Patent Publication Number: US-2022216473-A1

Title: Small form-factor battery with high power density

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation of International Application No. PCT/US2020/052526 filed on Sep. 24, 2020, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/905,950 filed on Sep. 25, 2019 and titled SMALL FORM-FACTOR BATTERY WITH HIGH POWER DENSITY, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Field. Embodiments of the present description relate to a battery. More specifically, embodiments of the present description relate to batteries and methods for manufacturing batteries having a small form factor and high capacity per unit volume. 
     In many applications, particularly those for use in small or difficult-to-navigate environments, it is desirable to have portable power sources (e.g., batteries) that have small form factors. However, maintaining battery capacity while decreasing the battery size is a continuing challenge. Furthermore, methods of manufacturing batteries with small form factors present numerous challenges. 
     BRIEF SUMMARY 
     Embodiments of the present description provide devices, systems, and methods of manufacture for a small form factor battery with high capacity. The battery includes at least one anode and at least one cathode. 
     In an aspect of the present description, the battery is constructed of a multi-layer structure with active components including active particles. 
     In an embodiment, the active particles are ultra-fine. Nanopowders having average active particle sizes of less than 500 nm may be used to form the active components. The active particles are highly compacted as present in the manufactured battery. 
     In an embodiment, a base cell structure includes a containment ring defining an opening extending through the containment ring. The containment ring may have an annular shape. An inner wall of the containment ring around the opening defines a perimeter limit of a base cell volume. The containment ring provides a liquid-impermeable casing at the perimeter limit of the base cell volume. A first set of active particles is disposed in the base cell volume of a first base cell structure to form an anode cell. A second set of active particles is disposed in the base cell volume of a second base cell structure to form a cathode cell. The anode cell and the cathode cell are assembled together with a separator disposed between. Two electrode plates are disposed on the assembly, one adjacent to the anode cell and one adjacent to the cathode cell, to respectively provide an anode electrode plate and a cathode electrode plate which are disposed on opposite outer sides of the assembly. 
     In an embodiment, the cathode containment ring and/or the anode containment ring includes a polymeric layer that provides a moisture barrier while being biochemically inert and chemically resistant. 
     In an embodiment, a base cell structure includes a ring-shaped laminate of a containment ring and an adhesive layer on each side of the containment ring. An inner wall of the ring-shaped laminate defines a perimeter limit of the base cell volume. 
     In an embodiment, a base cell structure defines a base cell volume which can be filled with active particles to form an anode cell or to form a cathode cell. Said in another way, an anode cell is a base cell structure containing particles associated with an anode, and the anode cell defines an anode cell volume in which the active particles are disposed; similarly, a cathode cell is a base cell structure containing active particles associated with a cathode, and the cathode cell defines an anode cell volume in which the active particles are disposed. 
     In an embodiment, the battery is constructed as a dry assembly and includes one or more openings to allow for injection or infusion of an electrolytic solution into the battery subsequent to construction of the dry assembly. For convenience, the anode cell and the cathode cell are referred to herein respectively as the anode and the cathode after electrolyte has been added. 
     In an embodiment, electrolyte may be added after a period of storage of the dry assembly, to preserve shelf life. 
     In an embodiment, the active particles contained within the anode cell and the active particles contained within the cathode cell have an average particle size of less than 1 μm. 
     In an embodiment, the active particles contained within the anode cell and the active particles contained within the cathode cell have an average particle size of less than 500 nm. 
     In an embodiment, the active particles contained within the anode cell and/or the cathode cell have an average particle size of less than 100 nm. 
     In an embodiment, the active particles contained within the anode cell and/or the cathode cell have an average particle size of less than 50 nm. 
     In an embodiment, the active particles contained within the anode cell include silver oxide, and the active particles contained within the cathode cell include zinc. 
     In an embodiment, the active particles contained within the cathode cell include a polymeric binder. An example of a polymeric binder is polyethylene oxide. 
     In an embodiment, the active particles contained within the cathode cell include 90%-99% zinc with the remainder of the active particles being a polymeric binder. 
     In an embodiment, the battery is a high-drain silver oxide battery having a cathode including a zinc nanopowder with an average particle size of less than 100 nm and an anode including a silver oxide nanopowder with an average particle size of less than 500 nm. 
     In an embodiment, a total particulate mass of the anode and cathode active particles is equal to or less than 4 mg, and the inner walls of the containment rings or ring-shaped laminates of the anode and cathode (defining the respective cell volumes) have a height of approximately 1.27 mm (or about 0.05 in) and a measurement (e.g., diameter) across the respective cell volume of approximately 3.81 mm (or about 0.15 in). 
     In an embodiment, a total particulate mass of the anode and cathode active particles is equal to or less than 4 mg, and the inner walls of the containment rings or ring-shaped laminates of the anode and cathode (defining the respective cell volumes) have a height of approximately 101 μm (or about 0.004 in) and a measurement (e.g., diameter) across the respective cell volume of approximately 3.81 mm (or about 0.15 in). 
     In an embodiment, a particulate mass of each of the anode and cathode active particles is equal to or less than 4 mg, and the inner walls of the containment rings or ring-shaped laminates of the anode and cathode (defining the respective cell volumes) have a height of approximately 101 μm (or about 0.004 in) and a measurement (e.g., diameter) across the respective cell volume of approximately 3.81 mm (or about 0.15 in). 
     In an embodiment, an adhesive layer is disposed on opposing sides of the cathode containment ring and opposing sides of the anode containment ring. The adhesive layer promotes bonding of the cathode containment ring and anode containment ring to respective sides of the separator (e.g., a thin-film separator) and respective cathode and anode electrode plates. The various bonds may be made substantially concurrently on the assembly as a unit, or may be made in a series of steps during manufacture. 
     In an embodiment, a heat-activated adhesive layer is disposed on opposing sides of the cathode containment ring and opposing sides of the anode containment ring. The heat-activated adhesive layer promotes bonding of the cathode containment ring and anode containment ring to respective sides of the thin-film separator and respective cathode and anode electrode plates. The various bonds may be made substantially concurrently by applying heat to the assembly as a unit, or may be made in a series of steps by applying heat to portions of the assembly separately. 
     In an embodiment, a pressure-activated adhesive layer is disposed on opposing sides of the cathode containment ring and opposing sides of the anode containment ring. The pressure-activated adhesive layer promotes bonding of the cathode containment ring and anode containment ring to respective sides of the thin-film separator and respective cathode and anode electrode plates. The various bonds may be made substantially concurrently by applying pressure to the assembly as a unit, or may be made in a series of steps by applying pressure to portions of the assembly separately. 
     In an embodiment, an insulative encapsulating layer having a chemically resistive adhesive on one side may be attached to each electrode plate. Each insulative encapsulating layer is larger than the electrode plate such that, after adding electrolyte to the battery, a periphery of the battery can be sealed by coupling the insulative encapsulating layers (which overlap) to each other. 
     In an embodiment, end caps are positioned adjacent to the electrode plates. In an embodiment, the end caps are larger than the electrode plates such that the end caps may be bent over and formed around a remainder of the battery to encapsulate the battery. In an embodiment, rather than use the end caps to form an encapsulant, a separate encapsulant is applied over the end caps and over a remainder of the battery. 
     In an embodiment, the anode electrode plates and/or the cathode electrode plates include nickel, the adhesive layers are heat-activated and include ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), and the separator includes Cellophane P00. 
     In an embodiment, the form factor of the battery has an outer perimeter diameter of less than 5.08 mm (or about 0.20 in) and a thickness of less than 0.38 mm (or about 0.015 in). 
     In an embodiment, a small form factor battery according to an embodiment of the present disclosure is manufactured by: providing a first containment ring having an inner perimeter and height together defining a first cell volume, disposing adhesive layers on opposing sides of the first containment ring and disposing a first electrode plate adjacent to one of the adhesive layers; filling active particles into the first cell volume; providing a second containment ring having an inner perimeter and height together defining a second cell volume, disposing adhesive layers on opposing sides of the second containment ring and disposing a second electrode plate adjacent to one of the adhesive layers; filling active particles into the second cell volume; and assembling the first containment ring and the second containment ring with their respective adhesive layers on opposing sides of a separator such that the first electrode plate and the second electrode plate are on opposing sides of the assembly. 
     In an embodiment, a small form factor battery according to an embodiment of the present disclosure is manufactured by: providing a first ring-shaped laminate including a first containment ring having an inner perimeter and height together defining a first cell volume, and further including adhesive layers on opposing sides of the first containment ring; disposing a first electrode plate adjacent to the first ring-shaped laminate; filling active particles into the first cell volume; providing a second ring-shaped laminate including a second containment ring having an inner perimeter and height together defining a second cell volume, the second containment ring having adhesive layers on opposing sides of the second containment ring; disposing a second electrode plate adjacent to the second ring-shaped laminate; filling active particles into the second cell volume; and assembling the first ring-shaped laminate and the second ring-shaped laminate on opposing sides of a separator such that the first electrode plate and the second electrode plate are on opposing sides of the assembly. 
     Further details of these and other embodiments and aspects of the invention are described more fully below, with reference to the attached drawing figures. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  illustrates a perspective view of an exploded configuration of a battery utilizing the technology of the present description, according to an embodiment. 
         FIG. 2  illustrates a perspective view of the battery of  FIG. 1  in an assembled configuration, according to an embodiment. 
         FIG. 3A  illustrates a side cross-sectional view of the battery of  FIG. 2 , as viewed along lines A-A, according to an embodiment. 
         FIG. 3B  illustrates an enlarged view of a region B of  FIG. 3A , according to an embodiment. 
         FIG. 4A  through  FIG. 4O  illustrate a schematic diagram of a manufacturing process for the battery of  FIGS. 1, 2, 3A and 3B , according to an embodiment. 
         FIG. 5  is a plot illustrating bench performance of a battery configured according to the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Before discussing details of the high capacity small form factor battery of the present disclosure, a few conventions are provided for the convenience of the reader. 
     Various abbreviations may be used herein for standard units, such as deciliter (dl), milliliter (ml), microliter (μl), international unit (IU), centimeter (cm), millimeter (mm), nanometer (nm), inch (in), kilogram (kg), gram (gm), milligram (mg), microgram (μg), millimole (mM), degrees Celsius (° C.), degrees Fahrenheit (° F.), millitorr (mTorr), hour (hr), or minute (min). 
     When used in the present disclosure, the terms “e.g.,” “such as”, “for example”, “for an example”, “for another example”, “examples of”, “by way of example”, and “etc.” indicate that a list of one or more non-limiting example(s) precedes or follows; it is to be understood that other examples not listed are also within the scope of the present disclosure. 
     As used herein, the singular terms “a,” “an,” and “the” may include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Reference to an object in the singular is not intended to mean “one and only one” unless explicitly so stated, but rather “one or more.” 
     The term “in an embodiment” or a variation thereof (e.g., “in another embodiment” or “in one embodiment”) refers herein to use in one or more embodiments, and in no case limits the scope of the present disclosure to only the embodiment as illustrated and/or described. Accordingly, a component illustrated and/or described herein with respect to an embodiment can be omitted or can be used in another embodiment (e.g., in another embodiment illustrated and described herein, or in another embodiment within the scope of the present disclosure and not illustrated and/or not described herein). 
     The term “component” refers herein to one item of a set of one or more items that together make up a device, formulation or system under discussion. A component may be in a solid, powder, gel, plasma, fluid, gas, or other form. For example, a device may include multiple solid components which are assembled together to structure the device and may further include a liquid component that is disposed in the device. For another example, a formulation may include two or more powdered and/or fluid components which are mixed together to make the formulation. 
     The term “design” or a grammatical variation thereof (e.g., “designing” or “designed”) refers herein to characteristics intentionally incorporated into a design based on, for example, estimates of tolerances related to the design (e.g., component tolerances and/or manufacturing tolerances) and estimates of environmental conditions expected to be encountered by the design (e.g., temperature, humidity, external or internal ambient pressure, external or internal mechanical pressure, external or internal mechanical pressure stress, age of product, or shelf life, or, if the design is introduced into a body, physiology, body chemistry, biological composition of fluids or tissue, chemical composition of fluids or tissue, pH, species, diet, health, gender, age, ancestry, disease, or tissue damage); it is to be understood that actual tolerances and environmental conditions before and/or after delivery can affect such designed characteristics so that different components, devices, formulations, or systems with a same design can have different actual values with respect to those designed characteristics. Design encompasses also variations or modifications to the design, and design modifications implemented after manufacture. 
     The term “manufacture” or a grammatical variation thereof (e.g., “manufacturing” or “manufactured”) as related to a component, device, formulation, or system refers herein to making or assembling the component, device, formulation, or system. Manufacture may be wholly or in part by hand and/or wholly or in part in an automated fashion. 
     The term “structured” or a grammatical variation thereof (e.g., “structure” or “structuring”) refers herein to a component, device, formulation, or system that is manufactured according to a concept or design or variations thereof or modifications thereto (whether such variations or modifications occur before, during, or after manufacture) whether or not such concept or design is captured in a writing. 
     The terms “substantially” and “about” are used herein to describe and account for small variations. For example, when used in conjunction with a numerical value, the terms can refer to a variation in the value of less than or equal to ±10%, such as less than or equal to ±5%, less than or equal to ±4%, less than or equal to ±3%, less than or equal to ±2%, less than or equal to ±1%, less than or equal to ±0.5%, less than or equal to ±0.1%, or less than or equal to ±0.05%. 
     As used herein, a range of numbers includes any number within the range, or any sub-range if the minimum and maximum numbers in the sub-range fall within the range. Thus, for example, “&lt;9” can refer to any number less than nine, or any sub-range of numbers where the minimum of the sub-range is greater than or equal to zero and the maximum of the sub-range is less than nine. Ratios may also be presented herein in a range format. For example, a ratio in the range of about 1 to about 200 should be understood to include the explicitly recited limits of about 1 and about 200, and also to include individual ratios such as about 2, about 35, and about 74, and sub-ranges such as about 10 to about 50, about 20 to about 100, and so forth. 
     The discussion now continues with respect to high capacity small form factor batteries. Embodiments of the present description provide devices, systems, and methods of manufacture for a small form factor battery with high capacity per unit volume. The battery is implemented using nanopowders in dry form. The term nanopowder as used herein refers to a powdered material containing nanoparticles (e.g., amorphous or crystalline form) in nanometer scale. 
     The dry form nanopowder can be compacted into a desired shape prior to disposing the nanopowder in the battery, can be partially compacted prior to and partially compacted during or after disposing the nanopowder in the battery, or can be compacted during or after disposing the nanopowder in the battery. 
       FIG. 1  illustrates a perspective view in an exploded configuration of a battery  10  utilizing the technology of the present description. Battery  10  as illustrated in  FIG. 1  includes  13  layers; however more or fewer layers may be used.  FIG. 2  illustrates an embodiment of battery  10  in an assembled configuration.  FIG. 3A  and  FIG. 3B  illustrate an embodiment of a configuration of battery  10  in a cross-sectional view. 
     Battery  10  is preferably sized to have a compact form factor (e.g., a thickness of about 0.5 mm and diameter of about 5 mm for the embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 2 ). It is appreciated that battery  10  of the present description may be scaled to any number of sizes according to the particular application or use. 
     The circular outer shape of battery  10  illustrated in  FIGS. 1, 2, 3A and 3B  may be another shape as desired for a particular use. Examples of other shapes include rectangular, hexagonal, octagonal, other polygonal shape with or without equal-length sides, oval, or other regular or irregular shape. In an embodiment, a battery structured in a manner similar to battery  10  includes an opening extending through the entire assembly such that the battery may be positioned around a post or other protrusion or such that a component may be moved into or through the opening. 
     Referring to  FIG. 1 , battery  10  includes an anode cell and a cathode cell separated by a barrier layer. The anode cell and the cathode cell are each formed of a base cell structure defining a base cell volume, and dry, compacted active particles are disposed in the base cell volume. The base cell structure in the embodiment in  FIG. 1  is a containment ring  20 . The anode cell includes a first base cell structure  12  in which active particles are disposed. The cathode cell includes a second base cell structure  14  in which active particles are disposed. For each base cell structure, an inner adhesive layer  18   a  and an outer adhesive layer  18   b  are positioned on opposite sides of the containment ring  20 . 
     In an embodiment, each base cell structure is provided as a ring-shaped laminate formed of an inner adhesive layer  18   a  and an outer adhesive layer  18   b  adhered on opposite sides of the containment ring  20 , and the ring-shaped laminate defines the base cell volume in which active particles are disposed to form the anode cell or the cathode cell. 
     A separator  16  provides a barrier layer between the anode cell and the cathode cell. A first electrode plate  22  is positioned adjacent to the outer adhesive layer  18   b  of the anode cell and a second electrode plate  22  is positioned adjacent to the outer adhesive layer  18   b  of the cathode cell. An endplate  24  is positioned adjacent to each electrode plate  22 . 
     In an embodiment, separator  16  includes porous material to allow passage of ions between the anode and cathode. In an embodiment, separator  16  includes porous material to allow passage of electrolyte between the anode and cathode. In an embodiment, separator  16  includes a hydrophilic material. In an embodiment, separator  16  includes a very thin film (e.g., 25.4 μm or 0.001 inch thick) including a hydrophilic, porous material. In an embodiment, separator  16  includes Cellophane P00 (from Futamura, USA Inc.). Separator  16  may include materials additional or alternative to those described above. 
     The active particles of the first or second base cell structures  12 ,  14  form an active component shape within battery  10  as manufactured (as indicated by respective disc shapes in the exploded view of  FIG. 1 ), and the active component shape has a surface area which will be in contact with electrolyte. 
     In general, capacity of a battery may be increased by increasing a surface area of the active component shape, such as by increasing cell volume; however, this would be counter-indicative for the goal of decreasing dimensions of a battery. 
     As provided for in the present disclosure, capacity of battery  10  can be increased without increasing cell volume. The active component shapes formed by active particles  12  or  14  as disposed in battery  10  are limited by the cell volume of the base cell structure used; however, as described in the present disclosure, a surface area to volume ratio of individual active particles of first and/or second base cell structures  12 ,  14  themselves can increase capacity of battery  10 . Accordingly, active particles of first and second base cell structures  12 ,  14  are very fine particles, which provides for a significant increase in surface area that a respective electrolyte will contact. In an embodiment, active particles of first and second base cell structures  12 ,  14  are dry, compacted particles having average particulate sizes of less than 1 μm. 
     Active particles of first and second base cell structures  12 ,  14  may be compacted before and/or after being disposed in a base cell volume to obtain the respective anode cell or cathode cell. 
     In an embodiment, active particles of first base cell structure  12  of the anode include silver oxide (e.g., Ag(I)O) powder having an average particulate size of less than 500 nm. While 500 nm is presently the smallest average particle size that is generally commercially available for Ag(I)O, it is appreciated that alternative forms of Ag(I)O may become commercially available, or a process may be developed, to obtain Ag(I)O having an average particle size that is less than 500 nm, and even significantly less. In addition to or alternative to Ag(I)O, other anode materials may also be employed as appropriate, particularly those available in or processable to nanopowder particulate size. The smaller the particle size, the larger the surface area to volume ratio of each particle becomes, and the more particles may be disposed in a given volume. Accordingly, the use of nanoparticles provides for an increase in total contact surface area between the active component and the electrolyte, and thus the higher the capacity of the battery. 
     In an embodiment, active particles of second base cell structure  14  of the cathode include a zinc powder having an average particulate size of less than 100 nm. As with active particles of first base cell structure  12 , smaller average particle size nanoparticles (e.g., less than 50 nm) may be employed when and where available. 
     In an embodiment, active particles of second base cell structure  14  of the cathode include a zinc powder mixed with a polymeric binder to help bind the zinc powder and aid in handling and compression of the powder. In an embodiment, a composition of active particles of second base cell structure  14  is 90%-99% zinc with the remainder being a polymeric binder. For example, in an embodiment, a composition of active particles of second base cell structure  14  is 95% zinc and 5% polymeric binder; in an embodiment, a composition of such active particles is 95% zinc and 5% polyethylene oxide (PEO). In an example of a method of manufacture, the PEO is added to and mixed with the zinc powder in dry form, and then pressure is applied to the mixture, generating a pressure-induced binding of the zinc powder and PEO powder. In addition to or alternative to zinc and PEO, other cathode materials may also be employed as appropriate, particularly those available in or processable to nanopowder particulate size. 
     The battery configuration and methods of manufacture disclosed herein, although suited for formation of many types of batteries and for the use of many types of active components, are particularly adapted to accommodating dry nanoparticles of less than 50 nm. For example, the methods of manufacture disclosed herein is particularly suited to compacting and confining nanoparticles in a dry form (e.g., not in a slurry or in the presence of liquid or electrolyte) to fill the anode cell and the cathode cell with densely packed nanoparticles. 
     The layered structure of battery  10  is configured to aid in the manufacturing process, and specifically with distribution and compaction of the nanopowders of the anode and cathode in the small confines of the form factor of battery  10 . 
     In an embodiment, one or both containment rings  20  include a thin polymeric layer that provides a moisture barrier which is also biochemically inert and chemically resistant. 
     In an embodiment, one or both containment rings  20  include a poly-chloro-trifluoroethylene (PCTFE) film (e.g., such as manufactured under tradename ACLAR, by HONEYWLL INTERNATIONAL, INC.). 
     In an embodiment, the containment rings  20  each have a design height of 101 μm (or about 0.004 in) and the active particles  12  or  14  are shown extending approximately to a height of the respective containment rings  20 . In other embodiments, the containment rings  20  have a height less than 101 μm or greater than 101 μm to accommodate a desired mass and density of active particles of first or second base cell structures  12 ,  14 . In an embodiment, the containment ring  20  of the anode cell has a different height than the containment ring  20  of the cathode cell. 
     The cathode cell and the anode cell are defined by the containment rings  20  and also by the shared separator  16  on one (inner) side and a pair of electrode plates  22  on the opposing (outer) sides. In an embodiment, the separator  16  has a design thickness of 25.4 μm. In an embodiment, each electrode has a design thickness of 25.4 μm. Other thicknesses of separator  16  and electrode plates  22  are also envisioned. 
     In an embodiment, containment rings  20  have an annular shape as illustrated in  FIG. 1 , a designed total particulate mass of the anode active particles and the cathode active particles together is 4 mg, the inner walls of the containment rings  20  (defining the respective cell volumes) have a design diameter of d=3.81 mm (or about 0.15 in), and each of the anode cell and the cathode cell has a design height of h=101 μm (e.g., the design volume V of each of the anode and cathode cells is V=πr2h=π(d)2h and the average density of active particles of first or second base cell structures  12 ,  14  is D=mass/2V). This embodiment is provided by way of example, and average density will vary depending on the specific materials of active particles of first and second base cell structures  12 ,  14 , the size and shape of the basic cell structure used for the anode cell, the size and shape of the basic cell structure used for the cathode cell, and amount of compression used on active particles of first and/or second base cell structures  12 ,  14 , among other variables. Further, depending on a variety of the same or different variables, density of active particles of first base cell structure  12  may differ significantly from the density of active particles second base structure  14 , and density of active particles of the first and second base cell structures  12 ,  14  may differ significantly from the average density. 
     In an embodiment, at least one of the electrode plates includes nickel. Other metals or metal alloys or other conductive materials may be employed additionally or alternatively. In an embodiment, at least one of the electrode plates includes nickel coated on at least one side with silver. 
     In an embodiment, inner and outer adhesive layers  18   a  and  18   b  are positioned on opposing surfaces of containment rings  20 . In the embodiment shown in  FIG. 1 , adhesive layers  18   a  and  18   b  have an annular shape. In an embodiment, adhesive layers  18   a  and  18   b  have a design thickness of 25.4 μm (or about 0.001 in); other thicknesses are also envisioned. As shown in  FIG. 1 , the inner adhesive layers  18   a  define one or more slots or ports  26  that aid with insertion of electrolyte into the cells, which insertion may be performed during manufacture of battery  10 , or may be performed subsequent to a manufacturing of a battery  10  structure omitting electrolyte. 
     Adhesive layers  18   a  are configured to minimize movement of containment rings  20  against separator  16 . Adhesive layers  18   b  are configured to minimize movement of containment rings  20  against electrode plates  22 . In an embodiment, one or more sides of one or more of adhesive layers  18   a  and/or  18   b  have a high-friction surface to minimize movement. In an embodiment, one or more sides of one or more of adhesive layers  18   a  and/or  18   b  include an adhesive, which may include heat- or pressure-activated adhesive. In an embodiment, one or more sides of one or more of adhesive layers  18   a  and/or  18   b  include ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA). 
     Battery  10  is capped with endplates  24 , which may be electrically insulative and liquid-impermeable. In the configuration shown in the embodiment of  FIG. 1 , each endplate  24  includes an aperture  28  to provide for electrical contact with electrode plates  22 , and in this embodiment the endplates  24  are annular such that the apertures  28  are approximately centered. Other configurations are also envisioned. While apertures  28  are shown in each endplate  24 , in other embodiments a conductive tab (not shown) may extend from one of the electrode plates  22  along (e.g., outside, inside, or within) a housing or encapsulant of battery  10  to the endplate  24  adjacent to the other of the electrode plates  22  such that contact to both electrode plates  22  can be made through a single endplate  24  via one or more apertures  28 . 
       FIG. 2  illustrates an embodiment in which battery  10  includes an encapsulant  30 , which may be formed from a separate component or may be formed from endplate  24 . In an embodiment, endplate  24  may include or have attached an insulative layer with adhesive backing (not shown), where the insulative layer has a larger diameter than electrode plate  22  and containment ring  20  so that it may drape over the various layers of battery  10  and be formed into an insulative barrier for battery  10 . In an embodiment, both endplates  24  include or have attached such an insulative layer and, when draped, the insulative layers overlap each other and adhere to each other and/or to the layers of battery  10  to form an insulative barrier for battery  10 . The insulative barrier as formed, however formed, may be pliable or may be non-pliable (e.g., firm or solid). In an embodiment, the insulative barrier forms an encapsulant that seals battery  10 . In an embodiment, an encapsulant is formed over the insulative barrier. The encapsulant  30  may include one layer, or multiple layers of the same or different materials. In an embodiment, a material of an encapsulant includes a poly(vinylidene chloride) layer having one side coated with a chemically resistant adhesive layer. The encapsulant  30  preferably has high liquid impermeability and is chemically inert so as not to break down in the presence of chemicals. In an embodiment, battery  10  is configured to be implanted in the body or travel within a lumen of the body, and thus is configured to withstand and be biocompatible with body fluids, including acids or other fluids found in the gastrointestinal system. 
       FIG. 3A  illustrates a cross-section view of the battery  10 , along lines A-A of  FIG. 2 , according to one or more embodiments.  FIG. 3B  is an enlarged view of region B of  FIG. 3A . As shown by  FIG. 3A  and  FIG. 3B , the battery  10  includes a stacked concentric alignment of layers. The endplates  24  can form outer layers, and one or both of the endplates  24  can further be shaped or otherwise structured (e.g., combined with other materials) to form an encasement, so as to encase a thickness of the overall structure. The separator  16  separates layers of the battery  10  that form the anode cell from layers that form the cathode cell. The anode cell includes first base cell structure  12  concentrically disposed within containment ring  20 . The inner adhesive layer  18   a  is disposed between containment ring  20  of the anode cell and the separator  16 . The outer adhesive layer  18   b  is disposed between containment ring  20  and the electrode  22  for the anode cell. As described by some embodiments, the endplate  24  of the anode cell includes the aperture  28  to provide electrical access to the  22 . 
     The cathode cell includes the second base structure  14 , concentrically disposed with the containment ring  20 . The cathode cell also includes outer adhesive layer  18   b , disposed between the respective containment ring  20  and the separator  16 . Additionally, the respective inner adhesive layer  18   a  is disposed between the containment ring  20  and the electrode  22  of the cathode cell. As described  by some embodiments, the endplate  24  of the cathode cell can also include aperture  28  to provide electrical access to the respective electrode  22 . 
     With reference to  FIG. 3A , the concentric arrangement of the layers of the battery  10  are illustrated by the indicated lengths. The containment ring  20  includes a length (or diameter)  35 , with length  37  representing the void of the interior of the containment ring  20 . The electrodes  22  can include lengths  36 , so as to extend over a portion of the containment ring. The first and second base cell structures  12 ,  14  for retaining the respective anode and cathode active particles has a length  39 , which is less than the length  37  of the void, so that each of the base cell structures are concentrically retained within the corresponding containment ring of the respective anode and cathode cell. 
     As noted, particles may be compacted before or after being disposed in a base cell structure to form an anode cell or cathode cell. A layered structure such as battery  10  illustrated in  FIG. 1 ,  FIG. 3A  or  FIG. 3B  is particularly suited for either technique. In an embodiment, particles are compacted to a desired shape and size and disposed in a base cell volume. In an embodiment, particles are compacted to an intermediate shape and size, disposed in a base cell volume, and further compacted within the base cell volume to fit the size and shape of the base cell volume. In an embodiment, particles are disposed in a base cell volume and compacted one or more times to obtain a desired density of the particles within the base cell volume; particles may be added between compactions in an embodiment. 
       FIGS. 4A-40  illustrate a schematic diagram of an embodiment of a manufacturing process that may be implemented for manufacturing an embodiment of battery  10  of the present description. 
       FIG. 4A  illustrates that at block  410 , two sheets  40 ,  45  of adhesive layering and a sheet  50  of a structural material (which will form containment rings  20 , e.g., a material such as manufactured under tradename ACLAR, by HONEYWLL INTERNATIONAL, INC) are provided. Sheets  40 ,  45 , and  50  are shown from a top view. Although shown as having approximately the same dimensions from a top view, sheets  40 ,  45 ,  50  may not have the same dimensions; in an embodiment, sheets  40 ,  45 ,  50  do not have the same dimensions; in an embodiment, sheets  40 ,  45 ,  50  do not have the same dimensions and are cut to have the same dimensions prior to proceeding with process  400 ; in an embodiment, sheet  40  and sheet  45  represent different sections of a single sheet of adhesive layering. Although shown as being rectangular and having a length dimension much greater than a width dimension, sheets  40 ,  45 ,  50  may be any shape and have any dimensions. 
       FIG. 4B  illustrates that at block  415 , slots  60  are cut (e.g., by a laser cutting process) into one side of sheet  45  (slots  60  will become apertures  26  of battery  10 ). Sheet  45  is shown in top view. Slots  60  may extend partially or fully through sheet  45 . Dashed annular ring  65  indicates one of multiple base cell structures that will be formed during process  400  (see, e.g., block  435  illustrating base cell structure  85 ). Although shown as a one row by eight column array of annular rings  65 , more generally there may be multiple rows and multiple columns which may or may not be aligned. Slots  60  may extend fully across the to-be-formed base cell structure as indicated with respect to annular ring  65  (so as to form two apertures  26  on opposite sides of battery  10 ), or may instead extend only into the center portion of the annular ring (so as to form a single aperture  26  in battery  10 ). Other shapes of slot  60  are also envisioned (so as to form one or more apertures  26 ). For example, slots  60  may be Y-shaped or T-shaped (so as to form three apertures  26  in battery  10 ), cross-shaped or X-shaped (to form four apertures  26  in battery  10 ), star-shaped, or any other shape. 
       FIG. 4C  illustrates that at block  420 , to aid in preventing slots  60  from being filled during further processing, a thin sheet of heat resistant material  46  may be positioned to cover the slots. The material  46  may be removed at a later time during manufacture of battery  10  if desired. The combination of sheet  45  and material  46  forms an interim structure  70 . In an embodiment, material  46  includes poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) which is hydrophilic so can act as a wick to promote ingress of electrolyte. 
       FIG. 4D  illustrates that at block  425 , as seen in side view, sheet  40  is positioned adjacent to sheet  50 . Sheet  40  in this embodiment includes a backing  41  and an adhesive  42 . In an embodiment, adhesive  42  is a heat-activated adhesive and heat is applied to backing  41  to adhere sheet  40  to sheet  50 . In an embodiment, adhesive  42  is a pressure-activated adhesive and pressure is applied to backing  41  to adhere sheet  40  to sheet  50 . The combination of sheet  40  and sheet  50  forms an interim structure  75 . 
       FIG. 4E  illustrates that at  430 , interim structure  75  is turned over, and interim structure  70  is positioned adjacent to interim structure  75 . Sheet  45  incorporated into interim structure  70  in this embodiment includes a backing  43  and an adhesive  44  (e.g., including EVA). In an embodiment, adhesive  44  is a heat-activated adhesive and heat is applied to backing  43  to adhere interim structure  70  to interim structure  75 . In an embodiment, adhesive  44  is a pressure-activated adhesive and pressure is applied to backing  43  to adhere interim structure  70  to interim structure  75 . The combination of interim structure  70  and interim structure  75  forms an interim structure  80 . 
       FIG. 4F  illustrates that at block  435 , interim structure  80  is cut to form multiple base cell structures  85 . In an embodiment, backings  41  and/or  43  are removed prior to cutting. In an embodiment, backings  41  and/or  43  are removed after cutting, either directly after or at a later stage of process  400 . 
       FIG. 4G  illustrates that at block  440 , one base cell structure  85  is shown in perspective view on the left, and is shown flipped over in a planar view through line  86  on the right. Base cell structure  85  includes a containment ring  20  (formed from sheet  50 ) with an inner adhesive layer  18   a  (formed from interim structure  70 ) on one side and an outer adhesive layer  18   b  (formed from sheet  40 ) on the other  side. One aperture  26  (formed by slots  60 ) extends from an outside perimeter to an inside perimeter of inner adhesive layer  18   a . A single aperture  26  is shown for context; however, additional apertures  26  may be included as desired as discussed above. In this embodiment, aperture  26  does not extend through a thickness of inner adhesive layer  18   a.    
       FIG. 4H  illustrates that at block  445 , an electrode plate  22  is adhered to a first base cell structure  85 . 
       FIG. 41  illustrates that at block  450 , an endplate  24  is positioned or adhered adjacent to electrode plate  22  to form a subassembly  95 . Two instances of subassembly  95  will be used in the embodiment of process  400  to form battery  10 , referred to as subassembly  95  and subassembly  96 . In other embodiments, subassembly  95  and subassembly  96  are not structured following the same design. In an embodiment, subassembly  95  and/or subassembly  96  are procured already assembled as shown in block  450  and then are combined to form battery  10 . 
       FIG. 4J  illustrates that at block  455 , subassemblies  95  and  96  are inverted. Subassembly  95  defines a cavity  97  and subassembly  96  defines a cavity  98 . 
       FIG. 4K  illustrates that at block  460 , cavity  97  is filled with active particles (e.g., a nanopowder of silver oxide) to form an anode cell and cavity  98  is filled with active particles (e.g., a nanopowder including zinc) to form a cathode cell. If disposed in powder form, active particles for the anode cell and/or active particles of the cathode cell are tamped and/or compacted to approximately uniformly fill respective cavity  97  and/or cavity  98 . 
       FIG. 4L  illustrates that at block  465 , a separator  16  is disposed on and may be adhered to adhesive layer  18   a  of either subassembly  95  or subassembly  96  on a side opposite electrode plate  22 . 
       FIG. 4M  illustrates that at block  470 , subassembly  95  and subassembly  96  are joined together with separator  16  between them in a manner such that adhesive layers  18   a  of both subassemblies  95 ,  96  are adjacent to separator  16 , to form a battery  10 ′. 
     For adhesive layers  18   a ,  18   b  which are heat-activated or pressure-activated, heat or pressure respectively may be employed at one or more stages of process  400  where desired, including at block  470 . 
       FIG. 4N  illustrates that at block  475 , an electrolyte  99   a  is introduced into the anode cell, to obtain an anode, and an electrolyte  99   b  is introduced into the cathode cell, to obtain a cathode. Electrolyte  99   a  and electrolyte  99   b  may be the same or different substances. In an embodiment electrolytes  99   a  and  99   b  are the same substance, potassium hydroxide flakes (caustic potash anhydrous KOH dry, 84-92%) mixed with water in a ratio of 100 μl water to 82 gm KOH. 
     In an embodiment, electrolyte  99   a  and/or electrolyte  99   b  is introduced by injection. In an embodiment, the dry assembly of battery  10 ′ (block  470 ) is subjected to a vacuum and then immersed in electrolyte  99   a  or  99   b  as the vacuum is removed so that electrolyte  99   a  or  99   b  is drawn into the anode cell and/or cathode cell. 
     In embodiments in which adhesive layer  18   a  is or includes a hydrophilic material (e.g., adhesive layer  18   a  includes PVA), the hydrophilic material may promote ingress of electrolyte  99   a  and/or electrolyte  99   b  by a wicking action through the small confines of apertures  26 . 
     Battery  10 ′ may optionally be stored in a dry state for a period of time without electrolyte  99   a  and/or without electrolyte  99   b . Prior to use, the electrolyte is then introduced. 
       FIG. 4O  illustrates that at block  480 , an encapsulant  30  such as described with respect to  FIG. 2  is disposed over battery  10 ′ to form battery  10 . Battery  10  may include ports (not shown) to allow for accessing apertures  26  to introduce electrolyte  99   a  and/or  99   b  subsequent to encapsulation. 
     As can be seen by process  400 , generation of multiple (e.g., n=36, n=64, n=80, n=500, or more) separate components or multiple base cell structures may (but not necessarily) be formed concurrently. 
     Process  400  may be varied or modified. For example, apertures  26  may be generated in either of the adhesive layers  18   a  or  18   b , the cathode cells or the anode cells may be generated sequentially or contemporaneously, or a base cell structure may be attached to the separator before being filled with active particles. 
       FIG. 5  shows an example of a battery discharge curve, illustrating bench performance of a battery structured according to the present description. The open circuit voltage of the battery was 1.56 V. The curve in  FIG. 5  shows a stable voltage of 1.47 Volts (V) across a 500 ohm load for a time period of approximately 30 minutes, indicating a battery capacity of approximately 1.47 milliampere hours (mA-h) or approximately 5.29 Coulombs. These results were achieved in a small form factor battery with diminutive outer dimensions of approximately 5.08 mm diameter and approximately 381 μm height (omitting end caps  22  and the encapsulant or housing). 
     In a bench test of another battery structured in accordance with the present description, the battery output was approximately 10 mA in a small form factor battery with diminutive outer dimensions of approximately 5.08 mm diameter and approximately 381 μm height (omitting end caps  22  and the encapsulant or housing). 
     An embodiment of a battery structured in accordance with the present description met the following requirements given for a specific application: voltage equal to or greater than 1.2 Volts, current equal to or greater than 10 mA with a 500 Ohm load, capacity of 0.5 mA-h or greater, and a form factor with less than 5.08 mm diameter and less than 381 μm height. 
     The foregoing description of various embodiments of the invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to limit the invention to the precise forms disclosed. Many modifications, variations and refinements will be apparent to practitioners skilled in the art. For example, embodiments of the device can be sized and otherwise adapted for various applications. Also, those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, numerous equivalents to the specific devices and methods described herein. Such equivalents are considered to be within the scope of the present invention and are covered by the appended claims below. 
     Elements, characteristics, or acts from one embodiment can be readily recombined or substituted with one or more elements, characteristics or acts from other embodiments to form numerous additional embodiments within the scope of the invention. Moreover, elements that are shown or described as being combined with other elements, can, in various embodiments, exist as standalone elements. Hence, the scope of the present invention is not limited to the specifics of the described embodiments, but is instead limited solely by the appended claims.