Patent Publication Number: US-7709701-B2

Title: Genetic manipulation of condensed tannins

Description:
This application claims the priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Appl. Ser. No. 60/587,020, filed Jul. 9, 2004, the entire disclosure of which is specifically incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     1. Field of the Invention 
     The present invention generally relates to plant genetics. More specifically, the invention relates to genes involved in the biosynthesis of condensed tannins, and methods for use thereof. 
     2. Description of the Related Art 
     Condensed tannins (CTs), also known as proanthocyanidins, are flavonoid polymers that have a long history of use as tanning agents for animal skins and as determinants of flavor and astringency in teas, wines and fruit juices. The chemistry of proanthocyanidins has been studied for decades. Their name reflects the fact that, on acid hydrolysis, the extension units are converted to colored anthocyanidins, and this forms the basis of the classical assay for these compounds (Porter 1989). 
     The building blocks of most proanthocyanidins are (+)-catechin and (−)-epicatechin. (−)-Epicatechin has 2,3-cis stereochemistry and (+)-catechin has 2,3-trans-stereochemistry. These stereochemical differences are of major importance in proanthocyanidin biosynthesis, since all chiral intermediates in the flavonoid pathway up to and including leucoanthocyanidin are of the 2,3-trans stereochemistry, raising important questions about the origin of the 2,3-cis stereochemistry of (−)-epicatechin, the commonest extension unit in proanthocyanidins (Foo and Porter 1980). 
     Recently, sensitive and specific methods, utilizing HPLC and mass spectrometry, have been developed for the fractionation and identification of proanthocyanidins, with accurate determination of both amount and degree of polymerization of the different sized oligomeric fractions (Cheynier et al., 1999; Gu et al., 2002). Armed with this technology, the detailed proanthocyanidin profiles and compositions were recently determined for over 40 common food sources (Gu et al., 2004). The foods with the highest levels of total proanthocyanidins were, in decreasing order, ground cinnamon, sorghum (sumac bran), dry grape seed, unsweetened baking chocolate, raw pinto beans, sorghum (high tannin whole grain), choke berries, red kidney beans, hazelnuts and pecan nuts (Gu et al., 2004). 
     Condensed tannins are present in many plants and are oligomers or polymers of flavonoid (flavan-3-ol) units. CTs are also commonly termed proanthocyanidins due to the red anthocyanidins that are produced upon heating in acidic alcohol solutions. The most common anthocyanidins produced are cyanidin (from procyanidin) and delphinidin (from prodelphinidin). CTs may contain from 2 to 50 or more flavonoid units. CT polymers have complex structures because of variations in the flavonoid units and the sites for interflavan bonds. Depending on their chemical structure and degree of polymerization, CTs may or may not be soluble in aqueous organic solvents. 
     CTs are attracting increasing attention due to their ability to affect the nutritional quality of human and animal food (Bagchi et al., 2000; Barry and McNabb, 1999; Morris and Robbins, 1997). In addition, CTs from various plants have beneficial effects on cardiac health and immune responses (Pataki et al., 2002; Foo et al., 2000; Lin et al., 2002). They can reversibly bind to proteins and reduce their degradation rate. The presence of moderate amounts of CT in forage crops reduces the initial rate of microbial digestion of the protein component of forage material in the rumen. The protein tannin complexes then pass to the abomasum where they dissociate at the lower pH, providing “by-pass protein” for utilization by the animal and consequent enhancement of milk and wool production and live weight gain (Barry and McNabb, 1999; Tanner et al., 1995). 
     In  Arabidopsis thaliana , CTs accumulate predominantly in the endothelium layer of the seed coat. Many mutations that affect the seed coat color and CT accumulation have been characterized and the corresponding genes cloned. These genes include BAN (Genbank Accession No. AF092912; Devic et al., 1999), TTG1 TTG2, TT1, TT2, TT8 and TT12. The ban mutation leads to accumulation of anthocyanins in the seed coat instead of CTs. TTG1, TTG2, TT1, TT2 and TT8 are regulatory genes and encode a WD-repeat protein (Walker et al., 1999), a WRKY family protein, a WIP subfamily plant zinc finger protein (Sagasser et al., 2002), an R2R3 MYB domain protein (Nesi et al, 2001) and a basic helix-loop-helix domain protein (Nesi et al., 2000), respectively. Expression of the TT2 gene has been shown to induce the TT8 and BAN genes but did not lead to accumulation of CT in  Arabidopsis  (Nesi et al., 2001). All the above genes are predominantly expressed in the seed coat endothelium. 
     The foregoing studies have provided a further understanding of the metabolism of plant secondary metabolism. However, the prior art has failed to provide techniques for the application of this understanding to the creation of plants having valuable new characteristics. What are thus needed are practical techniques for the production of novel plants with improved phenotypes and methods for the use thereof. Such techniques may allow the creation and use of plants with improved nutritional quality, thereby benefiting both human and animal health and representing a substantial benefit in the art. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In one aspect, the invention provides a transgenic plant transformed with a selected DNA encoding TT2, wherein the plant expresses the selected DNA and exhibits increased condensed tannin biosynthesis relative to a second plant that differs from the transgenic plant only in that the selected DNA is absent. In certain embodiments, the plant may be further defined as transformed with a selected DNA encoding a BAN polypeptide selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:30, SEQ ID NO:32, SEQ ID NO:34, SEQ ID NO:36, SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44 and SEQ ID NO:46. In further embodiments, the selected DNA encoding TT2 may be selected from the group consisting of: a) a nucleic acid sequence encoding the polypeptide encoded by SEQ ID NO:75; b) a nucleic acid sequence comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:75; c) a nucleic acid sequence hybridizing to SEQ ID NO:75 under high stringency conditions; and nucleic acids having at least 90% sequence identity with these sequences, including at least 93%, 95%, 98% and 99% identity. The invention therefore provides nucleic acid and polypeptide sequences of the invention comprising at least 90% identity to the sequences provided in the Sequence Listing, including at least 93%, 95%, 98% and 99% identity. Polypeptide or polynucleotide comparisons may be carried out and identity determined using sequence analysis software, for example, the Sequence Analysis software package of the GCG Wisconsin Package (Accelrys, San Diego, Calif.), MEGAlign (DNAStar, Inc., 1228 S. Park St., Madison, Wis. 53715), and MacVector (Oxford Molecular Group, 2105 S. Bascom Avenue, Suite 200, Campbell, Calif. 95008). Such software matches similar sequences by assigning degrees of similarity or identity. A selected DNA encoding TT2 may be operably linked to a heterologous promoter, and may be operably linked to a heterologous terminator. The selected DNA may further comprise an enhancer and/or a signal peptide. 
     In one embodiment of the invention, a transgenic plant of the invention is further defined as a forage crop. The plant may further be a monocotyledonous plant or dicotyledonous plant. In one embodiment, the transgenic plant is a legume, which may be a forage legume and may further be alfalfa. A transgenic plant provided by the invention may in certain embodiments be further defined as comprising a transgenic coding sequence encoding a chalcone isomerase polypeptide selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:25, SEQ ID NO:26, SEQ ID NO:27 and/or SEQ ID NO:28. A plant of the invention may still further be defined as comprising a coding sequence encoding the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:16, SEQ ID NO:18, SEQ ID NO:20, SEQ ID NO:22 and/or SEQ ID NO:24. A plant of the invention may also comprise a PAP-1 coding sequence. Such PAP-1 sequences are known in the art and include, for example, the coding sequence in SEQ ID NO:79 and nucleic acids encoding the same polypeptide encoded by this sequence. 
     A transgenic plant of the invention may be a fertile R 0  transgenic plant and may be further defined as a progeny plant of any generation of a fertile R 0  transgenic plant, wherein the transgenic plant comprises the selected DNA. A seed of a transgenic plant of the invention is also provided, wherein the seed comprises the selected DNA. In one embodiment of the invention, the transgenic plant may not express a heterologous condensed tannin biosynthesis coding sequence in addition to the selected DNA encoding TT2. 
     In another aspect of the invention, a method is provided of producing a plant with increased condensed tannin biosynthesis, comprising introducing into the plant a selected DNA encoding a TT2 polypeptide, wherein the coding sequence is operably linked to a promoter functional in the plant and wherein the plant comprises increased condensed tannin biosynthesis relative to a second plant that differs from the plant only in that the selected DNA is absent in the second plant. In one embodiment, the plant further comprises a selected DNA encoding a polypeptide selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:30, SEQ ID NO:32, SEQ ID NO:34, SEQ ID NO:36, SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44 and SEQ ID NO:46. The plant may also further comprise a coding sequence encoding the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:4. In another embodiment, the selected DNA encoding a TT2 polypeptide is selected from the group consisting of: a) a nucleic acid sequence encoding the polypeptide encoded by SEQ ID NO:75; b) a nucleic acid sequence comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:75; and c) a nucleic acid sequence hybridizing to SEQ ID NO:75 under high stringency conditions and having BAN activity. 
     In accordance with the invention, a selected DNA may be introduced into a plant by plant breeding. The selected DNA may also be introduced into the plant by genetic transformation of the plant. In certain aspects, a selected DNA may comprise an enhancer and/or a signal peptide and may comprise plasmid DNA. The selected DNA may comprise a constitutive or tissue specific promoter. In one embodiment of the method, the plant may be a monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous plant, and may further be a forage crop, including a legume and a forage legume such as alfalfa. The method may further comprise preparing a transgenic progeny plant of any generation of the plant, wherein the progeny plant comprises the selected DNA. 
     In yet another aspect of the invention, a plant is provided that is prepared by any method of the invention. Still further provided by the invention are methods of making food for human or animal consumption comprising: (a) obtaining a plant of the invention; (b) growing the plant under plant growth conditions to produce plant tissue from the plant; and (c) preparing food for human or animal consumption from the plant tissue. Preparing the food may comprise harvesting the plant tissue. Food includes starch, protein, meal, flour or grain. 
     In still yet another aspect of the invention, a BAN promoter is provided comprising the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:77, or a fragment thereof having promoter activity. 
     In still another aspect, the invention provides an isolated nucleic acid sequence encoding a BAN polypeptide. Such a nucleic acid sequence may, in certain embodiments of the invention, be further defined as comprising a nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of: a) a nucleic acid sequence encoding the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2, b) a nucleic acid sequence comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1; and c) a nucleic acid sequence hybridizing to SEQ ID NO:1 under high stringency conditions and having BAN activity. The sequence may also be operably linked to a heterologous promoter and/or a heterologous terminator. Also provided by the invention is an isolated polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2. 
     In yet another aspect, the invention provides a transgenic plant transformed with a selected DNA comprising a coding sequence encoding a BAN polypeptide. In one embodiment, the polypeptide comprises the sequence of SEQ ID NO:2 and/or SEQ ID NO:4. In other embodiments, the selected DNA encodes a BAN polypeptide comprising a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:30, SEQ ID NO:32, SEQ ID NO:34, SEQ ID NO:36, SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44 and SEQ ID NO:46. In certain embodiments of the invention, the coding sequence may be further defined as comprising the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 or SEQ ID NO:3. The coding sequence may, in further embodiments of the invention, be operably linked to a heterologous promoter and/or a heterologous terminator. The selected DNA may also comprise an enhancer, plasmid DNA, and/or a signal peptide. The transgenic plant may be a monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous plant. Examples of monocotyledonous plants include wheat, maize, rye, rice, oat, barley, turfgrass, sorghum, millet and sugarcane. Examples of dicotyledonous plants include tobacco, tomato, potato, soybean, cotton, canola, alfalfa, sunflower, and cotton. In one embodiment of the invention, the plant is maize. In another embodiment of the invention, the plant is an alfalfa plant. 
     A transgenic plant prepared in accordance with the invention may further comprise a transgenic coding sequence encoding the chalcone isomerase polypeptide encoded by SEQ ID NO:25, SEQ ID NO:26, SEQ ID NO:27 and/or SEQ ID NO:28. In another embodiment of the invention, the transgenic plant comprises a coding sequence encoding the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:16, SEQ ID NO:18, SEQ ID NO:20, SEQ ID NO:22 and/or SEQ ID NO:24. 
     A transgenic plant in accordance with the invention may, in one embodiment of the invention, be further defined as a fertile R 0  transgenic plant, and may also be a progeny plant of any generation of a fertile R 0  transgenic plant, wherein the transgenic plant has inherited the selected DNA from the R 0  transgenic plant. The invention also provides a seed of such a transgenic plant, wherein the seed comprises the selected DNA. 
     In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of increasing tannin biosynthesis in a plant, comprising introducing into the plant a selected DNA comprising a coding sequence encoding the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2 and/or SEQ ID NO:4 operably linked to a promoter functional in the plant. By increased or increasing, it is understood in the art that it is meant that a statistically significant increase has been made, e.g., P&gt;0.10 and preferably P&gt;0.05 from tannin production and/or content increase relative to a corresponding plant not increased for tannin biosynthesis. In certain embodiments of the invention, the coding sequence encodes the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:4, and may be further defined as comprising the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 or SEQ ID NO:3. In still other embodiments, the coding sequence encodes a polypeptide selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:30, SEQ ID NO:32, SEQ ID NO:34, SEQ ID NO:36, SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44 and SEQ ID NO:46. 
     The coding sequence may, in certain embodiments of the invention, be operably linked to one or more heterologous regulatory elements, including a heterologous promoter, terminator or enhancer. Introducing the selected DNA may be carried out by any method, including by backcrossing and genetic transformation with the selected DNA. The selected DNA may also comprise a sequence encoding a signal peptide. A promoter used may be any type of promoter, including a constitutive or tissue specific promoter. 
     In a method of increasing tannin biosynthesis in a plant in accordance with the invention, the plant may be a monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous plant. Examples of such monocotyledonous plants include wheat, maize, rye, rice, oat, barley, turfgrass, sorghum, millet and sugarcane. Examples of dicotyledonous plants include tobacco, tomato, potato, soybean, cotton, canola, alfalfa, sunflower, and cotton. In one embodiment of the invention the plant is maize. In another embodiment of the invention the plant is an alfalfa plant. The method may further comprise preparing a transgenic progeny plant of any generation comprising the selected DNA. The invention further provides a plant prepared in accordance with any of the methods of the invention. 
     In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of making food for human or animal consumption comprising: (a) obtaining a plant prepared in accordance with the invention; (b) growing the plant under plant growth conditions to produce plant tissue from the plant; and (c) preparing food for human or animal consumption from the plant tissue. Preparing food may comprise any method, including harvesting the plant tissue. Examples of food that may be prepared include starch, protein, meal, flour or grain. 
     In still yet another aspect, the invention provides a method for modifying the pigmentation of a plant comprising introducing into the plant a selected DNA comprising a coding sequence encoding the polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2 and/or SEQ ID NO:4 operably linked to a promoter functional in the plant, wherein the expression of the coding sequence results in a decrease in anthocyanin pigmentation in the plant relative to a second plant that only differs from the plant in that the selected DNA is absent in the second plant. In certain further embodiments of the invention, the coding sequence encodes a polypeptide selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:30, SEQ ID NO:32, SEQ ID NO:34, SEQ ID NO:36, SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44 and SEQ ID NO:46. As used herein, “decrease” means a statistically significant difference in anthocyanin concentration and/or visual detection (e.g., p&gt;0.10 and preferably P&gt;0.05). In certain embodiments of the invention, the coding sequence comprised the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 or SEQ ID NO:3. The coding sequence may, in one embodiment of the invention, be operably linked to one or more heterologous regulatory elements, including a heterologous promoter, terminator or an enhancer. Introducing the selected DNA may be carried out by any method, including by backcrossing and genetic transformation with the selected DNA. The selected DNA may also comprise a sequence encoding a signal peptide. A promoter used may be any type of promoter, including a constitutive or tissue specific promoter. The method may comprise production of plants wherein any and/or all parts of the plant have modified pigmentation. In certain embodiments of the invention, the flowers, seed coat and/or leaves comprise decreased anthocyanin pigmentation. 
     In a method of modifying the pigmentation of a plant in accordance with the invention, the plant may be a monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous plant. Examples of such monocotyledonous plants include wheat, maize, rye, rice, oat, barley, turfgrass, sorghum, millet and sugarcane. Examples of dicotyledonous plants include tobacco, tomato, potato, soybean, cotton, canola, alfalfa, sunflower, and cotton. In one embodiment of the invention the plant is maize. In another embodiment of the invention the plant is an alfalfa plant. The method may further comprise preparing a transgenic progeny plant of any generation comprising the selected DNA. The invention further provides a plant prepared in accordance with any of the methods of the invention. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The following drawings form part of the present specification and are included to further demonstrate certain aspects of the invention. The invention may be better understood by reference to one or more of these drawings in combination with the detailed description of specific embodiments presented herein: 
         FIG. 1 : Shows the published proposed biosynthetic pathways leading to anthocyanins and condensed tannins. PAL: phenylalanine ammonia-lyase; C4H: cinnamate-4-hydroxylase; 4CL: 4-coumaroyl:CoA-ligase; CHS: chalcone synthase; F3H: flavanone 3-hydroxylase; F3′H: flavonoid 3′ hydroxylase; F3′5′H: flavonoid 3′5′hydroxylase; DFR: dihydroflavonol 4-reductase; LAR: leucoanthocyanidin reductase; CON: condensing enzyme(s). 
         FIG. 2 : Shows the analysis of  Arabidopsis thaliana  BAN gene expression in leaves of transgenic  Arabidopsis  plants by RT-PCR. The numbers refer to independent transformants harboring the 2×35S::BAN gene construct. +C=plasmid carrying the  Arabidopsis  BAN gene used as positive control; −C=total RNA from a plant transformed with empty vector; M=molecular size markers. 
         FIG. 3 : Shows RT-PCR analysis of transgenic  Arabidopsis  plants harboring both the T-DNA activation tagged PAP1-D gene and the  Arabidopsis  BAN transgene, which have lost anthocyanin pigmentation, for the expression of PAP1-D, BAN and actin mRNA. 
         FIG. 4 : Shows the tissue specificity of endogenous BAN gene expression in  Medicago truncatula  determined by RT-PCR (A) and Northern blot (B). NRSUFL: non-red-spot-unfolded leaves; NRSFL: non-red-spot-folded leaves; RSUFL: red-spot-unfolded leaves; RSFL: red-spot-folded leaves; FB: flower buds; OF: open flowers; 16RT: 16-day old geminated roots; 4WNRT: 4-week old nodulated roots; DGH: dark-grown hypocotyls; 30LH: 30-hour light-induced hypocotyls; 5OLH: 50-hour light-induced hypocotyls; YS: young seeds. 
         FIG. 5 : Shows DNA gel blot analysis of tobacco plants transformed with the  Medicago truncatula  BAN gene. The genomic DNA had been digested with HindIII, and the NPTII gene from the binary vector was used as labeled probe. Each lane represents a separate transgenic plant. CON=wild-type control. 
         FIG. 6 : Shows RNA gel blot analysis of total RNA from leaves of tobacco plants transformed with the  Medicago truncatula  BAN gene. The  M. truncatula  BAN cDNA sequence was used as labeled probe. Each lane represents a separate transgenic plant. CON=wild-type control. 
         FIG. 7 : Shows flower petal coloration for wild-type and BAN transgenic tobacco plants. The plants were: 1, wild-type; 2, B-11; 3, B-17-A; 4, B-19-A; 5, B-21-B; 6, 121-3-A (empty vector control); 7, D-5-C (a transgenic plant over-expressing an  M. truncatula  dihydroflavonol reductase transgene). 
         FIG. 8 : Shows the presence of CTs in petals of transgenic tobacco expressing  M. truncatula  BAN (3 and 4) in comparison with petals from wild-type plants (1 and 2). Petals were stained with 0.1% DMACA in ethanol/6M HCl (1:1) 
         FIG. 9 : Shows the levels of anthocyanins in petals of tobacco plants expressing the  M. truncatula  BAN gene (lines designated with B−) compared to empty vector control lines (121− designation) or wild-type plants (CK− designation). Anthocyanins were extracted in ethanolic HCl, and their levels determined by measurement of absorbance at 528 nm. 
         FIG. 10 : MtBAN catalyzes the conversion of cyanidin into catechin and epicatechin. Standards for epicatechin (A) and catechin (B); reaction products from MtBAN enzyme (C); boiled MtBAN enzyme (D); pSE380 vector control protein extract (E); boiled pSE380 vector control protein extract (F). 
         FIG. 11 : Comparison of UV spectra of (±)-catechin (A) and (−)-epicatechin (B) standards and enzymatic products of MtBAN acting on cyanidin (C, 19.6 min product, putative catechin and D, 31.9 min product, putative epicatechin) 
         FIG. 12 : MtBAN catalyzes the conversion of pelargonidin into afzelechin. A, reaction products from MtBAN enzyme extract, with putative epiafzelechin peak labeled; B, pSE380 vector control enzyme extract; C, boiled MtBAN enzyme extract; D, boiled pSE380 vector control enzyme extract. 
         FIG. 13 : UV spectrum of putative epiafzelechin peak. 
         FIG. 14 : MtBAN catalyzes the conversion of delphinidin into gallocatechin and epi-gallocatechin. Gallocatechin (A) and epi-gallocatechin (B) standards; reaction products from MtBAN enzyme extract (C); pSE380 vector control enzyme extract (D); boiled MtBAN enzyme (E). 
         FIG. 15 : Comparison of UV spectra of (−)-gallocatechin (A) and (−)-epi-gallocatechin (B) standards and BAN-enzymatic products (1:C and 2:D); and enzymatic products of MtBAN acting on delphinidin (C, 9.6 min product, putative (-)gallocatechin and D, 18.8 min product, putative (−) epi-gallocatechin) 
         FIG. 16A-D : AtBAN catalyzes the conversion of cyanidin into epi-catechin. NADPH was used as coenzyme.  FIG. 16A , reaction products from AtBAN enzyme extract;  FIG. 16B , boiled AtBAN enzyme extract;  FIG. 16C , vector control enzyme extract;  FIG. 16D , epicatechin standard. 
         FIG. 17A-B : Comparison of UV spectra of epicatechin standard ( FIG. 17A ) and the AtBAN enzyme reaction product, putative epicatechin ( FIG. 17B ). 
         FIG. 18A ,  18 B,  18 C: AtBAN catalyzes the conversion of pelargonidin into epi-afzelechin, NADPH used as coenzyme.  FIG. 18A , reaction products from BAN enzyme extract;  FIG. 18B , boiled enzyme extraction;  FIG. 18C , vector control enzyme extraction. 
         FIG. 19 : UV spectrum of AtBAN enzymatic reaction product, putative epiafzelechin 
         FIG. 20 : AtBAN catalyzes the conversion of delphinidin into gallocatechin, NADPH used as coenzyme. A, reaction products from BAN enzyme extract; B, boiled enzyme extract; C, vector control enzyme extract. 
         FIG. 21 : UV spectrum of AtBAN enzyme reaction product, putative gallocatechin. 
         FIG. 22 : Schematic presentation of BAN catalyzing the conversion (anthocyanin reductase reaction) of cyanidin into epicatechin and catechin 
         FIG. 23 : Proposed modified condensed tannin biosynthetic pathway. ANR (BAN) catalyzes the conversion of anthocyanidins into flavan-3-ols which are then incorporated into condensed tannins. PAL: phenylalanine ammonia-lyase; C4H: cinnamate-4-hydroxylase; 4CL: 4-coumarate: CoA-ligase; CHS: chalcone synthase; F3H: flavanone 3-hydroxylase; F3′H: flavonoid 3′ hydroxylase; F3′5′H: flavonoid 3′5′hydroxylase; DFR: dihydroflavonol 4-reductase; LAR: leucoanthocyanidin reductase; ANS: anthocyanidin synthase; ANR:anthocyanidin reductase (BAN); CON: condensing enzyme(s). 
         FIG. 24 : Alignment of BAN coding sequence open reading frames. Shown are sequences from  Arabidopsis : At BAN1 (SEQ ID NO:3), At BAN 2 (SEQ ID NO:47); barley: Barley306 (SEQ ID NO:29), Barley316 (SEQ ID NO: 31), Barley49014 (SEQ ID NO:33), Barley55701 (SEQ ID NO:35);  Brassica napus  (SEQ ID NO:37); cotton: Cotton4107 (SEQ ID NO:39); grape: Grape4226 (SEQ ID NO:41);  M. truncatula : Medicago90858 (SEQ ID NO:1); and sorghum: Sorghum34457 (SEQ ID NO:43), Sorghum34925 (SEQ ID NO:45). 
         FIG. 25 : Alignment of BAN polypeptides. Shown are polypeptides from  Arabidopsis : At BAN1 (SEQ ID NO:4), At BAN 2 (SEQ ID NO:48); barley: Barley306 (SEQ ID NO:30), Barley316 (SEQ ID NO: 32), Barley49014 (SEQ ID NO:34), Barley55701 (SEQ ID NO:36);  Brassica napus  (SEQ ID NO:38), cotton: Cotton4107 (SEQ ID NO:40); grape: Grape4226 (SEQ ID NO:42);  M. truncatula : Medicago90858 (SEQ ID NO:2); and sorghum: Sorghum34457 (SEQ ID NO:44), Sorghum34925 (SEQ ID NO:46). 
         FIG. 26 : Anthocyanidin reductase in  Lotus corniculatus . HPLC analysis showed that ANR converts cyanidin into epicatechin. a, the incubation of extract with cyanidin and NADPH producing epicatechin (arrow); b, the incubation of boiled extract with cyandin and NADPH; c, authentic standard epicatechin (arrow). 
         FIG. 27 : Anthocyanidin reductase in the skin of grape ( Vitis vinifera ). a, the incubation of extract with cyanidin and NADPH producing epicatechin (arrow); b, the incubation of boiled extract with cyandin and NADPH; c, authentic standard epicatehin (arrow). 
         FIG. 28 : Anthocyanidin reductase in testa tissue of  Hordeum vulgare  (barley) cv. morex. a, the incubation of extract with cyanidin and NADPH producing epicatechin (arrow); b, the incubation of boiled extract with cyandin and NADPH; c, authentic standard epicatehin (arrow). 
         FIG. 29A-D : Anthocyanidin reductase (ANR) in different tissues of  Desmodium uncinatum .  FIG. 29A , ANR from flowers; a, the incubation of extract with cyanidin and NADPH producing epicatechin (arrow); b, the incubation of boiled extract with cyandin and NADPH; c, authentic standard epicatechin (arrow).  FIG. 29B , ANR from leaves; a, the incubation of extract with cyanidin and NADPH producing epicatechin (arrow); b, the incubation of boiled extract with cyandin and NADPH; c, authentic standard epicatehin (arrow).  FIG. 29C , ANR from young pods; a, the incubation of extract with cyanidin and NADPH producing epicatechin (arrow); b, the incubation of boiled extract with cyandin and NADPH; c, the incubation of buffer and extract without NADPH and cyanidin; d, authentic standard epicatechin (arrow).  FIG. 29D , barley extract has ANR inhibitor; a, the incubation of extracts from pods with cyanidin and NADPH producing epicatechin (arrow); b, the incubation of extract from pods and barley testa with cyanidin and NADPH producing less epicatechin (arrow). 
         FIG. 30A-J : Cell-specific expression pattern of the BAN gene revealed by BAN promoter:gusA (Pro BAN :gusA) ( FIG. 30A-G ) and BAN promoter: gfp (Pro BAN :gfp) reporter constructs ( FIG. 30H-J ). Staining of three week old transgenic Pro BAN :gusA plants reveals gusA expression in: ( FIG. 30A ) mid-rib and hydathodes of rosette leaves; ( FIG. 30B ) ovules in the silique; ( FIG. 30C ) petal veins; ( FIG. 30D ) peduncle; ( FIG. 30E ) cortex of the hypocotyl, ( FIG. 30F ) roots and puff of root hairs especially at the junction of root and hypocotyl; ( FIG. 30G ) stipules at the base of rosette leaves. ( FIG. 30H-J ), cell-specific expression of a Pro BAN :gfp reporter construct in young seed of  Arabidopsis . ( FIG. 30H ) brightfield and ( FIG. 30I ) the corresponding confocal fluorescence image of the young seed; ( FIG. 30J ) cell-specific BAN promoter expression in the seed endothelium layer. 
         FIG. 31 : RT-PCR analysis of TT2, BAN, TT12, PAP1 and ACTIN transcript levels in leaves of  Arabidopsis  pap1-D plants transformed with  Arabidopsis  TT2, or empty vector (pCAMBIA2300). Plants were T1 generation, and RT-PCR was for 30 cycles. Numbers before the dash refer to independent pap-1D TT2 transgenic lines generated using pSB239 or vector only. 
         FIG. 32 : RT-PCR analysis of TT2, BAN, DFR, LDOX, TT19, CHS, PAP1, ACT and TT12 in homozygous T2 transgenic plants, or null segregants, in the Columbia (Col) or pap1-D backgrounds. TT12 was amplified for 30 cycles, all other genes for 21 cycles. TT2 was incorporated using either pCAMBIA 2300 (pSB239) or pCAMBIA 3300 (pSB235). Col+Vec, empty vector control in Col-O background. tt2, tt2 mutant in Landsberg Erecta background. Vector Ho, pap1-D plant homozygous for vector selectable marker. Vector Ht , pap1-D plant heterozygous for vector selectable marker. 
         FIG. 33A-C : Expression of TT2 in  M. truncatula  hairy roots results in expression of BAN and constitutive accumulation of condensed tannins. ( FIG. 33A ) RT-PCR analysis of TT2, BAN and ACTIN transcripts (30 cycles) in independent TT2 transformants and empty vector controls. ( FIG. 33B ) DMACA staining of the transgenic hairy roots; ( FIG. 33C ) DMACA stained thin layer chromatogram of 70% aqueous acetone extracts from TT2 transformants and empty vector controls. Authentic samples of catechin and epiactechin were also run. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The invention overcomes the limitations of the prior art by providing methods and compositions for the modification of condensed tannin (CT) metabolism in plants. The invention has numerous important applications to agriculture. One important advance of the invention is that it allows, for the first time, the production of CT in plants or plant tissues that otherwise lack significant CT content. By introduction of a transgene encoding a CT biosynthesis gene into a plant otherwise lacking the gene, or of a gene that is present in the plant but is expressed in minimal quantity in a given plant tissue, the production and accumulation of CT can be induced. 
     The inventors have show herein that constitutive expression of the  Arabidopsis  TT2 transcription factor surprisingly results in accumulation of polymeric proanthocyanidins (CTs) throughout the root tissues of  Medicago truncatula . This is unexpected given that constitutive expression of TT2 in  Arabidopsis , even if coupled with over-expression of the PAP1 transcription factor for production of anthocyanidin substrate, does not lead to constitutive proanthocyanidin accumulation. Rather, the proanthocyanidins are limited to cell types in which the  Arabidopsis  BAN promoter is naturally expressed. Therefore, the effects of TT2 over-expression on proanthocyanidin accumulation in  Medicago  could not have been predicted based on studies in  Arabidopsis.    
     CT accumulation is significant because high rates of protein degradation occur in the rumen of animals fed certain types of low-CT plants, such as alfalfa, thereby depriving the animal of a major source of amino acids. This can also lead to pasture bloat, a major constraint on the use of protein rich forages such as alfalfa for both livestock and dairy animals. CT can counter this by reversibly binding to proteins to reduce their degradation rate. 
     The reduced protein degradation that occurs in the presence of CTs helps protect against bloat (Tanner et al., 1995). In laboratory studies, treatment of feed proteins with modest amounts of CTs (around 2-4% of dry matter) reduced both proteolysis during ensuing and rumen fermentation. In studies performed with sheep, increasing dietary CTs from trace amounts to 4% of dry matter increased by-pass protein, and a diet containing only 2% CTs strongly increased absorption of essential amino acids by the small intestine by up to 60% in New Zealand (Douglas et al. 1999). 
     In addition, low concentrations of CT can help counter intestinal parasites in lambs, and confer bloat safety, presumably by interacting with both leaf protein and microbial enzymes such that the rate of protein degradation in the rumen is reduced (Aerts et al. 1999). These properties of CTs underscore the importance of the methods of engineering CT synthesis in crops including forage crops in particular. 
     The presence of moderate amounts of CT in forage crops reduces the initial rate of microbial digestion of the protein component of forage material in the rumen. The protein-tannin complexes then pass to the abomasum where they dissociate at the lower pH, providing “by-pass protein” for utilization by the animal and consequent enhancement of milk and wool production and live weight gain. 
     In addition, it has been shown that the presence of CTs in forage crops significantly reduces emission of the greenhouse gas methane by farm animals. Farm animals have been shown to produce large amounts of methane (˜80 kg/yr/cow). Furthermore, CTs also preserve proteins during the ensiling process, increasing the feed value of silage and reducing the amount of nitrogen that is lost to the environment as feedlot waste (Albrecht and Muck, 1991; Reed, 1995). 
     Many forage crops are low in CT, including  Medicago  spp such as alfalfa and annual medics, white clover, ball clover, Persian clover, red clover, crimson clover, berseem clover, arrowleaf clover, alsike clover, subterranean clovers, fenugreek, and sweetclover ( Melilotus  spp.). Similarly, bloat can be caused by grazing of wheat pastures and other lush foliage such as fast-growing monocots. “Feedlot bloat” also occurs in cattle fed high-grain rations that may or may not contain legume forage, green-chopped legumes, or other finely ground feed. In these cases, direct engineering of CT accumulation in the forage plant may be used in accordance with the invention to prevent bloat. Further, CT modification could be engineered into feed components that are blended or added to bloat-causing components to reduce the bloat incidence in animals consuming the mixed feed. 
     One application of the invention is thus the modification of CT biosynthesis in plants with low CT content. Alfalfa is one such plant. Condensed tannins are made in alfalfa ( Medicago sativa ), as in  Arabidopsis , in the seed coat, but do not accumulate in the leaves (Koupai-Abyazani et al., 1993; Skadhauge et al., 1997). Nonetheless, alfalfa is the world&#39;s major forage legume. Therefore, introducing CT biosynthesis to the leaves or other tissues of alfalfa or other low CT plants would substantially improve the utility of this crop for feed by reduction of its potential for causing pasture bloat. Forage crops that accumulate CTs in leaves have low bloating potential; these include  Lotus corniculatus, Leucaena leucocephala, Hedysarum sulfurescens  and  Robinia  spp. 
     Technology that could result in constitutive expression of CTs in high protein forage crops would also greatly improve the agronomic value of crops in addition to alfalfa. In addition, the potential importance of CTs in human health makes methods for their facile production in plants necessary for the full development of their therapeutic potential. 
     The present invention provides methods and compositions for increasing CTs comprising introducing transgenic TT2 coding sequences. In certain aspects, this may be provided in combination with the BAN coding sequences provided herein, which functions to direct precursors from the anthocyanin pathway into the formation of condensed tannins. 
     I. Application of the Invention 
     As indicated above, one application of the invention is the introduction or increase of condensed tannin biosynthesis in plants. Such applications may result in forage improvement and nutritional improvement of foods. In accordance with the invention this may be carried out by introduction of TT2 alone or in combination with other CT biosynthesis genes. The invention may be used to improve the nutritional quality of plants. Catechins and similar flavonoids have been reported to behave as strong antioxidants and have other properties which may make their consumption beneficial to human and animal health. Also, such compounds are generally antimicrobial, and their presence may improve food quality by preventing pre- and post-harvest damage. Accordingly, increases in CT biosynthesis may be used to achieve the associated health benefits. 
     Another use of the invention comprises the alteration of pigmentation in plant parts, including, but not limited to, flower color, seed coat color and leaf color. This can be achieved, for example, by decreasing anthocyanin content via over-expression of BAN, thereby preventing anthocyanin accumulation and the associated pigmentation of plant tissue. Accumulation of the products of BAN (flavan-3-ols, such as catechin(s), condensed tannins, or similar compounds) may simultaneously improve the nutritional, disease resistance, or herbivore resistance of the plant products. 
     Manipulation of flower color in particular may be beneficial. Flower color modifications have been valuable to the flower color industry for years. Genetic manipulation of flower color has been reported in the literature using strategies such as increasing or blocking the expression of anthocyanin pathway genes or introducing pathway genes from other species with altered substrate specificity. The data provided herein demonstrate a novel means for altering flower color by over expression of the BAN homolog, a gene from a competing pathway. 
     Similarly, seed coat color can be modified. White soybean seed coats are desirable in many markets, and are generally obtained using a certain germplasm source which confers low CHS activity on seed coats. Soybean breeders are thus interested in alternative traits to manipulate seed color. The invention provides a means of such manipulation. 
     In addition to providing the TT2 gene alone, other genes may be used to enhance the accumulation of condensed tannins, especially in combination with BAN/LAR expression. For example, TT2 may be provided with dihydroflavonol reductase (DFR) coding sequences (SEQ ID NO:5; SEQ ID NO:6), or a BAN homolog from  Medicago truncatula  (SEQ ID NO:7). These sequences may find use with the invention as is described herein. 
     While clones encoding active DFR enzymes are available from other species, one or both of the provided DFR proteins may interact more efficiently with upstream (e.g., F3H or F3′H) and downstream (e.g., LAR/BAN) enzymes in the condensed tannin pathway in the target species. Despite high similarities at the DNA and protein levels, the two  Medicago truncatula  DFR clones of SEQ ID NO:5 and SEQ ID NO:6 exhibit different kinetic properties in in vitro enzyme assays, and these properties may reflect different roles in metabolism in the cell. They also showed subtle differences in mRNA accumulation in different tissues, suggesting multiple roles or the presence of multiple pathways at work in the same tissue. The genes may thus find use as part of a combination of genes to introduce or increase condensed tannin biosynthesis in numerous species, for forage improvement and nutritional improvement of foods. CT expression could also be modulated using a transgenic chalcone isomerase coding sequence (McKhann and Hirsch, 1994; SEQ ID NO:25; SEQ ID NO:26; SEQ ID NO:27; SEQ ID NO:28). 
     Data were obtained indicating that over-expression of  Medicago  chalcone isomerase increases flavonoid biosynthesis in  Arabidopsis  (×3) (Liu et al., 2002). This could thus be used in combination with TT2 and/or BAN to produce more CT. An  Arabidopsis  or other PAP-1 gene could also be used to increase flux into the pathway (Borevitz, 2000; SEQ ID NO:15). BAN and/or TT2 could also be used in conjunction with any one or more other regulatory genes such as TTG1 (GenBank Accession No. AJ133743; SEQ ID NO: 19, SEQ ID NO:20), TT1 (GenBank Accession No. AF190298; SEQ ID NO:23, SEQ ID NO:24), and TT8 (GenBank Accession No. AJ277509; SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO:18). Benefit may also be obtained from use of TT2 in conjunction with TT12 (GenBank Accession No. AJ294464; SEQ ID NO: 21, SEQ ID NO:22) for transport of monomers to the vacuole. Any combination of the foregoing sequences may therefore be used with the invention. 
     A TT2 sequence may be used in conjunction with a BAN homolog, for example, from barley (SEQ ID NO:29, SEQ ID NO:31, SEQ ID NO:33 and SEQ ID NO:35), sorghum (SEQ ID NO:43 and SEQ ID NO:45),  Brassica napus  (SEQ ID NO:37), cotton (SEQ ID NO:39) and grape (SEQ ID NO:41). The corresponding polypeptides encoded are given in SEQ ID NO:30, SEQ ID NO:32, SEQ ID NO:34, SEQ ID NO:36, SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40 and SEQ ID NO:42. One aspect of the invention thus comprises these nucleic acids and nucleic acids encoding the foregoing polypeptides, as well as the use thereof for plant transformation. Also provided are nucleic acids hybridizing to any of the foregoing nucleic acid sequences and encoding a polypeptide having BAN activity. 
     As indicated above, a modulation of the phenotype of a gene may be obtained in accordance with the invention by introduction of recombinant nucleic acids comprising a TT2 coding sequence. Such a nucleic acid may be in the sense and/or antisense orientation. Also provided by the invention are TT2 sequences that hybridize to the coding sequences provided herein under high stringency conditions. As used herein, “hybridization” or “hybridizes” is understood to mean the forming of a double or triple stranded molecule or a molecule with partial double or triple stranded nature. As used herein “stringent condition(s)” or “high stringency” are those conditions that allow hybridization between or within one or more nucleic acid strand(s) containing complementary sequence(s), but precludes hybridization of random sequences. 
     Stringent conditions tolerate little mismatch between a nucleic acid and a target strand. Such conditions are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art, and are preferred for applications requiring high selectivity. Medium stringent conditions may comprise relatively low salt and/or relatively high temperature conditions, such as provided by about 5×SSC, 50% formamide and 42° C.; or alternatively, 5×SSC, 50% formamide and 55° C. High stringency may be defined as 0.02M to 0.10M NaCl and 50° C. to 70° C. Specific examples of such conditions include 0.02M NaCl and 50° C.; 0.02M NaCl and 60° C.; and 0.02M NaCL and 70° C. 
     It is understood that the temperature and ionic strength of a desired stringency are determined in part by the length of the particular nucleic acid(s), the length and nucleobase content of the target sequence(s), the charge composition of the nucleic acid(s), and to the presence or concentration of formamide, tetramethylammonium chloride or other solvent(s) in a hybridization mixture. It is also understood that compositions and conditions for hybridization are mentioned by way of non-limiting examples only, and that the desired stringency for a particular hybridization reaction in a plant cell is often determined empirically by comparison to one or more positive or negative controls. Depending on the application envisioned it is preferred to employ varying conditions of hybridization to achieve varying degrees of selectivity of a nucleic acid towards a target sequence. 
     II. Plant Transformation Constructs 
     Certain embodiments of the current invention concern plant transformation constructs. For example, one aspect of the current invention is a plant transformation vector comprising a TT2 coding sequence alone or in combination with one or more CT biosynthesis gene. Examples of CT biosynthesis genes include BAN, PAP-1, TTG1 TTG2, TT1, and/or TT8. Exemplary coding sequences for use with the invention include the  Arabidopsis  TT2 coding sequence in SEQ ID NO:75, which encodes the polypeptide sequence of SEQ ID NO:76, as well as the  Medicago truncatula  BAN polypeptide (SEQ ID NO:2) or the  Arabidopsis thaliana  BAN polypeptide (SEQ ID NO:4). Such coding sequences may comprise the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 or SEQ ID NO:3. 
     In certain embodiments of the invention, coding sequences are provided operably linked to a heterologous promoter, in either sense or antisense orientation. Expression constructs are also provided comprising these sequences, as are plants and plant cells transformed with the sequences. 
     The construction of vectors which may be employed in conjunction with plant transformation techniques using these or other sequences according to the invention will be known to those of skill of the art in light of the present disclosure (see, for example, Sambrook et al., 1989; Gelvin et al., 1990). The techniques of the current invention are thus not limited to any particular nucleic acid sequences. 
     One important use of the sequences provided by the invention will be in the alteration of plant phenotypes by genetic transformation with sense or antisense CT biosynthesis genes. The CT biosynthesis gene may be provided with other sequences. Where an expressible coding region that is not necessarily a marker coding region is employed in combination with a marker coding region, one may employ the separate coding regions on either the same or different DNA segments for transformation. In the latter case, the different vectors are delivered concurrently to recipient cells to maximize cotransformation. 
     The choice of any additional elements used in conjunction with the CT biosynthesis coding sequences will often depend on the purpose of the transformation. One of the major purposes of transformation of crop plants is to add commercially desirable, agronomically important traits to the plant. As CTs are known to confer many beneficial effects on health, one such trait is increased biosynthesis of tannins. Alternatively, plants may be engineered to decrease synthesis of CT and increase anthocyanin content. 
     Vectors used for plant transformation may include, for example, plasmids, cosmids, YACs (yeast artificial chromosomes), BACs (bacterial artificial chromosomes) or any other suitable cloning system, as well as fragments of DNA therefrom. Thus when the term “vector” or “expression vector” is used, all of the foregoing types of vectors, as well as nucleic acid sequences isolated therefrom, are included. It is contemplated that utilization of cloning systems with large insert capacities will allow introduction of large DNA sequences comprising more than one selected gene. In accordance with the invention, this could be used to introduce genes corresponding to the entire CT biosynthetic pathway into a plant. Introduction of such sequences may be facilitated by use of bacterial or yeast artificial chromosomes (BACs or YACs, respectively), or even plant artificial chromosomes. For example, the use of BACs for  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation was disclosed by Hamilton et al., (1996). 
     Particularly useful for transformation are expression cassettes which have been isolated from such vectors. DNA segments used for transforming plant cells will, of course, generally comprise the cDNA, gene or genes which one desires to introduce into and have expressed in the host cells. These DNA segments can further include structures such as promoters, enhancers, polylinkers, or even regulatory genes as desired. The DNA segment or gene chosen for cellular introduction will often encode a protein which will be expressed in the resultant recombinant cells resulting in a screenable or selectable trait and/or which will impart an improved phenotype to the resulting transgenic plant. However, this may not always be the case, and the present invention also encompasses transgenic plants incorporating non-expressed transgenes. Preferred components likely to be included with vectors used in the current invention are as follows. 
     A. Regulatory Elements 
     Exemplary promoters for expression of a nucleic acid sequence include plant promoter such as the CaMV 35S promoter (Odell et al., 1985), or others such as CaMV 19S (Lawton et al., 1987), nos (Ebert et al., 1987), Adh (Walker et al., 1987), sucrose synthase (Yang and Russell, 1990), a-tubulin, actin (Wang et al., 1992), cab (Sullivan et al., 1989), PEPCase (Hudspeth and Grula, 1989) or those associated with the R gene complex (Chandler et al., 1989). Tissue specific promoters such as root cell promoters (Conkling et al., 1990) and tissue specific enhancers (Fromm et al., 1986) are also contemplated to be particularly useful, as are inducible promoters such as ABA- and turgor-inducible promoters. In one embodiment of the invention, the native promoter of a CT biosynthesis gene is used. 
     The DNA sequence between the transcription initiation site and the start of the coding sequence, i.e., the untranslated leader sequence, can also influence gene expression. One may thus wish to employ a particular leader sequence with a transformation construct of the invention. Preferred leader sequences are contemplated to include those which comprise sequences predicted to direct optimum expression of the attached gene, i.e., to include a preferred consensus leader sequence which may increase or maintain mRNA stability and prevent inappropriate initiation of translation. The choice of such sequences will be known to those of skill in the art in light of the present disclosure. Sequences that are derived from genes that are highly expressed in plants will typically be preferred. 
     It is contemplated that vectors for use in accordance with the present invention may be constructed to include the ocs enhancer element. This element was first identified as a 16 bp palindromic enhancer from the octopine synthase (ocs) gene of  Agrobacterium  (Ellis et al., 1987), and is present in at least 10 other promoters (Bouchez et al., 1989). It is proposed that the use of an enhancer element, such as the ocs element and particularly multiple copies of the element, will act to increase the level of transcription from adjacent promoters when applied in the context of plant transformation. 
     It is specifically envisioned that CT biosynthesis coding sequences may be introduced under the control of novel promoters or enhancers, etc., or homologous or tissue specific promoters or control elements. Vectors for use in tissue-specific targeting of genes in transgenic plants will typically include tissue-specific promoters and may also include other tissue-specific control elements such as enhancer sequences. Promoters which direct specific or enhanced expression in certain plant tissues will be known to those of skill in the art in light of the present disclosure. These include, for example, the rbcS promoter, specific for green tissue; the ocs, nos and mas promoters which have higher activity in roots or wounded leaf tissue; a truncated (−90 to +8) 35S promoter which directs enhanced expression in roots, and an a-tubulin gene that also directs expression in roots. 
     B. Terminators 
     Transformation constructs prepared in accordance with the invention will typically include a 3′ end DNA sequence that acts as a signal to terminate transcription and allow for the poly-adenylation of the mRNA produced by coding sequences operably linked to a CT biosynthesis gene. In one embodiment of the invention, the native terminator of a CT biosynthesis gene is used. Alternatively, a heterologous 3′ end may enhance the expression of sense or antisense CT biosynthesis genes. Terminators which are deemed to be particularly useful in this context include those from the nopaline synthase gene of  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  (nos 3′ end) (Bevan et al., 1983), the terminator for the T7 transcript from the octopine synthase gene of  Agrobacterium tumefaciens , and the 3′ end of the protease inhibitor I or II genes from potato or tomato. Regulatory elements such as an Adh intron (Callis et al., 1987), sucrose synthase intron (Vasil et al., 1989) or TMV omega element (Gallie et al., 1989), may further be included where desired. 
     C. Transit or Signal Peptides 
     Sequences that are joined to the coding sequence of an expressed gene, which are removed post-translationally from the initial translation product and which facilitate the transport of the protein into or through intracellular or extracellular membranes, are termed transit (usually into vacuoles, vesicles, plastids and other intracellular organelles) and signal sequences (usually to the endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus and outside of the cellular membrane). By facilitating the transport of the protein into compartments inside and outside the cell, these sequences may increase the accumulation of gene product protecting them from proteolytic degradation. These sequences also allow for additional mRNA sequences from highly expressed genes to be attached to the coding sequence of the genes. Since mRNA being translated by ribosomes is more stable than naked mRNA, the presence of translatable mRNA in front of the gene may increase the overall stability of the mRNA transcript from the gene and thereby increase synthesis of the gene product. Since transit and signal sequences are usually post-translationally removed from the initial translation product, the use of these sequences allows for the addition of extra translated sequences that may not appear on the final polypeptide. It further is contemplated that targeting of certain proteins may be desirable in order to enhance the stability of the protein (U.S. Pat. No. 5,545,818, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). 
     Additionally, vectors may be constructed and employed in the intracellular targeting of a specific gene product within the cells of a transgenic plant or in directing a protein to the extracellular environment. This generally will be achieved by joining a DNA sequence encoding a transit or signal peptide sequence to the coding sequence of a particular gene. The resultant transit, or signal, peptide will transport the protein to a particular intracellular, or extracellular destination, respectively, and will then be post-translationally removed. 
     D. Marker Genes 
     By employing a selectable or screenable marker protein, one can provide or enhance the ability to identify transformants. “Marker genes” are genes that impart a distinct phenotype to cells expressing the marker protein and thus allow such transformed cells to be distinguished from cells that do not have the marker. Such genes may encode either a selectable or screenable marker, depending on whether the marker confers a trait which one can “select” for by chemical means, i.e., through the use of a selective agent (e.g., a herbicide, antibiotic, or the like), or whether it is simply a trait that one can identify through observation or testing, i.e., by “screening” (e.g., the green fluorescent protein). Of course, many examples of suitable marker proteins are known to the art and can be employed in the practice of the invention. 
     Included within the terms selectable or screenable markers also are genes which encode a “secretable marker” whose secretion can be detected as a means of identifying or selecting for transformed cells. Examples include markers which are secretable antigens that can be identified by antibody interaction, or even secretable enzymes which can be detected by their catalytic activity. Secretable proteins fall into a number of classes, including small, diffusible proteins detectable, e.g., by ELISA; small active enzymes detectable in extracellular solution (e.g., α-amylase, β-lactamase, phosphinothricin acetyltransferase); and proteins that are inserted or trapped in the cell wall (e.g., proteins that include a leader sequence such as that found in the expression unit of extensin or tobacco PR-S). 
     With regard to selectable secretable markers, the use of a gene that encodes a protein that becomes sequestered in the cell wall, and which protein includes a unique epitope is considered to be particularly advantageous. Such a secreted antigen marker would ideally employ an epitope sequence that would provide low background in plant tissue, a promoter-leader sequence that would impart efficient expression and targeting across the plasma membrane, and would produce protein that is bound in the cell wall and yet accessible to antibodies. A normally secreted wall protein modified to include a unique epitope would satisfy all such requirements. 
     Many selectable marker coding regions are known and could be used with the present invention including, but not limited to, neo (Potrykus et al., 1985), which provides kanamycin resistance and can be selected for using kanamycin, G418, paromomycin, etc.; bar, which confers bialaphos or phosphinothricin resistance; a mutant EPSP synthase protein (Hinchee et al., 1988) conferring glyphosate resistance; a nitrilase such as bxn from  Klebsiella ozaenae  which confers resistance to bromoxynil (Stalker et al., 1988); a mutant acetolactate synthase (ALS) which confers resistance to imidazolinone, sulfonylurea or other ALS inhibiting chemicals (European Patent Application 154,204, 1985); a methotrexate resistant DHFR (Thillet et al., 1988), a dalapon dehalogenase that confers resistance to the herbicide dalapon; or a mutated anthranilate synthase that confers resistance to 5-methyl tryptophan. 
     An illustrative embodiment of selectable marker capable of being used in systems to select transformants are those that encode the enzyme phosphinothricin acetyltransferase, such as the bar gene from  Streptomyces hygroscopicus  or the pat gene from  Streptomyces viridochromogenes . The enzyme phosphinothricin acetyl transferase (PAT) inactivates the active ingredient in the herbicide bialaphos, phosphinothricin (PPT). PPT inhibits glutamine synthetase, (Murakami et al., 1986; Twell et al., 1989) causing rapid accumulation of ammonia and cell death. 
     Screenable markers that may be employed include a β-glucuronidase (GUS) or uidA gene which encodes an enzyme for which various chromogenic substrates are known; an R-locus gene, which encodes a product that regulates the production of anthocyanin pigments (red color) in plant tissues (Dellaporta et al., 1988); a β-lactamase gene (Sutcliffe, 1978), which encodes an enzyme for which various chromogenic substrates are known (e.g., PADAC, a chromogenic cephalosporin); a xylE gene (Zukowsky et al., 1983) which encodes a catechol dioxygenase that can convert chromogenic catechols; an α-amylase gene (Ikuta et al., 1990); a tyrosinase gene (Katz et al., 1983) which encodes an enzyme capable of oxidizing tyrosine to DOPA and dopaquinone which in turn condenses to form the easily-detectable compound melanin; a β-galactosidase gene, which encodes an enzyme for which there are chromogenic substrates; a luciferase (lux) gene (Ow et al., 1986), which allows for bioluminescence detection; an aequorin gene (Prasher et al., 1985) which may be employed in calcium-sensitive bioluminescence detection; or a gene encoding for green fluorescent protein (Sheen et al., 1995; Haseloff et al., 1997; Reichel et al., 1996; Tian et al., 1997; WO 97/41228). 
     Another screenable marker contemplated for use in the present invention is firefly luciferase, encoded by the lux gene. The presence of the lux gene in transformed cells may be detected using, for example, X-ray film, scintillation counting, fluorescent spectrophotometry, low-light video cameras, photon counting cameras or multiwell luminometry. It also is envisioned that this system may be developed for populational screening for bioluminescence, such as on tissue culture plates, or even for whole plant screening. The gene which encodes green fluorescent protein (GFP) is also contemplated as a particularly useful reporter gene (Sheen et al., 1995; Haseloff et al., 1997; Reichel et al., 1996; Tian et al., 1997; WO 97/41228). Expression of green fluorescent protein may be visualized in a cell or plant as fluorescence following illumination by particular wavelengths of light. 
     III. Antisense Constructs 
     Antisense treatments represent one way of altering CT biosynthesis in accordance with the invention. In particular, constructs comprising a CT biosynthesis gene and/or a promoter thereof in antisense orientation may be used to decrease or effectively eliminate the expression of CT in a plant. Accordingly, this may be used to increase anthocyanin accumulation in a plant or given plant tissue. In certain embodiments of the invention, a  Arabidopsis  TT2,  Medicago truncatula  or  Arabidopsis thaliana  BAN coding sequence could be used in this capacity. In this manner, the accumulation of CT precursors, including anthocyanins, could also be achieved. As such, antisense technology may be used to “knock-out” the function of a CT biosynthesis gene or homologous sequences thereof. 
     Antisense methodology takes advantage of the fact that nucleic acids tend to pair with “complementary” sequences. By complementary, it is meant that polynucleotides are those which are capable of base-pairing according to the standard Watson-Crick complementarity rules. That is, the larger purines will base pair with the smaller pyrimidines to form combinations of guanine paired with cytosine (G:C) and adenine paired with either thymine (A:T) in the case of DNA, or adenine paired with uracil (A:U) in the case of RNA. Inclusion of less common bases such as inosine, 5-methylcytosine, 6-methyladenine, hypoxanthine and others in hybridizing sequences does not interfere with pairing. 
     Targeting double-stranded (ds) DNA with polynucleotides leads to triple-helix formation; targeting RNA will lead to double-helix formation. Antisense polynucleotides, when introduced into a target cell, specifically bind to their target polynucleotide and interfere with transcription, RNA processing, transport, translation and/or stability. Antisense RNA constructs, or DNA encoding such antisense RNA&#39;s, may be employed to inhibit gene transcription or translation or both within a host cell, either in vitro or in vivo, such as within a host animal, including a human subject. 
     Antisense constructs may be designed to bind to the promoter and other control regions, exons, introns or even exon-intron boundaries of a gene. It is contemplated that the most effective antisense constructs will include regions complementary to intron/exon splice junctions. Thus, it is proposed that a preferred embodiment includes an antisense construct with complementarity to regions within 50-200 bases of an intron-exon splice junction. It has been observed that some exon sequences can be included in the construct without seriously affecting the target selectivity thereof. The amount of exonic material included will vary depending on the particular exon and intron sequences used. One can readily test whether too much exon DNA is included simply by testing the constructs in vitro to determine whether normal cellular function is affected or whether the expression of related genes having complementary sequences is affected. 
     As stated above, “complementary” or “antisense” means polynucleotide sequences that are substantially complementary over their entire length and have very few base mismatches. For example, sequences of fifteen bases in length may be termed complementary when they have complementary nucleotides at thirteen or fourteen positions. Naturally, sequences which are completely complementary will be sequences which are entirely complementary throughout their entire length and have no base mismatches. Other sequences with lower degrees of homology also are contemplated. For example, an antisense construct which has limited regions of high homology, but also contains a non-homologous region (e.g., ribozyme; see above) could be designed. These molecules, though having less than 50% homology, would bind to target sequences under appropriate conditions. 
     It may be advantageous to combine portions of genomic DNA with cDNA or synthetic sequences to generate specific constructs. For example, where an intron is desired in the ultimate construct, a genomic clone will need to be used. The cDNA or a synthesized polynucleotide may provide more convenient restriction sites for the remaining portion of the construct and, therefore, would be used for the rest of the sequence. 
     IV. Tissue Cultures 
     Tissue cultures may be used in certain transformation techniques for the preparation of cells for transformation and for the regeneration of plants therefrom. Maintenance of tissue cultures requires use of media and controlled environments. “Media” refers to the numerous nutrient mixtures that are used to grow cells in vitro, that is, outside of the intact living organism. The medium usually is a suspension of various categories of ingredients (salts, amino acids, growth regulators, sugars, buffers) that are required for growth of most cell types. However, each specific cell type requires a specific range of ingredient proportions for growth, and an even more specific range of formulas for optimum growth. Rate of cell growth also will vary among cultures initiated with the array of media that permit growth of that cell type. 
     Nutrient media is prepared as a liquid, but this may be solidified by adding the liquid to materials capable of providing a solid support. Agar is most commonly used for this purpose. Bactoagar, Hazelton agar, Gelrite, and Gelgro are specific types of solid support that are suitable for growth of plant cells in tissue culture. 
     Some cell types will grow and divide either in liquid suspension or on solid media. As disclosed herein, plant cells will grow in suspension or on solid medium, but regeneration of plants from suspension cultures typically requires transfer from liquid to solid media at some point in development. The type and extent of differentiation of cells in culture will be affected not only by the type of media used and by the environment, for example, pH, but also by whether media is solid or liquid. 
     Tissue that can be grown in a culture includes meristem cells, Type I, Type II, and Type III callus, immature embryos and gametic cells such as microspores, pollen, sperm and egg cells. Type I, Type II, and Type III callus may be initiated from tissue sources including, but not limited to, immature embryos, seedling apical meristems, root, leaf, microspores and the like. Those cells which are capable of proliferating as callus also are recipient cells for genetic transformation. 
     Somatic cells are of various types. Embryogenic cells are one example of somatic cells which may be induced to regenerate a plant through embryo formation. Non-embryogenic cells are those which typically will not respond in such a fashion. Certain techniques may be used that enrich recipient cells within a cell population. For example, Type II callus development, followed by manual selection and culture of friable, embryogenic tissue, generally results in an enrichment of cells. Manual selection techniques which can be employed to select target cells may include, e.g., assessing cell morphology and differentiation, or may use various physical or biological means. Cryopreservation also is a possible method of selecting for recipient cells. 
     Manual selection of recipient cells, e.g., by selecting embryogenic cells from the surface of a Type II callus, is one means that may be used in an attempt to enrich for particular cells prior to culturing (whether cultured on solid media or in suspension). 
     Where employed, cultured cells may be grown either on solid supports or in the form of liquid suspensions. In either instance, nutrients may be provided to the cells in the form of media, and environmental conditions controlled. There are many types of tissue culture media comprised of various amino acids, salts, sugars, growth regulators and vitamins. Most of the media employed in the practice of the invention will have some similar components, but may differ in the composition and proportions of their ingredients depending on the particular application envisioned. For example, various cell types usually grow in more than one type of media, but will exhibit different growth rates and different morphologies, depending on the growth media. In some media, cells survive but do not divide. Various types of media suitable for culture of plant cells previously have been described. Examples of these media include, but are not limited to, the N6 medium described by Chu et al., (1975) and MS media (Murashige and Skoog, 1962). 
     V. Methods for Genetic Transformation 
     Suitable methods for transformation of plant or other cells for use with the current invention are believed to include virtually any method by which DNA can be introduced into a cell, such as by direct delivery of DNA such as by PEG-mediated transformation of protoplasts (Omirulleh et al., 1993), by desiccation/inhibition-mediated DNA uptake (Potrykus et al., 1985), by electroporation (U.S. Pat. No. 5,384,253, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), by agitation with silicon carbide fibers (Kaeppler et al., 1990; U.S. Pat. No. 5,302,523, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,464,765, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), by  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation (U.S. Pat. No. 5,591,616 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055; both specifically incorporated herein by reference) and by acceleration of DNA coated particles (U.S. Pat. No. 5,550,318; U.S. Pat. No. 5,538,877; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,538,880; each specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), etc. Through the application of techniques such as these, the cells of virtually any plant species may be stably transformed, and these cells developed into transgenic plants. 
     A.  Agrobacterium -Mediated Transformation 
       Agrobacterium -mediated transfer is a widely applicable system for introducing genes into plant cells because the DNA can be introduced into whole plant tissues, thereby bypassing the need for regeneration of an intact plant from a protoplast. The use of  Agrobacterium -mediated plant integrating vectors to introduce DNA into plant cells is well known in the art. See, for example, the methods described by Fraley et al., (1985), Rogers et al., (1987) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
       Agrobacterium -mediated transformation is most efficient in dicotyledonous plants and is the preferable method for transformation of dicots, including  Arabidopsis , tobacco, tomato, alfalfa and potato. Indeed, while  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation has been routinely used with dicotyledonous plants for a number of years, it has only recently become applicable to monocotyledonous plants. Advances in  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation techniques have now made the technique applicable to nearly all monocotyledonous plants. For example,  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation techniques have now been applied to rice (Hiei et al., 1997; U.S. Pat. No. 5,591,616, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), wheat (McCormac et al., 1998), barley (Tingay et al., 1997; McCormac et al., 1998), alfalfa (Thomas et al., 1990) and maize (Ishidia et al., 1996). 
     Modern  Agrobacterium  transformation vectors are capable of replication in  E. coli  as well as  Agrobacterium , allowing for convenient manipulations as described (Klee et al., 1985). Moreover, recent technological advances in vectors for  Agrobacterium -mediated gene transfer have improved the arrangement of genes and restriction sites in the vectors to facilitate the construction of vectors capable of expressing various polypeptide coding genes. The vectors described (Rogers et al., 1987) have convenient multi-linker regions flanked by a promoter and a polyadenylation site for direct expression of inserted polypeptide coding genes and are suitable for present purposes. In addition,  Agrobacterium  containing both armed and disarmed Ti genes can be used for the transformations. In those plant strains where  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation is efficient, it is the method of choice because of the facile and defined nature of the gene transfer. 
     B. Electroporation 
     To effect transformation by electroporation, one may employ either friable tissues, such as a suspension culture of cells or embryogenic callus or alternatively one may transform immature embryos or other organized tissue directly. In this technique, one would partially degrade the cell walls of the chosen cells by exposing them to pectin-degrading enzymes (pectolyases) or mechanically wounding in a controlled manner. Examples of some species which have been transformed by electroporation of intact cells include maize (U.S. Pat. No. 5,384,253; Rhodes et al., 1995; D&#39;Halluin et al., 1992), wheat (Zbou et al., 1993), tomato (Hou and Lin, 1996), soybean (Christou et al., 1987) and tobacco (Lee et al., 1989). 
     One also may employ protoplasts for electroporation transformation of plants (Bates, 1994; Lazzeri, 1995). For example, the generation of transgenic soybean plants by electroporation of cotyledon-derived protoplasts is described by Dhir and Widholm in Intl. Patent Appl. Publ. No. WO 9217598 (specifically incorporated herein by reference). Other examples of species for which protoplast transformation has been described include barley (Lazerri, 1995), sorghum (Battraw et al., 1991), maize (Bhattacharjee et al., 1997), wheat (He et al., 1994) and tomato (Tsukada, 1989). START HERE 
     C. Microprojectile Bombardment 
     Another method for delivering transforming DNA segments to plant cells in accordance with the invention is microprojectile bombardment (U.S. Pat. No. 5,550,318; U.S. Pat. No. 5,538,880; U.S. Pat. No. 5,610,042; and PCT Application WO 94/09699; each of which is specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). In this method, particles may be coated with nucleic acids and delivered into cells by a propelling force. Exemplary particles include those comprised of tungsten, platinum, and preferably, gold. It is contemplated that in some instances DNA precipitation onto metal particles would not be necessary for DNA delivery to a recipient cell using microprojectile bombardment. However, it is contemplated that particles may contain DNA rather than be coated with DNA. Hence, it is proposed that DNA-coated particles may increase the level of DNA delivery via particle bombardment but are not, in and of themselves, necessary. 
     For the bombardment, cells in suspension are concentrated on filters or solid culture medium. Alternatively, immature embryos or other target cells may be arranged on solid culture medium. The cells to be bombarded are positioned at an appropriate distance below the macroprojectile stopping plate. 
     An illustrative embodiment of a method for delivering DNA into plant cells by acceleration is the Biolistics Particle Delivery System, which can be used to propel particles coated with DNA or cells through a screen, such as a stainless steel or Nytex screen, onto a filter surface covered with monocot plant cells cultured in suspension. The screen disperses the particles so that they are not delivered to the recipient cells in large aggregates. Microprojectile bombardment techniques are widely applicable, and may be used to transform virtually any plant species. Examples of species for which have been transformed by microprojectile bombardment include monocot species such as maize (PCT Application WO 95/06128), barley (Ritala et al., 1994; Hensgens et al., 1993), wheat (U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), rice (Hensgens et al., 1993), oat (Torbet et al., 1995; Torbet et al., 1998), rye (Hensgens et al., 1993), sugarcane (Bower et al., 1992), and sorghum (Casa et al., 1993; Hagio et al., 1991); as well as a number of dicots including tobacco (Tomes et al., 1990; Buising and Benbow, 1994), soybean (U.S. Pat. No. 5,322,783, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), sunflower (Knittel et al., 1994), peanut (Singsit et al., 1997), cotton (McCabe and Martinell, 1993), tomato (VanEck et al., 1995), and legumes in general (U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). 
     D. Other Transformation Methods 
     Transformation of protoplasts can be achieved using methods based on calcium phosphate precipitation, polyethylene glycol treatment, electroporation, and combinations of these treatments (see, e.g., Potrykus et al., 1985; Lorz et al., 1985; Omirulleh et al., 1993; Fromm et al., 1986; Uchimiya et al., 1986; Callis et al., 1987; Marcotte et al., 1988). 
     Application of these systems to different plant strains depends upon the ability to regenerate that particular plant strain from protoplasts. Illustrative methods for the regeneration of cereals from protoplasts have been described (Toriyama et al., 1986; Yamada et al., 1986; Abdullah et al., 1986; Omirulleh et al., 1993 and U.S. Patent No. 5,508,184; each specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Examples of the use of direct uptake transformation of cereal protoplasts include transformation of rice (Ghosh-Biswas et al., 1994), sorghum (Battraw and Hall, 1991), barley (Lazerri, 1995), oat (Zheng and Edwards, 1990) and maize (Omirulleh et al., 1993). 
     To transform plant strains that cannot be successfully regenerated from protoplasts, other ways to introduce DNA into intact cells or tissues can be utilized. For example, regeneration of cereals from immature embryos or explants can be effected as described (Vasil, 1989). Also, silicon carbide fiber-mediated transformation may be used with or without protoplasting (Kaeppler, 1990; Kaeppler et al., 1992; U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,055, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Transformation with this technique is accomplished by agitating silicon carbide fibers together with cells in a DNA solution. DNA passively enters as the cells are punctured. This technique has been used successfully with, for example, the monocot cereals maize (PCT Application WO 95/06128, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety; (Thompson, 1995) and rice (Nagatani, 1997). 
     VI. Production and Characterization of Stably Transformed Plants 
     After effecting delivery of exogenous DNA to recipient cells, the next steps generally concern identifying the transformed cells for further culturing and plant regeneration. In order to improve the ability to identify transformants, one may desire to employ a selectable or screenable marker gene with a transformation vector prepared in accordance with the invention. In this case, one would then generally assay the potentially transformed cell population by exposing the cells to a selective agent or agents, or one would screen the cells for the desired marker gene trait. 
     A. Selection 
     It is believed that DNA is introduced into only a small percentage of target cells in any one experiment. In order to provide an efficient system for identification of those cells receiving DNA and integrating it into their genomes one may employ a means for selecting those cells that are stably transformed. One exemplary embodiment of such a method is to introduce into the host cell, a marker gene which confers resistance to some normally inhibitory agent, such as an antibiotic or herbicide. Examples of antibiotics which may be used include the aminoglycoside antibiotics neomycin, kanamycin and paromomycin, or the antibiotic hygromycin. Resistance to the aminoglycoside antibiotics is conferred by aminoglycoside phosphostransferase enzymes such as neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPT II) or NPT I, whereas resistance to hygromycin is conferred by hygromycin phosphotransferase. 
     Potentially transformed cells then are exposed to the selective agent. In the population of surviving cells will be those cells where, generally, the resistance-conferring gene has been integrated and expressed at sufficient levels to permit cell survival. Cells may be tested further to confirm stable integration of the exogenous DNA. 
     One herbicide which constitutes a desirable selection agent is the broad spectrum herbicide bialaphos. Bialaphos is a tripeptide antibiotic produced by  Streptomyces hygroscopicus  and is composed of phosphinothricin (PPT), an analogue of L-glutamic acid, and two L-alanine residues. Upon removal of the L-alanine residues by intracellular peptidases, the PPT is released and is a potent inhibitor of glutamine synthetase (GS), a pivotal enzyme involved in ammonia assimilation and nitrogen metabolism (Ogawa et al., 1973). Synthetic PPT, the active ingredient in the herbicide Liberty™ also is effective as a selection agent. Inhibition of GS in plants by PPT causes the rapid accumulation of ammonia and death of the plant cells. 
     The organism producing bialaphos and other species of the genus  Streptomyces  also synthesizes an enzyme phosphinothricin acetyl transferase (PAT) which is encoded by the bar gene in  Streptomyces hygroscopicus  and the pat gene in  Streptomyces viridochromogenes . The use of the herbicide resistance gene encoding phosphinothricin acetyl transferase (PAT) is referred to in DE 3642 829 A, wherein the gene is isolated from  Streptomyces viridochromogenes . In the bacterial source organism, this enzyme acetylates the free amino group of PPT preventing auto-toxicity (Thompson et al., 1987). The bar gene has been cloned (Murakami et al., 1986; Thompson et al., 1987) and expressed in transgenic tobacco, tomato, potato (De Block et al., 1987)  Brassica  (De Block et al., 1989) and maize (U.S. Pat. No. 5,550,318). In previous reports, some transgenic plants which expressed the resistance gene were completely resistant to commercial formulations of PPT and bialaphos in greenhouses. 
     Another example of a herbicide which is useful for selection of transformed cell lines in the practice of the invention is the broad spectrum herbicide glyphosate. Glyphosate inhibits the action of the enzyme EPSPS which is active in the aromatic amino acid biosynthetic pathway. Inhibition of this enzyme leads to starvation for the amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan and secondary metabolites derived thereof. U.S. Pat. No. 4,535,060 describes the isolation of EPSPS mutations which confer glyphosate resistance on the  Salmonella typhimurium  gene for EPSPS, aroA. The EPSPS gene was cloned from  Zea mays  and mutations similar to those found in a glyphosate resistant aroA gene were introduced in vitro. Mutant genes encoding glyphosate resistant EPSPS enzymes are described in, for example, International Patent WO 97/4103. The best characterized mutant EPSPS gene conferring glyphosate resistance comprises amino acid changes at residues 102 and 106, although it is anticipated that other mutations will also be useful (PCT/WO97/4103). 
     To use the bar-bialaphos or the EPSPS-glyphosate selective system, transformed tissue is cultured for 0-28 days on nonselective medium and subsequently transferred to medium containing from 1-3 mg/l bialaphos or 1-3 mM glyphosate as appropriate. While ranges of 1-3 mg/l bialaphos or 1-3 mM glyphosate will typically be preferred, it is proposed that ranges of 0.1-50 mg/l bialaphos or 0.1-50 mM glyphosate will find utility. 
     It further is contemplated that the herbicide DALAPON, 2,2-dichloropropionic acid, may be useful for identification of transformed cells. The enzyme 2,2-dichloropropionic acid dehalogenase (deh) inactivates the herbicidal activity of 2,2-dichloropropionic acid and therefore confers herbicidal resistance on cells or plants expressing a gene encoding the dehalogenase enzyme (Buchanan-Wollaston et al., 1992; U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,468; each of the disclosures of which is specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). 
     Alternatively, a gene encoding anthranilate synthase, which confers resistance to certain amino acid analogs, e.g., 5-methyltryptophan or 6-methyl anthranilate, may be useful as a selectable marker gene. The use of an anthranilate synthase gene as a selectable marker was described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,468. 
     An example of a screenable marker trait is the enzyme luciferase. In the presence of the substrate luciferin, cells expressing luciferase emit light which can be detected on photographic or x-ray film, in a luminometer (or liquid scintillation counter), by devices that enhance night vision, or by a highly light sensitive video camera, such as a photon counting camera. These assays are nondestructive and transformed cells may be cultured further following identification. The photon counting camera is especially valuable as it allows one to identify specific cells or groups of cells which are expressing luciferase and manipulate those in real time. Another screenable marker which may be used in a similar fashion is the gene coding for green fluorescent protein. 
     It further is contemplated that combinations of screenable and selectable markers will be useful for identification of transformed cells. In some cell or tissue types a selection agent, such as bialaphos or glyphosate, may either not provide enough killing activity to clearly recognize transformed cells or may cause substantial nonselective inhibition of transformants and nontransformants alike, thus causing the selection technique to not be effective. It is proposed that selection with a growth inhibiting compound, such as bialaphos or glyphosate at concentrations below those that cause 100% inhibition followed by screening of growing tissue for expression of a screenable marker gene such as luciferase would allow one to recover transformants from cell or tissue types that are not amenable to selection alone. It is proposed that combinations of selection and screening may enable one to identify transformants in a wider variety of cell and tissue types. This may be efficiently achieved using a gene fusion between a selectable marker gene and a screenable marker gene, for example, between an NPTII gene and a GFP gene. 
     B. Regeneration and Seed Production 
     Cells that survive the exposure to the selective agent, or cells that have been scored positive in a screening assay, may be cultured in media that supports regeneration of plants. In an exemplary embodiment, MS and N6 media may be modified by including further substances such as growth regulators. One such growth regulator is dicamba or 2,4-D. However, other growth regulators may be employed, including NAA, NAA+2,4-D or picloram. Media improvement in these and like ways has been found to facilitate the growth of cells at specific developmental stages. Tissue may be maintained on a basic media with growth regulators until sufficient tissue is available to begin plant regeneration efforts, or following repeated rounds of manual selection, until the morphology of the tissue is suitable for regeneration, at least 2 wk, then transferred to media conducive to maturation of embryoids. Cultures are transferred every 2 wk on this medium. Shoot development will signal the time to transfer to medium lacking growth regulators. 
     The transformed cells, identified by selection or screening and cultured in an appropriate medium that supports regeneration, will then be allowed to mature into plants. Developing plantlets are transferred to soiless plant growth mix, and hardened, e.g., in an environmentally controlled chamber, for example, at about 85% relative humidity, 600 ppm CO 2 , and 25-250 microeinsteins m −2  s −1  of light. Plants are preferably matured either in a growth chamber or greenhouse. Plants can be regenerated from about 6 wk to 10 months after a transformant is identified, depending on the initial tissue. During regeneration, cells are grown on solid media in tissue culture vessels. Illustrative embodiments of such vessels are petri dishes and Plant Cons. Regenerating plants are preferably grown at about 19 to 28° C. After the regenerating plants have reached the stage of shoot and root development, they may be transferred to a greenhouse for further growth and testing. 
     Seeds on transformed plants may occasionally require embryo rescue due to cessation of seed development and premature senescence of plants. To rescue developing embryos, they are excised from surface-disinfected seeds 10-20 days post-pollination and cultured. An embodiment of media used for culture at this stage comprises MS salts, 2% sucrose, and 5.5 g/l agarose. In embryo rescue, large embryos (defined as greater than 3 mm in length) are germinated directly on an appropriate media. Embryos smaller than that may be cultured for 1 wk on media containing the above ingredients along with 10 −5 M abscisic acid and then transferred to growth regulator-free medium for germination. 
     C. Characterization 
     To confirm the presence of the exogenous DNA or “transgene(s)” in the regenerating plants, a variety of assays may be performed. Such assays include, for example, “molecular biological” assays, such as Southern and Northern blotting and PCR™; “biochemical” assays, such as detecting the presence of a protein product, e.g., by immunological means (ELISAs and Western blots) or by enzymatic function; plant part assays, such as leaf or root assays; and also, by analyzing the phenotype of the whole regenerated plant. 
     D. DNA Integration, RNA Expression and Inheritance 
     Genomic DNA may be isolated from cell lines or any plant parts to determine the presence of the exogenous gene through the use of techniques well known to those skilled in the art. Note, that intact sequences will not always be present, presumably due to rearrangement or deletion of sequences in the cell. The presence of DNA elements introduced through the methods of this invention may be determined, for example, by polymerase chain reaction (PCR™). Using this technique, discreet fragments of DNA are amplified and detected by gel electrophoresis. This type of analysis permits one to determine whether a gene is present in a stable transformant, but does not prove integration of the introduced gene into the host cell genome. It is typically the case, however, that DNA has been integrated into the genome of all transformants that demonstrate the presence of the gene through PCR™ analysis. In addition, it is not typically possible using PCR™ techniques to determine whether transformants have exogenous genes introduced into different sites in the genome, i.e., whether transformants are of independent origin. It is contemplated that using PCR™ techniques it would be possible to clone fragments of the host genomic DNA adjacent to an introduced gene. 
     Positive proof of DNA integration into the host genome and the independent identities of transformants may be determined using the technique of Southern hybridization. Using this technique specific DNA sequences that were introduced into the host genome and flanking host DNA sequences can be identified. Hence the Southern hybridization pattern of a given transformant serves as an identifying characteristic of that transformant. In addition it is possible through Southern hybridization to demonstrate the presence of introduced genes in high molecular weight DNA, i.e., confirm that the introduced gene has been integrated into the host cell genome. The technique of Southern hybridization provides information that is obtained using PCR™, e.g., the presence of a gene, but also demonstrates integration into the genome and characterizes each individual transformant. 
     It is contemplated that using the techniques of dot or slot blot hybridization which are modifications of Southern hybridization techniques one could obtain the same information that is derived from PCR™, e.g., the presence of a gene. 
     Both PCR™ and Southern hybridization techniques can be used to demonstrate transmission of a transgene to progeny. In most instances the characteristic Southern hybridization pattern for a given transformant will segregate in progeny as one or more Mendelian genes (Spencer et al., 1992) indicating stable inheritance of the transgene. 
     Whereas DNA analysis techniques may be conducted using DNA isolated from any part of a plant, RNA will only be expressed in particular cells or tissue types and hence it will be necessary to prepare RNA for analysis from these tissues. PCR™ techniques also may be used for detection and quantitation of RNA produced from introduced genes. In this application of PCR™ it is first necessary to reverse transcribe RNA into DNA, using enzymes such as reverse transcriptase, and then through the use of conventional PCR™ techniques amplify the DNA. In most instances PCR™ techniques, while useful, will not demonstrate integrity of the RNA product. Further information about the nature of the RNA product may be obtained by Northern blotting. This technique will demonstrate the presence of an RNA species and give information about the integrity of that RNA. The presence or absence of an RNA species also can be determined using dot or slot blot Northern hybridizations. These techniques are modifications of Northern blotting and will only demonstrate the presence or absence of an RNA species. 
     E. Gene Expression 
     While Southern blotting and PCR™ may be used to detect the gene(s) in question, they do not provide information as to whether the corresponding protein is being expressed. Expression may be evaluated by specifically identifying the protein products of the introduced genes or evaluating the phenotypic changes brought about by their expression. 
     Assays for the production and identification of specific proteins may make use of physical-chemical, structural, functional, or other properties of the proteins. Unique physical-chemical or structural properties allow the proteins to be separated and identified by electrophoretic procedures, such as native or denaturing gel electrophoresis or isoelectric focusing, or by chromatographic techniques such as ion exchange or gel exclusion chromatography. The unique structures of individual proteins offer opportunities for use of specific antibodies to detect their presence in formats such as an ELISA assay. Combinations of approaches may be employed with even greater specificity such as western blotting in which antibodies are used to locate individual gene products that have been separated by electrophoretic techniques. Additional techniques may be employed to absolutely confirm the identity of the product of interest such as evaluation by amino acid sequencing following purification. Although these are among the most commonly employed, other procedures may be additionally used. 
     Assay procedures also may be used to identify the expression of proteins by their functionality, especially the ability of enzymes to catalyze specific chemical reactions involving specific substrates and products. These reactions may be followed by providing and quantifying the loss of substrates or the generation of products of the reactions by physical or chemical procedures. Examples are as varied as the enzyme to be analyzed and may include assays for PAT enzymatic activity by following production of radiolabeled acetylated phosphinothricin from phosphinothricin and  14 C-acetyl CoA or for anthranilate synthase activity by following loss of fluorescence of anthranilate, to name two. 
     Very frequently the expression of a gene product is determined by evaluating the phenotypic results of its expression. These assays also may take many forms including but not limited to analyzing changes in the chemical composition, morphology, or physiological properties of the plant. Chemical composition may be altered by expression of genes encoding enzymes or storage proteins which change amino acid composition and may be detected by amino acid analysis, or by enzymes which change starch quantity which may be analyzed by near infrared reflectance spectrometry. Morphological changes may include greater stature or thicker stalks. Most often changes in response of plants or plant parts to imposed treatments are evaluated under carefully controlled conditions termed bioassays. 
     VII. Breeding Plants of the Invention 
     In addition to direct transformation of a particular plant genotype with a construct prepared according to the current invention, transgenic plants may be made by crossing a plant having a selected DNA of the invention to a second plant lacking the construct. For example, a selected CT biosynthesis gene can be introduced into a particular plant variety by crossing, without the need for ever directly transforming a plant of that given variety. Therefore, the current invention not only encompasses a plant directly transformed or regenerated from cells which have been transformed in accordance with the current invention, but also the progeny of such plants. As used herein the term “progeny” denotes the offspring of any generation of a parent plant prepared in accordance with the instant invention, wherein the progeny comprises a selected DNA construct prepared in accordance with the invention. “Crossing” a plant to provide a plant line having one or more added transgenes relative to a starting plant line, as disclosed herein, is defined as the techniques that result in a transgene of the invention being introduced into a plant line by crossing a starting line with a donor plant line that comprises a transgene of the invention. To achieve this one could, for example, perform the following steps: 
     (a) plant seeds of the first (starting line) and second (donor plant line that comprises a transgene of the invention) parent plants; 
     (b) grow the seeds of the first and second parent plants into plants that bear flowers; 
     (c) pollinate a flower from the first parent plant with pollen from the second parent plant; and 
     (d) harvest seeds produced on the parent plant bearing the fertilized flower. 
     Backcrossing is herein defined as the process including the steps of: 
     (a) crossing a plant of a first genotype containing a desired gene, DNA sequence or element to a plant of a second genotype lacking the desired gene, DNA sequence or element; 
     (b) selecting one or more progeny plant containing the desired gene, DNA sequence or element; 
     (c) crossing the progeny plant to a plant of the second genotype; and 
     (d) repeating steps (b) and (c) for the purpose of transferring a desired DNA sequence from a plant of a first genotype to a plant of a second genotype. 
     Introgression of a DNA element into a plant genotype is defined as the result of the process of backcross conversion. A plant genotype into which a DNA sequence has been introgressed may be referred to as a backcross converted genotype, line, inbred, or hybrid. Similarly a plant genotype lacking the desired DNA sequence may be referred to as an unconverted genotype, line, inbred, or hybrid. 
     VIII. Definitions 
     Condensed tannin (CT) biosynthesis gene: A gene encoding a polypeptide that catalyzes one or more steps in the biosynthesis of condensed tannins. 
     Expression: The combination of intracellular processes, including transcription and translation undergone by a coding DNA molecule such as a structural gene to produce a polypeptide. 
     Genetic Transformation: A process of introducing a DNA sequence or construct (e.g., a vector or expression cassette) into a cell or protoplast in which that exogenous DNA is incorporated into a chromosome or is capable of autonomous replication. 
     Heterologous: A sequence which is not normally present in a given host genome in the genetic context in which the sequence is currently found In this respect, the sequence may be native to the host genome, but be rearranged with respect to other genetic sequences within the host sequence. For example, a regulatory sequence may be heterologous in that it is linked to a different coding sequence relative to the native regulatory sequence. 
     Obtaining: When used in conjunction with a transgenic plant cell or transgenic plant, obtaining means either transforming a non-transgenic plant cell or plant to create the transgenic plant cell or plant, or planting transgenic plant seed to produce the transgenic plant cell or plant. Such a transgenic plant seed may be from an R 0  transgenic plant or may be from a progeny of any generation thereof that inherits a given transgenic sequence from a starting transgenic parent plant. 
     Promoter: A recognition site on a DNA sequence or group of DNA sequences that provides an expression control element for a structural gene and to which RNA polymerase specifically binds and initiates RNA synthesis (transcription) of that gene. 
     R 0  transgenic plant: A plant that has been genetically transformed or has been regenerated from a plant cell or cells that have been genetically transformed. 
     Regeneration: The process of growing a plant from a plant cell (e.g., plant protoplast, callus or explant). 
     Selected DNA: A DNA segment which one desires to introduce into a plant genome by genetic transformation. 
     Transformation construct: A chimeric DNA molecule which is designed for introduction into a host genome by genetic transformation. Preferred transformation constructs will comprise all of the genetic elements necessary to direct the expression of one or more exogenous genes. In particular embodiments of the instant invention, it may be desirable to introduce a transformation construct into a host cell in the form of an expression cassette. 
     Transformed cell: A cell the DNA complement of which has been altered by the introduction of an exogenous DNA molecule into that cell. 
     Transgene: A segment of DNA which has been incorporated into a host genome or is capable of autonomous replication in a host cell and is capable of causing the expression of one or more coding sequences. Exemplary transgenes will provide the host cell, or plants regenerated therefrom, with a novel phenotype relative to the corresponding non-transformed cell or plant. Transgenes may be directly introduced into a plant by genetic transformation, or may be inherited from a plant of any previous generation which was transformed with the DNA segment. 
     Transgenic plant: A plant or progeny plant of any subsequent generation derived therefrom, wherein the DNA of the plant or progeny thereof contains an introduced exogenous DNA segment not naturally present in a non-transgenic plant of the same strain. The transgenic plant may additionally contain sequences which are native to the plant being transformed, but wherein the “exogenous” gene has been altered in order to alter the level or pattern of expression of the gene, for example, by use of one or more heterologous regulatory or other elements. 
     Vector: A DNA molecule capable of replication in a host cell and/or to which another DNA segment can be operatively linked so as to bring about replication of the attached segment. A plasmid is an exemplary vector. 
     IX. EXAMPLES 
     The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodiments of the invention. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventors to function well in the practice of the invention, and thus can be considered to constitute preferred modes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention. More specifically, it will be apparent that certain agents which are both chemically and physiologically related may be substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similar results would be achieved. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as defined by the appended claims. 
     Example 1 
     Production of CT in Leaves of  Arabidopsis thaliana  by Constitutive Expression of the  Arabidopsis  BAN Gene 
       Arabidopsis thaliana  ecotype Colombia (Col-0) and genetically transformed Col-0 plants were grown at 22° C. in long days (16 hr light, 250 μE light intensity). For cloning of the  Arabidopsis  BAN coding region, 4 μg of total RNA isolated from the first three to four newly emerged siliques was used to synthesize first strand cDNA in a volume of 20 μl containing 20 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.4, 50 mM KCl 2 , 5 mM MgCl 2 , 10 mM DDT, 1 mM deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate mixture, 500 ng oligo (dT)12-18 (GibcoBRL), 25 units of RNA Out (Gibco BRL) and 200 units of Moloney murine leukemia virus reverse transcriptase SuperScriptII (Gibco BRL) for 60 min at 42° C. Four μl of the first strand solution was used for PCR reactions using gene specific primers BAN: forward primer GGGCCCATGGACCAGACTCTTACACAC (SEQ ID NO:7); reverse primer CCCAGATCTAGAATGAGACCAAAGACT (SEQ ID NO:8) and high fidelity Pfu polymerase. PCR products were cloned into pGEM vectors and sequenced to confirm the sequence. 
     Coding regions for expression in plants were first cloned into the pRTL2 vector. Gene constructs carrying a double cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter::gene coding region::35S poly (A) transcription termination region were cut from the pRTL2 plasmid and cloned into pCAMBIA2300 and pCAMBIA3300 binary vectors for plant transformation. 
       Arabidopsis  transformants were prepared using the floral dip method (Clough and Bent, 1999). The primary transgenic plants were initially screened by RT-PCR by using Ready-To-Go PCR beads (Pharmacia). The basic recombinant DNA techniques used in the gene cloning were as described by Sambrook et al., (1989). Forty BAN transgenic Col-0  Arabidopsis  plants were analyzed using RT-PCR. RNA was first isolated from leaf tissues harvested from greenhouse grown plants using RNAzol. The BAN and actin gene-specific primers (actin: forward primer, GATATGGAAAAGATCTGGCATCAC (SEQ ID NO:9); reverse primer, TCATACTCGGCCTTGGAGATCCAC (SEQ ID NO:10) were used to monitor the BAN mRNA expression level in comparison to that of the constitutive actin control. The results indicated that 21 plants had very low or undetectable levels, 14 plants had low to medium levels and five (9, 19, 27, 29 and 35) had medium to high levels of BAN mRNA expression in leaf tissue ( FIG. 2 ). 
     The effect of constitutive BAN gene expression on CT levels was determined by use of the proanthocyanidin (butanol/HCl) assay; a colorimetric method for determination of condensed tannin levels (Dalzell and Kerven, 1998). CTs in leaves or seeds were extracted in 70% aqueous acetone containing 5.26 mM sodium metabisulphite as the antioxidant. The extracts were directly analyzed by the butanol/HCl reaction. Five ml of butanol/HCL mixture (95% butan-1-ol and 5% concentrated HCl) was added to 1 ml of sample in polypropylene tubes. The tubes were heated in a water bath at 95° C. for 1 hr, cooled and read at 550 nm on a spectrophotometer. Unheated blanks were prepared in an identical manner and measured to correct for the background absorbance of the sample. 
     Three lines, 9, 27 and 29 were analyzed, along with a range of positive and negative controls. The results are summarized in Table 1. The butanol/HCl method can overestimate proanthocyanidin levels, as seen by the background reaction with leaves from Col-0. However, it is clear that the three lines harboring the constitutively expressed BAN gene appear to produce condensed tannins in their leaves, on the basis of increased anthocyanidin levels after heating in butanol/HCl, to levels significantly above the background values of the  Arabidopsis  controls. Other controls included in the study reported in Table 1 were leaf material from alfalfa cv Apollo and  Medicago truncatula  (negative controls) and  Lotus japonicus  (a positive control plant that contains CT in its leaves). Apparent CT levels in the BAN transgenic  Arabidopsis  were, in fact, similar to those in Lotus leaves. The latter were lower than might be expected due to the fact that the Lotus plants were grown under low light. As predicted, seeds of  M. truncatula , alfalfa and wild-type  Arabidopsis  contained high levels of CT. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 CT levels in  Arabidopsis  lines and various other plants 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Condensed tannin level 
               
               
                 Species (line) 
                 Tissue type 
                 (μg cyanidin equivalents/g FW) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   Arabidopsis  (N323,  ban ) 
                 Leaf 
                 0 
               
               
                   Arabidopsis  (Col-0) 
                 Leaf 
                 3.7 
               
               
                   Arabidopsis  (9) 
                 Leaf 
                 44.3 
               
               
                   Arabidopsis  (29) 
                 Leaf 
                 12.9 
               
               
                   Arabidopsis  (27) 
                 Leaf 
                 15.4 
               
               
                 Alfalfa cv Apollo 
                 Leaf 
                 3.0 
               
               
                 
                   Medicago truncatula 
                 
                 Leaf 
                 2.6 
               
               
                 
                   Lotus japonicus 
                 
                 Leaf 
                 16.4 
               
               
                 
                   Medicago truncatula 
                 
                 Seed 
                 139.0 
               
               
                 Alfalfa cv Apollo 
                 Seed 
                 252.3 
               
               
                   Arabidopsis  (Col-0) 
                 Seed 
                 265.7 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Products from butanol/HCl hydrolysis of the above  Arabidopsis  samples were dried by evaporating the butanol and were dissolved in 100% methanol, followed by HPLC analysis according to Howles et al., (1996). The results are summarized in Table 2. Extracts from seeds and leaves of  Arabidopsis  plants expressing the BAN gene contained a strong peak at a retention time (RT) of approximately 22.9 min, the only major peak between 10 and 30 min RT. This peak was also present at high levels in Col-0  Aranidopsis  seeds, but was completely absent from leaves of Col-0 or ban  Arabidopsis . The nature of this compound is yet to be determined. Its levels are expressed as mg catechin equivalents in Table 2. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Levels of the RT 22.9 minute compound in various  Arabidopsis  lines 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 RT 22.9 min compound 
               
               
                   
                   Arabidopsis  line 
                 Tissue type 
                 (mg catechin equiv/g FW) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Col-0 
                 Leaf 
                 0.0 
               
               
                   
                 N323 ( ban ) 
                 Leaf 
                 0.0 
               
               
                   
                 9 
                 Leaf 
                 1.73 
               
               
                   
                 27 
                 Leaf 
                 1.10 
               
               
                   
                 29 
                 Leaf 
                 0.67 
               
               
                   
                 Col-0 
                 Seed 
                 5.71 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 2 
     Expression of the BAN Gene Reduces Anthocyanin Levels in the PAP-1D Mutant of  Arabidopsis    
     The PAP-1 gene of  Arabidopsis  encodes a MYB transcription factor (Borevitz et al., 2000). Over-expression of PAP-1 leads to strong constitutive induction of the complete pathway leading to anthocyanins in  Arabidopsis . The pap-1D mutant of  Arabidopsis  over-expresses PAP-1 by virtue of the insertion of a T-DNA activation tag close to the 5′-end of the PAP-1 gene, and ectopically accumulates anthocyanins throughout the plant, resulting in a strong purple coloration (Borevitz et al., 2000). 
     The PAP1-D mutant was transformed with  Agrobacterium  harboring the full length  Arabidopsis ban  cDNA under control of a double 35S promoter (p2xS35::BAN) using the floral dip method (Clough and Bent, 1999). Most of the 2xS35::BAN transformed PAP1-D plants lost the purple anthocyanin pigmentation in their leaves. Some of these plants were analyzed for expression of PAP, BAN and actin genes by RT-PCR. (PAP1-D primers used for RT-PCR were: forward primer, GGATCCATGGAGGGTTCGTCCAAAGGGCTGCG (SEQ ID NO:11) and reverse primer, TCTAGACTCGAGATCAAATTTCACAGTCTCTCC (SEQ ID NO:12). The results confirmed that, apart from line #8, these plants strongly expressed both the BAN and PAP1-D genes ( FIG. 3 ). According to the published proposed pathway, these data suggest that the BAN gene product acts on leucoanthocyanidin, a substrate common for both CT and anthocyanin biosynthesis, diverting it into the CT pathway. According to the published proposed pathway, BAN would be a leucoanthocyanidin reductase that had a higher affinity for leucoanthocyanidin or a higher activity in the transformed tissues than leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase (anthocyanidin synthase), the enzyme that channels leucoanthocyanidin into the anthocyanin pathway (Saito et al., 1999). 
     Example 3 
     Cloning of a BAN Gene from the Forage Legume  Medicago truncatula    
     Unvemalized seeds of  Medicago truncatula  cv Jemalong line A-1 7 were planted in pots and seedlings grown in the greenhouse. After pollination of flowers, young seed pods were collected and young seeds about 2-5 mm in size were removed from the pods, dropped in liquid nitrogen, and stored at −80° C. Total RNA was extracted from young seeds using a Qiagen Midi kit RNA isolation kit, and mRNA obtained from the total RNA using a poly(A) mRNA purification kit (Qiagen). A cDNA library was constructed from the mRNA using a Stratagene ZAP-cDNA synthesis kit and ZAP-cDNA Gigapack III Gold cloning kit, according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocols. Mass excision of the cDNA library was performed using 1 μl primary cDNA library (about 10,000 pfu of phage) following the protocol of the Stratagene kit. One μl of mass excised plasmids was used for plating with  E. coli  SoLR cells following the protocols in the Stratagene kit. Five thousand colonies were picked individually and each incubated in 1.5 ml TB medium with 100 μg/ml ampicillin contained in wells of 96-well plates. Plasmids were prepared and inserts sequenced following a robotic plasmid preparation/sequencing protocol utilizing a crude alkaline lysis technique for plasmid isolation (Roe, 1996) followed by automated sequencing with an ABI 3700 capillary sequencer and Big Dye terminator chemistry. 
     Comparisons of the nucleotide sequences were made against the GenBank database, revealing one clone from the young seed library that appeared to correspond to a full-length  A. thaliana  BAN cDNA (Genbank Accession No. AF092912; Devic, 1999). This clone was located in the third block (96 well plate) sequenced, with the designation NF003H09YS1F1080. The full-length putative  M. truncatula  BAN cDNA was 1.164 kb in length, with 59% nucleotide sequence similarity to  Arabidopsis  BAN (SEQ ID NO:3). 
     To determine the number of copies of the putative BAN gene in the  M. truncatula  genome, genomic DNA was extracted from  M. truncatula  leaves. Ten μg of DNA was digested with the restriction enzymes HindIII and EcoRI at 37° C. overnight, and fragments resolved by electrophoresis in a 0.8% agarose gel with Tris-acetic acid-EDTA (TAE) buffer. The complete  M. truncatula  putative BAN open reading frame was labeled with  32 P-dCTP using a random primer labeling kit from Promega (Prime-a-Gene® labeling system) and used as probe. DNA gel blot hybridization was performed according to standard protocols (Sambrook et al, 1989; Church and Gilbert, 1984). The results indicated the presence of a single copy of the putative BAN gene in the  M. truncatula  genome. 
     Example 4 
     Determination of BAN Gene Expression Patterns in  M. truncatula    
     For determining BAN gene expression patterns in  M. truncatula , total RNA was extracted from different organs including roots, hypocotyls, leaves, flower buds, open flowers and young seeds using a Tri-Reagent kit (Molecular Research Center). Root samples included uninoculated 16 day-old roots and 4 week-old nodulated roots. Young expanding folded leaves and unfolded mature leaves were collected from vernalized greenhouse grown plants without the central red anthocyanin-containing leaf spots, as well as from unvernalized plants grown in a growth room with a light intensity of 200 μE and low nitrogen fertilizer. Flower buds, flowers (including the calyx), and young seeds were collected from plants grown in the greenhouse. Hypocotyls were collected from seedlings either grown in the dark to suppress anthocyanin accumulation or grown under high light to induce anthocyanin accumulation. Seeds were scarified with concentrated sulfuric acid for 10 min and then washed several times with sterile MilliQ water, before placing on wet Whatman 3M paper in clear petri dishes for germination in the dark. White hypocotyls were harvested from five-day old dark grown plants. 
     Three day-old dark grown seedlings were transferred to light (200 μE) and red/purple hypocotyls were harvested after 30 and 50 hr. Fifteen μg total RNA samples were dissolved in 20 μl RNA preparation solution (0.5× formaldehyde gel-running buffer, 2.2 M formaldehyde, 50% formamide), denatured at 65° C. for 15 min and chilled on ice. After centrifugation, 2 μl formaldehyde gel-loading buffer (50% glycerol, 1 mM EDTA pH 8.0, 0.25% bromophenol blue, 0.25% xylene cyanol FF) was added to RNA samples, which were then electrophoresed in 1.5% agarose gels in the presence of ethidium bromide (1 μg/20 μl). RNAs were then transfer blotted to GeneScreen Plus® (NEN/Dupont) membranes. Membranes were pre-hybridized at 65° C. in hybridization buffer (1% BSA, 1 mM EDTA pH 8.0, 0.5 M NaHPO 4  pH 7.2, 7% SDS) for 4 hours, then labeled probes were added to the hybridization solution and allowed to hybridize with the membrane overnight at 65° C. The BAN gene coding region probe was labeled with α- 32 P dCTP using a Promega Prime-a-Gene® labeling system random primer labeling kit. Hybridized membranes were washed twice for 10 min in wash buffer #1 (0.5% BSA, 1 mM EDTA, 40 mM NaHPO 4  pH 7.2, 5% SDS), then twice for 5-10 min in wash buffer #2 (1 mM EDTA, 40 mM NaHPO 4  pH 7.2, 1% SDS). Membranes were then exposed overnight in a phosphorimager or exposed to X-ray film at −80° C. for 48-72 hr. 
     BAN RNA levels were also determined using an RT-PCR method. One μg total RNA sample was used for the first strand cDNA synthesis using an Advantage™ RT-for-PCR kit (Clonetech). Five μl of the first strand cDNA was used for each PCR reaction in 50 μl final volume. The PCR reactions were done using  M. truncatula  BAN gene primers (forward 5′CCTCATAGCACTGCAAAGTTTGGGGG3′ (SEQ ID NO:13) and reverse 5′GCCTGTTAG AAGTGACATTCCC3′ (SEQ ID NO:14)). The cycle conditions were 94° C. for 2 min; 30 cycles at 94° C. for 30 sec, 60° C. for 30 sec and 72° C. for 1.5 min, followed by a final extension at 72° C. for 10 min. Products of PCR amplification were analyzed by electrophoresis of 20 μl reaction aliquots on 0.8% agarose gels in Tris-acetic acid-EDTA buffer and visualized with ethidium bromide. 
     Both RT-PCR and RNA gel blot hybridization analysis showed that the putative BAN gene was most highly expressed in immature seeds, flowers and flower buds of  M. truncatula , with highest expression in the seeds ( FIG. 4 ). The high level of expression in seeds correlated with the presence of CTs in the  M. truncatula  seed coat, as determined by staining with 1% vanillin in 5 N HCl as described by Kristensen and Aastrup (1986). 
     Example 5 
     Inhibition of Anthocyanin Production and Introduction of Formation of CTs in Flower Petals of Tobacco by Constitutive Expression of the  Medicago truncatula  BAN Gene 
     The binary vector pBI121-BAN was constructed by inserting the complete  M. truncatula  BAN open reading frame into the BamHI and SacI sites of pBI121 (Clonetech). In this construct, BAN expression is under control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter and Nos 3′ terminator. pBI121-BAN was transformed into  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  LBA4404 by electroporation. 
     Leaves of tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum  cv. Xanthi) seedlings were cut into discs about 1 cm 2  in size, and these were pre-cultured for 3 days on MS 104 medium consisting of MS0 [containing 4.3 g/l MS salts (Gibco) (Murashige and Skoog, 1962), 1 ml/l B5 vitamins (Sigrna) (Gamborg et al., 1968), 30 g/l sucrose, and 0.3% (w/v) phytogel, pH 5.7], 1.0 mg/l benzyladenine (BA) and 0.1 mg/l naphthalene acetic acid (NAA). A single colony of  A. tumefaciens  harboring pBI121-BAN was grown overnight in the dark in Luria-Bertani medium (Sambrook et al., 1989) containing 100 mg/l streptomycin (Sigma) and 50 mg/l kanamycin (Sigma) at 28° C. on a gyratory shaker set at 250 rpm. Bacteria from this culture were pelleted and then re-suspended in 50 ml sterile MSO liquid medium. The pre-cultured leaf discs were dipped into the bacterial suspension for 10 min, blotted dry on sterile Whatman paper, and inoculated on solid MS104 medium for co-cultivation for 3 days. The infected leaf discs were then further selected on MS104 medium supplemented with 300 mg/l kanamycin and 500 mg/l carbenicillin. Putative transgenic shoots were rooted on rooting medium consisting of MS0 supplemented with 200 mg/l kanamycin and 500 mg/l carbenicillin. Thirty eight putative transgenic plantlets were transferred to pots and grown in the greenhouse. 
     To confirm chromosomal insertion of the  Medicago  BAN transgene, genomic DNA was extracted from leaves of putative transgenic tobacco plants. One hundred to 150 mg of fresh leaf tissue was processed using the DNeasy® Plant Minikit (Qiagen). After digestion with HindIII, eight μg of genomic DNA were separated by electrophoresis as described above. The NPTII selectable marker gene in the binary vector was used as probe; it was labeled with  32 P-dCTP using the Ready-To-Go DNA labeling beads (dCTP) kit (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Membranes were pre-hybridized for 4 hours at 65° C. in hybridization buffer (1% BSA, 1 mM EDTA, 0.5 M NaHPO 4  pH 7.2, 7% SDS), then labeled probe was added and allowed to hybridize with the membrane overnight at 65° C. Hybridized membranes were washed twice for 10 min in wash buffer #1 (0.5% BSA, 1 mM EDTA, 40 mM NaHPO 4  pH 7.2, 5% SDS), then washed twice for 5-10 min in wash buffer #2 (1 mM EDTA, 40 mM NaHPO 4  pH 7.2, 1% SDS). Membranes were exposed overnight in a phosphorimager or exposed to X-ray film at −80° C. for 48-72 hr. The DNA gel blot analysis showed that the transgene construct copy number varied from single to multiple copies. More than two copies of the transgene construct were present in transgenic lines B-9-A, B-11, B-15-C, B-16-A, B-19-A and B-19-B ( FIG. 5 ). Plants B-5, B-13-A and B-21-A had two copies ( FIG. 5 ). A single copy was present in plants B-1-B, B-2-A, B-2-B, B-2-C, B-6-A, B-6-B, B-6-C, B-7, B-15-A, B-15-B, B-16-B, B-17-A, B-18-A, B-19-C and B-21-B ( FIG. 5 ). 
     Example 6 
     Confirmation of BAN Transgene Expression and Phenotypic Modification 
     To investigate the extent of  Medicago  BAN transgene expression in tobacco plants, total RNA was extracted from young leaves. A labeled  M. truncatula  BAN probe was made using a Ready-To-Go DNA labeling beads (dCTP) kit (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Thirty four plants showed various levels of BAN transcripts as determined by RNA gel blot hybridization analysis ( FIG. 6 ). Lines B-16-B, B-18-B, B-19-A, B-21-A and B-21-B had the highest levels of BAN transgene expression ( FIG. 6 ). Lines B-2-A, B-7, B-9-A, B-10, B-11, B-13-A, B-13-B, B-14-A, B-15-A, B-15-B, B-17-A, B-17-B, B-18-C, B-19-C, B-20-B and B-20-C had intermediate expression. Gene silencing may have occurred in the multiple-copy lines B-16-A and B-19-B ( FIG. 6 ). 
     About 30% of the transgenic plants showed changes in flower color. A dramatic change from red or pink to white occurred in lines B-11, B-17-A, B-19-A and B-21-B ( FIG. 7 ), but no white flower color was ever observed in non-transgenic control plants (6 lines derived from tissue culture) and vector control transgenic plants (21 lines), although the intensity of red flower coloration did vary. These results demonstrate that ectopic expression of BAN changes flower color, presumably by channeling intermediates away from anthocyanin biosynthesis. 
     Condensed tannins in the petals of transgenic plants were visualized by incubating fresh tissues in 1% vanillin in 5N HCl (Kristensen and Aastrup, 1986) for 30 min in petri dishes, or by staining tissues in a solution of ethanol:6M HCl (1:1) containing 0.1% (w/v) dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde (DMACA) (Sigma) (Bavage et al., 1997) for 3-6 min, then washing three times with MilliQ water. If CTs are present a blue color develops with DMACA reagent, and the cells containing CTs can be examined under a dissecting microscope. Both vanillin and DMACA staining indicated that BAN transgenic petals contained CTs but that petals from control plants did not.  FIG. 8  shows DMACA staining of BAN-transgenic and control petals. 
     For quantitative analysis of anthocyanins and CTs in transgenic tobacco petals, fresh petals (0.4-0.8 g fresh weight) from three flowers were immersed in 15 ml ethanol: 6M HCl (1:1) in 50 ml screw-cap tubes and extracted at 4° C. in the cold room for 10 hours. The anthocyanin extract solution was removed into new 50 ml screw cap tubes; a further 15 ml ethanol: 6M HCl (1:1) was added and the petal samples extracted for a further 10 hours. The two anthocyanin extractions were pooled together and stored at 4° C. for estimation of anthocyanins from their absorption at 528 nm. 
     The white petals (after extraction of anthocyanin) were transferred to new 50 ml screw-cap tubes, washed three times in MilliQ water and then immersed in MilliQ water overnight (16 hours) in the cold room. The now semi-transparent white petals were blotted on paper tissue to remove excess water and placed into 15 ml capped tubes. Three ml butanol: concentrated HCl (95:5, v/v) was added to each tube, which was then heated to 100° C. in a water bath for 1 hour, and then cooled to room temperature. The absorbance of the butanol-HCl extract was measured at 550 nm (Carron et al., 1994), and cyanidin was used as standard (Giner-Chavez et al., 1997). The butanol-HCl extract was also dried under vacuum and the residue re-suspended in 200 μl methanol containing 0.1% HCl for HPLC analysis. 
     The levels of anthocyanins in petals of tobacco plants expressing the  M. truncatula  BAN gene were reduced approximately three-fold compared to those in control plants ( FIG. 9 ). The analysis of these transgenic plants was repeated using a modified procedure for extraction and analysis of anthocyanins. Individual tobacco flowers were cut at the base of the swelling below the corolla (the portion of the flower containing the majority of the anthocyanins in wild-type tobacco flowers). To extract the anthocyanin pigments, the upper portion (approximately 1.5 cm) including the corolla from each flower was placed in 10 ml methanol acidified with 0.05% HCl in a plastic screw cap tube and shaken gently at room temperature in the dark for 24 hr. The absorbance of extracts was measured at 528 nm. The results are shown in Table 3, and confirm the reduction in anthocyanin levels in flowers of plants expressing  M. truncatula  BAN. Furthermore, the results in Table 3 also include data on anthocyanin levels in three transgenic lines over-expressing  M. truncatula  dihydroflavonol reductase. In these lines, anthocyanin levels were increased. This can also be seen visually in  FIG. 7 , plant D-5-C. Thus, although the  M. truncatula  BAN gene has significant sequence similarity to DFR, the phenotypes resulting from over-expression of DFR or BAN are opposite, indicating that  M. truncatula  BAN does not possess DFR activity. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Anthocyanin levels in petals from transgenic tobacco plants constitutively 
               
               
                 expressing  Medicago truncatula  BAN or DFR 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Plant line 
                   
                 Avg. absorbance 
                   
               
               
                 Construct 
                 (# of samples) 
                 Flower Color 
                 (528 nm) 
                 Std dev 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 CaMV35S:MtBAN 
                 BAN-21-B 
                 (3) 
                 light pink rays 
                 0.018 
                 0.002 
               
               
                 CaMV35S:MtBAN 
                 BAN-13-B 
                 (3) 
                 light pink overall 
                 0.037 
                 0.005 
               
               
                 CaMV35S:MtBAN 
                 BAN-6-C 
                 (2) 
                 very pale pink 
                 0.027 
                 0.001 
               
               
                 CaMV35S:MtBAN 
                 BAN-19-A 
                 (3) 
                 pale pink 
                 0.017 
                 0.004 
               
               
                 CaMV35S:MtBAN 
                 BAN-14-A 
                 (2) 
                 very pale pink 
                 0.017 
                 0.003 
               
               
                 CaMV35S:MtD- 
                 D-DFR-3-C 
                 (3) 
                 dark pink 
                 0.118 
                 0.026 
               
               
                 DFR 
               
               
                 CaMV35S:MtD- 
                 D-DFR-5-B 
                 (2) 
                 pink 
                 0.087 
                 0.018 
               
               
                 DFR 
               
               
                 CaMV35S:MtD- 
                 D-DFR-2 
                 (2) 
                 pink 
                 0.111 
                 0.017 
               
               
                 DFR 
               
               
                 CaMV35S:GUS 
                 121-1-C 
                 (2) 
                 pink 
                 0.054 
                 0.006 
               
               
                 CaMV35S:GUS 
                 121-5-A 
                 (2) 
                 pink 
                 0.067 
                 0.019 
               
               
                 stock lines: 
               
               
                 untransformed 
                 NF + 0 
                 (2) 
                 pink 
                 0.072 
                 0.018 
               
               
                 promoterless GUS 
                 101-H1 
                 (2) 
                 pink 
                 0.086 
                 0.013 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     After extraction of anthocyanins, petals from transgenic plants expressing the BAN gene produced a red color on boiling in butanol-HCl, but no red color was observed in petals from control plants. UV/visible spectroscopy indicated that petal extracts from the BAN transgenic plants had 2-3 times higher absorption at 550 nm than extracts from control petals. Using cyanidin as external standard, the level of CT in BAN transgenics was between 7.7-42.7 μg cyanidin equivalents per g fresh weight (Table 4). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Condensed tannin levels in petals of transgenic tobacco expressing 
               
               
                 the  Medicago truncatula  BAN gene in comparison to levels in 
               
               
                 empty vector and wild-type controls. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Tobacco line 
                 CT (μg cyanidin equivalents/g FW) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Wild-type CK-4 
                 1.2 
               
               
                   
                 Wild-type CK-5 
                 0.8 
               
               
                   
                 Empty vector 121-1-B 
                 0.0 
               
               
                   
                 Empty vector 121-4-B 
                 1.2 
               
               
                   
                 B-13-B 
                 42.7 
               
               
                   
                 B-19-A 
                 14.3 
               
               
                   
                 B-19-C 
                 7.7 
               
               
                   
                 B-21-B 
                 26.6 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 7 
     Identification of BAN Coding Sequences from Plant Species 
     Following identification and confirmation of the utility and function of the  M. truncatula  BAN sequence (SEQ ID NO:1), studies were carried out to identify BAN coding sequences from other plants. Using a genomics-based approach, plant genome databases were scanned for additional BAN coding sequences. Corresponding sequences were identified from barley,  Brassica napus , Cotton, grape and sorghum. Amino acid sequences of the BAN genes from  M. truncatula  and  A. thaliana  were used to scan TIGR gene indices for different crop plants by a tblastn method. Sequences identified were further aligned by using the Clustal W method, MegAlign DNASTAR program to confirm their homology. Two barley BAN coding sequences were identified using this approach, barley 49014 and barley barley55701; as were two sorghum sequences, designated sorghum TC34457 and TC34925. The corresponding coding sequences (ORFs) for the barley sequences are given in SEQ ID NO:33 and SEQ ID NO:35 and the polypeptides encoded are given in SEQ ID NO:34 and SEQ ID NO:35, respectively. The coding sequences for sorghum TC34457 and sorghum TC34925 are given in SEQ ID NO:43 and SEQ ID NO:45, and the encoded polypeptides are given in SEQ ID NO:44 and SEQ ID NO:46, respectively. The other sequences identified were as follows: the  Brassica napus  coding sequence is given in SEQ ID NO:37 and the encoded polypeptide is given in SEQ ID NO:38; the cotton coding sequence is given in SEQ ID NO:39 and the encoded polypeptide is given in SEQ ID NO:40; the grape coding sequence is given in SEQ ID NO:41 and the encoded polypeptide is given in SEQ ID NO:42. 
     Two new BAN sequences were also cloned from barley cv. Morex. Total RNA was isolated from the developing seed testa of barley cv. Morex using a Tri-Reagent kit (Molecular Research Center). Four μg total RNA was used to synthesize first stand cDNA as described in Example 1. Four μl of the first stand cDNA solution was used for PCR reactions using high fidelity Pfu polymerase in combination with gene specific primers for barley BAN (SEQ ID NO: 35) (forward primer: AGGCTGGTGCCACGCGGTTCTTCCATGGCGGCGGGCGAGGGGAGGAAGACG G (SEQ ID NO: 49) and reverse primer: AGATCTAGAACATGTCAATGGCGCAAAATCCCGGTGCTC) (SEQ ID NO: 50) and barley BAN, SEQ ID NO:33 (forward primer: CAGGCTGGTGCCACGCGGTTCTTCCATGGCGGCGGCGGCTGGTGATGGGAC (SEQ ID NO: 51) and reverse primer: AGATCTAGAGAAGAGCCTGTTATATCAGTAT (SEQ ID NO:52)). The PCR products digested with NcoI and XbaI were cloned into pRTL2. Cloned genes were sequenced and the coding sequences, designated as barley 306 and barley 316, are given SEQ ID NO 29 and SEQ ID NO 31 and the corresponding polypeptides are given SEQ ID NO 30 and SEQ ID NO32. 
     To confirm the ANR activity for barley 306 and barley 316, the sequences were digested with NcoI restriction enzyme and mung bean nuclease and then with XbaI restriction enzyme and were cloned into  E. coli  expression vector pMAL-C2X digested with XmnI and XbaI, resulting into pMAL-306 and pMAL316, respectively.  E. coli  carrying pMAL-306 and pMAL-316 were induced with 1 mM IPTG for 24 hr at 16° C. and protein extracts from them were assayed for ANR activity as described in Example 8. Both these constructs showed ANR activity by reducing anthocyanidins to (−) epicatechins. 
     Example 8 
     Novel Anthocyanidin Reductase Enzyme Activity Assay for the Recombinant Protein Encoded by the  Medicago truncatula  BAN Homolog and the  Arabidopsis thaliana  BAN cDNA Clones (MtBAN and AtBAN) 
     The coding region of the  Medicago truncatula  BAN homolog (MtBAN) was subcloned by digesting the original plasmid with NcoI (cuts at the start codon) and XhoI (cuts after the polyA tail), then ligating the fragment into the  E. coli  expression vector pSE380. The plasmid was used to transform  E. coli  BL21-Gold host cells (Stratagene), with 100 μg/ml ampicillin selection. The cDNA clone of the  Arabidopsis thaliana  BAN (AtBAN) was obtained as described above by RT-PCR using primers which introduced NcoI and XbaI sites at 5′ and 3′ (60 bp after the stop codon) of the BAN ORF, respectively. The PCR products were coned into pGEM-T Easy (Promega). After confirming the BAN ORF sequence, the pGEM-T Easy-BAN plasmid was cut with NcoI and XbaI. The NcoI/XbaI fragment carrying the BAN ORF was purified and ligated into NcoI and XbaI cut  E. coli  expression vector pPROEX-1 (GIBCO, Life Technologies). The ligation mix was used to transform DH5a host cells, with 100 μg/ml ampicillin selection. 
     A single colony harboring either MtBAN or AtBAN expression constructs or pSE380 (empty vector control) was inoculated into 3 ml LB medium containing ampicillin 100 μg/ml and incubated overnight at 37° C. at 250 rpm. One ml cell suspension was used to inoculate 50 ml LB medium containing ampicillin 100 μg/ml and incubated at 37° C. at 250 rpm until the culture density reached OD 600 =0.3, then incubated at 16° C. or 12° C. at 250 rpm until the culture density reached OD 600 =0.6 to 0.7. IPTG (100 mM stock) was added to each culture to a final concentration of 1 mM to induce protein synthesis. The cultures were incubated an additional 20-23 hrs at the same conditions, and then the cells were collected by centrifugation at 4° C. (induction at higher temperatures resulted in mostly insoluble BAN protein). The pellets were used to extract enzyme or were stored at −20° C. for future enzyme assays. 
     Cells from 50 ml cultures were lysed by resuspending the cell pellet in 1 ml lysis buffer containing 100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.0), and 100 μg/ml lysozyme (from egg-white; Sigma). After 10 min incubation at room temperature, the viscous lysate was sonicated 15-20 sec on ice to shear DNA and homogenize the solution. The suspension was centrifuged 15 min at 4° C. and the supernatant was transferred into new chilled centrifuge tube and kept on ice for further activity and molecular weight assay (SDS-PAGE analysis). 
     Pelargonidin chloride, cyanidin chloride and delphinidin chloride (Indofine Chemical Company, Inc. (Sommerville, N.J.) were used as substrates for an anthocyanidin reductase activity assay of the recombinant BAN-encoded proteins. Initial assays used the extracts from cultures expressing the MtBAN ( Medicago ) protein. The protein extracts from  E. coli  cultures harboring the empty expression vector pSE380 were used as negative controls. As an additional negative control for the assay, a portion of the MtBAN and vector control protein extracts were boiled in a water bath for 10 min. The enzyme assays were carried out in 1.5 ml polypropylene tubes containing 345 μl 100 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.0, 5 μl pelargonidin chloride, cyanidin chloride or delphinidin chloride (10 mM stock in MEOH), 50 μl NADPH (fresh 20 mM stock) and 100 μl crude enzyme extract (approximately 50 μg protein by BioRad dye-binding protein assay with BSA as a standard). Initial assays were carried out with protein extracts from cultures expressing recombinant MtBAN proteins, or from cultures containing the empty expression vectors, or these extracts after boiling (boiled MtBAN protein or boiled pSE380 vector control proteins). After adding the protein extracts, the assay mixture was mixed well and incubated in a 30° C. water bath for 30 min. The reaction was stopped by adding 1 ml ethyl acetate and vortexing 1 min. Phases were separated by centrifuging at 14,000 rpm 4° C. for 15 min. A portion (0.8 ml) of the ethyl acetate extract (upper phase) was transferred to a new 1.5 ml tube, and the ethyl acetate was evaporated with nitrogen gas at room temperature. The residues were dissolved in 100% methanol (HPLC grade) for HPLC analysis. 
     HPLC analysis was carried out on a HP1100 HPLC system with a UV/Vis Diode Array detector (Agilent Co., formerly Hewlett-Packard). The HPLC column was a reverse phase C18 (MetaChem “Waters” Spherisorb ODS 5 um 250×4.6 mm) and the solvents were 1% H 3 PO 4  (solvent A) and acetonitrile (CH 3 CN) (solvent B). The HPLC program consisted of the following percentages of CH 3 CN (B): equilibration and first 5 min after injection, 5% B; from 5 to 7 min, linear increase to 7% B; hold at 7% B until 25 min; from 25 to 40 min, linear increase to 40% B; from 40 to 40.5 min (wash cycle begins), linear increase to 95% B, hold at 95% B until 49.5 min, and linear return to 5% B (initial conditions) from 49.5 to 50 min. After a 10 min re-equilibration, the next sample was injected. The flow rate was 1.5 ml/min and the injection volume was 30 μl. Standards of (±)-catechin or (−)-epicatechin, gallocatechin, epigallocatechin (Sigma) were used for comparison of HPLC retention times and UV diode array spectra in the assay. 
     After 30 min incubation at 30° C. of the enzyme assay mixture containing MtBAN protein extract, NADPH, cyanidin, and buffer, two new peaks appear in the HPLC chromatogram, which are not present in chromatograms from assays with the pSE380 control protein extracts, or with boiled (inactivated) MtBAN extracts or boiled pSE380 extracts ( FIG. 10 ; note that the y-axes are in mAU at 280 nm, and that the scale varies with the samples). The major new peak eluted at approximately 31.6 min. This retention time matches that of the epicatechin standard in this system and had a UV diode array spectrum matching that of epicatechin ( FIG. 11 ). A broad minor new peak eluted at approximately 20 min, matching the retention time and UV spectrum of the catechin standard ( FIG. 10  and  FIG. 11 ). Therefore, the MtBAN protein was concluded to be a novel, previously unexpected, anthocyanidin reductase, in this case reducing cyanidin to the corresponding flavan-3-ols, catechin and epicatechin, in vitro. In addition to acting on free anthocyanidins, MtBAN may also act on anthocyanins (anthocyanidins with 3-glucose substitution). 
     When NADPH was omitted from the enzyme assay mixtures, no conversion of anthocyanidins to flavan-3-ols was observed, indicating that the enzyme reaction is NADPH-dependent. When NADH (2 mM, final concentration) was substituted for NADPH, some conversion was observed (approximately 50% of the level achieved with NADPH at the same concentration), indicating that the enzyme may use other reducing co-factors. 
     MtBAN protein extracts also catalyzed the reduction of pelargonidin into a new compound eluting at 33.6 min, but negative control proteins (pSE380, boiled MtBAN and boiled pSE380) do not produce this product ( FIG. 12 ). This peak was tentatively identified as epi-afzelechin, the flavan-3-ol corresponding to pelargonidin, based on relative retention time and UV spectra ( FIG. 12  and  FIG. 13 ). MtBAN protein extracts also catalyzed the reduction of delphinidin into putative gallo-catechin and epi-gallocatechin ( FIG. 14  and  FIG. 15 ). No formation of any of these products were observed in the reaction mixtures with negative control protein extracts. 
     The anthocyanidin reductase assay was repeated with extracts from cultures expressing the AtBAN ( Arabidopsis ) protein. The protein extracts from  E. coli  cultures harboring the empty expression vector pPROEX-1 were used as negative controls, or these extracts after boiling. As was shown for the MtBAN extracts, protein extracts from cultures expressing the AtBAN protein were able to catalyze the reduction of cyanidin to epicatechin ( FIG. 16  and  FIG. 17 ), pelargonidin into epi-alfzelechin ( FIG. 18  and  FIG. 19 ), and delphinidin into gallocatechin ( FIG. 20  and  FIG. 21 ). The lower amounts of reaction products recovered from the AtBAN reactions may be due to the fact that 4-month old frozen protein extracts were used in the assay, and additional products, like those observed with MtBAN extracts, may be observed with a more active AtBAN enzyme preparation. 
     The results demonstrate that the BAN gene encodes a novel enzyme of anthocyanidin reductase catalyzing the reduction of anthocyanidins into flavan-3-ols, which can then be polymerized into condensed tannins. The overall reaction is described in  FIG. 22 . For the cyanidin and pelargonidin substrates, the major product accumulating in vitro appears to be the “epi” (2R,3R) configuration (hydroxyl at the 3 position and aromatic ring at 2 position are cis) of the flavan-3-ol, although some product with the trans configuration (2S,3R) is also observed. Incubating the “epi” (2R,3R) configuration-(−)epicatechin or (2R, 3S) (+)-catechin with MtBAN or AtBAN in the presence of NADPH does not produce (2S,3R) configuration (−) catechin or (−)epicatechin, indicating that BAN converts cyanidin into both (−)epicatechin as major product and (−)catechin as minor products. In cases where two product peaks were observed, the ratio of the areas of the two product peaks (putative isomers) varied from study to study. The identity and exact stereochemistry of the product peaks is being further confirmed by LC-MS analysis and other methods. 
     Using a similar C-18 HPLC column and gradient with one half the flow rate, LC-MS analysis of the products from large-scale reactions of MtBAN enzyme acting on pelargonidin, cyanidin and delphinidin was carried out. For cyanidin as substrate, the two product peaks generated molecular ions, fragmentation patterns and retention times matching those of the catechin and epicatechin standards, and for delphinidin as substrate, the two product peaks generated molecular ions, fragmentation patterns and retention times matching those of the gallocatechin and epigallocatechin standards. For pelargonidin as substrate, no product standards were available for comparison, but two peaks consistent with the molecular weight of afzelechin or epi-afzelechin (16 mass units lighter than the catechin standard) were observed. 
     During repeated attempts, no LAR activity was observed in reactions containing leucoanthocyanidins and recombinant MtBAN or AtBAN proteins. It could not, however, be ruled out that this LAR enzyme activity exists in plant cells. It was demonstrated that the introduction of the BAN-encoded anthocyanidin reductase activity was sufficient to confer the accumulation of condensed tannins in plants cells, particularly those already accumulating anthocyanins (Example 6;  FIG. 8 ). Heterologous expression of MtBAN in transgenic tobacco flowers generated condensed tannins in corolla and simultaneously decreased anthocyanins, consistent with the anthocyanidin reductase activity herein elucidated for BAN. 
     It has previously been reported that the enzyme leucoanthocyanidin reductase (LAR), catalyzing the reduction of leucoanthocyanidins into flavan-3-ols such as catechin ( FIG. 1 ), is a component of condensed tannins synthesis (Stafford, 1990). The BAN gene product was suggested to be LAR in previous instances because ban mutants of  Arabidopsis  no longer produce condensed tannins in seed coats, the predicted protein sequence was similar to DFR, and the seeds accumulated higher levels of anthocyanins, consistent with the loss of LAR allowing more leucoanthocyanidins to go to anthocyanin accumulation (Devic, 1999). Prior to this, BAN was thought to encode a negative regulator (transcription factor) of anthocyanin biosynthesis (Albert, 1997). The BAN gene cDNA and genomic fragments were previously cloned from  Arabidopsis  (Devic, 1999), but there has not been a direct demonstration of its biochemical functions with regard to condensed tannins biosynthesis, nor any previous demonstration that its over-expression or ectopic expression confers accumulation of condensed tannins in tissues that do not naturally accumulate condensed tannins. 
     The condensed tannin and anthocyanin biosynthetic pathways may interact as now described in  FIG. 23 , with the BAN-encoded anthocyanidin reductase (ANR) now acting upon anthocyanidins (the product of ANS, anthocyanidin synthase, or LDOX, leucoanthocyanidin oxidase), instead of competing for the leucoanthocyanidin pathway intermediates. Anthocyanin (anthocyanidin-3-O-glucosides) and anthocyanidins accumulation is thus reduced by way of conversion of the anthocyanidins to flavan-3-ols. 
     Example 9 
     Anthocyanidin Reductase in Different Crop Species 
       Lotus corniculatus, Desmodium uncinatum  and Barley cv. Morex were grown in a greenhouse. Young leaves from  L. corniculatus , unexpanded leaves, and young pods as well as open flowers and flower buds from  D. uncinatum , and young grains from Barley were collected. Seed testas of barley grains were excised and pooled together for enzyme extraction. Mature grape fruit stored at −80° C. was treated in pH 7 100 mM Tris.HCl buffer for 30 seconds for isolating the skin for enzyme extraction. 
     A fresh one-gram leaf sample of  L. corniculatus , one-gram testa from barley, and 9 grams of grape fruit skin, as well as two grams of flowers, 3 grams of young pods and 3 grams of young unexpanded leaves from  Desmodium uncinatum , were independently ground into fine powders in liquid nitrogen. The follow buffer systems were used for enzyme extraction. Extraction buffer 1: pH 7 100 mM Tris.HCl, 10% glycerol and 2 mM 1,4-dithiothreitol; Extraction buffer 2: pH 8 50 mM phosphate buffer, 10% glycerol, 1.5% polyethyleneglycol 4000 (PEG-4000), 2 mM pH 8.0 Na-EDTA, 25 mM sodium ascorbate, 20 mM β-mecaptoenthanol, and 5 mM 1,4-dithiothreitol; Extraction buffer 3: pH 8 100 mM Tris.HCl, 10% glycerol 1.5% polyethyleneglycerol 4000 (PEG-4000), 2 mM pH 8.0 Na-EDTA, 25 mM sodium ascorbate, 80 mM β-mecaptoenthanol, and 5 mM 1,4-dithiothreitol. 
     The homogenate powder of  Lotus corniculatus  leaf and barley testa tissue was suspended in 5 ml extraction buffer 1, in which 1% proteinase inhibitor (Sigma) (V/V) was added. The homogenate powders of flowers and pods from  Desmodium  were suspended in extraction buffer 2, also to which 1% proteinase inhibitor (Sigma) (V/V) was added. The fine powder of  Desmodium  leaves or grape fruit skin was respectively suspended in 6 ml or 50 ml extraction buffer 3, in which 1% proteinase inhibitor (Sigma) (V/V) is added. The homogenates were vortexed vigorously, incubated on ice for 5-10 min, squeezed through micracloth into 50 ml tubes and then ⅕ (W/V) equilibrated Dowex 1×2 was added. The samples were vigorously vortexed, and then centrifuged at 4° C. at 13000 rpm (20,000 g) for 30 min. The supernatants were mixed with extraction buffer-equilibrated polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) at a ratio of ⅕ (W/V) and then centrifuged at 4° C. at 14000 rpm (23,000 g) for 30 min. The supernatants were desalted on an PD-10 Sephadex G-25 column (Pharmacia) equilibrated and eluted with 100 mM Tris.HCl, 2 mM DTT, 5 mM sodium ascorbate and 10% glycerol following the manufacturer&#39;s protocol. The desalted enzyme was concentrated with a 10K MW membrane column (Amicon Ultra, MilliQ) to 0.5-1 ml for enzyme assay. 
     Enzyme assay was carried out in a total volume of 200 μl in 100 mM Tris HCl pH 7, 1 mM NADPH, 100 μM cyanidin and 50-25 μg desalted crude enzyme, at 30° C. for 30 min. The reaction was stopped by adding 1 ml ethyl acetate and vigorously vortexing for 1 min. After centrifugation for 1 min at 10000 rpm. 0.9 ml of the ethyl acetate extraction phase was removed, dried under a stream of nitrogen, and the residues were dissolved in 50 μl methanol, 40 μl of which was used for HPLC assay using the same program as above (example 8). 
     The results of the analysis are presented in  FIGS. 26-29 , and show that anthocyanidin reductase from all the above plant tissues converted cyanidin into epicatechin. The results indicate a conserved BAN function among plants and therefore predict a general ability to engineer plants by heterologous BAN expression. 
     Example 10 
     Tissue-Specific Expression of the  Arabidopsis  BAN Promoter 
     The promoter region of the  Arabidopsis  BAN gene (SEQ ID NO:77) was isolated by PCR from genomic DNA using the following primers: forward, 5′-GGGGAAGCTTCGGAATGCTATTGCCAATGCCTTCT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:53) and reverse, 5′-CCCCCCCATGGTTGTACTTTTGAAATTACAGAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:54). PCR-products were de-salted, digested with HindIII and NcoI, and the fragments gel purified and directly cloned into pCAMBIA1301 (AF234297) to generate the BAN promoter:gusA fusion construct pSB159. The BamHI-NcoI fragment of pSB159 was cloned into pBlue-sGFPS65Tsk (Niwa et al., 1999) to generate the BAN promoter:sGFP construct, which was digested with BamHI-SalI and cloned into the binary vector pCAMBIA2300. 
       Arabidopsis  was transformed using the floral dip method (Clough and Bent 1998). Seed sterilization was done by the liquid or vapor phase methods (Clough and Bent 1998). Plants were grown in soil (Metromix 200; Scotts, Marysville, Ohio) at 22 to 25° C. under 16 h light and 8 h dark (long day). For transgene selection, surface-sterilized seeds were plated on MS medium with 1.5% [w/v] sucrose solidified with 0.6% (w/v) phytagar, either alone or supplemented with glufosinate- ammonium (6 mg/l) (Sigma-Aldrich) or kanamycin (50 mg/l). Plates were wrapped with gas-permeable 3M Micropore surgical tape (3M Health Care, MN) and grown at 22° C. under 16 h light. 
     Histochemical staining of the gusA transgenic plants was done as described elsewhere (Stangeland and Salehian, 2002). GFP fluorescence in transgenic  Arabidopsis  plants was monitored by confocal microscopy (Niwa et al., 1999). 
     The results are shown in  FIG. 30 . Staining of GUS transgenic plants with X-gluc reagent revealed expression of the BAN promoter in the mid-rib and hydathodes of rosette leaves, ovules in the silique, petal veins, peduncle, outer cortex of the hypocotyl, roots and puffs of root hairs especially at the junction of root and hypocotyls, and stipules at the base of rosette leaves. This specific expression pattern was confirmed by analysis of transgenic  Arabidopsis  plants expressing a BAN promoter:GFP construct ( FIG. 30H-I ). Previously, BAN expression has been reported as being primarily localized to the endothelial layer of the seed coat (Devic et al., 1999). Overall, the present studies indicate that BAN gene expression in  Arabidopsis  is less tightly controlled than previously reported (Devic et al., 1999), but that it nevertheless only occurs in a very specific sub-set of cell types. 
     Example 11 
     Effects of Constitutive Expression of TT2 on Gene Expression and CT Accumulation in  Arabidopsis    
       Arabidopsis thaliana  accessions Columbia (Col-0) and its activation tagged mutant pap1-D (Borevitz et al., 2001), which constitutively produces anthocyanin pigments, were used as backgrounds for transformation with the  Arabidopsis  TT2 gene (SEQ ID NO:75). The tt2 mutant CS 83 was obtained from the ABRC (Columbus, Ohio). 
     Basic recombinant DNA techniques used for gene cloning were as described in Sambrook et al. (1989). The TT2 gene was isolated by RT-PCR. Total RNA was isolated from the first three to four newly emerged young siliques using TRI-REAGENT (Molecular Research Center Inc.) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Four μg total RNA was reverse transcribed to synthesize first strand cDNA in a total volume of 20 μl containing 50 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.4, 75 mM KCl, 3 mM MgCl 2 , 10 mM DDT, 1 mM deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate mixture, 500 ng oligo(dT) 12-18, 40 units of RNase Out and 200 units of Moloney murine Leukemia virus Reverse transcriptase (SuperScriptII RNAase H −  Reverse Transcriptase kit, Invitrogen) at 42° C. for 1 h. Ten μl of first-strand cDNA was amplified by PCR using high-fidelity DNA polymerase (PfuTurbo DNA polymerase, Stratagene) and TT2 primers: forward primer, 5′-GGGGCCATGGGAAAGAGAGCAACTACTAGTGTGAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:55); reverse primer, 5′-CCCCCTCGAGTCTAGAGGCTCAACAAGTGAAGTCTCGGAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:56). The PCR products were de-salted, digested with NcoI and XbaI, gel purified (gel purification kit Qiagen Inc.) and cloned into NcoI and XbaI digested plant expression vector pRTL2 (Restrepo et al., 1990). Recombinant pRTL2 plasmids containing the TT2 insert were sequenced to verify the TT2 coding region and insert junctions. The PstI fragment of the pRTL2 recombinant plasmid (pSB207) carrying the coding region of the TT2 gene fused to the double Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter and the CaMV 35S polyadenylation signal was cloned into pCAMBIA3300 (http://www.cambia.org) and pCAMBIA2300 (AF234315) to generate pSB235 and pSB239, respectively. These plasmids were transformed into  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  strain GV3101 (Koncz and Schell, 1986) by electroporation.  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  harboring pSB235 or pSB239 was named SA98 or SA99, respectively. 
       Arabidopsis  was transformed using the floral dip method (Clough and Bent 1998). Seed sterilization was done by the liquid or vapor phase methods (Clough and Bent 1998).  Arabidopsis  Col-0 transgenic lines resulting from transformation with SA98 or SA99 were selected on MS media with glufosinate (6 mg/l) or kanamycin (50 mg/l), respectively. TT2 transgenic plants of the pap1-D line transformed with SA99 were selected on kanamycin (50 mg/l) or on kanamycin (50 mg/l) and glufosinate (6 mg/ml). 
     Plants were grown in soil (Metromix 200; Scotts, Marysville, Ohio) at 22 to 25° C. under 16 h of light (long day). Plants grown aseptically were plated on MS medium with 1.5% [w/v] sucrose solidified with 0.6% (w/v) phytagar, either alone or supplemented with glufosinate-ammonium (6 mg/l) (Sigma-Aldrich) or kanamycin (50 mg/l). Plates were wrapped with gas-permeable 3M Micropore surgical tape (3M Health Care, MN) and grown at 22° C. under 16 h light. 
     Transgenic plants showing monogenic segregation for resistance conferred by the selectable marker were further analyzed by RT-PCR for the expression profile of the TT2, BAN, TT12, PAP1 and ACTIN genes. Lines homozygous for the selectable marker were analyzed for TT2, BAN, TT12, DFR, TT19, CHS, PAP1 and ACT transcripts by RT-PCR. 
     For RT-PCR analysis, total RNA was isolated from the rosette leaves of 4-5 week old plants using TRI-REAGENT. Two μg total RNA was used to synthesize first strand cDNA using Ready-To-Go RT-PCR beads (Amersham Biosciences) in a total volume of 50 μl according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Five μl of this reaction (equivalent to first strand cDNA from 200 ng total RNA) was amplified using Taq Polymerase (Ex Taq TAKARA, Japan or GoTaq Promega) and gene specific primers in a total volume of 35 μl according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocols. The cycle conditions were 95° C. for 7 min; 21 cycles at 95° C. for 1 min, 55° C. for 1 min, 72° C. for 2 min, followed by a final extension at 72° C. for 5 min. The gene specific primers for the different genes were: BAN, forward 5′-GGGCCCATGGACCAGACTCTTACACACACCGA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:57), reverse 5′-CCCAGATCTAGAATGAGACCAAAGACTCATATACT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:58); TT12, forward 5′-GGGGATATCATGAGCTCCACAGAGACATACGAGCCGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:59), primer 5′-CCCCCTCGAGACTAGTAACACCTGCGTTAGCCATCTCTTGATTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:60); DFR, forward 5′-CACCATGGTTAGTCAGAAAGAGACCGTGTGTGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:61), reverse 5′-CCTCTAGACTAGGCACACATCTGTTGTGCTAGCATGGGA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:62); LDOX, forward 5′-CACCATGGTTGCGGTTGAAAGAGTTGAGAGTTT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:63), reverse 5′-ACTAGTTAATCATTTTTCTCGGATACCAATTCCT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:64); TT19, forward 5′-CACCATGGTTGTGAAACTATATGGACAGGTAAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:65), reverse 5′-GCCACTAGTCAGTGACCAGCCAGCACCATAAGCTTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:66); CHS, forward 5′-CACCATGGTGATGGCTGGTGCTTCTTCTTTGGATG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:67), reverse 5′-CCACTAGTTAGAGAGGAACGCTGTGCAAGACGAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:68); PAP1, forward 5′-GGATCCATGGAGGGTTCGTCCAAAGGGCTGCG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:69), reverse 5′-TCTAGACTCGAGATCAAATTTCACAGTCTCTCC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:70); ACT, forward 5′-GATATGGAAAAGATCTGGCATCAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 71), reverse 5′-TCATACTCGGCCTTGGAGATCCAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:72). 
     The results in  FIG. 31  show RT-PCR data for individual T1 generation plants, with the numbers before the dash referring to independent TT2 transgenic lines generated in the pap-1D background using pSB239 or vector only. The ectopic expression of the TT2 transgene is apparent in each of the independent transgenic lines, and TT2 is clearly not expressed in leaf tissue of the empty vector controls. PAP1 is expressed in all lines, since it is under control of a multiple 35S promoter activation tag in the PAP1-D line, although its expression level appeared quite variable. With the exception of line 24-1, each line expressing the TT2 transgene also showed ectopic expression of BAN, which was not expressed in leaves of the empty vector controls. TT12, encoding a potential transporter for proanthocyanidin monomers (Debeaujon et al., 2001), was constitutively expressed in some, but not all, of the TT2 transgenic lines. It would appear that TT12 expression required higher levels of TT2 expression than does BAN expression. 
       FIG. 32  shows a similar, but more extended, dataset for a number of homozygous T2 transgenic plants, or null segregants, in the Columbia (Col) or pap1-D backgrounds grown under short days to promote synthesis of anthocyanins. Again, a clear relationship exists between expression of TT2 and expression of BAN and TT12. However, expression of other genes related to CT biosynthesis, namely DFR (encoding dihydroflavonol reductase), LDOX (encoding leucoanthocyanidin reductase, also known as anthocyanidin synthase), TT19 (encoding a putative glutathione S-transferase involved in monomer transport) (Kitamura et al., 2004), and CHS (encoding chalcone synthase) were constitutively expressed and unaffected by expression of either PAP1 or TT2. 
     PAP1 expression appeared higher in un-transformed or empty vector lines, suggesting that genomic incorporation of an additional 35S promoter sequence driving the TT2 transgene might bring about partial silencing of PAP1 expression, itself driven by multiple 35S enhancers. Overall, the data in  FIG. 32  indicate that transgenic  Arabidopsis  homozygous for PAP1 and TT2 and grown under short days also express the other genes known to be essential for CT biosynthesis. 
     Transgenic PAP1::TT2  Arabidopsis  were stained with DMACA reagent to indicate the localization of CTs.  Arabidopsis  plant parts (3 to 4 weeks old) were monitored by immersing tissues in dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde (DMACA) solution (0.1% w/v DMACA in 6N HCl: 95% ethanol, 1:1). After staining for 5 to 10 min, tissue samples were washed three times with distilled water, and histochemical staining (blue color) was observed under the microscope. DMACA staining was only observed in plants expressing pap1-D and strongly expressing TT2. Furthermore, it was not found constitutively throughout the plant, in spite of the constitutive expression of TT2 and PAP1 in these lines. Rather, the pattern of staining reflected the pattern of expression of the BAN promoter shown in  FIG. 30 . Thus, the DMACA staining was observed in the outer cortex of hypocotyls, in some lateral roots, in root hairs at the junction of the primary and secondary roots, in stipules at the base of rosette leaves, in primary and secondary branch junctions, in mid rib veins in the petiole, in cell layers at the base of terminal trichomes of hydathodes of rosette/cauline leaves, and in peduncles of 3-4 days old siliques. Importantly, this result indicates that specific cell types are programmed for synthesis and accumulation of proanthocyanidins in  Arabidopsis , and that co-expression of CHS, DFR, LDOX, BAN, TT12 and TT19, plus any other as yet known or unidentified genes that might be up-regulated by TT2 and PAP1, is of itself insufficient to permit CT accumulation throughout the plant. 
     Example 12 
     Effects of Constitutive Expression of TT2 on Gene Expression and CT Accumulation in  Medicago truncatula    
     The  Arabidopsis  TT2 gene was expressed in hairy roots of the legume  Medicago truncatula . Plasmids pSB235 and pSB239 (see above) were transformed into  Agrobacterium rhizogenes  strain ARqual (Quandt et al., 1971) by electroporation.  A. rhizogenes  with pSB235 or pSB239 were designated SA106 or SA107. Seed sterilization and regeneration of hairy roots of  M. truncatula  cultivar A17 was done following the method of Boisson-Demier et al., 2001. Propagation of transgenic hairy root explants was done on solid Gamborg B5 media (Invitrogen) at 22° C. under 16 h of light and 8 h of dark. 
     Gene expression analysis of TT2 transgenic  M. truncatula  hairy roots was performed by RT-PCR, using the TT2 gene-specific primers listed above. Gene specific primers used for  M. truncatula  BAN were 5′-CCTCATAGCACTGCAAAGTTTGGGGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:73) (forward) and 5′-GCCTGTTAGAAGTGACATTCCC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:74) (reverse). 
       FIG. 34A  shows that, as in  Arabidopsis , transgenic expression of  Arabidopsis  TT2 in  M. truncatula  hairy roots leads to expression of the endogenous BAN gene for production of the CT monomer epicatechin. Furthermore, the extent of BAN expression appeared to parallel the level of TT2 expression. 
     Roots of TT2 transgenic  M. truncatula  were stained for proanthocyanidins with DMACA reagent ( FIG. 34B ). Intense blue staining throughout the root was seen in several of the transgenic lines, but not in the empty vector control line or line 239-15 with weak TT2 expression. For further analysis of the CTs in transgenic  M. truncatula  hairy roots, fresh roots were ground in liquid nitrogen and mixed with 10 volumes of 70% aqueous acetone containing 5.26 mM sodium metabisulphite. The sample was sonicated for 20 min at 20° C., centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 10 min, and the supernatant collected. The extraction was repeated three times. Supernatants were dried under nitrogen gas and further extracted with ethyl acetate to partition out the monomers and small oligomers, leaving CT polymers in the aqueous phase. The aqueous phase was then extracted with hexane (three times) and finally with chloroform. It was then dried, dissolved in methanol, and 10 μl samples were spotted onto cellulose TLC plates that were developed in s-butanol:water:acetic acid:chloroform (70:20:10:10 [v/v]) (Kristiansen, 1984). Dried plates were sprayed with DMACA regent to reveal the presence of CT polymers, which remain at the origin of the TLC plate and stain blue/green with DMACA.  FIG. 34C  shows the results of this analysis. The lines with the highest TT2 and BAN activities showed the highest level of CT polymers, whereas none were detected in empty vector or low TT2 expressing lines. The monomers epicatechin and catechin run close to the solvent front in this TLC system. 
     These results indicate that, surprisingly, ectopic expression of  Arabidopsis  TT2 in  Medicago  roots is sufficient to cause constitutive accumulation of polymeric CT material. 
     All of the compositions and methods disclosed and claimed herein can be made and executed without undue experimentation in light of the present disclosure. While the compositions and methods of this invention have been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations may be applied to the compositions and methods and in the steps or in the sequence of steps of the method described herein without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention. More specifically, it will be apparent that certain agents which are both chemically and physiologically related may be substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similar results would be achieved. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as defined by the appended claims. 
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     The references listed below are incorporated herein by reference to the extent that they supplement, explain, provide a background for, or teach methodology, techniques, and/or compositions employed herein.
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