Patent Publication Number: US-11028432-B2

Title: Induction PCR

Description:
STATEMENT OF PRIORITY 
     This application is a 35 USC § 371 national phase application of International Application Serial No. PCT/US2014/064092, filed Nov. 5, 2014, which claims the benefit, under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e), of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/900,329, filed Nov. 5, 2013, the entire contents of each of which are incorporated by reference herein. 
     PARTIES TO A JOINT RESEARCH AGREEMENT 
     The claimed invention was made by, or on behalf of, the below listed parties to a joint research agreement. The parties to the joint research agreement are Idaho Technology, Inc. and the University of Utah. 
     STATEMENT REGARDING ELECTRONIC FILING OF A SEQUENCE LISTING 
     A Sequence Listing in ASCII text format, submitted under 37 C.F.R. § 1.821, entitled 1267-10_ST25.txt, 7,252 bytes in size, generated on May 5, 2016 and filed via EFS-Web, is provided in lieu of a paper copy. This Sequence Listing is hereby incorporated by reference into the specification for its disclosures. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique widely used in molecular biology. It derives its name from one of its key components, a DNA polymerase used to amplify a piece of DNA by in vitro enzymatic replication. As PCR progresses, the DNA generated (the amplicon) is itself used as a template for replication. This sets in motion a chain reaction in which the DNA template is exponentially amplified. With PCR, it is possible to amplify a single or few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating millions or more copies of the DNA piece. PCR employs a thermostable polymerase, dNTPs, and a pair of primers. 
     PCR is conceptually divided into 3 reactions, each usually assumed to occur over time at each of three temperatures. Such an “equilibrium paradigm” of PCR is easy to understand in terms of three reactions (denaturation, annealing, and extension) occurring at 3 temperatures over 3 time periods each cycle. However, this equilibrium paradigm does not fit well with physical reality. Instantaneous temperature changes do not occur; it takes time to change the sample temperature. Furthermore, individual reaction rates vary with temperature, and once primer annealing occurs, polymerase extension immediately follows. More accurate, particularly for rapid PCR, is a kinetic paradigm where reaction rates and temperature are always changing. Holding the temperature constant during PCR is not necessary as long as the products denature and the primers anneal. Under the kinetic paradigm of PCR, product denaturation, primer annealing, and polymerase extension may temporally overlap and their rates continuously vary with temperature. Under the equilibrium paradigm, a cycle is defined by 3 temperatures each held for a time period, whereas the kinetic paradigm requires transition rates and target temperatures. Illustrative time/temperature profiles for the equilibrium and kinetic paradigms are shown in  FIGS. 15A-B . However, it is understood that these temperature profiles are illustrative only and that in some implementations of PCR, the annealing and extension steps are combined so that only 2 temperatures are needed. 
     Paradigms are not right or wrong, but they vary in their usefulness. The equilibrium paradigm is simple to understand and lends itself well to the engineering mindset and instrument manufacture. The kinetic paradigm is more relevant to biochemistry, rapid cycle PCR, and melting curve analysis. 
     When PCR was first popularized in the late 1980s, the process was slow. A typical protocol was 1 minute for denaturation at 94° C., 2 minutes for annealing at 55° C., and 3 minutes for extension at 72° C. When the time for transition between temperatures was included, 8 minute cycles were typical, resulting in completion of 30 cycles in 4 hours. Twenty-five percent of the cycling time was spent in temperature transitions. As cycling speeds increased, the proportion of time spent in temperature transitions also increased and the kinetic paradigm became more and more relevant. During rapid cycle PCR, the temperature is usually changing. For rapid cycle PCR of short products (&lt;100 bps), 100% of the time may be spent in temperature transition and no holding times are necessary. For rapid cycle PCR of longer products, a temperature hold at an optimal extension temperature may be included. 
     In isolation, the term “rapid PCR” is both relative and vague. A 1 hour PCR is rapid compared to 4 hours, but slow compared to 15 minutes. Furthermore, PCR protocols can be made shorter if one starts with higher template concentrations or uses fewer cycles. A more specific measure is the time required for each cycle. Thus, “rapid cycle PCR” (or “rapid cycling”) was defined in 1994 as 30 cycles completed in 10-30 minutes (1), resulting in cycles of 20-60 seconds each. This actual time of each cycle is longer than the sum of the times often programmed for denaturation, annealing and extension, as time is needed to ramp the temperatures between each of these stages. Initial work in the early 1990s established the feasibility of rapid cycling using capillary tubes and hot air for temperature control. Over the years, systems have become faster, and the kinetic requirements of denaturation, annealing, and extension have become clearer. 
     In one early rapid system, a heating element and fan from a hair dryer, a thermocouple, and PCR samples in capillary tubes were enclosed in a chamber (2). The fan created a rapid flow of heated air past the thermocouple and capillaries. By matching the thermal response of the thermocouple to the sample, the temperature of the thermocouple closely tracked the temperature of the samples, even during temperature changes. Although air has a low thermal conductivity, rapidly moving air against the large surface area exposed by the capillaries was adequate to cycle the sample between denaturation, annealing, and extension temperatures. Electronic controllers monitored the temperature, adjusted the power to the heating element, and provided the required timing and number of cycles. For cooling, the controller activated a solenoid that opened a portal to outside air, introducing cooling air to the otherwise closed chamber. 
     Temperatures could be rapidly changed using the capillary/air system. Using a low thermal mass chamber, circulating air, and samples in glass capillaries, PCR products &gt;500 bp were visualized on ethidium bromide stained gels after only 10 minutes of PCR (30 cycles of 20 seconds each) (3). Product yield was affected by the extension time and the concentration of polymerase. With 30 second cycle times (about 10 seconds between 70 and 80° C. for extension), the band intensity increased as the polymerase concentration was increased from 0.1 to 0.8 Units per 10 μl reaction. It is noted that polymerase Unit definitions can be confusing. For native Taq polymerase, 0.4 U/10 μl is about 1.5 nM under typical rapid cycling conditions (50). 
     Rapid protocols use momentary or “0” second holds at the denaturation and annealing temperatures. That is, the temperature-time profiles show temperature spikes for denaturation and annealing, without holding the top and bottom temperatures. Denaturation and annealing can occur very quickly. 
     Rapid and accurate control of temperature allowed analytical study of the required temperatures and times for PCR. For an illustrative 536 bp fragment of human genomic DNA (β-globin), denaturation temperatures between 91° C. and 97° C. were equally effective, as were denaturation times from &lt;1 second to 16 seconds. However, it was found that denaturation times longer than 16 seconds actually decreased product yield. Specific products in good yield were obtained with annealing temperatures of 50-60° C., as long as the time for primer annealing was limited. That is, best specificity was obtained by rapid cooling from denaturation to annealing and an annealing time of &lt;1 second. Yield was best at extension temperatures of 75-79° C., and increased with extension time up to about 40 seconds. 
     Conclusions from this early work were: 1) denaturation of PCR products is very rapid with no need to hold the denaturation temperature, 2) annealing of primers can occur very quickly and annealing temperature holds may not be necessary, and 3) the required extension time depends on PCR product length and polymerase concentration. Also, rapid cycle PCR is not only faster, but better in terms of specificity and yield (4, 5) as long as the temperature was controlled precisely. PCR speed is not limited by the available biochemistry, but by instrumentation that does not control the sample temperature closely or rapidly. 
     However, most current laboratory PCR instruments perform poorly with momentary denaturation and annealing times, and many don&#39;t even allow programming of “0” second holding periods. Time delays from thermal transfer through the walls of conical tubes, low surface area-to-volume ratios, and heating of large samples force most instruments to rely on extended times at denaturation and annealing to assure that the sample reaches the desired temperatures. With these time delays, the exact temperature vs time course becomes indefinite. The result is limited reproducibility within and high variability between commercial products (6). Many instruments show marked temperature variance during temperature transitions (7, 8). Undershoot and/or overshoot of temperature is a chronic problem that is seldom solved by attempted software prediction that depends on sample volume. Such difficulties are compounded by thermal properties of the instrument that may change with age. 
     Over time, conventional heat block instruments have become faster, with incremental improvements in “thin wall” tubes, more conductive heat distribution between samples, low thermal mass blocks and other “fast” modifications. Nevertheless, it is unusual for these systems to cycle rapidly enough to complete a cycle in less than 60 seconds. A few heat block systems can achieve &lt;60 second cycles, usually restricted to 2-temperature cycling between a limited range of temperatures. By flattening the sample container, rapid cycling can be achieved by resistive heating and air cooling (9), or by moving the sample in a flexible tube between heating zones kept at a constant temperature (U.S. Pat. No. 6,706,617). 
     Commercial versions of the air/capillary system for PCR have been available since 1991 (1) and for real-time PCR since 1996 (10, 11). Rapid cycling capabilities of other instruments are often compared against the air/capillary standard that first demonstrated 20-60 second cycles. Oddly enough, there has been a trend to run the capillary/air systems slower over the years, perhaps reflecting discomfort with “0” second denaturation and annealing times by many users. Also, heat-activated enzymes require long activation periods, often doubling run times even when “fast” activation enzymes are used. Another compromise away from rapid cycling is the use of plastic capillaries. These capillaries are not thermally matched to the instrument, so 20 second holds at denaturation and annealing are often required to reach the target temperatures (12). 
     Some progress in further decreasing the cycle times for PCR has occurred in microsystems, where small volumes are naturally processed (13, 14). However, even with high surface area-to-volume sample chambers, cycles may be long if the heating element has a high thermal mass and is external to the chamber (15). With thin film resistive heaters and temperature sensors close to the samples, 10-30 minute amplification can be achieved (16, 17). 
     While cooling of low thermal mass systems is usually by passive thermal diffusion and/or by forced air, several interesting heating methods have been developed. Infrared radiation can be used for heating (18) with calibrated infrared pyrometry for temperature monitoring (19). Alternatively, thin metal films on glass capillaries can serve as both a resistive heating element and a temperature sensor for rapid cycling (20). Finally, direct Joule heating and temperature monitoring of the PCR solution by electrolytic resistance is possible and has been implemented in capillaries (21). All of the above methods transfer heat to and from fixed samples. 
     Instead of heat transfer to and from stationary samples, the samples can be physically moved to different temperature baths, or through channels with fixed temperature zones, Microfluidic methods have become popular, with the PCR fluid passing within channels through different segments kept at denaturation, annealing, and extension temperatures. Continuous flow PCR has been demonstrated within serpentine channels that pass back and forth through 3 temperature zones (22) and within loops of increasing or decreasing radius that pass through 3 temperature sectors (23). A variant with a serpentine layout uses stationary thermal gradients instead of isothermal zones, to more closely fit the kinetic paradigm of PCR (24). To limit the length of the microchannel necessary for PCR, some systems shuttle samples back and forth between temperature zones by bi-directional pressure-driven flow (25), pneumatics (26), or electrokinetic forces (27). Instead of linear shuttling of samples, a single circular channel can be used with sample movement driven as a magnetic ferrofluid (28) or by convection (29). One potential advantage of microsystem PCR, including continuous flow methods, is cycling speed. 
     Although some microsystems still require &gt;60 second cycles, many operate in the 20-60 second cycle range of rapid cycle PCR (13, 30). Minimum cycle times ranging from 16-37 seconds have been reported for infrared heating (18, 19). Metal coated capillaries have achieved 40 second PCR cycles (20), while direct electrolytic heating has amplified with 21 second cycles (20). Minimum cycle times reported for closed loop convective PCR range from 24-42 seconds (29, 31). Several groups have focused on reducing PCR cycle times to &lt;20 seconds, faster than the original definition of rapid cycle PCR that was first demonstrated in 1990. Thin film resistive heating of stationary samples has reduced cycle times down to 17 seconds for 25 μl samples (32) and 8.5 seconds for 100 nl samples (17). Continuous flow systems have achieved 12-14 second cycles with thermal gradient PCR (24) and sample shuttling (26), while a ferrofluid loop claims successful PCR with 9 second cycles (28). Continuous flow systems through glass and plastic substrates have achieved cycle times of 6.9 seconds (22) and 5.2 seconds (23) for various size PCR products. Alternating hot and cool water conduction through an aluminum substrate amplified 1 μl droplets under oil with 5.25 second cycles (33). Similarly, water conduction through a porous copper block amplified 5 μl samples with 4.6 second cycles (34). A continuous flow device of 1 μl reaction plugs augmented by vapor pressure achieved 3 second cycles (35). Additionally, there are reports that claim to amplify an 85 bp fragment of the Stx bacteriophage of  E. coli  in capillaries with 2.7 second cycles by immersion of the capillaries in gallium sandwiched between Peltier elements (36). Alternatively, PCR amplification in capillaries cycled by pressurized hot and cool gases obtained 2.6 second cycles (48). 
     Table 1 summarizes work to minimize PCR cycle times to less than the 20 second cycles that originally defined “Rapid PCR”. Over the past 20 years, new prototype instruments have been developed that incrementally improve cycling speed. However, practical PCR performance (efficiency and yield) is often poor. As a general rule, as cycles become increasingly shorter, claims for successful PCR correlate with lower complexity targets (bacteria, phage, multicopy plasmids, or even PCR products) that are used at higher starting concentrations (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,210,882, wherein 5 ng of amplicon was used as the starting sample). Indeed, none of the studies listed in Table 1 with &lt;20 second cycles used complex eukaryotic DNA such as human DNA. The starting copy number of template molecules is often very high (e.g., 180,000,000 copies of lambda phage/μl), so that little amplification is needed before success is claimed. Furthermore, the lack of no template controls in many studies raises questions regarding the validity of positive results, especially in an environment with high template concentrations. One instrument-oriented report focuses extensively on the design and modeling of the thermal cycling device, with a final brief PCR demonstration using a high concentration of a low complexity target. Heating and cooling rates (up to 175° C./s) have been reported based on modeling and measurements without PCR samples present (17). 
     One way to decrease cycle time is to introduce variations to the PCR protocol to ease the temperature cycling requirements. Longer primers with higher Tms allow higher annealing temperatures. By limiting the product length and its Tm, denaturation temperatures can be lowered to just above the product Tm. In combination, higher annealing and lower denaturation temperatures decrease the temperature range required for successful amplification. Reducing 3-step cycling (denaturation, annealing, and extension) to 2-steps (denaturation and a combined annealing/extension step) also simplifies the temperature cycling requirements. Both decreased temperature range and 2-step cycling are typical for the studies in Table 1 with cycle times &lt;20 seconds. Two-step cycling can, however, compromise polymerase extension rates if the combined annealing/extension step is performed at temperatures lower than the 70 to 80° C. temperature optimum where the polymerase is most active. Polymerase extension rates are log-linear with temperature until about 70-80° C., with a reported maximum of 60-120 bp/s (50). 
     Even with protocol variations, amplification efficiency and yield are often poor when cycle times are &lt;20 seconds when compared to control reactions (22, 23). These efforts towards faster PCR appear dominated by engineering with little focus on the biochemistry. As cycle times decrease from 20 seconds towards 2 seconds, PCR yield decreases and finally disappears, reflecting a lack of robustness even with simple targets at high copy number. 
     The instrumentation in various references disclosed in Table 1 may be suitable for extremely fast PCR, if reaction conditions are compatible. As disclosed herein, a focus on increased concentrations of primers, polymerase, and Mg ++  allows for “extreme PCR” (PCR with &lt;20 second cycles (30 cycles in &lt;10 min)), while retaining reaction robustness and yield. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In one embodiment of the present invention, a device for thermal cycling a plurality of samples is provided, the device comprising an inductive heating unit through which a current is passed, the inductive heating unit configured to receive therein an array of sample wells formed in an electrically conductive material, wherein when received, the array is suspended within the inductive heating unit, a power supply for providing the current to the inductive heating unit, and an air source configured to provide air to cool the array of sample wells. In various other embodiments, the device further comprises a switching mechanism controlled by a heat source or a fluorescent value for controlling the power supply and the fan. 
     In one illustrative embodiment, the samples are PCR samples and the array is thermal cycled between an annealing/elongation temperature and a denaturation temperature for a plurality of cycles. 
     In a further illustrative embodiment, each cycle is completed in a cycle time less than 15 seconds per cycle, while in another such embodiment, each cycle is completed in less than 2 seconds per cycle. 
     In yet another such embodiment, each of a plurality of the sample wells comprise a target nucleic acid, a thermostable polymerase, and primers configured for amplification of the target nucleic acid sequence, wherein the polymerase is provided at a concentration of at least 0.5 μM and primers are each provided at a concentration of at least 2 μM. 
     In still another such embodiment, each of a plurality of the sample wells comprise a target nucleic acid, a thermostable polymerase, and primers configured for amplification of the target nucleic acid sequence, wherein the polymerase and primers are provided at a ratio of (about 0.03 to about 0.4 polymerase):(total primer concentration), and the polymerase concentration is at least 0.5 μM. 
     Additional features of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon consideration of the following detailed description of preferred embodiments exemplifying the best mode of carrying out the invention as presently perceived. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1A  shows a schematic for performing extreme PCR. 
         FIG. 1B  is an illustrative device for performing extreme PCR with real-time capabilities for monitoring one sample tube in a water bath. 
         FIG. 1C  is an illustrative device for performing extreme PCR with three-temperature cycling. 
         FIG. 1D  is a close up view of the optics of the device in  FIG. 1B  that also shows the temperature reference capillary. 
         FIG. 2A  is a graph that superimposes the location of the sample holder ( ) of  FIG. 1B  with the temperature of the sample ( ). 
         FIG. 2B  is a temperature graph of extreme PCR using the device shown in  FIG. 1B . 
         FIG. 2C  is a temperature graph of rapid cycle PCR using a carousel LightCycler shown for comparison against  FIG. 2B . 
         FIG. 3A  shows derivative melting curves of extreme PCR products ( ) and rapid cycle PCR products ( ), with negative controls for extreme ( ) and rapid ( ) cycling, amplified using the temperature profile of  FIG. 2B . 
         FIG. 3B  is a 2% SeaKem LE agarose gel of the same samples of  FIG. 3A , lanes 1 and 8 are size markers, lanes 2 and 3 are products resulting from 30 sec extreme PCR, lane 4 is a no template control for 30 sec extreme PCR, lanes 5 and 6 are products resulting from 12 min PCR, and lane 7 is the no template control for 12 min PCR. 
         FIG. 3C  shows an extreme PCR temperature trace ( ) that amplified the same products shown in  FIGS. 3A and 3B , along with real-time monitoring ( ) of the same reaction. 
         FIG. 4A  shows an extreme PCR temperature trace that increases the extension rate by temperature control. 
         FIG. 4B  shows a magnified portion of  FIG. 4A , superimposing the location of the sample holder ( ) of  FIG. 1B  with the temperature of the sample ( ). 
         FIG. 4C  is a negative derivative melting curve (−dF/dT) of a 58 bp amplicon of IRL10RB, wherein AA ( ) AG ( ), and GG ( ) genotypes are shown. 
         FIG. 5A  is a three dimensional graph plotting polymerase concentration vs. primer concentration vs. concentration of PCR product, using extreme PCR. 
         FIG. 5B  is the extreme PCR temperature trace used in  FIG. 5A . 
         FIG. 5C  shows negative derivative melting curves of the 4 μM Klentaq polymerase (KT POL) products from  FIG. 5A . 
         FIG. 5D  is an agarose gel showing results of extreme PCR using varying polymerase concentrations at 10 μM primer concentrations from  FIG. 5A . 
         FIG. 6A  is a temperature trace of extreme PCR performed in a 19 gauge stainless steel tube. 
         FIG. 6B  is a gel of the PCR products produced by the extreme temperature cycles of  FIG. 6A . 
         FIG. 7A  is an extreme PCR temperature trace with a long (1 second) combined annealing/extension step. 
         FIG. 7B  is a three dimensional graph plotting polymerase concentration vs. primer concentration vs. concentration of PCR product, using extreme PCR for a 102 bp product. 
         FIG. 8A  shows an extreme PCR temperature profile used to amplify a 226 bp product, using a one second combined annealing/extension step. 
         FIG. 8B  shows an extreme PCR temperature profile used to amplify a 428 bp product, using a four second combined annealing/extension step. 
         FIG. 8C  shows the real time results obtained from  FIG. 8A  and a similar temperature trace using a 2 second annealing/extension step, including no template controls for each. 
         FIG. 8D  shows the real time results obtained from  FIG. 8B  and a similar temperature trace using a 5 second annealing/extension step, including no template controls for each. 
         FIG. 9A  shows amplification curves of a 45 bp fragment of KCNE1 at different starting concentrations. 
         FIG. 9B  is a plot of Cq versus log 10  (initial template copies) of the data from  FIG. 9A . Reactions were performed in quintuplicate.  FIGS. 9C-D  are similar to  FIGS. 9A-B , except showing amplification of a 102 bp fragment of NQO1. 
         FIG. 10A  is a three dimensional graph plotting polymerase concentration vs. primer concentration vs. concentration of PCR product, using extreme PCR for a 300 bp product (20 cycles, 4.9 seconds per cycle). 
         FIG. 10B  shows fluorescence versus cycle number plots for PCR amplification of a 500 bp synthetic template using KAPA2G FAST polymerase and 1-5 second extension times. 
         FIG. 10C  is a plot of extension length vs. minimum extension time for several KlenTaq polymerase concentrations and KAPA2G FAST polymerase. 
         FIGS. 11A-E  show fluorescence versus cycle number plots for PCR amplification of products of size: 100 bp ( FIG. 11A ), 200 bp ( FIG. 11B ), 300 bp ( FIG. 11C ), 400 bp ( FIG. 11D ), and 500 bp ( FIG. 11E ). 
         FIG. 12A  shows negative derivative melting curves of a 60 bp fragment of AKAP10 after 35 cycles of extreme PCR, using varying magnesium concentrations. 
         FIG. 12B  is a gel of the PCR products shown in the negative derivative melting curves of  FIG. 12A . 
         FIG. 13A  shows negative derivative melting curves of a 60 bp fragment of AKAP10 after 35 cycles, using varying cycle times with 5 mM Mg ++ . Cycle times were 0.32 seconds ( ), 0.42 seconds ( ), 0.52 seconds ( ), and 0.62 seconds ( ). Cycle times included a 0.1 to 0.4 second hold in a 60° C. bath. 
         FIG. 13B  is a gel of the PCR products shown in the negative derivative melting curves of  FIG. 13A . 
         FIG. 14A  shows negative derivative melting curves of a 60 bp fragment of AKAP10, as amplified on three different instruments: (1) extreme PCR, (2) LightCycler (Roche), and (3) CFX96 (BioRad). 
         FIG. 14B  is a gel of the PCR products shown in the negative derivative melting curves of  FIG. 14A . 
         FIGS. 15A-B  show illustrative profiles for an equilibrium paradigm ( FIG. 15A ) and a kinetic paradigm ( FIG. 15B ) of PCR. Solid black represents denaturation, striped represents annealing, and solid white represents extension of the nucleic acids during thermal cycling. 
         FIG. 16  shows an illustrative device for performing PCR using induction heating. 
         FIG. 17A  shows an illustrative array of wells for the device of  FIG. 16 . 
         FIG. 17B  is a side view of the array of  FIG. 17A . 
         FIG. 18  is a graph that superimposes the current to the coil (solid line) of  FIG. 16  with the temperature of the array (dashed line). 
         FIG. 19  shows a device similar to that of  FIG. 16 , except configured vertically and provided with an optics block. 
         FIG. 20  is a graph that superimposes the current to the coil (heavy line) of  FIG. 19  with the temperature of the array (light line). 
         FIG. 21  shows amplification using the device of  FIG. 19 . 
         FIG. 22  shows an alternate embodiment of the array shown in  FIG. 17A . 
         FIG. 23  shows another alternate embodiment of the array shown in  FIG. 17A . 
         FIG. 24  shows illustrative coils for an electromagnet suitable for the arrays of  FIGS. 22-23 . 
         FIG. 25  is an exploded view of an induction heater. 
         FIG. 26  is a partially exploded view of the induction heater of  FIG. 25 , with each electromagnet assembled. 
         FIG. 27  shows an assembled perspective view of the induction heater of  FIG. 25 . 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     As used herein, the terms “a,” “an,” and “the” are defined to mean one or more and include the plural unless the context is inappropriate. Ranges may be expressed herein as from “about” one particular value, and/or to “about” another particular value. The term “about” is used herein to mean approximately, in the region of, roughly, or around. When the term “about” is used in conjunction with a numerical range, it modifies that range by extending the boundaries above and below the numerical values set forth. In general, the term “about” is used herein to modify a numerical value above and below the stated value by a variance of 5%. When such a range is expressed, another embodiment includes from the one particular value and/or to the other particular value. Similarly, when values are expressed as approximations, by use of the antecedent “about,” it will be understood that the particular value forms another embodiment. It will be further understood that the endpoints of each of the ranges are significant both in relation to the other endpoint, and independently of the other endpoint. 
     The word “or” as used herein means any one member of a particular list and also includes any combination of members of that list. 
     As used herein, the transitional phrase “consisting essentially of” means that the scope of a claim is to be interpreted to encompass the specified materials or steps recited in the claim, “and those that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristic(s)” of the claimed invention. See,  In re Her;  537 F.2d 549, 551-52, 190 U.S.P.Q. 461, 463 (CCPA 1976) (emphasis in the original); see also MPEP § 2111.03. Thus, the term “consisting essentially of” when used in a claim of this invention is not intended to be interpreted to be equivalent to “comprising.” By “sample” is meant an animal; a tissue or organ from an animal; a cell (either within a subject, taken directly from a subject, or a cell maintained in culture or from a cultured cell line); a cell lysate (or lysate fraction) or cell extract; a solution containing one or more molecules derived from a cell, cellular material, or viral material (e.g. a polypeptide or nucleic acid); or a solution containing a naturally or non-naturally occurring nucleic acid, which is assayed as described herein. A sample may also be any body fluid or excretion (for example, but not limited to, blood, urine, stool, saliva, tears, bile) that contains cells, cell components, or nucleic acids. 
     The phrase “nucleic acid” as used herein refers to a naturally occurring or synthetic oligonucleotide or polynucleotide, whether DNA or RNA or DNA-RNA hybrid, single-stranded or double-stranded, sense or antisense, which is capable of hybridization to a complementary nucleic acid by Watson-Crick base-pairing. Nucleic acids of the invention can also include nucleotide analogs (e.g., BrdU, dUTP, 7-deaza-dGTP), and non-phosphodiester internucleoside linkages (e.g., peptide nucleic acid (PNA) or thiodiester linkages). In particular, nucleic acids can include, without limitation, DNA, RNA, cDNA, gDNA, ssDNA, dsDNA or any combination thereof. 
     By “probe,” “primer,” or “oligonucleotide” is meant a single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule of defined sequence that can base-pair to a second DNA or RNA molecule that contains a complementary sequence (the “target”). The stability of the resulting hybrid depends upon the length, GC content, nearest neighbor stacking energy, and the extent of the base-pairing that occurs. The extent of base-pairing is affected by parameters such as the degree of complementarity between the probe and target molecules and the degree of stringency of the hybridization conditions. The degree of hybridization stringency is affected by parameters such as temperature, salt concentration, and the concentration of organic molecules such as formamide, and is determined by methods known to one skilled in the art. Probes, primers, and oligonucleotides may be detectably-labeled, either radioactively, fluorescently, or non-radioactively, by methods well-known to those skilled in the art. dsDNA binding dyes (dyes that fluoresce more strongly when bound to double-stranded DNA than when bound to single-stranded DNA or free in solution) may be used to detect dsDNA. It is understood that a “primer” is specifically configured to be extended by a polymerase, whereas a “probe” or “oligonucleotide” may or may not be so configured. 
     By “specifically hybridizes” is meant that a probe, primer, or oligonucleotide recognizes and physically interacts (that is, base-pairs) with a substantially complementary nucleic acid (for example, a sample nucleic acid) under high stringency conditions, and does not substantially base pair with other nucleic acids. 
     By “high stringency conditions” is meant conditions that allow hybridization comparable with that resulting from the use of a DNA probe of at least 40 nucleotides in length, in a buffer containing 0.5 M NaHPO4, pH 7.2, 7% SDS, 1 mM EDTA, and 1% BSA (Fraction V), at a temperature of 65° C., or a buffer containing 48% formamide, 4.8×SSC, 0.2 M Tris-Cl, pH 7.6, 1× Denhardt&#39;s solution, 10% dextran sulfate, and 0.1% SDS, at a temperature of 42° C. Other conditions for high stringency hybridization, such as for PCR, northern, Southern, or in situ hybridization, DNA sequencing, etc., are well known by those skilled in the art of molecular biology (47). 
     In an illustrative embodiment, methods and kits are provided for PCR with &lt;20 second cycle times, with some embodiments using &lt;10 second, &lt;5 second, &lt;2 second, &lt;1 second, and &lt;0.5 second cycle times. With these cycle times, a 30 cycle PCR is completed in &lt;10 min, &lt;5 min, &lt;2.5 min, &lt;1 min, &lt;30 seconds, and &lt;15 seconds, respectively. As PCR speeds become increasingly faster, the primer or polymerase concentrations, or both, are increased, thereby retaining PCR efficiency and yield. 
     Compromising any of the 3 component reactions of PCR (primer annealing, polymerase extension, and template denaturation) can limit the efficiency and yield of PCR. For example, if primers anneal to only 95% of the template, the PCR efficiency cannot be greater than 95%, even if 100% of the templates are denatured and 100% of the primed templates are extended to full length products. Similarly, if extension is only 95% efficient, the maximum possible PCR efficiency is only 95%. In order for the PCR product concentration to double each cycle, all the components must reach 100% completion. Denaturation, annealing and extension will be considered sequentially in the following paragraphs. 
     Inadequate denaturation is a common reason for PCR failure, in slow (&gt;60 second cycles), rapid (20-60 second cycles), and extreme (&lt;20 second cycles) PCR temperature cycling. The goal is complete denaturation each cycle, providing quantitative template availability for primer annealing. Initial denaturation of template before PCR, particularly genomic DNA, usually requires more severe conditions than denaturation of the amplification product during PCR. The original optimization of rapid cycle PCR (4) was performed after boiling the template, a good way to assure initial denaturation of genomic DNA. Incomplete initial denaturation can occur with high Tm targets, particularly those with flanking regions of high stability (37). This can compromise quantitative PCR, illustratively for genomic insertions or deletions, particularly if minor temperature differences during denaturation affect PCR efficiency (37-39). If prior boiling or restriction digestion (37) is not desired, and higher denaturation temperatures compromise the polymerase, adjuvants that lower product Tm can be used to help with denaturation. 
     Although 94° C. is often used as a default target temperature for denaturation, it is seldom optimal. PCR products melt over a 40° C. range, depending primarily on GC content and length (43). Low denaturation target temperatures have both a speed and specificity advantage when the PCR product melts low enough that a lower denaturation temperature can be used. The lower the denaturation temperature, the faster the sample can reach the denaturation temperature, and the faster PCR can be performed. Added specificity arises from eliminating all potential products with higher denaturation temperatures, as these potential products will remain double-stranded and will not be available for primer annealing. To amplify high Tm products, the target temperature may need to be increased above 94° C. However, most current heat stable polymerases start to denature above 97° C. and the PCR solution may boil between 95° C. and 100° C., depending on the altitude, so there is not much room to increase the temperature. Lowering the monovalent salt and Mg ++  concentration lowers product Tm. Similarly, incorporating dUTP and/or 7-deaza-dGTP also lowers product Tm, but may decrease polymerase extension rates. Most proprietary PCR “enhancers” are simple organics that lower product Tm, enabling denaturation (and amplification) of high Tm products. Most popular among these are DMSO, betaine, glycerol, ethylene glycol, and formamide. In addition to lowering Tm, some of these additives also raise the boiling point of the PCR mixture (particularly useful at high altitudes). As the concentration of enhancer increases, product Tms decrease, but polymerase inhibition may increase. 
     Denaturation, however, need not be rate limiting even under extreme cycling conditions, because DNA unwinding is first order and very fast (10-100 msec), even when the temperature is only slightly above the product Tm. Denaturation occurs so rapidly at 2-3° C. above the Tm of the amplification product that it is difficult to measure, but complete denaturation of the amplicon probably occurs in less than 0.1 second. If the product melts in multiple domains, the target denaturation temperature should be 2-3° C. above the highest melting domain. As long as the sample reaches this temperature, denaturation is very fast, even for long products. Using capillaries and water baths (40), complete denaturation of PCR products over 20 kB occured in less than one second (52). Product Tms and melting domains are illustratively determined experimentally with DNA dyes and high resolution melting (41). Although Tm estimates can be obtained by software predictions (42), their accuracy is limited. Furthermore, observed Tms strongly depend on local reaction conditions, such as salt concentrations and the presence of any dyes and adjuvants. Thus, observed Tms are usually better matched to the reaction conditions. 
     Without any effect on efficiency, the approach rate to denaturation can be as fast as possible, for example 200-400° C./s, as shown in  FIGS. 2A and 6A . At these rates, only about 0.1-0.2 seconds are required to reach denaturation temperatures. However, a slower rate as the target temperature is approached decreases the risk of surpassing the target temperature and avoids possible polymerase inactivation or boiling of the solution. One illustrative method to achieve a slower approach temperature is to submerge the sample in a hot bath that exceeds the target temperature by 5-10° C. The temperature difference between the target and bath temperatures determines the exponential approach curve that automatically slows as the difference decreases. By continuously monitoring the temperature, the next phase (cooling toward annealing) is triggered when the denaturation target is achieved. In summary, complete product denaturation in PCR requires &lt;0.2 s at temperatures 2-3° C. above the highest melting domain temperature of the product and the denaturation temperature can be approached as rapidly as possible, illustratively at 40-400° C./second. Since denaturation is first order, its rate depends only on the product concentration, and the efficiency (or percentage of the product that is denatured) is independent of the product concentration. 
     Incomplete and/or misdirected primer annealing can result in poor PCR. Low efficiency results if not all template sites are primed. Furthermore, if priming occurs at undesired sites, alternative products may be produced. The goal is essentially complete primer annealing to only the desired sites each cycle, providing quantitative primed template for polymerase extension. 
     Rapid PCR protocols with 20-60 second cycles suggest an annealing time of &lt;1 second at 5° C. below the Tm with 500 nM primers (52). Primer concentrations for instruments attempting &lt;20 second cycles range from 200-1,000 nM each (Table 1). These concentrations are similar to those used in conventional PCR (&gt;60 second cycles), where long annealing times are used. Lowering the primer concentration is often used to improve specificity, and increasing the primer concentration is seldom considered due to concerns regarding nonspecific amplification. However, with rapid cycling, improved specificity has been attributed to shorter annealing times (5). If this trend is continued, one would expect that very short annealing times of extreme PCR should tolerate high primer concentrations. To promote annealing, an annealing temperature 5° C. below the primer Tm is recommended for 20-60 second cycles. Tms are best measured experimentally by melting analysis using saturating DNA dyes and oligonucleotides under the same buffer conditions used for amplification. The primer is combined with its complementary target with a 5′-extension as a dangling end, to best approximate the stability of a primer annealed to its template, and melting analysis is performed. 
     In contrast to denaturation, annealing efficiency depends on the primer concentration. Primer annealing can become limiting at very fast cycle speeds. Primer annealing is a second order reaction dependent on both primer and target concentrations. However, during most of PCR, the primer concentration is much higher than the target concentration and annealing is effectively pseudo-first order and dependent only on the primer concentration. In this case, the fraction of product that is primed (the annealing efficiency) depends only on the primer concentration, not the product concentration, so that higher primer concentrations should allow for shorter annealing times. Furthermore, without being bound to theory, it is believed that the relationship is linear. As the annealing time becomes shorter and shorter, increased primer concentrations become necessary to maintain the efficiency and yield of PCR. For example, rapid cycling allows about 1-3 seconds for annealing at temperatures 5° C. below primer Tm (3). If this annealing time (at or below Tm-5° C.) is reduced 10-fold in extreme PCR, a similar priming efficiency would be expected if the primer concentration were increased 10-fold. As the available annealing time becomes increasingly shorter, the primer concentration should be made increasingly higher by approximately the same multiple. Typical rapid PCR protocols use 500 nM each primer. If the annealing time in extreme PCR is reduced 3 to 40-fold, the primer concentrations required to obtain the same priming efficiency are 1,500-20,000 nM each primer. This is equivalent to 3,000-40,000 nM total primers, higher than any primer concentration in Table 1. This suggests that one reason for poor efficiency in prior attempts at &lt;20 second cycling is poor annealing efficiency secondary to inadequate primer concentrations. In extreme PCR, the primer concentrations are increased to 1.5-20 μM each to obtain excellent annealing efficiency despite annealing times of 0.05-0.3 seconds. Ever greater primer concentrations can be contemplated for ever shorter annealing times, using increased primer concentrations to offset decreased annealing times to obtain the same annealing efficiency. It is noted that most commercial instruments require a hold time of at least 1 second, while a few instruments allow a hold time of “0” seconds, but no commercial instrument allows a hold time of a fractional second. For some illustrative examples of extreme PCR, hold times in increments of 0.1 or 0.01 seconds may be desirable. 
     Another way to increase the annealing rate and shorten annealing times without compromising efficiency is to increase the ionic strength, illustratively by increasing the Mg ++  concentration. Annealing rates are known in the art to increase with increasing ionic strength, and divalent cations are particularly effective for increasing rates of hybridization, including primer annealing. 
     Illustratively, the approach rate to the annealing target temperature may be as fast as possible. For example, at 200-800° C./s ( FIGS. 2A and 6A ), annealing temperatures can be reached in 0.05-0.2 seconds. Rapid cooling also minimizes full length product rehybridization. To the extent that duplex amplification product forms during cooling, PCR efficiency is reduced because primers cannot anneal to the duplex product. Although this is rare early in PCR, as the product concentration increases, more and more duplex forms during cooling. Continuous monitoring with SYBR® Green I suggests that such product reannealing can be a major cause of the PCR plateau (44). 
     Polymerase extension also requires time and can limit PCR efficiency when extension times are short. Longer products are known to require longer extension times during PCR and a final extension of several minutes is often appended at the end of PCR, presumably to complete extension of all products. The usual approach for long products is to lengthen the time for extension. Using lower extension temperatures further increases required times, as in some cases of 2-step cycling where primer annealing and polymerase extension are performed at the same temperature. 
     Essentially complete extension of the primed template each cycle is required for optimal PCR efficiency. Most polymerase extension rates increase with temperature, up to a certain maximum. For Taq polymerase, the maximum is about 100 nucleotides/s at 75-80° C. and it decreases about 4-fold for each 10° C. that the temperature is reduced (50). For a 536 bp beta-globin product, 76° C. was found optimal in rapid cycle PCR (4). Faster polymerases have recently been introduced with commercial claims that they can reduce overall PCR times, suggesting that they may be able to eliminate or shorten extension holding times for longer products. 
     As an alternative or complement to faster polymerase extension rates, it has been found that increasing the concentration of polymerase reduces the required extension time. Given a standard Taq polymerase concentration in PCR (0.04 U/μl) or 1.5 nM (49) with 500 nM of each primer, if each primer is attached to a template, there is only enough polymerase to extend 0.15% of the templates at a time, requiring recycling of the polymerase over and over again to new primed templates in order to extend them all. By increasing the concentration of polymerase, more of the available primed templates are extended simultaneously, decreasing the time required to extend all the templates, presumably not by faster extension rates, but by extending a greater proportion of the primed templates at any given time. 
     To a first approximation, for small PCR products (&lt;100 bp), the required polymerization time appears to be directly proportional to the polymerization rate of the enzyme (itself a function of temperature) and the polymerase concentration. The required time is also inversely proportional to the length of template to be extended (product length minus the primer length). By increasing the polymerase activity 20-300 fold over the standard activity of 0.04 U/μl in the PCR, extreme PCR with &lt;20 second cycles can result in high yields of specific products. That is, activities of 0.8-12 U/μl (1-16 μM of KlenTaq) enable two-step extreme PCR with combined annealing/extension times of 0.1-1.0 second. The highest polymerase activity used previously was 0.5 U/μl (Table 1). For two-step PCR that is used in illustrative examples of extreme PCR, a combined annealing/extension step at 70-75° C. is advantageous for faster polymerization rates. Furthermore, because it simplifies temperature cycling, two-step PCR is typically used in illustrative examples of extreme cycling (&lt;20 second cycles) and both rapid annealing and rapid extension must occur during the combined annealing/extension step. Therefore, both increased primer concentrations and increased polymerase concentrations are used in illustrative examples, resulting in robust PCR under extreme two-temperature cycling. Illustratively, primer concentrations of 1.5-20 μM each and polymerase concentrations of 0.4-12 U/μl of any standard polymerase (0.5-16 μM of KlenTaq) are necessary with combined annealing/extension times of 0.05-5.0 seconds at 50-75° C., as illustrated in the Examples to follow. Because there is only one PCR cycling segment for both annealing and extension, extreme PCR conditions require enhancement of both processes, illustratively by increasing the concentrations of both the primers and the polymerase. 
     Extreme three-temperature cycling is also envisioned, where the annealing and extension steps are kept separate at different temperatures. In this case, the time allotted to annealing and extension steps can be individually controlled and tailored to specific needs. For example, if only the annealing time is short (0.05-0.2 seconds) and the extension time is kept comparatively long (illustratively for 1, 2, 5, 10 or 15 seconds), only the primer concentrations need to be increased for efficient PCR. Alternatively, if the extension time is short (&lt;1 sec within 70-80° C.), but the annealing time is long, it is believed that only the polymerase concentration needs to be increased to obtain efficient PCR. It is understood that efficient PCR has an illustrative efficiency of at least 70%, more illustratively of at least 80%, and most illustratively of at least 90%, with &gt;95% efficiency achievable in many instances. 
     For products longer than 100 bp, efficient extension using extreme PCR may need a combination of high polymerase concentration and increased extension time. If the polymerase is in excess, the minimum time illustratively should be the extension length (defined as the product length minus the primer length) in bases divided by the polymerase extension rate in bases/second. However, as previously noted, the polymerase is usually only saturating in the beginning of PCR, before the concentration of template increases to greater than the concentration of polymerase. One way to decrease cycle time is to use two-temperature PCR near the temperature maximum of the polymerase, typically 70-80° C. The required extension time can be determined experimentally using real-time PCR and monitoring the quantification cycle or Cq. For example, at a polymerase extension rate of 100 bases/second at 75° C., a 200 bp product would be expected to require about 2 seconds if the concentration of polymerase is in excess. Similarly, a 400 bp product would be expected to require about 4 seconds using this same polymerase as long as its concentration is greater than the template being extended. If the polymerase is not in excess, adding more polymerase allows more templates to be extended at the same time, decreasing the required extension time in proportion to the concentration of polymerase. 
     The utility of any DNA analysis method depends on how fast it can be performed, how much information is obtained, and how difficult it is to do. Compared to conventional cloning techniques, PCR is fast and simple. Rapid cycle and extreme PCR focus on continued reduction of the time required. Real-time PCR increases the information content by acquiring data each cycle. Melting analysis can be performed during or after PCR to monitor DNA hybridization continuously as the temperature is increased. 
     Returning to the equilibrium and kinetic paradigms of PCR ( FIGS. 15A-B ), extreme PCR of products &lt;100 bps exemplifies a good application of the kinetic model. Temperatures are always changing and rates of denaturation, annealing, and extension depend on temperature, so an adequate assessment of PCR can only be obtained by integrating the rates of the component reactions across temperature. For products greater than 100 bp, longer extension times may be necessary, and components of both the kinetic and equilibrium models are appropriate. 
     When the reaction conditions are configured according to at least one embodiment herein, it has been found that PCR can be performed at very fast rates, illustratively with some embodiments in less than one minute for complete amplification, with cycle times of less than two seconds. Illustratively, various combinations of increased polymerase and primer concentrations are used for this extreme PCR. Without being bound to any particular theory, it is believed that an excess concentration of primers will allow for generally complete primer annealing, thereby increasing PCR efficiency. Also without being bound to any particular theory, it is believed that an increase in polymerase concentration improves PCR efficiency by allowing more complete extension. Increased polymerase concentration favors binding to the annealed primer, and also favors rebinding if a polymerase falls off prior to complete extension. The examples below show that extreme PCR has been successful, even when starting with complex eukaryotic genomic DNA and single-copy targets. 
     Although KlenTaq was used in the Examples to follow, it is believed that any thermostable polymerase of similar activity will perform in a similar manner in extreme PCR, with allowances for polymerase extension rate. For example, Herculase, Kapa2G FAST, KOD Phusion, natural or cloned  Thermus aquaticus  polymerase, Platinum Tag, GoTaq and Fast Start are commercial preparation of polymerases that should enable extreme PCR when used at the increased concentrations presented here, illustratively adjusted for differences in enzyme activity rates. 
     Because no current commercial PCR instrument allows for two second cycle times, a system  4  was set up to test proof of concept for extreme PCR. However, it is understood that the system  4  is illustrative and other systems that can thermocycle rapidly are within the scope of this disclosure. As shown in  FIG. 1A , a hot water bath  10  of 95.5° C. (the temperature of boiling water in Salt Lake City, Utah, the location where the present examples were performed), and a cool water bath  14  of 30-60° C. are used to change the temperature of 1-5 μl samples contained in a sample container  20 . The illustrative water baths  10 ,  14  are 4.5 quart stainless steel dressing jars (Lab Safety Supply, #41634), although 500 ml glass beakers were used in some examples, and are heated on electric hotplates  12 ,  16  with magnetic stirring (Fisher Scientific Isotemp Digital Hotplates (#11-300-49SHP). However, it is understood that other embodiments may be used to heat and cool the samples. In the embodiment shown in  FIG. 1A , the sample container  20  is a composite glass/plastic reaction tube (BioFire Diagnostics #1720, 0.8 mm ID and 1.0 mm OD). However, in other examples, hypodermic needles (Becton Dickenson #305187, 0.042″ ID, 0.075″ OD) and composite stainless steel/plastic reaction tubes constructed from stainless steel tubing (Small Parts, 0.042″ ID/0.075″ OD, 0.035″ ID/0.042″ OD, or 0.0265″ ID/0.035″ OD) and fit into the plastic tops of the BioFire tubes were used as the sample container  20 . While other sample containers are within the scope of this invention, it is desirable that the sample containers have a large surface area to volume ratio and have a fast heat transfer rate. For certain embodiments, the open end of the metal tubing was sealed by heating to a red-white color using a gas flame and compressing in a vise. For real-time PCR, tubes that are optically clear or have an optically clear portion are desirable. Samples were spun down to the bottom of each tube by brief centrifugation. 
     The sample container  20  is held by a tube holder  22  attached to a stepper motor shaft  26  by arm  21 . The tube holder  22  was machined from black Delrin plastic to hold 2-5 sample containers  20  (only one sample container  20  is visible in  FIG. 1A , but a row of such sample containers  20  may be present) so that the reaction solutions were held at a radius of 6.5-7.5 cm. While not visible in  FIG. 1A , a thermocouple (Omega type T precision fine wire thermocouple #5SRTC-TT-T-40-36, 36″ lead, 0.003′ diameter with Teflon insulation) may be used to measure temperature. With reference to  FIG. 1D , which shows a similar tube holder and arm of  FIG. 1B  with like numbers representing similar components, a tube holder  222  designed to hold two sample containers is present, with one location in tube holder  222  occupied by a thermocouple  228 . It is understood that any number of sample containers  20  or  220  may be used in any of the embodiments described herein, with or without a thermocouple, as shown in  FIG. 1D . Thermocouple amplification and linearization is performed with an Analog Devices AD595 chip (not shown). The thermocouple voltage was first calculated from the AD595 output as Type T voltage=(AD595 output/247.3)−11 μV. Then, the thermocouple voltage was converted to temperature using National Institute of Standards and Technology coefficients for the voltage/temperature correlation of Type T thermocouples. The analog signal was digitized (PCIe-6363 acquisition board) and processed by LabView software (version 2010, National Instruments) installed on CPU  40  and viewed on user interface  42 . Stepper motion illustratively is triggered dynamically at 87-92° C. and 60-75° C. or may be held in each water bath for a computer-controlled period of time. Thirty to fifty cycles are typically performed. 
     The stepper motor  24  (Applied Motion Products, #HT23-401, 3V, 3A) is positioned between the water baths  10  and  14  so that all sample containers  20  in the tube holder  22  could flip between each water bath  10  and  14 , so that the portion of each sample container  20  containing samples are completely submerged. The stepper motor  24  is powered illustratively by a 4SX-411 nuDrive (National Instruments, not shown) and controlled with a PCI-7344 motion controller and NI-Motion Software (version 8.2, National Instruments) installed on CPU  40 . Stepper motor  24  rotates between water baths  10  and  14  in about 0.1 second.  FIG. 2A  shows a sample temperature trace ( ) juxtaposed over a trace of the position of the sample container  20  ( ) for a run where stepper motion was triggered at 90° C. and 50° C. As can be seen in  FIG. 2A , there is some overshoot to a temperature lower than 50° C., presumably due do the time required to move the sample container  20  out of water bath  14 . Thus, as discussed above, it may be desirable to trigger stepper motor  24  at a somewhat higher temperature. In the examples below, the temperatures given are for the sample temperature reached, not the trigger temperature. The maximum heating rate calculated from  FIG. 2A  is 385° C./s and maximum cooling rate 333° C./s. Illustratively, extreme PCR may be performed with ramp rates of at least 200° C./s. In other embodiments, the ramp rate may be 300° C./s or greater. 
     In some examples, system  4  is also configured for real-time monitoring. As shown in  FIG. 1A , for real time monitoring, a fiber optics tip  50  of optics block  25  is mounted above sample container  20 , such that when sample container  20  is being moved from hot water bath  10  to the cold water bath by stepper motor  24 , sample container  20  passes by the fiber optics tip  50 , with or without a hold in this monitoring position. In this illustrative embodiment, fiber optics tip is provided in air above the water baths. Thermocycling device  4  may be controlled by CPU  40  and viewed on user interface  42 . 
       FIG. 1B  shows an embodiment similar to  FIG. 1A . Hot plates  212  and  216  are provided for controlling temperature of hot water bath  210  and cold water bath  214 . A stepper motor  224  is provided for moving sample container  220  and thermocouple  228  (shown in  FIG. 1D ), by moving arm  221  and tube holder  222 , which is illustratively made of aluminum. However, in this embodiment, the tip  250  of the fiber optics cable  252  is held in water bath  214  by positioning block  254 . Fiber optics cable  252  enters water bath  214  through port  248  and provides signal to optics block  225 . Thermocycling device  204  may be controlled by CPU  240  and viewed on user interface  242   
     Light from an Ocean Optics LLS-455 LED Light Source  256  was guided by fiber optics cable  252  (Ocean Optics P600-2-UV-VIS, 600 μm fiber core diameter) into a Hamamatsu Optics Block  258  with a 440+/−20 nm excitation interference filter, a beamsplitting 458 nm dichroic and a 490+/−5 nm emission filter (all from Semrock, not shown). Epifluorescent illumination of the capillary was achieved with another fiber optic cable (not shown) placed approximately 1-2 mm distant from and in-line with the one sample capillary when positioned in the cooler water bath. Emission detection was with a Hamamatsu PMT 62. 
       FIG. 1C  shows an illustrative system  304  for three-temperature PCR. A hot water bath  310  of 95.5° C., a cool water bath  314  of 30-60° C., and a medium water bath  313  of 70-80° C. are used to change the temperature of 1-5 μl samples contained in a sample container  320 , and are heated on three electric hotplates  312 ,  316 , and  318  with magnetic stirring. The sample container  320  is held by a tube holder  322  attached to a stepper motor  324  by arm  321 . Thermocouple  328  is also held by tube holder  322 . Arm  321  may be raised as stepper motor  324  rotates. A fiber optics tip  350  is illustratively provided in medium water bath  313 , although it is understood that it may be placed in air, as with  FIG. 1A . Due to the set-up of this illustrative embodiment, it was not possible to place the three water baths,  310 ,  313 , and  314  equidistant from one another. Accordingly, the largest space was placed between hot water bath  310  and cool water bath  314 , as cooling of the sample between these baths is desirable, whereas the sample moves between the other water baths to be heated. However, it is understood that this configuration is illustrative only and that other configurations are within the spirit of this disclosure. Because two stepper motors are used simultaneously (one to raise the capillary out of the water and one to transfer between water baths) the angular motion of each can be minimized to decrease the time of movement between baths. In the 2 water bath system, the required angular motion of the stepper to transfer the sample between baths is greater than 270 degrees. However, in the 3 water bath system, the stepper motor that raises the samples needs to traverse less than 45 degrees while the stepper moving the samples between water baths needs to move only 90 degrees or less. The water baths can also be configured as sectors of a circle (pie-shaped wedges) to further limit the angular movement required. Minimizing the angular movement decreases the transfer time between water baths. Transfer times less than 100 msec or even less than 50 msec are envisioned. Other components of this system  304  are similar to the systems  4 ,  204  shown in  FIGS. 1A-B  and are not shown in  FIG. 1C . 
     EXAMPLE 1 
     Unless otherwise indicated, PCR was performed in 5 μl reaction volumes containing 50 mM Tris (pH 8.3, at 25° C.), 3 mM MgCl 2 , 200 μM each dNTP (dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP), 500 μg/ml non-acetylated bovine serum albumin (Sigma), 2% (v/v) glycerol (Sigma), 50 ng of purified human genomic DNA, and 1× LCGreen® Plus (BioFire Diagnostics). The concentration of the primers and the polymerase varied according to the specific experimental protocols. Klentaq1™ DNA polymerase was obtained from either AB Peptides, St. Louis, Mo., or from Wayne Barnes at Washington University (St. Louis). The molecular weight of KlenTaq is 62.1 kD with an extinction coefficient at 280 nm of 69,130 M −1  cm −1 , as calculated from the sequence (U.S. Pat. No. 5,436,149). Mass spectrometry confirmed a predominate molecular weight of 62 kD, and denaturing polyacrylamide gels showed that the major band was greater than 80% pure by integration. Using the absorbance and purity to calculate the concentration indicated an 80 μM stock in 10% glycerol. Final polymerase concentrations were typically 0.25-16 μM. One μM KlenTaq is the equivalent of 0.75 U/μl, with a unit defined as 10 nmol of product synthesized in 30 min at 72° C. with activated salmon sperm DNA. Primers were synthesized by the University of Utah core facility, desalted, and concentrations determined by A 260 . The final concentrations of each primer typically varied from 2.5-20 μM. 
     A 45 bp fragment of KCNE1 was amplified from human genomic DNA using primers CCCATTCAACGTCTACATCGAGTC (SEQ ID NO:1) and TCCTTCTCTTGCCAGGCAT (SEQ ID NO:2). The primers bracketed the variant rs#1805128 (c.253G&gt;A) and amplified the sequence: 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 3) 
               
               
                 CCCATTCAACGTCTACATCGAGTCC(G/A)ATGCCTGGCAAGAGAAGGA. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
       FIG. 3A  shows a melting curve of the PCR product generated by extreme PCR using the device shown in  FIG. 1A , where 0.64 μM KlenTaq and 10 μM of each primer were used, and cycled between 91° C. and 50° C., as shown in  FIG. 2B , for 35 cycles and a total amplification time of 28 seconds. Each cycle required 0.8 seconds. Also shown in  FIG. 3A  is a melting curve of the same amplicon generated by rapid cycling in the LightCycler, where 0.064 μM KlenTaq and 0.5 μM of each primer were used, and cycling was between 90° C. and 50° C. for 35 cycles and a total amplification time of 12 minutes ( FIG. 2C ). Each cycle required 10.3 seconds. Note that because of the different time scales in  FIGS. 2B and 2C , the entire extreme PCR protocol of  FIG. 2B  is completed in less than 2 cycles of its rapid cycle counterpart. Both reactions produced amplicons having similar Tms and strong bands on gel electrophoresis ( FIG. 3B ), whereas neither negative control showed amplification by either melting analysis or gel electrophoresis. In this illustrative example, extreme PCR conditions showed greater yield than rapid cycle PCR conditions when analyzed on gels ( FIG. 3B ). The 0.5° C. difference in Tm on the melting curves is believed to be due to the different amounts of glycerol in each reaction, arising from the glycerol content in the polymerase storage buffer (final concentration of glycerol in the PCR was 1.3% under extreme conditions and 0.1% under rapid conditions).  FIG. 3B  also confirms that the size of the amplicons were similar and as predicted. In addition, despite the high concentrations of polymerase and primers, the reaction appears specific with no indication of nonspecific products. However, high resolution melting analysis was unable to distinguish the 3 genotypes. The stoichiometric percentage of polymerase to total primer concentration was 3% for extreme PCR and 6.4% for rapid cycle PCR. 
     Real-time monitoring of the 45 bp KCNE1 reaction was performed using 1 μM polymerase, 10 μM of each primer, and 1.3% glycerol. The sample was monitored each cycle in air between the 2 water baths using the device of  FIG. 1A . The enclosed chamber air temperature was held at 70° C. and the sample was interrogated for 0.2 seconds each cycle. As measured by the temperature reference capillary, samples were cycled between 60 and 90° C., as shown in  FIG. 3C . The cycle time increased from 0.8 seconds to 1.12 seconds because of the added time for positioning and measuring. Thus, fifty cycles were completed in 56 seconds. Amplification was apparent from an increase in fluorescence at about 30 cycles or after about 34 seconds ( FIG. 3C ). The temperature remained near 60° C. while the sample was in air for measurement, limiting the extension rate of the polymerase. 
     As seen in  FIG. 3C , this reaction has a quantification cycle (Cq) of about 25 cycles, but it does not seem to plateau until at least 50 cycles. Also, because the reaction was stopped after 64 cycles, it is possible that the quantity of amplicon may continue to increase and not plateau until significantly later. Without being bound to theory, it is believed that the increase in primer concentration allows for improved yield and delayed plateau, illustratively 20 cycles after Cq, and more illustratively 25 cycles or more after Cq. 
     EXAMPLE 2 
     In this example, a 58 bp fragment bracketing an A&gt;G variant (rs #2834167) in the interleukin 10 beta receptor was amplified with primers CTACAGTGGGAGTCACCTGC (SEQ ID NO:4) and GGTACTGAGCTGTGAAAGTCAGGTT (SEQ ID NO:5) to generate the following amplicon: CTACAGTGGGAGTCACCTGCTTTTGCC(A/G)AAGGGAACCTGACTTTCACAGCTC AGTACC (SEQ ID NO:6). Extreme PCR was performed as described in Example 1 using the instrument shown in  FIG. 1A . One μM polymerase, 10 μM each primer and 1.3% glycerol were used (polymerase to total primer percentage=5%). In order to increase the temperature for polymerase extension to 70-80° C., where the polymerase has higher extension rates, a different positioning protocol was used. After reaching the annealing temperature, instead of immediately positioning in air for monitoring, the sample was transferred to the hot water bath until the extension temperature was reached. Then the sample was positioned in air just above the hot water bath, producing the temperature cycles shown in  FIGS. 4A and 4B , and enabling faster polymerase extension at optimal temperatures between 70 and 77° C. The 3 different genotypes were each amplified by extreme PCR using 0.97 second cycles, completing 39 cycles in 38 seconds. After extreme PCR, high resolution melting curves were obtained for each genotype on an HR-1 instrument modified to accept LC24 capillaries.  FIG. 4C  reveals that all three genotypes were amplified and distinguished, as expected. 
     EXAMPLE 3 
     The reaction mixtures in Example 1 were the same for both the extreme PCR and rapid cycle PCR, except for the amounts of polymerase and primers, and a minor difference in glycerol concentration that apparently caused the shift in Tm seen in  FIG. 3A . In this and all future examples, the glycerol concentration was held at 2% by equalizing its concentration as necessary. For extreme PCR, 1 μM polymerase and 10 μM of each primer were used, while for rapid cycle PCR, 0.064 μM polymerase and 0.5 μM of each primer were used. As discussed above, it is believed that faster annealing times provide for improved primer specificity. With this improved specificity, increased concentrations of primers may be used, which is believed to favor primer binding and allow reduced annealing times. Similarly, increased polymerase concentrations favor binding to the annealed primer, and also favor rebinding to the incomplete amplicon if a polymerase falls off prior to complete extension. In addition, because of the higher polymerase concentration, a greater proportion of the primed templates can be extended at once even late in PCR, reducing the number of templates that a single polymerase must extend and reducing the overall extension time. 
       FIG. 5A  summarizes the results of extreme PCR cycling with various polymerase and primer concentrations. In this example, a 49 bp fragment of the interleukin 10 beta receptor was amplified with primers GGGAGTCACCTGCTTTTGCC (SEQ ID NO:7) and TACTGAGCTGTGAAAGTCAGGTTCC (SEQ ID NO:8) and 3 mM MgCl 2 , to generate: GGGAGTCACCTGCTTTTGCCAAAGGGAACCTGACTTTCACAGCTCAGTA (SEQ ID NO:9). For each extreme PCR reaction, the device shown in  FIG. 1B  was used without real time monitoring. The temperature was cycled between 90° C. and 63° C. for 35 cycles, for a total reaction time of just under 26 seconds (0.73 second cycles) as shown in  FIG. 5B . Reaction conditions were as discussed in Example 1, except that the amounts of polymerase and primers were varied, as shown in  FIG. 5A . The vertical axis in  FIG. 5A  is quantified as the peak of the negative derivative plot of the melting curve, obtained without normalization on the HR-1 instrument. At 0.5 μM polymerase, virtually no amplification was seen at any level of primer concentration. However, at 1.0 μM polymerase, discernible levels of amplification were seen at primer concentrations of 5 μM and above. As the polymerase levels increase, so do the amount of amplicon, up to levels of about 4 μM. At 8 μM polymerase, the amount of amplicon plateaued or dropped off, depending on the primer concentration, with a significant drop off at 16 μM at lower primer concentrations. It appears that under these extreme temperature cycling conditions for a 49 bp product, the polymerase has a favored concentration range between about 1 and 8 μM. and more specifically between 2 and 8 μM, depending on the primer concentration. 
     Similarly, little amplification was seen with primer concentrations of 2.5 μM. However, amplification was successful at 5 μM primer, with KlenTaq concentrations of 2-8 μM, and amplification continued to improve with increasing concentrations. Excellent amplification was achieved with primer concentrations of about 10-20 μM primer.  FIG. 5C  shows melting curves for various primer concentrations at 4 μM KlenTaq, while  FIG. 5D  verifies the size of the product as the polymerase concentration varies while the primer concentration is held at 10 μM. Despite the high concentrations of polymerase and primers, no nonspecific amplification is seen. 
     Without being bound to theory, it appears that the ratio between the amount of enzyme and amount of primer is important for extreme PCR cycling, provided that both are above a threshold amount. It is noted that the above amounts are provided based on each primer. Given that the polymerase binds to each of the duplexed primers, the total primer concentration may be the most important. For KlenTaq, suitable ratios are 0.03-0.4 (3-40% enzyme to total primer concentration), with an illustrative minimum KlenTaq concentration of about 0.5 μM, and more illustratively about 1.0 μM, for extreme PCR. The primers may be provided in equimolar amounts, or one may be provided in excess, as for asymmetric PCR. The optimal polymerase:primer percentage may also depend on the temperature cycling conditions and the product size. For example, standard (slow) temperature cycling often uses a much lower polymerase to primer percentage, typically 1.5 nM (0.04 U/μl) polymerase (49) and 1,000 nM total primer concentration, for a percentage of 0.15%, over 10 times lower than the percentages found effective for extreme PCR. 
     EXAMPLE 4 
     The same PCR target as in Example 3 was amplified with 8 μM polymerase and 20 μM each primer in a 19 gauge steel hypodermic needle, to increase thermal transfer and cycling speeds. The polymerase to total primer percentage was 20%. Amplification was performed on the instrument of  FIG. 1B  and was completed in 16 seconds using 35 cycles of 0.46 seconds each ( FIG. 6A ), cycling between 91° C. and 59-63° C. The maximum heating rate during cycling was 407° C./s and the maximum cooling rate was 815° C./s, demonstrating that PCR can occur with ramp rates of greater than 400° C./s with no holds. Analysis of the products on a 4% NuSieve 3:1 agarose gel revealed strong specific bands of the correct size ( FIG. 6B ). The no template control showed no product at 49 bp, but did show a prominent primer band similar to the positive samples. 
     EXAMPLE 5 
     A 102 bp fragment of the NQO1 gene was amplified using primers CTCTGTGCTTTCTGTATCCTCAGAGTGGCATTCT (SEQ ID NO:10) and CGTCTGCTGGAGTGTGCCCAATGCTATA (SEQ ID NO:11) and the instrument of  FIG. 1B  without the real-time components. The polymerase concentration was varied between 0.25 and 4 μM, while each primer concentration was varied between 0.5 and 8 μM. The primers were designed to anneal at higher temperatures (low 70s) so that extension at a combined annealing/extension phase would be at a more optimal temperature for the polymerase. Greater polymerization rates at these temperatures were expected to enable amplification of longer products. The cooler water bath was controlled at 72° C. and the end of the annealing/extension phase triggered by time (1 second), rather than temperature. Cycling between 72 and 90° C. for 30 cycles required 58 seconds using 1.93 second cycles ( FIG. 7A ). As seen in  FIG. 7A , the sample temperature drops about 3° C. below the annealing/extension temperature while it travels through the air to the hot water bath.  FIG. 7B  shows the amount of product amplified by quantifying the melting curves as in  FIG. 5A . Melting curve analysis showed only a single product of Tm 84° C. Very little product was observed at 0.25 μM polymerase or at 1 μM each primer. Some amplification occurs at 2 μM each primer, with the best amplification at 2-4 μM polymerase and 8 μM each primer. At primer concentrations of 2-4 μM, yield decreases as the polymerase concentration increases, although this was not seen at 8 μM primer concentration. Although the thermal cycling and target length are different from Example 3, the best amplification occurs at polymerase to total primer concentrations of 3.1 to 50%. 
     EXAMPLE 6 
     Extreme PCR was used to amplify 135 bp and 337 bp fragments of the BBS2 gene using the instrument shown in  FIG. 1B  with real time monitoring. In order to study the effect of product length on extreme PCR and control for possible confounding effects of different primers, the fragments were first amplified from genomic DNA using primers with common 5′-end extensions. For the 135 bp fragment the primers were ACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACAAAAATTCAGTGGCATTA AATACG (SEQ ID NO:12) and GAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAAAAACC AGAGCTAAAGGGAAG (SEQ ID NO:13), For the 337 bp fragment the primers were ACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACAAAAAGCTGGTGTCTGCT ATAGAACTGATT (SEQ ID NO:14) and GAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAAAAAGT TGCCAGAGCTAAAGGGAAGG (SEQ ID NO:15). After standard PCR amplification from genomic DNA, primers and dNTPs were degraded by ExoSAP-IT (Affymetrix, Calif.), followed by PCR product purification using the QuickStep™ 2 PCR Purification Kit (Catalog #33617, Edge BioSystems, Gaithersburg, Md.). PCR products were diluted approximately 1 million-fold and adjusted to equal concentrations by equalizing the Cq obtained by standard real-time PCR to obtain a Cq of 25 cycles (approximately 10,000 copies/10 μl reaction). 
     Extreme PCR was performed on 1,000 copies of the amplified templates in a total volume of 5 μl using the common primers ACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACAAAAA(SEQ ID NO:16) and GAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAAAAA (SEQ ID NO:17) each at 2 μM with 2 μM polymerase and 2% glycerol. The 135 bp BBS2 fragment resulted in a 226 bp product requiring extension of 176 or 185 bases (depending on the primer), while the 337 bp BBS2 fragment resulted in a 428 bp PCR product requiring extension of 378 or 387 bases. Specific amplification was verified on agarose gels and by melting analysis. The extreme PCR temperature profile used for the 226 bp product is shown in  FIG. 8A , which included a 1 second combined annealing/extension at 75° C. and denaturation at 87° C. Also performed was a 2 second annealing/extension phase at the same temperature (trace not shown). Real time PCR results for these amplifications are shown in  FIG. 8C , revealing about a 5 cycle shift to higher Cq with the 1 second extension as compared to the 2 second extension, presumably reflecting a decrease in efficiency as the extension time is decreased. The extreme PCR temperature profile used for the 428 bp product is shown in  FIG. 8B , showing a 4 second combined annealing/extension at 75° C. and denaturation at 87° C. Also performed was a 5 second annealing/extension phase at the same temperature (trace not shown). Real time PCR results for these amplifications are shown in  FIG. 8D , revealing about a 2 cycle shift to higher Cq with the 4 second extension as compared to the 5 second extension, presumably reflecting a decrease in efficiency as the extension time is decreased. 
     EXAMPLE 7 
     Quantitative performance of PCR was assessed using the real-time instrument of  FIG. 1B  for the 102 bp fragment of NQO1 of Example 5 and the 45 bp fragment of KCNE1 of Example 1 using a dilution series of human genomic DNA, using 2 μM KlenTaq and 8 μM each primer for NQO1 and 8 μM KlenTaq and 20 μM each primer for KNCE1. With a dynamic range of at least 4 decades, as seen in  FIGS. 9A and 9B , the amplification efficiencies calculated from the standard curves were 95.8% for NQO1 and 91.7% for KCNE1. Control reactions without template did not amplify after 50 cycles and single copy replicates (mean copy number of 1.5 copies per reaction) were similar in amplification curve shape and intensity to higher concentrations ( FIGS. 9A and 9C ). At a mean copy number of 0.15 copies/reaction, 2 reactions were positive out of 17 (combining both NQO1 and KCNE1 trials), with a calculated expectation of 0.13 copies/reaction by binomial expansion. 
     EXAMPLE 8 
     The extension time required for different product lengths using real-time PCR ( FIGS. 10A-C ). To control for the possible confounding effects of different primers, synthetic templates of 100-500 bp using the following common high Tm (77° C.) primers: 
                            (SEQ ID NO: 18)           ACTCGCACGAACTCACCGCACTCC           and                       (SEQ ID NO: 19)           GCTCTCACTCGCACTCTCACGCACA.            
The synthetic template sequences were:
 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 100 bp Template: 
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 20) 
               
               
                 ACTCGCACGAACTCACCGCACTCCGGATGGATTGTGAAGAGGCCCAAGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TACTGGTCATATTATCCTTTGATCTAGCTCTCACTCGCACTCTCACGCA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CA. 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 200 bp Template: 
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 21) 
               
               
                 ACTCGCACGAACTCACCGCACTCCTCAATGCTGACAAATCGAAAGAATA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GGAATAGCGTAATTACTAGAGGACTCCAATATAGTATATTACCCTGGTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ACCGCCTGTACTGTAGGAACACTACCGCGGTTATATTGACAGCTTAGCA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ATCTACCCTGTTGGGATCTGTTTAAGTGGCTCTCACTCGCACTCTCACG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CACA. 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 300 bp Template: 
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 22) 
               
               
                 ACTCGCACGAACTCACCGCACTCCCCTTCGAATATAAAGTACGACATTA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CTAGCAATGACAGTTCCAGGATTTAAGAAAGTAGTGTTCCACATCAATG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CATATCCAGTGAAAGCATAACGTCAAAAAAAGCCTGGCACCGTTCGCGA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TCTGGACTTACTTAGATTTGTTGTAGTCAAGCCGGCTATCAGCGATTTA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TCCCGGAAACACATACTAGTGAGTTATTTGTATGTTACCTAGAATAGCT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GTCACGAATCACTAATACATTCACCCACCAGCTCTCACTCGCACTCTCA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CGCACA. 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 400 bp Template: 
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 23) 
               
               
                 ACTCGCACGAACTCACCGCACTCCTGAATACAAGACGACAGTCCTGATT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ATATTTTCATTTAATTACGCCAATTTAATTATGATGAATATTAACGGAA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TTAAATATGTATTGATAAGTACTAAGTAATGGTTTACCCACGGCGATCT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ATATGCAAGGGAAACATTAACAAATTTAAACATCTGATGTGGACAAAAC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TTGTAATGTGGTATAGTTAAAAATATAGGTTTCAGGGACACGTAAGTAT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CTATCTTGAATGTTTAAGTAGGTCCTGTCTACCATTCTGAAATTTAGAA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 AATCGCGTTCATCGGGCTGTCGGCTACACCTCAGAAAACCATTTCGTGT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TGCACAGGAGGAACTTTCGAGGGTTCGTATGAGCTCTCACTCGCACTCT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CACGCACA. 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 500 bp Template: 
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 24) 
               
               
                 ACTCGCACGAACTCACCGCACTCCACCGCTTGACGACGTAGGGTATTTG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GTATCTGAATCTACTCATTTACCTACATACTGAAGATTTTGCGATCGTC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TAATATATTGGACTAATGCCCGATTTCTGATCAATTACTCTAGGCGATA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CTTCATCGCTGGCCTTATTTGGATTTTGCTCAAGTGCTAAACTCTCTGC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GCGTCAATACTAGTCTGACATCAGTCAAGACCTGCTATCTGAAAACTAC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 TAGAGAGATATACCTAACAACTTTAGTGGATAAATCAGGTCTGGAGATT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GTCATATAATGCCACTAGGGTCAGAAGGCTGTGTCAAAGTTAGTGGTTA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GTAGGTCTCCGCTCTGCGGTACTATTCTTATATTCTCTTACTATGCATC 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 AAACAAAATAGAATGCATAGACAAACCGCCTGCCAAGTTTACAAGATAA 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CTTGCGTATAGGTTTATAAGGGTTCTTCTGTATCGCTCTCACTCGCACT 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CTCACGCACA. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Optimal concentrations of primers and polymerase were first determined for the intermediate length 300-bp product using a 4 second combined annealing/extension segment with 4.9 seconds per cycles ( FIG. 10A ). Identical primer (4 μM) and polymerase (2 μM) concentrations were then used for all product lengths and minimum extension times were determined ( FIGS. 11A-E ). Depending on the product length, increased extension times resulted in decreased fractional quantification cycles (Cq) until no further change was observed, reflecting the minimum extension time required for efficient PCR. For example, amplification curves using the KAPA2G™ FAST polymerase (Kapa Biosystems) for the 500 bp product are shown in  FIG. 10B . The minimum extension time using KAPA2G FAST polymerase was 3 s, compared to 7 s using KlenTaq1 (a deletion mutant of Taq polymerase, AB Peptides). When the identity of the polymerase is kept constant, longer products required longer extension times ( FIG. 10C ). For KlenTaq1polymerase, about 1 second is required for each 60 bps, while for KAPA2G FAST, 1 second is required for each 158 bp. It is noted that these two polymerases were chosen because they are commercially available at sufficient concentrations, while most other polymerases are not commercially available at such high concentrations. It is understood that the required time for extension depends directly and linearly with the length to be extended, and inversely with the concentration of polymerase and the polymerase speed. A proportionality constant (k2) can be defined that relates these 3 parameters:
 
Required Extension Time= k 2*(extension length)/([polymerase]*(polymerase speed))
 
     EXAMPLE 9 
     Extreme PCR times can also be reduced with high Mg ++  concentrations. A 60 bp fragment of AKAP10 was amplified with primers: 
     
       
         
           
               
            
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 25) 
               
               
                 GCTTGGAAGATTGCTAAAATGATAGTCAGTG 
               
               
                 and 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 26) 
               
               
                 TTGATCATACTGAGCCTGCTGCATAA, 
               
               
                 to generate the amplicon 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 (SEQ ID NO: 27) 
               
               
                 GCTTGGAAGATTGCTAAAATGATAGTCAGTGAC(A/G)TTATGCAGCAG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 GCTCAGTATGATCAA. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Each reaction was in a 1 μl volume with time based control (0.07 seconds in a 94° C. water bath, 0.1-0.4 seconds in a 60° C. water bath) for 35 cycles using 2-7 mM MgCl 2 . The sample volume was 1 μl, with 5 ng human genomic DNA, 20 μM primers, and 8 μM polymerase. Using a 0.42 second per cycle protocol, when the MgCl 2  was 2-3 mM, no product was observed on melting curves ( FIG. 12A ) or gels ( FIG. 12B ). Minimal product was present at 4 mM, but a large amount of product was observed after amplification with 5-7 mM MgCl 2 . At 5 mM MgCl 2 , no products were observed on melting curves ( FIG. 13A ) or gels ( FIG. 13B ) with cycle times of 0.32 seconds, but large amounts of product were present at cycle times of 0.42 seconds, 0.52 seconds, and 0.62 seconds, demonstrating that specific, high yield 60 bp products can be obtained in PCR performed in under 15 seconds (35 cycles in 14.7 seconds). Thus, illustrative Mg++ concentrations are at least 4 mM, at least 5 mM, at least 6 mM, at least 7 mM, or more, and it is understood that these illustrative Mg++ concentrations may be used with any of the embodiments described herein. 
     EXAMPLE 10 
     The high concentrations of primer and polymerase used in extreme PCR can have detrimental effects when used at slower cycling speeds. Non-specific products were obtained on rapid cycle or block based instruments that are 32- or 106-fold slower, respectively.  FIGS. 14A-B  show the results comparing amplification of the AKAP10 60 bp product used in Example 9, wherein amplification was performed using 20 μM of each primer, 8 μM KlenTaq and 10 ng human genomic DNA for 40 cycles using: (1) extreme PCR with set times of 0.5 s at 94° C. and 0.2 seconds at 60° C., giving a total time of approximately 17 seconds, (2) Rapid cycle PCR (Roche LightCycler) using set times of 10 s at 94° C. for an initial denaturation, followed by cycles of 85° C. for 0 seconds, and 60° C. for 0 seconds, giving a total time of approximately 9 minutes, and (3) Legacy (block) temperature cycling (BioRad CFX96) with a 10 s initial denaturation at 94° C., following by temperature cycling for 0 s at 85° C. and 5 s at 60° C. with a total time of approximately 30 minutes. As can be seen, even the rapid cycling of the LightCycler resulted in quite a bit of non-specific amplification, while the extreme cycling conditions resulted in a single melting peak and minimal non-specific amplification on the gel. 
     It also noted that the yield is enhanced in extreme PCR, resulting from high primer and polymerase concentrations. Extreme PCR produced over 30-fold the amount of product compared to rapid cycle PCR, using quantitative PCR for comparison (data not shown). 
     Examples 1-10 were all performed using one or more of the devices described in  FIGS. 1A-D , or minor variations on those configurations. However, it is understood that the methods and reactions described herein may take place in a variety of instruments. The water baths and tubes used in these examples allow for sufficiently rapid temperature change to study the effects of elevated concentrations of primers and polymerase. However, other embodiments may be more suitable commercially. Microfluidics systems, with low volume and high surface area to volume ratios, may be well suited to extreme PCR. Such systems allow for rapid temperature changes required by the high concentrations of primers and polymerase that are used in extreme PCR. Microfluidics systems include micro-flow systems (35, 53) that incorporate miniaturized channels that repeatedly carry the samples through denaturation, annealing, and extension temperature zones. Some of these systems have already demonstrated effective PCR with cycle times as fast as 3 seconds for lower complexity targets. It is expected that more complex targets may be amplified in such systems if the polymerase is provided at a concentration of at least 0.5 μM and primers are each provided at a concentration of at least 2 μM. Stationary PCR chips and PCR droplet systems (54) may also benefit from increased primer and probe concentrations, as the volumes may be as small as 1 nl or smaller and may be low enough to permit very fast cycling. It is understood that the exact instrumentation is unimportant to the present invention, provided that the instrumentation temperature cycles fast enough to take advantage of increased primer and polymerase concentrations without suffering from the loss of specificity associated with higher primer concentrations at slower cycle speeds. 
     While the above examples all employ PCR, it is understood that PCR is illustrative only, and increased primer and enzyme concentrations combined with shorter amplification times are envisioned for nucleic acid amplification methods other than PCR. Illustrative enzymatic activities whose magnitude may be increased include polymerization (DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase), ligation, helical unwinding (helicase), or exonuclease activity (5′ to 3′ or 3′ to 5′), strand displacement and/or cleavage, endonuclease activity, and RNA digestion of a DNA/RNA hybrid (RNAse H). Amplification reactions include without limitation the polymerase chain reaction, the ligase chain reaction, transcription medicated amplification (including transcription-based amplification system, self-sustained sequence replication, and nucleic acid sequence-based amplification), strand displacement amplification, whole genome amplification, multiple displacement amplification, antisense RNA amplification, loop-mediated amplification, linear-linked amplification, rolling circle amplification, ramification amplification, isothermal oligonucleotide amplification, helicase chain reaction, and serial invasive signal amplification. 
     In general, as the enzyme activity is varied, the amplification time varies inversely by the same factor. For reactions that include primers, as the primer concentration is varied, the amplification time varies inversely by the same factor. When both primers and enzymes are required for amplification, both enzyme and primer concentrations should be varied in order to maximize the reaction speed. If primer annealing occurs in a unique segment of the amplification cycle (for example, a unique temperature during 3-temperature PCR), then the time required for satisfactory completion of primer annealing in that segment is expected to be inversely related to the primer concentration. Similarly, if the enzyme activity is required in a unique segment of the amplification cycle (for example, a unique temperature during 3-temperature PCR), then the time required for satisfactory completion of the enzymatic process in that segment is expected to be inversely related to the enzyme concentration within a certain range. Varying the primer or enzyme concentrations can be used to change the required times of their individual segments, or if both occur under the same conditions (such as in 2-temperature PCR or during an isothermal reaction process), it is expected that a change in both concentrations may be necessary to prevent one reaction from limiting the reaction speed. Increased Mg ++  concentration can also be used in combination with increased enzyme and primer concentrations to further speed amplification processes. Higher Mg ++  concentrations both increase the speed of primer annealing and reduce the time for many enzymatic reactions used in nucleic acid amplification. 
     Higher concentrations of Mg ++ , enzymes, and primers are particularly useful when they are accompanied by shorter amplification times or segments. When higher concentrations are used without shortening times, non-specific amplification products may occur in some cases, as the “stringency” of the reaction has been reduced. Reducing the amplification time or segment time(s) introduces a higher stringency that appears to counterbalance the loss of stringency from increased reactant concentrations. Conversely, reagent costs can be minimized by reducing the concentration of the reactants if these lower concentrations are counterbalanced by increased amplification times or segment times. 
     Increasing polymerase concentrations can reduce the time necessary for long-range PCR, illustratively where the target is 5-50 kb. Typically, 10 min to 30 min extension periods are used to amplify large targets because the target is so long that such times are needed: 1) for the polymerase to complete extension of a single target, and 2) for enzyme recycling to polymerize additional primed templates. This recycling of polymerase is not needed at the beginning of PCR, when the available enzyme outnumbers the primed template molecules. However, even before the exponential phase is finished, the number of polymerase molecules often becomes limiting and enzyme recycling is necessary. By increasing the concentration of the polymerase, the required extension period can be reduced to less than 5 minutes and possibly less than 2 minutes, while maintaining increased yield due to the high primer concentration. Although the actual enzyme speed is not increased, less recycling is necessary, affecting the minimum time required, approximately in a linear fashion with the enzyme concentration. 
     Cycle sequencing times can also be reduced by increasing primer and polymerase concentrations. Typically, standard cycle sequencing primer concentrations are 0.16 μM and the combined annealing/extension period is 10 min at 50-60 degrees C. By increasing the primer and polymerase concentrations by 10-fold, the time required for annealing/extension can be reduced approximately 10-fold. In both long PCR and cycle sequencing, the expected time required is inversely proportional to the polymerase or primer concentration, whichever is limiting. 
     PCR of fragments with ligated linkers that are used as primers in preparation for massively parallel sequencing can be completed in much less time than currently performed by combining extreme temperature cycling with higher concentrations of primers, polymerase, and/or Mg ++ . 
     In all of the above applications, it is expected that the specificity of the reaction is maintained by shorter amplification times. Although high primer and polymerase concentrations are expected by those well versed in the art to cause difficulty from non-specific amplification, minimizing the overall cycle time and/or individual segment times results in high specificity and efficiency of the PCR. 
     Specific conditions for extreme PCR are shown in Table 2. All data are presented except for the simultaneous optimization experiments for polymerase and primer concentrations for 3 of the targets. In Table 3, the quantitative relationships between variables are detailed. The inverse proportionality that relates the required annealing time to the primer concentration is approximately constant (k1) and defined by the equation (Required annealing time)=k1/[primer]. Using a range of typical values for these variables under conditions of legacy (standard) PCR, rapid cycle PCR, and extreme PCR produces ranges for the inverse proportionality constant that largely overlap (legacy 0.75-30, rapid cycle 0.2-10, and extreme 1-20). Because of this constant inverse proportionality, desired annealing times outside of those currently performed can be used to predict the required primer concentrations for the desired time. For example, using a constant of 5 (s*μM), for an annealing time of 0.01 s, a primer concentration of 500 μM can be calculated. Conversely, if a primer concentration of 0.01 μM were desired, the required annealing time would be 500 seconds. Although these conditions are outside the bounds of both legacy and extreme PCR, they predict a relationship between primer concentrations and annealing times that are useful for PCR success. Reasonable bounds for k1 across legacy, rapid cycle and extreme PCR are 0.5-20 (s×μM), more preferred 1-10 (s×μM) and most preferred 3-6 (s×μM). 
     Similar calculations can be performed to relate desired extension times to polymerase concentration, polymerase speed, and the length of the product to be amplified. However, because of many additional variables that affect PCR between legacy, rapid cycle and extreme PCR (polymerase, Mg++, buffers), performed in different laboratories over time, it may be best to look at the well-controlled conditions of extreme PCR presented here to establish an inverse proportionality between variables. This allows a quantitative expression between polymerase concentration, polymerase speed, product length, and the required extension time under extreme PCR conditions. The defining equation is (Required Extension Time)=k2(product length)/([polymerase]*(polymerase speed)). The experimentally determined k2 is defined as the proportionality constant in the above equation under conditions of constant temperature, Mg ++ , type of polymerase, buffers, additives, and concentration of dsDNA dye. For the 3 extreme PCR targets with two dimensional optimization of [polymerase] and [primer], the [polymerase] at the edge of successful amplification can be discerned across primer concentrations and related to the other 3 variables. As shown in Table 3, the values of k2 for these 3 different targets vary by less than a factor of 2, from which it is inferred that k2 is a constant and can be used to predict one variable if the others are known. The required extension time is proportional to the extension length (product length minus the primer length) and inversely proportional to the polymerase speed and concentration of polymerase. k2 has units of (1/μM) and an optimal value for the extreme PCR conditions used here of 0.5 (1/μM) with a range of 0.3-0.7 (1/μM). Similar values for k2 could be derived for other reaction conditions that vary in polymerase type, Mg ++  concentration or different buffer or dye conditions. 
     Extreme PCR can be performed in any kind of container, as long as the temperature of the sample(s) can be changed quickly, and preferably homogeneously. Both intra-sample, and inter-sample homogeneity is important in many applications, illustratively for quantitative PCR where different PCR efficiencies of different samples translate directly to quantification errors. In addition to standard tubes and capillaries, micro-droplets of aqueous reactions suspended in an oil stream or thin 2-dimensional wafers provide good thermal contact. Continuous flow PCR of a sample stream (either dispersed as droplets, separated by bubbles, or other means to prevent mixing) past spatial segments at different temperatures is a good method for the temperature control needed for the speeds of extreme PCR. 
     EXAMPLE 11 
     Induction heating is a process of heating an electrically conducting object (usually a metal) by electromagnetic induction, whereby currents are generated within the object and resistance leads to Joule heating of the metal. An induction heating unit illustratively includes a radio frequency (RF) coil, through which a current, illustratively a high-frequency alternating current (AC), is passed, thereby forming the electromagnet. The power supply illustratively drives a circuit that provides electricity with low voltage and high frequency. The object is placed inside the wire coil of the electromagnet driven by the power supply, resulting in heating of the electrically conducting components of the object. Several groups have developed PCR instruments using induction heating (57, 58). However, at least one of those prototype instruments used sample tubes having volumes of 200 μL and they have not achieved fast PCR cycle times. 
       FIG. 16  shows an induction heating PCR system  302  that can thermal cycle fast enough to take advantage of the extreme PCR and other chemistries discussed above. In this proof-of-concept device, coil  310  surrounds a copper sample array  322 . As best seen in  FIG. 17A , sample array  322  comprises a plurality of sample wells  320 . In this illustrative example, 102 wells arranged in a circular pattern are shown, although it is understood that any number of wells may be used within the scope of this invention, illustratively about 200, about 400, or even about 500 or more. Arrays having fewer wells, or even one well, are also within the scope of this disclosure, as are arrays wherein the wells are arranged in other configurations. The copper layer may be thin, illustratively 50 μm thick, for fast heating and cooling, although copper layer may have a thickness of 25 to 100 μm, or any other suitable thickness. The wells illustratively have a volume of 0.1 μl but may have any other suitable volume, illustratively of 0.01 μl to 70 μl, and more illustratively of 0.05 μl to 4 μl. However, it is understood that smaller and larger volumes are within the scope of this invention. In the illustrative embodiment, as best seen in  FIG. 17B , the copper slug used to form array  322  is thin enough that the wells are formed as recesses below lower surface  318 , and may be formed by pressing the copper slug into a mold. However, it is understood that a thicker copper slug may be used, with the wells made therein by machining or other methods. 
     Furthermore, while copper is used herein, it is understood that other electrically conductive materials may be used, including silver. When silver is used, one may find an improvement in fluorescence signal. In some embodiments, a 2× improvement in fluorescence signal was seen when copper arrays were replaced with silver, particularly when fluorescence was measured in the blue and green wavelengths. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to use a silver coating or cladding onto another electrically conductive material, illustratively copper, thereby improving fluorescence signal and potentially eliminating the need for a PCR-friendly coating, as discussed below. Optionally, lower surface  318  may be painted black or other minimally reflective color to aid with IR heat sensing, as discussed below. 
     Reagents  321 , illustratively elements of the PCR chemistry that are unique to each well in the array, such as PCR primer pairs, may be pre-spotted into the wells. PCT/US 13/36939 teaches various ways of spotting an array  322 , as well as illustrative components for spotting, while U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010-0056383 teaches various means for minimizing cross-contamination upon filling, both of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties. In one example taught in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010-0056383, the reagents are spotted in or under a chemical that conditionally releases the reagents into solution, illustratively by heating or enzymatic digestion. With such a chemical barrier, array  322  may be loaded and used with or without a lid, while still minimizing cross-contamination. With faster cycling, i.e. no more than 15 sec/cycle, no more than 10 sec/cycle, no more than 5 sec/cycle, no more than 2 sec/cycle, any of the concentrations of polymerase, primers, and magnesium discussed above may be used. However, it is understood that this is illustrative only and that any suitable PCR chemistry may be used, depending on cycling conditions, amplicon length, and other factors. Some or all of the reagents may be pre-spotted into the array, with the remaining reagents provided with the sample, when the sample is added to each well  320  in array  322 . 
     As seen in  FIG. 17A , array  322  may be mounted on a support  323 . Illustratively, support  323  is a non-magnetic substance. As shown in the illustrative embodiment, support  323  is a thin film. Array  322  may be inserted into coil  310  by insertion of support  323  through slot  311 , shown in  FIG. 16 . Thus, array  322  is suspended within coil  310 , illustratively with only the non-magnetic support  323  touching both the array and the coil casing  309 . 
     Since copper can be somewhat inhibitory to PCR, it is understood that the array may be fabricated out of other conducting materials that are more compatible with PCR. It is also understood that copper may be used, with or without a coating that is compatible with PCR. Non-limiting illustrative coatings include other metals, plastics, ceramics, and glass. The coating may be provided on the entire upper surface  319  of array  322 , or may be provided only within wells  320 . In one illustrative example, upper surface  319  of array  322  may be sprayed with an acrylic, for example Krylon Acrylic Crystal Clear Gloss, to provide a PCR compatible surface. It is understood that any PCR-compatible coating or surfacing may be used. The array  322  may be configured for single use, or the coating may be replaceable or washable and array  322  may be reused. While copper is used in the examples herein, it is understood that coated copper and other conductive materials are within the scope of this disclosure. It is also understood that the array may be provided in a non-conductive material that is affixed to a conductive material. 
     It is understood that providing current from power supply  350  to coil  310  simultaneously heats all of the copper portions of array  322 . Since wells  320  are provided as recesses within the array  322 , the samples are heated on various sides. It is also understood that any heat transfer to array  322  ceases once the current is stopped. This is unlike when Peltier devices and other such heaters are used, wherein the heater continues to provide some heat even after current to the heater ceases. Thus, in the embodiments provided herein, heat sinks are not needed to draw heat from the heater. Furthermore, temperature gradients through the array material are minimized because the array does not need to be supported by or pressed against a portion of the instrument that is at a temperature other than that desired. In one embodiment, radial slots (not shown) are cut into the slug, which may prevent currents from running along an exterior circumference of the array, to provide for more even heating. 
     Turning back to  FIG. 16 , an air source, such as a fan  314 , is provided to provide air to cool array  322 . Fan  314  may provide air at ambient temperature, or the air may be heated or cooled so that fan  314  provides air at other temperatures. Compressed air or other sources of air may be used as well. Other cooling sources are contemplated. In the illustrative embodiment, the air outlet orifice (best seen in  FIG. 19  as indicated by reference numeral  415 ) has a diameter of 1.5 mm, and an air pressure differential of 20 psi is used. However, it is understood that the air outlet orifice can be of any other suitable size, and any other suitable air flow may be used, depending on orifice size, air temperature, distance from the array, and other factors specific to a given configuration. Illustrative non-limiting air pressures are between 10 to 100 psi. In the illustrative embodiment, fan  314  provides air flow to the lower surface  318  of array  322 . However, this is illustrative only, and air may be provided from any direction or from multiple directions, particularly if array  322  is provided with a cover. Once current to coil  310  is stopped, fan  314  may be started. It is understood that the fan may operate intermittently or continuously, or may operate with intermittent heat bursts from the coil. A heat sensor  328  is provided to measure the temperature of array  322 . The non-limiting illustrative heat sensor  328  is an infrared heat sensor, illustratively a Keyence model FT-H20, is provided to sense the temperature of array  322 . Such a heat sensor may be used without contacting array  322 . However, other heat sensors, including those requiring physical contact with array  322  are contemplated. As shown in  FIG. 18 , temperature is cycled between 60° C. and 90° C., with heat sensor  328  triggering heating by turning off fan  314  and turning on the current when the temperature of array  322  reaches 60° C., and heat sensor triggering cooling by turning off the current to coil  310  and turning on fan  314  when the temperature of array  322  reaches 90° C. Thus, heat sensor  328  can be used to trigger coil  310  and fan  314  in a manner similar to the embodiment described above wherein thermocouple  228  triggers stepper motor  224 . In the illustrative embodiment, signal from the heat sensor is provided to a CPU  340  that controls power to both the fan  314  and the power source  350  for the coil  310 . However, other means for switching power between the heating device and cooling device are within the scope of this disclosure. In  FIG. 18 , the solid line shows power to the coil, while the dashed line shows temperature of array  322 , is measured by heat sensor  328 . The measured temperature of array  322  moves rapidly and monotonically from the low set point to the high set point, with no holds at either temperature and with minimal overshoot. In this example, with an empty array  322 , the heating transition was 52.12° C./sec, while the cooling transition was 74.6° C./sec, with cycle times of approximately 1.5 sec/cycle. With full PCR chemistry, cycle times of approximately 2 sec/cycle are expected with volumes of about 0.1 μL, illustratively using any of the polymerase, primer, and magnesium concentrations described above. However, it is understood that other cycle times are within the scope of this disclosure, depending on sample volume, array configuration, amplicon length, and other PCR parameters. Illustrative cycle times of not more than 15 seconds, not more than 10 seconds, not more than 5 seconds, not more than 2 seconds, and not more than one second are contemplated. Thus, in such a system an array of PCR samples can be temperature cycled quickly for PCR or other applications requiring thermal cycling. 
     In the illustrative embodiment, array  322  is imaged using a camera  325 , illustratively using FLIR Close-Up Lens 4×. In this embodiment, camera  325  provides heat map images of array  322 , allowing for study of heat variation across the array. Such will allow further study of the effect of slots on the currents within the array, to find a shape of array  322  that provides for more uniform heating. It is understood, however, that camera  325  may be replaced with or supplemented by an optics block, such as optics blocks  25  or  250  in the above examples, or other optics blocks suitable for PCR, as are known in the art. Even when an optics block is used, heat sensor  328  may be used to trigger thermal cycling. 
     In an alternative embodiment, fluorescence may be used to trigger heating and cooling. A temperature-sensitive fluorescent dye may be used to indicate the temperature of the reaction. In one such embodiment, the dye does not interact with nucleic acids and does not change fluorescence based on the progress of PCR. One such dye is sulforhodamine B. Other such passive reference dyes and methods of using such dyes are disclosed in PCT/US 13/63939, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. In another embodiment, a specific well or wells may be loaded with a temperature-sensitive dye, and fluorescence from those wells may be used to indicate temperature. In either case, when fluorescence reaches a specific value, such can be used as a triggering event to move to the heating or cooling phase. In another alternative embodiment, the instrument may be calibrated such that a specific amount of current for a specific time period will result in array  322  reaching a specific temperature, and a specific amount of air for a specific period of time will result in array  322  reaching a specific lower temperature, to achieve appropriate cycling parameters, 
     The instrument of  FIG. 16  is configured horizontally. In such a configuration, a cover (not shown), illustratively an optically transparent cover if fluorescence monitoring is desired, may be needed over array  322  to retain reagents  321  in wells  320 . Alternatively, the instrument may be mounted vertically, as shown in  FIG. 19 , with the wells facing upward and the camera mounted above. In such an embodiment, a cover may not be necessary. Also, it may be possible to load array  322  by dropping one or more drops of sample (with complete or incomplete mastermix, depending on which reagents were pre-spotted into wells  320 ) onto array  322 . Thus, it may be possible to load array  322  without any touching or handling of the array. In another embodiment, the array  322  may be loaded using a slip chip technique, wherein continuous fluidic paths are generated by partially overlapping wells in a top plate and the wells in the array, using general principles of dead-end filling (59). Other methods for loading array  322  are within the scope of this disclosure. After loading, the reagents may be sealed into array  322 , illustratively by providing a cover. In one non-limiting embodiment, an adhesive layer such as Type 467 MP, 200MP Adhesive (3M), may be used. 
     Turning to  FIG. 19 , a vertical arrangement of an induction PCR instrument is shown. Coil  410  is powered by power supply  450  for heating an array comprising a conductive material. It is understood that such an array may be array  322  or may be an array of a different configuration. In this illustrative embodiment, the array is an array  322 . A fan  414  is provided for cooling array  322 , illustratively by providing cooler air onto lower surface  318  of array  322 . A heat sensor  428  is provided to measure the temperature of array  322 . Heat sensor  428  provides information to CPU  440 , which controls power to power supply  450  and fan  414 , to alternatingly heat and cool array  322 . 
       FIG. 19  includes an optics block  435  suitable for PCR. The optics block  435  includes two light sources  437 ,  438 , illustratively two blue LED lamps, and one camera  436 , illustratively provided with a green filter. Such is an optics block suited for common PCR dyes such as SYBR Green and LCGreen. A power supply  439  is provided for providing power to the optics block  435 , and an optional microcontroller  434  for the optics block  435  may also be provided. 
     Using an array  322  coated with acrylic, a single PCR mixture was spread across the array, and reagents  321  were trapped in wells  320  using a layer of adhesive, as described above. The PCR buffer contained the high concentrations of DNA polymerase and primers required by an extreme PCR protocol. The resultant amplicon used is 62 bp with a GC content of 39% and a Tm of 77° C. LCGreen Plus, which fluoresces when bound to double-stranded DNA, was included in the mix to monitor the progress of the reaction. Cycling parameters are shown in  FIG. 20 , wherein time (see) is indicated on the X axis and temperature on the Y axis. The blue trace indicates the current to coil  410 , with target temperatures of 60° C. to 80° C. and ramping as fast as possible, with a programmed 0.5 sec hold at the low temperature. The red trace shows the temperature as reported by heat sensor  428 . The average cycle time was 3.8 sec.  FIG. 21  shows the resulting amplification curve (plotted as a function of time). Amplification above back ground (Cq) was achieved at 63 sec, which corresponds to cycle 17. Images were acquired at 20 fps, and the pixel values over a single well were averaged for each frame. The delay at 70 sec represents a pause in ramping due to imperfections in the control algorithm. 
     In one illustrative embodiment, two-step multiplex PCR is performed, wherein induction PCR with a device as shown in  FIG. 16  replacing a Peltier-driven second-stage, as taught in U.S. Patent Application No. 2010-0056383, already incorporated by reference. In the illustrative embodiment, array  322  is provided in an arrangement similar to array  581  of U.S. Patent Application No. 2010-0056383. However, array  322  is smaller, with wells having a smaller volume. It is understood that this smaller size is illustrative only, and that other sizes and well volumes are within the scope of this disclosure. 
     EXAMPLE 12 
     It has been found that array  322  heats unevenly when current to electromagnet is increased, with the center remaining cooler than the edge  317  of array  322 . Without being bound to theory, it is thought that the current induced by the oscillating magnetic field flows predominately around the edge of the circular array. Therefore, the heating effect is largely around the periphery of the circular array. With cycle times below approximately 1.5 sec/cycle, there is not sufficient time to complete the heat transfer from the edge to the center of the disc, resulting in an edge-to-center temperature gradient. Temperature uniformity can be achieved by slowing the cycle rate or by providing a dwell at the high and low temperatures, to allow the array to reach a uniform temperature. 
     It is also understood that the thickness of array  322  has an effect on how fast it may be cycled. Round arrays such as array  322  were tested with thicknesses from 0.005 inch down to 0.001 inch. The 0.005 inch arrays were slower than thinner arrays. However, it was found that arrays with a thickness of 0.001 inch could not regularly be formed without punctures. A thickness of 0.003 inches were used for illustrative arrays  522 , while a thickness of 0.002 inch were used for illustrative arrays  522 . 
     Array  522 , as seen in  FIG. 22 , is provided to reduce this issue. In some embodiments, the device includes a conductive sample heating unit, such as a sample holder, that has at least one feature that is configured to reduce or eliminate a thermal gradient between different sample receptacles in the array. For example, the conductive portions of the sample heating unit may be sized and configured so as to reduce or eliminate the thermal gradient between samples. Array  522  is similar to array  322 , with like numerals indicating like components, and may be made of similar materials. Array  522  has an upper surface  519 , a lower surface  518 , and a plurality of sample wells  520 . However, array  522  is elongated, with a linear array of wells  520  and all wells  520  are equidistant from the outer perimeter or edge  517  of the body or frame of the array  522 . Sixteen wells  520  are shown, although it is understood that this is illustrative only, and that other numbers of wells may be provided. Although array  522  may suffer from uneven flux through the array material, since all wells  520  are equidistant from edge  517 , the heat provided to each of the wells  520  and the materials contained therein should be more uniform, even if cycle times are reduced below 1.5 sec/cycle. 
     Array  622 , as seen in  FIG. 23 , is similar to array  522 , with like numerals indicating like components, and may be made of similar materials. Array  622  has an upper surface  619 , a lower surface  618 , and a plurality of sample wells  620 . In this embodiment, thirty-two wells  520  are shown, although it is understood that this is illustrative only, and that other numbers of wells may be provided. Although array  622  may suffer from uneven flux through the array material, since all wells  620  are equidistant from edge  617 , the heat provided to each of the wells  620  and the materials contained therein should be more uniform, even if cycle times are reduced below 1.5 sec/cycle. It is understood that various other arrangements are possible wherein all wells are equidistant from the edge of the array. 
       FIG. 24  shows an illustrative coil configuration for an electromagnet  510  for use with an elongated array, such as array  522  or array  622 . Illustratively, the coils are connected in a spiral-oval-conical path. The elongated array (illustratively array  522  or  622 ) is placed in a gap  313  between two coils  512 . Array  522  or  622  may be mounted on a support similar to support  323 . Illustratively, coils  512  are both wound so that the current flows in the same direction through all the turns, as if there were no gap between the coils. The conical shape of coils  512  is optional, but it allows for access by an off-axis air jet for cooling, and an off-axis infrared temperature sensor on one side, as well as off axis illumination on the other side. Planar and cylindrical coils may also be used. In the illustrative  FIG. 24 , solid wire is shown, but other embodiments may be used, such as litz wire. Illustratively, a center tapped coil may be used, but is not required. 
     As discussed above, it appears that the currents caused by the magnetic field are generally stronger around the circular array, leaving the center cooler than the rest of the array. When desired, the embodiments shown in  FIGS. 16-19  may obtain relative well-to-well uniformity by slowing down cycle times to at least 1.5 sec/cycle to allow the conductivity of the copper to transfer heat across the array. The embodiments in  FIGS. 23-24  obtain relative well-to-well uniformity by placing all wells equidistant from the edge of the array. 
     EXAMPLE 13 
     Other features to reduce or eliminate a thermal gradient between the samples or sample receptacles may be used. For example, a pattern of conductive regions and electrically insulating regions may be used to provide a heating unit that increases the uniformity of thermal changes of the samples. The electrically conductive and electrically insulating regions may be formed in a uniform member, by connecting electrically conductive pieces with electrically insulating material or any suitable technique. In some embodiments, a greater concentration of outer edges of the conducting regions may be formed in a central portion of the sample heating unit than on an outer portion of the heating unit. For example, wedge-shaped conductive regions separated by the electrically insulating regions may be arranged to form a circular plate. In particular, one approach is to place a plurality of smaller electrically conducting objects within the magnetic field, illustratively equivalent in size, so that each of the electrically conducting objects is heated uniformly with the other electrically conducting objects.  FIG. 25  shows a plurality of petals  724  forming disc  722 . As shown, there are six wedge-shaped petals  724 . However, it is understood that there may be any number of similarly shaped petals, and the petals need not be wedge-shaped. When temperature uniformity in the conductive material is important, it is believed that the electrically conducting material should be formed from a plurality of sections that are radially symmetric. Accordingly, the currents caused by the magnetic field should be generally the same from section to section. It is understood that petals  724  forming disc  722  is illustrative only. Wells (not shown) may be formed in each of petals  724 , as in arrays  322 ,  522 , and  622 . 
     Two electromagnets  710   a  and  710   b  are provided. The coils  712   a  and  712   b  of electromagnets  710   a  and  710   b  may be the same or different. In one illustrative embodiment, coils  712   a  and  712   b  are wound so that the current flows in the same direction through all the turns of both coils. Each electromagnet  710   a  and  710   b  is provided with a casing  709   a  and  709   b . While  FIG. 25  is an exploded view of an illustrative assembly,  FIG. 26  shows electromagnets  710   a  and  710   b  assembled. In this embodiment, petals  724  are held in close proximity, but spaced apart from each other, by struts  708  provided in casing  709   a . However, it is understood that petals  724  may be held by any electrically insulating material, including films such as support  323  of  FIG. 17 . It is desired that petals  724  be held as close as possible without making electrical contact. If the edges of each petal are provided with thin insulating coating, the petals may be allowed to touch. By configuring petals  724  as smaller units and positioning them as close together as possible, disc  722  may provide very uniform temperature across the plurality of petals and across disc  722 . Cooling may be provided by a fan, as discussed above. In the illustrative embodiment, a cooling air distributor  714  having a source of cool air attached to inlet  734  and six outlets  715 , each corresponding to one of the pedals  724 , is provided to provide cool air to each of the pedals. A dome  716  may be provided to collect the heated air and to provide the heated air to outlet  733 . An optics block (not shown) such as optics block  435  may be provided for imaging through orifice  743  in electromagnet  710   b . A CPU and power supply (not shown), as described for other embodiments herein, may also be provided. 
     In the illustrative embodiment of  FIG. 25 , rather than forming the wells directly into the conductive material of disc  722 , disc  722  and cooling air distributor  714  may be used instead of a Peltier or other heater in a wide variety of biological and chemical applications. For example, an array  738  of wells  737  may be provided, wherein each well  737  is a separate reaction. Array  738  is similar to array  681 , as shown in  FIG. 16  of WO2013/158740, herein incorporated by reference, and may be used for any of the applications discussed therein. Array  738  may be provided independently or may be provided as part of a container, as discussed in WO2013/158740, and may be provided into slot  713  between electromagnet  709   a  and electromagnet  709   b . Such an arrangement is shown in  FIG. 27 . Because heating and cooling of disc  722  is very quick, it is expected that one can thermal cycle array  738  in under 30 sec/cycle, illustratively in 10 to 15 sec/cycle or faster. 
     Array  738  is provided with a plurality of sample wells in a donut-shaped pattern. As shown, disc  722  mirrors this shape, with petals  724  leaving a donut hole. While it is within the scope of this disclosure for petals  724  to form a solid disc, the donut-shape of disc  722  has a reduced mass and should heat and cool more efficiently than a solid disc. It is understood that disc  722  may be provided in any shape, and may be matched to the shape of the array to be thermocycled. Illustrative shapes are elongated shapes similar to arrays  522  and  622 . Such discs may be provided as a plurality of electrically conductive sections, illustratively symmetric sections or sections of the same size and shape, or of the same size but different shape. An elongated disc may be provided as two or four such sections, symmetric around either the long or short axis, or both. 
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         36. Maltezos G, Johnston M, Taganov K, Srichantaratsamee C, Gorman J, Baltimore D, Chantratita W and Scherer A, Exploring the limits of ultrafast polymerase chain reaction using liquid for thermal heat exchange: A proof of principle  Appl. Phys. Lett.,  2010; 97: 264101. 
         37. Wilhelm J, Hahn M, Pingoud A. Influence of DNA target melting behavior on real-time PCR quantification.  Clin Chem  2000; 46:1738-43. 
         38. Zuna J, Muzikova K, Madzo J, Krejci O, Trka J. Temperature non-homogeneity in rapid airflow-based cycler significantly affects real-time PCR.  Biotechniques  2002; 33:508, 10, 12. 
         39. von Kanel T, Adolf F, Schneider M, Sanz J, Gallati S. Sample number and denaturation time are crucial for the accuracy of capillary-based LightCyclers.  Clin Chem  2007; 53:1392-4. 
         40. Wittwer C T, Herrmann M G. Rapid thermal cycling and PCR kinetics, In: Innis M, Gelfand D, Sninsky J, eds.  PCR Methods Manual , Vol, San Diego: Academic Press, 1999: 211-29. 
         41. Wittwer C T, Reed G H, Gundry C N, Vandersteen J G, Pryor R J. High-resolution genotyping by amplicon melting analysis using LCGreen.  Clin Chem  2003; 49:853-60. 
         42. von Ahsen N, Wittwer C T, Schutz E. Oligonucleotide melting temperatures under PCR conditions: nearest-neighbor corrections for Mg(2+), deoxynucleotide triphosphate, and dimethyl sulfoxide concentrations with comparison to alternative empirical formulas.  Clin Chem  2001; 47:1956-61. 
         43. Ririe K M, Rasmussen R P, Wittwer C T. Product differentiation by analysis of DNA melting curves during the polymerase chain reaction.  Anal Biochem  1997; 245:154-60. 
         44. Wittwer C T, Herrmann M G, Moss A A, Rasmussen R P. Continuous fluorescence monitoring of rapid cycle DNA amplification.  Biotechniques  1997; 22:130-1, 4-8. 
         45. Weis J H, Tan S S, Martin B K, Wittwer C T. Detection of rare mRNAs via quantitative RT-PCR.  Trends Genet  1992; 8:263-4. 
         46. Brown R A, Lay M J, Wittwer C T. Rapid cycle amplification for construction of competitive templates. In: Horton R M, Tait R C, eds.  Genetic Engineering with PCR , Vol. Norfolk: Horizon Scientific Press, 1998: 57-70. 
         47. Ausubel et al.,  Current Protocols in Molecular Biology , John Wiley &amp; Sons, New York, N.Y., 1998 
         48. Whitney S E, “Analysis of rapid thermocycling for the polymerase chain reaction,” Ph.D. thesis, University of Nebraska, 2004. 
         49. Lawyer F C, Stoffel S, Saiki R K, Chang S Y, Landre P A, Abramson R D, Gelfand D H. High-level expression, purification and enzymatic characterization of full-length  Thermus aquaticus  DNA polymerase and a truncated form deficient of 5′ to 3′ exonuclease activity.  PCR Meth Appl.  1993; 2:275-287. 
         50. Innis M A, Myamo K B, Gelfand D H, Brow M A D, DNA sequencing with Thermus aquaticus DNA polymerase and direct sequencing of polymerase chain reaction-amplified DNA.  Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA  1988; 85:9436-40. 
         51. Terazono H, Hattori A, Takei H, Takeda K, Yasuda K. Development of 1480 nm photothermal high-speed real-time polymerase chain reaction system for rapid nucleotide recognition.  Jpn J Appl Phys.  2008; 47:5212-6. 
         52. Wittwer C T, Rasmussen R P, Ririe K M. Rapid PCR and melting curve analysis. In:  The PCR Revolution: Basic Technologies and Applications , Bustin S A, ed. Cambridge Univ Press, New York, 48-69, 2010. 
         53. Fuchiwaki Y, Saito M, Wakida S, Tamiya E, Nagai H. A practical liquid plug flow-through polymerase chain-reaction system based on a heat-resistant resin chip.  Anal Sci.  2011; 27:225-30. 
         54. Kim H, Dixit S, Green C J, Faris G W. Nanodroplet real-time PCR system with laser assisted heating. Optics Express 2009; 17:218-27. 
         55. Obeid P J, Christopoulos T K, Crabtree H J, Backhouse C J. Microfabricated device for DNA and RNA amplification by continuous-flow polymerase chain reaction and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction with cycle number selection.  Anal Chem  2003; 75:288-95. 
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         57. Pal, D., Venkataraman, V., Mohan, K. N., Chandra, H. S., &amp; Natarajan, V. (2004). A power-efficient thermocycler based on induction heating for DNA amplification by polymerase chain reaction.  Review of Scientific Instruments,  75(9), 2880-2883. 
         58. Yuanzhi Lao, F. E. H., Tay, F. E. H., Guolin Xu, Hartono, D., &amp; Lee, Y. Y. (2003). A Non-Contact Micro Thermocycling Chip for Polymerase Chain Reactions.  International Journal of Computational Engineering Science,  4(3), 651-654. 
         59. Shen F, Sun, B, Kreutz J E. Davydova E K, Du W, Reddy P L, Joseph L J, and Ismagilov R F. Multiplexed Quantification of Nucleic Acids with Large Dynamic Range Using Multivolume Digital RT-PCR on a Rotational SlipChip Tested with HIV and Hepatitis C Viral Load.  J. Am. Chem. Soc.  2011, 133, 17705-17712. 
       
    
     Several patents, patent publications and non-patent documents are cited throughout the specification in order to describe the state of the art to which this invention pertains. Each of these documents and citations is incorporated herein by reference as though set forth in full. 
     Although the invention has been described in detail with reference to certain embodiments, variations and modifications exist within the scope and spirit of the invention as described and defined in the following claims. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Fastest 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Cycle 
                   
                   
                 Total 
                   
                   
                 Product 
                   
                   
                   
                 No 
               
               
                 Time 
                 [Template] 
                   
                 [Primers] 
                   
                 [Polymerase] 
                 Length 
                   
                   
                   
                 Template 
               
               
                 (s) 
                 (Copies/μl) 
                 Template Form 
                 (nM) 
                 Polymerase 
                 (nM) 
                 (bp) 
                 Quantification 
                 Trend 
                 Method 
                 Control? 
                 Reference 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 20 
                     1,600 
                 Human DNA 
                 1000 
                 0.08 U/μl 
                 3 
                 536 
                 Faint Gel Band 
                 Increases with 
                 Capillary Air Cycling 
                 No 
                 3 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Taq 
                   
                   
                   
                 [Polymerase] 
               
               
                 12 
                    40,000 
                 Lambda phage 
                 400 
                 0.2 U/μl Taq 
                 7.5 
                 500 
                 Capillary 
                 ? 
                 IR Heating, Pressurized 
                 No 
                 56 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Electrophoresis 
                   
                 Air Cooling 
               
               
                 12 
                  1,000,000 
                 230 bp PCR 
                 1000 
                 0.5 U/μl Taq 
                 19 
                 230 
                 Good gel band 
                 Dependent on cycle # 
                 Continuous Flow 
                 Yes 
                 55 
               
               
                   
                   
                 product 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 and copy # 
               
               
                 9.25 
                 4,700-470,000 
                 18S rDNA 
                 1800 
                 Taq Gold 
                 ? 
                 187 
                 ? 
                 ? 
                 IR Heating of droplets 
                 No 
                 54 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (human 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 in oil 
               
               
                   
                   
                 genomic) 
               
               
                 9 
                  18,000,000 
                 Lambda phage 
                 2000 
                 0.025 U/μl 
                 0.94 
                 500 
                 OK gel band 
                 Intensity increases 
                 Continuous Flow with a 
                 No 
                 28 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Taq 
                   
                   
                   
                 with cycle time 
                 Ferrous Particle Plug 
               
               
                 8.5 
                 ? 
                 cDNA 
                 1800 
                 ? 
                 ? 
                 82 
                 80% efficiency 
                 Decreasing efficiency 
                 Micromachined 
                 ? 
                 17 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 at faster cycles 
                 cantilever 
               
               
                 7.0 
                  10,000,000 
                 1 KB PCR 
                 2000 
                 0.25 U/μl 
                 9.4 
                 176 
                 7% of control 
                 50% at 15 s cycles 
                 Continuous Flow 
                 Yes 
                 22 
               
               
                   
                   
                 product 
                   
                 Taq 
               
               
                 6.3 
                    10,000 
                 Plasmids ( B. anthracis ) 
                 1200 
                 0.05 U/μl Ex 
                 ? 
                 134 
                 55% of control 
                 ? 
                 Plug Continuous Flow 
                 Yes 
                 53 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Taq HS 
               
               
                 5.2/9.7 
                 180,000,000 
                 Lambda phage 
                 400 
                 0.07 U/μl 
                 2.6 
                 500/997 
                 Faint gel bands 
                 Dependent on cycle 
                 Continuous Flow 
                 No 
                 23 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Taq 
                   
                   
                   
                 times 
               
               
                 5.25 
                  1,400,000 
                 
                   B. subtilis 
                 
                 500 
                 0.025 U/μl 
                 ? 
                 72 
                 90% efficiency 
                 Single run 
                 Water pumped against 
                 Yes 
                 33 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (bacterial DNA) 
                   
                 KOD plus 
                   
                   
                 (SYBR) 
                   
                 aluminum plate 
               
               
                 4.6 
                    34,000 
                 
                   E. herbicola 
                 
                 800 
                 0.04 U/μl 
                 4 
                  58/160 
                 Faint gel bands 
                 Yield increases with # 
                 Water pumped through 
                 No 
                 31 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (bacterial DNA) 
                   
                 KAPA2G 
                   
                   
                   
                 cycles 
                 porous copper 
               
               
                 4.2 
                        50 1   
                 
                   B. subtilis 
                 
                 ? 
                 KOD plus 
                 ? 
                 72 
                 Cq = 33 
                 Higher copy # reduces 
                 IR laser 
                 ? 2   
                 51 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (bacterial DNA) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (SYBR) 
                 Cq 
               
               
                 3.0 
                    10,000 
                 Plasmids ( B. anthracis ) 
                 1200 
                 0.05 U/μl Ex 
                 ? 
                 134 
                 15% of control 
                 80% at 7.5 s cycles 
                 Constant flow with 
                 Yes (5% signal) 
                 35 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Taq HS 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 vapor pressure 
               
               
                 2.7 
                 ? 
                 stx phage ( E. coli ) 
                 ? 3   
                 KOD 
                 ? 
                 85 
                 Barely visible 
                 Decreasing yield from 
                 Gallium transfer from 
                 No 
                 36 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 band 
                 3.06 s to 2.69 s cycles 
                 Peltiers to capillaries 
               
               
                 2.6 
                 ? 4   
                 stx phage ( E. coli ) 
                 ? 5   
                 0.5 U/μl Taq 
                 19 
                 85 
                 Very dim band 
                 Constant from 2.8 to 
                 Pressurized gas and 
                 No 
                 48 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2.6 s cycles 
                 capillaries 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   1 Presumed single copy in a 20 nl droplet with Cq of 33 under SYBR Green monitoring, but no gel or melting analysis to confirm PCR product identity. 
               
               
                   2 A “Blank” sample was run, but it is not clear if this was a no template control. 
               
               
                   3 Article says [primer] is 0.5 mmol, patent application (US 2009/0275014 A1) says [primer] is 0.01-0.5 μM. 
               
               
                   4 Two pg  E. coli  DNA/μl, but copy number of phage in the DNA preparation is unknown. 
               
               
                   5 Dissertation says 0.5 μmol/10 μl (50 mM), patent (U.S. Pat. No. 6,472,186) says 50 pmol/10 μl (5 μM). 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Extreme PCR conditions for different targets. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Target 
                 KCNE1 
                 KCNE1 
                 IRL10RB 
                 IRL10RB 
                 IRL10RB 
                 NQO1 
                 AKAP10 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Amplicon 
                 45 
                 45 
                 49 
                 49 
                 58 
                 102 
                 60 
               
               
                 Size (bp) 
               
               
                 Polymerase 
                 KlenTaq1 
                 KlenTaq1 
                 KlenTaq1 
                 KlenTaq1 
                 KlenTaq1 
                 KlenTaq1 
                 KlenTaq1 
               
               
                 [Polymerase] 
                 1 
                 8 
                 4 
                 8 
                 2 
                 2 
                 8 
               
               
                 [Primers] 
                 10 
                 20 
                 10 
                 20 
                 10 
                 8 
                 20 
               
               
                 # Cycles 
                 35 
                 RT 
                 35 
                 35 
                 39 
                 30 
                 35 
               
               
                 Cycle Time 
                 0.8 
                 0.91 
                 0.73 
                 0.45 
                 0.97 
                 1.93 
                 0.42 
               
               
                 (s) 
               
               
                 PCR Time 
                 28 
                 RT 
                 26 
                 16 
                 38 
                 58 
                 14.7 
               
               
                 (s) 
               
               
                 Hot Water 
                 95.5 
                 95.5 
                 95.5 
                 95.5 
                 95.5 
                 95.5 
                 95.5 
               
               
                 Temp (° C.) 
               
               
                 Cold Water 
                 20 
                 58 
                 30 
                 30 
                 30 
                 72 
                 59 
               
               
                 Temp (° C.) 
               
               
                 Hot Trigger 
                 90 
                 85 
                 90 
                 90 
                 90 
                 90 
                 Time 
               
               
                 Temp (° C.) 
               
               
                 Cold Trigger 
                 70 
                 62 
                 70 
                 70 
                 70 
                 Time 
                 Time 
               
               
                 Temp (° C.) 
               
               
                 Denaturation 
                 90 
                 85 
                 90 
                 90 
                 90 
                 90 
                 (82-85) 
               
               
                 (° C.) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 w/ TC 
               
               
                 Ann/Ext 
                 60 
                 60 
                 65 
                 65 
                 65 
                 72 
                 60 
               
               
                 (° C.) 
               
               
                 Ann/Ext 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 0 
                 1 
                 0.1-0.4 
               
               
                 Time (s) 
               
               
                 FIG. 
                 9a 
                 9a 
                 5a 
                 5a 
                 4c 
                 7a 
                 12a, 
               
               
                 Tm 
                 81 
                 81 
                 80 
                 80 
                 83 
                 85 
                 79 
               
               
                 Mg++ 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
                 2-7 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Target 
                 Synthetic 
                 Synthetic 
                 Synthetic 
                 Synthetic 
                 Synthetic 
                 Synthetic 
                 Synthetic 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Amplicon 
                 100 
                 200 
                 300 
                 300 
                 400 
                 500 
                 500 
               
               
                 Size (bp) 
               
               
                 Polymerase 
                 KlenTaq1 
                 KlenTaq1 
                 KlenTaq1 
                 KlenTaq1 
                 KlenTaq1 
                 KlenTaq1 
                 KAPA2G 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 FAST 
               
               
                 [Polymerase] 
                 2 
                 2 
                 2 
                 2 
                 2 
                 2 
                 2 
               
               
                 [Primers] 
                 4 
                 4 
                 4 
                 4 
                 4 
                 4 
                 4 
               
               
                 # Cycles 
                 RT 
                 RT 
                 20 
                 RT 
                 RT 
                 RT 
                 RT 
               
               
                 Cycle Time 
                 1.9 
                 3.9 
                 4.9 
                 5.9 
                 7.9 
                 7.9 
                 3.9 
               
               
                 (s) 
               
               
                 PCR Time 
                 RT 
                 RT 
                 98 
                 RT 
                 RT 
                 RT 
                 RT 
               
               
                 (s) 
               
               
                 Hot Water 
                 95.5 
                 95.5 
                 95.5 
                 95.5 
                 95.5 
                 95.5 
                 95.5 
               
               
                 Temp (° C.) 
               
               
                 Cold Water 
                 76 
                 76 
                 76 
                 76 
                 76 
                 76 
                 76 
               
               
                 Temp (° C.) 
               
               
                 Hot Trigger 
                 92 
                 92 
                 92 
                 92 
                 92 
                 92 
                 92 
               
               
                 Temp (° C.) 
               
               
                 Cold Trigger 
                 Time 
                 Time 
                 Time 
                 Time 
                 Time 
                 Time 
                 Time 
               
               
                 Temp (° C.) 
               
               
                 Denaturation 
                 92 
                 92 
                 92 
                 92 
                 92 
                 92 
                 92 
               
               
                 (° C.) 
               
               
                 Ann/Ext 
                 76 
                 76 
                 76 
                 76 
                 76 
                 76 
                 76 
               
               
                 (° C.) 
               
               
                 Ann/Ext 
                 0.5-3 
                 1-5 
                 4 
                 1-7 
                 3-9 
                 3-11 
                 1-5 
               
               
                 Time (s) 
               
               
                 FIG. 
                 11a 
                 11b 
                 10a, 11c 
                 11c 
                 11d 
                 11e 
                 10b 
               
               
                 Tm 
                 85 
                 85 
                 85 
                 85 
                 81/87 (2 
                 84 
                 84 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 domains) 
               
               
                 Mg++ 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
                 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Time = time-based segment control does not have a temperature trigger 
               
               
                 RT = real-time acquisition 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Derivation of rate constants (k1 for primer annealing and k2 for polymerase extension) using A) historical ranges, B), the 
               
               
                 equation for primer annealing, and C) the equation for polymerase extension. 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 A) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Polymerase Speed 
                 Extension Length 
                   
                 Anneal/Extend 
                   
               
               
                   
                 [Primer] (μM) 
                 [Polymerase] (μM) 
                 (nt/s) 
                 (bp) 
                 Cycle Time (s) 
                 Time (s) 
                 [Mg++] 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Standard 
                 0.05-0.5 
                 0.0026-0.026 
                 10-45 
                 20-980 
                 120-480 
                 15-60 
                   1.5 
               
               
                 Rapid Cycle 
                  0.2-1.0 
                 0.063 
                 55-90 
                 20-480 
                 20-60 
                  1-10 
                 3 
               
               
                 Extreme 
                  1-16 
                 0.5-8  
                  50-100 
                 20-280 
                 0.5-5   
                 &lt;0.1-5   
                 3-7 
               
               
                 Opt Extreme #1 
                 10 
                 2.50 
                 60 
                 29 
                 0.73 
                 &lt;0.1 
                 3 
               
               
                 Opt Extreme #2 
                 4 
                 0.50 
                 60 
                 82 
                 1.93 
                 1 
                 3 
               
               
                 Opt Extreme #3 
                 4 
                 0.75 
                 60 
                 280 
                 4.9 
                 4 
                 3 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 B) If Required Annealing time = k1/[primer] 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Anneal/Extend 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 [Primer] (μM) 
                 Time (s) 
                 k1 (s * μM) 
                   
                 k1 range (s * μM) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Min Standard 
                 0.05 
                 15 
                 0.75 
                 Standard 
                 0.75-30 
               
               
                   
                 Max Standard 
                 0.5 
                 60 
                 30 
                 Rapid Cycle 
                  0.2-10 
               
               
                   
                 Min Rapid Cycle 
                 0.2 
                 1 
                 0.2 
                 Extreme 
                   1-20 
               
               
                   
                 Max Rapid Cycle 
                 1 
                 10 
                 10 
               
               
                   
                 Opt Extreme #1 
                 10 
                 0.1 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 Opt Extreme #2 
                 4 
                 1 
                 4 
               
               
                   
                 Opt Extreme #3 
                 4 
                 5 
                 20 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 C) If required extension time = k2 * product length/(polymerase speed * [polymerase]) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Extension Length 
                 Anneal/Extend 
                   
               
               
                   
                 [Polymerase] (μM) 
                 Polymerase Speed (nt/s) 
                 (bp) 
                 Time (s) 
                 k2 (1/μM) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Opt Extreme #1 
                 2.5 
                 60 
                 29 
                 0.1 
                 0.52 
               
               
                 Opt Extreme #2 
                 0.5 
                 60 
                 82 
                 1 
                 0.37 
               
               
                 Opt Extreme #3 
                 0.75 
                 60 
                 280 
                 4 
                 0.64