Patent Publication Number: US-2015072936-A1

Title: Methods for promoting wound healing and/or reducing scar formation

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE 
     This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/343,127 filed Jan. 4, 2012 which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/545,518 filed Sep. 30, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,101,572, which is a 371 National Stage Application of PCT/US2004/004999 filed Feb. 20, 2004, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. Nos. 60/448,954 filed Feb. 21, 2003; 60/512,211 filed Oct. 17, 2003; and 60/530,306 filed Dec. 16, 2003, each of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
    
    
     STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT RIGHTS 
     This work was supported by a VA Merit Review Award and NIH RO1 HL58027-01. 
    
    
     FIELD OF INVENTION 
     This invention relates generally to methods for promoting wound healing and inhibiting scar formation. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The primary goal in the treatment of wounds is to achieve wound closure. Many wounds routinely heal by a process which comprises six major components: i) inflammation, ii) fibroblast proliferation, iii) blood vessel proliferation, iv) connective tissue synthesis v) epithelialization, and vi) wound contraction. Wound healing is impaired when these components, either individually or as a whole, do not function properly. Thus, therapeutics that provide a benefit to any of these components provide a benefit to the wound healing process. 
     During wound healing, cells, including fibroblasts, migrate into the wound area. These cells form stress fibers and focal adhesions that serve to help close the wound during the wound contraction step. While wound contraction is an essential component of wound healing, the development of scar contractures in tissues and organs disrupts normal organ integrity and produces functional deformities. Limiting wound contraction during the wound healing process allows the surrounding tissue more time to regenerate and heal with reduced scarring. Thus, compounds that limit wound contraction can be used to reduce scar formation that accompanies wound healing. 
     It has recently been determined that cyclic nucleotide-dependent relaxation of vascular smooth muscle is associated with an increase in the phosphorylation of the small heat shock related protein 20 (“HSP20”). HSP20 is highly and constitutively expressed in muscle tissues and can be phosphorylated in vitro by cGMP-dependent protein kinase. HSP20 has been shown to associate with actin and α-actinin, a focal adhesion protein. Activation of cyclic nucleotide dependent signaling pathways also leads to a decrease in the association of HSP20 with α-actinin, suggesting that HSP20 may lead to relaxation of vascular smooth muscle through a dynamic association with cytoskeletal proteins. 
     However, the role of HSP20 and peptides derived therefrom in modulation of wound healing and scar formation responses is not known. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention provides methods to promote wound healing and/or reduce scar formation, comprising administering to an individual in need thereof an amount effective to promote wound healing and/or reduce scar formation of one or more polypeptides comprising a sequence according to general formula I: 
       X1-A(X2)APLP-X3 
     wherein X1 is 0-14 amino acids of the sequence of heat shock protein 20 between residues 1 and 14 of SEQ ID NO: 298; 
     X2 is selected from the group consisting of S, T, Y, D, E, hydroxylysine, hydroxyproline, phosphoserine analogs, and phosphotyrosine analogs; and 
     X3 is selected from the group consisting of (a) 0-140 amino acids of heat shock protein 20 between residues 21 and 160 of SEQ ID NO:298; and (b) 0, 1, 2, or 3 amino acids of a sequence of genus Z1-Z2-Z3, wherein Z1 is selected from the group consisting of G and D; 
     Z2 is selected from the group consisting of L and K; and 
     Z3 is selected from the group consisting of S, T, and K. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1 : PhosphoHSP20 peptide disrupts the actin cytoskeleton. 3T3 cells were cultured and treated as indicated on the graph (4). Monomer g-actin was biochemically quantitated using a DNase 1 inhibition assay. The level of g-actin in the cell extract that caused 50% inhibition of DNase 1 was estimated from a standard actin curve that was determined using known amounts of actin. *P&lt;0.05 compared to untreated cells. 
         FIG. 2 : FITC-phosphoHSP20 peptide disrupts focal adhesions. Results from the focal adhesion assay using interference reflective microscopy on 3T3 cells treated as described (4). Each condition was tested in triplicate, and an average of 250 cells per coverslip was counted. A cell was scored positive if it contained at least five focal adhesions. Hep I (peptide from thrombospondin 1) was used as a positive control. *P&lt;0.05 compared to untreated cells. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     All references cited are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. 
     Within this application, unless otherwise stated, the techniques utilized may be found in any of several well-known references such as:  Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual  (Sambrook, et al., 1989, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press),  Gene Expression Technology  (Methods in Enzymology, Vol. 185, edited by D. Goeddel, 1991. Academic Press, San Diego, Calif.), “Guide to Protein Purification” in  Methods in Enzymology  (M. P. Deutshcer, ed., (1990) Academic Press, Inc.);  PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications  (Innis, et al. 1990. Academic Press, San Diego, Calif.),  Culture of Animal Cells: A Manual of Basic Technique,  2 nd    Ed.  (R. I. Freshney. 1987. Liss, Inc. New York, N.Y.),  Gene Transfer and Expression Protocols , pp. 109-128, ed. E. J. Murray, The Humana Press Inc., Clifton, N.J.), and the Ambion 1998 Catalog (Ambion, Austin, Tex.). 
     The single letter designation for amino acids is used predominately herein. As is well known by one of skill in the art, such single letter designations are as follows: 
     A is alanine; C is cysteine; D is aspartic acid; E is glutamic acid; F is phenylalanine; G is glycine; H is histidine; I is isoleucine; K is lysine; L is leucine; M is methionine; N is asparagine; P is proline; Q is gluatamine; R is arginine; S is serine; T is threonine; V is valine; W is tryptophan; and Y is tyrosine. 
     As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. For example, reference to a “polypeptide” means one or more polypeptides. 
     In one aspect, the present invention provides methods for promoting wound healing and/or reducing scar formation comprising administering to an individual in need thereof an amount effective to promote wound healing and/or reduce scar formation of a polypeptide comprising or consisting of a sequence according general formula I: 
       X1-A(X2)APLP-X3 
     wherein X1 is 0-14 amino acids of the sequence of heat shock protein 20 between residues 1 and 14 of SEQ ID NO: 298; 
     X2 is selected from the group consisting of S, T, Y, D, E, hydroxylysine, hydroxyproline, phosphoserine analogs, and phosphotyrosine analogs; and 
     X3 is selected from the group consisting of (a) 0-140 amino acids of residues 21 and 160 of SEQ ID NO:298; and (b) 0, 1, 2, or 3 amino acids of a sequence of genus Z1-Z2-Z3, wherein Z1 is selected from the group consisting of G and D; 
     Z2 is selected from the group consisting of L and K; and 
     Z3 is selected from the group consisting of S, T, and K. 
     Residues 15-21 from HSP20, with possible substitutions at residue 16 of HSP20 form the structural core of the polypeptides according to general formula I (A(X2)APLP) (SEQ ID NO: 2). The full sequence of HSP20 is provided as SEQ ID NO: 298, and is shown below: 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 
                   Met Glu Ile Pro Val Pro Val Gln Pro Ser Trp Leu 
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   Arg Arg   Ala Ser Ala Pro Leu Pro    Gly Leu Ser Ala   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 
                   Pro Gly Arg Leu Phe Asp Gln Arg Phe Gly Glu Gly 
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   Leu Leu   Glu Ala Glu Leu Ala Ala Leu Cys Pro Thr   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   Thr Leu Ala Pro Tyr Tyr Leu Arg Ala   Pro Ser Val   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 
                   Ala Leu Pro Val Ala Gln Val Pro Thr Asp Pro Gly 
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   His Phe Ser Val Leu   Leu Asp Val Lys His Phe   Ser   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 
                   Pro Glu Glu Ile Ala Val Lys Val Val Gly Glu His 
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   Val   Glu Val His Ala Arg His Glu Glu Arg Pro Asp   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   Glu His Gly Phe Val Ala Arg Glu   Phe His Arg Arg   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 
                   Tyr Arg Leu Pro Pro Gly Val Asp Pro Ala Ala Val 
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   Thr Ser Ala   Leu Ser Pro Glu Gly Val Leu Ser Ile   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   Gln Ala Ala Pro Ala Ser Ala Gln Ala Pro Pro   Pro   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 
                   Ala Ala Ala Lys. 
                 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The underlined residues represent amino acids 15-21. 
     X1 is 0-14 amino acids of SEQ ID NO: 298 between residues 1 and 14 of SEQ ID NO:298 (shown in italics above). Thus, if X1 is 5 amino acids of residues 1 and 14 of SEQ ID NO:298, then X1 would be the 5 amino acids contiguous to residues 15-21, eg: SWLRR (SEQ ID NO:303). Similarly, where X1 is the following number of amino acids of residues 1-14 of SEQ ID NO:298, its identity is as shown below: 
     1 amino acid of SEQ ID NO:298: R 
     2 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:298: RR 
     3 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:298: LRR (SEQ ID NO: 304) 
     4 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:298: WLRR (SEQ ID NO: 1) 
     6 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:298: PSWLRR (SEQ ID NO: 305) 
     7 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:298: NPSWLRR (SEQ ID NO: 306) 
     8 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:298: VNPSWLRR (SEQ ID NO: 307) 
     9 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:298: PVNPSWLRR (SEQ ID NO: 308) 
     10 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:298: VPVNPSWLRR (SEQ ID NO: 309) 
     11 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:298: PVPVNPSWLRR (SEQ ID NO: 310) 
     12 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:298: IPVPPVNPSWLRR (SEQ ID NO: 311) 
     13 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:298: EIPVPPVNPSWLRR (SEQ ID NO: 312) 
     14 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:298: MEIPVPPVNPSWLRR (SEQ ID NO: 313) 
     In a further embodiment, X1 is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 amino acids of the sequence WLRR (SEQ ID NO:1). 
     In one embodiment, X3 is 0-140 amino acids between residues 21 and 160 of SEQ ID NO:298. According to this embodiment, X3 can be 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139 or 140 amino acids between residues 21 and 160 of SEQ ID NO:298. 
     For example, if X3 is 5 amino acids between residues 21 and 160 of SEQ ID NO:298, then X3 would be the 5 amino acids contiguous to residues 15-21, eg: GLSAP (SEQ ID NO: 314). Other possible X3 sequences will be apparent to one of skill in the art based on the teachings provided herein. 
     In another embodiment, X3 is 0, 1, 2, or 3 amino acids of a sequence of genus Z1-Z2-Z3, wherein Z1 is selected from the group consisting of G and D; 
     Z2 is selected from the group consisting of L and K; and 
     Z3 is selected from the group consisting of S, T, and K. 
     For example, if X3 is 2 amino acids of a sequence of the genus Z1-Z2-Z3, then the possibilities for X3 are GL, GK, DL, and DK. Other possible X3 sequences in this embodiment will be apparent to one of skill in the art based on the teachings provided herein. 
     According to various embodiments of the polypeptides of general formula I, X2 is S, T, Y, D E, a phosphoserine mimic, or a phosphotyrosine mimic. It is preferred that X2 is S, T, or Y; more preferred that X2 is S or T, and most preferred that X2 is S. In these embodiments where X2 is S, T, or Y, it is most preferred that X2 is phosphorylated. When X2 is D or E, these residues have a negative charge that mimics the phosphorylated state. The polypeptides of general formula I are optimally effective in the methods of the invention when X2 is phosphorylated, is a phosphoserine or phosphotyrosine mimic, or is another mimic of a phosphorylated amino acid residue, such as a D or E residue. Examples of phosphoserine mimics include, but are not limited to, sulfoserine, amino acid mimics containing a methylene substitution for the phosphate oxygen, 4-phosphono(difluoromethyl)phenylanaline, and L-2-amino-4-(phosphono)-4,4-difluorobutanoic acid. Other phosphoserine mimics can be made by those of skill in the art. Examples of phosphotyrosine mimics include, but are not limited to, phosphonomethylphenylalanine, difluorophosphonomethylphenylalanine, fluoro-O-malonyltyrosine and O-malonyltyrosine. 
     In a preferred embodiment, the polypeptide according to the general formula comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence according to SEQ ID NO:300 (WLRRApSAPLPGL), wherein the “pS” represents a phosphorylated serine residue. 
     In another embodiment, the polypeptides according to general formula I may further comprise one or more molecules comprising an aromatic ring. In one such embodiment, the one or molecules comprising an aromatic ring are amino acids, such as any combination of 1-5 phenylalanine (F), tyrosine (Y), or tryptophan (W) residues. Thus, for example, the polypeptides according to general formula I can further comprise any combination of F, Y, and W, such as F, FF, Y, YY, W, WW, FY, FW, YF, YW, WY, WF, or a 3, 4, or 5 amino acid combination of F, Y, and W. In another embodiment, the molecule comprising an aromatic ring is one or more molecules comprising one or more aromatic rings that can optionally be substituted with halogen, lower alkyl, lower alkylthio, trifluoromethyl, lower acyloxy, aryl, and heteroaryl. For example, the one or more molecules comprising one or more aromatic ring may comprise 9-fluorenylmethyl (Fm). Examples of such molecules include, but are not limited to 9-fluorenylmethylcarbonyl, 9-fluorenylmethylcarbamates, 9-fluorenylmethylcarbonates, 9-fluorenylmethyl esters, 9-fluorenylmethylphosphates, and S-9-fluorenylmethyl thioethers. In embodiments wherein the molecule comprising an aromatic ring is not an amino acid, it can be attached to the polypeptide by methods known in the art, including but not limited to, standard Fmoc protection chemistry employed in peptide synthesis. 
     Thus, according to these various embodiments, a representative sample of polypeptides according to general formula I for use in the methods of the invention include, but are not limited to, polypeptides comprising or consisting of the following sequences: (ASAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:3); (ATAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:4); (RASAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:5); (RATAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:6); (AYAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:7); (RAYAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:8); (RRASAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:9); (LRRASAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:10); (WLRRASAPLP); (SEQ ID NO:11) (RRATAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:12); (LRRATAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:13); (WLRRATAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:14); (RRAYAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:15); (LRRAYAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:16); (WLRRAYAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:17); (RRASAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:18); (RRASAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:19); (RRASAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:20); (RRASAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:21); (RRASAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:22); (RRASAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:23); (RRASAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:24); (RRASAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:25); (RRASAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:26); (RRASAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:27); (RRASAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:28); RRASAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:29); (RRASAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:30); (RRASAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:31); (LRRASAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:32); (LRRASAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:33); (LRRASAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:34); (LRRASAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:35); (LRRASAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:36); (LRRASAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:37); (LRRASAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:38); (LRRASAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:39); (LRRASAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:40); (LRRASAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:41); (LRRASAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:42); (LRRASAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:43); (LRRASAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:44); (LRRASAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:45); (WLRRASAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:46); (WLRRASAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:47); (WLRRASAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:48); (WLRRASAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:49); (WLRRASAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:50); (WLRRASAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:51); (WLRRASAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:52); (WLRRASAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:53); (WLRRASAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:54); (WLRRASAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:55); (WLRRASAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:56); (WLRRASAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:57); (WLRRASAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:58); (WLRRASAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:59); (RRATAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:60); (RRATAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:61); (RRATAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:62); (RRATAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:63); (RRATAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:64); (RRATAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:65); (RRATAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:66); (RRATAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:67); (RRATAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:68); (RRATAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:69); (RRATAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:70); (RRATAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:71); (RRATAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:72); (RRATAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:73); (LRRATAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:74); (LRRATAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:75); (LRRATAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:76); (LRRATAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:77); (LRRATAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:78); (LRRATAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:79); (LRRATAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:80); (LRRATAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:81); (LRRATAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:82); (LRRATAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:83); (LRRATAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:84); (LRRATAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:85); (LRRATAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:86); (LRRATAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:87); (WLRRATAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:88); (WLRRATAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:89); (WLRRATAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:90); (WLRRATAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:91); (WLRRATAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:92); (WLRRATAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:93); (WLRRATAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:94); (WLRRATAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:95); (WLRRATAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:96); (WLRRATAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:97); (WLRRATAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:98); (WLRRATAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:99); (WLRRATAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:100); (WLRRATAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:101); (RRAYAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:102); (RRAYAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:103); (RRAYAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:104); (RRAYAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:105); (RRAYAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:106); (RRAYAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:107); (RRAYAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:108); (RRAYAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:109); (RRAYAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:110; (RRAYAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:111); (RRAYAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:112); (RRAYAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:113); (RRAYAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:114); (RRAYAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:115); (LRRAYAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:116); (LRRAYAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:117); (LRRAYAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:118); (LRRAYAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:119); (LRRAYAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:120); (LRRAYAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:121); (LRRAYAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:122); (LRRAYAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:123); (LRRAYAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:124); (LRRAYAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:125); (LRRAYAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:126); (LRRAYAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:127); (LRRAYAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:128); (LRRAYAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:129); (WLRRAYAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:130); (WLRRAYAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:131); (WLRRAYAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:132); (WLRRAYAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:133); (WLRRAYAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:134); (WLRRAYAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:135); (WLRRAYAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:136); (WLRRAYAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:137); (WLRRAYAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:138); (WLRRAYAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:139); (WLRRAYAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:140); (WLRRAYAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:141); (WLRRAYAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:142); and (WLRRAYAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:143); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:144); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:145); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLP); (SEQ ID NO:146) ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:147); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:148); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:149); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:150); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:151); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLP) (SEQ ID NO:152); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:153); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:154); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:155); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:156); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:157); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPDK) 1  (SEQ ID NO:158); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:159); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:160); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPGKS); (SEQ ID NO:161); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:162); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:163); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:164); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:165); ((F/Y/W)RRASAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:166); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:167); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:168); ((F/Y/W))LRRASAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:169); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:170); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:171); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:172); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:173); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:174); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:175); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:176); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:177); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:178); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:179); ((F/Y/W)LRRASAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:180); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:181); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:182); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:183); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:184); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:185); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:186); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:187); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:188); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:189); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:190); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:191); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:192); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:193); ((F/Y/W)WLRRASAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:194); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:195); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:196); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:197); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:198); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:199); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:200); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:201); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:202); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:203); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:204); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:205); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:206); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:207); ((F/Y/W)RRATAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:208); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:209); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:210); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:211); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:212); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:213); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:214); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:215); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:216); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:217); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:218); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:219); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:220); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:221); ((F/Y/W)LRRATAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:222); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:223); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:224); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:225); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:226); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:227); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:228); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:229); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:230); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:231); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:232); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:233); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:234); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:235); ((F/Y/W)WLRRATAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:236); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:237); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:238); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:239); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:240); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:241); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:242); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:243); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:244); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:245); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:246); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:247); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:248); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:249); ((F/Y/W)RRAYAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:250); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:251); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:252); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:253); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:254); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:255); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:256); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:257); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:258); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:259); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:260); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:261); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:262); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:263); ((F/Y/W)LRRAYAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:264); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPG) (SEQ ID NO:265); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPD) (SEQ ID NO:266); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:267); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPGK) (SEQ ID NO:268); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPDL) (SEQ ID NO:269); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPDK) (SEQ ID NO:270); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPGLS) (SEQ ID NO:271); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPGLT) (SEQ ID NO:272); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPGKS) (SEQ ID NO:273); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPGKT) (SEQ ID NO:274); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPDLS) (SEQ ID NO:275); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPDLT) (SEQ ID NO:276); ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPDKS) (SEQ ID NO:277); and ((F/Y/W)WLRRAYAPLPDKT) (SEQ ID NO:278) wherein (F/Y/W) means that the residue is selected from F, Y, and W. Other specific polypeptides falling within the scope of general formula I will be readily apparent to one of skill in the art based on the teachings herein. 
     The polypeptides of general formula I may be present in multiple copies to provide increased efficacy for use in the methods of the invention. For example, the polypeptides may be present in 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 copies. In a further embodiment, the polypeptides comprising a sequence according to general formula I comprise a combination of different sequences from the region X1-A(X2)APLP-X3. In this embodiment, for example, the polypeptide can consist of 1 copy of SEQ ID NO: 9 and 1 copy of SEQ ID NO: 143. In a different example, the polypeptide could consist of 2 copies of SEQ ID NO: 200 and 3 copies of SEQ ID NO: 62. It will be apparent to one of skill in the art that many such combinations are possible based on the teachings of the present invention. 
     In a preferred embodiment, the polypeptides according to general formula I further comprise one or more transduction domains. As used herein, the term “transduction domain” means an amino acid sequence that can carry the polypeptide across cell membranes. These domains can be linked to other polypeptides to direct movement of the linked polypeptide across cell membranes. In some cases the transducing molecules do not need to be covalently linked to the active polypeptide. In a preferred embodiment, the transduction domain is linked to the rest of the polypeptide via peptide bonding. Examples of such transduction domains include, but are not limited to (R) 4-9  (SEQ ID NO:279); GRKKRRQRRRPPQ (SEQ ID NO:280); YARAAARQARA (SEQ ID NO:281); DAATATRGRSAASRPTERPRAPARSASRPRRPVE (SEQ ID NO:282); GWTLNSAGYLLGLINLKALAALAKKIL (SEQ ID NO:283); PLSSIFSRIGDP (SEQ ID NO:284); AAVALLPAVLLALLAP (SEQ ID NO:285); AAVLLPVLLAAP (SEQ ID NO:286); VTVLALGALAGVGVG (SEQ ID NO:287); GALFLGWLGAAGSTMGAWSQP (SEQ ID NO:288); GWTLNSAGYLLGLINLKALAALAKKIL (SEQ ID NO:289); KLALKLALKALKAALKLA (SEQ ID NO:290); KETWWETWWTEWSQPKKKRKV (SEQ ID NO:291); KAFAKLAARLYRKAGC (SEQ ID NO:292); KAFAKLAARLYRAAGC (SEQ ID NO:293); AAFAKLAARLYRKAGC (SEQ ID NO:294); KAFAALAARLYRKAGC (SEQ ID NO:295); KAFAKLAAQLYRKAGC (SEQ ID NO:296), GGGGYGRKKRRQRRR (SEQ ID NO:297), and YGRKKRRQRRR (SEQ ID NO:299). 
     In a further embodiment, the polypeptides comprise or consist of polypeptides of the formula: 
       B1-X1-A(X2)APLP-X3-B2 
     wherein X1, X2, and X3 are as defined above, and wherein B1 and B2 are independently absent or comprise a transduction domain, as described above. 
     In a preferred embodiment, one or both of B1 and B2 comprise or consist of the amino acid sequence of YGRKKRRQRRR (SEQ ID NO:299) and/or YARAAARQARA (SEQ ID NO:281). In a most preferred embodiment, the polypeptide according to the general formulas disclosed herein comprises or consists of a polypeptide according to YGRKKRRQRRRWLRRApSAPLPGL (SEQ ID NO:301) or YARAAARQARAWLRRApSAPLPGL (SEQ ID NO:315), wherein “pS” represents a phosphorylated serine residue. 
     In a further embodiment of the methods of the present invention, the polypeptides comprise or consist of polypeptides of the formula: 
       J1-J2-X1-A(X2)APLP-X3-J3 
     wherein X1, X2, and X3 are as defined above, wherein J2 and J3 are independently absent or comprise a transduction domain, as described above, and wherein J1 is absent or is one or more molecules comprising one or more aromatic ring, as discussed above. 
     The polypeptides for use in the methods of the invention can further be derivatized to provide enhanced half-life, for example, by linking to polyethylene glycol. The polypeptides of the invention may comprise L-amino acids, D-amino acids (which are resistant to L-amino acid-specific proteases in vivo), a combination of D- and L-amino acids, and various “designer” amino acids (e.g., β-methyl amino acids, Cα-methyl amino acids, and Nα-methyl amino acids, etc.) to convey special properties. Synthetic amino acids include ornithine for lysine, and norleucine for leucine or isoleucine. 
     In addition, the polypeptides can have peptidomimetic bonds, such as ester bonds, to prepare polypeptides with novel properties. For example, a peptide may be generated that incorporates a reduced peptide bond, i.e., R 1 —CH 2 —NH—R 2 , where R 1  and R 2  are amino acid residues or sequences. A reduced peptide bond may be introduced as a dipeptide subunit. Such polypeptides are resistant to protease activity, and possess an extended half-live in vivo. 
     The term “polypeptide” is used in its broadest sense to refer to a sequence of subunit amino acids, amino acid analogs, or peptidomimetics. The subunits are linked by peptide bonds, although the polypeptide can comprise further moieties that are not necessarily linked to the polypeptide by a peptide bond. For example, as discussed above, the polypeptide can further comprise a non-amino acid molecule that contains an aromatic ring. 
     The polypeptides described herein may be chemically synthesized or recombinantly expressed. Recombinant expression can be accomplished using standard methods in the art, generally involving the cloning of nucleic acid sequences capable of directing the expression of the polypeptides into an expression vector, which can be used to transfect or transduce a host cell in order to provide the cellular machinery to carry out expression of the polypeptides. Such expression vectors can comprise bacterial or viral expression vectors, and such host cells can be prokaryotic or eukaryotic. 
     Preferably, the polypeptides for use in the methods of the present invention are chemically synthesized. Synthetic polypeptides, prepared using the well-known techniques of solid phase, liquid phase, or peptide condensation techniques, or any combination thereof, can include natural and unnatural amino acids. Amino acids used for peptide synthesis may be standard Boc (Nα-amino protected Nα-t-butyloxycarbonyl) amino acid resin with the standard deprotecting, neutralization, coupling and wash protocols of standard solid phase procedure, or base-labile Nα-amino protected 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl (Fmoc) amino acids. Both Fmoc and Boc Nα-amino protected amino acids can be obtained from Sigma, Cambridge Research Biochemical, or other chemical companies familiar to those skilled in the art. In addition, the polypeptides can be synthesized with other Nα-protecting groups that are familiar to those skilled in this art. 
     Solid phase peptide synthesis may be accomplished by techniques familiar to those in the art and provided, for example by using automated synthesizers. 
     As used herein, an “individual in need thereof” is an individual that has suffered or will suffer (for example, via a surgical procedure) a wound that may result in scar formation, or has resulted in scar formation. As used herein, the term “wound” refers broadly to injuries to the skin and subcutaneous tissue, but does not include wounds to blood vessels or heart tissue. 
     Such wounds include, but are not limited to lacerations; burns; punctures; pressure sores; bed sores; canker sores; trauma, bites; fistulas; ulcers; lesions caused by infections; periodontal wounds; endodontic wounds; burning mouth syndrome; laparotomy wounds; surgical wounds; incisional wounds; contractures after burns; tissue fibrosis, including but not limited to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, hepatic fibrosis, renal fibrosis, retroperitoneal fibrosis, and cystic fibrosis, but excluding blood vessel fibrosis or heart tissue fibrosis; and wounds resulting from cosmetic surgical procedures. 
     As used herein, the phrase “reducing scar formation” means any decrease in scar formation that provides a therapeutic or cosmetic benefit to the patient. Such a therapeutic or cosmetic benefit can be achieved, for example, by decreasing the size and/or depth of a scar relative to scar formation in the absence of treatment with the methods of the invention, or by reducing the size of an existing scar. 
     As used herein, such scars include scars of all types, including but not limited to keloids; hypertrophic scars; and adhesion formation between organ surfaces, including but not limited to those occurring as a result of surgery. 
     The present invention, by providing methods for reducing scar formation, will be clinically useful for treating all types of wounds to reduce scar formation, both for reducing initial scar formation, and for therapeutic treatment of existing scars (i.e.: cutting out the scar after its formation, treating it with the compounds of the invention, and letting the scar heal more slowly). Such wounds are as described above. As used herein, the phrase “promoting wound healing” means any increase in wound healing that provides a therapeutic or cosmetic benefit to the patient. Such a therapeutic benefit can be achieved, for example, by one or more of increasing the rate of wound healing and/or increasing the degree of wound healing relative to an untreated individual. Such wounds are as described above. 
     In a preferred embodiment, the individual is a mammal; in a more preferred embodiment, the individual is a human. 
     While not being limited to a specific mechanism of action, the inventors believe that the beneficial effect of the methods of the invention in promoting wound healing and/or reducing scar formation are due to reduction of wound contraction within the wound area, which limits scar formation that accompanies wound healing, and increase in blood flow to the wound area. 
     As used herein, an “amount effective” of the one or more polypeptides is an amount that is sufficient to provide the intended benefit of treatment. An effective amount of the polypeptides that can be employed ranges generally between about 0.01 jug/kg body weight and about 10 mg/kg body weight, preferably ranging between about 0.05 μg/kg and about 5 mg/kg body weight. However dosage levels are based on a variety of factors, including the type of injury, the age, weight, sex, medical condition of the individual, the severity of the condition, the route of administration, and the particular compound employed. Thus, the dosage regimen may vary widely, but can be determined routinely by a physician using standard methods. 
     The polypeptides may be subjected to conventional pharmaceutical operations such as sterilization and/or may contain conventional adjuvants, such as preservatives, stabilizers, wetting agents, emulsifiers, buffers etc. 
     For administration, the polypeptides are ordinarily combined with one or more adjuvants appropriate for the indicated route of administration. The compounds may be admixed with lactose, sucrose, starch powder, cellulose esters of alkanoic acids, stearic acid, talc, magnesium stearate, magnesium oxide, sodium and calcium salts of phosphoric and sulphuric acids, acacia, gelatin, sodium alginate, polyvinylpyrrolidine, dextran sulfate, heparin-containing gels, and/or polyvinyl alcohol, and tableted or encapsulated for conventional administration. Alternatively, the compounds of this invention may be dissolved in saline, water, polyethylene glycol, propylene glycol, carboxymethyl cellulose colloidal solutions, ethanol, corn oil, peanut oil, cottonseed oil, sesame oil, tragacanth gum, and/or various buffers. Other adjuvants and modes of administration are well known in the pharmaceutical art. The carrier or diluent may include time delay material, such as glyceryl monostearate or glyceryl distearate alone or with a wax, or other materials well known in the art. 
     The polypeptides or pharmaceutical compositions thereof may be administered by any suitable route, including orally, parentally, by inhalation spray, rectally, or topically in dosage unit formulations containing conventional pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, adjuvants, and vehicles. The term parenteral as used herein includes, subcutaneous, intravenous, intra-arterial, intramuscular, intrasternal, intratendinous, intraspinal, intracranial, intrathoracic, infusion techniques or intraperitoneally. Preferred embodiments for administration vary with respect to the condition being treated. In a preferred embodiment, the polypeptides or pharmaceutical compositions are disposed on or in a wound dressing or other topical administration. Such wound dressings can be any used in the art, including but not limited to films (e.g., polyurethane films), hydrocolloids (hydrophilic colloidal particles bound to polyurethane foam), hydrogels (cross-linked polymers containing about at least 60% water), foams (hydrophilic or hydrophobic), calcium alginates (nonwoven composites of fibers from calcium alginate), cellophane, and biological polymers such as those described in US patent application publication number 20030190364, published Oct. 9, 2003. 
     The polypeptides may be made up in a solid form (including granules, powders or suppositories) or in a liquid form (e.g., solutions, suspensions, or emulsions). The polypeptides of the invention may be applied in a variety of solutions. Suitable solutions for use in accordance with the invention are sterile, dissolve sufficient amounts of the polypeptides, and are not harmful for the proposed application. 
     Example 1 
     Actin Cytoskeleton Disruption 
     Materials and Methods 
     Peptide Synthesis and Purification 
     Peptides were synthesized using standard f-moc chemistry and purified using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) by Cell Essentials (Boston, Mass.).
 
Fluorescent peptides were synthesized with a fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) labeled on the N terminus, using β-alanine as a linker.
 
     Cell Culture, Immunocytochemistry, and Interference Reflection Microscopy 
     Unless otherwise stated, all reagents were purchased from Sigma, St. Louis, Mo. Swiss Albino 3T3 fibroblasts (ATCC, Manassas, Va.) were cultured in DMEM supplemented with 10% BCS, 4 mM L-glutamine and 50 μg/ml penicillin-streptomycin and maintained at 37° C., 5% CO 2 . Cells were seeded and cultured overnight. Culture media was replaced with DMEM containing 0.5% BCS 1 hour prior to experimentation. Cells were incubated with the peptide analogues or reagent (LPA or forskolin) diluted in DMEM containing 0.5% BCS, 30 minutes at 37° C. Cells were then fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde, permeabilized in 0.25% Triton X-100, and blocked with 1% BSA solution for 1 hour. To determine f-actin cytoskeletal distribution, treated cells were incubated with Alexa 568 phalloidin (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.) in 1% BSA, 30 minutes. To determine focal adhesion protein localization, treated cells were incubated with primary monoclonal antibodies for α-actinin (1:100, Upstate, Charlottesville, Va.), vinculin (1:100, Sigma) or paxillin (1:100, BD Bioscience-Transduction Labs, San Jose, Calif.) in 1% BSA solution for 2 hours, rinsed in PBS and incubated 60 min with Cy3-goat IgG secondary antibody (Jackson ImmunoResearch, West Grove, Pa.). Slides were mounted and analyzed by confocal microscopy (Leica TCS SP2, Bannockburn, Ill.). Interference reflection microscopy was used to determine the percentage of 3T3 cells positive for focal adhesions. Cells were cultured as described above and either untreated or treated with 100 nM Hep I (thrombospondin peptide), 10 μM and 25 μM pHSP20 (phospho HSP20 peptide) or 10 μM and 25 μM sHSP20 (scrambled HSP20 peptide). 
     Results 
     Cellular processes such as cell adhesion, cytokinesis, cell motility, migration, and muscular contraction/relaxation require dynamic reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton. Activation of cyclic nucleotide signaling pathways in various cell types leads to profound alterations in the cytoskeleton, which include loss of central stress fibers and focal adhesion plaques; cytoplasmic retraction with the formation of thin processes; and rounding of the cell bodies (1). In aggregate, these changes lead to a star-shaped appearance that has been termed “stellation.” 
     The cyclic nucleotide signaling pathways include adenylate cyclase/cAMP/cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) and guanylate cyclase/cGMP/cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG). These pathways converge at the phosphorylation of the small heat shock-related protein, HSP20 on serine 16 (2, 3). To determine if HSP20 mediates cyclic nucleotide-dependent stellation, phosphopeptide analogues of HSP20 (pHSP20) were synthesized (4) that contained: 1) the amino acid sequence surrounding the phosphorylation site of HSP20 (WLRRApSAPLPGL) (SEQ ID NO:300); 2) a phosphoserine (pS); and 3) an 11 amino acid protein transduction domain from the HIV Tat protein (YGRKKRRQRRR). The sequence of the resulting test polypeptide is YGRKKRRQRRRWLRRApSAPLPGL (SEQ ID NO:301). Control peptides contained the same sequence as the phosphopeptide analogues except with either an alanine in place of the phosphoserine (aHSP20) or a scrambled HSP20 sequence containing phosphoserine (scrHSP20, PRpSLWALGRPLSAK) (SEQ ID NO:302). 
     Swiss albino 3T3 cells were either untreated or treated with 10 μM LPA, 10 μM forskolin, 25 μM FITC-pHSP20, or 25 μM FITC-aHSP20 as described (4). Cells were fixed, stained for f-actin using Alexa 568 phalloidin, and visualized by projection images of confocal fluorescence microscopy. FITC-peptide flurescence was overlayed with actin staining to show colocalization. Cells that had been exposed to serum (10%) or lysophosphatidic acid (10 μM, 30 min) displayed robust stress fibers. Cells that were treated with the adenylate cyclase activator forskolin (10 μM, 30 min) or with pHSP20 displayed stellate morphology and disrupted stress fibers. The control peptide aHSP20 did not lead to alterations in morphology or stress fibers. 
     To confirm that the loss of stress fibers is associated with loss of filamentous (f-) actin and commensurate increases in globular (g-) actin, a DNase 1 inhibition assay was performed (5). 3T3 cells were cultured and treated as indicated (4). Monomer g-actin was biochemically quantitated using a DNase 1 inhibition assay. The level of g-actin in the cell extract that caused 50% inhibition of DNase 1 was estimated from a standard actin curve that was determined using known amounts of actin. Forskolin (10 μM, 30 min) and pHSP20 (25 μM, 30 min) treatment led to increases in g-actin ( FIG. 1 ). Thus, transduction of pHSP20 led to similar changes in actin filament dynamics and cellular morphology, as did activation of the upstream adenylate cyclase activator forskolin. 
     To further verify disruption of the actin cytoskeletal network upon addition of pHSP20, the presence of focal adhesions was examined by interference reflection microscopy (6, 7). Focal adhesions are plaque-like scaffolds of both structural and signaling proteins that link the cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix through integrin and syndecan receptors. Focal adhesions are formed in response to cell adhesion and involve signaling through Rho. These are dynamic structures that undergo disassembly and restructuring, characterized by loss of stress fibers and dispersion of vinculin, α-actinin, and paxillin, and are associated with increased cell motility. The matricellular proteins thrombospondin and tenascin-C cause focal adhesion disassembly and introduction of the intermediate cell adhesive state in a manner that requires basal PKG activity (7). 
     Swiss albino 3T3 cells were either untreated, or treated for 30 min with 10 μM LPA, 10 μM forskolin, 25 μM pHSP20, 25 μM FITC-aHSP20, and immunostained for α-actinin, vinculin, or paxillin. Confocal projection images for FITC-peptides were overlayed with actin staining to show colocalization (f, i). Scale bar 50 μm. 
     Cells treated with forskolin or pHSP20 displayed a decrease in focal adhesion accumulations of α-actinin, vinculin, and paxillin, while cells treated with aHSP20 appeared to retain focal adhesion proteins. The pHSP20 led to disruption of focal adhesions in cultured 3T3 cells similar to the loss of focal adhesions that occurred with the hep I peptide of thrombospondin ( FIG. 2 ), which has been shown to signal focal adhesion disassembly in a PKG-dependent manner (7). Again, aHSP20 had no effect on focal adhesions. These data suggest that phosphorylated HSP20 might be one of the downstream effectors by which PKG mediates focal adhesion disruption. These experiments further suggest that HSP20 and functionally equivalent polypeptides thereof, are useful for promoting wound healing and/or reducing scar formation. 
     REFERENCES FOR EXAMPLE 1 
     
         
         1. G. J. Ramakers, W. H. Moolenaar,  Exp. Cell Res.  245, 252 (1998). 
         2. A. Beall et al.,  J. Biol. Chem.  274, 11344 (1999). 
         3. C. R. Flynn et al.,  Faseb J.  17, 1358 (2003). 
         4. Materials and methods are available as supporting material on  Science  Online. 
         5. C. S. Heacock, J. R. Bamburg,  Anal. Biochem.  135, 22 (1983). 
         6. J. E. Murphy-Ullrich, S. Gurusiddappa, W. A. Frazier, M. Hook,  J. Biol. Chem.  268, 26784 (1993). 
         7. J. E. Murphy-Ullrich et al.,  J. Cell. Sci.  109, 2499 (1996). 
       
    
     Example 2 
     Enhancing Neural Electrode Durability 
     The durability of neural recording electrodes depends on scar formation. The scar formation in neural tissue is referred to as gliosis or glial scarring and results in insulation of the electrode from the neuronal tissues. These electrodes are often implanted into the brain for long-term monitoring of neuronal population activities for investigation of motor control or stimulation for treatment of neural trauma or diseases. In order to achieve the full potential of neural recording electrodes, methods must be developed to reduce scar formation and improve the interface between the electrode and the electrically active neurons. The reduction of scar formation will improve both short- and long-term recording potential of the electrodes. Modulation of scar tissue formation around neural electrodes will improve function of stimulating electrodes as will including deep brain electrodes for Parkinson&#39;s disease, cochlear implants, and spinal cord stimulators. Since scar tissue acts as an insulator, improved conduction of action potentials to the electrodes will improve the performance of all implanted neural electrodes. 
     Neural Recording Electrodes: 
     Electrodes, when implanted into the brain, become encapsulated over time. Two biological responses result in encapsulation. The first involves the formation of a compact barrier of fibroblasts and extracellular matrix around the electrode. The second, gliosis, involves the glial cells of the brain. Gliosis is characterized by phenotypic modulation of astrocytes into glial cells, which produce extracellular matrix and further promote scar formation. There is a correlation between tissue trauma and degree of capsule formation with thicker capsules being formed in areas of higher tissue trauma. The increased trauma leads to disruption of the blood-brain barrier, which in turn, introduces blood-borne molecules into the brain. Glial scars, or capsules, can be up to 250 μm thick. These capsules act as insulators, impeding the conduction of electrical signals from neurons to the recording electrodes, thus limiting the function of the electrodes. 
     Inhibiting astrocyte proliferation and extracellular matrix formation around the site of electrodes will increase both the longevity and strength of the recording signals. Upon exposure to blood-borne factors, astrocytes exhibit morphological changes, which include stress fiber formation and loss of stellation. Stellation is a term used to describe alterations to the actin cytoskeleton that result in cells adopting a star-like or stellate shape. Upon loss of stellate morphology, astrocytes proliferate and secrete extracellular matrix proteins, which forms glial scars. Lysophosphatidic acid, a lipid found in high concentrations in blood, has been associated with the loss of stellate morphology, astrocytes proliferation, and gliosis. 
     Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a biologically active signaling molecule that is bound to serum albumin in the blood. LPA can reverse stellation in astrocytes; this is likely due to inhibition of the cAMP pathway. LPA also can cause neurite retraction. HSP20 is the substrate molecule of both the cAMP and cGMP pathways and that its phosphorylation at serine 16 results in disruption of actin filaments. 
     Microwire arrays were implanted in the motor cortex of Sprague Dawley rats. Six male Sprague-Dawley rats (300-450 g) were implanted with 2×4 arrays of 50 μm tungsten wire. The electrodes were spaced 500 um apart for a total array size of approximately 1.5 mm×0.5 mm. The implant was centered +3 mm anterior and +2 mm lateral from bregma. The craniotomy was opened slightly larger than the implant size and an injection (0.1 cc, 0.9% PBS or 100 μm p20) was made into the arachnoid space near the implant site using a 30 gauge needle. The mirowire array was held in a micromanipulator and lowered 2 mm from the surface of the dura. The craniotomy was covered with Gelfoam® and the implant and connector were cemented in place with dental acrylic. 
     Three groups were implanted and evaluated histologically after four weeks. Group one was implanted with untreated electrodes. Group two was implanted with dextran coated microwire electrodes and group three was implanted with dextran coated electrodes and received a subdural injection of the HSP20 biomimetic peptide (YGRKKRRQRRRWLRRApSAPLPGL (SEQ ID NO:301). At 4 weeks two animals from each group were sacrificed for histology. Animals were anesthetized and perfused with PBS followed by formalin. The brain tissue was dissected from the skull and sectioned into 100 μM sections using a vibrotome. Sections were permeablizd with 0.05% triton and blocked with bovine serum albumin followed by probing with rabbit anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) for astrocytes and goat anti-microtubule associated protein 2 (MAP2) for axons. Texas Red labeled anti-Rabbit and Cy5 labeled antij-donkey secondary antibodies were used respectively for visualization. 
     While significant glial scarring was seen with neural electrodes alone at four weeks, reduced scarring was seen with dextran coated electrodes. For the electrodes implanted with the addition of the HSP20 biomimetic peptide, essentially no scarring was observed; in addition, a higher density of axons was seen in the vicinity of the microwire electrodes. This data suggests that the HSP20 peptide is effective at both inhibiting scarring around the electrodes and enhancing axon survival in the vicinity of the implant, and further suggest that HSP20 and functionally equivalent polypeptides thereof are useful for promoting wound healing and/or reducing scar formation.