Patent Publication Number: US-2018038842-A1

Title: Microfluidic device and apparatus comprising such a device

Description:
The present invention relates to microfluidic devices and to apparatus comprising such devices. 
     An example of such an apparatus is an electrophoresis apparatus. 
     The principle of electrophoresis is based on the migration of species carrying a net electrical charge which move under the action of an electric field generated by applying a difference in potential applied to each side of a membrane pierced with a passage of nanometric transverse dimensions. 
     Such methods have been implemented using biological membranes. However, because of problems inherent to the use of such biological membranes, there are increasing efforts to use, where possible, a membrane provided with an artificial passage (or “synthetic” membrane). 
     The document by B. Schiedt et al. entitled “Direct FIB fabrication and integration of ‘single nanopore devices’ for the manipulation of macromolecules”, Microelectron. Eng. (2010), doi: 10.1016/j.mee.2009.12.073 describes an example of such a device. An event, such as the migration of a macromolecule of solution through a pore, is detected by a decrease in the current detected by the reading system (FIGS. 3 b  and 3 c  of that document—see  FIG. 2 a    of the present application). 
     At present, the only known information to be obtained using such a setup is binary information: the migration or non-migration of the macromolecule through the nanopore. 
     We seek to improve the detection of events. 
     To this end, according to the invention, a microfluidic device is provided comprising a body and a covering sheet, 
     the body comprising a base section having an outer surface, a channel bottom extending in a main longitudinal direction being formed in the base section in the outer surface, the channel bottom being formed by focused ion beam, 
     the covering sheet being joined to the base section while at least partially covering the channel bottom, thereby forming a channel. 
     With these features, detectability of the macromolecule in the passage is increased, which can be useful for many types of applications. 
     In some embodiments of the invention, one or more of the following arrangements may possibly be used: 
     the covering sheet comprises an electrically conductive layer and/or an electrically insulating layer, for example a superimposed electrically conductive layer and electrically insulating layer, in particular wherein a layer of the sheet comprises, in particular consists of, graphene, boron nitride (h-BN), or molybdenum disulfide (MoS 2 ) ; 
     the body comprises, in particular consists of, silicon or an oxide, carbide, or nitride of silicon; 
     the microfluidic device further comprises at least one electrode at least partially arranged in the vicinity of the channel; 
     the microfluidic device comprises an inlet end and an outlet end, both in fluid communication with the channel; 
     the inlet end and/or outlet end is part of a pore traversing the body and opening into the channel and extending in the thickness direction; 
     the channel opens into an inlet compartment and/or outlet compartment formed in the body; 
     the covering sheet covers the inlet compartment and/or outlet compartment; 
     the depth and/or width of the channel varies along the main longitudinal direction; 
     the body is a thin body less than 10 microns in thickness; 
     a well bottom is formed in the base section at the outer surface, the well bottom being formed by focused ion beam, 
     the covering sheet being joined to the base section while at least partially covering the well bottom, thereby forming a well in fluid communication with the channel. 
     According to another aspect, the invention relates to an apparatus comprising: 
     a reservoir adapted to receive an electrically conductive solution, 
     such a microfluidic device immersed in the reservoir and separating the reservoir into first and second compartments, the channel being in fluid communication with the first and second compartments to permit fluid communication between the first and second compartments, 
     a transport system adapted to generate movement of the solution in the reservoir when the reservoir contains the solution, 
     a system for characterizing the species contained in the reservoir. 
     In some embodiments of the invention, one or more of the following arrangements may possibly be used: 
     the transport system comprises an electrical system adapted to apply an electric field in the reservoir when the reservoir contains the solution, 
     the characterization system comprises a system for reading the electric field in the reservoir; 
     the apparatus further comprises a modulation system for modulating an electric field present in the channel; 
     the electrical system comprises first and second electrodes respectively arranged in the first and second compartments, between which the electric field is applied, the modulation system comprising said first and second electrodes which are reversible, and an inversion system adapted for reversing the polarity of an electric field applied between the two electrodes; 
     the modulation system comprises a set of local electrodes comprising at least said electrode, and a generator adapted to apply a local electric field at the channel via said set of at least one local electrode; 
     the apparatus further comprises an optical reading system adapted to take an image of the channel; 
     the apparatus comprises at least one of the following arrangements: 
     the microfluidic device ( 7 ) comprises a single passage, 
     the solution has a high concentration of solute and a low concentration of particles ( 27 ), the particles being potentially identical or possibly even a single particle, the transverse dimension of the particles possibly being between 0.5 and 0.9 times the transverse dimension of the channel. 
     Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description of seven of its embodiments, given by way of non-limiting example, with reference to the accompanying drawings. 
    
    
     
       In the drawings: 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic perspective view of an apparatus according to a first embodiment, used with a first polarity; 
         FIG. 1 a    is a view corresponding to  FIG. 1  for the same apparatus used with a second polarity, 
         FIG. 2 a    is a graph showing the intensity of the ion current flowing between the two electrodes, and measured with the apparatus of  FIG. 1  over time, 
         FIG. 2 b    is an explanatory diagram showing a simplified example of such a graph, schematically representing the migration of a macromolecule through the passage at two moments separated by time and thus blocking the passage in two different ways, 
         FIG. 3 a    is a macroscopic schematic sectional view of a membrane portion for the apparatus according to the first embodiment, 
         FIGS. 3 b  to 3 g    are microscopic schematic views showing different successive steps in the fabrication of the sheet equipping the membrane, 
         FIG. 3 h    is an enlargement (of portion IIIh) of  FIG. 3   a,    
         FIG. 3 i    is a schematic top view of an alternative embodiment, 
         FIG. 3 j    is a schematic sectional view of an alternative embodiment, 
         FIG. 4  is a schematic view of a membrane portion according to a second embodiment, 
         FIGS. 4 a  and 4 b    are partial sectional views in the same section plane as  FIG. 3 h   , for two variants with integrated electrode, 
         FIGS. 5, 6, and 7  are views corresponding to  FIG. 4 , respectively for the fourth, fifth, and sixth embodiments of the invention, 
         FIG. 8  is a top view of the membrane according to a seventh embodiment, 
         FIG. 9  is a schematic view of an apparatus for manufacturing for such a membrane, 
         FIG. 10  shows an alternative embodiment of  FIG. 1 , 
         FIG. 11  is a sectional view of an embodiment of the cover piece, 
         FIG. 12  is a sectional view of an embodiment of the cover piece, and 
         FIGS. 13 a  and 13 b    are perspective views of the underside of the cover piece. 
     
    
    
     In the various figures, the same references designate identical or similar elements. 
       FIG. 1  schematically represents an electrophoresis apparatus  1  according to a first embodiment of the invention. Such an apparatus has an instrument portion  2  and a computer device  3  connected thereto. The computer device  3  may act primarily to: 
     control the instruments of the instrument portion  2 , and/or 
     receive data from the instrument portion  2 . 
     The computer device  3  conventionally comprises a central processing unit  4  comprising a processor adapted to execute programs, random-access or read-only memory, etc. It also comprises user interfaces such as a keyboard  5   a , a mouse  5   b , and/or a screen  5   c.    
     The instrument device  2  comprises a reservoir  6  containing a fluid adapted for performing electrophoresis in the reservoir  6 . Such a fluid is for example a liquid solution. 
     The solution comprises, for example, anions and cations of the same salt, in high concentration, and particles in low concentration. The particles are objects at least hundred times greater in size than the ions of the solution, and well below one micron (for example less than 100 nm, or even 10 nm). Examples of particles are colloids, and macromolecules among which we can cite DNA molecules, RNA molecules, proteins, polysaccharides, and others. A low concentration of macromolecules is provided in the solution, these macromolecules being different from one another or identical, depending on the applications. The lowest concentration considered is one such macromolecule in the solution. 
     A membrane  7  in the reservoir  6  separates the reservoir  6  into two compartments  6   a ,  6   b . The membrane  7  is provided in the reservoir  6  such that the exchanges of fluid between the first and the second compartments can occur only through passages  8  in the membrane  7 . Depending on the application, one or more passages  8  are provided in the membrane  7 . The membrane  7  is a synthetic, or artificial, membrane, meaning it is manufactured, as opposed to known porous biological membranes. In  FIG. 1 , a single passage  8  is schematically represented. The manufacture of the membrane  7  will be explained below. 
       FIGS. 3 a    (macroscopic) and  3   h  (microscopic) show an example of the synthetic membrane used for the first embodiment above. This membrane conventionally comprises a rigid base  22  which can be fixed in place in the appropriate position in the reservoir and contributes to the mechanical stiffness of the membrane. This base  22  is provided with a hole  23  which is for example a few microns in diameter in the XY plane transverse to the macroscopic direction of movement Z of the macromolecule between the two compartments  6   a ,  6   b . The hole  23  is covered by a thin cover piece  24  fixed to the base  22  in any manner suitable for preventing the passage of species at the attachment. The cover piece  24  is for example slightly tensioned. The cover piece  24  is provided with at least one passage  8 . 
       FIG. 3 h    shows an enlargement of the cover piece  24  at the passage  8 . 
     The cover piece  24  comprises a body  61 . The body  61  is for example made from a substantially rigid material of any suitable type, such as silicon, SiO2, SiC, or SiN. The body  61  has a thickness of less than a micron, for example about 0.1 micron. The body  61  may be translucent, in applications making use of optical detection. 
     The body  61  comprises a base section  62  having two opposite outer surfaces  62   a ,  62   b . A pore  78  extends between the opposite outer surfaces  62   a ,  62   b.    
     A channel bottom  63  extends in a main longitudinal direction X, being formed in the base section  62  at outer surface  62   b . The channel bottom  63  has a width of about one third or less than the thickness of the cover piece  24 , for example about one tenth or less than the thickness of the cover piece  24 . 
     The channel bottom  63  opens into the pore  78 . 
     The channel bottom  63  may open into a well bottom  73 . The well bottom  73  has any suitable shape. It is formed in the base section  62  at outer surface  62   b . The well bottom  73  has a width greater than the width of the channel bottom  63 . This width may be at least two times the width of the channel bottom  63 . 
     The cover piece  24  also has a covering sheet  64  assembled to the body  61 . 
     The covering sheet  64  is assembled to the base section  62  while at least partially covering the outer surface  62   b , and in particular at least partially covering the pore  78 , the channel bottom  63 , and the well bottom  73 . The pore  78  is closed off on one side by the sheet  64 . The channel bottom  63  and the covering sheet  64  thus together form a closed channel (or trench)  65 . A depth p of the channel is approximately the width of the channel bottom  63  in a depthwise direction Z transverse to the main longitudinal X and widthwise Y directions. The channel  65  has a depth of about one third or less than the thickness of the cover piece  24 , for example about one tenth or less than the thickness of the cover piece  24 . This depth is for example less than 0.5 microns in the depthwise direction. 
     The well bottom  73  and the covering sheet  64  thus together form a covered well  74 . The well  74  is in fluid communication with the channel  65  at an outlet  75 . A depth p of the well is greater than the depth of the channel  65  in the depthwise direction Z transverse to the main longitudinal X and widthwise Y directions. The well  74  has a depth of about one half or less than the thickness of the cover piece  24 , for example about one tenth or less than the thickness of the cover piece  24 . The well  74  has a depth of about 1.2 times or more than the depth of the channel  65 . This depth is for example less than 0.5 micrometers in the depthwise direction. 
     The covering sheet  64  comprises, in particular consists of, graphene, boron nitride (BN), or molybdenum disulfide (MoS2). The sheet  64  may be thin, in particular less than a nanometer thick, which enables easily creating a through-opening or pore  68  therein. The sheet is created for example as a two-dimensional crystal, of atomic-scale thickness. 
     The cover piece  24  has an inlet end  66  and an outlet end  67 . The terms “inlet” and “outlet” are used in reference to the orientation of the cover piece  24  in the reservoir according to the present embodiment, but are illustrative only, as the cover piece  24  could alternatively be used for molecular movement in the opposite direction. The inlet and outlet ends  66 ,  67  are in fluid communication with the channel  65  and respectively with the first compartment and second compartment. In particular, the sheet  64  has a pore or through-opening  68  which opens into the well  74  and comprises the outlet end  67 . The body  61  comprises the pore  78  opening into the channel  65  and having the inlet end  66 . Pore  78  and pore  68  are offset from one another in the XY plane, and the inlet end  66  and outlet end  67  are offset from one another in the XY plane. Thus, the passage  8  comprises a first portion, substantially corresponding to pore  78  and extending in the Z direction, a second portion, substantially corresponding to the channel  65  and the well  74  and extending in the XY plane, and a third portion, substantially corresponding to pore  68  and extending in the Z direction. 
     The passage  8  has a transverse dimension D (in other words the transverse dimension of its narrowest portion) on the order of the dimension of the macromolecule being subjected to electrophoresis, but slightly greater than this transverse dimension of the molecule. Thus, different types of membrane can be produced having passages of different transverse dimensions D, according to the type of macromolecule to be analyzed. The dimension D is for example selected so that the transverse dimension of the macromolecule is between 0.5 and 0.9 times the transverse dimension D of the passage. The dimension D is for example about 25 nanometers or less, or possibly less than 10 nanometers or less. The dimension chosen depends on the size of the macromolecules to be studied. The thickness of the channel  65  is for example on the order of magnitude of the dimension D. Alternatively, it may be of an order of magnitude several times that of D. 
     A passage  8  of this size can be created using a focused ion beam technique for example. 
       FIGS. 3 b  to 3 h    illustrate an exemplary method for forming the cover piece  24 . 
     As represented in  FIG. 3 b   , one begins with a solid and intact body  61 . 
     By focused ion beam ( FIG. 3 c   ), a through-hole  69  extending in the Z direction is created in the body  61 , to form pore  78 . 
     By focused ion beam ( FIG. 3 d   ), a channel bottom  63  is created in the body  61  in outer surface  62   b , extending from the through-hole  69  in the X and/or Y directions. To do this it is sufficient to reduce the time of exposure of the body  61  to the beam, while imposing a relative movement between the body  61  and the beam to draw the desired path for the channel bottom  63 . The length and geometry of the channel bottom  63  can be chosen on the basis of the application. The length of the channel bottom is at least on the order of the length of the macromolecule. 
     By focused ion beam ( FIG. 3 e   ), a well bottom  73  is created in the body  61  in outer surface  62   b , opening into the channel bottom  63 . To do this it is sufficient to increase the time of exposure of the body  61  to the beam, while imposing a relative movement between the body  61  and the beam to form the desired shape of the well bottom  73 . The length and geometry of the well bottom  73  can be chosen on the basis of the application. 
     Then ( FIG. 3 f   ) the covering sheet  64  is joined to the body  61  at outer surface  62   b , thereby closing off the channel  65  and the well  74 . 
     Next ( FIG. 3 g   ), the sheet  64  is pierced at the well  74 , thereby forming pore  68 . This piercing can be done by focused ion beam, aiming to create as small of a hole as possible while remaining large enough to allow the passage of the macromolecule. The time of exposure of the cover piece  24  to the beam is reduced, to avoid piercing through the body  61  in this step. If the well  74  is of sufficiently large dimensions, it is unnecessary to have a high level of precision in the positioning of the piercing step. It is sufficient that the pore  68  is created so that it opens into the well  74 . 
     One possible implementation of the microfluidic device just described is disclosed below. This is an implementation within the context of electrophoresis. 
     Arranged in the first compartment  6   a  is a first electrode  9   a  and arranged in the second compartment  6   b  is a second electrode  9   b . The first and second electrodes  9   a ,  9   b  are part of an electrical system  10  adapted to generate an electric field in the reservoir  6  when said reservoir contains the solution. The electrical system  10  comprises an electric generator  11  connected by a pole to each of the electrodes  9   a ,  9   b . The electric generator  11  allows applying a difference in potential between the electrodes  9   a  and  9   b.    
     Also provided is a reading system  12 . This is for example an ammeter connected in series between one of the poles of the generator  11  and the corresponding electrode. The reading system  12  is connected to the computer device  3 , which records the intensity of the electric current flowing in the circuit. 
     The embodiment just described operates as follows. As represented in  FIG. 1 , the generator  11  applies a difference in potential between the electrodes  9   a  and  9   b , which generates an electric field in the solution inside the reservoir. It may be arranged for example that at the beginning of the experiment, the macromolecules are all located in a given compartment, for example the first compartment  6   a . The net charge of the macromolecule may be known in advance, which allows applying an electric field such that the macromolecule will be attracted by the second electrode  9   b  and will therefore pass through the passage  8 . 
     As represented in  FIG. 2 a   , for a given difference in potential V applied by the electric generator  11 , the ammeter detects an electric current I as a function of time t. The electric current is for example about 10 nanoamperes (nA). Excluding the noise, the measured current is relatively constant except for a visible event  15  represented by a drop in the value of the current. Note the infinitesimal nature of this drop (about 0.4 nA), and its short duration (less than 0.1 seconds, usually a few milliseconds). Therefore ammeters  12  capable of detecting such low signal levels are used, as are generators capable of generating sufficiently constant voltages to enable detection of such a difference. 
     It is commonly accepted that this event corresponds to the migration of a macromolecule through the passage. One plausible explanation for this phenomenon is that the macromolecule, during its migration through the passage, essentially plugs it and therefore prevents the free flow of other ions of the solution that was taking place before the macromolecule entered the passage. This results in an increased electrical resistance of the solution, and therefore, for a given voltage level, a drop in the current I. 
       FIG. 2 b    highly schematically illustrates this phenomenon for a chromatin fiber. In the left window, a thin link  16  between two thicker clusters  17   a ,  17   b  passes through the passage  8  without substantially modifying the measured value of the electric current relative to the reference level (measured plateau  18  in the graph I(t)), while the passage of the cluster  17   b  causes a drop in the current (plateau  19  in said graph). The passage of a cluster  17   c  of intermediate size could correspond to an intermediate intensity between plateaus  18  and  19  (plateau  20 ). The graph of  FIG. 2 b    is represented without any scale. 
     According to one embodiment, an electric field is applied and the migration of the macromolecule through the passage  8  is detected as explained above. As the length of the passage  8  is larger than when it is created essentially transversely to the cover piece, the period during which an electric current is detected as explained above in relation to  FIGS. 2 a  and 2 b    is longer. Therefore, more information is obtained about the migration of the macromolecule through the passage  8 . 
     According to one embodiment, a modulation system  13  is further provided for modulating the electric field. In this embodiment, the modulation system  13  is a general modulation system. It allows influencing the electric field throughout the reservoir. It comprises a feature where the electrodes  9   a  and  9   b  are reversible. An example of such electrodes is for example a pair of electrodes made of Ag/AgCl. 
     According to this embodiment, the modulation system also comprises an inverter  14  adapted to reverse the polarity of the electrical generator  11 . The inverter  14  is also connected to the computer device  3  which can control the reversal. 
     When the central processing unit  4  detects that an event is occurring (it measures for example whether a period of time, during which the measured current is below a certain threshold relative to the reference current, exceeds a certain time limit), it can control the inverter  14  to reverse the polarity applied by the generator  11 , as represented in  FIG. 1 a   . Reversal of the potential applied by the generator  11  at time t i  will cause the reversal of the electric field inside the reservoir  6 , such that the macromolecule  27  will now be attracted by electrode  9   a . The modulation system is therefore activated by the reading system. 
     As can be seen in  FIG. 2 a   , a second event  21  is then detected which may, as represented, be symmetrical to event  15  if the macromolecule has not had time to reverse. 
     By repeating the same process many times, we will therefore obtain numerous readings corresponding to the migrations of the macromolecule through the passage. These various readings can be added by the CPU  4  in order to increase the signal-to-noise ratio of the current measurement. An inverter is used which enables implementing such a reversal while presenting transient phenomena for a sufficiently short period of time at the scale of the macromolecule&#39;s passage migration time. This process is particularly advantageous if a single macromolecule is present in the solution. 
     In the above embodiment, one waits for the end of the migration of the macromolecule through the passage in order to perform the reversal. Alternatively, one could perform a systematic reversal before the end of the migration of the macromolecule through the passage, in one direction and in the other. By doing so, the experiment time is greatly reduced since the macromolecule is always present in the passage. However, very little information concerning the ends of the macromolecule might be obtained. By doing so, one could use a solution comprising a plurality of macromolecules, possibly different ones, which would be analyzed in turns. 
     With the invention, a passage  8  of great length is created, which allows increasing the time the macromolecule is present in the passage without increasing the thickness of the membrane. Moreover, as a major portion of the passage  8  is created at the surface, the macromolecule is easily accessible for detection (the sheet  64  is transparent to a certain number of radiations, in particular translucent, thus allowing optical detection of the macromolecule). 
     These advantages are also present when the electrophoresis method does not apply any reversals. 
     Alternatively, the channel  65  may be unvarying in shape (meaning it has a constant cross-section). Alternatively, as shown in  FIGS. 3 i  and 3 j   , the width  1  of the channel may vary along the longitudinal direction thereof. Additionally or alternatively, the channel depth p may vary along the longitudinal direction thereof. These dimensional variations can be obtained by adjustments of the focused ion beam during the step of creating the channel bottom ( FIG. 3 d   ). 
     The channels represented above are longitudinal along direction X. However, any geometry in the XY plane can be considered. 
     A second embodiment of the invention will now be described in relation to  FIG. 1  and  FIG. 4 . The apparatus substantially corresponds to the apparatus represented in  FIG. 1 , with the difference that the modulation system  13  of the second embodiment does not include the inverter  14  of  FIG. 1 , nor are the electrodes  9   a  and  9   b  reversible. According to the second embodiment, the system  13  for modulating the electric field in the reservoir is a local modulation system. It allows locally influencing the electric field present in the channel  65 , at the passage. It comprises a local electrode  25  arranged on the membrane  7  (in particular on the cover piece  24 ) near the channel  65 . The sheet  64  may then be made of an electrically insulating material, such as hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN). This allows the sheet  64  to electrically insulate the local electrode  25  with respect to other electrically conductive elements of the system. It could also be arranged that the sheet  64  is made by superimposing layers, therefore an electrically insulating layer (h-BN) is arranged opposite the electrode  25 , and comprising an electrically conductive layer (graphene for example). In particular, a multi-layer of insulation (h-BN), conductor (graphene), insulation (h-BN) may be provided. 
     To clarify these concepts, with reference to  FIG. 1  the membrane  7  comprises a surface  7   b  oriented towards electrode  9   b  located in the second compartment  6   b , and a face  7   a  oriented towards electrode  9   a  located in the first compartment  6   a . According to the embodiment of  FIG. 4 , electrode  25  is created on face  7   b  of the membrane  7 . In this embodiment, the membrane  7 , and in particular the body  61 , is made of an electrically insulating material. The electrode  25  is for example created in the form of a layer of gold or platinum having a certain pattern. Specifically, the electrode  25  is created on the outer surface  62   b  of the body  61 . The electrode  25  is interposed (in the thickness direction) between the body  62  and the sheet  64  (which is not represented in  FIG. 4 ). This can be done for example by creating the electrode before the sheet placement step ( 3   f ), or even before the etching steps carried out by focused ion beam (in which case the pore  78 , channel bottom, and well bottom can be created while also etching the conductive material of the electrode). 
     In another variant, the electrode  25  is created above the sheet  64  of electrically insulating material, as represented in  FIG. 4   a.    
     In another variant, the electrode  25  may be formed on the outer surface  62   a  opposite to that in which the channel bottom  63  is formed, as represented in  FIG. 4   b.    
     In the present exemplary embodiment, a set of two local electrodes  25 ,  26  is provided, arranged one on each side of the channel  63  and each connected to a local electric circuit  30 . The two local electrodes  25  and  26  are placed in the local electric circuit at a different potential in order to form a capacitor. A local electric field is thus generated, and is superimposed on the general electric field applied by the generator  11 . The electric circuit  30  also allows obtaining a reading of the capacitance. It is therefore connected to the computer system  3 . The macromolecule  27  has a set of different segments from its first end to its second end, and in particular these vary the capacitance measured during their presence between the two electrodes  25  and  26 . Thus, in addition to the reading system  12  which allows measuring the migration of the macromolecule through the passage, the system for modulating the electric field provides additional information during the migration of the macromolecule, due to the presence of the local electrodes  25  and  26 . 
     Due to the length of the channel  65 , multiple locations for the electrodes or electrode pairs can be provided along the channel. 
     Furthermore, when the electrodes  25  and  26  are sandwiched between the body  62  and the sheet  64 , this sheet  64  electrically and chemically insulates the electrodes  25  and  26  from the solution. 
     The nanoscale electrodes  25  and  26  of the two embodiments are connected, where applicable, to the macroscale world (ultimately to the computer device  3 ) by microconnection systems. 
     A fourth embodiment is represented in  FIG. 5 . This embodiment includes elements of  FIG. 4 , in particular the cover piece  24  having local electrodes  25  and  26  on its surface  7   b . These are connected to a local electric circuit  40  so as to generate a local electric field E y  extending in the Y direction at the channel  63 , transverse to the migration of the macromolecule. 
     The application of a local electric field is used to influence the migration of the macromolecule through the channel  63  along direction X. The macromolecule  27  is composed of a succession of molecules each having a partial charge (negative, positive, or possibly zero) contributing to the net charge of the macromolecule which alone defines its translocation from one compartment of the reservoir to another. The local electric field E y  will induce an electrostatic force on these partial charges, which will be attracted and repelled by the edges  31 ,  32  of the channel  63 . For example, a portion  33  of the macromolecule, which has a positive charge locally, will be attracted by the edge  31  of the channel  63 . A mechanical interaction of friction of the macromolecule  33  on the edge  31  of the channel can thus occur, this friction contributing to slowing the macromolecule during its migration through the channel  63 . As a result of this slowing, the event  15  at the detected signal of  FIG. 2 a    will last longer and will therefore be easier to study. The application of the local electric field can be controlled by the computer system  3 . 
     Depending on the local charge level of the macromolecule, and depending on the level of the electrostatic field applied by the local electrodes  25  and  26 , it is possible not only to slow the macromolecule  27  during its migration through the channel  63 , but even to immobilize it. The local modulation system thus makes it possible to define a molecular vise. Once the macromolecule is thus held in place, it is possible to subject it to any type of treatments and/or applications. The local system already allows measuring the force applied to the molecule in order to hold it in place. This force is additional data characteristic of the molecule at the blockade location. The measurement is sent to the computer system  3 . 
     According to a fifth embodiment, represented in  FIG. 6 , one can combine the embodiments of  FIGS. 4 and 5 . Thus, at a first location of the channel, the capacitive reading system with electrodes  25  and  26  and the circuit  30  as embodied and described in  FIG. 4  may be provided, and at a second location of the channel, the braking/blockade system with electrodes  35  and  36  and the circuit  40  as described in  FIG. 5  may be provided. 
     According to a sixth embodiment, represented in  FIG. 7 , an electric field E x  is applied locally in the longitudinal direction X of the channel  65 . This local electric field E x  is superimposed on the general electric field imposed by electrodes  9   a  and  9   b . The local electric field thus applied is used to locally influence the electric field at the channel  65 . One can thus produce a braking or blockade action on the macromolecule in the channel  65 , not by mechanical friction as described above but by using the locally generated electric field to counteract the effects of the general electric field. To do this, a first electrode  45  is provided that extends to each side of the channel  65  at a first location, as well as a second electrode  46  that also extends to each side of the channel  65  at second location, and these two electrodes are connected by a generator  50  adapted to apply a difference in potential between them. 
     In the above embodiments, the electrodes may be created within the thickness, in accordance with the appropriate embodiments of  FIG. 4, 4   a , or  4   b  described above. 
     Where appropriate, the embodiments of  FIGS. 4 to 7  are used in a membrane equipping the device  7  of  FIG. 1 . A general modulation system for modulating the electric field is then superimposed with a local modulation system. 
     According to a seventh embodiment, the electrophoresis apparatus described above is coupled with an optical detection system which detects the migration of the macromolecule through the passage  8 . In particular, an optical detection system for detecting the presence and/or movement of the macromolecule in the channel  65  is used. 
     In this embodiment, as in the others, an optical sensor  37  is provided, visible in  FIG. 1 , adapted for optically detecting an image at the channel  65  on face  7   b  of the membrane. The optical sensor  37  is also connected to the computer device  3  in order to send the detected optical signals to it. If the sheet  64  is translucent, an event can be detected as long as it occurs in the channel  65 , which is of substantial length. 
     According to a first variant embodiment, if the macromolecule is fluorescent, a confocal microscope can be used as the optical sensor  37  for imaging the channel, and detection enables counting the fluorescent molecules passing through the channel. The fluorescence may be generated by a light source  77  located on the side opposite to the optical sensor  37 , and illuminating the inlet end  66 . This light source  77  is for example a laser. An opaque layer may be provided in the body  61 , for example assembled to the outer surface  62   a  without blocking the through-hole  69 . The opaque layer may for example be a metal sheet  76  (for example of gold or gold alloy, for example TiAu less than a micron thick) assembled to the body  61  before the focused ion beam etching steps, and pierced during creation of the through-hole  69 . An exemplary embodiment is shown in  FIG. 12 . The opaque sheet  76  blocks transmission of the excitation light in the direction of the optical sensor  37 . The fluorescence is enhanced at the inlet end  66  by the presence of the sheet walls. Molecules  27  present in the channel  65  can be imaged by the optical sensor  37  through the translucent sheet  64 , during a long period of time. 
     In yet another embodiment,  FIG. 8  represents a portion of the outer surface  62   a  of the membrane around the pore  78 . Patterns are provided for example in the form of metallization  76 . The set of metallizations  76  formed around the pore  78  forms a certain optical pattern denoted with the general reference  34 . For example, six metallizations are represented, arranged radially around the inlet end  66  and angularly equidistant from one another. However, any type of appropriate pattern is possible.  FIGS. 13 a  and 13 b    show examples. In  FIG. 13 a   , two sheets  76  of triangular shape are used, diametrically opposed with respect to the pore  78 . In  FIG. 13 b   , concentric rings around the pore  78  are used. These geometries enable defining plasmonic antennas at the inlet end  66  of the pore. 
     The optical pattern  34  can improve the optical excitation of the macromolecule by the light source  77  when it enters the passage  8 . 
     Where appropriate, these optical detection systems can also be incorporated into the embodiments of  FIGS. 4, 5, 6, and 7 . Cooperation between the optical and electrical detections can provide better characterization of the molecule. 
       FIG. 9  shows a highly schematic depiction of a facility  51  for fabricating the body  61 . For example, the through-hole  69  may be formed through a substrate  52  placed in a focused ion beam machining tool. The substrate  52  is intended to become the body  61 . It is placed in a sample holder  53 . A tip  54  is used to emit ions, for example such as gallium ions, which are extracted by an extractor  55  and focused by an electrostatic system  56  to drill the pore to the appropriate size in the substrate  52 . Where appropriate, the substrate  52  is created beforehand by evaporating the conductive metal on one or more surfaces of the insulating substrate and then defining the traces by lithography. 
     The channel bottom  63  and the well bottom  73  can be created by the same type of operation on a surface of the substrate, by a relative displacement of the beam and substrate and adjusting the exposure time. 
     Fabrication by focused ion beam makes it possible in particular to obtain stable geometries compatible with the desired application while reducing the risk of blocking the passage and while providing a relatively steep passage edge. Synthetic passages are more easily integrated. In addition, the ions used, such as gallium ions, can pierce the insulating substrate as well as the metal layer located in the surface above and/or below, depending on the embodiments. The process is highly reproducible (variations of about 2-5%). 
     In the above embodiments, the membrane  7  physically separates the two compartments  6   a ,  6   b . Alternatives are possible, however. One exemplary alternative is provided in  FIG. 10 . In this alternative, the compartments  6   a ,  6   b  are arranged on the same side of the cover piece  24 . The compartments  6   a ,  6   b  are separated by a wall  72 . The inlet  66  and outlet  67  ends are formed one on each side of the wall  72 . A cover piece  24  can be obtained by employing the manufacturing method described above until the step of  FIG. 3 e   , where the well bottom  73  is now pierced through. The sheet  64  is assembled as shown in  FIG. 3 f   , but it is not pierced. Then the wall  72  is mounted on face  62   a  of the cover piece. 
     In another alternative, as shown in  FIG. 11 , the device described above could incorporate its own compartments  6   a ,  6   b . The compartments  6   a ,  6   b  could be directly created as recesses in the body  61 , one on either side of the channel  65 . This could be done according to the above method, but stopping at the step of  FIG. 3 f    and replacing the step of generating the through-hole  69  by fabricating a blind hole (which is possible if the body  61  is sufficiently thick and/or by adjusting the process of etching the holes  69 ,  74 ). The blind holes can then serve as a reservoir. 
     Thus, in this example, the channel opens into an inlet and/or outlet reservoir formed in the body. 
     The covering sheet covers the inlet and/or outlet reservoir so as to close it/them. 
     In this case, the system is substantially sealed, and it is possible to miniaturize the electrical system  10  for embedding in the device. 
     In the above examples, movement of the molecules is generated by electrical action. However, additionally or alternatively, other technologies are possible, such as controlling the hydrostatic flow (suction for example), gravity, etc. 
     Envisaged applications include the analysis of proteins for diagnosis, drug development, identification of molecules for security and defense applications and environmental protection, desalination of sea water, generation of electric or hydraulic energy. 
     It is possible to create several similar passages in parallel within the same membrane  7 , each according to an example described above.