Patent Publication Number: US-9888035-B2

Title: Systems and methods for detecting man-in-the-middle attacks

Description:
BACKGROUND 
     Individuals and organizations typically seek to protect their computing resources and computer networks from attacks by authenticating users during login sequences. For example, enterprise organizations may instruct employees to perform first factor authentication (e.g., password confirmation) upon attempts to log into enterprise computers. More sophisticated systems may use two-factor authentication, which bases authentication of the user on a combination of two different things. These two different things may be selected from something that the user knows, something that the user possesses, and something that is inseparable from the user. 
     Despite the use of traditional authentication procedures to protect computing resources, attackers are still succeeding in attacking and/or compromising some of these procedures. For example, attackers may perform a man-in-the-middle attack in which the attackers situate themselves between the user and the secure computing resources. The attackers then spoof the identity of the user by modifying network traffic between the user and the secure computing resources. In some examples, attackers have succeeded in performing man-in-the-middle attacks that overcome two-factor authentication procedures. Accordingly, the instant disclosure identifies and addresses a need for additional and improved systems and methods for detecting man-in-the-middle attacks. 
     SUMMARY 
     As will be described in greater detail below, the instant disclosure generally relates to systems and methods for detecting man-in-the-middle attacks by, for example, comparing the geolocation indicated by an authentication request and the geolocation indicated by a mobile device and checking whether they satisfy a proximity threshold, as discussed further below. In one example, a computer-implemented method for detecting man-in-the-middle attacks may include (1) registering a mobile device of a user within a computing environment as an authenticated mobile device that corresponds to the user, (2) receiving an authentication request to log into a secure computing resource as the user, (3) transmitting, in response to receiving the authentication request, an out-of-band push authentication prompt to the registered mobile device of the user through a different channel than a channel through which the authentication request was received, (4) comparing a geolocation indicated by the authentication request with a geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device in response to the out-of-band push authentication prompt, and (5) performing remedial action in response to detecting a man-in-the-middle attack based on a determination that the geolocation indicated by the authentication request and the geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device do not match. 
     In some examples, registering the mobile device may include installing a mobile security application on the mobile device and signing a message from the mobile device to a registration server using a private key embedded within the mobile security application. In one embodiment, transmitting, in response to receiving the authentication request, the out-of-band push authentication prompt to the registered mobile device may include transmitting a request for the user to approve of the authentication request. 
     In one embodiment, transmitting, in response to receiving the authentication request, the out-of-band push authentication prompt to the registered mobile device may include transmitting a verification code for the user to enter through the channel through which the authentication request was received. In another embodiment, the geolocation indicated by the authentication request is ascertained through a service that provides access to a database that maps Internet protocol addresses to geolocation information. 
     In one embodiment, the service provides a record that specifies (1) an address, (2) longitude and latitude coordinates, and/or (3) an organization. In one embodiment, the geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device is ascertained through accessing an application programming interface of the registered mobile device that provides the geolocation through a global positioning system and/or accessing a cell id associated with the registered mobile device. 
     In some examples, detecting the man-in-the-middle attack may include identifying information indicating a potential false positive in detecting the man-in-the-middle attack and determining that the man-in-the-middle attack is detected despite the indication of the potential false positive. 
     In some examples, determining that the man-in-the-middle attack is detected despite the indication of the potential false positive may include identifying a lack of confirmation information that would confirm the potential false positive. The confirmation information may include (1) satisfaction of a challenge prompt at the registered mobile device in response to identifying the information indicating a potential false positive, (2) user history information confirming that the user is trusted, (3) information about other users that share attributes with the user, (4) information indicating that an Internet protocol address does not hop, and/or (5) information confirming that the user requests to access the secure computing resource through at least one of a proxy and a network address translation mechanism. 
     In some examples, detecting the man-in-the-middle attack may include receiving an indication that the authentication request is transmitted from the registered mobile device. Moreover, detecting the man-in-the-middle attack may also include detecting that an Internet protocol address of the authentication request and an Internet protocol address indicated by the registered mobile device are not an exact match. 
     In one embodiment, a system for implementing the above-described method may include (1) a registration module, stored in memory, that registers a mobile device of a user within a computing environment as an authenticated mobile device that corresponds to the user, (2) a reception module, stored in memory, that receives an authentication request to log into a secure computing resource as the user, (3) a transmission module, stored in memory, that transmits, in response to receiving the authentication request, an out-of-band push authentication prompt to the registered mobile device of the user through a different channel than a channel through which the authentication request was received, (4) a comparison module, stored in memory, that compares a geolocation indicated by the authentication request with a geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device in response to the out-of-band push authentication prompt, (5) a performance module, stored in memory, that performs remedial action in response to detecting a man-in-the-middle attack based on a determination that the geolocation indicated by the authentication request and the geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device do not match, and (6) at least one physical processor configured to execute the registration module, the reception module, the transmission module, the comparison module, and the performance module. 
     In some examples, the above-described method may be encoded as computer-readable instructions on a non-transitory computer-readable medium. For example, a computer-readable medium may include one or more computer-executable instructions that, when executed by at least one processor of a computing device, may cause the computing device to (1) register a mobile device of a user within a computing environment as an authenticated mobile device that corresponds to the user, (2) receive an authentication request to log into a secure computing resource as the user, (3) transmit, in response to receiving the authentication request, an out-of-band push authentication prompt to the registered mobile device of the user through a different channel than a channel through which the authentication request was received, (4) compare a geolocation indicated by the authentication request with a geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device in response to the out-of-band push authentication prompt, and (5) perform remedial action in response to detecting a man-in-the-middle attack based on a determination that the geolocation indicated by the authentication request and the geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device do not match. 
     Features from any of the above-mentioned embodiments may be used in combination with one another in accordance with the general principles described herein. These and other embodiments, features, and advantages will be more fully understood upon reading the following detailed description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings and claims. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The accompanying drawings illustrate a number of exemplary embodiments and are a part of the specification. Together with the following description, these drawings demonstrate and explain various principles of the instant disclosure. 
         FIG. 1  is a block diagram of an exemplary system for detecting man-in-the-middle attacks. 
         FIG. 2  is a block diagram of an additional exemplary system for detecting man-in-the-middle attacks. 
         FIG. 3  is a flow diagram of an exemplary method for detecting man-in-the-middle attacks. 
         FIG. 4  is a block diagram of an exemplary mobile device. 
         FIG. 5  is a block diagram of an exemplary workflow illustrating systems for detecting man-in-the-middle attacks. 
         FIG. 6  is a block diagram of an exemplary computing system capable of implementing one or more of the embodiments described and/or illustrated herein. 
         FIG. 7  is a block diagram of an exemplary computing network capable of implementing one or more of the embodiments described and/or illustrated herein. 
     
    
    
     Throughout the drawings, identical reference characters and descriptions indicate similar, but not necessarily identical, elements. While the exemplary embodiments described herein are susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments have been shown by way of example in the drawings and will be described in detail herein. However, the exemplary embodiments described herein are not intended to be limited to the particular forms disclosed. Rather, the instant disclosure covers all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the scope of the appended claims. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS 
     The present disclosure is generally directed to systems and methods for detecting man-in-the-middle attacks. As will be explained in greater detail below, the systems and methods described herein may enable enterprises and other organizations to protect computing resources from sophisticated man-in-the-middle attacks that would otherwise overcome certain forms of two-factor authentication, as discussed further below. The systems and methods described herein may also enable network administrators and/or their computing resources to take remedial action to protect users in response to detecting man-in-the-middle attacks. 
     The following will provide, with reference to  FIGS. 1-2 , detailed descriptions of exemplary systems for detecting man-in-the-middle attacks. Detailed descriptions of corresponding computer-implemented methods will also be provided in connection with  FIGS. 3-5 . In addition, detailed descriptions of an exemplary computing system and network architecture capable of implementing one or more of the embodiments described herein will be provided in connection with  FIGS. 6 and 7 , respectively. 
       FIG. 1  is a block diagram of exemplary system  100  for detecting man-in-the-middle attacks. As illustrated in this figure, exemplary system  100  may include one or more modules  102  for performing one or more tasks. For example, and as will be explained in greater detail below, exemplary system  100  may also include a registration module  104  that may register a mobile device of a user within a computing environment as an authenticated mobile device that corresponds to the user. Exemplary system  100  may additionally include a reception module  106  that may receive an authentication request to log into a secure computing resource as the user. Exemplary system  100  may also include a transmission module  108  that may transmit, in response to receiving the authentication request, an out-of-band push authentication prompt to the registered mobile device of the user through a different channel than a channel through which the authentication request was received. Exemplary system  100  may additionally include a comparison module  110  that may compare a geolocation indicated by the authentication request with a geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device in response to the out-of-band push authentication prompt. Exemplary system  100  may also include a performance module  112  that may perform remedial action in response to detecting a man-in-the-middle attack based on a determination that the geolocation indicated by the authentication request and the geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device do not match. Although illustrated as separate elements, one or more of modules  102  in  FIG. 1  may represent portions of a single module or application. 
     In certain embodiments, one or more of modules  102  in  FIG. 1  may represent one or more software applications or programs that, when executed by a computing device, may cause the computing device to perform one or more tasks. For example, and as will be described in greater detail below, one or more of modules  102  may represent software modules stored and configured to run on one or more computing devices, such as the devices illustrated in  FIG. 2  (e.g., computing device  202  and/or server  206 ), computing system  610  in  FIG. 6 , and/or portions of exemplary network architecture  700  in  FIG. 7 . One or more of modules  102  in  FIG. 1  may also represent all or portions of one or more special-purpose computers configured to perform one or more tasks. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 1 , exemplary system  100  may also include one or more databases, such as database  120 . In one example, database  120  may be configured to store geolocation information  122 , which may indicate the geolocation of an authentication request and/or a registered mobile device, as discussed further below. Database  120  may also include device registrations  124 , which may specify or identify mobile devices registered with system  100 . The systems and methods described herein may protect users from man-in-the-middle attacks at least in part by trusting that an out-of-band channel associated with the registered mobile device is secure. The systems and methods described herein may then compare the geolocation of the registered mobile device with the geolocation of an authentication request, as discussed further below. 
     Database  120  may represent portions of a single database or computing device or a plurality of databases or computing devices. For example, database  120  may represent a portion of server  206  in  FIG. 2 , computing system  610  in  FIG. 6 , and/or portions of exemplary network architecture  700  in  FIG. 7 . Alternatively, database  120  in  FIG. 1  may represent one or more physically separate devices capable of being accessed by a computing device, such as server  206  in  FIG. 2 , computing system  610  in  FIG. 6 , and/or portions of exemplary network architecture  700  in  FIG. 7 . 
     Exemplary system  100  in  FIG. 1  may be implemented in a variety of ways. For example, all or a portion of exemplary system  100  may represent portions of exemplary system  200  in  FIG. 2 . As shown in  FIG. 2 , system  200  may include a computing device  202  in communication with a server  206  via a network  204 . In one example, computing device  202  may be programmed with one or more of modules  102  and/or may store all or a portion of the data in database  120 . Additionally or alternatively, server  206  may be programmed with one or more of modules  102  and/or may store all or a portion of the data in database  120 . 
     In one embodiment, one or more of modules  102  from  FIG. 1  may, when executed by at least one processor of computing device  202  and/or server  206 , enable computing device  202  and/or server  206  to detect man-in-the-middle attacks (e.g., where the attacker has obtained the fingerprint of the computing device used for authentication requests and spoofs the registered user). For example, and as will be described in greater detail below, registration module  104  may register a mobile device (e.g., computing device  202 ) of a user within a computing environment as an authenticated mobile device that corresponds to the user. Reception module  106  may receive an authentication request  210  to log into a secure computing resource as the user. Transmission module  108  may transmit, in response to receiving authentication request  210 , an out-of-band push authentication prompt  212  to the registered mobile device of the user through a different channel than a channel through which authentication request  210  was received. Comparison module  110  may compare a geolocation  220  indicated by authentication request  210  with a geolocation  222  indicated by the registered mobile device in response to out-of-band push authentication prompt  212 . Performance module  112  may perform remedial action in response to detecting a man-in-the-middle attack based on a determination that geolocation  220  indicated by authentication request  210  and geolocation  222  indicated by the registered mobile device do not match. 
     Computing device  202  generally represents any type or form of computing device capable of reading computer-executable instructions. Examples of computing device  202  include, without limitation, laptops, tablets, desktops, servers, cellular phones, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), multimedia players, embedded systems, wearable devices (e.g., smart watches, smart glasses, etc.), gaming consoles, combinations of one or more of the same, exemplary computing system  610  in  FIG. 6 , or any other suitable computing device. 
     Server  206  generally represents any type or form of computing device that is capable of facilitating the detection of man-in-the-middle attacks according to method  300  described further below. Examples of server  206  include, without limitation, application servers and database servers configured to provide various database services and/or run certain software applications. 
     Network  204  generally represents any medium or architecture capable of facilitating communication or data transfer. Examples of network  204  include, without limitation, an intranet, a Wide Area Network (WAN), a Local Area Network (LAN), a Personal Area Network (PAN), the Internet, Power Line Communications (PLC), a cellular network (e.g., a Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) network), exemplary network architecture  700  in  FIG. 7 , or the like. Network  204  may facilitate communication or data transfer using wireless or wired connections. In one embodiment, network  204  may facilitate communication between computing device  202  and server  206 . 
       FIG. 3  is a flow diagram of an exemplary computer-implemented method  300  for detecting man-in-the-middle attacks. The steps shown in  FIG. 3  may be performed by any suitable computer-executable code and/or computing system. In some embodiments, the steps shown in  FIG. 3  may be performed by one or more of the components of system  100  in  FIG. 1 , system  200  in  FIG. 2 , computing system  610  in  FIG. 6 , and/or portions of exemplary network architecture  700  in  FIG. 7 . 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 3 , at step  302 , one or more of the systems described herein may register a mobile device of a user within a computing environment as an authenticated mobile device that corresponds to the user. For example, registration module  104  may, as part of server  206  in  FIG. 2 , register a mobile device of a user (e.g., computing device  202 ) within a computing environment as an authenticated mobile device that corresponds to the user. 
     As used herein, the phrase “register” generally refers to the process of authenticating a mobile device as belonging to a protected user and recording the authentication for future reference when the user attempts to access secure computing resources using the mobile device. Similarly, the phrase “mobile device that corresponds to the user” generally refers to tying or linking the mobile device to the user in the registration process such that system  100  may authorize the user to access computing resources through the specified mobile device. 
     Registration module  104  may register the mobile device in a variety of ways. In some examples, registration module  104  may install a mobile security application on the mobile device. Moreover, registration module  104  may also sign a message from the mobile device to a registration server using a private key embedded within the mobile security application. The user and the mobile device may thereby authenticate themselves in the registration process using a public key infrastructure such as SSL and/or TLS. During the registration process the user may also provide information to a backend security server, such as server  206 , that the enterprise or proprietor of the secure computing resource personally provided to the user. 
     At step  304 , one or more of the systems described herein may receive an authentication request to log into a secure computing resource as the user. For example, reception module  106  may, as part of server  206  in  FIG. 2 , receive authentication request  210  to log into a secure computing resource as the user. 
     As used herein, the term “authentication request” generally refers to any network message from the user that requests for the system to authenticate the user to thereby enable the user to access the secure computing resource. Moreover, as used herein, the term “secure computing resource” generally refers to any computing resource that a security system may protect from unauthorized access, such as by initiating authentication procedures upon requests to access the resource. Examples of secure computing resources may include physical hardware, software, network nodes, and/or protected, private and/or proprietary data. 
     Reception module  106  may receive the authentication request in a variety of ways. In general, reception module  106  may receive a network message indicating that the author of the message alleges to be the user and requests to access the secure computing resource. Reception module  106  may receive the network message through the web, the Internet, and/or another network, such as network  204 . 
     At step  306 , one or more of the systems described herein may transmit, in response to receiving the authentication request, an out-of-band push authentication prompt to the registered mobile device of the user through a different channel than a channel through which the authentication request was received. For example, transmission module  108  may, as part of server  206  in  FIG. 2 , transmit, in response to receiving authentication request  210 , out-of-band push authentication prompt  212  to the registered mobile device of the user through a different channel than a channel through which authentication request  210  was received. 
     As used herein, the term “out-of-band push authentication prompt” generally refers to a prompt initiated by a server toward a client that requests for the user to approve the authentication request. Specifically, the authentication prompt corresponds to a “push authentication prompt” in the sense that the server initiates the prompt upon receiving the authentication request rather than transmitting the prompt in response to communication from the registered mobile device. Furthermore, the authentication prompt is out-of-band in the sense that the authentication prompt is transmitted through a different channel (e.g., in terms of encryption protocols, network protocols, network path, and/or differing endpoints) than the channel through which the authentication request is received. As used herein, the term “channel” generally refers to a network path and/or configuration, as discussed above. The systems described herein may use two different channels for the authentication procedure to thereby increase redundancy and decrease the probability of an attacker successfully compromising the secure computing resource (e.g., because it is more difficult to compromise two different channels than just compromising one channel). In some examples, the server may transmit the entirety of the content of the prompt. In other examples, the server may simply transmit the prompt in the form of a bit or code message triggering the mobile device to display appropriate content to the user. 
     Transmission module  108  may transmit authentication prompt  212  in a variety of ways. In some examples, transmission module  108  may transmit, in response to receiving the authentication request, the out-of-band push authentication prompt to the registered mobile device by transmitting a request for the user to approve of the authentication request.  FIG. 4  illustrates a mobile device  400 , such as a smart phone, which includes a button  404  and a display screen  402 . Within display screen  402 , mobile device  400  may display a notification  406 , which may correspond to authentication prompt  212 . As further shown in  FIG. 4  the user at mobile device  400  may respond to notification  406  by selecting either “yes” or “no” such as by selecting the appropriate button on display screen  402  as a touchscreen. Notably, in some examples, transmission module  108  may only transmit the authentication prompt in response to determining that authentication request  210  originates from an unknown computing device or otherwise results in detecting an anomaly. 
     In the example of  FIG. 4 , notification  406  simply requests for the user to indicate whether the user approves of the authentication request, such as by selecting either “yes” or “no,” as discussed above. Alternatively, transmission module  108  may transmit, in response to receiving the authentication request, the out-of-band push authentication prompt to the registered mobile device by transmitting a verification code for the user to enter through the channel through which the authentication request was received. In other words, notification  406  may specify a message or code (e.g., “3243”) for the user to enter through the other channel to verify that the user at the other channel also has access to the registered mobile device and its trusted channel. 
       FIG. 5  further illustrates a workflow involving the systems and methods described herein. As shown in  FIG. 5 , a channel  520  may not necessarily be trusted, because the endpoint has not completed a registration process, in contrast to the registered mobile device, as discussed above. Rather, channel  520  may correspond to any client device on the network, such as the Internet, attempting to access the secure computing resource. As further shown in  FIG. 5 , channel  520  may include a man-in-the-middle attack site  502 , which may be interposed between server  206  and a computing device  510  that transmits the authentication request. 
     In contrast,  FIG. 5  also illustrates a channel  522  (e.g., trusted channel) that includes mobile device  400  as well as a push platform  508 . Push platform  508  may push authentication prompt  212  to mobile device  400 , as further discussed above. By receiving approval of the authentication request from mobile device  400  in response to push platform  508  pushing authentication prompt  212 , server  206  may thereby authenticate the user and allow access to the secure computing resource. Nevertheless, if server  206  detects a mismatch between the geolocation for computing device  510  and/or site  502 , on the one hand, and mobile device  400 , on the other hand, then server  206  (or computing device  510  and/or mobile device  400 ) may take remedial action, as discussed further below. 
     At step  308 , one or more of the systems described herein may compare a geolocation indicated by the authentication request with a geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device in response to the out-of-band push authentication prompt. For example, comparison module  110  may, as part of server  206  in  FIG. 2 , compare a geolocation indicated by authentication request  210  with a geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device in response to out-of-band push authentication prompt  212 . 
     As used herein, the term “geolocation” generally refers to any data specifying or describing a physical location in the world. Examples of geolocations include addresses, street names, street numbers, city names, town names, county names, country names, longitude and/or latitude coordinates, elevation levels, and/or any other appropriate or suitable items of information that indicate or tend to indicate the physical location of an object within the world. Moreover, the phrase “in response to the out-of-band push authentication prompt” in step  308  generally refers to the mobile device indicating, transmitting, and/or providing the geolocation (e.g., using GPS or cell id) in response to receiving the out-of-band push authentication prompt.” In other examples, the mobile device may simply provide the geolocation at a time subsequent to receiving the authentication prompt without submitting the geolocation in response to the authentication prompt. Moreover, in some examples, the mobile security application may obtain the geolocation in response to receiving the authentication prompt, such as by accessing an application programming interface of the mobile device that provides access to global positioning system and/or cell ID information. 
     Comparison module  110  may compare the geolocations in a variety of ways. In general, comparison module  110  may use any suitable proximity metric or method for measuring proximity between different items or types of geolocation information to perform the comparison. In some examples, the two geolocations may have different initial formats. Accordingly, comparison module  110  may map one or both of the two geolocations to a common format. Comparison module  110  may then measure or categorize the distance between the two geolocations according to the common format. 
     In one embodiment, the geolocation indicated by the authentication request is ascertained through a service that provides access to a database that maps Internet protocol addresses to geolocation information. For example, a web-enabled service may automatically transmit geolocation information in response to requests for submissions that specify Internet protocol addresses. For example, the service may provide a record that specifies at least one of: (1) an address, (2) longitude and latitude coordinates, and/or (3) an organization. More specifically, a service such as IP GEOLOC IP ADDRESS GEOLOCATION ONLINE SERVICE may provide records that specify, for requested Internet protocol addresses, the corresponding continent, country code, country name, region (state, county, province, region, territory, district, etc.), city, postal/zip code, metro code, area code, latitude, longitude, Internet service provider (ISP) and/or organization. Notably, the geolocation indicated by the mobile device may be ascertained in the same manner using Internet protocol addresses, as discussed above. 
     In further examples, the geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device may be ascertained through (1) accessing an application programming interface of the registered mobile device that provides the geolocation through a global positioning system and/or (2) accessing a cell id associated with the registered mobile device. The cell id may indicate a generally unique number used to identify a cell tower location and/or a base transceiver station (BTS) or sector of a BTS within a location area code if not within a GSM network. The registered mobile device may provide the geolocation in response to the authentication prompt  212  (in alternative embodiments, the registered mobile device may provide the geolocation information at other times, such as scheduled times, according to a fixed interval, and/or preemptively). Moreover, the registered mobile device may provide the geolocation in a manner that is transparent to the user at mobile device  400 , the user at computing device  510 , and/or the attacker at site  502 . 
     At step  310 , one or more of the systems described herein may perform remedial action in response to detecting a man-in-the-middle attack based on a determination that the geolocation indicated by the authentication request and the geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device do not match. For example, performance module  112  may, as part of server  206  in  FIG. 2 , perform remedial action in response to detecting a man-in-the-middle attack based on a determination that the geolocation indicated by authentication request  210  and the geolocation indicated by the registered mobile device do not match. 
     As used herein, the term “remedial action” generally refers to any action that an administrator, user, and/or computing resource may take to protect a user from a detected man-in-the-middle attack. Examples of remedial actions include blocking or denying the authentication request, blocking or denying access to the secure computing resource, flagging the geolocation or Internet protocol address of the authentication request, notifying authorities, taking retaliatory action, increasing a level of security measures, and/or notifying administrators or users. Moreover, the phrase “do not match” generally refers to a negative result of the comparison performed at step  308 , as discussed above. In other words, comparison module  110  may compare the two geolocations using any suitable proximity metric to obtain a measure of proximity and then compare the measure of proximity with a proximity threshold that distinguishes between matching and nonmatching geolocations. 
     In some examples, performance module  112  may detect the man-in-the-middle attack at least in part by identifying information indicating a potential false positive (i.e., a false indication of attack or false alarm). For example, performance module  112  may detect that a large number of authentication requests (e.g., beyond a threshold) originate from a single Internet protocol address or geolocation or a small set of such locations (e.g., below a threshold). This situation is consistent with both (1) a man-in-the-middle attack (because the attacker may be intercepting authentication requests from a large number of different users and/or intercepting authentication requests from the same user at different devices or locations) and (2) one or more users accessing the network through a proxy and/or network address translation mechanism, which may translate a number of different original addresses to a single address or smaller set of addresses. Accordingly, performance module  112  may check for further information that may distinguish between these two situations. 
     For example, performance module  112  may check for one or more of the following items of information: (1) satisfaction of a challenge prompt at the registered mobile device in response to identifying the information indicating a potential false positive, (2) user history information confirming that the user and/or Internet protocol address or geolocation is trusted, (3) information about other users that share attributes with the user (i.e., similar users, such as users in proximity to each other, are likely to be similarly trusted or distrusted), (4) information indicating that an Internet protocol address does not hop (the hop may indicate that the attacker is using an incognito technique such as TOR), and/or (5) information confirming that the user requests to access the secure computing resource through at least one of a proxy and a network address translation mechanism. In general, performance module  112  may increase or decrease a security score and/or man-in-the-middle estimation score based on one or more of these factors according to any weighted or unweighted average, function, and/or business logic. Moreover, in some examples, performance module  112  may only consult one or more of these items of information upon detecting earlier information indicating a potential false positive, as discussed above (e.g., detecting a large number of requests from a smaller number of locations may trigger a process for distinguishing false positives from true positives). 
     In other examples, performance module  112  may receive an indication that the authentication request is transmitted from the registered mobile device. For example, performance module  112  may extract the indication from metadata embedded within the authentication request. Additionally or alternatively, the authentication request may specify an identity or fingerprint of the computing device (e.g., computing device  510 ) that transmits the authentication request. Accordingly, performance module  112  may determine that the computing device transmitting the authentication request and the registered mobile device are the same device. In that case, because the authentication request alleges that these two devices are the same, performance module  112  may check or verify that they have the exact same Internet protocol address. In general, in this case, performance module  112  may heighten or elevate the degree of geolocation proximity used to disconfirm the man-in-the-middle attack. 
     Moreover, in some embodiments, comparison module  110  and/or performance module  112  may be located at mobile device  400  rather than server  206 . In these examples, server  206  may forward the geolocation information of the authentication request to mobile device  400 , which may then perform the comparison. Similarly, in response to detecting a man-in-the-middle attack, mobile device  400  may take remedial action, as discussed further above. 
     As explained above in connection with method  300  in  FIG. 3 , the systems and methods described herein may enable enterprises and other organizations to protect computing resources from sophisticated man-in-the-middle attacks that would otherwise overcome certain forms of two-factor authentication, as discussed further above. The systems and methods described herein may also enable network administrators and/or their computing resources to take remedial action to protect users in response to detecting man-in-the-middle attacks. 
       FIG. 6  is a block diagram of an exemplary computing system  610  capable of implementing one or more of the embodiments described and/or illustrated herein. For example, all or a portion of computing system  610  may perform and/or be a means for performing, either alone or in combination with other elements, one or more of the steps described herein (such as one or more of the steps illustrated in  FIG. 3 ). All or a portion of computing system  610  may also perform and/or be a means for performing any other steps, methods, or processes described and/or illustrated herein. 
     Computing system  610  broadly represents any single or multi-processor computing device or system capable of executing computer-readable instructions. Examples of computing system  610  include, without limitation, workstations, laptops, client-side terminals, servers, distributed computing systems, handheld devices, or any other computing system or device. In its most basic configuration, computing system  610  may include at least one processor  614  and a system memory  616 . 
     Processor  614  generally represents any type or form of physical processing unit (e.g., a hardware-implemented central processing unit) capable of processing data or interpreting and executing instructions. In certain embodiments, processor  614  may receive instructions from a software application or module. These instructions may cause processor  614  to perform the functions of one or more of the exemplary embodiments described and/or illustrated herein. 
     System memory  616  generally represents any type or form of volatile or non-volatile storage device or medium capable of storing data and/or other computer-readable instructions. Examples of system memory  616  include, without limitation, Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM), flash memory, or any other suitable memory device. Although not required, in certain embodiments computing system  610  may include both a volatile memory unit (such as, for example, system memory  616 ) and a non-volatile storage device (such as, for example, primary storage device  632 , as described in detail below). In one example, one or more of modules  102  from  FIG. 1  may be loaded into system memory  616 . 
     In certain embodiments, exemplary computing system  610  may also include one or more components or elements in addition to processor  614  and system memory  616 . For example, as illustrated in  FIG. 6 , computing system  610  may include a memory controller  618 , an Input/Output (I/O) controller  620 , and a communication interface  622 , each of which may be interconnected via a communication infrastructure  612 . Communication infrastructure  612  generally represents any type or form of infrastructure capable of facilitating communication between one or more components of a computing device. Examples of communication infrastructure  612  include, without limitation, a communication bus (such as an Industry Standard Architecture (ISA), Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), PCI Express (PCIe), or similar bus) and a network. 
     Memory controller  618  generally represents any type or form of device capable of handling memory or data or controlling communication between one or more components of computing system  610 . For example, in certain embodiments memory controller  618  may control communication between processor  614 , system memory  616 , and I/O controller  620  via communication infrastructure  612 . 
     I/O controller  620  generally represents any type or form of module capable of coordinating and/or controlling the input and output functions of a computing device. For example, in certain embodiments I/O controller  620  may control or facilitate transfer of data between one or more elements of computing system  610 , such as processor  614 , system memory  616 , communication interface  622 , display adapter  626 , input interface  630 , and storage interface  634 . 
     Communication interface  622  broadly represents any type or form of communication device or adapter capable of facilitating communication between exemplary computing system  610  and one or more additional devices. For example, in certain embodiments communication interface  622  may facilitate communication between computing system  610  and a private or public network including additional computing systems. Examples of communication interface  622  include, without limitation, a wired network interface (such as a network interface card), a wireless network interface (such as a wireless network interface card), a modem, and any other suitable interface. In at least one embodiment, communication interface  622  may provide a direct connection to a remote server via a direct link to a network, such as the Internet. Communication interface  622  may also indirectly provide such a connection through, for example, a local area network (such as an Ethernet network), a personal area network, a telephone or cable network, a cellular telephone connection, a satellite data connection, or any other suitable connection. 
     In certain embodiments, communication interface  622  may also represent a host adapter configured to facilitate communication between computing system  610  and one or more additional network or storage devices via an external bus or communications channel. Examples of host adapters include, without limitation, Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) host adapters, Universal Serial Bus (USB) host adapters, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 1394 host adapters, Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA), Parallel ATA (PATA), Serial ATA (SATA), and External SATA (eSATA) host adapters, Fibre Channel interface adapters, Ethernet adapters, or the like. Communication interface  622  may also allow computing system  610  to engage in distributed or remote computing. For example, communication interface  622  may receive instructions from a remote device or send instructions to a remote device for execution. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 6 , computing system  610  may also include at least one display device  624  coupled to communication infrastructure  612  via a display adapter  626 . Display device  624  generally represents any type or form of device capable of visually displaying information forwarded by display adapter  626 . Similarly, display adapter  626  generally represents any type or form of device configured to forward graphics, text, and other data from communication infrastructure  612  (or from a frame buffer, as known in the art) for display on display device  624 . 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 6 , exemplary computing system  610  may also include at least one input device  628  coupled to communication infrastructure  612  via an input interface  630 . Input device  628  generally represents any type or form of input device capable of providing input, either computer or human generated, to exemplary computing system  610 . Examples of input device  628  include, without limitation, a keyboard, a pointing device, a speech recognition device, or any other input device. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 6 , exemplary computing system  610  may also include a primary storage device  632  and a backup storage device  633  coupled to communication infrastructure  612  via a storage interface  634 . Storage devices  632  and  633  generally represent any type or form of storage device or medium capable of storing data and/or other computer-readable instructions. For example, storage devices  632  and  633  may be a magnetic disk drive (e.g., a so-called hard drive), a solid state drive, a floppy disk drive, a magnetic tape drive, an optical disk drive, a flash drive, or the like. Storage interface  634  generally represents any type or form of interface or device for transferring data between storage devices  632  and  633  and other components of computing system  610 . In one example, database  120  from  FIG. 1  may be stored in primary storage device  632 . 
     In certain embodiments, storage devices  632  and  633  may be configured to read from and/or write to a removable storage unit configured to store computer software, data, or other computer-readable information. Examples of suitable removable storage units include, without limitation, a floppy disk, a magnetic tape, an optical disk, a flash memory device, or the like. Storage devices  632  and  633  may also include other similar structures or devices for allowing computer software, data, or other computer-readable instructions to be loaded into computing system  610 . For example, storage devices  632  and  633  may be configured to read and write software, data, or other computer-readable information. Storage devices  632  and  633  may also be a part of computing system  610  or may be a separate device accessed through other interface systems. 
     Many other devices or subsystems may be connected to computing system  610 . Conversely, all of the components and devices illustrated in  FIG. 6  need not be present to practice the embodiments described and/or illustrated herein. The devices and subsystems referenced above may also be interconnected in different ways from that shown in  FIG. 6 . Computing system  610  may also employ any number of software, firmware, and/or hardware configurations. For example, one or more of the exemplary embodiments disclosed herein may be encoded as a computer program (also referred to as computer software, software applications, computer-readable instructions, or computer control logic) on a computer-readable medium. The phrase “computer-readable medium,” as used herein, generally refers to any form of device, carrier, or medium capable of storing or carrying computer-readable instructions. Examples of computer-readable media include, without limitation, transmission-type media, such as carrier waves, and non-transitory-type media, such as magnetic-storage media (e.g., hard disk drives, tape drives, and floppy disks), optical-storage media (e.g., Compact Disks (CDs), Digital Video Disks (DVDs), and BLU-RAY disks), electronic-storage media (e.g., solid-state drives and flash media), and other distribution systems. 
     The computer-readable medium containing the computer program may be loaded into computing system  610 . All or a portion of the computer program stored on the computer-readable medium may then be stored in system memory  616  and/or various portions of storage devices  632  and  633 . When executed by processor  614 , a computer program loaded into computing system  610  may cause processor  614  to perform and/or be a means for performing the functions of one or more of the exemplary embodiments described and/or illustrated herein. Additionally or alternatively, one or more of the exemplary embodiments described and/or illustrated herein may be implemented in firmware and/or hardware. For example, computing system  610  may be configured as an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) adapted to implement one or more of the exemplary embodiments disclosed herein. 
       FIG. 7  is a block diagram of an exemplary network architecture  700  in which client systems  710 ,  720 , and  730  and servers  740  and  745  may be coupled to a network  750 . As detailed above, all or a portion of network architecture  700  may perform and/or be a means for performing, either alone or in combination with other elements, one or more of the steps disclosed herein (such as one or more of the steps illustrated in  FIG. 3 ). All or a portion of network architecture  700  may also be used to perform and/or be a means for performing other steps and features set forth in the instant disclosure. 
     Client systems  710 ,  720 , and  730  generally represent any type or form of computing device or system, such as exemplary computing system  610  in  FIG. 6 . Similarly, servers  740  and  745  generally represent computing devices or systems, such as application servers or database servers, configured to provide various database services and/or run certain software applications. Network  750  generally represents any telecommunication or computer network including, for example, an intranet, a WAN, a LAN, a PAN, or the Internet. In one example, client systems  710 ,  720 , and/or  730  and/or servers  740  and/or  745  may include all or a portion of system  100  from  FIG. 1 . 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 7 , one or more storage devices  760 ( 1 )-(N) may be directly attached to server  740 . Similarly, one or more storage devices  770 ( 1 )-(N) may be directly attached to server  745 . Storage devices  760 ( 1 )-(N) and storage devices  770 ( 1 )-(N) generally represent any type or form of storage device or medium capable of storing data and/or other computer-readable instructions. In certain embodiments, storage devices  760 ( 1 )-(N) and storage devices  770 ( 1 )-(N) may represent Network-Attached Storage (NAS) devices configured to communicate with servers  740  and  745  using various protocols, such as Network File System (NFS), Server Message Block (SMB), or Common Internet File System (CIFS). 
     Servers  740  and  745  may also be connected to a Storage Area Network (SAN) fabric  780 . SAN fabric  780  generally represents any type or form of computer network or architecture capable of facilitating communication between a plurality of storage devices. SAN fabric  780  may facilitate communication between servers  740  and  745  and a plurality of storage devices  790 ( 1 )-(N) and/or an intelligent storage array  795 . SAN fabric  780  may also facilitate, via network  750  and servers  740  and  745 , communication between client systems  710 ,  720 , and  730  and storage devices  790 ( 1 )-(N) and/or intelligent storage array  795  in such a manner that devices  790 ( 1 )-(N) and array  795  appear as locally attached devices to client systems  710 ,  720 , and  730 . As with storage devices  760 ( 1 )-(N) and storage devices  770 ( 1 )-(N), storage devices  790 ( 1 )-(N) and intelligent storage array  795  generally represent any type or form of storage device or medium capable of storing data and/or other computer-readable instructions. 
     In certain embodiments, and with reference to exemplary computing system  610  of  FIG. 6 , a communication interface, such as communication interface  622  in  FIG. 6 , may be used to provide connectivity between each client system  710 ,  720 , and  730  and network  750 . Client systems  710 ,  720 , and  730  may be able to access information on server  740  or  745  using, for example, a web browser or other client software. Such software may allow client systems  710 ,  720 , and  730  to access data hosted by server  740 , server  745 , storage devices  760 ( 1 )-(N), storage devices  770 ( 1 )-(N), storage devices  790 ( 1 )-(N), or intelligent storage array  795 . Although  FIG. 7  depicts the use of a network (such as the Internet) for exchanging data, the embodiments described and/or illustrated herein are not limited to the Internet or any particular network-based environment. 
     In at least one embodiment, all or a portion of one or more of the exemplary embodiments disclosed herein may be encoded as a computer program and loaded onto and executed by server  740 , server  745 , storage devices  760 ( 1 )-(N), storage devices  770 ( 1 )-(N), storage devices  790 ( 1 )-(N), intelligent storage array  795 , or any combination thereof. All or a portion of one or more of the exemplary embodiments disclosed herein may also be encoded as a computer program, stored in server  740 , run by server  745 , and distributed to client systems  710 ,  720 , and  730  over network  750 . 
     As detailed above, computing system  610  and/or one or more components of network architecture  700  may perform and/or be a means for performing, either alone or in combination with other elements, one or more steps of an exemplary method for detecting man-in-the-middle attacks. 
     While the foregoing disclosure sets forth various embodiments using specific block diagrams, flowcharts, and examples, each block diagram component, flowchart step, operation, and/or component described and/or illustrated herein may be implemented, individually and/or collectively, using a wide range of hardware, software, or firmware (or any combination thereof) configurations. In addition, any disclosure of components contained within other components should be considered exemplary in nature since many other architectures can be implemented to achieve the same functionality. 
     In some examples, all or a portion of exemplary system  100  in  FIG. 1  may represent portions of a cloud-computing or network-based environment. Cloud-computing environments may provide various services and applications via the Internet. These cloud-based services (e.g., software as a service, platform as a service, infrastructure as a service, etc.) may be accessible through a web browser or other remote interface. Various functions described herein may be provided through a remote desktop environment or any other cloud-based computing environment. 
     In various embodiments, all or a portion of exemplary system  100  in  FIG. 1  may facilitate multi-tenancy within a cloud-based computing environment. In other words, the software modules described herein may configure a computing system (e.g., a server) to facilitate multi-tenancy for one or more of the functions described herein. For example, one or more of the software modules described herein may program a server to enable two or more clients (e.g., customers) to share an application that is running on the server. A server programmed in this manner may share an application, operating system, processing system, and/or storage system among multiple customers (i.e., tenants). One or more of the modules described herein may also partition data and/or configuration information of a multi-tenant application for each customer such that one customer cannot access data and/or configuration information of another customer. 
     According to various embodiments, all or a portion of exemplary system  100  in  FIG. 1  may be implemented within a virtual environment. For example, the modules and/or data described herein may reside and/or execute within a virtual machine. As used herein, the phrase “virtual machine” generally refers to any operating system environment that is abstracted from computing hardware by a virtual machine manager (e.g., a hypervisor). Additionally or alternatively, the modules and/or data described herein may reside and/or execute within a virtualization layer. As used herein, the phrase “virtualization layer” generally refers to any data layer and/or application layer that overlays and/or is abstracted from an operating system environment. A virtualization layer may be managed by a software virtualization solution (e.g., a file system filter) that presents the virtualization layer as though it were part of an underlying base operating system. For example, a software virtualization solution may redirect calls that are initially directed to locations within a base file system and/or registry to locations within a virtualization layer. 
     In some examples, all or a portion of exemplary system  100  in  FIG. 1  may represent portions of a mobile computing environment. Mobile computing environments may be implemented by a wide range of mobile computing devices, including mobile phones, tablet computers, e-book readers, personal digital assistants, wearable computing devices (e.g., computing devices with a head-mounted display, smartwatches, etc.), and the like. In some examples, mobile computing environments may have one or more distinct features, including, for example, reliance on battery power, presenting only one foreground application at any given time, remote management features, touchscreen features, location and movement data (e.g., provided by Global Positioning Systems, gyroscopes, accelerometers, etc.), restricted platforms that restrict modifications to system-level configurations and/or that limit the ability of third-party software to inspect the behavior of other applications, controls to restrict the installation of applications (e.g., to only originate from approved application stores), etc. Various functions described herein may be provided for a mobile computing environment and/or may interact with a mobile computing environment. 
     In addition, all or a portion of exemplary system  100  in  FIG. 1  may represent portions of, interact with, consume data produced by, and/or produce data consumed by one or more systems for information management. As used herein, the phrase “information management” may refer to the protection, organization, and/or storage of data. Examples of systems for information management may include, without limitation, storage systems, backup systems, archival systems, replication systems, high availability systems, data search systems, virtualization systems, and the like. 
     In some embodiments, all or a portion of exemplary system  100  in  FIG. 1  may represent portions of, produce data protected by, and/or communicate with one or more systems for information security. As used herein, the phrase “information security” may refer to the control of access to protected data. Examples of systems for information security may include, without limitation, systems providing managed security services, data loss prevention systems, identity authentication systems, access control systems, encryption systems, policy compliance systems, intrusion detection and prevention systems, electronic discovery systems, and the like. 
     According to some examples, all or a portion of exemplary system  100  in  FIG. 1  may represent portions of, communicate with, and/or receive protection from one or more systems for endpoint security. As used herein, the phrase “endpoint security” may refer to the protection of endpoint systems from unauthorized and/or illegitimate use, access, and/or control. Examples of systems for endpoint protection may include, without limitation, anti-malware systems, user authentication systems, encryption systems, privacy systems, spam-filtering services, and the like. 
     The process parameters and sequence of steps described and/or illustrated herein are given by way of example only and can be varied as desired. For example, while the steps illustrated and/or described herein may be shown or discussed in a particular order, these steps do not necessarily need to be performed in the order illustrated or discussed. The various exemplary methods described and/or illustrated herein may also omit one or more of the steps described or illustrated herein or include additional steps in addition to those disclosed. 
     While various embodiments have been described and/or illustrated herein in the context of fully functional computing systems, one or more of these exemplary embodiments may be distributed as a program product in a variety of forms, regardless of the particular type of computer-readable media used to actually carry out the distribution. The embodiments disclosed herein may also be implemented using software modules that perform certain tasks. These software modules may include script, batch, or other executable files that may be stored on a computer-readable storage medium or in a computing system. In some embodiments, these software modules may configure a computing system to perform one or more of the exemplary embodiments disclosed herein. 
     In addition, one or more of the modules described herein may transform data, physical devices, and/or representations of physical devices from one form to another. For example, one or more of the modules recited herein may receive an authentication request and/or associated authentication status to be transformed, transform one or more of these, output a result of the transformation to a display or output device, use the result of the transformation to protect users from man-in-the-middle attacks, and/or store the result of the transformation to a memory or storage. Additionally or alternatively, one or more of the modules recited herein may transform a processor, volatile memory, non-volatile memory, and/or any other portion of a physical computing device from one form to another by executing on the computing device, storing data on the computing device, and/or otherwise interacting with the computing device. 
     The preceding description has been provided to enable others skilled in the art to best utilize various aspects of the exemplary embodiments disclosed herein. This exemplary description is not intended to be exhaustive or to be limited to any precise form disclosed. Many modifications and variations are possible without departing from the spirit and scope of the instant disclosure. The embodiments disclosed herein should be considered in all respects illustrative and not restrictive. Reference should be made to the appended claims and their equivalents in determining the scope of the instant disclosure. 
     Unless otherwise noted, the terms “connected to” and “coupled to” (and their derivatives), as used in the specification and claims, are to be construed as permitting both direct and indirect (i.e., via other elements or components) connection. In addition, the terms “a” or “an,” as used in the specification and claims, are to be construed as meaning “at least one of.” Finally, for ease of use, the terms “including” and “having” (and their derivatives), as used in the specification and claims, are interchangeable with and have the same meaning as the word “comprising.”