Patent Publication Number: US-2023158221-A1

Title: Formulations and methods for direct sodium removal in patients having heart failure and/or severe renal dysfunction

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 17/661,737, filed May 2, 2022, now U.S. Pat. No. 11,559,618, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 17/174,855, filed Feb. 12, 2021, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/985,598, filed May 21, 2018, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,918,778, which claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/510,652, filed May 24, 2017, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates generally to formulations for, and methods of, using low or sodium-free infusates that are administered to a patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity to remove sodium and excess fluid from the body to alleviate fluid overload (“DSR therapy”). U.S. Pat. No. 10,918,778, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, describes such solutions for heart failure patients having residual renal function. The inventions described herein extend DSR therapy to patients with severely compromised renal function. 
     BACKGROUND 
     U.S. Pat. No. 10,918,778 B2 describes DSR infusates and methods of use for removing excess fluid by the removal of sodium from heart failure patients having residual renal function. In particular, the DSR infusates are specially formulated to be instilled into a patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity to remove sodium and water through one or both of: 1) ultrafiltration and/or 2) diffusion of sodium ions down a steep concentration gradient between the infusate instilled into patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity and surrounding tissues and vessels. After sodium and ultrafiltrate accumulates in the peritoneal cavity, it may be drained in accordance with conventional peritoneal dialysis methods, or more preferably, transferred by an implantable pump to the patient&#39;s urinary bladder, from which it is subsequently voided. 
     The foregoing patent describes that excess fluid is eliminated from the body to maintain a relatively stable serum sodium concentration, by one or both of: 1) inducing fluid to migrate from the patient&#39;s body into the peritoneal cavity, from where it is eliminated and/or 2) enhancing the excretion of excess fluid via the kidneys through urination. Patients suffering from kidney failure also are prone to accumulate additional sodium in body tissues and suffer from increased fluid retention. Such excess fluid may result in congestive heart failure, which in turn may result in edema of the lungs or liver. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 5,589, 197 to Shockley et al. describes a dialysate for use in peritoneal dialysis, wherein the sodium concentration is between about 35 to 125 meq/L. As discussed in that patent, such solutions may be used to transport sodium to the peritoneal cavity for subsequent removal. Problems encountered with early experience with such low sodium dialysates, included symptomatic drops in blood pressure, and dialysis disequilibrium syndrome, a potentially fatal complication resulting in cerebral edema, coma and death. See, e.g., Nakayma,  Clinical Effect of Low Na Concentration Dialysate  (120 mEq/L)  for CAPD Patients , PD Conference, San See, e.g., Zepeda-Orozco D, Quigley R.,  Dialysis disequilibrium syndrome , Pediatric Nephrology (Berlin, Germany) 2012;27(12):2205-2211. 
     In accordance with existing standards of care, people with end-stage kidney disease generally undergo dialysis on a regular basis to optimize sodium and fluid levels. The reported current average concentration of sodium in dialysate is generally about 132 mMol/L. See, e.g., Hecking M, Kainz A, Horl WH, Herkner H, Sunder-Plassmann G.,  Sodium setpoint and sodium gradient: influence on plasma sodium change and weight gain.  American Journal of Nephrology 2011;33(1):39-48; Mc Causland FR, Brunelli SM, Waikar SS.,  Dialysate sodium, serum sodium and mortality in maintenance hemodialysis.  Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 2012; 27(4): 1613 -8. 
     As reported in, e.g., Munoz Mendoza J, Sun S, Chertow G, Moran J, Doss S, Schiller B.,  Dialysate sodium and sodium gradient in maintenance hemodialysis: a neglected sodium restriction approach?,  Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 2011;26(4):1281-7, experience with dialysate sodium concentrations higher than the patients&#39; blood sodium levels show that such dialysates generally result in a net gain of sodium by the end of a dialysis session, which may result in increased fluid consumption and hypertension. Consequently, patients who undergo frequent hemodialysis sessions may experience chronic high sodium and fluid retention. 
     As described in the above-incorporated patent, applicants have observed that eliminating fluid overload is a key clinical objective in managing heart failure. Applicants observed that achieving a stable reduction in fluid retention requires elimination of sodium from the body. Within certain ranges, patients having residual kidney function automatically will rebalance blood serum sodium concentration to maintain a constant serum osmolality and to maintain a stable sodium level, as described for example, in Guyton &amp; Hall, Textbook of Medical Physiology. This is so because in patients with residual kidney function, the kidneys will remove excess water beyond that which might lead to hyponatremia. 
     As described in the above-incorporated patent, the use of no or low sodium dialysates to reduce fluid and/or sodium overload was believed by applicants to require at least some residual kidney function to avoid undesirable drops in blood pressure caused by hyponatremia and/or dialysis disequilibrium syndrome. It therefore would be desirable to develop DSR formulations and methods of use for conducting DSR therapy for patients with severe renal dysfunction. The desired DSR formulations and methods would assist such patients to achieve reductions in sodium and fluid overload not currently attainable with conventional dialysis techniques, while maintaining sodium serum levels for such patients. 
     Accordingly, it would be desirable to provide compositions, and methods of use, for expanding the benefits of DSR therapy to patients suffering from severe renal dysfunction. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In accordance with the present invention, DSR infusates and methods of use are provided for removing sodium and reducing fluid overload in patients with severe renal dysfunction, while aiding maintenance of stable serum sodium levels. In the context of this invention, such patient groups include patients who exhibit chronic kidney disease (“CKD”) of Stage 4 or Stage 5, and who in addition to kidney disease also may manifest with any of several forms of heart failure treatable by body fluid management. 
     Applicants have observed that instilling low or no sodium infusates into the peritoneal cavities of patients with residual renal function can significantly alleviate the symptoms of heart failure by reducing fluid overload. For example, in applicants&#39; first-in-human testing, DSR formulations that comprise a sterile solution of dextrose in a range of 5 to 15 weight percent, with no or low sodium concentrations, resulted in removal of significant amounts of sodium (e.g., up to 2 gm) and fluid (e.g., up to 2 liter) during a two-hour dwell time. Applicants observed that those patients&#39; blood serum sodium levels remained substantially constant. To the extent that the amount of sodium migrating to the patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity causes a transitory serum sodium imbalance, the patients&#39; kidneys caused additional water to be excreted to rebalance the blood serum sodium level. Applicants theorize that if sodium migrates to, and is removed from, the peritoneal cavity, serum sodium levels will be maintained by release into the blood of sodium stored in extravascularly, e.g., within the interstitium of skin and skeletal muscle. 
     For patients with severe renal disease, e.g., CKD stage 4 of stage 5, there is a potential risk that removal of too much sodium via a single peritoneal dialysis session using the DSR infusates described in the above-incorporated patent may (without a corresponding reduction in fluid), may result in hyponatremia. This situation may arise because patients with severe renal dysfunction may be unable to remove excess amounts of water from the blood to maintain a stable serum sodium level. To meet the needs of this patient population, special DSR infusates and methods are needed. 
     The amount of sodium and water removed during a specified dwell period will be function of the concentration of sodium in the infusate, the osmolality of the infusate, and the tendency of constituents of the infusate to migrate across through the peritoneum and into the patient&#39;s tissue and vascular system. For example, an infusate with no sodium will create a steep gradient that causes sodium to migrate to the peritoneal cavity, whereas an infusate with a sodium concentration approaching isomolar with blood serum levels, e.g., 130 meq/ml, will create a much shallower gradient. Sodium will move to the fluid in the peritoneal cavity asymptotically until that gradient disappears and the sodium concentration in the fluid in the peritoneal cavity becomes isotonic, provided the dwell period is sufficiently long. 
     Similarly, the osmolality of the infusate will determine its ability to drive water to the peritoneal cavity, and will vary based on the constituent in the infusate and its ability to migrate across the peritoneum. For example, it is known that dextrose provides high osmolality when a dextrose containing infusate is instilled into the peritoneal cavity. However, because the dextrose molecules to quickly migrate from the peritoneal cavity, the ability of the infusate to drive ultrafiltrate to the peritoneal cavity will decline fairly rapidly. By comparison, an icodextrin solution also provides high initial osmolality, remains high throughout the dwell period because the icodextrin molecules are less prone to migrate. Accordingly, the ability of the infusate to drive excess fluid into the patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity also will determine the ability of the DSR infusate to move excess sodium and water to the peritoneal cavity for subsequent removal. In addition, the more water that is drawn to the peritoneal cavity, the greater the amount of sodium that will migrate to the peritoneal cavity to render the sodium concentration isotonic. 
     In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, a regimen of DSR infusates having different compositions may be provided for sequential use with patients having severe renal dysfunction. A first infusate composition, may have a first selected no or low sodium concentration, and may be instilled into a patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity in an amount from 0.25 L to 1.5 L or more to initiate DSR treatment to reduce fluid and sodium overload to establish a new fluid and sodium equilibrium for the patient. Thereafter, a second infusate composition, having a different composition, may be instilled in an amount of 0.25 L to 2.0 L to remove additional amounts of fluid and sodium to establish a new fluid equilibrium for the patient. Treatment with these solutions may be serial, or coordinated, and/or interspersed, with the patient&#39;s conventional hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis regime. 
     After a first DSR therapy session, the patient may undergo one or more conventional hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis sessions to remove blood-borne toxins. For example, a patient may undergo a first DSR therapy session to reduce fluid overload, and thereafter follow-up the DSR therapy session with conventional hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis treatment to restore any fluid/sodium imbalance. During the first DSR therapy session, an exemplary first DSR infusate may comprise a no or low sodium solution, preferably consisting of sterile water containing 5 weight percent dextrose and up to 40 weight percent icodextrin. In particular, a higher concentration of icodextrin is expected to be desirable to avoid hyperglycemia. 
     Subsequently, the patient may undergo a second DSR therapy session, during which additional sodium and/or excess fluid may be removed, but in different proportions than during the first therapy session. One exemplary composition for use as a second DSR infusate may comprise a no or low sodium solution consisting of sterile water containing 5 weight percent dextrose and 15 weight percent icodextrin. More generally, during the subsequent DSR therapy session, which may be temporally contiguous with the first session, any of a range of infusates having different dextrose and icodextrin concentrations of between about 5 weight percent and 40 weight percent may be used to target remove of fluid or enhanced sodium depuration as indicated on a patient-specific basis. Optionally, during the dwell period for such a second infusate, serum sodium concentration may be sampled, e.g., via blood samples, to confirm that the serum sodium level does not drop precipitously. A conventional hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis session may be conducted between the first and second DSR sessions, or shortly thereafter, to further rebalance and stabilize the patient&#39;s serum sodium and fluid levels. 
     Methods of instilling and removing the DSR infusates of the present invention also are provided. In particular, the DSR infusates may be instilled into, and ultrafiltrate removed from, the peritoneal cavity using conventional peritoneal dialysis tubing sets. More preferably, removal of dialysate solution and sodium-laden ultrafiltrate may be accomplished with the implantable pump system described in commonly-assigned U.S. Pat. No. 9,956,336, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. That patent describes a system for ambulatory peritoneal dialysis in which a dialysate is infused into the peritoneal cavity. After a predetermined time and/or at predetermined intervals, an implantable pump transfers fluid accumulated in the peritoneum to the patient&#39;s bladder, where it may be excreted by urination. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Further features of the invention, its nature and various advantages will be more apparent from the accompanying drawings and the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments, in which: 
         FIG.  1    is a perspective view of an exemplary regimen of infusates having compositions selected in accordance with the principles of the present invention for reducing fluid and sodium overload in patients with severe renal dysfunction. 
         FIG.  2    is a plan view of exemplary components of an implantable pump system for use in conjunction with the infusate compositions and methods of the present invention. 
         FIG.  3    is a schematic view of an exemplary arrangement for practicing the DSR therapy methods of the present invention using the implantable device of the system of  FIG.  2   . 
         FIG.  4    illustrates steps of an exemplary method of using the DSR regimen of  FIG.  1    in accordance with the principles of the present invention. 
         FIGS.  5 A,  5 B and  5 C  are graphs depicting the results of testing of the inventive DSR method on an initial group of five animals. 
         FIGS.  6 A to  6 F  are graphs depicting the results of testing of the inventive DSR method on a follow-up group of ten animals. 
         FIGS.  7 A to  7 C  are graphs depicting changes to blood volume, red blood count, and plasma volume for a sub-group of the second group of animals after consecutive applications of the inventive DSR method. 
         FIGS.  8 A and  8 B  are, respectively, graphs showing the amounts of sodium removed in a first in-human (“FIM”) trial for 10 patients using a single dose of sodium-free 10 weight percent dextrose solution and a conventional peritoneal dialysis solution, sequentially administered via a conventional peritoneal dialysis catheter, as a function of dwell time, and sodium removal comparisons for each patient. 
         FIGS.  9 A and  9 B  are, respectively, bar charts that compare average observed changes in physiologic parameters for 10 other human patients during a second trial in which patients underwent DSR sessions three times a week for six weeks with a DSR solution of sodium-free 10 weight percent dextrose solution. 
         FIGS.  10 A,  10 B and  10 C  are, respectively, graphs showing the evolution of observed changes in physiologic parameters for the 10 patients during the second human trial. 
         FIG.  11    is a bar chart showing the improvement in diuretic response in the second trial. 
         FIG.  12    is a table showing a durable effect post DSR-treatment for patients who experienced a substantial reduction in need for diuretic drugs following the second trial. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention is directed to infusate compositions and methods of treating fluid and/or sodium overload in patients with severe renal dysfunction, e.g., CKD stage 4 or stage 5. The infusate compositions and treatment methods are expected to be complimentary to conventional hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis treatments and methods. Methods and compositions for treating heart failure patients suffering from fluid overload that have residual renal function are described in U.S. Pat. No. 10,918,778 B2, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The present invention is directed to methods and compositions that extend the benefits of direct sodium removal technology to patients with severe renal dysfunction. Based on data collected during first-in-man trials with an exemplary DSR infusate as described in the above-incorporated patent, the methods and compositions of the present invention are expected not only to improve sodium/fluid balance, but also to improve renal function and efficacy of loop diuretics used to control fluid overload. 
     In accordance with the principles of the present invention, a regimen consisting of at least a first DSR infusate composition is provided having a selected osmolality and no or low sodium. By way of non-limiting example, the first infusate may comprise sterile water, up to 40 wt % icodextrin, and up to 10 wt % dextrose. The regimen also may include a second infusate composition having the same or different composition and sodium concentration. An exemplary second infusate, which may be used in a follow-up DSR session, may comprise sterile water, 15 wt % icodextrin, and 5 wt % dextrose. Other DSR infusates may omit dextrose entirely and consist solely of a low-sodium icodextrin concentration, or have as constituents other high molecule weight biocompatible polymers. 
     In one embodiment, the first infusate may be constituted so that when instilled into a patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity, it creates gradients that cause both high amounts of water and sodium to migrate to infusate during a first dwell period. Upon conclusion of the first dwell period, or a portion thereof, the infusate, ultrafiltrate and sodium are removed from the peritoneal cavity using a conventional peritoneal drainage catheter, or more preferably, an implanted pump that transfers the fluid to the patient&#39;s bladder. 
     A second infusate for use in a subsequent DSR treatment, immediately after or sometime after the first DSR treatment, may be constituted so that when instilled into the patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity, it creates gradients that cause additional water and/or sodium to migrate to the peritoneal cavity during a second dwell period. Upon conclusion of the second dwell period, or a portion thereof, the second infusate, ultrafiltrate and sodium may be removed from the peritoneal cavity using a conventional drainage catheter or an implanted pump. The osmolality, constituents and sodium concentration of the second infusate may be adjusted as required on a patient-specific basis to tailor relief desired for that patient. 
     As described in detail below, for patients with severe renal dysfunction, the DSR infusate regimen is designed to be used in coordination with a patient&#39;s regular hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis schedule. Conventional dialysis treatments, both hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis, target removal of blood-borne toxins and waste by-products. While conventional dialysis techniques can remove some excess water from the patient&#39;s circulation, it is not uncommon for patients with severe renal dysfunction to suffer from fluid overload. In accordance with the principles of the present invention, however, DSR therapy may be used in combination with conventional dialysis techniques to remove sodium, resolve fluid overload, and reduce congestion. Initial FIM results also suggest that DSR therapy may restore some degree of kidney function, improve the efficacy of loop diuretics and mitigate some degree of transient dialysis-induced kidney injury. 
     As described in the above-incorporated patent, a zero or low sodium concentration in each infusate causes sodium and fluid (osmotic ultrafiltrate) to pass from the patient&#39;s body into the peritoneal cavity. The DSR infusate is allowed to remain, or dwell, in the peritoneal cavity for a specified period before it is removed, together with the extracted sodium and the osmotic ultrafiltrate. Removal of the sodium-laden DSR infusate and osmotic ultrafiltrate from the peritoneal cavity may be performed using an implantable system, such as the Alfapump commercialized by Sequana Medical NV of Zwijnaarde, Belgium. 
     As used in this disclosure, a no or low sodium DSR infusate has a sodium content of less than 120 meq/L, and more preferably, less than 35 meq/L, and includes infusates having zero or only trace amounts of sodium. The fluid overload treatment methods of the present invention specifically contemplate use of the inventive methods in patients experiencing severe kidney dysfunction, e.g., CKD Stage 4 or Stage 5, function and also in heart failure patients with end-stage renal disease. 
     Referring to  FIG.  1   , in accordance with the principles and methods of the present invention, an exemplary regimen  10  of DSR infusates suitable for use with patients with severe renal dysfunction is described, and includes two formulations designed to be instilled into a patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity having different osmolalities, intended for successive DSR sessions. Specifically,  FIG.  1    depicts bag  12  of DSR Solution  1 , which may be employed in a first treatment session, and bag  14  of DSR Solution  2 , which may be used in a follow-up DSR session as described below. It should be understood, however, that DSR Solution  1  and Solution  2  may consist of a single composition of DSR infusate. Also depicted in  FIG.  1    is conventional tubing set  16  for use in infusing the fluid of either bag  12  or  14  into the peritoneal cavity of a patient using a conventional peritoneal dialysis catheter (not shown). 
     In one embodiment, DSR Solution  1  and DSR Solution  2  are infusates that may have different compositions and are intended for sequential use in patients having severe renal dysfunction. Preferably, such patients regularly undergo conventional hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis. DSR Solution  1  may have a sodium concentration and osmolality selected for initiating DSR treatment, to reduce fluid and sodium overload. DSR Solution  2  may have a different sodium concentration and osmolality, and may be used in a subsequent DSR session to further reduce fluid and sodium levels achieved with the first DSR session. It expected that one or more DSR sessions may be coordinated, and/or interspersed, with the patient&#39;s conventional hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis regime. 
     In one method of the invention, after a first DSR therapy session with the DSR Solution  1 , the patient may undergo one or more conventional hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis sessions to remove blood-borne toxins. Thereafter, the patient may undergo a subsequent session using DSR Solution  2  to further reduce fluid and/or stored sodium, or to maintain the fluid/sodium balance achieved after the session with DSR Solution  1 . 
     In one exemplary embodiment of DSR therapy regimen  10 , DSR Solution  1  may comprise a no or low sodium solution consisting of sterile water containing 5 to 10 weight percent dextrose and up to 40 weight percent icodextrin. Such an exemplary composition of DSR Solution  1  is expected to remove both sodium and water. Thereafter, the patient may undergo a further DSR therapy session with DSR Solution  2 , such that the composition of DSR Solution  2  is selected either to remove additional fluid and/or sodium or to maintain a new fluid/sodium balance achieved after the first DSR session. An exemplary composition for DSR Solution  2  may comprise a no or low sodium solution consisting of sterile water containing 5 weight percent dextrose and 15 weight percent icodextrin. Such an exemplary composition of DSR Solution  2  is expected preferentially to remove more sodium than water, relative to DSR Solution  1 . 
     In accordance with one aspect of the invention, serum sodium concentration may be periodically sampled, e.g., via blood samples, to monitor the patient&#39;s serum sodium level. Conventional hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis sessions may be conducted after or between the first and any second DSR sessions, as generally required for patients with severe renal dysfunction. Advantageously, it is expected that such conventional hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis sessions also may be used to fine-tune and/or stabilize the patient&#39;s fluid management. 
     Generally, formulations suitable for first and follow-up DSR sessions may contain from zero to 50 grams of dextrose per 100 ml of aqueous solution, and for some applications 5 to 10 weight percent dextrose; from 0.5 to 50 grams of icodextrin per 100 ml of aqueous solution and more preferably 15 to 30 weight percent icodextrin. Suitable solutions also may employ high molecular weight biocompatible polymer solutions (weight average molecular weight Da&gt;10,000) having from 0.5 to 50 grams of high molecular weight polymer per 100 ml of aqueous solution, and combinations thereof. Additional constituents that may be substituted for the dextrose and/icodextrin include solutions containing between 0.5 and 50 grams of one or more of: xylitol, glycerol, hyperbranched polyglycerol, sorbitol, carnitine, taurine, amino acids, urea, polyacrylate, polyethyleneimine, and stevioside per 100 ml aqueous solution. The aqueous solution contains at least purified water, and in addition may include electrolytes such as low amounts of magnesium or calcium salts, preservatives, ingredients having antimicrobial or antifungal properties, or buffering materials to control pH of the infusate. Icodextrin compositions generally may be preferable to dextrose compositions as icodextrin has been observed to experience a lower rate of uptake when employed in a peritoneal dialysis setting, and thus better preserves the peritoneal membrane compared to dextrose-based compositions. 
     Whereas the DSR infusates described in the U.S. Pat. No. 10,918,778 B2 were not recommended for use in heart failure patients with fluid overload having severe renal dysfunction, the regimen of infusates described herein may be specifically formulated to treat patients with CKD Stage 4 or Stage 5, especially patients for whom loop diuretics are no longer effective. As discussed below, the assignee&#39;s initial human testing with a no sodium dextrose solution suggests that interspersing DSR therapy sessions with conventional hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis sessions enables the latter sessions advantageously to be used to monitor and/or adjust fluid and sodium levels. Those initial studies also revealed that removal of excess fluid and sodium via DSR sessions enabled the use of lower doses of loop diuretics to maintain an appropriate fluid balance for the patient. For some patients loop diuretics could be completely discontinued during the study period. It is theorized that in such cases the DSR therapy permitted the patients&#39; kidneys to rest and/or regain some function, thus enhancing the efficacy of the loop diuretics. 
     The methods of present invention for using the DSR compositions of the invention optionally may include monitoring a patient&#39;s blood serum sodium level in connection with the DSR sessions. For example, a blood sample may be taken during or after DSR session to monitor serum sodium level. Depending upon a desired outcome for a specific patient, use a first DSR infusate may cause more sodium than water to migrate to the patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity, which ultrafiltrate together with the infusate and sodium, may be drained from the peritoneal cavity via a conventional peritoneal dialysis catheter or more preferably, using the implantable pump described in the above-incorporated patent. Thereafter, the patient may undergo conventional hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis, during which additional fluid may be removed to rebalance the patient&#39;s sodium metabolism. 
     At some later time, e.g., several weeks later, after one or several regularly scheduled dialysis sessions, the patient may undergo another DSR session with DSR Solution  1  or DSR Solution  2 . Once again the patient&#39;s serum sodium level may be monitored by taking a blood sample during or after the DSR session. In accordance with one aspect of the invention, DSR session may be intended to additional water and/or sodium to migrate to the patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity. It has been theorized that, as observed during initial testing, the body may store excess sodium in extravascular spaces, such as interstitially in the vessel walls. It is believed that when sodium migrates from the blood and into infusate instilled in the peritoneal cavity during a DSR dwell period, the sodium migrating to the infusate is replenished by the non-osmotic sodium. Accordingly, it is theorized that by reducing non-osmotic sodium, the patient&#39;s body will be able to achieve a lower and healthier fluid balance. 
     While the methods and DSR regimes of the present invention may be performed with conventional peritoneal infusion and drainage catheters, it is expected that use the implantable pump system offered by the assignee of the present application may be particularly advantageous. Specifically, the Alfapump system, offered by Sequana Medical NV, is well suited for removing sodium-laden infusate and ultrafiltrate from a patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity. For example, after a DSR infusate is instilled into a patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity and a desired dwell time elapses, or a sodium concentration is detected in the ultrafiltrate, the implantable pump may be activated, in accordance with a clinician&#39;s programmed instructions, to pump the sodium-laden DSR infusate and ultrafiltrate to the patient&#39;s bladder for subsequent voiding. Further, it is possible that after a DSR session, fluid may continue to accumulate in the peritoneal cavity, and the implantable pump may be programmed to pump such fluid to the bladder on a periodic basis. 
     The methods of the present invention therefore provide a method of controlling fluid overload and edema in patients with severe renal dysfunction, while permitting such patients to experience a more normal lifestyle, other than their regularly scheduled dialysis sessions. And because the inventive methods and compositions are expected to lead to a reduction in fluid and/or sodium volume, the patient may not only experience improved comfort and lifestyle, but also delayed onset of other co-morbidities, such as further advancement of chronic kidney disease and/or progressive heart failure. 
     Referring now to  FIG.  2   , exemplary system  100  for use in practicing the present invention is described. In  FIG.  2   , components of system  100  are not depicted to scale on either a relative or absolute basis. System  100  includes implantable pump  120  that is specially configured to move fluid out of the peritoneal cavity and into the bladder, and includes a plurality of sensors for monitoring and recording operating parameters relevant to the health of the patient. External charging and communication system  130  is used to periodically charge and communicate with implantable device  110 , and downloads operational data from device  110 . Monitoring and control system  140  includes software installed on a treating physician&#39;s computer to receive the operational data from charging and communication system  130 , and allow the physician to modify the operation of implantable device  110  based on the physician&#39;s perception of the patient&#39;s health based on review of the operational data uploaded from device  110 . Optionally, the monitoring and control system may be configured to alert the physician as to a prediction or detection of infection, heart failure decompensation or other clinical events based on the recorded operating parameters. Implantable device  110  optionally may also include one or more ultraviolet (UV) sources configured to inhibit infection. 
     During patient visits, charging and communication system  130  may be coupled, either wirelessly or using a cable, to monitoring and control system  140  to download for review data stored on implantable device  120 , or to adjust the operational parameters of the implantable device. Monitoring and control system  140  also may be configured to upload and store date retrieved from charging and communication system  130  to a remote server (not shown) for later access by the physician or charging and communications system  130 . 
     Implantable device  120  comprises an electromechanical pump having housing  121  configured for subcutaneous implantation. Implantable device  120  preferably includes an electrically-driven mechanical gear pump having connectors  122  and  124 . Bladder catheter  125  is coupled to pump housing  121  via connector  124 . Peritoneal catheter  123  is coupled to pump housing  121  via connector  122 . Peritoneal catheter  123  comprises a tube having a first (proximal) end configured to be coupled to pump housing  121  and a second (distal) end configured to be positioned in the peritoneal cavity. Bladder catheter  125  comprises a tube having a first (proximal) end configured to be coupled to pump housing  121  and a second (distal) end configured to be inserted through the wall of, and fixed within, a patient&#39;s bladder. In a preferred embodiment, both catheters are made of medical-grade silicone and include polyester cuffs at their distal ends (not shown) to maintain the catheters in position. 
     Implantable device  120  also may include pressure sensors that monitor pressure in one or both of the peritoneal cavity and the bladder, such that fluid is pumped from the peritoneal cavity to the bladder if the intra-abdominal pressure exceeds a limit determined by the physician. Alternatively, or in addition, the output of the pressure sensors may interrupt pumping of fluid to the bladder until the bladder is determined to have sufficient space to accommodate additional fluid. For patient comfort, implantable device  120  optionally may be programmed not to pump at night or when an accelerometer included in the implantable device indicates that the patient is asleep (and thus unlikely to be able to void the bladder). Implantable device  120  preferably includes multiple separate fail-safe mechanisms, to ensure that urine cannot pass from the bladder to the peritoneal cavity through the pump, thereby reducing the risk of transmitting infection. 
     External charging and communication system  130 , in a preferred form, includes base  131  and handpiece  132 . In this embodiment, handpiece  132  contains a controller, a radio transceiver, an inductive charging circuit, a battery, a quality-of-charging indicator and a display, and is removably coupled to base  131  to recharge its battery. Base  131  may contain a transformer and circuitry for converting conventional 120V or 220-240V service to a suitable DC current to charge handpiece  132  when coupled to base  131 . In alternative embodiments, handpiece  132  may include such circuitry and a detachable power cord, thereby permitting the handpiece to be directly plugged into a wall socket to charge the battery. In a preferred embodiment, each of implantable device  120  and handpiece  132  includes a device identifier stored in memory, such that handpiece  132  provided to the patient is coded to operate only with that patient&#39;s specific implantable device  120 . 
     Handpiece  132  preferably includes housing  133  having multi-function button  134 , display  135 , a plurality of light emitting diodes (LEDs, not shown) and inductive coil portion  136 . Multi-function button  134  provides the patient the ability to issue a limited number of commands to implantable device  120 , while display  135  provides visible confirmation that a desired command has been input; it also displays battery status. Inductive coil portion  136  houses an inductive coil that is used transfer energy from handpiece  132  to recharge the battery of implantable device  120 . The LEDs, which are visible through the material of housing  133  when lit, may be arranged in three rows of two LEDs each, and are coupled to the control circuitry and inductive charging circuit contained within handpiece  132 . The LEDs may be arranged to light up to reflect the degree of inductive coupling achieved between handpiece  132  and implantable device  120  during recharging of the latter. Alternatively, the LEDs may be omitted and an analog display provided on display  135  indicating the quality of inductive coupling. 
     Control circuitry contained within handpiece  132  is coupled to the inductive charging circuit, battery, LEDs and radio transceiver, and includes memory for storing information from implantable device  120 . Handpiece  132  also preferably includes a data port, such as a USB port, that permits the handpiece to be coupled to monitoring and control system  140  during visits by the patient to the physician&#39;s office. Alternatively, handpiece  132  may include a wireless chip, e.g., conforming to the Bluetooth or IEEE 802.11 wireless standards, thereby enabling the handpiece to communicate wirelessly with monitoring and control system  140 , either directly or via the Internet. 
     Monitoring and control system  140  is intended primarily for use by the physician and comprises software configured to run on a conventional computer, e.g., a laptop as illustrated in  FIG.  2    or tablet or smartphone. The software enables the physician to configure, monitor and control operation of charging and communication system  130  and implantable device  120 . The software may include routines for configuring and controlling pump operation, such as a target amount of fluid to move daily or per motor actuation, intervals between pump actuation, and limits on peritoneal cavity pressure, bladder pressure, pump pressure, and battery temperature. System  140  also may provide instructions to implantable device  120  via charging and control system  130  to control operation of implantable device  120  so as not to move fluid during specific periods (e.g., at night) or to defer pump actuation if the patient is asleep. 
     System  140  further may be configured, for example, to send immediate commands to the implantable device to start or stop the pump, or to operate the pump in reverse or at high power to unblock the pump or associated catheters. The software of system  140  also may be configured to download real-time data relating to pump operation, as well as event logs stored during operation of implantable device  120 . Based on the downloaded data, e.g., based on measurements made of the patient&#39;s intra-abdominal pressure, respiratory rate, and/or fluid accumulation, the software of system  140  optionally may be configured to alert the physician to a prediction or detection of a change in the patient&#39;s health for which an adjustment to the flow rate, volume, time and/or frequency of pump operation may be required. Finally, system  140  optionally may be configured to remotely receive raw or filtered operational data from a patient&#39;s handpiece  132  over a secure Internet channel. Further details of system  100  are describe in the above-incorporated U.S. patent. 
       FIG.  3    depicts implantable device  110  implanted within a patient&#39;s abdomen with the distal end of peritoneal catheter  123  disposed within the patient&#39;s peritoneal cavity PC and the distal end of bladder catheter  125  disposed in the patient&#39;s bladder B. Reservoir  150  of a first or second DSR solution is coupled to peritoneal infusion catheter  152  to deliver DSR solution from reservoir  150  into peritoneal cavity PC. Optional pump  148  may be coupled to infusion catheter  152  to accelerate instillation of DSR solution into the peritoneal cavity PC, or pump  148  may be omitted so that solution is infused via gravity. 
     In accordance with a preferred implementation of the invention, implantable device  120  is configured to move sodium-laden DSR infusate and osmotic ultrafiltrate from the peritoneal cavity to the bladder in quantities, intervals and flow rates selected to provide sufficient time for targeted amounts of sodium and/or fluid to accumulate in the DSR infusate. Treatment algorithms may be developed for the different DSR formulations and instilled volumes, different lengths of dwell period and different rates of removal to the bladder, to optimize serum sodium level as well as patient comfort. In general, pumping fluid from the peritoneal cavity for short but frequent intervals is expected to inhibit the accumulation of material on the interior lumens of catheters  123  and  125 , and reduce the risk of tissue ingrowth. The fluid circuit of implantable device  120  may be configured to provide an average flow rate of between about 1 to 2.5 liters/hour, although much higher and lower flow rates are possible if needed. The pumping time, flow rate and volume, including the time the DSR infusate is allowed to remain in the peritoneal cavity, may be programmed by the physician using monitoring and control system  40  as required for a specific patient. 
     Referring now to  FIG.  4   , a method of treating a patient afflicted with severe renal dysfunction with a DSR regimen of the present invention is described.  FIG.  4    describes an initial or follow-up DSR session, e.g., with DSR Solution or  2 , as may be prescribed for on a patient-specific basis. Method  200  begins with instilling a DSR Solution in an amount of 0.25 liter to 1.5 liter or more into the peritoneal cavity of a patient from a reservoir, e.g., infusion bag  12  or  14  of  FIG.  1    at step  201 , using an external pump or gravity. At step  202 , the DSR solution is permitted to remain in the peritoneal cavity for a specified dwell time, such as 2 hours, to cause excess sodium and fluid to migrate from the patient&#39;s body to the peritoneal cavity. At step  203 , during the dwell time, the patient&#39;s serum sodium level optionally may be sampled to monitor the sodium level. Alternatively, expiration of the dwell time may be determined if the patient experiences discomfort from overextension of the abdomen. 
     At step  204 , upon completion of the dwell time, sodium-laden DSR solution and ultrafiltrate is moved from the patient&#39;s body via a conventional peritoneal drainage catheter or by pumping it to the bladder using an implantable pump as described with respect to  FIG.  2   . If the fluid and sodium is pumped to the bladder, it may be excreted when the bladder is voided. Either way, removal of the DSR solution and ultrafiltrate reduces the amount of fluid and sodium from the body. At step  205 , which may be a regularly scheduled dialysis session, the patient undergoes conventional hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis to remove accumulated metabolic wastes and toxins. During this dialysis session, additional fluid or sodium may be removed to rebalance any residual fluid/sodium disequilibrium arising from the first DSR session. At step  206 , the physician also may reassess the patient&#39;s need for loop diuretics, and make an appropriate adjustment in dosing a general assessment of the patient&#39;s health is conducted, including reduction in edema or fluid overload, cardiac and renal function, and serum sodium level. At step  207 , an additional DSR session may be conducted using DSR Solution  2 , and steps  202  to  206  repeated. 
     After the initial DSR session described in  FIG.  4   , it is expected that the patient&#39;s health metrics will stabilize, with reduced fluid overload and some improvement in renal function and/or enhanced efficacy of loop diuretics, if still used. To maintain these improvements, the patient may undergo one or more follow-up DSR sessions at step  207 . The goal of these sessions may be to retain the renal improvements achieved from the initial DSR session, and/or to draw down additional amounts of non-osmotic sodium, as discussed above. 
     It is further contemplated that additional DSR sessions may periodically be scheduled to maintain patient health improvements resulting from the first and any prior follow-up DSR sessions. In addition, the physician may choose to revise the composition of the DSR infusate to titrate its ability to remove fluid and sodium specific to the needs of the patient. In this manner, it is expected that the physician may be able to prolong the benefits achieved during the prior DSR treatments, including reduced fluid overload, improved renal function and/or improved efficacy of loop diuretics, if still required. It is further hypothesized that a patient suffering end-stage renal disease who undergoes the regimen described above may arrest or possibly even reverse the course of the disease. 
     While various illustrative embodiments of the invention are described above, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that various changes and modifications may be made therein without departing from the invention. 
     Preliminary Experimental Observations 
     Initial testing of the DSR infusate and methods of the present invention has been conducted to date in both a porcine model and in first-in-human trials. The results of that testing has provided remarkably successful and beneficial results, as described below, and shed additional light on the physiologic mechanisms involved. 
     Porcine Model Testing 
     In a first group of five pigs (“protocol refinement pigs”), the effect of infusing 1 liter of sodium-free DSR infusate into the peritoneal cavity of each pig was measured. The DSR infusate generally comprised purified water and dextrose, e.g., 10 grams per 100 ml of water, and was allowed to dwell in their peritoneal cavities for up to six hours. 5-25 micro curies of 1-131 radiolabeled albumin was mixed into the infusate as a non-absorbable tracer to determine ultrafiltration kinetics without requiring serial drains of the abdomen. Throughout the dwell period, the fluid in the peritoneal cavities was sampled to determine total sodium removed and sodium concentration in the fluid accumulating in the peritoneal cavity as a function of time, and blood samples were taken as well. Specifically, in the 1-1/2 hours after infusion of the DSR infusate, 3 ml blood sample and 2.5 ml fluid samples were taken every 15 minutes and analyzed. In the next 1 1/2  hour period, blood and fluid samples were taken every ½ hour. And in the final 3 hours, additional blood and fluid samples were taken every hour. In addition, the total volume of fluid accumulated in the peritoneal cavity, consisting of sodium-laden DSR infusate and osmotic ultrafiltrate, was recorded as a function of time. 
       FIG.  5 A  shows the total amount of sodium removed as a function of dwell time for the first group of pigs, while  FIG.  5 B  shows the sodium concentration in the samples removed from the peritoneal cavities as a function of time.  FIG.  5 C  depicts the total volume of fluid accumulated in the peritoneal cavities of the first group of pigs. As shown in  FIG.  5 C , after two hours, infusion of 1 liter of DSR infusate induced about 1 liter of osmotic filtrate to accumulate in the peritoneal cavity. 
     In a second group of ten pigs (“protocol pigs”), 1 liter of DSR infusate was infused in the peritoneal cavities of each pig for a two-hour dwell period. Throughout the dwell period serum sodium, serum osmolality, plasma osmolality and glucose levels of the pigs were periodically measured by taking 6 ml blood samples every ½ hour. Total osmolality, glucose osmolality and non-glucose osmolality of the fluid accumulating in the peritoneal cavities were periodically measured during the dwell period using the foregoing samples. After completion of the dwell period, the total volume of fluid drained from the peritoneal cavity and the total amount of sodium removed, was measured. 
       FIG.  6 A  is a chart showing the total fluid volume removed from the peritoneal cavity of each protocol pig after a two-hour dwell.  FIG.  6 B  shows the total amount of sodium removed from the peritoneal cavity of each protocol pig after a two-hour dwell.  FIG.  6 C  shows the evolution of total osmolality, glucose osmolality, and non-glucose osmolality for samples of fluid from the peritoneal cavities of the protocol pigs throughout the two-hour dwell period.  FIGS.  6 D,  6 E and  6 F  show the evolution of serum sodium, serum osmolality, and serum glucose, respectively, for the protocol pigs throughout the two-hour dwell period. The foregoing results demonstrate that DSR infusates can remove a clinically relevant amount of sodium, e.g., about 4 g, with a single administration of 1 liter of DSR infusate and a two-hour dwell, but with clinically negligible impact on serum sodium levels. That amount of removed sodium is generally equivalent to two days of recommended sodium consumption, which will induce the elimination of stored fluid via urination and direct removal of a significant (1 liter with the studied parameters) accumulation of osmotic ultrafiltrate from the peritoneal cavity. And as shown in  FIGS.  6 D,  6 E and  6 F , the single administration of DSR infusate with a two-hour dwell is expected to be very safe, as serum sodium level and serum osmolality remained stable throughout the period with only an expected and clinically manageable increase of serum glucose concentration. 
       FIGS.  7 A- 7 C  depicts the measurements for a number of blood volume markers in a sub-group of five of the protocol pig population both before and after repeated application of a 10 weight percent dextrose DSR solution.  FIG.  7 A  shows almost a ½ reduction in the total blood volume of the protocol pigs after five cycles of DSR treatment. As expected,  FIG.  7 B  shows virtually no impact of the DSR method on the total volume of red blood cells. However,  FIG.  7 C  shows that there is a reduction in plasma volume of approximately 60%. Accordingly, as depicted in  FIGS.  7 A- 7 C , repeated use of a DSR solution can achieve a significant reduction in blood volume by reducing plasma volume. This also demonstrates that a DSR solution can be used to eliminate different levels of fluid overload. 
     First-in-Man Feasibility Studies 
     The assignee of the present invention sought and obtained permission from an investigational review board to conduct a first trial to assess the feasibility of removing sodium from patients with a single dose of DSR solution, and a second follow-up study to assess safety and tolerance to serial DSR sessions. The first trial was conducted with ten patients who with end-stage renal disease who regularly underwent peritoneal dialysis with pre-existing peritoneal catheters. In the second follow-up study, the DSR solution was instilled via subcutaneous ports and after a dwell time, removed via an implantable pump as described with respect to  FIG.  2   . In both trials, a DSR solution of 10 weight percent dextrose in sterile water as a peritoneal infusate. The details and results of these initial trials are described with respect to  FIGS.  8  through  11   . 
     In the first study, patients receiving peritoneal dialysis for end-stage renal disease with functioning peritoneal dialysis catheters underwent randomization and crossover to open-label DSR solution (sodium-free 10% dextrose) or standard peritoneal dialysis solution (Dianeal Low-Calcium with 4.25% dextrose; Baxter; Deerfield, Ill.), each separated by 1 week. This phase 1 study was conducted in patients receiving prevalent peritoneal dialysis rather than normal subjects to avoid the risk of placing a peritoneal dialysis catheter would pose to a normal subject. Inclusion criteria were the following: actively undergoing peritoneal dialysis with a functioning peritoneal dialysis catheter implanted less than 3 years, patient age greater than 18 years and judged by the treating nephrologist to be at or above optimal volume status (i.e., not dehydrated). Exclusion criteria were uncontrolled diabetes mellitus with frequent episodes of severe hyperglycemia; systolic blood pressure &lt;100 mm Hg; serum sodium &lt;130 mEq/L; one or more episodes of peritonitis in the previous 6 months or active infection of the peritoneal dialysis catheter; anemia with hemoglobin &lt;8 g/dL; serum bicarbonate &lt;18 mEq/L; anuric renal failure; inability to give written informed consent or to follow the study protocol; and pregnant or lactating. 
     A 4.25% dextrose peritoneal dialysis solution was selected as the comparison solution because it is the most effective marketed peritoneal dialysis solution for fluid/sodium removal and has an osmolarity similar to that of 10% dextrose. Before instillation of the study fluid, there was a 30-minute drain of the abdomen with the patient assuming multiple positions during this time to ensure as complete drainage as possible. Given that this was a dialysis population with a tendency to develop acidosis, all patients were given 30 mEq sodium citrate/citric acid by mouth. Next, 1 L of either DSR solution or standard peritoneal dialysis solution was infused into the peritoneum and left to dwell for 2 hours. The intraperitoneal volume was determined longitudinally using the indicator dilution technique with I-131—radiolabeled albumin (Daxor Inc), in addition to direct measurement of drained fluid at the end of the dwell. Vital signs, blood (every 30 minutes), and peritoneal fluid (every 15 minutes) were obtained serially throughout the protocol. Patients in the DSR group were given 50% of the ultrafiltration volume back at the end of the dwell in the form of intravenous normal saline to replace sodium/volume losses. The primary end point was safety/tolerability, defined as completion of the 2-hour dwell without significant discomfort or adverse events. The secondary efficacy end point was the difference in sodium removal between the DSR solution and standard peritoneal dialysis solution. 
     Ten patients completed the crossover study. The baseline characteristics for these patients are presented in the Table below. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Characteristics 
                 AH Patients 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Demographics 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Age, y 
                 54 ± 12 
               
               
                   
                 Male sex, n (%) 
                 70 (7) 
               
               
                   
                 White race, n (%) 
                 50 (5) 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Comorbidities, n (%) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Diabetes mellitus 
                 30 (3) 
               
               
                   
                 Hypertension 
                 90 (9) 
               
               
                   
                 Heart failure 
                 10 (1) 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Physical examination 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Weight, lb, mean ±S D 
                 251 ± 72  
               
               
                   
                 SBP, mm Hg 
                 144 (132-156) 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Peritoneal Dialysis variables 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Peritoneal Dialysis Catheter vintage, years 
                 1.3 ± 0.9 
               
               
                   
                 Automated Peritoneal Dialysis use, n (%) 
                 100 (10) 
               
               
                   
                 Icodextrin use, n (%) 
                 30 (3) 
               
               
                   
                 Last fill, n (%) 
                 40 (4) 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Type of renal disease, n (%) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Diabetic nephropathy 
                 2 (20) 
               
               
                   
                 Hypertensive nephrosclerosis 
                 1 (10) 
               
               
                   
                 Excessive NSAID use 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Systemic lupus erythematosus 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Nephrotic syndrome 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Immunoglobulin A nephropathy 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Granulomatosis with polyangitis-ESRD 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Polycystic kidney disease 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Failed allograft 
               
               
                   
                 Medications, n (%) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Antihypertensives 
                 90 (9) 
               
               
                   
                 Loop diuretics 
                 60 (6) 
               
               
                   
                 Calcium channel blockers 
                 60 (6) 
               
               
                   
                 β-Blockers 
                 50 (5) 
               
               
                   
                 ACE inhibitors 
                 30 (3) 
               
               
                   
                 Thiazide-type diuretics 
                 20 (2) 
               
               
                   
                 Angiotensin II receptor blockers 
                 20 (2) 
               
               
                   
                 α-Agonists 
                 10 (1) 
               
               
                   
                 Insulin 
                 20 (2) 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Laboratory values, mean ± SD 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Sodium, mmol/L 
                 137.9 ± 3.5   
               
               
                   
                 Hemoglobin, g/dL 
                 10.2 ± 1.3  
               
               
                   
                 BUN, mmol/L 
                 54 ± 19 
               
               
                   
                 Calcium, mmol/L 
                 1.11 ± 0.14 
               
               
                   
                 Potassium, mmol/L 
                 4.2 ± 0.4 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The primary end point, defined as completion of the 2-hour dwell without significant discomfort or adverse events, was met in all 10 patients. Overall, the treatment was well tolerated, with 2 of 10 patients reporting mild and short-duration cramping during instillation of the 10% dextrose solution; one of those patients had similar cramping during the standard peritoneal dialysis solution instillation. There were no significant differences in blood pressure or peak heart rate between the 2 groups. Changes in plasma glucose were larger with the 10% dextrose solution compared with standard peritoneal dialysis solution, with the most pronounced differences early in the dwell. However, differences in plasma glucose completely resolved after draining of the solution. No patients developed severe hyperglycemia at any time point in either group. The relative glucose absorption was the same between the 10% dextrose and standard peritoneal dialysis solution; however, given the larger absolute amount of glucose in 10% dextrose, the absolute quantity of glucose absorbed was larger with 10% dextrose. 
     Serum sodium was not different between groups. Removal of off-target nonsodium electrolytes with DSR such as potassium (5.5±1.1 mmol), magnesium (1.7±2.5 mmol), phosphorus (1.9±0.6 mmol), and calcium (1.6±0.3 mmol) was negligible, and plasma electrolyte and chemistry parameters were stable throughout the dwell. As shown in  FIG.  8 A , the secondary efficacy outcome of superior sodium removal with sodium-free 10% dextrose (4.5±0.4g) compared with standard peritoneal dialysis solution (1.0±0.3g) was met (P&lt;0.001). In addition to a substantially higher average sodium clearance, the consistency of sodium removal was excellent. The absolute variability between individual patients&#39; sodium removal and the average sodium removal was similar between DSR and standard peritoneal dialysis solution, as depicted in  FIG.  8 B . However, because the total sodium removed in standard peritoneal dialysis solution was substantially lower, the relative variability between individuals was much higher with standard peritoneal dialysis solution, ranging from 8% to 75% of the average total sodium removal compared with 2% to 18% in patients receiving DSR. Fluid removal was also greater with sodium-free 10% dextrose, also with a high degree of consistency across patients. 
     The primary finding from the first human trial is that substantial sodium removal via the peritoneal membrane is feasible. In particular, it was observed that using 1 liter of sodium free 10% dextrose solution, leveraged both diffusive and convective forces, and could remove &gt;4 g sodium in 2 hours. The DSR therapy was well tolerated, with limited effect on plasma electrolyte levels, minimal off-target solute removal, and freedom from discomfort in the majority of human participants. The sodium removal was scalable, with substantially larger quantities of sodium removed by increasing the volume of 10% dextrose cycled into the peritoneal space. 
     In the second study, the primary objective was to assess the safety and tolerability of serial treatment with DSR therapy in chronic stable diuretic resistant heart failure patients. A secondary objective of this study was to assess the impact of serial treatment with DSR therapy on parameters of renal function and diuretic response. In this study, DSR solution was instilled into the patient&#39;s peritoneal cavities via subcutaneous port. The implantable pump system developed by the assignee of the present application, Sequana Medical, N. V., was employed to move fluid from the patients&#39; peritoneal cavities to their bladders. Ten patients were admitted into the second study, in accordance with the following criteria: 
     Inclusion Criteria:
         1. eGFR&gt;30ml/min/14.73m2   2. Diagnosis of heart failure with one of the following:
           a. nt-proBNP&gt;400 pg/ml (or BNP&gt;100 pg/ml) and oral diuretic dose≥80 mg furosemide equivalents OR   b. Oral diuretic dose≥120 mg furosemide equivalents   
           3. Stable diuretic dose for 30 days   4. Systolic blood pressure≥100 mmHg   5. Determined by treating provider to be at optimal volume status       

     Exclusion Criteria:
         1. Serum sodium&lt;135 mEq/L   2. Severe hyperkalemia or baseline plasma potassium&gt;4.5 mEq/L   3. History of significant bladder dysfunction expected to interfere with ability of subject to tolerate DSR pumping into bladder   4. Uncontrolled diabetes with frequent hyperglycemia or Type 1 diabetes       

     The second study ran for a total of 6 weeks, plus a two-week follow-up. After screening, ten patients were implanted with the Alfapump® implantable pump described in  FIG.  2    about two weeks prior to initiation of the trial. Three days before the DSR trial was begun, each patient was given an intravenous administration of 40 mg of furosemide, followed by a 6-hour timed urine collection. At the outset of the DSR trial, all loop diuretics were stopped. During the following two weeks, the patients were resident in-hospital with diets controlled at 3 grams of sodium per day for the first week and 5 grams of sodium the second week. Patients then were permitted to return home. During the two week in-hospital stay and the following four weeks, the patients underwent DSR sessions three times a week using a 10 weight percent dextrose DSR solution. At the conclusion of the six weeks of DSR sessions, the patients again underwent a diuretic challenge with intravenous administration of 40 mg of furosemide, followed by a 6-hour timed urine collection. 
     Baseline characteristics for the group is set forth in the table below: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 N = 8 
                 Result 
                 Min:Max 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Age-Years (Mean ± SD) 
                 61.9 ± 8.5  
                 49:77 
               
               
                 Male-% 
                 100 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 Height-cm (Mean ± SD) 
                 172.8 ± 5.7   
                 163:182 
               
               
                 Weight-kg (Mean ± SD) 
                 75.4 ± 17.7 
                  53.0:107.8 
               
               
                 BMI-kg/m 2  (Mean ± SD) 
                 25.2 ± 4.8  
                 19.1:32.6 
               
               
                 Ejection Fraction-% (Mean ± SD) 
                 24.4 ± 3.1  
                 20:28 
               
               
                 Nt-proBNP-pg/mL (Mean ± SD) 
                 4588.9 ± 2945.1 
                 1536:8831 
               
               
                 eGFR-ml/min/1.73 m 2  (Mean ± SD) 
                 68 ± 19 
                 37:96 
               
               
                 Hematocrit-% (Mean ± SD) 
                 43.9 ± 7.48 
                 32.5:55.2 
               
               
                 Furosemide equivalents-mg (Mean ± SD) 
                 322.5 ± 263.3 
                  80:800 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     By the conclusion of the six-week study, all patients had remained off loop diuretics for the entire period. A neutral sodium balance was achieved (−1.3 grams) during the 2 week in-hospital period. Stable weight over the duration of the study also was achieved (75.6 to 75.5 kg). Most patients had down titration of DSR therapy to maintain constant weight; the volume of 10% dextrose DSR solution was on average 750±348 ml/treatment. 
     Results of the study are presented in  FIGS.  9  to  12   . In particular, as shown in  FIGS.  9 A and  9 B , the study participants experienced a significant reduction in measured N-terminal-pro B-type natriuretic peptide (“NT-proBNP”) and creatinine levels, indicating improvement in cardio-renal function.  FIGS.  10 A,  10 B and  10 C  depict the temporal trends of improvement for the study patients over the six-week period.  FIG.  11    depicts improvement in the patients&#39; response to loop diuretic between the trial outset and after six weeks of DSR sessions, showing a 3-fold increase in urine output.  FIG.  12    is a table reporting the results of follow-up evaluations with eight of the patients in the study, and indicates that the effect of the DSR therapy in reducing diuretic resistance was durable, with patients experiencing a reduction between 89% and 50% of their daily diuretic dosing at 10 to 12 months following their last DSR session, with at least one patient ceasing the use of a diuretic entirely. 
     The second human study therefore demonstrated that six weeks of DSR therapy, using an implantable pump to remove the DSR solution and ultrafiltrate, was overall well tolerated and successfully maintained a neutral sodium balance and stable body weight, despite complete withdraw of loop diuretics. The study also showed significant benefit to cardio-renal function, as observed by meaningful improvement in NT-proBNP and renal function. In addition, diuretic resistance substantially and durably improved. 
     Based on the results of initial human trials, which employed a single composition of DSR infusate, e.g., 10 weight percent dextrose, it is theorized that use of multiple compositions in a regimen interspersed with the patient&#39;s regularly conducted dialysis sessions may substantially enhance long-term efficacy of loop diuretics, permit the administration of reduced doses, and arrest and possibly reverse renal disease and heart failure. As discussed above, use of multiple DSR compositions may enable a patient&#39;s physician to gradually reduce fluid and sodium overload over a period of several weeks to months, and thereby establish an improved sodium and fluid metabolism for the patient that ameliorates both severe renal dysfunction and heart failure. 
     While various illustrative embodiments of the invention are described above, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that various changes and modifications may be made therein without departing from the invention. For example, pump system 1 may be ordered differently and may include additional or fewer components of various sizes and composition. The appended claims are intended to cover all such changes and modifications that fall within the true spirit and scope of the invention.