Patent Publication Number: US-2021180947-A1

Title: Assisted corrosion and erosion recognition

Description:
RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application is a continuation-in-part of, and claims priority to, U.S. patent Ser. No. 16/548,473, filed on Aug. 22, 2019 and entitled “Assisted Corrosion and Erosion Recognition,” the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Operational pipelines, such as those used in oil and gas production environments, can include pipes covered in an insulated material. The pipes can be constructed from metals such as steel, carbon steel, cast iron, or ferrous metal alloys which can erode or corrode over time causing structural deficiencies and introducing risks to the safe, efficient operation of the pipes and the pipeline in which they may be configured. The indirect and direct costs of pipe corrosion and/or erosion are estimated to be in the billions of dollars annually across a wide range of industries including drinking water and sewer systems, motor vehicles, defense, transportation infrastructure, oil and gas distribution/transmission/production, electrical utilities, pulp and paper manufacturing, and electrical utilities. Efficiently inspecting insulated pipes to accurately determine and monitor corrosion and/or erosion within the pipes is an important requirement within these industries. 
     Digital radiography is a form of X-ray imaging employing digital X-ray sensors in place of traditional photographic film. Digital radiography enables images to be captured and processed more rapidly without requiring chemical processing of the films used in traditional X-ray imaging. In addition, digital radiography enables the digitally captured X-ray data to be efficiently transferred and enhanced as digital images. In this way, digital radiography provides immediate availability of the X-ray data and can allow for special image processing techniques to be applied in a variety of practical applications, such as corrosion and/or erosion monitoring in insulated pipes. 
     SUMMARY 
     In one aspect, methods are provided. In one embodiment, the method can include acquiring an inspection image of a pipe wall of an insulated pipe at a first location. The method can include determining an inspection thickness of the pipe wall at the first location based on the inspection image. The method can further include determining a wall loss measurement of the pipe wall at the first location. The wall loss measurement determined based on a difference of a nominal thickness of the pipe wall at the first location and the determined inspection thickness. The wall loss measurement characterizing an amount of wall loss in the insulated pipe at the first location. The method can also include outputting the wall loss measurement. 
     In another embodiment, the method can further include determining, at the first location and based on the inspection image, an attenuation coefficient of an insulation of the insulated pipe at a first radial distance of the insulated pipe, an attenuation coefficient of the pipe wall at a second radial distance of the insulated pipe, and an attenuation coefficient of a fluid within the insulated pipe at a third radial distance of the insulated pipe. The method can also include determining the inspection thickness of the pipe wall at the first location based on applying the attenuation coefficient of the insulation, the attenuation coefficient of the pipe wall, and the attenuation coefficient of the fluid to the inspection image. 
     In another embodiment, the acquiring step can be performed by a modular acquisition system including a radiographic source, a radiographic detector, and a crawler device including a data processor, a controller, and a plurality of positioning mechanisms configured to position the radiographic source and the radiographic detector at one or more locations along the length of the pipe. In another embodiment, determining, and the outputting steps can be performed by a processing system coupled to the acquisition system, the processing system being further coupled to a management system including computer-readable executable instructions, which when executed provide one or more applications configured with visualization and repair functionality associated with one or more pipes in an oil and gas production facility for which an amount of wall loss has been determined. 
     In another embodiment, outputting the wall loss measurement can include transmitting the wall loss measurement to the management system and providing, by the management system, the wall loss measurement for display within the one or more applications configured with visualization and repair functionality. In another embodiment, the management system can display one or more wall lost measurements in a graphical overlay atop a three-dimensional computer-aided design model depicting one or more pipes associated with an oil and gas production facility. In another embodiment, outputting the wall loss measurement can include providing the wall loss measurement in a display of the processing system as a color map atop the inspection image of one or more pipes configured within an oil and gas production facility, the color map including one or more colors corresponding to one or more severity conditions associated with the amount of wall loss. 
     In another embodiment, the color map can include a ruler having a scale of units extending from a null unit positioned at a location of the color map corresponding to a centerline of the insulated pipe. In another embodiment, the wall loss measurement can be displayed in the color map based on correcting intensity variations in one or more portions of the inspection image. 
     In another embodiment, in response to determining the wall loss measurement is indicative of a difference of pipe wall thickness at the first location as compared to the nominal thickness of the pipe wall at the first location the method can further include automatically acquiring an inspection image of the pipe wall at the second location different than the first location. The method can also include determining an inspection thickness of the pipe wall at the second location. The method can further include determining a wall loss measurement of the pipe at the second location, the wall loss measurement determined based on a difference of a nominal thickness of the pipe at the second location and the determined inspection thickness. The wall loss measurement can characterize an amount of wall loss in the insulated pipe at the second location. The method can also include outputting the wall lost measurement of the pipe wall at the second location. 
     In another embodiment, the method can further include determining, at the second location and based on the inspection image acquired at the second location an attenuation coefficient of an insulation of the insulated pipe at a fourth radial distance of the insulated pipe, an attenuation coefficient of the pipe wall at a fifth radial distance of the insulated pipe, and an attenuation coefficient of a fluid within the insulated pipe at a sixth radial distance of the insulated pipe. The method an also include determining the inspection thickness of the pipe wall at the second location based on applying the attenuation coefficient of the insulation, the attenuation coefficient of the pipe wall, and the attenuation coefficient of the fluid to the inspection image. 
     Embodiments of non-transitory computer program products (i.e., physically embodied computer program products) are also described that store instructions, which when executed by one or more data processors of one or more computing systems, causes at least one data processor to perform operations described herein. Similarly, embodiments of systems are also described that may include one or more data processors and memory coupled to the one or more data processors. The memory may temporarily or permanently store instructions that cause at least one processor to perform one or more of the operations described herein. In addition, methods can be implemented by one or more data processors either within a single computing system or distributed among two or more computing systems. Such computing systems can be connected and can exchange data and/or commands or other instructions or the like via one or more connections, including a connection over a network (e.g. the Internet, a wireless wide area network, a local area network, a wide area network, a wired network, or the like), via a direct connection between one or more of the multiple computing systems, etc. 
     The details of one or more variations of the subject matter described herein are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features and advantages of the subject matter described herein will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. 
    
    
     
       DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  depicts a system diagram illustrating a corrosion and erosion monitoring system; 
         FIG. 2  is a process flow diagram illustrating an example process for inspecting an insulated pipe to determine an amount of corrosion and/or erosion in the pipe wall using the corrosion and erosion monitoring system of  FIG. 1 ; 
         FIG. 3  is a process flow diagram illustrating an example process for calibrating the corrosion and erosion monitoring system of  FIG. 1 ; 
         FIGS. 4A-4H  illustrate an exemplary embodiment of performing calibration and inspection operations on an insulated pipe using the corrosion and erosion monitoring system of  FIG. 1  according the methods of  FIGS. 2 and 3 ; 
         FIG. 5  depicts an exemplary graphical user interface displaying an amount of corrosion and/or erosion in an insulated pipe as output by the corrosion and erosion monitoring system of  FIG. 1 ; 
         FIG. 6  depicts an exemplary graphical user interface displaying a color map of an amount of corrosion and/or erosion in an insulated pipe as output by the corrosion and erosion monitoring system of  FIG. 1 ; and 
         FIG. 7  is a block diagram of an exemplary computing system in accordance with an illustrative implementation of the corrosion and erosion monitoring system of  FIG. 1 . 
     
    
    
     Like reference symbols in the various drawings indicate like elements. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Determining corrosion and/or erosion under insulation (CUI) is important in many industrial domains to maintain safe and efficient transport of products within insulated pipes configured to transport the product. Corrosion and/or erosion can occur at many places along the interior surface of a pipe and can be difficult to inspect when pipes are covered in an insulated material or other similar form of insulation. Corrosion is an electro-chemical process resulting in deterioration of the pipe material and the production of rust on the pipe, thereby making the corrosion self-evident. Erosion is a mechanical process that results in deterioration of the pipe material by physically moving pipe material from one location to another. Traditional methods of pipe inspection and corrosion and/or erosion monitoring, such as ultrasonic techniques, require removal of the insulation prior to inspection due to the poor attenuation characteristics of ultrasonic energy penetrating the pipe insulation and the pipe wall. Insulation removal can increase the cost and logistical complexity of corrosion and/or erosion inspections as well as routine maintenance activities and can thereby by increase the overall operating costs of the pipeline in which the insulated, corroded pipes are configured. 
     Efficiently inspecting insulated pipes for CUI can be desirable for pipe owner/operators as corrosion and/or erosion may be present in one location of pipe but not in another. The ability to assess an amount of corrosion and/or erosion, such as an amount of material that has been corroded away from an inner surface of a pipe wall at a particular location, can be a requirement when performing inspections. Some traditional corrosion and erosion monitoring and/or inspection systems only provide inspection capabilities at a single location and require the inspection system to be repeatedly re-deployed and reconfigured at multiple locations so that a comprehensive assessment of corrosion and/or erosion can be generated for an entire length of insulated pipe. While monitoring and inspection systems may be removed from a pipe and re-installed periodically, such as when transitioning to a new section of pipe, and/or when a path along a pipe is blocked by a supporting member or the like, ideally, an improved corrosion monitoring system would enable inspections could be conducted in a linear fashion along the length of an insulated pipe without having to remove and reconfigure the inspection system/apparatus. 
     As described herein, an improved corrosion and erosion monitoring system can be configured to inspect an insulated pipe or portions of pipe to determine an amount of material loss occurring at one or more locations along the length of the pipe. The improved corrosion and erosion monitoring system uses digital radiography to effectively distinguish pipe insulation from the pipe wall in order to accurately determine locations of the pipe where material has been lost to erosion or corrosion. The improved corrosion and erosion monitoring system can travel along the length of an insulated pipe and perform inspections at multiple locations without requiring inspection personnel to remove and reposition the system from the insulated pipe. In this way, pipeline operators can deploy the improved corrosion and erosion monitoring system onto an insulated pipe at a first location to calibrate the system and can navigate the inspection system to a second location without having to physically remove the inspection system from the pipe and without having to remove the insulation from the pipe in order to perform an inspection of the pipe for corrosion and/or erosion. As a result, maintenance and repair costs can be decreased compared to traditional systems and methods used for corrosion and/or erosion monitoring and inspection. 
       FIG. 1  is a system diagram illustrating a corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  configured to determine an amount of wall loss within an insulated pipe or on the outside of the pipe without requiring the insulation to be removed. As shown in  FIG. 1 , the corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  is configured in relation to a portion of a pipe  105 . The pipe  105  is covered by a layer of insulation  110  to form an insulated pipe. The insulated pipe can include one or more couplings, joints, fittings, valves, or other mechanisms used to link or couple one or more sections of pipe together. The pipe  105  can include a range of outer diameters between 1.0″ and 10.0″, for example in some embodiments, the outer diameter of the pipe can be 1.0-2.5″, 2.0-4.5″, 4.0″-6.5″, 6.0″-8.5″, and/or 8.0-10.0″. The pipe  105  can include a variety of inner diameters that may be appropriately sized depending on the outer diameter of the pipe  105 , the product being conveyed within the pipe  105 , as well as the industrial application in which the pipe  105  is configured to operate. The pipe  105  can include metal pipes, such as pipes constructed from carbon steel. The insulation layer  110  can include a range of thicknesses. For example, the insulation layer can be 0.5″-1.0″, 0.75″-2.0″, 1.5″-3.0″, and/or 3.5″-6.0″ thick. The insulation  110  can include calcium silicate insulation, mineral wool, glass wool, rigid foam, polyethylene insulation, or the like. 
     The corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  can be positioned with respect to a first location  115  along the length of the pipe  110  for calibration and then can travel along the length of the pipe  105  to a second location  120  for inspection without having to be physically removed from the pipe  105  and redeployed in the second location  120  to perform corrosion and/or erosion inspection at the second location  120 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 1 , the corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  can include a modular acquisition system  125 . The modular acquisition system  125  includes a crawler device  130  which can be configured with a processor, a controller, and a plurality of positioning mechanisms  135 . The modular acquisition system  125  also includes a radiographic source  140  and a radiographic detector  145 . The modular acquisition system  125  can be coupled via a communications interface  150  to a management system  155  including a display  160 . 
     The modular acquisition system  125  can be configured to receive one or more modular components for use in determining CUI. For example, a variety of different configurations of crawler devices  130 , radiographic sources  140 , and radiographic detectors  145  can be included in the modular acquisition system  125  depending on the inspection being performed and/or the dimensions or type of pipe being inspected. The various components of the modular acquisition system  125  can be interchangeably reconfigured without deviating from the methods of operations described herein. 
     The modular acquisitions system  125 , as shown in  FIG. 1 , includes a crawler device  130 . The crawler device  130  can include a processor, a controller, and/or a memory. The memory can store computer-readable, executable instructions, which when executed by the processor can cause the controller to operate the crawler device, the radiographic source  140 , and/or the radiographic detector  145  according to the methods of operation that will be further described herein. The crawler device  130  can include a rigid, configurable frame or similar mechanisms to provide support for the components of the crawler device  130  so that they can be arranged in relation to the insulated pipe  105 . The crawler device  130  includes a plurality of positioning mechanism  135  which can be controlled by the controller and are operable to move, or otherwise position the modular acquisition system  125  along an axial or circumferential aspect of the insulated pipe. For example, the positioning mechanism  135  can include wheels, rollers, calipers, tracks, or the like which can operate to move the modular acquisition system  125  along the outside of the insulated pipe so that inspections can be performed at one or more locations along the length and the circumference of the pipe without having to remove the insulation  110  from the pipe  105 . The positioning mechanisms  135  can be further configured to enable the modular acquisition system  125  to travel along the insulated pipe at varying rates of speed. In some embodiments, the positioning mechanisms  135  can be configured to enable the modular acquisition system  125  to travel at a rate of at least 60 feet/hour. In some embodiments, the modular acquisition system  125  can include a global positioning system configured to generate global positioning system coordinate data such that the coordinate data can be included in any digital images of the insulated pipe. In this way, the corrosion monitoring system  100  can accurately determine one or more locations, relative to the insulated pipe, in order to perform calibration and/or inspection operations at the one or more locations. 
     As further shown in  FIG. 1 , the modular acquisition system  125  includes a radiographic source  140 . The radiographic source  140  can include devices or mechanisms capable of generating and transmitting X-rays, and/or X-ray photons. In some embodiments, the radiographic source  140  can be configured to generate and transmit gamma rays. The radiation emitted from the radiographic source  140  is transmitted through the insulation  110  and the pipe  105  and is received by the radiographic detector  145 . The radiographic detector  145  can include indirect flat panel detectors and direct flat panel detectors which can be configured opposite from the radiographic source  140  to receive the emitted radiation and generate a digital image corresponding to the insulation  110  and the pipe  105 . The digital image can then be output from the modular acquisition system  125  to determine a measure of CUI occurring within the pipe  105 . In some embodiments, the radiographic detector  145  can output the digital image via a wireless communication mechanism configured within the radiographic detector  145 . 
     The modular acquisition system  125  can be operably connected to the management system  155  via a communications interface  150 . In some embodiments, the communications interface  150  include a wired communications interface  150 . In some embodiments, the communications interface can include a wireless commutations interface  150 . 
     As further shown in  FIG. 1 , the modular acquisition system  125  is coupled via the communications interface  150  to a management system  155 . The management system  155  can include a processor and a memory and can be coupled to a display, such as display  160 . The memory can store computer-readable, executable instructions, which when executed, cause the processor to receive the digital image from the modular acquisition system and to process the digital image to determine an amount of corrosion and/or erosion present under the insulation  110  within the pipe  105 . The management system  155  can also include one or more software applications which include visualization and repair functionality associated with one or more pipes  105  for which an amount of corrosion, erosion, and/or material loss from a wall of the pipe  105  has been determined. In some embodiments, the management system  155  can also include software functionality associated with calibrating and/or positioning the corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  and/or the modular acquisition system  125  with respect to an insulated pipe. The management system  155  can be configured to output data pertaining to calibration or inspection operations performed using the corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  to the display  160 . For example, in some embodiments, the management system  155  can provide data pertaining to inspected sections of the insulated pipe  105  as overlays in a three-dimensional computer-aided design (CAD) model of the insulated pipe  105 . In some embodiments, the management system  155  can include software functionality configured to cause the modular acquisition system  125  to perform calibration and inspection operations in an automated manner at one or more locations along the insulated pipe  105 . The management system  155  can also include software functionality configured to cause the display  160  to auto-generate calibration and/or inspection data, such auto-generating a color map for each digital image of the insulated pipe  105  captured by the modular acquisition system  125 . 
       FIG. 2  is a process diagram illustrating one embodiment of an example process  200  performed by a corrosion and erosion monitoring and/or inspection system, such as the corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  described in relation to  FIG. 1  and configured to determine an amount of wall loss within an insulated pipe without requiring the insulation to be removed. The example process  200  described in  FIG. 2 , describes a process for inspecting an insulated pipe  105  to determine an amount of corrosion and/or erosion in the pipe wall using the corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  of  FIG. 1 . The example process  200  described in  FIG. 2  with regard to inspection operations will also be described in association with an example process  300 , illustrated in  FIG. 3 , described with regard to calibration operations. 
     At operation  210 , the modular acquisition system  125  acquires a calibration image of a pipe wall at a first location  115  of an insulated pipe  105 . The management system  155  can cause the modular acquisition system  125  to acquire the calibration image in response to user input and/or one or more configuration settings triggering the modular acquisition system  125  to initiate calibration operations with respect to a new inspection to be performed. Calibration of the corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  is important for determining an amount of CUI and necessary in order to calculate an amount of wall loss at a particular location of the insulated pipe  105  during an inspection operation. In response to initiating a calibration operation, the management system  155  can execute instructions causing the modular acquisition system  125  to emit radiation into the insulated pipe  105  and to cause the radiographic detector  145  to transmit the calibration image to the management system  155 . 
     At operation  220 , the management system  155  receives the calibration image and performs operations to generate a calibration model of the pipe  105  wall at the first location  115  based on the calibration image. In order to accurately determine the amount of corrosion and/or erosion and an amount of wall loss in the pipe  105 , the management system  155  can utilize the calibration image acquired in operation  210  to generate a calibration model of the pipe  105 . The calibration model can be a mathematical model or data structure that is used to determine a thickness of the pipe  105  wall in the calibration image. The calibration model can further include inputs of various properties of the pipe  105  and can be used by the management system  155  to determine geometric parity between the calibration image and subsequently acquired inspection images. By accounting for the geometric properties of the pipe  105 , the determination of an amount of CUI or an amount of wall loss in the pipe  105  can be accurately determined between calibration images and inspection images. Further description of the calibration operations performed by the corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  to generate the calibration model will now be described in relation to  FIG. 3 . 
       FIG. 3  is a process flow diagram illustrating an example process  300  for calibrating the corrosion and erosion monitoring system of  FIG. 1  to generate a calibration model as described in relation to operation  220  of  FIG. 2  in order to determine an amount of wall loss within an insulated pipe without requiring the insulation to be removed. The process  300  begins after a calibration image has been acquired as described in relation to operation  210  of  FIG. 2 . In operation  310  of  FIG. 3 , the management system  155  acquires one or more pipe properties. The one or more pipe properties can include, but are not limited to, a pipe inner diameter, a pipe outer diameter, a pipe material, a pipe insulation material, an insulation material thickness, and a presence of fluid in the pipe  105 . The properties of pipe  105  can be provided to the management system  155  by a user, by a configuration setting associated with an inspection of a previous pipe  105  at the same location  115  or at a different location. In some embodiments, the pipe properties can be acquired based on GPS coordinate data associated with the location along the pipe  105  at which the calibration/inspection operations are occurring. 
     In operation  320 , the management system  155  generates a pipe wall model. The pipe wall model can be a graphical model, an algorithmic model, a data structure, or the like representing the dimensional attributes of the pipe  105  and the insulation  110 . The management system  155  constructs the pipe wall model based on the pipe properties acquired in operation  310  and uses the generated pipe wall model as a basis for subsequent calibration operations necessary to generate the calibration model that will be used to determine the CUI or amount of wall loss occurring in the pipe  105  using inspection image data. During operation  320 , the management system  155  determines a thickness of the pipe, t 1 , and the thickness of the insulation, t 2 , at different radial distances along the circumference of the pipe  105  and the insulation  110 . 
     In operation  330 , the management system  155  determines a profile of the pipe wall in the calibration image. In order to identify the pipe  105  in the calibration image, the management system  155  generates multiple line profiles for the portion of the pipe  105  depicted in the calibration image. For example, the management system  155  generates line profiles associated with a left, right, and center perspective of the pipe  105  in the calibration image. In some embodiments, the management system  155  can generate line profiles for other perspectives of the pipe and is not limited to the left, right, and center perspectives. In some embodiments, the management system  155  can generate a continuous line profile. The management system  155  can then average the various line profiles to compute an average line profile for the pipe  105 . Based on determining the minimum pixel intensity value at each end of the average line profile, the segment of pipe  105  that was imaged can be determined. 
     In operation  340 , the management system  155  performs a geometric calibration of the pipe wall in the calibration image. The geometric calibration associates or scales the calibration image to the pipe wall model generated in operation  320 . First, the management system  155  correlates points associated with the outer diameter of the pipe  105  in the calibration image to the actual dimensions in the pipe wall model. Next, the management system  155  computes linear interpolation coefficients for the pipe wall as a method of curve fitting. Finally, the management system  155  maps the intensity profile from the calibration image onto the pipe wall model. 
     In operation  350 , the management system  155  determines one or more attenuation coefficients of the pipe wall in the calibration image. In some embodiments, the calibration model can include an attenuation coefficient associated with the pipe wall at the first location, and an attenuation coefficient of insulation at the first location. In some embodiments, the calibration models can include an attenuation coefficient for a fluid present within the pipe. The attenuation coefficients characterize the ease or difficulty for which a volume of material can be penetrated by the radiographic energy emitted from the radiographic source  140 . Because the pipe  105  wall and the pipe insulation  110  can have different material properties, their attenuation coefficients can differ and thus be used to compute the thickness of the pipe wall and pipe insulation for subsequent use in determining CUI or an amount of material loss from within the pipe  105 . The attenuation coefficients associated with the pipe wall and insulation can be determined using the Beer-Lambert law which states that the absorbance of a material is directly propositional to the thickness of the material. An example of computing the attenuation coefficient for the pipe wall is as follows. 
     Initially, the intensity values associated with the radiographic energy transmitted through the center of the pipe  105  and at the interface between the pipe  105  and the insulation  110  can be computed. 
     The intensity value of the radiographic energy transmitted through the center of the pipe can be determined using equation (1) shown below. 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     I 
                     
                       I 
                       0 
                     
                   
                   = 
                   
                     e 
                     
                       
                         - 
                         μ 
                       
                        
                       
                           
                       
                        
                       
                         eff 
                         . 
                         ttot 
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   1 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     In equation (1), the ratio of the intensity of the radiographic energy after passing through the center of the pipe  105 , I, and the intensity of the radiographic energy before passing through the center of the pipe  105 , I 0 , can be used to determine the effective attenuation coefficient, μ eff , and the total thickness of the pipe  105  including the insulation  110 , t tot . 
     Equation (1) can be further solved to determine the total thickness of the pipe  105  and the insulation  110 , as shown in equation (2) below. 
         t   tot =2 t   1 +2 t   2   (2)
 
     The effective attenuation coefficient, μ eff , for the total thickness of the pipe  105 , t tot , can thus be represented in equation (3) below. 
       μ eff   ·t   tot =μ 1 ·2 t   1 +μ 2 ·2 t   2   (3)
 
     The effective attenuation coefficient, μ eff , can thus be determined for the radiographic energy passing through the center of the pipe  105  as shown in equation (4). 
       μ eff =μ 1 ·2 t   1 +μ 2 ·2 t   2  
 
       (2 t   1 +2 t   2 )  (4)
 
     Applying the Beer-Lambert law in regard to the radiographic energy detected in the calibration image at the interface between the pipe  105  and the insulation  110 , the attenuation coefficient for the pipe  105 , μ 1 , and the attenuation coefficient for the insulation  110 , μ 2 , can be similarly determined as shown in equations (5) and (6) below. 
       μ 1 =μ eff   ·t   tot −μ 2 ·2 t   2  
 
       (2 t   1 )  (5)
 
       μ 2 =−ln( I/I   0 )/2 t   2   (6)
 
     In operation  360 , based on determining the attenuation coefficient, μ 1 , of the pipe  105  wall, the management system  155  determines a calibration thickness of the pipe wall in the calibration image. Once determined, the thickness of the pipe wall determined in the calibration image can be used to determine the thickness of the pipe wall in subsequent inspection images. Equations (7) and (8) below can be utilized to solve for the pipe  105  thickness, t 1 . 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     I 
                     
                       I 
                       0 
                     
                   
                   = 
                   
                     e 
                     
                       
                         - 
                         μ 
                       
                        
                       
                           
                       
                        
                       
                         eff 
                         . 
                         ttot 
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   7 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
             
               
                 
                   
                     
                       μ 
                       eff 
                     
                     · 
                     
                       t 
                       tot 
                     
                   
                   = 
                   
                     ln 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     I 
                      
                     
                       / 
                     
                      
                     
                       I 
                       0 
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   8 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     As a result, the pipe  105  thickness in the calibration image, t 1 , can be solved as shown in equation (9) below. 
         t   1 =((μ eff   ·t   tot )−(μ 1   ·t   1 ))
 
       μ 2   (9)
 
     In some embodiments, the attenuation coefficients and the inspection thickness of the pipe wall can be determined using one or more radial distances measured from a centerline of the pipe outward in a radial direction. For example, an attenuation coefficient of the insulation surrounding the pipe can be determined at one radial distance, an attenuation coefficient of the pipe wall can be determined at a second radial distance, and an attenuation coefficient of a fluid within the pipe can be determined at a third radial distance. The radial distances can be measured from a centerline that extends along an central axis of the pipe. The inspection thickness of the pipe wall can be determined by applying the attenuation coefficient of the insulation, the attenuation coefficient of the pipe wall, and the attenuation coefficient of the fluid to the inspection image. 
     For example, a radial distance corresponding to a mid-point of the insulation, such as a mid-diameter of the insulation can be used to determine the attenuation coefficient of the insulation. Knowing the attenuation coefficient of the insulation, the attenuation coefficient of the pipe can be determined using the Beer Lambert equation at a location on the pipe at the mid-diameter of the pipe. Attenuation coefficient of the fluid can be similarly computed. 
     Having determined one or more attenuation coefficients as described in relation to operations  310 - 360  of  FIG. 3 , the management system  155  can continue operations to determine an amount of CUI or wall loss in pipe  105  during inspection operations. 
     In operation  230 , based on generating the calibration model of the pipe  105  wall and determining a thickness of the pipe  105  wall using the calibration image associated with the first location  115 , the management system  155  can execute instructions, which when executed, cause the modular acquisition system  125  to acquire an inspection image of the pipe  105  wall at the second location  120 . The modular acquisition system  125  acquires the inspection image in a similar manner as the calibration image was acquired and was described in operation  210  of  FIG. 2 . In operation  230 , the radiographic source  140  emits radiographic energy into the pipe  105  and the insulation  110  that can be captured by the radiographic detector  145  as an inspection image. The radiographic detector  145  can transmit the inspection image to the management system  155  for use in determining an amount of corrosion and/or erosion present in the pipe  105  wall. 
     In a second embodiment, the method can be performed without requiring a calibration image and calibration model such that the wall loss measurement can be determined using a nominal thickness of the pipe. The nominal thickness can include a thickness determined based on a specification of a nominal pipe size. The nominal thickness can be a standard thickness associated with a nominal size pipe. For a given nominal pipe size, the outer diameter of the pipe is fixed and the wall thickness increases with a schedule of varying pipe specifications. For a given schedule, the outer diameters increases with nominal pipe size while the wall thickness stays constant or increases. 
     The second embodiment can be performed by the corrosion and erosion monitoring and/or inspection system, such as the corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  described in relation to  FIG. 1  and configured to determine an amount of wall loss within an insulated pipe without requiring the insulation to be removed. In the second embodiment, the method can include acquire an inspection image of a pipe wall of an insulated pipe at a first location of the pipe. In some aspects of the second embodiment, the method can include automatically acquiring the inspection image based on determining a wall loss measurement indicates a difference between the pipe wall thickness at the first location and the nominal thickness of the pipe wall at the first location. The method can further include automatically acquiring subsequent inspection images at second locations that are different than the first location. In this way, the system can autonomously operate to collect inspection images, to determine inspection thicknesses, to determine wall loss measurements, and to provide the wall loss measurements associated with multiple locations as the system traverses along a pipe during inspection. 
     In operation  240 , the management system  155  receives the transmitted inspection image and determines an inspection thickness of the pipe  105  wall at the second location  120 . The management system  155  determines the inspection thickness of the pipe  105  wall at the second location based on completing operations  330 - 360  described in  FIG. 3  but as applied to the inspection image acquired during operation  230  of an inspection operation. As a result, the management system  155  can determine the inspection thickness of the pipe  105  wall using equation (9) above but now applied to the intensity values associated with the inspection image. 
     In operation  250 , the management system  155  can determine a wall loss measurement of the pipe  105  wall at the second location  120 . Having computed the wall thickness, t 1 , for the inspection image, the measure of wall loss can be determined as the difference of the wall thickness determined in relation to the calibration image acquired during the calibration operation and the wall thickness determined in relation to the inspection image acquired during the inspection operation. 
     In the second embodiment, the method can further include determining an inspection thickness of the pipe wall at the first location based on the inspection image as described in relation to operation  240  for a first location only. The method can also include determining a wall loss measurement of the pipe wall at the first location as described in relation to operation  250  for the first location only and using a nominal pipe thickness. The wall loss measurement can be determined based on a difference between a nominal thickness of the pipe wall and the determined inspection thickness. The nominal thickness can be stored in a memory of a computing device in which the management system is configured and/or can be provided as an input to the management system  155  by a user. In some embodiments, the nominal thickness can be received from an external computing device communicatively coupled to a computing device on which the management system  155  is configured. 
     In operation  260 , the management system  155  outputs the wall loss measurement. For example, the management system  155  can output the wall loss measurements to one or more software applications configured to provide visualization and repair functionality. The wall loss measurements can be output for display, such as on display  160  and can be provided to users as a color map with appropriate coloring or shading to indicate where changes in the thickness of the pipe wall may be present at the second location  120 . The color map generated by the management system  155  can represent an improved graphical user interface for presenting an amount of CUI and/or an amount of wall loss within a pipe because the color map provides a novel, intuitive, easy-to-interpret presentation of the wall loss data acquired during an inspection of an insulated pipe. 
       FIGS. 4A-4H  illustrate an exemplary implementation of performing calibration and inspection operations on an insulated pipe using the corrosion and erosion monitoring system of  FIG. 1  according to one or more of the methods described in relation to  FIGS. 2 and 3 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 4A , the modular acquisition system  125  is positioned at a first location  115  with respect to the pipe  105  that is covered by insulation  110  and acquires a calibration image  405  at the first location according to operation  210  described in relation to  FIG. 2 . The radiographic source  140  emits radiographic energy through the pipe  105  and the insulation  110  which is received by radiographic detector  145 . A digital image, the calibration image  405 , is transmitted from the modular acquisition system  125 , via communications interface  150 , to the management system  155 . The calibration image  405  includes GPS coordinate data corresponding to the first location  115 . 
     The management system  155  can then commence calibration operations to generate a calibration model of the pipe  105  wall by acquiring one or more pipe properties  410  according to operation  310  described in relation to  FIG. 3 . In some embodiments, the management system  155  can acquire the nominal pipe thickness from a memory of the management system. The management system  155  can generate a pipe wall model  415  according to operation  320  described in relation to  FIG. 3 . The pipe wall model  415  can include measurements of the thickness of the pipe  105 , e.g., t 1 , and measurements of the thickness of the insulation  110 , e.g., t 2 . 
     In some embodiments, the thickness measurements can be determined based on attenuation coefficients calculated at different radial distances extending from away from a center point “C” of the insulated pipe and do not require generation of a pipe wall model  415 . In some embodiments, the radial distances can be determined based on a nominal pipe thickness stored in a memory of the management system  155  or a nominal pipe thickness provided by a user as in input to the management system  155 . However, for ease of clarity and illustration, radial distances are shown in the pipe wall model  415  shown in  FIG. 4A . As shown, a first radial distance, r 1 , can be used to determine an attenuation coefficient associated with insulation  110 . A second radial distance, r 2 , can be used to determine an attenuation associated with the pipe wall. A third radial distance, r 3 , can used to determine an attenuation coefficient of a fluid, “F” within the insulated pipe  105 . 
     As shown in  FIGS. 4B-4D , the management system  155  determines a profile of the pipe wall in the calibration image according to operation  330  described in relation to  FIG. 3 . The intensity values associated with the pixels in the calibration image  405  are used to generate line profiles corresponding to different aspects from which the radiographic energy was emitted by the radiographic source  140  and transmitted through the pipe  105  and insulation  110 . For example, line profile  415  can be associated with the left aspect of the calibration image  405 , line profile  420  can be associated with the right aspect of the calibration image  405 , and line profile  425  can be associated with the central aspect of the calibration image  405 . As shown in  FIG. 4C , the management system  155  can compute an average line profile  430  based on the three different line profiles descried in relation to  FIG. 4B . In  FIG. 4D , the management system  155  completes the determination of the pipe wall profile in the calibration image by determining the minimum intensity values present at each end of the average line profile. As shown in  FIG. 4D , the management system determines that points  435  and  440  correspond to the minimum intensity values and can thereby be used to identify a portion or segment of the pipe  105 . 
     In  FIG. 4E , the management system  155  performs a geometric calibration of the pipe wall in the calibration image  405  according to operation  340  described in relation to  FIG. 3 . The geometric calibration associates the minimum intensity values  435  and  440  from the calibration image  405  to actual dimensions  445  and  450 , respectively. The management system  155  can further determine linear interpolation coefficients such that the thicknesses of the pipe  105 , t 1 , and the insulation, t 2 , can be determined by mapping or curve fitting the pixel value intensity profiles over the calibration model of the pipe  105  and the insulation  110 . 
     In  FIG. 4F , the management system  155  can determine one or more attention coefficients of the pipe wall in the calibration image  405  according to operation  350  described in relation to  FIG. 3 . As shown in  FIG. 4F , the management system  155  determines the pixel intensity value  455  at the center of the pipe and also the pixel intensity values  460  and  465  which are associated with the interface between the pipe  105  and the insulation  110 . The pixel intensity values can be used to determine the one or more attenuation coefficients based on the correlation between the magnitude of the pixel intensity value and the intensity of the radiographic energy transmitted through the pipe  105  and the insulation  110 . 
     In  FIG. 4G , the management system  155  can compute the attenuation coefficients of the pipe  105  (e.g., μ 1 ) and the insulation  110  (e.g., μ 2 ) by utilizing the Beer-Lambert law described in relation to operation  350  of  FIG. 3 . Using the Beer-Lambert law, the intensity of the radiographic energy that is applied to the pipe  105  (I 0 ) can be evaluated with respect to the intensity of the radiographic energy that passes through the pipe  105  (I) such that the attenuation coefficients for the pipe  105  (e.g., μ 1 ) and the insulation  110  (e.g., μ 2 ) can be determined using the previously described equations (5) and (6). As a result of determining the attenuation coefficients for the pipe  105  and the insulation  110 , the management system  155  can determine a calibration thickness of the pipe wall (e.g., t 1 ) based on the calibration image according to operation  360  as described in relation to  FIG. 3  and using the previously described equation (9). 
     As shown in  FIG. 4H , having completed the calibration operations, the management system  155  can execute instructions causing the modular acquisition system  125  to acquire an inspection image  470  of the pipe  105  and the insulation  110  at the second location  120  according to operation  230  described in relation to  FIG. 2 . The inspection image  470  is transmitted via communications interface  150  to the management system  155 . The management system  155  can then determine an inspection thickness according to operation  240  described in relation to  FIG. 2 . The inspection thickness (e.g., t 1  and t 2  shown in a cross-sectional view  475  of the pipe  105  and insulation  110 ) can be determined in a manner analogous to operations  330 - 360  described in relation to  FIG. 3 , except the geometric calibration, the one or more attenuation coefficients, and the thickness of the pipe are determined with respect to the inspection image  470 . A wall loss measurement can be computed based on the inspection image  470  according to operation  250  described in relation to  FIG. 2 . The wall loss measurement can be determined as a difference in the calibration thickness of the pipe  105  and the inspection thickness of the pipe  105 . As further shown in  FIG. 4H , the management system  155  can output  480  the wall loss measurement for display. 
     In some embodiments, the attenuation coefficients can be determined based on one or more radial distances measured from a center point of an axis extending along the length of the pipe. In the second embodiment, attenuation coefficients for the insulation, pipe wall, and fluid within the pipe can be determined based on radial distances measured from a centerpoint “C” of a pipe. For example, as shown in  FIG. 4H , the pipe  105  can have an axis extending along the length of the pipe and defining a center point “C” of the pipe. As shown in the cross-sectional view  475 , a first radial distance, r 1 , can be used to determine an attenuation coefficient of the insulation  110  (e.g., μ 3 ). A second radial distance, r 2 , can be used to determine an attenuation coefficient of the pipe wall (e.g., μ 4 ). A third radial distance, r 3 , can be used to determine an attenuation coefficient (e.g., μ 5 ) of a fluid, F, within the pipe  105 . 
     The corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  can continue to acquire inspection images and determine wall loss measurements at other locations along the same portion of pipe which included the first and second locations. In some embodiments, the corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  can be redeployed to or reconfigured on a different portion of pipe. The new portion of pipe can include a third location which is different than the first and second locations. In some embodiments, the corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  can cause the modular acquisition device  125  to be repositioned based on determining a change in the wall loss measurement at the third location  120  as compared to the second location. In this example, the management system  155  can reposition the modular acquisition device  125  to initiate calibration operations at the third location and subsequently perform inspection operations at a fourth location. The fourth location different than the third location and included in a different portion of pipe than the first and second locations. In this way, the corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  can perform inspections along portions of an insulated pipe in an automated manner without requiring manual intervention or operator assistance to recalibrate the modular acquisition system  125  for subsequent inspection operations at different locations along the length of the pipe. 
       FIG. 5  is an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI)  500  displaying an amount of corrosion and/or erosion in an insulated pipe as output by the corrosion and erosion monitoring system  100  of  FIG. 1 . The GUI  500  shown in  FIG. 5  can be a GUI displayed within one or more applications which can configured on the management system  155  to provide visualization and repair functionality. In some embodiments, the applications can be configured on the same computing device as the management system  155 . In some embodiments, the applications can be configured in a web-browser on a computing device that is connected to the management system  155  but located remotely from the management system  155 . In some embodiments, the applications can be configured to generate a three-dimensional CAD model depicting one or more pipes within an oil and gas production facility and the GUI  500  can include functionality allowing a user to navigate, zoom in or out, highlight or select, aspects of the pipe  105  displayed within the GUI  500 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 5 , the GUI  500  displays a horizontal cross-section of a pipe  105  and the insulation  110 . The GUI  500  displays the wall loss measurements determined at the upper  505  and lower  510  portions of the walls of pipe  105  as a color map that is provided in the GUI as a visualization layer or graphical overlay atop the inspection image, such as inspection image  470  of  FIG. 4H . In some embodiments, the GUI  500  can be displayed as a visualization layer or graphical overlay atop a three-dimensional CAD model depicting one or more pipes  105  associated with an oil and gas production facility at which the inspection operations were performed. 
     The GUI  500  improves the operation of a computing device to visualize wall loss measurements due to corrosion and/or erosion in an insulated pipe as an intuitive color map that can be automatically generated during an inspection operation. Without the color map, viewing the subtle variations in the pipe dimensions as a result of corrosion and/or erosion within the pipe  105  would be very difficult to interpret accurately in order to properly diagnose corrosion and/or erosion conditions and organize repair of the corrosion and/or erosion within the pipe  105 . Thus, the GUI  500  can be integrated into the practical application of determining an amount of wall loss within an insulated pipe using digital radiography at a plurality of locations along the length of the insulated pipe. The GUI  500  enhances this application by automatically generating inspection images and updating the color map displayed in the GUI  500  in an automated manner with respect to the inspection images. 
       FIG. 6  depicts an exemplary graphical user interface  600  displaying a color map  605  of an amount of corrosion and/or erosion in a  6 ″ insulated pipe as output by the corrosion and erosion monitoring system of  FIG. 1 . As shown in  FIG. 6 , the GUI  600  can provide a wall loss measurement  610  as a color map  605  atop an inspection image  615 . The color map  605  can include one or more colors corresponding to various severity conditions associated with an amount of wall loss. For example, a wall loss measurement  610  shown can include two colors. A first color  620  representing a more severe amount of wall loss (shown in the center of the wall loss measurement  610 ) and a second color  625  representing a less severe amount of wall loss (shown around the periphery of the wall loss measurement  610 ). For example, the wall loss measurement  610  can correspond to a depth of wall loss or corrosion of 75%. The wall loss measurement  610  can be provided based for display based on correcting for intensity variations in one or more portions of the inspection image  615 . As further shown, the GUI  600  provides indication of a second wall loss measurement  630 . The wall loss measurement  630  can correspond to a depth of a wall loss or corrosion of 50%. The GUI  600  can also provide an indication of pit corrosion  635 . 
     The color map  605  can include a ruler  640 . The ruler  640  can include a scale of units (positive and negative) extending from a null or zero position  645  corresponding to a centerline position  650  of the insulated pipe, for example the central axis “C” shown in  FIG. 4H . In this way, a magnitude, geometry, and orientation of the wall loss measurement  610  and/or  630  can be easily visualized. 
       FIG. 7  is a block diagram of a computing system  710  suitable for use in implementing the computerized components described herein. In broad overview, the computing system  710  includes at least one processor  750  for performing actions in accordance with instructions, and one or more memory devices  760  and/or  770  for storing instructions and data. The illustrated example computing system  710  includes one or more processors  750  in communication, via a bus  715 , with memory  770  and with at least one network interface controller  720  with a network interface  725  for connecting to external devices  730 , e.g., a computing device (such as a controller or a modular acquisition system). The one or more processors  750  are also in communication, via the bus  715 , with each other and with any I/O devices at one or more I/O interfaces  740 , and any other devices  780 . The processor  750  illustrated incorporates, or is directly connected to, cache memory  760 . Generally, a processor will execute instructions received from memory. In some embodiments, the computing system  710  can be configured within a cloud computing environment, a virtual or containerized computing environment, and/or a web-based microservices environment. 
     In more detail, the processor  750  can be any logic circuitry that processes instructions, e.g., instructions fetched from the memory  770  or cache  760 . In many embodiments, the processor  750  is an embedded processor, a microprocessor unit or special purpose processor. The computing system  710  can be based on any processor, e.g., suitable digital signal processor (DSP), or set of processors, capable of operating as described herein. In some embodiments, the processor  750  can be a single core or multi-core processor. In some embodiments, the processor  750  can be composed of multiple processors. 
     The cache memory  760  is generally a form of high-speed computer memory placed in close proximity to the processor  750  for fast read/write times. In some implementations, the cache memory  760  is part of, or on the same chip as, the processor  750 . 
     The memory  770  can be any device suitable for storing computer readable data. The memory  770  can be a device with fixed storage or a device for reading removable storage media. Examples include all forms of non-volatile memory, media and memory devices, semiconductor memory devices (e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, SDRAM, flash memory devices, and all types of solid state memory), magnetic disks, and magneto optical disks. A computing device  710  can have any number of memory devices  770 . In some embodiments, the cache  760  and/or the memory  770  can store nominal pipe thickness associated with one or more pipes. In some embodiments, the cache  760  and/or the memory  770  can store one or more radial distances associated with one or more pipes used to determine attenuation coefficients as described herein. In some embodiments, the cache  760  and/or the memory  770  can store radial distances associated with one or more locations of one or more pipes. In some embodiments, the cache  760  and/or the memory  770  can store previously determined attenuation coefficients, wall loss measurements, and inspection thickness determined at one or more locations of one or more pipes. 
     The network interface controller  720  manages data exchanges via the network interface  725 . The network interface controller  720  handles the physical and data link layers of the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model for network communication. In some implementations, some of the network interface controller&#39;s tasks are handled by the processor  750 . In some implementations, the network interface controller  720  is part of the processor  750 . In some implementations, a computing device  710  has multiple network interface controllers  720 . In some implementations, the network interface  725  is a connection point for a physical network link, e.g., an RJ 45 connector. In some implementations, the network interface controller  720  supports wireless network connections and an interface port  725  is a wireless receiver/transmitter. Generally, a computing device  710  exchanges data with other network devices  730 , such as computing device  730 , via physical or wireless links to a network interface  725 . In some implementations, the network interface controller  720  implements a network protocol such as Ethernet. 
     The other computing devices  730  are connected to the computing device  710  via a network interface port  725 . The other computing device  730  can be a peer computing device, a network device, or any other computing device with network functionality. For example, a computing device  730  can be a controller, a modular acquisition system, and/or a management system as configured within the corrosion monitoring system illustrated in  FIG. 1 . In some embodiments, the computing device  730  can be a network device such as a hub, a bridge, a switch, or a router, connecting the computing device  710  to a data network such as the Internet. 
     In some uses, the I/O interface  740  supports an input device and/or an output device (not shown). In some uses, the input device and the output device are integrated into the same hardware, e.g., as in a touch screen. In some uses, such as in a server context, there is no I/O interface  740  or the I/O interface  740  is not used. In some uses, additional other components  780  are in communication with the computer system  710 , e.g., external devices connected via a universal serial bus (USB). 
     The other devices  780  can include an I/O interface  740 , external serial device ports, and any additional co-processors. For example, a computing system  710  can include an interface (e.g., a universal serial bus (USB) interface, or the like) for connecting input devices (e.g., a keyboard, microphone, mouse, or other pointing device), output devices (e.g., video display, speaker, refreshable Braille terminal, or printer), or additional memory devices (e.g., portable flash drive or external media drive). In some implementations an I/O device is incorporated into the computing system  710 , e.g., a touch screen on a tablet device. In some implementations, a computing device  710  includes an additional device  780  such as a co-processor, e.g., a math co-processor that can assist the processor  750  with high precision or complex calculations. 
     Without in any way limiting the scope, interpretation, or application of the claims appearing below, a technical effect of one or more of the example implementations disclosed herein may include, for example, by utilizing digital radiography and a corrosion and erosion monitoring system including a mobile, modular acquisition system, some implementations of the current subject matter can enable more accurate detection and remediation of corrosion and/or erosion or wall loss within an insulated pipe at one or more locations of a pipe within an operational pipeline. Some implementations of the current subject matter can enable the corrosion and erosion monitoring system to perform calibration and inspection operations at multiple locations along the length of an insulated pipe, without requiring the insulation of the pipe to be removed during inspection and without removing the modular acquisition system from the pipe entirely for redeployment at subsequent locations. As compared to some conventional systems, some implementations of the current subject matter can enable corrosion and/or erosion monitoring, inspection, and repair operations or solutions that may be less expensive; require fewer resources, and are less disruptive to pipeline production operations. Further, some implementations of the current subject matter can enable rapidly inspecting and diagnosing corrosion and/or erosion conditions within a pipe as a result of the automated calibration and inspection operations that the corrosion and erosion monitoring system is configured to perform. Some implementations of the current subject matter can also improve the safety of inspection and repair operations as a result of displaying accurate location information and corrosion and/or erosion data, via the GUI configured within one or more applications including visualization and repair functionality, prior to the inspection and repair operations. 
     One or more aspects or features of the subject matter described herein can be realized in digital electronic circuitry, integrated circuitry, specially designed application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) computer hardware, firmware, software, and/or combinations thereof. These various aspects or features can include implementation in one or more computer programs that are executable and/or interpretable on a programmable system including at least one programmable processor, which can be special or general purpose, coupled to receive data and instructions from, and to transmit data and instructions to, a storage system, at least one input device, and at least one output device. The programmable system or computing system may include clients and servers. A client and server are generally remote from each other and typically interact through a communication network. The relationship of client and server arises by virtue of computer programs running on the respective computers and having a client-server relationship to each other. 
     These computer programs, which can also be referred to as programs, software, software applications, applications, components, or code, include machine instructions for a programmable processor, and can be implemented in a high-level procedural language, an object-oriented programming language, a functional programming language, a logical programming language, and/or in assembly/machine language. As used herein, the term “machine-readable medium” refers to any computer program product, apparatus and/or device, such as for example magnetic discs, optical disks, memory, and Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs), used to provide machine instructions and/or data to a programmable processor, including a machine-readable medium that receives machine instructions as a machine-readable signal. The term “machine-readable signal” refers to any signal used to provide machine instructions and/or data to a programmable processor. The machine-readable medium can store such machine instructions non-transitorily, such as for example as would a non-transient solid-state memory or a magnetic hard drive or any equivalent storage medium. The machine-readable medium can alternatively or additionally store such machine instructions in a transient manner, such as for example as would a processor cache or other random access memory associated with one or more physical processor cores. 
     To provide for interaction with a user, one or more aspects or features of the subject matter described herein can be implemented on a computer having a display device, such as for example a cathode ray tube (CRT) or a liquid crystal display (LCD) or a light emitting diode (LED) monitor for displaying information to the user and a keyboard and a pointing device, such as for example a mouse or a trackball, by which the user may provide input to the computer. Other kinds of devices can be used to provide for interaction with a user as well. For example, feedback provided to the user can be any form of sensory feedback, such as for example visual feedback, auditory feedback, or tactile feedback; and input from the user may be received in any form, including acoustic, speech, or tactile input. Other possible input devices include touch screens or other touch-sensitive devices such as single or multi-point resistive or capacitive trackpads, voice recognition hardware and software, optical scanners, optical pointers, digital image capture devices and associated interpretation software, and the like. 
     In the descriptions above and in the claims, phrases such as “at least one of” or “one or more of” may occur followed by a conjunctive list of elements or features. The term “and/or” may also occur in a list of two or more elements or features. Unless otherwise implicitly or explicitly contradicted by the context in which it is used, such a phrase is intended to mean any of the listed elements or features individually or any of the recited elements or features in combination with any of the other recited elements or features. For example, the phrases “at least one of A and B;” “one or more of A and B;” and “A and/or B” are each intended to mean “A alone, B alone, or A and B together.” A similar interpretation is also intended for lists including three or more items. For example, the phrases “at least one of A, B, and C;” “one or more of A, B, and C;” and “A, B, and/or C” are each intended to mean “A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, or A and B and C together.” In addition, use of the term “based on,” above and in the claims is intended to mean, “based at least in part on,” such that an unrecited feature or element is also permissible. 
     The subject matter described herein can be embodied in systems, apparatus, methods, and/or articles depending on the desired configuration. The implementations set forth in the foregoing description do not represent all implementations consistent with the subject matter described herein. Instead, they are merely some examples consistent with aspects related to the described subject matter. Although a few variations have been described in detail above, other modifications or additions are possible. In particular, further features and/or variations can be provided in addition to those set forth herein. For example, the implementations described above can be directed to various combinations and subcombinations of the disclosed features and/or combinations and subcombinations of several further features disclosed above. In addition, the logic flows depicted in the accompanying figures and/or described herein do not necessarily require the particular order shown, or sequential order, to achieve desirable results. Other implementations may be within the scope of the following claims.