Patent Publication Number: US-2011077930-A1

Title: Computer-implemented method for providing a personalized tool for estimating 1,5-anhydroglucitol

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This patent application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/760,497, filed Apr. 14, 2010, pending, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/372,662, filed Feb. 17, 2009, pending, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/030,071, filed Feb. 12, 2008, pending, the priority dates of which are claimed and the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference. 
    
    
     FIELD 
     This application relates in general to management of diabetes mellitus and, in particular, to a computer-implemented method for providing a personalized tool for estimating 1,5-anhydroglucitol. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Diabetes mellitus exacts a significant cost on individuals and society. In the United States, the healthcare costs of diabetes exceed $200 billion annually. Diabetes impacts every patient&#39;s quality of life and the lives of the people around them. Control over diabetes lowers the risk of complications, yet the diabetes&#39; unceasing demands can leave patients feeling a loss of personal freedom. 
     In general, diabetes is an incurable chronic disease. Type 1 diabetes is caused by destruction of pancreatic beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans through autoimmune attack. Type 2 diabetes is due to defective insulin secretion, insulin resistance, or reduced insulin sensitivity. Gestational diabetes can occur during pregnancy and usually resolves after childbirth. Less common forms of diabetes include thiazide-induced diabetes, and diabetes caused by chronic pancreatitis, tumors, hemochromatosis, steroids, Cushing&#39;s disease, and acromegaly. 
     Type 1 diabetes can only be treated by dosing insulin. The timing of insulin dosing and patient-related factors, such as food selection, exercise, and physiological condition, make blood glucose management a delicate balancing act between the prevention of hyperglycemia, or high blood glucose, and hypoglycemia, or very low blood glucose, from over-aggressive or incorrect insulin dosing, which can lead to abrupt loss of consciousness and other sequela. 
     Type 2 diabetes is a progressive disease that can initially be managed through careful diet, regular physical activity, and weight loss. As insulin production becomes impaired, anti-diabetes medications may be necessary to increase natural insulin production, decrease the body&#39;s resistance to insulin, and help regulate inappropriate hepatic glucose release. Eventually, however, insulin therapy becomes mandatory as natural insulin production ceases entirely. 
     Blood glucose management requires regular blood glucose testing, meal planning, insulin dosing, and consideration of other factors that can affect blood glucose, such as physical activities. For a diabetic, blood glucose is ideally kept below the renal threshold for hyperglycemia of 180 mg/dL. Under current guidelines, well-controlled between-meal blood glucose falls between 70 mg/dL and 120 mg/dL, while postprandial blood glucose stays under 140 mg/dL. 
     Self testing of blood glucose is generally supplemented with laboratory blood assays. Three forms of blood assay are commonly used. Glycated hemoglobin (HbAlc) assay measures the effectiveness of blood glucose control over the preceding 12 weeks. Fructosamine assay measures blood glucose concentration over a two- to three-week period for diabetics who recently suffered blood loss or are unsuitable for HbAlc assay. Finally, 1,5-anhydroglucitol (1,5-Ag) assay measures average postprandial blood glucose over a one- to two-week period in diabetics with normal or near normal HbAlc levels. 
     For the diabetic patient, guidance on how daily glucose control relates to 1,5-Ag, as well as HbAlc, fructosamine, and other forms of blood assay used in diabetes management, can help dispel over-reliance solely on daily blood glucose self-testing and avoid longer term consequences from poor management. To the average diabetic, the relationship between blood assay testing, which occurs infrequently, and daily blood glucose self testing is often unclear or misunderstood. Daily blood glucose testing can be deliberately skewed to bias diabetes management efficacy. Hence, endocrinologists use HbAlc to identify patients who are “cheating” by only improving their blood glucose prior to check up. Additionally, the near-term monitoring provided through 1,5-Ag assay helps determine if blood glucose is frequently above the renal threshold, even with good HbAlc levels. Thus, diabetes patients can better manage their health through an increased awareness of their complete blood glucose profile over a wider time frame between medical check ups. Conventional forms of blood assay, though, remain laboratory-bound and the infrequency of receiving blood assay results means that diabetics will continue under the false impression that their daily blood glucose results most strongly reflect the effectiveness of their efforts. 
     Existing approaches to diabetes management assume patient efforts are limited to blood glucose self testing and predominantly rely on physician decision-making. For instance, U.S. Pat. No. 6,168,563, to Brown, discloses a healthcare maintenance system based on a hand-held device. Healthcare data, such as blood glucose, can be uploaded on to a program cartridge for healthcare professional analysis at a centralized location. Healthcare data can also be directly obtained from external monitoring devices, including blood glucose monitors. At the centralized location, blood glucose test results can be matched with quantitative information on medication, meals, or other factors, such as exercise. Changes in medication dosage or modification to the patient&#39;s monitoring schedule can be electronically sent back to the patient. However, decision making on insulin treatment regimen through interpretation of uploaded healthcare data remains an offline process, discretionary to and within the sole control and timing of the remote healthcare professional. 
     Similarly, U.S. Pat. No. 6,024,699, to Surwit et al. (“Surwit”), discloses monitoring, diagnosing, prioritizing, and treating medical conditions of a plurality of remotely located patients. Each patient uses a patient monitoring system that includes medicine dosage algorithms, which use stored patient data to generate medicine dosage recommendations for the patient. A physician can modify the medicine dosage algorithms, medicine doses, and fixed or contingent self-monitoring schedules, including blood glucose monitoring through a central data processing system. In particular, diabetes patients can upload their data to the central data processing system, which will detect any trends or problems. If a problem is detected, a revised insulin dosing algorithm, insulin dosage, or self-monitoring schedule can be downloaded to their patient monitoring system. However, such modifications and revisions remain within the sole discretion and timing of a physician, who acts remotely via the central data processing system. 
     Therefore, there is a need for personal glucose management assistance, especially for Type 1 and Type 2 diabetics that is capable of adapting a regimen to on-going patient conditions in a localized and time-responsive fashion. Preferably, such assistance would be patient-operable and relate daily blood, interstitial, tissue, cellular, and other forms of glucose self- or automated testing results to an estimation of heretofore laboratory-bound metrics, particularly 1,5-Ag blood assay. 
     SUMMARY 
     A system and method for modeling management of Type 1 or Type 2 diabetes mellitus on an individualized and continually fine-tunable basis is provided. An automated diabetes management tool is established by using the insulin, oral anti-diabetes medication, and carbohydrate sensitivities of a diabetic as a reference starting point. Population-based insulin and oral anti-diabetes medication activity curve data can be scaled to reflect the diabetic&#39;s personal sensitivities. A carbohydrate sensitivity can be determined through consumption of a standardized, timed test meal. A digestive response curve can be generated from the carbohydrate sensitivity by proportioning a time course curve based on postprandial blood glucose data, such as glycemic index. The personal insulin and oral anti-diabetes medication activity curves and the personal digestive response curves form a personalized and automated diabetes management tool. 
     Additionally, a system and method for correlating daily glucose testing measurements to HbAlc estimates is provided. Glucose measurements are gathered over a backwards-looking time window, which is set to an adjustable period, typically 90 to 120 days. The glucose measurements can be obtained through blood, interstitial, tissue, cellular, or other testing. Interpolated glucose measurements are determined between pairs of the actual glucose measurements. An exponential decay function is projected over the time window to weight the glucose measurements according to the physiology of glucose binding to red cell proteins. Each glucose measurement, whether actual or interpolated, is multiplied by a decay constant corresponding to the point along the exponential decay function that the glucose measurement falls within the time period. The decayed glucose measurements are summed and multiplied by a scaling coefficient to yield an estimate of HbAlc. The estimate is accompanied by an ascription of accuracy, which reflects the degree to which the patient may rely on the estimate. 
     One embodiment provides a computer-implemented method for providing a personalized tool for estimating 1,5-anhydroglucitol. An electronically-stored history of empirically measured glucose levels is maintained for a patient over a set period of time in order of increasing age. A predictive model of estimated glycated hemoglobin is built on a computer workstation. A decay factor is designated particularized to the patient. The decay factor is applied to each of the measured glucose levels. The measured glucose levels is scaled by a scaling coefficient. The measured glucose levels are aggregated and scaled as decayed and scaled into an estimate of glycated hemoglobin for the time period. The glycated hemoglobin estimate is displayed to the patient on the computer workstation. 
     A further embodiment provides computer-implemented method for creating a tunable personalized tool for estimating a time course of glucose effect for a diabetic patient. A patient history that includes a multiplicity of empirically measured glucose levels for a patient ordered by increasing age is electronically stored. A predictive model of estimated glycated hemoglobin is built for the patient on a computer workstation. Regular temporal intervals are defined within the patient history. Each of the measured glucose levels is assigned to the temporal regular interval most closely corresponding to the age of the glucose level. An exponential decay factor particularized to the patient is designated. The exponential decay function is projected over a predefined time period within the patient history. Each of the measured glucose levels within the predefined time period is adjusted by the exponential decay function. A summation of the adjusted measured glucose levels is taken and the summation is scaled into an estimate of glycated hemoglobin. The glycated hemoglobin estimate and the measured glucose levels included in the predefined time period is displayed on the computer workstation. 
     A still further embodiment provides a computer-implemented method for providing a personalized tool for estimating depletion of 1,5-anhydroglucitol (1,5-Ag). An electronically-stored history of blood glucose levels for a patient is maintained in order of increasing age. A predictive model of estimated 1,5-Ag depletion is built on a computer workstation. A depletion rate coefficient for 1,5-Ag and a renal threshold of blood glucose particularized to the patient are designated. Hyperglycemic differences between the renal threshold and each glucose level that is in excess of the renal threshold are determined. The depletion rate coefficient is applied to each of the hyperglycemic differences as an estimate of depleted 1,5-Ag. The estimate of depleted 1,5-Ag is displayed to the patient. 
     A still further embodiment provides a computer-implemented method for providing a personalized tool for estimating 1,5-anhydroglucitol (1,5-Ag). An electronically-stored history of blood glucose levels for a patient is maintained during a set time period in order of increasing age. A predictive model of estimated aggregate 1,5-Ag is built on a computer workstation. A depletion rate coefficient for 1,5-Ag, a repletion rate coefficient for 1,5-Ag, and a renal threshold of blood glucose particularized to the patient are designated. Hyperglycemic differences between the renal threshold and each glucose level that is in excess of the renal threshold are determined. The depletion rate coefficient is applied to each of the hyperglycemic differences as an estimate of depleted 1,5-Ag. An ingested amount of 1,5-Ag for the patient that was consumed during the set time period is estimated. The repletion rate coefficient is applied to the ingested amount of 1,5-Ag as an estimate of repleted 1,5-Ag. The estimate of the depleted 1,5-Ag and the estimate of repleted 1,5-Ag are matched based on their relative occurrence during the set time period. An aggregate of the matched estimates of the depleted 1,5-Ag and repleted 1,5-Ag is displayed to the patient. 
     A still further embodiment provides a computer-implemented method for estimating glycemic affect through historical blood glucose data. An electronically-stored history of empirically measured glucose levels is maintained for a patient over a set period of time in order of increasing age. One of the blood glucose levels is selected from the history and a glycemic indicator based on the selected blood glucose level is determined. Successive blood glucose levels are selected from the history occurring at progressively recent times in the set period and the glycemic indicator is revised based on the selected progressively recent blood glucose level. The glycemic indicator is displayed to the patient 
     The personal predictive management tool provides diabetics with a new-found sense of personal freedom and safety by integrating the vagaries of daily glucose control into a holistic representation that can be continually re-evaluated and calibrated to keep pace with the unpredictable nature of daily life. Glucose testing is provided deeper meaning through real time estimation of HbAlc, which can also be applied in managing anemia, reticulocytosis, polycythemia, and other diseases affecting the blood, as well as diabetes. The approach described herein closely approximates what a normal pancreas does by interactively guiding the individual diabetic under consideration and, over time, learning how the patient can be understood and advised. 
     Still other embodiments of the present invention will become readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, wherein are described embodiments by way of illustrating the best mode contemplated for carrying out the invention. As will be realized, the invention is capable of other and different embodiments and its several details are capable of modifications in various obvious respects, all without departing from the spirit and the scope of the present invention. Accordingly, the drawings and detailed description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature and not as restrictive. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a functional block diagram showing, by way of example, a prior art diabetes management cycle for a Type 1 diabetic. 
         FIG. 2  is a functional block diagram showing, by way of example, an automated diabetes management cycle for a Type 1 diabetic, in accordance with one embodiment. 
         FIGS. 3A-C  are functional block diagrams showing, by way of example, prior art diabetes management cycles for a Type 2 diabetic. 
         FIGS. 4A-C  are functional block diagrams showing, by way of example, automated diabetes management cycles for a Type 2 diabetic, in accordance with one embodiment. 
         FIG. 5  is a process flow diagram showing personalized Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus modeling. 
         FIG. 6  is a diagram showing, by way of example, a screen shot of a graphical user interface for establishing a personalized diabetes management tool for Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus. 
         FIG. 7  is a diagram showing, by way of example, a screen shot of a graphical user interface for specifying insulin preparation type for use in the graphical user interface of  FIG. 6 . 
         FIG. 8  is a diagram showing, by way of example, a screen shot of a graphical user interface for specifying other medications for use in the graphical user interface of  FIG. 6 . 
         FIG. 9  is a diagram showing, by way of example, a screen shot of a graphical user interface for selecting food combinations for use in the graphical user interface of  FIG. 6 . 
         FIG. 10  is a process flow diagram showing a method for establishing a personalized diabetes management tool for Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus, in accordance with one embodiment. 
         FIG. 11  is a process flow diagram showing a routine for establishing an insulin activity curve for use with the method of  FIG. 10 . 
         FIG. 12  is a process flow diagram showing a routine for calibrating an insulin activity curve for use with the method of  FIG. 10 . 
         FIG. 13  is a process flow diagram showing a routine for establishing an oral anti-diabetes medication activity curve for use with the method of  FIG. 10 . 
         FIG. 14  is a process flow diagram showing a routine for calibrating an oral anti-diabetes medication activity curve for use with the method of  FIG. 10 . 
         FIG. 15  is a graph showing, by way of example, an insulin activity curve for lispro, an insulin analog. 
         FIG. 16  is a diagram showing, by way of example, a screen shot of a personal insulin activity curve for display in the graphical user interface of  FIG. 6 . 
         FIG. 17  is a process flow diagram showing a routine for establishing a digestive response curve for use with the method of  FIG. 10 . 
         FIG. 18  is a graph showing, by way of example, a personal digestive response curve for a standardized meal. 
         FIG. 19  is a process flow diagram showing, by way of example, characteristics affecting diabetes management. 
         FIG. 20  is a process flow diagram showing, by way of example, factors bearing on personal predictive diabetes management. 
         FIG. 21  is a block diagram showing for a system for generating a personalized diabetes management tool for Type 1 diabetes mellitus, in accordance with one embodiment. 
         FIG. 22  is a graph showing, by way of example, mean blood glucose profile compared to HbAlc level over a set time period. 
         FIG. 23  is a diagram showing, by way of example, a screen shot of a graphical user interface for providing an estimate of HbAlc for use in the graphical user interface of  FIG. 6 . 
         FIG. 24  is a process flow diagram a method for providing a personalized tool for estimating glycated hemoglobin in accordance with a further embodiment. 
         FIG. 25  is a flow diagram showing a routine for estimating HbAlc for use with the method of  FIG. 24 . 
         FIG. 26  is a graph showing, by way of example, an exponential decay function projected over a set time period. 
         FIG. 27  is a flow diagram showing a routine for estimating accuracy for use with the method of  FIG. 24 . 
         FIG. 28  is a block diagram showing for a system for providing a personalized tool for estimating glycated hemoglobin, in accordance with a further embodiment. 
         FIG. 29  is a graph showing, by way of example, daily 1,5-Ag depletion and repletion over a set time period. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Diabetes Management Cycles 
     Both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes are diseases that require continuous and consistent glucose management. Poorly controlled diabetes affects both quality of life and longevity, which can be dramatically curtailed due to avoidable chronic complications. Conversely, acute conditions will occur with even well-managed patients, although proper management helps to significantly lower the likelihood. 
     Type 1 Diabetes 
     The principal cause of Type 1 diabetes is a T-cell mediated autoimmune attack on the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. No known preventative measures exist. Type 1 diabetes management is a continual process that is repeated on a daily basis.  FIG. 1  is a functional block diagram showing, by way of example, a prior art diabetes management cycle  10  for a Type 1 diabetic. Fundamentally, Type 1 diabetes management centers on the timing and content of meals and the timing and dosing of insulin, although other factors, such as physical activity and exercise, overall physical well-being, other illnesses, and stress, can influence the course of management. 
     Currently, Type 1 diabetes can only be treated through insulin therapy, which is normally combined with adjustments to patient lifestyle, including diet and exercise. As a result, a Type 1 diabetic patient  11  learns to plan and time his daily meals (step  12 ) to estimate an expected rise in blood glucose and to determine appropriate doses of insulin to counteract the expected rise. 
     Generally, a Type 1 diabetic administers insulin prior to actually consuming any food (step  13 ). A post-meal increase in blood glucose is normal, but the insulin in intended to bring blood glucose back down to a reasonable range within two to four hours. A Type 1 diabetic determines the insulin units needed to counteract an expected post-meal rise in blood glucose and times his insulin to counteract the affect of the meal (step  14 ). Ideally, a Type 1 diabetic&#39;s average blood glucose should be in the range of 80-120 mg/dL, although a range of 140-150 mg/dL is often used to prevent potentially life-threatening hypoglycemic events. In effect, long-term management of blood glucose levels is short-changed to prevent the more pressing short-term consequences of hypoglycemia. 
     Physicians encourage each Type 1 diabetic to regularly self-test his blood glucose (step  15 ) to enable better compensation for patient-specific sensitivities to both food and insulin. A patient  11  places a drop of blood on a test strip coated with a glucose oxidase or hexokinase enzyme, which is read by a glucose monitor. Blood glucose is normally tested daily, although stricter control regimens may require more frequent testing. 
     Patient logs document the interaction of food, insulin, and patient sensitivities. Physician review normally only occurs during clinic visits, or when otherwise necessary. Consequently, detailed context is lost, unless the patient comprehensively records exacting descriptions of all food components consumed and their manner of preparation, precise times between insulin dosing and completion of a meal, physiological factors, such as mood or wellness, and similar data. The physician must be willing to study a patient log in corresponding detail. However, neither detailed patient documentation nor close physician review are practical in terms of time, effort, and cost for every Type 1 diabetic patient. 
     The accuracy and timeliness of a Type 1 diabetes management regimen can be improved by automating the predictive aspects of glycemic control.  FIG. 2  is a functional block diagram showing, by way of example, an automated diabetes management cycle  20  for a Type 1 diabetic, in accordance with one embodiment. Automation is introduced to move the management cycle significantly closer to a closed loop arrangement. Control is streamlined and steps that remain to be performed by a patient manually are minimized, or even eliminated, which make such steps less apt to be forgotten or missed. 
     An automated diabetes management tool applies heuristics to model and calibrate a personalized diabetes control regimen for a Type 1 diabetic patient  21  (step  22 ), as further described below beginning with reference to  FIG. 5 . Through the management tool, the patient  21  can plan and time insulin dosing and meals (steps  23  and  25 , respectively) more accurately than possible through conventional means, including exchange lists and carbohydrate counting. Dynamically tracked blood glucose predictions (step  24 ) can also be provided and self-testing results (step  26 ) can be provided directly into the management tool for time-responsive integration and evaluation. In a further embodiment, HbAlc estimates are generated from the self-testing results, as further described below beginning with  FIG. 22 . In a still further embodiment, emergent glucose self-testing, such as interstitial, tissue, or cellular glucose testing, supplements manual self-testing or, where sufficiently reliable, replaces manual self-testing to achieve a fully closed loop system when combined with insulin pump therapy. Other management tool aspects are possible. 
     Type 2 Diabetes 
     Type 2 diabetes is due to defective insulin secretion, insulin resistance, or reduced insulin sensitivity. As with Type 1 diabetes, no known preventative measures exist, but strong correlations to obesity and genetic predisposition have been observed. Like Type 1 diabetes, Type 2 diabetes management is a continual process with the nature and magnitude of management interventions progressing over time.  FIGS. 3A-C  are functional block diagrams showing, by way of example, prior art diabetes management cycles for a Type 2 diabetic. The earliest stage of Type 2 diabetes can be controlled through lifestyle changes alone, after which anti-diabetes medications and ultimately insulin therapy are eventually added. 
     Early stage Type 2 diabetes management focuses on changes in lifestyle with emphasis on basic glycemic control. Referring first to  FIG. 3A , a typical patient  31  is often obese, although obesity is but one indicator of Type 2 diabetes, which further includes genetic predisposition and mutation of amylin genes. Diet  32  often plays a significant role. As a result, the patient  31  is urged to exercise, for instance, by taking a brisk 45-minute walk several times a week, and to increase his physical activity (step  33 ) through a combination of aerobic and resistance training. In addition, the patient  31  is educated on following a healthy diet (step  34 ) to decrease his weight (step  35 ), because the level of insulin resistance proportionately grows with the increase in body fat, particularly metabolically active visceral fat. 
     Effective early stage Type 2 diabetes control can temporarily restore normal insulin sensitivity, although the predisposition for insulin resistance remains. Referring next to  FIG. 3B , oral anti-diabetes medications are generally prescribed (step  37 ) as insulin production becomes impaired, yet partial pancreatic function remains. Most commonly, beguanide metformin and sulfonylureas are prescribed to respectively help regulate inappropriate hepatic glucose release and stimulate insulin production. Thiazolidinediones may also be prescribed, which decrease insulin resistance. Recommendations regarding lifestyle changes (step  38 ) in exercise, diet, and weight loss continue. 
     In the last stage, pancreatic function ceases altogether, which necessitates commencement of insulin therapy. Referring to  FIG. 3C , insulin is administered subcutaneously (step  40 ). Insulin therapy is performed in a manner similar to a Type 1 diabetic, which includes both meal and insulin dosage planning, as described above with reference to  FIG. 1 . However, oral anti-diabetes medications (step  41 ) may also be taken, along with continued adherence to lifestyle changes (step  42 ). Additionally, the patient  31  is now encouraged to self-test his blood glucose (step  43 ). 
     Many aspects of Type 2 diabetes management can also be automated.  FIGS. 4A-C  are functional block diagrams showing, by way of example, automated diabetes management cycles for a Type 2 diabetic, in accordance with one embodiment. In a manner similar to Type 1, automation is introduced to increase the accuracy and timeliness of blood glucose control and data logging, and to minimize or eliminate steps performed by a patient manually. 
     Type 2 diabetes is a progressively debilitating disorder and quality of life can best be preserved by seeding diabetes awareness from the earliest stages of the disease. Referring first to  FIG. 4A , a Type 2 diabetic patient  51  faces making changes to his lifestyle through physical activity (step  53 ), diet (step  55 ), and weight (step  56 ). Hopefully, the changes are permanent, but a diabetic  51  may lose sight of their importance, either through indifference or by temporary restoration of insulin sensitivity. Consequently, during early stage Type 2 diabetes, an automated diabetes management tool can be used to assist the patient  51  in planning his dict and physical activities (step  52 ), and in tracking his progress (step  54 ) for subsequent review and analysis, as further described below beginning with reference to  FIG. 5 . 
     As insulin resistance increases and pancreatic function decreases, oral anti-diabetes medications become increasingly important. Referring next to  FIG. 4B , the types and timing of medications required will depend upon the patient&#39;s physiology and physical tolerance. Moreover, medication may be necessary at different times of the day and in different combinations. In addition to planning (step  58 ) and tracking (step  60 ) functions, the management tool can also provide dosing instructions and reminders (step  59 ) to guide the patient  51  in therapy compliance. 
     End-stage Type 2 diabetes will require insulin therapy. Referring finally to  FIG. 4C , use of insulin requires conscious planning (step  62 ) and conscientious dosing (step  63 ), both in appropriate amount and at the correct time with respect to anticipated meals to effectively lower the blood sugar and to prevent the adverse consequences of hypoglycemia. The management tool applies planning (step  62 ) and tracking (step  66 ) functions similar in form to the methodology of Type 1 diabetes, but further includes administration of oral anti-diabetes medications (step  64 ). In addition, the management tool can provide dynamic blood glucose prediction (step  65 ) and blood glucose self-testing integration (step  67 ). In a further embodiment, HbAlc estimates are generated from the self-testing results, as further described below beginning with  FIG. 22 . In a still further, embodiment, interstitial, tissue, or cellular glucose testing and similar diagnostics supplement or replace manual self-testing, which provide a fully closed loop system when combined with a wireless insulin pump. Other management tool aspects are possible. 
     Automated Management of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes 
     The diabetic patient is himself the best resource available to manage diabetes. Meals, insulin dosing, and changes in personal well being, as well as departures from such plans, are best known to the patient, who alone is ultimately responsible for adherence to a management regimen.  FIG. 5  is a process flow diagram showing personalized Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus modeling  70 . The method is performed as a series of process steps or operations executed by one or more patient-operable devices, including computer workstations, personal computers, personal digital assistants, programmable mobile telephones, intelligent digital media players, or other programmable devices, that are working individually or collaboratively to apply a personal predictive management tool, which models patient behavioral aspects relating to current diabetic state. 
     Predictive modeling in general can be applied to the management of health disorders, particularly long-term or chronic, to temporally represent primarily short-term changes to physiological parameters as influenced by external agents, such as food and liquid intake, medications, and physical activities or interventions. Predictive modeling for diabetes involves projecting the glycemic effect of planned meals in light of insulin dosing, if applicable, and oral anti-diabetes medications (primarily Type 2). Meal planning is particularly important to Type 1 and end-stage Type 2 diabetics, where the content and timing of meals greatly impacts blood glucose and must be closely controlled by dosed insulin to compensate for the lack of naturally-produced insulin. Dietary management is less crucial to non-end-stage Type 2 diabetics, who still retain limited natural insulin production. Nevertheless, proper diet can aid with weight control and hepatic glucose release. For all Type 1 and Type 2 diabetics, the management tool performs dietary planning (step  71 ), which primarily involves determining the glycemic effect of food based on a standardized meal. In a further embodiment, planning also includes projecting the effect of exercise or physical activities that are likely to require appreciable caloric expenditure. Other planning aspects are possible. 
     Once each planned meal is known, the management tool can model the time courses and amplitudes of change for the meal, dosed insulin, and oral anti-diabetes medication (primarily Type 2) (step  72 ). Additionally, the management tool can be calibrated as necessary to adjust to self-testing and data recorded by the patient (step  73 ), as further described below beginning with reference to  FIG. 10 . Other modeling and calibration aspects are possible. 
     In a further embodiment, the patient can combine different food types and quantities and perform “What If” scenarios as an aid to blood glucose management. The physiological effects on blood glucose of specific food and beverage, both individually and in combination, are modeled, taking into account differences in digestive motility and other factors, such as described in commonly-assigned U.S. Patent publication, entitled “System And Method For Actively Managing Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus On A Personalized Basis,” Publication No. 2010/0137786, published on Jun. 3, 2010, pending; U.S. Patent publication, entitled “System and Method for Managing Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Through a Personal Predictive Management Tool,” Publication No. 2010/0145725, published on Jun. 10, 2010, pending, U.S. Patent publication, entitled “System And Method For Actively Managing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus On A Personalized Basis,” Publication No. 2010/0138203, Published on Jun. 3, 2010, pending; U.S. Patent publication, entitled “System and Method for Managing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Through a Personal Predictive Management Tool,” Publication No. 2010/014567, published Jun. 10, 2010, pending, the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference. The modeling is based on an individual patient&#39;s personal dietary tastes and preferences and the blood glucose rises that ensue following consumption, as well as capturing the synergies and interactions of various food preparations and combinations. 
     Graphical User Interface 
     Personalized Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus modeling can be provided through a patient-operable interface through which planning and calibration can be performed.  FIG. 6  is a diagram showing, by way of example, a screen shot of a graphical user interface  80  for establishing a personalized diabetes management tool for Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus, in accordance with one embodiment. The user interface  80  provides logical controls that accept patient inputs and display elements that present information to the patient. The user interface  80  can be used for both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes management, although the applicability of particular logical controls, screens, and menus will depend upon the type and stage of the patient&#39;s diabetes. The logical controls include buttons, or other forms of option selection, to access further screens and menus to specify an insulin bolus  81  (“Insulin”), as further described below with reference to  FIG. 7 ; specify other oral anti-diabetes medications  82  (“Medications”) (primarily Type 2), as further described below with reference to  FIG. 8 ; plan meals  83  (“FOOD”), as further described below with reference to  FIG. 9 ; enter a measured blood glucose reading  84  (“BG”); edit information  85  (“EDIT”); and speculate on what would happen if some combination of food, insulin, or anti-diabetes or oral medication (primarily Type 2) were taken  86  (“What If”). Further logical control and display elements are possible. 
     To assist the patient with planning, a graphical display provides a blood glucose forecast curve  87 , which predicts combined insulin dosing, oral anti-diabetes medication administration (primarily Type 2), and postprandial blood glucose. The x-axis represents time in hours and the y-axis represents the blood glucose level measured in mg/dL. Modeling estimates the timing and amplitude of change in the patient&#39;s blood glucose in response to the introduction of a substance, whether food, physiological state, or drug, that triggers a physiological effect in blood glucose. Generally, actions, such as insulin dosing, medication administration, exercise, and food consumption cause a measurable physiological effect, although other substances and events can influence blood glucose. The time courses and amplitudes of change are adjusted, as appropriate, to compensate for patient-specific factors, such as level of sensitivity or resistance to insulin, insulin secretion impairment, carbohydrate sensitivity, and physiological reaction to medications. Other patient-specific factors, like exercise or supervening illness, may also alter the time courses and amplitudes of blood glucose. 
     In one embodiment, the user interface  80  and related components are implemented using a data flow programming language provided through the LabVIEW development platform and environment, licensed by National Instruments Corporation, Austin, Tex. although other types and forms of programming languages, including functional languages, could be employed. The specific option menus will now be discussed. 
     Insulin Selection 
     When insulin therapy is applicable, such as for a Type 1 or end-stage Type 2 diabetic, a patient needs to identify both the type and amount of insulin preparation used and his sensitivity to allow the management tool to generate an insulin response curve. Insulin preparation types are identified by source, formulation, concentration, and brand name, and are generally grouped based on duration of action.  FIG. 7  is a diagram showing, by way of example, a screen shot of a graphical user interface  90  for specifying insulin preparation type for use in the graphical user interface  80  of  FIG. 6 . Different types of insulin preparation  91  can be selected and, for ease of use and convenience, are identified by brand name or formulation. Insulin preparations include short-acting insulins, such as lispro or Regular, that are used to cover a meal and are frequently administered by insulin pump due to the short time of onset. Intermediate-acting insulins, such as NPH (Neutral Protamine Hagedorn), have 12-18 hour durations, which peak at six to eight hours. Finally, long-acting insulins, such as Ultralente, have 32-36 hour durations to provide a steady flow of insulin. Long-acting insulins are generally supplemented with short-acting insulins taken just before meals. Other types of insulin preparations include insulin glargine, insulin detemir, and insulin preparation mixes, such as “70/30,” which is a premixed insulin preparation containing 70% NPH insulin and 30% Regular insulin. In addition, insulin sensitivity  92  and an insulin bolus “bump”  93 , that is, a single dosing, such as for meal coverage, is specified, before being factored into the tool upon pressing of the “APPLY” button  94 . Further logical control and display elements are possible. 
     Other Medication Selection (Primarily Type 2) 
     Type 2 diabetics generally start with oral anti-diabetes medications and only later progress to insulin therapy as insulin production ceases. However, both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetics may receive other medications in addition to insulin and anti-diabetes oral medications. Each non-diabetic medication should also be identified to allow the management tool to project any effect on glycemic activity.  FIG. 8  is a diagram showing, by way of example, a screen shot of a graphical user interface  100  for specifying other medications for use in the graphical user interface of  FIG. 6 . Different medications  101  can be selected and, for ease of use and convenience, can be identified by generic name, brand name, or formulation. As appropriate, the therapeutic effects, particularly as relating to blood glucose level, and drug interactions of each medication can be factored into the tool upon pressing of the “APPLY” button  102 . For example, pramlintide acetate, offered under the brand name Symlin, is prescribed to both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetics to help lower postprandial blood glucose during the three hours following a meal. Consequently, the blood glucose rise is adjusted to reflect the effects of the pramlintide acetate in light of a planned meal and dosed insulin, if applicable. Further logical control and display elements are possible. 
     Food Selection 
     Unlike insulin preparation or other medications, the possible selections and combinations of food and beverage are countless and applicable, whether Type 1 or Type 2 diabetic, regardless of disease state. Moreover, how a particular food combination synergistically acts is equally variable.  FIG. 9  is a diagram showing, by way of example, a screen shot of a graphical user interface  110  for selecting food combinations for use in the graphical user interface  80  of  FIG. 6 . Dietary management, and thence, the management tool, focuses on carbohydrates, which have the greatest affect on blood glucose. Simple sugars increase blood glucose rapidly, while complex carbohydrates, such as whole grain bread, increase blood glucose more slowly due to the time necessary to break down constituent components. Fats, whether triglyceride or cholesterol, neither raise nor lower blood glucose, but can have an indirect affect by delaying glucose uptake. Proteins are broken down into amino acids, which are then converted into glucose that will raise blood glucose levels slowly. Proteins will not generally cause a rapid blood glucose rise. Nevertheless, both fats and proteins are incorporated into the model by virtue of their empiric effect on blood glucose levels. Additionally, various combinations or preparations of medications or food can have synergistic effects that can alter blood glucose rise and timing. 
     In the management tool, the food choices  111  arc open-ended, and one or more food item can be added to a meal by pressing the “ADD ITEM” button  112 . Glycemic effect data, such as the glycemic index  113  and carbohydrates type and content  114  for a particular food item, are also displayed. A cumulative digestive response curve  115  is generated and is mapped to run contemporaneous to an insulin activity curve, further described below beginning with  FIG. 11 , so the affect of an insulin dose can be weighed against food ingestion. The cumulative digestive response curve  115  is based on the selections made by proportionately applying the patient&#39;s carbohydrate sensitivity. For instance, the selection of a 12-ounce non-diet soft drink and a 16-ounce sirloin steak would result in a cumulative digestive response curve with an initial near term peak, which reflects the short time course and high glucose content of the soft drink, and a long term peak, which reflects the protein-delayed and significantly less-dramatic rise in blood glucose attributable to the sirloin steak. The completion of meal planning is indicated by pressing the “Finished” button  116 . Further logical control and display elements are possible. 
     Method 
     Conventional Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes management is predicated on application of population-based norms, which can serve as a starting point for personalized care. Individualized diabetes management adapts these norms to a model to meet specific patient needs and sensitivities and the model can be continually updated and fine tuned to address dynamic conditions.  FIG. 10  is a process flow diagram showing a method  120  for establishing a personalized diabetes management tool for Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus, in accordance with one embodiment. The method first establishes a personal predictive management tool (operation  121 ). One aspect of the model is determined for insulin activity, as further described below with reference to  FIG. 11 , and a second aspect is determined for digestive speed and amplitude, as further described below with reference to  FIG. 17 . Other aspects of the management tool are possible. 
     Once established, the management tool can be refined and calibrated on an on-going basis (operation  122 ) by integrating self-testing and other patient data sources in a localized and time-responsive fashion, as further described below with reference to  FIG. 13  for insulin activity. Through calibration, the management tool continually changes as more data is obtained and keeps pace with the patient over time. 
     Insulin Activity Modeling 
     Insulin is dosed in Type 1 and end-stage Type 2 diabetics to counteract the postprandial rise in blood glucose. Insulin activity is initially modeled with an insulin activity curve for a patient population as published for a specific insulin preparation. The insulin activity curve is adapted to each specific patient by factoring individual sensitivities into the personal predictive management tool. 
     In a further embodiment, the management tool requires the inclusion of dosed insulin for Type 1 and end-stage Type 2 diabetics. Requiring the modeling of an activity time curve for dosed insulin is particularly important when anti-diabetes or oral medications are also modeled, as the latter can skew blood glucose and cause an incomplete impression of glycemic effect if dosed insulin is omitted from the model. 
     Establishing an Insulin Activity Curve 
     The clinical pharmacologies of various types of insulin are widely available from their manufacturer. The three major manufacturers of insulin are Eli Lilly, Novo Nordisk, and Sanofi Aventis, although other manufacturers exist. Each pharmacology typically includes a time course of action based on population-based clinical studies. Time courses are provided as general guidelines, which can vary considerably in different individuals or even within the same individual depending upon activity and general health. Time courses can serve as the basis of a management tool.  FIG. 11  is a process flow diagram showing a routine  130  for establishing an insulin activity curve for use with the method  120  of  FIG. 10 . A model is generated for a specific type of insulin preparation. Similar models for other insulin preparation types can be postulated by extension, or established individually on a case-by-case basis. 
     Initially, a population-based insulin activity curve that is appropriate to a particular patient is identified (operation  131 ). A published time course of action for the insulin preparation type can be used, which provides an established baseline for insulin activity that can he adapted to the patient. Other sources of insulin activity curves can be used, so long as the curve accurately reflects time of onset, peak time, duration, or other essential insulin activity characteristics. 
     The personal level of sensitivity to the insulin preparation must also be determined for the patient (operation  132 ). Personal insulin sensitivity can be determined empirically, such as taking an empirically observed decrease in blood glucose for a fixed dose of the insulin preparation as the insulin sensitivity. In a further embodiment, personal insulin sensitivity can be determined by adapting interstitial, tissue, or cellular glucose levels for a fixed dose of the insulin preparation to the blood glucose level. Other determinations of personal insulin sensitivity are possible, including clinically-derived values. 
     Based on the personal insulin sensitivity, a patient-specific insulin sensitivity coefficient or other metric, which is stored internally and is not generally visible to the patient, is determined by proportioning the personal insulin sensitivity to the population-based insulin activity curve (operation  133 ). The insulin sensitivity coefficient can be determined through area estimation, as further described below with reference to  FIG. 15 . In a further embodiment, the insulin sensitivity coefficient is accessible to, rather than hidden from the patient, his physician, or other user for “tweaking,” that is, incremental fine-tuning, as further described below with reference to  FIG. 28 . Finally, once determined, the insulin sensitivity coefficient can be applied to the population-based insulin activity curve to generate a personal insulin activity model (operation  134 ) that is tailored to the patient&#39;s physiology and lifestyle. An application of an insulin sensitivity coefficient is further described below with reference to  FIG. 16 . 
     Calibrating an Insulin Activity Curve 
     Diabetes management needs can change over time, as dietary habits, personal well being, and other factors occur in a diabetic&#39;s life. Thus, the management tool accommodates evolving conditions to remain current and to continue to provide effective guidance.  FIG. 12  is a process flow diagram showing a routine  140  for calibrating an insulin activity curve for use with the method  120  of  FIG. 10 . Calibration is a dynamic process that builds on conventional self-testing and diabetes control information ordinarily only recorded as static data for potential physician consideration. 
     Calibration can be performed regularly, or only as needed. Various concerns can change how a management tool is characterized for a Type 1 diabetic, including factors relating to insulin, oral anti-diabetes medication, and lifestyle, as further described below with reference to  FIG. 19 . During each calibration, external feedback regarding the dosed insulin can be aggregated into the management tool (operation  141 ) and applied to re-evaluate the insulin sensitivity coefficient for the patient (operation  142 ). Ordinarily, the insulin sensitivity coefficient is affected only where the feedback reflects a non-nominal departure from an earlier provided sensitivity. A non-nominal departure occurs, for instance, when an observed decrease in blood glucose differs from a predicted blood glucose decrease by one or more standard deviations, although other thresholds or metrics of significance are possible. In addition, the feedback can be aggregated over several sample sets, or types of feedback, as further described below with reference to  FIG. 20 . A revised personal insulin activity model can then be generated (operation  143 ) as a reflection of current circumstances. 
     Oral Anti-diabetes Medication Activity Modeling (Primarily Type 2) 
     Oral anti-diabetes medications are prescribed only to Type 2 diabetics during the middle and final stages of the disease and are selectively used with Type 1 diabetics. The type of effect on blood glucose depends upon the drug&#39;s pharmacology and the patient&#39;s sensitivity to the drug. For example, a meglitinide stimulates the release of natural insulin, which has the affect of directly lowering blood glucose. In contrast, thiazolidinediones increase insulin receptivity by stimulating glucose update, which indirectly lowers blood glucose, but is also dependent upon patient&#39;s insulin sensitivity. As a result, an activity curve can be generated based on population-based studies, but will ordinarily require adjustment in the management tool for each patient. 
     Establishing an Oral Anti-Diabetes Medication Activity Curve 
     Like insulin, the clinical pharmacologies of the different varieties of oral anti-diabetes medications are widely available from their manufacturer and typically include a time course of action based on population-based clinical studies. In general, the population-based time courses can serve as the initial basis of a management tool.  FIG. 13  is a process flow diagram showing a routine  150  for establishing an oral anti-diabetes medication activity curve for use with the method  120  of  FIG. 10 . A model is generated for each anti-diabetes or oral medication identified by the patient. Similar models for other medications can be postulated by extension, or established individually on a case-by-case basis. 
     Initially, a population-based activity curve that is appropriate to a particular patient is identified (operation  151 ). A published time course of action can be used. In a further embodiment, an empirical time course of action is determined by monitoring the patient&#39;s blood glucose following dosing of the medication. Other sources of activity curves can be used, which accurately reflect time of onset, peak time, duration, or other essential activity characteristics. 
     The patient&#39;s level of sensitivity to the medication is also determined (operation  152 ), which can be found empirically. In a further embodiment, the sensitivity can be determined by adapting interstitial, tissue, or cellular glucose levels for a fixed dose to blood glucose level. Other determinations of insulin sensitivity are possible, including clinically-deriyed values. 
     Based on the personal medication sensitivity, a medication sensitivity coefficient or other metric, which is stored internally and is not generally visible to the patient, can be found by proportioning the personal sensitivity to the population-based activity curve, if available (operation  153 ). The medication sensitivity coefficient can be determined through area estimation, as further described below for dosed insulin with reference to  FIG. 15 . Finally, once determined, the medication sensitivity coefficient can be applied to the population-based activity curve to generate a personal activity model for the particular anti-diabetes or oral medication in use by the patient (operation  154 ). 
     Calibrating an Oral Anti-Diabetes Medication Activity Curve 
     Changes to diabetes management are expected for Type 2 diabetics. However, dietary habits, personal well being, and other factors affecting both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetics can require adjustment to oral anti-diabetes medication activity curves.  FIG. 14  is a process flow diagram showing a routine  160  for calibrating an oral anti-diabetes medication activity curve for use with the method  120  of  FIG. 10 . Calibration uses self-testing data to corroborate and refine the management tool. 
     Calibration can be performed regularly, or only as needed, based on factors relating to insulin, oral anti-diabetes medication, and lifestyle, as further described below with reference to  FIG. 19 . During each calibration, external feedback regarding the medication is aggregated into the management tool (operation  161 ) and applied to re-evaluate the medication sensitivity coefficient (operation  162 ). In addition, the feedback can be aggregated over several sample sets, or types of feedback, as further described below with reference to  FIG. 20 . In a further embodiment, a threshold is applied to the feedback to prevent oscillations in changes to the activity curve due to minor and insignificant fluctuations. A revised personal anti-diabetes or oral medication activity model can then be generated (operation  163 ) as a reflection of current circumstances. 
     Personalizing a Population-Based Insulin Activity Curve 
     Insulin is a peptide hormone composed of amino acid residues. 
     Conventional insulin preparations are human insulin analogs that provide therapeutic effect along a projected activity curve that is characterized by time of onset, peak time, and duration of action.  FIG. 15  is a graph  170  showing, by way of example, an insulin activity curve  171  for lispro, an insulin analog manufactured by Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Ind., and marketed under the Humalog brand name. The x-axis represents time in minutes and the y-axis represents the rate of glucose infusion measured in milligrams per minute per kilogram (mg/min/kg). Insulin activity curves are widely available for other insulin preparation types, and form the same general profile varied by time of onset, peak time, and duration. 
     The insulin activity curves published by insulin manufacturers and other authoritative sources are generally constructed as glucose clamp curves from normal volunteers, rather than diabetics, so resultant insulin activity curves must be estimated from the published curves. Insulin activity can be modeled for a diabetic patient by first estimating insulin sensitivity for an insulin preparation type. The insulin sensitivity refers to the overall change in blood glucose for a given dose of insulin, which the equivalent of integrating the area A under the insulin activity curve  171  and proportioning the area A to the net change in blood glucose  172 . Thus, insulin sensitivity s can be estimated by taking the first order derivative of the rate of change of blood glucose over time: 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   s 
                   = 
                   
                     ∫ 
                     
                       
                          
                         x 
                       
                       
                          
                         t 
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   1 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     where x is glucose infusion rate and i is time. Other estimates of insulin sensitivity are possible. 
     The insulin sensitivity is then proportioned to the population-based insulin activity curve  171  using the individualized insulin sensitivity coefficient k for the patient. For example, if a 1.0 unit dose caused a 30 mg/dL drop in blood glucose, the area A would equal 30, and the magnitude of the values of each point along the x-axis are adjusted to the ratio of the insulin sensitivity coefficient k to the population-based value to yield a bioactivity curve for a 1.0 unit dose. Other applications of insulin sensitivity coefficients are possible. 
     Personal Insulin Activity Curve 
     The insulin sensitivity coefficient can be applied to the population-based insulin activity curve to generate a personal insulin activity model for the patient.  FIG. 16  is a diagram showing, by way of example, a screen shot  180  of a personal insulin activity curve for display in the graphical user interface  80  of  FIG. 6 . The x-axis  181  again represents time in minutes and the y-axis  182  represents incremental blood glucose decrease measured in mg/dL. 
     The personal insulinactivity model can be depicted through an approximation, plotted as a patient-specific insulin activity curve  183 , which mimics the shape of the population-based insulin activity curve by a curvilinear ramp  184  to the peak activity time, followed by an exponential decay τ  126 . A first modeling coefficient is used for the time to peak activity, called the filter length. A second coefficient is used for overall duration or decay of activity τ. The insulin sensitivity coefficient is applied to the population-based insulin activity curve through the filter length and τ. Thus, for a patient insulin sensitivity coefficient of 90%, for example, the patient-specific insulin activity curve  183  reflects a ten percent decrease in insulin sensitivity over corresponding population-based results. Other forms of and coefficients for models of population-based insulin activity curves are possible. 
     In a further embodiment, a time factor adjustment can be applied to get an overall insulin activity curve appropriately adjusted for an individual diabetic. For example, if the insulin activity curve for the individual was shorter in duration, the population-based insulin activity curve would be proportionally decreased along the time axis. Other personal insulin activity models are possible. 
     Digestive Response Modeling 
     Digestive speed and amplitude are initially modeled through ingestion of a standardized test meal from which a digestive response curve can be established and calibrated. The digestive response curve is thus adapted to the patient by factoring individual sensitivities into the personal predictive management tool. 
     In a manner similar to insulin activity curve determination, digestive response curve establishment and calibration provides a model from which other food responses can be projected.  FIG. 17  is a process flow diagram showing a routine  190  for establishing a digestive response curve for use with the method  120  of  FIG. 10 . Determining a digestive response curve is an empirical process performed by the patient prior to commencing automated diabetes management and repeated as necessary to calibrate or fine-tune the curve. 
     Initially, the patient must undertake a fast (operation  191 ), preferably overnight and limited to only clear liquids or water. Following fasting, an initial test for blood glucose level is made (operation  192 ) to establish a starting point for blood glucose rise. The patient thereafter consumes a standardized and timed test meal (operation  193 ), such as a specific number of oat wafers, manufactured, for instance, by Ceapro Inc., Edmonton, Canada, or similar calibrated consumable. The test meal contains a known quantity of carbohydrate. A second test for postprandial blood glucose is made after a set time period (operation  194 ). If desired, further post-meal blood glucose tests can be performed (not shown), although standardized test meals are designed to exhibit peak blood glucose rise after a fixed time period and further testing generally yields nominal additional information. Finally, a carbohydrate sensitivity coefficient or other metric, which is stored internally and is not generally visible to the patient, established by plotting the observed baseline and peak blood glucose levels on a personal digestive response curve (operation  195 ). The protocol can be repeated, as needed, to ascertain and resolve any variability in testing results. In a further embodiment, population-based digestive response curves can be used in lieu of or in combination with an empirically-determined personal digestive response curve. 
     Personal Digestive Response Curve 
     A digestive response curve estimates digestive speed and amplitude for an individual patient, which traces blood glucose rise, peak, and fall following food consumption.  FIG. 18  is a graph  200  showing, by way of example, a personal digestive response curve  203  for a standardized meal. The x-axis  201  represents time in minutes and they-axis  202  represents a cumulative rise of blood glucose measured in milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL). The amplitude of the curve  203  is patient-dependent, as is the timing of the rise. However, where the carbohydrate content of the standardized test meal is precisely known, the curve  203  can be adapted to other types of foods to estimate glycemic effect and counteraction by insulin dosing, such as described in commonly-assigned U.S. patent application, entitled “System And Method For Actively Managing Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus On A Personalized Basis,” Ser. No. 12/030,087, filed Feb. 12, 2008, pending; U.S. patent application, entitled “System and Method for Managing Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Through a Personal Predictive Management Tool,” Ser. No. 12/030,120, filed Feb. 12, 2008, pending, U.S. patent application, entitled “System And Method For Actively Managing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus On A Personalized Basis,” Ser. No. 12/030,097, filed Feb. 12, 2008, pending; U.S. patent application, entitled “System and Method for Managing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Through a Personal Predictive Management Tool,” Ser. No. 12/030,130, filed Feb. 12, 2008, pending, the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference. 
     Characteristics Affecting Management of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetics 
     A range of characteristics affect the effectiveness of the automated diabetes management tool.  FIG. 19  is a process flow diagram showing, by way of example, characteristics  211  affecting diabetes management  210 . Other characteristics can also affect diabetes management. 
     Type 1 diabetics are dependent on externally supplied insulin, as well as end-stage Type 2 diabetes with failed insulin production. The basic principle underlying insulin therapy is to use short-acting insulin to cover meals and longer-acting insulin between meals and overnight. Thus, insulin considerations  212  include the type of insulin preparation administered and the timing and doses of insulin. Additionally, insulin can be administered through subcutaneous injection, insulin pump, inhalation, and transdermal delivery. Other modes of insulin administration are possible. Other insulin considerations are possible. 
     Lifestyle considerations  213  factor heavily into determinations of insulin dosing. Food consumption considerations  214  include the types, amounts, and combinations of foods consumed, particularly in terms of carbohydrate content and glycemic index. Food includes beverages that will lead to an eventual rise in blood glucose, such as high sucrose drinks, like orange juice. In addition, personal food preferences, familial traditions, preferred seasonings and accompaniments, ethnicity; social eating patterns, and similar factors can also indirectly influence blood glucose. Exercise considerations  215  includes any form of physical exertion or activity likely to require a measurable caloric outlay. Finally, patient condition  216  can cause blood glucose to abnormally rise or fall, depending upon the condition. For instance, a virus, such as influenza, can cause blood glucose to decrease, while emotional stress can raise blood glucose through stimulation of adrenaline. The normal pancreas in non-diabetic individuals manages all of these shifts in glucose metabolism smoothly to prevent both too high and too low values of glucose. Other lifestyle considerations are possible. 
     Type 2 diabetics also suffer some combination of defective insulin secretion, insulin resistance, and reduced insulin sensitivity  217 . The level of affect tends to change over time as the disease progresses, although, at least in the early stage, positive changes to exercise, diet, and weight loss may temporarily reverse insulin resistance. Other insulin resistance considerations are possible. 
     Factors Bearing on Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetics Management 
     Diabetes management is a dynamic process that must evolve with patient condition to remain effective, especially for Type 2 diabetics.  FIG. 20  is a process flow diagram showing, by way of example, factors  221  bearing on personal predictive diabetes management  220 . Each factor, when known, constitutes feedback that can potentially have an affect on the efficacy and accuracy of an underlying diabetes management tool. 
     Blood glucose testing results provide strong corroboration of the management tool&#39;s accuracy. Test results can be provided through empirical measures  222  from self-testing, which can be compared to expected blood glucose levels as predicted by the management tool. Similarly, clinical monitoring data  223 , such as glycated hemoglobin, fructosamine, urinary glucose, urinary ketone, and interstitial, tissue, or cellular glucose testing results, can be used. Other forms of blood glucose testing results are possible. 
     Other factors may also apply. For instance, event data  224  details specifics, such as insulin basal dose, insulin bolus dose, insulin bolus timing, insulin resistance level, period of day, time of day, medications, patient activity level, and patient physical condition. Other forms of event data arc possible. Insulin preparation type  225  should seldom vary, but when affected, can signal the need to re-evaluate and calibrate the management tool. Finally, selecting a population-based insulin activity curve for a patient population most appropriately corresponding to the quantitative characteristics  226  of the patient can improve the type of personal insulin activity model generated and subsequently refined to match the specific needs of the patient. Finally, the types and dosing of oral anti-diabetes medications  227  for Type 2 and select Type 1 diabetics can directly or indirectly affect blood glucose. Moreover, the medications taken by a Type 2 diabetic will likely change as the disease progresses. Other factors bearing on diabetes management are possible. 
     System 
     Automated diabetes management can be provided on a system implemented through a patient-operable device, as described above with reference to  FIG. 5 .  FIG. 21  is a block diagram showing for a system  230  for establishing a personalized diabetes management tool for Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus, in accordance with one embodiment. The patient-operable device must accommodate user inputs, provide a display capability, and include local storage and external interfacing means. 
     In one embodiment, the system  230  is implemented as a forecaster application  231  that includes interface  232 , analysis  233  and display  234  modules, plus a storage device  237 . The storage device  237  is used to maintain a database or other form of structured data store in which glucose measurements, physiological data, and other aspects of patient medical histories are kept. Other modules and devices are possible. 
     The interface module  232  accepts user inputs, such as insulin bolus dosings  244 , dosings of other medications  245 , measured blood glucose readings  246 , food selections through planned meals  247 , and patient-specific characteristics  248 , such as height, weight, age, gender, ethnicity, and hereditary predisposition to diabetes. Other inputs, both user-originated and from other sources, are possible. In addition, in a further embodiment, the interface module  232  facilitates direct interconnection with external devices, such as a blood, interstitial, tissue, or cellular glucose monitor, or centralized server (not shown). The interface module  232  can also provide wired or wireless access for communication over a private or public data network, such as the Internet. Other types of interface functionality are possible. 
     The analysis module  233  includes estimator  235  and modeler  236  submodules. The estimator submodule  235  determines insulin sensitivity by taking a derivative of the rate of change of blood glucose over time of a population-based insulin activity curve  238  maintained on the storage device  237 . The modeler submodule  236  forms an insulin activity model  249  of the population-based insulin activity curve  239  by determining a filter length  250  and exponential decay  251 . The modeler submodule  236  also forms activity curves  239  for oral anti-diabetes medications, as applicable, and a personal digestive response curve  238  determined, for instance, from a patient-specific carbohydrate sensitivity coefficient or other metric, or through empirical testing with a standardized test meal, such as a specific number of oat wafers, manufactured, for instance, under the CeaProve brand name by Ceapro Inc., Edmonton, Canada, or similar calibrated consumable. The test meal is consumed and the patient&#39;s blood glucose measured after a specified waiting period. A patient-specific insulin sensitivity coefficient is applied to the insulin activity model  249  to form a patient-specific insulin response curve  183  (shown in  FIG. 16 ), and can also be applied to the oral anti-diabetes medication activity curves  239 , if applicable, and the personal digestive response curve  238 . 
     In a further embodiment, population-based digestive response curves  238 , glucose measurement histories  240 , food profiles stored in a food data library  241 , event data  242 , and other forms of external data, are also maintained on the storage device  237 . This information can be used to re-evaluate the insulin sensitivity coefficient and to calibrate the personal insulin activity model  249  over time. Other types of analysis functionality are possible. 
     Finally, the display module  234  generates a graphical user interface  253 , through which the user can interact with the forecaster  231 . The user interface  253  and its functionality arc described above with reference to  FIG. 6 . 
     HbAlc Estimation and Accuracy 
     HbAlc measures the overall effectiveness of blood glucose management with a near term bias over the last two to four weeks preceding testing. However, HbAlc testing is not reliable for patients that are anemic, who recently suffered blood loss or received a blood transfusion, or who suffer from chronic renal or liver disease. HbAlc is formed when glucose irreversibly binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells to form a stable glycated hemoglobin complex. Physicians routinely check the HbAlc percentile of their diabetic patients about every three to six months to gauge their patients&#39; control over their blood glucose. An HbAlc measurement represents the percentile of hemoglobin glycated over the life span of a patient&#39;s red blood cells, which is about 120 days. An HbAlc measurement of under seven percent reflects good patient blood glucose control. 
     HbAlc is a long term and stable metric that is directly proportional to the concentration of glucose in the blood stream or body tissues, particularly interstitially. In contrast to HbAlc, daily blood glucose measurements are short term metrics, which are subject to wide variation. Typically, a patient performs self-testing of blood glucose several times each day. Ideally, a diabetic&#39;s blood glucose is maintained between 70 mg/dL and 120 mg/dL between meals and under 140 mg/dL at two hours postprandial. A patient&#39;s blood glucose profile will therefore vary throughout each day, even when good control over blood glucose is exercised. Unlike blood glucose, HbAlc is a relatively stable physiometric value that is not subject to the fluctuations ordinarily experienced with daily blood glucose levels and the percentile of hemoglobin glycated remains fairly stable when viewed over a short time period. 
     Stability makes HbAlc an effective tool for managing glucose when provided in combination with daily self-testing.  FIG. 22  is a graph  260  showing, by way of example, mean blood glucose profile  261  compared to HbAlc level  262  over a set time period. The x-axis represents time in days. The left-hand y-axis represents mean daily blood glucose level in mg/dL. The right-hand y-axis represents percentile of glycation of hemoglobin. The mean blood glucose profile  261  follows what a diabetic patient with an abrupt change in blood glucose control would experience, such as a Type 2 diabetic who has stopped taking his anti-diabetes medications or insulin. Although mean blood glucose steeply rises over a short time period, HbAlc responds by rising at a much slower rate over a significantly longer time period. Taken alone, the mean blood glucose profile  261  only shows a limited and potentially misleading part of the overall picture. At thirty days, the daily mean blood glucose level is about 150 mg/dL, which, while slightly elevated, is still close to an acceptable level. However, the HbAlc level  262  helps highlight the underlying and much more serious concern of higher hemoglobin glycation, as the percentile at thirty days exceeds eight percent, an uncomfortably and unhealthily high level that warrants prompt medical attention. 
     Graphical User Interface 
     Nevertheless, the relationship between HbAlc and daily glucose measurements, especially blood glucose measurements, may not be apparent to the average patient, particularly as HbAlc is generally only determined through laboratory analysis in connection with infrequent visits to a physician: For example, an illness, which results in abnormally high blood glucose in the week or two preceding an in-laboratory HbAlc assessment, may suggest overall poorer chronic blood glucose control than actually exists. Providing a diabetic with an estimate of their HbAlc on an on-going basis would help temper potential over-reliance on the occasional HbAlc test as the sole determinant of blood glucose control.  FIG. 23  is a diagram showing, by way of example, a screen shot of a graphical user interface  270  for providing an estimate of HbAlc  271  for use in the graphical user interface  80  of  FIG. 6 . The estimate  271  is provided as a percentile of glycated hemoglobin. Additionally, an estimate of the accuracy  272  of the HbAlc estimate  271  is provided to reflect the level of confidence to be ascribed to the estimate provided. “Good” accuracy reflects high confidence in the HbAlc estimate  271 , whereas “Poor” accuracy cautions against complete reliance on the estimate  271 . 
     When used in combination with a personalized diabetes management tool, such as described supra with reference to  FIG. 6 , the HbAlc estimate  271  and accuracy estimate  272  provide a longer-term estimation of personal glucose control than available through daily self-testing alone. Individual blood glucose readings  84  are entered throughout the day and the effects of diet, physical activity, insulin, if applicable, and other factors are reflected in a blood glucose forecast curve  87 . However, the forecast curve  87  is short term and focused over a narrow time window that is affected by variables that can be generally be readily changed with immediate effect on the forecast curve  87 . For instance, the patient could decide to eat less carbohydrate-rich foods to avoid a predicted spike in his blood glucose. In contrast, HbAlc is relatively unaffected by non-trending changes. In particular, day-to-day changes to individual medication, dietary selection, or physical activity may have little affect on HbAlc. Consequently, the HbAlc estimate  271  and accompanying accuracy estimate  272  enable the patient to see how he is tracking in personal glucose management relatively independent of the day-to-day variations in dietary, physical, and medical regimen that influence short term glucose levels. 
     Method 
     HbAlc can be estimated and made available to a patient by analysis of available glucose levels, including blood, interstitial, tissue, cellular and other glucose measures.  FIG. 24  is a process flow diagram a method  280  for providing a personalized tool for estimating glycated hemoglobin in accordance with a further embodiment. The method is performed as a series of process steps or operations and can be provided by the automated diabetes management tool, as described supra, or through a separate utility operating on a personal digital assistant or similar programmable device. 
     The estimates of HbAlc  271  and its ascribed accuracy  272  are both determined by evaluating glucose measurements through time-weighted analysis. HbAlc is estimated (operation  281 ) by applying an exponential decay function to time-averaged glucose measurements over a set time period, as further described below with reference to  FIG. 25 . Accuracy is estimated (operation  282 ) by quantifying the quality of available glucose measurements, as further described below with reference to  FIG. 27 . The resulting estimates of HbAlc  271  and ascribed accuracy  272  serve to inform a patient on how their personal glucose management efforts are progressing, especially during the interim between medical checkups. 
     Estimation of HbAlc 
     Each estimate of HbAlc  271  is based on the value and the timing of daily glucose measurements.  FIG. 25  is a flow diagram showing a routine  290  for estimating HbAlc for use with the method  280  of  FIG. 24 . Clinically, an HbAlc percentile is related to the average blood glucose level taken over the past&#39; one to three months and is heavily weighted to favor the most recent two to four weeks. Each HbAlc estimate  271  is based on glucose measurements from a recent time period, generally over the most recent 90 to 120 days. Actual glucose measurements are obtained for each interval during the time period (block  291 ). The glucose measurements may be electronically stored as data values maintained in a database or memory. 
     The number of actual glucose level measurements available will depend upon the type of testing and the frequency of and consistency by which the patient performs self-testing. For instance, a continuous interstitial, tissue, or cellular glucose monitor may generate and store a new glucose reading once each minute or at any other regular interval. Alternatively, manual blood glucose self-testing using test strips and a blood glucose meter may yield as few as only one glucose measurement per day, or perhaps six readings, if blood glucose is measured between meals and postprandial. An estimate of HbAlc can be formed based just on the glucose measurements actually available. 
     In a further embodiment, additional glucose measurements can be estimated to fill in any gaps in actual glucose measurements. Such gaps can be filled by optionally interpolating estimated blood glucose levels (step  292 ) between adjacent pairs of actual glucose measurements. Preferably, the interpolation is taken at regular intervals, for instance, by the minute, by the hour, by the day, or by the week. The estimated glucose measurements can be determined by linear interpolation, such as a mean or average glucose value, or through exponential interpolation. Other glucose level estimations are possible. 
     In a still further embodiment, the glucose measurements can be weighted to reflect the time of day at which the measurement was either taken or estimated. Blood glucose measurements corresponding to periods of highest physical activity, such as from late morning through early evening, might have less weight assigned to reflect a higher degree of variability, whereas blood glucose measurements during sedentary periods, such as at night or nap time, might have more weight assigned to reflect a lower likelihood of change. Other weighting schemes are possible. 
     Together, the actual and estimated glucose levels, when generated, form a data set that extends over the entire time period. An exponential decay function is then projected over the time period (block  293 ), which can be tailored to a particular patient&#39;s physiology. The sensitivity of HbAlc decays at a rate equivalent to the integral of the most recent 30 days of blood glucose measurements, which can be approximated as fifty percent of the total area under a decay curve. This relationship can be modeled as an exponential decay function f(x) expressed as: 
         f ( x )= e   −λ   (2)
 
     where x is a regular interval within the time period, such as a minute, hour, day, or week, and λ is a decay constant generally occurring between 40 and 60 percent, frequently 50 percent. Other decay functions and rates of decay are possible. 
     Referring to  FIG. 26 , a graph  310  showing, by way of example, an exponential decay function projected over a set time period is provided. The x-axis represents time in order of increasing age in days. The y-axis represents ordinal numbers. The exponential decay function defines a continuous decay curve  311  asymptotically diminishing towards zero. Empirically, HbAlc has been observed to reflect fifty percent of the value of glucose levels measured over the most recent 30 days and particularly over the most recent 2 weeks, which corresponds to 50% of the area  312  under the decay curve  311 , as indicated by shaded lines. A time weighting factor or value for a decay constant  314  can be derived by the intersection  313  of a regular time interval and the decay curve. Referring back to  FIG. 25 , each glucose measurement is evaluated iteratively (blocks  294 - 296 ) to multiply the glucose measurement at each point throughout the set time period by a corresponding decay constant selected through the exponential decay function (block  295 ). Thereafter, all actual glucose measurements and estimated glucose measurements, when available, as adjusted by their decay constants, are added (block  297 ) and the sum of the glucose measurements are scaled by a coefficient (block  298 ) to yield an HbAlc estimate  271  (block  299 ). The sum of the decayed glucose measurements are scaled by a constant coefficient, such as 5/100 for blood glucose, which empirically yields a scale factor appropriate to reflect HbAlc. Other scaling coefficients may apply for interstitial, tissue, or cellular glucose or other measures. 
     Ascription of Accuracy 
     As the value of HbAlc provided is only an estimate, an estimate of its accuracy  272  is also provided to indicate the level of confidence that a patient should ascribe to the estimate.  FIG. 27  is a flow diagram showing a routine  320  for estimating accuracy for use with the method  280  of  FIG. 24 . The ascription of accuracy reflects that a higher number of glucose measurements more recently obtained leads to better estimation accuracy. 
     The accuracy is determined by summing only the actual time weighting factors at the time of the glucose measurements. The time weighting factors are obtained for each glucose sample data point during the time period (block  321 ). Each time weighting factor is evaluated iteratively (blocks  322 - 324 ) by adding the factor to a running total of all the time weighting factors (block  323 ). Thereafter, the running total is scaled (block  325 ) to yield an estimate of the accuracy  272  of the corresponding HbAlc estimate  271  (block  326 ). The accuracy estimate can then be displayed along a gradient that indicates the relative goodness of the HbAlc estimate. 
     Scaling can be provided by determining the percentage of intervals in the time period that have actual glucose measurements available and setting the estimate of the accuracy  272  to a value relative to the percentage determined. With a 30-day time period with one-minute intervals, even a diabetic patient that performs self-testing consistently before every meal and two hours after each meal will only have a sparsely populated set of actual glucose measurements, so the scaling needs to adjust the estimate of accuracy  272  based on the reality of real world self-testing where, for example, six readings of glucose in a day is considered “good.” Other forms of scaling or normalization are possible. 
     System 
     Estimates of HbAlc can be provided on the same system used for automated diabetes management.  FIG. 28  is a block diagram showing for a system  330  for providing a personalized tool for estimating glycated hemoglobin, in accordance with a further embodiment. The system includes a patient-operable device able to accommodate user inputs, provide a display capability, and include local storage and external interfacing means, as described above with reference to  FIG. 21 . 
     In one embodiment, the system  330  is implemented as a forecaster and prediction application  331  that includes the interface  232 , analysis  233  and display  234  modules, and storage device  237 , as described supra, with additional functionality as follows. In addition to the estimator  235  and modeler  236  submodules, the analysis module  233  includes prediction  332  and estimation  333  submodules, which respectively generate an HbAlc prediction  336  that includes an estimate of HbAlc  337  and an estimate of the accuracy  338  of the HbAlc estimate  337 . The prediction module  332  estimates glucose measurements to fill in gaps in the glucose measurement histories  240 , and generates the HbAlc estimate  337  by applying a decay function  334  and scaling coefficient  335  to the actual and estimated glucose measurements. The estimation module  333  takes a summation of the actual glucose measurements and ascribes a relative degree of accuracy to the estimate by normalizing the summation. Other types of analysis functionality are possible. 
     “Tweaking” of HbAlc and Other Coefficients 
     In a further embodiment, the insulin sensitivity coefficient is accessible for incremental fine-tuning, for instance, to adjust for nominal departures occurring in the “gray zone” of only slight changes in insulin sensitivity from an earlier provided insulin sensitivity. The nature of this category of de minimis change allows the user to manually adjust the ordinarily-non-accessible insulin sensitivity coefficient by a small amount that enables a better matching of measured physiometry to predicted physiology-related trajectories, such as provided through the blood glucose forecast curve, insulin response curve, cumulative digestive response curve, oral anti-diabetes medication activity curve, and insulin activity curve. 
     In particular, tweaking the insulin sensitivity coefficient enables calibration of predicted HbAlc to match measured HbAlc, which is a backwards-looking yet recency-favoring measure of average blood glucose. For insulin activity, the two modeling coefficients used for insulin sensitivity, time to peak activity or filter length  250  and overall duration or decay of activity  251 , are manually adjusted, then applied to a population-based insulin activity curve  239 . Similarly, for HbAlc, the scaling coefficient  335  or exponential decay function can be manually adjusted, then applied to one or both of the actual and estimated glucose levels to correct the predicted HbAlc model against measured HbAlc. 
     1,5-Ag Estimation 
     Both HbAlc and fructosamine are long term indicators that are useful for gauging overall patient glycemic control. However, day-to-day changes in blood glucose are not fully reflected by either assay due to the longer time frame over which their respective physiologies are measured. 1,5-Ag assay, which has a shorter two-week following period, can operate as an adjunct to HbAlc and fructosamine testing by helping to identify near term and postprandial glycemic variability that would otherwise be missed by HbAlc or fructosamine assay alone. 
     1,5-Ag is a monosaccharide found in serum or plasma with a chemical structure similar to glucose. 1,5-Ag is ingested with food. About 5 to 10 mg of 1,5-Ag is ingested each day and the same amount is excreted daily through urine. For a diabetic patient, a stable pool of between 100 to 1,000 mg of 1,5-Ag is maintained in the body in the absence of hyperglycemia. However, this body pool is depleted at a stable rate whenever the renal threshold is exceeded. The 1,5-Ag body pool will continue to be depleted as long as a hyperglycemic condition persists, until about two weeks, after which the body pool becomes fully exhausted. Complete repletion of 1,5-Ag requires about two to four weeks, so long as hyperglycemia does not recur. 
     Hyperglycemia occurs when the blood glucose level rises higher than 180 mg/dL, whereas well-controlled blood glucose is around 126 mg/dL. In a diabetic, temporary hyperglycemia can occur postprandially, for instance, due to an insufficient or improperly timed dosing of fast-acting insulin to counteract the natural rise in blood glucose that follows a meal. Hyperglycemia triggers glucoseria, which is the excretion of glucose through urine. 1,5-Ag is competitive with blood glucose for depletion in the kidneys. During glucoseria, high levels of glucose can block reabsorption of 1,5-Ag in the kidney&#39;s proximal tubules that in turn causes increased urinary excretion and resultantly diminished levels of 1,5-Ag. 
     During hyperglycemia, plasma 1,5-Ag levels decrease at a rate that is inversely proportional to the degree of hyperglycemia suffered. Thus, the level of blood glucose above the renal threshold is a function of the depletion of 1,5-Ag and the level of 1,5-Ag remaining in a patient&#39;s body can provide an indication of excessive glycemic variability. The depleted amount d(x) of 1,5-Ag can be expressed as: 
         d ( x )=(BG−RT)× c   d    (3)
 
     where BG represents the current blood glucose level; RT represents the renal threshold; and c d  is a coefficient representing the rate of depletion. The blood glucose level BG can be input based on a reading of a blood sample from a blood glucose meter, or estimated, such as provided in the patient&#39;s glucose forecast curve  87  (shown in  FIG. 6 ). Depending on the patient, the renal threshold RT can vary between 170 and 210 mg/dL, but is typically 180 mg/dL. Finally, the rate of depletion coefficient c is a patient-dependent factor determined as a function of the frequency of depletion amount calculation. In one embodiment, the depleted amount d(x) is calculated by the minute. For an average patient, 1,5-Ag depletes at the rate of 5 to 10 mg per day. Accordingly, the rate of depletion coefficient c d  would be between 0.003472 and 0.00694 mg/minute. Other values and coefficients are possible. 
     Repletion of 1,5-Ag occurs in the absence of glucoseria. Complete 1,5-Ag repletion requires up to four weeks, provided no further episodes of hyperglycemia occur. The rate of repletion is fairly constant, but depends in part on the type of food consumed. For example, foods that are rich in soy contain more 1,5-Ag than non-soy foods, which results in faster 1,5-Ag repletion. The repleted amount r(x) of 1,5-Ag can be expressed as: 
         r ( x )= A×c   r    (4)
 
     where A represents the amount of 1,5-Ag present in the food consumed and c d  is a coefficient representing the rate of repletion. The amount A of 1,5-Ag is expressed in micrograms (μg), while the rate of repletion c d  is a value selected, such that 0.3≦c d ≦25 μg/ml/day. Other values and coefficients are possible. 
     Estimates of 1,5-Ag depletion and repletion can be determined on a daily, hourly, or by the minute basis. The depletion and repletion estimates can then be temporally matched, aggregated, and visually depicted to provide an indication of overall short-term glycemic control. Both depletion and repletion of 1,5-Ag are determined simultaneously. Periods of hyperglycemia will cancel out any gains in repleting 1,5-Ag.  FIG. 29  is a graph  350  showing, by way of example, daily 1,5-Ag depletion and repletion over a set time period. The x-axis represents relative 1,5-Ag level in mg. The y-axis represents days prior to the end of the recording period. As depicted, the 1,5-Ag level is calculated on a per minute basis and is estimated for five renal thresholds. The history of 1,5-Ag levels indicate poor glycemic control for renal thresholds below 200 mg/dL beginning from the 90 th  day to around the 50 th  day, when positive glycemic control is resumed and 1,5-Ag levels began to replete. The apparently regularly recurring depletion of 1,5-Ag could have been caused, for instance, by insufficient dosing of fast acting insulin to counteract postprandial rise in blood glucose. The need to control postprandial blood glucose on a more granular level of care through increased fast insulin dosing would not be apparent from HblAc or fructosamine levels alone, as the glycemic trending information provided by those assays is too coarse to allow such patient-initiated fine-tuning. 
     Serum Testing Based on Historical Blood Glucose Data 
     Clinical measurements of HbAlc, fructosamine, 1,5-Ag assay, and other serum-based indicators reflect glycemic control as typically determined from a single blood sample drawn at the clinic. As the actual earlier levels of blood glucose are unknown, these indicators are calculated by grossly estimating prior blood glucose levels, often by using an average blood glucose level that is applied backwards over time window characterized by the test. However, for each of these indicators, when a particular blood glucose level was experienced is as equally important as what level of blood glucose occurred and an arithmetic mean or other estimate of blood glucose level cannot capture the temporal significance of actual blood glucose level changes. For instance, 1,5-Ag levels deplete during periods of elevated blood glucose as a function of both the magnitude of blood glucose rise over the renal threshold and of the duration of the blood glucose elevation. 1,5-Ag levels replete in the absence of blood glucose elevation. As a result, elevations of blood glucose that have occurred recently will more strongly influence a 1,5-Ag estimation than less recent blood glucose elevations of the same magnitude and duration because 1,5-Ag repletion would have occurred to some degree between the two periods of elevated blood glucose, thereby buffering the affect of the earlier blood glucose elevation. 
     The glucose measurement histories  240  (shown in  FIG. 21 ) contain actual measured levels of blood glucose that have been recorded by the patient and tracked by the system  230  over time. This historical blood glucose data can be used in determining serum-based indicators, specifically HbAlc, fructosamine, and 1,5-Ag assay, in place of estimates of blood glucose. For example, 1,5-Ag levels can be calculated as a series of refined estimates that temporally progress through successive measurements of blood glucose level. Starting with a blood glucose measurement recorded at time t 0 , an initial 1,5-Ag estimate is determined. A second 1,5-Ag estimate is determined at time t 1 , which marks the time that the next blood glucose measurement was recorded. The second 1,5-Ag estimate is adjusted for either 1,5-Ag depletion or repletion, depending upon whether the blood glucose level was elevated above the renal threshold or below. Successive 1,5-Ag estimates are sequentially determined to provide a final 1,5-Ag estimate at time t n , which is the last recorded historical blood glucose level. 
     As the 1,5-Ag estimate is continually refined based on each historical blood glucose measurement, the final 1,5-Ag estimate captures the time variant affect of changes to blood glucose level. A similar methodology of temporally applying historical blood glucose data can be applied in estimating HbAlc, fructosamine, and other serum-based indicators. In a further embodiment, filler glucose measurements can be estimated to bridge any gaps in actual glucose measurements, such as by interpolating estimated blood glucose levels between adjacent pairs of actual glucose measurements, as described above with reference to  FIG. 25 . Other uses of historical blood glucose data relating to glycemic control are also possible. 
     While the invention has been particularly shown and described as referenced to the embodiments thereof, those skilled in the art will understand that the foregoing and other changes in form and detail may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope.