Patent Publication Number: US-2020284600-A1

Title: Methods and systems for conversion of physical movements to carbon units

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This present disclosure relates generally to technology for implementing carbon offset programs, including methods and systems for recognizing environmental attributes from emission reduction activities, and quantifying and producing verifiable carbon offsets. 
     BACKGROUND 
     The earth&#39;s so-called “greenhouse effect” describes the process by which radiatively active greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the planet&#39;s atmosphere, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone, contribute to the downward radiation which warms the planet&#39;s surface. Increased GHG emissions, driven in large part by human activity, has strengthened the greenhouse effect and contributed to global climate change, threatening ecosystems, biodiversity, economies and human livelihood. Climate change poses one of the greatest risks to survival of the human species. Leading climate scientists have warned that there are only about a dozen years for global warming to be kept to a maximum of 1.5° C., beyond which even half a degree will significantly worsen the risks of drought, floods, extreme heat and poverty for hundreds of millions of people. One of the largest sources of GHG pollution in North America and around the world is the transportation sector (i.e. transport of people and goods, via cars, trucks, planes, trains and other means). In 2015, the transportation sector was the second largest source of GHG emissions in Canada, accounting for 24% (173 metric tonnes of carbon dioxide or its equivalent (CO 2e )) of total national emissions. Emissions from passenger and freight travel amounted to 96% of these emissions, or 91 metric tonnes of CO 2e  and 76 metric tonnes of CO 2e  of transportation emissions, respectively. Between 1990 and 2015, GHG emissions from the transportation sector grew by 42% (Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada). As of 2016, the transportation sector produced 28.5% of total GHG emissions in United States, and is the largest source of GHG emissions in the United States (Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency). In the United States, goods carried by roads amount to 1.929 trillion metric ton-kilometers per year which is the second highest in the world, based on 2009 estimates, and road passengers amount to 6.798 trillion person kilometers per year, the highest in the world, based on 2011 estimates (Source: United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration). In 2017, there were 2,431,558,000,000 VMT (Vehicle Miles Travelled) in the United States (Source: National Household Travel Survey, Federal Highway Administration). 
     In an effort to limit or reduce GHG emissions, carbon offset projects (also referred to as carbon reduction programs) have been implemented to formally recognize emission reductions in the form of carbon offsets. Each carbon offset represents a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or its equivalent (CO 2e ), typically denominated in metric tons of CO 2e . A party which produces GHG emissions can offset its emissions by purchasing carbon offsets from another party which has achieved GHG reductions through certain activities. In certain cases, to comply with various regulatory obligations, an entity that exceeds its GHG limits can purchase carbon offsets (i.e. a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or GHG) to offset its excess emissions and bring it into compliance. Even where there is no regulatory requirement, an entity can voluntarily purchase carbon offsets to offset its GHG emissions. The sale of carbon offsets is typically used to fund activities that reduce GHGs, such as renewable energy projects (e.g. wind farms, hydroelectric dams, biomass energy) and energy efficiency projects. 
     Criteria for evaluating the use of a carbon offset project include the concepts of “additionality” and a “baseline”. “Additionality” evaluates whether the GHG emission reductions achieved by an activity is additional to what would have happened if the activity had not been implemented because of the carbon offset project (i.e. the emission reduction activity is beyond business-as-usual and would not have occurred if the activity was not carried out through the carbon offset project). Additionality is generally determined with reference to a “baseline”, which can be described as the reference scenario that is characterized by the absence of the specific policy initiative that enabled the proposed activity in connection with the carbon offset project, holding all other factors constant. In the transportation sector, technical, financial and other implementation barriers have hindered the development of technologies that can be used to establish additionality for a carbon offset program for the physical movement of people and goods. Existing solutions for reducing GHG emissions in the transportation sector have been largely unable to demonstrate the additionality criteria as the solutions typically cover only a single mode of transport (e.g. bus rapid transit), do not account for the first or last mile or segment of a user&#39;s trip, require significant capital investment by local governments, and do not factor in alternative modes of transport or data from individual users. There is a need for solutions that incentivize more environmentally-sustainable transportation choices and can be used as part of an overall technological framework to support projects that reduce or offset GHG emissions in the transportation sector. 
     SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE 
     The present specification relates to methods and systems for the conversion of the physical movement of people or goods to quantifiable and verifiable emission reductions. These emission reductions can be recognized as environmental attributes in the form of carbon offsets or credits. 
     One aspect of the invention provides a method of producing verifiable environmental attributes. The method includes: (a) receiving from a user an input specifying a destination, and determining a plurality of transport options to the destination from a current location of the user, the current location defining a start point for a trip, and wherein each of the transport options comprises one or more modes of transport; (b) monitoring movements of the user as the user completes the trip by travelling to the destination, wherein monitoring the movements comprises tracking a distance travelled for each mode of transport taken by the user; (c) calculating project GHG emissions for the trip, based at least in part on the emissions factor associated with each mode of transport and the distance travelled for each mode of transport; (d) calculating baseline GHG emissions for a baseline transport option to the destination, based at least in part on the emissions factor for the baseline trip and a discount factor indicative of the likelihood of adoption of the baseline transport option; and (e) extracting the GHG emissions savings by determining a difference between the baseline GHG emissions and the project GHG emissions. 
     The difference can be communicated to a system for aggregation with GHG emissions savings from other trips. The aggregated GHG emissions savings are delivered to an independent system for validation and verification. Using a recognized conversion methodology, the aggregated GHG emissions savings can be converted into environmental attributes such as carbon units, carbon offsets and carbon credits. 
     In certain embodiments, calculating the project GHG emissions can be additionally based on server emissions produced by energy consumption of one or more servers used for determining the plurality of transport options and monitoring the movements of the user for the trip. Calculating project GHG emissions for the trip can involve summing emissions from a plurality of segments of the trip each of which is taken in a particular mode of transport and has an associated emissions factor. 
     In particular embodiments, the discount factor applied to determine baseline emissions is specific to a geographic region containing the start point. 
     Determining the plurality of transport options may include, for at least a portion of the trip, selecting from modes of transport having reduced GHG emissions over the baseline transport option. 
     In some embodiments, the user is tasked with transporting a good from a predefined location to a location of a customer. In such case, where the good is initially located elsewhere, at a predefined location (i.e. not at the same location as the user), steps (a) to (e) of the above method are performed for a first trip taken by the user to pick up the good from the predefined location and for a second trip taken by the user to deliver the good from the predefined location to the location of the customer. 
     Another aspect of the invention relates to a system of producing verifiable environmental attributes. The system has an environmental impact server configured to: (a) receive from a user device an input specifying a destination, and determine a plurality of transport options to the destination from a current location of the user device, the current location defining a start point for a trip, and wherein each of the transport options comprises one or more modes of transport; (b) monitor movements of the user as the user completes the trip by travelling to the destination, wherein monitoring the movements comprises receiving geolocation information from the user device tracking a distance travelled for each mode of transport taken by the user; (c) calculate project GHG emissions for the trip, based at least in part on the emissions factor associated with each mode of transport and the distance travelled for each mode of transport; (d) calculate baseline GHG emissions for a baseline transport option to the destination, based at least in part on the emissions factor for the baseline trip and a discount factor indicative of the likelihood of adoption of the baseline transport option; and (e) extract the GHG emissions savings by determining a difference between the baseline GHG emissions and the project GHG emissions. The difference is communicated by the environmental impact server to a system for aggregation with GHG emissions savings from other trips. The aggregated GHG emissions savings can be delivered to an independent system for validation and verification. 
     Additional aspects of the invention will be apparent in view of the description which follows. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Features and advantages of the embodiments of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description, taken in with reference to the appended drawings in which: 
         FIG. 1  provides a schematic overview of a carbon offset system; 
         FIG. 2  is a flowchart of a method of quantifying GHG emissions data from an individual&#39;s physical movements for conversion to verifiable and tradeable environmental attributes; 
         FIG. 3  illustrates a method performed by a user interacting with a modal shift application installed on the user&#39;s device; 
         FIG. 4  illustrates a method of establishing a listed user of the modal shift application; 
         FIGS. 5A and 5B  are exemplary screen shots of the graphical user interface for the modal shift application; 
         FIG. 6  is a flowchart of a method of demonstrating the satisfaction of the additionality criteria by a technology-driven carbon offset system in the transportation sector; 
         FIG. 7  is a schematic illustration of a carbon offset system; 
         FIG. 8  illustrates a method of determining differences in values of parameters between a completed project trip and baseline trip; 
         FIG. 9  is a data flow chart for a method of determining project trip parameters; 
         FIG. 10  is a data flow chart for a method of determining baseline trip parameters; 
         FIG. 11  illustrates a data flow chart for a method of determining differences between project trip and baseline trip parameters; 
         FIG. 12  is a schematic illustration for the determination of the net GHG emissions savings produced by a carbon offset system; 
         FIG. 13A  is an exemplary table of region-specific emission factors for various modes of transport; 
         FIG. 13B  is an exemplary table of modal ratio values for various geographic regions; 
         FIG. 14  is an entity-relationship diagram for the data used or generated by the carbon offset system; 
         FIG. 15  illustrates a method of validation, verification and exchange of carbon offsets once net GHG emissions savings have been determined by a carbon offset system; 
         FIG. 16  illustrates a method performed by a courier interacting with a modal shift application installed on the courier&#39;s device for the transport of goods; and 
         FIG. 17  illustrates a method for transport of goods using remote delivery. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The description which follows, and the embodiments described therein, are provided by way of illustration of examples of particular embodiments of the principles of the present invention. These examples are provided for the purposes of explanation, and not limitation, of those principles and of the invention. 
     The present invention provides apparatus, systems and methods for quantifying greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and emissions savings in the transportation sector. Such emissions savings can be transformed into verifiable environmental attributes such as carbon offsets. Particular embodiments overcome various technical and other implementation barriers to support the ownership and additionality of a carbon offset program in the transportation sector, and provide an end-to-end process to enable the quantification of GHG emissions data from an individual&#39;s physical movements in cities (over land and water transport, for example) and the conversion of the physical movement of people to quantifiable emission reductions, which can be recognized as environmental attributes in the form of carbon offsets or credits. The GHG emissions data (including net GHG emissions savings) can be validated and verified so as to be certified as verified carbon units (VCUs). The VCUs are recorded in a registry for transacting in carbon markets. Embodiments described herein can also be applied to support carbon offset programs for the physical movement of goods, including the transport and delivery of goods. 
     Throughout this specification, numerous terms and expressions are used in accordance with their ordinary meanings. Provided immediately below are definitions of some terms and expressions that are used in the description that follows. Definitions of some additional terms and expressions that are used are provided elsewhere in the description. 
     “Mode of transport” refers to any mode of transport that can be used to move a person or good from point A to point B, whether over land, water or air. Mode of transport includes human-powered transport, such as walking or running, and forms of human-powered transport that are enhanced with a human-powered vehicle, such as bicycling, skateboarding, scootering, inline-skating and the like. Mode of transport includes transport by land-based vehicles and land-based transportation systems, including, for example, gas-powered automobiles, bus, transit rail, commuter rail, intercity rail, ride-hailing, taxi (e.g. hybrid or electric taxi), ride-share, car-share, cable car, plug-in electric vehicle, multiple passenger vehicle, vehicle with start-stop system, electric scooter, electric bicycle and the like, and various modes of watercraft transport (e.g. ferries) and remote-controlled vehicles, including delivery by drone (as defined below). 
     “Environmental attributes” refers to all interests or rights arising from characteristics relating to the environmental impacts associated with an activity, and which include quantifiable, marketable and verifiable environmental attributes, such as GHG reductions in the form of carbon offsets or credits. Carbon offsets or credits are considered an environmental benefit, given that they are derived from some reduction in GHG emissions for a particular activity as compared to the GHG emissions for the equivalent baseline activity. In embodiments described herein, the baseline activity includes taking a Single-Occupancy Baseline Trip, as defined below, or other baseline trip (e.g. delivery van or truck), while the activity that produces emissions savings includes taking at least one alternative mode of transport such as walking, bicycle-share, bus, transit rail, commuter rail, intercity rail, ferry, ride-hailing, taxi (e.g. hybrid or electric taxi), ride-share, car-share, cable car, plug-in electric vehicle, multiple passenger vehicle, vehicle with start-stop system, electric scooter, electric bicycle and the like, for all or at least a portion of the trip. Any transport option which produces less GHG emissions than the baseline trip can be considered an activity that produces GHG emissions savings which can be converted to quantifiable and verifiable emission reductions. Such activity does not require that an alternative mode of transport be used for the entirety of the trip. For example, a transport option which includes a portion of the trip being taken by single-occupancy vehicle to reach a bus stop or transit rail station, with the remainder being taken by bus or transit rail and/or walking, would be considered a transport option or activity that produces a modal shift and results in emissions savings over the baseline trip. 
     “Fossil Fuel Vehicle” (FFV) is a vehicle that relies on fossil fuel as a fuel source (e.g. vehicles powered by gasoline, diesel, ethanol-gasoline mixed or compressed natural gas). Hybrid vehicles using fossil fuel as the single fuel source with regenerative braking to charge the battery are also included in this definition. 
     “Modal shift optimization application” (also referred to herein as a “modal shift application”) includes any technology solution that allows a user to find a route between two points in real-time, using one or more modes of transport which result in a reduction of emissions as compared to an equivalent baseline trip, such as the Single-Occupancy Baseline Trip (as defined below). In particular embodiments, the modal shift application is a mobile application that runs on a user&#39;s device to assist the user with trip planning and enables the user&#39;s movements to be tracked for conversion to carbon offsets in accordance with the embodiments described herein. 
     “Listed User” (LU) is a user who has downloaded and installed the modal shift application onto their user device and has accepted the terms of use. The modal shift application causes such users to be listed in a system ledger maintained by a carbon offset system. Each Listed User is uniquely identified by a system-generated identifier specific to the user&#39;s device instance. Unless otherwise specified, a “user” refers to a Listed User. 
     “Single-Occupancy Baseline Trip” (SOBT) is a single-occupancy vehicle trip, used as the baseline for the purpose of assessing GHG emissions savings in some situations (e.g. where the single-occupancy vehicle trip is “common practice” as explained below). “Single-Occupancy Baseline Trip Distance” is the distance of the SOBT that a listed user would have taken in the baseline scenario. The distance of such trip is calculated for the shortest trip (in terms of time and/or distance) for an equivalent single-occupancy vehicle trip between the start point and end point (destination) of the user&#39;s trip. SOBT refers to a trip made by a FFV, as opposed to a PEV (as defined below). Trips made by PEVs can produce an environmental benefit in GHG emission savings as compared to trips made by FFVs. 
     “Discount factor” is an indication of the likelihood that a trip taken in a specific geographic region (or jurisdiction) is a baseline trip. In certain embodiments, the discount factor is a modal ratio (MoR), also referred to as a “mode ratio”. In situations where the baseline is a single-occupancy vehicle trip, MoR can be expressed as a percentage of the total trips that are taken with single-occupancy vehicle as the mode of transport. In particular embodiments, the MoR is applied to discount the baseline emissions to account for the likelihood of a trip being taken as a baseline trip. 
     “Plug-in Electric Vehicle” (PEV) is a vehicle that runs on electric energy stored in on-board batteries and has no other source of external energy to propel the vehicle. Batteries are charged using electricity from the grid. 
     “Project trip” refers to an actual trip completed under the carbon offset program and “project geographic area” refers to the pre-defined geographic area for which the data used for determining GHG emissions savings is valid. In some cases, the project geographic area contains one or more urban agglomerations. For the systems and methods described herein, it is assumed that the project trip starts in or takes place entirely within the boundary of a pre-defined geographic area (i.e. within a “project boundary”). 
       FIG. 1  provides a schematic overview of a carbon offset system  120  according to one embodiment of the invention. Carbon offset system  120  is a system that is capable of producing environmental benefits such as carbon offsets from the tracking of physical movements of people. In other embodiments carbon system  120  can also be used to track movements of couriers and/or delivery drones (as described elsewhere herein). The quantification and production of carbon offsets from the transport of people is achieved through enabling users to plan their trips with a user device  130  that is in communication with the carbon offset system  120 . User device  130  may comprise any portable device that is capable of connecting to a mobile network, including, without limitation, smart phones, mobile devices, smart watches, hardware installed in a transport vehicle such as a private vehicle (e.g. auto-stop vehicle) or installed in the vehicle&#39;s infotainment system, GPS (Global Positioning System) devices, activity tracking devices, and the like. A modal shift application is loaded on each user&#39;s device  130 . (In alternate embodiments, equivalent functionality of the modal shift application may be built into the operating system or hardware of the device.) The modal shift application incorporates trip planning functionality and supports and enables modal shift in urban agglomerations. Modal shift refers to the shifting of people away from private vehicles (which is currently the dominant form of travel in many geographic regions, including in North America) or from other baseline transport options, into any sustainable form of transport that results in a reduction of GHG emissions, such as public transit, bicycles, bicycle-shares, ride-hailing, taxis, ferries, car-shares, and any more efficient use of private vehicles resulting in a reduction of GHG emissions, such as use of PEVs, auto-stop vehicles, park and ride, carpooling in private vehicles, etc. The carbon offset system  120  aggregates trip planning information from the servers of public and private transportation providers (or from a server managed by carbon offset system  120 , in the case of a transport company using their own services (e.g. taxis, ride-sharing, bicycle-sharing) to provide users with different options without integrating other transport providers), and provides that information to the user&#39;s device  130  via the modal shift application, enabling users to plan their trips using alternative modes of transport, which are alternative to the baseline (e.g. a single-occupancy private vehicle trip). 
     After the user completes their trip, the carbon offset system  120  calculates the GHG emissions for the completed trip as well as for the equivalent baseline trip (wherein a pre-defined discount factor or MoR is applied to the baseline emissions to account for the likelihood of a user utilizing a baseline transport option in that geographic region), and calculates a difference in the emissions. The resulting GHG emission savings across all user trips are aggregated by the carbon offset system and converted to quantifiable emission reductions, which can be validated and verified for the purpose of having them being recognized as carbon units, depicted as VCUs  137  in  FIG. 1 . The conversion of the physical movements (transport) of users to GHG emissions savings data and carbon offsets is performed in accordance with a modal shift process or methodology and project plan as described in more detail herein. 
       FIG. 2  illustrates a flowchart of a method  150  of quantifying GHG emissions data from an individual&#39;s physical movements for conversion to verifiable and tradeable environmental attributes, in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. Method  150  begins at block  148  with a non-listed user downloading and installing on the user&#39;s device the modal shift application as described herein. Prior to initial use of the modal shift application, the non-listed user is required to accept the terms of use (which will require the user to consent to transferring ownership of environmental attributes, as explained in more detail below with reference to  FIG. 4 ) and enable geolocation services (e.g. Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking). Method  150  then proceeds to block  152  where the user requests trip plans by inputting a destination (through interaction with a user interface, voice, touch, and the like), receives the available trip plans to the input destination (which are alternatives to a baseline trip), and selects from the available trip plans. The user then travels and completes the selected trip at block  154 . Meanwhile, as the user is travelling, the modal shift application monitors the distance travelled for each mode of transport, by way of the geolocation services enabled on the user&#39;s device. 
     Once the user has arrived at their destination (i.e. the trip is complete), method  150  proceeds to block  156  at which the carbon offset system calculates GHG savings for the completed trip. These calculations are based on a modal shift methodology and project plan  138  according to the geographic region, as explained in more detail herein, and are performed for each trip taken by a user. The net GHG emissions savings can be calculated as follows: Net GHG emissions savings=Baseline emissions (as determined using the distance for a baseline trip and GHG modal shift methodology)−Project emissions (as determined using trip data from the completed trip and GHG modal shift methodology)−Leakage (e.g. accounting for a tendency for the user to take their trip outside the defined geographic region for the project). For particular embodiments, leakage is not considered a significant issue for the project and is assumed to be zero, particularly because it is unlikely that users would move their trip outside the project boundary due to an increase in modal shift within the project boundary. Net GHG emissions savings for all of the trips taken by users who are using the modal shift application are aggregated by the carbon offset system, and are provided to a third party for validation and verification at block  158 , resulting in certified carbon offsets for sale or exchange in the carbon offsets market. 
     The steps at blocks  152 ,  154 , and  156  of  FIG. 2  are part of a method  151  which can be performed at least in part by a carbon offset system, in accordance with embodiments of the invention described herein, communicating with user devices executing instructions provided in the modal shift application. The carbon offset system comprises an environmental impact server. The environmental impact server obtains trip planning data from a trip search server and communicates with the user devices over a wireless communication network. The environmental impact server may be provided through one or more machines on a network which are capable of accepting requests from the user devices (e.g. such as trip search requests) and geolocation/trip data from the user devices, and communicating with one or more trip search servers to obtain the trip planning data or transport options for the user&#39;s trip search requests. The environmental impact server may comprise a computer, computer program, data center, machine or device which manages access to a centralized resource or service in a network. 
     Available transportation providers and modes of travel in the project geographic region can be integrated into the modal shift application. The modal shift application supports travel between a start point (e.g. the user&#39;s current location at the time of the user&#39;s request for trip plans) and an end point (destination). In particular scenarios, both the start point and end point are located within the same geographic region or project boundary. However, this is not always the case. Some embodiments of the modal shift application support travel between urban agglomerations or locations in different geographic regions or outside a project boundary, as explained elsewhere herein. 
       FIG. 3  illustrates a method  370  performed by a user interacting with the modal shift application installed on the user&#39;s device. Method  370  begins at block  371  with the non-listed user downloading the modal shift application from an application source (e.g. a mobile application store or application marketplace, a web store or other source of device applications). In other embodiments, software or a driver for the modal shift application may be installed on the user device. Alternately, the download step may not be necessary, if equivalent functionality of the modal shift application is built into the hardware or operating system of the user device. Following download and installation, the non-listed user is prompted by the modal shift application to enable geolocation tracking on their user device at block  372 , and to review the application&#39;s terms and conditions at block  373  and indicate the user&#39;s acceptance of these terms and conditions at block  374  (these steps are described in more detail with reference to  FIG. 4 ). Following completion of these steps, the user is established as a LU and is permitted to use the modal shift application to plan a trip using alternative modes of transport that result in a reduction in GHG emissions over the equivalent baseline trip. 
     At block  375 , the user searches for a trip by inputting trip parameters such as destination, travel start time or destination arrival time, limitations for mode of travel, preferred mode of travel, walking or biking time, etc. Non-baseline trip search results (in the form of available trip plans) are returned and are displayed to the user along with their comparison to the baseline trip (e.g. SOBT) at block  380 . The user selects from one of the available trip plans at block  382 . The user may hit the “GO” button at block  383  to initiate the display of directions to the destination. At block  384 , the user travels toward their destination, and arrives at the destination at block  385 . Whether or not the user hits the “GO” button at block  383 , the modal shift application tracks and records the user&#39;s physical movements, including distance traveled for each mode of transport (passenger-kilometers for a defined mode of transport or pkm) for the user&#39;s trip. As such, participating users need to enable their device&#39;s geolocation function for the duration of their journey. 
       FIG. 4  illustrates a method  270  of establishing a listed user (LU) of the modal shift application according to one embodiment. The method  270  begins after the non-listed user has installed the modal shift application on the user&#39;s device. At block  271 , the non-listed user opens the application, and is presented with a click-wrap type agreement at block  272 , which displays various terms and conditions. One of the terms is that the user will assign and transfer ownership of the environmental attributes, generated by use of the services provided through the modal shift application, to the provider of the modal shift application. The non-listed user is then invited to indicate their acceptance of the terms and conditions at block  273  by performing an action, such as checking a box or clicking on a button. Other forms of indications or acceptance of terms can be used in other embodiments. For example, in some embodiments, acceptance of the terms and conditions, including updates to pre-existing terms and conditions, may be effected through a user accepting the new terms by default as regular users of the service (or contractual services); when purchasing, leasing or using a physical product (e.g. smart watch) that includes an embedded application and through purchasing the product the user is required to accept the terms; by accepting third-party terms and conditions (e.g. social media platform updates their terms and conditions to include transfer of ownership of environmental attributes to a third party). If the user does not indicate their acceptance at block  273 , the user is not established as a LU, and will not be permitted to proceed further to use the application. If the user accepts the terms and conditions, the user is established as a LU, and an entry for the LU is created in a carbon offset system user ledger at block  274 . LUs listed on the user ledger will have accepted the terms of use of the modal shift application prior to initial use, and will be permitted to use the modal shift application without having to reconfirm acceptance of the terms and conditions upon opening the application again. The steps performed in method  270  enable carbon offset system  120  to establish ownership over carbon offsets produced through emissions savings attributable to the LUs&#39; activities in completing their trips while using the modal shift application. 
     When the user searches for trip plans to the user&#39;s input destination, the user will be presented with the available mode or combination of modes of transport to the destination, which are alternative to the baseline trip (e.g. single occupancy vehicle trip, in certain embodiments). Available modes of transport may include, for example, walking, bicycling, bicycle-share, bus, transit rail, commuter rail, intercity rail, ferry, taxi (e.g. hybrid or electric taxi), car-share, ride-share or carpooling, cable car, electric vehicles, park and ride, and the like. In particular embodiments, the modal shift application identifies or recommends the trip option that has some desirable characteristic or combination of characteristics such as low cost, reduced travel time, sustainability, health, and the like. In some embodiments, comparisons are made between the located alternative trip options and a SOBT, in terms of parameters such as cost, time, carbon emissions or environmental impact, and the like. The evaluation and ranking of trip options based on these characteristics may be accomplished by comparing differences in parameters of the project trip and the SOBT, using a method such as the method  210  of  FIG. 11  (described below). Available trip options, a recommended trip option, and comparisons of trip options to SOBT can be displayed to the user on the graphical user interface of the modal shift application. 
       FIGS. 5A and 5B  are exemplary screen shots of the graphical user interface for the modal shift application.  FIG. 5A  is a graphical user interface screen shot  300 A displaying the trip results  304  that were located as a result of a trip planning query  301  submitted by the user for trip plans to the user&#39;s input destination of “Lonsdale Quay Station” in North Vancouver, from the user&#39;s current location. The trip results  304  include a plurality of trip plans or options  304 A,  304 B and  304 C (encompassing various modes of transport) that are alternative to the baseline single-occupancy vehicle trip. As shown in  FIG. 5A , the middle option  304 B for the requested trip  303  is selected and displayed in the map area  302  of the graphical user interface. As seen in trip summary bar  305  which summarizes the combination of modes of transport for the selected trip option  304 B, trip option  304 B includes walking, transit rail (Canada Line), walking, and ferry (SeaBus). The user can click on the “GO” button  306  to initiate display of detailed directions to the destination in accordance with the selected trip option  304 B. 
       FIG. 5B  is a graphical user interface screen shot  300 B showing a comparison between the trip option selected in the example of  FIG. 5A  and a single-occupancy private vehicle trip. As seen in  FIG. 5B , different sizes or types of private vehicles can be selected for comparison (i.e. compact, average, and light truck). The average-size vehicle has been selected for comparison in the illustrated example. In the example of  FIG. 5B , parameters including cost, time and carbon emissions are displayed on the comparison dashboard  310  for the selected trip option and for the baseline option using an average-sized private vehicle. Data for carbon emissions for both the baseline trip as well as the different segments of the project trip can be calculated using official sources of data such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency or Statistics Canada, or using other sources of such data which may include official or non-official sources. 
     As noted previously, “additionality” evaluates whether the GHG emission reductions achieved by an activity is additional to what would have happened if the activity had not been implemented because of the carbon offset project, wherein additionality is assessed with reference to a “baseline” (which characterizes the proposed activities in the absence of the carbon offset project, holding all other factors constant). Baseline emissions are quantified based on a two-step approach. Step one is the quantification of the baseline emissions that would have been produced in the absence of the carbon offset project. In the second step, a discount factor (e.g. MoR) is applied to discount the baseline emissions. The discount factor can be specific to each geographic region, and expresses the likelihood (common practice) of a baseline mode of transport (e.g. single-occupancy vehicle) being used to complete the trip in a particular geographic region. Where the baseline is a SOBT, the discount factor is a MoR which is typically expressed as a percentage of trips that are single-occupancy vehicle trips for a geographic region, based on official or other sources of such data (as indicated, for example, in  FIGS. 13A and 13B ). 
       FIG. 6  is a flowchart of a method  200  of demonstrating the satisfaction of the additionality criteria by a technology-driven carbon offset system in the transportation sector. Method  200  begins at block  202  by evaluating, for a particular geographic region  203 , whether there is an opportunity for carbon emissions to be reduced, beyond that which is required by law (e.g. some of the reductions are voluntary in the geographic region  203 ). If the answer is “no” (for example, where modal shift is mandated by laws, statutes, policies or other regulatory frameworks within the geographic region  203 ), then no regulatory surplus of carbon offsets is available for trade and therefore the additionality criteria cannot be satisfied. Otherwise, if the answer is “yes”, a regulatory surplus of carbon offsets is available for the transportation sector at block  202 , and the method proceeds to block  204  by considering barriers such as technical implementation barriers  205  and financial implementation barriers  206  to the introduction of a carbon offset program. 
     In general, a carbon offset project should meet at least one, and preferably more than one, of these implementation barriers in order to be considered additional: 
     1) Financial Barriers. The financial barriers test addresses how carbon financing impacts the project in question. Generally, a project is considered additional if it would not otherwise be profitable without the revenue generated by the carbon offsets. Financial barriers tests are generally considered to be one of the more rigorous and stringent tests of additionality. Two types of financial barriers a project can face include capital constraint and internal rate of return. The capital constraint test addresses whether a project would have been undertaken without carbon financing. Internal rate of return indicates whether or not a project would have met established targets for internal rates of return without carbon financing. These are not the only acceptable tests of financial barriers. 
     2) Technological Barriers. There are several categories of assessment that could fall under this test. A project is generally considered to be additional if it promotes the accelerated adoption of a technology that would otherwise face impediments to adoption; it is considered additional because the increased rate of adoption is assumed to result in lower emissions. For example, if a more energy efficient, though more expensive to manufacture, model of a hot water heater is available and the additional cost is barring its entry into the market, carbon financing can help bridge that gap and bring a technology to market that otherwise would not have been feasible. In this case, the GHG reductions resulting from the deployment of the new technology would go beyond business as usual and would facilitate the expansion of supporting infrastructure for technology implementation, as well as the additional training of personnel. The question is whether the primary benefit or purpose of the technology in question is its GHG reduction capabilities. 
     3) Institutional Barriers. Institutional barriers can be organizational, social or cultural. If a GHG reduction project falls outside of the normal purview of a company or organization and there is reluctance to implement a project that is not within that purview or to capitalize a project with uncertain returns, the development of a protocol can often assist in overcoming that barrier by increasing management awareness of the benefits and achieving consensus within the organization. The question is whether the project faces significant organizational, cultural or social barriers that the carbon offset project will help overcome. 
     At block  204 , if no implementation barriers exist to the trade of carbon offsets in the transportation sector to reduce GHGs, the additionality criteria cannot be satisfied for the carbon offset system. However, where barriers such as technical implementation barriers  205  and financial implementation barriers  206  would hinder the harvesting and trade of carbon offsets, a carbon offset system which provides benefits that are able to overcome such implementation barriers would satisfy the criteria at block  204 . Technical implementation barriers  205  may include, for example, difficulties in tracking multiple modes of transport taken in a single trip (including the first and last mile of the user&#39;s trip, for example, and alternative modes of transport such as taxis, ride-hailing, car-sharing, bicycle-sharing, electric scooters, etc. or private means of transport such as a user&#39;s own bicycle); challenges with respect to accurately collecting massive amounts of data (for example, existing systems rely on estimates and data from aggregated users who use bus rapid transit or subways, rather than individualized data from each user); and difficulties in providing a technology framework that can be used to establish and track ownership over carbon reductions. Financial implementation barriers  206  may include, for example, the costs associated with developing a carbon offset project, precluding providers of small-scale forms of transportation from being able to implement and capitalize on the carbon offset project using the limited resources available to them. Carbon funding is required to meet the internal rate of return for established targets and is required to transition to new technologies, businesses or processes to implement the solution. 
     For other embodiments, implementation barriers may include institutional barriers (e.g. organizational, social, or cultural) or other social barriers such as a lack of understanding of carbon markets or the reluctance of a group of people (city, neighbourhood, or employees) to shift away from private vehicle use. 
     If these implementation barriers can be overcome by the benefits of providing a carbon offset system at block  204 , method  200  proceeds to block  208  to assess whether the adoption of GHG-reduced activities in the transportation sector are common practice for the particular geographic region  203 . In particular embodiments, the threshold for assessing whether using GHG-reduced modes of transport is common practice is set at 25%—where data for the geographic region  203  establishes that 25% or more of the trips are single-occupancy vehicle trips rather than trips using a GHG-reduced mode of transport (such as bicycle, bus, ride-share), the carbon offset system has additionality. For example, in a certain region where over 75% of trips are taken by bicycle or by walking, GHG-reduced activities are considered common practice in that region, and therefore the additionality criteria cannot be satisfied at block  208 . On the other hand, in a region where 25% or more of the trips are estimated to be single-occupancy vehicle transport, GHG-reduced activities are not considered common practice in that region, and the additionality criteria is satisfied at block  208 . 
     As explained in the description that follows, the carbon offset system  120  according to embodiments of the invention meets the additionality criteria of method  200  and produces additional GHG emission savings over the baseline. The carbon offset system  120  satisfies the regulatory surplus step at block  202  (as it is deployed in geographic regions where modal shift is not mandated by law or exchange of carbon offsets is voluntary, etc.), provides technology to overcome existing technical and financial implementation barriers at block  204 , and is implemented in geographic regions where taking reduced GHG means of transport are not common practice at block  208 . 
       FIG. 7  illustrates a technology-driven carbon offset system  120  according to one embodiment. System  120  is operable to reduce GHG emissions for a particular project or carbon offset program within an environment  125  that includes a plurality of user devices  130 . Representative user devices  130  are shown, consisting of a smartphone  130 A, a smart watch  130 B, and other portable smart device  130 C. User device  130  may comprise any suitable portable device that is capable of connecting to a mobile network, including, without limitation, smart phones, mobile devices, smart watches, hardware installed in a transport vehicle such as a private vehicle (e.g. auto-stop vehicle) or a vehicle&#39;s infotainment system, GPS devices, activity tracking devices, and the like. Each user device  130  contains a processor that can execute instructions provided by software (the modal shift application) and is operable to connect to a wireless communication network. The wireless communication network may comprise a cellular phone or mobile network, a satellite communication network, terrestrial microwave network, or any other suitable wireless network or combination thereof. User devices  130  function as information processing terminals which communicate with the carbon offset system  120  over the wireless communication. Each user device  130  is operated by its respective user as the user travels to their destination, following a trip plan provided by the modal shift application. For the purpose of describing the carbon offset system  120 , users are assumed to be making a local trip (i.e. the start and end points of the trip are generally within the same urban agglomeration). However, carbon offset system  120  can also apply to users who are travelling larger distances (e.g. between different urban agglomerations, such as between New York and New Jersey). If a user is travelling between urban agglomerations of different geographic regions, the determinations of project and baseline GHG emissions as described herein can be made using data (such as emissions factors and MoR) specific for the geographic region that contains the trip start point. 
     Environment  125  also includes a verification system  135  for performing a verification process  135  (typically through an independent third party) once data from the carbon offset system  120  is transferred to the verification system. Verification system includes components for validating and verifying carbon offset data provided by the carbon offset system  120  to produce a verification statement by the third party to facilitate the issuance of verified carbon reductions  137  (e.g. in the form of offsets or credits) that can then be recorded in a registry and made available for sale, transfer, banking or retirement by the project owner  139 . The project owner  139  is the owner of the GHG emissions reductions for the particular project or carbon offset program. 
     The carbon offset system  120  of  FIG. 7  includes an environmental impact server  122  which is in communication with user devices  130  over the wireless communication network. Environmental server  122  is also in communication with one or more trip search servers  124 . Environmental impact server  122  receives from each user device  130  the user&#39;s current location information and the user&#39;s input (desired) destination, provided through the modal shift application that is installed on the user device  130 . The environmental impact server  122  requests, from the one or more trip search servers  124 , trip plans to take the user from their current location to their desired destination using alternative (non-baseline) modes of transport. The trip search servers  124  that may be queried to provide trip options may include, for example, a public transit trip planning server, a web mapping and trip planning server for the project region, a taxi trip planning server, and a ride-share trip planning server, or any other server for a provider of trip options using one or more modes of transport that have reduced GHG emissions over the baseline trip. The trip search servers  124  return the available trip plans to the environmental impact server  122 , which communicates the trip plans (including details for each plan) to the user device  130  and displays them on the user interface provided in the modal shift application. Some or all of the trip plans may be multi-modal, incorporating a plurality of modes of transport such as walking, bus, transit rail, commuter rail, intercity rail, ferry, taxi ride, ride-share and/or bicycle-share, etc. Using the modal shift application, the user selects one of the trip plans and commences the trip. Where a trip plan is selected, directions for taking the user to their destination in accordance with the trip plan can be provided to the user. These directions can be provided visually (e.g. through a user interface displaying the directions on the user device screen) or through the use of lights (e.g. flashing lights on the user device), projected visual aids (e.g. head-up display (HUD) over a windshield, smart glasses, floor, etc.), through sounds (e.g. audible directions), vibrations (e.g. through a wristband or similar device, or by touch (e.g. Braille for the visually impaired), or any combination of the above. 
     During the user&#39;s trip, the user&#39;s physical movements, including mode of transport and distance traveled for each mode of transport (passenger-kilometers for a defined mode of transport or pkm), are recorded through the modal shift application. Tracking of user trip data is performed by enabling geolocation services (e.g. Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking) on the user&#39;s device, which determines and reports to the modal shift application the position (e.g. in GPS coordinates) of the device throughout the user&#39;s trip. Such user trip data is tracked locally on the user device and uploaded to environmental impact server  122  regularly (e.g. every few seconds). (Alternately, in other embodiments the user trip data is uploaded to the environmental impact server  122  at the user or server&#39;s request.) The environmental impact server  122  causes the user trip data to be stored in the trip data store  129  where it can be centrally managed by carbon offset system  120 . 
     Other servers or data sources that are part of carbon offset system  120  and which store programs or data that are accessible to and managed by environmental impact server  122  include emissions factor data store  126  (storing information such as emissions factors for each mode of transport in each geographic region), methodology server  127  (storing programs for determining net GHG emissions savings from user trip data) and region data store  128  (storing other information specific to each geographic region such as MoR). Each of emissions factor data store  126 , methodology server  127 , region data store  128  and trip data store  129  may be provided or stored on the same machine(s) that hosts environmental impact server  122  or they may be provided or stored on other servers or devices that are in communication with environmental impact server  122 . 
     To quantify GHG emissions data from an individual&#39;s physical movements in urban agglomerations or cities and convert such data to verifiable and tradeable environmental attributes, information and commands are exchanged between user devices  130  and environmental impact server  122  of carbon offset system  120 . As illustrated in  FIG. 7 , the exchange of information between user devices  130  and environmental impact server  122  include: trip conditions  131  originating from the user, defining the parameters for the user&#39;s requested trip, such as user&#39;s current location (start point), desired destination, travel start time or destination arrival time, limitations for mode of travel, preferred mode of travel, etc.; the trip search results  132  comprising trip plans meeting the trip parameters, as returned to the user by the environmental impact server  122 ; environmental impact results  133  for each of the trip options returned to the user by the environmental impact server  122 , which results may include total trip time, distance traveled, and/or environmental consequences/benefits for each trip option, and the like; a trip selection  134  made by the user after viewing the trip options; and user tracking data  136  comprising the user&#39;s trip data (including mode of transport and pkm for each mode of transport) recorded as the user is making the trip to their destination. The user may make the trip to their destination using one or more modes of transport in accordance with the selected trip plan. Alternatively, the user may deviate from the selected trip plan while making the trip to their destination. However, regardless of whether the user follows the selected trip plan or deviates from the selected trip plan, for particular embodiments only the trip data for completed trips to the user&#39;s destination would be included for purposes of determining GHG emissions savings in particular embodiments. Partially completed trips would be excluded from the carbon offset program. 
     The sources of GHG emissions considered within the project boundary are: (1) emissions from burning of fossil fuels by fossil fuel vehicles (FFVs); (2) indirect emissions from off-site generation of electricity required for certain modes of transport, such as plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs), e-bicycles, e-scooters, and the like and other modes of transport which require periodic charging; and (3) indirect emissions from off-site generation of electricity required to run the services provided through the modal shift application on various server(s) (e.g. environmental impact server  122  and trip search server  124 ). These sources of GHG emissions can be factored into the determination of net GHG savings, described with references to  FIGS. 8, 9, 10 and 12  below. 
       FIG. 8  illustrates a method  170  of determining differences in values of parameters between a completed project trip and baseline trip, including net GHG emissions savings (and other values of interest), in accordance with one embodiment. Method  170  commences at block  171  once the user has completed the project trip, and the user&#39;s trip data has been reported to the environmental impact server  122 . Method  170  identifies and computes the project trip parameters (at blocks  172 ,  174 ) and the baseline trip parameters (at blocks  173 ,  175 ), and determines differences in various project trip and baseline trip parameters, including net GHG emissions savings. The differences in values between project and baseline trip parameters are stored at block  178 . The steps for determining the project trip parameters (at blocks  172 ,  174 ) are described in more detail below with reference to  FIG. 9 . The steps for determining the baseline trip parameters at (blocks  173 ,  175 ) are described in more detail below with reference to  FIG. 10 . The steps for determining the differences in various project trip and baseline trip parameters at block  176  are described in more detail below with reference to  FIGS. 11 and 12 . Similar reference numerals are used to denote similar steps performed in the methods illustrated. 
       FIG. 9  is a data flow chart for a method  180 A of determining project trip parameters. Method  180 A begins at block  182  by receiving data from the user of the modal shift application. This data may include the user&#39;s trip data for a completed trip (e.g. including actual start and end points for the trip or any other significant points and geolocation information recorded during the user&#39;s trip). Based on such user data, a distance traveled for each mode of transport can be determined at block  183 A. In particular, the geolocation tracking data  184  recorded from the user&#39;s device can be used to determine distance traveled for each mode of transport. Alternately, distance travelled for the trip or for one or more segments of the trip could be ascertained using available means of identifying a user at a particular location (typically, at a point of entry or exit), such as through use of a smart card (e.g. used for accessing transit or other modes of transport), personal credit card, mobile payment, key fob, facial recognition technology, fingerprints, retina scan, and the like. This information could be used to identify the start point of the segment or trip and the end point of the segment or trip, and to calculate the distance travelled between those two points. GHG emissions factors for the project trip can be evaluated at block  185  based on the trip data  129  (including mode of transport and distance travelled for each mode of transport, as determined at block  183 A), and region-specific emission factors  126  for the modes of transport taken. For example, the relevant region-specific emission factors  126  can be obtained from an emission factors table such as the one shown in  FIG. 13A , which lists the emission factors for various modes of transport in specific geographic regions according to one example. To determine project emissions, server emissions data  226  is also determined (which can be calculated from region-specific emission factors  126 ). 
     According to a particular embodiment, total project emissions PE tr  for a completed trip tr taken by a user is calculated at block  189 A of method  180 A by summing emissions from all sub-trips taken with the various modes of transport in accordance with equation  188 A as follows: 
     
       
         
           
             
               PE 
               tr 
             
             = 
             
               
                 ( 
                 
                   
                     ∑ 
                     
                       i 
                       = 
                       1 
                     
                     n 
                   
                    
                   
                     ( 
                     
                       
                         TRIP 
                         
                           pkm 
                           i 
                         
                       
                       * 
                       
                         EF 
                         
                           modeT 
                           i 
                         
                       
                     
                     ) 
                   
                 
                 ) 
               
               + 
               
                 EA 
                 ectSU 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     where:
         n is the total number of segments each of which is taken in a particular mode of transport;   EF modeT  is the emission factor specific to the mode of transport and start point jurisdiction;   TRIP pkm  is the single trip distance on actual monitored trip distance per mode of transport (i.e. pkm for a particular segment taken in a specific mode of transport); and       

     EA ectSU  is the emission allocation for electricity generation used for running the servers. In particular embodiments, server emissions are calculated based on the emissions factors of electricity for the geographic region in which the environmental impact server(s) that provide the modal shift application services for the user device are located. In some embodiments, a fixed value for the server emissions (based on the location of the servers) can be used per trip. 
       FIG. 10  is a data flow chart for a method  180 B of determining baseline trip parameters where the baseline is SOBT. Method  180 B begins at block  182  by receiving data from the user of the modal shift application (e.g. trip data for the completed trip). Based on such user data, the distance of an equivalent baseline single-occupancy vehicle trip between the start point and end point is determined at block  183 B. In particular, the geolocation tracking data  184  obtained from the user&#39;s device at the start of the journey can be used to determine the start point, and the user&#39;s input destination (e.g. “Park Royal South”) can be used to look up the latitude and longitude of the end point of the trip. In addition, GHG emissions for the baseline trip can be evaluated at block  187  based on the distance for the equivalent baseline single-occupancy vehicle trip and region-specific emission factors  126  for the baseline mode of transport. The emission factor for the baseline mode of transport for the applicable geographic region can be obtained from the table in  FIG. 13A . Total baseline emissions BE tr  for an equivalent single-occupancy baseline trip tr that could have been taken by the user to reach the end point (destination) of the user&#39;s completed trip is calculated at block  189 B of method  180 B in accordance with equation  188 B as follows: 
     
       
      
       BE 
       tr 
       =SOBT 
       pkm 
       *EF 
       modeT 
       *MoR 
       SOV  
      
     
     where:
         SOBT pkm  is the single-occupancy baseline trip distance;   EF modeT  is the emission factor specific to the mode of transport for the start point jurisdiction; and   MoR SOV  is the modal ratio for single-occupancy vehicles for the start point jurisdiction, which is used to discount the baseline emissions. The MoR SOV  can be obtained from a data store  128  that provides region-specific modal ratio values. Some example modal ratio values for various geographic regions are shown in  FIG. 13B .       

       FIG. 11  illustrates a data flow chart for a method  210  of determining differences in environmental impact, cost and trip duration between a project trip  212 A and a baseline trip  212 B. Method  210  can be performed prior to a project trip  212 A being initiated (as the user is searching for and evaluating different trip options), and/or after the project trip  212 A has been completed (after reporting of user trip data tracked through the user device&#39;s geolocation function). Method  210  includes a determination in the difference of environmental impact at block  214  by assessment of the carbon emissions for the project trip  212 A and the baseline trip  212 B. A difference in the carbon emissions is determined at block  217  and may be based on the methodology  127  described herein and applying trip data  129  (which can be projected trip data where the trip has not yet been completed, or actual recorded trip data where the trip has been completed). Further details of the methodology for determining a difference in carbon emissions are set forth below with reference to  FIG. 12 . In addition, a determination in differences in cost and trip duration between the project trip  212 A and baseline trip  212 B can be optionally calculated at blocks  215  and  216  respectively; these can be generally obtained through subtraction of these values. 
       FIG. 12  illustrates a data flow chart for a method  220  of converting the differences in emissions between project and baseline trips to net GHG savings (or a reduction in environmental impact). Method  220  begins by receiving project emissions data  222 A (as calculated using method  180 A of  FIG. 9 , for example) and baseline emissions data  222 B (as calculated using method  180 B of  FIG. 10 , for example). Project emissions data  222 A and baseline emissions data  222 B are provided to a module  224  for calculating net GHG emission savings using formula  228  set out below. 
     Net GHG emission savings or reductions ER tr  for a trip tr over the baseline can be quantified as a function of baseline emissions BE tr  for the trip tr, project emissions PE tr  for the trip tr, and leakage LE tr  for the trip tr, using the following equation  228 : 
     
       
      
       ER 
       tr 
       =BE 
       tr 
       −PE 
       tr 
       −LE 
       tr  
      
     
     where project emissions PE tr  can be determined using equation  188 A above, baseline emissions BE tr  can be determined using equation  188 B above, and LE tr  can be assumed to be negligible (i.e. LE tr =0) for the methodology herein, as it is unlikely that individuals would move their trip outside the project boundary due to an increase in modal shift within the project boundary. 
       FIG. 14  is an entity-relationship diagram  400  for the data used by the carbon offset system. The particular urban agglomeration or metro area  401  in which the project trip  402  is being taken defines certain parameters for the project trip including, for example: (a) the modal ratio  406  for the metro area  401 , (b) the emissions factors  407  for each transport mode  409  based on the geographic region  405  in which the metro area  401  is located, and (c) the baseline cost  408  for the baseline transport mode (e.g. single-occupancy vehicle trip) based on the geographic region  405  in which the metro area  401  is located. In some embodiments, a different modal ratio  406  may be assigned to each metro area  401 . In other embodiments, modal ratio  406  may be assigned generally to a geographic region  405  encompassing a plurality of metro areas or urban agglomerations. Transport mode  409  contains a complete list of modes of transport in a particular geographic region. Segment transport mode  410  contains a correlation between the transport modes used by the trip planning server and the transport modes  409  and their emission factors  407  used in the environmental impact server. 
     Metro area  401  also defines the parameters for the equivalent baseline trip  414 . Each baseline trip  414  is defined by a plurality of baseline trip segments  415 . Each baseline trip segment  415  is defined by a plurality of baseline trip segment waypoints  416 . 
     Similarly, project trip  402  is defined by a plurality of project trip segments  403 . Each project trip segment  403  is defined by a set of project trip segment waypoints  404 . 
     In addition, each project trip  402  and each baseline trip  414  is associated with certain trip attributes  411  and user data  413 . Trip attributes  411  may include one or more of: carbon emissions (kg of CO 2e ), cost, duration, and geographic region. User data  413  may include one or more of: username, password (nationality/number), photograph of user, first name, last name, middle name, date of birth, last login date/time, home address, work address, preferred route, driving license (yes or no), car type and user category (e.g. whether user is an occasional user or frequent user). Trip attributes  411  is associated with GPS data  412 . GPS data  412  may comprise GPS coordinates for start point, end point and other significant way points or other geolocation information tracked by the user&#39;s device. User data  413  for a particular user is associated with the user&#39;s acceptance of a license agreement  417 . License agreement  417  is characterized by the version  418  of the terms that have been accepted by the user. User data  413  for a particular user is also associated with the trip searches  419  made by the user. 
       FIG. 15  illustrates a data flowchart for a method  153  of verification and exchange of carbon offsets once net GHG emissions savings have been determined by a carbon offset system. The carbon offset or project data (including net GHG savings) obtained using the methodology  127  for determining the net GHG reductions and the project trip data  129  for a completed user trip are provided to a third party verification system  135 A. Verification system  135 A validates and verifies the carbon offset data to produce a verification statement to facilitate the issuance of verified emissions reductions  137  (e.g. in the form of offsets or credits). The verified emissions reductions  137  are typically recorded on a registry account  161  that is held by a party  139  looking to transact the carbon offsets (which party can be the project owner/provider of the services through the modal shift application, in the embodiments described herein). When a party  139  selling carbon offsets enters into a contract to transfer the verified emissions reductions  137  to a carbon offset buyer  163 , the buyer&#39;s registry account  162  (along with the seller&#39;s registry account  161 ) is updated to reflect the transfer. 
     The methods and systems described herein may be applied to harvesting carbon reductions from the transport of goods or provision of services that require transport.  FIG. 16  illustrates an exemplary method  370 ′ that may be performed by a user who is tasked with the transport of goods or provision of services requiring the user to take one or more trips within an urban agglomeration. For example, such activities may include: delivery of a parcel or package to a customer, restaurant or take-out delivery services, or any other service which requires a physical item to be picked up and delivered. Certain steps of method  370 ′ are similar to steps of method  370  shown in  FIG. 3  for the transport of a user. Similar reference numerals are used to denote these similar steps, appended with a prime symbol (e.g. step  371  of method  370  in  FIG. 3  is similar to step  371 ′ of method  370 ′ of  FIG. 16  for downloading the modal shift application). However, steps of method  370 ′ which do not have any equivalent in  FIG. 3 &#39;s method  300  are shown with new reference numerals. The different steps of method  370 ′ are described below. In the description that follows, the “user” in method  370 ′ is also referred to as the courier. 
     In method  370 ′, after the courier has downloaded and installed the modal shift application onto their user device at block  371 ′, enabled geolocation tracking on their user device at block  372 ′ and reviewed the terms and conditions at block  373 ′ and accepted them at block  374 ′, the courier is invited to select a mode of transport at block  376 ′. The mode of transport may be alternative to the baseline trip. The baseline trip for delivery of goods may not necessarily be a single-occupancy vehicle trip (e.g. a trip by an average gasoline car) as is generally the case with passenger transport, but may be a delivery van or truck, as used by the majority of delivery companies for urban deliveries in certain embodiments. The baseline is assessed for each geographic region based on the particularities of that region, including delivery statistics. The mode of transport selected by the courier at block  376 ′ may be the courier&#39;s bicycle, electric bicycle, PEV, or any other mode of transport that results in less GHG emissions over the equivalent baseline trip. Alternately, the courier may select a standard gasoline car as the mode of transport (which will not result in any net GHG emission savings over the baseline), but can still use the trip planning aspect of the modal shift application. 
     Once the courier has selected the mode of transport, method  370 ′ proceeds to block  377  at which the modal shift application determines whether the courier is located at the same location as the pick-up location for the item that requires transport. If the courier is located at the pick-up location at block  377 , the method  370 ′ proceeds to block  378  at which a drop-off location for the item is displayed and selected. The courier travels to the drop-off location (block  381 ) and reaches the drop off location to deliver the item (block  388 ). If another delivery is required (block  389 ), the method can be repeated starting with the step at block  377 . If the courier is tasked with delivering an item that is not located at the courier&#39;s current location at block  377 , the courier needs to make a first trip to pick up the item, by selecting the pick-up location (e.g. restaurant) at block  386  and using the application to travel to the pick-up location to pick up the item (block  387 ). Once the courier has the item, method  370  then continues with the courier making a second trip to deliver the item to the customer, starting at block  378 . 
     During the steps of method  370 ′, the courier&#39;s project trip data (including trip selection, mode of transport and distance travelled) is tracked and reported to a carbon offset system, similarly to the methods described above for the transport of people. The courier&#39;s project trip data can be converted to carbon reductions, using processes similar to those as described herein, by comparing the courier&#39;s project trip emissions to the emissions of the equivalent baseline trip, discounted using a discount factor such as the modal ratio. 
     The methods described herein may be adapted for application to the physical movement of users who need to travel to one or more locations to perform a service, without necessarily transporting a good (e.g. housekeeping, cleaning, walking pets, babysitting, photography, house-sitting, repair or maintenance services, etc.). Urban travel for delivering such services which result in reduced GHG emissions over the baseline trip can be converted to carbon offsets, using similar methods to those described herein for the transport of persons and goods. For example, a user who needs to travel to a site for delivering a service may perform steps  371 ′ through  376  of method  370 ′ of  FIG. 16  ending with the selection of a mode of transport at block  376 , then subsequently perform steps  375  and the remaining subsequent steps of method  370  of  FIG. 3 , to determine a route and make the trip to the desired site. The user&#39;s project trip data can be converted to carbon reductions, using processes similar to those as described herein, by comparing the user&#39;s project trip emissions to the emissions of the equivalent baseline trip, discounted using a discount factor such as the modal ratio. 
       FIG. 17  shows an alternate method  450  of delivery of an item using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) or any other small remote-controlled vehicle that can be used to transport an item (hereinafter “drone”). Method  450  includes the steps of starting with the drone located at the base (block  452 ); the operator selecting the drone, the item to deliver, the destination address and the optimized route using an electronic device (block  454 ); attaching the item to the drone (block  456 ); operating the drone to travel to the drop-off location (block  458 ); and releasing the item once the drone has reached the drop-off location (block  460 ). This method  450  of delivery may be used as the alternative mode of transport that is used to pick-up and/or deliver items in method  370 ′ of  FIG. 16 . The drone has geolocation tracking capability which enables its movements to be tracked and reported to a carbon offset system, similarly to the methods described above for the transport of people. The drone&#39;s project trip data can be converted to carbon reductions, using processes similar to those as described herein, by comparing the drone&#39;s project trip emissions to the emissions of the equivalent baseline trip, discounted using a discount factor such as the modal ratio. As noted above, the baseline trip for urban delivery of goods may not be a single-occupancy vehicle trip (e.g. the baseline trip may be a delivery truck), and can be determined based on delivery statistics for each geographic region. 
     In the transportation sector, a problem with existing technologies is that the potential for capturing carbon reductions from the transport of people or goods by bus, transit rail, ride-share and other alternative transport solutions (including, without limitation, any more efficient use of private vehicles resulting in a reduction of GHG emissions over single-occupancy vehicle trips, such as use of PEVs, park and ride, carpooling in private vehicles, etc.) remains largely untapped, given the technical, financial and other implementation barriers for establishing a carbon offset program, as well as the difficulties in establishing ownership of environmental attributes. Embodiments of the invention described herein provide a solution to this problem by providing a trip planning tool (delivered via a modal shift application installed on a user&#39;s device) which not only helps users to locate more efficient, economical and/or environmentally-friendly trip options to travel from point A to point B, but which tracks the door-to-door movements of individual users who are using the modal shift application to plan and complete a trip. Through the processes as described above, the modal shift application provides additionality and establishes ownership over the environmental attributes generated through use of the modal shift application, and interacts with a carbon offset system to convert and transform the physical movements of listed users to verifiable carbon reductions. 
     In alternate embodiments, the modal shift application functionality as described herein can be implemented in third-party mobility aggregators&#39; applications or on third-party mobility providers&#39; applications for transit agencies, ride-hailing companies, taxi companies, bicycle-share companies, e-scooter share companies, car-share companies, ferry companies, limousine services, shuttle buses, and the like, running on user devices such as smartphones, smartwatches and the like. These applications can interact with an environmental impact server of a carbon offset system to convert physical movements of users to verifiable carbon offsets. Other implementations may incorporate personal fitness or activity trackers (e.g. a watch that monitors your movements) that are capable of providing the functionality of the modal shift application including having a suitable screen for providing the user interface functionality. 
     The examples and corresponding diagrams used herein are for illustrative purposes only. Different configurations and terminology can be used without departing from the principles expressed herein. 
     Although the invention has been described with reference to certain specific embodiments, various modifications thereof will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the invention. For example:
         While the examples described above generally include various modes of transport over land or water, in alternate embodiments the transport of users or goods may involve transport that extends over air. As such, the systems and methods described herein can be adapted to include various modes of air travel, such as airplanes, helicopters, drones, and the like, to travel to the user&#39;s destination or deliver an item.   While the systems and methods described herein assume that the project trip starts in or takes place entirely within a project boundary, in other embodiments the trip may cross other project boundaries (e.g. for travel into other urban agglomerations in another geographic region). The systems and methods described herein may be adapted for use in trip planning for transport of people and/or goods and modal shift for trips which cross project boundaries and for the determination and aggregation of the resulting emissions savings from such trips. Emissions calculations may be based on the emissions factors in one of the geographic regions, such as the geographic region containing the start point or end point for the trip, or they may be based on an average of or combination of the emissions factors across the geographic regions over which the travel takes place. A weighted combination of the emissions factors may be used in some embodiments.   Project GHG emissions can be calculated using other methods than as described above, such as by developing a life-cycle assessment (LCA) or alternatives of each transport mode available, instead of emissions factors for operation; and/or by obtaining real-time access to vehicle emissions based on performance.   Baseline GHG emissions can be calculated using other methods than as described above, such as by determining a baseline emissions based on statistical data of a set of users over a period of time, creating stratified baselines based on a set of characteristics of individuals that live and work in a particular area and belong to a certain demographic, including the complete LCA of the single-occupancy vehicle for the baseline calculation rather than only the emission factors during operation, conducting user surveys to obtain data (e.g. to indicate ownership of a vehicle and access the location of the vehicle owned by the user) to help describe the users&#39; movement patterns and other relevant data in order to establish the baseline, obtaining real-time access to vehicle fleets&#39; emissions, or any combination of the above solutions.   Project GHG emissions for the use of PEVs as an alternate mode of transport could be established through a user indicating ownership of a PEV (e.g. through a survey, application embedded into the infotainment system of the PEV itself, through statistics data, etc.) and the user selecting the PEV option for calculating a route to the destination. The carbon offset system would then determine the emissions based on the applicable PEV emissions factor and the distance travelled using the PEV.   The methods and systems described herein may be applied to quantifying the carbon savings from the use of technology or systems in vehicles that reduce GHG emissions, such as “auto-stop” features or eco-efficient routes proposed by GPS systems, and trips taken by vehicles such as PEVs which have a lower carbon impact that the SOBT.
 
The scope of the claims should not be limited by the illustrative embodiments set forth in the examples, but should be given the broadest interpretation consistent with the description as a whole.