Patent Publication Number: US-2023141375-A1

Title: System and method for damage detection

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional patent application Ser. No. 63/223,648, filed Jul. 20, 2021, the entirety of which is herein incorporated by reference. 
    
    
     FIELD 
     The disclosure relates to a system and method for detecting damage including external damage, cuts, punctures, and internal damage, for example, by monitoring a ground reaction force. 
     BACKGROUND 
     This section provides background information related to the present disclosure which is not necessarily prior art. 
     It is often desirable to detect damage to various parts or components. The damage may not always be detectable upon a visual inspection. For safety and other reasons, detection of the damage is often quite important. Further, cost savings can be realized by avoiding replacing parts or components which are not damaged. 
     An example of components requiring detection of damage are vehicle tires. The tread of tires is typically defined by a number of grooves or channels molded into a peripheral portion of the tire. The tread is a peripheral portion of the tire that comes into contact with the road. Tire treads give tires traction. Tire treads, however, can become damaged during the course of use. If the damage is severe enough, the tire&#39;s traction or structural integrity may be compromised, requiring the tire to be replaced. 
     One type of tire where it is critical to detect damage is an aircraft tire, especially military aircraft. Missions based on rapid sortie generation place a variety of demands on operational systems of military aircraft, especially tires. A need exists for automated screening procedures that ensure an integrity and a function of all aircraft systems required for mission success. For many aircraft systems, screening and alerting is handled by an autonomic logistics/onboard diagnostics system. However, these conventional systems cannot check tire integrity. Maintenance personnel can provide a fairly rapid visual confirmation of significant external tire damage such as that shown in  FIG.  1   . However, there is no system that can detect small-scale punctures such as those shown in  FIG.  2    or internal delamination with the tire still on the aircraft in an operational state. The difficulty in detecting this damage could compromise the safety of the crew and the aircraft during future takeoffs and landings. 
     Accordingly, it would be desirable to develop a system and a method of detecting damage that is easily administered and detects external and/or internal damage which may or may not be detected upon a visual inspection. 
     SUMMARY 
     In concordance and agreement with the present invention, a system and a method of detecting damage that is easily administered and detects external and/or internal damage which may or may not be detectable upon a visual inspection, have surprisingly been discovered. 
     In one embodiment, a method of detecting damage, comprises steps of: sensing at least one of a deformation and a force of at least one target object as the at least one target object traverses a surface including at least one sensor; and detecting damage to the at least one target object based upon the at least one of the force and the deformation of the at least one target object. 
     In another embodiment, a system for detecting damage, comprises: at least one sensor configured to sense at least one of a force and a deformation of at least one target object as the at least one target object traverses a surface including the at least one sensor; and a controller in communication with the at least one sensor, wherein the controller is configured to analyze at least one of the force and the deformation sensed by the at least one sensor to detect damage to the at least one target object. 
     In yet another embodiment, a method of detecting tire damage, comprises steps of: sensing at least one of a force and a deformation of at least one tire; comparing the at least one sensed force and sensed deformation to baseline data; and detecting damage to the at least one tire based upon the comparison of the at least one sensed force and sensed deformation of the at least one tire to the baseline data. 
     In some embodiments, the at least one sensor includes at least one of a shear force sensor, a hall-effect sensor, a sensing film, a proximity sensor, and a point sensor. 
     In some embodiments, the method further comprises a step of comparing the at least one of the force and the deformation to baseline data associated with an undamaged object. 
     In some embodiments, the at least one target object is a tire. 
     In some embodiments, the damage detected includes internal damage and/or external damage to the at least one object. 
     In some embodiments, the at least one sensor is configured to measure at least one of a normal, tangential, and shear contact force. 
     In some embodiments, the damage detected includes internal damage and external damage to the at least one target object. 
     In some embodiments, wherein the baseline data is generated by sensing at least one of axial shear contact force and lateral shear contact force as the undamaged object traverses a surface. 
     In some embodiments, the baseline data is generated by sensing an entire circumference of the undamaged object and detecting deviations from a mean. 
     In some embodiments, wherein the at least one target object and the undamaged object are tires used in aircraft fleet operations. 
     In some embodiments, the at least one sensor is configured to generate a signature associated with the at least one target object. 
     In some embodiments, the signature associated with the at least one target object is representative of the at least one of the force and the deformation of the at least one target object sensed by the at least one sensor. 
     In some embodiments, the controller is configured to compare the signature associated with the at least one target object to a signature associated with an undamaged object. 
     In some embodiments, the signature associated with the undamaged object is representative of at least one of a force and a deformation of the undamaged object as the undamaged object traverses a surface. 
     In some embodiments, the baseline data is generated by sensing at least one of axial shear contact force and lateral shear contact force of an undamaged tire. 
     In some embodiments, the baseline data is generated by sensing an entire circumference of an undamaged tire and detecting deviations from a mean. 
     In some embodiments, the baseline data is generated by sensing at least one of a force and a deformation of a collection of tires used in aircraft fleet operations. 
     Further areas of applicability will become apparent from the description provided herein. 
     The description and specific examples in this summary are intended for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of the present disclosure. 
    
    
     
       DRAWINGS 
       The drawings described herein are for illustrative purposes only of selected embodiments and not all possible implementations, and are not intended to limit the scope of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  1    is a fragmentary view of a tire having external tread damage; 
         FIG.  2    is a fragmentary view of a tire having a pair of punctures therein; 
         FIG.  3    is a fragmentary view of a tire having cuts therein; 
         FIG.  4    is a fragmentary view of a tire having an undesired foreign object embedded therein; 
         FIG.  5    is a distribution map showing differentiation of lateral deformation caused by shear forces as the tire of  FIG.  1    traverses over a surface, which is used to detect the external tread damage; 
         FIG.  6    is a distribution map showing differentiation of axial deformation caused by shear forces as the tire of  FIG.  2    traverses over a surface, which is used to detect the punctures in the tire; 
         FIG.  7    is a distribution map showing differentiation of axial deformation caused by shear forces as the tire of  FIG.  3    traverses over a surface, which is used to detect the cuts in the tire; 
         FIG.  8    is a distribution map showing differentiation of axial deformation caused by shear forces as a tire traverses over a surface, which is used to detect internal damage to the tire; 
         FIG.  9    is a graph demonstrating external damage detection by comparing axial deformation at a range of spatial resolutions of the tire with cuts and an undamaged tire; 
         FIG.  10    is a graph demonstrating internal damage detection by comparing axial deformation at a range of spatial resolutions of the tire with internal delamination and an undamaged tire; 
         FIG.  11    shows a system for detecting damage according to an embodiment of the present disclosure, wherein the system is an image-based system including a surface stress sensitive film, at least one sensor, at least one illumination device, and a controller; 
         FIG.  12    shows a system for detecting damage according to another embodiment of the present disclosure, wherein the system is a point-based system including an array of point sensors in communication with a controller; 
         FIG.  13 A  is a graph showing a signature associated with an undamaged tire detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused inline shear forces; 
         FIG.  13 B  is a graph showing a signature associated with a tire having punctures detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused by inline shear forces; 
         FIG.  14 A  is a graph showing a signature associated with an undamaged tire detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused lateral shear forces; 
         FIG.  14 B  is a graph showing a signature associated with a tire having punctures detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused by lateral shear forces; 
         FIG.  15 A  is a graph showing a signature associated with an undamaged tire detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused inline shear forces; 
         FIG.  15 B  is a graph showing a signature associated with a tire having cuts detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused by inline shear forces; 
         FIG.  16 A  is a graph showing a signature associated with an undamaged tire detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused lateral shear forces; 
         FIG.  16 B  is a graph showing a signature associated with a tire having cuts detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused by lateral shear forces; 
         FIG.  17 A  is a graph showing a signature associated with an undamaged tire detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused inline shear forces; 
         FIG.  17 B  is a graph showing a signature associated with a tire having an embedded foreign object detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused by inline shear forces; 
         FIG.  18 A  is a graph showing a signature associated with an undamaged tire detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused lateral shear forces; 
         FIG.  18 B  is a graph showing a signature associated with a tire having an embedded foreign object detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused by lateral shear forces; 
         FIG.  19 A  is a graph showing a signature associated with an undamaged tire detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused inline shear forces; 
         FIG.  19 B  is a graph showing a signature associated with a tire having internal delamination detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused by inline shear forces; 
         FIG.  20 A  is a graph showing a signature associated with an undamaged tire detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused lateral shear forces; 
         FIG.  20 B  is a graph showing a signature associated with a tire having internal delamination detected using a system including an array of point sensors to sense deformation caused by lateral shear forces; 
         FIG.  21    is a schematic top plan view of a two-dimensional array of point sensors for sensing deformation caused by contact forces, which is used in a system for detecting damage according to an embodiment of the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  22    is a perspective view of an assembled point sensor as shown in  FIG.  21   ; 
         FIG.  23    is an exploded top perspective view of the point sensor of  FIG.  22   ; 
         FIG.  24    is an exploded bottom perspective view of the point sensor of  FIGS.  22  and  23   ; 
         FIG.  25    is a fragmentary perspective view of a flat plate having the point sensor of  FIGS.  22 - 24    disposed therein; 
         FIG.  26    shows a hydrodynamic point sensor for measuring shear forces for detecting damage according to an embodiment of the present disclosure; and 
         FIG.  27    shows an in-sole shear sensor for measuring shear forces for detecting damage according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The following description of technology is merely exemplary in nature of the subject matter, manufacture and use of one or more inventions, and is not intended to limit the scope, application, or uses of any specific invention claimed in this application or in such other applications as may be filed claiming priority to this application, or patents issuing therefrom. Regarding methods disclosed, the order of the steps presented is exemplary in nature, and thus, the order of the steps can be different in various embodiments. “A” and “an” as used herein indicate “at least one” of the item is present; a plurality of such items may be present, when possible. Except where otherwise expressly indicated, all numerical quantities in this description are to be understood as modified by the word “about” and all geometric and spatial descriptors are to be understood as modified by the word “substantially” in describing the broadest scope of the technology. “About” when applied to numerical values indicates that the calculation or the measurement allows some slight imprecision in the value (with some approach to exactness in the value; approximately or reasonably close to the value; nearly). If, for some reason, the imprecision provided by “about” and/or “substantially” is not otherwise understood in the art with this ordinary meaning, then “about” and/or “substantially” as used herein indicates at least variations that may arise from ordinary methods of measuring or using such parameters. 
     All documents, including patents, patent applications, and scientific literature cited in this detailed description are incorporated herein by reference, unless otherwise expressly indicated. Where any conflict or ambiguity may exist between a document incorporated by reference and this detailed description, the present detailed description controls. 
     Although the open-ended term “comprising,” as a synonym of non-restrictive terms such as including, containing, or having, is used herein to describe and claim embodiments of the present technology, embodiments may alternatively be described using more limiting terms such as “consisting of” or “consisting essentially of” Thus, for any given embodiment reciting materials, components, or process steps, the present technology also specifically includes embodiments consisting of, or consisting essentially of, such materials, components, or process steps excluding additional materials, components or processes (for consisting of) and excluding additional materials, components or processes affecting the significant properties of the embodiment (for consisting essentially of), even though such additional materials, components or processes are not explicitly recited in this application. For example, recitation of a composition or process reciting elements A, B and C specifically envisions embodiments consisting of, and consisting essentially of, A, B and C, excluding an element D that may be recited in the art, even though element D is not explicitly described as being excluded herein. 
     As referred to herein, all compositional percentages are by weight of the total composition, unless otherwise specified. Disclosures of ranges are, unless specified otherwise, inclusive of endpoints and include all distinct values and further divided ranges within the entire range. Thus, for example, a range of “from A to B” or “from about A to about B” is inclusive of A and of B. Disclosure of values and ranges of values for specific parameters (such as amounts, weight percentages, etc.) are not exclusive of other values and ranges of values useful herein. It is envisioned that two or more specific exemplified values for a given parameter may define endpoints for a range of values that may be claimed for the parameter. For example, if Parameter X is exemplified herein to have value A and also exemplified to have value Z, it is envisioned that Parameter X may have a range of values from about A to about Z. Similarly, it is envisioned that disclosure of two or more ranges of values for a parameter (whether such ranges are nested, overlapping or distinct) subsume all possible combination of ranges for the value that might be claimed using endpoints of the disclosed ranges. For example, if Parameter X is exemplified herein to have values in the range of 1-10, or 2-9, or 3-8, it is also envisioned that Parameter X may have other ranges of values including 1-9,1-8,1-3,1-2,2-10,2-8,2-3,3-10,3-9, and so on. 
     When an element or layer is referred to as being “on,” “engaged to,” “connected to,” or “coupled to” another element or layer, it may be directly on, engaged, connected or coupled to the other element or layer, or intervening elements or layers may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly on,” “directly engaged to,” “directly connected to” or “directly coupled to” another element or layer, there may be no intervening elements or layers present. Other words used to describe the relationship between elements should be interpreted in a like fashion (e.g., “between” versus “directly between,” “adjacent” versus “directly adjacent,” etc.). As used herein, the term “and/or” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items. 
     Although the terms first, second, third, etc. may be used herein to describe various elements, components, regions, layers and/or sections, these elements, components, regions, layers and/or sections should not be limited by these terms. These terms may be only used to distinguish one element, component, region, layer or section from another region, layer or section. Terms such as “first,” “second,” and other numerical terms when used herein do not imply a sequence or order unless clearly indicated by the context. Thus, a first element, component, region, layer or section discussed below could be termed a second element, component, region, layer or section without departing from the teachings of the example embodiments. 
     Spatially relative terms, such as “inner,” “outer,” “beneath,” “below,” “lower,” “above,” “upper,” and the like, may be used herein for ease of description to describe one element or feature&#39;s relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures. Spatially relative terms may be intended to encompass different orientations of the device in use or operation in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures. For example, if the device in the figures is turned over, elements described as “below” or “beneath” other elements or features would then be oriented “above” the other elements or features. Thus, the example term “below” can encompass both an orientation of above and below. The device may be otherwise oriented (rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein interpreted accordingly. 
     Initially, it should be pointed out that although examples of detecting tire damage by sensing contact forces on a predetermined area of a surface are disclosed herein, the systems and methods disclosed may be used for detecting damage by sensing forces on other structures without departing from the scope of the invention, and the examples provided herein should not limit the scope of the disclosure in any way. Further, although various methods for sensing the contact forces to detect damage are disclosed herein, other methods and systems may be used for detecting damage by sensing deformation, contact forces, and/or reaction forces without departing from the scope of the invention, and the examples provided herein should not limit the scope of the disclosure in any way. 
       FIGS.  1 - 4    illustrate various types of damage to a tire. In  FIG.  1   , for example, a tire having external tread damage is shown. An example of a tire having a pair of punctures is depicted in  FIG.  2   .  FIG.  3    shows an example of a tire having a small cuts therein. An example of a tire having an undesired foreign objected embedded therein is shown in  FIG.  4   . It is understood that the types of tire damage shown in  FIGS.  1 - 4    are non-limiting, and a tire may be subjected to and undergo various other types of damage during operation thereof. 
     Further,  FIGS.  5 - 8    show respective depictions of deformation patterns caused by contact forces which provide unique signatures representative of damage to the tire. More particularly, referring now to  FIGS.  5 - 7   , which are distribution maps showing differentiation of axial deformation caused by shear forces as the tires of  FIGS.  1 - 3   , respectively, traverse over a surface to detect external tire damage.  FIG.  8    is a distribution map showing differentiation of axial deformation caused by shear forces as a tire having internal damage (e.g., delamination) traverses over a surface. Accordingly, the external damage and the internal damage may be detected by analyzing the axial deformation patterns of  FIGS.  5 - 8    caused by the shear forces as the tires traverse the surface. In  FIG.  5   , the external damage in the form of tread wear is shown with the lateral deformation pattern associated therewith. In  FIG.  6   , the external damage in the form of two punctures is shown with the axial deformation pattern associated therewith. In  FIG.  7   , the external damage in the form of small cuts is shown with the axial deformation pattern associated therewith. In  FIG.  8   , the internal damage is shown with the axial deformation pattern associated therewith. The deformation patterns associated with the various damage types may then be compared to deformation patterns associated with an undamaged tire or undamaged areas of the same tire to detect whether damage to a tire exists and what type of damage there is to the tire. Thus, various damage types to the tire may be detected using the deformation signatures caused by various contact and/or reaction forces, thus allowing for corrective action to be taken. It is understood that the various contact forces may include frictional, tension, normal, tangential, and/or shear forces applied to the surface. 
     Various systems and methods of obtaining deformation and/or force data for at least one target object will now be discussed. 
     An image-based system  10  for sensing and/or measuring the deformation, the contact forces, and/or the reaction forces over a predetermined area of a surface to detect damage to the at least one target object (e.g. the tire) in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure is shown in  FIG.  11   . In a non-limiting example, the system  10  may provide continuous measurements of deformation caused by the contact forces (e.g. the shear forces) under fully-loaded aircraft tires undergoing free rolling, yawing, and braking maneuvers. The primary goal of such system  10  is to provide high-resolution experimental measurements of tire contact forces for advancement of tire wear models. 
     In some embodiments, the system  10  may include a surface-stress-sensitive film (S3F)  12 , at least one sensor  13  (e.g. a camera), a controller  14 , and at least one illumination device  15  (e.g. an light-emitting diode (LED)). The at least one sensor  13  may be configured to produce the deformation patterns illustrated in  FIGS.  5 - 8   . An example of an S3F is disclosed in commonly owned U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,950, hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Inspection of an entire tire, with spatial resolution on the order of 2-mm, is accomplished by rolling a tire over a length of the S3F  12 . Testing conducted on tires having damage that is not readily identified visually, such as the punctures shown in  FIG.  2   , the cuts shown in  FIG.  3   , the embedded foreign object shown in  FIG.  4   , and internal delamination, for example, demonstrated that the damage may be detected by sensing and/or measuring the deformation caused by the contact forces over a predetermined surface provided by the S3F  12 . Thus, in a non-limiting example, merely maneuvering an aircraft such that the tires of the aircraft are driven over the system  10 , field tire damage information may be obtained. 
     It was recognized that a spatial resolution of the image-based system  10  may be quite high relative to a footprint of the deformation caused by the contact forces in the predetermined surface. The results from testing the tires shown in  FIGS.  1 - 4    indicate that a system  10  with spatial resolution on an order of 20 mm is sufficient to detect both the external damage of the tire as shown in  FIG.  9    and the internal damage of the tire as shown in  FIG.  10   . Since the spatial resolution required to detect damage to the tire is relatively high, other systems for sensing and/or measuring the deformation, the contact forces, and/or the reaction forces may be used. 
     In some embodiments, the system  10  may be configured to collect data on an entirety of the target object such as a circumference of the tire, for example. See  FIGS.  9  and  10   . More preferably, this system  10  may be configured to sense the deformation caused by the contact forces to detect damage to the tire such as the tire damage shown in  FIGS.  1 - 4   , for example. While external large-scale damage such as that shown in  FIG.  1    can easily be identified visually, small-scale damage such as the punctures shown in  FIG.  2    and the cuts shown in  FIG.  3    can be more difficult to detect visually. As illustrated in  FIG.  9   , a damaged tire produces a distinct pattern of deformation in its signature that can be readily distinguished from baseline data of an undamaged tire. Furthermore, internal damage, such as the internal delamination, also produces distinct patterns of deformation in its signature that can be readily distinguished from baseline data of an undamaged tire as shown in  FIG.  10   . In certain embodiments, a comparison of the signatures of the damaged tires against the baseline data of the undamaged tires may be conducted by the system  10  using automated software via the controller  14 . 
     It was further found that the deformation pattern caused by the tire damage, such as that shown in  FIGS.  1 - 4   , is relatively large compared to a size of the actual defect. A spatial resolution of the image-based system  10 , on the order of 2 mm, may be excessive compared to a spatial resolution needed to detect tire damage. Accordingly, the detection of damage using deformation at a series of spatial resolutions was employed by the system  10 . In  FIGS.  9  and  10   , the deformation of each of the undamaged tire and the damaged tires at various spatial resolutions is decimated and plotted. More particularly, the deformation of the undamaged tire and the deformation of the damaged tire shown in  FIG.  3    at spatial resolutions from 1.6 mm to 25.6 mm are decimated and plotted in  FIG.  9   . In  FIG.  10   , the deformation of the undamaged tire and the deformation of the damaged tire having internal delamination at spatial resolutions from 1.6 mm to 25.6 mm are decimated and plotted. A sharp change in the deformation around the internal delamination at approximately 190 mm is clearly visible in the associated signature of the damaged tire, even at a spatial resolution of 25 mm. However, this feature is absent in the signature of the undamaged tire. The recognition that the spatial resolution necessary to detect meaningful damage may be on the order of 25 mm also suggests that various other systems for detecting damage may be employed. 
       FIG.  12    depicts a point-based the system  100  for detecting damage to at least one target object in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure. The system  100  may include a plurality of sensors  116  in communication with a controller  117  to detect damage to the at least one target object. For example, the system  100  may comprise a linear array of the sensors  116  integrated into at least one plate  122 . It is understood that the plate  122  may be a modular plate and produced from any suitable material such as acrylic, for example. Various types of sensors  116  may be employed in the system  100  as desired. 
     Examples illustrated in  FIGS.  13 A- 20 B  indicate that the system  100  comprising an array of the sensors  116  may be used to detect tire damage. In the testing examples, the system  100  in accordance with the particular embodiment shown in  FIG.  12    was used. Such embodiment of the system  100  includes a linear array of sensors  116  produced by cutting a channel into an acrylic plate  122  and integrating a series of six sensors  116  placed at 1-inch intervals. Such system  100  was then installed in a tire force machine and testing was conducted using an undamaged tire and the damaged tires of  FIGS.  1 - 4   . The system  100  was placed in-line with the undamaged tire so that a continuous undamaged section of the tire rolled over the system  100 . A displacement caused by the contact forces (e.g. an inline shear force and a lateral shear force) of the undamaged tire rolling over the system  100  was sampled in time resulting in a signature associated with the undamaged tire. The system  100  was also placed in-line with the damaged tire so that an undamaged section and a damaged section of the tire rolled over the system  100 . A displacement caused by the contact forces (e.g. an inline shear force and a lateral shear force) of the damaged tire rolling over the system  100  was sampled in time resulting in a signature associated with the damaged tire. The signature associated with the damaged tire was then compared, via the controller  117 , to the signature associated with the undamaged tire for each separate type of contact force to detect tire damage. In certain embodiments, a comparison of the signatures of the damaged tires against the baseline data of the undamaged tires may be conducted by the system  100  using automated software via the controller  117 . 
     Resulting signatures of the tire with the punctures are presented in  FIGS.  13 A,  13 B,  14 A,  14 B . Uncalibrated data from each of the sensors  16  of the system  100  for inline shear force and lateral shear force of the undamaged tire is shown in  FIGS.  13 A and  14 A , respectively. Comparable uncalibrated data from each of the sensors  16  of the system  100  for inline shear force and lateral shear force of the damaged tire is shown in  FIGS.  13 B and  14 B , respectively. A comparison of the signatures for inline shear force provides no clear evidence of tire damage. However, there is an obvious deviation in the signature associated with the damaged tire for lateral shear force, particularly at a fifth one (S5) of the sensors  16  as lateral spreading of the damaged tire decreased. 
     Resulting signatures of the tire with the cuts are presented in  FIGS.  15 A,  15 B,  16 A,  16 B . Uncalibrated data from each of the sensors  16  of the system  100  for inline shear force and lateral shear force of the undamaged tire is shown in  FIGS.  15 A and  16 A , respectively. Comparable uncalibrated data from each of the sensors  16  of the system  100  for inline shear force and lateral shear force of the damaged tire is shown in  FIGS.  15 B and  16 B , respectively. A comparison of the signatures for both inline shear force and lateral shear force provides clear evidence of tire damage. There is an obvious deviation in the signature associated with the damaged tire for inline shear force between a second one (S2) and a third one (S3) of the sensors  16  as the damaged tire spreads around the cuts. A similar deviation is present in the signature associated with the damaged tire for lateral shear force between S2 and S3. 
     Resulting signatures of the tire with the embedded foreign object are presented in  FIGS.  17 A,  17 B,  18 A,  18 B . Uncalibrated data from each of the sensors  16  of the system  100  for inline shear force and lateral shear force of the undamaged tire is shown in  FIGS.  17 A and  18 A , respectively. Comparable uncalibrated data from each of the sensors  16  of the system  100  for inline shear force and lateral shear force of the damaged tire is shown in  FIGS.  17 B and  18 B , respectively. A comparison of the signatures for both inline shear force and lateral shear force provides clear evidence of tire damage. There is an obvious deviation in the signature associated with the damaged tire for inline shear force, particularly at S5. Further, obvious deviations in the signature associated with the damaged tire for the lateral shear force are present at all of the sensors  116 , and more pronounced at S5. 
     Resulting signatures of the tire with the internal delamination are presented in  FIGS.  19 A,  19 B,  20 A,  20 B . Uncalibrated data from each of the sensors  16  of the system  100  for inline shear force and lateral shear force of the undamaged tire is shown in  FIGS.  19 A and  20 A , respectively. Comparable uncalibrated data from each of the sensors  16  of the system  100  for inline shear force and lateral shear force of the damaged tire is shown in  FIGS.  19 B and  20 B , respectively. A comparison of the signatures for both inline shear force and lateral shear force provides evidence of tire damage. In this case, the presence of the tire damage is more subtle for the inline shear force. There is a minor deviation in the signature associated with the damaged tire for inline shear force, indicating spreading near S5 and S6. However, the presence of the damage is quite obvious for the lateral shear force, where a sign of the lateral shear force for all the sensors  16  has changed direction. There are obvious deviations in the signature associated with the damaged tire for the lateral shear force, indicating spreading at all of the sensors  16 , particularly at S5. 
     These examples indicate that deformation caused by the contact forces deviates noticeably from mean baseline data associated with the undamaged tire in the presence of tire damage. Accordingly, even without calibration, the presence and location of the tire damage may be detected by the system  100  using a comparison of the signatures associated with damaged tire to the signatures associated with the undamaged tire. 
     In other embodiments shown in  FIG.  21   , the system  100  may be a flat panel comprising the plate  122  provided with a two-dimensional array of the sensors  116  in communication with the controller  117  (shown in  FIG.  12   ). In some embodiments, the system  100  employing the array of the sensors  16  may be placed on a steel or aluminum plate  122 , although other materials may be used for the plate  122  as desired. In other embodiments, the array of the sensors  116  may be embedded into the plate  122  and have a desired pitch or spatial footprint, for example, 20 mm per sensor. Although the plate  122  may be sized to create a 2-foot by 2-foot panel, for example, other sizes, shapes and dimensions may be employed, if desired. For different applications, the system  100  may employ various dimensions, sizes, number of sensors, and the like, as needed to fulfill requirements of the system  100  as necessary. 
     It is understood that each of the systems  10 ,  100  may employ various types of sensors  13 ,  116  without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, each of the sensors  116  may be a point sensor configured for non-contact measurement. In other embodiments, each of the sensors  116  may be a proximity sensor. 
     As illustrated in  FIGS.  22 - 25   , the sensor  116  may comprise a sensing area  130 , a magnet  132 , and a hall-effect device  134 . As a non-limiting example, the sensing area  130  may be formed from a generally 3-mm thick S3F polymer portion with the floating magnet  132  embedded generally 1-mm below a surface of the sensing area  130 . A three-dimensional, tangential and normal displacement of the magnet  132  may be sensed and monitored using the hall-effect device  134 . In some embodiments, the hall-effect device  134  may be configured to permit a flow of electrical current therethrough and includes a printed circuit board (PCB)  135  to sense a change in voltage of the electrical current and generate a signal representative of the displacement of the magnet  132 , and thereby deformation caused by the contact forces of the at least one target object. The hall-effect device  134  may have a 16-bit digital output. A displacement resolution of the sensors  126  may be exceed 200 nm. Such improved resolution allows stiffer polymer materials to be used for manufacturing the sensors  116 , while still maintaining high sensitivity. 
     The sensor  16  shown includes a hollow sensor body  140  having the active sensing area  30  attached to a sensor back plate or base  142 . The sensor body  140  has a generally cylindrical shape. However, it is understood that the sensor body  140  may have any suitable shape as desired. The sensor body  140  may be configured to receive the magnet  132 , the hall-effect device  134 , and a retaining element  144  for securing the hall-effect device  134  therein. A pair of arcuate-shaped channels  143  may be formed in an outer surface of the sensor body  140 . Each of the channels  143  may be provided with a rib  141  more clearly shown in  FIG.  24   . 
     As best seen in  FIG.  23   , the retaining element  144  may include a center portion  145  having a recess  149  for receiving the hall-effect device  134  therein and a pair of opposing ear portions  147  extending outwardly from the center portion  145 . A plurality of apertures  146  may be formed in the center portion  145  and/or ear portions  147 . A size, shape, and number of the apertures  146  may be as such to permit wiring of the hall-effect device  134  to extend therethrough and/or minimize a weight and cost of the sensor  116 . Each of the ear portions  147  of the retaining element  144  may further include a protuberance  148  extending axially therefrom. The ear portions  147  with the protuberances  148  are configured to cooperate with corresponding indentations  150  formed in an inner surface of the sensor body  140  to maintain a position of the retaining element  144  therein. 
     An array of mounting holes  152  may be provided in the base  142  for affixing the sensor  116  to a mounting structure (not depicted). It is understood that the sensor  116  may be installed in a substantially planar plate  160  or other structure as shown in  FIG.  25   . As illustrated, the sensor  116  may be mounted so that the sensing area  30  is substantially flush with a surrounding surface of the plate  160  or other structure. A wire routing channel  154  may also be formed in the base  142  to route wire supplying the electrical current and/or transmitting the signal to and/or from the sensor  116 . The base  142  may further include a pair of opposing arcuate-shaped projections  156 . As more clearly shown in  FIG.  23   , each of the projections  156  may include a channel  158  configured to receive the rib  141  of the sensor body  140  to couple the sensor body  140  to the base  142 . 
     The system  100  may be used in a variety of applications such as hydrodynamic skin friction and in-sole foot shear. Examples of two such systems are shown in  FIGS.  26  and  27   . 
     Such image-based systems  10  and point-based systems  100  may be employed to detect damage in a target object. Advantageously, the systems  10 ,  100  improve a safety and performance of an aircraft by detecting the type of tire damage that cannot be identified by visual inspection and can lead to catastrophic tire failure on takeoff or landing. The systems  10 ,  100  and method of use thereof are particularly beneficial in operational settings where close proximity to the tire is prohibited by safety concerns, and therefore, visual inspection is not possible. 
     In certain embodiments, the systems  10 ,  100  may be utilized in a depot or an airport runway, ramp, maintenance or hot pit refueling apron to detect damage to the tires. This technology may be utilized to provide real-time assessments of the tire to determine whether a condition of the tire is acceptable for use under rapid sortie generation operations. Data from the systems  10 ,  100  may also link to inventory, maintenance and databases (e.g. tire databases) for enhanced safety, logistics, and management (e.g. tire maintenance management) via the controllers  14 ,  117 . The systems  10 ,  100 , via the controllers  14 ,  117  may also be capable of aircraft tire integrity assessment and predictive maintenance, which may offer substantial savings in tire acquisition and disposal costs, as well as improve operational readiness and safety. 
     Example embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough, and will fully convey the scope to those who are skilled in the art. Numerous specific details are set forth such as examples of specific components, devices, and methods, to provide a thorough understanding of embodiments of the present disclosure. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that specific details need not be employed, that example embodiments may be embodied in many different forms, and that neither should be construed to limit the scope of the disclosure. In some example embodiments, well-known processes, well-known device structures, and well-known technologies are not described in detail. Equivalent changes, modifications and variations of some embodiments, materials, compositions and methods can be made within the scope of the present technology, with substantially similar results.