Patent Publication Number: US-7595728-B2

Title: RF tags affixed in manufactured elements

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCED APPLICATION 
   This application is a continuation in part of the application: Ser. No. 11/168,747; Filed: Jun. 28, 2005. 

   TECHNICAL FIELD 
   The present invention relates to management systems and to methods and apparatus for tracking electronically tagged elements, such as tagged consumer products, and specifically relates to electronic tags affixed to such elements. 
   BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
   Consumer products and other tagged elements are efficiently tracked anywhere in a supply and distribution chain when electronic tags are affixed to the elements. The information content of the tag may be provided by the manufacturer, the distributor, the retailer or any other entity in the supply and distribution chain. Electronic tags are electronically read by electronic readers (communicators) when the tags are within range. For example, electronic tags are read at the point of sale of a product by a tag reader located at a checkout station. 
   Often electronic tags are affixed to goods in a manner such that the tags are easily seen and accessed by a prospective purchaser of the goods or by others. Also, tags often are not permanently affixed to goods and hence the tags can be removed. For these and other reasons, tampering with electronic tags presents a problem that needs to be addressed. 
   In retail and other environments, electronic tags are affixed to goods and such affixing often requires a burdensome process whereby each one of the goods needs to be manually handled to affix the tag. 
   In manufacturing environments, systems are well known for reading tagged elements at different manufacturing stages. The tags are affixed to elements at any stage from an initial stage, through intermediate stages (work-in-process stages) to a final stage. Finished goods are produced as an output from the final stage. In the manufacturing of electronic equipment, typically semiconductor devices are processed in a first processing chain and then processed in a second chain to form electronic circuit boards. Thereafter, third and additional processing chains occur to form the final electronic equipment. Such equipment includes cell phones, computers, cameras, routers, televisions, personal data assistants (PDA&#39;s) and other electronic devices. While electronic tags have been widely used in manufacturing processes, the tags used in manufacturing processes have not been effectively used in the retail environment. 
   In light of the foregoing background, there is a need for improved tags and systems for tracking elements using electronic tags. 
   SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   The present invention is a system for tracking elements employing fixed tags that are permanently attached to elements. The tags include radio-frequency (RF) communication units that are adapted for wireless communication with RF communicators. 
   The RF tags are permanently affixed to elements as part of the manufacturing of products such as cell phones, PDA&#39;s, computers, routers and other electronic equipment or other goods of any kind. The RF tags are installed during manufacturing in a manner that resists tampering and interference. In general, the RF tags are installed with mechanical barriers to access and are hidden from view in non-user accessible locations. For example, tags are located in non-user accessible chambers, are imbedded in product cases or are formed as part of semiconductor parts. 
   In embodiments of the present invention, the RF tags are provided in semiconductor dies and are manufactured with electronic circuits to manufacture the primary functional circuits on the dies. In another embodiment, the RF die tags are manufactured with an external process technology and the tags are then attached to the dies using an add-on process. In either of the embodiments, the RF die tags are bound to the dies and remain with the dies. 
   In typical embodiments, each RF tag includes an RF coupling element (antenna), an RF interface for transforming signals between RF frequencies and data processing frequencies, memory for storing data, a logic controller for controlling the read/write of data and other operations of the tag and a power supply for powering the tag. Typically, the power supply powers the tag from received energy from incoming RF signals from an RF communicator. The wireless communications between the RF tags and the RF communicators operate with a tag communication protocol. 
   The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description in conjunction with the drawings. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       FIG. 1  depicts a chain of stages for processing elements where RF tags are bound to elements to communicate with communicators. 
       FIG. 2  depicts a group of chains of the  FIG. 1  type where RF tags are bound to elements in each of the chains. 
       FIG. 3  depicts a typical RF communicator for RF communication with RF tags and for communication over a network to a management computer. 
       FIG. 4  depicts a typical RF tag of the type affixed to elements. 
       FIG. 5  is a schematic front view representation of tagged element with a tag encapsulated in circuit board material. 
       FIG. 6  is a schematic isometric view of the tagged element of  FIG. 5 . 
       FIG. 7  is a schematic front view representation of tagged element with a tag encapsulated in the material of a case for electronic equipment. 
       FIG. 8  is a schematic isometric view of the tagged element of  FIG. 7 . 
       FIG. 9  depicts a graph of breakage of tags as a function of mechanical stress and as a function of chip size. 
       FIG. 10  depicts a graph of breakage as a function of the number of times stress is applied and as a function of chip size. 
       FIG. 11  depicts a front view of a tagged element that is a cell phone. 
       FIG. 12  depicts a partially removed front view of the cell phone of  FIG. 11 . 
       FIG. 13  depicts a sectional side view of the cell phone of  FIG. 11 . 
       FIG. 14  depicts a sectional side view of another tagged element that is a cell phone. 
       FIG. 15  depicts a front view of the cell phone of  FIG. 14 . 
       FIG. 16  depicts a view of a plurality of tagged elements including a camera, a portable computer, a router and a display all located within the proximity of a local communicator. 
       FIG. 17  depicts a flow diagram for authenticating tagged elements. 
   

   DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
   In  FIG. 1 , a system  1  includes a chain  1   1  that operates to process elements  22  through multiple stages  21  including stages  21   1 ,  21   2 , . . . ,  21   S . The initial inputs to initial stage  21   1  are processed as elements  22  through stages  21  until output element appears at the final stage  21   S . In one of the stages  21 , an RF tag  24  is affixed to the element  22  so, at least by the final stage  21   S , a tag  24  is bound to element  22  forming a tagged element  20 . Typically, one or more stages may include an electronic communicator  40  for electronic communication with a tag  24  bound to the processed element  22 . Typically, the communication between a tag  24  and a communicator  40  in stages  21  is wireless RF communication. In some embodiments, the communicators  40  each connect through a network  46  to a management computer  41  where the network connections may be of any type such as local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), the internet and any combination of networks of different types. In some embodiments, one or more or all of the stages  21  have no communicators  40  and function to produce a tagged element  20  including an element  22  and a tag  24 . 
   In  FIG. 1 , chain  1   1  is typical of chains of many different types. For one example, chain  1   1  is a first chain in the manufacturing of electronic equipment in which packaged semiconductor devices are manufactured as the elements. In another example, chain  1   1  is for manufacture of electronic circuit boards as the elements. In a still further example, chain  1   1  is for electronic circuit boards used to form final electronic equipment as the elements. The final electronic equipment is, for example, cell phones, computers, cameras, routers, televisions PDA&#39;s and other devices. Regardless as to any particular type of chain or any particular type element produced, an element  22  is manufactured with an affixed tag  24  to form a tagged element  20 . 
   In  FIG. 2 , a plurality of chains  1 - 1 ,  1 - 2 , . . . ,  1 -C like chain  1   1  of  FIG. 1  are shown. Each of the chains  1 - 1 ,  1 - 2 , . . . ,  1 -C produces tagged elements  20 . Specifically, chain  1 - 1  produces the tagged elements  20 - 1  including elements E 1,1 , E 1,2 , E 1,3 , . . . , E 1,N1  (not all shown). Specifically, chain  1 - 2  produces the tagged elements  20 - 2  including elements E 2,1 , E 2,2 , . . . , E 2,5 , . . . , E 2,N2  (not all shown). Specifically, chain  1 -C produces the tagged elements  20 -C including elements E C,1 , E C,2 , . . . , E C,9 , . . . , E C,NC  (not all shown). The tagged elements  20  may be any products such as cell phones, computers, cameras, routers, televisions PDA&#39;s and other products of all kinds. 
   In  FIG. 3 , the communicator  40  (interrogator, reader, writer) communicates with RF tags  24  bound to elements  22  of tagged elements  20 . The tagged elements  20  including tagged elements  20 - 1 ,  20 - 2 , . . . ,  20 -C of  FIG. 3  are any ones of the tagged elements of the  FIG. 2  chains or any other chains that produce tagged elements. In one particular example, the tagged element  20 - 1  includes element E 1,3  and tag T 1,3  where tagged element  20 - 1  is for example a TV set, the tagged element  20 - 2  includes element E 2,5  and tag T 2,5  where the tagged element  20 - 2  is for example a cell phone and where the tagged element  20 -C includes element E C,9  and tag T C,9  where the tagged element  20 -C is for example a computer. 
   In  FIG. 3 , the communicator  40  includes an RF unit  43  for wireless communication with the RF tags  24 . The RF unit  43  communicates with processor  42  over link  57 . The communicator  40  communicates with RF tags  24 , where the tags  24  are of the type affixed to elements  22  as described. The processor  42  controls the transfer of information to and from the tags  24 . The tags  24  respond to tag instructions that pass through the RF unit  43  and that are issued by the processor  42 . Processor  42 , in one embodiment, stores and executes tag program routines that issue commands that write to, read from and otherwise access tags  24  where the routines typically use an Instruction Set. 
   The processor  42  in some embodiments is integrated with the RF unit  43  as a single piece of equipment and in other embodiments the RF unit  43  and processor  42  are separated and are connected by a wired or wireless link  57 . When separate, typically the connection between RF unit  43  and processor  42  operates according to a wireless WiFi 802.11 a/b/g standard, but any convenient communications link and protocol can be employed. 
   In  FIG. 3 , the local equipment  51  may be implemented in different ways. Since each location can be different, the local equipment  51  can differ from location to location to meet the needs of each particular location. The computer  47  in one embodiment connects over a link  58  to a router  53  to enable communication throughout the system, for example to the management computer  41  of  FIG. 1 . The local computer  47  is optional but typically is provided with conventional hardware elements such as local memory  82 , displays, keyboards, interfaces and communications connections (not all shown). The local memory  82  is available for storing copies of information stored in the tags  24 . The router  53  interconnects processor  42 , network  46  and local computer  47 . A connection link  44  connects the router  53  to the network  46  which connects to the management computer  41 , including management memory  83  of  FIG. 1 . The network  46  typically includes a connection over the internet. 
   In  FIG. 3 , the system architecture of the local equipment  51  may be of many forms apparent to those skilled in the art of system architecture. For example, the links  44 ,  55 ,  57  and  58  may be wired or wireless according to conventional practices. When the connections are wireless, a wireless WiFi 802.11 a/b/g standard is typical, but any convenient communications link and protocol may be employed. 
   In one embodiment, the processor  42  includes stored programs using a communicator Instruction Set that controls communications through the RF unit  43  and that implements a tag communication protocol for communications with tags  24 . The wireless tags  24  store data, in one example, in data quantities in the range from 1 byte to about 128 kilo bits. The data is stored in the tags  24  at data addresses that are specified by the processor  42  when executing routines using instructions from an Instruction Set. Details of one example of an Instruction Set appear in the cross-referenced application entitled SYSTEM FOR TRACKING ELEMENTS USING TAGS hereby incorporated by reference for teaching the details of tag/communicator communications using programs of instructions. All of and any of the operations of the tags  24  and tag communications with a communicator  40  are defined as “tag operations”. 
   In one typical Instruction Set used for tag operations, the instructions rely on the fundamental operations performable by tags. Tags in a one embodiment have seven fundamental functions, namely READ, WRITE, ERASE, QUIET, TALK, LOCK and KILL. 
     FIG. 4  shows a functional block diagram of a typical RF tag  24  of the type affixed to elements  22  as described in connection with  FIG. 1 ,  FIG. 2  and  FIG. 3  and suitable for performing tag operations. The wireless tag  24  includes a memory  29  comprising a read only memory (ROM)  26  and an electrical erasable programmable random access memory (EEPROM)  28 , a controller (CONTROLLER)  30 , a radio-frequency interface (RF INTERFACE)  32 , and a coupling element (RF COUPLING ELEMENT)  34 . The RF-interface  32  provides power from the received RF signal to a power supply (POWER SUPPLY)  36  which generates a DC voltage (Vcc) on outputs  62  to power the other components of wireless tag  24 . The RF-interface  32  and the coupling element  34  comprise the input/output (I/O) unit  73  for electronic communication with the communicator  40  of the type described in connection with  FIG. 3  for processing tag information. 
   The tag  24  communicates for tag operations with communicator  40  of  FIG. 3  through the coupling element  34 . The coupling element  34  is typically an antenna of the type having its impedance modulated by signals from RF interface  32 . The ROM  26  is typically one-time programmable (OTP) and is used to store permanent data, such as an Element ID. The ROM  26  can be an electrically programmable ROM (EPROM), which permits information to be entered through electrical means, and/or can be a mask ROM, which permits information, be stored through a mask layout during the manufacturing process. When ROM  26  is an electrically programmable device, an enable signal on line  63  allows the controller  30  to address and store data into ROM  26  to initialize the tag  24 . The EEPROM  28  is many-times programmable (MTP) and is used to store other types of data (for example, customer number, price and dates). In an alternative embodiment, a portion of EEPROM  28  can be configured to serve the function of ROM  26  and that portion thus configured can be electrically programmed. Each tag typically has an identifier. The identifier typically comprises the Tag ID and a password that are used according to a security protocol for communication with a communicator. The Tag ID and the password each are, for example, any arbitrary or planned sequence of numbers or letters using any coding scheme. Common schemes include binary, ASCII, Extended ASCII, IBM EBCDIC, and hexadecimal, but any scheme whether well known or not may be employed. 
   In  FIG. 5 , a schematic front view representation of tagged element  20   5  is shown with a tag  24  encapsulated in a circuit structure including a base  65  and an insulating layer  64  where tag  24  includes a multi-region semiconductor chip  66 . Typically, tag  24  is formed with semiconductor chip  66  encapsulated into the element  20   5  during the normal manufacturing process for the element  20   5 . Typically the semiconductor chip  66  measures from about 0.2 mm 2  to about 1.2 mm 2  with a thickness of about 0.1 mm. 
   In  FIG. 6 , a schematic isometric view representation of tagged element  20   5  is shown with the tag  24  affixed and encapsulated on the base  65  by the insulating layer  64 . Typically, tagged element  20   5  is an element formed of circuit components  67  for providing user functions for a product such as a cell phone, computer, camera, router, television, personal data assistant (PDA) or other electronic device. The circuit components  67  are formed with the base  65  and the insulating layer  64 . In  FIG. 6 , the element semiconductor circuits of circuit components  67  and the tag semiconductor circuits of tag  24  are affixed to a common base  65 . In some embodiments, the tag  24  is isolated from the other circuit components  67  whereby the operation of the tag  24  is independent from the operation of the other circuit components  67 . In other embodiments, the tag  24  is connected by conductors  99  to the other circuit components  67  to permit interaction between the tag  24  and the other circuit components  67 . With such connection of tag  24  and the other circuit components  67 , the circuit components  67  and the tag  24  function cooperatively to carry out the tag operations. One example of cooperative interaction to carry out the tag operations occurs where the element is a cell phone and the status of the tag (working/non-working) is recorded in registers in the cell phone. The status of the tag is therefore available over the cell phone network. 
   In  FIG. 7 , a schematic front view representation of tagged element  20   7  is shown with a tag  24  encapsulated in an element case  68 . Typically, tag  24  is encapsulated into the case  68  during the normal manufacturing process for the element  20   7 . Typically tag  24  is formed with a semiconductor chip that measures from about 0.2 mm 2  to about 1.2 mm 2 . 
   In  FIG. 8 , a schematic isometric view representation of a tagged element  20   7  is shown with the tag  24  encapsulated in the element case  68 . Case  68  is typically formed of plastic or other material of the type commonly used for electronic equipment such as cell phones, computers, cameras, routers, televisions, personal data assistants (PDA&#39;s) and other electronic products. 
   The encapsulation and packaging of the tag  24  in each of  FIG. 5 ,  FIG. 6 ,  FIG. 7  and  FIG. 8  are designed to cause failure of tag operations if tampering with the tag occurs. Any attempt to tamper with, remove or alter the tag  24  results in the tag failing to operate properly or at all. Any attempt to tamper with, remove or alter the tag  24  causes a failure of the  FIG. 4  semiconductor circuits when such circuits are packaged as described in  FIG. 5 ,  FIG. 6 ,  FIG. 7  and  FIG. 8 . The failure of such circuits has been studied extensively as shown by way of typical examples in  FIG. 9  and  FIG. 10 . 
     FIG. 9  depicts a graph of mechanical stress causing breakage for mechanical stress ranging from 0 to 1×10 5  Pascal as a function of chip size ranging from 0.2 mm 2  to 1.2 mm 2 . The stress caused by any tampering with a tag  24  in  FIG. 5 ,  FIG. 6 ,  FIG. 7  and  FIG. 8  readily exceeds the T 1  threshold of  FIG. 9  that causes the tag to break or otherwise cease tag operation. A tag having a threshold T 1  in  FIG. 9  has a low threshold for mechanical stress. The tag structures of  FIG. 5 ,  FIG. 6 ,  FIG. 7  and  FIG. 8  are designed such that any attempt to tamper with, remove or alter the tag  24  will cause the T 1  threshold to be exceeded and will result in a failure of the intended tag operation. 
     FIG. 10  depicts a graph of breakage as a function of the number of times stress is applied and as a function of chip size. For chips of about 1 mm 2 , only one or a very few tampering acts cause the tag  24  in  FIG. 5 ,  FIG. 6 ,  FIG. 7  and  FIG. 8  to break or otherwise cease tag operation. A tag that breaks or otherwise ceases tag operation when subjected to a threshold T 2  of  FIG. 10  has a low threshold value of mechanical stress. The tag structures of  FIG. 5 ,  FIG. 6 ,  FIG. 7  and  FIG. 8  are designed such that any attempt to tamper with, remove or alter a tag  24  will cause the T 2  threshold to be exceeded and will result in a failure of the intended tag operation. 
   Either one of or the combination of both of the mechanical stress thresholds T 1  and T 2  set and selected in accord with  FIG. 9  and  FIG. 10 , renders a tag  24  tamper proof. In some embodiments, the tags of  FIG. 5 ,  FIG. 6 ,  FIG. 7  and  FIG. 8  are formed of materials that break with a low value of mechanical stress (materials  64 ,  65  and  68  for example, with T 1  below 3×10 4  Pascal or below some other stress threshold selected in  FIG. 9  or in any equivalent graph). In some embodiments, the tags of  FIG. 5 ,  FIG. 6 ,  FIG. 7  and  FIG. 8  are encapsulated by materials ( 64 ,  65  and  68 ) having a low breakage factor as a function of the number of times stressed (for example, with T 2  below 5 times or some other stress threshold selected in  FIG. 10  or any equivalent graph). 
     FIG. 11  depicts an example on a tagged element  20   11  and is illustrated in the form of a cell phone with an outer case  68 , a display  33  and a tag  24 . The tag  24  is hidden from view (therefor, shown broken line in  FIG. 11 ) of anyone attempting to tamper with the tag  24 . The tag  24  is permanently affixed to and transportable with the tagged element  20   11 . Further, tag  24  is affixed and encapsulated under the display  33 . 
     FIG. 12  depicts a partially removed front view of the tagged element  20   11  cell phone of  FIG. 11  where the display  33  of  FIG. 11  has been removed to reveal the tag  24  underneath. The tag  24  in the tagged element  20   11  being affixed under the display  33  is in a non-user accessible location and hence tampering is made difficult. 
     FIG. 13  depicts a sectional side view of the cell phone tagged element  20   11  of  FIG. 11  and  FIG. 12 . The tag  24  is located and affixed under the display  33  in a location not accessible to a user. Further, the tag  24  is formed of a semiconductor chip device mounted on a circuit board  15  as shown in  FIG. 5 . The tag  24  has tag semiconductor circuits that provide the tag operations of the tag  24 . The circuit board  15  connects a number of components  28 - 1 ,  28 - 2 ,  28 - 3 ,  28 - 4  and  28 - 5  having element semiconductor circuits that provide the user functions necessary for cell phone operation of tagged element  20   11 . The cell phone is powered by a battery  26 . Any tampering to gain access to the tag  24  will damage the tag  24  and render it inoperable and also is likely to damage the cell phone. The tag  24  is designed such that tampering destroys tag operation. The tag  24  is for providing RF communication with a communicator  40  (see  FIG. 3 ) and tag  24  is permanently affixed to and transportable with the tagged element  20   11  and is encapsulated so that tampering destroys tag operation of tag  24 . The term “tag operation” means the normal operation of a tag that can occur if no tampering has been attempted. The term “encapsulated” means the packaging, enclosing or other structural environment such that if tampering is attempted normal tag operation will be destroyed. Such normal operation includes RF communication between a tag and a communicator. Typically, if tampering occurs, the ability to RF communicate is destroyed. However, any impeding of the normal operation of a tag is intended to be included within the meaning of “impeding tag operation”. For example, tampering may not necessarily defeat RF communication but may provide a logical state (binary 1 or 0) that indicates tampering and thereby causes normal tag operation to be disrupted. 
   Typically, the tagged element  20   11  of  FIG. 13  provides cell phone user functions for the tagged element  20   11 . The tagged element  20   11  typically has semiconductor circuits (components  28 - 1 ,  28 - 2 ,  28 - 3 ,  28 - 4  and  28 - 5 ) manufactured with a native semiconductor process to form semiconductor chips on a circuit board  15 . The tag  24  provides RF communication with the communicator  40  (see  FIG. 3 ) where the tag  24  is mounted on the circuit board  15  and hence is affixed to and transportable with the tagged element  20   11 . Typically, the tag  24  is manufactured with the native semiconductor process used to form the components  28 - 1 ,  28 - 2 ,  28 - 3 ,  28 - 4  and  28 - 5  and encapsulated on said circuit board  15  so that any tampering will destroy the tag operation of tag  24 . While shown mounted on a circuit board  15 , one or more of the components  28 - 1 ,  28 - 2 ,  28 - 3 ,  28 - 4  and  28 - 5  can be mounted together with the tag  24  on a common semiconductor substrate. In one preferred embodiment, the semiconductor structure of the tag  24  has the threshold properties of  FIG. 9  and  FIG. 10 . 
   Alternately, the circuit components and the tagged element  20   11  can be manufactured with other types of technology, including organic semiconductor technology and other types of materials, including plastic semiconductor materials. Organic semiconductor technology uses standard polyester foil as a substrate on which transistors made from an organic semiconductor are printed with insulating plastics. Such organic semiconductor can be polythiophene-based material or any other types of organic material having semiconductor characteristics. For purposes of the present specification, the term “semiconductor” is intended to include silicon, gallium arsenide, organic and other materials having semiconductor characteristics. 
     FIG. 14  depicts a side sectional view of a tagged element  20   14  where element  20   14  is another cell phone. The element  20   14  includes two tags  24  including a first tag  24 - 1  and a second tag  24 - 2 . The tag  24 - 1  is located under the display  33  in a location not accessible to a user. Any tampering to gain access to the tag  24 - 1  is likely to damage the tag  24 - 1  and render it inoperable and also is likely to damage the cell phone. The cell phone tagged element  20   14  includes the second tag  24 - 2  which provides redundancy for tag functions. The second tag  24 - 2  is located under the keyboard  25  in a location not accessible to a user. Each tag  24 - 1  and  24 - 2  has a separate address and is independently operable for tag operations and communications with a communicator  40  (see  FIG. 3 ). 
     FIG. 15  depicts a front view of the tagged element  20   14  in the form of the cell phone of  FIG. 14  where the presence of the tags  24 - 1  and  24 - 2  is hidden and not readily discovered by anyone attempting to tamper. Each of the tags  24 - 1  and  24 - 2  is encapsulated in the manner described in connection with  FIG. 5 ,  FIG. 6 ,  FIG. 7  and  FIG. 8 . The tags  24 - 1  and  24 - 2  are permanently affixed to and transportable with the tagged element  20   14  . Further, the tags  24 - 1  and  24 - 2  are affixed and encapsulated under the display  33  and under the keyboard  25 . 
     FIG. 16  depicts a view of a plurality of tagged elements  20  including a camera  20   16 , a portable computer  20   17 , a router  20   18  and a display  20   19  all within the proximity of a communicator  40 . The tagged elements are present, for example, in a retail establishment where such elements are offered for sale. The tagged elements  20   16 ,  20   17 ,  20   18  and  20   19  include the tags  24   16 ,  24   17 ,  24   18  and  24   19 , respectively. Each of the tags  24   16 ,  24   17 ,  24   18  and  24   19  is affixed to the respective element  20  and encapsulated in the manner described in connection with  FIG. 5 ,  FIG. 6 ,  FIG. 7  and  FIG. 8  so as to prevent tampering. 
   The communicator  40  communicates with the tags  24   16 ,  24   17 ,  24   18  and  24   19  for tag operations. The tag  24   16  is shown in an exploded view as tag  24  and is representative of each of the tags  24   16 ,  24   17 ,  24   18  and  24   19  of  FIG. 16 . The wireless tag  24  is affixed to and encapsulated in the respective element  20  and is suitable for storage and retrieval of any type of information useful in management, inventory and other systems. Prior to normal tag operations, each tag  24  is initialized to store a Tag ID that uniquely identifies the tag  24  and hence the corresponding tagged element  20 . 
   In one preferred embodiment, the controller  30  of tag  24  executes only the fundamental commands READ, WRITE, ERASE, QUIET, TALK, LOCK and KILL. An Instruction Set using those commands is located in the processor  42  of communicator  40 . Sequences of instructions using instructions in the Instruction Set are executed by the processor  42 . Each executed instruction in a sequence of instructions causes commands to be issued to the controller  30  which in turn commands the tag operation of one or more of the tags  24   16 ,  24   17 ,  24   18  and  24   19 . In an alternative embodiment, an Instruction Set interpreter is imbedded in the controller  30 . In such an embodiment, the processor  42  issues instructions from a program (routine of instructions) of the Instruction Set directly to controller  30  and controller  30  interprets those instructions in a manner that is the equivalent of executing a series of commands. 
   The memory  29  in tag  24  operates to read and write data under control of the controller  30 . The controller  30  receives communications from the communicator  40 . Among other parts, the instructions include address fields that typically include ElementID, Address and Command as well as Data fields. The ElementID field is a unique address of the element to identify, for example, the different tagged elements  20   16 ,  20   17 ,  20   18  and  20   19 . The Address field specifies the tag addresses location in the memory  29 . The Command field indicates the particular operation (for example, READ or WRITE) to be executed by the controller  30  at the tag address. The Data field supplies or receives data to or from the memory  29 . 
   When any one of the wireless tags  24  of  FIG. 16  is not within an interrogation zone of the communicator  40 , the tag  24  is passive. When within the interrogation zone, the wireless tag  24  (including any of the tags  24   16 ,  24   17 ,  24   18  and  24   19  of  FIG. 16 ) is commanded to operate by signals transmitted from the communicator  40 . To write data, a write command instructs the wireless tag  24  to perform a write operation and data from the communicator  40  is stored into the writable memory of the wireless tag  24 . To read data, a read command signal from the communicator  40  instructs the wireless tag  24  to perform a read operation. After the tag  24  receives a read command, the tag  24  sends data read from the memory  29  to the communicator  40 . Typically, the tag  24  communication is not directional and the sensing sensitivity typically ranges from −6 dBm to −18 dBm. The sensing speed (including handling of the data carrier) is typically shorter than about 0.1 second or less. The RF tags  24  operate effectively over a range from less than 1 m to about 100 m. 
   In normal operation after a tag has been initialized, when the tag  24  is in the proximity of an active communicator  40 , the power supply  36  (see  FIG. 4 ) energizes the tag  24  to be active for tag operation. The controller  30  receives commands from communicator  40  through I/O  73 . Upon receiving a communication, controller  30  operates first to compare the ElementID received with the communication with an ElementID stored in memory  29 . If they match, then the tag  24  is enabled to execute the received command. The controller  30  examines the command field of the received communication and then executes the command. In the example described, the command is one of the seven commands READ, WRITE, ERASE, QUIET, TALK, LOCK and KILL used by the instructions from the communicator  40 . 
   Communications between tags and communicators is accomplished by executing sequences of instructions (often called programs or routines) executed by the processor  42  in communicator  40 . The routines are stored in the processor memory  69  (see  FIG. 3  and  FIG. 16 ). Each routine is a step that is performed one or more times. One example for purposes of illustration is a Time-Store Routine for automatically recording time. The Time-Store Routine includes a sensing step, a time-capture step, and a record step. In the sensing step, a READ Selected instruction is executed when, for example, a group of tags are identified and selected by the communicator  40 . In the time-capture step, the time is copied from the clock  69  of the processor  42  of  FIG. 3 . In the record step, the copied time is written to the selected tags (for example, the tags  24   16 ,  24   17 ,  24   18  and  24   19  of  FIG. 16 ) using the WRITE Selected instruction. In some applications if desired, the time stored on the tags contains minute, hour, date, month, and year information. 
   Another example of a routine, for purposes of illustration, is a Security routine. In some embodiments, tags operate with security algorithms that require, for example, a password for executing certain commands (such as KILL, LOCK, TALK etc.) called for by instructions in the Instruction Set in order to provide high security. Since the KILL command can permanently deactivate a tag such that the tag will no longer respond to or execute commands from communicators, password security protection is often employed. 
   One example of a Security routine for KILL instructions operates as follows: When a KILL Address instruction is to kill a tag at the Tag Address specified in the instruction; the instruction also provides a security string. The communicator sends the KILL command, the Tag Address and the security string to the tag. The tag receives the KILL command, the Tag Address and the security string and the controller  30  recognizes that a security check must be performed before executing the KILL command. The tag controller  30  first compares the received security string (typically comprising the Tag ID and a password) from the communicator with its own security string stored in the tag memory. The KILL command will be executed to kill the tag at the specified Tag Address if the security string supplied matches the security string stored. Since the KILL command can permanently deactivate a tag such that the tag will no longer respond to or execute commands from communicators, password security protection is employed. Security routines for other instructions can also be used as a step in any stage, when desired, to operate in an analogous manner. 
   An Inventory routine is used for determining tags that are within the range of a communicator  40 . The Inventory routine can be used as a step at any location and is used to detect newcomers to a location. Any particular location may have a communicator potentially surrounded by only a few elements or by thousands of elements. In order to determine the general population and an inventory of what is present, the Inventory routine is used. At any time, a READ Filtered instruction is used to determine the Tag Addresses of tags that have a predetermined condition. For example, a “Stage Inventory=0” field is established as a default value for tags that have not been inventoried and “Stage Inventory=1” value is stored for tags that have been inventoried. In operation, the Inventory routine is only looking for “Stage Inventory=0” values using the READ Filtered instruction. Normally, therefore, the number of tags responding will be readily within the bandwidth capabilities of the communication protocol. If too many tags have not been inventoried, then additional parameters (such as date and time) may be used to reduce the responding tags. For example, all tags having a date and time of one value (or range) will be selected. Next, a different date/time combination is processed until all relevant dates and times have been processed. 
   The accessing of information from the tag and other memories described, both content addressing and explicit addressing are possible. For example, when a READ Address or READ Selected instruction is employed, addressing is to locations explicitly identified by Tag Addresses provided in the instruction. However, when a READ Filtered instruction is employed, the addressing is based upon content. 
   In order to adequately track elements and information, a memory architecture is provided that permits each element to store, to the extent desired, the prior history of the element including prior processing and relationships to prior elements. Furthermore, when multiple elements are grouped to form subsequent new elements of a different type, multiple prior tags from the multiple elements are retained in the new elements and/or the new elements in turn may have new tags for receiving information from the prior tags and/or for storing new information. Regardless as to whether all tags for all elements are retained in subsequent elements, the information content for uniquely identifying all or any desired subset of the processing history can be carried to the final element. 
   The finished goods from output stages of one or more chains have tagged elements that store element information. For example, an electronic board element processed in a chain typically includes multiple packaged chip semiconductor devices from multiple prior chains. Each semiconductor device can include one or more tags. Similarly, a board device output from a chain adds a board tag which is in addition to the plurality of device tags. The board tags include, if desired, an accumulation of all or some of the tag information from the device tags Added processing information is added, if desired, at each stage during processing. The finished goods stores final element information for the finished element. The addition of multiple tags and the multistage processing as described results in a hierarchy of tags and information through multiple processing stages. The multiple tags in any stage may be accessed or inhibited from being accessed under security conditions and using protocols available at different communicators. The final tag information may be as complex or as simple as desired. 
   In one example, tags are locked by instructions at the final goods stage of any chain. When tags are locked, they are not readable without first being unlocked. Locked tags from a prior stage need to be unlocked before use at a subsequent stage and in order to be unlocked, proper authorization is required. Further, the tags from any stage may be KILLED for permanently preventing tag information from being accessed. 
   After LOCK, typically, the storage information from prior stages is not readable by a communicator. In the situation where there is a need for accessing locked tags (such as when a malfunction occurs to the system and the system needs to be repaired) the tag information can be accessed only after unlocking all the necessary tags. Unlocking the tags typically requires security information (password, ID and other information). The tags are unlocked through executing a Security routine which requires presentation of a security password and other security information. Such security information is typically stored in tag memory. Where a hierarchy of tags is present, the hierarchy of passwords and security protocols can be distributed at each or any of the tag memory levels in the hierarchy and/or can be accumulated at the system level in the final element tag. In one embodiment, the final tag memory functions like a repository of keys to access the tag information at any level and stores all passwords and protocols necessary. 
   The Security routines used with tag stores are employed in a number of applications. One example previously described is to limit unwanted KILL or other actions and thereby provide safe operation avoiding inadvertent loss of information. Another example uses security to add a Validity Number at any stage of processing. The Validity Number is then used to validate the authenticity of a tag and the associated element. 
   In  FIG. 17 , an example is shown for validating the authenticity of elements by storing Validity Numbers in tag stores. The TAG- 1   24 - 1   28  and the TAG- 2   24 - 2   28  are each attached to elements (not shown) that are typical of tags described in the present specification. STAGE  1  is assumed, for purposes of one example, as being a Final Test stage performed by a Supplier. For the example, the tag (TAG- 1 )  24 - 1   28  is assumed to pass the final test and the tag (TAG- 2 )  24 - 2   28  is assumed to fail the test. The Supplier after performing the Final Test then stores Validity Numbers into the tags where appropriate. For finished elements that pass the final test, a Validity Number is assigned and stored at a secure tag location (accessible only with password authentication) using a Security routine and a WRITE instruction. For finished elements that fail the final test, a Validity Number is not assigned (or is assigned with a value indicating the test failure) and the secure tag location is left empty or written with a failure indication. The Validity Number is generated in a typical example using the Part Number and an Encryption routine based upon the part number and known only by the Supplier and those authorized by the Supplier to know the Encryption routine. The Supplier also keeps a copy of the Validity Number in the Supplier computer  72  of  FIG. 17  prior to shipment of the element having the passed tag  24 - 1   28  to a User. The User is, for example, a downstream manufacturer or reseller. The element with the failed tag  24 - 2   28  is not shipped by the Supplier. At times, failed goods or unauthorized copies of goods enter the black market and, for this reason and others, there is a need to be able to authenticate goods from a Supplier. 
   In  FIG. 17 , STAGE  2  the element with tag  24 - 1   28  is properly shipped to a User and in STAGE  3 , the User wishes to validate tag  24 - 1   28 . It is assumed that the User in STAGE  3  also has acquired an element with the unauthorized tag  24 - 2   28 . One method of performing a validation sequence is performed on-line with a User, using a communicator  40  of the type described in  FIG. 3 , connected to the Supplier&#39;s computer such as management computer  41  in  FIG. 1 . With such connection established and with the tag  24 - 1   28  in the range of the communicator  40  of  FIG. 3 , the Validation routine is carried out as follows. The User&#39;s communicator  40  sends a request to the Supplier&#39;s computer  41  for validation of certain elements purportedly from the Supplier. The request can be manually or automatically initiated. Automatic initiation occurs, for example, when elements are first introduced into the inventory of the User which is detected, for example, after the Inventory routine is executed and new elements are found. The processor  42  sends the part numbers for the new elements to the Supplier&#39;s computer  41 . The Supplier&#39;s computer then issues a READ instruction and reads the Validation Number for the tag  24 - 1   28 . The Validation Number read from the tag  24 - 1   28  is communicated by the processor  42  to the management computer  41 . The management computer  41  then decodes the Validity Number using the Part Number (and any other desired information available) to determine if the Validity Number is the correct one for the tag  24 - 1   28 . If correct, the valid status together with time and date information is stored into the tag  24 - 1   28  and otherwise communicated to the User. In the case of the tag  24 - 2   28  the same Validation routine is repeated, but is this case, no valid Validity Number is detected and hence the invalid status together with time and date information is stored into the tag  24 - 1   28  and otherwise communicated to the User. Typically, the storage location for the Validity Number and access thereto is password protected so that only the Supplier has access to the Validity Number. If the Supplier wishes, the Supplier can share the password and/or the Validity Number encoding or decoding algorithm with the User or others under terms and conditions deemed suitable by the Supplier. 
   While use of Security routines and Validity Numbers has been described in connection with semiconductor elements and finished goods made therefrom, the routines are applicable to many fields. For example, the pharmaceutical field employs tag Security routines in the same manner as the semiconductor element example. Additionally, the pharmaceutical Supplier might wish to track the transit of goods distinguishing those that have only shipped within the domestic United States from those that have shipped outside the United States to another country, such as Canada, and then shipped back into the United States. 
   As another example, many consumer items such as famous watches, expensive apparel, jewelry and electronic equipment are the subject of counterfeiting. Communicators made available to US customs or other authority together with Security routines provided by Suppliers are effective to thwart and identify counterfeit goods. In one example, a encrypted Validity Numbers are stored in tags. Communicators made available to US customs or other authority have a decryption routine for decrypting encrypted Validity Numbers. If the decrypted Validity Number is in error, then the goods are presumed counterfeit. 
   As a still further example, terrorism involving contamination of goods can be better detected by requiring all goods in transit to have tags that are analyzed as to Security routines, Validity Numbers as well as transit locations for the entire history of the goods. 
   The use of a Validity Number can have many applications to thwart unauthorized use of finished elements with tags attached thereto. Any subsequent User of an element (such as a downstream manufacturer, board integrator, system integrator, distributor, reseller, seller or other) wishing to guarantee the authenticity of the element contacts the Supplier and after proper identification of the User, the finished element part number and any other information desired by the Supplier, the Supplier then authenticates the goods. Typically, if the User fails to authenticate finished elements from the Supplier, the Supplier&#39;s warranty or other obligations are voided. The authentication procedure is particularly useful in thwarting black market, counterfeit or other unauthorized transactions in unauthorized goods. 
   While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to preferred embodiments thereof it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of the invention.