Patent Publication Number: US-6993754-B2

Title: Annotations to executable images for improved dynamic optimization functions

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention relates generally to computer systems and more specifically to annotating images which are executable on computer systems for improved optimizing such as dynamic inlining of functions. 
     BACKGROUND 
     As is generally known, computers are used to manipulate data under the control of software. Software is typically written in a high level programming language such as C, which is then compiled by a compiler program into binary machine language instructions which can be executed by a central processing unit in the computer. Software written in programming languages other than the machine language instructions are relatively much easier to understand and use. A very common strategy to simplify computer programming is to group frequently called portions of a program in subroutines, or functions, which perform a certain task. Functions may generally be called or executed as needed from anywhere else in the program each time the task is to be performed. Thus, rather than repeating the program instructions for the task each time the task is performed, the program instructions appear only once in the software, reducing the size of the resulting software. 
     However, including functions in software can have a negative impact on the performance of the software. Information must often be passed along to the functions as formal parameters, and functions may return information as return values. Passing formal parameters and return values to and from functions requires that a compiler generate additional machine language instructions, making extra work which slows the computer. Additionally, each time a function is called, the computer must save the state of the processor before jumping to the function in the program, in effect saving its place before executing the function. Once the function has finished executing, the computer must restore the state of the processor before returning to the instruction following the function call. These additional tasks can greatly slow the execution of software, particularly if the software includes many small functions. In the extreme, these additional tasks such as passing parameters and return values and saving the state of the processor can be more work for the processor than the actual function. 
     Most compilers include optional optimization tools which give the programmer the option of optimizing the software for speed as it is compiled. One such tool, called inlining, replaces function calls with the body of the function each time the function call appears. Thus multiple copies of a function will appear inline with the rest of the program, rather than being a single independent copy which can be called from multiple places. Actual arguments to an operation are substituted for formal parameters and the state-saving instructions are omitted. Since this increases the size of the software, compilers typically attempt to determine which functions would be good candidates for inlining and which are not. The criteria used by compilers include information such as the size of a function, the frequency with which it is called, and the number of places from which it is called. For example, large functions which are called infrequently but from many points, or call sites, in a program would be poor candidates for inlining as they would greatly increase the size of the software. In contrast, small functions which are called frequently from only a few call sites would be good candidates for inlining. 
     However, the traditional software environment in which a program is written, compiled, then executed on a single type of computer is changing with the increasing desire for hardware independent software which can be executed on multiple different types of computers. To achieve hardware independence in software, software is typically either manipulated after compilation (e.g., translated) or is compiled piecemeal as the software is executed. 
     Another departure from the traditional compilation environment is dynamic translation, wherein software in binary machine language form, written for execution on a first type of computer, is translated as it is executed on a second type of computer. Dynamic translators operate by translating each word of the non-native code into a corresponding word or words of native code for execution by the computer. However, dynamic translators do not scan, evaluate and modify software before executing, and thus do not have detailed information about the software prior to execution. Without additional information about the code it is very difficult, if not impossible, to achieve full inlining of the program to improve performance, particularly in machine language code. 
     A need therefore exists for a method of enabling function inlining and related optimizations during execution of a program, whether native or non-native to the computer. A further need exists for a method of enabling function inlining and related optimizations during execution of a program in machine language binary format. A further need exists for a method of providing information about an executing program to facilitate dynamic optimization of the program. 
     SUMMARY 
     The inventors have met these and other needs by creating a system of annotating compiled software to enable aggressive dynamic inlining of subroutines and other related optimizations. As the software is compiled, the compiler annotates the compiled code to include information about the compiled code. The annotation information is derived from: (a) the runtime architecture and software conventions that the compiler uses to compile the program; and (b) information the compiler has about references to individual memory locations. A dynamic optimizer or inliner then reads these annotations during execution to replace function calls with inline functions or to perform related optimizations. 
     Thus, the invention may comprise a method of optimizing a computer program, including generating annotation information about the computer program, storing the annotation information with the computer program, and optimizing the computer program based on the annotation information while the computer program is being executed. 
     The invention may also comprise a method of enabling optimization of a computer program, including generating annotation information about the computer program and storing the annotation information with the computer program. 
     The invention may also comprise a method of optimizing a computer program, including reading annotation information stored with the computer program, and optimizing the computer program based on the annotation information while the computer program is being executed. 
     The invention may also comprise an apparatus for enabling optimization of a computer program, the apparatus including one or more computer readable storage media storing computer executable instructions. The computer executable instructions include instructions for generating annotation information about the computer program and instructions for storing the annotation information with the computer program. 
     The invention may also comprise an apparatus for optimizing a computer program, the apparatus including one or more computer readable storage media storing computer executable instructions. The computer executable instructions include instructions for reading annotation information stored with the computer program and instructions for optimizing the computer program based on the annotation information while the computer program is being executed. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Illustrative and presently preferred embodiments of the invention are shown in the accompanying drawing, in which: 
         FIG. 1  is an exemplary block diagram of a prior art computer system which may be used to annotate executable images to facilitate dynamic inlining of functions; 
         FIG. 2  is an exemplary flow chart illustrating annotating and optimizing a computer program; 
         FIG. 3  is an exemplary flow chart illustrating generating and storing annotation information for a computer program; 
         FIG. 4  is an exemplary flow chart illustrating reading annotation information for a computer program and optimizing the program based on the information; 
         FIG. 5  is an illustration of the types of information which may be included in an exemplary annotation; and 
         FIG. 6  is an exemplary illustration of the types of optimizations which may be performed based on the information of  FIG. 5 . 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     A typical computer system which may be used to annotate and optimize executable images is illustrated in the block diagram of  FIG. 1 . A computer system  10  generally includes a central processing unit (CPU)  12  connected by a system bus  14  to devices such as a read-only memory (ROM)  16 , a random access memory (RAM)  20 , an input/output (I/O) adapter  22 , a communications adapter  24 , a user interface adapter  26 , and a display adapter  30 . Data storage devices such as a hard drive  32  are connected to the computer system  10  through the I/O adapter  22 . In operation, the CPU  12  in the computer system  10  executes instructions stored in binary format on the ROM  20 , on the hard drive  32 , and in the RAM  16 , causing it to manipulate data stored in the RAM  16  to perform useful functions. The computer system  10  may communicate with other electronic devices through local or wide area networks (e.g.,  34 ) connected to the communications adapter  24 . User input is obtained through input devices such as a keyboard  36  and a pointing device  40  which are connected to the computer system  10  through the user interface adapter  26 . Output is displayed on a display device such as a monitor  42  connected to the display adapter  30 . 
     A computer program, as defined in this description, which may be executed on the computer system  10  refers to any collection of computer executable instructions, which may be in the form of one or many binary executable files or one or many higher level software files, etc., and which may perform a single task or many unrelated tasks. The collection of computer executable instructions in the computer program may have been prepared and grouped at one time, or may include multiple different parts which were prepared at different times. 
     Dynamic optimization of a computer program executing on a computer system  10  is greatly enhanced by adding annotations to the executable image of the program. The term executable image refers herein to the computer executable instructions of a computer program, stored in any form. For example, the executable image may comprise a binary executable file stored on a hard drive. A dynamic optimizer refers to any system which improves the efficiency of a computer program while it is being executed, for example by making the program execute more rapidly. 
     Annotation information, as the phrase is used herein, refers to information derived from (a) the runtime architecture and software conventions for the computer program; and (b) information about references to individual memory locations in the computer program. The runtime architecture and software conventions include such things as the identity of the register containing the stack pointer. Since the stack pointer register is not dictated by most hardware architectures, the identity of the memory stack pointer register is part of the runtime architecture and software conventions. The runtime architecture and software conventions also include information about the structure and layout of the memory stack frame. 
     In one preferred embodiment, the dynamic optimizer is part of a dynamic execution layer such as that described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/924,260 for a “Dynamic Execution Layer Interface for Explicitly or Transparently Executing Application or System Binaries,” filed Aug. 8, 2001, which is incorporated herein by reference for all that it discloses. The dynamic execution layer is a software layer that executes between the program and the computer hardware in order to transform the program. The dynamic execution layer intercepts instructions from the executable image of the program before they are executed by the hardware and transforms them, such as to optimize them, translate them, provide virtual support for missing hardware, or any number of desirable tasks. The program executed through a dynamic execution layer may therefore be written in instructions which are either native to the computer hardware or non-native. The dynamic execution layer may also cache transformed code segments to improve execution speed of code segments which are repeatedly executed. 
     The dynamic execution layer attempts to identify program hot spots at runtime in order to cache their optimized versions for future reuse, thereby improving program performance significantly. The granularity of the selected hot spot can vary between a single block (or straight-line sequence of code without any intervening branches) and an entire function. Note that the terms function, procedure, and subroutine are used interchangeably herein to refer to any section of code which can be called and executed within a program, and which may or may not return to the instruction immediately following the call. A common granularity is a dynamic trace, which is a single-entry multi-exit sequence of code blocks. Traces offer a fairly large optimization scope while still having simple control flow, which makes optimizing them much easier than a procedure. A dynamic trace can go past several procedure calls and returns, including dynamically linked libraries (DLLs). This allows the dynamic execution layer to optimize the traces by performing inlining, removing redundant call and return branches, and other related optimizations. 
     The exemplary dynamic execution layer described above can operate transparently, that is, it can transform executable images or binaries without recompiling or otherwise specially preparing them. However, without any additional information about the code in the computer program it is very difficult and at times impossible to achieve full inlining. The major difficulty is to reverse engineer the executable image, without slowly preprocessing or scanning the entire image before execution, in order to recover information about the runtime architecture and software convention such as the spills and restore of caller- and callee-save registers, or information about the stack frame layout. In fact, even with a full scan of an executable image, some information simply cannot be retrieved without annotation information. The discovery of runtime architecture and software convention information is further complicated by the difficulty of memory disambiguation when considering only a code fragment. In the absence of additional information the dynamic optimizer must make worst case assumptions which may prevent otherwise safe inlining. Thus, potentially many valuable and safe inlining opportunities cannot be realized due to the inability of the dynamic execution layer to fully reverse engineer procedure runtime architecture and software conventions. 
     In another embodiment, the dynamic optimizer is incorporated in a binary translator that dynamically translates non-native machine code to native machine code. 
     Adding information about the computer program through annotations to the executable image enables dynamic optimizers such as those included in the exemplary dynamic execution layer mentioned above to perform aggressive optimizations, including function inlining. 
     In a preferred exemplary embodiment, the compiler used to produce the computer program executable also annotates the executable image with information about the program. The compiler has information about: (a) the runtime architecture and software conventions used to compile the program; and (b) information about references to individual memory locations. Therefore, the compiler can most simply communicate information and guarantees about the runtime architecture and software conventions in the compiled code to the dynamic optimizer. 
     The compiler preferably communicates this information through annotations to the executable image, although the information could alternatively be stored and provided to the dynamic optimizer separately. The annotation format, therefore, must be understood by both the compiler and the dynamic optimizer. The annotations consist of information stored with the computer program other than instructions executable by the computer processor or data to be manipulated by the computer program. 
     The basic procedure involved in annotating and dynamically optimizing a computer program is illustrated in  FIG. 2 . First, annotation information is generated  50  about the computer program. As mentioned above, this is preferably performed by the compiler during the compilation process, as the compiler has the information needed to generate the annotation, including information about the runtime architecture and software conventions as well as the memory references in the program. The information in a preferred embodiment is related to the stack, although the annotations to executable images for improved dynamic optimization should not be viewed as limited to the particular annotation information illustrated in the exemplary embodiments herein. For example, one type of annotation information which will be described below is a list of memory locations which the compiler guarantees are only accessed by non-ambiguous memory references. The exemplary embodiments herein describe this list with respect to the local stack frame. However, this list may also be generated for other memory locations using more elaborate analyses in the compiler. Therefore, the annotation information is not limited to information about the stack. 
     The annotation information is stored  52  with the computer program. As mentioned above, the annotation is preferably stored in the compiled executable program. The computer program is then dynamically optimized  54  with the annotation information. The types of optimizations enabled by the annotation depend upon the information included, as will be discussed below. 
     Although the procedure illustrated in  FIG. 2  includes both the annotation and optimization, these operations are preferably performed separately by independent tools, as shown in  FIGS. 3 and 4 . The annotation operation is preferably performed by the compiler during, or after, the compilation process by the compiler. The compiler first generates  60  annotation information about the computer program, then stores the annotation information with the executable image for the computer program. (See  FIG. 3 ) The optimization is then performed by a dynamic optimizer, which reads  64  the annotation information stored with the executable, then optimizes  66  the program during execution based on the information in the annotation. 
     As mentioned above, it is important to note that the information contained in the annotations is not limited to the information included in the exemplary embodiments described herein. Similarly, the optimizations performed by the dynamic optimizer based on the annotations are not limited to the optimizations included in the exemplary embodiments described herein. 
     The information stored in the annotation is dependent upon the types of optimizations to be performed. For function inlining, in general, the annotation should contain calling convention information and information about the memory stack. The stack is used to dynamically allocate the local variables (locals) used in functions, to pass parameters to the functions, and to return values from the functions. The stack consists of logical stack frames that are pushed, or added to the stack, when calling a function, and popped, or removed from the stack, when returning from the function. A stack frame may contain the parameters to a function, its local variables, and the data necessary to recover the previous stack frame, including the value of the instruction pointer at the time of the function call. When functions are placed inline, this overhead can be removed if the annotation contains enough information about the stack frame. For example, variables local to the inlined function which are stored on the stack can be promoted to being stored in registers as long as all references to the local variables on the stack can be identified. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 5 , the types of information which may be included in an exemplary preferred annotation will be discussed. The types of information will be presented in a preferred order from simplest to most complex, although they need not be ordered in this fashion. 
     First, the annotation information includes the identity of a unique stack pointer register  70 . In order to be able to undo stack frame allocation, the correct identity of a unique stack pointer register  70  is needed. The compiler knows the identity of the unique stack pointer register because of its information about the runtime architecture and software conventions used to compile the program. 
     Second, the annotation information includes a list  72  of memory locations for which the compiler guarantees that (a) it knows all references to these memory locations; and (b) all of these references are non-ambiguous, that is, each such memory reference instruction individually must reference the exact same memory location each time it is executed. Any item in list  72  can be identified by its index or position in the list. 
     The entry of an item in list  72  may include a canonical name for the referenced location. The canonical name can be any unique name; the canonical name of a stack frame location is preferably given by a pair (sp,d) where sp identifies the unique stack pointer register and d is an offset from the stack pointer such that d(sp) addresses the stack frame location. Offset d is called the canonical offset of the location. 
     Note that the canonical names may alternatively be given any format, as long as they uniquely identify the memory locations for which accesses can be optimized. For example, their format may vary depending upon the architecture of the computer system: if the target architecture does not reference stack frame locations with (sp,d), another format may be more convenient or necessary. However, it is most convenient to use (sp,d) for stack locations since this is how the compiler likely names temporary stack locations. 
     The entry of an item in list  72  may also include the length of the access. The format of the location identifiers of non-ambiguous stack frame locations may thus look as follows: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Item 
                 Name 
                 Length 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 1 
                  4(sp) 
                 4 
               
               
                 2 
                  8(sp) 
                 8 
               
               
                 3 
                 16(sp) 
                 4 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     With the list  72  of location identifiers above, the second location in the list  72  would be at an offset of 8 bytes from the stack pointer, with a length of 8 bytes. 
     The compiler has complete control over compiler generated stack frame locations for callee-saves registers, arguments, and other local (spill) locations. Thus, the compiler can provide guarantees about the use of canonical names without extensive analysis for these locations. Again, the compiler can provide this list because of its information about the runtime architecture and software conventions used to compile the program. For local variables, the compiler can analyze the code and mark the location of a local as non-ambiguous if its address, or the address of any member of its type, is not taken. 
     Note that as discussed above, the annotations to executable images are not limited to information related to the stack. Accordingly, the list  72  of location identifiers of non-ambiguous stack frame locations above may contain location identifiers of any non-ambiguous location, not just stack frame locations, as long as the compiler still guarantees that it knows all possible references to any location in the list  72 . 
     The third type of information included in the annotation is a mapping  74  of memory references or accesses to non-ambiguous locations. This mapping  74  may correlate memory references to the non-ambiguous locations by their location identifiers discussed above in the second type of annotation information. 
     The map  74  contains an entry for each reference in the procedure body for each non-ambiguous location. An exemplary map  74  appears as follows: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Reference 
                 Referenced Location 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Ld1 
                 Non-ambiguous location 2 
               
               
                 Ld2 
                 Non-ambiguous location 1 
               
               
                 St1 
                 Non-ambiguous location 3 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     For each reference in a stack frame&#39;s scope to a non-ambiguous location, an entry is made to the map  74  which correlates the memory reference or access to the non-ambiguous location or it&#39;s canonical name. Note that the exemplary references Ld1, Ld2, and St1 refer to load and store operations in the stack frame&#39;s scope, and may comprise any suitable symbolic name or reference to the memory access operations. Any desirable type of location identifier or pointer from memory references to non-ambiguous locations may be used. In this example, the first load operation in the stack frame&#39;s scope accesses the second non-ambiguous location, the variable at location 8(sp) having a length of 8 bytes, whose canonical name appears as the second entry in the list  72  above. Alternatively, the map  74  could contain pointers into the list  72  rather than pointers to the non-ambigous ambiguous locations. 
     The list  72  and map  74  allow the following memory access sequence to be written with a variety of different name formats while still allowing dynamic inlining: 
     1: loadw rx=4(sp) 
     2: loadd ry=8(sp) 
     3: loadw rz=16(sp) 
     could also be written in the code as: 
     1: movw ri=sp 
     2: loadw rx=4(ri++) 
     3: loadd ry=4(ri++) 
     4: loadw rz=4(ri) 
     or as: 
     1: loadw rx=4(sp++) 
     2: loadd ry=4(sp++) 
     3: loadw rz=4(sp) 
     The same memory locations are accessed but different names for them are used in the three sequences. In fact, assuming no stack pointer modification inside the function, the first example sequence above can be done with only the list  72 , as will be discussed below; the second and third example sequences above require the use of map  74  (obviously, the third example sequence modifies the stack pointer inside the function). 
     In the first sequence, the word rx is loaded from the stack at an offset of 4 from the stack pointer, the double length word ry is loaded from an offset of 8 from the stack pointer, and the word rz is loaded from an offset of 16 from the stack pointer. In the second sequence, the stack pointer is copied into another register ri, and the register ri is used to access the different offsets for the three memory locations. The register ri is incremented to change the accessed offset without altering the stack pointer. In line two of the second sequence, the word rx is loaded from an offset of 4 from ri, which is the same location accessed in line  1  of the first sequence, and so on. In the third sequence, the stack pointer is incremented to access the three memory locations while the offset remains constant. (Note that the constant offset of 4 in the second and third sequences is used to match the offset of 4 in the first line of the first sequence.) 
     In an alternative embodiment, items may be added to the map  74  only for memory references which use non-canonical names. This option provides for shorter maps  74 , but may slow optimization. If the computer architectures or compilers use only canonical names in the generated instructions, the map  74  of memory references in a stack frame&#39;s scope to the canonical names of referenced locations for all non-ambiguous locations may not be needed in the annotation. 
     The map  74  of the third annotation may not be needed if the stack pointer is not modified in the code (see, e.g., the first of the three access sequences above using 4(sp), 8(sp) and 16(sp)), since the dynamic optimizer could simply inspect the code to identify which non-ambiguous location is accessed by a memory reference. This annotation information may also not be needed for some architectures in which it is possible to deduce the information from the instruction stream using only the list of canonical names of non-ambiguous stack frame locations. The facts needed to deduce the information in the third annotation  74  are that a fixed reference point is known (e.g., sp), and that the instructions contain sufficient information to determine the memory location and look it up in the list  72  of non-ambiguous stack frame locations (e.g., a memory reference in the form d[sp]). Normally the stack pointer provides the fixed reference point, but if the stack pointer is modified and the runtime architecture and software conventions organize the local stack frame relative to the previous stack pointer (psp), that would do as well. The deduction of the information in the third annotation  74  would also be based upon whether the architecture provides a base+displacement form for memory references (e.g., IA64 does not, PA-RISC does). The deduction of the information in the third annotation  74  therefore must determine when looking at a memory reference whether it is possible to match the location that is accessed with the list of non-ambiguous stack frame locations in the second annotation  72 . 
     Note that a mixture of the list  72  of non-ambiguous stack frame locations and the map  74  of memory references to non-ambiguous locations can be combined if the map  74  contains all memory references to non-ambiguous locations, not just references to non-ambiguous locations which use canonical names. In this case, the map  74  could be encoded so that the list  72  is not needed. 
     The fourth type of information included in the annotation is a list  76  of canonical names of stack frame locations that are promotable. A stack frame location is called promotable if the location is only accessed by explicit memory references inside the stack frame&#39;s procedure body (e.g., the location cannot be referenced by an exception handler). 
     The fifth type of information included in the annotation is a guarantee  80  that no stack frame location is live beyond the scope of the stack frame. 
     The sixth type of information included in the annotation is the format and location of stack unwinding information  82 . This information is needed for exception handling that can trigger up the call chain. If inlining-related optimizations have been applied which remove one or more stack frames, the stack unwinding information  82  must also be updated so that exception handling is properly performed. 
     Annotations one through three ( 70 ,  72 , and  74 ) enable the dynamic optimizer to trace register values through memory (through their spill locations). Annotations two through five ( 72 ,  74 ,  76 , and  80 ) enable the dynamic optimizer to remove store instructions and stack frame locations in general. 
     All this information is readily available to the compiler and it provides the essential knowledge for the dynamic optimizer to enable full inlining and inlining-related optimizations. The information stored in an annotation must be correct, or the program will likely fail when dynamically optimized. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 6 , the inlining-related optimizations will be discussed which may be performed based on the information in the exemplary preferred annotation above. The types of optimizations will be presented in a preferred order from simplest to most complex, although they need not be ordered in this fashion. 
     First, the exemplary annotations above enable removal of redundant callee-save register restores  90 . As a function is called, the processor registers contain values which are saved onto the stack frame by the function, or callee, as it is entered. As the function ends, it restores these values from the stack frame back into the processor registers before returning to the caller. The function is therefore able to use the faster registers without disrupting the operation of the caller. 
     This inlining-related optimization requires that the first three types of information described above ( 70 ,  72 , and  74 ) be included in the annotation. With this information it can be recognized by the dynamic optimizer that restoring from a particular non-ambiguous callee-save location is redundant because the location has not been rewritten since the initial register save. In other words, if, after the function saved the registers onto its stack frame, it didn&#39;t actually modify the registers, (perhaps because the dynamic optimizer placed part of the function inline) then the function needn&#39;t restore the registers before returning to the caller. 
     This optimization may arise particularly when executing software through a dynamic execution layer, because in a dynamic execution layer only individual paths through a procedure may be inlined rather than the entire procedure body. Most compilers can automatically remove redundant callee-save register restores if a function never overwrites a register. However, there are often multiple paths through a function, some of which may overwrite the register, others which don&#39;t. The dynamic execution layer, as described above, identifies each of the traces through the function and treats them separately. Therefore, the traces through the function which don&#39;t overwrite the register are eligible for removal of redundant callee-save register restores. The compiler will have left in the callee-save register restores because the function overwrites the register in at least one place. 
     This may also be generalized to removal of loads from any non-ambiguous location. This optimization does not affect the stack frame contents, it simply eliminates redundant restores from (or accesses to) locations on the stack frame. 
     The second type of inlining-related optimization is constant argument specialization  92 , which is also enabled by the first three types of annotation information ( 70 ,  72 , and  74 ) described above. Constant argument specialization  92 , or propagation of constants across nested calls, requires that argument values be traced through memory, which the first three types of information above ( 70 ,  72 , and  74 ) enable. As a constant is stored in variables, either global or local, in the code, this information allows the dynamic optimizer to trace the constant through the code, evaluate the code, and optimize it. For example, if a constant is stored to a location on the stack frame, and that location is later used in a compare operation to perform a conditional branch, the dynamic optimizer can identify that the location contains the constant. This would enable the dynamic optimizer to determine whether, for example, one of the possible branches has an impossible branch outcome, and remove it from the code dynamically. Examine, for example, the following bit of pseudo-assembly code: 
     1: movw arg 1 =c 
     2: storew 4(sp)=arg 1   
     3: storew  10 (r 5 )=rx 
     4: loadw r 1 =4(sp) 
     5: ifeq r 1 , c 
     Line  1  sets the variable arg 1  equal to constant c. Line  2  stores arg 1  to location 4(sp). Line  3  is a store to an ambiguous location. Line  4  loads location 4(sp) to register r 1  . Line  5  does some action only if register r 1  is equal to constant c. 
     This optimization allows the constant c to be traced and propagated, replacing arg 1 , 4(sp), and register  1 , despite the store to an ambiguous location in line  3 . The annotations enable the optimizer to trace the constant c, determine that the compare at line  5  will always be true, and eliminate the false branch of the code. 
     Again, as described above, many of these inlining-related optimizations arise most often when the code is being dynamically transformed, such as by a dynamic execution layer, and functions have been divided into multiple traces which can be independently optimized. 
     This optimization also does not affect the stack frame contents, it simply eliminates redundant restores from (or accesses to) locations on the stack frame. This also means that there are no exception handling issues with this optimization. 
     The third type of inlining-related optimization is register promotion of locals  94 , which is enabled by the first five types of annotation information ( 70 ,  72 ,  74 ,  76 , and  80 ) described above. The first three types of annotation information ( 70 ,  72 , and  74 ) are needed to identify non-ambiguous locals that can be held in a register (if available) instead of being held in a stack frame location. The fourth and fifth types of annotation information ( 76 , and  80 ) are needed to eliminate any store into the stack frame location holding the promoted local. 
     The fourth type of inlining-related optimization is removal of redundant callee register saves  96  which is enabled by the six types of annotation information ( 70 ,  72 ,  74 ,  76 ,  80 , and  82 ) described above. Using the first three types of annotation information ( 70 ,  72 , and  74 ) redundant callee-save register restores can be identified (as described in the first optimization  90  above). The fourth and fifth types of annotation information ( 76 , and  80 ) are needed to ensure that it is save to remove the redundant callee register saves. Note that with this optimization, the stack frame is modified, so the stack unwinding descriptors  82  must be updated as well. 
     The fifth type of inlining-related optimization is removal of the stack frame allocation  98  which is enabled by the six types of annotation information ( 70 ,  72 ,  74 ,  76 ,  80 , and  82 ) described above. If by the above optimizations all local and callee-save registers are promoted or eliminated, the entire stack frame can be eliminated. Note that with this optimization, since the stack frame is eliminated, the stack unwinding descriptors  82  must be updated as well. 
     An example will now be given of a function inlining optimization which provides the opportunity to apply several of the individual optimizations described above. The following pseudo-assembly code includes several opportunities for dynamic optimization if it is annotated with the appropriate information. This code represents the instructions seen during execution, including a call and return from a function: 
     1: ldo r 26 =0xa4(sp) 
     2: bl r 2 , .L 5   
     3: ldo sp=−0x40(sp) 
     4: storew 0x 14(sp)=r 25   
     5: storew 0(r 3 )=r 23   
     6: loadw r 3 =0x14(sp) 
     7: ldo sp=0x40(sp) 
     8: bv (r 2 ) 
     Line  1  of the code above loads an argument into register r 26  . Line  2  calls procedure .L 5 , with register r 2  as the link register. Line  3  updates the stack pointer to allocate the stack frame for the called procedure. (Note that this is a code segment as it would be presented for execution by a processor, not as programmed, so the called procedure, including related stack frame management instructions, appears in the instruction stream.) Lines  4  and  5  are store operations appearing in the body of the called procedure. Line  6  is a potentially redundant load operation in the body of the called procedure. Line  7  deallocates the stack frame by resetting the stack pointer. Line  8  returns from the called procedure. 
     We would like to inline the function which will remove the call and return branches in lines  2  and  8 , as well as the allocation of the stack frame and the redundant load. The resulting optimized code would look like this: 
     1: ldo r 26 =0xa4(sp) 
     5: storew 0(r 3 )=r 23   
     . . . . 
     6′: movw r 3  =r 25   
     Line  1  of the optimized code above loads the argument into register r 26 . The procedure call and stack frame allocation of lines  2  and  3  of the unoptimized code above are removed, as well as the store to a temporary frame location of line  4 . Line  5  is the store operation appearing in the body of the procedure, which is not optimized away. In line  6 ′ the redundant load of the unoptimized code is replaced with a copy from the original location. The frame deallocation and procedure return instructions of lines  7  and  8  of the unoptimized code above are removed. 
     To be able to do these kinds of optimizations the dynamic optimizer needs information about the instructions that reference the stack locations, particularly for non-ambiguous references. For example, the location 0x14(sp) is non-ambiguous because the compiler can identify all references to this location. In particular, the compiler can guarantee that the store instruction (storew 0(r 3 )=r 23 ) does not address the stack frame location 0x14(sp). Without this information, the runtime analysis performed by the dynamic optimizer would have to make a conservative worst-case assumption. Since the dynamic optimizer doesn&#39;t know anything about the contents of register r 3  it is possible that  0 (r 3 ) addresses the same location as 0x14(sp). Thus, if line  5  may or may not overwrite location 0x14(sp) the dynamic optimizer cannot determine that the value loaded in line  6  from 014x(sp) is still the same as that stored in line  4 . However, if the dynamic optimizer knows that 0x14(sp) is non-ambiguous it also knows that the mapping  74  of memory references in a stack frame&#39;s scope to the canonical names of referenced locations for all non-ambigous locations is complete. If the map  74  does not contain an entry for the store in line  5  the dynamic optimizer can safely assume that the store in line  5  does not overwrite location 0x14(sp). Thus, the load in line  6  is redundant because the value is already stored in register r 25 . So the optimization replaces the load in line  6  with a register move in line  6 ′. Furthermore if the annotation provides the guarantee  80  that no stack frame location is live beyond the scope of the stack frame (or past the return in line  8 ), the store in line  4  is useless once the load in line  6  is removed. Therefore the store in line  4  can also be removed. 
     The annotation for this example needs four types of information: the identity of a unique stack pointer register  70 , a list  72  of canonical names of non-ambigous stack frame locations, a mapping  74  of memory references in a stack frame&#39;s scope to the canonical names of referenced locations for all non-ambiguous locations, (or combined list and map  74 ) and a guarantee  80  that no stack frame location is live beyond the scope of the stack frame. The annotation for this example may appear as follows: 
     1) sp 
     2) (0x14,sp) or just (0x14)—this is the only stack location for which all references are non-ambiguous 
     3) 4: &gt;(0x14,sp) store address mapped 
     4) 6: &gt;(0x14,sp) load address mapped 
     5) (0x14,sp) not live after line  8   
     If the compiler supports stack unwinding, the stack unwinding mechanism provides an ideal vehicle to embed the annotations. If the stack unwinding mechanism does not exist, a similar structure can be defined. Stack unwinding descriptors typically already contain a pointer  70  to the unique stack pointer. The second and third types of annotation information described above can additionally be embedded into the stack unwinding descriptor in the form of two tables, a non-ambiguous location table  72  and a memory reference map  74 . If a memory reference in the code addresses the location by its canonical name, it is not necessary to query the memory reference map  74  and the canonical offset can be directly deduced from the reference address. Thus, to optimize the memory reference map  74 , entries may be made for only references with non-canonical addresses, as discussed above. The list  76  of canonical names of promotable stack frame locations can also be embedded in the descriptor in table form, while the last two types of annotation information  80  and  82  can be hardcoded into the inliner if the executable image is generated properly. 
     While illustrative and presently preferred embodiments of the invention have been described in detail herein, it is to be understood that the inventive concepts may be otherwise variously embodied and employed, and that the appended claims are intended to be construed to include such variations, except as limited by the prior art.