Patent Publication Number: US-2022211765-A1

Title: Use of stem cells expressing mesenchymal and neuronal markers and compositions thereof to treat neurological disease

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     The application is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/125,702, filed on Sep. 8, 2018 (published as US 2019/0000887), which claims priority to and is a Continuation of International Patent Application No. PCT/IB2017/051404, filed on Mar. 9, 2017 (published as WO 2017/153956) and claims priority to and is a Continuation-In-Part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/065,259 filed on Mar. 9, 2016 (issued as U.S. Pat. No. 11,207,352), which claims priority to and is a Continuation-In-Part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/214,016 filed on Mar. 14, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,790,468), which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/791,594 filed on Mar. 15, 2013 and to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/800,245 filed on Mar. 15, 2013. U.S. application Ser. No. 15/065,259 also claims priority to U.S. Provisional Applications No. 62/130,593, filed on Mar. 9, 2015; 62/130,585, filed on Mar. 9, 2015; and 62/220,792, filed on Sep. 18, 2015. Each of the foregoing applications is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This application relates to methods of producing stem cells, stem cells and compositions comprising stem cells suitable for the treatment of several diseases, especially neurological diseases, suitable for systemic administration. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Even though the genes responsible of neurodegenerative diseases and its protein have been identified, the mechanism of pathogenesis involved in these diseases is still unknown, which precludes the development of efficient therapeutic interventions. What is currently known is that although it is ubiquitously distributed, the mutant form of Huntington protein, for example, causes neurodegeneration and selective loss of medium spiny neurons, which preferentially occurs in the striatum and in the deeper layers of the cerebral cortex during the early phases of the disease. Thus, cell therapy has been investigated as an additional or alternative treatment which may contribute positively on the course of this disease and other similar neurodegenerative diseases. Stem cells are the essential building blocks of life, and play a crucial role in the genesis and development of all higher organisms. Due to neuronal cell death caused, for example, by accumulation of the mutated huntingtin (mHTT) protein, it is unlikely that such brain damage can be treated solely by drug-based therapies. Stem cell-based therapies are important in order to reconstruct morphological design and functional ability of neural tissue in damaged brain areas in patients. These therapies used to have a dual role: transplanted stem cells paracrine action (anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory, anti-scar, anti-bacterial and angiogenic actions), which stimulates local cell survival, inhibits inflammation and brain tissue regeneration through the production of bioactive molecules acting in favor of new neurons production from the intrinsic and likely from donor stem cells. 
     The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a gene responsible for BDNF protein expression found in the brain and spinal cord. This protein promotes the survival of nerve cells (neurons) by playing a role in the growth, maturation (differentiation), and maintenance of these cells. In the brain, the BDNF protein is active at the connections between nerve cells (synapses) where cell-to-cell communication occurs. The BDNF protein helps regulate synaptic plasticity, which is important for learning and memory and is found to be expressed in regions of the brain that control eating, drinking, and body weight. Thus, BDNF has additional action in modulating all these functions. Increasing evidence suggests that synaptic dysfunction is a key pathophysiological hallmark in neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer&#39;s disease. The deficits in BDNF signaling contribute to the pathogenesis of several major diseases and disorders such as Huntington&#39;s disease and depression. Thus, manipulating BDNF pathways represents a viable treatment approach to a variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders. Administration of BDNF alone offers a viable approach to treating neurodegenerative diseases. However, it is difficult to find an ideal dose for each patient because of genetic and individual polymorphism of neurodegenerative diseases manifestation. Overdoses of BDNF could induce tumor formation in the brain; on the other hand low BDNF doses could not provide an efficient treatment. Stem cells after transplantation are under the control of the patient biology, which can modulate BDNF secretion by the cells efficiently for each patient. Additionally, the studies investigating the benefits of stem cell transplantation for treating Alzheimer disease demonstrated that transplanted nerve stem cells (NSC) support the formation of new connections between host brain cells. These studies demonstrate that strengthening these connections can reverse memory losses in Alzheimer disease mouse models. It seems that BDNF, a factor naturally secreted by NSC, can replicate the effects produced by stem cell transplantation. 
     Once NSC is generally difficult to access and cannot be obtained in sufficient therapeutic quantities to be applied in stem cell therapy through intravenous (IV) injection. Typically, two strategies are used to increase BDNF secretion. First, is the addition of growth factors into culture medium of in vitro cultured stem cells in order to induce BDNF secretion. However, this strategy has great limitations due to the fact that stem cells produce this factor only under in vitro conditions. Consequently, when such cells are transplanted to a patient they rapidly spend the “stock” of BDNF, which prevents long term treatment of neurodegenerative disease. Another approach is to produce genetically manipulated stem cells which are suitably modified to overexpress BDNF. It is important to note that even NSC need to be genetically engineered to produce therapeutically sufficient levels of BDNF. However, gene modification has its roots in gene therapy—an approach that still has to be proven. Therefore, there is a great need for new cell types and cell culture methods which can lead to stem cells with elevated secretion of BDNF. 
     The subventricular zone (SVZ) is the unique brain area where new neurons are produced throughout life (Altman J and Das G D 1965) and in generating cells to function in repair through adulthood. Blood vessels immediately subjacent to the SVZ run parallel to the direction of tangential neuroblast migration, and guide migratory neuroblasts via BDNF signaling. It is now understood that the organization of the SVZ in the adult human brain differs significantly from that of any other studied vertebrates. Specifically, this region in the adult human brain contains a unique tape of astrocytes that proliferate in vivo and can function as NSC in vitro. Astrocytes in the central nervous system perform many important and diverse functions. They are involved in formation of the neuro-vascular unit which is composed of a neuron, an astrocyte and a blood vessel. Astrocyte processes extend to and interact with blood vessels. Astrocytic endfeet are in intimate contact with the basal lamina that is a component of the vessel wall and together with endothelial cells they form the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Isolation of stem cells, which have a capacity to migrate and home in a neurogenic niche as well as around blood vessels in the adult human brain, further being able to differentiate into neurons and glial cells, is a basis for the development of novel neurodegenerative cell therapies. 
     Dopamine (DA) is a major neurogenesis factor in the adult SVZ (Baker et al., 2004). The proximity of the SVZ with the striatum makes it a neurodegeneration therapy target for striatum-neurodegeneration associated disorders such as Huntington&#39;s disease (HD) and Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD). Both pathologies are characterized by different clinical symptoms of motor dysfunction, and both are thought to involve the SVZ-striatum DA micro-circuitry path through different mechanisms. The disease-generated DA innervation that occurs in HD is a natural protective feedback mechanism to compensate for the striatal internal neurons degeneration pathology caused by inherent genetic mutation (Parent M et al., 2013). Dysregulation of DA receptor D2 is a sensitive measure for Huntington disease pathology in model mice (Crook et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2013). In contrast, PD is associated with massive degeneration of DA neurons, due to impaired neurogenesis in the nigrostriatal area and is a major cause of the pathology (Hoglinger et. al., 2004). 
     The initial inflammatory response occurs in the body to limit the invasion of foreign bacteria or viruses or parasites and to defend tissues against molecular foes which are further removed from the organism by anti-inflammatory mechanisms. However, chronic inflammation (CI) is a double-edged sword. CI is long lasting event and it continuously harms and kills healthy cells as, for example, in rheumatoid arthritis where the inflammation becomes self-sustaining. 
     In neurodegenerative diseases several molecules of the protein are tightly aggregated together inside the cell, which pathologists call an “amyloid” structure, and they are apt to clog the brain. Such proteins were found in Alzheimer&#39;s disease—amyloid beta and tau; in Parkinson&#39;s disease—alpha synuclein, and in Huntington&#39;s disease—huntingtin. These aggregates often form large insoluble deposits in the brain. However, the truly toxic ones are considered the small, soluble aggregates of these proteins. Due to the accumulation of these aggregates in the brain, chronic inflammatory reactions remained in many age-related neurodegenerative disorders among which are aforementioned diseases (Nuzzo et al., 2014). 
     Degenerated tissue, the presence of damaged neurons and neurites, highly insoluble amyloid β peptide deposits, and neurofibrillary tangles in the brains of Alzheimer disease (AD) carriers provide obvious stimuli for inflammation (Zotova et al., 2010; Schott and Revesz, 2013). 
     Many studies have suggested that the chronic inflammation observed in AD accelerates the disease process and may even be a disease trigger. A history of head injury and systemic infections are factors, which typically cause brain inflammation and are known to be risk factors for AD. Excessive action of the brain&#39;s immune cells, which are glial cells, is another hallmark of Alzheimer&#39;s disease. Although it has been suggested that inflammation is associated with injury and toxicity to neurons, the relationship among glial cells, neurons and amyloid plaques still remains unclear. Inflammatory mediators released by glial cells can be extremely toxic to neurons. Thus, they have been considered as mediators of neurodegeneration. 
     Two closely related inflammation-promoting proteins, IL-12 and IL-23, are among those pumped out by microglia when the cells become immunologically active. The studies demonstrated that these proteins exist at elevated levels in the cerebrospinal fluid of AD patients. Blocking these inflammatory proteins in older Alzheimer&#39;s mice whose brains were already plaque-ridden reduced the levels of soluble, more toxic forms of amyloid beta and reversed the mice&#39;s cognitive deficits (Vom Berg et al., 2012; Griffin, 2013). 
     More recently, other anti-inflammatory approaches such as the blocking of a protein NLRP3 and microglial protein MRP14 have been described and also seem to work well in the same Alzheimer&#39;s mouse model. These approaches reduce brain inflammation, amyloid beta deposition, and cognitive impairments. In Alzheimer&#39;s mice that were genetically engineered to lack NLRP3, microglia were reversed back towards a non-inflammatory state in which they consume much more amyloid beta and secrete neuron beneficial proteins. In another study, a microglia protein MRP14 was targeted, which also helped to reverse microglia to a non-inflammatory state (Heneka et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2012). 
     The other factor which is critical for AD is aging. Aging may help trigger Alzheimer&#39;s by worsening common age-related problems with neurons, which become functionally deficient and lose their ability to transport and appropriately place proteins. Inflammation worsens this problem by increasing the production of amyloid-beta in inflamed regions, stressing neurons, and hastening the age-related decline of their protein-transport and disposal systems. Inflammation reactivates microglia into an inflammatory state and thus reduces their ability to clear up the brain (Swindell et al., 2013). 
     Currently, it is assumed that inflammation helps to start the AD process by increasing the production of amyloid beta. The inflammation seems to be self-sustaining in AD because it reduces the ability of microglia to remove amyloid beta. Therefore, constant deposition of amyloid beta does not allow the inflammation to resolve, which gets worse in aged AD carriers (Akiyama et al., 2000; Vom Berg et al., 2012; Zang et al., 2012; Griffin, 2013; Heneka et al., 2013; Swindell et al., 2013; Schott and Revesz, 2013). 
     The contribution of inflammation to neurodegeneration in Huntington disease (HD) is strongly suggested; however it is less studied then in AD (Soulet and Cicchetti, 2011; Ellrichmann et al., 2013). Thus, an activation of the immune system in HD was clearly proven by the elevated expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which are crucial to the body&#39;s immune response, such as, IL-6 and TNF-alpha. These pro-inflammatory cytokines were significantly increased in the striatum, plasma and CSF in mouse models and in symptomatic as well as presymptomatic HD patients. Additionally, innate immune cell hyperactivity was detected through elevated IL-6 production in mutant mHTT expressing myeloid cells of the central (microglia) and peripheral innate immune system (monocytes and macrophages) both in HD patients and mouse models. It has also been reported that abnormally high levels of cytokines were present in the blood of people carrying the HD gene many years before the onset of symptoms (Bjorkqvist et al., 2008; Trager et al., 2014a, b). The composition of cytokines and levels of their expression, which can be measured in a blood of patients, could be useful to establish the need to initiate intervention for therapies as well as the timing of therapies. 
     Blood cells, due to the presence of the abnormal HD protein (huntingtin) inside the cells, were hyperactive in HD patients, as well as microglia in the brain, thus suggesting that abnormal immune activation could be one of the earliest abnormalities in HD. The patient&#39;s blood signature could provide a new insight into the effects of the HD in the brain as well as markers of HD severity. Anomalous immune activation could be a target for future treatments aimed at slowing down HD (Soulet and Cicchetti, 2011, Ellrichmann et al., 2013). 
     Parkinson&#39;s disease is characterized by a slow and progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Using animal models researchers have obtained consistent findings about involvement of both the peripheral and the central nervous system immune components in response to inflammation, which initiates an immune response in PD. The presence of continuing and increasing pro-inflammatory mechanisms results in a process whereby cellular protective mechanisms are overcome and the more susceptible cells, such as the dopaminergic neurons, enter into cell death pathways, which leads to a series of events that are a crucial for the progression of PD (Doursout et al., 2013). Inflammatory responses also manifested by glial reactions, T cell infiltration, and increased expression of inflammatory cytokines, as well as other toxic mediators derived from activated glial cells, are well known features of PD. More recent in vitro studies, however, proposed that activation of microglia and subsequently astrocytes via mediators released by injured dopaminergic neurons is involved, even though they are unlikely to be a primary cause for neuronal loss (Hirsch et al., 2003). In patients the epidemiological and genetic studies support a role of neuroinflammation in the pathophysiology of PD. Post mortem studies confirm the involvement of innate as well as adaptive immunity in the affected brain regions in patients with PD. Activated microglial cells and T lymphocytes have been detected in the substantia nigra of patients concomitantly with an increased expression of pro-inflammatory mediators (Tufekci et al., 2012; Hirsch et al., 2012). Another study, which enrolled 87 Parkinson&#39;s patients between 2008 and 2012, together with 37 healthy controls measured markers of inflammation such as C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, eotaxin, interferon gamma-induced protein-10, monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) and macrophage inflammatory protein 1-beta in routine blood tests. All participants underwent physical exams as well. This study demonstrated that the degree of neuroinflammation was significantly associated with more severe depression, fatigue, and cognitive impairment even after controlling for factors such as age, gender and disease duration (Lindqvist et al., 2013). Neuroinflammatory processes might represent a target for neuroprotection, and anti-inflammatory strategies may be one of the principal approaches in the treatment of PD. 
     Multiple approaches have been tested to repair neurodegeneration-associated CNS diseases, including clinical motor dysfunction diseases (Wernig M, et al., 2011). Stem cells sources used for neuro-regeneration cell therapy include mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), neural progenitor cells (NP), human fetal neuronal stem cells (huNSC), and pluripotent stem cells (both embryonic (ESCs) and induced (iPSC)). Most of the studies on cell therapy for neurological conditions used neuronal-like cells through major cellular manipulation and/or highly invasive methods of delivery. For example, WO 2008/132722 and US Patent Application Publication No. 2013/0344041 disclose genetically manipulated stem cells to induce stem cell traits or to release neurotrophic factors; WO 2009/144718 and US Patent Applications Publication Nos. 2014/0335059 and 2014/0154222 disclose inducing the release of neurotrophic factors at levels higher than at non-induced stage via exposure to biological, natural or chemical compounds in culture; and other studies use immortalized cell line of fetal stem cells that express early markers of neuronal differentiation. In spite of the studies on stem cell therapy, no data have shown that stem cell therapy through intravenous (IV) injection can result in direct neurogenesis via BDNF secretion or D2 expression in brain compartments suffering from neurodegenerative disease. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In some aspects, the present invention refers to immature dental pulp stem cells (IDPSCs). 
     In one embodiment, the present invention refers human immature dental pulp stem cells (hIDPSCs) expressing CD44 and CD13 and lacking expression of CD146, obtained by method comprising: a) obtaining dental pulp (DP) from a human deciduous tooth; b) washing the DP with a solution containing antibiotics and placing the DP in a container with a culture medium; c) mechanically transferring the DP into another container with the culture medium after outgrowth and adherence of the hIDPSCs is observed to establish an explant culture; d) repeating steps b) and c) collecting hIDPSCs expressing CD44 and CD13 and lacking expression of CD146. 
     In another embodiment, the present invention is directed human immature dental pulp stem cells (hIDPSCs) expressing CD44 and CD13 and lacking expression of CD146, HLA-DR, and HLA-ABC, obtained by the method comprising: a) obtaining dental pulp (DP) from a human deciduous tooth; b) washing the DP with a solution containing antibiotics and placing the DP in a container with a culture medium; c) mechanically transferring the DP into another container with the culture medium after outgrowth and adherence of the hIDPSCs is observed to establish an explant culture; d) repeating steps b) and c) to collect hIDPSCs expressing CD44 and CD13 and lacking expression of CD146, HLA-DR, and HLA-ABC. 
     In some aspects, the hIDPSCs are obtained by a method that further comprises: e) confirming expression of CD44 and CD13 and lack of expression of CD146 in the hIDPSC by immunostaining a sample of the hIDPSC to detect the CD44, CD13, CD146, HLA-DR, and/or HLA-ABC. 
     In other aspects, the immunostaining involves analysis of the sample with flow cytometry. 
     In certain embodiments, steps b) and c) are repeated more than 5 times and hIDPSC are collected from explant cultures produced after 5 transfers of the DP. In other embodiments, steps b) and c) are repeated more than 10 times and hIDPSC are collected from explant cultures produced after 10 transfers of the DP. 
     In one aspect, the explant culture comprises semi-confluent colonies of hIDPSCs. In another aspect, the explant culture of hIDPSCs from step c) are passaged prior to collection. In yet another aspect, passaging of the explant culture of hIDPSCs comprises enzymatic treatment of the hIDPSCs and transfer of the hIDPSCs to expand the explant culture. 
     In some embodiments, the hIDPSCs of the present invention are obtained by a method comprising: extracting dental pulp (DP) from a tooth; culturing the DP in basal culture medium in a first container to establish a DP explant culture, wherein the DP explant culture is cultured without or with at least one extracellular matrix components selected from the group consisting of: fibronectin, collagen, laminin, vitronectin, polylysine, heparan sulfate proteoglycans, and enactin; mechanically transferring the DP to a second container to establish a second DP explant culture; repeating the step of mechanically transferring the DP until at least 15 DP explant cultures have been established; passaging the DP explant culture to produce a passaged DP culture; and combining the passaged DP culture of an early harvest population and an late harvest population to produce the pharmaceutical composition, wherein the early harvest population comprises passaged DP culture established from at least one of the first 15 DP explant cultures and the late harvest population comprises passaged DP culture established from at least one of the DP explant cultures after the 15th DP explant culture. In some implementations, the culturing step occurs under hypoxic conditions. In some implementations, the step of combining the passaged DP culture of the early harvest population and the late harvest population to produce the pharmaceutical composition comprises: simultaneously thawing the frozen stock of passaged DP cultures of the early harvest population and the late harvest population; and pooling the thawed passaged DP culture to produce a pharmaceutical composition. 
     For some embodiments culturing the DP in basal culture medium in the method of production persists for at least three days before the DP is mechanically transferred. In some implementations, the method of production further comprises creating a frozen stock of the passaged DP culture. In some aspects, the frozen stock of the passaged DP culture is created at the third passage of the DP explant culture. 
     In some embodiments, the invention is directed to hIDPSCs obtained by method comprising: extracting dental pulp (DP) from a tooth; culturing the DP in basal culture medium in a first container to establish a DP explant culture, wherein the stem cells comprising late harvest enriched from tissue of neural crest origin are double positive for CD44 and CD13. In some aspects, the stem cells enriched from tissue of neural crest origin and double positive for CD44 and CD13 are immature dental pulp stem cells (IDPSCs). 
     In some embodiments, the invention is directed to is directed to hIDPSCs obtained by a method comprising: extracting dental pulp (DP) from a tooth; culturing the DP in basal culture medium in a first container to establish a DP explant culture, wherein the stem cells comprising late harvest enriched from tissue of neural crest origin demonstrated increasing level of secretion of endogenous BDNF and/or other neurotrophic factors (NF3, NF4 and NF5), when compared to stem cells obtained from early harvest. In some aspects, the stem cells enriched from tissue of neural crest origin and secreting high level of endogenous BDNF and/or other neurotrophic factors (NF3, NF4 and NF5) are immature dental pulp stem cells (IDPSCs). 
     In yet other embodiments, the hIDPSCs of the present invention are obtained by methods that produce hIDPSCs which express of CD44 and CD13 and lack expression of CD146 which enables the hIDPSCs to cross the BBB and/or lack of expression of CD146, HLA-DR, and/or HLA-ABC which prevents rejection of the hIDPSCs by immune cells. 
     In one embodiment, the hIDPSCs of the present invention are obtained by methods that produce stem cells expressing at least one safety marker selected from the group consisting of ATP-binding cassette sub-family G member 2 (ABCG2), p53, and inactive nanog. Inactive nanog is expressed nanog localizing predominantly in the cytoplasm of the stem cell. In some aspects, at least 75% of the stem cells express ABCG2, at least 75% of the stem cells express p53, or no more than 5% of the stem cells express inactive nanog. Some stem cells further express the safety marker SOX2. In some such embodiments, no more than 30% of the stem cells express SOX2. 
     The hIDPSCs of the present invention are further obtained by methods that produce stem cells that may further secrete at least one marker selected from the group consisting of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), neutrotrophin-3 (NT3), neutrotrophin-4 (NT4), neutrotrophin-5 (NT5), and p75. In some such embodiments, the stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition express BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75 (CD271). 
     In another embodiment, the hIDPSCs of the present invention are obtained by methods that produce stem cells that express at least one neuroepithelial stem cell marker selected from the group consisting of BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75. In some aspects, the stem cells produced by the methods of the present invention express BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75. These cells may further express at least one safety marker selected from the group consisting of ABCG2, inactive nanog, p53, and SOX2. In some aspects, at least 75% of stem cells express the at least one marker when the at least one marker is ABCG2. In some aspects, at least 75% of the stem cells express p53. In some aspects, no more than 5% of the stem cells express inactive nanog. In some aspects, no more than 30% of the stem cells express SOX2. 
     In one embodiment, the invention is directed to stem cells, wherein the stem cells comprise late harvest enriched from tissue of neural crest origin. In some implementations, the tissue of neural crest origin is dental pulp. In some aspects, the stem cells enriched from tissue of neural crest origin are immature dental pulp stem cells (IDPSCs). Early harvest stem cells enriched from tissue of neural crest origin comprise IDPSCs of the first fifteen or the first 25 harvest cycles whereas late harvest stem cells comprise IDPSCs from the sixty or later or the 26th or later harvest cycle. 
     In yet other embodiments, the invention comprises hIDPSCs which express of CD44 and CD13 and lack expression of CD146 which enables the hIDPSCs to cross the BBB and/or lack of expression of CD146, HLA-DR, and/or HLA-ABC which prevents rejection of the hIDPSCs by immune cells. 
     In one embodiment, the invention refers to stem cells expressing at least one safety marker selected from the group consisting of ATP-binding cassette sub-family G member 2 (ABCG2), p53, and inactive nanog. Inactive nanog is expressed nanog localizing predominantly in the cytoplasm of the stem cell. In some aspects, at least 75% of the stem cells express ABCG2, at least 75% of the stem cells express p53, or no more than 5% of the stem cells express inactive nanog. Some stem cells further express the safety marker SOX2. In some such embodiments, no more than 30% of the stem cells express SOX2. 
     The stem cells of the present invention may further secrete at least one marker selected from the group consisting of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), neutrotrophin-3 (NT3), neutrotrophin-4 (NT4), neutrotrophin-5 (NT5), and p75. In some such embodiments, the stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition express BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75 (CD271). 
     In another embodiment, the stem cells of the present invention express at least one neuroepithelial stem cell marker selected from the group consisting of BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75. In some aspects, stem cells of the present invention express BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75. These cells may further express at least one safety marker selected from the group consisting of ABCG2, inactive nanog, p53, and SOX2. In some aspects, at least 75% of stem cells express the at least one marker when the at least one marker is ABCG2. In some aspects, at least 75% of the stem cells express p53. In some aspects, no more than 5% of the stem cells express inactive nanog. In some aspects, no more than 30% of the stem cells express SOX2. 
     In some embodiments, the present invention is directed to compositions comprising hIDPSCs produced according to the methods disclosed herein. 
     In some embodiments, the present invention is directed to a composition comprising the hIDPSCs disclosed herein. 
     In other embodiments, the present invention relates to pharmaceutical compositions for use in the treatment of a neurological disease or condition selected from the group consisting of Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD), multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), stroke, ischemia, autoimmune encephalomyelitis, diabetic neuropathy, glaucomatous neuropathy, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Huntington&#39;s disease (HD), autism, schizophrenia, a motor disorder, and a convulsive disorder. 
     The present invention further relates to pharmaceutical compositions for systemic administration to a subject to treat a neurological condition. The neurological disease or condition may be a neurodegenerative disease or condition, autism, schizophrenia, epilepsy, stroke, ischemia, a motor disorder, or a convulsive disorder. Neurodegenerative disease or condition may be Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD), multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), stroke, autoimmune encephalomyelitis, diabetic neuropathy, glaucomatous neuropathy, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, or Huntington&#39;s disease (HD). 
     The present invention also relates to methods of using the hIDPSCs and/or pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention to treat neurological diseases or conditions. 
     The present invention also relates a method of treating a neurological disease or condition comprising administering to a subject the hIDPSCs and/or pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention. 
     In some embodiments, the administration of the hIDPSCs and/or pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention is systemic and is administered to a subject in need thereof. 
     In some embodiments of the invention, such methods support the natural neuro-protective mechanism in subjects diagnosed with early HD or repairing lost DA neurons in subjects diagnosed with PD. The methods may also be used as a preventive therapy for subjects at risk of HD. 
     In one embodiment of the methods, the neurological disease or condition is treated by the stem cells and/or pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention crossing the blood/brain barrier (BBB) and inducing neurogenesis. In some aspects, the hIDPSCs are directly transplanted into the brain parenchyma, including striatum, following crossing of the BBB. In some embodiments, the induced neurogenesis is dopamine-associated. For example, dopamine-associated neurogenesis occurs through self-differentiation of the stem cells or activation of migration and differentiation of intrinsic stem cells by the extrinsic stem cells. In some aspects, massive dopamine-associated neurogenesis takes place in the subventricular zone (SVZ). 
     In some embodiments of the methods, hIDPSCs and/or the pharmaceutical composition provide neuroprotection. For example, systemic neuroprotection is provided with the high basal level of neurotrophic and immunoprotective factors expression and release pattern of the stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition. In some aspects, these stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition are IDPSCs. 
     In some implementations, the methods further comprise measuring the amount of DA receptor in the subject. In some aspects, the DA receptor is receptor D2. In some embodiments, measuring the amount of DA receptor, for example receptor D2, in the subject comprises imaging the subject to detect presence of DA receptor. 
     In some aspects, the subject is administered a single administration or a first and second administrations of the pharmaceutical composition. The repetitive (from 1 to six) administrations of the hIDPSCs and/or pharmaceutical composition take place at least seven days, at least 14 days, at least 21 days, or at least 30 days after the first administration, as well as one time per year, or twice per year. In some implementations, administration of the hIDPSCs and/or pharmaceutical compositions is through intravenous injection. In some implementations, the administration of the pharmaceutical composition may be repeated annually, for example, repeated three times. 
     In some implementations of the methods, the hIDPSCs and/or pharmaceutical composition comprising stem cells, comprise stem cells that are autologous to the subject. For example, stem cells autologous to the subject are collected from the subject before disease manifestation from contingently “healthy cells”, given that most of these diseases are genetic and age dependent. In other implementations, the hIDPSCs and/or pharmaceutical composition comprising hIDPSCs that are allogeneic to the subject regardless of whether the major histocompatibility complex expressed by the stem cells match the major histocompatibility complex expressed by subject. The pharmaceutical composition may also comprise a combination of stem cells that are autologous to the subject and stem cells that are allogeneic to the subject. 
     In one aspect, the present invention is directed to a method of preventing neuron loss in the central nervous system (CNS) of a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject hIDPSCs and/or a pharmaceutical composition comprising hIDPSCs, wherein the hIDPSCs express CD44 and CD13. 
     In another aspect, the present invention provides a method of promoting neuron cell growth and repair in the CNS of a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject hIDPSCs and/or a pharmaceutical composition comprising hIDPSCs, wherein the hIDPSCs express CD44 and CD13. 
     In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method of increasing expression of dopamine- and cAMP-regulated neuronal phosphoprotein (DARPP-32), dopamine receptor D2, and/or brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the CNS of a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject hIDPSCs and/or a pharmaceutical composition comprising hIDPSCs, wherein the hIDPSCs express CD44 and CD13. 
     In certain aspects, administration of the hIDPSCs and/or pharmaceutical composition is systemic. In one aspect, the systemic administration is intravenous or intraperitoneal. 
     In other aspects, the present invention relates to hIDPSCs and/or a pharmaceutical composition comprising hIDPSCs expressing CD44 and CD13 for use in the treatment of a neurological disease or condition selected from the group consisting of Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD), multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), stroke, autoimmune encephalomyelitis, diabetic neuropathy, glaucomatous neuropathy, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Huntington&#39;s disease (HD), autism, schizophrenia, stroke, ischemia, a motor disorder, and a convulsive disorder. 
     In yet other aspects, the present invention is directed to the use of hIDPSCs and/or a pharmaceutical composition comprising hIDPSCs expressing CD44 and CD13 for the treatment of a neurological disease or condition selected from the group consisting of Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD), multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), stroke, autoimmune encephalomyelitis, diabetic neuropathy, glaucomatous neuropathy, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Huntington&#39;s disease (HD), autism, schizophrenia, stroke, ischemia, a motor disorder, and a convulsive disorder. 
     The present invention also relates to methods of using the hIDPSCs and/or pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention to prepare medicaments to treat neurological diseases or conditions. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  depicts immunophenotyping of hIDPSC from early and late harvests. Harvests 0-10 were defined as early harvests. All harvests that had more than 10 harvests were defined as late harvests. 
         FIG. 2  depicts IDPSC at late harvest (13 harvests) and at passage 3. The cells were immunopositive for P75 (CD271) (A, C, D), nestin (E-G), CD13 (H) and CD73 (I), and they did not react with CD146 (J) and HLA-ABC (K). Insets, depict the control for respective secondary antibodies. A-G Light Microscopy. H-L Epi-Fluorescence. Magnification: A,J—20×; C,E-G,H,I,L—10×; D,K—40×. 
         FIG. 3  depicts in a) CFU-F assay performed in triplicate at T20, passage 3, demonstrating high clonogenic capacity of a LP population of IDPSCs. In b) and c) FACS analysis performed to show that LP (late population) IDPSCs (batch #11) comprise approximately 80% cells that express BDNF and DARPP 32 while EP early population IDPSCs are negative for these markers (data not shown) and comprise a very low number of the cells which express D2. 
         FIG. 4A  depicts positive immunostaining for BrdU (B-J) in control cells with a secondary antibody.  FIGS. 4B and 4C  depict quantification of LP (late population) IDPSCs which react positively with a BrdU antibody. (A)—Epi-fluorescence, (B) and (C)—FACS analysis. Magnification (A)—200×. (B, E and H)—400×. (C,F,I,D,G and J)—1000×. 
         FIG. 5  depicts quantitative PCR for expression of endogenous Oct4, Nanog and Sox2 genes observed in hIDPSCs before (black color) and after reprogramming (white color) as well as in human embryonic stem cells (hESC) (striped). 
         FIG. 6  depicts the quantification of GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein) and beta-III-tubulin expression in EP (early population) and LP (late population) IDPSCs by flow cytometry. 
         FIG. 7  depicts a flow cytometry analysis of EP (early population) and LP (late population) hIDPSC. Changes in CD146 and CD13 expression were observed following in vitro DP harvesting and hIDPSC passing. For EP-hIDPSC, ˜33% of CD146 positive cells were observed, while for LP-hIDPSC, less than 1% of the cells were positive for this marker. For EP-hIDPSC ˜52% of CD13 positive cells were observed, while for LP-hIDPSC 95% of the cells were positive for this marker. 
         FIG. 8  depicts immunostaining of IDPSC isolated from dental pulp of C57BL-6 mice. IDPSC are positive for Oct4 (A-B) with the expression mainly located in the nucleus. The cells are also positive for Nanog, although the expression is limited in the (C). Symmetrical division was observed in Nanog+ cells (D). Two Sox2+ IDPSC and one Sox2− cell resulted from symmetric and asymmetric division (E). Symmetrical division of Sox2+ cell, nuclear protein localization can be observed (F). Asymmetrical division of cells Sox2+ more committed daughter loss Sox2 expression (G). A-C: 200×. D-G: 400×. 
         FIG. 9  depicts the switch from symmetric to asymmetric neural stem cell divisions in the optic lobe. 
         FIG. 10  depicts the expression of undifferentiated LSCs and differentiated corneal cells proteins (as an example of limbal neuroectodermal lineage) in IDPSCs grown on plastic substrate for seven days in different culture media. IDPSCs cultured in Epilife, DMEM/KO, KSFM, and SHEM culture media lacked expression of ABCG2 (A 1 -A 4 ). However, expression of ABCG2 was detected in IDPSCs cultured in DMEM/F12, also known as basal culture medium (A 5 ). These cells developed a fibroblast-like morphology. IDPSCs cultured in Epilife, KSFM, and DMEM/F12 lacked expression of CK3/12 (B 1 , B 3 , B 5 ). However, IDPSC cultured DMEM/KO and SHEM expressed CK3/12 and had an epithelial cell-like morphology (B 2 , B 4 ). Epi-fluorescence (EF). Nucleus stained with DAPI (blue). Scale bars: 10 μm for A 1 -A 4 , B 1 , B 2 , and B 4 ; 5 μm for A 5 , B 3 , and B 5 . 
         FIG. 11  depicts the expression of undifferentiated LSCs and differentiated corneal cells markers in IDPSCs grown during seven days in different culture media on amniotic membrane (AM). Vimentin was detected in IDPSCs grown in DMEM/F12, SHEM, KSFM and DMEM/KO culture media (A and A 1 -A 3 ). ABCG2 was detected in IDPSCs grown in basal culture media and SHEM (B and B 1 ) but not in IDPSC grown in KSFM and DMEM/KO (B 2  and B 3 ). CK3/12 expression was not detected in IDPSC cultured DMEM/F12, SHEM and KSFM (C, C 1 , and C 2 ). Some IDPSCs expressing CK3/12 were detected in IDPSCs grown in DMEM/KO (C 3 ). These IDPSCs expressing CK3/12 have fibroblast-like morphology. Nucleus stained with DAPI (blue). EF. Scale bars: A 1 -A 4 , B 1 , B 2 , B 4 =10 μm; A 5 , B 3 , B 5 =5 μm. 
         FIG. 12  depicts pharmacological efficacy studies of investigational product CELLAVITA™ (stem cells). 
         FIG. 13  depicts a scheme for the manufacturing process of compositions of IDPSCs comprising both early and late population IDPSCs suitable for the treatment of neurological diseases and conditions. 
         FIG. 14  depicts a time line of stability studies of hIDPSC during long term cryopreservation, following thawing and shipping before local of application in animal models of human diseases. 
         FIG. 15  depicts the timeline of the pilot study in the HD disease model. HD was induced during the first four days, day 0 (D0) to day 4 (D4) by administering 3-NP. On the fifth day (D5), IDPSC transplantation was administered via intravenous injection. Animals were euthanized on day 9 (D9) followed by fixation of brain tissues and histological analysis of the lesions for the detection of IDPSCs biodistribution and engraftment (Vybrant+immunohistochemistry using specific antibodies). 
         FIG. 16  depicts the timeline for the Group I study in the HD disease model. HD was induced during the first four days, day 0 (D0) to day 4 (D4). On the fifth day (D5), IDPSC transplantation was administered via intravenous injection. Animals were euthanized on day 35 (D35) followed by brain tissues fixation and histological analysis of lesion for detection of IDPSC biodistribution and engraftment (Vybrant+immunohistochemistry using specific antibodies). 
         FIG. 17  lists the “global biomarkers” (i.e. internationally-accepted) used for the evaluation of 3-NP-induced neurodegeneration process as well as the effect of IDPSCw transplantation on this process. 
         FIG. 18  depicts the localization of markers used for evaluation of neurodegeneration. The red circles point to the usual locations of HD lesions and form scar tissue, which marked with positive expression of collagen I. In health areas, the expression of GABAergic and receptor D2 proteins can be observed. Engraftment of hIDPSCs after IV administration is shown by detection of human nucleus using immunohistochemistry and by colocalization of CD73 and hIDPSC using immunofluorescence. 
         FIG. 19  depicts the engraftment of hIDPSCs after intravenous injection into the animals. Optical cuts demonstrate at different depth of focus (A 1 -A 4 ) the presence of hIDPSC stained with Vybrant (green), nuclei stained with PI (red). The cells demonstrate capillary predominant association and different morphological types: neuron-like cells and pericytes (A 6 ). On A 2 -A 4 , two pericytes at different location along capillary can be observed. Both present similar morphology. On A 4 , embranchment of axon is also shown. A 5  presents a scheme of neuron morphology inside brain tissues showed in A 2 -A 4 . Neurons nuclei are light with nucleolus, which has observably differences than nuclei that are strongly stained. Blue-artificial color of confocal microscope. Epifluorescence+Digital Interference contrast (DIC). Scale bar=10 μm. 
         FIG. 20  depicts the engraftment of hIDPSCs four days after IV administration. Optical cut demonstrates hIDPSC stained with Vybrant (green) and positively reacted with anti-hIDPSC antibody (red). Superposition of both produces yellow color. The cells demonstrate near capillary localization. Two markers for MSC were used: CD73 and CD105 demonstrating positive reaction with hIDPSC (A-D). E. Positive control hIDPSC cultured in vitro. Confocal microscope. Epifluorescence+Digital Interference contrast (DIC). Scale bar: A=5 μm; B=10 μm; C=20 μm; D=5 μm. 
         FIG. 21  depicts immunohistochemistry results using anti-human nuclei (hNu) anti-body. Few hIDPSCs cells can be observed in the cortex of the rat brain while multiple cells can be observed in the striatum. Light microscopy. 90×. Scale bars: 5 μm (left) and 25 μm (right). 
         FIG. 22  depicts immunohistochemistry results of the brain 30 days after IDPSCs injection using anti-human nuclei (hNu) anti-body. The blue circles point to cells that present triangular neuron-like body. The size of the triangular-bodied cells is indicative of the cells being “neurons.” The white circle point to a fibroblast-like cell. Light microscopy. 90×. 
         FIG. 23  depicts immunohistochemistry results of the brain using anti-human nuclei (hNu) anti-body. In blue circles hIDPSCs localized in striatum and in SVZ are shown. Light microscopy. 90× 
         FIG. 24  depicts positive DARPP32 immunostaining for neurons in CELLAVITA™ (stem cells)-treated animals 30 days after hIDPSC transplantation (A, B) Untreated animals (3-NP+saline) showing no DARPP32 immunostaining in the striatum or cortex. (C, D) Rat neuron production in the cortex and striatum of hIDPSC-treated animals. Circled in blue, area with neurons in (C) and higher magnification in (D). Light microscopy. Magnification: 20× and 90×. 
         FIG. 25  depicts the expression of receptor D2 in the striatum of HD rat model before administration of IDPSC and 30 days after administration of IDPSC. Samples from animals with scores 3 and 2 are of animals treated with 3-NP but did not receive IDPSC treatment. In the score 2 sample, only a few receptor D2 positive cells could be observed while no such cells could be observed in the score 3 sample. Sample from animals with score 1 is of an animal treated with 3-NP and IDPSC. In the score 1 sample, multiple receptor D2 positive cells could be seen. Inset high magnification demonstrated the details of immunostaining and neuron morphology. 
         FIG. 26  depicts the experimental design for Group II and III in order to study the effects of multiple IDPSC transplantations and elevated cell doses in HD disease model. 
         FIG. 27  depicts an example scheme of how to determine the extent of motor deterioration in rats with HD induced by 3-NP. 
         FIG. 28  depicts the body weight of pilot study animals before 3-NP induction, after 3-NP induction (day 4), and after treatment with IDPSCs (hIDPSCs). 
         FIG. 29  depicts the body weight of Group II and Group III animals before 3-NP induction and after 3-NP induction. 
         FIG. 30  depicts the body weight of Group II animals after 3-NP induction and 30 days after treatment with hIDPSCs. 
         FIG. 31  depicts the body weight of Group III animals after 3-NP induction and 30 days after treatment with hIDPSCs. 
         FIG. 32  depicts the timeline of the pilot study in the HD disease model (groups I, II, III, and IV). HD was induced during the first four days, day 0 (D0) to day 4 (D4) by 3-NP. On the fifth day (D5), IDPSC transplantation was administered via intravenous injection. Animals were euthanized on day 9 (D9) followed by brain tissue fixation and histological analysis of lesion for detection of IDPSC biodistribution and engraftment (Vybrant+immunohistochemistry using specific antibodies). Group I and III were euthanized on day 35 (D35) and groups II and IV on day 95 followed by brain tissues fixation and histological analysis of lesion for detection of IDPSC biodistribution and engraftment (Vybrant+immunohistochemistry using specific antibodies). 
         FIG. 33  presents localization of hIDPSC in rat brain tissue four days after hIDPSC administration. hIDPSC cells were stained green (Vybrant) and nuclei were stained red (PI) (A 1 -A 4 ). Cells were localized mainly in capillaries and two morphological types were observed: neuron-like cells and pericytes. Note the different localization of pericytes in capillaries in A 2 , A 3 , and A 4 ; in A 4 , hIDPSCs are localized in the axon bifurcation. A 5 : neuron morphology in brain tissues (A 2 -A 4 ); A 6 : schematic figure of brain capillary showing pericyte localization. Confocal microscopy. Epifluorescence+Digital interference contrast (DIC) microscopy. Scale bar=10 μm. 
         FIG. 34  depicts the engraftment of hIDPSCs four days after IV administration. Optical cut demonstrates hIDPSC stained with Vybrant (green) and positively reacted with anti-hIDPSC antibody (red). Superposition of both produces yellow color. The cells demonstrate near capillary localization. Two markers for MSC were used: CD73 and CD105 demonstrating positive reaction with hIDPSC (A-D). E. Positive control hIDPSC cultured in vitro. Confocal microscope. Epifluorescence+Digital Interference contrast (DIC). Scale bar: A=5 μm; B=10 μm; C=20 μm; D=5 μm. 
         FIG. 35  depicts immunohistochemical images showing positive anti-human nuclei (hNu) staining of hIDPSCs and their localization in rat brain tissue 30 days after hIDPSC administration. Note: A few hIDPSCs in the cortex (left) and a large number of hIDPSCs in the corpus striatum (right). Light microscopy. 90× magnification. Scale bars: 5 μm and 25 μm, respectively. 
         FIG. 36  shows an immunohistochemical image of rat brain tissue after the injection of 3-NP and the administration of hIDPSC. Note: positive anti-human nuclei (hNu) immunostaining in cells. Neuron-like cells are circled in blue, and fibroblast-like cells are circled in white. Light microscopy, 90× magnification. 
         FIG. 37  depicts Nissl Staining in the Striatum of Untreated Animals (3-NP+saline) (a-b1); Control Animals (no 3-NP or hIDPSC) (c, c1); and Treated Animals (3-NP+hIDPSC) (d-f1). Different scores were observed in the experimental groups: score 1 (a, a1, d, and d1); score 2 (b, b1, e, and e1); and score 3 (c, c1, f, and f1). Area of extensive degeneration (a, a1); severe (d, d1), moderate (b, b1, e, and el), mild (f, f1), and no (c, c1) neuron loss. Magnification: 10× (a-f) and 20× (a-f1). Insets in (b, c, e, and f) show typical Nissl-stained neuron morphology (40×). Light microscopy (a-f). 
         FIG. 38  depicts DARPP32 immunostaining in the corpus striatum of untreated animals (3-NP+saline) (a-b), Controls (no 3-NP or hIDPSC) (c), and Treated Animals (3-NP+hIDPSC) (d-e1). In (a) no immunostaining (blue arrow, score 1), (b) few DARPP32+ cells (score 2), and (c) Control animals (no 3-NP or hIDPSC) showing positive DARPP32 immunostaining (score 3). In (d, d1), neuron loss in Treated animals (3-NP+hIDPSC), with few DARPP32-stained cells (score 2) (black arrow). In (e, e1), strong anti-DARPP-32 immunostaining (score 3). Insets (a, b, c, d1) show DARPP32+neurons (black arrow) (40×). HE (hematoxylin and eosin)-stained nuclei in blue. Magnification: 10× (a, c, d, and e) and 20× (d, e1). 
         FIG. 39  depicts neuronal growth in the striatum of rats after hIDPSC. Administration of hIDPSC resulted in a neuroreparative effect in hIDPSC-treated animals by (A) Nissl staining and (B) DARPP32 expression. (C) Number of animals showing neuron recovery after hIDPSC administration compared to the Controls. Most hIDPSC-treated animals (3-NP+hIDPSC) had scores 3 and 2 (moderate and mild), whereas most Untreated animals (3 NP+saline) had scores 2 and 1 (severe and moderate). 
         FIG. 40  depicts BDNF expression in rat brain tissue after (a-f) 3-NP injection and (g-j) CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) administration (a, b). Absence of BDNF expression seven days after 3-NP injection and (c, d) low expression after 30 days (e, f). Control animals (no 3-NP or CELLAVITA™ (stem cells). BDNF expression 7 (g, h) and 30 (i, j) days after CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) administration. Magnification: 10× (a, c, e, f, g, and h) and 20× (b, d, i, and j). 
         FIG. 41  depicts DARPP32 expression in the striatum of rats 30 days after CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) administration in a 3-NP model of HD. Confocal microscopy, overlapping images in A. Epifluorescence+Digital interference contrast (DIC) microscopy. B-D: Epifluorescence. Scale bar: 10 μm. 
         FIG. 42  depicts the effect of hIDPSC administration on body weight in treated (3-NP+hIDPSC) and untreated animals (3-NP+Saline). Body weight was recorded before and 4 days after 3-NP administration and after each hIDPSC administration (every 30 days). No increase in body weight was observed in 3-NP-treated animals 30, 60, and 90 days after 3-NP administration. Body weight in hIDPSC-treated animals (1×10 6  dose) increased after the first hIDPSC administration. 
         FIG. 43  depicts representative figures of BDNF expression in the brain of 3-NP treated animals 4 days after hIDPSC intravenous transplantation. Strong BDNF secretion observed in cortex ( 1   a , 1   b ). Lower BDNF secretion showed in hippocampus ( 1   c , 1   d ). Strong BDNF expression observed in striatum ( 1   e ,  1   f ). Control 3-NP group did not show BDNF secretion in the same brain regions ( 2   a - 2   f ). Light microscopy. Magnification 20× in  1   a ,  1   c ,  1   e ,  2   a ,  2   c ,  2   e ; Magnification 40× in  1   b ,  1   d ,  1   f ,  2   b ,  2   d ,  2   f  Arrows in  1   b  and  1   d  and asterisks in  1   e  and  1   f  demonstrate BDNF secreting cells. Nuclei counterstained with HE (hematoxylin and eosin). 
         FIG. 44  depicts representative BDNF expression in the brain of 3-NP treated animals 30 days after hIDPSC intravenous transplantation. Strong BDNF secretion was observed in cortex ( 1   a ,  1   b ). Lower BDNF secretion was observed in the hippocampus ( 1   c ,  1   d ). Strong BDNF expression was observed in the striatum ( 1   e ,  1   f ). The control 3-NP group did not show BDNF secretion in the same brain regions ( 2   a - 2   f ). Light microscopy. Magnification 20× in  1   a ,  1   c ,  1   e ,  2   a ,  2   c ,  2   e ; Magnification 40× in  1   b ,  1   d ,  1   f ,  2   b ,  2   d ,  2   f . Arrows in  1   b  and  1   d  and asterisks in  1   e  and  1   f  demonstrate BDNF secreting cells. 
         FIG. 45  depicts the experimental designs for all HD disease model studies in order to evaluate functional characteristics of HD-induced rats after IDPSC transplantation. 
         FIG. 46  depicts the principle difference between normal MSC and ES (or iPS) cells. Tumor formation is correlation with ES and iPS cells but not with normal MSC. 
         FIG. 47  depicts a scheme for the mechanism of the efficacy of hIDPSC in inducing neurogenesis and providing neuroprotection. 
         FIG. 48  depicts an early phase development process for CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) isolation and batch formulation. 
         FIG. 49  depicts another early phase development manufacturing process for CELLAVITA™ (stem cells). 
         FIG. 50  depicts a CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) production process composed of several major steps. 
         FIG. 51  depicts safety studies of investigational product CELLAVITA™ (stem cells). 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     As used herein, the verb “comprise” as is used in this description and in the claims and its conjugations are used in its non-limiting sense to mean that items following the word are included, but items not specifically mentioned are not excluded. In addition, reference to an element by the indefinite article “a” or “an” does not exclude the possibility that more than one of the elements are present, unless the context clearly requires that there is one and only one of the elements. The indefinite article “a” or “an” thus usually means “at least one”. 
     As used herein, the term “high expression” in reference to the expression level (strongly immunopositive for antigen of interest) of a gene in a population of cells refers at least 75% of the population expressing the gene. 
     As used herein, the term “low expression” in reference to the expression level of a gene in a population of cells refers no more than 30% of the population expressing the gene. In preferred embodiments, low expression refers no more than 25% of the population expressing the gene. 
     As used herein, the term “no expression” in reference to the expression level of a gene in a population of cells refers no detectable cells that express the gene of interest in the population. No detectable expression includes an expression level that is within the realm of error for the method of measuring expression. 
     As used herein, the term “subject” or “patient” refers to any vertebrate including, without limitation, humans and other primates (e.g., chimpanzees and other apes and monkey species), farm animals (e.g., cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and horses), domestic mammals (e.g., dogs and cats), laboratory animals (e.g., rodents such as mice, rats, and guinea pigs), and birds (e.g., domestic, wild and game birds such as chickens, turkeys and other gallinaceous birds, ducks, geese, and the like). In some implementations, the subject may be a mammal. In other implementations, the subject may be a human. 
     As used herein, the term, “stem cell” refers immature, unspecialized cells that, under certain conditions, may differentiate into mature, functional cells. 
     As used herein, the term, “neural stem cell” or “NSC” refers to multipotent cells that self-renewable and able to terminally differentiate into neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. 
     As used herein, the term “neural progenitor cells” refer to undifferentiated cells further along the stage of cell differentiation than neural stem cells. Thus these cells are derived from neural stem cells and can produce progeny that are capable of differentiating into more than one cell type of central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). 
     As used herein, the term “neural precursor cell” or “NPC” refers to a mixed population of cells consisting of neural stem cells and all of its undifferentiated progeny. Therefore NPCs include both NPC and NSC. The NPCs can also be categorized into neuronal NPCs and glial NPCs, which produce neurons and glial cells, respectively. 
     As used herein, the term “harvest cycle” constitutes a transfer of the orgão (e.g. of neural crest origin like dental pulp) or tissue to a new cell culture container after adherence and outgrowth of the stems cells in the tissue followed by preservation (e.g. cryopreservation) and/or sub-culturing of the outgrowth of IDPSCs. Stem cells isolated from the first time from organ culture (dental pulp) using explant technology are early populations, thus stem cells isolated from the first harvest cycle (first transfer of organ culture) are early population cells. For example, of stem cells isolate from dental pulp tissue, stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) cannot be divided in early and late population, as these cells are isolated using enzymatic method only once from dental pulp, which are discarded after SHED isolation. Thus, only one SHED cell population can be isolated. Further, following enzymatic digestion, SHED can be passed from one to other cell culture flask thus counting cell passages, which generally are performed when SHED reach semi-confluence. 
     In contrast to SHED for immature dental pulp stem cells (IPDSCs) enzymatic method is not used. IDPSCs can be isolated as from explant culture of the dental pulp after the first adherence of DP to plastic and cells outgrowth—early population cells. At this stage dental pulp is not discarded and used for subsequent explant dental pulp cultures—late populations. Thus, IDPSC isolated from the second or later harvest cycle are late population cells. For example, IPDSCs that are isolated from the second harvest cycle or later are late population undifferentiated stem cells. As used herein, the term “early passage” refers to the cells from the first five passages of an explant culture. As used herein, the term “late passage” refers to the cells from passages after the fifth passage, e.g. in the sixth passage or later, of an explant culture. Thus, the IDPSC may be from an early or late population and additionally categorized as an early or late passage. 
     The present invention relates to the discovery that a particular composition of IDPSC, the unique stem cells population, which composed by early and late stem cells populations, from tissue of neural crest origin can cross the blood/brain barrier (BBB) and induce neurogenesis. Tissue of neural crest origin include, for example, dental, periodontal, and hair follicular tissue. Hair follicular tissue includes follicular tissue of the vibrissa. 
     The hIDPSC was evaluated in the 3-NP (three nitropropionic acid) HD rat model. The hIDPSC showed engraftment into the rat brain after 1 month following intravenous injection of 1×10 6  and 1×10 7  cell/transplant (3×10 6  cell/kg and 3×10 7  cell/kg) labeled with fluorescent protein (Vibrant), as well as, following immunohistochemistry analysis using specific anti-human antibody. Cell engraftment was observed in different brain compartments (cortex, striatum and Subventricular zone-SVZ). 
     The ability to cross the BBB enables systemic administration (e.g. IV administration) of stem cell therapy to treat neurological conditions, which provides a significant advantage over more localized methods of administration. In addition to systemically administration being less invasive, leaving stem cells to migrate to locations that require aid reduces the risk of harmful cell masses developing at the site of administration. For example, while intrathecal (IT) administration of stem cell therapy is commonly contemplated in preclinical and clinical studies, this method can have significant risk when the stem cells are MSCs. It has been reported that depending on cellular density, bone marrow-derived MSCs that were drawn into brain parenchyma (presumably in response to chemoattractant signals from this inflammation) via intracerebroventricular (ICV) formed cellular masses in 64% of severe experimental allergic encephalomyelitis animals. Karyotypically normal MSCs at early passages also induced masses in naïve animals (Grigoriadis et al., 2011). Therefore, MSCs implanted directly within the CNS may by themselves produce local pathology of yet unknown consequences (Snyder et al., 2011). The volume of these masses appeared to correlate with cellular density. Therefore cell number as well as number of application can be limited and risky factors for IT and ICV applications in contrast to IV. 
     The composition of IDPSC may be in the form of a pharmaceutical composition comprising stem cells expressing a mesenchymal and neuroepithelial stem cell immunophenotypes. In some implementations, expressing a mesenchymal and a neuroepithelial stem cell molecular profile is the expression of markers of MSC and neuroepithelial cells/progenitor cells and genes encoding neuro-protective and immuno-protective factors. 
     Cells expressing a MSC immunophenotype include expression of CD44. Prior animal models of multiple sclerosis found that NCS adhesion to inflamed endothelial cells and then trans-endothelial migration across the BBB into the inflamed CNS areas are sequentially mediated by the constitutive expression of functional cell adhesion molecules (CAM), especially CD44 (Rampon C et al., 2008). Although the exact mechanism of how hIDPSC are able to cross BBB is not clear, it is believed that these cells have this capacity because they have perycite-like characteristics (Barros et al., 2014). Perycites are known to play a critical role in the integration of endothelial and astrocyte functions at the neurovascular unit, and in the regulation of the BBB (Armulik et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2012). According to a previous study (Yilmaz et al., 2011), mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) can engraft into brain after systemic administration due to expression of CD44, which is a ligand of E and L blood vessel endothelial selectins (Dimitroff, et al., 2001). MSC present similar homing mechanisms as leukocytes. The first step of leukocyte migration involves capture of leukocytes flowing freely in the blood stream, mediated by glycoproteins known as selectins. P- and E-selectins are expressed by the vascular endothelium and are the principal mediators for the rolling response in leukocyte migration through blood vessels (Luster et al., 2005). MSC may use this or similar mechanisms to engraft in several organs (Sackstein et al., 2008) such as the brain. Thus, CD44 is considered a pivotal factor for MSC migration into the brain. Similarly to BM MSC, hIDPSC express CD44, which suggests that CD44 is also involved in hIDPSC migration towards several organs (Barros et al., 2014, Castanheira et al., 2013) including the brain after intravenous administration. Surprisingly, that, hIDPSC express also CD13, (aminopeptidase N) (Kerkis et al., 2006; Kerkis and Caplan, 2012), which is multifunctional protein and plays varying roles in cell migration, cell proliferation, cell differentiation (Taylor et al., 1993; Mina-Osorio et al., 2008a/b). CD13 participates in angiogenesis generating and modulating angiogenic signals, in the process of capillary tube formation, and as a marker of angiogenic vessels (Bhagwat et al., 2001). This suggests its possible role in hIDPSC capacity to migrate and to target brain vasculature. In the 3-NP rat study, hIDPSC demonstrated tight association with brain capillaries. 
     In some embodiments, the IDPSC lack expression of CD146, HLA-DR, and/or HLA-ABC. Lack of expression of these markers facilitates the use of hIDPSC as a safe, heterologous therapy. The endothelium plays an important role in the exchange of molecules, but also of immune cells between blood and the underlying tissue. The endothelial molecule S-Endo 1 antigen (CD146) is preferentially located at endothelial junctions and has been claimed to support endothelial integrity. Thus, in humans, MCAM (CD146) is expressed in T cells (3%) in the peripheral circulation of healthy individuals. MCAM positive T cells also demonstrate an increased ability to bind to endothelial monolayers and these cells could represent early components of the adaptive immune response (Dagur et al., 2015). Therefore, stem cells, which express this marker may bind to BBB and not cross BBB, as well as being immune reactive. 
     The mesenchymal stem cell genotype pattern also includes low expression of pluripotent markers OCT3/4 and nanog. Interesting, the undifferentiated stem cells of pharmaceutical composition of the invention need not express c-Myc, KLf-4, and REX-1. In fact, these stem cells may be negative for c-Myc, KLf-4, and REX-1. 
     Stem cells expressing a neuroepithelial stem cell molecular profile express at least one, preferably two, more preferably more than two NPC- and NSC-biomarkers selected from the group consisting of vimentin, nestin, SOX2, p75, and other neurotrophic factors essential for neural cells development and survival. p75 is a neurotrophic receptor marker. In the recent works, it was hypothesized that normalization of p75NTR and/or TrkB expression or their signaling will improve BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) neuroprotective therapies in Huntington&#39;s disease (Brito et al., 2013). 
     Exemplary neurotrophic factors essential for neuronal development and survival include BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor), GNDF (glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor), NGF (nerve growth factor), and NTs (neurotrophins). BNDF plays a critical role in Huntington&#39;s disease (Gauthier et al.; Strand et al.) and Parkinson&#39;s disease (Mogi et al.), both of which are dopamine-associated neurodegenerative diseases. Several studies demonstrate that wild-type HD-overexpressed htt protein increases BDNF expression in CNS cells, whereas the mutated htt protein leads to down-regulation of BDNF, resulting in insufficient neurotrophic support and neuronal cell death (Zuccato et al., 2001). The brains of AD patients have reduced NGF levels (Calissano et al.); however, NGF administration can partially reduce cholinergic atrophy in aged rodents (Fischer W et.al). In some embodiments, the preferred NGF is NGF-β. NTs essential for neuronal development and survival include NT3, NT4, or NT5. NT4 and NT5 are known to promote sensory and motor axon growth. 
     In some implementations, the stem cells comprise cells autologous to a subject in need of the pharmaceutical composition. In other implementations, the stem cells comprise cells allogeneic to the subject in need of the pharmaceutical composition. In some implementations, stem cells comprise a combination of cells autologous to and allogeneic to the subject in need of the pharmaceutical composition. 
     In one embodiment, the composition of stem cells is isolated from tissue of neural crest origin selected from the group consisting of dental tissue, periodontal tissue, and hair follicular tissue. In preferred embodiments, the tissue of neural crest origin is dental pulp. In a most preferred embodiment, the stem cells are from immature dental pulp, for example, human immature dental pulp stem cells (IDPSCs) as disclosed in International Application no. PCT/IB14/59850 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/2140,016. IDPSCs carry multiple neuronal markers and undergo robust differentiation into neurons. The novelty of IDPSC immunophenotype is unexpected expression of these markers and at the same time markers typical for MSC, presenting immunophenotype in accordance with the International Society for Cellular Therapy&#39;s minimal criteria for defining multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (Dominici et al., 2006). This combination of expression by IDPSC of MSC and multiple neuronal markers is not typical for MSCs (Dominici et al., 2006) and which has not been disclosed for MSCs. 
     Pharmaceutical compositions contemplated in the invention are preferably isotonic. For intravenous injection, the population of immature stem cells should be between 10 4 -10 10  cells per injection, for example, 10 4 , 10 5 , 10 6  and 10 7  cells per kg of body weight. The pharmaceutical composition comprising a population of stem cells may be used in adjunction to other pharmaceutically active compounds or modalities. Thus in some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition may further comprise another pharmaceutically active compound or therapeutic modality. 
     Mesenchymal Stem Cells 
     In the body, MSCs are found in bone marrow, umbilical cord tissue, dental pulp and fat pads. However, in bone marrow MSCs are relatively rare, comprising only one out of every 10,000 cells, while other sources are significantly richer in these cells. In organism MSCs are responsible for tissue regeneration in cases of disease, trauma or injury throughout human life. This function of MSCs is mediated by their capacities for self-renewal and plasticity (the capacity for differentiation—production of diverse cell types). MSCs can be isolated from aforementioned tissues and cultured easily in the laboratory. After obtaining a limited number of the cells from a patient, MSCs can be multiplied rapidly in vitro and cryopreserved for the future clinical applications. 
     MSCs are able to secrete a variety of bioactive molecules, such as cytokines, which provide “trophic activities” by structuring a regenerative microenvironment, and other molecules that contribute to immunomodulatory cell functions and even to transfer products as large as mitochondria to damaged cells that need help. When transplanted in vivo, MSCs in response to chemotactic stimuli, can migrate to the focal injury from both local and surrounding sites. Additionally, MSCs can act to reduce chronic inflammation, to inhibit apoptosis, to provide the appearance of myofibroblasts, to inhibit scar formation and to stimulate the mitosis of tissue-intrinsic progenitors, thus remodeling damaged tissue. That is why MSCs are also called “Medicinal Signaling Cells.” They stimulate angiogenesis, the process of new blood vessel formation, which is closely linked to neurogenesis, the process by which new nerve cells are produced. Blood vessels play an important role as a framework for neuronal progenitor cells migration toward the damaged brain region The factors secreted by MSCs also reduce the destructive effects of oxidative harm. Using all these mechanisms of action MSCs can significantly improve lesioned microenvironment that leads to restoration of the damaged cells. Therefore, MSCs are believed to be “cellular paramedics”. 
     When MSCs obtained from humans were labeled, in order to track them, and injected into mice that had some type of tissue damage, they migrated throughout the damaged tissues apparently evenly. These cells can or not to be present in the tissue for a substantial period of time, which depends on disease model. The continued presence of MSCs is important, but not essential, to therapeutic development because it indicates that potential positive long-term effects of a treatment might be capable of persisting. 
     It is important to understand, that temporary presence of MSCs is not a result of the host immune system action, because the experiment in injured mice, with or without functional immune systems yielded the same results. Further investigations demonstrated that MSCs suppress the immune system and reduce inflammation. In other words, MSCs can be transferred between organisms demonstrating very low immune rejection, which occurs when the immune system of the organism attacks the foreign tissue, receiving the transplant. This finding makes MSCs good candidates for transplantation or injection into a host because they can avoid rejection by the host&#39;s immune system (Le Blank, Ringden, 2006; English, 2012; Miguel et al., 2012; Griffin et al., 2012; Ankrum et al., 2014). 
     The crucial question of cellular therapies is a route of MSCs delivery into the brain, which has been approached in a number of different ways. Several approaches have been proposed to deliver MSCs into the brain such as, intrathecal, intravenous, an injection into the space surrounding the spinal cord and even a route through the nose. In early development, as a result of complex multicellular interactions between immature endothelial cells and neural progenitors, neurons, radial glia, and pericytes, which shared similar features with MSCs, the blood/brain barrier (BBB) is formed and it controls selective molecular or cells trafficking between the bloodstream and brain interstitial space. The BBB present significant problems for the delivery of therapeutic agents (drugs or cells) for treating brain malignancies and neurodegenerative disorders. Systemically-infused MSCs may treat acute injuries, inflammatory diseases, stroke of the central nervous system (CNS) and even brain tumors because of their regenerative capacity and ability to secrete trophic, immune modulatory, or other engineered therapeutic factors. However, whether MSCs possess the ability to migrate across the BBB in normal and pathological conditions remains unresolved (Liu et al., 2013). 
     Systemic infusion (e.g. IV) of MSCs expanded in vitro is minimally invasive and convenient procedure that is used in the large number of ongoing clinical trials. Therefore, it is essential to understand if transplanted MSCs can home and engraft at ischemic and injured sites in the brain to exert their therapeutic effects. No data has yet to suggest or disclosed that systemic delivery of minimally manipulated MSCs may result in direct transplantation of cells into the brain through the BBB. 
     The simplicity with which MSCs can be obtained, cultured, as well as their unique “trophic activities” and possibility of their transfer into a host without immune rejection are the reasons why stem cell therapy with MSCs is a promising avenue to for treating neurological diseases and conditions, for example neurodegeneration. According to recent publications, MSCs can support repair neurodegeneration by secreting trophic factors, which are proteins that stimulates differentiation and survival of cells. The effects of these factors allow nerve cells to carry out several processes that can support survival: axon extension, growth, and cells attachment. Although are evidences that MSCs can promote cell growth and repair in the brain, it is not yet definitively confirmed that MSCs can become mature nerve cells with the ability to signal, or communicate with, other nerve cells. 
     Previous studies have tested the potential of MSC therapy in HD animal models (chemical models where HD is induced by QA or 3-NP and transgenic mouse lines R6/2-J2, N171-82Q, and R6/2). However, while the authors called the cells tested MSCs, these cells were not confirmed as having the immunophenotype typical for MSCs as defined by the International Society for Cellular Therapy (Dominici et al., 2006). These pre-clinical studies used allogeneic and xenogeneic primary culture and immortalized cell lines from the bone marrow, adipose tissue, and umbilical cord blood grown under normal levels of oxygen (normoxia) or under low levels of oxygen (hypoxia), as well as, mononuclear cells. Thus these studies have not established that cells considered as MSCs by the International Society for Cellular Therapy may be successfully employed to treat neurological diseases without previous special manipulation in culture. 
     The number of cells used in these experiments varied from 10 5 , 2×10 5 , 4×10 5 , 5×10 5 , and up to 10 6  per hemisphere/striatum. The time of administering MSCs transplantation varied significantly across the studies with the time being 1-3 days, 2-4 weeks, and 8 weeks. These cells were found in the brain after direct grafting, but direct intrabrain delivery is a highly invasive and risky procedure. Thus these studies have not demonstrated that minimally invasion methods of administering stem cell therapy, such as systemic administration by IV injection, could be used. 
     All but one of the studies used the cells at passages no higher than 10. The exclude study used mouse umbilical cord blood-derived (mUBC-derived) MSCs at passages 40 and 50. Interestingly, the study observed that expression of marker of pluripotent stem cells, such as stage specific embryonic antigen-4 (SSEA4) increased with passaging and that transplantation of high-passage mUCB-derived MSCs confer significant motor benefits unlike transplantation with low-passage mUCB-derived MSCs. Unfortunately, potential pluripotent origin and high risk of karyotype mutation due to higher passage numbers put clinical applications at risk. 
     In contrast to these studies, the present invention provides a method of treating neurological diseases and condition that uses a unique population of IDPSC having the immunophenotype typical for MSCs as defined by the International Society for Cellular Therapy effective even with a minimally invasive administration, for example through classic IV route of delivery. 
     As demonstrated by these previous studies on treating HD with supposed MSCs, one hope for treating neurodegenerative diseases is using stem cells. Unfortunately, only treatment with administering fetal donor tissue to the striatum proceeded to clinical trial, and it was only a small trial. 
     Cell therapies in HD are intended to protect neuronal populations susceptible to disease and/or replace dysfunctional or dying neurons. Thus clinical progress in HD cell therapy has been centered on establishing protocols for transplanting fetal-derived cells into the diseased striatum. This strategy is helping the development for stem cell therapy in the clinic and provides a period of several years of improvements and stability, but not permanent cure for disease (Bachoud-Levi et al., 2006). The long-term follow up over a 3- to 10-year postoperative period of the patients concludes that fetal striatal allografting in HD is safe. However, no sustained functional benefit was seen, perhaps due to the small amount of cells that was grafted in this safety study compared with other reports of more successful transplants in patients with HD (Barker et al., 2013). 
     Use of stem cells therapies is inevitable since intracellular and cellular mechanisms are involved into HD phenotype. Stem cell therapy may also accelerate the process of brain tissue regeneration. Stem cells are an important therapy, which will help to rebuild an area of the brain that was most damaged in HD. Only drugs approach will not be able to reconstruct damaged brain areas especially in late stages of HD. 
     MSCs may be obtained from extracted human teeth, both permanent and deciduous, by enzymatic digestion (Gronthos et al. 2000; Miura et al., 2003), or by organ culture followed by explant (immature dental pulp stem cells, IDPSCs) technology as disclosed in International Application no. PCT/IB14/59850 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/2140,016. The IDPSCs are obtained from dental pulp tissue, which anatomically originated from ectomesenchymal tissue, more precisely from neural crest, which is a mass of tissue present in the early formation of an embryo. It eventually forms the hard and soft tissues of the neck and cranium. 
     IDPSCs, which are of neural crest origin, are known to migrate pre-natally into various, mainly ectodermal tissues and have the capacity to self-renewal and display a developmental potential almost the same as embryonic stem (ES) cells, but without risk of formation of embryonic bodies in vitro and teratomas in vivo (Kerkis and Caplan, 2012). The postmigratory stem cells of neural crest origin generate all craniofacial bones, the majority of cells and tissues of the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as several non-neural cell types, such as smooth muscle cells of the cardiovascular system, pigment cells in the skin, cartilage, connective tissue, corneal epithelium and dental pulp among them. Although postmigratory postnatal stem cells of neural crest origin are of restricted developmental potential, they maintain functional characteristics resembling their embryonic counterparts and an ability to differentiate into a broad spectrum of cell types (Le Douarin et al., 2004, 2007, 2008; Dupin et al., 2007; Le Douarin &amp; Dupin, 2003, 2012). 
     In vitro IDPSCs undergo uniform differentiation into neurons and glial cells. In vivo transplantation of human IDPSCs showed dense engraftment in various tissues, including neurons. Neuronal fate differentiation is based upon epigenetic “memory” of orofacial bones, including dental pulp, compared with those in axial and appendicular bone (bone marrow and ileac crest) based on their different embryological origins. Maxillas, mandible, including the alveolar bone (i.e. dentine, dental pulp and periodontal ligament), are formed exclusively by neural crest cells while axial and appendicular bones develop from mesoderm. Thus IDPSCs have the potential for neural regeneration and neuroprotection. 
     Logan A et al. described that multiple NTFs (neurotrophic factors) should be produced by cells in order to result in synergistic effect on neuroprotection. Therefore it is important that hIDPSCs cells are expressing and releasing multiple NTFs. Recent publications report the evidence for a paracrine mechanism of dental pulp stem cells (DPSC) action in neural support, with the gene expression of many NTFs, such as NGF (nerve growth factor), BDNF and NT3, the results demonstrated that hIDPSC promoted significantly more neuroprotection and neurogenesis of axotomised RGC than either hBMSC (bone marrow derived MSC) or hAMSC (adipose tissue derived MSC) (Mead B et al. 2013; Mead B et al., 2014; Martens W et al., 2013). Intravitreally transplanted DPSCs were suggested as a more appropriate cell type than BMSCs for retinal therapy (Mead B et al., 2014). These studies used DPSC (=SHED) enzymatically derived from adult rats using trypsin. 
     In addition, it has recently been strengthened by the results of an study using a rodent model of spinal cord injury with transplantation of SHED by direct dura transplantation in proximity and directly to the lesion site, wherein SHED was superior to three human skin fibroblast lines in terms of neuroprotection and neuroregeneration through both cell-autonomous and paracrine neuroregenerative activities (Sakai et al., 2012). These studies used cultured DPSC enzymatically derived from immature and adult wisdom using collagenase. During transplantation of DPSCs, animals were also treated with cyclosporine for immunosuppression. 
     Safety of Systemically Administering Stem Cells 
     Unless the transplant is an autograft, there is always a risk that the host&#39;s immune system will attack the transplant. Even a well-matched allograft requires immunosuppression pretreatment. This remains true for stem cell transplantation. 
     In order to avoid the host&#39;s immune system attacking the transplanted cells, the therapeutic stem cell population should be not be immunogenic. Immunogenicity is the ability of allogeneic stem cells to provoke an immune response when facing the host immune system after transplantation (Schu S et al., 2012). The transplantation of NPCs with mismatched major histocompatibility complex (MHC) into mice with mouse hepatitis virus-induced CNS demyelination resulted in increased T cell infiltration and NPC rejection (Weinger J G et al., 2012). However, recent evidence supports the possibility that undifferentiated adult stem cells are endowed with an immunologically privileged status and are capable of escaping the normal processes of allogeneic rejection (Bifari F et al. 2010). Immunologically privileged status is possible for a population of cells if the cells lack the expression of MHCs. For example, no immunogenicity in humans can occur by the population of stem cells being essentially negative for human leukocyte antigen (HLA), which is the human version of MHC. Therefore, the absence of HLA-DR, which is a quality control characteristic of IDPSCs is an essential marker for cell to be used in for systemic cell therapy without need of toxic immunosuppression pre-treatment to the patient. 
     Another risk of stem cell transplantation is the increased risk of tumor development, especially for undifferentiated cells, because of these cell&#39;s potential for differentiation into other cell types. Pluripotent stem cells, especially hESCs and iPSCs cells are able to form spheres that resemble embryoid bodies in vitro and teratomas in vivo. All currently available technologies to apply pluripotent cells hold tumorigenicity risk. Expression and lack of expression of certain genes reduces risks to enable systemic administration of a population of stem cells. 
     Nanog is transcription factor associated with the maintenance of the pluripotent cells of the inner cell mass and the formation of embryonic stem cells. Nanog is a leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and activator of transcription-independent factor-3 (STAT-3). It is regulated by OCT4 and SOX2 and in turn positively regulates the expression of OCT4, SOX2 and itself by binding to the respective promoter gene regions (Boyer et al, 2005; Loh et al., 2006; Li, 2010). Together, these three transcription factors play an essential role in preventing differentiation of pluripotent stem cells (Boyer et al., 2005). The transfection cellular nucleus with OCT3/4, SOX2, NANOG was previously to be sufficient for inducing pluripotency in adult somatic cells (the creation of iPSC) and then lead to full pattern of embryonic stem cells theoretical characteristics: differentiation into 200 types of cells in the body, unlimited expansion, renewal potential, embryonic body formation, teratoma formation. Teratoma formation is a main threat of safety in cellular therapy. However, absence expression of nanog in nucleus is an essential safety marker to determine whether a population of stem cell is suitable for systemic administration. The lack of tumorigenicity of undifferentiated stem cells in vivo requires the absence of nanog in nucleus. Thus undifferentiated stem cells expressing inactive nanog, i.e. nanog localized in the cytoplasm, also lack tumorigenicity in vivo. 
     Another important safety marker for a population of stem cells suitable for systemic administration is the expression of p53. This protein is crucial in multicellular organisms, where it regulates the cell cycle and thus prevents cancer by functioning as a tumor suppressor. 
     ABCG2 protein expression is also safety marker that indicates a population of stem cells is suitable for systemic administration. ATP-binding cassette (ABC), ABCG2 protein (BCRP) expression is an important determinant of the MSC undifferentiated population phenotype. ABCG2 might serve as a marker for undifferentiated stem cells from various sources, as its expression is sharply downregulated with differentiation. Notably, ABCG2 transporters with Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD), actively transport AP as confirmed histopathologically in AD cases and controls. Genome-wide association studies (Bertram L et al., 2007) have implicated a have identified genes the modulate AD risk, including genetic variants in ABCA7, a variant of ABC gene. It was concluded that increase in ABCA7 expression reduces AD risk, though increased ABCA7 expression during AD is insufficient to block disease progression (Jared B et al., 2014). 
     Thus some embodiments of the pharmaceutical composition of the invention comprises stem cells from tissue of neural crest origin expressing at least one safety markers selected from the group consisting of ATP-binding cassette sub-family G member 2 (ABCG2), inactive nanog, p53, and SOX2. In some aspects, the at least one safety marker is elected from the group consisting of ATP-binding cassette sub-family G member 2 (ABCG2), inactive nanog, and p53. The IDPSC have high expression of ABCG2 and p53 but low expression of inactive nanog and SOX2. For example, when the at least one safety marker is ABCG2 or p53, at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 98% of the stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition express the at least one safety marker. On the other hand, if the at least one safety marker is inactive nanog or SOX2, no more than 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or 5% of the stem cells express the at least one safety marker. In some aspects, the stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition coexpress ABCG3, p53, inactive nanog, and SOX2, wherein at least 75% of the stem cells express ABCG2, at least 75% of the stem cells express p53, no more than 5% of the stem cells express inactive nanog, and no more than 30% of the stem cells express SOX2. 
     Another embodiment of the pharmaceutical composition comprises stem cells from tissue of neural crest origin expressing at least one neuroepithelial stem cell marker selected from the group consisting of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), neutrotrophin-3 (NT3), neutrotrophin-4 (NT4), neutrotrophin-5 (NT5), and p75. In some aspects, the stem cells have high expression of the at least one neuroepithelial stem cell marker. For example, at least 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% of the cells express at least one neuroepithelial stem cell marker. In some embodiments, the stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition coexpress BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75. 
     In some aspects, these embodiments pharmaceutical composition comprise stem cells from tissue of neural crest origin that are negative for HLA-DR. The stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition may also be negative for certain MSC markers selected from the group consisting of c-Myc, KLf-4, and REX-1. In preferred embodiments, the stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition are negative for HLA-DR, c-Myc, KLf-4, and REX-1. 
     The various embodiments of the pharmaceutical composition may also be combined. For example, the pharmaceutical composition may comprise stem cells from tissue of neural crest origin expressing at least one safety markers selected ABCG2, inactive nanog, and p53 and further express at least one neuroepithelial stem cell marker selected from the group consisting of BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75. As another example, the pharmaceutical may comprise stem cells from tissue of neural crest origin expressing express at least one neuroepithelial stem cell marker selected from the group consisting of BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75 while further expressing at least one safety markers selected ABCG2, inactive nanog, p53 and SOX2. 
     Methods of Using the Pharmaceutical Compositions 
     The present invention provides for methods for treating neurological diseases and conditions comprising systemically administering the pharmaceutical composition of the invention to a subject. In some implementations, these methods of treating neurological diseases and condition promote neurogenesis and are protective in models of neurodegenerative diseases. In some embodiments, systemic administration the population of stem cells, such as by IV administration, results in direct delivery of the cells to the brain. In some aspects, neurogenesis occurs by the population of stem cells self-differentiating and/or activating intrinsic stem cells to migrate and differentiate. In some aspects, neurogenesis is preferably dopamine-associated. 
     In some embodiments of the methods, the neurological disease or condition is treated by the stem cells crossing the blood/brain barrier (BBB) and inducing neurogenesis. In some aspects, the stem cells are directly transplanted into the brain parenchyma, including striatum, following crossing of the BBB. In some embodiments, the induced neurogenesis is dopamine-associated. For example, dopamine-associated neurogenesis occurs through self-differentiation of the stem cells or activation of migration and differentiation of intrinsic stem cells by the extrinsic stem cells. In some aspects, massive dopamine-associated neurogenesis takes place in the subventricular zone (SVZ). 
     In some implementations, the methods further comprise measuring the amount of DA receptor in the subject. In some embodiments, measuring the amount of DA receptor in the subject comprises imaging the subject to detect DA receptor. In most preferred embodiments of the methods, neurogenesis is mediated by dopamine receptor D2, thus in some embodiments, the DA receptor measured is receptor D2. 
     In some embodiments of the methods, the pharmaceutical composition provides neuroprotection. For example, systemic neuroprotection is provided with the high basal level of neurotrophic and immunoprotective factors expression and release pattern of the stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition. In some aspects, these stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition are IDPSCs. 
     The neurological diseases and conditions include, for example, autism, schizophrenia, epilepsy, stroke and ischemia, a neurodegenerative disease or condition, a motor disorder, or a convulsive disorder. The neurodegenerative disease or condition may be, for example, Parkinson&#39;s disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), stroke, autoimmune encephalomyelitis, diabetic neuropathy, glaucomatous neuropathy, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, and Huntingdon&#39;s disease. Motor disorders include, for example, Tourette syndrome, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), progressive bulbar palsy, spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), post-polio syndrome (PPS). Convulsive disorders include, for example, epilepsy. 
     In some implementations, the methods for treating neurological diseases and conditions support the natural neuro-protective mechanism in subjects diagnosed with early HD. In other implementations, the methods for treating neurological diseases and conditions repairs lost DA neurons in subjects diagnosed with PD. 
     The present invention also provides for methods of using the pharmaceutical composition as a preventive therapy for subjects at risk of HD. 
     In one embodiment, the present invention is directed to a pharmaceutical composition for systemic administration to a subject to treat a neurological condition comprising undifferentiated stem cells from tissue of neural crest origin expressing at least one safety markers selected from the group consisting of ATP-binding cassette sub-family G member 2 (ABCG2), inactive nanog, and p53. In certain aspects, inactive nanog is expressed nanog localizing predominantly in the cytoplasma of the undifferentiated stem cell. In another aspect, at least 75% of the undifferentiated stem cells express the at least one marker when the at least one marker is ABCG2 or p53. In yet another aspect, no more than 5% of the undifferentiated stem cells express the at least one marker when the at least one biomarker is nanog. 
     In some embodiments, the undifferentiated stem cells express ABCG2, inactive nanog, and p53. In one aspect, at least 75% of the undifferentiated stem cells express ABCG2, at least 75% of the undifferentiated stem cells express p53, and no more than 5% of the undifferentiated stem cells express inactive nanog. In another aspect, the undifferentiated stem cells further express SOX2, and wherein no more than 30% of the undifferentiated stem cells express SOX2. In yet another aspect, the undifferentiated stem cells further express at least one neuroepithelial stem cell marker selected from the group consisting of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), neutrotrophin-3 (NT3), neutrotrophin-4 (NT4), neutrotrophin-5 (NT5), and p75. 
     In other embodiments, the undifferentiated stem cells express BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75. In one embodiment, the present invention is directed to a pharmaceutical composition for systemic administration to a subject to treat a neurological condition comprising undifferentiated stem cells from tissue of neural crest origin at least one neuroepithelial stem cell marker selected from the group consisting of BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75. In certain aspects, the undifferentiated stem cells express BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75. In other aspects, the undifferentiated stem cells further express at least one safety markers selected from the group consisting of ABCG2, inactive nanog, p53, and SOX2. In certain aspects, inactive nanog is expressed nanog localizing predominantly in the cytoplasma of the undifferentiated stem cell. 
     In yet other embodiments, at least 75% of the undifferentiated stem cells express the at least one marker when the at least one marker is ABCG2 or p53. In certain aspects, the undifferentiated stem cells are negative for HLA-DR. In one embodiment, the tissue of neural crest origin is dental pulp. In yet other aspects, the undifferentiated stem cells from tissue of neural crest origin are immature dental pulp stem cells (IDPSCs). 
     In another aspect, the present invention provides a method of treating a neurological disease or condition comprising systemically administering to a subject a pharmaceutical composition comprising undifferentiated stem cells from tissue of neural crest origin expressing at least one safety marker selected from the group consisting of ABCG2, inactive nestin, and p53. In some aspects, the undifferentiated stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition further express at least one neuroepithelial stem cell marker selected from the group consisting of BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75. 
     In yet another embodiment, the present invention is directed to a method of treating a neurological disease or condition comprising systemically administering to a subject a pharmaceutical composition comprising undifferentiated stem cells from tissue of neural crest origin expressing at least one neuroepithelial stem cell marker selected from the group consisting of BDNF, NT3, NT4, NT5, and p75. 
     In certain embodiments, the undifferentiated stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition further express at least one safety marker selected from the group consisting of ABCG2, inactive nestin, p53, and SOX2. 
     In other aspects, the subject is intravenously administered the pharmaceutical composition. In some embodiments, the neurological disease or condition is treated by the population of undifferentiated stem cells crossing the blood/brain barrier and inducing neurogenesis. In one aspect, the neurological disease or condition is treated by the undifferentiated stem cells inducing neurogenesis via dopamine-associated neurogenesis. In another aspect, the dopamine-associated neurogenesis is through self-differentiation of the undifferentiated stem cells or activation of migration and differentiation of intrinsic stem cells by the undifferentiated stem cells. 
     In certain embodiments, the undifferentiated stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition provide neurotrophic factors and immunoprotective factors. In other embodiments, the undifferentiated stem cells of the pharmaceutical composition provides systemic neuroprotection. In one embodiment, the undifferentiated stem cells are autologous and/or allogeneic to the subject. 
     In certain aspects, the neurological disease or condition is a neurodegenerative disease or condition. The neurodegenerative disease or condition may be selected from the group consisting of Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD), multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), stroke, autoimmune encephalomyelitis, diabetic neuropathy, glaucomatous neuropathy, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, and Huntington&#39;s disease (HD). 
     In some aspects, the method comprises systemically administering the pharmaceutical composition to the subject, wherein the subject is diagnosed with early HD, supports the natural neuroprotective mechanism in the subject. In other aspects, the method comprises systemically administering the pharmaceutical composition to the subject, wherein the subject is diagnosed with PD, repairs lost dopaminergic neurons in the subject. In another embodiment, the neurological disease or condition is selected from the group consisting of autism, schizophrenia, stroke, and ischemia. In other embodiments, the neurological disease or condition is selected from the group consisting of a motor disorder and a convulsive disorder. 
     In certain aspects, the subject is administered a single administration of the pharmaceutical composition. In one embodiment, the subject is administered a single intravenous injection of the pharmaceutical composition. In yet other embodiments, the subject is administered a first and a second administration of the pharmaceutical composition. 
     In other embodiments, the subject is administered a first and a second intravenous injection of the pharmaceutical composition. In some aspects, the second administration or intravenous injection of the pharmaceutical composition takes place at least 7 days after the first administration or intravenous injection. 
     In one aspect, the method further comprises measuring the amount of DA receptor in the subject. In another aspect, the method comprises measuring the amount of DA receptor in the subject comprises imaging the subject to detect DA receptor. In one aspect, the DA receptor is receptor D2. 
     The present invention is further illustrated by the following examples that should not be construed as limiting. The contents of all references, patents, and published patent applications cited throughout this application, as well as the Figures, are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1. Characterization of Early and Late Harvests IDPSCs and Derivation of Neural and Glial Cells from the Early and Late Harvest IDPSCs 
     Characterization of Early and Late Harvests IDPSCs 
     In order to characterize the properties of the hIDPSC, from the early (n=8) and late (n=4) harvests (Table 1), flow cytometric analyzes of the mesenchymal markers CD13, CD105, CD73, CD90, CD44 was performed. FACS experiments were performed with 2×10 5  cells. Cells were washed twice with PBS (without calcium and magnesium) and the tested antibodies were added for 15 minutes at room temperature. The cells were then washed twice with cold PBS and analyzed with a Becton-Dickinson flow cytometer. The fluorescence of PE (FL2), FITC (FL1), APC (FL4) were detected in 575 nm, 53 nm, and 600 nm emission wavelengths, respectively. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 List of cells used in the FACS experiments 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Batch Number 
                 Harvest Number (H) 
                 Passage Number (P) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Early Harvests: 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 0 
                 3 
               
               
                 6 
                 0 
                 3 
               
               
                 10 
                 0 
                 3 
               
               
                 11 
                 0 
                 3 
               
               
                 17 
                 0 
                 3 
               
               
                 22 
                 0 
                 3 
               
               
                 24 
                 0 
                 3 
               
               
                 26 
                 0 
                 4 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Late Harvests: 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 11 
                 13 
                 3 
               
               
                 11 
                 16 
                 9 
               
               
                 24 
                 13 
                 3 
               
               
                 26 
                 10 
                 2 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Cells from both early and late harvests expressed high levels of mesenchymal markers. Both populations were negative for HLA-DR and HLA-ABC antigen expression which allows for allogenic transplantation of these populations of cells. Both populations were double immunopositive for mesenchymal stem cell markers, such as, CD13 and CD44 and others, as well as expressed nestin, P75 (CD271), neuroepithelial stem cell markers, and nerve growth factor (NGF) (see  FIGS. 1 and 2A-2L  and Table 2) and they were negative for CD146 and HLA-ABC. 
     After mutiharvest of DP tissue and explant culture, IDPSCs demonstrate capacity to form colonies ( FIG. 3 ). The colony forming assay (CFU-F) assay was performed in triplicate at T20, P3 using 480 cells seeded in each plate, at day 8 multiple colonies appeared and approximately 100 colonies were formed in each plate ( FIG. 3 ). Colony forming capacity is one of the principal characteristics of stem cell. Therefore, we conclude that this capacity was maintained when the cells were obtained using the disclosed multiharvest organ and tissue explant method. Additionally, the proliferative activity of LP IDPSC was evaluated as shown on  FIG. 4 , and these cells demonstrated a very high proliferative rate. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Comparison of the cell marker expression from the 
               
               
                 hIDPSC derived from the same donor by FACS analysis. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 % of Fluorescence 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Markers 
                 H0P3 
                 H13P3 
                 H16P9 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 CD105 
                 99.4 
                 99.76 
                 99.6 
               
               
                   
                 CD13 
                 99.5 
                 99.1 
                 99.3 
               
               
                   
                 CD73 
                 95.1 
                 99.88 
                 85.3 
               
               
                   
                 CD90 
                 99.9 
                 99.9 
                 99.7 
               
               
                   
                 CD44 
                 99.12 
                 99.45 
                 96.4 
               
               
                   
                 HLA-DR 
                 0.8 
                 3.03 
                 0.4 
               
               
                   
                 HLA-ABC 
                 0.2 
                 0.1 
                 0.3 
               
               
                   
                 NGF 
                 18.7 
                 55.96 
                 49.5 
               
               
                   
                 Nestin 
                 54.5 
                 66.57 
                 30 
               
               
                   
                 ABCG2 
                 1.88 
                 ND 
                 8.1 
               
               
                   
                 ABCB1 
                 24.8 
                 ND 
                 45.6 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Table 2 compares the cell marker expression from different harvests of hIDPSC derived from the same donor (i.e., H0P3=first harvest; H13P3=later harvest; H16P9=last harvest). Late harvest populations had greater levels of NGF than the early harvest population. Expression of adenosine triphosphate binding cassette (ABC) transporters was also tested in the cells. ABC transporters are involved in the active transport of an extremely diverse range of substrates across biological membranes. These transporters are commonly implicated in the development of multidrug resistance and are also involved in numerous physiological and homeostatic processes, including lipid transport, cell migration and differentiation. Moreover there is evidence that ABC transporters serve as phenotypic markers and functional regulators of stem cells (Bunting 2002). Both early and late harvests populations expressed ABCB1 protein, the product of MDR1 gene, but expression was higher in the late harvest. According to Islam et al. (2005), ABCB1 is expressed in human fetal neural stem/progenitor cells (hNSPCs). 
     FACS analysis show that LP of IDPSCs (batch #11) comprises approximately 80% cells that express BDNF and DARPP 32, while EP is negative for these markers (data not shown) and very low number of the cells, which express D2 ( FIG. 3 ). To further characterize hIDPSC early and late harvests, total brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels represented by the amount of BNDF in medium was determined using ELISA (Table 3). BDNF levels were quantified by using a human BDNF Quantikine ELISA kit according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocol (R&amp;D Systems, Minneapolis, Minn.). Cells (1×10 6 ) from different harvests were inoculated in 75 cm plastic flasks. The supernatants were harvested approximately 4 days after inoculation. The results were expressed as the BDNF concentration. BDNF was secreted in all cell subsets, but the levels were 4-10 folds higher in the late harvests. 
                     TABLE 3                  Total BDNF levels in early and late harvests of hIDPSC                         Batch    Harvest (H) and           number   Passage (P) Number   BDNF levels (pg/ml)                                 11   H0 P3    13       24   H10 P2   154       26   H13 P3   43                    
Comparison with Other MSCs Shows that hIDPSCs Secrete Much More BDNF.
 
     The average level of BDNF secreted by 1×10 6  hIDPSCs is 6589 pg, which is many times higher than other types of MSCs that secrete BNDF, such as the MSCs of Gothelf et al. in 2014 (Clin Transl Med. 2014 3:21). Gothelf et al. induced bone marrow-derived MSCs (BM-MSC) to differentiate into neurotrophic factor-secreting cells (BM-MSC-NTF) by incubating the BM-MSCs for 72 hours in medium containing 1 mM dibutyryl cyclic 15 AMP (cAMP), 20 ng/ml human Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (hbFGF), 5 ng/ml human platelet derived growth factor (PDGF-AA), and 50 ng/ml human Heregulinβ1. Although the induction medium nearly doubled BDNF secretion (827 pg BNDF/10 6  BM-MSC compared to 1640 pg BNDF/10 6  BM-MSC-NTF cells), hIDPSCs still secreted four times more BDNF than BM-MSC-NTF. Accordingly, the hIDSPCs have much greater neuroprotective potential than bone marrow-derived MSC induced to secrete neurotrophic factors. 
     Expression of Oct4, Nanog, Sox2 and p53 
     It is known that MSCs generally express pluripotent markers such as Oct4, Nanog and Sox2 at low levels as described in the literature (Jiang et al., 2002; Guillot et al., 2007). We showed that hIDPSC express very low levels of such markers in comparison with human embryonic stem cells and even induced pluripotent stem cells obtained from hIDPSCs (see  FIG. 5 ). More importantly, we demonstrated that hIDPSC express a high level of p53. The tumor suppressor gene p53 is well known as a master regulator that helps keeps cancer at bay. Blocking the p53 pathway vastly improves the ease and efficiency of transforming differentiated cells into induced pluripotent stem cells (Dolgin, 2009). 
     Derivation of Neural and Glial Cells from the Early and Late Harvests IDPSCs 
     The neuronal system consists of two classes of neural precursor cells: neuronal NPCs that differentiate into neurons and glial NPCs that differentiate into glia. Both neuronal and glial NPCs descend from the same neuroectodermal precursor. A third class of neural precursor cells, neuroglioblast, was also suggested. This third class of cells include radial glial cells also can act as neuronal precursors and only later, after neurogenesis, do they shift towards an exclusive generation of astrocytes. 
     The ability to distinguish whether a population of cells in cell therapy are neuronal NPSs or glial NPCs is of extreme importance for developing an efficient cell therapy strategy for treating neurodegenerative diseases, which mainly involve the damage or loss of both glia and neurons. It is possible to test known cell populations for the potential to differentiate into neurons or glia by inducing these cells to differentiate. 
     The capacity of EP (early population) and LP (late population) IDPSC to produce neurons and glias was tested by inducing neuronal differentiation in EP and LP IDPSC at early (P2) and late passages (P7) according to the previously described protocol (Kerkis et al., 2006) ( FIG. 6 ). After 7 days, the cells were collected and analyzed by flow cytometry using GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein) and beta-III-tubulin antibodies, respectively. A significant difference exists in the number of cells that express these markers between EP (B-E, left) and LP (B-E, right), which were established following a dental pulp (DP) harvesting protocol. On the other hand, no significant difference in expression of both proteins was detected between different passages (P2 and P7) obtained following enzymatic digestion, ( FIG. 6 ). Surprisingly, IDPSCs can be neuronal and glial NPCs. Early DP harvesting (EP IDPSC) leads to isolation of neural progenitor cells committed mainly to glial differentiation while late DP harvesting (LP IDPSC) leads to isolation of neural progenitor cells committed mainly to neuronal differentiation. 
     Thus DP harvesting is important for establishing a population of NPCs with the potential to develop into neurons and glia. SHED, which are stem cells from human deciduous teeth, cannot be categorized as an early population or late population because they are stem cells isolated from dental pulp cells without DP harvesting. The single SHED population contains neuron-committed and not glial-committed progenitors. In Miura et al. (2003) neuronal differentiation of SHED resulted in increased expression of beta-III-tubulin, GAD, and NeuN while the expression of nestin, GFAP, CNPase, and NFM remained the same after the induction of differentiation (see FIG. 4I of Miura). 
     Example 2. Expression of CD146 and CD13 in Early Phase (EP) and Late Phase (LP) hIDPSC 
     CD146 and CD13 expression were analyzed by flow cytometry in EP-hIDPSC and LP-hIDPSC. The results in  FIG. 7  show that CD13 was expressed in 52% of EP-hIDPSC and 95% of LP-hIDPSC. These results demonstrate that in vitro DP harvesting and hIDPSC passing produce increased quantities of hIDPSC expressing CD13 and lacking expression of CD146. 
     Example 3. Comparison of IDPSC and SHED 
     MSCs from different sources (e.g. bone marrow and adipose tissue) can respond differently to different stimuli (Fraser J K et al., 2006). Culture conditions (e.g., media supplemented with either human serum or fetal calf serum (FCS), or serum-free) may also affect the differentiation potential of even MSCs of the same origin (Lindroos et al., 2011; Lizier et al., 2012). It is very probable that the differences in the differentiation efficiencies are extremely reflective of the heterogeneity of MSC populations (i.e., the presence of distinct subpopulations) (Ho et al., 2008; Tormin et al., 2009; Mareddy et al., 2009; Rada et al., 2011). Different isolation and culture protocols used by different groups may account for the predominance of a particular MSC subpopulation with a distinct differentiation potential [Ho et al., 2008; Pevsner-Fischer et al., 2011; Rada et al., 2011). 
     SHED and IDPSCs have different methods of isolation and come from different stem cell niches. So it is unsurprising that SHED and IPSCs also have different expression of stem cell markers (see Table 4). SHED originated from perivascular environment and STRO-1 and CD146 positive cells were found to be located around blood vessels of the remnant pulp by immunohistochemical staining. Only a minor proportion (9%) of ex vivo expanded SHED stained positive for the STRO-1 antibody using FACS. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Differences between SHED and IDPSCs 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 SHED 
                 IDPSC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Perivascular niche 
                 Perivascular niche 
               
               
                   
                 Nerve plexus 
               
               
                   
                 Subodontoblastic plexus niche 
               
               
                   
                 Cell-free and cell-rich zones 
               
               
                 whole dental pulp (DP) 
                 minced pulp 
               
               
                 Enzymatic digestion: 1 hour 
                 Stem cell migration 
               
               
                 Can be isolated one time from the same DP 
                 DP transferrable up to 30 times to result in 
               
               
                   
                 30 isolations 
               
               
                 Culture medium: Alpha modification of 
                 Culture medium: Dulbecco&#39;s modified 
               
               
                 Eagle&#39;s medium (GIBCO/BRL) supplemented 
                 Eagle&#39;s medium (DMEM)/Ham&#39;s F12 (1:1) 
               
               
                 with: 
                 supplemented with: 
               
               
                 20% FCS 
                 15% fetal bovine serum 
               
               
                 100 μM I-ascorbic acid 2-phosphate 
                 100 U/ml penicillin 
               
               
                 2 mM I-glutamine 
                 100 g/ml streptomycin 
               
               
                 100 units/ml penicillin 
                 2 mM L-glutamine 
               
               
                 100 μg/ml streptomycin 
                 2 mM nonessential amino acids 
               
               
                 Single-cell suspension 
                 Outgrowth 
               
               
                 Use of cell strainer 
                   
               
               
                 Assess only to outer layer of DP and very 
                 Assess to outer and inner part of DP 
               
               
                 close layers 
                   
               
               
                 Principal markers: 
                 Principal markers: 
               
               
                 Perivascular 
                 Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) 
               
               
                   
                 Embryonic stem cells (ES cells) 
               
               
                   
                 Neuronal precursors 
               
               
                   
                 Perivascular 
               
               
                 Osteogenic differentiation required BMP-4 
                 Not required 
               
               
                 Neurogenic differentiation required EGF, 
                 Not required 
               
               
                 FGF, and rat serum 
                   
               
               
                 Chondrogenic differentiation required TGF- 
                 Not required 
               
               
                 β3 and bFGF or TGF-β 
                   
               
               
                 High passages are needed in order to 
                 DP multiple transfer ensure sufficient IDPSC 
               
               
                 obtain number of SHED sufficient for cell 
                 number at low passages 
               
               
                 therapy 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The requirements for inducing differentiation are also different between SHED and IDPSCs. For example, to induce neuronal differentiation, SHED need EGF 20 ng/ml (BD Bioscience), FGF 40 ng/ml (BD Bioscience) and 3% rat serum. They need four weeks in neural inductive culture in order to show neural morphology and to increase expression of neuronal markers. 
     In part because of these differences, IDPSCs had advantages over SHED regarding neurogenesis. In one study, SHED were injected into the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus of immunocompromised mice. The data demonstrated that SHED were able to survive for more than 10 days in mice hippocampus and to express NFM, which were expressed also by undifferentiated SHED (Miura et al., 2003). In another study, pre-differentiated SHED (SHED-derived spheres created by a combination of EGF and bFGF for 7 days in vitro) were transplanted into Parkinsonian rats. The cell suspension (200,000/μL) was injected into 2 DA-depleted striatum sites in rats (2.5 μL per site). Modest differentiation into DA neurons was observed (Wang et al, 2010). In a third study, SHED were injected in injured brain of postnatal day 5 mice, which were induced with in perinatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI) that has high rates of neurological deficits and mortality. Cyclosporine A was used to protect engrafted cells from the xenogeneic host immune response, nevertheless eight weeks after transplantation the engrafted SHED, had no or few cells differentiated into neurons, oligodendrocytes, or astrocytes (Yamagata et al. 2013). 
     The common theme across all three experiments is that SHED were administrated together with Cyclosporine A. Cyclosporine A is shown to decreases the size of the ischemic brain infarct in rats and to protects against synaptic dysfunction and cell death in rodent models of traumatic brain infarct as well as to protects striatal neurons from mitochondrial dysfunction in Huntington disease (Matsomoto et al., 1999; Albensi et al. 2000; Leventhal et al., 2003). Therefore, benefits observed in Parkinsonian rats and HI, cannot be purely attributed to SHED but also to Cyclosporine A intervention. 
     Example 4. Comparison with Other Therapeutic Stem Cells for the Treatment of Neurological Conditions 
     As shown in Table 5, hIDPSCs from Avita International LTD as advantageous over other therapeutic stem cells on the market or in clinical trial. Avita International LTD&#39;s hIDPSCs have a good safety profile with low risk of immunogenicity and has low cost of production, as they can be cryopreserved. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Comparison table modified from Maxim Research. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 BrainStorm 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Cell 
                   
                   
                 Avita 
               
               
                 Company 
                 Therapeutics 
                 NeuralStem 
                 Kadimastem 
                 International 
               
               
                 (ticker) 
                 Inc. (BCLI) 
                 Inc. (CUR) 
                 (KDST) 
                 LTD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Cell Source 
                 Autologous 
                 Allogenic; 8- 
                 hESCs (embryo) 
                 hIDPSCs from 
               
               
                   
                 MSC from bone 
                 week-old fetal 
                 and iPSCs 
                 dental pulp 
               
               
                   
                 marrow 
                 spinal cord- 
                 (adult) 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 derived cells 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Modifications 
                 Induction of 
                 No 
                 Induction to 
                 No 
               
               
                   
                 neurotrophic 
                   
                 differentiate into 
                   
               
               
                   
                 factor secretion 
                   
                 astrocyte 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 precursor cells 
                   
               
               
                 Cell Safety 
                 Good with low 
                 Less safe with 
                 Less safe with 
                 Good with low 
               
               
                 Profile 
                 risk of 
                 risk of 
                 risk of unwanted 
                 risk of 
               
               
                   
                 immunogenicity 
                 unwanted 
                 differentiation 
                 immunogenicity 
               
               
                   
                   
                 differentiation 
                 (teratoma) 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 (teratoma) 
                 and/or risk of 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 and/or risk of 
                 rejection 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 rejection 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Immuno- 
                 Not required 
                 Required 
                 Required 
                 Not required 
               
               
                 suppression 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Cryo- 
                 Not yet - 
                 Cell can be 
                 Cells can be 
                 Cell can be 
               
               
                 preservation 
                 studying the 
                 expanded and 
                 frozen in 
                 expanded and 
               
               
                   
                 feasibility of 
                 frozen 
                 differentiated 
                 frozen 
               
               
                   
                 cryopreservation 
                   
                 state 
                   
               
               
                   
                 of MSCNCs 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 during early 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 phase expansion 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Clinical 
                 Compassionate 
                 Phase I/II 
                 Not yet in 
                 On going Phase 
               
               
                 Trials 
                 Care: Phase I/II 
                 begins in 2014 
                 clinical trials 
                 I (Brazil) 
               
               
                   
                 complete 
                 (Mexico); Phase 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 (Israel); Phase II 
                 II ends in 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 underway (US) 
                 4Q2014 (US) 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Cost 
                 High 
                 Low 
                 Low 
                 Low 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 5. Certificate of Analysis of IDPSCs (Cellavita) Used for Sterile IV Injection 
     Certificate of analysis (Table 6) of a representative batch of IDPSCs used for IV injection into animal models confirm the characterization results of IDPSCs. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Method of analysis 
                 Characteristics 
                 Specification 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Morphological test 
                 Morphology 
                 Normal fibroblast like morphology 
               
               
                   
                   
                 under inverted microscope inspection 
               
               
                 Cell viability via 
                 Viability 
                 &gt;95% 
               
               
                 Trypan Blue 
                   
                   
               
               
                 exclusion 
                   
                   
               
               
                 PCR Mycoplasma 
                 Mycoplasma detection 
                 Undetectable 
               
               
                 test 
                   
                   
               
               
                 CFU 
                 Cell forming units assay 
                 &gt;5 colonies 
               
               
                 LAL 
                 Endotoxin detection 
                 ≤2 Eu/kg body weight/dose 
               
               
                 Bacteriostatic and 
                 Sterility 
                 Undetectable 
               
               
                 Fungistatic activity 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Gram stain technique 
                 Microbial contamination 
                 Undetectable 
               
               
                 MTT/or XTT 
                 Cell proliferation rate 
                 Cell number at least double in 24 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hours 
               
               
                 FACS analysis (MSC 
                 Phenotype analysis 
                 Positive for CD73, CD105, CD44 
               
               
                 markers) 
                   
                 Negative for CD45, HLA-ABC 
               
               
                 Cytokine and growth 
                 Cytokine and neuronal 
                 Positive for NGF, or/and BDNF, IL8 
               
               
                 factors release assay 
                 factors analysis 
                   
               
               
                 FACS analysis 
                 Neuronal markers 
                 Positive for SOX2, or/and Nestin 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 6. Identification of the Parameters for Safe Systemic Administration of a Stem Cell Treatment 
     IDPSC shows Oct4 nuclear localization ( FIG. 8A-B ). While a majority of IDPSCs have Nanog in the cytoplasm of cells ( FIG. 8C-D ), very rare cells demonstrate nuclear localization as well. The intracellular localization of Sox2 in IDPSCs is mainly nuclear ( FIG. 8E-G ), though several cells can show cytoplasmic localization too. Interestingly, we can observe the symmetrical division ( FIG. 8D-F ) when Nanog and Sox2 expression in observed in both daughter cells, and observe asymmetric division when after division the daughter cells do not express these markers or loses the characteristic of stem cells and becomes a less potent progenitor or a differentiated cell ( FIG. 8E-F ). 
     Our data demonstrate that in contrast to pluripotent stem cells, IDPSC are classified as MSC or adult stem cells. The intracellular localization of Nanog indicates that the protein is mostly inactive. This is a dramatic difference between pluripotent stem cells and adult stem cells, which express pluripotent stem cells markers. These cells are more immature than classic MSC and can differentiate to wider spectrum of the mature cells, but they are not able to produce teratoma due to the inactive state of Nanog. Our data on symmetric and asymmetric division clearly demonstrate that these cells mimic asymmetric neural stem cells division ( FIG. 9 ). 
     Teratomas formation is an essential tool in determining the pluripotency of any pluripotent cells, such as embryonic or induced pluripotent stem cells (ES and iPS cells). Established a consistent protocol for assessment of teratoma forming ability of the cells, was used in our studies, similar to protocol published recently by Gropp et al., 2012. Our and recently published methods are based on subcutaneous co-transplantation of defined numbers of undifferentiated mouse or human ES and iPS cells and Matrigel into immunodeficient mice. Our method was shown to be highly reproducible and efficient when 10 6  cells (different from Gropp et al., 2012, which used 10 5  cells) of mouse ES cells and human iPS cells were used. In 100% of cases we observed teratoma formation in a large number of animals and in long follow-up (up to 6 months). We also used these methods for bio-safety analysis of other adult MSC, such as those derived from dental pulp of deciduous teeth, umbilical cord, and adipose tissue. 
     Principal Criterion for Teratoma Assay 
     We evaluated next criterion for a teratoma assay: sensitivity and quantitativity; definitive cell number and single cell suspension production; immunophenotyping of studied cell in respect of expression on pluripotent cell markers and karyotype; co-transplantation of studied cells together with Matrigel. The cells were transplanted subcutaneously (s.c) into NOD/SCID mice, which allows for simple monitoring of teratoma development. 
     The development of tumors was monitored from 4 month (˜16 weeks). Histological criteria for teratomas is the differentiation of pluripotent cells into the cells derived from three germ layers. Such study usually was performed by pathologist. 
     For adult/mesenchymal stem cells any type or any changes on normal tissue integrity in the site of cell injection were taken in consideration. 
     Application of the Teratoma Criterion 
     A. the Experimental System(s): 
     
         
         
           
             a. Mouse embryonic stem cells 
             b. Mouse 3T3 fibroblasts, permanent mouse cell line Balbc 3T3 cell line, clone A 31   
             c. Human iPS-IDPSC 
             d. Human ES cells 
             e. Human IDPSCs 
           
         
       
    
     We used aforementioned method in diverse studies to characterize different mouse ES cell lines pluripotency established by us as well as to confirm ES cells pluripotency at high 25 or more passages and for characterization of sub-clones obtained from mouse ES cell lines (Sukoyan et al., 2002; Carta et al., 2006; Kerkis et al., 2007; Lavagnolli et al., 2007; Hayshi et al., 2010). 
     Additionally, this method was used to characterize the pluripotency of iPS cells derived from immature dental pulp stem cells (IDPSC) in more recent publication of our group (Beltrão-Braga et al., 2011). In this publication the human IDPSC were used as a control for iPS-IDPSCs. We showed that iPS-IDPSCs formed nice teratomas with tissues originated from all three germ layers, while hIDPSC were not able to produce any type of teratomas or any other type of neoplasms. In addition, iPS-IDPSCs expressed Nanog in nucleus, and hIDPSCs did not. 
     Results 
     Disclosed multiharvest explant like culture used for the isolation of a population of immature dental pulp stem cells (IDPSC), results in expression of embryonic stem cell markers Oct-4, Nanog, SSEA-3, SSEA-4, TRA-1-60 and TRA-1-81 as well as several mesenchymal stem cell markers during at least 15 passages while maintaining the normal karyotype and the rate of expansion characteristic of stem cells. The expression of these markers was maintained in subclones obtained from these cells. Moreover, in vitro these cells can be induced to undergo uniform differentiation into smooth and skeletal muscles, neurons, cartilage, and bone under chemically defined culture conditions. It is important to mentioned that IDPSC although have a small size and cytoplasm poor in cell organelles differ from naïve pluripotent cells presenting typical mesenchymal-fibroblast like morphology. Therefore IDPSC are of mesenchymal type, in contrast to ES and iPS cells, which are of epithelial type ( FIG. 8 ). The principle difference between MSC and ES or iPS cells that MSC are migrating and plastic anchoring, they synthetize extracellular matrix and are cell junction free cells. 
     B. The Experimental Systems: 
     
         
         
           
             a. three different IDPSC primary cultures at early (n=10) and late passages (n=10) b. Human primary fibroblast 
           
         
       
    
     In addition, this method was validated using dog fetal stem cells from bone marrow, liver, yolk sac, allantois and amniotic liquid which also express pluripotent markers. 
     The IDPSC are composed by population of MSC with a variable number of stem cells expressing pluripotent markers (1-25% of cells) (Lizier et al., 2012). These cells were transplanted into NOD/SCID mice (n=20) and the development of tumors was monitored from 4 month (˜16 weeks). Any type of changes on normal tissue integrity in the site of cell injection were taken in consideration. This protocol was adapted for the population of IDPSC, especially with respect to the number of cells used, which was calculated on the basis that 20% of IDPSC express pluripotent markers. In our previous tests with ES and iPS cells we used 10 6  cells, while to test IDPSC and control cells teratogenicity 5×10 6  cells were used. After 4 months, even if macroscopically, the tumors were not observed, the mice were sacrificed and frozen cuts were obtained from diverse organs, such as brain, lung, kidney, spleen, liver and were analyzed by pathologist. 
     Although presence of DNA of IDPSC within all studied organs were found, no tumor formation or any morphological changes were observed. 
     Example 7. Identification of Parameters for Effective Systemic Administration of a Stem Cell Treatment 
     Cell Culture Conditions to Establish Proper Population of Stem Cells. 
     Culture conditions, such as culture medium and adhesive surface, can affect gene expression of the cells. Such genes include ABCG2 and Vimentin, which are two genes that can indicate suitability of the cells in culture for therapeutic use, particularly systemic cellular systems like the present invention. Most suitable culture medium form tested is DMEM/F12 basal medium supplemented with 5-10-15% of FBS, antibiotics, and Glutamate, and the cells should be cultured without an adhesion layer (e.g. without extracellular matrix (ECM) or scaffold) such that the cells adhere directly to the culture dish or beads plastic. Cells that were grown with epithelial growth media conditions turn into epithelial-like cells. Using various xeno-free medium will require growth factors supplementation and selection of appropriate ECM coating can be useful for scale up of current cells into 3D culture conditions including bioreactors, such as Terumo hollofiber bioreactor, Eppendorf—New Brunswick bioreactors with beads, etc. The link of ABCG2 expression and undifferentiation status of cells is shown in  FIGS. 10 and 11 , where demonstrated that once ABCG2 not expressed due to changed culture medium or coating layer, then—cells have clear more fibroblast or epithelial cells—like morphology. Another surprising finding was that a typical medium routinely used in the prior art for maintenance or induction of embryonic stem cells, namely Dulbeccos Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) serum knockout medium KOSR (KSFM), is not advantageous for generating or maintaining pluripotent cells derived from hDPSC. As demonstrated in  FIG. 11 , use of this medium with and without fibronectin containing scaffold/ECM matrix coating or scaffold resulted in the differentiation of hIDPSCs into fibroblast-like ( FIG. 11 ) or epithelial like cells. In contrast to the use of Dulbeccos Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) alone, it was found that Dulbeccos Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) or Neurobasal medium (NB) if supplemented with B 27  and, optionally, supplemented with FGF and/or EGF, leads to the formation of neuronal like leneages. Exemplary protocols for differentiation into cells of the neural lineages have also been described in previous patent applications, for example, International Application no. PCT/IB14/59850 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/2140,016. 
     Differentiation into Corneal Cells 
     Material and Methods 
     De-Epithelialization of Amniotic Membrane as a Potential Fibronectin-Containing Scaffold for hIDPSC Cell Culture 
     Amniotic membrane (AM) was obtained from placenta of donor and stored at −8° C. (Covre J L at al 2011). Prior AM use, it was thawed at room temperature and washed in three times in PBS. Next, AM was removed from nitrocellulose membrane and washed again. In order to remove the epithelia, AM was incubated with EDTA for two hours. Then, the epithelia were removed mechanically. The AM becomes transparent following the epithelia removal. Completely transparent AM was transferred on inserts (Covre J L at al 2011 and Melo G B at al 2007). 
     IDPSC Culture 
     Human IDPSC, (2n=46, XX) were isolated from dental pulp of deciduous teeth and characterized previously (Kerkis et al. 2006). hIDPSC were maintained in Dulbecco&#39;s-modified Eagle&#39;s medium (DMEM)/Ham&#39;s F12 (1:1; Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.), supplemented with 15% fetal bovine serum (FBS; Hyclone, Logan, Utah), 100 units/mL penicillin (Gibco, Grand Island, N.Y.), 100 μg/mL streptomycin (Gibco), 2 mM L-glutamine (Gibco), and 2 mM nonessential amino acids (Gibco). The culture medium was changed daily, and the cells were replaced every 3 days. After they reached 80% confluence, they were washed twice in sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS; Gibco; 0.01 M, pH 7.4), enzymatically treated with 0.25% trypsin/EDTA (Invitrogen), and seeded onto amniotic membrane previously prepared. 
     Culture Media 
     To select the best culture media for cultivate IDPSC on AM, we tested the following culture media: A) The first was supplemental hormonal epithelial medium (SHEM), a combination of Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle&#39;s Medium/Ham&#39;s F-12 nutrient mixture (DMEM/F12; Invitrogen, Gibco Cell Culture, Port-land, OR; 1:1) containing 1.05 mM calcium supplemented with 5 μg/ml crystalline bovine insulin (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.), 30 ng/ml cholera-toxin (Calbiochem, San Diego, Calif.), 2 ng/ml epidermal growth factor (EGF, R &amp; D Systems, Inc., Minneapolis, Minn.), 0.5% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, Sigma Aldrich), 0.5 μg/ml hydrocortisone, 5 ng/ml sodium selenite, and 5 μg/ml apo-transferrin, and supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS). All reagents were obtained from Invitrogen Corporation (Grand Island, N.Y.), except those indicated in the text. B) The second was keratinocyte serum-free medium (KSFM) containing 0.09 mM calcium supplemented with 30 mg/ml pituitary bovine extract, 0.2 ng/ml EGF, 10% FBS, and ampicillin/streptomycin. C) The third was Epilife medium (Cascade Biologics, Portland, Oreg.), containing 0.06 mM calcium supplemented with 1% “human corneal growth supplement” (Cascade Biologics), containing 0.2% pituitary bovine extract, 5 g/ml bovine insulin, 0.18 mg/ml hydrocortisone, 5 μg/ml bovine transferrin, 0.2 ng/ml EGF, added 1% penicillin G sodium (Penicillin G sodium 10,000 g/ml, streptomycin sulfate 25 mg/ml, amphotericin B in 0.85% NaCl), and 5% FBS. D) Knockout media 
     Antibodies 
     Mouse anti-human monoclonal antibodies: ABCG2 (Chemicon) and cytoplasmic/nuclear monoclonal antibodies: mouse anti-cytokeratin 3/12 (K3/12) (RDI, Flanders, N.J., USA), reacts with human and rabbit. Mouse anti-human IDPSC antibody was obtained as described (Kerkis et al., 2006) and successfully used by us in previous studies (Fonseca et al., 2009; Monteiro et al., 2009). 
     Immunofluorescence Staining 
     Cells were grown on glass cover-slips up to 70% confluence and also, were grown on AM, washed in PBS (Gibco) and fixed overnight with 4% paraformaldehyde (Sigma). Coverslips were washed three times in tris buffered saline (TBS), containing 20 mm Tris-HCl pH 7.4 (Vetec, Duque de Caxias, RJ, Brazil), 0.15 m NaCl (Dinamica Reagent, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil), and 0.05% Tween-20 (Sigma). Permeabilization was performed using 0.1% Triton X-100 for 15 min (Santa Cruz Biotechnology). Cells were washed three times and incubated for 30 min in 5% bovine serum albumin (Sigma) in PBS pH 7.4 (Gibco). Primary antibodies were added for 1 h on each slide at different dilutions (ABCG2 and K3/12 (1:100), and anti-hIDPSC (1:1000)), which were incubated at room temperature. Following washing in TBS (three times), cells were incubated in the dark for 1 h with secondary anti-mouse antibody-conjugated fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) at a dilution of 1:500. Microscope slides were mounted in antifade solution (Vectashield mounting medium, Vector Laboratories, Hercules, Calif., USA) with 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) and analysed using a confocal microscope. Control reactions were incubated with PBS instead of primary antibody, followed by washing and incubation with respective secondary antibody. All experiments have been done in triplicate. 
     Results 
     Expression of Undifferentiated LSCs and Differentiated Corneal Cells Proteins in IDPSCs Grown in Different Culture Media on Plastic Substrate 
     The expression pattern of ABCG2 protein (ATP-binding cassette sub-family G member 2), which are commonly used for LSCs characterization and CK3 (cytokeratin 3) and cytokeratin 12 that encodes the type I intermediate filament chain and both expressed in corneal epithelia were analyzed.  FIG. 12  depicts that IDPSC had differential response in respect of expression of studied proteins when cultured in distinct culture medium during 7 days. The IDPSCs grown on plastic surfaces did not express ABCG2 when cultured in SHEM, KSFM, Epilife and DMEM/KO ( FIG. 10  A 1 -A 4 ), this protein was expressed in IDPSCs only when they were cultured in basal culture medium ( FIG. 10  A 5 ). Interestingly, that IDPSCs cultured in SHEM and DMEM/KO, after seven days changed their morphology fibroblast like ( FIG. 10  A 5 ) to epithelial like ( FIGS. 10  B 2  and B 4 ) and start to express CK3/12, while IDPSC cultured in Epilife and KSFM and DMEM/F12 did not start to express K3/12 ( FIG. 10  B 1 , B 3 , B 5 ). 
     Expression of Undifferentiated LSCs and Differentiated Vimentin Markers in IDPSCs Grown in Different Culture Media on AM 
     Next, the expression of these markers and additionally vimentin was verified in IDPSC grown on AM during 7 days ( FIG. 11 ). Epilife was excluded from this study due to very low survival of the cells (less then 50%), when grown in this medium and low adherence of the cells on AM in combination with Epilife. Vimentin expression was observed in all samples ( FIG. 11  A-A 3 ), it was positive in IDPSCs cultured in DMEM/F12 and SHEM ( FIG. 11  A and A 2 ) and showed weak positivity with IDPSCs cultured in KSFM and DMEM/KO ( FIG. 11  A 2  and A 3 ). ABCG2 antibody showed strong immunopositivity with IDPSC cultured in SHEM and DMEM/F12 ( FIG. 11  B and B 1 ) and did not express in IDPSC cultured in KSFM ( FIG. 11  B 2 ) and showed weak immunoreactivity with IDPSC cultured in DMEM/KO ( FIG. 11  B 3 ). IDPSCs did not react with IDPSCs cultured in DMEM/F12 e KSFM ( FIG. 11  C and C 4 ) and showed very weak immunopositivity with K3/12 when cultured in SHEM and DMEM/KO ( FIG. 11  C 1  and C 3 ). 
     Example 8. Preclinical Pharmacology Studies 
       FIG. 12  summarizes the preclinical pharmacology studies, which aimed at examining the different clinical applications of the investigational product CELLAVITA™ (stem cells). Although many of the studies were conducted to investigate the pharmacological efficacy of the cells for various indications, they are all demonstrate the safety profile of the product as well as of the proposed intravenous administration. 
     Example 9. Product Description and Specifications 
     Table 7 depicts CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) specifications. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Drug Product Release Monograph 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Method of Analysis 
                 Characteristics 
                 Specification 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Appearance-Morphological test 
                 Morphology 
                 Normal fibroblast like morphology 
               
               
                   
                   
                 under inverted microscope 
               
               
                   
                   
                 inspection 
               
               
                 Cell viability via Trypan Blue 
                 Viability 
                 &gt;95% 
               
               
                 exclusion 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Cell doublings 
                 Cell doublings number 
                 At least doubling of cell number in 
               
               
                   
                   
                 24 hours 
               
               
                 CFU 
                 Cell forming units assay 
                 &gt;5 colonies 
               
               
                 Sterility (21CFR/EP/USP) 
                 Microbial contamination 
                 No growth detected after 14 days 
               
               
                 Endotoxins (LAL) 
                 Less than or equal to 1.0 EU/mg 
                 &lt;0.005 EU/mg A280 protein 
               
               
                   
                 A280 protein 
                   
               
               
                 PCR Mycoplasma test 
                 Mycoplasma detection 
                 Undetectable 
               
               
                   
                 Culture - no growth detected 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Impurities 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 FACS analysis 
                 Allogeneic marker 
                 Negative to HLA class II 
               
               
                 FACS analysis 
                 HSC marker 
                 Negative to CD34 
               
               
                 FACS analysis 
                 Phenotype analysis MSC 
                 Positive to CD73, CD105 
               
               
                 FACS analysis 
                 Phenotype analysis neuronal factors 
                 Positive to NGF, nestin 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Assay 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 ELISA assay 
                 Neuronal factors 
                 Positive to BDNF 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Analytical Procedure 
     Safety QC — Mycoplasma  Test 
       Mycoplasma  tests are performed regularly during cultivation of hIDPSC with an in-house RT-PCR test (EZ-PCR Biological Industries, Israel) according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocol. 
     Safety characteristics—Karyotype Analysis 
     Karyotype analysis have been performed in order to demonstrate karyotype stability and this data are already published (Kerkis et al., 2006; Beltrão-Braga, 2011; Lizier et al., 2012). 
     Safety and Identity QC—Flow Cytometric Analysis of Cell Surface Antigens 
     Immunostaining of cell surface markers was carried out with monoclonal antibodies against various surface antigen markers: HLA-DR-FITC, CD44-FITC, CD45-APC, CD105-PE, CD73-FITC, CD90-APC (eBioscience CA, USA), SOX2-PE, Nestin-PE, Tubulin-APC, NGF-PE (R&amp;D systems, MN, USA). 2×105 cells were used for the FACS experiments. Cells were washed twice with PBS (w/o Ca and Mg) and suspended in 50 μl PBS. Cells were then incubated with antibodies for 15 min at room temperature. The cells were washed twice with PBS and analyzed with a Becton-Dickinson flow cytometer. The fluorescence of PE (FL2), FITC (FL1), APC (FL4) was detected at 575 nm, 530 nm and 600 nm emission wave lengths, respectively. 
     Activity Bioassay QC—ELISA Assay 
     BDNF levels were quantified by using a human BDNF Quantikine ELISA kit, according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocol (R&amp;D Systems, MN, USA). 
     1×10 6  cells from different harvests were inoculated in 75-cm2 plastic flasks. The supernatants were harvested approximately 4 days after inoculation. The results were expressed as the BDNF concentration. 
     Batch Analysis 
     Table 8 depicts batch Number 001H1-30/P1-5/F analysis. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Batch Number 001H1-30/P1-5/F 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Method of Analysis 
                 Characteristics 
                 Specification 
                 Result 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Characteristics 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Appearance- 
                 Morphology 
                 Normal fibroblast like 
                 Confirms 
               
               
                 Morphological test 
                   
                 morphology under 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 inverted microscope 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 inspection 
                   
               
               
                 Cell viability via Trypan 
                 Viability 
                 &gt;95% 
                 Confirms 
               
               
                 Blue exclusion 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Cell doublings 
                 Cell doublings number 
                 At least doubling of cell 
                 Confirms 
               
               
                   
                   
                 number in 24 hours 
                   
               
               
                 CFU 
                 Cell forming units assay 
                 &gt;5 colonies 
                 Confirms 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Safety 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Sterility (21CFR/EP/USP) 
                 Microbial contamination 
                 No growth detected after 
                 Confirms 
               
               
                   
                   
                 14 days 
                   
               
               
                 Endotoxins (LAL) 
                 Less than or equal to 1.0 
                 &lt;0.005 EU/mg A280 
                 Confirms 
               
               
                   
                 EU/mg A280 protein 
                 protein 
                   
               
               
                 PCR Mycoplasma test 
                 Mycoplasma detection 
                 Undetectable 
                 Confirms 
               
               
                   
                 Culture - no growth 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 detected 
                   
                   
               
               
                 FACS analysis 
                 Allogeneic marker 
                 Negative to HLA-DR 
                 Confirms 
               
               
                 FACS analysis 
                 HSC marker 
                 Negative to CD34 
                 Confirms 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Identity: mesenchymal stem cell markers and neuronal markers 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 FACS analysis 
                 Phenotype analysis MSC 
                 Positive to CD13, CD73, 
                 Confirms 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CD105 
                   
               
               
                 FACS analysis 
                 Phenotype analysis 
                 Positive to NGF, nestin 
                 Confirms 
               
               
                   
                 neuronal factors 
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Activity Bioassay 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 ELISA assay 
                 Neuronal factors 
                 Positive to BDNF 
                 Confirms 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Stability 
     Avita performed non GMP, non GLP studies regarding hIDPSC stability. For this purpose a single master cell bank, which may mitigate variability of the final batch, was established. It was composed by 5 batches, each derived from Dental Pulp of one individual. The cells were produced as described in  FIG. 13 . The time line of stability studies of hIDPSC is presented on  FIG. 14 . 
     The expression of stem cell markers, dynamics of cell proliferation, and differentiation capacity of hIDPSC derived from four batches before cryopreservation as well as migration and biodistribution in different organs after injection into Nude mice were studied. CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) showed that under standard culture conditions these cells at passage 6 from four independent batches express surface markers of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) such as CD105, CD73, and CD13. Nevertheless, they lack the expression of CD45, CD34, CD14, CD43, and of HLA-DR. These cells were able to undergo spontaneous and induced in vitro differentiation into osteoblasts, adipocytes and chondroblasts, muscle cells, and into neurons in vitro. After transplantation into normal mice, these cells showed significant engraftment in liver, spleen, brain and kidney, among others. 
     Stability Program Development 
     Past experience showed that both the initial cell Poll (primary cells) and its final blend (after P5 expansion and mixing of all transfers) are stable when cryopreserved at −192° C. 
     Example 10. Huntington&#39;s Disease Animal Model Experiments 
     Huntington Disease (HD)—as a Model of Neurodegeneration. 
     Huntington&#39;s disease (HD) is an inherited disease of the brain that damages certain brain cells. The disease damages some of the nerve cells in the brain, causing deterioration and gradual loss of function of these areas of the brain. This can affect movement, cognition (perception, awareness, thinking, judgment) and behavior. There are typical involuntary movements called chorea, manifested by muscle, spontaneous and transient contractions. This symptom is present in over 90% of patients with this disease. Over time, the patient&#39;s voluntary movements become slower and they showed severe difficulties in equilibrium. Often the difficulty in words articulating (dysarthria) and in food swallowing (dysphagia) is noted. The patient may also present muscle rigidity, dementia and psychiatric disorders such as depression and delusions. 
     HD and Neuronal Cell Loss. 
     HD is characterized by a progressive loss of medium spiny neurons, predominantly the GABAergic neurons, in the basal ganglia. Moreover, HD is associated with severe striatal D1 and D2 receptor loss and taking in consideration that recently it was reported that disregulation of dopamine receptor D2 as a sensitive measure for Huntington disease pathology in model mice (Crook et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2013). HD becomes most prominent in the neostriatum, commonly referred to as the striatum, which also includes the caudate nucleus and putamen. Striatal atrophy in 95% of HD brains with a mean volumetric decrease of 58% was revealed during postmortem analysis (Lange et al., 1976; Vonsattel and DiFiglia, 1998). A volumetric loss of up to 29% in the cerebral cortex, 28% in the thalamus, and 29-34% in the telencephalic white matter in was also observed in HD patients (De la Monte et al., 1988). Additionally, in HD patients a total brain volume was be reduced by 19% when compared to healthy control brains (Halliday et al., 1998). 
     Immune System and HD. 
     Today, consistent evidences exist about a key role of neuroinflammation in the development of several neurodegenerative diseases. The contribution of inflammation to neurodegeneration in HD is strongly suggested. Thus, an activation of the immune system in HD was clearly proven by the elevated expression of cytokines such as IL-6 in mouse models and in symptomatic as well as presymptomatic patients. Activation of CNS innate immune cells in HD occurs through microglia and astrocytes, which are directly, implicated in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative diseases. 
     HD and Nerve Growth Factors. 
     Several studies demonstrate that wild-type htt protein increases brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in CNS cells, whereas the mutated htt protein leads to down-regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), resulting in insufficient neurotrophic support and neuronal cell death (Zuccato et al., 2001). 
     Use of Cellavita hIDPSCs on Preclinical Model 
     Different, chemical models (quinolinic acid, QA; 3-nitropropionic acid, 3-NP) and genetic models (R6/2-J2; N171-82Q, R6/2) of HD were used in previous publications. We used in our non-limiting example a classical HD-like symptoms induction model by systemic administration of 3-NP. The primary goals of preclinical safety evaluation are: 1) to identify an initial safe dose and subsequent dose escalation schemes in humans; 2) to identify potential target organs for toxicity and for the study of whether such toxicity is reversible; 3) to identify safety parameters for clinical monitoring; 4) to identify IDPSC in rat&#39;s brain. 
     The HD in our study was induced with 3-NP, which is an irreversible inhibitor of succinate dehydrogenase that inhibits both the Krebs cycle and Complex II and systemic administration of 3-NP to both rats and primates can produce selective striatal lesions that are a consequence of secondary excitotoxic mechanisms [95-96]. These lesions accurately replicate a number of motor and neuropathological symptoms observed in HD patients. Systemic administration of 3-NP results in differential sparing of striatal NADPH-diaphorase and large cholinergic neurons with a significant loss of striatal GABAergic neurons activity of the electron transport chain. 
     We used in our preclinical study three-month-old Wistar rat males with starting bodyweight of between 300 g and 350 g. HD was induced with daily intraperitoneal injection of 20 mg/kg of 3-NP (Sigma-Aldrich) for 4 days. The human IDPSC were isolated according to the protocol already established for Kerkis and colleagues (2006). The cells were expanded to passage 4. The cells were immunopositive for MSCs markers such as CD105, CD90, and CD73; pericyte markers such as CD146; and neural crest stem cells marker such as CD271. The cells were negative for CD45 (blood cells marker) and HLA II (major histocompatibility complex: human leukocyte antigen class II molecules). All procedures were developed in the presence and under supervision of veterinarian specialized in neural system diseases. 
     A. Short-Term Action of hIDPSC in an Experimental Rat Model Induced with 3-NP of HD. 
     In order to observe the track and biodistribution of IDPSC in the striatum and in other brain compartments they were previously stained with Vybrant (green-dye Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif., USA; V12883). After 24 hours of induction of HD with 3-NP acid, a total of 1×106 IDPSC were transplanted intravenously (caudal vein), and after 4 days (pilot study) or after 35 days (Group I study), the animals were euthanized. The brain were collected for histological and immunohistochemical analysis ( FIGS. 15 and 16 ). 
     To evaluate the process of neurodegeneration induced by 3-NP and the effect of IDPSC transplantation on this process in experimental groups the global biomarkers in  FIG. 17  were used. 
     Results: Pilot Study 
       FIG. 18  demonstrates hIDPSC engraftment throughout the striatum and cortex parenchymal tissue. Tissues were evaluated by immunohistochemistry using the specific anti-human cells nuclei antibody (brown) and the anti-hIDPSC antibody (green). hIDPSC was co-localized with CD73 (red), a marker for human MSC producing as a result yellow color. (2) effect on neurogenesis induction marked by striatal GABAergic neurons that were immunostained in brown, as well as (3) DA neurons burst shown by high magnification showed expression of receptor D2 (brown) in neurons of striatum, while (4) Collagen 1 demonstrates in brown the area which was lesioned by 3-NP—a mimicking of HD-like striatum lesion. 
     After the induction of HD with 3-NP acid, the mice showed similar functional and anatomical characteristics with human&#39;s symptoms of HD: 
     1. most of the animals had lesions in the striatum.
 
2. all animals, which received 3-NP showed a reduction in body weight, were lethargic and demonstrated depressive symptoms 4 days after HD induction.
 
3. four days after transplantation of IDPSC there was no significant difference in weight between the animals treated with IDPSC and control group (not treated)
 
4. both groups showed lethargic and depressive behavior.
 
5. four days after IDPSCs transplantation, they were distributed throughout of subcortical part of the forebrain—striatum ( FIG. 19 ).
 
     At that moment hIDPSC showed double positive immunostaining for anti-IDPSC antibody CD73 and CD105 demonstrating that 4 days after transplantation most of the cells were still undifferentiated. hIDPSC were mainly localized in the parenchyma of the striatum and close to capillaries ( FIG. 20 ). 
     Thus IDPSC transplanted via IV in HD rats induced by 3-NP were able to cross BBB and to migrate into lesioned area. These cells demonstrated significant engraft in parenchyma and around capillaries. Four days after transplantation, the cells are still undifferentiated; however a few human cells that present neuron-like morphology were also observed. 
     Results: Group I Study 
     The aim of the study was to identify the IDPSC in rat&#39;s brain 30 days after IV injection. Thirty days after IDPSC injection they were observed in cortex and mainly in striatum close to capillaries, typical localization of brain pericytes ( FIG. 21 ). Additional serial cut obtained from rat&#39;s brain demonstrates neuron like morphology of IDPSC localized in parenchyma ( FIG. 22 ). Unexpectedly the IDPSC were found in Subventricular zone (SVZ), which is considered stem cell niche of neurons in adult brain ( FIG. 23 ). Other surprising unexpected result that was obtained is a robust production of DARPP32 positive neurons in rats, which received hIDPSC transplantation. In contrast this was not observed in control groups ( FIG. 24 ). It is important to note that Dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein, Mr 32 kDa (DARPP-32), was identified initially as a major target for dopamine and protein kinase A (PKA) in striatum. The regulation of the state of DARPP-32 phosphorylation provides a mechanism for integrating information arriving at dopaminoceptive neurons, in multiple brain regions, via a variety of neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, neuropeptides, and steroid hormones (Svenningsson et al., 2004). HD is associated with severe striatal D1 and D2 receptor loss and taking in consideration that recently it was reported that dysregulation of dopamine receptor D2 as a sensitive measure for Huntington disease pathology in model mice (Crook et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2013), therefore we used this marker to evaluate possible effect of IDPSC in 3-NP induced rats. 
     Surprisingly, we observed significant difference in receptor D2 expression in rats, which received IDPSC in comparison with untreated groups, a few of expression of receptor D2 cells can be observed in the striatum of control animals. Therefore we suggested three score system for this protein expression ( FIG. 25 ), which can be quantified also.
 
B. Longer Term Action of hIDPSC in an Experimental Rat Model Induced with 3-NP of HD.
 
     We performed two new experiments (Group II and III) that followed next experimental design ( FIG. 26 ) and aimed at several IDPSC transplantation and elevated cell number. Clinical markers observed included weight loss and extent of motor deterioration. The extent of motor deterioration could be determined by detecting dystonia, lethargy, hind limb weakness, ventral and lateral recumbancy, or upregulation of indh (i.e., upregulation of motor performance deficits) in HD.  FIG. 27  present an example scoring system for evaluating motor deterioration. Clinical evaluation of all studied animals after induction of HD is presented in Table 9.  FIGS. 28-31  shows the weight chances of animals in the pilot study, Group II study, and Group III study. In the longer term studies, animals treated with IDPSCs had higher body weight than untreated animals. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 9 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Summary clinical evaluation of all four experiments 
               
               
                 after the induction of HD using 3-NP. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Number 
                 Number of 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 of 
                 hIDPSC 
                 Behavioral changes after 3NP 
                   
               
               
                 Groups 
                 Animals 
                 transplants 
                 induction 
                 Survival 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Pilot 
                 25 
                 1 IV 
                 Body weight loss; lethargy 
                 Normal 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 life span 
               
               
                 I 
                 20 
                 1 IV 
                 Body weight loss; lethargy 
                 Normal 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 life span 
               
               
                 II 
                 20 
                 — 
                 — 
                 16 deaths 
               
               
                 IIa 
                 20 
                 1 IV 
                 Body weight loss; lethargy 
                  2 deaths 
               
               
                 III 
                 20 
                 2 IV 
                 Body weight loss; lethargy; 
                  8 deaths 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 gait abnormalities; deficits 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 on rotarod; hind limb  
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 stiffness; and ventral 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 recumbency with hind limb 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 extended (15 days) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 11. 3-Nitropropionic Acid (3-NP) Rat Model of Huntington Disease 
     Ethical Issue 
     All studies were approved by the ethics committee of the Nuclear and Energy Research Institute (Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares—IPEN), University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. Protocols concerning the maintenance, care, and handling of experimental animals are in accordance with all Brazilian current legislation and with internationally recognized norms and protocols. All staff working with experimental animals were fully accredited as a staff researcher/technician and were properly trained in the use of animals for experimental scientific purposes in accordance with current Brazilian regulations 
     Main Goal 
     The research group tested the neuroprotective and/or neural tissue remodeling effects of hIDPSC in a 3-NP chemical model of Huntington&#39;s disease. 
     Animal Model 
     Systemic administration of the mitochondrial toxin 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) serves as a chemical model of Huntington&#39;s disease in rodents and non-human primates and has been used to test potential drug therapies. 3-NP is an irreversible mitochondrial succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) inhibitor that causes cell death mainly in the striatum and also in GABAergic medium spiny projection neurons and spiny interneurons. Because of its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, 3-NP can be administered systemically, causing selective neurodegeneration of the striatum or the entire corpus striatum. Depending on the drug regimen, 3-NP administration can simulate different stages of Huntington&#39;s disease. Intraperitoneal injections of two 3-NP doses lead to hyperkinetic symptoms in mice in the early stages of disease, whereas four or more doses result in hypoactivity in the late stages of disease (Beal et al., 1993; Brouillet et al., 1995; Yang et al., 2008; Borlogan et al., 1997). 
     It should be noted that the 3-NP-treated animals (chemical model) has an important limitation if compared to transgenics. In 3-NP model, the striatum lesion can regenerate spontaneously, after 10-12 days because of the presence of normal intrinsic neuronal precursors and an absence of genetic background which provides constant neurodegeneration. Therefore, difference in motor and functional improvements between experimental and control groups can be observed before spontaneous neuroregeneration. 
     Brief Protocol of hIDPSC Transplantation 
     Lewis rats (n=124) weighing 350-450 g were injected 20 mg/kg 3-NP intraperitoneally (IP) once daily for four days. The animals were kept under a light/dark cycle for 12 h and given free access to food and water. Rats were injected IP with 3-NP to induce brain injuries. Next, they were anesthetized and injected into the caudal vein with either one or three doses of 1×10 6  each in 250 μl of saline solution or 1×10 7  in 300 μl of saline solution hIDPSCs per animal, which corresponds to 0.35×10 6  and to 3.5×10 6  per kg, respectively. Multiple doses were administered 30 days apart ( FIG. 32 ). 
     Each treatment group was paired with a control group that received saline solution only (‘untreated’). Thus, animals were grouped into five groups as shown in Table 10. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 10 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Groups and number of the animals used in the present study. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Total 
                   
                 Animals 
               
               
                   
                   
                 num- 
                   
                 composed 
               
               
                 Groups 
                 Treatment 
                 ber 
                 Deaths 
                 this study 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1  
                 Treated = 1 × 10 6  hIDPSCs in a  
                 19 
                 2 
                 17 
               
               
                 (n = 40) 
                 single administration (n = 19) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Untreated = saline solution (n = 20) 
                 21 
                 0 
                 20 
               
               
                 2  
                 Treated = 1 × 10 6  hIDPSCs in three 
                 19 
                 5 
                 14 
               
               
                 (n = 40) 
                 administrations (n = 19) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Untreated = saline solution (n = 21) 
                 21 
                 9 
                 12 
               
               
                 3  
                 Treated = 1 × 10 7  hIDPSCs in a  
                 10 
                 0 
                 10 
               
               
                 (n = 21) 
                 single administration (n = 10) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Untreated = saline solution (n = 11) 
                 11 
                 0 
                 11 
               
               
                 4  
                 Treated = 1 × 10 7  hIDPSCs in three 
                 14 
                 5 
                 9 
               
               
                 (n = 23) 
                 administrations (n = 14) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Untreated = saline solution (n = 9) 
                 9 
                 3 
                 6 
               
               
                 5  
                 Control = no administration of 
                 10 
                 0 
                 10 
               
               
                 (n = 10) 
                 3-NP, saline solution, or hIDPSCs 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 (n = 10) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Functional Analysis 
     Semi-Quantitative Neurological Scale 
     Ambulatory abilities were assessed twice a week by one blinded observer for each experimental group using the quantitative neurological scale adapted from Ludolph et al., (1991). This scale measures the ambulatory behavior (scored 0-4) of rats on a flat wooden surface as follows: 0: normal behavior; 1: general slowness; 2: incoordination and gait abnormalities; 3: upper limb paralysis or impairment, inability to move; and 4: inability to leave the lying position. 
     At baseline, all rats (30) in both groups exhibited normal behavior with no marked gait abnormality before treatment with 3NP, thus receiving a score 0. At the end 3NP administration (4 days) end of the of 3NP induction, a total of the 76 rats presented general slowness (score 1); 2 rats presented difficult to move to move (score 2); 20 rats exhibited incapacity to move resulting from forelimb and hindlimbs impairment (score 3); 24 rats presented recumbence and consequently death (score 4). After 24 hours HIDPSC transplantation, the rats treated with 3NP+ hIDPSC (both doses) performed better compared to rats treated with 3NP. However, 5-days after hIDPSC transplantation the rats exhibited better improvement after HDPSC transplantation. Total of 27 rats presented normal score (score 0). Furthermore 20 rats presented score 1, 3 score 2 and 2 score 3 and no rats presented score 4 after HIDPSC transplantation (Table 12). While control group (3NP+ saline solution) 38 rats presented score 1, 1 score 2 and 5 score 3 and 1 rat presented score 4 (Table 11). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 11 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Neurological rating scale scores after 5 days end 3NP treatment 
               
               
                 (4 days). Scores are for rats in the control group (3NP + saline solution). 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Group 
                 Score 0 
                 Score 1 
                 Score 2 
                 Score 3 
                 Score 4 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 GI 
                 0 
                 16 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 GII 
                 0 
                 9 
                 0 
                 3 
                 0 
               
               
                 GIII 
                 0 
                 10 
                 0 
                 1 
                 0 
               
               
                 GIV 
                 0 
                 3 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 TOTAL 
                 4 
                 38 
                 1 
                 5 
                 1 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 12 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Neurological rating scale scores after 5 days end 3NP treatment (4 days). 
               
               
                 Scores are for rats in the treatment group (3NP + hIDPSC). 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Group 
                 Score 0 
                 Score 1 
                 Score 2 
                 Score 3 
                 Score 4 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 GI 
                 8 
                 11 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 GII 
                 10 
                 3 
                 0 
                 1 
                 0 
               
               
                 GIII 
                 7 
                 3 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 GIV 
                 2 
                 3 
                 3 
                 1 
                 0 
               
               
                 TOTAL 
                 27 
                 20 
                 3 
                 2 
                 0 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Table 13 depicts neurological score of control group (3NP+ saline solution) and hIDPSC group (3NP+ hIDPSC transplant) after 3NP treatment (4 days of administration), 1 day and 5 days after 3NP induction and after HIDPSC transplantation. Normal behavior with no gait abnormalities (score 0); general slowness (score 1); incoordination and gait alterations (score 2); inability to move either the hind limbs or forelimbs (score 3); and inability to leave the lying position. This last group eventually died (score 4). Group 1=Treated=1×10 6  hIDPSCs in a single administration; Group 2=Treated=1×10 6  hIDPSCs in three administrations; Group 3=Treated=1×10 7  hIDPSCs in a single administration Group 4=Treated=1×10 7  hIDPSCs in three administrations. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 13 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Neurological scors of various groups of rats 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 neurological 
                 neurologial 
               
               
                   
                   
                 dose and HIDPSC 
                 neurological score 
                 score AF 1 
                 score AF 5 
               
               
                 Animal 
                 Treatment 
                 and frequency 
                 AF 3NP 
                 DAY 
                 DAYS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GROUP I 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                  1 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                  2 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                  3 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                  4 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                  5 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                  6 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                  7 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                  8 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                  9 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 10 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 11 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 12 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 13 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 14 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 15 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 16 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 17 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 18 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 19 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 20 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 64 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 65 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 66 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 67 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 3 
                 3 
                 1 
               
               
                 68 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 69 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 70 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 71 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 72 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 73 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 74 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 75 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 76 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 77 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 78 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 79 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 80 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 81 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 82 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 83 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GI 
                 4 
                   
                 death 
               
               
                 GROUP II 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 21 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 22 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
               
               
                 23 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 3 
                   
                 death 
               
               
                 24 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 3 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 25 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 26 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
               
               
                 27 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 4 
                   
                 death 
               
               
                 28 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 29 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 3 
                 3 
                 1 
               
               
                 30 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 3 
                 3 
                 1 
               
               
                 31 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 4 
                 4 
                 3 
               
               
                 32 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 33 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 34 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 35 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 3 
                 3 
                 death 
               
               
                 36 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
               
               
                 37 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 3 
                   
                 death 
               
               
                 38 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 39 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 3 
                 3 
                 1 
               
               
                 40 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                   21A 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                   22A 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                   23A 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                   24A 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                   25A 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                   26A 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   27A 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   28A 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   29A 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   30A 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   31A 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                   32A 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                   33A 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                   34A 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                   35A 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                   36A 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   37A 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   38A 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   39A 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                   40A 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 GROUP IV 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 84 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 85 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 86 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 87 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 88 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 89 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 90 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 91 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 92 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 93 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 94 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 95 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 104  
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIII 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
               
               
                 96 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 1 
               
               
                 97 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 1 
               
               
                 98 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 1 
               
               
                 99 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIII 
                 2 
                 2 
                 1 
               
               
                 100  
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 101  
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 102  
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 103  
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIII 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 GROUP III 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 41 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 42 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 3 
                 3 
                 1 
               
               
                 43 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIV 
                 3 
                 3 
                 death 
               
               
                 44 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 3 
                 3 
                 0 
               
               
                 45 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIV 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 46 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 4 
                 4 
                 2 
               
               
                 47 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 3 
                 3 
                 1 
               
               
                 48 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 4 
                 4 
                 3 
               
               
                 49 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 50 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIV 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 51 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 4 
                 4 
                 2 
               
               
                 52 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIV 
                 4 
                 4 
                 4 
               
               
                 53 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIV 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
               
               
                 54 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 55 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 4 
                 4 
                 death 
               
               
                 56 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 3 
                 3 
                 1 
               
               
                 57 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIV 
                 3 
                 3 
                 2 
               
               
                 58 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 4 
                 4 
                 2 
               
               
                 59 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 3 
                 3 
                 death 
               
               
                 60 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIV 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 61 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIV 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                 62 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 GIV 
                 1 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 63 
                 3NP + SAL 
                 GIV 
                 1 
                 1 
                 1 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Histopathological and Immunohistological Analysis 
     Histopathological and immunohistological analyses were conducted 7, 30, and 90 days after hIDPSC injection; animals were perfused with 4% paraformaldehyde (prepared in PBS, 0.1 mol/L). Tissue fragments were dehydrated in a decreasing ethanol series (75, 95, and 100%) and stained using Nissl staining with 0.1% cresyl violet. Two antibodies, such as, anti-human nuclei and anti-hIDPSC (1:1000, Abcam Plc) were used to determine the presence of hIDPSC in rat brain. To evaluate the neuroprotective and neuroreparative effects of hIDPSC, anti-GABAergic medium spiny neurons DARPP32 (1:1000, Abcam Plc), dopamine D2 (1:800), and BDNF (1:500) antibodies were used. 
     hIPDSC Engraftment in Rat Brain 
     One of the most relevant findings of the study was that hIDPSCs were detected in the cortex and corpus striatum, indicating that they were able to cross the blood-brain barrier and migrate to the site of injury ( FIG. 33 ). In  FIG. 33 , optical cuts demonstrate at different depth of focus (A 1 -A 4 ) the presence of IDPSC stained with Vybrant (green), and nuclei are stained with PI (red). The cells demonstrate capillary predominant association and different morphological types: neuron-like cells and pericytes. On A 2 , A 3 , and A 4  two pericytes at different locations along capillary can be observed, and both present similar morphology. On A 4  embranchment of axons is shown. Neuron nuclei are light with nucleolus, and the difference with perycite nuclei, which are strongly stained, can be observed. Blue is the artificial color of confocal microscope. Microscopy was with epifluorescence+Digital Interference Contrast (DIC), and the scale bar=10 μm. 
     In addition, four days after hIDPSC administration, a few cells were positive for specific MSC antibodies (anti-CD73 and anti-CD105), indicating that some cells were still undifferentiated at that time ( FIG. 34 ). Nevertheless, hIDPSC-derived neuron-like cells and pericytes (perivascular cells from microvessels) were also observed in the same period ( FIG. 33 ). 
     In  FIG. 34  the optical cut demonstrates IDPSC stained with Vybrant (green) and positively reacted with anti-IDPSC antibody (red). Superposition of both produce yellow color. The cell demonstrate near capillary localization. Two markers for MSC were used: CD73 and CD105 demonstrating positive reaction with IDPSC. A confocal microscope with epifluorescence+Digital Interference contrast (DIC) was used. Scale bar=A=5 μm; B=10 μm; C=20 μm; D=5 μm 
     Thirty days after hIDPSC transplantation, a few hIDPSCs were observed in the cortex and a large number of cells were observed in the corpus striatum, along the capillaries (FIG.  35 ). Serial cuts obtained from rat&#39;s brain demonstrates neuron like morphology of IDPSC localized in parenchyma ( FIG. 35 ). Additionally, neuron-like and fibroblast-like cells were also observed, confirming that hIDPSCs undergo differentiation ( FIG. 36 ). Unexpectedly the IDPSC were found also in Subventricular zone (SVZ), which is considered a stem cell niche of neurons in the adult brain ( FIG. 35 ). 
     Neuroprotective and Neuroreparative Effects 
     3-NP-induced striatal lesions were determined by neuron loss using Nissl staining and DARPP32 expression ( FIG. 37  and  FIG. 38 , respectively). Nissl stains are used to identify neuron structures in the brain and spinal cord ( FIG. 37 ), whereas DARPP32 is a cytoskeleton marker expressed in GABAergic neurons and prevalent in the striatum of healthy mammals ( FIG. 38 ). Using these two markers, neuron loss in the corpus striatum was scored as follows:
         Score 1 (severe): severe neuron loss, with areas of degradation, loss of DARPP32 immunostaining in the lateral striatum with little or no cells in the central striatum;   Score 2 (moderate): moderate neuron loss with “dark neurons” (dead or apoptotic neurons) and few DARPP32+ cells; and   Score 3 (mild): no neuron loss and intense DARPP32 immunostaining (Vis et al., 2001).       

     3-NP-treated animals showed complete or partial neuron loss in the striatum compared to controls (no 3-NP or hIDPSC). The two experimental groups (treated and untreated) presented different scores for neuronal loss in the striatum relative to controls. However, morphometric histological analysis revealed that most hIDPSC-treated animals had scores 3 and 2, whereas most untreated animals (3-NP+saline solution) had neuron loss scores of 2 and 1 ( FIG. 38 ). No animal had visible atrophy ( FIG. 37  and  FIG. 38 ). 
       FIG. 39  depicts neuronal growth in the striatum of rats after hIDPSC. Administration of hIDPSC resulted in a neuroreparative effect in hIDPSC-treated animals by (A) Nissl staining and (B) DARPP32 expression. (C) Number of animals showing neuron recovery after hIDPSC administration compared to Controls. Most hIDPSC-treated animals (3-NP+hIDPSC) had scores 3 and 2 (moderate and mild) whereas most untreated animals (3 NP+saline) had scores 2 and 1 (severe and moderate). 
     We also observed that DARPP32 expression was higher in hIDPSC-treated animals than in untreated animals ( FIG. 40 ) indicating neuron regeneration. Optical cuts in  FIG. 40  demonstrate that neuron positively reacted with DARPP32. 
     It is reported that dysregulation of dopamine receptor D2 is a sensitive measurement for HD pathology in model mice (Crook et al., 2012). A surprising, unexpected result was obtained in respect to a robust production of DARPP32 positive neurons in rats, which received hIDPSC transplantation. In contrast this was not observed in control groups ( FIG. 38 ). It is important to note that dopamine- and cAMP-regulated neuronal phosphoprotein (DARPP-32), was identified initially as a major target for dopamine and protein kinase A (PKA) in striatum. The regulation of the state of DARPP-32 phosphorylation provides a mechanism for integrating information arriving at dopaminoceptive neurons, in multiple brain regions, via a variety of neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, neuropeptides, and steroid hormones (Svenningsson et al., 2004). HD is associated with severe striatal D1 and D2 receptor loss and taking in consideration that recently it was reported that dysregulation of dopamine receptor D2 as a sensitive measure for Huntington disease pathology in model mice (Crook et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2013), therefore we used this marker to evaluate possible effect of IDPSC in 3-NP induced rats. 
     Surprisingly, we observed significant differences in receptor D2 expression in rats, which received IDPSC in comparison with untreated groups, a few of expression of receptor D2 cells can be observed in the striatum of control animals ( FIG. 41 ). 
     Reduced BDNF&#39;s mRNA and protein levels have been observed in the cerebellum, caudate putamen, striatum, and cerebral cortex of HD patients (Adachi et al., 2014). In the current study, BDNF expression was observed in the striatum, caudate, putamen, and subventricular zone of hIDPSC-treated animals 7 and 30 days after hIDPSC administration ( FIG. 40 ). BDNF expression in the subventricular zone indicates that hIDPSC promoted neurogenesis. No BDNF expression was observed in untreated animals (3-NP+saline). 
     Co-localization of hIDPSC was observed with the motor neuron marker DARRP32, suggesting that hIDPSCs differentiate into mature neurons. DARPP32 expression was detected in the striatum of hIDPSC-treated animals 30 days after hIDPSC administration in this 3-NP model of HD ( FIG. 41 ). These data indicate that hIDPSCs differentiate into GABAergic spiny neurons in vivo. It should be noted that integration of neurotransmitter and neuromodulator signals in the striatum plays a central role in basal ganglia functions. Moreover, DARPP32 is a key player in the integration of GABAergic medium spiny neurons in response to dopamine and glutamate (Fernandez et al., 2006). 
     Histological and immunohistochemical analyses revealed that hIDPSCs were able to cross the blood-brain barrier and reach different areas affected by HD, including the striatum and cortex. Morphometric histological analysis revealed that most hIDPSC-treated animals showed mild neuron loss in the striatum compared to untreated animals (3-NP+saline). Moreover, hIDPSCs showed neuroprotective and neuroreparative effects, as revealed by the upregulation of BDNF, DARPP32, and D2 receptor expression, which are downregulated in Huntington&#39;s disease (Van Dellen et al., 2000; Crook and Housman, 2012). 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 14 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 NUMBER OF 
                 NUMBER OF 
                 NUMBER OF 
                 NUMBER OF 
                   
               
               
                   
                 ANIMALS PER 
                 DEATHS PER 
                 ANIMALS PER 
                 DEATHS PER 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GROUP 
                 GROUP 
                 GROUP 
                 GROUP 
                 ANIMALS 
               
               
                   
                 3NP + SAL 
                 3NP + 3NP + SAL 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 3NP + HIDPSC 
                 COMPOSED 
               
               
                 GROUP 
                 GROUP 
                 GROUP 
                 GROUP 
                 GROUP 
                 THIS STUDY 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 GI (n = 40) 
                 19 
                 0 
                 21 
                 2 
                 38 
               
               
                 GII (n = 40) 
                 21 
                 9 
                 19 
                 5 
                 26 
               
               
                 GIII (n = 21) 
                 11 
                 0 
                 10 
                 0 
                 21 
               
               
                 GIV (n = 23) 
                 9 
                 3 
                 14 
                 5 
                 15 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Control Group 
                 10 
                 10 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 GV (n = 10) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 TOTAL 
                 60 
                 12 
                 64 
                 12 
                 110 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Safety 
     The following physiological parameters were recorded during the experimental period for treated and untreated animals: body weight and feed and water intake. Fewer deaths were observed among hIDPSC-treated animals than 3-NP-injected rats, indicating that hIDPSC administration is safe. In addition, the results suggest that hIDPSC administration improved overall survival by protecting animals from the neurotoxic effects of 3-NP (Table 14). Table 14. The number of survived versus dead animals. 
     The primary study assessing safety of hIDPSC was the 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) rat model of HD study. In this study, two different cell doses were injected: 1×10 6  and 1×10 7  cell/transplant or 3×106 cell/kg and 3×107 cell/kg, respectively. 3-NP-treated rats received a single IV injection or a total of three IV injections at one month intervals of the cells. 
     Seven deaths occurred in 3-NP induced animals which received 3×106 cell/kg, and 5 deaths occurred in animals receiving 3×107 cell/kg. In placebo groups (3-NP induced without the cell transplantation) same number (12) of animals died. All rats that died presented with extremely severe disease manifestation; the deaths occurred within 5 days of 3-NP administration. No additional deaths occurred with repeated hIDPSC doses. Based on these data, probable cause of all early deaths was 3-NP toxicity. Because no deaths occurred after repetitive hIDPSC transplantation, this supports the safety of hIDPSC transplantation (Table 14). 
     Patients with Huntington&#39;s disease often exhibit progressive weight loss despite adequate or high-energy intake. Weight loss may be an indicator of 3-NP neurotoxicity caused by decreased energy metabolism (Saydoff et al., 2003; Colle et al., 2013). No significant weight loss was observed in 3-NP-treated animals four days after 3-NP administration. However 30 days after hDPSC transplant, the hDPSC group (1×10 6  cells dose) exhibited significantly weight gain when compared with untreated group (3NP). Thus, hIDPSC attenuated weight loss (p=0.01) ( FIG. 42 ). 
     HD is a clinically debilitating disease for which there is no available therapy to stop or reverse disease progression. One major obstacle encountered by many therapeutics to treat HD, is that it is a neurodegenerative disorder and some targeted systemically delivered drugs would be unable to reach their target; passage of drugs to the brain is regulated by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The BBB is a highly selective permeability barrier that separates the circulating blood from the extracellular fluid surrounding the nervous system. Treatment with cell-based therapeutics, therefore, would seem to require localized delivery bypassing the BBB (i.e. injection through the selective permeability barrier) since cells do not generally cross the BBB. 
     Extensive studies show that hIDPSCs have mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) attributes, can secrete immunomodulating and neurotropic factors. In addition, histological and immunohistochemical analyses in validated HD rat model reveal that hIDPSCs are able to cross the BBB and reach different areas affected by HD, including the striatum and cortex. Morphometric histological analysis reveals that most hIDPSC-treated animals show mild neuron loss in the striatum compared to untreated animals. Moreover, hIDPSCs show neuroprotective and neuroreparative effects by upregulating BDNF, DARPP32, and D2 receptor expression, which are downregulated in Huntington&#39;s disease (Van Dellen et al., 2000; Crook and Housman, 2012). 
     Finally, studies evaluating the safety profile of hIDPSCs show they do not form teratomas, they do not exhibit chromosomal aberration, and they are able to form human/mouse chimeras. Since the studies suggest hIDPSCs are safe and efficacious in the treatment of HD, we propose to use hIDPSCs to treat HD. 
     Example 12. Neuroprotection Effect of hIDPSC on Brain. Short and Long-Term Effect of hIDPSC on BDNF Expression in Rat HD Model (Induced by 3-NP) after their Systemic Administration (Intravenous Route) 
     IntroductionNeurotrophic factors, such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), are essential contributors of central nervous system neuron function. BDNF plays an important role in neuronal survival and growth, serves as a neurotransmitter modulator, and participates in neuronal plasticity, which is essential for learning and memory. BDNF is also that support differentiation, maturation, and survival of neurons in the nervous system and shows a neuroprotective effect. BDNF stimulates and controls growth of new neurons from neural stem cells (NSC). In Huntington&#39;s disease decreased levels of BDNF are associated with neuronal loss. Studies demonstrate their reduced availability in diseased brains, thus suggesting that they play an important role in neurological disorders and, in particular, in HD. Under non-pathologic conditions, BDNF is synthesized in the cortex, the substantia nigra pars compacta, the amygdala, and in the thalamus. All these regions supply the striatum with BDNF. In HD, the deficit of BDNF in the striatum may be due to reduced BDNF gene transcription in the cerebral cortex or reduced BDNF vesicle transport (or both). The decrease in BDNF expression observed in HD impairs dopaminergic neuronal function, which may be associated with HD motor disturbances. As a result, many studies have been carried out to examine whether increasing BDNF levels may help treat HD (1-7) . 
     Material and Methods 
     Chemical HD Model. Lewis rats weighing 350-450 were injected 20 mg/kg 3 nitropropionic (3-NP) intraperitoneally (Sigma Aldrich) once daily for four days. The animals were kept under a light/dark cycle for 12 h and given free access to food and water. Rats were injected with 3-NP to induce brain injuries. After 3NP administration reduction of BDNF expression occurs in cortex, hippocampus and striatum.
 
hIDPSC transplantation. Animals were anesthetized and injected intravenously with one dose of 1×10 6  of hIDPSC in 200 μL of PBS (Phosphate buffered saline) into the caudal vein. Control animal received 200 μL of PBS only following the same route.
 
Immunohistochemistry Expression of BDNF was analyzed using anti-human anti-BDNF (Santa Cruz) antibody and immunohistochemistry assay. HD animals induced with 3-NP and treated with hIDPSC or with placebo were sacrificed 4 and 30 days after the cells transplantation, brain were isolated and respective brain compartments were dissected, fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS and included in paraffin. Paraffin slides were deparaffinized using the routine technique. Then, the slides were incubated with ammonia hydroxide (Sigma-Aldrich) for 10 min and washed four times in distilled water for five min each. Antigen retrieval of the slides was performed using a pH 6.0 buffer of sodium citrate (Sigma-Aldrich), in a water bath set at 95° C. for 35 min. The slides were blocked with hydrogen peroxide (Sigma-Aldrich) for 15 min and incubated overnight at 4° C. with polyclonal anti-human BDNF Antibody (N-20) in rabbit, diluted 1:500 in BSA (Sigma-Aldrich). Then, the slides were rinsed three times with PBS for five min each and Anti-Rabbit AP (SC-2057) diluted 1:100 in PBS (both anti-bodies from Santa Cruz Biotechnologies, Dallas, Tex., U.S.A) were added for 40 min at room temperature. Afterward, the slides were washed three times in PBS for five min each. Finally, permanent fast red system (Abcam, Boston, Mass., USA) was applied to produce brown staining. Immunostained sections were counterstained with hematoxylin (Sigma-Aldrich), to be observed under a light microscope (Axio Observer; Zeiss, Jena, Germany).
 
     Results 
     Short Term Effect of hIDPSC Transplantation: Expression of BDNF Just after HD Induction by 3-NP in Rats and 4 Days after hIDPSC Transplantation. 
       FIG. 43  demonstrates innumerous BDNF positive cells (here and further brown color) in rat cortex ( FIG. 43   1   a  and  1   b ) and in striatum ( FIG. 43   1   e  and  1   f ), known as a NSC niche. A few of these cells is observed in hippocampus ( FIG. 43   1   c  and  1   d ). However, these cells showed morphology similar with neuronal progenitor and not mature neurons. 3-NP treated animals which received saline solution (PBS) did not show any BDNF secreting cells ( FIGS. 43   2   a  to  2   f ). 
     Long Term Effect of hIDPSC Transplantation: Expression of BDNF Just after HD Induction by 3-NP in Rats and 30 Days after hIDPSC Transplantation. 
       FIG. 44  demonstrates innumerous morphologically mature neurons in the cortex that secret BDNF ( FIG. 44   1   a  and  1   b ). In hippocampus BDNF secreting cells are also present ( FIG. 44   1   c  and  1   d ) and many of BDNF expressing cells were observed in striatum ( FIG. 44   1   e  and  1   f ). In control group BDNF secreting was not still observed ( FIGS. 44   2   a  to  2   f ). 
     CONCLUSION 
     In present study, the expression of BDNF by a number of cells was detected in the cortex and striatum, but in only a few cells in the hippocampus in four groups each composed by at least 10 animals. Two groups were composed by 3-NP animals and BDNF expression was analyzed 4 days ( FIG. 43 ) and 30 days ( FIG. 44 ) after hIDPSC transplantation. Two control groups were composed by 3-NP animals which received PBS only and were analyzed after 4 ( FIG. 43 ) and 30 days ( FIG. 44 ), respectively. These data suggest neuroprotective effect of hIDPSC which act through BDNF expression induction by intrinsic rat stem cells in the brain of 3-NP treated rats soon after transplantation and this effect influenced survival and differentiation intrinsic rat NSC into mature neurons. Additionally, transplantation of hIDPSC provide neuronal regeneration 30 days after transplantation ( FIG. 44 ) 
     Previous studies tightly link BDNF lack in the striatum to HD pathogenesis. At present, drugs developed to treat HD able to ameliorate symptoms and do not delay the disease progression. Thus, restoring of striatal BDNF levels in the striatum may have therapeutic potential on HD. Examples 10 and 11 demonstrate also improved behavioral phenotypes in hIDPSC treated HD animals. This result support indication that BDNF expression may overcome functional deficits observed in HD patients 6,7 . 
     Example 13. Veterinary Treatment of Multiple Sclerosis-Like Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) Disease in Dogs 
     CDV in dogs is a well-defined virus-induced demyelination model with an etiology similar to etiology of multiple sclerosis. Functional recovery shown in the example disclosed herein suggests that IDPSC induce gliogenesis under CDV pathophysiological conditions that is correlated with our previous disclosure of expression of p75 neurotrophin receptor, a marker for Schwann cells, in hIDPSCs cultured by Cellavita method; or/and induce immunoprotection mechanism to provide functional recovery. Over twenty dogs tested, see results in tables. (Similar recovery results are not shown here were found in a few horses that were successfully treated by IDPSC from symptoms similar measles-like viral disease). 
     Table 15 below briefly shows that most of patients have symptoms recovery; only one patient had no effect at all. Most of the patients had symptoms of recovery after second transplantation while some patients had demonstration of trends to recovery already after first transplantation. Over 90% demonstrated partial recovery after 3 rd  transplantation. About 50% demonstrated full recovery after third transplantation. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 15 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Neurological conditions of the 20 dogs before and after IDSPC transplantation 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Basal level (before 
                 Results (after transplantation) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Patient 
                 transplantation) 
                 1st Transplantation 
                 2nd Transplantation 
                 3rd Transplantation 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
               
               
                   
                 bear weight severe 
                 bear weight light 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight moderate 
               
               
                   
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia of forelimb and 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
               
               
                   
                 in both limbs. 
                 moderate ataxia of 
                 of limbs 
                 of limbs 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hind limb 
                   
                   
               
               
                 2 
                 Quadriplegia 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Normal march 
               
               
                   
                   
                 bear weight light 
                 bear weight light 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 ataxia of forelimb and 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 paralysis of hind limb 
                 of limbs 
                   
               
               
                 3 
                 Quadriplegia 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Normal march of 
                 Normal march 
               
               
                   
                   
                 bear weight light 
                 forelimb and 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 minimum ataxia and 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 of hind limb 
                 paraparesis of hind 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 limb 
                   
               
               
                 4 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Ability to stand and 
                 Ability to stand and 
                 Normal march 
               
               
                   
                 bear weight and 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight minimal 
                   
               
               
                   
                 paraparesis in of hind 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                   
               
               
                   
                 limb 
                 of hind limb 
                 of hind limb 
                   
               
               
                 5 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Ability to stand and 
                 Normal march 
               
               
                   
                 bear weight severe 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight falta de 
                   
               
               
                   
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 and paraparesis of 
                 equilibrio 
                   
               
               
                   
                 in both limbs. 
                 hind limb 
                   
                   
               
               
                 6 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
               
               
                   
                 bear weight severe 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight moderate 
               
               
                   
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia of forelimb and 
                 ataxia of and 
                 ataxia of and 
               
               
                   
                 in both limbs 
                 severe of hind limb 
                 paraparesis of limbs 
                 paraparesis of limbs 
               
               
                   
                   
                 and paraparesis of 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 limbs 
                   
                   
               
               
                 7 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Ability to stand and 
                 Ability to stand and 
                 Ability to stand and 
               
               
                   
                 when stands bear 
                 bear weight 
                 bear weight 
                 bear weight 
               
               
                   
                 weight with severe 
                 moderate to light 
                 moderate to light 
                 moderate to light 
               
               
                   
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
               
               
                   
                 of hind limb 
                 of hind limb 
                 of hind limb 
                 of hind limb 
               
               
                 8 
                 Paraplegia of hind 
                 Ability to stand and 
                 Normal march 
                 Normal march 
               
               
                   
                 limb 
                 bear weight and light 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 of hind limb 
                   
                   
               
               
                 9 
                 Paraplegia of hind 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Normal march 
               
               
                   
                 limb 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight minimal 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 of hind limb 
                 of hind limb 
                   
               
               
                 10 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Normal march 
               
               
                   
                 bear weight severe 
                 bear weight m light 
                 bear weight minimal 
                   
               
               
                   
                 ataxia and paresis in 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                   
               
               
                   
                 both limbs. 
                 of limbs 
                 of limbs 
                   
               
               
                 11 
                 Paraplegia of hind 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Normal march 
               
               
                   
                 limb 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight m light 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 of hind limb 
                 of hind limb 
                   
               
               
                 12 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Normal march 
               
               
                   
                 bear weight severe 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight m light 
                   
               
               
                   
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                   
               
               
                   
                 in both limbs. 
                 of limbs 
                 of limbs 
                   
               
               
                 13 
                 Paraplegia of hind 
                 stand and bear weight 
                 Normal march 
                 Normal march 
               
               
                   
                 limb 
                 light ataxia and 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 paraparesis of limbs 
                   
                   
               
               
                 14 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
               
               
                   
                 bear weight severe 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight moderate 
               
               
                   
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
               
               
                   
                 in both limbs. 
                 of limbs 
                 of limbs 
                 of limbs 
               
               
                 15 
                 Quadriplegia 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
               
               
                   
                   
                 bear weight severe 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight moderate 
               
               
                   
                   
                 ataxia and paresis in 
                 ataxia and paresis in 
                 ataxia and paresis in 
               
               
                   
                   
                 both limbs 
                 both limbs 
                 both limbs 
               
               
                 16 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Ability of stand and 
                 Ability of stand and 
               
               
                   
                 bear weight severe 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight and 
                 bear weight and 
               
               
                   
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paresis in 
                 walking with circle 
                 walking with circle 
               
               
                   
                 of limbs 
                 both limbs 
                 march 
                 march 
               
               
                 17 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 stand and bear weight 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
               
               
                   
                 bear weight severe 
                 moderate to light 
                 bear weight and light 
                 bear weight moderate 
               
               
                   
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paraparesis 
                 ataxia and paresis in 
               
               
                   
                 of limbs 
                 of limbs 
                 of limbs 
                 both limbs 
               
               
                 18 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
               
               
                   
                 bear weight severe 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight moderate 
               
               
                   
                 ataxia and paresis in 
                 ataxia and paresis in 
                 ataxia and paresis in 
                 ataxia and paresis in 
               
               
                   
                 both limbs. 
                 both limbs 
                 both limbs 
                 both limbs 
               
               
                 19 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
               
               
                   
                 bear weight severe 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight moderate 
               
               
                   
                 ataxia and paresis in 
                 ataxia and paresis in 
                 ataxia and paresis in 
                 ataxia and paresis in 
               
               
                   
                 both limbs 
                 both limbs 
                 both limbs 
                 both limbs 
               
               
                 20 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
                 Inability to stand and 
               
               
                   
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight moderate 
                 bear weight light 
                 bear weight moderate 
               
               
                   
                 ataxia and paresis in 
                 ataxia and paresis in 
                 ataxia and paresis in 
                 ataxia and paresis in 
               
               
                   
                 both limbs. 
                 both limbs 
                 both limbs 
                 both limbs 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 16 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Patients&#39; description and times of administration 
               
               
                 of stem cells and amount of the cells used for dog 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Age 
                   
                 Weight 
                 Number of cells 
               
               
                 Patient 
                 Breed 
                 (months) 
                 Sex 
                 (kg) 
                 per one transplant 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 mongrel 
                 24 
                 M 
                 20 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                 2 
                 mongrel 
                 8 
                 M 
                 7 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                 3 
                 mongrel 
                 15 
                 F 
                 3 
                 6 × 10 6   
               
               
                 4 
                 mongrel 
                 17 
                 F 
                 8 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                 5 
                 mongrel 
                 18 
                 M 
                 8 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                 6 
                 mongrel 
                 12 
                 M 
                 4 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                 7 
                 poodle 
                 24 
                 F 
                 8 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                 8 
                 poodle 
                 14 
                 M 
                 17 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                 9 
                 mongrel 
                 20 
                 F 
                 15 
                 6 × 10 6   
               
               
                 10 
                 mongrel 
                 21 
                 M 
                 25 
                 6 × 10 6   
               
               
                 11 
                 mongrel 
                 21 
                 F 
                 28 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                 12 
                 mongrel 
                 19 
                 M 
                 19 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                 13 
                 Labrador 
                 19 
                 F 
                 25 
                 6 × 10 6   
               
               
                   
                 retriever 
               
               
                 14 
                 poodle 
                 24 
                 F 
                 6 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                 15 
                 German 
                 22 
                 F 
                 23 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                   
                 shepherd 
               
               
                 16 
                 pinscher 
                 36 
                 M 
                 4 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                 17 
                 mongrel 
                 36 
                 M 
                 3 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                 18 
                 American 
                 41 
                 F 
                 26 
                 6 × 10 6   
               
               
                   
                 pitbull 
               
               
                 19 
                 mongrel 
                 30 
                 F 
                 27 
                 6 × 10 6   
               
               
                 20 
                 Labrador 
                 28 
                 F 
                 29 
                 4 × 10 6   
               
               
                   
                 retriever 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 14. Batch Release Process for Industrial Scale-Up of Multiharvest Organ and Tissue Explant Culture Of hIDPSC-CELLAVITA™ (Stem Cells) Product by Late Population Method 
     Nomenclature 
     CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) is the bulk material prior to final formulation. CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) is referred to as Drug Substance (DS). CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) for IV infusion is referred to as Drug Product (DP). The Process for the CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) Substance initiates at donor screening and testing and finishes prior to final formulation and cryopreservation of the cell stock. Preparation of the Drug Product involves formulation of the CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) substance with additional excipients. 
     General Properties 
     In one embodiment, CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) are stem cells expressing neural crest/mesenchymal stem/progenitor cell markers, such as CD13, CD105 (Endoglin), CD73, CD29 (integrin b-1), CD44, and nestin (Kerkis et al., 2009; Kerkis et al., 2006) obtained using multiharvest organ and tissue explant culture. 
     In another embodiment, CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) are MSC-like cells, which possess all basic properties of these cells. The cells are defined in accordance with minimal criteria for defining multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells established by the Mesenchymal and Tissue Stem Cell Committee of the International Society for Cellular Therapy. This definition includes being plastic-adherent when maintained in standard culture conditions, expressing CD105, CD73 and CD90, and lack expression of CD45, CD34, CD14 or CD11b, CD79alpha or CD19 and HLA-DR surface molecules, and ability to differentiate to osteoblasts, adipocytes and chondroblasts in vitro (Dominici et al., 2006). 
     Manufacturing Method of Investigational Product CELLAVITA™ (Stem Cells) 
     Only healthy teeth of children aged 6-12 years may be used for the cultivation of Cellavita™. Children&#39;s legal guardians answer an eligibility questionnaire about the child&#39;s health and blood samples are collected for serological testing to detect infectious diseases, as recommended by the European Commission guidelines for donor eligibility (COMMISSION DIRECTIVE 2006/17/EC). The mandatory testing includes tests for HIV-1 and -2 (Anti-HIV-1 and -2), HTLV-1 and -2, HBV (specifically HBsAg, Anti-HBc), HCV (specifically anti-HCV-Ab), and  Treponema pallidum  (syphilis) (COMMISSION DIRECTIVE 2006/17/EC). 
     Only healthy teeth without dental diseases such as dental caries are collected after natural loss or surgical extraction. To avoid unnecessary testing, only donors whose teeth have viable pulp for cultivation (a process determined in the laboratory after two weeks of cell culture) are asked to return to the center for the donor eligibility test (blood collection). 
     Tooth Collection, Container, Transportation 
     Immediately after spontaneous exfoliation, the tooth are immersed into 3 mL of sterile transporting solution composed of DMEM (Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium) and 500 mM Gentamycin in a 15 mL sterile centrifuge tube. The tooth are stored at 4° C. and processed within 48-72 hours. 
     Pulp Isolation and Washing Procedure 
     A freshly exfoliated deciduous tooth from a healthy subject is washed repeatedly in sterile solution containing 50% pen/strep solution (100 units/mL penicillin, 100 units/mL streptomycin) and 50% Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS). Dental pulp is removed from the tooth with the aid of a sterile needle. 
     Selection of Viable Pulps as a Raw Material for hIDPSC Stem Cell Expansion 
     Freshly obtained dental pulp (DP) is washed in a solution containing 3% Pen/strep solution (100 units/mL penicillin, 100 units/mL streptomycin). Initial plating and viability testing of the dental pulp is performed in dental pulp Maintenance Medium supplemented with 15% fetal bovine serum (FBS, Hyclone), 100 units/mL penicillin, 100 units/mL streptomycin, 2 mM L-glutamine, and 2 mM nonessential amino acids. This procedure usually takes up to one week. Once the DP is considered to be viable, it is harvested and the hIDPSC is passaged. The resulting hIDPSC is cryopreserved under GTP conditions for future clinical research 
     Description of the Proposed Manufacturing Process 
     In one aspect, the production process comprises the steps illustrated in  FIG. 48  which demonstrates the initial process of CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) isolation and batch formulation. The vertical pathway shows the process of dental pulp mechanical transfer (harvest) of early population-hIDPSC (isolated from dental pulp before 5 harvests) and late population—hIDPSC (isolated from dental pulp after 5 harvests). The horizontal pathway shows the traditional enzymatic method of cell cultures when cells are replaced through repetitive passages. The final batch product is a sum of hIDPSC obtained from dental pulp harvests and passages (no more then 5). 
     In another aspect, the production process comprises the steps illustrated in  FIG. 48  and/or  FIG. 49 . The production process includes CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) isolation and batch formation. The vertical pathway shows the process of dental pulp (DP) mechanical transfer (harvest) for early population-hIDPSC isolated from dental pulp before 5 harvests and late population—hIDPSC isolated from DP after 5 DP harvests; the horizontal pathway shows traditional enzymatic method of cells culturing, when cells are replaced through repetitive passages. Final batch—product is a sum of hIDPSC obtained from DP harvest and passages (no more then 5). 
     The production of CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) is performed in a state of the art clean room facility according to GMP regulations. In one embodiment, this production process follows the steps outlined in  FIG. 50 . 
     hIDPSC Harvesting 
     When the semi-confluent colony formation of hIDPSC is detected around the dental pulp explant, DP is transferred into a new cell culture vessel for continued growth in DP Maintenance Medium. 
     hIDPSC Passaging 
     hIDPSC is washed with sterile PBS, removed with TrypLE solution and centrifuged. The pellet is resuspended in DP Maintenance Medium and thereafter is seeded in the tissue culture flask (Passage 1-P1). When the cells reach about 80% confluency they are passed to the new flask (Passage 2-P2). Cells are incubated in a humidified 5% CO 2  incubator. 
     Safety Tests Prior to Freezing 
     hIDPSC from P5 are maintained in culture for at least 3-5 days in order to collect cell conditioned medium for sterility and  mycoplasma  testing. 
     Sterility test are performed by ISO, GMP certified methodologies. 
       Mycoplasma  testing is performed using an in-house RT-PCR test (EZ-PCR Biological Industries) and by ISO, GMP certified. 
     Freezing and Storage 
     The hIDPSC freezing protocol is adapted to the standard freezing repository protocol-hIDPSC from P5 is transferred into 2 mL cryopreservation vials containing 1 mL of freezing media, composed of: 90% FBS and 10% DMSO (GMP/US pharmaceutical grade). 1×106 cells per vial are cryopreserved. 
     Cryopreservation vials are placed inside a Nalgene Cryo 1° C. Freezing Container filled with isopropyl alcohol and are placed at −80° C. overnight. Thereafter, vials are transferred to the vapor phase of a liquid nitrogen storage tank and their locations recorded. 
     Control of Materials 
     Table 17 depicts the process, which used for the control of materials. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 17 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Control of Materials 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Concentration 
                 Source/Country 
                   
                 Manufacturing 
               
               
                 Reagent 
                 at Use 
                 of Origin 
                 Manufacturer 
                 Step 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Deciduous Tooth 
                 1 tooth 
                 Brazil 
                 NA 
                 Raw material 
               
               
                 Dulbecco Modified 
                 500 mL 
                 Beit Haemek, 
                 Biological 
                 Transporting 
               
               
                 Eagle Medium-F12 
                   
                 Israel 
                 Industries (BI) 
                 solution 
               
               
                 (DMEM-F12) 
               
               
                 Dulbecco&#39;s 
                 500 mL 
                 Beit Haemek, 
                 Biological 
                 Sterile solution 
               
               
                 Phosphate Buffered 
                   
                 Israel 
                 Industries (BI) 
               
               
                 Saline without 
               
               
                 Calcium and 
               
               
                 Magnesium (DPBS) 
               
               
                 Gentamycin 
                 500 mM 
                 Beit Haemek, 
                 Biological 
                 Sterile solution 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Israel 
                 Industries (BI) 
               
               
                 Fetal Bovine Serum 
                 90% 
                 Washington 
                 HyClone 
                 Maintenance 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 medium; freezing 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 media. 
               
               
                 L-Glutamine Solution 
                  2 mM 
                 Beit Haemek, 
                 Biological 
                 Maintenance 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Israel 
                 Industries (BI) 
                 medium 
               
               
                 Penicillin- 
                 100,000 U/mL 
                 Beit Haemek, 
                 Biological 
                 Sterile solution 
               
               
                 Streptomycin 
                 penicillin and 
                 Israel 
                 Industries (BI) 
               
               
                 Solution 
                 100 mg/mL 
               
               
                   
                 streptomycin 
               
               
                 Non-essential 
                  2 mM 
                 Beit Haemek, 
                 Biological 
                 Maintenance 
               
               
                 amino acids 
                   
                 Israel 
                 Industries (BI) 
                 medium 
               
               
                 TrypLE 
                 1X 
                   
                 Gibco 
                 Cell-dissociation 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 enzymes 
               
               
                 DMSO 
                 10% 
                   
                 Sigma 
                 Cryopreservation 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 15. In Vivo Tumorigenicity 
     The formation of teratomas is an essential tool in determining the pluripotency of any pluripotent cells, such as embryonic or induced pluripotent stem cells (ES and iPS cells). A protocol adapted from the protocol described by Gropp et al., 2012, was used for the assessment of the teratoma forming ability of the cells. The method described herein is based on the subcutaneous co-transplantation of defined numbers of undifferentiated mouse or human ES and iPS cells and Matrigel into immunodeficient mice. The novel method used was shown to be highly reproducible and efficient when 10 6  cells (different from Gropp et al., 2012, which used 10 5  cells) of mouse ES cells and human iPS cells were used. In 100% of cases teratoma formation was observed in a large number of animals and in long follow-up (up to 6 months). The method was also used to assess the bio-safety of other adult MSC types, such as those derived from dental pulp of deciduous teeth, umbilical cord, and adipose tissue. 
     We observed the derivation of induced pluripotent stem cells from hIDPSC. The pluripotency of hIDPSC derived iPS cells were tested through teratoma formation, while human embryonic stem (ES) cells and hIDPSC were used as control. Routine protocol for teratoma production for ES cells was used (Hentze et al., 2009). Following this protocol 10 6  of cells of each line: hIDPSC-iPS cells, ES cells and hIDPSC were inoculated in the rear leg muscle of 4-week-old male, SCID. In animals, which were inoculated with hIDPSC-iPS cells or ES cells teratoma formation was observed after three months. However, hIDPSCs, which were used as a negative control in this study and were inoculated in 10 animals, did not produce teratomas neither after three month nor after six months of follow-up. Five of these animals were maintained alive during one year and even after this time teratomas formation was not observed. 
     Histologically, teratoma formation in pluripotent stem cells requires the development of tissues derived from the three germ layers. For adult/mesenchymal stem cells, any alterations in the integrity of normal tissue at the site of transplantation were considered. After six months, animals, which were inoculated with hIDPSCs and did not produce teratomas, were killed and histological specimens of the brain, lung, kidney, spleen, and liver were analyzed of the animals. The presence of DNA from hIDPSCs was confirmed in all aforementioned organs but no tumor formation or any morphological alterations were observed. Thus, we established the safety of cell regeneration by investigational product CELLAVITA™ (stem cells) regarding tumor formation and risk of immune rejection. 
     Additionally, as shown in the aforementioned studies using hIDPSC in animal models of spinal cord injury, cranial bone defects, total limbal stem cell deficiency (TLSCD), muscular dystrophy, and osteonecrosis of the femoral head (ONFH), no teratoma formation and/or risk of immune rejection were observed (Costa et. al., 2008; Kerkis et al., 2008; Monteiro et al., 2009; Gomes et al., 2010; Feitosa et al., 2010; Almeida et al., 2011). 
       FIG. 51  summarizes additional already published preclinical studies, which support the safety of investigational product CELLAVITA™ (stem cells). 
     Example 16. Principal Criterion for Teratoma Assay 
     We evaluated the next criterion for a teratoma assay: sensitivity and quantitativity; definitive cell number and single cell suspension production; immunophenotyping of studied cell in respect of expression on pluripotent cell markers and karyotype; co-transplantation of studied cells together with Matrigel. The cells were transplanted subcutaneously (s.c) into NOD/SCID mice, which allows for simple monitoring of teratoma development. 
     The development of tumors was monitored from 4 month (˜16 weeks). Histological criteria for teratomas is the differentiation of pluripotent cells into the cells derived from three germ layers. Such study usually was performed by pathologist. 
     For adult/mesenchymal stem cells any type or any changes on normal tissue integrity in the site of cell injection were taken in consideration. 
     Application of the Teratoma Criterion 
     A. The Experimental System(s): 
     a. Mouse embryonic stem cells 
     b. Mouse 3T3 fibroblasts, permanent mouse cell line Balbc 3T3 cell line, clone A 31   
     c. Human iPS-IDPSC 
     d. Human ES cells 
     e. Human IDPSCs 
     We used aforementioned method in diverse studies to characterize different mouse ES cell lines pluripotency established by us as well as to confirm ES cells pluripotency at high 25 or more passages and for characterization of sub-clones obtained from mouse ES cell lines (Sukoyan et al., 2002; Carta et al., 2006; Kerkis et al., 2007; Lavagnolli et al., 2007; Hayshi et al., 2010). 
     Additionally, this method was used to characterize the pluripotency of iPS cells derived from immature dental pulp stem cells (IDPSC) in more recent publication of our group (Beltrão-Braga et al., 2011). In this publication the human IDPSC were used as a control for iPS-IDPSCs. We showed that iPS-IDPSCs formed nice teratomas with tissues originated from all three germ layers, while hIDPSC were not able to produce any type of teratomas or any other type of neoplasms. In addition, iPS-IDPSCs expressed Nanog in nucleus, and hIDPSCs did not. 
     Results 
     Disclosed multiharvest explant like culture used for the isolation of a population of immature dental pulp stem cells (IDPSC), results in expression of embryonic stem cell markers Oct-4, Nanog, SSEA-3, SSEA-4, TRA-1-60 and TRA-1-81 as well as several mesenchymal stem cell markers during at least 15 passages while maintaining the normal karyotype and the rate of expansion characteristic of stem cells. The expression of these markers was maintained in subclones obtained from these cells. Moreover, in vitro these cells can be induced to undergo uniform differentiation into smooth and skeletal muscles, neurons, cartilage, and bone under chemically defined culture conditions. It is important to mentioned that IDPSC although have a small size and cytoplasm poor in cell organelles differ from naïve pluripotent cells presenting typical mesenchymal-fibroblast like morphology. Therefore IDPSC are of mesenchymal type, in contrast to ES and iPS cells, which are of epithelial type. The principle difference between MSC and ES or iPS cells that MSC are migrating and plastic anchoring, they synthetize extracellular matrix and are cell junction free cells. 
     B. The Experimental System(s): 
     a. IDPSC three different primary cultures at early (n=10) and late passages (n=10) 
     b. Human primary fibroblast 
     In addition, this method was validated using dog fetal stem cells from bone marrow, liver, yolk sac, allantois and amniotic liquid which also express pluripotent markers. 
     The IDPSC are composed by population of MSC with a variable number of stem cells expressing pluripotent markers (1-25% of cells) (Lizier et al., 2012). These cells were transplanted into NOD/SCID mice (n=20) and the development of tumors was monitored from 4 month (˜16 weeks). Any type of changes on normal tissue integrity in the site of cell injection were taken in consideration. This protocol was adapted for population of IDPSC, especially in respect of cell number used, which was calculated on the basis that 20% of IDPSC express pluripotent markers. In our previous tests with ES and iPS cells we used 10 6  cells, while in to test IDPSC and control cells teratogenicity 5×10 6  cells were used. After 4 month, even if macroscopically the tumors were not observed, the mice were sacrificed and frozen cuts were obtained from diverse organs, such as brain, lung, kidney, spleen, liver and were analyzed by pathologist. 
     Although the presence of DNA of IDPSCs within all studied organs was found, no tumor formation or any morphological changes were observed. 
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