Patent Publication Number: US-6221751-B1

Title: Wafer fabrication of die-bottom contacts for electronic devices

Description:
This application is a divisional of U.S. Pat. application No. 08/788,762 filed Jan. 24, 1997, which issued on Jun. 8, 1999 as U.S. Pat. No. 5,910,687. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates generally to the field of electronic device packaging and fabrication. More particularly, the present invention relates to improved contacts for semiconductors, integrated circuits and other electronic circuits and discrete electronic components. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The package of any electronic device must include contacts for transmitting signals providing power and ground connections between the internal circuitry of the device and external circuitry. Simple examples of prior-art contacts include the wire leads protruding from the ends of a discrete diode or resistor, or the metal caps located on the ends of a fuse. On the other hand, a sophisticated electronic device, such as a microprocessor, may require several hundred contacts. Those devices are usually produced in a package having multiple pins for mounting to a printed circuit board via contact holes. 
     More modern surface mount techniques can be used to connect a device to a printed circuit board without cumbersome pins. The leads of a surface mount device simply flush mount to the surface of a printed circuit board, such as the motherboard of a personal computer system, onto which the device is attached by soldering to contact wires or conductors. Surface mount leads do not penetrate through the circuit board like a conventional packages having pins, making them efficient to use in production. 
     Referring now to FIG. 1, a prior-art integrated circuit that is surface mounted to a circuit board is illustrated. This integrated circuit includes a silicon (Si) based integrated circuit  101 . Insulating film  102  coats the underside of circuit  101  to protect and passivate it. Epoxy layer  103  and a silicon cap  104  cover circuit  101 . Epoxy layer  103  and silicon cap  104  also cover metal bridge  105 . 
     Metal bridge  105  electrically connects circuit  101  to silicon post  106 . Epoxy section  111  mechanically secures circuit  101 , metal bridge  105  and silicon post  106 . Nickel (Ni) plate  107  covers silicon post  106  and forms a butt-joint with metal bridge  105 . Nickel plate  107  is electrically coupled to silicon post  106  and metal bridge  105 . Nickel plate  107  provides the integrated circuit with a connection point to external circuitry. 
     This prior-art contact comprises: 
     1) metal bridge  105 , 
     2) silicon post  106 , 
     3) nickel plate  107 , and 
     4) epoxy section  111 . 
     As illustrated in FIG. 1, the contact of the integrated circuit has been soldered to circuit board conductor  109  with solder fillet  108 . Circuit board conductor  109  has been formed onto circuit board substrate  110 . 
     The contact for the integrated circuit illustrated in FIG. 1 provides for various advantages. For example, nickel plate  107  covers the sidewalls of silicon post  106 , which helps to strengthen the bond between the circuit  101  and the circuit board substrate  110 . This is due to the fact that solder can be placed on nickel plate  107  on the sidewalls of silicon post  106  as illustrated in FIG.  1 . It also facilitates inspection during surface mount of the integrated circuit to the circuit board. Whether a good mount is made can be easily confirmed by looking at the solder on the sidewalls of silicon post  106 . 
     Furthermore, nickel plate  107  extends over the sidewalls of silicon post  106  and contacts the side of metal bridge  105 , forming a butt-joint interface between nickel plate  107  and metal bridge  105 . This provides for an electrical contact between circuit board conductor  109  and circuit  101 . 
     The butt-joint interface of the integrated circuit contact of FIG. 1, however, cannot be formed with much certainty or control over its resulting reliability or bonding adhesion between nickel plate  107  and metal bridge  105 . There are a number of reasons for this. The physical surface of the side of metal bridge  105  might not be flat enough to ensure a reliable bond at this butt-joint interface. Furthermore, the side of metal bridge  105  is difficult to clean because of its location on the side of the wafer. The bond at this butt-joint interface therefore might be weakened If the side of metal bridge  105  is not flat or has not been thoroughly cleaned. 
     The formation of this butt-joint interface also limits the materials that can be used for nickel plate  107  and metal bridge  105 . This is so because metal bridge  105  and nickel plate  107  can comprise more than one metal layer. The bonding layer of nickel plate  107  then has to be formed so as to bond with each metal layer at the side of metal bridge  105  in order to form an effective contact. Accordingly, the selection of materials that can be used for metal bridge  105  and for the bonding layer of nickel plate  107  is limited. 
     FIG. 2 shows a prior-art contact that avoids a butt-joint by using a wrap-around flange contact. Silicon based circuit  101 , insulating film  102 , epoxy layer  103 , silicon cap  104 , metal bridge  105 , silicon post  106 , solder filet  108 , circuit board conductor  109 , circuit board substrate  110 , and epoxy section  111  are similar to that of the above described butt-joint contact. However, wrap around nickel plate  112  and metal bridge  105  have a horizontal flange interface  113 . While the wrap around flange avoids the problems associated with a butt-joint, it is still a relatively complex design, requiring a rather involved series of processing steps and a relatively large amount of wafer area dedicated to contact fabrication. 
     SUMMARY AND OBJECTS OF THE INVENTION 
     An object of the present invention is to simplify the process of fabricating contacts for electronic devices. 
     Another object is to increase the simplicity and the reliability of contacts for electronic devices. 
     A further object is to increase the wafer packing density of an electronic circuit by reducing the substrate area that is used for fabricating the device&#39;s contacts. 
     Another object is to provide contacts that have physical and electronic properties applicable to varied types of electronic devices. 
     Accordingly, a contact for an electronic device is described that comprises a standoff on the bottom surface of the substrate and a lower wire that extends from the standoff to an upper wire that runs on an encapsulant protrusion. 
     Such a contact is fabricated by forming a trench in the top surface of a substrate. The trench may be located near the edge of an electronic circuit or discrete component formed using or attached to the substrate. Optionally, an insulation layer is formed that has a through hole at a connection point within the circuit or component, and that ends part way through the trench. An upper wire is formed that runs from the connection point into the trench. The top of the substrate is encapsulated, forming an encapsulant protrusion in the trench. 
     In one embodiment, the substrate is selectively thinned from the bottom, exposing part of the bottom surface of the upper wire. In the next step, a standoff is formed below the bottom surface of the substrate. Alternatively, the standoff can be formed from the substrate during the selective thinning step. A lower wire is formed that runs on the bottom of the substrate from the exposed portion of the upper wire and onto the standoff. 
     In another embodiment, there is no top-surface trench. Rather, the trench in which the upper wires and the lower wires connect is formed from the bottom of the substrate after it has been encapsulated. 
     Optionally, the thinning of the substrate&#39;s bottom surface leaves a portion of the bottom surface of the substrate substantially co-planar with the bottom of the contacts. 
     Other objects, features, and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the accompanying drawings and from the detailed description below. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     The present invention is Illustrated by way of example and not limitation in the Figures of the accompanying drawings in which like references indicate similar elements, and in which: 
     FIG. 1 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of a prior-art integrated circuit butt-joint contact that has been soldered onto a circuit board. 
     FIG. 2 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of a prior-art integrated circuit wrap-around flange contact that has been soldered onto a circuit board. 
     FIGS.  3 ( a ) and  3 ( b ) illustrate a top view of a substrate wafer showing how its top surface is tiled with replications of die, each of which will become an electronic device, and a cross-sectional side view of a portion of the wafer showing the electronic circuit or component areas for two adjacent devices, each having a connection point. 
     FIG. 4 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after a trench has been etched in the wafer between the two electronic circuit areas. 
     FIG. 5 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after an insulator has been formed on selected portions of the top of the wafer according toga pattern. 
     FIG. 6 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after a gold wire has been formed on top of the wafer and the insulator. 
     FIG. 7 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after a relatively thick layer of epoxy has been applied to the top surface of the wafer, the insulator, and the gold wire, which encapsulates them into a strong and rigid unit and which forms an encapsulant protrusion. 
     FIG. 8 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after the wafer has been thinned from the bottom to form the bottom surface of the electronic device. 
     FIG. 9 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after selected portions of the wafers bottom have been further thinned, which exposes the gold wire at the bottom of the protruding encapsulant. 
     FIG. 10 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after epoxy standoffs have been placed on the bottom surface of the wafer. 
     FIG. 11 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after an insulator has been formed on its bottom according to a pattern. 
     FIG. 12 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after a contact wire has been formed on its bottom surface. 
     FIGS.  13 ( a ) and  13 ( b ) show a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after it has been sawed into electronic devices, each with an attached contact and a corresponding partial bottom view of the same two electronic devices, each with multiple contacts in a two dimensional array. 
     FIG. 14 shows a cross-sectional side view of the electronic device and contact of the previous Figure after it has been soldered onto a circuit board. 
     FIG. 15 shows a complete bottom view of one of the electronic devices of the previous Figure, with multiple contacts in a two dimensional array and with a bottom substrate surface that drops down to circuit-board level to dissipate heat generated in the electronic device by transferring the heat to the circuit board. 
     FIG. 16 shows a cross-sectional side view of the electronic device, contact and drop bottom of the previous Figure after being soldered onto a circuit board. 
     FIGS.  17 ( a ) and  17 ( b ) illustrate a cross-sectional side view of two electronic devices and contacts comparable to those of FIGS.  13 ( a ) and  13 ( b ), but made using a gallium arsenide substrate wafer for which no insulator is necessary. 
     FIG. 18 illustrates a cross-sectional side view according to an alternative method in which the wafer portion of FIG. 7 is next thinned from the bottom to form the bottom surface of substrate posts. 
     FIG. 19 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after selected portions of it have been further thinned, which exposes the bottom of the gold wire and which forms the substrate posts. 
     FIG. 20 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after an insulator has been formed on the bottom of the wafer according to a pattern. 
     FIG. 21 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after a contact wire has been formed on the bottom of the wafer. 
     FIGS.  22 ( a and  22 ( b ) show a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after it has been sawed into two electronic devices each with an attached contact and a corresponding partial bottom view of these same two electronic devices, each with multiple contacts in a two dimensional array. 
     FIGS.  23 ( a ) and  23 ( b ) show a cross-sectional side view of two electronic devices and contacts comparable to those of the previous Figure, but made using a gallium arsenide substrate wafer for which no insulator is necessary. 
     FIG. 24 shows a complete bottom view of the electronic device of the previous Figure, with multiple contacts in a two dimensional array and with a bottom substrate surface that drops down, according to an irregular shape, to circuit-board level to transfer heat generated in the electronic device to the circuit board. 
     FIG. 25 illustrates a cross-sectional side view according to an alternative method in which the wafer portion of FIGS.  3 ( a ) and  3 ( b ) next has an insulator formed on selected portions of its top surface according to a pattern. 
     FIG. 26 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after a gold wire has been formed on top of the wafer and the insulator. 
     FIG. 27 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after a relatively thick layer of epoxy has been applied to the top of the wafer, the insulator, and the gold wire, which encapsulates them into a strong and rigid unit. 
     FIG. 28 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after it has been thinned from the bottom to form the bottom surface of substrate posts. 
     FIG. 29 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after a notch has been cut in its bottom surface between adjacent electronic circuits. 
     FIG. 30 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after it has been further thinned selectively from the bottom, which separates the substrate regions of adjacent electronic circuits and which forms the silicon posts. 
     FIG. 31 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after an insulator has been formed on the bottom of the wafer according to a pattern. 
     FIG. 32 shows a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after contact wires have been formed on the bottom of the wafer according to a pattern. 
     FIGS.  33 ( a ) and  33 ( b ) show a cross-sectional side view of the wafer portion of the previous Figure after it has been sawed into two electronic devices each with an attached contact and a corresponding partial bottom view of the same two electronic devices, each with multiple contacts in a two dimensional array. 
     FIG. 34 shows a complete bottom view of one of the electronic devices of the previous Figure, with multiple contacts in a two dimensional array and with a bottom substrate surface that drops down in a ribbed pattern to circuit-board level to transfer heat generated in the electronic device to the circuit board. 
     FIG. 35 shows a cross-sectional side view of two electronic devices and contacts comparable to those of FIGS.  33 ( a ) and  33 ( b ), but made using a gallium arsenide substrate wafer for which no insulator is necessary. 
     FIGS.  36 ( a ) and  36 ( b ) show a cross-sectional side view of two electronic devices and contacts comparable to those of the previous Figure and of FIGS.  33 ( a ) and  33 ( b ), but made with epoxy standoffs on a gallium arsenide substrate. 
     FIG. 37 shows a complete bottom view of one of the electronic devices of the previous Figure, with multiple contacts in a two dimensional array and with a bottom substrate surface that drops down, in a pillared pattern, to circuit-board level to transfer heat generated in the electronic device to the circuit board. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The present invention encompasses embodiments involving various types of contacts for electrical or electronic devices that include a contact layer or wire that runs on the bottom surface of an insulative standoff located on the bottom surface of the devices&#39; substrate underneath the passive or active circuit or component of an electronic device (i.e. the die). The present invention also encompasses embodiments in which there is no insulative standoff, wherein the contact layer runs over a substrate standoff. One embodiment employs a trench within the top surface of the substrate to connect the contact layer to an upper wire or beam that runs to the circuit or component on the die and where another embodiment uses a bottom-surface trench. Yet another embodiment incorporates insulative substrates and another uses conductive substrates with insulation layers. Still another embodiment uses a drop bottom, in which the substrate extends down to the circuit board to which the device is attached, so as to transfer heat thereto. 
     Die-Bottom Contacts with a Formed Standoff 
     Die-bottom contacts comprising a standoff that is applied to the bottom surface of the substrate, a wire running on the standoff and an insulation layer between the wire and the substrate are illustrated in FIG. 13, FIG.  15  and FIG.  17 . How such a contact is attached to a circuit board is illustrated in FIG.  14  and FIG.  16 . How such a contact is fabricated is illustrated in FIG.  3  through FIG.  13 . During fabrication, a wafer is typically held by a carrier. 
     A brief description of how such a contact can be fabricated is as follows: 
     1) A trench is formed in the top surface of a substrate, such as, but not limited to, a semiconductor wafer. The trench may be located near the edge of an electronic circuit or component, such as, but not limited to, an integrated circuit. The circuit or component is formed using the substrate, or is attached to the substrate. 
     2) An upper insulation layer is formed having a through-hole over a connection point within the circuit. The insulation layer ends part way through the trench. 
     3) An upper interconnection wire or beam is formed that runs from the connection point into the trench. 
     4) The top of the substrate is encapsulated, forming an encapsulant protrusion in the trench. Optionally, the encapsulant can include a cap layer. 
     5) The substrate is thinned from the bottom, thus forming the bottom surface of the finished electronic device. The substrate is further selectively thinned from the bottom to expose part of the bottom surface of the upper wire on the encapsulant protrusion. 
     6) A standoff is applied to or formed on the bottom surface of the substrate. 
     7) A lower insulation layer is formed that has a through hole over the exposed portion of the upper wire. 
     8) A lower wire or contact layer is formed that runs on the bottom surface of the substrate from the exposed portion of the upper wire and onto the standoff. 
     9) Optionally, the top surface of the electronic devices can be marked, so as to identify the part type and the orientation of pin number  1 . 
     10) The wafer is diced. For some embodiments, this completes the fabrication of the electronic device. 
     11) Optionally, the electronic devices can be tested while still attached to a carrier. 
     To aid in understanding this fabrication process in more detail, FIG. 3 illustrates a top view of substrate wafer  300 , with a corresponding cross section. The top surface of substrate wafer  300  has been used to fabricate a number of integrated circuits each within a rectangular die that is replicated or tiled across the wafer. Cut line or separation plane  311  is one of the planes along which substrate wafer  300  will be separated or diced into individual electronic devices—finished electronic devices, not merely die requiring a subsequent assembly process. 
     Any material that is suitable for the fabrication of electronic circuitry and is that is suitable for shaping via etching, shaving or the like can be used for substrate wafer  300 . In some embodiments, substrate wafer  300  is formed of crystalline silicon (Si). Other embodiments use other semiconductors for substrate wafer  300  such as but not limited to the following: gallium arsenide (GaAs), silicon germanium (SiGe), silicon carbide (SiC), gallium phosphide (GaP) or the like. Yet other embodiments use insulative substrates, such as, but not limited to ceramic materials, sapphire, quartz or the like. 
     A cross-sectional view of substrate wafer  300  is also shown in FIG. 3, the cross section being taken along line  3 ( b ). The top surface of substrate wafer  300  has been used to fabricate an integrated circuit within electronic circuit regions  301 . Electronic circuit regions  301  include connection points  302 . An electrical signal or power supply voltage must be connected between connection points  302  and circuitry external to the finished electronic device in order for it to operate property. 
     Various techniques for fabricating electronic circuits using substrate wafer  300  are known in the art as well as for attaching fabricated electronic circuits to substrate wafer  300 . The description below of the contact fabrication process assumes that the fabrication of the electronic circuit or component or its attachment to substrate wafer  300  has been completed. 
     Still referring to FIG. 3, electronic circuit regions  301  suggest an integrated circuit that is fabricated using the top surface of substrate wafer  300 . Nevertheless, the techniques and embodiments described throughout this disclosure apply to contacts for any electronic circuit or discrete electronic component that can be fabricated using, or attached to, substrate wafer  300 . For example, a passive discrete component, such as, but not limited to a resistor or capacitor, or an active discrete component such as, but not limited to a transistor, power transistor, diode, thrysister, field-effect transistor (FET) or the like could include connection points  302  and could have contacts fabricated according to any of the techniques or embodiments disclosed herein. As a further example without limitation, various integrated circuits or other electronic circuits could be attached to substrate wafers  300  could include connection points  302  and could then have contacts fabricated according to any of the techniques or embodiments disclosed herein. 
     Generally, an electronic circuit is formed within or attached to square or rectangular shaped electronic regions  301  that are replicated both horizontally and vertically, covering the top surface of substrate wafer  300 . Edges of two adjacent electronic circuit regions  301  are also shown in FIG.  3 . Connection points  302  are typically near those edges, but could be located away from the edge if desired. 
     A potential advantage of the present method of fabricating contacts is higher wafer packing density. That is, the area of substrate wafer  300  that must be dedicated to forming contacts might be reduced over that required, for example, in the prior-art contact shown in FIG.  2 . This may allow more replications of electronic circuit regions  301  to fit on a wafer, thus reducing the manufacturing cost for each device. 
     Referring now to FIG. 4, the first step in fabricating a contact with a substrate post is to form a trench in substrate wafer  300  near, and possibly parallel to, an edge of electronic circuit regions  301 . Trench  303  can be formed by any technique, such as but not limited to wet chemical etching, dry plasma etching, mechanical micro machining, sawing, diamond-tip sawing or the like. It might be advantageous to use a technique that allows a relatively deep but narrow trench to be formed, such as but not limited to cutting a starter trench with a diamond-tip saw and then etching, using etching techniques and specialized equipment designed for deep narrow trenches, or the like. 
     Trench  303  is a relatively deep recess (150 microns deep, for example) into substrate wafer  300 . As will become clear, trench  303  must be formed deeper than the thickness of the substrate that will remain beneath electronic circuit region  301  in the finished device. 
     Numerous methods of forming trench  303  of a suitable size and shape are known. For example, the regions of substrate wafer  300  that are not to be etched can be protected by a photolithographic chemical resist and etch process as follows: 
     A mask can be prepared on a glass plate. The mask determines which areas of substrate wafer  300  are to be protected. Substrate wafer  300  is coated with a photosensitive resist layer, then ultraviolet light is projected onto the regions that are to be etched (or that are not to be etched). The resulting substrate wafer  300  is subjected to a resist-developer chemical solution that removes only the regions of the resist that were exposed to the ultraviolet light (or that were not exposed to the ultraviolet light). A chemical etch solution is applied that etches substrate wafer  300  in those regions not protected by the resist. After etching has occurred to the desired depth and width, the resist is removed by a resist-dissolving solution. 
     In other embodiments, dry plasma or ion etching processes can be used instead of the above described wet chemical etch process. In alternative embodiments, there can be a photosensitive layer applied and developed on top of a non-photosensitive resist layer, which is then selectively removed prior to the etch process. Any method of forming trench  303  of a suitable size and shape can be employed. 
     Referring now to FIG. 5, the next step in fabricating a contact for embodiments using a conductive substrate wafer  300 , is to form insulation layer  304  (with a thickness of 25 microns or less, for example) on selected regions of substrate wafer  300 . Insulation layer  304  is formed in a pattern such that connection points  302  and a portion of trench  303  are not insulated. 
     The embodiment shown in FIG. 5 has insulation layer  304  directly on top of substrate wafer  300 . In other embodiments, insulation layer  304  is separated from substrate wafer  300  by other layers (not shown) that form the electronic circuit. Such layers can include, but are not limited to interconnect layers, insulation layers or the like. In some embodiments, insulation layer  304  serves as the passivation layer over electronic circuit regions  301 . 
     Insulation layer  304  can be formed by any technique that selectively forms regions of an insulation layer on top of a substrate according to a pattern. Any technique for forming a layer of any insulating material on top of substrate wafer  300  can be used, such as but not limited to the following: silicon oxide grown from a silicon substrate wafer by an oxidation process (at least for those regions where the substrate is exposed); or silicon oxide (SiO 2 ) or silicon nitride (Si 3 N 4 ), aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ), polymide resins, epoxy, acrylics, patternable plastics deposited on top of substrate wafer  300 ; or the like. Any technique for selectively removing regions of that insulation layer can be used, such as, but not limited to a photolithographic etch processes, photolithography directly on a photosensitive insulator, or the like. 
     Referring now to FIG. 6, the next step in fabricating a contact is to form a beam or an upper interconnection wire  305  (for example, 6 to 10 microns thick and 35 microns wide, or a width going up to whatever is appropriate for the current carried). Interconnection wire  305  extends from connection points  302  within electronic circuit regions  301  into the non-insulated portion of trench  303 . Any technique of forming interconnection wire  305  can be used, such as but not limited to pattern plating, sputter deposition of a metal layer within a low-pressure inert gas followed by photo-lithographically selective etching of that layer, or the like. 
     Interconnection wire  305  can be any substance of suitable conductivity, for example a metal, such as but not limited to gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), alloys thereof or layers thereof. 
     Interconnection wire  305  as well as the other metal, wire, interconnect or contact layers described herein might be advantageously formed of layers of metals, such as but not limited to the following: a thin barrier metal layer (as can allow current to flow between certain metals while avoiding the metals directly touching) or a thin seed metal layer (as can facilitate forming a metal layer by plating); followed by a main layer, followed by a gold flash layer (as can resist corrosion). 
     Referring now to FIG. 7, the next step in forming a contact is to encapsulate substrate wafer  300 , insulating layer  304  and interconnection wire  305 . The top surfaces of these structures are covered with a relatively thick layer (150 microns, for example) of a strong and insulative encapsulant. The encapsulant fills trench  303 , thus forming encapsulant protrusion  313 . 
     Encapsulant layer  306  can be formed of epoxy, glass, plastic, polymide resins, Teflon®, silicon oxide (SiO 2 ), silicon nitride (Si 3 N 4 ), mixtures thereof, layers thereof, or any other material that is non-conducting, relatively rigid and strong, and sufficiently flexible or compliant to allow for thermal expansion both in subsequent wafer processing and in the complete electronic system. For example, Hysol® FP4650 epoxy manufactured by Dexter Corp., Electronic Materials Division, of industry, California, might be suitable for encapsulant layer  306 . As an alterative to being compliant, encapsulant layer  306  can be formed of a material with thermal expansion characteristics similar to those of substrate wafer  300 . 
     Encapsulant layer  306  can be applied using a variety of techniques. These techniques may attempt to keep encapsulant layer  306  at a uniform thickness, or to eliminate air bubbles within encapsulant layer  306  or between it and substrate wafer  300 , insulating layer  304  and interconnection wire  305 . In some embodiments, substrate wafer  300  is spun, possibly in a centrifuge, to form encapsulant layer  306 . In alternative embodiments, encapsulant layer  306  comprises a high-temperature insulative epoxy material that is cured in a furnace. 
     In some embodiments, encapsulant layer  306  can include a top or cap layer (not shown) containing materials, such as but not limited to the following: silicon, polysilicon, amorphous silicon, plastic, glass, epoxy, aluminum, diamond, mixtures thereof, layers thereof, or any other material that is relatively rigid and strong. This cap layer can make the finished electronic device more mechanically rugged. It can also serve as a thermal conduit to dissipate heat produced by the operating electronic device. This cap layer need not be an insulator. 
     Referring now to FIG. 8, the next step in fabricating a contact is to remove material from the bottom surface of substrate wafer  300  so as to reduce its thickness. Any method of removing substrate material from the back of substrate wafer  300  can be used, such as but not limited to back planing, back lapping, sandblasting, grinding, wet chemical etching, dry plasma etching or the like. The thickness remaining of substrate wafer  300  determines the substrate thickness in the finished device (for example, 100 microns). 
     Referring now to FIG. 9, the next step is to selectively remove material from the bottom surface of substrate wafer  300  so as to reduce (by 2 microns, for example) its substrate thickness over encapsulant protrusion  313 . Any method of selectively removing substrate material from the back of substrate wafer  300  can be used, such as but not limited to the following: photo-lithographically selective wet chemical etching; photo-lithographically selective dry plasma; ion etching; or the like. In some embodiments, the thinning steps of FIG.  8  and FIG. 9 could be combined into a single step. 
     Sufficient material must be removed that a portion of interconnection wire  305  is exposed on the bottom or the sides of the encapsulant trench. This back thinning separates substrate wafer  300  into various portions, one for each electronic device being fabricated. 
     Referring now to FIG. 10, the next step is to form standoffs  320  on the bottom surface of substrate wafer  300 . Standoffs  320  can be formed of a relatively thick layer (50 microns, for example) of a strong material such as epoxy, glass, plastic, polymide resins, Teflon®, silicon oxide (SiO 2 ), silicon nitride (Si 3 N 4 ), mixtures thereof, layers thereof, or any other material that is relatively rigid and strong, and sufficiently flexible or compliant to allow for thermal expansion both in subsequent wafer processing and in the complete electronic system. For example, Hysol® FP4650 epoxy manufactured by Dexter Corp., Electronic Materials Division, of Industry, California, might be suitable for standoffs  320 . As an alternative to being compliant, standoffs  320  can be formed of a material with thermal expansion characteristics similar to those of substrate wafer  300 . 
     Standoffs  320  can be applied using a variety of techniques. These techniques may attempt to keep standoffs  320  at a uniform thickness, or to eliminate air bubbles within standoffs  320  or between it and substrate wafer  300 . In some embodiments, substrate wafer  300  has standoffs  320  applied to its bottom surface in a screening process or the like is used in which a screen or mask allows an epoxy material to contact the bottom surface of substrate wafer  300  only at those locations where a standoff  320  is to be formed. In other embodiments, substrate wafer  300  has epoxy standoffs  320  applied to its bottom surface from a flexible disk or strip on which the standoffs have been pre-located at the appropriate positions. 
     Other methods include using photosensitive plastic and printing on the plastic using a jet printer. Shaping can also be done using heat or light. Stand-offs can also include copper ball stand-offs, silicon posts or other methods. Many other methods exist and the present invention is in no way limited to any particular method. 
     Referring now to FIG. 11, the next step in fabricating a contact is to form lower insulation layer  321  on the bottom surface of substrate wafer  300  according to a pattern. Lower insulation layer  321  must not cover at least a portion of the part of interconnect layer  305  that is exposed on the bottom of the wafer. If substrate  300  is conductive, then lower insulation layer  321  must insulate substrate  300  from contact layer  307 , discussed below in connection with FIG. 12, which is formed in the next step. It may be advantageous to have lower insulation layer  321  completely cover standoffs  320  in order to facilitate forming or increase the reliability of contact layer  307 . 
     The above discussion, in connection with FIG. 5, of the materials that can be used and the dimensions of upper insulation layer  304  also apply to lower insulation layer  321 . 
     Referring now to FIG. 12, the next step in fabricating a contact is to selectively form lower wires, lead wires or contact layer  307  (6 to 10 microns thick, for example) on the bottom surface of substrate wafer  300 . One portion relative to each finished device, of contact layer  307  connects with the exposed portion of interconnection wire  305 . The other ends of contact layer  307  runs onto standoffs  320  and optionally extends over their bottom surface, thus forming the bottom of each contact being fabricated. Contact layer  307  completely covers standoffs  320  and extends beyond them toward the center of each electronic device. Such a large contact surface is optional, thus contact layer  307  may end at the inside edge of standoff  320 , or it may only partially cover its bottom surface. 
     Contact layer  307  is formed from a metal or other conductor that facilitates connecting the contacts of the electronic device with the wiring on the surface to which the device is mounted. In embodiments where soldering is used to form connections, contact layer  307  can be made of an easily solderable conductor such as but not limited to the following: nickel (Ni), nichrome-gold, nichrome-nickel, nickel-arsenic-gold, nickel-arsenic, nickel-gold, gold-tin-oxide (ATO), palladium-silicide, titanium (Ti), tungsten (W), titanium-tungsten (Ti-W), indium titanium oxide (ITO), aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), platinum (Pt), alloys thereof or layers thereof. Gold (Au) or silver (Ag) can also be used for contact layer  307 . 
     Any method of forming contact layer  307  according to a pattern can be used, including but not limited to pattern plating. Pattern plating is not wasteful of materials and can be faster than, and result in a higher quality contact layer  307  than would result from depositing contact layer  307  by evaporation or sputtering. 
     Various methods of pattern plating are known and can be used to form contact layer  307 . One such method is as follows: A first layer (0.2 microns thick, for example) of titanium-tungsten (Ti-W) is deposited on the bottom of substrate wafer  300 . A second layer (0.2 microns thick, for example) of gold (Au) is deposited over the first layer. The second layer is then selectively coated by a photo resist layer (6 to 10 microns thick, for example) in the regions where contact layer  307  is not to be formed. Electroplating is then used to form a contact layer  307 , which can actually become thicker than the photoresist layer. The photoresist layer is then stripped off and the first and second layers are etched away where they are not protected by contact layer  307 . 
     The contact&#39;s bottom surface dimensions can vary from contact to contact. It is not necessary for any contact to have the same width or the same length as any other contact. The inter-contact pitch can be variable. 
     For some uses of some types of electronic devices, it potentially is a significant advantage to be able to vary the contact&#39;s surface area. In the absence of this ability, if the current carrying capacity of a single contact is exceeded, then multiple contacts must be dedicated to carry the same signal or power-supply voltage level. Also, the ability to vary the contact&#39;s surface area might help reduce parasitic circuit elements such as resistance and inductance that can be introduced by a contact. Such a reduction could be a significant advantage in some cases, such as for power switching devices. 
     In some embodiments, the top surface of the electronic devices can be marked while the devices are still attached to the wafer, so as to identify such information as the part type and the orientation of pin number  1 . A screening process or the like can be used for that marking. 
     The electronic devices described throughout this disclosure could possibly be tested while still in wafer form just prior to, or during, a final separation step. If the operation of each device is not affected by its contacts being still connected to those of the adjacent devices, then testing of each electronic device could possibly occur just prior to their being separated into individual devices. It is more common however, to cut and separate the devices before testing. 
     Alternatively the device separation and testing can occur in three steps: 
     1) Sawing or etching the wafer from the bottom deep enough to electrically separate the contacts of adjacent devices, but not so deep as to mechanically separate them; 
     2) Complete separation of the electronic devices; and 
     3) Testing of each individual electronic device while still on a carrier. 
     Whether or not an electrical separation step is required, testing while still on the wafer might provide significant cost savings over prior-art techniques, in which typically a wafer is tested and any defective dies within the wafer are marked, then the non-marked dies are assembled into packaged devices, and then the packaged devices are then tested a second time. 
     Alternatively, the packaged devices can be tested after being separated from the wafer without any wafer testing. If the yield of the wafer is high enough, the wafer testing step might be unnecessary—even if the bad devices were marked it may not be feasible to sort out the good devices for processing that differs from the processing of the bad devices. 
     Referring now to FIG. 13, the final step in forming a contact according to this embodiment is to separate substrate wafer  300  into individual electronic devices. This separation can be achieved by any method, such as but not limited to sawing, etching, or the like. The separation formed by that sawing or etching forms the outside surface of the finished electronic device. 
     In some embodiments, the electronic device is now completely packaged, unlike those prior-art techniques in which wafers are separated into dies, which are subsequently assembled into packaged devices. Alternatively, additional test or marking steps might be required. Alternatively, additional device assembly steps might be required in embodiments where contacts on the bottom of the device as disclosed herein are combined with additional contacts on the top of the device that are fabricated using other techniques. For some uses of some types of electronic devices, it may be an advantage that contacts as disclosed herein can be combined in the same electronic device with top-side connections. 
     Referring now to FIG. 13, a bottom view is also shown of the same electronic device, which is a cross section view taken along line  13 ( a ). The cross section exposes a portion of the multiple rows of contacts is shown along each edge of the electronic device. As shown, there are only a few contacts in each row of the electronic device. In practice, there would be many such contacts in each row and more than one row of contacts on each edge. With variable sized contacts, the contacts may not line up in rows. 
     For example, a square package with sides of 7.5 millimeters in length (approximately 0.3 inches) could include a total of  300  contacts along its four edges using three contact rows per edge and a pitch of approximately 300 microns between contacts. Also for example, a typical prior-art microprocessor having 200 contacts around the edges of a 38 millimeter square package (approximately 1.5 inches) could be packaged according to the above embodiment, using a relatively conservative inter-contact pitch of approximately 760 microns and only one row of contacts per edge. As another example, an advanced integrated circuit having 1000 contacts around the edges of a 38 millimeter square package would require an inter-contact pitch of approximately 300 microns using two rows along each edge, or an inter-contact pitch of 600 microns using 4 rows of contacts. 
     An inter-contact pitch of 300 microns is straightforward to achieve using the above substrate post embodiment. In fact, the inter-contact pitch achievable in practice is likely to be limited by circuit board considerations, not the contacts. It may be difficult to reliably fabricate circuit board conductor  109 , as illustrated in FIG. 14, with less than 150 microns spacing between conductors that are less than 150 microns in width. 
     The contact fabricated comprises standoff  320 , bottom insulator layer  321  and contact layer  307 . The relative simplicity of this contact might help to minimize parasitic elements being introduced into the circuit in which the contact is used. For some uses of some types of devices, including but not limited to power-switching devices and the like, this might be a significant advantage. 
     Referring now to FIG. 14, the contact of the electronic device can be soldered to circuit board conductor  109  with solder fillet  108 . Circuit board conductor  109  has been formed over circuit board substrate  110 . Solder fillet  108  provides both mechanical and electrical connection between the contact and the circuit board. Contacts disclosed herein are suitable for connecting with a circuit board using a variety of techniques, such as but not limited to surface mount soldering, gold compression bonding, epoxy, conductive epoxy or the like. The contacts described throughout this disclosure are suitable for connection to a variety of apparatus, including but not limited to circuit boards, glass plates, or the like. 
     Referring now to FIG. 15, the complete bottom surface of an electronic device similar to that of FIG. 13 is shown further including drop bottom  315 . Drop bottom  315  is a protruding portion of substrate  300 . Drop bottom  315  is formed by selectively not thinning portions of the bottom of substrate  300  during the selective thinning step discussed above in connection with FIG.  9 . This results in drop bottom  315  having a bottom surface approximately co-planar with the bottom of the contacts of the finished electronic device. 
     Referring now to FIG. 16, the selective thinning provides a stand off between the electronic device and the circuit board to which the device is attached in the region near the contacts. Drop bottom  315  connects with the circuit board or other apparatus to which the electronic device is attached, so that heat can be transferred out of the electronic device and into the circuit board, where the heat might be more easily dissipated without overheating the device. 
     As shown here, drop bottom  315  has a square bottom surface that forms a significant portion of the bottom surface of substrate  300 . Drop bottom  315  could have any shape and could cover more or less area depending on the heat dissipation needs of the electronic device and the heat absorption, transfer and dissipation characteristics of the circuit board or the like to which the device is mounted. 
     As illustrated in FIG. 16, both drop bottom  315  and the contact of the electronic device can be soldered to circuit board conductors  109  with solder filets  108 . Solder filets  108  provide both mechanical connection and heat conduction with drop bottom  315 . If substrate  300  is conductive, then the circuit board connector  109  connected to drop bottom  315  should either be electrically isolated or be tied to the substrate voltage appropriate for the electronic device. 
     Die-Bottom Contacts with a Formed Standoff on an insulative Substrate 
     Referring now to FIG. 17, a contact for an electronic device using an insulative substrate is shown. The contact comprises a standoff and a wire that extends onto the standoff. 
     A brief description of how such a contact can be fabricated is as follows: 
     1) A relatively large trench is formed in the top surface of a substrate, such as but not limited to a semiconductor wafer. The trench may be located near the edge of an electronic circuit or component, such as but not limited to an integrated circuit. The circuit or component is formed using the substrate, or is attached to the substrate. 
     2) An upper interconnection wire or beam is formed that runs from the connection point into the trench. 
     3) The top of the substrate is encapsulated, thus forming an encapsulant protrusion in the trench. Optionally, the encapsulant includes a cap layer. 
     4) The substrate is thinned from the bottom, thus forming the bottom surface of the finished electronic device. The substrate is further selectively thinned from the bottom, thus exposing part of the bottom surface of the upper wire on the encapsulant protrusion. 
     5) A standoff is applied to or formed on the bottom surface of the substrate. 
     6) A lower wire or contact layer is formed that runs on the bottom surface of the substrate from the exposed portion of the upper wire and onto the standoff. 
     7) Optionally, the top surface of the electronic devices are marked, so as to identify the part type and the orientation of pin number  1 . 
     8) The wafer is diced. For some embodiments, this completes the fabrication of the electronic device. 
     9) Optionally, the electronic devices are tested while still attached to the carrier. 
     Gallium arsenide is a semiconductor that, unlike silicon, does not significantly conduct electricity unless the gallium arsenide is doped. Patternable insulator layers  304  and  321  are not needed in gallium arsenide embodiments, or in other embodiments where substrate wafer is made of an insulator, such as but not limited to sapphire, quartz or the like. Also, the step of adding a patternable insulator described above in reference to FIG. 5 is not needed. Rather, interconnect wire  305  and contact layer  307  can be insulated from substrate wafer  300  by simply not doping the gallium arsenide substrate in the areas where there is to be no electrical conductivity. 
     FIG. 17 illustrates the contact that results in embodiments that use gallium arsenide as the substrate. A major difference in the contact shown in FIG. 17 from the contact of FIG. 13 is that insulation layers  304  and  321  are missing. Connection point  310  is formed by doping the gallium arsenide so that it becomes conductive at the point where interconnection wire  305  connects to it. 
     The process required to produce a contact according to this insulative substrate embodiment is even simpler than that disclosed for conductive substrates. Such simplicity may result in advantages such as reduced cost and higher yield. Also, the resulting contact has even fewer elements than for conductive substrates, which may help Improve the reliability of the contact. 
     Die-Bottom Contacts with a Substrate Standoff 
     A contact comprising a substrate standoff, a wire that runs onto it and an insulation layer formed there between is shown in FIG.  22 . An example of how such contacts are fabricated is shown in FIG. 3 though FIG.  7  and FIG. 18 though FIG.  22 . FIG.  3  through FIG.  7  and the steps and materials they represent and involve are discussed in more detail above. 
     A brief description of how such a contact can be fabricated is as follows: 
     1) A relatively large trench is formed in the top surface of a substrate, such as but not limited to a semiconductor wafer. The trench may be located near the edge of an electronic circuit or component, such as but not limited to an integrated circuit. The circuit or component is formed using the substrate, or is attached to the substrate. 
     2) An upper insulation layer is formed that has a through hole over a connection point within the circuit. The insulation layer ends part way through the trench. 
     3) An upper or interconnection wire is formed that runs from the connection point into the trench. 
     4) The top of the substrate is encapsulated, thus forming an encapsulant protrusion in the trench. Optionally, the encapsulant includes a cap layer. 
     5) The substrate is thinned from the bottom, thus forming the bottom surface of the substrate standoff. The substrate is further selectively thinned from the bottom, thus exposing part of the bottom surface of the upper wire on the encapsulant protrusion and forming the sidewalls of the substrate standoff. 
     6) A lower insulation layer is formed that has a through hole over the exposed portion of the upper wire. 
     7) A lower wire or contact layer is formed that runs on the bottom surface of the substrate from the exposed portion of the upper wire and onto the standoff. 
     8) Optionally, the top surface of the electronic devices are marked, so as to identify the part type and the orientation of pin number  1 . 
     9) The wafer is diced. For some embodiments, this completes the fabrication of the electronic device. 
     10) Optionally, the electronic devices are tested while still attached to a carrier. 
     Referring now to FIG. 18, the next step in fabricating a contact is to take substrate wafer  300 , as shown in FIG. 7, and remove material from its bottom surface so as to reduce its thickness. Any method of removing substrate material from the back of substrate wafer  300  can be used, such as but not limited to back planing, back lapping, sandblasting, grinding, wet chemical etching, dry plasma etching or the like. 
     As will become clear, the thickness remaining of substrate wafer  300  determines the height of the substrate standoff in the contact in the finished device. For example, thinning the substrate wafer to a thickness of 150 microns allows a substrate thickness of 100 microns in the finished packaged device and a 50 micron standoff between the bottom surface of the contacts and the bottom surface of the device. 
     Referring now to FIG. 19, the next step is to selectively remove material from the bottom surface of substrate wafer  300  so as to reduce its substrate thickness over encapsulant protrusion  313  and so as to form the sidewalls of substrate standoffs  325  similar to drop bottoms  315  of FIGS. 15 and 16. Any method of selectively removing substrate material from the back of substrate wafer  300  can be used, such as but not limited to the following: photo-lithographically selective wet chemical etching; photo-lithographically selective dry plasma; ion etching; or the like. In some embodiments, the thinning steps of FIG.  18  and FIG. 19 could be combined into a single step. 
     Sufficient material must be removed that a portion of interconnection wire  305  is exposed on the bottom or the sides of the encapsulant trench. This back thinning separates substrate wafer  300  into two portions, one for each finished electronic device. Also, sufficient material must be removed that substrate standoffs  325  reach the desired height (for example, 50 microns). 
     Referring now to FIG. 20, the next step in fabricating a contact is to form lower insulation layer  321  on the bottom surface of substrate wafer  300  according to a pattern. Lower insulation layer  321  is discussed above in reference to FIG.  11 . 
     Referring now to FIG. 21, the next step in fabricating a contact is to form lower wire or contact layer  307  on the bottom surface of substrate wafer  300  according to a pattern. Contact layer  307  is discussed above in connection with FIG.  12 . 
     The final step in fabricating a contact according to this embodiment is to separate substrate wafer  300  into individual electronic devices, as Illustrated in FIG.  22 . FIG. 22 illustrates a cross sectional side view of the wafer of the previous Figure after being sawed, etched, or otherwise separated into two finished devices, each with an attached contact. FIG. 22 also shows a partial bottom view of the same two devices of the previous Figure, the previous Figure being a cross section view taken along line  22 ( a ). Each device has multiple contacts arranged in multiple rows along each edge of the device. 
     In some embodiments, the electronic device is now completely packaged, unlike those prior-art techniques in which wafers are separated into dies, which are subsequently assembled into packaged devices. Alternatively, additional test or marking steps might be required. Alteratively, additional device assembly steps might be required in embodiments where contacts on the bottom of the device as disclosed herein are combined with additional contacts on the top of the device that are fabricated using other techniques. For some uses of some types of electronic devices, it is a potential advantage that contacts as disclosed herein can be combined in the same electronic device with top-side connections. 
     Die-Bottom Contacts with a Substrate Standoff on an insulative Substrate 
     A contact for an electronic device using an insulative substrate is illustrated in FIG.  23  and FIG.  24 . The contact comprises a substrate standoff and a contact layer or lower wire that extends onto the standoff. 
     A brief description of how such a contact can be fabricated is as follows: 
     1) A relatively large trench is formed in the top surface of a substrate, such as but not limited to a semiconductor wafer. The trench may be located near the edge of an electronic circuit or component, such as but not limited to an integrated circuit. The circuit or component is formed using the substrate, or is attached to the substrate. 
     2) An upper interconnection wire or beam is formed that runs from the connection point into the trench. 
     3) The top of the substrate is encapsulated, thus forming an encapsulant protrusion in the trench. Optionally, the encapsulant includes a cap layer. 
     4) The substrate is thinned from the bottom, thus forming the bottom surface of the finished electronic device. The substrate is further selectively thinned from the bottom, thus exposing part of the bottom surface of the upper wire on the encapsulant protrusion and forming the substrate standoff. 
     5) A lower wire or contact layer is formed that runs on the bottom surface of the substrate from the exposed portion of the upper wire and onto the standoff. 
     6) Optionally, the top surface of the electronic devices are marked, so as to identify the part type and the orientation of pin number  1 . 
     7) The wafer is diced. For some embodiments, this completes the fabrication of the electronic device. 
     8) Optionally, the electronic devices are tested while still attached to a carrier. 
     Gallium arsenide is a semiconductor that, unlike silicon, does not significantly conduct electricity unless the gallium arsenide is doped. Patternable insulator layers  304  and  321  are not needed in gallium arsenide embodiments, or in other embodiments where substrate wafer is made of an insulator, such as but not limited to sapphire, quartz or the like. Also, the steps of adding patternable insulators described above in reference to FIG.  5  and FIG. 20 are not needed. Rather, interconnect wire  305  and contact layer  307  can be insulated from substrate wafer  300  by simply not doping the gallium arsenide substrate in the areas where there is to be no electrical conductivity. 
     FIG. 23 illustrates the contact that results in embodiments that use gallium arsenide as the substrate. A major difference from the contact of FIG. 22 is that insulation layers  304  and  321  are missing. Connection point  310  is formed by doping the gallium arsenide so that it becomes conductive at the point where interconnection wire  305  connects to it. 
     The process required to produce a contact according to this insulative substrate embodiment is even simpler than that disclosed for conductive substrates. Such simplicity may result in advantages such as reduced cost and higher yield. Also, the resulting contact has even fewer elements than for conductive substrates, which may help improve the reliability of the contact. 
     FIG. 24 illustrates an electronic device similar to that of the previous Figure, except that it includes an irregularly shaped drop bottom  315 . Drop bottom  315  is a protruding portion of substrate  300 . It has a bottom surface approximately co-planar with the bottom of the contacts of the finished electronic device. Drop bottom  315  is discussed above in connection with FIG.  15 . 
     As shown here, drop bottom  315  has an Irregular shaped bottom surface, perhaps designed so that drop bottom  315  protrudes beneath those portions of the electronic circuit or device that produce substantial heat. Drop bottom  315  could have any shape and could cover more or less area depending on the heat dissipation needs of the electronic device and the heat absorption, transfer and dissipation characteristics of the circuit board or other apparatus to which the device is mounted. 
     Die-Bottom Contacts with a Substrate Standoff Fabricated using a Single Bottom-Surface Trench 
     A contact comprising a substrate standoff, a wire that runs onto it and an insulation layer there between is illustrated in FIG.  33  and FIG.  34 . How such contacts are fabricated is shown in FIG.  3  and FIG. 25 though FIG.  34 . 
     A brief description of how such a contact can be fabricated is as follows: 
     1) An upper insulation layer is formed on the top surface of a substrate, such as but not limited to a semiconductor wafer. The circuit or component that will make up the finished electronic device (such as but not limited to an integrated circuit) is formed using the substrate, or is attached to the substrate. The upper insulation layer has a through hole over a connection point within the circuit. Also, the insulation layer ends prior to the plane that will separate adjacent electronic devices. 
     2) An upper interconnection wire or beam is formed that runs from the connection point to the separation plane. 
     3) The top of the substrate is encapsulated. Optionally, the encapsulant includes a cap layer. 
     4) The substrate is thinned from the bottom, thus forming the bottom surface of the substrate standoff. The substrate is further selectively thinned from the bottom, thus forming the sidewalls of the substrate standoff. This selective thinning also forms a relatively large trench in the bottom surface of the substrate, thus exposing part of the bottom surface of the upper wire. This selective thinning may be performed by first making a saw cut along the device separation plane and then etching. 
     5) A lower insulation layer is formed that has a through hole over the exposed portion of the upper wire. 
     6) A lower wire or contact layer is formed that runs on the bottom surface of the lower insulation layer from the exposed portion of the upper wire and onto the standoff. 
     7) Optionally, the top surface of the electronic devices are marked, so as to identify the part type and the orientation of pin number  1 . 
     8) The wafer is diced. For some embodiments, this completes the fabrication of the electronic device. 
     9) Optionally, the electronic devices are tested while still attached to a carrier. 
     Considering this fabrication process in more detail, a description of the initial step of this fabrication process can be found in reference to FIG. 3 above. 
     Continuing on with the process by referring to FIG. 25, the top of the wafer shown in FIG. 3 is selectively coated with insulation layer  304  insulation layer  304  is discussed above in connection with FIG.  5 . 
     The next step, as illustrated in FIG. 26, a beam or an upper interconnection wire  305  is formed. Interconnection wire  305  extends from connection point  302  within electronic circuit region  301  into the non-insulated portion of trench  303  (for example, 6 to 10 microns thick and 10 microns wide, or a width going up to whatever is appropriate for the current carried). Interconnection wire  305  is discussed above in connection with FIG.  6 . 
     Referring now to FIG. 27, in the next step, substrate wafer  300 , insulating layer  304  and interconnection wire  305  are encapsulated. The top surfaces of these structures are covered with a relatively thick layer (150 microns, for example) of a strong and insulative encapsulant. Encapsulant layer  305  is discussed above in connection with FIG.  7 . 
     Referring now to FIG. 28, in the next step substrate wafer  300  then is thinned from its bottom surface so as to reduce its thickness. Any method of removing substrate material from the back of substrate wafer  300  can be used, such as but not limited to back planing, back lapping, sandblasting, grinding, wet chemical etching, dry plasma etching or the like. 
     As will become clear, the thickness remaining of substrate wafer  300  determines the height of the substrate standoff in the contact in the finished device. For example, thinning the substrate wafer to a thickness of 150 microns allows a substrate thickness of 100 microns in the finished device and a 50 micron standoff between the bottom surface of the contacts and the bottom surface of the device. 
     The next step is to selectively remove material from the bottom surface of substrate wafer  300  so as to reduce Its substrate thickness along separation plane  311 . Any method of selectively removing substrate material from the back of substrate wafer  300  can be used, such as but not limited to the following: diamond saw cutting, photo-lithographically selective wet chemical etching; photo-lithographically selective dry plasma; ion etching; or the like. 
     As illustrated in FIG.  29  and FIG. 30, first a diamond-shaped saw cut can be made and then selective etching can be used to broaden the cut and to form the substrate standoffs. In some embodiments, the thinning steps of FIG.  29  and FIG. 30 could be combined into a single step. 
     Sufficient material must be removed that a portion of interconnection wire  305  is exposed on the bottom or the sides of the encapsulant trench. Also, sufficient material must be removed that substrate standoffs  325  reach the desired height (for example, 50 microns). This back thinning separates substrate wafer  300  into a separate portion for each finished electronic device. 
     Referring again to FIGS. 4 and 9, the top trench  303  shown first in FIG.  4  and again in FIG. 9 can be accomplished using the same technique as that discussed above in relation to saw cut  340  shown in FIG.  29  and trench  352  shown in FIG.  31 . First, the top trench  303  could first be cut with the diamond-shaped saw cut such as saw-cut  340  of FIG. 29 to reduce its substrate thickness. Then, selective etching can be used to broaden trench  303  to the shape shown in FIG.  4 . Similarly, the bottom trench  350  shown in FIG. 9 could be pre-cut in the same manner with the diamond-shaped saw and selectively etched to achieve the shape shown in FIG.  9 . 
     As illustrated in FIG. 31, the next step in fabricating a contact is to form lower insulation layer  321  on the bottom surface of substrate wafer  300  according to a pattern. Lower insulation layer  321  is discussed above in reference to FIG.  11 . 
     As illustrated in FIG. 32, the next step in fabricating a contact is to form lower wire or contact layer  307  on the bottom surface of substrate wafer  300  according to a pattern. Contact layer  307  is discussed above in connection with FIG.  12 . 
     The final step in fabricating a contact according to this embodiment, is to separate substrate wafer  300  into completed electronic devices, each with a set of attached contacts, as Illustrated in FIG.  33 . The separation formed by this sawing, etching or the like finishes the formation of the contact. FIG. 33 also shows a bottom view of the same two die of the previous Figure, the previous Figure being a cross section view taken along line  33 ( a ). Each die has multiple rows of contacts along each edge. 
     In some embodiments, the electronic device is now completely packaged, unlike those prior-art techniques in which wafers are separated into dies, which are subsequently assembled into packaged devices. Alternatively, additional test or marking steps might be required. 
     Alternatively, additional device assembly steps might be required in embodiments where contacts on the bottom of the device as disclosed herein are combined with additional contacts on the top of the device that are fabricated using other techniques. For some uses of some types of electronic devices, it may be an advantage that contacts as disclosed herein can be combined in the same electronic device with top-side connections. 
     Referring now to FIG. 34, a complete bottom view of an electronic device similar to that of the previous Figure is shown, except that the device includes ribbed-shaped drop bottoms  315 . Drop bottoms  315  are protruding portions of substrate  300 . They are formed by selectively not thinning portions of the bottom of substrate portion  300  during at least part of the thinning step discussed in connection with FIG.  31 . Drop bottoms  315  are discussed above in connection with FIG. 15, FIG.  16  and FIG.  24 . 
     Die-Bottom Contacts with a Substrate Standoff Fabricated using a Single Bottom-Surface Trench and an Insulative Substrate 
     A contact comprising an insulative substrate standoff and a wire that runs onto it is shown in FIG.  35 . 
     A brief description of how such a contact can be fabricated is as follows: 
     1) An upper or interconnection wire or beam is formed on the top surface of a substrate, such as but not limited to a semiconductor wafer. The circuit or component that will make up the finished electronic device (such as but not limited to an integrated circuit) is formed using the substrate, or is attached to the substrate. The upper interconnection wire runs from a connection point within the circuit to the separation plane between devices. 
     2) The top of the substrate is encapsulated. Optionally, the encapsulant includes a cap layer. 
     3) The substrate is thinned from the bottom, thus forming the bottom surface of the substrate standoff. The substrate is further selectively thinned from the bottom, thus forming the sidewalls of the substrate standoff. This selective thinning forms a relatively large trench in the bottom surface of the substrate, thus exposing part of the bottom surface of the upper wire. This selective thinning may be performed by first making a saw cut along the device separation plane and then etching. 
     4) A lower wire or contact layer is formed that runs on the bottom surface of the lower insulation layer from the exposed portion of the upper wire and onto the standoff. 
     5) Optionally, the top surface of the electronic devices are marked, so as to identify the part type and the orientation of pin number  1 . 
     6) The wafer is diced. For some embodiments, this completes the fabrication of the electronic device. 
     7) Optionally, the electronic devices are tested while still attached to a carrier. 
     FIG. 35 shows a contact according to embodiments that use an insulative substrate and die-bottom contacts on a substrate standoff. The major difference from the silicon-based, substrate-standoff contact of FIG. 33 is that insulation layers  304  and  321  are missing. If the insulative substrate is gallium arsenide, connection point  310  is formed by doping the gallium arsenide so that it becomes conductive where it will electrically connect to interconnect wire  305 . 
     The process required to produce a contact according to this insulative substrate embodiment is even simpler than that disclosed for conductive substrates, which may result in advantages such as reduced cost and higher yield. Also, the resulting contact has even fewer elements than for conductive substrates, which may help improve the reliability of the contact. 
     The relative simplicity of the contact of this embodiment may help to minimize parasitic elements being introduced into the circuit in which the contact is used. For some uses of some types of devices, including but not limited to power-switching devices and the like, this may be a significant advantage. 
     Die-Bottom Contacts with a Formed Standoff Fabricated using a Single Bottom-SurfaceTrench and an insulative Substrate 
     A contact comprising a formed standoff and a wire that runs onto it is shown in FIG.  36 . 
     A brief description of how such a contact can be fabricated is as follows: 
     1) An upper or interconnection wire or beam is formed on the top surface of a substrate, such as but not limited to a semiconductor wafer. The circuit or component that will make up the finished electronic device (such as but not limited to an integrated circuit) is formed using the substrate, or is attached to the substrate. The upper interconnection wire runs from a connection point within the circuit to the separation plane between devices. 
     2) The top of the substrate is encapsulated. Optionally, the encapsulant includes a cap layer. 
     3) The substrate is thinned from the bottom, thus forming the bottom surface of the finished device. The substrate is further selectively thinned from the bottom, thus forming a relatively large trench in the bottom surface of the substrate, thus exposing part of the bottom surface of the upper wire. This selective thinning may be performed by first making a saw cut along the device separation plane and then etching. 
     4) A standoff is formed on the bottom surface of the wafer. 
     5) A lower wire or contact layer is formed that runs on the bottom surface of the lower insulation layer from the exposed portion of the upper wire and onto the standoff. 
     6) Optionally, the top surface of the electronic devices are marked, so as to identify the part type and the orientation of pin number  1 . 
     7) The wafer is diced. For some embodiments, this completes the fabrication of the electronic device. 
     8) Optionally, the electronic devices are tested while still attached to the carrier. 
     FIG. 36 shows a contact according to embodiments that use an insulative substrate and die-bottom contacts on a formed standoff. The major difference from the insulative-substrate, substrate-standoff contact of FIG. 35 is that substrate standoff  325  is replaced with formed standoff  320 . Formed standoff  320  is discussed above in reference to FIG.  10 . 
     FIG. 37 shows a complete bottom view of one of the electronic devices of the previous Figure, with multiple contacts in a two dimensional array and with a bottom substrate surface that drops down, in a pillared pattern, to circuit-board level. 
     Die-Bottom Contacts With Drop Bottoms 
     FIG. 15, FIG. 16, FIG. 24, FIG. 34; and FIG. 37 show contact embodiments that include at least one drop bottom  315 . Drop bottom  315  is a protruding portion of substrate  300 . Drop bottom  315  has a bottom surface approximately co-planar with the bottom of the contacts of the finished electronic device. 
     Drop bottom  315  is formed by selectively not thinning portions of the bottom of substrate portion  300   a  during at least part of the thinning step that exposes the wire on the bottom of the encapsulant protrusion. Forming drop bottom  315  sometimes requires a first thinning step that forms the bottom surface of drop bottom  315 , followed by a second selective thinning step that exposed the wire without further thinning drop bottom  315 . 
     Drop bottom  315  mechanically connects with the circuit board, glass plate, or the like to which the electronic device is attached, so that heat can be transferred out of the electronic device and into the larger system, where the heat might be more easily dissipated without overheating the device. Optionally, drop bottom  315  can electrically connect to the circuit board and can be used to supply the substrate voltage or signal for the device. 
     Although it is only illustrated herein in connection with a selected subset of contact types or embodiments, drop bottom  315  can be employed with every type or embodiment of contact described herein. 
     Drop bottom  315  is been described herein as having a variety of shapes: 
     1) a square or rectangle large enough to cover most of the bottom surface of the electronic device, as shown in FIG. 15; 
     2) an irregular shape, perhaps covering the portions of the electronic device that generate significant heat; as shown in FIG. 24; 
     3) ribs, as shown in FIG. 34; and 
     4) pillars, as shown in FIG.  37 . 
     Drop bottom  315  could take on any shape including but limited to the above, horizontal ribs, vertical ribs, angled ribs, a single rib or wide strip down the middle of the device, combinations thereof and patterns thereof. 
     The shape of drop bottom  315  and the number of drop bottoms  315  in a device are design alternatives that can be chosen taking into account the size of the electronic device, the heat generation characteristics of the electronic device, the heat absorption characteristics of the circuit board or other apparatus to which the electronic device is attached and the characteristics of the method of attaching the electronic device to the circuit board. For example, for a small device, a square or rectangle large enough to cover most of its bottom surface might be the simplest and most reliable, whereas for a large device such a drop bottom might introduce thermal expansion problems or solder flow problems that could be avoided by a ribbed or pillared drop bottom. 
     Any shapes or number of drop bottoms  315  could be used in conjunction with any contact embodiment described herein. 
     Described herein are several methods for fabricating several different types of contacts for electrical and electronic devices. The embodiments described can be employed in ways that potentially realize one or more significant advantages, including but not limited to short and simple fabrication processes, simple and reliable contacts, high wafer packing density, and contacts with advantageous physical and electronic properties that are applicable for use with varied types of electronic devices. 
     The processes of fabricating contacts disclosed herein can potentially be advantageously short and simple. Shorter and simpler fabrication processes may decrease device manufacturing cost and increase manufacturing yields, i.e. the percentage of devices fabricated that actually function as specified. In some embodiments, an electronic device can be completely packaged using wafer fabrication processes, unlike those prior-art techniques in which wafers are separated into dies, which are subsequently assembled into packaged devices. Further, the finished electronic devices might be tested while still in wafer form. Alternatively, the finished devices might be tested after being separated, and the typical prior-art wafer testing step might be eliminated. Further, the processes disclosed for a contact with an insulative substrate, such as gallium arsenide, is even simpler than the processes disclosed for conductive substrates, such as silicon, which might further enhance these advantages. 
     The contacts disclosed herein can potentially be advantageously simple, mechanically rugged and sturdy, and contain relatively few elements. Thus, they might be inherently reliable. Further, the contacts disclosed using an insulative substrate, such as gallium arsenide, have even fewer elements compared to those described for conductive substrates, such as silicon, and thus might be even more inherently reliable. 
     Wafer packing density can potentially be advantageously increased over those prior-art techniques that use substrate area to fabricate contacts. No substrate wafer area is dedicated to forming contacts; thus more replications of the electronic circuit or discrete component may fit on a wafer; thus manufacturing costs per device may be lower. 
     The contacts disclosed herein can potentially have advantageous physical properties, which may make them advantageously adaptable for use with electronic devices of different types. An inter-contact pitch compatible with 300-micron surface mount techniques is easily achieved. In various embodiments, the contact layer can be formed of an easily solderable material, or formed of gold, or formed of whatever material is suited for the particular mounting technique to be employed with the completed electronic device. Contacts formed on the bottom surface of the substrate as described herein might be combined in the same electronic device with contacts or pads on the top surface of the substrate; thus increasing the number of contacts per device and allowing flexibility in the types of contacts a device uses. 
     The contacts disclosed herein can potentially have advantageous electronic properties, which may make them advantageously adaptable for use with electronic devices of different types. The contact&#39;s bottom surface dimensions, both length and width, can vary from contact to contact, which may reduce or eliminate the need to dedicate multiple contacts to carrying the a signal or a power supply voltage that requires substantial current. Both because of their varying sizes and because of their relative simplicity, the resulting contacts may help to minimize parasitic circuit effects, which may be advantageous for uses such as power switching devices and the like. 
     In the foregoing specification, the invention has been described with reference to specific exemplary embodiments thereof. It will, however, be evident that various modifications and changes may be made to those described herein without departing from the broader spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the following claims. The specification and drawings are, accordingly, to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense.