Patent Publication Number: US-2023155175-A1

Title: Electrolyte formulations for electrochemical cells containing a silicon electrode

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     The present application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. non-provisional patent application Ser. No. 16/250,977 filed on Jan. 17, 2019, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/251,763 filed on Aug. 30, 2016, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes. 
    
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
     This invention was made with government support under DOE EE0006453 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention is in the field of battery technology and, more particularly, electrolyte formulations that address challenges encountered during the use of silicon-based anodes in lithium ion batteries. 
     Lithium ion batteries enjoy relatively widespread use, but research continues into improving the energy density, capacity, and cycle life of these batteries. For example, silicon has been used as an anode material to improve the energy density of lithium ion cells. Silicon-based anodes can provide high energy density to lithium ion batteries due to the high theoretical capacity of silicon, which is 4200 mAh/g. However, the silicon particles that make up the anode can undergo larges changes in their volume during battery cycling. The volumetric changes on lithiation and delithiation cycles can be as large as about 300%. 
     These large volumetric changes in the silicon-based anode material can have negative effects on battery cycle life. A number of mechanisms may contribute to poor cycle life. For example, silicon particles can fracture due to the large stresses in the material brought on by the large changes in volume during cycling. These fractures can result in electrically isolated particle fragments that can no longer contribute to the capacity during cycling. Even when silicon particles do not completely fracture, the large stresses in the anode material can result in cracks in the particle and delamination of the particle surface. These cracks and delaminations can result in portions of the active material being electrically isolated and unable to contribute to the capacity during cycling. 
     As another example of a failure mechanism, the solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) that forms on the surface of silicon-based anode particles tends to not be mechanically robust. The result is cracking and delamination of this thin SEI layer on the particles as the large volume changes occur. Therefore, more SEI must be formed on each cycle to replace the cracked or delaminated SEI. But, this is not ideal because forming SEI irreversibly consumes battery capacity and creates gas products. Generally, a stable SEI should be formed on the initial cycles and should not need to be reformed. 
     Thus, there exists a need for an electrolyte formulation for silicon-based anodes in a lithium ion battery that improves cycle life by forming a more mechanically robust SEI. These and other challenges can be addressed by certain embodiments of the invention described herein. 
     BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     Embodiments of the present invention are additives to electrolytes that enable the formation of comparatively more robust SEI films on silicon-based anodes. The SEI films in these embodiments are seen to be more robust in part because the batteries containing these materials have higher coulombic efficiency and longer cycle life than comparable batteries without such additives. 
     Embodiments of the present invention include the methods of making such electrolytes using the additives disclosed herein, the methods of assembling batteries including such electrolytes using the additives disclosed herein, and using batteries including such electrolytes using the additives disclosed herein. 
     Embodiments of the present invention include an electrochemical cell having a silicon based anode and a liquid electrolyte solution comprising a soluble additive. In some embodiments, the additive may include an organo-metallic hydride additive, and the organo-metallic hydride additive may include a metalloid or a post-transition metal. In some embodiments, the additive is represented by the chemical structural formula (I): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     where R 1  is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, substituted and unsubstituted C 1 -C 20  alkyl groups, substituted and unsubstituted C 1 -C 20  alkenyl groups, substituted and unsubstituted C 1 -C 20  alkynyl groups, substituted and unsubstituted C 5 -C 20  aryl groups, hydride groups, halo groups, hydroxy groups, thio groups, alkyl groups, alkenyl groups, alkynyl groups, aryl groups, iminyl groups, alkoxy groups, alkenoxy groups, alkynoxy groups, aryloxy groups, carboxy groups, alkylcarbonyloxy groups, alkenylcarbonyloxy groups, alkynylcarbonyloxy groups, arylcarbonyloxy groups, alkylthio groups, alkenylthio groups, alkynylthio groups, arylthio groups, cyano groups, N-substituted amino groups, alkylcarbonylamino groups, N-substituted alkylcarbonylamino groups, alkenylcarbonylamino groups, N-substituted alkenyl carbonylamino groups, alkynylcarbonyl amino groups, N-substituted alkynylcarbonylamino groups, arylcarbonylamino groups, N-substituted arylcarbonylamino groups, boron-containing groups, aluminum-containing groups, silicon-containing groups, phosphorus-containing groups, and sulfur-containing groups. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG.  1    illustrates a lithium ion battery implemented according to an embodiment of the invention. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The following definitions apply to some of the aspects described with respect to some embodiments of the invention. These definitions may likewise be expanded upon herein. Each term is further explained and exemplified throughout the description, figures, and examples. Any interpretation of the terms in this description should take into account the full description, figures, and examples presented herein. 
     The singular terms “a,” “an,” and “the” include the plural unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to an object can include multiple objects unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. 
     The terms “substantially” and “substantial” refer to a considerable degree or extent. When used in conjunction with an event or circumstance, the terms can refer to instances in which the event or circumstance occurs precisely as well as instances in which the event or circumstance occurs to a close approximation, such as accounting for typical tolerance levels or variability of the embodiments described herein. 
     The term “about” refers to the range of values approximately near the given value in order to account for typical tolerance levels, measurement precision, or other variability of the embodiments described herein. 
     A rate “C” refers to either (depending on context) the discharge current as a fraction or multiple relative to a “1 C” current value under which a battery (in a substantially fully charged state) would substantially fully discharge in one hour, or the charge current as a fraction or multiple relative to a “1 C” current value under which the battery (in a substantially fully discharged state) would substantially fully charge in one hour. 
     The term “NMC” refers generally to cathode materials containing LiNi x Mn y Co z O w  and includes, but is not limited to, cathode materials containing LiNi 0.33 Mn 0.33 Co 0.033 O 2 . Typically, x+y+z=1. 
     Ranges presented herein are inclusive of their endpoints. Thus, for example, the range 1 to 3 includes the values 1 and 3 as well as the intermediate values. 
     In some embodiments disclosed herein, electrolyte solutions formulated to contain specific additive types can improve energy density, capacity, and cycle life of these batteries. 
       FIG.  1    illustrates a lithium ion battery  100  implemented in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The battery  100  includes an anode  102 , a cathode  106 , and a separator  108  that is disposed between the anode  102  and the cathode  106 . In the illustrated embodiment, the battery  100  also includes a high voltage electrolyte  104 , which is disposed within and between the anode  102  and the cathode  106  and remains stable during high voltage battery cycling. 
     The operation of the battery  100  is based upon reversible intercalation and de-intercalation of lithium ions into and from host materials of the anode  102  and the cathode  106 . Other implementations of the battery  100  are contemplated, such as those based on conversion chemistry. Referring to  FIG.  1   , the voltage of the battery  100  is based on redox potentials of the anode  102  and the cathode  106 , where lithium ions are accommodated or released at a lower potential in the former and a higher potential in the latter. To allow both a higher energy density and a higher voltage platform to deliver that energy, the cathode  106  includes an active cathode material for high voltage operations at or above 4.3V. 
     The anodes described herein are comprised of silicon. The anodes may comprise a silicon alloy, silicon oxide, or silicon. The anodes typically comprise at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, or 50% to any practicable amount such as 75%, 80%, or 90% by volume or more of silicon. 
     Silicon-based anodes can provide a higher energy density than carbon-based anodes. While the theoretical capacity of a silicon-based anode is on the order of 4200 mAh/g, it is necessary to balance the high capacity of a silicon-based anode with the undesirable properties that a silicon-based anode can have. For example, a silicon-based anode can have relatively high changes in volume during a charge/discharge cycle. The volumetric changes in a silicon-based anode can be from 70% to 300% over the range of desired anode capacities. That is, for an anode where only a small portion of the silicon capacity is utilized, the silicon may experience a volumetric change on the order of about 70%. In contrast, for an anode where a comparatively high portion of the silicon capacity is utilized, the silicon may experience a volumetric change on the order of about 300%. In certain embodiments disclosed herein, silicon-based anodes with capacities in the range of about 600 mAh/g to about 1200 mAh/g are matched with cathode materials having a similar capacity to yield a battery that demonstrates stable cycle life in the presence of an electrolyte containing additives discloses herein. The electrolyte additives disclosed herein provide an unexpected improvement in the capacity fade during cycling compared to the baseline formulations without such additives in batteries containing a silicon-based anode. 
     Known batteries containing silicon-based anodes experience limited cycle life and poor coulombic efficiency. The deficiencies of known batteries containing silicon-based anode can be due to a loss of connectivity in the anode of the active silicon material. The loss of connectivity can be due to structural defects in the anode related to the large change in volume experienced by the anode. The large volumetric changes can result in cracking and/or delamination of the electrode. Also, the large volumetric changes may be related to an unstable or ineffective SEI on the active silicon electrode. Further, the SEI formed from an ethylene carbonate based electrolyte on a silicon-based anode may also be unstable or ineffective regardless of the volumetric changes experiences by a silicon-based anode. 
     Certain additives disclosed herein improve the mechanical stability of the SEI formed in the presence of common electrolyte solvents such as ethylene carbonate. The additives disclosed herein provide surprising improvements to the performance of batteries containing silicon-based anodes. Unexpectedly, the additives do not demonstrate similar performance improvements in batteries having graphite anodes. 
     The additives disclosed herein yield an electrolyte solution that provides an electrochemically and mechanically robust SEI. The additives disclosed herein yield an electrolyte solution that enables the SEI to withstand the relatively large volumetric expansions and contractions known to occur in silicon-based anodes. These additives enable both the anode and cathode to be chemically, electrochemically, and mechanically stable through multiple battery cycles. 
     Certain additives disclosed in electrolyte formulations described herein are capable of enabling the formation of stable SEI with organic solvents such as ethylene carbonate. Based on prior uses of silicon-based anodes, it appears that electrolytes based on ethylene carbonate are inadequate for forming a stable SEI. Surprisingly, the additives disclosed herein can yield a stable SEI on a silicon-based anode when used in electrolyte formulations based on ethylene carbonate. Further, other solvent types may be used in conjunction with, or instead of, ethylene carbonate. For example, solvents including lactone, nitrile, sulfone, and carbonates groups may be useful. 
     Prior art electrolyte formulations for silicon-based anodes, and for the more common carbon anodes, contain ethylene carbonate (EC). EC is understood to play an important role in the formation of a stable SEI on carbon anodes. EC also participates in SEI formation on silicon, but, as discussed above, the SEI formed on silicon-based anodes using conventional electrolytes (including EC) is not mechanically robust. The lack of mechanical robustness is evidenced by poor electrochemical performance, such as poor coulombic efficiency and poor cycle life. Physically, films that lack mechanical robustness may appear to be inhomogeneous and/or may appear to have physical defects. Mechanically robust SEI forms a stable film at the electrode/electrolyte interface. 
     Using electrolyte additives disclosed herein, improvement was demonstrated in full cells containing NMC cathodes and silicon alloy based anodes. The electrolyte formulations preferably contain EC. Certain additives can improve coulombic efficiency and cycle life by forming a more mechanically robust SEI layer on the silicon-based anode. This may be due to a more polymeric nature of the resulting SEI or a modified ratio of organic components as compared to inorganic components in the SEI. 
     Without being bound to any particular hypothesis or mechanism of action, some of the additives disclosed herein may react with the EC to increase the molecular weight of the SEI that forms on the anode. Certain additives may act in a way analogous to chain extenders in the context of polymer formulation and processing, thereby increasing the molecular weight and film forming capability of the SEI that is typically generated from the EC in a conventional electrolyte solution. 
     The amount of additive can be expressed as a weight percent (wt %) of the total weight of the electrolyte formulation. In certain embodiments of the invention, the additive is present at an amount that is significantly lower than the amount of electrolyte salt present in the electrolyte formulation of the electrochemical cell. In certain embodiments of the invention, the concentration of additive in the electronic formulation is less than or equal to about 5 weight percent, more preferably less than or equal to about 4 weight percent, more preferably less than or equal to about 3 weight percent, and still more preferably less than or equal to about 2 weight percent. 
     In certain embodiments of the invention, the concentration of additive in the electronic formulation is equal to about 6.0 wt %, 5.9 wt %, 5.8 wt %, 5.7 wt %, 5.6 wt %, 5.5 wt %, 5.4 wt %, 5.3 wt %, 5.2 wt %, 5.1 wt %, 5.0 wt %, 4.9 wt %, 4.8 wt %, 4.7 wt %, 4.6 wt %, 4.5 wt %, 4.4 wt %, 4.3 wt %, 4.2 wt %, 4.1 wt %, 4.0 wt %, 3.9 wt %, 3.8 wt %, 3.7 wt %, 3.6 wt %, 3.5 wt %, 3.4 wt %, 3.3 wt %, 3.2 wt %, 3.1 wt %, 3.0 wt %, 2.9 wt %, 2.8 wt %, 2.7 wt %, 2.6 wt %, 2.5 wt %, 2.4 wt %, 2.3 wt %, 2.2 wt %, 2.1 wt %, 2.0 wt %, 1.9 wt %, 1.8 wt %, 1.7 wt %, 1.6 wt %, 1.5 wt %, 1.4 wt %, 1.3 wt %, 1.2 wt %, 1.1 wt %, 1.0 wt %, 0.9 wt %, 0.8 wt %, 0.7 wt %, 0.6 wt %, 0.5 wt %, 0.4 wt %, 0.3 wt %, 0.2 wt %, or 0.1 wt %. 
     In certain embodiments, useful additives share common chemical features, such as being a certain class of organo-metallic hydride. Certain organo-metallic hydride additives include organic chemical structures, including but not limited to, substituted and unsubstituted C 1 -C 20  alkyl groups, substituted and unsubstituted C 1 -C 20  alkenyl groups, substituted and unsubstituted C 1 -C 20  alkynyl groups, substituted and unsubstituted C 5 -C 20  aryl groups, hydride groups, halo groups, hydroxy groups, thio groups, alkyl groups, alkenyl groups, alkynyl groups, aryl groups, iminyl groups, alkoxy groups, alkenoxy groups, alkynoxy groups, aryloxy groups, carboxy groups, alkylcarbonyloxy groups, alkenylcarbonyloxy groups, alkynylcarbonyloxy groups, arylcarbonyloxy groups, alkylthio groups, alkenylthio groups, alkynylthio groups, arylthio groups, cyano groups, N-substituted amino groups, alkylcarbonylamino groups, N-substituted alkylcarbonylamino groups, alkenylcarbonylamino groups, N-substituted alkenyl carbonylamino groups, alkynylcarbonyl amino groups, N-substituted alkynylcarbonylamino groups, arylcarbonylamino groups, N-substituted arylcarbonylamino groups, boron-containing groups, aluminum-containing groups, silicon-containing groups, phosphorus-containing groups, and sulfur-containing groups. Additionally, the organo-metallic hydride additives include metals selected from the metalloid group of metals or the post-transition group of metals. 
     Further, in some embodiments the organo-metallic hydride additive is an anion-cation pair. In other embodiments, the organo-metallic hydride additive is a single molecule rather than an anion-cation pair. 
     In certain embodiments, the metalloid is boron. In one embodiment, the organo-metallic hydride additive comprises sodium cyanoborohydride, which can be represented by formula (a): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In this embodiment, the organo-metallic hydride additive is an anion-cation pair. 
     In another embodiment in which the metalloid is boron, the organo-metallic hydride additive comprises sodium tris(1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoroisopropoxy)borohydride, which can be represented by formula (b): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In this embodiment, the organo-metallic hydride additive is an anion-cation pair. 
     In certain embodiments, the metalloid is silicon. In one embodiment, the organo-metallic hydride additive comprises phenylsilane, which can be represented by formula (c): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In this embodiment, the organo-metallic hydride additive is a single molecule rather than an anion-cation pair. 
     In another embodiment in which the metalloid is silicon, the organo-metallic hydride additive comprises 10-undecenylsilane, which can be represented by formula (d): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In this embodiment, the organo-metallic hydride additive is a single molecule rather than an anion-cation pair. 
     In certain embodiments, the organo-metallic hydride additive comprises a post transition metal. In certain embodiments, the post transition metal is tin. In one embodiment, the organo-metallic hydride additive comprises tributyl tin hydride, which can be represented by formula (e): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     According to certain embodiments of the invention, the additive comprises a dicarbonate group represented by formula (f): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     where R 1  and R 2  are each independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, substituted and unsubstituted C 1 -C 20  alkyl groups, substituted and unsubstituted C 1 -C 20  alkenyl groups, substituted and unsubstituted C 1 -C 20  alkynyl groups, substituted and unsubstituted C 5 -C 20  aryl groups, hydride groups, halo groups, hydroxy groups, thio groups, alkyl groups, alkenyl groups, alkynyl groups, aryl groups, iminyl groups, alkoxy groups, alkenoxy groups, alkynoxy groups, aryloxy groups, carboxy groups, alkylcarbonyloxy groups, alkenylcarbonyloxy groups, alkynylcarbonyloxy groups, arylcarbonyloxy groups, alkylthio groups, alkenylthio groups, alkynylthio groups, arylthio groups, cyano groups, N-substituted amino groups, alkylcarbonylamino groups, N-substituted alkylcarbonylamino groups, alkenylcarbonylamino groups, N-substituted alkenyl carbonylamino groups, alkynylcarbonyl amino groups, N-substituted alkynylcarbonylamino groups, arylcarbonylamino groups, N-substituted arylcarbonylamino groups, boron-containing groups, aluminum-containing groups, silicon-containing groups, phosphorus-containing groups, and sulfur-containing groups. 
     In certain preferred embodiments, R 1  and R 2  are each unsubstituted alkyl groups. In other preferred embodiments, R 1  and R 2  are each unsubstituted alkenyl groups. In other preferred embodiments, R 1  and R 2  are each unsubstituted aryl groups. In some preferred embodiments, R 1  and R 2  are the same group. 
     In one embodiment, the dicarbonate additive comprises diallyl dicarbonate, which can be represented by formula (g): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In another embodiment, the dicarbonate additive comprises dimethyl dicarbonate, which can be represented by formula (h): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In another embodiment, the dicarbonate additive comprises diethyl dicarbonate, which can be represented by formula (i): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In another embodiment, the dicarbonate additive comprises dibenzyl dicarbonate, which can be represented by formula (j): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In preferred embodiments, the additive is substantially soluble in conventional electrolyte solvents. 
     Methods 
     Battery Cell Assembly. Battery cells were assembled in a high purity argon filled glove box (M-Braun, O 2  and humidity content &lt;0.1 ppm). A LiNi 0.33 Mn 0.33 Co 0.33 O 2  (NMC) cathode electrode and a commercially available silicon alloy anode electrode was used. The silicon alloy anode has from about 5% to 50% by weight silicon with at least 50% by weight being graphite. For control cells, an NMC cathode electrode and a graphite anode electrode were used. Each battery cell includes a cathode film, a polypropylene separator, and composite anode film. Electrolyte components were formulated and added to the battery cell. 
     Electrolyte Formulations. Electrolyte formulations used as controls were made from one or more organic solvents and a lithium salt. Organic solvents ethylene carbonate (EC) and ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC) were blended at a 1:2 ratio, by volume, of EC:EMC. The lithium salt was LiPF 6  at a concentration of 1M. The electrolyte formulations containing additives were made from 1:2 ratio, by volume, of EC:EMC with 1M LiPF 6  at a variety of additive weight percentages. 
     SEI Formation. Solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) is formed during a formation cycle. For the cells tested herein, the formation cycle was 12 hours open circuit voltage (OCV) hold, followed by a C/10 charge to 4.2 V with a constant voltage (CV) hold to C/20, and then a C/10 discharge to 2.8 V. 
     Cycle Life Testing. For cycle life testing, cycling was continued at C/3 charge to 4.2 V with a CV hold to C/20 followed by a C/3 discharge to 2.8 V. In the tables presented herein, the performance metrics are calculated from the average of two tested cells. 
     Results 
     The initial capacity measurements as presented below are measurements of the lithium capacity of the cathode (i.e., the capacity of the anode is greater than the capacity of the cathode). As the battery is cycled, the loss of capacity may be a function of losses of accessible/active lithium occurring at or in the anode as well as losses associated with capacity loss at the cathode. 
     Table 1 presents the electrochemical performance of electrolyte formulations containing various organo-metallic hydride additives as compared to a control electrolyte formulation. The organo-metallic hydride additives were tested at formulations including 2 weight percent of the additive and 0.5 weight percent of the additive, in each case with EC/EMC organic solvents. The cathode included NMC as the active material. The capacity retention at the two hundredth discharge cycle is presented in the far right column as a percentage of the capacity at the initial test cycle. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Performance of electrolyte additives in EC 
               
               
                 based electrolyte with silicon-based anode 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Initial 
                   
                 Cycle 200 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Capacity 
                 Cycle 200 
                 Capacity 
               
               
                   
                 Conc. 
                 at 0.33 C 
                 Capacity 
                 retention 
               
               
                 Additive 
                 (%) 
                 (mAh/g) 
                 (mAh/g) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 None 
                 0.0 
                 139 
                 70 
                 53.0 
               
               
                 Sodium cyanoborohydride 
                 0.5 
                 131 
                 85 
                 64.9 
               
               
                 Sodium tris(1,1,1,3,3,3- 
                 2 
                 140 
                 110 
                 79 
               
               
                 hexafluoroisopropoxy)boro- 
               
               
                 hydride 
               
               
                 Tributyl tin hydride 
                 0.5 
                 139 
                 84 
                 60.4 
               
               
                 Phenylsilane 
                 2 
                 134 
                 86 
                 64.4 
               
               
                 10-undecenylsilane 
                 0.5 
                 135 
                 90 
                 66.8 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Table 1 demonstrates that certain organo-metallic hydride additives in EC-containing formulations result in much improved cycle life at cycle  200  as compared to an EC-based carbonate electrolyte (EC/EMC) without the additives. The electrolyte formulations containing the additives resulted in up to a 26% improvement in capacity retention at cycle  200  compared to EC/EMC control without the additives. This is a substantial improvement in the cycle life (that is, capacity retention). 
     As described herein, certain organo-metallic hydride additives demonstrated improvement when used in batteries having a silicon-based anode, but did not show comparable improvement in batteries having a graphite anode. Table 2 presents the electrochemical performance of electrolyte formulations containing the certain of the same additives as Table 1. The cathode included NMC as the active material. The capacity retention at the two hundredth discharge cycle is presented in the far right column as a percentage of the capacity at the initial test cycle. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Performance of electrolyte additives in 
               
               
                 EC based electrolyte with graphite anode 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Initial 
                   
                 Cycle 200 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Capacity 
                 Cycle 200 
                 Capacity 
               
               
                   
                 Conc. 
                 at 0.33 C 
                 Capacity 
                 retention 
               
               
                 Additive 
                 (%) 
                 (mAh/g) 
                 (mAh/g) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 None 
                 0.0 
                 136.8 
                 122.3 
                 90.0 
               
               
                 Sodium tris(1,1,1,3,3,3- 
                 2 
                 145.7 
                 107.7 
                 74.0 
               
               
                 hexafluoroisopropoxy)boro- 
               
               
                 hydride 
               
               
                 Phenylsilane 
                 2 
                 130.2 
                 100.7 
                 77.6 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Table 3 presents the electrochemical performance of electrolyte formulations containing various dicarbonate additives as compared to a control electrolyte formulation. The dicarbonate additives were tested at formulations including 2 weight percent of the additive and 0.5 weight percent of the additive, in each case with EC/EMC organic solvents. The cathode included NMC as the active material. The capacity retention at the two hundredth discharge cycle is presented in the far right column as a percentage of the capacity at the initial test cycle. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Performance of electrolyte additives in EC 
               
               
                 based electrolyte with silicon-based anode 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Initial 
                   
                 Cycle 200 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Capacity 
                 Cycle 200 
                 Capacity 
               
               
                   
                 Conc. 
                 at 0.33 C 
                 Capacity 
                 retention 
               
               
                 Additive 
                 (%) 
                 (mAh/g) 
                 (mAh/g) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 None 
                 0.0 
                 139 
                 70 
                 53.0 
               
               
                 Diallyl dicarbonate 
                 2 
                 133 
                 107 
                 80 
               
               
                 Dimethyl dicarbonate 
                 2 
                 140 
                 118 
                 84 
               
               
                 Diethyl dicarbonate 
                 2 
                 136 
                 117 
                 86 
               
               
                 Dibenzyl dicarbonate 
                 2 
                 139 
                 114 
                 82 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     As described herein, certain dicarbonate additives demonstrated improvement when used in batteries having a silicon-based anode, but did not show comparable improvement in batteries having a graphite anode. Table 4 presents the electrochemical performance of electrolyte formulations containing the certain of the same additives as Table 3. The cathode included NMC as the active material. The capacity retention at the two hundredth discharge cycle is presented in the far right column as a percentage of the capacity at the initial test cycle. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Performance of electrolyte additives in 
               
               
                 EC based electrolyte with graphite anode 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Initial 
                   
                 Cycle 200 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Capacity 
                 Cycle 200 
                 Capacity 
               
               
                   
                 Conc. 
                 at 0.33 C 
                 Capacity 
                 retention 
               
               
                 Additive 
                 (%) 
                 (mAh/g) 
                 (mAh/g) 
                 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 None 
                 0.0 
                 136.8 
                 122.3 
                 90.0 
               
               
                 Diallyl dicarbonate 
                 2 
                 139.8 
                 119.0 
                 85.1 
               
               
                 Dimethyl dicarbonate 
                 2 
                 145.8 
                 129.9 
                 89.1 
               
               
                 Dibenzyl dicarbonate 
                 2 
                 144.7 
                 113.1 
                 78.1 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Tables 2 and 4 provide important insights into the additives. First, the control (that is, the electrolyte formulation without any additives) performs significantly better on graphite anodes (Tables 2 &amp; 4) than silicon-based anodes (Tables 1 &amp; 3). Formulations containing the additives perform worse than the control on graphite (Tables 2 &amp; 4), but better than the control on silicon-based anodes (Tables 1 &amp; 3). 
     Unexpectedly, the results in Tables 1 and 3 demonstrate that the additives improve the performance on the silicon-based composite anode even in the presence of graphite, which shows no improvement indicative of the capacity loss arising from the cathode, which is detrimentally impacted by the additives that improve the performance of a battery containing an anode having silicon. Thus, there appears to be unique synergies between the additives of the invention and silicon-based anodes for suppressing loss of capacity due to the presence of the silicon in the anode. 
     Finally, the data demonstrate that the additives showed no negative effect on initial discharge capacity compared to the control electrolytes. 
     Without being bound to any particular hypothesis or mechanism of action, the additives disclosed herein may accomplish the formation of tougher, more mechanically robust SEI on silicon-based anodes. Further, the additives aid in balancing the inorganic and organic content of the SEI, which can promote a stable and robust SEI. 
     While the invention has been described with reference to the specific embodiments thereof, it should be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes may be made and equivalents may be substituted without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation, material, composition of matter, method, or process to the objective, spirit and scope of the invention. All such modifications are intended to be within the scope of the claims appended hereto. In particular, while the methods disclosed herein have been described with reference to particular operations performed in a particular order, it will be understood that these operations may be combined, sub-divided, or re-ordered to form an equivalent method without departing from the teachings of the invention. Accordingly, unless specifically indicated herein, the order and grouping of the operations are not limitations of the invention.