Patent Publication Number: US-2022235747-A1

Title: Advanced Metal Hydride Heat Transfer System Utilizing An Electrochemical Hydrogen Compressor

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation in part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/254,427, filed on Jan. 22, 2019 and currently pending, which is a continuation in part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/403,299, filed on Jan. 11, 2017 and currently pending, which claims the benefit of provisional patent applications No. 62/277,399 filed on Jan. 11, 2016, U.S. provisional patent application No. 62/288,417 filed on Jan. 28, 2016, U.S. provisional patent application No. 62/292,529, filed on Feb. 8, 2016, U.S. provisional patent application No. 62,297,123, filed on Feb. 18, 2016, U.S. provisional patent application No. 62/300,082, filed on Feb. 26, 2016, U.S. provisional patent application No. 62/303,300 filed on Mar. 3, 2016, U.S. provisional patent application No. 62/308,060 filed on Mar. 14, 2016, U.S. provisional patent application No. 62/315,664 filed on Mar. 30, 2016, U.S. provisional patent application No. 62/324,337 filed on Apr. 18, 2016, and U.S. provisional patent application No. 62/326,532 filed on Apr. 22, 2016; and application Ser. No. 16/254,427 claims the benefit of priority to U.S. provisional patent application 62/619,768 filed on Jan. 20, 2018; the entirety of each application listed above is herein incorporated by reference herein. 
    
    
     STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT LICENSE RIGHTS 
     This invention was made with government support under Department of Energy grant DE-EE0007040, and Department of Energy grant DE-SC0009636. The government has certain rights in the invention 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Field of the Invention 
     The present invention relates to electrochemical compressor-driven metal hydride heating/cooling elements and their use. 
     Background 
     The function of heat pumps is to remove heat from a heat source or reservoir at low temperature and to reject the heat to a heat sink or reservoir at high temperature. While many thermodynamic effects have been exploited in the development of heat pumps and refrigeration cycles, one of the most popular today is the vapor compression approach. This approach is sometimes called mechanical refrigeration because a mechanical compressor is used in the cycle. Any improvement in efficiency related to compressor performance can have significant benefits in terms of energy savings and thus have significant positive environmental impact. 
     Vapor compression heat pump cycles generally contain five important components. The first is a mechanical compressor that is used to pressurize a gaseous working fluid. After proceeding through the compressor, the hot pressurized working fluid is condensed in a condenser. The latent heat of vaporization of the working fluid is given up to a high temperature reservoir, often called the sink. The liquefied working fluid is then expanded at substantially constant enthalpy in a thermal expansion valve or orifice. The cooled liquid working fluid is then passed through an evaporator. In the evaporator, the working fluid absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from a low temperature reservoir often called a source. The last element in the vapor compression refrigeration cycle is the working fluid itself. 
     In conventional vapor compression cycles, the working fluid selection is based on the properties of the fluid and the temperatures of the heat source and sink. The factors in the selection include the specific heat of the working fluid, its latent heat of vaporization, its specific volume, and its safety. The selection of the working fluid affects the coefficient of performance of the cycle. In an electrochemical compressor the electrochemical characteristics of a potential working fluid is important. Fluids can be selected for active or passive participation in the compression system. An active material is driven through the compressor in a reversible redox reaction whereas passive working fluids are moved through the compressor by association with the electroactive species, in most cases H 2 . 
     For a refrigeration cycle operating between a lower limit, or source temperature, and an upper limit, or sink temperature, the maximum efficiency of the cycle is limited to the Carnot efficiency. The efficiency of a refrigeration cycle is generally defined by its coefficient of performance, which is the quotient of the heat absorbed from the sink divided by the net work input required by the cycle. 
     Any improvement in heat pump systems clearly would have substantial value. Electrochemical energy conversion is considered to be inherently better than other systems due to their relatively high exergetic efficiency. In addition, electrochemical systems are considered to be noiseless, modular, and scalable and can provide a long list of other benefits depending on the specific thermal transfer application. 
     Dry sorption systems based on metal hydrides to provide heating and cooling, metal hydride heating and cooling systems (MHHCS), are known. The coefficient of performance of most single stage MHHCS systems have been below 0.5 through the 1990&#39;s. A decade or so later, coefficient of performance as high as 1.5 has been reported. Most recently, coefficient of performance above 2.5 or better has been shown which can be better than conventional vapor compression systems. A major challenge in the development or application of the MHHCS units has been the development and availability of low capacity (dry) hydrogen compressors that can operate efficiently. 
     A traditional problem with mating electrochemical compressors to metal MHHCS units has been the need to provide dry hydrogen to the metal hydride units. Metal Hydrides are very sensitive to hydrolysis and any amount of moisture in the hydrogen gas will accelerates the aging of these compounds. In addition, the materials used for storing the hydrides are generally made from low alloy steels that are sensitive to aqueous corrosion as well as to hydrogen embrittlement, and the interactions between these two types of damage caused by the presence of moisture is a significant concern. 
     Electrochemical systems typically require water for proton mobility and therefore provide a humidified hydrogen stream to the electrochemical compressor. Coupling an electrochemical compressor with a drying operation adds complexity and parasitic energy to the system, and increases both the overall cost of the system and operational costs. 
     Metal hydride heat pumps as well as electrochemical compressors are known devices with unique features and benefits. However, mating the two units for proper operation for appliances is non-trivial. There are numerous, sometimes subtle, often non-obvious elements that must be incorporated into systems to enable long-term, safe operation of an electrochemical compressor driven metal hydride heat pump. Therefore, there is a need for a low cost system and method to operate a metal hydride heat pump at low humidity levels. 
     Hybrid hot water heaters are now widely available as commercial products available for household and commercial use. The U.S. Department of Energy has now sponsored regulations to ensure that all hot water heaters greater than 55 gallons are produced in hybrid formats. 
     These hot water heaters can save as much as 60% of the energy to heat water, and be connected to utility systems to enable wide scale utility demand responsiveness due to their ability to store energy. However, despite rebates, and aggressive marketing adoption of these systems has been very slow. 
     There are many reasons for this hesitation in the market place. On the one hand, they are noisy; on the other hand, they have a bad reputation due to reliability issues (some of which are related to vibration of the system resulting in piping becoming loose), and current heat pumps are not able to respond to demand spikes (and as a result most systems are augmented with resistance heaters). There are also concerns regarding their use of GWP refrigerants, making them not completely ecofriendly. 
     There is therefore a need for a more advanced, noiseless, vibration free, eco-friendly, high efficiency hybrid hot water heater. A typical residential system specification is provided below. In this invention, we are providing an electrochemical compressor with a metal hydride heat exchanger which has been detailed in a prior patent. Prior details did not provide for specific advancements that are required for specific hot water heater application use. In this invention 4 separate metal hydride systems are defined, and a more advanced metal hydride heat exchanger for use with these metal hydride compounds is provided. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention is directed to an electrochemical compressor-driven metal hydride heat pump system. In an exemplary embodiment, the metal hydride heat pump utilizes a dry hydrogen gas without excessive parasitic loads, such as from a condenser. One advantage of these systems is the elimination of 
     Freon and other refrigerants that are a major environmental concern. Another advantage is the noiseless, and vibration free operation of the systems. Finally, without the parasitic load of desiccation systems for the hydrogen gas, the systems provide very high efficiencies (i.e. high coefficients of performance), for many important applications. 
     The heat pump system utilizes the highly exothermic absorption of hydrogen gas into a hydride-forming metal alloy or intermetallic compound. Metal hydride (MH) formation is highly reversible, and the endothermic desorption of hydrogen from the metal hydride matrix requires a heat supply approximately equal to the heat released during hydrogen absorption. Both of these processes are represented by the reaction. 
     
       
         
           
             
               M 
               + 
               
                 
                   𝒳 
                   2 
                 
                 ⁢ 
                 
                   H 
                   2 
                 
               
             
             ↔ 
             
               
                 MH 
                 𝒳 
               
               + 
               
                 Δ 
                 ⁢ 
                 
                     
                 
                 ⁢ 
                 H 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     where M represents the hydride-forming metal of choice. 
     In an exemplary embodiment, the device or system of the present invention comprises at least one electrochemical compressor (ECC) to transfer pressurized hydrogen between two packed beds of metal hydride material as shown schematically in  FIGS. 1 and 2 . The heat and cold released by the metal hydride bed during the adsorption/desorption process will be extracted by a working fluid circulating through a heat exchanger to transfer heat between the exothermic metal hydride reactor. Coupling an electrochemical compressor with metal hydride packed bed reactors summarily represents a solid-state heating technology with no moving parts and without the thermodynamic irreversibility associated with conventional vapor compression cycles, thereby enabling operational efficiencies beyond Carnot cycle limitations. The only irreversibility associated with the electrochemical compressor and metal hydride packed bed system arises from the entropy produced in their respective undergirding electrochemical (hydrogen oxidation/reduction) and chemical (hydrogen absorption/desorption) reactions, thus allowing gains in efficiency that are unachievable with purely mechanical heating cycles. 
     The system of the present invention overcomes limitations inherent to previous compressor-driven metal hydride heat pumps concepts that engaged perfluorinated sulfonic acid (PFSA) proton exchange membrane (PEM) design requiring alternating desiccation/rehydration of the Hydrogen stream and flow circuit design 1,2,3,4  The electrochemical compressor operates through electrocatalytic oxidation of hydrogen at the anode side of a proton exchange membrane at low pressure, reduction of protons on the cathode side of the membrane to yield hydrogen at high pressure. PFSA membranes must remain well hydrated in order to maintain proton conductivity, and are also restricted to operating temperatures to below 80° C. Consequently, the hydrated hydrogen stream exiting the compressor must be desiccated (inherently non-continuous; and parasitic) since water vapor will denature the metal hydride bed by transforming it to a metal hydroxide. 
     In an exemplary embodiment, the electrochemical compressor utilizes a novel phosphoric acid-functionalized polybenzimidazole/polytetrafluoroethylene (PBI/PTFE) composite membrane which has demonstrated markedly improved thermal and mechanical stability over conventional per-fluorinated sulfonic acid PEMs at higher temperatures (100-200° C.) while maintaining acceptable proton conductivity. The use of ultra-thin, composite membranes for use in electrochemical devices, such as electrochemical compressors, is taught in pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/943,619, to Bahar, and entitled, Active Components And Membranes For Electrochemical Compression; the entirety of which is hereby incorporated by reference. Composite membranes having a thickness of 25 μm or less, including 20, 15 and even 10 μm or less are disclosed. These thin composite membranes may comprise polybenzimidazole (PBI) which does not require hydration of the membrane as does PFSA membrane. PBI membranes are typically functionalized with phosphoric acid to provide proton mobility. The imidazole rings are capable of functioning as a proton donor or proton acceptor. PBI membranes are also broadly chemical resistant and has high strength and structural stability. Since the (PBI/PTFE) composite membrane derives its proton conductivity from functionalization with phosphoric acid, the membrane is able to operate in a “dry state”, eliminating the need for desiccation of the high pressure hydrogen gas upstream of the metal hydride reactor. In an exemplary embodiment the metal hydride heat pump comprises an electrochemical compressor that incorporates a composite PBI membrane that has a thickness of 25 μm or less, including 20, 15 and even 10 μm or less, and any range between and including the thickness values provided. 
     In another embodiment, a second class of membranes based on a combination of pyridine and polysulfone for electrochemical applications is utilized in the electrochemical compressor. Sold under the TPS brand by Advent Technologies, these pyridines and polysulfone materials are provided as a raw extruded film. In an exemplary embodiment, the pyridine and polysulfone materials are made into composite membranes, such as by casting them on or into ultra-thin, strong, porous reinforcing material, such as ePTFE membrane (sold under the Gore-tex brand) by W.L. Gore &amp; Associates, Newark, Del. A composite membrane, as described herein, may be thin, strong, and high performance and capable of being functionalized with Phosphoric acid. A composite membrane may comprise an integral reinforcing membrane, such as ePTFE membrane, or may comprise reinforcing discrete elements, such as fibers that are disposed on or into the ionomer material, i.e. PFSA, PBI or the combination of pyridine and polysulfone. 
     Membranes comprising polybenzimidazole or combinations of pyridine and polysulfone exhibit higher ionic resistitvity than traditional ion exchange membranes of similar thickness, however, in thin composite form, the films can be made almost an order of magnitude thinner and therefore provide low overall resistance. The graph provided in  FIG. 4  shows some of the properties of the TPS films, again a combination of pyridine and polysulfone. But most importantly, the films do not generally need water for proton conduction, and as a result can tolerate dry hydrogen input and provide dry hydrogen output suitable for metal hydride storage. The membranes can be further modified to include tertiary components such as silica or zeolites that can further entrain moisture, if any, or any other contaminants and ensure cleaner output, such as compressed gas. 
     It is important to recognize that metal hydride need specific pressures to absorb hydrogen, and other specific pressures, generally lower than the absorption pressures to desorb the hydrogen. The ratio of the absorption to desorption pressure Higher efficiencies are gained when the pressure ratio of the pressure of the output gas to the pressure of the incoming gas is minimized. In one embodiment, the pressure ratio of the electrochemical compressor is as high as 20 or more, or about 30 or more, 35 or more and any range between and including the pressure ratio&#39;s provided. However, lower ratios are better, and more efficient (i.e. require less power). Some metal hydrides such as for example, LiNi4.8Al02 are reported to have P(low) of 2.47 atm and a P(high) of 35.84 atm i.e a pressure ratio requirement of 14.51; another hydride Mm Ni(4.7) Fe(0.3) has a P(L) of 1.29 atm and a P(H) of 12.14 i.e. a ratio of 9.41. 
     It is important to understand, that the metal hydride heating system, or heat pump described herein is not only interested in low pressure ratio metal hydrides (for highest efficiency) but also materials that have heat/cool enthalpies (i.e. Kj/mol H2 absorbed or desorbed) and high hydrogen absorption, low density (weight), and also high recycling capacity. 
     For most appliance applications, literally thousands, perhaps as many as millions of cycles are required. Novel and specific operating strategies that maximize metal hydride cycle life, are provided:
         a. Where the metal hydride is not stretched to is physical limits i.e. not to its lowest desorption pressure and highest desorption pressure (i.e. pressure ratios less than their reported absolute limits are used i.e. 90% or 80% or 50% of their pressure limits). By doing this the medium is not expanded or contracted to its full extent and therefore not compromised. i.e. had its life shortened. In other words, the absorption and desorption remains in the linear portion of the “Van&#39;t Hoff” plots for the specific compound.   b. Hydrogen gas is fed in the driest state possible, such for example inserting a desiccant system that is used less periodically—perhaps not each time the system is cycled, but once in a while, so that the parasitic load for desiccation is minimized. A side loop or stream that can be opened and shut periodically could be established with a desiccation system put in place to effectively ensure the cleanliness of the hydrogen gas.   c. Additives are added to the metal hydride such as fluoropolymer powder or silica etc. (to those familiar with the art) to enable hydrogen gas to access metal hydride media, but to also allow for expansion and contraction without the hydride powder bumping into each other and damaging adjacent particles. Fluoropolymer particles or powder added to the metal hydride may prevent metal hydride particles from fusing together and may maintain a high surface area of hydriding.   d. Metal hydride powder could be packaged in tubes (such as ePTFE tubes) and connected to a central mandrill and contained in a uniform and consistent manner to allow for gas access, but also stable containment without excessive movement and bumping into other particles. While there are patents for similar systems, they all use metal tubing. As described herein, porous ePTFE tubes are provided (as well as other similar porous materials) as an alternative containment system. The metal hydride medium may be segregated inside narrow tubes, so that not only the material is ‘separated’ from creating a large ‘fused block’ but to also provide very high surface area for heat exchange as well as a short distance to the metal hydride material itself to improve heat exchange efficiency.   e. Another approach would be to put the metal hydride medium inside a small canister that may have open ports, or inside an expanded PTFE (ePTFE) tube, such as either in a continuous line, or in small packets and then place these packets inside a larger cylinder for hydriding and safe storage and handling. Expanded PTFE tubes can be purchased from companies such as W.L. Gore &amp; Associates or Phillips Scientific. Any suitable permeable tubing that can withstand the chemical and temperature requirements of the metal hydride heat exchanger may be used. One benefit of the ePTFE systems is that they can withstand thermal activity, not only when the system absorbs hydrogen, but also, when the metal hydride is initially preheated and prepared for the hydriding system. Alternatively, plastic straws made of thermally conductive plastic (such as those made by Celanese) may be used to house the hydride material—rather than a porous medium, or a metal tube, and then these straws can be connected to a header for hydriding purposes. These tubes could be plugged with stainless steel frit or porous plastic to ensure that the metal hydride remains in the tube, while hydrogen can access it.   f. Metal Hydride housings may also be made using various layers of conductive materials such as aluminum and thermal plastics, etc. to avoid any hydrogen escape directly through the material in question       

     In the most traditional of metal hydride heat pump systems (MHHCS), a compressor sits between two metal hydride tanks that are sequentially filled and emptied with hydrogen. An electrochemical compressor&#39;s polarity can be reversed, or multiple compressors can be used for this. 
     While this is obviously feasible, alternative configurations are feasible, with say two different metal hydride compounds in different tanks, or where the output from one hydride tank enters the input of the other tank (i.e. the P(I) of one tank is that P(H) of the other tank). This is termed a regenerative unit. 
     The benefit of a regenerative unit is that now the electrochemical compressor only needs to ‘pump’ in one direction from the P(I) of the Low (receiving tank) to the P(H) of the other tank. By not reversing the polarity of the ECC, membrane and electrode life are maximized, and system reliability is retained. In an exemplary embodiment, the metal hydride heating system describe herein is a regenerative system, and may function in a mode wherein the polarity of the ECC is NOT reversed, which may provide a better, more durable system. 
     In this context, one option for creating a high compression ratio from an electrochemical compressor, is to put multiple cells in series. In a normal compressor configuration, the cells are plumbed in parallel, but powered in series. But where higher compression ratios are required for specific metal hydrides or hydride tank configurations, MEA&#39;s can be combined i.e. plumbed in series initially in short trains, and then in parallel as usual. One benefit of short MEA trains is the exponential increase in pressure feasible. One important benefit of this system, is that individual MEA&#39;s can be operated at lower discrete voltages i.e. closer to their Nernst potential, and then combined so that the compressor as a whole can be operated at the bus voltages required by electronics system employed for the specific appliance where the MHHCS is required. 
     In an exemplary embodiment, a first hydride portion or tank comprises a metal hydride that has a desorption pressure that is higher than an absorption pressure of a second metal hydride contained within a second metal portion. The first and second metal hydride portions may be configured in series in a loop closed loop configuration of a metal hydride heat transfer system, or in parallel. In one embodiment a first and second metal hydride portion having different metal hydrides therein are configured on the same side of an electrochemical compressor and in another embodiment, they are configured on opposing sides of an electrochemical compressor. 
     It is also important to recognize that the low pressure entering the compressor can be sub-ambient or at least low enough that the hydrogen gas may have problems being transported to the surface of the electrode(s). Xergy Inc. has developed back ported and side ported cell technology (patented in the past) that allows for low pressure feeds. These systems allow the MEA&#39;s to “breathe”. An exemplary metal hydride heating system, as described herein, may operate at low pressures, utilizing low pressure absorption/desorption metal hydrides and breathing design cells for use with metal hydride systems. Note that traditional compressors (in the past) have been variants of automotive fuel cell designs with inlet ports place within bipolar plates. i.e not side ported (at 90 degrees to the cells), but in the direction as the cell assembly plane. 
     One other novel improvement to MHHCS systems with ECC compressors provided herein, is the use of another side stream of input hydrogen from a small electrolyzer (generator) in connection with water, where hydrogen is produced, put through the desiccant column and then added to the MHHCS system to make up for any hydrogen that may be depleted over time as it irreversibly complexes with metal hydride compounds. Or alternatively a small side cylinder of hydrogen can be provided for this purpose. 
     The invention is directed to an electrochemical compressor-driven metal hydride heat pump system. In one embodiment, an electrochemical compressor, as described herein, comprises an electrochemical cell and a working fluid consisting of hydrogen. The electrochemical cell is capable of producing high-pressure gas consisting of an electrochemically-active component, such as hydrogen. 
     A heating or cooling device, as described herein, comprises an electrochemical hydrogen compressor or hydrogen compressors coupled to at least one tank, (preferably two) containing a packed bed of metal hydride-forming alloy, that may systemically be configured in thermal communication with an object to be heated, as shown in  FIG. 2 . A heating device, as described herein, comprises an electrochemical compressor configured to control the pressure of hydrogen gas passing between at least two metal hydride tanks. The absorption of hydrogen gas into suitable metal alloy leads to the exothermic formation of a metal hydride, producing useful heat as shown in  FIG. 1A . The endothermic desorption of hydrogen gas is reversible, requiring about as much heat as that released by absorption, which thereby produces useful cooling, as shown in  FIG. 1B . 
     In an exemplary embodiment, a working fluid comprises or preferably consists essentially of pure, dry hydrogen. In an exemplary embodiment, the working fluid consists of at least 90% hydrogen, or at least 95% hydrogen, or at least 99% hydrogen. The electrochemical compressor comprises a membrane electrode assembly that comprises an anode, a cathode, and a cation exchange membrane located between the anode and cathode. 
     In an exemplary embodiment, the cation exchange membrane comprises a phosphoric acid-functionalized polybenzimidazole/polytetrafluoroethylene (PBI/PTFE) composite membrane, however any cation exchange material may be used that can operate at low humidity and high temperatures (100-200° C.) with high mechanical durability. The composite membrane may also include an additive such as silica to further assist in dry hydrogen compression. The anode and cathode comprise a catalyst suitable for running the reactions as described herein. At the anode, hydrogen is oxidized into protons and electrons. The protons are then transferred across the cation exchange membrane to the cathode, where the hydrogen is produced through a reduction reaction. A power supply may be coupled to the anode and cathode to drive the reactions and transfer the hydrogen working fluid across the membrane electrode assembly at constant volume, thereby pressurizing the hydrogen. A working fluid inlet is coupled with the anode, or anode side of the electrochemical compressor and a working fluid outlet is coupled with the cathode, or cathode side of the electrochemical compressor. An electrochemical compressor-driven metal hydride heating element further comprises at least two tanks of metal hydride-forming material between which the compressor passes the hydrogen. Heat transfer elements thermally coupled to the tanks, including but not limited to heat exchange coils circulating a suitable heat transfer medium, can be used in conjunction with a circulator pump to transfer useful heat produced away from whichever metal hydride tank is exothermically absorbing hydrogen at the moment. The invention can be alternately used as a cooling unit by modifying the heat exchange loop to transfer useful cooling from a metal hydride tank undergoing endothermic desorption. 
     The high pressure side of the compressor stream could be used to drive a turbine, to help in pumping the liquid in communication with the heat exchanges. 
     Note this system could be applied to a wide variety of applications already disclosed such as hot water heaters, but also to very cool (cryogenic) type applications depending on the hydride selected. 
     Silica or other additives can be added to the membrane (to improve performance). And the use of a composite ion exchange membrane certainly add to the ability of the system to withstand pressure difference 
     While the example provides for two hydride beds in communication with a single compressor, one could potentially use two compressors as opposed to one, so you minimize valving and the compressor(s) can be operated at pressures above the low pressure and below the high pressure points of the hydride (to minimize hydride stresses and extend hydride life). Could be say 80% of the range. 
     In fact, it is preferable to use metal hydrides where the ratio of high pressure to low is minimized (i.e. more efficient system). And one hydride tank and a second non-hydride storage bottle(s) saving on expensive hydride supply. 
     It is possible to use air for cooling, and the liquid loop for heating purposes in thermal communication with the hydride bed. 
     For the purposes of this disclosure, the tubular elements that contain metal hydrides are referred to as heat exchangers. 
     A heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat between one or more fluids. The fluids may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or they may be in direct contact. It is important to recognize that heat exchangers can be classified in many different ways. For the purposes of this disclosure, heat exchangers are characterized into recuperative and regenerative types. Most appliances use recuperative type heat exchangers. A regenerative heat exchanger, or more commonly a regenerator, is a type of heat exchanger where heat from the hot fluid is intermittently stored in a thermal storage medium before it is transferred to the cold fluid. To accomplish this, the hot fluid is brought into contact with the heat storage medium, then the fluid is displaced with the cold fluid, which absorbs the heat. A metal hydride container may be considered a regenerative heat exchangers, as further described herein. For example, a secondary working fluid may be used to exchange heat with the metal hydride heat exchanger for delivery to another thermal reservoir as needed in the appliance in question. A secondary working fluid, or heat exchange fluid, may be any suitable fluid including, but not limited to, water, ethylene glycol, or simply air or a gas—as needed. 
     In an exemplary embodiment, there is a primary loop of an electrochemical compressor driving a working fluid such as hydrogen into a metal hydride bed (heat exchanger), and eventually (directly or indirectly) receiving the same fluid back to the electrochemical compressor, and a secondary loop of a secondary working fluid, or heat exchange fluid, that actually exchanges heat with the metal hydride heat exchanger and carries the heat from the heat exchanger to a secondary location, such as appliance. 
     In an exemplary embodiment, an electrochemical compressor and metal hydride heat exchanger or pump are configured in a hybrid hot water system. The heat pump may utilize ethylene glycol as the heat exchange fluid and the ethylene glycol may be pumped through or around a metal hydride heat exchanger and then into a hot water heater, where it is in thermal communication with water within the tank to heat the water within the tank. A coil of tubing that transports the ethylene glycol may be configured in the bottom of the hot water tank for heating the water therein, for example. The ethylene glycol travels in a loop and releases its heat to the water, and may optionally also exchange heat also using classical air coil(s) with the environment. 
     Metal hydride beds, or heat exchangers may comprise of many different types of hydrides and formulations. Depending on the appliance involved, the metal hydride formulation may be optimized for different temperature (and or pressure) regimes for the specific application. For example, for heating a system based on LaNi(4.8)Al(0.2) may be employed and for cryogenic cooling a system may empoly TiCr(1.9). It is not uncommon in regenerative systems for metal hydride materials in different tanks to be made of different alloys, and the output from one unit be used as the input for another one. Also, it is entirely feasible that a secondary loop, or heat exchange loop, for one tank (hydride heat exchanger) may be different to the secondary loop for a second tank. ie. one could be air cooled and another water cooled. 
     An exemplary alloy of the present invention is: Ti(0.993)Zr(0.018)Mn(1.511)V(0.429)Fe(0.069)Cr(0.052)Ni(0.0016) [Actual]. Other alloys that may be used include but are not limited to, TiCrMn0.8, TiCr1.9 and TiCrMn 
     Virtually all metal hydrides are sensitive to contamination with water, therefore it is critical to ensure that the impact of water be minimized. One way to do this is to use a classical desiccant (water removal) system in line between the compressor and the metal hydride heat exchanger, as described herein. However, desiccant may also be added as a ‘topping’ layer to the metal hydride system, or even blended in with the metal hydride to preferentially absorb the water. One known desiccant medium is silica, but there are countless other materials well known in the art. Desiccant media may also contain catalytic materials such as palladium or platinum that can accelerate water absorption or conversion of any contaminants in the hydrogen stream. 
     Tubes could be placed in shell and tube heat exchanger type configurations, and water or ethylene glycol could be circulated in the shell, with baffles, to ensure high thermal transfer; and operation with minimal sensible heat loss. 
     Once the heat exchangers are established, clearly operating the hydrogen compressor, and configuration of the plumbing lines is vital for overall successful operation. 
     Depending on what membrane is used, the electrochemical compressor may need to be preheated before start-up and some areas of the lines may need to be preheated too. Obviously, stacks can contain a layer of (flat) heating plate to help with start-up and temperature maintenance. This might be especially important on a cold day. 
     One benefit of a metal hydride heat pump is that the heat generated (or removed) is cycled, and the rate of cycling determines the total wattage of heating or cooling available. Thus, appliance operators can, set different cycling rates for different points in an appliances operation—to ensure most efficient operation. Also, electrochemical compressors can be operated at different operating points. 
     Thus, for example, in a hot water heater, the system can be cycled frequently if there is a sudden high volume demand for hot water, or cycled slowly if the system is simply trying to maintain the tank at a given temperature without any water demand. 
     Examples of plumbing configurations are provided. Note that in these examples, the compressor is always operating in the same direction. However, compressors can also operate with polarity being reversed instead of using valves to control the direction of flow. 
     In an exemplary embodiment, an electrochemical compressor can be provided with integrated secondary loop for heat exchange with the metal hydride. For example, plumbing of a secondary loop may be configured pass through at least a portion of the bipolar plates. In addition, the bipolar plates may be designed to have integrated metal hydride beds to absorb or desorb hydrogen and produce and receive heat. This integrated system reduces the potential for losses of hydrogen from connections and valves, concentrates the heat exchanger around the compressor and reduces complexity. An integrated metal hydride heat exchanger may not require any valves. The whole unit can be made smaller; and integrated into one hermetically sealed unit that performs all the key functions required for heat exchange. 
     Exemplary bipolar plates of an integrated metal hydride heat exchanger can be made of two stamped metal plates, and laser welded on the seams. A secondary fluid or heat exchanger fluid can be ported in and out of the bipolar plates. The system can be filled with Hydrogen gas through external porting and then simply supplemented with hydrogen when an if necessary. An integrated metal hydride heat exchanger may be designed to be fully hermetically sealed or configured inside a hermetically sealed enclosure. An exemplary metal hydride heat exchanger may comprise a plurality of electrochemical compressor units in series. Hydrogen may be pumped one direction to produce heat and then reversed to draw heat from the heat exchange loop that is integrated into the system. 
     Example: 50 Gallon Hybrid Hot Water Heater 
     The system specifications are: 1350 watts heating at 50° C.; reject to ambient. Select a hydride system for the heat exchanger. Based on the hydride system, design the balance of the plant/system keeping in mind: 
     Thermal rates overwhelm kinetics (chemical reaction rates) 
     Generally: Heat of absorption (i.e. efficiency) increases for lower pressure hydrides. 
     Key elements (i.e. unique features) of this system involves the use of the heat exchangers at sub-ambient pressures due to the inclusion of the ECC. Also, calculations provided below, demonstrate how COP&#39;s greater than 5 are feasible. In addition, it is interesting to note that the system can be de-rated i.e. operated at higher voltages, and cycled rapidly, to provide for greater heat transfer rates that can lead to quick hot water supply and then the system can be throttled back so that it can operate at much higher COP&#39;s (i.e. lower ECC voltages). 
     In this way, the ECC stack can be reduced, i.e. sized for peak load, at high voltages, and yet high efficiency at small load conditions. Heat exchanger design is a critical advancement: 
     Table 1 shows the some of the rates of heating using a hydride heating system for a 50 gallon hot water heater. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 10.0 
                 l 
                   
                   
                 0.2  
                 volts 
                   
                   
               
               
                 10.0 
                 w 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 100.0 
                 sq cm active 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 0.2 
                 A/cm2 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 20.0 
                 A/cm2 
                   
                   
                 mea 
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 96485.0 
                 faradays constant 
                   
                 for one mole of electrons 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 192970.0 
                 2 mones of electronsfor one mole of H2 
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Total 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Amps 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 258579.8 
                 for 30 std liters 
                   
                   
                 watts 
                 needed 
                 Cell No. 
               
               
                 4309.663 
                 I in one minute 
                   
                   
                 861.9127 
                 4309.6630 
                 215.4832 
               
               
                 2154.832 
                 if in 2 minutes 
                   
                   
                 430.9663 
                 2154.8320 
                 107.7416 
               
               
                 861.9327 
                 if in 5 minutes 
                   
                   
                 172.3865 
                 861.9327 
                 43.0966 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 718.2772 
                 6 minutes 
                   
                   
                   
                 143.6554 
                 718.2772 
                 35.9139 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 5746.218 
                 if in 45 sec 
                   
                   
                 1149.2440 
                 5746.2180 
                 287.3109 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 28731.0900 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 50 
                 KJ/mol 2 
                   
                   
                 enthalpy of adsorption 
                 2.8731 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 66.96429 
                 KJ produced per fill 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 66964.29 
                 Joules 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 COP 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 186.0119 
                 watts of heating or cooling over 6 minutes 
                   
                 1.294848 
               
               
                 1116.071 
                 watts of heating or cooling over 1 minutes 
                   
                 1.294848 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Table 2 shows the efficiency of the system. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 10.0  
                 l 
                   
                   
                 0.05 
                 volts 
                   
                   
               
               
                 10.0 
                 w 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 100.0  
                 sq cm active 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 0.05 
                 A/cm2 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 5.0 
                 A/cm2 
                   
                   
                 mea 
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 96485.0 
                 faradays constant 
                   
                 for one mole of electrons 
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 192970.0 
                 2 mones of electronsfor one mole of H2 
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Total 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Amps 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 258579.8 
                 for 30 std liters 
                   
                   
                 watts 
                 needed 
                 Cell No. 
               
               
                 4309.663 
                 I in one minute 
                   
                   
                 215.4832 
                 4309.6630 
                 861.9327 
               
               
                 2154.832  
                 if in 2 minutes 
                   
                   
                 107.7416 
                 2154.8320 
                 430.9663 
               
               
                 861.9327  
                 if in 5 minutes 
                   
                   
                 43.0966 
                 861.9327 
                 172.3865 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 718.2772 
                 6 minutes 
                   
                   
                 35.9139 
                 15.9 
                 718.2772 
                 143.6554 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 5746.218 
                 if in 45 sec 
                   
                   
                 287.3109 
                 5746.2180 
                 1149.2440 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 114924.4000 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 50 
                 KJ/mol 2 
                   
                   
                 enthalpy of adsorption 
                   
                 11.4924 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 66.95429 
                 KJ produced per fill 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 66964.29  
                 Joules 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 COP 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 186.0119 
                 watts of heating or cooling over 6 minutes 
                   
                 5.17939 
               
               
                 1116.071  
                 watts of heating or cooling over 1 minutes 
                   
                 5.17939 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In an exemplary embodiment, the hydride specification is:
         MmNi(4.8)Al(0.2)
           At ambient—pressure: 1 atmosphere   At heat upgrading (rejection)—pressure: 2.7 atmospheres   Pressure (compression ratio): 2.7   
           Hydrogen absorption by weight: 1%   Mw: 564   Enthalpy (Absorption): 25 kj/Mol       

     An alternate hydride choice for the hot water system that utilizes MmNi(4.15)Al(0.85) In this exemplary embodiment, the hydride specification is:
         MmNi(4.15)Al(0.85)
           At ambient—pressure: 8.5 atmosphere   At heat upgrading (rejection)—pressure: 20 atmospheres   Pressure (compression ratio): 2.35   
           Hydrogen absorption by weight: 1%   Mw: 564   Enthalpy (Absorption): 25 kJ/Mol       

     An alternate hydride choice for the hot water system that utilizes LaNi(4.8)Al(0.2) In this exemplary embodiment, the hydride specification is:
         LaNi(5)
           At ambient—pressure: 2 atmosphere   At heat upgrading (rejection)—pressure: 5.4 atmospheres   Pressure (compression ratio): 2.7   
           Hydrogen absorption by weight: 1.3%   Mw: 432   Enthalpy (Absorption): 31.5 kJ/Mol       

     An alternate hydride choice for the hot water system that utilizes LaNi(4.8)Al(0.2) In this exemplary embodiment, the hydride specification is:
         LaNi(4.8)Al(0.2)
           At ambient—pressure: 1 atmosphere   At heat upgrading (rejection)—pressure: 2.9 atmospheres   Pressure (compression ratio): 2.9   
           Hydrogen absorption by weight: 1.1%   Mw: 430   Enthalpy (Absorption): 32 kJ/Mol       

     An alternate hydride choice for the hot water system that utilizes VaTi(17.5)Zr(7.5). In this exemplary embodiment, the hydride specification is:
         VaTi(17.5)Zr(7.5)
           At ambient—pressure: 0.02 atmosphere   At heat upgrading (rejection)—pressure: 0.1 atmospheres   Pressure (compression ratio): 5   
           Hydrogen absorption by weight: 2.0%   Mw: 5   Enthalpy (Absorption): 50 kJ/Mol       

     From this exemplary models of various hydride systems for hot water heaters, it can be concluded that alloy selection can be summarized as follows:
         For Ultra-high COP: Vanadium Alloys   For Best COP (Common Hydrides): LaNi(4.8)Al(0.2) ($40/Kg)   For Best Cost: MmNi(4.15)Fe(0.85) ($20/kg)   For Lightest Weight: LaNi5 (common hydrides), Vanadium Alloys   @1%=720 grams of La alloy=$30 for Alloy   @ 2%=360 grams of Va alloy=$7.2 for Alloy       

     The selected metal hydride compound, is ground to &lt;100 mesh powder, and is then blended with additoinal compounds such as Aluminum powder, or Expanded Natural Graphite powder, and/or desiccant components such as silica or zeolite, or paladium powder and additionally a material such as PTFE powder or PTFE dispersion with for example as much as 20% by weight of the formula constituting these additives. One skilled in the art may increase or decrease the additive components. The powders may then be converted to a mud like slurry and impregranted into a commercial plate and frame heat exchanger or placed in a pouch for impletmentation into a heat exchanger. Once, in place, the compound is heated and prepared for hydriding process. Porous filters may also be inserted in the system to contain MH powder; and the system will be additionally pressure tested for gas leakage. And then the heat exchanger will be either assembled within the ECC stack or connected to the ECC stack as appropriate. In all circumstances the connections and stacks will be hermetically sealed to eliminate any hydrogen leakage; and tested to ensure the integrity of all seals. 
     As explained above, operating strategies for ECC driven metal hydride heat exchangers may involve changing the rate of hydride filling from say 45 seconds to 5 minutes, or much faster or slower according to the actual heat demands, and hydrogen availability. 
     Note that this system is designed for primarily for heating of hot water, and rejecting the heat to ambient; however, someone skilled in the art could for example modify the hydride and use a similar system (with modulated operation) for cooling purposes. 
     Also, additionally, heat exchanger designs could be modified to allow for air cooling for example, but liquid heat transfer medium such as ethylene glycol or indeed water to be used for heat transfer. 
     The sytem could also be used in reverse to heat up the metal hydride and force the release of hydrogen and then feed the hydrogen into the electrochemical cell (which could be the electrochemical compressor itself, or a slightly modified electrochemical compressor cell system with the same essential components) and actually generate power. This would for example, be useful for utility demand responsiveness, and actually create a second order possibility of using hot water not only as a storage system, but also use hot water to feed back power to the grid. 
     In another embodiment of this invention, the hot water system could be integrated primarily with solar heating or by other heating means (say a power plant waste stream) and then used to heat up the metal hydride system to provide for hydrogen release, that is then used to generate power in a similar electrochemical cell. Obviously hybrids or variations of this system are feasible. 
     Clearly controls, operating systems and communications protocols would have to accommodate the demands of remote utility or even local power demands. Obviously, someone skilled in the art can implement these systems, since they are routinely in use today. 
     The summary of the invention is provided as a general introduction to some of the embodiments of the invention, and is not intended to be limiting. Additional example embodiments including variations and alternative configurations of the invention are provided herein. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The accompanying drawings are included to provide a further understanding of the invention and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the invention, and together with the description serve to explain the principles of the invention. 
         FIG. 1  shows metal hydride during absorption. 
         FIG. 2  shows metal hydride during desorption. 
         FIG. 3  shows an exemplary process flow diagram. 
         FIG. 4  shows an exemplary polarization curve. 
         FIG. 5  shows a graph of some of the properties of the TPS films. 
         FIG. 6  shows a schematic of an electrochemical cell of an electrochemical pump. 
         FIG. 7  shows an exemplary metal hydride heat pump. 
         FIGS. 8 to 10  show a cross-sectional views of a composite ionomer membrane comprising a reinforcing material. 
         FIG. 11  shows a schematic of an exemplary heat transfer system comprising a desiccation unit. 
         FIGS. 12 and 13  show schematics of a hydride portion wherein  FIG. 12  is a side view and  FIG. 12  is a cross-section along line  13 - 13  of  FIG. 12 . 
         FIG. 14  shows isotherms for metal hydrides. 
         FIGS. 15 and 16  show an exemplary electrochemical heat transfer system having two separate metal hydride portions and a desiccation unit. 
         FIGS. 17 and 18  show an exemplary electrochemical heat transfer system having two separate metal hydride portions and series of valves to flow hydrogen from one metal hydride portion to the other. 
         FIG. 19  shows an exemplary metal hydride heat exchanger having a secondary loop for transfer of heat from the metal hydride heat exchanger. 
         FIG. 20  shows a diagram of an exemplary integrated electrochemical compressor and metal hydride heat exchanger. 
         FIG. 21  shows a diagram of an exemplary integrated electrochemical compressor and metal hydride heat exchanger. 
         FIG. 22  shows a diagram of an exemplary integrated electrochemical compressor and metal hydride heat exchanger having a heat transfer fluid conduit configured through the cell. 
         FIG. 23  shows a diagram of an exemplary simplified end plate design for an electrochemical cell. 
         FIG. 24  shows an exemplary electrochemical stack having the cathodes of adjacent cells configured adjacent each other. 
         FIG. 25  shows a diagram of an exemplary electrochemical cell having integrated cell channels and connections. 
         FIG. 26  show a perspective view of an exemplary integrated electrochemical compressor and metal hydride heat exchanger having an integrated heat exchanger conduit and a metal hydride reservoir configured with the electrochemical cell. 
         FIG. 27  shows a diagram of an exemplary simplified end plate design for an electrochemical cell. 
         FIG. 28  shows a diagram of an exemplary electrochemical cell having heat exchangers configured to flow a heat exchange fluid through the cell stack. 
         FIG. 29  shows a graph of pressure versus hydrogen mass percent. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE ILLUSTRATED EMBODIMENTS 
     Corresponding reference characters indicate corresponding parts throughout the several views of the figures. The figures represent an illustration of some of the embodiments of the present invention and are not to be construed as limiting the scope of the invention in any manner. Further, the figures are not necessarily to scale, some features may be exaggerated to show details of particular components. Therefore, specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, but merely as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the present invention. 
     As used herein, the terms “comprises,” “comprising,” “includes,” “including,” “has,” “having” or any other variation thereof, are intended to cover a non-exclusive inclusion. For example, a process, method, article, or apparatus that comprises a list of elements is not necessarily limited to only those elements but may include other elements not expressly listed or inherent to such process, method, article, or apparatus. Also, use of “a” or “an” are employed to describe elements and components described herein. This is done merely for convenience and to give a general sense of the scope of the invention. This description should be read to include one or at least one and the singular also includes the plural unless it is obvious that it is meant otherwise. 
     Certain exemplary embodiments of the present invention are described herein and are illustrated in the accompanying figures. The embodiments described are only for purposes of illustrating the present invention and should not be interpreted as limiting the scope of the invention. Other embodiments of the invention, and certain modifications, combinations and improvements of the described embodiments, will occur to those skilled in the art and all such alternate embodiments, combinations, modifications, improvements are within the scope of the present invention. 
     A heating or cooling device, as described herein, comprises an electrochemical hydrogen compressor or hydrogen compressors coupled to at least one tank, (preferably two) containing a packed bed of metal hydride-forming alloy, that may systemically be configured in thermal communication with an object to be heated, as shown in  FIG. 3 . A heating device, as described herein, comprises an electrochemical compressor configured to control the pressure of hydrogen gas passing between at least two metal hydride tanks. The absorption of hydrogen gas into suitable metal alloy leads to the exothermic formation of a metal hydride, producing useful heat as shown in  FIG. 1 . The endothermic desorption of hydrogen gas is reversible, requiring about as much heat as that released by absorption, which thereby produces useful cooling, as shown in  FIG. 2 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 3 , two separate electrochemical compressors  40 ,  50 , or hydrogen compressors are configured in a closed loop between a first metal hydride reservoir  40  and a second metal hydride reservoir  50 . Conduits  27 - 27 ′″ couple the components of the system and enable hydrogen to flow between the electrochemical compressors and the metal hydride reservoirs. A series of valves  26 - 26 ′″ are controlled by the controller and are opened and closed to enable hydrogen flow as required. The controller also controls the electrochemical compressors, wherein the voltage and/or current is controlled to produce a flow of hydrogen across the membrane electrode assembly  13 . The first metal hydride reservoir  40  is desorbing hydrogen to the first electrochemical compressor  12  and therefore conducting heat, or is the cool reservoir. The second metal hydride reservoir  50  is absorbing hydrogen from the first electrochemical compressor  12  and is releasing heat, or is the hot side. Valves  26  and  26 ′ are open during this process and valves  26 ″ and  26 ′″ are closed. After the hydrogen has been pumped from the first metal hydride reservoir  40  to the second metal hydride reservoir  50 , the valves  26 ″ and  26 ′″ may opened and vales  26  and  26 ′ may be closed to allow the hydrogen, now in the second metal hydride reservoir  50  to be pumped to the first metal hydride reservoir  40  by the second electrochemical compressor  12 ′. Each of the metal hydride reservoirs contains a volume of metal hydride  52 . 
     A polarization curve utilizing the membrane in hydrogen compression mode is show in  FIG. 4 . The performance of the ECC-driven heat pump system will vary depending on the specific metal hydride composition. LaNi5 has been used for heat pumping in the past. Preferably a LaNi(4.7)Al(0.3) has been shown to operate with a better pressure ratio that is better suited for electrochemical compression, wherein there may be a low pressure requirement of 7 psi and high pressure requirement of 28 psi. This pressure range is well suited for domestic hot water applications. For enhanced heat transfer from the packed bed, a metal hydride reservoir may have a tubular geometry with an aspect ratio, cylinder height to diameter, of at least 5, or at least 10, so as to minimize radial thermal gradients in the packed hydride bed. Heat transfer within the packed bed will be augmented by adding thermal-conductivity enhancing materials such as aluminum foam in order to overcome the metal hydride&#39;s low thermal conductivity. A thermally conductive material or network may be configured within the metal hydride reservoir. Effective heat transfer to and from the metal hydride packed bed governs its rate of hydrogen charging and discharging, which in turn governs the ability of the electrochemical compressor to drive or pump hydrogen and therefore the overall heat transfer rates. The quicker heat and be conducted and released, the higher the heat transfer rate to a heat exchanger or to an object. 
       FIG. 5  shows a graph of some of the properties of the TPS films. The graph shows the phosphoric acid (PPA) concentration as a function of increasing temperature. The TPS functions well with very low moisture content at high temperatures. 
       FIG. 6  shows a schematic of an electrochemical cell of an electrochemical pump. The electrochemical compressor  12  comprises a membrane electrode assembly  13  comprising an anode  30 , a cathode  32  and an ionomer layer  34  configured there between. The ionomer layer  34  may be a proton exchange polymer  31  or a composite ionomer membrane comprising a proton exchange polymer, for example. The pressure on the anode side  35  will be less than the pressure on the cathode side  36  of the membrane electrode assembly, as the compressor is pumping hydrogen from the anode side to the cathode side. The pump is driven by a power source  28  that is electrically connected to the anode and cathode to drive the reactions provided in  FIG. 5 . The electrochemical compressor  12 , or hydrogen pump  15 , is configured with an inlet  22  and outlet  24 . A conduit  27  extends from the inlet to a first metal hydride portion that is desorbing hydrogen and conducting heat, and conduit  27 ′ extends from the outlet to a second metal hydride portion that is absorbing hydrogen and releasing heat. 
       FIG. 7  shows an exemplary metal hydride electrochemical heat transfer device  10  that comprises an electrochemical hydrogen compressor  12 . The electrochemical compressor  12  pumps hydrogen from an anode side  35 , and from a first metal hydride reservoir  40  across the membrane electrode assembly  13  to the cathode side  36  and into a second metal hydride reservoir  50  such as a tank or enclosure for the metal hydride forming alloy  53  material. The metal hydride  52  material may be a packed bed or a monolith for example. The metal hydride reservoir may comprise an additive  51  such as fluoropolymer, silica or metal such as copper, to aid in expansion and contraction of the metal hydride. The compressor may be reversed, wherein the controller  90  changes the potential of the power supply  28  to switch the anode to the cathode the cathode to the anode. In this way, hydrogen can be pumped back and forth between the two metal hydride reservoirs. Heat transfer devices  47 ,  57  are coupled to the metal hydride portion  40 ,  50 ′ respectively. The heat transfer device may transfer heat to and/or from the metal hydride reservoir to an article or to the air or environment. A heat transfer device may comprise fins, a conduit for a flow of a heat transfer fluid, a conducting plate, and the like. 
     As shown in  FIGS. 8 through 10 , an ionomer layer  34  is a composite ionomer membrane  66  having a reinforcing material  62 . The reinforcing material  62 , such as a membrane or discrete reinforcing elements or fibers, may be configured within the ionomer  60 , wherein the ionomer is exposed on either side of the reinforcing material, as shown in  FIG. 7 . In an alternative embodiment, the reinforcing material is configured to one side of the composite ionomer membrane  66 , as shown in  FIG. 8 . In another embodiment, the reinforcing material  62  extends through the thickness  65  of the composite ionomer membrane  66 , wherein there is substantially no ionomer layer on the top or bottom surface, as shown in  FIG. 9 . The composite ionomer membrane may be very thin to enable quick transfer of hydrogen and therefor a higher heating flux rate. The composite ionomer membrane may be about 30 μm or less, about 25 μm or less, about 20 μm or less, about 15 μm or less, about 10 μm or less, about 5 μm or less. The ionomer  60  interpenetrates the reinforcing material  62 . The ionomer and/or the composite ionomer may have an additive  68 , to improve performance such as silica or other desiccant particles, or reinforcing materials, as described herein. 
     As shown in  FIG. 11 , an exemplary electrochemical heat transfer device  10  comprises desiccation units  48  and  58  configured between the metal hydride portion  40  and  50  and the electrochemical compressor  12 , respectively. The first metal hydride reservoir  40  is coupled to the desiccation unit by conduit  27  and a desiccation valve  49  can be opened to flow hydrogen into the desiccation unit  48 , or bypass it. Likewise, the second metal hydride reservoir  50  is coupled to the desiccation unit by conduit  27 ′ and a desiccation valve  59  can be opened to flow hydrogen into the desiccation unit  58 , or bypass it. The desiccation valves may be used to force a flow of hydrogen through the desiccation unit as needed. A humidity sensor  85  may monitor the humidity level and a control system  90  may open and close the valve to the desiccation unit as a function of the humidity level measures, whereby it opens the valve for gas desiccation when the humidity exceeds a threshold value, such as 1% or more, or 2% or more, or 5% or more. A heat exchanger  47  is coupled with the first metal hydride reservoir  40  to conduct heat into the metal hydride  42  and a heat exchanger  57  is coupled with the second metal hydride reservoir  50  to conduct heat from the metal hydride  52 , as indicated by the bold arrows. 
     As shown in  FIGS. 12 and 13 , a metal hydride reservoir  40  comprises a tube  79  having an interior mandrel  77  for distributing the hydrogen gas  11  to the metal hydride forming alloy  43 . The mandrel  77  provides an open conduit to distribute the hydrogen gas down along the tube and into the metal hydride forming alloy configured between the mandrel and the interior wall of the tube. A tube may be circular in cross-sectional shape, as shown or take any other suitable cross-sectional shape, such as polygonal, square, rectangular irregular and the like. A large aspect ratio, length  78  of the tube to outer diameter  75  of the tube may be large, such as greater then 5, and preferably greater than 10, to provide quick transfer of hydrogen to the metal hydride and to enable quick heat transfer rates. 
       FIG. 14  shows exemplary isotherms of metal hydrides wherein the absorption pressure is higher than the desorption pressure. There is a linear region for the absorption and desorption. 
     As shown in  FIGS. 15 and 16  an exemplary electrochemical heat transfer device  10  comprises a single electrochemical compressor  12  and a closed loop system that transfers hydrogen from a plurality of metal hydride reservoirs  40 ,  50 , to a hydrogen reservoir  69  which may be a desiccant unit  69 . As shown in  FIG. 15 , the electrochemical compressor  12  is pumping hydrogen from the desiccant unit  69  to the two metal hydride reservoirs  40 ,  50  and valves  26 ″ and  26 ′″ are closed. As shown in  FIG. 16 , the electrochemical compressor  12  is pumping hydrogen from the two metal hydride reservoirs  40 ,  50  to the desiccant unit  69  and valves  26  and  26 ′ are closed. A heat transfer device  47 ,  57  is in thermal communication with first and second metal hydride reservoirs  40 ,  50 , respectively. The heat exchangers may engage and disengage in thermal communication with the metal hydride reservoirs depending on the application. For example, when the exemplary electrochemical heat transfer device  10  is configured as a heater, the heat transfer devices may be in thermal communication with the metal hydride reservoirs during absorption of hydrogen, as shown in  FIG. 15  and detached when desorbing hydrogen, as shown in  FIG. 16 . The desiccant unit may be most effectively configured between the electrochemical compressor and the hydride reservoir, or just before a hydride reservoir. 
     As shown in  FIGS. 17 and 18 , an exemplary electrochemical heat transfer device  10  is configured to pump hydrogen from a first metal hydride reservoir  40  to a second metal hydride reservoir  50  and vice versa. As shown in  FIG. 17 , the first metal hydride reservoir is receiving and absorbing hydrogen that is pumped by the electrochemical compressor  12  from the second metal hydride reservoir  50 . As shown in  FIG. 18 , the second metal hydride reservoir  50  is receiving hydrogen that is pumped by the electrochemical compressor  12  from the first metal hydride reservoir. The hydrogen goes through a desiccant unit  69  during this step. It is to be understood that a desiccant unit may be configured on both portion of the loop. Also, a bypass conduit  96  may extend around the desiccant to allow the hydrogen to bypass the desiccant unit. A desiccant bypass valve  95  may open to allow the working fluid to bypass a desiccant unit  69 . 
     As shown in  FIGS. 17 and 18 , the conduits  27  forms a closed loop with the two metal hydride reservoirs  40 ,  50 , coupled to the loop. An outlet portion conduit  94  couples the metal hydride reservoirs  40  and  50  on the outlet side of the electrochemical compressor and an inlet portion conduit  92  couples the metal hydride reservoirs  40  and  50  on the inlet side of the electrochemical compressor. There is a first outlet portion valve  26  configured between the electrochemical hydrogen compressor and the first reservoir  40  on the outlet portion conduit  94  of the closed loop. There is a second outlet portion valve  26 ′ configured between the electrochemical hydrogen compressor  12  and the second reservoir  50  on the outlet portion of the closed loop. There is a first inlet portion valve  26 ′″ configured between the electrochemical hydrogen compressor  12  and the first reservoir  40  on the inlet portion  92  of the closed loop. There is a second inlet portion valve  26 ″ configured between the first electrochemical hydrogen compressor  12  and the second reservoir  50  on the inlet portion  92  of the closed loop. This configuration, with the electrochemical compressor coupled to the closed loop, with the outlet of the compressor coupled to the outlet portion  94  of the closed loop and between valves  26  and  26 ′ and coupled to the inlet portion  92  of the closed loop and between valves  26 ″ and  26 ′″, enables working fluid to be pumped in one direction and cycled from metal hydride reservoirs by opening and closing the valves as shown. This unique plumping configuration and method of opening valves enables streamline operation of the heat transfer system. 
       FIG. 19  shows an exemplary metal hydride heat exchanger  67  having a metal hydride reservoir  40  and a heat exchange device  47 . The metal hydride reservoir is a tube  79  that contains a metal hydride  43 . The heat exchanger device  47  comprises a heat transfer conduit  76  that is coiled around the tube, or cylinder and a heat transfer fluid  82  passes through the conduit. The heat transfer device  47  also comprises a heat transfer conduit  83 ′ that is in direct communication with the metal hydride. As shown, the heat transfer conduit  83 ′ passes through the cylinder or tube, wherein the conduit is in direct contact with the metal hydride  43 . The interior heat transfer conduit  76 ′ may be coiled around the interior of the cylinder to increase thermal conductivity. The heat transfer fluid may be a gas, or a liquid, such as water. Any suitable type of heat exchange fluid may be configured to flow through secondary loop as described herein. 
       FIG. 20  shows an exemplary electrochemical compressor  12  having side ports, or channels  71  for receiving hydrogen  11 . Metal hydride reservoirs  40 , and  50  are configured on the anode and cathode sides of the membrane electrode assembly  13 . Hydrogen flows through the channels and into and out of the metal hydride  42 ,  52 . The hydrogen then flows from the anode side  35  to the cathode side  36 . Note that the narrow and long with side porting increase the distribution rate of hydrogen to the metal hydride reservoir and therefore increases heat transfer rates. In addition, this type of side porting reduces pressure drop of hydrogen into and out of the electrochemical cell. The hydrogen has to pass from the channels  71  through the gas diffusion media  37  to the electrode, anode or cathode. This quick distribution of hydrogen to the membrane electrode assembly can also increase current density, as the fuel is not limiting. As shown in  FIG. 20 , heat exchange conduits  76 ,  76 ′ extend through the electrochemical cell, and are in direct physical contact with the metal hydride reservoirs,  40 ,  50  respectively. A heat exchange fluid may flow though the conduit to exchange heat with the metal hydride  52 . In another embodiment, instead of heat exchange conduits, a heat exchange element may extend through the cell and be in contact with the metal hydride reservoir and extend out from the cell to act as heat conductors, or fins. Air flowing over the extended fins, may carry heat to or from the electrochemical cell. 
       FIG. 21  shows an exemplary integrated electrochemical compressor and metal hydride heat exchanger  17 . As shown, the electrochemical cell  16  is configured between heat exchange conduits  76 ,  76 . As described herein any number of electrochemical cells may be configured in series in the heat exchanger. The bipolar plate  70 , or plate with channels  71  configured to distribute a working fluid, i.e. hydrogen, over the surface of the gas diffusion media  37  is in thermal communication with the heat exchange conduits  76 . A current collector  38  is shown being in electrical contact with the gas diffusion media  37  and the bipolar plate  70 . A bipolar plate may have a serpentine channel or a series of channels that are coupled together to a common channel or inlet. As shown in  FIG. 22  a metal hydride  42  that is coupled to, configured in, on is an integral part of the bipolar plat  70 . The bipolar plate comprises a metal hydride bed  74  that forms the metal hydride reservoir  40 , and may be a recessed region in the bipolar plate. The metal hydride in a bipolar plate is in fluid communication with the channels or conduits of the bipolar plate and thereby can produce heat upon absorption of the working fluid, hydrogen. The heat exchange conduits  76 ,  76 ′ enable a heat transfer fluid  82  to carry heat generate by the metal hydride away from the electrochemical cell. As shown in  FIG. 22 , a heat exchange port  72  may be configured through the bipolar plate to allow a heat transfer fluid to pass therethrough.  FIG. 22  also shows a fuel port  73 , for supplying hydrogen to the electrochemical cell  16 . 
     Referring now to  FIG. 23 , an exemplary integrated electrochemical compressor and metal hydride heat exchanger  17  has a heat transfer fluid conduit  76  in thermal communication with the metal hydride reservoir  40 . A first heat exchange conduit  76  may extend on the anode side of the cell and a second conduit may extend only on the cathode side of the cell stack  20  and a second heat exchange conduit  76  may extend on the cathode side of the cell. A heat conduit may extend over a plurality of the electrochemical cells  16 , or down over the electrochemical stack. One heat exchange conduit may extend over the cells that are absorbing hydrogen and releasing heat, while the other may extend over, or be in thermal communication, with the cells that are desorbing hydrogen and conducting heat. A heat exchange conduit may extend from one side of a cell, the anode side, to a cathode side, especially when there are two or more cells, or a cell stack  20 . Since the metal hydride reservoirs alternate between hot and cold, it is possible that a bipolar plate could be hot on one side and cold on another. It is therefore preferable for adjacent cells to alternate in polarity so that two hot sides, or two cathodes, are always adjacent to each other and the bipolar plate, as show in  FIG. 24 . Also, it is preferable that the plumbing of the heat exchange fluid alternate between adjacent cells so that it can draw the cool and hot side thermal transfers separately. 
     As shown in  FIG. 24 , two electrochemical cells  16 ,  16 ′ are configured in a cell stack  20 , wherein the two cathodes  32 ,  32 ′, are configured adjacent each other with a heat exchange conduit  76  extending therebetween. The anodes  30 ,  30 ′ are configured on the outside of the cell stack  20  and they may have another anode facing each of them. This alternating configuration simplifies plumbing and puts the exothermic sides of adjacent cells, the cathodes, adjacent each other and the endothermic sides, the anodes, adjacent each other. 
       FIG. 25  shows a diagram of an exemplary simplified end plate  89  for an exemplary electrochemical heat transfer device. A user may only need to connect a hot and cold heat exchanger to the heat exchange ports  72 . There may be an inlet and outlet  72 ,  72 ′ and  72 ″,  72 ′″, respectively, for a hot and cold heat exchange fluid. A user may also connect and hydrogen source to the hydrogen feed port  73 . As shown in  FIG. 24 , two heat exchanger connections are configured on a single end plate, one hot,  72 ,  72 ′ for the inlet and outlet, and one cold,  72 ″,  72 ′″, for the inlet and outlet. A first heat exchanger connection provides flow of a heat exchanger fluid that carries heat from the electrochemical cell and second heat exchanger connection provides flow of a heat exchanger fluid that carries heat to the electrochemical cell. Cells can be back ported, side ported or ported internally. In addition, the end plate could be designed so that from the users&#39; perspective they only have to connect a plug and the hot and cold lines to protruding fittings; with all controls etc. embedded in the plate. 
     As shown in  FIG. 26 , an exemplary integrated electrochemical compressor and metal hydride heat exchanger  17  has an electrochemical cell  16  with an integrated heat exchanger conduit  76 , and a metal hydride reservoir  40  configured with the electrochemical cell  16 . The integrated heat exchanger conduit  76  is configured in the end plate  89  to form a heat exchanger. The conduits are channels formed in the end place and press against the bipolar plate  70  to form a conduit. Heat exchanger conduits may be formed through the end plate or the bi-polar plate as well, such as apertures that extend across or through the end plate or bi-polar plate that form conduits that may be less prone to leakage issues. The metal hydride reservoir  40  is a pouch  91  that contains the metal hydride  42  and may be easily replaced. The pouch may be a porous material, such as a porous fluoropolymer. 
       FIG. 27  shows a diagram of an exemplary simplified end plate design for an electrochemical cell  271 . A user may only need to connect a hot water coupling  272  and cold water coupling  274  to the heat exchanger coupling of the end plate  275  or plates. As shown in  FIG. 27 , two heat exchanger connections are configured on a single end plate. A first heat exchanger connection provides flow of a heat exchanger fluid that carries heat from the electrochemical cell, coupling  273 , and second heat exchanger connection  274  provides flow of a heat exchanger fluid that carries heat to the electrochemical cell. 
     Alternatively, as shown in  FIG. 28 , the metal hydride component can be removed from within the bipolar plate portion of the device, and placed externally (optionally attached to the end plates) as shown. A first heat exchange fluid may flow through a first end plate to carry heat away from the electrochemical heat exchanger and a second heat exchange fluid may flow through a second end plate to carry heat to the electrochemical heat exchanger. The two heat exchanger couplings may be configured on opposing sides of an electrochemical heat exchanger as show in  FIG. 28 . The cells may be narrow and long, allowing the compressor to be essentially flat (versus current round design compressors). Cells can be back ported, side ported or ported internally. In addition, the end plate could be designed so that from the users&#39; perspective they only have to connect a plug and the hot and cold lines to protruding fittings; with all controls etc. embedded in the plate. 
       FIG. 29  shows a graph of pressure versus hydrogen mass percent. 
     Metal Hydrides used within these configurations can be tailored for specific end uses, however, as an illustration, for heating water (hybrid hot water systems), LaNi4.7Sn0.3 maybe employed with a low temperature portion (TL) of 25 C, and a high temperature portion (TH) of 80 C; and a PL 0.31 Atm, and PH 3.03 (i.e. a compression ratio of 10×roughly for maximum thermal exchange). And also as an illustration, for Cooling applications such as HVAC, or Freezers, TiCr or VTi combinations such as Ti0.9Zr0.2CrMn may be employed with TL-20 C, TH 50 PL3.95 PH49.69 (i.e. a compression ratio of 10×roughly for maximum thermal exchange). 
     These hydride have a very large temperature operating range, from −100° C. or lower to as high as 800° C. A metal hydride may operate at very high or low temperatures and/or have a wide performance temperature range. This may enable a heating or cooling system utilizing these metal hydrides to heat an object or enclosure to much higher temperatures that conventional heater and/or cool to a much lower temperature than a conventional refrigeration or air conditioning device. Some of the applications enables by heating/cooling systems utilizing metal hydrides as described herein include, but are not limited to, cryogenic cooling, super freezers, flameless high heat devices, biomedical storages, cryopreservation and the like. 
     In an exemplary embodiment, an electrochemical heat transfer device may comprise one or more reservoirs comprising a metal hydride that has an upper operating temperature due to the adsorption of hydrogen that is greater than about 20° C., greater than about 60° C., greater than about 100° C., greater than about 200° C., greater than about 300° C., greater than about 300° C., greater than about 500° C., greater than about 600° C., greater than about 700° C., about 800° C., and any range between and including the upper operating temperatures provided. In an exemplary embodiment, an electrochemical heat transfer device may comprise one or more reservoirs comprising a metal hydride that has a lower operating temperature due to the adsorption of hydrogen that is no more than about 0° C., greater than about −20° C., no more than about −40° C., no more than about −60° C., no more than about −80° C., no more than about −100° C. and any range between and including the lower operating temperatures provided. In an exemplary embodiment, a heat transfer device comprises two reservoirs, wherein one reservoir has an upper operating temperature as described herein. In an exemplary embodiment, a heat transfer device comprises two reservoirs, wherein one reservoir has a lower operating temperature as described herein. A heat transfer device, as described herein may have a operating temperature range that is very broad, such as from −100° C. to 800° C. and any combination of upper and lower operating temperatures as described herein. 
     Also, to improve thermal exchange, the metal hydride beds could be made very thin, and designed for high surface area availability in wave like patterns, or pressed into plates that already have good thermal exchange designs configured on their surfaces. Those skilled in the art understand this method, and variations of this art are well established that can increase absorption rates and improve thermal transfer. 
     In order to minimize thermal bleed, it may be useful to separate metal hydride chambers being cycled as far as possible from each other. In the illustration above, the hydride beds are placed at opposite ends of the stack, or within the bipolar plate. However, plumbing could be adjusted to place the hydride chambers on each side of the stack (i.e. through the length of the stack). If the compressor cells are made long and thin (as is useful for maximizing current density under low anode pressure conditions or for aesthetic properties), then the metal hydride chambers can be place along the side of the stack—to create an essentially long and narrow system. This may have utility in certain installations. It would be the equivalent of for example flat screen TV&#39;s versus old tube style TV sets. Thus we are claiming stacks that are designed with cells that are longer in one dimension than another (i.e. long and narrow), and the placement of flat hydride systems adjacent to the stack so that the whole device is essentially long and narrow i.e. 
     These systems have been tested in our labs for a number of appliance applications, such as for example hybrid hot water heaters. The Metal hydride units get hot very quickly, and as a result do not suffer from the limitations of current heat pumps used in hot water systems that heat up slowly, and require the use of additional heating capacity in the form of resistance heaters. ECC driven metal hydride heat exchangers can eliminate the resistance heaters in hot water systems. 
     Also, because ECC units run more efficiently at partial load, they can be modulated to operate in a more efficient mode by intelligent use (and signaling). This may be particularly useful when hot water systems are used for thermal storage for utility load management (demand responsiveness). Units can be controlled remotely, and be integrated into communication protocols common with ‘smart homes’ and ‘smart grids’. We are claiming integration of these units into such systems. And intelligent operation of these systems with these systems at partial load. 
     Depending on the membrane employed in the ECC, and the metal hydride heat exchange system engaged, it may be necessary to strategically place heaters within the system to pre-heat surfaces and enable operation i.e. ion exchange in high temperature membranes, or hydrogen release from metal hydride systems. We are also therefore claiming the use of heaters in the system. 
     Separately, it has been well established that the Nernst Equation can be a source of power generation when there is a pressure difference across an ion exchange medium. Hydrogen pressure can be generated by heating the metal hydride (with bound Hydrogen) and power generated—by essentially running the unit in reverse. This may be a useful feature of this technology, and useable in emergency situations. This may also be connected to the smart home or smart grid management systems. 
       FIG. 29  is a Pressure-Composition-Temperature Isotherm graph for the Ti(0.993)Zr(0.018)Mn(1.511)V(0.429)Fe(0.069)Cr(0.052)Ni(0.0016) alloy. This curve is generated by placing a known quantity of alloy in a pressurizable container and maintaining the said alloy at a constant temperature. Hydrogen gas is very slowly added to this container and is absorbed by metal hydride alloy. During this time the pressure of the container is carefully measured and recorded. The resultant pressure vs composition (expressed as the mass percent of hydrogen contained in the metal hydride alloy) curve usually results in a noticeable horizontal “plateau” region where the pressure remains relatively constant, but the capacity of hydrogen in the metal hydride increases. The pressure of this “Hydride Plateau” is therefore very specific to the temperature that the sample was maintained. This PCT test is then repeated at different temperatures to determine the “Plateau Pressures” of the metal hydride alloy at different temperatures. For reference, the plateau pressure of the Ti(0.993)Zr(0.018)Mn(1.511)V(0.429)Fe(0.069)Cr(0.052)Ni(0.0016) alloy shown in  FIG. 29  is about 400 psia when maintained at a constant temperature of 25° C. 
     It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications, combinations and variations can be made in the present invention without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention. Specific embodiments, features and elements described herein may be modified, and/or combined in any suitable manner. Thus, it is intended that the present invention cover the modifications, combinations and variations of this invention provided they come within the scope of the appended claims and their equivalents.