Patent Publication Number: US-2017367373-A1

Title: A solution of denatured pea protein, and uses thereof to form microparticles

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The invention relates to a denatured pea protein solution. In particular, the invention relates to a method of making a denatured pea protein solution that is suitable for forming microparticles suitable for oral administration to a mammal and delivery intact to the mammalian small intestine. The invention also relates to methods of making microparticles, and microparticles formed according to the methods of the invention. 
     BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION 
     Animal proteins (whey proteins, gelatin, casein) extracted from animal derived products (milk, collagen) are widely used for encapsulation of active substances. These natural polymers present clear advantages: biocompatibility, biodegradability, good amphiphilic and functional properties such as water solubility, and emulsifying and foaming capacity. However, cost, allergenicity and market limitations represent some shortfalls for animal derived proteins. Currently, the widespread presence of microparticles based on animal proteins, contrasts with the very limited use of plant proteins in industry. This tendency should be reversed in coming years. In food applications, plant proteins are known to be less allergenic compared to animal derived proteins. For these reasons, over the past few years, the development of new applications for plant products rich in proteins has become an increasingly interesting area for research. For the last decade, the protein ingredient industry has been turning towards plants as a preferred alternative to animal-based sources, e.g. in vegetarian diets, due to increased consumer concerns over the safety of animal-derived products. 
     The two techniques mainly used for microencapsulation of active material by vegetable proteins are spray-drying and coacervation. Both processes share the aspect of “green chemistry” with vegetable proteins as renewable and biodegradable resources, plus, the two techniques do not need the use of organic solvents. Other processes such as solvent evaporation techniques can be also considered; however other excipient and polysaccharides need to be introduced to generate a defined structure. 
     Spray-drying is a continuous process to convert an initial liquid into a solid powder of microparticles. It is a very common dehydration process used to form a continuous matrix surrounding the active substances. This technology offers several advantages: it is simple, relatively inexpensive and rapid. The important factor for successful microencapsulation by spray-drying is a high solubility of shell material in water and a low viscosity at high solid content. Disadvantages of this technique are the loss of a significant amount of product (due to adhesion of the microparticles to the wall of the spray-dryer) and the possibility of degradation of sensitive products at high drying temperatures. 
     Microencapsulation by coacervation is carried out by precipitation of wall forming materials around the active core under the effect of one of the following factors: change of pH or temperature, addition of a non-solvent or electrolyte compound Coacervation occurs either via a simple or complex method. Simple coacervation involves only one colloidal solute and thus formation of a single polymer envelope. Complex coacervation is generated by mixing two oppositely charged polyelectrolytes in order to allow shell formation around an active core. Ducel et al. (2004) examined the use of pea globulin (isoelectric point in a pH range 4.4-4.6) for triglyceride microencapsulation by complex coacervation plus the influence of pH and polymer concentration on the microcapsule size. Increasing pea globulin/gum arabic (50:50) blend concentration in the initial makeup, resulted in increased microcapsule size. For example, at pH 3.5, microcapsule diameters varied from 28 μm to 97 μm with a concentration change of 1 g/L to 10 g/L respectively. Conversely, Lazko et al. (2004a) observed a decrease of coacervate size with an increase of soy protein concentration. In fact, the mean diameter of microparticles obtained, decreased from 153 μm to 88 μm as the protein concentration increased from 0.5 g/L to 5 g/L respectively. This discordance between published results was probably due to coacervation process differences. Complex coacervation was used in the case of pea proteins, and particle agglomeration and coalescence increased their size. The presence of polysaccharides in the initial preparation can also influence coacervate agglomeration (Klassen and Nickerson, 2012). On the other hand, simple coacervation was used for preparing soy protein microparticles. Higher concentrations of surface active proteins in the emulsion increased the coalescence resistant of coacervates. 
     Klemmer et al (International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011, 46, 2248-2256) describes a pea protein solution and its use to make probiotic bacteria containing capsules. The method of Klemmer involves dissolving a pea protein isolate in an alkali solvent, heating the solution to denature the protein and then cooling the denatured protein. Alginate is then added to the denatured protein solution and the biopolymer mixture is then subjected to further heating and cooling steps, prior to addition of the probiotic bacteria and extrusion of the mixture through a needle to produce droplets which are cross-linked in a calcium bath to form capsules having an average diameter of about 2 mm. The use of a pea/alginate solution as a matrix for encapsulation is problematical for oral digestion as the pea/alginate matrix does not survive gastric transit, but break-up in the stomach releasing the probiotic bacteria where they are destroyed in the acidic conditions. Moreover, the addition of alginate to the pea protein solution increases the viscosity of the biopolymer mixture to the extent that it is difficult for it to be processed into microdroplets, meaning that the resultant capsules are large and not microbeads or microcapsules. 
     It is an object of the invention to provide a solution of denatured pea protein that is suitable for use in forming microparticles, and a process for the production thereof. It is a further object of the invention to provide a process for forming pea protein microparticles. 
     STATEMENTS OF INVENTION 
     In a first aspect, the invention provides a solution of denatured pea protein having a very high content of soluble pea protein (i.e greater than 90% using the method described below) and which has a sufficiently low viscosity to enable it to be extruded or sprayed through a nozzle (inclusive of spray-drying nozzles and atomisation wheels) during the formation of microbeads. The high content of soluble denatured pea protein provides for an efficient process in which the use of the pea protein substrate is maximised In addition, a denatured pea protein solution formed according to the method of the invention, and having a pea protein concentration of about 6-9% (w/v), can be efficiently polymerised in acid to form micro-sized microparticles without the need for additional biopolymers in the matrix, and the formed microparticles are capable of gastric transit intact and small intestinal release, specifically ileal release. 
     In a second aspect, the invention provides a method for producing pea protein microparticles that are spherical, typically have a homogenous size distribution, and are capable of surviving passage through a mammalian stomach intact and subsequently breaking up in the small intestine, specifically the ileum. This allows the microparticles to deliver acid-sensitive active agents to the small intestine without damage. Moreover, the spherical shape of the microparticles and the homogenous size distribution allows for controlled and repeatable active agent release kinetics. The method for the production of the microparticles involves forming droplets of the denatured pea protein solution of the invention, and then cold gelation of the droplets in an acidic bath. Surprisingly, the Applicant has discovered that use of an acidic gelling bath having a pH that is the same as the pI of the pea protein results in irregularly shaped microparticles, and that to achieve highly spherical microbeads (such as those shown in  FIG. 2 ) requires that the pH of the gelling bath is less than the pI of the pea protein. 
     In a first aspect, the invention provides a method of producing a denatured pea protein solution comprising the steps of:
         solubilising pea protein in a solvent to provide a 1-10% pea protein solution (w/v);   resting the solubilised pea protein solution for at least 15 minutes to further solubilise and hydrate the pea protein;   heating the rested pea protein solution under conditions sufficient to heat-denature the pea protein without causing gelation of the pea protein solution; and   rapidly cooling the denatured pea protein solution to prevent protein gelation;
 
wherein at least 90% of the pea protein in the denatured pea protein solution is typically soluble.
       

     In one embodiment, the pea protein is solubilised prior to resting by chemical or physical means. Chemical solubilisation typically involves mixing the pea protein with alkali, to provide an alkali pea protein solution having a pH of 10 or more. Physical solubilisation involves treating a dispersion (or part dispersion part solution) of the protein in solvent with physical means, for example sound energy (sonication or ultrasonication). The solvent is generally an aqueous solvent, for example a phosphate buffer or a borate buffer. Typically, the solvent has a pH of about 6-9. Ideally, the buffer has a pH of about 7-8. 
     In one embodiment, the pea protein is solubilised by mixing the pea protein with an alkali solvent to provide a 1-10% pea protein solution (w/v). 
     Typically, the pea protein is mixed with an alkali solvent to provide a 6-9% pea protein solution (w/v) having a pH of at least 7, in one embodiment at least 10. 
     Preferably, the pea protein is mixed with an alkali solvent to provide a pea protein solution having a pH of 7 to 10. 
     Typically, the cooled denatured pea protein solution is clarified to remove insoluble matter. Various methods of clarification will be apparent to a person skilled in the art. Preferably, the solution is clarified by centrifugation. 
     Typically, the pea protein solution is rested for at least 30 minutes. Ideally, the pea protein solution is rested for at least 40 minutes. In one embodiment, the pea protein solution is rested for at least 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120 minutes. 
     In a further aspect, the invention provides a denatured pea protein solution comprising 1-10% denatured pea protein (w/v) in a solvent, in which at least 90% of the pea protein in the denatured pea protein solution is soluble. 
     In one embodiment, the solvent is an alkali solvent and the solution has a pH of at least 10. 
     Preferably, the denatured pea protein solution comprises 6-9% denatured pea protein (w/v). Ideally, the denatured pea protein solution comprises 6.5-8.5% denatured pea protein (w/v). 
     Preferably, at least 95% of the pea protein in the denatured pea protein solution is soluble. 
     Preferably, the denatured pea protein solution has a viscosity that is sufficiently low to allow the solution be extruded into microdroplets. 
     In a further aspect, the invention provides a method of producing microparticles having a denatured pea protein matrix, the method comprising the steps of:
         treating a denatured pea protein solution according to the invention or formed according to a method of the invention to form microdroplets; and   cross-linking (and optionally) chelating the microdroplets to form microparticles.       

     Preferably, the step of cross-linking and chelating the droplets comprises immediately gelling the droplets in an acidic gelling bath, typically having a pH that is less than the pI of the pea protein to form microparticles. 
     Suitably, the step of treating the denatured pea protein solution to form microdroplets comprises the step of extruding the solution through a nozzle assembly to form microdroplets. 
     In one embodiment, an active agent is added to the denatured pea protein solution prior to the microdroplet forming step, and optionally after the heating step, wherein the nozzle assembly typically comprises a single nozzle, and wherein the microparticles are microbeads having a continuous denatured pea protein matrix with active agent distributed throughout the denatured pea protein matrix. Preferably, the nozzle is heated. 
     In another embodiment, the nozzle assembly comprises an outer nozzle disposed concentrically around an inner nozzle, in which the denatured pea protein solution is extruded through the outer nozzle and an active agent solution comprising active agent is extruded through the inner nozzle, and wherein the microparticles are microcapsules having a denatured pea protein shell and a core comprising active agent. 
     Typically, the nozzle assembly comprises an electrostatic voltage system configured to apply an electrical potential between the nozzle and an electrode disposed beneath the nozzle. The nozzle can also represent a typical nozzle encountered in a spray-drier. 
     In a preferred embodiment, the invention provides a method of producing microparticles, typically spherical microparticles, and ideally spherical microparticles having a homogenous size distribution, having a denatured pea protein matrix, the method comprising the steps of:
         providing a 6-9% denatured pea protein solution according to invention or formed according to the method of the invention;   extruding the solution through a nozzle assembly to form microdroplets; and   immediately gelling the microdroplets in an acidic gelling bath having a pH that is less than the pI of the pea protein to form spherical microbeads.       

     The invention also relates to microcapsule having a shell and a core comprising native protein. In one embodiment, the native protein is native vegetable protein. In one embodiment, the native protein is pea protein. In one embodiment, the microcapsule is gastric resistant (it can pass through the mammalian (especially human) stomach intact). In one embodiment, the microcapsule is capable of releasing the core in the mammalian (especially human) small intestine, preferably the ileum, ideally the proximal ileum. In one embodiment, the shell is denatured protein. In one embodiment, the shell is denatured pea protein. In one embodiment, the microcapsule is coated with chitosan or gelatin. 
     The invention also relates to a microbead having a continuous matrix formed of polymerised polymer and an active agent dispersed throughout the polymerised polymer matrix. In one embodiment, the microbead is gastric resistant. In one embodiment, the microbad is capable of releasing the active agent in the mammalian (especially human) small intestine, preferably the ileum, ideally the proximal ileum. In one embodiment, the polymerised polymer is denatured protein. In one embodiment, the denatured protein is denatured pea protein. In one embodiment, the microbead is coated with chitosan or gelatin. 
     The invention also relates to microparticles formed according to a method of the invention. 
     In one embodiment, the microparticles of the invention (or formed according to a method of the invention) (i.e. microbeads or microcapsules) are coated in chitosan or gelatin. This may be achieved by immersing the microparticles in a bath containing the chitosan or gelatin, and leaving the microparticles immersed for a period of time for the chitosan or gelatin in the bath form a coating on the microparticles. In one embodiment, a chitosan bath comprises 0.5 to 2.0% chitosan (w/v) in a weak organic acid solvent (i.e. acetic acid). In one embodiment, a gelatin bath comprises 0.5 to 5.0% gelatin (w/v) in a weak organic acid (i.e. acetic acid) or aqueous solvent. In one embodiment, the methods of the invention include an additional step of coating the microparticles in a chitosan or gelatin solution, optionally by immersion of the microparticles in a gelatin or chitosan bath. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
         FIG. 1 : Infrared spectra pea protein microbeads and capsules. 
         FIG. 2 : Light Microscopy Image of Pea Protein microbeads after encapsulation (A) and in the presence of encapsulated probiotic cultures (B). Bar represents 200 microns. 
         FIG. 3 : Confocal Microscope image of Pea protein microbead using BACLight Confocal staining. Green fluorescence indicates live probiotics and red fluorescence indicates dead probiotics. Figure A illustrates the microbead topography; B and C illustrates the large surface area of the microbead membrane 
         FIG. 4 : Atomic Force Microscope image of the surface of a protein microcapsule (A) and microbead (B) 
         FIG. 5 : Light microscope illustration of in vitro gastro-intestinal delivery of pea protein micro-beads. Images illustrate (A) stomach incubation after 30 min at pH 1.6; (B) stomach incubation after 180 min at pH 1.6; FIG. C illustrates micro-bead digestion after 5 minutes intestinal incubation (pH 7.2). 
         FIG. 6 : Tensile strength of pea protein micro-beads during in vitro stomach incubation. 
         FIG. 7 : Visualisation of progressive dissolution of pea protein microbeads during ex vivo gastro-intestinal incubation. Size exclusion HPLC measured protein/peptide release from micro-capsules (B) after 30 min of intestinal incubation. The standard curve of protein/peptide standards (♦) indicated the molecular weights of typical peptide expected to be found in intestinal samples. 
         FIG. 8 : Efficiency of encapsulation of a bacterial strain in 8% (w/v) commercial pea protein isolate microbeads. Pea protein suspension represents free cells in the presence of commercial pea protein isolate. Pea protein microbeads represents levels of viable cells detected following microencapsulation of the pea protein suspension, and washing (in water). FIG. B illustrates the comparison of CFU/g of pre-encapsulation matrix/bacterial mixture (orange) and subsequent bacterial microbeads (grey) with high cell capacity. 
         FIG. 9 : Survival of free bacterial cells in final product/prototype, encapsulated bacterial cells within 8% (w/v) commercial pea protein isolate microbeads and free bacterial cells in an 8% (w/v) commercial pea protein isolate suspension. Grey bars illustrate the cell concentration in the final prototype/product. Each prototype was separately added to water maintained at ˜85° C. and held for 90 seconds prior to cooling on ice. Cell viability was analysed using the plate count method. 
         FIG. 10 : Illustrates the presence of pea protein capsules in vivo in the stomach of human candidates. 
         FIG. 11 : Release of peptide &amp; Free Amino Acids in Jejunum during in vivo Gastro-intestinal Transit of pea protein microcapsule. 
         FIG. 12 : Illustrates the presence of intact protein (blue line) and peptide release Black line as measured by size exclusion HPLC within the jejunum and ileum of human candidates Trace amounts of peptides identified in the intestinal digesta at T=10 min are represented by the red baseline. 
         FIG. 13 : Microbeads made by englobbing method using a denatured pea protein solution that was not rested prior to the heat denaturation step—ADDED 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     Definitions 
     “Pea protein” should be understood to mean a source of pea protein, for example total pea protein. Preferably the pea protein is pea protein isolate (PPI), pea protein concentrate (PPC), or a combination of either. In one embodiment, the pea protein has a purity of at least 70% (i.e. at least 90% by weight of the source of pea protein is pea protein. In one embodiment, the pea protein has a purity of at least 80%. In one embodiment, the pea protein has a purity of at least 90%. Examples of pea protein having a high purity include materials with low ash content. 
     “Partially solubilise” means that the pea protein is substantially, but not fully, solubilised in a suitable solvent. Generally, up to 60% or 70% of the pea protein is solubilised. Partial solubilisation is generally achieved with chemical means (i.e. alkali solubilisation) or physical means (for example, sonication). A resting step is required to achieve more complete solubilisation, for example solubilisation for 90% or more of the pea protein. 
     “Alkali solvent” means an aqueous solution of a suitable base for example NaOH or KOH. Preferably, the alkali solvent comprises an aqueous solution of 0.05-0.2M base, more preferably 0.05-0.15. Ideally, the alkali solvent comprises an aqueous solution of 0.075-0.125M base. Typically, the alkali solvent is an aqueous solution of NaOH, for example 0.05-0.2M NaOH. Preferably, the alkali solvent comprises an aqueous solution of 0.05-0.2M NaOH or KOH, more preferably 0.05-0.15 NaOH or KOH. Ideally, the alkali solvent comprises an aqueous solution of 0.075-0.125 M NaOH or KOH. 
     “pH of at least 10” means a pH of greater than 10, typically a pH of 10-13 or 10-12. Ideally, the pH of the pea protein solution is 10.5 to 11. 
     “Sonication” means application of sound energy to partially solubilise and hydrate the pea protein. The process generally involves preparing a dispersion/solution of pea protein, and then applying sound energy, generally sound of ultrasonic frequencies, to the dispersion/solution for a sufficient period of time to solubilise and hydrate the pea protein. Sonicators are commercially available from Qsonica LLC and SinapTec. 
     “Pea protein solution” means a liquid pea protein composition comprising soluble pea protein and optionally insoluble pea protein. The methods of the invention provide for pea protein solutions comprising high levels of soluble pea protein, typically greater than 90%, or 95% (for example, 95-98% soluble pea protein). When the pea protein is mixed with alkali solvent, or sonicated, the amount of soluble pea protein will gradually increase during the resting step until high levels of the pea protein is solubilised, at which point the pea protein solution is heat-denatured. This results in a solution of denatured pea protein having very high levels of denatured pea protein present in the form of soluble denatured pea protein aggregates. 
     The term “soluble” or “solubilised” as applied to pea protein (or denatured pea protein) should be understood to mean that the pea protein is present as a soluble pea protein aggregate. Typically, the terms mean that the soluble aggregates will not come out of solution upon centrifugation at 10,000×g for 30 minutes at 4° C. 
     “Resting the pea protein solution” means leaving the pea protein solution rest for a period of time to allow the pea protein solubilise in the alkali solvent. Generally, the pea protein solution is allowed to rest for at least 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, or 45 minutes. Typically, the pea protein solution is rested at room temperature. Typically, the pea protein solution is rested for a period of time until at least 90% of the pea protein has been solubilised. Before being rested, the pea protein solution tends to be cloudy and opaque and contains sediment, but after a period of resting the cloudiness dissipates as the amount of solubilised pea protein increases. As an example, the resting step can increase the % of solubilised protein from 60% to 90% or higher. 
     “Conditions sufficient to heat-denature the pea protein without causing gelation of the pea protein solution” means a temperature and time treatment that denatures at least 90%, 95% or 99% of the pea protein present in the solution while maintaining the solution in a form suitable for extrusion (i.e. readily flowable with suitable viscosity). The temperature and times employed may be varied depending on the concentration of the pea protein solution. Thus, for example, when an 8% pea protein solution (w/v) is used, the solution may be treated at a temperature of 80-90° C. for 20-30 minutes (or preferably 85° C. for 25 minutes). However, it will be appreciated that higher temperatures and shorter times may also be employed. 
     “Rapidly cooling the denatured pea protein solution” means actively cooling the solution to accelerate cooling compared with simply allowing the solution to cool at room temperature which the Applicant has discovered causes the solution to gel. Rapid cooling can be achieved by placing the solution in a fridge or freezer, or on slushed ice, until the temperature of the solution has been reduced to at least room temperature. 
     “At least 90% (w/w) of the pea protein in the denatured pea protein solution is soluble” means that at least 90% by weight of the total pea protein in the solution is in a solubilised form. Preferably at least 95% (w/w), and ideally from 95% to 98% of the pea protein is solubilised. The method of measuring solubility is the shake flask method described below. 
     “Treated to remove soluble matter” means a separation or clarification step to remove soluble matter such as insoluble pea protein from the pea protein solution. In the specific embodiments described herein, centrifugation is employed (10,000×g for 30 minutes at 4° C.) is employed, but other methods will be apparent to the skilled person such as, for example, filtration or the like. 
     “Solution of denatured pea protein” means a solution of pea protein in which at least 90%, 95% or 99% of the total pea protein is denatured. A method of determining the % of denatured pea protein in a pea protein solution is provided below. 
     “Treating a denatured pea protein solution to form microdroplets” typically means passing the solution through a small orifice whereby the solution is broken up into micro-size droplets. Preferably, the solution is extruded through an orifice. Various methods will be apparent to the skilled person for generating droplets, for example prilling and spraying (ie spray drying). A preferred method of producing the microbeads is a vibrating nozzle technique, in which the suspension is sprayed (extruded) through a nozzle and laminar break-up of the sprayed jet is induced by applying a sinusoidal frequency with defined amplitude to the spray from the nozzle. Examples of vibrating nozzle machines are the Encapsulator (Inotech, Switzerland) and a machine produced by Nisco Engineering AG, or equivalent scale-up version such as those produced by Brace GmbH. Typically, the spray nozzle has an aperture of between 50 and 600 microns, preferably between 50 and 200 microns, suitably 50-200 microns, typically 50-150 microns, and ideally about 80-150 microns. Suitably, the frequency of operation of the vibrating nozzle is from 900 to 3000 Hz. Generally, the electrostatic potential between nozzle and acidification bath is 0.85 to 1.3 V. Suitably, the amplitude is from 4.7 kV to 7 kV. Typically, the falling distance (from the nozzle to the acidification bath) is less than 50 cm, preferably less than 40 cm, suitably between 20 and 40 cm, preferably between 25 and 35 cm, and ideally about 30 cm. The flow rate of suspension (passing through the nozzle) is typically from 3.0 to 10 ml/min; an ideal flow rate is dependent upon the nozzle size utilized within the process. 
     “Immediately gelling the droplets in an acidic gelling bath to form microbeads” means that the droplets gel instantaneously upon immersion in the acidic bath. This is important as it ensures that the droplets have a spherical shape and homogenous size distribution. Preferably, and surprisingly, instantaneous gelation is achieved by employing an acidic bath having a pH less than the pI of the pea protein, for example a pH of 3.8 to 4.2. 
     “Acidic gelling bath” means a bath having a pH below the pI of the pea protein that is capable of instantaneously gelling the droplets. Typically, the acidic gelling bath has a pH of less than 4.3, for example 3.5 to 4.2, 3.7 to 4.2, or 4.0 to 4.2. The acidic gelling bath is generally formed from an organic acid. Ideally, the acid is citric acid. Typically, the acidic gelling bath has an acid concentration of 0.1M to 1.0M, preferably 0.3M to 0.7M, and more preferably 0.4M to 0.6M. Typically, the acidic gelling bath has a citric acid concentration of 0.1M to 1.0M, preferably 0.3M to 0.7M, and more preferably 0.4M to 0.6M. Preferably, the acidic gelling bath comprises 0.4 to 0.6M citric acid and has a pH of less than 4.3, typically 4.0 to 4.2. 
     “Microparticles” should be understood to mean generally spherical particles comprising gelled polymer for example denatured protein for example denatured pea protein and having an average diameter of 50 to 500 microns as determined using the light microscopy method described below. Preferably the microparticles have an average diameter of 50-200 microns as determined using the light microscopy method described below. Preferably the microparticles have an average diameter of 80-200 microns as determined using the light microscopy method described below. Preferably the microparticles have an average diameter of 80-150 microns as determined using the light microscopy method described below. Depending on the method of manufacture, the microparticles may be microbeads or microcapsules. 
     “Microbeads” means micro-sized particles that are generally spherical and have a continuous polymerised matrix for example denatured protein matrix for example denatured pea protein matrix, and optionally an active agent dispersed throughout the pea protein matrix. 
     “Microcapsules” means micro-sized particles that are generally spherical and have a shell formed of gelled polymer for example denatured protein for example denatured pea protein and a core within the shell. The core may be a liquid or a solid, or indeed a gas. In one embodiment, the core comprises native protein, for example native pea protein. 
     “Active agent” means any component suitable for delivery to the mammalian small intestine or ileum, but typically means a component that is sensitive to an external condition for example heat, pH, pressure, chemical stress or enzymes. Thus, the active component may be sensitive to pH, enzymes (i.e. protease enzymes), high pressure, high shear, and temperature abuse during storage. In one particularly preferred embodiment of the invention, the active component is a cell, typically a bacterial cell, and ideally a probiotic cell. Such cells are sensitive to low pH conditions, such as would be encountered in the stomach, and as such need to be shielded from gastric pH and bile salt environments. Probiotic bacteria, and indeed other types of cells, are also sensitive to high shear or high pressure, such as are employed in conventional methods of generating micron-sized polymer beads. Other types of active components which may be encapsulated in the microbeads of the invention include micronutrients, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, starter bacteria, cell extracts, proteins and polypeptides (native or denatured), sugars and sugar derivatives, nucleic acids and nucleic acid constructs, pharmaceutically-active agents, imaging dyes and ligands, antibodies and antibody fragments, phytochemicals and the like. 
     “Active agent solution” means an active agent contained within a suitable liquid carrier in the form of a solution, dispersion or suspension. 
     “Nozzle assembly” means an apparatus comprising at least one nozzle that is configured for extruding the pea protein solution through the at least one nozzle. In one embodiment, nozzle assembly comprises a single nozzle, whereby a mixture of active agent and pea protein solution may be extruded the single nozzle to form droplets which when gelled form microbeads. In another embodiment, the nozzle assembly comprises an outer nozzle concentrically arranged around an inner nozzle, and in which the pea protein solution is extruded through the outer nozzle and an active agent solution/suspension/dispersion is extruded through the inner nozzle to droplets which when gelled form microencapsulates with a gelled pea protein shell and an active agent containing core. 
     “Cured in the acidic gelling bath” means that the microbeads are allowed to remain in the gelling bath for a period of time sufficient to cure (harden) the microbeads. The period of time varies depending on the microbeads, but typically a curing time of at least 30 minutes is employed. 
     Example 1 
     Formation of Highly Solubilised Denatured Pea Protein Solution (Alkali Solubilisation) 
     Prepare pea protein solution in aqueous 0.1 M NaOH to a concentration of 8% w/v (i.e 8 g/100 ml) 
     Ensure that the pH is in the 10.5-11.0 range 
     Place the solution into storage for 45 min at room temperature until the protein is fully solubilised 
     Adjust to pH 10 using HCl or NaOH/KOH as required 
     Heat-treat the solution to a temperature of 85° C. and maintain that temperature for a duration of 25 min. 
     After heating cool immediately on slushed ice for 30-45 minutes 
     Centrifuge the cooled solution at 10,000×g for 30 minutes at 4° C. 
     Example 2 
     Formation of Highly Solubilised Denatured Pea Protein Solution (Solubilisation by Sonication) 
     Sonicator 
     Hielscher 1000hd sonicator, currently located near BFE in Teagasc Moorepark. 
     Procedure 
     
         
         
           
             Hydrate protein in H2O for a minimum of 1 h prior to process. 
             Adjust to required pH (eg. 7). 
             Optimum volume for this system is 200-600 ml of sample. Sample beaker should not be overfilled to allow for insertion of sonicator probe. 
             Place sample beaker on ice prior to procedure. 
             In room with sonicator, wheel the device to the right corner of room and plug in the black three hole plug to the back of the device. 
             Place sample in sonicator and adjust height (can use books, glove boxes etc.) so that ¾ of the probe is in the sample. 
             After ensuring correct ear protection is installed, switch on device using on switch on top right of machine. 
             Sonicator door does not have to be shut for successful operation. 
             Power of device can be adjusted using wheel located on control panel (current operation uses max power for 10 mins). 
             Sonicate at required power for required time. 
             Remove sample, it is advised to record temperature of sample following procedure. 
             The process may lead to the development of fragments in the sample. An Ultra Turrax can be used in order to break up any fragments that may appear if required (particularly if the sample is to be used for encapsulation/spray-drying) (See appendix two for Ultra Turrax procedure). 
             Time and RPM will be dependent on sample. 
           
         
       
    
     Example 3 
     Microbead Production (Englobbing) 
     PURPOSE: For delivery of bioactives to proximal ileum for thermal protection against environmental processing conditions and gastric delivery 
     Denatured pea protein solution made according to Example 1 or 2 can be combined with active components i.e. probiotics, colours, etc. 
     The dispersion of denatured pea protein solution+active component is extruded through an orifice for free-fall into polymerisation bath 
     The polymerisation bath is composed of Citric Acid (0.5M), NaCl (0.3M), (0.4M) and polysorbate 80 (0.01%) 
     Optimise the amplitude, and adjust the magnitude of positive charge generate a steady stream of free-falling microdroplets. The polymerisation bath is tempered at 37° C. with a free fall distance of 16 cm from the orifice and an agitation velocity of 90 rpm to allow for instantaneous polymerisation of denatured pea protein solution and active component into microbeads 
     The microbeads are allowed to cure in the polymerisation buffer at low agitation speed for 2 hour at room temperature 
     Example 4 
     Microcapsule Production 
     PURPOSE: Delivery of native pea protein to the proximal ileum for the stimulatory release of satiety hormones GLP-1 and for appetite suppression 
     Mono-disperse and mono-nuclear microcapsules were prepared using the co-extrusion laminar jet break-up technique. The encapsulator was fitted with one of two different sized concentric nozzles (internal and external) 
     A solution of denatured pea protein (7% w/v) was prepared according to Example 1 or 2 
     The solution of denatured pea protein is supplied to the external nozzle using an air pressure regulation system which enabled flow rates of 1-3 L/min to be generated using a maximum head pressure of 0.5-0.8 bar 
     The desired flow rate was set using a pressure reduction valve. The internal phase (native pea protein, non-denatured) was supplied using a precision syringe pump connected to the inner nozzle to supply the inner phase at flow rates of between 5 and 15 L/min 
     If bioactive are added, they will be incorporated into the internal phase. 
     Spherical microcapsules were obtained by the application of a set vibrational frequency, with defined amplitude, to the co-extruded liquid jet consisting of denatured pea protein and the core native protein 
     The material in the inner and outer nozzle are both heated to 40° C. in order to allow for better flowability in commercial operations 
     The resulting concentric jet broke up into microcapsules which fell into a magnetically stirred gelling bath 20 cm below the nozzle 
     The gelling bath consisted of 36 g/l citric acid, 10 mM MOPS, pH 4.0 
     Tween 80 is added (0.1-0.2% (v/v)) to reduce the surface tension of the gelation solution 
     To prevent coalescence of the microcapsules during jet break-up and/or when entering the gelling bath, a high negative charge was induced onto their surface using an electrostatic voltage system which applied an electrical potential of 0-2.15 kV between the nozzle and an electrode, placed directly underneath the nozzle 
     As microcapsules fell through the electrode, they were deflected from their vertical position resulting in their impact occurring over a larger area in the gelation solution 
     Microcapsules were allowed to harden for at least 30 min to ensure complete gelation and were then washed and filtered using a porous mesh to remove any un-reacted components 
     Example 5 (Comparative) 
     Microbead Production (Englobbing) 
     Microbeads are produced according to Example 3, but using a denatured pea protein solution that was not rested prior to heat denaturation. The resultant microbeads are shown in  FIG. 14 . 
     Characterisation of Microbeads of Example 3 and Microcapsules of Example 4 and 2 
     Size Distribution Analysis 
     The mean size distribution of pea protein capsules and microbeads was validated to ensure reproducibility of the production process. D (v, 0.9) (size at which the cumulative volume reaches 90% of the total volume), of encapsulated batches were determined using a laser diffractometer with a range of 0.2-200 μm. For particle size analysis, batches were re-suspended in Milli-Q water and size distribution was calculated based on the light intensity distribution data of scattered light. 
     Protein Content: 
     The protein-(nitrogen×6.25) was determined using standard methods (AOAC, 1990). Protein isolates (200 mg) were suspended in 20 ml deionized water and the pH of the suspensions were adjusted between 2.0 and 9.0 using 0.1 N HCl or NaOH solutions. These suspensions were magnetically stirred for 1 h; pH was checked and adjusted if required, then centrifuged at 8,000×g for 10 min. The protein content (N×6.25) of supernatant was calculated by estimating nitrogen content (Kjeldahl method). 
     Zeta Potential ζ and Surface Hydrophobicity (H 0 ) 
     Zeta Potential ζ and Surface Hydrophobicity (H 0 ) was determined for the pea protein microbead and microcapsules. The zeta potential (ζ) of the protein isolates was measured using Zetasizer Nano ZS (Malvern Instrument Ltd., UK). Freshly prepared protein microbeads and microcapsules were suspended in de-ionized water prior to analysis. Surface hydrophobicity (H 0 ) pea protein micro-beads/microcapsules were estimated using ANS-hydrophobic probe following the method of Kato and Nakai, 1980 ( Hydrophobicity determined by a fluorescence probe method and its correlation with surface properties of proteins, Biochim Biophys Acta.  1980 Jul. 24; 624(1):13-20). The encapsulation dispersions were incubated in dark for 15 min and fluorescence intensity (FI) was measured at excitation and emission wavelengths of 390 and 470 nm, respectively using Photoluminescence/Fluorescence spectrometer. FI of ANS-blank and diluted protein solutions without ANS were also measured and subtracted from the FI of the encapsulated protein dispersions with ANS. The initial slope of the plot of the corrected FI versus protein concentration was calculated by linear regression analysis and used as an index of protein H 0 . The results are shown in Table 1 below: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Surface 
               
               
                   
                 Protein Content 
                 Zeta Potential 
                 Hydrophobicity 
               
               
                 Format 
                 (%) 
                 ζ (mV) 
                 (H 0 ) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Micro-beads 
                 94.35% ± 0.34% 
                 −48.32 mV ± 2.31 mV 
                 587 ± 21.23 
               
               
                 Micro- 
                 94.08% ± 0.21% 
                 −41.32 mV ± 1.92 mV 
                 522 ± 19.62 
               
               
                 capsules 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     FTIR 
     Infrared spectra pea protein microbeads and microcapsules were recorded using FTIR spectrometer (Vertex 70, Bruker Optics Inc., Germany) equipped with Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) cell (PIKE Technology Inc., USA). Protein micro-capsules/micro beads were stored in desiccators over P 2 O 5  for more than two week in order to remove moisture. The moisture-free isolates were placed on the ATR crystal and pressed down to ensure good contact. The spectrometer was continuously purged with dry air. The spectra in the range of 4000-600 cm −1  were recorded (average of 120 spectra at 4 cm −1  resolution) and referenced against that of an empty cell. The spectra were subjected to Fourier self-deconvolution (FSD), second derivative (SD) analysis and curve fitting procedures to locate overlapping peaks in amide-I (1700-1600 cm −1 ) region.  FIG. 4  below illustrates the contrast in secondary structure of microbeads and micro capsules made from pea protein. The graph also illustrates the difference between milk protein micro-beads relative to those composed of pea protein. Hence the secondary structure is different and the polymerization of the material will also be different during encapsulation. 
     Microscopy 
     In addition to light microscopy, further image analysis was performed using a Leica TCS SP5 confocal scanning laser microscope (CSLM) for the purpose of micro-particle morphology assessment.  FIG. 5  illustrates the homogenous size distribution of pea protein microcapsules (average diameter 150 microns).  FIG. 5 b    further shows the encapsulation of probiotics in a pea protein microbead with preferable cell distribution throughout the entire microbead. Confocal was also utilised to demonstrate the even distribution of bioactive material i.e.  Lacotbacillus rhamnosus  GG) within a microcapsule after the production process.  FIG. 6  demonstrates that the process of microencapsulation is not detrimental to the survival of probiotics. 
     Confocal analysis was conducted by illumination using an argon laser (488 nm laser excitation) and red-green-blue images (24 bit), 512 by 512 pixels, were acquired using a zoom factor of 2.0, giving a final pixel resolution of 0.2 μm/pixel. 
     Atomic force microscopy (AFM; Asylum Research MFP-3D-AFM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) were also utilised to investigate the significance and magnitude of electrostatic interactions between probiotics and pea protein during encapsulation.  FIG. 7  illustrates the surface topography of a pea protein micro-bead ( FIG. 7A ) and a pea protein microcapsule ( FIG. 7B ). It is clear that the surface of a microbead has more cervices and possible pores relative to the surface of a micro-capsule. Hence, the pea protein capsule will potentially have a great ability to resist diffusion and mass transfer effects i.e. water uptake. Micorcapsules also illustrates the ability to protect krill oil and fatty acids (DHA and ARA) against oxidation 
     Method of Determining Solubility of Pea Protein Solution 
     A standard technique to determine the thermodynamic aqueous compound solubility is the shake flask method. Solubility studies of pea protein were determined by equilibrating excess amount of pea protein in buffer solutions of pH 1.2, 4.5, 6.8, 7.5 and purified water. Assays were performed in plastic flasks with a capacity of 50 mL. In each flask were added 10 mL of media/water and the respective amount of pea protein separately. The amount was sufficient to saturate each media, which was characterised by depositing of substance not solubilised. An incubator shaker was used to maintain samples at 37° C. during the test with agitation at 150 rpm for 72 hours (until an equilibrium condition was achieved). After this period, samples were immediately filtered (0.45 μm) and diluted in a volumetric flask with the corresponding media. For quantification of pea protein, a UV-Vis spectrophotometer (Varian) was used at 214 nm and 280 nm absorbance wavelength for each media. Solubility values were calculated using calibration curves pre-determined for soluble protein sources. 
     With solubility results, the dose:solubility ratio was calculated, which is obtained by dividing the commercially acceptable dose of the pea protein (in milligrams) by the solubility (in milligrams per milliliter) obtained in the tests. The values of the dose:solubility ratio are then compared with the criteria established by the ingredient manufacturer guidance to verify if the protein is highly soluble or not. 
     Method of Determining % of Denatured Pea Protein 
     Evaluation of pea protein denaturation involves three essential analysis steps:
         Determination of Pea Protein Concentration   Preparation of reaction equation   Electrophoresis, turbidity &amp; agglomerate measurement       

     i) Determination of Pea Protein Concentration 
     The pea protein concentration was determined by reverse phase HPLC using a Source™ 5RPC column (Amersham Biosciences UK limited). The HPLC system consisted of a Waters 2695 separation module with a Waters 2487 dual wavelength absorbance detector. 
     ii) Preparation of Reaction Equation 
     The denaturation kinetics of pea protein was determined according to the following equation: 
     
       
      
       dC/dt−kC 
       n  
      
     
     where k is the reaction rate, n is the reaction order and C the concentration of native pea protein. 
     This equation can be integrated to give 
       ( C   t   /C   0 ) 1-n =1+( n− 1) kt  (for  n&gt; 1) 
     Where C t , is the native pea protein concentration at time t, C 0  is the initial pea protein concentration. 
     Further rearranging gives, 
         C   t   /C   0 =[1+( n− 1) kt]   1/1-n    
     The natural log of this equation was taken, 
       ln( C   t   /C   0 )=[1/(1− n )] ln [1+( n− 1) kt].   (Equation 1)
 
     Logging decay data such as this equalises the data per unit time and reduces error when solving the equations. The reaction orders and rates were determined by fitting the experimental data to Equation 1. All experimental points were included in the curve fit; this is reasonable considering the rapid heating-up time of the protein solution. Introducing a lag-time to the data did not significantly alter the results obtained. The data were also fitted to the first order decay equation, 
       ln( C   t   /C   0 )=− kt   (Equation 2)
 
     to rule out the possibility of first order kinetics.
 
iii) HPLC Analysis
 
     High pressure size exclusion chromatography was used to study the disulphide linked aggregates. The aggregates formed during the heating stage were treated with a buffer comprising of 20 mM Bis-tris pH 7.0, 5% SDS and 50 mM iodoacetamide (IAA). The treated aggregates were stirred overnight at room temperature and filtered through a 0.45 μm syringe filter prior to analysis. An ÄKTA Purifier chromatography system (Amersham Bioscience UK limited) with a TSK G2000 and a TSK G3000 columns (TosoHaas, Montogomeryville, Pa. USA) in series were used for the separation. The eluent was 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer at pH 7.0 containing 1% SDS. A dye, blue dextran 2000, was used to determine the void volume of columns. Determination of free-amine (NH 2 ) groups was determined via the 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene 1-sulfonic acid (TNBS) methodology of Adler-Nissen, 1979 (Determination of the degree of hydrolysis of food protein hydrolysates by trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid, J. Adler-Nissen J. Agric. Food Chem., 1979, 27 (6), 1256-1262). 
     iv) Electrophoresis, Turbidity &amp; Agglomerate Measurement 
     Two-dimensional electrophoresis was performed according to previously described methods (Laemmli U. K. (1970).  Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage T 4 . Nature  227(5259): 680-5.). The running buffer used was free from β-mercaptoethanol due the disassociating effect it has on the protein. This caused the break-up of protein aggregates by reducing intra- and intermolecular disulphide bonds. The gel strip was placed on top of a separating gel consisting of 12% acrylamide and a 4% stacking gel, both containing 0.1% SDS. The electrophoresis was carried out using a constant voltage of 155V in a Mini Protean II system (Bio-Rad, Alpha Technologies, Dublin, Ireland). The gels were stained in a 0.5% Coomassie brilliant blue R-250, 25% isopropanol, 10% acetic acid solution. The turbidity of the denatured pea protein solutions were measured using a Varian Caryl UV/visible spectrophotometer (JVA Analytical, Dublin, Ireland) at a wavelength of 590 nm. As the size and/or number of the aggregates increased, more light was scattered leading to an increase in the apparent absorbance of the solutions; hence correlated with the denaturation kinetics. Dynamic light scattering (Malvern Zetamaster; model 7EM; Malvern Instruments Ltd, Worcester, UK) was also used to measure the sizes of the aggregates formed during the heating step of pea protein. The scattered light was detected at a fixed angle of 90°. The cumulative method was used to find the mean average (z-average) or the size of a particle that corresponded to the mean of the intensity distribution. 
     Ex Vivo Gastro-Intestinal Resistance/Stability 
     In order to determine the efficiency of pea protein microbeads/microcapsules as a delivery vehicle, it is important to elucidate their resistance to gastric conditions and subsequent digestion in intestinal conditions. In order to evaluate these conditions gastrointestinal studies were conducted using stomach and intestinal contents obtained from slaughtered pigs (ex vivo conditions.) Stomach conditions were pH 1.6 and pepsin enzyme activity was measured (44.46±2.34 umol Tyrosine equivalents). Intestinal contents were obtained from the proximal ileum and enzyme activity was further investigated. Trypsin activity was measured at 21.39 umol±2.13 and chymotrypsin activity was measured at 319.43±23.85 umol. 
       FIG. 8  illustrates the acid stability of pea protein micro-beads/microcapsules during ex vivo porcine stomach digestion during 3 hours incubation. The microbeads/microcapsules remain robust and after 3 hours the surface begins to shrink, possibly in response to an acid gradient between the core of the bead and the external environment.  FIGS. 8A and 8B  show the visual change in the microbead appearance during 3-hour incubation; however the structure remains intact.  FIG. 8C  illustrates the digestion of these microbeads during intestinal incubation in the presence of trypsin, chymotrypsin and other typical intestinal enzymes. The strength of the micro-beads during stomach incubation is shown in  FIG. 10  and illustrates that microbead strength decreases during stomach incubation; however, the overall strength of the micro-bead remains relatively high (632.32 g±24.32 g). Intestinal digestion of the pea protein microbeads is visualized in  FIG. 10  where the Gel permeation chromatography screens for peptide release. 
     Probiotic Encapsulation in Pea Protein Microbeads 
     Following characterisation of the microbead for stomach resistance and intestinal digestion, a probiotic strain was encapsulated within pea protein micro-beads and cell survival was evaluated during i) the encapsulation process ( FIG. 10 ); heat stress ( FIG. 11 ).  FIG. 10  illustrates the mild conditions utilised for encapsulation of probiotics in pea protein.  FIG. 11  illustrate the survival of probiotics in the presence of heat stress. This graph illustrates the heat protection provided by encapsulation (structure of a microbead), which is significantly higher than that provided by pea protein alone. 
     Human Data Obtained for Capsule Delivery of Native Pea Protein to the Ileum 
     Design of Human Study: 
     Four participants were intubated with a 145 cm nasoduodenal catheter 
     The catheter was introduced into the stomach and the tip was positioned in the intestine under radiological guidance and verification 
     Following overnight fasting, participants were instructed to consume the encapsulated prototype within 5 minutes (40 mL volume+approx. 120 mL water) 
     During intra-duodenal infusion of drink, the fluid was infused for 10-200 min 
     After 180-220 min the naso-duodenal catheter was removed and subjects were allowed to eat ad liteum 
     Position of the catheter is shown on the right 
     Table 2 below illustrates the position of the catheter in the intestine of the subject 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Catheter ports 
                 Centimeters from nose 
                 Location 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
                 5 
                  80 
                 Duodenum 
               
               
                   
                 7 
                 105 
                 Proximal Jejunum 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 120 
                 Jejunum 
               
               
                   
                 3 
                 130 
                 Jejunum 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 155 
                 Jejunum 
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 170 
                 Ileum 
               
               
                   
                 1 
                  185* 
                 Ileum 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 *(port 1 is at −5 cm, numbering on catheter from −10 till 255) 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Results: 
     
         
         
           
             10-35 minutes: Visualisation of intact micro-capsules in duodenum 
             10-55 minutes: No significant increase in the protein or peptide content in duodenal, jejunal or ileal regions 
             35-90 minutes: Detection of micro capsules break-down in jejunal regions 
             35-120 minutes: Apparent increase in protein content in jejunal regions 
             90+ minutes: Spontaneous appearance of native pea protein in proximal jejunum &amp; Ileum 
             90+ minutes: Accumulated presence of peptides in proximal jejunum &amp; Ileum 
             180+ minutes: No appearance of native pea protein in proximal jejunum &amp; Ileum 
           
         
       
    
     The invention is limited to the embodiments hereinbefore described which may be varied in construction and detail without departing from the spirit of the invention.