Patent Publication Number: US-2023146748-A1

Title: Composite electrode battery

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/276,915 filed Nov. 8, 2021 entitled “ELECTROLYTE CONTROL SYSTEM AND BATTERY CELL STRUCTURE,” the contents of which is hereby incorporated by reference. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This disclosure relates in general to the field of energy storage devices, and more particularly, to a battery for electrical energy storage. 
     BACKGROUND 
     A battery is a collection of one or more cells that store electrical energy and is capable of using the stored electrical energy to supply electric power. The cell is a basic electrochemical unit that handles the actual storage of the energy in the battery. The cell includes three main components; at least two electrodes and an electrolyte. The two electrodes are an anode, the negative electrode, and a cathode, the positive electrode. 
     When the anode loses electrons to an external circuit, the anode becomes oxidized. The anode can also be called the fuel electrode or the reducing electrode. Once the cathode accepts electrons from the internal circuit, the cathode gets reduced. The cathode can also be called the oxidizing electrode. The electrolyte acts as the medium for transferring charge in the form of ions between the two electrodes. Generally, the electrolyte is not electrically conductive but is ionic conductive and is often referred to as an ionic conductor. The chemical reactions create the flow of electrons within a circuit. The stored chemical energy is then converted into direct current electric energy. 
     There are two main types of batteries, a primary battery and a secondary battery. Primary batteries cannot be recharged and are often a power source for portable electronics and devices. Primary batteries can only be used once and cannot be recharged. Most primary batteries are single cell batteries with one anode and one cathode. Secondary batteries can be recharged and are often used as energy storage devices and where the battery is used as a primary battery, then recharged and used again as a primary battery. Secondary batteries can be a single cell battery with one anode and one cathode or a multiple cell battery with a plurality of anodes and cathodes. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       To provide a more complete understanding of the present disclosure and features and advantages thereof, reference is made to the following description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying figures, wherein like reference numerals represent like parts, in which: 
         FIGS.  1    is a simplified block diagram of a composite electrode battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  2    is simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  3    is a simplified block diagram exploded view illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  4    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  5    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  6    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  7    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  8    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIGS.  9 A and  9 B  are a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIGS.  10 A and  10 B  are a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a manifold for use with a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  11    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a manifold for use with a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  12    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a manifold for use with a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  13    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a manifold for use with a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  14    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  15    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  16    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  17    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  19    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  20    is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  21    is a simplified flowchart illustrating potential operations that may be associated with the system in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; and 
         FIG.  22    is a simplified flowchart illustrating potential operations that may be associated with the system in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure 
     
    
    
     The FIGURES of the drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale, as their dimensions can be varied considerably without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The following detailed description sets forth examples of apparatuses, methods, and systems relating to enabling a composite electrode structure in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Features such as structure(s), function(s), and/or characteristic(s), for example, are described with reference to one embodiment as a matter of convenience; various embodiments may be implemented with any suitable one or more of the described features. 
     Overview 
     In an example, a battery can include an electrolyte and a plurality of electrodes. The plurality of electrodes include at least one anode and at least one cathode. At least one of the plurality of electrodes can include an electrode substrate and a current collector frame. In some examples, an electrically conductive adhesive layer is used to secure the electrode substrate to the current collector frame. In addition, at least a portion of the current collector frame can be coated with a protective layer to help protect the current collector frame from the electrolyte  108 . The electrode substrate can include a porous material and an active material. 
     The active material can react with the electrolyte in the battery. More specifically, if the electrode is an anode, the active material reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. If the electrode is a cathode, the active material reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction that that enables that electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. The porous material can provide more surface areas than a conventional planar electrode to help enable more active electrode materials loading and higher areal capacity. The porous structure also allows the electrolyte to diffuse inside the electrode for higher more efficient interactions between electrolyte and active electrode materials and can provide higher ion kinetics as compared to electrodes without a porous structure. 
     The current collector frame can be a conductive rigid or semi-rigid material or materials and provide support for the electrode substrate and help transfer electrons to or from the electrode substrate. In some examples, the porous structure also includes a conductive fluid that can help increase the conductivity of the porous electrode substrate and transfer electors to or from the current collector frame. The composite structure of the electrode can help improve both ionic and electrical conductivity upon scaling up and increased battery capacity. For example, the electrode can be sandwiched with another electrode to obtain a higher capacity. 
     In the following description, various aspects of the illustrative implementations will be described using terms commonly employed by those skilled in the art to convey the substance of their work to others skilled in the art. However, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the embodiments disclosed herein may be practiced with only some of the described aspects. For purposes of explanation, specific numbers, materials, and configurations are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the illustrative implementations. However, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that the embodiments disclosed herein may be practiced without the specific details. In other instances, well-known features are omitted or simplified in order not to obscure the illustrative implementations. 
     In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings that form a part hereof wherein like numerals designate like parts throughout, and in which is shown, by way of illustration, embodiments that may be practiced. It is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural or logical changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. Therefore, the following detailed description is not to be taken in a limiting sense. For the purposes of the present disclosure, the phrase “A and/or B” means (A), (B), or (A and B). For the purposes of the present disclosure, the phrase “A, B, and/or C” means (A), (B), (C), (A and B), (A and C), (B and C), or (A, B, and C). Reference to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” in the present disclosure means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment. The appearances of the phrase “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. The appearances of the phrase “for example,” “in an example,” or “in some examples” are not necessarily all referring to the same example. The term “about” includes a plus or minus twenty percent (±20%) variation. For example, about one (1) millimeter (mm) would include one (1) mm and ±0.2 mm from one (1) mm. Similarly, terms indicating orientation of various elements, for example, “coplanar,” “perpendicular,” “orthogonal,” “parallel,” or any other angle between the elements generally refer to being within plus or minus five to twenty percent (+/−5-20%) of a target value based on the context of a particular value as described herein or as known in the art. 
     As used herein, the term “when” may be used to indicate the temporal nature of an event. For example, the phrase “event ‘A’ occurs when event ‘B’ occurs” is to be interpreted to mean that event A may occur before, during, or after the occurrence of event B, but is nonetheless associated with the occurrence of event B. For example, event A occurs when event B occurs if event A occurs in response to the occurrence of event B or in response to a signal indicating that event B has occurred, is occurring, or will occur. Reference to “one example” or “an example” in the present disclosure means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one example or embodiment. The appearances of the phrase “in one example” or “in an example” are not necessarily all referring to the same examples or embodiments. 
     Example Battery and Electrode 
       FIG.  1    is simplified block diagram of a battery  102   a,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. In some examples, the battery  102   a  is an aqueous rechargeable battery (ARBs). The battery  102   a  can include an outer casing  104 , a plurality of electrodes  106 , an electrolyte  108 , a positive terminal  110 , and a negative terminal  112 . The plurality of electrodes  106  include at least one anode  118  and at least one cathode  120 . As described in more detail below, the reactive material used to create an electrode determines if the electrode is an anode or a cathode. 
     The outer casing  104  defines an interior space  122  inside the battery  102   a.  The interior space  122  includes the plurality of electrodes  106  and the electrolyte  108  and helps keep the plurality of electrodes  106  and the electrolyte  108  from being exposed to an outside environment  124 . The outside environment  124  is the environment around the battery  102   a  or the environment outside of the outer casing  104 . The positive terminal  110  and the negative terminal  112  extend from the outer casing  104  into the outside environment  124 . 
     The at least one anode  118  and/or at least one cathode  120  include at least an electrode substrate and a current collector frame. In some examples, the at least one anode  118  and/or the at least one cathode  120  also include an electrically conductive adhesive layer to secure the electrode substrate to the current collector frame. In addition, at least a portion of the current collector frame can be coated with a protective layer to help protect the current collector frame from the electrolyte  108 . 
     The composite structure of the electrode  106  can help improve both ionic and electrical conductivity upon scaling up and increased battery capacity. For example, the electrode  106  can be sandwiched with another electrode  106  to obtain a higher capacity. The battery capacity is based on the capacity of each electrode  106  in the battery. Electrode capacities are compared through three different measures, the “specific energy” or “gravimetric capacity” is the capacity per unit of mass, the “volumetric capacity” is the capacity per unit volume, and the “areal capacity” is the area-normalized specific capacity. The areal capacity of the electrode  106  is obtained by dividing the measured cell capacity by the geometric electrode area. More specifically, the areal capacity of the electrode  106  can be determined by the formula Q A =Q v L=ρQ s 2 AM   L , where Q A , is a function of the electrode thickness, L, and volumetric capacity of the electrode, Q v . The active material properties are the specific capacity Q s , the crystal density ρ and the volume fraction Ε AM  in the electrode  106 . A penetration depth larger than the electrode thickness suggests that transport of ions in the electrolyte  108  will not limit the full utilization of the active material in the electrode  106 . Electrolyte transport within a porous electrode will become limiting if the penetration depth is on the order of or less than the actual electrode thickness. 
     A porous electrode can provide more surface areas than conventional planar electrode to help enable more active electrode materials loading and higher areal capacity. The porous structure also allows the electrolyte to diffuse inside the electrode  106  for higher more efficient interactions between electrolyte and active electrode materials and can provide higher ion kinetics as compared to electrodes without a porous structure. However, the overall battery kinetic performance is hindered by the slow electron kinetics in pure porous electrodes due to the relative lower often poor electrical conductivity. Also, porous electrodes typically have weaker mechanical stability. To overcome the shortcomings of a porous electrode, the composite electrode  106  can leverage the high area benefits of the porous electrode and provide mechanical support and high electrical conductivity by integrating the porous structure with a current collector frame and, in some examples, a conductive adhesive or conductive interface. 
     It is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. Substantial flexibility is provided by the battery and/or the electrode in that any suitable arrangements and configuration may be provided without departing from the teachings of the present disclosure. 
     For purposes of illustrating certain example techniques of the battery  102   a,  the following foundational information may be viewed as a basis from which the present disclosure may be properly explained. A number of prominent technological trends are currently afoot and these trends are changing the power delivery landscape. The growing energy demands and the increasing environmental concerns drive the transformation of power generation from primarily fossil and nuclear sources to solely renewable energy sources and the search of efficient energy management systems (conversation, storage and delivery), to achieve a secure, reliable and sustainable energy supply. The success is strongly dependent on the achievements in efficient electrochemical power sources that are also safe to operate, economically viable, and environmentally friendly. One type of reliable and sustainable energy supply is a rechargeable battery that can delivery electrical power when needed and then recharge so the battery is available to provide the electrical power the next time it is needed. 
     Generally, a battery is a device that stores chemical energy and converts it to electricity. This is known as electrochemistry and the system that underpins a battery is called an electrochemical cell. A battery can be made up of one or several electrochemical cells. Each electrochemical cell consists of two electrodes, an anode and a cathode, separated by an electrolyte. 
     The battery includes chemicals that undergo a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction that involves the exchange of electrons. More specifically, two half-reactions occur, and in the case of an electrochemical cell, one half-of the reaction occurs at the anode, the other half of the reaction occurs at the cathode. At the anode, the electrode that functions as the anode reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. At the cathode, a simultaneous chemical reaction occurs that enables that electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. The cathode is reduced during the reaction and undergoes a reduction reaction where electrons are gained by the cathode. The anode is oxidized during the reaction and undergoes an oxidation reaction where electrons are lost by the anode. 
     Any two conducting materials that have reactions with different standard potentials can form the cathode and anode of an electrochemical cell because the stronger material, the cathode, will be able to take electrons from the weaker material, the anode. A good choice for an anode is a material that produces a reaction with a significantly lower (more negative) standard potential than the material that is chosen for the cathode. This allows electrons to be attracted to the cathode from the anode and when the electrons are provided with a pathway to travel from the anode to the cathode, the flow of the electrons can provide electrical power. 
     The electrolyte can be a liquid, gel or a solid substance that allows for the movement of charged ions. Electrons have a negative charge, and because the flow of negative electrons travels through the circuit, the flow or movement of the negative charge needs to be balanced by positive ions. The electrolyte provides a medium through which charge-balancing positive ions can flow. As the chemical reaction at the anode produces electrons, to maintain a neutral charge balance on the electrode, a matching amount of positively charged ions are also produced at the cathode. The positively charged ions do not travel along the pathway that the electrons travel (e.g., a wire connection) but are instead released into the electrolyte. While the pathway (e.g., wire) provides for the flow of negatively charged electrons, the electrolyte provides the pathway for the transfer of positively charged ions to balance the negative flow. This flow of positively charged ions is just as important as the electrons that provide the electric current in the external circuit used to power devices. The charge balancing is necessary to keep the entire reaction in the battery running. 
     When a rechargeable battery that does not have a charge or is not fully charged is connected to an external electricity source and energy is sent back in to the battery, the energy in to the battery reverses the chemical reaction that occurred during discharge. This sends the positive ions released from the anode into the electrolyte back to the anode and the electrons that the cathode took in are also sent back to the anode. The return of both the positive ions and electrons back into the anode primes the system and the battery is recharged. 
     Rechargeable battery technologies including lead-acid (Pb-acid), nickel-cadmium (Ni—Cd), nickel-metal hydride (Ni—MH), redox flow-cells (RFCs) and lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have found practical applications in various areas, however, the inherent limitations of these systems impede their applications in large-scale energy storage. For example, operational safety is of prime importance along with other desirable characteristics such as low installed cost, long cycling life, high energy efficiency and sustainability. More specifically, the Pb-acid and Ni-Cd generally suffer from the limited energy density (˜30 Wh kg-1), as well as the use of environmentally threatened electrode materials. The nickel-iron battery is challenged by the poor charge/discharge efficiency (ca. 50-60%) and the self-discharge (20-40% per month) related to the corrosion and poisoning of the iron anode. The Ni-MH possesses higher energy density, but delivers poor low-temperature capability, limited high-rate capability, and poor Coulombic efficiency. Redox-flow cells can be easily linked together, however, the relatively low power/energy density and the special heat/temperature control requirements limit their use. Lithium-ion batteries hold great promise, benefiting from higher energy density, lighter weight and longer life time, however, incidents caused by the flammability of the organic electrolyte and the reactivity of the electrode materials with the organic electrolytes in the case of overcharging or short-circuiting raise serious safety concerns. In addition, the lithium-ion battery technologies have a comparatively high cost due to the materials used (organic Li salts and organic electrolytes), the special cell designing and manufacturing processes, and auxiliary systems required for their operation. Another challenge regarding lithium-ion batteries is the limited rate capability and specific power that are restricted by the limited ionic conductivities of the organic electrolyte. What is needed is a battery that is relatively safe to operate, economically viable, and environmentally friendly. 
     A system, method, apparatus, means, etc. to help enable a composite electrode structure for a battery can help resolve these issues (and others). In an example, a battery (e.g., battery  102   a ) can include a plurality of electrodes (e.g., electrodes  106 ). One or more of the electrodes can include a composite structure for the electrode structure. The composite structure can include a current collector frame and an electrode substrate. In some examples, the electrode substrate can be coupled to the current collector frame using an adhesive. The composite structure of the electrode can help improve both ionic and electrical conductivity upon scaling up and increased battery areal capacity. 
     In an illustrative example, the current collector frame comprised of a rigid or semi-rigid conductive or semi-conductive material. More specifically, the current collector frame can be a metal frame (e.g., stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), Zn, or some other type of conductive or semi-conductive metal that is corrosion resistant). If the electrode is an anode, the electrode substrate includes a material that reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction (oxidation) that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. More specifically, if the electrode is an anode, the electrode substrate can be comprised of a porous material and an active electrode material such as zinc (Zn), silicon (Si), copper (Cu), Aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ), zinc oxide (ZnO), lead (Pb), Aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), bismuth (Bi), tin (Sn), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), Indium (In), and their alloys or composites or some other material that reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction (oxidation) that enables the electrode that functions as an anode to produce electrons. If the electrode is a cathode, the electrode substrate includes a material that reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction (reduction) that enables the electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. More specifically, if the electrode is a cathode, the substrate can be comprised of a porous material an active electrode material such as manganese oxide (MnO2), bismuth oxide (Bi2O3), vanadium oxide (V2O5), lead oxide (PbO), iron oxide (Fe2O3), zinc hexacyanoferrate (ZnHCF), copper hexacyanoferrate (C6CuFeN6), prussian blue (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2), tungsten disulfide (WS2), or some other material that that reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction (reduction) that enables that electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. Note that the active electrode material chosen for the anode (or cathode) depends on the material in the cathode (or anode) because any two conducting materials that have reactions with different standard potentials can form the cathode and anode of an electrochemical cell as the stronger material, the cathode, will be able to take electrons from the weaker material, the anode. 
     In some examples, the current collector frame and electrode substrate are coupled or bonded together with an electrically conductive adhesive. More specifically, the current collector frame and electrode substrate can be coupled or bonded together with a conductive adhesive. The conductive adhesive can be composed of a binder and a conductive filler. The conductive filler can be comprised of carbon nanotube, graphite, active carbon, carbon black, carbon power, metal power (stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), silver (Ag), or zinc (Zn)), conductive polymer, or some other type of conductive filler. The binder can be comprised of epoxy resin, urethane resin, silicone resin, synthetic rubber filled epoxy, or some other type of binder. In a specific illustrative example, the bonding process can include curing the conductive adhesive with appropriate heating (e.g., about 50° C. to about 150° C. and ranges therein) and pressure (e.g., about 1 psi to about 1000 psi and ranges therein) for hours (e.g., about 0.5 hours to about 12 hours and ranges therein). The current collector frame and conductive adhesive help to enable electronic and ionic conductivities during battery cell size scaling (e.g., increasing the size and capacity of the battery. 
     In an illustrative example, the electrode made from the current collector frame, the electrode substrate, and optionally the conductive adhesive can be sandwiched with another electrode to obtain higher areal capacity. For example, an electrode with a frame-electrode substrate-frame sandwich structure can be created with the frames on the outside surface area of the electrode. In another example, an electrode with a multilayered frame-electrode substrate-frame-electrode substrate- . . . -frame sandwich structure can be created to multiply the areal capacity without sacrificing electrical conductivity. In yet another example, an electrode with an electrode substrate-frame-electrode substrate sandwich structure with the frame inside of the electrode and the electrode substrate on the outside surface area of the electrode can be created. In yet another example, an electrode with a multilayered electrode substrate-frame-electrode substrate-frame- . . . -electrode substrate sandwich structure can be created to multiply the areal capacity without sacrificing electrical conductivity. In some examples, the bonding between the frame and the electrode substrate is through the electrically conductive adhesive. 
     While specific examples of the order and number of frames and/or electrode substrate are discussed herein, other examples with a different order and/or number of frames and/or electrode substrates would be apparent to one skilled in the art and the order and/or number of frames and electrode substrates is only limited by design constrains and design choice. 
     For example, to increase a battery&#39;s voltage, there are two options. A first option is to choose different materials for the electrodes that will give the electrode a greater electrochemical potential. The other option is to stack several cells (a cell is a single anode and a single cathode separated by the electrolyte) together. When the cells are combined in series, the combination of the cells in series has an additive effect on the battery&#39;s voltage. Essentially, the force at which the electrons move through the battery can be seen as the total force as electrons move from the anode in the first cell of the battery all the way through each cell to the cathode of the final cell. When the cells are combined in parallel, the combination of the cells in parallel increases the battery&#39;s possible current, which can be thought of as the total number of electrons flowing through the cells, but not its voltage. 
     The current collector frame can be made of metals such as stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), zinc (Zn, or some other similar type of material that is corrosive resistance and conductive or semi-conductive. The electrode substrate can be grown on the surface of the current collector frame via disposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, sputtering, electrophoretic deposition, or some other means of coating, depositing, growing, etc. the electrode substrate on the current collector frame. 
     In some examples, the electrode substrate can be attached directly to the current collector frame without the usage of the conductive adhesive. If the conductive adhesive is not used to coupled the electrode substrate to the current collector frame, an interface layer may be used between the electrode substrate and the current collector frame to enhance bonding properties between the electrode substrate and the current collector frame. The interface layer is electrically conductive and can include metals, conductive polymers, carbon powders, or other electrically conductive material that can help bond the substrate and the current collector frame. The interface layer can be grown through wet-chemical reaction or deposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, sputtering, electrophoretic deposition, or some other means of coating, depositing, growing, etc. the interface layer or depositing the interface layer on the current collector frame. In addition, a protection layer can be applied on the current collector frame and/or electrode structure of the electrode. The protection layer serves to help extend the lifetime of the active electrode materials by suppress dendrite formation and acidic electrolyte attack. The protection layer can be ionic conductive and composed of metal oxides, metal nitride, metal carbide, polymers, and carbonaceous materials. The protection layer can be applied to the current collector frame and/or electrode structure with coating methods such as wet-chemical reaction or deposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, sputtering, electrophoretic deposition, or some other means of coating, depositing, growing, etc. the protection layer onto the current collector frame and/or the electrode structure. The protection layer can be in-situ grown upon the battery charging/discharging cycling through electrolyte-electrode interface reactions by controlling the electrolyte additive types and concentrations, as well as battery voltage and currents. 
     In some examples, a planar flow manifold can be added to provide even flow distribution of the electrolyte in the electrode. The electrolyte can flow in from one or more inlets of the manifold, through the manifold, and flow out from a plurality of outlets. The outlets can be configured to direct the electrolyte towards the electrode substrate to help provide an even flow distribution of the electrolyte on the electrode substrate. 
     In some examples, the/can be used in an aqueous rechargeable battery. Aqueous rechargeable batteries (ARBs) are particularly suited for large-scale energy storage in terms of safety, economics, and sustainability. More specifically, aqueous rechargeable batteries are inherently safe because the aqueous electrolyte does not require the usage of flammable organic electrolytes. Also, the ionic conductivities of the aqueous electrolyte is about two orders of magnitude higher than that of nonaqueous electrolytes, ensuring a relatively fast charge and discharge and high round-trip efficiency as compared to nonaqueous electrolytes. Further, the electrolyte salt and solvent in the aqueous electrolyte are typically less expensive as compared to nonaqueous electrolytes and the rigorous manufacturing requirements of nonaqueous electrolytes are avoided. In addition, aqueous electrolytes are generally environmentally benign. 
     The first aqueous rechargeable batteries used LiMn2O4 as the positive electrode and β-VO2 as the negative electrode. In the first aqueous rechargeable batteries, metal-ions were intercalated into or extracted from the active materials during charge/discharge processes, similar to that of organic systems. The first aqueous rechargeable batteries are often referred to as “rocking chair” type aqueous rechargeable batteries or “intercalation-chemistry” type aqueous rechargeable batteries. Since the creation of the first aqueous rechargeable batteries, significant progresses have been made as more electrochemical redox couples are identified, more insights into fundamental chemistry are gained, and new battery chemistries are explored. More recently, a hybrid design that involves coupling an intercalation cathode with a metal anode or combining an intercalation anode with a metal oxides/sulphide has been introduced in aqueous rechargeable batteries with the appearance of a new class of aqueous hybrid batteries systems such as LiMn2O4//Zn, Na0.44MnO2//Zn, Na0.61Fe1.94(CN)6, Ni(OH)2//TiO2, and CoxNi2-xS2//TiO2, MnO2//Zn. Different from the “rocking chair” type aqueous rechargeable batteries, the new class of aqueous rechargeable batteries operate based on two reversible electrochemical redox processes involving the anode and cathode electrodes separately and the charge/discharge mechanism in one or two electrodes is not guest ion intercalation/de-intercalation. Instead, the reversible electrochemical redox processes can be the reaction of Zn2+ deposition-dissolution and/or proton-induced oxidization/reduction. The electrolyte in the new class of aqueous rechargeable batteries acts as conducting ions and cooperates with the electrodes to store energy, rather than used as the simple supporting media as in “rocking chair” type aqueous rechargeable batteries. 
     Since electrochemical redox reactions involved in an aqueous rechargeable battery take place in a water environment, the electrochemical stability window is generally limited to be 1.23 V, beyond which H2O is electrolyzed with O2 or H2 gas evolution. Thus, materials with working potentials located between the H2 evolution potential and O2 evolution potential are promising electrode candidates for aqueous rechargeable batteries. In principle, electrodes with a working potential between 3 and 4 V (vs. Li+/Li) can be used as a cathode and electrodes with a working potential between 2 and 3 V (vs. Li+/Li) can be chosen as an anode. It should be noted that the H2 evolution potential and O2 evolution potential are strongly dependent on pH value and special caution should be given for electrode materials selection to avoid water decomposition. The electrochemical stability window limits the achievable energy density as the energy per electron for aqueous batteries is much lower than the energy per electron for non-aqueous battery. For example, a Li ion battery typically has a voltage window above 3.5 V while the voltage window for an aqueous battery is often below 3 V. Therefore, it is critical for aqueous rechargeable battery to obtain high areal capacity to improve the overall energy density. 
     Rechargeable batteries based on multivalent metal ions insertion/extraction in an aqueous solution, such as Mg2+, Ca2+, Zn2+, and Al3+, are considered to be one of the most promising aqueous rechargeable battery systems due to the potential two-to-three-fold high energy density as compared to monovalent aqueous rechargeable batteries. The water molecules can effectively shield the electrostatic repulsion of multivalent ions and lower the activation energy for charge transfer at electrode/electrolyte interface as compared to an organic solution. Thus, the multivalent aqueous rechargeable batteries can often deliver better electrochemical properties than organic rechargeable batteries. 
     Metallic zinc (Zn) is a promising anode candidate for aqueous batteries because of its low equilibrium potential (−0.762 V vs. SHE), high specific energy density (825 mAh g−1), and abundance and low toxicity. Different from the “rocking chair” type batteries, exchange of Li+ and Zn2+ ions in mild acidic aqueous electrolyte occurs upon charging/discharging. The electrolyte here acts as conducting ions and cooperates with the electrodes to store energy, rather than acting as the simple supporting media in “rocking chair” type batteries. The electrochemical reaction between the LiMn2O4 cathode and zinc (Zn) metal anode can be expressed as follows: 
       Zn x MnO2⇄Zn x-y MnO 2 +yZn 2+ +2ye − 
 
       Zn 2+ +2e − ⇄Zn
 
     In some examples, adding carbon additives into a porous zinc (Zn) anode can help to improve the discharge capacity as well as the cycling stability of the zinc (Zn) anode. The improvement can be attributed to the carbon coating of the zinc (Zn) particle surface that prevents the direct contact of the zinc (Zn) anode with the electrolyte, and thus the corrosion of the active zinc (Zn) particle is restrained. In addition, the pores of activated carbon can accommodate the deposition of zinc (Zn) dendrites and insoluble anodic products, giving an increase in cycling stability. Organic additives can also be added to help suppress the dendrite formation and corrosion of zinc (Zn) anode upon cycling. 
     Turning to  FIG.  2   ,  FIG.  2    illustrates example details of an electrode  106   a,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in  FIG.  2   , the electrode  106   a  can include an electrode substrate  202 , a conductive adhesive  204 , and a current collector frame  206 . The conductive adhesive  204  is a layer between the electrode substrate  202  and the current collector frame  206  and helps to couple the electrode substrate  202  to the current collector frame  206 . 
     The electrode substrate  202  includes a porous material and one or more active electrode materials. The porous material of the electrode substrate  202  provides a higher surface area as compared to a conventional planar electrode and the porous material helps to enable high active electrode materials loading for high areal capacity. Moreover, the high surface area allows for relatively efficient electrolyte diffusion into the substrate for effective interactions between the electrolyte and active electrode materials with ion transfer that provides higher ionic kinetics as compared to planar electrodes that include non-porous material. The porous material may be copper foam, nickel foam, stainless steel foam, titanium foam, carbon felt, carbon cloth, carbon paper conductive polymers, or some other type of material that can provide a conductive surface area. 
     If the electrode is a cathode, the active electrode material can react with the electrolyte in a reduction reaction to gain or attract electrons. If the electrode is an anode, the active electrode material can react with the electrolyte in an oxidation reaction and loose electrons. The active electrode material can be one or more of manganese oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, titanium oxide, iron oxide, zinc metal, lead oxide, lead, or some other type of material that can be used to react with the electrolyte. Note that the active electrode material chosen for the anode (or cathode) depends on the material in the cathode (or anode) because any two conducting materials that have reactions with different standard potentials can form the cathode and the anode of an electrochemical cell because the stronger material, the cathode, will be able to take electrons from the weaker material, the anode. 
     For example, if the electrode  106   a  is an anode, the active electrode material in the electrode substrate  202  can be a material that reacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) in a reaction (oxidation) that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. More specifically, if the electrode substrate  202  is an anode, the electrode substrate  202  can be comprised of zinc, silicon, copper, Aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ), zinc oxide (ZnO), lead (Pb), Aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), bismuth (Bi), tin (Sn), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), In, and their alloys or composites or some other material that reacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) in a reaction (oxidation) that enables the electrode that functions as an anode to produce electrons. If the electrode  106   a  is a cathode, the active electrode material in the electrode substrate  202  can be a material that reacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) in a reaction (reduction) that enables that electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. More specifically, if the electrode is a cathode, the electrode substrate  202  can be comprised of manganese oxide (MnO2), bismuth oxide (Bi2O3), vanadium oxide (V2O5), lead oxide (PbO), iron oxide (Fe2O3), zinc hexacyanoferrate (ZnHCF), copper hexacyanoferrate (C6CuFeN6), prussian blue (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2), tungsten disulfide (WS2) or some other material that that reacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) in a reaction (reduction) that enables that electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. 
     The current collector frame  206  is comprised of a rigid or semi-rigid corrosive resistant conductive or semi-conductive material. More specifically, the current collector frame  206  can be a metal frame (e.g., stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), zinc (Zn), or some other type of corrosive resistant conductive or semi-conductive metal). In some examples, the current collector frame  206  can include one or more materials selected from the group consisting of stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), or zinc (Zn). In some examples, the current collector frame  206  can be in a form of paper, cloth, felt, foil, foam, sheet, mesh, or thin film. The current collector frame  206  and the electrode substrate  202  are coupled or bonded together with the conductive adhesive  204 . In an example, the conductive adhesive  204  is a conductive resin. The conductive adhesive  204  can be composed of a binder and a conductive filler. The conductive filler can be comprised of carbon nanotube, graphite, active carbon, carbon black, carbon power, metal power (stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), silver (Ag), or zinc (Zn)), conductive polymer, or some other type of conductive filler. The binder can be comprised of epoxy resin, urethane resin, silicone resin, synthetic rubber filled epoxy, or some other type of binder. In a specific illustrative example, the bonding process can include curing the conductive adhesive with appropriate heating (e.g., about 50° C. to about 150° C. and ranges therein) and pressure (e.g., about 1 psi to about 1000 psi and ranges therein) for hours (e.g., about 0.5 hours to about 12 hours and ranges therein). The conductive adhesive  204  can be applied to the current collector frame  206  through dry powder painting or wet painting by dissolving the polymer binder and the conductive filler in a solvent, wherein the solvent is water, aliphatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons, xylene, toluene, n-butanol, isopropanol, or ketones. The current collector frame  206  and the conductive adhesive  204  help to enable electronic and ionic conductivities upon battery cell size scaling. 
     The electrode substrate  202  interacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. More specifically, if the electrode  106   a  is an anode, the electrode substrate  202  reacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) in an oxidation reaction that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. If the electrode  106   a  is a cathode, the electrode substrate  202  reacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) in a reduction reaction that enables the electrode to accept electrons. The current collector frame  206  carries the electrons to the electrode  106   a  if the electrode is a cathode or away from the electrode  106   a  if the electrode  106   a  is an anode. The composite structure of the electrode can help improve both ionic and electrical conductivity upon scaling and provide for increased battery areal capacity. The current collector frame  206  can provide a relatively fast pathway for electron transfer from the electrode substrate  202  through the conductive adhesive  204  that allows efficient electron collection during scaling up and size increases. At the same time, the current collector frame  206  provides relatively high mechanical strength to support the composite electrode that overcomes the mechanical limit of porous electrode substrate  202 . This enables the cell dimension scaleup due mechanical strength requirement. More specifically, as illustrated in  FIG.  2   , the electrode substrate  202  (has a greater surface area to help facilitate the chemical reaction between the electrode substrate  202  and the electrolyte  108  (not shown)). Due to the composite structure of the electrode  106 , the electrode  106  can deliver relatively high ionic conductivity, high electrical conductivity, and high mechanical strength, as compared to some electrodes that do not have a composite structure (e.g., an electrode made from a single type of material). 
     Turning to  FIG.  3   ,  FIG.  3    illustrates example details of an electrode  106   b,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in  FIG.  3   , the electrode  106   b  can include the electrode substrate  202 , the conductive adhesive  204 , the current collector frame  206 , and a protective layer  302 . The conductive adhesive  204  helps to couple the electrode substrate  202  to the current collector frame  206 . The electrode substrate  202  interacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. 
     More specifically, if the electrode  106   b  is an anode, the electrode substrate  202  reacts with the electrolyte  108  in a reaction that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. If the electrode  106   b  is a cathode, a chemical reaction occurs that enables the cathode to accept electrons. The current collector frame  206  carries the charge or electrons to the electrode  106   b  if the electrode  106   b  is a cathode or away from the electrode  106   b  if the electrode  106   b  is an anode. 
     The protective layer  302  helps to protect the current collector frame  206  from the electrolyte  108  (not shown). The protective layer  302  can be an ionic conductive layer and include metal oxides, metal nitride, metal carbide, polymers, and carbonaceous materials. In some examples, the protective layer  302  can include one or more polymer binders including alkyd resins, acrylic resin, latex, phenolic resins, urethane resins, epoxy resins, polyester resins, chlorinated rubber, triglycidyl isocyanurate and β-hydroxy alkylamide, and water-proof tapes including kapton tape, butyle tape, duct tape, silicone tape, electrical tape, drywall tape, or gaffer tape. 
     The protective layer  302  serves to help extend the lifetime of the active electrode materials by suppress dendrite formation and acidic electrolyte attack. The protective layer  302  can be ionic conductive and composed of metal oxides, metal nitride, metal carbide, polymers, and carbonaceous materials. The protective layer  302  can be applied to the the current collector frame and/or the electrode substrate with coating methods such as wet-chemical reaction or deposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, sputtering, electrophoretic deposition, or some other means of coating, depositing, growing, etc. the protective layer  302  on the current collector frame and/or the electrode substrate. The protective layer  302  can be in-situ grown upon the battery charging/discharging cycling through electrolyte-electrode interface reactions by controlling the electrolyte additive types and concentrations, as well as battery voltage and currents. 
     As illustrated in  FIG.  3   , the electrode  106   b  includes two current collector frames  206  to help facilitate the movement of electrons or charges. Each current collector frame  206  can be configured to collect electrons from the electrode substrate  202  and transfer the collected electrons to an external circuit. With the current collector frame  206  on both side of the electrode substrate  202 , the collected electrons can have bidirectional flow from the center of the electrode  106   b.  This helps improve electrical conductivity of the electrode  106   b  and doubles the thickness of the electrode substrate  202  for higher areal capacity. 
     Turning to  FIG.  4   ,  FIG.  4    illustrates example details of an electrode  106   c,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in  FIG.  4   , the electrode  106   c  can include the electrode substrate  202 , the conductive adhesive  204 , the current collector frame  206 , and the protective layer  302 . The protective layer  302  helps to protect the current collector frame  206  from the electrolyte  108  (not shown). 
     The conductive adhesive  204  helps to couple the electrode substrate  202  to the current collector frame  206 . The electrode substrate  202  interacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. More specifically, if the electrode  106   c  is an anode, the electrode substrate  202  reacts with the electrolyte  108  in a reaction that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. If the electrode  106   a  is a cathode, a chemical reaction occurs that enables the electrode to accept electrons. The current collector frame  206  carries the charge or electrons to the electrode  106   c  if the electrode is a cathode or away from the electrode  106   c  if the electrode is an anode. 
     As illustrated in  FIG.  4   , the electrode  106   b  includes two electrode substrates  202  and three current collector frames  206  to help facilitate the chemical reaction and the movement of electrons or charges and to help obtain higher areal capacity. With the integration of three current collector frames  206  on both sides of the two electrode substrates  202 , the electrons in each electrode substrate  202  can have bidirectional flow pathways from the center of the electrode  106   b.  With the electron collection pathways/efficiency improvement of three current collector frames  206 , the overall thickness of the electrode substrate  202  can be effectively improved as compared to just one current collector frame  206  for even higher areal capacity. While  FIG.  4    illustrates a specific example of the order and number of frames and electrode substrate, other examples with a different order and/or number of frames and/or electrode substrates would be apparent to one skilled in the art and the order and/or number of frames and/or electrode substrates is only limited by design constrains and design choice. 
     Turning to  FIG.  5   ,  FIG.  5    illustrates example details of the electrode  106   a,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in  FIG.  5   , the electrode  106   a  can include two electrode substrates  202 , the conductive adhesive  204 , and the current collector frame  206 . The conductive adhesive  204  helps to couple the electrode substrate  202  to the current collector frame  206 . The electrode substrate  202  interacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. 
     As illustrated in  FIG.  5   , by having two of the electrode substrates  202  a greater surface area is created to help facilitate the chemical reaction with the electrolyte  108  and the electrode substrate  202 . While the electrode substrate  202  can have a relatively poor electrical conductivity, the current collector frame  206 , with relatively high electrical conductivity, provides a relatively fast pathway for electron transfer from the electrode substrates  202  through the conductive adhesive  204  that allows relatively efficient electron collection. This way, the composite electrode  106   d  can meet the requirement of both electronic and ionic conductivity at high areal capacity. Moreover, the current collector frame  206  can provide high mechanical strength to support the electrode  106   a  and can help overcome the mechanical limit of a bare porous electrode substrate  202  to meet the mechanical strength requirement for cell size scaleup. 
     Turning to  FIG.  6   ,  FIG.  6    illustrates example details of an electrode  106   d,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in  FIG.  6   , the electrode  106   d  can include three electrode substrates  202 , the conductive adhesive  204 , and two current collector frames  206 . The conductive adhesive  204  helps to couple the electrode substrates  202  to a corresponding current collector frame  206 . The electrode substrates  202  interact with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. 
     As illustrated in  FIG.  6   , one or more electrode substrates  202  and current collector frames  206  can be added to create a larger electrode to help improve both ionic and electrical conductivity for increased battery capacity. The two current collector frames  206  can collect the electron flow from all three electrode substrates  202 . This adds to the areal capacity to help improve the battery energy density. 
     Turning to  FIG.  7   ,  FIG.  7    illustrates example details of an electrode  106   e,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in  FIG.  7   , the electrode  106   e  can include the electrode substrate  202 , the conductive adhesive  204 , and two current collector frames  206   a.  In some examples, the electrode  106   e  can include the protective layer  302  (illustrated in  FIGS.  3  and  4   ). 
     The conductive adhesive  204  helps to couple the electrode substrate  202  to the current collector frame  206 . The electrode substrate  202  interacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. The current collector frames  206   a  carry the charge or electrons to the electrode  106   d  or away from the electrode  106   d.  The conductive adhesive  204  plays an important role in both helping to maintain the structural stability of the electrode  106   e  and allowing for efficient electron transport between the electrode substrate  202  and the current collector frames  206   a.  In a specific example, to help realize these dual functions, a binder and conductive filler can be mixed together through heating and a pressing treatment to create a conductive adhesive that can be used as the conductive adhesive  204 . 
     As illustrated in  FIG.  7   , the two current collector frames  206   a  have a support structure to help support the electrode  106   d  and provide some rigidity to the electrode  106   d.  More specifically, as illustrated in  FIG.  7   , the two current collector frames  206   a  can have a window pane profile or an array of box like sections to help provide some rigidity to the electrode  106   d.  Moreover, the window pane structure helps to allow electrolyte penetration and circulation into the porous electrode substrate  202  for efficient ionic diffusion and electrochemical reactions on the substrate surface. The window pane profile also breaks the electron collections into different small sections to help with the collection of electrons as the distance each electron has to travel is reduced as compared to a current collector frame around only the outside edges of the electrode substrate  202 . This benefits the electron collection effectiveness as the electrode substrate  202  size scales up by adding more sections. 
     Turning to  FIG.  8   ,  FIG.  8    illustrates example details of an electrode  106   f,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in  FIG.  8   , the electrode  106   f  can include the electrode substrate  202 , the conductive adhesive  204 , and two current collector frames  206   a.  In some examples, the electrode  106   f  can include the protective layer  302  (illustrated in  FIGS.  3  and  4   ). 
     The conductive adhesive  204  helps to couple the electrode substrate  202  to the current collector frame  206 . The electrode substrate  202  interacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. The current collector frames  206   a  carry the charge or electrons to the electrode  106   d  or away from the electrode  106   d.    
     As illustrated in  FIG.  8   , the two current collector frames  206   a  have a support structure to help support the electrode  106   d  and provide some rigidity to the electrode  106   d.  More specifically, as illustrated in  FIG.  8   , the two current collector frames  206   a  can have a window pane profile or an array of box like sections (to help provide some rigidity to the electrode  106   d ). Also, one or more of the electrode substrates  202  and the current collector frames  206   a  can be added to create a larger electrode. When stacking more than one electrode substrate  202 , the window pane design allows electrolyte penetration and circulation into all the electrode substrates  202  for efficient ionic diffusion and electrochemical reactions, especially upon tripled or greater surface areas and thickness. Moreover, the current collector frames  206  and the conductive adhesive  204  allow for effective electron collections from the electrode substrate  202 . and allow for relatively high kinetic battery performance with increased areal capacity, as compared to some electrodes without a window pane design. 
     Turning to  FIG.  9 A ,  FIG.  9 A  illustrates example details of the electrode substrate  202 , in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in  FIG.  9 A , the electrode substrate  202  can include a porous material  902  and an active material  904 . The active material  904  can be can applied to the porous material  902  using coating methods such as wet-chemical reaction or deposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, electrophoretic deposition, sputtering, or some other means of applying the active material  904  to or coating, depositing, growing, etc. the active material  904  on the porous material  902 . 
     The porous material  902  can include copper foam, nickel foam, stainless steel foam, titanium foam, carbon felt, carbon cloth, carbon paper conductive polymers, or some other type of material that can provide a conductive surface area for the active electrode materials. If the electrode is an anode, the active material  904  can include zinc (Zn), silicon (Si), copper (Cu), aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ), zinc oxide (ZnO), lead (Pb), Aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), bismuth (Bi), tin (Sn), MoS2, In, and their alloys or composites or some other material that reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction (oxidation) that enables the electrode that functions as an anode to produce electrons. If the electrode is a cathode, the active material  904  can include manganese oxide (MnO2), bismuth oxide (Bi2O3), vanadium oxide (V2O5), lead oxide (PbO), iron oxide (Fe2O3), zinc hexacyanoferrate (ZnHCF), copper hexacyanoferrate (C6CuFeN6), prussian blue (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2), tungsten disulfide (WS2) or some other material that that reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction (reduction) that enables that electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. Note that the active electrode material chosen for the anode (or cathode) depends on the material in cathode (or anode) because any two conducting materials that have reactions with different standard potentials can form the cathode and anode of an electrochemical cell as the stronger material, the cathode, will be able to take electrons from the weaker material, the anode. 
     Turning to  FIG.  9 B ,  FIG.  9 B  illustrates example details of the electrode substrate  202 , in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in  FIG.  9 B , the electrode substrate  202  can include the porous material  902  and the active material  904 . The porous material  902  can include a conductive fluid  906 . The conductive fluid  906  can be conductive ink or some other type of conductive fluid that can help increase the conductivity of the porous material  902 . 
     In some examples, the conductive fluid  906  is a mixture of a binder, electrically conductive material, and a solvent. The binder can include binder Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Polyvinyl butyral (PVB), Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), polyvinylpyrrolidone, ethyl cellulose, Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR), Poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) or some other similar type binder. The electrically conductive material can include carbon black, conductive graphite, carbon nanotube, activated carbon, amorphous carbon, electrically conductive polymer, metal particle such as zinc, nickel, chromium, copper, aluminum, stainless steel or some other similar type of conductive material, preferably a non-corrosive type of conductive material. The solvent can include N-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone (NMP), ethanol, acetone, Isopropyl alcohol, 4-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-pentanone, ethyl alcohol, water, or some other similar type of solvent. The conductive fluid  906  may be applied to the porous material  902  using brush painting, spin coating, soak coating, blade coating, dip-coating, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, sputtering, electrophoretic deposition, or some other means of applying the conductive fluid  906  to the porous material  902 . 
     Turning to  FIGS.  10 A and  10 B ,  FIGS.  10 A and  10 B  illustrate example details of different current collector frames  206 , in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. More specifically,  FIG.  10 A  shows a current collector frame  206   b,  a current collector frame  206   c,  a current collector frame  206   d,  a current collector frame  206   e,  a current collector frame  206   f,  and  FIG.  10 B  shows a current collector frame  206   g  and a current collector frame  206   h.  Note that the collector frames  206   b - 206   h  are illustrated as examples only and the shape and profile of the current collector frame  206  depends on design choice and design constraints. 
     As illustrated in  FIG.  10 A , the current collector frame  206   b  has circular holes that allow for electrolyte penetration and circulation through the porous material. The solid frame region provides an area to apply the conductive adhesive layer to help ensure good electron transfer between the collector frame and the electrode substrate. The current collector frame  206   c  with square holes for open spaces for electrolyte penetration and circulation through the electrode substrate and help to improve the ionic conductivity. The current collector frame  206   d  is a solid frame format without holes. The format of the current collector frame  206   h  without holes can maximize the area for the conductive adhesive layer and can help provide a large surface area for electron collection from the electrode substrate to the current collector frame  206   h.  The current collector frame  206   e  is hexagonal shaped that can fit a battery configuration of a hexagonal prism. The circular holes on the current collector frame  206   e  help to enable electrolyte penetration and circulation inside the electrode substrate. The current collector frame  206   f  is triangle shaped that can fit a triangular prism battery configuration. The circular holes on the current collector frame  206   f  help to enable electrolyte penetration and circulation inside the electrode substrate. 
     As illustrated in  FIG.  10 B , the current collector frame  206   g  can be folded from a middle portion of the current collector frame  206   g  to cover both sides of an electrode substrate such that electrons can be collected on both sides of the electrode substrate for higher battery kinetic performance. More specifically, as illustrated in  FIG.  10 B , the current collector frame  206   g  can include a first side  1002   a  and an opposite second side  1004   a.  From a relatively flat configuration (e.g., see the current collector frame  206   g - 1 ) the second side  1004   a  of the current collector frame  206   g  can be folded or bent towards the first side  1002   a  of the current collector frame  206   g  (e.g., see the current collector frame  206   g - 2 ) to form a sandwich type structure with an electrode substrate (not shown) between the first side  1002   a  and the second side  1004   a  of the current collector frame  206   g  and create an electrode  106  similar to the electrode  106   e  illustrated in  FIG.  7   . 
     The current collector frame  206   e  can have a profile that uses a double diagonal frame shape that can facilitate electron collection at the top of the current collector frame  206   e  for a relatively short travel distance to a battery terminal. Similar to the current collector frame  206   g,  the current collector frame  206   h  can be folded from a middle portion of the current collector frame  206   h  to cover both sides of an electrode substrate such that electrons can be collected on both sides of the electrode substrate for higher battery kinetic performance. More specifically, as illustrated in  FIG.  10 B , the current collector frame  206   h  can include a first side  1002   b  and an opposite second side  1004   b.  From a relatively flat configuration (e.g., see the current collector frame  206   h - 1 ) the second side  1004   b  of the current collector frame  206   h  can be folded or bent towards the first side  1002   b  of the current collector frame  206   h  (e.g., see the current collector frame  206   h - 2 ) to form a sandwich type structure with an electrode substrate (not shown) between the first side  1002   n  and the second side  1004   n  of the current collector frame  206   h  and create an electrode  106  similar to the electrode  106   e  illustrated in  FIG.  7   . 
     Turning to  FIG.  11   ,  FIG.  11    illustrates example details of an electrolyte manifold  1102 , in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. The electrolyte manifold  1102  can be comprised of hollow tubing  1104  and include one or more inlets  1106  and one or more outlets  1108 . In an example, the electrolyte manifold  1102  can be comprised plastic including Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA), Nylon (polyamide), Polycarbonate, Polyethylene (PE) Low &amp; High-Density Polyethylene (LDPE &amp; HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyurethane (PU), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), or some other similar material. 
     The electrolyte (e.g., electrolyte  108 ) can enter the electrolyte manifold  1102  through the inlet  1106 , travel through the hollow tubing  1104  of the electrolyte manifold  1102 , and exit through the one or more outlets  1108 . The one or more outlets  1108  can be configured to control the direction of flow of the electrolyte as it exits each of the one or more outlets  1108 . As illustrated in  FIG.  11   , the electrolyte manifold  1102  can have a relatively square shaped profile, however, the electrolyte manifold  1102  can have any profile depending on design choice and design constraints. The hollow tubing  1104  can have a thickness greater than about 0.2 mm. In some examples, the thickness of the hollow tubing  1104  is between about 0.2 m and about five (5) mm and ranges therein (e.g., about one (1) mm to about four (4) mm, about two (2) mm to about five (5) mm, about 0.7 mm to about 2.4 mm, etc.). The thickness of the hollow tubing  1104  is at least a thickness that will allow the electrolyte to flow through the electrolyte manifold  1102  and depends on design choice and design constraints. 
     Turning to  FIG.  12   ,  FIG.  12    illustrates the electrolyte manifold  1102  being coupled to the electrode  106   e,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. The electrolyte manifold  1102  can be comprised of the hollow tubing  1104  and includes the one or more inlets  1106  and the one or more outlets  1108 . As illustrated in  FIG.  12   , the electrolyte manifold  1102  is being coupled to the electrode  106   e  (described with reference to  FIG.  7   ). The electrode  106   e  includes the electrode substrate  202 , the conductive adhesive  204 , and the current collector frames  206   a.  The electrolyte manifold  1102  can have a profile that matches the profile of the electrode  106   e.  Note that the electrolyte manifold  1102  can have a profile that matches the profile of other electrodes  106  than what is shown in  FIG.  11   , depending on design choice and design configuration. 
     Turning to  FIG.  13   ,  FIG.  13    illustrates the electrolyte manifold  1102  coupled to the electrode  106   e,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. The electrolyte manifold  1102  can be comprised of the hollow tubing  1104  and includes the one or more inlets  1106  and the one or more outlets  1108 . The electrode  106   e  includes the electrode substrate  202 , the conductive adhesive  204 , and the current collector frames  206   a.  The electrolyte manifold  1102  can have a profile that matches the profile of the electrode  106   e.  The electrolyte manifold  1102  can be coupled to the electrode  106  using water-proof glue, or some other means of securing the electrolyte manifold  1102  to the electrode  106 . 
     The electrolyte (e.g., electrolyte  108 ) can enter the electrolyte manifold  1102  through the inlet  1106 , travel through the hollow tubing  1104  of the electrolyte manifold  1102 , and exit through the one or more outlets  1108 . The one or more outlets  1108  can be configured to control the direction of flow of the electrolyte as it exits each of the one or more outlets  1108  so that the electrolyte is distributed across the electrode substrate  202 . 
     Turning to  FIG.  14   ,  FIG.  14    illustrates the electrolyte manifold  1102  coupled to the electrode  106   g,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. The electrode  106   g  can have a profile that is similar to the electrode  108   f  illustrated in  FIG.  8    except with the electrolyte manifold  1102  located in a middle portion of the electrode. More specifically, a first electrode  106   e - 1  can be on a first side of the electrolyte manifold  1102  and a second electrode  106   e - 2  can be on a second side of the electrolyte manifold  1102 , where the second side of the electrolyte manifold  1102  is opposite the first side of the electrolyte manifold  1102 . 
     The electrolyte manifold  1102  can be comprised of the hollow tubing  1104  and includes the one or more inlets  1106  and the one or more outlets  1108 . The electrode  106   e  includes include the electrode substrate  202 , the conductive adhesive  204 , and the current collector frames  206   a.  The electrolyte manifold  1102  can have a profile that matches the profile of the electrode  106   e.  The electrode  106   e - 1  includes the electrode substrate  202 , the conductive adhesive  204 , and the current collector frames  206   a.  The electrode  106   e - 2  includes include the electrode substrate  202 , the conductive adhesive  204 , and the current collector frames  206   a.  The electrolyte manifold  1102  can have a profile that matches the profile of the electrode  106   e - 1  and  106   e - 2 . The electrolyte manifold  1102  can be coupled to the electrodes  106   e - 1  and  106   e - 2  using water-proof glue, or some other means of securing the electrolyte manifold  1102  to the electrodes  106   e - 1  and  106   e - 2 . 
     The electrolyte (e.g., electrolyte  108 ) can enter the electrolyte manifold  1102  through the inlet  1106 , travel through the hollow tubing  1104  (not referenced) of the electrolyte manifold  1102 , and exit through the one or more outlets  1108  (not shown). The one or more outlets  1108  can be configured to control the direction of flow of the electrolyte as it exits each of the one or more outlets  1108  so that the electrolyte is distributed across the electrode substrate  202  of the electrodes  106   e - 1  and  106   e - 2 . 
     Turning to  FIG.  15   ,  FIG.  15    illustrates example details of an electrode  106   h,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in  FIG.  15   , the electrode  106   h  can include an electrode substrate  202   a  and a current collector frame  206   b.  The electrode substrate  202   a  interacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. The current collector frame  206   b  carries the charge or electrons to the electrode  106   h  or away from the electrode  106   h.    
     In some examples, the electrode substrate  202   a  can be coupled to the current collector frame  206   b  without the conductive adhesive  204 . For example, the electrode substrate  202   a  can be grown or deposited onto the current collector frame  206   b.  More specifically, the electrode substrate  202   a  can applied to the current collector frame  206   b  using coating methods such as wet-chemical reaction or deposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, electrophoretic deposition, sputtering, or some other means of applying the electrode substrate  202   a  to the current collector frame  206   b.    
     Turning to  FIG.  16   ,  FIG.  16    illustrates example details of an electrode  106   i,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in  FIG.  16   , the electrode  106   i  can include the electrode substrate  202   a,  the current collector frame  206   b,  and a protective layer  1602 . The electrode substrate  202   a  interacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. The current collector frame  206   b  carries the charge or electrons to the electrode  106   i  or away from the electrode  106   i.  The protective layer  1602  can help protect the electrode substrate  202   a  and/or the current collector frame  206   b  from the electrolyte  108 . The protective layer  1602  can be an ionic conductive layer and include metal oxides, metal nitride, metal carbide, polymers, and carbonaceous materials. The protection layer  1602  can be applied to the electrode substrate  202   a  with coating methods such as wet-chemical reaction or deposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, electrophoretic deposition, sputtering, or some other means of applying the protection layer  1602  to electrode substrate  202   a.  In some examples, the protective layer  1602  can include one or more polymer binders including alkyd resins, acrylic resin, latex, phenolic resins, urethane resins, epoxy resins, polyester resins, chlorinated rubber, triglycidyl isocyanurate and β-hydroxy alkylamide, and water-proof tapes including kapton tape, butyle tape, duct tape, silicone tape, electrical tape, drywall tape, or gaffer tape. 
     Turning to  FIG.  17   ,  FIG.  17    illustrates example details of an electrode  106   j,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in  FIG.  17   , the electrode  106   j  can include an electrode substrate  202   b,  the current collector frame  206   b,  and a substrate-electrode interface layer  1702 . The electrode substrate  202   b  interacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. The current collector frame  206   b  carries the charge or electrons to the electrode  106   j  or away from the electrode  106   j.  The substrate-electrode interface layer  1702  provides increased electronic conductivity and conduction surface areas between the substrate and the electrode for higher kinetics as compared to some electrodes without the substrate-electrode interface layer  1702 . The substrate-electrode interface layer  1702  can be graphene, amorphous carbon, activated carbon, carbon fiber, carbon nanotubes, metal oxides, electrically conductive oxides, carbides, metal powders, metal fibers, and conductive or non-conductive polymers, or some other material that can increase both surface area and electrical conductivity. 
     The substrate-electrode interface layer  1702  can be coupled to the current collector frame  206   b  using methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, electrophoretic deposition, atomic layer deposition, chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, pulsed laser deposition, thermal evaporation, electrodeposition, chemical deposition, sputtering, or some other means of coupling the substrate-electrode interface layer  1702  to the current collector frame  206   b.  The electrode substrate  202   b  can be coupled to the substrate-electrode interface layer  1702  using methods brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, electrophoretic deposition, atomic layer deposition, chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, pulsed laser deposition, thermal evaporation, electrodeposition, chemical deposition, sputtering, or some other means of coupling the electrode substrate  202   b  to the substrate-electrode interface layer  1702 . 
     Turning to  FIG.  18   ,  FIG.  18    illustrates example details of an electrode  106   k,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in  FIG.  18   , the electrode  106   k  can include the electrode substrate  202   a,  the current collector frame  206   b,  the protective layer  1602 , and the substrate-electrode interface layer  1702 . The electrode substrate  202   a  interacts with the electrolyte  108  (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. The current collector frame  206   b  carries the charge or electrons to the electrode  106   k  or away from the electrode  106   k.  The substrate-electrode interface layer  1702  helps to provide improved electronic conductivity and conduction surface areas between the electrode substrate  202   a  and the current collector frame  206   b  for higher kinetics as compared to some electrodes without the substrate-electrode interface layer  1702 . The protective layer  1602  can help protect the electrode substrate  202   a  and/or the current collector frame  206   b  from the electrolyte  108 . 
     Turning to  FIG.  19   ,  FIG.  19    illustrates example details of a battery  102   b,  in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. In some examples, the battery  102   b  is a dry cell battery. The battery  102   b  can include an outer casing  104   a,  a plurality of electrodes  1061 , an electrolyte  108   a,  a positive terminal  110   a,  and a negative terminal  112   a.  The plurality of electrodes  1061  include at least one anode  118   a  and at least one cathode  120   a.  The electrodes  1061  can be similar to the electrodes  106   a - 106   f  and  106   h - 106   k  described above. 
     Turning to  FIG.  20   ,  FIG.  20    illustrates example details of a battery  102 C, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. In some examples, the battery  102   c  is a button type battery. The battery  102   c  can include an outer casing  104   b,  a plurality of electrodes  106   m,  a positive terminal  110   a,  a negative terminal  112   b,  and a separator  1902 . The plurality of electrodes  106   m  include at least one anode  118   b  and at least one cathode  120   b.  The separator  1902  is between the cathode and the anode of the battery  102   c  to avoid an electrical short circuit yet still allow for ion diffusion for charge transfer. The electrolyte is filled in-between the electrodes  106   m  and soaked in the separator. The electrodes  106   m  can be similar to the electrodes  106   a - 106   f  and  106   h - 106   k  described above. 
     Turning to  FIG.  21   ,  FIG.  21    is an example flowchart illustrating possible operations of a flow  2100  that may be associated with enabling a composite electrode structure, in accordance with an embodiment. At  2102 , a porous material is dipped into a conductive fluid or coated with a conductive fluid. For example, the porous material  902  can be dipped or coated with the conductive fluid  906 . At  2104 , the porous material is coupled to a current collector frame. For example, the porous material  902  can be coupled to the current collector frame  206 . At  2106 , active electrode material is added to the porous material. For example, the active material  904  can be added to the porous material  902 . 
     Turning to  FIG.  22   ,  FIG.  22    is an example flowchart illustrating possible operations of a flow  2200  that may be associated with enabling a composite electrode structure, in accordance with an embodiment. At  2202 , an electrically conductive adhesive layer is added to a current collector frame. For example, the conductive adhesive  204  can be added to the current collector frame  206 . At  2204 , porous material is coupled to the electrically conductive adhesive layer on the current collector frame. For example, the porous material  902  can be coupled to the conductive adhesive  204  on the current collector frame  206 . At  2206 , active electrode material is added to the porous material. For example, the active material  904  can be added to the porous material  902 . Note that in some examples the flows  2100  and  2200  can be combined such that the porous material is dipped into a conductive fluid or coated with a conductive fluid, as in  2102  and the porous material that is coated with the conductive fluid is coupled to the electrically conductive adhesive layer on the current collector frame. 
     Substantial flexibility is provided by the batteries  102   a - 102   c  in that any suitable arrangements, chronologies, configurations, and timing mechanisms may be provided without departing from the teachings of the present disclosure. 
     Note that with the examples provided herein, interaction may be described in terms of one, two, three, or more elements. However, this has been done for purposes of clarity and example only. In certain cases, it may be easier to describe one or more of the functionalities by only referencing a limited number of elements. It should be appreciated that the batteries  102   a - 102   c  and their teachings are readily scalable and can accommodate a large number of components, as well as more complicated/sophisticated arrangements and configurations. Accordingly, the examples provided should not limit the scope or inhibit the broad teachings of the batteries  102   a - 102   c  and as potentially applied to a myriad of other architectures. 
     It is also important to note that the operations in the preceding flow diagrams (i.e.,  FIGS.  21  and  22   ) illustrate only some of the possible correlating scenarios and patterns that may be executed, some of these operations may be deleted or removed where appropriate, or these operations may be modified or changed considerably without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. In addition, the timing of these operations may be altered considerably. The preceding operational flows have been offered for purposes of example and discussion. Substantial flexibility is provided in that any suitable arrangements, chronologies, configurations, and timing mechanisms may be provided without departing from the teachings of the present disclosure. 
     Note that with the examples provided herein, interaction may be described in terms of one, two, three, or more elements. However, this has been done for purposes of clarity and example only. In certain cases, it may be easier to describe one or more of the functionalities by only referencing a limited number of elements. It should be appreciated that the batteries  102   a - 102   c  and their teachings are readily scalable and can accommodate a large number of components, as well as more complicated/sophisticated arrangements and configurations. Accordingly, the examples provided should not limit the scope or inhibit the broad teachings of batteries  102   a - 102   c  and as potentially applied to a myriad of other architectures. 
     Although the present disclosure has been described in detail with reference to particular arrangements and configurations, these example configurations and arrangements may be changed significantly without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. Moreover, certain components may be combined, separated, eliminated, or added based on particular needs and implementations. Additionally, although the batteries  102   a - 102   c  have been illustrated with reference to particular elements and operations, these elements and operations may be replaced by any suitable architecture, protocols, and/or processes that achieve the intended functionality of the batteries  102   a - 102   c.    
     Numerous other changes, substitutions, variations, alterations, and modifications may be ascertained to one skilled in the art and it is intended that the present disclosure encompass all such changes, substitutions, variations, alterations, and modifications as falling within the scope of the appended claims. In order to assist the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and, additionally, any readers of any patent issued on this application in interpreting the claims appended hereto, Applicant wishes to note that the Applicant: (a) does not intend any of the appended claims to invoke paragraph six (6) of 35 U.S.C. section 112 as it exists on the date of the filing hereof unless the words “means for” or “step for” are specifically used in the particular claims; and (b) does not intend, by any statement in the specification, to limit this disclosure in any way that is not otherwise reflected in the appended claims. 
     OTHER NOTES AND EXAMPLES 
     In Example A1, an electrode for a battery can include a current collector frame, an electrode substrate coupled to the current collector frame, where the electrode substrate includes a porous material and active electrode material on the porous material, and an electrically conductive adhesive layer between the current collector frame and the electrode substrate, where the electrically conductive adhesive layer comprises a polymer binder and a conductive filler. 
     In Example A2, the subject matter of Example A1 can optionally include where the porous material is copper foam, nickel foam, stainless steel foam, titanium foam, carbon felt, carbon cloth, or a carbon paper conductive polymer. 
     In Example A3, the subject matter of Example A1 can optionally include where the active electrode material comprises one or more of manganese oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, titanium oxide, iron oxide, zinc metal, lead oxide, or lead. 
     In Example A4, the subject matter of Example A1 can optionally include where the current collector frame includes one or more materials selected from the group consisting of stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), or zinc (Zn). 
     In Example A5, the subject matter of Example A1 can optionally include where the polymer binder includes epoxy resin, urethane resin, silicone resin, and/or synthetic rubber filled epoxy and the conductive filler includes carbon nanotube, graphite, active carbon, carbon black, carbon power, metal powder, and/or conductive polymer. 
     In Example A6, the subject matter of Example A1 can optionally include a protective layer to protect the current collector frame and/or the electrode substrate from an electrolyte in a battery. 
     In Example A7, the subject matter of Example A6 can optionally include where the protective layer comprises polymer binders including alkyd resins, acrylic resin, latex, phenolic resins, urethane resins, epoxy resins, polyester resins, chlorinated rubber, triglycidyl isocyanurate and β-hydroxy alkylamide, and/or water-proof tapes including kapton tape, butyle tape, duct tape, silicone tape, electrical tape, drywall tape, or gaffer tape. 
     In Example A8, the subject matter of Example A1 can optionally include where the electrically conductive adhesive layer is applied to the current collector frame through dry powder painting or wet painting by dissolving the polymer binder and the conductive filler in a solvent, where the solvent is water, aliphatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons, xylene, toluene, n-butanol, isopropanol, or ketones. 
     In Example A9, the subject matter of Example A1 can optionally include a conductive fluid, where the conductive fluid includes a binder, electrically conductive material, and a solvent. 
     In Example A10, the subject matter of Example A1 can optionally include a planar flow manifold, where the manifold is composed of plastic including Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA), Nylon (polyamide), Polycarbonate, Polyethylene (PE) Low &amp; High-Density Polyethylene (LDPE &amp; HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyurethane (PU), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). 
     In Example A11, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A2 can optionally include where the active electrode material comprises one or more of manganese oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, titanium oxide, iron oxide, zinc metal, lead oxide, or lead. 
     In Example A12, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A3 can optionally include where the current collector frame includes one or more materials selected from the group consisting of stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), or zinc (Zn). 
     In Example A13, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A4 can optionally include where the polymer binder includes epoxy resin, urethane resin, silicone resin, and/or synthetic rubber filled epoxy and the conductive filler includes carbon nanotube, graphite, active carbon, carbon black, carbon power, metal powder, and/or conductive polymer. 
     In Example A14, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A5 can optionally include a protective layer to protect the current collector frame and/or the electrode substrate from an electrolyte in a battery. 
     In Example A15, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A6 can optionally include where the protective layer comprises polymer binders including alkyd resins, acrylic resin, latex, phenolic resins, urethane resins, epoxy resins, polyester resins, chlorinated rubber, triglycidyl isocyanurate and β-hydroxy alkylamide, and/or water-proof tapes including kapton tape, butyle tape, duct tape, silicone tape, electrical tape, drywall tape, or gaffer tape. 
     In Example A16, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A7 can optionally include where the electrically conductive adhesive layer is applied to the current collector frame through dry powder painting or wet painting by dissolving the polymer binder and the conductive filler in a solvent, where the solvent is water, aliphatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons, xylene, toluene, n-butanol, isopropanol, or ketones. 
     In Example A17, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A8 can optionally include a conductive fluid, where the conductive fluid includes a binder, electrically conductive material, and a solvent. 
     In Example A18, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A9 can optionally include a planar flow manifold, where the manifold is composed of plastic including Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA), Nylon (polyamide), Polycarbonate, Polyethylene (PE) Low &amp; High-Density Polyethylene (LDPE &amp; HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyurethane (PU), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). 
     Example AA1 is a battery including a cathode having a first current collector frame and a first electrode substrate coupled to the first current collector frame using an electrically conductive adhesive, where the first electrode substrate includes a porous material and a first active electrode material within the porous material and an anode. 
     In Example AA2, the subject matter of Example AA1 can optionally include where the electrically conductive adhesive comprises a polymer binder and a conductive filler. 
     In Example AA3, the subject matter of Example AA1 can optionally include the polymer binder includes epoxy resin, urethane resin, silicone resin, and/or synthetic rubber filled epoxy and the conductive filler includes carbon nanotube, graphite, active carbon, carbon black, carbon power, metal powder, and/or conductive polymer. 
     In Example AA4, the subject matter of Example AA1 can optionally include where the anode includes a second current collector frame and a second electrode substrate coupled to the second current collector frame, where the second electrode substrate includes a porous material and a second active electrode material within the porous material. 
     In Example AA5, the subject matter of Example AA1 can optionally include where the porous material is copper foam, nickel foam, stainless steel foam, titanium foam, carbon felt, carbon cloth, or a carbon paper conductive polymer and the second active electrode material comprises one or more of manganese oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, titanium oxide, iron oxide, zinc metal, lead oxide, or lead. 
     In Example AA6, the subject matter of any one of Examples AA1-AA2 can optionally include where the polymer binder includes epoxy resin, urethane resin, silicone resin, and/or synthetic rubber filled epoxy and the conductive filler includes carbon nanotube, graphite, active carbon, carbon black, carbon power, metal powder, and/or conductive polymer. 
     In Example AA7, the subject matter of any one of Examples AA1-AA3 can optionally include where the anode includes a second current collector frame and a second electrode substrate coupled to the second current collector frame, where the second electrode substrate includes a porous material and a second active electrode material within the porous material. 
     In Example AA8, the subject matter of any one of Examples AA1-AA4 can optionally include where the porous material is copper foam, nickel foam, stainless steel foam, titanium foam, carbon felt, carbon cloth, or a carbon paper conductive polymer and the second active electrode material comprises one or more of manganese oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, titanium oxide, iron oxide, zinc metal, lead oxide, or lead. 
     Example AAA1 is an apparatus including at least one cathode having a plurality of current collector frames and a plurality of electrode substrates, where each of the plurality of the electrode substrates are coupled to at least one current collector frame from the plurality of current collector frames, where each of the plurality of the electrode substrates includes a porous material and an active electrode material within the porous material, at least one anode, and an electrolyte. 
     In Example AAA2, the subject matter of Example AAA1 can optionally include where the porous material is copper foam, nickel foam, stainless steel foam, titanium foam, carbon felt, carbon cloth, or a carbon paper conductive polymer and the active electrode material comprises one or more of manganese oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, titanium oxide, iron oxide, zinc metal, lead oxide, or lead. 
     In Example AAA3, the subject matter of Example AAA1 can optionally include where the battery is an aqueous rechargeable battery. 
     In Example AAA4, the subject matter of Example AAA1 can optionally include where the battery includes a plurality of cells. 
     In Example AAA5, the subject matter of Example AAA1 can optionally include an electrically conductive adhesive layer to couple each of the plurality of the electrode substrates to the at least one current collector frame from the plurality of current collector frames. 
     In Example AAA6, the subject matter of any one of Examples AAA1-AAA2 can optionally include where the battery is an aqueous rechargeable battery. 
     In Example AAA7, the subject matter of any one of Examples AAA1-AAA3 can optionally include where the battery includes a plurality of cells. 
     In Example AAA8, the subject matter of any one of Examples AAA1-AAA4 can optionally include an electrically conductive adhesive layer to couple each of the plurality of the electrode substrates to the at least one current collector frame from the plurality of current collector frames.