Patent Publication Number: US-2021163601-A1

Title: Asgr inhibitors

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation of U.S. Non-Provisional application Ser. No. 16/230,356, filed Dec. 21, 2018, which is a divisional of U.S. Non-Provisional application Ser. No. 15/279,162, filed Sep. 28, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,358,497, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/319,740, filed Apr. 7, 2016, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/259,553, filed Nov. 24, 2015, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/234,546, filed Sep. 29, 2015, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. 
    
    
     REFERENCE TO THE SEQUENCE LISTING AND TABLES IN ELECTRONIC FORMAT 
     This application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted electronically in ASCII format and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Sep. 26, 2016, is named APMOL017ASEQUENCE.txt and is 14,772,816 bytes in size, and updated and replaced by a file entitled APMOL017C1SEQUENCEREPLACEMENT.txt, created on Nov. 6, 2020, which is 14,782,737 bytes in size. The present application is being filed along with a collection of Tables in electronic format. The collection of Tables is provided as four files entitled TABLE10A.txt, TABLE10B.txt, TABLE10C.txt, and TABLE10D.txt, created and last saved on Sep. 26, 2016, which are 88,431, 356,111, 699,631, and 688,275 bytes in size respectively. The information in the electronic format of the collection of Tables is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     FIELD 
     The field of this invention relates to compositions and methods related to ASGR inhibitors, including but not limited to anti-ASGR, anti-ASGR-1, and/or anti-ASGR-2 antigen binding proteins. 
     BACKGROUND OF VARIOUS EMBODIMENTS 
     Cardiovascular disease involving the heart or blood vessels remains a leading cause of global mortality. Cardiovascular disease includes coronary artery disease (CAD) which can lead to angina and myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, hypertensive heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, and other disorders of the cardiovascular system. Medicines for treating cardiovascular disease, and in particular coronary artery disease, have been introduced over the years (e.g., the small molecule class of drugs called statins and the recently approved Repatha®, an antibody targeting PCSK9). 
     SUMMARY OF VARIOUS EMBODIMENTS 
     In some aspects, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR and inhibits ASGR function. In one embodiment, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR and inhibits ASGR binding to ligand. In another embodiment, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits ASGR-1 binding to ligand and/or ASGR-1 interaction with ASGR-2. In another embodiment, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-2 and inhibits ASGR-2 binding to ligand and/or ASGR-2 interaction with ASGR-1. In yet another embodiment, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 and human ASGR-2, and inhibits ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 binding to ligand. In some embodiments, the isolated binding protein binds specifically to human ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. 
     In some aspects, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the isolated antigen binding protein binds to human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some aspects, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the isolated antigen binding protein binds to human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises one or more VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7, and one or more VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises one VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7, and one VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises two VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7, and two VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 and VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7, and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, VH CDR3, VL CDR1, VL CDR2, and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE A. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE A. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, and VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE A, and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 and VL CDR3, having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE A. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, VH CDR3, VL CDR1, VL CDR2, and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to any of the sequences set forth in TABLE A. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE B. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE B. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, and VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE B, and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE B. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, VH CDR3, VL CDR1, VL CDR2, and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to any of the sequences set forth in TABLE B. In still some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE C. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE C. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, and VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE C, and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 and VL CDR3, having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE C. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, VH CDR3, VL CDR1, VL CDR2, and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to any of the sequences set forth in TABLE C. In further embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table 6. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 6. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, and VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table 6, and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 and VL CDR3, having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 6. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, VH CDR3, VL CDR1, VL CDR2, and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to any of the sequences set forth in Table 6. 
     In some aspects, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some aspects, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 3-7, and a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 3-7, and a light chain variable domain having any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table A. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table A. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table A, and a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table A. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table A, and a light chain variable domain having any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table A. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table B. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table B. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table B, and a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table B. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table B, and a light chain variable domain having any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table B. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table C. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table C. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table C, and a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table C. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table C, and a light chain variable domain having any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table C. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 6. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 6. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 6, and a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 6. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 6, and a light chain variable domain having any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 6. 
     In some aspects, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising no more than 18 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table 19A as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 19B or 19C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some aspects, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the isolated antigen binding protein binds to human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising no more than 14 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 20A as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20B or 20C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises one or more VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising no more than 18 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table 19A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and one or more VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising no more than 14 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 20A as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 19B or 19C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and one or more VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20B or 20C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises one VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical no more than 18 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table 19A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and one VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising no more than 14 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 20A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises one VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 19B or 19C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and one VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20B or 20C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises two VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising up to 18 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table 19A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and two VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising up to 14 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 20A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises two VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 19B or 19C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and two VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 20B or 20C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 and VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising up to 18 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table 19A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising up to 14amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 20A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 19B or 19C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20B or 20C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . 
     In some aspects, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 19A, as depicted in  FIG. 55  or in Tables 21-34 as depicted in  FIG. 56  or in Tables 49-95 as depicted in  FIG. 56 . In some aspects, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , or in Tables 35-48, as depicted in  FIG. 56  or in Tables 96-134 as depicted in  FIG. 57 . In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 19A as depicted in  FIG. 55 , or in Tables 21-34 as depicted in  FIG. 56  or in Tables 49-95 as depicted in  FIG. 57 , and a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20A as depicted in  FIG. 55  or in Tables 35-48 as depicted in  FIG. 56  or in Tables 96-134 as depicted in  FIG. 57 . In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein comprises a heavy chain variable domain having any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 19A as depicted in  FIG. 55 , or in Tables 21-34 as depicted in  FIG. 56  or in Tables 49-95 as depicted in  FIG. 57 , and a light chain variable domain having any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20A as depicted in  FIG. 55  or in Tables 35-48 as depicted in  FIG. 56  or in Tables 96-134 as depicted in  FIG. 57 . 
     In some aspects, the invention provides an antigen binding protein that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope that is bound by any of the antigen binding proteins disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope that is bound by at least one of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Tables 2-7. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope that is bound by at least one of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table A. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope that is bound by at least one of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table B. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope that is bound by at least one of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table C. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope that is bound by at least one of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table 6. 
     In some aspects, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that competes for binding to human ASGR-1 with any of the antigen binding proteins disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that competes for binding with any of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Tables 2-7. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that competes for binding with any of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table A. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that competes for binding with any of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table B. In still some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that competes for binding with any of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table C. In yet another embodiment, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that competes for binding with any of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table 6. 
     In some aspects, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 within the carbohydrate recognition domain (“CRD”) (also known as the carbohydrate binding domain or “CBD”) and inhibits human ASGR-1 binding to ligand. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein binds to human ASGR-1 within residues 148-291, or 149-291, or 150-291, or 151-291, or 152-291, or 153-291, or 154-291, or 155-291 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 CBD within Helix α-1. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 within residues 174-186 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 CBD within Helix α-2. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 CBD within residues 194-206 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 within residues 237-273 or residues 240-267 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein binds to ASGR-1 having an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein is an antibody. 
     In some aspects, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein or an antibody that binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits human ASGR-1 function. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein or an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits human ASGR-1 from binding to a ligand. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, Y273, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, F258, D260, R263, W264, V268, R271, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, W264, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, T279, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, W264, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, W264, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, W264, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, W275, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, Y273, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, F258, D260, R263, W264, V268, R271, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, Y273, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, W264, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, T279, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, W264, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, W264, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, W264, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, W275, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, , R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues:, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, W264, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, T279, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, W264, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, W264, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, W264, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, W264, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, or T279 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, or G252 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, or C269 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, or Q270 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, or D266 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     In some aspects, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein or an antibody or a paratope in an antibody that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits human ASGR-1 function. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein or an antibody or a paratope in an antibody specifically binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits human ASGR-1 from binding to a ligand. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody specifically binds to human ASGR-1 within residues 148-291 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, Y273, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, F258, D260, R263, W264, V268, R271, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, W264, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, T279, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, W264, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, W264, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, W264, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, W275, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, Y273, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, F258, D260, R263, W264, V268, R271, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, Y273, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, or D267 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, or D267 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, F258, D260, R263, W264, V268, or R271 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, or C269 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, or Q270 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, or D266 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, W264, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, T279, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, W264, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, W264, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, W264, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, W275, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues of human ASGR-1 (SEQ ID NO:5): D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, W264, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, T279, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, W264, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, W264, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, W264, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues of human ASGR-1 (SEQ ID NO:5): H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, or T279 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, or G252 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270 or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273 or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     In some aspects, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein or antibody that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits human ASGR-1 function. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein or antibody that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 inhibits binding of human ASGR-1 binding to a ligand. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at a location that overlaps with a location where a ligand binds to human ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the location where a ligand binds to ASGR-1 includes at least one amino acid residue selected from the group consisting of: N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, F258, D260, R263, W264, V268, or R271 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein or an antibody specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at a location that overlaps with a location that a ligand binds to ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the location that a ligand binds to human ASGR-1 includes at least one amino acid residue selected from the group consisting of: N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, and Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     In some aspects, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits human ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 function, wherein the antigen binding protein does not bind to a variant ASGR-1 protein, and wherein said variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue selected the group consisting of: R170, S171, G172, R183, L184, W195, E196, K199, H203, H204, P207, V208, N209, H215, D216, P220, D225, D228, R237, P238, E239, P241, D242, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G248, L249, G251, E253, T259, D260, R263, N265, Q270, R271, P272, R274, and E280 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein or an antibody is contemplated. An antigen binding protein “does not bind” to a variant ASGR-1 protein when the measured reduction in antibody binding signal to a variant ASGR-1 protein (compared to that determined for binding to wild type ASGR-1) is statistically significant as measured by any number of methods known to one skilled in the art, such as the method described in Example 7E below. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting of: W195, E196, K199, H203, H204, P207, P220, G251, and R263 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of H203, H204, P220, and G251. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of W195, E196 and K199. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of W195, E196 and H204. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting W195, K199, and R263. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of W195 and E196. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of W195 and K199. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of W195 or P207. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of W195 and R263. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of H203 and H204. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of K199 and R263. In some embodiments, the single mutation is a mutation of residue W195. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue selected the group consisting of: R170, S171, R183, L184, H215, P220, P238, G246, H247, G248, G251, and N265 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R183, L184, H215, P220, G246, G248, G251, and N265. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of L184, P220, P238, H247, and G251. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R170, S171, and L184. In some embodiments, the single mutation is a mutation of residue R183. In some embodiments, the single mutation is a mutation of residue L184. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting of: P241, D242, D243, Y245, G251, E253 and D260 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of P241, D243, Y245, G251, E253 and D260. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of P241, D243, and E253. In some embodiments, the single mutation is a mutation of residue D260. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising:_R170, R237, E239, P241, T259, D260, R263, and N265 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R237, D260 and R263. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R237, T259, D260 and R263. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R170, R237, P241, T259, D260, R263 and N265. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R237, E239, P241, T259, D260, R263 and N265. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: R170, S171, G172, E196, H204, P207, V208, N209, H215, D216, D225, D228, P238, P241, D242, D243, H247, G248, L249, G251, D260, R263, N265, Q270, R271, P272, R274 and E280 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R170, S171, G172, E196, H204, P207, V208, N209, H215, D216, D225, D228, P238, P241, D242, D243, H247, G248, L249, G251, D260, R263, N265, Q270, R271, P272, R274 and E280 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R170, S171, G172, E196, H204, P207, H215, D216, D225, D228, D243, G248, L249, G251, D260, Q270, R271, P272, R274 and E280. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of G172, V208, R271, P272 and R274. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of G172, R271 and R274. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of G172, N209, and R271. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R170, G172, V208, R271 and P272. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of G172, V208, P238, R271, P272 and R274. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of G172, P238, R271, P272 and R274. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: G172, P238, R271 and R274 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: R170, G172, V208 and R274 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: R170, R183, H215 and Q270 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: P241, T259, and N265 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: P207 and R263 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: G172, P241, D242, H247, L249, N265, R271 and P272 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody does not bind to two or more variant ASGR-1 proteins, wherein the variant ASGR-1 proteins comprise the single mutations of the group individually. 
     In some aspects, the invention comprises a vector comprising a nucleic acid molecule as described herein. In some embodiments, the invention comprises a host cell comprising a nucleic acid molecule as described herein. 
     In some aspects, the invention comprises a nucleic acid molecule encoding the antigen binding protein as described herein. 
     In some aspects, the invention comprises a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least one antigen binding protein described herein. 
     In some aspects, the invention provides a method of treating or preventing a cardiovascular disease comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective dose of an ASGR inhibitor as described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is one or more of the antigen binding proteins described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) as described herein. In some embodiments, the relative risk reduction of a cardiovascular event is at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60% in the patient. 
     In some aspects, the invention provides a method of decreasing the risk of acquiring coronary artery disease or having a myocardial infarction (MI) comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective dose of an ASGR inhibitor as described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is one or more of the antigen binding proteins described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) as described herein. In some embodiments, the relative risk reduction of coronary artery disease or MI is at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60% in the patient. 
     In other aspects, the invention provides a method of reducing blood LDL cholesterol levels in a patient comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective dose of an ASGR inhibitor as described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is one or more of the antigen binding proteins described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) as described herein. In some embodiments, blood LDL cholesterol is reduced by at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, or at least about 90% as compared to a predose level of blood LDL cholesterol in the patient. 
     In still other aspects, the invention provides a method of reducing non-HDL cholesterol levels in a patient comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective dose of an ASGR inhibitor as described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is one or more of the antigen binding proteins described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) as described herein. In some embodiments, non-HDL cholesterol is reduced by at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, or at least about 90% as compared to a predose level of non-HDL cholesterol in the patient. 
     In some aspects, the invention provides a method of increasing alkaline phosphatase (“ALP”) levels in a patient comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective dose of an ASGR inhibitor as described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is one or more of the antigen binding proteins described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) as described herein. In some embodiments, ALP levels are increased at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, or at least about 90% as compared to a predose ALP level in the patient. In some embodiments, ALP levels are increased at least about 1.25×, 1.5×, 2×, 2.5×, 3×, 3.5×, 4×, 4.5×, and 5× over pretreatment. 
     In some aspects, the invention provides a method of antagonizing ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 in a patient comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective dose of an ASGR inhibitor as described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is one or more of the antigen binding proteins described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) as described herein. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
         FIG. 1A . ASGR-1 sequence alignments of human (SEQ ID NO: 32699), cynomolgus monkey (cyno) (SEQ ID NO: 32700), dog (SEQ ID NO: 32701), pig (SEQ ID NO: 32702), rat (SEQ ID NO: 32703) and mouse ASGR-1 (SEQ ID NO: 32704). The boxed areas denoting different regions of ASGR-1 (i.e., cytoplasmic, transmembrane, and the carbohydrate binding domain (CBD; also called the carbohydrate recognition domain, or CRD) are representative of the approximate amino acid locations of these regions; the human Y273 amino acid is boxed. 
         FIG. 1B . Human ASGR-1 sequence alignments (SEQ ID NOS 32705-32710, respectively, in order of appearance). 
         FIG. 2 . ASGR-2 sequence alignments of human (SEQ ID NO: 32713), cyno (SEQ ID NO: 32714), dog (SEQ ID NO: 32716), pig (SEQ ID NO: 32715), rat (SEQ ID NO: 32712) and mouse ASGR-2 (SEQ ID NO: 32711). The boxed areas denoting different regions of ASGR-2 (i.e., cytoplasmic, transmembrane, and the carbohydrate binding domain (CBD; also called the carbohydrate recognition domain, or CRD) are representative of the approximate amino acid locations of these regions. 
         FIG. 3 . Human ASGR-1 (SEQ ID NO: 32717) vs. human ASGR-2v2 (SEQ ID NO: 32718) alignments are provided. 
         FIG. 4 . The del12 variant is associated with a splicing error and frameshift in ASGR-1. (A) Overview of the structure of the ASGR-1 mRNA. Exons 4 and 5 are highlighted (the del12 variant lies within intron 4 between exons 4 and 5 in the unspliced RNA) along with the positions of the PCR primers (red arrows) used to amplify the cDNA. (B) Agarose gel showing the PCR products generated by amplifying cDNA generated from RNA isolated from the blood of del12 carriers and non-carriers. Arrows indicate both the size of the expected PCR product (239 bp) along with the size of the truncated band (217 bp) observed only in del12 heterozygote carriers. (C) Shown is the sequence difference between the full-length (239 bp) and variant (217 bp) cDNA fragments based on Sanger sequencing. The variant sequence in del12 carriers lacks 22 bp at the end of exon 4 compared to the wild-type sequence that results in frame-shift and introduction of a stop codon. (D) Diagrammatic representation of the splicing defect observed in del12 carriers. The sequence around the exon 4-intron 4 boundary (exon 4 sequence in capital letters and intron 4 sequence in small letters) is shown along with the 5′ splice site in non-carriers and the cryptic 5′ splice site activated in del12 carriers. (E) Quantification of the full-length (239 bp) and variant (217 bp) cDNA fragments from heterozygote del12 carriers and non-carriers by direct digital counting of sequencing reads generated following sequencing of the amplified cDNA product from carriers and non-carriers of del12 using the Illumina TruSeq method. The percentage of incorrectly spliced ASGR-1 transcript is shown. Note that the incorrectly spliced form was completely undetectable in non-carriers. 
         FIG. 5 . (A) The del12 variant was typed in the indicated populations a total of 41,648 CAD cases and 247,374 controls. For each cohort, the square (diamond in the case of the combined estimate) indicates the estimated odds ratio and the line shows the 95% confidence interval. There was no evidence of heterogeneity across the eight study populations (Phet=0.96). (B) Kaplan-Meier curves for survival to first myocardial infarction in carriers and non-carriers of del12 in ASGR-1 stratified by sex. The proportion of individuals that have not had a myocardial infarction is shown on the y-axis and plotted against age on the x-axis. Males and females are represented separately and a distinction is made between del12 carriers and non-carriers in each case. 
         FIG. 6 . Comparison of relationship between CAD and non-HDL cholesterol levels between previously identified sequence variants and del12 in ASGR-1. Based on the Icelandic population, the estimated odds ratio (OR) of the minor allele for coronary artery disease (CAD, 41,648 cases and 247,374 controls) as a function of the estimated effect of the minor allele on non-HDL cholesterol levels (N=119,146). A full list of the sequence variants included is provided in Table 1.7. The error bars represent 95% confidence intervals. The del12 variant in ASGR-1 is shown. The line indicates the best linear regression fit through the origin. 
         FIG. 7 . Analysis of serum ALP, ALT, and AST from ASGR-1 knockout mice is provided. Panel A is data from the male mice studied and Panel B is data from the female mice. 
         FIG. 8 . RNAi in vitro data in CHO cells transfected with hASGR-1 using construct S1662. Panel A is a western blot demonstrating reduction of expression of human ASGR-1. Panel B is a graphical representation of the relative reduction in expression of human ASGR-1. Panel C demonstrates that CHO cells receiving construct S1662 displays a dramatic reduction in internalization of ligand (β-GalNAc). 
         FIG. 9 . RNAi in vitro data in CHO cells transfected with mASGR-1 using various constructs. Panel A is a western blot demonstrating reduction of expression of mouse ASGR-1. Panel B is a graphical representation of the relative reduction in expression of mouse ASGR-1. Panel C demonstrates that CHO cells receiving the various constructs display a dramatic reduction in internalization of ligand (β-GalNAc). 
         FIG. 10 . RNAi in vitro data in HepG2 cells using construct S1662. Panel A is a western blot demonstrating reduction of expression of human ASGR-1. Panel B is a graphical representation of the relative reduction in expression of human ASGR-1. 
         FIG. 11 . RNAi in vitro data in CHO cells transfected with hASGR-2 using various constructs. Panel A is a western blot demonstrating reduction of expression of human ASGR-2. Panel B is a graphical representation of the relative reduction in expression of human ASGR-2 by the various constructs. 
         FIG. 12 . RNAi in vitro data in CHO cells transfected with mASGR-1 and mASGR-2 using various other constructs. Panel A is a western blot demonstrating reduction of expression of mouse ASGR-1 (anti-mouse ASGR-1 or anti-flag) or mouse ASGR-2 (anti-his). Panel B is a graphical representation of the relative reduction in expression of mouse ASGR-1 by the various constructs. Panel C is a graphical representation of the relative reduction in expression of mouse ASGR-2 by the various constructs. 
         FIG. 13 . RNAi in vitro data in HepG2 cells using various constructs. Panel A is a western blot demonstrating reduction of expression of human ASGR-2. Panel B is a graphical representation of the relative reduction in expression of human ASGR-2 by the various constructs. 
         FIG. 14 . RNAi in vivo data in in C57BL/6J mice using various constructs over the course of 7 days with three injections total, one injection at day 0, one injection at day 2 and one injection at day 4. Panel A is a graphical representation of quantitative per data showing the relative reduction in expression of mASGR-1 RNA in the liver. Panel B is a graphical representation of the relative reduction in expression of mASGR-2 RNA in the liver. 
         FIG. 15 . RNAi in vivo data in in C57BL/6J mice using various constructs over the course of 7 days with three injections total, one injection at day 0, one injection at day 2, and one injection at day 4. Panel A is a western blot demonstrating reduction of expression of mouse ASGR-1 protein. Panel B is a graphical representation of the relative increase of serum ALP activity. 
         FIG. 16 . RNAi in vivo data in C57BL/6J mice using various constructs over the course of 7 days with one injection at day 0. Panel A is a graphical representation of the relative reduction in expression of mASGR-2 in the liver. Panel B is a graphical representation of the relative reduction in expression of mASGR-1 in the liver. 
         FIG. 17 . RNAi in vivo data in C57BL/6J mice using various ASGR-2 constructs over the course of 7 days with one injection at day 0. The figure is a graphical representation of the relative increase in serum ALP activity. 
         FIG. 18 . Panel A shows a computer representation of the crystal structure of the ASGR-1/lactose complex. Panel B is a computer representation of the observed electron density. Panel C is an enlarged view of the carbohydrate binding domain. 
         FIG. 19 . Panel A shows a computer representation of the crystal structure of the ASGR-1/galactose complex. Panel B is a computer representation of the observed electron density. Panel C is an enlarged view of the carbohydrate binding domain. 
         FIG. 20 . A computer representation of the crystal structure of an enlarged view of the conformational difference of R237 between the ASGR-1/lactose (white) complex and ASGR-1/galactose (black) complex. 
         FIG. 21 . Panel A shows a computer representation of the crystal structure of the ASGR-1/GalNAc complex. Panel B is a computer representation of the observed electron density. Panel C is an enlarged view of the carbohydrate binding domain. 
         FIG. 22 . Panel A shows a depiction of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 5E5 Fab. Panel B is an enlarged view of the ASGR-1 CBD and 5E5 Fab that represents a disordered carbohydrate binding loop with a dashed line and highlights the indirect inhibition of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand (GalNAc) binding. Panel B also incorporates a double-headed arrow which represents a 5 angstrom distance from tip to tip. 
         FIG. 23 . Panel A shows a depiction of the structure of the ASGR-1 CB and the 22G5 Fab. Panel B is an enlarged view of the ASGR-1 CBD and 22G5 Fab that represents a disordered carbohydrate binding loop with a dashed line and highlights the indirect inhibition of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand (GalNAc) binding. Panel B also incorporates a double-headed arrow which represents a 5 angstrom distance from tip to tip. 
         FIG. 24 . A depiction of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 4A2 Fab. 
         FIG. 25 . An enlarged view of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 4A2 Fab that shows the CDRs of the 4A2 Fab that interact with ASGR-1 CBD Helix alpha-2 and highlights the indirect inhibition of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand (GalNAc) binding. The figure incorporates a double-headed arrow which represents a 5 angstrom distance from tip to tip. 
         FIG. 26 . An enlarged view of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the carbohydrate binding loop with and without and the 4A2 Fab that includes a double-headed arrow which represents a 5 angstrom distance from tip to tip. 
         FIG. 27 . A depiction of the structure of ASGR-1 CBD and the 7E11 Fab. 
         FIG. 28 . An enlarged view of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 7E11 Fab. The figure represents a disordered carbohydrate binding loop with a dashed line and highlights the indirect inhibition of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand (GalNAc) binding. The figure incorporates a double-headed arrow which represents a 5 angstrom distance from tip to tip. 
         FIG. 29 . A depiction of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 4H6 Fab. 
         FIG. 30 . An enlarged view of structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 4H6 Fab. The figure represents a disordered carbohydrate binding loop with a dashed line and highlights the indirect inhibition of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand (GalNAc) binding. The figure incorporates a double-headed arrow which represents a 5 angstrom distance from tip to tip. 
         FIG. 31 . A depiction of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 72G9 Fab. 
         FIG. 32 . Panel A is an enlarged view of the structure of ASGR-1 CBD and the 72G9 Fab; and Panel B is a depiction of the structure of ASGR-1 CBD and the 72G9 Fab that also overlays the structure of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand and highlights the direct inhibition of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand (GalNAc) binding. 
         FIG. 33 . A depiction of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 194A4 Fab. 
         FIG. 34 . An enlarged view of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 194A4 Fab. The figure represents a disordered carbohydrate binding loop with a dashed line and highlights the indirect inhibition of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand (GalNAc) binding. The figure incorporates a double-headed arrow which represents a 5 angstrom distance from tip to tip. 
         FIG. 35 . A depiction of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 54E9 Fab. 
         FIG. 36 . Panel A is an enlarged view of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 54E9 Fab; and Panel B is a depiction of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 54E9 Fab that also overlays the structure of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand and highlights the direct inhibition of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand (GalNAc) binding. 
         FIG. 37 . Panel A is a depiction of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 218G4 Fab; and Panel B is an enlarged view of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 218G4 Fab. 
         FIG. 38 . Panels A and B are enlarged views of the structure of ASGR-1 CBD and the 218G4 Fab that also overlays the structure of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand. These figures highlight the direct inhibition of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand (GalNAc) binding when the 218G4 Fab is present. 
         FIG. 39 . A depiction of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 176H4 Fab. 
         FIG. 40 . An enlarged view of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 176H4 Fab that also overlays the structure of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand. This figure highlight the direct inhibition of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand (GalNAc) binding when the 176H4 Fab is present. 
         FIG. 41 . A depiction of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 194C10 Fab. This figure depicts represents a disordered carbohydrate binding loop with a dashed line and highlights possible indirect inhibition of ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand (GalNAc) binding. 
         FIG. 42 . An enlarged view of the structure of the ASGR-1 CBD and the 194C10 Fab. This figure shows the CDRs of the 194C10 that interact with the ASGR-1 CBD and highlights that there may be direct inhibition of the ASGR-1 CBD and the ligand (GalNAc) binding. 
         FIG. 43 . Panels A-C are graphical representations showing antibody binding results from human ASGR-1 and human ASGR-2 expressing cells. 
         FIG. 44 . Panel A is a graphical representation of the effect of ASGR-1 antibody, 4A2, on serum LDL cholesterol levels in obese cynomolgus monkeys. Panel B is a graphical representation of the effect of ASGR-1 antibody, 4A2, on serum alkaline phosphatase levels in obese cynomolgus monkeys. Data is expressed in the % change from baseline. 
         FIG. 45 . Panel A is a graphical representation of the effect of ASGR-1 antibody, 4A2, on serum LDL cholesterol levels in normal cynomolgus monkeys. Panel B is a graphical representation of the effect of ASGR-1 antibody, 4A2, on serum alkaline phosphatase levels in normal cynomolgus monkeys. Data is expressed in the % change from baseline. 
         FIG. 46 . A coefficient of determination heat map representing the coefficient of determination profiles of test ASGR-1 ligand blocking antibody-reference antibody combinations from an Arginine/Glutamic Acid scanning mutagenesis (Example 7E). Dark shading represents highly similar data, while light shading represents highly dissimilar data. The relative epitope profiling (antibody competition/binding) bin assignments are also indicated. 
         FIG. 47 . A computer representation showing alternative views of the ASGR-1 CBD protein and the surface locations of amino acid residues identified as being important for antibody binding via Arginine/Glutamic Acid scanning mutagenesis (Example 7E). The relative epitope profiling (antibody competition/binding) bin assignments are also indicated. Ligand (GalNAc) is shown as a stick representation (black). The ASGR-1 CBD is shown as a surface representation (light grey). The positions of amino acids identified by Arg/Glu mutational scanning are indicated (dark grey surface). The relative positions of key amino acids in each bin are shown for reference only. 
         FIG. 48 . A table presenting various protein sequences for human, mouse, rat, pig, dog and cynomolgus monkey ASGR, ASGR-1 and ASGR-2 (Table 1). 
         FIG. 49 . Two tables presenting variable light and heavy chain CDR1, CDR2 and CDR3 amino acid sequences for certain antigen binding proteins of the present invention (Table 2A and Table 2B). Table 2A presents the Variable Light Chain CDR1, CDR2 and CDR3, while Table 2B presents the Variable Heavy Chain CDR1, CDR2, and CDR3. The CDR sequences in Tables 2A and 2B are wrapped due to space issues, and unless stated otherwise, should be understood to be a single amino acid sequence. 
         FIG. 50 . A table presenting the amino acid sequences of the light and heavy chain variable domains for certain antigen binding proteins of the present invention are displayed in a table (Table 3). The amino acid sequences of the light and heavy chain variable domains in Table 3 are wrapped due to space issues, and unless stated otherwise, should be understood to be single amino acid sequences. 
         FIG. 51 . A table presenting a protein alignment of light and heavy variable regions for certain antigen binding proteins of the present invention (Table 4). An asterisk “*” denotes a stop codon. Sequences containing a stop codon are represented as distinct sequences in the Sequence Listing, however, these sequences are related. Generally speaking, however, the amino acid sequences of the light and heavy chain variable domains in the protein alignment presented in Table 4 are wrapped due to space issues, and unless stated otherwise, like in the case of sequences with one or more stop codons, should be understood to be single amino acid sequences. 
         FIG. 52 . A table presenting a consensus protein alignment of light and heavy variable regions for certain antigen binding proteins of the present invention (Table 5). An asterisk “*” denotes a stop codon. Sequences containing a stop codon are represented as distinct sequences in the Sequence Listing, however, these sequences are related. Generally speaking, however, the amino acid sequences of the light and heavy chain variable domains in the consensus protein alignment presented in Table 5 are wrapped due to space issues, and unless stated otherwise, like in the case of sequences with one or more stop codons, should be understood to be single amino acid sequences. 
         FIG. 53 . A table presenting a protein alignment of light and heavy variable regions for certain optimized antigen binding proteins of the present invention (Table 6). The amino acid sequences of the light and heavy chain variable domains in the protein alignment presented in Table 6 are wrapped due to space issues, and unless stated otherwise, should be understood to be single amino acid sequences. 
         FIG. 54 . A table presenting a consensus protein alignment of light and heavy variable regions for certain optimized antigen binding proteins of the present invention (Table 7). The amino acid sequences of the light and heavy chain variable domains in the consensus protein alignment presented in Table 7 are wrapped due to space issues, and unless stated otherwise, should be understood to be single amino acid sequences. 
         FIG. 55 . A group of tables presenting the consensus sequences of various heavy and light chain variable regions (Tables 19A and 20A, respectively), as well as the consensus sequences of CDRs of various heavy and light chain variable regions (Tables 19B and C and Tables 20B and 20C, respectively) for certain antigen binding proteins of the present invention. 
         FIG. 56 . A group of tables presenting the detailed consensus protein alignment of various light and heavy chain variable regions for certain antigen binding proteins of the present invention (Tables 21-48). The shading of amino acid residues in the consensus protein alignment presented in Tables 21-48 denote particular residues that one of ordinary skill in the art may wish to target for engineering. 
         FIG. 57 . A group of tables presenting the consensus protein alignment of various light and heavy chain variable regions for certain antigen binding proteins of the present invention (Tables 49-134). 
         FIG. 58 . A graph depicting the credibility of protein measurements in cynomolgus monkey. Log10 RFU of mean protein levels in the two species are plotted and the ones with low credibility (light dots) and high credibility (darker dots) are marked. 
         FIG. 59 . Serum protein analysis of cynomolgus monkey treated with anti-ASGR-1 antibodies. Panel A is a graph depicting TNFSF8 protein levels in individual animals of different treatment group across the time points. Panel B is a graph depicting normalized TNFSF8 protein levels (percent of time point 0) in individual animals of different treatment groups across the time points. Panel C is a graph depicting TNFSF8 protein levels in each treatment group (n=3, error bar represents the SEM), and Panel D is a graph depicting the distribution of TNFSF8 protein levels in human ASGR1 del12 carriers and non-carriers. 
         FIG. 60 . A table presenting ASGR-1 residues identified as hits via Arg/Glu scanning mutagenesis. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS EMBODIMENTS 
     As shown in Example 1 below, sequence variants in ASGR-1 (which resulted in either a faster degrading ASGR1 or a loss of function ASGR1 mutation) resulted in a lowering in the level of non-HDL cholesterol in humans. This in turn resulted in a decrease in the risk of coronary artery disease experienced by these people. As loss of function mutations in ASGR-1 resulted in both the lowering of non-HDL cholesterol and the lowering of coronary artery disease, antibodies and inhibitory RNA that effectively block ASGR can be used to lower the risk of coronary artery disease. 
     The present invention is directed to inhibitors of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. The present invention provides antigen binding proteins that specifically bind to human ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 and inhibit human ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 binding to a ligand. The present invention also provides antigen binding proteins that specifically bind to other species of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. The present invention is further directed to methods of treating or preventing cardiovascular disease in a human subject comprising administering an inhibitor of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2, wherein the ASGR inhibitor an antigen binding protein and/or an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA). 
     The present invention further provides compositions, kits, and methods relating to antigen binding proteins that specifically bind to human ASGR, human ASGR-1, and/or human ASGR-2. Also provided are nucleic acid molecules comprising a sequence of polynucleotides that encode all or a portion of a polypeptide that specifically binds to human ASGR, human ASGR-1, and/or human ASGR-2. The present invention further provides vectors and plasmids comprising such nucleic acids, and cells or cell lines comprising such nucleic acids and/or vectors and plasmids. The provided methods further include, for example, methods of making, identifying, or isolating antigen binding proteins that bind to human ASGR, human ASGR-1, and/or human ASGR-2, methods of determining whether an antigen binding protein binds to human ASGR, human ASGR-1, and/or human ASGR-2, methods of making compositions, such as pharmaceutical compositions, comprising an antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR, human ASGR-1, and/or human ASGR-2, and methods for administering an antigen binding protein that binds human ASGR, human ASGR-1, and/or human ASGR-2 to a human subject. 
     It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention as claimed. In this application, the use of the singular includes the plural unless specifically stated otherwise. In this application, the use of “or” means “and/or” unless stated otherwise. Furthermore, the use of the term “including”, as well as other forms, such as “includes” and “included”, is not limiting. Also, terms such as “element” or “component” encompass both elements and components comprising one unit and elements and components that comprise more than one subunit unless specifically stated otherwise. Also, the use of the term “portion” can include part of a moiety or the entire moiety. 
     Unless otherwise defined herein, scientific and technical terms used in connection with the present invention shall have the meanings that are commonly understood by those of ordinary skill in the art. Further, unless otherwise required by context, singular terms shall include pluralities and plural terms shall include the singular. Generally, nomenclatures used in connection with, and techniques of, cell and tissue culture, molecular biology, immunology, microbiology, genetics and protein and nucleic acid chemistry and hybridization described herein are those well-known and commonly used in the art. The methods and techniques of the present invention are generally performed according to conventional methods well known in the art and as described in various general and more specific references that are cited and discussed throughout the present specification unless otherwise indicated. See, e.g., Sambrook et al. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2d ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989) and Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Greene Publishing Associates (1992), and Harlow and Lane Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1990), which are incorporated herein by reference. Enzymatic reactions and purification techniques are performed according to manufacturer&#39;s specifications, as commonly accomplished in the art or as described herein. The terminology used in connection with, and the laboratory procedures and techniques of, analytical chemistry, synthetic organic chemistry, and medicinal and pharmaceutical chemistry described herein are those well-known and commonly used in the art. Standard techniques can be used for chemical syntheses, chemical analyses, pharmaceutical preparation, formulation, and delivery, and treatment of patients. 
     Polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences are indicated using standard one- or three-letter abbreviations. Unless otherwise indicated, polypeptide sequences have their amino termini at the left and their carboxy termini at the right, and single-stranded nucleic acid sequences, and the top strand of double-stranded nucleic acid sequences, have their 5′ termini at the left and their 3′ termini at the right. A particular section of a polypeptide can be designated by amino acid residue number such as amino acids 1 to 50, or by the actual residue at that site such as asparagine to proline. A particular polypeptide or polynucleotide sequence also can be described by explaining how it differs from a reference sequence. 
     The following terms, unless otherwise indicated, shall be understood to have the following meanings: 
     The term “inhibitor” as used herein, is a compound that decreases the magnitude of at least one activity or function of a molecule compared to the magnitude of the activity or function observed in the absence of the inhibitor. In some instances, an inhibitor will substantially decrease the magnitude of at least one activity or function of a molecule compared to the magnitude of the activity or function observed in the absence of the inhibitor. In some instances, an inhibitor will completely diminish the magnitude of at least one activity or function of a molecule compared to the magnitude of the activity or function observed in the absence of the inhibitor. Certain exemplary inhibitors include, but are not limited to, proteins, peptides, antibodies, peptibodies, aptamers, antisense oligonucleotides, interfering RNA, carbohydrates or small organic molecules. 
     The term “isolated molecule” (where the molecule is, for example, a polypeptide, a polynucleotide, antigen binding protein or an antibody) is a molecule that by virtue of its origin or source of derivation (1) is not associated with naturally associated components that accompany it in its native state, (2) is substantially free of other molecules from the same species (3) is expressed by a cell from a different species, or (4) does not occur in nature. Thus, a molecule that is chemically synthesized, or expressed in a cellular system different from the cell from which it naturally originates, will be “isolated” from its naturally associated components. A molecule also may be rendered substantially free of naturally associated components by isolation, using purification techniques well known in the art. Molecule purity or homogeneity may be assayed by a number of means well known in the art. For example, the purity of a polypeptide sample may be assayed using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and staining of the gel to visualize the polypeptide using techniques well known in the art. For certain purposes, higher resolution may be provided by using HPLC or other means well known in the art for purification. 
     The terms “polynucleotide,” “oligonucleotide” and “nucleic acid” are used interchangeably throughout and include DNA molecules (e.g., cDNA or genomic DNA), RNA molecules (e.g., mRNA), analogs of the DNA or RNA generated using nucleotide analogs (e.g., peptide nucleic acids and non-naturally occurring nucleotide analogs), and hybrids thereof. The nucleic acid molecule can be single-stranded or double-stranded. In one embodiment, the nucleic acid molecules of the invention comprise a contiguous open reading frame encoding an antibody, or a fragment, derivative, mutein, or variant thereof, of the invention. 
     A “vector” is a nucleic acid that can be used to introduce another nucleic acid linked to it into a cell. One type of vector is a “plasmid,” which refers to a linear or circular double stranded DNA molecule into which additional nucleic acid segments can be ligated. Another type of vector is a viral vector (e.g., replication defective retroviruses, adenoviruses and adeno-associated viruses), wherein additional DNA segments can be introduced into the viral genome. Certain vectors are capable of autonomous replication in a host cell into which they are introduced (e.g., bacterial vectors comprising a bacterial origin of replication and episomal mammalian vectors). Other vectors (e.g., non-episomal mammalian vectors) are integrated into the genome of a host cell upon introduction into the host cell, and thereby are replicated along with the host genome. An “expression vector” is a type of vector that can direct the expression of a chosen polynucleotide. 
     A nucleotide sequence is “operably linked” to a regulatory sequence if the regulatory sequence affects the expression (e.g., the level, timing, or location of expression) of the nucleotide sequence. A “regulatory sequence” is a nucleic acid that affects the expression (e.g., the level, timing, or location of expression) of a nucleic acid to which it is operably linked. The regulatory sequence can, for example, exert its effects directly on the regulated nucleic acid, or through the action of one or more other molecules (e.g., polypeptides that bind to the regulatory sequence and/or the nucleic acid). Examples of regulatory sequences include promoters, enhancers and other expression control elements (e.g., polyadenylation signals). Further examples of regulatory sequences are described in, for example, Goeddel, 1990, Gene Expression Technology: Methods in Enzymology 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. and Baron et al., 1995, Nucleic Acids Res. 23:3605-06. 
     A “host cell” is a cell that can be used to express a nucleic acid, e.g., a nucleic acid of the invention. A host cell can be a prokaryote, for example,  E. coli,  or it can be a eukaryote, for example, a single-celled eukaryote (e.g., a yeast or other fungus), a plant cell (e.g., a tobacco or tomato plant cell), an animal cell (e.g., a human cell, a monkey cell, a hamster cell, a rat cell, a mouse cell, or an insect cell) or a hybridoma. Typically, a host cell is a cultured cell that can be transformed or transfected with a polypeptide-encoding nucleic acid, which can then be expressed in the host cell. The phrase “recombinant host cell” can be used to denote a host cell that has been transformed or transfected with a nucleic acid to be expressed. A host cell also can be a cell that comprises the nucleic acid but does not express it at a desired level unless a regulatory sequence is introduced into the host cell such that it becomes operably linked with the nucleic acid. It is understood that the term host cell refers not only to the particular subject cell but to the progeny or potential progeny of such a cell. Because certain modifications may occur in succeeding generations due to, e.g., mutation or environmental influence, such progeny may not, in fact, be identical to the parent cell, but are still included within the scope of the term as used herein. 
     ASGR 
     Genomic database analysis is one manner that allows for the discovery of associations between disease states and particular targets and/or pathways. For example, genetic analysis of patients with familial hypercholesterolemia resulted in the discovery of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) being involved with regulating serum LDL cholesterol levels and risk of developing coronary artery disease, and ultimately, in the development of the recently approved Repatha®, an anti-hPCSK9 antibody (see, e.g., Jackson et al., U.S. Pat. No. 8,030,457). Advances in DNA sequencing technology provide the means to sequence the genomes of large numbers of individuals allowing for discovery of rare variants. deCODE Genetics (an Amgen company) has previously reported methods to analyze whole genomes of large numbers of Icelanders in order to search for associations between genetic variants and traits of interest. (Gudbjartsson et al., Nature Genetics; Vol. 47 (5) May 2015; p.435-444). 
     This methodology has now been applied in the search for novel genetic variants that affect cardiovascular disease, including cholesterol levels, and the risk for developing coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction (MI). The groundbreaking analysis performed has identified novel sequence variants of the Ashwell-Morell Receptor that are implicated in cardiovascular disease. 
     In the present invention, whole-genome sequencing of the Icelandic population discovered a rare, 12 base pair deletion (“del12”) in intron 4 of the ASGR-1 gene that is also present in other European ancestry populations. This deletion leads to a frameshift predicted to generate a truncated ASGR-1 receptor subunit that is lacking both the oligomerization and extracellular carbohydrate recognition domains (also known as “CRD,” “carbohydrate binding domain” or “CBD”) or may generate an unstable and rapidly degraded transcript (and therefore no protein) due to nonsense mediated decay. In the present invention, whole-genome sequencing of the Icelandic population also discovered a second rare loss of function variant in the ASGR-1 gene; namely, a 4 base pair insertion in exon 7 (c. 469-472dupAACT or “W158X”). This 4 base pair insertion in exon 7 causes a frameshift and introduces a premature stop codon at amino acid 158 out of the 291 amino acid full length protein (NP_001662.1:p.W158X). This variant is predicted to encode a protein lacking the carbohydrate recognition domain of the receptor or may generate an unstable and rapidly degraded transcript (and therefore no protein) due to nonsense mediated decay. Furthermore, the W158X variant effects all reported refseq transcripts of ASGR-1 regardless of tissue or cell type of expression. Without wishing to be bound by any particular hypothesis, the analysis indicates that del12 and W158X results in lower non-HDL cholesterol levels, protection against CAD and MI, leading to prolonged life. Additionally, the analysis indicates that del12 and W158X also associates with increased levels of circulating ALP and vitamin B12. Supporting this del12 and W158X association with increased levels of ALP are data from mice having a Y272C variant in ASGR-1, showing that these mice exhibit a phenotype of increased plasma ALP (Sabrautzki et al., Mamm. Genome, 23, 416-430, 2012). The Y272 position in mouse ASGR-1 corresponds to the Y273 position in human ASGR-1 (see  FIG. 1A ). 
     The Ashwell-Morell Receptor (AMR), originally named the hepatic asialoglycoprotein receptor, was one of the first cellular receptors to be isolated and identified. (Grewal, Methods in Enzymology, Volume 479, Chapter 13, 2010, pp.223-241). This receptor is also known as the Ashwell Receptor, the hepatic galactose/N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) receptor, or the hepatic lectin receptor. However, this receptor is now more commonly known as “ASGPR,” or simply “ASGR.” 
     ASGR is a C-type lectin that is expressed on the surface of hepatocytes and is made up of 48 kDa major subunit(s) (ASGR-1) and 40 kDa minor subunit(s) (ASGR-2). (Roggenbuck et al., Autoimmune Highlights, 2012, 3:119-125). Functional variants of ASGR are formed by the oligomerization of the ASGR-1 and ASGR-2 subunits. (Grewal). The receptor complexes can comprise homo-oligomers and hetero-oligomers of the ASGR-1 and ASGR-2 subunits, with (ASGR-1) 2 -(ASGR-2) 1  trimer being the most common form and having the highest affinity to substrate. (Grewal). Other identified forms of ASGR include (ASGR-1) 2 , (ASGR-1) 3 , (ASGR-1) 2 -(ASGR-2) 2 , (ASGR-1) 3 -(ASGR-2) 2 . (Grewal). 
     The polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences for several species of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2 are known. Table 1 presents sequences for human, mouse, rat, pig, dog and cynomolgus.  FIGS. 1A, 1B and 2  present sequence alignments of various species of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2, and  FIG. 3  presents a sequence alignment between human ASGR-1 and human ASGR-2. 
     ASGR-1 is a single pass transmembrane protein and is the major subunit of ASGR. The galactose (Gal) or N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) residues of glycoproteins are exposed by removal of sialic acid by sialidases, hence the term asialoglycoprotein for the ligands of ASGR. Although ASGR expression is detected in other tissues, liver is the predominant site of expression. A circulating form of the receptor, generated from ASGR-1 transcripts lacking exon two, has also been reported. (Liu J, Hu B, Yang Y, et al. A new splice variant of the major subunit of human asialoglycoprotein receptor encodes a secreted form in hepatocytes. PloS one 2010; 5:e12934). The del12 and W158X variants are predicted to truncate both the membrane bound and the circulating form of the receptor, and as mentioned above, the W158X variant may generate an unstable and rapidly degraded transcript (and therefore no protein) due to nonsense mediated decay. 
     The primary reported function of ASGR is to bind and internalize glycoproteins in the circulation that contain terminal galactose or N-acetylgalactosamine residues (asialoglycoproteins), resulting in the clearance of these proteins from the circulation. (Roggenbuck). Reported endogenous ligands include components of the blood coagulation system, such as platelets and Von Willebrand Factor. (Grewal). 
     As used herein, the terms “ASGR, ASGR-1, and/or ASGR-2 function” or “ASGR, ASGR-1, and/or ASGR-2 activity” includes any biological effect of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. In certain embodiments, ASGR function or activity includes the ability of ASGR to interact or bind to a ligand. In some embodiments, ASGR function or activity is represented by the ability of ASGR to interact or bind to sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase. In some embodiments, ASGR function or activity includes any biological activity resulting from ASGR response. Exemplary activities include, but are not limited to, clearance of asialoglycoproteins from the circulation; clearance of IgA from circulation; removal of apoptotic cells; clearance of low density lipoprotein (LDL) and/or the disposal of cellular fibronectin (Roggenbuck). 
     Given the location of ASGR on the surface of liver hepatocytes and its implication in hepatocyte entry by certain viruses (Roggenbuck), the receptor has become a target of convenience for therapeutics that require delivery to the liver and internalization into the cells. Examples of these uses include the targeted delivery of doxorubicin to hepatocellular carcinoma (Wei et al., Int J Nanomedicine, 2015, 10:5123-37), gene delivery to hepatocytes (D&#39;Souza et al., J Control Release, 2015, 203:126-39), and targeted delivery of siRNA to hepatocytes (Rajeev et al., Chembiochem, 2015, 16(6):903-8). 
     Although the ASGR and its ability to mediate endocytosis and degradation of desialylated glycoproteins has been known for nearly 4 decades, the endogenous ligands and the physiological function of the receptor have been difficult to establish. (Weigel P H, Yik J H. Glycans as endocytosis signals: the cases of the asialoglycoprotein and hyaluronan/chondroitin sulfate receptors. Biochimica et biophysica acta 2002; 1572:341-63). It has been reported that ASGR-1-/-mice (lacking any ASGR activity) thrive normally and do not accumulate desialylated glycoproteins in their circulation although they are unable to clear exogenously added asialoglycoproteins, suggesting that under normal physiological condition ASGR is not essential for homeostasis of circulating asialoglycoproteins. (Tozawa R, Ishibashi S, Osuga J, et al. Asialoglycoprotein receptor deficiency in mice lacking the major receptor subunit. Its obligate requirement for the stable expression of oligomeric receptor. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 2001; 276:12624-8). 
     In contrast to the ASGR-1 knockout mice which lack an apparent phenotype, the present invention has established a clear physiological role for human ASGR-1 in cardiovascular disease, for example, but not limited to, the regulation of non-HDL levels and modulation of CAD and MI risk. The present invention has also demonstrated the association of del12 and W158X with increased levels of circulating ALP and vitamin B12. Furthermore, the present invention shows that disturbing one allele of ASGR-1 appears to have an overall beneficial effect as heterozygotes carriers of del12 live on average 1.5 years longer than non-carriers. 
     Surprisingly, the various embodiments provided herein demonstrate that the del12 variant and the W158 variant both have an effect on non-HDL levels that is opposite to their effect on ALP and vitamin B12 levels; decreasing non-HDL and increasing ALP and vitamin B12. While not wishing to be bound by any particular hypothesis, it is important to note that the common variant previously described that associates with ALP and LDL cholesterol also has opposing effects on these serum components; hence ASGR-1 may affect the level of these molecules through different mechanisms. It is unlikely that the ALP increase mediated by del12 or W158X reflects an underlying liver disease since other measures of liver function are not affected. Both ALP and the vitamin B12 transporter in the circulation, haptocorrin, are asialylated glycoproteins known to bind ASGR-1 and be cleared from the circulation by the receptor (Tuin A, Huizinga-Van der Vlag A, van Loenen-Weemaes A M, Meijer D K, Poelstra K. On the role and fate of LPS-dephosphorylating activity in the rat liver. American Journal of Physiology Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 2006; 290:G377-85; Furger E, Fedosov S N, Lildballe D L, et al. Comparison of recombinant human haptocorrin expressed in human embryonic kidney cells and native haptocorrin. PloS one 2012; 7:e37421; Burger R L, Schneider R J, Mehlman C S, Allen R H. Human plasma R-type vitamin B12-binding proteins. II. The role of transcobalamin I, transcobalamin III, and the normal granulocyte vitamin B12-binding protein in the plasma transport of vitamin B12. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 1975; 250:7707-13; Steirer L M, Park E I, Townsend R R, Baenziger J U. The asialoglycoprotein receptor regulates levels of plasma glycoproteins terminating with sialic acid alpha 2,6-galactose. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 2009; 284:3777-83). While not wishing to be bound by any particular hypothesis, the more likely reason for the increased levels of ALP and vitamin B12 in del12 carriers and in W158X carriers is decreased clearance of desialylated forms of these molecules from the circulation, due to reduced number of functional ASGR receptors in del12 carriers and in W158X carriers, suggesting a role for ASGR-1 in maintaining homeostasis of circulating ALP and vitamin B12. 
     While not wishing to be bound by any particular hypothesis, the decreased levels of non-HDL in del12 carriers and in W158X carriers in the face of reduced ASGR-1 function suggest that ASGR-1 affects non-HDL levels by mechanisms other than direct binding and endocytosis of cholesterol particles. In mice expressing a hypomorphic form of neuraminidase 1 (Neu1), a sialidase that cleaves the sialic acid residues thereby generating substrates for ASGR-1, the LDL receptor (LDLR) is sialylated and this form of the receptor was more stable and took up LDL cholesterol more avidly (LDL levels were decreased in these mice) than the asialylated form of the wild type LDLR (Yang A, Gyulay G, Mitchell M, White E, Trigatti B L Igdoura S A. Hypomorphic sialidase expression decreases serum cholesterol by downregulation of VLDL production in mice Journal of Lipid Research 2012;53:2573-2585). Both ASGR and LDLR are located in clathrin-coated pits on hepatocytes and ASGR may be capable of interacting with the asialylated form of the LDLR and blocking its activity. 
     Two novel rare variants in ASGR-1 have been identified herein that play a role in cardiovascular disease, including, but not limited to, lowering non-HDL levels and protecting against CAD and MI. These variants disrupt ASGR-1 protein function. Accordingly, the present invention is further directed to methods of inhibiting ASGR function, methods of inhibiting ASGR-1 function and/or methods of inhibiting ASGR-2 function. The present invention is further directed to molecules (for example, but not limited to, antigen binding proteins or interfering RNA) that inhibit ASGR function, ASGR-1 function and/or ASGR-2 function. 
     Antigen Binding Proteins 
     In some embodiments, the invention comprises antigen binding proteins that bind to ASGR, ASGR-1, and/or ASGR-2 of different species, including, but not limited to, human, cynomolgus, porcine, canine, murine and rat. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins specifically bind to ASGR, ASGR-1, and/or ASGR-2 of different species, including, but not limited to, human, cynomolgus, porcine, canine, and murine and rat. Exemplary amino acid sequences of human, cyno, dog, pig, rat and mouse ASGR-1 and ASGR-2 are provided in  FIGS. 1-3 . In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins further inhibit ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 from binding to a ligand. 
     An “antigen binding protein” is a protein comprising an antigen binding fragment that binds to an antigen and, optionally, a scaffold or framework portion that allows the antigen binding fragment to adopt a conformation that promotes binding of the antigen binding protein to the antigen. In the instant application, the antigen is ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 protein or a fragment thereof. In some embodiments, the antigen binding fragment comprises at least one CDR from an antibody that binds to the antigen, and in some embodiments comprises the heavy chain CDR3 from an antibody that binds to the antigen. In some embodiments, the antigen binding fragment comprises all three CDRs from the heavy chain of an antibody that binds to the antigen or from the light chain of an antibody that binds to the antigen. In still some embodiments, the antigen binding fragment comprises all six CDRs from an antibody that binds to the antigen (three from the heavy chain and three from the light chain). The antigen binding fragment in certain embodiments is an antibody fragment. 
     Nonlimiting examples of antigen binding proteins include antibodies, antibody fragments (e.g., an antigen binding fragment of an antibody), antibody derivatives, and antibody analogs. Further specific examples include, but are not limited to, a single-chain variable fragment (scFv), a nanobody (e.g. VH domain of camelid heavy chain antibodies; VHH fragment, see Cortez-Retamozo et al., Cancer Research, Vol. 64:2853-57, 2004), a Fab fragment, a Fab′ fragment, a F(ab′)2 fragment, a Fv fragment, a Fd fragment, and a complementarity determining region (CDR) fragment. These molecules can be derived from any mammalian source, such as human, mouse, rat, rabbit, or pig, dog, or camelid. Antibody fragments may compete for binding of a target antigen with an intact antibody and the fragments may be produced by the modification of intact antibodies (e.g. enzymatic or chemical cleavage) or synthesized de novo using recombinant DNA technologies or peptide synthesis. The antigen binding protein can comprise, for example, an alternative protein scaffold or artificial scaffold with grafted CDRs or CDR derivatives. Such scaffolds include, but are not limited to, antibody-derived scaffolds comprising mutations introduced to, for example, stabilize the three-dimensional structure of the antigen binding protein as well as wholly synthetic scaffolds comprising, for example, a biocompatible polymer. See, for example, Korndorfer et al., 2003, Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics, Volume 53, Issue 1:121-129 (2003); Roque et al., Biotechnol. Prog. 20:639-654 (2004). In addition, peptide antibody mimetics (“PAMs”) can be used, as well as scaffolds based on antibody mimetics utilizing fibronectin components as a scaffold. 
     An antigen binding protein can also include a protein comprising one or more antibody fragments incorporated into a single polypeptide chain or into multiple polypeptide chains. For instance, antigen binding proteins can include, but are not limited to, a diabody (see, e.g., EP 404,097; WO 93/11161; and Hollinger et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, Vol. 90:6444-6448, 1993); an intrabody; a domain antibody (single VL or VH domain or two or more VH domains joined by a peptide linker; see Ward et al., Nature, Vol. 341:544-546, 1989); a maxibody (2 scFvs fused to Fc region, see Fredericks et al., Protein Engineering, Design &amp; Selection, Vol. 17:95-106, 2004 and Powers et al., Journal of Immunological Methods, Vol. 251:123-135, 2001); a triabody; a tetrabody; a minibody (scFv fused to CH3 domain; see Olafsen et al., Protein Eng Des Sel., Vol.17:315-23, 2004); a peptibody (one or more peptides attached to an Fc region, see WO 00/24782); a linear antibody (a pair of tandem Fd segments (VH—CH1-VH—CH1) which, together with complementary light chain polypeptides, form a pair of antigen binding regions, see Zapata et al., Protein Eng., Vol. 8:1057-1062, 1995); a small modular immunopharmaceutical (see U.S. Patent Publication No. 20030133939); and immunoglobulin fusion proteins (e.g. IgG-scFv, IgG-Fab, 2scFv-IgG, 4scFv-IgG, VH-IgG, IgG-VH, and Fab-scFv-Fc). 
     In certain embodiments, an antigen binding protein can have, for example, the structure of an immunoglobulin. An “immunoglobulin” is a tetrameric molecule, with each tetramer comprising two identical pairs of polypeptide chains, each pair having one “light” (about 25 kDa) and one “heavy” chain (about 50-70 kDa). The amino-terminal portion of each chain includes a variable region of about 100 to 110 or more amino acids primarily responsible for antigen recognition. The carboxy-terminal portion of each chain defines a constant region primarily responsible for effector function. 
     Within light and heavy chains, the variable (V) and constant regions (C) are joined by a “J” region of about 12 or more amino acids, with the heavy chain also including a “D” region of about 10 more amino acids. See generally, Fundamental Immunology Ch. 7 (Paul, W., ed., 2nd ed. Raven Press, N.Y. (1989)) (incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes). The variable regions of each light/heavy chain pair form the antibody binding site such that an intact immunoglobulin has two binding sites. 
     Immunoglobulin chains exhibit the same general structure of relatively conserved framework regions (FR) joined by three hypervariable regions, also called complementarity determining regions or CDRs. From N-terminus to C-terminus, both light and heavy chains comprise the domains FR1, CDR1, FR2, CDR2, FR3, CDR3 and FR4. 
     Human light chains are classified as kappa and lambda light chains. The term “light chain” refers to a polypeptide comprising, from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus, a single immunoglobulin light chain variable region (VL) and a single immunoglobulin light chain constant domain (CL). Heavy chains are classified as mu (μ), delta (Δ), gamma (γ), alpha (α), and epsilon (ε), and define the antibody&#39;s isotype as IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, and IgE, respectively. The term “heavy chain” refers to a polypeptide comprising, from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus, a single immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region (VH), an immunoglobulin heavy chain constant domain 1 (CH1), an immunoglobulin hinge region, an immunoglobulin heavy chain constant domain 2 (CH2), an immunoglobulin heavy chain constant domain 3 (CH3), and optionally an immunoglobulin heavy chain constant domain 4 (CH4). The IgG-class is further divided into subclasses, namely, IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4. The IgA-class is further divided into subclasses, namely IgA1 and IgA2. The IgM has subclasses including, but not limited to, IgM1 and IgM2. The heavy chains in IgG, IgA, and IgD antibodies have three domains (CH1, CH2, and CH3), whereas the heavy chains in IgM and IgE antibodies have four domains (CH1, CH2, CH3, and CH4). The immunoglobulin heavy chain constant domains can be from any immunoglobulin isotype, including subtypes. The antibody chains are linked together via inter-polypeptide disulfide bonds between the CL domain and the CH1 domain (i.e. between the light and heavy chain) and between the hinge regions of the antibody heavy chains. 
     The term “antibody” refers to an intact immunoglobulin of any isotype, and includes, for instance, chimeric, humanized, human, and bispecific antibodies. An “antibody” is a species of an antigen binding protein. An intact antibody will generally comprise at least two full-length heavy chains and two full-length light chains. Antibody sequences can be derived solely from a single species, or can be “chimeric,” that is, different portions of the antibody can be derived from two different species as described further below. Unless otherwise indicated, the term “antibody” also includes antibodies comprising two substantially full-length heavy chains and two substantially full-length light chains provided the antibodies retain the same or similar binding and/or function as the antibody comprised of two full length light and heavy chains. For example, antibodies having 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions at the N-terminus and/or C-terminus of the heavy and/or light chains are included in the definition provided that the antibodies retain the same or similar binding and/or function as the antibodies comprising two full length heavy chains and two full length light chains. Furthermore, unless explicitly excluded, antibodies include, for example, monoclonal antibodies, polyclonal antibodies, chimeric antibodies, humanized antibodies, human antibodies, bispecific antibodies, and synthetic antibodies. In some sections of the present disclosure, examples of antigen binding proteins are described herein in terms of the hybridoma line number as “number/letter/number” (e.g., 25A4). In these cases, the exact name denotes a specific monoclonal antibody derived from a specific hybridoma having a specific light chain variable region and heavy chain variable region. In some sections of the present disclosure, examples of antigen binding proteins are described herein in terms of “number/letter/number/”dot“/number” (e.g., 25A4.001) or number/letter/number/“dot”/number/“dot”/number (e.g., 25A4.001.001). In these cases, the name denotes a variant of a specific antibody having a light chain variable region and a heavy chain variable region that is related to, but distinct from the antibody derived from a hybridoma. That is, for example, an antigen binding protein named 25A4 is not the same as an antibody named 25A4.001 or an antibody named 25A4.001.001. 
     A “polyclonal antibody” refers to a population of antibodies that are typically widely varied in composition and binding specificity. A “monoclonal antibody” (“mAb”) as used herein refers to one or more of a population of antibodies having identical sequences. Monoclonal antibodies bind to the antigen at a particular epitope on the antigen. 
     In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein is a “fragment” or “antigen binding fragment” of an antibody. As used herein and unless otherwise specified, an “antibody fragment” refers to the Fab, Fab′, F(ab′)2, and Fv fragments that contain at least one CDR of an immunoglobulin that is sufficient to confer specific antigen binding to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. Antibody fragments may be produced by recombinant DNA techniques or by enzymatic or chemical cleavage of intact antibodies. 
     A Fab fragment is a monovalent fragment having the VL, VH, CL and CH1 domains; a F(ab′)2 fragment is a bivalent fragment having two Fab fragments linked by a disulfide bridge at the hinge region; a Fd fragment has the VH and CH1 domains; an Fv fragment has the VL and VH domains of a single arm of an antibody; and a dAb fragment has a VH domain, a VL domain, or an antigen-binding fragment of a VH or VL domain (U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,846,634, 6,696,245, US App. Pub. No. 05/0202512, 04/0202995, 04/0038291, 04/0009507, 03/0039958, Ward et al., Nature 341:544-546 (1989)). In certain embodiments, these antibody fragments can be incorporated into single domain antibodies, single-chain antibodies, maxibodies, minibodies, intrabodies, diabodies, triabodies, tetrabodies, v-NAR and bis-scFv (see e.g., Hollinger and Hudson, 2005, Nature Biotechnology, 23, 9, 1126-1136). Other antigen binding proteins envisioned are antibody polypeptides such as those disclosed in U. S. Pat. No. 6,703,199, including fibronectin polypeptide monobodies, the polypeptides as disclosed in U.S. Patent Publication 2005/0238646. In some embodiments, the antibodies comprise at least one CDR set forth in Tables 2 or 6 herein. 
     A “single-chain variable fragment” (“scFv”) is a fusion protein in which a VL and a VH region are joined via a linker (e.g., a synthetic sequence of amino acid residues) to form a continuous protein chain wherein the linker is long enough to allow the protein chain to fold back on itself and form a monovalent antigen binding site (see, e.g., Bird et al., Science 242:423-26 (1988) and Huston et al., 1988, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:5879-83 (1988)). For the sake of clarity, a “single-chain variable fragment” is not an antibody or an antibody fragment as defined herein. Diabodies are bivalent antibodies comprising two polypeptide chains, wherein each polypeptide chain comprises VH and VL domains joined by a linker that is too short to allow for pairing between two domains on the same chain, thus allowing each domain to pair with a complementary domain on another polypeptide chain (see, e.g., Holliger et al., 1993, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:6444-48 (1993), and Poljak et al., Structure 2:1121-23 (1994)). If the two polypeptide chains of a diabody are identical, then a diabody resulting from their pairing will have two identical antigen binding sites. Polypeptide chains having different sequences can be used to make a diabody with two different antigen binding sites. Similarly, tribodies and tetrabodies are antibodies comprising three and four polypeptide chains, respectively, and forming three and four antigen binding sites, respectively, which can be the same or different. 
     The term “CDR” refers to the complementarity determining region (also termed “minimal recognition units” or “hypervariable region”) within antibody variable sequences. The CDRs permit the antigen binding protein to specifically bind to a particular antigen of interest. There are three heavy chain variable region CDRs (CDRH1, CDRH2 and CDRH3) and three light chain variable region CDRs (CDRL1, CDRL2 and CDRL3). The CDRs in each of the two chains typically are aligned by the framework regions to form a structure that binds specifically to a specific epitope or domain on the target protein. From N-terminus to C-terminus, naturally-occurring light and heavy chain variable regions both typically conform to the following order of these elements: FR1, CDR1, FR2, CDR2, FR3, CDR3 and FR4. A numbering system has been devised for assigning numbers to amino acids that occupy positions in each of these domains. This numbering system is defined in Kabat Sequences of Proteins of Immunological Interest (1987 and 1991, NIH, Bethesda, Md.), or Chothia &amp; Lesk, 1987, J. Mol. Biol. 196:901-917; Chothia et al., 1989, Nature 342:878-883. Complementarity determining regions (CDRs) and framework regions (FR) of a given antibody may be identified using this system. Other numbering systems for the amino acids in immunoglobulin chains include IMGT® (the international ImMunoGeneTics information system; Lefranc et al, Dev. Comp. Immunol. 29:185-203; 2005) and AHo (Honegger and Pluckthun, J. Mol. Biol. 309(3):657-670; 2001). One or more CDRs may be incorporated into a molecule either covalently or noncovalently to make it an antigen binding protein. 
     In some embodiments, an antigen binding protein of the invention may incorporate the CDR(s) as part of a larger polypeptide chain, may covalently link the CDR(s) to another polypeptide chain, or may incorporate the CDR(s) noncovalently. The antigen binding molecules may comprise at least one of the CDRs described herein incorporated into a biocompatible framework structure. In one example, the biocompatible framework structure comprises a polypeptide or portion thereof that is sufficient to form a conformationally stable structural support, or framework, or scaffold, which is able to display one or more sequences of amino acids that bind to an antigen (e.g., CDRs, a variable region, etc.) in a localized surface region. Such structures can be a naturally occurring polypeptide or polypeptide “fold” (a structural motif), or can have one or more modifications, such as additions, deletions or substitutions of amino acids, relative to a naturally occurring polypeptide or fold. These scaffolds can be derived from a polypeptide of any species (or of more than one species), such as a human, other mammal, other vertebrate, invertebrate, plant, bacteria or virus. 
     Typically the biocompatible framework structures are based on protein scaffolds or skeletons other than immunoglobulin domains. For example, those based on fibronectin, ankyrin, lipocalin, neocarzinostatin, cytochrome b, CP1 zinc finger, PST1, coiled coil, LACI-D1, Z domain and tendamistat domains may be used (See e.g., Nygren and Uhlen, 1997, Current Opinion in Structural Biology, 7, 463-469). 
     An antigen binding protein may have one or more binding sites. If there is more than one binding site, the binding sites may be identical to one another or may be different. For example, an antibody typically has two identical binding sites, while a “bispecific” or “bifunctional” antibody has two different binding sites. The two binding sites of a bispecific antigen binding protein or antibody will bind to two different epitopes, which can reside on the same or different protein targets. 
     In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein is a bispecific antibody. In certain embodiments, a bispecific antibody binds to ASGR, ASGR-1 or ASGR-2 and PCSK9. In some embodiments, a bispecific antibody will bind to the ASGR-1 CBD and will inhibit ASGR-1 function, in addition to binding to PCSK9 and inhibiting the binding of PCSK9 to the LDLR. Methods of making bispecific antibodies are known in the art. One such method of making a “bispecific,” or “bifunctional” antigen binding protein or antibody involves the fusion of hybridomas or linking of Fab′ fragments. See, e.g., Songsivilai and Lachmann, 1990,  Clin. Exp. Immunol.  79:315-321; Kostelny et al., 1992,  J. Immunol.  148:1547-1553. Another method involves engineering the Fc portion of the heavy chains such as to create “knobs” and “holes” which facilitate heterodimer formation of the heavy chains when co-expressed in a cell. U.S. Pat. No. 7,695,963. Still another method also involves engineering the Fc portion of the heavy chain but uses electrostatic steering to encourage heterodimer formation while discouraging homodimer formation of the heavy chains when co-expressed in a cell. WO 09/089,004, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     The term “human antibody” includes antibodies having antibody regions such as variable and constant regions or domains which correspond substantially to human germline immunoglobulin sequences known in the art, including, for example, those described by Kabat et al. (1991) (loc. cit.). The human antibodies of the invention may include amino acid residues not encoded by human germline immunoglobulin sequences (e.g., mutations introduced by random or site-specific mutagenesis in vitro or by somatic mutation in vivo), for example in the CDRs, and in particular, in CDR3. The human antibodies can have at least one, two, three, four, five, or more positions replaced with an amino acid residue that is not encoded by the human germline immunoglobulin sequence. The definition of human antibodies as used herein also contemplates fully human antibodies, which include only non-artificially and/or genetically altered human sequences of antibodies as those can be derived by using technologies or systems known in the art, such as for example, phage display technology or transgenic mouse technology, including but not limited to the Xenomouse. 
     A humanized antibody has a sequence that differs from the sequence of an antibody derived from a non-human species by one or more amino acid substitutions, deletions, and/or additions, such that the humanized antibody is less likely to induce an immune response, and/or induces a less severe immune response, as compared to the non-human species antibody, when it is administered to a human subject. In one embodiment, certain amino acids in the framework and constant domains of the heavy and/or light chains of the non-human species antibody are mutated to produce the humanized antibody. In another embodiment, the constant domain(s) from a human antibody are fused to the variable domain(s) of a non-human species. In another embodiment, one or more amino acid residues in one or more CDR sequences of a non-human antibody are changed to reduce the likely immunogenicity of the non-human antibody when it is administered to a human subject, wherein the changed amino acid residues either are not critical for immunospecific binding of the antibody to its antigen, or the changes to the amino acid sequence that are made are conservative changes, such that the binding of the humanized antibody to the antigen is not significantly worse than the binding of the non-human antibody to the antigen. Examples of how to make humanized antibodies may be found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,054,297, 5,886,152 and 5,877,293. 
     The term “chimeric antibody” refers to an antibody that contains one or more regions from one antibody and one or more regions from one or more other antibodies. In one embodiment, one or more of the CDRs are derived from a human anti-ASGR, ASGR-1 or ASGR-2 antibody. In another embodiment, all of the CDRs are derived from a human anti-ASGR, ASGR-1 or ASGR-2 antibody. In another embodiment, the CDRs from more than one human anti-ASGR, ASGR-1 or ASGR-2 antibodies are mixed and matched in a chimeric antibody. For instance, a chimeric antibody may comprise a CDR1 from the light chain of a first human anti-ASGR, ASGR-1 or ASGR-2 antibody, a CDR2 and a CDR3 from the light chain of a second human anti-ASGR, ASGR-1 or ASGR-2 antibody, and the CDRs from the heavy chain from a third anti-ASGR, ASGR-1 or ASGR-2 antibody. Further, the framework regions may be derived from one of the same anti-ASGR, ASGR-1 or ASGR-2 antibodies, from one or more different antibodies, such as a human antibody, or from a humanized antibody. In one example of a chimeric antibody, a portion of the heavy and/or light chain is identical with, homologous to, or derived from an antibody from a particular species or belonging to a particular antibody class or subclass, while the remainder of the chain(s) is/are identical with, homologous to, or derived from an antibody or antibodies from another species or belonging to another antibody class or subclass. Also included are fragments of such antibodies that exhibit the desired biological activity. 
     A “neutralizing antigen binding protein” or “inhibitory antigen binding protein” or “antagonizing antigen binding protein” (e.g., “neutralizing antibody” or “inhibitory antibody” or “antagonizing antibody”) refers to an antigen binding protein or antibody, respectively, that binds to a target molecule and reduces and/or prevents the biological effect of that target molecule. This can be done, for example, by directly blocking a site on the target molecule through which the target molecule interacts with other molecules (e.g. blocking a ligand binding site of a receptor) or by indirectly blocking a site on the target molecule through which the target molecule interacts with other molecules (such as structural or energetic alterations in the target molecule). In some embodiments, these terms can also denote an antigen binding protein or antibody that prevents the target molecule to which it is bound from performing a biological function. In assessing the binding and/or specificity of an antigen binding protein, e.g., an antibody or immunologically functional fragment thereof, an antibody or fragment can substantially inhibit binding of a target molecule to its binding partner when an excess of antibody reduces the quantity of binding partner bound to the target molecule by at least about 1-20, 20-30%, 30-40%, 40-50%, 50-60%, 60-70%, 70-80%, 80-85%, 85-90%, 90-95%, 95-97%, 97-98%, 98-99%, 99.5%, 99.9% and 100%. In some embodiments, inhibition is complete. The measurement of reduction of binding is done using various assays known to those skilled in the art, (e.g., an in vitro competitive binding assay) and performed using relevant control molecules so that actual inhibition is measured. For example, numerous competition assays are well known in the art, with nonlimiting examples being competition ELISA, use of the BiaCore® platform, the Kinexa® platform, or the like. Further examples include: solid phase direct or indirect radioimmunoassay (RA), solid phase direct or indirect enzyme immunoassay (EIA), sandwich competition assay (see, e.g., Stahli et al., 1983, Methods in Enzymology 9:242-253); solid phase direct biotin-avidin EIA (see, e.g., Kirkland et al., 1986, J. Immunol. 137:3614-3619) solid phase direct labeled assay, solid phase direct labeled sandwich assay (see, e.g., Harlow and Lane, 1988, Antibodies, A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Press); solid phase direct label RIA using I-125 label (see, e.g., Morel et al., 1988, Molec. Immunol. 25:7-15); solid phase direct biotin-avidin EIA (see, e.g., Cheung, et al., 1990, Virology 176:546-552); and direct labeled RIA (Moldenhauer et al., 1990, Scand. J. Immunol. 32:7-82). Typically, such an assay involves the use of purified antigen bound to a solid surface or cells bearing either of these, an unlabelled test antigen binding protein and a labeled reference antigen binding protein. In some embodiments, in the case of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2, such a neutralizing antigen binding protein or antibody can diminish the ability of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 to bind to a ligand. In some embodiments, the neutralizing ability is characterized and/or described via a competition assay. In some embodiments, the neutralizing ability is described in terms of an IC50 or EC50 value. The antigen binding proteins in at least Table C are strong neutralizers. In some embodiments, the antibodies or antigen binding proteins neutralize by binding to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 and preventing ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 from binding to a ligand, including sugars such as lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars, such as fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase (or reducing the ability of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 to bind to ligand). 
     Competitive inhibition can be measured by determining the amount of labelled ligand bound to the solid surface or cells in the presence of the test antigen binding protein. Usually the test antigen binding protein is present in excess. Antigen binding proteins or antibodies identified by competition assay (competing antigen binding proteins or antibodies) include antigen binding proteins binding to the same epitope as the reference antigen binding proteins and antigen binding proteins binding to an adjacent epitope sufficiently proximal to the epitope bound by the reference antigen binding protein for steric hindrance to occur. Usually, when a competing antigen binding protein is present in excess, it will inhibit (e.g., reduce) specific binding of a reference antigen binding protein to a target antigen by at least 40-45%, 45-50%, 50-55%, 55-60%, 60-65%, 65-70%, 70-75% or 75% or more. In some embodiments, binding is inhibited by at least 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95%. In some embodiments, binding is inhibited by at least 80-85%, 85-90%, 90-95%, 95-97%, or 97% or more, including up to 100% inhibition. 
     In some embodiments, a ligand binding assay is used where cells expressing the target protein (e.g., ASGR-1) are mixed with antigen binding proteins and incubated for a time period, then washed. These cells are then incubated with labelled ligand (e.g., β-GalNAc) for a time period and then washed and analyzed for ligand binding, where reduced ligand binding as compared to a relevant control antigen binding protein indicates inhibition of binding due to the antigen binding protein blocking or inhibiting this binding. 
     Another manner in which the reduction in binding can be measured is the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50). The IC50 measures the amount or concentration of antigen binding protein that is needed to inhibit a given attribute (e.g., ligand binding) by half. In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins (e.g., human antibodies) have an IC50 value of 90 nM or less, in another embodiment, an IC50 value of 80 nM or less, in another embodiment, 70 nM or less, in another embodiment, 60 nM or less, in another embodiment, 50 nM or less, in another embodiment, 40 nM or less, in another embodiment, 30 nM or less, in another embodiment 25 nM or less. 
     In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to an ASGR-1 monomer. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to an ASGR-1 oligomer. In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to an ASGR-2 monomer. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to an ASGR-2 oligomer. In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to both ASGR-1 monomers and ASGR-2 monomers. In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to an ASGR oligomer comprising an (ASGR-1) 2 -(ASGR-2) 1  trimer. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to an ASGR oligomer comprising an (ASGR-1) 2  dimer. In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to an ASGR oligomer comprising an (ASGR-1)3 trimer. In yet further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to an ASGR oligomer comprising an (ASGR-1) 2 -(ASGR-2) 2  tetramer. In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to an ASGR oligomer comprising an (ASGR-1) 3 -(ASGR-2) 2  pentamer. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to a multimeric complex comprising at least two subunits of ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. 
     In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies, antibody fragments, etc.) bind to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 and inhibit ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 from binding to a ligand, wherein the antigen binding proteins comprise specific amino acid residues at particular positons in the molecule (e.g., in the VH, VL or CDRs). These residues may be involved in the binding properties of desired molecules (e.g., part of the paratope). A “paratope” are used herein is the location in an antibody that binds to the antigen. The paratope can comprise several amino acid residues from the VH and/or VL CDRs, and also can comprise residues from the framework regions. The paratope binds to the antigen&#39;s epitope. Paratopes can be determined using methodologies similar to those described determining epitopes. Once the amino acid residues involved in the binding properties of desired molecules, are identified, this information can be used to design antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies, antibody fragments, etc.) that can bind to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 and inhibit ASGR function (e.g., inhibit ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 from binding to ligand). 
     The binding site (or interface) between the representative antibodies and human ASGR-1 can be determined/defined a number of ways. For example, binding of representative antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies) to human ASGR-1 was analyzed in Example 10 using X-ray crystallography, and the binding site or interface was determined using distance. The crystal structure of the antibody/huASGR1 complex provides information as to which residues of representative antibodies form the interface with human ASGR-1. As mentioned above, one of ordinary skill in the art may use this information to design antigen binding proteins and antigen binding protein variants, including those that contain variable domains having 90% identity or greater, 95% identity or greater, 97% identity or greater, 99% identity or greater, or those antigen binding protein variants that contain variable domains having 20 or less, 15 or less, or 10 or less, or 5 or less insertions, deletions, and/or substitutions within the light chain and/or heavy chain variable domain of the antigen binding proteins disclosed herein. One may wish to maintain the amino acids within the interface while altering non-interface residues. Thus, in some embodiments, one may design and create antigen binding proteins and antigen binding protein variants of the antigen binding proteins disclosed herein having one or more amino acid additions, substitutions, and/or deletions within one or more CDRs that maintain binding to human ASGR-1 and inhibit ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 function (e.g., inhibit ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 from binding to ligand). 
     In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or the antibody comprises a light chain variable region and/or a heavy chain variable region, wherein the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Q27, R30, D32, H91, Y92, S93, Y94, I2, G28, I29, L33, Q90, P95, and R96 of SEQ ID NO:25010 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of S30, N31, W52, Y53, D54, S56, N57, Y59, Y101, S102, S103, G104, W105, Y106, D107, Y32, V33, V50, G55, K58, N74, E99, V100, and Y108 of SEQ ID NO:29016. In some embodiments, the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Q27, R30, D32, H91, Y92, S93, and Y94 of SEQ ID NO:25010 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of S30, N31, W52, Y53, D54, S56, N57, Y59, Y101, S102, S103, G104, W105, Y106, and D107 of SEQ ID NO:29016. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or the antibody comprises a light chain variable region and/or a heavy chain variable region, wherein the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of H31, S33, N34, N36, Y38, W56, Y97, Y98, I29, S32, N35, N37, Y55, T59, Q96, N99, T100 of SEQ ID NO:25164 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of T28, F29, T30, N31, Y32, D33, W50, H52, S55, N57, S99, S100, G101, W102, Y103, Y27, I34, N35, W47, M51, P53, N54, G56, T58, G59, Y104, D106 of SEQ ID NO:29170. In some embodiments, the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting H31, S33, N34, N36, Y38, W56, Y97, Y98 of SEQ ID NO:25164 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of T28, F29, T30, N31, Y32, D33, W50, H52, S55, N57, S99, S100, G101, W102, Y103 of SEQ ID NO:29170. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or the antibody comprises a light chain variable region and/or a heavy chain variable region, wherein the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of I30, Y32, T91, Y92, S93, T94, I96, I2, Q27, N28, I29, S31, L33, N34, T50, S67, Q89, Q90, P95 of SEQ ID NO:24908 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of S30, S31, I50, W52, H53, S56, N57, Y59, S01, M102, G103, T28, F29, F32, G33, H35, W47, I51, D54, K58, D99, L100, G104 of SEQ ID NO:28914. In some embodiments, the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting I30, Y32, T91, Y92, S93, T94, I96 of SEQ ID NO:24908 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of S30, S31, I50, W52, H53, S56, N57, Y59, S01, M102, G103 of SEQ ID NO:28914. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or the antibody comprises a light chain variable region and/or a heavy chain variable region, wherein the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Y32, S91, Y92, R93, Thr94, Pro95, F97, Ile2, Q27, N28, NAG100, Ile29, S30, S31, Q90, and L96 of SEQ ID NO:24362 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of A33, Val50, Ile51, S52, R53, S54, G55, G56, Y57, Y59, R99, A101, A103, G104, E106, S30, S31, Y32, Met34, N35, W47, S49, Thr58, R72, N74, L100, Val102, and S105 of SEQ ID NO:28368. In some embodiments, the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Y32, S91, Y92, R93, Thr94, Pro95, and F97 of SEQ ID NO:24362, and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of A33, Val50, Ile51, S52, R53, S54, G55, G56, Y57, Y59, R99, A101, A103, G104, and E106 of SEQ ID NO:28368. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or the antibody comprises a light chain variable region and/or a heavy chain variable region, wherein the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Q27, W32, A91, N92, S93, F94, F96, D1, I2, G28, I29, S30, R31, Y49, G50, Q89, Q90, and P95 of SEQ ID NO:24930 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Y33, H35, W50, H52, S55, G57, T58, N59, D99, G100, T101, S102, D31, Y32, L34, W47, I51, N54, G56, Y60, Q65, S103, and F104 of SEQ ID NO:28936. In some embodiments, the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Q27, W32, A91, N92, S93, F94, and F96 of SEQ ID NO:24930 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Y33, H35, W50, H52, S55, G57, T58, N59, D99, G100, T101, and S102 of SEQ ID NO:28936. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or the antibody comprises a light chain variable region and/or a heavy chain variable region, wherein the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 or all amino acid residue selected from the group consisting of Y32, Y49, T50, Q55, S91, H92, S93, F94, F96, S28, I29, T30, N33, L46, S53, L54, S56, Q89, Q90, and P95 of SEQ ID NO:28074 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of G26, F27, T28, S30, S31, Y32, S33, S52, G53, S54, S56, Y57, Y59, R98, G100, S101, R102, V2, F29, N35, S50, T51, S55, I58, R72, G99, G103, F104 and D105 of SEQ ID NO:32080. In some embodiments, the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Y32, Y49, T50, Q55, S91, H92, S93, F94, and F96 of SEQ ID NO:28074 and/or heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of G26, F27, T28, S30, S31, Y32, S33, S52, G53, S54, S56, Y57, Y59, R98, G100, S101 and R102 of SEQ ID NO:32080. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or the antibody comprises a light chain variable region and/or a heavy chain variable region, wherein the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of V29, S30, I32, Y33, L47, Y50, R55, A56, T57, Y94, G28, N31, L48, I49, G51, N54, G58, I59, S68, G69, D93, and S95 of SEQ ID NO:26814 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of V31, Y32, Y33, W50, N52, S55, G57, R98, G99, Y100, D101, I102, T204, V2, Y27, T30, L34, N35, P53, N54, G56, T58, N59, A97, L103, and G105 of SEQ ID NO:30820. In some embodiments, the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of V29, S30, I32, Y33, L47, Y50, R55, A56, T57, and Y94 of SEQ ID NO:26814 and/or heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of V31, Y32, Y33, W50, N52, S55, G57, R98, G99, Y100, D101, I102, and T204 of SEQ ID NO:30820. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or the antibody comprises a light chain variable region and/or a heavy chain variable region, wherein the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of N31, Y50, V51, Q54 SEQ ID NO:27482; and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of N30, S31, Y32, S52, Y54, N55, K59, R98, D100, F101, W102, S103, G104, Y105, K107, D110, V2, Y27, T28, F29, G33, W50, A53, G56, N57, H99, Y106, or G108 of SEQ ID NO:31488. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or the antibody comprises a light chain variable region and/or a heavy chain variable region, wherein the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of N30, S31, Y32, S52, Y54, N55, K59, R98, D100, F101, W102, S103, G104, Y105, K107, and D110 of SEQ ID NO:31488. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or the antibody comprises a light chain variable region and/or a heavy chain variable region, wherein the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Y33, Y50, D51, N53, K54, S57, V34, S52, R55, P56, G58, and G65 of SEQ ID NO:27780 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Q1, V2, F27, S30, S31, Y32, Y53, D54, W99, Y100, Y101, Y102, G26, T28, F29, G33, W52, G55, R72, N74, N98, Y103, Y104, D107, and V108 of SEQ ID NO:31786. In some embodiments, the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Y33, Y50, D51, N53, K54 and S57 of SEQ ID NO:27780 and/or heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Q1, V2, F27, S30, S31, Y32, Y53, D54, W99, Y100, Y101, and Y102 of SEQ ID NO:31786. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or the antibody comprises a light chain variable region and/or a heavy chain variable region, wherein the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of H31, G32, D33, G34, K35, Y37, I97, Q98, I99, I2, Q27, S28, L29, L30, T36, E55, Q95, S96, P100, and W101 of SEQ ID NO:26536 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of S31, W52, Y53, D54, Y57, Y59, D102, F103, W104, T28, S30, Y32, G33, W47, I50, I51, S56, K58, Y60, K65, D99, H101, S105, and G106 of SEQ ID NO:30542. In some embodiments, the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of H31, G32, D33, G34, K35, Y37, I97, Q98, and I99 of SEQ ID NO:26536 and/or heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of S31, W52, Y53, D54, Y57, Y59, D102, F103 and W104 of SEQ ID NO:30542. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or the antibody comprises a light chain variable region and/or a heavy chain variable region, wherein the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of N30, S31, Y33, F50, S54, S68, Y92, E93, W97, S28, V29, G32, L47, G51, A52, S53, R55, A56, G69, Q90, Q91, S94, and S95 of SEQ ID NO:26826 and/or the heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of R30, Y31, Y33, E50, S54, S56, N58, D98, Y99, G100, S28, Y32, W34, S35, W47, G49, I51, S52, H53, G55, T57, R97, A101, F102 and D103 of SEQ ID NO:30832. In some embodiments, the light chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of N30, S31, Y33, F50, S54, S68, Y92, E93, and W97 of SEQ ID NO:26826 and/or heavy chain variable region comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or all amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of R30, Y31, Y33, E50, S54, S56, N58, D98, Y99 and G100 of SEQ ID NO:30832. 
     In further embodiments, consensus sequences among the antigen binding proteins of the inventions are envisioned. For example, the variable heavy chain and variable light chain regions (VH and VL) and the CDRs (HCDR1/2/3 and LCDR1/2/3) of the invention include consensus sequences derived from groups of related monoclonal antibodies. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies) may be related by both sequence homology and function. As described herein, a “consensus sequence” refers to amino acid sequences having conserved amino acids common among a number of sequences and amino acids that vary within given amino acid sequences at certain positions. In some embodiments, the varied amino acid at a certain position is a substitution. In some embodiments, the varied amino acid at a certain position is a deletion. In some embodiments, the varied amino acid at a certain position is an addition or insertion. These varied amino acids will be apparent to one of skill in the art when analyzing particular antibody VH, VL and/or CDR sequences. 
     For example, antibody sequences were analyzed using the following methodology. The Smith-Waterman algorithm was used to align amino acid sequences against translated IMGT germline V, D and J genes. The V gene was located first, then the J gene was located in the region downstream from located V gene, and finally the D gene was located in the region between V and J regions. Note, that since D gene is a relatively short sequence that is located in the hypervariable CDR3 region, a spurious match is possible and as such, was taken into consideration. 
     Sequences from each group were then subjected to sequence similarity alignment interrogation using a program that employs a standard ClustalW algorithm (see, Thompson et al., 1994, Nucleic Acids Res. 22:4673-4680). In some cases, the Biosum cost matrix was used with a gap creation penalty of 50 was employed along with a gap extension penalty of 0.1. The sequence logos were generated by Geneious (v8.1.7, Biomatters) once the alignments were made and then exported as PDF images. The consensus sequences were generated in Geneious (v8.1.7, Biomatters) with a 0% threshold and exported as FASTA files. Amino acids that varied within each group were noted with the notation X within each consensus sequence. See Table 19A VH Consensus 1-14 and Table 20A VL Consensus 1-14 in  FIG. 55 , and Tables 21-48 in  FIG. 56  for the consensus sequences resulting from this analysis. In other cases, the consensus sequences were generated in Abinitio. See Table 19A VH Consensus-15-60 and Table 20A VL Consensus 15-54 in  FIG. 55 , and Tables 49-134 in  FIG. 57  for the consensus sequences resulting from this analysis. 
     Alternatively, different methods of analysis readily available to one of skill in the art can be used. For example, consensus sequences can be determined using standard phylogenetic analyses of the CDRs corresponding to the VH (i.e., Variable Heavy, etc.) &amp; VL (i.e., Variable Light, etc.) of antibodies. For example, amino acid sequences corresponding to the entire variable domains of either VH or VL can be converted to FASTA formatting for ease in processing comparative alignments and inferring phylogenies. Next, framework regions of these sequences can be replaced with an artificial linker sequence so that examination of the CDRs alone can be performed without introducing any amino acid position weighting bias due to coincident events (e.g., such as unrelated antibodies that serendipitously share a common germline framework heritage) while still keeping CDRs contiguous within the same sequence corresponding to a VH or VL. VH or VL sequences of this format can then be subjected to sequence similarity alignment interrogation using a program that employs a standard ClustalW-like algorithm (see, Thompson et al., 1994, Nucleic Acids Res. 22:4673-4680). A gap creation penalty of 8.0 can be employed along with a gap extension penalty of 2.0. This program likewise generated phylograms (phylogenetic tree illustrations) based on sequence similarity alignments using either UPGMA (unweighted pair group method using arithmetic averages) or Neighbor-Joining methods (see, Saitou and Nei, 1987, Molecular Biology and Evolution 4:406-425) to construct &amp; illustrate similarity and distinction of sequence groups via branch length comparison and grouping. The original sequence alignments generated can be employed to empirically examine and document the occurrence of amino acids tolerated at each position with a consensus group. Consensus sequences for the groups of similar sequences within each CDR can then be prepared. 
     In another type of approach, CDR consensus sequences can be determined for each separate CDR, independently of their contiguous context within the same sequence corresponding to a VH or VL. In this approach the consensus sequences can be determined by aligning each H-CDR1, H-CDR2, H-CDR3, L-CDR1, L-CDR2, and L-CDR3 in groups, i.e., by aligning the individual H-CDR1 sequences of the antigen binding proteins to determine a H-CDR1 consensus sequence, by aligning the individual H-CDR2 sequences of the antigen binding proteins to determine a H-CDR2 consensus sequence, by aligning the individual H-CDR3 sequences of the antigen binding proteins to determine a H-CDR3 consensus sequence, by aligning the individual L-CDR1 sequences of the antigen binding proteins to determine a L-CDR1 consensus sequence, by aligning the individual L-CDR2 sequences of the antigen binding proteins to determine a L-CDR2 consensus sequence, and by aligning the individual L-CDR3 sequences of the antigen binding proteins to determine a L-CDR3 consensus sequence. Similarities between sequences within each individual CDR sequences can be identified. Consensus sequences for the groups of similar sequences within each CDR can then be prepared. 
     Various embodiments of Variable Heavy chain (VH) Consensus amino acid sequences of the present invention are set forth in Table 19A of  FIG. 55  (CDRs are underlined, with the first being CDR1). Various embodiments of VH CDR Consensus amino acid sequences of the present invention are set forth in Tables 19B and 19C of  FIG. 55 . In some cases, an “X” is present in the amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 19A and 19B which signifies that more than one amino acid (or no amino acid) may be present at this location (see  FIGS. 56 and 57  for details of the consensus protein alignment). In some cases a “-” is present in Table 19A (which is the result of the consensus alignment) and signifies that no amino acid is present at the location (see  FIGS. 56 and 57  for details of the consensus protein alignment). The VH Consensus sequences and the VH CDR Consensus sequences are based on analysis of 8 or more aligned VH/VH CDR antibody sequences, as described above. In some cases, the VH/VH CDR Consensus sequence is based on analysis of 25 or more, 50 or more, 75 or more, or 100 or more aligned VH antibody sequences. In one case, the VH/VH CDR Consensus sequence is based on analysis of 149 aligned VH antibody sequences. 
     Various emobodiments of Variable Light chain (VL) Consensus amino acid sequences of the present invention are set forth in Table 20A of  FIG. 55  (CDRs are underlined, with the first being CDR1). Various embodiments of VL CDR Consensus amino acid sequences of the present invention are set forth in Tables 20B and 20C of  FIG. 55 . As mentioned above, in some cases, an “X” is present in the amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 20A and 20B which signifies that more than one amino acid (or no amino acid) may be present at this location (see  FIGS. 56 and 57  for details of the consensus protein alignment). In some cases a “-” is present in Table 20A (which is the result of the consensus alignment) and signifies that no amino acid is present at the location (see  FIGS. 56 and 57  for details of the consensus protein alignment). The VL Consensus sequences and the VL CDR Consensus sequences are based on analysis of 8 or more aligned VL/VL CDR antibody sequences, as described above. In some cases, the VL/VL CDR Consensus sequence is based on analysis of 25 or more, 50 or more, 75 or more, or 100 or more, 125 or more, or 150 or more aligned VL antibody sequences. In one case, the VL/VL CDR Consensus sequence is based on analysis of 209 aligned VL antibody sequences. 
     As discussed above, the consensus sequences in certain embodiments can comprise substitutions, deletions, or additions/insertions at different positions in the sequence. Specific examples of these substitutions, deletions, or additions/insertions can be found in Tables 19C and 20C of  FIG. 55 , as well as Tables 21-48 of  FIG. 56  and Tables 49-134 of  FIG. 57 , all of which are included herein. However, in no way should the amino acid substitutions, deletions, or additions/insertions exemplified in Tables 19A-C and 20A-C in  FIG. 55  or in Tables 21-48 in  FIG. 56  or in Tables 49-134 in  FIG. 57  be construed to limit the invention to only those amino acid substitutions, deletions, or additions at any position in the identified consensus sequences (VH, VL and/or CDRs) with any amino acid is contemplated herein. 
     In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention comprise 3 VH CDRs and 3 VL CDRs, wherein at least one VH CDR is a VH1 CDR selected from Table 19B or Table 19C as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention comprise 3 VH CDRs and 3 VL CDRs, wherein at least one VH CDR is a VH2 CDR selected from Table 19B or Table 19C as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention comprise 3 VH CDRs and 3 VL CDRs, wherein at least one VH CDR is a VH3 CDR selected from Table 19B or Table 19C as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention comprise 3 VH CDRs and 3 VL CDRs, wherein the VH1 CDR, the VH2 CDR and the VH3 CDR is selected from Table 19B or Table 19C as depicted in  FIG. 55 . 
     In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention comprise 3 VH CDRs and 3 VL CDRs, wherein at least one VL CDR is a VL1 CDR selected from Table 20B or Table 20C as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention comprise 3 VH CDRs and 3 VL CDRs, wherein at least one VL CDR is a VL2 CDR selected from Table 20B or Table 20C as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention comprise 3 VH CDRs and 3 VL CDRs, wherein at least one VL CDR is a VL3 CDR selected from Table 20B or Table 20C as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention comprise 3 VH CDRs and 3 VL CDRs, wherein the VL1 CDR, the VL2 CDR and the VL3 CDR is selected from Table 20B or Table 20C as depicted in  FIG. 55 . 
     In some embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions of a VH. In some embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions of a VL. In further embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions within a VH1 CDR. In further embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions within a VH2 CDR. In further embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions within a VH3 CDR. In further embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions within a VL1 CDR. In further embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions within a VL2 CDR. In further embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions within a VL3 CDR. 
     In some embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions of a VH consensus sequence. In some embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions of a VL consensus sequence. In further embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions within a VH1 CDR Consensus sequence. In further embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions within a VH2 CDR Consensus sequence. In further embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions within a VH3 CDR Consensus sequence. In further embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions within a VL1 CDR Consensus sequence. In further embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions within a VL2 CDR Consensus sequence. In further embodiments, antigen binding proteins comprise no more than one, two, three, four, five, or six amino acid additions, deletions or substitutions within a VL3 CDR Consensus sequence. 
     In some embodiments, framework consensus sequences are encompassed by the present invention. Examples of these framework consensus sequences and additions, deletions or substitutions are shown in Tables 21-48 in  FIG. 56  and Tables 49-134 in  FIG. 57  herein. 
     In a further embodiment, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to ASGR of different species, including, but not limited to, human, cynomolgus, porcine, canine, murine and rat. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to human. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to cynomolgus ASGR. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to porcine ASGR. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to canine ASGR. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to murine ASGR. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to rat ASGR. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins specifically bind to ASGR of the different species. 
     In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to ASGR-1 of different species, including, but not limited to, human, cynomolgus, porcine, canine, murine and rat. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to human ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to cynomolgus ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to porcine ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to canine ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to murine ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to rat ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins specifically bind to ASGR-1 of the different species. 
     In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention binds to ASGR-2 of different species, including, but not limited to, human, cynomolgus, porcine, canine, murine and rat. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to human ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to cynomolgus ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to porcine ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to canine ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to murine ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to rat ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins specifically bind to ASGR-2 of the different species. 
     In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 from two or more different species, and/or bind ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 from the same species. For example, but not limited to: an antibody that binds human and cynomolgus ASGR-1; an antibody that binds to human, cynomolgus and porcine ASGR-1; an antibody that binds to human, cynomolgus, rat and murine ASGR-2; an antibody that binds human ASGR-1 and human ASGR-2; an antibody that binds human and cynomolgus ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins specifically bind to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 from two or more different species and/or specifically bind ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 from the same species. 
     As discussed herein, the ASGR receptor, and ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 separately, internalize into the cell upon ligand binding. Accordingly, in certain embodiments, the invention provides antigen binding proteins that inhibit or reduce internalization of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention reduce ligand binding and also inhibit internalization of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention inhibit internalization without necessarily inhibiting ligand binding. 
     In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies) of the invention are pH and/or calcium insensitive molecules, as well as binding to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 and inhibiting the binding to a ligand. It is envisioned that these properties are desired to reduce or prevent the molecule from disassociating from the receptor during the endocytotic process in order to extend the half-life of the molecule. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies) with pH-independent binding to its antigen such that the affinity for the antigen binding at physiological pH (i.e., pH 7.4) is similar to that at endosomal pH (i.e., pH 5.5-6.0). In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies) with calcium-independent binding to its antigen such that the affinity for the antigen binding at assay conditions (i.e., 1 mM calcium) is similar to that in the absence of exogenously added calcium. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins with both pH- and calcium-independent binding to its antigen such that the affinity for the antigen binding at physiologic pH and in the presence of calcium is similar to that at endosomal pH (i.e., pH 5.5-6.0) and in the absence of calcium. Any number of methods known to one skilled in the art can be used to measure pH and/or calcium insensitivity, such as the method described in Example 7C below. 
     ASGR-1, an asialoglycoprotein receptor, contains an N-term cytosolic domain, a transmembrane domain, a stalk region and a carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) (alternatively known as the carbohydrate binding domain, or “CBD”). The carbohydrate recognition domain (“CRD”) structure of ASGR-1 is reported in literature (M. Meier et al, JMB (2000)300, 857-865). The structure of ASGR-1 at a higher resolution than reported, and also when bound to various ligands (e.g., sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase) is provided herein (see Example 10 and  FIGS. 18-21  herein). Given the importance of this domain to the function of ASGR-1, in some embodiments, it is desirable to target this domain with the antigen binding proteins of the present invention. 
     Accordingly, in some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to the CBD of ASGR-1. In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to the CBD of human ASGR-1. In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to the CBD of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of 148-291, 149-291, 150-291, 151-291, 152-291, 153-291, and 154-291 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 CBD within Helix α-1 or Helix α-2. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 CBD within residues 174-186 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 CBD within residues 194-206 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 CBD at the same or overlapping binding site as where a ligand binds (e.g., sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase or other sugars and glycoproteins capable of binding to ASGR, ASGR-1, and/or ASGR-2). In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 CBD within residues 237-273 or residues 240-267 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to the CBD of cynomolgus ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to the CBD of porcine ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to the CBD of canine ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to the CBD of murine ASGR-1. In yet some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to the CBD of rat ASGR-1. In yet some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to the CBD of two or more different ASGR-1 species, for example, but not limited to, human ASGR-1 and cynomolgus ASGR-1, or human ASGR-1, cynomolgus ASGR-1 and canine ASGR-1, or human ASGR-1 and murine ASGR-1. 
     In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to ASGR-1 and inhibit binding of ligand to ASGR-1. In a specific embodiment, the ligands that are inhibited include, but are not limited to, sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase or other sugars and glycoproteins capable of binding to ASGR, ASGR-1, and/or ASGR-2. 
     The tyrosine at position 272 of murine ASGR-1 (position 273 of human ASGR-1 (SEQ ID NO:5)) appears to be important for protein stability, as it displays hydrogen bonding to D266 of murine ASGR-1 and several van der Waals contacts to other residues of murine ASGR-1 (N208, W210, H256, and R270). Additionally, by analogy with other lectins, Y272 of murine ASGR-1 may play a role in carbohydrate binding and function of ASGR-1. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with Y273 of human ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to ASGR-1 at an epitope that comprises Y273 of human ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to ASGR-1 at an epitope that results in Y273 of human ASGR-1 being unable to take part in binding ligand. 
     Analysis of the crystal structure of hASGR-1 revealed specific amino acids that are involved in the interaction between hASGR-1 and the ligands (e.g., sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase). Accordingly, in further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least one of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least one of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-land block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least one of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase). 
     In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least one of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least one of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least one of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273 with a ligand (e.g., sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase). 
     In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least two of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least three of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least four of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least five of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least six of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least seven of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least eight of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least nine of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least ten of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least eleven of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 . In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least twelve of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least thirteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least fourteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least fifteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least sixteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least seventeen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least eighteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least nineteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least twenty of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. 
     In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least two of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least three of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least four of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least five of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least six of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least seven of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least eight of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least nine of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least ten of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least eleven of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to or interact with at least all of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. 
     In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least two of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least three of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least four of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least five of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least six of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least seven of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least eight of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least nine of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least ten of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least eleven of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least twelve of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least thirteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least fourteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least fifteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least sixteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least seventeen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least eighteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 . In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least nineteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least twenty of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264. 
     In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least two of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least three of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least four of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least five of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least six of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least seven of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least eight of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least nine of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least ten of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising at least eleven of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. In some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind at an epitope comprising all of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273. 
     In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least two of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least three of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least four of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g,sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least five of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g,sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least six of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g,sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least seven of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least eight of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g,sugars including but not limited to lactose, galactose, and/or GalNAc or glycoproteins displaying such sugars including but not limited to fetuin, orosomucoid and/or alkaline phosphatase). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least nine of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least ten of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least eleven of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least twelve of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least thirteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least fourteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least fifteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least sixteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least seventeen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least eighteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least nineteen of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least twenty of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, F258, R263, or W264 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). 
     In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least two of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least three of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least four of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least five of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least six of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least seven of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least eight of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least nine of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least ten of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of at least eleven of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). In further embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention bind to hASGR-1 and block or reduce the binding or interaction of all of Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, P238, H257, T259, or Y273 with a ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose and/or GalNAc). 
     In order to relate unique antigen binding protein sequence features to specific functions or binding characteristics, sequences from antigen binding proteins of the invention from various characterization bins can be analyzed. For example, antigen binding proteins of the invention can be tested for their ability to bind a variety of binning probes (e.g., membrane preps from cells expressing ASGR-1 from different species or soluble huASGR-1). For each unique binding bin, the heavy and light chain sequences from each of the antigen binding proteins can be compared and claded based on, for example: 1. the unique VDJ and VJ rearrangements; 2. divergence from germline (ie. unique somatic hypermutation); and 3. relatedness to other antigen binding proteins of the same bin. Accordingly, in certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins comprising the same or similar sequence features and patterns, will have substantially the same or similar binding characteristics. In specific embodiments, these antigen binding proteins can bind to the same or similar epitope with varying affinities. 
     The exemplary antigen binding proteins described herein have properties based on the epitope on ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 that is bound by the antigen binding protein. The term “epitope” includes any determinant capable of being bound by an antigen binding protein, such as an antibody. An epitope is a region of an antigen that is bound by, or interacts with, an antigen binding protein that targets that antigen, and when the antigen is a protein, includes specific amino acids that directly contact, or interact with, the antigen binding protein. An epitope can be formed both by contiguous amino acids or non-contiguous amino acids juxtaposed by tertiary folding of a protein. A “linear epitope” is an epitope where an amino acid primary sequence comprises the recognized epitope. A linear epitope typically includes at least 3 or at least 4, and more usually, at least 5 or at least 6 or at least 7, for example, about 8 to about 10 amino acids in a unique sequence. 
     A “conformational epitope”, in contrast to a linear epitope, is a group of discontinuous amino acids (e.g., in a polypeptide, amino acid residues that are not contiguous in the polypeptide&#39;s primary sequence but that, in the context of the polypeptide&#39;s tertiary and quaternary structure, are near enough to each other to be bound by an antigen binding protein). Epitope determinants can include chemically active surface groupings of molecules such as amino acids, sugar side chains, phosphoryl or sulfonyl groups, and can have specific three dimensional structural characteristics, and/or specific charge characteristics. Generally, antigen binding proteins specific for a particular target molecule will preferentially recognize an epitope on the target molecule in a complex mixture of proteins and/or macromolecules. 
     Methods of characterizing the epitope bound by an antigen binding protein are well known in the art, including, but not limited to, binning (competition and/or cross-competition) (Miller et al “Epitope binning of murine monoclonal antibodies by a multiplexed pairing assay”  J Immunol Methods  (2011) 365, 118-25), peptide mapping (e.g., PEPSPOT™) (Albert et al “The B-cell Epitope of the Monoclonal Anti-Factor VIII Antibody ESH8 Characterized by Peptide Array Analysis” 2008  Thromb Haemost  99, 634-7), mutagenesis methods such as chimeras (Song et al “Epitope Mapping of Ibalizumab, a Humanized Anti-CD4 Monoclonal Antibody with Anti-HIV-1 Activity in Infected Patients ”  J. Virol.  (2010) 84, 6935-6942), alanine scanning (Cunningham and Wells “High-resolution epitope mapping of HGH-receptor interactions by alanine-scanning mutagenesis”  Science  (1989) 244, 1081-1085), arginine scanning (Lim et al “A diversity of antibody epitopes can induce signaling through the erythropoietin receptor”  Biochemistry  (2010) 49, 3797-3804), HD exchange methods (Coates et al “Epitope mapping by amide hydrogen/deuterium exchange coupled with immobilization of antibody, on-line proteolysis, liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry”  Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom.  (2009) 23 639-647), NMR cross saturation methods (Morgan et al “Precise epitope mapping of malaria parasite inhibitory antibodies by TROSY NMR cross-saturation”  Biochemistry  (2005) 44, 518-23), and crystallography (Gerhardt et al “Structure of IL-17A in complex with a potent, fully human neutralizing antibody”  J. Mol. Biol  (2009) 394, 905-21). The methods vary in the level of detail they provide as to the amino acids comprising the epitope. 
     Antigen binding proteins of the present invention include those that have an identical or overlapping epitope with an exemplary antigen binding protein described in Tables 2-7. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein has an identical epitope as to the exemplary antigen binding proteins. In other embodiments, the antigen binding protein binds only a subset of the same amino acids as the exemplary antigen binding protein. In some embodiments, antigen binding proteins that might bind to any of the epitopes that are bound by the antibodies listed in Tables A, B, C or 6 are especially useful. 
     In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the present invention have an identical or overlapping epitope to the antigen binding proteins in Table 2-7 and comprise a) a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of the antigen binding proteins described in Tables 2-7; b) a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Tables 2-7; or c) the light chain variable domain of a) and the heavy chain variable domain of b). 
     In certain embodiments, the antigen binding protein of the present invention has an identical or overlapping epitope to the antigen binding proteins selected from the group consisting of 25A4, 4H6, 4A2, 5E5, 7E11, 54E9, 22G5, 194A4, 218G4, 176H4 and 194C10 wherein the antigen binding protein comprises a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 25A4 and a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 25A4; those comprising a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 4H6 and a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 4H6; those comprising a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 4A2 and a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 4A2; those comprising a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 5E5 and a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 5E5; those comprising a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 7E11 and a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 7E11; those comprising a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 54E9 and a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 54E9; those comprising a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 22G5 and a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 22G5; those comprising a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 194A4 and a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 194A4; those comprising a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 218G4G4 and a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 218G4; those comprising a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 176H4 and a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 176H4; those comprising a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 194C10 and a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity, at least 95% identity, or is identical to the amino acid sequence of 194C10. 
     In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein of the invention has an identical or overlapping epitope as the antibodies in Tables 2-7, and comprises a light chain variable domain comprising an LCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR1 sequence set forth in Table 2; an LCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR2 sequence set forth in Table 2; and an LCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR3 sequence set forth in Table 2; and a heavy chain variable domain comprising a) an HCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR1 sequence set forth in Table 2; an HCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR2 sequence set forth in Table 2; and an HCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR3 sequence set forth in Table 2. 
     In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein of the invention has an identical or overlapping epitope as the antibodies in Tables A, B, C or 6, and comprises a light chain variable domain comprising an LCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR1 sequence set forth in Tables A, B, C or 6; an LCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR2 sequence set forth in Tables A, B, C or 6; and an LCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR3 sequence set forth in Tables A, B, C or 6; and a heavy chain variable domain comprising a) an HCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR1 sequence set forth in Tables A, B, C or 6; an HCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR2 sequence set forth in Tables A, B, C or 6; and an HCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR3 sequence set forth in Tables A, B, C or 6. 
     In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein of the invention has an identical or overlapping epitope as the antibody, 25A4, and comprises a light chain variable domain comprising an LCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:480; an LCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:8492; and an LCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:16504; and a heavy chain variable domain comprising an HCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:4488; an HCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:12500; and an HCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:20512. 
     In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein of the invention has an identical or overlapping epitope as the antibody, 4H6, and comprises a light chain variable domain comprising an LCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:894; an LCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:8906; and an LCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:16918; and a heavy chain variable domain comprising an HCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:4902; an HCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:12914; and an HCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:20926. 
     In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein of the invention has an identical or overlapping epitope as the antibody, 4A2, and comprises a light chain variable domain comprising an LCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1130; an LCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:9142; and an LCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:17154; and a heavy chain variable domain comprising an HCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:5136; an HCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:13148; and an HCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:21160. 
     In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein of the invention has an identical or overlapping epitope as the antibody, 5E5, and comprises a light chain variable domain comprising an LCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:974; an LCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:8986; and an LCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:16998; and a heavy chain variable domain comprising an HCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:4982; an HCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:12994; and an HCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:21006. 
     In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein of the invention has an identical or overlapping epitope as the antibody, 7E11, and comprises a light chain variable domain comprising an LCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:872; an LCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:8884; and an LCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:16896; and a heavy chain variable domain comprising an HCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:4880; an HCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:12892; and an HCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:20904. 
     In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein of the invention has an identical or overlapping epitope as the antibody, 54E9, and comprises a light chain variable domain comprising an LCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3448; an LCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:11460; and an LCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:19472; and a heavy chain variable domain comprising an HCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:7452; an HCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:15464; and an HCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:23476. 
     In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein of the invention has an identical or overlapping epitope as the antibody, 22G5, and comprises a light chain variable domain comprising an LCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:326; an LCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:8338; and an LCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:16350; and a heavy chain variable domain comprising an HCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:4334; an HCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:12346; and an HCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:20358. 
     In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein of the invention has an identical or overlapping epitope as the antibody, 194A4, and comprises a light chain variable domain comprising an LCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2780; an LCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:10792; and an LCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:18804; and a heavy chain variable domain comprising an HCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:6786; an HCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:14798; and an HCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:22810. 
     In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein of the invention has an identical or overlapping epitope as the antibody, 218G4, and comprises a light chain variable domain comprising an LCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3746; an LCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:11758; and an LCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:19770; and a heavy chain variable domain comprising an HCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:7750; an HCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:15762; and an HCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:23774. 
     In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein of the invention has an identical or overlapping epitope as the antibody, 176H4, and comprises a light chain variable domain comprising an LCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2502; an LCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:10514; and an LCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:18526; and a heavy chain variable domain comprising an HCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:6508; an HCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:14520; and an HCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:22532. 
     In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein of the invention has an identical or overlapping epitope as the antibody, 194C10, and comprises a light chain variable domain comprising an LCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2792; an LCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:10804; and an LCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the LCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:18816; and a heavy chain variable domain comprising an HCDR1 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR1 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:6798; an HCDR2 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR2 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:14810; and an HCDR3 having no more than three amino acid additions, deletions, or substitutions from the HCDR3 sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:22822. 
     Antigen binding proteins that have an identical or overlapping epitope will often compete for binding to the antigen, ASGR, ASGR1 and/or ASGR2. Thus, in certain embodiments, an antigen binding protein (e.g., antibody or antibody fragment thereof) of the invention competes with the antigen binding proteins described in Tables 2-7. In some embodiments, an antigen binding protein (e.g., antibody or antibody fragment thereof) of the invention competes with the antigen binding proteins described in Tables A, B and C. In some embodiments, an antigen binding protein (e.g., antibody or antibody fragment thereof) of the invention competes with the antigen binding proteins described in Table 6. To “compete” or “competition” means the antigen binding proteins compete for the same epitope or binding site on a target. Such competition can be determined by an assay in which the reference antigen binding protein (e.g., antibody or antibody fragment thereof) prevents or inhibits specific binding of a test antigen binding protein. Numerous types of competitive binding assays can be used to determine if a test molecule competes with a reference molecule for binding. Examples of assays that can be employed include solid phase direct or indirect radioimmunoassay (RIA), solid phase direct or indirect enzyme immunoassay (EIA), sandwich competition assay (see, e.g., Stahli et al. (1983)  Methods in Enzymology  9:242-253), solid phase direct biotin-avidin EIA (see, e.g., Kirkland et al., (1986)  J. Immunol.  137:3614-3619), solid phase direct labeled assay, solid phase direct labeled sandwich assay, Luminex (Jia et al “A novel method of Multiplexed Competitive Antibody Binning for the characterization of monoclonal antibodies”  J. Immunological Methods  (2004) 288, 91-98) and surface plasmon resonance ((Song et al “Epitope Mapping of Ibalizumab, a Humanized Anti-CD4 Monoclonal Antibody with Anti-HIV-1 Activity in Infected Patients”  J. Virol.  (2010) 84, 6935-6942). An exemplary method of determining competition is described in Example 7D. Usually, when a competing antigen binding protein is present in excess, it will inhibit binding of a reference antigen binding protein to a common antigen by at least 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, or 75%. In some instances, binding to ASGR-1 is inhibited by at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more. 
     Besides competition, antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies or antibody fragments thereof) with identical, overlapping, or similar epitopes may be affected by mutagenesis of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 similarly. In brief, the domain(s)/region(s) containing residues that are in contact with or are buried by an antibody can be identified by mutating specific residues in ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 (e.g., a wild-type antigen) and determining whether the antigen binding protein can bind the mutated or variant ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 protein. By making a number of individual mutations, residues that play a direct role in binding or that are in sufficiently close proximity to the antibody such that a mutation can affect binding between the antigen binding protein and antigen can be identified. From the knowledge of these amino acids, the domain(s) or region(s) of the antigen that contain residues in contact with the antigen binding protein or covered by the antibody can be elucidated. Such a domain can include the binding epitope of an antigen binding protein. As mentioned above, one specific example of this general approach utilizes an arginine/glutamic acid scanning protocol (see, e.g., Nanevicz, T., et al., 1995,  J. Biol. Chem.,  270:37, 21619-21625 and Zupnick, A., et al., 2006,  J. Biol. Chem.,  281:29, 20464-20473). In general, arginine and glutamic acids are substituted (typically individually) for an amino acid in the wild-type polypeptide because these amino acids are charged and bulky and thus have the potential to disrupt binding between an antigen binding protein and an antigen in the region of the antigen where the mutation is introduced. Arginine residues that exist in the wild-type antigen are replaced with glutamic acid. A variety of such individual mutants are obtained and the collected binding results analyzed to determine what residues affect binding. In Example 7E, scanning arginine/glutamic acid mutagenesis was performed using the human ASGR-1 CBD domain and the effect on exemplary antibodies was determined. Included with the scope of the invention are ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 antigen binding proteins having characteristics such that they are affected in a similar way as an exemplary antibody to mutagenesis. 
     Example 7E describes one such arginine/glutamic acid scanning of ASGR-1 for ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins provided herein. A series of mutant ASGR-1 antigens were created, with each mutant antigen having a single mutation. Binding of each mutant ASGR-1 antigen with various ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins was measured and compared to the ability of the selected antigen binding proteins to bind to human ASGR-1 (SEQ ID NO:5). In certain embodiments, binding of an antigen binding protein of the present invention to ASGR-1 is inhibited by a single mutation in ASGR-1, wherein the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R170, S171, G172, R183, L184, W195, E196, K199, H203, H204, P207, V208, N209, H215, D216, P220, D225, D228, R237, P238, E239, P241, D242, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G248, L249, G251, E253, T259, D260, R263, N265, Q270, R271, P272, R274, and E280 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 4A2 and their binding to ASGR-1 is inhibited a mutation of any of W195, E196, K199, H204, P207, and R263. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 4B3 and their binding to ASGR-1 is inhibited by a mutation of any of H203, H204, P220, and G251. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 5E5 and their binding to ASGR-1 is inhibited by a mutation of any of W195, K199, and R263. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 6G7 and their binding to ASGR-1 is inhibited by a mutation of any of R183, L184, H215, P220, P238, G246, H247, G248, G251, and N265. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 149D11 and their binding is inhibited by a mutation of any of R170, 5171, and L184. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 175F4 and their binding is inhibited by a mutation of R183. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 17H6 and their binding is inhibited by a mutation of any of P241, D242, D243, Y245, G251, and E253. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 194A4 and their binding is inhibited by a mutation of D260. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 60C12 and their binding is inhibited by a mutation of any of R170, R237, E239, P241, T259, D260, R263, and N265. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 65D5 and their binding is inhibited by a mutation of any of R237, T259, D260 and R263. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 190F8 or 191G1 and their binding is inhibited by a mutation of any of R170, S171, G172, E196, H204, P207, V208, N209, H215, D216, D225, D228, P238, D243, G248, L249, G251, D260, Q270, R271, P272, R274 and E280. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 199A7 and their binding is inhibited by a mutation of any of R170, R183, H215 and Q270. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 146B6 and their binding is inhibited by a mutation of any of P241, T259, and N265. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins share the attributes of antibody 193E7 and their binding is inhibited by a mutation of any of P207 and R263. In some embodiments, any of two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, six or more, seven or more, eight or more nine or more, ten or more, or all of the single mutations of the aforementioned groups individually inhibit binding of the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein to ASGR-1. 
     Binding of various anti-ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies 5E5, 22G5, 7E11, 4A2, 4H6, 72G9, 194A4, 54E9, 218G4, 176H4 and 194C10) were further analyzed using X-ray crystallography. The results from the X-ray crystallography were highly correlated with the results from the Arginine/Glutamic acid mutagenesis profiling described above and in Example 7E. The interface between an antigen binding protein and the antigen can be determined/defined a number of ways. In Examples 10B-L, the interface was determined by selecting interface residues having at least one atom within a predefined distance to its partner protein. In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 5E5, as determined by distance of 8 {acute over (Å)} or less are: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 5E5, as determined by distance of 5{acute over (Å)} or less are: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 5E5, including those wherein any of: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 5E5, including those wherein any of: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, or P238 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. 
     In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 22G5, as determined by distance of 8 {acute over (Å)} or less are: W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, or T279 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 22G5, as determined by distance of 5 {acute over (Å)} or less are: W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 5E5, including those wherein any of: W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, or T279 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 5E5, including those wherein any of: W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. 
     In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 4A2, as determined by distance of 8 {acute over (Å)} or less are: R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, or T279 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 4A2, as determined by distance of 5 {acute over (Å)} or less are: R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 4A2, including those wherein any of: R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, or T279 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 4A2, including those wherein any of: R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. 
     In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 7E11, as determined by distance of 8 {acute over (Å)} or less are: H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 7E11, as determined by distance of 5 {acute over (Å)} or less are: H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 7E11, including those wherein any of : H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 7E11, including those wherein any of are within the surface: H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. 
     In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 4H6, as determined by distance of 8 {acute over (Å)} or less are: H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 4H6, as determined by distance of 5 {acute over (Å)} or less are: H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 4H6, including those wherein any of: H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 4H6, including those wherein any of are within the surface: H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. 
     In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 72G9, as determined by distance of 8 {acute over (Å)} or less are: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, or C269 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 72G9, as determined by distance of 5 {acute over (Å)} or less are: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, or Q270 (SEQ ID NO:5). In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 72G9, including those wherein any of: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 72G9, including those wherein any of: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, or Q270 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. 
     In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 194A4, as determined by distance of 8 {acute over (Å)} or less are: T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 194A4, as determined by distance of 5 {acute over (Å)} or less are: T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, or G252 (SEQ ID NO:5). In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 194A4, including those wherein any of: T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 194A4, including those wherein any of are within the surface: T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, or G252 (SEQ ID NO:5) within the interface. 
     In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 194C10, as determined by distance of 8 {acute over (Å)} or less are: N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270 or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 194C10, as determined by distance of 5 {acute over (Å)} or less are: N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273 or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 194C10, including those wherein any of: N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 194C10, including those wherein any of: N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. 
     In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 54E9, as determined by distance of 8 {acute over (Å)} or less are: W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, or D266 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 54E9, as determined by distance of 5 {acute over (Å)} or less are: W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 54E9, including those wherein any of: W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, or D266 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 54E9, including those wherein any of: W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. 
     In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 218G4, as determined by distance of 8 {acute over (Å)} or less are: R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 218G4, as determined by distance of 5 {acute over (Å)} or less are: R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 218G4, including those wherein any of: R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 218G4, including those wherein any of: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273 or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. 
     In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 176H4, as determined by distance of 8 {acute over (Å)} or less are: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, ASGR-1 residues that are within the interface with antibody, 176H4, as determined by distance of 5 {acute over (Å)} or less are: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273 or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 176H4, including those wherein any of: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, W275 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In certain embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 176H4, including those wherein any of: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. 
     In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 residues that are involved in ligand binding are also in close proximity to the areas where antibodies 72G9, 54E9, 218G4 or 176H4 bind and can be useful for manipulating ASGR-1 binding to ligand. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 72G9 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of Q240, D242, W244, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, G252, R237, E253, P238, H247, C255, or V268 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 72G9 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of Q240, D242, or W244 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 72G9 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of Q240, D242, W244, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246 or G252 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 72G9 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of Q240, D242, W244, R237 or E253 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. As noted in the examples below, the extent of inhibition resulting from 72G9 is lower than other direct blocking antibodies provided herein. While not intended to be limiting, this is understood to occur due to the nature of the relative orientations of the ASGR-1 protein and the antibody when bound to one another. For example, when the 72G9 antibody is bound to ASGR-1, there is still sufficient space for a ligand to reach the binding site, to some (althouth lesser) extent. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 54E9 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of N209, R237, Q240, D242, H257, T259, N265, D267, Y273, P238, E239, D260, R263, R271, E253, D266, D243, F258, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 54E9 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of N209, R237, Q240, D242, H257, T259, N265, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 54E9 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of N209, R237, Q240, D242, H257, T259, N265, D267, Y273, P238, E239, D260, R263, or R271 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 54E9 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of N209, R237, Q240, D242, H257, T259, N265, D267, Y273, E253 or D266 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 218G4 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of N209, H257, N265, D267, Y273, D260, R271, R237, T259, D266, F258 or V268 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 218G4 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of N209, H257, N265, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 218G4 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of N209, H257, N265, D267, Y273, D260 or R271 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 218G4 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of N209, H257, N265, D267, Y273. R237, T259 or D266 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 176H4 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of N209, R237, Q240, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D267, Y273, G246, H247, D260, R271, D266, P238, E239, Y245, F258, R263, W264, or V268 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 176H4 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of N209, R237, Q240, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 176H4 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of N209, R237, Q240, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D267, Y273, G246, H247, D260, or R271 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 antigen binding protein forms an interface with ASGR-1 that overlaps with that of antibody 176H4 and the ligand (e.g., GalNAc), including those wherein any of N209, R237, Q240, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D267, Y273, or D266 (SEQ ID NO:5) are within the interface. 
     As discussed above, the binding interaction between huASGR-1 and ligand (e.g., lactose, galactose, GalNAc), as well as the binding interaction between huASGR-1 and various embodiments of the antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies) of the present invention was evaluated using x-ray crystallography as described in Example 10. The binding interaction between huASGR-1 and various embodiments of the antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies) of the present invention was also evaluated using methodologies, including epitope binning as described in Example 7D, and arginine/glutamic acid mutational profiling as described in Example 7E. A summary of the data obtained through these methodologies is set forth in Table D below. This summary illustrates the various binding characteristics of representative antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies) of the present invention and their ability to directly and/or indirectly inhibit ligand binding to huASGR-1. In some embodiments, antibodies that interact with residues in common across different ligands can result in a similar form of inhibition (direct) across the various ligands. Examples of such residues are underlined and in bold in Table D. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE D 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Summary of Binding Characteristics of Representative Antigen Binding Proteins Derived 
               
               
                 from Examples 7 and 10. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Ligand/ 
                 mAb 
                 Interaction Site 
                 Interaction Site 
                   
               
               
                 mAb 
                 Epitope 
                 (crystal structure &lt;5 
                 (crystal structure 5-8 
                   
               
               
                 Name 
                 (bin) 
                 angstroms) 
                 angstroms) 
                 R/E scan 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Ligand/ 
                 ND 
                 
                   
                     Q240, 
                       
                     D242, 
                       
                     W244, 
                   
                 
                 N209, R237,    P238 ,   
                 ND 
               
               
                 Lactose 
                   
                 
                   
                     E253, 
                       
                     N265, 
                       
                     D266, 
                   
                 
                 
                   
                     E239, 
                       
                     P241, 
                       
                     D243, 
                   
                 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 
                   
                     D267 
                   
                 
                 
                   
                     Y245, 
                       
                     G246, 
                       
                     H247, 
                   
                 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                     G252,       C255,    H257, 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 T259, D260,    V268,     
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                     R271,    Y273 
                   
               
               
                 Ligand/ 
                 ND 
                 R237,    D240,       D242,     
                 N209,    P238,       E239,     
                 ND 
               
               
                 Galactose 
                   
                 
                   
                     W244, 
                       
                     E253, 
                       
                     N265, 
                   
                 
                 
                   
                     P241, 
                       
                     D243, 
                       
                     Y245, 
                   
                 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 
                   
                     D266, 
                       
                     D267 
                   
                 
                 
                   
                     G246, 
                       
                     H247, 
                       
                     G252, 
                   
                 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                     C255,    H257, T259, 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                     V268,       R271,   Y273 
                   
               
               
                 Ligand/ 
                 ND 
                 N209, R237,    D240,     
                 
                   
                     P238, 
                       
                     E239, 
                       
                     P241, 
                   
                 
                 ND 
               
               
                 GalNAc 
                   
                 
                   
                     D242, 
                       
                     W244, 
                       
                     E253, 
                   
                 
                 
                   
                     D243, 
                       
                     Y245, 
                       
                     G246, 
                   
                 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 H257, T259,    N265,     
                 
                   
                     H247, 
                       
                     G252, 
                       
                     C255, 
                   
                 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                     D266,       D267,    Y273 
                 F258, D260, R263, 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 W264,    V268,       R271     
                   
               
               
                 5E5- 
                 A 
                 H161, E162, W195, 
                 V159, E160, R163, 
                 W195, K199 
               
               
                 Interaction is 
                   
                 E196, Q198, K199, 
                 T193, S194, E197, 
                   
               
               
                 representative 
                   
                 F200, Q202, H203, 
                 V201, I205, G206, 
                   
               
               
                 of indirect 
                   
                 H204, G232, F233, 
                 P207, Y229, E230, 
                   
               
               
                 inhibition of 
                   
                 K234, N235, W236, 
                 T231, E239, F258, 
                   
               
               
                 ligand binding 
                   
                 R237, P238, D261, 
                 T259, D260, W264 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 G262, R263 
                   
                   
               
               
                 4A2- 
                 A 
                 R170, W195, E196, 
                 N157, V159, F168, 
                 W195 
               
               
                 Interaction is 
                   
                 K199, Q202, H203, 
                 S169, S171, S194, 
                   
               
               
                 representative 
                   
                 H204, I205, G206, 
                 Q198, F200, V201, 
                   
               
               
                 of indirect 
                   
                 P207, V208, F233, 
                 T210, R237, E239, 
                   
               
               
                 inhibition of 
                   
                 K234, N235, W236, 
                 Q240, F258, T259, 
                   
               
               
                 ligand binding 
                   
                 P238, D260, D261, 
                 W264 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 G262, R263, R274 
                   
                   
               
               
                 7E11- 
                 A 
                 H161, S194, W195, 
                 E160, E162, V192, 
                 W195 
               
               
                 Interaction is 
                   
                 E196, Q198, K199, 
                 T193, E197, V201, 
                   
               
               
                 representative 
                   
                 F200, Q202, H203, 
                 H204, Y229, E230, 
                   
               
               
                 of indirect 
                   
                 F233, K234, N235, 
                 T231, G232, E239, 
                   
               
               
                 inhibition of 
                   
                 W236, R237, P238, 
                 Q240, P241, D261, 
                   
               
               
                 ligand binding 
                   
                 R263, 
                 G262, W264 
                   
               
               
                 4H6- 
                 A 
                 H161, E162, T193, 
                 R163, V192, E197, 
                 ND 
               
               
                 Interaction is 
                   
                 S194, W195, E196, 
                 Q198, H203, P207, 
                   
               
               
                 representative 
                   
                 K199, Q202, T231, 
                 D228, E230, W236, 
                   
               
               
                 of indirect 
                   
                 G232, F233, K234, 
                 R237, D260, G262, 
                   
               
               
                 inhibition of 
                   
                 N235, P238, D261, 
                 W264 
                   
               
               
                 ligand binding 
                   
                 R263 
                   
                   
               
               
                 22G5- 
                 B 
                 W167, S171, G172, 
                 P155, N157, W158, 
                 R183, L184, 
               
               
                 Interaction is 
                   
                 K173, A174, A176, 
                 F168, S169, R170, 
                 H215, P220, 
               
               
                 representative 
                   
                 D177, N180, Y181, 
                 W175, A178, D179, 
                 G246, G248, 
               
               
                 of indirect 
                   
                 R183, L184, E185, 
                 C182, A187, W211, 
                 G251, N265 
               
               
                 inhibition of 
                   
                 D186, Q270, P272, 
                 C269, R271, Y273, 
                   
               
               
                 ligand binding 
                   
                 W275 
                 R274, C277, T279 
                   
               
               
                 194A4- 
                 C 
                 T193, S194, W195, 
                 H161, E162, V191, 
                 D260 
               
               
                 Interaction is 
                   
                 E196, P220, W221, 
                 V192, E197, Q198, 
                   
               
               
                 representative 
                   
                 G226 ,T227, D228, 
                 D216, G219, K222, 
                   
               
               
                 of indirect 
                   
                 Y229, E230, T231, 
                 W223, D225, R263, 
                   
               
               
                 inhibition of 
                   
                 G232, F233, K234, 
                 W264 
                   
               
               
                 ligand binding 
                   
                 N235, W236, R237, 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 P238, E239, G252 
                   
                   
               
               
                 72G9- 
                 C 
                 D216, Q217, N218, 
                 H215, K222, T231, 
                 P241, D242, 
               
               
                 Interaction is 
                   
                 G219, P220, W221, 
                 G232, R237, P238, 
                 D243, Y245, 
               
               
                 representative 
                   
                 Y229, E230, K234, 
                 H247, G248, E253, 
                 G251, E253 
               
               
                 of direct 
                   
                 W236, E239, Q240, 
                 C255, D266, V268, 
                   
               
               
                 inhibition of 
                   
                 P241, D242, D243, 
                 C269 
                   
               
               
                 ligand binding 
                   
                 W244, Y245, G246, 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 L249, G250, G251, 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 G252, D254, Q270 
                   
                   
               
               
                 54E9- 
                 E 
                 W195, N209, N235, 
                 Q198, Q202, P207, 
                 R237, E239, 
               
               
                 Interaction is 
                   
                 R237, P238, E239, 
                 V208, F233, W236, 
                 P241, T259, 
               
               
                 representative 
                   
                 Q240, D242, H257, 
                 D243, E253, F258, 
                 D260, R263, 
               
               
                 of direct 
                   
                 T259, D260, D261, 
                 G262, W264, D266 
                 N265 
               
               
                 inhibition of 
                   
                 R263, N265, D267, 
                   
                   
               
               
                 ligand binding 
                   
                 R271, Y273 
                   
                   
               
               
                 218G4- 
                 L/O 
                 R170, S171, G172, 
                 W167, F168, S169, 
                 R171, G172, 
               
               
                 Interaction is 
                   
                 A174, H204, I205, 
                 K173, W175, D177, 
                 P238, R274 
               
               
                 representative 
                   
                 G206, P207, V208, 
                 Y181, Q202, H203, 
                   
               
               
                 of direct 
                   
                 N209, H257, D260, 
                 T210, W211, R237, 
                   
               
               
                 inhibition of 
                   
                 N265, D267, Q270, 
                 F258, T259, D261, 
                   
               
               
                 ligand binding 
                   
                 R271, P272, Y273, 
                 D266, V268, C269, 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 R274 
                 W275 
                   
               
               
                 176H4- 
                 L/R 
                 R170, S171, G172, 
                 S169, W175, A176, 
                 G172, P241, 
               
               
                 Interaction is 
                   
                 K173, A174, D177, 
                 A178, T210, W211, 
                 D242, H247, 
               
               
                 representative 
                   
                 P207, V208, N209, 
                 W236, P238, E239, 
                 L249, N265, 
               
               
                 of direct 
                   
                 R237, Q240, W244, 
                 D242, Y245, G250, 
                 R271, P272 
               
               
                 inhibition of 
                   
                 G246, H247, G248, 
                 G251, F258, D261, 
                   
               
               
                 ligand binding 
                   
                 L249, E253, H257, 
                 G262, R263, W264, 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 T259, D260, N265, 
                 D266, V268, C269, 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 D267, Q270, R271, 
                 W275 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 P272, Y273, R274 
                   
                   
               
               
                 194C10- 
                 L/T 
                 N157, R170, S171, 
                 V156, W158, V159, 
                 R170, G172, 
               
               
                 Interaction is 
                   
                 G172, Q202, H203, 
                 H161, W167, F168, 
                 V208, R274 
               
               
                 representative 
                   
                 H204, I205, G206, 
                 S169, K173, K199, 
                   
               
               
                 of direct 
                   
                 P207, V208, N209, 
                 F200, V201, W211, 
                   
               
               
                 and/or indirect 
                   
                 T210, D260, R271, 
                 R237, H257, F258, 
                   
               
               
                 inhibition of 
                   
                 P272, Y273, R274 
                 T259, D261, D267, 
                   
               
               
                 ligand binding 
                   
                   
                 V268, Q270, W275 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, the antibody can directly inhibit ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand binding. While described herein in greater detail, and while not intended to be limiting by theory, such an interaction can denote that the antibody interacts with the section of ASGR-1 CBD that binds to its ligand directly, such that a paratope or other section of an antigen binding protein (e.g., antibody) directly obstructs the ligand&#39;s access to the binding site in ASGR1 CBD. An antigen binding protein or antibody can be designated as a direct inhibitor when it has one or more of the characteristics of the direct inhibitors provided herein, including the examples below (such as example 10, or the crystal structures referenced therein). Some examples of direct inhibition are shown by 72G9, 54E9, 218G4 and 176H4 and are indicated in Table D. In some embodiments, a direct inhibitor can bind to one or more of residues 237-273 or residues 240-267 of SEQ ID NO:5 of ASGR-1. 
     In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody can indirectly inhibit ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand binding. While described herein in greater detail, and while not intended to be limiting by theory, this denotes that the antigen binding protein or antibody binds to ASGR-1 CBD, but need not directly obstruct the ligand&#39;s access to the binding site in ASGR-1 CBD. An antigen binding protein or antibody can be designated as an indirect inhibitor when it has one or more of the characteristics of the indirect inhibitors provided herein, including the examples below (such as example 10 or the crystal structures provided therein). Some examples of indirect inhibition are shown by 5E5, 4A2, 7E11, 4H6, 22G5, 194A4, and are indicated in Table D. While not limiting, it is noted that indirect inhibition can occur from a variety of interactions or rearrangements. For example, indirect inhibition may occur from a conformational rearrangement of the carbohydrate binding loop occurs which could impair the carbohydrate binding loop from binding to/interacting with ligand (i.e., carbohydrates). In some embodiments, an indirect inhibitor can bind to one or more of the residues in ASGR-1 CBD helix alpha 1 and/or helix alpha 2. In some embodiments, the antibody binds to ASGR-1 and results in the disordering of the CBD. 
     In some embodiments, an antigen binding protein or antibody can have characteristics of both direct and indirect inhibition and/or bind to areas on ASGR-1 CBD that are common to both types of inhibition. Of course, such an embodiment may have sufficient inhibition capability through its direct, indirect, or both direct and indirect interactions. 
     In some embodiments, the distinction between direct and indirect inhibition need not be made. In some embodiments, denoting that an antigen binding protein or antibody provides direct or indirect inhibition means that it provides at least that form of inhibition (e.g., ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand blocking). In some embodiments, an antigen binding protein or antibody that provides direct inhibition, may also provide indirect aspects as well (such as other conformational changes). In addition, as shown in Table D, as the interation between ASGR-1 CBD and its ligands can vary for each of the noted three ligands, what may be a direct or indirect interaction for one ligand, need not be direct or indirect for another. While the antibodies provided herein that have the properties of direct and/or indirect inhibition will function accordingly, and the guidance provided herein allows for one to screen for and produce additional such antibodies, the fact that an antibody simply binds to ASGR-1 CBD does not necessarily mean that it will bind at the relevant locations on ASGR-1 to allow for direct or indirect inhibition. 
     In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR and inhibits ASGR function is provided. In one embodiment, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR and inhibits ASGR binding to ligand. In another embodiment, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits ASGR-1 binding to ligand and/or ASGR-1 interaction with ASGR-2. In another embodiment, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-2 and inhibits ASGR-2 binding to ligand and/or ASGR-2 interaction with ASGR-1. In yet another embodiment, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 and human ASGR-2, and inhibits ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 binding to ligand. In some embodiments, the isolated binding protein binds specifically to human ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. 
     In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein is provided, wherein the isolated antigen binding protein binds to human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the isolated antigen binding protein binds to human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises one or more VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7, and one or more VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises one VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7, and one VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises two VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7, and two VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 and VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7, and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, VH CDR3, VL CDR1, VL CDR2, and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to any of the sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE A. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE A. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, and VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE A, and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 and VL CDR3, having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE A. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, VH CDR3, VL CDR1, VL CDR2, and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to any of the sequences set forth in TABLE A. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE B. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE B. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, and VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE B, and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE B. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, VH CDR3, VL CDR1, VL CDR2, and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to any of the sequences set forth in TABLE B. In still some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE C. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE C. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, and VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE C, and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 and VL CDR3, having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in TABLE C. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, VH CDR3, VL CDR1, VL CDR2, and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to any of the sequences set forth in TABLE C. In further embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table 6. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 6. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, and VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table 6, and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 and VL CDR3, having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising 1, 2, or 3 amino acid residue substitutions, deletions or insertions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 6. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2, VH CDR3, VL CDR1, VL CDR2, and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to any of the sequences set forth in Table 6. 
     In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein is provided, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some aspects, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 3-7, and a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 3-7, and a light chain variable domain having any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 3-7. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table A. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table A. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table A, and a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table A. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table A, and a light chain variable domain having any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table A. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table B. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table B. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table B, and a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table B. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table B, and a light chain variable domain having any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table B. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table C. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table C. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table C, and a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table C. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table C, and a light chain variable domain having any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table C. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 6. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 6. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 6, and a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 6. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 6, and a light chain variable domain having any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 6. 
     In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein is provided, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising no more than 18 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table 19A as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 19B or 19C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some aspects, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the isolated antigen binding protein binds to human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising no more than 14 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 20A as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20B or 20C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises one or more VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising no more than 18 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table 19A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and one or more VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising no more than 14 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 20A as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises one or more VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 19B or 19C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and one or more VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20B or 20C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises one VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical no more than 18 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table19A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and one VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising no more than 14 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 20A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises one VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 19B or 19C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and one VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20B or 20C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises two VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising up to 18 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table 19A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and two VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising up to 14 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 20A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises two VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 19B or 19C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and two VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20B or 20C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 and VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising up to 18 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VH of any of the sequences set forth in Table 19A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 and VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising up to 14 amino acid residue substitutions, insertions or deletions in each CDR relative to the VL of any of the sequences set forth in Table 20A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein binds human ASGR-1 and comprises the VH CDR1, VH CDR2 or VH CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 19B or 19C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , and the VL CDR1, VL CDR2 or VL CDR3 having an amino acid sequence identical to or comprising a conservative substitution of any of the amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20B or 20C, as depicted in  FIG. 55 . 
     In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein is provided, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 19A, as depicted in  FIG. 55  or in Tables 21-34 as depicted in  FIG. 56  or in Tables 49-95 as depicted in  FIG. 56 . In some aspects, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein, wherein the antigen binding protein specifically binds human ASGR-1 and comprises a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20A, as depicted in  FIG. 55 , or in Tables 35-48, as depicted in  FIG. 56  or in Tables 96-134 as depicted in  FIG. 57 . In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein comprises a heavy chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 19A as depicted in  FIG. 55 , or in Tables 21-34 as depicted in  FIG. 56  or in Tables 49-95 as depicted in  FIG. 57 , and a light chain variable domain having at least 90% identity to any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20A as depicted in  FIG. 55  or in Tables 35-48 as depicted in  FIG. 56  or in Tables 96-134 as depicted in  FIG. 57 . In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein comprises a heavy chain variable domain having any of the VH domain amino acid sequences set forth in Tables 19A as depicted in  FIG. 55 , or in Tables 21-34 as depicted in  FIG. 56  or in Tables 49-95 as depicted in  FIG. 57 , and a light chain variable domain having any of the VL domain amino acid sequences set forth in Table 20A as depicted in  FIG. 55  or in Tables 35-48 as depicted in  FIG. 56  or in Tables 96-134 as depicted in  FIG. 57 . 
     In some embodiments, an antigen binding protein that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope that is bound by any of the antigen binding proteins disclosed herein is provided. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope that is bound by at least one of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Tables 2-7. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope that is bound by at least one of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table A. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope that is bound by at least one of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table B. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope that is bound by at least one of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table C. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope that is bound by at least one of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table 6. 
     In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that competes for binding to human ASGR-1 with any of the antigen binding proteins disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that competes for binding with any of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Tables 2-7. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that competes for binding with any of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table A. In some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that competes for binding with any of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table B. In still some embodiments, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that competes for binding with any of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table C. In yet another embodiment, the invention provides an isolated antigen binding protein that competes for binding with any of the antigen binding proteins set forth in Table 6. 
     In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 within the carbohydrate recognition domain (“CRD”) (also known as the carbohydrate binding domain or “CBD”) and inhibits human ASGR-1 binding to ligand is provided. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein binds to human ASGR-1 within residues 148-291, or 149-291, or 150-291, or 151-291, or 152-291, or 153-291, or 154-291, or 155-291 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 CBD within Helix α-1. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 within residues 174-186 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 CBD within Helix α-2. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 CBD within residues 194-206 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the invention comprises an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 within residues 237-273 or residues 240-267 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein binds to ASGR-1 having an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein is an antibody. 
     In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein or an antibody that binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits human ASGR-1 function is provided. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein or an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits human ASGR-1 from binding to a ligand. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, Y273, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, F258, D260, R263, W264, V268, R271, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, W264, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, T279, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, W264, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, W264, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, W264, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, W275, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, Y273, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, F258, D260, R263, W264, V268, R271, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, Y273, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, W264, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, T279, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, W264, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, W264, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, W264, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, W275, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, , R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues:, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, W264, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, T279, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, W264, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, W264, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, W264, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, W264, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following residues: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, or T279 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, or G252 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, or C269 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, or Q270 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, or D266 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody binds to human ASGR-1 at an epitope comprising at least one of the following amino acid residues: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein or an antibody or a paratope in an antibody that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits human ASGR-1 function is provided. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein or an antibody or a paratope in an antibody specifically binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits human ASGR-1 from binding to a ligand. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody specifically binds to human ASGR-1 within residues 148-291 of SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, Y273, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, F258, D260, R263, W264, V268, R271, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, W264, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, T279, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, W264, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, W264, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, W264, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, W275, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, Y273, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, F258, D260, R263, W264, V268, R271, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, Y273, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, or D267 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267, N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, or D267 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, F258, D260, R263, W264, V268, or R271 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, or C269 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, or Q270 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, or D266 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, or Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, W264, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, T279, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, W264, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, W264, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, W264, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, W275, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues of human ASGR-1 (SEQ ID NO:5): D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270, W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273, H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, W264, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, T279, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, W264, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, W264, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, W264, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263, V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues of human ASGR-1 (SEQ ID NO:5): H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275, P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, or T279 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274, N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263, E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263, R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, or R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252, H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, or W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, or G252 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 8 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274, V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270 or W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments when the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is bound to human ASGR-1, the antigen binding protein or antibody or a paratope in an antibody is positioned 5 angstroms or less from at least one of the following residues: N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273 or R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein or antibody that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits human ASGR-1 function is provided. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen binding protein or antibody that specifically binds to human ASGR-1 inhibits binding of human ASGR-1 binding to a ligand. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at a location that overlaps with a location where a ligand binds to human ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the location where a ligand binds to ASGR-1 includes at least one amino acid residue selected from the group consisting of: N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, F258, D260, R263, W264, V268, or R271 (SEQ ID NO:5). In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein or an antibody specifically binds to human ASGR-1 at a location that overlaps with a location that a ligand binds to ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the location that a ligand binds to human ASGR-1 includes at least one amino acid residue selected from the group consisting of: N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, and Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein that binds to human ASGR-1 and inhibits human ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 function is provided, wherein the antigen binding protein does not bind to a variant ASGR-1 protein, and wherein said variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue selected the group consisting of: R170, S171, G172, R183, L184, W195, E196, K199, H203, H204, P207, V208, N209, H215, D216, P220, D225, D228, R237, P238, E239, P241, D242, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G248, L249, G251, E253, T259, D260, R263, N265, Q270, R271, P272, R274, and E280 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, an isolated antigen binding protein or an antibody is contemplated. An antigen binding protein “does not bind” to a variant ASGR-1 protein when the measured reduction in antibody binding signal to a variant ASGR-1 protein (compared to that determined for binding to wild type ASGR-1) is statistically significant as measured by any number of methods known to one skilled in the art, such as the method described in Example 7E below. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting of: W195, E196, K199, H203, H204, P207, P220, G251, and R263 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of H203, H204, P220, and G251. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of W195, E196 and K199. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of W195, E196 and H204. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting W195, K199, and R263. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of W195 and E196. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of W195 and K199. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of W195 or P207. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of W195 and R263. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of H203 and H204. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of K199 and R263. In some embodiments, the single mutation is a mutation of residue W195. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue selected the group consisting of: R170, S171, R183, L184, H215, P220, P238, G246, H247, G248, G251, and N265 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R183, L184, H215, P220, G246, G248, G251, and N265. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of L184, P220, P238, H247, and G251. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R170, S171, and L184. In some embodiments, the single mutation is a mutation of residue R183. In some embodiments, the single mutation is a mutation of residue L184. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting of: P241, D242, D243, Y245, G251, E253 and D260 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of P241, D243, Y245, G251, E253 and D260. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of P241, D243, and E253. In some embodiments, the single mutation is a mutation of residue D260. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: R170, R237, E239, P241, T259, D260, R263, and N265 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R237, D260 and R263. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R237, T259, D260 and R263. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R170, R237, P241, T259, D260, R263 and N265. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R237, E239, P241, T259, D260, R263 and N265. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: R170, S171, G172, E196, H204, P207, V208, N209, H215, D216, D225, D228, P238, P241, D242, D243, H247, G248, L249, G251, D260, R263, N265, Q270, R271, P272, R274 and E280 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R170, S171, G172, E196, H204, P207, V208, N209, H215, D216, D225, D228, P238, P241, D242, D243, H247, G248, L249, G251, D260, R263, N265, Q270, R271, P272, R274 and E280 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R170, S171, G172, E196, H204, P207, H215, D216, D225, D228, D243, G248, L249, G251, D260, Q270, R271, P272, R274 and E280. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of G172, V208, R271, P272 and R274. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of G172, R271 and R274. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of G172, N209, and R271. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of R170, G172, V208, R271 and P272. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of G172, V208, P238, R271, P272 and R274. In some embodiments, the single mutation is selected from the group consisting of G172, P238, R271, P272 and R274. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: G172, P238, R271 and R274 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: R170, G172, V208 and R274 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: R170, R183, H215 and Q270 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: P241, T259, and N265 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: P207 and R263 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the variant ASGR-1 protein comprises a single mutation of a residue at a position selected from the group consisting or comprising: G172, P241, D242, H247, L249, N265, R271 and P272 as shown in SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the antigen binding protein or antibody does not bind to two or more variant ASGR-1 proteins, wherein the variant ASGR-1 proteins comprise the single mutations of the group individually. 
     A “CDR grafted antibody” is an antibody comprising one or more CDRs derived from an antibody of a particular species or isotype and the framework of another antibody of the same or different species or isotype. 
     A “multi-specific antibody” is an antibody that recognizes more than one epitope on one or more antigens. A subclass of this type of antibody is a “bi-specific antibody” which recognizes two distinct epitopes on the same or different antigens. 
     An antigen binding protein including an antibody “specifically binds” to an antigen, such as ASGR, ASGR-1 or ASGR-2, if it binds to the antigen with a tight binding affinity as determined by a equilibrium dissociation constant (K D , or corresponding K D , as defined below) value of 10 −7  M or less. An antigen binding protein that specifically binds to human ASGR, ASGR-1 or ASGR-2 may be able to bind to ASGR, ASGR-1 or ASGR-2 from other species as well with the same or different affinities. 
     Affinity can be determined using a variety of techniques known in the art, for example but not limited to, equilibrium methods (e.g., enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA); KinExA, Rathanaswami et al. Analytical Biochemistry, Vol. 373:52-60, 2008; or radioimmunoassay (RIA)), or by a surface plasmon resonance assay or other mechanism of kinetics-based assay (e.g., BIACORE® analysis or Octet® analysis (ForteBio)), and other methods such as indirect binding assays, competitive binding assays fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), gel electrophoresis and chromatography (e.g., gel filtration). These and other methods may utilize a label on one or more of the components being examined and/or employ a variety of detection methods including but not limited to chromogenic, fluorescent, luminescent, or isotopic labels. A detailed description of binding affinities and kinetics can be found in Paul, W. E., ed., Fundamental Immunology, 4th Ed., Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia (1999), which focuses on antibody-immunogen interactions. One example of a competitive binding assay is a radioimmunoassay comprising the incubation of labeled antigen with the antibody of interest in the presence of increasing amounts of unlabeled antigen, and the detection of the antibody bound to the labeled antigen. The affinity of the antibody of interest for a particular antigen and the binding off-rates can be determined from the data by scatchard plot analysis. Competition with a second antibody can also be determined using radioimmunoassays. In this case, the antigen is incubated with antibody of interest conjugated to a labeled compound in the presence of increasing amounts of an unlabeled second antibody. 
     Further embodiments of the invention provide antigen binding molecules (e.g., antibodies) that specifically bind ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 with an equilibrium dissociation constant or K D  (k off /k on ) of less than 10 −7  M, or of less than 10 −8  M, or of less than 10 −9  M, or of less than 10 −10  M, or of less than 10 −11  M, or of less than 10 −12  M, or of less than 10 −13  M, or of less than 5×10 −13  M (lower values indicating tighter binding affinity). Yet further embodiments of the invention are antigen binding molecules that specifically bind ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 with an equilibrium dissociation constant or K D  (k off /k on ) of less than about 10 −7  M, or of less than about 10 −8  M, or of less than about 10 −9  M, or of less than about 10 −10  M, or of less than about 10 −11  M, or of less than about 10 −12  M, or of less than about 10 −13  M, or of less than about 5×10 −13  M. 
     In still another embodiment, an antigen binding protein of the invention (e.g., an antibody) that specifically bind ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 has an equilibrium dissociation constant or K D  (k off /k on ) of between about 10 −7  M and about 10 −8  M, between about 10 −8  M and about 10 −9  M, between about 10 −9  M and about 10 −10  M, between about 10 −10  M and about 10 −11  M, between about 10 −11  M and about 10 −12  M, between about 10 −12  M and about 10 −13  M. In still another embodiment, an antibody of the invention that specifically bind ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 has an equilibrium dissociation constant or K D  (k off /k on ) of between 10 −7  M and 10 −8  M, between 10 −8  M and 10 −9  M, between 10 −9  M and 10 −10  M, between 10 −10  M and 10 −11  M, between 10 −11  M and 10 −12  M, between 10 −12  M and 10 −13  M. 
     It will be appreciated that an antigen binding protein of the present invention (e.g., an antibody or fragments thereof) may have at least one amino acid substitution, providing that the antigen binding protein retains the same or better desired binding specificity (e.g., binding to human ASGR, human ASGR-1, and/or human ASGR-2) (See Example 14). Therefore, modifications to the antigen binding protein structures are encompassed within the scope of the invention. In one embodiment, the antigen binding protein (e.g., but not limited to, an antibody) comprises sequences that each independently differ by 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or 0 single amino acid additions, substitutions, and/or deletions from a CDR sequence of those set forth in Table 2 herein. As used herein, a CDR sequence that differs by no more than a total of, for example, four amino acid additions, substitutions and/or deletions from a CDR sequence shown in Table 2 below refers to a sequence with 4, 3, 2, 1 or 0 single amino acid additions, substitutions, and/or deletions compared with the sequences shown in Table 2. These may include amino acid substitutions, which may be conservative or non-conservative that do not destroy the desired binding capability of an antibody. Conservative amino acid substitutions may encompass non-naturally occurring amino acid residues, which are typically incorporated by chemical peptide synthesis rather than by synthesis in biological systems. These include peptidomimetics and other reversed or inverted forms of amino acid moieties. A conservative amino acid substitution may also involve a substitution of a native amino acid residue with a normative residue such that there is little or no effect on the polarity or charge of the amino acid residue at that position. In some embodiments, the one or more substitutions to one or more of the antibody sequences can be as follows for each noted section in the noted antibody: 1) VH1|1-08/D6|6-19|RF1/JH4, 25A4 H CDR2 sequence—WMYPN---SGNTGYAQKFQG, where N at 11 can be S or Q and T at 12 can be A or V, such that the sequence can be Trp Met Tyr Pro Asn Ser Gly X1 X2 Gly Tyr Ala Gln Lys Phe Gln Gly (SEQ ID NO: 50259) wherein X1=N or S or Q or a conservative substitution thereof, X2=T or A or V or a conservative substitution thereof. 2) VH1|1-08/D6|6-19|RF1/JH4, 4A2 H CDR2 sequence—WMHPN---SGNTGYAQKFQG, where N at 11 can be S or Q, and T at 12 can be A or E, such that the sequence can be Trp Met His Pro Asn Ser Gly X1 X2 Gly Tyr Ala Gln Lys Phe Gln Gly (SEQ ID NO: 50260) wherein X1=N or S or Q or a conservative substitution thereof, X2=T or A or E or a conservative substitution thereof. 3) VK4|B3/JK3, 4A2 L CDR3 sequence—QQYYN--------------------TPVT, where N at 5 can be Q, and T at 29 can be A, such that the sequence can be Gln Gln Tyr Tyr X1 X2 Pro Val Thr (SEQ ID NO: 50261) wherein X1=N or Q or a conservative substitution thereof, X2=T or A or a conservative substitution thereof. 4) VH1|1-02/D1|1-1|RF1/JH4, 4H6 H CDR3 sequence—DGTS-------------------SFDY, where D at 1 can be S, G at 2 can be A, such that the sequence can be X1 X2 Thr Ser Ser Phe Asp Tyr (SEQ ID NO: 50262) wherein X1=D or S or a conservative substitution thereof, X2=or A or a conservative substitution thereof. 5) VH3|3-33/D4|4-11|RF2/JH6 and VH3|3-07/D4|4-11|RF2/JH6, 7E11 H CDR2 sequence—IIWHD---GSNKYYADSVKG, where D at 5 can be S or E, G at 9 can be A, D at 16 can be E, and S at 17 can be A, such that the sequence can be Ile Ile Trp His X1 X2 Ser Asn Lys Tyr Tyr Ala X3 X4 Val Lys Gly (SEQ ID NO: 50263) wherein X1=D or S or E or a conservative substitution thereof, X2=G or A or a conservative substitution thereof, X3=D or E or a conservative substitution thereof, X4=S or A or a conservative substitution thereof. 6) VH3|3-33/D6|6-6|RF1/JH6 and VH3|3-07/D6|6-6|RF1/JH6, 5E5 H CDR2 sequence VIWYD---GSNKYYADSVKG, where G at 9 can be A, D at 16 can be E or G, and S at 17 can be A, such that the sequence can be Val Ile Trp Tyr Asp X1 Ser Asn Lys Tyr Tyr Ala X2 X3 Val Lys Gly (SEQ ID NO: 50264) wherein X1=G or A or a conservative substitution thereof X2=D or E or G or a conservative substitution thereof X3=S or A or a conservative substitution thereof. 7) VH3|3-33/D6|6-6|RF1/JH6 and VH3|3-07/D6|6-6|RF1/JH6, 5E5 H CDR3 sequence EVYSSGW---------------YDYGMDV, where W at 7 can be F, such that the sequence can be Glu Val Tyr Ser Ser Gly X1 Tyr Asp Tyr Gly Met Asp Val (SEQ ID NO: 50265) wherein X1=W or F or a conservative substitution thereof. 
     In some embodiments, any one or more of the above CDR sequences can be combined with any one or more of the CDR sequences provided herein (e.g., Table 2 in  FIG. 49 , and Tables 19A-C and Tables 20A-C in  FIG. 55 ). In some embodiments, any one or more of the above CDR sequences can be combined with any one or more CDR sequences provided herein for the designated antibody to provide an antibody of 6 CDRs (LCDR1, LCDR2, LCDR3, HCDR1, HCDR2, and HCDR3). For example, any one or more of the above CDRs can be used as one of the CDRs for the antibodies provided in Table 2 in  FIG. 49  and/or Tables 19A, 19B, 19C, 20A, 20B and/or 20C in  FIG. 55 . In some embodiments, the variant positions provided in the above consensus sequences can be further combined as optional variations with the variations of sequence provided in Table 2 in  FIG. 49 , and Tables 19A-C and Tables 20A-C in  FIG. 55 , such that any demonstrated combination of sequences in one consensus sequence (e.g., for an antibody, such as 4A2 H CDR2 above) can be combined with all permissible options outlined for the relevant antibody in Table 2 in  FIG. 49 , and Tables 19A-C and Tables 20A-C in  FIG. 55  (e.g., the corresponding 4A2 H CDR2), which can further be combined with any of the other 4A2 sequences in Table 2 in  FIG. 49 , and Tables 19A-C and Tables 20A-C in  FIG. 55  (e.g., HCDR1, HCDR3, LCDR1, LCDR2, and LCDR3). Of course, 4A2 L CDR3 noted above can similarly be combined, and/or combined with the immediate combination as well. Thus, such sequences are not disclosed herein as needing to be alternative sequences, but are contemplated as additional options for the noted sequences. In some embodiments, variants of such sequences are also contemplated. Such variants can retain or have superior desired activity. Examples of such aspects are provided in Example 14 and tables 6 and 7. In some embodiments, any one or more of the FR regions in tables 6 and 7 can be combined with any one or more of the CDR sequences provided herein. In some embodiments, any one or more of the FR regions provided in Table 6 or 7 can be combined with the corresponding CDR set for the corresponding antibody (as a set of 6 CDRs). Thus, variants of antibody 4A2 are provided that include 6 CDRs (HCDR1, HCDR2, HCDR3, LCDR1, LCDR2, and LCDR3) and 8 FRs HFR1, HFR2, HFR3, HFR4, LFR1, LFR2, LFR3, and LFR4), any particular sequence of which can be from any of the designated sequences for antibody 4A2 provided herein (the present paragraph, Tables 2, 6 and/or 7, tables 19A, 19B, and 19C, 20A, 20B and 20C, etc). 
     Non-conservative substitutions may involve the exchange of a member of one class of amino acids or amino acid mimetics for a member from another class with different physical properties (e.g. size, polarity, hydrophobicity, charge). In certain embodiments, such substituted residues may be introduced into regions of a human antibody that are homologous with non-human antibodies, or into the non-homologous regions of the molecule. 
     Moreover, one skilled in the art may generate test variants containing a single amino acid substitution at each desired amino acid residue. The variants can then be screened using activity assays known to those skilled in the art. Such variants could be used to gather information about suitable variants. For example, if one discovered that a change to a particular amino acid residue resulted in destroyed, undesirably reduced, or unsuitable activity, variants with such a change may be avoided. In other words, based on information gathered from such routine experiments, one skilled in the art can readily determine the amino acids where further substitutions should be avoided either alone or in combination with other mutations. 
     A skilled artisan will be able to determine suitable variants of the antigen binding protein as set forth herein using well-known techniques. In certain embodiments, one skilled in the art may identify suitable areas of the molecule that may be changed without destroying activity by targeting regions not believed to be important for activity. In certain embodiments, one can identify residues and portions of the molecules that are conserved among similar polypeptides as has been describe above. In certain embodiments, even areas that may be important for biological activity or for structure may be subject to conservative amino acid substitutions without destroying the biological activity or without adversely affecting the polypeptide structure. 
     Additionally, one skilled in the art can review structure-function studies identifying residues in similar polypeptides that are important for activity or structure. In view of such a comparison, one can predict the importance of amino acid residues in a protein that correspond to amino acid residues which are important for activity or structure in similar proteins. One skilled in the art may opt for chemically similar amino acid substitutions for such predicted important amino acid residues. 
     In some embodiments, one skilled in the art may identify residues that may be changed that result in enhanced properties as desired. For example, an amino acid substitution (conservative or non-conservative) may result in enhanced binding affinity to human ASGR, human ASGR-1, and/or human ASGR-2, or enhanced binding affinity to other species of ASGR, ASGR-1, and/or ASGR-2. 
     One skilled in the art can also analyze the three-dimensional structure and amino acid sequence in relation to that structure in similar polypeptides. In view of such information, one skilled in the art may predict the alignment of amino acid residues of an antibody with respect to its three dimensional structure. In certain embodiments, one skilled in the art may choose not to make radical changes to amino acid residues predicted to be on the surface of the protein, since such residues may be involved in important interactions with other molecules. A number of scientific publications have been devoted to the prediction of secondary structure. See Moult J., Curr. Op. in Biotech., 7(4):422-427 (1996), Chou et al., Biochemistry, 13(2):222-245 (1974); Chou et al., Biochemistry, 113(2):211-222 (1974); Chou et al., Adv. Enzymol. Relat. Areas Mol. Biol., 47:45-148 (1978); Chou et al., Ann. Rev. Biochem., 47:251-276 and Chou et al., Biophys. J., 26:367-384 (1979). Moreover, computer programs are currently available to assist with predicting secondary structure. One method of predicting secondary structure is based upon homology modeling. For example, two polypeptides or proteins which have a sequence identity of greater than 30%, or similarity greater than 40% often have similar structural topologies. The growth of the protein structural database (PDB) has provided enhanced predictability of secondary structure, including the potential number of folds within a polypeptide&#39;s or protein&#39;s structure. See Holm et al., Nucl. Acid. Res., 27(1):244-247 (1999). Additional methods of predicting secondary structure include “threading” (Jones, D., Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol., 7(3):377-87 (1997); Sippl et al., Structure, 4(1):15-19 (1996)), “profile analysis” (Bowie et al., Science, 253:164-170 (1991); Gribskov et al., Meth. Enzym., 183:146-159 (1990); Gribskov et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 84(13):4355-4358 (1987)), and “evolutionary linkage” (See Holm, supra (1999), and Brenner, supra (1997)). 
     In certain embodiments, variants of the antigen binding protein include glycosylation variants wherein the number and/or type of glycosylation site has been altered compared to the amino acid sequences of a parent polypeptide. In certain embodiments, variants comprise a greater or a lesser number of N-linked glycosylation sites than the native protein. Alternatively, substitutions which eliminate this sequence will remove an existing N-linked carbohydrate chain. Also provided is a rearrangement of N-linked carbohydrate chains wherein one or more N-linked glycosylation sites (typically those that are naturally occurring) are eliminated and one or more new N-linked sites are created. Additional antibody variants include cysteine variants wherein one or more cysteine residues are deleted from or substituted for another amino acid (e.g., serine) as compared to the parent amino acid sequence. Cysteine variants may be useful when antibodies must be refolded into a biologically active conformation such as after the isolation of insoluble inclusion bodies. Cysteine variants generally have fewer cysteine residues than the native protein, and typically have an even number to minimize interactions resulting from unpaired cysteines. 
     Desired amino acid substitutions (whether conservative or non-conservative) can be determined by those skilled in the art at the time such substitutions are desired. In certain embodiments, amino acid substitutions can be used to identify important residues of antibodies to the target of interest, or to increase or decrease the affinity of the antibodies to the target of interest described herein. 
     According to certain embodiments, desired amino acid substitutions are those which: (1) reduce susceptibility to proteolysis, (2) reduce susceptibility to oxidation, (3) alter binding affinity for forming protein complexes, (4) alter binding affinities, and/or (4) confer or modify other physiochemical or functional properties on such polypeptides. According to certain embodiments, single or multiple amino acid substitutions (in certain embodiments, conservative amino acid substitutions) may be made in the naturally-occurring sequence (in certain embodiments, in the portion of the polypeptide outside the domain(s) forming intermolecular contacts). In certain embodiments, a conservative amino acid substitution typically may not substantially change the structural characteristics of the parent sequence (e.g., a replacement amino acid should not tend to break a helix that occurs in the parent sequence, or disrupt other types of secondary structure that characterizes the parent sequence). Examples of art-recognized polypeptide secondary and tertiary structures are described in Proteins, Structures and Molecular Principles (Creighton, Ed., W. H. Freeman and Company, New York (1984)); Introduction to Protein Structure (C. Branden and J. Tooze, eds., Garland Publishing, New York, N.Y. (1991)); and Thornton et al. Nature 354:105 (1991), which are each incorporated herein by reference. 
     Antigen Binding Protein Sequences 
     The amino acid sequences of the light chain CDRs of exemplary antigen binding proteins (antibodies) and the heavy chain CDRs of exemplary antigen binding proteins (antibodies) are shown in Tables 2-7, in addition to the exemplary antigen binding proteins described above as consensus light chain CDRs and/or consensus heavy chain CDRs (see Tables 19 B and C and Tables 20 B and C in  FIG. 55 ). Also shown are polynucleotide sequences which encode the amino acid sequences of the CDRs (Table 2). Tables 3-7 and Tables A, B and C further provide the amino acid sequences of the VH and VL of exemplary antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies), in addition to the exemplary antigen binding proteins described above as consensus variable light chain sequences and/or consensus variable heavy chain sequences (see Table 19A and Table 20A in  FIG. 55 , as well as the Tables in  FIGS. 56 and 57 ). Table 3 further provides the polynucleotide (DNA) sequences encoding the amino acid sequences of the variable light and variable heavy domains for exemplary antibodies. 
     Particular embodiments of antigen binding proteins of the present invention comprise one or more amino acid sequences that are identical to the amino acid sequences of one or more of the CDRs and/or FRs (framework regions) illustrated herein in Tables 2-7, and Tables A-C below. In one embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a light chain CDR1 sequence illustrated herein in Table 2 in  FIG. 49  and Table C below. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a light chain CDR2 sequence illustrated herein in Table 2 in  FIG. 49  and Table C below. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a light chain CDR3 sequence illustrated in herein in Table 2 in  FIG. 49  and Table C below. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a heavy chain CDR1 sequence illustrated in herein in Table 2 in  FIG. 49  and Table C below. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a heavy chain CDR2 sequence illustrated herein in Table 2 in  FIG. 49  and Table C below. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a heavy chain CDR3 sequence illustrated herein in Table 2 in  FIG. 49  and Table C below. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a light chain FR1 sequence illustrated herein in Tables 3-7 in  FIGS. 50-54 , respectively. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a light chain FR2 sequence illustrated herein in Tables 3-7 in  FIGS. 50-54 , respectively. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a light chain FR3 sequence illustrated herein in Tables 3-7 in  FIGS. 50-54 , respectively. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a light chain FR4 sequence illustrated herein in Table 3-7 in  FIGS. 50-54 , respectively. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a heavy chain FR1 sequence illustrated herein in Table 3-7 in  FIGS. 50-54 , respectively. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a heavy chain FR2 sequence illustrated herein in Table 3-7 in  FIGS. 50-54 , respectively. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a heavy chain FR3 sequence illustrated herein in Table 3-7 in  FIGS. 50-54 , respectively. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a heavy chain FR4 sequence illustrated herein in Table 3-7 in  FIGS. 50-54 , respectively. 
     In another embodiment, at least one of the antigen binding protein&#39;s CDR3 sequences differs by no more than 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or 0 single amino acid addition, substitution, and/or deletion from a CDR3 sequence from the sequences as shown in Table 2 in  FIG. 49  or Table C below. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein&#39;s light chain CDR3 sequence differs by no more than 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or 0 single amino acid addition, substitution, and/or deletion from a light chain CDR3 sequence from the sequences as shown in Table 2 in  FIG. 49  or Table C below and the antigen binding protein&#39;s heavy chain CDR3 sequence differs by no more than 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or 0 single amino acid addition, substitution, and/or deletion from a heavy chain CDR3 sequence from the sequences as shown in Table 2 in  FIG. 49  or Table C below. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein further comprises 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 CDR sequences that each independently differs by 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or 0 single amino acid additions, substitutions, and/or deletions from a CDR sequence of the sequences shown in Table 2 in  FIG. 49  or Table C below. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises the CDRs of the light chain variable region and the CDRs of the heavy chain variable region set forth in Table 2 in  FIG. 49  or Table C below. In a further embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises the CDRs of any one of the antibodies in Table 2 in  FIG. 49  or Table C below. In one embodiment, the antigen binding protein is a human antibody. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein is a humanized antibody. In certain embodiments, the VH CDRs and the VL CDRs are paired in a manner indicated in Tables 2-7 in  FIGS. 49-54 , respectively. 
     In one embodiment, the antigen binding protein (e.g., an antibody) comprises a light chain variable domain comprising a sequence of amino acids that differs from the sequence of a light chain variable domain listed in Table 3-7 in  FIGS. 50-54 , respectively at 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or 0 residues, wherein each such sequence difference is independently either a deletion, insertion, or substitution of one amino acid residue. In another embodiment, the antigen binding protein (e.g., an antibody) comprises a heavy chain variable domain comprising a sequence of amino acids that differs from the sequence of a heavy chain variable domain listed in Table 3-7 in  FIGS. 50-54 , respectively at 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or 0 residues, wherein each such sequence difference is independently either a deletion, insertion, or substitution of one amino acid residue. In certain embodiments, the antigen binding protein comprises a light chain variable domain and a heavy chain variable domain that are paired in a manner indicated in Tables 3-7 in  FIGS. 50-54 , respectively. In certain embodiments, the antigen binding protein comprises a light chain variable domain and a heavy chain variable domain that are paired in a manner indicated in Tables A-C below. 
     In a particular embodiment, the antigen binding protein (e.g., antibody) binds to human ASGR-1 and comprises a heavy chain variable domain containing one or more VH CDR1 (HCDR1), VH CDR2 (HCDR2) and/or VH CDR3 (HCDR3), wherein the VH CDR1 (HCDR1) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:5136, SEQ ID NO:50001, SEQ ID NO:50012 and SEQ ID NO:50468; the VH CDR2 (HCDR2) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:13148, SEQ ID NO:50002, SEQ ID NO:50014, and SEQ ID NO:50260; and the VH CDR3 (HCDR3) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:21160, SEQ ID NO:50003, and SEQ ID NO:50470. 
     In a particular embodiment, the antigen binding protein (e.g., antibody) binds to human ASGR-1 and comprises a light chain variable domain containing one or more VL CDR1 (LCDR1), VL CDR2 (LCDR2) and/or VL CDR3 (LCDR3), wherein the VL CDR1 (LCDR1) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:1130, SEQ ID NO:50133, SEQ ID NO:50156 and SEQ ID NO:50162; the VL CDR2 (LCDR2) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:9142, SEQ ID NO:50157, SEQ ID NO:50163, SEQ ID NO:50229, SEQ ID NO:50619, SEQ ID NO:50643 and SEQ ID NO:50649; and the VL CDR3 (LCDR3) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:17154, SEQ ID NO:50134, SEQ ID NO:50164, and SEQ ID NO:50261. 
     In a particular embodiment, the antigen binding protein (e.g., antibody) binds to human ASGR-1 and comprises A) a heavy chain variable domain containing one or more VH CDR1 (HCDR1), VH CDR2 (HCDR2) and/or VH CDR3 (HCDR3), wherein the VH CDR1 (HCDR1) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:5136, SEQ ID NO:50001, SEQ ID NO:50012 and SEQ ID NO:50468; the VH CDR2 (HCDR2) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:13148, SEQ ID NO:50002, SEQ ID NO:50014, and SEQ ID NO:50260; and the VH CDR3 (HCDR3) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:21160, SEQ ID NO:50003, and SEQ ID NO:50470; and B) a light chain variable domain containing one or more VL CDR1 (LCDR1), VL CDR2 (LCDR2) and/or VL CDR3 (LCDR3), wherein the VL CDR1 (LCDR1) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:1130, SEQ ID NO:50133, SEQ ID NO:50156 and SEQ ID NO:50162; the VL CDR2 (LCDR2) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:9142, SEQ ID NO:50157, SEQ ID NO:50163, SEQ ID NO:50229, SEQ ID NO:50619, SEQ ID NO:50643 and SEQ ID NO:50649; and the VL CDR3 (LCDR3) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:17154, SEQ ID NO:50134, SEQ ID NO:50164, and SEQ ID NO:50261. In one embodiment, the antigen binding protein (e.g., antibody) comprises A) a heavy chain variable domain containing a VH CDR1 (HCDR1), a VH CDR2 (HCDR2) and a VH CDR3 (HCDR3), wherein the VH CDR1 (HCDR1) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:5136, SEQ ID NO:50001, SEQ ID NO:50012 and SEQ ID NO:50468; the VH CDR2 (HCDR2) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:13148, SEQ ID NO:50002, SEQ ID NO:50014, and SEQ ID NO:50260; and the VH CDR3 (HCDR3) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:21160, SEQ ID NO:50003, and SEQ ID NO:50470; and B) a light chain variable domain containing a VL CDR1 (LCDR1), a VL CDR2 (LCDR2) and a VL CDR3 (LCDR3), wherein the VL CDR1 (LCDR1) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:1130, SEQ ID NO:50133, SEQ ID NO:50156 and SEQ ID NO:50162; the VL CDR2 (LCDR2) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:9142, SEQ ID NO:50157, SEQ ID NO:50163, SEQ ID NO:50229, SEQ ID NO:50619, SEQ ID NO:50643 and SEQ ID NO:50649; and the VL CDR3 (LCDR3) has an amino acid sequence identical to, or comprising not more than 3 amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions as compared to, the amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:17154, SEQ ID NO:50134, SEQ ID NO:50164, and SEQ ID NO:50261. In one embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises A) a heavy chain variable domain containing a VH CDR1 (HCDR1), a VH CDR2 (HCDR2) and a VH CDR3 (HCDR3), wherein the VH CDR1 (HCDR1) amino acid sequence is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:5136, SEQ ID NO:50001, SEQ ID NO:50012 and SEQ ID NO:50468; the VH CDR2 (HCDR2) amino acid sequence is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:13148, SEQ ID NO:50002, SEQ ID NO:50014, and SEQ ID NO:50260; and the VH CDR3 (HCDR3) amino acid sequence is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:21160, SEQ ID NO:50003, and SEQ ID NO:50470; and B) a light chain variable domain containing a VL CDR1 (LCDR1), a VL CDR2 (LCDR2) and a VL CDR3 (LCDR3), wherein the VL CDR1 (LCDR1) amino acid sequence is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:1130, SEQ ID NO:50133, SEQ ID NO:50156 and SEQ ID NO:50162; the VL CDR2 (LCDR2) amino acid sequence is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:9142, SEQ ID NO:50157, SEQ ID NO:50163, SEQ ID NO:50229, SEQ ID NO:50619, SEQ ID NO:50643 and SEQ ID NO:50649; and the VL CDR3 (LCDR3) amino acid sequence is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:17154, SEQ ID NO:50134, SEQ ID NO:50164, and SEQ ID NO:50261. In one embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a heavy chain variable domain and a light chain variable domain containing a VH CDR1 having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:5136; a VH CDR2 having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:13148; a VH CDR3 having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:21160; a VL CDR1 having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1130; a VL CDR2 having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:9142; and a VL CDR3 having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:17154. 
     In a particular embodiment, the antigen binding protein (e.g., antibody) comprises a) a light chain variable domain having no more than ten or no more than five amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions from the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:25164 or SEQ ID NO:50326; b) a heavy chain variable domain having no more than ten or no more than five amino acid additions/insertions, deletions or substitutions from the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:29170 or SEQ ID NO:50266; or c) the light chain variable domain of a) and the heavy chain variable domain of b). In one embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a light chain varable domain having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:25164 or SEQ ID NO:50326; and a heavy chain variable domain having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:29170 or SEQ ID NO:50266. In one embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a light chain varable domain having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:50326; and a heavy chain variable domain having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:50266. In one embodiment, the antigen binding protein comprises a light chain varable domain having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:25164; and a heavy chain variable domain having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:29170. 
     While specific embodiments relating to the antigen binding protein identified as 4A2 are set forth above with particularity, the embodiments of the present invention are not intended to be limited in scope to this individual embodiment. The embodiments directed to 4A2 are intended merely as single illustrations of individual embodiments. It is fully anticipated that the embodiments of the present invention include antigen binding proteins comprising heavy chain variable domains containing one or more VH CDR1 (HCDR1), VH CDR2 (HCDR2) and/or VH CDR3 (HCDR3) and/or light chain variable domains containing one or more VL CDR1 (LCDR1), VL CDR2 (LCDR2) and/or VL CDR3 (LCDR3) as set forth in Tables 2-7 in  FIGS. 49-57 , respectively, as well as Tables 19A-C and Tables 20A-C in  FIG. 55 , Tables 21-134 in  FIGS. 56 and 57 , and Tables A, B and C. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE A 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Exemplary Heavy and Light Chain Variable Regions 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Ab 
                 SEQ ID NOs: 
                 Ab 
                 SEQ ID NOs: 
                 Ab 
                 SEQ ID NOs: 
                 Ab 
                 SEQ ID NOs: 
               
               
                 name 
                 VH/VL 
                 name 
                 VH/VL 
                 name 
                 VH/VL 
                 name 
                 VH/VL 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 10G6 
                 29184/25178 
                 59F2 
                 31512/27506 
                 147E9 
                 30172/26166 
                 191G10 
                 30846/26840 
               
               
                 11E2 
                 29040/25034 
                 5E5 
                 29016/25010 
                 184E7 
                 30660/26654 
                 191G12 
                 30730/26724 
               
               
                 11F5 
                 29054/25048 
                 60D2 
                 31518/27512 
                 194A4 
                 30820/26814 
                 192C10 
                 30764/26758 
               
               
                 12E9 
                 29186/25180 
                 60E8 
                 29494/25488 
                 208A2 
                 28136/24130 
                 192C8 
                 30756/26750 
               
               
                 12F11 
                 29178/25172 
                 63A10 
                 31536/27530 
                 210G10 
                 31054/27048 
                 192E4 
                 30744/26738 
               
               
                 12F12 
                 29188/25182 
                 63G7 
                 31534/27528 
                 4B1 
                 28878/24872 
                 192G6 
                 30752/26746 
               
               
                 13F6 
                 28772/24766 
                 64B12 
                 29624/25618 
                 60E12 
                 29502/25496 
                 192G8 
                 30760/26754 
               
               
                 148E10 
                 28132/24126 
                 65F10 
                 28134/24128 
                 61A1 
                 29504/25498 
                 192H10 
                 30768/26762 
               
               
                 154F4 
                 31392/27386 
                 68G6 
                 28224/24218 
                 62H10 
                 31832/27826 
                 193C7 
                 30794/26788 
               
               
                 159H8 
                 31416/27410 
                 6A6 
                 28806/24800 
                 63H8 
                 29604/25598 
                 194B7 
                 30828/26822 
               
               
                 160B12 
                 31418/27412 
                 6D4 
                 28816/24810 
                 72G9 
                 32080/28074 
                 194C1 
                 30816/26810 
               
               
                 175D10 
                 30538/26532 
                 6D9 
                 29154/25148 
                 8D8 
                 29168/25162 
                 196C7 
                 30870/26864 
               
               
                 177D2 
                 31858/27852 
                 6G6 
                 29198/25192 
                 12D2 
                 29036/25030 
                 197B6 
                 30894/26888 
               
               
                 25A4 
                 28522/24516 
                 70D1 
                 29670/25664 
                 148H10 
                 30196/26190 
                 197E11 
                 30906/26900 
               
               
                 25D12 
                 28510/24504 
                 7A10 
                 29194/25188 
                 173C11 
                 30520/26514 
                 197F2 
                 30886/26880 
               
               
                 26C4 
                 28580/24574 
                 7E11 
                 28914/24908 
                 179C2 
                 30570/26564 
                 197G3 
                 30888/26882 
               
               
                 27E7 
                 28744/24738 
                 7F4 
                 28814/24808 
                 47C1 
                 29286/25280 
                 198G3 
                 30620/26614 
               
               
                 28H2 
                 29190/25184 
                 7F8 
                 28948/24942 
                 49C1 
                 29320/25314 
                 213B3 
                 31092/27086 
               
               
                 29E2 
                 29192/25186 
                 7G4 
                 28966/24960 
                 60C12 
                 29500/25494 
                 219H1 
                 31156/27150 
               
               
                 29E6 
                 28550/24544 
                 8D12 
                 29050/25044 
                 60G2 
                 29482/25476 
                 74C8 
                 29768/25762 
               
               
                 29H8 
                 28798/24792 
                 9F12LC1 
                 28216/24210 
                 65D5 
                 29632/25626 
                 74G6 
                 29894/25888 
               
               
                 32D6 
                 29196/25190 
                 9F12LC2 
                 28217/24211 
                 66H11 
                 28130/24124 
                 75G3 
                 29714/25708 
               
               
                 3G7 
                 28840/24834 
                 9G9 
                 28790/24784 
                 71A6 
                 28128/24122 
                 89A11 
                 30028/26022 
               
               
                 45B4 
                 29252/25246 
                 65E9 
                 31538/27532 
                 73G1 
                 31556/27550 
                 74B2 
                 29736/25730 
               
               
                 49F10 
                 29334/25328 
                 72B4 
                 31552/27546 
                 49C5 
                 32086/28080 
                 74H7 
                 29966/25960 
               
               
                 4A2 
                 29170/25164 
                 7H7 
                 28944/24938 
                 49D10 
                 32088/28082 
                 85F7 
                 29766/25760 
               
               
                 4B3 
                 28750/24744 
                 9C11 
                 28856/24850 
                 51E3 
                 30958/26952 
                 198B9 
                 30918/26912 
               
               
                 4H6 
                 28936/24930 
                 12B12 
                 28978/24972 
                 51F4 
                 31476/27470 
                 199A7 
                 30932/26926 
               
               
                 50D4 
                 29362/25356 
                 147D10 
                 30174/26168 
                 53E8 
                 32090/28084 
                 218G4 
                 31786/27780 
               
               
                 50G9 
                 32082/28076 
                 149D11 
                 30226/26220 
                 54E9 
                 31488/27482 
                 146A8 
                 31332/27326 
               
               
                 51E9 
                 29366/25360 
                 149F8 
                 30222/26216 
                 56E3 
                 31492/27486 
                 146B6 
                 31334/27328 
               
               
                 52G11 
                 28138/24132 
                 151B9 
                 31372/27366 
                 56G1 
                 31490/27484 
                 149A1 
                 31344/27338 
               
               
                 52H1 
                 31482/27476 
                 175F4 
                 31456/27450 
                 190C11 
                 30602/26596 
                 172B12 
                 31452/27446 
               
               
                 53F2 
                 28140/24134 
                 22G5 
                 28368/24362 
                 190E6 
                 30642/26636 
                 172C3 
                 31450/27444 
               
               
                 53F7 
                 29412/25406 
                 48B12 
                 31820/27814 
                 190F12 
                 30618/26612 
                 193E7 
                 30796/26790 
               
               
                 55B1 
                 29430/25424 
                 52H2 
                 29380/25374 
                 190F8 
                 30712/26706 
                 199E3 
                 30926/26920 
               
               
                 56E5 
                 29466/25460 
                 6G7 
                 28880/24874 
                 190G11 
                 30608/26602 
                 226F9 
                 31264/27258 
               
               
                 65C12 
                 32078/28072 
                 7G2 
                 28942/24936 
                 190H9 
                 30716/26710 
                 227C1 
                 31280/27274 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Ab 
                 SEQ ID NOs: 
                 Ab 
                 SEQ ID NOs: 
                 Ab 
                 SEQ ID NOs: 
               
               
                   
                 name 
                 VH/VL 
                 name 
                 VH/VL 
                 name 
                 VH/VL 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 176H4 
                 30542/26536 
                 72F5 
                 29700/25694 
                 48D7 
                 29306/25300 
               
               
                   
                 194C10 
                 30832/26826 
                 191A10 
                 30724/26718 
                 52D10 
                 29388/25382 
               
               
                   
                 191E10 
                 30726/26720 
                 191G1 
                 30628/26622 
                 59E6 
                 29590/25584 
               
               
                   
                 196F4 
                 30868/26862 
                 227F2 
                 31282/27276 
                 64E2 
                 31836/27830 
               
               
                   
                 198D2 
                 31604/27598 
                 31D12LC1 
                 29176/25170 
                 57A7 
                 29554/25548 
               
               
                   
                 202A3 
                 30972/26966 
                 31D12LC2 
                 29174/25168 
                 58G11 
                 31510/27504 
               
               
                   
                 204G6 
                 31004/26998 
                 7C3LC1 
                 28212/24206 
                 64G12 
                 29626/25620 
               
               
                   
                 224G1 
                 31196/27190 
                 7C3LC2 
                 28214/24208 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE B 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Ab 
                 SEQ ID NOs: 
                 Ab 
                 SEQ ID NOs: 
                 Ab 
                 SEQ ID NOs: 
                 Ab 
                 SEQ ID NOs: 
               
               
                 name 
                 VH/VL 
                 name 
                 VH/VL 
                 name 
                 VH/VL 
                 name 
                 VH/VL 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 175D10 
                 30538/26532 
                 184E7 
                 30660/26654 
                 192E4 
                 30744/26738 
                 74B2 
                 29736/25730 
               
               
                 25A4 
                 28522/24516 
                 194A4 
                 30820/26814 
                 192G6 
                 30752/26746 
                 74H7 
                 29966/25960 
               
               
                 26C4 
                 28580/24574 
                 208A2 
                 28136/24130 
                 192G8 
                 30760/26754 
                 85F7 
                 29766/25760 
               
               
                 29H8 
                 28798/24792 
                 210G10 
                 31054/27048 
                 192H10 
                 30768/26762 
                 218G4 
                 31786/27780 
               
               
                 49F10 
                 29334/25328 
                 4B1 
                 28878/24872 
                 193C7 
                 30794/26788 
                 172B12 
                 31452/27446 
               
               
                 4A2 
                 29170/25164 
                 72G9 
                 32080/28074 
                 194B7 
                 30828/26822 
                 172C3 
                 31450/27444 
               
               
                 4H6 
                 28936/24930 
                 190C11 
                 30602/26596 
                 194C1 
                 30816/26810 
                 193E7 
                 30796/26790 
               
               
                 50D4 
                 29362/25356 
                 190E6 
                 30642/26636 
                 196C7 
                 30870/26864 
                 199E3 
                 30926/26920 
               
               
                 51E9 
                 29366/25360 
                 190F12 
                 30618/26612 
                 197B6 
                 30894/26888 
                 191E10 
                 30726/26720 
               
               
                 52H1 
                 31482/27476 
                 190F8 
                 30712/26706 
                 197E11 
                 30906/26900 
                 196F4 
                 30868/26862 
               
               
                 55B1 
                 29430/25424 
                 190G11 
                 30608/26602 
                 197F2 
                 30886/26880 
                 198D2 
                 31604/27598 
               
               
                 56E5 
                 29466/25460 
                 190H9 
                 30716/26710 
                 197G3 
                 30888/26882 
                 202A3 
                 30972/26966 
               
               
                 64B12 
                 29624/25618 
                 191A10 
                 30724/26718 
                 198G3 
                 30620/26614 
                 204G6 
                 31004/26998 
               
               
                 6G6 
                 29198/25192 
                 191G1 
                 30628/26622 
                 213B3 
                 31092/27086 
                 10G6 
                 29184/25178 
               
               
                 7F4 
                 28814/24808 
                 191G10 
                 30846/26840 
                 219H1 
                 31156/27150 
                 160B12 
                 31418/27412 
               
               
                 7G4 
                 28966/24960 
                 191G12 
                 30730/26724 
                 74C8 
                 29768/25762 
                 177D2 
                 31858/27852 
               
               
                 149F8 
                 30222/26216 
                 192C10 
                 30764/26758 
                 74G6 
                 29894/25888 
                 53F7 
                 29412/25406 
               
               
                 48B12 
                 31820/27814 
                 192C8 
                 30756/26750 
                 75G3 
                 29714/25708 
                 63A10 
                 31536/24530 
               
               
                 7E11 
                 28914/24908 
                 198B9 
                 30918/26912 
                 146B6 
                 31334/27328 
                 22G5 
                 28368/24362 
               
               
                 6G7 
                 28880/24874 
                 199A7 
                 30932/26926 
                 176H4 
                 30542/26536 
                 5E5 
                 29016/25010 
               
               
                 147E9 
                 30172/26166 
                 146A8 
                 31332/27326 
                 149A1 
                 31344/27338 
                 194C10 
                 30832/26826 
               
               
                 54E9 
                 31488/27482 
                 12D2 
                 29036/25030 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE C 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Exemplary Heavy and Light Chain Variable Regions and Heavy and Light Chain CDR1/2/3 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 VH 
                 VL 
                 HCDR1 
                 HCDR2 
                 HCDR3 
                 LCDR1 
                 LCDR2 
                 LCDR3 
               
               
                 Ab 
                 SEQ ID 
                 SEQ ID 
                 SEQ ID 
                 SEQ ID 
                 SEQ ID 
                 SEQ ID 
                 SEQ ID 
                 SEQ ID 
               
               
                 name 
                 NOs: 
                 NOs: 
                 NOs: 
                 NOs: 
                 NOs: 
                 NOs: 
                 NOs: 
                 NOs: 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 25A4 
                 28522 or 
                 24516 or 
                 4488, 
                 12500, 
                 20512, 
                 480, 
                 8492, 
                 16504, 
               
               
                   
                 50266 
                 50316 
                 50468, 
                 50002, 
                 50003 or 
                 50133 or 
                 50157, 
                 50134, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50001 or 
                 50014 or 
                 50470 
                 50162 
                 50229, 
                 50164 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50013 
                 50259 
                   
                   
                 50619, 
                 50620 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50643 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50649 
               
               
                 26C4 
                 28580 or 
                 24574 or 
                 4546, 
                 12588 or 
                 20570, 
                 538, 
                 8550, 
                 16562, 
               
               
                   
                 50266 
                 50316 
                 50001, 
                 50002 
                 50003 or 
                 50133 or 
                 50157, 
                 50134, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50013 or 
                   
                 50470 
                 50156 
                 50163, 
                 50164 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50468 
                   
                   
                   
                 50229, 
                 50620 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50619, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50643 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50649 
               
               
                 29H8 
                 28798 or 
                 24792 or 
                 4764, 
                 12776 or 
                 20788 or 
                 756 or 
                 8768, 
                 16780 or 
               
               
                   
                 50266 
                 50316 
                 50001, 
                 50002 
                 50003 or 
                 50133 
                 50157, 
                 50134 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50013 or 
                   
                 50470 
                   
                 50163 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50468 
                   
                   
                   
                 50229, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50619, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50643 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50649 
               
               
                 4A2 
                 29170 or 
                 25164 or 
                 5136, 
                 13148, 
                 21160, 
                 1130, 
                 9142, 
                 17154, 
               
               
                   
                 50266 
                 50326 
                 50001, 
                 50002, 
                 50003 or 
                 50133, 
                 50157, 
                 50134, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50013, or 
                 50014 or 
                 50470 
                 50156 or 
                 50163 
                 50164 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50468 
                 50260 
                   
                 50162 
                 50229, 
                 50261 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50619, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50643 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50649 
               
               
                 4H6 
                 28936 or 
                 24930 or 
                 4902 or 
                 12914 or 
                 20926 or 
                 894, 
                 8096, 
                 16918 or 
               
               
                   
                 50272 
                 50321 
                 50019 
                 50020 
                 50021 or 
                 50147 or 
                 50148 or 
                 50149 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50262 
                 50159 
                 50160 
               
               
                 56E5 
                 29466 or 
                 25460 or 
                 5432, 
                 13444 or 
                 21456 or 
                 1426 or 
                 9438, 
                 17450 or 
               
               
                   
                 50272 
                 50321 
                 50019 or 
                 50020 
                 50021 
                 50147 
                 50123, 
                 50149 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50058 
                   
                   
                   
                 50131, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50136, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50139, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50142, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50145, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50148, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50154, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50160, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50181, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50184, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50199, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50202, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50213 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50248 
               
               
                 7F4 
                 28814 or 
                 24808 or 
                 4780, 
                 12792 or 
                 20804 or 
                 772, 
                 8784, 
                 16796 or 
               
               
                   
                 50284 
                 50312 
                 50046 or 
                 50047 
                 50048 
                 50122, 
                 50123, 
                 50124 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50075 
                   
                   
                 50130, 
                 50131, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50135 or 
                 50136, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50198 
                 50139, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50142, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50145, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50148, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50154, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50160, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50181, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50199 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50213 
               
               
                 7G4 
                 28966 or 
                 24960 or 
                 4932, 
                 12944, 
                 20956 or 
                 924, 
                 8936, 
                 16948 
               
               
                   
                 50267 
                 50315 
                 50004, 
                 50005, 
                 50006 
                 50122, 
                 50123, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50037 or 
                 50008, 
                   
                 50130, 
                 50131, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50107 
                 50017, 
                   
                 50135, 
                 50136, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50023, 
                   
                 50198, or 
                 50139, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50026, 
                   
                 50247 
                 50142, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50038, 
                   
                   
                 50145, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50053, 
                   
                   
                 50148, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50067, 
                   
                   
                 50154, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50073, 
                   
                   
                 50160, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50085, 
                   
                   
                 50181, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50088, 
                   
                   
                 50184, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50100, 
                   
                   
                 50199, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50108, 
                   
                   
                 50202, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50238 or 
                   
                   
                 50213 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50254 
                   
                   
                 50248 
               
               
                 48B12 
                 31820 or 
                 27814 
                 7784, 
                 15796, 
                 23808 
                 3780 
                 11792 or 
                 19804 
               
               
                   
                 50267 
                   
                 50034, 
                 50032, 
                   
                   
                 50126 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50055, 
                 50035, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50093, 
                 50056, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50113 or 
                 50070, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50116 
                 50091, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50105 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50117 
               
               
                 184E7 
                 30660 or 
                 26654 or 
                 6626, 
                 14638 or 
                 22650 
                 2620, 
                 10632, 
                 18644 or 
               
               
                   
                 50272 
                 50320 
                 50019 or 
                 50020 
                   
                 50138, 
                 50123, 
                 50146 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50237 
                   
                   
                 50144, 
                 50131, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50147, 
                 50136, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50183 or 
                 50139, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50212 
                 50142, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50145, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50148, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50154, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50160, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50181, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50184, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50199, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50202, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50213 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50248 
               
               
                 194A4 
                 30820 
                 26814 or 
                 6786 
                 14798, 
                 22810 
                 2780 or 
                 10792, 
                 18804 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                 50342 
                   
                 50020, 
                   
                 50206 
                 50128 or 
                 50208 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50050, 
                   
                   
                 50207 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50059 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50079 
               
               
                 4B1 
                 28878 
                 24872 or 
                 4844 
                 12856 
                 20868 
                 836, 
                 8848, 
                 16860, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 50323 
                   
                   
                   
                 50141 or 
                 50123, 
                 50143 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50153 
                 50131, 
                 50203 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50136, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50139, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50142, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50145, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50148, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50154, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50160, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50181, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50184, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50199, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50202, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50213 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50248 
               
               
                 190F8 
                 30712 or 
                 26706 or 
                 6678, 
                 14690, 
                 22702 or 
                 2672, 
                 10684 or 
                 18696, 
               
               
                   
                 50271 
                 50318 
                 50007, 
                 50017, 
                 50018 
                 50138 or 
                 50139 
                 50140, or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50016, 
                 50023, 
                   
                 50144 
                   
                 50146 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50037, 
                 50038 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50066, 
                 50088 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50072 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50084, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50237 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50253 
               
               
                 191G1 
                 30628 or 
                 26622 or 
                 6594, 
                 14606, 
                 22618 or 
                 2588, 
                 10600, 
                 18612 or 
               
               
                   
                 50271 
                 50318 
                 50004, 
                 50008 or 
                 50018 
                 50138, 
                 50123, 
                 50140 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50007, 
                 50017 
                   
                 50144, 
                 50131, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50016, 
                   
                   
                 50147, 
                 50136, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50022, 
                   
                   
                 50183, or 
                 50139, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50025, 
                   
                   
                 50212 
                 50142, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50037, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50145, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50066, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50148, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50072, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50154, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50084, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50160, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50087, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50181, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50096, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50184, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50099, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50199, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50107, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50202, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50237 or 
                   
                   
                   
                 50213 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50252 
                   
                   
                   
                 50214 
               
               
                 191G10 
                 30846 or 
                 26840 or 
                 6812, 
                 14824, 
                 22836 or 
                 2806, 
                 10818 or 
                 18830 or 
               
               
                   
                 50271 
                 50318 
                 50004, 
                 50017, 
                 50018 
                 50138 or 
                 50139 
                 50140 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50007, 
                 50023, 
                   
                 50144 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50016, 
                 50038, or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50022, 
                 50088 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50025, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50037, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50066, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50072, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50084, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50087, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50096, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50099, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50107, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50237 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50253 
               
               
                 194C1 
                 30816 
                 26810 
                 6782, 
                 14794, 
                 22806 
                 2776, 
                 10788, 
                 18800 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50004, 
                 50008, or 
                   
                 50138, 
                 50123, 
                 50140 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50007, 
                 50017 
                   
                 50144, 
                 50131, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50016, 
                   
                   
                 50147, 
                 50136, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50022, 
                   
                   
                 50183 or 
                 50139, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50025, 
                   
                   
                 50212 
                 50142, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50037, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50145, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50066, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50148, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50072, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50154, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50084, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50160, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50087, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50181, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50096, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50184, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50099, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50199, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50107, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50202, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50237 or 
                   
                   
                   
                 50213 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50253 
                   
                   
                   
                 50248 
               
               
                 197G3 
                 30888 or 
                 26882 or 
                 6854, 
                 14866, 
                 22878 or 
                 2848, 
                 10860, 
                 18872 or 
               
               
                   
                 50273 
                 50320 
                 50016 or 
                 50017, 
                 50024 
                 50138 or 
                 50123, 
                 50140 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50022 
                 50023, 
                   
                 50144 
                 50131, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50038, or 
                   
                   
                 50136, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50088 
                   
                   
                 50139, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50142, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50145, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50148, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50154, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50160, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50181, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50184, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50199, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50202, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50213 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50248 
               
               
                 198G3 
                 30620 or 
                 26614 or 
                 6586, 
                 14598, 
                 22610 or 
                 2580 or 
                 10592 or 
                 18604 or 
               
               
                   
                 50271 
                 50318 
                 50007, 
                 50017, or 
                 50018 
                 50138 
                 50139 
                 50140 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50016, 
                 50038 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50037, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50066, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50072, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50084, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50237 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50253 
               
               
                 75G3 
                 29714 or 
                 25708 or 
                 5680, 
                 13692 
                 21704 or 
                 1674 or 
                 9686 or 
                 17698 or 
               
               
                   
                 50283 
                 50314 
                 50010 or 
                   
                 50235 
                 50127 
                 50128 
                 50129 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50233 
               
               
                 218G4 
                 31786 or 
                 27780 or 
                 7750, 
                 15762, 
                 23774 
                 3746 or 
                 11758 or 
                 19770 or 
               
               
                   
                 50298 
                 50335 
                 50004, 
                 50005, 
                   
                 50189 
                 50190 
                 50191 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50025, 
                 50008, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50037, 
                 50017, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50087, 
                 50023, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50096 or 
                 50026, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50253 
                 50038, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50053, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50067, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50073, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50085, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50088, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50100, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50108, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50238 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50254 
               
               
                 193E7 
                 30796 
                 26790 or 
                 6762 
                 14774, 
                 22786 
                 2756, 
                 10768, 
                 18780 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                 50312 
                   
                 50011, or 
                   
                 50122, 
                 50123 or 
                 50124 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50234 
                   
                 50130, 
                 50142 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50135, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50198, or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50247 
               
               
                 198D2 
                 31604 or 
                 27598 or 
                 7568, 
                 15580 or 
                 23592 
                 3564 or 
                 11576 or 
                 19588 or 
               
               
                   
                 50273 
                 50335 
                 50004, 
                 50023 
                   
                 50189 
                 50190 
                 50191 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50007, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50016, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50022, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50025, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50037, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50066, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50072, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50084, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50087, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50096, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50099, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50107, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50237 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50253 
               
               
                 202A3 
                 30972 
                 26966 or 
                 6938 
                 14950 
                 22962 
                 2932, 
                 10944, 
                 18956 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                 50317 
                   
                   
                   
                 50122, 
                 50123, 
                 50137 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50130, 
                 50131, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50135, 
                 50136, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50198, or 
                 50139, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50247 
                 50142, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50148, or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50213 
               
               
                 7E11 
                 28914 or 
                 24908 or 
                 4880, 
                 12892 or 
                 20904 or 
                 872 or 
                 8884, 
                 16896, or 
               
               
                   
                 50273 
                 50319 
                 50004, 
                 50263 or 
                 50024 
                 50141 or 
                 50123, 
                 50143 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50007, 
                 50023 
                   
                 50153 
                 50131, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50022, 
                   
                   
                   
                 50136, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50025 or 
                   
                   
                   
                 50139, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50037 
                   
                   
                   
                 50142, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50145, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50148, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50154, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50160, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50181, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50199 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50213 
               
               
                 22G5 
                 28368 
                 24362 or 
                 4334, 
                 12346 or 
                 20358 or 
                 326, 
                 8338, 
                 16350 
               
               
                   
                   
                 50323 
                 50031, 
                 50032 
                 50033 
                 50141, 
                 50123, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50034, 
                   
                   
                 50153, 
                 50131, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50055, 
                   
                   
                 50180 or 
                 50136, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50093, 
                   
                   
                 50201 
                 50139, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50113 or 
                   
                   
                   
                 50142, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50116 
                   
                   
                   
                 50148, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50154 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50160 
               
               
                 5E5 
                 29016 or 
                 25010 or 
                 4982 
                 12994, 
                 21006, 
                 974 
                 8986, 
                 16998 or 
               
               
                   
                 50267 
                 50315 
                 50004, 
                 50005, 
                 50006 or 
                 50122, 
                 50123, 
                 50132 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50037 or 
                 50008, 
                 50265 
                 50130, 
                 50131, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50107 
                 50017, 
                   
                 50135, 
                 50136, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50023, 
                   
                 50198, or 
                 50139, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50026, 
                   
                 50247 
                 50142, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50038, 
                   
                   
                 50145, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50053, 
                   
                   
                 50148, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50067, 
                   
                   
                 50154, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50073, 
                   
                   
                 50160, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50085, 
                   
                   
                 50181, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50088, 
                   
                   
                 50184, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50100, 
                   
                   
                 50199, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50108, 
                   
                   
                 50202, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50238, 
                   
                   
                 50213 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50254 or 
                   
                   
                 50248 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50264, 
               
               
                 54E9 
                 31488 or 
                 27482 or 
                 7452 or 
                 15464 or 
                 23476 or 
                 3448 or 
                 11460 or 
                 19472 or 
               
               
                   
                 50303 
                 50338 
                 50102 
                 50103 
                 50227 
                 50195 
                 50196 
                 50197 
               
               
                 6G7 
                 28880 
                 24874 or 
                 4846, 
                 12858 
                 20870 or 
                 838 or 
                 8850 or 
                 16862 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                 50334 
                 50004, 
                   
                 50098 
                 50186 
                 50187 
                 50188 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50007, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50016, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50022, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50025, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50037, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50066, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50072, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50084, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50087, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50096, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50099, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50107, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50237 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50253 
               
               
                 176H4 
                 30542 or 
                 26536 or 
                 6508, 
                 14520, 
                 22532, or 
                 2502, 
                 10514, 
                 18526 or 
               
               
                   
                 50282 
                 50322 
                 50004, 
                 50023, 
                 50255 
                 50150, or 
                 50151, 
                 50152 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50007, 
                 50053, 
                   
                 50174 
                 50175 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50016, 
                 50085 or 
                   
                   
                 50205 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50022, 
                 50254 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50025, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50037, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50066, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50072, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50084, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50087, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50096, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50099, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50107, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50237 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 50253 
               
               
                 194C10 
                 30832 
                 26826 or 
                 6798 or 
                 14810, 
                 22822 
                 2792 or 
                 10804 or 
                 18816 or 
               
               
                   
                   
                 50314 
                 50233 
                 50011 or 
                   
                 50146 
                 50128 
                 50129 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50234 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In the exemplary embodiments described above, the antigen binding proteins maintain desired binding to the various desired species of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. 
     In another embodiment, the light-chain variable domain comprises a sequence of amino acids that is at least 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% identical to the sequence of a light chain variable domain listed above. 
     In another embodiment, the light chain variable domain comprises a sequence of amino acids that is encoded by a nucleotide sequence that is at least 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% identical to the polynucleotide sequence listed above. In another embodiment, the light chain variable domain comprises a sequence of amino acids that is encoded by a polynucleotide that hybridizes under moderately stringent conditions to the complement of a polynucleotide that encodes a light chain variable domain selected from the sequences listed above. In another embodiment, the light chain variable domain comprises a sequence of amino acids that is encoded by a polynucleotide that hybridizes under stringent conditions to the complement of a polynucleotide that encodes a light chain variable domain selected from the group consisting of the sequences listed above. 
     In another embodiment, the heavy chain variable domain comprises a sequence of amino acids that is at least 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% identical to the sequence of a heavy chain variable domain selected from the sequences listed above. In another embodiment, the heavy chain variable domain comprises a sequence of amino acids that is encoded by a nucleotide sequence that is at least 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% identical to a nucleotide sequence that encodes a heavy chain variable domain selected from the sequences listed above. In another embodiment, the heavy chain variable domain comprises a sequence of amino acids that is encoded by a polynucleotide that hybridizes under moderately stringent conditions to the complement of a polynucleotide that encodes a heavy chain variable domain selected from the sequences listed above. In another embodiment, the heavy chain variable domain comprises a sequence of amino acids that is encoded by a polynucleotide that hybridizes under stringent conditions to the complement of a polynucleotide that encodes a heavy chain variable domain selected from the sequences listed above. 
     In the exemplary embodiments described above, the antigen binding proteins maintain desired binding to the various desired species of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. 
     Antigen binding proteins of the invention (e.g., antibodies) can comprise any constant region known in the art. The light chain constant region can be, for example, a kappa- or lambda-type light chain constant region, e.g., a human kappa- or lambda-type light chain constant region. The heavy chain constant region can be, for example, an alpha-, delta-, epsilon-, gamma-, or mu-type heavy chain constant regions, e.g., a human alpha-, delta-, epsilon-, gamma-, or mu-type heavy chain constant region. 
     Techniques are known for deriving an antibody of a different subclass or isotype from an antibody of interest, i.e., subclass switching. Thus, IgG antibodies may be derived from an IgM antibody, for example, and vice versa. Such techniques allow the preparation of new antibodies that possess the antigen-binding properties of a given antibody (the parent antibody), but also exhibit biological properties associated with an antibody isotype or subclass different from that of the parent antibody. Recombinant DNA techniques may be employed. Cloned DNA encoding particular antibody polypeptides may be employed in such procedures, e.g., DNA encoding the constant domain of an antibody of the desired isotype. See also Lanitto et al., Methods Mol. Biol. 178:303-16 (2002). 
     In one embodiment, an antigen binding protein of the invention further comprises the constant light chain kappa or lambda domains or a fragment of these. Exemplary sequences of the light chain constant regions and polynucleotides encoding them are provided in Table 15 below, and are generally well known in the art. In another embodiment, an antigen binding protein of the invention further comprises a heavy chain constant domain, or a fragment thereof, such as the IgG1 or IgG2 heavy chain constant region provided in Table 15. 
     The antigen binding proteins (for example, antibodies) of the present invention include those having a desired isotype (for example, IgA, IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, IgM, IgE, and IgD) as well as Fab or F(ab′) 2  fragments thereof. Moreover, if an IgG4 is desired, it may also be desired to introduce a point mutation in the hinge region as described in Bloom et al., 1997, Protein Science 6:407, (incorporated by reference herein) to alleviate a tendency to form intra-H chain disulfide bonds that can lead to heterogeneity in the IgG4 antibodies. 
     Generation of Antibodies 
     Antibodies of the invention may be prepared by techniques that are well known to those skilled in the art. For example, by immunizing an animal (e.g., a mouse or rat or rabbit) and then by immortalizing spleen cells harvested from the animal after completion of the immunization schedule. The spleen cells can be immortalized using any technique known in the art, e.g., by fusing them with myeloma cells to produce hybridomas. See, for example, Antibodies; Harlow and Lane, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1 st  Edition, e.g. from 1988, or 2 nd  Edition, e.g. from 2014). 
     In one embodiment, a humanized monoclonal antibody comprises the variable domain of a murine antibody (or all or part of the antigen binding site thereof) and a constant domain derived from a human antibody. Alternatively, a humanized antibody fragment may comprise the antigen binding site of a murine monoclonal antibody and a variable domain fragment (lacking the antigen-binding site) derived from a human antibody. Procedures for the production of engineered monoclonal antibodies include those described in Riechmann et al., 1988, Nature 332:323, Liu et al., 1987, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 84:3439, Larrick et al., 1989, Bio/Technology 7:934, and Winter et al., 1993, TIPS 14:139. In one embodiment, the chimeric antibody is a CDR grafted antibody. Techniques for humanizing antibodies are discussed in, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,869,619; 5,225,539; 5,821,337; 5,859,205; 6,881,557, Padlan et al., 1995, FASEB J. 9:133-39, Tamura et al., 2000, J. Immunol. 164:1432-41, Zhang, W., et al., Molecular Immunology. 42(12):1445-1451, 2005; Hwang W. et al., Methods. 36(1):35-42, 2005; Dall&#39;Acqua W F, et al., Methods 36(1):43-60, 2005; and Clark, M., Immunology Today. 21(8):397-402, 2000. 
     An antibody of the present invention may also be a fully human monoclonal antibody. Fully human monoclonal antibodies may be generated by any number of techniques with which those having ordinary skill in the art will be familiar. Such methods include, but are not limited to, Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) transformation of human peripheral blood cells (e.g., containing B lymphocytes), in vitro immunization of human B-cells, fusion of spleen cells from immunized transgenic mice carrying inserted human immunoglobulin genes, isolation from human immunoglobulin V region phage libraries, or other procedures as known in the art and based on the disclosure herein. 
     Procedures have been developed for generating human monoclonal antibodies in non-human animals. For example, mice in which one or more endogenous immunoglobulin genes have been inactivated by various means have been prepared. Human immunoglobulin genes have been introduced into the mice to replace the inactivated mouse genes. In this technique, elements of the human heavy and light chain locus are introduced into strains of mice derived from embryonic stem cell lines that contain targeted disruptions of the endogenous heavy chain and light chain loci (see also Bruggemann et al., Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 8:455-58 (1997)). For example, human immunoglobulin transgenes may be mini-gene constructs, or transloci on yeast artificial chromosomes, which undergo B-cell-specific DNA rearrangement and hypermutation in the mouse lymphoid tissue. 
     Antibodies produced in the animal incorporate human immunoglobulin polypeptide chains encoded by the human genetic material introduced into the animal. In one embodiment, a non-human animal, such as a transgenic mouse, is immunized with a suitable immunogen. 
     Examples of techniques for production and use of transgenic animals for the production of human or partially human antibodies are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,814,318, 5,569,825, and 5,545,806, Davis et al., Production of human antibodies from transgenic mice in Lo, ed. Antibody Engineering: Methods and Protocols, Humana Press, NJ:191-200 (2003), Kellermann et al., 2002, Curr Opin Biotechnol. 13:593-97, Russel et al., 2000, Infect Immun. 68:1820-26, Gallo et al., 2000, Eur J Immun. 30:534-40, Davis et al., 1999, Cancer Metastasis Rev. 18:421-25, Green, 1999, J Immunol Methods. 231:11-23, Jakobovits, 1998, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 31:33-42, Green et al., 1998, J Exp Med. 188:483-95, Jakobovits A, 1998, Exp. Opin. Invest. Drugs. 7:607-14, Tsuda et al., 1997, Genomics. 42:413-21, Mendez et al., 1997, Nat Genet. 15:146-56, Jakobovits, 1994, Curr Biol. 4:761-63, Arbones et al., 1994, Immunity. 1:247-60, Green et al., 1994, Nat Genet. 7:13-21, Jakobovits et al., 1993, Nature. 362:255-58, Jakobovits et al., 1993, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 90:2551-55. Chen, J., M. Trounstine, F. W. Alt, F. Young, C. Kurahara, J. Loring, D. Huszar. “Immunoglobulin gene rearrangement in B-cell deficient mice generated by targeted deletion of the JH locus.” International Immunology 5 (1993): 647-656, Choi et al., 1993, Nature Genetics 4: 117-23, Fishwild et al., 1996, Nature Biotechnology 14: 845-51, Harding et al., 1995, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Lonberg et al., 1994, Nature 368: 856-59, Lonberg, 1994, Transgenic Approaches to Human Monoclonal Antibodies in Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology 113: 49-101, Lonberg et al., 1995, Internal Review of Immunology 13: 65-93, Neuberger, 1996, Nature Biotechnology 14: 826, Taylor et al., 1992, Nucleic Acids Research 20: 6287-95, Taylor et al., 1994, International Immunology 6: 579-91, Tomizuka et al., 1997, Nature Genetics 16: 133-43, Tomizuka et al., 2000, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 97: 722-27, Tuaillon et al., 1993, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 90: 3720-24, and Tuaillon et al., 1994, Journal of Immunology 152: 2912-20.; Lonberg et al., Nature 368:856, 1994; Taylor et al., Int. Immun. 6:579, 1994; U.S. Pat. No. 5,877,397; Bruggemann et al., 1997 Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 8:455 58; Jakobovits et al., 1995 Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 764:525 35. In addition, protocols involving the XenoMouse® (Abgenix, now Amgen, Inc.) are described, for example in U.S. Pub. No. 2005/0118643 and WO 05/694879, WO 98/24838, WO 00/76310, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,064,244. 
     Lymphoid cells from the immunized transgenic mice are fused with myeloma cells for example to produce hybridomas. Myeloma cells for use in hybridoma-producing fusion procedures preferably are non-antibody-producing, have high fusion efficiency, and enzyme deficiencies that render them incapable of growing in certain selective media which support the growth of only the desired fused cells (hybridomas). Examples of suitable cell lines for use in such fusions include Sp-20, P3-X63/Ag8, P3-X63-Ag8.653, NS1/1.Ag41, Sp210-Ag14, FO, NSO/U, MPC-11, MPC11-X45-GTG 1.7 and S194/5XX0 Bul; examples of cell lines used in rat fusions include R210.RCY3, Y3-Ag 1.2.3, IR983F and 4B210. Other cell lines useful for cell fusions are U-266, GM1500-GRG2, LICR-LON-HMy2 and UC729-6. 
     The lymphoid (e.g., spleen) cells and the myeloma cells may be combined for a few minutes with a membrane fusion-promoting agent, such as polyethylene glycol or a nonionic detergent, and then plated at low density on a selective medium that supports the growth of hybridoma cells but not unfused myeloma cells. One selection media is HAT (hypoxanthine, aminopterin, thymidine). After a sufficient time, usually about one to two weeks, colonies of cells are observed. Single colonies are isolated, and antibodies produced by the cells may be tested for binding activity to, for example, human ASGR-1, using any one of a variety of immunoassays known in the art and described herein. The hybridomas are cloned (e.g., by limited dilution cloning or by soft agar plaque isolation) and positive clones that produce an antibody specific to, for example, human ASGR-1, are selected and cultured. The monoclonal antibodies from the hybridoma cultures may be isolated from the supernatants of hybridoma cultures. Thus the present invention provides hybridomas that comprise polynucleotides encoding the antigen binding proteins of the invention in the chromosomes of the cell. These hybridomas can be cultured according to methods described herein and known in the art. 
     Another method for generating human antibodies of the invention includes immortalizing human peripheral blood cells by EBV transformation. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,464,456. Such an immortalized B-cell line (or lymphoblastoid cell line) producing a monoclonal antibody that specifically binds to, for example, human ASGR-1, can be identified by immunodetection methods as provided herein, for example, an ELISA, and then isolated by standard cloning techniques. The stability of the lymphoblastoid cell line producing an antibody may be improved by fusing the transformed cell line with a murine myeloma to produce a mouse-human hybrid cell line according to methods known in the art (see, e.g., Glasky et al., Hybridoma 8:377-89 (1989)). Still another method to generate human monoclonal antibodies is in vitro immunization, which includes priming human splenic B-cells with antigen, followed by fusion of primed B-cells with a heterohybrid fusion partner. See, e.g., Boerner et al., 1991 J. Immunol. 147:86-95. 
     In certain embodiments, a B-cell that is producing a desired antibody is selected and the light chain and heavy chain variable regions are cloned from the B-cell according to molecular biology techniques known in the art (WO 92/02551; U.S. Pat. No. 5,627,052; Babcook et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:7843-48 (1996)) and described herein. B-cells from an immunized animal may be isolated from the spleen, lymph node, or peripheral blood sample by selecting a cell that is producing a desired antibody. B-cells may also be isolated from humans, for example, from a peripheral blood sample. Methods for detecting single B-cells that are producing an antibody with the desired specificity are well known in the art, for example, by plaque formation, fluorescence-activated cell sorting, in vitro stimulation followed by detection of specific antibody, and the like. Methods for selection of specific antibody-producing B-cells include, for example, preparing a single cell suspension of B-cells in soft agar that contains antigen. Binding of the specific antibody produced by the B-cell to the antigen results in the formation of a complex, which may be visible as an immunoprecipitate. After the B-cells producing the desired antibody are selected, the specific antibody genes may be cloned by isolating and amplifying DNA or mRNA according to methods known in the art and described herein. 
     An additional method for obtaining antibodies of the invention is by phage display. See, e.g., Winter et al., 1994 Annu. Rev. Immunol. 12:433-55; Burton et al., 1994 Adv. Immunol. 57:191-280. Human or murine immunoglobulin variable region gene combinatorial libraries may be created in phage vectors that can be screened to select Ig fragments (Fab, Fv, sFv, or multimers thereof) that bind specifically to TGF-beta binding protein or variant or fragment thereof. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,223,409; Huse et al., 1989 Science 246:1275-81; Sastry et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:5728-32 (1989); Alting-Mees et al., Strategies in Molecular Biology 3:1-9 (1990); Kang et al., 1991 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:4363-66; Hoogenboom et al., 1992 J. Molec. Biol. 227:381-388; Schlebusch et al., 1997 Hybridoma 16:47-52 and references cited therein. For example, a library containing a plurality of polynucleotide sequences encoding Ig variable region fragments may be inserted into the genome of a filamentous bacteriophage, such as M13 or a variant thereof, in frame with the sequence encoding a phage coat protein. A fusion protein may be a fusion of the coat protein with the light chain variable region domain and/or with the heavy chain variable region domain. According to certain embodiments, immunoglobulin Fab fragments may also be displayed on a phage particle (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,426). 
     Heavy and light chain immunoglobulin cDNA expression libraries may also be prepared in lambda phage, for example, using λImmunoZap™(H) and λImmunoZap™(L) vectors (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.). Briefly, mRNA is isolated from a B-cell population, and used to create heavy and light chain immunoglobulin cDNA expression libraries in the λImmunoZap(H) and λImmunoZap(L) vectors. These vectors may be screened individually or co-expressed to form Fab fragments or antibodies (see Huse et al., supra; see also Sastry et al., supra). Positive plaques may subsequently be converted to a non-lytic plasmid that allows high level expression of monoclonal antibody fragments from  E. coli.    
     In one embodiment, in a hybridoma the variable regions of a gene expressing a monoclonal antibody of interest are amplified using nucleotide primers. These primers may be synthesized by one of ordinary skill in the art, or may be purchased from commercially available sources. (See, e.g., Stratagene (La Jolla, Calif.), which sells primers for mouse and human variable regions including, among others, primers for V Ha , V Hb , V Hc , V Hd , C H1 , V L  and C L  regions.) These primers may be used to amplify heavy or light chain variable regions, which may then be inserted into vectors such as ImmunoZAP™H or ImmunoZAP™L (Stratagene), respectively. These vectors may then be introduced into  E. coli,  yeast, or mammalian-based systems for expression. Large amounts of a single-chain protein containing a fusion of the V H  and V L  domains may be produced using these methods (see Bird et al., Science 242:423-426, 1988). 
     In certain embodiments, the antigen binding proteins of the invention are obtained from transgenic animals (e.g., mice) that produce “heavy chain only” antibodies or “HCAbs.” HCAbs are analogous to naturally occurring camel and llama single-chain VHH antibodies. 
     See, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,507,748 and 8,502,014, and U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. US2009/0285805A1, US2009/0169548A1, US2009/0307787A1, US2011/0314563A1, US2012/0151610A1, WO2008/122886A2, and WO2009/013620A2. 
     Once cells producing antibodies according to the invention have been obtained using any of the above-described immunization and other techniques, the specific antibody genes may be cloned by isolating and amplifying DNA or mRNA therefrom according to standard procedures as described herein. The antibodies produced therefrom may be sequenced and the CDRs identified and the DNA coding for the CDRs may be manipulated as described previously to generate other antibodies according to the invention. 
     In certain embodiments, antibodies are generated by first identifying antibodies that bind to cells expressing, for example, human ASGR, human ASGR-1 and/or human ASGR-2, and/or compete for binding with the antibodies described in this application. 
     It will be understood by one skilled in the art that some proteins, such as antibodies, may undergo a variety of posttranslational modifications. The type and extent of these modifications often depends on the host cell line used to express the protein as well as the culture conditions. Such modifications may include variations in glycosylation, methionine oxidation, diketopiperazine formation, aspartate isomerization and asparagine deamidation. A frequent modification is the loss of a carboxy-terminal basic residue (such as lysine or arginine) due to the action of carboxypeptidases (as described in Harris, R. J. Journal of Chromatography 705:129-134, 1995). 
     An alternative method for production of a murine monoclonal antibody is to inject the hybridoma cells into the peritoneal cavity of a syngeneic mouse, for example, a mouse that has been treated (e.g., pristane-primed) to promote formation of ascites fluid containing the monoclonal antibody. Monoclonal antibodies can be isolated and purified by a variety of well-established techniques. Such isolation techniques include affinity chromatography with Protein-A Sepharose, size-exclusion chromatography, and ion-exchange chromatography (see, for example, Coligan at pages 2.7.1-2.7.12 and pages 2.9.1-2.9.3; Baines et al., “Purification of Immunoglobulin G (IgG),” in Methods in Molecular Biology, Vol. 10, pages 79-104 (The Humana Press, Inc. 1992)). Monoclonal antibodies may be purified by affinity chromatography using an appropriate ligand selected based on particular properties of the antibody (e.g., heavy or light chain isotype, binding specificity, etc.). Examples of a suitable ligand, immobilized on a solid support, include Protein A, Protein G, an anticonstant region (light chain or heavy chain) antibody, an anti-idiotype antibody, and a TGF-beta binding protein, or fragment or variant thereof. 
     Molecular evolution of the complementarity determining regions (CDRs) in the center of the antibody binding site also has been used to isolate antibodies with increased affinity, for example, those as described by Schier et al., 1996, J. Mol. Biol. 263:551. Accordingly, such techniques are useful in preparing antibodies of the invention. 
     Although human, partially human, or humanized antibodies will be suitable for many applications, particularly those involving administration of the antibody to a human subject, other types of antigen binding proteins will be suitable for certain applications. The non-human antibodies of the invention can be, for example, derived from any antibody-producing animal, such as mouse, rat, rabbit, goat, donkey, or non-human primate (for example, monkey such as cynomologus or rhesus monkey or ape (e.g., chimpanzee)). Non-human antibodies of the invention can be used, for example, in in vitro and cell-culture based applications, or any other application where an immune response to the antibody of the invention does not occur, is insignificant, can be prevented, is not a concern, or is desired. An antibody from a particular species can be made by, for example, immunizing an animal of that species with the desired immunogen or using an artificial system for generating antibodies of that species (e.g., a bacterial or phage display-based system for generating antibodies of a particular species), or by converting an antibody from one species into an antibody from another species by replacing, e.g., the constant region of the antibody with a constant region from the other species, or by replacing one or more amino acid residues of the antibody so that it more closely resembles the sequence of an antibody from the other species. In one embodiment, the antibody is a chimeric antibody comprising amino acid sequences derived from antibodies from two or more different species. 
     Antibodies also may be prepared by any of a number of other conventional techniques. For example, they may be purified from cells that naturally express them (e.g., an antibody can be purified from a hybridoma that produces it), or produced in recombinant expression systems, using any technique known in the art. See, for example, Monoclonal Antibodies, Hybridomas: A New Dimension in Biological Analyses, Kenneth et al. (eds.), Plenum Press, New York (1980); and Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual, Harlow and Land (eds.), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., (1988). 
     Where it is desired to improve the affinity of antibodies according to the invention containing one or more of the above-mentioned CDRs can be obtained by a number of affinity maturation protocols including maintaining the CDRs (Yang et al., J. Mol. Biol., 254, 392-403, 1995), chain shuffling (Marks et al., Bio/Technology, 10, 779-783, 1992), use of mutation strains of  E. coli.  (Low et al., J. Mol. Biol., 250, 350-368, 1996), DNA shuffling (Patten et al., Curr. Opin. Biotechnol., 8, 724-733, 1997), phage display (Thompson et al., J. Mol. Biol., 256, 7-88, 1996) and additional PCR techniques (Crameri, et al., Nature, 391, 288-291, 1998). All of these methods of affinity maturation are discussed by Vaughan et al. (Nature Biotechnology, 16, 535-539, 1998). 
     Single chain antibodies may be formed by linking heavy and light chain variable domain (Fv region) fragments via an amino acid bridge (short peptide linker), resulting in a single polypeptide chain. Such single-chain Fvs (scFvs) have been prepared by fusing DNA encoding a peptide linker between DNAs encoding the two variable domain polypeptides (V L  and V H ). The resulting polypeptides can fold back on themselves to form antigen-binding monomers, or they can form multimers (e.g., dimers, trimers, or tetramers), depending on the length of a flexible linker between the two variable domains (Kortt et al., 1997, Prot. Eng. 10:423; Kortt et al., 2001, Biomol. Eng. 18:95-108). By combining different V L  and V H -comprising polypeptides, one can form multimeric scFvs that bind to different epitopes (Kriangkum et al., 2001, Biomol. Eng. 18:31-40). Techniques developed for the production of single chain antibodies include those described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,946,778; Bird, 1988, Science 242:423; Huston et al., 1988, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:5879; Ward et al., 1989, Nature 334:544, de Graaf et al., 2002, Methods Mol Biol. 178:379-87. 
     Antigen binding fragments derived from an antibody can also be obtained, for example, by proteolytic hydrolysis of the antibody, for example, pepsin or papain digestion of whole antibodies according to conventional methods. By way of example, antibody fragments can be produced by enzymatic cleavage of antibodies with pepsin to provide a 5S fragment termed F(ab′)2. This fragment can be further cleaved using a thiol reducing agent to produce 3.5S Fab′ monovalent fragments. Optionally, the cleavage reaction can be performed using a blocking group for the sulfhydryl groups that result from cleavage of disulfide linkages. As an alternative, an enzymatic cleavage using papain produces two monovalent Fab fragments and an Fc fragment directly. These methods are described, for example, by Goldenberg, U.S. Pat. No. 4,331,647, Nisonoff et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 89:230, 1960; Porter, Biochem. J. 73:119, 1959; Edelman et al., in Methods in Enzymology 1:422 (Academic Press 1967); and by Andrews, S. M. and Titus, J. A. in Current Protocols in Immunology (Coligan J. E., et al., eds), John Wiley &amp; Sons, New York (2003), pages 2.8.1-2.8.10 and 2.10A.1-2.10A.5. Other methods for cleaving antibodies, such as separating heavy chains to form monovalent light heavy chain fragments (Fd), further cleaving of fragments, or other enzymatic, chemical, or genetic techniques may also be used, so long as the fragments bind to the antigen that is recognized by the intact antibody. 
     Another exemplary form of an antigen binding protein is a peptide comprising one or more complementarity determining regions (CDRs) of an antibody. CDRs can be obtained by constructing polynucleotides that encode the CDR of interest. Such polynucleotides are prepared, for example, by using the polymerase chain reaction to synthesize the variable region using mRNA of antibody-producing cells as a template (see, for example, Larrick et al., Methods: A Companion to Methods in Enzymology 2:106, 1991; Courtenay-Luck, “Genetic Manipulation of Monoclonal Antibodies,” in Monoclonal Antibodies: Production, Engineering and Clinical Application, Ritter et al. (eds.), page 166 (Cambridge University Press 1995); and Ward et al., “Genetic Manipulation and Expression of Antibodies,” in Monoclonal Antibodies: Principles and Applications, Birch et al., (eds.), page 137 (Wiley-Liss, Inc. 1995)). The antibody fragment further may comprise at least one variable region domain of an antibody described herein. Thus, for example, the V region domain may be monomeric and be a V H  or V L  domain, which is capable of independently binding a desired target (e.g., human ASGR-1) with an affinity at least equal to 10 −7 M or less as described herein. 
     The variable region may be any naturally occurring variable domain or an engineered version thereof. By engineered version is meant a variable region that has been created using recombinant DNA engineering techniques. Such engineered versions include those created, for example, from a specific antibody variable region by insertions, deletions, or changes in or to the amino acid sequences of the specific antibody. One of ordinary skill in the art can use any known methods for identifying amino acid residues appropriate for engineering, such as the amino acid residues depicted with shading in Tables 21-48 of  FIG. 56 . Additional examples include engineered variable regions containing at least one CDR and optionally one or more framework amino acids from a first antibody and the remainder of the variable region domain from a second antibody. Engineered versions of antibody variable domains may be generated by any number of techniques with which those having ordinary skill in the art will be familiar, including but not limited to the methods outlined in Example 14 below. 
     The variable region may be covalently attached at a C-terminal amino acid to at least one other antibody domain or a fragment thereof. Thus, for example, a VH that is present in the variable region may be linked to an immunoglobulin CH1 domain. Similarly a V L  domain may be linked to a C K  domain. In this way, for example, the antibody may be a Fab fragment wherein the antigen binding domain contains associated V H  and V L  domains covalently linked at their C-termini to a CH1 and C K  domain, respectively. The CH1 domain may be extended with further amino acids, for example to provide a hinge region or a portion of a hinge region domain as found in a Fab′ fragment, or to provide further domains, such as antibody CH2 and CH3 domains. 
     Derivatives and Variants 
     The nucleotide sequences of the antigen binding proteins of the present invention, encoding the corresponding amino acid sequences of the antibodies of the present invention, can be altered, for example, by random mutagenesis or by site-directed mutagenesis (e.g., oligonucleotide-directed site-specific mutagenesis) to create an altered polynucleotide comprising one or more particular nucleotide substitutions, deletions, or insertions as compared to the non-mutated polynucleotide. Examples of techniques for making such alterations are described in Walder et al., 1986, Gene 42:133; Bauer et al. 1985, Gene 37:73; Craik, BioTechniques, January 1985, 12-19; Smith et al., 1981, Genetic Engineering: Principles and Methods, Plenum Press; and U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,518,584 and 4,737,462. These and other methods can be used to make, for example, derivatives of the antigen binding proteins that have a desired property, for example, increased affinity, avidity, or specificity for a desired target, increased activity or stability in vivo or in vitro, or reduced in vivo side-effects as compared to the underivatized antibody. 
     Other derivatives of the antigen binding proteins within the scope of this invention include covalent or aggregative conjugates of the antigen binding proteins, with other proteins or polypeptides, such as by expression of recombinant fusion proteins comprising heterologous polypeptides fused to the N-terminus or C-terminus of a polypeptide. For example, the conjugated peptide may be a heterologous signal (or leader) polypeptide, e.g., the yeast alpha-factor leader, or a peptide such as an epitope tag. Antigen binding protein-containing fusion proteins can comprise peptides added to facilitate purification or identification of antigen binding protein (e.g., poly-His). An antigen binding protein also can be linked to the FLAG peptide as described in Hopp et al., Bio/Technology 6:1204, 1988, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,011,912. The FLAG peptide is highly antigenic and provides an epitope reversibly bound by a specific monoclonal antibody (mAb), enabling rapid assay and facile purification of expressed recombinant protein. Reagents useful for preparing fusion proteins in which the FLAG peptide is fused to a given polypeptide are commercially available (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.). 
     In another embodiment, the antigen binding proteins within the scope of this invention include antibody conjugates where antibody is conjugated to a non-proteinaceous chemical (drug) to form an antibody drug conjugate (ADC). Generally the ADC comprises an antibody conjugated to a chemotherapeutic agent, e.g., a cytotoxic agent, a cytostatic agent, a toxin, or a radioactive agent. A linker molecule can be used to conjugate the drug to the antibody. A wide variety of linkers and drugs useful in ADC technology are known in the art and may be used in embodiments of the present invention. (See US20090028856; US2009/0274713; US2007/0031402; WO2005/084390; WO2009/099728; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,208,020; 5,416,064; 5,475,092; 5,585,499; 6,436,931; 6,372,738; and 6,340,701, all incorporated herein by reference). 
     In another embodiment, oligomers that contain one or more antigen binding proteins may be employed in certain embodiments of the present invention. Oligomers may be in the form of covalently-linked or non-covalently-linked dimers, trimers, or higher oligomers. Oligomers comprising two or more antigen binding protein are contemplated for use, with one example being a homodimer. Other oligomers include heterodimers, homotrimers, heterotrimers, homotetramers, heterotetramers, etc. 
     One embodiment is directed to oligomers comprising multiple antigen binding proteins joined via covalent or non-covalent interactions between peptide moieties fused to the antigen binding proteins. Such peptides may be peptide linkers (spacers), or peptides that have the property of promoting oligomerization. Leucine zippers and certain polypeptides derived from antibodies are among the peptides that can promote oligomerization of antigen binding proteins attached thereto, as described in more detail below. 
     In particular embodiments, the oligomers comprise from two to four antigen binding proteins. The antigen binding proteins of the oligomer may be in any form, such as any of the forms described above, e.g., variants. 
     In one embodiment, an oligomer is prepared using polypeptides derived from immunoglobulins. Preparation of fusion proteins comprising certain heterologous polypeptides fused to various portions of antibody-derived polypeptides (including the Fc domain) has been described, e.g., by Ashkenazi et al., 1991, PNAS USA 88:10535; Byrn et al., 1990, Nature 344:677; and Hollenbaugh et al., 1992 “Construction of Immunoglobulin Fusion Proteins”, in Current Protocols in Immunology, Suppl. 4, pages 10.19.1 - 10.19.11. 
     One embodiment of the present invention is directed to a dimer comprising two fusion proteins created by fusing an antigen binding fragment of an anti-ASGR, ASGR-1, and/or ASGR-2 antibody to the Fc region of an antibody. The dimer can be made by, for example, inserting a gene fusion encoding the fusion protein into an appropriate expression vector, expressing the gene fusion in host cells transformed with the recombinant expression vector, and allowing the expressed fusion protein to assemble much like antibody molecules, whereupon interchain disulfide bonds form between the Fc moieties to yield the dimer. 
     The term “Fc polypeptide” as used herein includes native and mutein forms of polypeptides derived from the Fc region of an antibody. Truncated forms of such polypeptides containing the hinge region that promotes dimerization also are included. Fusion proteins comprising Fc moieties (and oligomers formed therefrom) offer the advantage of facile purification by affinity chromatography over Protein A or Protein G columns. 
     One suitable Fc polypeptide, described in PCT application WO 93/10151 (hereby incorporated by reference), is a single chain polypeptide extending from the N-terminal hinge region to the native C-terminus of the Fc region of a human IgG1 antibody. Another useful Fc polypeptide is the Fc mutein described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,457,035 and in Baum et al., 1994, EMBO J. 13:3992-4001. The amino acid sequence of this mutein is identical to that of the native Fc sequence presented in WO 93/10151, except that amino acid 19 has been changed from Leu to Ala, amino acid 20 has been changed from Leu to Glu, and amino acid 22 has been changed from Gly to Ala. The mutein exhibits reduced affinity for Fc receptors. 
     In some embodiments, the variable portion of the heavy and/or light chains of a desired antibody may be substituted for the variable portion of an antibody heavy and/or light chain. 
     Alternatively, the oligomer is a fusion protein comprising multiple antigen binding proteins, with or without peptide linkers (spacer peptides). Among the suitable peptide linkers are those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,751,180 and 4,935,233. 
     Another method for preparing oligomeric antigen binding proteins involves use of a leucine zipper. Leucine zipper domains are peptides that promote oligomerization of the proteins in which they are found. Leucine zippers were originally identified in several DNA-binding proteins (Landschulz et al., 1988, Science 240:1759), and have since been found in a variety of different proteins. Among the known leucine zippers are naturally occurring peptides and derivatives thereof that dimerize or trimerize. Examples of leucine zipper domains suitable for producing soluble oligomeric proteins are described in PCT application WO 94/10308, and the leucine zipper derived from lung surfactant protein D (SPD) described in Hoppe et al., 1994, FEBS Letters 344:191, hereby incorporated by reference. The use of a modified leucine zipper that allows for stable trimerization of a heterologous protein fused thereto is described in Fanslow et al., 1994, Semin. Immunol. 6:267-78. In one approach, recombinant fusion proteins comprising a desired antibody fragment or derivative fused to a leucine zipper peptide are expressed in suitable host cells, and the soluble oligomeric antibody fragments or derivatives that form are recovered from the culture supernatant. 
     In another embodiment, the antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies) can be conjugated to a suitable vehicle to enhance the half-life thereof. Suitable vehicles include, but are not limited to Fc, albumin, transferrin, and the like. These and other suitable vehicles are known in the art. Such conjugated CDR peptides may be in monomeric, dimeric, tetrameric, or other form. In one embodiment, one or more water-soluble polymer is bonded at one or more specific position, for example at the amino terminus, of a binding agent. In an example, an antibody derivative comprises one or more water soluble polymer attachments, including, but not limited to, polyethylene glycol, polyoxyethylene glycol, or polypropylene glycol. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,640,835, 4,496,689, 4,301,144, 4,670,417, 4,791,192 and 4,179,337. In certain embodiments, a derivative comprises one or more of monomethoxy-polyethylene glycol, dextran, cellulose, or other carbohydrate based polymers, poly-(N-vinyl pyrrolidone)-polyethylene glycol, propylene glycol homopolymers, a polypropylene oxide/ethylene oxide co-polymer, polyoxyethylated polyols (e.g., glycerol) and polyvinyl alcohol, as well as mixtures of such polymers. In certain embodiments, one or more water-soluble polymer is randomly attached to one or more side chains. In certain embodiments, PEG can act to improve the therapeutic capacity for a binding agent, such as an antibody. Certain such methods are discussed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,133,426, which is hereby incorporated by reference for any purpose. In certain embodiments, antibodies of the invention may be chemically bonded with polymers, lipids, or other moieties. 
     Nucleic Acids Encoding Antigen Binding Proteins 
     In another embodiment, the present invention provides isolated nucleic acid molecules that encode the antigen binding proteins of the present invention. In addition, provided are vectors comprising the nucleic acids, cell comprising the nucleic acids, and methods of making the antigen binding proteins of the invention. The nucleic acids comprise, for example, polynucleotides that encode all or part of an antigen binding protein, for example, one or both chains of an antibody of the invention, or a fragment, derivative, mutein, or variant thereof, polynucleotides sufficient for use as hybridization probes, PCR primers or sequencing primers for identifying, analyzing, mutating or amplifying a polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide, antisense nucleic acids for inhibiting expression of a polynucleotide, and complementary sequences of the foregoing. The nucleic acids can be any length as appropriate for the desired use or function, and can comprise one or more additional sequences, for example, regulatory sequences, and/or be part of a larger nucleic acid, for example, a vector. The nucleic acids can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can comprise RNA and/or DNA nucleotides, and artificial variants thereof (e.g., peptide nucleic acids). 
     Nucleic acids encoding antibody polypeptides (e.g., heavy or light chain, variable domain only, or full length) may be isolated from B-cells of mice that have been immunized with antigen. The nucleic acid may be isolated by conventional procedures such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR). 
     Nucleic acid sequences encoding the variable regions of the heavy and light chain variable regions are included herein. The skilled artisan will appreciate that, due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, each of the polypeptide sequences disclosed herein is encoded by a large number of other nucleic acid sequences. The present invention provides each degenerate nucleotide sequence encoding each antigen binding protein of the invention. 
     The invention further provides nucleic acids that hybridize to other nucleic acids under particular hybridization conditions. Methods for hybridizing nucleic acids are well-known in the art. See, e.g., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley &amp; Sons, N.Y. (1989), 6.3.1-6.3.6. As defined herein, for example, a moderately stringent hybridization condition uses a prewashing solution containing 5×sodium chloride/sodium citrate (SSC), 0.5% SDS, 1.0 mM EDTA (pH 8.0), hybridization buffer of about 50% formamide, 6×SSC, and a hybridization temperature of 55° C. (or other similar hybridization solutions, such as one containing about 50% formamide, with a hybridization temperature of 42° C.), and washing conditions of 60° C., in 0.5×SSC, 0.1% SDS. A stringent hybridization condition hybridizes in 6×SSC at 45° C., followed by one or more washes in 0.1×SSC, 0.2% SDS at 68° C. Furthermore, one of skill in the art can manipulate the hybridization and/or washing conditions to increase or decrease the stringency of hybridization such that nucleic acids comprising nucleotide sequences that are at least 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 98 or 99% identical to each other typically remain hybridized to each other. The basic parameters affecting the choice of hybridization conditions and guidance for devising suitable conditions are set forth by, for example, Sambrook, Fritsch, and Maniatis (1989, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., chapters 9 and 11; and Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, 1995, Ausubel et al., eds., John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc., sections 2.10 and 6.3-6.4), and can be readily determined by those having ordinary skill in the art based on, for example, the length and/or base composition of the DNA. Changes can be introduced by mutation into a nucleic acid, thereby leading to changes in the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide (e.g., an antigen binding protein) that it encodes. Mutations can be introduced using any technique known in the art. In one embodiment, one or more particular amino acid residues are changed using, for example, a site-directed mutagenesis protocol. In another embodiment, one or more randomly selected residues is changed using, for example, a random mutagenesis protocol. However it is made, a mutant polypeptide can be expressed and screened for a desired property. 
     Mutations can be introduced into a nucleic acid without significantly altering the biological activity of a polypeptide that it encodes. For example, one can make nucleotide substitutions leading to amino acid substitutions at non-essential amino acid residues. In one embodiment, a nucleotide sequence provided herein for of the antibodies of the present invention, or a desired fragment, variant, or derivative thereof, is mutated such that it encodes an amino acid sequence comprising one or more deletions or substitutions of amino acid residues that are shown herein for the light chains of the antibodies of the present invention or the heavy chains of the antibodies of the present invention to be residues where two or more sequences differ. In another embodiment, the mutagenesis inserts an amino acid adjacent to one or more amino acid residues shown herein for the light chains of the antibodies of the present invention or the heavy chains of the antibodies of the present invention to be residues where two or more sequences differ. Alternatively, one or more mutations can be introduced into a nucleic acid that selectively change the biological activity of a polypeptide that it encodes. 
     In another embodiment, the present invention provides vectors comprising a nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide of the invention or a portion thereof. Examples of vectors include, but are not limited to, plasmids, viral vectors, non-episomal mammalian vectors and expression vectors, for example, recombinant expression vectors. 
     The recombinant expression vectors of the invention can comprise a nucleic acid of the invention in a form suitable for expression of the nucleic acid in a host cell. The recombinant expression vectors include one or more regulatory sequences, selected on the basis of the host cells to be used for expression, which is operably linked to the nucleic acid sequence to be expressed. Regulatory sequences include those that direct constitutive expression of a nucleotide sequence in many types of host cells (e.g., SV40 early gene enhancer, Rous sarcoma virus promoter and cytomegalovirus promoter), those that direct expression of the nucleotide sequence only in certain host cells (e.g., tissue-specific regulatory sequences, see Voss et al., 1986, Trends Biochem. Sci. 11:287, Maniatis et al., 1987, Science 236:1237, incorporated by reference herein in their entireties), and those that direct inducible expression of a nucleotide sequence in response to particular treatment or condition (e.g., the metallothionein promoter in mammalian cells and the tet-responsive and/or streptomycin responsive promoter in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems (see id.). It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the design of the expression vector can depend on such factors as the choice of the host cell to be transformed, the level of expression of protein desired, etc. The expression vectors of the invention can be introduced into host cells to thereby produce proteins or peptides, including fusion proteins or peptides, encoded by nucleic acids as described herein. 
     In another embodiment, the present invention provides host cells into which a recombinant expression vector of the invention has been introduced. A host cell can be any prokaryotic cell or eukaryotic cell. Prokaryotic host cells include gram negative or gram positive organisms, for example  E. coli  or  bacilli.  Higher eukaryotic cells include insect cells, yeast cells, and established cell lines of mammalian origin. Examples of suitable mammalian host cell lines include Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells or their derivatives such as Veggie CHO and related cell lines which grow in serum-free media (see Rasmussen et al., 1998, Cytotechnology 28:31) or CHO strain DXB-11, which is deficient in DHFR (see Urlaub et al., 1980, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77:4216-20). Additional CHO cell lines include CHO-K1 (ATCC #CCL-61), EM9 (ATCC #CRL-1861), and UV20 (ATCC #CRL-1862). Additional host cells include the COS-7 line of monkey kidney cells (ATCC CRL 1651) (see Gluzman et al., 1981, Cell 23:175), L cells, C127 cells, 3T3 cells (ATCC CCL 163), AM-1/D cells (described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,210,924), HeLa cells, BHK (ATCC CRL 10) cell lines, the CV1/EBNA cell line derived from the African green monkey kidney cell line CV1 (ATCC CCL 70) (see McMahan et al., 1991, EMBO J. 10:2821), human embryonic kidney cells such as 293, 293 EBNA or MSR 293, human epidermal A431 cells, human Colo205 cells, other transformed primate cell lines, normal diploid cells, cell strains derived from in vitro culture of primary tissue, primary explants, HL-60, U937, HaK or Jurkat cells. Appropriate cloning and expression vectors for use with bacterial, fungal, yeast, and mammalian cellular hosts are described by Pouwels et al. (Cloning Vectors: A Laboratory Manual, Elsevier, New York, 1985). 
     Vector DNA can be introduced into prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells via conventional transformation or transfection techniques. For stable transfection of mammalian cells, it is known that, depending upon the expression vector and transfection technique used, only a small fraction of cells may integrate the foreign DNA into their genome. In order to identify and select these integrants, a gene that encodes a selectable marker (e.g., for resistance to antibiotics) is generally introduced into the host cells along with the gene of interest. Additional selectable markers include those which confer resistance to drugs, such as G418, hygromycin and methotrexate. Cells stably transfected with the introduced nucleic acid can be identified by drug selection (e.g., cells that have incorporated the selectable marker gene will survive, while the other cells die), among other methods. 
     The transformed cells can be cultured under conditions that promote expression of the polypeptide, and the polypeptide recovered by conventional protein purification procedures. Polypeptides contemplated for use herein include substantially homogeneous recombinant mammalian antibody polypeptides substantially free of contaminating endogenous materials. 
     Cells containing the nucleic acid encoding the antigen binding proteins of the present invention also include hybridomas. The production and culturing of hybridomas are discussed in the antibody section above. 
     In some emobodiments, a vector comprising a nucleic acid molecule as described herein is provided. In some embodiments, the invention comprises a host cell comprising a nucleic acid molecule as described herein. 
     In some emobodiments, a nucleic acid molecule encoding the antigen binding protein as described herein is provided. 
     In some emobodiments, a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least one antigen binding protein described herein is provided. 
     Antigen Binding Protein Production 
     The antigen binding proteins of the invention can be produced by any method known in the art for the synthesis of proteins (e.g., antibodies), in particular, by chemical synthesis or preferably, by recombinant expression techniques. 
     Recombinant expression of the antigen binding proteins requires construction of an expression vector containing a polynucleotide that encodes the the antigen binding proteins. Once a polynucleotide encoding the antigen binding proteins molecule has been obtained, the vector for the production of the antigen binding proteins may be produced by recombinant DNA technology. An expression vector is constructed containing the antigen binding proteins coding sequences and appropriate transcriptional and translational control signals. These methods include, for example, in vitro recombinant DNA techniques, synthetic techniques, and in vivo genetic recombination. 
     The expression vector is transferred to a host cell by conventional techniques and the transfected cells are then cultured by conventional techniques to produce an antigen binding proteins of the invention. In one embodiment of the invention, vectors encoding both the heavy and light chains of an antibody may be co-expressed in the host cell for expression of the entire immunoglobulin molecule, as detailed below. 
     A variety of host-expression vector systems may be utilized to express the antigen binding proteins of the invention. Such host-expression systems represent vehicles by which the coding sequences of interest may be produced and subsequently purified, but also represent cells which may, when transformed or transfected with the appropriate nucleotide coding sequences, express an antibody molecule of the invention in situ. Bacterial cells such as  E. coli,  and eukaryotic cells are commonly used for the expression of a recombinant antibody molecule, especially for the expression of whole recombinant antibody molecule. For example, mammalian cells such as Chinese hamster ovary cells (CHO), in conjunction with a vector such as the major intermediate early gene promoter element from human cytomegalovirus is an effective expression system for antibodies (Foecking et al., Gene 45:101 (1986); Cockett et al., Bio/Technology 8:2 (1990)). 
     In addition, a host cell strain may be chosen which modulates the expression of the inserted sequences, or modifies and processes the gene product in the specific fashion desired. Such modifications (e.g., glycosylation) and processing (e.g., cleavage) of protein products may be important for the function of the protein. Different host cells have characteristic and specific mechanisms for the post-translational processing and modification of proteins and gene products. Appropriate cell lines or host systems can be chosen to ensure the correct modification and processing of the foreign protein expressed. To this end, eukaryotic host cells which possess the cellular machinery for proper processing of the primary transcript, glycosylation, and phosphorylation of the gene product may be used. Such mammalian host cells include, but are not limited to, CHO, COS, 293, 3T3, or myeloma cells. 
     For long-term, high-yield production of recombinant proteins, stable expression is preferred. For example, cell lines which stably express the antibody molecule may be engineered. Rather than using expression vectors which contain viral origins of replication, host cells can be transformed with DNA controlled by appropriate expression control elements (e.g., promoter, enhancer, sequences, transcription terminators, polyadenylation sites, etc.), and a selectable marker. Following the introduction of the foreign DNA, engineered cells may be allowed to grow for 1-2 days in an enriched media, and then are switched to a selective media. The selectable marker in the recombinant plasmid confers resistance to the selection and allows cells to stably integrate the plasmid into their chromosomes and grow to form foci which in turn can be cloned and expanded into cell lines. This method may advantageously be used to engineer cell lines which express the antibody molecule. Such engineered cell lines may be particularly useful in screening and evaluation of compounds that interact directly or indirectly with the antibody molecule. 
     A number of selection systems may be used, including but not limited to the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (Wigler et al., Cell 11:223 (1977)), hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (Szybalska &amp; Szybalski, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 48:202 (1992)), and adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (Lowy et al., Cell 22:817 (1980)) genes can be employed in tk, hgprt or aprt-cells, respectively. Also, antimetabolite resistance can be used as the basis of selection for the following genes: dhfr, which confers resistance to methotrexate (Wigler et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77:357 (1980); O&#39;Hare et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78:1527 (1981)); gpt, which confers resistance to mycophenolic acid (Mulligan &amp; Berg, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78:2072 (1981)); neo, which confers resistance to the aminoglycoside G-418 (Wu and Wu, Biotherapy 3:87-95 (1991)); and hygro, which confers resistance to hygromycin (Santerre et al., Gene 30:147 (1984)). Methods commonly known in the art of recombinant DNA technology may be routinely applied to select the desired recombinant clone, and such methods are described, for example, in Ausubel et al. (eds.), Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley &amp; Sons, NY (1993); Kriegler, Gene Transfer and Expression, A Laboratory Manual, Stockton Press, NY (1990); and in Chapters 12 and 13, Dracopoli et al. (eds), Current Protocols in Human Genetics, John Wiley &amp; Sons, NY (1994); Colberre-Garapin et al., J. Mol. Biol. 150:1 (1981), which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. 
     The expression levels of an antibody molecule can be increased by vector amplification (for a review, see Bebbington and Hentschel, “The use of vectors based on gene amplification for the expression of cloned genes in mammalian cells” (DNA Cloning, Vol. 3. Academic Press, New York, 1987)). When a marker in the vector system expressing antibody is amplifiable, increase in the level of inhibitor present in culture of host cell will increase the number of copies of the marker gene. Since the amplified region is associated with the antibody gene, production of the antibody will also increase (Crouse et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 3:257 (1983)). 
     The host cell may be co-transfected with two expression vectors of the invention, for example, the first vector encoding an antibody heavy chain derived polypeptide and the second vector encoding an antibody light chain derived polypeptide. The two vectors may contain identical selectable markers which enable equal expression of heavy and light chain polypeptides. Alternatively, a single vector may be used which encodes, and is capable of expressing, for example, both antibody heavy and light chain polypeptides. In such situations, the light chain should be placed before the heavy chain to avoid an excess of toxic free heavy chain (Proudfoot, Nature 322:52 (1986); Kohler, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77:2197 (1980)). The coding sequences for the heavy and light chains may comprise cDNA or genomic DNA. 
     Once an antibody molecule of the invention has been produced by an animal, chemically synthesized, or recombinantly expressed, it may be purified by any method known in the art for purification of an immunoglobulin molecule, for example, by chromatography (e.g., ion exchange, affinity, particularly by affinity for the specific antigen after Protein A, and size-exclusion chromatography), centrifugation, differential solubility, or by any other standard technique for the purification of proteins. In addition, the antibodies of the present invention or fragments thereof can be fused to heterologous polypeptide sequences described herein or otherwise known in the art, to facilitate purification. 
     In some embodiments, the present invention encompasses antibodies recombinantly fused or chemically conjugated (including both covalently and non-covalently conjugations) to a polypeptide. Fused or conjugated antibodies of the present invention may be used for ease in purification. See e.g., Harbor et al., supra, and PCT publication WO 93/21232; EP 439,095; Naramura et al., Immunol. Lett. 39:91-99 (1994); U.S. Pat. No. 5,474,981; Gillies et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 89:1428-1432 (1992); Fell et al., J. Immunol. 146:2446-2452 (1991). 
     Moreover, the antibodies or fragments thereof of the present invention can be fused to marker sequences, such as a peptide to facilitate purification. In preferred embodiments, the marker amino acid sequence is a hexa-histidine peptide, such as the tag provided in a pQE vector (QIAGEN, Inc., 9259 Eton Avenue, Chatsworth, Calif., 91311), among others, many of which are commercially available. As described in Gentz et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:821-824 (1989), for instance, hexa-histidine provides for convenient purification of the fusion protein. Other peptide tags useful for purification include, but are not limited to, the “HA” tag, which corresponds to an epitope derived from the influenza hemagglutinin protein (Wilson et al., Cell 37:767 (1984)) and the “flag” tag. 
     Antibody Effector Function 
     In some embodiments, the present invention provides antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies) with altered effector function (e.g., decreasing or increasing effector function). Nonlimiting examples of methods for increasing effector function can be found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,624,821, 6,602,684, 7,029,872, U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 2006/0067930A1, 2005/0272128A1, 2005/0079605A1, 2005/0123546A1, 2004/0072290A1, 2006/0257399A1, 2004/0261148A1, 2007/0092521, 2006/0040325A1, and 2006/0039904A1, and International Patent Application Publication Nos. WO 04/029207, WO03011878, WO05044859, WO 06071856, and WO 06071280. 
     Methods of engineering Fc regions of antibodies so as to alter effector functions are known in the art (e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 20040185045 and PCT Publication No. WO 2004/016750, both to Koenig et al., which describe altering the Fc region to enhance the binding affinity for Fc gamma RIIB as compared with the binding affinity for FC gamma RIIA; see, also, PCT Publication Nos. WO 99/58572 to Armour et al., WO 99/51642 to Idusogie et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 6,395,272 to Deo et al.). Methods of modifying the Fc region to decrease binding affinity to Fc gamma RIIB are also known in the art (e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 20010036459 and PCT Publication No. WO 01/79299, both to Ravetch et al.). Modified antibodies having variant Fc regions with enhanced binding affinity for Fc gamma RIIIA and/or Fc gamma RIIA as compared with a wildtype Fc region have also been described (e.g., PCT Publication Nos. WO 2004/063351, to Stavenhagen et al., the disclosure of which is incorporated herein in its entirety). 
     Antibody effector function may also be modified through the generation of antibodies with altered glycosylation patterns. Such altered glycosylation patterns have been demonstrated to increase or decrease the ADCC ability of antibodies, as desired. Such carbohydrate modifications can be accomplished by, for example, expressing the antibody in a host cell with altered glycosylation machinery. Cells with altered glycosylation machinery have been described in the art and can be used as host cells in which to express recombinant antibodies of the invention to thereby produce an antibody with altered glycosylation. 
     Half-Life Alteration 
     In some embodiments, the present invention provides for antigen binding proteins (e.g., antibodies) which have an extended half-life in vivo. In particular, the present invention provides antigen binding proteins which have a half-life in a mammal (for example, but not limited to, a human), of greater than 3 days, greater than 7 days, greater than 10 days, greater than 15 days, greater than 25 days, greater than 30 days, greater than 35 days, greater than 40 days, greater than 45 days, greater than 2 months, greater than 3 months, greater than 4 months, or greater than 5 months. 
     To prolong the serum circulation of antigen binding proteins (for example, monoclonal antibodies) or antibody fragments (for example, Fab fragments) in vivo, for example, inert polymer molecules such as high molecular weight polyethyleneglycol (PEG) can be attached to the antibodies (including antibody fragments thereof) with or without a multifunctional linker either through site-specific conjugation of the PEG to the N- or C-terminus of the antibodies or via epsilon-amino groups present on lysine residues. Linear or branched polymer derivatization that results in minimal loss of biological activity will be used. The degree of conjugation can be closely monitored by SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry to ensure proper conjugation of PEG molecules to the antigen binding proteins. Unreacted PEG can be separated from antigen binding proteins-PEG conjugates by size-exclusion or by ion-exchange chromatography. PEG-derivatized antigen binding proteins can be tested for binding activity as well as for in vivo efficacy using methods known to those of skill in the art, for example, by immunoassays described herein. 
     In certain embodiments, antibodies having an increased half-life in vivo can also be generated by introducing one or more amino acid modifications (i.e., substitutions, insertions or deletions) into an IgG constant domain, or FcRn binding fragment thereof (e.g., Fc or hinge Fc domain fragment). See, e.g., International Publication No. WO 98/23289; International Publication No. WO 97/34631; and U.S. Pat. No. 6,277,375, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     Conjugates 
     In some embodiments, covalent modifications of the antigen binding proteins of the invention are included within the scope of this invention. They may be made by chemical synthesis or by enzymatic or chemical cleavage of the antigen binding proteins, if applicable. Other types of covalent modifications of the antigen binding proteins are introduced into the molecule by reacting targeted amino acid residues of the antibody with an organic derivatizing agent that is capable of reacting with selected side chains or the N- or C-terminal residues. 
     Cysteinyl residues most commonly are reacted with alpha-haloacetates (and corresponding amines), such as chloroacetic acid or chloroacetamide, to give carboxymethyl or carboxyamidomethyl derivatives. Similarly, iodo-reagents may also be used. Cysteinyl residues also are derivatized by reaction with bromotrifluoroacetone, alpha-bromo-beta-(5-imidazolyl)propionic acid, chloroacetyl phosphate, N-alkylmaleimides, 3-nitro-2-pyridyl disulfide, methyl 2-pyridyl disulfide, p-chloromercuribenzoate, 2-chloromercuri-4-nitrophenol, or chloro-7-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazole. 
     Histidyl residues are derivatized by reaction with diethylpyrocarbonate at pH 5.5-7.0 because this agent is relatively specific for the histidyl side chain. Para-bromophenacyl bromide also is useful; the reaction is preferably performed in 0.1 M sodium cacodylate at pH 6.0. 
     Lysyl and amino-terminal residues are reacted with succinic or other carboxylic acid anhydrides. Derivatization with these agents has the effect of reversing the charge of the lysinyl residues. Other suitable reagents for derivatizing .alpha.-amino-containing residues and/or e-amino-containing residues include imidoesters such as methyl picolinimidate, pyridoxal phosphate, pyridoxal, chloroborohydride, trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid, O-methylisourea, 2,4-pentanedione, and transaminase-catalyzed reaction with glyoxylate. 
     Arginyl residues are modified by reaction with one or several conventional reagents, among them phenylglyoxal, 2,3-butanedione, 1,2-cyclohexanedione, and ninhydrin. Derivatization of arginyl residues generally requires that the reaction be performed in alkaline conditions because of the high pKa of the guanidine functional group. Furthermore, these reagents may react with the epsilon-amino groups of lysine as well as the arginine epsilon-amino group. 
     The specific modification of tyrosyl residues may be made, with particular interest in introducing spectral labels into tyrosyl residues by reaction with aromatic diazonium compounds or tetranitromethane. Most commonly, N-acetylimidazole and tetranitromethane are used to form O-acetyl tyrosyl species and 3-nitro derivatives, respectively. Tyrosyl residues are iodinated using I 125  or I 131  to prepare labeled proteins for use in radioimmunoassay. 
     Carboxyl side groups (aspartyl or glutamyl) are selectively modified by reaction with carbodiimides (R—N══C══N—R′), where R and R′ are different alkyl groups, such as 1-cyclohexyl-3 -(2-morpholinyl-4-ethyl)carbodiimide or 1-ethyl-3-(4-azonia-4,4-dimethylpentyl)carbodiimide. Furthermore, aspartyl and glutamyl residues are converted to asparaginyl and glutaminyl residues by reaction with ammonium ions. 
     Glutaminyl and asparaginyl residues are frequently deamidated to the corresponding glutamyl and aspartyl residues, respectively. These residues are deamidated under neutral or basic conditions. The deamidated form of these residues falls within the scope of this invention. 
     Other modifications include hydroxylation of proline and lysine, phosphorylation of hydroxyl groups of seryl or threonyl residues, methylation of the .alpha.-amino groups of lysine, arginine, and histidine side chains (T. E. Creighton, Proteins: Structure and Molecular Properties, W.H. Freeman &amp; Co., San Francisco, pp. 79-86 (1983)), acetylation of the N-terminal amine, and amidation of any C-terminal carboxyl group. 
     Another type of covalent modification involves chemically or enzymatically coupling glycosides to the antibody. These procedures are advantageous in that they do not require production of the antibody in a host cell that has glycosylation capabilities for N- or O-linked glycosylation. Depending on the coupling mode used, the sugar(s) may be attached to (a) arginine and histidine, (b) free carboxyl groups, (c) free sulfhydryl groups such as those of cysteine, (d) free hydroxyl groups such as those of serine, threonine, or hydroxyproline, (e) aromatic residues such as those of phenylalanine, tyrosine, or tryptophan, or (f) the amide group of glutamine. These methods are described in WO 87/05330 published 11 Sep. 1987, and in Aplin and Wriston, CRC Crit. Rev. Biochem., pp. 259-306 (1981). 
     Interfering RNA 
     In some embodiments, the present invention provides polynucleotide compositions that target ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 and are useful for methods for treatment, therapy, and prophylaxis in disease related to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 expression, where reduction or inhibition of the expression or function of a selected target polynucleotide sequence is desired. Examples of polynucleotides that can be used to target ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 sequences and reduce ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 expression include, but are not limited to, antisense oligonucleotides, and RNA interference (RNAi) agents, including short or small interfering RNA (siRNA), short hairpin RNA (shRNA), and microRNA (miRNA). See, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,506,559; 8,394,628; 7,056,704; 7,078,196; 6,107,094; 5,898,031; 6,573,099; and European Patent No. 1,144,623. See also, for example, U.S. patent application publication nos. 2015/0259689; 2015/0197746; 2011/0092565; U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,877,917; 8,507,455; and 7,579,451. 
     In certain embodiments, a composition for inhibiting the function or expression of a target polynucleotide sequence (e.g. ASGR-1 mRNA sequence, ASGR-2 mRNA sequence) in a mammalian cell, according to this invention, comprises an agent that provides to a mammalian cell an at least partially double-stranded RNA molecule (e.g., an interfering RNA molecule). A double-stranded RNA molecule may include chemical modifications to ribonucleotides, including modifications to the ribose sugar, base, or backbone components of the ribonucleotides, such as those described herein or known in the art. Any such modifications, as used in a double-stranded RNA molecule (e.g. siRNA, shRNA, or the like), are encompassed by the term “double-stranded RNA” for the purposes of this disclosure. Thus, in general, the term “RNA” may also include RNA-DNA hybrids and polynucleotides comprising one or more modified nucleotides (e.g. nucleotides with modifications at the 2′ position of the ribose ring), except where specified otherwise, e.g., where a 2′-OH group of ribose is required for a particular linkage. 
     In some embodiments at least 10% of a partially double-stranded RNA molecule is double-stranded. Alternatively, the double stranded portion of these RNA molecules can be at least 30% of the length of the molecule. In another embodiment, the double stranded portion of these molecules can be at least 50% of the the length of the molecule. In still another embodiment, the double stranded portion of these molecules can be at least 70% of the length of the molecule. In another embodiment, the double stranded portion of these molecules can be at least 90% of the length of the molecule. In another embodiment, the molecule can be double stranded over its entire length. Alternatively, the double-stranded portion of these molecules can occur at either or both termini, or in some middle portion of the molecule, if the molecule is linear. Similarly, the double-stranded portion can be in any location if the molecule is circular. In certain embodiments of the present invention, the double-stranded portion of the RNA molecule becomes double-stranded only when the molecule is in the mammalian cell. In still other embodiment of this invention, the partially double-stranded molecule is an RNA/DNA hybrid, for example, a single strand containing RNA and DNA, prepared in vitro; or a duplex of two such single strands or portions thereof. In yet another embodiment, the RNA molecule, made in vivo or in vitro, is a duplex comprised of an RNA single strand and a DNA single strand. In some embodiments, the partially double-stranded RNA molecule comprises a polynucleotide sequence that is substantially homologous to the target polynucleotide sequence in order to effectively reduce or inhibit the function or expression thereof. The necessary homology may be suitably defined by use of a computer algorithm. As known in the art and discussed herein, “homology” or “identity” means the degree of sequence relatedness between two polypeptide or two polynucleotide sequences as determined by the identity of the match between two lengths of such sequences. Both identity and homology can be readily calculated by methods in the prior art [See also, e.g., COMPUTATIONAL MOLECULAR BIOLOGY, Lesk, A. M., ed., Oxford University Press, New York, (1988); BIOCOMPUTING: INFORMATICS AND GENOME PROJECTS, Smith, D. W., ed., Academic Press, New York, (1993); COMPUTER ANALYSIS OF SEQUENCE DATA, PART I, Griffin, A. M., and Griffin, H. G., eds., Humana Press, New Jersey, (1994); SEQUENCE ANALYSIS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY, von Heinje, G., Academic Press, (1987); and SEQUENCE ANALYSIS PRIMER, Gribskov, M. and Devereux, J., eds., M Stockton Press, New York, (1991)]. While there exist a number of methods to measure identity and homology between two polynucleotide sequences, the terms “identity”, “similarity” and homology are well known to skilled artisans [H. Carillo and D. Lipton, SIAM J. Applied Math., 48:1073 (1988)]. Methods commonly employed to determine identity or homology between two sequences include, but are not limited to, those disclosed in Guide to Huge Computers, Martin J. Bishop, ed., Academic Press, San Diego, 1994, and H. Carillo and D. Lipton, SIAM J. Applied Math., 48:1073 (1988). Preferred methods to determine identity or homology are designed to give the largest match between the two sequences tested. Methods to determine identity and similarity are codified in computer programs. Preferred computer program to determine identity and homology between two sequences include, but are not limited to, the algorithm BESTFIT from the GCG program package [J. Devereux et al., Nucl. Acids Res., 12(1):387 (1984)], the related MACVECTOR program (Oxford), and the FASTA (Pearson) programs. For instance, searches for sequence similarities in databases between significant naturally occurring mammalian polynucleotide sequences and target polynucleotide sequences enable the design of suitable RNA molecules desired for use in the invention. The algorithm and/or the degree of homology necessary for any particular RNA molecule may be selected by one of skill in the art, depending on the identity of the target, and/or the closeness of homology of the target sequence to any naturally occurring mammalian sequence, which is desired to be left functioning normally after use of the methods of this invention. 
     In some embodiments, a polynucleotide composition for reducing the expression or function of ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 sequences is an RNAi agent comprising a double-stranded RNA molecule which comprises two antiparallel strands of contiguous nucleotides that are sufficiently complementary to each other to hybridize to form a duplex region. “Hybridize” or “hybridization” refers to the pairing of complementary polynucleotides, typically via hydrogen bonding (e.g. Watson-Crick, Hoogsteen or reversed Hoogsteen hydrogen bonding) between complementary bases in the two polynucleotides. The strand comprising a region having a sequence that is substantially complementary to a target sequence (e.g. target mRNA) is referred to as the “antisense strand.” The “sense strand” refers to the strand that includes a region that is substantially complementary to a region of the antisense strand. In some embodiments, the sense strand may comprise a region that has a sequence that is substantially identical to the target sequence. 
     As used herein, a first sequence is “complementary” to a second sequence if a polynucleotide comprising the first sequence can hybridize to a polynucleotide comprising the second sequence to form a duplex region under certain conditions, such as physiological conditions. Other such conditions can include moderate or stringent hybridization conditions, which are known to those of skill in the art. A first sequence is considered to be fully complementary (100% complementary) to a second sequence if a polynucleotide comprising the first sequence base pairs with a polynucleotide comprising the second sequence over the entire length of one or both nucleotide sequences without any mismatches. A sequence is “substantially complementary” to a target sequence if the sequence is at least about 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% complementary to a target sequence. Percent complementarity can be calculated by dividing the number of bases in a first sequence that are complementary to bases at corresponding positions in a second or target sequence by the total length of the first sequence. A sequence may also be said to be substantially complementary to another sequence if there are no more than 5, 4, 3, or 2 mismatches over a 30 base pair duplex region when the two sequences are hybridized. Generally, if any nucleotide overhangs, as defined herein, are present, the sequence of such overhangs is not considered in determining the degree of complementarity between two sequences. By way of example, a sense strand of 21 nucleotides in length and an antisense strand of 21 nucleotides in length that hybridize to form a 19 base pair duplex region with a 2 nucleotide overhang at the 3′ end of each strand would be considered to be fully complementary as the term is used herein. 
     In some embodiments, a region of the antisense strand comprises a sequence that is fully complementary to a region of the target RNA sequence (e.g. ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 mRNA). In such embodiments, the sense strand may comprise a sequence that is fully complementary to the sequence of the antisense strand. In other such embodiments, the sense strand may comprise a sequence that is substantially complementary to the sequence of the antisense strand, e.g. having 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 mismatches in the duplex region formed by the sense and antisense strands. In certain embodiments, it is preferred that any mismatches occur within the terminal regions (e.g. within 6, 5, 4, 3, or 2 nucleotides of the 5′ and/or 3′ ends of the strands). In one embodiment, any mismatches in the duplex region formed from the sense and antisense strands occur within 6, 5, 4, 3, or 2 nucleotides of the 5′ end of the antisense strand. 
     In certain embodiments, the sense strand and antisense strand of the double-stranded RNA may be two separate molecules that hybridize to form a duplex region, but are otherwise unconnected. Such double-stranded RNA molecules formed from two separate strands are referred to as “small interfering RNAs” or “short interfering RNAs” (siRNAs). 
     In other embodiments, the sense strand and the antisense strand that hybridize to form a duplex region may be part of a single RNA molecule, i.e. the sense and antisense strands are part of a self-complementary region of a single RNA molecule. In such cases, a single RNA molecule comprises a duplex region (also referred to as a stem region) and a loop region. The 3′ end of the sense strand is connected to the 5′ end of the antisense strand by a contiguous sequence of unpaired nucleotides, which will form the loop region. The loop region is typically of a sufficient length to allow the RNA molecule to fold back on itself such that the antisense strand can base pair with the sense strand to form the duplex or stem region. The loop region can comprise from about 3 to about 25, from about 5 to about 15, or from about 8 to about 12 unpaired nucleotides. Such RNA molecules with at least partially self-complementary regions are referred to as “short hairpin RNAs” (shRNAs). The length of a single, at least partially self-complementary RNA molecule can be from about 35 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides, from about 45 nucleotides to about 85 nucleotides, or from about 50 to about 60 nucleotides and comprise a duplex region and loop region each having the lengths recited herein. 
     In some embodiments, the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises a sense strand and an antisense strand, wherein the antisense strand comprises a region having a sequence that is substantially or fully complementary to an ASGR-1 messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence and/or ASGR-2 mRNA sequence. As used herein, an “ASGR-1 mRNA sequence” or “ASGR-2 mRNA sequence” refers to any messenger RNA sequence, including splice variants, encoding an ASGR-1 protein or ASGR-2 protein, including ASGR-1 or ASGR-2 protein variants or isoforms from any species (e.g. mouse, rat, non-human primate, human). 
     The sense strand of the double-stranded RNA molecule typically comprises a sequence that is sufficiently complementary to the sequence of the antisense strand such that the two strands hybridize under physiological conditions to form a duplex region. A “duplex region” refers to the region in two complementary or substantially complementary polynucleotides that form base pairs with one another, either by Watson-Crick base pairing or other hydrogen bonding interaction, to create a duplex between the two polynucleotides. The duplex region of the RNA molecule should be of sufficient length to allow the RNA molecule to enter the RNA interference pathway, e.g. by engaging the Dicer enzyme and/or the RISC complex. For instance, in some embodiments, the duplex region is about 15 to about 30 base pairs in length. Other lengths for the duplex region within this range are also suitable, such as about 15 to about 28 base pairs, about 15 to about 26 base pairs, about 15 to about 24 base pairs, about 15 to about 22 base pairs, about 17 to about 28 base pairs, about 17 to about 26 base pairs, about 17 to about 24 base pairs, about 17 to about 23 base pairs, about 17 to about 21 base pairs, about 19 to about 25 base pairs, about 19 to about 23 base pairs, or about 19 to about 21 base pairs. In one embodiment, the duplex region is about 17 to about 24 base pairs in length. In another embodiment, the duplex region is about 19 to about 21 base pairs in length. 
     For embodiments in which the sense strand and antisense strand are two separate molecules (e.g. RNAi agent is a siRNA), the sense strand and antisense strand need not be the same length as the length of the duplex region. For instance, one or both strands may be longer than the duplex region and have one or more unpaired nucleotides or mismatches flanking the duplex region. Thus, in some embodiments, the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises at least one nucleotide overhang. As used herein, a “nucleotide overhang” refers to the unpaired nucleotide or nucleotides that extend beyond the duplex region at the terminal ends of the strands. Nucleotide overhangs are typically created when the 3′ end of one strand extends beyond the 5′ end of the other strand or when the 5′ end of one strand extends beyond the 3′ end of the other strand. The length of a nucleotide overhang is generally between 1 and 6 nucleotides, 1 and 5 nucleotides, 1 and 4 nucleotides, 1 and 3 nucleotides, 2 and 6 nucleotides, 2 and 5 nucleotides, or 2 and 4 nucleotides. In some embodiments, the nucleotide overhang comprises 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 nucleotides. In one particular embodiment, the nucleotide overhang comprises 1 to 4 nucleotides. In certain embodiments, the nucleotide overhang comprises 2 nucleotides. The nucleotides in the overhang can be ribonucleotides, deoxyribonucleotides, or modified nucleotides as described herein. 
     The nucleotide overhang can be at the 5′ end or 3′ end of one or both strands. For example, in one embodiment, the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises a nucleotide overhang at the 5′ end and the 3′ end of the antisense strand. In another embodiment, the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises a nucleotide overhang at the 5′ end and the 3′ end of the sense strand. In some embodiments, the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises a nucleotide overhang at the 5′ end of the sense strand and the 5′ end of the antisense strand. In other embodiments, the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises a nucleotide overhang at the 3′ end of the sense strand and the 3′ end of the antisense strand. 
     The double-stranded RNA molecules may comprise a single nucleotide overhang at one end of the molecule and a blunt end at the other. A “blunt end” means that the sense strand and antisense strand are fully base-paired at the end of the molecule and there are no unpaired nucleotides that extend beyond the duplex region. In some embodiments, the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises a nucleotide overhang at the 3′ end of the sense strand and a blunt end at the 5′ end of the sense strand and 3′ end of the antisense strand. In other embodiments, the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises a nucleotide overhang at the 3′ end of the antisense strand and a blunt end at the 5′ end of the antisense strand and the 3′ end of the sense strand. In certain embodiments, the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises a blunt end at both ends of the double-stranded RNA molecule. In such embodiments, the sense strand and antisense strand have the same length and the duplex region is the same length as the sense and antisense strands (i.e. the molecule is double-stranded over its entire length). 
     The sense strand and antisense strand can each independently be about 15 to about 30 nucleotides in length, about 18 to about 28 nucleotides in length, about 19 to about 27 nucleotides in length, about 19 to about 25 nucleotides in length, about 19 to about 23 nucleotides in length, about 21 to about 25 nucleotides in length, or about 21 to about 23 nucleotides in length. In certain embodiments, the sense strand and antisense strand are each about 18, about 19, about 20, about 21, about 22, about 23, about 24, or about 25 nucleotides in length. In some embodiments, the sense strand and antisense strand have the same length but form a duplex region that is shorter than the strands such that the double-stranded RNA molecule has two nucleotide overhangs. For instance, in one embodiment, the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises (i) a sense strand and an antisense strand that are each 21 nucleotides in length, (ii) a duplex region that is 19 base pairs in length, and (iii) nucleotide overhangs of 2 unpaired nucleotides at both the 3′ end of the sense strand and the 3′ end of the antisense strand. In another embodiment, the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises (i) a sense strand and an antisense strand that are each 23 nucleotides in length, (ii) a duplex region that is 21 base pairs in length, and (iii) nucleotide overhangs of 2 unpaired nucleotides at both the 3′ end of the sense strand and the 3′ end of the antisense strand. In other embodiments, the sense strand and antisense strand have the same length and form a duplex region over their entire length such that there are no nucleotide overhangs on either end of the double-stranded molecule. In one such embodiment, the double-stranded RNA molecule is blunt ended and comprises (i) a sense strand and an antisense strand, each of which is 21 nucleotides in length, and (ii) a duplex region that is 21 base pairs in length. In another such embodiment, the double-stranded RNA molecule is blunt ended and comprises (i) a sense strand and an antisense strand, each of which is 23 nucleotides in length, and (ii) a duplex region that is 23 base pairs in length. 
     In other embodiments, the sense strand or the antisense strand is longer than the other strand and the two strands form a duplex region having a length equal to that of the shorter strand such that the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises at least one nucleotide overhang. For example, in one embodiment, the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises (i) a sense strand that is 19 nucleotides in length, (ii) an antisense strand that is 21 nucleotides in length, (iii) a duplex region of 19 base pairs in length, and (iv) a single nucleotide overhang of 2 unpaired nucleotides at the 3′ end of the antisense strand. In another embodiment, the double-stranded RNA molecule comprises (i) a sense strand that is 21 nucleotides in length, (ii) an antisense strand that is 23 nucleotides in length, (iii) a duplex region of 21 base pairs in length, and (iv) a single nucleotide overhang of 2 unpaired nucleotides at the 3′ end of the antisense strand. 
     Off-target toxicity is a constant concern in the development of pharmaceutical products. With interfering RNA agents, the potential exists for homology with certain endogenous polynucleotide sequences that could lead to unintended toxic effects in the patient receiving the interfering RNA. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the RNA molecule comprises a polynucleotide sequence that is also substantially non-homologous to any naturally occurring, normally functioning, and essential mammalian polynucleotide sequence, so that the RNA molecule does not adversely affect the function of any essential naturally occurring mammalian polynucleotide sequence, when used in the methods of this invention. Such naturally occurring functional mammalian polynucleotide sequences include mammalian sequences that encode desired proteins, as well as mammalian sequences that are non-coding, but that provide for essential regulatory sequences in a healthy mammal. Preferably, the RNA molecule useful in the methods of the invention must be sufficiently distinct in sequence from any mammalian polynucleotide sequence expressed in the target cells (e.g. liver cells) for which the function is intended to be undisturbed after any of the methods of this invention are performed. As described for determining the homology to the target sequence above, one of skill in the art may resort to the above-identified computer algorithms to define the essential lack of homology between the RNA molecule polynucleotide sequence and the normal mammalian sequences expressed in the target cells. For example, in a specific embodiment, the homology between the sequence of an RNAi agent and the selected normal sequence expressed in the target cells is less than the homologies of the formulae described above. In some embodiments, there is almost no homology at all between the sequence of an RNAi agent and any normal mammalian sequence. 
     The double-stranded RNA molecules used in the methods of the invention may comprise one or more modified nucleotides. A “modified nucleotide” refers to a nucleotide that has one or more chemical modifications to the nucleoside, nucleobase, pentose ring, or phosphate group. The double-stranded RNA molecules may comprise combinations of modified nucleotides, ribonucleotides, and deoxyribonucleotides. Incorporation of modified nucleotides into one or both strands of double-stranded RNA molecules can improve the in vivo stability of the RNA molecules, e.g., by reducing the molecules&#39; susceptibility to nucleases and other degradation processes. The potency of double-stranded RNA molecules for reducing expression of the target gene can also be enhanced by incorporation of modified nucleotides. 
     In certain embodiments, the modified nucleotides have a modification of the ribose sugar. These sugar modifications can include modifications at the 2′ and/or 5′ position of the pentose ring. A 2′-modified nucleotide refers to a nucleotide having a pentose ring with a substituent at the 2′ position other than H or OH. Such 2′-modifications include, but are not limited to, 2′-O-alkyl (e.g. O—C 1 -C 10  or O—C 1 -C 10  substituted alkyl), 2′-O-allyl (O—CH 2 CH═CH 2 ), 2′-C-allyl, 2′-fluoro, 2′-O-methyl (OCH 3 ), 2′-O-methoxyethyl (O—(CH 2 ) 2 OCH 3 ), 2′-OCF 3 , 2′-O(CH 2 ) 2 SCH 3 , 2′-O-aminoalkyl, 2 ′-amino (e.g. NH 2 ), 2′-O-ethylamine, and 2′-azido. Modifications at the 5′ position of the pentose ring include, but are not limited to, 5′-methyl (R or S); 5′-vinyl, and 5′-methoxy. 
     The double-stranded RNA molecules employed in the methods of the invention may also comprise one or more modified internucleotide linkages. As used herein, the term “modified internucleotide linkage” refers to an internucleotide linkage other than the natural 3′ to 5′ phosphodiester linkage. In some embodiments, the modified internucleotide linkage is a phosphorous-containing internucleotide linkage, such as a phosphotriester, aminoalkylphosphotriester, an alkylphosphonate (e.g. methylphosphonate, 3′-alkylene phosphonate), a phosphinate, a phosphoramidate (e.g. 3′-amino phosphoramidate and aminoalkylphosphoramidate), a phosphorothioate (P═S), a chiral phosphorothioate, a phosphorodithioate, a thionophosphoramidate, a thionoalkylphosphonate, a thionoalkylphosphotriester, and a boranophosphate. In one embodiment, a modified internucleotide linkage is a 2′ to 5′ phosphodiester linkage. In other embodiments, the modified internucleotide linkage is a non-phosphorous-containing internucleotide linkage and thus can be referred to as a modified internucleoside linkage. Such non-phosphorous-containing linkages include, but are not limited to, morpholino linkages (formed in part from the sugar portion of a nucleoside); siloxane linkages (—O—Si(H) 2 —O—); sulfide, sulfoxide and sulfone linkages; formacetyl and thioformacetyl linkages; alkene containing backbones; sulfamate backbones; methylenemethylimino (—CH 2 —N(CH 3 )—O—CH 2 —) and methylenehydrazino linkages; sulfonate and sulfonamide linkages; amide linkages; and others having mixed N, O, S and CH 2  component parts. In one embodiment, the modified internucleoside linkage is a peptide-based linkage (e.g. aminoethylglycine) to create a peptide nucleic acid or PNA, such as those described in U.S. Patent Nos. 5,539,082; 5,714,331; and 5,719,262. Other suitable modified internucleotide and internucleoside linkages that may be employed in the double-stranded RNA molecules are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,693,187, and 9,181,551, U.S. Patent Publication No. 2016/0122761, and Deleavey and Damha, Chemistry and Biology, Vol. 19: 937-954, 2012, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. 
     Interfering RNA Delivery 
     The interfering RNA compounds can be administered by any method suitable for administration of nucleic acid agents, such as a DNA vaccine or gene therapy vectors. These methods include gene guns, bio injectors, and skin patches as well as needle-free methods such as the micro-particle DNA vaccine technology disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,194,389, and the mammalian transdermal needle-free vaccination with powder-form vaccine as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,168,587. Additionally, intranasal delivery is possible, as described in, inter alia, Hamajima et al. (1998), Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol., 88(2), 205-10. Liposomes (e.g., as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,472,375) and microencapsulation can also be used. Biodegradable targetable microparticle delivery systems can also be used (e.g., as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,471,996). 
     In one embodiment, the active compounds are prepared with carriers that will protect the compound against rapid elimination from the body, such as a controlled release formulation, including implants and microencapsulated delivery systems. Biodegradable, biocompatible polymers can be used, such as ethylene vinyl acetate, polyanhydrides, polyglycolic acid, collagen, polyorthoesters, and polylactic acid. Such formulations can be prepared using standard techniques. The materials can also be obtained commercially from, for example, Alza Corporation and Nova Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Liposomal suspensions can also be used as pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. These can be prepared according to methods known to those skilled in the art, for example, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,522,811. 
     The interfering RNA molecule may be conjugated to one or more carbohydrate moieties to optimize one or more properties of the interfering RNA molecule. In many cases, the carbohydrate moiety will be attached to a modified subunit of the interfering RNA molecule or at the 5′ or 3′ end of one of strands of the interfering RNA molecule. E.g., the ribose sugar of one or more ribonucleotide subunits of an interfering RNA molecule can be replaced with another moiety, e.g., a non-carbohydrate (preferably cyclic) carrier to which is attached a carbohydrate moiety. A cyclic carrier may be a carbocyclic ring system, i.e., all ring atoms are carbon atoms, or a heterocyclic ring system, i.e., one or more ring atoms may be a heteroatom, e.g., nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur. The cyclic carrier may be a monocyclic ring system, or may contain two or more rings, e.g. fused rings. The cyclic carrier may be a fully saturated ring system, or it may contain one or more double bonds. 
     The carbohydrate moiety may be attached to the polynucleotide via a carrier. The carriers include (i) at least one “backbone attachment point,” preferably two “backbone attachment points” and (ii) at least one “tethering attachment point.” A “backbone attachment point” as used herein refers to a functional group, e.g. a hydroxyl group, or generally, a bond available for, and that is suitable for incorporation of the carrier into the backbone, e.g., the phosphate, or modified phosphate, e.g., sulfur containing, backbone, of a ribonucleic acid. A “tethering attachment point” (TAP) in some embodiments refers to a constituent ring atom of the cyclic carrier, e.g., a carbon atom or a heteroatom (distinct from an atom which provides a backbone attachment point), that connects a selected moiety. The moiety can be, e.g., a carbohydrate, e.g. monosaccharide, disaccharide, trisaccharide, tetrasaccharide, oligosaccharide and polysaccharide. Optionally, the selected moiety is connected by an intervening tether to the cyclic carrier. Thus, the cyclic carrier will often include a functional group, e.g., an amino group, or generally, provide a bond, that is suitable for incorporation or tethering of another chemical entity, e.g., a ligand to the constituent ring. 
     In some embodiments the interfering RNA molecule of the invention is conjugated to a carbohydrate moiety via a carrier, wherein the carrier can be cyclic group or acyclic group; in specific embodiments, the cyclic group is selected from pyrrolidinyl, pyrazolinyl, pyrazolidinyl, imidazolinyl, imidazolidinyl, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, [1,3]dioxolane, oxazolidinyl, isoxazolidinyl, morpholinyl, thiazolidinyl, isothiazolidinyl, quinoxalinyl, pyridazinonyl, tetrahydrofuryl and decalin; preferably, the acyclic group is selected from serinol backbone or diethanolamine backbone. 
     Targeting the Interfering RNA 
     Given that ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 is expressed on the surface of liver cells (e.g. hepatocytes), in certain embodiments, it is desirable to deliver the interfering RNA molecules to those liver cells so that the interfering effect can be exerted specifically within liver cells. Accordingly, in certain embodiments, the interfering RNA molecules are specifically targeted to liver cells using various methodologies known in the art and described herein. For example, in certain embodiments, antigen binding proteins (e.g. antibodies) or other targeting moieties disclosed herein below can be used to specifically target the interfering RNA molecules to the hepatocytes using various different receptors expressed on the surface of hepatocytes. In certain embodiments, the interfering RNA molecules are targeted to liver cells using the surface expressed ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. In these embodiments, it is envisioned that this can result in a self-regulating system that reduces the amount of RNAi agent delivered to the liver cells as expression of ASGR, ASGR-1, and/or ASGR-2 is reduced due to the effect of the targeted interfering RNA. 
     A wide variety of targeting moieties can be coupled to the oligonucleotides of the present invention. In some embodiments, the targeting moieties are coupled, e.g., covalently, either directly or indirectly via an intervening tether. 
     In some embodiments, a targeting moiety alters the distribution, targeting or lifetime of the molecule into which it is incorporated. In preferred embodiments a targeting moiety provides an enhanced affinity for a selected target, e.g., molecule, cell or cell type, compartment, receptor e.g., a cellular or organ compartment, tissue, organ or region of the body, as, e.g., compared to a species absent such a targeting moiety. Targeting moieties providing enhanced affinity for a selected target are also termed targeting moieties. 
     Some targeting moieties can have endosomolytic properties. The endosomolytic targeting moieties promote the lysis of the endosome and/or transport of the composition of the invention, or its components, from the endosome to the cytoplasm of the cell. The endosomolytic targeting moiety may be a polyanionic peptide or peptidomimetic which shows pH-dependent membrane activity and fusogenicity. In one embodiment, the endosomolytic targeting moiety assumes its active conformation at endosomal pH. The “active” conformation is that conformation in which the endosomolytic targeting moiety promotes lysis of the endosome and/or transport of the composition of the invention, or its components, from the endosome to the cytoplasm of the cell. Exemplary endosomolytic targeting moieties include the GALA peptide (Subbarao et al., Biochemistry, 1987, 26: 2964-2972), the EALA peptide (Vogel et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1996, 118: 1581-1586), and their derivatives (Turk et al., Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 2002, 1559: 56-68). In one embodiment, the endosomolytic component may contain a chemical group (e.g., an amino acid) which will undergo a change in charge or protonation in response to a change in pH. The endosomolytic component may be linear or branched. 
     In certain embodiments, targeting moieties can improve transport, hybridization, and specificity properties and may also improve nuclease resistance of the resultant natural or modified oligoribonucleotide, or a polymeric molecule comprising any combination of monomers described herein and/or natural or modified ribonucleotides. 
     In some embodiments, targeting moieties in general can include therapeutic modifiers, e.g., for enhancing uptake; diagnostic compounds or reporter groups e.g., for monitoring distribution; cross-linking agents; and nuclease-resistance conferring moieties. General examples include lipids, steroids, vitamins, sugars, proteins, peptides, polyamines, and peptide mimics. 
     Targeting moieties can include a naturally occurring substance, such as a protein (e.g., human serum albumin (I), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), or globulin); a carbohydrate (e.g., a dextran, pullulan, chitin, chitosan, inulin, cyclodextrin or hyaluronic acid); or a lipid. The targeting moiety may also be a recombinant or synthetic molecule, such as a synthetic polymer, e.g., a synthetic polyamino acid, an oligonucleotide (e.g. an aptamer). Examples of polyamino acids include polyamino acid is a polylysine (PLL), poly L-aspartic acid, poly L-glutamic acid, styrene-maleic acid anhydride copolymer, poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide) copolymer, divinyl ether-maleic anhydride copolymer, N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide copolymer (HMPA), polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyurethane, poly(2-ethylacrylic acid), N-isopropylacrylamide polymers, or polyphosphazine. Example of polyamines include: polyethylenimine, polylysine (PLL), spermine, spermidine, polyamine, pseudopeptide-polyamine, peptidomimetic polyamine, dendrimer polyamine, arginine, amidine, protamine, cationic lipid, cationic porphyrin, quaternary salt of a polyamine, or an alpha helical peptide. 
     Targeting moieties can also include other targeting groups, e.g., a cell or tissue targeting agent, e.g., a lectin, glycoprotein, lipid or protein, e.g., an antibody, that binds to a specified cell type such as a kidney cell. A targeting group can be a thyrotropin, melanotropin, lectin, glycoprotein, surfactant protein A, Mucin carbohydrate, multivalent lactose, multivalent galactose, N-acetyl-galactosamine, N-acetyl-glucosamine multivalent mannose, multivalent fucose, glycosylated polyaminoacids, multivalent galactose, transferrin, bisphosphonate, polyglutamate, polyaspartate, a lipid, cholesterol, a steroid, bile acid, folate, vitamin B12, biotin, an RGD peptide, an RGD peptide mimetic or an aptamer. 
     Other examples of targeting moieties include dyes, intercalating agents (e.g. acridines), cross-linkers (e.g. psoralene, mitomycin C), porphyrins (TPPC4, texaphyrin, Sapphyrin), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., phenazine, dihydrophenazine), artificial endonucleases or a chelator (e.g. EDTA), lipophilic molecules, e.g, cholesterol, cholic acid, 1-pyrene butyric acid, dihydrotestosterone, 1,3-Bis-O(hexadecyl)glycerol, geranyloxyhexyl group, hexadecylglycerol, borneol, menthol, 1,3-propanediol, heptadecyl group, palmitic acid, myristic acid, O3-(oleoyl)lithocholic acid, O3-(oleoyl)cholenic acid, dimethoxytrityl, or phenoxazine) and peptide conjugates (e.g., antennapedia peptide, Tat peptide), alkylating agents, phosphate, amino, mercapto, PEG (e.g., PEG-40K), MPEG, [MPEG] 2 , polyamino, alkyl, substituted alkyl, radiolabeled markers, enzymes, haptens (e.g. biotin), transport/absorption facilitators (e.g., aspirin, vitamin E, folic acid), synthetic ribonucleases (e.g., imidazole, bisimidazole, histamine, imidazole clusters, acridine-imidazole conjugates, Eu3+ complexes of tetraazamacrocycles), dinitrophenyl, HRP, or AP. 
     Targeting moieties can be proteins, e.g., glycoproteins, or peptides, e.g., molecules having a specific affinity for a co-moiety, or antigen binding proteins, such as antibodies; e.g., an antibody, that binds to a specified cell type such as a liver hepatocyte. Targeting moieties may also include hormones and hormone receptors. They can also include non-peptidic species, such as lipids, lectins, carbohydrates, vitamins, cofactors, multivalent lactose, multivalent galactose, N-acetyl-galactosamine, N-acetyl-glucosamine multivalent mannose, multivalent fucose, or aptamers. The targeting moiety can be, for example, a lipopolysaccharide. 
     The targeting moiety can be a substance, e.g, a drug, which can increase the uptake of the interfering RNA molecule into the cell, for example, by disrupting the cell&#39;s cytoskeleton, e.g., by disrupting the cell&#39;s microtubules, microfilaments, and/or intermediate filaments. The drug can be, for example, taxon, vincristine, vinblastine, cytochalasin, nocodazole, jasplakinolide, latrunculin A, phalloidin, swinholide A, indanocine, or myoseverin. 
     The targeting moiety can increase the uptake of the interfering RNA molecule into the cell by activating an inflammatory response, for example. Exemplary targeting moieties that would have such an effect include tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha), interleukin-1 beta, or gamma interferon. 
     In one embodiment, the targeting moiety is a lipid or lipid-based molecule. Such a lipid or lipid-based molecule preferably binds a serum protein, e.g., human serum albumin (I). A serum protein binding targeting moiety, in certain embodiments, allows for distribution of the conjugate to a target tissue, e.g., a non-kidney target tissue of the body. For example, the target tissue can be the liver, including hepatocytes or parenchymal cells of the liver. Other molecules that can bind serum proteins can also be used as targeting moieties. For example, naproxen or aspirin can be used. A lipid or lipid-based targeting moiety can (a) increase resistance to degradation of the conjugate, (b) increase targeting or transport into a target cell or cell membrane, and/or (c) can be used to adjust binding to a serum protein. 
     A lipid based targeting moiety can be used to modulate, e.g., control the binding of the conjugate to a target tissue. For example, a lipid or lipid-based targeting moiety that binds to a serum protein more strongly will be less likely to be targeted to the kidney and therefore less likely to be cleared from the body. A lipid or lipid-based targeting moiety that binds to a serum protein less strongly can be used to target the conjugate to the kidney, if so desired. 
     In one embodiment, the lipid based targeting moiety binds human serum albumin. In a specific embodiment, it binds human serum albumin with a sufficient affinity such that the conjugate will be preferably distributed to a non-kidney tissue. In certain embodiments, it is preferred that the affinity not be so strong that the human serum albumin targeting moiety binding cannot be reversed. 
     In another preferred embodiment, the lipid based targeting moiety binds human serum albumin weakly or not at all, such that the conjugate will be preferably distributed to the kidney. Other moieties that target to kidney cells can also be used in place of or in addition to the lipid-based targeting moiety. 
     In another embodiment, the targeting moiety is for example a vitamin, e.g., a vitamin, which is taken up by a target cell, e.g., a proliferating cell. Exemplary vitamins include vitamin A, E, and K. Other exemplary vitamins include B vitamins, e.g., folic acid, B12, riboflavin, biotin, pyridoxal or other vitamins or nutrients taken up by cells. Also included are low density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). 
     In another embodiment, the targeting moiety is a cell-permeation agent, preferably a helical cell-permeation agent. In some embodiments, the agent is amphipathic. An exemplary agent is a peptide such as tat or antennopedia. If the agent is a peptide, it can be modified, including a peptidylmimetic, invertomers, non-peptide or pseudo-peptide linkages, and use of D-amino acids. The helical agent is preferably an alphα-helical agent, which preferably has a lipophilic and a lipophobic phase. 
     The targeting moiety can be a peptide or peptidomimetic. A peptidomimetic (also referred to herein as an oligopeptidomimetic) is a molecule capable of folding into a defined three-dimensional structure similar to a natural peptide. The peptide or peptidomimetic moiety can be about 5-50 amino acids long, e.g., about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, or 50 amino acids long. A peptide or peptidomimetic can be, for example, a cell permeation peptide, cationic peptide, amphipathic peptide, or hydrophobic peptide (e.g., consisting primarily of Tyr, Trp or Phe). The peptide moiety can be a dendrimer peptide, constrained peptide or crosslinked peptide. In another alternative, the peptide moiety can include a hydrophobic membrane translocation sequence (MTS). An exemplary hydrophobic MTS-containing peptide is RFGF having the amino acid sequence AAVALLPAVLLALLAP. An RFGF analogue (e.g., amino acid sequence AALLPVLLAAP) containing a hydrophobic MTS can also be a targeting moiety. The peptide moiety can be a “delivery” peptide, which can carry large polar molecules including peptides, oligonucleotides, and protein across cell membranes. For example, sequences from the HIV Tat protein (GRKKRRQRRRPPQ) and the  Drosophila  Antennapedia protein (RQIKIWFQNRRMKWKK) have been found to be capable of functioning as delivery peptides. A peptide or peptidomimetic can be encoded by a random sequence of DNA, such as a peptide identified from a phage-display library, or one-bead-one-compound (OBOC) combinatorial library (Lam et al., Nature, 354:82-84, 1991). In some embodiments, the peptide or peptidomimetic tethered to an interfering RNA molecule via an incorporated monomer unit is a cell targeting peptide such as an arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD)-peptide, or RGD mimic. A peptide moiety can range in length from about 5 amino acids to about 40 amino acids. The peptide moieties can have a structural modification, such as to increase stability or direct conformational properties. Any of the structural modifications described below can be utilized. An RGD peptide can facilitate targeting of an interfering RNA molecule to cells of a variety of other tissues, including the lung, kidney, spleen, or liver (Aoki et al., Cancer Gene Therapy 8:783-787, 2001). The RGD peptide can be linear or cyclic, and can be modified, e.g., glycosylated or methylated to facilitate targeting to specific tissues. For example, a glycosylated RGD peptide can deliver an interfering RNA molecule to a cell expressing αVβ 3  (Haubner et al., Jour. Nucl. Med., 42:326-336, 2001). Peptides that target markers enriched in proliferating cells can be used. E.g., RGD containing peptides and peptidomimetics can target cells, in particular cells that exhibit an integrin. Thus, one could use RGD peptides, cyclic peptides containing RGD, RGD peptides that include D-amino acids, as well as synthetic RGD mimics. In addition to RGD, one can use other moieties that target the integrin ligand. 
     A “cell permeation peptide” is capable of permeating a cell, e.g., a microbial cell, such as a bacterial or fungal cell, or a mammalian cell, such as a human cell. A microbial cell-permeating peptide can be, for example, an α-helical linear peptide (e.g., LL-37 or Cecropin P1), a disulfide bond-containing peptide (e.g., α-defensin, β-defensin or bactenecin), or a peptide containing only one or two dominating amino acids (e.g., PR-39 or indolicidin). A cell permeation peptide can also include a nuclear localization signal (NLS). For example, a cell permeation peptide can be a bipartite amphipathic peptide, such as MPG, which is derived from the fusion peptide domain of HIV-1 gp41 and the NLS of SV40 large T antigen (Simeoni et al., Nucl. Acids Res. 31:2717-2724, 2003). 
     In one embodiment, a targeting peptide can be an amphipathic α-helical peptide. Exemplary amphipathic α-helical peptides include, but are not limited to, cecropins, lycotoxins, pardaxins, buforin, CPF, bombinin-like peptide (BLP), cathelicidins, ceratotoxins, S. clava peptides, hagfish intestinal antimicrobial peptides (HFIAPs), magainins, brevinins-2, dermaseptins, melittins, pleurocidin, H.sub.2A peptides, Xenopus peptides, esculentin-1, and caerins. 
     Peptide and peptidomimetic targeting moieties include those having naturally occurring or modified peptides, e.g., D or L peptides; α, β, or γ peptides; N-methyl peptides; azapeptides; peptides having one or more amide, i.e., peptide, linkages replaced with one or more urea, thiourea, carbamate, or sulfonyl urea linkages; or cyclic peptides. 
     The targeting moiety can be any moiety that is capable of targeting a specific receptor. Examples are: folate, GalNAc, galactose, mannose, mannose-6P, clusters of sugars such as GalNAc cluster, mannose cluster, galactose cluster, or an aptamer. A cluster is a combination of two or more sugar units. The targeting moieties also include integrin receptor moieties, chemokine receptor moieties, transferrin, biotin, serotonin receptor moieties, PSMA, endothelin, GCPII, somatostatin, LDL and HDL moieties. The targeting moieties can also be based on nucleic acid, e.g., an aptamer. The aptamer can be unmodified or have any combination of modifications disclosed herein. 
     Other exemplary endosomal release agents include imidazoles, poly or oligoimidazoles, PEIs, peptides, fusogenic peptides, polycarboxylates, polycations, masked oligo or poly cations or anions, acetals, polyacetals, ketals/polyketals, orthoesters, polymers with masked or unmasked cationic or anionic charges, dendrimers with masked or unmasked cationic or anionic charges. 
     Pharmacokinetic (“PK”) modulators include lipophiles, bile acids, steroids, phospholipid analogues, peptides, protein binding agents, PEG, vitamins etc. Exemplary PK modulators include, but are not limited to, cholesterol, fatty acids, cholic acid, lithocholic acid, dialkylglycerides, diacylglyceride, phospholipids, sphingolipids, naproxen, ibuprofen, vitamin E, biotin etc. Oligonucleotides that comprise a number of phosphorothioate linkages are also known to bind to serum protein, thus short oligonucleotides, e.g. oligonucleotides of about 5 bases, 10 bases, 15 bases or 20 bases, comprising multiple of phosphorothioate linkages in the backbone are also amenable to the present invention as targeting moieties(e.g. as PK modulating moieties). In addition, aptamers that bind serum components (e.g. serum proteins) are also amenable to the present invention as PK modulating moieties. 
     When two or more targeting moieties are present, the targeting moieties can all have same properties, all have different properties or some targeting moieties have the same properties while others have different properties. For example, a targeting moiety can have targeting properties, have endosomolytic activity and/or have PK modulating properties. In certain embodiments, all the have different properties. 
     In some embodiments, a targeting moiety can be conjugated to nucleobases, sugar moieties, or internucleosidic linkages of nucleic acid molecules. Conjugation to purine nucleobases or derivatives thereof can occur at any position including, endocyclic and exocyclic atoms. In some embodiments, the 2-, 6-, 7-, or 8-positions of a purine nucleobase are attached to a conjugate moiety. Conjugation to pyrimidine nucleobases or derivatives thereof can also occur at any position. In some embodiments, the 2-, 5-, and 6-positions of a pyrimidine nucleobase can be substituted with a conjugate moiety. Conjugation to sugar moieties of nucleosides can occur at any carbon atom. Example carbon atoms of a sugar moiety that can be attached to a conjugate moiety include the 2′, 3′, and 5′ carbon atoms. The 1′ position can also be attached to a conjugate moiety, such as in an abasic residue. Internucleosidic linkages can also bear conjugate moieties. For phosphorus-containing linkages (e.g., phosphodiester, phosphorothioate, phosphorodithioate, phosphoroamidate, and the like), the conjugate moiety can be attached directly to the phosphorus atom or to an O, N, or S atom bound to the phosphorus atom. For amine- or amide-containing internucleosidic linkages (e.g., PNA), the conjugate moiety can be attached to the nitrogen atom of the amine or amide or to an adjacent carbon atom. 
     It is envisioned that any suitable targeting moiety in the field of RNA interference may be used, although the targeting moiety is typically a carbohydrate e.g. monosaccharide (such as GalNAc), disaccharide, trisaccharide, tetrasaccharide, polysaccharide. Linkers that conjugate the targeting moiety to the nucleic acid include those discussed herein. For example, the targeting moiety can be one or more GalNAc derivatives attached through a bivalent or trivalent branched linker. 
     In certain embodiments, cleavable linking groups are utilized. A cleavable linking group is one which is sufficiently stable outside the cell, but which upon entry into a target cell is cleaved to release the two parts the linker is holding together. In one embodiment, the cleavable linking group is cleaved at least 10 times or more, and in some embodiments, at least 100 times faster in the target cell or under a first reference condition (which can, e.g., be selected to mimic or represent intracellular conditions) than in the blood of a subject, or under a second reference condition (which can, e.g., be selected to mimic or represent conditions found in the blood or serum). 
     Cleavable linking groups are susceptible to cleavage agents, e.g., pH, redox potential or the presence of degradative molecules. Generally, cleavage agents are more prevalent or found at higher levels or activities inside cells than in serum or blood. Examples of such degradative agents include: redox agents which are selected for particular substrates or which have no substrate specificity, including, e.g., oxidative or reductive enzymes or reductive agents such as mercaptans, present in cells, that can degrade a redox cleavable linking group by reduction; esterases; endosomes or agents that can create an acidic environment, e.g., those that result in a pH of five or lower; enzymes that can hydrolyze or degrade an acid cleavable linking group by acting as a general acid, peptidases (which can be substrate specific), and phosphatases. 
     A cleavable linkage group, such as a disulfide bond can be susceptible to pH. The pH of human serum is 7.4, while the average intracellular pH is slightly lower, ranging from about 7.1-7.3. Endosomes have a more acidic pH, in the range of 5.5-6.0, and lysosomes have an even more acidic pH at around 5.0. Some linkers will have a cleavable linking group that is cleaved at a preferred pH, thereby releasing the cationic lipid from the moiety inside the cell, or into the desired compartment of the cell. 
     A linker can include a cleavable linking group that is cleavable by a particular enzyme. The type of cleavable linking group incorporated into a linker can depend on the cell to be targeted. For example, liver targeting moieties can be linked to the cationic lipids through a linker that includes an ester group. Liver cells are rich in esterases, and therefore the linker will be cleaved more efficiently in liver cells than in cell types that are not esterase-rich. Other cell-types rich in esterases include cells of the lung, renal cortex, and testis. Linkers that contain peptide bonds can be used when targeting cell types rich in peptidases, such as liver cells and synoviocytes. 
     In general, the suitability of a candidate cleavable linking group can be evaluated by testing the ability of a degradative agent (or condition) to cleave the candidate linking group. It will also be desirable to also test the candidate cleavable linking group for the ability to resist cleavage in the blood or when in contact with other non-target tissue. Thus one can determine the relative susceptibility to cleavage between a first and a second condition, where the first is selected to be indicative of cleavage in a target cell and the second is selected to be indicative of cleavage in other tissues or biological fluids, e.g., blood or serum. The evaluations can be carried out in cell free systems, in cells, in cell culture, in organ or tissue culture, or in whole animals. It may be useful to make initial evaluations in cell-free or culture conditions and to confirm by further evaluations in whole animals. In some embodiments, useful candidate compounds are cleaved at least 2, 4, 10 or 100 times faster in the cell (or under in vitro conditions selected to mimic intracellular conditions) as compared to blood or serum (or under in vitro conditions selected to mimic extracellular conditions). 
     In some embodiments, redox cleavable linking groups are utilized. Redox cleavable linking groups are cleaved upon reduction or oxidation. An example of reductively cleavable linking group is a disulphide linking group (—S—S—). To determine if a candidate cleavable linking group is a suitable “reductively cleavable linking group,” or for example is suitable for use with a particular interfering RNA molecule and particular targeting agent one can look to methods described herein. For example, a candidate can be evaluated by incubation with dithiothreitol (DTT), or other reducing agent using reagents know in the art, which mimic the rate of cleavage which would be observed in a cell, e.g., a target cell. The candidates can also be evaluated under conditions which are selected to mimic blood or serum conditions. In a specific embodiment, candidate compounds are cleaved by at most 10% in the blood. In some embodiments, useful candidate compounds are degraded at least 2, 4, 10 or 100 times faster in the cell (or under in vitro conditions selected to mimic intracellular conditions) as compared to blood (or under in vitro conditions selected to mimic extracellular conditions). The rate of cleavage of candidate compounds can be determined using standard enzyme kinetics assays under conditions chosen to mimic intracellular media and compared to conditions chosen to mimic extracellular media. 
     In yet some embodiments, phosphate-based cleavable linking groups are cleaved by agents that degrade or hydrolyze the phosphate group. An example of an agent that cleaves phosphate groups in cells are enzymes such as phosphatases in cells. Examples of phosphate-based linking groups are —O—P(O)(Ork)-O—, —O—P(S)(Ork)-O—, —O—P(S)(SRk)-O—, —S—P(O) (Ork)-O—, —O—P(O)(Ork)-S—, —S—P(O)(Ork)-S—, —O—P(S)(Ork)-S—, —S—P(S)(Ork)-O—, —O—P(O)(Rk)-O—, —O—P(S)(Rk)-O—, —S—P(O)(Rk)-O—, —S—P(S)(Rk)-O—, —S—P(O)(Rk)-S—, —O—P(S)(Rk)-S—. Specific embodiments include —O—P(O)(OH)—O—, —O—P(S)(OH)—O—, —O—P(S)(SH)—O—, —S—P(O)(OH)—O—, —O—P(O)(OH)—S—, —S—P(O)(OH)—S—, —O—P(S)(OH)—S—, —S—P(S)(OH)—O—, —O—P(O)(H)—O—, —O—P(S)(H)—O—, —S—P(O)(H)—O—, —S—P(S)(H)—O—, —S—P(O)(H)—S—, —O—P(S)(H)—S—. Another specific embodiment is —O—P(O)(OH)—O—. These candidates can be evaluated using methods analogous to those described above. 
     In some embodiments, acid cleavable linking groups, which are linking groups that are cleaved under acidic conditions, are envisioned. In some embodiments acid cleavable linking groups are cleaved in an acidic environment with a pH of about 6.5 or lower (e.g., about 6.0, 5.5, 5.0, or lower), or by agents such as enzymes that can act as a general acid. In a cell, specific low pH organelles, such as endosomes and lysosomes can provide a cleaving environment for acid cleavable linking groups. Examples of acid cleavable linking groups include but are not limited to hydrazones, esters, and esters of amino acids. Acid cleavable groups can have the general formula —C══NN—, C(O)O, or —OC(O). A specific embodiment is when the carbon attached to the oxygen of the ester (the alkoxy group) is an aryl group, substituted alkyl group, or tertiary alkyl group such as dimethyl pentyl or t-butyl. These candidates can be evaluated using methods analogous to those described above. 
     In some embodiments, ester-based cleavable linking groups, which are cleaved by enzymes such as esterases and amidases in cells, are envisioned. Examples of ester-based cleavable linking groups include but are not limited to esters of alkylene, alkenylene and alkynylene groups. Ester cleavable linking groups have the general formula —C(O)O—, or —OC(O)—. These candidates can be evaluated using methods analogous to those described above. 
     In yet further embodiments, peptide-based cleavable linking groups, which are cleaved by enzymes such as peptidases and proteases in cells, are envisioned. Peptide-based cleavable linking groups are peptide bonds formed between amino acids to yield oligopeptides (e.g., dipeptides, tripeptides etc.) and polypeptides. Peptide-based cleavable groups do not include the amide group (—C(O)NH—). The amide group can be formed between any alkylene, alkenylene or alkynelene. A peptide bond is a special type of amide bond formed between amino acids to yield peptides and proteins. The peptide based cleavage group is generally limited to the peptide bond (i.e., the amide bond) formed between amino acids yielding peptides and proteins and does not include the entire amide functional group. Peptide-based cleavable linking groups have the general formula —NHCHR A C(O)NHCHR B C(O)—, where R A  and R B  are the R groups of the two adjacent amino acids. These candidates can be evaluated using methods analogous to those described above. As used herein, “carbohydrate” refers to a compound which is either a carbohydrate per se made up of one or more monosaccharide units having at least 6 carbon atoms (which may be linear, branched or cyclic) with an oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atom bonded to each carbon atom; or a compound having as a part thereof a carbohydrate moiety made up of one or more monosaccharide units each having at least six carbon atoms (which may be linear, branched or cyclic), with an oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atom bonded to each carbon atom. Representative carbohydrates include the sugars (mono-, di-, tri- and oligosaccharides containing from about 4-9 monosaccharide units), and polysaccharides such as starches, glycogen, cellulose and polysaccharide gums. 
     Synthesis of Interfering RNA 
     The interfering RNA molecules that can be employed in the methods of the present invention can readily be made using techniques known in the art, for example, using conventional RNA solid phase synthesis. See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 8,877,917. The polynucleotides of the double-stranded RNA molecules can be assembled on a suitable nucleic acid synthesizer utilizing standard nucleotide or nucleoside precursors (e.g. phosphoramidites). Automated nucleic acid synthesizers are sold commercially by several vendors, including DNA/RNA synthesizers from Applied Biosystems (Foster City, Calif.), MerMade synthesizers from BioAutomation (Irving, Tex., and OligoPilot synthesizers from GE Healthcare Life Sciences (Pittsburgh, Pa.). 
     The 2′ silyl protecting group can be used in conjunction with acid labile dimethoxytrityl (DMT) at the 5′ position of ribonucleosides to synthesize oligonucleotides via phosphoramidite chemistry. Final deprotection conditions are known not to significantly degrade RNA products. All syntheses can be conducted in any automated or manual synthesizer on large, medium, or small scale. The syntheses may also be carried out in multiple well plates or glass slides. 
     The 2′-O-silyl group can be removed via exposure to fluoride ions, which can include any source of fluoride ion, e.g., those salts containing fluoride ion paired with inorganic counterions e.g., cesium fluoride and potassium fluoride or those salts containing fluoride ion paired with an organic counterion, e.g., a tetraalkylammonium fluoride. A crown ether catalyst can be utilized in combination with the inorganic fluoride in the deprotection reaction. Preferred fluoride ion source are tetrabutylammonium fluoride or aminehydrofluorides (e.g., combining aqueous HF with triethylamine in a dipolar aprotic solvent, e.g., dimethylformamide). 
     The choice of protecting groups for use on the phosphite triesters and phosphotriesters can alter the stability of the triesters towards fluoride. Methyl protection of the phosphotriester or phosphitetriester can stabilize the linkage against fluoride ions and improve process yields. 
     Since ribonucleosides have a reactive 2′ hydroxyl substituent, it can be desirable to protect the reactive 2′ position in RNA with a protecting group that is orthogonal to a 5′-O-dimethoxytrityl protecting group, e.g., one stable to treatment with acid. Silyl protecting groups meet this criterion and can be readily removed in a final fluroide deprotection step that can result in minimal RNA degradation. 
     Tetrazole catalysts can be used in the standard phosphoramidite coupling reaction. Preferred catalysts include e.g., tetrazole, S-ethyl-tetrazole, p-nitrophenyltetrazole. 
     See also, for example, Trufert et al., Tetrahedron, 52:3005, 1996; and Manoharan, “Oligonucleotide Conjugates in Antisense Technology,” in Antisense Drug Technology, ed. S. T. Crooke, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2001. The protected monomer compounds can be separated from a reaction mixture and further purified by a method such as column chromatography, high pressure liquid chromatography, or recrystallization. As can be appreciated by the skilled artisan, further methods of synthesizing the compounds of the formulae herein will be evident to those of ordinary skill in the art. Additionally, the various synthetic steps may be performed in an alternate sequence or order to give the desired compounds. Other synthetic chemistry transformations, protecting groups (e.g., for hydroxyl, amino, etc. present on the bases) and protecting group methodologies (protection and deprotection) useful in synthesizing the compounds described herein are known in the art and include, for example, those such as described in R. Larock, Comprehensive Organic Transformations, VCH Publishers (1989); T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, 2d. Ed., John Wiley and Sons (1991); L. Fieser and M. Fieser, Fieser and Fieser&#39;s Reagents for Organic Synthesis, John Wiley and Sons (1994); and L. Paquette, ed., Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis, John Wiley and Sons (1995), and subsequent editions thereof. 
     Methods of Treatment 
     In further embodiments of the present invention, a method of treating a human subject, comprising administering a therapeutic dosage of the antigen binding proteins or antibodies or interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) of the present invention is provided. In one embodiment, the antigen binding proteins are monoclonal antibodies. In one embodiment, the antigen binding proteins are human antibodies. In another embodiment, the antigen binding proteins or antibodies are humanized antibodies. In another embodiment, interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) is administered. As used herein the term “subject” refers to a mammal, including humans, and can be used interchangeably with the term “patient”. 
     Given the results of the Icelandic study presented in the examples below, there need not be any particular further manipulation downstream in a host receiving a therapy involving administering the ASGR inhibitor (e.g., antigen binding proteins or antibodies or RNAi) to the host. That is, in some embodiments, the antibody (or RNAi) need simply be one or more of the antibodies (or RNAi) described herein, which binds to (and inhibits) ASGR (such as ASGR1), and be administered in an amount, and at a frequency sufficient to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, myocardial infarction, or other disorders provided herein. In some embodiments, the antibody (or RNAi) is administered in an amount sufficient to result in a lowering of non-HDL cholesterol. In some embodiments, the antibody (or RNAi) is administered in an amount sufficient to result in lowering LDL cholesterol. While not intended to be limiting unless expressed otherwise, below is a description of various embodiments through which ASGR can have an impact on various disorders, and thus, how the various antibodies (or RNAi) provided herein (which can inhibit (e.g., reduce) ASGR function) can have an impact on the various disorders provided herein. 
     In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor (e.g., antigen binding proteins or antibodies or RNAi) operates through ASGR&#39;s role in platelet clearance. Inhibiting (e.g., reducing) the receptor results in a reduction in clearance of old platelets. Such older platelets do not coagulate as well as new platelets and as a result, the blood is thinner. As a result, plaques can lessen and there can be a positive impact (e.g., stroke is lessened) for the subject. 
     In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor (e.g., antigen binding proteins or antibodies or RNAi) binds to ASGR to alter inflammation. For example, reducing the ASGR-1 receptor results in a modification of the immune response. Normally, there can be an increase in proinflammatory cytokines. These proinflammatory cytokines are circulating in the native state (one where the ASGR1 receptor is not reduced). However, ALP (alkaline phosphatase) can have an anti-inflammatory role thereby reducing inflammation and coagulopathy systemically. In some embodiments, the mechanism of action involves reducing ASGR1 which increases ALP and therefore reduces inflammation. 
     In some embodiments, and without intending to be limited by theory (unless expressed otherwise), the ASGR inhibitor (e.g., antigen binding proteins or antibodies or RNAi) can reduce an activity due to ASGR interacting with one or more other molecules, either directly or indirectly. For example, various embodiments for various proteins are provided herein in Examples 18 and 19. As noted above, this selection of proteins can also be useful for determining the effectiveness of the ASGR inhibitor (e.g., antigen binding proteins or antibodies or RNAi) (and/or the amount of the antibody and/or identification of a subject who can respond to the therapy (or RNAi)) by monitoring one or more of these proteins as a Cardiovascular Disease marker. Thus, these markers are useful as markers and, without intending to be limited by theory, in some embodiments, one or more of the proteins disclosed below is the protein through which (directly or indirectly) ASGR1 modulation achieves its benefit for one or more of the disorders provided herein, including cardiovascular disease. 
     In addition to the marker proteins described in Examples 18 and 19 herein (which also allow for various mechanisms of action and monitoring the effectiveness of various ASGR inhibitors (e.g., antigen binding proteins or antibodies or RNAi) and dosage regimes), the following proteins of interest are those that interact with ASGR, and ASGR-1 in particular, directly by binding to them. Thus, these are additional interactions that can be inhibited (e.g., reduced) for various embodiments provided herein, by various ASGR inhibitors (e.g., antigen binding proteins or antibodies or RNAi). While not intending to be limited by theory (unless explicitly stated otherwise), ASGR-1&#39;s binding to one or more of the following proteins can be inhibited (e.g., reduced) by using an ASGR-1 inhibitor (e.g., antigen binding protein or antibody or RNAi) provided herein that inhibits (e.g., reduces) the noted binding. While in some embodiments, the protein interactions are contemplated as resulting mechanisms of action that occur downstream from when ASGR levels are effectively reduced by an ASGR inhibitor (e.g., antigen binding protein or antibody binding or via RNAi), the following list is a list of proteins that directly bind to ASGR1, and thus whose direct binding to ASGR-1 can be inhibited (e.g., reduced) by one or more of the antigen binding proteins or antibodies provided herein (or RNAi). In some embodiments, the ASGR-1 inhibitor (e.g., antigen binding protein or antibody or RNAi) inhibits (e.g., reduces) ASGR-1&#39;s binding to one or more of: Alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein (aka Fetuin A) (see Tozawa et al, J Biol Chem (2001) 276:12624-12628); Asialoglycoprotein receptor 1 (see Stockert et al (1977) Science 197:667-668), Orosomucoid (aka alpha-1-acid glycoprotein) (see Tozawa et al, J Biol Chem (2001) 276:12624-12628), Alkaline phosphatase, (see Hardonk M J, Scholtens H B. Histochemistry. 1980;69(3):289-97 and Scholtens H B, Meijer D K, Hardonk M J. Liver. 1982 March; 2(1):14-21), LDL and chylomicrons (Windler et al Biochem J (1991) 276:79-87), Fibronectin (see Rotundo et al Hepatology (1998) 28:475-485), and IgA (see Stockert et al PNAS (1982) 79:6229-6231). In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor (e.g., antigen binding protein or antibody or RNAi) antibody binds to ASGR and inhibits (e.g., reduces) ASGR&#39;s interaction with a molecule that has a terminal Gal or GalNAc, including, but not limited to protein ligands, synthetic polysaccharides, solid substrates, etc. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor (e.g., antigen binding proteins or antibodies or RNAi) inhibits (e.g., reduces) ASGR1′s ability to bind to an asialylated molecule. In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of treating or preventing a cardiovascular disease comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective dose of an ASGR inhibitor as described herein. In some embodiments, the cardiovascular disease is coronary artery disease or myocardial infarction. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is one or more of the antigen binding proteins described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) as described herein. In some embodiments, the relative risk reduction of a cardiovascular event is at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60% in the patient. Some non-limiting examples of cardiovascular disease include atherosclerotic diseases, such as, for example, coronary heart disease, coronary artery disease, peripheral arterial disease, stroke (ischaemic and hemorrhagic), angina pectoris, cerebrovascular disease, acute coronary syndrome, and myocardial infarction. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitors of the present invention are useful in reducing the risk of: nonfatal heart attacks, fatal and non-fatal strokes, certain types of heart surgery, hospitalization for heart failure, chest pain in patients with heart disease, and/or cardiovascular events because of established heart disease such as prior heart attack, prior heart surgery, and/or chest pain with evidence of clogged arteries. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitors of the present invention and methods can be used to reduce the risk of recurrent cardiovascular events. 
     In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of decreasing the risk of acquiring coronary artery disease or having an MI comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective dose of an ASGR inhibitor as described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is one or more of the antigen binding proteins described herein . In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) as described herein. In some embodiments, the relative risk reduction of coronary artery disease or MI is at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60% in the patient. 
     In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of reducing blood LDL cholesterol levels in a patient comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective dose of an ASGR inhibitor as described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is one or more of the antigen binding proteins described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) as described herein. In some embodiments, the blood LDL cholesterol level in the patient is reduced by at least about 15%, as compared to a predose level of blood LDL cholesterol in the patient. In some embodiments of this aspect of the invention, the blood LDL cholesterol level of said patient is lowered by at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, or at least about 90% as compared to a predose level of blood LDL cholesterol in the patient. 
     In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of reducing non-HDL cholesterol levels in a patient comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective dose of an ASGR inhibitor as described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is one or more of the antigen binding proteins described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) as described herein. In some embodiments, the non-HDL cholesterol level in the patient is reduced by at least about 5%, as compared to a predose level of non-HDL cholesterol in the patient. In some embodiments of this aspect of the invention, the non-HDL cholesterol level of said patient is lowered by at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, or at least about 90% as compared to a predose level of non-HDL cholesterol in the patient. 
     In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of increasing ALP levels in a patient comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective dose of of an ASGR inhibitor as described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is one or more of the antigen binding proteins described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) as described herein. In some embodiments, the ALP level in the patient is increased by at least about 30%, as compared to a predose level of ALP in the patient. In some embodiments of this aspect of the invention, the ALP level of said patient is increased by at least about at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, or at least about 90% as compared to a predose ALP level in the patient. In some embodiments, ALP levels are increased at least about, 1.5×, 2×, 2.5×, 3×, 3.5×, 4×, 4.5×, and 5× over pretreatment. 
     In some embodiments, the invention provides a method of antagonizing ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 in a patient comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective dose of an ASGR inhibitor as described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is one or more of the antigen binding proteins described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) as described herein. 
     In some embodiments, a method of treating or preventing a cardiovascular disease is provided and comprises administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective dose of an ASGR inhibitor as described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR inhibitor is an inhibitor of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is one or more of the antigen binding proteins described herein. In some embodiments, the ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 inhibitor is an interfering RNA (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) as described herein. In some embodiments, the relative risk reduction of a cardiovascular event is at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60% in the patient. 
     The term “treatment” encompasses alleviation of at least one symptom or other embodiment of a disorder, or reduction of disease severity, and the like. An antigen binding protein, in particular a human antibody according to the present invention, need not effect a complete cure, or eradicate every symptom or manifestation of a disease, to constitute a viable therapeutic agent. As is recognized in the pertinent field, drugs employed as therapeutic agents may reduce the severity of a given disease state, but need not abolish every manifestation of the disease to be regarded as useful therapeutic agents. Simply reducing the impact of a disease (for example, by reducing the number or severity of its symptoms, or by increasing the effectiveness of another treatment, or by producing another beneficial effect), or reducing the likelihood that the disease will occur or worsen in a subject, is sufficient. One embodiment of the invention is directed to a method comprising administering to a patient an antigen binding protein or interfering RNA in an amount and for a time sufficient to induce a sustained improvement over baseline of an indicator that reflects the severity of the particular disorder. 
     The term “prevention” encompasses prevention of at least one symptom or other embodiment of a disorder, and the like. A prophylactically administered treatment incorporating an antigen binding protein, in particular a human antibody according to the present invention, need not be completely effective in preventing the onset of a condition in order to constitute a viable prophylactic agent. Simply reducing the likelihood that the disease will occur or worsen in a subject, is sufficient. 
     The term “non-HDL cholesterol” encompasses all cholesterol-containing proatherogenic lipoproteins, including LDL cholesterol, very-low-density lipoprotein, intermediate-density lipoprotein, lipoprotein(a), and chylomicron. Non-HDL cholesterol levels are calculated by subtracting HDL cholesterol levels from total cholesterol levels. 
     As is understood in the pertinent field, pharmaceutical compositions comprising the antigen binding proteins and/or interfering RNA are administered to a subject in a manner appropriate to the indication and the composition. In one embodiment, pharmaceutical compositions comprise the human antibodies of the present invention. In another embodiment, pharmaceutical compositions comprise interfering RNA. Pharmaceutical compositions may be administered by any suitable technique, including but not limited to parenterally, topically, or by inhalation. If injected, the pharmaceutical composition can be administered, for example, via intra-articular, intravenous, intramuscular, intralesional, intraperitoneal or subcutaneous routes, by bolus injection, or continuous infusion. Delivery by inhalation includes, for example, nasal or oral inhalation, use of a nebulizer, inhalation of the antigen binding protein in aerosol form, and the like. Other alternatives include oral preparations including pills, syrups, or lozenges. 
     Advantageously, the antigen binding proteins or interfering RNA are administered in the form of a composition comprising one or more additional components such as a physiologically acceptable carrier, excipient or diluent. Optionally, the composition additionally comprises one or more physiologically active agents. In various particular embodiments, the composition comprises one, two, three, four, five, or six physiologically active agents in addition to one or more antigen binding proteins (e.g, human antibodies) or interfering RNA. 
     Kits for use by medical practitioners are provided including one or more antigen binding proteins or interfering RNA and a label or other instructions for use in treating any of the conditions discussed herein. In one embodiment, the kit includes a sterile preparation of one or more human antibodies, or one or more interfering RNA which may be in the form of a composition as disclosed herein, and may be in one or more vials. 
     Dosages and the frequency of administration may vary according to such factors as the route of administration, the particular antigen binding proteins or interfering RNA employed, the nature and severity of the disease to be treated, whether the condition is acute or chronic, and the size and general condition of the subject. Appropriate dosages can be determined by procedures known in the pertinent art, e.g. in clinical trials that may involve dose escalation studies. 
     An antigen binding protein, e.g., monoclonal antibodies, or interfering RNA may be administered, for example, once or more than once, e.g., at regular intervals over a period of time. In particular embodiments, an antigen binding protein or interfering RNA is administered over a period of at least once a month or more, e.g., for one, two, or three months or even indefinitely. For treating chronic conditions, long-term treatment is generally most effective. However, for treating acute conditions, administration for shorter periods, e.g. from one to six weeks, may be sufficient. In general, the antigen binding protein or interfering RNA is administered until the patient manifests a medically relevant degree of improvement over baseline for the chosen indicator or indicators. 
     One example of therapeutic regimens provided herein comprise subcutaneous injection of an antigen binding protein or interfering RNA once a week, or once every two weeks, or once every month, once every other month, once every three months, once every six months or longer, at an appropriate dosage, to treat a condition in which it is desired to target cells expressing ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. Weekly or monthly administration of antigen binding protein could be continued until a desired result is achieved, e.g., the subject&#39;s symptoms subside. Treatment may resume as needed, or, alternatively, maintenance doses may be administered. 
     In some embodiments, one or more of the markers in Tables 18.1, 18.2, 19.3, and 19.4 can be used to determine whether or not the amount of ASGR inhibitor (e.g., antigen binding protein and/or antibody and/or RNAi) administered is sufficient for its intended therapeutic application. In some embodiments, when one or more of the alterations in protein level, for the proteins outlined in one or more of Tables 18.1, 18.2, 19.3, and 19.4 changes in response to administering the antigen binding protein, antibody and/or RNAi, the antigen binding protein , antibody and/or RNAi is having an effect in the host. In some embodiments, the amount is sufficient when it alters the level of non-HDL cholesterol to a desired amount or reduces it by a desired amount. In some embodiments, the markers used can be one or more of those in one or more of Tiers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 of Table 19.4. In some embodiments, the markers used can be one or more of those in one or more of Tiers 1 and 5 of Table 19.4. 
     Combination Therapies 
     Particular embodiments of methods and compositions of the invention involve the use of at least one antigen binding protein and/or interfering RNA and one or more other therapeutics useful for treating or preventing cardiovascular disease, for example. In one embodiment, antigen binding proteins and/or interfering RNA are administered alone or in combination with other agents useful for treating the condition with which the patient is afflicted. Examples of such agents include both proteinaceous and non-proteinaceous drugs. When multiple therapeutics are co-administered, dosages may be adjusted accordingly, as is recognized in the pertinent art. “Co-administration” and combination therapy are not limited to simultaneous administration, but also include treatment regimens in which an antigen binding protein is administered at least once during a course of treatment that involves administering at least one other therapeutic agent to the patient. In certain embodiments, an antigen binding protein or interfering RNA is administered prior to the administration of at least one other therapeutic agent. In certain embodiments, an antigen binding protein or interfering RNA is administered concurrent with the administration of at least one other therapeutic agent. In certain embodiments, an antigen binding protein or interfering RNA is administered subsequent to the administration of at least one other therapeutic agent. 
     In one embodiment, the at least one antigen binding protein or antibody and/or the interfering RNA is administered to a subject in combination with an anti-PCSK9 antibody (e.g., Repatha®, Praluent®, bococizumab). In another embodiment, the at least one antigen binding protein or antibody and/or the interfering RNA is administered to a subject in combination with at least one other cholesterol-lowering (serum and/or total body cholesterol) agent. In some embodiments, the agents that increase the expression of LDLR, have been observed to increase serum HDL levels, lower LDL levels or lower triglyceride levels. Exemplary agents include, but are not limited to, statins (e.g., atorvastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, lovastatin, mevastatin, pitavastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, simvastatin), Nicotinic acid (Niacin) (NIACOR, NIASPAN (slow release niacin), SLO-NIACIN (slow release niacin)), Fibric acid (LOPID (Gemfibrozil), TRICOR (fenofibrate), Bile acid sequestrants (QUESTRAN (cholestyramine), colesevelam (WELCHOL), COLESTID (colestipol)), Cholesterol absorption inhibitors (ZETIA (ezetimibe)), combining nicotinic acid with statin (ADVICOR (LOVASTATIN and NIASPAN), combining a statin with an absorption inhibitor (VYTORIN (ZOCOR and ZETIA) and/or lipid modifying agents. In some embodiments, the at least one antigen binding protein and/or interfering RNA is combined with PPAR gamma agonists, PPAR alpha/gamma agonists, squalene synthase inhibitors, CETP inhibitors, anti-hypertensives, anti-diabetic agents (such as sulphonyl ureas, insulin, GLP-1 analogs, DDPIV inhibitors), ApoB modulators, MTP inhibitors and/or arteriosclerosis obliterans treatments. In some embodiments, the at least one antigen binding protein and/or interfering RNA is combined with an agent that increases the level of LDLR protein in a subject, such as statins, certain cytokines like oncostatin M, estrogen, and/or certain herbal ingredients such as berberine. In some embodiments, the at least one antigen binding protein and/or interfering RNA is combined with an agent that increases serum cholesterol levels in a subject (such as certain anti-psychotic agents, certain HIV protease inhibitors, dietary factors such as high fructose, sucrose, cholesterol or certain fatty acids and certain nuclear receptor agonists and antagonists for RXR, RAR, LXR, FXR). The combination of the two can allow for the undesirable side-effects of other agents to be mitigated by the antigen binding protein or interfering RNA. 
     Diagnostic Uses 
     In one embodiment, antigen binding proteins of the invention are useful for detecting the presence of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 in a biological sample. The term “detecting” as used herein encompasses quantitative or qualitative detection. In certain embodiments, a biological sample comprises a cell or tissue. In certain embodiments, such tissues include tissues that express ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 at higher levels relative to other tissues. 
     In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of detecting the presence of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 in a biological sample. In certain embodiments, the method comprises contacting the biological sample with an antigen binding protein of the invention under conditions permissive for binding of an antigen binding protein to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2, and detecting whether a complex is formed between the antigen binding protein and ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. 
     In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of diagnosing a disorder associated with increased or decreased expression of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. In certain embodiments, the method comprises contacting a test cell with an antigen binding protein; determining the level of expression (either quantitatively or qualitatively) of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 by the test cell by detecting binding of the antigen binding protein to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2; and comparing the level of expression of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 by the test cell with the level of expression of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 by a control cell (e.g., a normal cell of the same tissue origin as the test cell or a cell that expresses ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 at levels comparable to such a normal cell), wherein a higher or lower level of expression of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 by the test cell as compared to the control cell indicates the presence of a disorder associated with increased or decreased expression of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. In certain embodiments, the test cell is obtained from an individual suspected of having a disorder associated with increased or decreased expression of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. 
     In certain embodiments, a method of diagnosis or detection, such as those described above, comprises detecting binding of an antigen binding protein of the invention to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 expressed on the surface of a cell or in a membrane preparation obtained from a cell expressing ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 on its surface. In certain embodiments, the method comprises contacting a cell with an antigen binding protein under conditions permissive for binding of an antigen binding protein of the invention to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2, and detecting whether a complex is formed between the antigen binding protein of the invention and ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 on the cell surface. An exemplary assay for detecting binding of an antigen binding protein of the invention to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 expressed on the surface of a cell is a “FACS” assay. 
     Certain other methods can be used to detect binding of antigen binding protein of the invention to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. Such methods include, but are not limited to, antigen-binding assays that are well known in the art, such as western blots, radioimmunoassays, ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay), “sandwich” immunoassays, immunoprecipitation assays, fluorescent immunoassays, protein A immunoassays, and immunohistochemistry (IHC). 
     In certain embodiments, antigen binding proteins of the invention are labeled. Labels include, but are not limited to, labels or moieties that are detected directly (such as fluorescent, chromophoric, electron-dense, chemiluminescent, and radioactive labels), as well as moieties, such as enzymes or ligands, that are detected indirectly, e.g., through an enzymatic reaction or molecular interaction. Exemplary labels include, but are not limited to, the radioisotopes  32 P,  14 C,  125 I,  3 H, and  131 I, fluorophores such as rare earth chelates or fluorescein and its derivatives, rhodamine and its derivatives, dansyl, umbelliferone, luciferases, e.g., firefly luciferase and bacterial luciferase (U.S. Pat. No. 4,737,456), luciferin, 2,3-dihydrophthalazinediones, horseradish peroxidase (HRP), alkaline phosphatase, beta-galactosidase, glucoamylase, lysozyme, saccharide oxidases, e.g., glucose oxidase, galactose oxidase, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, heterocyclic oxidases such as uricase and xanthine oxidase, coupled with an enzyme that employs hydrogen peroxide to oxidize a dye precursor such as HRP, lactoperoxidase, or microperoxidase, biotin/avidin, spin labels, bacteriophage labels, stable free radicals, and the like. 
     In certain embodiments, antigen binding proteins of the invention are immobilized on an insoluble matrix. Immobilization entails separating the antigen binding protein of the invention from any ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 that remains free in solution. This conventionally is accomplished by either insolubilizing the antigen binding protein of the invention before the assay procedure, as by adsorption to a water-insoluble matrix or surface (see, e.g., Bennich et al., U.S. Pat. No. 3,720,760), or by covalent coupling (for example, using glutaraldehyde cross-linking), or by insolubilizing the antigen binding protein of the invention after formation of a complex between the antigen binding protein of the invention and ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2, e.g., by immunoprecipitation. 
     The invention having been described, the following examples are offered by way of illustration, and not limitation. 
     Numerous sequences have been provided herein. Where there is a discrepancy in the sequences, the sequences in the tables presented within the figures control, unless there is an indication otherwise. If there is any unintended difference between the same consensus sequences, the consensus sequences as provided in the figures (from the tables within the figures) will control (unless indicated otherwise). For any further descrepancies (rather than just alternative sequences) the sequences within Tables 1-7 will control, unless designated otherwise. The figures contain multiple sequences, sequence alignments and sequence components of various nucleic and amino acid sequences. The present specification references this information in terms of the designated tables and/or the designated figures. Either reference (via figure or table) can be used and either designation (figure or table) will indicate the alternative designation as well, where appropriate. Thus,  FIG. 48  designates Table 1,  FIG. 49  designates Table 2,  FIG. 50  designates Table 3,  FIG. 51  designates Table 4,  FIG. 52  designates Table 5,  FIG. 53  designates Table 6,  FIG. 54  designates Table 7,  FIG. 55  designates Tables 19A, 19B, 19C, 20A, 20B, and 20C,  FIG. 56  designates Tables 21-48, and  FIG. 57  designates Tables 49-134, and vice versa. As such, any discussion herein in regard to the above figures or tables is interchangeable with respect to the “table” or “figure” nomenclature. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1 
     Identification of Rare Sequence Variants that Disrupt ASGR-1 Function and Lower Non-HDL Cholesterol and Protect Against Coronary Artery Disease 
     The level of circulating non-high density lipoprotein (non-HDL) cholesterol is heritable and strongly correlated with the risk of coronary artery disease (CAD) and myocardial infraction (MI). Whole-genome sequencing offers the potential to search for rare sequence variants that have large effects on serum lipid levels and hence the risk of cardiovascular disease, such as CAD and MI. 
     Methods 
     Study Participants: 
     Details of the population sample sets from Iceland, Denmark and The Netherlands, used to measure the various lipids traits (non-HDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglycerides), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), ferritin, and vitamin B12, are outlined in Table 1.2. The dataset for ferritin is not shown. The coronary artery disease case-control sample sets that were a part of the study are outlined in Table 1.1. 
     Icelandic Study Population 
     Study participants were enrolled as part of various genetics programs at deCODE. Blood lipid levels (total cholesterol, non-high density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and triglycerides), alkaline phosphatase and vitamin B12 levels were obtained from three of the largest laboratories in Iceland: 1) Landspítali—The National University Hospital of Iceland (LUH), Reykjavík (measurements performed between the years 1993 and 2012, hospitalized and ambulatory patients), 2) The Laboratory in Mjódd (RAM), Reykjavík (measurements performed between 2004 and 2012, ambulatory patients) and 3) Akureyri Hospital, The Regional Hospital in North Iceland, Akureyri (performed between 2004 and 2010, hospitalized and ambulatory patients). Information on the participants is outlined in Table 1.2. Lipid levels were adjusted for sex, year of birth and age at measurement, lipid lowering medication and measurement site, using the average of multiple measurements for an individual, and then normalized to a standard normal distribution using quantile normalization. To obtain effect estimates in mmol/L the estimates from the regression analysis were multiplied by the estimated standard deviation of lipid level in the population. Given their approximately log-normal distribution, triglyceride levels were log-transformed before adjustment and the corresponding effect estimates are presented as percentage change instead of units of mmol/L. The total number of individuals with non-HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and triglycerides in Iceland is shown in the Table 1.3 below. For each lipid, the number of chip-typed and directly imputed individuals and those with familial imputations is also shown. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1.3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Lipid levels of Icelandic Study Participants 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Non-HDL-C 
                 LDL-C 
                 HDL-C 
                 Triglycerides 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Total number 
                 119,146 
                 53,841 
                 119,514 
                 80,111 
               
               
                 Direct 
                 69,277 
                 51,029 
                 69,414 
                 59,678 
               
               
                 imputation 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Familial 
                 49,869 
                 2,812 
                 50,100 
                 20,433 
               
               
                 imputation 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 The total number of Icelandic individuals with lipid values used in the study and the breakdown into those that were chip-typed and directly imputed (Direct imputation) and those that were first and second degree relatives of chip-typed individuals and had their genotypes inferred based on genealogy (Familial imputation). 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Non-HDL cholesterol was obtained by subtracting HDL cholesterol from total cholesterol and measures the amount of cholesterol carried within all atherogenic lipoprotein particles (VLDL, IDL, LDL, chylomicrons and Lp(a)). The LDL cholesterol was calculated using the Friedewald equation (for triglyceride levels &lt;4.00 mmol/L) (Friedewald, W. T., Levy, R. I. &amp; Fredrickson, D. S. Estimation of the concentration of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in plasma, without use of the preparative ultracentrifuge. Clin. Chem. 18, 499-502 (1972)). Total cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol values are a mixture of fasting and non-fasting values, whereas triglycerides are fasting values exclusively. 
     Coronary artery disease (CAD) was defined as a) individuals in the MONICA registry who suffered myocardial infarction (MI) before the age of 75 in Iceland between 1981 and 2002 and satisfied the MONICA criteria (Gudbjartsson, et al., Large-scale whole-genome sequencing of the Icelandic population. Nature genetics 2015), b) subjects with CAD discharge diagnoses (ICD 9 codes 410.*, 411.*, 412.*, 414.* or ICD 10 codes I20.0, I21.*, I22.*, I23.*, I24.*, I25.*) from LUH, c) subjects diagnosed with significant angiographic CAD (see defined below) identified from a nationwide clinical registry of coronary angiography and percutaneous coronary interventions at LUH between the years 1987 and 2012, d) subjects undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) procedures at LUH between the years 2002 and 2011 or e) cause of death or contributing cause of death listed as MI or CAD (ICD 9 or 10 codes) on death registries between the years 1996 and 2009. Coronary angiograms in the nationwide registry were evaluated by an interventional cardiologist. Patients were considered to have significant angiographic CAD if one or more of the three major epicardial coronary vessels or the left main coronary artery was found to have at least 50% stenosis by visual estimation. 
     Non-Icelandic Study Populations 
     Characteristics of the non-Icelandic sample sets are outlined in Table 1.1 and Table 1.2. All the studies outlined in Tables 1.1 and 1.2 were approved by appropriate bioethics and/or data protection authorities. For samples from the Nijmegen Biomedical Study, Netherlands, the lipid values (namely, total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides) were all non-fasting values. For samples from the Danish Inter99 and Addition studies, the lipid values were all fasting values. All participating subjects donating biological samples signed informed consents. Personal identities of the phenotypes and biological samples were encrypted by a third party system provided by the Icelandic Data Protection Authority. 
     Data Generation and Analysis 
     Whole-Genome Sequencing, SNP Calling, and Imputation 
     The Icelandic samples were genotyped using Illumina microarrays (Samani N J et al., Genomewide association analysis of coronary artery disease. The New England journal of medicine 2007; 357:443-53). The whole-genomes of 2,636 Icelanders were sequenced using the standard TruSeq methodology (Illumina) to a mean depth of at least 10× (median 20×) (Samani N J et al., Genomewide association analysis of coronary artery disease. The New England journal of medicine 2007; 357:443-53). For improved sequencing coverage of the GC-rich intron 4 in ASGR-1 gene, the whole-genome sequence data generated for 738 Icelanders was analyzed using TruSeq PCR-free method from Illumina (mean depth of 30×). The del12 variant in intron 4 of ASGR-1 was detected in this dataset. 
     Single-Track Assay SNP and Microsatellite Genotyping: 
     We performed single SNP genotyping of rs186021206, using the Centaurus (Nanogen) platform (Gretarsdottir S, et al., Genome-wide association study identifies a sequence variant within the DAB2IP gene conferring susceptibility to abdominal aortic aneurysm. Nature genetics 2010; 42:692). The del12 variant was genotyped using a PCR based method with the following primers: forward primer (NED labelled) 5′-TTCATCTTTCTTCCCACATTGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 32600), reverse primer 5′-GGGCCTGAGAGAGACGTTCA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 32601). An internal size standard was added to the resulting PCR products and the fragments were separated and detected on an Applied Biosystems model 3730 sequencer, using in-house Allele Caller software. 
     Statistical Analyses: 
     Associations between imputed genotypes and serum lipids (non-HDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglycerides), ALP, ferritin and vitamin B12 levels in the Icelandic dataset were tested using a generalized linear regression, assuming an additive genetic model (Samani N J et al., Genomewide association analysis of coronary artery disease. The New England journal of medicine 2007; 357:443-53; and Olsen M H, et al., N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide, but not high sensitivity C-reactive protein, improves cardiovascular risk prediction in the general population. European heart journal 2007; 28:1374-81). For the Icelandic dataset, logistic regression was used to test for association between the del12 variant and coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction, treating the disease status as the response and the number of copies of del12 an individual carries as the explanatory variable. Coronary artery disease case-control association analysis for the non-Icelandic sample sets was done using the NEMO software (Jorgensen A B, et al., Loss-of-function mutations in APOC3 and risk of ischemic vascular disease. The New England journal of medicine 2014; 371:32-41) assuming a multiplicative risk model. Results for the Icelandic and the non-Icelandic sample sets were combined using a Mantel-Haenszel fixed effects model. To estimate the effect of the del12 variant on myocardial infarction-free survival, Kaplan-Meier curves were estimated for survival to first myocardial infarction in heterozygous carriers and non-carriers (Hoogendoorn E H, et al., Thyroid function and prevalence of anti-thyroperoxidase antibodies in a population with borderline sufficient iodine intake: influences of age and sex. Clinical chemistry 2006; 52:104-11) by dividing the corresponding chi-square statistic by 1.36 for non-HDL cholesterol, 1.57 for HDL cholesterol, 1.40 for triglycerides, 1.53 for ALP, 1.30 for vitamin B 12, 1.71 for coronary artery disease and 1.48 for myocardial infarction. 
     To obtain a reliable imputation of the del12 variant, 3,799 Icelandic individuals were genotyped for the del12 variant and those genotypes were used as a training set for imputation of the del12 variant into the rest of the Icelandic population. The imputation information for del12 was 0.99. 
     The Icelandic samples were genotyped using Illumina microarrays as described above (Gudbartssoon, D F, et al., Large Scale whole-genome sequencing of the Icelandic population. Nature Genetics 2015). The whole-genomes of 2,636 Icelanders were sequenced using Illumina standard TruSeq methodology to a mean depth of at least 10× (median 20×) (Di Angelantonio E, et al., Major lipids, apolipoproteins, and risk of vascular disease. Jama 2009; 302:1993-2000). A total of 35.5 million autosomal SNPs and INDEL&#39;s were identified using the Genome Analysis Toolkit version 2.3.9. Information about haplotype sharing was used to improve variant genotyping, taking advantage of the fact that all sequenced individuals had also been chip-typed and long-range-phased. Variants were annotated using Ensembl release 72 and Variant Effect Predictor (VEP) version 2.8. Of the 35.5 million sequence variants found, 25.3 million variants passed the quality threshold and were imputed into 104,220 Icelanders who had been genotyped using Illumina chips. Additionally, using the Icelandic genealogy, genotype probabilities were calculated for 294,212 untyped individuals who are first and second degree relatives of the chip-typed individuals born after 1880 (Gudbartssoon, D F, et al., Large Scale whole-genome sequencing of the Icelandic population. Nature Genetics 2015). The informativeness of genotype imputation (imputation information) was estimated by the ratio of the variance of imputed expected allele counts and the variance of the actual allele counts: 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 Var 
                  
                 
                   ( 
                   
                     E 
                      
                     
                       ( 
                       
                         θ 
                         | 
                         
                           chip 
                            
                           
                               
                           
                            
                           data 
                         
                       
                       ) 
                     
                   
                   ) 
                 
               
               
                 Var 
                  
                 
                   ( 
                   θ 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
             , 
           
         
       
     
     where θ is the allele count. Var(E(θ|chip data)) was estimated by the observed variance of the imputed expected counts and Var(θ) was estimated by p(1-p), where p is the allele frequency. 
     For improved sequencing coverage of the GC-rich intron 4 in ASGR-1 gene, whole-genome sequence (“WGS”) data generated for 738 Icelanders was analyzed using TruSeq PCR-free method from Illumina (mean depth of 30×). This PCR-free method gave much better coverage of GC-rich regions including the ASGR-1 intron 4. The del12 variant in intron 4 of ASGR-1 was detected in five individuals in this dataset. 
     To provide improved coverage of the associated region (1 Mb centered on ASGR-1), a new dataset was analyzed that included an additional 5,817 WGS individuals (on top of the 2,636 WGS Icelanders). These additional individuals were sequenced with either Illumina TruSeq PCR free or TrueSeq Nano methods. These Illumina TrueSeq methods give enhanced sequence coverage as compared to the standard Illumina TrueSeq method (median sequencing depth 32×). The identified sequence variants were imputed into 150,656 Icelandic chipped-typed individuals, and with the use of genealogy information, into primary and secondary relatives of chip-typed individuals that were un-typed. In this expanded dataset, we identified another rare (0.027%), novel variant, W158X. The W158X variant is a four bp INDEL in exon 7 of ASGR-1 (NM_001671.4:c.469_472dupAACT) that causes frameshift and introduction of premature stop codon at amino acid 158 out of the 291 amino acid full length protein (NP_001662.1:p.Trp158X). A total of 345 individuals were Sanger-sequenced based on the imputation predicted carriers and non-carriers of c.469_472dupAACT. In this dataset, 79 c.469_472dupAACT carriers and 270 non-carriers were identified. This genotype data was then used to re-impute the variant into the Icelandic dataset. For non-HDL cholesterol, a larger sample set (n=136,261) was used in the association analysis outlined in Tables 1.4A and 1.4B. 
     Associations between imputed genotypes and serum lipids (non-HDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglycerides), ALP and vitamin B12 levels in the Icelandic dataset were tested using a generalized linear regression, assuming an additive genetic model (Gudbjartsson D F, et al., Large-scale whole-genome sequencing of the Icelandic population. Nature genetics 2015; and Steinthorsdottir V, et al., Identification of low-frequency and rare sequence variants associated with elevated or reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. Nature genetics 2014; 46:294-8). All measurements were adjusted for age, sex and measurement site, and average was taken over the available measurements after adjustment and inverse normal transformation. The lipid measurements were further adjusted for statin use. Removing individual known to take lipid lowering drugs in the Icelandic dataset did not alter the association with non-HDL cholesterol. The effect, in standardized units, changed from −0.29 (95% CI −0.38, −0.20; P=4.0×10 −11 ) to −0.30 (−0.39, −0.21; P=6.7×10 −11 ). This amounted to excluding 16,295 individuals, out of 119,146 individuals with non-HDL cholesterol information. 
     The lipid, ALP and vitamin B12 measurements from the Danish Inter99 study, ADDITION Denmark screening cohort, and the Nijmegen biomedical study, were adjusted and transformed in the same way and tested for association with allele count of del12 and rs186021206 using the linear regression implemented in the R software package. Results from the different populations were combined using the inverse variance fixed-effects method with METAL (Willer C J, et al., METAL: fast and efficient meta-analysis of genomewide association scans. Bioinformatics 2010; 26:2190-1). Effect estimates from the regression analysis are expressed in units of standard deviation (SD). To obtain effect estimates in mg/dL for non-HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol, the estimates from the regression analysis were multiplied by the estimated SD of the population distributions. Triglyceride, ALP and vitamin B12 levels were log-transformed before adjustment as their distributions are approximately log-normal, and the corresponding effect estimates are presented as percentage change. 
     For the Icelandic dataset, logistic regression was used to test for association between the del12 variant and coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction, treating the disease status as the response and the number of copies of the deletion an individual carries as the explanatory variable. Other available individual characteristics that correlate with disease status were also included in the model as nuisance variables (Gudbjartsson D F, et al., Large-scale whole-genome sequencing of the Icelandic population. Nature genetics 2015). Coronary artery disease case-control association analysis for the non-Icelandic sample sets was done using the NEMO software (Gretarsdottir S, et al., The gene encoding phosphodiesterase 4D confers risk of ischemic stroke. Nature genetics 2003; 35:131-8) assuming a multiplicative risk model. Results for the Icelandic and the non-Icelandic sample sets were combined using a Mantel-Haenszel fixed-effects model. Heterogeneity in the effect estimate was tested assuming that the estimated odds ratios for different groups follows a log-normal distribution using a likelihood ratio test with degrees of freedom equal to the number of groups compared minus one. 
     To estimate the effect of the del12 variant on myocardial infarction free survival, we estimated the Kaplan-Meier curves for survival to first myocardial infarction in heterozygous carriers and non-carriers stratified by sex and tested the difference in survival between carriers and non-carriers using the Cox proportional model. The analysis was performed using the survival library in the R software package. The survival analysis was based on 87,718 chip genotyped Icelanders and 44,655 Icelandic first and second degree relatives of chip typed individuals after restricting our analysis to those who lived to be at least 40 years old. Death was treated as a censoring event. 
     Functional Characterization of the del12 Variant in ASGR-1
 
cDNA Preparation, Amplification, Sanger Sequencing and Next Generation Sequencing:
 
     RNA was isolated from blood samples from carriers and non-carriers of del12. Following cDNA generation, the region between exon 3 and 5 in ASGR-1 was PCR amplified and the identified PCR products (two for del12 carriers and one for non-carriers) were Sanger sequenced using standard methodology to determine the sequence difference between the identified cDNA products. To quantify the ratio between the two amplified cDNA PCR products, they were sequenced using Illumina MiSeq instrument coupled with the MiSeq v2 reagent kit. 
     Western Blot Analysis: 
     The wild type ASGR-1 cDNA and ASGR-1 cDNA with the 22 bp deletion were transiently overexpressed in HeLa cells to determine if ASGR-1 transcripts with the 22 bp deletion generated stable truncated ASGR-1 protein as evaluated by western blot analysis. 
     RNA was isolated from blood samples using a Qiagen RNA maxi kit. Concentration and quality of the RNA was determined using an Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies), all samples had RIN values over 7. Following cDNA generation, the region between exon 3 and 5 in ASGR-1 was PCR amplified using the Advantage® 2 Polymerase kit (Clontech) with the forward primer, CACTCAGGTCCTTCTGCTGTTTC (SEQ ID NO: 32602) and the reverse primer, 5′-ACCTCGCCTCCTCCTGCT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 32603). The resulting products were resolved on agarose gel and the identified PCR products (two for del12 carriers and one for non-carriers) were Sanger sequenced using standard methodology to determine the sequence difference between the identified cDNA products. To quantitate the ratio between the two amplified cDNA PCR products, they were sequenced using Illumina MiSeq instrument coupled with the MiSeq v2 reagent kit. 
     Transient Overexpression of Wild Type and Mutated ASGR-1 Harbouring the 22 bp Deletion at the End of Exon 4 in HeLa Cells. 
     Generation and Cloning of Wild Type and Mutated ASGR-1 cDNA: 
     cDNA of ASGR-1 was obtained by PCR on human liver marathon ready cDNA (BD biosciences Clontech). The primers used were Forward 5′GCCAGCCCTATCATGACCAA′3 (SEQ ID NO: 32604) and Reverse 5′GCAGGTCGAGGCATTGAAGA′3 (SEQ ID NO: 32605). The resulting cDNA contained all exons including the start and stop codons of ASGR-1. PCR product was run on 1.6% Agarose gel and a band of the correct size was excised out and purified using QIAquick gel extraction kit (QIAGEN 28704) following the manufacturer&#39;s protocol. For cloning of ASGR-1 cDNA into pcDNA3.1/V5-His TOPO vector (Invitrogen K4800-01), 2 μl of the gel extraction product was used and the manufacturer&#39;s protocol was followed resulting in pcDNA3.1_ASGR-1_WT. Transformed TOP10 chemically competent cells (Invitrogen C4040-10) were plated on LB plates containing 50 μg/ml ampicillin. Colonies were expanded in 3 ml LB medium containing 50 μg/ml ampicillin. Plasmids were purified using QIAGEN plasmid mini kit (QIAGEN 12125) following the manufacturer&#39;s protocol. The plasmid sequence was confirmed by Sanger sequencing using the following sequencing primers: T7: 5′TAATACGACTCACTATAGGG′3 (SEQ ID NO: 32606), BGH: 5′TAGAAGGCACAGTCGAGG′3 (SEQ ID NO: 32607) and ASGR-1: 5′GAGGCAATGTGGGAAGAAAGATG′3 (SEQ ID NO: 32608) 
     Introduction of 22 bp Deletion in ASGR-1: 
     In order to generate a cDNA representative of the del12 carrier mRNA, targeted mutagenesis was performed. The Q5 Site-directed mutagenesis kit (New England BioLabs E0554S) and the pcDNA3.1_ASGR-1_WT plasmid was used as a template. In short, a PCR reaction was performed using the following primers 5′GAGGCAATGTGGGAAGAAAGATGAAGTCG′3 (SEQ ID NO: 32609) and 5′CTGGGCCTCCGTGCTCGC′3 (SEQ ID NO: 32610), resulting in a double-stranded DNA fragment representing the entire pcDNA3.1_ASGR-1_WT plasmid lacking the 22 bp at the end of exon 4. Following the manufacturers recommendation, 1 uL of the PCR reaction was used in the KLD reaction (New England BioLabs E0554S) wherein the PCR fragment is phosphorylated, re-circularized and the non-mutated template plasmid is removed. Mutated plasmids were transformed into NEB 5-alpha Competent cells (New England BioLabs C2987H) and plated on LB plates containing 50 μg/ml ampicillin. Colonies were expanded in 3 ml LB medium containing 50 μg/ml ampicillin. Plasmids were purified using QIAGEN plasmid mini kit (QIAGEN 12125) following the manufacturer&#39;s protocol. ASGR-1_22 bp_del sequence was confirmed by Sanger sequencing. 
     Expression of ASGR-1 in Cultured Cells: 
     Two days prior to transfection, 100,000 HeLa cells (Public Health England 93021013) were seeded into each well of a 6-well plate in 3 mL of DMEM medium (11995-065, ThermoFisher) supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum (ThermoFisher 10500-064) and 50 units/mL penicillin and 50 ug/mL streptomycin (ThermoFisher 15070-063). Cells were incubated at 37° C. and 5% CO 2  in a humidified incubator. 
     The day before transfection, media was replaced with the without antibiotics. On the day of transfection, for each transfected well, 2.5 ug of plasmids containing ASGR-1_WT or ASGR-1_del22 cDNA were diluted in 125 uL Opti-Mem medium (ThermoFisher 31985-047) and 5 uL of P3000 reagent (ThermoFisher L3000-008). Next, 3.75 uL Lipofectamine 3000 (ThermoFisher L3000-008) were mixed with 125 uL of Opti-Mem. Subsequently, the diluted plasmid solution was mixed with the Lipofectamine 3000 solution at a 1:1 ratio and incubated at room temperature for 5 minutes before the addition of 250 uL of the combined solution to each transfected well. 
     24 hours post transfection, the spent media was replaced with fresh without antibiotics. Selected wells were supplemented with 10 uM MG132 (TOCRIS 1748) for 4.5 hours prior to harvesting of cells. 48 hours post transfection cells were harvested for analysis by washing wells 2× with PBS (ThermoFisher 14190-250) followed by an 8 minute incubation with 1 mL of 0.5 mM EDTA in PBS (ThermoFisher 15575-020). Next, the EDTA solution was aspirated and cells dislodged by pipetting of 2 mL of fresh media. 3×6-wells were pooled for each experimental condition and cells were spun down at 300× g for 5 minutes. The equivalent of 2×6-wells were lysed in 200 uL of RIPA buffer for Western blot analysis. The remainder of cells were split in two and lysed in 300 uL RLT buffer (Qiagen 74106) or 900 uL Tissue and Cell lysis solution (Epicentre MTC096H) and snap frozen on dry ice for RNA and DNA extraction respectively. Three different transient expression experiments were done and all gave the same results. 
     Quantitative PCR Analysis: 
     RNA was isolated from cells using the RNeasy Mini Kit (Qiagen 74106) according to manufacturer&#39;s recommendations, and concentration and quality was determined with Nanodrop 1000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific). cDNA was synthesized using the High capacity cDNA reverse transcriptase kit (ThermoFisher). DNA was isolated from cells using the MasterPure DNA Purification Kit (Epicentre MCD85201) according to manufacturer&#39;s recommendation. 
     Analysis of gene expression and transfection efficiency was performed on total cDNA and DNA respectively, with real-time PCR on an ABI Prism 7900HT Sequence Detection System (ThermoFisher) using forward (AGACCTTCAGCATCTGGACAATG (SEQ ID NO: 32611)) and reverse (CGAGGTCCGGAGCAGAGA (SEQ ID NO: 32612)) primers and fluorescent labelled probe spanning exon junction 2-3 of the ASGR-1 gene (6FAM-CAGAAAAGGGCCACCTC-MGB (SEQ ID NO: 32613) (ThermoFisher). Human betaActin assay (ThermoFisher 4326315E) was run in parallel to verify normalization of input cDNA and DNA. 
     Western Blot Analysis: 
     Cells corresponding to two wells of a 6 well plate were lysed using 200 μl of RIPA buffer with 1:100 Halt protease and phosphatase inhibitor cocktail (Thermo Scientific 78442). Lysates were kept on ice for 10 min with agitation followed by sonication for 20 sec (Branson 2510) and additional agitation on ice for 10 min. Lysates were spun down at 4° C. for 15 min at 14,000× g. Total protein amount of lysates was estimated using the Pierce BCA protein assay kit (Thermo Scientific 23227). Samples were prepared using Novex Bolt LDS sample buffer (4×) (Life technologies B0007) and Novex Bolt sample reducing agent (10×) (Life technologies B0009) and run on Novex Nupage 4-12% Bis-Tris gel (Life technologies NP0335BOX). Total protein amount per lane was 24 μg and PageRuler (Thermo scientific 26616) was used to estimate protein size. The gel was run at a constant of 200V for 50 min. Proteins were transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane (Life technologies IB23002) using iBlot2 (Life technologies). Membranes were allowed to dry and were then hydrated with MQ water before blotting. Membranes were blocked for 1 hour at room temperature using Odyssey blocking buffer PBS (Li-Cor 927-40000). Primary antibodies used were α-ASGR-1 (Sigma-Aldrich HPA011954) 1:500 (recognizes amino acid 1-41) and α-beta-actin (Abcam ab6276) 1:5000 incubated in blocking buffer with the addition of 0.1% Tween for 3 hours at room temperature. Secondary antibodies used were α-Rabbit 680RD (Li-Cor 926-68073) and α-Mouse 800CW (Li-Cor 926-32212) both 1:20,000 in PBST+0.01% SDS for 1 hour at room temperature. After washing the membrane it was allowed to dry and then scanned using the Odyssey infrared imaging system (Li-Cor Biosciences). 
     Other Diseases and Traits in deCODE Database: 
     The deCODE Genetics phenotype database contains medical information on diseases and traits obtained through collaboration with specialists in each field. This includes information on cardiovascular diseases (e.g., myocardial infarction, coronary arterial disease, peripheral arterial disease, atrial fibrillation, sick sinus syndrome and stroke), metabolic disorders (e.g., obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome), psychiatric disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, anxiety and depression), addictions (e.g., nicotine, alcohol), inflammatory diseases (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and asthma), musculoskeletal disorders (e.g., osteoarthritis, osteoporosis), eye diseases (e.g., glaucoma), kidney diseases (e.g., kidney stones, kidney failure) and 29 types of cancer. Anthropometric measures have also been collected through several of these projects. Routinely measured traits from patient workups (e.g., sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, calcium, phosphate, creatinine, blood cell counts, hemoglobin, hematocrit, immunoglobulins, iron, vitamins, lipids, liver function tests and more) were obtained from the Landspitali University Hospital, Reykjavik, and the Icelandic Medical Center Laboratory in Mjodd (Laeknasetrid), Reykjavik. The number of independent and uncorrelated secondary traits tested for association with del12 amounts to 400. 
     Results 
     Association of Sequence Variants with Non-HDL Cholesterol Levels 
     Sequence variants were first identified through whole-genome sequencing (“WSG”) of 2,636 Icelanders to a median depth of 20×. These variants were imputed (assisted by long-range phased haplotypes) into the genomes of 104,220 Icelanders who had been genotyped using Illumina single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays. In addition, Icelandic genealogical information was used to calculate genotype probabilities for 294,212 close relatives to those genotyped. Using these data we screened for novel rare variants that associated with non-HDL cholesterol levels (n=119,146). A set of seven correlated (pairwise r 2 &gt;0.7) rare non-coding SNPs on chromosome 17p13.1 associated with non-HDL cholesterol level. The seven variants span 80 kb, including the asialoglycoprotein receptor 1 and 2 (ASGR-1 and ASGR-2) genes. The strongest association was represented by rs186021206 (minor allele frequency (MAF)=0.43%) located downstream of ASGR-1 that associates with 8.9±1.5 mg/dl lowering of non-HDL cholesterol (P=1.4×10) (Table 1.4B). 
     The associated region was well covered by the whole-genome sequencing except for intron 4 of ASGR-1. This intron is 79 base pairs (bp) long and very GC rich. To explore this region further 738 individuals were whole genome sequenced with PCR-free sequencing (Illumina), that gave enhanced coverage of the intron and led to the identification of a 12 bp deletion within the intron; NM_001671.4:c.284-36_283+33delCTGGGGCTGGGG here after referred to as del12. Following direct genotyping of del12 and imputation into the Icelandic dataset, we observed that del12 (MAF=0.41%) is highly correlated with rs186021206 (r2=0.86) and the six other correlated SNPs and associates even more strongly with lowering of non-HDL cholesterol levels (decrease of 10.2±1.5 mg/dl, P=2.5×10−10) (Table 1.9A). Del12 also increases HDL cholesterol and decreases triglyceride (TG) levels, albeit to a much lesser degree than for non-HDL cholesterol (Tables 1.4A and 1.9B). None of the seven SNPs maintained a significant association with non-HDL cholesterol after adjusting for del12 indicating that del12 is sufficient to explain the non-HDL association. 
     To validate the del12 association with non-HDL cholesterol levels, del12 in samples from The Netherlands (Nijmegen Biomedical Study 18) and Denmark (Danish Inter9919 and Danish Addition study20) were genotyped. Del12 associated with non-HDL cholesterol in each sample set with similar effect size as in Iceland (Table 1.2, Tables 1.4A and 1.4B and Table 1.9B). When all three datasets were combined with the Icelandic discovery data, it was established that del12 lowers non-HDL cholesterol by 11.6±1.5 mg/dl (P=1.0×10 −16 ) (Table 1.9B). 
     To identify additional additional loss of function variants in ASGR-1, an extended dataset was screened based on sequence variants identified through whole-genome sequencing (“WSG”) of an additional group of 5,817 WGS Icelanders on top of the 2,636 described above. In this dataset, a rare four bp insertion mutation was identified; namely, MAF=0.027%; NM_001671.4:c.469_472dupAACT. As mentioned throughout, this frameshift mutation introduces a premature stop codon at amino acid 158 out of the 291 amino acid full length protein (NP_001662.1:p.W158X). Potential carriers and non-carriers were directly genotyped using Sanger sequencing. Those genotypes were then used to re-impute p.W158X into 150,656 Icelandic chipped typed individuals and their first and second degree relatives. In this dataset, c.469_472dupAACT associates significantly with a decrease in non-HDL cholesterol (−21.6 mg/dL, 95% CI-34.2 to −9.6) and an increase in ALP (45.3% increase, 95% CI 20.4 to 68.2, P=7.9×10 −6 ) (Table 1.8). The direction of the effects of c.469_472dupAACT and the effect sizes are similar to that of del12 (Table 1.8). Given that a single test was performed, these results provide a significant replication of the ASGR-1 loss of function effect on non-HDL and ALP. Furthermore, since W158X is not correlated with del12 (i.e. there was no overlap between individuals carrying W158X and del12), the W158X variant provides yet further proof that the loss of function in the ASGR-1 gene is responsible for the observed changes in non-HDL, Triglycerides, Alkaline Phosphatase, Ferritin and Vitamin B12 levels. For coronary artery disease, the odds ratio for W158X (c.469_472dupAACT) was 0.65 (95% CI 0.26 to 1.40; P=0.24). As mentioned above, the W158X (c.469_472dupAACT) variant is independent of del12 and none of the 79 carriers found in Iceland carried del12. The variant also appears to be specific to the Icelandic population as it is not detected in large population databases such as (Exome Aggregation Consortium (ExAC), Exome Variant Server (EVS), Genomes of the Netherlands (GoNL) and dbSNP. 
     DEL12 Within Intron 4 of ASGR-1 Causes a Splicing Error Resulting in a Frameshift 
     Since del12 is located in intron 4 of ASGR-1, we examined its effect on splicing between exons 4 and 5. The region between exon 3 and 5 in cDNA generated from blood samples from 12 non-carriers and 12 heterozygous carriers of del12 was PCR amplified ( FIG. 4 ). The PCR products were resolved by gel electrophoresis demonstrating a band of 239 bp in non-carrier. In del12 carriers, however, a smaller 217 bp band was noted in addition to the expected 239 bp PCR product ( FIG. 4B ). Upon Sanger sequencing of the cDNA products we identified in the 217 bp cDNA fragment a 22 bp deletion at the end of exon 4 ( FIG. 4C ). The deletion of these 22 bp from the ASGR-1 transcript appears to be driven by a pseudo 5′-splice site in exon 4 ( FIG. 4D ). It causes a frameshift in carriers such that, if translated, the resulting protein would lack both the oligomerization and carbohydrate recognition domains. To quantify this splicing defect we used the Illumina TruSeq method for direct digital counting of sequencing reads that were generated by sequencing the two cDNA products found in del12 carriers. On average, 32±13% of the total ASGR-1 transcripts were accounted for by the incorrectly spliced isoform ( FIG. 4E ). This form could not be detected in non-carriers ( FIG. 4E ). Together, these data identify ASGR-1 as the target gene for the non-HDL association at this locus and are consistent with the associated mutation, del12, disrupting the function of the ASGR-1 protein. ASGR-1 is the major subunit of the hepatic asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGR) known to recognize and mediate the endocytosis and degradation of a wide variety of desialylated glycoproteins that contain terminal galactose (Gal) or N-acetylgalactosamine (Gal-NAc) residues on their N-linked carbohydrate chains (Morell A G, Gregoriadis G, Scheinberg I H, Hickman J, Ashwell G. The role of sialic acid in determining the survival of glycoproteins in the circulation. The Journal of biological chemistry 1971; 246:1461-7; Van Den Hamer C J, Morell A G, Scheinberg I H, Hickman J, Ashwell G. Physical and chemical studies on ceruloplasmin. IX. The role of galactosyl residues in the clearance of ceruloplasmin from the circulation. The Journal of biological chemistry 1970; 245:4397-402; Ashwell G, Harford J. Carbohydrate-specific receptors of the liver. Annual review of biochemistry 1982; 51:531-54; Weigel P H. Galactosyl and N-acetylgalactosaminyl homeostasis: a function for mammalian asialoglycoprotein receptors. BioEssays: news and reviews in molecular, cellular and developmental biology 1994; 16:519-24). 
     The DEL12 Variant in ASGR-1 and Risk of Coronary Artery Disease 
     Given the effect of del12 on non-HDL cholesterol levels, its impact on risk of CAD in 33,090 cases and 236,254 controls from Iceland and 8,558 cases and 11,120 controls from the USA, the UK, New Zealand and Denmark was assessed. It was found that carriers of del12 have a lower risk of CAD than non-carriers (odds ratio 0.66; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.55 to 0.79; P=6.3×10−6) ( FIG. 5A ). There was no evidence of heterogeneity across the eight study populations (Phet=0.96). Del12 also decreases risk of MI in Iceland (hazard ratio 0.64; 95% CI, 0.64 to 0.80; P=8.5×10−5) ( FIG. 5B ). In addition, del12 carriers have a 1.5 years longer lifespan than non-carriers (95% CI, 0.2 to 2.8 years; P=0.020). 
     There is a strong positive correlation between the effect of sequence variants on non-HDL cholesterol levels and risk of CAD (Haddad L, Day I N, Hunt S, Williams R R, Humphries S E, Hopkins P N. Evidence for a third genetic locus causing familial hypercholesterolemia. A non-LDLR, non-APOB kindred. Journal of lipid research 1999;40:1113-22; Timms K M, Wagner S, Samuels M E, et al. A mutation in PCSK9 causing autosomal-dominant hypercholesterolemia in a Utah pedigree. Human genetics 2004; 114:349-53; Varret M, Rabes J P, Saint-Jore B, et al. A third major locus for autosomal dominant hypercholesterolemia maps to 1p34.1-p32. American journal of human genetics 1999; 64:1378-87; Hunt S C, Hopkins P N, Bulka K, et al. Genetic localization to chromosome 1p32 of the third locus for familial hypercholesterolemia in a Utah kindred. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000; 20:1089-93; Do R, Willer C J, Schmidt E M, et al. Common variants associated with plasma triglycerides and risk for coronary artery disease. Nature genetics 2013; 45:1345-52) ( FIG. 6 , Table 1.5). However, several published variants, deviate from the overall trend. For example, LPA and ANGPTL4 variants have a substantially greater effect on CAD than their non-HDL effects would predict while the effect of the APOE variants is weaker than predicted by the non-HDL effect. Del12 in ASGR-1 is another example of a variant whose effect on CAD is stronger than predicted by the effect non-HDL cholesterol effect ( FIG. 6 , Table 1.5). 
     Association of DEL12 with Serum Levels of ALP and Vitamin B12 
     To determine the overall effect of del12 in ASGR-1, its effect on a variety of human diseases and other traits in the Icelandic dataset was screened. A highly significant association of del12 with higher levels of circulating alkaline phosphatase (ALP) (33.6±2.8 U/L increase, P=3.6×10−63) and vitamin B12 (58.4±8.3 pmol/L increase, P=3.1×10−12) was observed (Tables 8A and 8B and Table 18). An increase in ALP levels may reflect liver disease, however, there was no increase in del 12 carriers in serum gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT), bilirubin, alanine aminotransferase or other measures of liver function that commonly parallel changes in ALP in liver disease (Table 1.6). 
     The del12 association with higher levels of ALP and vitamin B12 in individuals from the Danish Inter99 study with comparable effect sizes (P=9.9×10−69 for ALP and P=9.9×10−14 for vitamin B12) was replicated (Table 1.10). 
     A common variant upstream of ASGR-1 (rs314253; MAF=35.1%) has been reported to associate modestly with both LDL cholesterol and ALP levels (Chambers J C, Zhang W, Sehmi J, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies loci influencing concentrations of liver enzymes in plasma. Nature genetics 2011; 43:1131-8; Willer C J, Schmidt E M, Sengupta S, et al. Discovery and refinement of loci associated with lipid levels. Nature genetics 2013; 45:1274-83). This common variant association is replicated in the data of the present invention (strongest association for both ALP and non-HDL with the correlated rs56093546; MAF=21.6%) and that its associations with ALP and non-HDL are independent of the rare signal represented by del12 (r2&lt;0.001, Table 1.5) as demonstrated. As for del12, this common variant has opposite effects on ALP and non-HDL; the allele that increases ALP decreases non-HDL (see Chambers; Willer) (Table 1.7). 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1.1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Study 
                 Design 
                 Definition of CAD and MI cases  
                 Ascertainment of controls 
                 Reference 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Iceland 
                 Case/control 
                 CAD and MI cases were 
                 Study participants from 
                 Helgadottir 
               
               
                   
                   
                 defined by: a) discharge 
                 various deCODE genetics 
                 A, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 diagnoses (ICD 9 codes 
                 programs without known 
                 Thorleifsson 
               
               
                   
                   
                 410.*, 411.*, 412.*, 414.* 
                 CVD. 
                 G, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 or ICD 10 codes I20.0, 
                   
                 Manolescu 
               
               
                   
                   
                 I21.*, I22.*. I23.*, I24.*, 
                   
                 A, et al. A 
               
               
                   
                   
                 I25.*) from LUH, b) 
                   
                 common 
               
               
                   
                   
                 significant angiographic 
                   
                 variant on 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CAD (≥50% stenosis of the 
                   
                 chromosome 
               
               
                   
                   
                 major coronary vessels), c) 
                   
                 9p21 
               
               
                   
                   
                 undergone coronary 
                   
                 affects the 
               
               
                   
                   
                 revascularisation (CABG) 
                   
                 risk of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 d) MI or CAD (ICD 9 or 10 
                   
                 myocardial 
               
               
                   
                   
                 codes) listed in death 
                   
                 infarction. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 registries, or e) MI before 
                   
                 Science 
               
               
                   
                   
                 the age of 75 from 
                   
                 (New York, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 MONICA registry 
                   
                 NY) 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2007; 316: 1 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 491-3. 
               
               
                 UK 1-Leicester 
                 Case/control 
                 Cases included MI patients 
                 Controls included adult 
                 Helgadottir 
               
               
                 MI Study 
                   
                 admitted to the coronary 
                 visitors of individuals with 
                 A, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 care units of the Leicester 
                 non-cardiovascular 
                 Manolescu 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Royal Infirmary, Leicester 
                 disease from each hospital 
                 A, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 and the Royal Hallamshire 
                 or individuals from three 
                 Thorleifsson 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Hospital, Sheffield and 
                 primary care practices 
                 G, et al. The 
               
               
                   
                   
                 satisfied the WHO criteria 
                 located in the same 
                 gene 
               
               
                   
                   
                 for acute MI. 
                 geographical area. 
                 encoding 5- 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Individuals who reported a 
                 lipoxygenase 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 history of CAD were 
                 activating 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 excluded. 
                 protein 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 confers risk 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 of 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 myocardial 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 infarction 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 and stroke. 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Nature 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 genetics 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2004; 36: 23 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 3-9. 
               
               
                 UK2-BHF 
                 Case/control 
                 The British Heart 
                 Controls were blood 
                 Genome- 
               
               
                 Family Heart 
                   
                 Foundation Family Heart 
                 donors recruited by the 
                 wide association 
               
               
                 Study 
                   
                 Study (BHF-FHS) CAD cases 
                 United Kingdom Blood 
                 study of 14,000  
               
               
                   
                   
                 were index cases from 
                 Service (UKBS) as part of 
                 cases of seven common  
               
               
                   
                   
                 families of European 
                 the Wellcome Trust Case 
                 diseases and 3,000  
               
               
                   
                   
                 ancestry with a strong 
                 Control Consortium Study. 
                 shared  
               
               
                   
                   
                 familial history of defined 
                   
                 contorls. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CAD recruited from 
                   
                 Nature 2007; 447: 6 
               
               
                   
                   
                 throughout the United 
                   
                 61-78, and Samani NJ, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Kingdom. CAD was defined 
                   
                 Erdmann J,  
               
               
                   
                   
                 as a validated history of  
                   
                 Hall AS, et al. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 myocardial infarction or 
                   
                 Genomewide  
               
               
                   
                   
                 coronary revascularisation (PTCA or  
                   
                 association analysis of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CABG) before the 
                   
                 coronary artery 
               
               
                   
                   
                 66th birthday.  
                   
                 disease. The New 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 England journal of 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 medicine 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2007; 357: 4 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 43-53. 
               
               
                 Emory 
                 Case/control 
                 Cases were identified from 
                 Controls included 
                 Helgadottir 
               
               
                 (Atlanta, 
                   
                 subjects undergoing 
                 individuals undergoing 
                 A, et al. 
               
               
                 Georgia, 
                   
                 cardiac catheterization at 
                 cardiac catheterization 
                 (2007) 
               
               
                 USA) 
                   
                 the Emory University 
                 with no or minimal CAD 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Hospital. CAD cases 
                 (&lt;20% stenosis) and had no 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 included those that had at 
                 prior history of MI or CAD. 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 least one significant 
                 Additional controls were 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 stenosis (≥50%) in any of 
                 recruited from the Grady 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 the major coronary 
                 Memorial Hospitals and 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 arteries on angiography, or 
                 Clinical Registry in  
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 those without significant 
                 Neurology (CRIN) and 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 stenosis but had history of 
                 included individuals with 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 MI, CABG, or PCI. 
                 non-vascular neurological 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 diseases (mainly Parkinson&#39;s 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 and Alxheimer&#39;s diseases), 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 their spouses, unrelated 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 friends and community 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 volunteers; excluding 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 those with a known history 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 of CAD. 
                   
               
               
                 Duke 
                 Case/control 
                 Participants were enrolled 
                 Controls included those  
                 Helgadottir 
               
               
                 (Durham, 
                   
                 at Duke University Medical  
                 with no history of MI prior 
                 A, et al. 
               
               
                 North 
                   
                 Center through the cardiac  
                 or subsequent to the index 
                 (2007) 
               
               
                 Carolina 
                   
                 catheterization 
                 cardiac catheterization 
                   
               
               
                 USA) 
                   
                 laboratories. MI cases  
                 and no PCI or CABG 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 included those with self- 
                 ejection fraction on left 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 reported history of MI 
                 ventriculogram greater 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 (corroborated by review of  
                 than 40% and stenosis less 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 medical records), or those  
                 than 50% on coronary 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 who suffered 
                 angiography. 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 an MI during 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 the study follow-up period. 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Upenn 
                 Case/control 
                 The study participants 
                 Controls included 
                 Helgadottir 
               
               
                 (Philadelphia, 
                   
                 were enrolled at the 
                 individuals without 
                 A, et al. 
               
               
                 Pennsylvania,  
                   
                 University of Pennsylvania 
                 significant luminal stenosis 
                 (2007) 
               
               
                 USA) 
                   
                 Medical Center and  
                 on coronary angiography 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 included subjects 
                 (luminal stenosis less than 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 undergoing cardiac 
                 50%). 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 catheterization. CAD cases  
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 included those that had at  
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 least one significant  
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 stenosis (≥50%) in any of  
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 the major coronary 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 arteries on angiography, or 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 those without significant 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 stenosis but had history of 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 MI, CABG, or PCI. 
                   
                   
               
               
                 New Zeland 
                 Case/control 
                 a) Significant angiographic 
                 Study participants without 
                 Gretarsdottir S, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CAD (≥50% stenosis of the  
                 known CAD and ultrasound  
                 Baas AF, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 major coronary vessels), b) 
                 screened for carotid  
                 Thorleifsson G, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CABG-procedures c)MI or  
                 artery disease and abdominal 
                 et al. Genome-wide 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CAD (ICD 9 or 10 codes) in 
                 aortic aneurysm, with ankle 
                 association study 
               
               
                   
                   
                 a clinical registry. 
                 brachial index to exclude 
                 identifies a sequence 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 peripheral artery disease. 
                 variant within the 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DAB2IP gene 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 conferring 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 susceptibility 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 to abdominal aortic 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 aneurysm. 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 nature genetics 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2010; 42: 69 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2-7. 
               
               
                 Denmark 1 
                 Case/control 
                 Cases were identified from  
                 Individual in Monica10 
                   
               
               
                 (Gentofte 
                   
                 subject investigated by coronary 
                 and Inter99 studies 
                   
               
               
                 cadlab) 
                   
                 artery angiography because of 
                 without CAD diagnosis 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 suspected ischemic heart 
                 based on information from 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 disease, valvular heart disease 
                 the Danish National Patient  
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 or cardiomyopaty. CAD cases  
                 Registry and the Danish  
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 included those that 
                 Register of Causes 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 had at least one significant  
                 of Death. 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 stenosis (≥50%) in any of the 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 major coronary arteries on  
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 angiography 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Denmark 2 
                 Case/control 
                 Monica10 is a population 
                 Individual in Monica10 
                 Olsen MH,  
               
               
                 (Monica10) 
                   
                 based study. Paricipants were 
                 and Inter99 studies 
                 Hansen TW, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 recruited from the Danish 
                 without CAD diagnosis 
                 Christensen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Central Personal Register 
                 based on information from 
                 MK, et al. N- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 as random samples of the  
                 the Danish National Patient  
                 terminal pro-brain 
               
               
                   
                   
                 population in the southern 
                 Registry and the Danish  
                 natriuretic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 part of the former Copenhagen 
                 Register of Causes 
                 peptide, but 
               
               
                   
                   
                 County. Cardiovascular 
                 of Death. 
                 not high sensitivity 
               
               
                   
                   
                 events were defined as first ever  
                   
                 C-reactive protein, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 non-fatal or fatal CVD (ICD-8: 390-448/ 
                   
                 improves cardiovascular 
               
               
                   
                   
                 ICD-10: 100-I79). Assesment of  
                   
                 risk prediction in the 
               
               
                   
                   
                 the cardiovascular endpoints was 
                   
                 general population. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 based on data from the Danish 
                   
                 European heart journal 
               
               
                   
                   
                 National Patient Register of  
                   
                 2007; 28: 13 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Causes of Death. 
                   
                 74-81. 
               
               
                 Denmark 3 
                 Case/control 
                 The Inter99 study is a  
                 Individual in Monica10 
                 14. Jorg ensen AB, Frikke- 
               
               
                 (Inter99) 
                   
                 population-based randomized  
                 and Inter99 studies 
                 Schmidt R, Nordestgaard 
               
               
                   
                   
                 controlled trial (CT00289237, 
                 without CAD diagnosis 
                 BG, Tybjaerg-Hansen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 ClinicalTrials.gov) 
                 based on information from 
                 A. Loss-of-function 
               
               
                   
                   
                 investigating the effects of  
                 the Danish National Patient 
                 mutations in APOC3 
               
               
                   
                   
                 lifestyle intervention on  
                 Registry and the Danish  
                 and risk of ischemic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cardiovascular disease. 
                 Register of Causes 
                 vascular disease. The  
               
               
                   
                   
                 Cardiovascular events were  
                 of Death. 
                 New England journal of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 defined as first ever non-fatal or 
                   
                 medicine 2014; 371: 3 
               
               
                   
                   
                 fatal CVD (ICD-8: 390-448/ 
                   
                 2-41. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 ICD-10: 100-I79). Assesment of 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 the cardiovascular endpoints was 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 based on data from the Danish  
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 National Patient Registry and  
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 the Danish Register of Causes 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 of Death. 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Sweden 
                 Case/Control 
                 Ischemic stroke patients from the 
                 Population-based controls, 
                 Gretardottir et al (2008) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 clinic at Karolinska University 
                 either healthy blood donors or  
                 Traylor et al (2012) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Hospital, Stockholm. The ischemic 
                 healthy volunteers 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 stroke diagnosis was based on  
                 recruited at the Karolinska  
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 clinical findings and brain imaging 
                 Hospital 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 (CT or MRI). 
                   
                   
               
               
                 South 
                 Case/Control 
                 Ischemic stroke patients recruited 
                 Gender and age matched  
                 Traylor et al 
               
               
                 Germany 
                   
                 at the stroke unit of the Department 
                 individuals without history 
                 (2008) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 of Neurology, Klinikum 
                 of cardiovascular disease 
                 Gschwendt ner et al  
               
               
                   
                   
                 Grosshadern, University of Munich. 
                 selected from KORA S4  
                 (2009) Wichmann 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Diagnoses were based on clinical 
                 Study 
                 et al (2005) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 findings and imaging evidence 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 (either CT or MRI), and were  
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 clinically confirmed by neurologists. 
                   
                   
               
               
                 West 
                 Case/Control 
                 Ischemic stroke patients recruited 
                 Population controls with a 
                 Traylor et al 
               
               
                 Germany 
                   
                 through hospitals participating in  
                 self-reported history of  
                 (2008) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 the regional Westphalian Stroke  
                 stroke from the population 
                 Berger et al  
               
               
                   
                   
                 Register. Diagnoses were based on  
                 based Dortmund Health Study 
                 (2007) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 clinical findings and imaging evidence 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 (either CT or MRI), and were 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 clinically confirmed by neurologists. 
                   
                   
               
               
                 United 
                 Case/Control 
                 Ischemic stroke patients recruited 
                 Community controls, age 
                 Traylor et al 
               
               
                 Kingdom 
                   
                 through a cerebrovascular service 
                 and gender matched and  
                 (2008) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 clinic. All cases were phenotyped by 
                 free of symptomatic 
                 Gschwendt ner et al  
               
               
                   
                   
                 one experienced stroke neurologist 
                 cerebrovascular disease 
                 (2009) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 with review of original brain imaging 
                 were recruited from the  
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 with CT or MRI. 
                 same geographic area as  
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 the patients. 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1.2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Characteristics of Participants in the Discovery and Replication Studies of the association 
               
               
                 of del12 Variant with Plasma Lipid, Alkaline Phosphatase, and Vitamin B12 levels 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Nijmegen  
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Biomedical study 
                 Inter99 Study  
                 Addition Study  
               
               
                 Trait a   
                 Iceland 
                 (Netherlands) c   
                 (Denmark) d   
                 (Denmark) e   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Ancestry 
                 Caucasian 
                 Caucasian 
                 Caucasian 
                 Caucasian 
               
               
                 N b   
                 194,958 
                 5,645 
                 7,633 
                 9,689 
               
               
                 Mean age (SD), yrs 
                  58.2 (40.6-75.8) 
                  55.8 (38.0-73.6) 
                  48.5 (36.1-55.5) 
                  59.9 (53.1-66.7) 
               
               
                 Gender, % female 
                 53.4% 
                 53.6% 
                 49.9% 
                 46.4% 
               
               
                 Non-HDL cholesterol 
                 154.7 (109.1-200.3)  
                 170.7 (129.4-212.0) 
                 161.6 (117.5-205.7) 
                 164.7 (124.0-205.4)  
               
               
                 (SD), mg/dL 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 LDL cholesterol (SD), 
                 133.0 (91.6-174.4) 
                 138.6 (102.2-175.0) 
                 137.2 (99.7-174.7) 
                 139.3 (101.9-176.1) 
               
               
                 mg/dL 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 HDL cholesterol (SD),  
                  54.7 (37.7-71.7) 
                  52.6 (39.2-66.0) 
                  54.2 (38.4-70.0) 
                  60.0 (43.6-76.4) 
               
               
                 mg/dL 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Total Cholesterol 
                 208.0 (162.6-253.4)  
                 223.4 (180.9-265.9) 
                 215.8 (173.6-258.0) 
                 224.7 (183.9-265.5)  
               
               
                 (SD), mg/dL 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Triglycerides (SD), 
                 133.6 (67.6-190.5) 
                 155.8 (94.5-256.8) 
                 105.8 (60.8-183.9) 
                 117.4 (73.5-187.3) 
               
               
                 mg/dL 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Alkaline phosphatase 
                  87.1 (53.5-141.7) 
                 na 
                  41.3 (30.7-55.6) 
                 na 
               
               
                 (SD), IU/l 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Vitamin B12 (SD), 
                   398 (256-618) 
                 na 
                   398 (286-554) 
                 na 
               
               
                 pmol/l 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a The average values (where available) for each of the traits listed is shown (±one SD). 
               
               
                   b Number of individuals with measurements for at least one of the traits. 
               
               
                   c Wetzels et al (2007) 5 , 
               
               
                   d Jörgensen et al (2003) 6 , 
               
               
                   e Lauritzen et al (2000) 7 . 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1.4A 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Association of del12 with Non-HDL Cholesterol, LDL Cholesterol, HDL Cholesterol, 
               
               
                 Triglyceride, ALP and Vitamin B12 in Iceland, Denmark and The Netherlands 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 population mean  
               
               
                   
                 Study population (n) 
                   
                 Effect (95% CI) a   
                 P value 
                 value e  (±1SD) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 del12 freq.  
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Non-HDL cholesterol 
                 (%) 
                 mg/dL  
                   
                 mg/dL 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Discovery 
                 Iceland (119,146) 
                 0.41 
                 −13.6 (−17.7, −9.4) 
                 2.5 × 10 −10   
                 154.7 (109.1-200.3) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark A b  (6,182) 
                 0.22 
                 −21.3 (−36.8, −5.9) 
                 0.0069 
                 161.6 (117.5-205.7) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark B c  (9,656) 
                 0.32 
                 −22.2 (−32.8, −11.7) 
                 3.8 × 10 −5   
                 164.7 (124.0-205.4) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 The Netherlands d  (5,537) 
                 0.50 
                 −17.0 (−28.3, −5.7) 
                 0.0032 
                 170.7 (129.4-212.0) 
               
               
                   
                 Combined 
                   
                 −15.3 (−18.9, −11.7) 
                 1.0 × 10 −16   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 LDL cholesterol 
                   
                 mg/dL 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Discovery 
                 Iceland (53,841) 
                 0.41 
                  −9.5 (−14.0, −5.1) 
                 2.8 × 10 −5   
                 133.0 (91.6-174.4 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark A (6,098) 
                 0.22 
                 −22.1 (−35.5, −8.7) 
                 0.0012 
                 137.2 (99.7-174.7) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark B (8,080) 
                 0.32 
                 −19.0 (−29.2, −8.8) 
                 0.00026 
                 139.3 (101.9-176.1) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 The Netherlands (5,523) 
                 0.50 
                 −16.0 (−26.1, −6.0) 
                 0.0018 
                 138.6 (102.2-175.0) 
               
               
                   
                 Combined 
                   
                 −12.5 (−16.2, −8.8) 
                 3.9 × 10 −11   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 HDL cholesterol 
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
                 mg/dL 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Discovery 
                 Iceland (119,514) 
                 0.41 
                    2.4 (0.7, 4.1) 
                 0.0058 
                  54.7 (37.7-71.7) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark A (6,182) 
                 0.22 
                    4.6 (−0.8, 9.9) 
                 0.096 
                  54.2 (38.4-70.0) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark B (9,656) 
                 0.32 
                    2.4 (−1.8, 6.7) 
                 0.26 
                  60.0 (43.6-76.4) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 The Netherlands (5,537) 
                 0.50 
                    2.4 (−1.3, 6.0) 
                 0.20 
                  52.6 (39.2-66.0) 
               
               
                   
                 Combined 
                   
                    2.5 (1.1, 4.0) 
                 0.00039 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Triglyceride 
                   
                 % change 
                   
                 mg/dL 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Discovery 
                 Iceland (80,011) 
                 0.41 
                  −6.1 (−10.8, −1.5) 
                 0.012 
                 133.6 (67.6-190.5) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark A (6,182) 
                 0.22 
                  −6.0 (−25.2, 11.4) 
                 0.53 
                 105.8 (60.8-183.9) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark B (8,163) 
                 0.32 
                  −8.9 (−21.0, 2.3) 
                 0.15 
                 117.4 (73.5-187.3) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 The Netherlands (5,537) 
                 0.50 
                  −4.4 (−17.9, 8.2) 
                 0.52 
                 155.8 (94.5-256.8) 
               
               
                   
                 Combined 
                   
                  −6.3 (−10.3, −2.3) 
                 0.0032 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 ALP 
                   
                 % change 
                   
                 U/L 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Discovery 
                 Iceland (126,060) 
                 0.41 
                   50.1 (42.9, 57.2) 
                 3.6 × 10 −63   
                  87.1 (53.5-141.7) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark A c  (5,829) 
                 0.22 
                   29.1 (14.8, 42.5) 
                 3.1 × 10 −6   
                  41.3 (30.7-55.6) 
               
               
                   
                 Combined 
                   
                   46.5 (40.1, 52.7) 
                 5.6 × 10 −69   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin B12 
                   
                 % change 
                   
                 pmol/L 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Discovery 
                 Iceland (97,910) 
                 0.41 
                   16.6 (11.5, 21.5) 
                 3.1 × 10 −12   
                   398 (256-618) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark A c  (5,826) 
                 0.22 
                   18.6 (3.9, 32.4) 
                 0.0053 
                   398 (286-554) 
               
               
                   
                 Combined 
                   
                   16.8 (12.0, 21.5) 
                 8.3 × 10 −14   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Effect estimates and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) in mg/dL for the non-HDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol and as percentage change for triglyceride, ALP and vitamin B12. 
               
               
                   b The Danish Inter99 study (JørgeFnsen et al. 2003). 
               
               
                   c The Danish Addition study (van den Donk et al. 2011). 
               
               
                   d The Nijmegen Biomedical Study (Hoogendoorn et al. 2006). 
               
               
                   e For triglyceride, ALP and vitamin B12, the population mean and the SD are calculated for log-transformed values and transformed back to original units. To convert the values for non-HDL and HDL cholesterol to millimoles per liter, multiply by 0.02586. To convert triglyceride to mmol/L, multiply by 0.01129. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1.4B 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Association of del12 and rs186021206 with Cholesterols, Triglyceride, Alkaline Phosphatase 
               
               
                 and Vitamin B12 Measurements in Iceland, Denmark and the Netherlands. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 rs186021206 
                 del12 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Trait/Cohort (n) a   
                 Effect b   
                 Effect (95% CI) c   
                 P 
                 P adj   d   
                 Effect b   
                 Effect (95% CI) c   
                 P 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Non-HDL 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 cholesterol 
                 SD 
                 mg/dL 
                   
                   
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Iceland 
                 −0.28 
                 −12.9 
                 (−17.1, −8.7) 
                 1.4 × 10 −9    
                 0.39 
                 −0.30 
                 −13.6 
                 (−17.7, −9.4) 
                 2.5 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 (119,146) 
               
               
                 Denmark A 
                 −0.38 
                 −16.7 
                 (−27.9, −5.4) 
                 0.0038 
                 0.64 
                 −0.48 
                 −21.3 
                 (−36.8, −5.9) 
                 0.0069 
               
               
                 (6,182) 
               
               
                 Denmark B 
                 −0.32 
                 −13.1 
                 (−21.0, −5.3) 
                 0.0011 
                 0.74 
                 −0.55 
                 −22.2 
                 (−32.8, −11.7) 
                 3.8 × 10 −5    
               
               
                 (9,656) 
               
               
                 The Netherlands 
                 −0.23 
                 −9.7 
                 (−19.9, 0.5) 
                 0.062 
                 0.19 
                 −0.41 
                 −17.0 
                 (−28.3, −5.7) 
                 0.0032 
               
               
                 (5,537) 
               
               
                 Combined 
                 −0.29 
                 −12.9 
                 (−16.3, −9.6) 
                 2.0 × 10 −14   
                 0.24 
                 −0.34 
                 −15.3 
                 (−18.9, −11.7) 
                 1.0 × 10 −16   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 LDL cholesterol 
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
                   
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Iceland (53,841) 
                 −0.22 
                 −9.2 
                 (−13.6, −4.7) 
                 5.5 × 10 −5    
                 0.78 
                 −0.23 
                 −9.5 
                 (−14.0, −5.1) 
                 2.8 × 10 −5    
               
               
                 Denmark A 
                 −0.43 
                 −16.1 
                 (−25.8, −6.3) 
                 0.0012 
                 0.56 
                 −0.59 
                 −22.1 
                 (−35.5, −8.7) 
                 0.0012 
               
               
                 (6,098) 
               
               
                 Denmark B 
                 −0.34 
                 −12.5 
                 (−20.3, −4.7) 
                 0.0016 
                 0.86 
                 −0.51 
                 −19.0 
                 (−29.2, −8.8) 
                 0.00026 
               
               
                 (8,080) 
               
               
                 The Netherlands 
                 −0.36 
                 −13.2 
                 (−22.3, −4.2) 
                 0.0041 
                 0.81 
                 −0.44 
                 −16.0 
                 (−26.1, −6.0) 
                 0.0018 
               
               
                 (5,523) 
               
               
                 Combined 
                 −0.28 
                 −11.1 
                 (−14.5, −7.8) 
                 1.0 × 10 −10   
                 0.70 
                 −0.31 
                 −12.5 
                 (−16.2, −8.8) 
                 3.9 × 10 −11   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Total cholesterol 
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
                   
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Iceland 
                 −0.22 
                 −9.9 
                 (−14.0, −5.7) 
                 3.1 × 10 −6    
                 0.78 
                 −0.23 
                 −10.5 
                 (−14.7, −6.4) 
                 6.5 × 10 −7    
               
               
                 (125,381) 
               
               
                 Denmark A 
                 −0.32 
                 −13.5 
                 (−24.2, −2.8) 
                 0.014 
                 0.54 
                 −0.33 
                 −14.0 
                 (−28.7, 0.8) 
                 0.063 
               
               
                 (6,182) 
               
               
                 Denmark B 
                 −0.30 
                 −12.0 
                 (−19.9, −4.2) 
                 0.0027 
                 0.97 
                 −0.47 
                 −19.2 
                 (−29.8, −8.6) 
                 0.00040 
               
               
                 (9,656) 
               
               
                 The Netherlands 
                 −0.21 
                 −9.0 
                 (−19.5, 1.5) 
                 0.0927 
                 0.48 
                 −0.33 
                 −14.1 
                 (−25.7, −2.5) 
                 0.018 
               
               
                 (5,537) 
               
               
                 Combined 
                 −0.24 
                 −10.5 
                 (−13.8, −7.2) 
                 5.1 × 10 −10   
                 0.68 
                 −0.27 
                 −12.0 
                 (−15.6, −8.5) 
                 5.6 × 10 −11   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 HDL cholesterol 
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
                   
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Iceland 
                 0.13 
                 2.2 
                 (0.5, 3.9) 
                 0.011 
                 0.0055 
                 0.14 
                 2.4 
                 (0.7, 4.1) 
                 0.0058 
               
               
                 (119,514) 
               
               
                 Denmark A 
                 0.15 
                 2.4 
                 (−1.5, 6.4) 
                 0.22 
                 0.84 
                 0.29 
                 4.6 
                 (−0.8, 9.9) 
                 0.096 
               
               
                 (6,182) 
               
               
                 Denmark B 
                 0.03 
                 0.4 
                 (−2.7, 3.6) 
                 0.79 
                 0.32 
                 0.15 
                 2.4 
                 (−1.8, 6.7) 
                 0.26 
               
               
                 (9,656) 
               
               
                 The Netherlands 
                 0.02 
                 0.2 
                 (−3.1, 3.5) 
                 0.9 
                 0.043 
                 0.18 
                 2.4 
                 (−1.3, 6.0) 
                 0.20 
               
               
                 (5,537) 
               
               
                 Combined 
                 0.10 
                 1.6 
                 (0.4, 2.9) 
                 0.01 
                 0.001 
                 0.15 
                 2.5 
                 (1.1, 4.0) 
                 0.00039 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Triglyceride 
                   
                 % change 
                   
                   
                   
                 % change 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Iceland (80,011) 
                 −0.11 
                 −5.4 
                 (−10.1, −0.8) 
                 0.027 
                 0.13 
                 −0.12 
                 −6.1 
                 (−10.8, −1.5) 
                 0.012 
               
               
                 Denmark A 
                 −0.26 
                 −13.4 
                 (−26.1, −1.6) 
                 0.046 
                 0.11 
                 −0.11 
                 −6.0 
                 (−25.2, 11.4) 
                 0.53 
               
               
                 (6,182) 
               
               
                 Denmark B 
                 −0.03 
                 −1.3 
                 (−11.2, 8.0) 
                 0.79 
                 0.099 
                 −0.2 
                 −8.9 
                 (−21.0, 2.3) 
                 0.15 
               
               
                 (8,163) 
               
               
                 The Netherlands 
                 0.13 
                 6.5 
                 (−7.0, 19.1) 
                 0.32 
                 0.0057 
                 −0.09 
                 −4.4 
                 (−17.9, 8.2) 
                 0.52 
               
               
                 (5,537) 
               
               
                 Combined 
                 −0.09 
                 −4.2 
                 (−7.9, −0.6) 
                 0.028 
                 0.0066 
                 −0.13 
                 −6.3 
                 (−10.3, −2.3) 
                 0.003 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 ALP 
                   
                 % change 
                   
                   
                   
                 % change 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Iceland 
                 0.82 
                 48.9 
                 (41.8, 55.8) 
                 1.2 × 10 −61   
                 0.10 
                 0.84 
                 50.1 
                 (42.9, 57.2) 
                 3.6 × 10 −63   
               
               
                 (126,060) 
               
               
                 Denmark A 
                 0.70 
                 23.0 
                 (13.2, 32.4) 
                 2.2 × 10 −7    
                 0.092 
                 0.86 
                 29.1 
                 (14.8, 42.5) 
                 3.1 × 10 −6    
               
               
                 (6,035) 
               
               
                 Combined 
                 0.80 
                 41.5 
                 (35.9, 47.0) 
                 1.9 × 10 −67   
                 0.026 
                 0.84 
                 46.5 
                 (40.1, 52.7) 
                 5.6 × 10 −69   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Vitamin B12 
                   
                 % change 
                   
                   
                   
                 % change 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Iceland (97,910) 
                 0.33 
                 15.8 
                 (10.8, 20.7) 
                 2.0 × 10 −11   
                 0.15 
                 0.35 
                 16.6 
                 (11.5, 21.5) 
                 3.1 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Denmark A 
                 0.49 
                 17.6 
                 (7.2, 27.7) 
                 0.00027 
                 0.011 
                 0.52 
                 18.6 
                 (3.9, 32.4) 
                 0.0053 
               
               
                 (6,032) 
               
               
                 Combined 
                 0.35 
                 16.1 
                 (11.6, 20.6) 
                 4.3 × 10 −14   
                 0.84 
                 0.36 
                 16.8 
                 (12.0, 21.5) 
                 8.3 × 10 −14   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Number of individuals with trait value and genotypes. 
               
               
                   b Effect estimates from the regression in units of standard deviations (SD) of the distributions of the adjusted values. 
               
               
                   c Effect estimates and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) in mg/dL for the cholesterol, and as percentage change for triglyceride, ALP and vitamin B12. 
               
               
                   d P-values adjusted for the effect of del12. “The Netherlands”, The Nijmegen Biomedical Study 15 ; “Denmark A”, The Danish Inter99 study 6 ; “Denmark B”, The Danish Addition study 16 . 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1.5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 The association of published lipid variants with non-HDL cholesterol 
               
               
                 levels and coronary artery disease in Iceland. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Build 36 position 
                   
                 Non-HDL (mg/dL) 
                 Coronary artery disease 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Chr 
                 Position (hg18) 
                 MAF 
                 Info 
                 Effect 
                 SE 
                 OR 
                 95% CI 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 25,641,524 
                 0.47184 
                 0.996 
                 0.7 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 1 
                 55,278,235 
                 0.01173 
                 0.986 
                 −17.2 
                 1.0 
                 0.73 
                 0.66 
                 0.81 
               
               
                 1 
                 62,725,961 
                 0.21814 
                 0.996 
                 1.6 
                 0.3 
                 1.01 
                 0.98 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 1 
                 62,906,518 
                 0.33844 
                 0.998 
                 −2.3 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 1 
                 92,766,395 
                 0.19052 
                 0.999 
                 0.8 
                 0.3 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 1 
                 109,620,053 
                 0.20789 
                 0.999 
                 4.8 
                 0.3 
                 1.08 
                 1.06 
                 1.11 
               
               
                 1 
                 110,000,250 
                 0.41287 
                 0.995 
                 1.0 
                 0.2 
                 1.01 
                 0.99 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 1 
                 149,225,460 
                 0.15162 
                 0.997 
                 −0.7 
                 0.3 
                 1.03 
                 1.00 
                 1.06 
               
               
                 1 
                 154,967,275 
                 0.28892 
                 0.998 
                 −0.5 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 1 
                 219,036,651 
                 0.28689 
                 0.994 
                 0.9 
                 0.2 
                 1.01 
                 0.98 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 1 
                 228,362,314 
                 0.39128 
                 0.999 
                 −1.1 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 1 
                 232,915,962 
                 0.4424 
                 0.999 
                 1.2 
                 0.2 
                 1.00 
                 0.98 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 2 
                 21,087,477 
                 0.04518 
                 0.999 
                 −6.1 
                 0.5 
                 0.94 
                 0.89 
                 0.99 
               
               
                 2 
                 21,117,405 
                 0.3491 
                 0.997 
                 2.9 
                 0.2 
                 1.05 
                 1.03 
                 1.07 
               
               
                 2 
                 21,139,562 
                 0.1408 
                 0.999 
                 4.3 
                 0.3 
                 1.08 
                 1.04 
                 1.11 
               
               
                 2 
                 27,584,444 
                 0.34466 
                 0.998 
                 −1.8 
                 0.2 
                 1.00 
                 0.98 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 2 
                 27,584,716 
                 0.20151 
                 0.995 
                 −1.4 
                 0.3 
                 1.00 
                 0.97 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 2 
                 43,927,385 
                 0.27892 
                 0.999 
                 −2.6 
                 0.2 
                 0.95 
                 0.93 
                 0.98 
               
               
                 2 
                 43,953,086 
                 0.19027 
                 0.997 
                 −1.5 
                 0.3 
                 0.96 
                 0.94 
                 0.99 
               
               
                 2 
                 63,003,061 
                 0.32014 
                 0.997 
                 0.9 
                 0.2 
                 1.02 
                 1.00 
                 1.05 
               
               
                 2 
                 118,293,189 
                 0.07895 
                 0.998 
                 −0.8 
                 0.4 
                 1.02 
                 0.98 
                 1.06 
               
               
                 2 
                 121,025,958 
                 0.41077 
                 0.994 
                 0.6 
                 0.2 
                 1.03 
                 1.01 
                 1.06 
               
               
                 2 
                 169,538,401 
                 0.37685 
                 0.999 
                 −0.5 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 2 
                 216,012,629 
                 0.32322 
                 0.998 
                 0.8 
                 0.2 
                 0.95 
                 0.93 
                 0.97 
               
               
                 3 
                 12,271,469 
                 0.3667 
                 0.998 
                 −1.2 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 3 
                 32,508,014 
                 0.07924 
                 0.997 
                 −1.6 
                 0.4 
                 0.98 
                 0.94 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 3 
                 133,691,893 
                 0.11977 
                 0.998 
                 −1.1 
                 0.3 
                 0.99 
                 0.96 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 3 
                 172,209,912 
                 0.07646 
                 0.999 
                 0.8 
                 0.4 
                 1.08 
                 1.04 
                 1.12 
               
               
                 4 
                 3,442,937 
                 0.40281 
                 0.991 
                 0.7 
                 0.2 
                 1.03 
                 1.00 
                 1.05 
               
               
                 4 
                 25,672,088 
                 0.14802 
                 0.993 
                 0.9 
                 0.3 
                 1.04 
                 1.01 
                 1.07 
               
               
                 4 
                 88,249,285 
                 0.40279 
                 0.999 
                 0.7 
                 0.2 
                 1.00 
                 0.98 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 4 
                 100,233,828 
                 0.42298 
                 0.998 
                 0.5 
                 0.2 
                 1.01 
                 0.99 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 5 
                 74,661,243 
                 0.35407 
                 0.999 
                 2.8 
                 0.2 
                 1.04 
                 1.02 
                 1.06 
               
               
                 5 
                 122,883,315 
                 0.47211 
                 0.995 
                 0.5 
                 0.2 
                 1.00 
                 0.98 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 5 
                 156,322,875 
                 0.35741 
                 0.998 
                 1.7 
                 0.2 
                 1.01 
                 0.99 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 6 
                 16,217,142 
                 0.46163 
                 0.995 
                 −0.8 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 6 
                 26,201,120 
                 0.06713 
                 1.000 
                 −1.5 
                 0.4 
                 0.99 
                 0.95 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 6 
                 31,373,469 
                 0.29084 
                 0.993 
                 0.8 
                 0.2 
                 1.02 
                 1.00 
                 1.04 
               
               
                 6 
                 43,865,874 
                 0.47286 
                 0.993 
                 0.9 
                 0.2 
                 1.02 
                 1.00 
                 1.04 
               
               
                 6 
                 100,706,818 
                 0.19956 
                 0.998 
                 −1.0 
                 0.3 
                 1.00 
                 0.97 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 6 
                 116,444,196 
                 0.40848 
                 0.998 
                 −0.6 
                 0.2 
                 0.98 
                 0.96 
                 1.00 
               
               
                 6 
                 127,494,332 
                 0.47183 
                 0.999 
                 0.9 
                 0.2 
                 1.01 
                 0.99 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 6 
                 139,873,450 
                 0.42692 
                 0.999 
                 −0.7 
                 0.2 
                 0.98 
                 0.96 
                 1.00 
               
               
                 6 
                 160,881,127 
                 0.01773 
                 1.000 
                 4.0 
                 0.8 
                 1.31 
                 1.21 
                 1.41 
               
               
                 6 
                 160,930,108 
                 0.06104 
                 0.984 
                 2.3 
                 0.4 
                 1.27 
                 1.22 
                 1.33 
               
               
                 7 
                 21,573,877 
                 0.22512 
                 0.992 
                 1.5 
                 0.3 
                 1.00 
                 0.98 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 7 
                 25,958,351 
                 0.14423 
                 0.993 
                 0.9 
                 0.3 
                 1.05 
                 1.02 
                 1.08 
               
               
                 7 
                 44,548,856 
                 0.2013 
                 0.990 
                 2.0 
                 0.3 
                 1.02 
                 1.00 
                 1.05 
               
               
                 7 
                 44,567,220 
                 0.42549 
                 0.998 
                 −1.2 
                 0.2 
                 0.97 
                 0.95 
                 0.99 
               
               
                 7 
                 72,620,810 
                 0.11552 
                 0.998 
                 −0.9 
                 0.3 
                 1.02 
                 0.99 
                 1.06 
               
               
                 7 
                 72,697,942 
                 0.46468 
                 0.997 
                 0.5 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 7 
                 130,095,474 
                 0.44163 
                 0.998 
                 −0.5 
                 0.2 
                 0.96 
                 0.94 
                 0.98 
               
               
                 8 
                 9,221,641 
                 0.07554 
                 0.997 
                 1.9 
                 0.4 
                 1.04 
                 1.00 
                 1.08 
               
               
                 8 
                 18,316,718 
                 0.18705 
                 0.996 
                 −1.3 
                 0.3 
                 0.96 
                 0.94 
                 0.99 
               
               
                 8 
                 19,888,502 
                 0.08181 
                 0.996 
                 −2.1 
                 0.4 
                 0.93 
                 0.89 
                 0.97 
               
               
                 8 
                 19,910,123 
                 0.45471 
                 0.996 
                 −1.0 
                 0.2 
                 0.96 
                 0.94 
                 0.98 
               
               
                 8 
                 55,584,167 
                 0.24432 
                 1.000 
                 1.0 
                 0.2 
                 1.02 
                 0.99 
                 1.04 
               
               
                 8 
                 59,548,473 
                 0.31037 
                 0.998 
                 −1.4 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 8 
                 116,733,072 
                 0.26318 
                 0.999 
                 −1.1 
                 0.2 
                 1.00 
                 0.97 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 8 
                 126,543,488 
                 0.22755 
                 0.997 
                 −1.9 
                 0.3 
                 0.96 
                 0.94 
                 0.99 
               
               
                 8 
                 126,551,803 
                 0.49199 
                 0.999 
                 −2.3 
                 0.2 
                 0.95 
                 0.93 
                 0.97 
               
               
                 8 
                 145,094,645 
                 0.385 
                 0.990 
                 0.7 
                 0.2 
                 0.98 
                 0.96 
                 1.00 
               
               
                 9 
                 2,630,759 
                 0.09898 
                 0.998 
                 −1.3 
                 0.4 
                 0.97 
                 0.94 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 9 
                 16,894,846 
                 0.31865 
                 0.998 
                 −0.5 
                 0.2 
                 0.97 
                 0.95 
                 0.99 
               
               
                 9 
                 106,704,122 
                 0.25781 
                 0.999 
                 −1.1 
                 0.2 
                 0.97 
                 0.95 
                 0.99 
               
               
                 9 
                 106,724,051 
                 0.28833 
                 0.997 
                 −0.6 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 9 
                 135,122,694 
                 0.38646 
                 0.997 
                 −0.9 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 9 
                 135,143,989 
                 0.15248 
                 0.995 
                 1.0 
                 0.3 
                 1.05 
                 1.02 
                 1.08 
               
               
                 10 
                 94,829,632 
                 0.42892 
                 0.993 
                 −0.6 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 11 
                 18,612,847 
                 0.30731 
                 0.998 
                 0.8 
                 0.2 
                 1.02 
                 1.00 
                 1.04 
               
               
                 11 
                 61,305,450 
                 0.27208 
                 0.991 
                 0.8 
                 0.2 
                 1.01 
                 0.99 
                 1.04 
               
               
                 11 
                 61,354,548 
                 0.38782 
                 0.998 
                 −1.1 
                 0.2 
                 1.00 
                 0.98 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 11 
                 116,144,314 
                 0.06787 
                 0.999 
                 −5.8 
                 0.4 
                 0.94 
                 0.91 
                 0.98 
               
               
                 11 
                 116,159,645 
                 0.46743 
                 0.999 
                 −0.5 
                 0.2 
                 0.97 
                 0.95 
                 0.99 
               
               
                 11 
                 116,206,564 
                 0.00228 
                 0.979 
                 −15.1 
                 2.3 
                 0.91 
                 0.73 
                 1.14 
               
               
                 11 
                 122,039,714 
                 0.40275 
                 0.996 
                 0.6 
                 0.2 
                 1.01 
                 0.99 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 11 
                 125,749,162 
                 0.10572 
                 0.999 
                 0.7 
                 0.3 
                 1.02 
                 0.99 
                 1.06 
               
               
                 12 
                 110,492,139 
                 0.38236 
                 0.999 
                 0.8 
                 0.2 
                 0.94 
                 0.92 
                 0.96 
               
               
                 12 
                 110,794,963 
                 0.2284 
                 0.999 
                 0.8 
                 0.3 
                 0.94 
                 0.92 
                 0.97 
               
               
                 12 
                 119,901,033 
                 0.30901 
                 0.994 
                 0.9 
                 0.2 
                 1.03 
                 1.01 
                 1.05 
               
               
                 13 
                 31,851,388 
                 0.44766 
                 0.999 
                 −0.7 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 14 
                 23,953,727 
                 0.49889 
                 0.995 
                 0.8 
                 0.2 
                 0.98 
                 0.96 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 15 
                 56,518,445 
                 0.19278 
                 0.999 
                 −0.6 
                 0.3 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 16 
                 55,542,640 
                 0.38939 
                 0.991 
                 −1.8 
                 0.2 
                 0.97 
                 0.95 
                 0.99 
               
               
                 16 
                 55,572,592 
                 0.06047 
                 0.997 
                 2.9 
                 0.5 
                 1.04 
                 1.00 
                 1.09 
               
               
                 16 
                 66,485,543 
                 0.10432 
                 1.000 
                 −0.8 
                 0.3 
                 0.97 
                 0.94 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 16 
                 70,665,594 
                 0.14755 
                 0.997 
                 1.3 
                 0.3 
                 1.03 
                 1.00 
                 1.06 
               
               
                 17 
                 7,032,374 
                 0.35058 
                 0.996 
                 −1.0 
                 0.2 
                 0.98 
                 0.96 
                 1.00 
               
               
                 17 
                 8,101,874 
                 0.49481 
                 0.998 
                 −0.4 
                 0.2 
                 0.96 
                 0.94 
                 0.98 
               
               
                 17 
                 39,281,652 
                 0.03364 
                 0.989 
                 1.3 
                 0.6 
                 1.08 
                 1.02 
                 1.15 
               
               
                 17 
                 42,746,803 
                 0.28266 
                 0.998 
                 0.6 
                 0.2 
                 1.02 
                 1.00 
                 1.04 
               
               
                 17 
                 64,394,061 
                 0.32561 
                 0.995 
                 0.5 
                 0.2 
                 1.03 
                 1.01 
                 1.05 
               
               
                 18 
                 45,363,953 
                 0.01171 
                 0.999 
                 4.8 
                 1.0 
                 1.00 
                 0.91 
                 1.09 
               
               
                 19 
                 8,335,323 
                 0.02392 
                 0.965 
                 −4.7 
                 0.7 
                 0.80 
                 0.74 
                 0.86 
               
               
                 19 
                 11,063,306 
                 0.0888 
                 0.995 
                 −6.8 
                 0.4 
                 0.89 
                 0.86 
                 0.92 
               
               
                 19 
                 11,088,602 
                 0.45236 
                 0.997 
                 1.4 
                 0.2 
                 1.02 
                 1.00 
                 1.04 
               
               
                 19 
                 19,268,718 
                 0.07838 
                 0.997 
                 −3.8 
                 0.4 
                 0.96 
                 0.92 
                 1.00 
               
               
                 19 
                 50,103,781 
                 0.16819 
                 0.980 
                 8.4 
                 0.3 
                 1.05 
                 1.02 
                 1.08 
               
               
                 19 
                 50,103,919 
                 0.05236 
                 0.968 
                 −16.9 
                 0.5 
                 0.83 
                 0.79 
                 0.87 
               
               
                 19 
                 53,898,229 
                 0.39118 
                 0.997 
                 1.1 
                 0.2 
                 1.00 
                 0.98 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 19 
                 57,016,028 
                 0.27115 
                 0.999 
                 0.6 
                 0.2 
                 1.03 
                 1.01 
                 1.06 
               
               
                 19 
                 59,489,660 
                 0.21613 
                 0.990 
                 −0.6 
                 0.3 
                 0.99 
                 0.96 
                 1.02 
               
               
                 20 
                 12,910,718 
                 0.45731 
                 0.998 
                 0.4 
                 0.2 
                 1.00 
                 0.98 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 20 
                 17,793,921 
                 0.15541 
                 0.991 
                 0.8 
                 0.3 
                 0.98 
                 0.95 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 20 
                 38,613,850 
                 0.34358 
                 0.997 
                 −1.1 
                 0.2 
                 0.98 
                 0.96 
                 1.00 
               
               
                 20 
                 39,157,752 
                 0.45945 
                 0.997 
                 1.1 
                 0.2 
                 0.99 
                 0.97 
                 1.01 
               
               
                 20 
                 42,475,778 
                 0.04599 
                 0.993 
                 −1.3 
                 0.5 
                 0.98 
                 0.93 
                 1.03 
               
               
                 20 
                 44,018,827 
                 0.21978 
                 0.998 
                 1.3 
                 0.3 
                 0.98 
                 0.96 
                 1.01 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Shown are the build 36 positions (hg18), minor allele frequency (MAF), imputation information, the non-HDL effect in mg/dL and the standard error of the estimate (SE), and the OR for coronary artery disease and 95% CI for the minor allele. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1.6 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Association of del12 with various measures of liver function in Iceland 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Phenotype 
                 n a   
                 Effect b   
                 Effect (95% Cl) c   
                 P 
                 Mean (±1SD) d   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 % change 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Alanine 
                 144,402 
                 0.087 
                    5.8 (−0.4, 12.2) 
                 0.065 
                 28.7 (15.0-54.8) units/L 
               
               
                 Transaminase 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Alkaline 
                 126,060 
                 0.840 
                   50.1 (42.9, 57.2) 
                 3.6×10 −63   
                 87.1 (53.5-141.7) units/L 
               
               
                 Phosphatase 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Aspartate 
                 144,931 
                 0.072 
                    4.1 (−2.9, 11.4) 
                 0.095 
                 28.1 (14.2-55.6) units/L 
               
               
                 Transaminase 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Bilirubin 
                 94,805 
                 0.054 
                    3.7 (−2.6, 10.4) 
                 0.25 
                  9.1 (4.6-18.0) μm/L 
               
               
                 Gamma Glutamyl 
                 138,844 
                 0.113 
                   10.3 (1.7, 19.2) 
                 0.015 
                 30.9 (13.1-72.9 ) units/L 
               
               
                 Transpeptidase 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 g/L 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Albumin 
                 78,555 
                 −0.109 
                 −0.72 (−1.37, 0.06) 
                 0.033 
                 39.5 (33.0-46.0) g/L 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Number of individuals used in the association analysis for each of the traits. 
               
               
                   b Effect estimate, in units of standard deviation, from regression of adjusted trait values on the expected genotype count of del12. 
               
               
                   c Effect estimates and 95% Cl in original units. For traits with log-normal distribution the effects are presented as percentage change with 95% Cl. 
               
               
                   d Mean trait values, ± one SD, in the Icelandic population. For traits with log-normal distribution the mean and SD is calculated for log-transformed trait values and transformed back to original units. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1.7 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Common Variants at the ASGR-1 Locus Associated with Non- 
               
               
                 HDL Cholesterol and Alkaline Phosphatase in Iceland 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 rs314253 
                 rs56093546 
                 del12 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Chromosome position 
                 17:7032374 
                 17:7004539 
                 17:7020979 
               
               
                 MAF (%) 
                 35.06 
                 21.63 
                 0.43 
               
               
                 Effect a  on non-HDL 
                 −0.03 
                 −0.04 
                 −0.30 
               
               
                 cholesterol (P value) 
                 (5.9 × 10 −6 ) 
                 (2.0 × 10 −6 ) 
                 (2.5 × 10 −10 ) 
               
               
                 Adjusted for rs314253 (P) 
                 — 
                  0.022 
                 7.9 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Adjusted for rs56093546 (P) 
                   0.0068 
                 — 
                 7.2 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Adjusted for del12 (P) 
                 6.4 × 10 −7    
                 1.7 × 10 −6    
                 — 
               
               
                 Effect a  on ALP 
                 0.050 
                 0.068 
                 0.82 
               
               
                 (P value) 
                 (3.9 × 10 −21 ) 
                 (7.4 × 10 −28 ) 
                 (3.6 × 10 −63 ) 
               
               
                 Adjusted for rs314253 (P) 
                 — 
                 5.7 × 10 −12   
                 4.1 × 10 −66   
               
               
                 Adjusted for rs56093546 (P) 
                    0.000042 
                 — 
                 2.0 × 10 −66   
               
               
                 Adjusted for del12 (P) 
                 4.2 × 10 −24   
                 4.0 × 10 −31   
                 — 
               
               
                 r 2 , D′ (relative to rs314253) 
                 — 
                 0.29, 0.76 
                 0.001, 0.60 
               
               
                 r 2 , D′ (relative to rs56093546) 
                 0.29, 0.76 
                 — 
                 0.001, 1.00 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Effect estimates from the regression in units of standard deviations of the distributions of the adjusted values. 
               
               
                 The association of rs314253 with LDL cholesterol was reported in Willer et al 2013 and with ALP in Chambers et al., 2011. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1.8 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Association of p.w158X and del12 with Cholesterols, Triglyceride, Alkaline 
               
               
                 Phosphatase, Vitamin B12 and CAD in an extended Icelandic dataset 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 p.W158X 
                 del12 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Trait/(n) a   
                 Effect b   
                 Effect (95% CI) c   
                 P 
                 Effect b   
                 Effect (95% CI) c   
                 P 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Non-HDL 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 cholesterol 
                 SD 
                 mg/dL 
                   
                 SD 
                 mg/dL 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 (136,261) 
                 −0.45 
                 −21.6 
                 (−34.2, −9.6) 
                 0.00057 
                 −0.29 
                 −13.3 
                 (−17.2, −9.3) 
                 4.0 × 10 −11   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 LDL cholesterol 
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 (53,932) 
                 −0.38 
                 −15.9 
                 (−32.7, 0.9) 
                 0.064 
                 −0.23 
                 −9.7 
                 (−14.1, −5.1) 
                 2.8 × 10 −5    
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Total cholesterol 
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 (131,879) 
                 −0.30 
                 −13.5 
                 (−29.3, 2.2) 
                 0.091 
                 −0.23 
                 −10.4 
                 (−14.2, −6.5) 
                 1.4 × 10 −7    
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 HDL cholesterol 
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
                   
                 mg/dL 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 (124,437) 
                 0.14 
                 2.4 
                 (−3.9, 8.7) 
                 0.45 
                 0.15 
                 2.5 
                 (1.0, 4.0) 
                 0.0016 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Triglyceride 
                   
                 % change 
                   
                   
                 % change 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 (82,569) 
                 −0.17 
                 −8.4 
                 (−25.5, 7.2) 
                 0.33 
                 −0.12 
                 −6.0 
                 (−10.4, −1.8) 
                 0.0075 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 ALP 
                   
                 % change 
                   
                   
                 % change 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 (131,966) 
                 0.77 
                 45.3 
                 (20.4, 68.2) 
                 7.9 × 10 −6   
                 0.80 
                 47.7 
                 (2.2, 87.1) 
                 5.6 × 10 −76   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Vitamin B12 
                   
                 % change 
                   
                   
                 % change 
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 (102,624) 
                 0.26 
                 15.6 
                 (−4.3, 34.0) 
                 0.084 
                 0.33 
                 17.5 
                 (3.1, 30.9) 
                 5.6 × 10 −16   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 CAD 
                   
                 OR 
                 P 
                   
                 OR 
                 P 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 (35,134/275,567) 
                   
                 0.61 
                 (0.26, 1.40) 
                 0.24 
                   
                 0.66 
                 (0.54, 0.81) 
                 4.5 × 10 −5    
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Number of individuals with trait value and genotypes. 
               
               
                   b Effect estimates from the regression in units of standard deviations (SD) of the distributions of the adjusted values. 
               
               
                   c Effect estimates and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) in mg/dL for the cholesterols, and as percentage change for triglyceride, ALP and vitamin B12. 
               
               
                   d P-values adjusted for the effect of del12. This analysis was done on an updated Icelandic dataset that includes 8,453 WGS individuals and imputation into 150,656 Icelandic individuals. For none-HDL cholesterol association analysis an updated sample set was used that contained 136,261 Icelanders. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1.9A 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Correlation and conditional analysis for del12 and the seven other SNPs that 
               
               
                 show the strongest association at 17p13.1 with non-HDL cholesterol in Iceland 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 EA. freq 
                   
                 non-HDL 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Variant 
                 Pos 
                 EA 
                 OA 
                 (%) 
                 r 2 d   
                 Effect c   
                 P 
                 P adjdel12   a   
                 P adjSNP   b   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 chr17: 6930020:S 
                 6930020 
                 T 
                 C 
                 0.39 
                 0.85 
                 −0.243 
                 5.2 × 10 −7   
                 0.10 
                 2.8E−05 
               
               
                 rs188743906 
                 6931736 
                 T 
                 C 
                 0.39 
                 0.85 
                 −0.243 
                 5.2 × 10 −7   
                 0.18 
                 2.9E−05 
               
               
                 rs150983647 
                 6942021 
                 T 
                 C 
                 0.44 
                 0.76 
                 −0.232 
                 5.3 × 10 −7   
                 0.39 
                 7.6E−05 
               
               
                 chr17: 6944653:S 
                 6944653 
                 A 
                 G 
                 0.39 
                 0.85 
                 −0.242 
                 5.9 × 10 −7   
                 0.10 
                 2.3E−05 
               
               
                 rs146261845 
                 6952978 
                 T 
                 C 
                 0.40 
                 0.75 
                 −0.259 
                 1.1 × 10 −7   
                 0.88 
                 0.00053 
               
               
                 chr17: 6961021:S 
                 6961021 
                 C 
                 T 
                 0.39 
                 0.85 
                 −0.250 
                 2.2 × 10 −7   
                 0.18 
                 0.00010 
               
               
                 rs186021206 
                 7010136 
                 A 
                 G 
                 0.43 
                 0.86 
                 −0.283 
                 1.4 × 10 −9   
                 0.39 
                 0.067  
               
               
                 del12 
                 7020979 
                 del12 
                 — 
                 0.41 
                   
                 −0.297 
                     2.5 × 10 −10   
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a P-value for correlation between the SNP and the trait, tested conditional on the association of the trait with del12. 
               
               
                   b P-value for the correlation between the trait and del12, tested conditional on the association of the trait with the SNP. 
               
               
                   c Effect estimated in units of standardized trait values. 
               
               
                   d Correlation r 2  between del12 and sequencing genotypes of the SNPs in 2,128 Icelandic individuals. Shown are the build 36 positions (hg18). 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1.9B 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Association of del12 with Non-HDL Cholesterol, HDL Cholesterol and 
               
               
                 Triglyceride Measurements, in Iceland, Denmark and the Netherlands 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Mean 
               
               
                   
                 Study 
                 Change a   
                   
                 value b  in 
               
               
                   
                 population 
                 
                   
                 
                   
                 non-carriers 
               
               
                   
                 (n) 
                 SE 
                   
                 (SD) 
               
               
                   
                 Non-HDL cholesterol 
                 mg/dl 
                 P value 
                 mg/dl 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Discovery 
                 Iceland (119,146) 
                 −10.4 ± 1.5 
                 2.5 × 10 −10   
                 156.8 (38.2) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 The Netherlands c  (5,156) 
                 −15.4 ± 5.4 
                 0.0032 
                 170.7 (41.3) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark A d  (5,968) 
                 −17.4 ± 8.1 
                 0.0069 
                 158.3 (42.9) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark B e  (8,822) 
                 −21.6 ± 5.4 
                 3.8 × 10 −5    
                 164.5 (40.5) 
               
               
                   
                 Combined 
                 −11.6 ± 1.5 
                 1.0 × 10 −16   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 HDL cholesterol 
                 mg/dl 
                   
                 mg/dl 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Discovery 
                 Iceland (119,514) 
                     0 ± 0.4 
                 0.0058 
                 55.2 (15.8) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 The Netherlands (5,537) 
                 2.7 ± 1.5 
                 0.20 
                 52.2 (13.1) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark A (6,182) 
                 1.2 ± 2.7 
                 0.096 
                 55.2 (15.4) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark B (9,656) 
                 1.5 ± 1.2 
                 0.26 
                 59.9 (16.2) 
               
               
                   
                 Combined 
                     0 ± 0.4 
                 0.00039 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Triglyceride - mg/dl 
                 mg/dl 
                   
                 mg/dl 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Discovery 
                 Iceland (80,011) 
                 −1.2 ± 1.5 
                 0.012 
                 130.9 (75.2)  
               
               
                 Replication 
                 The Netherlands (5,537) 
                 −0.4 ± 5.8 
                 0.52 
                 176.9 (121.2) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark A (6,182) 
                  8.1 ± 6.9 
                 0.53 
                 116.8 (84.0)  
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark B (8,163) 
                 −3.5 ± 2.3 
                 0.15 
                 131.8 (118.5) 
               
               
                   
                 Combined 
                 −1.5 ± 1.2 
                 0.0030 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Effect size, ± standard error, represents the difference in mean values between heterozygote carriers and non-carriers of the variants after adjusting for age, sex and, for Iceland, site and statin use. 
               
               
                   b Calculated based on unadjusted values. 
               
               
                   c The Nijmegen Biomedical Study (Wetzels et al. 2007). 
               
               
                   d The Danish Inter99 study (Jørgensen et al. 2003). 
               
               
                   e The Danish Addition study (Lauritzen et al. 2000). To convert the values for non-HDL cholesterol to millimoles per liter, multiply by 0.02586. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1.10 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Association of del12 with Alkaline Phosphatase and Vitamin 
               
               
                 B12 Serum Measurements in Iceland and Denmark 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Mean 
               
               
                   
                 Study 
                   
                   
                 value b  in 
               
               
                   
                 population 
                 Change 3a  ± 
                   
                 non-carriers 
               
               
                   
                 (n) 
                 SE 
                   
                 (SD) 
               
               
                   
                 ALP 
                 U/L 
                 P value 
                 U/L 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Discovery 
                 Iceland (126,060) 
                 +33.6 ± 2.8 
                 3.6 × 10 −63   
                 92.8 (64.0) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark A (5,829) 
                 +15.8 ± 2.6 
                 1.7 × 10 −6    
                 42.9 (13.5) 
               
               
                   
                 Combined 
                 +24.1 ± 1.9 
                 9.9 × 10 −69   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Vitamin B12 
                 pmol/L 
                   
                 pmol/L 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Discovery 
                 Iceland (97,910) 
                 +58.4 ± 8.3 
                 3.1 × 10 −12   
                 439.0 (171.0) 
               
               
                 Replication 
                 Denmark A (5,826) 
                  +75.9 ± 29.2 
                 0.0069 
                 420.0 (146.0) 
               
               
                   
                 Combined 
                 +59.7 ± 7.9 
                 9.9 × 10 −14   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Effect size, ± standard error, represents the difference in mean values between heterozygote carriers and non-carriers of the variants after adjusting for age, sex and, for Iceland, site and statin use. 
               
               
                   b Calculated based on unadjusted values. 
               
               
                   c The Nijmegen Biomedical Study (Wetzels et al. 2007). 
               
               
                   d The Danish Inter99 study (Jørgensen et al. 2003). 
               
               
                   e The Danish Addition study (Lauritzen et al. 2000). To convert the values for non-HDL cholesterol to millimoles per liter, multiply by 0.02586 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 2 
     ALP Data from ASGR-1 Knockout Mice 
     ASGR-1 KO mice (strain B6.129S4-ASGR-1 tm1Sau /SaubJ×mJ) were obtained from Jackson Labs and maintained on a chow diet. Serum was collected from male and female animals after a 4 hr fast and tested in an Olympus AU640 Clinical Chemistry Analyzer. Compared to wild-type mice, serum ALP is elevated in ASGR-1 knockout mice (*, p&lt;0.05; ****, p&lt;0.0001, one-way ANOVA with Dunnett test). Levels of alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST) were not significantly different between the groups. These data are summarized in  FIG. 7  herein. WT=wild-type; HE=heterozygous; HO=homozygous. 
     Example 3 
     RNAi 
     Material and Methods 
     siRNA Constructs 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3.1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Primary 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Vendor 
                 Gene 
                   
                 SEQ 
                   
                 SEQ ID 
               
               
                 Vendor 
                 catalog# 
                 Target 
                 Target Sequence 
                 ID NO: 
                 matched control 
                 NO: 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Fisher/Ambion 
                 S1662 
                 hASGR-1 
                 ACUUCACAGC 
                 32614 
                 ACUUCACACGC 
                 32632 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GAGCACGGA 
                   
                 AGCACGGA 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GE/Dharmacon 
                 D-011215- 
                 hASGR-2 
                 GCCAAGGACU 
                 32615 
                 GCCAAGGAGAA 
                 32633 
               
               
                   
                 01 
                   
                 UUCAAGAUA 
                   
                 UCAAGAUA 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GE/Dharmacon 
                 D-011215- 
                 hASGR-2 
                 UGACGGAGGU 
                 32616 
                 UGACGGAGCAG 
                 32634 
               
               
                   
                 03 
                   
                 CCAGGCAAU 
                   
                 CAGGCAAU 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GE/Dharmacon 
                 D-011215- 
                 hASGR-2 
                 AGUGAUGGCU 
                 32617 
                 AGUGAUGGGAG 
                 32635 
               
               
                   
                 04 
                   
                 CUUGGAAAU 
                   
                 UUGGAAAU 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Fisher/Ambion 
                 S1665 
                 hASGR-2 
                 GACUAUAGGC 
                 32618 
                 GACUAUAGCGU 
                 32636 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ACAACUACA 
                   
                 CAACUACA 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Fisher/Ambion 
                 194296 
                 hASGR-2 
                 CUGUGUGACUG 
                 32619 
                 CUGUGUGAGAC 
                 32637 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GGUCCCAA 
                   
                 GGUCCCAA 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Fisher/Ambion 
                 S194297 
                 hASGR-2 
                 CACCUCUGGCU 
                 32620 
                 CACCUCUGCGAA 
                 32638 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AACCCAUA 
                   
                 ACCCAUA 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GE/Dharmacon 
                 D-042958- 
                 mASGR-1 
                 GAGACAGGCUU 
                 32621 
                 GAGACAGGGAA 
                 32639 
               
               
                   
                 01 
                   
                 CCAGAAUU 
                   
                 CCAGAAUU 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GE/Dharmacon 
                 D-042958- 
                 mASGR-1 
                 UGAAGUUAGUG 
                 32622 
                 UGAAGUUACAC 
                 32640 
               
               
                   
                 04 
                   
                 GAGUCGAA 
                   
                 GAGUCGAA 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Fisher/Ambion 
                 S62656 
                 mASGR-1 
                 AGAUCACUCCA 
                 32623 
                 AGAUCACUGGU 
                 32641 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GUUUGCUA 
                   
                 GUUUGCUA 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Qiagen 
                 S102735796 
                 mASGR-1 
                 CCAUCAUGACA 
                 32624 
                 CCAUCAUGUGU 
                 32642 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AAGGAUUA 
                   
                 AAGGAUUA 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GE/Dharmacon 
                 D-061966- 
                 mASGR-2 
                 GGAUGGAACU 
                 32625 
                 GGAUGGAAGAC 
                 32643 
               
               
                   
                 01 
                   
                 GAUUAUAGA 
                   
                 AUUAUAGA 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GE/Dharmacon 
                 D-061966- 
                 mASGR-2 
                 GGAAUUGGGCC 
                 32626 
                 GGAAUUGGCGG 
                 32644 
               
               
                   
                 02 
                   
                 UUCACUCA 
                   
                 UUCACUCA 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GE/Dharmacon 
                 D-061966- 
                 mASGR-2 
                 GACGGAACAUC 
                 32627 
                 GACGGAACUAG 
                 32645 
               
               
                   
                 03 
                   
                 ACCCACUA 
                   
                 ACCCACUA 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GE/Dharmacon 
                 D-061966- 
                 mASGR-2 
                 GGAUAGGUCUU 
                 32628 
                 GGAUAGGUGAA 
                 32646 
               
               
                   
                 04 
                   
                 ACCGACAG 
                   
                 ACCGACAG 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GE/Dharmacon 
                 S62659 
                 mASGR-2 
                 GCAGGAUCCU 
                 32629 
                 GCAGGAUCGAU 
                 32647 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 AGGAUAGAA 
                   
                 GGAUAGAA 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Fisher/Ambion 
                 S62660 
                 mASGR-2 
                 ACAUUGCUCU 
                 32630 
                 ACAUUGCUGAA 
                 32648 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 UUCACCUGA 
                   
                 UCACCUGA 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Fisher/Ambion 
                 S62661 
                 mASGR-2 
                 GAAGAGUUUC 
                 32631 
                 GAAGAGUUAGC 
                 32649 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 GGACCCUGA 
                   
                 GACCCUGA 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Expression Analysis 
     RNA was isolated from the HepG2, CHOs stable cell lines, or liver tissues treated with scrambled siRNA, matched control siRNA or siRNAs against hASGR-1, hASGR-2, mASGR-1 or mASGR-2 using the Qiacube and standard Qiagen RNA isolation protocol. The RNA was DNase treated using the RQ1 DNase kit (Promega). Quantitative PCR was performed according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocol on the Quantstudio 7 using the indicated primer probe set (hASGR-1: Hs01005019_ml; hASGR-2: Hs00910102_ml; mASGR-1: Mm01245581_ml, mASGR-2:Mm00431863_ml) from Applied Biosystems. 50 ng RNA/well was used and normalized with 18S internal control. 
     siRNA Transfection 
     Cells were transfected with 10 nM indicated scrambled siRNA, matched control siRNA or siRNAs against hASGR-1, hASGR-2, mASGR-1 or mASGR-2 siRNA for 3-4 days, using Lipofectamine RNAIMAX (Thermo Scientific) following manufacturer&#39;s RNAi reverse transfection protocol. Transfection was done in 96 well Screenstar microplates (Greiner bio-one) for internalization assay as well as in 96 well clear tissue culture plates (Corning) for QPCR and Western blotting. 
     Western Blotting 
     Cells were lysed in RIPA buffer containing inhibitors 3-4 days after siRNA transfection. Cell lysates were passed through a 21 gauge syringe five times and then centrifuged at 13000 rpm at 4° C. for 15 mins. Supernatants were collected and protein concentrations were determined. If needed, 30 ug of protein was deglycosylated using the deglycosylation kit (Genzyme). 10 ug-30 ug of total protein was loaded in each well. The gel was transferred onto a nitrocellulose membrane and the membrane was blocked with 5% blocking buffer for 1 hr at RT. Membrane was then probed with anti-mASGR-1 (1:1000, R &amp;D), hASGR-1 (1:1000, ProteinTech), hASGR-2 (1:1000, Abcam), anti-flag (1:5000, Sigma), anti-his (1:1000, Cell signaling) and mouse anti β-actin (1:5000, Thermo Fisher or Cell signaling) o/n at 4° C. The membrane was further probed with anti-mouse and anti-rat secondary antibodies to detection the indicated bands. 
     Ligand Internalization Assay 
     CHO stable cell lines were treated with scrambled siRNA, matched control siRNA or siRNAs against hASGR-1, hASGR-2, mASGR-1 or mASGR-2 siRNA for 3-4 days and plated in 96-well plate. Biotin-GalNAc-PAA was incubated and streptavidin-Alexa488 was further added to cells. Draq5 was used to counterstain cells (for both cytoplasm and nuclei). Cells were scanned with Operetta Image System and data analyzed by Columbus. 
     Animal Study 
     All animal housing conditions and research protocols were approved by the Amgen Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). Mice were housed in a specified-pathogen free, AAALAC, Intl-accredited facility in ventilated microisolators. Procedures and housing rooms are positively pressured and regulated on a 12:12 dark:light cycle. All animals received reverse-osmosis purified water ad libitum via an automatic watering system. 10-12 week old C57BL/6J animals (The Jackson Laboratory) were singly housed and were fed standard chow (2020× Teklad global soy protein-free extruded rodent diet; Harlan). 
     siRNAs modified for in vivo studies were formulated with Invivofectamine 3.0 (Thermo Scientific) following the manufacturer&#39;s protocol. In brief, siRNAs were pre-mixed with complex buffer (provided by manufacturer) and Invivofectamine 3.0, and then incubated at 50° C. for 30 minute and further diluted by PBS before injection. 
     Mice were i.v. injected with buffer, indicated siRNA and matched control siRNA at 1-2 mg/kg body weight in 0.25 ml buffer at indicated time. Liver total RNA from harvested animals was processed for qPCR analysis. 
     Data from these studies is provided in  FIGS. 8-17  herein. 
     Example 4 
     Y272C Mutant Data 
     Stable pools of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells expressing C-terminal FLAG epitope-tagged murine wild-type or Y272C ASGR-1 were generated by established methods using puromycin selection. Cell surface expression of ASGR-1 was confirmed by FACS using anti-FLAG antibody both during selection process and at the time of the experiment. Ligand binding was assessed by FACS using β-GalNAc-PAA-biotin (Glycotech Corporation) and streptavidin-phycoerythrin (PE). Briefly, ligand was added to 100 ul cells (1×106 cells) in Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) without phenol red plus 2% bovine serum albumin (BSA) and incubated on ice for 60 minutes. Cells were then washed 3× with DMEM without phenol red plus 2% BSA. Streptavidin-PE was then added at 1 μg/ml for 20 minutes on ice followed by 3 more washes in DMEM without phenol red plus 2% BSA, at which point the cells were resuspended in 0.5 ml DMEM without phenol red plus 2% BSA and 5 ul of 0.1 mM SyTOx Blue viability dye and analyzed on a BD LSR II (BD Biosciences). Data are presented as Median Fluorescence Intensity as shown in Table 4.1, below. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4.1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 ASGR-1 Y272C has reduced ligand binding 
               
               
                 compared to wild-type ASGR-1 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 β-GalNAc-PAA-biotin, ug/ml 
                 Anti-FLAG 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 0 
                 0.1 
                 0.3 
                 antibody 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Parental 
                 5.23 
                 5.52 
                 5.57 
                 7.3 
               
               
                   
                 WT 
                 4.87 
                 763.51 
                 1394.86 
                 3959.65 
               
               
                   
                 Y272C 
                 5.28 
                 5.47 
                 6.10 
                 973.38 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 5 
     Generation of Antibodies 
     Molecular Cloning of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2 Sequences 
     For production of recombinant ASGR-1 and ASGR-2 vectors, cDNA sequences were synthesized, obtained from a commercial source or compiled from RNA sequencing data (Amgen). Human, mouse and rat ASGR cDNA clones were from obtained commercially (OriGene Technologies, Inc.). All other ASGR cDNAs were synthesized (Integrated DNA Technologies, Inc.). GenBank accession numbers are as follows: human ASGR-1 (NM_001671.4), human ASGR-2 (NM_080913.3), mouse ASGR-1 (BC022106.1), mouse ASGR-2 (BC011197.1), rat ASGR-1 (NM_012503), rat ASGR-2 (NM_017189), pig ASGR-1 (NM_001244458), pig ASGR-2 (XM_005669199), dog ASGR-1 (XM_546579), dog ASGR-2 (XM_003434599), cynomologus monkey ASGR-1 (XP_005582755). Since the NCBI entry for cynomologus ASGR-2 was a partial amino acid sequence (NCBI protein accession #EHH57653), the complete nucleotide sequence was compiled through the analysis of the cyno genome (genome build  Macaca _ fascicularis _5.0; GenBank accession number GCA_000364345.1; Washington University) and RNA sequencing data (Amgen) from cyno liver, heart and skin tissue. For transient or stable mammalian expression, cDNAs were cloned into pTT5 (National Research Council of Canada), pSLX235a (SureTech) or pJiF1 (Boyce Lab, Massachusetts General Hospital, U.S. Pat. No. 7,192,933). For individual recombinant protein production in mammalian cells, most sequences were tagged at their C-termini with a 6× His purification tag. For complexes of huASGR-1 and huASGR-2, huASGR-2 was expressed without the 6× His tag. For recombinant expression in  E. coli,  sequences were cloned into pET21a (Novagen, EMD Millipore). The amino acid sequences of the resultant ASGR proteins are shown in Table 1. 
     Expression and Purification of Recombinant Proteins 
     Generation of Stable CHO-S Cell Pools for Recombinant Protein Expression 
     CHO-S (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) cells were transfected with the pSLX235a vector encoding ASGR-1 or ASGR-2 using Lipofectamine LTX according to the manufacturer&#39;s recommendations (ThermoFisher Scientific). Stable pools were selected using 10 ug/ml puromycin (single selections) or 10 ug/ml puromycin and 400 ug/ml hygromycin (double selections) and by culturing the cells in fresh media every 2 days. Stable pools were then used for recombinant protein production. 
     Recombinant Protein Production and Purification from CHO-S Cell Stable Pools 
     Cells from the selected stable pools were expanded in growth medium. When sufficient cell numbers had been obtained, cultures were seeded in 2L conical flasks in a volume of 1L of growth medium at a viable cell density of 8×10 5  cells/ml. Cells were then cultured in suspension at 37° C., in 5% CO 2  for three days, after which the temperature was dropped to 31° C. for the final 7 days of production. Centrifugation was used to pellet the cells, and the resulting supernatant was filtered to generate conditioned medium. 
     Individual recombinant proteins were purified via the 6× His tag using Ni-Excel resin (GE Healthcare). Briefly, 1.4 L of conditioned medium was loaded onto 3×5 ml Ni-Excel Hi-trap columns and then washed with 10 column volumes of wash buffer (25 mM HEPES, pH 7.6, 250 mM NaCl, 1 mM CaCl 2 , 50 mM imidazole). Protein was eluted from the columns with 7 column volumes of elution buffer (25 mM HEPES, pH 7.6, 250 mM NaCl, 1 mM CaCl 2 , 400 mM imidazole). The eluted fractions were loaded onto a HiLoad Superdex 200 column via 2×10 ml injections and eluted with 25 mM HEPES, pH 7.6; 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM CaCl 2 . The final fractions were collected based on their expected molecular weight. The identity of the proteins in each eluted peak was confirmed by LC-TOF-MS after deglycosylation (with N-glycanase, O-glycanase and sialidase) and reduction. ASGR-1/ASGR-2 complexes were purified by pre-incubating the ASGR-1-6× His Tag conditioned medium with ASGR-2-no 6× His Tag conditioned medium. These conditions permitted association of both proteins giving a complex that could be purified via the standard two-step Ni-Excel/SEC method. 
     Recombinant Protein Production and Purification from  E. coli    
       E. coli  codon optimized sequences were cloned into the pET21a expression plasmid. Plasmids were transformed into  E. coli  strain BL21(DE3) Star (ThermoFisher Scientific Inc.) and individual clones were selected using carbenicillin. For expression, cells were grown in 1L TB growth medium (supplemented with carbenicillin) in a 4 L flask at 37° C. with shaking. When an optical density of 2 was achieved, protein expression was induced by the addition of 1 mM IPTG (final concentration). After 4 hours of induction at 37° C., the cell paste was harvested by centrifugation (recovering between 7 and 14 g cell paste/L culture). Protein localization into the insoluble fraction was confirmed by SDS-PAGE. 
     Inclusion bodies were recovered from the cell paste and solubilized in 6M guanidinium containing 10 mM DTT. Successful protein refolding was established by screening a matrix of 32 conditions that included a variety of buffers, pHs, denaturants, stabilizing agents and reducing agents. The refolding procedure was initiated by rapidly diluting the dissolved inclusion bodies at a ratio of 1:15 into the appropriate refold buffer, maintaining approximately 1 mg of protein per condition. The samples were then incubated at 4° C. for 60 hours. The resulting batches were analysed by SDS-PAGE and Ion Exchange chromatography to identify the optimal refolding conditions. For the ASGR-1 CBD (148-291), the final refold conditions were: pH 9.5, 2.5M urea, 20% glycerol, 4 mM cysteine and 4 mM cystamine. 
     Generation of Anti-ASGR Immune Responses 
     Mouse Strains 
     Fully human antibodies to human ASGR were generated by immunizing XENOMOUSE® transgenic mice (U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,114,598; 6,162,963; 6,833,268; 7,049,426; 7,064,244, which are incorporated herein by references in their entirety; Green et al., 1994,  Nature Genetics  7:13-21; Mendez et al., 1997,  Nature Genetics  15:146-156; Green and Jakobovitis, 1998,  J. Ex. Med,  188:483-495; Kellerman and Green,  Current Opinion in Biotechnology  13, 593-597, 2002). Animals from the XMG2-K, XMG2-KL, XMG4-K and XMG4-KL XENOMOUSE® strains were used for all immunizations. 
     Mouse anti-human ASGR antibodies were generated by immunizing BALB/c, C57BL/6 and CD-1 mice (Charles River Laboratories, San Diego, Calif.) as well as B6.129S4-ASGR-1 tm1Sau /SaubJ×mJ (ASGR-1 KO mice) and C57BL6 x129 F1 mice (Jackson Laboratory, Sacramento, Calif.). 
     Fully human, heavy chain only antibodies (HCAbs) were generated by immunizing the VH4 and 8V3 strains of transgenic Harbour mice (Janssens et al. 2006,  PNAS  103:15130-15135; Harbour Biologics, Rotterdam, Netherlands). Rat anti-mouse ASGR antibodies were generated using Brown Norway Rats (Charles River Laboratories, San Diego, Calif.). 
     Immunizations 
     Multiple immunogens and routes of immunization were used to generate anti-human ASGR immune responses. For genetic immunizations, mice were immunized 12-14 times over 6-8 weeks using the Helios Gene Gun system according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions (BioRad, Hercules, Calif.). Briefly, expression vectors encoding wild type human or mouse ASGR-1 (or both huASGR-1+huASGR-2, muASGR-1+muASGR-2) were coated onto gold beads (BioRad, Hercules, Calif.) and delivered to the epidermis of a shaved mouse or rat abdomen. For cell-based immunizations, mice and rats were immunized with CHO-s cells (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) or 293-6E cells (National Resource Council of Canada) transiently transfected with expression vectors encoding human or mouse ASGR-1 (or both huASGR-1+huASGR-2, muASGR-1+muASGR-2). Animals were immunized with cells mixed with Alum prepared from aluminum potassium sulfate (EMD Chemicals Inc., Gibbstown, N.J.) and CpG-ODN (Eurofins MWG Operon LLC, Huntsville, Ala.) 10 times over 6 weeks using a protocol that alternated between sub-cutaneous and intraperitoneal injections. The initial boost was comprised of 4×10 6  cells while subsequent boosts contained 2×10 6  cells. For soluble protein immunizations, mice were immunized with a variety of human ASGR recombinant proteins representing the complete extracellular domain (ECD), the carbohydrate binding domain (CBD) or the complex of ASGR-1 and ASGR-2 ECDs (Table 5.1). Animals were immunized with recombinant protein (or recombinant protein conjugated to KLH using standard methods) mixed with Alum and CpG-ODN, Complete Freund&#39;s Adjuvant (Sigma), or MPL+ Adjuvant (Sigma) 10 times over 4-6 weeks using sub-cutaneous injections. The initial boost was comprised of 10 μg while subsequent boosts contained 5-10 μg. Human ASGR-1-specific serum titers were monitored by live-cell FACS analysis on an Accuri flow cytometer (BD Biosciences). Animals with the highest antigen-specific serum titers were sacrificed and used for hybridoma generation (Kohler and Milstein, 1975). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5.1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Soluble, Recombinant Protein Antigens Used for Immunizations 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Recombinant Protein Immunogen 
                 Source 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 huASGR-1 (Cat#: C428) ECD-KLH conjugate 
                 Novoprotein 
               
               
                 huASGR-1 (64-291) ECD-KLH conjugate 
                 Amgen 
               
               
                 huASGR-1 (64-291) ECD 
                 Amgen 
               
               
                 huASGR-1 (154-291) CBD 
                 Amgen 
               
               
                 huASGR-1(64-291)/huASGR-2 (61-287) ECD Complex 
                 Amgen 
               
               
                 huASGR-1(64-291)/huASGR-2 (61-287) ECD Complex-KLH conjugate 
                 Amgen 
               
               
                 muASGR-1 (63-284) 
                 Amgen 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Preparation of Monoclonal Antibodies 
     Hybridoma Generation 
     Animals exhibiting suitable serum titers were identified and lymphocytes were obtained from spleen and/or draining lymphnodes. Pooled lymphocytes (from each immunization cohort) were dissociated from lymphoid tissue by grinding in a suitable medium (for example, Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM); Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). B cells were selected and/or expanded using standard methods, and fused with a suitable fusion partner using techniques that were known in the art. 
     Antigen Enrichment of Hybridoma Pools 
     Fused hybridoma pools from each immune tissue harvest were used as a source of material for FACS-based enrichments using a variety of probes. To enrich for hybridomas expressing antibodies specific to native (full length, on-cell) human, cyno, mouse, rat, dog, or pig ASGR-1 (and native human ASGR-2) membranes were prepared from 293T cells transiently expressing the relevant ASGR cDNA construct. 24 hours after transfection using 293-fectin (ThermoFisher Scientific Inc.), cells were biotinylated with E-Z link NHS-LC-LC-Biotin according to the manufacturer&#39;s recommendation (ThermoFisher Scientific Inc.). After biotinylation, cells were homogenized with a needle and syringe to form membrane fragments and referred to as “membrane preps”. The biotinylated membrane preps were then used to detect hybridomas expressing surface antibodies specific to the target of interest via standard biotin-streptavidin chemistry. To enrich for hybridomas capable of binding to the recombinant ASGR-1 ECD or CBD, soluble, 6× His-tagged ASGR-1 proteins were used (Amgen). 
     To enrich hybridoma pools for the antigen of interest, they were first incubated with the appropriate membrane prep or soluble probe. For soluble forms of ASGR-1, the recombinant protein probes were added to the hybridomas and allowed to bind. Excess probe was then washed away and the antigen-specific hybridomas were identified by simultaneous detection of surface IgG (with an Alexa 488 conjugated secondary antibody (Jackson ImmunoResearch) (Gt anti-mouse Fc for wild type mouse hybridomas and Gt anti-human Fc for transgenic mouse hybridomas)) and the soluble ASGR-1 probe via its 6× His tag (using an Amgen-derived anti-6× His monoclonal antibody conjugated to Alexa 647 via an Alexa 647 labeling kit (ThermoFisher Scientific Inc). Hybridomas expressing surface IgG and binding antigen were detected by FACS analysis on an Accuri flow cytometer. Dual positive events were sorted as single cells into 384-well plates on a FACS Aria cell sorter (BD Biosciences). For native forms of ASGR-1, biotinylated membrane preps were prepared as described from 293T cells transiently expressing the appropriate antigen. After washing away unbound probe, dual positive hybridomas expressing cell surface IgG and binding antigen were detected using an Alexa 488 conjugated secondary antibody (to detect IgG) and streptavidin conjugated to Alexa 647 (Jackson ImmunoResearch) to detect antigen. These events were sorted as single cells into 384-well plates on a FACS Aria cell sorter. After several days of culture, the hybridoma supernatants containing monoclonal antibodies were collected and used in the screening assays described in the examples below. 
     Example 6 
     Identification of ASGR-1 Specific Antibodies 
     The following Table 6.1 summarizes the approximate numbers of antibodies assayed: 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6.1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Summary of the identification and selection of 
               
               
                 huASGR-1 binding, ligand blocking antibodies. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 ASGR-1 Screen 
                 Number of Antibodies 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 huASGR-1 Binders 
                 15731 
               
               
                 huASGR-1-Ligand Blockers (&gt;60%) 
                 5306 
               
               
                 Sequences Unique huASGR-1-Ligand 
                 2603 (disclosed in Table 3) 
               
               
                 Blockers 
               
               
                 huASGR-1-Ligand Blockers (&gt;50%) 
                 172 (disclosed in Table 3) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 6-A 
     Initial Selection of ASGR-1 Specific Binding Antibodies 
     Hybridoma supernatants (monoclonal antibodies) were screened for binding to human ASGR-1 transiently expressed on Human Embryonic Kidney (HEK) 293 cells using the Cell Insight™ High Content Imaging Platform (ThermoFisher Scientific). Human ASGR-1 was transiently expressed on host HEK 293 cells by transfection using human ASGR-1 DNA, Gibco™ Opti-MEM® media and 293Fectin™ reagents following the protocol set out by the manufacturer. Transfected HEK 293 cells expressing the human ASGR-1, hybridoma supernatant or control samples, Alexa Fluor® 488 IgG Fc fragment-specific detection antibody and Hoechst 33342 stain were mixed and incubated for 3 hours at room temperature. Samples were then washed and analyzed on the CellInsight™ system. Supernatants were counter-screened against HEK 293 cells transfected with empty parental vector (referred to as mock). Analysis was done using irrelevant IgG antibody supernatant sample signal; hybridoma supernatant samples showing two times or greater signal over irrelevant IgG antibody sample were considered to be exhibiting ASGR-1- specific binding profiles and selected for further characterization. See Table 6.1. 
     Example 6-B 
     Identification of ASGR-1 Receptor-Ligand Blocking Antibodies 
     ASGR-1-binding hybridoma supernatants were tested for their ability to block ASGR-1 from binding ligand. Competitive binding assays were performed on the antigen specific hybridoma supernatant samples using FACS on either HEK 293 cells transiently expressing human ASGR-1 or CHO-S cells stably expressing Human ASGR-1 as follows. HEK 293 cells or CHO-S cells expressing human ASGR-1 were mixed with the antibody sample (hybridoma supernatants specific for ASGR-1) and incubated for 1 hour at 4° C., and then washed twice. Cells with bound sample were then incubated with precomplexed β-GalNAc-PAA-Biotin (GlycoTech, Gaithersburg, Md.)/Alexa Fluor® 647- Streptavidin for 45 minutes at 4° C. The concentration of β-GalNAc-PAA-Biotin was used at the binding EC50 concentration on the specific cell line. The concentration of Alexa Fluor® 647 Streptavidin was used at a 2:1 molar ratio to β-GalNAc-PAA-Biotin. The 7-AAD cell viability stain was then added and the cells incubated for a further 15 minutes at 4° C., washed twice and resuspended in FACS buffer. Where tolerated by cell viability, FACS buffer supplemented with 1 mM Calcium Chloride was used in all steps. Samples were analyzed using a BD Accuri™ Flow Cytometer and an Intellicyt HyperCyt Autosampler. Analysis was done using irrelevant (non-ASGR-1 specific) IgG antibody supernatant control signal on both mock transfected HEK 293 cells and Human ASGR-1 transfected HEK 293 cells to determine maximum and minimum β-GalNAc-PAA-Biotin binding signal. Using these maximum and minimum binding signals, the % β-GalNAc-PAA-Biotin binding inhibition was determined. ASGR-1 antibodies having the ability to reduce ligand binding ≥60% were identified (Table 6.1), and sequenced using methods available to those skilled in the art. The sequences of unique ASGR-1-specific, ligand blocking antibodies are displayed in Table 2-7 herein. 
     The unique ASGR-1-specific, ligand blocking antibodies were then tested for their ability to block the GalNAc ligand under more stringent conditions using a single, known antibody concentration (5 ug/ml). The receptor-ligand blocking assays were performed using 293T cells transiently expressing ASGR-1 or CHOs cells that had been stably transfected with ASGR-1. ASGR-1 antibodies having the ability to reduce ligand binding ≥50% were identified. See Table 6.1. 
     Example 7 
     Antibody Characterization Assays 
     A. ASGR-1 Species Cross Reactivity, ASGR-2 Selectivity Assays and Hepatoma (HEPG2) Binding Assays 
     Human ASGR-1-specific, ligand competing antibody samples were tested for binding to ASGR-1 from other species (cynomologus monkey ASGR-1, mouse ASGR-1, rat ASGR-1, dog ASGR-1, and pig ASGR-1) as well as to human ASGR-2 in FACS binding assays at normalized antibody concentrations. For cell-based assays, HEK 293 cells expressing the appropriate antigen of interest were mixed with antibody sample or controls, incubated for 1 hour at 4° C., and then washed twice. Cells with bound antibody were then incubated with Alexa Fluor® 647 IgG Fc fragment-specific detection antibody and 7-AAD viability stain for 15 minutes at 4° C., washed once and resuspended in FACS buffer. Samples were analyzed using a BD Accuri™ Flow Cytometer and an Intellicyt HyperCyt Autosampler. As a negative control, supernatants and controls were also screened against HEK 293 cells transfected with empty parental vector. Analysis was done using irrelevant (non-ASGR-1 specific) IgG antibody supernatant sample signal; hybridoma supernatant samples showing at least two times the signal over irrelevant IgG antibody sample were considered to be exhibiting ASGR-1- species specific binding profiles. For membrane-prep binding assays, ASGR-1 species specific membrane preps were used to coat LumAvidin® microspheres (beads) and tested for binding to selected hybridoma supernatants or controls. Briefly, ASGR-1 species specific membrane preps were incubated with streptavidin-coated LumAvidin® beads for 45 minutes in the dark at room temperature and washed twice. Beads were resuspeneded in FACS buffer containing StabilGuard®. Antigen-bound beads were then incubated with normalized antibody sample for 1 hour in the dark at room temperature, washed twice, incubated with Alexa Fluor® 488 IgG Fc fragment-specific detection antibody for 15 minutes in the dark at room temperature, washed once and finally resuspended in FACS buffer. Samples were analyzed using an Intellicyt iQue™ Screener Platform. FACS buffer supplemented with 1 mM Calcium Chloride was used in all steps. As a negative control, supernatants and controls were also screened against a non-ASGR-1 antigen membrane prep coated on the LumAvidin® beads. Analysis was done using irrelevant (non-ASGR-1 specific) IgG antibody supernatant sample signal; hybridoma supernatant samples showing at least two times the signal over irrelevant IgG antibody sample were considered to be exhibiting specific binding profiles. See Table 7.1. 
     Human ASGR-1-specific, ligand competing hybridoma supernatant samples were screened for binding to the human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2 (ATCC HB-8065) at normalized antibody concentrations. For FACS binding assays, HepG2 cells were mixed with normalized antibody samples or controls, incubated for 1 hour at 4° C., and washed twice. Cells with bound antibody were then incubated with Alexa Fluor® 647 IgG Fc fragment-specific detection antibody and 7-AAD viability stain for 15 minutes at 4° C., washed once and resuspended in FACS buffer. Samples were analyzed using a BD Accuri™ Flow Cytometer and an Intellicyt HyperCyt Autosampler. For high content imaging binding assays, HepG2 cells were mixed with normalized antibody samples or controls, incubated for 1 hour at room temperature and washed twice. Cells with bound antibody were then incubated with Alexa Fluor® 488 IgG Fc fragment-specific detection antibody and Hoechst 33342 stain for 30 minutes at room temperature, washed twice and analyzed on the CellInsight™ system. Where tolerated by cell viability, FACS buffer supplemented with 1 mM Calcium Chloride was used in all steps. Analysis was done using irrelevant (non-ASGR-1 specific) IgG antibody supernatant sample signal; hybridoma supernatant samples showing two times or greater signal over irrelevant IgG antibody sample were considered to be exhibiting HepG2 ASGR-1 specific binding profiles. See Table 7.1. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7.1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Summary of the binding specificities of the selected human ASGR-1 binding antibodies. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Binding Data Summary 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Human 
                 Cyno 
                 Mouse 
                 Rat 
                 Dog 
                 Pig 
                 HEPG2 
                 Human 
               
               
                 mAb 
                 ASGR-1 
                 ASGR-1 
                 ASGR-1 
                 ASGR-1 
                 ASGR-1 
                 ASGR-1 
                 Cells 
                 ASGR-2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 25A4 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 26C4 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 29H8 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 4A2 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 4H6 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 56E5 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 7F4 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 no data 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
               
               
                 7G4 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 48B12 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 184E7 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 194A4 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 4B1 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 72G9 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 190F8 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 191G1 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 191G10 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 194C1 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 197G3 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 198G3 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 75G3 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 218G4 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 193E7 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 198D2 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 202A3 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 7E11 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 22G5 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 5E5 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 54E9 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 6G7 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
               
               
                 176H4 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 194C10 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                 12D2 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 N 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     B. Relative Binding Affinities for ASGR-Specific mAbs 
     To assess antibody and antigen interaction strength (relative binding affinity), ASGR-1 specific, ligand competing antibody hybridoma supernatants were tested in a limiting antigen binding assay. Titrated amounts of recombinant, soluble ASGR-1 biotinylated protein was incubated with streptavidin-coated LumAvidin Beads® for 45 minutes in the dark at room temperature and washed twice. Beads were resuspeneded in FACS buffer containing StabilGuard® and 0.05% Sodium Azide. Antigen-bound beads were then incubated with normalized hybridoma supernatant sample or controls for 18 hours in the dark at room temperature, washed twice, incubated with Alexa Fluor® 488 IgG fragment-specific detection antibody for 15 minutes in the dark at room temperature, washed once and finally resuspended in FACS buffer. Samples were analyzed using an Intellicyt iQue™ Screener Platform. FACS buffer supplemented with 1 mM Calcium Chloride was used in all steps. Analysis was done using irrelevant (non-ASGR-1 specific) IgG antibody supernatant sample signal; hybridoma supernatant samples showing at least two times or greater signal over irrelevant IgG antibody sample were considered to be exhibiting ASGR-1 specific binding profiles. In this assay method, the antibody binding signal correlates with antibody affinity. Antibody binding data for a representative antigen coating concentration that fell in the linear range of the instrument signal detection is shown in Table 7.2. The degree of antibody binding to the target (ASGR-1) correlates with the measured fluorescent intensity and thus allows a relative comparison of affinities across the panel. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7.2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Limited Antigen Binding Assay to Assess Relative Affinities of selected mAbs 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Soluble ASGR-1 
                   
                 Soluble ASGR-1 
                   
                 Soluble ASGR-1 
                   
                 Soluble ASGR-1 
               
               
                   
                 2.5 ng/mL 
                   
                 2.5 ng/mL 
                   
                 2.5 ng/mL 
                   
                 2.5 ng/mL 
               
               
                 mAb 
                 (FACS Geomean) 
                 mAb 
                 (FACS Geomean) 
                 mAb 
                 (FACS Geomean) 
                 mAb 
                 (FACS Geomean) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 25A4 
                 17952 
                 48B12 
                 26989 
                 194C1 
                 16937 
                 7E11 
                 4662 
               
               
                 26C4 
                 12007 
                 184E7 
                 40198 
                 197G3 
                 17708 
                 22G5 
                 1078 
               
               
                 29H8 
                 12179 
                 194A4 
                 38934 
                 198G3 
                 25969 
                 5E5 
                 3278 
               
               
                 4A2 
                 16604 
                 4B1 
                 10060 
                 75G3 
                 35840 
                 54E9 
                 6487 
               
               
                 4H6 
                 2990 
                 72G9 
                 34014 
                 218G4 
                 15105 
                 6G7 
                 2290 
               
               
                 56E5 
                 22648 
                 190F8 
                 13899 
                 193E7 
                 18315 
                 176H4 
                 29444 
               
               
                 7F4 
                 4910 
                 191G1 
                 9546 
                 198D2 
                 1872 
                 194C10 
                 21854 
               
               
                 7G4 
                 6795 
                 191G10 
                 24154 
                 202A3 
                 2152 
                 12D2 
                 105 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     C. pH and Calcium Sensitivity 
     This Example characterizes ASGR-1 antibodies based on the effect of pH and/or calcium on their ability to bind the target. For this example, a label-free, kinetic antibody-ASGR-1 binding assay was employed to assess the sensitivity of the antibodies to changes in pH and calcium. Briefly, the ASGR-1-specific, ligand-competing antibodies were first immobilized and then allowed to bind recombinant, soluble huASGR-1 under physiological conditions (ie. pH 7.4, 1 mM CaCl2). The amount of binding was determined and set to 100%. In order to determine if the antibody-ASGR-1 interaction was sensitive to changes in pH or Ca, the assay buffer was then changed to conditions lacking calcium, a reduced pH (pH 5.6) or both lacking calcium and reduced pH (pH 5.6), and dissociation of ASGR-1 from the mAbs monitored. The amount of ASGR-1 remaining bound under each condition was assessed and expressed as a percent of the starting signal. If a &gt;10% difference in ASGR-1 binding signal was calculated (when compared to that measured under physiological conditions), a particular antibody was classified as being sensitive to that condition. Using this method, the selected antibodies were classified into 5 categories: 
     1. affected by the removal of calcium 
     2. unaffected by the removal of calcium or drop in pH 
     3. affected when both calcium is removed and pH is dropped 
     4. affected by calcium removal, pH drop and both combined 
     5. affected by the drop in pH 
     The relative dissociation of ASGR-1 from antibodies was measured using a label-free assay on an OctetHTX instrument (ForteBio). Antibody samples were captured on anti-HuFc kinetic biosensors (ForteBio cat #18-5064) at 5 ug/mL in assay buffer (10 mM Tris, 0.1% Triton, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mg/mL BSA, 1 mM CaCl2, pH 7.4) for three minutes. A one minute baseline stabilization step was performed in assay buffer. Soluble ASGR-1 (Amgen) at 6 ug/ml in assay buffer was added and association to the antibodies was monitored for two minutes. Subsequent dissociation of ASGR-1 from the antibodies was performed by incubating the ASGR-1-mAb complexes for 10 minutes under each of the following conditions: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
                 pH 7.4 + calcium 
                 10 mM Tris, 0.1% Triton, 150 mM NaCl, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 1 mg/mL BSA, pH 7.4, 1 mM CaCl2 
               
               
                   
                 pH 7.4 − calcium 
                 10 mM Tris, 0.1% Triton, 150 mM NaCl, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 1 mg/mL BSA, pH 7.4 
               
               
                   
                 pH 5.6 + calcium 
                 10 mM Tris, 0.1% Triton, 150 mM NaCl, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 1 mg/mL BSA, pH 5.6, 1 mM CaCl2 
               
               
                   
                 pH 5.6 − calcium 
                 10 mM Tris, 0.1% Triton, 150 mM NaCl, 
               
               
                   
                   
                 1 mg/mL BSA, pH 5.6 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The binding signal at the end of the 2 minute association phase for each dissociation experiment was set to 100% and used to represent the maximal level of ASGR-1 binding. After 1 minute of dissociation, the percentage of ASGR-1 remaining bound was calculated. The lower the percent remaining at a given time point indicates increased levels of dissociation in response to the test conditions (ie. different pH and/or calcium concentrations). The change in the percentage of ASGR-1 remaining bound in response to each test condition relative to the percent remaining in the control conditions (ie. pH 7.4+ calcium) was determined. Cut-offs for an antibody to be categorized as being sensitive to a particular condition were set to &gt;10% (ie. if &gt;10% of the ASGR-1 dissociates from the antibody under a particular test condition compared to control condition, it was deemed sensitive to that condition). The analysis was done using the 1 minute dissociation time point (except for mAb 149A1 which was binned based on the 4 minute dissociation time point). Using this analysis, the ASGR-1-binding, receptor-ligand blocking antibodies were separated into groups according to their dissociation profiles in response to pH and calcium (Table 7.3). Antibodies belonging to each category were observed. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7.3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 pH and Calcium Sensitivity of ASGR-1-mAb Interactions 
               
               
                 pH and Calcium Sensitivity Determination 
               
               
                 (% Change Compared to pH 7.4 + Calcium) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 pH 7.4 
                 pH 5.6 
                 pH 5.6 
                   
                   
                 pH and 
                   
               
               
                   
                 minus 
                 plus 
                 minus 
                 Calcium 
                 pH 
                 calcium 
                 pH 
               
               
                 mAb 
                 Calcium 
                 Calcium 
                 Calcium 
                 sensitive 
                 sensitive 
                 sensitive 
                 bin 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 10G6 
                 7% 
                  4% 
                 15% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 3 
               
               
                 148E10 
                 7% 
                 19% 
                 33% 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 5 
               
               
                 154F4 
                 10%  
                 41% 
                 67% 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 5 
               
               
                 159H8 
                 6% 
                 10% 
                 26% 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 5 
               
               
                 160B12 
                 6% 
                  8% 
                 22% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 3 
               
               
                 175D10 
                 4% 
                 −3% 
                  2% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 177D2 
                 3% 
                  2% 
                 10% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 3 
               
               
                 25A4 
                 2% 
                 −3% 
                 −1% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 26C4 
                 3% 
                  2% 
                  2% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 27E7 
                 20%  
                 35% 
                 46% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 29E2 
                 5% 
                 25% 
                 38% 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 5 
               
               
                 29H8 
                 2% 
                 −2% 
                  2% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 31D12 
                 10%  
                 27% 
                 34% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 32D6 
                 26%  
                 33% 
                 55% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 45B4 
                 4% 
                 10% 
                 23% 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 5 
               
               
                 49F10 
                 4% 
                 −2% 
                  8% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 4A2 
                 1% 
                 −3% 
                  1% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 4B3 
                 12%  
                 33% 
                 45% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 4H6 
                 5% 
                 −1% 
                  2% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 50D4 
                 6% 
                  0% 
                  9% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 50G9 
                 37%  
                 62% 
                 44% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 51E9 
                 3% 
                 −5% 
                  2% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 52G11 
                 15%  
                  1% 
                 13% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 52H1 
                 5% 
                 −1% 
                 10% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 53F2 
                 15%  
                  1% 
                 13% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 53F7 
                 9% 
                  3% 
                 13% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 3 
               
               
                 55B1 
                 5% 
                 −2% 
                  4% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 56E5 
                 1% 
                 −6% 
                 −1% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 57A7 
                 13%  
                 13% 
                 29% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 58G11 
                 38%  
                 12% 
                 51% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 59F2 
                 48%  
                 52% 
                 74% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 5E5 
                 7% 
                 18% 
                 42% 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 5 
               
               
                 60D2 
                 20%  
                 42% 
                 49% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 60E8 
                 3% 
                 11% 
                 18% 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 5 
               
               
                 63A10 
                 8% 
                  3% 
                 47% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 3 
               
               
                 63G7 
                 20%  
                 15% 
                 59% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 64B12 
                 6% 
                  6% 
                  7% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 65F10 
                 25%  
                 18% 
                 37% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 68G6 
                 22%  
                 39% 
                 47% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 6D9 
                 14%  
                 25% 
                 42% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 6G6 
                 1% 
                 −3% 
                  0% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 70D1 
                 17%  
                 12% 
                 29% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 7E11 
                 9% 
                  5% 
                 14% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 3 
               
               
                 7F4 
                 4% 
                  6% 
                  9% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 7G4 
                 2% 
                  1% 
                  7% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 9G9 
                 25%  
                 38% 
                 55% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 65E9 
                 22%  
                 30% 
                 35% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 72B4 
                 32%  
                 26% 
                 43% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 147D10 
                 13%  
                  4% 
                 11% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 149D11 
                 11%  
                  3% 
                 11% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 149F8 
                 1% 
                 −8% 
                 −1% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 22G5 
                 40%  
                 35% 
                 No Data 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 No Data 
                  4* 
               
               
                 48B12 
                 4% 
                 −6% 
                  0% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 52H2 
                 26%  
                 11% 
                 32% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 6G7 
                 8% 
                  4% 
                 16% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 3 
               
               
                 64G12 
                 24%  
                 10% 
                 24% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 72F5 
                 64%  
                 20% 
                 30% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 147E9 
                 5% 
                 −4% 
                 20% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 3 
               
               
                 184E7 
                 1% 
                 −9% 
                 −3% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 194A4 
                 −1%  
                 −7% 
                 −3% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 208A2 
                 −4%  
                 −10%  
                 −5% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 210G10 
                 −3%  
                 −10%  
                 −5% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 4B1 
                 6% 
                 −5% 
                 −2% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 62H10 
                 13%  
                 −2% 
                 14% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 72G9 
                 1% 
                 −7% 
                 −1% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 148H10 
                 45%  
                 10% 
                 47% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 173C11 
                 17%  
                  0% 
                 29% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 179C2 
                 25%  
                  0% 
                 45% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 47C1 
                 13%  
                 −1% 
                 10% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 49C1 
                 72%  
                 23% 
                 64% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 60C12 
                 14%  
                 −3% 
                 12% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 60G2 
                 36%  
                  7% 
                 31% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 65D5 
                 34%  
                  7% 
                 61% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 66H11 
                 81%  
                 36% 
                 52% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 73G1 
                 100%  
                 33% 
                 62% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 51E3 
                 65%  
                 16% 
                 42% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 53E8 
                 68%  
                 20% 
                 64% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 54E9 
                 79%  
                 24% 
                 75% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 56E3 
                 75%  
                 21% 
                 16% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 190C11 
                 −1%  
                 −6% 
                 −6% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 190E6 
                 −1%  
                 −12%  
                 −6% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 190F12 
                 −1%  
                 −6% 
                 −6% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 190F8 
                 −1%  
                 −5% 
                 −5% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 190G11 
                 −2%  
                 −8% 
                 −5% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 190H9 
                 −1%  
                 −6% 
                 −7% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 191A10 
                 0% 
                 −5% 
                 −5% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 191G1 
                 −10%  
                 −15%  
                 −11%  
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 191G10 
                 0% 
                 −5% 
                 −5% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 191G12 
                 −2%  
                 −5% 
                 −6% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 192C10 
                 −1%  
                 −6% 
                 −6% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 192C8 
                 −9%  
                 −14%  
                 −14%  
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 192E4 
                 −2%  
                 −9% 
                 −8% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 192G6 
                 −1%  
                 −6% 
                 −6% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 192G8 
                 −1%  
                 −5% 
                 −6% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 192H10 
                 0% 
                 −5% 
                 −4% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 193C7 
                 −1%  
                 −8% 
                 −8% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 194B7 
                 1% 
                 −4% 
                 −4% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 194C1 
                 −7%  
                 −12%  
                 −8% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 196C7 
                 −8%  
                 −12%  
                 −12%  
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 197B6 
                 −1%  
                 −8% 
                 −7% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 197E11 
                 −1%  
                 −5% 
                 −4% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 197F2 
                 0% 
                 −6% 
                 −6% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 197G3 
                 2% 
                 −3% 
                 −3% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 198G3 
                 −1%  
                 −4% 
                 −4% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 213B3 
                 −1%  
                 −7% 
                 −3% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 219H1 
                 2% 
                 −3% 
                  1% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 74C8 
                 1% 
                 −7% 
                 −3% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 74G6 
                 1% 
                 −9% 
                 −4% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 75G3 
                 −1%  
                 −1% 
                  2% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 74B2 
                 8% 
                 −9% 
                 −5% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 74H7 
                 1% 
                 −2% 
                  1% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 85F7 
                 2% 
                 −2% 
                  2% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 198B9 
                 3% 
                  2% 
                 11% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 3 
               
               
                 199A7 
                 1% 
                  1% 
                 10% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 3 
               
               
                 218G4 
                 1% 
                 −4% 
                  0% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 146A8 
                 2% 
                 −9% 
                 25% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 3 
               
               
                 146B6 
                 2% 
                 −5% 
                 13% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 3 
               
               
                 149A1 
                 2% 
                 −7% 
                  9% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                  3* 
               
               
                 172B12 
                 −14%  
                 −27%  
                 −13%  
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 172C3 
                 −9%  
                 −26%  
                  0% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 193E7 
                 −9%  
                 −9% 
                 −4% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 199E3 
                 −5%  
                 −4% 
                 −4% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 226F9 
                 100%  
                 51% 
                 77% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 227C1 
                 100%  
                 54% 
                 73% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 227F2 
                 80%  
                 50% 
                 100%  
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 65C12 
                 13%  
                  0% 
                 23% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 176H4 
                 2% 
                 −4% 
                 26% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 3 
               
               
                 194C10 
                 2% 
                 10% 
                 16% 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 5 
               
               
                 191E10 
                 −1%  
                 −9% 
                 −9% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 196F4 
                 −8%  
                 −5% 
                 −6% 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 198D2 
                 −8%  
                 −30%  
                 −28%  
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 202A3 
                 −21%  
                 −22%  
                 −23%  
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 204G6 
                 −5%  
                 −11%  
                 −10%  
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 2 
               
               
                 224G1 
                 77%  
                 41% 
                 65% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                 52D10 
                 21%  
                  3% 
                 45% 
                 Y 
                 N 
                 Y 
                 1 
               
               
                 64E2 
                 48%  
                 29% 
                 49% 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 Y 
                 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *No actual data; bin predicted on the totality of information regarding the antibody. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     D. Relative Epitope Binning/Profiling 
     A common way to characterize epitopes is through competition experiments. Antibodies that compete with each other can be thought of as binding the same or overlapping site on the target. This example describes a method of determining competition for binding to hASGR-1 and the results of the method when applied to a number of antibodies described herein. 
     Binning experiments can be conducted in a number of ways, and the method employed may have an effect on the assay results. Common to these methods is that ASGR-1 is typically bound by one reference antibody and probed by another. If the reference antibody prevents the binding of the probe antibody then the antibodies are said to be in the same bin. The order in which the antibodies are employed is important. If antibody A is employed as the reference antibody and blocks the binding of antibody B the converse is not always true: antibody B used as the reference antibody will not necessarily block antibody A. There are a number of factors in play here: the binding of an antibody can cause conformational changes in the target which prevent the binding of the second antibody, or epitopes which overlap but do not completely occlude each other may allow for the second antibody to still have enough high-affinity interactions with the target to allow binding. In general, if competition is observed in either order the antibodies are said to bin together, and if both antibodies can block each other then it is likely that the epitopes overlap more completely. 
     For this example, a modified antibody-antibody competition assay was used to determine the relative epitope binning profiles of the ASGR-1 specific, ligand blocking antibodies in a high throughput manner. Briefly, individual antibodies were tested for their ability to compete for binding with a panel of reference antibodies chosen based on their different binding characteristics (eg. species cross reactivity, HEPG2 binding, etc.) and primary sequences. The pattern of competition/binding of each test antibody with the reference antibody panel was then determined and compared to those produced from the other test antibodies. The degree of correlation between the individual test antibody competition/binding profiles was then compared. Antibodies that showed similar competition/binding profiles were binned (grouped) together (eg. Binning Profile A, B, etc.). 
     Biotinylated recombinant soluble human ASGR-1 protein was coupled to streptavidin coated, uniquely barcoded LumAvidin Beads® (LumAvidin Microspheres, Cat#:L101-LXXX-01; Luminex Corp., Austin, Tex., U.S.A.) for 45 minutes in the dark at room temperature and washed twice. The reference antibody hybridoma supernatant samples were incubated with the antigen-coated beads for 1 hour in the dark at room temperature and washed three times. Beads were resuspended in FACS buffer containing StabilGuard®. The antigen-coated, reference antibody-bound beads were pooled and then divided into individual sample wells containing a normalized (2.5 ug/ml) test antibody (hybridoma supernatant) sample (or negative control), incubated for 1 hour in the dark at room temperature and washed twice. The samples were then incubated with Alexa Fluor® 488 IgG fragment-specific detection antibody for 15 minutes in the dark at room temperature, washed once and resuspended in FACS buffer. FACS buffer supplemented with 1 mM Calcium Chloride was used in all steps. Samples were analyzed using an Intellicyt iQue™ Screener Platform. 
     To determine the antibody competition/binding profiles of the individual test antibodies, the reference-only antibody binding signal was subtracted from the reference plus test antibody signal for each competition/binding reaction (ie. across the entire reference antibody set). An individual antibody binding profile was defined as the collection of net binding values for each competition/binding reaction. The degree of similarity between individual profiles was then assessed by calculating the coefficient of determination between each of the test antibody profiles. Test antibodies showing high degrees of similarity (R 2 ≥0.8) to each other were then grouped into common binning profiles. Separate binning profiles were only defined if there were two or more samples with a high degree of correlation. If individual unique antibody binning profiles were observed (ie. they displayed a low degree of similarity to other test antibody binding profiles), the bin was classified as unknown. Using this method, the ASGR-1-binding, receptor-ligand blocking antibodies were sub-divided into 14 unique binning profiles (A, B, C, D, E, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, T and unknown) (Table 7.4). Antibodies that displayed a unique binning profile (as defined above) but shared a relatively high degree of similarity to another profile (R 2 =0.6-0.8) were categorized as a sub-bin (ie. A.1, A.2, etc.) of that profile. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7.4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Relative Epitope Binning/Profiling of ASGR-1 
               
               
                 Specific Receptor-Ligand Blocking mAbs 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Epi- 
                   
                 Epi- 
                   
                 Epi- 
                   
                 Epi- 
               
               
                   
                 tope 
                   
                 tope 
                   
                 tope 
                   
                 tope 
               
               
                 mAb 
                 BIN 
                 mAb 
                 BIN 
                 mAb 
                 BIN 
                 mAb 
                 BIN 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 10G6 
                 A 
                 52H1 
                 A 
                 9C11 
                 A.3 
                 60G2 
                 E 
               
               
                 11E2 
                 A 
                 53F2 
                 A 
                 12B12 
                 B 
                 65D5 
                 E 
               
               
                 11F5 
                 A 
                 53F7 
                 A 
                 147D10 
                 B 
                 66H11 
                 E 
               
               
                 12E9 
                 A 
                 55B1 
                 A 
                 149D11 
                 B 
                 71A6 
                 E 
               
               
                 12F11 
                 A 
                 56E5 
                 A 
                 149F8 
                 B 
                 73G1 
                 E 
               
               
                 12F12 
                 A 
                 57A7 
                 A 
                 151B9 
                 B 
                 49C5 
                 E.1 
               
               
                 13F6 
                 A 
                 58G11 
                 A 
                 175F4 
                 B 
                 49D10 
                 E.1 
               
               
                 148E10 
                 A 
                 59F2 
                 A 
                 22G5 
                 B 
                 51E3 
                 E.1 
               
               
                 154F4 
                 A 
                 5E5 
                 A 
                 48B12 
                 B 
                 51F4 
                 E.1 
               
               
                 159H8 
                 A 
                 60D2 
                 A 
                 52H2 
                 B 
                 53E8 
                 E.1 
               
               
                 160B12 
                 A 
                 60E8 
                 A 
                 6G7 
                 B 
                 54E9 
                 E.1 
               
               
                 175D10 
                 A 
                 63A10 
                 A 
                 7G2 
                 B 
                 56E3 
                 E.1 
               
               
                 177D2 
                 A 
                 63G7 
                 A 
                 64G12 
                 B.1 
                 56G1 
                 E.1 
               
               
                 25A4 
                 A 
                 64B12 
                 A 
                 72F5 
                 B.1 
                 190C11 
                 L 
               
               
                 25D12 
                 A 
                 65F10 
                 A 
                 147E9 
                 C 
                 190E6 
                 L 
               
               
                 26C4 
                 A 
                 68G6 
                 A 
                 184E7 
                 C 
                 190F12 
                 L 
               
               
                 27E7 
                 A 
                 6A6 
                 A 
                 194A4 
                 C 
                 190F8 
                 L 
               
               
                 28H2 
                 A 
                 6D4 
                 A 
                 208A2 
                 C 
                 190G11 
                 L 
               
               
                 29E2 
                 A 
                 6D9 
                 A 
                 210G10 
                 C 
                 190H9 
                 L 
               
               
                 29E6 
                 A 
                 6G6 
                 A 
                 4B1 
                 C 
                 191A10 
                 L 
               
               
                 29H8 
                 A 
                 70D1 
                 A 
                 60E12 
                 C 
                 191G1 
                 L 
               
               
                 31D12 
                 A 
                 7A10 
                 A 
                 61A1 
                 C 
                 191G10 
                 L 
               
               
                 32D6 
                 A 
                 7C3 
                 A 
                 62H10 
                 C 
                 191G12 
                 L 
               
               
                 3G7 
                 A 
                 7E11 
                 A 
                 63H8 
                 C 
                 192C10 
                 L 
               
               
                 45B4 
                 A 
                 7F4 
                 A 
                 72G9 
                 C 
                 192C8 
                 L 
               
               
                 49F10 
                 A 
                 7F8 
                 A 
                 8D8 
                 D.1 
                 192E4 
                 L 
               
               
                 4A2 
                 A 
                 7G4 
                 A 
                 12D2 
                 E 
                 192G6 
                 L 
               
               
                 4B3 
                 A 
                 8D12 
                 A 
                 148H10 
                 E 
                 192G8 
                 L 
               
               
                 4H6 
                 A 
                 9F12 
                 A 
                 173C11 
                 E 
                 192H10 
                 L 
               
               
                 50D4 
                 A 
                 9G9 
                 A 
                 179C2 
                 E 
                 193C7 
                 L 
               
               
                 50G9 
                 A 
                 65E9 
                 A.1 
                 47C1 
                 E 
                 194B7 
                 L 
               
               
                 51E9 
                 A 
                 72B4 
                 A.1 
                 49C1 
                 E 
                 194C1 
                 L 
               
               
                 52G11 
                 A 
                 7H7 
                 A.2 
                 60C12 
                 E 
                 196C7 
                 L 
               
               
                 197B6 
                 L 
                 197F2 
                 L 
                 198G3 
                 L 
                 219H1 
                 L 
               
               
                 197E11 
                 L 
                 197G3 
                 L 
                 213B3 
                 L 
                 74C8 
                 L 
               
               
                 74G6 
                 L 
                 74H7 
                 M.1 
                 218G4 
                 O 
                 172B12 
                 Q 
               
               
                 75G3 
                 M 
                 85F7 
                 M.1 
                 146A8 
                 P 
                 172C3 
                 Q 
               
               
                 89A11 
                 M 
                 198B9 
                 N 
                 146B6 
                 P 
                 193E7 
                 Q 
               
               
                 74B2 
                 M.1 
                 199A7 
                 N 
                 149A1 
                 P 
                 199E3 
                 Q 
               
               
                 226F9 
                 Q 
                 227F2 
                 Q 
                 176H4 
                 R 
               
               
                 227C1 
                 Q 
                 65C12 
                 Q 
                 194C10 
                 T 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     E. Epitope Mapping—Arginine/Glutamic Acid Mutational Profiling 
     This Example characterizes ASGR-1 antibodies based on the effect of mutagenesis of ASGR-1 on their ability to bind the target. Previous data indicated that the ASGR-1 CBD is primarily responsible for antibody binding for the panel of antibodies. As such, only the ASGR-1 CBD was considered structurally in the context of the full length ASGR-1 in the design of mutation sites. 
     Arginine/Glutamic acid mutational mapping was used to characterize epitopes bound by human ASGR-1-specific, ligand blocking antibodies. Briefly, 144 individual point mutations were made across the CBD domain of human ASGR-1 protein (SEQ ID NO:5) starting at position 148. Ninety-one constructs, representing surface residues (modelled using the ASGR-1 crystal structure in the PyMOL Molecular Graphics System (Version 1.8; Schrödinger, LLC.)) and therefore potentially accessible for antibody binding, were selected for these assays. Mutant hASGR-1 variants were constructed such that non-arginine residues were changed to arginine and where wild type arginine residues were mutated to glutamic acid. Each mutant hASGR-1 sequence was then cloned into a mammalian expression vector and used to transiently transfect CHOs cells. The ability of human ASGR-1-specific, ligand competing antibodies to bind to the mutant hASGR-1 proteins was assessed by FACS as described above. 
     Antibodies were tested for binding to the individual mutant and wild type ASGR-1 constructs using normalized antibody concentrations (5 ug/ml). CHO-S cells transiently expressing the appropriate mutated or non-mutated antigen of interest were mixed with antibody sample or controls, incubated for 1 hour at 4° C., and then washed twice. Cells with bound antibody were then incubated with Alexa Fluor® 647 IgG Fc fragment-specific detection antibody and 7-AAD viability stain for 15 minutes at 4° C., washed once and resuspended in FACS buffer. Samples were analyzed using a BD Accuri™ Flow Cytometer and an Intellicyt HyperCyt Autosampler. As a negative control, supernatants and controls were also screened against CHO-S cells transfected with empty parental vector (referred to as mock). In order to exclude mutants that were poorly expressed or produced mis-folded antigen, only constructs that yielded a binding data average of at least 25% or greater compared to the average binding observed on wildtype hASGR-1 was used for further analysis. Because mutant hASGR-1 expression levels varied relative to each other, sample binding data for each construct was normalized for expression by dividing the binding data from an antibody not affected by the mutations (e.g., 65C12) by the binding values of each test antibody on a given mutant construct. Also, because the antibody binding affinities varied amongst the samples, the expression corrected data (above) was further normalized by comparing test antibody binding on each mutant construct to wild type hASGR-1. Identification of specific mutations that affected test antibody binding was performed by an interquartile range (IQR) analysis to determine statistical outliers. A mutation was identified as a “hit” if the calculated values were ≥3× the IQR (above the 3 rd  quartile/upper fence) for a given mutant construct. Although IQR analysis was used here to determine significance and identify hits, one skilled in the art will recognize that a number of methods could be employed in order to normalize the data (eg. using epitope-tagged constructs or other ASGR-1-binding antibodies directed against non-CBD epitopes). Any statistically significant reduction in antibody binding signal to a mutant construct (compared to that determined for binding to wild type ASGR-1) determined by these methods could be used for hit identification. 
     For illustrative purposes, Table 7.5 shows the IQR analysis with a single mutant construct (i.e., H203). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7.5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 IQR analysis (representative data for construct H203) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Expression 
                 Antibody Binding 
                   
               
               
                   
                 FACS Binding 
                 Normalization 
                 Normalization to 
                 &gt;Q3 + 3xIQR 
               
               
                   
                 Geomean 
                 to mAb 65C12 
                 wt ASGR1 Binding 
                 Gating 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 wt 
                   
                 wt 
                   
                 wt 
                   
                 wt 
                   
               
               
                 mAb 
                 ASGR1 
                 H203 
                 ASGR1 
                 H203 
                 ASGR1 
                 H203 
                 ASGR1 
                 H203 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 4A2 
                 41104 
                 18946 
                 1.3644 
                 1.3597 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9966 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9966 
               
               
                 7E11 
                 45453 
                 14714 
                 1.2338 
                 1.7509 
                 1.0000 
                 1.4191 
                 1.0000 
                 1.4191 
               
               
                 56E5 
                 42617 
                 20345 
                 1.3159 
                 1.2662 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9622 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9622 
               
               
                 7G4 
                 48526 
                 18542 
                 1.1557 
                 1.3893 
                 1.0000 
                 1.2022 
                 1.0000 
                 1.2022 
               
               
                 53F7 
                 43474 
                 18081 
                 1.2900 
                 1.4248 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1045 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1045 
               
               
                 10G6 
                 43059 
                 18213 
                 1.3024 
                 1.4145 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0860 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0860 
               
               
                 26C4 
                 45991 
                 13484 
                 1.2194 
                 1.9105 
                 1.0000 
                 1.5668 
                 1.0000 
                 1.5668 
               
               
                 6G6 
                 47628 
                 20505 
                 1.1775 
                 1.2564 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0670 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0670 
               
               
                 29H8 
                 40927 
                 13217 
                 1.3702 
                 1.9491 
                 1.0000 
                 1.4225 
                 1.0000 
                 1.4225 
               
               
                 25A4 
                 55579 
                 20036 
                 1.0090 
                 1.2858 
                 1.0000 
                 1.2743 
                 1.0000 
                 1.2743 
               
               
                 32D6 
                 36128 
                 13465 
                 1.5522 
                 1.9132 
                 1.0000 
                 1.2325 
                 1.0000 
                 1.2325 
               
               
                 198D2 
                 16882 
                 7138 
                 3.3219 
                 3.6090 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0864 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0864 
               
               
                 4B3 
                 35561 
                 1696 
                 1.5770 
                 15.1900 
                 1.0000 
                 9.6323 
                 1.0000 
                 
                   
                 
               
               
                 50G9 
                 37326 
                 1506 
                 1.5024 
                 17.1095 
                 1.0000 
                 11.3879 
                 1.0000 
                 
                   
                 
               
               
                 60D2 
                 29631 
                 1368 
                 1.8926 
                 18.8256 
                 1.0000 
                 9.9467 
                 1.0000 
                 
                   
                 
               
               
                 59F2 
                 27915 
                 1346 
                 2.0089 
                 19.1372 
                 1.0000 
                 9.5260 
                 1.0000 
                 
                   
                 
               
               
                 60E8 
                 38653 
                 1518 
                 1.4509 
                 16.9692 
                 1.0000 
                 11.6960 
                 1.0000 
                 
                   
                 
               
               
                 65E9 
                 29613 
                 1471 
                 1.8938 
                 17.5097 
                 1.0000 
                 9.2460 
                 1.0000 
                 
                   
                 
               
               
                 5E5 
                 40651 
                 12616 
                 1.3796 
                 2.0420 
                 1.0000 
                 1.4802 
                 1.0000 
                 1.4802 
               
               
                 29E2 
                 25781 
                 15058 
                 2.1752 
                 1.7108 
                 1.0000 
                 0.7865 
                 1.0000 
                 0.7865 
               
               
                 45B4 
                 30350 
                 14012 
                 1.8478 
                 1.8385 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9950 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9950 
               
               
                 6G7 
                 38643 
                 15089 
                 1.4512 
                 1.7073 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1764 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1764 
               
               
                 72F5 
                 27993 
                 10499 
                 2.0034 
                 2.4537 
                 1.0000 
                 1.2248 
                 1.0000 
                 1.2248 
               
               
                 22G5 
                 45048 
                 15060 
                 1.2449 
                 1.7105 
                 1.0000 
                 1.3740 
                 1.0000 
                 1.3740 
               
               
                 48B12 
                 52493 
                 20467 
                 1.0683 
                 1.2587 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1782 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1782 
               
               
                 151B9 
                 23527 
                 9738 
                 2.3837 
                 2.6454 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1098 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1098 
               
               
                 52H2 
                 47957 
                 18609 
                 1.1694 
                 1.3843 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1838 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1838 
               
               
                 149D11 
                 23601 
                 8866 
                 2.3761 
                 2.9055 
                 1.0000 
                 1.2228 
                 1.0000 
                 1.2228 
               
               
                 175F4 
                 33619 
                 14804 
                 1.6681 
                 1.7401 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0432 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0432 
               
               
                 147E9 
                 40166 
                 21513 
                 1.3962 
                 1.1975 
                 1.0000 
                 0.8577 
                 1.0000 
                 0.8577 
               
               
                 61A1 
                 39965 
                 20142 
                 1.4032 
                 1.2790 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9115 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9115 
               
               
                 184E7 
                 42704 
                 18354 
                 1.3132 
                 1.4036 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0688 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0688 
               
               
                 72G9 
                 36507 
                 18778 
                 1.5361 
                 1.3719 
                 1.0000 
                 0.8931 
                 1.0000 
                 0.8931 
               
               
                 194A4 
                 16291 
                 12149 
                 3.4424 
                 2.1204 
                 1.0000 
                 0.6160 
                 1.0000 
                 0.6160 
               
               
                 60C12 
                 31286 
                 19812 
                 1.7925 
                 1.3003 
                 1.0000 
                 0.7254 
                 1.0000 
                 0.7254 
               
               
                 173C11 
                 28526 
                 13861 
                 1.9659 
                 1.8586 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9454 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9454 
               
               
                 56E3 
                 33876 
                 20425 
                 1.6555 
                 1.2613 
                 1.0000 
                 0.7619 
                 1.0000 
                 0.7619 
               
               
                 54E9 
                 38589 
                 15344 
                 1.4533 
                 1.6789 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1552 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1552 
               
               
                 65D5 
                 41007 
                 20291 
                 1.3676 
                 1.2696 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9283 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9283 
               
               
                 190F8 
                 36503 
                 15073 
                 1.5363 
                 1.7091 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1125 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1125 
               
               
                 198G3 
                 21467 
                 13143 
                 2.6124 
                 1.9600 
                 1.0000 
                 0.7503 
                 1.0000 
                 0.7503 
               
               
                 191G10 
                 33829 
                 17045 
                 1.6578 
                 1.5114 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9117 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9117 
               
               
                 202A3 
                 24848 
                 12497 
                 2.2570 
                 2.0614 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9134 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9134 
               
               
                 194C1 
                 20860 
                 11044 
                 2.6884 
                 2.3325 
                 1.0000 
                 0.8676 
                 1.0000 
                 0.8676 
               
               
                 176H4 
                 33506 
                 10237 
                 1.6737 
                 2.5166 
                 1.0000 
                 1.5036 
                 1.0000 
                 1.5036 
               
               
                 197G3 
                 13308 
                 3503 
                 4.2141 
                 7.3547 
                 1.0000 
                 1.7453 
                 1.0000 
                 1.7453 
               
               
                 191G1 
                 25298 
                 10876 
                 2.2168 
                 2.3687 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0685 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0685 
               
               
                 213B3 
                 15070 
                 12846 
                 3.7212 
                 2.0054 
                 1.0000 
                 0.5389 
                 1.0000 
                 0.5389 
               
               
                 218G4 
                 12212 
                 7933 
                 4.5923 
                 3.2472 
                 1.0000 
                 0.7071 
                 1.0000 
                 0.7071 
               
               
                 75G3 
                 37223 
                 14472 
                 1.5066 
                 1.7801 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1815 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1815 
               
               
                 194C10 
                 28138 
                 13217 
                 1.9930 
                 1.9491 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9780 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9780 
               
               
                 85F7 
                 32968 
                 16509 
                 1.7010 
                 1.5605 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9174 
                 1.0000 
                 0.9174 
               
               
                 199A7 
                 17005 
                 9455 
                 3.2978 
                 2.7247 
                 1.0000 
                 0.8262 
                 1.0000 
                 0.8262 
               
               
                 146B6 
                 24138 
                 14412 
                 2.3233 
                 1.7875 
                 1.0000 
                 0.7694 
                 1.0000 
                 0.7694 
               
               
                 193E7 
                 35508 
                 13783 
                 1.5794 
                 1.8691 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1835 
                 1.0000 
                 1.1835 
               
               
                 65C12 
                 56080 
                 25761 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0000 
                 1.0000 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The bolded, underlined, and italiczed values for antibodies 4B3, 50G9, 60D2, 59F2, 60E8, and 65E9 in Table 7.5 represent the statistically significant hits (i.e., &gt;3× the IQR) whose binding was affected by mutations H203. 
     A summary of the hASGR-1 residues important for binding of the representative antibodies is shown in ( FIG. 60 , labeled as Table 7.6 in the figure). In addition, this analysis revealed that the mutation of some ASGR-1 residues had more dramatic effects on a given antibody binding than others. This likely reflects the relative contribution or importance that these residues have in mediating interactions with specific test antibodies. The degree by which each mutation impacted the ability of a test antibody to bind was determined by calculating the magnitude of an individual binding data point above the upper gate determined by each IQR analysis. The relative impact of each mutation on the binding of a given test antibody was then ranked using this method and displayed as a heatmap in  FIG. 60 . Dark grey shading indicates the data point deviated dramatically from the upper gate (ie. a large effect on antibody binding), while light grey/white shading indicates the data point was very close to the cut offs (ie. 3× the IQR) ( FIG. 60 ). When aligned with the relative epitope profiling bin assignments (Example 7D above), this analysis reveals a set of core ASGR-1 amino acid positions that, when mutated, disrupt test antibody binding. As such, these positions are likely part of the ASGR-1 epitopes bound by the selected antibodies. These amino acid residues either directly contact or are involved in the interaction with the antibody, or are in close enough proximity that, when mutated, interfere with antibody binding. Amino acid positions identified as statistically significant hits, but barely made the cut offs, and map to surface ASGR-1 locations distinct from the main epitope bins ( FIG. 47 ) may represent residues that, when mutated, disrupt the conformation of ASGR-1 such that an antibody that binds to a distinct epitope is affected (ie. an indirect effect). mAb 197G3 is an example of an antibody displaying a range of binding sensitivities in this assay, yet the most important residues (R274 and R271) can be identified by rank ordering them as described. 
     In order to compare the mutational hit patterns of the individual test antibodies with each other, the coefficient of determination between the test antibodies was determined. The expression and antibody binding normalized data set was used to generate binding profiles for each test antibody across the mutant panel. The resulting profiles for each individual test antibody were then compared for their degree of similarity to all of the other test antibodies. The coefficient of determination (R 2 ) for each combination was determined and converted into a heat map in order to visualize the resulting patterns ( FIG. 46 ). For simplicity, a representative antibody from each unique mutational profile (Reference Antibody) is shown in  FIG. 46 . This analysis revealed 7 predominant hit patterns or mutational clusters. Test antibodies affected by the 7 predominant mutational clusters correspond to those from competition/binding binning profiles A, B, C, E and L (3 distinct hit/mutational clusters of bin A antibodies and 1 distinct hit/mutational cluster of bin B, bin C, bin E and bin L antibodies). The remaining antibodies, categorized as displaying separate binning profiles (compared to bins A, B, C, E and L), are affected by distinct mutations in ASGR-1, but also include residues that partially overlap with test antibodies belonging to the predominant bins. 
     This data indicates the selected antibodies bind to epitopes that partially overlap with the 7 predominant epitope regions. The residues important for the binding of antibodies belonging to the 7 predominant epitope regions were then mapped onto a computer representation of the surface of the ASGR-1 structure using the PyMOL Molecular Graphics System (Version 1.8; Schrödinger, LLC.) ( FIG. 47 ). A residue on the surface of ASGR-1 was considered part of the same epitope region if at least one antibody from a distinct binning profile (ie. A, B, C, E and L) was identified as being sensitive to mutation. For example, the predominant epitope region for antibodies belonging to binning profile C includes hASGR-1 residues P241, D242, D243, Y245, G251 and E253 (SEQ ID NO:5). The binding of antibody 147E9 is affected by mutation of all of these residues, while antibody 184E7 is only disrupted by mutation of P241, D243 and E253. Thus, the predominant epitope region of ASGR-1 bound by antibodies belonging to binning profile C is defined as including one or more of (but not limited to) P241, D242, D243, Y245, G251 and E253 (SEQ ID NO:5). Also, note that the antibody 194A4 was classified as belonging to Bin C as determined in Example 7D, however, the results of this arginine/glutamic acid mutational profiling (as well as the results from crystal structure analysis of the ASGR-1 CBD/194A4 complex described in Example 10H) suggests that the relative epitope profiling may have been inaccurate. 
     Antibodies belonging to binning profile A were further sub-divided into 3 distinct mutational clusters. These clusters mapped to ASGR-1 surface positions that overlap with, or are in extremely close physical proximity to, each other consistent with a common binning profile. Antibodies that displayed binning profiles distinct from the 5 major bins (i.e., A, B, C, E and L) also showed distinct patterns of mutations that affected their binding ( FIG. 46 ). Some binning profiles (R, O, M, M.1 and T) share significant overlap with antibodies from binning profile L, and can be considered sub-bins of this profile. Taken together, this data indicates that antibodies capable of blocking ASGR-1-ligand interactions bind to 5 major epitope regions. In addition, blocking antibodies were identified that bind to partially overlapping epitopes of these major regions. 
     Example 8 
     ASGR Internalization Assay 
     To determine whether the antibodies bind and also prevent internalization of ASGR-1 into cells expressing ASGR-1, an in vitro internalization assay is performed of various antibody samples. 
     Human ASGR-1 Internalization Cellular Imaging Assay Protocol 
     Reagents: 
     U2OS (Human Osteosarcoma) cell line 
     McCoy&#39;s 5A Medium: Gibco, #16600-082 
     MEM NEAA (100×): Gibco, #11140-050 
     Penicillin-Streptomycin (10,000 U/ml, 100×) Gibco, #15140-122 
     L-Glutamine (100×): Gibco, #25030-081 
     Fetal Bovine Serum: Gibco, #16000-044 
     DPBS (without Ca and Mg): Gibco, #14190-136 
     DPBS (with Ca and Mg): Gibco, #14040-133 
     Cell Dissociation Buffer: Gibco, #13151-014 
     1 Liter Filter: Corning, #430517 
     Hepes Buffer (1M): Gibco, #15630-080 
     BacMam Virus—huASGR-1: GS: SNAP26f 
     β-GalNAc-PAA-Biotin: GlycoTech, #01-011 
     SNAP-Surface Alexa Fluor 546: New England Biolabs, #S9132S 
     Streptavidin-Alexa Fluor 633: Life Technologies, #S21375 
     Hoechst 33342: Invitrogen, #H3570 
     Pitstop2: abcam Biochemical, #ab120687 
     Pitstop2—negative control: abcam Biochemical, #ab120688 
     Paraformaldehyde (8% Aqueous Solution): Electron Microscopy Sciences, #157-8-100 
     Imaging plate—96 well Optical Bottom: Thermo Scientific Nunc, #165305 
     Operetta High Content Imager: Perkin Elmer 
     U2OS complete growth medium: 
     McCoy&#39;s 5A with 10% FBS, 1XMEM NEAA, 1XL-Glutamine, and 1XPenicillin-Streptomycin 
     Medium was filtered before use on cells 
     U2OS cell plating and culturing: 
     U2OS cells were grown to 75-85% confluence in T175 before plating into a 96 well plate. 
     1. The U2OS culture medium was aspirated off the cells in the T175 flask 
     2. Cells were washed with 10 mls of DPBS and aspirated off 
     3. 3 mls of Cell Dissociation Buffer was added to the cells and incubated for 5 minutes inside a cell incubator (37° C., 5% CO2) to detach the cells from the T175 flask. 
     4. The detached cells were diluted with 7 mls of the growth medium 
     5. 1 ml of cells were used to count the number of cells available to plate 
     6. GalNAc-biotin (100 nM) and -streptavidin-Alexa633 (100 nM) were pre-mixed in assay buffer and incubated for 10 minutes at room temperature. 
     7. The cells were mixed together with the BacMam virus for 1-2 minutes and then plated on the 96 well imaging plate at a volume of 100 ul/well. 
     8. After the 15 minutes incubation, both GalNAc-biotin-streptavidin-Alexa633 and SNAP-Surface Alexa Fluor 546 were directly added (10 ul) to the medium containing Pitstop2 inhibitors for 30 minutes inside the incubator. 
     Treatment of Cells (16-20 hours incubation) 
     1. The next day, the medium on the 96 well plate was dumped out and washed once with DPBS. 
     2. McCoy&#39;s 5A Medium plus 10 mM of Hepes buffer (assay buffer) was added to the cells (100 ul) for 1 hour inside the incubator. 
     3. After the 1 hour incubation, the medium was dumped out and washed once with DPBS containing Ca and Mg. 
     4. Pitstop2 and Pitstop2 negative control were prepared in assay buffer at 20 uM. 
     5. Volume of 100 ul per well of the inhibitors were added to the U2OS cells for 15 minutes inside the incubator. 
     6. GalNAc-biotin (100 nM) and strepavidin-Alexa633 (100 nM) were pre-mixed in assay buffer and incubated for 10 minutes at room temperature. 
     7. SNAP-Surface Alexa Fluor 546 (2.5 uM) was prepared in assay buffer. 
     8. After the 15 minutes incubation, both GalNAc-biotin-streptavidin-Alexa633 and SNAPSurface Alexa Fluor 546 were directly added (10 ul) to the medium containing Pitstop2 inhibitors for 30 minutes inside the incubator. 
     9. After the 30 minutes incubation, medium was dumped out and the cells were washed once with DPBS. 
     10. The cells were fixed by adding 50 ul of 4% Paraformaldehyde (8% paraformaldehyde was diluted with DPBS) containing Hoechst dye (1:5000 dilution) to the cells for 10 minutes at room temperature. 
     11. After 10 minutes incubation, the cells were washed twice with DPBS and 100 ul of DPBS was added to each well. 
     12. The plate was imaged on the Operetta instrument with three channels measuring the different fluorescence dyes. 
     1) Hoechst was measured using filters in the range of excitation: 360-400 nm and emission: 410-480 nm 
     2) GalNAc-biotin-streptavidin-Alexa633 was measured using filters in the range of excitation: 600-630 nm and emission: 640-680 nm 
     3) SNAP-Surface Alexa Fluor 546 was measured using filters in the range of excitation: 520-550 nm and emission: 560-630 
     13. Harmony 3.5 software (Perkin Elmer) was used to identify and quantify internalized spots for fluorescence dyes added in the assay. 
     This internalization assay can be performed to assay the antigen binding proteins of the invention to determine how much they reduce or inhibit internalization of ASGR, ASGR-1, and/or ASGR-2. 
     Example 9 
     Additional Ligand Blocking Assays 
     Preparation of Desialylated Protein Ligands (Asialofetuin And Orosomucoid) 
     A. Asialofetuin 
     Bovine fetuin (AHSG) was obtained commercially (Sigma) and purified using a CaptoQ Impres (GE Healthcare Life Sciences) matrix. Briefly, the material was loaded in 25 mM TRIS pH 7.9 at up to 17 mg/ml resin, resolved in 20 mM BisTRIS (pH 6.5) with a gradient of sodium chloride. The main peak was gradient pooled (˜0.15M NaCl final) and resolved on a SuperDex200 SEC (GE Healthcare Life Sciences) in Hepes-buffered saline (pH 7.9). The purified AHSG was then concentrated and incubated with Innolink Biotin 354S (EMD Millipore) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The biotinylated protein was then desalted by gel filtration and concentrated once again. 
     The purified, biotinylated protein was subsequently desialylated by incubation with  C. perfringens  neuraminidase (Sigma; 1 unit/10mg protein for 12 hours at 37° C. in 50 mM sodium phosphate, 9 mM HEPES, 0.12M NaCl, pH 6). The resulting material was harvested and digested for an additional 3 hours with  A. ureafaciens  neuraminidase (QAbio; 0.5 units/10mg protein at 37° C.). The digested sample was diluted 3 fold with 20 mM HEPES containing 0.15M NaCl (pH 7.5) (HBS) to neutral pH and applied to a monomeric Avidin agarose (Pierce) HR16/10 column, run at 60 cm/hour. The loaded column was held for 15 minutes then washed with four column volumes of HBS. The biotinylated, desialylated protein was finally eluted with three column volumes of HBS containing 2 mM Biotin plus an additional two column volumes of 0.1M Glycine-HCl (pH 2.8), which was immediately neutralized during collection with 50 mM TRIS Base). Protein-containing fractions from both types of elutions were identified, pooled, concentrated, dialyzed extensively against 10 mM HEPES, 0.14M NaCl (pH 7.5), re-concentrated and finally filtered sterilized. The purified lots were then analyzed by SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry prior to use in the described assays. 
     B. Orosomucoid 
     Bovine orosomucoid (AGP) was obtained commercially (Sigma) and purified over SuperDex200 resin equilibrated in HBS (pH7.9) by size exclusion chromatography. The front of the main AGP peak was combined from 3 individual runs to generate hyperglycosylated AGP, with the remainder of the main peaks (from the 3 combined runs) to generate hypoglycosylated AGP. For biotinylation, the purified AGP was concentrated to 5 mg/ml and incubated with Innolink Biotin 354S as described. The biotinylated protein was then desalted by gel filtration and concentrated. 
     After biotinylation, the protein was desialylated by incubating it for 18 hours at 37° C. with one unit of  C. perfringens  neuraminidase (Sigma) per 10 mg protein in 50 mM sodium phosphate, 9 mM HEPES, 0.12M NaCl (pH 6). The resulting material was harvested and digested for an additional 6 hours at 37° C. with 0.5 units  A. ureafaciens  neuraminidase (QAbio) per 10 mg protein. The sample was diluted 3 fold with HBS to achieve a neutral pH and applied to a monomeric Avidin agarose (Pierce) HR16/10 column, run at 60 cm/hour. The loaded column was held for 15 minutes and then washed with four column volumes of HBS. The biotinylated, desialylated protein was subsequently eluted with three column volumes of HBS containing 2 mM Biotin, plus two column volumes 0.1M Glycine-HCl (pH 2.8), which was immediately neutralized during collection with 50 mM TRIS Base. Protein-containing fractions from both types of elutions were identified, pooled, concentrated, dialyzed extensively against 10 mM HEPES, 0.14M NaCl (pH 7.5), re-concentrated and finally filtered sterilized. The purified lots were then analyzed by SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry prior to use in the described assays. 
     These ligands can be used in additional ligand binding assays to determine antigen binding protein inhibition of ligand binding to ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. 
     Example 10 
     Crystal Structure Analysis of Interaction Between Ligands and ASGR-1 and Antibodies and ASGR-1 
     A. Crystal Structures of ASGR-1 Carbohydrate Binding Domain with Ligand Bound 
     Introduction 
     The crystal structure of ligand free ASGR-1 CBD (carbohydrate binding domain) has been previously described (1). Protein expression of ASGR-1 CBD (SEQ ID NO:5), purification and crystallization was performed similar to the published method, however the structures described here differ from the published crystal structure. Analysis of these structures shows extra N- and C-terminal amino acids compared to the published structure, how various ligands interact with the ASGR-1 carbohydrate binding domain, and possible selectivity determinants between ASGR-1/ASGR-2 for various saccharides. 
     Results 
     Lactose Binds in the Carbohydrate Binding Pocket of ASGR-1 
     Protein crystals of the ASGR-1/Lactose complex were grown and the crystal structure was determined at 2.05 Å. Although a method similar to that of the published structure was followed, clear electron density is present for the lactose disaccharide in the carbohydrate binding pocket. See  FIGS. 18A and 18B . In this structure, the galactose ring of the lactose disaccharide sits on top of the calcium ion at the carbohydrate binding domain and forms the majority of the contacts with the ASGR-1 protein. Hydrogen bonds are formed between lactose and ASGR-1 amino acids Q240, D242, E253, and N265. Additionally, van der Waals interactions are formed with at least W244 (SEQ ID NO:5). See  FIG. 18C . 
     Analysis of the crystal structure identifies specific amino acids involved in the interaction between ASGR-1 and lactose. Interacting with at least these amino acids by an alternate molecule can completely or partially affect the interaction between ASGR-1 and lactose. 
     ASGR-1/Lactose Analysis (Distances Below were Calculated with PyMOL): 
     Amino acids with at least one non-hydrogen atom 4.5 Å or less to the bound lactose molecule were identified and include: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Amino acids with at least one non-hydrogen atom 5 Å or less to the bound lactose molecule were identified and include: Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Amino acids with at least one non-hydrogen atom 5-8 Å from the bound lactose molecule were identified and include: N209, R237, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, D260, V268, R271, Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Galactose Binds in the Carbohydrate Binding Pocket of ASGR-1 Similar to Lactose 
     Protein crystals of the ASGR-1/Galactose complex were grown and the crystal structure was determined at 2.4 Å. Although a method similar to that of the published structure was followed, clear electron density is present for the galactose saccharide in the carbohydrate binding domain. See  FIG. 19A and 19B . 
     In this structure, galactose sits on top of the calcium ion at the carbohydrate binding site and forms contacts with the ASGR-1 protein. Hydrogen bonds are formed between galactose and ASGR-1 amino acids Q240, D242, E253, and N265 (SEQ ID NO:5). Additionally, van der Waals interactions are formed with at least W244. See  FIG. 19C . 
     Analysis of the crystal structure identifies specific amino acids involved in the interaction between ASGR-1 and galactose. Interacting with at least these amino acids by an alternate molecule may completely or partially affect the interaction between ASGR-1 and galactose. Distances below were calculated with PyMOL. 
     ASGR-1/Galactose Analysis (Distances Below were Calculated with PyMOL): 
     Amino acids with at least one non-hydrogen atom 4.5 Å or less to the bound galactose molecule were identified and include: R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267 (SEQ ID NO:5). Amino acids with at least one non-hydrogen atom 5 Å or less to the bound lactose molecule were identified and include: R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, N265, D266, D267 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Amino acids with at least one non-hydrogen atom 5-8 Å from the bound lactose molecule were identified and include: N209, P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, H257, T259, V268, R271, Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     When comparing the ASGR-1/Lactose and ASGR-1/Galactose structures, the galactose rings of each saccharide superimpose very well. One difference in the proteins in the two structures is the conformation of R237, an amino acid in close proximity to the carbohydrate binding site. In the superimposition shown in  FIG. 20 , the ASGR-1/Lactose structure is shown in white and the ASGR-1/Galactose structure is shown in black. 
     N-acetyl-D-galactosamine (GalNAc) binds in the Carbohydrate Binding Pocket of ASGR-1 Similar to Galactose, buts Forms Additional Interactions 
     Protein crystals of the ASGR-1/GalNAc complex were grown and the crystal structure was determined at 2.2 Å. Although a method similar to that of the published structure was followed, clear electron density is present for the GalNAc saccharide in the carbohydrate binding pocket. See  FIG. 21A  and  FIG. 21B . 
     In this structure, GalNAc sits on top of the calcium ion at the carbohydrate binding site and forms contacts with the ASGR-1 protein. Hydrogen bonds are formed between GalNAc and ASGR-1 amino acids Q240, D242, E253, and N265. Additionally, van der Waals interactions are formed with at least W244. In this structure, R237 is in a similar conformation as observed in the galactose complex. However, in this case hydrogen bonds are formed between R237 and the acetyl of GalNAc. These additional interactions with R237 help explain both the observed tighter binding of GalNAc (than galactose) to ASGR-1, and the tighter binding to GalNAc to ASGR-1 (than ASGR-2, in which this amino acid is Ala rather than Arg). See  FIG. 21C . 
     ASGR-1/GalNAc Analysis (Distances were Calculated with PyMOL): 
     Analysis of the crystal structure identifies specific amino acids involved in the interaction between ASGR-1 and GalNAc. Interacting with at least one of these amino acids by an alternate molecule may completely or partially inhibit the interaction between ASGR-1 and GalNAc. 
     Amino acids with at least one atom 4.5 Å or less to the bound GalNAc molecule were identified and include: N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). Amino acids with at least one non-hydrogen atom 5 Å or less to the bound lactose molecule were identified and include: N209, R237, Q240, D242, W244, E253, H257, T259, N265, D266, D267, Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Amino acids with at least one non-hydrogen atom 5-8 Å from the bound lactose molecule were identified and include: P238, E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, H247, G252, C255, F258, D260, R263, W264, V268, R271 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     The coordinates for the ASGR-1 CBD/GalNAc crystal structure complex are presented in Table 10.1. 
     Methods 
     ASGR-1 Expression and Purification 
     For all chrystallography experiments in Example 12, Human ASGR-1 CBD protein (SEQ ID NO:5) was expressed in  E. coli  and refolded and purified. 
     ASGR- 1 Crystallization 
     Purified human ASGR-1 CBD (148-291) protein was concentrated to 8-12 mg/ml. ASGR-1/carbohydrate complex crystals grow in 0.1 M sodium cacodylate pH 6.8, 0.08 M ammonium sulfate, 21-23% PEG 8000 in the presence of 20 mM ligand (lactose, galactose or GalNAc). 
     Data Collection and Structure Determination 
     Datasets for ASGR-1 CBD complexes were collected on a Rigaku FR-E X-ray source (ASGR-1/Lactose and ASGR-1/Galactose) or at Berkeley Advanced Light Source beamline 5.0.2 (ASGR-1/GalNAc). All datasets were processed with iMosflm(2) and scaled with AIMLESS(3) from the CCP4 program suite(4). 
     ASGR-1/Lactose crystals grow in the C2 space group with unit cell dimensions a=113.5, b=32.3, c=40.4 Å, β=92.3° with one complex molecule per asymmetric unit, and diffract to 2.05 Å resolution. The ASGR-1 structure was solved by molecular replacement with the program PHASER(5) using the published ASGR-1 structure(1) as the starting search model. The structure was improved with multiple rounds of model building with Coot(6) and refinement with PHENIX(7). The refined structure has R=18.9 and R free =24.4. 
     ASGR-1/Galactose crystals grow in the C2 space group with unit cell dimensions a=113.1, b=32.7, c=40.7 Å, β=91.6° with one complex molecule per asymmetric unit, and diffract to 2.4 Å resolution. The ASGR-1/Lactose structure was used as the starting molecule for molecular replacement, and model building and refinement were performed as described for the ASGR-1/Lactose complex to R=15.8 and R free =22.9. 
     ASGR-1/GalNAc crystals grow in the C2 space group with unit cell dimensions a=112.7, b=32.3, c=40.5 Å, β=91.7° with one complex molecule per asymmetric unit, and diffract to 2.2 Å resolution. The ASGR-1/Lactose structure was used as the starting molecule for molecular replacement, and model building and refinement were performed as described for the ASGR-1/Lactose complex to R=16.5 and R free =23.0. 
     Structure analysis and distance calculations were performed with the program PyMOL(8). 
     REFERENCES 
     
         
         1. Meier, M., Bider, M. D., Malashkevich, V. N., Spiess, M., and Burkhard, P. (2000) Crystal structure of the carbohydrate recognition domain of the H1 subunit of the asialoglycoprotein receptor. Journal of molecular biology 300, 857-865 
         2. Battye, T. G., Kontogiannis, L., Johnson, O., Powell, H. R., and Leslie, A. G. (2011) iMOSFLM: a new graphical interface for diffraction-image processing with MOSFLM. Acta crystallographica 67, 271-281 
         3. Evans, P. (2006) Scaling and assessment of data quality. Acta crystallographica 62, 72-82 
         4. CCP4. (1994) The CCP4 suite: programs for protein crystallography. Acta crystallographica 50, 760-763 
         5. McCoy, A. J., Grosse-Kunstleve, R. W., Adams, P. D., Winn, M. D., Storoni, L. C., and Read, R. J. (2007) Phaser crystallographic software. Journal of applied crystallography 40, 658-674 
         6. Emsley, P., Lohkamp, B., Scott, W. G., and Cowtan, K. (2010) Features and development of Coot. Acta crystallographica 66, 486-501 
         7. Adams, P. D., Afonine, P. V., Bunkoczi, G., Chen, V. B., Davis, I. W., Echols, N., Headd, J. J., Hung, L. W., Kapral, G. J., Grosse-Kunstleve, R. W., McCoy, A. J., Moriarty, N. W., Oeffner, R., Read, R. J., Richardson, D. C., Richardson, J. S., Terwilliger, T. C., and Zwart, P. H. (2010) PHENIX: a comprehensive Python-based system for macromolecular structure solution. Acta crystallographica 66, 213-221 
         8. DeLano, W. L. (2002) The PyMOL Molecular Graphics System. Palo Alto 
       
    
     B. Crystal Structure of ASGR-1 Carbohydrate Binding Domain (CBD) with 5E5 
     The present example presents the crystal structure of the ASGR-1 CBD bound to the Fab fragment of 5E5, determined to 1.95 Å resolution (the conditions for which are described in the below). This structure, depicted in  FIG. 22A &amp;B, shows that when 5E5 binds to/interacts with ASGR-1, a conformational rearrangement of the carbohydrate binding loop occurs, impairing the carbohydrate binding loop from binding to/interacting with ligand (i.e., carbohydrates). This demonstrates that the 5E5 Fab indirectly inhibits the ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand binding. 
     The depicted structure also allows one to identify specific core ASGR amino acid residues for the interaction interface of 5E5 with ASGR-1. This was defined as residues that are within 5 Å of the 5E5 protein. The core residues are as follows: H161, E162, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, H204, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, D261, G262, R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     The structures were also used to identify boundary ASGR-1 amino acid residues for the interaction interface with 5E5. These residues were ASGR-1 residues that were from 5-8 Å of the 5E5 protein. The boundary residues are as follows: V159, E160, R163, T193, S194, E197, V201, I205, G206, P207, Y229, E230, T231, E239, F258, T259, D260, W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Specific core 5E5 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 5E5 residues that are within 5 Å of the ASGR-1 protein. The core 5E5 Heavy Chain residues include: S30, N31, W52, Y53, D54, S56, N57, Y59, Y101, S102, S103, G104, W105, Y106, D107; and the core 5E5 Light Chain residues include: 5E5 Light Chain: Q27, R30, D32, H91, Y92, S93, Y94. 
     Boundary 5E5 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 5E5 residues that are 5-8 Å from the ASGR-1 protein. The boundary 5E5 Heavy Chain residues include: Y32, V33, V50, G55, K58, N74, E99, V100, Y108; and the boundary 5E5 Light Chain residues include: I2, G28, I29, L33, Q90, P95, R96. 
     Methods 
     Expression and Purification of Protein Samples 
     The 5E5 Fab fragment was generated by cleaving the 5E5 mAb with caspase 3. Post caspase cleavage, the Fab was isolated by purification on a MonoS ion exchange column. Ni Sepharose Excel subtraction was then performed to ensure the Fc domain was removed from the sample. 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 5E5 mAb Heavy Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32695): 
               
               
                 QVQLVESGGGVVQPGRSLRLSCAASGFTFSNYVMHWVRQAPGKGLEWVA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VIWYDGSNKYYADSVKGRFTISRDNSKNTLYLQMNSLRAEDTAVYYCTR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 EVYSSGWYDYGMDVWGQGTTVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 LGCLVKDYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SSLGTQTYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVDGGDKTHTCPPCPA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PELLGGPSVFLFPPKPKDTLMISRTPEVTCVVVDVSHEDPEVKFNWYVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GVEVHNAKTKPREEQYNSTYRVVSVLTVLHQDWLNGKEYKCKVSNKALP 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 APIEKTISKAKGQPREPQVYTLPPSREEMTKNQVSLTCLVKGFYPSDIA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VEWESNGQPENNYKTTPPVLDSDGSFFLYSKLTVDKSRWQQGNVFSCSV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 MHEALHNHYTQKSLSLSPGHHHHHH 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 5E5 mAb Light Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32696): 
               
               
                 DIQMTQSPSSLSASVGDRVTITCRASQGIRNDLGWYQQKPGKAPKRLIY 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 AASSLQSGVPSRFSGSGSGTEFTLTISSLQPEDFATYYCLQHYSYPRTF 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GQGTKVEVKRTVAAPSVFIFPPSDEQLKSGTASVVCLLNNFYPREAKVQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WKVDNALQSGNSQESVTEQDSKDSTYSLSSTLTLSKADYEKHKVYACEV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 THQGLSSPVTKSFNRGEC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 5E5 Fab Heavy Chain (Post Cleavage) (SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32697): 
               
               
                 QVQLVESGGGVVQPGRSLRLSCAASGFTFSNYVMHWVRQAPGKGLEWVA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VIWYDGSNKYYADSVKGRFTISRDNSKNTLYLQMNSLRAEDTAVYYCTR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 EVYSSGWYDYGMDVWGQGTTVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 LGCLVKDYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SSLGTQTYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 5E5 Fab Light Chain (Post Cleavage) (SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32698): 
               
               
                 DIQMTQSPSSLSASVGDRVTITCRASQGIRNDLGWYQQKPGKAPKRLIY 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 AASSLQSGVPSRFSGSGSGTEFTLTISSLQPEDFATYYCLQHYSYPRTF 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GQGTKVEVKRTVAAPSVFIFPPSDEQLKSGTASVVCLLNNFYPREAKVQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WKVDNALQSGNSQESVTEQDSKDSTYSLSSTLTLSKADYEKHKVYACEV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 THQGLSSPVTKSFNRGEC 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Complex Formation and Crystallization 
     The ASGR-1 CBD/5E5 Fab complex was made by mixing a molar excess of ASGR-1 CBD with 5E5 Fab. The complex was separated from excess ASGR-1 by purification on a size exclusion chromatography column. The ASGR-1 CBD/5E5 Fab complex was concentrated to 10 mg/ml and crystallizes in 0.1 M Tris pH 8.5, 12% PEG 4000. 
     Data Collection and Structure Determination 
     The dataset for the ASGR-1 CBD/5E5 Fab complex crystal was collected on beamline 5.0.2 at the Berkeley synchrotron and processed with Mosflm 1 /Aimless 2 . 
     ASGR-1 CBD/5E5 Fab complex crystals grow in the P21 space group with unit cell dimensions a=62.93, b=41.75, c=118.89 Å and β=97.16 with one complex molecule per asymmetric unit, and diffract to 1.95 Å resolution. The ASGR-1 CBD/5E5 Fab complex structure was solved by molecular replacement with the program Molrep 2 . The structure was improved with multiple rounds of model building with Coot 3  and refinement with Phenix 4 , to a final R=25.9/R free =30.5. While the electron density for the ASGR-1 CBD and 5E5 Fab variable domain (along with the corresponding interface) is quite good, the electron density for the 5E5 constant domain is poor (most likely due to poor packing within the crystal lattice). This likely explains the higher R/R free  observed from this structure refinement. 
     Core interaction interface amino acids were determined as being all amino acid residues with at least one non-hydrogen atom less than or equal to 5 Å from the partner protein. 5 Å was chosen as the core region cutoff distance to allow for atoms within a van der Waals radius plus a possible water-mediated hydrogen bond. Boundary interaction interface amino acids were determined as all amino acid residues with at least one non-hydrogen atom less than or equal to 8 Å from the partner protein but not included in the core interaction list. Less than or equal to 8 Å was chosen as the boundary region cutoff distance to allow for the length of an extended arginine amino acid. Amino acids that met these distance criteria were calculated with the program PyMOL 5 . 
     REFERENCES 
     
         
         1. Battye, T. G., Kontogiannis, L., Johnson, O., Powell, H. R. &amp; Leslie, A. G. iMOSFLM: a new graphical interface for diffraction-image processing with MOSFLM.  Acta Crystallogr D Biol Crystallogr  67, 271-81 (2011). 
         2. CCP4. The CCP4 suite: programs for protein crystallography.  Acta Crystallogr D Biol Crystallogr  50, 760-3 (1994). 
         3. Emsley, P., Lohkamp, B., Scott, W. G. &amp; Cowtan, K. Features and development of Coot.  Acta Crystallogr D Biol Crystallogr  66, 486-501 (2010). 
         4. Adams, P. D. et al. PHENIX: a comprehensive Python-based system for macromolecular structure solution.  Acta Crystallogr D Biol Crystallogr  66, 213-21 (2010). 
         5. DeLano, W. L. The PyMOL Molecular Graphics System. (Palo Alto, 2002).
 
C. Crystal Structure of ASGR-1 Carbohydrate Binding Domain (CBD) with 22G5
 
       
    
     The present example presents the crystal structure of the ASGR-1 CBD bound to the Fab fragment of 22G5, determined to 2.1 Å resolution (the conditions of which are described above in B). This structure, depicted in  FIG. 23A &amp;B, shows that when 22G5 binds to/interacts with ASGR-1, a conformational rearrangement of the carbohydrate binding loop occurs, impairing the carbohydrate binding loop from binding to/interacting with ligand (i.e., carbohydrates). This demonstrates that the 22G5 Fab indirectly inhibits the ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand binding. 
     The depicted structure also allows one to identify specific core ASGR amino acid residues for the interaction interface of 22G5 with ASGR-1. This was defined as residues that are within 5 Å of the 22G5 protein. The core residues are as follows: W167, S171, G172, K173, A174, A176, D177, N180, Y181, R183, L184, E185, D186, Q270, P272, W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     The structures were also used to identify boundary ASGR-1 amino acid residues for the interaction interface with 22G5. These residues were ASGR-1 residues that were from 5-8 Å of the 22G5 protein. The boundary residues are as follows: P155, N157, W158, F168, S169, R170, W175, A178, D179, C182, A187, W211, C269, R271, Y273, R274, C277, T279 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Specific core 22G5 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 22G5 residues that are within 5 Å of the ASGR-1 protein. The core 22G5 Heavy Chain residues include: A33, V50, I51, S52, R53, S54, G55, G56, Y57, Y59, R99, A101, A103, G104, E106; and the core 22G5 Light Chain residues include: 22G5 Light Chain: Y32, S91, Y92, R93, Thr94, Pro95, F97. 
     Boundary 22G5 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 22G5 residues that are 5-8 Å from the ASGR-1 protein. The boundary 22G5 Heavy Chain residues include: S30, S31, Y32, M34, N35, W47, S49, T58, R72, N74, L100, V102, S105; and the boundary 22G5 Light Chain residues include: I2, Q27, N28, NAG100, I29, S30, S31, Q90, L96. 
     Methods: 
     The same methods were followed as described above in Example 10B except for the following changes: 
     The 22G5 Fab fragment was generated by cleaving the 22G5-IgG4 mAb with papain; 
     The ASGR-1 CBD/22G5 Fab complex was concentrated to 8 mg/ml and crystallized in 0.1 Bis-Tris pH 6.5, 0.2 sodium malonate, 20% PEG 3350; 
     The dataset was processed with XDS/Aimless; 
     ASGR-1 CBD/22G5 Fab complex crystals grow in the P212121 space group with unit cell dimensions a=46.04, b=80.34, c=169.14 Å with one complex molecule per asymmetric unit, and diffract to 2.1 Å resolution; and 
     The structure was improved with multiple rounds of model building with Coot3 and refinement with Phenix4, to a final R=17.8/R free =22.5. 
     D. Crystal Structure of ASGR-1 Carbohydrate Binding Domain (CBD) with 4A2 
     The present example presents the crystal structure of the ASGR-1 CBD bound to the Fab fragment of 4A2, determined to 2.15 Å resolution (the conditions of which are described above in section B of this Example). This structure, depicted in  FIGS. 24, 25 and 26 , shows that when 4A2 binds to/interacts with ASGR-1, a conformational rearrangement of the carbohydrate binding loop occurs, impairing the carbohydrate binding loop from binding to/interacting with ligand (i.e., carbohydrates). This demonstrates that the 4A2 Fab indirectly inhibits the ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand binding. 
     The depicted structure also allows one to identify specific core ASGR amino acid residues for the interaction interface of 4A2 with ASGR-1. This was defined as residues that are within 5 Å of the 4A2 protein. The core residues are as follows: R170, W195, E196, K199, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, F233, K234, N235, W236, P238, D260, D261, G262, R263, R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     The structures were also used to identify boundary ASGR-1 amino acid residues for the interaction interface with 4A2. These residues were ASGR-1 residues that were from 5-8 Å of the 4A2 protein. The boundary residues are as follows: N157, V159, F168, S169, S171, S194, Q198, F200, V201, T210, R237, E239, Q240, F258, T259, W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Specific core 4A2 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 4A2 residues that are within 5 Å of the ASGR-1 protein. The core 4A2 Heavy Chain residues include: T28, F29, T30, N31, Y32, D33, W50, H52, S55, N57, S99, S100, G101, W102, Y103; and the core 4A2 Light Chain residues include: 4A2 Light Chain: H31, S33, N34, N36, Y38, W56, Y97, Y98. 
     Boundary 4A2 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 4A2 residues that are 5-8 Å from the ASGR-1 protein. The boundary 4A2 Heavy Chain residues include: Y27, I34, N35, W47, M51, P53, N54, G56, T58, G59, Y104, D106; and the boundary 4A2 Light Chain residues include: I29, S32, N35, N37, Y55, T59, Q96, N99, T100. 
     The coordinates for the ASGR-1 CBD/4A2 crystal structure complex are presented in Table 10.2. 
     Methods: 
     The same methods were followed as described above in part B of this Example except for the following changes: 
     1. For this antibody only, a double stop codon was inserted at the end of CH1 domain that allowed for expression of a 4A2 Fab. The Fab purification was carried out via an affinity and a cation exchanger column. The final sequence of 4A2 Fab is: 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 Heavy Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32650): 
               
               
                 QVQLVQSGTEVKKPGASVKVSCKASGYTFTNYDINWVRQATGQGLEWMG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WMHPNSGNTGYAQKFQGRVTLTRDTSISTAYMELSSLRSEDTAVYYCAS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SSGWYYFDYWGQGTLVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALGCLV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KDYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSSLGT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 QTYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVDGGD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Light Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32651): 
               
               
                 DIVMTQSPDSLAVSLGERATINCKSSQSILHSSNNNNYLAWFQQKPGQP 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PKLLLYWASTRESGVPDRFSGSGSGTDFTLTISSLQPEDVAVYYCQQYY 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 NTPVTFGPGTKVGIKRTVAAPSVFIFPPSDEQLKSGTASVVCLLNNFYP 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 REAKVQWKVDNALQSGNSQESVTEQDSKDSTYSLSSTLTLSKADYEKHK 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VYACEVTHQGLSSPVTKSFNRGEC 
               
            
           
         
       
         
         
           
             1. The ASGR-1 CBD/4A2 Fab complex was concentrated to 20 mg/ml and crystallized in 0.2 M Tri-Lithium citrate and 20% PEG3350; 
             2. The ASGR-1 CBD/4A2 Fab complex crystals grow in the P212121 space group with unit cell dimensions a=63.42, b=76.37, c=156.67 Å with one complex molecule per asymmetric unit, and diffract to 2.15 Å resolution; and 
             3. The structure was improved with multiple rounds of model building with Coot 3  and refinement with Phenix 4 , to a final R=17.9/R free =21.8.
 
Crystal Structure of ASGR-1 Carbohydrate Binding Domain (CBD) with 7E11
 
           
         
       
    
     The present example presents the crystal structure of the ASGR-1 CBD bound to the Fab fragment of 7E11, determined to 2.0 Å resolution (the conditions of which are described above in section B of this Example). This structure, depicted in  FIGS. 27 and 28 , shows that when 7E11 binds to/interacts with ASGR-1, a conformational rearrangement of the carbohydrate binding loop occurs, impairing the carbohydrate binding loop from binding to/interacting with ligand (i.e., carbohydrates). This demonstrates that the 7E11 Fab indirectly inhibits the ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand binding. 
     The depicted structure also allows one to identify specific core ASGR amino acid residues for the interaction interface of 7E11 with ASGR-1. This was defined as residues that are within 5 Å of the 7E11 protein. The core residues are as follows: H161, S194, W195, E196, Q198, K199, F200, Q202, H203, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     The structures were also used to identify boundary ASGR-1 amino acid residues for the interaction interface with 7E11. These residues were ASGR-1 residues that were from 5-8 Å of the 7E11 protein. The boundary residues are as follows: E160, E162, V192, T193, E197, V201, H204, Y229, E230, T231, G232, E239, Q240, P241, D261, G262, W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Specific core 7E11 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 7E11 residues that are within 5 Å of the ASGR-1 protein. The core 7E11 Heavy Chain residues include: S30, S31, I50, W52, H53, S56, N57, Y59, S01, M102, G103; and the core 7E11 Light Chain residues include: I30, Y32, T91, Y92, S93, T94, I96. 
     Boundary 7E11 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 7E11 residues that are 5-8 Å from the ASGR-1 protein. The boundary 7E11 Heavy Chain residues include: T28, F29, F32, G33, H35, W47, I51, D54, K58, D99, L100, G104; and the boundary 7E11 Light Chain residues include: I2, Q27, N28, I29, S31, L33, N34, T50, S67, Q89, Q90, P95. 
     Methods: 
     The same methods were followed as described above in part B of this example except for the following changes: 
     The 7E11 Fab fragment was generated by cleaving the 7E11 mAb with caspase 3: 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 7E11 mAb Heavy Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32652): 
               
               
                 QVQLVESGGGVVQPGRSLRLSCAASGFTFSSFGMHWVRQAPGKGLEWVA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 IIWHDGSNKYYADSVKGRFTISRDNSNNTLYLQMSSLRAEDTAVYYCAR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 DLSMGGMDVWGQGTTVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALGCLV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KDYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSSLGT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 QTYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVDGGDKTHTCPPCPAPELLG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GPSVFLFPPKPKDTLMISRTPEVTCVVVDVSHEDPEVKFNWYVDGVEVH 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 NAKTKPREEQYNSTYRVVSVLTVLHQDWLNGKEYKCKVSNKALPAPIEK 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TISKAKGQPREPQVYTLPPSREEMTKNQVSLTCLVKGFYPSDIAVEWES 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 NGQPENNYKTTPPVLDSDGSFFLYSKLTVDKSRWQQGNVFSCSVMHEAL 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 HNHYTQKSLSLSPGHHHHHH 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 7E11 mAb Light Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32653): 
               
               
                 DIQMTQSPSSLSASVGDRVTIACRASQNIISYLNWYQQKPGKAPKFLIY 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TASSLQSGVPSRFSGSGSGTDFTLTISSLQPEDFAIYYCQQTYSTPLTF 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GGGTKVEIKRTVAAPSVFIFPPSDEQLKSGTASVVCLLNNFYPREAKVQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WKVDNALQSGNSQESVTEQDSKDSTYSLSSTLTLSKADYEKHKVYACEV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 THQGLSSPVTKSFNRGEC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 7E11 Fab Heavy Chain (Post-Cleavage) (SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32654): 
               
               
                 QVQLVESGGGVVQPGRSLRLSCAASGFTFSSFGMHWVRQAPGKGLEWVA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 IIWHDGSNKYYADSVKGRFTISRDNSNNTLYLQMSSLRAEDTAVYYCAR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 DLSMGGMDVWGQGTTVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALGCLV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KDYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSSLGT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 QTYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 7E11 Fab Light Chain (Post-Cleavage) (SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32655): 
               
               
                 DIQMTQSPSSLSASVGDRVTIACRASQNIISYLNWYQQKPGKAPKFLIY 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TASSLQSGVPSRFSGSGSGTDFTLTISSLQPEDFAIYYCQQTYSTPLTF 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GGGTKVEIKRTVAAPSVFIFPPSDEQLKSGTASVVCLLNNFYPREAKVQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WKVDNALQSGNSQESVTEQDSKDSTYSLSSTLTLSKADYEKHKVYACEV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 THQGLSSPVTKSFNRGEC 
               
            
           
         
       
         
         
           
             1. The ASGR-1 CBD/7E11 Fab complex was concentrated to 20 mg/ml and crystallized in 0.2 M Potassium Phosphate monobasic and 20% PEG3350; 
             2. The ASGR-1 CBD/7E11 Fab complex crystals grow in the P6222 space group with unit cell dimensions a=105.75, b=105.75, c=193.75 Å and γ=120.0° with one complex molecule per asymmetric unit, and diffract to 2.0 Å resolution; 
             3. The dataset was processed with XDS/CCP4; 
             4. The ASGR-1 CBD/7E11 Fab complex structure was solved by molecular replacement with the program Phaser; and 
             5. The structure was improved with multiple rounds of model building with Coot 3  and refinement with Phenix 4 , to a final R=21.4/R free =26.9. 
           
         
       
    
     E. Crystal Structure of ASGR-1 Carbohydrate Binding Domain (CBD) with 4H6 
     The present example presents the crystal structure of the ASGR-1 CBD bound to the Fab fragment of 4H6, determined to 2.6 Å resolution (the conditions of which are described above in section B of this Example). This structure, depicted in  FIGS. 29 and 30 , shows that when 4H6 binds to/interacts with ASGR-1, a conformational rearrangement of the carbohydrate binding loop occurs, impairing the carbohydrate binding loop from binding to/interacting with ligand (i.e., carbohydrates). This demonstrates that the 4H6 Fab indirectly inhibits the ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand binding. 
     The depicted structure also allows one to identify specific core ASGR amino acid residues for the interaction interface of 4H6 with ASGR-1. This was defined as residues that are within 5 Å of the 4H6 protein. The core residues are as follows: H161, E162, T193, S194, W195, E196, K199, Q202, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, P238, D261, R263 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     The structures were also used to identify boundary ASGR-1 amino acid residues for the interaction interface with 4H6. These residues were ASGR-1 residues that were from 5-8 Å of the 4H6 protein. The boundary residues are as follows: R163, V192, E197, Q198, H203, P207, D228, E230, W236, R237, D260, G262, W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Specific core 4H6 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 4H6 residues that are within 5 Å of the ASGR-1 protein. The core 4H6 Heavy Chain residues include: Y33, H35, W50, H52, S55, G57, T58, N59, D99, G100, T101, S102; and the core 4H6 Light Chain residues include: Q27, W32, A91, N92, S93, F94, F96. 
     Boundary 4H6 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 4H6 residues that are 5-8 Å from the ASGR-1 protein. The boundary 4H6 Heavy Chain residues include: D31, Y32, L34, W47, I51, N54, G56, Y60, Q65, S103, F104; and the boundary 4H6 Light Chain residues include: D1, I2, G28, I29, S30, R31, Y49, G50, Q89, Q90, P95. 
     Methods: 
     The same methods were followed as described above in part B of this example except for the following changes: 
     1. The 4H6 Fab fragment was generated by cleaving the 4H6 mAb with caspase 3. 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 4H6 mAb Heavy Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32656): 
               
               
                 QVQLVQSGAEVKKPGASVKVSCKASGYTFTDYYLHWVRQAPGQGLEWMG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WIHPNSGGTNYAQKFQGRVTMTRDTSISTAYMGLSSLRSDDTAVYYCAR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 DGTSSFDYWGQGTLVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALGCLVK 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 DYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSSLGTQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVDGGDKTHTCPPCPAPELLGG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PSVFLFPPKPKDTLMISRTPEVTCVVVDVSHEDPEVKFNWYVDGVEVHN 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 AKTKPREEQYNSTYRVVSVLTVLHQDWLNGKEYKCKVSNKALPAPIEKT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ISKAKGQPREPQVYTLPPSREEMTKNQVSLTCLVKGFYPSDIAVEWESN 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GQPENNYKTTPPVLDSDGSFFLYSKLTVDKSRWQQGNVFSCSVMHEALH 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 NHYTQKSLSLSPGHHHHHH 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 4H6 mAb Light Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32657): 
               
               
                 DIQMTQSPSSVSASVGDRVTITCRASQGISRWLAWYQQKPGKAPKLLIY 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GASSLQSGVPSRFSGSGSGTDFTLTISSLQPEDFAIYYCQQANSFPFTF 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GPGTKVDIKGTVAAPSVFIFPPSDEQLKSGTASVVCLLNNFYPREAKVQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WKVDNALQSGNSQESVTEQDSKDSTYSLSSTLTLSKADYEKHKVYACEV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 THQGLSSPVTKSFNRGEC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 4H6 Fab Heavy Chain (Post-Cleavage) (SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32658): 
               
               
                 QVQLVQSGAEVKKPGASVKVSCKASGYTFTDYYLHWVRQAPGQGLEWMG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WIHPNSGGTNYAQKFQGRVTMTRDTSISTAYMGLSSLRSDDTAVYYCAR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 DGTSSFDYWGQGTLVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALGCLVK 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 DYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSSLGTQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 4H6 Fab Light Chain (Post-Cleavage) (SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32659): 
               
               
                 DIQMTQSPSSVSASVGDRVTITCRASQGISRWLAWYQQKPGKAPKLLIY 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GASSLQSGVPSRFSGSGSGTDFTLTISSLQPEDFAIYYCQQANSFPFTF 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GPGTKVDIKGTVAAPSVFIFPPSDEQLKSGTASVVCLLNNFYPREAKVQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WKVDNALQSGNSQESVTEQDSKDSTYSLSSTLTLSKADYEKHKVYACEV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 THQGLSSPVTKSFNRGEC 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     2. The ASGR-1 CBD/4H6 Fab complex was concentrated to 20 mg/ml and crystallized in 0.2M Sodium fluoride, 0.1 M Bis Tris propane pH 8.5, 20% PEG3350; 
     3. The dataset was collected on beamline ID22 at the APS synchrotron and processed with HKL2000/CCP4; 
     4. The ASGR-1 CBD/4H6 Fab complex crystals grow in the P12 1 1 space group with unit cell dimensions a=57.20, b=43.58, c=131.65 Å and β=90.7° with one complex molecule per asymmetric unit, and diffract to 2.6 Å resolution; 
     5. The ASGR-1 CBD/4H6 Fab complex structure was solved by molecular replacement with the program Phaser; and 
     6. The structure was improved with multiple rounds of model building with Coot 3  and refinement with Phenix 4 , to a final R=17.9/R free =22.5. 
     F. Crystal Structure of ASGR-1 Carbohydrate Binding Domain (CBD) with 72G9 
     The present example presents the crystal structure of the ASGR-1 CBD bound to the Fab fragment of 72G9, determined to 2.55 Å resolution (the conditions of which are described above in section B of this Example). This structure, depicted in  FIGS. 31 and 32A and 32B , shows that when 72G9 binds to/interacts with ASGR-1, the CDR H2 loop of the Fab fragment appears to directly block the ligand (i.e., carbohydrate) binding/interacting to ASGR-1 CBD. This demonstrates that the 72G9 Fab directly inhibits the ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand binding. 
     The depicted structure also allows one to identify specific core ASGR amino acid residues for the interaction interface of 72G9 with ASGR-1. This was defined as residues that are within 5 Å of the 72G9 protein. The core residues are as follows: D216, Q217, N218, G219, P220, W221, Y229, E230, K234, W236, E239, Q240, P241, D242, D243, W244, Y245, G246, L249, G250, G251, G252, D254, Q270 ((SEQ ID NO:5). 
     The structures were also used to identify boundary ASGR-1 amino acid residues for the interaction interface with 72G9. These residues were ASGR-1 residues that were from 5-8 Å of the 72G9 protein. The boundary residues are as follows: H215, K222, T231, G232, R237, P238, H247, G248, E253, C255, D266, V268, C269 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Specific core 72G9 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 72G9 residues that are within 5 Å of the ASGR-1 protein. The core 72G9 Heavy Chain residues include: G26, F27, T28, S30, S31, Y32, S33, S52, G53, S54, S56, Y57, Y59, R98, G100, S101, R102; and the core 72G9 Light Chain residues include: Y32, Y49, T50, Q55, S91, H92, S93, F94, F96. 
     Boundary 72G9 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 72G9 residues that are 5-8 Å from the ASGR-1 protein. The boundary 72G9 Heavy Chain residues include: V2, F29, N35, S50, T51, S55, I58, R72, G99, G103, F104, D105; and the boundary 72G9 Light Chain residues include: S28, I29, T30, N33, L46, S53, L54, S56, Q89, Q90, P95. 
     Methods: 
     The same methods were followed as described above in part B of this example except for the following changes: 
     1. The 72G9 Fab fragment was generated by cleaving the 72G9 mAb with caspase 3. 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 72G9 mAb Heavy Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32660): 
               
               
                 EVQLVESGGGLVKPGGSLRLSCAASGFTFSSYSMNWVRQAPGKGLEWVS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SISGSSSYIYYADSVKGRFTISRDNAKNSLYLQMNSLRAEDTAVYFCAR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GGSRGFDPWGQGTLVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALGCLVK 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 DYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSSLGTQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVDGGDKTHTCPPCPAPELLGG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PSVFLFPPKPKDTLMISRTPEVTCVVVDVSHEDPEVKFNWYVDGVEVHN 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 AKTKPREEQYNSTYRVVSVLTVLHQDWLNGKEYKCKVSNKALPAPIEKT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ISKAKGQPREPQVYTLPPSREEMTKNQVSLTCLVKGFYPSDIAVEWESN 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GQPENNYKTTPPVLDSDGSFFLYSKLTVDKSRWQQGNVFSCSVMHEALH 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 NHYTQKSLSLSPGHHHHHH 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 72G9 mAb Light Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32661): 
               
               
                 DIQMTQSPSSLSASVGDRVTITCRASQSITSYLNWYQQKPGKAPKLLIY 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TASSLQSGVPSRFSGSGSGTDFTLTISSLQPEDFATYYCQQSHSFPFTF 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GPGTKVDIKRTVAAPSVFIFPPSDEQLKSGTASVVCLLNNFYPREAKVQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WKVDNALQSGNSQESVTEQDSKDSTYSLSSTLTLSKADYEKHKVYACEV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 THQGLSSPVTKSFNRGEC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 72G9 Fab Heavy Chain (Post-Cleavage) (SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32662): 
               
               
                 EVQLVESGGGLVKPGGSLRLSCAASGFTFSSYSMNWVRQAPGKGLEWVS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SISGSSSYIYYADSVKGRFTISRDNAKNSLYLQMNSLRAEDTAVYFCAR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GGSRGFDPWGQGTLVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALGCLVK 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 DYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSSLGTQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 72G9 Fab Light Chain (Post-Cleavage) (SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32663): 
               
               
                 DIQMTQSPSSLSASVGDRVTITCRASQSITSYLNWYQQKPGKAPKLLIY 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TASSLQSGVPSRFSGSGSGTDFTLTISSLQPEDFATYYCQQSHSFPFTF 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GPGTKVDIKRTVAAPSVFIFPPSDEQLKSGTASVVCLLNNFYPREAKVQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WKVDNALQSGNSQESVTEQDSKDSTYSLSSTLTLSKADYEKHKVYACEV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 THQGLSSPVTKSFNRGEC 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     2. The 72G9 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex was concentrated to 0.2 M Magnesium Sulfate heptahydrate, 20% PEG3350; 
     3. The ASGR-1 CBD/72G9 Fab complex crystals grew in the P21 space group with unit cell dimensions a=100.98, b=64.95, c=100.68 Å and β=96.43° with one complex molecule per asymmetric unit, and diffract to 2.55 Å resolution; 
     4. The dataset was processed with XDS/CCP4; 
     5. The ASGR-1 CBD/72G9 Fab complex structure was solved by molecular replacement with the program Phaser; and 
     6. The structure was improved with multiple rounds of model building with Coot 3  and refinement with Phenix 4 , to a final R=20.4/R free =23.4. 
     G. Crystal Structure of ASGR-1 Carbohydrate Binding Domain (CBD) with 194A4 
     The present example presents the crystal structure of the ASGR-1 CBD bound to the Fab fragment of 194A4, determined to 2.6 Å resolution (the conditions of which are described above in section B of this Example). This structure, depicted in  FIGS. 33 and 34 , shows that when 194A4 binds to/interacts with ASGR-1, a conformational rearrangement of the carbohydrate binding loop occurs, impairing the carbohydrate binding loop from binding to/interacting with ligand (i.e., carbohydrates). This demonstrates that the 194A4 Fab indirectly inhibits the ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand binding. 
     The depicted structure also allows one to identify specific core ASGR amino acid residues for the interaction interface of 194A4 with ASGR-1. This was defined as residues that are within 5 Å of the 194A4 protein. The core residues are as follows: T193, S194, W195, E196, P220, W221, G226, T227, D228, Y229, E230, T231, G232, F233, K234, N235, W236, R237, P238, E239, G252 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     The structures were also used to identify boundary ASGR-1 amino acid residues for the interaction interface with 194A4. These residues were ASGR-1 residues that were from 5-8 Å of the 194A4 protein. The boundary residues are as follows: H161, E162, V191, V192, E197, Q198, D216, G219, K222, W223, D225, R263, W264 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Specific core 194A4 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 194A4 residues that are within 5 Å of the ASGR-1 protein. The core 194A4 Heavy Chain residues include: V31, Y32, Y33, W50, N52, S55, G57, R98, G99, Y100, D101, I102, T204; and the core 194A4 Light Chain residues include: V29, S30, I32, Y33, L47, Y50, R55, A56, T57, Y94. 
     Boundary 194A4 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 194A4 residues that are 5-8 Å from the ASGR-1 protein. The boundary 194A4 Heavy Chain residues include: V2, Y27, T30, L34, N35, P53, N54, G56, T58, N59, A97, L103, G105; and the boundary 194A4 Light Chain residues include: G28, N31, L48, I49, G51, N54, G58, I59, S68, G69, D93, S95. 
     Methods: 
     The same methods were followed as described above in part B of this example except for the following changes: 
     1. The 194A4 Fab fragment was generated by cleaving the 194A4 mAb with caspase 3. 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 194A4 mAb Heavy Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32664): 
               
               
                 QVQLVQSGTEVKKPGASLKVSCKASGYTFTVYYLNWVRQAPGQGLEWMG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WINPNSGGTNYAQKFQGRVTMTRDTSISTAYMELSRLRSDDTAVYYCAR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GYDILTGWGQGTLVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALGCLVKD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 YFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSSLGTQT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 YICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVDGGDKTHTCPPCPAPELLGGP 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SVFLFPPKPKDTLMISRTPEVTCVVVDVSHEDPEVKFNWYVDGVEVHNA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KTKPREEQYNSTYRVVSVLTVLHQDWLNGKEYKCKVSNKALPAPIEKTI 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SKAKGQPREPQVYTLPPSREEMTKNQVSLTCLVKGFYPSDIAVEWESNG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 QPENNYKTTPPVLDSDGSFFLYSKLTVDKSRWQQGNVFSCSVMHEALHN 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 HYTQKSLSLSPGHHHHHH 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 194A4 mAb Light Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32665): 
               
               
                 EIVLTQSPGTLSLSPGERATLSCRASRGVSNIYLAWYQQKPGQAPRLLI 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 YGASNRATGIPDRFSGSGSGTDFTLTISRLEPEDFAVYYCQHNDYSMFT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FGPGTKVDIKRTVAAPSVFIFPPSDEQLKSGTASVVCLLNNFYPREAKV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 QWKVDNALQSGNSQESVTEQDSKDSTYSLSSTLTLSKADYEKHKVYACE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VTHQGLSSPVTKSFNRGEC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 194A4 Fab Heavy Chain (Post-Cleavage) (SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32666): 
               
               
                 QVQLVQSGTEVKKPGASLKVSCKASGYTFTVYYLNWVRQAPGQGLEWMG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WINPNSGGTNYAQKFQGRVTMTRDTSISTAYMELSRLRSDDTAVYYCAR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GYDILTGWGQGTLVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALGCLVKD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 YFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSSLGTQT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 YICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 194A4 Fab Light Chain (Post-Cleavage) (SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32667): 
               
               
                 EIVLTQSPGTLSLSPGERATLSCRASRGVSNIYLAWYQQKPGQAPRLLI 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 YGASNRATGIPDRFSGSGSGTDFTLTISRLEPEDFAVYYCQHNDYSMFT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FGPGTKVDIKRTVAAPSVFIFPPSDEQLKSGTASVVCLLNNFYPREAKV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 QWKVDNALQSGNSQESVTEQDSKDSTYSLSSTLTLSKADYEKHKVYACE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VTHQGLSSPVTKSFNRGEC 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     2. The 194A4 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex was concentrated to 13.1 mg/mL and crystallized with 0.2 M Sodium chloride, 0.1M MES pH6.0, 20% PEG2000 MME; 
     3. The dataset was processed with XDS/CCP4; 
     4. The 194A4 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex crystals grow in the P2 1 2 1 2 1  space group with unit cell dimensions a=52.23, b=66.40, c=177.75 Å with one complex molecule per asymmetric unit, and diffract to 2.6 Å resolution; 
     5. The ASGR-1 CBD/194A4 Fab complex structure was solved by molecular replacement with the program Phaser; and 
     6. The structure was improved with multiple rounds of model building with Coot 3  and refinement with Phenix 4 , to a final R=20.1/R free =24.6. 
     H. Crystal Structure of ASGR-1 Carbohydrate Binding Domain (CBD) with 54E9 
     The present example presents the crystal structure of the ASGR-1 CBD bound to the Fab fragment of 54E9, determined to 2.6 Å resolution (the conditions of which are described above in section B of this Example). This structure, depicted in  FIG. 35  and  FIG. 36A  and  FIG. 36B , shows that when 54E9 binds to/interacts with ASGR-1, the CDR H3 loop of the Fab fragment appears to directly block the ligand (i.e., carbohydrate) from binding/interacting to ASGR-1 CBD. This demonstrates that the 54E9 Fab directly inhibits the ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand binding. 
     The depicted structure also allows one to identify specific core ASGR amino acid residues for the interaction interface of 54E9 with ASGR-1. This was defined as residues that are within 5 Å of the 54E9 protein. The core residues are as follows: W195, N209, N235, R237, P238, E239, Q240, D242, H257, T259, D260, D261, R263, N265, D267, R271, Y273 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     The structures were also used to identify boundary ASGR-1 amino acid residues for the interaction interface with 54E9. These residues were ASGR-1 residues that were from 5-8 Å of the 54E9 protein. The boundary residues are as follows: Q198, Q202, P207, V208, F233, W236, D243, E253, F258, G262, W264, D266 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Specific core 54E9 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 54E9 residues that are within 5 Å of the ASGR-1 protein. The core 54E9 Heavy Chain residues include: N30, S31, Y32, S52, Y54, N55, K59, R98, D100, F101, W102, S103, G104, Y105, K107, D110; and the core 54E9 Light Chain residues include: none. 
     Boundary 54E9 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 54E9 residues that are 5-8 Å from the ASGR-1 protein. The boundary 54E9 Heavy Chain residues include: V2, Y27, T28, F29, G33, W50, A53, G56, N57, H99, Y106, G108; and the boundary 54E9 Light Chain residues include: N31, Y50, V51, Q54. 
     Methods: 
     The same methods were followed as described above in part B of this example except for the following changes: 
     1. The 54E9 Fab fragment was generated by cleaving the 54E9 mAb with caspase 3. 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 54E9 mAb Heavy Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32668): 
               
               
                 QVQLVQSGAEVKKPGASVKVSCKASGYTFNSYGISWVRLAPGQGLEWMG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WISAYNGNTKNAQKLQGRVTMTTDTSTSTAYMELRSLRSDDTAVYYCAR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 HDFWSGYYKGMDVWGQGTTVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAAL 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GCLVKDYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SLGTQTYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVDGGDKTHTCPPCPAP 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ELLGGPSVFLFPPKPKDTLMISRTPEVTCVVVDVSHEDPEVKFNWYVDG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VEVHNAKTKPREEQYNSTYRVVSVLTVLHQDWLNGKEYKCKVSNKALPA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 PIEKTISKAKGQPREPQVYTLPPSREEMTKNQVSLTCLVKGFYPSDIAV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 EWESNGQPENNYKTTPPVLDSDGSFFLYSKLTVDKSRWQQGNVFSCSVM 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 HEALHNHYTQKSLSLSPGHHHHHH 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 54E9 mAb Light Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32669): 
               
               
                 QSVLTQPPSASGTPGQRVTISCSGSNSNIGNNIVTWYQQLPGTAPKLLI 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 YVNDQRPSGVPDRFSGSKSGTSASLAISGLQSEDEADYYCAAWDDSLNG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WVFGGGTTLTVLGQPKAAPSVTLFPPSSEELQANKATLVCLISDFYPGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VTVAWKADSSPVKAGVETTTPSKQSNNKYAASSYLSLTPEQWKSHRSYS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CQVTHEGSTVEKTVAPTECS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 54E9 Fab Heavy Chain (Post-Cleavage) (SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32670): 
               
               
                 QVQLVQSGAEVKKPGASVKVSCKASGYTFNSYGISWVRLAPGQGLEWMG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WISAYNGNTKNAQKLQGRVTMTTDTSTSTAYMELRSLRSDDTAVYYCAR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 HDFWSGYYKGMDVWGQGTTVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAAL 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GCLVKDYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SLGTQTYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 54E9 Fab Light Chain (Post-Cleavage) (SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32671): 
               
               
                 QSVLTQPPSASGTPGQRVTISCSGSNSNIGNNIVTWYQQLPGTAPKLLI 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 YVNDQRPSGVPDRFSGSKSGTSASLAISGLQSEDEADYYCAAWDDSLNG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WVFGGGTTLTVLGQPKAAPSVTLFPPSSEELQANKATLVCLISDFYPGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VTVAWKADSSPVKAGVETTTPSKQSNNKYAASSYLSLTPEQWKSHRSYS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CQVTHEGSTVEKTVAPTECS 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     1. The 54E9 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex was concentrated to 14.8 mg/mL and crystallized with 0.2 M Magnesium Chloride hexahydrate, 20% PEG3350; 
     2. The dataset was processed with XDS/CCP4; 
     3. The 54E9 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex crystals grow in the 12 space group with unit cell dimensions a=64.66, b=41.65, c=224.59 Å and β=97.60° with one complex molecule per asymmetric unit, and diffract to 2.6 Å resolution; 
     4. The 54E9 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex structure was solved by molecular replacement with the program Phaser; and 
     5. The structure was improved with multiple rounds of model building with Coot 3  and refinement with Phenix 4 , to a final R=19.1/R free =25.9. 
     I. Crystal Structure of ASGR-1 Carbohydrate Binding Domain (CBD) with 218G4 
     The present example presents the crystal structure of the ASGR-1 CBD bound to the Fab fragment of 218G4, determined to 2.4 Å resolution (the conditions of which are described above in section B of this Example). This structure, depicted in  FIGS. 37 and 38 , shows that when 218G4 binds to/interacts with ASGR-1, it impairs its ability to bind to ligand (e.g., carbohydrate). This demonstrates that the 218G4 Fab directly inhibits the ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand binding. 
     The depicted structure also allows one to identify specific core ASGR amino acid residues for the interaction interface of 218G4 with ASGR-1. This was defined as residues that are within 5 A of the 218G4 protein. The core residues are as follows: R170, S171, G172, A174, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, H257, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     The structures were also used to identify boundary ASGR-1 amino acid residues for the interaction interface with 218G4. These residues were ASGR-1 residues that were from 5-8 Å of the 218G4 protein. The boundary residues are as follows: W167, F168, S169, K173, W175, D177, Y181, Q202, H203, T210, W211, R237, F258, T259, D261, D266, V268, C269, W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Specific core 218G4 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 218G4 residues that are within 5 Å of the ASGR-1 protein. The core 218G4 Heavy Chain residues include: Q1, V2, F27, S30, S31, Y32, Y53, D54, W99, Y100, Y101, Y102; and the core 218G4 Light Chain residues include: Y33, Y50, D51, N53, K54, S57. 
     Boundary 218G4 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 218G4 residues that are 5-8 Å from the ASGR-1 protein. The boundary 218G4 Heavy Chain residues include: G26, T28, F29, G33, W52, G55, R72, N74, N98, Y103, Y104, D107, V108; and the boundary 218G4 Light Chain residues include: V34, S52, R55, P56, G58, G65. 
     The coordinates for the ASGR-1 CBD/GalNAc crystal structure complex are presented in Table 10.3. 
     Methods: 
     The same methods were followed as described above in part B of this example except for the following changes: 
     1. The 218G4 Fab fragment was generated by cleaving the 218G4 mAb with caspase 3. 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 218G4 mAb Heavy Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32672): 
               
               
                 QVQLVESGGGVVQPGRSLRLSCAASGFTFSSYGLHWVRQAPGKGLEWVA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VIWYDGSNKYYADSVKGRFTISRDNSKNTLYLQMNSLRVEDTAVYYCAN 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WYYYYYGMDVWGQGTTVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALGCL 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VKDYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSSLG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TQTYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVDGGDKTHTCPPCPAPELL 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GGPSVFLFPPKPKDTLMISRTPEVTCVVVDVSHEDPEVKFNWYVDGVEV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 HNAKTKPREEQYNSTYRVVSVLTVLHQDWLNGKEYKCKVSNKALPAPIE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 KTISKAKGQPREPQVYTLPPSREEMTKNQVSLTCLVKGFYPSDIAVEWE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SNGQPENNYKTTPPVLDSDGSFFLYSKLTVDKSRWQQGNVFSCSVMHEA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 LHNHYTQKSLSLSPGHHHHHH 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 218G4 mAb Light Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32673): 
               
               
                 QSVLTQPPSVSAAPGQKVTISCSGSSSNIGNNYVSWYQQLPGTAPKLLL 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 YDSNKRPSGIPARFSGSKSGTSATLGITGLQTGDEADYYCGTWDSSLNT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VVFGGGTKLTVLSQPKAAPSVTLFPPSSEELQANKATLVCLISDFYPGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VTVAWKADSSPVKAGVETTTPSKQSNNKYAASSYLSLTPEQWKSHRSYS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CQVTHEGSTVEKTVAPTECS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 218G4 Fab Heavy Chain (Post-Cleavage)(SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32674): 
               
               
                 QVQLVESGGGVVQPGRSLRLSCAASGFTFSSYGLHWVRQAPGKGLEWVA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VIWYDGSNKYYADSVKGRFTISRDNSKNTLYLQMNSLRVEDTAVYYCAN 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WYYYYYGMDVWGQGTTVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALGCL 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VKDYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSSLG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TQTYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 218G4 Fab Light Chain (Post-Cleavage): 
               
               
                 Same sequence as 218G4 mAb Light chain 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     1. The 218G4 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex was concentrated to 16.4 mg/mL and crystallized with 0.1M Tris pH8 and 1.6M Lithium Sulfate; 
     2. The dataset was collected from a single crystal on beamline ID22 at the Argonne National Laboratory and processed with XDS/CCP4; 
     3. The 218G4 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex crystals grow in the C222 space group with unit cell dimensions a=137.24, b=245.26, c=118.91 Å with two complex molecules per asymmetric unit and diffract to 2.6 Å resolution; 
     4. The 218G4 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex structure was solved by molecular replacement with the program Phaser; and 
     5. The structure was improved with multiple rounds of model building with Coot 3  and refinement with Phenix 4 , to a final Rfactor=18.4/R free =21.6. 
     J. Crystal Structure of ASGR-1 Carbohydrate Binding Domain (CBD) with 176H4 
     The present example presents the crystal structure of the ASGR-1 CBD bound to the Fab fragment of 176H5, determined to 2.3 Å resolution (the conditions of which are described above in section B of this Example). This structure, depicted in  FIGS. 39 and 40 , show that when 176H4 binds to/interacts with ASGR-1, it appears to block ligand (e.g., carbohydrate) binding by ASGR-1 CBD, with the paratope of the 176H4 antibody located directly on top of the carbohydrate binding pocket. This demonstrates that the 174H4 Fab directly inhibits the ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand binding. 
     The depicted structure also allows one to identify specific core ASGR amino acid residues for the interaction interface of 176H4 with ASGR-1. This was defined as residues that are within 5 Å of the 176H4 protein. The core residues are as follows: R170, S171, G172, K173, A174, D177, P207, V208, N209, R237, Q240, W244, G246, H247, G248, L249, E253, H257, T259, D260, N265, D267, Q270, R271, P272, Y273, R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     The structures were also used to identify boundary ASGR-1 amino acid residues for the interaction interface with 176H4. These residues were ASGR-1 residues that were from 5-8 Å of the 176H4 protein. The boundary residues are as follows: S169, W175, A176, A178, T210, W211, W236, P238, E239, D242, Y245, G250, G251, F258, D261, G262, R263, W264, D266, V268, C269, W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Specific core 176H4 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 176H4 residues that are within 5 Å of the ASGR-1 protein. The core 176H4 Heavy Chain residues include: S31, W52, Y53, D54, Y57, Y59, D102, F103, W104; and the core 176H4 Light Chain residues include: H31, G32, D33, G34, K35, Y37, I97, Q98, 199. 
     Boundary 176H4 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 176H4 residues that are 5-8 Å from the ASGR-1 protein. The boundary 176H4 Heavy Chain residues include: T28, S30, Y32, G33, W47, I50, I51, S56, K58, Y60, K65, D99, H101, S105, G106; and the boundary 176H4 Light Chain residues include: I2, Q27, S28, L29, L30, T36, E55, Q95, S96, P100, W101. 
     Methods: 
     The same methods were followed as described above in part B of this example except for the following changes: 
     1. The 176H4 Fab fragment was generated by cleaving the 176H4 mAb with caspase 3. 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 176H4 mAb Heavy Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32675): 
               
               
                 QVQLVESGGGVVQPGRSLRLSCAASGFTFSSYGMHWVRQAPGKGLEWVA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 IIWYDGSYKYYADSVKGRFTISRDNSKNTLYLQMSSLRAEDTAVYYCAR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 DAHDFWSGYFAYWGQGALVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CLVKDYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 LGTQTYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVDGGDKTHTCPPCPAPE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 LLGGPSVFLFPPKPKDTLMISRTPEVTCVVVDVSHEDPEVKFNWYVDGV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 EVHNAKTKPREEQYNSTYRVVSVLTVLHQDWLNGKEYKCKVSNKALPAP 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 IEKTISKAKGQPREPQVYTLPPSREEMTKNQVSLTCLVKGFYPSDIAVE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 WESNGQPENNYKTTPPVLDSDGSFFLYSKLTVDKSRWQQGNVFSCSVMH 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 EALHNHYTQKSLSLSPGHHHHHH 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 176H4 mAb Light Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32676): 
               
               
                 DIVMTQTPLSLSVTPGQPASISCKSSQSLLHGDGKTYLYWYLQKPGQPP 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 QLLIYEVSNRFSGVPDRFSGSGSGTDFTLKISRVEAEDVGIYYCMQSIQ 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 IPWTFGQGTRVEIKRTVAAPSVFIFPPSDEQLKSGTASVVCLLNNFYPR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 EAKVQWKVDNALQSGNSQESVTEQDSKDSTYSLSSTLTLSKADYEKHKV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 YACEVTHQGLSSPVTKSFNRGEC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 176H4 Fab Heavy Chain (Post-Cleavage)(SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32677): 
               
               
                 QVQLVESGGGVVQPGRSLRLSCAASGFTFSSYGMHWVRQAPGKGLEWVA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 IIWYDGSYKYYADSVKGRFTISRDNSKNTLYLQMSSLRAEDTAVYYCAR 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 DAHDFWSGYFAYWGQGALVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CLVKDYFPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSS 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 LGTQTYICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 176H4 Fab Light Chain (Post-Cleavage): 
               
               
                 Same sequence as 176H4 mAb Light chain 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     1. The 176H4 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex was concentrated to 14.9 mg/mL and crystallized 1 with 0.2 M Sodium Nitrate, 20% PEG3350; 
     2. The dataset was collected from a single crystal on beamline ID22 at the Argonne National Laboratory and processed with XDS/CCP4; 
     3. The 176H4 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex crystals grow in the I121 space group with unit cell dimensions a=68.31, b=126.31, c=134.13 Å and β=101.6° with two complex molecules per asymmetric unit, and diffract to 2.3 Å resolution; 
     4. The 176H4 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex structure was solved by molecular replacement with the program Phaser; and 
     5. The structure was improved with multiple rounds of model building with Coot 3  and refinement with Phenix 4 , to a final final R factor =17.9/R free =23.3. 
     K. Crystal Structure of ASGR-1 Carbohydrate Binding Domain (CBD) with 194C10 
     The present example presents the crystal structure of the ASGR-1 CBD bound to the Fab fragment of 194C10, determined to 2.6 Å resolution (the conditions of which are described above in section B of this Example). This structure, depicted in  FIGS. 41 and 42 , shows that when 194C10 binds to/interacts with ASGR-1, it likely induces a conformational rearrangement of the carbohydrate binding loop, impairing ASGR-1 CBD from binding to ligand (e.g., carbohydrate), as well as possibly blocking the ligand (e.g., carbohydrate) binding by ASGR-1 CBD, with the paratope of the 194C10 Fab. These data indicate that the 174H4 Fab may directly and/or indirectly inhibit the ASGR-1 CBD/Ligand binding. 
     The depicted structure also allows one to identify specific core ASGR amino acid residues for the interaction interface of 194C10 with ASGR-1. This was defined as residues that are within 5 Å of the 194C10 protein. The core residues are as follows: N157, R170, S171, G172, Q202, H203, H204, I205, G206, P207, V208, N209, T210, D260, R271, P272, Y273, R274 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     The structures were also used to identify boundary ASGR-1 amino acid residues for the interaction interface with 194C10. These residues were ASGR-1 residues that were from 5-8 Å of the 194C10 protein. The boundary residues are as follows: V156, W158, V159, H161, W167, F168, S169, K173, K199, F200, V201, W211, R237, H257, F258, T259, D261, D267, V268, Q270, W275 (SEQ ID NO:5). 
     Specific core 194C10 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 194C10 residues that are within 5 Å of the ASGR-1 protein. The core 194C10 Heavy Chain residues include: R30, Y31, Y33, E50, S54, S56, N58, D98, Y99, G100; and the core 194C10 Light Chain residues include: N30, S31, Y33, F50, S54, S68, Y92, E93, W97. 
     Boundary 194C10 amino acid residues of the interaction interface with ASGR-1 were defined as 194C10 residues that are 5-8 Å from the ASGR-1 protein. The boundary 194C10 Heavy Chain residues include: S28, Y32, W34, S35, W47, G49, I51, S52, H53, G55, T57, R97, A101, F102, D103; and the boundary 194C10 Light Chain residues include: S28, V29, G32, L47, G51, A52, S53, R55, A56, G69, Q90, Q91, S94, S95. 
     The coordinates for the ASGR-1 CBD/GalNAc crystal structure complex are presented in Table 10.4. 
     Methods: 
     The same methods were followed as described above in part B of this example except for the following changes: 
     1. 194C10 Fab fragment was generated by cleaving the 194C10 mAb with caspase 3. 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 194C10 mAb Heavy Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32678): 
               
               
                 QVQLQQWGAGLLKPSETLSLTCAVSGGSFRYYYWSWIRQPPGKGLEWFG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 EINHAGSTNYNPSLKSRVTISIDTSKNQFSLKLRSVTAADTAVYYCARD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 YGAFDIWGQGTMVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALGCLVKDY 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSSLGTQTY 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 194C10 mAb Light Chain (SEQ ID NO: 32679): 
               
               
                 EIVLTQSPGTLSLSPGERATLSCRASPSVNSGYLAWYQQKPGQTPRLLI 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FGASSRATGIPDRFSASGSGADFTLTISRLEPEDFAVYFCQQYESSPWT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FGQGTKVEIKRTVAAPSVFIFPPSDEQLKSGTASVVCLLNNFYPREAKV 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 QWKVDNALQSGNSQESVTEQDSKDSTYSLSSTLTLSKADYEKHKVYACE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 VTHQGLSSPVTKSFNRGEC* 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 194C10 Fab Heavy Chain (Post-Cleavage)(SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                 32680): 
               
               
                 QVQLQQWGAGLLKPSETLSLTCAVSGGSFRYYYWSWIRQPPGKGLEWFG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 EINHAGSTNYNPSLKSRVTISIDTSKNQFSLKLRSVTAADTAVYYCARD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 YGAFDIWGQGTMVTVSSASTKGPSVFPLAPSSKSTSGGTAALGCLVKDY 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FPEPVTVSWNSGALTSGVHTFPAVLQSSGLYSLSSVVTVPSSSLGTQTY 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ICNVNHKPSNTKVDKKVEPKSCGSDEVD 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 194C10 Fab Light Chain (Post-Cleavage): 
               
               
                 Same sequence as 194C10 mAb Light chain 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     1. The 194C10 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex was concentrated to 13.6 mg/mL and crystallized with 0.2 M Ammonium Sulfate, 0.1 M Tris pH 7.5, 20% PEG5000MME; 
     2. The dataset was collected from a single crystal on beamline ID22 at the Argonne National Laboratory and processed with XDS/CCP4; 
     3. The 194C10 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex crystals grow in the P12 1 1 space group with unit cell dimensions a=65.62, b=130.44, c=85.93 Å and β=111.6° with two complex molecules per asymmetric unit, and diffract to 2.6 Å resolution.; 
     4. The 194C10 Fab/ASGR-1 CBD complex structure was solved by molecular replacement with the program Phaser; and 
     5.The structure was improved with multiple rounds of model building with Coot 3  and refinement with Phenix 4 , to a final R factor =17.1/R free =22.8. 
     L. Interaction between GalNAc, ASGR-1 and Certain Antibodies 
     The structure of the 72G9/ASGR-1 complex (Item G above) was overlaid on the ASGR-1/ligand (GalNac) structure (Item A above) and the result of this combination is depicted in  FIG. 31B . The structure of the 54E9/ASGR-1 complex (Item I above) was also overlaid on the ASGR-1/ligand (GalNac) structure (Item A above) and the result of this combination is depicted in  FIG. 35B . The structure of the 218G4/ASGR-1 complex (Item J above) was overlaid on the ASGR-1/ligand (GalNac) structure (Item A above) and the result of this combination is depicted in  FIG. 38 . The structure of the 176H4/ASGR-1 complex (Item K above) was overlaid on the ASGR-1/ligand (GalNac) structure (Item A above) and the result of this combination is depicted in  FIG. 40 . These figures demonstrate areas on ASGR-1 which can be usefully targeted to inhibit ASGR-1 interaction with a ligand, e.g., GalNac. These figures show that 72G9, 54E9, 218G4 and 176H4 directly interact with a subset of amino acid residues that are specifically involved in binding to the ligand (e.g., GalNAc). 
     As noted above, analysis of the crystal structures identified specific amino acids involved in the interaction between ASGR-1 and the partner proteins (the core and boundary regions of the interface on the ASGR-1 surface) and the spatial requirements of these partner proteins to interact with ASGR-1. The structures suggest ways to inhibit the interaction between ASGR-1 and a ligand, GalNAc. First, as noted above, binding an agent to ASGR-1 where it shares residues in common with the binding site of a ligand such as GalNAc would inhibit the interaction between ASGR-1 and the ligand. Second, an agent that binds outside of the residues in common can sterically interfere with the ligand that are either N- or C-terminal to the ligand to prevent the interaction between ASGR-1 and a ligand. 
     In some embodiments, the residues that are involved in both ligand binding and are close to the areas where the above noted antigen binding proteins bind are especially useful for manipulating ASGR-1 binding to ligand. For example, amino acid residues from interfaces in common in both the core region and boundary region for the different binding partners are listed in Table 10.5 below. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 10.5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Parameters 
                 Amino acid position(s) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 72G9/GalNAc both under 5 Å 
                 Q240, D242, W244 
               
               
                 72G9 under 5 Å/GalNAc 5-8 Å 
                 E239, P241, D243, Y245, G246, 
               
               
                   
                 G252 
               
               
                 72G9 at 5-8 Å/GalNAc under 5 Å 
                 R237, E253 
               
               
                 72G9/GalNAc both at 5-8 Å 
                 P238, H247, C255, V268 
               
               
                 54E9/GalNAc both under 5 Å 
                 N209, R237, Q240, D242, H257, 
               
               
                   
                 T259, N265, D267, Y273 
               
               
                 54E9 under 5 Å/GalNAc 5-8 Å 
                 P238, E239, D260, R263, R271 
               
               
                 54E9 at 5-8 Å/GalNAc under 5 Å 
                 E253, D266 
               
               
                 54E9/GalNAc both at 5-8 Å 
                 D243, F258, W264 
               
               
                 218G4/GalNAc both under 5 Å 
                 N209, H257, N265, D267, Y273 
               
               
                 218G4 under 5 Å/GalNAc 5-8 Å 
                 D260, R271 
               
               
                 218G4 at 5-8 Å/GalNAc under 5 Å 
                 R237, T259, D266 
               
               
                 218G4/GalNAc both at 5-8 Å 
                 F258, V268 
               
               
                 176H4/GalNAc both under 5 Å 
                 N209, R237, Q240, W244, E253, 
               
               
                   
                 H257, T259, N265, D267, Y273 
               
               
                 176H4 under 5 Å/GalNAc 5-8 Å 
                 G246, H247, D260, R271 
               
               
                 176H4 at 5-8 Å/GalNAc under 5 Å 
                 D266 
               
               
                 176H4/GalNAc both at 5-8 Å 
                 P238, E239, Y245, F258, R263, 
               
               
                   
                 W264, V268 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     As will be appreciated by one of skill in the art, in some embodiments, the antigen binding proteins bind to and/or block at least one of the above noted residues. 
     Antigen binding proteins and molecules that interact with the relevant areas or residues of the structure of ASGR-1 (including those areas or residues within 15, 15-8, 8, 8-5, 5, or fewer angstroms from where ligands, such as GalNAc, or the antibodies, interact with ASGR-1) depicted in the figures (e.g.,  FIGS. 19-42 ) and/or their corresponding positions on the structures from the coordinates are also contemplated. 
     Example 11 
     Determination of the Binding Affinity of ASGR-1 Specific Antibodies 
     To quantitate the binding affinity of specific antibodies for ASGR-1 (either purified from hybridoma supernatants or made recombinantly), association and dissociation rates can be measured using a ForteBio Octet instrument. The antibodies were covalently coupled to AR2G tips to load levels close to 2 nm and then bound to the soluble human ASGR-1 carbohydrate binding domain (CBD; amino acid residues 154-281; N-terminal 6× His tag) in a 3-fold serial dilution series starting typically at 30 nM with either 3-point or 6-point dilution series. Experimental kinetic results were globally fit to a 1:1 binding model in order to determine the association and dissociation rate constants as well as the equilibrium dissociation constant. Association and dissociation times were chosen to ensure that curvature was present during association curves and measured dissociation levels dropped at least 5% from starting levels. All Octet buffers contained 10 mM Tris (pH7.5), 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM CaCl 2 , 0.10 mg/ml BSA and 0.13% Triton X-100. Octet assays were run at 27° C. Because this assay only measures binding to the ASGR-1 CBD, antibodies that recognize epitopes partially or entirely outside the CBD and/or recognize ASGR-1 in the context of a native ASGR complex, for example, as could occur on cell membranes, may not score as positive in this assay. Data provided for representative antibodies in TABLE 11.1. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 11.1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Octet binding 
               
               
                   
                 Ab name 
                 K D  (nM) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 4H6 
                 4.8 
               
               
                   
                 4B1 
                 &gt;30 
               
               
                   
                 4A2 
                 0.06 
               
               
                   
                 5E5 
                 7.6 
               
               
                   
                 6G7 
                 2.0 
               
               
                   
                 7G4 
                 0.9 
               
               
                   
                 7F4 
                 1.2 
               
               
                   
                 7E11 
                 1.6 
               
               
                   
                 12D2 
                 &gt;30 
               
               
                   
                 22G5 
                 1.4 
               
               
                   
                 25A4 
                 0.03 
               
               
                   
                 26C4 
                 0.4 
               
               
                   
                 29H8 
                 1.0 
               
               
                   
                 48B12 
                 0.3 
               
               
                   
                 54E9 
                 &gt;30 
               
               
                   
                 56E5 
                 0.5 
               
               
                   
                 72G9 
                 0.5 
               
               
                   
                 75G3 
                 1.0 
               
               
                   
                 176H4 
                 0.8 
               
               
                   
                 184E7 
                 0.3 
               
               
                   
                 190F8 
                 0.6 
               
               
                   
                 191G1 
                 2.4 
               
               
                   
                 191G10 
                 0.5 
               
               
                   
                 193E7 
                 3.5 
               
               
                   
                 194A4 
                 0.7 
               
               
                   
                 194C1 
                 1.3 
               
               
                   
                 194C10 
                 4 
               
               
                   
                 197G3 
                 0.8 
               
               
                   
                 198D2 
                 &gt;30 
               
               
                   
                 198G3 
                 0.04 
               
               
                   
                 202A3 
                 &gt;30 
               
               
                   
                 218G4 
                 2.6 
               
               
                   
                 4A2.001 
                 0.06 
               
               
                   
                 4A2.001.003 
                 0.04 
               
               
                   
                 4A2.001.004 
                 0.03 
               
               
                   
                 4A2.001.005 
                 0.02 
               
               
                   
                 4A2.001.010 
                 0.04 
               
               
                   
                 4A2.001.012 
                 0.04 
               
               
                   
                 25A4.001 
                 0.06 
               
               
                   
                 25A4.001.021 
                 0.04 
               
               
                   
                 4H6.009 
                 0.28 
               
               
                   
                 7E11.001 
                 0.71 
               
               
                   
                 7E11.001.005 
                 0.42 
               
               
                   
                 7E11.001.007 
                 0.62 
               
               
                   
                 5E5.016 
                 1.46 
               
               
                   
                 5E5.019 
                 1.80 
               
               
                   
                 5E5.005 
                 2.00 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 12 
     CHO-S:huASGR-1 Cell Binding Assay 
     CHO-S stable high-expressing cell line were developed for both human ASGR-1 as well as mouse ASGR-1. A typical 384 well plate multiplex flow cytometry-based cell binding method is described as followed: Parental CHO-S cells and CHO-S:huASGR-1 cells were respectively labeled using a CellTrace CFSE Cell Proliferation Kit (ThermoFisher Catalog #C34554) and CellTrace Violet Cell Proliferation Kit (ThermoFisher Catalog #C34557) CHO-S:muASGR-1 were not labeled. 20 ul of cells at 4° C. were added to duplicate wells of the 384 well plate. The cells were equally mixed from all three cell lines (30K cells/well). Then 20 ul of the ASGR-1 antibodies (either purified from hybridoma supernatants or made recombinantly) were added in an 11-point dose response using a 1:2 fold serial dilution starting at 100 nM. The cells and antibodies were incubated for 30 min at 4° C. and then spun down and washed twice with FACS buffer containing 1 mM CaCl2. 30 ul of anti-huIgG-APC secondary antibodies were then added at a 1:1000 dilution) for 30 min at 4° C. and then washed once with the same buffer. 60 ul of PI (1:1000) was added and then the cells were read by a core flow cytometry facility. The cells were gated first for live cells, then for single cells and finally for the cell dyes to separate the mixed cells into the three different cell populations. Histograms of signal vs count representing the binding profile of each antibody at each antibody concentration were automatically analyzed for the median of the binding signal and then a binding graph was made with log 10 antibody concentration in nM on the X axis with standard deviation of the median signals from the duplicate wells on the Y-axis. The binding curves were fit with a standard four parameter sigmoidal binding curve and EC50&#39;s reported for all graphs with full curves. Data provided for representative antibodies in TABLE 12.1. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 12.1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Cell binding 
               
               
                   
                 Ab name 
                 EC50 (nM) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 4H6 
                 1.70 
               
               
                   
                 4B1 
                 4.1 
               
               
                   
                 4A2 
                 0.82 
               
               
                   
                 4A2.001 
                 1.8 
               
               
                   
                 5E5 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 6G7 
                 0.6 
               
               
                   
                 7G4 
                 0.69 
               
               
                   
                 7F4 
                 5.40 
               
               
                   
                 7E11 
                 1.40 
               
               
                   
                 7E11.001 
                 3.2 
               
               
                   
                 12D2 
                 3.2 
               
               
                   
                 22G5 
                 7.2 
               
               
                   
                 25A4 
                 1.6 
               
               
                   
                 25A4.001 
                 1.2 
               
               
                   
                 26C4 
                 11 
               
               
                   
                 29H8 
                 1.9 
               
               
                   
                 48B12 
                 38 
               
               
                   
                 54E9 
                 5 
               
               
                   
                 56E5 
                 1.1 
               
               
                   
                 72G9 
                 0.41 
               
               
                   
                 75G3 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 176H4 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 184E7 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 190F8 
                 9 
               
               
                   
                 191G1 
                 0.16 
               
               
                   
                 191G10 
                 0.31 
               
               
                   
                 193E7 
                 0.13 
               
               
                   
                 194A4 
                 25 
               
               
                   
                 194C1 
                 0.11 
               
               
                   
                 194C10 
                 0.56 
               
               
                   
                 197G3 
                 0.25 
               
               
                   
                 198D2 
                 0.14 
               
               
                   
                 198G3 
                 0.21 
               
               
                   
                 202A3 
                 0.8 
               
               
                   
                 218G4 
                 2.2 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     For human ASGR-2, CHO-S stable cells expressing C-terminal His-tagged human ASGR-2 were resuspended in cold flow buffer (10 mM Tris, pH 7.5, 137 mM NaCl, 1 mM CaCl2 and 2%fetal bovine serum) and 1.5×10e6 cells per well were added to a 96-well, v-bottom plate in a volume of 80 ul. 80 ul of antibody at 400 nM was then added to each well. After incubation on ice for 30 min, the cells were centrifuged at 1400 rpm for 3 min and then washed twice in cold flow buffer. The cells were then resuspended in 120 ul of anti-human IgG-APC (diluted 1:1000 in flow buffer) and incubated on ice for 30 minutes, centrifuged and washed twice as before, and resuspended in 200 ul cold flow buffer, and then analyzed on a BD-LSR II flow cytometer. Data provided for antibody 7F4 in  FIG. 43 . 
     Example 13 
     CHO-S:huASGR-1 Ligand Blocking Assay 
     All ASGR-1 antibodies that bound either human or mouse ASGR-1 stable CHO-S cells were then tested for ligand blocking using both a protein ligand and a synthetic sugar ligand. The method in brief is as follows: first, 20 ul of either CHO-Shuman or mouse ASGR-1 cells were added to wells of a 384 well plate (30k cells/well) followed by spin and discarding the supernatant. Second, 10 ul of the antibodies (either purified from hybridoma supernatants or made recombinantly) were added in duplicate to the cells in a dilution series (200 nM top concentration, 1:2 serial dilution, 11 point curve) and were incubated for 30 min at 4° C. Third, 10 ul of the minimally biotinylated ligands were added at 2× their binding EC05, so that the wells contained a final 20 ul volume with Ab starting at 100 nM and the ligand at their EC50. After 30 min incubation at 4□C, the plate was spun and washed twice with FACS buffer+1 mM CaCl2 followed by the detection streptavidin-AF647 at 1:1000 dilution. After 30 min at 4° C., the cells were spun and washed once and then 60 ul PI added at 1:1000 dilution and the plates delivered to a core flow cytometry facility. The plates were read and processed similarly to the cell binding method except the signal now represents an inhibition curve and typically decreases a function of increasing antibody concentration. IC50 nM potency and % Inhibition were reported. The desialylated, biotinylated asialofetuin (see Example 9A) and biotinylated GalNAc-PAA (Fisher #NC9024754) were used as ligands with measured binding EC50s of 10.7 and 5.4 nM. Differences in the ability of antibodies to block these two ligands could occur as a result of differences in, for example, avidity stemming from differences in the number and/or orientation of the ASGR binding terminal sugar residues of each ligand, steric hindrance between antibody and each ligand, and/or changes in the conformation of ASGR induced by antibody binding that selectively alters the binding of each ligand. Data provided for representative antibodies in TABLE 13.1. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 13.1 
               
             
            
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Ligand Blocking 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 bn-GalNAc-PAA 
                 bn-asialofetuin 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Ab name 
                 IC50 (nM) 
                 % Inhibition 
                 IC50 (nM) 
                 % Inhibition 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 4H6 
                 8.1 
                 20% 
                 12 
                 85% 
               
               
                 4B1 
                 42 
                 36% 
                 64 
                 75% 
               
               
                 4A2 
                 54 
                 70% 
                 11 
                 99% 
               
               
                 4A2.001 
                 28 
                 75 
                 12 
                 99 
               
               
                 5E5 
                 &gt;200 
                  0% 
                 16 
                 95% 
               
               
                 6G7 
                 &gt;200 
                  0% 
                 11 
                 99% 
               
               
                 7G4 
                 20 
                 −30%  
                 14 
                 96% 
               
               
                 7F4 
                 0.24 
                 30% 
                 2.6 
                 99% 
               
               
                 7E11 
                 40 
                 37% 
                 13 
                 99% 
               
               
                 7E11.001 
                 &gt;100 
                 50 
                 13 
                 99 
               
               
                 12D2 
                 2.1 
                 10% 
                 10 
                 20% 
               
               
                 22G5 
                 11 
                 93% 
                 3.4 
                 99% 
               
               
                 25A4 
                 40 
                 77% 
                 11 
                 99% 
               
               
                 25A4.001 
                 31 
                 68 
                 8.1 
                 99 
               
               
                 26C4 
                 36 
                 83% 
                 6.6 
                 99% 
               
               
                 29H8 
                 17 
                 99% 
                 7 
                 99% 
               
               
                 48B12 
                 86 
                 94% 
                 19 
                 99% 
               
               
                 54E9 
                 100 
                 19% 
                 50 
                 75% 
               
               
                 56E5 
                 45 
                 99% 
                 23 
                 99% 
               
               
                 72G9 
                 24 
                 20% 
                 53 
                 20% 
               
               
                 75G3 
                 115 
                 99% 
                 29 
                 99% 
               
               
                 176H4 
                 73 
                 79% 
                 59 
                 99% 
               
               
                 184E7 
                 10 
                 99% 
                 23 
                 99% 
               
               
                 190F8 
                 44 
                 83% 
                 34 
                 98% 
               
               
                 191G1 
                 62 
                 78% 
                 24 
                 99% 
               
               
                 191G10 
                 56 
                 99% 
                 27 
                 99% 
               
               
                 193E7 
                 33 
                 60% 
                 30 
                 99% 
               
               
                 194A4 
                 48 
                 60% 
                 57 
                 99% 
               
               
                 194C1 
                 72 
                 89% 
                 34 
                 99% 
               
               
                 194C10 
                 87 
                 99% 
                 30 
                 99% 
               
               
                 197G3 
                 15 
                 74% 
                 29 
                 90% 
               
               
                 198D2 
                 55 
                 99% 
                 22 
                 99% 
               
               
                 198G3 
                 5 
                 81% 
                 26 
                 99% 
               
               
                 202A3 
                 32 
                 96% 
                 16 
                 98% 
               
               
                 218G4 
                 71 
                 99% 
                 28 
                 99% 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 14 
     ASGR-1 Specific Antibody Optimization (Chemical Degradation Site Engineering): 
     Variable domain sequence motifs having a high risk of sidechain degradation were engineered out of ASGR-1 specific antibodies. See for example, ASGR-1 specific antibody sequences in Tables 6 and 7. 
     Certain high risk motifs included: (1) CDR ‘NG’ and ‘NT’ sequences prone to asparagine deamidation, (2) CDR ‘DG,’ ‘DH’, ‘DS,’ and ‘DT’ sequences prone to aspartic acid isomerization, (3) and CDR3 tryptophans prone to oxidation. Bioinformatics and structural analyses were used to identify substitutions likely to retain binding affinity to the ASGR-1 CBD. Typically, substitution identities were derived from germline sequences or from sequence-related ASGR-1 CBD-binding mAbs. These substitutions were then modeled into a homology model of the unbound mAb using the software MOE (CCG) 1  to predict structural fitness. For cases in which the bioinformatics or structural analyses did not provide a clear substitution identity, residue types chemically similar to the parent residue were identified. 
     Variable domain sequence motifs violating multiple sequence alignment-based pair-wise residue covariance trends 2  were also engineered out of ASGR-1 specific antibodies. Substitution identities for covariance violators were identified using a hybrid bioinformatics/structural approach similar to that used to remediate degradation sites.
     1.  Molecular Operating Environment  ( MOE ), 2013.08; Chemical Computing Group, Inc., 1010 Sherbooke St. West, Suit #910, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 2R7, 2016.   2. Kannan, G.  Method of Correlated Mutational Analysis to Improve Therapeutic Antibodies.  US Patent Application PCT/US2012/028596 filed Mar. 9, 2012.   

     Example 15 
     Epitope Mapping Using Peptide Arrays 
     Custom peptide microarrays were obtained commercially (PEPperPRINT GmbH). For epitope mapping using linear arrays, the antigen (ASGR-1) was translated into 291 different overlapping 15 amino acid (aa) peptides printed in duplicate (582 peptide spots per array copy). For epitope mapping using cyclized arrays, the antigen (ASGR-1) was translated into 888 different overlapping 7 aa, 10 aa and 13 aa peptides printed in duplicate (1,776 peptide spots per array copy). Peptide cyclization was accomplished using N- to C-terminal thioether formation with and without an additional scaffold for varying conformational restriction. Each PEPperCHIP® Peptide array is framed by Flag (DYKDDDDKAS) and HA (YPYDVPDYAG) control peptides. Assay buffer was PBS-T (PBS, pH 7.4, 0.05% Tween 20), blocking buffer was Rockland Blocking Buffer (Rockland Immunochemicals), staining buffer was assay buffer+10% Rockland Blocking buffer. Secondary antibody was goat anti-human IRDye680LT (Li-Cor). Control antibodies were anti-FLAG M2 DyLight800, anti-HA DyLight680. Arrays were scanned on Li-Cor Odyssey with an offset of 0.65 mm, 21 um resolution. 
     Array staining and detection was per manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Briefly, arrays were pre-stained with secondary antibodies for 30 minutes, washed and scanned to detect background binding. Arrays were then stained with commercially available primary antibodies overnight, followed by washing and 30 minute incubation with labeled secondary antibodies. Arrays were scanned to detect binding of anti-ASGR-1 antibodies. Finally, arrays were stained with control antibodies for 45 minutes prior to washing and scanning to detect control peptides. 
     Antigen binding proteins with desired binding properties can be identified using this assay. 
     Example 16 
     In Vivo Studies 
     RNAi constructs that reduce expression of ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 and/or antigen binding proteins, such as monoclonal antibodies, that inhibit ligand binding to ASGR, ASGR-1, and/or ASGR-2 in vitro can be administered in vivo to a relevant animal model and levels and/or activity of endogenous blood proteins like alkaline phosphatase measured. In addition, the clearance of exogenously administered ASGR ligands (for example asialoglycoproteins, certain non-asialylated proteins, synthetic ligands, etc.) can be inhibited by pre-treatment with RNAi or a co- or pre-administered antibody. 
     Additionally, physiologic effects of the antigen binding proteins or RNAi can be evaluated in relevant animal models of cardiovascular disease using readouts including blood pressure, primary and secondary hemostasis, heart function and morphology, endothelial function, LDL cholesterol levels, non-HDL cholesterol levels, inflammation, and atherosclerosis. 
     Example 17 
     Effect of ASGR-1 Antibody 4A2 on Serum LDL Cholesterol and Alkaline Phosphatase in Normal and Obese Cynomolgus Monkeys 
     The purpose of the study was to evaluate the LDL cholesterol (LDL-C)-lowering activity of anti-ASGR inhibitors. In general, cynomolgus monkeys do not have high levels of total cholesterol, HDL-C or LDL-C. Therefore, both normal and dyslipidemic models were utilized in this example. In the dyslipidemic model, monkeys were selected if their LDL levels were at least 100 mg/dL (normal is 40-60 mg/dL), and if there body mass index was over 41 kg/m 2  (normal is below 35 kg/m 2 ). Animals that met these criteria on standard diet were classified as spontaneously obese dyslipidemic. Other animals were fed a high-fat diet (HFD; 4.15 kcal/gm, 32% fat) prior to inclusion in the study and were classified as HFD obese dyslipidemic. 
     Naive male spontaneous obese dyslipidemic and HFD obese dyslipidemic cynomolgus monkeys were given a single subcutaneous injection of anti-ASGR-1 antibody 4A2.001 (IgGlz-SEFL2) (10 mg/kg in 10 mM sodium acetate, 9% sucrose, 0.01% polysorbate-80, pH 5.2). Naïve male and female normal cynomolgus monkeys were given a single intravenous injection of anti-ASGR-1 antibody 4A2.001 (IgGlz-SEFL2) (100 mg/kg in 10 mM sodium acetate, 9% sucrose, 0.01% polysorbate-80, pH 5.2). Blood was collected from overnight fasted animals to monitor LDL-C and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels post-antibody injection. Blood was collected 70, 118, 190 and 268 hours post-injection (dyslipidemic models) and at 0.05, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 4, 8, 24, 48, 72, 168, 240, 336, 504, 672, 840, 1008, and 1176 hours post-injection (normal). LDL-C decrease (%) and ALP increase (%) were the main endpoints of the study and were measured on Roche C311 and C501 chemistry analyzers. Baseline levels of LDL-C and ALP were established from blood collected 7 days prior to antibody administration. 
     Dyslipidemic Model: 
     
         
         Species:  Macaca fascicularis    
         Weight Range: &gt;7.0 kg 
         BMI Range: &gt;41 kg/m 2    
         Age range: 12-17 years 
         Time on HFD: 6 months 
         Source: KBI monkey colony 
         Number and Sex: 3 male spontaneous obese monkeys and 3 male HFD induced obese monkeys (BMI&gt;41, LDL&gt;80 mg/dL)). Animals were selected from a larger pool based on similar baseline LDL and ALP levels 
       
    
     Normal Model: 
     
         
         Species:  Macaca fascicularis    
         Weight Range: 2.6-4.2 kg 
         Age range: 2.5-4 years 
         Number and Sex: 2 male and 1 female fed normal laboratory diet
 
Data for this study is provided in  FIG. 44  (dyslipidemic model) and  FIG. 45  (normal model).
 
       
    
     Example 18 
     Proteomic Profiling of Serum Samples from Human ASGR1 Carriers and Controls 
     Introduction 
     As described above in Example 1, ASGR1 loss-of-function (LOF) was found to be associated with a beneficial phenotype (protected from coronary artery disease, lower LDL cholesterol and longer life span) in human 1 . To understand the mechanism of action underlying this association and find potential biomarkers, proteomic measurement of human serum samples were performed and compared to changes in circulating protein levels between the ASGR1 LOF variant carriers and controls. 
     Materials and Methods 
     Sample Collection and Proteomic Profiling 
     A total of 333 human serum samples were acquired from the deCODE Icelandic population study, including 100 ASGR1 del12 heterozygous carriers (cases group) and 233 non-carriers (controls group). The Case/Control Groups are well matched by sex, age and collection time/freezer storage time. 150 ul serum samples were shipped to SomaLogic Inc, where 1310 proteins were measured by the SOMAscan Assay 1.3k. The 1310 proteins were SOMAmer® Reagents Generated to Human Proteins, the complete list of tested proteins are summarized in the SOMAscan Assay 1.3K Content, Rev 1 (Effective: 9/21/2015) which is incorpored by reference herein in its entirety. 
     The SOMAscan assay measured serum protein concentration using a Slow Off-rate Modified DNA Aptamer (SOMAmer)-based capture array 2 . Each of the 1310 proteins is bond by its respective fluorescently labeled SOMAmer in the assay and their concentrations are reflected by the respective SOMAmer&#39;s relative fluorescence units (RFU). 
     Data Analysis 
     2 Samples were removed due to low volume that did not meet Somascan requirements and 13 samples were removed because they had been treated with EDTA. The RFU data of each measured protein was log transformed, then centered and scaled to calculate standardized RFU values for this protein. Principle components (PCs) were derived from 1310 standardized RFU values by principle components analysis. An outlier removal based on Hotellings T2 distribution of PC1 and PC2 was applied and excluded another 8 samples from further analysis. 
     After QC, the remaining 93 ASGR1 Del12 heterozygous Carriers (cases group) and 217 samples without the Del12 allele (controls group) and their standardized RFU values of each protein were analyzed by a linear model adjusting for Age, Sex, FreezerTime and the first 10 PCs, 
         Yi=β 0+β1 Gi+/β 2AGE i+β 3SEX i+β 4 FTi+β 5 PC 1 i+ . . . +β 15 PC 10 i+εi  
 
     where is the standardized RFU value for the i th  sample for a particular protein, Gi is the Del12 genotype the i th  sample and β1 capture the estimates of the mean difference between human samples with Del12 and without Del12. Since 1310 tests were performed for the proteins on Somascan platform, we calculated the significant threshold by Bonferroni method (0.05/1310=3.82×10 −5 ) assuming these are independent tests. However, the Bonferroni correction is likely too stringent because proteins are often correlated with each other therefore these tests are not independent. Thus a realistic threshold of significance (5.19×10 −5 ) was obtained by performing 100,000 permutations using the method by Sham and Purcell 2014 3 . 
     Results and Discussion 
     Using the permutation threshold, 41 Proteins were identified to have significant serum levels between human ASGR1 del12 carriers and non-carriers (P&lt;5.19×10 −5 ). Of those, 26 show significant increase in the carriers (Table 18.1) and 15 decrease significantly in the carriers (Table 18.2). These changes are likely to mediate the beneficial effects resulting from ASGR1 loss of function seen in the del12 carriers. The levels of these proteins in blood can serve as biomarkers for ASGR1 loss of function and be used to assess ASGR1-targeted therapy during drug development. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 18.1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Proteins with significant increase in serum of ASGR1 del12 carriers. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 p value 
                 Estimate (SD) 
                 Gene 
                 Full Name 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 3.71E−54 
                 1.34 
                 TNFSF8 
                 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 8 
               
               
                 1.33E−52 
                 1.45 
                 CD163 
                 Scavenger receptor cysteine-rich type 1 protein M130 
               
               
                 2.07E−25 
                 1.09 
                 CSF1R 
                 Macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor 
               
               
                 1.44E−24 
                 1.16 
                 LYVE1 
                 Lymphatic vessel endothelial hyaluronic acid receptor 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 1 
               
               
                 1.03E−22 
                 0.65 
                 IL6ST 
                 Interleukin-6 receptor subunit beta 
               
               
                 4.56E−15 
                 0.67 
                 IL18BP 
                 Interleukin-18-binding protein 
               
               
                 1.16E−12 
                 0.74 
                 CD300C 
                 CMRF35-like molecule 6 
               
               
                 2.47E−12 
                 0.59 
                 TYRO3 
                 Tyrosine-protein kinase receptor TYRO3 
               
               
                 8.85E−12 
                 0.80 
                 LRP8 
                 Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 8 
               
               
                 1.76E−09 
                 0.66 
                 IL1RL1 
                 Interleukin-1 receptor-like 1 
               
               
                 2.62E−09 
                 0.61 
                 ISLR2 
                 Immunoglobulin superfamily containing leucine-rich 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 repeat protein 2 
               
               
                 4.01E−09 
                 0.55 
                 SIGLEC7 
                 Sialic acid-binding Ig-like lectin 7 
               
               
                 4.47E−09 
                 0.48 
                 NRXN3 
                 Neurexin-3-beta 
               
               
                 1.03E−07 
                 0.58 
                 PLAU 
                 Urokinase-type plasminogen activator 
               
               
                 2.96E−07 
                 0.37 
                 CD55 
                 Complement decay-accelerating factor 
               
               
                 8.27E−07 
                 0.53 
                 CD48 
                 CD48 antigen 
               
               
                 1.22E−06 
                 0.31 
                 TNFRSF21 
                 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 21 
               
               
                 1.62E−06 
                 0.36 
                 MRC2 
                 C-type mannose receptor 2 
               
               
                 3.82E−06 
                 0.57 
                 KLK13 
                 Kallikrein-13 
               
               
                 4.95E−06 
                 0.33 
                 IGF1R 
                 Insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor 
               
               
                 1.46E−05 
                 0.45 
                 ANGPT2 
                 Angiopoietin-2 
               
               
                 2.02E−05 
                 0.39 
                 CNTN4 
                 Contactin-4 
               
               
                 2.57E−05 
                 0.47 
                 FCGR3B 
                 Low affinity immunoglobulin gamma Fc region 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 receptor III-B 
               
               
                 2.93E−05 
                 0.38 
                 C1S 
                 Complement C1s subcomponent 
               
               
                 3.92E−05 
                 0.40 
                 LY9 
                 T-lymphocyte surface antigen Ly-9 
               
               
                 4.48E−05 
                 0.46 
                 CD200R1 
                 Cell surface glycoprotein CD200 receptor 1 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 18.2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Proteins with significant decrease in serum of ASGR1 del12 carriers. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 p value 
                 Estimate (SD) 
                 Gene 
                 Target Full Name 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1.08E−09 
                 −0.52 
                 CD93 
                 Complement component C1q receptor 
               
               
                 6.32E−09 
                 −0.50 
                 IDS 
                 Iduronate 2-sulfatase 
               
               
                 1.56E−07 
                 −0.34 
                 RGMB 
                 RGM domain family member B 
               
               
                 2.91E−07 
                 −0.44 
                 TGFBI 
                 Transforming growth factor-beta-induced 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 protein ig-h3 
               
               
                 5.56E−07 
                 −0.48 
                 LUM 
                 Lumican 
               
               
                 6.67E−07 
                 −0.46 
                 MMP2 
                 72 kDa type IV collagenase 
               
               
                 1.36E−06 
                 −0.38 
                 FLRT2 
                 Leucine-rich repeat transmembrane protein FLRT2 
               
               
                 2.18E−06 
                 −0.48 
                 AHSG 
                 Alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein 
               
               
                 2.44E−06 
                 −0.37 
                 CSH1 
                 Chorionic somatomammotropin hormone 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CSH2 
               
               
                 3.16E−06 
                 −0.54 
                 ESM1 
                 Endothelial cell-specific molecule 1 
               
               
                 1.36E−05 
                 −0.52 
                 AFM 
                 Afamin 
               
               
                 1.67E−05 
                 −0.48 
                 TNFRSF17 
                 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 member 17 
               
               
                 2.68E−05 
                 −0.46 
                 OMD 
                 Osteomodulin 
               
               
                 4.69E−05 
                 −0.23 
                 GDI2 
                 Rab GDP dissociation inhibitor beta 
               
               
                 5.09E−05 
                 −0.45 
                 SPOCK2 
                 Testican-2 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     REFERENCES 
     
         
         1 See also, Nioi, P. et al. Variant ASGR1 Associated with a Reduced Risk of Coronary Artery Disease.  The New England journal of medicine  374, 2131-2141, doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1508419 (2016). 
         2 Gold, L. et al. Aptamer-based multiplexed proteomic technology for biomarker discovery.  PLoS One  5, e15004, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015004 (2010). 
         3 Sham, P. C. &amp; Purcell, S. M. Statistical power and significance testing in large-scale genetic studies.  Nature reviews. Genetics  15, 335-346, doi:10.1038/nrg3706 (2014). 
       
    
     Example 19 
     Proteomic Profiling of Serum Samples from ASGR1 Cyno PK-PD Study 
     Introduction 
     As described above in Example 1, ASGR1 loss-of-function (LOF) was found to be associated with a beneficial phenotype (protected from coronary artery disease, lower LDL cholesterol and longer life span) in human 1 . Certain ASGR-1 antigen binding proteins disclosed herein were found to mimic the LOF effects, and can be useful in the treatment of coronary artery disease. In brief, cynomolgus monkeys were treated with certain ASGR-1 specific, ligand blocking antibodies in order to study the PK-PD profile of these antibodies. Moreover, a dose-dependent elevation of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels was observed in the Ab-treated cynos, which resembles the ALP elevation seen in human ASGR1 LOF carriers. In addition to ALP, proteomic profiling in human serum identified 41 proteins that potentially underlie the beneficial effects caused by ASGR1 LOF as described above in Example 18. To compare effects of anti-ASGR1 antibody treatment with the human ASGR1 LOF and identify comparable signatures in cynomolgus monkey, proteomic measurement of the serum samples from this study was conducted. The list of proteins with altered levels in the antibody-treated animals is compared to the ones identified in human LOF carriers. 
     Materials and Methods 
     Sample Selection and Proteomic Profiling 
     6 animal groups with 3 animals in each group were selected for proteomic profiling. The 6 groups include 5 antibody-treated groups (mAb1/25A4, mAb2/4A2, mAb3/7E11, mAb4/5E5 and mAb8/4H6) and a vehicle control group (mAb6). The animals were dosed once at 100 mg/kg. Serum samples from time points 0, 168, 336, 504, 672 and 1176 hours were collected for each animal (Table 19.1 &amp; 19.2). The only exception is group mAb8/4H6, where time point 1008 hour is used instead of 1176 hour. 120 ul serum samples were shipped to SomaLogic Inc, where 1310 proteins (see table 18.0) were measured by the SOMAscan Assay 1.3k. 
     The SOMAscan assay measures serum protein concentration using a Slow Off-rate Modified DNA Aptamer (SOMAmer)-based capture array. Each of the 1310 proteins is bond by its respective fluorescently labeled SOMAmer in the assay and their concentrations are reflected by the respective SOMAmer&#39;s relative fluorescence units (RFU). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 19.1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Serum sample selection 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Time points 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Animal 
                 Animal 
                 D 0 
                 D 8 
                 D 15 
                 D 22 
                 D 29 
                 D 50 
               
               
                 group 
                 Number 
                 0 hr 
                 168 hr 
                 336 hr 
                 504 hr 
                 672 hr 
                 1176 hr 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 25A4 
                 701, 702, 703 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
               
               
                 4A2 
                 704, 705, 706 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
               
               
                 7E11 
                 707, 708, 711 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
               
               
                 5E5 
                 709, 710, 712 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
               
               
                 SEFL2- 
                 716, 717, 718 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
               
               
                 control 
               
               
                 4H6 
                 204, 205, 206 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓ 
                 ✓* 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *4H6 was collected at D 43 (1008 hr). 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 19.2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 List of all sample groups by treatment and time points. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Treatment 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 (e.g., 
                   
                 # of 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 drug, vehicle, 
                   
                 Samples 
               
               
                 group 
                 etc.) 
                 Time point 
                 in Group 
                 Subject ID 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 25A4_D0 
                 mAb1 
                 0 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 701, 702, 703 
               
               
                 25A4_D8 
                 mAb1 
                 168 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 701, 702, 703 
               
               
                 25A4_D15 
                 mAb1 
                 336 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 701, 702, 703 
               
               
                 25A4_D22 
                 mAb1 
                 504 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 701, 702, 703 
               
               
                 25A4_D29 
                 mAb1 
                 672 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 701, 702, 703 
               
               
                 25A4_D50 
                 mAb1 
                 1176 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 701, 702, 703 
               
               
                 4A2_D0 
                 mAb2 
                 0 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 704, 705, 706 
               
               
                 4A2_D8 
                 mAb2 
                 168 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 704, 705, 706 
               
               
                 4A2_D15 
                 mAb2 
                 336 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 704, 705, 706 
               
               
                 4A2_D22 
                 mAb2 
                 504 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 704, 705, 706 
               
               
                 4A2_D29 
                 mAb2 
                 672 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 704, 705, 706 
               
               
                 4A2_D50 
                 mAb2 
                 1176 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 704, 705, 706 
               
               
                 7E11_D0 
                 mAb3 
                 0 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 707, 708, 711 
               
               
                 7E11_D8 
                 mAb3 
                 168 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 707, 708, 711 
               
               
                 7E11_D15 
                 mAb3 
                 336 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 707, 708, 711 
               
               
                 7E11_D22 
                 mAb3 
                 504 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 707, 708, 711 
               
               
                 7E11_D29 
                 mAb3 
                 672 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 707, 708, 711 
               
               
                 7E11_D50 
                 mAb3 
                 1176 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 707, 708, 711 
               
               
                 5E5_D0 
                 mAb4 
                 0 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 709, 710, 712 
               
               
                 5E5_D8 
                 mAb4 
                 168 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 709, 710, 712 
               
               
                 5E5_D15 
                 mAb4 
                 336 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 709, 710, 712 
               
               
                 5E5_D22 
                 mAb4 
                 504 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 709, 710, 712 
               
               
                 5E5_D29 
                 mAb4 
                 672 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 709, 710, 712 
               
               
                 5E5_D50 
                 mAb4 
                 1176 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 709, 710, 712 
               
               
                 CTL_D0 
                 mAb6 
                 0 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 716, 717, 718 
               
               
                 CTL_D8 
                 mAb6 
                 168 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 716, 717, 718 
               
               
                 CTL_D15 
                 mAb6 
                 336 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 716, 717, 718 
               
               
                 CTL_D22 
                 mAb6 
                 504 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 716, 717, 718 
               
               
                 CTL_D29 
                 mAb6 
                 672 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 716, 717, 718 
               
               
                 CTL_D50 
                 mAb6 
                 1176 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 716, 717, 718 
               
               
                 4H6_D0 
                 mAb8 
                 0 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 204, 205, 206 
               
               
                 4H6_D8 
                 mAb8 
                 168 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 204, 205, 206 
               
               
                 4H6_D15 
                 mAb8 
                 336 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 204, 205, 206 
               
               
                 4H6_D22 
                 mAb8 
                 504 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 204, 205, 206 
               
               
                 4H6_D29 
                 mAb8 
                 672 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 204, 205, 206 
               
               
                 4H6_D43 
                 mAb8 
                 1008 
                 Hr 
                 3 
                 204, 205, 206 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Data Analysis 
     As the SOMAscan assay was developed for humans, some proteins in cynomolgus monkey may not be recognized by the SOMAmer reagents. As a result, SOMAscan measurements of these proteins would have low credibility and may not reflect the true protein levels. A simple criterion was defined to determine the credibility of the measurements, assuming the serum levels of a given protein are in relatively close range in human and cynomolgus monkey. The mean and range of each protein level in human are calculated based on the 217 human control samples from the human proteomic study described in Example 18. The mean and range of each protein level in cynomolgus monkey are calculated based on a total of 48 samples including measurements of all time points for the SEFL-2 control group and the pre-treatment (D0) and washout period (D50) measurements of all the other groups. A protein measurement would be assigned low credibility if (1) its range in cynomolgus monkey is not overlapping with human; and (2) there is a 5 fold difference between the mean level of this protein in human and cynomolgus monkey. A total of 162 proteins were determined as low-credibility by these criteria and were excluded ( FIG. 58 , which depicts a summary of the credibility of protein measurements in cynomolgus monkey). In  FIG. 58 , log10 RFU of mean protein levels in the two species are plotted and the ones with low credibility (light shading) and high credibility (black) are marked. 
     One sample in the 4H6 group was removed due to low volume that did not meet the requirements for the SOMAscan assay. No outliers were found in the principle components analysis. A linear mixed model adjusting for potential confounding factors was used to test whether the ASGR1 antibody treatment changes each protein level differently from the control group over time points, 
         Y   ti =β 0 +β 1 TREATGROUP i +β 2 TIME ti +β 3 (TREATGROUP i )(TIME ti )+β 4 COV ti + . . . +β m+4 COV ti   +b   0i +ε ti  
 
     which is determined by the p-value for β 3  (i.e., treatment by time interaction; mean difference in slopes between treatment conditions). The random effect b 0i  captures individual animal heterogeneity. The TREATGROUP is coded as (25A4=4A2=7E11=5E5=4H6=1; SELF−2=0) and TIME is coded as (D8=D15=D22=D29=1; D0=D50=0) to test for the ASGR1 antibodies effect after treatment comparing to pre-treatment and washout period. Since multiple tests were performed for the proteins on SOMAscan platform, a Bonferroni corrected significant threshold (5×10 −5 ) was used. 
     Results and Discussion 
     33 proteins were identified to have significant serum level changes after ASGR1 antibody treatment (Table 19.3; P&lt;5×10 −5 ). Interestingly, all the 33 proteins show increased levels (1.36˜10.18 fold) after ASGR1 antibody treatment. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 19.3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Proteins with significant changes after ASGR1 
               
               
                 antibody treatment in Cynomolgus monkey. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Estimated 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Fold 
               
               
                 P-value 
                 Change 
                 Gene 
                 Full Name 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1.87E−13 
                 10.18 
                 TNFSF8 
                 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 8 
               
               
                 1.01E−06 
                 8.56 
                 ASGR1 
                 Asialoglycoprotein receptor 1 
               
               
                 1.35E−10 
                 3.93 
                 ADGRE2 
                 Adhesion G protein-coupled receptor E2 
               
               
                 2.74E−11 
                 2.86 
                 CD86 
                 T-lymphocyte activation antigen CD86 
               
               
                 1.46E−11 
                 2.81 
                 TNFRSF21 
                 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 member 21 
               
               
                 7.48E−10 
                 2.57 
                 L1CAM 
                 Neural cell adhesion molecule L1 
               
               
                 6.09E−12 
                 2.42 
                 PLXNC1 
                 Plexin-C1 
               
               
                 1.22E−07 
                 2.11 
                 MRC2 
                 C-type mannose receptor 2 
               
               
                 1.18E−06 
                 2.10 
                 AMIGO2 
                 Amphoterin-induced protein 2 
               
               
                 2.28E−11 
                 2.02 
                 ANGPT2 
                 Angiopoietin-2 
               
               
                 6.68E−09 
                 1.99 
                 INSR 
                 Insulin receptor 
               
               
                 1.02E−10 
                 1.93 
                 IL17RA 
                 Interleukin-17 receptor A 
               
               
                 7.12E−12 
                 1.90 
                 NRXN3 
                 Neurexin-3-beta 
               
               
                 5.95E−06 
                 1.85 
                 GPNMB 
                 Transmembrane glycoprotein NMB 
               
               
                 2.03E−06 
                 1.74 
                 IGF1R 
                 Insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor 
               
               
                 3.91E−09 
                 1.73 
                 PLAUR 
                 Urokinase plasminogen activator surface receptor 
               
               
                 3.58E−09 
                 1.69 
                 FGFR1 
                 Fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 
               
               
                 1.26E−06 
                 1.60 
                 LRP8 
                 Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 8 
               
               
                 3.87E−09 
                 1.55 
                 LYPD3 
                 Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein 3 
               
               
                 3.17E−06 
                 1.55 
                 GRN 
                 Granulins 
               
               
                 4.27E−05 
                 1.54 
                 CNTN4 
                 Contactin-4 
               
               
                 4.59E−07 
                 1.54 
                 KDR 
                 Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 
               
               
                 4.99E−06 
                 1.53 
                 IL12RB2 
                 Interleukin-12 receptor subunit beta-2 
               
               
                 5.85E−06 
                 1.52 
                 ROBO3 
                 Roundabout homolog 3 
               
               
                 1.44E−06 
                 1.50 
                 ALCAM 
                 CD166 antigen 
               
               
                 3.83E−05 
                 1.46 
                 TYRO3 
                 Tyrosine-protein kinase receptor TYRO3 
               
               
                 3.09E−05 
                 1.45 
                 CADM1 
                 Cell adhesion molecule 1 
               
               
                 1.53E−08 
                 1.44 
                 JAG1 
                 Protein jagged-1 
               
               
                 2.58E−09 
                 1.43 
                 ISLR2 
                 Immunoglobulin superfamily containing leucine- 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 rich repeat protein 2 
               
               
                 3.11E−05 
                 1.39 
                 SET 
                 Protein SET 
               
               
                 4.64E−05 
                 1.38 
                 IL20RA 
                 Interleukin-20 receptor subunit alpha 
               
               
                 2.15E−06 
                 1.36 
                 KLRK1 
                 NKG2-D type II integral membrane protein 
               
               
                 2.39E−05 
                 1.36 
                 GFRA2 
                 GDNF family receptor alpha-2 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     To compare results from this study with the human proteomic study, a list of proteins made by the 33 proteins in Table 19.3 and the top 41 proteins identified in human was compiled. This results in a list of 64 proteins total. The estimates of protein level change and p-value of the changes in the studies were compared (Table 19.4). Based on concordance of change in the cyno (in response to ASGR1 antibody treatment) and human (in response to ASGR1 LOF) studies, the proteins are classified into 5 tiers. Tier 1 includes 10 proteins that pass the stringent Bonferroni corrected significance level (p&lt;5×10 −5 ) in both studies with the same direction of changes. The number of proteins supported by strong evidence in both studies are much higher than the number one would expect by chance (p=1.58×10 −8 ; Fisher&#39;s exact test). It indicates that ASGR1 Ab treatment can induce a serum protein levels change in cyno that is similar to the effect of del12 LOF variant in Human. Therefore, these proteins are the core biomarkers. For example, the strongest biomarker TNFSF8 had more than 10 fold increase after ASGR1 Antibody treatment ( FIGS. 59A-59D , which depict the results of serum protein levels of TNFSF8 in cyno and human studies). 
     Tier 2 contains 12 proteins with strong evidence (p&lt;5×10 −5 ) in the cyno study and suggestive evidence (p&lt;0.05) in human with the same direction of changes. Both Tier 1 and 2 proteins have increased levels in both studies. Tier 3 includes 11 proteins that are found significant only in the cyno study but not human. These proteins are likely to be biomarkers specific for the drug modality or for cynomolgus monkeys. For example, the soluble secreted form of ASGR1 increased more than 10 fold after antibody treatment but no significant difference was observed in human between the ASGR1 del12 carriers and non-carriers. Tier 4 contains 17 proteins with significant evidence (p&lt;5×10 −5 ) in the human study but not supported by the cyno study. Majority of the proteins in Tier 4 has decrease levels in human del12 carriers. This observation may indicate a difference between antibody treatment and constitutive gene LOF. It could also possibly be due to species difference or simply caused by lower statistical power in the cyno study. 
     Lastly, there are 14 proteins with significant changes in human classified as Tier 5 because they were excluded in the cyno study due to the low credibility of their SOMAmer reagents. 
     In summary, the two studies show high degree of concordance between the antibody treatment in cynomolgus monkey and ASGR1 LOF in humans, with 10 proteins (Tier 1) showing very significant changes in the same direction in both studies. The ASGR-1 antibody treatment is working well as a way of mimicking the effects of ASGR1 LOF in humans and can be useful in the treatment of coronary artery disease. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 19.4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Five tiers of protein biomarkers and comparison of the estimates 
               
               
                 of protein level change and p-value between the two studies. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 human 
                 Cyno 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Estimate 
                   
                 Estimate 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Target Full Name 
                 Gene 
                 (SD) 
                 P-value 
                 log2FC 
                 P-value 
                 Tier 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 8 
                 TNFSF8 
                 1.34 
                 3.7E−54 
                 3.35 
                 1.87E−13 
                 1 
               
               
                 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily 
                 TNFRSF21 
                 0.31 
                 1.2E−06 
                 1.49 
                 1.46E−11 
                 1 
               
               
                 member 21 
               
               
                 C-type mannose receptor 2 
                 MRC2 
                 0.36 
                 1.6E−06 
                 1.08 
                 1.22E−07 
                 1 
               
               
                 Angiopoietin-2 
                 ANGPT2 
                 0.45 
                 1.5E−05 
                 1.01 
                 2.28E−11 
                 1 
               
               
                 Neurexin-3-beta 
                 NRXN3 
                 0.48 
                 4.5E−09 
                 0.93 
                 7.12E−12 
                 1 
               
               
                 Insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor 
                 IGF1R 
                 0.33 
                 5.0E−06 
                 0.80 
                 2.03E−06 
                 1 
               
               
                 Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 8 
                 LRP8 
                 0.80 
                 8.9E−12 
                 0.68 
                 1.26E−06 
                 1 
               
               
                 Contactin-4 
                 CNTN4 
                 0.39 
                 2.0E−05 
                 0.63 
                 4.27E−05 
                 1 
               
               
                 Tyrosine-protein kinase receptor TYRO3 
                 TYRO3 
                 0.59 
                 2.5E−12 
                 0.55 
                 3.83E−05 
                 1 
               
               
                 Immunoglobulin superfamily containing leucine- 
                 ISLR2 
                 0.61 
                 2.6E−09 
                 0.52 
                 2.58E−09 
                 1 
               
               
                 rich repeat protein 2 
               
               
                 T-lymphocyte activation antigen CD86 
                 CD86 
                 0.39 
                 2.1E−03 
                 1.52 
                 2.74E−11 
                 2 
               
               
                 Neural cell adhesion molecule L1 
                 L1CAM 
                 0.30 
                 5.5E−03 
                 1.36 
                 7.48E−10 
                 2 
               
               
                 Plexin-C1 
                 PLXNC1 
                 0.40 
                 1.0E−04 
                 1.28 
                 6.09E−12 
                 2 
               
               
                 Amphoterin-induced protein 2 
                 AMIGO2 
                 0.44 
                 1.9E−04 
                 1.07 
                 1.18E−06 
                 2 
               
               
                 Interleukin-17 receptor A 
                 IL17RA 
                 0.29 
                 0.03 
                 0.95 
                 1.02E−10 
                 2 
               
               
                 Urokinase plasminogen activator surface receptor 
                 PLAUR 
                 0.35 
                 3.3E−04 
                 0.79 
                 3.91E−09 
                 2 
               
               
                 Fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 
                 FGFR1 
                 0.30 
                 2.3E−03 
                 0.75 
                 3.58E−09 
                 2 
               
               
                 Granulins 
                 GRN 
                 0.27 
                 5.7E−03 
                 0.63 
                 3.17E−06 
                 2 
               
               
                 CD166 antigen 
                 ALCAM 
                 0.20 
                 9.1E−03 
                 0.58 
                 1.44E−06 
                 2 
               
               
                 Protein jagged-1 
                 JAG1 
                 0.17 
                 0.01 
                 0.53 
                 1.53E−08 
                 2 
               
               
                 Protein SET 
                 SET 
                 0.28 
                 2.1E−03 
                 0.47 
                 3.11E−05 
                 2 
               
               
                 GDNF family receptor alpha-2 
                 GFRA2 
                 0.39 
                 9.2E−05 
                 0.44 
                 2.39E−05 
                 2 
               
               
                 Asialoglycoprotein receptor 1 
                 ASGR1 
                 0.00 
                 0.99 
                 3.10 
                 1.01E−06 
                 3 
               
               
                 Adhesion G protein-coupled receptor E2 
                 ADGRE2 
                 0.04 
                 0.70 
                 1.97 
                 1.35E−10 
                 3 
               
               
                 Insulin receptor 
                 INSR 
                 0.20 
                 0.06 
                 1.00 
                 6.68E−09 
                 3 
               
               
                 Transmembrane glycoprotein NMB 
                 GPNMB 
                 −0.22 
                 0.01 
                 0.89 
                 5.95E−06 
                 3 
               
               
                 Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein 3 
                 LYPD3 
                 −0.06 
                 0.26 
                 0.63 
                 3.87E−09 
                 3 
               
               
                 Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 
                 KDR 
                 0.19 
                 0.09 
                 0.63 
                 4.59E−07 
                 3 
               
               
                 Interleukin-12 receptor subunit beta-2 
                 IL12RB2 
                 0.11 
                 0.38 
                 0.61 
                 4.99E−06 
                 3 
               
               
                 Roundabout homolog 3 
                 ROBO3 
                 0.08 
                 0.55 
                 0.61 
                 5.85E−06 
                 3 
               
               
                 Cell adhesion molecule 1 
                 CADM1 
                 −0.17 
                 0.02 
                 0.53 
                 3.09E−05 
                 3 
               
               
                 Interleukin-20 receptor subunit alpha 
                 IL20RA 
                 0.05 
                 0.69 
                 0.47 
                 4.64E−05 
                 3 
               
               
                 NKG2-D type II integral membrane protein 
                 KLRK1 
                 −0.14 
                 0.25 
                 0.44 
                 2.15E−06 
                 3 
               
               
                 Lymphatic vessel endothelial hyaluronic acid 
                 LYVE1 
                 1.16 
                 1.44E−24 
                 0.00 
                 0.96 
                 4 
               
               
                 receptor 1 
               
               
                 CMRF35-like molecule 6 
                 CD300C 
                 0.74 
                 1.16E−12 
                 0.03 
                 0.39 
                 4 
               
               
                 Interleukin-1 receptor-like 1 
                 IL1RL1 
                 0.66 
                 1.76E−09 
                 0.75 
                 0.10 
                 4 
               
               
                 Kallikrein-13 
                 KLK13 
                 0.57 
                 3.82E−06 
                 0.08 
                 0.42 
                 4 
               
               
                 CD48 antigen 
                 CD48 
                 0.53 
                 8.27E−07 
                 −0.06 
                 0.81 
                 4 
               
               
                 Rab GDP dissociation inhibitor beta 
                 GDI2 
                 −0.23 
                 4.69E−05 
                 −0.27 
                 0.09 
                 4 
               
               
                 Chorionic somatomammotropin hormone 
                 CSH1 CSH2 
                 −0.37 
                 2.44E−06 
                 0.19 
                 9.4E−03 
                 4 
               
               
                 Leucine-rich repeat transmembrane protein FLRT2 
                 FLRT2 
                 −0.38 
                 1.36E−06 
                 0.30 
                 0.03 
                 4 
               
               
                 Transforming growth factor-beta-induced protein 
                 TGFBI 
                 −0.44 
                 2.91E−07 
                 0.13 
                 0.46 
                 4 
               
               
                 ig-h3 
               
               
                 Testican-2 
                 SPOCK2 
                 −0.45 
                 5.09E−05 
                 0.10 
                 0.96 
                 4 
               
               
                 72 kDa type IV collagenase 
                 MMP2 
                 −0.46 
                 6.67E−07 
                 0.13 
                 0.48 
                 4 
               
               
                 Osteomodulin 
                 OMD 
                 −0.46 
                 2.68E−05 
                 0.12 
                 0.78 
                 4 
               
               
                 Alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein 
                 AHSG 
                 −0.48 
                 2.18E−06 
                 0.00 
                 0.97 
                 4 
               
               
                 Iduronate 2-sulfatase 
                 IDS 
                 −0.50 
                 6.32E−09 
                 0.05 
                 0.33 
                 4 
               
               
                 Complement component C1q receptor 
                 CD93 
                 −0.52 
                 1.08E−09 
                 0.19 
                 0.15 
                 4 
               
               
                 Afamin 
                 AFM 
                 −0.52 
                 1.36E−05 
                 0.02 
                 0.94 
                 4 
               
               
                 Endothelial cell-specific molecule 1 
                 ESM1 
                 −0.54 
                 3.16E−06 
                 0.09 
                 0.56 
                 4 
               
               
                 Scavenger receptor cysteine-rich type 1 protein 
                 CD163 
                 1.45 
                 1.33E−52 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 M130 
               
               
                 Macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor 
                 CSF1R 
                 1.09 
                 2.07E−25 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 Interleukin-18-binding protein 
                 IL18BP 
                 0.67 
                 4.56E−15 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 Interleukin-6 receptor subunit beta 
                 IL6ST 
                 0.65 
                 1.03E−22 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 Urokinase-type plasminogen activator 
                 PLAU 
                 0.58 
                 1.03E−07 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 Sialic acid-binding Ig-like lectin 7 
                 SIGLEC7 
                 0.55 
                 4.01E−09 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 Low affinity immunoglobulin gamma Fc region 
                 FCGR3B 
                 0.47 
                 2.57E−05 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 receptor III-B 
               
               
                 Cell surface glycoprotein CD200 receptor 1 
                 CD200R1 
                 0.46 
                 4.48E−05 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 T-lymphocyte surface antigen Ly-9 
                 LY9 
                 0.40 
                 3.92E−05 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 Complement C1s subcomponent 
                 C1S 
                 0.38 
                 2.93E−05 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 Complement decay-accelerating factor 
                 CD55 
                 0.37 
                 2.96E−07 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 RGM domain family member B 
                 RGMB 
                 −0.34 
                 1.56E−07 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 Lumican 
                 LUM 
                 −0.48 
                 5.56E−07 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily 
                 TNFRSF17 
                 −0.48 
                 1.67E−05 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 5 
               
               
                 member 17 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     REFERENCES 
     
         
         1 See also, Nioi, P. et al. Variant ASGR1 Associated with a Reduced Risk of Coronary Artery Disease.  The New England journal of medicine  374, 2131-2141, doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1508419 (2016). 
         2 Gold, L. et al. Aptamer-based multiplexed proteomic technology for biomarker discovery.  PLoS One  5, e15004, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015004 (2010). 
       
    
     Example 20: 
     Method of Reducing a Risk of Cardiovascular Disease 
     A subject at risk of cardiovascular disease is identified. One or more antibodies as provided herein (see Example 7, as well as Tables A, B and C) and/or RNAi constructs that reduce expression of ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 (as outlined in Example 3), are administered to a subject at risk of cardiovascular disease. The antibody and/or RNAi construct reduces the level of expression of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. Subsequent rounds of antibodies and/or RNAi are administered to the subject. One or more of the markers in Example 19 (e.g., Tier 1) is monitored to make certain that an adequate amount of the antibody and/or RNAi construct is administered and is functioning as desired. The risk that the subject will experience cardio vascular disease is decreased. 
     Additionally, as a further option, physiologic effects of the antibody and/or RNAi can be evaluated in relevant animal models of cardiovascular disease using readouts including blood pressure, primary and secondary hemostasis, heart function and morphology, endothelial function, LDL cholesterol levels, non-HDL cholesterol levels, inflammation, and/or atherosclerosis. 
     Example 21 
     Method of Reducing a Risk of Myocardial Infarction or Coronary Artery Disease 
     A subject at risk of a myocardial infarction or coronary artery disease is identified. One or more antibodies as provided herein (see Example 7, as well as Tables A, B and C) and/or RNAi constructs that reduce expression of ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 (as outlined in Example 3), are administered to a subject at risk of a myocardial infarction or coronary artery disease. The antibody and/or RNAi construct reduces the level of expression of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. Subsequent rounds of antibodies and/or RNAi are administered to the subject. One or more of the markers in Example 19 (e.g., Tier 1) is monitored to make certain that an adequate amount of the antibody and/or RNAi construct is administered and is functioning as desired. The risk that the subject will experience a myocardial infarction or coronary artery disease is decreased. 
     Additionally, as a further option, physiologic effects of the antibody and/or RNAi can be evaluated in relevant animal models of myocardial infarction or coronary artery disease using readouts including blood pressure, primary and secondary hemostasis, heart function and morphology, endothelial function, LDL cholesterol levels, non-HDL cholesterol levels, inflammation, and/or atherosclerosis. 
     Example 22 
     Method of Reducing LDL Cholesterol 
     A subject having a LDL cholesterol level to be lowered is identified. One or more antibodies as provided herein (see Example 7, as well as Tables A, B and C) and/or RNAi constructs that reduce expression of ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 (as outlined in Example 3), are administered to the subject. The antibody and/or RNAi construct reduces the level of expression of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. Subsequent rounds of antibodies and/or RNAi are administered to the subject. One or more of the markers in Example 19 (e.g., tier 1) is monitored to make certain that an adequate amount of the antibody and/or RNAi construct is administered and is functioning as desired. The level of LDL cholesterol in the subject is thereby reduced. 
     Example 23 
     Method of Reducing Non-HDL Cholesterol 
     A subject having a non-HDL cholesterol level to be lowered is identified. One or more antibodies as provided herein (see Example 7, as well as Tables A, B and C) and/or RNAi constructs that reduce expression of ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 (as outlined in Example 3), are administered to the subject. The antibody and/or RNAi construct reduces the level of expression of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. Subsequent rounds of antibodies and/or RNAi are administered to the subject. One or more of the markers in Example 19 (e.g., Tier 1) is monitored to make certain that an adequate amount of the antibody and/or RNAi construct is administered and is functioning as desired. The level of non-HDL cholesterol in the subject is thereby reduced. 
     Example 24 
     Method of Increasing ALP Levels 
     One or more antibodies as provided herein (see Example 7, as well as Tables A, B, and C) and/or RNAi constructs that reduce expression of ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 (as outlined in Example 3), are administered to the subject. The antibody and/or RNAi construct reduces the level of expression of ASGR, ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2. Subsequent rounds of antibodies and/or RNAi are administered to the subject. One or more of the markers in Example 19 (e.g., Tier 1) is monitored to make certain that an adequate amount of the antibody and/or RNAi construct is administered and is functioning as desired. The level of ALP in the subject is thereby increased. 
     Example 25 
     Method of Monitoring the Effectiveness of an ASGR-1 Therapy 
     One or more antibodies as provided herein (see Example 7, as well as Tables A, B and C) and/or RNAi constructs that reduce expression of ASGR-1 and/or ASGR-2 (as outlined in Example 3), are administered to the subject. One or more of the markers in Example 19 is monitored to make certain that an adequate amount of the antibody and/or RNAi construct is administered and is functioning as desired. When the marker level changes in a similar manner to those changes noted in Example 19 (e.g., Tier 1), it is evidence that the amount of the one or more antibody and/or RNAi is effective. Additionally, as a further option, the effectiveness of this biochemical change can be observed by its physiologic effects from the antibody and/or RNAi, which can be evaluated using readouts including blood pressure, primary and secondary hemostasis, heart function and morphology, endothelial function, LDL cholesterol levels, non-HDL cholesterol levels, inflammation, and/or atherosclerosis. 
       
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
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     Each reference cited herein is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all that it teaches and for all purposes. 
     The present invention is not to be limited in scope by the specific embodiments described herein, which are intended as single illustrations of individual embodiments of the invention, and functionally equivalent methods and components are invention. Indeed, various modifications of the invention, in addition to those shown and described herein will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing description and accompanying drawings. Such modifications are intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims. 
       
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
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