Patent Publication Number: US-2022222435-A1

Title: Task-Specific Text Generation Based On Multimodal Inputs

Description:
PRIORITY 
     This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/135,456, filed 8 Jan. 2021, which is incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This disclosure generally relates to machine-learning techniques, and in particular relates to generating task-specific text by processing multimodal inputs using machine-learning models. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Artificial neural networks (ANNs), usually simply called neural networks (NNs), are computing systems vaguely inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. An ANN is based on a collection of connected units or nodes called artificial neurons, which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each connection, like the synapses in a biological brain, can transmit a signal to other neurons. An artificial neuron that receives a signal then processes it and can signal neurons connected to it. The “signal” at a connection is a real number, and the output of each neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections are called edges. Neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Neurons may have a threshold such that a signal is sent only if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically, neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer), to the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times. Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) are a type of the ANNs that generate new data, such as a new image, based on input data. 
     SUMMARY OF PARTICULAR EMBODIMENTS 
     Particular embodiments described herein relate to systems and methods for generating a sequence of words addressing a desired task based on one or more sets of tokens associated with the desired task and one or more sensor data associated with a context of the desired task, where each of the one or more sensor data is generated by a distinctive sensor. The desired task is generating a context of an event in a desired form. Each of the one or more sensor data is converted into a set of tokens. Each set of tokens is converted into one or more embedding vectors in a multi-dimensional language embedding space by a learnable tokenizer. By doing this, multi-modal inputs may be fused in the language embedding space. To address the non-differentiability of tokenization on continuous sensor data (e.g., video or audio), a differentiable tokenization module is introduced, which enables end-to-end training of machine-learning models within the framework. While previous approaches utilize encoder-only models, the framework introduced in this invention includes an autoregressive decoder to generate open-ended text from the plurality of embedding vectors fused by a language encoder. The framework is fully generative and capable of generating a sequence of words for various desired tasks without a need to design a specialized network head for each desired task. Experiments of the framework disclosed herein demonstrate that the framework disclosed herein outperforms the state-of-the-art on three video-based text-generation tasks: captioning, question answering and audio-visual scene-aware dialog. 
     In particular embodiments, a computing device may access one or more first sets of tokens associated with a desired task and one or more modalities associated with a context of the desired task. The desired task may comprise a caption describing an event, an answer to a given question related to the event, a question relative to the event, a context-aware dialog, or any suitable task. The one or more modalities may comprise video sensor data, audio sensor data, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) sensor data, light detection and ranging (lidar) sensor data, or any suitable sensor data. The computing device may determine a second set of tokens for each of the one or more modalities using a classifier network associated with the modality. Determining a set of tokens for each of the one or more modalities may comprise sampling one or more categories corresponding to the modality among a plurality of categories based on a probability distribution for the plurality of categories. The sampling may be performed by a differentiable tokenization unit. The probability distribution for the plurality of categories may be generated by processing the modality with a classifier network associated with the modality. The sampling may comprise a categorical reparameterization with Gumbel-Softmax or a differentiable approximation of tokenization. 
     In particular embodiments, the computing device may generate a plurality of embedding vectors by mapping the one or more first sets of tokens and the second set of tokens associated with each of the one or more modalities to an embedding space. Mapping a set of tokens belonging to a modality to one or more embedding vectors in a d-dimensional embedding space may comprise looking up an embedding table corresponding to the modality. In particular embodiments, a first embedding table corresponding to a first modality may be different from a second embedding table corresponding to a second modality. Each of the plurality of embedding vectors may have a pre-determined relative position among the plurality of embedding vectors. 
     In particular embodiments, the computing device may produce a sequence of words addressing the desired task by processing the plurality of embedding vectors with an encoder-decoder network. An encoder of the encoder-decoder network may generate a latent representation by processing the plurality of embedding vectors. A decoder of the encoder-decoder network may produce a word at a time by processing the latent representation. The produced word may be selected from a word dictionary based on a probability associated with each word in the dictionary. The decoder may take 1 st  to k th  produced word as input for producing a k+1 st  word in the sequence of words. 
     In particular embodiments, the computing device may train the entire networks including classifier networks associated with the one or more modalities, embedding tables associated with each set of tokens, and the encoder-decoder network. At a beginning of a training procedure, each classifier network associated with each of the one or more modalities, each embedding table corresponding to each set of tokens, and the encoder-decoder network may be initialized with pre-trained models. During the training procedure, the classifier networks, the embedding tables, and the encoder-decoder network may be updated through backward propagations. During the backward propagations, a gradient for each of the plurality of categories for each of the one or more modalities may be estimated using a Straight-Through Estimator. A loss may be calculated based on a comparison between a ground-truth sequence of words addressing the desired task with a sequence of words generated by the decoder of the encoder-decoder network. A partial loss for a k th  word may be calculated based on a comparison between a k th  word in the ground-truth sequence of words and a k th  generated word when a sub-sequence of words from a first word to a k-1 st  word in the ground truth sequence is provided to the decoder as input. 
     The embodiments disclosed herein are only examples, and the scope of this disclosure is not limited to them. Particular embodiments may include all, some, or none of the components, elements, features, functions, operations, or steps of the embodiments disclosed herein. Embodiments according to the invention are in particular disclosed in the attached claims directed to a method, a storage medium, a system and a computer program product, wherein any feature mentioned in one claim category, e.g. method, can be claimed in another claim category, e.g. system, as well. The dependencies or references back in the attached claims are chosen for formal reasons only. However any subject matter resulting from a deliberate reference back to any previous claims (in particular multiple dependencies) can be claimed as well, so that any combination of claims and the features thereof are disclosed and can be claimed regardless of the dependencies chosen in the attached claims. The subject-matter which can be claimed comprises not only the combinations of features as set out in the attached claims but also any other combination of features in the claims, wherein each feature mentioned in the claims can be combined with any other feature or combination of other features in the claims. Furthermore, any of the embodiments and features described or depicted herein can be claimed in a separate claim and/or in any combination with any embodiment or feature described or depicted herein or with any of the features of the attached claims. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  illustrates an example architecture for generating a sequence of words addressing a desired task based on multi-modal inputs associated with an event. 
         FIG. 2  illustrates an example data flow in the machine-learning framework to generate a sequence of words addressing the desired task based on multi-modal inputs. 
         FIG. 3  illustrates an example processing of multi-modal inputs to generates a sequence of words addressing the desired task. 
         FIG. 4  illustrates an example backward propagation process during a training of the machine-learning framework. 
         FIG. 5  illustrates an example method for generating a sequence of words addressing a desired task based on one or more sets of tokens associated with the desired task and one or more sensor data associated with a context of the desired task. 
         FIG. 6A  illustrates comparative results on Audio-Visual Scene-Aware Dialog. 
         FIG. 6B  illustrates comparative results on Video Question Answering. 
         FIG. 6C  illustrates comparative results on Video Captioning. 
         FIG. 7  illustrates an example view of an embedding space. 
         FIG. 8  illustrates an example artificial neural network. 
         FIG. 9  illustrates an example computer system. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS 
       FIG. 1  illustrates an example architecture for generating a sequence of words addressing a desired task based on multi-modal inputs associated with an event. A computing device  110  may access multi-modal inputs associated with an event. The multi-model inputs may comprise one or more sets of tokens  101 A and  101 B associated with the desired task and one or more modalities  103 A,  103 B, and  103 C associated with a context of the desired task. The one or more sets of tokens may comprise a set of tokens determining the desired task. The one or more modalities  103 A,  103 B and  103 C may comprise data captured by various sensors associated with the computing device  110 . The one or more modalities  103 A,  103 B and  103 C may include video sensor data, audio sensor data, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) sensor data, light detection and ranging (lidar) sensor data, or any suitable sensor data. The computing device  110  may process the accessed multi-modal inputs with a machine-learning framework  120  to generate a sequence of words  105  addressing the desired task. Although this disclosure describes a particular architecture for generating a sequence of words addressing a desired task based on multi-modal inputs associated with an event, this disclosure contemplates any suitable architecture for generating a sequence of words addressing a desired task based on multi-modal inputs associated with an event. 
       FIG. 2  illustrates an example data flow in the machine-learning framework to generate a sequence of words addressing the desired task based on multi-modal inputs. Each of the one or more modalities  103 A,  103 B, or  103 C may be processed by a corresponding classifier  211 A,  211 B, or  211 C to produce a probability distribution for a plurality of categories associated with the classifier  211 A,  211 B, or  211 C. The computing device  110  may determine a set of tokens for each of the one or more modalities  103 A,  103 B, or  103 C by sampling one or more categories for the modality  103 A,  103 B, or  103 C based on the probability distribution for the plurality of categories associated with the classifier  211 A,  211 B, or  211 C. The computing device  110  may use a corresponding differentiable tokenization unit (DTU)  213 A,  213 B, or  213 C for sampling. The computing device  110  may generate a plurality of embedding vectors  220  by mapping the one or more sets of tokens  101 A and  101 B and the set of tokens associated with each of the one or more modalities  103 A,  103 B, or  103 C to an embedding space. Mapping a set of tokens to one or more embedding vectors in a d-dimensional embedding space may comprise looking up an embedding table  215 A,  215 B,  215 C,  215 D, or  215 E corresponding to the set of tokens. The computing device  110  may process the plurality of embedding vectors  220  using an encoder-decoder network  217  to produce a sequence of words  105  addressing the desired task. Although this disclosure describes a particular data flow within a machine-learning framework to generate a sequence of words addressing a desired task based on multi-modal inputs, this disclosure contemplates any suitable data flow within a machine-learning framework to generate a sequence of words addressing a desired task based on multi-modal inputs. 
     In particular embodiments, the computing device  110  may access one or more first sets of tokens associated with a desired task and one or more modalities associated with a context of the desired task. The desired task may comprise a caption describing an event, an answer to a given question related to the event, a question relative to the event, a context-aware dialog, or any suitable task. The one or more modalities may comprise video sensor data, audio sensor data, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) sensor data, light detection and ranging (lidar) sensor data, or any suitable sensor data.  FIG. 3  illustrates an example processing of multi-modal inputs to generates a sequence of words addressing the desired task. As an example and not by way of limitation, illustrated in  FIG. 3 , the computing device  110  accesses three sets of tokens  301 A,  301 B, and  301 C and two modalities  303 A and  303 B. The set of tokens  301 A defines a desired task. For example, the set of tokens  301 A may be “answer the question,” “captioning,” “audio-visual scene-aware dialog,” or any other suitable set of tokens defining a desired task. The set of tokens  301 B is a transcription of a conversation between persons captured in the scene. The set of tokens  301 C is a previous dialog history. The set of tokens  301 C may be provided when the set of tokens  301 A is “audio-visual scene-aware dialog.” In the example illustrated in  FIG. 3 , the computing device  110  has generated a response “a woman is walking toward a closed door” to a question “what is going on when the video starts?” from a user. The user continues to ask “is anyone talking?” The computing device  110  will generate a sequence of words that comprises a response to this question using the machine-learning framework  120 . The sensor data  303 A is a video data captured by a video sensor. The sensor data  303 B is an audio data captured by an audio sensor. Although this disclosure describes accessing one or more sets of tokens associated with a desired task and one or more modalities associated with a context of the desired task in a particular manner, this disclosure contemplates accessing one or more sets of tokens associated with a desired task and one or more modalities associated with a context of the desired task in any suitable manner. 
     In particular embodiments, The computing device  110  may need to encode information from each modality to comprehensively understand multi-modal inputs. Previous approaches rely on extra cross-modal fusion modules for combining input signals from different modalities. Such approaches may introduce an unnecessary complexity for integrating different modalities. The computing device  110  may perform a multi-modal fusion by mapping the different input signals into a common semantic language space. Pre-trained modality-specific classifiers  211  that are trained to predict a large set of categories over predefined language vocabularies may be used. The modality-specific classifiers  211  may include a video classifier  311 A trained to recognize a large collection of actions, or an audio classifier  311 B trained to distinguish a broad set of sound categories. After that, the computing device  110  may utilize existing language embedding models to map the top textual categories predicted by each modality-specific classifier  211  into a common semantic language space. 
     In particular embodiments, the computing device  110  may determine a second set of tokens for each of the one or more modalities using a classifier network  211  and a differentiable tokenization unit  213  associated with the modality. Determining a set of tokens for each of the one or more modalities may comprise sampling one or more categories corresponding to the modality among a plurality of categories based on a probability distribution for the plurality of categories. The probability distribution for the plurality of categories may be generated by processing the modality with a classifier network  211  associated with the modality. The sampling may comprise a categorical reparameterization with Gumbel-Softmax and/or a differentiable approximation of tokenization. Specifically, the computing device  110  may re-parameterize the predicted probability distribution p m ∈R 1×c     m    by adding Gumbel noise g m ∈R 1×c     m    to the predicted probability distribution, where g m =−log(−log (u)) with u˜Uniform (0, 1). The computing device  110  may sample the top K m  categories from the re-parameterized distribution {tilde over (P)} m ∈R 1×c     m    for each modality m. With this re-parameterized distribution, selecting the top K m  categories are equivalent to sampling K m  categories from the original distribution. The sampling may be performed by the differentiable tokenization unit  213 . However, the process of selecting the top K m  categories is still not differentiable. To address this issue, a Straight-Through Estimator may be used. Specifically, during forward propagation, the computing device  110  may sample top K m  categories as described above. Instead, during a backward propagation, the computing device  110  may estimate the gradient for each category c as: 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
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     Where W m ∈   C     m     ×D  is a learned D-dimensional embedding of C m  category tokens. This enables an end-to-end training of the entire system including the modality-specific classifiers  211 . As an example and not by way of limitation, continuing with a prior example illustrated in  FIG. 3 , the computing device  110  may produce a probability distribution for a plurality of categories for each of the modalities  303 A and  303 B. The computing device  110  may sample one or more categories from each of plurality of categories at the differentiable tokenization unit  313  as described above. Although this disclosure describes determining a set of tokens for each of the one or more modalities in a particular manner, this disclosure contemplates determining a set of tokens for each of the one or more modalities in any suitable manner. 
     In particular embodiments, the computing device  110  may generate a plurality of embedding vectors by mapping the one or more first sets of tokens and the second set of tokens associated with each of the one or more modalities to an embedding space. Mapping a set of tokens to one or more embedding vectors in a d-dimensional embedding space may comprise looking up an embedding table corresponding to the modality.  FIG. 2  illustrates five mapping tables  215 A,  215 B,  215 C,  215 D, and  215 E corresponding to sets of tokens  101 A and  101 B and sets of tokens generated based on modalities  103 A,  103 B, and  103 C. In particular embodiments, a first embedding table corresponding to a first modality may be different from a second embedding table corresponding to a second modality. One or more embedding vectors mapped from a set of tokens may have a pre-determined relative position among the plurality of embedding vectors. One or more embedding vectors corresponding to a first set of tokens may be separated by a special ‘separator’ token from one or more embedding vectors corresponding to a second set of tokens within the plurality of embedding vectors. As an example and not by way of limitation, continuing with a prior example illustrated in  FIG. 3 , the computing device  110  generates one or more embedding vectors for the set of tokens  301 A defining the desired task. The computing device  110  generates one or more embedding vectors for the set of tokens  301 B, a transcription of spoken language. The computing device  110  generates one or more embedding vectors for the set of tokens  301 C, a dialog history. The computing device  110  generates one or more embedding vectors for the set of tokens generated based on the video data  303 A. The computing device  110  generates one or more embedding vectors for the set of tokens generated based on the audio data  303 B. The computing device  110  may use different mapping table for each set of tokens. The computing device  110  may construct a plurality of embedding vectors  320  by combining the one or more embedding vectors for each set of tokens. One or more embedding vectors corresponding to a first set of tokens are separated from one or more embedding vectors corresponding to a second set of tokens by a separator embedding vector. Although this disclosure describes generating a plurality of embedding vectors by mapping each set of tokens to an embedding space in a particular manner, this disclosure contemplates generating a plurality of embedding vectors by mapping each set of tokens to an embedding space in any suitable manner. 
     In particular embodiments, the computing device  110  may produce a sequence of words addressing the desired task by processing the plurality of embedding vectors with an encoder-decoder network. An encoder of the encoder-decoder network may generate a latent representation for the desired task by processing the plurality of embedding vectors. A decoder of the encoder-decoder network may generate a word at a time in an auto-regressive manner by processing the latent representation. Each generated word may be selected from a word dictionary based on a probability associated with each word in the dictionary. The decoder may take 1 st  to k th  selected word as a part of input for generating a k+1 st  word in the sequence of words. As an example and not by way of limitation, continuing with a prior example illustrated in  FIG. 3 , the computing device  110  generates a latent representation for the desired task by processing the plurality of embedding vectors  320  with an encoder  317 A of an encoder-decoder network. The decoder  317 B of the encoder-decoder network generates a probability distribution  305  for words in a dictionary for each word in the output sequence of words. For each word in the output sequence of words, the computing device  110  selects a word based on the generated probability distribution  305 . The decoder  317 B takes a k th  selected word as a part of input to generate a probability distribution for a k+1 st  word in the sequence of words. Although this disclosure describes producing a sequence of words addressing the desired task in a particular manner, this disclosure contemplates producing a sequence of words addressing the desired task in any suitable manner. 
     In particular embodiments, the computing device  110  may train the entire machine-learning framework  120  including classifier networks  211  associated with the one or more modalities, embedding tables  215  associated with each set of tokens, and the encoder-decoder network  217 .  FIG. 4  illustrates an example backward propagation process during a training of the machine-learning framework. At step  410 , the computing device may calculate a loss based on a comparison between a ground truth sequence of words addressing a desired task with a sequence of words generated from the decoder of the encoder-decoder network  217 . The computing device may compute gradients for trainable parameters in the machine-learning framework  120 . At step  420 , the computing device  110  may update parameters of the encoder-decoder network  217  based on the computed gradients. At steps  430 A,  430 B,  430 C,  430 D, and  430 E, the computing device  110  may update parameters of each of the embedding tables  215 A,  215 B,  215 C,  215 D, and  215 E. After training the machine-learning framework  120 , two different embedding tables may map a single token to two different embedding vectors because parameters of each embedding table are updated separately. At steps  440 A,  440 B,  440 C, the computing device may update parameters of differentiable tokenization units  213 A,  213 B, and  213 C. For updating the parameters of the differentiable tokenization units, a gradient for each of the plurality of categories for each differentiable tokenization unit may be estimated using a Straight-Through Estimator. In particular embodiments, updating parameters of differentiable tokenization units  213 A,  213 B, and  213 C may be skipped. Then, the gradient for each of the plurality of categories for each differentiable tokenization may be just passed. At steps  450 A,  450 B, and  450 C, the computing device may update parameters of the classifier networks  211 A,  211 B, and  211 C. Although this disclosure describes training a machine-learning framework for generating a sequence of words addressing a desired task based on multi-modal inputs in a particular manner, this disclosure contemplates training a machine-learning framework for generating a sequence of words addressing a desired task based on multi-modal inputs in any suitable manner. 
     In particular embodiments, the computing device  110  may, at a beginning of a training procedure, initialize each classifier network  211  associated with each of the one or more modalities, each embedding table  215  corresponding to each set of tokens, and the encoder-decoder network  217  with pre-trained models. During the training procedure, the classifier networks, the embedding tables, and the encoder-decoder network may be updated through backward propagations as described above. As an example and not by way of limitation, continuing with a prior example illustrated in  FIG. 3 , at a beginning of a training of the machine-learning framework  120 , the classifier network  311 A may be initialized with a video classifier model trained to recognize a large collection of actions. The classifier network  311 B may be initialized with an audio classifier model trained to distinguish a broad set of sound categories. The embedding tables for the sets of tokens  301 A,  301 B, and  301 C and the sets of tokens generated based on sensor data  303 A and  303 B may be initialized with an existing language embedding model. In particular embodiments, the embedding tables may be identical to each other at the beginning of the training. However, the embedding tables are updated independently while the machine-learning framework  120  is trained. The encoder  317 A and the decoder  317 B of the encoder-decoder network may be initialized with a pre-trained text transformer network, such as T5-base. Although this disclosure describes initializing each networks within a machine-learning framework with pre-trained models at a beginning of a training in a particular manner, this disclosure contemplates initializing each networks within a machine-learning framework with pre-trained models at a beginning of a training in any suitable manner. 
     In particular embodiments, during the backward propagations, a gradient for each of the plurality of categories for each of differentiable tokenization units  213  may be estimated using a Straight-Through Estimator. The computing device  110 , during a backward propagation, may estimate the gradient for each category c as: 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
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     Where W m ∈   C     m     ×D  is a learned D-dimensional embedding of C m  category tokens. This may enable an end-to-end training of the entire system including the modality-specific classifiers  211 . Although this disclosure describes estimating a gradient for each of the plurality of categories for each of the differentiable tokenization units in a particular manner, this disclosure contemplates estimating a gradient for each of the plurality of categories for each of the differentiable tokenization units in any suitable manner. 
     In particular embodiments, the computing device  110  may calculate a loss based on a comparison between a ground-truth sequence of words addressing the desired task with a sequence of words generated by the decoder of the encoder-decoder network. A teacher-forcing technique may be used for calculating the loss, which means that the computing device  110  may replace the decoding history with ground-truth words in the corresponding positions. In other words, the computing device may generate a k th  with providing a sub-sequence of words from a first word to a k-1 st  word in the ground truth sequence to the decoder as input. The computing device may compute a standard cross-entropy loss. The machine-learning framework  120  supports generation of a sequence of words with variable length. Although this disclosure describes calculating a loss based on a comparison between a ground-truth sequence of words addressing the desired task with a sequence of words generated by the decoder of the encoder-decoder network in a particular manner, this disclosure contemplates calculating a loss based on a comparison between a ground-truth sequence of words addressing the desired task with a sequence of words generated by the decoder of the encoder-decoder network in any suitable manner. 
       FIG. 5  illustrates an example method  500  for generating a sequence of words addressing a desired task based on one or more sets of tokens associated with the desired task and one or more sensor data associated with a context of the desired task. The method may begin at step  510 , where the computing device  110  may access first sets of tokens associated with a desired task and one or more modalities associated with a context of the desired task. At step  520 , the computing device  110  may determine a second set of tokens for each of the one or more modalities using a classifier network associated with the modality. At step  530 , the computing device  110  may generate a plurality of embedding vectors by mapping the first sets of tokens and the second set of tokens associated with each of the one or more modalities to an embedding space. At step  540 , the computing device  110  may produce a sequence of words addressing the desired task by processing the plurality of embedding vectors with an encoder-decoder network. Particular embodiments may repeat one or more steps of the method of  FIG. 5 , where appropriate. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates particular steps of the method of  FIG. 5  as occurring in a particular order, this disclosure contemplates any suitable steps of the method of  FIG. 5  occurring in any suitable order. Moreover, although this disclosure describes and illustrates an example method for generating a sequence of words addressing a desired task based on one or more sets of tokens associated with the desired task and one or more sensor data associated with a context of the desired task including the particular steps of the method of  FIG. 5 , this disclosure contemplates any suitable method for generating a sequence of words addressing a desired task based on one or more sets of tokens associated with the desired task and one or more sensor data associated with a context of the desired task including any suitable steps, which may include all, some, or none of the steps of the method of  FIG. 5 , where appropriate. Furthermore, although this disclosure describes and illustrates particular components, devices, or systems carrying out particular steps of the method of  FIG. 5 , this disclosure contemplates any suitable combination of any suitable components, devices, or systems carrying out any suitable steps of the method of  FIG. 5 . 
     Evaluation 
     The followings show performance comparisons between the machine-learning framework, VX2TEXT, disclosed herein with a number of state-of-the-art on three separate benchmarks. 
     Audio-Visual Scene-Aware Dialog:  FIG. 6A  illustrates comparative results on Audio-Visual Scene-Aware Dialog. VX2TEXT significantly improves over existing methods both with and without text caption as part of the inputs. Note that the state-of-the-art MTN system uses complex cross-modal attentional modules to fuse the information from different modalities. MTNTMT leverages complex auxiliary losses to align the embedding spaces of MTN. However, even without text caption, which is a very strong information source, VX2TEXT achieves already better performance than MTN. When adding text caption to the input, the performance of VX2TEXT is further boosted and significantly outperforms MTN-TMT. The results further demonstrate the effectiveness of the simple scheme for modality integration of the framework disclosed herein. 
     Video Question Answering: Since many methods on Video Question Answering use object/frame-level features, detected object categories are added as an extra modality of input for the evaluation with VX2TEXT for a fair comparison. Due to the complexity of training object detectors, Frozen Tokenization is used. Differentiable Tokenization is not used for this evaluation.  FIG. 6B  illustrates comparative results on Video Question Answering. The results show that VX2TEXT significantly outperforms all previous methods on both the validation set and the test set when training is done without additional multimodal pretext training data. On the test set, VX2TEXT yields an improvement of 1.4% compared to the previous state-of-the-art, represented by the HERO system which adopts an expensive multimodal pretext training on 7.6M additional samples. When both models are trained without multimodal pretext, VX2TEXT outperforms HERO by 4.7%. 
     Video Captioning:  FIG. 6C  illustrates comparative results on Video Captioning. VX2TEXT significantly outperforms the state-of-the-art MMT system. Without pretraining, HERO achieves performance comparable to that of MMT and inferior to VX2TEXT. With multimodal pretraining on additional 7.6M samples, HERO does only slightly better than VX2TEXT. VX2TEXT also shows significant generalization on the test set. Note that, as done on Video Question Answering, object detection predictions are added as an input modality for VX2TEXT since the methods considered in the comparison all have access to frame-level features. 
     Vector Spaces and Embeddings 
       FIG. 7  illustrates an example view of a vector space  700 . In particular embodiments, an object or an n-gram may be represented in a d-dimensional vector space, where d denotes any suitable number of dimensions. Although the vector space  700  is illustrated as a three-dimensional space, this is for illustrative purposes only, as the vector space  700  may be of any suitable dimension. In particular embodiments, an n-gram may be represented in the vector space  700  as a vector referred to as a term embedding. Each vector may comprise coordinates corresponding to a particular point in the vector space  700  (i.e., the terminal point of the vector). As an example and not by way of limitation, vectors  710 ,  720 , and  730  may be represented as points in the vector space  700 , as illustrated in  FIG. 7 . An n-gram may be mapped to a respective vector representation. As an example and not by way of limitation, n-grams t 1  and t 2  may be mapped to vectors   and   in the vector space  700 , respectively, by applying a function  71  defined by a dictionary, such that  = (t 1 ) and  = (t 2 ). As another example and not by way of limitation, a dictionary trained to map text to a vector representation may be utilized, or such a dictionary may be itself generated via training. As another example and not by way of limitation, a word-embeddings model may be used to map an n-gram to a vector representation in the vector space  700 . In particular embodiments, an n-gram may be mapped to a vector representation in the vector space  700  by using a machine leaning model (e.g., a neural network). The machine learning model may have been trained using a sequence of training data (e.g., a corpus of objects each comprising n-grams). 
     In particular embodiments, an object may be represented in the vector space  700  as a vector referred to as a feature vector or an object embedding. As an example and not by way of limitation, objects e 1  and e 2  may be mapped to vectors   and   in the vector space  700 , respectively, by applying a function  , such that  = (e 1 ) and  = (e 2 ). In particular embodiments, an object may be mapped to a vector based on one or more properties, attributes, or features of the object, relationships of the object with other objects, or any other suitable information associated with the object. As an example and not by way of limitation, a function  71  may map objects to vectors by feature extraction, which may start from an initial set of measured data and build derived values (e.g., features). As an example and not by way of limitation, an object comprising a video or an image may be mapped to a vector by using an algorithm to detect or isolate various desired portions or shapes of the object. Features used to calculate the vector may be based on information obtained from edge detection, corner detection, blob detection, ridge detection, scale-invariant feature transformation, edge direction, changing intensity, autocorrelation, motion detection, optical flow, thresholding, blob extraction, template matching, Hough transformation (e.g., lines, circles, ellipses, arbitrary shapes), or any other suitable information. As another example and not by way of limitation, an object comprising audio data may be mapped to a vector based on features such as a spectral slope, a tonality coefficient, an audio spectrum centroid, an audio spectrum envelope, a Mel-frequency cepstrum, or any other suitable information. In particular embodiments, when an object has data that is either too large to be efficiently processed or comprises redundant data, a function   may map the object to a vector using a transformed reduced set of features (e.g., feature selection). In particular embodiments, a function   may map an object e to a vector  (e) based on one or more n-grams associated with object e. Although this disclosure describes representing an n-gram or an object in a vector space in a particular manner, this disclosure contemplates representing an n-gram or an object in a vector space in any suitable manner. 
     In particular embodiments, the social-networking system  160  may calculate a similarity metric of vectors in vector space  700 . A similarity metric may be a cosine similarity, a Minkowski distance, a Mahalanobis distance, a Jaccard similarity coefficient, or any suitable similarity metric. As an example and not by way of limitation, a similarity metric of   and   may be a cosine similarity 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
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     As another example and not by way of limitation, a similarity metric of   and   may be a Euclidean distance ∥ - ∥. A similarity metric of two vectors may represent how similar the two objects or n-grams corresponding to the two vectors, respectively, are to one another, as measured by the distance between the two vectors in the vector space  700 . As an example and not by way of limitation, vector  710  and vector  720  may correspond to objects that are more similar to one another than the objects corresponding to vector  710  and vector  730 , based on the distance between the respective vectors. Although this disclosure describes calculating a similarity metric between vectors in a particular manner, this disclosure contemplates calculating a similarity metric between vectors in any suitable manner. 
     More information on vector spaces, embeddings, feature vectors, and similarity metrics may be found in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/949,436, filed 23 Nov. 2015, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/286,315, filed 5 Oct. 2016, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/365,789, filed 30 Nov. 2016, each of which is incorporated by reference. 
     Artificial Neural Networks 
       FIG. 8  illustrates an example artificial neural network (“ANN”)  800 . In particular embodiments, an ANN may refer to a computational model comprising one or more nodes. Example ANN  800  may comprise an input layer  810 , hidden layers  820 ,  830 ,  840 , and an output layer  850 . Each layer of the ANN  800  may comprise one or more nodes, such as a node  805  or a node  815 . In particular embodiments, each node of an ANN may be connected to another node of the ANN. As an example and not by way of limitation, each node of the input layer  810  may be connected to one of more nodes of the hidden layer  820 . In particular embodiments, one or more nodes may be a bias node (e.g., a node in a layer that is not connected to and does not receive input from any node in a previous layer). In particular embodiments, each node in each layer may be connected to one or more nodes of a previous or subsequent layer. Although  FIG. 8  depicts a particular ANN with a particular number of layers, a particular number of nodes, and particular connections between nodes, this disclosure contemplates any suitable ANN with any suitable number of layers, any suitable number of nodes, and any suitable connections between nodes. As an example and not by way of limitation, although  FIG. 8  depicts a connection between each node of the input layer  810  and each node of the hidden layer  820 , one or more nodes of the input layer  810  may not be connected to one or more nodes of the hidden layer  820 . 
     In particular embodiments, an ANN may be a feedforward ANN (e.g., an ANN with no cycles or loops where communication between nodes flows in one direction beginning with the input layer and proceeding to successive layers). As an example and not by way of limitation, the input to each node of the hidden layer  820  may comprise the output of one or more nodes of the input layer  810 . As another example and not by way of limitation, the input to each node of the output layer  850  may comprise the output of one or more nodes of the hidden layer  840 . In particular embodiments, an ANN may be a deep neural network (e.g., a neural network comprising at least two hidden layers). In particular embodiments, an ANN may be a deep residual network. A deep residual network may be a feedforward ANN comprising hidden layers organized into residual blocks. The input into each residual block after the first residual block may be a function of the output of the previous residual block and the input of the previous residual block. As an example and not by way of limitation, the input into residual block N may be F(x)+x, where F(x) may be the output of residual block N−1, x may be the input into residual block N−1. Although this disclosure describes a particular ANN, this disclosure contemplates any suitable ANN. 
     In particular embodiments, an activation function may correspond to each node of an ANN. An activation function of a node may define the output of a node for a given input. In particular embodiments, an input to a node may comprise a set of inputs. As an example and not by way of limitation, an activation function may be an identity function, a binary step function, a logistic function, or any other suitable function. As another example and not by way of limitation, an activation function for a node k may be the sigmoid function 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
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     the rectifier F k (s k )=max (0, s k ), or any other suitable function F k (s k ), where s k  may be the effective input to node k. In particular embodiments, the input of an activation function corresponding to a node may be weighted. Each node may generate output using a corresponding activation function based on weighted inputs. In particular embodiments, each connection between nodes may be associated with a weight. As an example and not by way of limitation, a connection  825  between the node  805  and the node  815  may have a weighting coefficient of 0.4, which may indicate that 0.4 multiplied by the output of the node  805  is used as an input to the node  815 . As another example and not by way of limitation, the output y k  of node k may be y k =F k  (s k ), where F k  may be the activation function corresponding to node k, s k =Σ j (w jk x j ) may be the effective input to node k, x j  may be the output of a node j connected to node k, and w jk  may be the weighting coefficient between node j and node k. In particular embodiments, the input to nodes of the input layer may be based on a vector representing an object. Although this disclosure describes particular inputs to and outputs of nodes, this disclosure contemplates any suitable inputs to and outputs of nodes. Moreover, although this disclosure may describe particular connections and weights between nodes, this disclosure contemplates any suitable connections and weights between nodes. 
     In particular embodiments, an ANN may be trained using training data. As an example and not by way of limitation, training data may comprise inputs to the ANN  800  and an expected output. As another example and not by way of limitation, training data may comprise vectors each representing a training object and an expected label for each training object. In particular embodiments, training an ANN may comprise modifying the weights associated with the connections between nodes of the ANN by optimizing an objective function. As an example and not by way of limitation, a training method may be used (e.g., the conjugate gradient method, the gradient descent method, the stochastic gradient descent) to backpropagate the sum-of-squares error measured as a distances between each vector representing a training object (e.g., using a cost function that minimizes the sum-of-squares error). In particular embodiments, an ANN may be trained using a dropout technique. As an example and not by way of limitation, one or more nodes may be temporarily omitted (e.g., receive no input and generate no output) while training. For each training object, one or more nodes of the ANN may have some probability of being omitted. The nodes that are omitted for a particular training object may be different than the nodes omitted for other training objects (e.g., the nodes may be temporarily omitted on an object-by-object basis). Although this disclosure describes training an ANN in a particular manner, this disclosure contemplates training an ANN in any suitable manner. 
     Systems and Methods 
       FIG. 9  illustrates an example computer system  900 . In particular embodiments, one or more computer systems  900  perform one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein. In particular embodiments, one or more computer systems  900  provide functionality described or illustrated herein. In particular embodiments, software running on one or more computer systems  900  performs one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein or provides functionality described or illustrated herein. Particular embodiments include one or more portions of one or more computer systems  900 . Herein, reference to a computer system may encompass a computing device, and vice versa, where appropriate. Moreover, reference to a computer system may encompass one or more computer systems, where appropriate. 
     This disclosure contemplates any suitable number of computer systems  900 . This disclosure contemplates computer system  900  taking any suitable physical form. As example and not by way of limitation, computer system  900  may be an embedded computer system, a system-on-chip (SOC), a single-board computer system (SBC) (such as, for example, a computer-on-module (COM) or system-on-module (SOM)), a desktop computer system, a laptop or notebook computer system, an interactive kiosk, a mainframe, a mesh of computer systems, a mobile telephone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a server, a tablet computer system, or a combination of two or more of these. Where appropriate, computer system  900  may include one or more computer systems  900 ; be unitary or distributed; span multiple locations; span multiple machines; span multiple data centers; or reside in a cloud, which may include one or more cloud components in one or more networks. Where appropriate, one or more computer systems  900  may perform without substantial spatial or temporal limitation one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein. As an example and not by way of limitation, one or more computer systems  900  may perform in real time or in batch mode one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein. One or more computer systems  900  may perform at different times or at different locations one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein, where appropriate. 
     In particular embodiments, computer system  900  includes a processor  902 , memory  904 , storage  906 , an input/output (I/O) interface  908 , a communication interface  910 , and a bus  912 . Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular computer system having a particular number of particular components in a particular arrangement, this disclosure contemplates any suitable computer system having any suitable number of any suitable components in any suitable arrangement. 
     In particular embodiments, processor  902  includes hardware for executing instructions, such as those making up a computer program. As an example and not by way of limitation, to execute instructions, processor  902  may retrieve (or fetch) the instructions from an internal register, an internal cache, memory  904 , or storage  906 ; decode and execute them; and then write one or more results to an internal register, an internal cache, memory  904 , or storage  906 . In particular embodiments, processor  902  may include one or more internal caches for data, instructions, or addresses. This disclosure contemplates processor  902  including any suitable number of any suitable internal caches, where appropriate. As an example and not by way of limitation, processor  902  may include one or more instruction caches, one or more data caches, and one or more translation lookaside buffers (TLBs). Instructions in the instruction caches may be copies of instructions in memory  904  or storage  906 , and the instruction caches may speed up retrieval of those instructions by processor  902 . Data in the data caches may be copies of data in memory  904  or storage  906  for instructions executing at processor  902  to operate on; the results of previous instructions executed at processor  902  for access by subsequent instructions executing at processor  902  or for writing to memory  904  or storage  906 ; or other suitable data. The data caches may speed up read or write operations by processor  902 . The TLBs may speed up virtual-address translation for processor  902 . In particular embodiments, processor  902  may include one or more internal registers for data, instructions, or addresses. This disclosure contemplates processor  902  including any suitable number of any suitable internal registers, where appropriate. Where appropriate, processor  902  may include one or more arithmetic logic units (ALUs); be a multi-core processor; or include one or more processors  902 . Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular processor, this disclosure contemplates any suitable processor. 
     In particular embodiments, memory  904  includes main memory for storing instructions for processor  902  to execute or data for processor  902  to operate on. As an example and not by way of limitation, computer system  900  may load instructions from storage  906  or another source (such as, for example, another computer system  900 ) to memory  904 . Processor  902  may then load the instructions from memory  904  to an internal register or internal cache. To execute the instructions, processor  902  may retrieve the instructions from the internal register or internal cache and decode them. During or after execution of the instructions, processor  902  may write one or more results (which may be intermediate or final results) to the internal register or internal cache. Processor  902  may then write one or more of those results to memory  904 . In particular embodiments, processor  902  executes only instructions in one or more internal registers or internal caches or in memory  904  (as opposed to storage  906  or elsewhere) and operates only on data in one or more internal registers or internal caches or in memory  904  (as opposed to storage  906  or elsewhere). One or more memory buses (which may each include an address bus and a data bus) may couple processor  902  to memory  904 . Bus  912  may include one or more memory buses, as described below. In particular embodiments, one or more memory management units (MMUs) reside between processor  902  and memory  904  and facilitate accesses to memory  904  requested by processor  902 . In particular embodiments, memory  904  includes random access memory (RAM). This RAM may be volatile memory, where appropriate. Where appropriate, this RAM may be dynamic RAM (DRAM) or static RAM (SRAM). Moreover, where appropriate, this RAM may be single-ported or multi-ported RAM. This disclosure contemplates any suitable RAM. Memory  904  may include one or more memories  904 , where appropriate. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates particular memory, this disclosure contemplates any suitable memory. 
     In particular embodiments, storage  906  includes mass storage for data or instructions. As an example and not by way of limitation, storage  906  may include a hard disk drive (HDD), a floppy disk drive, flash memory, an optical disc, a magneto-optical disc, magnetic tape, or a Universal Serial Bus (USB) drive or a combination of two or more of these. Storage  906  may include removable or non-removable (or fixed) media, where appropriate. Storage  906  may be internal or external to computer system  900 , where appropriate. In particular embodiments, storage  906  is non-volatile, solid-state memory. In particular embodiments, storage  906  includes read-only memory (ROM). Where appropriate, this ROM may be mask-programmed ROM, programmable ROM (PROM), erasable PROM (EPROM), electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM), electrically alterable ROM (EAROM), or flash memory or a combination of two or more of these. This disclosure contemplates mass storage  906  taking any suitable physical form. Storage  906  may include one or more storage control units facilitating communication between processor  902  and storage  906 , where appropriate. Where appropriate, storage  906  may include one or more storages  906 . Although this disclosure describes and illustrates particular storage, this disclosure contemplates any suitable storage. 
     In particular embodiments, I/O interface  908  includes hardware, software, or both, providing one or more interfaces for communication between computer system  900  and one or more I/O devices. Computer system  900  may include one or more of these I/O devices, where appropriate. One or more of these I/O devices may enable communication between a person and computer system  900 . As an example and not by way of limitation, an I/O device may include a keyboard, keypad, microphone, monitor, mouse, printer, scanner, speaker, still camera, stylus, tablet, touch screen, trackball, video camera, another suitable I/O device or a combination of two or more of these. An I/O device may include one or more sensors. This disclosure contemplates any suitable I/O devices and any suitable I/O interfaces  908  for them. Where appropriate, I/O interface  908  may include one or more device or software drivers enabling processor  902  to drive one or more of these I/O devices. I/O interface  908  may include one or more I/O interfaces  908 , where appropriate. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular I/O interface, this disclosure contemplates any suitable I/O interface. 
     In particular embodiments, communication interface  910  includes hardware, software, or both providing one or more interfaces for communication (such as, for example, packet-based communication) between computer system  900  and one or more other computer systems  900  or one or more networks. As an example and not by way of limitation, communication interface  910  may include a network interface controller (NIC) or network adapter for communicating with an Ethernet or other wire-based network or a wireless NIC (WNIC) or wireless adapter for communicating with a wireless network, such as a WI-FI network. This disclosure contemplates any suitable network and any suitable communication interface  910  for it. As an example and not by way of limitation, computer system  900  may communicate with an ad hoc network, a personal area network (PAN), a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), a metropolitan area network (MAN), or one or more portions of the Internet or a combination of two or more of these. One or more portions of one or more of these networks may be wired or wireless. As an example, computer system  900  may communicate with a wireless PAN (WPAN) (such as, for example, a BLUETOOTH WPAN), a WI-FI network, a WI-MAX network, a cellular telephone network (such as, for example, a Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) network), or other suitable wireless network or a combination of two or more of these. Computer system  900  may include any suitable communication interface  910  for any of these networks, where appropriate. Communication interface  910  may include one or more communication interfaces  910 , where appropriate. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular communication interface, this disclosure contemplates any suitable communication interface. 
     In particular embodiments, bus  912  includes hardware, software, or both coupling components of computer system  900  to each other. As an example and not by way of limitation, bus  912  may include an Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) or other graphics bus, an Enhanced Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) bus, a front-side bus (FSB), a HYPERTRANSPORT (HT) interconnect, an Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus, an INFINIBAND interconnect, a low-pin-count (LPC) bus, a memory bus, a Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) bus, a Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus, a PCI-Express (PCIe) bus, a serial advanced technology attachment (SATA) bus, a Video Electronics Standards Association local (VLB) bus, or another suitable bus or a combination of two or more of these. Bus  912  may include one or more buses  912 , where appropriate. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular bus, this disclosure contemplates any suitable bus or interconnect. 
     Herein, a computer-readable non-transitory storage medium or media may include one or more semiconductor-based or other integrated circuits (ICs) (such, as for example, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) or application-specific ICs (ASICs)), hard disk drives (HDDs), hybrid hard drives (HHDs), optical discs, optical disc drives (ODDs), magneto-optical discs, magneto-optical drives, floppy diskettes, floppy disk drives (FDDs), magnetic tapes, solid-state drives (SSDs), RAM-drives, SECURE DIGITAL cards or drives, any other suitable computer-readable non-transitory storage media, or any suitable combination of two or more of these, where appropriate. A computer-readable non-transitory storage medium may be volatile, non-volatile, or a combination of volatile and non-volatile, where appropriate. 
     Miscellaneous 
     Herein, “or” is inclusive and not exclusive, unless expressly indicated otherwise or indicated otherwise by context. Therefore, herein, “A or B” means “A, B, or both,” unless expressly indicated otherwise or indicated otherwise by context. Moreover, “and” is both joint and several, unless expressly indicated otherwise or indicated otherwise by context. Therefore, herein, “A and B” means “A and B, jointly or severally,” unless expressly indicated otherwise or indicated otherwise by context. 
     The scope of this disclosure encompasses all changes, substitutions, variations, alterations, and modifications to the example embodiments described or illustrated herein that a person having ordinary skill in the art would comprehend. The scope of this disclosure is not limited to the example embodiments described or illustrated herein. Moreover, although this disclosure describes and illustrates respective embodiments herein as including particular components, elements, feature, functions, operations, or steps, any of these embodiments may include any combination or permutation of any of the components, elements, features, functions, operations, or steps described or illustrated anywhere herein that a person having ordinary skill in the art would comprehend. Furthermore, reference in the appended claims to an apparatus or system or a component of an apparatus or system being adapted to, arranged to, capable of, configured to, enabled to, operable to, or operative to perform a particular function encompasses that apparatus, system, component, whether or not it or that particular function is activated, turned on, or unlocked, as long as that apparatus, system, or component is so adapted, arranged, capable, configured, enabled, operable, or operative. Additionally, although this disclosure describes or illustrates particular embodiments as providing particular advantages, particular embodiments may provide none, some, or all of these advantages.