Patent Publication Number: US-2022219986-A1

Title: High temperature sintering systems and methods

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims the benefit of, and priority to, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/849,578, filed on May 17, 2019, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/975,483, filed on Feb. 12, 2020, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/022,083, filed on May 8, 2020. The entire contents of the foregoing applications are hereby incorporated by reference. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Technical Field 
     The present disclosure relates to sintering systems and methods, and more particularly, to fast high-temperature sintering systems and methods. 
     Related Art 
     Ceramics are widely used in electronics, energy storage, and extreme environments due to their high thermal, mechanical, and chemical stability. The sintering of ceramics is a technology that can be traced back to more than 26,000 years ago. Conventional ceramic synthesis often involves two steps: a solid state reaction to form the ceramic from precursors, and sintering to form a solid component. Each step requires high-temperatures and hours of processing time, which can lead to undesirable, non-uniform grain growth and become an obstacle for high throughput discovery of advanced ceramic materials. The long sintering time is also a considerable issue in the development of new ceramic-based solid state electrolytes (SSEs) that are critical for new batteries with improved energy efficiency and safety due to the severe volatility of Li and Na during sintering. 
     The process temperature of traditional sintering methods is typically limited to about 1200° C. due to the limitation of heating elements. With specially designed graphite furnaces, the temperature can achieve 2000° C. However, bulk furnaces are difficult to control for temperature and temperature distribution, and temperature ramping and cooling rates are prolonging. The bulky and sealed equipment are also difficult to monitor and study to understand possibilities for improvement, which results in trial-and-error process with long iterations that heavily limit materials discovery, especially for ceramics, glass and metal materials. 
     In this regard, substantial effort has been devoted to the development of innovative sintering technologies, such as microwave-assisted sintering, spark plasma sintering (SPS), and flash sintering. However, microwave-assisted sintering fundamentally depends on the microwave absorption properties of the materials, limiting its universal applicability. The SPS technique requires dies to compress the ceramic while sintering, which limits product geometries and scalability and is not suitable for sintering complex 3D structures due to the applied pressure, and it cannot sinter multiple specimens at the same time. A more recently-developed flash sintering method displays a high heating rate of up to about 10,000° C./min. However, it typically requires expensive Pt electrodes and is difficult to apply to specimens with complex geometry (e.g., 3D structures). In particular, the specific flash sintering conditions depend strongly on the electrical characteristics of the material, limiting its applicability for high-throughput processing when the material&#39;s properties are unknown. Thus, there is interest in developing and improving sintering technology that can be more universally applied for higher throughput processing. 
     SUMMARY 
     The present disclosure relates to fast high-temperature sintering systems and methods. Aspects of the present disclosure provide innovative non-material-specific, ultrafast, energy-saving sintering technology that can be applied to different materials to enable high-throughput fabrication of bulk ceramics for a broad range of technological applications. 
     In accordance with aspects of the present disclosure, a method of fabrication includes positioning a material at a distance of 0-1 centimeters from a first conductive carbon element and at a distance of 0-1 centimeters from a second conductive carbon element; heating the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element by electrical current to a temperature between 500° C. and 3000° C., inclusive; and fabricating a sintered material by heating the material with the heated first conductive carbon element and the heated second conductive carbon element for a time period between one second and one hour. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the method includes initiating heating of the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element, and the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element achieve a temperature between 500° C. and 3000° C., inclusive, within thirty seconds of initiating the heating. 
     In various embodiments of the method, at least one of the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element are at least partially in contact with the material, and the method further includes applying pressure to at least partially press at least one of the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element against the material during the heating of the material. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the method includes holding the material on a conveyor strip, where the first conductive carbon element is positioned above a portion of the conveyor strip, and where the second conductive carbon element is positioned at one of: a position below a portion of the conveyor strip, or as a portion of the conveyor strip, and where positioning the material includes advancing the conveyor strip to convey the material between the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the method includes, at an end of the time period, advancing the conveyor strip to remove the sintered material from between the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element while maintaining the temperature of the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the material is a 3D-printed material having a composition and a structure, and the sintered material is a functional device that maintains the composition and the structure. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the material is a powder having a plurality of compositions, and fabricating the sintered material includes causing the plurality of compositions to react during the time period. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the sintered material is one of: metals, alloys, high entropy alloys, refractory metals, refractory alloys, ceramics, or ion conductors. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the sintered material is one of glass dense structure or a transparent ceramic dense structure, and fabricating the sintered material includes causing the powder to at least partially melt. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the material is a multilayer structure having at least two layers, wherein the sintered material includes an interface layer between the at least two layers, the interface layer having a depth less than 10 μm. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the material includes at least two compositions, where the sintered material is a composite structure that includes the at least two compositions, and where the composite structure has an interface layer between the at least two compositions, where the interface layer having a depth less than 10 μm. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the material is identified in a computational study, and the method includes analyzing the sintered material to validate computations of the computational study. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the method includes positioning a plurality of additional materials between the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element, and fabricating a plurality of additional sintered materials by heating the plurality of additional material with the heated first conductive carbon element and the heated second conductive carbon element for the time period, where the plurality of additional materials are co-sintered simultaneously with the material. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the plurality of additional materials are identified in a computational study. 
     In accordance with aspects of the present disclosure, a furnace includes a material, a first conductive carbon element positioned at a distance of 0-1 centimeters from the material, a second conductive carbon element positioned at a distance of 0-1 centimeters from the material, an electrical source configured to cause the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element to heat by electrical current to a temperature between 500° C. and 3000° C., inclusive, and a controller configured to control the electrical source to heat the material with the heated first conductive carbon element and the heated second conductive carbon element for a time period between one second and one hour. 
     In various embodiments of the furnace, at least one of the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element are at least partially in contact with the material, and the furnace includes a pressure mechanism, where the controller is configured to control the pressure mechanism to at least partially press at least one of the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element against the material during the heating of the material. 
     In various embodiments of the furnace, the furnace includes a conveyor strip holding the material, where a portion of the conveyor strip is positioned between the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element, and where the controller is configured to control the conveyor strip to convey the material between the first conductive carbon element and the second conductive carbon element. 
     In accordance with aspects of the present disclosure, a method of fabrication includes positioning a conductive carbon element at a distance of at most 1 centimeter from a material where the material has a larger size than a size of the conductive carbon element, heating the conductive carbon element by electrical current to a temperature between 500° C. and 3000° C., inclusive, and moving the heated conductive carbon element over the material to provide a treated material. 
     In various embodiments of the method, moving the heated conductive carbon element over the material causes annealing of the material. In various embodiments of the method, the annealing of the material creates a new surface layer at a surface of the material. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the material includes a thin film over a substrate, the method further comprising depositing the thin film onto the substrate by using one of: sputtering, chemical vapor deposition, atomic layer deposition, or physical vapor deposition. 
     In various embodiments of the method, moving the heated conductive carbon element over the material causes sintering of the material to provide a sintered material. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the method includes applying a layer over the sintered material, and moving the heated conductive carbon element over the layer to provide a sintered layer, where the sintered material and the sintered layer together form a sintered multilayer structure. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the material includes a coated powder over a substrate and the sintered material includes a sintered coating over the substrate. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the material is one of: a printed film of solid state electrolyte (SSE) precursor or a film of an SSE powder, and the method includes dispensing one of an SSE precursor slurry or the SSE powder into a film, where the sintered material is a sintered SSE film. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the material is a thermal barrier coating coated over a metal substrate, where the thermal barrier coating including a top porous layer and a bottom dense layer, where the top porous layer has pore sizes between 1-10,000 nm, where the sintered material is a sintered thermal barrier coating on the metal substrate, and where the top porous layer and the bottom dense layer are one of: co-sintered in a single sintering process, or sintered one layer at a time in separate sintering processes. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the material is an environmental barrier coating coated over a metal substrate, where the sintered material is a sintered environmental barrier coating on the metal substrate. 
     In accordance with aspects of the present disclosure, a furnace includes a material, a conductive carbon element positioned at a distance of at most 1 centimeter from the material where the material has a larger size than a size of the conductive carbon element, an electrical source configured to cause the conductive carbon element to heat by electrical current to a temperature between 500° C. and 3000° C., inclusive, a mechanical arm configured to move the heated conductive carbon element over the material to provide a treated material, and a controller configured to control the electrical source to heat the conductive carbon element and configured to control the mechanical arm to move the heated conductive carbon element. 
     In accordance with aspects of the present disclosure, a structure includes a sintered composite structure having at least two compositions and an interface layer between the at least two compositions, where the interface layer has a depth of less than 10 μm. 
     In various embodiments of the structure, the at least two compositions of the sintered composite structure include one of: metal and carbon nanomaterials, metal and ceramics, or alloy and alloy, where the carbon nanomaterials include one of: nanotubes or graphene. 
     In various embodiments of the structure, each of the at least two compositions of the sintered composite structure is a material from the group consisting of: ceramics, glass, metals, alloys, carbon, or polymers. 
     In various embodiments of the structure, each of the at least two compositions of the sintered composite structure is one of: a dense composition or a porous composition. 
     In accordance with aspects of the present disclosure, a structure includes a sintered multilayer structure having at least two layers, where a first layer of the at least two layers has a different material than a second layer of the at least two layers. 
     In various embodiments of the structure, each of the at least two layers of the sintered multilayer structure includes a material from the group consisting of: ceramics, glass, metals, alloys, carbon, or polymers. 
     In various embodiments of the structure, each of the at least two layers of the sintered composite structure is one of: a dense layer or a porous layer. 
     In various embodiments of the structure, the first layer of the sintered multilayer structure is a porous layer and the second layer of the sintered multilayer structure is a dense layer, wherein the dense layer is one of: a single dense layer or at least two dense sub-layers. 
     In various embodiments of the structure, the at least two layers of the sintered multilayer structure includes a third layer, wherein the third layer is a porous layer. 
     In various embodiments of the structure, the first layer is a solid state electrolyte and the second layer is a different solid state electrolyte, and the sintered multilayer structure forms a multifunctional solid state electrolyte. 
     In various embodiments of the structure, the at least two layers includes a third layer, wherein: the first layer is a solid state electrolyte, the second layer is an electrode, and the third layer is an interface layer between the electrode and the solid state electrolyte, where the interface layer has a depth less than 10 μm. 
     In various embodiments of the structure, the structure includes a solid state battery, where the solid state battery includes the sintered multilayer structure, and the sintered multilayer structure is a solid state electrolyte. 
     In various embodiments of the structure, the structure includes a fuel cell, where the fuel cell includes the sintered multilayer structure, and the sintered multilayer structure is a solid state electrolyte. 
     In aspects of the present disclosure, a method of fabricating a thermoelectric device includes providing a p-type thin film on a substrate, providing a n-type thin film on the substrate, positioning at least one conductive carbon element at a distance of at most 1 centimeter from the p-type thin film and the n-type thin film, heating the at least one conductive carbon element by electrical current to a temperature between 500° C. and 3000° C., inclusive, sintering the p-type thin film and the n-type thin film by heat from the at least one heated conductive carbon element, and providing at least one electrode on at least a portion of at least one of the sintered p-type thin film or the sintered n-type thin film. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the p-type thin film and the n-type thin film are sintered simultaneously. 
     In various embodiments of the method, the p-type thin film and the n-type thin film are sintered sequentially. 
     In aspects of the present disclosure, a piezoelectric device includes a first electrode and a second electrode, and a sintered piezoelectric thin film between the first electrode and the second electrode. 
     Further details and aspects of exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure are described in more detail below with reference to the appended figures. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The above and other aspects and features of the present disclosure will become more apparent in view of the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein like reference numerals identify similar or identical elements and: 
         FIG. 1  is a diagram of an exemplary UHS sintering process, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 2  is a diagram of an exemplary configuration of heating elements for the UHS process, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 3  is a diagram of an exemplary UHS system that includes applying pressure to the heating elements, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 4  is a diagram of an exemplary UHS system that includes a conveyor strip, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 5  is a diagram of an exemplary USH system that includes a movable heating bar for sintering a top layer of a material, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 6  is a diagram of an exemplary 3D-printed structures which can be sintered using UHS systems and processes, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 7  is a diagram of an exemplary operation of applying the UHS systems and processes to powders, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 8  is a diagram of exemplary multilayer structures formed by applying UHS systems and processes, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 9  is a diagram of an exemplary operation of applying UHS systems and processes for co-sintering compositions to form a composite structure, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 10  is a diagram of an exemplary operation of applying UHS systems and processes to conduct post-treatment for solid materials, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 11  is a diagram of an exemplary operation of applying UHS systems and processes to treat a surface of a solid material, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 12  is a diagram of an exemplary operation of applying UHS systems and processes to treat a thin film at the surface of a substrate, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 13  is a diagram of an exemplary operation of applying UHS systems and processes to co-sinter electrode materials and solid state electrolytes, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 14  is a diagram of an exemplary operation of applying UHS systems and processes to co-sinter and fabricate solid state batteries, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 15  is a diagram of an exemplary operation of applying UHS systems and processes to fabricate printed thin film batteries, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 16  is a diagram of exemplary multilayer structures formed by applying UHS systems and processes for different applications (e.g., batteries and fuel cells), in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 17  is a diagram of an exemplary thermoelectric device formed by applying UHS systems and processes, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 18  is a diagram of an exemplary piezoelectric device and thin film formed by applying UHS systems and processes, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 19  is a diagram of an exemplary thermal barrier coating or environmental barrier coating formed by applying UHS systems and processes, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 20  is a diagram of an exemplary process of computation screening and fabrication of materials by applying UHS, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure; and 
         FIG. 21  is a diagram of an exemplary UHS system for simultaneously co-sintering multiple materials, in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The present disclosure relates to fast high-temperature sintering systems and methods. Aspects of the present disclosure provide innovative non-material-specific, ultrafast, energy-saving sintering technology that can be applied to different materials to enable high-throughput fabrication of bulk ceramics for a broad range of technological applications. As will be explained below and in connection with the figures, the present disclosure provides systems and methods for sintering many types of materials in a process that can be as fast as forty-five seconds or less, providing a significant improvement over conventional furnace sintering times of more than twenty hours. 
     As used herein, and unless otherwise indicated otherwise, the term “sintering” refers to a process which forms a solid mass of material by heat and/or pressure without completely liquefying the material and can include processes which partially melt a material without completely liquefying it. In certain situations, the term “sintering” may refer to a process that melts materials, as explained for various situations described below. 
     The sintering process disclosed herein may be referred to as ultrafast high-temperature sintering (“UHS”) or as high temperature pulse (“HTP”) sintering. The UHS process features uniform temperature distribution, fast heating rates (e.g., 2,000-100,000° C./min) and fast cooling rates (e.g., up to about 10,000° C./min), and high sintering temperatures (e.g., up to about 3,000° C.). The high heating rates and high temperature of the heating source enable ultrafast sintering times of less than ten seconds and overall processing times of approximately forty-five seconds or less. Additionally, the UHS process is scalable and has minimal sample requirements in terms of intrinsic properties and preparation, thus providing universal and rapid ceramic synthesis and sintering. UHS enables rapid experimental validation for new material predictions from computation to facilitate materials discovery. Accordingly, the systems and methods disclosed herein provide a significant advance for rapid materials screening and synthesis that could be applied in a wide range of fields, including batteries, 3D printed ceramics, and high-entropy ceramics with vast compositional space that is otherwise difficult to explore. 
     In accordance with aspects of the present disclosure, and as explained in more detail later herein, the UHS process directly synthesizes ceramics from oxide precursors in a single step, in which the precursor pellet is quickly and uniformly sintered between two carbon strips through radiative heating. The short sintering time prevents volatile evaporation and undesirable interdiffusion at interfaces (i.e., cross-contamination). Additionally, the UHS process is compatible with 3D printing of ceramic precursors, producing novel structures that are retained after sintering, in addition to well-defined interfaces between multilayer ceramic compounds, with applicability for thin film SSE applications. 
     The UHS process for synthesizing ceramics or other solid materials has the following attributes. (1) The UHS process can directly synthesize and sinter precursors into solid, dense ceramics or glass thin films, reducing sintering time from tens of hours to less than ten seconds, which allows fast converging to successful synthesis for rapid materials screening. (2) High temperature leads to melted and merged grain boundaries while avoiding/mitigating uncontrolled grain growth. Such control results in outstanding performance and superior mechanical and electrochemical properties. (3) Short sintering time avoids/mitigates Li loss problem of solid state electrolytes (SSEs) during synthesis and avoids/mitigates side reactions, and results in multilayer structures without crossover diffusion. (4) The UHS process is a universal process for a wide range of ceramics, glass, and other solid materials. These attributes demonstrate the uniqueness of the UHS process as a physicochemical process for discovering ceramics, glass, and other solid materials. 
     Portions of the present disclosure refer to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/849,578, filed on May 17, 2019, which has been incorporated by reference in its entirety, and which may be referred to herein as “Supplement.” 
     Portions of the present disclosure refer to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/022,083, filed on Apr. 30, 2020, which has been incorporated by reference in its entirety, and which may be referred to herein as “Supplement B.” 
     Referring now to  FIG. 1 , there is shown an exemplary UHS process for sintering material precursors. The precursors  110  are directly sintered into a dense ceramic pellet  130  in approximately ten seconds in one step at a high sintering temperature of up to about 3,000° C. In contrast, a conventional ceramic synthesis is a two-step process that involves a 5-10 hour solid-state reaction step at 800-1,000° C. for forming the ceramic phase from precursors, followed by hours-long sintering at typically 1,000-1,600° C. to form dense components. In general, the UHS sintering process is approximately 2-4 orders of magnitude faster than conventional sintering methods (Supplement, Table 51). 
     In  FIG. 1 , an exemplary embodiment of the UHS process is shown, in which the precursor pellet  110  is directly “sandwiched” between two blanket Joule-heating carbon strips  120  that can rapidly heat the sample pellet  110  through radiation and/or conduction to form a uniform high-temperature environment for quick synthesis (solid-state reaction) and reactive sintering. In an inert atmosphere, the carbon heating elements  120  can provide a temperature higher than 3,000° C. (Supplement,  FIG. 51 ), which is sufficient for synthesizing and sintering virtually any ceramic material, though most do not require a temperature this high. In various embodiments of the UHS process, the heating elements  120  can ramp up from room temperature to the sintering temperature in approximately thirty seconds or less, followed by approximately ten seconds of sintering time and then rapid cooling of approximately five seconds. The short processing duration results in the ability to achieve excellent compositional control of ceramics which contain volatile components (e.g., Li in solid-state electrolytes for Li ion batteries), as well as the ability to prevent uncontrolled grain growth for outstanding material performance. 
     The temperature of the heating elements  120  is tunable to different ramp rates, including heating rates of about 100° C./min to about 20,000° C./min, and cooling rates of about 100° C./min to about 10,000° C./min. The achievable temperature of the heating elements  120  can range from about 500° C. up to about 3,500° C. At maximum sintering temperature, the UHS process enables direct sintering of ceramics, glass, or other solid materials from precursors  110  to dense pellets  130  in less than ten seconds. Due to the rapid sintering speed, evaporation of volatile materials and potential cross-contamination can be significantly minimized, which enables co-sintering of multiple materials in one step. 
     In contrast, the conventional ceramic synthesis process involves multiple steps and long time. The precursors are first calcinated at about 800-1000° C. for 5-10 hours to form ceramic phase. Then the materials are re-grinded to ceramic power and pressed to pellets, which are sintered at about 1000-1200° C. for another 10-30 hours to form dense pellets. If the ceramics contain volatile components, additional ceramic powder beds with excess volatile components are necessary to compensate the evaporation at high temperature during the long-time sintering. The long sintering time can lead to uncontrollable grain growth and nonuniform size distribution (Supplement, Figure B 1 A), while the relative low sintering temperature can result in the weak-bonded grain boundaries, which will decrease the mechanical strength and affect the uniformity of the ceramic properties. 
     When the space between the heating element  120  and the material  110  is small, or the material  110  directly contacts the heating element  120 , the temperature ramp rate of the sample  110  can be much faster, and the temperature distribution is more uniform than conventional furnaces. The short sintering time of the UHS process enables control of the grain growth, while the high sinter temperature ensures the excellent welding of the grain boundaries, which leads to uniformly distributed and well-merged small grains for UHS sintered ceramics (Supplement, Figure B 1 B). Various embodiments of UHS systems and processes are described below in connection with the figures. 
       FIG. 2  is a diagram of an exemplary configuration of heating elements for the UHS process. One heating element  210  is positioned on one side of the material  230  and a second heating element  220  is position on the other side of the material  230 . The heating elements  210 ,  220  can be wholly or partially in contact with the material  230  or can be positioned 1 cm or less away from the material  230 . The material  230  can be supported in various ways, such as by a tray in a furnace used for the UHS process, among others. In various embodiments, the heating elements  210 ,  220  are positioned such that they are substantially parallel to each other. In various embodiments, the heating elements  210 ,  220  are positioned such that they are substantially parallel to the material  230  surface closest to the heating element. Positioning the heating elements  210 ,  220  closer to the material  230  will cause the material  230  to heat at a faster heating rate. Even at a distance of about 1 cm, the heating elements  210 .  220  can be capable of heating the materials  230  at a sufficient heating rate to complete the sintering process in a matter of seconds, such as 10 seconds. In various embodiments, the material  230  can be positioned on the bottom heating element  220 , and the top heating element  210  can be positioned 1 cm or less away from the material  230 . When the top heating element  210  and the bottom heating element  220  are different distances away from the material  220 , the heating elements  210 ,  220  may be heated at different heating rates or may achieve different temperatures based on the different distances. For example, when the material  230  is positioned on the bottom heating element  220 , the bottom heating element  220  may be heated to a lower temperature than the top heating element. 
     In various embodiments, the heating elements  210 ,  220  can be made of conductive carbon materials, such as carbon papers, carbon felts, carbon clothes, graphite papers, graphite felts, graphite clothes, graphite films, or graphite plates. In various embodiments, other conductive materials or composites can be used for the heating elements. The heating elements  210 ,  220  can be sized based on sizes of the materials to be sintered and to meet manufacturing needs. When the heating elements  210 ,  220  are made of conductive materials, the heating elements  210 ,  220  can be heated by an electrical source (not shown) passing electrical current through the conductive materials of the heating elements  210 ,  220 . The amount of current through the conductive material of the heating elements  210 ,  220  corresponds to the heating rate, such that the heating rate and electrical source can be controlled by a controller (not shown) by providing a desired amount of current through the conductive materials of the heating elements  210 ,  220 . Heating profiles are described in more detail in Supplement with respect to particular materials. It is sufficient to note here that current should be passed through the heating elements in the same direction to cause the heating elements  210 ,  220  to apply heat to the material  230  in the same direction. In various embodiments, the heating elements  210 ,  220  can have approximately a width of 2 cm and a length of 10 cm. Other shapes and sizes for the heating elements are contemplated to be within the scope of the present disclosure. 
     The heating environment can be a vacuum or can include one or more of inert gas, Ar, N 2 , hydrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen, air, and/or other gases. The heating environment can be varied based on the type of material and type of heating elements. 
       FIG. 3  is a diagram of a UHS system that includes applying pressure to the heating elements. The heating elements  310 ,  320  and heating environment may be the same as those described in connection with  FIG. 2 . The heating elements  310 ,  320  are placed in contact with the material  330 , and pressure may be applied to the heating elements  310 ,  320  by various mechanisms  340 ,  350 , such as hydraulic plates, robotic/mechanical arms, or other mechanical pressure applicators. In various embodiments, the heating elements  310 ,  320  can be secured to the pressure applicators  340 ,  350 . The application of pressure can cause the sintered materials  360  to have higher density. In various embodiments, the amount of pressure exerted can be electronically controlled by a controller (not shown) based on desired density and/or based on other parameters. 
       FIG. 4  is a diagram of a UHS system that includes a conveyor strip. The heating elements  410 ,  420  and heating environment may be the same as those described in connection with  FIG. 2 . The materials  430  can be placed on the conveyor strip  440 , and the heating elements  410 ,  420  may be positioned less than 1 cm away from the materials  430  to be sintered. The conveyor strip  440  can be made of a heat-resistant material that can withstand the high temperatures of the heating elements  410 ,  420  and that can quickly heat up and cool down. In embodiments where the lower heating element  420  is below the conveyor strip  440 , the lower heating element  420  may be heated to a higher temperature than the upper heating element  410  to provide more uniform sintering. In various embodiments, the lower heating element  420  can be incorporated into the conveyor strip  440  and form part of the conveyor strip  440 , such that the material  430  to be sintered can be placed in contact with a heating element  420  that is directly on the conveyor strip  440 . In embodiments where the material  430  is in contact with the lower heating element  420 , the lower heating element  420  may be heated to a lower temperature than the top heating element  410 , to provide more uniform sintering. Because the sintering time can be very short (e.g., ten seconds), the conveyor strip  440  can operate continuously for rapid sintering and manufacturing high throughput. In various embodiments, the heating elements  410  may be smaller in size than the size of the material  430 , such that the entirety of the material  430  is sintered by the conveyor strip  440  advancing the material  430 . 
     Not every components of a conveyor system is shown or described, as persons skilled in the art will recognize and understand such components. For example, a conveyor system that moves the conveyor strip can include rollers, motors, and controllers, among other components. A controller (not shown) can control an electrical source to heat the heating elements and can control the conveyor system to advance the material. Additionally, the conveyor strip can be used for other purposes, such as post-treatment of solid materials which will be described in connection with  FIGS. 10 and 11 . For such other purposes, the heating elements may be positioned up to several inches away from the materials and the roll speed of the conveyor strip can be adjustable so that the materials can be heated for a suitable duration, such as from 1 second to 1 hour, or another time duration. 
     The embodiments of  FIGS. 1-4  are exemplary and variations are contemplated to be within the scope of the present disclosure. For example, in various embodiments, only one heating element may be used rather than both heating element being used. In various embodiments, rather than having two heating elements, the systems and processes of  FIGS. 1-4  may have only one heating element. The time to heat the heating elements to a target temperature can vary. The amount of time to sinter a material can vary and can be between one second and one hour. 
       FIG. 5  is a diagram of a USH system that includes a movable heating bar for sintering a top layer of a material. The heating bar  530  can include a heating element made from the materials described in connection with the heating element of  FIG. 2 . The heating element can be secured to a mechanical arm or other mechanical mechanism (not shown) that can move the heating element across the surface of a material  510 . As described above, the heating element can be positioned approximately 1 cm or less away from the surface of the material  510 . The heating bar  530  can be scanned across the surface of the material  510  to sinter a top layer  540  of the material, such as a coating layer  510  above a substrate  520 , thin films, or other multilayer structures. Not every component of a heating bar system is shown or described, as persons skilled in the art will recognize and understand such components. For example, a heating bar system that moves the heating bar can include motors, sensors, and controllers, among other components. The controller can control an electrical source to heat the heating bar and can control the mechanical arm or other mechanism to move the heating bar across the surface of the material. 
     In various embodiments, the heating bar  530  UHS system can be applied to a coating  510  process involving steel powder. As an example, in the coating process, a steel powder (e.g., powder mixture of elemental metals, i.e. Fe, Mn, Ni, Cr, 1-5 μm powder size) with 3-5 wt % polymer binder can be dispersed in ethanol to make a slurry. The viscosity of the slurry can be controlled by tuning the concentration of the metal powders and polymer binder for different coating techniques, including spray coating and doctor blade. The powder slurry can then deposited on a steel substrate or the pipe wall with a wet thickness of ˜5 mm. After the coating layer dries in air, a carbon heating bar with a temperature of ˜1500° C. can be closely run over the coating layer to sinter the coating into a dense steel layer. After the UHS sintering process, the area of the coating layer close to the carbon heating bar was sintered into dense and shiny steel in about five seconds. Cross-sectional SEM image show that the sintered steel is about 1 mm thick, dense, and has a tight binding with the steel substrate (Supplement B). 
     Accordingly, various systems for performing the UHS process are described above. The following paragraphs will describe applications of the UHS process for various structures and uses. 
       FIG. 6  is a diagram of 3D-printed structures which can be sintered using UHS systems and process, including complex 3D-printed structures  610 , ordered 3D-printed structures  620 , porous 3D-printed structures  630 , and texture-like porous 3D-printed structures  640 . The composition of the 3D-printed structures  610 ,  620 ,  630 ,  640  can include various solid materials, including ceramics, glass, metals, alloys, carbons, polymers, and other solid state materials and their composites. The geometries of the 3D-printed structures  610 ,  620 ,  630 ,  640  can be any shape. The structures can be formed by 3D printing methods that include extrusion, UV-aided solidification, ink jet, or any other printing techniques. In various embodiments, the 3D-printed structures  610 ,  620 ,  630 ,  640  can be functional devices having different compositions and complex structures. 
     Uniform temperature distribution of the UHS systems and processes enable the structures to shrink uniformly in every direction, which maintains the form of the printed structures  612 ,  622 ,  632 ,  642  after UHS sintering. Thus, the UHS process maintains the composition and structure of the devices after sintering  612 ,  622 ,  632 ,  642  to achieve functional devices. In various embodiments, the sintered 3D-printed structures  612 ,  622 ,  632 ,  642  can maintain excellent mechanical, electrical, optical, thermal, acoustic, magnetic, and other physical and chemical properties, after undergoing the UHS process. In various embodiments, the 3D-printed structure can be used as support materials for other applications, such as catalysis. In various embodiments, the UHS systems and processes can be used to sinter complex porous  630  or textile-like porous structures  640 . The porous structures  630  can be 3D or 2D structures, which can have various morphologies and can be random or ordered structures. The porosity and pore size of the porous structures  630  and vary. In various embodiments, 2D textile-like structures  642  that have gone through the UHS process can possess flexibility. In accordance with aspects of the present disclosure, the UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ) can be used to sinter all such three-dimensional and/or porous structures, whether they are formed by 3D-printing or by other ways. The illustrated three-dimensional structures are exemplary and do not limit the scope of the present disclosure. The disclosed UHS systems and processes are generally applicable to all three-dimensional structures. 
       FIG. 7  is a diagram of applying the UHS systems and processes to powders. The top portion of  FIG. 7  shows an example of reactive sintering in the UHS process, where the precursor powders  710  react and sinter into a dense bulk  720 . Compositions A, B, C and D can be elementary powders or oxide precursors  710 . When the powders are precursor powders  710 , the precursor powders rapidly react and sinter into dense bulk sample  720  in one step during the UHS process. For example, in  FIG. 7 , the precursor powders A, B, C, and D  710  react during UHS sintering to form resulting bulk material E  720 . The bottom portion of  FIG. 7  shows an example of direct sintering in the UHS process, where the powders  730  directly sinter into dense bulk  720 . In the bottom portion, the powders  730  can be composite powders  730 , which form the composite without reaction between them. When the powders  730  are synthesized/composite powders  730  of the resulting bulk material  720 , there is no reaction among the powders  730  during the UHS sintering process. With regard to powders, the sintering temperature can be tuned so the powders partially or fully melt to form a dense structure. Thus, in the situation of sintering powders, the term “sintering” permits the powders to fully melt. 
     In aspects of the present disclosure, the UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ) can be applied to rapidly sinter metals and alloys directly from powders. Due to the ultra-high temperature of UHS, the UHS process can rapidly sinter metals and alloys directly from powders. The powders for alloy sintering can be a mixture of elemental powders or can be pre-alloyed powders with same composition the resulting bulk material. The metal and alloys can be sintered in various types of UHS systems, including the UHS systems shown in  FIGS. 1-5 . Table 1 below provides non-limiting examples of compositions that can be sintered by UHS process. Other compositions not shown in Table 1 can also be sintered by the UHS process. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Metals 
                 W, Fe, Cu, Mn, Ni, Al, Zn, Ti, Mg, Cr, Co, Ta, V, Nb, Mo, Au, 
               
               
                   
                 Ag, Pt, Pd, Sn, Zr, and other metals. 
               
               
                 Alloys and metallic 
                 Fe-based, Cu-based, Ti-based, Ni-based, Al-based, Mg-based, 
               
               
                 glasses 
                 Zr-based, and other alloys and metallic glasses. 
               
               
                 High entropy alloys 
                 FeCoNiCrMn, TiZrVNbTa, Co 1.5 CrFeNi1.5Ti, Al 0.2 Co 1.5 CrFeNi 1.5 Ti, 
               
               
                   
                 AlCoCrFeNi, Cu 0.5 NiAlCoCrFeSi, CoCrFeNiCu, CoCrFeNiMn, 
               
               
                   
                 CoCrFeNiV, MoNbTaVW, MoNbTaW, AlB x MnNiTi, AlCo x CrCu 0.5 FeNi, 
               
               
                   
                 Al x CrCuFeMnNi, CoCuFeMnNi, Al x C 0.2 CuFeMnNi, MoTiVFeNiZrCoCr, 
               
               
                   
                 ZrTiCuNiBe, PdNiCuP, LaAlNiCu, and CuZrAlY, NbMoTaW, VNbMoTaW, 
               
               
                   
                 CoCrFeNiCuAl 0.5 , VCuFeCoNi, Al 0.5 CrFeCoNi, Ti 2 CrCuFeCoNi, AlTiVYZr, 
               
               
                   
                 ZrTiVCuNiBe, CrFeCoNiAlCu 0.25 , Al 3 CoCrCuFeNi, 
               
               
                   
                 Ni x Co 0.6 Fe 0.2 —Cr y Si z AlTi 0.2 , BeCoMgTi, BeCoMgTiZn, CuNiCoZnAlTi, 
               
               
                   
                 AlCoCrFeNiNb x , BiFeCoNiMn, CoCrCuFeNiTi x , AlCoCrFeNiTi x , 
               
               
                   
                 TaNbHfZrTi, TaNbMoW, TaNbVMoW, and CrCoCuFeNiAl 0.5 , 
               
               
                   
                 NbCrMo 0.5 Ta 0.5 TiZr, NbCrMo 0.5 Ta0.5TiZr, Ti 0.8 CoCrCuFeNi, 
               
               
                   
                 NbTiAlVTaLa x , CoCrFeNiCu, and CoCrFeNiAl, TixCoCrCuFeNi, 
               
               
                   
                 (Ti, Zr, Hf)—(Ni, Cu)—Al, (Fe, Co, Ni)—(Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, Mo, W)—B, 
               
               
                   
                 Cu 0.5 NiAlCoCrFeSi, SrCaYbMgZn, Zn 20 Ca 20 Sr 20 Yb 20 (Li 0.55 Mg 0.45 ) 20 , 
               
               
                   
                 Fe 64 Mo 14 C 15 B 6 Er 1 , Zr 41 Ti 14 Cu 12.5 Ni 10 Be 22.5 , Mg 65 Cu 25 Y 9 Gd 1 , Pr 60 Al 10 Ni 10 Cu 20 , 
               
               
                   
                 Ce 62 Al 10 Cu 20 Co 3 Ni 5 , (Ti 33 Zr 33 Hf 33 ) 50 (Ni 50 Cu 50 ) 40 Al 10 , 
               
               
                   
                 (Ti 25 Zr 25 Hf 25 Nb 25 ) 70 (Ni 50 Cu 50 ) 20 Al 10 , (Ti 33 Zr 33 Hf 33 ) 70 (Ni 33 Cu 33 Ag 33 ) 20 Al 10 , 
               
               
                   
                 Ni—Al—Cu—Co—Ti—V—Zn—Zr, TiZrHfTaNb, PdPtNiCuP, and other 
               
               
                   
                 alloy compositions 
               
               
                 Ultrahigh-temperature 
                 Ni superalloy, Nb—Si Alloys, Mo—Si—B Alloys, IrRhNbNi, 
               
               
                 alloys 
                 PtAlTa, and other high-temperature alloys. 
               
               
                 Intermetallics 
                 Zr 5 Si 3 , Ti 5 Si 3 , MoSi 2 , TiSi 2 , NiAl, NiTi, Cu 3 Sn, MgCu 2 , Ag 3 Sn, 
               
               
                   
                 Cu 3 Sn, FeCo, MgZn 2 , MgNi 2 , and other intermetallics. 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In various embodiments, metals and alloys can be sintered in the form of special structures, such as 3D-printed structures as described above in connection with  FIG. 6 . In various embodiments, the UHS process can be applied to metal coatings in a layer-by-layer printing and sintering process that forms bilayer or multilayer structures, which is described below in connection with  FIG. 8 . For example, the UHS process can sinter a BMG/crystal bilayer or multilayer structures. In various embodiments, the UHS process can rapidly sinter a wide range of metal and alloys, including Al, Ti, Cu, Fe, refractory metals, refractory alloys, and silicide alloys, which can all be directly sintered from the mixture of the elemental powders. The sintering temperature of these metal and alloys varies from about 1000° C. to about 3000° C. Besides single-composition pellets, the UHS process can be applied to co-sinter multi-materials, such as a Cu/Fe bilayer pellet. 
     In aspects of the present disclosure, the USH systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ) can be applied to sinter ceramics directly from powders. The ceramics can be sintered in various types of UHS systems, including the UHS systems shown in  FIGS. 1-5 . Table 2 below provides a non-limiting list of ceramic compositions that can be sintered by UHS process. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Piezoelectric and 
                 PZT, PMNT (Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3—PbTiO3), 
               
               
                 ferroelectric 
                 PZNT(Pb(Zn1/31/3Nb2/3)O3—PbTiO3)PbTiO3, 
               
               
                 ceramics 
                 KNN(K1/2Na1/2NbO3), BaTiO3(A═Ca, B═Zr, Sr), 
               
               
                   
                 BZT-xBCT((1-x)Ba(Zr0.2Ti0.8)O3-x(Ba0.7Ca0.3)TiO3), 
               
               
                   
                 ZnO, and other piezo/ferroelectric ceramics 
               
               
                 Ionic conductor 
                 La 2 Mo 2 O 9 , LaGaO 3 , Ba 2 In 2 O 5 , YSZ, LaAlO 3 , garnet, Al 2 O 3 , Li ion 
               
               
                 and their thin 
                 conductors, Na ion conductors, Mg ion conductors, Al ion 
               
               
                 films 
                 conductors, Ag ion conductors, H ion conductors, O ion conductors, 
               
               
                   
                 and other ion conductors. 
               
               
                 Ultra-High 
                 HfC, TaC, ZrC, NbC, TiC, WC, VC, ThC, HfN, TaN, TiN, ThN, 
               
               
                 Temperature 
                 ZrN, TiCN, TiC, TiN, MgO—BeO—Al 2 O 3 , ZrB 2 , Al 2 O 3 , BN, VB 2 , 
               
               
                 Ceramics 
                 TiB 2 , HfB 2 , B 4 C, and other ultrahigh temperature ceramics. 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In various embodiments, the ceramics can also be sintered in the form of special structures, such as 3D-printed structures as described above in connection with  FIG. 6 . In various embodiments, the UHS process can be applied to sinter ceramics in a layer-by-layer printing and sintering process that forms thin films, bilayer, or multilayer structures, which is described below in connection with  FIGS. 8 and 12 . For example, multiple thin film ion conductors and piezoelectric ceramics can be sintered by the UHS process. 
     In aspects of the present disclosure, the UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ) can be applied to sinter glass or transparent ceramics directly from powders. The powders for glass or transparent ceramics can be a mixture of precursor powders or can be pre-synthesized powders having the same composition as the resulting bulk material. The glass or transparent ceramics can be sintered in various types of UHS systems, including the UHS systems shown in  FIGS. 1-5 . Table 3 below provides a non-limiting list of glass or transparent ceramics compositions that can be sintered by the UHS process. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Glass 
                 silicate glass, soda-lime glass, borosilicate glass, lead glass, 
               
               
                   
                 aluminosilicate, Al2O3—Si2O3, Al2O3—Si2O3—B2O3, P2O5, GeO2, As2O5, 
               
               
                   
                 Li2O—Al2O3—SiO2, MgO—Al2O3—SiO2, Na2O—Al2O3—SiO2, ZnO—Al2O3—SiO2, 
               
               
                   
                 BaO—TiO2—Al2O3—SiO2, BaO—TiO2—SrO—Al2O3—SiO2, MgO—CaO—SiO2—P2O5, 
               
               
                   
                 Fe2O3—CaO•SiO2—B2O3—P2O5, Na2O—CaO—Al2O3—SiO2, Na2O—CaO—B2O3—SiO2, 
               
               
                   
                 Na2O—CaO—Al2O3—B2O3—SiO2, Na2O—CaO—SiO2, and other glass materials 
               
               
                   
                 or their composites. 
               
               
                 Glass (energy 
                 Multi-layer glass: glass-TCO-(a-Si)-TCO-glass; 
               
               
                 efficiency) 
                 glass-TCO-(a-Si)-Al-glass (Transparent conducting oxide is 
               
               
                   
                 called as “TCO”) BaTiO3 (BT) and PbTiO3 (PT) doped glass 
               
               
                   
                 BaTiO3—V2O5—B2O3 
               
               
                   
                 SiO2—ZnO 
               
               
                   
                 SiO2—TiO2 
               
               
                   
                 VO2—SiO2—TiO2 
               
               
                   
                 Glass foam: glass-carbon composite 
               
               
                 Transparent 
                 Y 2 O 3 , Y 3 Al 5 O 12 , MgAl 2 O 4 , MgF 2 , ZnS, ZnSe, Al 23 O 27 N 5 , Al 2 O 3   
               
               
                 ceramics 
                 Tb 3 Al 5 O 12 , Tm 3 Al 5 O 12 , Lu 2 O 3 , Sc 2 O 3 , A 2 B 2 O 7 , CaF 2 , SrF 2 , BaF 2 , 
               
               
                   
                 CsI, ZnSe, Sr 5 (PO 4 ) 3 F, Lu 2 O 3 , Lu 3 Al 5 O 12 , MgO, Y—ZrO 2 , YAG, 
               
               
                   
                 YSZ, and other transparent ceramics or their composites. 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In various embodiments, the glass or transparent ceramics can also be sintered in the form of special structures, such as 3D-printed structures as described above in connection with  FIG. 6 . In various embodiments, the UHS process can be applied to sinter glass or transparent ceramics in a layer-by-layer printing and sintering process that forms thin films, bilayer, or multilayer structures, which is described below in connection with  FIGS. 8 and 12 . 
     In aspects of the present disclosure, the UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ) can be applied to sinter borides, carbides, and nitrides directly from powders. The powders for borides, carbides, and nitrides can be a mixture of precursor powders or can be pre-synthesized powders having the same composition as the resulting bulk material. The borides, carbides, and nitrides can be sintered in various types of UHS systems, including the UHS systems shown in  FIGS. 1-5 . Table 4 below provides a non-limiting list of borides, carbides, and nitrides compositions that can be sintered by the UHS process. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Ultra-High 
                 HfC, TaC, ZrC, NbC, TiC, WC, VC, ThC, HfN, TaN, TiN, ThN, 
               
               
                 Temperature 
                 ZrN, TiCN, TiC, TiN, MgO—BeO—Al 2 O 3 , ZrB 2 , VB 2 , TiB 2 , HfB 2 , 
               
               
                 Ceramics 
                 B 4 C, and other composties or high entropy ultrahigh 
               
               
                   
                 temperature ceramics. 
               
               
                 Super hard 
                 Borides, carbides, nitrides, and other super hard materials. 
               
               
                 materials 
                 Examples: HfC, TaC, ZrC, NbC, TiC, WC, VC, ThC, HfN, TaN, 
               
               
                   
                 TiN, ThN, ZrN, TiCN, TiC, TiN, VB 2 , TiB 2 , HfB 2 , WC-Co, β-SiC, 
               
               
                   
                 ZrC, ZrB, ZrB 2 , WB 4 , MnB 4 , ReB 2 , B 4 C, (AlCrNbSiTiV)N, and 
               
               
                   
                 other composties or high entropy super hard materials. 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In various embodiments, the borides, carbides, and nitrides can also be sintered in the form of special structures, such as 3D-printed structures as described above in connection with  FIG. 6 . In various embodiments, the UHS process can be applied to sinter borides, carbides, and nitrides in a layer-by-layer printing and sintering process that forms thin films, bilayer, or multilayer structures, which is described below in connection with  FIGS. 8 and 12 . 
       FIG. 8  is a diagram of exemplary bilayer or multilayer structures (bilayer being one instance of multilayer) formed by applying UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ). A bilayer structure can have a first layer  810  and a second layer  820 . A multilayer structure as illustrated has layers  820 ,  822 ,  824 , and  826 , and so on. The composition of the layers  810 - 826  can be any solid materials, including ceramics, glass, metals, alloys, carbons, polymers, and/or other solid state materials. The layers of the bilayer or multilayer structures  810 - 826  can be dense or porous. The UHS systems and processes described herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ) can be applied to a bilayer structure where one of the layers  810  is a porous structure and the other layer  812  is a dense layer (or vice versa), thereby forming a porous-dense bilayer. The porous layer  810  can be infiltrated with electrode materials for batteries and fuel cell applications. The UHS systems and processes can also be applied to any multilayer structure, such as a porous-dense-porous multilayer structure for solid state battery, flow battery, and/or fuel cell applications. Due to the short sintering time of UHS, the composition of multilayer structures will maintain without cross reaction or diffusion. 
     In various embodiments, the bilayer or multilayer structures can be ion conductors/solid state electrolytes (SSEs). By developing bilayer ceramics as solid state electrolytes, the advantages of different electrolytes can be combined to form multifunctional SSEs with superior performance in solid state batteries. For example, garnet can act as negative side for stable interface with Li metal, and another layer having good interface with cathode can be on the positive side. Other bilayer or multilayer thin films (e.g., three or more layers) can also be SSEs, and other bilayer and multilayer structure materials are also contemplated to be within the scope of the present disclosure. 
     In various embodiments, the UHS process can be used to sinter metal and alloy bilayers and multilayers. The composition of each layer  810 - 826  can be any metals, alloys, and the bulk metal glasses (BMG). The composition of the high temperature sintered metals, alloys, and BMG can be any metals, alloys, metallic glass, intermetallics, and other metals and alloys and their composites. The UHS process enables BMG and crystal compositions to be successfully co-sintered to form bilayer or multilayer structures, which combine both mechanical advantages of BMGs and crystals. Due to the short sintering time, the diffusion between the layers is very small/minimized (such as less than 10 μm) so that each layer can maintains the original structure. As an example, Fe-based BMG/crystal bilayer can be co-sintered using the UHS process. XRD patterns show pure crystal and glass phases of each layer (Supplement B), indicating no obvious side reactions between layers. The bilayer design can also be extended to other metal systems. To further improve the mechanical properties, some crystal phases can be added to the BMG layer to increase the ductility (Supplement B). In this case, the BMG compositions with low glass form ability can be used to in situ create some crystal phase in BMG layer. Due to the fast sintering rate, other crystal phase can also be added to the BMG layer without cross diffusion. 
       FIG. 9  is a diagram of applying UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ) for co-sintering compositions to form a composite structure. In the left side of  FIG. 9 , the composites have a mixture  912  and other structures  910 . In the right side of  FIG. 9 , the composites have a core-shell  922  and other structures  920 . As used herein the term “co-sintering” can refer to applying UHS to sinter multiple compositions to form a composite structure. Due to the short sintering time of UHS, the composition of composite structures will maintain without/with minimal cross reaction or diffusion (e.g., less than 10 μm). The compositions  910 - 922  of a composite structure can be a combination of any solid materials, including ceramics, glass, metals, alloys, carbons, polymers, and/or other solid state materials. 
     As an example, composite SSEs can make use of advantages of different compositions to achieve superior SSEs. By introducing the melting glass state, composite SSEs can be sintered at lower temperature and form denser structure. As an example, a glass-ceramic composite SSE can be sintered by adding Li 3 PO 4  in LLZTO garnet, where Li 3 PO 4  can melt at high temperature and weld with LLZTO particles to form a dense composite pellet. EDS mapping indicates no obvious cross-doping (Supplement,  Figure B20 ), and the XRD pattern confirms no secondary phases or side reactions (Supplement,  Figure B20A ). In contrast, severe side reactions occur between Li 3 PO 4  and LLZTO during one hour sintering at 1200° C. (Supplement,  Figure B21B -D). Therefore, the UHS process enables new structure designs for ceramics and glass materials due to the ultra-fast sintering speed. The UHS process of  FIG. 9  can be applied to sintering other composite structures having of two or more compositions. The composition of the composite contents  910 - 922  can be ceramics, glasses, metals, alloys, carbons, polymers, and other solid state materials. The structure of the composite can be a mixture of multiple phases (as shown in the left side of  FIG. 9 ), or can be a core-shell (as shown in right side of  FIG. 9 ), or can be other structures. 
       FIG. 10  is a diagram of applying UHS systems and processes to conduct post-treatment for solid materials. The solid materials  1010  can be pre-synthesized or can be formed by other sintering techniques. The UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIG. 1-5 ) can then be applied to the solid materials  1010  as a post-treatment. For example, the heating element  1010  may be positioned 1 mm to several inches away from the materials  1010 . The UHS post-treatment can cause the treated solids  1010  to experience structure, composition, crystallinity, morphology, surface, or other changes. The treated solid materials  1030  can have excellent mechanical, electrical, ionic, optical, thermal, acoustic, magnetic, and/or other physical and/or chemical properties. In various embodiments, the solid materials can be glass or other optical materials with excellent UV-Vis-IR properties or other optical properties. The composition of the solid material  1010  can be any solid materials, including ceramics, glasses, metals, alloys, carbons, polymers, and other solid state materials and their composites. 
       FIG. 11  is a diagram of applying UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5 ) to treat a surface of a solid material  1110 . The solid material  1110  can be ceramics, glass, metals, alloys, carbons, polymers, and/or other solid state materials. In various embodiments, the solid material  1110  can be in direct contact with the heating element  1120  or can be 1 mm to several inches away from the heating element  1120 . In various embodiments, the UHS process and the high temperature can quickly heat the sample surface to form a new surface layer  1130 , which has new structure, morphology, composition, or other property changes. The UHS treating temperature and time can be adjusted to achieve desired thickness or properties of the surface layer  1130 . Thus, the UHS process can cause a change in just the new surface layer  1130  of the solid material without causing any changes to the bulk properties  1110  beneath the new surface layer  1130 . Thus, the UHS surface treatment can cause changes to structure, composition, crystallinity, morphology, and/or other properties of the surface  1130  of the solid material. The treated surface  1130  can have excellent mechanical, electrical, ionic, optical, thermal, acoustic, magnetic, and/or other physical and/or chemical properties. 
       FIG. 12  is a diagram of applying UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5 ) to treat a thin film at the surface of a substrate. A thin film  1212  can be deposited onto a substrate  1210  by sputtering, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atomic layer deposition (ALD), physical vapor deposition (PVD), and/or other deposition techniques, and the deposited thin film may have amorphous structure. For example, LiPON, LLZO, and/or LATP ionic conductors can be deposited by ALD or PLD to improve ionic conductivities. Applying UHS to treat a thin film can cause beneficial changes the properties of the treated films  1230 . In various embodiments, the thickness of the thin film  1212  can be 1 nm to several millimeters. The composition of the thin film  1212  and the substrate  1210  can be any solid materials, including ceramics, glasses, metals, alloys, carbons, polymers, and/or other solid state materials and their composites. The heating element  1220  may be positioned 1 mm to several inches away from the materials  1212  and treating temperature and time can be adjusted. For example, the heating element may be a conductive heating element as described above herein and can be heated to a temperature between 500° C. and 3000° C., inclusive. The heating element may sinter the materials  1212  in about ten seconds, for example, or in another time duration, such as one second to one hour. The heating element  1220  may have sufficient size to cover the entire material  1212  or may be moved over the material  1212  to sinter the entirety of the material  1212 . 
       FIG. 13  is a diagram of applying UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-12, 15, 23 ) to co-sinter electrode materials and solid state electrolytes (SSE). In co-sintering of electrodes  1320  and SSEs  1310 , a goal is to achieve good interface in solid state batteries for performance, but cross diffusion and side reactions during co-sintering are problems with regular sintering techniques. In the UHS process, due to very low/minimum cross-diffusion, the electrode materials  1320  can be sintered on the SSE  1310  resulting in conformal interface  1332  without side reactions. The UHS process enables in situ synthesis and co-sintering of electrode materials  1330  and SSEs  1310  with good interface  1332  and minimal/no cross doping, as shown in  FIG. 13 . As an example, an LCO cathode can be directly synthesized and sintered from LiOH and Co 3 O 4  precursors on a sintered LLZTO garnet using the UHS process. The high temperature provides a quick and thorough reaction to form LCO cathode, while the short sintering time significantly minimizes the potential side reactions between cathode and SSEs. As shown in  FIG. 13 , EDS mapping indicates there is no obvious cross-doping. This process can apply to other electrode materials  1320  (such as NMC, LiFePO 4 , Li 2 S, and other Li, Na, K, Mg, Zn electrode materials, etc.) and other ceramics or glass SSEs  1310  (such as LLTO, LATP, NASICON, LISICON, Thio-LISICON, Na ion conductors, and other solid state ion conductors or their composites). 
       FIG. 14  is a diagram of applying UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-12, 15, 23 ) to co-sinter  1420  and fabricate solid state batteries. As an example of a co-sintered solid state battery, LLMO, an electrical-ionic mixed conductive material serving as an electrode, can be co-sintered with LLZTO garnet. As shown in  FIG. 14 , the LLMO layer has a good contact with garnet SSE, and EDS mapping  1440  indicates no obvious cross-doping after the UHS sintering. Li can be coated on the other side of garnet SSE  1430  and a layer of CNT can be coated on LLMO as the current collector  1410 . The resulting solid state battery can be directly cycled at room temperature without adding any liquid electrolyte. The mixed conductivity of LLMO enables a low resistance for all solid state batteries. The voltage profiles are shown in Supplement,  Figure B22 , where there are two plateaus at about 1.6 V and 1.2 V. Computation results indicate that these two plateaus may correspond to Li3-Li5 and Li5-Li7 lithiation processes, respectively. The cycling performance shown in Supplement,  Figure B22  indicates that the all solid state batteries have excellent cycling stability in more than 600 cycles. Therefore, any all solid state battery can be assembled with UHS systems and processes with excellent interfaces and battery performance. This technique can be extended to fabricate other solid state batteries or fuel cells. The electrode materials can be NMC, LiFePO 4 , Li 2 S, and other Li, Na, K, Mg, Zn electrode materials. The electrodes include both cathodes and anodes. The solid state electrolytes can be ceramics, glass, and other solid state ion conductors or their composites, such as LLTO, LATP, NASICON, LISICON, Thio-LISICON, and other Li ion conductors, Na ion conductors, K ion conductors, O ion conductors, H ion conductors, and other ion conductors. The electrode materials can also be sintered into the porous SSE without side reaction. 
       FIG. 15  is a diagram of applying UHS systems and processes to fabricate printed thin film batteries. Both the SSE and electrodes can be printed  1510 ,  1530  with a slurry process followed by a rapid UHS sintering  1520 ,  1540  to form a dense layer and good interface between the electrodes and SSEs. 
     The need for safer rechargeable batteries that avoid the use of flammable liquid organic electrolyte has motivated the development of solid-state electrolytes (SSEs), such as lithium phosphorus oxynitride (LiPON) and garnet-based ceramic compounds. SSE thin films (less than 10 μm) that feature a high ionic conductivity of &gt;10 −4  S/cm are desirable to achieve high energy and power densities. Various methods have been developed to synthesize thin-film ceramic SSEs (e.g., garnet), but they present challenges in sintering thin film electrolyte and cause severe Li and Na loss and corresponding low ionic conductivities. Other methods provide solid-state thin-film batteries with a low current density of 50-800 μA/cm 2 , but large-scale applications (e.g., electric vehicles) require a current density of up to 3-10 mA/cm 2 . 
     The present disclosure provides systems and processes to synthesize thin-film ceramic SSEs using the UHS process and will be referred to herein as “printing and radiative heating”, or PRH. PRH provides a solution-based and printable technique for synthesizing ceramic thin film SSEs with improved scalability. PRH operates using sintering temperatures up to 1500° C. for a short period of time (e.g., three seconds). The rapid heating enables the formation of a dense, polycrystalline thin-film structure, but with negligible volatile element loss due to the short sintering time. In the PRH process, a precursor film is printed on a substrate  1502  with a thickness that is tuned by controlling the ink concentration and wet thickness. The air-dried precursor film is then placed in close contact to a radiative heating strip (e.g., about 1500° C.) for rapid close-proximity sintering  1504  by using the UHS process, as shown at the top of  FIG. 15 . This Joule-heated strip runs across the precursor film with a total heating duration of a few seconds to complete the sintering process  1506 . In various embodiments, a conveyor strip system (e.g.,  FIG. 4 ) may be used instead of a heating strip or heating bar. The PRH process can be used to fabricate a Li 6.5 La 3 Zr 1.5 Ta 0.5 O 12  (LLZTO) ceramic thin film SSE on a single crystal MgO substrate, which features a translucent, dense, and uniform structure. The resulting ceramic thin film exhibits excellent crystallinity, negligible Li loss, and a high ionic conductivity comparable to that of bulk materials. The PRH process  1502 - 1506  is not material-specific and is able to sinter a range of high-performance solid-state thin films. PRH-sintered thin films  1506  provide significant advantages in term of ionic conductivity, universality, stoichiometry, fabrication speed, crystallinity, and scalability, all of which greatly benefit the development of solid-state batteries. 
     The PRH sintering process is based on radiative heating, which is not material specific and can be applied to sinter a wide range of compositions. For example, the universality of the PRH process can be used to fabricate Li 0.3 La 0.567 TiO 3  (LLTO), Li 1.3 Al 0.3 Ti 1.7 (PO 4 ) 3  (LATP), β-Al 2 O 3 , and PbZr 0.52 Ti 0.48 O 3  (PZT) thin films from precursor ink solutions (Supplement B), all of which contain volatile components. LLTO, LATP, and β-Al 2 O 3  are high performance Li-ion and Na-ion conductors whose thin films face the challenge of controlling Li/Na loss during synthesis. The PRH process can print the LLTO, LATP, and β-Al 2 O 3  precursor inks on an Al 2 O 3  substrate by spray coating, followed by high-temperature (1500° C.) sintering for about 3-5 seconds which provides uniform and dense thin films with thicknesses of 5-10 μm (Supplement B). The LATP and LLTO thin films can be sintered in air to prevent the potential reduction of Ti 4+ . Similar to the LLZTO thin film, no obvious cross-doping or side reactions between the SSE layer and substrate was observed, according to EDS mapping (Supplement B). The grain boundaries of the sintered thin films were well merged due to the melting effect at high sintering temperature. Furthermore, due to the rapid sintering process within three seconds, the Li/Na loss in the LATP, LLTO, and β-Al 2 O 3 SSEs was minimized, which is confirmed from the pure phases in the XRD patterns (Supplement, Figure S 12 -S 14 ). 
     The capability of the PRH process to avoid/mitigate elemental loss can be applied to materials containing other volatile elements, such as Pb. The evaporation of Pb at high temperature is one of the main challenges to fabricating PZT, a high-performance piezoelectric ceramic. Conventional fabrication processes involve the low-temperature (˜500-800° C.) treatment of sol-gel deposited PZT thin films to avoid/mitigate Pb loss and cracking during sintering. However, low-temperature-treated PZT thin films generally have poor crystallinity, which can affect the piezoelectric behavior of the thin films. In contrast, the PRH process provides a much higher sintering temperature (˜1500° C.) to achieve a dense PZT thin film with excellent crystallinity, while the short sintering time greatly minimizes the Pb loss. As an example, PZT precursor ink can be directly printed on an Al 2 O 3  substrate, followed by rapid sintering at 1500° C. for about three seconds. An insufficient sintering time or low sintering temperature results in porous or amorphous PZT thin films, while prolonged sintering or a high sintering temperature lead to severe Pb loss and corresponding phase changes (Supplement B). However, optimized PRH-sintering conditions result in a PZT thin film that demonstrates a dense structure with well-merged grains, while the EDS mapping illustrates the uniformly distributed Pb element (Supplement B). The XRD pattern shows a pure PZT phase without secondary phases caused by Pb loss (Supplement B), which further demonstrates the unique capability of the PRH process for the synthesis of ceramic thin films with volatile compositions. Accordingly, the PRH process has the ability to mitigate/prevent volatile element loss for superior compositional control (Supplement B). 
     Besides single-component thin films, the PRH process can be used to rapidly sinter composite thin films, as the short sintering time can effectively prevent side-reactions between materials. As an example, the PRH process can be used to sinter a LiBO 2 -LLZTO composite SSE thin film. The resulting material features LiBO 2  uniformly distributed between the LLZTO grains with conformal interfaces and no obvious co-doping, likely due to the short sintering time of three seconds, even with a high sintering temperature of 1200° C. In contrast, sintering the same materials in a conventional furnace for one hour results in a porous structure with large reacted grains rather than a dense composite (Supplement B). Thus, prolonged sintering in a conventional furnace leads to significant cross-diffusion and side reactions between components, while the PRH process is able to avoid/mitigate such side-reactions to generate composite structures (Supplement B). The capability to fabricate a broad range of both single and multi-component compounds indicates the universality of the PRH process for manufacturing high-performance ceramic thin films. 
     The thin films sintered by the PRH process can have structure, composition, crystallinity, morphology, or other changes and have excellent mechanical, electrical, ionic, optical, thermal, acoustic, magnetic, and other physical and chemical properties. The thickness of the thin film can be 1 nm to millimeters. The composition of the thin film and the substrate can be any solid materials, including ceramics, glasses, metals, alloys, carbons, polymers, and other solid state materials and their composites. 
     With continuing reference to the bottom portion of  FIG. 15 , the PRH process can be applied to fabricate solid-state batteries with layered structures via layer-by-layer printing and sintering  1510 - 1540 . As an example, a LiCoO 2  precursor solution can be was printed on a thin LLZTO pellet  1510  using a solution process (Supplement B), followed by PRH sintering  1520  at about 800° C. (due to the low reaction temperature) for about three seconds to in situ synthesize the LiCoO 2  cathode. Then, a Li metal anode can be coated on the other side of the pellet  1530  and the sintered  1540  to form a LiCoO 2 /LLZTO/Li solid-state battery for cycling (Supplement B). Cross-sectional SEM imaging and EDS mapping (Supplement B) indicate that the LiCoO 2  cathode was uniformly sintered on the LLZTO surface with a conformal and clear interface. The PRH-synthesized LiCoO 2  also shows XRD peaks well-matching the standard LiCoO 2  phase without much secondary phase, indicating successful synthesis during the three seconds sintering time (Supplement,  Figure S20 ). Due to the high temperature and short sintering time, the sintered LiCoO 2  exhibits a nanoporous structure with a grain size of ˜200 nm (Supplement,  Figure S21 ) and a well-defined, conformal interface without obvious cross-doping with the LLZTO garnet (Supplement B). To facilitate Li transport in the porous LiCoO 2  layer and avoid/mitigate capacity decay due to the volume change of the cathode during cycling, LiBO 2  can be used a solid-state binder mixed with the LiCoO 2  cathode. Since LiBO 2  can melt at about 850° C., the LiBO 2  precursor can be directly printed and sintered for about three seconds into the porous LiCoO 2  layer using the PRH process, which results in a uniform composite structure (Supplement B). 
     Due to the conformal interfaces, the interfacial resistance of this PRH-sintered battery was as low as about 100 Ω·cm 2  at 60° C. (Supplement B), which is considerably smaller than other co-sintered all solid-state batteries. The voltage profiles of the printed battery exhibited typical plateaus of the LiCoO 2  cathode (Supplement B), further demonstrating the successful synthesis of LiCoO 2  via the rapid PRH process. Additionally, the battery&#39;s rate and cycling performance show good capacity retention and excellent cycling stability over about 450 cycles (Supplement B). Specifically, the initial specific capacity was about 87 mA·h/g at a current density of 30 mA/g. The capacity slightly decreases with increasing current density but has little change over the cycles at each current density (Supplement B). After about 450 cycles, the interfacial resistance slightly increased to about 170 Ω·cm 2  (Supplement B), which further demonstrates the excellent stability of the in situ sintered cathode and interface synthesized by the PRH process. 
     This PRH process  1510 - 1540  can be applied to other electrode materials (such as NMC, LiFePO 4 , Li 2 S, and other Li, Na, K, Mg, Zn electrode materials, etc.) and other ceramics or glass SSEs (such as LLTO, LATP, NASICON, LISICON, Thio-LISICON, Na ion conductors, and other solid state ion conductors or their composites). 
       FIG. 16  is a diagram of multilayer structures formed by applying UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ). The bilayer, trilayer, and multilayer structures can be used for fuel cells and batteries (bilayer and trilayer being specific instances of multilayer). In various embodiments, the bilayer and multilayer structures can be formed by 3D-printing or by deposition methods. The thickness of each layer  1610 - 1624  is about 1-500 μm. A porous layer has the electrode materials for batteries and fuel cells or the composite of electrode materials and SSEs. A dense layer has the solid state electrolytes for battery and fuel cells, which can include, without limitation, Li ion conductors, Na ion conductors, K ion conductors, proton conductors, O ion conductors, Mg ion conductors, and/or Al ion conductors. For a bilayer structure, one layer  1610  can be a porous layer, which can be infiltrated with electrode materials for batteries and fuel cell applications, and the other layer  1612  can be the dense SSE. For a trilayer structure, layers  1620 ,  1624  can be porous layers for electrode materials loading, and layer  1622  can be the dense SSE to separate anode and cathode materials. Each dense layer may be a single dense layer or can include two or more dense sub-layers of different compositions. 
     In accordance with aspects of the present disclosure, the UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ) can be used to form solid state batteries containing multilayer structures. UHS can be applied to co-sinter electrodes with bilayer or multilayer SSEs to form a solid state batteries (with bilayer being a specific instance of multilayer). By developing multilayer ceramics as solid state electrolytes, the advantages of different electrolytes can be combined to form multifunctional SSEs with superior performances in solid state batteries. For example, garnet can act as negative side for stable interface with Li metal, and another layer having good interface with cathode can be on the positive side. Due to the short sintering time, the composition of the multilayer or composite structure will maintain without or with minimal cross reaction or diffusion. In various embodiments, any dense layer of a multilayer SSEs  1614 ,  1624  may be a single dense layer or can have two or more dense sub-layers. 
     In accordance with aspects of the present disclosure, the UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ) can be applied to form flow batteries or fuel cells containing single layer or multilayer structures. UHS can be applied to co-sinter electrodes with single-layer, bilayer, or multilayer SSEs to form flow batteries (with bilayer being a specific instance of multilayer). The anode and cathode are porous structures which allow the flow of electrode materials in solutions. Due to the short sintering time, the composition of each layer of multilayer SSEs will maintain without or with minimal cross reaction or diffusion. 
     UHS can also be applied to co-sinter electrodes with single layer, bilayer, or multilayer SSEs to form fuel cells (with bilayer being a specific instance of multilayer). The anode and cathode are porous structures which allow the oxygen and fuel gas (hydrogen or carbon monoxide, or methane) to diffuse. Due to the short sintering time, the composition of multilayer or composite structures will maintain without or with minimal cross reaction or diffusion. 
       FIG. 17  is a diagram of an exemplary thermoelectric device formed by applying UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ). A p-type thin film  1720  or a n-type thin film  1730  can be, for example, printed onto a substrate  1710  and can be sintered to form thin films on the substrate. The printed thin films  1720 ,  1730  can be sintered using, for example, the system and processes of  FIG. 5 , among others disclosed herein. In various embodiments, the n-type thin film and the p-type thin film can be sintered simultaneously or can be sintered sequentially. The sintered p-type thin film and n-type thin film on substrate can be used to form thermoelectric devices, such as the example shown in  FIG. 17 . The electrodes can be sintered onto the thin films using the systems and processes disclosed herein. 
     A process of forming the thermoelectric device can include providing the p-type thin film  1720  on the substrate  1710 , providing the n-type thin film  1730  on the substrate  1710 , positioning at least one conductive carbon element at a distance of at most 1 centimeter from the p-type thin film  1730  and the n-type thin film  1720 , heating the at least one conductive carbon element by electrical current to a temperature between 500° C. and 3000° C., inclusive, and sintering the p-type thin film and the n-type thin film by heat from the at least one heated conductive carbon element. In various embodiments, the at least one heated conductive carbon element can be moved/scanned over the thin films. In various embodiments, the at least one conductive carbon element can cover both of the thin films. The thin films can be sintered simultaneously or sintered sequentially. At least one electrode can be deposited or sintered on at least a portion of the sintered p-type thin film and/or the sintered n-type thin film. The illustrated and described embodiments are exemplary and variations contemplated to be within the scope of the present disclosure. For example, the thermoelectric device may have a different layout than as illustrated. The heating element may be made from another type of conductive material or composition. 
       FIG. 18  is a diagram of an exemplary piezoelectric device and thin film formed by applying UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ). UHS can be applied to co-sinter electrodes  1810 ,  1812  with a piezoelectric thin film  2014  to form a piezoelectric device, such as a piezoelectric actuator. The thin film  1814  can be printed or deposited onto one of the electrodes  1810 ,  1812 . The printed thin film  1814  can be sintered using, for example, the system and processes of  FIG. 5 , among others disclosed herein. The other electrode can be deposited and sintered using the systems and processes disclosed herein, or can be deposited in another manner which persons skilled in the art will recognize. 
       FIG. 19  is a diagram of an exemplary thermal barrier coating or environmental barrier coating formed by applying UHS systems and processes disclosed herein (e.g.,  FIGS. 1-5, 10-15, 21 ). For thermal barrier coating, the total thickness of the coating  1920 ,  1922  can be 1-500 μm. The thermal barrier coating can include a porous layer  1920  and a dense layer  1922 . The porous layer  1920  pore sizes are approximately is 1-10,000 nm or smaller. The USH systems and processes disclosed herein can be used to sinter the thermal barrier coating onto metal substrate or onto a coated/treated metal substrate. The top porous layer  1920  and the bottom dense layer  1920  can be co-sintered in a single sintering process or can be sintered one layer at a time in separate sintering processes. In various embodiments, the layers of thermal barrier coating or environmental barrier coating can be deposited or printed and can then be sintered by the systems and processes of  FIG. 5 , among others disclosed herein. 
       FIG. 20  is a diagram of a process of computation screening and fabrication of materials by applying UHS. Computation screening  2010  is a rapid material discovery technique and significantly facilitates the development of materials science. Materials exploration/mining is the concept of combining elements and compounds based on design principles, and recent artificial intelligence (AI) greatly accelerate materials discovery by a tremendous amount of computations and predictions. For theoretical predictions, actual material synthesis is needed to check computations for correct materials discovery. While computational study combined with artificial intelligence can lead to many predictions of new materials, a limiting factor for realizing the goal of verifying those predictions in synthesis speed. 
     The ability of the UHS process to rapidly and reliably synthesize  2020  a wide range of ceramics enables quick verification of new materials predicted by computation, thus greatly accelerating the screening rate for bulk ceramic materials. 
     As an example, lithium garnet compounds (Li 7 A 3 B 2 O 12 , A=La Group, B=Mo, W, Sn, Zr) can be used to demonstrate this rapid screening ability enabled by computational prediction and the UHS process. As shown in Supplement,  FIG. 3B , a large number of compounds with other non-Li cation combinations based on garnet structures were predicted, and their energies were evaluated by density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The phase stabilities of these computer-generated hypothetical Li7-garnet compounds (Supplement,  FIG. 3C ) are described by the lower value of energy above hull (E hull ), which is determined from the energy difference of the compound in comparison to the stable phase equilibria on the phase diagram. A material with a small E hull  (color-coded green) should feature good phase stability, and a high E hull  (color-coded red) suggests an unstable phase. Compositional screening captured most known stoichiometric Li7-garnets, such as Li 7 La 3 Zr 2 O 12 , Li 7 Nd 3 Zr 2 O 12 , and Li 7 La 3 Sn 2 O 12 , which validates this computational method. 
     As an example of the rapid synthesis and materials screening capability, the computationally predicted Zr- and Sn-based garnet compositions featuring small E hull  values listed in Supplement,  FIG. 3C  can be selected for experimental verification using the UHS process, which include Li 7 Pr 3 Zr 2 O 12  (LPrZO), Li 7 Sm 3 Zr 2 O 12  (LSmZO), Li 7 Nd 3 Zr 2 O 12  (LNdZO), Li 7 Nd 3 Sn 2 O 12  (LNdSnO), and Li 7 Sm 3 Sn 2 O 12  (LSmSnO), as well as the corresponding 0.5 Ta-doped compositions in the B-site (e.g., Li 6.5 Sm 3 Zr 1.5 Ta 0.5 O 12  (LSmZTO)). The SEM images shown in Supplement,  FIG. S13 - 17  indicate that the new garnet compounds are well synthesized and sintered, demonstrating uniform grain size and microstructure. The final relative densities are in the range of 91-96% a typical grain size in the range of 2-10 μm, achieved in as little as 10 seconds of UHS sintering. Additionally, XRD patterns shown in Supplement,  FIG. S18  confirm that garnet phases (cubic phase for B-site doped, tetragonal phase for non-doped) were successfully synthesized for the predicted stable compositions. The newly discovered garnet compounds exhibit different optical properties and are not the typical white color, due to the different La-group elements (Supplement,  FIG. 3D ). These new garnets also have ionic conductivities of ˜10&#39;S/cm (LNdZTO shown as a representative sample in Supplement,  FIG. S19 ), comparable to that of LLZO garnets. The UHS process was also used to synthesize unstable garnet compounds predicted by computation, such as Li 7 Gd 3 Zr 2 O 12  and Li 7 Yb 3 Zr 2 O 12 . As expected, even though the SEM images show well sintered grains for Li 7 Yb 3 Zr 2 O 12  and Li 7 Gd 3 Zr 2 O 12  (Supplement,  FIG. 520A , B), these two compositions do not form the garnet phase according to their XRD patterns (Supplement,  FIG. 520C ), which verifies the computational predictions. 
     An advantage of UHS is highly controllable temperature profile (i.e., heating/cooling rate and sintering temperature), which provides excellent tunability for synthesizing ceramics that are challenging to achieve using conventional procedures. For example, DFT computation predicts that Mo-based Li7-garnets have low E hull  values (Supplement,  FIG. 3C ), which are novel garnet compositions that have never been previously synthesized. When synthesizing these Mo-based garnets, it was seen that the MoO 2  precursor tended to melt and evaporate at a relatively low temperature (˜1100° C.), preventing the precursors from reacting and sintering at a high temperature (Supplement,  FIG. S21A ). This behavior is confirmed with SEM imaging and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) mapping of the low-temperature sintered Li 7 La 3 Mo 2 O 12  (LLMO) garnet in Supplement,  FIGS. S21B  and C, which show the La 2 O 3  precursor particles surrounded by the melted MoO 2  phase, indicating little reaction. Enabled by the excellent tunability of the UHS process, the heating rate was tuned and the sintering temperature was increased up to about ˜1500° C. to run the reaction faster while decreasing the sintering time to about three seconds to simultaneously minimize the evaporation of the MoO 2  (Supplement,  FIG. S21D ). The SEM image and EDS mapping in Supplement,  FIGS. S21E  and F indicate that the precursors react and form new grain morphologies. Furthermore, XRD pattern in Supplement,  FIG. S22  confirms that the LLMO garnet phase was successfully achieved, though some unreacted La 2 O 3  and secondary phase can still be identified. The sintered LLMO garnet pellet exhibits mixed ionic-electronic conductivities due to the multiple charge states of Mo and possible defects from the reducing atmosphere of UHS. The ionic and electronic conductivities were measured to be about 1.4×10 −5  S/cm and about 3.3×10 −6  S/cm (Supplement,  FIG. S23 ), respectively. The mixed conductivities in LLMO are of interest as a potential electrode material for solid-state batteries. These findings demonstrate that UHS is highly adaptable and can be easily tailored for the synthesis of various materials with different properties for computation screening and material discovery. 
       FIG. 21  is a diagram of an exemplary UHS system for simultaneously co-sintering multiple materials. The illustrated system enables rapid synthesis and screening of ceramics, glass, or other solid state materials. As an example, with the UHS heating elements  2110 ,  2120 , over 100 ceramic pellets  2130  can be rapidly co-sintered in just about ten seconds using a 20×5 configuration, with an area of just ˜12 cm×3 cm (for a pellet size of 5 mm), which is highly practical for materials screening processes. As an example of this scalability, ten garnet compositions were synthesized by co-sintering directly from the corresponding material precursors in one step (Supplement,  FIG. 3F ). In comparison, SPS is currently considered a high-throughput method to fabricate bulk ceramic specimens, as it can produce one specimen in a turnaround time of ˜1-2 hours, which is at least 10-times slower than the UHS process if only one sample is being made. Moreover, SPS cannot easily be carried out in parallel experiments as it would require multiple expensive SPS instruments, which makes UHS more than 10 3  times more efficient if fabricating  100  pellets simultaneously. 
     In various embodiments, the sizes of the materials can be adjusted from millimeters to meters to suit the application, and the size of the UHS system  2110 ,  2120  can be adjusted accordingly. The sample materials can be in direct contact with the heating elements  2110 ,  2120  or can be spaced apart from the heating elements  2110 ,  2120 . For each UHS sintering operation, the composition of the sample materials  2130  can be the same or can be different. The composition of the materials  2130  can include, without limitation, ceramics, glass, metal, alloy, carbon, and/or other solid materials. 
     Accordingly, described above is are systems and methods that can enable high-throughput fabrication of bulk ceramics for discovering new materials, the sintering of thermally fragile compounds containing volatile components, and the fabrication of 3D printed complex structures and devices that cannot be made by SPS or flash sintering. Moreover, the UHS process can be universally applied to different materials, independent of their electrical characteristics. The rapid sintering enables the potential for scalable roll-to-roll sintering of ceramics by a conveyor strip ( FIG. 4 ), as the precursor film can quickly pass through the heating elements to achieve continuous fabrication. The thin, high-temperature carbon heater in the UHS technique is also highly flexible and can conformally wrap around structures for rapid sintering of unconventional shapes and devices (Supplement,  FIG. S30 ). 
     The UHS systems and process can be extended to a broad range of non-oxide high-temperature materials, including metals, carbides, borides, nitrides, and silicides, due to its high temperature (up to about 3000° C.). Also, UHS systems and processes may be used to fabricate functionally-graded materials (beyond simple multilayers) with minimum undesirable interdiffusion. The ultrafast, far-from-equilibrium nature of the UHS process may produce materials with non-equilibrium concentrations of point defects, dislocations, and other defects or metastable phases leading to desirable properties. In particular, the ultrafast UHS method can potentially produce non-equilibrium grain boundaries, thereby minimizing the detrimental equilibrium segregation of impurities, dopants, and defects (including non-stoichiometric grain boundaries). These are otherwise difficult to avoid in conventional high-temperature fabrication processes. Thus, UHS systems and processes open up new possibilities to mitigate high grain boundary resistance in solid electrolytes, as well as tailor various grain boundary properties for a broad range of other materials beyond solid electrolytes. The UHS method allows a highly controllable and tunable temperature profile to enable excellent control of sintering and microstructural evolution. 
     The embodiments disclosed herein are examples of the disclosure and may be embodied in various forms. For instance, although certain embodiments herein are described as separate embodiments, each of the embodiments herein may be combined with one or more of the other embodiments herein. Specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, but as a basis for the claims and as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the present disclosure in virtually any appropriately detailed structure. Like reference numerals may refer to similar or identical elements throughout the description of the figures. 
     The phrases “in an embodiment,” “in embodiments,” “in various embodiments,” “in some embodiments,” or “in other embodiments” may each refer to one or more of the same or different embodiments in accordance with the present disclosure. A phrase in the form “A or B” means “(A), (B), or (A and B).” A phrase in the form “at least one of A, B, or C” means “(A); (B); (C); (A and B); (A and C); (B and C); or (A, B, and C).” 
     It should be understood that the foregoing description is only illustrative of the present disclosure. Various alternatives and modifications can be devised by those skilled in the art without departing from the disclosure. Accordingly, the present disclosure is intended to embrace all such alternatives, modifications and variances. The embodiments described with reference to the attached drawing figures are presented only to demonstrate certain examples of the disclosure. The embodiments described and illustrated herein are exemplary, and variations are contemplated to be within the scope of the present disclosure. Various embodiments disclosed herein can be combined in ways not expressly described herein, and such combinations are contemplated to be within the scope of the present disclosure. Other elements, steps, methods, and techniques that are insubstantially different from those described above and/or in the appended claims are also intended to be within the scope of the disclosure.