Patent Publication Number: US-2021177009-A1

Title: Filaments made from milk protein

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims the priority and benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/947,378, filed Dec. 12, 2019, titled “Filaments Made From Milk Protein,” the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Field of the Invention 
     The present invention relates generally to pet foods and pet treats. More specifically, the present invention involves compositions and methods for producing edible, flexible, protein-based fibers, filaments, and threads, which exhibit high tensile strength, for use with long lasting chew pet food products. 
     Description of the Related Art 
     Milk proteins can be divided into casein and whey protein. When milk protein is acidified, it curdles. Milk proteins that precipitate into a gel (the curd) at pH 4.6 and 20° Celsius are called caseins, while the milk proteins that remain water-soluble at pH 4.6 are known as whey proteins. Casein represents 80% of the total milk protein and consists of a family of phosphoproteins called α-, β-, and κ-casein with molecular weights between 19 and 25 kDa. All caseins possess hydrophilic and hydrophobic segments and are phosphorylated, which means they exhibit calcium binding properties and are sensitive to pH. As such, addition of alkali, e.g., sodium hydroxide or calcium hydroxide, causes the precipitate curd to dissolve, forming soluble protein products known as caseinates. Caseinates can be spray or roll dried to produce caseinate powders, i.e., sodium caseinate (NaC) or calcium caseinate (CaC). By contrast, milk protein concentrate (MPC) is a concentrated complete protein powder containing from 40 to 90% milk protein including both casein and whey proteins in the same or similar ratio as milk. 
     Casein has been used in technical, non-food applications including use as adhesives for wood, paper coating, and leather finishing, in the production of plastics for buttons, buckles, etc., and in the production of synthetic fibers. Most applications for protein fibers or filaments in general are found in the textile industry. Such textile fibers are formed by a wet-spinning process that involves forcing solubilized proteins through a spinneret into an acid bath to coagulate the protein. Acid baths can consist of sulfuric acid, formaldehyde (to harden the fiber), and salt (to accelerate drying) solutions. Fibers are then collected on a reel and stretched to orient the fibers and to improve strength and elasticity of the fibers. These fibers are then immersed in formaldehyde to crosslink the protein and improve resistance to attack by water and dilute acids, and finally cut into desired lengths and dried. Milk protein fibers are known in the textile industry and are classified as regenerated protein fibers, filaments, or threads made from casein. Milk protein fibers can be formed by a similar wet-spinning process, which produces long strands that are stretched, heated, and chemically treated to increase strength and stability of the strands. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 2,226,672 discloses natural protein casein used to produce textiles. It describes treating threads formed by extruding a solution of casein into a coagulant, which is thereafter treated with a hardening agent comprising an aqueous solution of salt plus acid which brings the pH of the solution up to the isoelectric point of the casein. Excess solution is removed from the threads, which are heated under moist conditions (without allowing the moisture to evaporate), and then dried. United States Patent Application Publication No. 2013/02569942A1 discloses methods for producing milk protein fibers, which are then combined with a plasticizer under mechanical stress at temperatures ranging from room temperature to 140° Celsius. This combination is spun into fibers through a jet. Plasticizers such as aqueous polysaccharide solutions, alcohol, polyalcohol, and mixtures of these substances are described. Milk protein fibers processed in this manner for the textile industry use are further plasticized with heat and kneading during the melt spinning process. The drawn-out thread is then wound up or further processed, e.g., surface-treated, as desired. 
     The processing technology associated with the present application diverge from the prior approaches described above. Specifically, the prior approaches are intended for producing products having utility in the textile industry. However, these prior approaches do not address the specific needs of the pet food and pet treat industry. Therefore, a need still exists for protein filament compositions, as well as processing methods having specific application to the pet food and pet treat industry. These needs include consumable filaments and sheets made from edible, flexible, protein fibers, as well as efficient methods of manufacturing the compositions from milk protein, for use in pet food and treat products. The present invention addresses these unmet needs. Other advantages of the present invention arise because inventive compositions utilize ingredients in their native or raw form without the need for further extraction or isolation of the constituent protein, e.g., the compositions of the present invention contain caseinates, milk protein concentrates, and combinations thereof. Another advantage of the present invention is that no spinneret processing is required. 
     SUMMARY 
     An objective of the invention is to provide protein-based flexible filaments of suitable mechanical properties (as measured by tensile strength, elongation, and modulus of elasticity) and diameter for reinforcing long lasting chew pet food products and for other applications in the pet food and pet treats industry. Surprisingly, molecular structures associated with casein-based proteins exhibit the ability to form non-brittle, high tensile strength, flexible filaments. Preferable sources for casein-based proteins include milk protein concentrate (MPC), calcium caseinate (CaC), sodium caseinate (NaC), and combinations thereof. 
     An exemplary embodiment of the present invention includes a composition for forming a flexible and high tensile strength filament comprising from about 30 to 60 wt. % of a casein-based protein; and from about 40 to 65 wt. % of a plasticizer, wherein the formed filament has a diameter of from about 80 to 2,000 microns and exhibits tensile strength of from about 30 MPa to 80 MPa. 
     Another exemplary embodiment of the present invention includes a flexible and high tensile strength filament having a diameter of from about 80 to 2,000 microns and tensile strength of from about 30 MPa to 80 MPa which is made by forming a composition comprising from about 30 to 60 wt. % of a casein-based protein and from about 40 to 65 wt. % of a plasticizer; extruding the composition through a twin-screw extruder having a 2.3 mm filament die head wherein the extruder is operating at a melt pressure of from about 350 psi to about 600 psi and a temperature of from about 175° Fahrenheit to about 210° Fahrenheit; and depositing the extruded composition onto a conveyer wherein the conveyer is operating at from about 17.5 feet per minute to about 80 feet per minute and draws down the filament to a diameter of from about 80 microns to about 2,000 microns, to thereby form the flexible and high tensile strength filament. 
     Yet another exemplary embodiment of the present invention includes a flexible and high tensile strength filament having a diameter of from about 80 to 1,000 microns and tensile strength of from about 30 MPa to 80 MPa which is made by forming a composition comprising from about 30 to 60 wt. % of a casein-based protein and from about 40 to 65 wt. % of a plasticizer; extruding the composition through a twin-screw extruder having a 1.4 mm filament die head wherein the extruder is operating at a melt pressure of from about 100 psi to about 150 psi and a temperature of from about 150° Fahrenheit to about 265° Fahrenheit; and depositing the extruded composition onto a conveyer wherein the conveyor is operating at from about 17.5 feet per minute to about 80 feet per minute to drawdown the filament to a diameter of from about 80 microns to about 1,000 microns, to thereby form the flexible and high tensile strength filament. 
     Yet another exemplary embodiment of the present invention includes a method for forming a flexible and high tensile strength filament comprising the steps of forming a composition comprising from about 30 to 60 wt. % of a casein-based protein and from about 40 to 65 wt. % of a plasticizer; extruding the composition at a melt pressure of from about 100 psi to about 600 psi and a temperature of from about 150° Fahrenheit to about 265° Fahrenheit through a filament die head ranging in size from about 1.4 mm to about 2.3 mm; and depositing the extruded composition onto a conveyer operating at from about 17.5 feet per minute to about 80 feet per minute to drawdown the filament to a diameter of from about 80 microns to about 2,000 microns. 
     Yet a further exemplary embodiment of the present invention includes a method for forming a flexible and high tensile strength sheet comprising the steps of forming a composition comprising from about 30 to 60 wt. % of a casein-based protein and from about 40 to 65 wt. % of a plasticizer; extruding the composition at a melt pressure of from about 350 psi to about 600 psi and a temperature of from about 175° Fahrenheit to about 210° Fahrenheit through a 30-inch sheeting die having a 0.5 mm to 1.0 mm gap width to form a sheet; and depositing the extruded composition onto a conveyer operating at from about 17.5 feet per minute to about 80 feet per minute, or, alternatively, pressing the extruded composition with a drawdown roller, to reach a desired thickness. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Additional aspects, features, and advantages of the invention, as to its structure, assembly, and use, will be understood and will become more readily apparent when the invention is considered in conjunction with the following description of illustrative embodiments and the accompanying drawings. 
         FIG. 1 a    illustrates a process equipment schematic showing a twin-screw extruder system for producing milk protein-based filaments, extruded through a filament die-head of 1.4 mm or 2.3 mm and drawn down using a conveyor, while  FIG. 1 b    illustrates a schematic similar to  FIG. 1 a    as modified for producing milk protein-based sheets with a twin-screw extruder system having a sheeting die head of 0.5-1.0 mm and a conveyor or roller to drawdown the sheets. 
         FIG. 2  illustrates a Texture Analyzer instrument used to measure the tensile strength of the compositions of the present invention with ASTM Standard Method D638-08. 
         FIG. 3  illustrates a representative test profile of the tensile strength of filaments of the present invention by determining maximum load (N) at failure per area of filament. 
         FIG. 4  illustrates, generally, the mechanical properties and characteristics of elasticity and plasticity of brittle and ductile products. 
         FIG. 5  illustrates, generally, the manner in which the mechanical properties and characteristics of brittle and ductile products are measured using applied force (N) over time to calculate the modulus of elasticity (slope of elastic deformation) and tensile strength (maximum load at failure per area). 
         FIG. 6  is a graph illustrating the relationship of tensile strength (N/mm 2 ) to the diameter of various exemplary samples of casein-based filaments of the present invention including filaments formulated with milk protein concentrate (MPC), calcium caseinate (CaC), and sodium caseinate (NaC), either alone or in combination with soy protein isolate (SPI) and with or without protein crosslinking (XL) with calcium chloride. 
         FIG. 7  is a graph illustrating the relationship of the modulus of elasticity (N/sec) to the diameter, i.e., stiffness, of various exemplary samples of casein-based filaments of the present invention including filaments formulated with milk protein concentrate (MPC), calcium caseinate (CaC), and sodium caseinate (NaC), either alone or in combination with soy protein isolate (SPI) and with or without protein crosslinking (XL) with calcium chloride. 
         FIG. 8  is a bar chart showing the tensile strength (N/mm 2 ) of an extruded sheet of a milk protein concentrate (MPC)-based composition of the present invention, which is significantly improved, i.e., at least 2 times, in comparison to the tensile strength of extruded sheets of starch-based compositions. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The present invention involves understanding how to manufacture and shape materials containing casein-based protein filaments using various processing technologies such as thermo-molding (thermoplastic processing), roller milling, and extrusion. The casein-based filaments can be formulated with milk protein concentrate (MPC), sodium caseinate (NaC), or calcium caseinate (CaC), either alone or in combination with other components including, for example, a plasticizer, and additional ingredients to enhance tensile strength. Whether any protein-based material can be processed using such techniques depends on the material&#39;s ability to transition from the glassy state to the rubbery and free-flow states. This is because, when a protein is heated above its glass transition temperature, the protein become soft and rubbery and can be shaped into a desired form. However, once cooled, the protein network becomes fixed, and the bulk material hardens into the imposed form. Such transitions may be enabled through use of plasticizers and use of appropriate processing conditions including temperature and dwell time in a mold, die, or roller. 
     The present invention provides protein-based flexible filaments with desirable mechanical properties, i.e., tensile strength, elongation, and modulus of elasticity, making the filaments suitable for use in reinforcing long lasting pet chew products. The terms “filament” or filaments”, as used herein, mean an elongated particulate(s) that is at least 80 to at least 2,300 microns in diameter, and, in a non-limiting, exemplary embodiment at least 80 to 2,000 microns. Suitable protein-based materials for forming filaments include plant and animal proteins, preferably casein-based protein filaments. Optionally, filaments and constituent protein-based materials from which they are formed can also be cross-linked. The term “about” can be used to refer to a specific number disclosed, as well as plus or minus 5% of the disclosed number. 
     Casein-Based Proteins 
     It has been surprisingly discovered that milk proteins and their derivatives are suitable for this invention. More specifically, it has been found that milk proteins and their derivatives namely, milk protein concentrates (MPC), calcium caseinate (CaC), or sodium caseinate (NaC) when combined with preferred plasticizers and processed utilizing a twin-screw, self-wiping, corotating and intermeshing extruder under certain processing conditions form non-brittle, flexible filaments of unique molecular structures, which exhibit high tensile strength. A main advantage of such flexible filament compositions, as well as methods of processing the compositions, is that the extrudate forms filaments, which can be shaped further in various other configurations including threads, strands, and sheets that have a broad range of textures and tensile strengths. 
     Without intending to be bound by any theory of operability, it is believed that the low cysteine levels associated with casein (and milk proteins in general) means there is very little disulfide cross-linking occurring. As such, casein has an open random-coil structure and is not therefore susceptible to a denaturation process. This structural attribute enables charged, polar, and nonpolar amino acids to be distributed along the protein chain. Such a molecular arrangement creates chemical potential, and the related interactive forces produce filaments that are both cohesive and flexible. While all milk proteins are suitable for the various embodiments of the present invention, it is contemplated that other animal-based and vegetable-based proteins having similar properties as those described for milk proteins would also be suitable for the present invention. 
     More specifically, it is believed that milk protein concentrate (MPC) may be advantageous because it contains both casein and whey proteins in a similar ratio as that found in milk. Also, MPC contains intact casein micelles (in their natural state) which may add stability against application of physical force to bulk materials that contain MPC. Casein micelles are complex macromolecular assemblies made of four distinct caseins, namely, αS1, αS2, β, and κ-caseins, and 8% in mass of phosphate and calcium ions. Casein micelles with diameters ranging from 100 to 200 nm have a role in the processing of milk, cheese, and most dairy products. Also, MPC is typically made from skim milk, which has fat levels of less than 3 percent. 
     Plasticizers 
     In general, effective plasticizers enable the glass transition temperatures of polymers to be lowered and assist with facilitating polymer deformation during processing. Suitable plasticizers include water, glycerol, and lactose. Water is an effective plasticizer for biopolymer materials. Glycerol (C3E1803) is a low molecular weight, hydrophilic, water-soluble and protein miscible molecule that can easily insert itself within the 3-dimensional biopolymer network. Because of this, glycerol is also an effective plasticizer for biopolymer materials, and it is widely used with thermoplastic processing of proteins. Lactose is present in milk protein concentrate (MPC) at about 4 to 7 wt. %. While water, glycerol, and lactose, as well as compounds and derivatives therefrom, are suitable, it is contemplated that other molecules or compounds having similar properties to those described for water, glycerol, and lactose would also be suitable for the present invention. By way of non-limiting examples, other suitable plasticizers can include polyols such as, ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, triethylene glycol, tetraethylene glycol and polyethylene glycol, propylene glycol, sorbitol, mannitol and xylitol; fatty acids; monosaccharides (glucose, mannose, fructose, sucrose); mono-, di- and oligosaccharides; ethanolamine; vegetable oils; lecithin; waxes; and amino acids. Preferably, plasticizers are present in the compositions of the present invention from about 40 to 65 wt. % in certain preferred ratios. 
     Crosslinkers and Additional Ingredients 
     Milk proteins and their derivatives can be crosslinked with divalent ions such as calcium, e.g., in the form of calcium chloride, to form a network structure and further strengthening and adding durability to the filaments. Preferably, casein-based protein filaments of the present invention can be crosslinked in this manner to form network structures having increased strength and durability. More preferably, sodium caseinate protein filaments can be crosslinked in this manner to form network structures having even more strength and durability. While divalent ions such as calcium are suitable, it is contemplated that other multivalent ions, e.g., divalent, trivalent, tetravalent, etc., having similar functionalities, properties, solubilities, etc., to those described for calcium would also be suitable for use with the present invention. 
     Milk proteins and their derivatives can also be mixed with one or more additional ingredients to improve material properties and form flexible filaments with even higher tensile strength. For example, milk proteins and their derivatives can be blended with other proteins such as gelatin or soy protein isolate (SPI), or mixed with polysaccharide such as cellulose, or mixed with a hydrocolloid such as xanthan gum. Without being bound by any theory of operability, it is believed that cellulose strengthens filaments but also expands filament diameter. Similarly, it is believed that xanthan gum increases the viscoelasticity of caseinates and, when combined with cellulose, can help to produce relatively thinner filaments. Therefore, preferably, gelatin, SPI, and combinations thereof may be present in the mixtures from about 0.75 to 5 wt. %; and preferably, xanthan gum may be present in the mixtures at from about 0.1 to 0.35 wt. %; and preferably, cellulose may be present in the mixtures at from about 0.5 to 4.95 wt. %. 
     While the additional ingredients listed above are suitable, it is contemplated that other animal or vegetable proteins, e.g., whey protein, wheat gluten, etc., and that other polysaccharides, e.g., starch, glycogen, chitin, etc., and that other natural or synthetic hydrocolloids and gelling agents, e.g., agar, alginate, carrageenan, gelatin, gellan gum, guar gum, locust bean gum, gum karaya, gum tragacanth, gum Arabic, and derivatives thereof, etc., having similar functionalities, properties, solubilities, etc., to those described for the additional ingredients listed above would also be suitable for use with the compositions of the present invention. 
     Additional Processing Considerations 
     Maintaining a proper solid-to-liquid ratio during filament processing is important for various reasons including, for example, to control extrudate stickiness. This is because the higher the solids in a present mix, the more the extrudate exhibits die swell. However, this must be balanced against the observation that higher solids in a mix also lowers surface friction, which equates to a lower drawdown. Still further, consideration must likewise be given to the observation that lower flow rates at the outer holes of the die means an increase in drawdown. Finally, the higher the solids present in the formulation, the higher the tensile strength exhibited by the resulting filaments. Because of the forgoing, certain solid-to-liquid ratios are preferred. Preferably, the solid-to-liquid ratio can range from about 55:45 to about 50:50 to about 45:55. 
     Figures and Examples 
     Referring specifically now to  FIG. 1 a   , a process equipment schematic illustrates a twin-screw extruder system ( 100   a ) used for the extrusion of casein-based protein filaments operating at preferred processing conditions. Exemplary, non-limiting embodiments utilize a Leistritz ZSE 27HP or ZSE 50 mm MAXX twin-screw extruder. An exemplary filament composition comprising a casein-based protein and a plasticizer is produced by batch mixing a milk protein-based solids mix ( 101   a ) and feeding the solids mix ( 102   a ) into a twin screw extruder ( 103   a ), where the solids mix is combined with a liquid mixture, which is first blended ( 104   a ) and then pumped ( 105   a ) into the extruder ( 103   a ). The twin-screw extruder ( 103   a ) can have multiple zones, such as, 9 zones. The solids mix and liquid blend are extruded at a melt pressure of from about 100 psi to about 600 psi and a temperature of from about 150° Fahrenheit to about 265° Fahrenheit through an 8-hole 1.4 mm or a 5-hole 2.3 mm filament die head ( 106   a ). The extrudate is deposited onto a conveyer ( 107   a ) operating at a speed of from about 42 feet per minute to about 80 feet per minute. The extrudate, which is tacky to the touch, contacts the surface of a belt of the conveyor ( 107   a ) (which belt may be fabric or other suitable material) and the movement of the conveyor belt at the chosen conveyor operating speed causes the extrudate, which has an original cross-sectional diameter approximating the size of the filament die head ( 106   a ) (i.e., 1.4 mm or 2.3 mm) to be drawn down into a filament with a cross-sectional diameter of from about 80 microns to about 2,000 microns. The filament can be spooled ( 108   a ) for cutting and/or sorting ( 109   a ) for storage ( 110   a ) and later use in processing ( 111   a ) for forming pet food or chew products. 
     How thin the extrudate the drawn down will be, and, likewise, what will be the resulting cross-sectional diameter of a filament, can be largely influenced and achieved by selecting an appropriate operating speed for the conveyor ( 107   a ). Also, a drying unit can be used to air dry the drawn down extrudate under ambient conditions and, as a result, 80 microns to about 2,000 micron filaments are formed that are both flexible and have a high tensile strength ranging from about 30 MPa to 80 MPa. 
     Referring specifically now to  FIG. 1 b   , a process equipment schematic illustrates a twin-screw extruder system used for extruding casein-based protein sheets ( 100   b ) operating at preferred processing conditions. Exemplary, non-limiting embodiments utilize a Leistritz ZSE 27HP or ZSE 50 mm MAXX twin-screw extruder. An exemplary filament composition comprising a casein-based protein and a plasticizer produced by batch mixing a milk protein-based solids mix ( 101   b ) and feeding the solids mix ( 102   b ) into a twin screw extruder ( 103   b ), where the solids mix is combined with a liquid mixture, which is first blended ( 104   b ) and then pumped ( 105   b ) into the extruder ( 103   b ). The twin-screw extruder ( 103   b ) can have multiple zones, such as, 9 zones. The solids mix and liquid blend is extruded at a melt pressure of from about 350 psi to about 600 psi and a temperature of from about 175° Fahrenheit to about 210° Fahrenheit through a 30-inch sheeting die head ( 106   b ) having a 0.5 mm to 1.0 mm gap width to form a sheet. The sheet is deposited onto a conveyer ( 107   b ) operating at a speed of from about 42 feet per minute to about 80 feet per minute. The sheet, which is tacky to the touch, contacts the surface of a belt of the conveyor ( 107   b ) (which belt may be fabric or other suitable material) and the movement of this conveyor belt at the chosen conveyor operating speed causes the sheet to be drawn down into a thickness of from about 500 microns to about 1,000 microns. Alternatively, the sheet, after exiting the sheeting die head ( 106   b ) may be drawn down by a roller ( 108   b ) to desired thickness. The sheet, after being drawn down by the conveyor ( 107   b ) or by the roller ( 108   b ), can be cut into desired length, size, and/or shape by a cutting operation ( 109   b ) before the cutting operation, and then stored ( 110   b ) for later use ( 111   b ) in processing for forming pet products. 
     Referring specifically now to  FIG. 2 , a Texture Analyzer instrument (Texture Technologies Corp.) ( 200 ) is shown and was used to measure the tensile strength of filaments, fibers, or strands of the present invention. A predefined length of exemplary flexible and high tensile strength filament ( 201 ) was prepared for tensile strength measurement by attaching the two separate ends of the filament ( 201 ) to the texture analyzer instrument ( 200 ). As shown in  FIG. 2 , attachment of the filament is achieved by means of a bottom clamp ( 202 ) and a top clamp ( 203 ). 
     Referring specifically now to  FIG. 3 , the graph generally illustrates a representative test profile for the tensile strength of casein-based filaments of the present invention. Tensile testing was used to calculate the maximum load (N) at failure per area of filament. For the purpose of the present invention, tensile strength measurements of exemplary filaments were conducted using ASTM Standard Method D638-08 in combination with the Texture Analyzer instrument ( 200 ) shown in  FIG. 2 . 
     Referring specifically now to  FIG. 4 , the graph generally illustrates the principles of physics explaining certain mechanical properties and characteristics associated with brittle and ductile products. (See, e.g., W. Callister, Jr., Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction Wiley (1994)).  FIG. 4  shows the typical stress-strain behavior exhibited by materials as they undergo elastic and plastic deformations, which, can be used to calculate tensile strength, i.e., the load at failure, associated with a product. 
     Referring specifically now to  FIG. 5 , the graph generally illustrates the first principles of physics explaining how tensile strength of a filament is measured. (See, e.g., W. Callister, Jr., Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction Wiley (1994)).  FIG. 5  demonstrates the regions of elastic and plastic deformation associated with a material and how the work of failure can be calculated. 
     Referring specifically now to  FIG. 6 , the graph illustrates the relationship between tensile strength and diameter for casein-based protein filaments of the present invention.  FIG. 6  demonstrates that tensile strength is inversely proportional to the filament&#39;s cross-sectional diameter (i.e., as cross-sectional diameter of a filament decreases, the strength of the filament increases). An examination of  FIG. 6  confirms that, as the cross-sectional diameter of an exemplary calcium caseinate-based filament decreases, the associated tensile strength for the filament increases. There are likely many different reasons for how this result is achieved. Without intending to be bound by any theory of operability, it is believed that upon drawdown of an exemplary filament composition extrudate, impurities in the filament composition are removed, the density of the extrudate, as well as the density of the resulting filament, increases, and polymer chains become more aligned and therefore able to undergo increased interchain interactions, all of which lead to overall increased tensile strength for the associated filament. 
       FIG. 6  (main graph) plots the data presented on Table A1. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE A1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Tensile 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Strength 
                 Diameter 
               
               
                   
                 Sample Code 
                 (N/mm2) 
                 (mm) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 040319F1-MPC 
                 71.14 
                 0.8 
               
               
                   
                 040319F2-MPC-NaCs 
                 74.08 
                 0.8 
               
               
                   
                 040319F3-NaCs 
                 39.76 
                 0.96 
               
               
                   
                 040319F4-NaCs-MPC 
                 47.42 
                 0.74 
               
               
                   
                 040819F1-MPC 
                 67.67 
                 0.73 
               
               
                   
                 40819F2-MPC-XL 
                 44.6 
                 0.8 
               
               
                   
                 040819F3-NaCs 
                 40.78 
                 0.84 
               
               
                   
                 040819F4-NaCs-XL 
                 37.05 
                 0.82 
               
               
                   
                 050119F2-MPC-XL 
                 22.53 
                 0.9 
               
               
                   
                 050119F4-NaCs-XL 
                 34.07 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 081319F1-MPC 
                 8.31 
                 1.4 
               
               
                   
                 081319F3-NaCs 
                 13.71 
                 0.9 
               
               
                   
                 081319F4-NaCs + SPI 
                 17.36 
                 0.71 
               
               
                   
                 100919F1-NaCs 
                 13.84 
                 1.1 
               
               
                   
                 100919F2-NaCs + SPI 
                 18.66 
                 0.9 
               
               
                   
                 100919F3-NaCs + SPI 
                 15.07 
                 0.95 
               
               
                   
                 100919F4-NaCs 
                 17.49 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 090919F1-NaCs 
                 12.86 
                 1.1 
               
               
                   
                 090919F2-NaCs + SPI 
                 12.04 
                 1.1 
               
               
                   
                 090919F3-NaCs + SPI 
                 11.39 
                 1.3 
               
               
                   
                 090919F4-NaCs 
                 11.76 
                 1.2 
               
               
                   
                 100119F1-NaCs 
                 30.26 
                 0.8 
               
               
                   
                 100119F2-NaCs + SPI 
                 29.26 
                 0.7 
               
               
                   
                 100119F3-NaCs + SPI 
                 17.34 
                 0.95 
               
               
                   
                 100119F4-NaCs + SPI 
                 14.82 
                 1.1 
               
               
                   
                 102219F1-NaCs-XL 
                 13.57 
                 1.3 
               
               
                   
                 102219F2-NaCs-XL 
                 15.92 
                 1.3 
               
               
                   
                 102219F3-NaCs + SPI-XL 
                 12.23 
                 1.45 
               
               
                   
                 102219F4-NaCs + SPI-XL 
                 14.94 
                 1.45 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 *As used throughout the application, the term “XL” refers to crosslinked protein, e.g., using calcium chloride as crosslinker. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
       FIG. 6  (inset graph) plots the data presented on Table A2. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE A2 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Tensile 
                 Tensile 
               
               
                   
                 Product 
                 Diameter 
                 Strength 
                 Strength 
               
               
                   
                 ID 
                 (mm) 
                 (N/mm2) 
                 Std. Dev. 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 CAC-F3 
                 0.4 
                 80.75 
                 6.82 
               
               
                   
                 CAC-F3 
                 0.5 
                 57.69 
                 10.72 
               
               
                   
                 CAC-F3 
                 0.55 
                 44.74 
                 8.75 
               
               
                   
                 CAC-F3 
                 0.6 
                 41.05 
                 11.01 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Referring specifically now to  FIG. 7 , which shows the measured modulus of elasticity (N/sec) (Young&#39;s Modulus) of various filaments of the present invention, the relationship between elasticity and material stiffness is illustrated. Filaments made from formulations with a higher modulus of elasticity produce a stiff material. In contrast, filaments made from formulations with a lower modulus of elasticity produce durable, non-brittle, and easy to use filaments. The formulations tested comprise casein provided as milk protein concentrate (MPC), sodium caseinate (NaC), or MPC and NaC, either alone or in various combination with soy protein isolate (SPI) and with or without protein crosslinking (XL) using calcium chloride. 
       FIG. 7  plots the data presented in Table B. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE B 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Elastic 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Modulus 
                 Diameter 
               
               
                   
                 Sample Code 
                 (N/sec) 
                 (mm) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 040319F1-MPC 
                 6.58 
                 0.8 
               
               
                   
                 040319F2-MPC-NaCs 
                 6.31 
                 0.8 
               
               
                   
                 040319F3-NaCs 
                 5.19 
                 0.96 
               
               
                   
                 040319F4-NaCs-MPC 
                 3.96 
                 0.74 
               
               
                   
                 040819F1-MPC 
                 4.5 
                 0.73 
               
               
                   
                 40819F2-MPC-XL 
                 3.75 
                 0.8 
               
               
                   
                 040819F3-NaCs 
                 4.45 
                 0.84 
               
               
                   
                 040819F4-NaCs-XL 
                 3.38 
                 0.82 
               
               
                   
                 050119F2-MPC-XL 
                 4.26 
                 0.9 
               
               
                   
                 050119F4-NaCs-XL 
                 4.83 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 081319F1-MPC 
                 1.72 
                 1.4 
               
               
                   
                 081319F3-NaCs 
                 1.41 
                 0.9 
               
               
                   
                 081319F4-NaCs + SPI 
                 1.06 
                 0.71 
               
               
                   
                 100919F1-NaCs 
                 2.17 
                 1.1 
               
               
                   
                 100919F2-NaCs + SPI 
                 1.92 
                 0.9 
               
               
                   
                 100919F3-NaCs + SPI 
                 1.76 
                 0.95 
               
               
                   
                 100919F4-NaCs 
                 2.13 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 090919F1-NaCs 
                 1.98 
                 1.1 
               
               
                   
                 090919F2-NaCs + SPI 
                 1.82 
                 1.1 
               
               
                   
                 090919F3-NaCs + SPI 
                 2.31 
                 1.3 
               
               
                   
                 090919F4-NaCs 
                 2.03 
                 1.2 
               
               
                   
                 100119F1-NaCs 
                 2.67 
                 0.8 
               
               
                   
                 100119F2-NaCs + SPI 
                 1.83 
                 0.7 
               
               
                   
                 100119F3-NaCs + SPI 
                 1.91 
                 0.95 
               
               
                   
                 100119F4-NaCs + SPI 
                 2.12 
                 1.1 
               
               
                   
                 102219F1-NaCs-XL 
                 2.77 
                 1.3 
               
               
                   
                 102219F2-NaCs-XL 
                 2.92 
                 1.3 
               
               
                   
                 102219F3-NaCs + SPI-XL 
                 2.82 
                 1.45 
               
               
                   
                 102219F4-NaCs + SPI-XL 
                 3.5 
                 1.45 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Experimental Details—Analytical Methods 
     Tensile Strength Analysis: The tensile properties for filaments formed from the compositions of the present invention were tested according to ASTM Standard method D638-08 using a Texture Analyzer instrument ( 200 ). The performance of filaments was quantified in terms of tensile strength, which is defined as the ratio of maximum force (N) required to break the filament divided by the cross-sectional area of the filament. The analysis was conducted with a TA.XT Plus Texture Analyzer instrument (TA-96B, Texture Technologies) with a 5 kg load cell fitted with miniature grips ( 202 ,  203 ) operated at a trigger force of 5 g, test speed of 0.5 mm/second. The Texture Analyzer instrument ( 200 ) pulled (up to a distance of 100 mm) a 10 cm long piece of filament sample clamped between grips ( 202 ,  203 ) until the sample broke. The texture analyzer instrument ( 200 ) determined the maximum force required to break the filament expressed in unit Newton (N). This maximum force (N) divided by cross-sectional area of the filament (measured in mm 2 ) was expressed as tensile strength (N/mm 2 ) of the filament. 
     Surface Energy Analysis: Filament samples were analyzed for surface energy in water and diiodomethane (methylene iodide) as probe liquids and the Fowkes theory. The contact angles with these probe liquids were measured by the dynamic contact angle (Wilhelmy) method, on ˜20 mm long filament pieces each dipped into the probe liquid to a depth of 10 mm while measuring the wetting force during dipping. Triplicate experiments were performed with each of the two probe liquids on each filament. Wetting force of liquid on the surface of the filament reflects contact angle of the liquid against the filament according to the following equation: Fw=cos(Θ) Lσ[where Fw=the Wilhelmy wetting force, Θ=contact angle, L=the wetting length (circumference) of the filament, and σ=the surface tension of the probe liquid]. 
     Experimental Methods 
     Example 1 
     Twenty-one milk protein formulas containing sodium caseinate (NaC), calcium caseinate (CaC), and gluten (GLU) as “base protein ingredients”, alone or in combination with soy protein isolate (SPI) or gelatin (GEL), were screened by a twin-screen extrusion process of the present invention and evaluated for their suitability for producing filaments. Table 1 indicates the percentage by weight of the “base protein ingredients” alone or in combination with SPI or GEL. Suitable formulations for filament development based on processability, draw-down, and viscoelasticity on success was determined to be CaC alone or CaC in combination with GEL or SPI, with a maximum draw-down achieved at 500 CaC filaments were less sticky and more resilient during drawdown. Table 1 shows the filament cross-sectional diameters and associated tensile strengths. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Tensile 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Diameter 
                 Strength 
               
               
                   
                 Sample Description 
                 (mm) 
                 (N/mm 2 ) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 CaC 35% 
                 0.40 
                 80.75 
               
               
                   
                 CaC/GEL 30.625/4.375 
                 0.50 
                 58.23 
               
               
                   
                 CaC 35% 
                 0.50 
                 57.69 
               
               
                   
                 CaC/GEL 30.625/4.375 
                 0.65 
                 48.24 
               
               
                   
                 CaC 35% 
                 0.55 
                 44.74 
               
               
                   
                 CaC/GEL 30.625/4.375 
                 0.60 
                 44.56 
               
               
                   
                 CaC/SPI 26.25/8.75 
                 0.50 
                 41.28 
               
               
                   
                 CaC 35% 
                 0.60 
                 41.05 
               
               
                   
                 NaC 35% 
                 0.30 
                 32.25 
               
               
                   
                 CaC/SPI 17.5/17.5 
                 0.80 
                 30.22 
               
               
                   
                 CaC/SPI 26.25/8.75 
                 0.70 
                 29.85 
               
               
                   
                 CaC/GEL 30.625/4.375 
                 0.70 
                 28.55 
               
               
                   
                 NaC 35% 
                 0.65 
                 27.99 
               
               
                   
                 NaC 35% 
                 0.45 
                 26.80 
               
               
                   
                 NaC 35% 
                 0.50 
                 21.77 
               
               
                   
                 CaC/SPI 26.25/8.75 
                 1.25 
                 19.40 
               
               
                   
                 NaC 35% 
                 0.40 
                 17.46 
               
               
                   
                 NaC/SPI 26.25/8.75 
                 2.00 
                 15.49 
               
               
                   
                 NaC/SPI 26.25/8.75 
                 1.60 
                 10.58 
               
               
                   
                 NaC/SPI 26.25/8.75 
                 1.20 
                 6.36 
               
               
                   
                 GLU/SPI/GEL 
                 1.20 
                 2.92 
               
               
                   
                 22.75/8.75/3.5 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     This data shows various protein ingredients and the ability to develop exemplary filament structures associated with the present invention. The data reveals that, when the source of casein is calcium caseinate (CaC), small diameter (˜300 microns) filaments having high tensile strength (80 N/mm 2 ) are produced. 
     Example 2 
     Milk protein formulas containing sodium caseinate (NaC) in combination with cellulose (0-3%) and/or xanthan gum (0-0.4%), which were used to enhance filament resistance and elasticity, were tested. Table 2 shows the diameter and tensile strength of filaments from this experiment. The F1-NaC 21618 formulation was the most processable of all the tested samples and produced consistent quality filaments in comparison to the other five formulations. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Sodium 
                 Cel- 
                 Xanthan 
                 Diam- 
                 Tensile 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 caseinate 
                 lulose 
                 Gum 
                 eter 
                 Strength 
               
               
                 Description 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (mm) 
                 (N/mm 2 ) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 F1 - NaC21618 
                 35 
                 3.0 
                 0.2 
                 0.55 
                 35.40 
               
               
                 F2 - NaC21618 
                 35 
                 1.5 
                 0 
                 1.42 
                 28.51 
               
               
                 F3 - NaC21618 
                 35 
                 0 
                 0.4 
                 1.46 
                 32.55 
               
               
                 F4 - NaC21618 
                 35 
                 3.0 
                 0 
                 1.93 
                 28.47 
               
               
                 F5 - NaC21618 
                 35 
                 0 
                 0.2 
                 1.78 
                 30.57 
               
               
                 F6 - NaC21618 
                 35 
                 1.5 
                 0.4 
                 1.38 
                 28.43 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 3 
     Milk protein formulas containing milk protein concentrate (MPC) alone or in combination with cellulose (0-3%) and/or xanthan gum (0-0.4%), which were used to enhance filament resistance and elasticity, were tested. Table 3 shows the diameter and tensile strength of filaments from this experiment. The LT-LLC 062018-F4 formulation produced consistent quality filaments in comparison to the other five formulations. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Milk Protein 
                 Cel- 
                 Xanthan 
                 Diam- 
                 Tensile 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 Concentrate 
                 lulose 
                 Gum 
                 eter 
                 Strength 
               
               
                 Description 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (mm) 
                 (N/mm 2 ) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 F1 - MPC62018 
                 37 
                 3 
                 0.2 
                 0.94 
                 28.94 
               
               
                 F2 - MPC62018 
                 37 
                 0 
                 0.3 
                 0.94 
                 33.78 
               
               
                 F3 - MPC62018 
                 37 
                 3 
                 0 
                 0.88 
                 31.77 
               
               
                 F4 - MPC62018 
                 37 
                 1.5 
                 0.2 
                 0.93 
                 32.65 
               
               
                 F5 - MPC62018 
                 37 
                 1.5 
                 0.3 
                 1.00 
                 31.19 
               
               
                 F6 - MPC62018 
                 37 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0.96 
                 31.59 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 4 
     Milk protein formulas containing sodium caseinate (NaC) in combination with soy protein isolate (SPI), cellulose (0-3%), and/or xanthan gum (0-0.5%), which were used to enhance filament resistance and elasticity, were tested. Table 4 shows the diameter and tensile strength of filaments from this experiment. The F4-NaC22118 formulation was the most processable of the tested formulations and produced consistent quality filaments in comparison to the other five formulations. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Sodium 
                   
                 Cel- 
                 Xanthan 
                 Diam- 
                 Tensile 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 Caseinate 
                 SPI 
                 lulose 
                 Gum 
                 eter 
                 Strength 
               
               
                 Description 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (mm) 
                 (N/mm 2 ) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 F1 - NaC22118 
                 35 
                 3 
                 3 
                 0.25 
                 1.77 
                 24.70 
               
               
                 F2 - NaC22118 
                 35 
                 3 
                 0 
                 0.5 
                 1.67 
                 34.49 
               
               
                 F3 - NaC22118 
                 35 
                 3 
                 1.5 
                 0.5 
                 1.84 
                 26.61 
               
               
                 F4 - NaC22118 
                 35 
                 3 
                 0 
                 0.25 
                 1.80 
                 31.22 
               
               
                 F5 - NaC22118 
                 35 
                 3 
                 1.5 
                 0 
                 1.79 
                 30.83 
               
               
                 F6 - NaC22118 
                 35 
                 3 
                 3 
                 0 
                 1.83 
                 28.84 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 5 
     Milk protein formulas containing calcium caseinate (CaC) in combination with cellulose (0-3%) and/or xanthan gum (0-0.5%), which were used to enhance filament resistance and elasticity, were tested. Table 5 shows the diameter and tensile strength of filaments from this experiment. The F5-CaC30118 formulation was the most processable of all tested formulations and produced stronger filaments in comparison to the other five formulations. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Calcium 
                 Cel- 
                 Xanthan 
                 Diam- 
                 Tensile 
               
               
                 Sample 
                 Caseinate 
                 lulose 
                 Gum 
                 eter 
                 Strength 
               
               
                 Description 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (mm) 
                 (N/mm 2 ) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 F1 - CaC30118 
                 35 
                 3 
                 0.2 
                 1.53 
                 31.84 
               
               
                 F2 - CaC30118 
                 35 
                 1.5 
                 0 
                 1.6 
                 36.11 
               
               
                 F3 - CaC30118 
                 35 
                 0 
                 0.4 
                 1.64 
                 37.98 
               
               
                 F4 - CaC30118 
                 35 
                 3 
                 0 
                 1.87 
                 27.51 
               
               
                 F5 - CaC30118 
                 35 
                 0 
                 0.2 
                 1.55 
                 48.49 
               
               
                 F6 - CaC30118 
                 35 
                 1.5 
                 0.4 
                 1.56 
                 37.62 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 6 
     Milk protein formulas containing milk protein concentrate (MPC) and sodium caseinate (NaC) were evaluated to determine the effect of calcium chloride crosslinking on processability and mechanical properties of filaments. The extrusion process used in Examples 1-5 was repeated except calcium chloride was incorporated in the formulations at dry weight concentration of 0 to 2%. Table 6 shows that the addition of calcium chloride to the formulations improves processability, resilience, and durability of filaments. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Calcium 
                 Diam- 
                 Tensile 
               
               
                   
                 MPC 
                 NaC 
                 SPI 
                 chloride 
                 eter 
                 Strength 
               
               
                 Sample Description 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (mm) 
                 (N/mm 2 ) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 F4 - 40819 NaC 
                 — 
                 36 
                 — 
                 2 
                 0.98 
                 37.05 
               
               
                 F2 - 50119 MPC 
                 36 
                 — 
                 — 
                 2 
                 1.08 
                 34.07 
               
               
                 F2 - 102219 
                 — 
                 31 
                 5 
                 2 
                 1.03 
                 10.82 
               
               
                 NaC—SPI 
               
               
                 F4 - 50119 NaC 
                 — 
                 36 
                 — 
                 2 
                 0.78 
                 22.53 
               
               
                 F2 - 40819 MPC 
                 36 
                 — 
                 — 
                 2 
                 0.88 
                 44.6 
               
               
                 F1 - 40819 MPC 
                 38 
                 — 
                 — 
                 0 
                 0.92 
                 67.67 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 7 
     Referring specifically now to  FIG. 8 , the tensile strength of a milk protein concentrate (MPC) containing sheet of the present invention was compared to two starch-based formulations. The three formulations, namely, the MPC composition of the present invention, the CT3 Matrix, and the CT6 Matrix (see Table 7a below), were used to create test sample sheets. Specifically, a sample sheet made using MPC as the source of caseinate was compared with sample sheets made from the CT3 Matrix and the CT6 Matrix, at the same water activity (Aw) and thickness. The filament forming composition comprised MPC as the source of caseinate plus other ingredients (see Tables 7a and 7b below). The MPC filament formulation underwent 50 mm TSE extrusion at a 50:50 solid to liquid ratio, through a 30-inch sheeting die head, where the gap width was set at a 0.5 mm. The tensile strength of sheets formed in this process were compared with extruded sample sheets made from starch-based filament compositions of the CT3 Matrix and the CT6 Matrix. To conduct a proper comparison, the same process used to make the sheet of the MPC composition was also used to make sheets from the CT3 Matrix and the CT6 Matrix formulations. The filament forming compositions for the CT3 Matrix and the CT6 Matrix comprised modified potato starch plus other ingredients (see Tables 7a and 7b below below). The CT3 Matrix filament formulation underwent 50 mm TSE extrusion at a 68:32 solid to liquid ratio, and the CT6 Matrix filament formulation underwent 50 mm TSE extrusion at a 70:30 solid to liquid ratio. Both CT3 and CT6 Matrices formulations were extruded using a 30-inch sheeting die head at minimum of 100 lb/hr, and the melt temperature reached at least 195° Fahrenheit (see Table 7b below). 
     The resulting sample sheets were evaluated for quality and textural attributes including sheet thickness, flowability, stickiness, etc. A maximum rate of 188 lb/hr. was utilized for processing the MPC composition, the CT3 Matrix, and the CT6 Matrix compositions. The tensile strengths of the sheets made from the MPC composition, the CT3 Matrix composition, and the CT6 Matrix composition are represented in  FIG. 8 , which shows that the sheet made using the MPC-based formulation was more than 2 times stronger than either sample sheets made from starch-based formulations of the CT3 Matrix and CT6 Matrix compositions. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7a 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Tested Formulations 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Materials 
                 MPC (%) 
                 CT3 (%) 
                 CT6 (%) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Solids Preblend 
                 37.7 
                 73.57 
                 72.12 
               
               
                 Glycerin USP 
                 8 
                 18.36 
                 18.36 
               
               
                 Tap Water 
                 54.1 
                 7.22 
                 8.67 
               
               
                 K Sorbate 
                 0.2 
                 0.65 
                 0.65 
               
               
                 Antioxidant Naturox Premium, Liq. 
                 0 
                 0.05 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 Rotisserie Chicken Flavor 
                 0 
                 0.15 
                 0.15 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7b 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Processing Parameters 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Solid (%) 
                 Liquid Feed 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Matrix Formula Feed rates (solid:liquid) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Orig. formula (CT3) 
                 73.57 
                 26.43 
               
               
                   
                 Actual 
                 70 
                 30 
               
               
                   
                 Orig. formula (CT6) 
                 72.12 
                 27.88 
               
               
                   
                 Actual 
                 70 
                 30 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 MPC Formula Feed rates (solid:liquid) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 50 
                 50 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 8 
     Surface energy is an indicator of composition of a polymer surface. Surface properties of filaments demonstrate important characteristics such as hydrophilicity, hydrophobicity, electrostatic properties, and/or binding potential to other matrices. Lack of useful surface properties may lead to surface treatment to introduction of new functional groups, increase surface energy or wettability, increase hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity, improve chemical inertness, and/or introduce surface cross-linking. 
     Thirty-two filament samples, produced as described in preceding examples, were tested for surface energy in polar and dispersive components. Triplicate experiments were performed with each of the two probe liquids on each filament. Contact angles with these probe liquids were measured by the dynamic contact angle method (Wilhelmy). Surface polarity of filaments and associated mechanical properties are shown in Table 8. 
                     TABLE 8                  Mechanical and Surface Properties of Filaments                                     Elastic   Tensile       Surface           Modulus   Strength   Diameter   Polarity       Filament Sample Code   (N/sec)   (N/mm2)   (mm)   (%)                                         081319F3 NaC   1.09   17.98   0.48   25.47       081319F3 NaC   1.41   13.71   0.76   25.55       100119F1 NaC   2.67   30.26   0.84   24.72       100919F1 NaC   2.17   13.84   0.98   24.25       090919F1 NaC   1.98   12.86   0.9   23.77       040819F3 NaC   4.45   40.78   0.95   23.26       040819F4 XL-NaC*   3.38   37.05   0.98   22.73       050119F2 XL-MPC   4.83   34.07   1.08   22.18       102219F2 XL-NaC-SPI   1.09   10.82   1.03   22.04       102219F1 XL-NaC   1.57   12.22   1.54   21.41       102219F1 XL-NaC   2.77   13.57   1.2   20.02       090919F2 NaC-SPI   1.82   12.04   1.09   20.01       090919F3 NaC-SPI   2.31   11.39   1.21   19.88       090919F4 NaC-SPI   2.03   11.76   1.14   19.32       081319F4 - 265F NaC-SPI   3.03   19.66   1.05   18.66       100919F2-NaC-SPI   1.92   18.66   0.88   18.35       081319F4 - 245F NaC-SPI   2.17   14.49   1   18.11       100919F3 NaC-SPI   1.76   15.07   0.98   17.21       100919F4 NaC-SPI   2.13   17.49   0.98   16.87       081319F4 NaC-SPI   1.06   17.36   0.71   16.09       100119F2 NaC-SPI   1.83   29.26   0.74   15.29       102219F2 XL-NaC-SPI   2.92   15.92   1.3   14.47       102219F3 XL-NaC-SPI   2.82   12.23   1.25   13.62       102219F4 XL-NaC-SPI   3.5   14.94   1.33   12.76       050119F4 XL-NaC   4.26   22.53   0.78   11.88       100119F4 NaC-SPI   2.12   14.82   1.23   10.98       100119F3 NaC-SPI   1.91   17.34   0.84   10.08       081319F1 MPC   1.72   8.31   1.2   9.38       040819F2 XL-MPC   3.75   44.6   0.88   8.06       040819F1 MPC   4.5   67.67   0.92   7.34                    
Surface polarity is in the following order: NaC &gt;NaC-SPI &gt;NaC-SPI-XL&gt;MPC.
 
     Milk protein concentrate (MPC), sodium caseinate (NaC), and calcium caseinate (CaC) were all shown to be effective sources of caseinate for use in compositions to produce filaments and sheets of the present invention. Specifically, filaments having diameters from about 0.3 mm to 1 mm and resulting tensile strengths of from about 30 MPa to 80 MPa, and sheets from about 0.5-1.0 mm thick and resulting tensile strengths of from about 30 MPa to 80 MPa, were produced. These materials exhibited suitable flowability during processing. Interestingly, MPC-based compositions exhibited lower stickiness when extruded and resulted in superior downstream handling compared to other sources of caseinate, and the MPC-based compositions produced overall stronger filaments. 
     Although the invention has been described with reference to specific embodiments, these embodiments are illustrative only and not limiting. Many other applications and embodiments of the invention will be apparent in light of the disclosure and the following claims. Accordingly, it is intended that the invention embraces all such alternatives, modifications, and variations as falling within the scope of the claims below.