Patent Publication Number: US-2010112037-A1

Title: S1p receptor agonists for the treatment of cerebral malaria

Description:
This application claims priority to U.S. provisional application No. 61/109,991, filed Oct. 31, 2008, and U.S. provisional application 61/229,970, filed Jul. 30, 2009, the entireties of which are incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     1. FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     This application is directed to methods of treating, managing, and/or preventing cerebral malaria, and compositions useful therein. 
     2. BACKGROUND 
     2.1. Cerebral Malaria 
     More than two million people, most of whom are African children, die each year of malaria. Golenser, J., et al.,  Int. J. Parasitology  36:583-593, 583 (2006). Eradication of the disease “has been hampered by the development of  Plasmodium  (especially  Plasmodium falciparum , the most abundant and dangerous causative species) resistant to currently available anti-malarial drugs.” Id. 
     One of the most severe complications of  P. falciparum  infection is cerebral malaria (CM), which is expressed in about 7 percent of  P. falciparum  malaria cases. CM manifests as coma (Blantyre coma scale ≦2 or Glasgow coma scale ≦8),  P. falciparum  on blood smear, and no other known cause for coma. John, C. C., et al.,  Pediatrics  122:e92-e99 (2008). CM affects an estimated 785,000 children in sub-Saharan Africa every year, with an average mortality rate of 18.6 percent. Golenser at 586; John at e93. A recent study found that one in four children who survive CM suffer long-term cognitive impairment. John, id. 
     Although the pathogenesis of CM is unclear, a simplified explanation is that the adherence “to endothelial cells and the sequestration of parasitized erythrocytes and immune cells in brain capillaries cause an inflammatory process and the release of other neurotoxic molecules.” Golenser at 584. It is possible to treat some CM cases with anti-malaria drugs. Id. at 586. But there is an “irreversible stage after which the patient dies, despite massive anti-parasitic treatment.” Id. Thus, a number of adjunctive treatments have been suggested, some of which have shown promise, but many of which have not. See, id. at 586-591. 
     2.2. S1P Pathway 
     Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a bioactive molecule with potent effects on multiple organ systems. Saba, J. D. and Hla, T.  Circ. Res.  94:724-734 (2004). The compound binds with low affinity to five related G-protein coupled receptors, S1P1-5, formerly termed endothelial differentiation gene (EDG) receptor-1, -5, -3, -6, and -8, respectively. Brinkmann, V.,  Pharmacol . &amp;  Therapeutics  115:84-105, 85 (2007). The receptor subtypes S1P1, S1P2, and S1P3 are widely expressed in the cardiovascular system. Id. at 85-86. S1P1 is the dominant receptor on lymphocytes, and regulates their egress from secondary lymphatic organs. Id. 
     Numerous agonists of the S1P receptors have been reported and proposed as potential therapies in diseases that include host-versus-graft disease, rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis (MS). The S1P1 agonist FTY720 (fingolimod) in particular has been extensively studied, and is currently in clinical trials for the treatment of MS. Id. at 95-100. 
     It appears possible to treat some diseases by affecting other parts of the S1P pathway, as well. For example, an inhibitor of the enzyme S1P lyase, which catalyzes the cleavage of S1P into ethanolamine phosphate and a long-chain aldehyde, is effective in rheumatoid arthritis models, and is currently in clinical trials. Oravecz, T. et al., “Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Lyase is a Potential Therapeutic Target in Autoimmune Diseases Including Rheumatoid Arthritis,” Presentation 1833, American College of Rheumatology Scientific Meeting (San Francisco, Oct. 28, 2008); Pappas, C., et al., “LX2931: A Potential Small Molecule Treatment for Autoimmune Disorders,” Presentation 351, American College of Rheumatology Scientific Meeting (San Francisco, Oct. 26, 2008). See also U.S. patent application publication no. 2007/0208063; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/038,872. 
     3. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention encompasses methods treating, managing, and/or preventing cerebral malaria, which comprise administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically or prophylactically effective amount of an S1P receptor antagonist. In some methods, the S1P receptor antagonist is administered adjunctively with one or more additional active agents. 
     This invention also encompasses pharmaceutical compositions useful in the treatment, management, and/or prevention of CM. 
    
    
     
       4. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
       Certain aspects of this invention can be understood with reference to the attached figures: 
         FIG. 1  shows the effect of FTY720 on the survival of mice as compared to vehicle control in the cerebral malaria model described below in the Examples. 
         FIG. 2  shows the effect of topical and transdermal administration of FTY720 on the white blood cell, neutrophil and lymphocyte counts of mice, measured six hours after administration. P values (Student&#39;s t test) relative to the vehicle control are shown above each histogram. 
     
    
    
     5. DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     This invention is directed to the use of S1P receptor agonists for the treatment, management and/or prevention of cerebral malaria (CM). The invention is based, in part, on Applicants&#39; discovery that CM may be treated by modulating the S1P pathway. For example, Applicants have discovered that both agonizing the S1P receptor and inhibiting S1P lyase can provide protection against CM in the well-established murine model of the disease. See, e.g., U.S. provisional application No. 61/109,991, filed Oct. 31, 2008, U.S. provisional application 61/229,970, filed Jul. 30, 2009, and U.S. provisional application No. 61/109,982, filed Oct. 31, 2009. 
     5.1. DEFINITIONS 
     Unless otherwise indicated, the terms “manage,” “managing” and “management” encompass preventing the recurrence of the specified disease or disorder in a patient who has already suffered from the disease or disorder, and/or lengthening the time that a patient who has suffered from the disease or disorder remains in remission. The terms encompass modulating the threshold, development and/or duration of the disease or disorder, or changing the way that a patient responds to the disease or disorder. 
     Unless otherwise indicated, the terms “prevent,” “preventing” and “prevention” contemplate an action that occurs before a patient begins to suffer from the specified disease or disorder, which inhibits or reduces the severity of the disease or disorder. In other words, the terms encompass prophylaxis. 
     Unless otherwise indicated, a “prophylactically effective amount” of a compound is an amount sufficient to prevent a disease or condition, or one or more symptoms associated with the disease or condition, or prevent its recurrence. A prophylactically effective amount of a compound means an amount of therapeutic agent, alone or in combination with other agents, which provides a prophylactic benefit in the prevention of the disease. The term “prophylactically effective amount” can encompass an amount that improves overall prophylaxis or enhances the prophylactic efficacy of another prophylactic agent. 
     Unless otherwise indicated, a “therapeutically effective amount” of a compound is an amount sufficient to provide a therapeutic benefit in the treatment or management of a disease or condition, or to delay or minimize one or more symptoms associated with the disease or condition. A therapeutically effective amount of a compound means an amount of therapeutic agent, alone or in combination with other therapies, which provides a therapeutic benefit in the treatment or management of the disease or condition. The term “therapeutically effective amount” can encompass an amount that improves overall therapy, reduces or avoids symptoms or causes of a disease or condition, or enhances the therapeutic efficacy of another therapeutic agent. 
     Unless otherwise indicated, the terms “treat,” “treating” and “treatment” contemplate an action that occurs while a patient is suffering from the specified disease or disorder, which reduces the severity of the disease or disorder, or retards or slows the progression of the disease or disorder. 
     Unless otherwise indicated, the term “include” has the same meaning as “include, but are not limited to,” and the term “includes” has the same meaning as “includes, but is not limited to.” Similarly, the term “such as” has the same meaning as the term “such as, but not limited to.” 
     Unless otherwise indicated, the terms used in a description of a chemical genus taken from another cited patent or patent application are to be construed the same way as they are in that other patent or patent application. 
     It should be noted that a chemical moiety that forms part of a larger compound may be described herein using a name commonly accorded it when it exists as a single molecule or a name commonly accorded its radical. For example, the terms “pyridine” and “pyridyl” are accorded the same meaning when used to describe a moiety attached to other chemical moieties. Thus, the two phrases “XOH, wherein X is pyridyl” and “XOH, wherein X is pyridine” are accorded the same meaning, and encompass the compounds pyridin-2-ol, pyridin-3-ol and pyridin-4-ol. 
     It should also be noted that if the stereochemistry of a structure or a portion of a structure is not indicated with, for example, bold or dashed lines, the structure or the portion of the structure is to be interpreted as encompassing all stereoisomers of it. Moreover, any atom shown in a drawing with unsatisfied valences is assumed to be attached to enough hydrogen atoms to satisfy the valences. In addition, chemical bonds depicted with one solid line parallel to one dashed line encompass both single and double (e.g., aromatic) bonds, if valences permit. 
     5.2. S1P RECEPTOR AGONISTS 
     This invention encompasses compositions comprising, and methods of using, S1P receptor agonists. S1P receptor agonists are compounds that agonize one or more sphingosine-1 phosphate receptors. Preferred compounds are agonists of the S1P1 receptor. 
     Particular S1P receptor agonists include compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,604,229 to Fujita et al. These agonists include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein Re is a phenylalkyl wherein the alkyl moiety is a straight- or branched chain having 6 to 20 carbon atoms; a phenylalkyl which may be substituted by a straight- or branched chain C6-C20 alkyl optionally substituted by halogen, a straight- or branched chain C6-C20 alkoxy optionally substituted by halogen, a straight- or branched chain C6-C20 alkenyloxy, phenylalkoxy, halophenylalkoxy, phenylalkoxyalkyl, phenoxyalkoxy or phenoxyalkyl; a cycloalkylalkyl wherein the alkyl moiety is a straight- or branched chain having 6 to 20 carbon atoms; a cycloalkylalkyl substituted by a straight- or branched chain alkyl having 6 to 20 carbon atoms; a heteroarylalkyl wherein the alkyl moiety is a straight- or branched chain having 6 to 20 carbon atoms; a heteroarylalkyl substituted by a straight- or branched chain alkyl having 6 to 20 carbon atoms; a heterocyclic alkyl wherein the alkyl moiety is a straight- or branched chain having 6 to 20 carbon atoms, or a heterocyclic alkyl substituted by a straight- or branched chain alkyl having 6 to 20 carbon atoms; wherein the alkyl moiety may have, in the carbon chain, a bond or a hereto atom selected from the group consisting of a double bond, a triple bond, oxygen, sulfur, sulfinyl, sulfonyl, —N(R 6 )— where R 6  is hydrogen, alkyl, aralkyl, acyl or alkoxycarbonyl, and carbonyl, and may have, as a substituent, alkoxy, alkenyloxy, alkynyloxy, aralkyloxy, acyl, alkylamino, alkylthio, acylamino, alkoxycarbonyl, alkoxycarbonylamino, acyloxy, alkylcarbamoyl, nitro, halogen, amino, hydroxy or carboxy; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See U.S. Pat. No. 5,604,229, col. 279, line 44-col. 280, line 13. 
     They also include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein Rf is a phenylalkyl wherein the alkyl moiety is a straight- or branched chain having 6 to 20 carbon atoms which may have, in the carbon chain, one or two oxygen atoms; a phenylalkyl which may be substituted by a straight- or branched chain C6-C20 alkyl optionally substituted by halogen, a straight- or branched chain C6-C20 alkoxy optionally substituted by halogen, a straight- or branched chain C6-C20 alkenyloxy, phenylalkoxy, halophenylalkoxy, phenylalkoxyalkyl, phenoxyalkoxy or phenoxyalkyl; a cycloalkylalkyl wherein the alkyl moiety is a straight- or branched chain having 6 to 20 carbon atoms which may have, in the carbon chain, one or two oxygen atoms; a cycloalkylalkyl substituted by a straight- or branched chain alkyl having 6 to 20 carbon atoms; a heteroarylalkyl wherein the alkyl moiety is a straight- or branched chain having 6 to 20 carbon atoms which may have, in the carbon chain, one or two oxygen atoms; a heteroarylalkyl substituted by a straight- or branched chain alkyl having 6 to 20 carbon atoms; a heterocyclic alkyl wherein the alkyl moiety is a straight- or branched chain having 6 to 20 carbon atoms which may have, in the carbon chain, one or two oxygen atoms, or a heterocyclic alkyl substituted by a straight- or branched chain alkyl having 6 to 20 carbon atoms; wherein the alkyl moiety may have, in the carbon chain, a substituent selected from the group consisting of alkoxy, alkenyloxy, alkynyloxy, aralkyloxy, acyl, alkylamino, alkylthio, acylamino, alkoxycarbonyl, alkoxycarbonylamino, acyloxy, alkylcarbamoyl, nitro, halogen, amino, hydroxy and carboxy; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See U.S. Pat. No. 5,604,229, col. 280, lines 13-52. 
     They also include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein Rp is a phenyl substituted by C6-C18 alkyl, a cycloalkyl, heteroaryl or a heterocycle, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See U.S. Pat. No. 5,604,229, col. 285, lines 5-15. 
     They also include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein R 1  is an optionally substituted straight- or branched carbon chain which may have, in the chain, a bond, a hetero atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a double bond, a triple bond, oxygen, sulfur, sulfinyl, sulfonyl, —N(R 6 )— where R 6  is hydrogen, alkyl, aralkyl, acyl or alkoxycarbonyl, and carbonyl, optionally substituted arylene, optionally substituted cycloalkylene, optionally substituted heteroarylene and an alicycle thereof, and which may be substituted, at the chain end (w-position) thereof, by a double bond, a triple bond, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl or an alicycle thereof, an optionally substituted aryl, an optionally substituted cycloalkyl, an optionally substituted heteroaryl or an alicycle thereof, and R 2 a, R 3 a, R 4 a and R 5 a are the same or different and each is a hydrogen, an alkyl, an acyl or an alkoxycarbonyl; wherein the optionally substituted straight- or branched carbon chain may have a substituent selected from the group consisting of alkoxy, alkenyloxy, alkynyloxy, aralkyloxy, alkylenedioxy, acyl, alkylamino, alkylthio, acylamino, alkoxycarbonyl, alkoxycarbonylamino, acyloxy, alkylcarbamoyl, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, nitro, halogen, amino, hydroxyimino, hydroxy, carboxy, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted aryloxy, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl and an alicycle thereof; and the aforementioned optionally substituted arylene, optionally substituted cycloalkylene, optionally substituted heteroarylene, an alicycle thereof, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted aryloxy, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl and an alicycle thereof may have a substituent selected from the group consisting of alkoxy, alkenyloxy, alkynyloxy, aralkyloxy, alkylenedioxy, acyl, alkylamino, alkylthio, acylamino, alkoxycarbonyl, alkoxycarbonylamino, acyloxy, alkyl carbamoyl, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, nitro, halogen, amino, hydroxy and carboxy; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See U.S. Pat. No. 5,604,229, col. 285, line 33-col. 286, line 11. 
     They also include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein Rt is an optionally substituted straight- or branched carbon chain which may have, in the chain, a bond, a hetero atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a double bond, a triple bond, oxygen, sulfur, sulfinyl, sulfonyl, —N(R 6 )— where R 6  is hydrogen, alkyl, aralkyl, acyl or alkoxycarbonyl, carbonyl, optionally substituted arylene, optionally substituted cycloalkylene, optionally substituted heteroarylene and an alicycle thereof, an optionally substituted aryl, an optionally substituted cycloalkyl, an optionally substituted heteroaryl or an alicycle thereof, and R 2 a, R 3 a, R 4 a and R 5 a are the same or different and each is a hydrogen, an alkyl, an acyl or an alkoxycarbonyl; wherein the optionally substituted straight- or branched carbon chain may have a substituent selected from the group consisting of alkoxy, alkenyloxy, alkynyloxy, aralkyloxy, alkylenedioxy, acyl, alkylamino, alkylthio, acylamino, alkoxycarbonyl, alkoxycarbonylamino, acyloxy, alkylcarbamoyl, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, nitro, halogen, amino, hydroxy, carboxy, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted aryloxy, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl and an alicycle thereof; and the aforementioned optionally substituted arylene, optionally substituted cycloalkylene, optionally substituted heteroarylene, an alicycle thereof, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted aryloxy, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl and an alicycle thereof may have a substituent selected from the group consisting of alkoxy, alkenyloxy, alkynyloxy, aralkyloxy, alkylenedioxy, acyl, alkylamino, alkylthio, acylamino, alkoxycarbonyl, alkoxycarbonylamino, acyloxy, alkylcarbamoyl, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, nitro, halogen, amino, hydroxy and carboxy; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See U.S. Pat. No. 5,604,229, col. 287, lines 1-47. 
     They also include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein Rv is an optionally substituted aryl, an optionally substituted cycloalkyl, an optionally substituted heteroaryl or an alicycle thereof; R 2 a, R 3 a, R 4 a and R 5 a are the same or different and each is a hydrogen, an alkyl, an acyl or an alkoxycarbonyl; X is an oxygen, a sulfur, a sulfinyl, a sulfonyl, —N(R 6 )— where R 6  is hydrogen, alkyl, aralkyl, acyl or alkoxycarbonyl; and α and β are 0 or an integer of 1-20 provided that α+β=5-20, wherein the optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, optionally substituted heteroaryl and an alicycle thereof may have a substituent selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkoxy, alkenyloxy, alkynyloxy, aralkyloxy, alkylenedioxy, acyl, alkylamino, alkylthio, acylamino, alkoxycarbonyl, alkoxycarbonylamino, acyloxy, alkylcarbamoyl, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, nitro, halogen, amino, hydroxy and carboxy; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See U.S. Pat. No. 5,604,229, col. 288, lines 1-28. 
     S1P receptor agonists include compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,719,176 to Fujita et al. These agonists include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein Ra is a straight- or branched chain alkyl having 12 to 22 carbon atoms, which may have, in the chain, a bond or a hetero atom selected from the group consisting of a double bond, a triple bond, oxygen, sulfur, sulfinyl, sulfonyl, —N(R 6 )— where R 6  is hydrogen, alkyl, aralkyl, acyl or alkoxycarbonyl, and carbonyl, and which may have, as a substituent, alkoxy, alkenyloxy, alkynyloxy, aralkyloxy, acyl, alkylamino, alkylthio, acylamino, alkoxycarbonyl, alkoxycarbonylamino, acyloxy, alkylcarbamoyl, nitro, halogen, amino, hydroxyimino, hydroxy or carboxy, and R 2 b, R 3 b, R 4 b and R 5 b are the same or different and each is a hydrogen, an alkyl or an acyl; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See U.S. Pat. No. 5,719,176, col. 274, line 48-col. 275, line 3. 
     S1P receptor agonists include compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,948,820 to Fujita et al. These agonists include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein W is hydrogen; a straight- or branched chain alkyl having 1 to 6 carbon atoms; a straight- or branched chain alkenyl having 2 to 6 carbon atoms; a straight- or branched chain alkynyl having 2 to 6 carbon atoms; or a straight- or branched chain C1-C6 alkyl substituted by 1 to 3 substituents selected from the group consisting of a halogen, a cycloalkyl and a phenyl which may be substituted by hydroxy; X is a straight-chain alkyl having carbon atoms in the number of p or a straight-chain alkoxy having carbon atoms in the number of (p-1), wherein the straight-chain alkyl having carbon atoms in the number of p and the straight-chain alkoxy having carbon atoms in the number of (p-1) may have 1 to 3 substituents selected from the group consisting of an alkyl, hydroxy, an alkoxy, an acyloxy, amino, an alkylamino, an acylamino, oxo, a haloalkyl, a halogen and a phenyl which may have 1 to 3 substituents selected from the group consisting of an alkyl, hydroxy, an alkoxy, an acyl, an acyloxy, amino, an alkylamino, an acylamino, a haloalkyl and a halogen; Y is hydrogen, an alkyl, hydroxy, an alkoxy, an acyl, an acyloxy, amino, an alkylamino, an acylamino, a haloalkyl or a halogen; Z is a straight-chain alkylene having carbon atoms in the number of q; p and q are the same or different and each is an integer of 1 to 20, with the proviso of 6≦p+q≦23; m is 1, 2 or 3; n is 2 or 3; R 1  and R 2  are the same or different and each is hydrogen, an alkyl or an acyl; R 3  is hydrogen or an acyl; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See U.S. Pat. No. 5,948,820, col. 164, lines 14-56. 
     S1P receptor agonists include compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,214,873 to Kunitomo et al. These agonists include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein R 1 , R 2 , R 3  and R 4  are the same or different and each is a hydrogen or an acyl, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See U.S. Pat. No. 6,214,873, col. 54, lines 50-63. 
     S1P receptor agonists include compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,437,165 to Mandala et al. These agonists include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein X is O, S, NR 1  or (CH 2 ) 1-2 , optionally substituted with 1-4 halo groups; R 1  is H, C 1-4 alkyl or haloC 1-4 alkyl; R 1a  is H, OH, C 1-4 alkyl, or OC 1-4 alkyl, the alkyl and alkyl portions being optionally substituted with 1-3 halo groups; R 1b  represents H, OH, C 1-4 alkyl or haloC 1-4 alkyl; R 2  is H, C 1-4 alkyl or haloC 1-4 alkyl, and R 3  is H, OH, halo, OC 1-4 alkyl or O-haloC 1-4 alkyl, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See U.S. Pat. No. 6,437,165, col. 25, lines 42-63. 
     S1P receptor agonists include compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,723,745 to Nishi et al. These agonists include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein R 1  and R 2  are the same or different and each represents a hydrogen atom or an amino protecting group; R 3  represents a hydrogen atom or a hydroxy protecting group; R 4  represents a lower alkyl group; n represents an integer from 1 to 6; X represents an ethylene group, a vinylene group, an ethynylene group, a group of formula -D-CH 2 — (wherein D represents a carbonyl group, a group of formula —CH(OH)—, an oxygen atom, a sulfur atom, or a nitrogen atom), an aryl group, or an aryl group substituted with 1 to 3 substituents selected from substituent group a; Y represent a single bond, a C 1 -C 10  alkylene group, a C 1 -C 10  alkylene group substituted with 1 to 3 substituents selected from substituent groups a and b, a C 1 -C 10  alkylene group which has an oxygen atom or a sulfur atom in said carbon chain or at the end of said carbon chain, or a C 1 -C 10  alkylene group which is substituted with 1 to 3 substituents selected from substituent groups a and b and has an oxygen atom or a sulfur atom in said carbon chain or at the end of said carbon chain; R 5  represents a hydrogen atom, a cycloalkyl group, an aryl group, a heterocyclic group, a cycloalkyl group substituted with 1 to 3 substituents selected from substituent groups a and b, an aryl group substituted with 1 to 3 substituents selected from substituent groups a and b, or a heterocyclic group substituted with 1 to 3 substituents selected from substituent groups a and b; R 6  and R 7  are the same or different and each represent a hydrogen atom or a group selected from substituent group a; with the proviso that when R 5  is a hydrogen atom, Y is not a single bond or a straight chain C 1 -C 10  alkylene group; substituent group a consists of a halogen atom, a lower alkyl group, a halogenated lower alkyl group, a lower alkoxy group, a lower alkylthio group, a carboxyl group, a lower alkoxycarbonyl group, a hydroxyl group, a lower aliphatic acyl group, an amino group, a mono lower alkylamino group, a di lower alkylamino group, a lower aliphatic acylamino group, a cyano group, and a nitro group; substituent group b consists of a cycloalkyl group, an aryl group, a heterocyclic group, a cycloalkyl group substituted with 1 to 3 substituents selected from substituent group a, an aryl group substituted with 1 to 3 substituents selected from substituent group a, and a heterocyclic group substituted with 1 to 3 substituents selected from substituent group a. See U.S. Pat. No. 6,723,745, col. 222, line 41-col. 223, line 34. 
     S1P receptor agonists include compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,963,012 to Kohno et al. These agonists include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein R 1  is halogen, trihalomethyl, hydroxy, lower alkyl having 1 to 7 carbon atoms, phenyl, aralkyl, lower alkoxy having 1 to 4 carbon atoms, trifluoromethyloxy, substituted or unsubstituted phenoxy, cyclohexylmethyloxy, substituted or unsubstituted aralkyloxy, pyridylmethyloxy, cinnamyloxy, naphthylmethyloxy, phenoxymethyl, hydroxymethyl, hydroxyethyl, lower alkylthio having 1 to 4 carbon atoms, lower alkylsulfinyl having 1 to 4 carbon atoms, lower alkylsulfonyl having 1 to 4 carbon atoms, benzylthio, acetyl, nitro, or cyano; R 2  is hydrogen, halogen, trihalomethyl, lower alkoxy having 1 to 4 carbon atoms, lower alkyl having 1 to 7 carbon atoms, phenethyl, or benzyloxy; R 3  is hydrogen, halogen, trifluoromethyl, lower alkoxy having 1 to 4 carbon atoms, hydroxy, benzyloxy, lower alkyl having 1 to 7 carbon atoms, phenyl, lower alkoxymethyl having 1 to 4 carbon atoms, or lower alkylthio having 1 to 4 carbon atoms; and X is —(CH 2 ) n — (n is an integer from 1 to 4), —OCH 2 CH 2 —, or CH═CHCH 2 —. See U.S. Pat. No. 6,963,012, col. 60, lines 36-65. 
     S1P receptor agonists include compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,241,812 to Saha et al. These agonists include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein L is alkoxy, a covalent bond, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, alkylcarbonyl, thioether, alkylsulfonyl, alkylcarbonylamino, alkylaminocarbonyl, alkyloxycarbonyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, or substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl; Z and A are each independently substituted or unsubstituted aryl, wherein Z and A may be linked by a covalent bond, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, NH, alkyloxy, O, thioether, S, aminocarbonyl, carbonylamino, carbonyloxy, or oxycarbonyl; R 1 , R 2 , R 5  and R 12  are each independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, halogen, cyano, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, straight chain or branched substituted or unsubstituted C 1 -C 6 -alkyl, straight chain or branched substituted or unsubstituted C 1 -C 6 -alkoxy, straight chain or branched halo-C 1 -C 6 -alkyl, straight chain or branched halo-C 1 -C 6 -alkoxy, C 1 -C 6 -alkoxy-C 1 -C 6 -alkyl, hydroxyl-C 1 -C 6 -alkyl, carboxy-C 1 -C 6 -alkyl, C 1 -C 6 -alkyl-SO 2  or N(R)R′, wherein R and R′ are each independently hydrogen, straight chain or branched substituted or unsubstituted C 1 -C 6 -alkyl, straight chain or branched substituted or unsubstituted C 1 -C 6 -alkoxy, straight chain or branched halo-C 1 -C 6 -alkyl, straight chain or branched halo-C 1 -C 6 -alkoxy, C 1 -C 6 -alkoxy-C 1 -C 6 -alkyl, hydroxyl-C 1 -C 6 -alkyl, carboxy-C 1 -C 6 -alkyl or C 1 -C 6 -alkyl-SO 2 ; Q is —NH(CO)—; R 6  is —OPO 3 R 10 R 11 , where R 10  and R 11  are each independently H, straight chain or branched substituted or unsubstituted C 1 -C 6 -alkyl, a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group or selected from the prodrugs listed below: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     R 7  is H, substituted or unsubstituted C 1 -C 6 -alkyl, hydroxy-C 1 -C 6 -alkyl, aryl, or together with R 8  form a C 2 -C 5 -alkylene or a C 2 -C 5 -alkenylene group; R 8  is H or substituted or unsubstituted C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; and m and n are each, independently, an integer from 0 to 3; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See U.S. Pat. No. 7,241,812, col. 169, line 2-col. 170, line 37. 
     S1P receptor agonists include compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,326,801 to Albert et al. These agonists include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein m is 1, 2 or 3; X is OR 1  is H; C 1-6  alkyl optionally substituted by OH, acyl, halogen, cycloalkyl, phenyl or hydroxy-phenylene; C 2-6 alkenyl; C 2-6 alkynyl; or phenyl optionally substituted by OH; R 2  is 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein R 5  is H or C 1-4 alkyl optionally substituted by 1, 2 or 3 halogen atoms, and R 6  is H or C 1-4 alkyl optionally substituted by halogen; each of R 3  and R 4 , independently, is H, C 1-4 alkyl optionally substituted by halogen, or acyl, and R is a residue of the formula 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein R 7  is H, C 1-4 alkyl or C 1-4 alkoxy, and R 8  is (a) C 1-20 alkanoyl or C 1-14 alkoxy substituted with cycloalkyl or phenyl wherein the cycloalkyl or phenyl ring is optionally substituted by halogen, C 1-4 alkyl and/or C 1-4 alkoxy, (b) phenylC 1-14 -alkyl wherein the C 1-14 alkyl is optionally substituted by halogen or OH, (c) cycloalkylC 1-14 alkoxy or phenylC 1-14 alkoxy wherein the cycloalkyl or phenyl ring is optionally substituted by halogen, C 1-4 alkyl and/or C 1-4 alkoxy, or (d) phenylC 1-4 alkoxyC 1-4 alkyl, phenoxyC 1-14 alkoxy or phenoxyC 1-4 alkyl, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See U.S. Pat. No. 7,326,801, col. 25, line 12-col. 26, line 22. 
     S1P receptor agonists include compounds disclosed in U.S. patent application publication no. 2005/0033055 to Bugianesi et al. These agonists include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein Ar is phenyl or naphthyl; m=0 or 1; n=0 or 1; A is selected from the group consisting of: —CO 2 H, —PO 3 H 2 , —PO 2 H, —SO 3 H, —PO(C 1-3 alkyl)OH and 1H-tetrazol-5-yl; R 1  and R 2  are each independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, halo, hydroxy, —CO 2 H and C 1-4 alkyl, optionally substituted from one up to the maximum number of substitutable positions with halo; R 3  is selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen and C 1-4 alkyl, optionally substituted with from one up to the maximum number of substitutable positions with a substituent independently selected from the group consisting of: halo and hydroxy; each R 4  is independently selected from the group consisting of: halo, C 1-4 alkyl and C 1-3 alkoxy, said C 1-4 alkyl and C 1-3 alkoxy optionally substituted from one up to the maximum number of substitutable positions with halo, C is selected from the group consisting of: (1) C 1-8 alkyl, C 1-8 alkoxy, —(C═O)—CC 1-6 alkyl or —CHOH—C 1-6 alkyl, said C 1-8 alkyl, C 1-8 alkoxy, —(C═O)—C 1-6 alkyl and —CHOH—C 1-6 alkyl optionally substituted with phenyl, and (2) phenyl or HET, each optionally substituted with 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of: halo, phenyl, C 1-4 alkyl and C 1-4 alkoxy, said C 1-4 alkyl and C 1-4 alkoxy groups optionally substituted from one up to the maximum number of substitutable positions with a substituent independently selected from halo and hydroxy, and said phenyl optionally substituted with 1 to 5 groups independently selected from the group consisting of: halo and C 1-4 alkyl, optionally substituted with 1-3 halo groups, or C is not present; when C is not present then B is selected from the group consisting of: phenyl, C 5-16 alkyl, C 5-16 alkenyl, C 5-16 alkynyl, —CHOH—C 4-15 alkyl, —CHOH—C 4-15 alkenyl, —CHOH—C 4-15 alkynyl, C 4-15 alkoxy, —OC 4-15 alkenyl, —OC 4-15 alkynyl, C 4-15 alkylthio, —SC 4-15 alkenyl, —SC 4-15 alkynyl, —CH 2 C 3-14 alkoxy, —CH 2 OC 3-14 alkenyl, —CH 2 OC 3-14 alkynyl, —(C═O)C 4-15 alkyl, —(C═O)C 4-15 alkenyl, —(C═O)—C 4-15 alkynyl, —(C═O)OC 3-14 alkyl, —(C═O)OC 3-14 alkenyl, —(C═O)N(R 6 )(R 7 )C 3-14 alkyl, —(C═O)N(R 6 )(R 7 )C 3-14 alkenyl, —(C═O)N(R 6 )(R 7 )C 3-14 alkynyl, —N(R 6 )(R 7 )(C═O)C 3-14 alkyl, —N(R 6 )(R 7 )(C═O)C 3-14 alkenyl and —N(R 6 )(R 7 )(C═O)C 3-14 alkynyl, when C is phenyl or HET then B is selected from the group consisting of: C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-5 alkoxy, —(C═O)C 1-5 alkyl, —(C═O)OC 1-4 alkyl, —(C═O)N(R 6 )(R 7 )C 1-4 alkyl, phenyl and HET, and when C is C 1-8 alkyl, C 1-8 alkoxy, —(C═O)C 1-6 alkyl or —CHOHC 1-6 alkyl then B is phenyl; and R 6  and R 7  are independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, C 1-9 alkyl and —(CH 2 ) p -phenyl, wherein p is 1 to 5 and phenyl is optionally substituted with 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of: C 1-3 alkyl and C 1-3 alkoxy, each optionally substituted with 1-3 halo groups; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See U.S. patent application publication no. 2005/0033055, pages 47-48. In this context, the term HET refers to moieties selected from the group consisting of: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Id. at paragraph 0041. 
     S1P receptor agonists include compounds disclosed in international patent application no. WO 2006/088944 to Lynch et al. These agonists include compounds of the formulae: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein R 4  and R 7  are independently CH or CH 2 ; R 5  is C, CH or N; R 6  is CH, CH 2 , O, S or NR 3 , wherein R 3  is hydrogen or a (C 1 -C 10 ) alkyl group; X is selected from hydroxyl, phosphate, phosphonate, alpha-substituted phosphonate; R 1  is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, halo, trifluoromethyl, (C 1 -C 10 ) alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 ) alkyl substituted with halo, hydroxyl, (C 1 -C 10 ) alkoxy, or cyano; and R 2  is selected from the group consisting of (C 1 -C 20 ) alkyl, cycloalkyl substituted alkyl, (C 1 -C 20 )alkenyl, (C 1 -C 20 )alkynyl, aryl, alkyl substituted aryl, arylalkyl and aryl substituted arylalkyl; wherein one or more of the carbon atoms in the R 2  groups can be independently replaced with non-peroxide oxygen, sulfur or NR 8 ; wherein R 8  is hydrogen or a (C 1 -C 10 ) alkyl group; wherein the alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl groups in R 2  are optionally substituted with oxo, n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; and the dashed circle represents 1, 2 or 3 optional double bonds, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. See WO 2006/088944 at page 45. 
     S1P receptor agonists include compounds disclosed in international patent application no. WO 2008/029371 to Bolli et al. These agonists include compounds of the formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein A represents *—CONHCH 2 —, *—CO—CH═CH—, *—COCH 2 CH 2 —, 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein the asterisks indicate the bond that is linked to the pyridine group of Formula (I); R 1  represents C 1-4 -alkyl or chloro; R 2  represents C 1-5 -alkyl, C 1-4 -alkoxy, or C 3-6 -cycloalkyl; R 3  represents hydrogen, C 1-4 -alkyl, C 1-4 -alkoxy, or halogen; R 4  represents hydrogen, C 1-4 -alkyl, C 1-4 -alkoxy, halogen, trifluoromethyl, or trifluoromethoxy; R 5  represents 2,3-dihydroxypropyl, di-(hydroxy-C 1-4 -alkyl)-C 1-4 -alkyl, —CH 2 —(CH 2 ) k —NHSO 2 R 53 , —(CH 2 ) n —CH(OH)CH 2 NHSO 2 R 53 , —CH 2 (CH 2 ) k —NHCOR 54 , —(CH 2 )CH(OH)CH 2 —NHCOR 54 , —CH 2 —(CH 2 ) n —CONR 51 R 52 , —CO—NHR 51 , 1-(3-carboxy-azetidinyl)-2-acetyl, 1-(2-carboxy-pyrrolidinyl)-2-acetyl, 1-(3-carboxy-pyrrolidinyl)-2-acetyl, 1-(3-carboxy-azetidinyl)-3-propionyl, 1-(2-carboxy-pyrrolidinyl)-3-propionyl, 1-(3-carboxy-pyrrolidinyl)-3-propionyl, —(CH 2 )—CH(OH)—CH 2 —NR 51 R 52 , hydroxy, hydroxy-C 2-5 -alkoxy, di-(hydroxy-C 1-4 -alkyl)-C 1-4 -alkoxy, 2,3-dihydroxy-propoxy, 2-hydroxy-3-methoxy-propoxy, —OCH 2 —(CH 2 ) m —NR 51 R 52 , 2-[((azetidine-3-carboxylic acid)-1-yl]-ethoxy, 2-[(azetidine-3-carboxylic acid C 1-5 -alkylester)-1-yl]-ethoxy, 2-[(pyrrolidine-3-carboxylic acid)-1-yl]-ethoxy, 2-[(pyrrolidine-3-carboxylic acid C 1-5 -alkylester)-1-yl]-ethoxy, —OCH 2 —CH(OH)—CH 2 —NR 51 R 52 , 3-[(azetidine-3-carboxylic acid)-1-yl]-2-hydroxypropoxy, 3-[(azetidine-3-carboxylic acid C 1-5 -alkylester)-1-yl]-2-hydroxypropoxy, 2-hydroxy-3-[(pyrrolidine-3-carboxylic acid)-1-yl]-propoxy, 2-hydroxy-3-[(pyrrolidine-3-carboxylic acid C 1-5 -alkylester)-1-yl]-propoxy, 2-hydroxy-3-[(pyrrolidine-2-carboxylic acid)-1-yl]-propoxy, 2-hydroxy-3-[(pyrrolidine-2-carboxylic acid C 1-5 -alkylester)-1-[-propoxy, —OCH 2 —(CH 2 ) m —NHSO 2 R 53 , —OCH 2 —CH(OH)—CH 2 —NHSO 2 R 53 , —OCH 2 —(CH 2 ) m —NHCOR 54 , —OCH 2 —CH(OH)—CH 2 —NHCOR 54 ; R 51  represents hydrogen, C 1-3 -alkyl, 2-hydroxyethyl, 2-hydroxy-1-hydroxymethyl-ethyl, 2,3-dihydroxypropyl, carboxymethyl, 1-(C 1-5 -alkylcarboxy)methyl, 2-carboxyethyl, or 2-(C 1-5 -alkylcarboxy)ethyl; R 52  represents hydrogen, methyl, or ethyl; R 53  represents C 1-3 -alkyl, methylamino, ethylamino, or dimethylamino; R 54  represents hydroxymethyl, hydroxyethyl, aminomethyl, methylaminomethyl, dimethylaminomethyl, aminoethyl, 2-methylamino-ethyl, or 2-dimethylamino-ethyl; k represents the integer 1, 2, or 3; m represents the integer 1 or 2; n represents 0, 1, or 2; and R 6  represents hydrogen, C 1-4 -alkyl, or halogen; and salts thereof. See WO 2008/029371 at pages 117-118. 
     S1P receptor agonists also include compounds disclosed in: international patent application no. WO 2008/035239 to Bolli et al.; U.S. patent application publication no. 2008/0064662 to Saha et al., and; U.S. patent application publication no. 2008/0070866 to Deng et al. 
     Specific S1P receptor agonists include S1P itself, SEW2871, JTE-013, VPC23019, R-3477 (Actelion), KRP-203 (Kyorin Pharmaceutical Co.), sonepcizumab (Lpath), BAF-312 (Novartis), ONO-4641 (Ono Pharmaceutical Co.), ES-285 (PharmaMar SA), 2-amino-2-[2-(4-octylphenyl)ethyl]propane-1,3-diol (FTY720; fingolimod), phospho-FTY720, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. 
     5.3. ADDITIONAL ACTIVE AGENTS 
     Some embodiments of the invention employ one or more active agents in addition to an S1P receptor agonist. Examples of such additional agents include anti-malarial drugs (e.g., quinine, quinidine, and artemisinin derivatives such as artemether and artesunate), osmotic diuretics (e.g., mannitol and urea), anti-convulsants (e.g., diazepam, phenyloin, phenobarbital, and phenobarbitone), anti-pyretics (e.g., paracetamol), anti-oxidants, and anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., NSAIDS, steroids, cyclosporin, thalidomide, revlimid, anti-TNF antibodies (e.g., infliximab, etanercept), and pentoxifylline). Others include curdlan sulfate, curcumin, and LMP-420. 
     5.4. METHODS OF USE 
     This invention encompasses methods of preventing, managing and treating CM, which comprise administering to a patient a therapeutically or prophylactically effective amount of an S1P receptor agonist. The amount of drug, dosing schedule, and route of administration will vary depending on the drug and the patient, and can readily be determined by those of ordinary skill in the art. Because oral administration of drugs may be difficult in some CM patients, preferred routes of administration include i.v. and i.m. 
     In some embodiments of the invention, the S1P receptor agonist is administered adjunctively with one or more additional active agents. Administration of the two or more drugs may be concurrent (e.g., in the same dosage form, or in separate dosage forms administered to the patient at approximately the same time), but need not be. 
     Methods of treating and managing CM are suitable for patients exhibiting one or more symptoms of CM, including coma (Blantyre coma scale ≦2 or Glasgow coma scale ≦8),  P. falciparum  on blood smear, and no other known cause for coma. Methods of preventing CM are suitable for patients at risk of CM, e.g., patients having  P. falciparum  on blood smear and optionally exhibiting one or more additional symptoms of malaria, including those of severe malaria (e.g., severe malarial anemia, respiratory distress, shock, spontaneous bleeding, hypoglycemia, repeated seizures, hemoglobinuria, hypoglycemia, prostration, impaired consciousness, jaundice, hyperparasitemia). Patients include adults and children (e.g., ages 5-12 years). 
     5.5. PHARMACEUTICAL FORMULATIONS 
     Pharmaceutical compositions include single unit dosage forms suitable for oral, mucosal (e.g., nasal, sublingual, vaginal, buccal, or rectal), parenteral (e.g., subcutaneous, intravenous, bolus injection, intramuscular, or intraarterial), or transdermal administration to a patient. Examples of dosage forms include, but are not limited to: tablets; caplets; capsules, such as soft elastic gelatin capsules; cachets; troches; lozenges; dispersions; suppositories; ointments; cataplasms (poultices); pastes; powders; dressings; creams; plasters; solutions; patches; aerosols (e.g., nasal sprays or inhalers); gels; liquid dosage forms suitable for oral or mucosal administration to a patient, including suspensions (e.g., aqueous or non-aqueous liquid suspensions, oil-in-water emulsions, or a water-in-oil liquid emulsions), solutions, and elixirs; liquid dosage forms suitable for parenteral administration to a patient; and sterile solids (e.g., crystalline or amorphous solids) that can be reconstituted to provide liquid dosage forms suitable for parenteral administration to a patient. 
     The composition and type of a dosage form will vary depending on its use. For example, a dosage form used in the acute treatment of a disease may contain larger amounts of one or more of the active ingredients it comprises than a dosage form used in the chronic treatment of the same disease. Similarly, a parenteral dosage form may contain smaller amounts of one or more of the active ingredients it comprises than an oral dosage form used to treat the same disease. These and other ways in which specific dosage forms encompassed by this invention will vary from one another will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art. See, e.g.,  Remington&#39;s Pharmaceutical Sciences,  18 th  ed. (Mack Publishing, Easton Pa.: 1990). 
     5.5.1. Oral Dosage Forms 
     Pharmaceutical compositions of the invention suitable for oral administration can be presented as discrete dosage forms, such as, but are not limited to, tablets (e.g., chewable tablets), caplets, capsules, and liquids (e.g., flavored syrups). Such dosage forms contain predetermined amounts of active ingredients, and may be prepared by methods of pharmacy well known to those skilled in the art. See, e.g.,  Remington&#39;s Pharmaceutical Sciences,  18 th  ed. (Mack Publishing, Easton Pa.: 1990). 
     Typical oral dosage forms are prepared by combining the active ingredient(s) in an intimate admixture with at least one excipient according to conventional pharmaceutical compounding techniques. Excipients can take a wide variety of forms depending on the form of preparation desired for administration. Liquid oral dosage forms are preferred for most patients suffering from CM. 
     5.5.2. Parenteral Dosage Forms 
     Parenteral dosage forms can be administered to patients by various routes including, but not limited to, subcutaneous, intravenous (including bolus injection), intramuscular, and intraarterial. Because their administration typically bypasses patients&#39; natural defenses against contaminants, parenteral dosage forms are specifically sterile or capable of being sterilized prior to administration to a patient. Examples of parenteral dosage forms include, but are not limited to, solutions ready for injection, dry products ready to be dissolved or suspended in a pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle for injection, suspensions ready for injection, and emulsions. 
     Suitable vehicles that can be used to provide parenteral dosage forms of the invention are well known to those skilled in the art. Examples include, but are not limited to: Water for Injection USP; aqueous vehicles such as, but not limited to, Sodium Chloride Injection, Ringer&#39;s Injection, Dextrose Injection, Dextrose and Sodium Chloride Injection, and Lactated Ringer&#39;s Injection; water-miscible vehicles such as, but not limited to, ethyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, and polypropylene glycol; and non-aqueous vehicles such as, but not limited to, corn oil, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, sesame oil, ethyl oleate, isopropyl myristate, and benzyl benzoate. 
     5.5.3. Transdermal, Topical and Mucosal Dosage Forms 
     Transdermal, topical, and mucosal dosage forms include, but are not limited to, ophthalmic solutions, sprays, aerosols, creams, lotions, ointments, gels, solutions, emulsions, suspensions, or other forms known to one of skill in the art. See, e.g.,  Remington&#39;s Pharmaceutical Sciences,  16th and 18th eds., Mack Publishing, Easton Pa. (1980 &amp; 1990); and  Introduction to Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms,  4th ed., Lea &amp; Febiger, Philadelphia (1985). Transdermal dosage forms include “reservoir type” or “matrix type” patches, which can be applied to the skin and worn for a specific period of time to permit the penetration of a desired amount of active ingredients. 
     Suitable excipients (e.g., carriers and diluents) and other materials that can be used to provide transdermal, topical, and mucosal dosage forms are well known to those skilled in the pharmaceutical arts, and depend on the particular tissue to which a given pharmaceutical composition or dosage form will be applied. 
     Depending on the specific tissue to be treated, additional components may be used prior to, in conjunction with, or subsequent to treatment with active ingredients of the invention. For example, penetration enhancers may be used to assist in delivering active ingredients to the tissue. 
     The pH of a pharmaceutical composition or dosage form, or of the tissue to which the pharmaceutical composition or dosage form is applied, may also be adjusted to improve delivery of one or more active ingredients. Similarly, the polarity of a solvent carrier, its ionic strength, or tonicity can be adjusted to improve delivery. Compounds such as stearates may also be added to pharmaceutical compositions or dosage forms to advantageously alter the hydrophilicity or lipophilicity of one or more active ingredients so as to improve delivery. In this regard, stearates can serve as a lipid vehicle for the formulation, as an emulsifying agent or surfactant, and as a delivery-enhancing or penetration-enhancing agent. Different salts, hydrates or solvates of the active ingredients can be used to further adjust the properties of the resulting composition. 
     6. EXAMPLES 
     Aspects of this invention can be understood from the following examples, which do not limit its scope. 
     6.1. Measuring S1P Receptor Binding Affinity 
     The binding affinity of S1P receptor agonists to individual human S1P receptors may be determined using well known assays. For example, compounds can be tested using the human S1P receptors S1P 1 , S1P 2 , S1P 3 , S1P 4  and S1P 5  by quantifying compound induced GTP[γ- 35 S] binding to membrane protein prepared from transfected CHO or RH7777 cells stably expressing the appropriate human S1P receptor. A suitable assay technology is SPA (scintillation proximity based assay). Briefly, DMSO dissolved compounds are serially diluted and added to SPA-bead (Amersham-Pharmacia) immobilized S1P receptor expressing membrane protein (10-20 μg/well) in the presence of 50 mM Hepes, 100 mM NaCl, 10 mM MgCl 2 , 10 μM GDP, 0.1% fat free BSA and 0.2 nM GTP[γ- 35 S] (1200 Ci/mmol). After incubation in 96 well microtiterplates at RT for 120 minutes, unbound GTP[γ- 35 S] is separated by a centrifugation step. Luminescence of SPA beads triggered by membrane bound GTP[γ- 35 S] is quantified with a TOPcount plate reader (Packard). EC 50 s are calculated using standard curve fitting software. 
     Internalization and desensitization of S1P receptors can be determined using, for example, CHO cells transfected with a myc-tagged human S1P receptor. Internationalization of the receptor as a results of stimulation by agonists is determined by FACS analysis using fluorescently labeled anti-myc antibodies. 
     6.2. Cerebral Malaria Model 
     A well characterized and widely used animal model of CM was used to test the efficacy of compounds. See, e.g., Golenser, supra, at 585. In each experiment, two groups of C56B1/6 mice were infected with 1 million parasites ( P. berghei  ANKA) i.p. in 500 μl of media. The first group was the control group, and the second was treated daily by gavage with FTY720 (0.3 mg/kg/day). 
     After at least two doses of the drug had been administered, tail vein blood was taken from the mice, and flow cytometry analysis was used to assess the levels of B and T cells, using antibodies to CD3, CD4, CD8 and CD19. The animals were monitored daily for body weight and parasitaemia, and twice daily for survival. 
     As shown in  FIG. 1 , FTY720 provided a significant survival advantage if administered one day prior to malaria infection (two independent experiments, n=10 per group minimum, Log-Rank Test, p=0.0002). 
     6.3. Transdermal Patch 
     Drug-in-adhesive transdermal patches containing FTY720 were made by dissolving FTY720 in adhesive (Duro-Tak 87-2196, National Starch &amp; Chemical Co.) at a ratio of 1 part compound to 10 parts adhesive (weight:weight). Adhesive containing FTY720 was layered onto a release liner (Scotchpak 1022 PET Film, 3M Corporation) using a Bird applicator with a 50 to 200 micron gap. Organic solvents were removed from the film by baking at 100° C. for 15 minutes. The dried adhesive was then laminated onto a backing membrane (CoTran 9720 polyethylene film, 3M Corporation). 
     6.4. Topical and Transdermal Administration 
     Topical and transdermal dosage forms of FTY720 were administered to F1 hybrid mice (n=5 mice per group). The blood of the mice was collected at various time points for CBC and PK analysis. 
     Topical dosing of FTY720 was achieved using 200 μL of a 1 mg/mL solution composed of 70% ethanol, 29.9% water, and 0.1% DMSO. 
     Transdermal dosing was achieved using patches made as described above. Patches were cut from the laminate and applied to bare skin above the front shoulder of the mice. Dosage was controlled by adjusting the thickness of the compound/adhesive applied to the release liner and number or size of patches. Fur was trimmed from the site of application and then shaved to expose bare skin. To improve adhesion, the skin was further prepped by swabbing with 70% ethanol and then allowed to air dry prior to placing the patch. 
     As shown in  FIG. 2 , FTY720 affected the white blood cell, neutrophil and lymphocyte counts of mice, measured six hours after administration. 
     All references (e.g., patents and patent applications) cited above are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.