Patent Publication Number: US-2023159442-A1

Title: Cellular energy compounds, compositions, and methods of use thereof

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to antiviral therapeutic compounds and related for their use in compositions for the treatment and/or the prevention of infection(s) caused by coronaviruses or influenza viruses. More specifically, the present invention generally relates to antiviral therapeutic compounds and related compositions useful in the treatment and/or general support during treatment of coronavirus infection or infection with the influenza virus. The antiviral therapeutic compounds are also useful prophylactically to strengthen or boost the immune system to allow the body to prevent infection caused by coronaviruses or influenza viruses. 
     The present invention also generally relates to novel compounds for use in boosting cellular energy production and optimizing cellular energy homeostasis. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Amino acids and modified amino acids have been of interest in the context of dietary supplements. In particular, betaine and creatine are generally recognized as safe and well-tolerated for use in dietary supplementation, mostly for weight loss and muscle recovery. Some of these amino acids and modified amino acids have critical roles in energy production/homeostasis; others have ancillary roles. For example, betaine (trimethylglycine) is a modified amino acid consisting of glycine with three methyl groups. Betaine is involved in liver function, cellular reproduction, and helping make carnitine. As such, it has at least an indirect role in cellular energy production. Betaine also metabolizes homocysteine and, thus, prevents its build-up in the body, which can harm blood vessels and contribute to heart disease, stroke, or circulation problems. 
     Creatine, which is an organic acid that is synthesized in the liver and kidneys from three amino acids: arginine, glycine, and methionine, plays a pivotal role in cellular energy homeostasis (Greenhaff P, J Nutr Biochem 8: 610-618 (1997); Williams M H et al., J Am Coll Nutr 17: 216-234 (1998)). In particular, homeostasis requires a balance between adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production (metabolism) and ATP consumption (synaptic activity). When ATP is transferring energy to cells, it breaks off one of its phosphates and becomes adenosine diphosphate (ADP). In the muscle, creatine converts into phosphocreatine by creatine kinase, which is utilized to increase the ATP pool during excess energy use. More specifically, the phosphocreatine donates a phosphate to the ADP and turns it back into ATP to once more be utilized as cellular energy. Thus, the more creatine in the system, the more ADP that can be recycled back into ATP, and the larger cellular reserve of ATP available to the cell for carrying out its functions. 
     The body is normally capable of producing enough of each of creatine and betaine to meets about half of its metabolic needs under usual conditions. The other half typically comes from diet. However, during times of physiologically stressful conditions such as stress, illness or disease, and/or anaerobic exercise, the biosynthesis of each or all of these nutrients may be inadequate. In other words, under certain conditions, the requirements for these conditionally essential nutrients may exceed the body&#39;s capacity to synthesize each of these nutrients. 
     One such condition is the infection with a virus. For example, coronaviruses are a family of viruses that, depending on the specific genomic sequence of the strain, cause illnesses ranging from the common cold, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The viral S (spike) proteins on the surface of the coronavirus have spike-like structures that allows them to attach to the surface of human cells. As recently experienced, SARS-CoV-2, which is the strain of coronavirus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is more contagious and appears to have a higher fatality rate than previous coronavirus strains. In fact, research has shown that SARS-CoV-2 binds 10 times more tightly to host cells than SARS-CoV. Some studies suggest that this is partly due to the fact that, unlike SARS-CoV and other coronaviruses in the family, the S protein on SARS-CoV-2 contains a site that recognizes and becomes activated by an enzyme called furin. Furin is a host-cell enzyme in a number of human organs, e.g., the liver, the lungs, and the small intestines, and, since this enzyme resides in so many of these human tissues, SARS-CoV-2 can potentially attack several organs at once. In SARS-CoV-2 infection, the spike protein receptor-binding domain binds to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Typically, the membrane-bound full-length ACE2 functions to protect against organ injury by cleavage and disposal of Angiotensin II, formation of Angiotensin 1-7, and degradation of des-arg BK 1-8. However, in SARS-CoV-2 infection, the host cell proteases then cleave the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein for successful entry into the cell and the circulating soluble ACE2 protein (unlike the membrane-bound full-length ACE2) is not able to enter the cell since it now lacks the transmembrane domain. A lack of ACE2 could lead to accumulation of BK (1-8) and an excessive level of proinflammatory peptides in the lungs. 
     Since inflammation is one of the most complicating and health-compromising aspects of coronavirus and influenza virus and hyper-inflammation may lead to exacerbated recovery and/or death, it would be advantageous to identify compounds and compositions that help to reduce the host cell inflammatory response in patients infected with coronaviruses and influenza viruses. In addition, it would be beneficial to identify compounds and compositions that help to reduce the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines that contribute to the process of inflammation when exposed to viral proteins. Moreover, it would be advantageous to identify compounds and compositions that provide increased immune support for patients infected with coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2, as well as influenza viruses. In this aspect, it would be beneficial to identify compounds and compositions that help to increase interferon gamma release in T cells when challenged with a virus. It would also be beneficial to use such compounds and compositions in a prophylactic manner. The present invention provides such antiviral therapeutic compounds and compositions. 
     In addition, it would be advantageous to build on the concept of direct (and indirect) cellular energy homeostasis with these known nutrients and identify safe and tolerable novel compounds that improve cellular energy production and/or optimize cellular energy homeostasis. Moreover, since studies indicate that creatine and betaine have significant and varied benefits to the body in addition to cellular energy, it would be beneficial to include such novel compounds in compositions that can be administered to an animal, including humans. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention is related to antiviral therapeutic compounds and compositions effective in preventing, treating, and/or enhancing or supporting the treatment of infection with coronavirus. In one embodiment, a composition having at least one of the following antiviral therapeutic compounds is administered to a patient infected with coronavirus: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     where A is a salt. In one embodiment, A is chloride, bromide, sulfate, or phosphate. In another embodiment, A is hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen sulfate, or hydrogen phosphate. In another embodiment, a composition having at least two of the above compounds is administered to a patient infected with coronavirus. The compositions may also be administered to a patient that has not yet been infected. 
     In another embodiment, a composition having the following antiviral therapeutic compound is administered to a patient infected with coronavirus: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     where A is a salt. In one embodiment, A is chloride, bromide, sulfate, or phosphate. In another embodiment, A is hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen sulfate, or hydrogen phosphate. In another embodiment, A is mesylate or tosylate. In yet another embodiment, A is succinate, tartrate, or acetate. The compositions may also be administered to a patient that has not yet been infected. 
     In another embodiment, a composition having at least one of the following antiviral therapeutic compounds is administered to a patient infected with coronavirus: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In another embodiment, a composition having at least two of the above compounds is administered to a patient infected with coronavirus. The compositions may also be administered to a patient that has not yet been infected. 
     The present invention is also directed to a method of treating coronavirus in a patient in need thereof, including administering to the patient an effective amount of a composition comprising at least one antiviral therapeutic compound, wherein the antiviral therapeutic compound comprises creatine cyclohexyl ester, creatine isopentyl ester, or combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic compound is present in the composition in an amount of about 50 percent or greater by weight of the composition. In another embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic compound is present in the composition in an amount of about 60 percent or greater by weight of the composition. The composition may be administered to the patient orally. In the alternative, the composition may be administered intravenously. 
     The present invention is also related to a method of treating coronavirus in a patient in need thereof, including administering to the patient an effective amount of at least one antiviral therapeutic compound, wherein the antiviral therapeutic compound is selected from the group consisting of creatine hydrochloride, ethyl (α-guanido-methyl) ethanoate, creatine cyclohexyl ester, creatine isopentyl ester, betaine cyclopentyl ester, and combinations thereof. The step of administering may include administering the antiviral therapeutic compound in an amount of about 400 mg/g to about 500 mg/g per dose. In one embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic compound is present in the composition in an amount of about 50 percent or greater by weight of the composition. In another embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic compound is present in the composition in an amount of about 60 percent or greater by weight of the composition. The composition may be administered to the patient orally. In the alternative, the composition may be administered intravenously. 
     The present invention is also related to a method of treating coronavirus in a patient in need thereof, including administering to the patient an effective amount of a composition including at least one antiviral therapeutic compound and at least one anti-inflammatory agent, wherein the antiviral therapeutic compound includes creatine cyclohexyl ester, creatine isopentyl ester, betaine cyclopentyl ester, or a combination thereof and wherein the anti-inflammatory agent includes ethyl (α-guanido-methyl) ethanoate, wherein the antiviral therapeutic compound is present in the composition in an amount of about 50 percent or greater by weight of the composition. In one embodiment, the composition is administered to the patient orally. In another embodiment, the composition is administered to the patient intravenously. In yet another embodiment, the composition comprises about 400 mg to about 800 mg of the antiviral therapeutic compound per dose and about 300 mg to about 600 mg of the anti-inflammatory agent per dose. 
     The present invention is also related to antiviral therapeutic compounds and compositions effective in preventing, treating, and/or enhancing or supporting the treatment of patients infected with influenza virus. In one embodiment, a composition having at least one of the following antiviral therapeutic compounds is administered to a patient infected with influenza virus: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     where A is a salt. In one embodiment, A is chloride, bromide, sulfate, or phosphate. In another embodiment, A is hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen sulfate, or hydrogen phosphate. In another embodiment, a composition having at least two of the above compounds is administered to a patient infected with influenza virus. The compositions may also be administered to a patient that has not yet been infected. 
     In another embodiment, a composition having the following antiviral therapeutic compound is administered to a patient infected with influenza virus: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     where A is a salt. In one embodiment, A is chloride, bromide, sulfate, or phosphate. In another embodiment, A is hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen sulfate, or hydrogen phosphate. In another embodiment, A is mesylate or tosylate. In yet another embodiment, A is succinate, tartrate, or acetate. The compositions may also be administered to a patient that has not yet been infected. 
     In another embodiment, a composition having at least one of the following antiviral therapeutic compounds is administered to a patient infected with influenza virus: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In another embodiment, a composition having at least two of the above compounds is administered to a patient infected with influenza virus. The compositions may also be administered to a patient that has not yet been infected. 
     In additional aspects, the present invention is related to a cellular energy compound having one of the following formulas: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     where A is a salt. In one embodiment, A is chloride, bromide, sulfate, or phosphate. In another embodiment, A is hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen sulfate, or hydrogen phosphate. In yet another embodiment, A is succinate, tartrate, or acetate. 
     In an embodiment, any one or more of the cellular energy compounds disclosed herein have a cell permeability that is greater than that of creatine monohydrate, creatine citrate salt, betaine hydrochloride, or a combination thereof. The cell permeability of the cellular energy compound can be at least five-fold greater than that of creatine monohydrate, creatine citrate salt, betaine hydrochloride, or a combination thereof. In certain embodiments, the cell permeability of the cellular energy compound comprises a flux per hour that is at least two times greater than that of creatine monohydrate, creatine citrate salt, betaine hydrochloride, or a combination thereof when measured in Madin Darby canine kidney (MDCK) monolayers. The cell permeability of the cellular energy compound can comprise a rate of permeation in Caco-2 monolayers that is at least twice that of creatine monohydrate, creatine citrate salt, betaine hydrochloride, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the cellular energy compound has a permeability coefficient that is greater than about 0.6×10-6 cm/s when assessed in Caco-2 monolayers. 
     In an embodiment, the cellular energy compound comprises: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     or a combination thereof; and the cellular energy compound exhibits increased cell penetration as compared to that of creatine monohydrate, creatine citrate salt, betaine hydrochloride, or a combination thereof. 
     In yet another embodiment, the cellular energy compound comprises: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     or a combination thereof; wherein the solubility of the cellular energy compound is greater than that of creatine monohydrate, betaine hydrochloride, or both. The cellular energy compound can comprise a solubility of at least about 150 mg/ml at 25° C. for a time period of about 1.5 hours. 
     In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a pharmaceutical composition for use in boosting cellular energy production. In various embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises (a) a cellular energy compound with any one or more of the following formulas: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein A comprises chloride, hydrogen chloride, bromide, hydrogen bromide, sulfate, hydrogen sulfate, phosphate, hydrogen phosphate, succinate, tartrate, or acetate; and (b) a pharmaceutical carrier. 
     In embodiments of the pharmaceutical composition, cell permeability of the cellular energy compound is greater than that of creatine monohydrate, creatine citrate salt, betaine hydrochloride, or a combination thereof. In certain pharmaceutical composition embodiments, the cell permeability of the cellular energy compound is at least five-fold greater than that of creatine monohydrate, creatine citrate salt, betaine hydrochloride, or a combination thereof. The cell permeability of the cellular energy compound can comprise a flux per hour that is at least two times greater than that of creatine monohydrate, creatine citrate salt, betaine hydrochloride, or a combination thereof when measured in Madin Darby canine kidney (MDCK) monolayers. In one pharmaceutical composition embodiment, the cell permeability of the cellular energy compound comprises a rate of permeation in Caco-2 monolayers that is at least twice that of creatine monohydrate, creatine citrate salt, betaine hydrochloride, or a combination thereof. The cellular energy compound used in one pharmaceutical composition embodiment comprises a permeability coefficient that is greater than about 0.6×10-6 cm/s when assessed in Caco-2 monolayers. 
     In an embodiment of the pharmaceutical composition, the cellular energy compound comprises: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     or a combination thereof, and the cellular energy compound exhibits increased cell penetration as compared to that of creatine monohydrate, creatine citrate salt, betaine hydrochloride, or a combination thereof. 
     In another pharmaceutical composition embodiment, the cellular energy compound comprises: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     or a combination thereof, and the solubility of the cellular energy compound is greater than that of creatine monohydrate, betaine hydrochloride, or both. The cellular energy compound can comprise a solubility of at least about 150 mg/ml at 25° C. for a time period of about 1.5 hours. 
     In yet another aspect, the invention is directed to a method of boosting cellular energy production and optimizing cellular energy homeostasis in a subject. The method can be directed to reducing cellular energy depletion in a subject during physiologically stressful conditions. In embodiments, any of the various methods disclosed herein comprise (a) administering an effective amount of a cellular energy compound to the subject, wherein the cellular energy compound comprises any one or more of the following formulas: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein A comprises chloride, hydrogen chloride, bromide, hydrogen bromide, sulfate, hydrogen sulfate, phosphate, hydrogen phosphate, succinate, tartrate, or acetate. In embodiments, the effective amount comprises an amount of the cellular energy compound that is sufficient to increase a mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate in a subject. 
     An additional aspect of the present disclosure includes administration of the cellular energy compounds to a subject in need of the beneficial effects of the cellular energy compounds of the invention. 
     Additional advantages of the disclosed compounds, compositions, and methods are set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will be understood from the description, or may be learned by practice of the disclosed compounds, compositions, and methods. The advantages of the disclosed compounds, compositions, and methods will be realized and attained by means of the elements and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention as claimed. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Further features and advantages can be ascertained from the following detailed description that is provided in connection with the drawings described below: 
         FIG.  1    is a graphical illustration showing the expression of inflammatory genes in response to exposure to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in the presence and absence of certain antiviral therapeutic compounds of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  2    is a graphical illustration showing the expression of inflammatory genes in response to exposure to SARS-CoV-2 nuclear capsid protein in the presence and absence of certain antiviral therapeutic compounds of the present disclosure; 
         FIGS.  3 A- 3 B  are graphical illustrations showing cytokine release following antigen challenge in SARS-CoV-2 T cells in the presence and absence of certain antiviral therapeutic compounds of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  4    is a graphical illustration showing oxygen consumption rate (OCR) for the mitochondrial spare respiratory capacity of transformed human B lymphoblastoid cells as measured via a seahorse plate-based-live-cell assay in the presence or absence of certain cellular energy compounds of the present disclosure; and 
         FIG.  5    is a graphical illustration showing creatine citrate permeability in Caco-2 and MDCK/MDR1 Monolayers. Permeability was determined in confluent monolayers using either 10, 100 or 1000 uM concentration of creatine citrate in the donor compartment. Permeability coefficients were determined from the slope from the linear portion of the % flux vs time curve. Values are mean of 3 monolayers. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention is directed to antiviral therapeutic compounds intended to reduce inflammatory responses in, provide immune support to, and increase survival of patients infected with coronavirus or influenza virus. The present invention is also directed to compositions including such antiviral therapeutic compounds and methods of administering compositions including such antiviral therapeutic compounds. 
     Without being bound to a particular theory, it is contemplated that the increased solubility and/or permeability of the antiviral therapeutic compounds disclosed herein to a patient optimize antiviral therapeutic production and/or homeostasis and, thus, allow the body to more effectively mount an immune defense against the virus. Similarly, the antiviral therapeutic compounds disclosed herein reduce the inflammatory response to the viral proteins. Moreover, administration of compositions including the antiviral therapeutic compounds is believed to generally provide the body with adequate energy to elicit a potent immune defense against the viruses. 
     Antiviral Therapeutic Compounds 
     In one embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic compounds of the present invention may be one of the following compounds: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     where A is a salt. In one embodiment, A is chloride, bromide, sulfate, or phosphate. In another embodiment, A is hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen sulfate, or hydrogen phosphate. For example, the antiviral therapeutic compounds may be a creatine isopentyl ester where A is hydrogen chloride as shown below: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In another embodiment, A is mesylate or tosylate. For example, the antiviral therapeutic compound may be a creatine cyclohexyl ester where A is tosylate as shown in the structure below: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In yet another embodiment, A is succinate, tartrate, or acetate. 
     In another embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic compound may be a betaine cyclopentyl ester having the following structure: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     where A is a salt. In one embodiment, A is chloride, bromide, sulfate, or phosphate. For example, in one embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic compound may be a betaine cyclopentyl ester where A is bromide as shown below: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In another embodiment, A is hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen sulfate, or hydrogen phosphate. In another embodiment, A is mesylate or tosylate. In yet another embodiment, A is succinate, tartrate, or acetate. 
     In still another embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic compounds include, but are not limited to, the following compounds: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Solubility/Permeability 
     Solubility and permeability are two important factors in the amount of a compound made available to an organism, otherwise known as bioavailability. Solubility refers to the amount of the compound that may be dissolved, whereas permeability refers to the ability of the compound to penetrate across a barrier, such as a membrane, cell wall, and the like. In embodiments, the barrier can comprise a biological barrier. In embodiments, permeability, as used herein, can refer to the ability the compounds to pass through a biological barrier via a passive diffusion process, which is governed by lipophilicity, the size of the compound, or a combination thereof. This passive permeability is in contrast to compounds crossing a biological barrier via a transport-mediated processes, which can be governed by ability of the compound to interact with the transport protein on the membrane. As discussed herein, the presently disclosed cellular energy compounds disclosed herein are able through the passive diffusion processes, which can be measured quantitively via the Log P value (as discussed below) or octanol-water partitioning coefficient. 
     The compounds of the present invention have (i) high aqueous solubility, (ii) improved cell permeability/penetration as compared to known creatine or betaine compounds, or (iii) both. In certain embodiments, the permeability of the cellular energy compounds disclosed herein is greater than that of creatine monohydrate and creatine citrate salt. 
     In fact, of the compounds disclosed herein, creatine hydrochloride, creatine mesylate, creatine ethyl ester hydrochloride, creatine amide ethyl ester, creatine amide tert butyl ester, ethyl (α-guanido-methyl) ethanoate, and creatine isopentyl ester possess solubility significantly greater than other forms of creatine such as creatine monohydrate. Likewise, betaine cyclopentyl ester has a solubility that is significantly greater than creatine monohydrate. In addition, betaine cyclopentyl ester has a solubility that is significantly greater than betaine hydrochloride. 
     In this aspect, the compounds of the present invention may have a ratio of solubility (relative to creatine monohydrate) of at least about 5. In one embodiment, the ratio of solubility relative to creatine monohydrate is about 8 or greater. In another embodiment, the compound has a ratio of solubility (relative to creatine monohydrate) of about 15 or greater. In yet another embodiment, the compound has a ratio of solubility (relative to creatine monohydrate) of about 20 or greater. In still another embodiment, the compound has a ratio of solubility (relative to creatine monohydrate) of about 25 or greater. 
     Likewise, betaine cyclopentyl ester has a ratio of solubility (relative to betaine hydrochloride) of at least about 5. In one embodiment, the ratio of solubility relative to betaine hydrochloride is about 8 or greater. In another embodiment, the compound has a ratio of solubility (relative to betaine hydrochloride) of about 15 or greater. In yet another embodiment, the compound has a ratio of solubility (relative to betaine hydrochloride) of about 20 or greater. In still another embodiment, the compound has a ratio of solubility (relative to betaine hydrochloride) of about 25 or greater. 
     In one embodiment, the compounds have an aqueous solubility of at least about 200 mg/ml at room temperature (25° C.) after a time period of about 1.5 hours. In another embodiment, the solubility of the compounds is at least about 300 mg/ml at 25° C. after about 1.5 hours. In yet another embodiment, the compounds have an aqueous solubility of at least about 400 mg/ml at 25° C. after about 1.5 hours. In still another embodiment, the compounds may possess an aqueous solubility at room temperature (25° C.) after a time period of about 1.5 hours of about 500 mg/mL or greater, and preferably of about 600 mg/mL or greater. 
     In another embodiment, the aqueous solubility of the compounds ranges from about 400 mg/ml to about 1000 mg/ml. In yet another embodiment, the compounds have an aqueous solubility of about 500 mg/ml to about 1000 mg/ml. In still another embodiment, the aqueous solubility of the compounds of the invention is at least about 650 mg/ml, preferably at least about 675 mg/ml. In yet another embodiment, the compounds have a solubility of at least about 700 mg/ml or greater at 25° after a time period of about 1.5 hours. 
     In addition, creatine cyclohexyl ester and the creatine derivatives based on fatty acid esters, propylene glycol, and glycerol laurates have improved cell penetration over that of creatine monohydrate. Without being bound by any particular theory, while these creatine derivatives may not have high aqueous solubility like those in the preceding discussion, each has more lipophilicity for better tissue and cell penetration that is not tied to a creatine transporter. In this aspect, creatine cyclohexyl ester, creatine glycerol laurate ester, creatine propylene glycol laurate ester, and combinations thereof have greater cell permeability than creatine monohydrate and creatine citrate salt. More specifically, it is contemplated that laboratory analysis performed in Madin Darby canine kidney (MDCK) monolayers show that flux per hour with creatine cyclohexyl ester, creatine glycerol laurate ester, creatine propylene glycol laurate ester, and combinations thereof is at least double that of creatine monohydrate. In other words, if 10% of the original amount of creatine monohydrate added to one side of the MDCK monolayer made it across to the other side in a 60-minute period, at least about 20% of the original amount of creatine cyclohexyl ester, creatine glycerol laurate ester, creatine propylene glycol laurate ester, or combinations thereof added to one side of the MDCK monolayer will make it across to the other side over the same time period. 
     Similar results are expected in a Caco-2 monolayer, which may be used as an in vitro model for intestinal absorption. For instance, permeability studies conducted in Caco-2 monolayers demonstrate that creatine monohydrate comprises an apparent permeability coefficient of about 0.12±0.004 10 −6  cm/s (see, e.g., Gufford, B., et al. pH-Dependent Stability of Creatine Ethyl Ester: Relevance to Oral Absorption. J Diet Suppl. 2013 September; 10(3): 241-251). Thus, in embodiments, the apparent permeability coefficient of any one or more of the various cellular energy compounds disclosed herein is greater than about 0.12±0.004 10 −6  cm/s when assessed in Caco-2 monolayers. In embodiments, any one or more of the cellular energy compounds disclosed herein comprise an apparent permeability coefficient of at least 0.6×10 −6  cm/s when assessed in Caco-2 monolayers. The apparent permeability coefficient of any one or more of the cellular energy compounds disclosed herein can be greater than about 1.2×10 −6  cm/s when assessed in Caco-2 monolayers. In certain embodiments, any one or more of the cellular energy compounds disclosed herein comprise an apparent permeability coefficient of greater than about 1.8×10 −6  cm/s when assessed in Caco-2 monolayers. The apparent permeability coefficient of any one or more of the cellular energy compounds disclosed herein can be up to about 2.0×10 −6  cm/s. In embodiments, the apparent permeability coefficient can be up to about 5.0×10 −6  cm/s, up to about 1×10 −5  cm/s, up to about 5×10 −5  cm/s. 
     In addition, permeability studies conducted in Caco-2 monolayers demonstrate that creatine citrate at a concentration of 10, 100, and 1000 uM in the donor compartment comprises a permeability coefficient of about 1.00×10 −5 , about 9.00×10 −6 , and about 6.00×10 −6 , respectively, see  FIG.  5   . Of note, the observed concentration dependency of the assessed permeability may be due to transporter mediated uptake. 
     The compounds of the present invention may also have high solubility, improved cell permeability over that of creatine monohydrate, or a combination thereof. In this aspect, certain compounds disclosed herein have a solubility of at least about 150 mg/ml at 25° C. for a time period of about 1.5 hours, at least a 5-fold greater cell permeability than creatine monohydrate, or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the compounds have a solubility of at least about 175 mg/ml at 25° C. for a time period of about 1.5 hours, at least a 10-fold greater cell permeability than creatine monohydrate, or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the compounds have a solubility of at least about 200 mg/ml at 25° C. for a time period of about 1.5 hours, at least a 15-fold greater cell permeability than creatine monohydrate, or a combination thereof. In this aspect, creatine ethyl ester hydrochloride and betaine cyclopentyl ester are examples of compounds that have higher solubility and improved cell permeability in accordance with the present invention. For example, solubility studies have shown that creatine ethyl ester hydrochloride has a solubility of greater than 200 mg/ml at 25° C. after 1.5 hours. In addition, studies have shown that creatine ethyl ester hydrochloride has a 15-fold greater permeability in Caco-2 monolayers than creatine monohydrate (see, e.g., Gufford, Brandon et al., J Diet Suppl. 2013 September; 10(3): 241-251). 
     Bioavailability 
     The compounds of the present invention are also expected to have good oral absorption properties. As used herein, the term “bioavailability” refers to the rate and amount of a substance that reaches the systemic circulation of a patient or subject following administration of the substance or form of the substance to the patient or subject. By definition, when a composition is administered intravenously, its bioavailability is 100 percent. However, when a composition is administered via other routes (such as orally), its bioavailability decreases (due to incomplete absorption and first-pass metabolism). More specifically, bioavailability is a measure of the ratio of the amount of substance “absorbed” from a test formulation to the amount “absorbed” after administration of a standard formulation. Frequently, the “standard formulation” used in assessing bioavailability is the aqueous solution of the substance, given intravenously. 
     Accordingly, bioavailability is one of the principal pharmacokinetic properties of substances and can be determined by evaluating, for example, the plasma or blood concentration-versus-time profile for a substance. Parameters useful in characterizing a plasma or blood concentration-versus-time curve include the area under the curve (AUC), the maximum concentration (C max ), and the time to maximum concentration (T max ). As used herein, the term “AUC” refers to the area under a curve representing the concentration of a compound or metabolite thereof in a biological fluid, e.g., plasma and blood, in a patient or subject as a function of time following administration of the compound to the patient or subject. The AUC may be determined by measuring the concentration of a compound or metabolite thereof in a biological fluid using methods such as liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS), at various time intervals, and calculating the area under the plasma concentration-versus-time curve. Suitable methods for calculating the AUC from a concentration-versus-time curve are well known in the art. C max  is the maximum concentration of a drug in the plasma or blood of a patient or subject following administration of a dose of the substance or form of the substance to the patient or subject. T max  is the time to the maximum concentration (C max ) of a substance in the plasma or blood of a patient or subject following administration of a dose of the substance or form of the substance to the patient or subject. 
     The amount of substance absorbed is taken as a measure of the ability of the formulation to deliver the substance to the sites of action. Obviously—depending on such factors as disintegration and dissolution properties of the dosage form, and the rate of biotransformation relative to the rate of absorption—dosage forms containing identical amounts of active substance may differ markedly in their abilities to make the substance available, and therefore, in their abilities to permit the substance to manifest its expected pharmacodynamic and therapeutic properties. The “amount absorbed” is conventionally measured by one of two criteria, either the area under the time-plasma concentration curve (AUC) or the total (cumulative) amount of the substance excreted in the urine following drug administration. A linear relationship exists between the AUC and dose when the fraction of the drug absorbed is independent of dose, and elimination rate (half-life) and volume of distribution are independent of dose and dosage form. However, when AUC is dependent on dose, as occurs when, for example, there is saturable absorption, significant metabolism, or poor solubility of the substance in the GI tract, a non-linear relationship exists between AUC and dose. 
     In order to compare the relative bioavailability of certain antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds and to correct for the slightly different doses administered with various forms due to the different molecular weights, the AUC plasma uptake values observed for the standard (here, creatine monohydrate) and each antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound are entered into the following equation to produce a ratio: 
     
       
         
           
             
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     Based on this relationship, the relative bioavailability of any of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds to creatine monohydrate is about 1.3 or greater, preferably about 1.5 or greater, and more preferably about 1.6 or greater. In one embodiment, the ratio is about 1.7 or greater. 
     In other words, the relative bioavailability of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds of the invention is at least about 30 percent greater than creatine monohydrate, preferably about 40 percent greater than creatine monohydrate, and more preferably about 50 percent greater than creatine monohydrate. In one embodiment, the bioavailability of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds of the invention is at least about 50 percent greater than bioavailability of creatine monohydrate. In another embodiment, the bioavailability of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds of the invention is at least about 65 percent greater than bioavailability of creatine monohydrate. In yet another embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds of the invention have a bioavailability of at least about 70 percent greater relative to creatine monohydrate. 
     Synthesis 
     The antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds of the present invention may be synthesized by any suitable method known to one of ordinary skill in the art. For example, in one embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound is creatine hydrochloride synthesized from hydrochloric acid (pKa—6) in accordance with any of the methods disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 8,354,450, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein. In another embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound is creatine mesylate synthesized from methane sulfonic acid (pKa—1.2). In still another embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound is creatine ethyl ester hydrochloride and is synthesized in accordance with the methods described in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2007/0203076, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein. 
     The compounds of the present invention may be synthesized by any suitable method known to one of ordinary skill in the art. Preparations of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds are preferably at least about 80 percent pure, preferably at least about 95 percent pure, more preferably at least about 97 percent pure, and even more preferably at least about 99 percent pure. The term “pure” as used herein refers to the lack of impurities in the preparation. 
     Composition 
     The antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds discussed above may be formulated into an antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy composition. In one embodiment, a composition made in accordance with the present invention includes at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound disclosed herein. For example, in one embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy composition includes creatine cyclohexyl ester, creatine isopentyl ester, creatine glycerol laurate ester, creatine propylene glycol laurate ester, creatine amide ethyl ester, creatine amide tert butyl ester, dicreatine glycerol ester, tricreatine glycerol ester, betaine cyclopentyl ester, or combinations thereof. 
     For example, a composition made in accordance with the present invention may include creatine cyclohexyl ester. In another aspect, a composition made in accordance with the present invention includes creatine isopentyl ester. In still another aspect, the composition includes betaine cyclopentyl ester. 
     In another embodiment, a composition made in accordance with the present invention includes at least one of creatine hydrochloride, creatine mesylate, ethyl (α-guanido-methyl) ethanoate (Alpha-GEE), creatine ethyl ester hydrochloride, or combinations thereof. For example, the compositions may include creatine hydrochloride. In another aspect, the compositions of the present invention include ethyl (α-guanido-methyl) ethanoate. Without being bound to any particular theory, the presence of ethyl (α-guanido-methyl) ethanoate in the compositions of the invention (based on at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound) provides an additional benefit of prevention and/or treatment for inflammation (along with the previously discussed benefits including boosting anti-viral immune activity). In particular, it is thought the hyper/systemic inflammation that accompanies severe cases of coronavirus can be prevented/controlled with a composition that includes ethyl (α-guanido-methyl) ethanoate alone or, as discussed in more detail below, with at least one other antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound disclosed herein. 
     For example, in this aspect, the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compositions made in accordance with the present invention may include one or more than one of the above-mentioned antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds. For example, the compositions of the invention may include two of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds. In certain embodiments, the compositions comprise at least two of the following: creatine cyclohexyl ester and creatine hydrochloride, creatine isopentyl ester and betaine cyclopentyl ester, and the like. In certain embodiments, the composition comprises at least two of the following: creatine cyclohexyl ester and creatine amide tert-butyl ester, creatine cyclohexyl ester, betaine cyclopentyl ester, and the like. In another embodiment, the compositions of the invention may include three of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds of the invention, e.g., a composition including creatine hydrochloride, creatine cyclohexyl ester, and creatine glycerol laurate ester. In one embodiment, the cellular energy compositions comprises creatine cyclohexyl ester, dicreatine glycerol ester, and creatine glycerol laurate ester. In yet another embodiment, the compositions of the invention may include creatine cyclohexyl ester, creatine isopentyl ester, and creatine hydrochloride. In other words, when a composition is made in accordance with the present invention, it can include any combination of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds of the invention disclosed herein. 
     In this aspect, a composition may include about 300 mg to about 1500 mg of a first antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound of the invention and about 300 mg to about 1500 mg of a second antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound per dose. In one embodiment, a composition may include about 300 mg to about 800 mg of a first antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound of the invention and about 350 mg to about 1200 mg of a second antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound per dose. In another embodiment, a composition may include about 500 mg to about 750 mg of a first antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound of the invention and about 400 mg to about 1200 mg of a second antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound per dose. In still another embodiment, a composition may include about 600 mg to about 750 mg of a first antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound of the invention and about 300 mg to about 500 mg of a second antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound. In yet another embodiment, a composition may include about 300 mg to about 1500 mg of a first antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound of the invention, about 300 mg to about 1500 mg of a second antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound, and about 300 mg to about 1500 mg of a third antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound per dose. For example, a composition may include about 300 mg to about 400 mg of a first antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound of the invention, about 900 mg to about 1200 mg of a second antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound, and about 150 mg to about 300 mg of a third antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound per dose. 
     The compositions of the present invention may also include other forms of creatine including, but not limited to, creatine esters, creatine pyruvate, creatine phosphate, creatine alpha-ketoglutarate, creatine citrate, and combinations thereof. 
     Moreover, the addition of other components may further enhance such compositions whether they include one or more of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds of the invention. For example, proteins, amino acid supplements, complex carbohydrates, D-ribose, fats, fibers, or combinations thereof may be included in the compositions of the invention along with the at least one of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds shown and discussed above. One such amino acid is glutamine—an α-amino acid found in the blood and muscle cells and considered a conditionally essential amino acid—maintains immune function by serving as the principle metabolic fuel for cells, acts as a precursor for protein synthesis, and along with cysteine and glycine, is involved in glutathione (GSH) synthesis. It also plays a supportive role during biochemical stress and sepsis. Thus, when the body is under stress, such as during intense exercise or illness, glutamine levels deplete, and more glutamine will be required by the body. 
     In one embodiment, the compositions of the invention may include glutamine or a salt thereof along with at least one of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds discussed above. In this aspect, the compositions of the invention may include at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound and a glutamine or glutamine salt. In another embodiment, the composition of the invention includes at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound and a glutamine salt. In particular, it is contemplated that the composition of the invention includes at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound and a glutamine salt that has a solubility of at least about 4 times greater than L-glutamine. In one embodiment, the composition of the invention includes at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound and a glutamine salt that has a solubility of at least about 5 times greater than L-glutamine. In another embodiment, the composition of the invention includes at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound and a glutamine salt that has a solubility of at least about 6 times greater than L-glutamine. In yet another embodiment, the composition of the invention includes at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound and glutamine hydrochloride (C 5 H 11 ClN 2 O 3 ) as generally represented by the formula below: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Without being bound by any particular theory, glutamine hydrochloride confers the additional benefit of increased solubility over L-glutamine and other forms of glutamine. 
     The compositions of the present invention may also include other forms of creatine including, but not limited to, creatine esters, creatine ethyl ester, creatine pyruvate, creatine phosphate, creatine alpha-ketoglutarate, creatine citrate, and combinations thereof along with at least one of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds shown and discussed above. In this aspect, the compositions of the invention may include at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound and a creatine ethyl ester, creatine ethyl ester salt, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the compositions of the invention include at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound and creatine pyruvate. In another embodiment, the compositions of the invention include at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound and creatine phosphate. In yet another embodiment, the compositions of the invention include at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound and creatine alpha-ketoglutarate. In still another embodiment, the compositions of the invention include at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound and creatine citrate. In yet another embodiment, the compositions of the invention include at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound and at least two other forms of creatine as discussed above. 
     In another embodiment, the compositions of the present invention include at least one of the following: homeopathic antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds, co-medications, nutraceuticals, plant extracts, herbal preparations including, cosmetic agents, or combinations thereof. In addition, the compositions of the invention may include vitamins such as vitamins C, D, and E. 
     The compositions of the present invention may further include at least one of any suitable auxiliaries including, but not limited to, diluents, binders, stabilizers, buffers, salts, lipophilic solvents, preservatives, adjuvants or the like. Pharmaceutically acceptable auxiliaries are preferred. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers may be routinely selected that are suitable for the mode of administration, solubility and/or stability of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound. 
     Pharmaceutical excipients and additives useful in the present invention may also include, but are not limited to, proteins, peptides, amino acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Suitable protein excipients include serum albumin such as human serum albumin (HSA), recombinant human albumin (rHA), gelatin, casein, and combinations thereof. Suitable amino acid components include, but are not limited to alanine, glycine, arginine, betaine, histidine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, cysteine, lysine, leucine, isoleucine, valine, methionine, phenylalanine, aspartame, and combinations thereof. Suitable carbohydrate excipients include, but are not limited to monosaccharides such as fructose, maltose, galactose, glucose, D-mannose, sorbose, and combinations thereof; disaccharides, such as lactose, sucrose, trehalose, cellobiose, and combinations thereof polysaccharides, such as raffinose, melezitose, maltodextrins, dextrans, starches, and combinations thereof; and alditols, such as mannitol, xylitol, maltitol, lactitol, xylitol, sorbitol (glucitol), myoinositol, and combinations thereof. 
     The composition may also contain pharmaceutically acceptable carriers such as coloring agents, emulsifying agents, suspending agents, ethanol, EDTA or similar chelating agents, citrate buffer, water, and combinations thereof. Moreover, the compositions may include polymeric excipients/additives such as polyvinylpyrrolidones, ficolls, dextrates, polyethylene glycols, flavoring agents, anti-microbial agents, sweeteners, antioxidants, anti-static agents, surfactants, lipids, steroids, and chelating agents. 
     In addition, the compositions may also include a buffer or a pH adjusting agent. Suitable buffers include, but are not limited to, organic acid salts such as salts of citric acid, ascorbic acid, gluconic acid, carbonic acid, tartaric acid, succinic acid, acetic acid, or phthalic acid; Tris, tromethamine hydrochloride, or phosphate buffers. 
     The compositions of the invention include an effective amount of at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound of the invention of about 40 percent by weight to about 100 percent by weight of the composition. 
     As used herein, the term “effective amount” refers to an amount of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound necessary or sufficient to elicit the desired biological or medical response, including the amount of a compound that, when administered to a subject for treating a disease or condition, is sufficient to affect such treatment for the disease. The effective amount will vary depending on the particular antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound, and characteristics of the subject to be treated, such as age, weight, etc. The effective amount can include a range of amounts. As is understood in the art, an effective amount may be in one or more doses, i.e., a single dose or multiple doses may be required to achieve the desired treatment endpoint. An effective amount may be considered in the context of administering one or more therapeutic agents, and a single agent may be considered to be given in an effective amount if, in conjunction with one or more other agents, a desirable or beneficial result may be or is achieved. 
     As used herein, “effective amount” can also refer to the amount needed to achieve a particular objective. In one embodiment, the “effective amount” refers to the amount of the compound necessary or sufficient to boost cellular energy production or achieve cellular energy homeostasis. In an embodiment, an effective amount means an amount of a cellular energy compound that is effective to prevent, alleviate, or ameliorate symptoms of insufficient cellular energy or prolong the cellular energy of the subject being treated. The effective amount can refer to an amount of any one or more of the cellular energy compounds disclosed herein sufficient to prevent, alleviate, or ameliorate a state of deficient cellular energy when provided to a subject prior to, during, or after a physiological stressful condition. 
     In embodiments, a “physiological stressful condition,” a “physiological stressor” and the like, as used herein, can refer to a period of mental, physical, or biological stress, that results in an increased demand for cellular energy. Exemplary physiological stressors include, but are not limited to, mental stress, illness, disease, intervals of increased physical activity (such as exercise), or a combination thereof. 
     In embodiments, the “effective amount” is an amount of any one or more of the cellular compounds or pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein sufficient to increase the availability of cellular ATP to meet energy consumption demands during a physiological stressor. An “effective amount” can refer to an amount of any one or more of the cellular compounds or pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein that is sufficient to increase the conversion of ADP to ATP to meet cellular demands during a physiological stressful condition. 
     The effective amount can refer to an amount of any one or more of the cellular compounds or pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein that is sufficient to increase the oxygen consumption rate in the mitochondria of a subject. In one embodiment, the “effective amount” refers to an amount of any one or more of the cellular compounds or pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein that is sufficient to increase the stamina or resilience of a subject during a physiological stressor. 
     Determination of a therapeutically effective amount is well within the capability of those skilled in the art, especially in light of the detailed disclosure provided herein. 
     For any preparation used in the disclosed methods, the effective amount or dose can be estimated initially from in vitro and cell culture assays. For example, a dose can be formulated in animal models to achieve a desired circulating concentration or titer of the cellular energy compound. Such information can be used to more accurately determine useful doses in humans. 
     In one embodiment, an effective amount of the at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound in the composition ranges from about 50 percent by weight to about 100 percent by weight of the composition. In another embodiment, an effective amount of the at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound in the composition ranges from about 60 percent by weight to about 100 percent by weight of the composition. In yet another embodiment, an effective amount of the at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound in the composition ranges from about 70 percent by weight to about 100 percent by weight of the composition. In still another embodiment, an effective amount of the at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound in the composition ranges from about 80 percent by weight to about 100 percent by weight of the composition. 
     In this aspect, the compositions of the invention may include an effective amount of at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound of about 200 mg/g to about 1000 mg/g per dose. In another embodiment, the effective amount of at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy ranges from about 300 mg/g to about 1000 mg/g per dose. In still another embodiment, the effective amount of at least one antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound ranges from about 500 mg/g to about 1000 mg/g per dose. 
     An effective dose may include the about 500 mg to about 1500 mg per 100 pounds body weight of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound(s). For example, in one embodiment, the effective dose may be from about 1500 mg to about 3000 mg of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound(s) for a subject that weighs up to 250 pounds. In one embodiment, the effective dose of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound(s) is from about 2250 mg to about 4500 mg for a subject that weighs over 250 pounds. In another embodiment, the effective dose of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound(s) is from about 750 mg to about 1500 mg per 100 pounds body weight. Depending on the method of administration (discussed in greater detail below), strength of the patient or subject&#39;s immune system, and/or components of the composition, the effective dose may be administered once per day or more than one time per day. In one embodiment, the effective dose of the cellular energy compounds is between about 2 to about 5 grams, daily. The effective dose in the presence of a physiological stressor or for subjects with a deficiency in cellular energy can be up to about about 10 grams per day. 
     Methods of Administration 
     The compositions may be administered to and used for preventing infection with coronavirus or influenza virus. In addition, compositions including the antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention may be used for treating a patient or subject infected with a strain of coronavirus or influenza virus. As used herein, “patient” or “subject” may include, but is not limited to, an animal, a plant, a bacterium, and any other organism. The patient or subject may be a vertebrate, more specifically a mammal (e.g., a human or a non-human such as a canine, a pet, a farm animal, a non-human primate, a cat, a guinea pig, a rodent, and the like), a fish, a bird. a reptile, or an amphibian. The patient or subject may be an invertebrate, more specifically an arthropod (e.g., insects and crustaceans). 
     More specifically, in one embodiment, the compositions of the invention may be administered to a patient infected with SARS-CoV-2. In another embodiment, the compositions of the invention may be administered to a patient infected with SARS. In yet another embodiment, the compositions of the invention may be administered to a patient infected with influenza virus. In still another embodiment, the compositions of the invention may be used prophylactically to prevent infection with coronavirus. In yet another embodiment, the compositions of the invention may be used prophylactically to prevent infection with influenza virus. 
     As used herein, “treatment” or “treating” is an approach for obtaining beneficial or desired results. For purposes of the present disclosure, beneficial or desired results include, but are not limited to, alleviation of a symptom and/or diminishment of the extent of a symptom associated with a disease or condition. In one embodiment, “treatment” or “treating” includes one or more of the following: a) inhibiting the disease or condition (e.g., decreasing one or more symptoms resulting from the disease or condition, and/or diminishing the extent of the disease or condition); b) slowing or arresting the development of one or more symptoms associated with the disease or condition (e.g., stabilizing the disease or condition, delaying the worsening or progression of the disease or condition); and c) relieving the disease or condition, e.g., causing the regression of clinical symptoms, ameliorating the disease state, delaying the progression of the disease, increasing the quality of life, and/or prolonging survival. 
     The terms “prevention”, “prevent”, and “preventing” as used herein refer to a course of action (such as administering an antiviral therapeutic compound or related composition of the present invention) initiated prior to the onset of a clinical manifestation of infection or condition so as to prevent or reduce such clinical manifestation of the infection or condition. Such preventing need not be absolute to be useful. 
     A dose comprising an effective amount of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound may be administered once or twice daily. In another embodiment, the effective amount of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound may be administered multiple doses in a day, e.g., two to four doses. For example, in one embodiment, an effective amount of the antiviral compound may be administered in three separate doses per day. In another embodiment, an effective amount of the antiviral compound may be administered in four separate doses per day. In this aspect, if the daily effective amount is from about 500 mg to about 1500 mg of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound(s) per 100 pounds of body weight, a patient or subject up to 250 pounds may receive about 1500 mg to about 3000 mg of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound(s) in a single daily dose or receive about 750 mg to about 1500 mg of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound(s) in two separate doses in the same day. In another embodiment, if the daily effective amount is from about 500 to about 1500 mg of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound(s) per 100 pounds of body weight, a patient or subject up to 250 pounds may receive about 500 mg to 1000 mg of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound(s) in three separate doses in the same day. In yet another embodiment, if the daily effective amount is from about 500 to about 1500 mg of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound(s) per 100 pounds of body weight, a patient or subject up to 250 pounds may receive about 375 mg to 750 mg of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compound(s) in four separate doses in the same day. 
     The methods of administration of the composition described herein to the patient or subject may vary. However, in one embodiment, the composition of the invention is administered to the patient or subject intravenously. In fact, intravenous administration is particularly suitable for those antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds of the present invention that have high solubility, e.g., creatine isopentyl ester, betaine cyclopentyl ester, creatine amide ethyl ester, creatine amide tert butyl ester, dicreatine glycerol ester, tricreatine glycerol ester, creatine hydrochloride, creatine mesylate, Alpha-GEE, creatine ethyl ester hydrochloride, and combinations thereof. Similarly, intravenous administration is suitable when the composition of the present invention is co-administered with other immunotherapies and antivirals (discussed in more detail below) that are already administered intravenously. In one embodiment, the composition of the invention is administered to a patient or subject infected with coronavirus intravenously for up to 5 days. In another embodiment, the composition of the invention is administered to a patient infected with coronavirus intravenously for up to 10 days. In another embodiment, the composition of the invention is administered to a patient infected with coronavirus intravenously for up to 15 days. 
     In another embodiment, the composition of the present invention is administered to the patient or subject orally. For example, the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy composition may be encapsulated or tableted for a solid oral dosage form. In one embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy composition may be administered in the form of a pill, tablet, capsule, or gel capsule. In the alternative, the composition of the present invention may also be provided orally to the patient or subject in a liquid, gel, or powder form. For example, the composition may be in the form of a powder suitable for mixing with water or other liquids. In this aspect, the composition may be added into a beverage or may be provided as an ingredient premixed in a beverage. The composition may also be administered as an elixir or as a solution formulation. In still another embodiment, the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy composition may be administered in the form of a functional food, for example, a shake or bar. In yet another embodiment, the composition of the present invention is administered to the patient or subject in the form of a nasal spray or nasal drops or nasal irrigation fluid or wash. 
     As used herein, “co-administration” includes administration of compositions disclosed herein before or after administration of unit dosages of one or more additional therapeutic agents, for example, administration of the composition disclosed herein within seconds, minutes, or hours of the administration of one or more additional therapeutic agents. For example, in some embodiments, the composition of the present invention is administered first, followed within seconds or minutes by administration of a unit dose of one or more additional therapeutic agents. Alternatively, in other embodiments, a unit dose of one or more additional therapeutic agents is administered first, followed by administration of the composition of the present invention. In some embodiments, the composition of the present invention is administered first, followed, after a period of hours (e.g., 1-12 hours), by administration of a unit dose of one or more additional therapeutic agents. In other embodiments, a unit dose of one or more additional therapeutic agents is administered first, followed, after a period of hours (e.g., 1-12 hours), by administration of the composition of the present invention. Suitable doses of any co-administered compounds may optionally be lowered due to the combined action (e.g., additive or synergistic effects) of the compounds. 
     The composition of the invention may be used in connection with other types of immunotherapies, prodrugs, antivirals, and other adjunctive therapies. In fact, the compositions of the invention may be co-administered with immunotherapies such as monoclonal antibodies directed against key inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6r) including, but not limited to, tocilizumab and sarilumab. In another embodiment, the compositions of the invention may be co-administered with prodrugs, antivirals and antiretrovirals, such as remdesivir and favipiravir, umifenovir, and lopinavir/ritonavir, respectively. In addition, the compositions of the invention may be co-administered with protease inhibitors or integrase strand transfer inhibitors having SARS-CoV-2 activity. In yet another embodiment, the composition of the invention may be co-administered with chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine. In still another embodiment, the compositions of the invention may be co-administered with corticosteroids. In yet another embodiment, the compositions of the invention may be co-administered with convalescent plasma, hyperimmune immunoglobulins, or combinations thereof. 
     Antiviral Effects 
     The antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention (and compositions including the antiviral compounds of the invention) promote increased cytokine release in the presence of the viral proteins. More specifically, interferon gamma release from T cells exposed to a viral protein is increased when an antiviral therapeutic compound of the invention is present. 
     In this aspect, the presence of at least one antiviral therapeutic compound of the invention may increase the release of interferon gamma (human) (IFNg) by at least about 10 percent when T cells are exposed to 100 ng/ml to 1000 ng/ml of viral protein. In one embodiment, the presence of an antiviral therapeutic compound of the invention increases release of IFNg by about 20 percent to 75 percent (as compared to the release of IFNg in T cells exposed to 10 ng/ml to 1000 ng/ml of viral protein without any antiviral therapeutic compound). In another embodiment, the presence of an antiviral therapeutic compound of the invention increases release of IFNg by about 25 percent to 70 percent (as compared to the release of IFNg in T cells exposed to viral protein without any antiviral therapeutic compound). In yet another embodiment, the presence of an antiviral therapeutic compound of the invention increases release of IFNg by about 35 percent to 70 percent (as compared to the release of IFNg in T cells exposed to viral protein without any antiviral therapeutic compound). 
     For example, the presence of betaine cyclopentyl ester may increase the release of interferon gamma (human) (IFNg) by at least about 20 percent when T cells are exposed to 100 ng/ml to 1000 ng/ml of viral protein. In one embodiment, the presence of betaine cyclopentyl ester increases release of IFNg by about 20 percent to 70 percent (as compared to the release of IFNg in T cells exposed to 10 ng/ml to 1000 ng/ml of viral protein without any antiviral therapeutic compound). In another embodiment, the presence of a betaine cyclopentyl ester increases release of IFNg by about 30 percent to 60 percent (as compared to the release of IFNg in T cells exposed to viral protein without any antiviral therapeutic compound). In yet another embodiment, the presence of betaine cyclopentyl ester increases release of IFNg by about 35 percent to 55 percent (as compared to the release of IFNg in T cells exposed to viral protein without any antiviral therapeutic compound). 
     Similarly, the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester may increase the release of interferon gamma (human) (IFNg) by at least about 20 percent when T cells are exposed to 100 ng/ml to 1000 ng/ml of viral protein. In one embodiment, the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester increases release of IFNg by about 20 percent to 70 percent (as compared to the release of IFNg in T cells exposed to 10 ng/ml to 1000 ng/ml of viral protein without any antiviral therapeutic compound). In another embodiment, the presence of a creatine cyclohexyl ester increases release of IFNg by about 30 percent to 60 percent (as compared to the release of IFNg in T cells exposed to viral protein without any antiviral therapeutic compound). In yet another embodiment, the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester increases release of IFNg by about 35 percent to 55 percent (as compared to the release of IFNg in T cells exposed to viral protein without any antiviral therapeutic compound). 
     Likewise, the presence of creatine isopentyl ester may increase the release of interferon gamma (human) (IFNg) by at least about 40 percent when T cells are exposed to 100 ng/ml to 1000 ng/ml of viral protein. In one embodiment, the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester increases release of IFNg by about 40 percent to 75 percent (as compared to the release of IFNg in T cells exposed to 10 ng/ml to 1000 ng/ml of viral protein without any antiviral therapeutic compound). In another embodiment, the presence of a creatine isopentyl ester increases release of IFNg by about 45 percent to 70 percent (as compared to the release of IFNg in T cells exposed to viral protein without any antiviral therapeutic compound). In yet another embodiment, the presence of creatine isopentyl ester increases release of IFNg by about 60 percent to 70 percent (as compared to the release of IFNg in T cells exposed to viral protein without any antiviral therapeutic compound). 
     The antiviral compounds of the invention (and compositions including the antiviral compounds of the invention) also reduce the proinflammatory response that occurs in the presence of the viral proteins. More specifically, proinflammatory markers may have reduced expression in the presence of a viral protein when an antiviral compound of the invention is also present (as compared to the expression with no antiviral compound). 
     In this aspect, interleukin-6 (IL-6), a proinflammatory cytokine, may have at least about 10 percent reduced expression to a viral protein when an antiviral compound of the invention is present. In one embodiment, IL-6 has at least about 20 percent reduced expression to a viral protein when an antiviral compound of the invention is present. In another embodiment, the presence of the antiviral compound reduces expression of IL-6 when a viral protein is present by about 30 percent or more. In yet another embodiment, IL-6 has at least about 40 percent reduced expression to a viral protein when an antiviral compound of the invention is present. In still another embodiment, the presence of the antiviral compound reduces expression of IL-6 when a viral protein is present by about 60 percent or more. 
     Similarly, interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), another proinflammatory cytokine, may have at least about 40 percent reduced expression to a viral protein when an antiviral compound of the invention is present. In one embodiment, IL-1β has at least about 50 percent reduced expression to a viral protein when an antiviral compound of the invention is present. In another embodiment, the presence of the antiviral compound reduces expression of IL-1β when a viral protein is present by about 60 percent or more. In yet another embodiment, IL-1β has at least about 70 percent reduced expression to a viral protein when an antiviral compound of the invention is present. In still another embodiment, the presence of the antiviral compound reduces expression of IL-1β when a viral protein is present by about 80 percent or more. 
     While TNF, another proinflammatory cytokine, may not experience much expression when in the presence of a viral protein, that expression may still be reduced when an antiviral compound of the invention is also present. For example, TNF may have at least about 5 percent reduced expression to a viral protein when an antiviral compound of the invention is present. In one embodiment, TNF has at least about 10 percent reduced expression to a viral protein when an antiviral compound of the invention is present. In another embodiment, the presence of the antiviral compound reduces expression of TNF when a viral protein is present by about 15 percent or more. 
     In this same aspect, CXCL1 and CXCL2, chemokines that attract inflammatory cells, may have at least about 20 percent reduced expression to a viral protein when an antiviral compound of the invention is present. In one embodiment, CXCL1 and/or CXCL2 have at least about 30 percent reduced expression to a viral protein when an antiviral compound of the invention is present. In another embodiment, the presence of the antiviral compound reduces expression of CXCL1 and/or CXCL2 when a viral protein is present by about 60 percent or more. In yet another embodiment, CXCL1 and/or CXCL2 have at least about 80 percent reduced expression to a viral protein when an antiviral compound of the invention is present. In still another embodiment, the presence of the antiviral compound reduces expression of CXCL1 and/or CXCL2 when a viral protein is present by about 80 percent or more. 
     Cellular Energy Compounds 
     In another aspect, the present invention is directed to compounds intended to increase cellular energy production and/or optimize cellular energy homeostasis. The present invention is also directed to compositions including such cellular energy compounds and methods of administering compositions including such cellular energy compounds. 
     Without being bound to a particular theory, it is contemplated that the solubility, permeability, or a combination thereof of the novel compounds help a subject to achieve cellular energy homeostasis under times of stress or illness. In addition, the compounds of the present invention are believed to be an improvement over currently known amino acid or modified amino acid supplements in terms of optimizing cellular energy production and/or homeostasis. Moreover, administration of compositions including the disclosed cellular energy compounds are believed to bolster cellular energy and generally support the body&#39;s immune system. 
     The novel compounds of the present invention include, but are not limited to, the following structures: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     where A is a salt. In one embodiment, A is chloride, bromide, sulfate, or phosphate. In another embodiment, A is hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen sulfate, or hydrogen phosphate. For example, the cellular energy compounds can comprise a creatine isopentyl ester where A is hydrogen chloride as shown below: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In another embodiment, A is mesylate or tosylate. For example, the cellular energy compound may be a creatine cyclohexyl ester where A is tosylate as shown in the structure below: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In yet another embodiment, A is succinate, tartrate, or acetate. 
     In another embodiment, the cellular energy compound may be a betaine cyclopentyl ester having the following structure: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     where A is a salt. In one embodiment, A is chloride, bromide, sulfate, or phosphate. For example, in one embodiment, the cellular energy compound may be a betaine cyclopentyl ester where A is bromide as shown below: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In another embodiment, A is hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen sulfate, or hydrogen phosphate. In another embodiment, A is mesylate or tosylate. In yet another embodiment, A is succinate, tartrate, or acetate. 
     In still another embodiment, the cellular energy compounds include, but are not limited to, the following compounds: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In other exemplary embodiments, the cellular energy compounds include, but are not limited to, the following compounds: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Methods of Cellular Energy Composition Administration 
     The cellular energy compositions of the invention may be administered to any subject that can experience the beneficial effects of the cellular energy compounds of the invention. 
     In one embodiment, the compositions of the present disclosure may be administered to a subject in need of increased cellular energy production. The compositions disclosed herein can be administered a subject in need of improved cellular energy homeostasis. In another embodiment, the compositions of the invention may be used to prophylactically prevent a period of inadequate cellular energy production in a subject. In such embodiments, at least one cellular energy compound can be provided to a subject immediately prior to, during, or after a period of physiological stress. 
     A dose comprising an effective amount of the cellular energy compound may be administered once or twice daily. In another embodiment, the effective amount of the cellular energy compound may be administered multiple doses in a day, e.g., two to four doses. For example, in one embodiment, an effective amount of the cellular energy compound may be administered in three separate doses per day. In another embodiment, an effective amount of the cellular energy compound may be administered in four separate doses per day. In this aspect, if the daily effective amount is from about 500 mg to about 1500 mg of the cellular energy compound(s) per 100 pounds of body weight, a subject or subject or patient or subject up to 250 pounds may receive about 1500 mg to about 3000 mg of the cellular energy compound(s) in a single daily dose or receive about 750 mg to about 1500 mg of the cellular energy compound(s) in two separate doses in the same day. In another embodiment, if the daily effective amount is from about 500 to about 1500 mg of the cellular energy compound(s) per 100 pounds of body weight, a subject or patient or subject up to 250 pounds may receive about 500 mg to 1000 mg of the cellular energy compound(s) in three separate doses in the same day. In yet another embodiment, if the daily effective amount is from about 500 to about 1500 mg of the cellular energy compound(s) per 100 pounds of body weight, a subject or patient or subject up to 250 pounds may receive about 375 mg to 750 mg of the cellular energy compound(s) in four separate doses in the same day. 
     The methods of administration of the composition described herein to the subject may vary. However, in one embodiment, the composition of the present invention is administered to the subject orally. For example, the cellular energy composition may be encapsulated or tableted for a solid oral dosage form. In one embodiment, the cellular energy composition may be administered in the form of a pill, tablet, capsule, or gel capsule. 
     The cellular energy composition of the present invention may also be provided in a liquid, gel, or powder form. For example, the composition may be in the form of a powder suitable for mixing with water or other liquids. These formulations may be added into a beverage or may be provided as an ingredient premixed in a beverage. The cellular energy composition may also be administered as an elixir or as a solution formulation. In another embodiment, the composition may be administered in the form of a nutritional or dietary supplement. In still another embodiment, the cellular energy composition may be administered in the form of a functional food, for example, a protein bar. Moreover, the compositions of the invention may be administered intravenously. 
     Suitable routes of administration can, for example, include oral, rectal, transmucosal, especially transnasal, intestinal or parenteral delivery, including intramuscular, subcutaneous and intramedullary injections as well as intrathecal, direct intraventricular, intravenous, intraperitoneal, intranasal, or intraocular injections. Alternately, one can administer a preparation in a local rather than systemic manner. 
     Pharmaceutical compositions can be manufactured by processes well known in the art, e.g., by means of conventional mixing, dissolving, granulating, dragee-making, levigating, emulsifying, encapsulating, entrapping or lyophilizing processes. 
     Pharmaceutical compositions for use in the disclosed methods thus can be formulated in conventional manner using one or more physiologically acceptable carriers comprising excipients and auxiliaries, which facilitate processing of the cellular energy compounds into preparations which, can be used pharmaceutically. Proper formulation is dependent upon the route of administration chosen. 
     For injection, the cellular energy compounds can be formulated in aqueous solutions, preferably in physiologically compatible buffers such as Hank&#39;s solution, Ringer&#39;s solution, or physiological salt buffer. For transmucosal administration, penetrants appropriate to the barrier to be permeated are used in the formulation. Such penetrants are generally known in the art. 
     For oral administration, the compounds can be formulated readily by combining the cellular energy compounds with pharmaceutically acceptable carriers well known in the art. Such carriers enable the compounds to be formulated as tablets, pills, dragees, capsules, liquids, gels, syrups, slurries, suspensions, and the like, for oral ingestion by a subject or patient. 
     Pharmacological preparations for oral use can be made using a solid excipient, optionally grinding the resulting mixture, and processing the mixture of granules, after adding suitable auxiliaries if desired, to obtain tablets or dragee cores. Suitable excipients are, in particular, fillers such as sugars, including lactose, sucrose, mannitol, or sorbitol; cellulose preparations such as, for example, maize starch, wheat starch, rice starch, potato starch, gelatin, gum tragacanth, methyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose, sodium carbomethylcellulose; and/or physiologically acceptable polymers such as polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). If desired, disintegrating agents can be added, such as cross-linked polyvinyl pyrrolidone, agar, or alginic acid or a salt thereof such as sodium alginate. 
     Dragee cores are provided with suitable coatings. For this purpose, concentrated sugar solutions can be used which may optionally contain gum arabic, talc, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, carbopol gel, polyethylene glycol, titanium dioxide, lacquer solutions and suitable organic solvents or solvent mixtures. Dyestuffs or pigments can be added to the tablets or dragee coatings for identification or to characterize different combinations of cellular energy compound doses. 
     Pharmaceutical compositions, which can be used orally, include push-fit capsules made of gelatin as well as soft, sealed capsules made of gelatin and a plasticizer, such as glycerol or sorbitol. The push-fit capsules can contain the cellular energy compounds in admixture with filler such as lactose, binders such as starches, lubricants such as talc or magnesium stearate and, optionally, stabilizers. In soft capsules, the cellular energy compounds can be dissolved or suspended in suitable liquids, such as fatty oils, liquid paraffin, or liquid polyethylene glycols. In addition, stabilizers can be added. All formulations for oral administration should be in dosages suitable for the chosen route of administration. 
     For buccal administration, the compositions can take the form of tablets or lozenges formulated in conventional manner. 
     For administration by nasal inhalation, the cellular energy compounds can be conveniently delivered in the form of an aerosol spray presentation from a pressurized pack or a nebulizer with the use of a suitable propellant, e.g. dichlorodifluoromethane, trichlorofluoromethane, dichloro-tetrafluoroethane or carbon dioxide. In the case of a pressurized aerosol, the dosage unit can be determined by providing a valve to deliver a metered amount. Capsules and cartridges of, e.g., gelatin for use in a dispenser can be formulated containing a powder mix of the compound and a suitable powder base such as lactose or starch. 
     The preparations described herein can be formulated for parenteral administration, e.g., by bolus injection or continuous infusion. Formulations for injection can be presented in unit dosage form, e.g., in ampoules or in multidose containers with optionally, an added preservative. The compositions can be suspensions, solutions or emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles, and can contain formulatory agents such as suspending, stabilizing and/or dispersing agents. 
     Pharmaceutical compositions for parenteral administration include aqueous solutions of the cellular energy compounds in water-soluble form. Additionally, suspensions of the cellular energy compounds can be prepared as appropriate oily or water-based injection suspensions. Suitable lipophilic solvents or vehicles include fatty oils such as sesame oil, or synthetic fatty acids esters such as ethyl oleate, triglycerides or liposomes. Aqueous injection suspensions can contain substances, which increase the viscosity of the suspension, such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, sorbitol or dextran. Optionally, the suspension can also contain suitable stabilizers or agents which increase the solubility of the cellular energy compounds to allow for the preparation of highly concentrated solutions. 
     Alternatively, the cellular energy compounds can be in powder form for constitution with a suitable vehicle, e.g., sterile, pyrogen-free water-based solution, before use. 
     The preparations can also be formulated in rectal compositions such as suppositories or retention enemas, using, e.g., conventional suppository bases such as cocoa butter or other glycerides. 
     EXAMPLES 
     The following non-limiting examples are merely illustrative of the preferred embodiments of the present invention, and are not to be construed as limiting the invention, the scope of which is defined by the appended claims. 
     Example 1: Solubility Determination 
     The saturated solubility of several antiviral therapeutic compounds of the present invention in deionized water was determined by adding increasing amounts to 5 ml of solvent in screw-capped glass bottles placed in a shaking water bath at 25° C. After 1.5 hour, the saturated solutions were vortexed and 2-ml aliquots removed and centrifuged in microcentrifuge tubes at 11,000 rpm for 5 min. Concentrations were analyzed by HPLC by diluting 500 μL of supernatant with mobile phase (500 μL). The mean±standard deviation of the saturation solubility for each antiviral therapeutic compound is calculated from the corresponding standard curves. 
     As shown in Table 1 below, the solubility of betaine cyclopentyl ester, creatine amide ethyl ester, and creatine isopentyl ester is significantly higher than creatine monohydrate. In the embodiment used to generate the data in Table, 1, the salt (A) that is combined with betaine cyclopentyl ester is Br. While not shown, betaine cyclopentyl ester has an aqueous solubility significantly greater than betaine hydrochloride. As understood by one of skill in the art, the solubility of betaine hydrochloride is similar to that of creatine monohydrate. And, while creatine cyclohexyl ester appears to have a solubility similar to creatine monohydrate, as discussed above, the lipophilicity of this compound may provide for better tissue and cell penetration. Without being bound by any particular theory, since the salt used in this particular creatine isopentyl ester, i.e., the tosylate, is not a particularly strong counter ion, the use of HCl or Br salts in place of the tosylate may result in higher solubility. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Aqueous Solubility Assessments 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Control 
                 Betaine 
                 Creatine 
                 Creatine 
                 Creatine 
               
               
                   
                 (Creatine 
                 Cyclopentyl 
                 Cyclohexyl 
                 Amide 
                 Isopentyl 
               
               
                   
                 Monohydrate) 
                 Ester 
                 Ester 
                 Ethyl Ester 
                 Ester 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 MW (g/mol) 
                 149.7 
                 266 
                 385 
                 233 
                 238 
               
               
                 Solubility (mg/ml) 
                 21.0 ± 1.9 
                 &gt;600 
                 15-20 
                 &gt;600 
                 &gt;600 
               
               
                 Ratio (relative to CM) 
                  1.0 
                 &gt;29 
                 0.71 
                 &gt;29 
                 &gt;29 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 2: Caco-2 Cell Permeability Assay 
     Caco-2 cells are seeded onto collagen-coated Transwell polycarbonate membrane inserts (12-mm diameter; 1-μm pore size) (Fisher Scientific, Mississauga, ON) at a density of 60,000 cells/cm 2 . The cells are grown in DMEM supplemented with 10 percent fetal bovine serum and maintained in 5 percent CO 2  environment. Cells are cultured for a period of 18-21 days, after which confluent monolayers are used for permeability studies. 
     To evaluate the permeability of the antiviral therapeutic or cellular energy compounds, the culture media is removed from the cells and replaced with Tyrode&#39;s buffer consisting of 136-mM NaCl, 2.6-mM KCl, 1.8-mM CaCl 2 ), 1-mM MgCl 2 , 0.36-mM NaH2PO 4 , 5.56-mM D-Glucose, and 5-mM HEPES at pH 7.4. After a 30-min pre-incubation period, Tyrode&#39;s buffer is removed from the apical compartment and replaced with 0.5 ml of Tyrode&#39;s buffer containing each of the antiviral cellular energy therapeutic compounds (10 mM) (pH 7.4 and 37° C.). 50 μL samples are removed from the apical compartment at the start and conclusion of the permeability experiment. 100 μL samples are removed from the basolateral compartment at 0, 15, 30, 60, and 90 min. Passage from the apical to basolateral compartments is analyzed using HPLC. Permeability coefficients are determined based on the following equation: 
     
       
         
           
             
               P 
               
                 a 
                 ⁢ 
                 p 
                 ⁢ 
                 p 
               
             
             = 
             
               ( 
               
                 
                   
                     d 
                     ⁢ 
                     Q 
                   
                   
                     d 
                     ⁢ 
                     T 
                   
                 
                 
                   
                     C 
                     0 
                   
                   × 
                   A 
                 
               
               ) 
             
           
         
       
     
     where dQ/dt is the rate of permeation of the antiviral therapeutic cellular energy compound across the cells, C 0  is the donor concentration at time zero and A is the area of the cell monolayer. 
     Example 3: Antiviral Therapeutic or Cellular Energy Compositions 
     Several example compositions are provided below: 
                     TABLE 2                  Example Compositions                                         Ingredient   Ex A   Ex B   Ex C   Ex D   Ex E   Ex F                                                     Antiviral therapeutic   700    mg    600 mg    600 mg    600 mg   800 mg   1000 mg       Compound/Complex                                   Alpha-GEE   400    mg   1200 mg   1200 mg   —   —   —                                         Glutamine HCl   —   —   2000 mg   2000 mg   —   2000 mg                                             Vitamin D   25    mcg   —   —   —   —   —                                         Calcium citrate   —    100 mg    100 mg    100 mg   100 mg    100 mg       Magnesium glyconate   —    10 mg    10 mg   —   —   —                                             Zinc citrate   12    mg   —   —   —   —   —                                         Potassium chloride   —    175 mg    175 mg    175 mg   175 mg    175 mg       Sodium chloride   —    250 mg    250 mg    250 mg   —   —       BCAA Complex   —   5000 mg   5000 mg   5000 mg   —   —                                             Selenium   30    mcg   —   —   —   —   —       Black Elderberry   150    mcg   —   —   —   —   —       Extract                                   Green Tea Extract   50    mg   —   —   —   —   —                    
The antiviral therapeutic compound may include one or more antiviral therapeutic compounds disclosed herein or one or more antiviral therapeutic compounds and another form of creatine. Example A is administered once a day with a serving size of 2 capsules. Examples B-F are administered once a day by mixing one or two scoops with 8-12 ounces of water or other liquid suitable for ingestion.
 
     Example 4: Effect of Compounds on Host Cell Inflammatory Response to SARS-CoV-2 Proteins 
     Calu-3 (human airway epithelial cell line) host cells were seeded onto collagen-coated Transwell polycarbonate membrane inserts (12-mm diameter; 1-μm pore size) (Fisher Scientific, Winnipeg, MB) at a density of 60,000 cells/cm 2 . The cells were grown in DMEM supplemented with 10 percent fetal bovine serum and maintained in 5 percent CO 2  environment. Cells were grown to confluency, after which confluent monolayers were treated with 0.5 μg/ml of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (SPK) or 0.5 μg/ml of SARS-CoV-2 nuclear capsid protein (NUC) with or without 320 μM of certain antiviral compounds of the present invention. 
     Cells were collected and prepared for gene expression of IL6, TNF, CXCL-1, and CXCL-2 using qRT-PCR. 
     As shown in  FIG.  1   , the expression of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-6 after exposure to SPK when none of the antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present is about 140 percent over that of the media control. The presence of Alpha-GEE and creatine hydrochloride reduce the expression of IL-6 in Calu-3 cells by about 40 percent and 50 percent, respectively (as compared to the expression of IL-6 when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). The presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) and creatine isopentyl ester (V09) reduces the expression by about 100 percent and 90 percent, respectively (as compared to the expression of IL-6 when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). In other words, the expression of IL-6 after 24-hr exposure to the spike protein in the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) is less than about 30 percent of the expression when no antiviral therapeutic compound of the present invention is present. Similarly, expression of IL-6 after 24-hr exposure to the spike protein in the presence of creatine isopentyl ester (V09) is less than about 35 percent of the expression when no antiviral therapeutic compound of the present invention is present. 
     The expression of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β after exposure to SPK when none of the antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present is about 120 percent over that of the media control. The presence of Alpha-GEE and creatine hydrochloride reduce the expression of IL-1β in Calu-3 cells by about 75 percent and 50 percent, respectively (as compared to the expression of IL-1β when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). The presence of betaine cyclopentyl ester (V05), creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) and creatine isopentyl ester (V09) reduces the expression by about 50 percent, 100 percent, and 80 percent, respectively (as compared to the expression of IL-1β when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). In other words, the expression of IL-1β after 24-hr exposure to the spike protein in the presence of creatine hydrochloride and betaine cyclopentyl ester (V05) is less than about 60 percent of the expression when no antiviral therapeutic compound of the present invention is present. Similarly, expression of IL-1β after 24-hr exposure to the spike protein in the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) is less than about 20 percent of the expression when no antiviral therapeutic compound of the present invention is present. Likewise, expression of IL-1β after 24-hr exposure to the spike protein in the presence of creatine isopentyl ester (V09) is less than about 35 percent of the expression when no antiviral therapeutic compound of the present invention is present. 
     The expression of the proinflammatory cytokine TNF after exposure to SPK when none of the antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present is only about 40 percent over that of the media control. While creatine hydrochloride and betaine cyclopentyl ester (V05) slightly reduces the expression of TNF in Calu-3 cells (as compared to the expression of TNF when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present), the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) and creatine isopentyl ester (V09) reduces the expression by about 30 percent and 20 percent, respectively (as compared to the expression of TNF when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). In other words, the expression of TNF after 24-hr exposure to the spike protein in the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) and creatine isopentyl ester (V09) is less than about 50 percent of the expression when no antiviral therapeutic compound of the present invention is present. In fact, the expression of TNF after 24-hr exposure to the spike protein in the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) is less than about 30 percent of the expression when no antiviral therapeutic compound of the present invention is present. 
     The expression of CXCL1 and CXCL2 after exposure to SPK when no antiviral therapeutic compounds are present is about 120 and 140 percent, respectively. Alpha-GEE reduces this expression by about 60 percent and 70 percent, respectively (as compared to the expression of CXCL1 and CXCL2 when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). Creatine hydrochloride reduces the expression of CXCL1 by about 40 percent. Betaine cyclopentyl ester reduces the expression of CXCL1 and CXCL2 by about 30 percent and 50 percent, respectively (as compared to the expression of CXCL1 and CXCL2 when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). As with the other genes that were examined, the most profound reduction in the expression of CXCL1 and CXCL2 occurred in the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) and creatine isopentyl ester (V09). In particular, in the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) or creatine isopentyl ester (V09), expression of CXCL1 was less than about 25 percent of the expression of CXCL1 or CXCL2 when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention were present. 
     As shown in  FIG.  2   , the expression of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-6 after exposure to NUC when none of the antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present is about 125 percent over that of the media control. The presence of Alpha-GEE reduce the expression of IL-6 in Calu-3 cells by about 20 percent (as compared to the expression of IL-6 when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). The presence of creatine hydrochloride and betaine cyclopentyl ester (V05) reduces the expression by about 60 percent (as compared to the expression of IL-6 when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). The presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) and creatine isopentyl ester (V09) reduces the expression by about 45 percent and 75 percent, respectively (as compared to the expression of IL-6 when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). In other words, the expression of IL-6 after 24-hr exposure to the NUC protein in the presence of betaine cyclopentyl ester (V07) is less than about 55 percent of the expression when no antiviral therapeutic compound of the present invention is present. Similarly, expression of IL-6 after 24-hr exposure to the NUC protein in the presence of creatine isopentyl ester (V09) is about 40 percent or less of the expression when no antiviral therapeutic compound of the present invention is present. 
     The expression of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β after exposure to NUC when none of the antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present is about 120 percent over that of the media control. The presence of Alpha-GEE and creatine hydrochloride reduce the expression of IL-1β in Calu-3 cells by about 40 percent and 55 percent, respectively (as compared to the expression of IL-1β when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). The presence of betaine cyclopentyl ester (V05), creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) and creatine isopentyl ester (V09) reduces the expression by about 100 percent, 70 percent, and 70 percent, respectively (as compared to the expression of IL-1β when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). In other words, the expression of IL-1β after 24-hr exposure to the NUC protein in the presence of betaine cyclopentyl ester (V05) is less than about 20 percent of the expression when no antiviral therapeutic compound of the present invention is present. Similarly, expression of IL-1β after 24-hr exposure to the NUC protein in the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) and creatine isopentyl ester (V09) is less than about 45 percent of the expression when no antiviral therapeutic compound of the present invention is present. 
     The expression of the proinflammatory cytokine TNF when none of the antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present is less than about 60 percent over that of the media control. Creatine hydrochloride, creatine cyclohexyl ester and creatine isopentyl ester reduce the expression of TNF in Calu-3 cells by about 25 percent (as compared to the expression of TNF when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). Betaine cyclopentyl ester reduces the expression of TNF in Calu-3 cells by about 45 percent (as compared to the expression of TNF when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). In other words, the expression of TNF after 24-hr exposure to the NUC protein in the presence of betaine cyclopentyl ester (V05) is less than about 20 percent of the expression when no antiviral therapeutic compound of the present invention is present. Similarly, expression of TNF after 24-hr exposure to the NUC protein in the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) and creatine isopentyl ester (V09) is less than about 35 percent of the expression when no antiviral therapeutic compound of the present invention is present. 
     The expression of CXCL1 and CXCL2 when no antiviral therapeutic compounds are present is about 110 and 120 percent, respectively. Alpha-GEE and creatine hydrochloride reduces the expression of CXCL1 by about 30 percent (as compared to the expression of CXCL1 when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). Creatine hydrochloride reduces the expression of CXCL2 by about 25 to 30 percent. Betaine cyclopentyl ester reduces the expression of CXCL1 and CXCL2 by about 85 percent and 95 percent, respectively (as compared to the expression of CXCL1 and CXCL2 when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). In the presence of creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07) or creatine isopentyl ester (V09), expression of CXCL1 and CXCL2 reduced by at least about 60-70 percent (as compared to the expression of CXCL1 and CXCL2 when no antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention are present). 
     Example 5: Effect of Compounds on T-Cell Response to Spike Peptide 
     To evaluate the effect of the antiviral therapeutic compounds on T-cells, 40,000 T cells were plated in a 96-well plate in the presence of 40,000 T2 cells (a B-LCL expressing HLA-A*0201). The cells were exposed to media, increasing concentrations of KLPDDFTGCV, a peptide that corresponds to the Spike protein (position 424-433) of the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, and certain antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention. More specifically, Alpha-GEE, creatine hydrochloride, betaine cyclopentyl ester (V05), creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07), and creatine isopentyl ester (V09) were examined. 
       FIGS.  3 A and  3 B  show that release of IFNg from T cells in the presence of Alpha-GEE, creatine hydrochloride, betaine cyclopentyl ester (V05), creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07), and creatine isopentyl ester (V09) was increased over the control (media alone without any antiviral therapeutic compounds of the invention). 
     Although the present invention has been described with reference to particular embodiments, it will be understood to those skilled in the art that the invention is capable of a variety of alternative embodiments within the spirit of the appended claims. For example, the present invention is also contemplated for use prophylactically as a preventative or as treatment or support for treatment of cold viruses. 
     Example 6: Seahorse Analysis of Mitochondrial Function 
     Mitochondria are intracellular organelles that have an important role in cellular energetics. Cellular respiration is the process by which the cell converts biochemical nutrients like glucose into ATP. The process consumes oxygen and, in the process of forming ATP, generates CO2 and water. Thus, cellular respiration is crucial for ATP production and cellular energy. Examination of the various components of cellular respiration in the mitochondria can be performed using the Agilent® Seahorse assay. The assay measures oxygen consumption in mitochondria under certain conditions to determine basal and maximum respiration as well as the spare respiratory capacity of the mitochondria. The Seahorse plate-based-live-cell assay can measure oxygen consumption rate (OCR) within the mitochondria in real time. In embodiments, cells are placed into the wells of the assay plate and incubated for 24 hours. The media is then replaced with assay buffer and assessment of oxygen consumption is performed in the assay buffer under basal (non-stimulated) conditions and following inhibition of ATP synthesis. In embodiments, inhibition of ATP synthesis is performed through addition of an ATP synthase inhibitor, such as oligomycin, to the assay buffer. Maximal cell respiration can be determined by addition of FCCP (carbonylcyanide-p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone), an agent that uncouples the electron transport system in the mitochondria. The difference in oxygen consumption under basal conditions and maximal respiration conditions represents the spare respiratory capacity, the oxygen consumption rate for which is shown in  FIG.  4   . More specifically, creatine hydrochloride, betaine cyclopentyl ester (V05), creatine cyclohexyl ester (V07), creatine amide ethyl ester (V08), and creatine isopentyl ester (V09) were examined. 
     For certain cellular energy compounds, we determined the spare respiratory capacity of transformed human B lymphoblastoid cells following 24-hr exposure to media alone or media containing the various cellular energy compounds (320 uM). The lymphoblast cells (B-LCL; Charles River Laboratories®) were seeded at a density of 100,000 cells/well. Following 24-hr culture in 5% CO2 incubator, cells were placed into the Aligent® XF analyzer and OCR was determined under the various conditions described above. In the case of the creatine and betaine esters there was a statistically significant increase in the spare respiratory capacity of the lymphoblasts compared to control conditions (media only). As the spare respiratory capacity is critical for maintaining mitochondrial function under maximal stress conditions, these studies demonstrate the utility of the compounds in augmenting cellular energetics. The studies we preformed were done in triplicate and represent the mean+/−standard error of the mean. 
     Example 7: Chemical Structure-Based Prediction of Physicochemical Properties of Cellular Energy Compounds 
     Certain physicochemical properties of compounds can be projected based on the compound&#39;s chemical structures using pharmacokinetic parameter prediction methods. For instance, in this example, physicochemical properties for the cellular energy compounds disclosed herein were determined using the SwissADME server (www.swissadme.ch/) (as discussed in Daina, A., Michielin, O., and Zoete, V. (2017) SwissADME: A Free Web Tool to Evaluate Pharmacokinetics, Drug-Likeness and Medicinal Chemistry Friendliness of Small Molecules,  Scientific Reports  7, 42717). One property examined was permeability, which can be predicted as a function of lipophilicity using W LOG P. In embodiments, the more negative a compound&#39;s W LOG P, the less lipophilic (and more hydrophilic) a compound will be, and the more positive a compound&#39;s W LOG P, the more lipophilic (and less hydrophilic) a compound will be. Therefore, a positive W LOG P indicates that the associated compound is permeable and will passively penetrate a biological barrier. Thus more lipophilic compounds, such as the cellular energy compounds disclosed herein, are less dependent on transporter expression for tissue accumulation. Thus, such compounds can be readily delivered to cells that do not have as many transporters for uptake. Examples of such cells include, but are not limited to, blood cells and immune cells. 
     As shown in Table 3 below, each of betaine cyclopentyl ester, creatine tert-butyl ester, creatine cyclohexyl ester, and creatine isopentyl ester have a Log P that is higher than that of creatine monohydrate and betaine hydrochloride. Thus, each of these compounds are predicted to have greater cellular permeability than creatine monohydrate, betaine hydrochloride, or both. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 SwissADME analysis of Cellular Energy Compound Permeability 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 GI 
                 LogP 
               
               
                 Chemical Name 
                 MW 
                 SALT FORM 
                 SMILES 
                 Permeable 
                 (WLOGP) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Betaine cyclopentyl ester 
                 266.18 
                 bromide 
                 O═C(OC1CCCC1)C[N+](C)(C)C 
                 Yes 
                 1.18 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Creatine tert-butyl ester 
                 223.7 
                 hydrochloride 
                 O═C(OC(C)(C)C)CN(C)C(N)═N 
                 Yes 
                 0.15 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Creatine cyclohexyl ester 
                 385.48 
                 tosylate 
                 O═C(OC1CCCCC1)CN(C)C(N)═N 
                 Yes 
                 0.69 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Creatine isopentyl ester 
                 201.27 
                 hydrochloride 
                 O═C(OCCC(C)C)CN(C)C(N)═N 
                 Yes 
                 0.4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Creatine amide ethyl ester 
                 252.7 
                 hydrochloride 
                 O═C(NCC(OCC)═O)CN(C)C(N)═N 
                 Yes 
                 −1.51 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Creatine monohydrate 
                   
                   
                   
                 Yes 
                 −1.17 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Betaine 
                 135 
                 hydrate 
                 C[N+1(C)(C)CC(═O)O.[OH—] 
                 Yes 
                 −0.4