Patent Publication Number: US-11652200-B2

Title: In-operation cathode lithiation according to SoH monitoring

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/706,835, filed Sep. 18, 2017, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     1. Technical Field 
     The present invention relates to the field of lithium ion batteries, and more particularly, to metal ion regulation processes. 
     2. Discussion of Related Art 
     Continuous effort is made to develop lithium ion batteries with longer cycling lifetime, enhanced safety and higher charging rates. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The following is a simplified summary providing an initial understanding of the invention. The summary does not necessarily identify key elements nor limit the scope of the invention, but merely serves as an introduction to the following description. 
     One aspect of the present invention provides a method comprising regulating a level of metal ions in at least one electrode in a lithium ion battery, when the at least one electrode is in a pouch of the lithium ion battery, wherein the regulating is carried out electrochemically between the at least one electrode and a metal ion source, at least prior to or during a formation process of the lithium ion battery. 
     One aspect of the present invention provides a method comprising lithiating electrodes of a lithium ion battery during its operation, carried out electrochemically between the electrodes and a lithium source in the battery, and controllably with respect to a state of health (SoH) of the lithium ion battery, wherein the lithiating comprises controllably lithiating at least one cathode of the battery, during battery operation. 
     One aspect of the present invention provides a method comprising: configuring a lithium source as a single lithium-containing wire having an electric contact connected thereto, wherein the single lithium-containing wire comprises metal lithium in wire form, incorporating the lithium-containing wire within a pouch of a lithium ion battery, with the lithium-containing wire being in ionic communication with at least one anode and/or at least one cathode of the lithium ion battery, monitoring, independently of the lithium source, a state of health (SoH) of the lithium ion battery during the operation of the lithium ion battery, and lithiating the at least one cathode from the lithium source electrically and controllably with respect to the SoH of the lithium ion battery, initiating the lithiating from the lithium source, upon detecting a specified decrease in the SoH by the monitoring. 
     One aspect of the present invention provides a system comprising: a cell stack of a lithium ion battery, comprising alternating anodes, separators and cathodes, packaged in a pouch cover, the anodes and cathodes being electrodes of the cell stack, a lithium source within the pouch cover, having an external contact and being in ionic communication with at least one of the cathodes, electric circuitry, configured to lithiate, electrochemically, the at least one cathode during battery operation, by applying specified voltage between the at least one cathode and the lithium source in the pouch cover via its external contact, controllably with respect to a state of health (SoH) of the battery. 
     These, additional, and/or other aspects and/or advantages of the present invention are set forth in the detailed description which follows; possibly inferable from the detailed description; and/or learnable by practice of the present invention. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       For a better understanding of embodiments of the invention and to show how the same may be carried into effect, reference will now be made, purely by way of example, to the accompanying drawings in which like numerals designate corresponding elements or sections throughout. 
       In the accompanying drawings: 
         FIG.  1    is a high level schematic illustration of metal ion regulation processes in cells for lithium ion batteries, according to some embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG.  2    is a high level schematic illustration of lithium consumption processes in prior art cells for lithium ion batteries. 
         FIGS.  3 A- 3 C  are high level schematic illustrations of cell stacks for lithium ion batteries, comprising alternating anodes, separators and cathodes packaged in a pouch cover, according to some embodiments of the invention. 
         FIGS.  4 A- 4 C  are high level schematic illustrations of systems and battery configurations having various lithium metal sources, according to some embodiments of the invention 
         FIGS.  5 A and  5 B  are high level schematic illustrations of systems and battery configurations having a removable lithium metal source, according to some embodiments of the invention. 
         FIGS.  5 C and  5 D  are high level schematic illustrations of system and battery configurations for lithiation during operation, according to some embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG.  6    is a high level schematic illustration of battery configurations having lithium metal sources as beads adjacent to anode(s), according to some embodiments of the invention. 
         FIGS.  7 A and  7 B  are high level schematic illustrations of battery configurations having lithium metal sources which are incorporated in current collector(s), according to some embodiments of the invention 
         FIGS.  8 - 10    are high level schematic illustrations of system configurations with fluid flow regulation of metal ion levels in one or more electrode, according to some embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG.  11    is a high level flowchart illustrating a method, according to some embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG.  12    provides an example of results illustrating the improved operation of batteries resulting from systems and/or methods, according to some embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG.  13    is a high level schematic illustration of systems and battery configurations for lithiation during operation, according to some embodiments of the invention. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     In the following description, various aspects of the present invention are described. For purposes of explanation, specific configurations and details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. However, it will also be apparent to one skilled in the art that the present invention may be practiced without the specific details presented herein. Furthermore, well known features may have been omitted or simplified in order not to obscure the present invention. With specific reference to the drawings, it is stressed that the particulars shown are by way of example and for purposes of illustrative discussion of the present invention only, and are presented in the cause of providing what is believed to be the most useful and readily understood description of the principles and conceptual aspects of the invention. In this regard, no attempt is made to show structural details of the invention in more detail than is necessary for a fundamental understanding of the invention, the description taken with the drawings making apparent to those skilled in the art how the several forms of the invention may be embodied in practice. 
     Before at least one embodiment of the invention is explained in detail, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its application to the details of construction and the arrangement of the components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The invention is applicable to other embodiments that may be practiced or carried out in various ways as well as to combinations of the disclosed embodiments. Also, it is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology employed herein are for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting. 
     Unless specifically stated otherwise, as apparent from the following discussions, it is appreciated that throughout the specification discussions utilizing terms such as “processing”, “computing”, “calculating”, “determining”, “enhancing”, “deriving”, “distinguishing”, “monitoring” or the like, may refer to the action and/or processes of a computer or computing system, or similar electronic computing device, that manipulates and/or transforms data represented as physical, such as electronic, quantities within the computing system&#39;s registers and/or memories into other data similarly represented as physical quantities within the computing system&#39;s memories, registers or other such information storage, transmission or display devices. Any of the disclosed modules or units may be at least partially implemented by a computer processor. 
     Embodiments of the present invention provide efficient and economical methods and mechanism for lithiating electrodes (e.g., anodes and/or cathodes) of lithium ion cells, and thereby provide improvements to the technological field of lithium ion batteries. In particular, pre-lithiation may provide lithium in advance, to compensate for lithium that is removed from the cathode during formation and is fixated in the SEI (solid electrolyte interphase). 
     Systems and methods are provided, in which the level of metal ions in cells stacks and lithium ion batteries is regulated in situ, with the electrodes of the cell stack(s) in the respective pouches. Regulation of metal ions may be carried out electrochemically by metal ion sources in the pouches, electrically connected to the electrodes. The position and shape of the metal ion sources may be optimized to create uniform metal ion movements to the electrode surfaces and favorable SEI formation. The metal ion sources may be removable, possibly during the degassing phase after the formation process, or be left in the pouch to provide additional metal ions such as lithium during operation. Regulation of metal ions may be carried out from metal ion sources in separate electrolyte reservoir(s), with circulation of the metal-ion-containing electrolyte through the cell stacks in the pouches prior or during the formation. Systems and methods are provided, in which the electrodes of the lithium ion battery are lithiated during the operation of the battery, electrochemically between the respective electrodes and a lithium source which is embedded in the battery, and controllably with respect to the state of health (SoH) of the lithium ion battery. A lithium source is said to be in ionic communication with a cathode (or an anode) if the battery can be operated to liberate lithium ions from the lithium source so that they are absorbed into the cathode (or anode). 
       FIG.  1    is a high level schematic illustration of metal ion regulation processes  210  in cells for lithium ion batteries  101 , according to some embodiments of the invention.  FIG.  2    is a high level schematic illustration of lithium consumption processes in prior art cells for lithium ion batteries  90 .  FIGS.  1  and  2    are high level schematic illustrations of cells for lithium ion batteries  101 , comprising anode(s)  110  (with current collector(s)  112 ), separator(s)  115  and cathode(s)  120  (with current collector(s)  122 ), packaged with an electrolyte  105  in a pouch cover  102 , according to some embodiments of the invention, and of prior art cells for prior art lithium ion batteries  90 , comprising anode(s)  91  (with current collector(s)  91 A), separator(s)  95  and cathode(s)  92  (with current collector(s)  92 A), packaged with an electrolyte  96  in a pouch cover, respectively.  FIGS.  1  and  2    illustrate a schematic plan view along an axis perpendicular to anodes  110 ,  91  (denoted “A”), separators  115 ,  95  (denoted “S”) and cathodes  120 ,  92  (denoted “C”), respectively. It is noted that the figures are very schematic, and merely relate to the ordering of some of the elements of the battery, without reflecting realistic spatial relations, for the sake of clarity of explanation. It is further noted that  FIGS.  1  and  2    do not illustrate, for simplicity reasons, the fact that electrolytes  105 ,  96  (denoted “E”) contact respective anodes  110 ,  91  and cathodes  120 ,  92  in separate compartments, delimited by respective separators  115 ,  95 . 
     While in prior art  FIG.  2    lithium (Li) is consumed from cathode  92  and/or from electrolyte  96  to form the SEI during the formation step(s) of anode  91  (and possibly during operation as well, to a smaller extent)—the inventors have found that lithium consumption may be mitigated and/or compensated for by any of the following ways, involving regulation of a level of metal ions in at least one electrode (e.g., anode(s) and/or cathode(s)) in the lithium ion battery—illustrated schematically in  FIG.  1    as stage  210  with several varieties, and presented in further detail below. 
     For example, the formation step may be preceded by a pre-lithiation step  210 A of anode(s)  110 , delivering additional lithium from an external source  130 B and/or from an internal source  130 A (with respect to battery pouch  102 ), as explained below, e.g., in  FIGS.  3 A- 7 B  and in  FIGS.  8 - 10   , respectively. Either source  130 A,  130 B is referred to below, in corresponding embodiments, as source  130 . 
     In some embodiments, alternative or complementary, lithiation  210 A of anode(s)  110  may be carried out during the formation step, or possibly even after the formation step and/or during operation, from internal source  130 A. 
     In various embodiments, the prelithiation and/or lithiation may be carried out in conjunction with charging processes and/or with discharging processes, and/or independently from charging/discharging process. 
     In some embodiments, alternatively or complementarily, the formation of SEI on anode(s)  110  may be carried out at least partly using a metal ion source  130 , providing  210 B e.g., Li, Mg, Na, Li + , Mg ++ , Na +  and/or other metal atoms and/or ions to participate in SEI formation, sparing at least some of the lithium consumed in the prior art in the formation process. For example, the inventors note that advantageously, magnesium may be used to form SEI without a risk of dendrite formation, enhancing the battery safety, and moreover having various operational advantages such as cost and safety considerations. Hybrid Mg and Li sources may also be used, possibly with electrolyte salts such as Mg(BH 4 ) 2 —LiBH 4  and/or APC (all phenyl complex, comprising Ph x MgCl 2-x  and Ph y AlCl 3-y )—LiCl in, e.g., THF (tetrahydrofuran). Adaptation of applied voltages  250  (see, e.g.,  FIG.  3 A ) and other operational adaptations relate to Mg redox potential being ca. 0.67V higher than Li. In some embodiments, Na may be used in place of, or in addition to Mg, possibly with electrolyte salts such as NaPF 6  and/or NaClO 4 , which are advantageously similar to LiPF 6  and/or LiClO 4  used in typical electrolytes, with the system being adapted according to Na redox potential being ca. 0.33V higher than Li. 
     Metal ion source  130  may be an internal and/or an external source (denoted  130 A,  130 B, respectively), as illustrated below, e.g., in  FIGS.  3 A- 7 B  and in  FIGS.  8 - 10   , respectively. Metal ion source  130  may be configured to provide more than one type of metal ions, possibly at a pre-configured quantitative proportions and temporal order. For example, metal ion source  130  may be configured to provide mainly Mg ++  for SEI formation prior and/or during the formation step, and to provide mainly Li +  during and/or after the formation step, possibly to supplant lithium during the operation of batteries  101 . 
     In some embodiments, internal metal ion source  130 A (e.g., lithium source) may maintained within battery pouch  102  during operation of battery  101  and be configured to provide lithium ions  210 C to compensate for lithium ion consumption during operation as illustrated below, e.g., in  FIGS.  3 C,  6 ,  7 A and  7 B . 
     In some embodiments, alternative or complementary, external metal ion source  130 B and/or internal lithium source  130 A (e.g., lithium sources) may be used to compensate  210 D for lithium depletion from cathode  120 , by lithiating cathode  120  during the formation process, after the formation process and/or during operation as illustrated below, e.g., in  FIGS.  3 C and  7 B . 
     In the following, any of pre-lithiation  210 A, anode lithiation  210 A during formation, provision  210 B of metal ions to form the SEI, provision  210 C of lithium ions during operation and cathode lithiation  210 D may be carried out by disclosed systems under corresponding operation procedures, and are designated commonly as metal ion regulation steps  210 . In various embodiments, any of disclosed metal ion regulation steps  210  may be carried out in conjunction with charging processes and/or with discharging processes, and/or independently from charging/discharging process. 
       FIGS.  3 A and  3 B  are high level schematic illustrations of cell stacks for lithium ion batteries  101 , comprising alternating anodes  110 , separators  115  and cathodes  120  packaged in pouch cover  102 , according to some embodiments of the invention.  FIG.  3 A  illustrates a schematic plan view along an axis perpendicular to anodes  110  (denoted “A”), separators  115  (denoted “S”) and cathodes  120  (denoted “C”) and  FIG.  3 B  is a side view of anodes  110 , separators  115  and cathodes  120 . It is noted that the figures are very schematic, and merely relate to the ordering of some of the elements of the battery, without reflecting realistic spatial relations, for the sake of clarity of explanation. An electrolyte  105  (denoted “E”) contacts anodes  110  and cathodes  120  in separate compartments, delimited by separators  115 , a feature which is not shown in the figures. 
       FIGS.  3 A and  3 B  illustrate systems  100  and batteries  101 , which comprise a lithium metal source  130 A within pouch cover  102 , having an external contact  131  (e.g., one or more external contact(s)  131  such as metallic tabs) electric circuitry  106  (shown schematically), configured to pre-lithiate  210 A (indicated schematically, in relation to SEI formation on anodes  110 , and see  FIG.  1   ) anodes  110  electrochemically, by applying specified voltage between anodes  110  (e.g., via external contacts  111  thereof, indicated schematically as electric connection and voltage application  250 ) and metal ion source  130 A in pouch cover  102  (e.g., via external contacts  131  thereof), prior to a formation process  280  of the lithium ion battery (e.g., via external contacts  111 ,  121  of anode(s)  110  and cathode(s)  120 , respectively). Formation  280  may be followed by degassing  290  and possibly removal of metal ion source  130 . As illustrated schematically in  FIG.  3 B , prelithiation  210 A results in movement of lithium and/or other metal ions from metal ion source  130  to anode  110 , possibly at least partly forming the SEI ( 210 A and/or  210 B) and/or preventing or reducing lithium losses from the cathode  210 D upon formation and/or operation, under corresponding operation conditions (connecting metal ion source, e.g., lithium source  130  to cathode  120  (see  FIG.  3 C ) and operating electric circuitry  106  during or after formation step  280 , when lithium in cathode(s)  120  is depleted). Arrow  220  indicated schematically the movement of metal ions (e.g., lithium) to anode  110  to form the SEI (see also  FIG.  11   ). 
       FIG.  3 C  illustrates systems  100  and batteries  101 , which comprise lithium source  130 A within pouch cover  102 , configured to provide additional lithium  210 D to cathodes  120  (indicated schematically, in relation to cathodes  120 ), electrochemically, by applying specified voltage between cathodes  120  (e.g., via external contacts  121  thereof) and lithium source  130  (e.g., lithium source) in pouch cover  102  (e.g., via external contacts  131  thereof, see e.g.,  FIG.  3 A ), during and/or after formation process  240  of lithium ion battery  101  (e.g., via external contacts  111 ,  121  of anode(s)  110  and cathode(s)  120 , respectively). Compensating  210 D for lithium loss at cathode  120  may be carried out independently or complementarily to pre-lithiation and/or lithiation  210 A of anode(s)  110 , SEI formation through metal ions  210 B and/or lithium supply during operation  210 C. Any of anode(s)  110  and cathode(s)  120  may be lithiated in any of the disclosed configurations, sequentially or simultaneously, from same or different metal ion sources  130  (e.g., lithium source, possibly with additional metal sources) and using one or more components of electric circuitry  106 . Arrow  240  indicated schematically the movement of lithium ions to cathode  120  to supplant cathode lithium which is fixated in the SEI or otherwise lost (see also  FIG.  11   ). 
     Certain embodiments comprise combination of configurations illustrated in  FIGS.  3 A- 3 C , e.g., both anode(s)  110  and cathode(s)  120  may be lithiated (and/or provided with metal ions  210 B for SEI formation on the anodes) from same or different metal ion source(s)  130 , either being carried out externally (as illustrated e.g., in  FIGS.  5 A,  5 B,  9  and  10   ) and/or internally (see e.g.,  FIGS.  6 - 8    below). 
     It is further noted that in various embodiments, lithiation  210 A and/or provision of metal ions  210 B may be carried out fully before formation process  280 , lithiation  210 A and/or provision of metal ions  210 B may be carried out partly before formation process  280 , and possibly continue during a first, second and/or later cycles of formation process  280 . The relative timing, metal ion selection and configuration of metal ion source  130  may be adjusted to optimize the structure of the formed SEI and to improve the stability of batteries  101 . 
     It is noted that anode(s)  110  may be pre-lithiated and/or lithiated  210 A, and/or cathode(s)  120  may be lithiated  210 D using the following embodiments. Embodiments referring to anodes  110  may be re-configured to be applicable to cathode(s)  120  and vice versa. Any of the disclosed embodiments may be applied to any electrode in battery  101 . 
     In various embodiments, the prelithiation and/or lithiation may be carried out in conjunction with charging processes and/or with discharging processes, and/or independently from charging/discharging process. 
       FIGS.  4 A- 4 C  are high level schematic illustrations of systems  100  and battery configurations  101  having various metal ion sources  130 , according to some embodiments of the invention. In various embodiments, metal ion source  130  (e.g., lithium source) may be configured as pellets or beads illustrated in  FIGS.  6 ,  7 A- 7 B and  8    and/or as rods, bars, sheets or wires illustrated in  FIGS.  3 A- 3 B and  4 A- 4 C . For example,  FIG.  4 A  illustrates schematically one or more elongated metal ion sources  130 A (e.g., lithium source) positioned along anodes  110  and  FIG.  4 B  illustrates schematically one or more elongated metal ion sources  130 A positioned perpendicularly to anodes  110  (SEI formation  215 , possibly as a result of lithium ion movements from prelithiation  210 A, is indicated schematically by arrows). Current collectors  112 ,  122  are depicted for anode  110  and cathode  120 , respectively, e.g., in non-limiting examples, anode current collector  112  may be made of copper and cathode current collector  112  may be made of aluminum. Applying the specified voltage between anodes  110  and contact(s)  131  of metal ion source  130  are indicated schematically as electric connection and voltage application  250 . Metal ion sources  130  may, in certain embodiments, be used without contacts and application of external voltage to supply metal ions via spontaneous chemical reaction upon contact with anode(s)  110  and/or cathode(s)  120 . Alternatively or complementarily, contacts  131  (illustrated in broken lines to indicate they are optional) may be connected to metal ion source  130  to provide metal ions to anode(s)  110  and/or cathode(s)  120  electrochemically, in a controllable manner, by application of corresponding voltages between metal ion sources  130  and anode(s)  110  and/or cathode(s)  120 . 
       FIG.  4 C  illustrates schematically one or more elongated metal ion sources  130 A positioned perpendicularly to a cell stack  104  of alternating anodes  110 , separators  115  and cathodes  120 , cell stack  104  being composed of multiple cells  103 , each cell  103  comprising one set of anode  110 , separator  115  and cathode  120 , with their corresponding current collectors  112 ,  122 , electrolyte  105  and associated structures. 
     In various embodiments, metal ion source  130 A (e.g., lithium source) may be spatially associated with one or more anode  110  and/or with one or more cathode  120  of stack  104 , and be positioned to optimize the movement of lithium therefrom to anode  110 . For example, metal ion source  130 A may be positioned to minimize a distance to anodes  110 , to provide as uniform as possible metal ion movement thereto (e.g., of any of Li + , Mg ++ , Na +  etc.), and/or to enhance the stability of the formed SEI. 
     Metal ion sources  130  may, in certain embodiments, be used without contacts and application of external voltage to supply metal ions via spontaneous chemical reaction upon contact with anode(s)  110  and/or cathode(s)  120 . Alternatively or complementarily, contacts  131  (illustrated in broken lines to indicate they are optional) may be connected to metal ion source  130  to provide metal ions to anode(s)  110  and/or cathode(s)  120  electrochemically, in a controllable manner, by application of corresponding voltages between metal ion sources  130  and anode(s)  110  and/or cathode(s)  120 . 
       FIGS.  5 A and  5 B  are high level schematic illustrations of systems  100  and battery configuration  101  having removable metal ion sources  130 , according to some embodiments of the invention. In certain embodiments, metal ion source  130  may be configured to be removable from pouch cover  102  during degassing  290  of battery  101  following formation process  280 . For example, metal ion sources  130  may be part of a tab  102 A of pouch  102  which is separable from the main body of pouch  102 , e.g., along a tearing line  135 , as illustrated schematically in  FIGS.  5 A and  5 B . In various embodiments, removal of metal ion source  130  may be carried out during degassing  290  (e.g., removal of wire-shaped metal ion source  130  through a degassing hole) and does not require an additional process stage.  FIGS.  5 A and  5 B  further illustrate various, non-limiting configurations of shapes and proportions of metal ion source  130 , such as e.g., any of a strap, a rod or a bar ( FIG.  5 A ), T shape, L shape and triangle (illustrated as alternatives in  FIG.  5 B , all attached to tab  131 ), which may have different orientations and possibly multiple tabs  131 , to improve any of the prelithiation process, its kinetics, and the homogeneity of the resulting surface of the anode. Cathode lithiation  210 D may be carried out in similar configurations, operated during or after formation, with respect to lithium-depleted cathodes. Applying the specified voltage between anodes  110  and contact(s)  131  of metal ion source  130 —illustrated as a non-limiting example, may be modified to lithiate cathode  120  via contacts  121 —are indicated schematically as electric connection and voltage application  250 . 
       FIGS.  5 C and  5 D  are high level schematic illustrations of system and battery configurations for lithiation during operation, according to some embodiments of the invention.  FIG.  5 C  illustrates schematically effects of lithiation during operation on the battery&#39;s SoH during operation, while  FIG.  5 D  illustrates schematically control parameters over lithiation during operation, as described below. 
     Alternatively or complementarily to regulating metal ions levels  210 B and/or pre-lithiation  210 A and/or lithiation during the formation process  280  described herein, lithiation may be carried out during operation stages  340 . By incorporating lithium source  130  within pouch  102  of battery  101 , additional lithium may be provided into the cell during operation to compensate for depletion of lithium in the cell during various processes involved in operation  340 , such as charging and/or discharging cycles in which lithium may be consumed by further SEI formation, electrolyte decomposition, lithium fixation in the anode and/or in the cathode etc. Contact  131  may be operated with respect to contacts  111  and/or  121  of anodes  110  and cathodes  120 , respectively, to deliver additional lithium into the cell in a pre-programed fashion (e.g., a certain amount after every certain number of cycles) and/or under specified circumstance—such as e.g., indications of a battery management system (BMS)  108  associated with battery  101  of specified declines in capacity, increases in resistance, or any other state of health (SoH) parameters. Pulses of lithiation  345  are shown schematically in  FIG.  5 C  to illustrate schematically the reduction in capacity decline of the battery due to applied lithiation  345 , leading to increased lifetime, which may reach 50%, 100% or even more with respect to the lifetime of battery  101  without lithiation pulses  345  during operation  340 . It is noted that lithiation during operation  340  may be carried out continuously, on-demand and/or in a pulsed patterned, the latter mode illustrated in a non-limiting manner in  FIG.  5 C . 
     Systems  100  may comprise a cell stack for lithium ion batteries  101 , comprising alternating anodes  110 , separators  115  and cathodes  120  packaged in pouch cover  102  (the anodes and cathodes being electrodes of the cell stack), lithium source  130  within pouch cover  102 , having external contact  131  and being in fluid communication with anodes  110 , and electric circuitry  106 , configured to lithiate, electrochemically, anodes  110  by applying specified voltage between anodes  110  and lithium source  130  in pouch cover  102  via its contact  131 , during operation of lithium ion battery  101  and controllably with respect to a state of health (SoH) thereof. 
     In certain embodiments, systems  100  may comprise a cell stack for lithium ion batteries  101 , comprising alternating anodes  110 , separators  115  and cathodes  120  packaged in pouch cover  102  (the anodes and cathodes being electrodes of the cell stack), lithium source  130  within pouch cover  102 , having external contact  131  and being in fluid communication with cathodes  120 , and electric circuitry  106 , configured to lithiate, electrochemically, cathodes  120  by applying specified voltage between cathodes  120  and lithium source  130  in pouch cover  102  via its contact  131 , during operation of lithium ion battery  101  and controllably with respect to a state of health (SoH) thereof. 
     In certain embodiments, systems  100  may be configured to lithiate anodes  110  and/or cathode(s)  120  selectively, according to SoH parameters of battery  101  (e.g., specified voltage drop, specified capacity fade, specified rise in resistance, specified energy throughput—any of which with respect to predefined thresholds. 
     As illustrated schematically in  FIG.  5 D , contacts  111 ,  121 ,  131  of anodes  110 , cathodes  120  and lithium source  130 , respectively, may be used for operating battery  101 , lithiating anodes  110  and/or cathodes  120  (denoted as stages  210 A,  210 D, respectively, by delivering lithiation pulses  345 ) as well as monitoring anodes  110  and/or cathodes  120  with respect to lithium source  130  (indicated as stages  347 A,  347 B, respectively). Either or both electric circuitry  106  or of BMS  108  may perform or be involved in any of these functions. In certain embodiments, electric circuitry  106  may be realized as part of BMS  108  (as illustrated e.g., in  FIG.  5 D ). In certain embodiments, electric circuitry  106  may be separated from BMS  108  and in communication therewith (as illustrated e.g., in  FIG.  5 C ). Any of these configurations may be applicable in any of the embodiments presented above. 
     In any of the embodiments, systems  100  may comprise BMS  108 , configured to monitoring the SoH of lithium ion battery  101  and to control electric circuitry  106  to carry out the lithiating upon detected specified decrease in the SoH. For example, BMS  108  may be further configured to distinguish, based on the monitored SoH, if anodes  110  or cathodes  120  are to be lithiated as the at least one of the electrodes, and to control electric circuitry  106  accordingly. BMS  108  may be further configured to measure a voltage between lithium source  130  and anodes  110  after charging (indicated schematically be arrow  347 A) and/or cathodes  120  after discharging (indicated schematically be arrow  347 B), and to control electric circuitry  106  accordingly. 
     In certain embodiments, BMS  108  may be configured to lithiate any of anodes  110  or cathodes  120 , according to any specified criterion, and at any stage of charging or discharging. 
     It is noted that metal ion source  130  illustrated in any of  FIG.  5 A- 5 D  may be considered as internal and/or external metal ion source  130 A,  130 B, respectively. 
     In various embodiments, the prelithiation and/or lithiation may be carried out in conjunction with charging processes and/or with discharging processes, and/or independently from charging/discharging process. 
       FIG.  6    is a high level schematic illustration of battery configuration  101  having metal ion sources  130 A (e.g., lithium sources) as beads adjacent to anode(s)  110 , according to some embodiments of the invention. Metal ion source  130 A (e.g., lithium source) may comprise any number of beads, positioned in cells  103  and stacks  104 , and may have any form. For example, metal ion source  130 A may comprise beads positioned adjacent or onto anode(s)  110 . In certain embodiments, at least some, or all, of metal ion source beads  130 A (e.g., lithium source beads, or possibly mixed metal source beads of various metals) may be left in battery  101  during operation, and provide additional lithium supply to increase cycle life by providing lithium which is consumed internally during operation. In certain embodiments, at least some of metal ion source beads  130 A may be removed, e.g., during degassing  290  (possibly preferentially with respect to the type of metal). It is noted that in case of metal ion source as beads or other small elements within pouch  102 , prelithiation may be carried out electrochemically on the surface of anode  110  without establishment of an external electrical circuit (e.g., without tab(s)  131 ). Metal ion sources  130  may, in certain embodiments, be used without contacts and application of external voltage to supply metal ions via spontaneous chemical reaction upon contact with anode(s)  110  and/or cathode(s)  120 . Alternatively or complementarily, contacts  131  (illustrated in broken lines to indicate they are optional) may be connected to metal ion source  130  to provide metal ions to anode(s)  110  and/or cathode(s)  120  electrochemically, in a controllable manner, by application of corresponding voltages between metal ion sources  130  and anode(s)  110  and/or cathode(s)  120 . 
       FIGS.  7 A and  7 B  are high level schematic illustrations of battery configuration  101  having metal ion sources  130 A which are incorporated in current collector(s)  112 ,  122 , according to some embodiments of the invention. In certain embodiments, metal ion source beads  130 A may be incorporated in one or more of anode and/or cathode in current collector(s)  112 ,  122 , respectively. For example, it is noted that in cell stack  104 , cathode current collector(s)  122  are adjacent to anode(s)  110  of adjacent cell  103 , so that incorporation of metal ion source  130 A in cathode current collector(s)  122  may provide close lithium movement paths to anode(s)  110  in adjacent cells  103 . In certain embodiments, incorporation of metal ion source  130 A in current collector(s)  112  and/or  122  may be carried out by mixing and/or alloying lithium in current collector material, such as lithium copper mixture and/or alloy for anode current collector(s)  112  and/or as lithium aluminum mixture and/or alloy for cathode current collector(s)  122 . 
     Metal ion sources  130  may, in certain embodiments, be used without contacts and application of external voltage to supply metal ions via spontaneous chemical reaction upon contact with anode(s)  110  and/or cathode(s)  120 . Alternatively or complementarily, contacts  131  (illustrated in broken lines to indicate they are optional) may be connected to metal ion source  130  to provide metal ions to anode(s)  110  and/or cathode(s)  120  electrochemically, in a controllable manner, by application of corresponding voltages between metal ion sources  130  and anode(s)  110  and/or cathode(s)  120 . 
     It is emphasized that different configurations of metal ion source  130 A within batteries  101  may be combined to form additional embodiments. Also, any of the embodiments disclosed herein may be applied for any configuration of cell stacks  104 , and while most illustrations present single cells  103  with one anode  110  and one cathode  120 , this is done solely for explanatory purposes, and is not limiting the application of the invention to full cell stacks  104  and corresponding batteries  101 . 
       FIG.  8    is a high level schematic illustration of system configuration  100  with fluid flow regulation of metal ion levels in one or more electrode, with flows indicated as inflow  140  and outflow  145 , according to some embodiments of the invention. In certain embodiments, regulation of metal ion levels may be carried out from external metal ion source  130 B (shown schematically) by fluid provision  140  of lithium and/or any of Mg, Na, Mg ++ , Na +  etc., which may be used to continuously replace electrolyte  105  prior, or during formation process  280 . In certain embodiments, the regulation of metal ion levels may comprise pre-lithiation  210 A (see  FIG.  1   ) of anodes  110  and/or provision of metal ions  210 B (see  FIG.  1   ) to anodes  110 . In either case, provided Li, Mg, Na, Li + , Mg ++  and/or Na +  may contribute to the formation of SEI on anode(s)  110 . In certain embodiments, the regulation of metal ion levels may comprise lithiation  210 D (see  FIG.  1   ) of cathodes  120  after or during formation steps. 
       FIGS.  9  and  10    are high level schematic illustrations of systems  100  with fluid flow regulation of metal ion levels in one or more electrode, with flows indicated as inflow  140  and outflow  145 , according to some embodiments of the invention. System  100  may comprise at least one cell stack  104  for lithium ion batteries  101 , each cell stack  104  comprising alternating anodes  110 , separators  115  and cathodes  120  packaged in pouch cover  102 , at least one electrolyte reservoir  160 , having metal ion source(s) therein (e.g., in fluid  165  such as in electrolyte fluid), in fluid connection to cell stack(s)  104  in respective pouch cover  102 , a pump  150  configured to maintain circular flow  140 ,  145  of electrolyte  165  between cell stack(s)  104  in pouch cover  102  and electrolyte reservoir  160 , and electric circuitry  106  configured to apply specified voltage between anode(s)  110  of cell stack(s)  104  and the metal ion source(s) (comprising any of Li, Mg, Na, Li + , Mg ++ , Na +  etc.,) in electrolyte reservoir  160 , to regulate the level(s) of metal ion(s) in any of the components of batteries  101 . In certain embodiments, the regulation of metal ion levels may comprise pre-lithiation  210 A (see  FIG.  1   ) of anodes  110  and/or provision of metal ions  210 B (see  FIG.  1   ) to anodes  110 . In either case, provided Li, Mg, Na, Li + , Mg ++  and/or Na +  may contribute to the formation of SEI on anode(s)  110 . In certain embodiments, the regulation of metal ion levels may comprise limitation  210 D (see FIG.  1 ) of cathodes  120  after or during formation steps. Applying the specified voltage between anodes  110  and contact(s)  131  of metal ion source  130 B—illustrated as a non-limiting example, may be modified to lithiate cathode  120  via contacts  121 —are indicated schematically as electric connection and voltage application  250 . 
     In certain embodiments, electrolyte reservoir  160  may comprise at least two electrolyte reservoirs  160 ,  162 , of which at least one ( 160 ) may be configured to regulate metal ion levels ( 210 B) and/or to pre-lithiate  210 A (and/or provide metal ions to) anodes  110  and form the SEI thereon, and at least another one ( 162 ) may be configured to load pouch cover  102  with electrolyte  105  for operation of lithium ion battery  101  after pre-lithiation  210 A, possibly after formation  280 . Formation process  280  may be carried out during or after the metal ions are regulated  210 B, e.g., during prelithiation  210 A and/or after prelithiation  210 A is completed. Different, possibly multiple electrolyte reservoir  160 ,  162  may be used to provide different types and/or proportions of metal ions, possibly in different pre-lithiation and/or formation steps. 
     In certain embodiments, cell stack(s)  104  may comprise multiple cell stacks  104  in multiple batteries  101 , and electrolyte reservoir(s)  160 ,  162  may be used simultaneously and commonly for all cell stacks  104  to carry out the regulation of metal ion levels and possibly electrolyte replacement. 
     In various embodiments, the prelithiation and/or lithiation may be carried out in conjunction with charging processes and/or with discharging processes, and/or independently from charging/discharging process. 
       FIG.  11    is a high level flowchart illustrating a method  200 , according to some embodiments of the invention. The method stages may be carried out with respect to systems  100  and batteries  101  described above, which may optionally be configured to implement method  200 . Method  200  may comprise stages for producing, preparing and/or using systems  100  and batteries  101 , such as any of the following stages, irrespective of their order. Certain embodiments comprise computer program products comprising a computer readable storage medium having computer readable program embodied therewith and configured to carry out of the relevant stages of method  200 . Method  200  may comprise stages for producing, preparing, operating, and/or using systems  100  and batteries  101  described above, such as any of the following stages, irrespective of their order. 
     Method  200  comprises regulating a level of metal ions in at least one electrode (e.g., anode(s) and/or cathode(s)) in a lithium ion battery, when the at least one electrode is in a pouch of the lithium ion battery (stage  210 ), wherein the regulation of metal ions level is carried out electrochemically between the at least one electrode and a metal ion source which is an internal and/or an external metal ions source containing e.g., Li, Mg and/or Na (stage  212 ), prior to, and possibly during a formation process of the lithium ion battery, and possibly prior to and/or during the operation of the battery (stage  213 ). Regulating the metal ion levels may be carried out in situ, within the battery pouch, on anode(s) and/or cathode(s) of a cell stack, sequentially or simultaneously, from a metal ion source internal, in the pouch. Certain embodiments of providing metal ions to the anodes before the formation process is carried out may be referred to as a pre-metallization stage. Metal ions such as Mg ++  and Na +  may be provided, possibly in addition to Li + , as well as metal atoms e.g., Li, Mg, Na. 
     In certain embodiments, regulation  210  may comprise any of the following: pre-lithiating the anodes (as the electrodes, the anodes may comprise anode material particles of at least one of Si, Ge and Sn which may be polymer-coated) from the at least one lithium source (as the metal ion source) prior to the formation process (stage  220 ); lithiating the anodes from the at least one lithium source during the formation process (stage  225 ), and possibly also during operation from at least rudiments of the at least one lithium source which are left in the pouch during operation (stage  227 ); forming at least part of the SEI on the anodes from magnesium and/or sodium from the at least one magnesium and/or sodium source (as the metal ion source, possibly in combination with lithium), at least prior to the formation process (stage  230 ); and/or lithiating the cathodes (as the electrodes) from the at least one lithium source (as the metal ion source) upon lithium depletion from the cathodes, during and/or after the formation process (stage  240 ). 
     In certain embodiments, method  200  may comprise lithiating electrodes (e.g., one or more cathode) of the lithium ion battery during its operation, carried out electrochemically between the electrodes (e.g., one or more cathode) and a lithium source in the battery, and controllably with respect to a state of health (SoH) of the lithium ion battery. At least one cathode of the battery may be lithiated, electrically and controllably, during battery operation (stage  242 ), as illustrated e.g., in  FIG.  13    below. 
     In certain embodiments, method  200  may further comprise configuring the lithium source as dot(s) and/or wire(s) in ionic communication with the at least one cathode (stage  244 ). In certain embodiments, method  200  may further comprise coating the lithium source with solid state electrolyte (stage  246 ), maintaining the ionic communication with at least one cathode, and controlling the lithiation of the at least one cathode electrically. Additionally, as disclosed herein, method  200  may further comprise prelithiating at least one anode of the battery from the lithium source during a formation stage of the battery. Lithiating  242  the at least one cathode during operation may be carried out upon detected specified decrease in the SoH, possibly after discharging of the battery. 
     Method  200  may comprise connecting, electrically, electrode(s) to the metal ion source and applying a voltage therebetween (stage  250 ). Pre-lithiating and/or lithiating the anodes may be carried out by electrically connecting the anode(s) to the metal ion source and applying a voltage therebetween. Lithiating the cathodes may be carried out by electrically connecting the at least one cathode (when it is a depleted state, having part of its original lithium content) to the metal ion source and applying a voltage therebetween. 
     Pre-lithiating and/or lithiation of the anode(s)  220 ,  225 , respectively, may be configured to at least partly form, controllably, an SEI on the anode(s), during a pre-lithiation, pre-metallization (referring e.g., to provision of Mg and/or Na ions, alone or in addition to Li ions) and/or during the formation process, utilizing the metal ion source (stage  260 ). In certain embodiments, lithiating  225  may be configured to compensate for lithium consumption during the formation process, e.g., from the cathode(s)—for example by adding lithium to the cathode  240  during the formation process, from the lithium source. 
     Method  200  may further comprise incorporating metal lithium in a pouch comprising a cell stack and electrolyte (stage  270 ) and carrying out any of stages  210  to  240  using the internal lithium source, at least partly. Correspondingly, method  200  may comprise pre-lithiating anode(s) of the cell stack electrochemically by electric connection thereof to the metal lithium (and/or Mg, Na, etc.) incorporated in the pouch (stage  272 ) and/or lithiating cathode(s) of the cell stack electrochemically by electric connection thereof to the metal lithium (and/or Mg, Na, etc.) incorporated in the pouch (stage  274 ). 
     Method  200  may further comprise performing the formation process, with anodes and cathodes as the cell electrodes (stage  280 ). Method  200  may further comprise degassing the pouch following the formation process (stage  290 ). Method  200  may further comprise removing the metal ion source after pre-lithiation  210  during degassing phase  250  following formation process  240  (stage  292 ). In certain embodiments, method  200  may comprise removing residual lithium during the degassing phase (stage  294 ), and possibly re-using the removed residual metal lithium (stage  296 ). 
     Anode pre-lithiation  220  may be carried out prior to formation process  280  (stage  302 ) and/or anode lithiation  225  may be carried out during formation process  280  (stage  304 ). It is noted that lithiation during the formation process may augment pre-lithiation applied before the formation process. Additional lithiation during the formation process may be configured to compensate for lithium consumption during the formation process, e.g., from the cathode(s). 
     Method  200  may further comprise optimizing a shape and/or a position of the metal ion source within the pouch (stage  310 ), possibly optimizing a position of the metal ion source in the stack, according to the efficiency of metal ions movement (stage  315 ), e.g., with respect to pre-lithiation  220 , and/or metal ion regulation and/or lithiation of any of stages  225 - 240 . 
     Method  200  may comprise associating, at least partly, the metal ion and/or lithium source with the anode(s) in the stack (stage  320 ) and/or with the cathode(s) in the stack (stage  322 ). In certain embodiments, method  200  may comprise incorporating metal lithium, as a lithium source, and/or other metal mixtures or alloys of e.g., Mg, Na, Li, in at least one current collector (stage  330 ), e.g., in at least one anode current collector and/or in at least one cathode current collector, e.g., in mixture with copper and/or as a copper alloy in the former case, and/or in mixture with aluminum and/or as an aluminum alloy in the latter case. 
     Method  200  may comprise incorporating metal lithium in a small quantity in the pouch, without removal thereof from the pouch (stage  335 ). Incorporated lithium may be thus used to at least partly compensate for losses of lithium during operation of the battery. Method  200  may comprise operating the lithium ion battery (stage  340 ). Method  200  may comprise incorporating metal lithium in wire form in the pouch and carrying out lithiation during operation (stage  342 ), to compensate for depletion of lithium in the cell during various processes involved in operation, such as charging and/or discharging cycles in which lithium may be consumed by further SEI formation, electrolyte decomposition, lithium fixation in the anode and/or in the cathode etc. Lithiation  342  may be continuous or intermittent, and possibly be related to SoH parameters of the battery (stage  345 ). 
     Method  200  may further comprise monitoring the SoH of the lithium ion battery and carrying out the lithiating upon detected specified decrease in the SoH (stage  347 ), e.g., using SoH parameters such as reduction in capacity, rise in resistance, decreasing maximal voltage etc.). In certain embodiments, monitoring  347  may comprise either or both monitoring the anodes and monitoring the cathodes with respect to lithium source itself (see e.g.,  FIG.  5 D ), e.g., by measuring the anodes and/or cathodes with respect to the lithium source (stage  348 ). Method  200  may further comprise lithiating anodes after charging and/or cathodes after discharging of the cell (stage  349 ), or possibly during partial charging and/or discharging, respectively. For example, the selection of anodes and/or cathodes for lithiation may be carried out according to a voltage level between the anodes and the lithium source after the charging and/or according to a voltage level between the cathodes and the lithium source after the discharging. 
     Method  200  may comprise positioning the metal ion source along and/or perpendicularly to a cell stack of the battery (stage  350 ). In certain embodiments, method  200  may comprise positioning the metal ion source in a removable part of the pouch (stage  352 ). In certain embodiments, method  200  may comprise associating, spatially, the metal ion source with opening(s) for degassing (stage  355 ). 
     Method  200  may comprise connecting electrolyte reservoir(s), having metal ion source therein, in fluid connection to the cell stack in the pouch cover (stage  360 ) and carrying out any of the metal ion regulation stages via the fluid connection. In certain embodiments, method  200  may comprise pumping electrolyte between the reservoir(s) and the cell stacks in the pouches (stage  365 ), possibly with different electrolyte reservoir(s) providing different electrolyte compositions, such as one or more electrolyte compositions for pre-lithiation, for SEI formation, for consequent lithiation, for filling operative electrolyte for the operation cycles etc. For example, method  200  may comprise maintaining circular flow of electrolyte between the cell stack in the pouch cover and the electrolyte reservoir(s) (stage  370 ), see e.g., flows  140 ,  145  in  FIGS.  9  and  10   . 
     Method  200  may further comprise applying specified voltage between the anodes and the metal ion source in the electrolyte reservoir(s) (stage  380 ). Method  200  may further comprise configuring at least one electrolyte reservoir to provide the pre-lithiation and at least another electrolyte reservoir to load the pouch cover with electrolyte for operation of the lithium ion battery (stage  390 ). Method  200  may comprise applying the metal ion regulation (e.g., pre-lithiation and/or lithiation) simultaneously to multiple cell stacks with the electrolyte reservoir(s) used commonly for all the cell stacks (stage  400 ). 
     In various embodiments, the prelithiation and/or lithiation may be carried out in conjunction with charging processes and/or with discharging processes, and/or independently from charging/discharging process. 
     In various embodiments, regulation of metal ions level  210  may be carried out in any of constant current (CC), constant voltage (CV), and/or constant current, constant voltage (CCCV) modes, as well as in dynamic current (dI/dt≠0) and/or dynamic voltage (dV/dt≠0) modes alone or in combination. Currents may range from 10 μA to 10 mA and voltage may vary from 400 mV to 20 mV. Prelithiation time may be in scales of a few hours to a few weeks. Temperature may vary from 25° C. to 70° C. 
     In certain embodiments, anode(s)  110  may comprise anode active material particles and additive(s) such as binder(s) (e.g., polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) or any other binder), plasticizer(s) and/or conductive filler(s), mixed in water-based or organic solvent(s). The anode slurry may be dried, consolidated and positioned in contact with current collector  112 . Anode active material particles may comprise particles of any of graphite, graphene, metalloids such as silicon, germanium and/or tin, and/or possibly particles of aluminum, lead and/or zinc. Anode active material particles may be configured to receive lithium during charging and release lithium during discharging, reversibly over a large number of cycles, without mechanical damage to anode(s)  110 . The anode active material particles may be composite materials, e.g., coated particles, shell-core particles etc. The anode active material particles may comprise coatings such as conductive polymers, lithium polymers, possibly borate and/or phosphate salt(s) (forming e.g., B 2 O 3 , P 2 O 5  etc. on the surface of anode active material particles), bonding molecules which may interact with electrolyte  105  (and/or ionic liquid additives thereto) and/or various nanoparticles (e.g., B 4 C, WC, VC, TiN) which may be attached to the anode material particles in anode preparation processes such as ball milling. The size range of the anode active material particles may be at an order of magnitude of 100 nm, and/or possibly in the order of magnitude of 10 nm or 1μ. The size range of nanoparticles attached to the anode active material particles may be at an order of magnitude lower than that of the anode material particles, e.g., 10 nm, and/or possibly 100 nm (the latter in case of larger anode material particles). 
     In certain embodiments, cathode(s)  120  may comprise materials based on layered, spinel and/or olivine frameworks, and comprise various compositions, such as at least one formulation comprising LiMeO wherein Me comprises one or more of Ni, Co, Fe, Mn, Al and Li and O comprise one or more respective lithium and oxygen atoms, e.g., LCO formulations (based on LiCoO 2 ), NMC formulations (based on lithium nickel-manganese-cobalt), NCA formulations (based on lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxides), LMO formulations (based on LiMn 2 O 4 ), LMN formulations (based on lithium manganese-nickel oxides) LFP formulations (based on LiFePO 4 ), lithium rich cathodes, and/or combinations thereof. Separator(s)  115  may comprise various materials, such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) or other appropriate materials. 
     Examples for electrolyte  105  may comprise liquid electrolytes such as ethylene carbonate (EC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), propylene carbonate (PC), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), vinylene carbonate (VC), possibly tetrahydrofuran (THF) and/or its derivatives, and combinations thereof; and/or solid electrolytes such as polymeric electrolytes such as polyethylene oxide, fluorine-containing polymers and copolymers (e.g., polytetrafluoroethylene), and combinations thereof. Electrolyte  105  may comprise lithium electrolyte salt(s) such as LiPF 6 , LiBF 4 , lithium bis(oxalato)borate, LiN(CF 3 SO 2 ) 2 , LiN(C 2 F 5 SO 2 ) 2 , LiAsF 6 , LiC(CF 3 SO 2 ) 3 , LiClO 4 , LiTFSI, LiB(C 2 O 4 ) 2 , LiBF 2 (C 2 O 4 ), tris(trimethylsilyl)phosphite (TMSP) and combinations thereof. Ionic liquid(s) additives may be added to electrolyte  105 . 
       FIG.  12    provides an example of results illustrating the improved operation of batteries  101  resulting from systems  100  and/or methods  200 , according to some embodiments of the invention.  FIG.  12    illustrates schematically a charging curve (solid line) and discharging curves of a first cycle, for prior art full cell (dotted line) and for full cell  101  (dashed line) with pre-lithiated anode. In the presented example, concerning metalloid systems normalized to NCA cathodes, the capacity loss (full cycle equivalent, FCE) is improved from ca. 28% (leaving ca. 72% capacity) in the prior art full cell (dotted line) to ca. 11% (leaving ca. 89% capacity) in full cell  101  with pre-lithiated anode (dashed line). 
       FIG.  13    is a high level schematic illustration of system  100  and battery configuration  101  for lithiation during operation, according to some embodiments of the invention.  FIG.  13    illustrates schematic modifications of systems  100  and batteries  101  with respect, e.g., to  FIG.  5 C . In various embodiments, lithium source  130  such as a lithium containing wire or other structure—may be coated by a coating  132  that comprises solid electrolyte. Coating  132  may be configured to protect lithium source  130  during formation and/or during operation, e.g., prevent unwanted reactions between the lithium in lithium source  130  and electrolyte  105 . Battery  100  may be controlled to provide lithiation of anode(s)  110  and/or cathode(s)  120  during formation and/or operation, as discussed in any of the embodiments disclosed above. Advantageously, coating  132  may be configured to prevent exposure of lithium source  130  to air or water based solvents during the production of battery  101  and during the formation stage, degassing and operation of battery  101 —enhancing battery safety. Coating  132  may be made of solid state electrolyte that is mechanically strong and chemically inert, such as any of Li 3x La 2/3-x□1/3-2x TiO 3  (LLTOs, perovskite, with x denoting a relative fraction and □ denoting vacancies), Li 3 OCl (anti-perovskite), Li 14 ZnGe 4 O 16  (LiSICON), Li 1.3 Ti 1.7 Al 0.3 (PO 4 ) 3  (NaSICON type), Li 7 La 3 Zr 2 O 12  (garnet), Thio-LiSICON, Li 6 PS 5 X (X denoting any of Cl, Br, I), argyrodites, Li 10 MP 2 S 12 , (M denoting any of Ge, Sn), and/or possibly polymeric solid state electrolytes, for example, based on cross linked poly ethylene oxide (e.g., poly(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate, PEGDMA). 
     Batteries  100  may be designed to have any form factor, such as cylindrical cells, button (coin) cells, prismatic cells and pouch cells, with predefined dimensions. The inclusion of lithium source  130  (coated or not coated) may be carried out to maintain the specified form factor (shape and dimensions) of batteries  100 , e.g., as wire-shaped lithium source  130  does not take much volume and can be accommodated into specified designs, without loss of energy content and capacity of batteries  100 . 
     The inventors note that while solid electrolyte typically have relatively low ionic conductivity with respect to liquid electrolyte, its ionic conductivity is sufficient for lithiation purposes as disclosed, which can be carried out at slow rates while battery  101  may be operated at high charging rates dues to using electrolyte  105 . As disclosed above, lithiation from lithium source  130  may be carried out electrically, via electric circuitry  106  and possibly controllably by BMS  108 . 
     In various embodiments, cathode lithiation (and/or prelithiation)  133  and anode lithiation (and/or prelithiation)  134  (arrows  133 ,  134  indicated schematically) may be handled and managed to optimize the battery performance and further enhance the battery safety. The following approach may be applicable to either formation and/or operation stages. In certain embodiments, initial prelithiation may be performed with respect to anode  110  ( 134 ), possibly as part of the formation process and SEI formation, and further prelithiation and/or lithiation (e.g., lithiation during operation) may be performed with respect to cathode  120  ( 133 ). The degree to which cathodes  120  are lithiated may be determined with respect to a specified lithiation level and/or with respect to parameters such as the electrode loads, the types of electrodes, the amounts of active materials and the cathode to anode (C/A) ratio. 
     It is noted that anode and cathode electrode loads are typically defined as the amount of active material per electrode area (e.g., in mg/cm 2 ), expressing spatial parameters of the electrode such as thickness and porosity. The theoretical capacity is typically defined as the capacity per weight (e.g., in mAh/mg), expressing the lithiation efficiency of the active material. The cathode to anode (C/A) ratio is typically defined as the ratio between the cathode and the anode—of the product of the electrode load and the theoretical capacity (the units of the product are mAh/cm 2 , expressing the resulting charge density on the electrodes). It is noted that in calculating the C/A ratio, only the electrochemically active surface areas of the anode and cathode are taken into account—typically the surfaces of the anode and cathode that face each other and take part in the lithium flow through the electrolyte, without border areas that may be used to protect current collectors or for other reasons. 
     Advantageously, applying lithiation to both anode(s)  110  and cathode(s)  120  (from lithium source  130 ) provides flexibility for further extending the cycling lifetime, and may be adjusted according to feedback from BMS  108  to optimize battery performance and maximize the stability of anode(s)  110  and cathode(s)  120 . Moreover, the total used lithium amount may be made to equal the maximum reversible capacity of either the anode or the cathode, and the respective electrode may be filled when its reversible capacity declines during operation, as indicated by BMS  108 . 
     Advantageously, lithiating cathode  133  is simpler electrochemically (as lithium is part of the original structure of cathode materials such as NMC, LCO, NCA, LMO, LMN, LFP and their verities and combinations, and is faster as the cathode has smaller lithiation resistance than the anode. Moreover, cathode lithiation  133  is more spatially homogenous, and is carried out only on the active area of the electrode, defined by the smallest lateral size between anode and cathode—providing more flexibly in the design of lithium source  130 , e.g., as one or more point sources (dots) and/or one or more linear sources (wires). Finally, cathode lithiation  133  may be safer than anode lithiation, especially during operation of battery  101 , and the process is more controllable—reducing the risk of lithium metallization. 
     Certain embodiments comprise computer program products comprising a computer readable storage medium having computer readable program embodied therewith and configured to monitor, control and/or operate systems  100  and batteries  101  to provide the regulation of metal ions and/or lithiation steps described above, such as pre-lithiation, lithiation during formation and/or lithiation during operation, possibly in conjuncture with the carrying out of the formation processes and/or operating batteries  101 . Certain embodiments comprise battery management systems comprising computer readable program configured to operate any of the method stages disclosed above. 
     Aspects of the present invention are described above with reference to flowchart illustrations and/or portion diagrams of methods, apparatus (systems) and computer program products according to embodiments of the invention. It will be understood that each portion of the flowchart illustrations and/or portion diagrams, and combinations of portions in the flowchart illustrations and/or portion diagrams, can be implemented by computer program instructions. These computer program instructions may be provided to a processor of a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, or other programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer or other programmable data processing apparatus, create means for implementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or portion diagram or portions thereof. 
     These computer program instructions may also be stored in a computer readable medium that can direct a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other devices to function in a particular manner, such that the instructions stored in the computer readable medium produce an article of manufacture including instructions which implement the function/act specified in the flowchart and/or portion diagram or portions thereof. 
     The computer program instructions may also be loaded onto a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other devices to cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer, other programmable apparatus or other devices to produce a computer implemented process such that the instructions which execute on the computer or other programmable apparatus provide processes for implementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or portion diagram or portions thereof. 
     The aforementioned flowchart and diagrams illustrate the architecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementations of systems, methods and computer program products according to various embodiments of the present invention. In this regard, each portion in the flowchart or portion diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portion of code, which comprises one or more executable instructions for implementing the specified logical function(s). It should also be noted that, in some alternative implementations, the functions noted in the portion may occur out of the order noted in the figures. For example, two portions shown in succession may, in fact, be executed substantially concurrently, or the portions may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality involved. It will also be noted that each portion of the portion diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, and combinations of portions in the portion diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, can be implemented by special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specified functions or acts, or combinations of special purpose hardware and computer instructions. 
     In the above description, an embodiment is an example or implementation of the invention. The various appearances of “one embodiment”, “an embodiment”, “certain embodiments” or “some embodiments” do not necessarily all refer to the same embodiments. Although various features of the invention may be described in the context of a single embodiment, the features may also be provided separately or in any suitable combination. Conversely, although the invention may be described herein in the context of separate embodiments for clarity, the invention may also be implemented in a single embodiment. Certain embodiments of the invention may include features from different embodiments disclosed above, and certain embodiments may incorporate elements from other embodiments disclosed above. The disclosure of elements of the invention in the context of a specific embodiment is not to be taken as limiting their use in the specific embodiment alone. Furthermore, it is to be understood that the invention can be carried out or practiced in various ways and that the invention can be implemented in certain embodiments other than the ones outlined in the description above. 
     The invention is not limited to those diagrams or to the corresponding descriptions. For example, flow need not move through each illustrated box or state, or in exactly the same order as illustrated and described. Meanings of technical and scientific terms used herein are to be commonly understood as by one of ordinary skill in the art to which the invention belongs, unless otherwise defined. While the invention has been described with respect to a limited number of embodiments, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of the invention, but rather as exemplifications of some of the preferred embodiments. Other possible variations, modifications, and applications are also within the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the scope of the invention should not be limited by what has thus far been described, but by the appended claims and their legal equivalents.