Patent Publication Number: US-2022231545-A1

Title: Operating frequency based power level altering in extended range wireless power transmitters

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation of, and claims priority to, U.S. Non-Provisional Application No. 16/863,682, filed on Apr. 30, 2020, and entitled “OPERATING FREQUENCY BASED POWER LEVEL ALTERING IN EXTENDED RANGE WIRELESS POWER TRANSMITTERS,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present disclosure generally relates to systems and methods for wireless transfer of electrical power and, more particularly, to frequency-based control in granular power level alterations in wireless power transmitters, transmitting at extended separation distances. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Wireless power transfer systems are used in a variety of applications for the wireless transfer of electrical energy, electrical power signals, electromagnetic energy, electrical data signals, among other known wirelessly transmittable signals. Such systems often use inductive wireless power transfer, which occurs when magnetic fields created by a transmitting element induce an electric field, and hence, an electric current, in a receiving element. These transmission and receiver elements will often take the form of coiled wires and/or antennas. 
     Because some wireless power transfer systems are operable and/or most efficient in the near-field, some transmitters may be limited to having operability only at restrictively small gaps between the transmitter coil and the receiver coil. To that end, typical wireless power transmitters under the Wireless Power Consortium&#39;s Qi™ standard may be limited to operability at a maximum coil-to-coil separation gap (which may be referred to herein as a “separation gap” or “gap”) of about 3 millimeters (mm) to about 5 mm. The separation gap is sometimes known as the Z-height or Z-distance and is generally measured as the distance between the transmitter coil and receiver coil. 
     As the adoption of wireless power grows, commercial applications are requiring a power transmitter capable of transferring power to a power receiver with a gap greater than 3-5 mm. By way of example, cabinets and/or counter tops may be more than 3-5 mm thick and as a result, prevent wireless charging through such furniture. As another example, modern mobile devices may be used with cases, grip devices, and/or wallets, among other things, that can obstruct wireless power transmission to the mobile device and/or create a separation gap that disallows operability of wireless power transmission. Legacy wireless power transmitter designs further may be incapable of desired commercial applications (e.g., through object chargers, under table chargers, infrastructure chargers, ruggedized computing device charging, among other things), due to the limitations in separation gap inherent to legacy, near-field wireless power transfer systems. Increasing the separation gap, while keeping satisfactory performance (e.g., thermal performance, transfer/charging speed, efficiency, etc.) will increase the number of commercial applications that can utilize wireless power. 
     Further, current standards specifications, regulations, and/or end-user product specifications may require particular power levels, for transmission to a power receiver. To that end, the power receiver may have particular power requests and/or particular limits for efficiency, safety, and/or any other power control reasons. 
     SUMMARY 
     New wireless power transmitters and/or associated base stations are desired that are capable of delivering wireless power signals to a power receiver at a separation gap larger than the about 3 mm to about 5 mm separation gaps of legacy transmitters. Further, wireless power transmitters at such larger gap distances may require and/or may be enhanced via more granular power controls. 
     In an embodiment, the overall structure of the transmitter is configured in a way that allows the transmitter to transfer power at an operating frequency of about 87 kilohertz (kHz) to about 205 kHz and achieve the same and/or enhanced relative characteristics (e.g., rate of power transfer, speed of power transfer, power level, power level management, among other things) of power transfer as legacy transmitters that operated in that frequency range. As a result, the separation gap may be increased from about 3-5 mm to around 15 mm or greater using the overall structure of the transmitter. In an embodiment, a transmitter may be configured with a ferrite core that substantially surrounds the transmitter antenna on three sides. The only place that the ferrite core does not surround the transmitter antenna is on the top (e.g., in the direction of power transfer) and where the power lines connect to the transmitter antenna. This overall structure of the transmitter allows for the combination of power transfer characteristics, power level characteristics, self-resonant frequency restraints, design requirements, adherence to standards bodies&#39; required characteristics, bill of materials (BOM) and/or form factor constraints, among other things, that allow for power transfer over larger separation gaps. 
     Transmission of one or more of electrical energy, electrical power, electromagnetic energy or electronic data signals from one of such coiled antennas to another, generally, operates at an operating frequency and/or an operating frequency range. The operating frequency may be selected for a variety of reasons, such as, but not limited to, power transfer characteristics, power level characteristics, self-resonant frequency restraints, design requirements, adherence to standards bodies&#39; required characteristics, bill of materials (BOM) and/or form factor constraints, among other things. It is to be noted that, “self-resonating frequency,” as known to those having skill in the art, generally refers to the resonant frequency of an inductor due to the parasitic characteristics of the component. 
     In some examples disclosed herein, data either determined by a method or process or stored in a database, may be utilized to relate power output levels, via an operating point, with specific operating frequencies, within an operating frequency range of operation for the power transmitter. To that end, due to the differing power characteristics at different operating points, granular control of power, voltage, and/or current levels may be achieved by dynamically altering the operating frequency, within the operating frequency range, to achieve a desired power level for output to the power receiver. 
     In some examples, power profiles, such as those defined by the Qi Standard, may require more sophisticated and/or granular controls, compared to legacy wireless power transmitters. Such examples may involve higher power input to the wireless power transmitter and, thus, more expensive and/or complicated voltage regulation mechanisms may be required in the power conditioning system and/or amplifier design. To that end, utilizing the systems and methods disclosed herein, such voltage regulation mechanisms may be removed from the wireless power transmitter and the wireless power transmitter may utilize control schemes, disclosed herein, to control the input power to the wireless power transmitter, via communications with an external input power source. By utilizing communications with the external power source, bill of materials (BOM) may be decreased, for such power transmitters, resulting in lower cost power transmitters. Additionally or alternatively, by utilizing such control schemes, the power transmitters utilizing said schemes, disclosed herein, may have greater compatibility and/or performance when utilized with off-the-shelf power supplies (e.g., Universal Serial Bus (USB) power supplies, Lightning power supplies, Qualcomm Quick Charge devices, USB-C power supplies, USB-PD (USB Power Delivery) power supplies, Mini-USB power supplies, proprietary power supplies, input/outputs on electronic devices (e.g., a computer, a multi device charger, an automobile console, a mobile device, a portable power supply, a battery, a generator, among other things). 
     In accordance with one aspect of the disclosure, a power transmitter for wireless power transfer at an operating frequency selected from an operating frequency range, the operating frequency range being about 87 kilohertz (kHz) to about 205 kHz is disclosed. The power transmitter includes a control and communications unit configured to provide power control signals to control a power level of a power signal configured for transmission to a power receiver and including a pulse width modulation (PWM) signal generator for determining and selecting the operating frequency from the operating frequency range. The power transmitter further includes an inverter circuit configured to receive a direct current (DC) power and convert the input power to a power signal, coil configured to transmit the power signal to a power receiver, the coil formed of wound Litz wire and including at least one layer, the coil defining, at least, a top face, and a shielding comprising a ferrite core and defining a cavity, the cavity configured such that the ferrite core substantially surrounds all but the top face of the coil. 
     In a refinement, the control and communications unit is further configured to receive power request signals from the power receiver and determine the power control signals based on the power request signals. 
     In a refinement, the control and communications unit is configured to provide the power control signals to a power supply external to the power transmitter and the power supply is configured to configure an input DC power to generate the DC power supplied based on the power control signals and provide the DC power the inverter circuit. 
     In a further refinement, the power supply includes a voltage regulator and a power supply controller configured to receive the power control signals, generate voltage regulation instructions for altering a DC voltage of the DC power, based on the power control signals, and provide the voltage regulation instructions to the voltage regulator to control the DC voltage of the DC power. 
     In a further refinement, the control and communications circuit is configured to generate frequency shift signals for the power input signals, the frequency shift signals provided to the PWM signal generator and configured to alter a power level of the power signal of the inverter circuit by shifting the operating frequency, within the operating frequency range. 
     In another further refinement, the voltage regulation instructions include selecting a base DC voltage for assignment as the DC voltage of the DC power and the power supply is configured to configure the DC power having a base DC voltage for the DC voltage, wherein the base voltage is selected from one or more preset DC power voltage levels. 
     In yet a further refinement, the preset DC power voltages include or more of 5 Volts (V), 9 V, 15 V, or 20 V. 
     In another further refinement, the one or more base voltage levels includes a first base voltage level and a second base voltage level, the first base voltage level is electrically associated with a first base power level and the second base voltage level is electrically associated with a second base power level, and the frequency shift is determined such that a AC output power level for the power signal is greater than the first base power level and less than the second base power level. 
     In a refinement, the control and communications circuit is configured to generate frequency shift signals for the power input signals, the frequency shift signals provided to the PWM signal generator and configured to alter a power level of the power signal of the inverter circuit by shifting the operating frequency, within the operating frequency range. 
     In accordance with another aspect of the disclosure, a power transmitter for wireless power transfer at an operating frequency selected from a range of about 87 kilohertz (kHz) to about 205 kHz is disclosed. The power transmitter includes a control and communications unit configured to provide power control signals to a power supply external to the power transmitter for controlling a power level of a power signal configured for transmission to a power receiver, the power supply configured to configure a direct current (DC) power based on the power control signals, the control and communications unit further including a pulse width modulation (PWM) signal generator for determining and selecting the operating frequency from the operating frequency range. The power transmitter further includes an inverter circuit configured to receive the DC power from the power supply external to the power transmitter and convert the input power to a power signal, a coil configured to transmit the power signal to a power receiver, the coil formed of wound Litz wire and including at least one layer, the coil defining, at least, a top face, and a shielding comprising a ferrite core and defining a cavity, the cavity configured such that the ferrite core substantially surrounds all but the top face of the coil. 
     In a refinement, the shielding is an E-Core type shielding and the cavity is configured in an E-shape configuration. 
     In a refinement, a shielding outer edge of the shielding extends about 4.5 millimeters (mm) to about 6.5 mm outward from a coil outer edge of the coil. 
     In a refinement, the coil has an outer diameter length in a range of about 40 mm to about 50 mm. 
     In a refinement, the coil has an inner diameter length in a range of about 15 mm to about 25 mm. 
     In a refinement, the at least one layer comprises a first layer and a second layer. 
     In a further refinement, the first layer includes a first number of turns in a range of about 4 turns to about 5 turns, and wherein the second layer includes a second number of turns in a range of about 4 turns to about 5 turns. 
     In yet another aspect of the disclosure, a system for wireless power transfer at an operating frequency selected from an operating frequency range, the operating frequency range being about 87 kilohertz (kHz) to about 205 kHz is disclosed. The system includes a power transmitter and a power supply. The power transmitter includes a control and communications unit configured to provide power control signals for controlling a power level of a power signal configured for transmission to a power receiver and including a pulse width modulation (PWM) signal generator for determining and selecting the operating frequency from the operating frequency range. The power transmitter further includes an inverter circuit configured to receive a direct current (DC) power and convert the input power to a power signal, a coil configured to transmit the power signal to a power receiver, the coil formed of wound Litz wire and including at least one layer, the coil defining, at least, a top face, and a shielding comprising a ferrite core and defining a cavity, the cavity configured such that the ferrite core substantially surrounds all but the top face of the coil. The power supply is supply external to the power transmitter, the power supply configured to configure the DC power based on the power control signals. The power supply includes a voltage regulator to configure the DC power to have a base DC voltage for the DC voltage and a power supply controller configured to receive the input power signals, generate voltage regulation instructions for altering the DC power, based on the power control signals, the voltage regulation instructions including instructions for selecting the base DC voltage for assignment as the DC voltage of the DC power, the base DC voltage selected from one or more preset DC power voltage levels, and provide the voltage regulation instructions to the voltage regulator to configure the a DC voltage of the DC power. 
     In a refinement, the preset DC power voltages include or more of 5 Volts (V), 9 V, 15 V, or 20 V. 
     In a refinement, the one or more base voltage levels includes a first base voltage level and a second base voltage level, the first base voltage level is electrically associated with a first base power level and the second base voltage level is electrically associated with a second base power level, and the frequency shift is determined such that an AC output power level for the power signal is greater than the first base power level and less than the second base power level. 
     In a refinement, the control and communications circuit is configured to generate frequency shift signals for the power input signals, the frequency shift signals provided to the PWM signal generator and configured to alter a power level of the power signal of the inverter circuit by shifting the operating frequency, within the operating frequency range. 
     These and other aspects and features of the present disclosure will be better understood when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is an exemplary block diagram of an embodiment of a wireless power transfer system, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 2  is an exemplary block diagram for a power transmitter, which may be used in conjunction with the wireless power transfer system of  FIG. 1 , in accordance with  FIG. 1  and an embodiment of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 3  is an exemplary block diagram for components of a control and communications system of the power transmitter of  FIG. 2 , in accordance with  FIGS. 1-2  and an embodiment of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 4  is an exemplary block diagram for components of a sensing system of the control and communications system of  FIG. 3 , in accordance with  FIGS. 1-3  and an embodiment of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 5  is an exemplary block diagram for components of a power conditioning system of the power transmitter of  FIGS. 1-2 , in accordance with  FIGS. 1-2  and an embodiment of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 6A  is an exemplary block diagram for components of the power transmitter of  FIGS. 1-5  and an external power supply of the wireless power transfer system of  FIG. 1 , in accordance with  FIGS. 1-5  and the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 6B  is an exemplary block diagram illustrating similar components of the power transmitter as those of  FIG. 6A , but further illustrating a duty cycle shift in the process of generating a power signal, in accordance with  FIGS. 1-6A  and the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 6C  is an exemplary block diagram illustrating components and/or functions associated with one or more of a transmitter controller, a pulse width modulation generator, or components thereof of  FIGS. 6A and 6B , in accordance with  FIGS. 1-6B  and the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 6D  is another exemplary block diagram illustrating components and/or functions associated with one or more of a transmitter controller, a pulse width modulation generator, or components thereof of  FIGS. 6A-C , in accordance with  FIGS. 1-6C  and the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 7  is a block diagram for a method of controlling power output in the wireless power transmitter of  FIGS. 1-6  and utilizing elements illustrated in  FIGS. 6 , in accordance with  FIGS. 1-6  and the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 8  is an exemplary electrical schematic diagram of components of the power transmitter of  FIGS. 1-7 , in accordance with  FIGS. 1-7  and the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 9  is a perspective view of a shape of a transmitter coil of the power transmitter of  FIGS. 1-8 , in accordance with  FIGS. 1-8  and an embodiment of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 10  is a cross-section of components of a base station, with which the power transmitter  20  is associated, in accordance with  FIGS. 1-9  and the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 11  is a perspective view of a shielding associated with the transmitter coil of  FIGS. 1-10 , in accordance with  FIGS. 1-10  and an embodiment of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 12A  is a perspective view of the transmitter coil of  FIGS. 1-11  and the shielding of  FIGS. 10 and 11 , in accordance with  FIGS. 1-11  and the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 12B  is an exploded perspective view of the transmitter coil of  FIGS. 1-10  and the shielding of  FIGS. 10 and 11 , in accordance with  FIGS. 1-12A  and the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 13A  is an exemplary block diagram for an embodiment of the base station of  FIGS. 1-10  in accordance with  FIGS. 1-12  and the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 13B  is an exemplary block diagram for another embodiment of the base station of  FIGS. 1-10  in accordance with  FIGS. 1-12  and the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 14  is a readout of an actual simulation of magnetic fields generated by the coils and/or transmitters illustrated in  FIGS. 1-13  and disclosed herein. 
         FIG. 15  is a flow chart for an exemplary method for designing a power transmitter, in accordance with  FIGS. 1-14  and the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 16  is a flow chart for an exemplary method for manufacturing a power transmitter, in accordance with  FIGS. 1-14  and the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     While the following detailed description will be given with respect to certain illustrative embodiments, it should be understood that the drawings are not necessarily to scale and the disclosed embodiments are sometimes illustrated diagrammatically and in partial views. In addition, in certain instances, details which are not necessary for an understanding of the disclosed subject matter or which render other details too difficult to perceive may have been omitted. It should therefore be understood that this disclosure is not limited to the particular embodiments disclosed and illustrated herein, but rather to a fair reading of the entire disclosure and claims, as well as any equivalents thereto. Additional, different, or fewer components and methods may be included in the systems and methods. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth by way of examples in order to provide a thorough understanding of the relevant teachings. However, it should be apparent to those skilled in the art that the present teachings may be practiced without such details. In other instances, well known methods, procedures, components, and/or circuitry have been described at a relatively high-level, without detail, in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring aspects of the present teachings. 
     Referring now to the drawings and with specific reference to  FIG. 1 , a wireless power transfer system  10  is illustrated. The wireless power transfer system  10  provides for the wireless transmission of electrical signals, such as, but not limited to, electrical energy, electrical power signals, and electromagnetic energy. Additionally, the wireless power transfer system  10  may provide for wireless transmission of electronically transmittable data (“electronic data”) independent of and/or associated with the aforementioned electrical signals. Specifically, the wireless power transfer system  10  provides for the wireless transmission of electrical signals via near field magnetic coupling. As shown in the embodiment of  FIG. 1 , the wireless power transfer system  10  includes a power transmitter  20  and a power receiver  30 . The power receiver  30  is configured to receive electrical energy, electrical power, electromagnetic energy, and/or electronic data from, at least, the power transmitter  20 . 
     As illustrated, the power transmitter  20  and power receiver  30  may be configured to transmit electrical energy, via transmitter antenna  21  and receiver antenna  31 , electrical power, electromagnetic energy, and/or electronically transmittable data across, at least, a separation distance or gap  17 . A separation distance or gap, such as the gap  17 , in the context of a wireless power transfer system, such as the system  10 , does not include a physical connection, such as a wired connection. There may be intermediary objects located in a separation distance or gap, such as the gap  17 , such as, but not limited to, air, a counter top, a casing for an electronic device, a grip device for a mobile device, a plastic filament, an insulator, a mechanical wall, among other things; however, there is no physical, electrical connection at such a separation distance or gap. 
     The combination of the power transmitter  20  and the power receiver  30  create an electrical connection without the need for a physical connection. “Electrical connection,” as defined herein, refers to any facilitation of a transfer of an electrical current, voltage, and/or power from a first location, device, component, and/or source to a second location, device, component, and/or destination. An “electrical connection” may be a physical connection, such as, but not limited to, a wire, a trace, a via, among other physical electrical connections, connecting a first location, device, component, and/or source to a second location, device, component, and/or destination. Additionally or alternatively, an “electrical connection” may be a wireless electrical connection, such as, but not limited to, magnetic, electromagnetic, resonant, and/or inductive field, among other wireless electrical connections, connecting a first location, device, component, and/or source to a second location, device, component, and/or destination. 
     Alternatively, the gap  17  may be referenced as a “Z-Distance,” because, if one considers an antenna  21 ,  31  to be disposed substantially along a common X-Y plane, then the distance separating the antennas  21 ,  31  is the gap in a “Z” or “depth” direction. However, flexible and/or non-planar coils are certainly contemplated by embodiments of the present disclosure and, thus, it is contemplated that the gap  17  may not be uniform, across an envelope of connection distances between the antennas  21 ,  31 . It is contemplated that various tunings, configurations, and/or other parameters may alter the possible maximum distance of the gap  17 , such that electrical transmission from the power transmitter  20  to the power receiver  30  remains possible. 
     The wireless power transfer system  10  operates when the power transmitter  20  and the power receiver  30  are coupled. As defined herein, the terms “couples,” “coupled,” and “coupling” generally refers to magnetic field coupling, which occurs when the energy of a transmitter and/or any components thereof and the energy of a receiver and/or any components thereof are coupled to each other through a magnetic field. Coupling of the power transmitter  20  and the power receiver  30 , in the system  10 , may be represented by a resonant coupling coefficient of the system  10  and, for the purposes of wireless power transfer, the coupling coefficient for the system  10  may be in the range of about 0.01 and 0.9. 
     The power transmitter  20  may be operatively associated with a base station  11 . The base station  11  may be a device, such as a charger, that is able to provide near-field inductive power, via the power transmitter  20 , to a power receiver. In some examples, the base station  11  may be configured to provide such near-field inductive power as specified in the Qi™ Wireless Power Transfer System, Power Class 0 Specification. In some such examples, the base station  11  may carry a logo to visually indicate to a user that the base station  11  complies with the Qi™ Wireless Power Transfer System, Power Class 0 Specification. 
     The power transmitter  20  may receive power from an input power source  12 . The base station  11  may be any electrically operated device, circuit board, electronic assembly, dedicated charging device, or any other contemplated electronic device. Example base stations  11 , with which the power transmitter  20  may be associated therewith, include, but are not limited to including, a device that includes an integrated circuit, cases for wearable electronic devices, receptacles for electronic devices, a portable computing device, clothing configured with electronics, storage medium for electronic devices, charging apparatus for one or multiple electronic devices, dedicated electrical charging devices, activity or sport related equipment, goods, and/or data collection devices, among other contemplated electronic devices. 
     The input power source  12  may be or may include one or more electrical storage devices, such as an electrochemical cell, a battery pack, and/or a capacitor, among other storage devices. Additionally or alternatively, the input power source  12  may be any electrical input source (e.g., any alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) delivery port) and may include connection apparatus from said electrical input source to the wireless transmission system  20  (e.g., transformers, regulators, conductive conduits, traces, wires, or equipment, goods, computer, camera, mobile phone, and/or other electrical device connection ports and/or adaptors, such as but not limited to USB or lighting ports and/or adaptors, among other contemplated electrical components). Further, as illustrated, the input power source  12  may include, may be implemented by, and/or may be operatively associated with, for the purpose of power distribution, an external power supply, which directly provides a direct current (DC) power input to the power transmitter  20 . The external power supply may include or comprise one or more Universal Serial Bus (USB) power supplies, Lightning power supplies, Qualcomm Quick Charge devices, USB-C power supplies, USB-PD (USB Power Delivery) power supplies, Mini-USB power supplies, proprietary power supplies, input/outputs on electronic devices (e.g., a computer, a multi device charger, an automobile console, a mobile device, a portable power supply, a battery, a generator, among known power supplies. 
     Electrical energy received by the power transmitter  20  is then used for at least two purposes: providing electrical power to internal components of the power transmitter  20  and providing electrical power to the transmitter coil  21 . The transmitter coil  21  is configured to wirelessly transmit the electrical signals conditioned and modified for wireless transmission by the power transmitter  20  via near-field magnetic coupling (NFMC). Near-field magnetic coupling enables the transfer of electrical energy, electrical power, electromagnetic energy, and/or electronically transmissible data wirelessly through magnetic induction between the transmitter coil  21  and a receiving coil  31  of, or associated with, the power receiver  30 . Near-field magnetic coupling may enable “inductive coupling,” which, as defined herein, is a wireless power transmission technique that utilizes an alternating electromagnetic field to transfer electrical energy between two or more antennas/coils. Such inductive coupling is the near field wireless transmission of electrical energy between two magnetically coupled coils that are tuned to resonate at a similar frequency. Further, such near-field magnetic coupling may provide connection via “mutual inductance,” which, as defined herein is the production of an electromotive force in a circuit by a change in current in at least one circuit magnetically coupled to the first. 
     In one or more embodiments, the inductor coils of either the transmitter coil  21  or the receiver coil  31  are strategically positioned to facilitate reception and/or transmission of wirelessly transferred electrical energy, power, electromagnetic energy and/or data through near field magnetic induction. Antenna operating frequencies may comprise all operating frequency ranges, examples of which may include, but are not limited to, about 87 kHz to about 205 kHz (Qi™ interface standard). The operating frequencies of the coils  21 ,  31  may be operating frequencies designated by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) in the Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) frequency bands. 
     As known to those skilled in the art, a “resonant frequency” or “resonant frequency band” refers to a frequency or frequencies wherein amplitude response of the antenna is at a relative maximum, or, additionally or alternatively, the frequency or frequency band where the capacitive reactance has a magnitude substantially similar to the magnitude of the inductive reactance. In one or more embodiments the transmitting antenna resonant frequency band extends from about 87 kHz to about 205 kHz. In one or more embodiments the inductor coil of the receiver coil  31  is configured to resonate at a receiving antenna resonant frequency or within a receiving antenna resonant frequency band. 
     In some examples, the transmitting coil and the receiving coil of the present disclosure may be configured to transmit and/or receive electrical power at a baseline power profile having a magnitude up to about 5 watts (W). In some other examples, the transmitting coil and the receiving coil of the present disclosure may be configured to transmit and/or receive electrical power at an extended power profile, supporting transfer of up to 15 W of power. 
     The power receiver  30  is configured to acquire near-field inductive power from the power transmitter  20 . In some examples, the power receiver  30  is a subsystem of an electronic device  14 . The electronic device  14  may be any device that is able to consume near field inductive power as specified in the Qi™ Wireless Power Transfer System, Power Class 0 Specification. In some such examples, the electronic device  14  may carry a logo to visually indicate to a user that the electronic device  14  complies with the Specification. 
     The electronic device  14  may be any device that requires electrical power for any function and/or for power storage (e.g., via a battery and/or capacitor). Additionally or alternatively, the electronic device  14  may be any device capable of receipt of electronically transmissible data. For example, the device may be, but is not limited to being, a handheld computing device, a mobile device, a portable appliance, an integrated circuit, an identifiable tag, a kitchen utility device, an automotive device, an electronic tool, an electric vehicle, a game console, a robotic device, a wearable electronic device (e.g., an electronic watch, electronically modified glasses, altered-reality (AR) glasses, virtual reality (VR) glasses, among other things), a portable scanning device, a portable identifying device, a sporting good, an embedded sensor, an Internet of Things (IoT) sensor, IoT enabled clothing, IoT enabled recreational equipment, industrial equipment, medical equipment, a medical device, a tablet computing device, a portable control device, a remote controller for an electronic device, a gaming controller, among other things. 
     For the purposes of illustrating the features and characteristics of the disclosed embodiments, arrow-ended lines are utilized to illustrate transferrable and/or communicative signals and various patterns are used to illustrate electrical signals that are intended for power transmission and electrical signals that are intended for the transmission of data and/or control instructions. Solid lines indicate signal transmission of electrical energy, electrical power signals, and/or electromagnetic energy over a physical and/or wireless electrical connection, in the form of power signals that are, ultimately, utilized in wireless power transmission from the power transmitter  20  to the power receiver  30 . Further, dotted lines are utilized to illustrate electronically transmittable data signals, which ultimately may be wirelessly transmitted from the power transmitter  20  to the power receiver  30 . 
     Turning now to  FIG. 2 , the wireless power transfer system  10  is illustrated as a block diagram including example sub-systems of the power transmitter  20 . The wireless transmission system  20  may include, at least, a power conditioning system  40 , a control and communications system  26 , a sensing system  50 , and the transmission coil  21 . The electrical energy input from the input power source  12 , via the external power supply  45 , is conditioned and/or modified for wireless power transmission, to the power receiver  30 , via the transmission coil  21 . Accordingly, the second portion of the input energy is modified and/or conditioned by the power conditioning system  40 . 
     The control and communications system  26 , generally, comprises digital logic portions of the power transmitter  20 . The control and communications system  26  receives and decodes messages from the power receiver  30 , executes the relevant power control algorithms and protocols, and drives the frequency of the AC waveform to control the power transfer. As discussed in greater detail below, the control and communications system  26  also interfaces with other subsystems of the power transmitter  20 . For example, the control and communications system  26  may interface with other elements of the power transmitter  20  for user interface purposes. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 3 , with continued reference to  FIGS. 1 and 2 , subcomponents and/or systems of the control and communications system  26  are illustrated. The control and communications system  26  may include a transmission controller  28 , a communications system  29 , a driver  48 , and a memory  27 . 
     The transmission controller  28  may be any electronic controller or computing system that includes, at least, a processor which performs operations, executes control algorithms, stores data, retrieves data, gathers data, controls and/or provides communication with other components and/or subsystems associated with the power transmitter  20 , and/or performs any other computing or controlling task desired. The transmission controller  28  may be a single controller or may include more than one controller disposed to control various functions and/or features of the power transmitter  20  such as, but not limited to, providing control instructions to the external power supply  45 . Functionality of the transmission controller  28  may be implemented in hardware and/or software and may rely on one or more data maps relating to the operation of the power transmitter  20 . To that end, the transmission controller  28  may be operatively associated with the memory  27 . The memory may include one or more of internal memory, external memory, and/or remote memory (e.g., a database and/or server operatively connected to the transmission controller  28  via a network, such as, but not limited to, the Internet). The internal memory and/or external memory may include, but are not limited to including, one or more of a read only memory (ROM), including programmable read-only memory (PROM), erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or sometimes but rarely labelled EROM), electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), random access memory (RAM), including dynamic RAM (DRAM), static RAM (SRAM), synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM), single data rate synchronous dynamic RAM (SDR SDRAM), double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM (DDR SDRAM, DDR2, DDR3, DDR4), and graphics double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM (GDDR SDRAM, GDDR2, GDDR3, GDDR4, GDDR5, a flash memory, a portable memory, and the like. Such memory media are examples of nontransitory machine readable and/or computer readable memory media. 
     While particular elements of the control and communications system  26  are illustrated as independent components and/or circuits (e.g., the driver  48 , the memory  27 , the communications system  29 , among other contemplated elements) of the control and communications system  26 , such components may be integrated with the transmission controller  28 . In some examples, the transmission controller  28  may be an integrated circuit configured to include functional elements of one or both of the transmission controller  28  and the power transmitter  20 , generally. 
     As illustrated, the transmission controller  28  is in operative association, for the purposes of data transmission, receipt, and/or communication, with, at least, the memory  27 , the communications system  29 , the power conditioning system  40 , the driver  48 , and the sensing system  50 . The driver  48  may be implemented to control, at least in part, the operation of the power conditioning system  40 . In some examples, the driver  48  may receive instructions from the transmission controller  28  to output a generated pulse width modulation (PWM) signal to the power conditioning system  40 . In some such examples, the PWM signal may be configured to drive the power conditioning system  40  to output electrical power as an alternating current signal, having an operating frequency defined by the PWM signal. As discussed in greater detail below with reference to  FIGS. 6-7B , the PWM signal may be altered by the controller  28 , for, at least, power control purposes. 
     The sensing system  50  may include one or more sensors, wherein each sensor may be operatively associated with one or more components of the power transmitter  20  and configured to provide information and/or data. The term “sensor” is used in its broadest interpretation to define one or more components operatively associated with the power transmitter  20  that operate to sense functions, conditions, electrical characteristics, operations, and/or operating characteristics of one or more of the power transmitter  20 , the power receiver  30 , the input power source  12 , the base station  11 , the transmission coil  21 , the receiver coil  31 , along with any other components and/or subcomponents thereof. 
     As illustrated in the embodiment of  FIG. 4 , the sensing system  50  may include, but is not limited to including, a thermal sensing system  52 , an object sensing system  54 , a receiver sensing system  56 , electrical sensor(s)  57  and/or any other sensor(s)  58 . Within these systems, there may exist even more specific optional additional or alternative sensing systems addressing particular sensing aspects required by an application, such as, but not limited to: a condition-based maintenance sensing system, a performance optimization sensing system, a state-of-charge sensing system, a temperature management sensing system, a component heating sensing system, an IoT sensing system, an energy and/or power management sensing system, an impact detection sensing system, an electrical status sensing system, a speed detection sensing system, a device health sensing system, among others. The object sensing system  54 , may be a foreign object detection (FOD) system. 
     Each of the thermal sensing system  52 , the object sensing system  54 , the receiver sensing system  56  and/or the other sensor(s)  58 , including the optional additional or alternative systems, are operatively and/or communicatively connected to the transmission controller  28 . The thermal sensing system  52  is configured to monitor ambient and/or component temperatures within the power transmitter  20  or other elements nearby the power transmitter  20 . The thermal sensing system  52  may be configured to detect a temperature within the power transmitter  20  and, if the detected temperature exceeds a threshold temperature, the transmission controller  28  prevents the power transmitter  20  from operating. Such a threshold temperature may be configured for safety considerations, operational considerations, efficiency considerations, and/or any combinations thereof. In a non-limiting example, if, via input from the thermal sensing system  52 , the transmission controller  28  determines that the temperature within the power transmitter  20  has increased from an acceptable operating temperature to an undesired operating temperature (e.g., in a non-limiting example, the internal temperature increasing from about 20° Celsius (C) to about 50° C., the transmission controller  28  prevents the operation of the power transmitter  20  and/or reduces levels of power output from the power transmitter  20 . In some non-limiting examples, the thermal sensing system  52  may include one or more of a thermocouple, a thermistor, a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) resistor, a resistance temperature detector (RTD), and/or any combinations thereof. 
     As depicted in  FIG. 4 , the transmission sensing system  50  may include the object sensing system  54 . The object sensing system  54  may be configured to detect presence of unwanted objects in contact with or proximate to the power transmitter  20 . In some examples, the object sensing system  54  is configured to detect the presence of an undesired object. In some such examples, if the transmission controller  28 , via information provided by the object sensing system  54 , detects the presence of an undesired object, then the transmission controller  28  prevents or otherwise modifies operation of the power transmitter  20 . In some examples, the object sensing system  54  utilizes an impedance change detection scheme, in which the transmission controller  28  analyzes a change in electrical impedance observed by the transmission coil  21  against a known, acceptable electrical impedance value or range of electrical impedance values. Additionally or alternatively, in some examples the object sensing system  54  may determine if a foreign object is present by measuring power output associated with the power transmitter  20  and determining power input associated with a receiver associated with the power transmitter  20 . In such examples, the object sensing system  54  may calculate a difference between the power associated with the power transmitter  20  and the power associated with the receiver and determine if the difference indicates a loss, consistent with a foreign object not designated for wireless power transmission. 
     Additionally or alternatively, the object sensing system  54  may utilize a quality factor (Q) change detection scheme, in which the transmission controller  28  analyzes a change from a known quality factor value or range of quality factor values of the object being detected, such as the receiver coil  31 . The “quality factor” or “Q” of an inductor can be defined as (frequency (Hz)×inductance (H))/resistance (ohms), where frequency is the operational frequency of the circuit, inductance is the inductance output of the inductor and resistance is the combination of the radiative and reactive resistances that are internal to the inductor. “Quality factor,” as defined herein, is generally accepted as an index (figure of measure) that measures the efficiency of an apparatus like an antenna, a circuit, or a resonator. In some examples, the object sensing system  54  may include one or more of an optical sensor, an electro-optical sensor, a Hall effect sensor, a proximity sensor, and/or any combinations thereof. 
     The receiver sensing system  56  is any sensor, circuit, and/or combinations thereof configured to detect presence of any wireless receiving system that may be couplable with the power transmitter  20 . In some examples, if the presence of any such wireless receiving system is detected, wireless transmission of electrical energy, electrical power, electromagnetic energy, and/or data by the power transmitter to said wireless receiving system is enabled. In some examples, if the presence of a wireless receiver system is not detected, wireless transmission of electrical energy, electrical power, electromagnetic energy, and/or data is prevented from occurring. Accordingly, the receiver sensing system  56  may include one or more sensors and/or may be operatively associated with one or more sensors that are configured to analyze electrical characteristics within an environment of or proximate to the power transmitter  20  and, based on the electrical characteristics, determine presence of a power receiver  30 . 
     The electrical sensor(s)  57  may include any sensors configured for detecting and/or measuring any current, voltage, and/or power within the power transmitter  20 . Information provided by the electrical sensor(s)  57 , to the transmission controller  28 , may be utilized independently and/or in conjunction with any information provided to the transmission controller  28  by one or more of the thermal sensing system  52 , the object sensing system  54 , the receiver sensing system  56 , the other sensor(s)  58 , and any combinations thereof. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 5 , and with continued reference to  FIGS. 1-4 , a block diagram illustrating an embodiment of the power conditioning system  40  is illustrated. At the power conditioning system  40 , electrical power is received, generally, as a DC power source, via the external power supply  45 . The electrical power is provided to an amplifier  42  of the power conditioning system  40 , which is configured to condition the electrical power for wireless transmission by the coil  21 . The amplifier  42  may function as an inverter, which receives a DC power signal from the external power supply  45  and generates an AC power signal as output, based, at least in part, on PWM input from the transmission control system  26 . The amplifier  42  may be or include, for example, a power stage inverter. The use of the amplifier  42  within the power conditioning system  40  and, in turn, the power transmitter  20  enables wireless transmission of electrical signals having much greater amplitudes than if transmitted without such an amplifier. For example, the addition of the amplifier  42  may enable the wireless transmission system  20  to transmit electrical energy as an electrical power signal having electrical power from about 10 milliwatts (mW) to about 60 W. 
     Turning now to  FIGS. 6A and 6B , with continued reference to  FIGS. 1-5 , components of the power transmitter  20  and the external power supply  45  are illustrated, for the purposes of describing power control methods, schemes, and/or components of the power transmitter  20 . To that end, the block diagram of  FIG. 6A  illustrates interaction between one or more of the power conditioning system  40 , the amplifier  42 , the controller  28 , the external power supply  45 , or components thereof. 
     The external power supply  45 , as discussed above, may be any suitable power supply, which is configurable for providing a proper DC power signal (V DC ), at a DC voltage, to the amplifier  42 . The DC power is conditioned for wireless power transmission as an alternating current (AC) power signal (V AC ), via the transmitter antenna  21 . In some examples, the external power supply  45  may provide V DC  directly to the amplifier  42 , absent any additional voltage step up or down via physical electrical components (e.g., an internal DC/DC converter of the power transmitter  20 ). However, while not utilizing hardware internal to the power transmitter to alter V DC , it is certainly contemplated, as discussed below, that voltage, current, and/or power levels of the resultant power signal V AC  may be altered by control via the controller  28 . 
     The external power supply  45  receives an input power V IN , which may be any DC or AC input power, to be conditioned by the external power supply  45 , for output directly to the amplifier  42  as V DC . A voltage regulator  46  receives V IN  from the input power source  12  and is configured to provide electrical power to the amplifier  42 . Accordingly, the voltage regulator  46  is configured to convert the received electrical power into a power signal at a proper voltage for operation of the respective downstream components. The voltage regulator  46  may be any voltage regulator known in the art that is capable of converting in input voltage to an output, direct current voltage, which may include one or more DC/DC converters, amplifiers, transistors, transformers, inverters, switches, switching systems, among other known voltage regulators. To that end, the voltage regulator  46  may be configured to step up V IN  to result in V DC , step down V IN  to result in V DC , and/or maintain a substantially similar voltage V IN  to result in V DC . 
     Such stepping up, stepping down, and/or maintenance of the voltage for generating VDC may be controlled by a power supply controller  47  of the external power supply  45 . The power supply controller  47  may include any internal firm ware and/or may respond to signals from any external controllers (e.g., the transmission controller  28 ) for determining instructions for provision to the voltage regulator  46 , to control voltage levels for the resultant V DC . As discussed in more detail below, one or more control methods, schemes, and/or components are utilized by the power supply controller  47  to output the desired VDC directly to the amplifier  42 . 
     The power supply controller  47  may be any electronic controller or computing system that includes, at least, a processor which performs operations, executes control algorithms, stores data, retrieves data, gathers data, controls and/or provides communication with other components and/or subsystems associated with external power supply  45 , and/or performs any other computing or controlling task desired. The power supply controller  47  may be a single controller or may include more than one controller disposed to control various functions and/or features of the external power supply  45 . Functionality of the power supply controller  47  may be implemented in hardware and/or software and may rely on one or more data maps relating to the operation of the external power supply  45 . To that end, the power supply controller  47  may be operatively associated with memory. The memory may include one or more of internal memory, external memory, and/or remote memory (e.g., a database and/or server operatively connected to the power supply controller  47  via a network, such as, but not limited to, the Internet). The internal memory and/or external memory may include, but are not limited to including, one or more of a read only memory (ROM), including programmable read-only memory (PROM), erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or sometimes but rarely labelled EROM), electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), random access memory (RAM), including dynamic RAM (DRAM), static RAM (SRAM), synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM), single data rate synchronous dynamic RAM (SDR SDRAM), double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM (DDR SDRAM, DDR2, DDR3, DDR4), and graphics double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM (GDDR SDRAM, GDDR2, GDDR3, GDDR4, GDDR5, a flash memory, a portable memory, and the like. Such memory media are examples of nontransitory machine readable and/or computer readable memory media. In some examples, power supply controller  47  may be an integrated circuit configured to include functional elements of one or both of the power supply controller  47  and the external power supply  45 , generally. 
     As illustrated in  FIGS. 6 , the transmission controller  28  may be utilized for communications with one or more of the external power supply  45 , the power supply controller  47 , or the amplifier  42 , for controlling power levels of power signals within the power transmitter  20 . Particularly, the transmission controller  28  is configured to provide power control signals (P con ) to control a power level of the power signal V AC , V AC  configured for transmission to the power receiver  30 . For controlling voltages of one or more of V AC , V DC , or any intervening power signals of the power transmitter  20 , the transmitter controller  28  may include, implement, execute firmware to implement, and/or functionally provide a voltage controller  41  and a pulse-width modulation signal (PWM) generator  43 . 
     The voltage controller  41  is, generally, configured to provide one or both of control instructions for stepping up or stepping down the DC power signal VDC or altering power levels of the AC power signal VAC. Further, to determine the power control signals (P con ), the voltage controller may be configured to receive power request signals (P req ) from the power receiver  30  and determine P con  based, at least in part, on P req . P req  may be any information that determines a desired power level for transmission to the power receiver  30 , such as, but not limited to, a current charge level of a load associated with the power receiver  30 , a voltage at a rectifier of the power receiver  30 , a load resistance associated with the power receiver  30 , among other electrical information associated with the power receiver  30 . 
     For controlling voltage levels of V DC , upon input to the amplifier  42 , from the external power supply  45 , the transmitter controller  28  is configured to provide P con , at least in part, to the external power supply  45 , such that the power supply may utilize information of P con  to configure V DC  based, at least in part, on V IN  and P con , and provide V DC  to the amplifier  42 . In some such examples, such as those illustrated in  FIG. 6A , the power supply controller  47  is configured to receive P con , at least in part, and generate voltage regulation instructions (V reg ), V reg  configured for altering the DC voltage of V DC , based on P con . The power supply controller  47  provides V reg  to the voltage regulator  46 , for the voltage regulator  46  to regulate and/or control levels of the DC voltage of V DC , prior to input to the amplifier  42 . 
     In some examples, information of P con  transmitted to the power supply controller  47  may include voltage preset selection instructions (P con_preset ). P con_preset  includes a selection of a base DC voltage for the DC power, wherein said selection is selected from one or more preset DC power voltage levels. The preset DC power voltages may be any number of voltages, such that the external power supply  45  knows the preset DC power voltages and the controller  28  is capable of communicating a desired preset DC power voltage to the external power supply  45 . In some examples, the preset DC voltages may be proprietary, with specific voltage levels configured for operation of specific devices and/or operations. In some examples, the preset DC power voltages include one or more of 5 Volts (V), 9 V, 12 V, 15 V, or 20V. Utilizing preset DC voltages in control of an external power supply  45  may allow for the power transmitter  20  to effectively utilize off-the-shelf, inexpensive power supplies, in place of more costly internal voltage regulation hardware. 
     In some other examples, the preset DC voltages may be a steps at constant rate of change in voltage, from which the power supply  45  is configured to any power level that is a multiple of the step level, up to an upper-bound maximum output power. Utilizing small step levels may allow for greater granularity in power control, by the power transmitter  20 , utilizing external power regulation of the external power supply  45 . For example, the step level may be in a range of about 10 millivolts (mV) to about 500 mV. 
     Turning now to  FIG. 6B , the PWM generator  43  may be utilized for providing a PWM signal to the amplifier, for forming V AC  based, at least in part, on the input V DC  of the amplifier  42 . The PWM generator  43  may generate the PWM signal based, at least, on an operating frequency provided by the operating frequency generator  48 . In some examples, the operating frequency produced by the operating frequency generator  48  may be selected from a range of about 87 kHz to about 205 kHz. 
     In some examples, the PWM generator  48  further includes an operating frequency selector  49 . The operating frequency selector  49  may receive frequency shift signals (P con_freq ) of P con  for shifting the operating frequency selected at the frequency generator  48 , in response to power requirements for the power transmitter  20 . In some examples, P con_freq  may be frequency shift information for granularly shifting the output power for V AC , based on electrical characteristics of the transmission system  20  response to a particular frequency, within the operating frequency range. For example, the operating frequency, for a frequency shift  49 , may be selected based on known or derived voltage or current characteristics at a given frequency. 
     In a non-limiting example, based on operating point analysis of a wireless power transmitter, it is found that a current output for the power transmitter  20 , is greater at a higher operating frequency within the operating range of about 87 kHz to about 205 kHz, wherein the relationship between current output and operating frequency is non-linear. Thus, at a constant DC voltage for the DC power input to the amplifier  42 , altering the operating frequency, thus altering the current output off the power transmitter  20 , may raise or lower the output power for V AC . To that end, the frequency selector  49  may receive demands for alterations in the base DC voltage of the power supply  45  and granularly determine and generate the resultant output power for V AC . 
     For the purposes of explanation and example,  FIGS. 6C and 6D  are included to illustrate exemplary implementations of the operating frequency selector  49  and its interaction with the operating frequency generator  48  of the PWM signal generator  43 .  FIG. 6C  illustrates a PWM signal generator  43 A that receives Pcon_freq as frequency alteration information (Palt) of Pcon. The PWM signal generator  43 C includes a look up table (LUT)  49 C, which is referenced to determine a frequency shift for the operating frequency, to achieve the desired frequency alteration of Palt. To that end, the LUT  49 C may be any database, table, memory, memory accessed remotely, and/or data source which compares a change in power, current, and/or voltage of an output power of the power transmitter  20 , with a frequency and/or frequency shift of the operating frequency, which would cause the desired change in power, current and/or voltage of the output power of the power transmitter  20 . To that end, data stored in and/or accessed by the LUT  49 C may be predetermined by one or more of known characteristics of the power transmitter  20 , experimental results regarding operation of the power transmitter  20  and/or components thereof, derivations and/or models regarding electrical performance of the power transmitter  20 , known electrical and/or physical characteristics associated with the power transmitter  20  and/or components thereof, or any other known electrical to frequency characteristic relationships. 
     Additionally or alternatively, as illustrated in the example of  FIG. 6D , a PWM signal generator  43  may include a determiner  49 D, for determining a proper operating frequency shift, based on values of Palt. Thus, the determiner  49 D may be any non-static model, simulation, derived relationship, control loop, integrator, and/or determiner, which receives a requested power change and determines an operating frequency shift, for said power change, based on known values for the base DC power signal and the desired change from the base DC power level. The determiner  49 D may be based on experimental derivations, mathematical derivations, observed results derived into a modelled result, among other systems, methods, and apparatus for determining the relationship between power and operating frequency for a given power transmitter  20 . 
     By utilizing the frequency shifting systems, methods, and/or apparatus in conjunction with the external power supply control systems methods and/or apparatus, granular power level control for an output power signal can be achieved by the power transmitter  20 . Additionally, such systems, methods, and/or apparatus may allow for greater granularity in controls and/or greater range of controls, without need to include additional and/or costly voltage regulation hardware within the power transmitter  20 , itself. As discussed above, said systems, methods, and apparatus are beneficial for utilizing the power transmitter  20  with known, affordable, off-the-shelf power supply components, for cost reduction and/or bill of materials reduction. 
     Turning now to  FIG. 7  and with continued reference to  FIGS. 6A-C , a block diagram for an exemplary method  500  for controlling power input and/or output of the power transmitter  20  is illustrated. The method  500  may begin at block  505 , wherein the transmitter controller  28  receives P req  from the power receiver  30 . As illustrated in block  510 , the method  500  may include determining P con  based on P req . Further, the method  500  includes providing P con_preset  of P con  to the external power supply  45  and/or any components thereof. The external power transmitter  45  determines V reg  based, at least, on P con_preset  (block  520 ) and determines and provides V DC  to the power transmitter  20  (at the amplifier  42 ), based on V reg  (block  525 ). 
     In some examples, such as those best described with reference to  FIG. 6C , the method  500  may further include determining an operating frequency shift for P con  (P con_freq ) for further desired voltage configuration of V AC , as illustrated in block  530 . Further, PWM may then be altered and/or adjusted, based on P con_freq , as illustrated in block  535 . 
     The amplifier  42  is configured to receive the PWM signal from the transmitter controller  28 , as illustrated in block  540 . Then, the amplifier  42  generates V AC  based, at least in part, on V DC  and PWM, as illustrated in block  545 . 
       FIG. 8  is an exemplary schematic diagram  120  for an embodiment of the power transmitter  20 . In the schematic, the amplifier  42  is a full-bridge inverter  142  which drives the transmitter coil  21  and a series capacitor C S . In some examples, wherein the operating frequency of the power transmitter  20  is in the range of about 87 kHz and about 205 kHz, the transmitter coil  21  has a self-inductance in a range of about 5 μH to about 7 μH. In some such examples, C S  has a capacitance in a range of about 400 nF to about 450 nF. 
     Based on controls configured by the control and communications system  26 , an input power source  112 , embodying the input power source  12 , is altered to control the amount of power transferred to the power receiver  30 . The input voltage of the input power source  112  to the full-bridge inverter  142  may be altered within a range of about 1 volt (V) to about 19 V, to control power output. In such examples, the resolution of the voltage of the input power source  112  may be 10 millivolts (mV) or less. In some examples, when the power transmitter  20 ,  120  first applies a power signal for transfer to the power receiver  30 , the power signal of the input power source  112  has an initial input power voltage in a range of about 4.5 V to about 5.5 V. 
     The transmitter coil  21  may be of a wire-wound type, wound of, for example, Litz wire. As defined herein, Litz wire refers to a type of multistrand wire or cable utilized in electronics to carry an alternating current at a frequency. Litz wire is designed to reduce skin effect and proximity effect losses in conductors at frequencies up to about 1 MHz and consists of many thin wire strands, individually insulated and twisted or woven together, following a pattern. In some examples, the Litz wire may be no. 17 American Wire Gauge (AWG) (1.15 mm) type 2 Litz wire, having 105 strands of no. 40 AWG (0.08 mm diameter), or equivalent wire. In some examples, the Litz wire used for the transmitter coil  21  may be a bifilar Litz wire. To that end, utilizing thicker Litz wire, such as the no. 17 AWG type 2 Litz wire, utilizing bifilar Litz wire, and combinations thereof, may result in an increased Quality Factor (Q) for the transmitter coil  21  and higher Q may be directly related to increases in gap  17  height and/or Z-Distance. As Q is directly related to the magnitude of the magnetic field produced by the transmitter antenna  21  and, thus, with a greater magnitude magnetic field produced, the field emanating from the transmission antenna  21  can reach greater Z-distances and/or charge volumes, in comparison to legacy transmission coils, having lower Q designs. While Litz wire is described and illustrated, other equivalents and/or functionally similar wires may be used. Furthermore, other sizes and thicknesses of Litz wire may be used. 
     Turning to  FIG. 9 , an exemplary diagram  121 , for portraying dimensions of the transmitter antenna  21 , is illustrated. The diagram  121  is a top perspective view of the transmitter antenna  21  and shows a top face  60  of the transmitter antenna  21 . Note that the diagram  121  is not necessarily to scale and is for illustrative purposes. The top face  60  and the transmitter antenna  21 , generally, are relatively circular in shape. As illustrated, an outer diameter d o  is defined as an exterior diameter of the transmitter antenna  21 . In some examples, the outer diameter d o  has an outer diameter length in a range of about 40 mm to about 50 mm. An inner diameter d i  is defined as the diameter of the void space in the interior of the transmitter antenna  21 . The inner diameter d i  may have an inner diameter length in a range of about 15 mm to about 25 mm. The outer diameter d o  and the inner diameter d i  may be relatively concentric, with respect to one another. The transmitter coil  21  has a thickness t w , which is defined as the thickness of the wire of the coil. The thickness t w  may be in a range of about 2 mm to about 3 mm. In such examples, the transmitter coil  21  may be made of Litz wire and include at least two layers, the at least two layers stacked upon each other. Utilization of one or more of an increased inner diameter d i , an increased outer diameter d o , multiple Litz wire layers for the antenna  21 , specific dimensions disclosed herein, and/or combinations thereof, may be beneficial in achieving greater gap  17  heights and/or Z-distances. Other shapes and sizes of the transmitter antenna  21  may be selected based on the configuration with the selection of the shape and size of the shielding of the transmitter coil. In the event that a desired shielding in required, the transmitter antenna  21  may be shaped and sized such that the shielding surrounds the transmitter antenna  21  in accordance with an embodiment. 
     Turning now to  FIG. 10 , a cross-sectional view of the transmitter coil  21 , within the base station  11  and partially surrounded by a shielding  80  of the transmitter coil  21 , is illustrated. The shielding  80  comprises a ferrite core and defines a cavity  82 , the cavity configured such that the ferrite core substantially surrounds all but the top face  60  of the transmitter antenna  21  when the transmitter antenna  21  is placed in the cavity. As used herein, “surrounds” is intended to include covers, encircles, enclose, extend around, or otherwise provide a shielding for. “Substantially surrounds,” in this context, may take into account small sections of the coil that are not covered. For example, power lines may connect the transmitter coil  21  to a power source. The power lines may come in via an opening in the side wall of the shielding  80 . The transmitter coil  21  at or near this connection may not be covered. In another example, the transmitter coil  21  may rise slightly out of the cavity and thus the top section of the side walls may not be covered. By way of example, substantially surrounds would include coverage of at least 50+% of that section of the transmitter antenna. However, in other examples, the shielding may provide a greater or lesser extent of coverage for one or more sides of the transmitter antenna  21 . 
     In an embodiment, as shown in  FIG. 11 , the shielding  80  surrounds at least the entire bottom section of the transmitter antenna  21  and almost all of the side sections of the transmitter antenna  21 . As used herein, the entire bottom section of the transmitter antenna  21  may include, for example, the entire surface area of the transmitter antenna  21  or all of the turns of the Litz wire of the transmitter antenna  21 . With respect to the side walls, as shown in  FIG. 8 , the magnetic ring  84  does not extend all the way up the side wall of the transmitter antenna  21 . However, as shown in other illustrations, the side wall may extend all the way up the side wall. 
     In another embodiment, the shielding  80  may surround less than the entire bottom section of the transmitter antenna  21 . For example, connecting wires (e.g., connecting wires  292 , as best illustrated in  FIGS. 12A, 12B  and discussed below) may be run through an opening in the bottom of the shielding  80 . 
     In an embodiment, as shown in  FIG. 10 , the shielding  80  is an “E-Core” type shielding, wherein the cavity  82  and structural elements of the shielding  80  are configured in an E-shape configuration, when the shielding is viewed, cross-sectionally, in a side view. The E-Core configuration is further illustrated in  FIG. 11 , which is a perspective view of the shielding  80 . The shielding  80  may include a magnetic core  86 , a magnetic backing  85 , and a magnetic ring  84 . The magnetic core  86  is spaced inwardly from the outer edge of the magnetic backing  85  and projects in an upward direction from the top surface of the magnetic backing  85 . The magnetic core  86  and the magnetic ring  84  function to surround the transmitter coil  21  and to direct and focus magnetic fields, hence improving coupling with the receiver coil  31  of the power receiver  30 . 
     In addition to covering the entire outer diameter of the transmitter coil  21 , the shielding  80  may also cover the inner diameter d i  of the transmitter coil  21 . That is, as shown, the inner section of the E-Core configuration may protrude upward through the middle of the transmitter coil  21 . 
     In an embodiment, the cavity  82  is configured such that the shielding  80  covers the entire bottom section of the transmitter coil  21  and the entire side sections of the transmitter coil  21 . The top section of the transmitter coil  21  is not covered. The bottom section of the transmitter coil  21  is the side of the transmitter coil  21  that is opposite of the direction of the primary power transfer to the receiver coil. With a wire wound transmitter coil  21 , the side section of the transmitter coil  21  includes the side section of the outer most winding of the coil  21 . 
       FIG. 12A  is a perspective view of the transmitter coil  21  and the embodiment of the E-core shielding of  FIG. 11  and  FIG. 12B  is an exploded perspective view of the transmitter coil  21  and the embodiment of the E-core shielding of  FIG. 11 . The transmitter coil  21  is positioned above the shielding  80 , whose combination of structural bodies, as discussed above, may include the combination of the magnetic core  86 , the magnetic backing  85 , and magnetic ring  84 . This magnetic shielding combination functions to help direct and concentrate magnetic fields created by transmitter coil  21  and can also limit side effects that would otherwise be caused by magnetic flux passing through nearby metal objects. In some examples, the magnetic ring defines an opening  88 , in which a connecting wire  292  of the transmitter coil  21  can exit the shielding  80 . 
     As defined herein, a “shielding material,” from which the shielding  80  is formed, is a material that captures a magnetic field. An example of which is a ferrite material. The ferrite shield material selected for the shielding  80  also depends on the operating frequency, as the complex magnetic permeability (μ=μ′−j*μ″) is frequency dependent. The material may be a sintered flexible ferrite sheet or a rigid shield and be composed of varying material compositions. In some examples, the ferrite material for the shielding  80  may include a Ni—Zn ferrite, a Mn—Zn ferrite, and any combinations thereof. 
     Returning now to  FIG. 10  and with continued reference to  FIGS. 11 and 12 , the shielding  80  is aligned with the transmitter antenna  21  such that the shielding  80  substantially surrounds the transmitter antenna  21  on all sides, aside from the top face  60 . In other words, the transmitter antenna  21  may be wound around the magnetic core  86  and be surrounded, on the bottom and sides, respectively, by the magnetic backing  85  and the magnetic ring  84 . As illustrated, the shielding  80 , in the form of one or both of the magnetic backing and the magnetic core, may extend beyond the outer diameter d o  of the transmitter antenna  21  by a shielding extending distance d e . In some examples, the shielding extending distance d e  may be in a range of about 5 mm to about 6 mm. The shielding  80 , at the magnetic backing  85 , and the transmitter coil  21  are separated from one another by a separation distance d s , as illustrated. In some examples, the separation distance d s  may be in a range of about 0.1 mm and 0.5 mm. 
     An interface surface  70  of the base station  11  is located at an interface gap distance d int  from the transmitter coil  21  and the shielding  80 . The interface surface  70  is a surface on the base station  11  that is configured such that when a power receiver  30  is proximate to the interface surface  70 , the power receiver  30  is capable of coupling with the power transmitter  20 , via near-field magnetic induction between the transmitter antenna  21  and the receiver antenna  31 , for the purposes of wireless power transfer. In some examples, the interface gap distance d int  may be in a range of about 8 mm to about 10 mm. In such examples, the d int  is greater than the standard required Z-distance for Qi™ certified wireless power transmission (3-5 mm). Accordingly, by having a greater dint, empty space and/or an insulator can be positioned between the transmission coil  21  and the interface surface  70  to mitigate heat transfer to the interface surface  70 , the power receiver  30 , and/or the electronic device  14  during operation. Further, such a greater d int  allows for interface design structures in which objects on or attached to the electronic device  14  may remain attached to the electronic device during operation. As described in greater detail below, design features of the interface surface  70  may be included for interaction with such objects for aligning the power transmitter  20  and the power receiver  30  for operation. 
     Returning now to  FIG. 12B , an exemplary coil  221  for use as the transmitter antenna  21  is illustrated in the exploded view of the transmitter antenna  21  and shielding  80 . The coil  221  includes one or more bifilar Litz wires  290  for the first bifilar coil layer  261  and the second bifilar coil layer  262 . “Bifilar,” as defined herein, refers to a wire having two closely spaced, parallel threads and/or wires. Each of the first and second bifilar coil layers  261 ,  262  include N number of turns. In some examples, each of the first and second bifilar coil layers  261 ,  262  include about 4.5 turns and/or the bifilar coil layers  261 ,  262  may include a number of turns in a range of about 4 to about 5. In some examples, the one or more bifilar Litz wire  290  may be no. 17 AWG (1.15 mm) type 2 Litz wire, having 105 strands of no. 40 AWG (0.08 mm diameter), or equivalent wire. Utilization of multiple layers, thick Litz wire, bifilar Litz wire, and any combinations thereof, may result in the coil  21  achieving greater Q and/or may result in increases in gap  17  height and/or Z-distance between the coil  21  and a receiver coil. 
       FIG. 13A  is a first block diagram  311 A for an implementation of the base station  11 . As illustrated, the power transmitter  20  is contained within the base station  11 . In some examples, the base station  11  includes one or more user feedback mechanisms  300 , wherein each of the one or more user feedback mechanisms  300  are configured for aiding a user in aligning a power receiver  30  and/or its associated electronic device  14  with an active area  310  for wireless power transmission via the transmitter coil  21 , wherein the power receiver  30  is configured to acquire near field inductive power from the transmitter coil  21 . The “active area”  310 , as defined herein, refers to any area, volume, and/or space proximate to the interface surface  70  wherein the power transmitter  20  is capable of transmitting near field inductive power to a power receiver  30 . 
     The one or more user feedback mechanisms  300  may include one or more of a visual feedback display  302 , a tactile feedback mechanism  304 , an audible feedback mechanism  306 , a marking  308  on the interface surface  70 , any other feedback mechanisms  300 , and any combinations thereof. The visual feedback display  302  is configured for visually indicating proper alignment of the power receiver  30  with the active area  310 . The visual feedback display  302  may include, but is not limited to including, a visual screen, a light, a light emitting diode (LED), a liquid crystal display (LCD) display, other visual displays, and/or any combinations thereof. The tactile feedback mechanism  304  is configured for tactilely indicating if the power receiver  30  is in proper alignment with the active area  310 . The tactile feedback mechanism  304  may include, but is not limited to including, a haptic feedback device, a vibrating device, other tactile feedback mechanisms, and any combinations thereof. The audible feedback device  306  is configured for audibly indicating if the power receiver  30  is in proper alignment with the active area  310 . The audio feedback mechanism  306  may include, but is not limited to including, a speaker, a sound generator, a voice generator, an audio circuit, an amplifier, other audible feedback devices, and any combinations thereof. 
     The marking  308  may be any visual and/or mechanical signifier, indicating where a user of the electronic device  14  should place his/her/their electronic device  14  on the interface surface  70 , such that the power transmitter  20  will be in proper alignment with the power receiver  30  of the electronic device  14 . Additionally or alternatively, the marking  308  may indicate a location of the active area  310  and/or a proper location within the active area  70 . In the exemplary embodiment of the diagram  311 A, the marking  308 A may be a substantially two-dimensional visual indicator marked on the interface surface  70 . The substantially two-dimensional marking  308 A may include, but is not limited to including, a printed indicator, a logo, a message indicating a user should place the electronic device  14  upon the marking  308 A, any other substantially two-dimensional markings, and any combinations thereof. 
     In an alternative embodiment in a second schematic block diagram  311 B illustrated in  FIG. 13B , the marking  308 B is a substantially three-dimensional and/or mechanical marking  308 B, such as, but not limited to, an indentation and/or notch in the interface surface  70 . The three-dimensional marking  308 B may be configured to interact with mechanical feature  72  of the electronic device  14 . The mechanical feature  72  may be any mechanical feature of the electronic device  14  and/or another connected mechanical feature and/or device associated with the electronic device  14 . Accordingly, interaction between the mechanical feature  72  and the three-dimensional marking  308 B may be configured to align the power transmitter  20  with the power receiver  30  of the electronic device  14 . For example, the mechanical feature  72  may be an external protrusion located relatively proximate to the power receiver  30  of electronic device  14  and the marking  308 B is configured to receive the mechanical feature and, by the nature of such receipt, the power transmitter  20  and the power receiver  30  are properly aligned for near-field inductive wireless power transfer. In some such examples, the electronic device  14  is a mobile device, such as a smart phone and/or tablet computing device, and the mechanical feature  72  may be an externally attached grip device configured for gripping the electronic device  14  when in use. In such examples, the marking  308 B is configured to receive the grip device mechanical feature  72  and enable proper alignment of the power transmitter  20  and the power receiver  30  for near-field inductive wireless power transfer while the removable mechanical feature  72  remains attached to the electronic device  14 . 
       FIG. 14  is an exemplary, actual, simulation  400  of a magnetic field generated by a transmitter coil  21  and/or its associated power transmitter  20  and captured by an exemplary receiver coil  31  and/or its associated power receiver  30 , when the transmitter coil  21  and/or power transmitter  20  are designed, manufactured, and/or implemented according to the teachings of this disclosure. The receiver coil  30  was as a standard Qi™ receiver coil utilized by commercial electronic devices, such as mobile phones, and the receiver coil  30  was modelled with a metal piece behind the coil, wherein the metal piece was used to simulate a battery. The simulation shows that the magnetic field generated by the transmitter coil  20  was captured by the receiver coil  30  at an extended Z-distance of 9 mm. As discussed previously, Qi™ wireless transmitter coils typically operate between coil-to-coil distances of about 3 mm to about 5 mm. The shaped-magnetics of the transmitter coil  21  have shown to favorably reshape a magnetic field so that coil-to-coil coupling can occur at extended Z-distances, wherein the Z-distances are extended about 2 times to about 5 times the distance of standard Qi™ wireless power transmitters. Furthermore, the shaped-magnetics of the present application can extend coupling of present day a Qi™ wireless power transmitter at a Z-distance ranging about 5 mm to about 25 mm. Any of the E-core and/or additional or alternative custom shapes for the shielding  80 , may successfully be used to reshape the magnetic field for extended Z-distance coupling by a minimum of a 5% compared to standard present-day power transmitters. In addition, any of the E-core and custom shapes previously discussed, each in conjunction with its relation to a coil to the magnetic has also may further increase z-direction coupling by at least another 5%. An embodiment comprising a structure, the structure comprising a coil and a magnetic material, wherein a gap between the coil and the magnetic material residing at the inner diameter of the coil comprises 2 mm, reshapes the magnetic field so that coupling increases by 5%. 
     As is discussed above, the transmitter coils  21 , power transmitters  20 , and/or base stations  11 , disclosed herein, may achieve great advancements in Z-distance and/or gap  17  height, when compared to legacy, low-frequency (e.g., in a range of about 87 kHz to about 205 kHz) transmission coils, power transmitters, and/or base stations. To that end, an extended Z-distance not only expands a linear distance, within which a receiver may be placed and properly coupled with a transmitter, but an extended Z-distance expands a three-dimensional charging and/or operational volume (“charge volume”), within which a receiver may receive wireless power signals from a transmitter. For the following example, the discussion fixes lateral spatial freedom (X and Y distances) for the receiver coil, positioned relative to the transmitter coil, as a control variable. Accordingly, for discussion purposes only, one assumes that the X and Y distances for the base stations  11 , power transmitters  20 , and/or transmitter coils  21  are substantially similar to the X and Y distances for the legacy system(s). However, it is certainly contemplated that the inventions disclosed herein may increase one or both of the X-distance and Y-distance. Furthermore, while the instant example uses the exemplary range of 8-10 mm for the Z-distance of the base stations  11 , power transmitters  20 , and/or transmitter coils  21 , it is certainly contemplated and experimental results have shown that the base stations  11 , power transmitters  20 , and/or transmitter coils  21  are certainly capable of achieving Z-distances having a greater length than about 10 mm, such as, but not limited to, up to 15 mm and/or up to 30 mm. Accordingly, the following table is merely exemplary and for illustration that the expanded Z-distances, achieved by the base stations  11 , power transmitters  20 , and/or transmitter coils  21 , have noticeable, useful, and beneficial impact on a charge volume associated with one or more of the base stations  11 , power transmitters  20 , and/or transmitter coils  21 . 
                            Spatial Freedom Comparison                                                             Charge   Charge                   Z-dist   Z-dist   Vol.   Vol.           X-dist   Y-dist   (min)   (max)   (min)   (max)               Legacy   5 mm   5 mm    3 mm    5 mm    75 mm 3     125 mm 3         11, 20, 21   5 mm   5 mm    8 mm   10 mm   200 mm 3     250 mm 3         (8-10 mm. ver.)                               11, 20, 21   5 mm   5 mm   10 mm   15 mm   250 mm 3     375 mm 3         (15 mm. ver.)                               11, 20, 21   5 mm   5 mm   15 mm   30 mm   375 mm 3     750 mm 3         (30 mm. ver.)                    
Thus, by utilizing the base stations  11 , power transmitters  20 , and/or transmitter coils  21 , the effective charge volume may increase by more than 100 percent, when compared to legacy, low-frequency wireless power transmitters. Accordingly, the base stations  11 , power transmitters  20 , and/or transmitter coils  21  may achieve large Z-distances, gap heights, and/or charge volumes that were not possible with legacy low frequency, but thought only possible in lower power, high frequency (e.g., above about 2 Mhz) wireless power transfer systems.
 
       FIG. 15  is an example block diagram for a method  1200  for designing the power transmitter  20 . The method  1200  includes designing and/or selecting the transmitter coil  21  for the power transmitter  20 , as illustrated in block  1210 . The method  1200  includes tuning the power transmitter  20 , as illustrated in block  1220 . Such tuning may be utilized for, but not limited to being utilized for, impedance matching. 
     The method  1200  further includes designing the power conditioning system  40  for the power transmitter  20 , as illustrated in block  1230 . The power conditioning system  40  may be designed with any of a plurality of power output characteristic considerations, such as, but not limited to, power transfer efficiency, maximizing a transmission gap (e.g., the gap  17 ), increasing output voltage to a receiver, mitigating power losses during wireless power transfer, increasing power output without degrading fidelity for data communications, optimizing power output for multiple coils receiving power from a common circuit and/or amplifier, among other contemplated power output characteristic considerations. Further, at block  1240 , the method  1200  may determine and optimize a connection, and any associated connection components, to configure and/or optimize a connection between the input power source  12  and the power conditioning system  40  of block  1230 . Such determining, configuring, and/or optimizing may include selecting and implementing protection mechanisms and/or apparatus, selecting and/or implementing voltage protection mechanisms, among other things. 
     The method  1200  further includes designing and/or programing the control and communications system  26  of the power transmitter  20 , as illustrated in block  1250 . Components of such designs include, but are not limited to including, the sensing system  50 , the driver  41 , the transmission controller  28 , the memory  27 , the communications system  29 , the thermal sensing system  52 , the object sensing system  54 , the receiver sensing system  56 , the electrical sensor(s)  57 , the other sensor(s)  58 , in whole or in part and, optionally, including any components thereof. 
       FIG. 16  is an example block diagram for a method  2200  for manufacturing the power transmitter  20 . The method  2200  includes manufacturing and/or selecting the transmitter coil  21  for the power transmitter  20 , as illustrated in block  2210 . The method  2200  includes tuning the power transmitter  20 , as illustrated in block  2220 . Such tuning may be utilized for, but not limited to being utilized for, impedance matching. 
     The method  2200  further includes manufacturing the power conditioning system  40  for the power transmitter  20 , as illustrated in block  2230 . The power conditioning system  40  may be designed and/or manufactured with any of a plurality of power output characteristic considerations, such as, but not limited to, power transfer efficiency, maximizing a transmission gap (e.g., the gap  17 ), increasing output voltage to a receiver, mitigating power losses during wireless power transfer, increasing power output without degrading fidelity for data communications, optimizing power output for multiple coils receiving power from a common circuit and/or amplifier, among other contemplated power output characteristic considerations. Further, at block  2240 , the method  2200  may include connecting and/or optimizing a connection, and any associated connection components, to configure and/or optimize a connection between the input power source  12  and the power conditioning system  40  of block  2230 . Such determining, manufacturing, configuring, and/or optimizing may include selecting and implementing protection mechanisms and/or apparatus, selecting and/or implementing voltage protection mechanisms, among other things. 
     The method  2200  further includes designing and/or programing the control and communications system  26  of the power transmitter  20 , as illustrated in block  2250 . Components of such designs include, but are not limited to including, the sensing system  50 , the driver  41 , the transmission controller  28 , the memory  27 , the communications system  29 , the thermal sensing system  52 , the object sensing system  54 , the receiver sensing system  56 , the electrical sensor(s)  57 , the other sensor(s)  58 , in whole or in part and, optionally, including any components thereof. 
     As used herein, the phrase “at least one of” preceding a series of items, with the term “and” or “or” to separate any of the items, modifies the list as a whole, rather than each member of the list (i.e., each item). The phrase “at least one of” does not require selection of at least one of each item listed; rather, the phrase allows a meaning that includes at least one of any one of the items, and/or at least one of any combination of the items, and/or at least one of each of the items. By way of example, the phrases “at least one of A, B, and C” or “at least one of A, B, or C” each refer to only A, only B, or only C; any combination of A, B, and C; and/or at least one of each of A, B, and C. 
     The predicate words “configured to”, “operable to”, and “programmed to” do not imply any particular tangible or intangible modification of a subject, but, rather, are intended to be used interchangeably. In one or more embodiments, a processor configured to monitor and control an operation or a component may also mean the processor being programmed to monitor and control the operation or the processor being operable to monitor and control the operation. Likewise, a processor configured to execute code can be construed as a processor programmed to execute code or operable to execute code. 
     A phrase such as “an aspect” does not imply that such aspect is essential to the subject technology or that such aspect applies to all configurations of the subject technology. A disclosure relating to an aspect may apply to all configurations, or one or more configurations. An aspect may provide one or more examples of the disclosure. A phrase such as an “aspect” may refer to one or more aspects and vice versa. A phrase such as an “embodiment” does not imply that such embodiment is essential to the subject technology or that such embodiment applies to all configurations of the subject technology. A disclosure relating to an embodiment may apply to all embodiments, or one or more embodiments. An embodiment may provide one or more examples of the disclosure. A phrase such an “embodiment” may refer to one or more embodiments and vice versa. A phrase such as a “configuration” does not imply that such configuration is essential to the subject technology or that such configuration applies to all configurations of the subject technology. A disclosure relating to a configuration may apply to all configurations, or one or more configurations. A configuration may provide one or more examples of the disclosure. A phrase such as a “configuration” may refer to one or more configurations and vice versa. 
     The word “exemplary” is used herein to mean “serving as an example, instance, or illustration.” Any embodiment described herein as “exemplary” or as an “example” is not necessarily to be construed as preferred or advantageous over other embodiments. Furthermore, to the extent that the term “include,” “have,” or the like is used in the description or the claims, such term is intended to be inclusive in a manner similar to the term “comprise” as “comprise” is interpreted when employed as a transitional word in a claim. Furthermore, to the extent that the term “include,” “have,” or the like is used in the description or the claims, such term is intended to be inclusive in a manner similar to the term “comprise” as “comprise” is interpreted when employed as a transitional word in a claim. 
     All structural and functional equivalents to the elements of the various aspects described throughout this disclosure that are known or later come to be known to those of ordinary skill in the art are expressly incorporated herein by reference and are intended to be encompassed by the claims. Moreover, nothing disclosed herein is intended to be dedicated to the public regardless of whether such disclosure is explicitly recited in the claims. No claim element is to be construed under the provisions of 35 U.S.C. § 112, sixth paragraph, unless the element is expressly recited using the phrase “means for” or, in the case of a method claim, the element is recited using the phrase “step for.” 
     Reference to an element in the singular is not intended to mean “one and only one” unless specifically so stated, but rather “one or more.” Unless specifically stated otherwise, the term “some” refers to one or more. Pronouns in the masculine (e.g., his) include the feminine and neuter gender (e.g., her and its) and vice versa. Headings and subheadings, if any, are used for convenience only and do not limit the subject disclosure. 
     While this specification contains many specifics, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of particular implementations of the subject matter. Certain features that are described in this specification in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable sub-combination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a sub combination or variation of a sub combination.