Patent Publication Number: US-9840347-B1

Title: Adhering modular elements for packaging structures

Description:
BACKGROUND 
     Unless otherwise indicated herein, the materials described in this section are not prior art to the claims in this application and are not admitted to be prior art by inclusion in this section. 
     Order fulfillment generally involves receiving, processing, and shipping orders for goods to purchasers or other recipients. Orders may be business-to-business orders or direct-to-consumer orders, among other possibilities. When an order is received, the goods are retrieved from a point of storage, e.g., a warehouse, for packaging. A container is selected, the goods are placed in the container, and the container is filled with cushioning material to protect the goods during shipment. Common types of cushioning material include air cushions (e.g., seal plastic bags filled with air), bubble wrap, paper cushioning (e.g., crumpled paper), cellulose wadding, and foam packing peanuts. 
     Conventional approaches to packaging goods for an order are inefficient and often ineffective. In particular, a conventional packaging process typically requires excessive and wasteful amounts of cushioning material. In addition, to provide the desired amount of cushioning, many conventional approaches require large volumes of cushioning material and a larger container, thereby increasing the amount of cost and effort to handle and ship the container. Moreover, even if the space in a container is filled with cushioning material, the cushioning material may not prevent the goods from shifting in the container and becoming damaged during shipment. Indeed, the packaging process itself may result in damaging the goods. For example, filling the remaining space in a container with packing peanuts after goods have been placed in the container may apply forces that may damage the goods. 
     SUMMARY 
     An automated packaging manufacturing system can produce custom protective structures for positioning and protecting order items in a container according to a custom packaging specification. For example, a packaging optimization module can determine the custom packaging specification after an order is received, so that the custom packaging specification can provide a packaging arrangement based on the actual combination of items in the order. Correspondingly, the automated packaging manufacturing system can produce custom protective structures after the order is received and when the custom packaging specification is ready. To provide prompt shipment of the order, manufacturing of the custom protective structures is preferably completed by the time that the items have been assembled and are ready for packing. In other words, rapid manufacturing of the one or more protective structures occurs while the items are simultaneously retrieved from inventory storage and assembled at a packing location. 
     To achieve the rapid manufacturing of custom protective structures, the automated packaging manufacturing system can manufacture a protective structure from a plurality of modular elements. The modular elements are readily and rapidly assembled to form a shape that allows items to be packaged according to the custom packaging specification determined from an analysis of the items. Each modular element acts as a single building block for the protective structure. The automated packaging manufacturing system can manipulate each modular element to build a custom shape for the protective structure. Advantageously, because each modular element can be separately manipulated, the amount of material used to form each protective structure can be closely controlled to reduce waste of the material, shipment weight, costs, etc. 
     The modular elements can adhere to each other to form shapes that can support packaged items during shipment, while also absorbing any shocks, impacts, vibrations, or other external forces that may damage the packaged items. In other words, the adhesion between the modular elements is strong enough, so that the resulting protective structure can maintain the custom shape set forth by the custom packaging specification. 
     According aspects of the present disclosure, a method for on-demand packaging of one or more items includes receiving a request to package one or more items, and in response to receiving the request, determining characteristic data for the one or more items, the characteristic data including an indication of a volume of each item. The method also includes determining one or more containers for packaging the one or more items based at least on the volume of each item. In addition, the method includes determining an arrangement of the one or more items in the one or more containers. Further, the method includes determining one or more protective structures including one or more features configured to position the one or more items in the one or more containers according to the arrangement. Moreover, the method includes determining relative positions for a plurality of self-adhering modular elements to form the one or more protective structures with the one or more features. The method includes receiving subsets of the plurality of self-adhering modular elements. The method also includes depositing the subsets of the plurality of self-adhering modular elements to corresponding relative positions to form at least one of the protective structures. The self-adhering modular elements adhere to each other as the subsets of self-adhering modular elements are deposited and the self-adhering modular elements come into contact with each other. In addition, the method includes packaging the one or more items in the one or more containers with the one or more protective structures to position the one or more items in the one or more containers according to the arrangement. 
     According to aspects of the present disclosure, a method for on-demand packaging of at least one item includes receiving a request to package one or more items, and in response to receiving the request, determining characteristic data for the one or more items, the characteristic data including an indication of a volume of each item. The method also includes determining one or more containers for packaging the one or more items based at least on the volume of each item. In addition, the method includes determining an arrangement of the one or more items in the one or more containers. Further, the method includes determining one or more protective structures including one or more features configured to position the one or more items in the one or more containers according to the arrangement. Moreover, the method includes determining relative positions for a plurality of modular elements to form the one or more protective structures with the one or more features. The method includes receiving subsets of the plurality of modular elements including an unactivated adhesive material applied thereto. The method also includes depositing the subsets of the plurality of modular elements to corresponding relative positions to form at least one of the protective structures. In addition, the method includes activating the unactivated adhesive material on the subsets of modular elements to cause the plurality of modular elements to adhere to each other while disposed in the relative positions. Further, the method includes packaging the one or more items in the one or more containers with the one or more protective structures to position the one or more items in the one or more containers according to the arrangement. 
     According to aspects of the present disclosure, a system for manufacturing packaging includes a computing system configured to execute instructions stored on computer-readable media. The instruction causing the computing system to: receive a request to package one or more items; in response to receiving the request, determine characteristic data for the one or more items, the characteristic data including an indication of a volume of each item; determine one or more containers for packaging the one or more items based at least on the volume of each item; determine an arrangement of the one or more items in the one or more containers; determine one or more protective structures including one or more features configured to position the one or more items in the one or more containers according to the arrangement; determine relative positions for a plurality of modular elements to form the one or more protective structures with the one or more features. The system also includes a source for the plurality of modular elements. In addition, the system includes a feeder coupled to the computing system and the source. The feeder includes an array of one or more chambers. The one or more chambers receive a subset of the plurality of modular elements. The feeder is configured to position the array to deposit the subset of modular elements into the respective relative positions to form at least one of the protective structures. 
     These as well as other aspects, advantages, and alternatives, will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art by reading the following detailed description, with reference where appropriate to the accompanying drawings. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  illustrates an example order system for processing an order for one or more items, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 2  illustrates a flowchart for an example approach for processing an order, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 3A  illustrates an example arrangement of items, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 3B  illustrates an example protective structure for protecting and retaining the items according to the example arrangement of  FIG. 3A . 
         FIG. 3C  illustrates the container, arrangement, and protective structure of  FIGS. 3A-3B  assembled according to an example packaging specification. 
         FIG. 4  illustrates a flowchart for an example approach for determining a packaging specification, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 5  illustrates an example system for picking items in an order, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 6  illustrates an example system for packing items in an order, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 7  illustrates further an example system for packing items in an order, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 8A  illustrates a perspective view of an example protective structure for packing items in an order, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 8B  illustrates another perspective view of the example protective structure of  FIG. 8A . 
         FIG. 8C  illustrates a cross-sectional view of the example protective structure of  FIG. 8A . 
         FIG. 8D  illustrates an example system for manufacturing the example protective structure of  FIG. 8A , according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 8E  illustrates another view of the example manufacturing system of  FIG. 8D . 
         FIG. 8F  illustrates the example protective structure of  FIG. 8A  positioned in a container, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 9A  illustrates a perspective view of another example protective structure for packing items in an order, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 9B  illustrates another perspective view of the example protective structure of  FIG. 9A . 
         FIG. 10A  illustrates a cross-sectional view of yet another example protective structure for packing items in an order, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 10B  illustrates an example system for manufacturing the example protective structure of  FIG. 10A , according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 11A  illustrates a further example of protective structures for packing items in an order, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 11B  illustrates the example protective structures of  FIG. 11A  positioned in a container, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 12  illustrates example modular elements for forming protective structures for packing items in an order, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 13  illustrates another further example of a protective structure for packing items in an order, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 14A  illustrates an example system for manufacturing a protective structure for packing items in an order, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 14B  illustrates another example system for manufacturing a protective structure for packing items in an order, according to aspects of the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     While the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments have been shown by way of example in the Figures and will be described in detail herein. It should be understood, however, that the invention is not intended to be limited to the particular forms disclosed. Rather, the invention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. It should be understood that other embodiments may include more or less of each element shown in a given Figure. Further, some of the illustrated elements may be combined or omitted. Yet further, an example embodiment may include elements that are not illustrated in the Figures. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The following detailed description describes various features and functions of the disclosed systems and methods with reference to the accompanying figures. In the Figures, similar symbols typically identify similar components, unless context dictates otherwise. The illustrative system and method embodiments described herein are not meant to be limiting. It will be readily understood that certain aspects of the disclosed systems and methods can be arranged and combined in a wide variety of different configurations, all of which are contemplated herein. 
     I. Overview 
     Aspects of an order processing system employ an automated packaging manufacturing system for rapid on-demand creation of customized protective structures. These customized protective structures are configured to arrange and protect specific (e.g., unique) combinations of items packed inside a container (e.g., box, crate, etc.). The automated packaging manufacturing system, for example, may be employed by an order processing system in a retail shipping/distribution facility. 
     When an order is received, the order processing system analyzes the order to identify the items in the order and to determine any number of characteristics about each item, including, but not limited to, shape, size, weight, center of mass, shear strength, bending strength, compression strength, hardness/softness, solid/liquid, material composition, fragility, value, and special handling/packing instructions. Evaluating these characteristics, the order processing system determines a more optimal way to package the items, including, but not limited to: (i) what type of containers to use; (ii) how many of each container type to use; (iii) what items to place in each container; (iv) how the items should be arranged and oriented in each container relative to each other and to the container; and (iv) how a protective structure for each container should be formed to meet the specifications of the arrangement. In addition, the protective structure for each container may be designed in an effort to employ a reduced (and potentially minimal) amount of material and to reduce (and potentially minimize) the volume of the container. 
     Once the more optimal arrangement of the items in each container is determined, the automated packaging manufacturing system makes one or more custom protective structures for receiving and positioning the items in the container according to the planned arrangement. The protective structures can be formed with specific shapes and sizes according to the planned arrangement. The protective structures may include one or more positioning/retaining features that engage the items and hold them securely in position inside the three-dimensional space of the container. For example, the positioning/retaining features may include recesses and/or cavities that are shaped to receive the items. In addition, the protective structures can be shaped to accommodate the interior shape of the container. In general, the protective structures provide sufficient support so that the items can maintain their positions in the container according to the planned arrangement, while also absorbing any forces that may otherwise damage the items. 
     According to the present disclosure, the automated packaging manufacturing system assembles a plurality of modular elements to form a protective structure that allows the items to be packaged according to an arrangement determined from the analysis of the order. Each modular element acts as a single building block for the protective structure, and the automated packaging manufacturing system can manipulate each modular element, e.g., via machine/robotic device, to build a custom shape for the protective structure. In one aspect, the modular elements are assembled according to a voxel-based analysis to define the protective structure. 
     After an order is received, rapid manufacturing of the one or more protective structures may occur while other aspects of the order processing occur simultaneously (e.g., while the items are being retrieved from inventory storage and assembled at a packing location). The one or more protective structures are formed after the order is analyzed to optimize packaging and is ready when the items have been assembled for packing. The dynamic nature of the order processing system allows optimized packaging of different orders, which may include any combination and number of different items. As such, the order processing system can advantageously handle large volumes of mixed-SKU orders. 
     In one non-limiting example, a first order includes two coffee mugs and a second order includes four glasses. The same order processing system can dynamically determine a unique packaging configuration for each order where, for example, a first protective structure has two internal cavities shaped to receive the two coffee mugs and a second protective structure has four internal cavities shaped to receive the four glasses. Additionally, for example, the system may determine that the glasses are more fragile than the coffee mugs, so the second protective structure may utilize more material to provide extra protection as compared to the first protective structure. Because the order processing system dynamically determines the specifications for the packaging scheme after the order is received, the packaging scheme can be optimized for the particular combination of items that is specified in the order. For example, the packaging scheme can optimize the arrangement (i.e., positioning and orientation) of the items relative to each other. 
     Order processing systems according to the present disclosure have advantages over other systems that use a generic packing material (e.g., packing peanuts) to fill unused space in the container but fail to keep the items securely in position for an optimal arrangement. Custom protective structures according to the present disclosure can also be optimized to minimize the amount of packaging material used in the container. The disclosed order processing systems also have advantages over systems that use the actual items to shape packaging material. For example, other order processing systems may provide shaped packaging materials by spraying or otherwise applying material (e.g., a foam) directly to the items once they are placed in the container, posing the risk of breaking or damaging the items. 
     Aspects of the order processing system according to the present disclosure can be partially or wholly implemented under automatic computer/machine control. For example, one or more computers and/or machines (e.g., robotic devices) can be employed to receive an order, determine a more optimal way to package the items, determine optimal configuration(s) for protective structure(s), manufacture the protective structure(s), and pack the items with the protective structure(s) in the container(s). 
     II. Example System and Method 
       FIG. 1  illustrates an example order system  100  for processing an order for one or more items. Aspects of the order system  100  employ an automated system for manufacturing protective structures that are used to arrange the items in one or more containers and to protect the items during shipment. In some cases, a business may implement the order system  100  to ship items to outside customers, which may include consumers and/or other businesses. Additionally or alternatively, the order system  100  may be implemented to send items internally between departments, divisions, subsidiaries, etc., within the same business. In general, however, an order refers to any type of request that results in the movement of one or more items between two locations, regardless of the entity or entities involved with the request. 
     In some cases, a business may produce some or all of the items in an order. Additionally or alternatively, the business may obtain some or all of the items in an order from another source. In general, the items in an order may include any number and combination of physical objects having different characteristics. With on-demand manufacturing of customized packaging, the order system  100  can provide protective structures for the particular combination of items in an order, regardless of the number of items and the varying characteristics of the items. Moreover, as described further below, the order system  100  determines a customized packaging scheme that can maximize protection for the items while also satisfying other requirements for the packaging. 
     The order system  100  includes a computing system  101  that manages aspects of the order processing. The computing system  101  includes an order interface  102  through which orders can be received for processing. The order interface  102  may be communicatively coupled to an order entry system (not shown) that receives orders. In some cases, sales personnel may enter orders from customers into the order entry system. Additionally or alternatively, outside customers may enter some or all orders directly into the order entry system. The order entry system, for example, may include order entry screens on a website and/or a software application provided by a business. The order entry screens may be accessible via any personal computing device such as, for example, a mobile phone, a laptop computer, a desktop computer, a tablet computer, etc. 
     The order system  100  includes various modules that can process the information in the orders received through the order interface  102 . In addition, the order system  100  includes various controllers that can control aspects of physical systems that manufacture the customized packaging for each order and that pick, pack, and ship items for each order. Aspects of these modules and controllers can be described with additional reference to the flowchart illustrated in  FIG. 2 . 
     The order interface  102  can receive an order  02  as shown in  FIG. 2 . The processing of order  02  involves retrieving items specified in the order  02  and packing the specified items in custom protective structures. The information in the order  02  is passed to an order processing module  103 , which according to act  202  identifies a list  04  specifying quantities of n items i for the order  02 . 
     As described in more detail below, to determine a customized packaging scheme for the order  02 , the order system  100  considers various characteristics for each item i. An item database  06  stores data for a catalog of items that may be specified in an order  02 , and an inventory module  104  maintains the item data in the database  06 . The item data includes various characteristics for each item in the catalog. For example, such characteristic data may include, but is not limited to, shape, size, weight, center of mass, shear strength, bending strength, compression strength, hardness/softness, solid/liquid, material composition, fragility, and value of an item. Therefore, according to act  204 , the inventory module  104  receives the list  04  of item(s) i specified in the order  02  and can query the database  06  for characteristic data for each item i. 
     For each item i among the n items, the inventory module  104  determines at decision  206  whether the database  06  stores all desired characteristic data on the particular item i. Characteristic data on the particular item i may be recorded in the database  06  in advance so that the characteristic data is readily available when an order  02  for the particular item i is received. In some cases, at least some of the characteristic data may be determined in advance by administrators of the order system  100 . Additionally or alternatively, at least some of the characteristic data may be provided in advance by a manufacturer or supplier of the particular item i. If the database  06  does include all desired characteristic data on the particular item i in advance, the desired characteristic data is readily retrieved from the database  06  according to act  214 . 
     If, however, all desired characteristic data on the particular item i is not available in the database  06 , the order system  100  can actively determine unknown characteristics in some embodiments. Specifically, according to acts  208  and  210 , the particular item i can be retrieved and examined in an item analysis system  120 . The item analysis system  120 , for example, may provide an examination station where personnel and/or machines can examine the item i closely and record the characteristic data in the item database  06  or other memory according to act  212 . The item analysis system  120  may include various tools for determining the characteristic data. For example, the item analysis system  120  may include measurement tools, such as rulers, scales, scanning devices, imaging devices, etc., for determining the size, shape, weight, etc., of an item. 
     In one non-limiting example, the item analysis system  120  can be operated by personnel of a manufacturer, retailer, and/or warehouse. In another non-limiting example, the item analysis system  120  can be included in a shipping kiosk (not shown) configured to receive an order  02  from a shipping customer (e.g., a stand-alone kiosk where the customer can drop of an item for on-demand, custom packaging and shipping). In yet another non-limiting example, personnel can additionally or alternatively manually enter qualitative data (e.g., fragility assessment) or non-physical data (e.g., monetary value) through the item analysis system  120 . 
     Because the order system  100  can determine characteristic data dynamically after an order  02  is received, the order system  100  can accommodate orders  02  for items that are custom designed, configured according to particular specifications in the order  02 , or otherwise made-to-order. In other words, the order system  100  can take orders  02  for items with characteristic data that can only be determined after the order  02  is placed. For example, the order system  100  can receive orders  02  for one-of-a-kind artwork or jewelry, custom-designed furniture, specially tailored clothing, etc. Once the characteristic data  10  is determined according to the acts  208  and  210 , the determined characteristic data  10  is stored in database  06  or other memory in act  212 . 
     Recording the determined characteristic data  10  in the database  06  allows such data to be available for subsequent orders  02 , so that acts  208 ,  210 , and  212  do not have to be subsequently repeated. For example, the characteristic data  10  can include identification information (e.g., a barcode, a serial number, a QR code, an image, a text-based description, etc.) that allows the system to identify the characteristic data  10  stored in the database  06  that is associated with items in subsequent orders  02 . In this way, the order system  100  can be configured to continuously learn about new items as orders  02  are received. 
     Although the embodiment of  FIG. 2  allows characteristic data to be determined dynamically after an order  02  is received, it is understood that alternative embodiments may be more highly automated, and as such, all desired characteristic data  12  for a particular item is recorded in the database  06  before an order  02  for the particular item can be received by the order system  100 . 
     Once all desired characteristic data  12  for each item i is retrieved according to act  214 , a packaging optimization module  105  processes a combination  14  of the characteristic data  12  and determines a custom packaging specification  16  according to act  216 . The custom packaging specification  16  produced by act  216  is then passed to an automated packaging manufacturing system  150 . Using the custom packaging specification  16 , the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  makes one or more protective structures that are employed to position and protect the items i in one or more respective containers for shipping the order  02 . As described in detail further below, the custom packaging specification  16  provides a more optimized approach for arranging the items i three-dimensionally in the shipment containers. The protective structures provide sufficient support to keep the items i in position during movement of the shipment containers, while also absorbing any shocks, impacts, vibrations, or other external forces that may damage the items i. 
     To produce the custom packaging specification  16 , the packaging optimization module  105 , for example, may analyze the three-dimensional aspects of the protective structures and the containers according to voxel-based approaches. A voxel describes a three-dimensional volumetric pixel, which can be used to break down any geometry according to any desired resolution or scale. Voxel-based approaches strike a balance between practical manufacturing and material optimization, based on the requisite structural properties. 
     Any number of criteria can be employed to determine the custom packaging specification  16 . The packaging optimization module  105  can take the particular characteristic data of each item i into account. In addition, the packaging optimization module  105  can also consider how the particular combination of quantities of the items i can be optimally packaged. For the combination, the packaging optimization module  105  may determine: (i) what type of containers to use; (ii) how many of each container type to use; (iii) what items to place in each container; and (iv) how the items should be arranged and oriented in each container relative to each other and to the container. Furthermore, the packaging optimization module  105  may consider other aspects of the order  02 . For example, the custom packaging specification  16  may take shipment specifications, e.g., distance of shipment, location of recipient, type of shipping vessel (e.g., ground, air, water), environmental conditions during shipment, etc., into account. 
     A more optimal packaging scheme, for example, may among other considerations:
         use less space for packaging;   use less packaging material;   orient the items to maximize use of the container space;   facilitate package handling by distributing mass of different items more evenly inside the container or lowering the center of gravity or the center of mass inside the container;   position less valuable items around the periphery of more valuable items;   strategically enhance protection for more fragile items while providing less protection for less fragile items;   configure packaging for shipment specifications, e.g., by configuring according to the distance of shipment, location of recipient, type of shipping vessel (e.g., ground, air, water), environmental conditions during shipment, etc.   facilitate removal of the items by the package recipient;   present the items to the recipient according to a particular aesthetic scheme (e.g., branding strategy); and/or   respond to feedback from past recipients regarding possible improvements to packaging, including feedback on items that were damaged during shipment.       

     Because the custom packaging specification  16  is determined after the order  02  is received, the custom packaging specification  16  can be dynamically customized to account for aspects that may not be known until after the order  02  is placed. For example, the inventory module  104  may determine that a quantity of an item in the order  02  is not in stock, e.g., in the inventory storage  110 . As such, the unavailable item may be shipped separately from the rest of the order  02 . Responding dynamically to changing inventory levels, the packaging optimization module  105  determines a custom packaging specification  16  that only has to accommodate items that are actually available and that can be included in the present shipment. Designing the packaging before the order  02  is placed (or before available inventory is determined) might otherwise result in manufacturing packaging for items that are not even available for shipment. 
     While the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  makes the protective structure(s) according to the custom packaging specification  16 , an automated picking system  130  acts in parallel to retrieve the items i from inventory storage  110 , according to act  222 . The computing system  101  includes a picking/packing controller  106  that controls aspects of the automated picking system  130 . To enhance efficiency, rapid manufacturing allows the protective structure(s) to be completed or substantially completed during the time generally required to complete the picking process. As such, the protective structure(s) are available (with no delay or with minimal delay) when the items i are ready for packing. 
     Once the items i have been retrieved, the picking/packing controller  106  causes an automated packing system  140  to pack the items i in the container(s) with the protective structure(s) according to act  224 . In particular, the custom packaging specification  16  is employed to direct the automated packing system  140  how each item i should be packed in the custom protective structure(s). If the custom packaging specification  16  designates that the items i are to be shipped in more than one container, the automated packing system  140  packs each subset of items i with its designated protective structure(s) in its designated container. The automated packing system  140  ensures that the subset of items i are properly combined with the protective structure(s) so that they are arranged in the three-dimensional space of the container according to the optimized packaging scheme. In some cases, the automated packing system  140  can move with one or more degrees-of-freedom to manipulate each item i so that the item i is properly placed in the protective structure(s) and/or properly oriented relative to the container and other items i. 
     The automated picking system  130  and the automated packing system  140  allow some or all aspects of the picking process of act  222  and the packing process of act  224  to be generally achieved without manual input or human intervention. For example, the automated picking system  130  and the automated packing system  140  may employ the picking/packing controller  106  and the packaging manufacturing controller  107 , respectively, to control machines, robotic devices, conveying devices, etc., to physically move and manipulate the items i, the protective structures, the containers. and related objects. 
     Once the automated packing system  140  assembles the items i with the respective protective structures and containers, the containers are prepared for shipment by a shipping system  160 . The shipping process can be handled by a shipping module  108  in the computing system  101 . For example, the shipping module  108  can prepare shipping documents, schedule delivery of the packaged items i, track delivery, etc. In one example implementation, the shipping module  108  can interface with a package delivery service such as GOOGLE EXPRESS to facilitate same-day delivery of the assembled package to the recipient and/or delivery during the recipient&#39;s preferred delivery time window. 
     As described, the order system  100  illustrated in  FIG. 1  includes a computing system  101  to handle aspects of the order process illustrated in  FIG. 2 . In particular, the computing system  101  includes the order interface  102 , the order processing module  103 , the inventory module  104 , the packaging optimization module  105 , the picking/packing controller  106 , the packaging manufacturing controller  107 , and the shipping module  108 . In some cases, the order processing module  103  can manage the other components of the computing system  101  and can coordinate the exchange of data between the various components. The components of the computing system  101  shown in  FIG. 1  may represent separate structural and/or logical components. Although the computing system  101  can include the separate components as shown in  FIG. 1 , it is understood that the components of a computing system  101  can be structurally and/or logically combined, configured, and/or organized in any manner to achieve the functions of an order system  100  according to the present disclosure. 
     III. Packaging Determination &amp; Optimization 
     As described above, after all of the characteristic data  14  is retrieved, the packaging optimization module  105  determines a custom packaging specification  16  for creating an on-demand, order-specific packaging of the one or more items i at act  216 . The packaging specification  16  can be characterized by, for example, one or more container parameters relating to a container in which the item(s) i will be packaged, one or more arrangement parameters relating to an arrangement for positioning the item(s) i within a three-dimensional space of the container, and one or more protection parameters relating to a protective structure for protectively retaining the item(s) i in the container according to the arrangement. 
     The container parameter(s) indicate which of a plurality of potential containers is to be utilized by the automated packing system  140  for packing the one or more items i. The potential containers can have, for example, different materials, volumes, dimensions, shapes, and/or sealing mechanisms (e.g., tape, slots and tabs, adhesive, etc.). Additionally or alternatively, for example, the potential containers can have a variety of different construction types (e.g., single face, single-wall, double-wall, etc.), material thicknesses (e.g., flute sizes), and/or performance characteristics (e.g., burst strengths, edge crush strengths, stacking strengths, compression strengths, flat crush characteristics, water resistances, electromagnetic insulation characteristics, temperature insulation characteristics, surface treatments, coatings, etc.). Accordingly, the container parameters can indicate, for example, a type of container (e.g., a material, a thickness, a shape, a volume, dimensions, a sealing mechanism, a construction type, performance characteristics, etc.) and a quantity of containers for packaging the one or more items i according to the packaging specification  16 . 
     Non-limiting examples of materials that can be utilized for the containers include paperboard, plastic, corrugated fiberboard (i.e., cardboard), wood, metal, combinations thereof, and/or the like. According to some aspects, the potential containers can include various different standard-sized boxes that are commonly used for shipping such as, for example, cuboid shaped boxes. According to additional and/or alternative aspects, the plurality of potential containers can include containers having non-standard sizes and shapes such as, for example, irregularly shaped containers (e.g., cylindrical, heart-shaped, triangular pyramid, cone, etc.) or asymmetrically shaped containers. Additionally, for example, one or more of the plurality of potential containers can be configured to contain the item(s) i in a wrap-like manner (e.g., a stretch wrap or a shrink wrap). In general, the container(s) provide a three-dimensional space in which the one or more items i can be held and transported. 
     The arrangement parameters indicate an arrangement, which is a positioning for each of the one or more items i within the three-dimensional space defined by the container(s) (i.e., an interior space of the container(s)). If, for example, the quantity of containers is greater than one, the arrangement parameters can further include an indication as to which of the one or more items i will be placed in which of the containers. 
     According to some aspects of the present disclosure, a coordinate system (e.g., a Cartesian coordinate system) can be employed to provide a frame of reference for indicating the relative positions (i.e., locations and/or orientations) of the one or more items i with respect to each other and the interior space of the container.  FIG. 3A  illustrates an example container  370  having an example coordinate system  372  assigned to an interior space  374  of the container  370  (i.e., a container volume  374 ). As shown in  FIG. 3A , a lower corner of the container  370  is located at an origin of the coordinate system  372  with an x-axis extending along a length of the container  370 , a y-axis extending along a height of the container  370 , and a z-axis extending along a width of the container  370 . 
     As further shown in  FIG. 3A , one or more items i are arranged in an example arrangement  376  within the container  370 . Each of the one or more items i can be associated with one or more three-dimensional coordinates to indicate the respective portions of the interior space  364  that will be occupied by the one or more items i when positioned in the container  370  according to the arrangement  376 . In this way, the packaging optimization module  105  can precisely determine the positioning of each of the one or more items i within the container  370 . In some example implementations, the arrangement parameters can be used to communicate the coordinate information to the automated packing system  140 , which can utilize the coordinate information to physically place the item(s) i into the proper positions within the container  370  and the protective structure. 
     According to some aspects of the present disclosure, the coordinate system  372  can also be used to spatially map the characteristic data  14  of the items i to the interior space  364  of the container  370 . For example, a three-dimensional data model can be determined for each item i based on the characteristic data  14  relating to the size, shape and/or dimensions. Using a computer-based simulation, the packaging optimization module  105  can spatially map the data model to the coordinate system  372  to determine the portion of the interior space  364  that is to be occupied by the item i when positioned in the container  370  according to the arrangement  376 . 
     According to additional and/or alternative examples, other characteristic data  14  associated with the one or more items i can be mapped to the interior space  364  and the coordinate system  372 . For example, the characteristic data  14  (or data models based thereon) relating to a value, a weight, a center of mass, a shear strength, bending strength, compression strength, a hardness/softness (e.g., a durometer value), a state of matter (e.g., solid, liquid, gas), a material composition, a fragility, information about nesting areas into which other items i may be nested, and other properties can be spatially mapped to the interior space  374  of the container  370  by the packaging optimization module  105 . As will be described further below, such spatial mapping of the characteristic data  14  can be employed to improve or optimize the packaging specification  16  based on one or more enhancement criteria. 
     While the example illustrated in  FIG. 3A  includes a coordinate system  372  having an origin in a corner of a rectangular container  370 , it should be understood that the container  370  can have any other shape or size and the origin of the coordinate system  372  can be located at other locations relative to the interior space  374  of the container  370  (e.g., a center of the container  370 ). Additionally, it should be understood that the x-, y-, and z-axes of the coordinate system  372  can be scaled differently and/or extend in directions other than those illustrated in the example of  FIG. 3 . Still further, although the illustrated example includes a Cartesian coordinate system  372 , it is contemplated that other types of coordinate systems  372  (e.g., a polar coordinate system) can be used in other implementations. 
     Although a single coordinate point is indicated for each item i in  FIG. 3A  for clarity, it should be understood that each of the items i can be associated with a plurality of coordinates. According to additional or alternative aspects, the items i and the interior space  374  can be mapped using voxel-based data. In some instances, the resolution of the voxels can be based on the specific items i analyzed. For example, an item i with intricate features can be mapped with greater resolution than another item i having more general features. 
     The protection parameters indicate information related to the design and manufacture of a protective structure for protecting the one or more items i when positioned within the container  370  according to the arrangement  376 . For example, the protective structure can provide both support to retain the items i in the positioning of the arrangement  376  and cushioning to protect the items i during shipment. The protection parameters are communicated to the automated packaging manufacturing system  150 , which is configured to manufacture the custom-designed protective structure based on the protection parameters. In other words, the protection parameters enable the protective structure to be produced on-demand and in a customized manner in response to an analysis of the characteristic data  14  associated with the ordered items i. This is in contrast to other systems that select one standard protective structure from a plurality of predefined, standard protective structures (e.g., conventional bubble wrap, air pillows, packing peanuts, loose fill, etc.) based on a mere identification of an item i. The dynamic nature of the protective structures provides for improved or optimized packaging of different orders  02 , which may include any combination and number of different items i. 
     Because the protective structures may be highly customized, the protection parameters can be configured to indicate information that facilitates the manufacture of a vast number of different, potential configurations for the protective structure. For example, the protection parameters can indicate a material composition, a material density, a size, a shape, and/or dimensions of a protective structure that can be manufactured by the automated packaging manufacturing system  150 . Non-limiting examples of materials include polymeric foam (e.g., polystyrene, polypropylene, polyethylene, polyurethane, etc.), plastic, pulp, cardboard, compostable materials (e.g., starch-based materials, mushroom-based materials, etc.), bioplastics, fibrous materials, woven materials, other cushioning materials, etc. According to some aspects, the protective structure can be made from a single material. According to alternative aspects, the protective structure can be made from a plurality of materials. For example, the protective structure can be configured to be compliant in one or more select areas and rigid in other areas by forming the protective structure from different materials. 
       FIG. 3B  illustrates an example protective structure  378  including a plurality of cavities  380  for protecting and retaining the items i according to the example arrangement  376  illustrated and described above for  FIG. 3A . It should be understood that the protective structure  378  of  FIG. 3B  is merely one example and that the customized protective structures  378  of the present disclosure can differ in any number of ways described above or below (e.g., a material composition, a material density, a size, a shape, dimensions, etc.). 
     The protective structure  378  can have a symmetric or an asymmetric shape. According to some aspects, an exterior shape of the protective structure  378  can generally correspond to an internal shape of the container  370 . For example, an example protective structure  378  can have an exterior shape that is generally in the shape of a cube, which corresponds to a cube-shaped interior space  374  of an example container  370 . According to other aspects, the exterior shape of the protective structure  378  can be different from the internal shape of the container  370 . For example, the protective structure  378  can include a plurality of legs that each extend from a main body to a corner of a cuboid container  370 . In some instances, the protective structure  378  can be configured to closely fit within the interior space  374  of the container  370  to mitigate impacts due to undesirable movement of the protective structure  378  relative to the container  370 . 
     During shipping, the package may be subject to a number of impacts, vibrations, or other external forces that may potentially damage the one or more items i. To protectively retain the items i in the arrangement  376 , the protective structure  378  includes one or more recesses and/or cavities  380  configured to receive the one or more items i according to the arrangement  376  (as shown, e.g., in  FIG. 3B ). According to some aspects of the present disclosure, each of the recesses and/or the cavities  380  can have a size and a shape that generally corresponds to the size and the shape of a respective one of the one or more items i. Additionally, for example, the recesses and/or the cavities  380  can be oriented according to an orientation of the one or more items i indicated by the arrangement parameters. As the arrangement  376  can include the same or different items i having the same or different shapes and sizes depending on the order  02 , the recesses and/or the cavities  380  can be symmetrically or asymmetrically formed within the protective structure  378 . 
     According to some aspects, the one or more recesses and/or cavities  380  are located within an interior of the protective structure  378 . That is, the protective structure  378  can at least partially or fully enclose the one or more items i within the protective structure  378  on all sides of the one or more items i. In this way, the protective structure  378  can protect the one or more items i from shocks, vibrations, temperature, humidity, dust, insects, liquids, electrostatic shock, etc., in all six dimensions while at the same time retain the one or more items i in the desired arrangement  376 . 
     It is contemplated that, according to other aspects, the protective structure  378  can additionally include one or more recesses externally located on the protective structure  378 . That is, the externally located recesses can be configured so that an item i is not enclosed on all sides. For example, in some instances, an item i might not need to be protected by the protective structure  378  to the same extent as other items i. In such instances, the items i requiring less protection may be located externally on the protective structure  378  while the items i requiring greater protection may be located internally within the protective structure  378 . As one non-limiting example, a protective structure  378  for packaging a porcelain figurine and a down coat can include an internal cavity  380  for fully enclosing the porcelain figurine within the protective structure  378  and an external recess for receiving the down coat on an exterior surface of the protective structure  378 . 
     It is further contemplated that, according to additional or alternative aspects, the protective structure  378  can include features other than the recesses and/or cavities  380  for protectively retaining the items i. As non-limiting examples, the protective structure  378  can include one or more clips, rings, areas of increased material density, slots, interlocking geometries, etc for protectively retaining the items i. It is also contemplated that, according to additional or alternative aspects, the protective structure can have an exterior that is configured to withstand the rigors of shipment such that the items i can be transported in the protective structure  378  without a container  370 . 
     In the example illustrated in  FIG. 3B , each of the cavities  380  is configured to receive a respective one of the plurality of items i. According to additional or alternative aspects of the present disclosure, one or more of the cavities  380  can be configured to receive a plurality of the items i. For example, according to some aspects, at least two of the items i can be nested with each other in the arrangement  376  and received in a single recess or cavity  380  of the protective structure  378 . That is, one item i may be positioned within a nesting area (e.g., a cavity or recess) of another item i. Whether the items i are nestable can be indicated in the characteristic data  14  or determined by the packaging optimization module  105  based on the characteristic data  14  (e.g., size, shape, or dimension information). 
     According to some aspects, the protective structure  378  can be a unitary structure. For example, the protective structure  378  can be configured as a clamshell-type structure that can be hingedly opened and closed to facilitate insertion and removal of the one or more items i from the one or more recesses and/or cavities  380 . According to additional and/or alternative aspects, the protective structure  378  can be a multiple-part construction. For example, the protective structure  378  can include a plurality of separate pieces that can be stacked on top of one another or otherwise engaged to partially or fully enclose the one or more items i within the protective structure  378 . In general, the protective structure  378  can have at least two portions that are couplable to form the protective structure  378  and facilitate insertion/removal of at least one of the one or more items i to/from an enclosed position within the protective structure  378 . 
     According to some aspects of the present disclosure, the protective structure  378  can be spatially mapped to the interior space  374  of the container(s)  370  using the coordinate system  372  and/or voxel-based data described above. For example, the size, shape, and/or dimensions of the protective structure  378  can be mapped to the interior space  374  and the coordinate system  372  (e.g., via a data model of the protective structure  378 ). The coordinates and/or voxel-based data associated with the protective structure  378  can thus indicate the portions of the interior space  374  that will be occupied by the protective structure  378  when the protective structure  378  is positioned in the container  370 . 
     According to some example implementations, the coordinate information and/or the voxel-based data associated with protective structure  378  can be included in the protection parameters and communicated to the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  to facilitate the manufacture of the protective structure  378 . Additionally, for example, the coordinate information and/or the voxel-based data associated with the protective structure  378  and the arrangement  376  can be utilized by the packaging optimization module  105  to ensure that the one or more recesses and/or cavities  380  are consistent with the arrangement  376  of the one or more items i and vice versa (as shown, e.g., by  FIG. 3A  and  FIG. 3B ). 
     In addition to spatially mapping the size, shape, and/or dimensions of the protective structure  378 , the coordinate system  372  can be employed to spatially map one or more protection characteristics of the protective structure  378  to the interior space  374  of the container  370 . The one or more protection characteristics can include, for example, metrics for quantifying and/or characterizing an amount of protection provided by the protective structure  378  against shocks, vibrations, thermal effects, humidity effects, air pressure effects, dust, insects, liquids, static electricity, combinations thereof, and/or the like. The one or more protection characteristics can additionally or alternatively relate to, for example, an amount of resiliency (i.e., an capability to withstand multiple impacts) and/or an amount of resistance to creep (i.e., deformation under a static load) of the protective structure  378 . Still further, the one or more protection characteristics can relate to other factors that may affect the processes for determining and/or evaluating a protective structure  378  such as, for example, a material cost, an environmental impact of the material, whether a material is out of stock, an amount of energy required to produce the protective structure, etc. By spatially mapping the one or more protection characteristics, informed decisions can be made as to the design and implementation of a protective structure  378  customized for a specific order  02  of the one or more items i. 
     As described above, the custom packaging specification  16  is determined based on the characteristic data  14  of the one or more items i. For example, the custom packaging specification  16  can include a protective structure  378  having recesses and/or cavities  380  that correspond to the shapes and sizes of the one or more items i indicated by the associated characteristic data  14 . According to additional aspects of the present disclosure, the custom packaging specification  16  can be further determined by the packaging optimization module  105  by processing the characteristic data  14  using one or more design criteria that provide a framework for achieving desired packaging objectives. For example, the design criteria can include one or more enhancement criteria and/or one or more design constraints described further below. Additionally, for example, the one or more design criteria can define a set of relationships (e.g., if-then rules) between the characteristic data  14 , the enhancement criteria, and/or the design constraint(s) (e.g., if the characteristic data  14  for an item i indicates that the item i is worth more than X dollars, then the packaging specification  16  is designed to protect the item i from an impact of at least Y force). 
     The enhancement criteria can be employed by the packaging optimization module  105  to custom design a more optimal custom packaging specification  16  for the specific collection of items i in the order  02 . Non-limiting examples of enhancement criteria include packaging efficiency criteria, cost criteria, protection criteria, package handling criteria, and/or aesthetics criteria. 
     The packaging efficiency criteria can relate to an amount of material required to implement a custom packaging specification  16  (i.e., an amount of material for forming the container  370  and/or an amount of material for forming the protective structure  378 ). The packaging efficiency criteria can be thus utilized to reduce or minimize the amount of material required to package the one or more items i, which may reduce the costs and the environmental impact associated with packaging and shipping the one or more items i. 
     The cost criteria can relate to a cost associated with a custom packaging specification  16 . For example, the cost criteria can be based on a cost of materials for the container(s)  370 , a cost of materials for the protective structure(s)  378 , one or more freight rates for shipping the assembled package (e.g., based on a size and/or a weight of the assembled packages), and/or an amount of time or resources (e.g., labor or machinery) required to assemble the package according to a particular custom packaging specification  16 . The cost criteria can be thus utilized to reduce or minimize the cost associated with packaging and shipping the one or more items i. 
     The protection criteria can relate to an amount or a type of protection that is provided for each of the one or more items i due to the container(s)  370 , the protective structure(s)  378 , and/or the arrangement  376 . For example, the protection criteria can relate to the protection provided by the custom packaging specification  16  for shocks, vibrations, thermal effects, humidity effects, air pressure effects, dust, insects, liquids, static electricity, combinations thereof, and/or the like. The protection criteria can additionally or alternatively relate to, for example, an amount of resiliency (i.e., a capability to withstand multiple impacts), an amount of resistance to creep (i.e., deformation under a static load), a burst strength, an edge crush strength, a stacking strength, a compression strength, flat crush characteristics, etc. The protection criteria can be thus utilized to improve or maximize the protection provided to the items i during shipping. In some embodiments, aspects of the protection criteria (as well as other criteria) can be determined from feedback received from past recipients. For example, past recipients may provide feedback regarding items that were damaged during shipment. Using this feedback, the protection criteria can be improved to provide more effective protection for the items. For example, it may be determined that certain items require more cushioning or need to be arranged away from the sides of the container in order to reduce damaging shocks during shipment. 
     The package handling criteria can relate to a distribution of weight and other stability aspects of the custom packaging specification  16 . If the weight within the container  370  is too unevenly distributed (e.g., top heavy or side heavy), a package may be difficult to handle and more likely to be dropped. By more evenly distributing the weight of the one or more items i and/or the protective structure  378 , the risk of damage may be reduced or mitigated. According to one non-limiting example, the package handling criteria can relate to a distance between a center of gravity of a package assembled according to the package specification and a target center of gravity location of the container  370  (e.g., a center point of the interior space of the container  370  or a center area within the container  370 ). The closer (i.e., more aligned) the center of gravity of the custom packaging specification  16  is to the target center of gravity location, the greater the balance and stability of the custom packaging specification  16 . 
     The aesthetics criteria can relate to the aesthetics of a custom packaging specification  16 . For example, the aesthetics criteria can relate to a positioning or distribution of the one or more items i in the custom packaging specification  16 . In an example implementation, a custom packaging specification  16  may be considered more aesthetically pleasing if a greater number of the one or more items i are immediately viewable when the protective structure  378  is opened. In another example implementation, a custom packaging specification  16  may be considered more aesthetically pleasing if preferred portions of the one or more items i (e.g., a portion including a graphic or label) are immediately viewable when the protective structure  378  is opened. In still another example implementation, a custom packaging specification  16  may be considered more aesthetically pleasing if the positioning of the one or more items i conveys a sense of symmetry, proportionality, and/or order to a recipient. According to additional and/or alternative examples, the aesthetic criteria can include an indication as to whether certain types of protective structures  378  and/or containers  370  are considered to be more aesthetically pleasing than other types of protective structures  378  based on, for example, a material, a shape, a size, a color, and/or a coating on the protective structure  378  and/or the container  370 . For example, due to the level of customization that may be achieved by the system  100 , uniquely shaped protective structures  378  may have artistic value. 
     According to some aspects of the present disclosure, the packaging optimization module  105  can be configured to first determine a plurality of alternative packaging specifications  16  based on the characteristic data  14  of the one or more items i and then select one of the alternative packaging specifications  16  based on the one or more enhancement criteria. The plurality of alternative packaging specifications  16  can be determined using one or more algorithms configured to design a custom packaging specification  16  based on part or all of the available characteristic data  14  for the one or more items i. As one non-limiting example, the one or more algorithms can include a nesting algorithm and/or a volumetric optimization algorithm, which can minimize airspace in the container  370 , thereby reducing the volume of the assembled package and saving space on trucks. 
     Additionally, for example, the design algorithms can determine the alternative packaging specifications  16  based on a set of design constraints (e.g., minimum requirements, preferences, etc.). The design constraints can be determined based on the analysis of the characteristic data  14  and can relate to any aspect of the container  370 , the arrangement  376 , and/or the protective structure  378  described above (e.g., material, shape, size, dimensions, performance characteristics, protection characteristics, number of containers  370 , number of protective structures  378 , etc.). As one non-limiting example, a design constraint can indicate that the custom packaging specifications  16  should be capable of withstanding an impact of at least a threshold g-force without damage to the items i. As another non-limiting example, a design constraint can indicate that a package assembled according to a custom packaging specification  16  cannot exceed a maximum threshold weight or a maximum threshold size. Additionally, for example, the design constraint can be based on information indicated in the order  02 . For example, the order  02  can indicate that a particular shipper, a particular size container, a particular type of packaging material, etc. be used. 
     In some example implementations, the number of alternative packaging specifications  16  that are designed and evaluated by the packing optimization module  105  can be based on an estimated time required to retrieve the items i by the automated picking system  130 . For example, the packaging optimization module  105  can be communicatively coupled to the order processing module  103  and/or the inventory module  104  to receive information about the estimated to time for retrieving the items i. Accordingly, the packaging optimization module  105  can ensure that the custom packaging specification  16  is ready by the time the items i arrive for packing (or at least minimize delays). 
     According to some aspects, the custom packaging specification  16  that is utilized by the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  and the automated packing system  140  can be selected from the plurality of alternative packaging specifications  16  based on a single enhancement criterion. As one non-limiting example, the characteristic data  14  of the one or more items i can be processed to determine a custom packaging specification  16  that is configured to utilize the least amount of material for the protective structure  378  regardless of any other enhancement criteria. As another non-limiting example, the characteristic data  14  of the one or more items i can be processed to determine a custom packaging specification  16  that will cost the least amount to produce and ship to a destination indicated in the transaction details of an order  02 . 
     According to other aspects of the present disclosure, the packaging optimization module  105  can be configured to determine a custom packaging specification  16  for the one or more items i based on a plurality of the enhancement criteria. In many implementations, there may not be one custom packaging specification  16  that can be considered the best for all of the enhancement criteria. Rather, it may be that there are tradeoffs associated with the enhancement criteria. For example, a custom packaging specification  16  that costs the least may not provide the most protection for the one or more items i. As another example, an arrangement  376  that is the most aesthetically pleasing may unevenly distribute the weight of the one or more items i such that the container  370  is difficult to handle. 
     To select one of the plurality of alternative packaging specifications  16  based on a plurality of enhancement criteria, the packaging optimization module  105  can be configured to employ one or more multiple-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) algorithms. Non-limiting examples of the one or more multiple-criteria decision analysis algorithms can include an aggregated indices randomization method (AIRM), an analytic hierarchy process (AHP), an analytic network process (ANP), a data envelopment analysis, a decision expert (DEX), a dominance-based rough set approach (DRSA), an elimination and choice expressing reality (ELECTRE) analysis, an evidential reasoning approach (ER), a goal programming application, a multi-attribute global inference of quality (MAGIQ) analysis, a multi-attribute utility theory (MAUT), a multi-attribute value theory (MAVT), a potentially all pairwise rankings of all possible alternatives (PAPRIKA) analysis, a technique for the order of prioritization by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) analysis, a value analysis (VA), a weighted product model (WPM), a weighted sum model (WSM), combinations thereof, and/or the like. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 4 , an example subroutine for determining a custom packaging specification  16  based on one or more enhancement criteria is illustrated. At act  410 , the characteristic data  14  for the one or more items i of an order  02  is analyzed to determine a set of design constraints for the custom packaging specification  16 . At act  412 , a plurality of alternative packaging specifications  16  are determined based on the characteristic data  14  and the design constraints. At act  414 , one of the plurality of alternative packaging specifications  16  is selected based on one or more enhancement criteria. For example, a multiple-criteria analysis decision algorithm can be utilized to select the one packaging specification  16  from the plurality of alternative packaging specifications  16 . 
     According to some aspects of the present disclosure, the packaging optimization module  105  can simulate how each alternative packaging specification  16  would perform under various test conditions to can evaluate the potential alternative packaging specifications  16 . For example, the packaging optimization module  105  can employ physics-engine software for simulating drops from various heights, compressions under various loads, vibrations, thermal effects, etc. According to additional or alternative aspects of the present disclosure, the packaging optimization module  105  can utilize the spatial mapping of the data models for the items i, the protective structure, and the container  370  to run the simulations and identify where potential points of failure or weakness may be located. It is contemplated that, according to some aspects of the present disclosure, the packaging optimization module  105  can be configured to determine an initial set of alternative packaging specifications  16 , analyze the initial set based on the simulations, and then modify one or more of the alternative packaging specifications  16  based on an outcome of the simulations. In some instances, the simulation, analysis, and modification process may be iteratively repeated until no further improvements are achieved. 
     It is further contemplated that, according to some embodiments, the order system  100  can include one or more user input/output devices (not shown) for facilitating user review and modifications to one or more of the alternative packaging specifications  16 . For example, a display device can be configured to display information related to the packaging specifications  16  in the form of text, numbers, and/or graphics (e.g., information related to materials, shapes, sizes, dimensions, performance characteristics, protection characteristics, number of containers  370 , number of protective structures  378 , simulation data, spatial mapping graphics, etc.). Additionally, for example, a keyboard, a mouse, and/or a touch screen can be configured to allow a user to modify aspects of the packaging specification  16  to further customize the packaging specification  16 . 
       FIG. 4 , described by way of example above, represents one algorithm that corresponds to at least some instructions executed by one or more processor(s) to perform the above described functions associated with the described concepts. It is also within the scope and spirit of the present concepts to omit steps, include additional steps, and/or modify the order of steps presented above. Additionally, it is contemplated that one or more of the steps presented above can be performed simultaneously. For example, the plurality of alternative packaging specifications  16  can be determined first, the design constraints can be determined thereafter, and then the alternative packaging specifications  16  can be compared to the design constraints to eliminate from further consideration any packaging specifications  16  that do not meet the design constraints. As another example, the plurality of alternative packaging specifications  16  can be determined based on the characteristic data  14  and the one or more enhancement criteria first and then one or more multiple-criteria decision analysis algorithms can be utilized to select a custom packaging specification  16 . Still further, it is contemplated that, according to alternative aspects of the present disclosure, a single packaging specification  16  can be determined based on a single algorithm with the characteristic data  14 , one or more enhancement criteria, and optionally one or more design constraints as inputs. That is, the custom packaging specification  16  can be determined without determining a plurality of alternatives from which to choose. 
     According to some aspects of the present disclosure, the container parameters, the arrangement parameters, and the protection parameters can be interdependently determined together. According to some alternative aspects of the present disclosure, one or more of the container parameters, the arrangement parameters, and the protection parameters can be determined independently of the others. As one non-limiting example, to minimize the overall size of an assembled package, the arrangement  376  can be determined first, then the protective structure  378  can be determined based on the arrangement  376 , and then the container  370  can be determined based on the protective structure  378 . 
     To illustrate some example features of a custom packaging specification  16  that may be determined based on the characteristic data  14  and the enhancement criteria,  FIG. 3C  illustrates an example packaging specification  16  for the examples of  FIGS. 3A-3B . In the illustrated example, the n items i include a first coffee mug i a , a second coffee mug i b , a first glass i c , a second glass i d , a porcelain egg i e , an olive oil bottle i f , a hammer i g , and a t-shirt i h . The characteristic data  14  associated with the items i can indicate, amongst other things, that the coffee mugs i a , i b  include a graphic on a portion of an exterior surface, a stem and a rim of the glasses are particularly fragile, the porcelain egg i e  is a particularly valuable item i, the olive oil bottle i f  and the hammer i g  are heavier items i, and the t-shirt i h  is not fragile. 
     In the example packaging specification  16  of  FIG. 3C , the arrangement  376  of the packaging specification  16  has been optimized (e.g., based on the protection criteria) to provide additional protection to the valuable porcelain egg i e  and the fragile glasses i c , i d  by positioning those items i in a central area within the protective structure  378  and the container  370 . The more centrally located the items i, the more protected the items i are likely to be. Additionally, the arrangement  376  has been optimized (e.g., based on the package handling criteria) to evenly distribute the weight of the items i within the interior space  374  of the container  370  to improve package handling. For example, as indicated by the coordinates associated with the items i, the porcelain egg i e  is positioned at a center point (i.e., a coordinate (5, 5, 5)) of the container  370 , the t-shirt i h  is positioned above the center point, the coffee mugs i a , i b  are positioned equidistantly from the center point, the glasses i c , i d  are positioned equidistantly from the center point, the glasses i c , i d  are offset perpendicularly relative to the coffee mugs i a , i b , and the olive oil bottle i f  and the hammer i g  are spaced from the center point to balance each other out. In particular, because the olive oil bottle i f  is heavier than the hammer i g , the olive oil bottle i f  is positioned slightly closer to the center point than the hammer i g . In the example illustrated in  FIG. 3C , the arrangement  376  is also configured (e.g., based on the aesthetic criteria) such that the coffee mugs i a , i b  and the porcelain egg i e  are immediately viewable when the protective structure  378  is opened. Additionally, the coffee mugs i a , i b  positioned in the arrangement  376  are oriented such that the graphic image on the coffee mugs i a , i b  is viewable when the protective structure  378  is opened. 
     In the example packaging specification  16  of  FIG. 3C , the protective structure  378  of the packaging specification  16  has been optimized (e.g., based on protection criteria) to have a greater amount of material adjacent to the porcelain egg i e  due to its value as compared to the other items i, which are not considered to be as valuable. Additionally, the protective structure  378  has been optimized to have a different type of material adjacent to the rim and the stem of the glasses i c , i d  as compared to the rest of the glasses i c , i d  due to the fragility of the rim and the stem. In particular, the material adjacent to the stem and the rim of the glass i c , i d  can be configured to be compliant while the material adjacent to the rest of the glass i c , i d  is rigid. In this way, the protective structure  378  can minimize the risk of damage to the stem and the rim of the glasses i c , i d  with the compliant material while firmly holding the glasses i c , i d  in place with the rigid material. Still further, the protective structure  378  has been optimized (e.g., based on the packaging efficiency criteria) to have a minimal amount of material adjacent to the t-shirt i h  because the t-shirt i h  is not considered to be fragile and may itself act as a cushioning material to assist in protecting the items i beneath it. 
     In the example packaging specification  16  of  FIG. 4 , the container  370  of the packaging specification  16  has been optimized to have a sufficient volume to accommodate the arrangement  376  of items i and the protective structure  378  while closely fitting to the size of the protective structure  378 . Additionally, the container  370  is made from a cardboard material having a flute size determined to provide performance characteristics that combine with the protection characteristics of the protective structure  378  to meet or exceed design constraints (e.g., minimum requirements) for protecting the items i. 
     Other potential features of a custom packaging specification  16  that can be determined based on the enhancement criteria include, for example, providing additional material for the protective structure  378  in select areas to improve the protection characteristics of the protective structure  378  for a fragile item i or a valuable item i. Additionally, for example, the custom packaging specification  16  can be configured to include less material for the protective structure  378  or an aperture in the protective structure  378  adjacent to items i that are less fragile or valuable. As yet another example, the custom packaging specification  16  can be configured to include a plurality of containers  370  to reduce shipping costs due to the weight and the size of the assembled containers  370 . As still another example, the custom packaging specification  16  can be configured to separate items I into different containers  370  based on regulatory requirements mandating that certain items i be shipped individually or under particular circumstances that may not be necessary or desirable for other items i. As yet another example, the custom packaging specification  16  can be configured to have varying densities of materials for the protective structure  378  to vary the protection characteristics for different items i (e.g., areas with denser material may provide more protection than less areas with less dense material). In another example, the custom packaging specification  16  can be configured such that a center of gravity of the protective structure  378  is designed to counter an imbalance due to a center of gravity of the arrangement  376  of items i and vice versa. In a further example, the custom packaging specification  16  can be configured to nest a plurality of items i to reduce the amount of material, the volume of the container  370 , the empty air space in the container  370 , and the costs. In yet another example, the custom packaging specification  16  can be configured to minimize the number of separate pieces that comprise the protective structure  378 . In still another example, the custom packaging specification  16  can be optimized to reduce an associated environmental impact due to, for example, an amount of energy required to manufacture the protective structure  378  and/or pack the items i, an amount of waste associated with the manufacture of the protective structure  378 , and/or the types of materials utilized in the packaging specification  16 . In another example, the packaging specification  16  can be optimized to make it easy for a recipient to unpack the items i from the container  370 . It should be understood that the features for a custom packaging specification  16  described and illustrated for  FIG. 3C  are but a few examples and many other features for the packaging specification  16  are contemplated by the present disclosure. 
     After the custom packaging specification  16  is determined at act  216 , the protection parameters are communicated from the packaging optimization module  105  to the packaging manufacture controller  107 . At act  218 , the protective structure  378  is manufactured by the automated packaging manufacturing system  150 , controlled by the packaging manufacture controller  107 , according to the protective parameters of the custom packaging specification  16 . The automated packaging manufacturing system  150  is configured to rapidly manufacture the protective structure  378 . Rapid manufacturing allows the protective structure  378  to be completed or substantially completed during the time generally required to complete the picking process described further below. 
     According to some aspects, the protective structure  378  can be formed using an additive manufacturing process. For example, the protective structure  378  can be formed by a 3D printing process, which forms the protective structure  378  by laying down a plurality of successive layers of material. According to some additional or alternative aspects, the protective structure  378  can be formed using a subtractive manufacturing process. For example, a cutting process, a milling process, a drilling process, and/or an ablation process can be employed to remove controlled amounts from a raw material to form the protective structure  378 . According to further additional or alternative aspects, the protective structure  378  can be formed by a stamping process, a casting process, a molding process, a forming process, a machining process, and/or a joining process. In general, however, the protective structure  378  can be formed by reshaping a packaging material. Depending on the manufacturing process or the materials employed, the forming of the protective structure  378  can also include a curing process. 
     According to some aspects of the present disclosure, the protective structure  378  can be manufactured based on the coordinate information and/or voxel-based data for the protective structure  378  indicated by the protection parameters. For example, the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  also can employ a coordinate system  372  that provides a frame of reference for a work space upon which the protective structure  378  is manufactured such that the coordinate information and/or voxel-based data of the protective structure  378  can be mapped to the coordinate system  372  of the automated packaging manufacturing system  150 . 
     IV. Picking Process 
     As described above, the automated picking system  130  shown in  FIG. 1  retrieves items i for the order  02  from the inventory storage  110 . Referring to  FIG. 5 , an example implementation of the automated picking system  130  is illustrated. 
     As shown in  FIG. 5 , the inventory storage  110  includes receptacles  112  for storing respective inventories of the n items i specified in the order  02 . In particular, a receptacle  112   i=1  stores an inventory of the item i=1, a receptacle  112   i=2  stores an inventory of the item i=2, . . . , and a receptacle  112   i=n  stores an inventory of the item i=n. Of course, although not shown, it is understood that the inventory storage  110  may include inventories of items that are not specified in the order  02  but that may be specified in other orders. Information about the inventories of items in the inventory storage  110  may be maintained in the item database  06 . In addition, the inventory module  104  of the computing system  101  may process information relating to the inventories of items in the inventory storage  110 . 
     When the order  02  is received by the order system  100 , the picking/packing controller  106  of the computing system  101  causes the automated picking system  130  to retrieve the desired quantities of items i=1, 2, . . . , n from their respective receptacles  112   i . In the example of  FIG. 5 , it is assumed that the inventory storage  110  stores the desired quantities of items i=1, 2, . . . , n specified in the order  02 . As described above, however, the shipment of an order  02  may be dynamically modified if the inventory module  104  determines that there is insufficient inventory to fulfill a request for one or more of the items i=1, 2, . . . , n specified in the order  02 . In general, the automated picking system  130  can retrieve available items for partial order shipment, and subsequent partial order shipments can be additionally made as the other items become available. 
     The automated picking system  130  provides a dispensing device  132   i  for each receptacle  112   i . Each dispensing device  132   i  moves the desired quantity of item i from the receptacle  112   i  to a respective bin  134   i . The bins  134  move on a conveying device  136  that passes near the receptacles  112 . For each item i, the automated picking system  130  operates the conveying device  136  to position the bin  134   i  near the receptacle  112   i  and then operates the dispensing device  132   i  to move the specified quantity of item i into the bin  134   i  on the conveying device  136 . 
     Each dispensing device  132   i  may be individually controlled by the automated picking system  130 . For example, each dispensing device  132   i  may include an electromechanically and/or hydraulically actuated mechanism that pushes the desired quantity of item i into the bin  134   i  from the receptacle  112   i . The items i may be arranged in the receptacle  112   i  to allow the mechanism to push one item i at a time from the receptacle  112   i . Furthermore, a surface, e.g., an inclined surface defined by a series of rollers, may lead from the receptacle  112   i  to the bin  134   i  to facilitate the transfer of the item i. 
     The automatic picking system  130  assigns each bin  134   i  to the respective items i, i.e., bin  134   i= 1 is assigned to item i=1, bin  134   i= 2 is assigned to item i=2, . . . , bin  134   i =n is assigned to item i=n. Knowing these bin assignments, the automatic picking system  130  can determine where the retrieved items i=1, 2, . . . , n are by tracking the locations of bin  134   i= 1, bin  134   i= 2, . . . , bin  134   i =n, respectively. Accordingly, each bin  134   i  includes an identifier  135   i  that allows the automated picking system  130  to track the location of the bini. For example, the identifier  135   i  may include a barcode and/or other marking that can be read by image capture and/or scanning devices at various locations. Additionally or alternatively, the identifier  135   i  may include a radio-frequency identification (RFID) or other signal-emitting device that can be used to track the bin  134   i  wirelessly. 
     After the items i=1, 2, . . . , n have been transferred from the receptacles  112   i  to the bins  134   i , respectively, the automated picking system  130  operates the conveying system  136  to move the bins  134  to a designated location for packing by the automated packing system  140 . During the picking process, the automated picking system  130  may also retrieve items for other orders. The bins  134  for the order  02  may then become interspersed with bins for other orders. As such, the automated picking system  130  tracks the location of the bins  134  with the items i=1, 2, . . . , n so that they are conveyed on the conveying device  136  in the proper direction and deliver the items i=1, 2, . . . , n to the appropriate location for packing. 
     This picking process occurs in parallel with the process of determining and manufacturing the protective structure(s)  378  described above. Rapid manufacturing allows the protective structure(s)  378  to be completed or substantially completed during the time generally required to complete the picking process. As such, the protective structure(s)  378  are available (with no delay or with minimal delay) when the items i=1, 2, . . . , n are ready for packing. The proper protective structure(s)  378  are also conveyed to the appropriate location to be assembled with the retrieved items i=1, 2, . . . , n for packing. 
     Although  FIG. 5  illustrates a single linear configuration of receptacles  112  and a single linear path for the conveying device  136  for clarity, it is understood that any number of conveying devices  136  may extend in varying directions and paths to move the bins  134  to and from varying arrangements of receptacles  112  at different locations in the inventory storage  110 . Furthermore, although the conveying device  136  shown in  FIG. 5  includes a conveyor belt that moves the bins  134 , it is understood that other devices and approaches may be employed to move the items i to a packing location. For example, the automated picking system  130  may include one or more computer-controlled/tracked carts that move to the receptacles  112  to retrieve the items i and then move to a packing location to deliver the items i. 
     Although each receptacle  112  shown in  FIG. 5  has its own dispensing device  132 , it is understood that more than one receptacle  112  may share a common dispensing device, i.e., any configuration of dispensing devices  132  may be employed for any number of receptacles  112 . Moreover, different types of dispensing devices  132  are contemplated by the present disclosure. For instance, in alternative embodiments, a robotic device may be employed to remove an item i from a receptacle  112   i  and to lift the item i a bin  134   i . (An example of a robotic device is described further below with reference to  FIG. 6 ). 
     V. Packing Process 
     As described above, when the items i=1, 2, . . . , n have been retrieved and delivered to a designated packing location, the picking/packing controller  106  causes the automated packing system  140  to pack the items i in one or more containers  370 . In particular, the automated packing system  140  packs the items i with one or more custom protective structures  378  according to the custom packaging specification  16 . Referring to  FIG. 6 , an example implementation of the automated packing system  140  is illustrated. 
     As shown in  FIG. 6 , the automated picking system  130  delivers bins  134   a  and  134   b  to a packing location  141  via the conveying device  136 . The bin  134   a  includes a quantity of an item i x  (an olive oil bottle), and the bin  134   b  includes a quantity of an item i y  (two glasses), where the items i x  and i y  correspond to items specified in an order  02 . 
     As described above, the bins  134   a  and  134   b  include identifiers  135   a  and  135   b  that allow the automated picking system  130  to track the location of the bins  134   a  and  134   b  and the items i x  and i y , respectively. The identifiers  135   a  and  135   b  may include a barcode and/or other marking that can be read by image capture and/or scanning devices at various locations. Additionally or alternatively, the identifiers  135   a  and  135   b  may include a radio-frequency identification (RFID) or other signal-emitting device that can be tracked wirelessly. When the bins  134   a  and  134   b  arrive at the packing location  141 , the identifiers  135   a  and  135   b  also allow the automatic packing system  140  to confirm that the items i x  and i y  specified in the order  02  have been delivered to the packing location  141 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 6 , the automatic packing system  140  may include a robotic device  142  that handles the packing of items i x  and i y  for the order  02 . The robotic device  142  includes an arm  143  that extends outwardly. A grasping device  144  is disposed at the distal end of the arm  143  to handle the items i. An image capture/scanning device  145  (e.g., camera) is also disposed at the distal end of the arm  143 . According to one aspect, the image capture/scanning device  145  can evaluate the identifier  135  on each bin  134  by reading a barcode and/or other marking. Additionally or alternatively, the automatic packing system  140  can use information from an RFID or other signal-emitting device to determine what bins  134  are located in the packing location  141 . The data from the image capture/scanning device  145  may be communicated to the picking/packing controller  106  for processing. 
     Another conveying device  336  (e.g., a conveyor belt) delivers the protective structures  378   a  and  378   b  from the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  to the packing location  141 . The automated packing system  140  packs the items i x  and i y  for shipment with the protective structures  378   a  and  378   b . The protective structures  378   a  and  378   b  are manufactured to provide a more optimal packaging scheme as set forth by the custom packaging specification  16 . In particular, the automated packaging system  150  manufactures the first protective structure  378   a  to define recesses  380   a  and  380   b . Correspondingly, the automated packaging system  150  manufactures the second protective structure  378   b  to define recesses  380   a ′ and  380   b ′. When the protective structures  378   a  and  378   b  are combined, the recesses  380   a  and  380   a ′ define an internal cavity that receives the item i x , and the recesses  380   b  and  380   b ′ define two internal cavities that respectively receive the items i y . With the items i x  and i y  in these internal cavities, the i x  and i y  are protected during shipment. The protective structures  378   a  and  378   b  are formed from one or more materials to absorb forces that may damage the items i x  and i y  during shipment. Additionally, the internal cavities determine how the items i x  and i y  are positioned relative to each other and within a container (as described above) to provide enhanced protection during shipment. 
     To confirm that the protective structures  378   a  and  378   b  have been delivered to the packing location  141 , the automatic packing system  140  can evaluate identifiers  379   a  and  379   b  provided on the protective structures  378   a  and  378   b , respectively. Similar to the identifiers  135  on the bins  134 , the identifiers  379   a  and  379   b  may include a barcode and/or other marking. In such a case, the image capture/scanning device  145  on the robotic device  142  may be employed to read the barcode and/or marking to identify the protective structures  378   a  and  378   b . Additionally or alternatively, the identifiers  379   a  and  379   b  may include a radio-frequency identification (RFID) or other signal-emitting device that can be used to identify the protective structures  378   a  and  378   b  wirelessly. 
     When the automated packing system  140  determines that the desired items i x  and i y  and the corresponding protective structures  378   a  and  378   b  have been properly delivered to the packing location  141 , the automated packing system  140  transfers the items i x  and i y  from the bins  134   a  and  134   b  to the recesses  380   a  and  380   b  of the protective structure  370   a , respectively. As shown in  FIG. 6 , the grasping device  144  of the robotic device  142  can be employed to transfer the items i x  and i y . The automated packing system  140  refers to the custom packaging specification  16  to determine the how the items i x  and i y  should be positioned in the recesses  380   a  and  380   b . In particular, the packaging optimization module  105  communicates the custom packaging specification  16  to the picking/packing controller  106  which in turn signals the automated packing system  140  how to pack the items i x  and i y . 
     The robotic device  142  can employ the image capture/scanning device  145  to capture one or more images of the bins  134   a  and  134   b . The captured images are communicated to the picking/packing controller  106 , which can then process the images to identify the bins  134   a  and  134   b  as well as the shape, position, and orientation of each item in the bins  134   a  and  134   b . For example, the picking/packing controller  106  can employ object segmentation techniques to identify various shapes in the images and compare the shapes to stored information (e.g., stored images) describing the bins  134   a  and  134   b  as well as the items i x  and i y . Information on the shape of the items i x  and i y  may be stored in the item database  06 . Accordingly, based on the images captured by the device  145 , the robotic device  142  can properly orient itself relative to the bins  134   a  and  134   b  to grasp the items i x  and i y , respectively. Furthermore, using the captured images, the robotic device  142  can properly orient the grasping device  144  to handle and grasp the items i x  and i y  appropriately. 
     As shown in  FIG. 6 , the robotic device  142  can move the grasping device  144  according to six degrees of freedom. Therefore, the robotic device  142  can manipulate each item i x  and i y  so that they are handled with necessary care and properly positioned and oriented in the recesses  380   a  and  380   b  defined by the protective structures  378   a  and  378   b . As  FIG. 6  illustrates, the grasping device  142  first transfers the item i x  (the olive oil bottle). Using the captured image(s) of the bin  134   a , the grasping device  144  can be controlled to handle the olive oil bottle more stably at the body rather than, for example, the neck. In addition, the captured images can be employed to identify the label on the olive oil bottle, and the grasping device  144  can be controlled to turn the olive oil bottle so that the label will be properly oriented when it is eventually positioned in the recess  380   a . Once the grasping device  144  grasps the item i x  at the bin  134   a , the robotic device  142  carries the item i x  to the protective structures  378   a  and  378   b.    
     Using the custom packaging specification  16 , the automatic packing system  140  can determine that the first protective structure  378   a  is configured to protect the items i x  and i y  from the bottom and the second protective structure  378   b  is configured to protect the items i x  and i y  from the top. As such, the robotic device  142  first positions the items i x  and i y  in the first protective structure  378   a  and then subsequently places the second protective structure  378   b  over the items i x  and i y . 
     The robotic device  142  can also employ the image capture/scanning device  145  to capture one or more images of the first protective structure  378   a . Based on the information in the captured images, the robotic device  142  can orient itself relative to the first protective structure  378   a . In addition, using the captured images, the robotic device  142  can properly orient the grasping device  144  to position the items i x  and i y  properly relative to the recesses  380   a  and  380   b , respectively. For example, the captured images are communicated to the picking/packing controller  106 , which can then process the images to identify the first protective device  378   a  as well as the shape, position, and orientation of each recess  380   a  and  380   b . In some cases, the picking/packing controller  106  can employ object segmentation techniques to identify the shapes in the images based on the design of the first protective device  378   a  provided by the custom packaging specification  16 . 
     Additionally or alternatively, markings may be provided directly on the protective devices  378   a  that can be identified in images captured by the image capture/scanning device  145 . These markings allow the picking/packing controller  106  to determine the orientation of the first protective device  378   a  and identify the recesses  380   a  and  380   b . For instance, as shown in  FIG. 6 , the identifier  379   a  includes cross hairs that indicate how the first protective device  378   a  is positioned and oriented relative to the robotic device  142 . In addition, respective markings may be placed in or near each recess  380   a  and  380   b  to indicate what items should be placed in each recess  380   a  and  380   b.    
     Knowing where the recess  380   a  is positioned and oriented relative to the robotic device  142 , the grasping device  144  can be controlled to manipulate the olive oil bottle according to one or more six degrees of freedom to position and orient the olive oil bottle relative to the recess  380   a  and to place the olive oil bottle in the recess  380   a . As illustrated in  FIG. 6 , the bottle has been manipulated to ensure that when the olive oil bottle is placed in the recess  380   a , the label faces upwardly from the recess  380   a . Thus, when the packaging is opened by the recipient, the label is displayed to the recipient from the recess  380   a  in an aesthetically pleasing way. If necessary, the grasping device  144  can be further controlled to turn the olive oil bottle after the olive oil bottle has been placed in the recess  380   a  and ensure that the label is properly displayed. 
     After the olive oil bottle is transferred to the recess  380   a , the robotic device  142  moves the grasping device  144  to the bin  134   b  to transfer the items i y  (the glasses) to the recesses  380   b  in the protective structure  378   a . Using captured image(s) of the bin  134   b , the position and orientation of each glass can be determined. As such, the grasping device  144  can be controlled to handle each glass more stably at the bowl rather than, for example, the stem or foot. Once the grasping device  144  grasps the first of the glasses at the bin  134   b , the robotic device  142  carries the first glass to the protective structure  378   a . Using captured image(s) of the first protective device  378   a , the position and orientation of each recess  380   b  can be determined. Knowing where the recess  380   b  is positioned and oriented relative to the robotic device  142 , the grasping device  144  can be controlled to manipulate the first glass according to one or more six degrees of freedom to position and orient the glass relative to one of the recesses  380   b  and to place the glass in the first recess  380   b . After the first glass is transferred to the first recess  380   b , the robotic device  142  similarly transfers the second of the glasses to the second of the recesses  380   b  in the protective structure  378   a.    
     Once the items i x  and i y  have been transferred to the first protective structure  380   a , the robotic device  142  can place the second protective structure  378   b  over the first protective  378   a . Using captured image(s) of the second protective device  378   b , the recesses  380   a ′ and  380   b ′ can be identified and their position and orientation relative to the robotic device  142  can be determined. The picking/packing controller  106  can process these captured images in a manner similar to the images captured for the first protective structure  378   a . Knowing where the recesses  380   a  and  380   b  of the first protective structure  378   b  are also positioned and oriented relative robotic device, the grasping device  144  can manipulate the second protective structure  378   b  so that the recesses  380   a ′ and  380   b ′ of the second protective structure  378   b  face downwardly and align with the recesses  380   a  and  380   b  of the first protective device  378   a . As such, the recesses  380   a ′ and  380   b ′ can be placed over the items i x  and i y  disposed in the recesses  380   a  and  380   b , respectively. When the first protective structure  378   a  and the second protective structure  378   b  are combined in this way, the recesses  380   a  and  380   a ′ together define an internal cavity for the item i x  and the recesses  380   b  and  380   b ′ together define internal cavities for the items i y . If required, the protective structures  378   a  and  378   b  can be secured together according to any appropriate technique, including, but not limited to, the use of tape, adhesive, string, mechanical/frictional engagement, shrink/stretch wrap, etc. In some embodiments, structural features of the protective structures  378   a  and  378   b  allow the robotic device  142  to grasp or otherwise manipulate the protective structures  378   a  and  378   b  more easily. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 6 , the robotic device  142  can place the items i x  and i y  in the respective recesses  380   a  and  380   b  of the first protective structure  378   a  as a first step. The robotic device  143  can place the second protective structure  378   b  over the first protective structure  378   a  as a second step. Then, the robotic device  142  can place the combined protective structures  378   a  and  378   b  into a container  370 , e.g., box, crate, etc., which has also been delivered to the packing location  141 . 
     Alternatively, as shown in  FIG. 7 , the robotic device  142  can place the first protective structure  378   a  with the items i x  and i y  in the container  370 , before placing the second protective structure  378   b  over the first protective structure  378   a . Or as a further alternative, the robotic device  142  can place the first protective structure  378   a  into the container  370 , before placing the items i x  and i y  in the respective recesses  380   a  and  380   b . The relative layered arrangement of the protective structure  378   a  and  378   b  allows the first protective structure  378   a , the second protective structure  378   b , and the items i x  and i y  to be easily placed into the container  370  in any one of many different sequences. In general, items i can be combined with the protective structures  378  and a container  370  in any order of steps. 
     Accordingly, the automated packing system  140  according to the present disclosure can use information from captured images to determine shape, position, and/or orientation of aspects of the bins  134 , the items i, and the protective structures  378 . Using shape, position, and/or orientation information, the automated packing system  140  can manipulate the items i according to one or more degrees of freedom to place them into recesses  380  of the protective structures  378  according to the custom packaging specification  16 . As a result, the automated packing system  140  can position the items i relative to each other and the container  370  to achieve a more optimal arrangement in the three-dimensional space of the container  370 . 
     VI. Example Protective Structure 
     As described above, the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  can produce one or more custom protective structures for positioning and protecting order items in a container according to a custom packaging specification. For example, as illustrated in  FIGS. 1 and 2 , the packaging optimization module  105  determines the custom packaging specification  16  after the order  02  is received, so that the custom packaging specification  16  can provide a packaging arrangement based on the actual combination  14  of items i in the order  02 . Correspondingly, the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  produces one or more custom protective structures  378  after the order  02  is received and when the custom packaging specification  16  is ready. To provide prompt shipment of the order  02 , manufacturing of the one or more custom protective structures  378  is preferably completed by the time that the items i have been assembled and are ready for packing. In other words, rapid manufacturing of the one or more protective structures  378  occurs while the items i are simultaneously retrieved from the inventory storage  110  and assembled at a packing location  141 . 
     To achieve the rapid manufacturing of custom protective structures, the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  can manufacture a protective structure from a plurality of modular elements. The modular elements are readily and rapidly assembled to form a shape that allows items to be packaged according to a custom packaging specification determined from an analysis of the items. Each modular element acts as a single building block for the protective structure. The automated packaging manufacturing system  150  can manipulate each modular element, e.g., via machine/robotic device, to build a custom shape for the protective structure. Advantageously, because each modular element can be separately manipulated, the amount of material used to form each protective structure can be closely controlled to reduce waste of the material, shipment weight, costs, etc. 
     The modular elements can adhere to each other to form shapes that can support packaged items during shipment, while also absorbing any shocks, impacts, vibrations, or other external forces that may damage the packaged items. In other words, the adhesion between the modular elements is strong enough, so that the resulting protective structure can maintain the custom shape set forth by the custom packaging specification. 
     The modular elements may be formed from any material that can support and protect the packaged items. In some cases where the packaged items require more cushioning, the modular elements may be formed from foam rubber, fabricated cellular foam, polyurethane foam, polyethylene foam, polystyrene, elastomeric materials (e.g., gels), etc. Advantageously, the modular elements may be formed from biodegradable materials or agricultural byproducts (e.g., biofibers, mushrooms, or those produced with cornstarch), which are environmentally friendly and may be recycled, composted, or dissolved in water for disposal. Alternative cushioning materials may also include employ a soft outer material filled with air or other gas/fluid. In other cases where the items require less cushioning, the modular elements may be formed from harder plastics or materials. 
     Preferably, the modular elements are self-adhering, so that they readily adhere to each other when they come into contact. In some cases, an adhesive material is applied to the outer surface of the modular elements to make them self-adhering. For example, a liquid may be applied to the modular elements as they are delivered to the assembly, and the liquid dries/solidifies in time to make the modular elements self-adhering as they come into contact with other modular elements. In addition to applying the adhesive to make modular elements self-adhering prior to contact with other modular elements, adhesives can be additionally/optionally applied after contact to make the adhesion between modular elements stronger. 
     Strong fast-acting adhesives, such as cyanoacrylate adhesives, can be applied to the modular elements as they are placed into contact with each other. The type of adhesive material may depend on the material from which the modular elements are formed. For instance, a neoprene rubber adhesive (also known as a contact cement/adhesive) may be employed to adhere modular elements that are formed from a nonporous material, such as a plastic or rubber. Or for instance, a synthetic elastomer adhesive (e.g., a spray adhesive) may be employed to adhere modular elements that are formed from a foam. 
     In some cases, the modular elements can be coated with an adhesive material that provides adhesive properties when it is subsequently treated. For example, a water-activated adhesive may be applied to the outer surface of the modular elements before they are placed into contact with each other. Once the modular elements are positioned to form the protective structure, the modular elements are treated with water so that the adhesive properties of the coating are activated, causing the modular elements to adhere to each other. Water-activated adhesives may be formed from natural polymers from vegetable sources (e.g. dextrins, starches), protein sources (e.g. casein, blood, fish, soybean, milk albumen), animal (e.g. hides, bones), etc. Other water-activated adhesives may be formed from soluble synthetic polymers from polyvinyl alcohol, cellulose ethers, methylcellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, etc. In other examples, the outer surface of the modular elements can be coated with a heat-activated adhesive or a solvent-activated adhesive and then treated with heat or solvents, respectively, so that the adhesive properties of the coating are activated, causing the modular elements to adhere to each other. 
     The modular elements can be coated with the unactivated adhesive material and dried before they are positioned to define the protective structure. Advantageously, these modular elements are easier to manipulate during positioning because they are dry and non-adhesive. Once the modular elements are positioned, the adhesive properties can be activated by the subsequent treatment (e.g., application of water, heat, or solvents). 
     Alternatively, the modular elements may be formed from a material that has inherent adhesive qualities and that readily bonds to itself. For example, the material may be a polymer material with a tackifier which imparts a tackiness or stickiness to the surface of the material (e.g., a material including polymerizing styrene and hydrogenated polyterpene resin as a tackifier). Or for another example, the self-adhering material may employ static electrical forces to cause the material to adhere. By employing a material with inherent adhesive qualities, the application of an additional adhesive material may be unnecessary. 
     Preferably, the modular elements are quickly combined, e.g., via adhesive(s) and/or inherent adhesive properties, so that the protective structures can be ready by the time the items are in place for packing. In addition, the adhesive qualities on the outer surface of the modular elements preferably dissipate with cooling, drying, curing, etc., after the modular elements are combined, so that the protective device does not continue to be adhering during and after the packing process. 
       FIG. 8A  illustrates a perspective view of an example protective structure  478  that can be manufactured by the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  according to a custom packaging specification. In particular, the protective structure  478  includes a plurality of modular elements  481  that are assembled three-dimensionally to provide a shape that accommodates an item i j  (i.e., an olive oil bottle) for packing. As shown in corresponding  FIGS. 8B and 8C , the assembly of modular elements  481  defines a recess  480  that is shaped to receive the item i j , i.e., half the item i j  is received securely in the recess  480 . The recess  480  positions the item i j  (e.g., centrally) for enhanced support and protection by the protective structure  478  during shipment. 
     As described above, a voxel-based approach may be employed to produce the custom packaging specification for the protective structure  478 . In general, a voxel describes a three-dimensional volumetric pixel, which can be used to break down any geometry according to any desired resolution or scale. As the protective structure  478  can be broken down into individual modular elements  481 , each modular element  481  can be conceptually represented by a voxel to develop the custom packaging specification. As shown in  FIGS. 8A-C , the modular elements  481  are substantially spherical and are substantially similar in size. Here, the substantially uniform shape and size of the modular elements  481  allows each modular element  481  to occupy a 1×1×1 volumetric unit (voxel) in a conceptual three-dimensional Cartesian space. As such, the custom packaging specification can specify the position of each modular element  481  in the protective structure  478  by indicating the respective Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), e.g., modular element  481   1  positioned at (1, 1, 1), modular element  481   a  positioned at (x a , y a , z a ), modular element  481   b  positioned at (x b , y b , z b ), etc., as shown in  FIGS. 8A and 8B . 
     As described herein, the structural aspects of a protective structure can be specified via Cartesian coordinates; however, it is understood that other coordinate systems (e.g., polar coordinate system) and/or other approaches for spatial description may be similarly employed. 
     Corresponding  FIGS. 8D and 8E  illustrate an example approach for arranging the modular elements  481  in the three-dimensional space to produce the protective structure  478 . In particular, the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  may include a feeder  452  that can move along the x-axis. The feeder  452 , for example, may be coupled to one or more motors that actuate linear movement of the feeder  452  along the x-axis. At incremental positions u along the x-axis, the feeder  452  can deposit (or deliver) a row  482   u  of modular elements  481 . The modular elements  481  in the row  482   u  are arranged at any of the v positions along the y-axis. By depositing a plurality of rows  482   u  in a first pass along the x-axis (e.g., in the positive x-direction), the feeder  452  forms a first layer  483   1  of modular elements  481  over the x-y plane. The first layer  483   1  is shown, for example, in  FIG. 8C . By depositing a plurality of rows  482   u  in repeated passes along the x-axis (i.e., alternately reciprocating in the positive and negative x-directions), the feeder  452  forms additional layers  483   w  over the first layer  483   1 . The plurality of layers  483   w  are, thus, formed at incremental positions w along the z-axis. 
     As  FIG. 8D  illustrates, the feeder  452  has deposited the first and second layers  483   1  and  483   2  and is depositing row  482   4  after rows  482   2  and  482   3  for the top layer  483   3 . As shown in  FIGS. 8A-C , the resulting three layers  483   w=1 to 3  eventually define the size and shape of the protective structure  478 . 
     The position u of the feeder  452  along the x-axis represents the x-coordinate for the position of a modular element  481 ; the position v of a modular element  481  along the y-axis represents its y-coordinate; and the position w of the layer  483   w  along the z-axis represents the z-coordinate for a modular element  481  in the layer  483   w . Accordingly, as the feeder  452  passes through the positions (u, v, w), the feeder  452  can deposit each modular element  481  according to the respective Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) in a voxel-based analysis. Although the example feeder  452  shown in  FIGS. 8D and 8E  might move only along the x-axis, it is understood that other embodiments may move a feeder along the y-axis and/or the z-axis or according to any degree of freedom (e.g., a feeder can move in a curved path). 
     As  FIGS. 8D and 8E  illustrate, the feeder  452  includes a plurality of chambers  453   v=1 to 9  corresponding to the positions v along the y-axis. The feeder  452  can deposit a modular element  481  at a position v along the y-axis via the respective chamber  453   v . A dispenser  454  couples the chambers  453   v  to a source of modular elements  481  and delivers modular elements  481  to the chambers  453   v . The dispenser  454  controls which chambers  453   v  receive a modular element  481  for a particular row  482   u . For example, the dispenser  454  may include a controlled gate  455   v  that allows one modular element  481  to pass into the respective chamber  453   v . Each gate  455   v , for example, may be selectively controlled via an electromechanical and/or hydraulic mechanism. Additionally, the modular elements  481  can be received by, and deposited from, the chamber  453   v  by gravity, forced air, mechanically controlled plunger, etc. The dispenser  454  delivers the modular elements  481  into the chambers  453   v  so that the modular elements  481  in a row  482   u  are delivered at the appropriate time, i.e., when the feeder  452  is positioned at the desired position u. 
     To deposit the row  482   4  at position u=4 along the x-axis for the layer  483   3  as shown in  FIGS. 8D and 8E , the gates  455   2 ,  455   3 ,  455   7 , and  455   8  allow modular elements  481   2 ,  481   3 ,  481   7 , and  481   8  to enter the chambers  453   2 ,  453   3 ,  453   7 , and  453   8 , respectively. On the other hand, the other chambers  453   1 ,  453   4 ,  453   5 ,  453   6 , and  453   9  remain empty. As such, when the modular elements  481   2 ,  481   3 ,  481   7 , and  481   8  are deposited from the feeder  452 , the row  482   4  includes modular elements  481  at positions v=2, 3, 7, and 8 along the y-axis. In this case, the custom packaging specification provides that modular elements  481  should be deposited at coordinates (4, 2, 3), (4, 3, 3), (4, 7, 3), and (4, 8, 3), and the automatic packaging manufacturing system  150  operates the dispenser  454  and the feeder  452  to deposit the modular elements  481  accordingly. 
     The positions v=4, 5, and 6 are empty to define a part of the recess  480  in the protective structure  478 . Meanwhile, the positions u=1 and 9 are empty, because the custom packaging specification may determine that packaging material (i.e., a modular element  481 ) is not required in those positions to provide sufficient support and protection for the item Advantageously, by using modular elements  481  to form the protective structure  478 , the automatic packaging manufacturing system  150  can closely control how packaging material is distributed throughout the protective structure  478 . As a result, the custom packaging specification can reduce the amount of packaging material used to form the protective structure  478 , thereby reducing cost, waste of materials, environmental impact, etc. The voxel-based approach here strikes a balance between practical manufacturing and optimization of material consumption. 
     As discussed above, an adhesive material may be applied to the outer surface of the modular elements  481  to make them adhere to each other. The adhesive can be applied to the modular elements  481  of a row  482   u  with a dropper, spray, brush, and/or other applicator. In general, the application of an adhesive and any activation can occur before, during, and/or after the row  482   u  is placed into contact with other modular elements  481 . The modular elements  481  adhere to each other as they are deposited by the feeder  452 . When necessary, the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  may allow the modular elements  481  some time to adhere effectively through cooling, drying, curing, etc., after they come into contact with each other. 
     As shown in corresponding  FIG. 8F , the protective structure  478  is placed into the selected container  470 . The recess  480  receives the item i j  and determines the three-dimensional position of the item i j  relative to the container  470 . In particular, the recess  480  positions the item i j  (e.g., centrally) for enhanced support and protection within the container  470  during shipment. The first protective structure  478  supports and protects the item i j  from the bottom. Therefore, a second protective structure  478 ′ is positioned over the item i j  to provide support and protection from above. The protective structure  478 ′ also includes a recess  480 ′ to accommodate the item i j . Indeed, due to the symmetry of the item i j , the second protective structure  478 ′ may be a copy of the first protective structure  478 . When combined, the recesses  480  and  480 ′ of the protective structures  478  and  478 ′, respectively, provide a cavity that positions the item i j  in a desired location within the three-dimensional space of the container  470  as provided by the custom packaging specification. 
     As shown in  FIG. 8F , the bottom layer  483   1  of the first protective structure  478  is situated on the bottom surface  471   a  of the container  470  and extends to the four side walls  471   b  of the container  370 . Correspondingly, the top layer  483   1 ′ of the second protective structure  478 ′ extends to the top of the container  470  where the top flaps  471   c  come together to close the container  470 . In addition, the top layer  483   1 ′ of the second protective structure  478 ′ extends to the four side walls  471   b  of the container  470 . Because the bottom layer  483   1  and the top layer  483   1 ′ extend to all sides of the closed container  470 , they act to prevent the protective structures  478  and  478 ′ and thus the item i j  from moving within the container  470 . 
     The packaging optimization module  105  may determine that when the protective structures  478  and  478 ′ are positioned in the container  470 , the bottom layer  483   1  and the top layer  483   1 ′ provide sufficient protection from any shocks, impacts, vibrations, or other external forces received at the side walls  471   b  of the container  470 . Therefore, as described above, the packaging optimization module  105  may determine that the other layers  483   2  and  483   3  of the first protective structure  478  and the other layers  483   2 ′ and  483   3 ′ of the second protective structure  478 ′ do not have to extend to the side walls  471   b  of the container  470 . Fewer modular elements  481  are thus used for the other layers  483   2 ,  483   3 ,  483   2 ′, and  483   3 ′ and space is left unfilled in the container  470 . By using modular elements  481  to form the protective structure  478 , the automatic packaging manufacturing system  150  can closely control how packaging material is distributed in the container  470 . As a result, the custom packaging specification can reduce the amount of packaging material used to form the protective structure  478 , thereby reducing shipment weight, waste of materials, cost, environmental impact, etc. 
     Although  FIGS. 8A-F  illustrate that the example protective structure  478  receives one item i j , protective structures contemplated by the present disclosure can accommodate any number of items and/or any combination of different items. For instance, referring to  FIGS. 9A and 9B , an example protective structure  578  includes more than one recess to receive different types of items. In particular, the two recesses  580   a  and  580   b  receive the item i k  (thinking glass) and i l  (drinking mug). To form the protective structure  578  with a configuration provided by a custom packaging specification, the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  can manipulate modular elements  581  in a manner similar to the modular elements  481  above. In particular, the feeder  452  and dispenser  454  may be employed to deposit rows and layers of modular elements  581  for the protective structure  578 . 
     Like the modular elements  481 , the modular elements  581  shown in  FIGS. 9A and 9B  are substantially similar in size. However, protective structures contemplated by the present disclosure can employ combinations of modular elements that are different in size. For instance, the cross-sectional view in  FIG. 10A  shows a plurality of modular elements  681   a ,  681   b ,  681   c ,  681   d , and  681   e  arranged to form an example protective structure  678  according to a custom packaging specification. The protective structure  678  includes a contoured recess  680  that receives an item i m  (a bowl with a contoured bottom). The modular elements  681   a - e  have five different respective sizes to facilitate the formation of the recess  680 . As shown in  FIG. 10A , the larger sized modular elements  681   a  may be used along the periphery of the protective structure  681 , while the smaller sized modular elements  681   b - e  are employed to provide “higher resolution” shaping on the interior to define the contoured recess  680 . The custom fit provided by the contoured recess  680  can provide enhanced support and protection for the item i m . 
     To produce the protective structure  678 , the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  may employ a process similar to the protective structures  478  and  578  described above. However, each modular element size may require a separate feeder and dispenser in the automated packaging manufacturing system  150 . As shown in  FIG. 10B , for example, feeders  652   a ,  652   b ,  652   c ,  652   d , and  652   e  are coupled to dispensers  654   a ,  654   b ,  654   c ,  654   d , and  654   e  and configured to deliver the modular elements  681   a ,  681   b ,  681   c ,  681   d , and  681   e , respectively. The feeders  652   a - e  may move together or separately along the x-axis. Each feeder  652   a ,  652   b ,  652   c ,  652   d , or  652   e  can deposit respective modular elements  681   a ,  681   b ,  681   c ,  681   d , or  681   e  at desired positions along the y-axis as the feeder passes designated positions along the x-axis. Reciprocating movement of the feeders  652   a - e  along the x-axis can then deposit different layers of the modular elements  681   a - e  along the z-axis to form the three-dimensional structure of the protective structure  678 . 
     Because the modular elements  681   a - e  have different sizes, they can fit in a greater variety of spaces and locations in the protective structure  678 . As such, the modular elements  681   a - e  may be distributed more efficiently and effectively throughout the protective structure  678  compared to protective structures with uniformly shaped modular elements. A voxel-based analysis for the protective structure  678  involves consideration of different volumetric units in the conceptual three-dimensional space. 
     In  FIGS. 10A and 10B , five different sizes are available for the modular elements  681   a - e . As shown in  FIG. 10B , a different feeder  652   a ,  652   b ,  652   c ,  652   d , or  652   e  delivers a respective one of the modular elements  681   a ,  681   b ,  681   c ,  681   d , and  681   e . If additional sizes for the modular elements are employed, the system for depositing the modular elements may become more complex and less practical. Thus, for practical purposes, the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  may limit the number of differently sized modular elements. In other implementations, for example, fewer sizes (e.g., two or three) may be employed. As a result, the packaging optimization module  105  may take the number of available modular element sizes into account when determining the custom packaging specification to meet other criteria. 
     The use of modular elements allows the protective structures to have any shape. In particular, aspects of the present disclosure can provide protective structures that are less conventional in shape. More conventional packaging configurations may employ a size and shape that corresponds closely to the size and shape of the container. For example, if a container (e.g., box) has a rectangular profile with a length l, a width w, and a height h, a conventional packaging configuration may mirror the same rectangular profile and provide a structure with the same length l, width w, and height h around the packaged items. According to aspects of the present disclosure, however, protective structures do not necessarily have the same shape as the container, i.e., the protective structure may have a non-rectangular shape for a rectangular container. As described above with reference to  FIG. 8F , unfilled space may exist between the protective structure and the walls of the container (e.g., only air fills this space). In other words, sections of a side of the protective structure may be spaced from the inner surface of the facing wall of the container. Leaving this space unfilled reduces the amount of packaging material (i.e., modular elements) used for the protective structure, thereby reducing shipment weight, waste of materials, cost, environmental impact, etc. 
     To allow space to exist between the protective structure and the interior surfaces of the container, the protective devices may include leg-like structures that extend outwardly to engage the interior surfaces of the container and to position the protective structure within the container (e.g., more centrally away from the walls) to enhance protection. These leg-like structures may contribute to the less conventional shape of the protective structure. 
     In general, aspects of the protective devices may be shaped specifically to reduce amount of packaging material (i.e., modular elements) used for the protective structure. For example, the protective devices may include any number of recesses and/or cavities that are only filled by air. These recesses and/or cavities do not affect the ability of the protective structure to support and protect the packaged items. 
     Referring to  FIGS. 11A and 11B , differently sized modular elements  781  are arranged to form unconventionally shaped protective structures  778  and  778 ′. The first protective structure  778   a  includes recesses  780   a  and  780   b  to receive items i o  and i p  (lotion bottles), respectively, The first protective structure  778   a  supports and protects the items i o  and i p  from below. Meanwhile, as shown in  FIG. 11B , the second protective structure  778 ′ is placed over the items i o  and i p  to provide support and protection from above. The protective structure  778 ′ also includes recesses  780   a ′ and  780   b ′ to accommodate the items i o  and i p , respectively. When the protective structures  778   a ′ and  778   b ′ are combined as shown in  FIG. 11B  and fit into a container  770 , the recesses  780   a  and  780   a ′ provide a cavity that encloses the item i o  and can keep the item i o  in a desired position in the three-dimensional space of the container  770 . Correspondingly, the recesses  780   b  and  780   b ′ provide a cavity that encloses the item i p  and can keep the item i p  in a desired position in the three-dimensional space of the container  770 . 
     In addition to defining recesses for receiving and arranging the items for the container  770 , the modular elements  781  also define features that allow the protective structure to be securely situated in the container  770 . For example, as shown in  FIG. 11B , the protective structure  778  includes leg-like structures  787  that extend outwardly to engage the interior surfaces of the container  770 . 
     To reduce the amount of packaging material used, the protective structures, such as the protective structure  778 , may have unconventional shapes. As shown in  FIG. 11B , spaces in and around the protective structures  778  and  778 ′ in the container  770  remain unfilled. Because the protective structures  778  and  778 ′ provide sufficient support and protection for the items i o  and i p , filling these spaces with packaging material would waste material and add unnecessary weight for shipment. 
     Although the modular elements illustrated in  FIGS. 8A-11B  may appear to be substantially spherical, protective structures may include any combination of modular elements having different shapes. For example,  FIG. 12  illustrates alternative shapes for modular elements that may be employed to form a protective structure. The alternative shapes include bipyramids, diamond-like shapes, dodecahedrons, icosahedrons, and hexahedrons (cubes), but are not limited to such shapes. 
     As  FIG. 13  shows, an example protective structure  878  is formed from an arrangement of cube-shaped modular elements  881 . The protective structure  878  provides several recesses for receiving and positioning items in a three-dimensional space. For instance, a recess  880  receives an item i q  (a lotion bottle). 
     The features for arranging items in a three-dimensional space are not limited to recesses. For example, the protective structure  878  shown in  FIG. 13  also includes projecting structures that extend in different directions to engage the items received by the protective structure  878 . The protective structure  878  includes projecting structures  886  that extend upwardly to support the item i q  vertically in a desired angled orientation. In general. protective structures may have any shape that provides recesses, projecting structures, and other features to position and orient items in a three-dimensional space. 
     The assembly of the modular elements to form protective structures can be implemented under automatic computer/machine control. As described above, the computing system  101  analyzes an order to produce a custom packaging specification that determines the shape of the protective structures and how modular elements should be assembled to produce the protective structures. In particular, the computer system determines the number of modular elements to use, what different sizes of modular elements to use, and how the modular elements should be positioned relative to each other. The automated packaging manufacturing system  150  may include a machine that can form the desired number of modular elements from a base material according to the desired shapes. Alternatively, the modular elements can be pre-formed in advance and are stored as inventory for subsequent assembly. 
     The modular particles are then delivered to a machine which can arrange and assemble the modular elements. As described above, a feeder  452 , for example, may move along the x-axis to deposit modular elements along the y-axis, and reciprocating movement of the feeder  452  along the x-axis allows the feeder  452  to form layers of modular elements along the z-axis and define the three-dimensional shape of the protective structure. However, the automated packaging manufacturing system  150  is not limited to the use of a device such as the feeder  452 . As shown in  FIGS. 14A and 14B , other devices may be employed to position the modular elements. 
     In particular,  FIG. 14A  illustrates an example feeder  952  that can move along the x-, y-, and z-axes to deposit individual modular elements  981  at desired positions in a three-dimensional space. The feeder  952  may be coupled to one or more motors that actuate movement of the feeder  952  along the three dimensions. As shown, the feeder  952  includes one chamber  953  to receive the modular elements  981 . If differently sized and/or shaped modular elements are employed to form the protective device, additional chambers  953  can be added or an entirely separate feeder  952  may be employed for each type of modular element. In the example of  FIG. 14A , an adhesive applicator  956  is also illustrated. The adhesive applicator  956  may include a nozzle or dropper  957  that is coupled to a source of adhesive. As each modular element  981  is deposited, the adhesive applicator  956  applies an adhesive that allows the modular element  981  to adhere to other modular elements  981  it contacts. Similar applicators can be employed in the embodiments described herein. As described above, for example, the applicator  956  may apply a liquid to a modular element  981  as it is falls from the chamber  953 , and the liquid dries/solidifies in time to make the modular elements self-adhering as they come into contact with other modular elements. Additionally or alternatively, the applicator  956  can apply the adhesive after the modular elements come into contact to make adhesion stronger. Alternatively, the modular elements  981  are coated with an unactivated adhesive material that provides adhesive properties when it is subsequently treated (e.g., with water or solvents). As such, the applicator  956  can be employed to provide the activating treatment (e.g, by delivering water or solvents). 
     Meanwhile,  FIG. 14B  illustrates another example feeder  1052  that allows modular elements  1081  to be arranged in a two-dimensional grid (along the x- and y-axes) before they are deposited simultaneously as a layer. Repeated deposits from the feeder  1052  produces layers along the z-axis to define the three-dimensional shape of the protective structure. The feeder  1052  includes a plurality of chambers  1053  arranged in a two-dimensional grid to direct the modular elements. The position of each chamber  1053  determines its x, y-coordinates in the three-dimensional space. If differently sized and/or shaped modular elements are employed to form the protective device, separate feeders  1053  may be employed for each type of modular element. 
     The embodiments described herein may employ computing systems for processing information and controlling aspects of an order system  100 . For example, in the computing system  101  shown in  FIG. 1 , the order processing module  103 , the inventory module  104 , the packaging optimization module  105 , and the shipping module  108  process information relating to an order  2 . Meanwhile, the picking/packing controller  106  controls the automated picking system  130 , and the packaging manufacturing controller  107  controls the automated packaging manufacturing system  150 . Generally, the computing system systems include one or more processors. For example, the computing system  101  include one or more shared or dedicated processors to provide the modules  102 ,  103 ,  104 , and  107  and the controllers  105  and  106 . 
     The processor(s) of a computing system may be implemented as a combination of hardware and software elements. The hardware elements may include combinations of operatively coupled hardware components, including microprocessors, communication/networking interfaces, memory, signal filters, circuitry, etc. The processors may be configured to perform operations specified by the software elements, e.g., computer-executable code stored on computer readable medium. The processors may be implemented in any device, system, or subsystem to provide functionality and operation according to the present disclosure. The processors may be implemented in any number of physical devices/machines. For example, the computing system  101  may include one or more shared or dedicated general purpose computer systems/servers to provide the modules  102 ,  103 ,  104 , and  107  and the controllers  105  and  106 . Indeed, parts of the processing of the example embodiments can be distributed over any combination of processors for better performance, reliability, cost, etc. 
     The physical devices/machines can be implemented by the preparation of integrated circuits or by interconnecting an appropriate network of conventional component circuits, as is appreciated by those skilled in the electrical art(s). The physical devices/machines, for example, may include field programmable gate arrays (FPGA&#39;s), application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC&#39;s), digital signal processors (DSP&#39;s), etc. The physical devices/machines may reside on a wired or wireless network, e.g., LAN, WAN, Internet, cloud, near-field communications, etc., to communicate with each other and/or other systems, e.g., Internet/web resources. 
     Appropriate software can be readily prepared by programmers of ordinary skill based on the teachings of the example embodiments, as is appreciated by those skilled in the software arts. Thus, the example embodiments are not limited to any specific combination of hardware circuitry and/or software. Stored on one computer readable medium or a combination of computer readable media, the computing systems may include software for controlling the devices and subsystems of the example embodiments, for driving the devices and subsystems of the example embodiments, for enabling the devices and subsystems of the example embodiments to interact with a human user (user interfaces, displays, controls), etc. Such software can include, but is not limited to, device drivers, operating systems, development tools, applications software, etc. A computer readable medium further can include the computer program product(s) for performing all or a portion of the processing performed by the example embodiments. Computer program products employed by the example embodiments can include any suitable interpretable or executable code mechanism, including but not limited to complete executable programs, interpretable programs, scripts, dynamic link libraries (DLLs), applets, etc. The processors may include, or be otherwise combined with, computer-readable media. Some forms of computer-readable media may include, for example, a hard disk, any other suitable magnetic medium, CD-ROM, CDRW, DVD, any other suitable optical medium, RAM, PROM, EPROM, FLASH-EPROM, any other suitable memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave, or any other suitable medium from which a computer can read. 
     The computing systems may also include databases for storing data. For example, the computing system  101  includes an order database  03  for storing order information and an item database  06  for storing information on items for orders  2 . Such databases may be stored on the computer readable media described above and may organize the data according to any appropriate approach. For examples, the data may be stored in relational databases, navigational databases, flat files, lookup tables, etc. Furthermore, the databases may be managed according to any type of database management software. 
     Although the system  100  determines custom packaging specifications  16  based on the characteristic data  14  of specific items i in an order  02 , the determined custom packaging specifications  16  can be stored in a database (e.g., the order database  03 ) for retrieval when subsequent orders  02  are received for the same specific items i, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
     While various aspects and embodiments have been disclosed herein, other aspects and embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The various aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are for purposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting, with the true scope and spirit being indicated by the following claims.