Patent Publication Number: US-10776968-B2

Title: Personalized-recommendation graph

Description:
PRIORITY 
     This application is a continuation under 35 U.S.C. § 120 of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/689,956, filed 30 Nov. 2012. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This disclosure generally relates to mobile devices. 
     BACKGROUND 
     A social-networking system, which may include a social-networking website, may enable its users (such as persons or organizations) to interact with it and with each other through it. The social-networking system may, with input from a user, create and store in the social-networking system a user profile associated with the user. The user profile may include demographic information, communication-channel information, and information on personal interests of the user. The social-networking system may also, with input from a user, create and store a record of relationships of the user with other users of the social-networking system, as well as provide services (e.g. wall posts, photo-sharing, event organization, messaging, games, or advertisements) to facilitate social interaction between or among users. 
     The social-networking system may transmit over one or more networks content or messages related to its services to a mobile or other computing device of a user. A user may also install software applications on a mobile or other computing device of the user for accessing a user profile of the user and other data within the social-networking system. The social-networking system may generate a personalized set of content objects to display to a user, such as a newsfeed of aggregated stories of other users connected to the user. 
     A mobile computing device—such as a smartphone, tablet computer, or laptop computer—may include functionality for determining its location, direction, or orientation, such as a GPS receiver, compass, or gyroscope. Such a device may also include functionality for wireless communication, such as BLUETOOTH communication, near-field communication (NFC), or infrared (IR) communication or communication with a wireless local area networks (WLANs) or cellular-telephone network. Such a device may also include one or more cameras, scanners, touchscreens, microphones, or speakers. Mobile computing devices may also execute software applications, such as games, web browsers, or social-networking applications. With social-networking applications, users may connect, communicate, and share information with other users in their social networks. 
     SUMMARY OF PARTICULAR EMBODIMENTS 
     Particular embodiments provide personalized and curated recommendations provided by other users. A recommending user may recommend a particular business to a specific user or group of users. An example syntax for a recommendation may be “Recommend Place for explanation to particular user”. For example, User B may input “Recommend the Milk Pail for great cheese selection to User A. The social-networking system server may aggregate the recommendations to create a recommendation graph for each user. 
     In particular embodiments, when the user is in proximity to a business recommended by another user, the recommendation and which user made the recommendation may be displayed on the user&#39;s mobile device. For example, when User A walks past the Milk Pail, the mobile device may display the recommendation from User B recommending the Milk Pail for the cheese selection. In particular embodiments, the user may also access and browse (i.e. mine) the recommendations provided by other users to search for recommends associated with specific kinds of businesses (e.g. restaurants). The user may act on recommendations based on their knowledge of the recommending users, that is weigh recommendations based on knowledge of the user making the recommendation. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  illustrates an example network environment associated with a social-networking system. 
         FIG. 2  illustrates an example recommendation graph. 
         FIG. 3  illustrates an example mobile device. 
         FIG. 4  illustrates an example method for sending a recommendation for a particular user. 
         FIG. 5  illustrates an example method for receiving a recommendation for a particular user. 
         FIG. 6  illustrates an example computing system. 
         FIG. 7  illustrates an example social graph. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS 
       FIG. 1  illustrates an example network environment associated with a social-networking system. Network environment  100  includes a user  101 , a client system  130 , a social-networking system  160 , and a third-party system  170  connected to each other by a network  110 . Although  FIG. 1  illustrates a particular arrangement of user  101 , client system  130 , social-networking system  160 , third-party system  170 , and network  110 , this disclosure contemplates any suitable arrangement of user  101 , client system  130 , social-networking system  160 , third-party system  170 , and network  110 . As an example and not by way of limitation, two or more of client system  130 , social-networking system  160 , and third-party system  170  may be connected to each other directly, bypassing network  110 . As another example, two or more of client system  130 , social-networking system  160 , and third-party system  170  may be physically or logically co-located with each other in whole or in part. Moreover, although  FIG. 1  illustrates a particular number of users  101 , client systems  130 , social-networking systems  160 , third-party systems  170 , and networks  110 , this disclosure contemplates any suitable number of users  101 , client systems  130 , social-networking systems  160 , third-party systems  170 , and networks  110 . As an example and not by way of limitation, network environment  100  may include multiple users  101 , client system  130 , social-networking systems  160 , third-party systems  170 , and networks  110 . 
     In particular embodiments, user  101  may be an individual (human user), an entity (e.g., an enterprise, business, or third-party application), or a group (e.g., of individuals or entities) that interacts or communicates with or over social-networking system  160 . In particular embodiments, social-networking system  160  may be a network-addressable computing system hosting an online social network. Social-networking system  160  may generate, store, receive, and transmit social-networking data, such as, for example, user-profile data, concept-profile data, social-graph information, or other suitable data related to the online social network. Social-networking system  160  may be accessed by the other components of network environment  100  either directly or via network  110 . In particular embodiments, social-networking system  160  may include an authorization server that allows users  101  to opt in or opt out of having their actions logged by social-networking system  160  or shared with other systems (e.g., third-party systems  170 ), such as, for example, by setting appropriate privacy settings. Third-party system  170  may be accessed by the other components of network environment  100  either directly or via network  110 . In particular embodiments, one or more users  101  may use one or more client systems  130  to access, send data to, and receive data from social-networking system  160  or third-party system  170 . Client system  130  may access social-networking system  160  or third-party system  170  directly, via network  110 , or via a third-party system. As an example and not by way of limitation, client system  130  may access third-party system  170  via social-networking system  160 . Client system  130  may be any suitable computing device, such as for example, a personal computer, or a mobile device including a laptop computer, a mobile telephone, a smartphone, or a tablet computer. In particular embodiments, client system  130  may be mobile device, as described below. 
     One or more recommending users may provide personalized or curated recommendations for user  101  or a group of users that includes user  101 . A server of social-networking system  160  or third-party system  170  may receive one or more recommendations for user  101  provided by one or more recommending users. In particular embodiments, a recommending user may provide a recommendation for user  101  through a recommendation page hosted by social-networking system  160  or third-party system  170 . As an example and not by way of limitation, a recommendation page may include a selectable “recommend” icon or a selectable “like” icon associated with a particular item and a text box for providing an explanation for the recommendation. Social-networking system  160  may aggregate one or more recommendations to generate one or more recommendation graphs, described below, that may be stored in one or more data stores. As an example and not by way of limitation, a recommendation graph, described below, may be a subset of a social graph. 
     A server of social-networking system  160  or third-party system  170  may send one or notifications for user  101  to client system  130 . In particular embodiments, social-networking  160  or third-party  170  may select a particular recommendation from among the recommendations for user  101  based at least in part on a ranking of the recommendations. As an example and not by way of limitation, the recommendations for user  101  may be ranked based at least in part on social-graph information, the presence of information augmenting a recommendation, i.e. an explanation, or any combination thereof. In particular embodiments, a notification of the highest ranked recommendation may be sent to client device  130  associated with user  101 . As an example and not by way of limitation, the notification may include a recommendation with an explanation instead of a recommendation without a recommendation. As another example, if social-networking  160  or third-party  170  system sends multiple notifications that each correspond to a recommendation from a recommending user, the notifications may be sent in order of their ranking. Although this disclosure describes ranking recommendations using particular criteria, this disclosure contemplates ranking recommendations using any suitable criterion, such as for example, a relationship between the recommending user and the user based at least in part on social-graph information or a ranking of recommending users made by the user. 
     In particular embodiments, the notification may be displayed on a display of client system  130  associated with user  101 . As an example and not by way of limitation, a server of social-networking system  160  may send a signal initiating display of a modal window on one or more client systems  130  associated with user  101 . In particular embodiments, the content of the notification may be based at least in part on recommendation-graph information, as described below. As an example and not by way of limitation, the content the recommendation may be associated with a particular business at a particular geo-location. As described below, the content of the displayed notification may include information associated with the explanation associated with the recommendation to user  101 , such as for example, a particular business caters to a particular interest of user  101  as determined by a recommending user. In particular embodiments, social-networking system  160  or third-party system  170  may send the notification based on the current geo-location of client device  130  associated with user  101 . As an example and not by way of limitation, the content of the modal window may recommend a particular restaurant specializing in a particular cuisine when the current geo-location of user  101  is near or at the particular restaurant. Although this disclosure describes sending a particular form of notification, this disclosure contemplates any suitable form of notification sent or displayed on the client system associated with the user, such as for example, short-messaging service (SMS) messages, multi-media messaging service (MMS) messages, instant messaging, balloon, dialog box, or e-mail. In particular embodiments, the notification may include additional information associated with an item, such as for example, a webpage or link to a review associated with the item. 
     In particular embodiments, user  101  may access and browse or “mine” the recommendation graph for recommendations provided by recommending users associated with particular criteria of interest to user  101 . In particular embodiments, when user  101  queries the recommendation graph stored on social-networking system  160  through client system  130 , for example, one or more web servers may transmit data to a recommendation engine of social-networking system  160  to access the recommendation graph. In particular embodiments, client system  130  may send a social-networking-user identification (ID) to the recommendation engine. As an example and not by way of limitation, the recommendation engine may provide a list of recommendations accessed through the recommendation graph of the user based on the user ID. As another example, the recommendation engine may provide a subset of the recommendations of the recommendation graph based on one or more search criteria provided by user  101 . 
     This disclosure contemplates any suitable network  110 . As an example and not by way of limitation, one or more portions of network  110  may include an ad hoc network, an intranet, an extranet, a virtual private network (VPN), a local area network (LAN), a wireless LAN (WLAN), a wide area network (WAN), a wireless WAN (WWAN), a metropolitan area network (MAN), a portion of the Internet, a portion of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), a cellular telephone network, or a combination of two or more of these. Network  110  may include one or more networks  110 . 
     Links  150  may connect client system  130 , social-networking system  160 , and third-party system  170  to communication network  110  or to each other. This disclosure contemplates any suitable links  150 . In particular embodiments, one or more links  150  include one or more wireline (such as for example Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) or Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS)), wireless (such as for example WI-FI or Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX)), or optical (such as for example Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) or Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)) links. In particular embodiments, one or more links  150  each include an ad hoc network, an intranet, an extranet, a VPN, a LAN, a WLAN, a WAN, a WWAN, a MAN, a portion of the Internet, a portion of the PSTN, a cellular technology-based network, a satellite communications technology-based network, another link  150 , or a combination of two or more such links  150 . Links  150  need not necessarily be the same throughout network environment  100 . One or more first links  150  may differ in one or more respects from one or more second links  150 . 
       FIG. 2  illustrates an example recommendation graph associated with a particular user. As described above, the social-networking system may aggregate one or more recommendations provided by recommending users to generate recommendation graph  200  associated with a particular user. In particular embodiments, the social-networking system may store one or more recommendation graphs  200  in one or more data stores. In particular embodiments, recommendation graph  200  may include multiple nodes—which may include multiple recommending user nodes  202  or multiple item nodes  204 —and multiple edges  206  connecting the nodes. Example recommendation graph  200  illustrated in  FIG. 2  is shown, for didactic purposes, in a two-dimensional visual-map representation. In particular embodiments, a social-networking system  160 , client system  130 , or third-party system  170  may access recommendation graph  200  and related recommendation-graph information for suitable applications. The nodes  202  and  204 , and edges  206  of recommendation graph  200  may be stored as data objects, for example, in a data store (such as a recommendation-graph database). Such a data store may include one or more searchable or queryable indices of nodes  202  and  204 , or edges  206  of recommendation graph  200 . Although this disclosure illustrates and describes a particular recommendation graph formed using particular nodes and edges, this disclosure contemplates any suitable recommendation graph formed using any suitable nodes and edges in any suitable manner. 
     In particular embodiments, a recommending user node  202  may correspond to a user of the social-networking system. As an example and not by way of limitation, a recommending user may be an individual that interacts or communicates with or over the social-networking system. In particular embodiments, when a user provides a recommendation to the social-networking system, the social-networking system may create a recommending user node  202  corresponding to the recommending user, and store the recommending user node  202  in one or more data stores. Recommending users and recommending user nodes  202  described herein may, where appropriate, refer to registered recommending users and recommending user nodes  202  associated with registered recommending users. In addition or as an alternative, recommending users and recommending user nodes  202  described herein may, where appropriate, refer to users that have not registered with the social-networking system. In particular embodiments, a recommending user node  202  may be associated with information provided by a recommending user or information gathered by various systems, including the social-networking system. In particular embodiments, a recommending user node  202  may be associated with one or more data objects corresponding to information associated with a recommending user. 
     In particular embodiments, a item node  204  may correspond to an item. As an example and not by way of limitation, a item may correspond to a geo-location (such as, for example, a movie theater, restaurant, landmark, or city); a website (such as, for example, a website associated with the social-network system or a third-party website associated with a web-application server); an entity (such as, for example, a person, business, group, sports team, or celebrity); a resource (such as, for example, an audio file, video file, digital photo, text file, structured document, or application) which may be located within the social-networking system or on an external server, such as a web-application server; real or intellectual property (such as, for example, a sculpture, painting, movie, game, song, idea, photograph, or written work); a game; an activity; a concept or theory; another suitable item; or two or more such items. An item node  204  may be associated with information of a item provided by a recommending user or information gathered by various systems, including the social-networking system. As an example and not by way of limitation, information of a item may include a name or a title; one or more images (e.g., an image of the cover page of a book); a location (e.g., an address or a geographical location); a website (which may be associated with a URL); contact information (e.g., a phone number or an email address); other suitable item information; or any suitable combination of such information. In particular embodiments, item node  204  may be associated with one or more data objects corresponding to information associated with item node  204 . 
     As described above, recommendation graph  200  associated with the particular user may include one or more item nodes  204  connected to recommending user nodes  202  by an edge  206 . In particular embodiments, the social-networking system may create an edge (e.g. a “recommend” or “not recommend” edge) between a recommending user node  202  corresponding to the recommending user and item node  204  corresponding to, for example, a particular geo-location or resource and store edge  206  in one or more data stores in response to receiving a recommendation from a recommending user, as described below. As an example and not by way of limitation, the social-networking system may create a “recommend” or “not recommend” edge  206  in response to receiving a recommendation from a recommending user through a recommendation page. 
     In particular embodiments, edge  206  may include or represent one or more data objects or attributes associated with the recommendation of a item node  204  by a recommending user node  202 . As an example and not by way of limitation, a first user may “recommend” a particular restaurant to a second user. As another example, the first user may “not recommend” a particular television show to the second user. In the example of  FIG. 2 , a recommending user (user “B”) may recommend a particular business (“Milk Pail”). As another example, a recommending user (user “A”) may not recommend a particular book (“Atlas Shrugged”). As an example and not by way of limitation, the social-networking system may create a “recommend” edge  206  (as illustrated in  FIG. 2 ) between item nodes  204  corresponding to the song and the recommending user. As described above, as illustrated in  FIG. 2 , edge  206  between recommending user node  202  and item node  204  may represent a positive recommendation (i.e. “recommend”) or negative recommendation (i.e. “not recommend”). Although this disclosure describes particular attributes associated with particular edges, this disclosure contemplates any suitable attributes associated with any suitable edges connecting recommending user nodes and item nodes. 
     In particular embodiments, a recommending user providing a recommendation may augment the recommendation with an explanation. In particular embodiments, the explanation associated with the recommendation may be stored as one or more data objects or attributes of edge  206 . As an example and not by way of limitation, the recommending user may provide an explanation associated with the recommendation, such as for example, a particular restaurant specializes in a cuisine of interest to the particular user. In the example of  FIG. 2 , “recommend” edge  206  may correspond to the recommendation of an item (e.g. “Milk Pail”) by the recommending user (e.g. user “B”). As an example and not by way of limitation, the recommending user may provide an explanation to provide information augmenting the recommendation for the particular user, such as for example, the Milk Pail has a good selection of cheese. 
     As described above, the recommending user may provide a recommendation through the social-networking system. In particular embodiments, a recommendation may take the form of recommending (or not recommending) followed by the particular item associated with the recommendation, an explanation for the recommendation, and the particular user the recommendation is directed toward. As an example and not by way of limitation, an example syntax of a recommendation may be “recommend item for explanation to particular user”, where the item, explanation, and particular user indicates information provided by the recommending users. As described above, As an example and not by way of limitation, user “B” may provide a recommendation such as for example, recommend Milk Pail for great cheese selection to user “X”. The recommendation graph of user “X” may incorporate the example recommendation by generating a item node  204 A for “Milk Pail” and a recommending user node  202 A for user “B” with an edge  206 A connecting item node  204 A with recommending user node  202 A. Although this disclosure describes particular edges  206  with particular attributes connecting user nodes  202  and concept nodes  204 , this disclosure contemplates any suitable edges  206  with any suitable attributes connecting user nodes  202  and concept nodes  204 . Although this disclosure describes forming particular edges  206  in particular manners, this disclosure contemplates forming any suitable edges  206  in any suitable manner. Herein, references to users or concepts being connected may, where appropriate, refer to the nodes corresponding to those users or concepts being connected in recommendation graph  200  by one or more edges  206 . 
       FIG. 3  illustrates an example mobile device. In particular embodiments, the client system may be a mobile device  10  as described above. This disclosure contemplates mobile device  10  taking any suitable physical form. In particular embodiments, mobile device  10  may be a computing system as described below. As example and not by way of limitation, mobile device  10  may be a single-board computer system (SBC) (such as, for example, a computer-on-module (COM) or system-on-module (SOM)), a laptop or notebook computer system, a mobile telephone, a smartphone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a tablet computer system, or a combination of two or more of these. In particular embodiments, mobile device  10  may have a touch sensor  12  as an input component. In the example of  FIG. 3 , touch sensor  12  is incorporated on a front surface of mobile device  10 . In the case of capacitive touch sensors, there may be two types of electrodes: transmitting and receiving. These electrodes may be connected to a controller designed to drive the transmitting electrodes with electrical pulses and measure the changes in capacitance from the receiving electrodes caused by a touch or proximity input. In the example of  FIG. 3 , one or more antennae  14 A-B may be incorporated into one or more sides of mobile device  10 . Antennae  14 A-B are components that convert electric current into radio waves, and vice versa. During transmission of signals, a transmitter applies an oscillating radio frequency (RF) electric current to terminals of antenna  14 A-B, and antenna  14 A-B radiates the energy of the applied the current as electromagnetic (EM) waves. During reception of signals, antennae  14 A-B convert the power of an incoming EM wave into a voltage at the terminals of antennae  14 A-B. The voltage may be transmitted to a receiver for amplification. 
     In particular embodiments, the social-networking system or the third-party system may poll or “ping” mobile device  10  using a activation signal to obtain location information. As an example and not by way of limitation, the social-networking system may poll the application of mobile device  10  for location data by sending the activation signal activate the location service of mobile device  10 . The activation signal may be transmitted using a wireless communication protocol such as for example, WI-FI or third-generation mobile telecommunications (3G) and received by mobile device  10  through one or more antennae  14 A-B. In particular embodiments, the location service of mobile device  10  may use one or more methods of location determination, such as for example, using the location of one or more cellular towers, crowd-sourced location information associated with a WI-FI hotspot, or the global-positioning system (GPS) function of mobile device  10 . As described above, the social-networking system may, automatically and without manual input, determine a geo-location associated with mobile device  10  based in part on the location data provided by mobile device  10 . 
     In particular embodiments, the social-networking system may correlate the location of mobile device  10  with the recommendation-graph information associated with the user. As an example and not by way of limitation, the social-networking system may access one or more recommendations associated with the current geo-location of mobile device  10 . In particular embodiments, the social-networking system may send a notification to mobile device  10  associated with a user based at least in part on the current geo-location as determined by the location data of mobile device  10 . As an example and not by way of limitation, the notification may be a modal window displaying one or more recommendations on the display of mobile device  10 . Moreover, the content displayed in the modal window may include an explanation for the recommendation. As an example and not by way of limitation, the social-networking system may send a notification to mobile device  10  in response to determining mobile device  10  is currently near or at the “Milk Pail”. The notification may say “User B recommends the Milk Pail for good cheese selection.” In particular embodiments, the geo-location may include a pre-determined area encompassing the geo-location, a building associated with the geo-location, or a site associated with the geo-location. As an example and not by way of limitation, a geo-location may be a movie theater, restaurant, landmark, or city. Although this disclosure describes particular geo-locations, this disclosure contemplates any suitable geo-location. 
     As described above, the recommendation graph associated with the user stored on the social-networking system may be accessed through mobile device  10 . As an example and not by way of limitation, the user may access the recommendation graph associated with the user and view one or more recommendations stored in the recommendation graph through mobile device  10 . As an example and not by way of limitation, a user interested in restaurants may access one or more recommendations for restaurants stored in the recommendation graph associated with the user through mobile device  10 . The recommendations may be ranked by proximity to the current geo-location of mobile device  10  or the relationship between the user recommending user based at least in part on social-graph information. 
       FIG. 4  illustrates an example method for sending a recommendation for a particular user. The method may start at step  300 , where a server computing device receives a plurality of recommendations for a first user. In particular embodiments, each recommendation is made by one of a plurality of second users. As an example and not by way of limitation, each recommendation may include information that: identifies an item being recommended; provides an explanation for the recommendation; identifies the first user as an addressee of the recommendation; and identifies the second user as an author of the recommendation. At step  305 , the server computing device provides for presentation to the first user one or more of the recommendations, at which point the method may end. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates particular steps of the method of  FIG. 4  as occurring in a particular order, this disclosure contemplates any suitable steps of the method of  FIG. 4  occurring in any suitable order. Moreover, although this disclosure describes and illustrates particular components carrying out particular steps of the method of  FIG. 4 , this disclosure contemplates any suitable combination of any suitable components carrying out any suitable steps of the method of  FIG. 4 . 
       FIG. 5  illustrates an example method for receiving a recommendation for a particular user. The method may start at step  310 , where a mobile client computing device sends location data to a server computing device. In particular embodiments, the location data may correspond to a current geo-location of the mobile client computing device associated with a first user. At step  315 , receiving one or more recommendations for the first user from the server computing device in response to sending the location data, at which point the method may end. In particular embodiments, each recommendation is made by one of a plurality of second users. In particular embodiments, each recommendation includes information that: identifies an item being recommended; provides an explanation for the recommendation; identifies the first user as an addressee of the recommendation; and identifies the second user as an author of the recommendation. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates particular steps of the method of  FIG. 5  as occurring in a particular order, this disclosure contemplates any suitable steps of the method of  FIG. 5  occurring in any suitable order. Moreover, although this disclosure describes and illustrates particular components carrying out particular steps of the method of  FIG. 5 , this disclosure contemplates any suitable combination of any suitable components carrying out any suitable steps of the method of  FIG. 5 . 
       FIG. 6  illustrates example computing system. In particular embodiments, one or more computer systems  60  perform one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein. In particular embodiments, one or more computer systems  60  provide functionality described or illustrated herein. In particular embodiments, software running on one or more computer systems  60  performs one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein or provides functionality described or illustrated herein. Particular embodiments include one or more portions of one or more computer systems  60 . Herein, reference to a computer system may encompass a computing device, where appropriate. Moreover, reference to a computer system may encompass one or more computer systems, where appropriate. 
     This disclosure contemplates any suitable number of computer systems  60 . This disclosure contemplates computer system  60  taking any suitable physical form. As example and not by way of limitation, computer system  60  may be an embedded computer system, a system-on-chip (SOC), a single-board computer system (SBC) (such as, for example, a computer-on-module (COM) or system-on-module (SOM)), a desktop computer system, a laptop or notebook computer system, an interactive kiosk, a mainframe, a mesh of computer systems, a mobile telephone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a server, a tablet computer system, or a combination of two or more of these. Where appropriate, computer system  60  may include one or more computer systems  60 ; be unitary or distributed; span multiple locations; span multiple machines; span multiple data centers; or reside in a cloud, which may include one or more cloud components in one or more networks. Where appropriate, one or more computer systems  60  may perform without substantial spatial or temporal limitation one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein. As an example and not by way of limitation, one or more computer systems  60  may perform in real time or in batch mode one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein. One or more computer systems  60  may perform at different times or at different locations one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein, where appropriate. 
     In particular embodiments, computer system  60  includes a processor  62 , memory  64 , storage  66 , an input/output (I/O) interface  68 , a communication interface  70 , and a bus  72 . Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular computer system having a particular number of particular components in a particular arrangement, this disclosure contemplates any suitable computer system having any suitable number of any suitable components in any suitable arrangement. 
     In particular embodiments, processor  62  includes hardware for executing instructions, such as those making up a computer program. As an example and not by way of limitation, to execute instructions, processor  62  may retrieve (or fetch) the instructions from an internal register, an internal cache, memory  64 , or storage  66 ; decode and execute them; and then write one or more results to an internal register, an internal cache, memory  64 , or storage  66 . In particular embodiments, processor  62  may include one or more internal caches for data, instructions, or addresses. This disclosure contemplates processor  62  including any suitable number of any suitable internal caches, where appropriate. As an example and not by way of limitation, processor  62  may include one or more instruction caches, one or more data caches, and one or more translation lookaside buffers (TLBs). Instructions in the instruction caches may be copies of instructions in memory  64  or storage  66 , and the instruction caches may speed up retrieval of those instructions by processor  62 . Data in the data caches may be copies of data in memory  64  or storage  66  for instructions executing at processor  62  to operate on; the results of previous instructions executed at processor  62  for access by subsequent instructions executing at processor  62  or for writing to memory  64  or storage  66 ; or other suitable data. The data caches may speed up read or write operations by processor  62 . The TLBs may speed up virtual-address translation for processor  62 . In particular embodiments, processor  62  may include one or more internal registers for data, instructions, or addresses. This disclosure contemplates processor  62  including any suitable number of any suitable internal registers, where appropriate. Where appropriate, processor  62  may include one or more arithmetic logic units (ALUs); be a multi-core processor; or include one or more processors  62 . Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular processor, this disclosure contemplates any suitable processor. 
     In particular embodiments, memory  64  includes main memory for storing instructions for processor  62  to execute or data for processor  62  to operate on. As an example and not by way of limitation, computer system  60  may load instructions from storage  66  or another source (such as, for example, another computer system  60 ) to memory  64 . Processor  62  may then load the instructions from memory  64  to an internal register or internal cache. To execute the instructions, processor  62  may retrieve the instructions from the internal register or internal cache and decode them. During or after execution of the instructions, processor  62  may write one or more results (which may be intermediate or final results) to the internal register or internal cache. Processor  62  may then write one or more of those results to memory  64 . In particular embodiments, processor  62  executes only instructions in one or more internal registers or internal caches or in memory  64  (as opposed to storage  66  or elsewhere) and operates only on data in one or more internal registers or internal caches or in memory  64  (as opposed to storage  66  or elsewhere). One or more memory buses (which may each include an address bus and a data bus) may couple processor  62  to memory  64 . Bus  72  may include one or more memory buses, as described below. In particular embodiments, one or more memory management units (MMUs) reside between processor  62  and memory  64  and facilitate accesses to memory  64  requested by processor  62 . In particular embodiments, memory  64  includes random access memory (RAM). This RAM may be volatile memory, where appropriate Where appropriate, this RAM may be dynamic RAM (DRAM) or static RAM (SRAM). Moreover, where appropriate, this RAM may be single-ported or multi-ported RAM. This disclosure contemplates any suitable RAM. Memory  64  may include one or more memories  64 , where appropriate. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates particular memory, this disclosure contemplates any suitable memory. 
     In particular embodiments, storage  66  includes mass storage for data or instructions. As an example and not by way of limitation, storage  66  may include a hard disk drive (HDD), a floppy disk drive, flash memory, an optical disc, a magneto-optical disc, magnetic tape, or a Universal Serial Bus (USB) drive or a combination of two or more of these. Storage  66  may include removable or non-removable (or fixed) media, where appropriate. Storage  66  may be internal or external to computer system  60 , where appropriate. In particular embodiments, storage  66  is non-volatile, solid-state memory. In particular embodiments, storage  66  includes read-only memory (ROM). Where appropriate, this ROM may be mask-programmed ROM, programmable ROM (PROM), erasable PROM (EPROM), electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM), electrically alterable ROM (EAROM), or flash memory or a combination of two or more of these. This disclosure contemplates mass storage  66  taking any suitable physical form. Storage  66  may include one or more storage control units facilitating communication between processor  62  and storage  66 , where appropriate. Where appropriate, storage  66  may include one or more storages  66 . Although this disclosure describes and illustrates particular storage, this disclosure contemplates any suitable storage. 
     In particular embodiments, I/O interface  68  includes hardware, software, or both providing one or more interfaces for communication between computer system  60  and one or more I/O devices. Computer system  60  may include one or more of these I/O devices, where appropriate. One or more of these I/O devices may enable communication between a person and computer system  60 . As an example and not by way of limitation, an I/O device may include a keyboard, keypad, microphone, monitor, mouse, printer, scanner, speaker, still camera, stylus, tablet, touch screen, trackball, video camera, another suitable I/O device or a combination of two or more of these. An I/O device may include one or more sensors. This disclosure contemplates any suitable I/O devices and any suitable I/O interfaces  68  for them. Where appropriate, I/O interface  68  may include one or more device or software drivers enabling processor  62  to drive one or more of these I/O devices. I/O interface  68  may include one or more I/O interfaces  68 , where appropriate. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular I/O interface, this disclosure contemplates any suitable I/O interface. 
     In particular embodiments, communication interface  70  includes hardware, software, or both providing one or more interfaces for communication (such as for example, packet-based communication) between computer system  60  and one or more other computer systems  60  or one or more networks. As an example and not by way of limitation, communication interface  70  may include a network interface controller (NIC) or network adapter for communicating with an Ethernet or other wire-based network or a wireless NIC (WNIC) or wireless adapter for communicating with a wireless network, such as a WI-FI network. This disclosure contemplates any suitable network and any suitable communication interface  70  for it. As an example and not by way of limitation, computer system  60  may communicate with an ad hoc network, a personal area network (PAN), a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), a metropolitan area network (MAN), or one or more portions of the Internet or a combination of two or more of these. One or more portions of one or more of these networks may be wired or wireless. As an example, computer system  60  may communicate with a wireless PAN (WPAN) (such as for example, a BLUETOOTH WPAN), a WI-FI network, a WI-MAX network, a cellular telephone network (such as, for example, a Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) network), or other suitable wireless network or a combination of two or more of these. Computer system  60  may include any suitable communication interface  70  for any of these networks, where appropriate. Communication interface  70  may include one or more communication interfaces  70 , where appropriate. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular communication interface, this disclosure contemplates any suitable communication interface. 
     In particular embodiments, bus  72  includes hardware, software, or both coupling components of computer system  60  to each other. As an example and not by way of limitation, bus  72  may include an Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) or other graphics bus, an Enhanced Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) bus, a front-side bus (FSB), a HYPERTRANSPORT (HT) interconnect, an Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus, an INFINIBAND interconnect, a low-pin-count (LPC) bus, a memory bus, a Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) bus, a Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus, a PCI-Express (PCIe) bus, a serial advanced technology attachment (SATA) bus, a Video Electronics Standards Association local (VLB) bus, or another suitable bus or a combination of two or more of these. Bus  72  may include one or more buses  72 , where appropriate. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular bus, this disclosure contemplates any suitable bus or interconnect. 
       FIG. 7  illustrates example social graph  250 . In particular embodiments, social-networking system  160  may store one or more social graphs  250  in one or more data stores. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a recommendation graph that is separate from a social graph, this disclosure contemplates a recommendation graph having any suitable relationship with the social graph, such as for example, having nodes or edges common to the recommendation graph and social graph, or the recommendation graph being a subset of the social graph. In particular embodiments, social graph  250  may include multiple nodes—which may include multiple user nodes  252  or multiple concept nodes  254 —and multiple edges  256  connecting the nodes. Example social graph  250  illustrated in  FIG. 7  is shown, for didactic purposes, in a two-dimensional visual map representation. In particular embodiments, a social-networking system  160 , client system  130 , or third-party system  170  may access social graph  250  and related social-graph information for suitable applications. The nodes and edges of social graph  250  may be stored as data objects, for example, in a data store (such as a social-graph database). Such a data store may include one or more searchable or queryable indexes of nodes or edges of social graph  250 . 
     In particular embodiments, a user node  252  may correspond to a user of social-networking system  160 . As an example and not by way of limitation, a user may be an individual (human user), an entity (e.g. an enterprise, business, or third-party application), or a group (e.g. of individuals or entities) that interacts or communicates with or over social-networking system  160 . In particular embodiments, when a user registers for an account with social-networking system  160 , social-networking system  160  may create a user node  252  corresponding to the user, and store the user node  252  in one or more data stores. Users and user nodes  252  described herein may, where appropriate, refer to registered users and user nodes  252  associated with registered users. In addition or as an alternative, users and user nodes  252  described herein may, where appropriate, refer to users that have not registered with social-networking system  160 . In particular embodiments, a user node  252  may be associated with information provided by a user or information gathered by various systems, including social-networking system  160 . As an example and not by way of limitation, a user may provide his or her name, profile picture, contact information, birth date, sex, marital status, family status, employment, education background, preferences, interests, or other demographic information. In particular embodiments, a user node  252  may be associated with one or more data objects corresponding to information associated with a user. In particular embodiments, a user node  252  may correspond to one or more webpages. 
     In particular embodiments, a concept node  254  may correspond to a concept. As an example and not by way of limitation, a concept may correspond to a place (such as, for example, a movie theater, restaurant, landmark, or city); a website (such as, for example, a website associated with social-network system  160  or a third-party website associated with a web-application server); an entity (such as, for example, a person, business, group, sports team, or celebrity); a resource (such as, for example, an audio file, video file, digital photo, text file, structured document, or application) which may be located within social-networking system  160  or on an external server, such as a web-application server; real or intellectual property (such as, for example, a sculpture, painting, movie, game, song, idea, photograph, or written work); a game; an activity; an idea or theory; another suitable concept; or two or more such concepts. A concept node  254  may be associated with information of a concept provided by a user or information gathered by various systems, including social-networking system  160 . As an example and not by way of limitation, information of a concept may include a name or a title; one or more images (e.g. an image of the cover page of a book); a location (e.g. an address or a geographical location); a website (which may be associated with a URL); contact information (e.g. a phone number or an email address); other suitable concept information; or any suitable combination of such information. In particular embodiments, a concept node  254  may be associated with one or more data objects corresponding to information associated with concept node  254 . In particular embodiments, a concept node  254  may correspond to one or more webpages. 
     In particular embodiments, a node in social graph  250  may represent or be represented by a webpage (which may be referred to as a “profile page”). Profile pages may be hosted by or accessible to social-networking system  160 . Profile pages may also be hosted on third-party websites associated with a third-party server  170 . As an example and not by way of limitation, a profile page corresponding to a particular external webpage may be the particular external webpage and the profile page may correspond to a particular concept node  254 . Profile pages may be viewable by all or a selected subset of other users. As an example and not by way of limitation, a user node  252  may have a corresponding user-profile page in which the corresponding user may add content, make declarations, or otherwise express himself or herself. As another example and not by way of limitation, a concept node  254  may have a corresponding concept-profile page in which one or more users may add content, make declarations, or express themselves, particularly in relation to the concept corresponding to concept node  254 . 
     In particular embodiments, a concept node  254  may represent a third-party webpage or resource hosted by a third-party system  170 . The third-party webpage or resource may include, among other elements, content, a selectable or other icon, or other inter-actable object (which may be implemented, for example, in JavaScript, AJAX, or PHP codes) representing an action or activity. As an example and not by way of limitation, a third-party webpage may include a selectable icon such as “like,” “check in,” “eat,” “recommend,” or another suitable action or activity. A user viewing the third-party webpage may perform an action by selecting one of the icons (e.g. “eat”), causing a client system  130  to send to social-networking system  160  a message indicating the user&#39;s action. In response to the message, social-networking system  160  may create an edge (e.g. an “eat” edge) between a user node  252  corresponding to the user and a concept node  254  corresponding to the third-party webpage or resource and store edge  256  in one or more data stores. 
     In particular embodiments, a pair of nodes in social graph  250  may be connected to each other by one or more edges  256 . An edge  256  connecting a pair of nodes may represent a relationship between the pair of nodes. In particular embodiments, an edge  256  may include or represent one or more data objects or attributes corresponding to the relationship between a pair of nodes. As an example and not by way of limitation, a first user may indicate that a second user is a “friend” of the first user. In response to this indication, social-networking system  160  may send a “friend request” to the second user. If the second user confirms the “friend request,” social-networking system  160  may create an edge  256  connecting the first user&#39;s user node  252  to the second user&#39;s user node  252  in social graph  250  and store edge  256  as social-graph information in one or more of data stores  24 . In the example of  FIG. 7 , social graph  250  includes an edge  256  indicating a friend relation between user nodes  252  of user “A” and user “B” and an edge indicating a friend relation between user nodes  252  of user “C” and user “B.” Although this disclosure describes or illustrates particular edges  256  with particular attributes connecting particular user nodes  252 , this disclosure contemplates any suitable edges  256  with any suitable attributes connecting user nodes  252 . As an example and not by way of limitation, an edge  256  may represent a friendship, family relationship, business or employment relationship, fan relationship, follower relationship, visitor relationship, subscriber relationship, superior/subordinate relationship, reciprocal relationship, non-reciprocal relationship, another suitable type of relationship, or two or more such relationships. Moreover, although this disclosure generally describes nodes as being connected, this disclosure also describes users or concepts as being connected. Herein, references to users or concepts being connected may, where appropriate, refer to the nodes corresponding to those users or concepts being connected in social graph  250  by one or more edges  256 . 
     In particular embodiments, an edge  256  between a user node  252  and a concept node  254  may represent a particular action or activity performed by a user associated with user node  252  toward a concept associated with a concept node  254 . As an example and not by way of limitation, as illustrated in  FIG. 7 , a user may “like,” “attended,” “played,” “listened,” “cooked,” “worked at,” or “watched” a concept, each of which may correspond to a edge type or subtype. A concept-profile page corresponding to a concept node  254  may include, for example, a selectable “check in” icon (such as, for example, a clickable “check in” icon) or a selectable “add to favorites” icon. Similarly, after a user clicks these icons, social-networking system  160  may create a “favorite” edge or a “check in” edge in response to a user&#39;s action corresponding to a respective action. As another example and not by way of limitation, a user (user “C”) may listen to a particular song (“Ramble On”) using a particular application (SPOTIFY, which is an online music application). In this case, social-networking system  160  may create a “listened” edge  256  and a “used” edge (as illustrated in  FIG. 7 ) between user nodes  252  corresponding to the user and concept nodes  254  corresponding to the song and application to indicate that the user listened to the song and used the application. Moreover, social-networking system  160  may create a “played” edge  256  (as illustrated in  FIG. 7 ) between concept nodes  254  corresponding to the song and the application to indicate that the particular song was played by the particular application. In this case, “played” edge  256  corresponds to an action performed by an external application (SPOTIFY) on an external audio file (the song “Imagine”). Although this disclosure describes particular edges  256  with particular attributes connecting user nodes  252  and concept nodes  254 , this disclosure contemplates any suitable edges  256  with any suitable attributes connecting user nodes  252  and concept nodes  254 . Moreover, although this disclosure describes edges between a user node  252  and a concept node  254  representing a single relationship, this disclosure contemplates edges between a user node  252  and a concept node  254  representing one or more relationships. As an example and not by way of limitation, an edge  256  may represent both that a user likes and has used at a particular concept. Alternatively, another edge  256  may represent each type of relationship (or multiples of a single relationship) between a user node  252  and a concept node  254  (as illustrated in  FIG. 7  between user node  252  for user “E” and concept node  254  for “SPOTIFY”). 
     In particular embodiments, social-networking system  160  may create an edge  256  between a user node  252  and a concept node  254  in social graph  250 . As an example and not by way of limitation, a user viewing a concept-profile page (such as, for example, by using a web browser or a special-purpose application hosted by the user&#39;s client system  130 ) may indicate that he or she likes the concept represented by the concept node  254  by clicking or selecting a “Like” icon, which may cause the user&#39;s client system  130  to send to social-networking system  160  a message indicating the user&#39;s liking of the concept associated with the concept-profile page. In response to the message, social-networking system  160  may create an edge  256  between user node  252  associated with the user and concept node  254 , as illustrated by “like” edge  256  between the user and concept node  254 . In particular embodiments, social-networking system  160  may store an edge  256  in one or more data stores. In particular embodiments, an edge  256  may be automatically formed by social-networking system  160  in response to a particular user action. As an example and not by way of limitation, if a first user uploads a picture, watches a movie, or listens to a song, an edge  256  may be formed between user node  252  corresponding to the first user and concept nodes  254  corresponding to those concepts. Although this disclosure describes forming particular edges  256  in particular manners, this disclosure contemplates forming any suitable edges  256  in any suitable manner. 
     Herein, a computer-readable non-transitory storage medium or media may include one or more semiconductor-based or other integrated circuits (ICs) (such, as for example, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) or application-specific ICs (ASICs)), hard disk drives (HDDs), hybrid hard drives (HHDs), optical discs, optical disc drives (ODDs), magneto-optical discs, magneto-optical drives, floppy diskettes, floppy disk drives (FDDs), magnetic tapes, solid-state drives (SSDs), RAM-drives, SECURE DIGITAL cards or drives, any other suitable computer-readable non-transitory storage media, or any suitable combination of two or more of these, where appropriate. A computer-readable non-transitory storage medium may be volatile, non-volatile, or a combination of volatile and non-volatile, where appropriate. 
     Herein, “or” is inclusive and not exclusive, unless expressly indicated otherwise or indicated otherwise by context. Therefore, herein, “A or B” means “A, B, or both,” unless expressly indicated otherwise or indicated otherwise by context. Moreover, “and” is both joint and several, unless expressly indicated otherwise or indicated otherwise by context. Therefore, herein, “A and B” means “A and B, jointly or severally,” unless expressly indicated otherwise or indicated otherwise by context. 
     The scope of this disclosure encompasses all changes, substitutions, variations, alterations, and modifications to the example embodiments described or illustrated herein that a person having ordinary skill in the art would comprehend. The scope of this disclosure is not limited to the example embodiments described or illustrated herein. Moreover, although this disclosure describes and illustrates respective embodiments herein as including particular components, elements, functions, operations, or steps, any of these embodiments may include any combination or permutation of any of the components, elements, functions, operations, or steps described or illustrated anywhere herein that a person having ordinary skill in the art would comprehend. Furthermore, reference in the appended claims to an apparatus or system or a component of an apparatus or system being adapted to, arranged to, capable of, configured to, enabled to, operable to, or operative to perform a particular function encompasses that apparatus, system, component, whether or not it or that particular function is activated, turned on, or unlocked, as long as that apparatus, system, or component is so adapted, arranged, capable, configured, enabled, operable, or operative.