Patent Publication Number: US-2017364519-A1

Title: Automated Answer Scoring Based on Combination of Informativity and Specificity Metrics

Description:
GOVERNMENT RIGHTS 
     This invention was made with United States Government support under contract number 2013-12101100008. THE GOVERNMENT HAS CERTAIN RIGHTS IN THIS INVENTION. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     The present application relates generally to an improved data processing apparatus and method and more specifically to mechanisms for automated answer scoring based on a combination of informativity and specificity metrics. 
     With the increased usage of computing networks, such as the Internet, humans are currently inundated and overwhelmed with the amount of information available to them from various structured and unstructured sources. However, information gaps abound as users try to piece together what they can find that they believe to be relevant during searches for information on various subjects. To assist with such searches, recent research has been directed to generating Question and Answer (QA) systems which may take an input question, analyze it, and return results indicative of the most probable answer to the input question. QA systems provide automated mechanisms for searching through large sets of sources of content, e.g., electronic documents, and analyze them with regard to an input question to determine an answer to the question and a confidence measure as to how accurate an answer is for answering the input question. 
     Examples of QA systems are the IBM Watson™ system available from International Business Machines (IBM®) Corporation of Armonk, N.Y., Siri® from Apple®, and Cortana® from Microsoft®. The IBM Watson™ system is an application of advanced natural language processing, information retrieval, knowledge representation and reasoning, and machine learning technologies to the field of open domain question answering. The IBM Watson™ system is built on IBM&#39;s DeepQA™ technology used for hypothesis generation, massive evidence gathering, analysis, and scoring. DeepQA™ takes an input question, analyzes it, decomposes the question into constituent parts, generates one or more hypotheses based on the decomposed question and results of a primary search of answer sources, performs hypothesis and evidence scoring based on a retrieval of evidence from evidence sources, performs synthesis of the one or more hypotheses, and based on trained models, performs a final merging and ranking to output an answer to the input question along with a confidence measure. 
     SUMMARY 
     This Summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in a simplified form that are further described herein in the Detailed Description. This Summary is not intended to identify key factors or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used to limit the scope of the claimed subject matter. 
     In one illustrative embodiment, a method is provided in a computing device configured with instructions executing on a processor of the computing device to implement a question answering system for answer scoring based on a specificity score. The method comprises generating, by the question answering system executing on the processor of the computing device and configured with a question answering machine learning model, a set of candidate answers for a user-generated input question. The method further comprises, for each given candidate answer in the set of candidate answers, determining, by a specificity scorer of the question answering system, a specificity value of each term in the given candidate answer based on a position of the term in a taxonomy data structure and determining a specificity score of the given candidate answer based on the specificity value of the terms in the given candidate answer. The method further comprises determining, by the question answering system, a confidence score for each candidate answer within the set of candidate answers based on its specificity score. The method further comprises ranking, by the question answering system, the set of candidate answers according to confidence score to form a ranked set of candidate answers, and returning, by the question answering system, the ranked set of candidate answers. 
     In other illustrative embodiments, a computer program product comprising a computer usable or readable medium having a computer readable program is provided. The computer readable program, when executed on a computing device, causes the computing device to perform various ones of, and combinations of, the operations outlined above with regard to the method illustrative embodiment. 
     In yet another illustrative embodiment, a system/apparatus is provided. The system/apparatus may comprise one or more processors and a memory coupled to the one or more processors. The memory may comprise instructions which, when executed by the one or more processors, cause the one or more processors to perform various ones of, and combinations of, the operations outlined above with regard to the method illustrative embodiment. 
     These and other features and advantages of the present invention will be described in, or will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in view of, the following detailed description of the example embodiments of the present invention. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The invention, as well as a preferred mode of use and further objectives and advantages thereof, will best be understood by reference to the following detailed description of illustrative embodiments when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein: 
         FIG. 1  depicts a schematic diagram of one illustrative embodiment of a natural language processing system in a computer network; 
         FIG. 2  is a block diagram of an example data processing system in which aspects of the illustrative embodiments are implemented; 
         FIG. 3  illustrates a natural language processing system pipeline for processing an input question in accordance with one illustrative embodiment; 
         FIG. 4A  depicts an example taxonomy data structure for determining specificity in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; 
         FIG. 4B  depicts Zipfian scores for a taxonomic group in accordance with an example embodiment; 
         FIG. 4C  depicts combined Zipfian scores for a taxonomic group in accordance with the example embodiment; 
         FIG. 5  is a flowchart illustrating operation of a question answering system with combined specificity and informativity scoring in accordance with an illustrative embodiment; and 
         FIG. 6  is a flowchart illustrating operation of a question answering system with a unified specificity and informativity score in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The illustrative embodiments provide mechanisms for improving answer selection in a question answering (QA) system. Such a mechanism examines the initial query and compares answers using an information gain system, then reevaluates the answers based on a combination of specificity and informativity. The illustrative embodiments provide a direct reduction of near-redundant answers. 
     One of the methods used by automated QA systems is to locate documents similar to the question. QA systems then use these documents to generate answers from the source material. Without controls, this may lead to candidate answers that are undesirably close to the user&#39;s input. The mechanisms of the illustrative embodiments improve answers by selecting candidate answers that are reliably responding to the user&#39;s query and improve the informativity of the answers by ensuring they do not repeat information provided in the question. Informativity, as used herein, is defined as a term&#39;s utility as an answer to a question, as a way to compare similar answers—in general, a more informative answer is a better answer. 
     A deep QA system, when asked the question “What weapon did Lee Oswald use?” may return the answer candidates, in ranked order, “1) gun,” “2) rifle,” “3) carbine,” “4) Carcano,” and the spurious “5) John F. Kennedy.” A Carcano is a type of carbine, which is a type of gun, just as a rifle is another type of gun. Carcano is also a more informative answer than its parents, having a higher informativity. The mechanisms of the illustrative embodiments would create an additional score, lowering the weight of the common but correct “gun” and raising the weight of the other four answers in proportion to their specificity. It is important to note that this does not override but merely augments the other scorers; thus, the relatively informative but incorrect answer “John F. Kennedy” would not necessarily be promoted based on the combined results of all scorers. 
     For the purposes of this disclosure, a QA system takes a question as input and returns a set of scored/ranked outputs made up of either answers or evidence passages or both. Reference to scored answers herein is intended to cover all of these scored outputs. 
     Before beginning the discussion of the various aspects of the illustrative embodiments in more detail, it should first be appreciated that throughout this description the term “mechanism” will be used to refer to elements of the present invention that perform various operations, functions, and the like. A “mechanism,” as the term is used herein, may be an implementation of the functions or aspects of the illustrative embodiments in the form of an apparatus, a procedure, or a computer program product. In the case of a procedure, the procedure is implemented by one or more devices, apparatus, computers, data processing systems, or the like. In the case of a computer program product, the logic represented by computer code or instructions embodied in or on the computer program product is executed by one or more hardware devices in order to implement the functionality or perform the operations associated with the specific “mechanism.” Thus, the mechanisms described herein may be implemented as specialized hardware, software executing on general purpose hardware, software instructions stored on a medium such that the instructions are readily executable by specialized or general purpose hardware, a procedure or method for executing the functions, or a combination of any of the above. 
     The present description and claims may make use of the terms “a,” “at least one of,” and “one or more of” with regard to particular features and elements of the illustrative embodiments. It should be appreciated that these terms and phrases are intended to state that there is at least one of the particular feature or element present in the particular illustrative embodiment, but that more than one can also be present. That is, these terms/phrases are not intended to limit the description or claims to a single feature/element being present or require that a plurality of such features/elements be present. To the contrary, these terms/phrases only require at least a single feature/element with the possibility of a plurality of such features/elements being within the scope of the description and claims. 
     Moreover, it should be appreciated that the use of the term “engine,” if used herein with regard to describing embodiments and features of the invention, is not intended to be limiting of any particular implementation for accomplishing and/or performing the actions, steps, processes, etc., attributable to and/or performed by the engine. An engine may be, but is not limited to, software, hardware and/or firmware or any combination thereof that performs the specified functions including, but not limited to, any use of a general and/or specialized processor in combination with appropriate software loaded or stored in a machine readable memory and executed by the processor. Further, any name associated with a particular engine is, unless otherwise specified, for purposes of convenience of reference and not intended to be limiting to a specific implementation. Additionally, any functionality attributed to an engine may be equally performed by multiple engines, incorporated into and/or combined with the functionality of another engine of the same or different type, or distributed across one or more engines of various configurations. 
     In addition, it should be appreciated that the following description uses a plurality of various examples for various elements of the illustrative embodiments to further illustrate example implementations of the illustrative embodiments and to aid in the understanding of the mechanisms of the illustrative embodiments. These examples are intended to be non-limiting and are not exhaustive of the various possibilities for implementing the mechanisms of the illustrative embodiments. It will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in view of the present description that there are many other alternative implementations for these various elements that may be utilized in addition to, or in replacement of, the examples provided herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. 
     The illustrative embodiments may be utilized in many different types of data processing environments. In order to provide a context for the description of the specific elements and functionality of the illustrative embodiments,  FIGS. 1-3  are provided hereafter as example environments in which aspects of the illustrative embodiments may be implemented. It should be appreciated that  FIGS. 1-3  are only examples and are not intended to assert or imply any limitation with regard to the environments in which aspects or embodiments of the present invention may be implemented. Many modifications to the depicted environments may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. 
       FIGS. 1-3  are directed to describing an example natural language (NL) processing system, such as a Question Answering (QA) system (also referred to as a Question/Answer system or Question and Answer system), methodology, and computer program product with which the mechanisms of the illustrative embodiments are implemented. As will be discussed in greater detail hereafter, the illustrative embodiments are integrated in, augment, and extend the functionality of these NL processing mechanisms. 
     With respect to the example embodiment of a QA system, it is important to first have an understanding of how question answering in a QA system is implemented before describing how the mechanisms of the illustrative embodiments are integrated in and augment such QA systems. It should be appreciated that the QA mechanisms described in  FIGS. 1-3  are only examples and are not intended to state or imply any limitation with regard to the type of natural language processing mechanisms with which the illustrative embodiments are implemented. Many modifications to the example NL processing system shown in  FIGS. 1-3  may be implemented in various embodiments of the present invention without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. 
     As an overview, a Question Answering system (QA system) is an artificial intelligence application executing on data processing hardware that answers questions pertaining to a given subject-matter domain presented in natural language. The QA system receives inputs from various sources including input over a network, a corpus of electronic documents or other data, data from a content creator, information from one or more content users, and other such inputs from other possible sources of input. Data storage devices store the corpus of data. A content creator creates content in a document for use as part of a corpus of data with the QA system. The document may include any file, text, article, or source of data for use in the QA system. For example, a QA system accesses a body of knowledge about the domain, or subject matter area, e.g., financial domain, medical domain, legal domain, etc., where the body of knowledge (knowledgebase) can be organized in a variety of configurations, e.g., a structured repository of domain-specific information, such as ontologies, or unstructured data related to the domain, or a collection of natural language documents about the domain. 
     Content users input questions to the QA system which then answers the input questions using the content in the corpus of data by evaluating documents, sections of documents, portions of data in the corpus, or the like. When a process evaluates a given section of a document for semantic content, the process can use a variety of conventions to query such document from the QA system, sending the query to the QA system as a well-formed question which is then interpreted by the QA system and providing a response containing one or more answers to the question. Semantic content is content based on the relation between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs, and symbols, and what they stand for, their denotation, or connotation. In other words, semantic content is content that interprets an expression, such as by using Natural Language Processing. 
     As will be described in greater detail hereafter, the QA system receives an input question, analyzes the question to extract the major elements of the question, uses the extracted element to formulate queries, and then applies those queries to the corpus of data. Based on the application of the queries to the corpus of data, the QA system generates a set of hypotheses, or candidate answers to the input question, by looking across the corpus of data for portions of the corpus of data that have some potential for containing a valuable response to the input question. The QA system then performs deep analysis, e.g., English Slot Grammar (ESG) and Predicate Argument Structure (PAS) builder, on the language of the input question and the language used in each of the portions of the corpus of data found during the application of the queries using a variety of scoring algorithms. There may be hundreds or even thousands of scoring algorithms applied, each of which performs different analysis, e.g., comparisons, natural language analysis, lexical analysis, or the like, and generates a score. For example, some scoring algorithms may look at the matching of terms and synonyms within the language of the input question and the found portions of the corpus of data. Other scoring algorithms may look at temporal or spatial features in the language, while others may evaluate the source of the portion of the corpus of data and evaluate its veracity. 
     The scores obtained from the various scoring algorithms indicate the extent to which the potential response is likely to be a correct answer to the input question based on the specific area of focus of that scoring algorithm. Each resulting score is then weighted against a statistical model, which is used to compute the confidence that the QA system has regarding the evidence for a candidate answer being the correct answer to the question. This process is repeated for each of the candidate answers until the QA system identifies candidate answers that surface as being significantly stronger than others and thus, generates a final answer, or ranked set of answers, for the input question. 
     As mentioned above, QA systems and mechanisms operate by accessing information from a corpus of data or information (also referred to as a corpus of content), analyzing it, and then generating answer results based on the analysis of this data. Accessing information from a corpus of data typically includes: a database query that answers questions about what is in a collection of structured records, and a search that delivers a collection of document links in response to a query against a collection of unstructured data (text, etc.). Conventional question answering systems are capable of generating answers based on the corpus of data and the input question, verifying answers to a collection of questions from the corpus of data, and selecting answers to questions from a pool of potential answers, i.e. candidate answers. 
     Content creators, such as article authors, electronic document creators, web page authors, document database creators, and the like, determine use cases for products, solutions, and services described in such content before writing their content. Consequently, the content creators know what questions the content is intended to answer in a particular topic addressed by the content. Categorizing the questions, such as in terms of roles, type of information, tasks, or the like, associated with the question, in each document of a corpus of data allows the QA system to more quickly and efficiently identify documents containing content related to a specific query. The content may also answer other questions that the content creator did not contemplate that may be useful to content users. The questions and answers may be verified by the content creator to be contained in the content for a given document. These capabilities contribute to improved accuracy, system performance, machine learning, and confidence of the QA system. Content creators, automated tools, or the like, annotate or otherwise generate metadata for providing information usable by the QA system to identify these question-and-answer attributes of the content. 
     Operating on such content, the QA system generates answers for input questions using a plurality of intensive analysis mechanisms which evaluate the content to identify the most probable answers, i.e. candidate answers, for the input question. The most probable answers are output as a ranked listing of candidate answers ranked according to their relative scores or confidence measures calculated during evaluation of the candidate answers, as a single final answer having a highest ranking score or confidence measure, or which is a best match to the input question, or a combination of ranked listing and final answer. 
     Because typical QA systems process individual user questions within an ocean of information, exact or near exact matches to wording of the question become commonplace. As data sets and corpora grow, the interaction between a question and similar or subtly different questions will become even more difficult to address. 
     To illustrate the point, a simple question, such as “Who is the President of the United States?” may find candidate answers in passages like “One may refer to the President of the United States as Mr. President,” which appears to fit the question. However, the answer “Mr. President” contains words that appear in the question and provides little information that the user did not already possess. This answer provides low informativity over the question, and although it does provide a relatively specific answer, a name would be even more specific. More complex questions may suffer from incomplete answers. For example, for the question “What commercial airplanes are capable of reaching 40,000 feet?” the information gain metric can easily determine that “787” is more specific than “airplane,” and thus is a better answer, whereas longer answers can be demoted if they contain more common tokens. The answer “the new Boeing airliner” is longer and more informative than “airplane”; however, the shorter “787” or “Dreamliner” provides more specification because it is a rarely occurring word. Furthermore, if the question is asking about commercial aviation, the answer of “the new Boeing airliner” provides almost no insight. Therefore, the combination of informativity and specificity improves answer generation without taking either metric to an undesirable extreme. 
       FIG. 1  depicts a schematic diagram of one illustrative embodiment of a natural language processing system  100  in a computer network  102 . One example of a question/answer generation, which may be used in conjunction with the principles described herein, is described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2011/0125734, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. The NL processing system  100  is implemented on one or more computing devices  104  (comprising one or more processors and one or more memories, and potentially any other computing device elements generally known in the art including buses, storage devices, communication interfaces, and the like) connected to the computer network  102 . The network  102  includes multiple computing devices  104  in communication with each other and with other devices or components via one or more wired and/or wireless data communication links, where each communication link comprises one or more of wires, routers, switches, transmitters, receivers, or the like. In the depicted example, NL processing system  100  and network  102  enables question answering functionality for one or more QA system users via their respective computing devices  110 - 112 . Other embodiments of the NL processing system  100  may be used with components, systems, sub-systems, and/or devices other than those that are depicted herein. 
     The NL processing system  100  is configured to implement an NL system pipeline  108  that receives inputs from various sources. For example, the NL processing system  100  receives input from the network  102 , a corpus of electronic documents  106 , NL system users, and/or other data and other possible sources of input. In one embodiment, some or all of the inputs to the NL processing system  100  are routed through the network  102 . The various computing devices  104  on the network  102  include access points for content creators and NL system users. Some of the computing devices  104  include devices for a database storing the corpus of data  106  (which is shown as a separate entity in  FIG. 1  for illustrative purposes only). Portions of the corpus of data  106  may also be provided on one or more other network attached storage devices, in one or more databases, or other computing devices not explicitly shown in  FIG. 1 . The network  102  includes local network connections and remote connections in various embodiments, such that the NL processing system  100  may operate in environments of any size, including local and global, e.g., the Internet. 
     In one embodiment, the content creator creates content in a document of the corpus of data  106  for use as part of a corpus of data with the NL processing system  100 . The document includes any file, text, article, or source of data for use in the NL processing system  100 . NL system users access the NL processing system  100  via a network connection or an Internet connection to the network  102 , and input questions to the NL processing system  100  that are answered by the content in the corpus of data  106 . In one embodiment, the questions are formed using natural language. The NL processing system  100  analyzes and interprets the question, and provides a response to the NL system user, e.g., NL processing system user  110 , containing one or more answers to the question. In some embodiments, the NL processing system  100  provides a response to users in a ranked list of candidate answers while in other illustrative embodiments, the NL processing system  100  provides a single final answer or a combination of a final answer and ranked listing of other candidate answers, as well as source passages. 
     The NL processing system  100  implements NL system pipeline  108 , which comprises a plurality of stages for processing an input question and the corpus of data  106 . The NL processing system pipeline  108  generates answers for the input question based on the processing of the input question and the corpus of data  106 . The NL processing system pipeline  108  will be described in greater detail hereafter with regard to  FIG. 3 . 
     In some illustrative embodiments, the NL processing system  100  maybe the IBM Watson™ QA system available from International Business Machines Corporation of Armonk, N.Y., which is augmented with the mechanisms of the illustrative embodiments described hereafter. As outlined previously, the IBM Watson™ QA system receives an input question, which it then analyzes to extract the major features of the question, that in turn are then used to formulate queries that are applied to the corpus of data. Based on the application of the queries to the corpus of data, a set of hypotheses, or candidate answers to the input question, are generated by looking across the corpus of data for portions of the corpus of data that have some potential for containing a valuable response to the input question. The IBM Watson™ QA system then performs deep analysis on the language of the input question and the language used in each of the portions of the corpus of data found during the application of the queries using a variety of scoring algorithms. The scores obtained from the various scoring algorithms are then weighted against a statistical model that summarizes a level of confidence that the IBM Watson™ QA system has regarding the evidence that the potential response, i.e. candidate answer, is inferred by the question. This process is repeated for each of the candidate answers to generate ranked listing of candidate answers which may then be presented to the user that submitted the input question, or from which a final answer is selected and presented to the user. More information about the IBM Watson™ QA system may be obtained, for example, from the IBM Corporation website, IBM Redbooks, and the like. For example, information about the IBM Watson™ QA system can be found in Yuan et al., “Watson and Healthcare,” IBM developerWorks, 2011 and “The Era of Cognitive Systems: An inside Look at IBM Watson and How it Works” by Rob High, IBM Redbooks, 2012. 
       FIG. 2  is a block diagram of an example data processing system in which aspects of the illustrative embodiments are implemented. Data processing system  200  is an example of a computer, such as server  104  or client  110  in  FIG. 1 , in which computer usable code or instructions implementing the processes for illustrative embodiments of the present invention are located, in one illustrative embodiment,  FIG. 2  represents a server computing device, such as a server  104 , which implements an NL processing system  100  and NL system pipeline  108  augmented to include the additional mechanisms of the illustrative embodiments described hereafter. 
     In the depicted example, data processing system  200  employs a hub architecture including north bridge and memory controller hub (NB/MCH)  202  and south bridge and input/output (I/O) controller hub (SB/ICH)  204 . Processing unit  206 , main memory  208 , and graphics processor  210  are connected to NB/MCH  202 . Graphics processor  210  is connected to NB/MCH  202  through an accelerated graphics port (AGP). 
     In the depicted example, local area network (LAN) adapter  212  connects to SB/ICH  204 . Audio adapter  216 , keyboard and mouse adapter  220 , modem  222 , read only memory (ROM)  224 , hard disk drive (HDD)  226 , CD-ROM drive  230 , universal serial bus (USB) ports and other communication ports  232 , and PCI/PCIe devices  234  connect to SB/ICH  204  through bus  238  and bus  240 . PCI/PCIe devices may include, for example, Ethernet adapters, add-in cards, and PC cards for notebook computers. PCI uses a card bus controller, while PCIe does not. ROM  224  may be, for example, a flash basic input/output system (BIOS). 
     HDD  226  and CD-ROM drive  230  connect to SB/ICH  204  through bus  240 . HDD  226  and CD-ROM drive  230  may use, for example, an integrated drive electronics (IDE) or serial advanced technology attachment (SATA) interface. Super I/O (SIO) device  236  is connected to SB/ICH  204 . 
     An operating system runs on processing unit  206 . The operating system coordinates and provides control of various components within the data processing system  200  in  FIG. 2 . As a client, the operating system is a commercially available operating system such as Microsoft® Windows 8®. An object-oriented programming system, such as the Java™ programming system, may run in conjunction with the operating system and provides calls to the operating system from Java™ programs or applications executing on data processing system  200 . 
     As a server, data processing system  200  may be, for example, an IBM® eServer™ System p® computer system, running the Advanced Interactive Executive (AIX®) operating system or the LINUX® operating system. Data processing system  200  may be a symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) system including a plurality of processors in processing unit  206 . Alternatively, a single processor system may be employed. 
     Instructions for the operating system, the object-oriented programming system, and applications or programs are located on storage devices, such as HDD  226 , and are loaded into main memory  208  for execution by processing unit  206 . The processes for illustrative embodiments of the present invention are performed by processing unit  206  using computer usable program code, which is located in a memory such as, for example, main memory  208 , ROM  224 , or in one or more peripheral devices  226  and  230 , for example. 
     A bus system, such as bus  238  or bus  240  as shown in  FIG. 2 , is comprised of one or more buses. Of course, the bus system may be implemented using any type of communication fabric or architecture that provides for a transfer of data between different components or devices attached to the fabric or architecture. A communication unit, such as modem  222  or network adapter  212  of  FIG. 2 , includes one or more devices used to transmit and receive data. A memory may be, for example, main memory  208 , ROM  224 , or a cache such as found in NB/MCH  202  in  FIG. 2 . 
     Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the hardware depicted in  FIGS. 1 and 2  may vary depending on the implementation. Other internal hardware or peripheral devices, such as flash memory, equivalent non-volatile memory, or optical disk drives and the like, may be used in addition to or in place of the hardware depicted in  FIGS. 1 and 2 . Also, the processes of the illustrative embodiments may be applied to a multiprocessor data processing system, other than the SMP system mentioned previously, without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. 
     Moreover, the data processing system  200  may take the form of any of a number of different data processing systems including client computing devices, server computing devices, a tablet computer, laptop computer, telephone or other communication device, a personal digital assistant (PDA), or the like. In some illustrative examples, data processing system  200  may be a portable computing device that is configured with flash memory to provide non-volatile memory for storing operating system files and/or user-generated data, for example. Essentially, data processing system  200  may be any known or later developed data processing system without architectural limitation, 
       FIG. 3  illustrates a natural language processing system pipeline for processing an input question in accordance with one illustrative embodiment. The natural language (NL) processing system pipeline of  FIG. 3  may be implemented, for example, as NL system pipeline  108  of NL processing system  100  in  FIG. 1 . It should be appreciated that the stages of the NL processing system pipeline shown in  FIG. 3  are implemented as one or more software engines, components, or the like, which are configured with logic for implementing the functionality attributed to the particular stage. Each stage is implemented using one or more of such software engines, components or the like. The software engines, components, etc. are executed on one or more processors of one or more data processing systems or devices and utilize or operate on data stored in one or more data storage devices, memories, or the like, on one or more of the data processing systems. The NL system pipeline of  FIG. 3  is augmented, for example, in one or more of the stages to implement the improved mechanism of the illustrative embodiments described hereafter, additional stages may be provided to implement the improved mechanism, or separate logic from the pipeline  300  may be provided for interfacing with the pipeline  300  and implementing the improved functionality and operations of the illustrative embodiments. 
     In the depicted example, NL system pipeline  300  is implemented in a Question Answering (QA) system. The description that follows refers to the NL system pipeline or the NL system pipeline as a QA system; however, aspects of the illustrative embodiments may be applied to other NL processing systems, such as Web search engines that return semantic passages from a corpus of documents, 
     As shown in  FIG. 3 , the NL system pipeline  300  comprises a plurality of stages  310 - 390  through which the NL system operates to analyze an input question and generate a final response. In an initial question input stage, the NL system receives an input question  310  that is presented in a natural language format. That is, a user inputs, via a user interface, an input question  310  for which the user wishes to obtain an answer, e.g., “Who were Washington&#39;s closest advisors?” In response to receiving the input question  310 , the next stage of the NL system pipeline  300 , i.e. the question and topic analysis stage  320 , analyzes the input question using natural language processing (NLP) techniques to extract major elements from the input question, and classify the major elements according to types, e.g., names, dates, or any of a plethora of other defined topics. For example, in the example question above, the term “who” may be associated with a topic for “persons” indicating that the identity of a person is being sought, “Washington” may be identified as a proper name of a person with which the question is associated, “closest” may be identified as a word indicative of proximity or relationship, and “advisors” may be indicative of a noun or other language topic. 
     In addition, the extracted major features include key words and phrases classified into question characteristics, such as the focus of the question, the lexical answer type (LAT) of the question, and the like. As referred to herein, a lexical answer type (LAT) is a word in, or a word inferred from, the input question that indicates the type of the answer, independent of assigning semantics to that word. For example, in the question “What maneuver was invented in the 1500s to speed up the game and involves two pieces of the same color?,” the LAT is the string “maneuver.” The focus of a question is the part of the question that, if replaced by the answer, makes the question a standalone statement. For example, in the question “What drug has been shown to relieve the symptoms of attention deficit disorder with relatively few side effects?,” the focus is “What drug” since if this phrase were replaced with the answer it would generate a true sentence, e.g., the answer “Adderall” can be used to replace the phrase “What drug” to generate the sentence “Adderall has been shown to relieve the symptoms of attention deficit disorder with relatively few side effects.” The focus often, but not always, contains the On the other hand, in many cases it is not possible to infer a meaningful LAT from the focus. 
     Referring again to  FIG. 3 , the identified major elements of the question are then used during a hypothesis generation stage  340  to decompose the question into one or more search queries that are applied to the corpora of data/information  345  in order to generate one or more hypotheses. The queries are applied to one or more text indexes storing information about the electronic texts, documents, articles, websites, and the like, that make up the corpus of data/information, the corpus of data  106  in  FIG. 1 . The queries are applied to the corpus of data/information at the hypothesis generation stage  340  to generate results identifying potential hypotheses for answering the input question, which can then be evaluated. That is, the application of the queries results in the extraction of portions of the corpus of data/information matching the criteria of the particular query. These portions of the corpus are then analyzed and used in the hypothesis generation stage  340 , to generate hypotheses for answering the input question  310 . These hypotheses are also referred to herein as “candidate answers” for the input question. For any input question, at this stage  340 , there may be hundreds of hypotheses or candidate answers generated that may need to be evaluated. 
     The NL system pipeline  300 , in stage  350 , then performs a deep analysis and comparison of the language of the input question and the language of each hypothesis or “candidate answer,” as well as performs evidence scoring to evaluate the likelihood that the particular hypothesis is a correct answer for the input question. This involves evidence retrieval  351 , which retrieves passages from corpora  345 . Hypothesis and evidence scoring phase  350  uses a plurality of scoring algorithms, each performing a separate type of analysis of the language of the input question and/or content of the corpus that provides evidence in support of, or not in support of, the hypothesis. Each scoring algorithm generates a score based on the analysis it performs which indicates a measure of relevance of the individual portions of the corpus of data/information extracted by application of the queries as well as a measure of the correctness of the corresponding hypothesis, i.e. a measure of confidence in the hypothesis. There are various ways of generating such scores depending upon the particular analysis being performed. In general, however, these algorithms look for particular terms, phrases, or patterns of text that are indicative of terms, phrases, or patterns of interest and determine a degree of matching with higher degrees of matching being given relatively higher scores than lower degrees of matching. 
     For example, an algorithm may be configured to look for the exact term from an input question or synonyms to that term in the input question, e.g., the exact term or synonyms for the term “movie,” and generate a score based on a frequency of use of these exact terms or synonyms. In such a case, exact matches will be given the highest scores, while synonyms may be given lower scores based on a relative ranking of the synonyms as may be specified by a subject matter expert (person with knowledge of the particular domain and terminology used) or automatically determined from frequency of use of the synonym in the corpus corresponding to the domain. Thus, for example, an exact match of the term “movie” in content of the corpus (also referred to as evidence, or evidence passages) is given a highest score. A synonym of movie, such as “motion picture” may be given a lower score but still higher than a synonym of the type “film” or “moving picture show.” Instances of the exact matches and synonyms for each evidence passage may be compiled and used in a quantitative function to generate a score for the degree of matching of the evidence passage to the input question. 
     Thus, for example, a hypothesis or candidate answer to the input question of “What was the first movie?” is “The Horse in Motion,” If the evidence passage contains the statements “The first motion picture ever made was ‘The Horse in Motion’ in 1878 by Eadweard Muybridge. It was a movie of a horse running,” and the algorithm is looking for exact matches or synonyms to the focus of the input question, i.e. “movie,” then an exact match of “movie” is found in the second sentence of the evidence passage and a highly scored synonym to “movie,” i.e. “motion picture,” is found in the first sentence of the evidence passage. This may be combined with further analysis of the evidence passage to identify that the text of the candidate answer is present in the evidence passage as well, i.e. “The Horse in Motion.” These factors may be combined to give this evidence passage a relatively high score as supporting evidence for the candidate answer “The Horse in Motion” being a correct answer. 
     It should be appreciated that this is just one simple example of how scoring can be performed. Many other algorithms of various complexities may be used to generate scores for candidate answers and evidence without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. 
     In accordance with an illustrative embodiment, informativity and specificity scorer  361  is one such scoring algorithm, component, or engine. Informativity and specificity scorer  361  calculates a specificity value of each candidate answer taxonomically. In one embodiment, informativity and specificity scorer  361  determines a specificity value for each word or term in the answer based on its position in a known taxonomy or hierarchy of terms. Thus, the term “specificity,” as used herein with reference to a word or term in an answer text, refers to a relative level of definiteness with respect to other words in the taxonomy. Informativity and specificity scorer  361  may then assign the highest specificity value in the answer to the candidate answer itself. 
     Informativity and specificity scorer  361  may determine the specificity value of an answer using any generic taxonomy or hierarchy of terms. There are open source variants available. The only property necessary is that more specific terms are deeper within the hierarchy than more general terms.  FIG. 4A  depicts an example taxonomy data structure for determining specificity in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. In the depicted example, “animal” is the least specific term. From root to leaf (left to right), each next level becomes more specific. Many QA systems utilize taxonomies for lexical answer matching. The illustrative embodiments herein extend this concept. The limitations of the taxonomy still apply, though. There are a finite number of terms, and the hierarchy is time consuming to generate. The weights of each level of specificity can be determined heuristically or using a machine learning approach. 
     The specificity score may be assigned based on relative level in a branch; e.g., not simply third from the root, but third from the root out of seven levels on that branch. This can be derived per node, relative to the rest of the tree. 
     Informativity and specificity scorer  361  determines an informativity value of each candidate answer based on corpus statistics. The term “informativity,” as used herein with reference to a word or term in an answer text, refers to a level of information provided by the word or term. In one embodiment, informativity and specificity scorer  361  determines an informativity value for each word or term in the answer based on aggregated language statistics, or corpus statistics. In one embodiment, informativity and specificity scorer  361  determines an informativity value of a word or term to be an inverse Zipfian ranking so that rare words (e.g., “Dreamliner”) are considered more informative than common words (e.g., “airplane”). Zipf&#39;s law states that given some corpus of natural language utterances, the frequency of any word is inversely proportional to its rank in the frequency table. Thus the most frequent word will occur approximately twice as often as the second most frequent word, three times as often as the third most frequent word, etc.: the rank-frequency distribution is an inverse relation. For example, in the Brown Corpus of American English text, the word “the” is the most frequently occurring word, and by itself accounts for nearly 7% of all word occurrences (69,971 out of slightly over 1 million). True to Zipf&#39;s Law, the second-place word “of” accounts for slightly over 3.5% of words (36,411 occurrences), followed by “and” (28,852). Only 135 vocabulary items are needed to account for half the Brown Corpus. Note that the Zipfian statistic extends to all words, but it is also trivial to compute—especially when compared to the commonly manually-performed task of creating a taxonomy. Calculating the Zipfian statistic requires only that the number of words in the corpus is countable. Informativity and specificity scorer  361  may then assign the lowest informativity probability of the words or terms in the answer to the candidate answer itself. 
     Informativity and specificity scorer  361  statistically combines the specificity value and the informativity value to generate an informativity and specificity score. Because a taxonomy will miss many terms, informativity and specificity scorer  361  uses the Zipfian informativity value to approximate the informativity of a taxonomic node and applies this to terms not found within the taxonomy.  FIG. 4B  depicts Zipfian scores for a taxonomic group in accordance with an example embodiment. In the depicted example, the terms beneath “cat” are “lion” and “tiger.” Suppose that the Zipfian log probabilities for “lion” and “tiger,” are 0.1 and 0.08, respectively; the probability of that group is then the average of its member probabilities.  FIG. 4C  depicts combined Zipfian scores for a taxonomic group in accordance with the example embodiment. As shown in  FIG. 4C , “lion” and “tiger” belong to the taxonomic group “cat,” and the Zipfian probability value for the “cat” taxonomic group is the average of the Zipfian probability of “lion” and “tiger,” i.e., 0.09. 
     When informativity and specificity scorer  361  encounters an unknown term, it uses the term&#39;s Zipfian probability to align the term to the closest taxonomic group and assign it the calculated specificity value from a node in that group. Note that these two scores are distinct and do not impinge upon the type-specific scoring. Noting that the answer is a type of something is a job for another scorer. Thus, the combination of these methods returns a calculated score for all terms statistically, while gaining insight from accurate, but incomplete, taxonomies. 
     In one embodiment, informativity and specificity scorer  361  combines the specificity value and the informativity value to generate a combined informativity and specificity score based on a mathematical function. For example, the specificity value and informativity value may be in the range of 0 to 1, and informativity and specificity scorer  361  may multiply the specificity value and the informativity value to form another value in the range of 0 to 1. Other mathematical functions, such as min or max may also be used within the scope of the present invention. 
     In answer ranking stage  360 , the scores generated by the various scoring algorithms are synthesized into confidence scores or confidence measures for the various hypotheses. This process involves applying weights to the various scores, where the weights have been determined through training of the statistical model employed by the QA system and/or dynamically updated. For example, the weights for scores generated by algorithms that identify exactly matching terms and synonyms may be set relatively higher than other algorithms that evaluate publication dates for evidence passages. 
     The weighted scores are processed in accordance with a statistical model generated through training of the QA system that identifies a manner by which these scores may be combined to generate a confidence score or measure for the individual hypotheses or candidate answers. This confidence score or measure summarizes the level of confidence that the QA system has about the evidence that the candidate answer is inferred by the input question, i.e. that the candidate answer is the correct answer for the input question. 
     In one embodiment, informativity and specificity scorer  361  may provide both the specificity value and the informativity value to a machine learning model in answer ranking stage  360 , which then weights the specificity and informativity values, or scores, separately to generate the confidence score. 
     The resulting confidence scores or measures are processed by answer ranking stage  360 , which compares the confidence scores and measures to each other, compares them against predetermined thresholds, or performs any other analysis on the confidence scores to determine which hypotheses/candidate answers are the most likely to be the correct answer to the input question. The hypotheses/candidate answers are ranked according to these comparisons to generate a ranked listing of hypotheses/candidate answers (hereafter simply referred to as “candidate answers”). 
     Supporting evidence collection phase  370  collects evidence that supports the candidate answers from answer ranking phase  360 . From the ranked listing of candidate answers in stage  360  and supporting evidence from supporting evidence collection stage  370 , NL system pipeline  300  generates a final answer, confidence score, and evidence  380 , or final set of candidate answers with confidence scores and supporting evidence, and outputs answer, confidence, and evidence  390  to the submitter of the original input question  310  via a graphical user interface or other mechanism for outputting information. 
     The present invention may be a system, a method, and/or a computer program product. The computer program product may include a computer readable storage medium (or media) having computer readable program instructions thereon for causing a processor to carry out aspects of the present invention. 
     The computer readable storage medium can be a tangible device that can retain and store instructions for use by an instruction execution device. The computer readable storage medium may be, for example, but is not limited to, an electronic storage device, a magnetic storage device, an optical storage device, an electromagnetic storage device, a semiconductor storage device, or any suitable combination of the foregoing. A non-exhaustive list of more specific examples of the computer readable storage medium includes the following: a portable computer diskette, a hard disk, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or Flash memory), a static random access memory (SRAM), a portable compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), a digital versatile disk (DVD), a memory stick, a floppy disk, a mechanically encoded device such as punch-cards or raised structures in a groove having instructions recorded thereon, and any suitable combination of the foregoing. A computer readable storage medium, as used herein, is not to be construed as being transitory signals per se, such as radio waves or other freely propagating electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic waves propagating through a waveguide or other transmission media (e.g., light pulses passing through a fiber-optic cable), or electrical signals transmitted through a wire. 
     Computer readable program instructions described herein can be downloaded to respective computing/processing devices from a computer readable storage medium or to an external computer or external storage device via a network, for example, the Internet, a local area network, a wide area network and/or a wireless network. The network may comprise copper transmission cables, optical transmission fibers, wireless transmission, routers, firewalls, switches, gateway computers and/or edge servers. A network adapter card or network interface in each computing/processing device receives computer readable program instructions from the network and forwards the computer readable program instructions for storage in a computer readable storage medium within the respective computing/processing device. 
     Computer readable program instructions for carrying out operations of the present invention may be assembler instructions, instruction-set-architecture (ISA) instructions, machine instructions, machine dependent instructions, microcode, firmware instructions, state-setting data, or either source code or object code written in any combination of one or more programming languages, including an object oriented programming language such as Java, Smalltalk, C++ or the like, and conventional procedural programming languages, such as the “C” programming language or similar programming languages. The computer readable program instructions may execute entirely on the user&#39;s computer, partly on the user&#39;s computer, as a stand-alone software package, partly on the user&#39;s computer and partly on a remote computer or entirely on the remote computer or server. In the latter scenario, the remote computer may be connected to the user&#39;s computer through any type of network, including a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN), or the connection may be made to an external computer (for example, through the Internet using an Internet Service Provider). In some embodiments, electronic circuitry including, for example, programmable logic circuitry, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA), or programmable logic arrays (PLA) may execute the computer readable program instructions by utilizing state information of the computer readable program instructions to personalize the electronic circuitry, in order to perform aspects of the present invention. 
     Aspects of the present invention are described herein with reference to flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams of methods, apparatus (systems), and computer program products according to embodiments of the invention. It will be understood that each block of the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, and combinations of blocks in the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, can be implemented by computer readable program instructions. 
     These computer readable program instructions may be provided to a processor of a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, or other programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer or other programmable data processing apparatus, create means for implementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. These computer readable program instructions may also be stored in a computer readable storage medium that can direct a computer, a programmable data processing apparatus, and/or other devices to function in a particular manner, such that the computer readable storage medium having instructions stored therein comprises an article of manufacture including instructions which implement aspects of the function/act specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. 
     The computer readable program instructions may also be loaded onto a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other device to cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer, other programmable apparatus or other device to produce a computer implemented process, such that the instructions which execute on the computer, other programmable apparatus, or other device implement, the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. 
       FIG. 5  is a flowchart illustrating operation of a question answering system with combined specificity and informativity scoring in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. Operation begins (block  500 ), and the question answering (QA) system receives a user-generated question (block  501 ). The QA system generates candidate answers to the user-generated question (block  502 ). 
     The QA system considers the first candidate answer (block  503 ) and considers the first term of the answer (block  504 ). The QA system determines whether the term appears in the taxonomy (block  505 ). If the term appears in the taxonomy, an informativity and specificity scorer of the QA system determines a specificity value of each term taxonomically (block  506 ). Using either a specialized taxonomy for the QA system or a standard taxonomy allows for easily weighting the entries therein. More general suggestions come from traversing upward from the question&#39;s original element in the taxonomy, and more specific suggestions conic from traversing downward. For simplicity, the mechanisms of the illustrative embodiments assign a linear value from leaf to root relative to the number of nodes in the branch and normalizes the value to range from 0 to 1. The informativity and specificity scorer then uses this value in conjunction with a machine learned ranking; therefore, consistency is the only key. 
     Then, the QA system determines whether the term is the last term in the answer (block  507 ). If the term is not the last term in the answer, operation returns to block  504  to determine the next term. 
     Returning to block  505 , if the term is not in the taxonomy, then the informativity and specificity scorer determines an informativity value for the term using corpus statistics (block  508 ). In one embodiment, the informativity and specificity scorer determines a Zipfian probability the term. This statistic, while available for all terms and providing an approximation of informativity has no relation to the taxonomic specificity above. In order to avoid having an unrelated measure, the informativity and specificity scorer combines the two values. 
     To compute a unified score, the informativity and specificity scorer combines the Zipfian probability from corpus statistics with a high-quality taxonomic specificity value. To accomplish this, the mechanisms of the illustrative embodiments calculate the average Zipfian probability of each taxonomic group. Normalizing the mathematical rarity of the Zipfian function, this provides a measure of commonality for a taxonomic group. Note that this normalization applies equally at leaf and internal nodes. An internal node is an average of all of its child term Zipfian probability values. Given these averages and a candidate answer term not found in the taxonomy, the informativity and specificity scorer aligns the term with a taxonomic node based on Zipfian probability (block  509 ). The informativity and specificity scorer determines a specificity value for the term based on the node to which the answer is aligned (block  506 ). The end result is that all terms may be given a specificity score derived from a taxonomy without creating an exhaustive classification of all terms. 
     Returning to block  507 , if the term is the last term in the answer, then the QA system determines a specificity score for the answer (block  510 ). In one embodiment, the informativity and specificity scorer assigns the highest specificity value from the terms in the answer as the unified specificity score. The QA system then determines whether the answer is the last candidate answer (block  511 ). If the answer is not the last candidate answer, then operation returns to block  503 . 
     If the answer is the last candidate answer in block  511 , then the QA system determines confidence scores for all candidate answers based on the combined specificity score, as well as scores from other scorers (block  512 ). The QA system ranks the answers based on confidence score (block  513 ). The QA system then returns the ranked list of candidate answers (block  514 ), and operation ends (block  515 ). 
       FIG. 6  is a flowchart illustrating operation of a question answering system with a unified specificity and informativity score in accordance with an illustrative embodiment. Operation begins (block  600 ), and the question answering (QA) system receives a user-generated question (block  601 ). The QA system generates candidate answers to the user-generated question (block  602 ). 
     An informativity and specificity scorer of the QA system determines a specificity value of each answer taxonomically (block  603 ). Using either a specialized taxonomy for the QA system or a standard taxonomy allows for easily weighting the entries therein. More general suggestions come from traversing upward from the question&#39;s original element in the taxonomy, and more specific suggestions come from traversing downward. For simplicity, the mechanisms of the illustrative embodiments assign a linear value from leaf to root and normalizes the value to range from 0 to 1. The informativity and specificity scorer then uses this value in conjunction with a machine learned ranking; therefore, consistency is the only key. 
     The informativity and specificity scorer then determines an informativity value for each answer using corpus statistics (block  604 ). In one embodiment, the informativity and specificity scorer determines a Zipfian probability for each word or term in the answer. Computing the Zipfian probabilities for any corpus involves simply counting word occurrences. For answers consisting of multiple terms, the informativity and specificity scorer uses the lowest Zipfian probability to represent the entire answer. For instance, the answer “the sixties” would score identically to “sixties,” thus negating any penalty for longer answers. This statistic, while available for all terms and providing an approximation of informativity has no relation to the taxonomic specificity above. In order to avoid having an unrelated measure, the informativity and specificity scorer combines the two values. 
     Thus, the informativity and specificity scorer statistically combines the specificity and informativity values (block  605 ). To compute a unified score, the informativity and specificity scorer combines the Zipfian probability from corpus statistics with a high-quality taxonomic specificity value. 
     The QA system then determines confidence scores for all candidate answers based on the unified specificity and informativity score, as well as scores from other scorers (block  606 ). The QA system ranks the answers based on confidence score (block  607 ). The QA system then returns the ranked list, of candidate answers (block  608 ), and operation ends (block  609 ). 
     The flowchart and block diagrams in the Figures illustrate the architecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementations of systems, methods, and computer program products according to various embodiments of the present invention. In this regard, each block in the flowchart or block diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portion of instructions, which comprises one or more executable instructions for implementing the specified logical function(s). In some alternative implementations, the functions noted in the block may occur out of the order noted in the figures. For example, two blocks shown in succession may, in fact, be executed substantially concurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality involved. It will also be noted that each block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, can be implemented by special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specified functions or acts or carry out combinations of special purpose hardware and computer instructions. 
     Thus, the illustrative embodiments provide a mechanism for answer scoring based on a unified information and specificity metric. The mechanism enables low-occurrence answers to be scored highly, while providing a consistent method to rank more informative answers highly. The user receives not simply a correct answer, but a highly informative answer. The mechanism allows highly complex questions to be answered more precisely, avoiding generic answers and allowing more specific responses to rise to the top. 
     As noted above, it should be appreciated that the illustrative embodiments may take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment or an embodiment containing both hardware and software elements. In one example embodiment, the mechanisms of the illustrative embodiments are implemented in software or program code, which includes but is not limited to firmware, resident software, microcode, etc. 
     A data processing system suitable for storing and/or executing program code will include at least one processor coupled directly or indirectly to memory elements through a system bus. The memory elements can include local memory employed during actual execution of the program code, bulk storage, and cache memories which provide temporary storage of at least some program code in order to reduce the number of times code must be retrieved from bulk storage during execution. 
     Input/output or I/O devices (including but not limited to keyboards, displays, pointing devices, etc.) can be coupled to the system either directly or through intervening I/O controllers. Network adapters may also be coupled to the system to enable the data processing system to become coupled to other data processing systems or remote printers or storage devices through intervening private or public networks. Modems, cable modems and Ethernet cards are just a few of the currently available types of network adapters. 
     The description of the present invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description, and is not intended to be exhaustive or limited to the invention in the form disclosed. Many modifications and variations will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the described embodiments. The embodiment was chosen and described in order to best explain the principles of the invention, the practical application, and to enable others of ordinary skill in the art to understand the invention for various embodiments with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated. The terminology used herein was chosen to best explain the principles of the embodiments, the practical application or technical improvement over technologies found in the marketplace, or to enable others of ordinary skill in the art to understand the embodiments disclosed herein.