Patent Publication Number: US-2022219549-A1

Title: Systems, devices, and methods for module-based cascaded energy systems

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     The present application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Serial No. U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 63/255,119, filed Oct. 13, 2021, U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 63/242,459, filed Sep. 9, 2021, and 63/136,786, filed Jan. 13, 2021, all of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties for all purposes. 
    
    
     FIELD 
     The subject matter described herein relates generally to systems, devices, and methods for module-based cascaded energy systems. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Energy systems having multiple energy sources or sinks are commonplace in many industries. One example is the automobile industry. Today&#39;s automotive technology, as evolved over the past century, is characterized, amongst many things, by an interplay of motors, mechanical elements, and electronics. These are the key components that impact vehicle performance and driver experience. Motors are of the combustion or electric type and in almost all cases the rotational energy from the motor is delivered via a set of highly sophisticated mechanical elements, such as clutches, transmissions, differentials, drive shafts, torque tubes, couplers, etc. These parts control to a large degree torque conversion and power distribution to the wheels and are define the performance of the car and road handling. 
     An electric vehicle (EV) includes various electrical systems that are related to the drivetrain including, among others, the battery pack, the charger and motor control. High voltage battery packs are typically organized in a serial chain of lower voltage battery modules. Each such module further includes a set of serially connected individual cells and a simple embedded battery management system (BMS) to regulate basic cell related characteristics, such as state of charge and voltage. Electronics with more sophisticated capabilities or some form of smart interconnectedness are absent. As a consequence, any monitoring or control function is handled by a separate system, which, if at all present elsewhere in the car, lacks the ability to monitor individual cell health, state of charge, temperature and other performance impacting metrics. There is also no ability to meaningfully adjust power draw per individual cell in any form. Some of the major consequences are: (1) the weakest cell constrains the overall performance of the entire battery pack, (2) failure of any cell or module leads to a need for replacement of the entire pack, (3) battery reliability and safety are considerably reduced, (4) battery life is limited, (5) thermal management is difficult, (6) battery packs always operate below maximum capabilities, (7) sudden inrush of regenerative braking derived electric power cannot be readily stored in the batteries and requires dissipation via a dump resistor. 
     Conventional controls contain DC to DC conversion stages to adjust battery pack voltage levels to the bus voltage of the EV&#39;s electrical system. Motors, in turn, are then driven by simple two-level multiphase standalone drive inverters that provide the required AC signal(s) to the electric motor. Each motor is traditionally controlled by a separate controller, which drives the motor in a three phase design. Dual motor EVs would require two controllers, while EVs using four in-wheel motors would require four individual controllers. The conventional controller design also lacks the ability to drive next generation motors, such as switch reluctance motors (SRM), characterized by higher numbers of pole pieces. Adaptation would require higher phase designs, making the systems more complex and ultimately fail to address electric noise and driving performance, such as high torque ripple and acoustical noise. 
     Many of these deficiencies apply not only to automobiles but other motor driven vehicles, and also to stationary applications to a significant extent. For these and other reasons, needs exist for improved systems, devices, and methods for module-based cascaded energy systems. 
     SUMMARY 
     Example embodiments of systems, devices, and methods are provided herein for energy systems having multiple modules arranged in cascaded fashion for generating and storing power. Each module can include an energy source and switch circuitry that selectively couples the energy source to other modules in the system for generating power or for receiving and storing power from a charge source. The energy systems can be arranged in single phase or multiphase topologies with multiple serial or interconnected arrays. The energy systems can be arranged with multiple subsystems for supplying power to one or more motors. 
     The energy systems can be configured with bidirectional charging and discharging capability through one or more charge ports. Routing circuitry can selectively route current from the charge port to the various arrays of modules based on the type of charge signals applied, such as DC, single phase AC, and multiphase AC. The routing circuitry can include solid state relays that isolate the energy system from the external charge source. 
     The energy systems can be implemented in one or more enclosures associated with one or more thermal management systems. The thermal management systems can circulate a thermal transfer fluid in proximity with an upper side of the modules and in proximity with the lower side of the modules. The thermal management systems can be reconfigurable to cool and/or heat the energy sources of the modules. The thermal management systems can also be reconfigured to utilize different heat exchangers based on a variety of factors, such as exterior temperature, temperature of the modules, temperature of electronics of the modules, temperature of energy sources of the modules, and/or temperature of coolant within the air conditioning (AC) system. 
     Example embodiments of module layouts are also provided. The module layouts can include some or all of the module electronics placed in an inverted orientation to maximize surface area contact of an electronics substrate with a heatsink of the module. Variations in placement of connectors for primary, auxiliary, and control ports are also described. 
     Example embodiments of switching assemblies are also provided. The switching assemblies, in some embodiments referred to as a power and control distribution assembly, can act as a centralized hub for power and control connections for all or a portion of an EV. The switching assemblies can include portions of the control system and routing circuitry related to charge network distribution. 
     Example embodiments are also provided for a universal platform for housing an electric powertrain of an EV. The electric powertrain is highly scalable and enables configuration of the universal platform for a host of different EV model types. Numerous module layout configurations for the universal platform are also described, as are exemplary model types. 
     Other systems, devices, methods, features and advantages of the subject matter described herein will be or will become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following figures and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the subject matter described herein, and be protected by the accompanying claims. In no way should the features of the example embodiments be construed as limiting the appended claims, absent express recitation of those features in the claims. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES 
       The details of the subject matter set forth herein, both as to its structure and operation, may be apparent by study of the accompanying figures, in which like reference numerals refer to like parts. The components in the figures are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating the principles of the subject matter. Moreover, all illustrations are intended to convey concepts, where relative sizes, shapes and other detailed attributes may be illustrated schematically rather than literally or precisely. 
         FIGS. 1A-1C  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of a modular energy system. 
         FIGS. 1D-1E  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of control devices for an energy system. 
         FIGS. 1F-1G  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of modular energy systems coupled with a load and a charge source. 
         FIGS. 2A-2B  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of a module and control system within an energy system. 
         FIG. 2C  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a physical configuration of a module. 
         FIG. 2D  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a physical configuration of a modular energy system. 
         FIGS. 3A-3C  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of modules having various electrical configurations. 
         FIGS. 4A-4F  are schematic views depicting example embodiments of energy sources. 
         FIGS. 5A-5C  are schematic views depicting example embodiments of energy buffers. 
         FIGS. 6A-6C  are schematic views depicting example embodiments of converters. 
         FIGS. 7A-7E  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of modular energy systems having various topologies. 
         FIG. 8A  is a plot depicting an example output voltage of a module. 
         FIG. 8B  is a plot depicting an example multilevel output voltage of an array of modules. 
         FIG. 8C  is a plot depicting an example reference signal and carrier signals usable in a pulse width modulation control technique. 
         FIG. 8D  is a plot depicting example reference signals and carrier signals usable in a pulse width modulation control technique. 
         FIG. 8E  is a plot depicting example switch signals generated according to a pulse width modulation control technique. 
         FIG. 8F  as a plot depicting an example multilevel output voltage generated by superposition of output voltages from an array of modules under a pulse width modulation control technique. 
         FIGS. 9A-9B  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of controllers for a modular energy system. 
         FIG. 10A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a multiphase modular energy system having interconnection module. 
         FIG. 10B  is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of an interconnection module in the multiphase embodiment of  FIG. 10A . 
         FIG. 10C  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system having two subsystems connected together by interconnection modules. 
         FIG. 10D  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a three-phase modular energy system having interconnection modules supplying auxiliary loads. 
         FIG. 10E  is a schematic view depicting an example embodiment of the interconnection modules in the multiphase embodiment of  FIG. 10D . 
         FIG. 10F  is a block diagram depicting another example embodiment of a three-phase modular energy system having interconnection modules supplying auxiliary loads. 
         FIGS. 11A-11B  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of a modular energy system configured for multiphase charging. 
         FIG. 11C  is a flow diagram depicting an example embodiment of charging a modular energy system. 
         FIG. 11D  is a plot depicting an example of a three-phase charging signal. 
         FIG. 12A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system configured for DC and AC charging. 
         FIG. 12B  is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of routing circuitry. 
         FIGS. 12C-12E  are schematic diagrams depicting example embodiments of solid state relays for use in routing circuitry. 
         FIG. 12F  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase AC charging. 
         FIG. 12G  is a schematic diagram depicting another example embodiment of routing circuitry. 
         FIGS. 13A-13B  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of a modular energy system configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase AC charging. 
         FIG. 13C  is a schematic diagram depicting another example embodiment of routing circuitry. 
         FIG. 13D  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase AC charging. 
         FIG. 14  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system having two subsystems and configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase AC charging. 
         FIG. 15A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system having two subsystems and configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase AC charging. 
         FIG. 15B  is a schematic diagram depicting another example embodiment of routing circuitry. 
         FIG. 15C  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system having two subsystems and configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase AC charging. 
         FIG. 15D  is a schematic diagram depicting another example embodiment of routing circuitry. 
         FIG. 15E  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system having two subsystems and configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase AC charging. 
         FIG. 15F  is a schematic diagram depicting another example embodiment of routing circuitry. 
         FIGS. 16A-16C  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of a modular energy system having three subsystems configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase AC charging. 
         FIG. 17  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system having four subsystems configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase AC charging. 
         FIGS. 18A-18B  are block diagrams depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system having six subsystems configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase AC charging. 
         FIG. 19A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system configured for multiphase AC charging of arrays in parallel. 
         FIG. 19B  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase AC charging of arrays in parallel. 
         FIG. 20  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system configured for DC and/or single phase AC charging through a load, and multiphase charging bypassing the load. 
         FIGS. 21A-21B  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of a modular energy system in a delta and series arrangement configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase charging. 
         FIG. 22  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system having multiple subsystems configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase charging of a load. 
         FIG. 23A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system in a charge station and a modular energy system in an EV. 
         FIG. 23BA  is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system in a charge station configured for DC, single phase AC, and multiphase charging of multiple EVs. 
         FIG. 24  is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system within an interior region of an EV chassis. 
         FIGS. 25A-25C  are schematic diagrams depicting example embodiments of modular energy systems within an interior region of an EV chassis and configured to supply power for two motors. 
         FIG. 26  is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system within an interior region of an EV chassis and configured to supply power for three motors. 
         FIGS. 27A-27B  are schematic diagrams depicting example embodiments of modular energy systems within an interior region of an EV chassis and configured to supply power for for motors. 
         FIGS. 28A-28C  are schematic diagrams depicting example embodiments of modular energy systems within interior regions of a first and a second chassis of an EV and configured to supply power for six motors. 
         FIG. 29A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of the modular energy system configured to supply power for an electric motor of an active suspension or active steering mechanism. 
         FIG. 29B  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a module for use in a modular energy system. 
         FIGS. 29C-29D  are schematic diagrams depicting example embodiments of modules for use in a modular energy system. 
         FIG. 30A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a power and control distribution assembly. 
         FIG. 30B  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of power and control distribution assemblies within an EV. 
         FIG. 30C  is a perspective view of an enclosure and power and control distribution assemblies of an EV. 
         FIGS. 30D and 30E  are perspective views of the exterior and interior, respectively, of an example embodiment of a power and control distribution assembly. 
         FIG. 30F  as an exploded view depicting an example embodiment of a power and control distribution assembly. 
         FIG. 30G  is a perspective view of an example embodiment of charge network distribution within an EV. 
         FIG. 31A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a process flow for cooling components of an electric vehicle. 
         FIG. 31B  is a perspective view depicting an example embodiment of enclosure configured for cooling a modular energy system. 
         FIG. 31C  is a block diagram depicting another example embodiment of a process flow for cooling components of an electric vehicle. 
         FIG. 31D  is a perspective view depicting another example embodiment of enclosure configured for cooling a modular energy system. 
         FIG. 31E  is a perspective view depicting an example embodiment of module component placement with respect to a top enclosure. 
         FIG. 31F  is a cross-sectional view depicting an example embodiment of a module in proximity with a thermal management system. 
         FIGS. 32A-32D  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of thermal management systems. 
         FIG. 32E  is an exploded view depicting an enclosure for an EV having an energy storage system and a thermal management system. 
         FIG. 32F  is a cross-sectional view depicting an example embodiment of a module in proximity with a thermal management system. 
         FIG. 33A  as an exploded view depicting an example embodiment of a module. 
         FIGS. 33B and 33C  are perspective views depicting the exterior and interior, respectively, of an example embodiment of a module. 
         FIG. 33D  is a cross-sectional view depicting an example embodiment of electronics of a module. 
         FIGS. 33E-33F  are top-down views depicting example embodiments of modules connected within an array. 
         FIGS. 33G and 33H  are top-down views depicting example embodiments of cells within a battery module. 
         FIGS. 33I-33L  are top-down views depicting example embodiments of modules. 
         FIG. 34A  is a perspective view depicting an example embodiment of a universal platform for an EV. 
         FIGS. 34B and 34C  are perspective views depicting example embodiments of a universal platform for an EV having exterior bodywork. 
         FIGS. 34D-34G  are perspective views depicting example embodiments of module layouts within universal platforms for an EV. 
         FIGS. 34H-34K  are perspective views depicting example embodiments of EV models based on a universal platform. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Before the present subject matter is described in detail, it is to be understood that this disclosure is not limited to the particular embodiments described, as such may, of course, vary. The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, since the scope of the present disclosure will be limited only by the appended claims. 
     Before describing the example embodiments pertaining to charging and discharging modular energy systems, it is first useful to describe these underlying systems in greater detail. With reference to  FIGS. 1A through 10F , the following sections describe various applications in which embodiments of the modular energy systems can be implemented, embodiments of control systems or devices for the modular energy systems, configurations of the modular energy system embodiments with respect to charging sources and loads, embodiments of individual modules, embodiments of topologies for arrangement of the modules within the systems, embodiments of control methodologies, embodiments of balancing operating characteristics of modules within the systems, and embodiments of the use of interconnection modules. 
     Examples of Applications 
     Stationary applications are those in which the modular energy system is located in a fixed location during use, although it may be capable of being transported to alternative locations when not in use. The module-based energy system resides in a static location while providing electrical energy for consumption by one or more other entities, or storing or buffering energy for later consumption. Examples of stationary applications in which the embodiments disclosed herein can be used include, but are not limited to: energy systems for use by or within one or more residential structures or locales, energy systems for use by or within one or more industrial structures or locales, energy systems for use by or within one or more commercial structures or locales, energy systems for use by or within one or more governmental structures or locales (including both military and non-military uses), energy systems for charging the mobile applications described below (e.g., a charge source or a charging station), and systems that convert solar power, wind, geothermal energy, fossil fuels, or nuclear reactions into electricity for storage. Stationary applications often supply loads such as grids and microgrids, motors, and data centers. A stationary energy system can be used in either a storage or non-storage role. 
     Mobile applications, sometimes referred to as traction applications, are generally ones where a module-based energy system is located on or within an entity, and stores and provides electrical energy for conversion into motive force by a motor to move or assist in moving that entity. Examples of mobile entities with which the embodiments disclosed herein can be used include, but are not limited to, electric and/or hybrid entities that move over or under land, over or under sea, above and out of contact with land or sea (e.g., flying or hovering in the air), or through outer space. Examples of mobile entities with which the embodiments disclosed herein can be used include, but are not limited to, vehicles, trains, trams, ships, vessels, aircraft, and spacecraft. Examples of mobile vehicles with which the embodiments disclosed herein can be used include, but are not limited to, those having only one wheel or track, those having only two-wheels or tracks, those having only three wheels or tracks, those having only four wheels or tracks, and those having five or more wheels or tracks. Examples of mobile entities with which the embodiments disclosed herein can be used include, but are not limited to, a car, a bus, a truck, a motorcycle, a scooter, an industrial vehicle, a mining vehicle, a flying vehicle (e.g., a plane, a helicopter, a drone, etc.), a maritime vessel (e.g., commercial shipping vessels, ships, yachts, boats or other watercraft), a submarine, a locomotive or rail-based vehicle (e.g., a train, a tram, etc.), a military vehicle, a spacecraft, and a satellite. 
     In describing embodiments herein, reference may be made to a particular stationary application (e.g., grid, micro-grid, data centers, cloud computing environments) or mobile application (e.g., an electric car). Such references are made for ease of explanation and do not mean that a particular embodiment is limited for use to only that particular mobile or stationary application. Embodiments of systems providing power to a motor can be used in both mobile and stationary applications. While certain configurations may be more suitable to some applications over others, all example embodiments disclosed herein are capable of use in both mobile and stationary applications unless otherwise noted. 
     Module-Based Energy System Examples 
       FIG. 1A  is a block diagram depicts an example embodiment of a module-based energy system  100 . Here, system  100  includes control system  102  communicatively coupled with N converter-source modules  108 - 1  through  108 -N, over communication paths or links  106 - 1  through  106 -N, respectively. Modules  108  are configured to store energy and output the energy as needed to a load  101  (or other modules  108 ). In these embodiments, any number of two or more modules  108  can be used (e.g., N is greater than or equal to two). Modules  108  can be connected to each other in a variety of manners as will be described in more detail with respect to  FIGS. 7A-7E . For ease of illustration, in  FIGS. 1A-1C , modules  108  are shown connected in series, or as a one dimensional array, where the Nth module is coupled to load  101 . 
     System  100  is configured to supply power to load  101 . Load  101  can be any type of load such as a motor or a grid. System  100  is also configured to store power received from a charge source.  FIG. 1F  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of system  100  with a power input interface  151  for receiving power from a charge source  150  and a power output interface for outputting power to load  101 . In this embodiment system  100  can receive and store power over interface  151  at the same time as outputting power over interface  152 .  FIG. 1G  is a block diagram depicting another example embodiment of system  100  with a switchable interface  154 . In this embodiment, system  100  can select, or be instructed to select, between receiving power from charge source  150  and outputting power to load  101 . System  100  can be configured to supply multiple loads  101 , including both primary and auxiliary loads, and/or receive power from multiple charge sources  150  (e.g., a utility-operated power grid and a local renewable energy source (e.g., solar)). 
       FIG. 1B  depicts another example embodiment of system  100 . Here, control system  102  is implemented as a master control device (MCD)  112  communicatively coupled with N different local control devices (LCDs)  114 - 1  through  114 -N over communication paths or links  115 - 1  through  115 -N, respectively. Each LCD  114 - 1  through  114 -N is communicatively coupled with one module  108 - 1  through  108 -N over communication paths or links  116 - 1  through  116 -N, respectively, such that there is a 1:1 relationship between LCDs  114  and modules  108 . 
       FIG. 1C  depicts another example embodiment of system  100 . Here, MCD  112  is communicatively coupled with M different LCDs  114 - 1  to  114 -M over communication paths or links  115 - 1  to  115 -M, respectively. Each LCD  114  can be coupled with and control two or more modules  108 . In the example shown here, each LCD  114  is communicatively coupled with two modules  108 , such that M LCDs  114 - 1  to  114 -M are coupled with 2M modules  108 - 1  through  108 - 2 M over communication paths or links  116 - 1  to  116 - 2 M, respectively. 
     Control system  102  can be configured as a single device (e.g.,  FIG. 1A ) for the entire system  100  or can be distributed across or implemented as multiple devices (e.g.,  FIGS. 1B-1C ). In some embodiments, control system  102  can be distributed between LCDs  114  associated with the modules  108 , such that no MCD  112  is necessary and can be omitted from system  100 . 
     Control system  102  can be configured to execute control using software (instructions stored in memory that are executable by processing circuitry), hardware, or a combination thereof. The one or more devices of control system  102  can each include processing circuitry  120  and memory  122  as shown here. Example implementations of processing circuitry and memory are described further below. 
     Control system  102  can have a communicative interface for communicating with devices  104  external to system  100  over a communication link or path  105 . For example, control system  102  (e.g., MCD  112 ) can output data or information about system  100  to another control device  104  (e.g., the Electronic Control Unit (ECU) or Motor Control Unit (MCU) of a vehicle in a mobile application, grid controller in a stationary application, etc.). 
     Communication paths or links  105 ,  106 ,  115 ,  116 , and  118  ( FIG. 2B ) can each be wired (e.g., electrical, optical) or wireless communication paths that communicate data or information bidirectionally, in parallel or series fashion. Data can be communicated in a standardized (e.g., IEEE, ANSI) or custom (e.g., proprietary) format. In automotive applications, communication paths  115  can be configured to communicate according to FlexRay or CAN protocols. Communication paths  106 ,  115 ,  116 , and  118  can also provide wired power to directly supply the operating power for system  102  from one or more modules  108 . For example, the operating power for each LCD  114  can be supplied only by the one or more modules  108  to which that LCD  114  is connected and the operating power for MCD  112  can be supplied indirectly from one or more of modules  108  (e.g., such as through a car&#39;s power network). 
     Control system  102  is configured to control one or more modules  108  based on status information received from the same or different one or more of modules  108 . Control can also be based on one or more other factors, such as requirements of load  101 . Controllable aspects include, but are not limited to, one or more of voltage, current, phase, and/or output power of each module  108 . 
     Status information of every module  108  in system  100  can be communicated to control system  102 , which can independently control every module  108 - 1  . . .  108 -N. Other variations are possible. For example, a particular module  108  (or subset of modules  108 ) can be controlled based on status information of that particular module  108  (or subset), based on status information of a different module  108  that is not that particular module  108  (or subset), based on status information of all modules  108  other than that particular module  108  (or subset), based on status information of that particular module  108  (or subset) and status information of at least one other module  108  that is not that particular module  108  (or subset), or based on status information of all modules  108  in system  100 . 
     The status information can be information about one or more aspects, characteristics, or parameters of each module  108 . Types of status information include, but are not limited to, the following aspects of a module  108  or one or more components thereof (e.g., energy source, energy buffer, converter, monitor circuitry): State of Charge (SOC) (e.g., the level of charge of an energy source relative to its capacity, such as a fraction or percent) of the one or more energy sources of the module, State of Health (SOH) (e.g., a figure of merit of the condition of an energy source compared to its ideal conditions) of the one or more energy sources of the module, temperature of the one or more energy sources or other components of the module, capacity of the one or more energy sources of the module, voltage of the one or more energy sources and/or other components of the module, current of the one or more energy sources and/or other components of the module, State of Power (SOP) (e.g., the available power limitation of the energy source during discharge and/or charge), State of Energy (SOE) (e.g., the present level of available energy of an energy source relative to the maximum available energy of the source), and/or the presence of absence of a fault in any one or more of the components of the module. 
     LCDs  114  can be configured to receive the status information from each module  108 , or determine the status information from monitored signals or data received from or within each module  108 , and communicate that information to MCD  112 . In some embodiments, each LCD  114  can communicate raw collected data to MCD  112 , which then algorithmically determines the status information on the basis of that raw data. MCD  112  can then use the status information of modules  108  to make control determinations accordingly. The determinations may take the form of instructions, commands, or other information (such as a modulation index described herein) that can be utilized by LCDs  114  to either maintain or adjust the operation of each module  108 . 
     For example, MCD  112  may receive status information and assess that information to determine a difference between at least one module  108  (e.g., a component thereof) and at least one or more other modules  108  (e.g., comparable components thereof). For example, MCD  112  may determine that a particular module  108  is operating with one of the following conditions as compared to one or more other modules  108 : with a relatively lower or higher SOC, with a relatively lower or higher SOH, with a relatively lower or higher capacity, with a relatively lower or higher voltage, with a relatively lower or higher current, with a relatively lower or higher temperature, or with or without a fault. In such examples, MCD  112  can output control information that causes the relevant aspect (e.g., output voltage, current, power, temperature) of that particular module  108  to be reduced or increased (depending on the condition). In this manner, the utilization of an outlier module  108  (e.g., operating with a relatively lower SOC or higher temperature), can be reduced so as to cause the relevant parameter of that module  108  (e.g., SOC or temperature) to converge towards that of one or more other modules  108 . 
     The determination of whether to adjust the operation of a particular module  108  can be made by comparison of the status information to predetermined thresholds, limits, or conditions, and not necessarily by comparison to statuses of other modules  108 . The predetermined thresholds, limits, or conditions can be static thresholds, limits, or conditions, such as those set by the manufacturer that do not change during use. The predetermined thresholds, limits, or conditions can be dynamic thresholds, limits, or conditions, that are permitted to change, or that do change, during use. For example, MCD  112  can adjust the operation of a module  108  if the status information for that module  108  indicates it to be operating in violation (e.g., above or below) of a predetermined threshold or limit, or outside of a predetermined range of acceptable operating conditions. Similarly, MCD  112  can adjust the operation of a module  108  if the status information for that module  108  indicates the presence of an actual or potential fault (e.g., an alarm, or warning) or indicates the absence or removal of an actual or potential fault. Examples of a fault include, but are not limited to, an actual failure of a component, a potential failure of a component, a short circuit or other excessive current condition, an open circuit, an excessive voltage condition, a failure to receive a communication, the receipt of corrupted data, and the like. Depending on the type and severity of the fault, the faulty module&#39;s utilization can be decreased to avoid damaging the module, or the module&#39;s utilization can be ceased altogether. For example, if a fault occurs in a given module, then MCD  112  or LCD  114  can cause that module to enter a bypass state as described herein. 
     MCD  112  can control modules  108  within system  100  to achieve or converge towards a desired target. The target can be, for example, operation of all modules  108  at the same or similar levels with respect to each other, or within predetermined thresholds limits, or conditions. This process is also referred to as balancing or seeking to achieve balance in the operation or operating characteristics of modules  108 . The term “balance” as used herein does not require absolute equality between modules  108  or components thereof, but rather is used in a broad sense to convey that operation of system  100  can be used to actively reduce disparities in operation (or operative state) between modules  108  that would otherwise exist. 
     MCD  112  can communicate control information to LCD  114  for the purpose of controlling the modules  108  associated with the LCD  114 . The control information can be, e.g., a modulation index and a reference signal as described herein, a modulated reference signal, or otherwise. Each LCD  114  can use (e.g., receive and process) the control information to generate switch signals that control operation of one or more components (e.g., a converter) within the associated module(s)  108 . In some embodiments, MCD  112  generates the switch signals directly and outputs them to LCD  114 , which relays the switch signals to the intended module component. 
     All or a portion of control system  102  can be combined with a system external control device  104  that controls one or more other aspects of the mobile or stationary application. When integrated in this shared or common control device (or subsystem), control of system  100  can be implemented in any desired fashion, such as one or more software applications executed by processing circuitry of the shared device, with hardware of the shared device, or a combination thereof. Non-exhaustive examples of external control devices  104  include: a vehicular ECU or MCU having control capability for one or more other vehicular functions (e.g., motor control, driver interface control, traction control, etc.); a grid or micro-grid controller having responsibility for one or more other power management functions (e.g., load interfacing, load power requirement forecasting, transmission and switching, interface with charge sources (e.g., diesel, solar, wind), charge source power forecasting, back up source monitoring, asset dispatch, etc.); and a data center control subsystem (e.g., environmental control, network control, backup control, etc.). 
       FIGS. 1D and 1E  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of a shared or common control device (or system)  132  in which control system  102  can be implemented. In  FIG. 1D , common control device  132  includes master control device  112  and external control device  104 . Master control device  112  includes an interface  141  for communication with LCDs  114  over path  115 , as well as an interface  142  for communication with external control device  104  over internal communication bus  136 . External control device  104  includes an interface  143  for communication with master control device  112  over bus  136 , and an interface  144  for communication with other entities (e.g., components of the vehicle or grid) of the overall application over communication path  136 . In some embodiments, common control device  132  can be integrated as a common housing or package with devices  112  and  104  implemented as discrete integrated circuit (IC) chips or packages contained therein. 
     In  FIG. 1E , external control device  104  acts as common control device  132 , with the master control functionality implemented as a component within device  104 . This component  112  can be or include software or other program instructions stored and/or hardcoded within memory of device  104  and executed by processing circuitry thereof. The component can also contain dedicated hardware. The component can be a self-contained module or core, with one or more internal hardware and/or software interfaces (e.g., application program interface (API)) for communication with the operating software of external control device  104 . External control device  104  can manage communication with LCDs  114  over interface  141  and other devices over interface  144 . In various embodiments, device  104 / 132  can be integrated as a single IC chip, can be integrated into multiple IC chips in a single package, or integrated as multiple semiconductor packages within a common housing. 
     In the embodiments of  FIGS. 1D and 1E , the master control functionality of system  102  is shared in common device  132 , however, other divisions of shared control or permitted. For example, part of the master control functionality can be distributed between common device  132  and a dedicated MCD  112 . In another example, both the master control functionality and at least part of the local control functionality can be implemented in common device  132  (e.g., with remaining local control functionality implemented in LCDs  114 ). In some embodiments, all of control system  102  is implemented in common device (or subsystem)  132 . In some embodiments, local control functionality is implemented within a device shared with another component of each module  108 , such as a Battery Management System (BMS). 
     Examples of Modules within Cascaded Energy Systems 
     Module  108  can include one or more energy sources and a power electronics converter and, if desired, an energy buffer.  FIGS. 2A-2B  are block diagrams depicting additional example embodiments of system  100  with module  108  having a power converter  202 , an energy buffer  204 , and an energy source  206 . Converter  202  can be a voltage converter or a current converter. The embodiments are described herein with reference to voltage converters, although the embodiments are not limited to such. Converter  202  can be configured to convert a direct current (DC) signal from energy source  204  into an alternating current (AC) signal and output it over power connection  110  (e.g., an inverter). Converter  202  can also receive an AC or DC signal over connection  110  and apply it to energy source  204  with either polarity in a continuous or pulsed form. Converter  202  can be or include an arrangement of switches (e.g., power transistors) such as a half bridge of full bridge (H-bridge). In some embodiments converter  202  includes only switches and the converter (and the module as a whole) does not include a transformer. 
     Converter  202  can be also (or alternatively) be configured to perform AC to DC conversion (e.g., a rectifier) such as to charge a DC energy source from an AC source, DC to DC conversion, and/or AC to AC conversion (e.g., in combination with an AC-DC converter). In some embodiments, such as to perform AC-AC conversion, converter  202  can include a transformer, either alone or in combination with one or more power semiconductors (e.g., switches, diodes, thyristors, and the like). In other embodiments, such as those where weight and cost is a significant factor, converter  202  can be configured to perform the conversions with only power switches, power diodes, or other semiconductor devices and without a transformer. 
     Energy source  206  is preferably a robust energy storage device capable of outputting direct current and having an energy density suitable for energy storage applications for electrically powered devices. Energy source  206  can be an electrochemical battery, such as a single battery cell or multiple battery cells connected together in a battery module or array, or any combination thereof.  FIGS. 4A-4D  are schematic diagrams depicting example embodiments of energy source  206  configured as a single battery cell  402  ( FIG. 4A ), a battery module with a series connection of multiple (e.g., four) cells  402  ( FIG. 4B ), a battery module with a parallel connection of single cells  402  ( FIG. 4C ), and a battery module with a parallel connection with legs having two cells  402  each ( FIG. 4D ). A non-exhaustive list of examples of battery types is set forth elsewhere herein. 
     Energy source  206  can also be a high energy density (HED) capacitor, such as an ultracapacitor or supercapacitor. An HED capacitor can be configured as a double layer capacitor (electrostatic charge storage), pseudocapacitor (electrochemical charge storage), hybrid capacitor (electrostatic and electrochemical), or otherwise, as opposed to a solid dielectric type of a typical electrolytic capacitor. The HED capacitor can have an energy density of 10 to 100 times (or higher) that of an electrolytic capacitor, in addition to a higher capacity. For example, HED capacitors can have a specific energy greater than 1.0 watt hours per kilogram (Wh/kg), and a capacitance greater than 10-100 farads (F). As with the batteries described with respect to  FIGS. 4A-4D , energy source  206  can be configured as a single HED capacitor or multiple HED capacitors connected together in an array (e.g., series, parallel, or a combination thereof). 
     Energy source  206  can also be a fuel cell. The fuel cell can be a single fuel cell, multiple fuel cells connected in series or parallel, or a fuel cell module. Examples of fuel cell types include proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC), solid acid fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, high temperature fuel cells, solid oxide fuel cells, molten electrolyte fuel cells, and others. As with the batteries described with respect to  FIGS. 4A-4D , energy source  206  can be configured as a single fuel cell or multiple fuel cells connected together in an array (e.g., series, parallel, or a combination thereof). The aforementioned examples of source classes (e.g., batteries, capacitors, and fuel cells) and types (e.g., chemistries and/or structural configurations within each class) are not intended to form an exhaustive list, and those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize other variants that fall within the scope of the present subject matter. 
     Energy buffer  204  can dampen or filter fluctuations in current across the DC line or link (e.g., +V DCL  and −V DCL  as described below), to assist in maintaining stability in the DC link voltage. These fluctuations can be relatively low (e.g., kilohertz) or high (e.g., megahertz) frequency fluctuations or harmonics caused by the switching of converter  202 , or other transients. These fluctuations can be absorbed by buffer  204  instead of being passed to source  206  or to ports IO 3  and IO 4  of converter  202 . 
     Power connection  110  is a connection for transferring energy or power to, from and through module  108 . Module  108  can output energy from energy source  206  to power connection  110 , where it can be transferred to other modules of the system or to a load. Module  108  can also receive energy from other modules  108  or a charging source (DC charger, single phase charger, multi-phase charger). Signals can also be passed through module  108  bypassing energy source  206 . The routing of energy or power into and out of module  108  is performed by converter  202  under the control of LCD  114  (or another entity of system  102 ). 
     In the embodiment of  FIG. 2A , LCD  114  is implemented as a component separate from module  108  (e.g., not within a shared module housing) and is connected to and capable of communication with converter  202  via communication path  116 . In the embodiment of  FIG. 2B , LCD  114  is included as a component of module  108  and is connected to and capable of communication with converter  202  via internal communication path  118  (e.g., a shared bus or discrete connections). LCD  114  can also be capable of receiving signals from, and transmitting signals to, energy buffer  204  and/or energy source  206  over paths  116  or  118 . 
     Module  108  can also include monitor circuitry  208  configured to monitor (e.g., collect, sense, measure, and/or determine) one or more aspects of module  108  and/or the components thereof, such as voltage, current, temperature or other operating parameters that constitute status information (or can be used to determine status information by, e.g., LCD  114 ). A main function of the status information is to describe the state of the one or more energy sources  206  of the module  108  to enable determinations as to how much to utilize the energy source in comparison to other sources in system  100 , although status information describing the state of other components (e.g., voltage, temperature, and/or presence of a fault in buffer  204 , temperature and/or presence of a fault in converter  202 , presence of a fault elsewhere in module  108 , etc.) can be used in the utilization determination as well. Monitor circuitry  208  can include one or more sensors, shunts, dividers, fault detectors, Coulomb counters, controllers or other hardware and/or software configured to monitor such aspects. Monitor circuitry  208  can be separate from the various components  202 ,  204 , and  206 , or can be integrated with each component  202 ,  204 , and  206  (as shown in  FIGS. 2A-2B ), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, monitor circuitry  208  can be part of or shared with a Battery Management System (BMS) for a battery energy source  204 . Discrete circuitry is not needed to monitor each type of status information, as more than one type of status information can be monitored with a single circuit or device, or otherwise algorithmically determined without the need for additional circuits. 
     LCD  114  can receive status information (or raw data) about the module components over communication paths  116 ,  118 . LCD  114  can also transmit information to module components over paths  116 ,  118 . Paths  116  and  118  can include diagnostics, measurement, protection, and control signal lines. The transmitted information can be control signals for one or more module components. The control signals can be switch signals for converter  202  and/or one or more signals that request the status information from module components. For example, LCD  114  can cause the status information to be transmitted over paths  116 ,  118  by requesting the status information directly, or by applying a stimulus (e.g., voltage) to cause the status information to be generated, in some cases in combination with switch signals that place converter  202  in a particular state. 
     The physical configuration or layout of module  108  can take various forms. In some embodiments, module  108  can include a common housing in which all module components, e.g., converter  202 , buffer  204 , and source  206 , are housed, along with other optional components such as an integrated LCD  114 . In other embodiments, the various components can be separated in discrete housings that are secured together.  FIG. 2C  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a module  108  having a first housing  220  that holds an energy source  206  of the module and accompanying electronics such as monitor circuitry, a second housing  222  that holds module electronics such as converter  202 , energy buffer  204 , and other accompany electronics such as monitor circuitry, and a third housing  224  that holds LCD  114  (not shown) for the module  108 . In alternative embodiments the module electronics and LCD  114  can be housed within the same single housing. In still other embodiments, the module electronics, LCD  114 , and energy source(s) can be housed within the same single housing for the module  108 . Electrical connections between the various module components can proceed through the housings  220 ,  222 ,  224  and can be exposed on any of the housing exteriors for connection with other devices such as other modules  108  or MCD  112 . 
     Modules  108  of system  100  can be physically arranged with respect to each other in various configurations that depend on the needs of the application and the number of loads. For example, in a stationary application where system  100  provides power for a microgrid, modules  108  can be placed in one or more racks or other frameworks. Such configurations may be suitable for larger mobile applications as well, such as maritime vessels. Alternatively, modules  108  can be secured together and located within a common housing, referred to as a pack. A rack or a pack may have its own dedicated cooling system shared across all modules. Pack configurations are useful for smaller mobile applications such as electric cars. System  100  can be implemented with one or more racks (e.g., for parallel supply to a microgrid) or one or more packs (e.g., serving different motors of the vehicle), or combination thereof.  FIG. 2D  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of system  100  configured as a pack with nine modules  108  electrically and physically coupled together within a common housing  230 . 
     Examples of these and further configurations are described in Int&#39;l. Appl. No. PCT/US20/25366, filed Mar. 27, 2020 and titled Module-Based Energy Systems Capable of Cascaded and Interconnected Configurations, and Methods Related Thereto, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety for all purposes. 
       FIGS. 3A-3C  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of modules  108  having various electrical configurations. These embodiments are described as having one LCD  114  per module  108 , with the LCD  114  housed within the associated module, but can be configured otherwise as described herein.  FIG. 3A  depicts a first example configuration of a module  108 A within system  100 . Module  108 A includes energy source  206 , energy buffer  204 , and converter  202 A. Each component has power connection ports (e.g., terminals, connectors) into which power can be input and/or from which power can be output, referred to herein as IO ports. Such ports can also be referred to as input ports or output ports depending on the context. 
     Energy source  206  can be configured as any of the energy source types described herein (e.g., a battery as described with respect to  FIGS. 4A-4D , an HED capacitor, a fuel cell, or otherwise). Ports IO 1  and IO 2  of energy source  206  can be connected to ports IO 1  and IO 2 , respectively, of energy buffer  204 . Energy buffer  204  can be configured to buffer or filter high and low frequency energy pulsations arriving at buffer  204  through converter  202 , which can otherwise degrade the performance of module  108 . The topology and components for buffer  204  are selected to accommodate the maximum permissible amplitude of these high frequency voltage pulsations. Several (non-exhaustive) example embodiments of energy buffer  204  are depicted in the schematic diagrams of  FIGS. 5A-5C . In  FIG. 5A , buffer  204  is an electrolytic and/or film capacitor C EB , in  FIG. 5B  buffer  204  is a Z-source network  710 , formed by two inductors L EB1  and L EB2  and two electrolytic and/or film capacitors C EB1  and C EB2 , and in FIG.  5 C buffer  204  is a quasi Z-source network  720 , formed by two inductors L EB1  and L EB2 , two electrolytic and/or film capacitors C EB1  and C EB2  and a diode D EB . 
     Ports IO 3  and IO 4  of energy buffer  204  can be connected to ports IO 1  and IO 2 , respectively, of converter  202 A, which can be configured as any of the power converter types described herein.  FIG. 6A  is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of converter  202 A configured as a DC-AC converter that can receive a DC voltage at ports IO 1  and IO 2  and switch to generate pulses at ports IO 3  and IO 4 . Converter  202 A can include multiple switches, and here converter  202 A includes four switches S 3 , S 4 , S 5 , S 6  arranged in a full bridge configuration. Control system  102  or LCD  114  can independently control each switch via control input lines  118 - 3  to each gate. 
     The switches can be any suitable switch type, such as power semiconductors like the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) shown here, insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), or gallium nitride (GaN) transistors. Semiconductor switches can operate at relatively high switching frequencies, thereby permitting converter  202  to be operated in pulse-width modulated (PWM) mode if desired, and to respond to control commands within a relatively short interval of time. This can provide a high tolerance of output voltage regulation and fast dynamic behavior in transient modes. 
     In this embodiment, a DC line voltage V DCL  can be applied to converter  202  between ports IO 1  and IO 2 . By connecting V DCL  to ports IO 3  and IO 4  by different combinations of switches S 3 , S 4 , S 5 , S 6 , converter  202  can generate three different voltage outputs at ports IO 3  and IO 4 : +V DCL , 0, and −V DCL . A switch signal provided to each switch controls whether the switch is on (closed) or off (open). To obtain +V DCL , switches S 3  and S 6  are turned on while S 4  and S 5  are turned off, whereas −V DCL  can be obtained by turning on switches S 4  and S 5  and turning off S 3  and S 6 . The output voltage can be set to zero (including near zero) or a reference voltage by turning on S 3  and S 5  with S 4  and S 6  off, or by turning on S 4  and S 6  with S 3  and S 5  off. These voltages can be output from module  108  over power connection  110 . Ports IO 3  and IO 4  of converter  202  can be connected to (or form) module IO ports  1  and  2  of power connection  110 , so as to generate the output voltage for use with output voltages from other modules  108 . 
     The control or switch signals for the embodiments of converter  202  described herein can be generated in different ways depending on the control technique utilized by system  100  to generate the output voltage of converter  202 . In some embodiments, the control technique is a PWM technique such as space vector pulse-width modulation (SVPWM) or sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (SPWM), or variations thereof.  FIG. 8A  is a graph of voltage versus time depicting an example of an output voltage waveform  802  of converter  202 . For ease of description, the embodiments herein will be described in the context of a PWM control technique, although the embodiments are not limited to such. Other classes of techniques can be used. One alternative class is based on hysteresis, examples of which are described in Int&#39;l Publ. Nos. WO 2018/231810A1, WO 2018/232403A1, and WO 2019/183553A1, which are incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. 
     Each module  108  can be configured with multiple energy sources  206  (e.g., two, three, four, or more). Each energy source  206  of module  108  can be controllable (switchable) to supply power to connection  110  (or receive power from a charge source) independent of the other sources  206  of the module. For example, all sources  206  can output power to connection  110  (or be charged) at the same time, or only one (or a subset) of sources  206  can supply power (or be charged) at any one time. In some embodiments, the sources  206  of the module can exchange energy between them, e.g., one source  206  can charge another source  206 . Each of the sources  206  can be configured as any energy source described herein (e.g., battery, HED capacitor, fuel cell). Each of the sources  206  can be the same class (e.g., each can be a battery, each can be an HED capacitor, or each can be a fuel cell), or a different class (e.g., a first source can be a battery and a second source can be an HED capacitor or fuel cell, or a first source can be an HED capacitor and a second source can be a fuel cell). 
       FIG. 3B  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a module  108 B in a dual energy source configuration with a primary energy source  206 A and secondary energy source  206 B. Ports IO 1  and IO 2  of primary source  202 A can be connected to ports IO 1  and IO 2  of energy buffer  204 . Module  108 B includes a converter  202 B having an additional IO port. Ports IO 3  and IO 4  of buffer  204  can be connected ports IO 1  and IO 2 , respectively, of converter  202 B. Ports IO 1  and IO 2  of secondary source  206 B can be connected to ports IO 5  and IO 2 , respectively, of converter  202 B (also connected to port IO 4  of buffer  204 ). 
     In this example embodiment of module  108 B, primary energy source  202 A, along with the other modules  108  of system  100 , supplies the average power needed by the load. Secondary source  202 B can serve the function of assisting energy source  202  by providing additional power at load power peaks, or absorbing excess power, or otherwise. 
     As mentioned both primary source  206 A and secondary source  206 B can be utilized simultaneously or at separate times depending on the switch state of converter  202 B. If at the same time, an electrolytic and/or a film capacitor (C ES ) can be placed in parallel with source  206 B as depicted in  FIG. 4E  to act as an energy buffer for the source  206 B, or energy source  206 B can be configured to utilize an HED capacitor in parallel with another energy source (e.g., a battery or fuel cell) as depicted in  FIG. 4F . 
       FIGS. 6B and 6C  are schematic views depicting example embodiments of converters  202 B and  202 C, respectively. Converter  202 B includes switch circuitry portions  601  and  602 A. Portion  601  includes switches S 3  through S 6  configured as a full bridge in similar manner to converter  202 A, and is configured to selectively couple IO 1  and IO 2  to either of IO 3  and IO 4 , thereby changing the output voltages of module  108 B. Portion  602 A includes switches S 1  and S 2  configured as a half bridge and coupled between ports IO 1  and IO 2 . A coupling inductor L C  is connected between port IO 5  and a node 1  present between switches S 1  and S 2  such that switch portion  602 A is a bidirectional converter that can regulate (boost or buck) voltage (or inversely current). Switch portion  602 A can generate two different voltages at node 1 , which are +V DL2  and 0, referenced to port IO 2 , which can be at virtual zero potential. The current drawn from or input to energy source  202 B can be controlled by regulating the voltage on coupling inductor L C , using, for example, a pulse-width modulation technique or a hysteresis control method for commutating switches S 1  and S 2 . Other techniques can also be used. 
     Converter  202 C differs from that of  202 B as switch portion  602 B includes switches S 1  and S 2  configured as a half bridge and coupled between ports IO 5  and IO 2 . A coupling inductor L C  is connected between port IO 1  and a node 1  present between switches S 1  and S 2  such that switch portion  602 B is configured to regulate voltage. 
     Control system  102  or LCD  114  can independently control each switch of converters  202 B and  202 C via control input lines  118 - 3  to each gate. In these embodiments and that of  FIG. 6A , LCD  114  (not MCD  112 ) generates the switching signals for the converter switches. Alternatively, MCD  112  can generate the switching signals, which can be communicated directly to the switches, or relayed by LCD  114 . In some embodiments, driver circuitry for generating the switching signals can be present in or associated with MCD  112  and/or LCD  114 . 
     The aforementioned zero voltage configuration for converter  202  (turning on S 3  and S 5  with S 4  and S 6  off, or turning on S 4  and S 6  with S 3  and S 5  off) can also be referred to as a bypass state for the given module. This bypass state can be entered if a fault is detected in the given module, or if a system fault is detected warranting shut-off of more than one (or all modules) in an array or system. A fault in the module can be detected by LCD  114  and the control switching signals for converter  202  can be set to engage the bypass state without intervention by MCD  112 . Alternatively, fault information for a given module can be communicated by LCD  114  to MCD  112 , and MCD  112  can then make a determination whether to engage the bypass state, and if so, can communicate instructions to engage the bypass state to the LCD  114  associated with the module having the fault, at which point LCD  114  can output switching signals to cause engagement of the bypass state. 
     In embodiments where a module  108  includes three or more energy sources  206 , converters  202 B and  202 C can be scaled accordingly such that each additional energy source  206 B is coupled to an additional IO port leading to an additional switch circuitry portion  602 A or  602 B, depending on the needs of the particular source. For example a dual source converter  202  can include both switch portions  202 A and  202 B. 
     Modules  108  with multiple energy sources  206  are capable of performing additional functions such as energy sharing between sources  206 , energy capture from within the application (e.g., regenerative braking), charging of the primary source by the secondary source even while the overall system is in a state of discharge, and active filtering of the module output. The active filtering function can also be performed by modules having a typical electrolytic capacitor instead of a secondary energy source. Examples of these functions are described in more detail in Int&#39;l. Appl. No. PCT/US20/25366, filed Mar. 27, 2020 and titled Module-Based Energy Systems Capable of Cascaded and Interconnected Configurations, and Methods Related Thereto, and Int&#39;l. Publ. No. WO 2019/183553, filed Mar. 22, 2019, and titled Systems and Methods for Power Management and Control, both of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties for all purposes. 
     Each module  108  can be configured to supply one or more auxiliary loads with its one or more energy sources  206 . Auxiliary loads are loads that require lower voltages than the primary load  101 . Examples of auxiliary loads can be, for example, an on-board electrical network of an electric vehicle, or an HVAC system of an electric vehicle. The load of system  100  can be, for example, one of the phases of the electric vehicle motor or electrical grid. This embodiment can allow a complete decoupling between the electrical characteristics (terminal voltage and current) of the energy source and those of the loads. 
       FIG. 3C  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a module  108 C configured to supply power to a first auxiliary load  301  and a second auxiliary load  302 , where module  108 C includes an energy source  206 , energy buffer  204 , and converter  202 B coupled together in a manner similar to that of  FIG. 3B . First auxiliary load  301  requires a voltage equivalent to that supplied from source  206 . Load  301  is coupled to IO ports  3  and  4  of module  108 C, which are in turn coupled to ports IO 1  and IO 2  of source  206 . Source  206  can output power to both power connection  110  and load  301 . Second auxiliary load  302  requires a constant voltage lower than that of source  206 . Load  302  is coupled to IO ports  5  and  6  of module  108 C, which are coupled to ports IO 5  and IO 2 , respectively, of converter  202 B. Converter  202 B can include switch portion  602  having coupling inductor L C  coupled to port IO 5  ( FIG. 6B ). Energy supplied by source  206  can be supplied to load  302  through switch portion  602  of converter  202 B. It is assumed that load  302  has an input capacitor (a capacitor can be added to module  108 C if not), so switches S 1  and S 2  can be commutated to regulate the voltage on and current through coupling inductor L C  and thus produce a stable constant voltage for load  302 . This regulation can step down the voltage of source  206  to the lower magnitude voltage is required by load  302 . 
     Module  108 C can thus be configured to supply one or more first auxiliary loads in the manner described with respect to load  301 , with the one or more first loads coupled to IO ports  3  and  4 . Module  108 C can also be configured to supply one or more second auxiliary loads in the manner described with respect to load  302 . If multiple second auxiliary loads  302  are present, then for each additional load  302  module  108 C can be scaled with additional dedicated module output ports (like  5  and  6 ), an additional dedicated switch portion  602 , and an additional converter IO port coupled to the additional portion  602 . 
     Energy source  206  can thus supply power for any number of auxiliary loads (e.g.,  301  and  302 ), as well as the corresponding portion of system output power needed by primary load  101 . Power flow from source  206  to the various loads can be adjusted as desired. 
     Module  108  can be configured as needed with two or more energy sources  206  ( FIG. 3B ) and to supply first and/or second auxiliary loads ( FIG. 3C ) through the addition of a switch portion  602  and converter port IO 5  for each additional source  206 B or second auxiliary load  302 . Additional module IO ports (e.g.,  3 ,  4 ,  5 ,  6 ) can be added as needed. Module  108  can also be configured as an interconnection module to exchange energy (e.g., for balancing) between two or more arrays, two or more packs, or two or more systems  100  as described further herein. This interconnection functionality can likewise be combined with multiple source and/or multiple auxiliary load supply capabilities. 
     Control system  102  can perform various functions with respect to the components of modules  108 A,  108 B, and  108 C. These functions can include management of the utilization (amount of use) of each energy source  206 , protection of energy buffer  204  from over-current, over-voltage and high temperature conditions, and control and protection of converter  202 . 
     For example, to manage (e.g., adjust by increasing, decreasing, or maintaining) utilization of each energy source  206 , LCD  114  can receive one or more monitored voltages, temperatures, and currents from each energy source  206  (or monitor circuitry). The monitored voltages can be at least one of, preferably all, voltages of each elementary component independent of the other components (e.g., each individual battery cell, HED capacitor, and/or fuel cell) of the source  206 , or the voltages of groups of elementary components as a whole (e.g., voltage of the battery array, HED capacitor array, and/or fuel cell array). Similarly the monitored temperatures and currents can be at least one of, preferably all, temperatures and currents of each elementary component independent of the other components of the source  206 , or the temperatures and currents of groups of elementary components as a whole, or any combination thereof. The monitored signals can be status information, with which LCD  114  can perform one or more of the following: calculation or determination of a real capacity, actual State of Charge (SOC) and/or State of Health (SOH) of the elementary components or groups of elementary components; set or output a warning or alarm indication based on monitored and/or calculated status information; and/or transmission of the status information to MCD  112 . LCD  114  can receive control information (e.g., a modulation index, synchronization signal) from MCD  112  and use this control information to generate switch signals for converter  202  that manage the utilization of the source  206 . 
     To protect energy buffer  204 , LCD  114  can receive one or more monitored voltages, temperatures, and currents from energy buffer  204  (or monitor circuitry). The monitored voltages can be at least one of, preferably all, voltages of each elementary component of buffer  204  (e.g., of C EB , C EB1 , C EB2 , L EB1 , L EB2 , D EB ) independent of the other components, or the voltages of groups of elementary components or buffer  204  as a whole (e.g., between IO 1  and IO 2  or between IO 3  and IO 4 ). Similarly the monitored temperatures and currents can be at least one of, preferably all, temperatures and currents of each elementary component of buffer  204  independent of the other components, or the temperatures and currents of groups of elementary components or of buffer  204  as a whole, or any combination thereof. The monitored signals can be status information, with which LCD  114  can perform one or more of the following: set or output a warning or alarm indication; communicate the status information to MCD  112 ; or control converter  202  to adjust (increase or decrease) the utilization of source  206  and module  108  as a whole for buffer protection. 
     To control and protect converter  202 , LCD  114  can receive the control information from MCD  112  (e.g., a modulated reference signal, or a reference signal and a modulation index), which can be used with a PWM technique in LCD  114  to generate the control signals for each switch (e.g., S 1  through S 6 ). LCD  114  can receive a current feedback signal from a current sensor of converter  202 , which can be used for overcurrent protection together with one or more fault status signals from driver circuits (not shown) of the converter switches, which can carry information about fault statuses (e.g., short circuit or open circuit failure modes) of all switches of converter  202 . Based on this data, LCD  114  can make a decision on which combination of switching signals to be applied to manage utilization of module  108 , and potentially bypass or disconnect converter  202  (and the entire module  108 ) from system  100 . 
     If controlling a module  108 C that supplies a second auxiliary load  302 , LCD  114  can receive one or more monitored voltages (e.g., the voltage between IO ports  5  and  6 ) and one or more monitored currents (e.g., the current in coupling inductor L C , which is a current of load  302 ) in module  108 C. Based on these signals, LCD  114  can adjust the switching cycles (e.g., by adjustment of modulation index or reference waveform) of S 1  and S 2  to control (and stabilize) the voltage for load  302 . 
     Cascaded Energy System Topology Examples 
     Two or more modules  108  can be coupled together in a cascaded array that outputs a voltage signal formed by a superposition of the discrete voltages generated by each module  108  within the array.  FIG. 7A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a topology for system  100  where N modules  108 - 1 ,  108 - 2  . . .  108 -N are coupled together in series to form a serial array  700 . In this and all embodiments described herein, N can be any integer greater than one. Array  700  includes a first system IO port SIO 1  and a second system IO port SIO 2  across which is generated an array output voltage. Array  700  can be used as a DC or single phase AC energy source for DC or AC single-phase loads, which can be connected to SIO 1  and SIO 2  of array  700 .  FIG. 8A  is a plot of voltage versus time depicting an example output signal produced by a single module  108  having a 48 volt energy source.  FIG. 8B  is a plot of voltage versus time depicting an example single phase AC output signal generated by array  700  having six 48V modules  108  coupled in series. 
     System  100  can be arranged in a broad variety of different topologies to meet varying needs of the applications. System  100  can provide multi-phase power (e.g., two-phase, three-phase, four-phase, five-phase, six-phase, etc.) to a load by use of multiple arrays  700 , where each array can generate an AC output signal having a different phase angle. 
       FIG. 7B  is a block diagram depicting system  100  with two arrays  700 -PA and  700 -PB coupled together. Each array  700  is one-dimensional, formed by a series connection of N modules  108 . The two arrays  700 -PA and  700 -PB can each generate a single-phase AC signal, where the two AC signals have different phase angles PA and PB (e.g., 180 degrees apart). IO port  1  of module  108 - 1  of each array  700 -PA and  700 -PB can form or be connected to system IO ports SIO 1  and SIO 2 , respectively, which in turn can serve as a first output of each array that can provide two phase power to a load (not shown). Or alternatively ports SIO 1  and SIO 2  can be connected to provide single phase power from two parallel arrays. IO port  2  of module  108 -N of each array  700 -PA and  700 -PB can serve as a second output for each array  700 -PA and  700 -PB on the opposite end of the array from system IO ports SIO 1  and SIO 2 , and can be coupled together at a common node and optionally used for an additional system IO port SIO 3  if desired, which can serve as a neutral. This common node can be referred to as a rail, and IO port  2  of modules  108 -N of each array  700  can be referred to as being on the rail side of the arrays. 
       FIG. 7C  is a block diagram depicting system  100  with three arrays  700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC coupled together. Each array  700  is one-dimensional, formed by a series connection of N modules  108 . The three arrays  700 - 1  and  700 - 2  can each generate a single-phase AC signal, where the three AC signals have different phase angles PA, PB, PC (e.g., 120 degrees apart). IO port  1  of module  108 - 1  of each array  700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC can form or be connected to system IO ports SIO 1 , SIO 2 , and SIO 3 , respectively, which in turn can provide three phase power to a load (not shown). IO port  2  of module  108 -N of each array  700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC can be coupled together at a common node and optionally used for an additional system IO port SIO 4  if desired, which can serve as a neutral. 
     The concepts described with respect to the two-phase and three-phase embodiments of  FIGS. 7B and 7C  can be extended to systems  100  generating still more phases of power. For example, a non-exhaustive list of additional examples includes: system  100  having four arrays  700 , each of which is configured to generate a single phase AC signal having a different phase angle (e.g., 90 degrees apart): system  100  having five arrays  700 , each of which is configured to generate a single phase AC signal having a different phase angle (e.g., 72 degrees apart); and system  100  having six arrays  700 , each array configured to generate a single phase AC signal having a different phase angle (e.g., 60 degrees apart). 
     System  100  can be configured such that arrays  700  are interconnected at electrical nodes between modules  108  within each array.  FIG. 7D  is a block diagram depicting system  100  with three arrays  700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC coupled together in a combined series and delta arrangement. Each array  700  includes a first series connection of M modules  108 , where M is two or greater, coupled with a second series connection of N modules  108 , where N is two or greater. The delta configuration is formed by the interconnections between arrays, which can be placed in any desired location. In this embodiment, IO port  2  of module  108 -(M+N) of array  700 -PC is coupled with IO port  2  of module  108 -M and IO port  1  of module  108 -(M+1) of array  700 -PA, IO port  2  of module  108 -(M+N) of array  700 -PB is coupled with IO port  2  of module  108 -M and IO port  1  of module  108 -(M+1) of array  700 -PC, and IO port  2  of module  108 -(M+N) of array  700 -PA is coupled with IO port  2  of module  108 -M and IO port  1  of module  108 -(M+1) of array  700 -PB. 
       FIG. 7E  is a block diagram depicting system  100  with three arrays  700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC coupled together in a combined series and delta arrangement. This embodiment is similar to that of  FIG. 7D  except with different cross connections. In this embodiment, IO port  2  of module  108 -M of array  700 -PC is coupled with IO port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PA, IO port  2  of module  108 -M of array  700 -PB is coupled with IO port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PC, and IO port  2  of module  108 -M of array  700 -PA is coupled with IO port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PB. The arrangements of  FIGS. 7D and 7E  can be implemented with as little as two modules in each array  700 . Combined delta and series configurations enable an effective exchange of energy between all modules  108  of the system (interphase balancing) and phases of power grid or load, and also allows reducing the total number of modules  108  in an array  700  to obtain the desired output voltages. 
     In the embodiments described herein, although it is advantageous for the number of modules  108  to be the same in each array  700  within system  100 , such is not required and different arrays  700  can have differing numbers of modules  108 . Further, each array  700  can have modules  108  that are all of the same configuration (e.g., all modules are  108 A, all modules are  108 B, all modules are  108 C, or others) or different configurations (e.g., one or more modules are  108 A, one or more are  108 B, and one or more are  108 C, or otherwise). As such, the scope of topologies of system  100  covered herein is broad. 
     Control Methodology Examples 
     As mentioned, control of system  100  can be performed according to various methodologies, such as hysteresis or PWM. Several examples of PWM include space vector modulation and sine pulse width modulation, where the switching signals for converter  202  are generated with a phase shifted carrier technique that continuously rotates utilization of each module  108  to equally distribute power among them. 
       FIGS. 8C-8F  are plots depicting an example embodiment of a phase-shifted PWM control methodology that can generate a multilevel output PWM waveform using incrementally shifted two-level waveforms. An X-level PWM waveform can be created by the summation of (X−1)/2 two-level PWM waveforms. These two-level waveforms can be generated by comparing a reference waveform Vref to carriers incrementally shifted by 360°/(X−1). The carriers are triangular, but the embodiments are not limited to such. A nine-level example is shown in  FIG. 8C  (using four modules  108 ). The carriers are incrementally shifted by 360°/(9−1)=45° and compared to Vref. The resulting two-level PWM waveforms are shown in  FIG. 8E . These two-level waveforms may be used as the switching signals for semiconductor switches (e.g., S 1  though S 6 ) of converters  202 . As an example with reference to  FIG. 8E , for a one-dimensional array  700  including four modules  108  each with a converter  202 , the 0° signal is for control of S 3  and the 180° signal for S 6  of the first module  108 - 1 , the 45° signal is for S 3  and the 225° signal for S 6  of the second module  108 - 2 , the 90 signal is for S 3  and the 270 signal is for S 6  of the third module  108 - 3 , and the 135 signal is for S 3  and the 315 signal is for S 6  of the fourth module  108 - 4 . The signal for S 3  is complementary to S 4  and the signal for S 5  is complementary to S 6  with sufficient dead-time to avoid shoot through of each half-bridge.  FIG. 8F  depicts an example single phase AC waveform produced by superposition (summation) of output voltages from the four modules  108 . 
     An alternative is to utilize both a positive and a negative reference signal with the first (N−1)/2 carriers. A nine-level example is shown in  FIG. 8D . In this example, the 0° to 135° switching signals ( FIG. 8E ) are generated by comparing +Vref to the 0° to 135° carriers of  FIG. 8D  and the 180° to 315° switching signals are generated by comparing −Vref to the 0° to 135° carriers of  FIG. 8D . However, the logic of the comparison in the latter case is reversed. Other techniques such as a state machine decoder may also be used to generate gate signals for the switches of converter  202 . 
     In multi-phase system embodiments, the same carriers can be used for each phase, or the set of carriers can be shifted as a whole for each phase. For example, in a three phase system with a single reference voltage (Vref), each array  700  can use the same number of carriers with the same relative offsets as shown in  FIGS. 8C and 8D , but the carriers of the second phase are shift by 120 degrees as compared to the carriers of the first phase, and the carriers of the third phase are shifted by 240 degrees as compared to the carriers of the first phase. If a different reference voltage is available for each phase, then the phase information can be carried in the reference voltage and the same carriers can be used for each phase. In many cases the carrier frequencies will be fixed, but in some example embodiments, the carrier frequencies can be adjusted, which can help to reduce losses in EV motors under high current conditions. 
     The appropriate switching signals can be provided to each module by control system  102 . For example, MCD  112  can provide Vref and the appropriate carrier signals to each LCD  114  depending upon the module or modules  108  that LCD  114  controls, and the LCD  114  can then generate the switching signals. Or all LCDs  114  in an array can be provided with all carrier signals and the LCD can select the appropriate carrier signals. 
     The relative utilizations of each module  108  can adjusted based on status information to perform balancing or of one or more parameters as described herein. Balancing of parameters can involve adjusting utilization to minimize parameter divergence over time as compared to a system where individual module utilization adjustment is not performed. The utilization can be the relative amount of time a module  108  is discharging when system  100  is in a discharge state, or the relative amount of time a module  108  is charging when system  100  is in a charge state. 
     As described herein, modules  108  can be balanced with respect to other modules in an array  700 , which can be referred to as intra array or intraphase balancing, and different arrays  700  can be balanced with respect to each other, which can be referred to as interarray or interphase balancing. Arrays  700  of different subsystems can also be balanced with respect to each other. Control system  102  can simultaneously perform any combination of intraphase balancing, interphase balancing, utilization of multiple energy sources within a module, active filtering, and auxiliary load supply. 
       FIG. 9A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of an array controller  900  of control system  102  for a single-phase AC or DC array. Array controller  900  can include a peak detector  902 , a divider  904 , and an intraphase (or intra array) balance controller  906 . Array controller  900  can receive a reference voltage waveform (Vr) and status information about each of the N modules  108  in the array (e.g., state of charge (SOCi), temperature (Ti), capacity (Qi), and voltage (Vi)) as inputs, and generate a normalized reference voltage waveform (Vrn) and modulation indexes (Mi) as outputs. Peak detector  902  detects the peak (Vpk) of Vr, which can be specific to the phase that controller  900  is operating with and/or balancing. Divider  904  generates Vrn by dividing Vr by its detected Vpk. Intraphase balance controller  906  uses Vpk along with the status information (e.g., SOCi, Ti, Qi, Vi, etc.) to generate modulation indexes Mi for each module  108  within the array  700  being controlled. 
     The modulation indexes and Vrn can be used to generate the switching signals for each converter  202 . The modulation index can be a number between zero and one (inclusive of zero and one). For a particular module  108 , the normalized reference Vrn can be modulated or scaled by Mi, and this modulated reference signal (Vrnm) can be used as Vref (or −Vref) according to the PWM technique described with respect to  FIGS. 8C-8F , or according to other techniques. In this manner, the modulation index can be used to control the PWM switching signals provided to the converter switching circuitry (e.g., S 3 -S 6  or S 1 -S 6 ), and thus regulate the operation of each module  108 . For example, a module  108  being controlled to maintain normal or full operation may receive an Mi of one, while a module  108  being controlled to less than normal or full operation may receive an Mi less than one, and a module  108  controlled to cease power output may receive an Mi of zero. This operation can be performed in various ways by control system  102 , such as by MCD  112  outputting Vrn and Mi to the appropriate LCDs  114  for modulation and switch signal generation, by MCD  112  performing modulation and outputting the modulated Vrnm to the appropriate LCDs  114  for switch signal generation, or by MCD  112  performing modulation and switch signal generation and outputting the switch signals to the LCDs or the converters  202  of each module  108  directly. Vrn can be sent continually with Mi sent at regular intervals, such as once for every period of the Vrn, or one per minute, etc. 
     Controller  906  can generate an Mi for each module  108  using any type or combination of types of status information (e.g., SOC, temperature (T), Q, SOH, voltage, current) described herein. For example, when using SOC and T, a module  108  can have a relatively high Mi if SOC is relatively high and temperature is relatively low as compared to other modules  108  in array  700 . If either SOC is relatively low or T is relatively high, then that module  108  can have a relatively low Mi, resulting in less utilization than other modules  108  in array  700 . Controller  906  can determine Mi such that the sum of module voltages does not exceed Vpk. For example, Vpk can be the sum of the products of the voltage of each module&#39;s source  206  and Mi for that module (e.g., Vpk=M 1 V 1 +M 2 V 2 +M 3 V 3  . . . +M N V N , etc). A different combination of modulation indexes, and thus respective voltage contributions by the modules, may be used but the total generated voltage should remain the same. 
     Controller  900  can control operation, to the extent it does not prevent achieving the power output requirements of the system at any one time (e.g., such as during maximum acceleration of an EV), such that SOC of the energy source(s) in each module  108  remains balanced or converges to a balanced condition if they are unbalanced, and/or such that temperature of the energy source(s) or other component (e.g., energy buffer) in each module remains balanced or converges to a balanced condition if they are unbalanced. Power flow in and out of the modules can be regulated such that a capacity difference between sources does not cause an SOC deviation. Balancing of SOC and temperature can indirectly cause some balancing of SOH. Voltage and current can be directly balanced if desired, but in many embodiments the main goal of the system is to balance SOC and temperature, and balancing of SOC can lead to balance of voltage and current in a highly symmetric systems where modules are of similar capacity and impedance. 
     Since balancing all parameters may not be possible at the same time (e.g., balancing of one parameter may further unbalance another parameter), a combination of balancing any two or more parameters (SOC, T, Q, SOH, V, I) may be applied with priority given to either one depending on the requirements of the application. Priority in balancing can be given to SOC over other parameters (T, Q, SOH, V, I), with exceptions made if one of the other parameters (T, Q, SOH, V, I) reaches a severe unbalanced condition outside a threshold. 
     Balancing between arrays  700  of different phases (or arrays of the same phase, e.g., if parallel arrays are used) can be performed concurrently with intraphase balancing.  FIG. 9B  depicts an example embodiment of an Ω-phase (or Ω-array) controller  950  configured for operation in an Ω-phase system  100 , having at least Ω arrays  700 , where Ω is any integer greater than one. Controller  950  can include one interphase (or interarray) controller  910  and Ω intraphase balance controllers  906 -PA . . .  906 -PΩ for phases PA through PΩ, as well as peak detector  902  and divider  904  ( FIG. 9A ) for generating normalized references VrnPA through VrnPΩ from each phase-specific reference VrPA through VrPΩ. Intraphase controllers  906  can generate Mi for each module  108  of each array  700  as described with respect to  FIG. 9A . Interphase balance controller  910  is configured or programmed to balance aspects of modules  108  across the entire multi-dimensional system, for example, between arrays of different phases. This may be achieved through injecting common mode to the phases (e.g., neutral point shifting) or through the use of interconnection modules (described herein) or through both. Common mode injection involves introducing a phase and amplitude shift to the reference signals VrPA through VrPΩ to generate normalized waveforms VrnPA through VrnPΩ to compensate for unbalance in one or more arrays, and is described further in Int&#39;l. Appl. No. PCT/US20/25366 incorporated herein. 
     Controllers  900  and  950  (as well as balance controllers  906  and  910 ) can be implemented in hardware, software or a combination thereof within control system  102 . Controllers  900  and  950  can be implemented within MCD  112 , distributed partially or fully among LCDs  114 , or may be implemented as discrete controllers independent of MCD  112  and LCDs  114 . 
     Interconnection (IC) Module Examples 
     Modules  108  can be connected between the modules of different arrays  700  for the purposes of exchanging energy between the arrays, acting as a source for an auxiliary load, or both. Such modules are referred to herein as interconnection (IC) modules  108 IC. IC module  108 IC can be implemented in any of the already described module configurations ( 108 A,  108 B,  108 C) and others to be described herein. IC modules  108 IC can include any number of one or more energy sources, an optional energy buffer, switch circuitry for supplying energy to one or more arrays and/or for supplying power to one or more auxiliary loads, control circuitry (e.g., a local control device), and monitor circuitry for collecting status information about the IC module itself or its various loads (e.g., SOC of an energy source, temperature of an energy source or energy buffer, capacity of an energy source, SOH of an energy source, voltage and/or current measurements pertaining to the IC module, voltage and/or current measurements pertaining to the auxiliary load(s), etc.). 
       FIG. 10A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a system  100  capable of producing Ω-phase power with Ω arrays  700 -PA through  700 -PΩ, where Ω can be any integer greater than one. In this and other embodiments, IC module  108 IC can be located on the rail side of arrays  700  such the arrays  700  to which module  108 IC are connected (arrays  700 -PA through  700 -PΩ in this embodiment) are electrically connected between module  108 IC and outputs (e.g., SIO 1  through SIOΩ) to the load. Here, module  108 IC has Ω IO ports for connection to IO port  2  of each module  108 -N of arrays  700 -PA through  700 -PΩ. In the configuration depicted here, module  108 IC can perform interphase balancing by selectively connecting the one or more energy sources of module  108 IC to one or more of the arrays  700 -PA through  700 -PΩ (or to no output, or equally to all outputs, if interphase balancing is not required). System  100  can be controlled by control system  102  (not shown, see  FIG. 1A ). 
       FIG. 10B  is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of module  108 IC. In this embodiment module  108 IC includes an energy source  206  connected with energy buffer  204  that in turn is connected with switch circuitry  603 . Switch circuitry  603  can include switch circuitry units  604 -PA through  604 -PΩ for independently connecting energy source  206  to each of arrays  700 -PA through  700 -PΩ, respectively. Various switch configurations can be used for each unit  604 , which in this embodiment is configured as a half-bridge with two semiconductor switches S 7  and S 8 . Each half bridge is controlled by control lines  118 - 3  from LCD  114 . This configuration is similar to module  108 A described with respect to  FIG. 3A . As described with respect to converter  202 , switch circuitry  603  can be configured in any arrangement and with any switch types (e.g., MOSFET, IGBT, Silicon, GaN, etc.) suitable for the requirements of the application. 
     Switch circuitry units  604  are coupled between positive and negative terminals of energy source  206  and have an output that is connected to an IO port of module  108 IC. Units  604 -PA through  604 -PΩ can be controlled by control system  102  to selectively couple voltage +V IC  or −V IC  to the respective module I/O ports  1  through Ω. Control system  102  can control switch circuitry  603  according to any desired control technique, including the PWM and hysteresis techniques mentioned herein. Here, control circuitry  102  is implemented as LCD  114  and MCD  112  (not shown). LCD  114  can receive monitoring data or status information from monitor circuitry of module  108 IC. This monitoring data and/or other status information derived from this monitoring data can be output to MCD  112  for use in system control as described herein. LCD  114  can also receive timing information (not shown) for purposes of synchronization of modules  108  of the system  100  and one or more carrier signals (not shown), such as the sawtooth signals used in PWM ( FIGS. 8C-8D ). 
     For interphase balancing, proportionally more energy from source  206  can be supplied to any one or more of arrays  700 -PA through  700 -PΩ that is relatively low on charge as compared to other arrays  700 . Supply of this supplemental energy to a particular array  700  allows the energy output of those cascaded modules  108 - 1  thru  108 -N in that array  700  to be reduced relative to the unsupplied phase array(s). 
     For example, in some example embodiments applying PWM, LCD  114  can be configured to receive the normalized voltage reference signal (Vrn) (from MCD  112 ) for each of the one or more arrays  700  that module  108 IC is coupled to, e.g., VrnPA through VrnPΩ. LCD  114  can also receive modulation indexes MiPA through MiPΩ for the switch units  604 -PA through  604 -PΩ for each array  700 , respectively, from MCD  112 . LCD  114  can modulate (e.g., multiply) each respective Vrn with the modulation index for the switch section coupled directly to that array (e.g., VrnA multiplied by MiA) and then utilize a carrier signal to generate the control signal(s) for each switch unit  604 . In other embodiments, MCD  112  can perform the modulation and output modulated voltage reference waveforms for each unit  604  directly to LCD  114  of module  108 IC. In still other embodiments, all processing and modulation can occur by a single control entity that can output the control signals directly to each unit  604 . 
     This switching can be modulated such that power from energy source  206  is supplied to the array(s)  700  at appropriate intervals and durations. Such methodology can be implemented in various ways. 
     Based on the collected status information for system  100 , such as the present capacity (Q) and SOC of each energy source in each array, MCD  112  can determine an aggregate charge for each array  700  (e.g., aggregate charge for an array can be determined as the sum of capacity times SOC for each module of that array). MCD  112  can determine whether a balanced or unbalanced condition exists (e.g., through the use of relative difference thresholds and other metrics described herein) and generate modulation indexes MiPA through MiPΩ accordingly for each switch unit  604 -PA through  604 -PΩ. 
     During balanced operation, Mi for each switch unit  604  can be set at a value that causes the same or similar amount of net energy over time to be supplied by energy source  206  and/or energy buffer  204  to each array  700 . For example, Mi for each switch unit  604  could be the same or similar, and can be set at a level or value that causes the module  108 IC to perform a net or time average discharge of energy to the one or more arrays  700 -PA through  700 -PΩ during balanced operation, so as to drain module  108 IC at the same rate as other modules  108  in system  100 . In some embodiments, Mi for each unit  604  can be set at a level or value that does not cause a net or time average discharge of energy during balanced operation (causes a net energy discharge of zero). This can be useful if module  108 IC has a lower aggregate charge than other modules in the system. 
     When an unbalanced condition occurs between arrays  700 , then the modulation indexes of system  100  can be adjusted to cause convergence towards a balanced condition or to minimize further divergence. For example, control system  102  can cause module  108 IC to discharge more to the array  700  with low charge than the others, and can also cause modules  108 - 1  through  108 -N of that low array  700  to discharge relatively less (e.g., on a time average basis). The relative net energy contributed by module  108 IC increases as compared to the modules  108 - 1  through  108 -N of the array  700  being assisted, and also as compared to the amount of net energy module  108 IC contributes to the other arrays. This can be accomplished by increasing Mi for the switch unit  604  supplying that low array  700 , and by decreasing the modulation indexes of modules  108 - 1  through  108 -N of the low array  700  in a manner that maintains Vout for that low array at the appropriate or required levels, and maintaining the modulation indexes for other switch units  604  supplying the other higher arrays relatively unchanged (or decreasing them). 
     The configuration of module  108 IC in  FIGS. 10A-10B  can be used alone to provide interphase or interarray balancing for a single system, or can be used in combination with one or more other modules  108 IC each having an energy source and one or more switch portions  604  coupled to one or more arrays. For example, a module  108 IC with Ω switch portions  604  coupled with Ω different arrays  700  can be combined with a second module  108 IC having one switch portion  604  coupled with one array  700  such that the two modules combine to service a system  100  having Ω+1 arrays  700 . Any number of modules  108 IC can be combined in this fashion, each coupled with one or more arrays  700  of system  100 . 
     Furthermore, IC modules can be configured to exchange energy between two or more subsystems of system  100 .  FIG. 10C  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of system  100  with a first subsystem  1000 - 1  and a second subsystem  1000 - 2  interconnected by IC modules. Specifically, subsystem  1000 - 1  is configured to supply three-phase power, PA, PB, and PC, to a first load (not shown) by way of system I/O ports SIO 1 , SIO 2 , and SIO 3 , while subsystem  1000 - 2  is configured to supply three-phase power PD, PE, and PF to a second load (not shown) by way of system I/O ports SIO 4 , SIO 5 , and SIO 06 , respectively. For example, subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2  can be configured as different packs supplying power for different motors of an EV or as different racks supplying power for different microgrids. 
     In this embodiment each module  108 IC is coupled with a first array of subsystem  1000 - 1  (via IO port  1 ) and a first array of subsystem  1000 - 2  (via IO port  2 ), and each module  108 IC can be electrically connected with each other module  108 IC by way of I/O ports  3  and  4 , which are coupled with the energy source  206  of each module  108 IC as described with respect to module  108 C of  FIG. 3C . This connection places sources  206  of modules  108 IC- 1 ,  108 IC- 2 , and  108 IC- 3  in parallel, and thus the energy stored and supplied by modules  108 IC is pooled together by this parallel arrangement. Other arrangements such as serious connections can also be used. Modules  108 IC are housed within a common enclosure of subsystem  1000 - 1 , however the interconnection modules can be external to the common enclosure and physically located as independent entities between the common enclosures of both subsystems  1000 . 
     Each module  108 IC has a switch unit  604 - 1  coupled with IO port  1  and a switch unit  604 - 2  coupled with I/O port  2 , as described with respect to  FIG. 10B . Thus, for balancing between subsystems  1000  (e.g., inter-pack or inter-rack balancing), a particular module  108 IC can supply relatively more energy to either or both of the two arrays to which it is connected (e.g., module  108 IC- 1  can supply to array  700 -PA and/or array  700 -PD). The control circuitry can monitor relative parameters (e.g., SOC and temperature) of the arrays of the different subsystems and adjust the energy output of the IC modules to compensate for imbalances between arrays or phases of different subsystems in the same manner described herein as compensating for imbalances between two arrays of the same rack or pack. Because all three modules  108 IC are in parallel, energy can be efficiently exchanged between any and all arrays of system  100 . In this embodiment, each module  108 IC supplies two arrays  700 , but other configurations can be used including a single IC module for all arrays of system  100  and a configuration with one dedicated IC module for each array  700  (e.g., six IC modules for six arrays, where each IC module has one switch unit  604 ). In all cases with multiple IC modules, the energy sources can be coupled together in parallel so as to share energy as described herein. 
     In systems with IC modules between phases, interphase balancing can also be performed by neutral point shifting (or common mode injection) as described above. Such a combination allows for more robust and flexible balancing under a wider range of operating conditions. System  100  can determine the appropriate circumstances under which to perform interphase balancing with neutral point shifting alone, interphase energy injection alone, or a combination of both simultaneously. 
     IC modules can also be configured to supply power to one or more auxiliary loads  301  (at the same voltage as source  206 ) and/or one or more auxiliary loads  302  (at voltages stepped down from source  302 ).  FIG. 10D  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a three-phase system  100  A with two modules  108 IC connected to perform interphase balancing and to supply auxiliary loads  301  and  302 .  FIG. 10E  is a schematic diagram depicting this example embodiment of system  100  with emphasis on modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2 . Here, control circuitry  102  is again implemented as LCD  114  and MCD  112  (not shown). The LCDs  114  can receive monitoring data from modules  108 IC (e.g., SOC of ES 1 , temperature of ES 1 , Q of ES 1 , voltage of auxiliary loads  301  and  302 , etc.) and can output this and/or other monitoring data to MCD  112  for use in system control as described herein. Each module  108 IC can include a switch portion  602 A (or  602 B described with respect to  FIG. 6C ) for each load  302  being supplied by that module, and each switch portion  602  can be controlled to maintain the requisite voltage level for load  302  by LCD  114  either independently or based on control input from MCD  112 . In this embodiment, each module  108 IC includes a switch portion  602 A connected together to supply the one load  302 , although such is not required. 
       FIG. 10F  is a block diagram depicting another example embodiment of a three-phase system configured to supply power to one or more auxiliary loads  301  and  302  with modules  108 IC- 1 ,  108 IC- 2 , and  108 IC- 3 . In this embodiment, modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2  are configured in the same manner as described with respect to  FIGS. 10D-10E . Module  108 IC- 3  is configured in a purely auxiliary role and does not actively inject voltage or current into any array  700  of system  100 . In this embodiment, module  108 IC- 3  can be configured like module  108 C of  FIG. 3B , having a converter  202 B,C ( FIGS. 6B-6C ) with one or more auxiliary switch portions  602 A, but omitting switch portion  601 . As such, the one or more energy sources  206  of module  108 IC- 3  are interconnected in parallel with those of modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2 , and thus this embodiment of system  100  is configured with additional energy for supplying auxiliary loads  301  and  302 , and for maintaining charge on the sources  206 A of modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2  through the parallel connection with the source  206  of module  108 IC- 3 . 
     The energy source  206  of each IC module can be at the same voltage and capacity as the sources  206  of the other modules  108 - 1  through  108 -N of the system, although such is not required. For example, a relatively higher capacity can be desirable in an embodiment where one module  108 IC applies energy to multiple arrays  700  ( FIG. 10A ) to allow the IC module to discharge at the same rate as the modules of the phase arrays themselves. If the module  108 IC is also supplying an auxiliary load, then an even greater capacity may be desired so as to permit the IC module to both supply the auxiliary load and discharge at relatively the same rate as the other modules. 
     Example Embodiments of Charging and Discharging 
     Example embodiments pertaining to the charging of modular energy systems  100  will now be described with reference to  FIGS. 11A-23B . These embodiments can be implemented with all aspects of system  100  described with respect to  FIGS. 1A-10F  unless stated otherwise or logically implausible. As such, the many variations contemplated herein will not be repeated with respect to each of the following charging embodiments. 
     The charging embodiments will be described with reference to the type and quantity of signals available from the charge source to supply charge to the various modules of system  100 . These embodiments fall into three main types: DC charging where the charge source supplies a high voltage DC charge signal; single phase AC charging where the charge source supplies a single high voltage AC charge signal; and multiphase AC charging where the charge source supplies two or more high voltage AC charge signals having different phase angles. For simplicity, the multiphase charging embodiments will be described with respect to a system  100  having three phases, and in some cases six phases, although the subject matter is applicable to any system  100  having two or more arrays that charge and discharge with two or more different phases. The charge source can have various configurations depending on the particular application. For stationary applications, the charge source can be a power grid supplied by a utility or other power provider regardless of energy source type. The charge source can also be a renewable energy source such as an array of solar panels, wind powered turbines and the like. For mobile applications, the charge source can also be a grid or renewable energy source, which in many cases is supplied to the electric vehicle by way of a charge station that supplies DC, single phase AC, or multiphase AC power. 
       FIGS. 11A and 11B  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of a three-phase system  100  configured for use in a mobile application to supply three-phase power for a motor  1100 , and having interconnection modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2  configured to supply power to auxiliary loads  301  and  302 . System  100  includes a switch  1108 -PA located between SIO 1  and I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PA, a switch  1108 -PB located between SIO 2  and I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PB, and a switch  1108 -PC located between SIO 3  and I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PC. Each of switches  1108  are independently controllable by a control signal applied over control lines by control system  102  (e.g., MCD  112 ) (e.g.,  FIGS. 1A-1C ) or an external control device  104  (e.g.,  FIGS. 1A, 1B, 1D, 1E ). 
     In this and the other embodiments described herein, motor  1100  can be an electric motor such as a permanent magnet (PM), induction, or switched reluctance motor (SRM). While system  100  here and in many of the following embodiments is a three-phase system having IC modules and auxiliary loads, the charging subject matter can likewise be applied to embodiments having one or more phases with or without IC modules and auxiliary loads. 
     Switches  1108 -PA,  1108 -PB, and  1108 -PC switchably connect three phase charge signals from ports of a three-phase charge connector  1102  over lines  1111  to their respective phase module arrays ( 700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC). Charge connector  1102  can be coupled to a charge source  150  by way of the charge&#39;s source&#39;s charge connector  1104  and cable  1106 . No neutral connection is necessary for three-phase charging. Switches  1108  are preferably electromechanical switches or relays, but solid state relays (SSRs) may also be used. Electromechanical switches exhibit high reliability in keeping the motor coils or windings connected to the modular energy sources in case power is lost. 
     System  100  also includes monitor circuits  1110 -PA,  1110 -PB, and  1110 -PC connected between switches  1108 -PA,  1108 -PB, and  1108 -PC and arrays  700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC, respectively. Monitor circuits  1110 -PA,  1110 -PB, and  1110 -PC can measure any one or more of the current, voltage, and phase of signals passing through nodes NPA, NPB, and NPC, respectively, and output these measurements over data lines (not shown) to control system  102  for use in controlling modules  108  during charging and discharging. 
     In  FIG. 11A , switches  1108  are each two-conductive position switches (e.g., single pole double throw (SPDT)). When switches  1108  are in position  1  arrays  700  are connected to motor  1100  and connector  1102  is uncoupled and not energized. Switches  1108  default to position  1  as the normal position and assume this position when no control signal is applied. In case of a power loss or occurrence where switches  1108  are disconnected from the control signal, they can revert to position  1  so as not to leave the motor coils unconnected. If a control signal (e.g., a common signal) is applied, then switches  1108  move to position  2  and couple connector  1102  to arrays  700 . When in position  2 , system  100  can be charged through connector  1102 . Application of the control signal can happen automatically when system  100  detects physical coupling of charge source connector  1104  to system connector  1102 , or detects the presence of multiphase voltage at connector  1102 . Application of the control signal may also be conditioned on the motor being off. Removal of the control signal, such as after detection of decoupling of connector  1104  or absence of multiphase charge voltage at connector  1102 , causes switches  1108  to return to position  1 . 
     In the embodiment of  FIG. 11B , switches  1108  are on/off switches (e.g., switches having an open state and a closed state, such as a single pole single throw (SPST) switch) that are again controllable by application of a control signal (not shown). Arrays  700  are constantly connected to connector  1102  and thus always energized, so connector  1102  is configured such that the its internal conductors are isolated from user contact. For example, the conductors may be housed deep within the charging receptacle of connector  1102 . The design of connector  1102  is preferably sufficient to prevent user contact (e.g., shock or short) such that connector  1102  can be energized even when motor  1100  is operating. The closed position is the default position of switches  1108  in this embodiment to keep system  100  connected to motor  1102 , as damage to motor and/or converters  202  can occur if switches  1108  open during operation of motor  1100 . Application of the control signal causes switches  1108  to open, which disconnects modules  108  from motor  1100  and permits charging through connector  1102 . Although three SPST switches  1108  are shown here, in embodiments with a closed coil motor  1100 , one of the SPST switches  1108  can be omitted, e.g., only two of the three SPST switches  1108  can be present (for any two of phases PA, PB, PC), as current will not pass through motor  1100  when two of the three coils are electrically disconnected. The third coil can be left electrically connected to system  100  during charging. 
       FIG. 11C  is a flow diagram depicting an example embodiment of a method  1150  for charging that is applicable to the embodiments of  FIGS. 11A-11B  as well as other embodiments described herein. At  1152 , system  100  detects connection of charge source  150  to connector  1102 . As stated herein, this can occur by control system  102  detecting physical contact of charge source connector  1104  to system connector  1102 , or by system  100  sensing the charge signal voltage with sensors in connector  1102 . At  1154 , after detecting the connection of charge source  150 , switches  1108  can be switched from discharge positions to charge positions (e.g., position  2  with respect to  FIG. 11A , or an open state with respect to  FIG. 11B ). 
     At  1156 , the charge signals supplied by charge source  150  are monitored by monitor circuitry  1110  and this information is output to control system  102 .  FIG. 11D  is a plot depicting three phase charge signals  1112 -PA,  1112 -PB, and  1112 -PC. At  1158 , control system  102  outputs control signals to each module  108  of system  100  that causes converters  202  of each module  108  to switch to appropriately charge. Steps  1156  and  1158  are performed concurrently to provide control system  102  with a continuous assessment of the voltage, current, and/or phase of the charge signals while adjusting the switching scheme for each module  108  accordingly. 
     When switching modules  108  at step  1158 , control system  102  (e.g., MCD  112 , LCD  114 ) generates switching signals for each converter  202  of each module  108  as described elsewhere herein. Each converter  202  can be switched between a first state that presents +V DCL  at the module I/O ports  1  and  2 , a second state that presents −V DCL  at ports  1  and  2 , and a third state where the module is bypassed (shorted) and presents zero voltage at ports  1  and  2 . Switching can be controlled such that each energy source  206  of each module  108  can be charged based on the direction of the current through each array  700 . 
     Control system  102  can be programmed to control switching of each module  108  to minimize distortion and displacement within the array(s)  700  of each phase. This can be achieved by targeting a power factor (PF) at or near one (unity), according to (1): 
     
       
         
           
             PF 
             = 
             
               
                 ( 
                 
                   
                     I 
                     ⁢ 
                     
                         
                     
                     ⁢ 
                     1 
                     ⁢ 
                     rms 
                   
                   
                     I 
                     ⁢ 
                     
                         
                     
                     ⁢ 
                     rms 
                   
                 
                 ) 
               
               ⁢ 
               cos 
               ⁢ 
               
                   
               
               ⁢ 
               θ 
             
           
         
       
     
     where I 1   rms  is the root mean square value of the fundamental component of the current within the array  700  of the particular phase (e.g., array  700 -PA), Irms is the root mean square value of the total of all significant harmonics of current (I 1 +I 2 +I 3  . . . ) of the particular phase, and Θ is the phase angle between voltage and current of the particular phase. To achieve a PF at or near one, control system  102  can control switching such that the sum of the currents of each phase (e.g., as measured at NPA, NPB, NPC) is zero or close to zero (e.g., within a threshold) at all times, and the displacement (Θ) between current and voltage of each phase is zero or close to zero (e.g., within a threshold) at all times. 
     Each module  108  can be charged equally until a limit or threshold is reached for that individual module  108 . For example, all modules  108  may be charged equally (e.g., receive the same aggregate current over time) until an individual module  108  reaches a charge threshold (e.g., 80% or 90% of capacity) at which time charging of that module  108  is slowed until all modules  108  reach a balanced or substantially balanced SOC state, at which time the modules  108  are charged equally until, fully or adequately charged. 
     Alternatively, modules  108  with relatively lesser SOC levels can receive relatively more charging at the outset until system  100  reaches a relatively balanced SOC state, at which time all modules  108  can be charged in a manner such that the system has a relatively balanced SOC state at all times (e.g., all fully functional modules  108  are within 1% of the others in terms of SOC). This approach has the advantage that, if charging is stopped prior to the system  100  reaching capacity, then system  100  will exit the charge process in a relatively balanced state. 
     Referring back to  FIG. 11C , charge process  1150  can continue until  1160  when modules  108  have been fully (or adequately) charged or system  100  detects the disconnection of charge source  150 , at which point switches  1108  can be transitioned from their charge positions back to default positions of the discharge state (e.g., position one with respect to  FIG. 11A  and a closed position with respect to  FIG. 11B ). 
     In the embodiments described herein, control system  102  can control switching by generation of switching signals for each module  108  according to a PWM technique, such as those described herein, utilizing an incoming AC charge signal (or representation thereof) for each phase as the reference waveform for the respective array  700 , or a different reference in the case of DC charging. Modulation indexes for the switching circuitry of each module  108  can be adjusted to maintain the power factor at or near one by selectively charging and discharging each module for various lengths of time. Charging can also be performed while maintaining or targeting a balanced condition in one or more operating characteristics of system  100  as described earlier herein. Modulation indexes (Mi) can also be adjusted to perform charging while targeting a relatively balanced temperature across all modules, and emphasizing charging for energy sources  206  having the relatively lowest SOC by assigning those modules  108  the relatively highest modulation indexes. 
     Furthermore, for electrochemical battery sources  206 , the length of the charge pulses applied to sources  206  by converter  202  can be maintained to have a certain length, e.g., less than 5 milliseconds, to promote the occurrence of the electrochemical storage reaction in the cells without the occurrence of significant side reactions that can lead to degradation. Such pulses can be applied at high C rates (e.g., 5 C-15 C and greater) to enable fast charging of the sources  206 . Examples of such techniques that can be used with all embodiments described herein are described in Int&#39;l Appl. No. PCT/US20/35437, titled Advanced Battery Charging on Modular Levels of Energy Storage Systems, which is incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. 
     In the examples of  FIGS. 11A-11B , modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2  are connected to each other and also interconnected between arrays  700  of different phases. During charging, the switch portions  604  (for example, see  FIG. 10E ) of modules  108 IC can be continually switched such that current flows either through S 7  or S 8  at a 50-50 duty cycle. The energy sources  206  of modules  108 IC can be charged by adjusting the duty cycle of each switch portion  604  to a state where aggregate current over time through each portion  604  causes sources  206  of those modules  108 IC to charge. Alternatively, the switch portions  604  of modules  108 IC can be switched only on an as-needed basis for directing current through module  108 IC, e.g., to steer current while charging the source  206  of module  108 IC or to steer current without charging source  206 . Switching of modules  108 IC can also be used to minimize distortion and displacement within each array  700 . For all embodiments having auxiliary loads, during charging control system  102  can continue to regulate the voltage for auxiliary load  302  through switch portions  602 A ( FIG. 10E ), and thus power can be maintained for the auxiliary systems if needed. In the context of an electric car, this can maintain power to the onboard network, display, and HVAC, etc. 
     While charging has been described with reference to a PWM control technique, in alternative embodiments a hysteresis technique can be used. Other custom techniques based on PWM or hysteresis may also be used. 
     Example Embodiments of DC and Single Phase Charging with Motor Bypass 
     Multiphase configurations of system  100  can also be charged with a DC or single phase AC charge source.  FIG. 12A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a three-phase system  100  configured similar to the embodiment of  FIG. 11A  but with routing circuitry  1200  that permits DC and/or single-phase AC charging capability in addition to multiphase AC charging capability, where all charging can occur in a manner that bypasses motor  1100 . Routing circuitry  1200  can be coupled between multiphase charge connector  1102  and three phase charge lines  1111 . Routing circuitry  1200  can be coupled with at least one connector  1202  that can receive DC charging signals (DC+ and DC−) and/or AC charging signals (AC line (L) and neutral (N)) over lines  1211 . These connections can be shared as shown in  FIG. 12A  or can be separate such that different conductors of lines  1211  are utilized for DC and single phase AC. In the embodiments described herein, connector  1202 , whether configured for DC only, single phase AC only, or both, can be a separate and discrete connector from that of three-phase charge connector  1102 , or connectors  1102  and  1202  can be combined in a single location on the EV as described with respect to  FIG. 12F . If combined in a single location, the conductors for multiphase AC charging, single phase AC charging, and DC charging can be shared as described herein. Various different configurations and types of circuitry can be used for routing circuitry  1200  depending on the type of charging signal being routed (DC or AC), and whether the embodiment provides for selective disconnection of the charge connectors  1102  and  1202  from system  100 . Various example embodiments of routing circuitry  1200  are described in greater detail herein. 
     Switches  1108  can be part of a single switching assembly  1250  that is configured to conduct the high currents required during charge and discharge phases. Assembly  1250  may be configured as a discrete single device or housing. Assembly  1250  can have one or more inputs to receive switching control signals from control system  102 . In some embodiments monitor circuits  1110  can be integrated in assembly  1250 , and the control signals to circuits  1110 , as well as the data outputs from circuits  1110 , can be routed through IO ports of assembly  1250  to control system  102 . Example embodiments of assembly  1250  are described further herein with respect to power and control distribution assembly (PCDA)  1250  and  FIGS. 30A-30F . 
       FIG. 12B  is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of routing circuitry  1200  configured with solid state (or semiconductor) relay (SSR) circuits and to provide DC and single phase AC charging capability by way of connector  1202  in addition to three phase AC charging by way of three phase lines  1111  and connector  1102 . Connector  1202  can be connected to either a single phase charging cable in turn connected to a single phase charge source, or can be connected to a DC charging cable in turn connected to a DC charge source. Routing circuitry  1200  has I/O ports  1201 - 1  and  1201 - 2  connected to connector  1202 , and I/O ports  1204 -PA,  1204 -PB, and  1204 -PC that can be connected to charge lines  1111  for each phase PA, PB, PC. For DC charging and single phase AC charging, routing circuitry  1200  can be controlled to selectively output each of the signals on inputs  1201  (either DC+ and DC− signals or AC(L) and AC(N) signals) to one or more of the three different outputs  1204 . Circuitry  1200  also includes one or more I/O ports  1206 - 1  through  1206 - 4  for control signals CS 1  through CS 4 , respectively, that control the routing of each input  1201  to each output  1204 . Control signals CS 1 -CS 4  can be generated and provided by control system  102  (not shown). 
     The use of SSRs isolates system  100  and the EV from the DC or AC charger, which permits additional isolation circuitry (e.g., high frequency transformer and inverters) in the charger to be removed or omitted altogether. This can simplify the charger implementation and substantially reduce cost. In this embodiment, there are four SSR circuits indicated as  1221 - 1 ,  1221 - 2 ,  1221 - 3 , and  1221 - 4 , each having a control port  1206 - 1 ,  1206 - 2 ,  1206 - 3 , and  1206 - 4  respectively. Each SSR circuit  1221  can be selectively placed in a bidirectional current conducting (closed) state or a non-conductive (open) state by application of a control signal (CS 1 , CS 2 , CS 3 , CS 4 , respectively) from control system  102  to the control ports  1206 - 1 ,  1206 - 2 ,  1206 - 3 , and  1206 - 4 . For single phase AC charging, routing circuitry  1200  can selectively output each of the AC(L) and AC(N) signals at I/O ports  1201 - 1  and  1201 - 2 , respectively, to one or more of the three different I/O ports  1204 -PA,  1204 -PB, and  1204 -PC each connected to different lines  1111  from three-phase charge connector  1102 , which are in turn connected to arrays  700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC. For DC charging, routing circuitry  1200  can similarly selectively output each of the DC+ and DC− signals at inputs  1201  to one or more of the three I/O ports  1204  for provision to arrays  700 . Selective routing is controlled by control signals CS 1 -CS 4  supplied by control system  102  and applied to one or more control inputs  1206 - 1  through  1206 - 4 . 
     Example embodiments of SSR circuits  1221  are described with respect to the schematic views of  FIGS. 12C, 12D, and 12E . In  FIG. 12C , SSR circuit  1221  is a triac that is controllable by a control signal input to control port  1206 . When the triac is enabled with the control signal, it is placed in the closed state and current can pass bidirectionally through the triac. When unenabled, no current passes through the triac. 
     In  FIG. 12D , SSR circuit  1221  includes two insulated gate bipolar (IGBT) transistors Q 1  and Q 2  connected in series with emitter nodes connected together and collector nodes forming input/output ports to the circuit. Each IGBT has a body diode (D 1 , D 2 ) oriented in opposite current carrying directions to block passing currents when Q 1  and Q 2  are inactivated. Application of a control signal to port  1206  will bias the gate node of transistors Q 1  and Q 2  to either activate the IGBT&#39;s and allow current to flow through circuit  1221  in the closed state, or inactivate the IGBT&#39;s to block current from flowing through circuit  1221  in the open state. Other SSRs can be used instead of an IGBT, such as a MOSFET or a GaN device. 
     In  FIG. 12E , SSR circuit  1221  includes an IGBT transistor Q 3  and a bridge diode circuit having four diodes D 3 , D 4 , D 5 , D 6 . Q 3  is positioned within the bridge diode circuit to permit current to flow through SSR circuit  1221  when Q 3  is activated by application of a control signal to port  1206 . For example, when Q 3  is inactivated, circuit  1221  is in the open state and no current can flow. When Q 3  is activated circuit  1221  is in the closed state and current can flow from left to right through D 3 , Q 3  and D 6 , and from right to left through D 5 , Q 3 , and D 4 . Any combination of the embodiments of SSR circuits  1221  can be used in the routing circuitry  1200  embodiments described herein. Other SSR circuit designs can be used as well. 
     During the charge phase, each of switches  1108  can be transitioned to charge position  2 , or alternatively, only the switches  1108  of the arrays  700  being charged can be switched to position  2 , with the switch  1108  of any array  700  not being charged left in position  1 . Thus some commutation of switches  1108  during charge phase may be necessary. 
     To DC charge modules  108  of arrays  700 -PA and  700 -PB (including modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2 , which are connected in parallel), control system  102  can place circuits  1221 - 1  and  1221 - 3  in conducting states by way of application of control signals CS 1  and CS 3 , respectively, and place circuits  1221 - 2  and  1221 - 4  in non-conducting states by way of application of control signals CS 2  and CS 4 , respectively. Current passes from port  1201 - 1  through circuit  1221 - 1  to I/O port  1204 -PA, which is connected to the PA line  1111  from three-phase charge connector  1102 . The current bypasses motor  1100 , passes through switch  1108 -PA, and through array  700 -PA. Each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N of array  700 -PA can be selectively charged as described herein. Current passes through module  108 IC- 1  (e.g., switches S 7  of portions  604 -PA and  604 -PB, or switches S 8  of portions  604 -PA and  604 -PB, as described with respect to  FIG. 10E ) and through array  700 -PB, and each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N of array  700 -PB can be selectively charged taking into account opposite current direction. Current passes through switch  1108 -PB, into routing circuitry  1200  via I/O port  1204 -PB, then through circuit  1221 - 3 , and out through DC− port  1201 - 2 . 
     To DC charge modules  108  of arrays  700 -PB and  700 -PC (including modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2 ), control system  102  can place circuits  1221 - 2  and  1221 - 4  in conducting states by way of application of control signals CS 2  and CS 4 , respectively, and place circuits  1221 - 1  and  1221 - 3  in non-conducting states by way of application of control signals CS 1  and CS 3 , respectively. Current passes from the DC+ port  1201 - 1  through circuit  1221 - 2  to I/O port  1204 -PB, which is connected to the PB line  1111  from three-phase charge connector  1102 . The current bypasses motor  1100 , passes through switch  1108 -PB, and through array  700 -PB. Each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N of array  700 -PB can be selectively charged as described herein. Current passes through module  108 IC- 1  then module  108 IC- 2  (e.g., using switches S 7  together, or S 8  together, of portions  604 -PB and  604 -PC of  FIG. 10E ), and through array  700 -PC, and each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N of array  700 -PC can also be selectively charged taking into account opposite current direction. Current passes through switch  1108 -PC and into routing circuitry  1200  through I/O port  1204 -PC, then through circuit  1221 - 4 , and exits DC− port  1201 - 2 . 
     To DC charge modules  108  of arrays  700 -PA and  700 -PC (including modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2 ), control system  102  can place circuits  1221 - 1  and  1221 - 4  in conducting states by way of control signals CS 1  and CS 4 , respectively, and place circuits  1221 - 2  and  1221 - 3  in non-conducting states by way of control signals CS 2  and CS 3 , respectively. Current passes from DC+ port  1201 - 1  through circuit  1221 - 1  to I/O port  1204 -PA. The current bypasses motor  1100 , passes through switch  1108 -PA, and through array  700 -PA. Each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N of array  700 -PA can be selectively charged as described herein. Current passes through module  108 IC- 1 , then module  108 IC- 2  (e.g., using switches S 7  together, or S 8  together, of portions  604 -PA and  604 -PC of  FIG. 10E ), and through array  700 -PC, and each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N of array  700 -PC can also be selectively charged taking into account opposite current direction. Current passes through switch  1108 -PC and into routing circuitry  1200  through I/O port  1204 -PC, then through circuit  1221 - 4 , and exits through DC− port  1201 - 2 . 
     In each of the aforementioned examples, module  108 IC- 1  and interconnected module  108 IC- 2  can charge their energy source(s)  206  by routing the incoming current through the source(s)  206  by the appropriate combinations of switches in portions  604 -PA,  604 -PB, and  604 -PC prior to outputting the current from the modules  108 IC. 
     Single phase AC charging when the AC signal is positive can be performed in the same manner, with SSR circuits  1221  in the same states, as described above for DC charging. Current flow is in the opposite direction when the single phase AC charge signal is in the negative half of the cycle can be performed as follows. 
     To charge modules  108  of arrays  700 -PA and  700 -PB (including modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2 ) when the AC signal is negative, control system  102  can place circuit  1221 - 1  and circuit  1221 - 3  in conducting states by way of application of control signals CS 1  and CS 3 , respectively, and place circuit  1221 - 2  and circuit  1221 - 4  in non-conducting states by way of application of control signals CS 2  and CS 4 , respectively. Current passes from AC neutral (N) port  1201 - 2  through circuit  1221 - 3  to I/O port  1204 -PB, and from there bypasses motor  1100 , passes through switch  1108 -PB, and through array  700 -PB. Each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N of array  700 -PB can be selectively charged as described herein. Current passes through module  108 IC- 1  (e.g., using switches S 7  together, or S 8  together, of portions  604 -PA and  604 -PB of  FIG. 10E ) and through array  700 -PA, and each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N of array  700 -PA can be selectively charged taking into account opposite current direction. Current passes through switch  1108 -PA, into routing circuitry  1200  via I/O port  1204 -PA, then through circuit  1221 - 1 , and out through AC line (L) port  1201 - 1 . 
     To charge modules  108  of arrays  700 -PB and  700 -PC (including modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2 ) when the AC signal is negative, control system  102  can place circuit  1221 - 2  and circuit  1221 - 4  in conducting states by way of control signals CS 2  and CS 4 , respectively, and place circuit  1221 - 1  and circuit  1221 - 3  in non-conducting states by way of control signals CS 1  and CS 3 , respectively. Current passes from AC(N) port  1201 - 2  through circuit  1221 - 4  to I/O port  1204 -PC, bypasses motor  1100 , passes through switch  1108 -PC, and through array  700 -PC. Each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N of array  700 -PC can be selectively charged as described herein. Current passes through module  108 IC- 2  and then module  108 IC- 2  (e.g., using switches S 7  together, or S 8  together, of portions  604 -PB and  604 -PC of  FIG. 10E ), and through array  700 -PB, and each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N of array  700 -PB can also be selectively charged taking into account opposite current direction. Current passes through switch  1108 -PB and into routing circuitry  1200  through I/O port  1204 -PB, then through circuit  1221 - 2 , and exits through AC(L) port  1201 - 1 . 
     To charge modules  108  of arrays  700 -PA and  700 -PC (including modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2 ) when the AC signal is negative, control system  102  can place circuit  1221 - 1  and circuit  1221 - 4  in conducting states by way of control signals CS 1  and CS 4 , respectively, and place circuit  1221 - 2  and circuit  1221 - 3  in non-conducting states by way of control signals CS 2  and CS 3 , respectively. Current passes from AC(N) port  1201 - 2  through circuit  1221 - 4  to I/O port  1204 -PC. The current bypasses motor  1100 , passes through switch  1108 -PC, and through array  700 -PA. Each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N of array  700 -PC can be selectively charged as described herein. Current passes through module  108 IC- 2  and then module  108 IC- 1  (e.g., using switches S 7  together, or S 8  together, of portions  604 -PA and  604 -PC of  FIG. 10E ), and through array  700 -PA, and each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N of array  700 -PA can also be selectively charged taking into account opposite current direction. Current passes through switch  1108 -PA and into routing circuitry  1200  through I/O port  1204 -PA, then through circuit  1221 - 1 , and exits through AC(L) port  1201 - 1 . 
       FIG. 12F  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of system  100  similar to that of  FIG. 12A  except with a shared charge port  1102 / 1202  with three conductive IOs for use in DC, single phase AC, and three phase AC charging.  FIG. 12G  is a schematic view depicting an example embodiment of routing circuitry  1200  configured for use with the shared charge port  1102 / 1202  depicted in  FIG. 12F . Here, SSR circuit  1221 - 4  is coupled between the charger sides of circuits  1221 - 1  and  1221 - 2 , and an SSR circuit  1221 - 5  is coupled between the charger sides of circuits  1221 - 2  and  1221 - 3 . To perform three phase charging, SSR circuits  1221 - 1 ,  1221 - 2 , and  1221 - 3  are closed and SSR circuits  12214 , and  1221 - 5  are opened. To perform DC and single phase AC charging of arrays  700 -PA and PB, circuits  1221 - 1 ,  1221 - 3  and  1221 - 5  are closed and circuits  1221 - 2  and  1221 - 4  are opened. To perform DC and single phase AC charging of arrays  700 -PB and PC, circuits  1221 - 1 ,  1221 - 3 , and  1221 - 4  are closed and circuits  1221 - 2  and  1221 - 5  are opened. To perform DC and single phase AC charging of arrays  700 -PA and PC, circuits  1221 - 1  and  1221 - 3  are closed and circuits  1221 - 2 ,  1221 - 4 , and  1221 - 5  are opened. 
     Use of the SPDT switch configuration of  FIGS. 11A, 12A, and 12F  results in automatic disconnection and isolation of charge connectors  1102  and  1202  when switches  1108  are in the discharge position  1 . Similarly, motor  1100  is automatically disconnected and isolated when switches  1108  are in charge position  2 . When using SPST switches  1108 , like in the embodiment of  FIG. 11B , motor  1100  is disconnected when switches  1108  are opened in the charge state. Charge connectors(s)  1102 ,  1202  remain connected when switches  1108  are closed and motor  1100  is connected for the discharge state.  FIGS. 13A-13D  depict example embodiments using SPST switches  1108  and having the capability to selectively disconnect charge connectors  1102 ,  1202  while motor  1100  is connected and system  100  is in the discharge state. 
       FIG. 13A  is a block diagram depicting system  100  configured with SPST switches  1108 , similar to that of  FIG. 11B , but with routing circuitry  1200  that permits DC and/or single-phase AC charging in addition to multiphase AC charging while bypassing motor  1100 . The conductors of connectors  1102  and  1202  are in a shared configuration  1102 / 1202 . Like the embodiments of  FIGS. 12A and 12F , in this embodiment switches  1108  can be placed in a unified switch assembly device  1250 . The embodiment of  FIG. 13A  can be used with routing circuitry  1200  configured as shown in  FIG. 12G . 
       FIG. 13B  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment similar to  FIG. 13A  except for separate charge connectors  1102  and  1202 . The embodiment of  FIG. 13B  can be used with routing circuitry  1200  configured as described with respect to  FIG. 13C , which is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of routing circuitry  1200  similar to the embodiment of  FIG. 12B  but having additional SSR circuits  1221 - 5 ,  1221 - 6 , and  1221 - 7  (collectively referred to as switches  1331 ) configured to selectively disconnect lines  1111 -PA,  1111 -PB, and  1111 -PC connected between arrays  700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC and connector  1102 . Switches  1331  can alternatively be electromechanical relays. Each of switches  1331  can be controlled with control signals received at I/O ports  1206 . (Control connections not shown.) Control system  102  can generate and output the control signals to switches  1331 . While SPST switches  1108  are configured to default to a closed position to keep motor  1100  connected to system  100 , switches  1331  are configured to default to an open state to keep charge connectors  1102  and  1202  disconnected from system  100 . For three phase AC charging, switches  1331  are placed in the closed state, while SSR circuits  1221 - 1 ,  1221 - 2 ,  1221 - 3 , and  1221 - 4  are placed in the open state. For DC and single-phase AC charging, switches  1331  are placed in the open state and SSR circuits  1221 - 1  through  1221 - 4  can be operated similar to the embodiment described with respect to  FIG. 12B . 
       FIG. 13D  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment similar to that of  FIG. 13B , but with switches  1331  moved from routing circuitry  1200  (as depicted in  FIG. 13C ) to switch assembly  1250 . Within switch assembly  1250 , switches  1331  can be SSR circuits  1221 , electromechanical relays, or otherwise. 
     Different approaches can be used to charge each pair of arrays  700 . In one example embodiment, when charging arrays  700 -PA and PB, charging can be performed until both arrays  700  have reached a desired level or threshold (e.g., 50%). Then when charging arrays  700 -PB and PC, charging can be performed until array  700 -PB has reached 100% and array  700 -PC has reached 50%. Then when charging arrays  700 -PA and PC, charging can be performed until both arrays  700  reach 100%. In another example embodiment, routing circuitry  1200 , switches  1108 , and modules  108  of each array  700  can be controlled and cycled to charge up all arrays  700  in relative unison (e.g., array  700 -PA modules are charged one or a few percent and then array  700 -PB modules are charged one or a few percent, then array  700 -PC modules are charged one or a few percent, and the process can repeat until all modules are fully charged). In single phase AC charging, switching can occur rapidly such that each array  700 -PA through  700 -PC is charged one or more times during the positive half of the cycle and charged again one or more times during the negative half of the cycle. 
     Example Embodiments of Charging Arrays in Parallel with Motor Bypass 
     In some embodiments it can be desirable to charge arrays  700  in parallel, for example in embodiments where parallel arrays are used to generate higher currents or embodiments having more phase arrays  700  than AC charging signals.  FIG. 14  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of system  100  having two subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2  arranged in similar fashion to the embodiment of  FIG. 10C . Switches  1108  are configured as SPDT switches. Here, each subsystem  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2  powers a different motor  1100 - 1  and  1100 - 2 . System  100  can be configured to be charged with DC, single phase AC, and/or multiphase AC charge signals in accordance with the embodiments described herein. In this example charge connectors  1102  and  1202  are in a shared configuration  1102 / 1202 , and routing circuitry  1200  can be configured like that of  FIG. 12G . Routing circuitry  1200  is coupled to multiphase lines  1111  that split to connect with switch assemblies  1250 - 1  and  1250 - 2  such that subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2  are charged in parallel. For example, current being input to arrays  700 -PA and  700 -PD can charge those modules in parallel with the current being combined in module  108 IC- 1 . The same can occur for arrays  700 -PB and  700 -PE with current being combined in module  108 IC- 2 , as well as arrays  700 -PC and  700 -PF with current being combined in module  108 IC- 3 . 
     The embodiment of  FIG. 14  can be configured with separate charge connectors  1102  and  1202  (like  FIGS. 12A, 13B, and 13D ), in which case routing circuitry  1200  can be configured in accordance with the embodiments of  FIG. 12B or 13C , or otherwise. 
       FIG. 15A  is a block diagram depicting another example embodiment of system  100  with two subsystems  1000  for supplying two motors  1100 . Here, switches  1108  are configured as SPST switches within switch assemblies  1250 - 1  and  1250 - 2 , which also include switches  1331 - 1  and  1331 - 2 , respectively. Switches  1331 - 1  and  1331 - 2  are configured as electromechanical relays and are closed during charging, and opened again during operation. In this example charge connectors  1102  and  1202  are in shared configuration  1102 / 1202 . Routing circuitry  1200  can be configured like the embodiment of  FIG. 12G . Alternatively, if the subsystem connections are placed inside routing circuitry  1200 , then circuitry  1200  can be configured like the embodiment of  FIG. 15B , which is similar in operation to the embodiment of  FIG. 12G  but with additional lines  1111 -PD,  1111 -PE, and  1111 -PF in turn connected to lines  1111 -PA,  1111 -PB, and  1111 -PC, respectively. All control ports  1206  are externally accessible from circuit  1200 , though not shown. The embodiments described with respect to  FIGS. 15A and 15B  can be similarly configured for use with separate and discrete charge connectors  1102  and  1202  using routing circuitry based on the embodiment of  FIG. 13C . 
       FIG. 15C  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of system  100  configured like that of  FIG. 15A  but with switches  1331  moved inside of routing circuitry  1200 . Circuitry  1200  can be configured like the example embodiment of  FIG. 15D , which is a schematic view depicting a configuration like  FIG. 12G  having additional SSR circuits  1221 - 6 ,  1221 - 7 , and  1221 - 8  for selective disconnection of lines  1111 -PD,  1111 -PE, and  1111 -PF. SSR circuits  1221 - 6 ,  1221 - 7 , and  1221 - 8  can be placed in the closed state for three phase charging, single phase charging, and DC charging (SSR circuits  1221 - 1  through  1221 - 5  perform current routing during single phase and DC charging) and in the open state when system  100  is in a discharge state. 
       FIG. 15E  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment similar to  FIG. 15C  except that charge connectors  1102  and  1202  are separate and discrete. Routing circuitry  1200  can be configured in accordance with the example embodiment of  FIG. 15F , which depicts an embodiment similar to that of  FIG. 13C  but with additional SSR circuits  1221 - 8 ,  1221 - 9 , and  1221 - 10  placed on lines  1111 -PD,  1111 -PE, and  1111 -PF that are in turn connected to lines  1111 -PA,  1111 -PB, and  1111 -PC, respectively. SSR circuits  1221 - 8 ,  1221 - 9 , and  1221 - 10  can be placed in the closed state for AC and DC charging, and in the open state when system  100  is in use to power motors  1100 . All control ports  1206  are externally accessible from circuit  1200 , though not shown. 
     System  100  has a highly scalable and adaptable configuration that permits numerous different implementations to power applications having a wide breadth of voltage requirements and quantity of loads. The voltage requirements can vary from low voltage applications (e.g., electric scooters, etc.) on the order of hundreds of watts, to high voltage industrial applications (e.g., power grids, fusion research, etc.) on the order of megawatts, and higher. The number of loads can vary and those loads can be supplied by subsystems  1000  that are interconnected by one or more modules  108 IC and under the control of a common control system  102 . Alternatively, each subsystem  1000  can be under the control of a separate control system  102 , where each control system  102  interfaces directly with the controller for the motor. The scalability and adaptability of system  100  applies both to stationary and mobile applications. To ease illustration, many of the following embodiments are again described with respect to mobile applications, particularly various embodiments of automotive EVs, although not limited to such. 
     The example embodiments can be used with conventional automotive EVs having a single motor and one or more associated subsystems  1000  (e.g., battery packs). Example embodiments can also be used with automotive EVs having two or more motors associated with a single subsystem  1000 , or two or more motors each having one or more subsystems  1000  associated therewith. The motors can be conventional motors mounted within the vehicle body that transfer power to the wheels by way of a powertrain or drivetrain. The motors can alternatively be in-wheel motors that power wheel motion directly without a powertrain (or drivetrain). The EV may have an in-wheel motor for every wheel on the vehicle (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or more), or may have in wheel motors for only some of the wheels on the vehicle. If multiple motors are present, a combination of approaches can be used, e.g., in wheel motors for front wheels of the EV and a conventional in body motor and powertrain for rear wheels, or vice versa. 
     The present subject matter provides the capability for different subsystems  1000  to provide power for motors having different voltage requirements. For example, a single four wheel EV can have a first motor for powering the front wheels and a second motor for powering the rear wheels. The first motor may operate at a different voltage than the rear motor. Alternatively, the EV may have one motor for each front wheel and one motor for both rear wheels, where the motors for the front wheels have a different voltage requirements than the motor for the rear wheels. Or the EV may have one motor for the front wheels and two motors for the rear wheels, with the rear wheel motors having a different voltage requirements than the front wheel motor. Still further, each wheel can have its own motor, with front wheel motors having a voltage requirement that is different from the voltage requirement of the rear wheel motors. Such variable combinations also apply to multi-motor EVs having two, three, five, six or more wheels. 
     A motor having a relatively low voltage requirement, e.g., 300-400 V nominal line-to-line peak voltage, may have a subsystem  1000  with relatively less modules than a higher voltage application. Alternatively, or in addition, each module may have a lower nominal voltage than those of a higher voltage application. For example a motor having a relatively moderate voltage requirement that is higher than the low voltage requirement, e.g., a 400-700 V nominal line-to-line peak voltage, may have a subsystem  1000  with relatively more modules per array than the low voltage subsystem  1000 , and/or those modules may have the same or a higher nominal voltage than those of the low voltage application. By further example, a motor having a relatively high voltage requirement, higher than the low and/or moderate voltage requirements, e.g., a 700-800 V nominal line-to-line peak voltage, may have a subsystem  1000  with relatively more modules per array than the low voltage and moderate voltage subsystems  1000 , and/or, the nominal voltages of those modules may be relatively higher than those of the low voltage or moderate voltage subsystems  1000 . Of course, all subsystems  1000  can be configured with the same number of modules and only the nominal voltage of the modules may vary, or all subsystems  1000  can be configured with modules having the same nominal voltage but with different numbers of modules per array. 
     The present subject matter also provides the capability to use energy sources of the same class but of different types (e.g., different electrochemistry, different physical structure, etc.). For example, one or more first subsystems  1000  in a multi-motor EV may have modules  108  with batteries of a first type and one or more second subsystems  1000  in a multi-motor EV may have modules  108  with batteries of a second type. If interconnection modules  108 IC are present, then those modules  108 IC can have batteries of a third type different from the first and second types. If one or more subsystems have modules  108 B with multiple energy sources per module, then still further combinations can be practiced, such as combinations where (a) the one or more first subsystems have multiple energy sources per module, and the one or more second subsystems have only one energy source per module, (b) the one or more first subsystems have multiple energy sources per module including a primary energy source of a first type and a secondary energy source of a second type, and the one or more second subsystems have multiple energy sources per module including a primary energy source of the same first type and a secondary energy source of a third type different from the first and second types, (c) the one or more first subsystems have multiple energy sources per module including a primary energy source of a first type and a secondary energy source of a second type, and the one or more second subsystems have multiple energy sources per module including a primary energy source of a third type, different from the first and second types, and a secondary energy source of the same second type, or (d) the one or more first subsystems have multiple energy sources per module and the one or more second subsystems have multiple energy sources per module, and the types of energy sources in the one or more first subsystems are different than the types of energy sources in the one or more second subsystems. 
     Type differences between energy sources can manifest in terms of the operating characteristics of those energy sources. For example, battery energy sources of different types may have different nominal voltages, different C rates, different energy densities, different capacities, each of which may vary over temperature, state of charge, or usage (e.g., the number of cycles). Example of battery types include solid state batteries, liquid electrolyte based batteries, liquid phase batteries as well as flow batteries such as lithium (Li) metal batteries, Li ion batteries, Li air batteries, sodium ion batteries, potassium ion batteries, magnesium ion batteries, alkaline batteries, nickel metal hydride batteries, nickel sulfate batteries, lead acid batteries, zinc-air batteries, and others. Some examples of Li ion battery types include Li cobalt oxide (LCO), Li manganese oxide (LMO), Li nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), Li iron phosphate (LFP), Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA), and Li titanate (LTO). 
     The present subject matter provides the capability for different modules  108 , subsystems  1000 , and systems  100  to have energy sources of different types, particularly different types of batteries. One or more first subsystems in an EV can include modules each having an energy source of a first type, and one or more second subsystems in the EV can include modules each having an energy source of a second type different from the first type, where the two types differ with respect to at least two operating characteristics. A battery of a first type may have a first operating characteristic (e.g., nominal voltage, C rate, energy density, or capacity) that is relatively greater than the same first operating characteristic of a battery of a different second type, and the battery of the second type may have a different second operating characteristic (e.g., nominal voltage, C rate, energy density, or capacity) that is relatively greater than the same second operating characteristic of the battery of the first type. For example, an EV may have energy sources of a first type and energy sources of a second type, where the first type (e.g., LFP) provides a relatively high C rate and relatively low energy density (or capacity), thus making it more suitable for acceleration performance, while the second type (e.g., NMC) provides a relatively low C rate and a relatively high energy density (or capacity), thus making it more suitable for highway driving. 
     Thus, battery types can be mixed to achieve superior performance over different operating characteristics. The utilization of different types can be implemented within a single module (e.g., a primary source  206 A of a first type and a secondary source  206 B of a second type), between different modules of the same single subsystem  1000  or system  100  (e.g., one or more modules  108  having an energy source  206  of a first type and one or more modules  108  having an energy source  206  of a second type), and/or between subsystems  1000  or systems  100  (e.g., a first subsystem having modules that each have an energy source of a first type and a second subsystem having modules that each have an energy source of a second type). 
     These variations in voltage capability (e.g., low, moderate, high) and energy source type can be applied to all the embodiments described herein. These variations are particularly applicable to embodiments having two or more separate subsystems  1000  to power multiple motors  1100 , such as those described with respect to  FIGS. 10C, 14, 15A, 15C, 15E, and 16A-18B . When charging subsystems having different voltage capabilities, each subsystem can be charged independently by a dedicated charge port and charge cable (from a dedicated charge source or a shared charge source), or the subsystems can be charged concurrently from that same charge cable and connector, such as the parallel configurations described with respect to  FIGS. 14, 15A, 15C, and 15E  (and elsewhere). When charging any of the embodiments described herein, if desired to preserve enough margin to perform balancing during the charge process, it is preferable that the available charge source voltage (e.g., peak line to line voltage for AC charging) be less than the sum total of the present voltages of the sources  206  being charged at any one time. 
       FIG. 16A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of system  100  having three subsystems  1000 - 1 ,  1000 - 2 ,  1000 - 3  for powering three motors  1100 - 1 ,  1100 - 2 , and  1100 - 3 , respectively. In this example, motors  1100 - 1  and  1100 - 2  are each associated with a different front wheel of a four-wheel EV and have moderate voltage requirements, while motor  100 - 3  is associated with the two rear wheels of the EV and has a relatively higher voltage requirement than motors  1100 - 1  and  1100 - 2 . Arrays  700  of subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2  each can have N modules  108  as shown, and the value of N for the two subsystems is preferably the same. Arrays  700  of subsystem  1000 - 3  can each have M modules  108 , which can be any integer two or greater. Arrays  700  of subsystem  1000 - 3  are configured to produce a relatively greater voltage than the arrays  700  of subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2 , and thus subsystem  1000 - 3  will in many cases have more modules  108  than subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2 . In certain other embodiments the number of modules may be consistent between subsystems, for example, if each module  108  of subsystem  1000 - 3  is capable of generating a greater voltage than modules  108  of subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2 , such as by the use of a battery type having greater nominal voltage or by the inclusion of multiple energy sources  206  within each module  108  of subsystem  1000 - 3 . 
     Three interconnection modules  108 IC- 1 ,  108 IC- 2 , and  108 IC- 3  are present and each includes three switch portions  604  for connection to three different arrays  700 . Each module  108 IC is coupled to the three arrays  700  of a single subsystem, with module  108 IC- 1  coupled to arrays  700 -PA, PB, PC of subsystem  1000 - 1 , module  108 IC- 2  coupled to arrays  700 -PD, PE, PF of subsystem  1000 - 2 , and module  108 IC- 3  coupled to arrays  700 -PG, PH, PI of subsystem  1000 - 3 . In this embodiment, each subsystem  1000  can be under the control of a separate control system  102  that interfaces with that subsystem&#39;s associated motor  1100 . Modules  108 IC are interconnected to provide power for auxiliary loads  301  and  302 . 
     In an alternative embodiment, each module  108 IC can couple to at least two different subsystems  1000 . For example, module  108 IC- 1  can couple to arrays  700 -PA and  700 -PB of subsystem  1000 - 1  and array  700 -PG of subsystem  1000 - 3 . Module  108 IC- 2  can couple to array  700 -PC of subsystem  1000 - 1 , array  700 -PD of subsystem  1000 - 2 , and array  700 -PH of subsystem  1000 - 3 . Module  108 IC- 3  can couple to arrays  700 -PE and  700 -PF of subsystem  1000 - 2  and array  700 -PI of subsystem  1000 - 3 . In this alternative embodiment, the subsystems  1000  can be under the control of a common control system  102  that interfaces with the controllers for all three motors  1100  and also collects the status information of each subsystem  1000 , and is configured to perform interarray balancing between subsystems  1000 . 
     In  FIG. 16A , lines  1111 - 1  connect with switches  1108  within switch assembly  1250 - 1 . An additional set of switches  1602  is included on lines  1111 - 1  between subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2 . These switches  1602  can be SPST switches (either electromechanical relays or SSRs) default to an open state such that motors  1100 - 1  and  1100 - 2  are disconnected during operation. Switches  1602  can be closed for charging under the control of the relevant system  102 . Control lines are not shown. Connectors  1102 / 1202  can be shared as shown and routing circuitry  1200  can be configured in accordance with  FIG. 12G, 15B , or  15 D. Alternatively connectors  1102 / 1202  can be separate and discrete connectors  1102  and  1202  with at least five charge conductors and routing circuitry  1200  can be configured in accordance with  FIG. 12B, 13C , or  15 F. 
       FIG. 16B  is a block diagram depicting another example embodiment of a three motor topology where motors  1100 - 1  and  1100 - 2  are configured for multiphase charging from a first charge connector  1102 - 1  and motor  1100 - 3  is configured for multiphase charging from a second charge connector  1102 - 2 . In this embodiment, different multiphase charge voltages can be applied to each connector, such that the relatively high voltage subsystem  1000 - 3  can be charged with a higher voltage charge signal than the relatively lower voltage subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2 . Connectors  1102 / 1202  can be shared as shown and routing circuitry  1200  can be configured in accordance with  FIG. 12G . Alternatively connectors  1102 / 1202  can be separate and discrete connectors  1102  and  1202  with at least five terminals and routing circuitry  1200  can be configured in accordance with  FIG. 12B . 
       FIG. 16C  is a block diagram depicting another example embodiment, where a single charge connector  1102  can be used and a high-voltage multiphase charge signal can be passed directly to subsystem  1000 - 3  over lines  1604  and lower voltage AC charge signals can be produced by three phase transformer  1610  and fed to subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2  via lines  1606 . Switches  1108  are SPDT switches in the embodiments of  FIGS. 16A-16C . 
     Each of the embodiments of  FIGS. 16A-16C  can be configured as a four (or more) motor system  100 .  FIG. 17  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of system  100  having four motors  1100 - 1  through  1100 - 4  each with an associated subsystem  1000 - 1  through  1000 - 4 , respectively. In this embodiment, subsystem  1000 - 1  has three IC modules  108 IC- 1  through  108 IC- 3  and subsystem  1000 - 2  has three IC modules  108 IC- 4  through  108 IC- 6 . Each module  108 IC- 1  through  108 IC- 3  has two switch portions  604  (not shown) for connecting to an array  700  of subsystem  1000 - 1  and an array  700  of subsystem  1000 - 3 , and each module  108 IC- 4  through  108 IC- 6  has two switch portions  604  (not shown) for connecting to an array  700  of subsystem  1000 - 2  and an array  700  of subsystem  1000 - 4 . This embodiment can be implemented under the control of a single control system  102  (not shown) configured to perform balancing between and within subsystems  1000 . Alternatively, this four motor embodiment can be implemented with one (like the embodiment of  FIG. 16A ), two, or three IC modules  108  IC per subsystem  1000  to perform interphase balancing within each subsystem. The subsystems  1000  are each shown as having N modules but the number of modules per subsystem can differ. Two switches  1108  are used per motor  1100 . 
     The charging configuration for this embodiment is similar to that of the three motor embodiments but with an additional set of switches  1602 - 2  located between subsystems  1000 - 3  and  1000 - 4 . These switches  1602 - 2  can likewise be SPST switches (e.g., electromechanical relays or SSRs) that default to the open position and are closed during charging under the control of control system  102 . Connectors  1102 / 1202  can be shared as shown and routing circuitry  1200  can be configured in accordance with  FIG. 12G, 15B , or  15 D. Alternatively connectors  1102 / 1202  can be separate and discrete connectors  1102  and  1202  with at least five conductors and routing circuitry  1200  can be configured in accordance with  FIG. 12B, 13C , or  15 F. 
       FIGS. 18A-18B  are block diagrams depicting an example embodiment of system  100  configured to supply three-phase power to an EV having six motors. The six motor configuration can be used with an EV having a single chassis or multiple chassis movably connected together. For example a front chassis could have two motors and a rear chassis could have four motors, or the front chassis could have four motors in the rear chassis could have two motors. With the electrical configuration depicted here, motors  1100 - 1  and  1100 - 2  can be the front wheel motors with motors  1100 - 3  and  1100 - 4  the mid-wheel motors, and motors  1100 - 5  and  1100 - 6  the rear wheel motor. Alternatively, motors  1100 - 1  and  1100 - 3  can be the front wheel motors, motors  1100 - 2  and  1100 - 4  can be the mid-wheel motors, and motors  1100 - 5  and  1100 - 6  the rear wheel motors. 
     The charging configuration for this embodiment is similar to that of the four motor embodiments but with and additional split in lines  1111  such that third set of lines  1111 - 3  carry the multiphase charge signals to motors  1100 - 5  and  1100 - 6 . An additional switch assembly  1250 - 3  can have two additional sets of switches  1602 - 3  and  1602 - 4  located between subsystems  1000 - 5  and  1000 - 6 . These switches  1602 - 3  and  1602 - 4  can be SPST switches (e.g., electromechanical relays or SSRs) that default to the open position and are closed during charging under the control of a control system  102 . Switches  1602 - 3  and  1602 - 4  can disconnect system  1000 - 5  from system  1000 - 6  and also provide isolation from charge connectors  1102  and  1202 . If charge connector isolation is provided in routing circuitry  1200 , then switches  1602 - 3  and  1602 - 4  can be consolidated as one set of switches. 
     In the embodiments of  FIGS. 16A-16C, 17, and 18A-18B , the parallel charging approaches described with respect to  FIGS. 14-15F  can be used for charging. The split in lines  1111  can occur outside of routing circuitry  1200  as shown, or within routing circuitry  1200  as with the embodiment of  FIGS. 15C-15F . As with the embodiments of  FIGS. 14-15F , the embodiments of  FIGS. 16A-16B, 17, and 18  can be configured for only multiphase charging, only single phase charging, only DC charging, all three types of charging, or any combination thereof. Arrays  700  can be charged in parallel during all three types of charging. 
     System  100  can also be configured to charge arrays  700  in parallel in a configuration powering only one motor.  FIGS. 19A-19B  are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of a six phase system  100  configured to supply power to a six phase motor  1900 . System  100  includes an array  700  corresponding to each of the six phases PA, PB, PC, PA′, PB′, and PC′. Three-phase charge connector  1102  is connected to system  100  such that arrays  700 -PA and  700 -PA′ can be charged in parallel, arrays  700 -PB and  700 -PB′ can be charged in parallel, and arrays  700 -PC and  700 -PC′ can be charged in parallel. The lines from connector  1102  branch into a first set of lines  1911  and a second set of lines  1912 . The PA line of connector  1102  is connected to the PA port of motor  1900  and I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PA via one of lines  1911 , and the PA line of connector  1102  is connected to the PA′ port of motor  1900  and I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PA′ via one of lines  1912 . The PB line of connector  1102  is connected to the PB port of motor  1900  and I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PB via another line  1911 , and the PB line of connector  1102  is connected to the PB′ port of motor  1900  and I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PB′ via another line  1912 . The PC line of connector  1102  is connected to the PC port of motor  1900  and I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PC via another line  1911 , and the PC line of connector  1102  is connected to the PC′ port of motor  1900  and I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PC′ via a final line  1912 . 
     Switches  1908 - 1 ,  1908 - 2 , and  1908 - 3  are serially connected within lines  1912  to selectively connect and disconnect the connections made by lines  1912 . Switches  1908  preferably default to the open position for operation of motor  1900  while system  100  is in the discharge state. When system  100  enters the charge state, switches  1908  are closed to bypass motor  1900  and permit charging of the various arrays  700  in parallel. Switches  1908  can be configured as electromechanical or solid-state switches as described elsewhere herein. Alternatively, six switches can be placed at each of the six ports (PA-PC′) of motor  1900  to bypass motor  1900  during charging. 
     The embodiment of  FIG. 19A  can be charged with a three-phase charge signal through three-phase connector  1902  in a manner similar to that described with respect to  FIGS. 11A-11B , but with each array pair charged in parallel. Current can be routed through modules  108 IC and used to charge the sources of modules  108 IC as described herein. The charging process can occur while voltage is still supplied to auxiliary loads  301  and  302 . Voltage, current, and/or phase can be measured by monitor devices  1310  and the various modules  108  can be switched to target a power factor of one, or within a threshold of one (e.g., 1%, 2%, 5%), as described herein. 
     The embodiment of  FIG. 19B  has a shared charge connector  1102 / 1202  and includes routing circuitry  1200  as described with respect to  FIG. 12G  and can be charged with the three types of charging: DC, single-phase AC, or three-phase AC. The configurations of connectors  1102 ,  1202  and routing circuitry  1200  that apply charge connector isolation for parallel charging, e.g., as described with respect to  FIGS. 14-15F , can likewise be adapted for use in this embodiment having a six phase motor. Switches  1908  are closed during all three types of charging, and opened during normal operation of system  100  in the discharge state for powering motor  1900 . Arrays  700  are again charged in parallel during all three types of charging. 
     Example Embodiments of Charging Arrays Through Motor 
     System  100  can also be configured to charge arrays  700  through a motor such that adaptive routing circuitry  1200  is not needed.  FIG. 20  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of system  100  similar to that of  FIG. 11A , but with a dual DC and single phase AC charge connector  2002  that can be integrated with three-phase charge connector  1102  in a single user accessible location or can be separate therefrom and in a different location on the EV. Dual connector  2002  is connected to a first line  2004 - 1  that is in turn connected to a phase port of motor  1100 , which in this embodiment is PC and switch  1108 -PC. Connector  2002  is connected to a second line  2004 - 2  that can be connected to a system output port SIO 4  of system  100 . The system output port SIO 4  can be a module output port  2  of an interconnection module  108 IC- 2  connected to array  700 -PC, or an output port  2  of a module  108 -N of array  700 -PC if no IC module is present. Connector  2002  can be connected to positive and negative DC leads for DC charging, or AC line and AC neutral leads for single phase AC charging, which in this example are connected to lines  2004 - 1  and  2004 - 2 , respectively. Other connections can be implemented. 
     DC charging can be performed such that one, two, or all three arrays  700  are charged at the same time. Also, single phase AC charging can be performed such that one, two, or all three arrays  700  are charged at the same time. DC and AC charging can be performed in a manner that seeks to balance temperature differentials between modules  108  as described herein, and to reach a balanced SOC across all modules  108  as described herein. AC charging is performed to maintain a power factor at or near unity. In all cases, if measurable current passes through the motor coils or windings and fluxes are generated, then the sensors of system  100  will detect this current and control system  102  will control the switching of each module  108  such that the magnitude and phase of all fluxes through all windings cancel or neutralize each other, or substantially cancel or neutralize each other such that any variation in fluxes is less than a threshold and insufficient to cause the motor to turn. 
     DC Charging Each Array Sequentially 
     To charge array  700 -PA, switch  1108 -PA is placed in position  1  to connect array  700 -PA to motor  1100 . Switches  1108 -PB and  1108 -PC are placed or kept in position  2 . Upon application of the DC charge voltage, current enters the DC+ port of connector  2002 , passes through line  2004 - 1  to motor  1100 , where it passes through the PC and PA windings of the motor. The current exits motor  1100 , passes through switch  1108 -PA and monitor circuitry  1110 -PA, and through array  700 -PA, where each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N can be individually charged by switching the respective converters  202  according to the techniques described herein. Charge current for modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2  can pass through S 7  of switch portion  604 -PA, charge sources  206  of modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2  (in parallel as shown in  FIG. 10E ), and exit module  108 IC- 2  through module I/O port  2 , which can be placed along the rail (the node of IO port  6 ) as shown in  FIG. 10E  or between S 7  and S 8  of an additional switch portion  604 . Current then exits system  100  through the DC− port of connector  2002 . 
     To charge array  700 -PB, switch  1108 -PB is placed in position  1  to connect array  700 -PB to motor  1100 . Switches  1108 -PA and  1108 -PC are placed or kept in position  2 . Current passes from the DC+ port of connector  2002 , through line  2004 - 1  to motor  1100 , then through the PC and PB windings of the motor. The current then passes through switch  1108 -PB and monitor circuitry  1110 -PB, and through array  700 -PB, where each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N can be individually charged by switching the respective converters  202  according to the techniques described herein. Charge current for modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2  can pass through S 7  of switch portion  604 -PB, charge sources  206  of modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2  (in parallel as shown in  FIG. 10E ), and exit module  108 IC- 2  through module I/O port  2 , exiting system  100  through the DC− port of connector  2002 . 
     To charge array  700 -PC, switch  1108 -PC is placed in position  1  to connect array  700 -PC to line  2004 - 1 . Switches  1108 -PA and  1108 -PB are placed or kept in position  2 . Current passes from the DC+ port of connector  2002 , through line  2004 - 1 , bypasses motor  1100 , passes through switch  1108 -PC and monitor circuitry  1110 -PC, and through array  700 -PC, where each module  108 - 1  through  108 -N can be individually charged by switching the respective converters  202  according to the techniques described herein. Charge current for modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2  can pass through S 7  of switch portion  604 -PC, charge sources  206  of modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2  (in parallel as shown in  FIG. 10E ), and exit module  108 IC- 2  through module I/O port  2 , exiting system  100  through the DC− port of connector  2002 . To stop charging sources  206  of modules  108 IC, S 8  of the relevant switch portion  604  can be activated to direct the current directly to port  2  of module  108 IC- 2 . 
     DC Charging Two or More Arrays Concurrently 
     To charge two or more of arrays  700  concurrently with the DC charge signal provided at connector  2002 , then the switches  1108  connected to the arrays  700  to be charged are placed or kept in position  1  and the switches  1108  connected to any array  700  not being charged is placed or kept in position  2 . To stop charging sources  206  of modules  108 IC, then S 8  of each switch portion  604  of an array  700  been charged can be activated or switch portions  604  of the arrays  700  being charged can be modulated at 50-50 duty cycles. Current through the arrays  700  being charged is regulated by the modules  108  to maintain canceling fluxes through motor  1100 , and also to charge energy sources  206  of the modules while balancing the modules (e.g., temperature and SOC). 
     Single Phase AC Charging All Arrays Concurrently 
     To charge all of arrays  700  concurrently with a single phase AC signal provided at connector  2002 , then switches  1108  are placed or kept in position  1 . Current from line  2004 - 1  is supplied to array  700 -PA through the PC and PA windings of motor  1100 , supplied to array  700 -PB through the PC and PB windings of motor  1100 , and supplied to array  700 -PC directly from line  2004 - 1  (bypassing motor  1100 ). Current then passes through each of arrays  700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC and modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 -IC 2 , exiting through I/O port  2  of module  108 IC- 2 . Current through arrays  700  is regulated by the modules  108  to maintain canceling fluxes through motor  1100 , such as by causing the current through windings PA and PB to equal that through winding PC, with all currents in the same phase, thus neutralizing the fluxes. Energy sources  206  of modules  108  can be charged while balancing one or more operating characteristics of the modules  108  (e.g., temperature and SOC) according to the techniques described herein. 
     Single Phase AC Charging Each Array or a Subset of Arrays Concurrently 
     To one or a subset of arrays  700  concurrently with a single phase AC signal provided at connector  2002 , then the switches  1108  corresponding to the arrays  700  being charged are placed or kept in position  1  in the other switches are placed or kept in position  2 . Current from line  2004 - 1  is supplied to the array(s)  700  being charged, either through the windings of motor  1100 , or circumventing motor  1100  if array  700 -PC as charged. Current then passes through the array(s)  700  being charged and modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 -IC 2 , exiting through I/O port  2  of module  108 IC- 2 . Current through the array(s)  700  being charged is regulated by the modules  108  to maintain canceling fluxes through motor  1100 , which is relatively straightforward if only two windings are used (PC and PA, or PC and PB). Energy sources  206  of modules  108  can be charged while balancing one or more operating characteristics of the modules  108  (e.g., temperature and SOC) according to the techniques described herein. 
     In the aforementioned embodiments of charging system  100 , both when bypassing motor  1100  and when charging through motor  1100 , switches  1108  are switched to positions that permit current flow through the one or more arrays being charged and prevent current flow through any array not being charged. Alternatively, all switches  1108  can be placed in a position that permits charging and current flow through the array not being charged can be regulated or prevented using the modules  108  of that array  700  and any module  108 IC coupled to that array  700 . Some current flow through an array  700  not being charged may be desired to assist in neutralizing fluxes within the motor. 
     Charging Delta and Series Topologies 
     The charging subject matter described herein can be used with topologies having delta and series arrangements of modules  108 , similar to those described with respect to  FIGS. 7D and 7E .  FIG. 21A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of system  100  with a delta and series arrangement similar to that of  FIG. 7E , but with the addition of interconnection modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2  supplying auxiliary loads  301  and  302 . This embodiment is configured for three-phase charging through connector  1102 , or DC or single phase AC charging through connector  1202 . Three-phase charging can occur directly from three-phase charge connector  1102 . For DC and single phase AC charging, because arrays  700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC are interconnected by lines  1211 , the DC+ and AC(L) current from line  1211 - 1  can be input directly to module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PC and module  108 -(M) of array  700 -PB and circulated from there to the rest of modules  108  of system  100 . Current from DC and single phase AC charging can exit via module  108 IC- 2  and line  1211 - 2 . 
       FIG. 21B  is a block diagram depicting another example embodiment of system  100  having a similar arrangement to that of  FIG. 21A , but with routing circuitry  1200  coupled between dual charge connector  1202  and three-phase charging lines  1111 . This delta and series topologies can be charged using either a three-phase, single phase, or DC charge source as described elsewhere herein. 
     Charging Open Winding Loads 
     The charging subject matter described herein can be used with topologies having multiple subsystems  1000  providing power for one or more open winding (or coil) loads.  FIG. 22  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a system  100  having to subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2  for supplying an open winding motor  2200 . Subsystem  1000 - 1  includes arrays  700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC first supplying power having phases PA, PB, and PC respectively to first ports of motor  2200 . Subsystem  1000 - 2  includes arrays  700 -PA′,  700 -PB′, and  700 -PC′ first supplying power having phases PA′, PB′, and PC′ respectively to second ports of motor  2200 . Subsystem  1000 - 2  also includes modules  108 IC- 1  and  108 IC- 2  for interphase balancing and supply of loads  301  and  302 . 
     Three-phase charge connector  1102  is coupled to I/O port  1  of modules  108 - 1  of arrays  700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC. Switch  2208 - 1  is connected between I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PA and I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PB. Switch  2208 - 2  is connected between I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PB and I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PC. Three-phase charge connector  1102  can be used to supply three-phase power for charging both subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2  when switches  2208 - 1  and  2208 - 2  are in the open positions. 
     A dual DC and single phase AC charge connector  2202  has a DC+ or AC(L) line  2204 - 1  connected to I/O port  1  of module  108 - 1  of array  700 -PC, and a DC− or AC(N) line  2204 - 2  connected to I/O port  2  of module  108 IC- 2 . Dual charge connector  2202  can be used for DC or single phase AC charging when no three-phase charge source is connected and switches  2208 - 1  and  2208 - 2  are in the closed positions. 
     As with the other embodiments described herein, with the use of monitor circuitry  1110 , charging is performed under the control of control system  102  to maintain fluxes within motor  2200  that cancel each other to prevent the motor from turning. Charging is also performed in a manner that targets a balanced condition of one or more operating characteristics (e.g., SOC or temperature) of each module  108  of system  100 . For three-phase charging, current will pass from the one or two signals from the charge source that are positive to the remaining negative signal(s) of the charge source. For instance, if phase PA is positive and phases PB and PC are negative, then current will pass through array  700 -PA, then through the PA-PA′ winding of motor  2200 , then through array  700 -PA′ and module  108 IC- 1 . From there the current can pass back through one of two paths, either through array  700 -PB′, winding PB-PB′, and array  700 -PB, or through module  108 IC- 2 , array  700 -PC′, winding PC-PC′, and array  700 -PC, and then out through connector  1102 . As a current passes through each array  700  of subsystems  1000 , regardless of the direction of current, each module  108  can be selectively charged according to the techniques described herein. Single phase AC and DC charging can be performed along each of the three current paths in parallel, with each module  108  switching as needed to charge in a balanced fashion, and with the three current paths being: (1) array  700 -PA, winding PA-PA′, array  700 -PA′, and module  108 IC- 1 ; (2) array  700 -PB, winding PB-PB′, array  700 -PB′, and module  108 IC-1; and (3) array  700 -PC, winding PC-PC′, array  700 -PC′, and module  108 IC- 2 . 
     Example Embodiments of Chargers 
     System  100  can also be used as a charge source  150  for charging electric vehicles or other loads.  FIG. 23A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a first instance of system  100  (referred to here as system  100 - 1 ) configured as a buffer within charge station  150 . System  100 - 1  can charge with energy from an external power provider the local utility grid and then fast charge and an EV  2300  using a charge cable  2302 . The EV can have a conventional battery pack or can have a battery pack configured with a second instance of system  100  (referred to here as system  100 - 2 ). Fast charging of EV  2300  can be performed with a DC charge signal, a single phase AC charge signal, or multiphase AC charge signals, depending on the configuration of systems  100 - 1  and  100 - 2 . Charging from the grid can occur at a relatively lower voltage and slower rate than the relatively higher voltage and faster charge rate performed over cable  2302 . Furthermore, buffer system  100 - 1  may continually charge while fast charging one or more EV&#39;s  2300 . Depending on the size of sources  206  within buffer system  100 - 1 , system  100 - 1  may have the capacity to charge numerous EV&#39;s before requiring a recharge from the grid. In other embodiments, charge station  150  can be coupled to a renewable energy source such as an array of solar panels, a wind form, or other renewable source such that a utility grid connection may be omitted. 
       FIG. 23B  is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment, similar to that of  FIG. 23A , where a three-phase configuration of system  100 - 1  is used as an energy storage buffer within charge source  150 . In this embodiment, charge source  150  is configured to provide high voltage three-phase charge signals to a first EV  2300  configured with a battery pack having system  100 - 2 , and also provide a high voltage DC charge signal to a second EV  2350  having a conventional battery pack without modular switch capability. System  100 - 1  is a three-phase system having arrays  700 -PA,  700 -PB, and  700 -PC that are connected to three phase grid  2360  by way of a transformer  2362  and inductive interface circuitry  2364 . System  100 - 1  also includes an AC-DC converter and charge circuit  2366 . System  100 - 1  can output three-phase power to EV  2300  by way of interface circuitry  2364  and inductive interface circuitry  2365  and charge cable  2370 , and can output three-phase power to EV  2350  by way of interface circuitry  2364  inductive interface circuitry  2367  and AC-DC converter in charge circuit  2366 , which converts the three-phase power to a DC signal, that is output over DC charge cable  2372 . 
     In this embodiment, system  100 - 1  can slow charge from grid  2360  and store the energy within the sources of the various modules  108  for use in fast charging EV&#39;s  2300  and  2350  using either multiphase AC or DC approaches. Charge source  150  can regulate the output voltage for different vehicles (e.g., low voltage and high-voltage vehicles) by regulating the output voltages produced by the arrays  700  of system  100 - 1 , in accordance with the PWM and other control techniques described herein. High-voltage charging can be performed at a high C rate that can be as high as the EV is rated to receive, e.g., 2 C to 12 C and higher based on system and EV configurations. Charge station  150  can also be configured for high voltage single phase or DC charging, for example, by placement of routing circuitry  1200  in EV  2300  or charge station  150 , or alternatively by use of a transformer. 
     Charge source  150  can be configured to inject current to cancel harmonic components generated by AC-DC converter and charge circuit  2366 . Harmonics generated by circuit  2366 , or by other aspects of charging EV&#39;s  2300  and  2350  can be detected by monitor circuitry  2380 , which can be configured to measure current, voltage, and/or phase of signals passing from and to grid  2360 . Control system  102  (not shown) of system  100 - 1  can detect the harmonics and cause modules  108  of system  100 - 1  to produce compensatory current of opposite polarity to the harmonic but in phase with the harmonic to cancel redirection of the harmonic into grid  2360 . This active filtering capability of system  100 - 1  can allow circuit  2366  to be implemented with higher harmonic components like diodes, which greatly reduces the cost of circuit  2366  as compared to similar circuits implemented with low harmonic components such as IGBTs. 
     Example Embodiments of Physical and Electrical System Layouts 
     The modular nature of system  100  allows greater flexibility in physical layout and orientation within an EV chassis. Module dimensions and aspect ratio in the horizontal plane is driven largely by the volume of the one or more energy sources  206  contained therein, with supporting circuitry being much smaller and capable of being located above or below the housing  220  for the one or more sources  206  (see, e.g.,  FIG. 2C ).  FIGS. 24-28C  are schematic diagrams depicting example embodiments of layouts for various configurations of system  100 . Electrical connections for these figures are not shown in detail as such is thoroughly explained elsewhere herein, with emphasis instead being placed here on the physical arrangement. 
       FIG. 24  depicts an arrangement  2400  of system  100  within an internal region  180  at the base an EV chassis, where system  100  is configured in three arrays to supply three-phase power to motor  1100 . Here, there are ten levels of modules  108  within each array. Modules  108  within the phase PA array are modules  1 A through  10 A, modules  108  within the phase PB array are modules  1 B through  10 B, and modules  108  within the phase PC array are modules  1 C through  10 C. System  100  also includes modules IC 1 , IC 2 , and ICAUX, configured in an arrangement similar to that of  FIG. 10F  where module ICAUX is configured in an auxiliary role (e.g., module  108 IC- 3 ). In the horizontal plane of the EV, each module  108  has a substantially rectangular profile with a shorter dimension oriented along axis  2401  (EV length) and a longer dimension oriented along axis  2402  (EV width). The modules  108 - 2  through  108 - 10  of each array are aligned in columns, where each column is parallel to axis  2401 . Modules  108  of each level  2  through  10  are aligned in rows, where each row is parallel to axis  2402 . Modules  108 - 1 A,  1 B,  1 C are arranged in a staggered configuration occupying two rows, with modules  108 - 1 A and  108 - 1 C adjacent each other, and module  108 - 1 A overlapping the columns for the PA and PB arrays and module  108 - 1 C overlapping the columns for the PB and PC arrays. Module  108 - 1 B is generally aligned in the column for phase PB, but has modules  108 - 1 A and  108 - 1 C interposed between module  108 - 1 B and module  108 - 2 B. A similar configuration is present on the opposite end of region  180  for modules  108 IC. This configuration with staggered and rows allows the maximum amount of voltage-carrying capacity to be compactly distributed within the region  180 , which in this example has an eight sided configuration that is tapered at each end  181  and  182 , and signifies the space within the EV chassis available for placement of the energy system  100 . A battery pack enclosure for system  100  can have the same shape and dimensions as region  180  in the horizontal plane. Arrangement  2400  can be configured to perform charging in accordance with any of the single motor embodiments described herein, and can include switches  1108 , a switch assembly  1250 , charge connectors, and routing circuitry  1200 . 
       FIG. 25A  depicts an arrangement  2500  of another example embodiment of system  100  configured with two subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2  configured to supply three-phase power (PA-PC and PD-PF) for motors  1100 - 1  and  1100 - 2 , respectively. In this example, each subsystem  1000  includes five levels (rows) of modules  108 . Modules  108  are again oriented in the same fashion, with the longer dimension of each module oriented along axis  2402  and the shorter dimension aligned along axis  2401 . A row of IC modules  108 IC is positioned between the two subsystems  1000 , which are arranged in symmetrically opposite fashion. Electrical connections of this embodiment can vary in accordance with the embodiments described herein. Here, IC modules are shown connected in a fashion similar to that of  FIGS. 15A, 15B, and 15E . Each subsystem  1000  can be configured to supply different voltages based on the requirements of the two motors  1100 . Motor  1100 - 1  can provide power for a front two-wheel drivetrain of the EV, while motor  1100 - 2  can provide power for a rear two-wheel drivetrain, such that subsystems  1000  are oriented in a front and back arrangement. Arrangement  2500  can be configured to perform charging in accordance with any of the two motor embodiments described herein, and can include switches  1108 , one or more switch assemblies  1250 , charge connectors, and routing circuitry  1200 . 
       FIG. 25B  depicts an arrangement  2550  of another example embodiment of system  100  configured with two subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2  configured to supply three-phase power for motor  1100 - 1  and separate three-phase power for motor  1100 - 2 . In this example, each subsystem  1000  again includes five levels (rows) of modules  108 , but the subsystems  1000  are oriented in a left side and right side arrangement with modules  108  instead oriented with the longer dimension along axis  2401  and the shorter dimension along axis  2402 . A row of staggered IC modules  108 IC is present at end  181 , with their orientations reversed such that the longer dimension of modules  108 IC is along axis  2402 , and the shorter dimension of modules  108  is along axis  2401 . Electrical connections between all modules  108  of this embodiment can vary in accordance with the embodiments described herein. In this embodiment, because subsystems  1000  are positioned side-by-side along axis  2402 , the subsystems preferably have the same or similar voltage configuration. Because each wheel has a dedicated motor  1100 , the voltage supplied to those motors  1100  can be relatively greater than that of arrangement  2500 . Motors  1100 - 1  and  1100 - 2  can power front wheels or rear wheels. Switch assembly  1250  is positioned at end  182  and is electrically connected between subsystems  1000  and motors  1100 . Assembly  1250  can include switches  1108  for both motors  1100  (a combination of assemblies  1250 - 1  and  1250 - 2 ) as described with respect to  FIGS. 14, 15A, 15B, and 15E . Arrangement  2550  can be configured to perform charging in accordance with any of the two motor embodiments described herein, and can include charge connectors and routing circuitry  1200 . 
       FIG. 25C  depicts an arrangement  2570  of another example embodiment of system  100  configured with two subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2  configured to supply three-phase power for motor  1100 - 1  and separate three-phase power for motor  1100 - 2 . This embodiment is similar to arrangement  2550  except that each module  108  is in a hybrid configuration having to energy sources of different classes or types. For example, each module  108  can include a battery module in combination with an HED capacitor, or a battery module of a first type (e.g., NMC) and a battery module of a second type (e.g., LTO). Here, the energy source of a first type or class is indicated by a solid rectangle within the module and the energy source of a second type or class is indicated by a patterned rectangle. The energy sources of the first type are aligned in columns parallel to axis  2401  and the energy sources of the second type are aligned in columns parallel to axis  2401 . The arrangement of six module arrays (A-F) each with five levels ( 1 - 5 ) has energy sources that alternate in class or type from one column of energy sources to the next column. This distribution of source classes/types allows efficient cooling of the one or more enclosures holding these modules  108 . An alternative embodiments, the arrangement can be rotated by 90° such that the modules, and energy sources of the first and second type are each aligned in columns parallel to axis  2402 . 
       FIG. 26  depicts an arrangement  2600  of another example embodiment of system  100  configured with three subsystems  1000 - 1 ,  1000 - 2 , and  1000 - 3  configured to supply three-phase power for motors  1100 - 1 ,  1100 - 2 , and  1100 - 3 , respectively. Motors  1100 - 1  and  1100 - 2  are each dedicated to a separate wheel of the EV and motor  1100 - 3  is dedicated to a drivetrain for two wheels. Motors  1100 - 1  and  1100 - 2  can power front wheels and motor  1100 - 3  can power rear wheels or vice versa. In this example, subsystem  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2  each include three levels and are arranged in a side-by-side (left and right) relationship, with each array aligned in a row along axis  2402 , and each level aligned in a column along axis  2401 . A column aligned along axis  2401  and located between subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2  includes three IC modules  108 IC that interconnect all three subsystems  1000 . Modules  108  of subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2 , in addition to modules  108 IC, are oriented with the longer dimension of each module aligned along axis  2401  and the shorter dimension aligned along axis  2402 . Subsystem  1000 - 3  includes eight levels of modules  108 , with each array aligned in a column and levels two through eight aligned in a row, with the longer dimension of each module oriented along axis  2402  and the shorter dimension aligned along axis  2401 , opposite to the orientation of subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 2 . The first level of modules  108  of subsystem  1000 - 3  are arranged in staggered fashion at end  182 . In this embodiment, the power provided by subsystem  1000 - 3  can be greater than the power provided by subsystem  1000 - 1  or subsystem  1000 - 2 . Electrical connections between all modules  108  of this embodiment can vary in accordance with the embodiments described herein. Arrangement  2600  can be configured to perform charging in accordance with any of the three motor embodiments described herein, and can include switches  1108 , switch assemblies  1250 , charge connectors, and routing circuitry  1200 . 
       FIGS. 27A-27B  depict arrangements  2700  and  2750 , respectively, of example embodiments of system  100  configured with four subsystems  1000 - 1 ,  1000 - 2 ,  1000 - 3 , and  1000 - 4  configured to supply three-phase power for motors  1100 - 1 ,  1100 - 2 ,  1100 - 3 , and  1100 - 4 , respectively. Motors  1100  are each dedicated to a separate wheel of the EV. Each subsystem  1000  includes three levels of modules  108 , where all or most levels are aligned in a column along axis  2401 , and each array is aligned in a row along axis  2402 . All modules  108  are oriented with the longer dimension of each module aligned along axis  2401  and the shorter dimension aligned along axis  2402 . In this embodiment, each subsystem  1000  is configured to generate the same voltage for its respective motor  1100 , although in other embodiments the voltages produced by the various subsystems  1000  can differ. Electrical connections between all modules  108  of this embodiment can vary in accordance with the embodiments described herein. Modules  108 IC interconnect the four subsystems  1000 , e.g., as described with respect to  FIG. 17 . Assemblies  1250 - 1  and  1250 - 2  can be configured similar to the embodiment of  FIG. 17  and the parallel charging subject matter described herein. Arrangement  2700  can be configured to charge in accordance with any of the three motor embodiments described herein, and can include charge connectors and routing circuitry  1200 . 
     In arrangement  2700 , the column of IC modules is oriented along axis  2401  and located in the center with subsystems  1000 - 1  and  1000 - 3  on the left side and subsystems  1000 - 2  and  1000 - 4  on the right side. In arrangement  2750 , region  180  tapers into a columnar shape at both ends  181  and  182 . The PC array of subsystem  1000 - 2  is located in this columnar region at end  181 , and the PA array of subsystem  1000 - 3  (the diagonally opposite subsystem) is located in the columnar region of end  182 , along with module  108 IC- 6 . In an alternative to the embodiments of  FIGS. 27A-27B , most or all levels can be aligned in a row along axis  2402 , most or all arrays can be aligned in a column along axis  2401 , and modules  108 IC can be aligned as shown here or as a row along axis  2403 . 
       FIGS. 28A-28C  depict arrangements  2800 ,  2820 , and  2850 , respectively, of example embodiments of system  100  configured with six subsystems  1000 - 1  through  1000 - 6  configured to supply three-phase power for motors  1100 - 1  through  1100 - 6 , respectively. Motors  1100  are each dedicated to a separate wheel of the EV. In these embodiments the EV includes a first chassis having a first energy system region  180  and a second chassis having a second energy system region  280 . The two chassis&#39; are movable with respect to each other at mechanical and electrical connection  2801 . The EV can be configured such that the first chassis is in front and the second chassis is in the rear, or vice versa. These six wheel configurations are suitable for larger EV&#39;s designed to carry large groups of people, or freight, or large loads, etc. The subject matter described with respect to  FIGS. 28A-28C  can be extended to still larger vehicles having two or more chassis&#39; and seven or more motors. Electrical connections between all modules  108  can vary in accordance with the embodiments described herein. The various assemblies  1250  can be configured similar to the embodiment of  FIGS. 18A-18B  and the parallel charging subject matter described herein. Modules  108 IC can interconnect all subsystems  1000  by the auxiliary load connections, and can perform interarray balancing between two or arrays of the same or different subsystems. Referring to the electrical arrangement of  FIGS. 18A-18B , multiphase lines  1111 - 3  and auxiliary load lines  1802  can pass from region  180  to region  280  by electrical connection  2801 . Arrangements  2800 ,  2820 , and  2850  can be configured to charge in accordance with any of the three motor embodiments described herein, and can include charge connectors and routing circuitry  1200 . 
     Arrangements  2800  and  2820  are similar except that region  280  is larger in arrangement  2820  than  2800 , and has room for additional modules if desired. In these two embodiments, each subsystem  1000  includes three or more levels of modules  108  and all modules  108  are oriented with the longer dimension of each module aligned along axis  2401  and the shorter dimension aligned along axis  2402 . Region  180  can be configured with an arrangement similar to that of  2750  (as shown here) or with arrangement  2700 , or others contemplated herein. Subsystems  1000 - 5  and  1000 - 6  can be arranged in a front and back fashion ( FIG. 25A ), or in a left and right fashion as shown here, where each array is aligned in a row along axis  2402  and each level is aligned in a column along axis  2401 . 
     The configuration of region  180  of arrangement  2850  is similar to that of arrangements  2800  and  2820 . Region  280  of arrangement  2850  is configured similar to that of arrangement  2550  ( FIG. 25B ), where arrays are in columns each aligned along axis  2401  and levels are in rows each aligned along axis  2402 . Arrangement  2850  has a second chassis that is still larger than those of  2800  and  2820  and can house subsystems capable of generating still greater power. 
     Example Embodiments Configured to Power Electric Suspensions and/or Steering 
     Electric vehicles can be configured with electric (active) suspension mechanisms and/or electric steering (e.g., steer-by-wire) for each wheel. An electrically powered suspension operates with an electric actuator or motor to actively move the suspension (as opposed to conventional passive suspensions that only mechanically react to stimulus applied to the wheel or car) in anticipation of movement of the vehicle or wheel. An electrically powered steering mechanism also operates with an electric actuator or motor to move the wheel in response to an electric signal passed by the steering controller (e.g., based on input by the driver to the steering wheel or by input from an automated driving control system). 
     The embodiments described herein can be utilized to power an actuator or motor for electric suspension and/or steering, or other loads. The embodiments can power electric suspension at any and all wheels, can power electric steering at both front wheels (and also rear wheels if desired), up to and including both electric suspension and electric steering at each wheel. The embodiments can power electric steering and suspension using a single three-phase system  100  with no subsystems, or systems  100  having two, three, four, or more subsystems  1000 . 
       FIG. 29A  is a block diagram depicting example embodiments of a system  100  having four subsystems  1000 - 1  through  10004 , where each subsystem  1000  is configured to power a three-phase motor  1100  associated with a wheel of the EV, as well as a DC actuator (or motor)  2900  associated with the wheel of the EV, where the DC actuator  2900  can be used for either electric suspension or electric steering. In  FIG. 29A , each actuator  2900  is powered by auxiliary load lines  2902  that can be sourced by one or more interconnection modules  108 IC. The voltage of lines  2902  can be the same voltage as the sources  206  of the interconnection modules  108 IC, e.g., taken from ports  3  and  4  as described with respect to module  108 C of  FIG. 3C . Alternatively the voltage of lines  2902  can be regulated down from the voltage of sources  206  of modules  108 IC, e.g., taken from ports  5  and  6 . Alternatively, connections to lines  2902  can be omitted, and each actuator  2900  can be powered directly from a module  108 . The module  108  that provides power can be the module that is located closest in proximity or location to each actuator  2900 . 
       FIG. 29A  depicts an alternative connection where lines  2904  connect actuator  2900 - 1  to module  108 - 1  of the PA 1  array of subsystem  1000 - 1 . Module  108 - 1  here is a corner module located closest in proximity to actuator  2900 - 1 . If such connection were used, actuator  2900 - 2  could be powered by module  108 - 1  of array PC 2  of subsystem  1000 - 2 , actuator  2900 - 3  could be powered by module  108 - 1  of array PA 3  of subsystem  1000 - 3 , and actuator  2900 - 4  could be powered by module  108 - 1  of array PC 4  of subsystem  1000 - 4  by additional lines  2904  (not shown). 
     Actuators  2900  need not be powered directly by a corner module and can be powered by any other module in the array closest to the actuator  2900 .  FIG. 29A  depicts another alternative connection where lines  2906  connect actuator  2900 - 3  to module  108 -N of the PA 3  array of subsystem  1000 - 3 , which is the array located in closest proximity to actuator  2900 - 3 . Such connections can likewise be used as an alternative for each of the other actuators  2900 . 
     If each actuator  2900  is grounded, then it may be desirable to provide isolation between actuators  2900  and system  100 .  FIG. 29A  depicts another alternative connection where isolated converter  2910 , which can be either a DC-DC converter or DC-AC converter, is positioned on lines  2908  extending from a module  108 - 1  of array PC 4  of subsystem  1000 - 4  to actuator  2900 - 4 . Such connections  2908  can likewise be used as an alternative for each of the other actuators  2900 . In other embodiments, isolated converter  2910  can be interposed in lines  2902  or  2906 , to provide isolated power from those other sources. While each of connections  2904 ,  2906 , and  2908  are shown coming from a single module, such connections can come from multiple modules  108  to utilize parallel energy sources. 
     The isolated converter can be integrated directly into a module  108 .  FIG. 29B  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a module  108 D configured with a DC-DC isolated converter  2910 , and can provide power from source  206  (or power connection  110 ) to ports  7  and  8  connected to lines  2904  or  2906 . Converter  2910  is connected between I/O ports  7  and  8  and buffer  204  and includes DC-AC converter  2952 , connected to transformer  2956 , which in turn is connected to AC-DC converter  2958 . Converter  2958  can convert the DC voltage of source  206  into a high-frequency AC voltage, which transformer  2956  can modify to a different voltage if needed, and output that modified AC voltage to AC-DC converter  2952 , which can convert the AC signal back into DC form for provision to actuator  2900 . Transformer  2956  can also isolate module components  202 ,  204 ,  206 ,  2958 , and  114  from ground. As with the other components of module  108 D, monitor circuitry for converter  2952 , transformer  2956 , and converter  2958  can be included to measure currents, voltages, temperatures, faults, and the like. LCD  114  can monitor the status of converter  2910 , particularly converter  2952 , transformer  2956  (e.g., monitor circuitry or an active component associated therewith), and converter  2958 , over data connections  118 - 5 ,  118 - 7 , and  118 - 8 , respectively. These connections  118 - 5  and  118 - 6  can also supply control signals to control switching of converter  2952  and to control any controllable elements within associated with transformer  2956 . Isolation of LCD  114  can be maintained by isolation circuitry present on lines  118 - 5  and  118 - 6  (e.g., isolated gate drivers and isolated sensors). 
       FIG. 29C  is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of module  108 D. Converter  202 A is coupled with buffer  204 , which is configured as a capacitor. I/O ports  7  and  8  are coupled to an optional LC filter  2902 , which is in turn coupled to converter  2910 , specifically DC-AC converter  2952 , which is configured as a full bridge converter with switches S 10 , S 11 , S 12 , and S 13 . The full bridge outputs from nodes N 1  and N 2  are connected to a primary winding of transformer  2956 . A secondary winding of transformer  2956  is coupled with nodes N 3  and N 4  of a second full bridge circuit configured as AC-DC converter  2958 , having switches S 14 , S 15 , S 16 , and S 17 . The switches of converter  2958  can be semiconductor switches configured as MOSFETs, IGBT&#39;s, GaN devices, or others as described herein. LCD  114  or another element of control system  102  can provide the switching signals for control of switches S 1 -S 6  and S 10 -S 17 . 
       FIG. 29D  is a schematic diagram depicting another example embodiment of module  108 D, where AC-DC converter  2958  is configured as a push-pull converter with a first terminal of source  206  connected to one side of dual secondary windings of transformer  2956  through an inductor L 2 , and switches S 18  and S 19  connected between the opposite side of dual secondary windings and a common node (e.g., node  4 ) coupled with the opposite terminal of source  206 . The push-pull configuration only requires two switches and thus is more cost-effective than a full bridge converter, although the switches have larger voltages applied across them. 
     Example Embodiments of Power and Control Distribution Assemblies 
     The interface between system  100  and the motor, charge port, and other control and subsystems systems of the EV can be complex. These interfaces can include control devices, drive units, power converters, relays, routing circuitry, sensors, and associated power and control interconnections. Any and all of these interfaces can be housed within power and control distribution assembly (PCDA)  1250 . An EV can include one instance of a PCDA  1250  that handles interfaces with system  100 , or can include two or more instances of PCDA  1250  with each instance being associated with interfaces at a particular location of the EV, such as a front axle PCDA and a rear axle PCDA. 
       FIG. 30A  is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of PCDA  1250 . Here, PCDA includes a control section  3002 , and auxiliary power section  3004  and a primary power section  3006 . Control section  3002  can include various control devices, such as MCD  112  and one or more auxiliary control devices (ACD)  3008 - 1  through  3008 -N. While not shown here, section  3002  can also include a vehicular ECU  104 , either as a discrete device or integrated with MCD  112  as common control device  132 . An ACD  3008  can be a control device responsible for controlling one or more auxiliary subsystems of the EV, such as active suspension, electronic steering (e.g., steer-by-wire (SbW)), headlamps and lighting, and/or autonomous driving sensors (e.g., radar devices, millimeter wave radar devices, cameras, far infrared (FIR) cameras, and light detection and ranging (LIDAR) devices). Each of the control devices within PCDA  1250  can communicate with each other, with devices in other sections of PCDA  1250 , and with external devices (e.g., vehicular ECU  104 ) as required. Here, a bidirectional communication interface  105  can communicate control signals and information between the devices of control section  3002  and vehicular ECU  104 . Bidirectional communication interface  3009 - 1  through  3009 -N can communicate control signals and information between section  3002  and any external ACDs  3008 , or other systems requiring control input or information from MCD  112  (such as, e.g., routing circuitry  1200  when located external to PCDA  1250 ). Bidirectional communication interface  115  can communicate information between MCD  112  and the LCDs  114  of system  100  as described herein. 
     Auxiliary power input connection  3010  can route various auxiliary power signals from system  100  (e.g., power from ports  3 ,  4 ,  5 ,  6  of the IC module(s)) to section  3004 . Auxiliary power section  3004  can include cabling for routing these auxiliary power signals from system  100  to any auxiliary loads of the EV (e.g., HVAC, on-board network, internal lighting) over auxiliary power output interface  3012 . Section  3004  can also include one or more auxiliary power converters  3011  (e.g., such as converter  2910 ). Converter  3011  can be, for example, a DC-DC for converting a first low voltage signal from connection  3010  (e.g., 48V) to a lower voltage (e.g., 14V) to be output for use by auxiliary loads over auxiliary output interface  3014 . Section  3004  can also include one or more auxiliary drive units  3015 - 1  through  3015 -N for converting auxiliary power from system  100  to drive signals for the associated electromechanical auxiliary subsystems, like active suspension and electronic steering, over drive output interface  3016 . Drive units  3015  can be controlled by ACDs  3008 . Section  3004  can supply power for control section  3002  over internal power connection  3018 . Control signals between auxiliary section  3004  and control section  3002  can be exchanged over an internal communication interface  3020 . 
     Primary power distribution section  3006  can include switches (e.g., relays), routing circuitry, transformers, and/or sensors for measuring and routing power between system  100  and one or more motors  1100 , between system  100  and charge port(s)  1102  and/or  1202  (for charging), and between system  100  and any regenerative braking energy recapture devices. In all the embodiments described herein, routing circuitry  1200  can be included within PCDA  1250  as shown here, or can be external to PCDA  120 , as is shown in the examples of  FIGS. 12A, 13A, 13D, 14, 15A, 15B, 15E, and 16A-18B . When external to PCDA  1250 , routing circuitry  1200  can be located within a charge network distribution housing  3248 , such as that depicted in FIG.  30 G.  FIG. 30G  is a perspective view depicting an example embodiment of an EV  3000  with a combined three-phase, single-phase, and DC charge port  1102 / 1202 . Three phase cabling  1111  conducts three phase AC power from port  1102 / 1202  to routing circuitry  1200  within housing  3248 . Dual single phase/DC cabling  1211  conducts single phase or DC power from port  1102 / 1202  to routing circuitry  1200  within housing  3248 . Section  3006  can include switches  3022 , which include those relays described with respect to the various configurations of  FIGS. 11A-22  (subject to the EV and charging configuration) such as switches or relays  1108 ,  1331 ,  1602 ,  1908 , and/or  2208 . Section  3006  can include monitor circuits  1110  for monitoring the various characteristics (e.g., current, voltage, etc.) of the power signals transferred to and from system  100 . Section  3006  can also include safety disconnection devices  3024  (e.g., fuses and/or breakers) for interrupting current flow to and from system  100 , motor(s)  1100 , and/or charge port(s)  1102  and/or  1202 . In embodiments using one or more AC transformers  3026  to provide isolation between system  100  and charge port(s)  1102  and/or  1202  (e.g., such as transformer  1610  described with respect to  FIG. 16C ), those AC transformers can be located within PCDA  1250  provided adequate space exists. 
     Power to and from modules  108  of system  100  can be exchanged over bidirectional power interface  3030 , power to and from motors  1100  can be exchanged over bidirectional power interface  3032 , power to and from charge port(s)  1102  and/or  1202  can be exchanged over bidirectional power interface  3034  (e.g., including connections  1111 ), an power to and from the energy recapture devices can be exchanged over bidirectional power interface  3036 . Control signals between control section  3002  and primary power distribution section  3006  can be exchanged over an internal communication interface  3040 . These control signals can carry control signals being output to routing circuitry  1200  (e.g., CS 1 -CS 4 ), monitor circuits  1110 , and relays  3022 , and can return monitored information from monitor circuits  1110  and disconnection state information from devices  3024 , for example. Although not shown in  FIG. 30A , PCDA  1250  can also include power and control connections with other PCDAs of the EV. Each communication interface of PCDA  1250  can be electrical or optical and can include one or more electrical or optical wires, as well as external and/or internal connectors (e.g., plugs, receptacles) as applicable. 
       FIG. 30B  is a block diagram depicting certain control connections for an example embodiment of an EV  3000  having three PCDA units  1250 - 1 ,  1250 - 2 , and  1250 - 3 , each associated with a different axle of a three axle EV, like that of  FIGS. 18A-18B . Some control connections are omitted for clarity, such as those between MCD  112  and LCDs  114  (located external to the PCDAs and described extensively elsewhere). The features and characteristics described here can likewise be applied to EV&#39;s having one, two, four or more axles and associated PCDAs. In this embodiment, vehicular ECU  104  is integrated within PCDA  1250 - 1  and routing circuitry  1200  is external to the three PCDAs. MCD  112  communicates with vehicle ECU  104  and also with the three ACDs  3008 - 1 ,  3008 - 2 , and  3008 - 3 , each associated with a different PCDA  1250  and a different axle. The control connections between MCD  112  and ACDs  3008 - 2  and  3008 - 3  extend external to PCDA  1250 - 1 . In this example, only one ACD  3008  is included within each PCDA  1250 , and that ACD  3008  is responsible for control of the subsystems associated with that axle, which in this example includes active suspension and steer-by-wire. Each ACD  3008  has a control connection to a drive  3015  for active suspension and a drive  3015  for steer by wire. Each ACD  3008  also has a control connection to vehicle ECU  104 . MCD  112  also has control connections to routing circuitry  1200 , relays  3022 , and converters  3011 . 
       FIG. 30C  is a perspective view of an example embodiment of modules  108  (not shown) housed within a common enclosure or pack  3250  for an EV  3000 . In this embodiment there are two PCDA units  1250 - 1  and  1250 - 2  electrically and mechanically coupled with pack  3250 . PDCA  1250 - 1  is associated with the front portion of the EV and PDCA  1250 - 2  is associated with the rear portion of the EV. 
     An example of one of these PCDAs is described with respect to  FIGS. 30D, 30E, and 30F .  FIG. 30D  is a perspective view depicting the exterior of PCDA  1250 ,  FIG. 30E  is a perspective view depicting the interior of PCDA  1250 , and  FIG. 30F  is an exploded view of the components of PCDA  1250 . 
     PCDA  1250  includes a housing  3050  having an upper portion  3051  and a lower portion  3052 . As best seen in  FIG. 30D , a variety of connectors are present on housing  3050 , and each connector is for connection to the various, power, data, and/or control cable, wire, or fiber connections required by the devices interfacing through that connector. A first connector  3054  is for charging, and provides power to and from charge port(s)  1102  and/or  1202  (or routing circuitry  1200  depending on the configuration). Connectors  3055  and  3058  can be for the provision of drive signals to a first auxiliary subsystem (e.g., active suspension for left front wheel and right front wheel). Connectors  3056  and  3057  can be for the provision of drive signals to a second auxiliary subsystem (e.g., steer-by-wire for left front wheel and right front wheel). Connector  3060  can be for the provision of auxiliary power (e.g., 12V, 24V, 48V, 60V) for use by other auxiliary subsystems of the EV (e.g., HVAC, on board network, cabin lighting, etc.). Though one is shown here, multiple connectors  3060  can be used to provide various different voltages. Connector  3061  can be for the exchange of control signals and data with the vehicle ECU. Connector  3062  can be for the exchange of control signals and data with an ACD  3008 . 
     As best seen in  FIGS. 30E and 30F , PCDA  1250  includes various devices and cabling positioned in close proximity to each other, such that PCDA  1250  can act as a centralized hub for the routing of power and information within the EV. In this embodiment, PCDA  1250  includes MCD  112 , ACD  3008  (e.g., an axle ECU), auxiliary drive  3015 - 1  (e.g., active suspension), auxiliary drive  3015 - 2  (e.g., steer-by-wire), and converter  3011  (e.g., a DC-DC converter for regulating down auxiliary voltage from an interconnection module). PCDA  1250  can also include multiple relays, such as SSR relays  3022 - 1  and  3022 - 2  (e.g., similar to relays  1602 - 1  and  1602 - 2  of  FIG. 17 ) and electromechanical relays  3022 - 3  and  3022 - 4  (e.g., similar to switches  1108  for two separate motors). 
     Bidirectional Capability Through Charge Port 
     The bidirectional capability provided by routing circuitry  1200  permits charging and discharging of system  100  through the AC and/or DC charge port(s)  1102 ,  1202 . The power output by system  100  can be in DC form, single phase AC form, or multiphase AC form. As a result, an EV enabled with system  100  can be used to supply or transfer power from the EV to an externally located load or grid (the power consumption entity). The EV user can then be compensated in exchange for the supplied power, or can obtain other benefits such as the offloading of power to the user&#39;s home during peak energy cost times to reduce utility costs. Such applications are generally referenced with different names depending on the type of consumption entity. For example, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) refers to instances where the EV is supplying power back to a power grid, vehicle-to-home (V2H) refers to instances where the EV is supplying power back to an energy network of a residence, vehicle-to-building (V2B) refers to instances where the EV is supplying power back to an energy network of a building or large loads therein, vehicle-to-community (V2C) refers to instances where the EV is acting as a source and sink for energy as a part of a larger surplus energy storage network in a community such as a city, and vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) applications refers to instances where the EV is supplying power to other vehicles for energy distribution in a charging environment. Embodiments capable of practicing two or more of these applications can be referenced under broader headings such as vehicle-to-anything (V2A) and vehicle-to-everything (V2X). 
     Embodiments of system  100  configured for use in these applications have some common features. For example, control system  102  has the capability of communicating with an external energy controller (which may be local or remote to the EV), such that upon connection of control system  102  with the external energy controller, control system  102  can control the output of power through charge ports  1102  and/or  1202  to the external power consumption entity. This can entail disconnecting motor(s)  1100  from system  100  (e.g., with switches  1108 ), and instructing modules  108  to output power in a format (e.g., voltage, current, frequency, and/or phase) that matches the requirements of the power consumption entity, while at the same time maintaining balance (e.g., SOC and/or temperature) among sources  206  of modules  108 . 
     The external controller has the responsibility for communicating energy requirements to system  100  (e.g., based on available power and price signals, in a format usable by system  100  such as voltage, current, frequency, and/or phase) and for managing the receipt of energy from system  100 . The external controller may also be responsible for coordinating the energy inputs from other EVs if the application encompasses more than one. The responsibility for logging the amount of power injected by the EV, for purposes of financial payment or benefit to the EV operator in exchange for the power, can be with the external controller and/or control system  102 . By way of non-limiting examples, the external controller may be a home energy management system (HEMS) or a Smart Home in the case of V2H, a Smart Building or Smart Garage in the case of V2B, a transmission or distribution grid controller (local or remote centralized) or an energy aggregator in the case of V2G and V2C, or a charge station in the case of V2V. 
     In an example embodiment using an EV having system  100  as a source of power, the power consumption entity has an associated power cable for receiving power from the EV. The power cable can be the same as a charge cable, with the external charge source  150  also acting as a local consumption entity interface for receiving power from the EV. Alternatively, the local consumption entity interface can be different from the external charge source  150 . The user connects the applicable local interface to the EV through the power cable. The power cable is coupled to the applicable charge connector, having conductors for the charge port  1102 ,  1202  through which power will be transferred (e.g., DC, single phase AC, or multiphase AC). The power cable can also include a communication cable for transferring digital information between control system  102  and the external controller, which can be located in the local interface or can be remote. Control system  102  detects connection of the communication cable and negotiates with the external controller to identify the parameters for power transfer, including the voltage, current, frequency, and/or phase of the power signal. Other parameters can include the times during which to perform power transfer if on a schedule, the available power (or SOC) within system  100 , demands to receive power and confirmation of supply the same (if the application is on-demand as opposed to according to a schedule), demands to stop the supply of power, and the like. Power transfer can then occur according to the negotiated parameters. The local interface can also include a user interface (e.g., graphical user interface, display, user inputs, touchscreen, and the like) for notifying the user of the status of power transfer (e.g., on-going or stopped, power transfer history (e.g., number of kilowatts transferred), alerts, and the like). 
     Example Embodiments of Thermal Management Systems 
     The amount of heat generated by system  100  during operation can be significant. One or more thermal management systems can be utilized to circulate a heat transfer fluid (e.g., coolant, antifreeze, water, or a mixture thereof) in proximity with the various elements of system  100  and/or the motors and any other elements of the EV (or stationary system) that require cooling (or in some cases heating).  FIG. 31A  depicts an example of a thermal management system  3100  where coolant is pumped by a pump  3101  through various elements of system  3100 . The coolant can circulate such that the components with the greatest cooling requirements are cooled first and those with the more relaxed thermal requirements are cooled last. For example in this embodiment, pump  3101  circulates coolant first to battery modules  206 , which may require coolant at a relatively low temperature between 20 and 30° C., and then to module electronics  3104 , which may require coolant at a relatively higher temperature of up to 40 or 50° C., and finally to the one or more motors  3106  which may require coolant at a still higher temperature of less than 60° C. Electronics  3104  can include switching circuitry (e.g., S 3 -S 6  or S 1 -S 6 ) of converter  202 , energy buffer  204 , LCD  114 , monitor circuitry  208  for the module  108 , as well as a Battery Management System (BMS) for the battery module  206 . After circulating in close proximity to these components to cool them, the coolant can proceed through a heat exchanger  3108  where its temperature is brought down to a temperature close to the requirements of battery modules  206 , at which point the coolant is again circulated through pump  3101  and the loop repeats. 
     One or more of the subsystems  1000  described herein can be implemented within a common enclosure or pack.  FIG. 31B  depicts an example of a common enclosure  3110  for one or more subsystems of system  100 . Enclosure  3110  includes each of the modules  108  of the one or more subsystems and can also include any interconnection modules  108 IC that are present. The energy sources, energy buffers, power electronics (switching circuitry) of the converter, control electronics, and any other components of the modules  108  are contained within enclosure  3110 . Enclosure  3110  can include a bottom enclosure  3112 , such as a base, and an opposing top enclosure  3111 , such as a lid, and both the top and bottom enclosures can include one or more conduits for circulating coolant through those aspects of the enclosures  3111  and  3112  to cool modules  108 . As shown here, coolant from pump  3301  can be circulated to bottom enclosure  3112  where it passes through a conduit network  3114  like that shown for top enclosure  3111 , and thus passes in proximity to the batteries and cools them. The coolant can exit bottom enclosure  3112  and pass to top enclosure  3111  (either through a conduit external to the enclosure  3110  or via a conduit in the side of or within enclosure  3110 ), and circulate through conduit network  3114 , where it passes in proximity to the electronics of the modules and cools them. The coolant can then exit from top enclosure  3111  where it can proceed to the next component of the system such as motor(s)  3106 . 
     In some embodiments it is possible to provide coolant through only the top of enclosure  3111  and cool all aspects of modules  108  without first cooling the batteries and then subsequently cooling the electronics.  FIG. 31C  depicts another embodiment of system  3100  where coolant is circulated from pump  3301  to modules  108  where it cools both the batteries and the associated electronics at the same time, and then passes to motor(s)  3106  and to heat exchanger  3108 .  FIG. 31D  depicts an example embodiment similar to that of  FIG. 31B , but where coolant passes through conduit network  3114  only within the top enclosure. 
       FIG. 31E  is a perspective view showing an example layout for modules within enclosure  3110 . Here each module is shown as a battery adjacent to its converter (e.g., a first module is the combination of battery- 1  and converter- 1 , and so forth). Only top enclosure  3111  is shown here and the sides and bottom of enclosure  3110 , as well as the conduit network within the top enclosure, are omitted for clarity. In this example, the converter is placed above the battery and coolant runs through top enclosure  3111  above the converter such that heat from the battery passes upward through the converter to top enclosure  3111  where it is removed through the circulating coolant. A reverse configuration can also be implemented, where the converter is placed at the bottom and the battery is placed above the converter and heat is again extracted through the top enclosure per  FIG. 31E  or through both the bottom and top per  FIG. 31B . In still another embodiment, the converter and battery can be arranged as shown in  FIG. 31E  or in the reverse configuration but coolant can be passed only through the bottom enclosure. In yet another embodiment the converter and battery can be placed side to side and coolant can be circulated through the top and/or bottom enclosure. All the aforementioned variations can be implemented with coolant also passing through a conduit network in the top, bottom, and/or sidewalls of the enclosure. 
       FIG. 31F  is a cross-section of an example embodiment where module electronics  3104  are positioned above battery  206 . This embodiment will be described with respect to conduits  3114  within top enclosure  3111  but the features of this embodiment can be likewise applied to conduits  3114  passing within the bottom of the enclosure or the side of the enclosure as described. In  FIG. 31F , electronics  3104  of the converter and control system are contained within an electronics housing  3122 . Electronics  3104  are mounted on one or more substrates  3124  such as a printed circuit board (PCB) and/or insulated metal substrate (IMS) board that provides the electrical connections passing between the various components. Substrate  3124  is located immediately adjacent to a heatsink plate  3132  composed of a highly thermally conductive material, e.g., aluminum, aluminum alloy, copper, or steel. 
     In an EV implementation with an upper or a top orientation referring generally to positions closer to the passenger compartment of the EV (e.g., passenger-side) and a lower or bottom orientation referring generally to positions closer to the road (e.g., road-side), substrate  3124  is oriented above electronics  3104  such that the electronics are mounted in an upside-down or inverted fashion (e.g., with semiconductor power transistors located beneath the PCB or IMS to which they are soldered). This provides large surface area contact between substrate  3124  and heat sink  3132  and allows efficient dissipation of heat from electronics  3104  through substrate  3124  to heat sink  3132 . Battery  206  is located beneath housing  3122  and rests on a base  3126 , which can be the bottom enclosure. Battery  206  has positive and negative terminals  3128  located on the battery&#39;s top. Electrical connections  3130  extend from terminals  3128  through (or alternatively exterior to) housing  3122  to substrate  3124  and/or to the converter electronics for switching. 
     Top enclosure  3111  includes conduit  3114  for coolant  3136  described with respect to  FIGS. 31B and 31D . Conduit  3114  can be composed of a highly thermally conductive material, e.g., aluminum, copper, or steel, and shaped with a polygonal cross-section as depicted here, although other shapes such as elliptical or circular or a combination of rounded and polygonal shapes can be used. Conduit  3114  can be located within a channel  3120  in top enclosure  3111  having a shape corresponding to the conduit. For example, if conduit  3114  has a polygonal cross-section then channel  3120  can also have a polygonal cross-section to allow conduit  3114  to be located therein. Top enclosure  3111  can also be composed of a highly thermally conductive material, e.g., aluminum, copper, or steel. Channels  3120  can be machined or etched into top enclosure  3111  and conduit  3114  can be press fit therein. 
     As shown here, two sections of conduit  3114  pass over a particular module  108  of system  100 . If desired, an interface layer  3134  can be present between the bottom surface of conduits  3114  and the top surface of heatsink  3132 . Interface layer  3134  can be a material with high thermal conductivity and a degree of deformability or elasticity to form continuous and durable contact between heatsink  3132  and the bottom surface of conduit  3114  (as well as the bottom surface of top enclosure  3111 ). Interface layer  3134  can be relatively thinner than top enclosure  3111  and heatsink  3132  and interface layer  3134  can be composed of, e.g., a thermally conductive polymer. 
     In this embodiment, conduits  3114  are shown passing over one module, however, the density of the layout of conduits  3114  will vary based on the thermal requirements of the application. While preferably at least one conduit  3114  passes over each module, such is not required. One conduit  3114  can be shared by two or more modules. Conduits  3114  can be routed over the center of the module or can be at positions approximately one third of the distance from the side of the module as depicted in  FIG. 31F , or otherwise. 
     The configuration described with respect to  FIG. 31F  can accomplish reliable cooling for the embodiments described herein using only the top enclosure of enclosure  3110 . As mentioned, similar arrangements can be placed along the sides of enclosure  3110  and/or along the bottom of enclosure  3110  such that conduit  3114  is adjacent to the bottom of the batteries or separated from the bottom of the batteries by a second interface layer. 
     Thermal management system  3100  can also be reconfigurable to provide optimized cooling based on the thermal output of the various components, exterior temperature and humidity, and/or the utilization of the air conditioning (AC) system, as well as to provide heating for the batteries or other sources  206 .  FIGS. 32A and 32B  are block diagrams depicting an example embodiment of a reconfigurable thermal management system  3100  with the capability to cool or heat various components in a series or parallel fashion. Reconfigurability of system  3100  is provided by one or more valves that can selectively route liquid coolant through a variety of different paths. Control of the valves can be performed by control system  102  or by a different control device such as the vehicular ECU  104 . 
       FIG. 32A  depicts system  3100  configured in a first state with two independent thermal management loops  3201  and  3202 . Loop  3201  is configured for heating or cooling of one or more battery modules  206  of system  100  and loop  3202  is configured for cooling of module electronics  3104  of one or more modules  108 . For example, system  3100  can be a thermal management system dedicated to a single common enclosure or pack within an EV. The independent loop configuration shown here permits independent management of the temperature of modules  206  and electronics  3104 , as each can have different operating temperature ranges. 
     Loop  3201  and loop  3202  each include various components interconnected by conduits of a heat transfer fluid (e.g., coolant) communication network  3205 . Loop  3201  includes a pump  3204  for moving coolant through a conduit in close proximity to battery modules  206 , then through a heater unit  3206 , and a heat exchanger  3208 . Heater unit  3206  can be operated to raise the temperature of the coolant such that it performs a heating function to battery modules  206  in instances where battery modules  206  are below desired operating temperatures, such as when an EV is first started in a cold environment. (The term “coolant” is used for convenience, as coolant is a heat transfer fluid that can both cool and heat.) When used for heating, loop  3201  can operate with heater unit  3206  activated and heat exchanger  3208  deactivated, and/or heat exchanger  3208  can be bypassed via a bypass line  3207 . Alternatively, loop  3201  can be used for cooling battery modules  206 , in which case heater  3206  can be deactivated (and/or bypassed with a bypass line  3209 ) and heat exchanger  3208  can be activated to cool the coolant as it is pumped through loop  3201  by pump  3204 . Loop  3202  includes a pump  3210  for moving coolant through a conduit in close proximity to module electronics  3104 , then through a heat exchanger  3212  for cooling the coolant of loop  3202 . An optional bypass line  3215  can be used for times that heat exchanger  3212  is not required. Heat exchangers  3208  and  3212  can be different devices such as radiators of the EV or chillers associated with the AC system of the EV. Though not shown here, other components of system  100 , such as PCDA  1250  and charge network distributor  3248 , can be thermally managed with either loop  3201  or loop  3202 . 
       FIG. 32B  is a block diagram depicting system  3100  after valve reconfiguration to a second state with a serial coolant loop  3203  that cools both battery modules  206  and electronics  3104 . Here, pumps  3204  and  3210  operate to move coolant through the conduit past battery modules  206  and electronics  3104 , from which location the coolant can take one of several different paths. The coolant can be directed through first heat exchanger  3208  and second heat exchanger  3212  to provide a relatively higher degree of temperature reduction to the coolant. Alternatively, the coolant can bypass either (or both) of heat exchangers  3208  and  3212  as indicated by bypass lines  3211  and  3214 , respectively. The decision to bypass one of the heat exchangers can be based on, for example, whether the temperature of the coolant is such that only one heat exchanger is required to reduce the coolant&#39;s temperature, or the current cooling capability of the various heat exchangers, such as whether a radiator will be able to provide adequate cooling given the outside temperature, or whether an AC unit chiller is cold enough to adequately chill the coolant given present demands on the AC system. The ability of system  3100  to be reconfigured between the first and second states ( FIGS. 32A and 32B ) provides a high degree of flexibility for cooling or heating system  100  under a wide variety of operating conditions. 
       FIG. 32C  as a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of thermal management system  3100  as described with respect to  FIGS. 32A and 32B . In this embodiment, a first set of cooling channels  3221  is located in close proximity to a first portion of system  100 , such as battery modules  206 , and a second set of cooling channels  3222  is located in close proximity to a second portion of system  100 , such as electronics  3104 . Various valves are shown that permit reconfigurability of system  3100 , including four-way valve  3231  three way valve  3232 , three way valve  3233 , and gate valve  3234 . Four-way valve  3231  is present between cooling channels  3221  and pump  3204 . Valve  3231  can be placed in a first configuration to direct or route coolant from channels  3221  to pump  3204  while at the same time directing coolant from either heat exchanger  3212  or three way valve  3232  to pump  3210 . Valve  3231  can be placed in a second configuration to direct coolant from channels  3221  to pump  3210  and to simultaneously direct coolant from heat exchanger  3212  or valve  3232  to pump  3204 . Three way valve  3232  can be used to direct coolant to heat exchanger  3212  or bypass heat exchanger  3212  via bypass path  3211 . Three way valve  3233  can be used to direct coolant to heat exchanger  3208  or bypass heat exchanger  3208  via bypass path  3214 . Valve  3234  can be used to prevent or permit the flow of coolant from heat exchanger  3208  to heater unit  3206 . If desired a valve and bypass line can be placed to selectively bypass heater unit  3206 . 
     To configure this embodiment in the first state with independent coolant loops  3201  and  3202  (not labeled), valve  3231  is placed in the first configuration to direct coolant from channels  3221  to pump  3204  and to direct coolant from heat exchanger  3212  or valve  3232  to pump  3210 . This forms the first loop where coolant flows from pump  3204  to valve  3233 , and from there either to heat exchanger  3208  or heater unit  3206 , and from there to cooling channels  3221  where, e.g., battery modules  206  can be cooled, and finally to valve  3231  where the coolant path can repeat. If the coolant is routed to heat exchanger  3208 , then valve  3234  is opened to permit coolant flow, otherwise valve  3234  is closed. The second loop extends from pump  3210  to cooling channels  3222  for cooling of, e.g., electronics  3104 , and then to valve  3232  where the coolant can be routed either to heat exchanger  3212  or to bypass line  3211 , and finally to valve  3231  where the coolant path can repeat. 
     To reconfigure this embodiment and the second state with a serial loop, valve  3231  is placed in the second configuration to direct coolant from channels  3221  to pump  3210 , where it flows to cooling channels  3222  and then to valve  3232 , where the coolant can be directed either to heat exchanger  3212  or to bypass line  3211 , and then back to valve  3231 . At this point the coolant is then directed to pump  3204  and from there to valve  3233  where it can proceed to heat exchanger  3208  or to bypass line  3214 , and from there to (or around) heater unit  3206  and back to cooling channels  3221 , from where the coolant path can repeat. 
     In this embodiment, heat exchanger  3208  can be a chiller associated with the AC system of the EV. The chiller can run the coolant in close proximity with separate coolant of the AC system circulated through an independent fluid network  3241 . The AC system is shown at top of  FIG. 32C , and includes a compressor  3242 , from which AC system coolant flows to condenser  3244 , and from there to multiple gate valves  3245 ,  3247 , and  3249  which permit or prevent the flow of coolant to interior evaporator  3246 , charge network distributor  3248 , and heat exchanger  3208 , respectively. Each of the gate valves  3245 ,  3247 , and  3249  can be independently actuated based on the thermal requirements of the system, for example, whether the AC unit is in use to cool the passenger compartment, whether charge network distributor  3248  requires cooling, and whether valve  3233  is positioned to utilize heat exchanger  3208 . 
     While cooling of the one or more EV motor(s) can also be performed with system  3100 , e.g., by integrating the motors into the cooling schematic of  FIG. 32C , the one or more EV motors can also be cooled with an independent cooling system.  FIG. 32D  depicts thermal management system  3200  configured to cool two separate motors of an EV. Here, system  3200  includes pump  3249  which pumps coolant to PCDA  1250  and from there to motors  3106 - 1  and  3106 - 2 . System  3200  can be configured to cool any number of one or more motors  3106 . Alternatively, multiple instances of system  3200  can be implemented, each cooling one or more motors of the EV. Further, system  3200  can be configured to cool certain portions of system  100  associated with the motors, for instance PCDA  1250 , as shown here, or alternatively charge network distributor  3248 , or other components. Alternatively, system  3100  described with respect to  FIGS. 32A-32C  can be configured to cool PCDA  1250 . 
       FIG. 32E  is an exploded perspective view depicting an example embodiment of EV pack  3250  (e.g., see  FIG. 30C ) with system  100  and reconfigurable thermal management system  3100  housed therein.  FIG. 32F  is a cross-sectional view of a portion of this embodiment of EV pack  3250 , where modules  108  have inverted electronics  3104  as described with respect to  FIG. 31F . Not all aspects of systems  100  and  3100  are shown with emphasis instead being placed on the layered relation of components to each other. In this embodiment, pack  3250  is configured with independent cooling channel sections  3222  and  3221  located above and below modules  108 , respectively. Channel sections  3221  and  3222  include multiple parallel conduits  3114  that permit coolant to flow simultaneously in parallel from and inlet side of each section to an outlet side of each section. As best seen in  FIG. 32F , conduits  3114  in section  3222  can be vertically offset from (not vertically aligned with) conduits  3114  in section  3221  to provide relatively more uniform heat removal. 
     Pack  3250  includes a top enclosure  3261 , a bottom enclosure  3268 , and side enclosures  3264 . The enclosures  3261 ,  3264 , and  3268  together can completely or substantially enclose system  100  with the exception of the various inputs and outputs. A frame  3265  has relatively rigid struts arranged in a layout that extends between, or interlaces, modules  108  and PDU  3002  and holds those components in place within pack  3250 . Frame  3265  provides a substantial amount of the structural support for pack  3250 . A lower heatsink  3266  has a basin shape that surrounds the sides and bottom of frame  3265  and operates to conduct heat in those locations, while an upper heatsink  3262  in the shape of a lid can couple with the top of lower heatsink  3266  and conduct heat rising from modules  108  and PDU  3002 . 
     Top enclosure  3261  and bottom enclosure  3268  can include recesses or grooves  3271  and  3274  complementary in shape to the conduit shape of channel sections  3222  and  3221 , respectively. Channels  3222  can reside in recesses  3271  in top enclosure  3261  as well as in similar opposing recesses  3272  in upper heatsink  3262 . Together top enclosure  3261  and upper heatsink  3262  enclose cooling channels  3222  and permit optimum heat transfer therebetween. Upper heatsink  3262  can be placed in contact with, or in close proximity with, the upper portion of modules  108  having module electronics  3104 . Similarly, channels  3221  can be placed in recesses  3274  in bottom enclosure  3268  as well as in opposing recesses  3273  in lower heatsink  3266 . Together bottom enclosure  3268  and lower heatsink  3266  enclose cooling channels  3221  and permit optimum heat transfer therebetween. Lower heatsink  3266  can be placed in contact with, or in close proximity with, the lower portion of modules  108  having battery modules  206 . As described with respect to  FIG. 32C , heat from electronics  3104  can be efficiently absorbed by coolant flowing through channel section  3222 , while heat from battery modules  206  can be efficiently absorbed by coolant flowing through channel section  3221 . Alternatively, heating can be selectively applied to battery modules  206  by channel section  3221 . 
     Though not shown in  FIG. 32F , one or more interface layers  3134  (like that described with respect to  FIG. 31F ) can be utilized in pack  3250 . Further, the embodiments described with respect to  FIGS. 32A-32F  can be reversed such that electronics  3104  are located in the lower portion of each module  108  and cooled by channel section  3221 , while battery modules  206  are located in the upper portion of each module  108  and cooled by channel section  3222 . 
     Additional Example Embodiments of Module Layouts 
     In furtherance to the module layouts described already, additional example embodiments of physical and electrical layouts for module  108  are depicted in  FIGS. 33A-33L .  FIG. 33A  is an exploded view depicting an example embodiment of a module  108 ,  FIG. 33B  is a perspective view of this embodiment in a fully assembled form, and  FIG. 33C  is a perspective view of this embodiment with the exterior housing removed. 
     Module  108  includes an exterior housing formed by top cover  3132 , end covers  3307 - 1  and  3307 - 2 , connection covers  3303 - 1  and  3303 - 2 , and bottom cover (or base)  3304 . The various covers can be secured to each other by welding or adhesive, or with various fasteners  3303 . Top cover  3132  is composed of a material with high thermal conductivity and functions as a heatsink for the converter electronics  3104 . Similarly, bottom cover  3304  is also composed of a material with high thermal conductivity and functions as a heatsink for the battery cells  3306  forming battery module  206 . 
     Battery cells  3306  can be connected in series or parallel by intercell connectors  3308  (e.g., cell tabs). Battery cells  3306  are prismatic in this embodiment, although other cell types can be used. The DC voltage of the battery module  206  can be connected to the power transistors of electronics  3104  by DC connectors  3130 , shown here with upper and lower sections for height extension. Battery module  206  can be housed within a battery module housing including sidewalls  3311 , end walls  3312  and cover  3314 . Base  3304  of module  108  can also serve as the bottom housing cover for battery module  206  to permit maximum heat transfer from cells  3306  to the roadside cooling channels (not shown). 
     Electronics  3104  are shown here in an inverted orientation as described with respect to  FIGS. 31F and 32F . Electronics  3104  includes power transistors (e.g., S 3 -S 6 , not shown) of converter  202  connected to the underside of upper substrate  3124 , which in turn has a topside  3315  positioned for contact with the underside of top cover  3132 . DC connectors  3130 , here configured as bus bars, electrically couple with upper substrate  3124  to provide DC powered directly to the power transistors of converter  202 . The AC inputs/outputs of converter  202  can be connected to module IO ports  3302  (e.g., module IO ports  1  and  2  of power connection  110  described with respect to  FIGS. 3A-3C ) which are externally accessible and configured here as bus bars mounted to cover  3132  with fasteners  3305 . Additional electronics  3104  are electrically coupled with lower substrate  3316 , which can receive power and/or signals from upper substrate  3124  through one or more standoffs (not shown) between substrates  3124  and  3316 . As can be seen here, multiple cylindrical capacitors  3320  (e.g., for energy buffer  204 ) can be physically positioned alongside (or between) and electrically coupled with substrates  3124  and  3316 . LCD  114  (not shown) can be electrically coupled to lower substrate  3316 , as well as a BMS for battery module  206 . Monitor circuitry  208  specific to the power transistors can be coupled to the upper substrate  3124 . Control signals to and from electronics  3104  can be communicated over flex connector  3317  and control port  3318 , which is externally accessible and mounted to cover  3132  (e.g., with fasteners  3305 ). 
     Electronics  3104  connected to each of substrates  3124  and  3316  can each be inverted or in a right-side up orientation based on the thermal requirements of the application.  FIG. 33D  is a cross-sectional view depicting an example embodiment with upper substrate  3124  positioned above lower substrate  3316 . Passenger-side  3330  and road-side  3332  are labeled for reference. Upper substrate  3124  has electronics  3104 - 1  physically and electrically coupled to the underside of substrate  3124 . Lower substrate  3316  has electronics  3104 - 2  physically and electrically coupled to the topside of substrate  3316 . Thus, in this embodiment electronics  3104 - 1  are inverted and electronics  3104 - 2  are not inverted. This configuration allows efficient heat transfer from upper electronics  3104 - 12  cooling channels (not shown) located above substrate  3124  and also allows efficient heat transfer from lower electronics  3104 - 2  as lower substrate  3316  is not interposed between electronics  3104 - 1  and  3104 - 2 . Capacitors  3320  are positioned alongside but not directly between substrates  3124  and  3316  to allow substrates  3124  and  3316  to be positioned closer together. The various electrical connections with electronics  3104  and capacitors  3320  are not shown. 
     The positions of the externally accessible connections on module  108  can be determined by various factors, including the number of arrays  700  within system  100 , the dimensions of the modules  108 , the dimensions of the EV, and/or the dimensions and type of battery cells utilized.  FIG. 33E  is a top-down view of module covers  3132  of several modules of an array  700 , where each module is configured like the embodiment of  FIGS. 33A-33C . Here, each module has a relatively long side (aligned with the x-axis) and a relatively short side (aligned with the y-axis). Each module  108  has AC connections  3302 - 1  and  3302 - 2 , abbreviated as AC 1  and AC 2 , respectively, located on opposite long sides and interconnected with the adjacent modules  108  in a daisy chain or serial fashion. DC connectors  3130 - 1  and  3130 - 2 , abbreviated as DC 1  and DC 2 , respectively, are located on or near the same short side and are shown with dashed lines to indicate their position within the module housing. Each module also has a control port  3318 , abbreviated as CP, located on the short side opposite to DC 1  and DC 2 , and also interconnected by cables with adjacent modules  108  in a daisy chain or serial fashion. 
       FIG. 33F  is a top-down view of another embodiment of module  108  where DC connectors DC 1  and DC 2  are positioned on opposite short sides. The cell type and dimensions can impact placement of DC 1  and DC 2 , with relatively longer prismatic cells stacked along the y-axis ( FIG. 33G ) able to connect in either the configurations of  FIG. 33E  or  FIG. 33F  based on cell count, and relatively shorter prismatic cells stacked along the x-axis ( FIG. 33H ) more easily connected in the configuration of  FIG. 33F . 
       FIGS. 33I and 33J  our top-down views depicting additional embodiments of module  108  where AC connectors AC 1  and AC 2  are positioned on opposite short sides. DC connectors DC 1  and DC 2  can be located at or near opposite short sides ( FIG. 33I ) or on the same short side ( FIG. 33J ). Control port CP can be positioned at any convenient location, such as a midway point along a long side of the module. 
     Interconnection modules  108 IC can be configured in accordance with any of the embodiments described with respect to  FIGS. 33A-33I , provided that the additional ports required for that interconnection module are also made accessible.  FIGS. 33K and 33L  are top-down views depicting covers  3132  of two example embodiments of IC modules with AC connectors AC 1  and AC 2  located on opposite long sides ( FIG. 33K ) and opposite short sides ( FIG. 33L ). In each instance the DC connectors DC 1  and DC 2  can be made externally accessible to place the internal energy source and a parallel connection with any other interconnection modules of the system  100 . Also in each instance, the DC connectors DC 1  and DC 2  can be positioned on the same or opposite long sides or short sides (with opposite short sides depicted in  FIG. 33K  and the same short side depicted in  FIG. 33L ). Depending on the configuration one or more auxiliary ports may also need to be externally accessible. The auxiliary ports can be placed in any location convenient for the application and for connection to the respective loads or PDU. Here, auxiliary ports  3 ,  4 ,  5 , and  6  our externally accessible on the same side as an AC connector ( FIG. 33K ) or on a different side from the AC connector ( FIG. 33L ). 
     Additional Example Embodiments of a Universal EV Platform and EVs Having the Same 
     While not limited to such, the present embodiments can be used to design, manufacture, and operate electric vehicles based on a universal electric powertrain platform. The electric vehicles can be one of a wide variety of different models, from a relatively small coupe to a large EV bus or freight-carrying EV truck. Use of the universal platform substantially reduces the cost and effort required to design, manufacture, operate, and service as a basis for EVs of many different models and types, which impacts designers, manufacturers along the supply chain, and customers. 
       FIG. 34A  is a perspective view depicting an example embodiment of a universal platform  3400  for an EV  3000 . Platform  3400  includes a structural EV frame or chassis  3402  configured to hold or amounts to pack  3250 , auxiliary subsystems  3403  or portions thereof (e.g., AC system, steer-by-wire, brake-by-wire, active suspension, etc.), one or more motors  1100 , PCDAs  1250 - 1  and  1250 - 2 , wheels and other components of an EV. The one or more motors  1100  can be on-axle motors or in-wheel motors (shown here) without a drivetrain. As shown here, platform  3400  is configured with four wheels, but can be implemented in different configurations having any number of two or more wheels. 
       FIG. 34B  is a perspective view depicting the embodiment of  FIG. 34A  with the addition of exterior bodywork  3404 . Many types of exterior bodywork  3404  can be added to the same platform  3400  to construct a wide variety of different EV models. 
       FIG. 34C  is a perspective view depicting an example embodiment of platform  3400  with bodywork  3404  configured for a six-wheel EV model. Here, platform  3400  includes a base four-wheel section  3406 , similar to that described with respect to  FIGS. 34A-34B , that is coupled with an extension section  3408  also having a frame (not shown), pack (not shown), and an additional two wheels. This six-wheel platform can include system  100  configured in accordance with the six wheel embodiments described with respect to  FIGS. 18A-18B and 28A-28C , where base section  3406  corresponds to front region  180  and extension section  3408  corresponds to rear region  280 . Each of sections  3406  and  3408  can include different packs  3250  with different energy subsystems  1000 , thermal management systems  3100 , and PCDAs  1250 . 
     The modular nature of system  100  readily facilitate scaling to meet a wide variety of power requirements. The number of modules  108  within system  100  can be varied to relatively increase or decrease the maximum output power capability of system  100 . Additionally, or alternatively, the types of modules  108  can be varied to adjust the maximum output power capability, such as by utilizing higher or lower voltage energy sources  206 , or by using hybrid source arrangements where each module has multiple energy sources  206  of the same or different class and/or type. 
       FIGS. 34D-34G  are perspective views of platform  3400  showing different configurations  3411 - 3414  of system  100  therein. For ease of description, each module  108  has the same configuration (e.g., a single 48V energy source  206 ) but the number of modules in each of configurations  3411 - 3414  is varied to provide different maximum output powers.  FIG. 34D  depicts configuration  3411  having 21 modules  108  arranged in two subsystems  1000  to provide power for two rear in-wheel motors  1100 , similar to the configuration of subsystems  1000 - 5  and  1000 - 6  providing power for motors  1100 - 5  and  1100 - 6  in  FIG. 28A . While performance of an EV  3000  will vary based on the overall weight and dimensions of the EV and the power output of system  100 , configuration  3411  is generally suited for applications having a relatively low voltage EV model, such as a small body compact model, a small body sport model, an automated driverless and passenger-less delivery vehicle, and the like. 
       FIG. 34E  depicts configuration  3412 , which is the same as configuration  3411 , but with the addition of seven modules  108  for a total of 28 modules. Configuration  3412  thus has a maximum power output 33% greater than that of configuration  3411 . While configuration  3412  can be used for the same applications as configuration  3411 , configuration  3412  is generally suited for relatively moderate voltage EV models, such as a sport model, medium size coupe or sedan, small sport utility vehicle (SUV), and the like. 
       FIG. 34F  depicts configuration  3413 , which is the same as configuration  3411 , but with the addition of 14 modules  108  for a total of 35 modules. Configuration  3413  thus has a maximum power output 66% greater than configuration  3411 . While configuration  3413  can be used for the same applications as configurations  3411  and  3412 , configuration  3413  is generally suited for relatively moderate-to-high voltage EV models, such as a large body size coupe or sedan, high performance sports cars, medium-to-large size SUVs, minivans, small pickup trucks, and the like. 
       FIG. 34G  depicts configuration  3414 , which is similar to that of  FIG. 27A , having four subsystems  1000  providing power for four motors  1100 , Configuration  3414  has 21 modules more than configuration  3411 , for a total of 42 modules. Configuration  3414  thus has a maximum power output 100% greater than configuration  3411 . While configuration  3414  can be used for the same applications as configurations  3411 ,  3412 , and  3413 , configuration  3414  is generally suited for relatively high voltage EV models, such as heavy duty trucks, large SUVs, passenger buses, freight-carrying applications, and the like. 
     System  100  can be configured to meet the power requirements of an almost limitless number of EV models for which platform  3400  will be used to construct. The embodiments of  FIGS. 34D-34G  are examples, and any and all embodiments of energy system  100  as described herein can be implemented within platform  3400 , including but not limited to those layouts described with respect to  FIGS. 24-28C . 
       FIGS. 34H-34K  are perspective views of example embodiments of EV  3000  configured with universal platform  3400  attached, mated, or otherwise integrated with different body tops  3420 . The body tops can differ in length, width, height, exterior aesthetic appearance, passenger compartment, interior dimensions, interior aesthetic appearance, interior features (e.g., touchscreen, dashboard, auxiliary capabilities), trunk space, and the like.  FIG. 34H  depicts EV  3000 - 1  configured as a compact model with a four-wheel platform  3400 . EV  3000 - 1  can have, for example, system  100  arranged in configuration  3411  described with respect to  FIG. 34D .  FIG. 34I  depicts EV  3000 - 2  configured as a sport coupe model. EV  3000 - 2  can have, for example, system  100  arranged in configuration  3412  described with respect to  FIG. 34E .  FIG. 34J  depicts EV  3000 - 3  configured as a passenger van model. EV  3000 - 3  can have, for example, system  100  arranged in configurations  3413  or  3414  as described with respect to  FIGS. 34E and 34F , respectively.  FIG. 34K  depicts EV  3000 - 4  configured as a large delivery van or passenger bus model with a six wheel platform  3400  ( FIG. 34C ). EV  3000 - 4  can have, for example, system  100  arranged in configurations like those described with respect to  FIGS. 28A-28C . 
     While platform  3400  is described as being universal, the identical implementation of platform  3400  is not used for all different EV models. Rather, platform  3400  is universal in the sense that utilization of the modular system  100  permits easy scaling of voltage capabilities of system  100  within the same form factor (e.g., length, width, height) of the battery pack and/or battery pack space. Because system  100  eliminates the need for a conventional drive inverter, platform  3400  can also, or alternatively, be considered universal in the sense that the electric powertrain is self-contained within pack  3250 , and thus there is not a significant impact on EV mechanical and powertrain redesign from one EV model to the another. 
     Because of weight and body dimension variations, as well as variations in application or luxury components, different EV models based on the same universal platform will likely require different designs to the universal platform, such as different suspensions, variations in the performance of HVAC systems, variations in the number of auxiliary loads, traction control, and the like. 
     Various aspects of the present subject matter are set forth below, in review of, and/or in supplementation to, the embodiments described thus far, with the emphasis here being on the interrelation and interchangeability of the following embodiments. In other words, an emphasis is on the fact that each feature of the embodiments can be combined with each and every other feature unless explicitly stated or taught otherwise. 
     In a first group of embodiments, a module-based energy system for an electric vehicle (EV) is provided, where the system includes: a plurality of converter modules coupled together in cascaded fashion, each of the plurality of converter modules including converter electronics electrically coupled with an energy source and a housing for holding the converter electronics and the energy source, where the plurality of converter modules are configured to supply multiphase power for one or more motors of the EV; a first plurality of channels configured to conduct coolant; and a second plurality of channels configured to conduct coolant, where the first plurality of channels are arranged across a passenger-side top of the plurality of converter modules and the second plurality of channels are arranged across a road-side bottom of the plurality of converter modules. 
     In some embodiments of the first group, the converter electronics are positioned in an upper portion of each module and the energy sources are positioned in a lower portion of each module. The converter electronics of each module can include a plurality of power transistors, and where each module includes a substrate having electrical connections with the plurality of power transistors, where the converter electronics are inverted such that the substrate is located above the plurality of power transistors. 
     In some embodiments of the first group, the system further includes: a top enclosure portion configured for placement above the first plurality of channels; a bottom enclosure portion configured for placement beneath the second plurality of channels; and a side enclosure portion configured for placement between the top enclosure portion and the bottom enclosure portion. 
     In some embodiments of the first group, the system further includes: an upper heatsink configured for placement between the first plurality of channels and an upper surface of the plurality of converter modules; and a lower heatsink configured for placement between the second plurality of channels and a lower surface of the plurality of converter modules. The top enclosure portion and the upper heatsink can each include recesses configured to hold the first plurality of channels, and the bottom enclosure portion and the lower heatsink can each include recesses configured to hold the second plurality of channels. The lower heatsink can be configured as a basin configured to hold the plurality of modules and the upper heatsink can be configured as a lid configured to couple with the basin. 
     In some embodiments of the first group, the first plurality of channels are vertically offset from the second plurality of channels. 
     In some embodiments of the first group, the system further includes a frame having a plurality of struts configured to extend between the plurality of converter modules. 
     In some embodiments of the first group, the first plurality of channels and the second plurality of channels are configured to couple with a thermal management system configured to selectively direct coolant through at least two of: only the first plurality of channels, only the second plurality of channels, and both the first plurality of channels and the second plurality of channels concurrently. 
     In a second group of embodiments, a thermal management system for a plurality of converter modules of an electric vehicle (EV) is provided, where the plurality of converter modules each include converter electronics electrically coupled with an energy source and a housing for holding the converter electronics and the energy source, where the plurality of converter modules are configured to supply multiphase power for one or more motors of the EV, the thermal management system including: a plurality of pumps coupled with a fluid network; and a plurality of heat exchangers coupled with the fluid network, where the thermal management system is controllable to independently circulate coolant in proximity with the energy sources of the plurality of converter modules and to independently circulate coolant in proximity with the converter electronics of the plurality of converter modules. 
     In some embodiments of the second group, the system is configured to form a first thermal management loop with a first pump of the plurality of pumps, a first heat exchanger of the plurality of heat exchangers, and a heater unit, where the first thermal management loop is configured to circulate coolant in proximity with the energy sources of the plurality of converter modules to either heat or cool the energy sources. The system can be configured to heat the energy sources of the plurality of converter modules by movement of coolant through the first thermal management loop with the heater unit activated and the first heat exchanger either deactivated or bypassed. The system can be configured to cool the energy sources of the plurality of converter modules by movement of coolant through the first thermal management loop including the first heat exchanger with the heater unit either deactivated or bypassed. The system can be configured to form a second thermal management loop with a second pump of the plurality of pumps and a second heat exchanger of the plurality of heat exchangers, where the second thermal management loop is configured to circulate coolant in proximity with the converter electronics of the plurality of converter modules to cool the converter electronics. 
     In some embodiments of the second group, the system is configured to form a third thermal management loop with the first pump and the second pump, where the third thermal management loop is configured to circulate coolant in proximity with the converter electronics of the plurality of converter modules and the energy sources of the plurality of converter modules. The third thermal management loop can be reconfigurable to circulate coolant through one or both of the first heat exchanger and the second heat exchanger. 
     In some embodiments of the second group, the system further includes a plurality of valves selectively controllable to independently circulate coolant in proximity with the energy sources of the plurality of converter modules and to independently circulate coolant in proximity with the converter electronics of the plurality of converter modules. 
     In some embodiments of the second group, the system further includes one or more first valves controllable to a first state that forms the first and second thermal management loops, and controllable to a second state that forms the third thermal management loop. The system can further include a second valve controllable to direct coolant through the first heat exchanger or to bypass the first heat exchanger. The system can further include a third valve controllable to direct coolant through the second heat exchanger or to bypass the second heat exchanger. 
     In some embodiments of the second group, the first heat exchanger is a chiller coupled with an air conditioner cooling system of the EV. The air conditioner cooling system can include a first valve configured to selectively permit coolant to flow through the chiller. The air conditioner cooling system can include a second valve configured to selectively permit coolant to flow through a charge network distributor or a power distribution unit of the EV. 
     In some embodiments of the second group, the system is further configured to cool the one or more motors of the EV. The system can further include a fourth thermal management loop configured to cool the one or more motors. 
     In a third group of embodiments, a control system is provided configured to control a thermal management system configured in accordance with any embodiment of the second group. 
     In some embodiments of the third group, the control system includes processing circuitry and non-transitory memory on which is stored a plurality of instructions that, when executed by the processing circuitry, cause the control system to control the thermal management system. The control system can be configured to communicatively couple with the pumps and the valves of the thermal management system. 
     In a fourth group of embodiments, a method of cooling a plurality of converter modules of an electric vehicle (EV) is provided, where the plurality of converter modules each include converter electronics electrically coupled with an energy source and a housing for holding the converter electronics and the energy source, where the plurality of converter modules are configured to supply multiphase power for one or more motors of the EV, the method including: circulating coolant in proximity with the energy sources of the plurality of converter modules through a first set of channels to either heat or cool the energy sources; and circulating coolant in proximity with the converter electronics of the plurality of converter modules through a second set of channels to cool the converter electronics of the plurality of modules. 
     In some embodiments of the fourth group, the method further includes configuring valve states of the thermal management system to form: a first thermal management loop for circulating coolant in proximity with the energy sources through the first set of channels; and a second thermal management loop for circulating coolant in proximity with the converter electronics through the second set of channels. The method can further include activating a heater unit in the first management loop to heat the energy sources with the circulated coolant. The method can further include circulating coolant in the first thermal management loop while not circulating coolant in the second thermal management loop. The method can further include circulating coolant in the second thermal management loop while not circulating coolant in the first thermal management loop. The method can further include circulating coolant in the first and second thermal management loops simultaneously. The method can further include circulating coolant in the first thermal management loop through a first heat exchanger with the heater unit deactivated or bypassed. 
     In some embodiments of the fourth group, the method further includes configuring valve states of the thermal management system to form a third thermal management loop for circulating coolant in proximity with the energy sources through the first set of channels and for circulating coolant in proximity with the converter electronics through the second set of channels. The method can further include circulating coolant through the third thermal management loop including a first heat exchanger and a second heat exchanger. The method can further include circulating coolant through the third thermal management loop including a first heat exchanger, while a second heat exchanger of the third thermal management loop is bypassed. The method can further include circulating coolant through the third thermal management loop including a second heat exchanger, while a first heat exchanger of the third thermal management loop is bypassed. 
     In a fifth group of embodiments, an energy system is provided that includes: a plurality of converter modules connected in cascaded fashion and one or more arrays, where each converter module includes: an upper cover and a base configured to be positioned beneath the upper cover; an upper substrate having an upper surface and a lower surface, where the upper surface is adjacent to the upper cover; a lower substrate electrically connected to the upper substrate; a plurality of power transistors physically connected to the lower surface of the upper substrate; a control device physically connected to the lower substrate; and an energy source electrically coupled with the plurality of power transistors and the control device. 
     In some embodiments of the fifth group, the lower substrate has an upper surface and a lower surface, and the control device is physically and electrically connected to the upper surface of the lower substrate. 
     In some embodiments of the fifth group, the lower substrate is electrically connected to the upper substrate by way of one or more standoffs. 
     In some embodiments of the fifth group, the control device is a local control device. 
     In some embodiments of the fifth group, each converter module includes a plurality of capacitors, the plurality of capacitors being electrically connected to at least one of the upper substrate and lower substrate, where the plurality of capacitors are positioned alongside and not directly between the upper and lower substrates. 
     In a sixth group of embodiments, a power and control distribution assembly (PCDA) is provided for an electric vehicle (EV) having at least one motor and a plurality of converter modules configured to generate three or more AC signals, each having a different phase angle, for supplying the at least one motor, where each of the plurality of converter modules includes an energy source, a power converter electrically connected to the energy source, and a local control device configured to generate switching signals for the converter, where the PCDA includes: a master control device configured to communicate control information to each local control device of the plurality of converter modules and configured to communicate with a vehicular control device of the EV; a drive unit for a first subsystem of the EV; an auxiliary control device communicatively coupled with the master control device and the drive unit, where the auxiliary control device is configured to control the drive unit and configured to communicate with the vehicular control device; and a housing configured to hold the master control device, drive unit, and auxiliary control device. 
     In some embodiments of the sixth group, the PCDA further includes an auxiliary power interface for outputting auxiliary power from at least one of the plurality of converter modules to a second subsystem of the EV. 
     In some embodiments of the sixth group, the plurality of converter modules are arranged in three arrays, each array including two or more converter modules connected in series, and each array being configured to generate a different one of the three AC signals, the PCDA further including routing circuitry communicatively coupled with the master control device, where the routing circuitry is controllable by the master control device to selectively connect power from a DC or single phase AC charge port to the three arrays. The routing circuitry can include a plurality of solid-state relays. 
     In some embodiments of the sixth group, the PCDA further includes a plurality of electromechanical relays for interrupting current flow between the at least one motor and the plurality of converter modules. The PCDA can further include a DC-DC converter configured to generate a first DC voltage from a second DC voltage from at least one module of the plurality of modules. 
     In some embodiments of the sixth group, the PCDA further includes monitor circuitry configured to monitor at least one of a voltage, current, or phase of each of the three AC signals. 
     In some embodiments of the sixth group, the PCDA further includes safety disconnection devices for interrupting current flow between the PCDA and the plurality of converter modules. 
     In some embodiments of the sixth group, the drive unit is a first drive unit, the PCDA further including a second drive unit for a second subsystem of the EV, where the auxiliary control device is configured to control the second drive unit. 
     In a seventh group of embodiments, a power and control distribution assembly (PCDA) is provided for an electric vehicle (EV) having at least one motor and a plurality of converter modules configured to generate three or more AC signals, each having a different phase angle, for supplying the at least one motor, where each of the plurality of converter modules includes an energy source, a power converter electrically connected to the energy source, and a local control device configured to generate switching signals for the converter, where the PCDA includes: a master control device configured to communicate control information to each local control device of the plurality of converter modules and configured to communicate with a vehicular control device of the EV; a first drive unit for a first subsystem of the EV; a second drive unit for a second subsystem of the EV; an auxiliary control device communicatively coupled with the master control device and the first and second drive units, where the auxiliary control device is configured to control the first and second drive units and configured to communicate with the vehicular control device; an auxiliary power interface for outputting auxiliary power from at least one of the plurality of converter modules to a second subsystem of the EV; a plurality of electromechanical relays for interrupting current flow between the at least one motor and the plurality of converter modules; a DC-DC converter configured to generate a first DC voltage from a second DC voltage from at least one module of the plurality of modules; monitor circuitry configured to monitor at least one of a voltage, current, or phase of each of the three AC signals, safety disconnection devices for interrupting current flow between the PCDA and the plurality of converter modules; and a housing configured to hold the master control device, the first drive unit, the second drive unit, the auxiliary control device, the auxiliary power interface, the plurality of electromechanical relays, the DC-DC converter, the monitor circuitry, and the safety disconnection devices. 
     In an eighth group of embodiments, a universal platform for an electric vehicle is provided the includes: a frame; an energy source enclosure; at least one electric motor; and a plurality of converter modules configured to generate three or more AC signals, each having a different phase angle, for supplying the at least one electric motor, where each of the plurality of converter modules includes an energy source and a power converter electrically connected to the energy source, where the universal platform is adapted to be attached to different body tops to form different EV models. 
     In some embodiments of the eighth group, the universal platform further includes a power and control distribution assembly according to any of the embodiments of the sixth and seventh groups. 
     In some embodiments of the eighth group, the universal platform further includes a thermal management system configured in accordance with any of the embodiments of the first and second groups. 
     In a ninth group of embodiments, a plurality of electric vehicles are provided that include: a first electric vehicle including a first body top and a first electric powertrain platform, where the first electric powertrain platform includes: at least one first motor; a first plurality of converter modules configured to generate three or more AC signals, each having a different phase angle, for supplying the at least one first motor, where each of the plurality of converter modules includes an energy source and a power converter electrically connected to the energy source; and a first energy system enclosure for holding the first plurality of converter modules; and a second electric vehicle including a second body top and a second electric powertrain platform, where the second electric powertrain platform includes: at least one second motor; a second plurality of converter modules configured to generate three or more AC signals, each having a different phase angle, for supplying the at least one second motor, where each of the second plurality of converter modules includes an energy source and a power converter electrically connected to the energy source; and a second energy system enclosure for holding the second plurality of converter modules; and where the first body top is different from the second body top, where the first and second pluralities of converter modules are each configured to generate a different maximum output power, and where the first and second energy system enclosures each have the same form factor. 
     In some embodiments of the ninth group, the first electric vehicle does not have a standalone drive inverter for the at least one first motor, and where the second electric vehicle does not have a standalone drive inverter for the at least one second motor. 
     In some embodiments of the ninth group, a quantity of converter modules in the first plurality of converter modules is different from a quantity of converter modules in the second plurality of converter modules. 
     In some embodiments of the ninth group, the first body type and second body type are different ones selected from the group including: a coupe, a sedan, a sports car, a truck, a van, a bus, and a sport utility vehicle. 
     In a tenth group of embodiments, a modular energy system of an electric vehicle (EV) is provided that includes: three arrays, each array including at least two levels of modules electrically connected together to output an AC voltage signal including a superposition of output voltages from each of the at least two modules, where each of the modules includes a first energy source, a second energy source, and a converter, where the first energy source and the second energy source are different classes or types, where a chassis of the EV has a length axis and a perpendicular width axis each extending laterally across a plane of the EV, where a first dimension of the chassis along the length axis is relatively longer than a second dimension of the chassis along the width axis, where the three arrays are arranged in a pack configured to fit within the chassis, where the first energy source and the second energy source are seated on different lateral sides of each module, where the three arrays are aligned in columns parallel to the length axis, and where the first energy sources of the modules of each array are aligned in columns parallel to the length axis and the second energy sources of the modules of each array are aligned in columns parallel to the length axis. 
     In some embodiments of the tenth group, the first energy source columns alternate with the second energy source columns. 
     In some embodiments of the tenth group, at least one interconnection module is connected to at least one array of the three arrays. 
     In an eleventh group of embodiments, a modular energy system of an electric vehicle (EV) is provided that includes: three arrays, each array including at least two levels of modules electrically connected together to output an AC voltage signal including a superposition of output voltages from each of the at least two modules, where each of the modules includes a first energy source, a second energy source, and a converter, where the first energy source and the second energy source are different classes or types, where a chassis of the EV has a length axis and a perpendicular width axis each extending laterally across a plane of the EV, where a first dimension of the chassis along the length axis is relatively longer than a second dimension of the chassis along the width axis, where the three arrays are arranged in a pack configured to fit within the chassis, where the first energy source and the second energy source are seated on different lateral sides of each module, where the three arrays are aligned in columns parallel to the width axis, and where the first energy sources of the modules of each array are aligned in columns parallel to the width axis and the second energy sources of the modules of each array are aligned in columns parallel to the width axis. 
     In some embodiments of the eleventh group, the first energy source columns alternate with the second energy source columns. 
     In some embodiments of the eleventh group, the system further includes at least one interconnection module connected to at least one array of the three arrays. 
     In a twelfth group of embodiments, a modular energy system controllable to supply power to a load is provided that includes: three arrays, each array including at least two modules electrically connected together to output an AC voltage signal including a superposition of output voltages from each of the at least two modules, where each of the modules includes an energy source and a converter; a charge port configured to conduct a DC or single phase AC charge signal; and routing circuitry connected between the charge port and the three arrays, where the routing circuitry is controllable to selectively route the DC or single phase AC charge signal to each of the three arrays, and where the routing circuitry includes a plurality of solid state relay (SSR) circuits each including at least one transistor. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the system further includes a control system communicatively coupled with the routing circuitry, where the control system is configured to control the routing circuitry to selectively route the DC or single phase AC charge signal to each of the three arrays. The control system can be communicatively coupled with each module of the three arrays and is configured to control the converter of each module to charge each module. The control system can be configured to control the converters of each module according to a pulse width modulation or hysteresis technique. Each module can include monitor circuitry configured to monitor status information of the module, where each module is configured to output the status information to the control system, and where the control system is configured to control the converter of each module based on the status information. The status information relates to temperature and state of charge of the module, and where the control system is configured to control the converter of each module to balance temperature and state of charge of all modules of the arrays. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the routing circuitry is bidirectional. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the transistor is a first transistor, and at least one SSR circuit includes a second transistor coupled in series with the first transistor, where the first and second transistors each have a gate node coupled with a control input. The first and second transistors can each have a body diode oriented in opposite current carrying directions. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, at least one SSR circuit includes the transistor coupled with at least four diodes, where the transistor has a gate node coupled with a control input of the at least one SSR circuit. The at least one SSR circuit can include an input and an output and is configured such that activation of the transistor allows current to pass from the input, through the transistor and at least two of the diodes, and to the output, and is configured such that inactivation of the transistor blocks current from passing from the input to the output. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the routing circuitry includes a first port configured to couple with a DC+ charge signal or a single phase AC line charge signal, a second port configured to couple with a DC− charge signal or a single phase AC neutral signal, a third port coupled with a first array, a fourth port coupled with a second array, and a fifth port coupled with a third array, and includes: a first SSR circuit coupled between the first port and the third port; a second SSR circuit coupled between the first port and the fourth port; a third SSR circuit coupled between the fourth port and the second port; and a fourth SSR circuit coupled between the fifth port and the second port. The SSR circuits can be controllable by the control system to, in operation in a DC charge state, selectively route the DC charge signal at the first port to either the third or fourth port, and to selectively route a signal at the fourth or fifth port to the second port, and the SSR circuits can be controllable by the control system to, in operation in a positive single phase AC charge state, selectively route the AC line charge signal at the first port to either the third or fourth port, and to selectively route a signal at the fourth or fifth port to the second port and, in operation in a negative single phase AC charge state, selectively route a signal at the second port two either the fourth or fifth port, and to selectively route a signal at the third or fourth port to the first port. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the routing circuitry is further controllable to route a three phase AC charge signal to each of the three arrays. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the charge port is further configured to conduct a three phase AC charge signal and the routing circuitry is further controllable to route the three phase AC charge signal to each of the three arrays, where the routing circuitry includes a first port configured to receive a DC or AC charge signal, a second port configured to receive an AC charge signal, and a third port configured to receive a DC or AC charge signal, and further includes: a first SSR circuit coupled between the first port and a first line connectable to a first array of the three arrays; a second SSR circuit coupled between the second port and a second line connectable to a second array of the three arrays; a third SSR circuit coupled between the third port and a third line connectable to a third array of the three arrays; a fourth SSR circuit coupled between the first and second ports; and a fifth SSR circuit coupled between the second and third ports. The transistor can be a first transistor, and each of the SSR circuits includes a second transistor coupled in series with the first transistor, where the first and second transistors each have a gate node coupled with a control input, and where the first and second transistors each have a body diode oriented in opposite current carrying directions. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, each of the SSR circuits includes the transistor coupled with at least four diodes, where the transistor has a gate node coupled with a control input of the at least one SSR circuit, and where each SSR circuit includes an input and an output and is configured such that activation of the transistor allows current to pass from the input, through the transistor and at least two of the diodes, and to the output, and is configured such that inactivation of the transistor blocks current from passing from the input to the output. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the system is further configured to selectively disconnect all modules and motors from a charge source. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the three arrays are interconnected by at least one interconnection module. The control system can be configured to control the at least one interconnection module to supply voltage for at least one auxiliary load when the system is in a charge state. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the three arrays are interconnected in a delta series configuration. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the load is a six phase load, the three arrays are a first set of arrays, and the system further includes a second set of arrays including an additional three arrays of modules, where the system is configured to charge the first and second set of arrays in parallel. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the charge port is a first charge port, the system further including a second charge port configured to receive a three-phase charge signal. The first and second charge ports can be integrated in the same user accessible location. The routing circuitry can be connected to lines from the second charge port. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the system includes a plurality of switches coupled between a first module of each array and the load, where the plurality of switches are controllable to disconnect the load from the three arrays. 
     In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the three arrays are of a first subsystem of the system configured to provide three-phase power to a first load, the system further including a second subsystem configured to provide three-phase power to a second load, where the second subsystem includes three arrays each including at least two modules electrically connected together to output an AC voltage signal including a superposition of output voltages from each of the at least two modules, where each of the modules of the second subsystem includes an energy source and a converter, where the first and second subsystems are coupled together by a first plurality of switches such that the first and second subsystems are electrically connectable in parallel for charging. The system can further include a third subsystem configured to provide three-phase power to a third load, where the third subsystem includes three arrays each including at least two modules electrically connected together to output an AC voltage signal including a superposition of output voltages from each of the at least two modules, where each of the modules of the third subsystem includes an energy source and a converter, where the first and third subsystems are coupled together by a second plurality of switches such that the first and third subsystems are electrically connectable in parallel for charging. 
     In a thirteenth group of embodiments, a method of charging a modular energy system is provided where the system is configured in accordance with any of the embodiments of the twelfth group, and the method includes controlling the modular energy system while a charge signal is applied to charge the modular energy system and to balance at least one operating characteristic of the system. 
     In some embodiments of the thirteenth group, the at least one operating characteristic is temperature. 
     In some embodiments of the thirteenth group, the charge signal is a three-phase charge signal, a single phase charge signal, or a direct current (DC) charge signal. 
     In some embodiments of the thirteenth group, the modular energy system is controlled to maintain a power factor of the system within a threshold of unity. 
     In some embodiments of the thirteenth group, controlling the modular energy system includes controlling converters of modules of the energy system. 
     In a fourteenth group of embodiments, a control system is provided for a modular energy system configured in accordance with any of the embodiments of the twelfth group. 
     In a fifteenth group of embodiments, a computer readable medium is provided including a plurality of instructions that, when executed by processing circuitry, cause the processing circuitry to control charging for a modular energy system configured in accordance with any of the embodiments of the twelfth group. 
     In a sixteenth group of embodiments, an energy storage system configured to supply electric power to a motor of an electric vehicle is provided, the system including: three arrays, each array including at least two modules electrically connected together to output an AC voltage signal including a superposition of output voltages from each of the at least two modules to the motor, where each of the modules includes an energy source and a DC-AC converter; a charge port configured to conduct a DC or AC signal; bidirectional routing circuitry connected between the charge port and the three arrays, where the routing circuitry is controllable to selectively route the DC or AC signal to each of the three arrays; and a control system configured to control the converters of each module to receive DC or AC power and generate DC or AC power, the control system further configured to communicate with an external controller of a power consumption entity to perform power transfer from the energy storage system to the power consumption entity. 
     In some embodiments of the sixteenth group, the control system is configured to communicate with the external controller to perform power transfer as part of a vehicle-to-grid (V2G), vehicle-to-home (V2H), vehicle-to-building (V2B), vehicle-to-community (V2C), or vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) application. 
     In some embodiments of the sixteenth group, the control system is configured to communicate with the external controller to perform power transfer as part of a vehicle-to-anything (V2A) or a vehicle-to-everything (V2X) application. 
     In some embodiments of the sixteenth group, the control system is configured to detect connection of the energy storage system with the external controller. 
     In some embodiments of the sixteenth group, the control system is configured to control the output of power from the arrays, through the routing circuitry, and through the charge port to the power consumption entity, where the power output from the arrays is in a format requested by the external controller. The control system can be configured to control the output of power concurrently with maintenance of balance in state of charge and/or temperature among the energy sources of the modules. 
     In some embodiments of the sixteenth group, the control system is configured to communicate with the external controller to identify when to perform power transfer with the power consumption entity. 
     The term “module” as used herein refers to one of two or more devices or subsystems within a larger system. The module can be configured to work in conjunction with other modules of similar size, function, and physical arrangement (e.g., location of electrical terminals, connectors, etc.). Modules having the same function and energy source(s) can be configured identical (e.g., size and physical arrangement) to all other modules within the same system (e.g., rack or pack), while modules having different functions or energy source(s) may vary in size and physical arrangement. While each module may be physically removable and replaceable with respect to the other modules of the system (e.g., like wheels on a car, or blades in an information technology (IT) blade server), such is not required. For example, a system may be packaged in a common housing that does not permit removal and replacement any one module, without disassembly of the system as a whole. However, any and all embodiments herein can be configured such that each module is removable and replaceable with respect to the other modules in a convenient fashion, such as without disassembly of the system. 
     The term “master control device” is used herein in a broad sense and does not require implementation of any specific protocol such as a master and slave relationship with any other device, such as the local control device. 
     The term “output” is used herein in a broad sense, and does not preclude functioning in a bidirectional manner as both an output and an input. Similarly, the term “input” is used herein in a broad sense, and does not preclude functioning in a bidirectional manner as both an input and an output. 
     The terms “terminal” and “port” are used herein in a broad sense, can be either unidirectional or bidirectional, and can be an input or an output. 
     The term “nominal voltage” is a commonly used metric to describe a battery cell, and is provided by the manufacturer (e.g., by marking on the cell or in a datasheet). Nominal voltage often refers to the average voltage a battery cell outputs when charged, and can be used to describe the voltage of entities incorporating battery cells, such as battery modules and subsystems and systems of the present subject matter. 
     The term “C rate” is a commonly used metric to describe the discharge current divided by the theoretical current draw under which the battery would deliver its nominal rated capacity in one hour. 
     Various aspects of the present subject matter are set forth below, in review of, and/or in supplementation to, the embodiments described thus far, with the emphasis here being on the interrelation and interchangeability of the following embodiments. In other words, an emphasis is on the fact that each feature of the embodiments can be combined with each and every other feature unless explicitly stated otherwise or logically implausible. 
     Processing circuitry can include one or more processors, microprocessors, controllers, and/or microcontrollers, each of which can be a discrete or stand-alone chip or distributed amongst (and a portion of) a number of different chips. Any type of processing circuitry can be implemented, such as, but not limited to, personal computing architectures (e.g., such as used in desktop PC&#39;s, laptops, tablets, etc.), programmable gate array architectures, proprietary architectures, custom architectures, and others. Processing circuitry can include a digital signal processor, which can be implemented in hardware and/or software. Processing circuitry can execute software instructions stored on memory that cause processing circuitry to take a host of different actions and control other components. 
     Processing circuitry can also perform other software and/or hardware routines. For example, processing circuitry can interface with communication circuitry and perform analog-to-digital conversions, encoding and decoding, other digital signal processing, multimedia functions, conversion of data into a format (e.g., in-phase and quadrature) suitable for provision to communication circuitry, and/or can cause communication circuitry to transmit the data (wired or wirelessly). 
     Any and all communication signals described herein can be communicated wirelessly except where noted or logically implausible. Communication circuitry can be included for wireless communication. The communication circuitry can be implemented as one or more chips and/or components (e.g., transmitter, receiver, transceiver, and/or other communication circuitry) that perform wireless communications over links under the appropriate protocol (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Bluetooth Low Energy, Near Field Communication (NFC), Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), proprietary protocols, and others). One or more other antennas can be included with communication circuitry as needed to operate with the various protocols and circuits. In some embodiments, communication circuitry can share antenna for transmission over links. RF communication circuitry can include a transmitter and a receiver (e.g., integrated as a transceiver) and associated encoder logic. 
     Processing circuitry can also be adapted to execute the operating system and any software applications, and perform those other functions not related to the processing of communications transmitted and received. 
     Computer program instructions for carrying out operations in accordance with the described subject matter may be written in any combination of one or more programming languages, including an object oriented programming language such as Java, JavaScript, Smalltalk, C++, C#, Transact-SQL, XML, PHP or the like and conventional procedural programming languages, such as the “C” programming language or similar programming languages. 
     Memory, storage, and/or computer readable media can be shared by one or more of the various functional units present, or can be distributed amongst two or more of them (e.g., as separate memories present within different chips). Memory can also reside in a separate chip of its own. 
     To the extent the embodiments disclosed herein include or operate in association with memory, storage, and/or computer readable media, then that memory, storage, and/or computer readable media are non-transitory. Accordingly, to the extent that memory, storage, and/or computer readable media are covered by one or more claims, then that memory, storage, and/or computer readable media is only non-transitory. The terms “non-transitory” and “tangible” as used herein, are intended to describe memory, storage, and/or computer readable media excluding propagating electromagnetic signals, but are not intended to limit the type of memory, storage, and/or computer readable media in terms of the persistency of storage or otherwise. For example, “non-transitory” and/or “tangible” memory, storage, and/or computer readable media encompasses volatile and non-volatile media such as random access media (e.g., RAM, SRAM, DRAM, FRAM, etc.), read-only media (e.g., ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, flash, etc.) and combinations thereof (e.g., hybrid RAM and ROM, NVRAM, etc.) and variants thereof. 
     It should be noted that all features, elements, components, functions, and steps described with respect to any embodiment provided herein are intended to be freely combinable and substitutable with those from any other embodiment. If a certain feature, element, component, function, or step is described with respect to only one embodiment, then it should be understood that that feature, element, component, function, or step can be used with every other embodiment described herein unless explicitly stated otherwise. This paragraph therefore serves as antecedent basis and written support for the introduction of claims, at any time, that combine features, elements, components, functions, and steps from different embodiments, or that substitute features, elements, components, functions, and steps from one embodiment with those of another, even if the following description does not explicitly state, in a particular instance, that such combinations or substitutions are possible. It is explicitly acknowledged that express recitation of every possible combination and substitution is overly burdensome, especially given that the permissibility of each and every such combination and substitution will be readily recognized by those of ordinary skill in the art. 
     As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. 
     While the embodiments are susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific examples thereof have been shown in the drawings and are herein described in detail. It should be understood, however, that these embodiments are not to be limited to the particular form disclosed, but to the contrary, these embodiments are to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit of the disclosure. Furthermore, any features, functions, steps, or elements of the embodiments may be recited in or added to the claims, as well as negative limitations that define the inventive scope of the claims by features, functions, steps, or elements that are not within that scope.