Patent Publication Number: US-2012046363-A1

Title: Docosahexaenoic acid for the treatment of heart failure

Description:
STATEMENT OF FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 
     This invention was made with government support under Grant No. R21 HL091307 and P01 HL074237 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The invention relates to methods of treating heart failure. The invention further relates to compositions for treating heart failure. 
     BACKGROUND OF INVENTION 
     Heart failure (HF) is defined by the American Heart Association as “a complex clinical syndrome that can result from any structural or functional cardiac disorder that impairs the ability of the ventricle to fill with or eject blood” 30 . There are approximately 6 million patients in the US currently diagnosed with HF, and this number is growing with the aging of the population 30 . Classically, HF patients have increased left ventricular (LV) mass, reduced cardiac contractility, and impaired LV filling (“diastolic dysfunction”) 31 . Most heart failure patients have a history of hypertension (˜80%), and many have LV hypertrophy 32 . Approximately 50-60% of heart failure patients have an enlarged LV end diastolic volume and low ejection fraction, while 40-50% have a normal ejection fraction and end diastolic volume 33, 34 . Current medical therapies for HF are aimed at suppressing neurohormonal activation (e.g. angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, β-adrenergic receptor antagonists, and aldosterone receptor antagonists), and reducing fluid volume overload and symptoms (diuretics, digoxin, inotropic agents). These pharmacotherapies improve clinical symptoms and slow progression of contractile dysfunction and expansion of LV chamber volume, but nevertheless HF progression continues and prognosis for even optimally-treated patients remains poor 35-37 . Moreover, more intense suppression of the neurohormonal systems does not provide further benefit compared to more modest therapy 38-40 . Thus there is a need for novel therapies for HF that act independent of the neurohormonal axis that can improve cardiac performance and prevent or reverse the progression of LV dysfunction and remodeling 41-44 . Nutritional approaches such as supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) that act through mechanisms independent of current approaches are particularly attractive because they could work additively with current therapies while not exerting negative hemodynamic effects 41-43, 45, 46 . 
     The most widely available omega-3 PUFA for human intake is α-linolenic acid (ALA), which is found in plant oils, specifically flaxseed oil (˜55% ALA), canola oil (˜11% ALA) and soy bean oil (˜7% ALA). The omega-3 PUFAs eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are more rare, found primarily in oily fish, though DHA is also found in eggs, mother&#39;s milk, and algae. ALA can be converted to EPA in mammalian cells, however this conversion is low (˜10%) 47, 48 . Epidemiological studies show that high intake of fish rich in EPA+DHA (greater than ˜1.5 g/day) is associated with a decrease in plasma triglycerides and less coronary heart disease 49-51 . ALA shows a similar relationship with coronary heart disease, though a much higher level of consumption is required and the maximal effect is not as great 47, 52-54 . EPA+DHA supplementation causes a dose dependent incorporation of EPA and DHA into membrane phospholipids in blood cells and myocardium in humans, with a plateau level for EPA and DHA incorporation in cardiac phospholipids reached by ˜25-30 days after initiation of oral supplementation 55, 56 . Double blind placebo controlled clinical trials show that treatment with EPA+DHA from fish oil reduces serum triglyceride and fatty acid concentrations in a dose-dependent manner, and decreases sudden cardiac death, endothelial dysfunction and vascular inflammation 49, 51, 57-69 . Supplementation with EPA+DHA also exerts anti-inflammatory effects in clinical studies, and has anti-aggregatory effects due to lowering of tissue phospholipid levels of arachidonic acid and thromboxane production 28, 56, 70-72 . EPA+DHA is FDA approved for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia at a dose of 3.4 g/d, and is widely used for this purpose in the US and Europe. 
     There is little information regarding the effects of omega-3 PUFA on cardiac contractile function, LV volume, myocardial energy metabolism or mitochondrial structure and function in HF, and there is virtually nothing known about the effects of supplementation of EPA and DHA when each is given alone. A large epidemiological study that followed older people for a 12-year period found a 31% reduction in the risk for developing HF in individuals consuming fish three to four times per week compared to those eating fish only once a month or less 3 . The reduction in the risk for HF was dependent on the estimated intake of EPA+DHA. Consumption of tuna or other broiled or baked fish was also associated with a lower heart rate, lower systemic vascular resistance, and greater stroke volume, and a higher E/A ratio reflecting superior diastolic function as assessed by echocardiography 73 . 
     Recent results from the Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell&#39;Infarto miocardico (GISSI) HF trial showed favorable effects on morbidity and mortality with supplementation with a low dose of EPA+DHA in a large population of HF patients 9 . This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was the first to investigate whether omega-3 PUFA could improve morbidity and mortality in a large population of symptomatic HF patients. Patients with New York Heart Association class II-IV HF (ejection fraction 33±8%, 63% NYHA Class II) were randomly assigned to fish oil (0.85 g/day of EPA+DHA) (n=3494) or placebo (n=3481) and followed up for a median of 3.9 years. The fish oil supplement used in this study is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia, and contains EPA and DHA at a ratio of 45:55. Importantly, the dose used in the GISSI-HF trial was only 25% of the FDA approved dose for treating hypertriglyceridemia. Primary endpoints of the trial were all cause mortality, and time to death or admission to hospital for cardiovascular reasons. The treatment was well tolerated, and showed a significant reduction in mortality (adjusted hazard ratio 0.91, p=0.041) and admission to hospital for cardiovascular reasons (adjusted HR 0.92, p=0.009). The results demonstrate that long-term administration of a low dose of EPA+DHA reduced both all-cause mortality and admissions to hospital for cardiovascular reasons. While the benefit was modest, it is important to keep in mind that the dose was very low, and the study population was aggressively treated with β-adrenergic receptor antagonist (65%) and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor antagonists (93%). In addition, a parallel GISSI-HF study with the rosuvastatin performed in a similar patient population found absolutely no beneficial effect 74, 75 . 
     Current drugs for heart failure (HF) are near their limit and novel approaches are needed 7, 8 . We showed that EPA+DHA dose-dependently prevented development of HF in response to chronic pressure overload, specifically left ventricular chamber expansion and dysfunction 2 . The mechanism(s) for the beneficial effect is unclear, but could be due to improved mitochondrial function. Mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to cardiac pathology in HF through impaired transfer of chemical energy to contractile work and greater opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) 10, 11 . MPTP promotes energy wasting and triggers cardiomyocyte death 4, 12, 13 . Ex vivo hearts from rats fed EPA+DHA have improved LV mechanical efficiency, and our studies showed EPA+DHA suppressed MPTP formation and increased mitochondrial cardiolipin (CL) 5, 14 . CL is an inner membrane tetra-acyl phospholipid that anchors cytochrome c to the membrane and prevents death 15-19 . Formation of respiratory supercomplexes (comprised of complex I, III &amp; IV) are required for normal ETC flux and oxidative phosphorylation (ox phos), and are decreased in HF 1 . CL is required for formation of supercomplexes, thus omega-3 PUFA may improve mitochondrial and LV function in HF by increasing CL and supercomplex assembly, preventing MPTP formation and cardiomyocyte death, and improving the transfer of chemical energy to contractile work 20-23 . 
     Most fish oil supplements contain both EPA and DHA. However, recent work shows that EPA and DHA have different effects on mitochondrial function, and metabolism 24-29 . Supplementation with a 30/70 mix of EPA/DHA increased DHA incorporation into CL 4-fold in normal rats, however little EPA was incorporated. Thus supplementation with solely DHA may be superior to EPA alone or the typical mix of EPA and DHA. Taken together, and considering the unmet need in the art for effective treatments for HF, the invention is drawn to the use of a composition comprising an omega-3 PUFA for the treatment of HF and mitochondrial dysfunction. 
     BRIEF SUMMARY OF INVENTION 
     The invention relates to compositions comprising, consisting of, and consisting essentially of a PUFA. The invention further relates to administering a composition of the invention for treating heart failure. 
     In certain embodiments, the invention is drawn to administering a composition of the invention to a subject in need thereof for the treatment of heart failure. In particular embodiments, the composition comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of, an omega-3 PUFA. In other particular embodiments, the omega-3 PUFA is alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), or any combination thereof. In further particular embodiments, the omega-3 PUFA is DHA. 
     In certain embodiments, the invention is drawn to preserving mitochondrial function. In particular embodiments, preserving mitochondrial function is achieved in a subject that has heart failure. In further embodiments, the subject that has heart failure has been diagnosed as having heart failure. In other particular embodiments, preserving mitochondria is a result of alterations in mitochondrial phospholipid composition and structure, specifically an increase DHA, EPA or cardiolipin (CL), or a change in CL composition. 
     In certain embodiments, the invention is drawn to a method of treating heart failure in a subject, comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of DHA to a subject in need of treatment. In related aspects, the pharmaceutical composition consists essentially of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA, or the pharmaceutical composition consists of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA. In this embodiment, the treatment contributes to one or more effects selected from the group consisting of preserving cardiac mitochondrial function, maintaining cardiac respiratory supercomplexes, increasing cardiac respiratory supercomplexes, maintaining cardiac oxidative phosphorylation, increasing cardiac oxidative phosphorylation, preventing cardiac MPTP opening, maintaining cardiac levels of DHA, increasing cardiac levels of DHA, maintaining levels of EPA, increasing levels of EPA, maintaining levels of cardiac mitochondrial cardiolipin, increasing levels of cardiac mitochondrial cardiolipin, inhibiting cardiomyocyte death by apoptosis and inhibiting cardiomyocyte death by necrosis. Alternatively, in this embodiment the treatment contributes to one or more clinical end points selected from the group consisting of reduced left ventricular volume, improved cardiac contractile function, reduced cardiac-related hospitalization, reduced cardiac-medical complications, improved quality of life and reduced mortality. 
     In a related embodiment, the invention is drawn to a method of treating heart failure in a subject, comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of DHA and a therapeutically effective amount of EPA to a subject in need of treatment. In related aspects, the pharmaceutical composition consists essentially of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA and a therapeutically effective amount of EPA, or the pharmaceutical composition consists of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA and a therapeutically effective amount of EPA. In this embodiment, the treatment contributes to one or more effects selected from the group consisting of preserving cardiac mitochondrial function, maintaining cardiac respiratory supercomplexes, increasing cardiac respiratory supercomplexes, maintaining cardiac oxidative phosphorylation, increasing cardiac oxidative phosphorylation, preventing cardiac MPTP opening, maintaining cardiac levels of DHA, increasing cardiac levels of DHA, maintaining levels of EPA, increasing levels of EPA, maintaining levels of cardiac mitochondrial cardiolipin, increasing levels of cardiac mitochondrial cardiolipin, inhibiting cardiomyocyte death by apoptosis and inhibiting cardiomyocyte death by necrosis. Alternatively, in this embodiment the treatment contributes to one or more clinical end points selected from the group consisting of reduced left ventricular volume, improved cardiac contractile function, reduced cardiac-related hospitalization, reduced cardiac-medical complications, improved quality of life and reduced mortality. 
     In certain embodiments, the invention is drawn to a method of increasing cardiac mitochondrial DHA, EPA or cardiolipin in a subject, comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of DHA to a subject in need thereof. In related aspects, the pharmaceutical composition consists essentially of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA, or the pharmaceutical composition consists of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA. 
     In a related embodiment, the invention is drawn to a method of increasing cardiac mitochondrial DHA, EPA or cardiolipin in a subject, comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of DHA and a therapeutically effective amount of EPA to a subject in need thereof. In related aspects, the pharmaceutical composition consists essentially of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA and a therapeutically effective amount of EPA, or the pharmaceutical composition consists of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA and a therapeutically effective amount of EPA. 
     In certain embodiments, the invention is drawn to a method of suppressing cardiac MPTP opening in a subject, comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of DHA to a subject in need thereof. In related aspects, the pharmaceutical composition consists essentially of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA, or the pharmaceutical composition consists of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA. 
     In a related embodiment, the invention is drawn to a method of suppressing cardiac MPTP opening in a subject, comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of DHA and a therapeutically effective amount of EPA to a subject in need thereof. In related aspects, the pharmaceutical composition consists essentially of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA and a therapeutically effective amount of EPA, or the pharmaceutical composition consists of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA and a therapeutically effective amount of EPA. 
     In certain embodiments, the invention is drawn to a method of treating cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction in a subject, comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of DHA to a subject in need thereof. In related aspects, the pharmaceutical composition consists essentially of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA, or the pharmaceutical composition consists of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA. 
     In a related embodiment, the invention is drawn to a method of treating cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction in a subject, comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of DHA and a therapeutically effective amount of EPA to a subject in need thereof. In related aspects, the pharmaceutical composition consists essentially of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA and a therapeutically effective amount of EPA, or the pharmaceutical composition consists of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA and a therapeutically effective amount of EPA. 
     In preferred aspects of each of the relevant embodiments on the invention, the therapeutically effective amount of DHA is between about 0.5 g and about 5 g, and the pharmaceutical composition is administered to the subject once or twice daily. 
     In preferred aspects of each of the embodiments on the invention, the pharmaceutical composition is administered to the subject as an oral formulation. 
     The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the features and technical advantages of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described herein, which form the subject of the claims of the invention. It should be appreciated by those skilled in the art that any conception and specific embodiment disclosed herein may be readily utilized as a basis for modifying or designing other structures for carrying out the same purposes of the present invention. It should also be realized by those skilled in the art that such equivalent constructions do not depart from the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims. The novel features which are believed to be characteristic of the invention, both as to its organization and method of operation, together with further objects and advantages will be better understood from the following description when considered in connection with the accompanying figures. It is to be expressly understood, however, that any description, figure, example, etc. is provided for the purpose of illustration and description only and is by no means intended to define the limits the invention. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1 . Separation of supramolecular assemblies of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation complexes (“supercomplexes”) by one-dimensional BN-PAGE in interfibrillar heart mitochondria from a normal control and HF dog. LEFT-Complex V (C V). The density of the band corresponding to supercomplex CI-CIII2-CIV and complexes I, III, and IV were normalized to complex V band. *P&lt;0.05 control vs. HF. #P&lt;0.07 control vs. HF. From Rosca et al, Cardiovasc Res, 2008 1 . 
         FIG. 2 . Content of EPA and DHA in cardiac phospholipids as measured by gas chromatography. Rats fed the Standard Chow were either sham (open bars) or aortic banded (black fill). From Duda et al, Cardiovasc. Res. 2009 2 . 
         FIG. 3 . Cardiomyocyte apoptosis by TUNEL staining after 12 wks of aortic banding. #p&lt;0.05 vs. sham standard chow, *p&lt;0.05 vs. AAB standard chow. From Duda et al, Cardiovasc. Res. 2009 2 . 
         FIG. 4 . LV end diastolic and systolic volumes and the ratio of myosin heavy chain (MHC) β to MHCα at 11 wks in rats fed standard chow, or supplemented with EPA+DHA. *p&lt;0.05 vs banded rats fed standard chow; #p&lt;0.05 vs sham rats fed standard chow. From Duda et al, Cardiovasc. Res. 2009 2 . 
         FIG. 5 . Male Wistar rats were treated with a standard lab chow or supplemented with fish oil that was high in EPA and DHA (2.3% of energy intake as EPA+DHA). Differences were assessed with a 2-way ANOVA. SSM, subsarcolemmal mitochondria; IFM, intrafibrillar mitochondria. n=3 rats/group. 
         FIG. 6 . The concentration of extra-mitochondrial Ca 2+  in isolated cardiac subsarcolemmal mitochondria plotted as a function of the amount of Ca 2+  infused into the cuvette. Bottom Panel: The percent of preparation with the MPTP, where MPTP was defined as the cumulative Ca 2+  load when the concentration of extra-mitochondrial Ca 2+  exceeded twice the steady state value. Note: Similar results were observed in isolated intrafibrillar mitochondria. 
         FIG. 7 . Serum triglyceride (Left) and free fatty acid concentration (Right). Data are means of n=6-8/group. *P&lt;0.05 vs. CTRL. 
         FIG. 8 . Cardiac mitochondrial phospholipid fatty acid composition expressed as percentage of total fatty acids. Data are means of n=7-8/group. *P&lt;0.001 vs. CTRL. 
         FIG. 9 . Cardiac mitochondrial cardiolipin (CL) content for tetralinolyl CL(L4CL) and CL containing three linolyl and one arachidonic acid fatty acid groups (L3AA1) (molecular weights of 1448 and 1472, respectively) expressed as percentage of total CL. Data are means of n=8/group. *P&lt;0.001 vs. CTRL. 
         FIGS. 10A-B . Effect of diet on the Ca 2+  retention capacity.  10 A: The fraction of preparations with the MPTP open plotted as a function of the cumulative amount of Ca 2+  added to the cuvette containing isolated mitochondria.  10 B: Mean Ca 2+  infused to initiate MPTP opening. Data are means of n=8-9/group. 
         FIG. 11 . Effect of different respiratory substrates on the Ca 2+  retention capacity of CTRL mitochondria. Data are means of n=10-11/group. * p&lt;0.05, palmitoylcarnitine+malate vs glutamate+malate. $ p&lt;0.05, palmitoylcarnitine+malate vs succinate+rotenone. # p&lt;0.05, palmitoylcarnitine+malate vs pyruvate+malate. 
         FIG. 12 . Effect of DHA on mitochondrial Ca 2+  retention capacity in the presence of different respiratory substrates. Data are means of n=9-11/group. * p&lt;0.05, CTRL vs DHA. 
         FIG. 13 . Effect of DHA on mitochondrial Ca 2+  induced swelling. Ca 2+  was added at time zero. Vehicle treated wells had stable absorbance over the 15 minutes of observation (data not show). Data are means of n=9/group. 
         FIG. 14 . Effects of DHA on Ca 2+ -induced mitochondrial swelling as assessed from the relative change in absorbance from 0 to 15 minutes. Data are means of n=9/group. * p&lt;0.05, CTRL vs DHA within same Ca 2+  dose. # p&lt;0.05, no Ca 2+  vs 2 μmoles Ca 2± /mg mitochondrial protein. $ p&lt;0.05, 2 μmoles Ca 2+ /mg mitochondrial protein vs 4 μmoles Ca 2+ /mg mitochondrial protein. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     I. Definitions 
     Unless otherwise noted, technical terms are used according to conventional usage. Definitions of common terms in molecular biology may be found, for example, in Benjamin Lewin, Genes VII, published by Oxford University Press, 2000 (ISBN 019879276X); Kendrew et al. (eds.); The Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, published by Blackwell Publishers, 1994 (ISBN 0632021829); and Robert A. Meyers (ed.), Molecular Biology and Biotechnology: a Comprehensive Desk Reference, published by Wiley, John &amp; Sons, Inc., 1995 (ISBN 0471186341); and other similar technical references. 
     As used herein, “a” or “an” may mean one or more. As used herein when used in conjunction with the word “comprising,” the words “a” or “an” may mean one or more than one. As used herein “another” may mean at least a second or more. Furthermore, unless otherwise required by context, singular terms include pluralities and plural terms include the singular. 
     As used herein, “about” refers to a numeric value, including, for example, whole numbers, fractions, and percentages, whether or not explicitly indicated. The term “about” generally refers to a range of numerical values (e.g., +/−5-10% of the recited value) that one of ordinary skill in the art would consider equivalent to the recited value (e.g., having the same function or result). In some instances, the term “about” may include numerical values that are rounded to the nearest significant figure. 
     As used herein, “preserve” and all its forms and tenses (including, for example, preserved, preserving, and preservation) refers to the maintenance of function or reduction in decline of function. For example, preserving mitochondrial function includes the maintenance of mitochondrial function or the reduction in decline of mitochondrial function (e.g., maintaining or increasing respiratory supercomplexes, maintaining or increasing oxidative phosphorylation, maintaining or decreasing MPTP opening, etc.). 
     As used herein, “treat” and all its forms and tenses (including, for example, treat, treating, treated, and treatment) refer to both therapeutic treatment and prophylactic or preventative treatment. Those in need of treatment include those already with a pathological condition of the invention (including, for example, heart failure or mitochondrial dysfunction) as well as those in which a pathological condition of the invention is to be prevented. 
     II. The Present Invention 
     As detailed in several recent reviews, mitochondrial dysfunction and inefficient transfer of chemical to mechanical energy by the LV is a hallmark of cardiac pathology in HF, and is an attractive target for new therapies 10, 11, 76, 77 . Globally, HF presents with an impaired transfer of energy from carbon substrates (fatty acid, glucose and lactate) and oxygen to ATP, and defects in subsequent ATP hydrolysis which drives contraction and relaxation 10, 11 . In advanced HF there is a decrease in fatty acid oxidation and an increase in glucose oxidation, and impaired capacity for electron transport chain flux and oxidative phosphorylation 76, 78-81 . Thus omega-3 PUFA might improve cardiac energetics and LV function through optimizing these parameters. Supplementation with DHA could prevent LV remodeling and dysfunction through modification of mitochondrial membrane and the function/structure of membrane proteins, and up-regulation of the expression of proteins through ligand activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). While fatty acids are classically viewed as an energy substrate, they are also endogenous ligands for PPARs and regulate the expression of genes encoding key proteins controlling mitochondrial metabolism 82-86 . There is a variety of endogenous lipid ligands for PPARs, consisting primarily of long chain fatty acids. PPARα is expressed in heart, skeletal muscle, and liver, while PPARγ is expressed in adipose tissue. It is well established that dietary supplementation with EPA+DHA lowers plasma triglyceride and free fatty acid concentrations in a manner similar to PPARα and PPARγ agonists (fibrates (fenofibrate) and thioglitazones (rosiglitazone)), and thus reduces exposure of the heart to lipid substrates that could, in the long term, have toxic effects on the myocardium 87 . Omega-3 PUFAs could also directly activate PPARα in the heart, and induce expression of key proteins involved in cardiac lipid metabolism, as they are activators of PPARα in vitro 88 . This could prevent the deterioration of mitochondrial function and decrease in fatty acid oxidation that is classically observed in advanced HF, and thus might improve cardiac energetics and function through this mechanism, as recently suggested 10, 76-81 . 
     Alternatively, supplementation with EPA+DHA could exert a protective effect through improvement in mitochondrial function and the efficiency of ATP generation. Rats fed fish oil high in EPA+DHA for 16 weeks showed a decrease in myocardial oxygen consumption (MVO2) without a decrease in LV power generation, resulting in greater LV mechanical efficiency in isolated perfused hearts 5 . This phenomenon was observed over a wide range of LV filling pressures and workloads. The mechanism(s) responsible for this effect is not clear, nor has this phenomenon been demonstrated in vivo. This is an important observation, as improvement in LV mechanical efficiency is considered a sound approach to improving LV mechanics in HF patients 89, 91, 93, 94 . 
     Mitochondria in the failing heart are characterized by normal mitochondrial volume density but a greater mitochondrial number and smaller size, and a lower capacity for respiration and oxidative phosphorylation 13, 95-110 . An array of defects in ETC complexes has been noted in various forms of HF, with no consistent pattern 46, 106, 107, 108, 111-116 . A comprehensive examination of cardiac mitochondrial function in HF was recently performed, with mitochondria isolated from the left ventricle of dogs with coronary micro-embolization induced HF of moderate severity (LV ejection fraction of 28%) 1 . Oxidative phosphorylation was assessed as the integrative function of mitochondria, using a comprehensive variety of substrates in order to investigate mitochondrial membrane transport, dehydrogenase activity and ETC to oxidative phosphorylation. The supramolecular organization of the mitochondrial ETC also was investigated by native gel electrophoresis. There was a dramatic ˜40%-50% decrease in ADP-stimulated respiration with a variety of substrates that was not relieved by an uncoupler 1 . Specifically, State 3 respiratory rates of both subsarcolemmal and interfibrillar mitochondria were significantly decreased with glutamate, pyruvate, or succinate plus rotenone as substrates, or with artificial electron donors. The P/O ratio and State IV respiration rates were normal in mitochondria from HF dogs, indicating no defects in the phosphorylation apparatus or uncoupling. While this suggests a defect in oxidative phosphorylation within the ETC, the individual activities of ETC complexes were normal, as were the activities of Krebs cycle enzymes 1, 117, 118 . Importantly, the amount of the supercomplexes consisting of complex I/complex III dimer/complex IV, the major form of the respirasome essential for oxidative phosphorylation was decreased ( FIG. 1 ). This demonstrates that a mitochondrial defect in HF lies in the supermolecular assembly rather than in the individual components of the ETC1. 
     Formation of respiratory supercomplexes requires cardiolipin (CL), an inner membrane tetra-acyl phospholipid comprised primarily of linoleic acid (18:2n6) that anchors cytochrome C to the membrane and prevents apoptosis 15-23 . Depletion of CL has been noted in HF, and a recent study showed that a high linoleic acid diet restored CL and L4CL, improved LV function, and prolonged survival in aged spontaneously hypertensive heart failure rats 122-125 . This suggests that depletion in CL contributes to LV dysfunction and early death in HF. As noted above, a major defect in mitochondria in HF is decreased formation of respiratory supercomplexes, thus restoration of normal levels of supercomplexes should improve energy transfer and LV function in HF. Without being bound by theory, increasing the content of CL and/or L4CL in cardiac mitochondria improves outcome in HF by preventing MPTP and increasing supercomplex levels, improving ETC flux and oxidative phosphorylation, decreasing cardiomyocyte death and improving LV function and survival. Pepe et al. showed that treatment with fish oil high in EPA+DHA for 6 weeks was shown to increase total CL content in cardiac mitochondria in 24 month old rats by 40% 126 . McMillin et al observed a similar effect in dogs with 60 weeks of treatment, showing a 54% increase in total CL in cardiac mitochondria 127 . The effect of EPA+DHA on the composition of fatty acyl moieties of CL has not been reported, though in our studies we observed that dietary supplementation with EPA and DHA increased both total CL and L4CL content, and resulted in an increase in DHA incorporation into CL, without significant EPA incorporation. Based on these findings, we assessed the effects of omega-3 PUFA supplementation on mitochondrial CL content and composition, respiratory supercomplexes, oxidative phosphorylation, and progression of HF. In particular aspects, the invention is drawn to administering DHA alone for treating HF wherein DHA alone has the effect of: preserving cardiac mitochondrial function, maintaining cardiac respiratory supercomplexes, increasing cardiac respiratory supercomplexes, maintaining cardiac oxidative phosphorylation, increasing cardiac oxidative phosphorylation, preventing cardiac MPTP opening, maintaining cardiac levels of DHA, increasing cardiac levels of DHA, maintaining levels of EPA, increasing levels of EPA, maintaining levels of cardiac mitochondrial cardiolipin, increasing levels of cardiac mitochondrial cardiolipin, inhibiting cardiomyocyte death by apoptosis and inhibiting cardiomyocyte death by necrosis. Alternatively, in particular aspects the treatment contributes to one or more clinical end points selected from the group consisting of reduced left ventricular volume, improved cardiac contractile function, reduced cardiac-related hospitalization, reduced cardiac-medical complications, improved quality of life and reduced mortality. 
     Normal function of cardiac mitochondria is important not only for maintaining sufficient ATP generation and contractile function, but also for prevention of apoptosis and/or necrosis, and loss of cardiomyocytes. Formation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) in cardiac mitochondria is strongly associated with cardiomyocyte death, tissue injury, development and progression of HF, and poor contractile recovery with ischemia/reperfusion stress 12, 128-131 . The MPTP is a large diameter (3 nm), high conductance, voltage-dependent channel that allows passage of water, ions, and molecules up to ˜1.5 kD 129, 131, 132 . High extra-mitochondrial Ca 2+  triggers MPTP opening and Ca 2+  chelation causes it to rapidly close. As recently reviewed, there is growing evidence to suggest that pharmacological targeting of the MPTP would be beneficial for preventing or reversing the progression of HF 128, 132, 134 . In genetic models of hypertrophic HF there is greater MPTP opening in response to Ca 2+  stress, and there is evidence to suggest that formation of the MPTP is a key component of the pathological processes caused by adrenergic overdrive and Ca 2+  overload in HF 99, 135-137 . Unlike healthy cardiomyocytes, cells from dogs with HF showed MPTP opening without ischemia or calcium overload, which was attenuated by cyclosporin A, suggesting that MPTP opening is partially responsible for the mitochondrial dysfunction described in HF, and trigger cell death 138 . 
     Cardiomyocyte death by apoptosis or necrosis is elevated in HF and contributes to progressive LV dysfunction and remodeling, and thus prevention of MPTP and subsequent triggering of death is considered a primary target for HF therapy 138-149 . While the molecular components and structure of the MPTP are not precisely known, there is evidence to suggest that it is affected by the phospholipid composition of mitochondrial membranes and the assembly of proteins within the membrane 12, 18, 128-130, 132 . The fatty acid composition of dietary lipid affects mitochondrial function and cardiomyocyte apoptosis, with more apoptosis with saturated fatty acids, and less with unsaturated fatty acids 150-159 . We found that there is a lower number of apoptotic cardiomyocytes with a high fat diet rich in linoleic acid (18:2n-6) compared to a high saturated fat diet in normal rats, and also less apoptosis with supplementation with either ALA (from flaxseed oil) or EPA+DHA in rats with aortic banding 2, 150 . The fatty acyl moiety of CL is comprised mostly of 18:2n-6, with ˜50-80% being tetralinoleoyl CL (L4CL) 123-125, 160 . Substitution with other long chain fatty acids (particularly 16:0, 18:0 or 18:1), impairs mitochondrial function 124, 125, 161-166 . HF and cardiac hypertrophy deplete CL, decrease L4CL, and increase saturated fatty acyl moieties in CL 164 , which is partially prevented by high dietary 18:2n-6 167-169 . These effects may be due to changes in mitochondrial membrane content of CL, as cytochrome c is anchored to the inner mitochondrial membrane by CL 170 . Thus an increase in L4CL or total CL content should prevent the release of cytochrome c, MPTP formation, and subsequent cardiomyocyte apoptosis and cell death 15, 16, 171 . 
     Consumption of omega-3 PUFA is associated with reduced inflammation, as reflected in the inverse relationship with circulating tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), TNFβ, and interleukin (IL) 1β and IL6 28, 66, 71, 186-192 . Emerging evidence suggests that chronic up-regulation of stress-activated cytokines both systemically and in myocardium contributes to the progression of HF 193 . On the other hand, direct cytokine blockade with the soluble tumor necrosis factor antagonist ETANERCEPT was not effective in HF patients 194-197 . This has led to the postulation that broader indirect anti-inflammatory approaches, such as treatment with statins or pentoxifylline, may be useful for treating HF 198-204 . We recently observed a dramatic decrease in serum TNFα in both sham and aortic banded rats treated with EPA+DHA 2 , which is similar to observations made in humans 28, 70, 71 . In addition, EPA+DHA lowers prostaglandin-mediated inflammation by reducing arachidonic acid incorporation into membrane phospholipids, as seen in a decrease in urinary output of the main thromboxane metabolite in rats treated with EPA+DHA. While a focus of the invention is on the effects of omega-3 PUFA supplementation for treating HF and mitochondria dysfunction (esp. the effect of administering DHA alone), we will also explore the effects on inflammatory markers in all studies. 
     As discussed in the Brief Description of the Invention above, the present invention is drawn, inter alia, to methods that result in the improvement of cardiac function. Particular embodiments include: (i) methods of treating heart failure in a subject, (ii) methods of increasing cardiac mitochondrial cardiolipin in a subject, (iii) methods of suppressing cardiac MPTP opening in a subject, and (iv) methods of treating cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction in a subject. 
     The skilled artisan will understand that heart failure can be treated through a number of different means that are well known in the literature and in practice. Particular examples include preserving cardiac mitochondrial function, maintaining cardiac respiratory supercomplexes, increasing cardiac respiratory supercomplexes, maintaining cardiac oxidative phosphorylation, increasing cardiac oxidative phosphorylation, preventing cardiac MPTP opening, maintaining cardiac levels of DHA, increasing cardiac levels of DHA, maintaining levels of EPA, increasing levels of EPA, maintaining levels of cardiac mitochondrial cardiolipin, increasing levels of cardiac mitochondrial cardiolipin, inhibiting cardiomyocyte death by apoptosis and inhibiting cardiomyocyte death by necrosis. The skilled artisan will also understand that due to the difficulty in assessing the results of treatment means directed to cellular or molecular changes, clinical end points may be used as a goal of treatment. Accordingly, in particular aspects of the invention treatment contributes to one or more clinical end points selected from the group consisting of reduced left ventricular volume, improved cardiac contractile function, reduced cardiac-related hospitalization, reduced cardiac-medical complications, improved quality of life and reduced mortality. 
     In each of these embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a therapeutically effective amount of DHA, or DHA and EPA, is administered to a subject in need of treatment. 
     In each of these embodiments, the subject is a human, a non-human primate, bird, horse, cow, goat, sheep, a companion animal, such as a dog, cat or rodent, or other mammal. 
     The present invention is also directed: (i) methods of preventing heart failure in a subject, using the same methodologies described herein for methods of treating heart failure in a subject. 
     III. Formulations and Doses 
     In certain aspects of the invention drawn to compositions for treating heart failure or preserving mitochondria, the compositions are formulated to achieve this end. Generally, the composition comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of, an omega-3 PUFA, wherein the omega-3 PUFA is ALA, EPA, DHA, or any combination thereof. In further particular aspects, the omega-3 PUFA is DHA. DHA or the other omega-3 PUFA can be esterified (e.g., as either a triglyceride or an ethyl ester), and can be in liquid form or capsule form (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 7,041,324, which is incorporated herein in its entirety). 
     As is well known in the medical arts, dosages for any one subject depends upon many factors, including patient size, body surface area, age, the particular molecule or composition to be administered, sex, time, route of administration, general health, and the presence of other molecules or compositions being administered concurrently. The compositions of the invention may be administered locally or systemically. 
     Without being bound by theory, in particular aspects of the invention it is contemplated that the therapeutically effective amount of DHA, EPA, or ALA, used in the methods of the invention ranges from about 0.1 and 10 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.1 g/day, and about 0.1 to 1.0 g/day. 
     Without being bound by theory, in particular aspects of the invention it is contemplated that the therapeutically effective amount of DHA, EPA, or ALA, used in the methods of the invention, ranges from about 0.5 to 5 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.9 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.8 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.7 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.6 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.4 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.3 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.2 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.1 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.0 g/day, 0.6 to 5 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.9 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.8 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.7 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.6 g/day, about 0.6 to about 4.5, about 0.6 to 4.4 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.3 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.2 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.1 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.0 g/day, 0.7 to 5 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.9 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.8 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.7 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.6 g/day, about 0.7 to about 4.5, about 0.7 to 4.4 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.3 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.2 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.1 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.0 g/day, 0.8 to 5 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.9 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.8 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.7 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.6 g/day, about 0.8 to about 4.5, about 0.8 to 4.4 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.3 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.2 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.1 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.0 g/day, 0.9 to 5 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.9 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.8 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.7 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.6 g/day, about 0.9 to about 4.5, about 0.9 to 4.4 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.3 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.2 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.1 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.0 g/day, 1 to 5 g/day, about 1 to 4.9 g/day, about 1 to 4.8 g/day, about 1 to 4.7 g/day, about 1 to 4.6 g/day, about 1 to about 4.5, about 1 to 4.4 g/day, about 1 to 4.3 g/day, about 1 to 4.2 g/day, about 1 to 4.1 g/day, and about 1 to 4.0 g/day. 
     Without being bound by theory, in particular aspects of the invention it is contemplated that the therapeutically effective amount of DHA, EPA, or ALA, used in the methods of the invention, is about 0.5 g/day, about 0.6 g/day, 0.7 g/day, 0.8 g/day, 0.9 g/day, 1.0 g/day, 1.1 g/day, 1.2 g/day, 1.3 g/day, 1.4 g/day, 1.5 g/day, 1.6 g/day, 1.7 g/day, 1.8 g/day, 1.9 g/day, 2.0 g/day, 2.0 g/day, 2.1 g/day, 2.2 g/day, 2.3 g/day, 2.4 g/day, 2.5 g/day, 2.6 g/day, 2.7 g/day, 2.8 g/day, 2.9 g/day, 3.0 g/day, 3.0 g/day, 3.1 g/day, 3.2 g/day, 3.3 g/day, 3.4 g/day, 3.5 g/day, 3.6 g/day, 3.7 g/day, 3.8 g/day, 3.9 g/day, 4.0 g/day, 4.0 g/day, 4.1 g/day, 4.2 g/day, 4.3 g/day, 4.4 g/day, 4.5 g/day, 4.6 g/day, 4.7 g/day, 4.8 g/day, 4.9 g/day, 5.0 g/day, 5.0 g/day, 5.1 g/day, 5.2 g/day, 5.3 g/day, 5.4 g/day, 5.5 g/day, 5.6 g/day, 5.7 g/day, 5.8 g/day, 5.9 g/day, 6.0 g/day, 6.0 g/day, 6.1 g/day, 6.2 g/day, 6.3 g/day, 6.4 g/day, 6.5 g/day, 6.6 g/day, 6.7 g/day, 6.8 g/day, 6.9 g/day, 7.0 g/day, 8.0 g/day, 8.1 g/day, 8.2 g/day, 8.3 g/day, 8.4 g/day, 8.5 g/day, 8.6 g/day, 8.7 g/day, 8.8 g/day, 8.9 g/day, 9.0 g/day, 9.0 g/day, 9.1 g/day, 9.2 g/day, 9.3 g/day, 9.4 g/day, 9.5 g/day, 9.6 g/day, 9.7 g/day, 9.8 g/day, 9.9 g/day, and 10.0 g/day. 
     In preferred aspects of the invention where the pharmaceutical composition comprises both EPA and DHA, the ratio of EPA to DHA is between about 1:100 and about 1:4 by weight, more preferably between about 1:49 and about 1:9 by weight. In a particular example, the ratio of EPA to DHA in the pharmaceutical composition is about 0.1:1 by weight. 
     In preferred aspects, the pharmaceutical composition used in the relevant methods of the present invention comprises between about 0.5 g and about 5 g of DHA, and between about 0.01 g and about 0.5 g of EPA, more preferably the pharmaceutical composition comprises between about 0.5 g and about 5 g of DHA, and between about 0.01 g and about 0.1 g of EPA. 
     In particular aspects of the invention it is contemplated that a pharmaceutical composition comprising DHA alone as the active ingredient (or, a composition consisting of DHA or consisting essentially of DHA) is administered to or otherwise provided to a subject in need thereof in accordance with the invention as described herein, wherein the therapeutically effective amount of DHA ranges from about 0.1 and 10 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 9.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 8.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 7.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 6.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 5.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 4.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 3.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.1 g/day, about 0.1 to 2.0 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.9 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.8 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.7 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.6 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.5 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.4 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.3 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.2 g/day, about 0.1 to 1.1 g/day, and about 0.1 to 1.0 g/day. 
     In other particular aspects of the invention it is contemplated that a composition of DHA alone (i.e., a composition consisting of DHA or consisting essentially of DHA) is administered to or otherwise provided to a subject in need thereof in accordance with the invention as described herein, wherein the therapeutically effective amount of DHA ranges from about 0.5 to 5 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.9 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.8 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.7 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.6 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.4 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.3 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.2 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.1 g/day, about 0.5 to 4.0 g/day, 0.6 to 5 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.9 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.8 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.7 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.6 g/day, about 0.6 to about 4.5, about 0.6 to 4.4 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.3 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.2 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.1 g/day, about 0.6 to 4.0 g/day, 0.7 to 5 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.9 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.8 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.7 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.6 g/day, about 0.7 to about 4.5, about 0.7 to 4.4 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.3 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.2 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.1 g/day, about 0.7 to 4.0 g/day, 0.8 to 5 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.9 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.8 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.7 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.6 g/day, about 0.8 to about 4.5, about 0.8 to 4.4 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.3 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.2 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.1 g/day, about 0.8 to 4.0 g/day, 0.9 to 5 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.9 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.8 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.7 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.6 g/day, about 0.9 to about 4.5, about 0.9 to 4.4 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.3 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.2 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.1 g/day, about 0.9 to 4.0 g/day, 1 to 5 g/day, about 1 to 4.9 g/day, about 1 to 4.8 g/day, about 1 to 4.7 g/day, about 1 to 4.6 g/day, about 1 to about 4.5, about 1 to 4.4 g/day, about 1 to 4.3 g/day, about 1 to 4.2 g/day, about 1 to 4.1 g/day, and about 1 to 4.0 g/day. 
     In other particular aspects of the invention it is contemplated that a composition of DHA alone (i.e., a composition consisting of DHA or consisting essentially of DHA) is administered to or otherwise provided to a subject in need thereof in accordance with the invention as described herein, wherein the therapeutically effective amount of DHA is about 0.5 g/day, about 0.6 g/day, 0.7 g/day, 0.8 g/day, 0.9 g/day, 1.0 g/day, 1.1 g/day, 1.2 g/day, 1.3 g/day, 1.4 g/day, 1.5 g/day, 1.6 g/day, 1.7 g/day, 1.8 g/day, 1.9 g/day, 2.0 g/day, 2.0 g/day, 2.1 g/day, 2.2 g/day, 2.3 g/day, 2.4 g/day, 2.5 g/day, 2.6 g/day, 2.7 g/day, 2.8 g/day, 2.9 g/day, 3.0 g/day, 3.0 g/day, 3.1 g/day, 3.2 g/day, 3.3 g/day, 3.4 g/day, 3.5 g/day, 3.6 g/day, 3.7 g/day, 3.8 g/day, 3.9 g/day, 4.0 g/day, 4.0 g/day, 4.1 g/day, 4.2 g/day, 4.3 g/day, 4.4 g/day, 4.5 g/day, 4.6 g/day, 4.7 g/day, 4.8 g/day, 4.9 g/day, 5.0 g/day, 5.0 g/day, 5.1 g/day, 5.2 g/day, 5.3 g/day, 5.4 g/day, 5.5 g/day, 5.6 g/day, 5.7 g/day, 5.8 g/day, 5.9 g/day, 6.0 g/day, 6.0 g/day, 6.1 g/day, 6.2 g/day, 6.3 g/day, 6.4 g/day, 6.5 g/day, 6.6 g/day, 6.7 g/day, 6.8 g/day, 6.9 g/day, 7.0 g/day, 8.0 g/day, 8.1 g/day, 8.2 g/day, 8.3 g/day, 8.4 g/day, 8.5 g/day, 8.6 g/day, 8.7 g/day, 8.8 g/day, 8.9 g/day, 9.0 g/day, 9.0 g/day, 9.1 g/day, 9.2 g/day, 9.3 g/day, 9.4 g/day, 9.5 g/day, 9.6 g/day, 9.7 g/day, 9.8 g/day, 9.9 g/day, and 10.0 g/day. In preferred aspects, the therapeutically effective amount of DHA in the pharmaceutical composition is between about 0.1 g and about 5.0 g, more preferably between about 1 g and about 4 g. In a particular example, the therapeutically effective amount of DHA in the pharmaceutical composition is 2.5 g, 3.0 g or 3.5 g. 
     Administration frequencies for the pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention include 4, 3, 2 or once daily, every other day, every third day, every fourth day, every fifth day, every sixth day, once weekly, every eight days, every nine days, every ten days, bi-weekly, monthly and bi-monthly. In preferred aspects, the pharmaceutical composition is administered orally once daily. The duration of treatment will be based on the condition being treated and will be best determined by the attending physician. However, continuation of treatment is contemplated to last for a number of days, weeks, months or years. Indeed, in some instances, treatment may continue for the entire life of the subject. 
     The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention may be formulated, for example, for oral, sublingual, intranasal, intraocular, rectal, transdermal, mucosal, pulmonary, topical or parenteral administration. Parenteral modes of administration include without limitation, intradermal, subcutaneous (s.c., s.q., sub-Q, Hypo), intramuscular (i.m.), intravenous (i.v.), intraperitoneal (i.p.), intra-arterial, intramedulary, intracardiac, intra-articular (joint), intrasynovial (joint fluid area), intracranial, intraspinal, and intrathecal (spinal fluids). Any known device useful for parenteral injection or infusion of drug formulations can be used to effect such administration. In preferred aspects of each of the embodiments on the invention, the pharmaceutical composition is administered to the subject as an oral formulation. 
     The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention will comprise one or more omega-3 PUFAs as described herein, and each omega-3 PUFA present in the pharmaceutical compositions can independently be esterified. The pharmaceutical compositions comprising omega-3 PUFAs may also be comprised of one or more carrier, diluent and excipient. 
     Depending on the means of administration, the dosage may be administered all at once, such as with an oral formulation in a capsule or liquid, or slowly over a period of time, such as with an intramuscular or intravenous administration. 
     IV. Examples 
     Although the examples described herein are described with reference to EPA+DHA, DHA is used with superior results. A surprising and unexpected result is that DHA alone is more effective for treating HF and preserving or improving mitochondrial function. In particular aspects, DHA increases mitochondrial content of DHA, EPA and CL, which results in reduction of progression of HF and preservation of mitochondria in a subject experiencing HF. 
     Example 1 
     LV Dysfunction is Prevented by EPA+DHA Supplementation in Pressure Overload 
     A dose-response study was completed with EPA+DHA from fish oil using the rat abdominal aortic constriction pressure overload model of HF. In this model a permanent band is tied around the supra-renal abdominal aorta of male Wistar rats (˜200 g) by placing a blunt needle (20G) along the aorta and tying a 3-0 silk suture around both the aorta and the needle. The needle is removed, leaving the diameter of the aortic lumen determined by the diameter of the needle. The increase in aortic pressure results in progressive LV hypertrophy, mitochondrial dysfunction and decreased activity of mitochondrial enzymes, and LV dilation and contractile dysfunction and thus HF 2, 207-213 . 
     Rats were subjected to abdominal aortic banding and assigned them to 12 wks of treatment with either a standard chow or chow supplemented with EPA+DHA from fish oil at either 0.7, 2.3 or 7% of the total energy intake, with an EPA/DHA ration at a 30/70 mix, respectively. These doses correspond to estimated human doses of 1.6, 5.1 and 15.6 g/day (calculated assuming an energy intake of 2000 kcals/day in humans, and 9 kcals/g of EPA+DHA), thus we spanned both sides of the FDA approved human dose of 3.4 g/day. The EPA and DHA content of cardiac phospholipids was measure by gas chromatography, and showed a dose-dependent increase in both EPA and DHA ( FIG. 2 ) 55 . There were no differences in body mass or heart rate among groups. LV mass was 37% greater in the banded rats compared to sham on the standard diet. A similar degree of LV hypertrophy was observed in banded rats treated with EPA+DHA, thus treatment did not reduce cardiac growth in response to pressure overload. Cardiomyocyte apoptosis was measured in frozen sections from the mid LV free wall using TdT-mediated dUTP Nick-End Labeling, with ventricular anti-myosin antibody to identify cardiomyocytes as previously described 147, 214 . Aortic banding increased cardiomyocyte apoptosis compared to sham rats on the standard chow, but not in the banded rats fed EPA+DHA. Apoptosis was decreased in the banded rats at the highest dose of EPA+DHA compared to standard chow sham rats ( FIG. 3 ). On standard chow there was LV chamber enlargement compared to sham operated rats, which was prevented in a dose-dependent manner by EPA+DHA ( FIG. 4 ). LV remodeling and dysfunction in response to aortic banding in rats fed the standard chow was associated with a significant increase in the mRNA expression for myosin heavy chain (MHC) β relative to MHCα, which was prevented by EPA+DHA ( FIG. 4 ). These data are the first to demonstrate that supplementation with EPA+DHA prevents cardiomyocyte apoptosis and development of LV dysfunction and dilation. 
     Example 2 
     EPA+DHA Supplementation Increases Cardiolipin 
     Supplementation with EPA+DHA could improve mitochondrial function by increasing the content of CL in mitochondrial membranes. It has previously been shown that treatment with fish oil high in EPA+DHA increases total CL content in cardiac mitochondria in old rats by 40% 126  and in dogs by 54% 127 . As discussed above, the fatty acyl moieties of CL are comprised primarily of linoleic acid (18:2n6), with most CL being tetralinoleoyl CL (L4CL) (˜50%-80%) 125 . Depletion of CL or substitution of 18:2n6 with saturated or monounsaturated fatty acyl moieties impairs mitochondrial function 125 . A high level of CL in mitochondrial membranes is needed for formation of respiratory supercomplexes 20, 21 . CL also prevents apoptosis and is required for normal mitochondrial function 15, 16 . In some rodent models of HF there is depletion of total CL and L4CL and an increase in saturated fatty acyl moieties in CL 125 . We completed a pilot study to assess the effects of EPA+DHA supplementation on CL content and fatty acyl composition in cardiac mitochondria. Normal healthy male rats were fed a standard lab chow or supplemented with EPA+DHA (2.3% of energy intake)(n=3/group) for 12 weeks. This dose corresponds to a human intake of ˜5 g/day of EPA+DHA (calculated assuming an energy intake of 2000 kcal/d in man), which is in the range of the currently approved dose of EPA+DHA for the treatment of hypertriglyceridaemia (3.4 g/day). Two populations of cardiac mitochondria (subsarcolemmal (SSM) and intrafibrillar (IFM)) were isolated as described in our recent studies 1, 215 . Mitochondrial CL content was measured by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry 124 . As shown in  FIG. 5 , we observed that total CL (upper left panel) and the absolute concentration of L4CL in mitochondria (upper right panel) were increased by EPA+DHA. Treatment with EPA+DHA surprisingly and unexpectedly increased the incorporation of DHA into CL, as seen in the 4-fold increase in CL containing three molecules of 18:2n6 and one DHA (“L3 DHA1 CL”) (lower left panel). The net effect was a small decrease in the percent of the CL composed of L4CL (lower right panel). Surprisingly and unexpectedly, there was very little incorporation of EPA into CL with either the standard diet or with supplementation with EPA+DHA (&lt;0.5% of total). There were no differences between SSM and IFM in any parameter. EPA+DHA treatment did not affect State 3 respiration with glutamate, pyruvate or palmitoylcarnitine as substrates. 
     Based on these results, the invention (at least in part) predicated on increasing the content of CL and L4CL in cardiac mitochondria by supplementation with EPA and/or DHA will improve outcome in HF by preventing MPTP and increasing supercomplex assembly, improving ETC flux and oxidative phosphorylation, decreasing apoptosis and improving LV function and survival. As discussed in our recent paper, HF decreases assembly of mitochondrial supercomplexes comprised of complex I/complex III dimer/complex IV, which may be responsible for the decrease in oxidative phosphorylation 6 . Previous work by others show that elevated levels of CL increase formation of respiratory supercomplexes 20, 21 . Thus we expect that EPA+DHA supplementation will increase CL content with HF, and prevent the dramatic HF-induced decrease in complex I/complex III dimer/complex IV supercomplex, and improve mitochondrial respiration and LV function. In particular our results indicate that supplementation with DHA alone will be more effective the EPA+DHA. 
     Example 3 
     Delayed Ca 2+ -Induced MPTP Opening with EPA+DHA Supplementation 
     Formation of MPTP triggers cardiomyocyte apoptosis and cell death 12, 130, 132, 217 . In HF the MPTP forms more readily both in the unstressed State 4 and in response to standard stresses, such as a progressive increase in extramitochondrial Ca 2+13 . CL is critical for preventing apoptosis in cardiomyocytes; this effect is partially mediated through the anchoring of cytochrome C to the inner mitochondrial membrane by CL 15-19 . Studies on the effects of supplementation with EPA+DHA on MPTP formation in isolated cardiac mitochondria were performed in normal male rats fed chow supplemented with EPA+DHA (2.3% of energy intake as EPA+DHA)(n=6/group) for 12 weeks. Two populations of cardiac mitochondria (subsarcolemmal (SSM) and intrafibrillar (IFM)) were isolated, and MPTP formation was assessed using previously published methods 1, 215, 218 . Briefly, this assay is based on the ability of the mitochondria to take up Ca 2+ , resist swelling and maintain membrane potential 135, 218-220 . Isolated mitochondria (0.75 mg of protein) were suspended in 2 ml of respiration buffer with 10 mM glutamate, and 5 mM malate at 37° C. in a water-jacketed cuvette. A 5 mM Ca 2+  solution was continuously infused and free extramitochondrial Ca 2+  was monitored with Fura-6-F, with the fluorophor calibrate at the end of each experiment. 
     As shown in the upper panel of  FIG. 6 , there was a sharp increase in extramitochondrial Ca 2+  as a function of the cumulative amount of infused Ca 2+  in the mitochondria from all the rats fed the standard diet, which reflects MPTP opening 218 . This effect was not observed in 5 of the 6 rats treated EPA+DHA over the duration of Ca 2+  infusion employed ( FIG. 6 ). Thus treatment with EPA+DHA delays MPTP formation. 
     The large increase in total CL and L3,DHA CL was associated with prevention of MPTP formation, demonstrating that they are responsible for the effect presented in  FIG. 6 . In addition, the lack of major incorporation of EPA into CL demonstrates that DHA supplementation exerts protective effects on MPTP, but EPA does not. In addition, since CL is needed for formation of respiratory supercomplexes comprised of complex I, III &amp; IV and optimal ETC flux, DHA exerts beneficial effect through the formation of supercomplexes and increases in respiration and/or respiration efficiency in mitochondria 20-23, 221 . 
     Example 4 
     Dietary Supplementation with DHA Alters Cardiac Mitochondrial Phospholipid Fatty Acid Composition and Prevents Permeability Transition 
     Treatment with the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) exerts cardioprotective effects, and suppresses Ca 2+ -induced opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP). These effects are associated with increased DHA and EPA, and lower arachidonic acid (ARA) in cardiac phospholipids. While clinical studies suggest the triglyceride lowering effects of DHA and EPA are equivalent, little is known about the independent effects of DHA and EPA on mitochondria function. The effects of dietary supplementation with the omega-3 PUFAs DHA and EPA were compared on cardiac mitochondrial phospholipid fatty acid composition and Ca 2+ -induced MPTP opening. 
     Experimental Design: The animal protocol was conducted according to the Guideline for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (NIH publication 85-23) and was approved by the University of Maryland School of Medicine Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Investigators were blinded to treatment when measurements were performed. The animals were maintained on a reverse 12-h light-dark cycle and all procedures were performed in the fed state between 3 and 6 h from the start of the dark phase. Two series of experiments were performed. In the initial studies (Series 1) male Wistar rats weighing 190-200 g were fed a standard low fat diet (CTRL) or modified standard diet containing DHA or EPA at 2.5% of total caloric intake, which corresponds to a human intake of approximately 5.5 g/day (calculated assuming an energy intake of 2000 kcal/day and 9 kcal/g of fat). The rats were maintained on the diet for 8 weeks. Following dietary treatment, rats were anesthetized with isoflurane, blood was drawn, and the heart was harvested for biochemical analysis and mitochondrial isolation. Plasma from these animals was analyzed for free fatty acids and triglyceride levels, and cardiac mitochondria for respiration, Ca 2+  retention capacity (an index of MPTP opening), VDAC and cyclophilin D, and membrane phospholipid composition as described below. Following completion of Series 1, a second series of animal studies (Series 2) were performed to assess mitochondrial swelling using a light scattering assay, and the effects of different respiratory substrates on Ca 2+  retention capacity in mitochondria from control and DHA supplemented rats. Animals were treated for 10 weeks and were fed either CTRL or DHA (2.5% of total caloric intake). 
     Diets: All diets were custom-manufactured (Research Diets Inc., New Brunswick, N.J.), and had 68% of total energy from carbohydrate (38% of total energy from cornstarch, 5% from maltodextrin and 25% from sucrose), 20% protein (casein supplemented with 1-cystine) and 12% energy from fat. In Series 1 the CTRL diet the fat was made up of 35.3% cocoa butter, 39.8% lard, 16.6% soybean oil and 8.3% palm kernel oil (see Table 1 for fatty acid composition). 
                     TABLE 1                  Fatty acid compositions of the rodent diets expressed as the molar       percent of total fatty acids in the diet. In Series 1 all diets had 12%       of total energy from fat, 20% from protein and 68% from carbohydrate,       and in Series 2 all diets had 14% of total energy from fat, 20% from       protein and 66% from carbohydrate.                                 Series 1   Series 2                                                 Fatty Acid   CTRL   DHA   EPA   CRTL   DHA                                                         C12:0   3.9   2.2   3.9   3.4   1.5           C14:0   1.7   4.9   1.3   1.1   3.6           C16:0   21.6   14.7   13.1   21.7   14.6           C16:1   1.7   1.8   —   0.2   1.4           C18:0   18.9   13.8   14.0   25.8   14.2           C18:1n-9   34.9   29.7   31.6   30.3   28.8           C18:2n-6   13.9   11.1   13.0   13.9   14.7           C18:3n-3   1.8   1.3   1.3   2.2   2.2           C20:5n-3   —   —   19.1   —   —           C22:6n-3   —   19.1   —   —   17.8                        
The DHA diet contained 5.75% of total energy from algal oil that was comprised of 45.6% DHA by mass (DHASCO, Martek Inc, Columbia, Md., USA), with the balance from cocoa butter and soybean oil. The EPA diet had 2.6% of energy from purified fish oil comprised of 95.5% EPA by mass (KD Pharma, Bexbach, Germany), with the balance from cocoa butter, soybean oil, safflower oil and palm kernel oil. DHA and EPA oils contained ascorbyl palmitate (250 ppm) and tocopherols (250 ppm) to prevent peroxidation, which was less than 0.5 meq/kg at the time of manufacture of the diet. All diets were supplemented with the same amount of vitamins (Vitamin Mix V10001, 10 g/kg), minerals (Mineral Mix S10026, 10 g/kg), cellulose (50 g/kg) and choline (2 g/kg). In Series 2, the DHA was again 2.5% of total energy in the diet, but the diets had 66% of total energy from carbohydrate (54% of total energy from cornstarch and 12% from maltodextrin), 20% protein (casein supplemented with 1-cystine) and 14% energy from fat (see Table 1 for fatty acid composition). In the CTRL diet, the fat was made up of 71.5% cocoa butter, 17.1% soybean oil, 7.2% palm oil, 2.8% safflower oil and 1.4% linseed oil. In the DHA diet, 5.75% of algal oil partially replaced cocoa butter. Animals were treated for 8 weeks and mitochondria isolated as in Series 1.
 
     Mitochondrial Preparation: Mitochondria were isolated as previously described 228 . LV tissue (400-500 mg) was minced and homogenized in 1:10 cold modified Chappel-Perry buffer (100 mM KCl, 50 mM MOPS, 5 mM MgSO 4 , 1 mM ATP, 1 mM EGTA, 2 mg/ml BSA), and the homogenates were centrifuged at 500×g. Subsequent centrifugation allowed for separation and purification of the subsarcolemmal mitochondria. The concentration of mitochondrial protein was measured by the Lowry method using bovine serum albumin as a standard. 
     Metabolic and Biochemical Parameters: Free fatty acids and triglycerides were assessed in the plasma using commercially available kits (Wako, Richmond, Va.). Mitochondrial proteins were separated by electrophoresis in 4-12% NuPage gels, transferred onto a nitrocellulose membrane, and incubated with specific antibodies to cyclophilin D and voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) (1:10,000 and 1:5000, respectively, both from Mitosciences, Eugene, Oreg.). Fluorescence-conjugated secondary antibodies (IRDye 800, 1:10,000; LI-COR Bioscience) were used for incubation before the membranes were scanned with Odyssey® infrared imaging system (LI-COR Bioscience). The digitized image was analyzed with Odyssey® software. 
     Mitochondrial respiration: Mitochondrial oxygen consumption was measured using a Clark-type oxygen electrode (Qubit Systems, Ontario, Canada). Mitochondria (0.25 mg protein) were suspended in 0.5 ml solution consisting of 100 mM KCl, 50 mM MOPS, 5 mM KH 2 PO 4 , 1 mM EGTA, and 0.5 mg fatty acid-free bovine serum albumin, at pH 7.4 and 37° C. State 3 (ADP-stimulated) and state 4 (non-phosphorylating) respiration were measured with glutamate+malate (10 and 5 mM, respectively), pyruvate+malate (10 and 5 mM, respectively) and palmitoylcarnitine+malate (40 μM and 5 mM, respectively) to assess respiration through complex I-IV, while succinate+rotenone (10 mM and 7.5 μM, respectively), were used to assess respiration through complex II-IV of the ETC exclusively. State 4 respiration was also measured in the presence of oligomycin to inhibit the mitochondrial ATP synthase. 
     Ca 2+  Retention Capacity: The capacity for mitochondrial to retain Ca 2+ , an established index of MPTP opening, was assessed in isolated mitochondria as previously described in detail 228 . Briefly, 0.5 mg of mitochondrial protein were suspended in respiration buffer in the absence of bovine serum albumin and the presence of 5 μM EGTA, 1 mM MgCl 2 , 10 mM glutamate and 5 mM malate. A 5 mM calcium solution was continuously infused at a rate of 5 μl/min for 20 min, and free Ca 2+  was monitored by use of 0.7 μl Fura-6-F (0.07 mM) at 37° C. using a fluorescence spectrometer with excitation wavelengths for the free and calcium-bound forms of 340 and 380 nm, respectively, and emission wavelength of 550 nm. Opening of the MPTP was defined as the point where the extramitochondrial [Ca 2+ ] reached twice baseline values 226 . 
     For Series 2 a high throughput Ca 2+  retention assay was developed to allow evaluation of the effects of mitochondrial respiratory substrates on the delay in MPTP induced by DHA supplementation. The assay was modified from Basso et al 223 , and was performed using a 96-well fluorescence plate reader (FLUOstar Optima, BMG Labtech, Germany). Briefly, 25 μg of mitochondria were resuspended in 200 μL of the same buffer used above, but with varying substrates; either glutamate+malate (10 and 5 mM, respectively), pyruvate+malate (10 and 5 mM, respectively), palmitoylcarnitine+malate (40 μM and 5 mM, respectively) or succinate (10 mM) with rotenone (7.5 μM). Extramitochondrial Ca 2+  was monitored using 1 μM Calcium Green 5N and fluorescence measured at 485 nm and 538 nm for excitation and emission wavelengths respectively. Automated additions of 25 nmoles Ca 2+ /mg mitochondrial protein were performed at regular 7 minute intervals and fluorescence measured every 17 seconds for 160 min at 37° C. 
     Ca 2+ -Induced Swelling: In Series 2 light scattering, an index of Ca 2+ -induced swelling was monitored using a 96 well spectrophotometric plate reader (SpectraMax, Molecular Devices, USA). Briefly, 25 μg of mitochondria were resuspended in 200 μL the same buffer as used for the Ca 2+  retention capacity assay. Baseline absorbance at 540 nm was read at 7 second intervals for 2 min, then either 50 or 100 nmoles Ca 2+  was rapidly added to the wells and the absorbance was read for 15 min at 37° C. 
     Membrane Lipid Composition: Cardiac phospholipid fatty acid composition was assessed in a subset of animals from Series 1 (n=7-9/group) on isolated cardiac mitochondria homogenates by gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector according to a modification of the transesterification method as previously described 228 . CL composition was assessed on isolated cardiac mitochondria by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry using 1,1′,2,2′-tetramyristoyl CL as an internal standard as previously described (n=9/group) 228,229, 230 . 
     Statistical Analyses: Mean values are presented ±SEM, and the level of significance was set at p&lt;0.05. Comparisons between groups were made with a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Bonferoni post hoc test. Analysis of non-normal data sets was done with Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA on ranks and post hoc comparisons were made using Dunn&#39;s method. A two-way repeated measure ANOVA with a Holm-Sidak post hoc test was performed when appropriate. 
     Results: Body and cardiac masses were unaffected by diet (Table 2) and mitochondrial yield not was different among groups. EPA and DHA lowered plasma free fatty acid and triglyceride concentrations to a similar extent compared to CTRL ( FIG. 7 ), as previously shown in humans 224 . 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Body mass, organ mass, and mitochondrial yield. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Control 
                 DHA 
                 EPA 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Terminal Body Mass (g) 
                  503 ± 15 
                  501 ± 19 
                  486 ± 29 
               
               
                 LV Mass (g) 
                 0.92 ± 0.04 
                 0.94 ± 0.05 
                 0.89 ± 0.07 
               
               
                 RV Mass (g) 
                 0.32 ± 0.01 
                 0.30 ± 0.02 
                 0.29 ± 0.03 
               
               
                 Biatrial Mass (g) 
                 0.09 ± 0.01 
                 0.08 ± 0.01 
                 0.09 ± 0.02 
               
               
                 Liver Mass (g) 
                 16.0 ± 1.1 
                 14.8 ± 0.5 
                 15.5 ± 1.5 
               
               
                 Mitochondrial Yield 
                 18.1 ± 3.0 
                 18.1 ± 2.2 
                 19.0 ± 1.5 
               
               
                 (mg mito protein/g wet wt) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Mitochondrial Phospholipid Composition: EPA was not detected in the CTRL group. The DHA diet significantly increased DHA and EPA, and decreased ARA in mitochondrial phospholipids. On the other hand, the EPA diet did not affect DHA levels, and only modestly decreased ARA levels, and increased EPA in a manner similar to treatment with DHA ( FIG. 8 ). Dihomogammalinolenic Acid (20:3n6), an intermediate in the synthesis of ARA from linoleic acid, was not detected in the CTRL group, but was increased to a similar extent by supplementation with either DHA or EPA (p&lt;0.05) (Table 3). 
                     TABLE 3                  Mitochondrial phospholipid fatty acid composition expressed as molar       percent of total phospholipid fatty acid.                                     Fatty Acid   Control   DHA   EPA                       C16:0   12.2 ± 0.8   13.3 ± 0.5   10.8 ± 0.6           C16:1   BQL   BQL    4.5 ± 1.8           C18:0   20.0 ± 0.4   18.9 ± 0.5   19.8 ± 0.8           C18:1n9   14.3 ± 0.8   13.0 ± 1.0   11.8 ± 1.0           C18:1n7    4.5 ± 0.2    3.7 ± 0.2*    4.2 ± 0.2           C18:2n6   22.0 ± 0.9   23.1 ± 1.0   22.4 ± 0.8           C20:3n6   BQL    1.6 ± 0.2*    1.1 ± 0.2*           C20:4n6   14.6 ± 1.0    5.7 ± 0.2*    9.8 ± 0.8*#           C20:5n3   BQL    4.4 ± 0.3*    6.0 ± 0.2*           C22:6n3    9.1 ± 0.5   14.8 ± 0.6*    8.3 ± 0.2#           Total ω-3 PUFA    9.1 ± 0.5   19.2 ± 0.5*   14.3 ± 0.3*#                       Data are expressed as percent of total mitochondrial membrane phospholipid content.           BQL, below the quantifiable limit (limit of detection = 0.41% of total phospholipid fatty acids).           Data are the mean ± SEM.           n = 7-8/group.           *p &lt; 0.05 compared to the control group;           #p &lt; 0.001 compared to DHA            
The composition of CL was altered by DHA, showing an increase in L 4 CL ( FIG. 9 ), the major and most critical species of CL 231 . In addition, there was a strong trend to increase total CL content in the DHA group (13.2±0.8 nmols/mg mito prot) compared to CTRL (10.7±0.8) (p&lt;0.08), with no effect in the EPA treated animals (11.1±0.8). There was a decrease in CL species containing one ARA and three linoleic acid moieties (ARA 1 L 3 CL) in both DHA and EPA groups compared to CTRL ( FIG. 9 ).
 
     Mitochondrial Respiration: State 3 respiration with glutamate+malate, pyruvate+malate, palmitoylcarnitine+malate, or succinate+rotenone as substrates was unaffected by dietary treatment. DHA treatment decreased state 4 respiration by 30% and the increased RCR by 70% with pyruvate+malate as the substrate in both the absence and presence of oligomycin to eliminate any ATP turnover (p&lt;0.05) (Table 4); treatment with EPA had no effect. Neither state 4 respiration or the respiratory control ratio (RCR) with glutamate+malate, palmitoylcarnitine+malate, or succinate+rotenone as substrates were affected by treatment (Table 4). The P:O ratio (ADP added:Oxygen consumed) was not different among groups with any of the substrates (Table 4), indicating no change in respiratory coupling. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Mitochondrial Respiration 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Control 
                 DHA 
                 EPA 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Glutamate + Malate 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 State 3 
                 120.2 ± 10.0 
                 115.2 ± 16.2 
                 119.3 ± 13.4 
               
               
                 State 4 (− oligomycin) 
                 34.9 ± 2.1 
                 35.3 ± 2.9 
                 32.1 ± 4.8 
               
               
                 State 4 (+ oligomycin) 
                 20.4 ± 1.8 
                 17.2 ± 2.0 
                 19.1 ± 3.3 
               
               
                 RCR 
                  7.2 ± 1.1 
                  7.0 ± 0.9 
                  7.0 ± 1.0 
               
               
                 P:O 
                  2.57 ± 0.20 
                  2.37 ± 0.18 
                  2.76 ± 0.23 
               
               
                 Pyruvate + Malate 
               
               
                 State 3 
                 226.6 ± 19.5 
                 240.4 ± 28.7 
                 221.2 ± 31.0 
               
               
                 State 4 (− oligomycin) 
                 78.1 ± 4.4 
                  54.0 ± 3.2* 
                 63.5 ± 6.4 
               
               
                 State 4 (+ oligomycin) 
                 50.1 ± 4.1 
                  34.8 ± 4.2* 
                 43.3 ± 5.2 
               
               
                 RCR 
                  4.5 ± 0.2 
                  7.7 ± 1.0* 
                  5.1 ± 0.3 
               
               
                 P:O 
                  2.60 ± 0.17 
                  2.48 ± 0.09 
                  2.44 ± 0.30 
               
               
                 Palmityl-carnitine + Malate 
               
               
                 State 3 
                 265.2 ± 28.2 
                 265.7 ± 34.4 
                 243.7 ± 28.1 
               
               
                 State 4 (− oligomycin) 
                 59.7 ± 4.2 
                 42.6 ± 1.9 
                 59.4 ± 7.0 
               
               
                 State 4 (+ Oligomycin) 
                 32.0 ± 3.5 
                 24.9 ± 2.6 
                 29.7 ± 3.8 
               
               
                 RCR 
                  8.8 ± 1.0 
                 11.4 ± 1.8 
                  9.5 ± 1.8 
               
               
                 P:O 
                  2.46 ± 0.13 
                  2.50 ± 0.12 
                  2.57 ± 0.14 
               
               
                 Succinate + Rotenone 
               
               
                 State 3 
                 316.8 ± 31.1 
                 325.2 ± 19.6 
                 307.2 ± 37.1 
               
               
                 State 4 (− oligomycin) 
                 105.7 ± 9.7  
                 99.3 ± 7.0 
                 102.1 ± 11.5 
               
               
                 State 4 (+ oligomycin) 
                 82.5 ± 9.5 
                  84.7 ± 10.1 
                  80.3 ± 11.7 
               
               
                 RCR 
                  4.1 ± 0.4 
                  4.1 ± 0.4 
                  4.1 ± 0.5 
               
               
                 P:O 
                  1.57 ± 0.09 
                  1.48 ± 0.06 
                  1.48 ± 0.08 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Data are the mean ± SEM. n = 7 or 8/group. 
               
               
                 All Rates are expressed in ng atoms O · mg −1  · min −1 . 
               
               
                 *p &lt; 0.05 compared to the control group. 
               
               
                 The RCR, defined as the ratio of State 3 to State 4 respiration rate, was calculated from the State 4 rate with oligomycin. 
               
               
                 The P:O ratio was calculated from measurements made without oligomycin. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Ca 2+  Retention Capacity: Compared to the CTRL and EPA treated groups, DHA significantly increased the Ca 2+  retention capacity, an index of MPTP opening ( FIG. 10 ). As expected, addition of 100 nM CsA lead to a significant increase in Ca 2+  required to elicit MPTP in the CTRL group (83.0±8.7 nmol Ca 2+ /mg mito prot vs 144.8±20.0, p&lt;0.05) and a similar effect in the EPA group (80.8±4.9 vs 130.6±12.8, p&lt;0.05). There was no difference in the DHA group with the addition of CsA (134.9±11.4 vs 147.0±17.3, NS). Cyclophilin-D is a key regulatory component of the MPTP 222 , however western blot analysis found no effect of any diet on cyclophilin-D protein expression (Table 5). The voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) has been proposed to play a role in regulation of the MPTP, however protein expression of VDAC1 and VDAC2 was similar among groups (Table 5). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Western blot results for VDAC1, VDAC2 and cyclophilin D in isolated 
               
               
                 mitochondria as assessed by densitometry. There were no differences 
               
               
                 among groups. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 CTRL 
                 DHA 
                 EPA 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 VDAC 1 
                 1.00 ± 0.13 
                 1.03 ± 0.22 
                 0.87 ± 0.16 
               
               
                   
                 VDAC 2 
                 1.00 ± 0.15 
                 1.02 ± 0.20 
                 0.94 ± 0.17 
               
               
                   
                 Cyclophilin D 
                 1.00 ± 0.08 
                 1.01 ± 0.10 
                 1.00 ± 0.08 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In Series 2, a high throughput assay was used to compare Ca 2+  retention capacity of mitochondria from DHA supplemented hearts to CTRL, in the presence of different respiratory substrates. First, in the control diet, there was a decreased Ca 2+  retention capacity with palmitoylcarnitine+malate when compared to glutamate+malate or succinate+rotenone (p&lt;0.007;  FIG. 11 ), and a strong trend when compared to pyruvate+malate (p=0.057). Mitochondria from rats supplemented with DHA had significantly enhanced Ca 2+  retention capacity compared to CTRL animals, as reflected in lower extramitochondrial Ca 2+  for a given cumulative Ca 2+  load with all substrates except palmitoylcarnitine+malate ( FIG. 12 ). 
     Mitochondrial Swelling: In the mitochondria from CTRL rats there was a dose-dependent decrease in absorbance at 540 nm with the addition of Ca 2+ , which was significantly attenuated with DHA supplementation ( FIGS. 13 and 14 ). 
     The result support the following conclusion: 1) DHA supplementation delayed MPTP opening in response to Ca 2+  compared to animals fed the standard diet or supplemented with EPA, and 2) this effect is associated with a greater increase in total omega-3 PUFA in cardiac mitochondrial phospholipids with DHA supplementation compared to EPA, which corresponds with a greater reduction in the amount of ARA and an increase in L 4 CL. These differences between DHA and EPA occurred despite equivalent triglyceride lowering effects in the present investigation and in clinical studies 224, 227 , suggesting that the lipid lowering effects of DHA and EPA are independent of phospholipid remodeling, as previously proposed 225 . Thus the results show a novel and important difference between DHA and EPA supplementation: DHA causes more extensive alterations in mitochondrial phospholipid fatty acid composition and delays Ca 2+ -induced MPTP opening, despite lipid lowering effects that are similar to EPA. Since mitochondrial dysfunction and MPTP opening in cardiac mitochondria appear to play an important role in the development and progression of HF, these finding suggest the treatment with DHA alone would be an effective treatment for HF patients, and would be superior to treatment with EPA or a combination of EPA+DHA. 
     While the invention has been described with reference to certain particular embodiments thereof, those skilled in the art will appreciate that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. The scope of the appended claims is not to be limited to the specific embodiments described. 
     REFERENCES 
     All patents and publications mentioned in this specification are indicative of the level of skill of those skilled in the art to which the invention pertains. Each cited patent and publication is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. All of the following references have been cited in this application:
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