Patent Publication Number: US-2023146433-A1

Title: Evaluating overall network resource congestion before scaling a network slice

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present disclosure relates generally to communication, and more particularly to operations in a communication network and related nodes of the communication network. 
     BACKGROUND 
     5G introduced Network Slices or Network Slice Selection Assistance Information (“NSSAI”). With 5G there is an option to create different network slices for different requirements. A public land mobile network (“PLMN”) combines different 5G core network elements to deliver much more flexible type of network slices (or NSSAIs), and these network slices can be delivered in real time based on S-NSSAIs values provided in the N1 interface. 
     The 5GC is responsible for selection of a Network Slice instance to serve a user equipment or wireless device (“UE”), the 5GC Control Plane (“CP”), and user plane (“UP”) network functions (“NF”) corresponding to the network slice instance. A network slice can be scaled dynamically based on the requirements of the subscribers connected to that network slice. A network slice can be scaled by scaling individual virtual network function (“VNFs”). 
     VNF instance scaling can be the result of a service quality threshold being crossed—whether because service quality is no longer acceptable, requiring expanding capacity, or because service quality and utilization is such that capacity can be contracted without affecting quality delivered. 
     The scaling use cases can be grouped in 3 categories: Auto-scaling, on-demand scaling, and scaling based on management request. Auto-scaling can occur in response to the VNF Manager monitoring the state of a VNF instance and triggering the scaling operation when certain conditions are met. For monitoring a VNF instance&#39;s state, it can for instance track infrastructure-level and/or VNF-level events. Infrastructure-level events can be generated by the VIM. VNF-Level events may be generated by the VNF instance or its EM. On-demand scaling, can occur when a VNF instance or its EM monitor the state of a VNF instance and trigger a scaling operation through explicit request to the VNF Manager. Scaling based on management request can occur where the scaling request is triggered by some sender (e.g., operations support systems (“OSS”)/business support systems (“BSS”) or operator) towards VNFM via the NFVO. 
     In some examples, there may be a requirement to increase the resources/capacity for a network slice. This decision can be based on the available resources under Virtualized Infrastructure Manager (“VIM”) and can be static in nature. 
     SUMMARY 
     According to some embodiments, a method of operating a first network node in a communication network to evaluate whether to scale a first resource of a network slice of the communication network is provided. The method includes receiving, from a second network node of the communication network, a first message indicating a request for approval to scale the first resource of the network slice. The method further comprises, responsive to receiving the first message, determining whether to scale the first resource of the network slice based on information regarding a second resource. The first and second resources can be of different types. The method can further include transmitting, to the second network node, a second message indicating whether to scale the first resource of the network slice based on determining whether to scale the first resource of the network slice. 
     According to some other embodiments, a method of operating a first network node, in a communication network to respond to congestion in a resource of a network slice of the communication network is provided. The method includes determining that the resource of the network slice is congested. The method further includes, responsive to determining that the resource of the network slice is congested, transmitting a first message to a second network node of the communication network. The first message can indicate a request for approval to scale the resource of the network slice. The method can further include receiving a second message from the second network node. The second message can indicate whether to scale the resource of the network slice in response to the first message. 
     Various embodiments described herein can improve resource management and/or reduce congestion of resources in a network slice of a communications network. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The accompanying drawings, which are included to provide a further understanding of the disclosure and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this application, illustrate certain non-limiting embodiments of inventive concepts. In the drawings: 
         FIG.  1    is a block diagram illustrating an example of ETSI NFV Architecture with NFVO to NWDAF connectivity according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  2    is a signal flow diagram illustrating an example of OSS giving inputs to NWDAF according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  3    is a signal flow diagram illustrating an example of populating the AFx and service status to the NWDAF according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  4    is a signal flow diagram illustrating an example of populating the AFx and service status from different AFx to the NWDAF according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  5    is a signal flow diagram illustrating an example of provisioning network slice services in NEF according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  6    is a signal flow diagram illustrating an example of NFVO sharing resource availability information with the NWDAF according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  7    is a signal flow diagram illustrating an example of provisioning network slice to VNF mapping according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  8    is a signal flow diagram illustrating an example of collecting scaling related data according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  9    is a signal flow diagram illustrating an example of scaling with resource allocation done by the VNF manager according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  10    is a signal flow diagram illustrating an example of scaling with resource allocation done by the NFVO according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  11    is a signal flow diagram illustrating an example of resource allocation by the VNF manager with access not granted according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  12    is a signal flow diagram illustrating an example of resource allocation by the VNF manager for historical data collection according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  13    is a signal flow diagram illustrating an example of resource allocation by the VNF manager for policy application for NFs according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  14    is a block diagram illustrating an example of a wireless device (“UE”) according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  15    is a block diagram illustrating an example of a radio access network (“RAN”) node (e.g., a base station eNB/gNB) according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  16    is a block diagram illustrating an example of a core network (“CN”) node (e.g., an AMF node, an SMF node, an OAM node, etc.) according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  17    is a block diagram illustrating an example of a network data analytics function (“NWDAF”) node according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  18    is a block diagram illustrating an example of a network function virtual operator (“NFVO”) node according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIGS.  19 - 20    are flow charts illustrating an example of a process performed by a NWDAF according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIGS.  21 - 22    are a flow charts illustrating an example of a process performed by a NFVO according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  23    is a table illustrating an example of application function load information according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  24    is a table illustrating an example of change of resources with time according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  25    is a table illustrating an example of historical data for planning according to some embodiments of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  26    is a block diagram of a wireless network in accordance with some embodiments; 
         FIG.  27    is a block diagram of a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments 
         FIG.  28    is a block diagram of a virtualization environment in accordance with some embodiments; 
         FIG.  29    is a block diagram of a telecommunication network connected via an intermediate network to a host computer in accordance with some embodiments; 
         FIG.  30    is a block diagram of a host computer communicating via a base station with a user equipment over a partially wireless connection in accordance with some embodiments; 
         FIG.  31    is a block diagram of methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station, and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments; 
         FIG.  32    is a block diagram of methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station, and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments; 
         FIG.  33    is a block diagram of methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station, and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments; and 
         FIG.  34    is a block diagram of methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station, and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Inventive concepts will now be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which examples of embodiments of inventive concepts are shown. Inventive concepts may, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of present inventive concepts to those skilled in the art. It should also be noted that these embodiments are not mutually exclusive. Components from one embodiment may be tacitly assumed to be present/used in another embodiment. 
     In some examples, network slice scaling is more focused towards operator control/domain like 5G core elements including control plane (“CP”) and user plane (“UP”), with limited consideration of Application Function, transport, fronthaul/backhaul, application service provider infrastructure (“SPR”), Gi interface &amp; radio resources. Any request for VNF scaling can be considered as per the resources for the core nodes/Radio. However, determining whether to scale based on whether there are available resources may not reduce congestion or improve operation if the corresponding resources service are not available, not scalable, or out of the operator&#39;s control and unable to handle any increased capacity. 
     Various embodiments described herein describe determining a wholistic view of congestion and resources prior to scaling a network slice. In some embodiments, the network checks and considers resources not in an operator&#39;s domain/control (e.g., 3rd Party Application function and Internet exchange point). In additional or alternative embodiments, the network checks resources which are under an operator&#39;s domain (e.g., core node expansion, VNFs, transport). 
     In some embodiments, 5G will allow automated scaling and descaling based on the threshold in the VNFs. This means that VNFs can be expanded and contracted dynamically. Subscribers may access the Network to use some application (e.g. facebook or Netflix). If that application has limited capacity, expanding the VNF may not improve operation. In such case, scaling the VNF may not only waste the resources for the VNF, but may also unnecessarily load the orchestration with dynamic scaling requests. 
     In some examples, a subscriber may be accessing an operator app for music (e.g., Wynk or Airtel). Based on the resource requirement, VNF can detect congestion and request scaling to improve performance. Orchestration can check the resources and expands the VNF. However, the application server for Wynk may already be executing at 90% load and be unable to take further load. Thus, expanding VNF capacity may not result in a better user experience. Although this example is of a trusted Application Function, other examples exist for non-trusted AF and other resources/nodes that are not in full control of operator, in which expanding or scaling a resource of a network slice may not improve user experience. A similar problem may occur during limitation at Access Side (RF\gNB\Transmission limitation), transport, fronthaul/backhaul, SPR, Gi Interface towards Data networks, etc. Increasing the VNF capacity in such case may not improve the overall subscriber experience and may waste multiple resources in the network. 
     Accordingly, in some examples, VNF\Network Slice scaling based on congestion can have cross-domain implication. In some embodiments, a better decision can be made regarding scaling by understanding a wholistic view of where and why congestion is occurring. Congestion may happen at various points in the network and due to different reasons. In some examples, congestion occurs at the UE—End user preferences (e.g., when streaming and screen size and modem capacity in it self are limiting). In additional or alternative examples, congestion occurs at RBS infrastructure and Radio resource (e.g., Operators NOC Radio personnel). In additional or alternative examples, congestion occurs at transport backhaul including transport aggregation points (e.g., transport operator domain). This is also one point of the problem where congestion may occur due to cost improvement/optimization in how the network is deployed. Increasing capacity in the transport can take time. Therefore, there may be no benefit in increasing CN capacity if the congestion occurs within a transport backhaul. In additional or alternative examples, congestion can occur in site infrastructure with Site LANs, in cloud infrastructure, in mobile applications as in a mobile core network, or in internet exchange points. Internet exchange points are an area where we increased congestion can be observed due to subscriber traffic being throttled down by the GW in line with the type of subscriptions. 
     In some examples, Congestion can also be caused by routing rules configurations between IPX points at the ISPs, which can cause application congestion that can down grade the user experience in a 5G system, for OTT applications. 
     In additional or alternative examples, congestion occurs due to Application design and relation between a UE and an APP server (an application can use an adaptive mechanism to adapt to the available capacity). In additional or alternative examples, congestion can occur due to the SPR infrastructure and media server capacity, which can be outside an operator&#39;s control. In some embodiments, an NEF can interact with the SPR application. The required capacity for the application can be monitored and fixed before the problem happens. However, in a case in which the SPR does not allocate needed resources, scaling of network slice capacity may not help and application congestion may occur. A SPR may have several sites with load balancing so one server may report that it is highly loaded, while for next application request from a UE going through the same GW in CN would get an application server with low load, hence the scaling of CN GW capacity in relation to application server capacity may be done based on more intelligent insights on data traffic to have any meaningful cost effective effects. 
     For operator owned service, there can be more control of how scaling of an application is done, but, for the complete end-to-end (“e2e”) solution to work, automization may be implemented using AI/ML on the very top level of the e2e network. This top level “network/service orchestrator” function may collect data (e.g., UE type, Application-types, Application URI, IP addresses) from all interfaces (e.g., Application server, IP addresses, IPX, Slice orchestrator (including the NFVO), Cloud infrastructure for RAN and Core, Transport and site infrastructure switches, and GW-routers) and do intelligent analysis that produces policies that are downloaded in different parts of the network, including Core network NFVO, and mobility patterns of UEs and traffic patterns, and feedbacks on some Quality measures seen by the application. 
     In some embodiments, to make an intelligent decision about the scaling above, information may be analyzed. To describe this solution to check e2e capacity before expanding the core VNFs, use-case of slice expansion is considered as an example. In some examples, only limited information is used in this decision making to simplify the explanation. 
     In some embodiments, the available capacity at Access Network gNB\RAN\Transmission) may be considered when determining whether to scale a resource of a network slice. As per Network Architecture, an access node may or may not be part of a specific network Slice. But, an AMF may always the be connected to the access nodes. Therefore, the network may have visibility of the access node identities from the AMF. The network may also have visibility of the utilization of the access nodes from OSS\EM system. This information can be collected in real-time. Various embodiments herein describe collecting this information for long term usage in a NWDAF Network Function. However, in some embodiments, a database can be used as a logical entity to collect this information independent of any network node. When there is a request to expand the VNF/Network Slice, the Orchestrator can check with the NWDAF. 
     In some embodiments, the available capacity at Application Function (trusted/untrusted AF) can be considered when determining whether to scale a resource of a network slice. Subscribers can access the CSP Network to use some services. These services can be from Third Party OTT Players or from the CSP itself. These Application Functions may have limitation in terms of Bandwidth (Congestion) or serving capacity (Processing load). The network can also consider this information before granting any expansion of the VNF\Slice. In some embodiments, this information can also be collected in a NWDAF node to provide a long term perspective. 
     In some embodiments, the available capacity at different network/resource points outside the network/operator&#39;s control can be considered when determining whether to scale a resource of a network slice. Examples of points outside the network/operator&#39;s control can include an internet exchange point, SPR Infrastructure, or media server capacity. This information can be gathered by a NWDAF (or an intelligent database hosted in the network) and analyzed to calculate the viability of network slice expansion. In additional or alternative embodiments, a NWDAF may also predict the expansion\scaling request based on the previous such situations (e.g. if there is network expansion at peak hour 8 PM to 9 PM every weekend, then the NWDAF can pick-up this pattern from historical data and may take pro-active action near this peak-hour time. In additional or alternative embodiments, an NWDAF can also pro-actively inform AF &amp; Access NFs about the scaling request so those nodes can also be scaled at the same time if required. 
     Various embodiments described herein for holistically analyzing can provide several advantages for the operator of a network. In some examples, CSP can use e2e view of the capacity requirement to provide a better service experience for the customer. In additional or alternative examples, network related decision (e.g. slice resource allocation) can be based on the e2e capacity constraints. In additional or alternative examples, resources and efforts may not be wasted on VNF expansion when there is already congestion in other points (e.g. AF &amp; Access NFs). In additional or alternative examples, expected congestion nodes/resources can be pro-actively scaled. 
     The impact of 3PP/non-operator&#39;s domain resources/application) like Application Function and Access Network Functions (i.e. included in 3GPP network slicing solution) may not be considered while expansion of network function (NF) to respective network slices. This may be controlled only on basis of static resource allocation. This may not ensure the best use of resources to maximize the profitability, especially in case of congestion time, which is quite frequent in telecom (specially around special days, events). 
     Various embodiments described herein, try to formulate a way so that Network Slice expansion can consider the impact on relevant Application Functions and Access Network Functions. In some embodiments, the non VNF functions can be considered during VNF\Network Slice scaling. In some examples, the NFVO may need to provide relevant information to the NWDAF, over a direct interface. 
       FIG.  1    depicts an example of an ETSI NFV Architecture  100  with NFVO  120  to NWDAF  110  Connectivity. Network Slicing can help in improving/optimizing the use of logical networks which are separated from each other and are created for specific business case or customer. Which in turn can provide specific services for the subscribers. Different subscribers are mapped to different Network slices based on the subscription. Different slices may provide different level of quality of experience based on the throughput, delay and services. 
     Some embodiments describe a pre-collection phase. The pre-collection phase can include populating the relevant information from different network functions (NFs) and Application Functions (AFs) towards NWDAF  110  to have a super set information available for implementing intelligence and automation (an aspect of Rel. 16, 3GPP) for scaling in/scaling out. 
     Some embodiments describe a post-collection phase. The post-collection phase can include using the information available/derived at NWDAF  110  for improved/optimized decision making (e.g. deciding on needed for Slice expansion or avoid it due to congestion at some points (which cannot be scaled furthered)). 
     The pre-collection phase can include populating the relevant information from different network functions (NFs) towards NWDAF  110 . There can be various relevant information available in the network functions individually (Scattered) that can be shared with a central node for more informed and correlated decision. In some examples, information that can be collected and shared includes information from the OSS\EMS  140  providing resource utilization to the NWDAF  110  (e.g., radio resource utilization, transport utilization, and congestion). In additional or alternative examples, application functions associated with different slices can provide utilization and congestion information. In additional or alternative examples, the NFVO  120  can share the network resource information, including the number of resources currently used for a slice and the total resources available. In additional or alternative examples, the information related to mapping of various VNFs  130  to Network Slices is provisioned in NWDAF  110 . 
     The NWDAF node  110  is an analytics node introduced in 5G which can support automation and analytics needed for 5G architect to be agile and dynamic in terms of scale out/scale in based on dynamic network conditions. An NWDAF  110  may be the same as defined in 3GPP with extensions, or a network data analytics function on a higher level above core network functions, to build insights for an e2e network path including output of policies to be used for scaling of network slice resources. 
     A VNF  130  may provide the expansion (scale out) request to EMS\VNF Manager, which is inbuild current logic based on different parameters like more than “x” no of users, CPU/Storage threshold@ OSS nodes  140  but there might be congestion situation in other elements as well (e.g. Congestion in transport network, in physical or virtual switches, radio conditions) 
     These factors can be considered by NWDAF  110  with appropriate information from the OSS  140 . Different elements of the network viz transport and RAN provide the KPI information to centralized OSS  140  which can relay it to NWDAF  110  for analysis &amp; decision making. 
     Therefore, whenever the VNF\Network Slice  130  is expecting or reaches the congestion\overload situation, which is very practical situation, the End to End information can also be used for decision making. This information will also be stored NWDAF node  110  so that Application function specific information covered in 5.1.1. and NF information can be correlated at one network function (NWDAF)  110  to have end to end view needed for expansion decision. 
       FIG.  2    is an OSS giving inputs to NWDAF. Different network elements can provide the performance related data to the OSS. The OSS can update the NWDAF with relevant performance information so that the NWDAF can decide which network elements may be added to the congestion. 
     When VNF\Network Slice triggers slice expansion, there might be congestion\overload at Application Function (AF) level as well due to high traffic load. This information from AF is required to make better decisions (e.g. an AF hosted in an application server AS at the operator&#39;s domain, where the information is sent from the infrastructure orchestration/monitoring function of the AF). Let us say, if AS is 90% overloaded (example), it should be a better idea to not connect new users. Further adding new user can lead to detrimental experience for existing customer. 
     When Application Server for the AF is overloaded, it reports this status in real-time to NWDAF via NEF. NEF reports this to NWDAF which stores this in repository to be used in future transactions. E.g. overload status of an Application Server with e.g. 90% CPU load is stored. The status report may be a collated load profile of several properties (CPU, Memory, Network), collected over time reaching a threshold value that triggers the report. 
     The NEF can be an optional node incase the AFx is a trusted node in the operator&#39;s environment. As per ETSI MEC standards, Application Server for third party can be co-hosted by operator on his environment or the Application server can be hosted in their (3rd party Data center) 
       FIG.  3    depicts a sequence diagram to populate the AFx &amp; Service status to NWDAF.  FIG.  4    depicts a sequence diagram to populate the AFx &amp; Service status (from different AFx) to NWDAF. This data can be saved in NWDAF as historical data set. NWDAF then uses these details for deciding on VNF\Network Slice Expansion. This data is also used for predicting overload situation in the future by analyzing the past trends. The table of  FIG.  23    provides application function load information referenced in  FIG.  4     
     In some embodiments, the same AF will be used for all Network Slices and no differentiation on Network Slice is required for such Application functions. In additional or alternative embodiments, different Application Functions (especially trusted) can be planned to be used as per Network Slice then this information need to be included in decision. 
     In some embodiments the NWDAF can determine which AF is part of which Network Slice, in case network slices share the same AF instance, by the application function identifying itself towards the NEF with Application ID. This application ID uniquely identifies the AF. The NEF thus needs to be provisioned with a mapping between different Application ID and Network Slice. The NEF can then provide this Information to the NWDAF. In additional or alternative embodiments, the NWDAF predicts a virtual topology of best fit of AF location to the network slice. 
     Overlapping AF IDs or AF IP addresses can be understood as that same type of AF instance in different Network Slices, has same ID and/or IP address. 
     The NWDAF can store this information along with the application function load and service status information. It can use this information to decide on the VNF\Network Slice expansion.  FIG.  5    depicts provisioning network slice services in NEF 
     In some embodiments, the NFVO keeps the information of available resource pool and the same is shared with NWDAF at any change.  FIG.  6    depicts the NFVO sharing resource availability information. The NFVO provides all the scaling data (expansion and contraction). NWDAF maintains a historical record for all these transactions. Based on the network requirements, Slice (VNFs) can be expanded or reduced dynamically. Each such request is processed by NFVO &amp; is forwarded to NWDAF. The table of  FIG.  24    provides an example of changes of resources with time referenced in  FIG.  6   . Such information can be shared at change of resources. This message can also be clubbed with previous messages described above. 
     In some embodiments, as scaling is done at VNF level. VNF instance configurations for a network slice can be provisioned in NWDAF, which VNFs are part of which Network Slice. This Provisioning entity can be Network Slice Manager (NSM) which is external to NFV Architectural Framework. 
       FIG.  7    depicts provisioning a network slice to VNF mapping. The provisioning system can provide mapping details between Network Slice and different VNFs. The NFWDAF can acknowledge the received data. 
     In the post-collection phase, all collected data is analyzed and used to make policy decisions. These decisions can be relevant for expansion of the network slice. As highlighted earlier, the NWDAF node can be populated with relevant information including, but not limited to Application Function load status, Access Network Load status, Internet Exchange Points/SPR Infra/Media service capacity and information related to scaling requests. 
     In some embodiments the allocation of resources to Network Slice can be based on the end to end service improvement for the subscriber. Each Network Slice has accompanying resource requirement on Radio resources, Application Function resources and transport network. These factors are considered while allocating resources to different network Slices. 
     In additional or alternative embodiments, a scaling requirement is generated by VNFM or NFVO as more resources are required to handle the subscriber traffic. Information related to this request is shared by NFVO to the NWDAF. 
     In additional or alternative embodiments, the NWDAF based on scaling request, AF Load status, NF load status, and historical data, decides which Network Slice will scale and which should not be scaled. 
     In additional or alternative embodiments, the NWDAF may decide that congestion on some resources e.g. SGi (N6) interface may not be improved and is a bottleneck for the user session. So, it may decide not to scale the VNF as it will not improve the situation, given that other bottlenecks exist in the E2E Flow. 
     In additional or alternative embodiments, even if it does not take any scaling action, it can record these events and decisions for later analysis in non-realtime time. 
     In additional or alternative embodiments, the NWDAF keeps historical data of all the congestion situations and relevant events from complete network. This data is used for analysis to identify the patterns. E.g. congestion is started in particular node at a particular day/time which might be correlated to any event. E.g. a cricket match telecast or special TV programs. This data is then shared with Operations/Services Mgmt. to have more improved/optimized planning. The NWDAF based on historical or real-time data can push the policies towards different nodes. So, that these nodes can process the data in efficient manner based on the predicted traffic bursts and congestion. 
     In some embodiments, the NFVO will get the scaling request from VNFM, EM or other management entity. Currently, a NFVO can make the decision based on the configured policies and available resources. Some embodiments, propose further checking with NWDAF for these requests. A NWDAF may consider the End to End factors as per the inputs collected in pre-collection phase. Then it will provide the decision to NFVO. 
     After scaling operation is completed as per normal flow, NFVO will update the NWDAF about the available resources. 
     In some embodiments, as per ETSI MANO Architecture, Scaling request can be generated in following three cases. First, auto-scaling, in which the VNF Manager monitors the state of a VNF instance and triggers the scaling operation when certain conditions are met. For monitoring a VNF instance&#39;s state, it can for instance track infrastructure-level and/or VNF-level events. Infrastructure-level events are generated by the VIM. VNF-Level events may be generated by the VNF instance or its EM. Second, on-demand scaling, in which a VNF instance or its EM monitor the state of a VNF instance and trigger a scaling operation through explicit request to the VNF Manager. Third, scaling based on management request, where the scaling request is triggered by some sender (OSS/BSS or operator) towards VNFM via the NFVO. A request can be sent to NFVO for VNF scaling. In some embodiments, an interface can exist between the NFVO and the NWDAF. The NFVO on this interface provides all the scaling related information to NWDAF. 
       FIG.  8    depicts collection of scaling related data. The NFVO provides VNF scale-out request details to NWDAF. The NFWDAF analyzes the inputs and provide the response with permit or deny recommendations. In some embodiments, scaling with is performed with resource allocation done by VNF Manager. In additional or alternative embodiments, scaling with resource allocation can be done by NFVO. In both cases, the NFVO can control the scaling process by granting of resources for congestion use case. 
       FIG.  9    depicts a flow with resource allocation by the VNF Manger. In some embodiments, the sender can be the VNF (Auto-Scaling) or OSS/BSS component. The operations for the VNF instance scaling can include: 1. Sender initiates the scaling request; 2. The VNF Manager requests granting to the NFVO for the VNF expansion based on the specifications listed in the VNFD (CPU, Memory, IP, etc.) using the operation Grant Lifecycle Operation of the VNF Lifecycle Operation Granting interface; 3. The NFVO takes scaling decision and checks resource request (CPU, Memory, IP, etc.) against its capacity database for free resource availability. The NFVO validates the request for policy conformance. It also checks the resource available for this scaling. It realizes that available resources are less than 20% so it should enforce the slice prioritization. To get the decision based on slice priority, it sends the request to NWDAF; 4. NFVO sends the VNF &amp; scaling request related information to NWDAF. NWDAF checks the Load status of AFs &amp; other related NFs including 3PP/domain which are not part of operators domain and decides that this Slice can be scaled; 5. NWDAF decision is provided to NFVO that whether access is granted or not (he NFVO may otherwise optionally do resource reservation for the requested resources by using the Create Resource Reservation operation over the Virtualized Resources management interface); 6. The NFVO grants the scale-out operation of the VNF to the VNF Manager and sends back sufficient information to further execute the scaling operation; 7. The VNF Manager sends the request to create and start the VMs as appropriate and as instructed by the NFVO, sending VIM Identifier and VMs parameters using the operations Allocate Resource or Update Resource or Scale Resource of the Virtualized Resources Management interface; 8. The VIM creates and starts the VMs and the relevant networking resources, then acknowledges successful operation to the VNF Manager; 9. VNF does necessary operations for VNF creation and configuration; 10. VNF Manager reports successful VNF expansion to the NFVO using the VNF Lifecycle Change Notification interface. The NFVO now is aware that the new VNF configuration is instantiated in the infrastructure (the NFVO maps the VNF to the proper VIM and resource pool); 11. The NFVO updates the NWDAF with updated resource availability for making future decisions related to the Slice Priority. 
       FIG.  10    depicts a flow with resource allocation by the NFVO. In some embodiments, the sender can be the VNF manager, or OSS/BSS, or else be manually triggered by an operator. The operations for the VNF instance can include: 1. The NFVO receives the scaling request from the sender, e.g. OSS using the operation Scale VNF of the VNF Lifecycle Management interface; 2. The NFVO validates the request for policy conformance. It also checks the resource available for this scaling. It realizes that available resources are less than 20% so it should enforce the slice prioritization. To get the decision based on slice priority, it sends the request to NWDAF; 3. NFVO sends the VNF &amp; scaling request related information to NWDAF. NWDAF checks the Load status of AFs &amp; other related NFs and 3PP/non operator domain resources and decides that this Slice can be scaled or not.; 4. NWDAF decision is provided to NFVO; 5. NFVO finds the VNF Manager relevant for this VNF type. Optionally, NFVO runs a feasibility check of the VNF scaling request to reserve resources before doing the actual scaling (The NFVO sends the scaling request to the VNF Manager, with the scaling data and, if resource reservation has been done, the reservation information using the operation Scale VNF of the VNF Lifecycle Management interface); 6. The VNF Manager executes any needed preparation work (request validation, parameter validation. This might include modifying/complementing the input scaling data with VNF lifecycle specific constraints. If resource reservation was done by NFVO then the VNFM will skip this step); 7. The VNF Manager calls the NFVO for resource change using the operation Allocate Resource or Update Resource or Scale Resource of the Virtualized Resources Management interface; 8. NFVO requests from VIM allocation of changed resources (compute, storage and network) needed for the scaling request using the operations Allocate Resource or Update Resource or Scale Resource of the Virtualized Resources Management interface; 9. VIM modifies as needed the internal connectivity network; 10. VIM creates and starts the needed new compute (VMs) and storage resources and attaches new instantiated VMs to internal connectivity network; 11. Acknowledgement of completion of resource change back to NFVO; 12. NFVO acknowledges the completion of the resource change back to VNF Manager; 13. The VNF Manager configures the scaled VNF as necessary using the add/create/set config object operations of the VNF configuration interface. VNF Manager acknowledges the end of the scaling request back to the NFVO; 14. The NFVO acknowledges the end of the scaling request back to the requester; 15. The NFVO updates the NWDAF with updated resource availability for making future decisions related to the Slice Priority. In case the VNF Manager is issuing the scaling request, some of the steps of this procedure can be further improved/optimized. 
     In some embodiments, if AF load is high then there is no benefit in scaling the VNF\Network Slice. To further enhance the scaling procedure, NWDAF can also inform the Application function about the scaling request and thus Application function can be scaled ahead of VNF Scaling assuming Operator and 3PP Application function have an alignment for the same. 
     In some examples, for a NASCAR games in US, operators and respective 3PP can align for enhanced collaboration for superior customer experience. In some countries (e.g., India), operators like Airtel and Netflix are collaborating on offerings together. This kind of collaboration may further increase between Enterprise and CSP in future enabled via SBA (NEF) for new and innovative use cases like providing Network Slice as a service for Enterprise (e.g. Netflix). 
     In some embodiments, congestion in the network cannot be improved by scaling the VNF as bottlenecks exist in other parts (outside the NW Slice) of the network. For simplicity we have considered the flow diagram with VNF Manager initiated request. 
       FIG.  11    depicts a flow with resource allocation by VNF Manger with access not granted. In some embodiments, the sender can be the VNF (Auto-Scaling) or OSS/BSS component and the VNF Manager can be the one issuing the scaling request. The operations for the VNF instance scaling can include: 1. Sender initiates the scaling request; 2. The VNF Manager requests granting to the NFVO for the VNF expansion based on the specifications listed in the VNFD (CPU, Memory, IP, etc.) using the operation Grant Lifecycle Operation of the VNF Lifecycle Operation Granting interface; 3. The NFVO takes scaling decision and checks resource request (CPU, Memory, IP, etc.) against its capacity database for free resource availability. The NFVO validates the request for policy conformance. It also checks the resource available for this scaling. It realizes that available resources are less than 20% so it should enforce the slice prioritization. To get the decision based on slice priority, it sends the request to NWDAF; 4. NFVO sends the VNF &amp; scaling request related information to NWDAF. NWDAF checks the Load status of AFs &amp; other related NFs. It determines that, there is congestion on the Network Elements on Sgi (N6) interface. This congestion cannot be improved for now and thus scaling the VNF will not improve the subscriber experience; 5. NWDAF decision is provided to NFVO that access is not granted; 6. Scaling of the VNF is not performed in this case as long as situation on the bottleneck is not improved; 7. This event of scaling request and unimprovable bottleneck is recorded. 
     In some embodiments, all events are recorded and analyzed to find the patterns which can be used for future planning.  FIG.  12    depicts a flow with resource allocation by VNF Manger for historical data collection. The sender can be the VNF (Auto-Scaling) or OSS/BSS component. In case the VNF Manager is the one issuing the scaling request. The steps for the VNF instance scaling can include: 1. Sender initiates the scaling request; 2. The VNF Manager requests granting to the NFVO for the VNF expansion based on the specifications listed in the VNFD (CPU, Memory, IP, etc.) using the operation Grant Lifecycle Operation of the VNF Lifecycle Operation Granting interface; 3. The NFVO takes scaling decision and checks resource request (CPU, Memory, IP, etc.) against its capacity database for free resource availability. The NFVO validates the request for policy conformance. It also checks the resource available for this scaling. It realizes that available resources are less than 20% so it should enforce the slice prioritization. To get the decision based on slice priority, it sends the request to NWDAF; 4. NFVO sends the VNF &amp; scaling request related information to NWDAF; 5. NWDAF records multiple such requests over a period of time and keeps track of decision taken; 6. NWDAF also records the different congestion situations in the network, and whether those were improvable or not; 7. All this data is used to analyze and find patterns. These results are used to prepare inputs for future planning. The table of  FIG.  24    provides an example of historical data for planning as referenced in  FIG.  12   . 
     The NWDAF based on historical or real-time data can push the policies towards different nodes. So, that these nodes can process the data in efficient manner based on the predicted traffic bursts and congestion. In some embodiments, all events are recorded and analyzed to find the patterns which can be used for future planning.  FIG.  13    depicts a flow with resource allocation by VNF Manger for policy application for NFs. In some embodiments, the sender can be the VNF (Auto-Scaling) or OSS/BSS component and the VNF Manager can be the one issuing the scaling request. The operations for the VNF instance scaling can include: 1. Sender initiates the scaling request; 2. The VNF Manager requests granting to the NFVO for the VNF expansion based on the specifications listed in the VNFD (CPU, Memory, IP, etc.) using the operation Grant Lifecycle Operation of the VNF Lifecycle Operation Granting interface; 3. The NFVO takes scaling decision and checks resource request (CPU, Memory, IP, etc.) against its capacity database for free resource availability. The NFVO validates the request for policy conformance. It also checks the resource available for this scaling. It realizes that available resources are less than 20% so it should enforce the slice prioritization. To get the decision based on slice priority, it sends the request to NWDAF; 4. NFVO sends the VNF &amp; scaling request related information to NWDAF; 5. NWDAF records multiple such requests over a period of time and keeps track of decision taken; 6. NWDAF also records the different congestion situations in the network, and whether those were improvable or not.; 7. All this data is used to analyze and find patterns. These results are used to prepare different policies for Network Functions. Example on policy is the PCF to set priority for a data flow during specific time of day. For example in the case that an application has higher priority for a subscription, but the AS system is overloaded for that application data flow, it does not help to have a higher priority in the radio access network. This access capacity could be better utilized if this application data flow did not have higher priority as it anyway is perceiving poor performance due to AS congestion. 
     Network Slicing is new functionality considered for 5G networks. The embodiments described herein consider End to End view (Application Function and Access NFs (Radio functions), Infrastructure resources (VNFI), application SPR) before executing a VNF\Slice Expansion request. 
       FIG.  14    is a block diagram illustrating elements of a wireless device UE  1400  (also referred to as a mobile terminal, a mobile communication terminal, a wireless communication device, a wireless terminal, a wireless communication terminal, user equipment, UE, a user equipment node/terminal/device, etc.) configured to provide wireless communication according to embodiments of inventive concepts. (Wireless device  1400  may be provided, for example, as discussed below with respect to wireless device QQ 110  of  FIG.  26   .) As shown, wireless device UE may include an antenna  1407  (e.g., corresponding to antenna QQ 111  of  FIG.  26   ), and transceiver circuitry  601  (also referred to as a transceiver, e.g., corresponding to interface QQ 114  of  FIG.  26   ) including a transmitter and a receiver configured to provide uplink and downlink radio communications with a base station(s) (e.g., corresponding to network node QQ 160  of  FIG.  26   ) of a radio access network. Wireless device UE may also include processing circuitry  1403  (also referred to as a processor, e.g., corresponding to processing circuitry QQ 120  of  FIG.  26   ) coupled to the transceiver circuitry, and memory circuitry  1405  (also referred to as memory, e.g., corresponding to device readable medium QQ 130  of  FIG.  26   ) coupled to the processing circuitry. The memory circuitry  1405  may include computer readable program code that when executed by the processing circuitry  1403  causes the processing circuitry to perform operations according to embodiments disclosed herein. According to other embodiments, processing circuitry  1403  may be defined to include memory so that separate memory circuitry is not required. Wireless device UE may also include an interface (such as a user interface) coupled with processing circuitry  1403 , and/or wireless device UE may be incorporated in a vehicle. 
     As discussed herein, operations of wireless device UE may be performed by processing circuitry  1403  and/or transceiver circuitry  1401 . For example, processing circuitry  1403  may control transceiver circuitry  1401  to transmit communications through transceiver circuitry  1401  over a radio interface to a radio access network node (also referred to as a base station) and/or to receive communications through transceiver circuitry  1401  from a RAN node over a radio interface. Moreover, modules may be stored in memory circuitry  1405 , and these modules may provide instructions so that when instructions of a module are executed by processing circuitry  1403 , processing circuitry  1403  performs respective operations. 
       FIG.  15    is a block diagram illustrating elements of a radio access network RAN node  1500  (also referred to as a network node, base station, eNodeB/eNB, gNodeB/gNB, etc.) of a Radio Access Network (RAN) configured to provide cellular communication according to embodiments of inventive concepts. (RAN node  1500  may be provided, for example, as discussed below with respect to network node QQ 160  of  FIG.  26   .) As shown, the RAN node may include transceiver circuitry  1501  (also referred to as a transceiver, e.g., corresponding to portions of interface QQ 190  of  FIG.  26   ) including a transmitter and a receiver configured to provide uplink and downlink radio communications with mobile terminals. The RAN node may include network interface circuitry  1507  (also referred to as a network interface, e.g., corresponding to portions of interface QQ 190  of  FIG.  26   ) configured to provide communications with other nodes (e.g., with other base stations) of the RAN and/or core network CN. The network node may also include a processing circuitry  1503  (also referred to as a processor, e.g., corresponding to processing circuitry QQ 170 ) coupled to the transceiver circuitry, and a memory circuitry  1505  (also referred to as memory, e.g., corresponding to device readable medium QQ 180  of  FIG.  26   ) coupled to the processing circuitry. The memory circuitry  1505  may include computer readable program code that when executed by the processing circuitry  1503  causes the processing circuitry to perform operations according to embodiments disclosed herein. According to other embodiments, processing circuitry  1503  may be defined to include memory so that a separate memory circuitry is not required. 
     As discussed herein, operations of the RAN node may be performed by processing circuitry  1503 , network interface  1507 , and/or transceiver  1501 . For example, processing circuitry  1503  may control transceiver  1501  to transmit downlink communications through transceiver  1501  over a radio interface to one or more mobile terminals UEs and/or to receive uplink communications through transceiver  1501  from one or more mobile terminals UEs over a radio interface. Similarly, processing circuitry  1503  may control network interface  1507  to transmit communications through network interface  707  to one or more other network nodes and/or to receive communications through network interface from one or more other network nodes. Moreover, modules may be stored in memory  1505 , and these modules may provide instructions so that when instructions of a module are executed by processing circuitry  1503 , processing circuitry  1503  performs respective operations. 
     According to some other embodiments, a network node may be implemented as a core network CN node without a transceiver. In such embodiments, transmission to a wireless device UE may be initiated by the network node so that transmission to the wireless device is provided through a network node including a transceiver (e.g., through a base station or RAN node). According to embodiments where the network node is a RAN node including a transceiver, initiating transmission may include transmitting through the transceiver. 
       FIG.  16    is a block diagram illustrating elements of a core network CN node  1600  (e.g., an SMF node, an AMF node, etc.) of a communication network configured to provide cellular communication according to embodiments of inventive concepts. As shown, the CN node  1600  may include network interface circuitry  1607  (also referred to as a network interface) configured to provide communications with other nodes of the core network and/or the radio access network RAN. The CN node  1600  may also include a processing circuitry  1603  (also referred to as a processor) coupled to the network interface circuitry, and memory circuitry  1605  (also referred to as memory) coupled to the processing circuitry. The memory circuitry  1605  may include computer readable program code that when executed by the processing circuitry  1603  causes the processing circuitry to perform operations according to embodiments disclosed herein. According to other embodiments, processing circuitry  1603  may be defined to include memory so that a separate memory circuitry is not required. 
     As discussed herein, operations of the CN node  1600  may be performed by processing circuitry  1603  and/or network interface circuitry  1607 . For example, processing circuitry  1603  may control network interface circuitry  1607  to transmit communications through network interface circuitry  1607  to one or more other network nodes and/or to receive communications through network interface circuitry from one or more other network nodes. Moreover, modules may be stored in memory  1605 , and these modules may provide instructions so that when instructions of a module are executed by processing circuitry  1603 , processing circuitry  1603  performs respective operations. 
       FIG.  17    is a block diagram illustrating elements of a network data analytics function (“NWDAF”) node  1700  of a communication network configured to provide cellular communication according to embodiments of inventive concepts. The NWDAF node  1700  may be an example of the CN node  1600 . As shown, the NWDAF node  1700  may include network interface circuitry  1707  (also referred to as a network interface) configured to provide communications with other nodes of the communication network include a core network and/or a radio access network (“RAN”). The NWDAF node  1700  may also include a processing circuitry  1703  (also referred to as a processor) coupled to the network interface circuitry, and memory circuitry  1705  (also referred to as memory) coupled to the processing circuitry. The memory circuitry  1705  may include computer readable program code that when executed by the processing circuitry  1703  causes the processing circuitry to perform operations according to embodiments disclosed herein. According to other embodiments, processing circuitry  1703  may be defined to include memory so that a separate memory circuitry is not required. 
     As discussed herein, operations of the NWDAF node  1700  may be performed by processing circuitry  1703  and/or network interface circuitry  1707 . For example, processing circuitry  1703  may control network interface circuitry  1707  to transmit communications through network interface circuitry  1707  to one or more other network nodes and/or to receive communications through network interface circuitry from one or more other network nodes. Moreover, modules may be stored in memory  1705 , and these modules may provide instructions so that when instructions of a module are executed by processing circuitry  1703 , processing circuitry  1703  performs respective operations. 
       FIG.  18    is a block diagram illustrating elements of a network function virtual operator (“NFVO”) node  1800  of a communication network configured to provide cellular communication according to embodiments of inventive concepts. The NFVO node  1800  may be an example of the CN node  1600 . As shown, the NFVO node  1800  may include network interface circuitry  1807  (also referred to as a network interface) configured to provide communications with other nodes of the communication network include a core network and/or a radio access network (“RAN”). The NFVO node  1800  may also include a processing circuitry  1803  (also referred to as a processor) coupled to the network interface circuitry, and memory circuitry  1805  (also referred to as memory) coupled to the processing circuitry. The memory circuitry  1805  may include computer readable program code that when executed by the processing circuitry  1803  causes the processing circuitry to perform operations according to embodiments disclosed herein. According to other embodiments, processing circuitry  1803  may be defined to include memory so that a separate memory circuitry is not required. 
     As discussed herein, operations of the NFVO node  1800  may be performed by processing circuitry  1803  and/or network interface circuitry  1807 . For example, processing circuitry  1803  may control network interface circuitry  1807  to transmit communications through network interface circuitry  1807  to one or more other network nodes and/or to receive communications through network interface circuitry from one or more other network nodes. Moreover, modules may be stored in memory  1805 , and these modules may provide instructions so that when instructions of a module are executed by processing circuitry  1803 , processing circuitry  1803  performs respective operations. 
     Operations of NWDAF node  1700  will now be discussed with reference to  FIGS.  19 - 20    according to some embodiments of inventive concepts. For example, modules (also referred to as units) may be stored in memory  1705  of  FIG.  17   , and these modules may provide instructions so that when the instructions of a module are executed by processor  1703 , processor  1703  performs respective operations of the flow charts of  FIGS.  19 - 20   . 
       FIG.  19    depicts a flow chart illustrating an example of a process for operating a network node in a communication network node to evaluate whether to scale a first resource of a network slice of the communication network. Although the process of  FIG.  19    is described below in reference to the network node being NWDAF node  1700 , the process may be performed by any suitable network node. 
     At block  1910 , processor  1703  receives, via network interface  1707 , information associated with resources operating in a network slice. In some embodiments, the resources may include a core network resource of the network slice. The core network resource can include one of an access management function, AMF, resource, a session management function, SMF, resource, a user plane function, UPF, resource, a policy control function, PCF, resource, an authentication server function, AUSF, resource, a united data management, UDM, resource, a network repository function, NRF, resource, a network exposure function, NEF, resource, a transport resource, a cloud infrastructure resource, or any other suitable core network resource. In additional or alternative embodiments, the resources can include a radio access network resource. In additional or alternative embodiments, the resources can include a resource outside the communication network. For example, the resources can include at least one of an internet exchange point resource, a service provide infrastructure resource, and/or a media server resource. In additional or alternative embodiments, the resources can include a user equipment resource. For example, the resources can include at least one of a streaming resource, a modem resource, and/or a screen size. In additional or alternative embodiments, the information regarding the resources can include information regarding a load and/or an available capacity of a specific resource. 
     At block  1920 , processor  1703  receives, via network interface  1707 , a first message indicating a request for approval to scale a first resource of the network slice. The first message may be received from another network node (e.g., NFVO node  1800 ). In some embodiments, the first resource may be a resource for which the processor received information about in block  1910 . In some embodiments, the first resource can be of a different type than a second resource, which the processor  1703  may have received information about in block  1910 . In additional or alternative embodiments, the first resource may include a core network resource of the network slice. The core network resource can include one of an access management function, AMF, resource, a session management function, SMF, resource, a user plane function, UPF, resource, a policy control function, PCF, resource, an authentication server function, AUSF, resource, a united data management, UDM, resource, a network repository function, NRF, resource, a network exposure function, NEF, resource, a transport resource, a cloud infrastructure resource, or any other suitable core network resource. The second resource may include another core network resource different than the first resource. In additional or alternative embodiments, the second resource can include a radio access network resource. In additional or alternative embodiments, the second resource can include a resource outside the communication network. For example, the second resource can include at least one of an internet exchange point resource, a service provider infrastructure resource, and/or a media server resource. In additional or alternative embodiments, the second resource can include a user equipment resource (e.g., a streaming resource, a modem resource, and/or a screen size). 
     At block  1930 , responsive to receiving the first message, processor  1703  determines whether to scale the first resource of the network slice. In some embodiments, the processor  1703  can determine whether to scale the first resource of the network slice based on the information received in block  1910 . 
     At block  1940 , processor  1703  transmits, via network interface  1707 , a second message indicating whether to scale the first resource of the network slice. The processor  1703  can transmit the second message to the network node (e.g., NFVO node  1800 ) from which the first message was received. 
       FIG.  20    depicts a flow chart illustrating a further example of the process in depicted in  FIG.  19    for operating a network node in a communication network to indicate a pattern of congestion of a network slice. Although the process of  FIG.  20    is described below in reference to the NWDAF node  1700 , the process may be performed by any suitable network node. 
     At block  2010 , processor  1703  stores, in memory  1705 , a record indicating the request and whether to scale the first resource of the network slice. In some embodiments, the record can be maintained for a predetermined period of time (e.g., days, months, or years) along with a plurality of other records indicating other requests and other decisions whether to scale various resources of the network slice. 
     At block  2020 , processor  1703  determines a pattern of requests and decisions as to whether to scale the first resource of the network slice. In some embodiments, the processor  1703  determines that the network slice has become congested every day at a specific time and, that in response to the congestion, a request is made and granted every day to scale the first resource. In additional or alternative embodiments, the processor  1703  determines that scaling the first resource everyday at the specific time results in a request for scaling of another resource in the network slice. 
     At block  2030 , processor  1703  transmits data associated with the pattern. In some embodiments, the processor  1703  transmits the data to an operator of the network slice. For example, the processor  1703  may notify the operator that the first resource should automatically be scaled at a specific time every day. In additional or alternative embodiments, the processor  1703  transmits the data associated with the pattern to a resource outside the communication network. For example, the processor  1703  may notify an application function outside of the communication network that a pattern of congestion is occurring related to the application function and that scaling the first resource will not improve user experience. 
     Although the processes illustrated in  FIGS.  19 - 20    are described as being performed by the processor  1703  of NWDAF  1700 , the processes may be performed by any suitable first network node communicatively coupled to any suitable second network node. In some examples, the first network node may be a network node capable of determining whether to scale a resource in a network slice. In additional or alternative examples, the first network node is a core network node. In additional or alternative examples, the first network node may be a NWDAF node. In additional or alternative examples, the first network node may be an independent database that stores information about resources and/or congestion in a network slice and that is communicatively coupled to the second network node. The first network node may be a different type than the second network node. For example, the first network node may be a NWDAF node and the second network node may be a NFVO node. Furthermore, various operations of  FIGS.  19 - 20    may be optional with respect to some embodiments. 
     Operations of NFVO node  1800  will now be discussed with reference to  FIGS.  21 - 22    according to some embodiments of inventive concepts. For example, modules (also referred to as units) may be stored in memory  1805  of  FIG.  18   , and these modules may provide instructions so that when the instructions of a module are executed by processor  1803 , processor  1803  performs respective operations of the flow charts of  FIGS.  21 - 22   . 
       FIG.  21    depicts a flow chart illustrating an example of a process for a network node in a communication network to indicate a pattern of congestion of a network slice. Although the process of  FIG.  21    is described below in reference to the NFVO node  1800 , the process may be performed by any suitable network node. 
     At block  2110 , processor  1803  determines that a resource of the network slice is congested. In some embodiments, the resource can be a core network resource of the network slice. For example, the resource can be one of an access management function, AMF, resource, a session management function, SMF, resource, a user plane function, UPF, resource, a policy control function, PCF, resource, an authentication server function, AUSF, resource, a united data management, UDM, resource, a network repository function, NRF, resource, a network exposure function, NEF, resource, a transport resource, or a cloud infrastructure resource. 
     At block  2120 , processor  1803  transmits, via network interface  1807 , a first message indicating a request for approval to scale the resource of the network slice. 
     At block  2130 , processor  1803  receives, via network interface  1807 , a second message indicating whether to scale the resource of the network slice. 
       FIG.  22    depicts a flow chart illustrating an example of another process for a network node in a communication network to indicate a pattern of congestion of a network slice. Although the process of  FIG.  22    is described below in reference to the NFVO node  1800 , the process may be performed by any suitable network node. 
     At block  2202 , processor  1803  transmits, via network interface  1807 , to a network node (e.g., NWDAF  1700 ), information regarding one or more resources of the network slice. In some embodiments, the information is related to the congested resource. In additional or alternative embodiments, the information is related to a second resource that is a different type than the congested resource. 
     At block  2212 , processor  1803  receives, via network interface  1807 , a request to scale a resource of the network slice. In some embodiments, the processor determines that the resource is congested in response to receiving the request to scale the resource. 
     At block  2214 , processor  1803  determines that a threshold capacity of the resource is unavailable. In other embodiments, the processor  1803  can determine that a threshold capacity is available and scale the resource without requesting approval. 
     At block  2218 , processor  1803  transmits, via network interface  1807 , information regarding a load and/or available capacity of the resource. 
     Blocks  2110  and  2120  of  FIG.  22    are the same as blocks  2110  and  2120  of  FIG.  21   . The processor  1803  can transmit a first message indicating a request for approval to scale the resource of the network slice and the processor  1803  can receive a second message indicating whether to scale the resource of the network slice. 
     At block  2240 , processor  1803  initiates scaling of the resource of the network slice in response to the second message indicating the resource of the network slice should be scaled. 
     Although the processes illustrated in  FIGS.  21 - 22    are described as being performed by the processor  1803  of NFVO  1800 , the processes may be performed by any suitable first network node communicatively coupled to any suitable second network node. In some examples, the first network node may be a network node capable of requesting approval to scale a resource in a network slice. In additional or alternative examples, the first network node may be a network node capable of initiating scaling of a resource in a network slice. In additional or alternative examples, the first network node may be a NFVO node. In additional or alternative examples, the first network node may be a VNF node. The first network node may be a different type than the second network node. For example, the first network node may be a NFVO node and the second network node may be a NWDAF node. Furthermore, various operations of  FIGS.  21 - 22    may be optional with respect to some embodiments. 
     Example Embodiments are discussed below. Reference numbers/letters are provided in parenthesis by way of example/illustration without limiting example embodiments to particular elements indicated by reference numbers/letters 
     Embodiment 1. A method of operating a first network node in a communication network, to evaluate whether to scale a first resource of a network slice of the communication network, the embodiment comprising: receiving ( 1920 ), from a second network node of the communication network, a first message indicating a request for approval to scale the first resource of the network slice; responsive to receiving the first message, determining ( 1930 ) whether to scale the first resource of the network slice based on information regarding a second resource, wherein the first and second resources are of different types; and transmitting ( 1940 ), to the second network node, a second message indicating whether to scale the first resource of the network slice based on determining whether to scale the first resource of the network slice. 
     Embodiment 2. The method of Embodiment 1, wherein the first resource comprises a core network resource of the network slice. 
     Embodiment 3. The method of Embodiment 2, wherein the core network resource comprises one of an access management function, AMF, resource, a session management function, SMF, resource, a user plane function, UPF, resource, a policy control function, PCF, resource, an authentication server function, AUSF, resource, a united data management, UDM, resource, a network repository function, NRF, resource, a network exposure function, NEF, resource, a transport resource, or a cloud infrastructure resource. 
     Embodiment 4. The method of any of Embodiments 2-3, wherein the core network resource is a first core network resource, and wherein the second resource comprises a second core network resource of the network slice, wherein the first and second core network resources are of different types. 
     Embodiment 5. The method of Embodiment 4, wherein the second core network resource comprises one of an AMF resource, a SMF resource, a UPF resource, a PCF resource, an AUSF resource, a UDM resource, a NRF resource, a NEF resource, a transport resource, or a cloud infrastructure resource different than the first core network resource. 
     Embodiment 6. The method of any of Embodiments 1-3, wherein the second resource comprises a radio access network, RAN, resource. 
     Embodiment 7. The method of any of Embodiments 1-3, wherein the second resource comprises a resource outside the communication network. 
     Embodiment 8. The method of Embodiment 7, wherein the second resource comprises at least one of an internet exchange point resource, a service provider infrastructure resource, and/or a media server resource. 
     Embodiment 9. The method of any of Embodiments 1-3, wherein the second resource comprises a user equipment resource. 
     Embodiment 10. The method of Embodiment 9, wherein the user equipment resource comprises at least one of a streaming resource, a modem resource, and/or screen size. 
     Embodiment 11. The method of any of Embodiments 1-10, further comprising: receiving ( 1910 ), from the second network node of the communication network, the information regarding the second resource. 
     Embodiment 12. The method of any of Embodiment 11, wherein the information regarding the second resource comprises information regarding a load and/or an available capacity of the second resource. 
     Embodiment 13. The method of any of Embodiments 1-12, further comprising: receiving ( 1910 ), from the second network node of the communication network, additional information regarding a load and/or available capacity of the first resource. 
     Embodiment 14. The method of any of Embodiments 1-13, further comprising: storing (2010), by the first network node, a record indicating the request and whether to scale the first resource of the network slice; and determining ( 2020 ) a pattern of requests and decisions as to whether to scale the first resource of the network slice. 
     Embodiment 15. The method of Embodiment 14, further comprising: responsive to determining the pattern, transmitting ( 2030 ) data associated with the pattern to an operator of the network slice. 
     Embodiment 16. The method of Embodiment 14, further comprising: responsive to determining the pattern, transmitting ( 2030 ) data associated with the pattern to a resource outside the communication network. 
     Embodiment 17. A method of operating a first network node, in a communication network to respond to congestion in a resource of a network slice of the communication network, the method comprising: determining ( 2110 ) that the resource of the network slice is congested; responsive to determining that the resource of the network slice is congested, transmitting ( 2120 ) a first message to a second network node of the communication network, the first message indicating a request for approval to scale the resource of the network slice; and receiving ( 2130 ) a second message from the second network node, the second message indicating whether to scale the resource of the network slice in response to the first message. 
     Embodiment 18. The method of Embodiment 17, wherein the resource is a first resource of the network slice, the method further comprising: transmitting ( 2202 ) to the second network node information regarding a second resource, wherein the first and second resources are of different types. 
     Embodiment 19. The method of Embodiment 18, wherein the first resource comprises a core network resource of the network slice. 
     Embodiment 20. The method of Embodiment 19, wherein the core network resource comprises one of an access management function, AMF, resource, a session management function, SMF, resource, a user plane function, UPF, resource, a policy control function, PCF, resource, an authentication server function, AUSF, resource, a united data management, UDM, resource, a network repository function, NRF, resource, a network exposure function, NEF, resource, a transport resource, or a cloud infrastructure resource. 
     Embodiment 21. The method of any of Embodiments 19-20, wherein the core network resource is a first core network resource, and wherein the second resource comprises a second core network resource of the network slice, wherein the first and second core network resources are of different types. 
     Embodiment 22. The method of Embodiments 21, wherein the second core network resource comprises one of an AMF resource, a SMF resource, a UPF resource, a PCF resource, an AUSF resource, a UDM resource, a NRF resource, a NEF resource, a transport resource, or a cloud infrastructure resource, different than the first core network resource. 
     Embodiment 23. The method of any of Embodiments 17-22, wherein determining comprises: receiving ( 2212 ) a request to scale the resource; and responsive to receiving the request to scale the resource, determining ( 2214 ) that a threshold capacity of the resource is unavailable, wherein transmitting the first message comprises transmitting the first message responsive to determining that the threshold capacity of the resource is unavailable. 
     Embodiment 24. The method of any of Embodiments 17-23, wherein the second message indicates the resource of the network slice should be scaled, the method further comprising: initiating ( 2240 ) scaling of the resource of the network slice in response to the second message indicating the resource of the network slice should be scaled. 
     Embodiment 25. The method of any of Embodiments 17-24, further comprising: responsive to determining that the resource of the network slice is congested, transmitting ( 2218 ), to the second network node of the communication network, information regarding a load and/or available capacity of the resource. 
     Embodiment 26. A network node ( 1700 ) that is adapted to perform according to any of Embodiments 1-16. 
     Embodiment 27. A network node ( 1800 ) that is adapted to perform according to any of Embodiments 17-25. 
     Embodiment 28. A network node ( 1700 ) comprising: a processor ( 1703 ); and memory ( 1705 ) coupled with the processor, wherein the memory comprises instructions that when executed by the processor cause the processor to perform operations according to any of Embodiments 1-16. 
     Embodiment 29. A network node ( 1800 ) comprising: a processor ( 1803 ); and memory ( 1805 ) coupled with the processor, wherein the memory comprises instructions that when executed by the processor cause the processor to perform operations according to any of Embodiments 17-25. 
     Explanations for abbreviations from the above disclosure are provided below. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Abbreviation 
                 Explanation 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 3GPP 
                 3rd Generation Partnership Project 
               
               
                 5G 
                 5th Generation 
               
               
                 AMF 
                 Access and Mobility management Function 
               
               
                 CHO 
                 Conditional Handover 
               
               
                 CRM 
                 Customer Relationship Management 
               
               
                 CSP 
                 Connectivity Service Provider (e.g., mobile operator) 
               
               
                 eNB 
                 Evolved NodeB 
               
               
                 gNB 
                 Radio base station in NR. 
               
               
                 HO 
                 Handover 
               
               
                 ISP 
                 Internet Service Provider 
               
               
                 IPX 
                 Internet Packet Exchange Point 
               
               
                 LTE 
                 Long Term Evolution 
               
               
                 MME 
                 Mobility Management Entity 
               
               
                 NAS 
                 Non Access Stratum 
               
               
                 NF 
                 Network Function 
               
               
                 NR 
                 New Radio 
               
               
                 NWDAF 
                 Network Data Analytics Function. 
               
               
                 RAN 
                 Radio Access Network 
               
               
                 RAT 
                 Radio Access Technology 
               
               
                 RRC 
                 Radio Resource Control 
               
               
                 SPR 
                 Service Provider Infrastructure 
               
               
                 SRVCC 
                 Single Radio Voice Call Continuity 
               
               
                 UE 
                 User Equipment 
               
               
                 UTRAN 
                 Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network 
               
               
                 VNF 
                 Virtualized Network Function 
               
               
                 OTT 
                 Over The Top application 
               
               
                 VNFI 
                 Virtualized Network Function Infrastructure 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Further definitions and embodiments are discussed below. 
     In the above-description of various embodiments of present inventive concepts, it is to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of present inventive concepts. Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientific terms) used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which present inventive concepts belong. It will be further understood that terms, such as those defined in commonly used dictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their meaning in the context of this specification and the relevant art and will not be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein. 
     When an element is referred to as being “connected”, “coupled”, “responsive”, or variants thereof to another element, it can be directly connected, coupled, or responsive to the other element or intervening elements may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly connected”, “directly coupled”, “directly responsive”, or variants thereof to another element, there are no intervening elements present. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout. Furthermore, “coupled”, “connected”, “responsive”, or variants thereof as used herein may include wirelessly coupled, connected, or responsive. As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. Well-known functions or constructions may not be described in detail for brevity and/or clarity. The term “and/or” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items. 
     It will be understood that although the terms first, second, third, etc. may be used herein to describe various elements/operations, these elements/operations should not be limited by these terms. These terms are only used to distinguish one element/operation from another element/operation. Thus, a first element/operation in some embodiments could be termed a second element/operation in other embodiments without departing from the teachings of present inventive concepts. The same reference numerals or the same reference designators denote the same or similar elements throughout the specification. 
     As used herein, the terms “comprise”, “comprising”, “comprises”, “include”, “including”, “includes”, “have”, “has”, “having”, or variants thereof are open-ended, and include one or more stated features, integers, elements, steps, components, or functions but does not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, elements, steps, components, functions, or groups thereof. Furthermore, as used herein, the common abbreviation “e.g.”, which derives from the Latin phrase “exempli gratia,” may be used to introduce or specify a general example or examples of a previously mentioned item and is not intended to be limiting of such item. The common abbreviation “i.e.”, which derives from the Latin phrase “id est,” may be used to specify a particular item from a more general recitation. 
     Example embodiments are described herein with reference to block diagrams and/or flowchart illustrations of computer-implemented methods, apparatus (systems and/or devices) and/or computer program products. It is understood that a block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustrations, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustrations, can be implemented by computer program instructions that are performed by one or more computer circuits. These computer program instructions may be provided to a processor circuit of a general purpose computer circuit, special purpose computer circuit, and/or other programmable data processing circuit to produce a machine, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer and/or other programmable data processing apparatus, transform and control transistors, values stored in memory locations, and other hardware components within such circuitry to implement the functions/acts specified in the block diagrams and/or flowchart block or blocks, and thereby create means (functionality) and/or structure for implementing the functions/acts specified in the block diagrams and/or flowchart block(s). 
     These computer program instructions may also be stored in a tangible computer-readable medium that can direct a computer or other programmable data processing apparatus to function in a particular manner, such that the instructions stored in the computer-readable medium produce an article of manufacture including instructions which implement the functions/acts specified in the block diagrams and/or flowchart block or blocks. Accordingly, embodiments of present inventive concepts may be embodied in hardware and/or in software (including firmware, resident software, micro-code, etc.) that runs on a processor such as a digital signal processor, which may collectively be referred to as “circuitry,” “a module” or variants thereof. 
     It should also be noted that in some alternate implementations, the functions/acts noted in the blocks may occur out of the order noted in the flowcharts. For example, two blocks shown in succession may in fact be executed substantially concurrently or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality/acts involved. Moreover, the functionality of a given block of the flowcharts and/or block diagrams may be separated into multiple blocks and/or the functionality of two or more blocks of the flowcharts and/or block diagrams may be at least partially integrated. Finally, other blocks may be added/inserted between the blocks that are illustrated, and/or blocks/operations may be omitted without departing from the scope of inventive concepts. Moreover, although some of the diagrams include arrows on communication paths to show a primary direction of communication, it is to be understood that communication may occur in the opposite direction to the depicted arrows. 
     Many variations and modifications can be made to the embodiments without substantially departing from the principles of the present inventive concepts. All such variations and modifications are intended to be included herein within the scope of present inventive concepts. Accordingly, the above disclosed subject matter is to be considered illustrative, and not restrictive, and the examples of embodiments are intended to cover all such modifications, enhancements, and other embodiments, which fall within the spirit and scope of present inventive concepts. Thus, to the maximum extent allowed by law, the scope of present inventive concepts are to be determined by the broadest permissible interpretation of the present disclosure including the examples of embodiments and their equivalents, and shall not be restricted or limited by the foregoing detailed description. 
     Additional explanation is provided below. 
     Generally, all terms used herein are to be interpreted according to their ordinary meaning in the relevant technical field, unless a different meaning is clearly given and/or is implied from the context in which it is used. All references to a/an/the element, apparatus, component, means, step, etc. are to be interpreted openly as referring to at least one instance of the element, apparatus, component, means, step, etc., unless explicitly stated otherwise. The steps of any methods disclosed herein do not have to be performed in the exact order disclosed, unless a step is explicitly described as following or preceding another step and/or where it is implicit that a step must follow or precede another step. Any feature of any of the embodiments disclosed herein may be applied to any other embodiment, wherever appropriate. Likewise, any advantage of any of the embodiments may apply to any other embodiments, and vice versa. Other objectives, features and advantages of the enclosed embodiments will be apparent from the following description. 
     Some of the embodiments contemplated herein will now be described more fully with reference to the accompanying drawings. Other embodiments, however, are contained within the scope of the subject matter disclosed herein, the disclosed subject matter should not be construed as limited to only the embodiments set forth herein; rather, these embodiments are provided by way of example to convey the scope of the subject matter to those skilled in the art. 
       FIG.  26   : A wireless network in accordance with some embodiments. 
     Although the subject matter described herein may be implemented in any appropriate type of system using any suitable components, the embodiments disclosed herein are described in relation to a wireless network, such as the example wireless network illustrated in  FIG.  26   . For simplicity, the wireless network of  FIG.  26    only depicts network QQ 106 , network nodes QQ 160  and QQ 160   b , and WDs QQ 110 , QQ 110   b , and QQ 110   c  (also referred to as mobile terminals). In practice, a wireless network may further include any additional elements suitable to support communication between wireless devices or between a wireless device and another communication device, such as a landline telephone, a service provider, or any other network node or end device. Of the illustrated components, network node QQ 160  and wireless device (WD) QQ 110  are depicted with additional detail. The wireless network may provide communication and other types of services to one or more wireless devices to facilitate the wireless devices&#39; access to and/or use of the services provided by, or via, the wireless network. 
     The wireless network may comprise and/or interface with any type of communication, telecommunication, data, cellular, and/or radio network or other similar type of system. In some embodiments, the wireless network may be configured to operate according to specific standards or other types of predefined rules or procedures. Thus, particular embodiments of the wireless network may implement communication standards, such as Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), Long Term Evolution (LTE), and/or other suitable 2G, 3G, 4G, or 5G standards; wireless local area network (WLAN) standards, such as the IEEE 802.11 standards; and/or any other appropriate wireless communication standard, such as the Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax), Bluetooth, Z-Wave and/or ZigBee standards. 
     Network QQ 106  may comprise one or more backhaul networks, core networks, IP networks, public switched telephone networks (PSTNs), packet data networks, optical networks, wide-area networks (WANs), local area networks (LANs), wireless local area networks (WLANs), wired networks, wireless networks, metropolitan area networks, and other networks to enable communication between devices. 
     Network node QQ 160  and WD QQ 110  comprise various components described in more detail below. These components work together in order to provide network node and/or wireless device functionality, such as providing wireless connections in a wireless network. In different embodiments, the wireless network may comprise any number of wired or wireless networks, network nodes, base stations, controllers, wireless devices, relay stations, and/or any other components or systems that may facilitate or participate in the communication of data and/or signals whether via wired or wireless connections. 
     As used herein, network node refers to equipment capable, configured, arranged and/or operable to communicate directly or indirectly with a wireless device and/or with other network nodes or equipment in the wireless network to enable and/or provide wireless access to the wireless device and/or to perform other functions (e.g., administration) in the wireless network. Examples of network nodes include, but are not limited to, access points (APs) (e.g., radio access points), base stations (BSs) (e.g., radio base stations, Node Bs, evolved Node Bs (eNBs) and NR NodeBs (gNBs)). Base stations may be categorized based on the amount of coverage they provide (or, stated differently, their transmit power level) and may then also be referred to as femto base stations, pico base stations, micro base stations, or macro base stations. A base station may be a relay node or a relay donor node controlling a relay. A network node may also include one or more (or all) parts of a distributed radio base station such as centralized digital units and/or remote radio units (RRUs), sometimes referred to as Remote Radio Heads (RRHs). Such remote radio units may or may not be integrated with an antenna as an antenna integrated radio. Parts of a distributed radio base station may also be referred to as nodes in a distributed antenna system (DAS). Yet further examples of network nodes include multi-standard radio (MSR) equipment such as MSR BSs, network controllers such as radio network controllers (RNCs) or base station controllers (BSCs), base transceiver stations (BTSs), transmission points, transmission nodes, multi-cell/multicast coordination entities (MCEs), core network nodes (e.g., MSCs, MMEs), O&amp;M nodes, OSS nodes, SON nodes, positioning nodes (e.g., E-SMLCs), and/or MDTs. As another example, a network node may be a virtual network node as described in more detail below. More generally, however, network nodes may represent any suitable device (or group of devices) capable, configured, arranged, and/or operable to enable and/or provide a wireless device with access to the wireless network or to provide some service to a wireless device that has accessed the wireless network. 
     In  FIG.  26   , network node QQ 160  includes processing circuitry QQ 170 , device readable medium QQ 180 , interface QQ 190 , auxiliary equipment QQ 184 , power source QQ 186 , power circuitry QQ 187 , and antenna QQ 162 . Although network node QQ 160  illustrated in the example wireless network of  FIG.  26    may represent a device that includes the illustrated combination of hardware components, other embodiments may comprise network nodes with different combinations of components. It is to be understood that a network node comprises any suitable combination of hardware and/or software needed to perform the tasks, features, functions and methods disclosed herein. Moreover, while the components of network node QQ 160  are depicted as single boxes located within a larger box, or nested within multiple boxes, in practice, a network node may comprise multiple different physical components that make up a single illustrated component (e.g., device readable medium QQ 180  may comprise multiple separate hard drives as well as multiple RAM modules). 
     Similarly, network node QQ 160  may be composed of multiple physically separate components (e.g., a NodeB component and a RNC component, or a BTS component and a BSC component, etc.), which may each have their own respective components. In certain scenarios in which network node QQ 160  comprises multiple separate components (e.g., BTS and BSC components), one or more of the separate components may be shared among several network nodes. For example, a single RNC may control multiple NodeB&#39;s. In such a scenario, each unique NodeB and RNC pair, may in some instances be considered a single separate network node. In some embodiments, network node QQ 160  may be configured to support multiple radio access technologies (RATs). In such embodiments, some components may be duplicated (e.g., separate device readable medium QQ 180  for the different RATs) and some components may be reused (e.g., the same antenna QQ 162  may be shared by the RATs). Network node QQ 160  may also include multiple sets of the various illustrated components for different wireless technologies integrated into network node QQ 160 , such as, for example, GSM, WCDMA, LTE, NR, WiFi, or Bluetooth wireless technologies. These wireless technologies may be integrated into the same or different chip or set of chips and other components within network node QQ 160 . 
     Processing circuitry QQ 170  is configured to perform any determining, calculating, or similar operations (e.g., certain obtaining operations) described herein as being provided by a network node. These operations performed by processing circuitry QQ 170  may include processing information obtained by processing circuitry QQ 170  by, for example, converting the obtained information into other information, comparing the obtained information or converted information to information stored in the network node, and/or performing one or more operations based on the obtained information or converted information, and as a result of said processing making a determination. 
     Processing circuitry QQ 170  may comprise a combination of one or more of a microprocessor, controller, microcontroller, central processing unit, digital signal processor, application-specific integrated circuit, field programmable gate array, or any other suitable computing device, resource, or combination of hardware, software and/or encoded logic operable to provide, either alone or in conjunction with other network node QQ 160  components, such as device readable medium QQ 180 , network node QQ 160  functionality. For example, processing circuitry QQ 170  may execute instructions stored in device readable medium QQ 180  or in memory within processing circuitry QQ 170 . Such functionality may include providing any of the various wireless features, functions, or benefits discussed herein. In some embodiments, processing circuitry QQ 170  may include a system on a chip (SOC). 
     In some embodiments, processing circuitry QQ 170  may include one or more of radio frequency (RF) transceiver circuitry QQ 172  and baseband processing circuitry QQ 174 . In some embodiments, radio frequency (RF) transceiver circuitry QQ 172  and baseband processing circuitry QQ 174  may be on separate chips (or sets of chips), boards, or units, such as radio units and digital units. In alternative embodiments, part or all of RF transceiver circuitry QQ 172  and baseband processing circuitry QQ 174  may be on the same chip or set of chips, boards, or units. 
     In certain embodiments, some or all of the functionality described herein as being provided by a network node, base station, eNB or other such network device may be performed by processing circuitry QQ 170  executing instructions stored on device readable medium QQ 180  or memory within processing circuitry QQ 170 . In alternative embodiments, some or all of the functionality may be provided by processing circuitry QQ 170  without executing instructions stored on a separate or discrete device readable medium, such as in a hard-wired manner. In any of those embodiments, whether executing instructions stored on a device readable storage medium or not, processing circuitry QQ 170  can be configured to perform the described functionality. The benefits provided by such functionality are not limited to processing circuitry QQ 170  alone or to other components of network node QQ 160 , but are enjoyed by network node QQ 160  as a whole, and/or by end users and the wireless network generally. 
     Device readable medium QQ 180  may comprise any form of volatile or non-volatile computer readable memory including, without limitation, persistent storage, solid-state memory, remotely mounted memory, magnetic media, optical media, random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), mass storage media (for example, a hard disk), removable storage media (for example, a flash drive, a Compact Disk (CD) or a Digital Video Disk (DVD)), and/or any other volatile or non-volatile, non-transitory device readable and/or computer-executable memory devices that store information, data, and/or instructions that may be used by processing circuitry QQ 170 . Device readable medium QQ 180  may store any suitable instructions, data or information, including a computer program, software, an application including one or more of logic, rules, code, tables, etc. and/or other instructions capable of being executed by processing circuitry QQ 170  and, utilized by network node QQ 160 . Device readable medium QQ 180  may be used to store any calculations made by processing circuitry QQ 170  and/or any data received via interface QQ 190 . In some embodiments, processing circuitry QQ 170  and device readable medium QQ 180  may be considered to be integrated. 
     Interface QQ 190  is used in the wired or wireless communication of signalling and/or data between network node QQ 160 , network QQ 106 , and/or WDs QQ 110 . As illustrated, interface QQ 190  comprises port(s)/terminal(s) QQ 194  to send and receive data, for example to and from network QQ 106  over a wired connection. Interface QQ 190  also includes radio front end circuitry QQ 192  that may be coupled to, or in certain embodiments a part of, antenna QQ 162 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 192  comprises filters QQ 198  and amplifiers QQ 196 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 192  may be connected to antenna QQ 162  and processing circuitry QQ 170 . Radio front end circuitry may be configured to condition signals communicated between antenna QQ 162  and processing circuitry QQ 170 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 192  may receive digital data that is to be sent out to other network nodes or WDs via a wireless connection. Radio front end circuitry QQ 192  may convert the digital data into a radio signal having the appropriate channel and bandwidth parameters using a combination of filters QQ 198  and/or amplifiers QQ 196 . The radio signal may then be transmitted via antenna QQ 162 . Similarly, when receiving data, antenna QQ 162  may collect radio signals which are then converted into digital data by radio front end circuitry QQ 192 . The digital data may be passed to processing circuitry QQ 170 . In other embodiments, the interface may comprise different components and/or different combinations of components. 
     In certain alternative embodiments, network node QQ 160  may not include separate radio front end circuitry QQ 192 , instead, processing circuitry QQ 170  may comprise radio front end circuitry and may be connected to antenna QQ 162  without separate radio front end circuitry QQ 192 . Similarly, in some embodiments, all or some of RF transceiver circuitry QQ 172  may be considered a part of interface QQ 190 . In still other embodiments, interface QQ 190  may include one or more ports or terminals QQ 194 , radio front end circuitry QQ 192 , and RF transceiver circuitry QQ 172 , as part of a radio unit (not shown), and interface QQ 190  may communicate with baseband processing circuitry QQ 174 , which is part of a digital unit (not shown). 
     Antenna QQ 162  may include one or more antennas, or antenna arrays, configured to send and/or receive wireless signals. Antenna QQ 162  may be coupled to radio front end circuitry QQ 190  and may be any type of antenna capable of transmitting and receiving data and/or signals wirelessly. In some embodiments, antenna QQ 162  may comprise one or more omni-directional, sector or panel antennas operable to transmit/receive radio signals between, for example, 2 GHz and 66 GHz. An omni-directional antenna may be used to transmit/receive radio signals in any direction, a sector antenna may be used to transmit/receive radio signals from devices within a particular area, and a panel antenna may be a line of sight antenna used to transmit/receive radio signals in a relatively straight line. In some instances, the use of more than one antenna may be referred to as MIMO. In certain embodiments, antenna QQ 162  may be separate from network node QQ 160  and may be connectable to network node QQ 160  through an interface or port. 
     Antenna QQ 162 , interface QQ 190 , and/or processing circuitry QQ 170  may be configured to perform any receiving operations and/or certain obtaining operations described herein as being performed by a network node. Any information, data and/or signals may be received from a wireless device, another network node and/or any other network equipment. Similarly, antenna QQ 162 , interface QQ 190 , and/or processing circuitry QQ 170  may be configured to perform any transmitting operations described herein as being performed by a network node. Any information, data and/or signals may be transmitted to a wireless device, another network node and/or any other network equipment. 
     Power circuitry QQ 187  may comprise, or be coupled to, power management circuitry and is configured to supply the components of network node QQ 160  with power for performing the functionality described herein. Power circuitry QQ 187  may receive power from power source QQ 186 . Power source QQ 186  and/or power circuitry QQ 187  may be configured to provide power to the various components of network node QQ 160  in a form suitable for the respective components (e.g., at a voltage and current level needed for each respective component). Power source QQ 186  may either be included in, or external to, power circuitry QQ 187  and/or network node QQ 160 . For example, network node QQ 160  may be connectable to an external power source (e.g., an electricity outlet) via an input circuitry or interface such as an electrical cable, whereby the external power source supplies power to power circuitry QQ 187 . As a further example, power source QQ 186  may comprise a source of power in the form of a battery or battery pack which is connected to, or integrated in, power circuitry QQ 187 . The battery may provide backup power should the external power source fail. Other types of power sources, such as photovoltaic devices, may also be used. 
     Alternative embodiments of network node QQ 160  may include additional components beyond those shown in  FIG.  26    that may be responsible for providing certain aspects of the network node&#39;s functionality, including any of the functionality described herein and/or any functionality necessary to support the subject matter described herein. For example, network node QQ 160  may include user interface equipment to allow input of information into network node QQ 160  and to allow output of information from network node QQ 160 . This may allow a user to perform diagnostic, maintenance, repair, and other administrative functions for network node QQ 160 . 
     As used herein, wireless device (WD) refers to a device capable, configured, arranged and/or operable to communicate wirelessly with network nodes and/or other wireless devices. Unless otherwise noted, the term WD may be used interchangeably herein with user equipment (UE). Communicating wirelessly may involve transmitting and/or receiving wireless signals using electromagnetic waves, radio waves, infrared waves, and/or other types of signals suitable for conveying information through air. In some embodiments, a WD may be configured to transmit and/or receive information without direct human interaction. For instance, a WD may be designed to transmit information to a network on a predetermined schedule, when triggered by an internal or external event, or in response to requests from the network. Examples of a WD include, but are not limited to, a smart phone, a mobile phone, a cell phone, a voice over IP (VoIP) phone, a wireless local loop phone, a desktop computer, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a wireless cameras, a gaming console or device, a music storage device, a playback appliance, a wearable terminal device, a wireless endpoint, a mobile station, a tablet, a laptop, a laptop-embedded equipment (LEE), a laptop-mounted equipment (LME), a smart device, a wireless customer-premise equipment (CPE). a vehicle-mounted wireless terminal device, etc. A WD may support device-to-device (D2D) communication, for example by implementing a 3GPP standard for sidelink communication, vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), vehicle-to-everything (V2X) and may in this case be referred to as a D2D communication device. As yet another specific example, in an Internet of Things (IoT) scenario, a WD may represent a machine or other device that performs monitoring and/or measurements, and transmits the results of such monitoring and/or measurements to another WD and/or a network node. The WD may in this case be a machine-to-machine (M2M) device, which may in a 3GPP context be referred to as an MTC device. As one particular example, the WD may be a UE implementing the 3GPP narrow band internet of things (NB-IoT) standard. Particular examples of such machines or devices are sensors, metering devices such as power meters, industrial machinery, or home or personal appliances (e.g. refrigerators, televisions, etc.) personal wearables (e.g., watches, fitness trackers, etc.). In other scenarios, a WD may represent a vehicle or other equipment that is capable of monitoring and/or reporting on its operational status or other functions associated with its operation. A WD as described above may represent the endpoint of a wireless connection, in which case the device may be referred to as a wireless terminal. Furthermore, a WD as described above may be mobile, in which case it may also be referred to as a mobile device or a mobile terminal. 
     As illustrated, wireless device QQ 110  includes antenna QQ 111 , interface QQ 114 , processing circuitry QQ 120 , device readable medium QQ 130 , user interface equipment QQ 132 , auxiliary equipment QQ 134 , power source QQ 136  and power circuitry QQ 137 . WD QQ 110  may include multiple sets of one or more of the illustrated components for different wireless technologies supported by WD QQ 110 , such as, for example, GSM, WCDMA, LTE, NR, WiFi, WiMAX, or Bluetooth wireless technologies, just to mention a few. These wireless technologies may be integrated into the same or different chips or set of chips as other components within WD QQ 110 . 
     Antenna QQ 111  may include one or more antennas or antenna arrays, configured to send and/or receive wireless signals, and is connected to interface QQ 114 . In certain alternative embodiments, antenna QQ 111  may be separate from WD QQ 110  and be connectable to WD QQ 110  through an interface or port. Antenna QQ 111 , interface QQ 114 , and/or processing circuitry QQ 120  may be configured to perform any receiving or transmitting operations described herein as being performed by a WD. Any information, data and/or signals may be received from a network node and/or another WD. In some embodiments, radio front end circuitry and/or antenna QQ 111  may be considered an interface. 
     As illustrated, interface QQ 114  comprises radio front end circuitry QQ 112  and antenna QQ 111 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 112  comprise one or more filters QQ 118  and amplifiers QQ 116 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 114  is connected to antenna QQ 111  and processing circuitry QQ 120 , and is configured to condition signals communicated between antenna QQ 111  and processing circuitry QQ 120 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 112  may be coupled to or a part of antenna QQ 111 . In some embodiments, WD QQ 110  may not include separate radio front end circuitry QQ 112 ; rather, processing circuitry QQ 120  may comprise radio front end circuitry and may be connected to antenna QQ 111 . Similarly, in some embodiments, some or all of RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122  may be considered a part of interface QQ 114 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 112  may receive digital data that is to be sent out to other network nodes or WDs via a wireless connection. Radio front end circuitry QQ 112  may convert the digital data into a radio signal having the appropriate channel and bandwidth parameters using a combination of filters QQ 118  and/or amplifiers QQ 116 . The radio signal may then be transmitted via antenna QQ 111 . Similarly, when receiving data, antenna QQ 111  may collect radio signals which are then converted into digital data by radio front end circuitry QQ 112 . The digital data may be passed to processing circuitry QQ 120 . In other embodiments, the interface may comprise different components and/or different combinations of components. 
     Processing circuitry QQ 120  may comprise a combination of one or more of a microprocessor, controller, microcontroller, central processing unit, digital signal processor, application-specific integrated circuit, field programmable gate array, or any other suitable computing device, resource, or combination of hardware, software, and/or encoded logic operable to provide, either alone or in conjunction with other WD QQ 110  components, such as device readable medium QQ 130 , WD QQ 110  functionality. Such functionality may include providing any of the various wireless features or benefits discussed herein. For example, processing circuitry QQ 120  may execute instructions stored in device readable medium QQ 130  or in memory within processing circuitry QQ 120  to provide the functionality disclosed herein. 
     As illustrated, processing circuitry QQ 120  includes one or more of RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122 , baseband processing circuitry QQ 124 , and application processing circuitry QQ 126 . In other embodiments, the processing circuitry may comprise different components and/or different combinations of components. In certain embodiments processing circuitry QQ 120  of WD QQ 110  may comprise a SOC. In some embodiments, RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122 , baseband processing circuitry QQ 124 , and application processing circuitry QQ 126  may be on separate chips or sets of chips. In alternative embodiments, part or all of baseband processing circuitry QQ 124  and application processing circuitry QQ 126  may be combined into one chip or set of chips, and RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122  may be on a separate chip or set of chips. In still alternative embodiments, part or all of RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122  and baseband processing circuitry QQ 124  may be on the same chip or set of chips, and application processing circuitry QQ 126  may be on a separate chip or set of chips. In yet other alternative embodiments, part or all of RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122 , baseband processing circuitry QQ 124 , and application processing circuitry QQ 126  may be combined in the same chip or set of chips. In some embodiments, RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122  may be a part of interface QQ 114 . RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122  may condition RF signals for processing circuitry QQ 120 . 
     In certain embodiments, some or all of the functionality described herein as being performed by a WD may be provided by processing circuitry QQ 120  executing instructions stored on device readable medium QQ 130 , which in certain embodiments may be a computer-readable storage medium. In alternative embodiments, some or all of the functionality may be provided by processing circuitry QQ 120  without executing instructions stored on a separate or discrete device readable storage medium, such as in a hard-wired manner. In any of those particular embodiments, whether executing instructions stored on a device readable storage medium or not, processing circuitry QQ 120  can be configured to perform the described functionality. The benefits provided by such functionality are not limited to processing circuitry QQ 120  alone or to other components of WD QQ 110 , but are enjoyed by WD QQ 110  as a whole, and/or by end users and the wireless network generally. 
     Processing circuitry QQ 120  may be configured to perform any determining, calculating, or similar operations (e.g., certain obtaining operations) described herein as being performed by a WD. These operations, as performed by processing circuitry QQ 120 , may include processing information obtained by processing circuitry QQ 120  by, for example, converting the obtained information into other information, comparing the obtained information or converted information to information stored by WD QQ 110 , and/or performing one or more operations based on the obtained information or converted information, and as a result of said processing making a determination. 
     Device readable medium QQ 130  may be operable to store a computer program, software, an application including one or more of logic, rules, code, tables, etc. and/or other instructions capable of being executed by processing circuitry QQ 120 . Device readable medium QQ 130  may include computer memory (e.g., Random Access Memory (RAM) or Read Only Memory (ROM)), mass storage media (e.g., a hard disk), removable storage media (e.g., a Compact Disk (CD) or a Digital Video Disk (DVD)), and/or any other volatile or non-volatile, non-transitory device readable and/or computer executable memory devices that store information, data, and/or instructions that may be used by processing circuitry QQ 120 . In some embodiments, processing circuitry QQ 120  and device readable medium QQ 130  may be considered to be integrated. 
     User interface equipment QQ 132  may provide components that allow for a human user to interact with WD QQ 110 . Such interaction may be of many forms, such as visual, audial, tactile, etc. User interface equipment QQ 132  may be operable to produce output to the user and to allow the user to provide input to WD QQ 110 . The type of interaction may vary depending on the type of user interface equipment QQ 132  installed in WD QQ 110 . For example, if WD QQ 110  is a smart phone, the interaction may be via a touch screen; if WD QQ 110  is a smart meter, the interaction may be through a screen that provides usage (e.g., the number of gallons used) or a speaker that provides an audible alert (e.g., if smoke is detected). User interface equipment QQ 132  may include input interfaces, devices and circuits, and output interfaces, devices and circuits. User interface equipment QQ 132  is configured to allow input of information into WD QQ 110 , and is connected to processing circuitry QQ 120  to allow processing circuitry QQ 120  to process the input information. User interface equipment QQ 132  may include, for example, a microphone, a proximity or other sensor, keys/buttons, a touch display, one or more cameras, a USB port, or other input circuitry. User interface equipment QQ 132  is also configured to allow output of information from WD QQ 110 , and to allow processing circuitry QQ 120  to output information from WD QQ 110 . User interface equipment QQ 132  may include, for example, a speaker, a display, vibrating circuitry, a USB port, a headphone interface, or other output circuitry. Using one or more input and output interfaces, devices, and circuits, of user interface equipment QQ 132 , WD QQ 110  may communicate with end users and/or the wireless network, and allow them to benefit from the functionality described herein. 
     Auxiliary equipment QQ 134  is operable to provide more specific functionality which may not be generally performed by WDs. This may comprise specialized sensors for doing measurements for various purposes, interfaces for additional types of communication such as wired communications etc. The inclusion and type of components of auxiliary equipment QQ 134  may vary depending on the embodiment and/or scenario. 
     Power source QQ 136  may, in some embodiments, be in the form of a battery or battery pack. Other types of power sources, such as an external power source (e.g., an electricity outlet), photovoltaic devices or power cells, may also be used. WD QQ 110  may further comprise power circuitry QQ 137  for delivering power from power source QQ 136  to the various parts of WD QQ 110  which need power from power source QQ 136  to carry out any functionality described or indicated herein. Power circuitry QQ 137  may in certain embodiments comprise power management circuitry. Power circuitry QQ 137  may additionally or alternatively be operable to receive power from an external power source; in which case WD QQ 110  may be connectable to the external power source (such as an electricity outlet) via input circuitry or an interface such as an electrical power cable. Power circuitry QQ 137  may also in certain embodiments be operable to deliver power from an external power source to power source QQ 136 . This may be, for example, for the charging of power source QQ 136 . Power circuitry QQ 137  may perform any formatting, converting, or other modification to the power from power source QQ 136  to make the power suitable for the respective components of WD QQ 110  to which power is supplied. 
       FIG.  27   : User Equipment in accordance with some embodiments 
       FIG.  27    illustrates one embodiment of a UE in accordance with various aspects described herein. As used herein, a user equipment or UE may not necessarily have a user in the sense of a human user who owns and/or operates the relevant device. Instead, a UE may represent a device that is intended for sale to, or operation by, a human user but which may not, or which may not initially, be associated with a specific human user (e.g., a smart sprinkler controller). Alternatively, a UE may represent a device that is not intended for sale to, or operation by, an end user but which may be associated with or operated for the benefit of a user (e.g., a smart power meter). UE QQ 2200  may be any UE identified by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), including a NB-IoT UE, a machine type communication (MTC) UE, and/or an enhanced MTC (eMTC) UE. UE QQ 200 , as illustrated in  FIG.  27   , is one example of a WD configured for communication in accordance with one or more communication standards promulgated by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), such as 3GPP&#39;s GSM, UMTS, LTE, and/or 5G standards. As mentioned previously, the term WD and UE may be used interchangeable. Accordingly, although  FIG.  27    is a UE, the components discussed herein are equally applicable to a WD, and vice-versa. 
     In  FIG.  27   , UE QQ 200  includes processing circuitry QQ 201  that is operatively coupled to input/output interface QQ 205 , radio frequency (RF) interface QQ 209 , network connection interface QQ 211 , memory QQ 215  including random access memory (RAM) QQ 217 , read-only memory (ROM) QQ 219 , and storage medium QQ 221  or the like, communication subsystem QQ 231 , power source QQ 233 , and/or any other component, or any combination thereof. Storage medium QQ 221  includes operating system QQ 223 , application program QQ 225 , and data QQ 227 . In other embodiments, storage medium QQ 221  may include other similar types of information. Certain UEs may utilize all of the components shown in  FIG.  27   , or only a subset of the components. The level of integration between the components may vary from one UE to another UE. Further, certain UEs may contain multiple instances of a component, such as multiple processors, memories, transceivers, transmitters, receivers, etc. 
     In  FIG.  27   , processing circuitry QQ 201  may be configured to process computer instructions and data. Processing circuitry QQ 201  may be configured to implement any sequential state machine operative to execute machine instructions stored as machine-readable computer programs in the memory, such as one or more hardware-implemented state machines (e.g., in discrete logic, FPGA, ASIC, etc.); programmable logic together with appropriate firmware; one or more stored program, general-purpose processors, such as a microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP), together with appropriate software; or any combination of the above. For example, the processing circuitry QQ 201  may include two central processing units (CPUs). Data may be information in a form suitable for use by a computer. 
     In the depicted embodiment, input/output interface QQ 205  may be configured to provide a communication interface to an input device, output device, or input and output device. UE QQ 200  may be configured to use an output device via input/output interface QQ 205 . An output device may use the same type of interface port as an input device. For example, a USB port may be used to provide input to and output from UE QQ 200 . The output device may be a speaker, a sound card, a video card, a display, a monitor, a printer, an actuator, an emitter, a smartcard, another output device, or any combination thereof. UE QQ 200  may be configured to use an input device via input/output interface QQ 205  to allow a user to capture information into UE QQ 200 . The input device may include a touch-sensitive or presence-sensitive display, a camera (e.g., a digital camera, a digital video camera, a web camera, etc.), a microphone, a sensor, a mouse, a trackball, a directional pad, a trackpad, a scroll wheel, a smartcard, and the like. The presence-sensitive display may include a capacitive or resistive touch sensor to sense input from a user. A sensor may be, for instance, an accelerometer, a gyroscope, a tilt sensor, a force sensor, a magnetometer, an optical sensor, a proximity sensor, another like sensor, or any combination thereof. For example, the input device may be an accelerometer, a magnetometer, a digital camera, a microphone, and an optical sensor. 
     In  FIG.  27   , RF interface QQ 209  may be configured to provide a communication interface to RF components such as a transmitter, a receiver, and an antenna. Network connection interface QQ 211  may be configured to provide a communication interface to network QQ 243   a . Network QQ 243   a  may encompass wired and/or wireless networks such as a local-area network (LAN), a wide-area network (WAN), a computer network, a wireless network, a telecommunications network, another like network or any combination thereof. For example, network QQ 243   a  may comprise a Wi-Fi network. Network connection interface QQ 211  may be configured to include a receiver and a transmitter interface used to communicate with one or more other devices over a communication network according to one or more communication protocols, such as Ethernet, TCP/IP, SONET, ATM, or the like. Network connection interface QQ 211  may implement receiver and transmitter functionality appropriate to the communication network links (e.g., optical, electrical, and the like). The transmitter and receiver functions may share circuit components, software or firmware, or alternatively may be implemented separately. 
     RAM QQ 217  may be configured to interface via bus QQ 202  to processing circuitry QQ 201  to provide storage or caching of data or computer instructions during the execution of software programs such as the operating system, application programs, and device drivers. ROM QQ 219  may be configured to provide computer instructions or data to processing circuitry QQ 201 . For example, ROM QQ 219  may be configured to store invariant low-level system code or data for basic system functions such as basic input and output (I/O), startup, or reception of keystrokes from a keyboard that are stored in a non-volatile memory. Storage medium QQ 221  may be configured to include memory such as RAM, ROM, programmable read-only memory (PROM), erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), magnetic disks, optical disks, floppy disks, hard disks, removable cartridges, or flash drives. In one example, storage medium QQ 221  may be configured to include operating system QQ 223 , application program QQ 225  such as a web browser application, a widget or gadget engine or another application, and data file QQ 227 . Storage medium QQ 221  may store, for use by UE QQ 200 , any of a variety of various operating systems or combinations of operating systems. 
     Storage medium QQ 221  may be configured to include a number of physical drive units, such as redundant array of independent disks (RAID), floppy disk drive, flash memory, USB flash drive, external hard disk drive, thumb drive, pen drive, key drive, high-density digital versatile disc (HD-DVD) optical disc drive, internal hard disk drive, Blu-Ray optical disc drive, holographic digital data storage (HDDS) optical disc drive, external mini-dual in-line memory module (DIMM), synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM), external micro-DIMM SDRAM, smartcard memory such as a subscriber identity module or a removable user identity (SIM/RUIM) module, other memory, or any combination thereof. Storage medium QQ 221  may allow UE QQ 200  to access computer-executable instructions, application programs or the like, stored on transitory or non-transitory memory media, to off-load data, or to upload data. An article of manufacture, such as one utilizing a communication system may be tangibly embodied in storage medium QQ 221 , which may comprise a device readable medium. 
     In  FIG.  27   , processing circuitry QQ 201  may be configured to communicate with network QQ 243   b  using communication subsystem QQ 231 . Network QQ 243   a  and network QQ 243   b  may be the same network or networks or different network or networks. Communication subsystem QQ 231  may be configured to include one or more transceivers used to communicate with network QQ 243   b . For example, communication subsystem QQ 231  may be configured to include one or more transceivers used to communicate with one or more remote transceivers of another device capable of wireless communication such as another WD, UE, or base station of a radio access network (RAN) according to one or more communication protocols, such as IEEE 802.QQ2, CDMA, WCDMA, GSM, LTE, UTRAN, WiMax, or the like. Each transceiver may include transmitter QQ 233  and/or receiver QQ 235  to implement transmitter or receiver functionality, respectively, appropriate to the RAN links (e.g., frequency allocations and the like). Further, transmitter QQ 233  and receiver QQ 235  of each transceiver may share circuit components, software or firmware, or alternatively may be implemented separately. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the communication functions of communication subsystem QQ 231  may include data communication, voice communication, multimedia communication, short-range communications such as Bluetooth, near-field communication, location-based communication such as the use of the global positioning system (GPS) to determine a location, another like communication function, or any combination thereof. For example, communication subsystem QQ 231  may include cellular communication, Wi-Fi communication, Bluetooth communication, and GPS communication. Network QQ 243   b  may encompass wired and/or wireless networks such as a local-area network (LAN), a wide-area network (WAN), a computer network, a wireless network, a telecommunications network, another like network or any combination thereof. For example, network QQ 243   b  may be a cellular network, a Wi-Fi network, and/or a near-field network. Power source QQ 213  may be configured to provide alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) power to components of UE QQ 200 . 
     The features, benefits and/or functions described herein may be implemented in one of the components of UE QQ 200  or partitioned across multiple components of UE QQ 200 . Further, the features, benefits, and/or functions described herein may be implemented in any combination of hardware, software or firmware. In one example, communication subsystem QQ 231  may be configured to include any of the components described herein. Further, processing circuitry QQ 201  may be configured to communicate with any of such components over bus QQ 202 . In another example, any of such components may be represented by program instructions stored in memory that when executed by processing circuitry QQ 201  perform the corresponding functions described herein. In another example, the functionality of any of such components may be partitioned between processing circuitry QQ 201  and communication subsystem QQ 231 . In another example, the non-computationally intensive functions of any of such components may be implemented in software or firmware and the computationally intensive functions may be implemented in hardware. 
       FIG.  28   : Virtualization environment in accordance with some embodiments 
       FIG.  28    is a schematic block diagram illustrating a virtualization environment QQ 300  in which functions implemented by some embodiments may be virtualized. In the present context, virtualizing means creating virtual versions of apparatuses or devices which may include virtualizing hardware platforms, storage devices and networking resources. As used herein, virtualization can be applied to a node (e.g., a virtualized base station or a virtualized radio access node) or to a device (e.g., a UE, a wireless device or any other type of communication device) or components thereof and relates to an implementation in which at least a portion of the functionality is implemented as one or more virtual components (e.g., via one or more applications, components, functions, virtual machines or containers executing on one or more physical processing nodes in one or more networks). 
     In some embodiments, some or all of the functions described herein may be implemented as virtual components executed by one or more virtual machines implemented in one or more virtual environments QQ 300  hosted by one or more of hardware nodes QQ 330 . Further, in embodiments in which the virtual node is not a radio access node or does not require radio connectivity (e.g., a core network node), then the network node may be entirely virtualized. 
     The functions may be implemented by one or more applications QQ 320  (which may alternatively be called software instances, virtual appliances, network functions, virtual nodes, virtual network functions, etc.) operative to implement some of the features, functions, and/or benefits of some of the embodiments disclosed herein. Applications QQ 320  are run in virtualization environment QQ 300  which provides hardware QQ 330  comprising processing circuitry QQ 360  and memory QQ 390 . Memory QQ 390  contains instructions QQ 395  executable by processing circuitry QQ 360  whereby application QQ 320  is operative to provide one or more of the features, benefits, and/or functions disclosed herein. 
     Virtualization environment QQ 300 , comprises general-purpose or special-purpose network hardware devices QQ 330  comprising a set of one or more processors or processing circuitry QQ 360 , which may be commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) processors, dedicated Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), or any other type of processing circuitry including digital or analog hardware components or special purpose processors. Each hardware device may comprise memory QQ 390 - 1  which may be non-persistent memory for temporarily storing instructions QQ 395  or software executed by processing circuitry QQ 360 . Each hardware device may comprise one or more network interface controllers (NICs) QQ 370 , also known as network interface cards, which include physical network interface QQ 380 . Each hardware device may also include non-transitory, persistent, machine-readable storage media QQ 390 - 2  having stored therein software QQ 395  and/or instructions executable by processing circuitry QQ 360 . Software QQ 395  may include any type of software including software for instantiating one or more virtualization layers QQ 350  (also referred to as hypervisors), software to execute virtual machines QQ 340  as well as software allowing it to execute functions, features and/or benefits described in relation with some embodiments described herein. 
     Virtual machines QQ 340 , comprise virtual processing, virtual memory, virtual networking or interface and virtual storage, and may be run by a corresponding virtualization layer QQ 350  or hypervisor. Different embodiments of the instance of virtual appliance QQ 320  may be implemented on one or more of virtual machines QQ 340 , and the implementations may be made in different ways. 
     During operation, processing circuitry QQ 360  executes software QQ 395  to instantiate the hypervisor or virtualization layer QQ 350 , which may sometimes be referred to as a virtual machine monitor (VMM). Virtualization layer QQ 350  may present a virtual operating platform that appears like networking hardware to virtual machine QQ 340 . 
     As shown in  FIG.  28   , hardware QQ 330  may be a standalone network node with generic or specific components. Hardware QQ 330  may comprise antenna QQ 3225  and may implement some functions via virtualization. Alternatively, hardware QQ 330  may be part of a larger cluster of hardware (e.g. such as in a data center or customer premise equipment (CPE)) where many hardware nodes work together and are managed via management and orchestration (MANO) QQ 3100 , which, among others, oversees lifecycle management of applications QQ 320 . 
     Virtualization of the hardware is in some contexts referred to as network function virtualization (NFV). NFV may be used to consolidate many network equipment types onto industry standard high volume server hardware, physical switches, and physical storage, which can be located in data centers, and customer premise equipment. 
     In the context of NFV, virtual machine QQ 340  may be a software implementation of a physical machine that runs programs as if they were executing on a physical, non-virtualized machine. Each of virtual machines QQ 340 , and that part of hardware QQ 330  that executes that virtual machine, be it hardware dedicated to that virtual machine and/or hardware shared by that virtual machine with others of the virtual machines QQ 340 , forms a separate virtual network elements (VNE). 
     Still in the context of NFV, Virtual Network Function (VNF) is responsible for handling specific network functions that run in one or more virtual machines QQ 340  on top of hardware networking infrastructure QQ 330  and corresponds to application QQ 320  in  FIG.  28   . 
     In some embodiments, one or more radio units QQ 3200  that each include one or more transmitters QQ 3220  and one or more receivers QQ 3210  may be coupled to one or more antennas QQ 3225 . Radio units QQ 3200  may communicate directly with hardware nodes QQ 330  via one or more appropriate network interfaces and may be used in combination with the virtual components to provide a virtual node with radio capabilities, such as a radio access node or a base station. 
     In some embodiments, some signalling can be effected with the use of control system QQ 3230  which may alternatively be used for communication between the hardware nodes QQ 330  and radio units QQ 3200 . 
       FIG.  29   : Telecommunication network connected via an intermediate network to a host computer in accordance with some embodiments. 
     With reference to  FIG.  29   , in accordance with an embodiment, a communication system includes telecommunication network QQ 410 , such as a 3GPP-type cellular network, which comprises access network QQ 411 , such as a radio access network, and core network QQ 414 . Access network QQ 411  comprises a plurality of base stations QQ 412   a , QQ 412   b , QQ 412   c , such as NBs, eNBs, gNBs or other types of wireless access points, each defining a corresponding coverage area QQ 413   a , QQ 413   b , QQ 413   c . Each base station QQ 412   a , QQ 412   b , QQ 412   c  is connectable to core network QQ 414  over a wired or wireless connection QQ 415 . A first UE QQ 491  located in coverage area QQ 413   c  is configured to wirelessly connect to, or be paged by, the corresponding base station QQ 412   c . A second UE QQ 492  in coverage area QQ 413   a  is wirelessly connectable to the corresponding base station QQ 412   a . While a plurality of UEs QQ 491 , QQ 492  are illustrated in this example, the disclosed embodiments are equally applicable to a situation where a sole UE is in the coverage area or where a sole UE is connecting to the corresponding base station QQ 412 . 
     Telecommunication network QQ 410  is itself connected to host computer QQ 430 , which may be embodied in the hardware and/or software of a standalone server, a cloud-implemented server, a distributed server or as processing resources in a server farm. Host computer QQ 430  may be under the ownership or control of a service provider, or may be operated by the service provider or on behalf of the service provider. Connections QQ 421  and QQ 422  between telecommunication network QQ 410  and host computer QQ 430  may extend directly from core network QQ 414  to host computer QQ 430  or may go via an optional intermediate network QQ 420 . Intermediate network QQ 420  may be one of, or a combination of more than one of, a public, private or hosted network; intermediate network QQ 420 , if any, may be a backbone network or the Internet; in particular, intermediate network QQ 420  may comprise two or more sub-networks (not shown). 
     The communication system of  FIG.  29    as a whole enables connectivity between the connected UEs QQ 491 , QQ 492  and host computer QQ 430 . The connectivity may be described as an over-the-top (OTT) connection QQ 450 . Host computer QQ 430  and the connected UEs QQ 491 , QQ 492  are configured to communicate data and/or signaling via OTT connection QQ 450 , using access network QQ 411 , core network QQ 414 , any intermediate network QQ 420  and possible further infrastructure (not shown) as intermediaries. OTT connection QQ 450  may be transparent in the sense that the participating communication devices through which OTT connection QQ 450  passes are unaware of routing of uplink and downlink communications. For example, base station QQ 412  may not or need not be informed about the past routing of an incoming downlink communication with data originating from host computer QQ 430  to be forwarded (e.g., handed over) to a connected UE QQ 491 . Similarly, base station QQ 412  need not be aware of the future routing of an outgoing uplink communication originating from the UE QQ 491  towards the host computer QQ 430 . 
       FIG.  30   : Host computer communicating via a base station with a user equipment over a partially wireless connection in accordance with some embodiments. 
     Example implementations, in accordance with an embodiment, of the UE, base station and host computer discussed in the preceding paragraphs will now be described with reference to  FIG.  30   . In communication system QQ 500 , host computer QQ 510  comprises hardware QQ 515  including communication interface QQ 516  configured to set up and maintain a wired or wireless connection with an interface of a different communication device of communication system QQ 500 . Host computer QQ 510  further comprises processing circuitry QQ 518 , which may have storage and/or processing capabilities. In particular, processing circuitry QQ 518  may comprise one or more programmable processors, application-specific integrated circuits, field programmable gate arrays or combinations of these (not shown) adapted to execute instructions. Host computer QQ 510  further comprises software QQ 511 , which is stored in or accessible by host computer QQ 510  and executable by processing circuitry QQ 518 . Software QQ 511  includes host application QQ 512 . Host application QQ 512  may be operable to provide a service to a remote user, such as UE QQ 530  connecting via OTT connection QQ 550  terminating at UE QQ 530  and host computer QQ 510 . In providing the service to the remote user, host application QQ 512  may provide user data which is transmitted using OTT connection QQ 550 . 
     Communication system QQ 500  further includes base station QQ 520  provided in a telecommunication system and comprising hardware QQ 525  enabling it to communicate with host computer QQ 510  and with UE QQ 530 . Hardware QQ 525  may include communication interface QQ 526  for setting up and maintaining a wired or wireless connection with an interface of a different communication device of communication system QQ 500 , as well as radio interface QQ 527  for setting up and maintaining at least wireless connection QQ 570  with UE QQ 530  located in a coverage area (not shown in  FIG.  30   ) served by base station QQ 520 . Communication interface QQ 526  may be configured to facilitate connection QQ 560  to host computer QQ 510 . Connection QQ 560  may be direct or it may pass through a core network (not shown in  FIG.  30   ) of the telecommunication system and/or through one or more intermediate networks outside the telecommunication system. In the embodiment shown, hardware QQ 525  of base station QQ 520  further includes processing circuitry QQ 528 , which may comprise one or more programmable processors, application-specific integrated circuits, field programmable gate arrays or combinations of these (not shown) adapted to execute instructions. Base station QQ 520  further has software QQ 521  stored internally or accessible via an external connection. 
     Communication system QQ 500  further includes UE QQ 530  already referred to. Its hardware QQ 535  may include radio interface QQ 537  configured to set up and maintain wireless connection QQ 570  with a base station serving a coverage area in which UE QQ 530  is currently located. Hardware QQ 535  of UE QQ 530  further includes processing circuitry QQ 538 , which may comprise one or more programmable processors, application-specific integrated circuits, field programmable gate arrays or combinations of these (not shown) adapted to execute instructions. UE QQ 530  further comprises software QQ 531 , which is stored in or accessible by UE QQ 530  and executable by processing circuitry QQ 538 . Software QQ 531  includes client application QQ 532 . Client application QQ 532  may be operable to provide a service to a human or non-human user via UE QQ 530 , with the support of host computer QQ 510 . In host computer QQ 510 , an executing host application QQ 512  may communicate with the executing client application QQ 532  via OTT connection QQ 550  terminating at UE QQ 530  and host computer QQ 510 . In providing the service to the user, client application QQ 532  may receive request data from host application QQ 512  and provide user data in response to the request data. OTT connection QQ 550  may transfer both the request data and the user data. Client application QQ 532  may interact with the user to generate the user data that it provides. 
     It is noted that host computer QQ 510 , base station QQ 520  and UE QQ 530  illustrated in  FIG.  30    may be similar or identical to host computer QQ 430 , one of base stations QQ 412   a , QQ 412   b , QQ 412   c  and one of UEs QQ 491 , QQ 492  of  FIG.  29   , respectively. This is to say, the inner workings of these entities may be as shown in  FIG.  30    and independently, the surrounding network topology may be that of  FIG.  29   . 
     In  FIG.  30   , OTT connection QQ 550  has been drawn abstractly to illustrate the communication between host computer QQ 510  and UE QQ 530  via base station QQ 520 , without explicit reference to any intermediary devices and the precise routing of messages via these devices. Network infrastructure may determine the routing, which it may be configured to hide from UE QQ 530  or from the service provider operating host computer QQ 510 , or both. While OTT connection QQ 550  is active, the network infrastructure may further take decisions by which it dynamically changes the routing (e.g., on the basis of load balancing consideration or reconfiguration of the network). 
     Wireless connection QQ 570  between UE QQ 530  and base station QQ 520  is in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure. One or more of the various embodiments may improve the performance of OTT services provided to UE QQ 530  using OTT connection QQ 550 , in which wireless connection QQ 570  forms the last segment. More precisely, the teachings of these embodiments may improve the deblock filtering for video processing and thereby provide benefits such as improved video encoding and/or decoding. 
     A measurement procedure may be provided for the purpose of monitoring data rate, latency and other factors on which the one or more embodiments improve. There may further be an optional network functionality for reconfiguring OTT connection QQ 550  between host computer QQ 510  and UE QQ 530 , in response to variations in the measurement results. The measurement procedure and/or the network functionality for reconfiguring OTT connection QQ 550  may be implemented in software QQ 511  and hardware QQ 515  of host computer QQ 510  or in software QQ 531  and hardware QQ 535  of UE QQ 530 , or both. In embodiments, sensors (not shown) may be deployed in or in association with communication devices through which OTT connection QQ 550  passes; the sensors may participate in the measurement procedure by supplying values of the monitored quantities exemplified above, or supplying values of other physical quantities from which software QQ 511 , QQ 531  may compute or estimate the monitored quantities. The reconfiguring of OTT connection QQ 550  may include message format, retransmission settings, preferred routing etc.; the reconfiguring need not affect base station QQ 520 , and it may be unknown or imperceptible to base station QQ 520 . Such procedures and functionalities may be known and practiced in the art. In certain embodiments, measurements may involve proprietary UE signaling facilitating host computer QQ 510 &#39;s measurements of throughput, propagation times, latency and the like. The measurements may be implemented in that software QQ 511  and QQ 531  causes messages to be transmitted, in particular empty or ‘dummy’ messages, using OTT connection QQ 550  while it monitors propagation times, errors etc. 
       FIG.  31   : Methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments. 
       FIG.  31    is a flowchart illustrating a method implemented in a communication system, in accordance with one embodiment. The communication system includes a host computer, a base station and a UE which may be those described with reference to  Figures QQ 4    and QQ 5 . For simplicity of the present disclosure, only drawing references to  FIG.  31    will be included in this section. In step QQ 610 , the host computer provides user data. In substep QQ 611  (which may be optional) of step QQ 610 , the host computer provides the user data by executing a host application. In step QQ 620 , the host computer initiates a transmission carrying the user data to the UE. In step QQ 630  (which may be optional), the base station transmits to the UE the user data which was carried in the transmission that the host computer initiated, in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure. In step QQ 640  (which may also be optional), the UE executes a client application associated with the host application executed by the host computer. 
       FIG.  32   : Methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments. 
       FIG.  32    is a flowchart illustrating a method implemented in a communication system, in accordance with one embodiment. The communication system includes a host computer, a base station and a UE which may be those described with reference to  Figures QQ 4    and QQ 5 . For simplicity of the present disclosure, only drawing references to  FIG.  32    will be included in this section. In step QQ 710  of the method, the host computer provides user data. In an optional substep (not shown) the host computer provides the user data by executing a host application. In step QQ 720 , the host computer initiates a transmission carrying the user data to the UE. The transmission may pass via the base station, in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure. In step QQ 730  (which may be optional), the UE receives the user data carried in the transmission. 
       FIG.  33   : Methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments. 
       FIG.  33    is a flowchart illustrating a method implemented in a communication system, in accordance with one embodiment. The communication system includes a host computer, a base station and a UE which may be those described with reference to  Figures QQ 4    and QQ 5 . For simplicity of the present disclosure, only drawing references to  FIG.  33    will be included in this section. In step QQ 810  (which may be optional), the UE receives input data provided by the host computer. Additionally or alternatively, in step QQ 820 , the UE provides user data. In substep QQ 821  (which may be optional) of step QQ 820 , the UE provides the user data by executing a client application. In substep QQ 811  (which may be optional) of step QQ 810 , the UE executes a client application which provides the user data in reaction to the received input data provided by the host computer. In providing the user data, the executed client application may further consider user input received from the user. Regardless of the specific manner in which the user data was provided, the UE initiates, in substep QQ 830  (which may be optional), transmission of the user data to the host computer. In step QQ 840  of the method, the host computer receives the user data transmitted from the UE, in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure. 
       FIG.  34   : Methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments. 
       FIG.  34    is a flowchart illustrating a method implemented in a communication system, in accordance with one embodiment. The communication system includes a host computer, a base station and a UE which may be those described with reference to  Figures QQ 4    and QQ 5 . For simplicity of the present disclosure, only drawing references to  FIG.  34    will be included in this section. In step QQ 910  (which may be optional), in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure, the base station receives user data from the UE. In step QQ 920  (which may be optional), the base station initiates transmission of the received user data to the host computer. In step QQ 930  (which may be optional), the host computer receives the user data carried in the transmission initiated by the base station. 
     Any appropriate steps, methods, features, functions, or benefits disclosed herein may be performed through one or more functional units or modules of one or more virtual apparatuses. Each virtual apparatus may comprise a number of these functional units. These functional units may be implemented via processing circuitry, which may include one or more microprocessor or microcontrollers, as well as other digital hardware, which may include digital signal processors (DSPs), special-purpose digital logic, and the like. The processing circuitry may be configured to execute program code stored in memory, which may include one or several types of memory such as read-only memory (ROM), random-access memory (RAM), cache memory, flash memory devices, optical storage devices, etc. Program code stored in memory includes program instructions for executing one or more telecommunications and/or data communications protocols as well as instructions for carrying out one or more of the techniques described herein. In some implementations, the processing circuitry may be used to cause the respective functional unit to perform corresponding functions according one or more embodiments. 
     The term unit may have conventional meaning in the field of electronics, electrical devices and/or electronic devices and may include, for example, electrical and/or electronic circuitry, devices, modules, processors, memories, logic solid state and/or discrete devices, computer programs or instructions for carrying out respective tasks, procedures, computations, outputs, and/or displaying functions, and so on, as such as those that are described herein.