Patent Publication Number: US-8986139-B1

Title: Athletic training apparatus

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/609,203, filed Mar. 9, 2012, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     1. Technical Field 
     This disclosure relates generally to athletic training devices, and more specifically to apparatuses that may be suited for use in promoting development of proper throwing techniques for participants in various sports (e.g., football, baseball, etc.). 
     2. Description of Related Art 
     In various athletic endeavors, the ability of a participant to rapidly and accurately complete a throwing motion is at a premium. For example, during a pass play in the sport of American football, a quarterback must be able to quickly assess the formation of the defensive players, evade a pass rush, and successfully pass the football to a teammate (who may be closely guarded by a defender). Both accuracy and quickness of delivery are directly tied to the quarterback&#39;s throwing mechanics, and may be improved by ensuring that proper technique is practiced when throwing the football. 
     Exemplary representations of a proper technique for throwing a football are shown with reference to  FIGS. 1A-D . These figures are adapted from an article written by Dub Maddox, coach at Jenks High School in Oklahoma. See smartfootball.com/quarterbacking/can-a-quarterbacks-throwing-motion-be-improved (posted on Aug. 22, 2011) (hereafter, Maddox Article). The Maddox Article states that “[t]hrowing the football well is not about doing one or two big things great”; instead, “it&#39;s about perfecting a thousand different parts of an intricate, complicated kinetic chain that starts in the toes and ends at the finger tips.” See Maddox Article (quoting David Fleming, “The Pursuit of Throwing Perfectly,” Apr. 21, 2010, available at sports.espn.go.com/espn/page2/story?page=fleming/100421).  FIGS. 1A-D  are adapted from this article and depict four arm positions within this “kinetic chain.”  FIG. 1E  is an additional figure that depicts the final follow-through position of throwing hand at the end of this “kinetic chain.” 
     Turning now to  FIG. 1A , a representation of quarterback  10  is shown holding a football in a position that can be referred to as the “pre-pass triangle,” as indicated by reference numeral  12 . The Maddox Article explains that this position “provides for a powerful position to launch the football”:
         The kinetic chain in the arm starts in the Pre Pass Triangle position. With the elbows level at the base and a loaded wrist in the “cocked” position off the back shoulder, the triangle shape provides for a powerful position to launch the football. If the body was going to throw a punch it would load the arm instinctually in the same position. The Pre Pass Triangle position reduces tendency to internally rotate (wind up) on the throw, aligns arm in a power position, and reduces wasted motion for [ ] a faster release.
 
This position may be referred to using different nomenclature. For example, some quarterback coaches may call this position the “ready position,” the “pyramid position,” the “throwing pocket,” or the “loaded position.” In this position, the quarterback grips the ball with both hands with elbows relaxed by the rib cage. This is a secure ball carriage position for a quarterback getting ready to throw the ball, whether the quarterback is dropping back, sprinting out, bootlegging, etc.
       

     Turning now to  FIG. 1B , a representation of quarterback  10  in the “L position” is shown. To get to this position, the quarterback breaks the two-handed grip of football from the pre-pass triangle position  12  by taking the football in the throwing hand, and bringing the football to a position  22  that is above the quarterback&#39;s throwing shoulder. A common coaching term for the action needed to get to this position is “up and out,” meaning that the quarterback should bring the football up to a nearly fully extended arm position and away from the passer&#39;s head to this cocked position in which the arm forms an “L”. At this point, the forward throwing motion can begin. The Maddox Article elaborates on the manner in which the quarterback&#39;s rotator cuff muscles contribute to raising the arm to the L position:
         The move to this position is done by using the 4 rotator cuff muscles that surround the scapula. The infrasprinatus and teres minor externally rotate the arm back into the “L” position. When the arm is in the “L” position it elongates the suprasprinatus and subscapularis which allow the muscles to accelerate the elbow to the lead position.       

     Turning now to  FIG. 1C , a representation of quarterback  10  with his arm in position  32  is shown. This position is also depicted by an angle marking of 45 degrees found in the Figure, which describes the desired position of the upper arm at this stage in the throwing motion. The Maddox Article describes this position as follows:
         [This is t]he lead position the elbow has to be in to support the wrist. You may have heard coaches say “get the elbow up”. The elbow only needs to go high enough to get over and ahead of the shoulder on the throw. The smoothness and efficiency of this move is the key to consistent power and accuracy on a throw. With the loading of the suprasprinatus and subscapularis muscles in the “L” position the elbow can now elevate and move ahead of the shoulder aided by the deltoid to get to “Zero”. “Zero” is orthopedic term given to the elbow in the lead position because the rotator cuff muscles are neutral with no strain on them. The “Zero” position places the elbow 6 inches ahead of the shoulder 45 degrees up and out and loads the tricep in a position to fire the ball down the target hallway.
 
Here, quarterback  10  has begun the forward motion of the football by leading with violent and forceful elbow action of the throwing arm. The football is now at its highest point in the delivery motion, and quarterback  10  has the nose of the ball pointed forward toward the intended target. As quarterback  10  continues the throwing motion from position  32 , the arm action burst forward is led by the elbow.
       

     Turning now to  FIGS. 1D and 1E , representations of quarterback  10  in follow-through positions  42  and  46  are shown. Position  42  is the beginning of the follow-through stage, and position  46  is the end of the follow-through stage. The Maddox Article describes position  42  as follows:
         The kinetic chain of power that occurs as the tricep fires energy up through arm and out through the wrist/fingers into the ball. If the wrist fires early before the tricep the kinetic chain is out of order and the ball will sail or wobble. A quarterback that pulls down on the football does not extend and therefore is not getting the full benefit of the tricep. When trying to understand the power of extension on a throw, think of the difference between a pistol and a sniper rifle. Which one is more accurate and can shoot the bullet further? The sniper rifle. Why? It has a longer barrel that allows the force and spin to act longer on the bullet which in turn puts more accuracy and velocity in the bullet as it comes out of the barrel.
 
In position  42  depicted in  FIG. 1D , a downward diagonal direction begins to bring the throwing arm across the sternum area of his chest. The arm maintains full extension at the elbow as the shoulders begin to rotate counter-clockwise for a right-handed thrower and clockwise for a left-handed thrower. This shoulder rotation shows the non-throwing shoulder now moving to the posterior of torso and the throwing shoulder moving to the anterior of the torso in a twisting action. In final position  46 , the throwing hand of quarterback  10  will be at the opposite hip of his torso as shown in  FIG. 1E . The correct final follow-through position is achieved with a lightning-quick throwing arm action that finishes with the throwing hand at the opposite hip or belt line of quarterback  10  (as illustrated by position  46  in  FIG. 1E ).
       

     SUMMARY 
     Various embodiments of a training apparatus are disclosed. In one embodiment, the training apparatus includes a body section with at least one attachment portion for receiving a guide structure positioned to interfere with a throwing motion of a user that deviates from a proper throwing technique. When proper technique is used, the user may experience no interference between the guide structure and user&#39;s throwing hand or arm. In contrast, the user&#39;s hand, arm, or a held ball may contact portions of the training apparatus when the mechanics of the user&#39;s throwing motion deviate from the proper form, thereby providing immediate feedback. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIGS. 1A-E  depict various stages in a football throwing motion. 
         FIG. 2  depicts a view of one embodiment of a training apparatus. 
         FIG. 3  is a view of one embodiment of a training apparatus, as viewed from above and behind. 
         FIG. 4  depicts a front view of an embodiment of a training apparatus being worn by a user. 
         FIGS. 5A-E  depict various stages of a proper football throwing motion when wearing an embodiment of a training apparatus. 
         FIGS. 5F and 5G  depict incorrect football throwing motions when wearing an embodiment of a training apparatus. 
         FIG. 6  depicts a front view of another embodiment of a training apparatus being worn by a user. 
     
    
    
     This specification includes references to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment.” The appearances of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” do not necessarily refer to the same embodiment. Particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner consistent with this disclosure. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS 
     Turning now to  FIG. 2 , a depiction of an exemplary training apparatus  90  is shown. Apparatus  90  includes a body section  100  that includes lateral portions  110  and  120  that, when worn by a user, respectively cover the left and right sides of the user&#39;s torso. Apparatus  90  further includes straps  114 A and  114 B for securing the body section to the user&#39;s torso. Still further, apparatus  90  includes upper guide structure  200  and lower guide structure  300 . Upper guide structure  200 , in the embodiment shown, is secured to the right shoulder portion of body section  100  by attachment portion  140 A of body section  100  (that is, a portion of section  100  that permits the attachment of a guide structure such as element  200 ). In some embodiments, body section  100  may also include an attachment portion  140 B on the left shoulder portion of body section  100 . Attachment portions  140 A and  140 B may thus permit upper guide structure  200  to be removed from the right shoulder and reattached to the left shoulder. Similarly, lower guide structure  300 , in the embodiment shown, is secured to the right hip portion of body section  100  by attachment portion  150 A. In some embodiments, body section  100  may also include an attachment portion  150 B. Attachment portions  150 A and  150 B may thus permit lower guide structure  300  to be removed from the right hip and reattached to the left hip. In this manner, apparatus  90  may, in some embodiments, be reconfigured for a left-handed user. In some embodiments, versions of apparatus  90  that are for a full-grown user weigh less than five pounds (in one embodiment body section  100  alone weighs less than three pounds); if apparatus is too heavy, it may unnecessarily interfere with the user&#39;s normal throwing motion. Of course, versions of apparatus  90  that are for smaller users will weigh correspondingly less. 
     In the embodiment shown in  FIG. 2 , body section  100  is designed such that, when worn by a user, it covers substantially all of a user&#39;s torso. As will be described below, body section  100  allows attachment of one or both of guide structures  200  and  300 . The embodiment shown in  FIG. 2  covers both a user&#39;s shoulders and hips; accordingly, this embodiment allows attachment of both upper guide structure  200  and lower guide structure  300 . 
     Other embodiments may allow attachment of just a single guide structure. For example, in another embodiment (not shown), body section  100  may cover just the shoulder portions of the user, allowing the attachment of upper guide structure  200  but not lower guide structure  300 . For example, in some embodiments, body section  100  may be fashioned in a manner that resembles standard football shoulder pads. In certain of these embodiments, apparatus  90  may be configured to permit upper guide structure  200  to be interchanged between the left and right shoulders of body section  100  (thus permitting the apparatus to be shared between both left- and right-handed users). In other embodiments, body section  100  may cover just one of the shoulders of the user—for example, one model of apparatus  90  may include a body section  100  that covers only the right shoulder of the user to receive upper guide structure  200 . Such a model would be designed only for a right-handed user. A different model may be available for a left-handed user and cover only the left shoulder portion of the user&#39;s torso. 
     Similarly, in other embodiments (not shown), body section  100  may cover only a lower portion of the user&#39;s torso, and thus be designed to receive lower guide structure  300  but not upper guide structure  200 . For example, in certain embodiments, body section may be configured as a belt-like structure worn around the user&#39;s waist. In certain of these embodiments, body section  100  may have attachment mechanisms  150 A-B located on both hip portions. In other embodiments, body section  100  may include an attachment mechanism for only one hip portion, depending on whether apparatus  90  is designed for a left-handed or right-handed user. 
     In some embodiments, body section  100  may resemble a vest, as shown in  FIG. 2 . Body section may include structures such as straps  114 A and  114 B for providing a secure fit to the user&#39;s torso. In other embodiments, body section  100  may be secured to the user&#39;s torso with other suitable means, including, but not limited to, belts, hooks, VELCRO, etc. In other embodiments, body section  100  may be a harness, jacket, or a pull over-type configuration. In some embodiments, body section  100  may be constructed from a sturdy, breathable material to provide comfort while providing sufficient rigidity to provide support to the upper and lower guide structures  200  and  300 . In various embodiments, body section  100  may be constructed as a single piece, as multiple pieces joined together, multiple pieces fastened together, multiple pieces coupled by means such as straps, belts, hook-and-loop fasteners, or other configurations or combinations. Body section  100  may in some cases facilitate adjustment to properly fit torsos of various sizes. Exemplary materials include foam (e.g., crosslink foam), canvas, neoprene, nylon, dipped vinyl, and various elastomeric polymers (e.g., EVA polymers). Features such as ventilation holes and breathable panels may be employed to increase comfort. Stiffening features, such as ribbing, may be included to improve rigidity. As noted above, some embodiments of the present training apparatus may include body section  100  and an upper guide structure  200 , without including lower guide structure  300 . Conversely, some embodiments of the present training apparatus may include body section  100  and lower guide structure  300 , without including upper guide structure  200 . The various embodiments of body section  100  described above and their structural equivalents are referred to as “body section means” in the appended claims. 
     As depicted, apparatus  90  includes upper guide structure  200  and lower guide structure  300 . In various embodiments, structures  200  and  300  may be fin-shaped pieces. In some embodiments, one or both of the upper guide structure  200  and lower guide structure  300  may be fin-shaped pieces having rectangular outlines. Other embodiments may have upper guide structure  200  and lower guide structure  300  that are fin-shaped pieces having more circular outlines, or outlines of differing shapes. Other embodiments may include one or both of upper guide structure  200  and lower guide structure  300  that have a shape other than a fin shape, such as a thicker block, etc. 
     In various embodiments, upper guide structure  200  and lower guide structure  300  may be made from a variety of materials, including, but not limited to, foam (e.g., crosslink foam), dipped vinyl, neoprene, elastomeric materials, etc. In many embodiments, structures  200  and  300  include a material that is sufficiently rigid to interfere with an improperly executed throwing motion, but not so rigid that a user&#39;s arm or hand is injured by contacting these structures upon an improperly executed throw. Note that structures  200  and  300  may not be made from just a single material. For example, in one embodiment, either or both of structures  200  and  300  may include reinforcing materials, materials used to provide an attachment between guide structure  200  or  300  and body section  100  (e.g., an EVA polymer structure in one embodiment), etc. Also, in some embodiments, either or both of structures  200  and  300  may include a protective covering that includes a substance (e.g., a hydrogel) that is used to soften or cushion the user&#39;s arm/hand against potential injury. This arrangement may be useful when the core of structures  200  and/or  300  is made of a rigid material. 
     In different embodiments of apparatus  90 , the dimensions of upper and lower guide structures  200  and  300  may vary according to the size of the torso and arm length of the wearer. In some embodiments of a larger-size version of apparatus  90 , the dimensions of each of upper guide structure  200  and lower guide structure  300  may range from 8-14 inches in width, 8-18 inches in length (i.e., from the tip of the structure to the bottom portion where it attaches to body section  100 ), and ¾ inch to 4 inches thick. Conversely, in some embodiments of a smaller-size version of apparatus  90  (e.g., for a youth), the dimensions of each of upper guide structure  200  and lower guide structure  300  can range from 7-12 inches in width, 7-15 inches in length, and ¾ inch to 4 inches thick. Thus, in various embodiments, structures  200  and  300  are both at least 7 inches long, 7 inches wide, and ¾ inch thick, and are both no more than 18 inches long, 14 inches wide, and 4 inches thick. In other embodiments, upper guide structure  200  is at least 7 inches long, 7 inches wide, and ¾ inches thick. In still other embodiments, lower guide structure  300  is at least 7 inches long, 7 inches wide, and ¾ inches thick. As stated, however, the dimensions of apparatus  90  can vary according to the dimensions of an individual user. 
     As shown in  FIG. 2 , upper guide structure  200  extends from a shoulder portion of body section  100 . (Typically, structure  200  will extend from the shoulder portion that corresponds to the user&#39;s throwing arm.) In various embodiments, structure  200  extends upward from a shoulder portion of body section  100 . As used herein, the phrase “extends upward” refers to a range of positions. Consider a first imaginary line extending upward from the user&#39;s throwing shoulder (see reference numeral  925 A in  FIG. 4 ). Next consider a second imaginary line extending outward, parallel to the ground from the same shoulder (see reference numeral  925 B in  FIG. 4 ). The second line is separated from the first line by 90 degrees. Next consider a nomenclature such that a positive angle between 0 and 90 degrees refers to an angular position from the first imaginary line ( 925 A) away from the user&#39;s head toward the throwing shoulder (a positive 90 angle would mean that structure  200  would be extending parallel to line  925 B). Conversely, a negative angle between 0 and 90 degrees refers to an angular position from the first imaginary beginning toward the user&#39;s head and toward the non-throwing shoulder.  FIG. 4  illustrates this convention, showing a positive angle is from line  925 A away from the user&#39;s head and that a negative angle is from line  925 A toward the user&#39;s head. Accordingly, when the present disclosure and claims refer to upper guide structure  200  “extending upward” from a shoulder portion of body section  100 , this means that upper guide structure  200  is between −5 degrees and 30 degrees from the first imaginary line. This convention (and thus the definition of “extending upward”) applies even if upper guide structure  200  is positioned on the left side of the user&#39;s body—a negative angle is away from the user&#39;s throwing shoulder and a positive angle is toward the user&#39;s throwing shoulder. 
     In other embodiments, depending on a particular user&#39;s configuration, upper guide structure  200  may be positioned differently relative to a shoulder portion of body section  100 . As will be described further below, upper guide structure  200  is typically positioned such that it interferes with an improper throwing motion by a user, but does not impede a user that exhibits a proper throwing motion. 
     As shown in  FIG. 2 , lower guide structure  300  extends from a hip portion of body section  100 . (Typically, structure  300  will extend from the hip portion that corresponds to the user&#39;s throwing arm.) In various embodiments, structure  300  extends sideways from a hip portion of body section  100 . As used herein, the phrase “extends sideways” refers to a range of positions. Consider a first imaginary line extending up from the ground through the user&#39;s hip (see reference numeral  927 A in  FIG. 4 ). Next consider a second imaginary line that that extends outward from the same hip (see reference numeral  927 B in  FIG. 4 ). The second line is separated from the first line by 90 degrees. Next consider a nomenclature such that a positive angle between 0 and 90 degrees refers to an angular position from the second imaginary line ( 927 B) toward that portion of the first imaginary line that corresponds to the user&#39;s lower body ( 927 A). Conversely, a negative angle refers to an angular position from the second imaginary line toward that portion of the first imaginary line that corresponds to the user&#39;s upper body.  FIG. 4  illustrates that a positive angle from line  927 B is toward the lower part of the user&#39;s body, while a negative angle is toward the upper part of the user&#39;s body. Accordingly, when the present disclosure and claims refer to lower guide structure  300  “extending sideways” from a hip portion of body section  100 , this means that lower guide structure  300  is between −30 degrees and 30 degrees from the first imaginary line. This convention (and thus the definition of “extending sideways”) applies even if lower guide structure  300  is positioned on the left side of the user&#39;s body—a negative angle is toward the upper half of the user&#39;s body and a positive angle is toward the lower half of the user&#39;s body. 
     In other embodiments, depending on a particular user&#39;s configuration, lower guide structure  300  may be positioned differently relative to a hip portion of body section  100 . As will be described further below, lower guide structure  300  is typically positioned such that it interferes with an improper throwing motion by a user, but does not impede a user that exhibits a proper throwing motion. 
     As described in the preceding paragraphs, guide structures  200  and  300  may be configured in a range of positions relative to body section  100  (and more particularly, to imaginary lines extending from the ground through the user&#39;s hip and shoulder regions). Some embodiments may also allow adjustability of the orientation of upper guide structure  200  and/or lower guide structure  300  in other manners. This adjustability may allow apparatus  90  to more particularly address a user&#39;s physical build and/or needed area of training or correction. For example, reference numeral  920  in  FIGS. 2 and 3  shows that the forward-to-rear position of upper guide structure  200  may be adjusted. Reference numeral  930  in  FIGS. 2 and 3  also depicts that the forward-to-rear position of lower guide structure  300  may also be adjusted as needed. 
       FIG. 4  also shows that the forward-rear tilt of lower guide structure  300  may allow variation in angle  935  to be customized to a particular user&#39;s needs. In some embodiments, the forward-rear tilt may be adjusted plus or minus 45 degrees (angle  935  having a range of 45 degrees forward to 45 degrees rear). Other embodiments may allow more or less adjustment. In some embodiments, the allowable adjustment may not be symmetric (e.g., angle  935  having a range of 45 degrees forward to 15 degrees rear). Some embodiments may allow adjustment in only one direction (e.g., angle  935  having a range of 30 degrees forward to zero degrees rear). 
     The various embodiments of upper guide structure  200  described above and their structural equivalents are referred to in the appended claims as “upper guide means.” Similarly, the various embodiments of lower guide structure  300  described above and their structural equivalents are referred to in the appended claims as “lower guide means.” Collectively, the “upper guide means” and the “lower guide means” are referred to as the “guide means” in the appended claims. 
     In various embodiments, such as that shown in  FIG. 2 , body section  100  includes attachment portions  140 A and  140 B and attachment portions  150 A and  150 B. Attachment portions  140  and  150  may constitute any suitable means for receiving guide structures  200  and  300  including, but not limited to, braces, clamps, hook-and-loop fasteners, snaps, hooks, buckles, straps, quick-release fasteners (e.g., quarter-turn fasteners), zippers, etc. The various embodiments of attachment portions  140  and  150  described above and their structural equivalents are referred to in the appended claims as “attachment means.” 
     In some embodiments, a particular apparatus  90  may be configured such that either or both of guide structures  200  and  300  are permanently attached to body section  100 . The phrase “permanently attached” does not connote that a structure may not be removed from body section  100 , only that apparatus  90  is not designed to permit a user to detach a guide structure. In other words, such guide structures are not meant to be removed from body section  100 , but rather are intended to remain affixed throughout the life of apparatus  90 . Thus, in some embodiments, guide structures  200  and  300  may be affixed to body section  100  via attachment mechanisms  140  and  150 , which, in one embodiment, may constitute braces or brackets with no release mechanism.  FIG. 4  illustrates one embodiment of a brace  310  used to keep lower guide structure  300  in place. In certain embodiments, a particular apparatus  90  might therefore be designed exclusively for either a left-handed or right-handed user, without any ability to reconfigure the apparatus. 
     In other configurations, guide structures  200  and  300  may be removable attached to body section  100 . The phrase “removable attached” connotes that these structures are designed to be removed and reattached by the user. For example, guide structures  200  and  300  may be attached to attachment portions  140  and  150  via a structure that has a release mechanism, such as a latch or clamp or brace (such as brace  310  shown in  FIG. 4 ). In various embodiments, the release mechanism may be located fully on the guide structure, fully on the attachment portion, or a combination of both. In certain embodiments, body section  100  may include attachment portions for only one side of the user&#39;s body. In such embodiments, apparatus  90  is designed exclusively for either a left-handed or a right-handed user. 
     In still other embodiments, upper guide structure  200  and lower guide structure  300  may be removable attached to body section  100 , and may be reattached to the opposite side of the body section to facilitate use by either right-handed or left-handed users. For example, the embodiments depicted in  FIGS. 2 ,  4 , and  6  have upper guide structure  200  and lower guide structure  300  attached to the right-side portion  120  of body section  100 , providing a configuration that is suitable for a right-handed user. In these figures, attachment structures  140 B and  150 B also exist on the left side portion  110  of body section  100 , thereby allowing for reconfiguration of the depicted embodiments. As noted above, such removable attachment may be achieved in particular implementations using various techniques, such as braces, clamps, hook-and-loop fasteners, snaps, hooks, buckles, straps, quick-release fasteners (e.g., quarter-turn fasteners), zippers, etc. 
     Turning now to  FIGS. 5A-E , depictions of various stages of a proper football throwing motion are shown with a user  10  wearing an embodiment of apparatus  90  that includes both upper and lower guide structures  200  and  300 .  FIG. 5A  depicts a user with the football held in the pre-pass triangle position  12 . In  FIG. 5B , user  10  has raised the football to L position  22 . In  FIG. 5C , user  10  has extended the throwing arm through position  32  to position  36  (and subsequently to follow-through positions  42  and  46 , shown in  FIGS. 5D and 5E , respectively). Notably, guide structures  200  and  300  are positioned relative to body section  100  such that they will not interfere with the throwing motion of a user that follows the throwing motion depicted in FIGS.  5 A-E—that is, structures  200  and  300  will not contact the user&#39;s throwing arm and thus provide tactile feedback, engaging the kinetic learning behavior of user regarding a correct throwing motion (as opposed to an incorrect throwing motion). By not contacting the upper guide structure  200  or the lower guide structure  300 , the user learns through kinesthetic movements what to do in a proper throwing motion. Kinetic learning takes place with repeated kinesthetic movements. Embodiments of apparatus  90  facilitates kinetic learning by providing the user with the freedom of muscle movements and voluntary muscle recruitment needed for correct muscle memory development and long-term learned muscle memory skills. 
     On the other hand, one or both of structures  200  and  300  may be positioned to interfere with an incorrect throwing motion of a user. For example, in  FIG. 5F , an embodiment of apparatus  90  is shown with upper guide structure  200 , but no lower guide structure  300 . As shown in  FIG. 5F , upper guide structure  200  is positioned such that if user  10  “winds up” by wrapping the ball and throwing hand behind the head (as is depicted in  FIG. 5F ), upper guide structure  200  will be contacted by the ball and/or the throwing hand, thereby providing immediate tactile feedback as to the user&#39;s incorrect mechanics. Another way of describing the improper throwing motion shown in  FIG. 5F  is that the user&#39;s throwing arm forms an acute angle (i.e., an angle of less than 90 degrees), as illustrated by angle  53  shown in  FIG. 5F . (By way of contrast, in a proper throwing motion, the user&#39;s throwing arm forms an angle of greater than or equal to 90 degrees in the L position—one example of this is shown in  FIG. 5B .) As used herein, the notion of an angle of the user&#39;s throwing arm is measured by an imaginary line from the user&#39;s shoulder to the user&#39;s elbow, and from the user&#39;s elbow to the user&#39;s wrist. If the user&#39;s lower arm is orthogonal to the user&#39;s upper arm, the throwing arm is said to be at a 90 degree angle for purposes of this disclosure. As the user&#39;s lower arm moves toward the user&#39;s head, the angle becomes acute. In some configurations, upper guide structure  200  is arranged to provide interference to the user&#39;s throwing motion when the user&#39;s throwing arm forms any angle of less than 90 degrees. Such an arrangement is in keeping with proper throwing mechanics, which begin to break down when a user&#39;s throwing arm forms an acute angle while bringing the ball backwards from the pre-pass triangle position. In other configurations, upper guide structure  200  may be arranged to provide interference to the user&#39;s throwing motion when the user&#39;s throwing arm forms an angle of a smaller number of degrees—for example, in some embodiments, upper guide structure  200  may begin to interfere with the user&#39;s throwing motion when the user&#39;s throwing arm forms an angle of 85 degrees or less, 80 degrees or less, 75 degrees or less, 70 degrees or less, etc. (Accordingly, an apparatus with an upper guide structure that only begins to interfere with the user&#39;s throwing motion when the user&#39;s throwing arm is at, e.g., an 88 degree angle is therefore contemplated by the present disclosure.) In general, by contacting upper guide structure  200  the user is able to learn through kinesthetic movements physical movements that should be avoided in attempting to achieve a proper throwing motion. 
     Similarly,  FIG. 5G  depicts an illustration of lower guide structure  300  interfering with the throwing motion of user  10  when the user drops his hand prior to, or while initiating (e.g., while “winding up”) a throwing motion. Lower guide structure  300  may also be contacted if the user follows through incorrectly and brings the right-side throwing arm to the right side hip (instead of to the left-side hip) after releasing the football. By contacting lower guide structure  300 , the user learns through kinesthetic movements “what not to do” in a proper throwing motion. Thus, embodiments of the present apparatus may provide a user with tactile feedback in cases where improper technique is performed, while leaving the throwing motion unconstrained in cases where proper technique is performed. In contrast, conventional training apparatus that may use guides (e.g., tracks, rails, elastic tubing, tension cords) to force a user&#39;s motion to follow an involuntary trajectory do not leave the user&#39;s throwing motion unconstrained when proper technique is performed. 
     Turning now to  FIG. 6 , one embodiment of a training apparatus  94  is shown. Apparatus is similar to apparatuses  90  and  92  described above, but includes an additional structure  400  for providing feedback. For example, attachment  400  may be used to provide further tactile feedback in cases where desired technique is violated (e.g., too much extension of the arm at the beginning of the throwing motion). Attachment  400  may also (or alternately) provide structural rigidity to the training apparatus. Attachment  400  may provide visual feedback as an additional training tool to measure the height or location of ball on release or the angle and level of football upon release. Other structures may be implemented to customize the training apparatus to particular user needs. 
     Although several of the figures described above are presented in the context of training a user in the proper techniques for throwing a football, the present techniques and structures are also well suited for training other similar throwing motions, including, but not limited to, baseball. These techniques may be applicable, for example, to pitching a baseball from the “stretch” position, or to certain throws made by an infielder (e.g., in turning a double-play). The application of the various embodiments of the apparatus  90  described herein is in no way limited to football. 
     Although specific embodiments have been described above, these embodiments are not intended to limit the scope of the present disclosure, even where only a single embodiment is described with respect to a particular feature. Examples of features provided in the disclosure are intended to be illustrative rather than restrictive unless stated otherwise. The above description is intended to cover such alternatives, modifications, and equivalents as would be apparent to a person skilled in the art having the benefit of this disclosure. 
     The scope of the present disclosure includes any feature or combination of features disclosed herein (either explicitly or implicitly), or any generalization thereof, whether or not it mitigates any or all of the problems addressed herein. Accordingly, new claims may be formulated during prosecution of this application (or an application claiming priority thereto) to any such combination of features. In particular, with reference to the appended claims, features from dependent claims may be combined with those of the independent claims and features from respective independent claims may be combined in any appropriate manner and not merely in the specific combinations enumerated in the appended claims.