met Ala Lys Tyr Gly Thr Phe Met Ala Pro Asp Leu 
            355                 360                 365 

ttt gga agc aaa ttt ttt atg gga aca gtc gtt aag aag tat gaa gaa     1274 
Phe Gly Ser Lys Phe Phe Met Gly Thr Val Val Lys Lys Tyr Glu Glu 
        370                 375                 380 

aac ccc ttg cat ttc tta atg ggt gtc tgg ggc agt gcc ttt tcc ata     1322 
Asn Pro Leu His Phe Leu Met Gly Val Trp Gly Ser Ala Phe Ser Ile 
    385                 390                 395 

ttg ttc aac aga gtt ttg ggc gtt tct ggt tca caa agc aga ggc tcc     1370 
Leu Phe Asn Arg Val Leu Gly Val Ser Gly Ser Gln Ser Arg Gly Ser 
400                 405                 410                 415 

aca atg gag gaa gaa tta gaa aat att acc aca aag cat att gtg agt     1418 
Thr Met Glu Glu Glu Leu Glu Asn Ile Thr Thr Lys His Ile Val Ser 
                420                 425                 430 

aat gat agc tcg gac agt gat gat gaa tca cac gaa ccc aaa ggc act     1466 
Asn Asp Ser Ser Asp Ser Asp Asp Glu Ser His Glu Pro Lys Gly Thr 
            435                 440                 445 

gaa aat gaa gat gct gga agt gac tat caa agt gat aat caa gca agt     1514 
Glu Asn Glu Asp Ala Gly Ser Asp Tyr Gln Ser Asp Asn Gln Ala Ser 
        450                 455                 460 

tgg att cat cgt atg ata atg gcc ttg gtg agt gat tca gct tta ttc     1562 
Trp Ile His Arg Met Ile Met Ala Leu Val Ser Asp Ser Ala Leu Phe 
    465                 470                 475 

aat acc aga gaa gga cgt gct ggg aag gta cac aac ttc atg ctg ggc     1610 
Asn Thr Arg Glu Gly Arg Ala Gly Lys Val His Asn Phe Met Leu Gly 
480                 485                 490                 495 

ttg aat ctc aat aca tct tat cca ctg tct cct ttg agt gac ttt gcc     1658 
Leu Asn Leu Asn Thr Ser Tyr Pro Leu Ser Pro Leu Ser Asp Phe Ala 
                500                 505                 510 

aca cag gac tcc ttt gat gat gat gaa ctg gat gca gct gta gca gat     1706 
Thr Gln Asp Ser Phe Asp Asp Asp Glu Leu Asp Ala Ala Val Ala Asp 
            515                 520                 525 

cct gat gaa ttt gag cga ata tat gag cct ctg gat gtc aaa agt aaa     1754 
Pro Asp Glu Phe Glu Arg Ile Tyr Glu Pro Leu Asp Val Lys Ser Lys 
        530                 535                 540 

aag att cat gta gtg gac agt ggg ctc aca ttt aac ctg ccg tat ccc     1802 
Lys Ile His Val Val Asp Ser Gly Leu Thr Phe Asn Leu Pro Tyr Pro 
    545                 550                 555 

ttg ata ctg aga cct cag aga ggg gtt gat ctc ata atc tcc ttt gac     1850 
Leu Ile Leu Arg Pro Gln Arg Gly Val Asp Leu Ile Ile Ser Phe Asp 
560                 565                 570                 575 

ttt tct gca agg cca agt gac tct agt cct ccg ttc aag gaa ctt cta     1898 
Phe Ser Ala Arg Pro Ser Asp Ser Ser Pro Pro Phe Lys Glu Leu Leu 
                580                 585                 590 

ctt gca gaa aag tgg gct aaa atg aac aag ctc ccc ttt cca aag att     1946 
Leu Ala Glu Lys Trp Ala Lys Met Asn Lys Leu Pro Phe Pro Lys Ile 
            595                 600                 605 

gat cct tat gtg ttt gat cgg gaa ggg ctg aag gag tgc tat gtc ttt     1994 
Asp Pro Tyr Val Phe Asp Arg Glu Gly Leu Lys Glu Cys Tyr Val Phe 
        610                 615                 620 

aaa ccc aag aat cct gat atg gag aaa gat tgc cca acc atc atc cac     2042 
Lys Pro Lys Asn Pro Asp Met Glu Lys Asp Cys Pro Thr Ile Ile His 
    625                 630                 635 

ttt gtt ctg gcc aac atc aac ttc aga aag tac aag gct cca ggt gtt     2090 
Phe Val Leu Ala Asn Ile Asn Phe Arg Lys Tyr Lys Ala Pro Gly Val 
640                 645                 650                 655 

cca agg gaa act gag gaa gag aaa gaa atc gct gac ttt gat att ttt     2138 
Pro Arg Glu Thr Glu Glu Glu Lys Glu Ile Ala Asp Phe Asp Ile Phe 
                660                 665                 670 

gat gac cca gaa tca cca ttt tca acc ttc aat ttt caa tat cca aat     2186 
Asp Asp Pro Glu Ser Pro Phe Ser Thr Phe Asn Phe Gln Tyr Pro Asn 
            675                 680                 685 

caa gca ttc aaa aga cta cat gat ctt atg cac ttc aat act ctg aac     2234 
Gln Ala Phe Lys Arg Leu His Asp Leu Met His Phe Asn Thr Leu Asn 
        690                 695                 700 

aac att gat gtg ata aaa gaa gcc atg gtt gaa agc att gaa tat aga     2282 
Asn Ile Asp Val Ile Lys Glu Ala Met Val Glu Ser Ile Glu Tyr Arg 
    705                 710                 715 

aga cag aat cca tct cgt tgc tct gtt tcc ctt agt aat gtt gag gca     2330 
Arg Gln Asn Pro Ser Arg Cys Ser Val Ser Leu Ser Asn Val Glu Ala 
720                 725                 730                 735 

aga aga ttt ttc aac aag gag ttt cta agt aaa ccc aaa gca tag         2375 
Arg Arg Phe Phe Asn Lys Glu Phe Leu Ser Lys Pro Lys Ala 
                740                 745 

ttcatgtact ggaaacggca gcagtttctg atgctgaggc agtttgcaat cccatgacaa   2435 

ctggatttaa aagtacagta cagatagtcg tactgatcat gagagactgg ctgatactca   2495 

aagttgcagt tacttagctg catgagaata atactattat aagttaggtt gacaaatgat   2555 

gttgattatg taaggatata cttagctaca ttttcagtca gtatgaactt cctgatacaa   2615 

atgtagggat atatactgta tttttaaaca tttctcacca actttcttat gtgtgttctt   2675 

tttaaaaatt ttttttcttt taaaatattt aacagttcaa tctcaataag acctcgcatt   2735 

atgtatgaat gttattcact gactagattt attcatacca tgagacaaca ctatttttat   2795 

ttatatatgc atatatatac atacatgaaa taaatacatc aatataaaaa t            2846 

 
           
             2  
             749  
             PRT  
             Homo sapiens  
           
            2 

Met Ser Phe Ile Asp Pro Tyr Gln His Ile Ile Val Glu His Gln Tyr 
1               5                   10                  15 

Ser His Lys Phe Thr Val Val Val Leu Arg Ala Thr Lys Val Thr Lys 
            20                  25                  30 

Gly Ala Phe Gly Asp Met Leu Asp Thr Pro Asp Pro Tyr Val Glu Leu 
        35                  40                  45 

Phe Ile Ser Thr Thr Pro Asp Ser Arg Lys Arg Thr Arg His Phe Asn 
    50                  55                  60 

Asn Asp Ile Asn Pro Val Trp Asn Glu Thr Phe Glu Phe Ile Leu Asp 
65                  70                  75                  80 

Pro Asn Gln Glu Asn Val Leu Glu Ile Thr Leu Met Asp Ala Asn Tyr 
                85                  90                  95 

Val Met Asp Glu Thr Leu Gly Thr Ala Thr Phe Thr Val Ser Ser Met 
            100                 105                 110 

Lys Val Gly Glu Lys Lys Glu Val Pro Phe Ile Phe Asn Gln Val Thr 
        115                 120                 125 

Glu Met Val Leu Glu Met Ser Leu Glu Val Cys Ser Cys Pro Asp Leu 
    130                 135                 140 

Arg Phe Ser Met Ala Leu Cys Asp Gln Glu Lys Thr Phe Arg Gln Gln 
145                 150                 155                 160 

Arg Lys Glu His Ile Arg Glu Ser Met Lys Lys Leu Leu Gly Pro Lys 
                165                 170                 175 

Asn Ser Glu Gly Leu His Ser Ala Arg Asp Val Pro Val Val Ala Ile 
            180                 185                 190 

Leu Gly Ser Gly Gly Gly Phe Arg Ala Met Val Gly Phe Ser Gly Val 
        195                 200                 205 

Met Lys Ala Leu Tyr Glu Ser Gly Ile Leu Asp Cys Ala Thr Tyr Val 
    210                 215                 220 

Ala Gly Leu Ser Gly Ser Thr Trp Tyr Met Ser Thr Leu Tyr Ser His 
225                 230                 235                 240 

Pro Asp Phe Pro Glu Lys Gly Pro Glu Glu Ile Asn Glu Glu Leu Met 
                245                 250                 255 

Lys Asn Val Ser His Asn Pro Leu Leu Leu Leu Thr Pro Gln Lys Val 
            260                 265                 270 

Lys Arg Tyr Val Glu Ser Leu Trp Lys Lys Lys Ser Ser Gly Gln Pro 
        275                 280                 285 

Val Thr Phe Thr Asp Ile Phe Gly Met Leu Ile Gly Glu Thr Leu Ile 
    290                 295                 300 

His Asn Arg Met Asn Thr Thr Leu Ser Ser Leu Lys Glu Lys Val Asn 
305                 310                 315                 320 

Thr Ala Gln Cys Pro Leu Pro Leu Phe Thr Cys Leu His Val Lys Pro 
                325                 330                 335 

Asp Val Ser Glu Leu Met Phe Ala Asp Trp Val Glu Phe Ser Pro Tyr 
            340                 345                 350 

Glu Ile Gly Met Ala Lys Tyr Gly Thr Phe Met Ala Pro Asp Leu Phe 
        355                 360                 365 

Gly Ser Lys Phe Phe Met Gly Thr Val Val Lys Lys Tyr Glu Glu Asn 
    370                 375                 380 

Pro Leu His Phe Leu Met Gly Val Trp Gly Ser Ala Phe Ser Ile Leu 
385                 390                 395                 400 

Phe Asn Arg Val Leu Gly Val Ser Gly Ser Gln Ser Arg Gly Ser Thr 
                405                 410                 415 

Met Glu Glu Glu Leu Glu Asn Ile Thr Thr Lys His Ile Val Ser Asn 
            420                 425                 430 

Asp Ser Ser Asp Ser Asp Asp Glu Ser His Glu Pro Lys Gly Thr Glu 
        435                 440                 445 

Asn Glu Asp Ala Gly Ser Asp Tyr Gln Ser Asp Asn Gln Ala Ser Trp 
    450                 455                 460 

Ile His Arg Met Ile Met Ala Leu Val Ser Asp Ser Ala Leu Phe Asn 
465                 470                 475                 480 

Thr Arg Glu Gly Arg Ala Gly Lys Val His Asn Phe Met Leu Gly Leu 
                485                 490                 495 

Asn Leu Asn Thr Ser Tyr Pro Leu Ser Pro Leu Ser Asp Phe Ala Thr 
            500                 505                 510 

Gln Asp Ser Phe Asp Asp Asp Glu Leu Asp Ala Ala Val Ala Asp Pro 
        515                 520                 525 

Asp Glu Phe Glu Arg Ile Tyr Glu Pro Leu Asp Val Lys Ser Lys Lys 
    530                 535                 540 

Ile His Val Val Asp Ser Gly Leu Thr Phe Asn Leu Pro Tyr Pro Leu 
545                 550                 555                 560 

Ile Leu Arg Pro Gln Arg Gly Val Asp Leu Ile Ile Ser Phe Asp Phe 
                565                 570                 575 

Ser Ala Arg Pro Ser Asp Ser Ser Pro Pro Phe Lys Glu Leu Leu Leu 
            580                 585                 590 

Ala Glu Lys Trp Ala Lys Met Asn Lys Leu Pro Phe Pro Lys Ile Asp 
        595                 600                 605 

Pro Tyr Val Phe Asp Arg Glu Gly Leu Lys Glu Cys Tyr Val Phe Lys 
    610                 615                 620 

Pro Lys Asn Pro Asp Met Glu Lys Asp Cys Pro Thr Ile Ile His Phe 
625                 630                 635                 640 

Val Leu Ala Asn Ile Asn Phe Arg Lys Tyr Lys Ala Pro Gly Val Pro 
                645                 650                 655 

Arg Glu Thr Glu Glu Glu Lys Glu Ile Ala Asp Phe Asp Ile Phe Asp 
            660                 665                 670 

Asp Pro Glu Ser Pro Phe Ser Thr Phe Asn Phe Gln Tyr Pro Asn Gln 
        675                 680                 685 

Ala Phe Lys Arg Leu His Asp Leu Met His Phe Asn Thr Leu Asn Asn 
    690                 695                 700 

Ile Asp Val Ile Lys Glu Ala Met Val Glu Ser Ile Glu Tyr Arg Arg 
705                 710                 715                 720 

Gln Asn Pro Ser Arg Cys Ser Val Ser Leu Ser Asn Val Glu Ala Arg 
                725                 730                 735 

Arg Phe Phe Asn Lys Glu Phe Leu Ser Lys Pro Lys Ala 
            740                 745 

 
           
             3  
             2787  
             DNA  
             Mus musculus  
             
               CDS  
               (109)..(2355)  
                 
             
           
            3 

ggcacagaga agcctgagga ttctcattta actctgggaa ctgcttcaag aagctacagt     60 

accatagaag acctgggaag tgtgagaatt tctgcaactg ggaccaaa atg tct ttc     117 
                                                     Met Ser Phe 
                                                     1 

ata gat cct tat cag cac att ata gtg gaa cac cag tac tcc cat aag      165 
Ile Asp Pro Tyr Gln His Ile Ile Val Glu His Gln Tyr Ser His Lys 
    5                   10                  15 

ttt act gtt gtg gtt cta cgt gcc acc aaa gta acc aag ggg acc ttt      213 
Phe Thr Val Val Val Leu Arg Ala Thr Lys Val Thr Lys Gly Thr Phe 
20                  25                  30                  35 

ggc gat atg ctg gac act cca gat cct tat gtg gaa ctt ttc atc tct      261 
Gly Asp Met Leu Asp Thr Pro Asp Pro Tyr Val Glu Leu Phe Ile Ser 
                40                  45                  50 

aca acc cct gac agc agg aag cga acg aga cac ttc aat aat gat ata      309 
Thr Thr Pro Asp Ser Arg Lys Arg Thr Arg His Phe Asn Asn Asp Ile 
            55                  60                  65 

aac ccc gtg tgg aat gag acc ttt gag ttc att ttg gat cct aat cag      357 
Asn Pro Val Trp Asn Glu Thr Phe Glu Phe Ile Leu Asp Pro Asn Gln 
        70                  75                  80 

gaa aat gtt ttg gag atc aca ctg atg gat gcc aac tac gtc atg gat      405 
Glu Asn Val Leu Glu Ile Thr Leu Met Asp Ala Asn Tyr Val Met Asp 
    85                  90                  95 

gaa acc cta ggc aca gct aca ttc cct gta tct tca atg aaa gtg gga      453 
Glu Thr Leu Gly Thr Ala Thr Phe Pro Val Ser Ser Met Lys Val Gly 
100                 105                 110                 115 

gag aag aaa gaa gtc cct ttt att ttc aac caa gtc act gaa atg att      501 
Glu Lys Lys Glu Val Pro Phe Ile Phe Asn Gln Val Thr Glu Met Ile 
                120                 125                 130 

ctg gaa atg tct ctg gaa gtt tgt tca tgc cca gac cta cgg ttc agc      549 
Leu Glu Met Ser Leu Glu Val Cys Ser Cys Pro Asp Leu Arg Phe Ser 
            135                 140                 145 

atg gca ctg tgt gat cag gag aaa act ttc aga cag cag agg aaa gag      597 
Met Ala Leu Cys Asp Gln Glu Lys Thr Phe Arg Gln Gln Arg Lys Glu 
        150                 155                 160 

aac ata aaa gag aac atg aag aaa ctt ttg ggt cca aaa aag agt gag      645 
Asn Ile Lys Glu Asn Met Lys Lys Leu Leu Gly Pro Lys Lys Ser Glu 
    165                 170                 175 

ggg ctt tat tcc aca cgt gat gtg ccg gtg gtg gcc att ttg ggt tca      693 
Gly Leu Tyr Ser Thr Arg Asp Val Pro Val Val Ala Ile Leu Gly Ser 
180                 185                 190                 195 

ggt ggg ggt ttc cgg gcc atg gtg gga ttc tct ggt gtg atg aag gca      741 
Gly Gly Gly Phe Arg Ala Met Val Gly Phe Ser Gly Val Met Lys Ala 
                200                 205                 210 

ctg tat gag tcg ggg att ttg gac tgt gct aca tac att gct ggt ctt      789 
Leu Tyr Glu Ser Gly Ile Leu Asp Cys Ala Thr Tyr Ile Ala Gly Leu 
            215                 220                 225 

tct gga tcc aca tgg tac atg tca acc ttg tac tct cac ccc gat ttt      837 
Ser Gly Ser Thr Trp Tyr Met Ser Thr Leu Tyr Ser His Pro Asp Phe 
        230                 235                 240 

cca gag aaa ggt ccc gag gag att aat gaa gag cta atg aaa aat gtc      885 
Pro Glu Lys Gly Pro Glu Glu Ile Asn Glu Glu Leu Met Lys Asn Val 
    245                 250                 255 

agc cac aac cct ctc tta ctt ctt aca cca cag aaa gtt aaa aga tac      933 
Ser His Asn Pro Leu Leu Leu Leu Thr Pro Gln Lys Val Lys Arg Tyr 
260                 265                 270                 275 

gtt gag tct tta tgg aag aag aaa agt tct ggc cag cct gtc acc ttt      981 
Val Glu Ser Leu Trp Lys Lys Lys Ser Ser Gly Gln Pro Val Thr Phe 
                280                 285                 290 

act gac atc ttt ggg atg cta ata gga gaa aca cta att caa aat agg     1029 
Thr Asp Ile Phe Gly Met Leu Ile Gly Glu Thr Leu Ile Gln Asn Arg 
            295                 300                 305 

atg agc atg acc ctg agt agt ttg aag gaa aag gtc aat gcc gcc cgg     1077 
Met Ser Met Thr Leu Ser Ser Leu Lys Glu Lys Val Asn Ala Ala Arg 
        310                 315                 320 

tgt cct ttg cct ctc ttc acg tgt ctc cac gtc aaa cct gat gtg tca     1125 
Cys Pro Leu Pro Leu Phe Thr Cys Leu His Val Lys Pro Asp Val Ser 
    325                 330                 335 

gag ctg atg ttt gcc gat tgg gtg gaa ttt agt cca tat gag att ggc     1173 
Glu Leu Met Phe Ala Asp Trp Val Glu Phe Ser Pro Tyr Glu Ile Gly 
340                 345                 350                 355 

atg gca aaa tat ggt acc ttt atg gct cct gac cta ttt gga agc aag     1221 
Met Ala Lys Tyr Gly Thr Phe Met Ala Pro Asp Leu Phe Gly Ser Lys 
                360                 365                 370 

ttt ttt atg gga aca gtt gta aaa aaa tat gaa gaa aac ccc ttg cat     1269 
Phe Phe Met Gly Thr Val Val Lys Lys Tyr Glu Glu Asn Pro Leu His 
            375                 380                 385 

ttc ttg atg ggt gtc tgg ggc agt gcc ttt tct ata ctg ttc aac aga     1317 
Phe Leu Met Gly Val Trp Gly Ser Ala Phe Ser Ile Leu Phe Asn Arg 
        390                 395                 400 

gtt ttg gga gtt tct ggc tca cag aat aaa ggc tct aca atg gaa gag     1365 
Val Leu Gly Val Ser Gly Ser Gln Asn Lys Gly Ser Thr Met Glu Glu 
    405                 410                 415 

gaa tta gaa aat att aca gca aag cac atc gtg agt aat gac agc tcc     1413 
Glu Leu Glu Asn Ile Thr Ala Lys His Ile Val Ser Asn Asp Ser Ser 
420                 425                 430                 435 

gac agt gat gat gag gct caa gga ccc aaa ggc acc gag aat gaa gaa     1461 
Asp Ser Asp Asp Glu Ala Gln Gly Pro Lys Gly Thr Glu Asn Glu Glu 
                440                 445                 450 

gct gaa aaa gag tac caa agc gac aac caa gca agt tgg gtc cat cgg     1509 
Ala Glu Lys Glu Tyr Gln Ser Asp Asn Gln Ala Ser Trp Val His Arg 
            455                 460                 465 

atg cta atg gcc ttg gtg agc gac tcg gct tta ttc aat acc cga gaa     1557 
Met Leu Met Ala Leu Val Ser Asp Ser Ala Leu Phe Asn Thr Arg Glu 
        470                 475                 480 

gga cgt gcc gga aag gtg cat aac ttc atg ctg ggc ttg aat ctc aac     1605 
Gly Arg Ala Gly Lys Val His Asn Phe Met Leu Gly Leu Asn Leu Asn 
    485                 490                 495 

aca tca tat cca ctg tct ccc ctg aga gac ttc agc tct cag gat tcc     1653 
Thr Ser Tyr Pro Leu Ser Pro Leu Arg Asp Phe Ser Ser Gln Asp Ser 
500                 505                 510                 515 

ttc gat gac gag ctc gac gca gcg gta gca gat cca gat gaa ttt gaa     1701 
Phe Asp Asp Glu Leu Asp Ala Ala Val Ala Asp Pro Asp Glu Phe Glu 
                520                 525                 530 

cga ata tat gaa cca ctg gat gtc aaa agt aag aag att cat gtg gta     1749 
Arg Ile Tyr Glu Pro Leu Asp Val Lys Ser Lys Lys Ile His Val Val 
            535                 540                 545 

gat agt ggg ctc aca ttt aac ctg cca tat ccc ttg att ctt cga cct     1797 
Asp Ser Gly Leu Thr Phe Asn Leu Pro Tyr Pro Leu Ile Leu Arg Pro 
        550                 555                 560 

cag aga ggt gtg gat ctt atc atc tcc ttt gac ttt tct gca agg ccg     1845 
Gln Arg Gly Val Asp Leu Ile Ile Ser Phe Asp Phe Ser Ala Arg Pro 
    565                 570                 575 

agt gac acc agt ccc cct ttc aag gaa ctt ctg ctt gca gag aag tgg     1893 
Ser Asp Thr Ser Pro Pro Phe Lys Glu Leu Leu Leu Ala Glu Lys Trp 
580                 585                 590                 595 

gcg aaa atg aac aag ctt ccc ttt cca aag atc gat cct tat gtg ttt     1941 
Ala Lys Met Asn Lys Leu Pro Phe Pro Lys Ile Asp Pro Tyr Val Phe 
                600                 605                 610 

gat cgg gaa gga tta aag gaa tgc tat gtt ttt aaa cct aag aat cct     1989 
Asp Arg Glu Gly Leu Lys Glu Cys Tyr Val Phe Lys Pro Lys Asn Pro 
            615                 620                 625 

gat gtg gag aag gat tgc cca acc att atc cac ttt gtt ctg gcc aac     2037 
Asp Val Glu Lys Asp Cys Pro Thr Ile Ile His Phe Val Leu Ala Asn 
        630                 635                 640 

atc aac ttc aga aag tac aag gcc cca ggt gtt cta agg gaa acc aaa     2085 
Ile Asn Phe Arg Lys Tyr Lys Ala Pro Gly Val Leu Arg Glu Thr Lys 
    645                 650                 655 

gaa gag aaa gaa att gct gac ttt gac att ttt gat gac ccc gaa tcg     2133 
Glu Glu Lys Glu Ile Ala Asp Phe Asp Ile Phe Asp Asp Pro Glu Ser 
660                 665                 670                 675 

cca ttt tca acc ttc aac ttt cag tat ccc aat caa gca ttc aaa agg     2181 
Pro Phe Ser Thr Phe Asn Phe Gln Tyr Pro Asn Gln Ala Phe Lys Arg 
                680                 685                 690 

ctt cac gat ttg atg tac ttc aac aca ctg aac aac att gat gtg ata     2229 
Leu His Asp Leu Met Tyr Phe Asn Thr Leu Asn Asn Ile Asp Val Ile 
            695                 700                 705 

aag gat gcc att gtt gag agc att gaa tac aga aga cag aac cca tct     2277 
Lys Asp Ala Ile Val Glu Ser Ile Glu Tyr Arg Arg Gln Asn Pro Ser 
        710                 715                 720 

cgt tgc tct gtt tcc ctc agt aat gtt gaa gca aga aaa ttc ttc aat     2325 
Arg Cys Ser Val Ser Leu Ser Asn Val Glu Ala Arg Lys Phe Phe Asn 
    725                 730                 735 

aag gag ttt cta agt aaa ccc act gtg taa tttctgtgct gggatgatca       2375 
Lys Glu Phe Leu Ser Lys Pro Thr Val 
740                 745 

agccatttga attccatgac aatttgagtt cagaagacat tagaggtcat cttactatgc   2435 

agaagagact ggctgctact caaagttgtg gagatttagc catgtgttag gtgaaaatga   2495 

tgttgattat gtaatactta gcaacagttt ctgacagtat gaattttttg acattagcat   2555 

agagctatat actgtatttt aaacattcct cacatttttt acctgtactt tttatataaa   2615 

tatgacatgt cttttctttt gaaaatattt aatagtttaa ctcagtaaag gagacttccc   2675 

attgtgtgtg aatgttattc tgaactagat ttgttcatgc catgttacaa cactattttt   2735 

atttaaatgt ttatatttac acatacgaaa taaatacttt gctgtacaaa tt           2787 

 
           
             4  
             748  
             PRT  
             Mus musculus  
           
            4 

Met Ser Phe Ile Asp Pro Tyr Gln His Ile Ile Val Glu His Gln Tyr 
1               5                   10                  15 

Ser His Lys Phe Thr Val Val Val Leu Arg Ala Thr Lys Val Thr Lys 
            20                  25                  30 

Gly Thr Phe Gly Asp Met Leu Asp Thr Pro Asp Pro Tyr Val Glu Leu 
        35                  40                  45 

Phe Ile Ser Thr Thr Pro Asp Ser Arg Lys Arg Thr Arg His Phe Asn 
    50                  55                  60 

Asn Asp Ile Asn Pro Val Trp Asn Glu Thr Phe Glu Phe Ile Leu Asp 
65                  70                  75                  80 

Pro Asn Gln Glu Asn Val Leu Glu Ile Thr Leu Met Asp Ala Asn Tyr 
                85                  90                  95 

Val Met Asp Glu Thr Leu Gly Thr Ala Thr Phe Pro Val Ser Ser Met 
            100                 105                 110 

Lys Val Gly Glu Lys Lys Glu Val Pro Phe Ile Phe Asn Gln Val Thr 
        115                 120                 125 

Glu Met Ile Leu Glu Met Ser Leu Glu Val Cys Ser Cys Pro Asp Leu 
    130                 135                 140 

Arg Phe Ser Met Ala Leu Cys Asp Gln Glu Lys Thr Phe Arg Gln Gln 
145                 150                 155                 160 

Arg Lys Glu Asn Ile Lys Glu Asn Met Lys Lys Leu Leu Gly Pro Lys 
                165                 170                 175 

Lys Ser Glu Gly Leu Tyr Ser Thr Arg Asp Val Pro Val Val Ala Ile 
            180                 185                 190 

Leu Gly Ser Gly Gly Gly Phe Arg Ala Met Val Gly Phe Ser Gly Val 
        195                 200                 205 

Met Lys Ala Leu Tyr Glu Ser Gly Ile Leu Asp Cys Ala Thr Tyr Ile 
    210                 215                 220 

Ala Gly Leu Ser Gly Ser Thr Trp Tyr Met Ser Thr Leu Tyr Ser His 
225                 230                 235                 240 

Pro Asp Phe Pro Glu Lys Gly Pro Glu Glu Ile Asn Glu Glu Leu Met 
                245                 250                 255 

Lys Asn Val Ser His Asn Pro Leu Leu Leu Leu Thr Pro Gln Lys Val 
            260                 265                 270 

Lys Arg Tyr Val Glu Ser Leu Trp Lys Lys Lys Ser Ser Gly Gln Pro 
        275                 280                 285 

Val Thr Phe Thr Asp Ile Phe Gly Met Leu Ile Gly Glu Thr Leu Ile 
    290                 295                 300 

Gln Asn Arg Met Ser Met Thr Leu Ser Ser Leu Lys Glu Lys Val Asn 
305                 310                 315                 320 

Ala Ala Arg Cys Pro Leu Pro Leu Phe Thr Cys Leu His Val Lys Pro 
                325                 330                 335 

Asp Val Ser Glu Leu Met Phe Ala Asp Trp Val Glu Phe Ser Pro Tyr 
            340                 345                 350 

Glu Ile Gly Met Ala Lys Tyr Gly Thr Phe Met Ala Pro Asp Leu Phe 
        355                 360                 365 

Gly Ser Lys Phe Phe Met Gly Thr Val Val Lys Lys Tyr Glu Glu Asn 
    370                 375                 380 

Pro Leu His Phe Leu Met Gly Val Trp Gly Ser Ala Phe Ser Ile Leu 
385                 390                 395                 400 

Phe Asn Arg Val Leu Gly Val Ser Gly Ser Gln Asn Lys Gly Ser Thr 
                405                 410                 415 

Met Glu Glu Glu Leu Glu Asn Ile Thr Ala Lys His Ile Val Ser Asn 
            420                 425                 430 

Asp Ser Ser Asp Ser Asp Asp Glu Ala Gln Gly Pro Lys Gly Thr Glu 
        435                 440                 445 

Asn Glu Glu Ala Glu Lys Glu Tyr Gln Ser Asp Asn Gln Ala Ser Trp 
    450                 455                 460 

Val His Arg Met Leu Met Ala Leu Val Ser Asp Ser Ala Leu Phe Asn 
465                 470                 475                 480 

Thr Arg Glu Gly Arg Ala Gly Lys Val His Asn Phe Met Leu Gly Leu 
                485                 490                 495 

Asn Leu Asn Thr Ser Tyr Pro Leu Ser Pro Leu Arg Asp Phe Ser Ser 
            500                 505                 510 

Gln Asp Ser Phe Asp Asp Glu Leu Asp Ala Ala Val Ala Asp Pro Asp 
        515                 520                 525 

Glu Phe Glu Arg Ile Tyr Glu Pro Leu Asp Val Lys Ser Lys Lys Ile 
    530                 535                 540 

His Val Val Asp Ser Gly Leu Thr Phe Asn Leu Pro Tyr Pro Leu Ile 
545                 550                 555                 560 

Leu Arg Pro Gln Arg Gly Val Asp Leu Ile Ile Ser Phe Asp Phe Ser 
                565                 570                 575 

Ala Arg Pro Ser Asp Thr Ser Pro Pro Phe Lys Glu Leu Leu Leu Ala 
            580                 585                 590 

Glu Lys Trp Ala Lys Met Asn Lys Leu Pro Phe Pro Lys Ile Asp Pro 
        595                 600                 605 

Tyr Val Phe Asp Arg Glu Gly Leu Lys Glu Cys Tyr Val Phe Lys Pro 
    610                 615                 620 

Lys Asn Pro Asp Val Glu Lys Asp Cys Pro Thr Ile Ile His Phe Val 
625                 630                 635                 640 

Leu Ala Asn Ile Asn Phe Arg Lys Tyr Lys Ala Pro Gly Val Leu Arg 
                645                 650                 655 

Glu Thr Lys Glu Glu Lys Glu Ile Ala Asp Phe Asp Ile Phe Asp Asp 
            660                 665                 670 

Pro Glu Ser Pro Phe Ser Thr Phe Asn Phe Gln Tyr Pro Asn Gln Ala 
        675                 680                 685 

Phe Lys Arg Leu His Asp Leu Met Tyr Phe Asn Thr Leu Asn Asn Ile 
    690                 695                 700 

Asp Val Ile Lys Asp Ala Ile Val Glu Ser Ile Glu Tyr Arg Arg Gln 
705                 710                 715                 720 

Asn Pro Ser Arg Cys Ser Val Ser Leu Ser Asn Val Glu Ala Arg Lys 
                725                 730                 735 

Phe Phe Asn Lys Glu Phe Leu Ser Lys Pro Thr Val 
            740                 745 

 
           
             5  
             21  
             PRT  
             Mus musculus  
           
            5 

Met Glu Val Gly Trp Tyr Arg Ser Pro Phe Ser Arg Val Val His Leu 
1               5                   10                  15 

Tyr Arg Asn Gly Lys 
            20