Patent Publication Number: US-2023134650-A1

Title: Methods of treating cancer with interferon wherein the cancer cells are hla negative or have reduced hla expression

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a divisional of U.S. Patent Application No. 16/068,392 filed on Jul. 6, 2018, which is a U.S. National Stage Filing under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of International Patent Application Serial No. PCT/US2017/012580 filed Jan. 6, 2017, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/276,198 filed Jan. 7, 2016; priority to each of which is claimed, and each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
    
    
     FIELD 
     This disclosure relates to novel methods for treating cancer in a patient having a plurality of Human Leukocyte Antigen (“HLA”)-negative cancer cells or cancer cells with reduced HLA expression by using Interferon-alpha in an amount sufficient to expand and/or activate immune cells, e.g., mature killer cells, to kill the HLA-negative cancer cells or the cancer cells with reduced HLA expression. 
     BACKGROUND 
     The therapeutic efficacy of conventional cancer treatments, including chemotherapy, surgery, and radiotherapy, are limited for a large number of cancers. For example, chemotherapeutic agents are generally considered ineffective in treating brain metastases from solid tumors because the drugs cannot penetrate the intact blood brain barrier. Moreover, chemotherapeutic agents may cause considerable side effects on healthy cells in patients. Allen T M. (2002)  Cancer  2:750-763. Further, cancer recurrence in cancer patients is often associated with surgery and radiotherapy, which can lead to higher mortalities in cancer patients. Clarke M, et al. (2005)  Lancet  366 (9503):2087-106. 
     Cancer immunotherapy has emerged as an important therapy for cancers, particularly for advanced and refractory cancers. Compared to the conventional therapies, immunotherapy demonstrates great potential for cancer treatment with significantly higher specificity and efficacy. Since immunotherapy uses the patients&#39; own immune system to destroy cancer cells, it has little or no side effects that are often associated with traditional treatment. The use of genetically modified T-cells for cancer treatment is one of the most noted cancer immunotherapies. Couzin-Frankel J. (2013)  Science  20342(6165):1432-3. Activated cancer-specific T-cells can kill cancer cells by recognizing the specific antigens or peptides expressed on the cells. 
     Therefore, there remains a need in the art to develop a novel cancer immunotherapy with improved efficacy. 
     SUMMARY 
     A drawback of certain T-cell based cancer therapies is that cancer cells can develop escape mechanisms to evade the course of immunotherapy, particularly the immunotherapy directed by cancer-specific T-cells. Embodiments of the technology herein generally is predicated, at least in part, on the discovery that a patient having a plurality of HLA-negative cancer cells or cancer cells with reduced HLA expression can be effectively treated with interferon-alpha (“IFN-alpha”) in an amount sufficient to expand and/or activate immune cells such that the activated and/or expanded immune cells kill one or more of HLA-negative cancer cells or the cancer cells with reduced HLA expression. In one embodiment, the immune cells can be T-cells, B-cells, or NK cells. In another embodiment, the patient is HLA-negative or has reduced expression of a class I HLA, a class II HLA, or a class III HLA. Preferably, the HLA is class I HLA or class II HLA. 
     In one aspect of the invention, IFN-alpha can be one or more of IFN-alpha 1, IFN-alpha 2, IFN-alpha 4, IFN-alpha 5, IFN-alpha 6, IFN-alpha 7, IFN-alpha 8, IFN-alpha 10, IFN-alpha 14, IFN-alpha 16, IFN-alpha 17, or IFN-alpha 21. 
     Preferably, IFN-alpha is IFN-alpha 2, IFN-alpha 8, or IFN-alpha 10. In other preferred embodiments, the IFN-alpha is IFN-alpha 8. In one embodiment, IFN-alpha is a synthetic or recombinant IFN-alpha. 
     In one aspect of the invention, the effective amount of the IFN-alpha is a sub-therapeutic amount of the IFN-alpha. It is contemplated that administration of a sub-therapeutic amount of IFN-alpha can still activate, or expand the immune cells, including NK cells, such that the activated and/or expanded immune cells can kill one or more of HLA-negative cancer cells or cancer cells with reduced HLA expression. In one embodiment, the amount of IFN-alpha is sub-therapeutic compared to an amount of IFN-alpha that is used to treat a cancer. In one embodiment, the sub-therapeutic amount of IFN-alpha can be about 1%, about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, or about 60% of a therapeutic dosage of the IFN-alpha. In another embodiment, the IFN-alpha is provided in an amount ranging from about 5×10 1  units per square meter of body surface (U/m 2 ) to about 2×10 5  U/m2, or any sub value or sub range therein. Administration of a sub-therapeutic amount of IFN-alpha allows for greater targeting of the immune cells (e.g., NK cells) to the tumor, or decreasing any potential side effects associated with IFN-alpha, or both. 
     In one embodiment, to expand, activate, and/or stimulate the immune cells, the IFN-alpha can be administered orally, via vein injection, muscle injection, peritoneal injection, subcutaneous injection, nasal or mucosal administration, or by inhalation via an inspiratory. 
     In one aspect of the invention, the cancer comprises a population of cancer cells that initially express an HLA prior to comprising a population that is HLA-negative or have a reduced HLA expression. In one embodiment, the patient has received or is selected based upon having received an immunotherapy for the cancer. In one embodiment, the immunotherapy is a T-cell therapy. 
     In one embodiment, the IFN-alpha is administered as part of a combination therapy. In another embodiment, the combination therapy comprises one or more of chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy. 
     One aspect of the invention relates to a method for treating a cancer, which comprises administering an immune cell to a subject in need thereof, wherein said immune cell is activated by IFN-alpha, further wherein the cancer has no or reduced expression of a HLA compared to a normal control. In one embodiment, the immune cell is a T-cell, a B-cell, or a NK-cell. Preferably, the immune cell is a NK cell. In one embodiment, the NK cell is a NK cell line, e.g., a NK-92 cell. 
     In one embodiment, the HLA is a class I HLA antigen, a class II HLA antigen, or a class III HLA antigen. Preferably, the HLA is a class I HLA antigen or a class II HLA antigen. 
     In another embodiment, the source of the immune cells is autologous, allogeneic, or xenographic. 
     In one embodiment, the immune cells are administered intravenously, intraperitoneally, intramuscularly, or subcutaneously. 
     In one embodiment, the immune cells, such as NK cells, are activated by incubating the immune cells with the IFN-alpha ex vivo. In another embodiment, the immune cells are incubated ex vivo with the IFN-alpha at a concentration from 5×10 1  U/1×10 6  cells to 1×10 4 U/1×10 6  cells. 
     In one embodiment, the immune cells, such as NK cells, are administered in combination with an anti-tumor agent. In another embodiment, the anti-tumor agent is a chemotherapy agent, a radiotherapy agent, or an immunotherapy agent, such as an anti-cancer vaccine, an anti-cancer antibody, or an immune checkpoint inhibitor. 
     In one embodiment, the immune cell is modified to express a tumor cell homing receptor on the outer cell surface of the immune cell. In another embodiment, the tumor cell homing receptor is a chimeric antigen receptor, an Fe receptor, or combinations thereof. 
     In one embodiment, the patient or subject is human. 
     In one embodiment is provided a composition comprising immune cells and an effective amount of interferon alpha (IFN-alpha) to activate the immune cells. 
     In one embodiment, the IFN-alpha comprises one or more of IFN-alpha 1, IFN-alpha 2, IFN-alpha 4, IFN-alpha 5, IFN-alpha 6, IFN-alpha 7, IFN-alpha 8, IFN-alpha 10, IFN-alpha 14, IFN-alpha 16, IFN-alpha 17, or IFN-alpha 21. 
     In one embodiment, the immune cells are NK cells. In one embodiment, the NK cells are NK-92 cells. 
     In one embodiment, the composition comprises IFN-alpha at a concentration from 5×101 U/1×106 cells to 1×104 U/1×106 cells. 
     In one embodiment, the composition further comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     After reading this description, it will become apparent to one skilled in the art how to implement the invention in various alternative embodiments and alternative applications. However, not all embodiments of the present invention are described herein. It will be understood that the embodiments presented here are presented by way of an example only, and are not limited. As such, this detailed description of various alternative embodiments should not be construed to limit the scope or breadth of the present invention as set forth below. 
     Before the present invention is disclosed and described, it is to be understood that the aspects described below are not limited to specific compositions, methods of preparing such compositions, or uses thereof as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular aspects only and is not intended to be limiting. 
     Throughout this disclosure, various publications, patents and published patent specifications are referenced by an identifying citation. The disclosures of these publications, patents and published patent specifications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety into the present disclosure. 
     Definitions 
     Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. 
     In this specification and in the claims that follow, reference will be made to a number of terms that shall be defined to have the following meanings: 
     The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. 
     All numerical designations, e.g., pH, temperature, time, concentration, amounts, and molecular weight, including ranges, are approximations which are varied (+) or (−) by 10%, 1%, or 0.1%, as appropriate. It is to be understood, although not always explicitly stated, that all numerical designations may be preceded by the term “about.” It is also to be understood, although not always explicitly stated, that the reagents described herein are merely examples and that equivalents of such are known in the art. 
     “Optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequently described event or circumstance can or cannot occur, and that the description includes instances where the event or circumstance occurs and instances where it does not. 
     The term “about” when used before a numerical designation, e.g., temperature, time, amount, concentration, and such other, including a range, indicates approximations which may vary by (+) or (−) 10%, 5%, 1%, or any subrange or sub value there between. 
     Preferably, the term “about” when used with regard to a dose amount means that the dose may vary by +/−10%. 
     The term “comprising” or “comprises” is intended to mean that the compositions and methods include the recited elements, but not excluding others. “Consisting essentially of” when used to define compositions and methods, shall mean excluding other elements of any essential significance to the combination. For example, a composition consisting essentially of the elements as defined herein would not exclude other elements that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristic(s) of the claimed invention. “Consisting of” shall mean excluding more than trace amount of other ingredients and substantial method steps recited. Embodiments defined by each of these transition terms are within the scope of this invention. 
     The terms “patient,” “subject,” “individual,” and the like are used interchangeably herein, and refer to any animal, or cells thereof whether in vitro or in situ, amenable to the methods described herein. In a preferred embodiment, the patient, subject, or individual is a mammal. In some embodiments, the mammal is a mouse, a rat, a guinea pig, a non-human primate, a dog, a cat, or a domesticated animal (e.g. horse, cow, pig, goat, sheep). In especially preferred embodiments, the patient, subject or individual is a human. 
     The term “treating” or “treatment” covers the treatment of a disease or disorder described herein, in a subject, such as a human, and includes: (i) inhibiting a disease or disorder, i.e., arresting its development; (ii) relieving a disease or disorder, i.e., causing regression of the disease or disorder; (iii) slowing progression of the disease or disorder; and/or (iv) inhibiting, relieving, or slowing progression of one or more symptoms of the disease or disorder. For example, treatment of a cancer or tumor includes, but is not limited to, reduction in size of the tumor, elimination of the tumor and/or metastases thereof, remission of the cancer, inhibition of metastasis of the tumor, reduction or elimination of at least one symptom of the cancer, and the like. 
     The term “administering” or “administration” of an agent, drug, or an immune cell, including but not limited to a natural killer cell, to a subject includes any route of introducing or delivering to a subject a compound to perform its intended function. Administration can be carried out by any suitable route, including orally, intranasally, parenterally (intravenously, intramuscularly, intraperitoneally, or subcutaneously), or topically. Administration includes self-administration and the administration by another. 
     It is also to be appreciated that the various modes of treatment or prevention of medical diseases and conditions as described are intended to mean “substantial,” which includes total but also less than total treatment or prevention, and wherein some biologically or medically relevant result is achieved. 
     As used herein, the term “effective amount” refers to an amount of IFN-alpha which is capable of activating the immune cells. The precise effective amount will vary, for example based on the type of the immune cells to be activated and the subtype of IFN-alpha administered. 
     As used herein, the term “sub-therapeutic amount” is used to describe an amount of IFN-alpha that is below the amount of IFN-alpha conventionally used to treat a cancer. For example, a sub-therapeutic amount is an amount less than that defined by the manufacturer as being required for therapy. For example, in some non-limiting embodiments, a sub-therapeutic amount of IFN-alpha can be an amount less than 2×10 7  U/m 2 , including any sub value or subrange below that amount and above 5×10 1  U/m 2  Other non-limiting examples of a sub-therapeutic amounts include those described in Ningram, R A (2014)  Scientifica  Volume 2014, Article ID 970315, and references cited within, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     As used herein, the term “therapeutic amount” refers to an amount of IFN-alpha conventionally used to treat a cancer. A “therapeutic amount” can be any amount defined by the manufacturer as being required for therapy. The therapeutic amount of the IFN will vary depending on the tumor being treated and its severity as well as the age, weight, etc., of the patient to be treated. For example, for hairy cell leukemia, the therapeutic amount for IFN-alpha 2b is 2×10 6  U/m 2 ; for malignant melanoma, the therapeutic amount is 2×10 7  U/m 2 . The skilled artisan will be able to determine appropriate dosages depending on these and other factors. The compositions can also be administered in combination with one or more additional therapeutic compounds. In the methods described herein, the therapeutic compounds may be administered to a subject having one or more signs or symptoms of a disease or disorder. 
     As used herein, the term “interferon” or “IFN” means the family of highly homologous species-specific proteins that inhibit viral replication and cellular proliferation and modulate immune response. 
     The terms “α-interferon,” “alpha interferon,” “interferon alpha” and “human leukocyte interferon” are used interchangeably in this application to describe members of this group. Both naturally occurring and recombinant α-interferons, including consensus interferon, may be used in the practice of the invention. 
     As used to describe the present invention, “natural killer cells” or “NK cells” are cells of the immune system that kill target cells in the absence of a specific antigenic stimulus, and without restriction according to MHC class. Target cells may be tumor cells or cells harboring viruses. NK cells are characterized by the presence of CD56 and the absence of CD3 surface markers. 
     As used to describe the present invention, the terms “cytotoxic” and “cytolytic,” when used to describe the activity of effector cells such as NK cells, are intended to be synonymous. In general, cytotoxic activity relates to killing of target cells by any of a variety of biological, biochemical, or biophysical mechanisms. Cytolysis refers more specifically to activity in which the effector lyses the plasma membrane of the target cell, thereby destroying its physical integrity. This results in the killing of the target cell. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the cytotoxic effect of NK cells is due to cytolysis. 
     The term “ex vivo” as used herein means that in vitro expansion, activation, and/or stimulation of immune cells, including T-cells, B-cells, and NK cells, prior to introducing the expanded, activated, and/or stimulated immune cells to a subject or a patient. 
     The term “therapeutic” as used herein means a treatment and/or prophylaxis. A therapeutic effect is obtained by suppression, remission, or eradication of a disease state. 
     As used herein, “endogenous” refers to any material from or produced inside an organism, cell, tissue or system. 
     As used herein, the term “exogenous” refers to any material introduced from or produced outside an organism, cell, tissue or system. 
     The term “human leukocyte antigens” or “HLA,” refers to proteins (antigens) found on the surface of white blood cells and other tissues that are responsible for regulation of the immune system. HLA includes class I, class II, and class III HLA molecules. 
     The term “kill” with respect to a cell/cell population is directed to include any type of manipulation that will lead to the death of that cell/cell population. 
     “Antibodies” as used herein include polyclonal, monoclonal, single chain, chimeric, humanized and human antibodies, prepared according to conventional methodology. 
     “Cytokine” is a generic term for non-antibody, soluble proteins which are released from one cell subpopulation and which act as intercellular mediators, for example, in the generation or regulation of an immune response. See Human Cytokines: Handbook for Basic &amp; Clinical Research (Aggarwal, et al. eds.,  Blackwell Scientific,  Boston, Mass. 1991) (which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes). 
     “Immune cells” as used herein are cells of hematopoietic origin that are involved in the specific recognition of antigens. Immune cells include antigen presenting cells (APCs), such as dendritic cells or macrophages, B-cells, T-cells, natural killer cells, etc. 
     The term “anti-cancer therapy” as used herein refers to cancer treatments, including but not limited to, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, as well as immunotherapy and vaccine therapy. 
     As used herein, “chimeric antigen receptors” or “CARs” refer to fusion proteins comprised of an antigen recognition moiety and immune cell activation domains. Eshhar et al., (1993)  Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.,  90(2): 720-724. For example, a CAR is an artificially constructed hybrid protein or polypeptide containing an antigen binding domain of an antibody (e.g., a single chain variable fragment (scFv)) linked to T-cell signaling or T-cell activation domains. CARs have the ability to redirect T-cell specificity and reactivity toward a selected target (i.e., a tumor cell) in a non-MHC-restricted manner, exploiting the antigen-binding properties of monoclonal antibodies. The non-MHC-restricted antigen recognition gives T-cells expressing CARs the ability to recognize an antigen independent of antigen processing, thus bypassing a major mechanism of tumor escape. Moreover, when expressed in T-cells, CARs advantageously do not dimerize with endogenous T-cell receptor (TCR) alpha and beta chains. 
     The terms “express” and “expression” mean allowing or causing the information in a gene or DNA sequence to become manifest, for example producing a protein by activating the cellular functions involved in transcription and translation of a corresponding gene or DNA sequence. A DNA sequence is expressed in or by a cell to form an “expression product” such as a protein (e.g., a CAR). The expression product itself, e.g. the resulting protein, may also be said to be “expressed.” An expression product can be characterized as intracellular, extracellular or secreted. The term “intracellular” means something that is inside a cell. The term “extracellular” means something that is outside a cell. A substance is “secreted” by a cell if it appears in significant measure outside the cell, from somewhere on or inside the cell. 
     The term “transfection” means the introduction of a foreign nucleic acid into a cell. The term “transformation” means the introduction of a “foreign” (i.e. extrinsic or extracellular) gene, DNA or RNA sequence to an ES cell or pronucleus, so that the cell will express the introduced gene or sequence to produce a desired substance in a genetically modified animal. 
     The term “reduced expression” in reference to HLA expression means a decrease in HLA on the surface of a cancer cell. For example, reduced expression can be about 1.5 times, or alternatively, about 2.0 times, or alternatively, about 2.5 times, or alternatively, about 3.0 times, or alternatively, about 5 times, or alternatively, about 10 times, or alternatively about 50 times, or yet further alternatively more than about 100 times lower expression than the expression level detected in a control sample (e.g. an earlier cancer biopsy, compared to expression on typical cancer cells of the type, or on NK cells). The control sample also can be cells collected from a person not having cancer. 
     Overview 
     The current invention is predicated, in part, on the surprising discovery that treatment of a cancer expressing no or reduced HLA antigen with immune cells activated by IFN-alpha, either in vivo or ex vivo, provides for unexpectedly improved therapeutic outcomes. 
     As will be apparent to the skilled artisan upon reading this disclosure, the present disclosure relates to methods for treating a patient suffering from a cancer expressing no or reduced HLA antigen by treating the patient with immune cells, e.g., NK cells, which are activated by an effective amount or a sub-therapeutic amount of IFN-alpha. 
     Immune Cells and Immunotherapy 
     Immune cells are part of the complex network that defends the body against pathogens and other foreign substances, including cancer cells. The cells of the immune system include B-cells, dendritic cells, granulocytes, innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), megakaryocytes, monocytes/macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells, and T-cells, among others. The innate immune response, which is carried out by phagocytic cells (e.g., macrophages and cytotoxic NK cells) is the first line of defense to pathogenic exposure. Subsequently, the adaptive immune response includes antigen-specific defense mechanisms orchestrated by antigen-presenting cells (e.g., macrophages and dendritic cells). 
     Immunotherapy, including antibody and immune cell-based therapy, has emerged as a standard treatments for a number of cancers. Adoptive cell transfer (“ACT”), being tested for the treatment of cancer and chronic infections, has the potential to enhance antitumor immunity, augment vaccine efficacy, and limit graft-versus-host disease. In ACT, immune cells from the patient are modified and engineered ex vivo to recognize and attack the patient&#39;s own tumor. For adoptive T cell therapy, the modifications include altering the specificity of the T cell receptor (TCR) or introducing antibody-like recognition in chimeric antigen receptors (CARs). 
     At present, however, while immunotherapy has demonstrated in numerous experimental models as having considerable effectiveness, the clinical results have been less promising. One explanation is that tumors use many strategies to evade the host immune response, including downregulation or weak immunogenicity of target antigens and creation of an immune-suppressive tumor environment. T-cell mediated immunotherapy requires that T-cells recognize and interact with a plurality of cell surfaces molecules, including HLA, and peptides. The interaction of T-cell and complexes of HLA/peptide is restricted, requiring a T-cell specific for a particular combination of an HLA molecule and a peptide. If the specific complex is lacking (e.g., does not express) one particular HLA, there is no T-cell response even if the T-cell is present. This mechanism is involved in the immune system&#39;s response to foreign materials, in autoimmune pathologies, and in responses to cellular abnormalities. Studies have shown that tumor cells develop various escape mechanisms to evade the T-cell-mediated immunotherapy. In one such escape mechanism, a cancer cell population which originally expressed a normal level of HLA on the cell surface reduces or eliminates the expression of HLA class I and/or HLA class II within the cancer cell population. The absence of HLA or the reduction of HLA expression impairs the recognition of cancer cells by T-cells and thus reduces subsequent cell lysis mediated by T-cells. 
     NK cells are at the core of innate immunity and can respond rapidly to viral infection or tumor formation by mediating the lysis of tumor cells and virally infected cells via natural cytotoxicity and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (“ADCC”). While a typical immune cell requires recognition of the major histocompatibility complex (“MHC”) or HLA on the cell surface before triggering cytolytic responses, NK cells may recognize the infected cells or tumor in the absence of HLA on the cell surface. This unique feature of NK cells renders NK cells suitable for targeting those cancer cells with no or reduced HLA expression. 
     In one embodiment, a patient having a plurality of HLA-negative cancer cells or cancer cells with reduced HLA expression is treated with IFN-alpha in an amount sufficient to expand and/or activate immune cells such that the activated and/or expanded immune cells kill one or more of HLA-negative cancer cells or the cancer cells with reduced HLA expression. In another embodiment, a sufficient amount, or a sub-therapeutic amount of IFN-alpha can expand and/or activate the endogenous immune cells, including, but not limited to, NK cells in a host. 
     In another embodiment, NK cells can be expanded or activated ex vivo by IFN-alpha before they are administered back to the host to kill the HLA-negative cancer cells or the cancer cells with reduced expression of HLA compared to a normal control. NK cells can be administered to an individual by absolute numbers of cells; e.g., said individual can be administered from about 1000 cells/injection to up to about 10 billion cells/injection, such as at about, at least about, or at most about, 1×10 8 , 1×10 7 , 5×10 7 , 1×10 6 , 5×10 6 , 1×10 5 , 5×10 5 ,  1 × 10   4 , 5×10 4 , 1×10 3 , 5×10 3  (and so forth) NK cells per injection, or any ranges between any two of the numbers, end points inclusive. In other embodiments, the amount of NK cells injected per dose may be calculated by m 2  of body surface area, including 1×10 11 , 1×10 10 , 1×10 9 , 1×10 8 , 1×10 7  (and so forth) NK cells per m 2 . The average person is 1.6-1.8 m 2 . In other embodiments, said individual can be administered from about 1000 cells/injection/m 2  to up to about 10 billion cells/injection/m 2 , such as at about, at least about, or at most about, 1×10 8 /m 2 , 1×10 7 /m 2 , 5×10 7 /m 2 , 1×10 6  m 2 , 5×10 6 /m 2 , 1×10 5 /m 2 , 5×10 5 /m 2 , 1×10 4 /m 2 , 5×10 4 /m 2 , 1×10 3 /m 2 , 5×10 3 /m 2  (and so forth) NK cells per injection, or any ranges between any two of the numbers, end points inclusive. In other embodiments, NK-92 cells can be administered to such an individual by relative numbers of cells; e.g., said individual can be administered about 1000 cells to up to about 10 billion cells per kilogram of the individual, such as at about, at least about, or at most about, 1×10 8 , 1×10 7 , 5×10 7 , 1×10 6 , 5×10 6 , 1×10 5 , 5×10 5 , 1×10 4 , 5×10 4 , 1×10 3 , 5×10 3  (and so forth) NK cells per kilogram of the individual, or any ranges between any two of the numbers, end points inclusive. 
     The immune cells of the present disclosure can be isolated from any source. In some embodiments, the source of the immune cells is autologous, allogeneic, or xenographic, or combinations thereof. The immune cells may be prepared ex vivo by extracting or otherwise isolating autologous immune cells from blood, bone marrow, or other immune cell-containing organs of a patient having a cancerous tumor or other cancer, according to methods known in the art. For example, such methods include, but are not intended to be limited to, apheresis techniques, specifically leukapheresis. In another embodiment of the invention, the NK cells can be autologous or allogeneic NK cells. “Autologous” NK cells are cells derived from the patient. “Allogeneic” NK cells are derived from another individual, having non-identical genes at one or more loci. If the NK cells are derived from an identical twin, they may be termed “syngeneic.” 
     Additionally, commercially available kits may be utilized for the extraction of NK cells, such as with EasySep™ Human NK Cell Isolation Kit available from STEMCELL™ Technologies, Inc., British Columbia, CANADA. 
     Natural Killer (NK) Cells 
     Natural killer (NK) cells are a class of lymphocytes that typically comprise approximately 10% of the lymphocytes in a human. NK cells provide an innate cellular immune response against tumor and infected (target) cells. NK cells, which are characterized as having a CD3−/CD56+ phenotype, display a variety of activating and inhibitory cell surface receptors. NK cell inhibitory receptors predominantly engage with major histocompatibility complex class I (“MHC-I”) proteins on the surface of a normal cell to prevent NK cell activation. The MHC-I molecules define cells as “belonging” to a particular individual. It is thought that NK cells can be activated only by cells on which these “self” MHC-I molecules are missing or defective, such as is often the case for tumor or virus-infected cells. 
     NK cells are triggered to exert a cytotoxic effect directly against a target cell upon binding or ligation of an activating NK cell receptor to the corresponding ligand on the target cell. The cytotoxic effect is mediated by secretion of a variety of cytokines by the NK cells, which in turn stimulate and recruit other immune system agents to act against the target. Activated NK cells also lyse target cells via the secretion of the enzymes perforin and granzyme, stimulation of apoptosis-initiating receptors, and other mechanisms. 
     NK cells have been evaluated as an immunotherapeutic agent in the treatment of certain cancers. NK cells used for this purpose may be autologous or non-autologous (i.e., from a donor). 
     In one embodiment, the NK cells used in the compositions and methods herein are autologous NK cells. In one embodiment, the NK cells used in the compositions and methods herein are non-autologous NK cells. 
     In one embodiment, the NK cells used in the compositions and methods herein are genetically modified NK cells. NK cells can be genetically modified by insertion of genes or RNA into the cells such that the cells express one or more proteins that are not expressed by wild type NK cells. In one embodiment, the NK cells are genetically modified to express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR). In a preferred embodiment, the CAR is specific for the cancer being targeted by the method or composition. 
     Non-limiting examples of modified NK cells can be found, for example, in Glienke, et al. 2015, Advantages and applications of CAR-expressing natural killer cells,  Frontiers in Pharmacol.  6, article 21; PCT Patent Pub. Nos. WO 2013154760 and WO 2014055668; each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     In some embodiments, the NK cells are an NK cell line. NK cell lines include, without limitation, NK-92, NK-YS, KHYG-1, NKL, NKG, SNK-6, and IMC-1. See, Klingemann et al. Front Immunol. 2016; 7: 91, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     NK-92 Cells 
     The NK-92 cell line was discovered in the blood of a subject suffering from a non-Hodgkins lymphoma. NK-92 cells lack the major inhibitory receptors that are displayed by normal NK cells, but retain a majority of the activating receptors. NK-92 cells are cytotoxic to a significantly broader spectrum of tumor and infected cell types than are NK cells and often exhibit higher levels of cytotoxicity toward these targets. NK-92 cells do not, however, attack normal cells, nor do they elicit an immune rejection response. In addition, NK-92 cells can be readily and stably grown and maintained in continuous cell culture and, thus, can be prepared in large quantities under c-GMP compliant quality control. This combination of characteristics has resulted in NK-92 being entered into presently on-going clinical trials for the treatment of multiple types of cancers. 
     NK-92 cells used in the compositions and methods described herein may be wild type (i.e., not genetically modified) NK-92 cells or genetically modified NK-92 cells. NK-92 cells can be genetically modified by insertion of genes or RNA into the cells such that the cells express one or more proteins that are not expressed by wild type NK-92 cells. In one embodiment, NK-92 cells are genetically modified to express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) on the cell surface. In a preferred embodiment, the CAR is specific for the cancer being targeted by the method or composition. In one embodiment, NK-92 cells are genetically modified to express an Fe receptor on the cell surface. In a preferred embodiment, the NK-92 cell expressing the Fe receptor can mediate antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC). In one embodiment, the Fe receptor is CD16. In one embodiment, NK-92 cells are genetically modified to express a cytokine (e.g., IL-2). 
     In one embodiment, the modified NK-92 cell is administered in combination with an antibody specific for the cancer to be treated. In a preferred embodiment, the modified NK-92 cell administered in combination with the antibody is competent to mediate ADCC. 
     Examples of NK-92 cells are available from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) as ATCC CRL-2407. 
     Non-limiting examples of modified NK-92 cells are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,618,817 and 8,034,332; and U.S. Patent Pub. Nos. 2002/0068044 and 2008/0247990, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Examples of modified NK-92 cells are available from ATCC as ATCC CRL-2408, ATCC CRL-2409, PTA-6670, PTA-6967, PTA-8837, and PTA-8836. Non-limiting examples of CAR-modified NK-92 cells can be found, for example, in Glienke, et al. 2015, Advantages and applications of CAR-expressing natural killer cells,  Frontiers in Pharmacol.  6, article 21; which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     Interferon 
     Interferons (“IFNs”) have long been recognized for their roles in regulating the immune response to infection inflammation and tumor formation. Human interferons are grouped into three classes based on their cellular origin and antigenicity: a-interferon (leukocytes), (3-interferon (fibroblasts) and γ-interferon (B-cells). Recombinant forms of each group have been developed and are commercially available. Subtypes in each group are based on antigenic/structural characteristics. There are at least 24 IFN alpha subtypes identified so far, including IFN-alpha 1, IFN-alpha 2, IFN-alpha 4, IFN-alpha 5, IFN-alpha 6, IFN-alpha 7, IFN-alpha 8, IFN-alpha 10, IFN-alpha 14, IFN-alpha 16, IFN-alpha 17, or IFN-alpha 21. Among them, IFN-α1, IFN-α2, IFN-α8, IFN-α10, IFN-α14 and IFN-α21 are the major subtypes of IFN-alphas. In one embodiment, the IFN-alpha is IFN-alpha 1, IFN-alpha 2, IFN-alpha 4, IFN-alpha 5, IFN-alpha 6, IFN-alpha 7, IFN-alpha 8, IFN-alpha 10, 
     IFN-alpha 14, IFN-alpha 16, IFN-alpha 17, or IFN-alpha 21. In another embodiment, IFN-alpha is IFN-alpha 2, IFN-alpha 8, or IFN-alpha 10. In other preferred embodiments, the IFN-alpha is IFN-alpha 8. 
     IFNs, e.g., IFN-alphas, can enhance immune cell cytotoxicity, migration, and cytokine production and inhibit tumor growth. The conditions that can be treated with IFNs include, but are not limited to, cell proliferation disorders, in particular cancer (e.g., hairy cell leukemia, Kaposi&#39;s sarcoma, chronic myelogenous leukemia, multiple myeloma, basal cell carcinoma and malignant melanoma, ovarian cancer, cutaneous T-cell lymphoma), and viral infections. Viral infections which may be treated in accordance with the invention include hepatitis A, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, other non-A/non-B hepatitis, herpes virus, 
     Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), herpes simplex, human herpes virus type 6 (HHV-6)), papilloma, poxvirus, picornavirus, adenovirus, rhinovirus, human T lymphotropic virus-type 1 and 2 (HTLV-1/-2), human rotavirus, rabies, retroviruses including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), encephalitis and respiratory viral infections. 
     A number of immune cells can be stimulated, activated, and expanded by IFNs. For example, IFNs can enhance the cytotoxic activities of NK lymphocytes, which is critical for the primary innate immune system against viral and bacterial infections and tumorigenesis. Markovic SN et al (1991)  Cancer Research,  51:1124. Moreover, the tumor cells from the IFN receptor-deficient animal models are unresponsive to the NK-mediated cell lysis. Swann JB, et al (2007)  J of Immun,  178 (12):7540-7549. Therefore, the IFNs, including IFN-alpha, may be critical for controlling NK cell-mediated antitumor responses. 
     In one embodiment, a sufficient amount, or a sub-therapeutic amount of IFN-alpha can expand and/or activate the endogenous immune cells, including but not limited to NK cells in a host. The amount of IFN-alpha injected per dose may be calculated by square meter (m 2 ) of body surface area, including 1×10 7 , 1×10 6 , 1×10 5 , 1×10 4 , 1×10 3 , 1×10 2  (and so forth) units per m 2  (U/m 2 ). The average person is 1.6-1.8 m 2 . 
     In other embodiments, said individual can be administered from about 100 units/injection/m 2  to up to about 10 million units/injection/m 2 , such as at about, at least about, or at most about, 1×10 7  U/m 2 , 1×10 6  U/m 2 , 1×10 5  U/m 2 , 1×10 4  U/m 2 , 1×10 3  U/m 2 , 1×10 2  U/m 2  (and so forth) IFN-alpha per injection, or any ranges between any two of the numbers, end points inclusive. In other embodiments, said individual can be administered at about, at least about, or at most about, 5×10 6  U/m 2 , 5×10 5  U/m 2 , 5×10 4  U/m 2  5×10 3  U/m 2 , 5×10 2  U/m 2  (and so forth) IFN-alpha per injection, or any ranges between any two of the numbers, end points inclusive. 
     In one embodiment, the sub-therapeutic amount of the IFN-alpha is about 1%, about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, or about 60% of a therapeutic dosage of the IFN-alpha, or any ranges between any two of the numbers, end points inclusive. In another embodiment, the IFN-alpha is provided in an amount ranging from about 5×10 1  U/m 2  to about 2×10 5  U/m 2 . 
     The amount of IFN-alpha used to expand and/or activate immune cells ex vivo can be calculated by the number of cells. The concentration of IFN-alpha for the ex vivo incubation of immune cells, e.g. NK cells, can be about 1×10 1  U/1×10 6  cells to 1×10 6  U/1×10 6  cell, such as at about, at least about, or at most about, 1×10 8  U/1×10 6  cells, 1×10 7  U/1×10 6  cells, 5×10 7  U/1×10 6  cells, 1×10 6  U/1×10 6  cells, 5×10 6  U/1×10 6  cells, 1×10 5  U/1×10 6  cells, 5×10 5  U/1×10 6  cells, 1×10 4  U/1×10 6  cells, 5×10 4  U/1×10 6  cells, 1×10 3  U/1×10 6  cells, 5×10 3  U/1×10 6  cells, 1×10 2  U/1×10 6  cells, 5×10 2  U/1×10 6  cells, 1×10 1  U/1×10 6  cells, 5×10 1  U/1×10 6  cells (and so forth), or any ranges between any two of the numbers, end points inclusive. In one embodiment, the NK cells are incubated ex vivo with the IFN-alpha at a concentration from 5×10 1  U/1×10 6  cells to 1×10 4  U/1×10 6  cells. 
     Homing Receptor 
     In some embodiments, the immune cells are modified to express a tumor cell homing receptor on the outer cell surface of the immune cell. The homing receptor may be, for example, a chimeric antigen receptor, an Fe receptor, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments the CAR targets a cancer-associated antigen. In other embodiments, at least a portion of the immune cells express an endogenous tumor cell homing receptor that is not CXCR4. 
     In one aspect of the disclosure, the immune cell is modified to express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR). In some embodiments, the immune cell is transformed with a nucleic acid encoding a CAR, wherein the CAR is expressed on the outer cell surface of the immune cell. In some embodiments, the immune cell is a T-cell, for example, an activated T-cell. 
     Any CAR known to one of skill in the art now or in the future is encompassed by the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the CAR is specific for a tumor-specific antigen. Tumor-specific antigens can also be referred to as cancer-specific antigen. In one embodiment, the CAR is specific for a tumor-associated antigen. Tumor-associated antigens can also be referred to as cancer-associated antigen. A tumor-specific antigen is a protein or other molecule that is unique to cancer cells, while a tumor-associated antigen is an antigen that is highly correlated with certain tumor cells and typically are found at higher levels on a tumor cell as compared to on a normal cell. Tumor-specific antigens are described, by way of non-limiting example, in U.S. Patent No. 8,399,645; U.S. Pat. No. 7,098,008; WO 1999/024566; WO 2000/020460; and WO 2011/163401, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. In addition, examples of some known CARs are disclosure in Table 2. In one embodiment, the CAR targets a tumor-associated antigen selected from the group consisting of a-folate receptor, CAIX, CD19, CD20, CD30, CD33, CEA, EGP-2, erb-B2, erb-B 2,3,4, FBP, GD2, GD3, Her2/neu, IL-13R-a2, k-light chain, LeY, MAGE-A1, Mesothelin, and PSMA. 
     In some embodiments, the CAR recognizes an antigen associated with a specific cancer type selected from the group consisting of ovarian cancer, renal cell carcinoma, B-cell malignancies, Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), B-cell malignancies, refractory follicular lymphoma, mantle cell lymphoma, indolent B-cell lymphoma, acute myeloid leukemia (AML), Hodgkin lymphoma, cervical carcinoma, breast cancer, colorectal cancer, prostate cancer, neuroblastoma, melanoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, medulloblastoma, adenocarcinomas, and tumor neovasculature. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Chimeric Antigen Receptors 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CARs 
               
               
                 Target antigen 
                 Associated malignancy 
                 Receptor type 
                 generation 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 α-Folate receptor 
                 Ovarian cancer 
                 ScFv-FcεRIγCAIX 
                 First 
               
               
                 CAIX 
                 Renal cell carcinoma 
                 ScFv-FcεRIγ 
                 First 
               
               
                 CAIX 
                 Renal cell carcinoma 
                 ScFv-FcεRIγ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CD19 
                 B-cell malignancies 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ (EBV) 
                 First 
               
               
                 CD19 
                 B-cell malignancies, CLL 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 CD19 
                 B-ALL 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CD19 
                 ALL 
                 CD3ζ (EBV) 
                 First 
               
               
                 CD19 
                 ALL post-HSCT 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CD19 
                 Leukemia, lymphoma, CLL 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ vs. 
                 First and 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CD19 
                 B-cell malignancies 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CD19 
                 B-cell malignancies post- 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                   
                 HSCT 
                   
                   
               
               
                 CD19 
                 Refractory Follicular 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                   
                 Lymphoma 
                   
                   
               
               
                 CD19 
                 B-NHL 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 CD19 
                 B-lineage lymphoid 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                   
                 malignancies post-UCBT 
                   
                   
               
               
                 CD19 
                 CLL, B-NHL 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CD19 
                 B-cell malignancies, 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                   
                 CLL, B-NHL 
                   
                   
               
               
                 CD19 
                 ALL, lymphoma 
                 ScFv-41BB-CD3ζ vs 
                 First and 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CD3ζ 
                 second 
               
               
                 CD19 
                 ALL 
                 ScFv-41BB-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CD19 
                 B-cell malignancies 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ (Influenza 
                 First 
               
               
                   
                   
                 MP-1) 
                   
               
               
                 CD19 
                 B-cell malignancies 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ (VZV) 
                 First 
               
               
                 CD20 
                 Lymphomas 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CD20 
                 B-cell malignancies 
                 ScFv-CD4-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CD20 
                 B-cell lymphomas 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 CD20 
                 Mantle cell lymphoma 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 CD20 
                 Mantle cell lymphoma, 
                 CD3ζ/CD137/CD28 
                 Third 
               
               
                   
                 indolent B-NHL 
                   
                   
               
               
                 CD20 
                 indolent B cell lymphomas 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CD20 
                 Indolent B cell lymphomas 
                 ScFv-CD28-41BB- 
                 Third 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CD3ζ 
                   
               
               
                 CD22 
                 B-cell malignancies 
                 ScFV-CD4-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CD30 
                 Lymphomas 
                 ScFv-FcεRIγ 
                 First 
               
               
                 CD30 
                 Hodgkin lymphoma 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ (EBV) 
                 First 
               
               
                 CD33 
                 AML 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CD33 
                 AML 
                 ScFv-41BB-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CD44v7/8 
                 Cervical carcinoma 
                 ScFv-CD8-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CEA 
                 Breast cancer 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CEA 
                 Colorectal cancer 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 CEA 
                 Colorectal cancer 
                 ScFv-FceRIγ 
                 First 
               
               
                 CEA 
                 Colorectal cancer 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 CEA 
                 Colorectal cancer 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 CEA 
                 Colorectal cancer 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 EGP-2 
                 Multiple malignancies 
                 scFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 EGP-2 
                 Multiple malignancies 
                 scFv-FcεRIγ 
                 First 
               
               
                 EGP-40 
                 Colorectal cancer 
                 scFv-FcεRIγ 
                 First 
               
               
                 erb-B2 
                 Colorectal cancer 
                 CD28/4-1BB-CD3ζ 
                 Third 
               
               
                 erb-B2 
                 Breast and others 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 erb-B2 
                 Breast and others 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Influenza) 
                   
               
               
                 erb-B2 
                 Breast and others 
                 ScFv-CD28mut-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 erb-B2 
                 Prostate cancer 
                 ScFv-FcεRIγ 
                 First 
               
               
                 erb-B 2,3,4 
                 Breast and others 
                 Heregulin-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 erb-B 2,3,4 
                 Breast and others 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 FBP 
                 Ovarian cancer 
                 ScFv-FcεRIγ 
                 First 
               
               
                 FBP 
                 Ovarian cancer 
                 ScFv-FcεRIγ 
                 First 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (alloantigen) 
                   
               
               
                 Fetal 
                 Rhabdomyosarcoma 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 acetylcholine 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 receptor 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 GD2 
                 Neuroblastoma 
                 ScFv-CD28 
                 First 
               
               
                 GD2 
                 Neuroblastoma 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 GD2 
                 Neuroblastoma 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 GD2 
                 Neuroblastoma 
                 ScFv-CD28-OX40- 
                 Third 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CD3ζ 
                   
               
               
                 GD2 
                 Neuroblastoma 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ (VZV) 
                 First 
               
               
                 GD3 
                 Melanoma 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 GD3 
                 Melanoma 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 Her2/neu 
                 Medulloblastoma 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 Her2/neu 
                 Lung malignancy 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 Her2/neu 
                 Advanced osteosarcoma 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 Her2/neu 
                 Glioblastoma 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 IL-13R-a2 
                 Glioma 
                 IL-13-CD28-4-1BB- 
                 Third 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CD3ζ 
                   
               
               
                 IL-13R-a2 
                 Glioblastoma 
                 IL-13-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 IL-13R-a2 
                 Medulloblastoma 
                 IL-13-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 KDR 
                 Tumor neovasculature 
                 ScFv-FcεRIγ 
                 First 
               
               
                 k-light chain 
                 B-cell malignancies 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 k-light chain 
                 (B-NHL, CLL) 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ vs 
                 Second 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CD3ζ 
                   
               
               
                 LeY 
                 Carcinomas 
                 ScFv-FcεRIγ 
                 First 
               
               
                 LeY 
                 Epithelial derived tumors 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 L1 cell adhesion 
                 Neuroblastoma 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 molecule 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 MAGE-A1 
                 Melanoma 
                 ScFV-CD4-FcεRIγ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 MAGE-A1 
                 Melanoma 
                 ScFV-CD28-FcεRIγ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 Mesothelin 
                 Various tumors 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 Mesothelin 
                 Various tumors 
                 ScFv-41BB-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 Mesothelin 
                 Various tumors 
                 ScFv-CD28-41BB- 
                 Third 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CD3ζ 
                   
               
               
                 Murine CMV 
                 Murine CMV 
                 Ly49H-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 infected cells 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 MUC1 
                 Breast, Ovary 
                 ScFV-CD28-OX40- 
                 Third 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CD3ζ 
                   
               
               
                 NKG2D ligands 
                 Various tumors 
                 NKG2D-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 Oncofetal antigen 
                 Various tumors 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 (h5T4) 
                   
                 (vaccination) 
                   
               
               
                 PSCA 
                 Prostate carcinoma 
                 ScFv-b2c-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 PSMA 
                 Prostate/tumor vasculature 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 PSMA 
                 Prostate/tumor vasculature 
                 ScFv-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Second 
               
               
                 PSMA 
                 Prostate/tumor vasculature 
                 ScFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 TAA targeted by 
                 Various tumors 
                 FceRI-CD28-CD3ζ 
                 Third 
               
               
                 mAh IgE 
                   
                 (+a-TAA IgE mAb) 
                   
               
               
                 TAG-72 
                 Adenocarcinomas 
                 scFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                 VEGF-R2 
                 Tumor neovasculature 
                 scFv-CD3ζ 
                 First 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Chemotherapy Agents 
     In one aspect of the present invention, the modified immune cells or IFN are administered in combination with a chemotherapy agent. The chemotherapy agent may be any agent having a therapeutic effect on one or more types of cancer. Many chemotherapy agents are currently known in the art. Types of chemotherapy drugs include, by way of non-limiting example, alkylating agents, antimetabolites, anti-tumor antibiotics, topoisomerase inhibitors, mitotic inhibitors, corticosteroids, and the like. 
     Non-limiting examples of chemotherapy drugs include: nitrogen mustards, such as mechlorethamine (nitrogen mustard), chlorambucil, cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan®), ifosfamide, and melphalan); Nitrosoureas, such as streptozocin, carmustine (BCNU), and lomustine; alkyl sulfonates, such as busulfan; Triazines, such as dacarbazine (DTIC) and temozolomide (Temodar®); ethylenimines, such as thiotepa and altretamine (hexamethylmelamine); platinum drugs, such as cisplatin, carboplatin, and oxalaplatin; 5-fluorouracil (5-FU); 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP); Capecitabine (Xeloda®); Cytarabine (Ara-C®); Floxuridine; Fludarabine; Gemcitabine (Gemzar®); Hydroxyurea; Methotrexate; Pemetrexed (Alimta®); anthracyclines, such as Daunorubicin, Doxorubicin (Adriamycin®), Epirubicin, Idarubicin; Actinomycin-D; Bleomycin; Mitomycin-C; Mitoxantrone; Topotecan; Irinotecan (CPT-11); Etoposide (VP-16); Teniposide; Mitoxantrone; Taxanes: paclitaxel (Taxol®) and docetaxel (Taxotere®); Epothilones: ixabepilone (Ixempra®); Vinca alkaloids: vinblastine (Velban®), vincristine (Oncovin®), and vinorelbine (Navelbine®); Estramustine (Emcyt®); Prednisone; Methylprednisolone (Solumedrol®); Dexamethasone (Decadron®); L-asparaginase; bortezomib (Velcade®). Additional chemotherapy agents are listed, for example, in U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. 2008/0300165, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     Doses and administration protocols for chemotherapy drugs are well-known in the art. The skilled clinician can readily determine the proper dosing regimen to be used, based on factors including the chemotherapy agent(s) administered, type of cancer being treated, stage of the cancer, age and condition of the patient, patient size, location of the tumor, and the like. 
     Radiotherapy Agents 
     In one aspect of the present invention, the modified immune cells or IFN are administered in combination with a radiotherapeutic agent. The radiotherapeutic agent may be any such agent having a therapeutic effect on one or more types of cancer. Many radiotherapeutic agents are currently known in the art. Types of radiotherapeutic drugs include, by way of non-limiting example, X-rays, gamma rays, and charged particles. In one embodiment, the radiotherapeutic agent is delivered by a machine outside of the body (external-beam radiation therapy). In a preferred embodiment, the radiotherapeutic agent is placed in the body near the tumor/cancer cells (brachytherapy) or is a systemic radiation therapy. 
     External-beam radiation therapy may be administered by any means. Exemplary, non-limiting types of external-beam radiation therapy include linear accelerator-administered radiation therapy, 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy (3D-CRT), intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT), image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT), tomotherapy, stereotactic radiosurgery, photon therapy, stereotactic body radiation therapy, proton beam therapy, and electron beam therapy. 
     Internal radiation therapy (brachytherapy) may be by any technique or agent. Exemplary, non-limiting types of internal radiation therapy include any radioactive agents that can be placed proximal to or within the tumor, such as Radium-226 (Ra-226), Cobalt-60 (Co-60), Cesium-137 (Cs-137), cesium-131, Iridium-192 (Ir-192), Gold-198 (Au-198), Iodine-125 (I-125), palladium-103, yttrium-90, etc. Such agents may be administered by seeds, needles, or any other route of administration, and may be temporary or permanent. Systemic radiation therapy may be by any technique or agent. Exemplary, non-limiting types of systemic radiation therapy include radioactive iodine, ibritumomab tiuxetan (Zevalin®), tositumomab and iodine I 131 tositumomab (Bexxar®), samarium-153-lexidronam (Quadramet®), strontium-89 chloride (Metastron®), metaiodobenzylguanidine, lutetium-I 77, yttrium-90, strontium-89, and the like. 
     In one embodiment, a radiosensitizing agent is also administered to the patient. Radiosensitizing agents increase the damaging effect of radiation on cancer cells. 
     Doses and administration protocols for radiotherapy agents are well-known in the art. The skilled clinician can readily determine the proper dosing regimen to be used, based on factors including the agent(s) administered, type of cancer being treated, stage of the cancer, location of the tumor, age and condition of the patient, patient size, and the like. 
     Anti-Cancer Vaccines 
     In one aspect of the present invention, the modified immune cells or IFN are administered in combination with an anti-cancer vaccine (also called cancer vaccine). Anti-cancer vaccines are vaccines that either treat existing cancer or prevent development of a cancer by stimulating an immune reaction to kill the cancer cells. In a preferred embodiment, the anti-cancer vaccine treats existing cancer. 
     The anti-cancer vaccine may be any such vaccine having a therapeutic effect on one or more types of cancer. Many anti-cancer vaccines are currently known in the art. Such vaccines include, without limitation, dasiprotimut-T, Sipuleucel-T, talimogene laherparepvec, HSPPC-96 complex (Vitespen), L-BLP25, gp100 melanoma vaccine, and any other vaccine that stimulates an immune response to cancer cells when administered to a patient. 
     Antibodies 
     In one aspect of the present invention, the modified immune cells or IFN are administered in combination with an anti-tumor antibody. That is, antibodies specific for a particular type of cancer (e.g., a cell surface protein expressed by the target cancer cells) can be administered to a patient having cancer. The antibodies may be monoclonal antibodies, polyclonal antibodies, chimeric antibodies, antibody fragments, human antibodies, humanized antibodies, or non-human antibodies (e.g. murine, goat, primate, etc.). The therapeutic antibody may be specific for any tumor-specific or tumor-associated antigen. See, e.g. Scott et al., Cancer Immunity 2012, 12:14, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     Non-limiting examples include trastuzumab (Herceptin®), bevacizumab (Avastin®), cetuximab (Erbitux®), panitumumab (Vectibix®), ipilimumab (Yervoy®), rituximab (Rituxan®), alemtuzumab (Campath®), ofatumumab (Arzerra®), gemtuzumab ozogamicin (Mylotarg®), brentuximab vedotin (Adcetris®), 90 Y-ibritumomab tiuxetan (Zevalin®), and  131 1-tositumomab (Bexxar®). 
     Additional antibodies are provided in Table 1. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Anti-cancer antibodies 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Proprietary 
                   
                   
                 Indication first 
               
               
                 name 
                 Trade name 
                 Target; Format 
                 approved or reviewed 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Necitumumab 
                 (Pending) 
                 EGFR; Human IgG1 
                 Non-small cell lung cancer 
               
               
                 Nivolumab 
                 Opdivo 
                 PD1; Human IgG4 
                 Melanoma 
               
               
                 Dinutuximab 
                 (Pending) 
                 GD2; Chimeric IgG1 
                 Neuroblastoma 
               
               
                 Blinatumomab 
                 Blincyto 
                 CD19, CD3; Murine 
                 Acute lymphoblastic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 bispecific tandem scFv 
                 leukemia 
               
               
                 Pembrolizumab 
                 Keytruda 
                 PD1; Humanized IgG4 
                 Melanoma 
               
               
                 Ramucirumab 
                 Cyramza 
                 VEGFR2; Human IgG1 
                 Gastric cancer 
               
               
                 Obinutuzumab 
                 Gazyva 
                 CD20; Humanized IgG1; 
                 Chronic lymphocytic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Glycoengineered 
                 leukemia 
               
               
                 Ado-trastuzumab 
                 Kadcyla 
                 HER2; humanized IgG1; 
                 Breast cancer 
               
               
                 emtansine 
                   
                 immunoconjugate 
                   
               
               
                 Pertuzumab 
                 Perjeta 
                 HER2; humanized IgG1 
                 Breast Cancer 
               
               
                 Brentuximab 
                 Adcetris 
                 CD30; Chimeric IgG1; 
                 Hodgkin lymphoma, 
               
               
                 vedotin 
                   
                 immunoconjugate 
                 systemic anaplastic large 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 cell lymphoma 
               
               
                 Ipilimumab 
                 Yervoy 
                 CTLA-4; Human IgG1 
                 Metastatic melanoma 
               
               
                 Ofatumumab 
                 Arzerra 
                 CD20; Human IgG1 
                 Chronic lymphocytic 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 leukemia 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors 
     In one aspect of the present invention, the modified immune cells or IFN are administered in combination with a checkpoint inhibitor. Immune checkpoint proteins are made by some types of immune system cells, such as T cells, and some cancer cells. These proteins, which can prevent T cells from killing cancer cells, are targeted by checkpoint inhibitors. Checkpoint inhibitors increase the T cells&#39; ability to kill the cancer cells. Examples of checkpoint proteins found on T cells or cancer cells include PD-1/PD-L1 and CTLA-4/B 7-1/B7-2. 
     In one embodiment, the checkpoint inhibitor is an antibody to a checkpoint protein, e.g., PD-1, PDL-1, or CTLA-4. Checkpoint inhibitor antibodies include, without limitation, BMS-936559, MPDL3280A, MedI-4736, Lambrolizumab, Alemtuzumab, Atezolizumab, Ipilimumab, Nivolumab, Ofatumumab, Pembrolizumab, and Rituximab. 
     Treatment Methods 
     In one aspect is provided a method for treating a patient having a plurality of HLA-negative cancer cells or cancer cells with reduced HLA expression with interferon-alpha (“IFN-alpha”) in an amount sufficient to expand and/or activate immune cells such that the activated and/or expanded immune cells kill one or more of HLA-negative cancer cells or the cancer cells with reduced HLA expression. 
     In one embodiment, the method comprises identifying a patient having a cancer with reduced HLA expression. In one embodiment, the method comprises identifying a patient having a cancer which does not express HLA. In one embodiment, the method comprises determining HLA expression of a cancer in a patient before and/or after treatment of the patient with an anti-cancer agent, such as a T-cell therapy. In one embodiment, the method comprises identifying a patient having a cancer amenable to treatment with IFN-alpha as described herein by determining HLA expression of a cancer in a patient before and/or after treatment. In one embodiment, the method comprises selecting a patient having a cancer that does not express HLA or that has reduced HLA expression. 
     In one embodiment, the amount sufficient to expand and/or activate immune cells is a sub-therapeutic amount of the IFN-alpha. It is contemplated that administration of a sub-therapeutic amount of IFN-alpha can still activate, or expand the immune cells, including NK cells, such that the activated and/or expanded immune cells can kill one or more of HLA-negative cancer cells or cancer cells with reduced HLA expression. In one embodiment, the sub-therapeutic amount of IFN-alpha can be about 1%, about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, or about 60% of a therapeutic dosage of the IFN-alpha. In another embodiment, the IFN-alpha is administered in an amount ranging from about 5×10 1  U/m 2  to about 2×10 5  U/m 2 . Administration of a sub-therapeutic amount of IFN-alpha allows for greater targeting of the immune cells (e.g., NK cells) to the tumor, or decreasing any potential side effects associated with IFN-alpha, or both. In one embodiment, to expand, activate, and/or stimulate the immune cells, the IFN-alpha can be administered orally, via vein injection, muscle injection, peritoneal injection, subcutaneous injection, nasal or mucosal administration, or by inhalation. 
     As discussed, cancers may develop one or more escape mechanisms to evade immunotherapy, including T-cell-mediated therapy, by reducing the expression of HLA on the cancer cell surface. It is contemplated that the methods described herein result in recognition and killing of the cancer cells with no or reduced HLA expression. In one aspect of the invention, the cancer comprise a population of cancer cells that initially express an HLA prior to comprising a population that is HLA-negative or have reduced HLA expression. In one embodiment, the patient has received or is selected based upon having received an immunotherapy for the cancer. In one embodiment, the immunotherapy is a T-cell therapy. In one embodiment, the immunotherapy targeted the HLA positive cells in the patient&#39;s cancer cell population, resulting in a reduction in HLA positive cells within the population. 
     In one embodiment, the IFN-alpha is administered as part of a combination therapy. In another embodiment, the combination therapy comprises one or more of chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy. 
     In addition to expanding and activating the endogenous immune cells, e.g., NK cells, IFN-alpha can also expand and activate the immune cells ex vivo before the expanded and activated immune cells are administered back to a patient with cancers comprising cells with no or reduced expression of HLA. One aspect of the invention relates to a method for treating a cancer, which comprises administering an immune cell to a subject in need thereof, wherein said immune cell is activated by IFN-alpha, further wherein the cancer has no or reduced expression of a HLA compared to a normal control. In one embodiment, the immune cell is a T-cell, a B-cell, or a NK-cell. In one embodiment, the immune cells, including the NK cells, are activated by incubating the immune cell with the IFN-alpha ex vivo. In another embodiment, the immune cell is incubated ex vivo with the IFN-alpha at a concentration from 5×10 1 U/1×10 6  cells to 1×10 4 U/1×10 6  cells. 
     In one embodiment, the HLA is a class I HLA antigen, a class II HLA antigen, or a class III HLA antigen. Preferably, the HLA is a class I HLA antigen and class II HLA antigen. In another embodiment, the source of the NK cells or the immune cells is autologous, allogeneic, or xenographic. In another embodiment, the NK cells or the immune cells are administered intravenously, intraperitoneally, intramuscularly, and subcutaneously. 
     In one embodiment, IFN-alpha can be one or more of IFN-alpha 1, IFN-alpha 2, IFN-alpha 4, IFN-alpha 5, IFN-alpha 6, IFN-alpha 7, IFN-alpha 8, IFN-alpha 10, IFN-alpha 14, IFN-alpha 16, IFN-alpha 17, or IFN-alpha 21. Preferably, IFN-alpha is IFN-alpha 2, IFN-alpha 8, or IFN-alpha 10. In other preferred embodiments, the IFN-alpha is IFN-alpha 8. 
     In one embodiment, the IFN is a synthetic or recombinant IFN-alpha. 
     In one embodiment, the immune cells, such as NK cells, are administered in combination with an anti-tumor agent. In another embodiment, the anti-tumor agent is a chemotherapy agent, a radiotherapy agent, an anti-cancer antibody, an immune checkpoint inhibitor, or an anti-cancer vaccine. 
     In one embodiment, the immune cell is modified to express a tumor cell homing receptor on the outer cell surface of the immune cell. In another embodiment, the tumor cell homing receptor is a chimeric antigen receptor, an Fe receptor, or combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the immune cell is a T-cell, a B-cell, or a NK cell. In another embodiment, the patient or subject is human. 
     Cancers or tumors that can be treated by the cells and methods described herein include, but are not limited to: biliary tract cancer; brain cancer, including glioblastomas and medulloblastomas; breast cancer; cervical cancer; choriocarcinoma; colon cancer; endometrial cancer; esophageal cancer; gastric cancer; hematological neoplasms, including acute lymphocytic and myelogenous leukemia; multiple myeloma; AIDS associated leukemias and adult T-cell leukemia lymphoma; intraepithelial neoplasms, including Bowen&#39;s disease and Paget&#39;s disease; liver cancer (hepatocarcinoma); lung cancer; lymphomas, including Hodgkin&#39;s disease and lymphocytic lymphomas; neuroblastomas; oral cancer, including squamous cell carcinoma; ovarian cancer, including those arising from epithelial cells, stromal cells, germ cells and mesenchymal cells; pancreas cancer; prostate cancer; rectal cancer; sarcomas, including leiomyosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, liposarcoma, fibrosarcoma and osteosarcoma; skin cancer, including melanoma, Kaposi&#39;s sarcoma, basocellular cancer and squamous cell cancer; testicular cancer, including germinal tumors (seminoma, non-seminoma[teratomas, choriocarcinomas]), stromal tumors and germ cell tumors; thyroid cancer, including thyroid adenocarcinoma and medullar carcinoma; and renal cancer including adenocarcinoma and Wilms tumor. In important embodiments, cancers or tumors escaping immune recognition include glioma, colon carcinoma, colorectal cancer, lymphoid cell-derived leukemia, choriocarcinoma, and melanoma. 
     Dose and Administration 
     The IFN-alpha, as described herein, are administered in effective amounts. The effective amount will depend upon the mode of administration, the particular condition being treated and the desired outcome. It will also depend upon, as discussed above, the stage of the condition, the age and physical condition of the subject, the nature of concurrent therapy, if any, and like factors well known to the medical practitioner. For therapeutic applications, it is that amount sufficient to achieve a medically desirable result. 
     The anti-cancer agent may be administered by any appropriate method. Dosage, treatment protocol, and routes of administration for anti-cancer agents, including chemotherapeutic agents, radiotherapeutic agents, anti-cancer antibodies, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and anti-cancer vaccines, are known in the art and/or within the ability of a skilled clinician to determine, based on the type of treatment, type of cancer, etc. 
     The length of time and modes of administration of IFN-alpha will vary, depending on the immune cells, type of tumor being treated, condition of the patient, and the like. Determination of such parameters is within the capability of the skilled clinician. 
     A variety of administration routes are available. The methods of the invention, generally speaking, may be practiced using any mode of administration that is medically acceptable, meaning any mode that produces effective levels of the active compounds without causing clinically unacceptable adverse effects. 
     Modes of administration include oral, rectal, topical, nasal or mucosal, intradermal, or parenteral routes. The term “parenteral” includes subcutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, or infusion. Intravenous or intramuscular routes are not particularly suitable for long-term therapy and prophylaxis. They could, however, be preferred in emergency situations. In one embodiment, the IFN-alpha is administered orally, via vein injection, muscle injection, peritoneal injection, subcutaneous injection, nasal or mucosal administration, or by inhalation via an inspirator. 
     EXAMPLES 
     The following examples are for illustrative purposes only and should not be interpreted as limitations of the claimed invention. There are a variety of alternative techniques and procedures available to those of skill in the art which would similarly permit one to successfully perform the intended invention. 
     Example 1 
     NK cells are isolated from the mice using the EasySep™ Mouse NK Cell Isolation Kit (STEMCELL™ Technologies) following the manufacturer&#39;s protocol. Isolated NK cells are incubated with the culture medium containing IFN-alpha (Lee Biomolecular, San Diego, Calif.; 1×10 3  U/1×10 6  cells) at 37° C. and 5% CO 2  for 7-30 days. The culture medium is changed every 3 days with fresh IFN-alpha. Every 5 days, expanded NK cells are transferred to T25 flask or T75 flasks at a concentration of 0.5×10 6  cells. 
     Nude mice are injected with HLA-negative tumor cells (subcutaneous injection) to form a tumor that expresses no or reduced levels of HLA. 
     One to three days after the formation of tumors in the mice, the mice are injected via intravenous injection with 5×10 6  NK cells that are treated with IFN-alpha. The mice injected with the untreated NK cells are used as control. Tumor growth in mice injected with treated NK cells is delayed compared to mice injected with untreated NK cells. 
     Example 2 
     Nude mice are injected with HLA-negative tumor cells (subcutaneous injection) to form a tumor that expresses no or reduced levels of HLA. 
     One to three days after the formation of tumor in the mice, the mice are injected subcutaneously with control vehicle and IFN-alpha every three days at 1×10 4  U/m 2  for total 21 days. Tumor growth in mice injected with IFN-alpha is delayed compared to mice injected with control vehicle. It contemplated that the dosage of 1×10 4  U/m 2  for IFN-alpha is below the minimal therapeutic amount that would lead IFN-alpha to have any direct effect on tumor growth.