Patent Publication Number: US-2022219974-A1

Title: Solid hydride flow reactor

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     The present application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/136,075, filed Jan. 11, 2021, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE 
     The present disclosure is directed to a solid hydride flow reactor. More particularly, the present disclosure is directed to systems and methods for continuous and variable conversion of a solid (e.g., powdered) metastable hydride fuel into a hydrogen gas. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Hydrogen fuel cell systems may generate high specific energies (e.g., &gt;800 Wh/kg). However, hydrogen storage remains a challenge and limits scalability. The most common hydrogen storage method employed today includes high pressure (e.g., carbon fiber) hydrogen tanks. Although this storage method has a reasonable specific energy and energy density at large scale (e.g., &gt;50 kWh), it is often too heavy and too spacious at medium and small scales (e.g., &lt;10 kWh). In addition, the high pressure requirement limits the design flexibility of the storage system. Future electric and hybrid electric vehicles may require power systems with specific energies ≥700 Wh/kg. 
     SUMMARY 
     A hydride flow reactor is disclosed. The reactor includes a tank configured to receive a hydride fuel. The reactor also includes a tubular member coupled to the tank and configured to receive the hydride fuel from the tank. The reactor also includes a transporter positioned at least partially within the tubular member and configured to transport the hydride fuel through the tubular member. The reactor also includes a heater positioned at least partially around the tubular member and the transporter. The heater is configured to heat the hydride fuel in the tubular member to convert the hydride fuel into hydrogen gas and a reacted byproduct. 
     A vehicle is also disclosed. The vehicle includes a hydride flow reactor. The reactor includes a tank configured to receive a metastable hydride fuel. The metastable hydride fuel includes a solid powder. The metastable hydride fuel includes lithium aluminum hydride, aluminum hydride, or a combination thereof. The metastable hydride fuel has a hydrogen material density that is from about 30 kg/m 3  to about 200 kg/m 3 . The reactor also includes a tubular member configured to receive the metastable hydride fuel from the tank. The reactor also includes an auger positioned within the tubular member. The reactor also includes a motor configured to rotate the auger, which moves the metastable hydride fuel through the tubular member. The reactor also includes a heater positioned at least partially around the tubular member and the auger. The heater is configured to heat the metastable hydride fuel in the tubular member to a temperature from about 100° C. to about 300° C. to convert the metastable hydride fuel into hydrogen gas and a reacted byproduct. The reactor also includes an outlet configured to discharge the hydrogen gas. The outlet includes a filter that is configured to prevent particles entrained in the hydrogen gas from being discharged through the outlet. The vehicle uses the hydrogen gas as a fuel. The reactor also includes a container configured to collect the reacted byproduct. 
     A method is also disclosed. The method includes introducing a hydride fuel into a tank. The method also includes transferring the hydride fuel from the tank into a tubular member. The method also includes moving the hydride fuel within the tubular member using an auger positioned within the tubular member. The method also includes heating a reaction zone within the tubular member using a heater to convert the hydride fuel into hydrogen gas and a reacted byproduct. The heater is positioned outside of the tubular member. The method also includes discharging the hydrogen gas through an outlet. The method also includes collecting the reacted byproduct in a container. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate aspects of the present teachings and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the present teachings. 
         FIG. 1  illustrates a schematic view of a solid hydride flow reactor, according to an implementation. 
         FIG. 2A  illustrates a cross-sectional side view of a reaction zone of the reactor, according to an implementation. 
         FIG. 2B  illustrates a cross-sectional side view of the reaction zone of the reactor, according to another implementation. 
         FIG. 2C  illustrates a cross-sectional side view of the reaction zone of the reactor, according to another implementation. 
         FIG. 2D  illustrates a cross-sectional side view of the reaction zone of the reactor, according to another implementation. 
         FIG. 3  illustrates a graph showing the flow rate of the evolved hydrogen gas and temperature of the hydride fuel in the reaction zone versus time, according to an implementation. 
         FIG. 4  illustrates another graph showing the flow rate of the evolved hydrogen gas and temperature of the hydride fuel in the reaction zone versus time, according to an implementation. 
         FIG. 5  illustrates another graph showing the flow rate of the evolved hydrogen gas and temperature of the hydride fuel in the reaction zone versus time, according to an implementation. 
         FIG. 6  illustrates a graph showing temperatures of three differently-sized heaters versus time, according to an implementation. 
         FIG. 7  illustrates a graph showing flow rate of the hydrogen gas and integrated flow of the hydrogen gas versus time, according to an implementation. 
         FIG. 8  illustrates a flowchart of a method for converting a hydride fuel into a hydrogen gas, according to an implementation. 
     
    
    
     It should be noted that some details of the figures have been simplified and are drawn to facilitate understanding rather than to maintain strict structural accuracy, detail, and scale. 
     DESCRIPTION 
     Reference will now be made in detail to the present teachings, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. In the drawings, like reference numerals have been used throughout to designate identical elements. In the following description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings that form a part thereof, and in which is shown by way of illustration specific examples of practicing the present teachings. The following description is, therefore, merely exemplary. 
       FIG. 1  illustrates a schematic view of a solid hydride flow reactor  100 , according to an implementation. The reactor  100  is configured to perform a continuous and/or variable conversion of a hydride fuel  102  into a hydrogen gas. More particularly, the reactor  100  may be configured to produce a clean hydrogen gas, on demand, without high-pressure storage tanks, as described below. 
     The hydride fuel  102  may be solid (e.g., powdered). In other words, the hydride fuel  102  may not be or include a liquid or a slurry. The hydride fuel  102  may also be metastable. The hydride fuel  102  may be or include a primary (e.g., non-reversible) hydride that requires less heat than conventional hydrides to achieve thermal desorption. The hydride fuel  102  may be or include lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH 4 ), aluminum hydride (AlH 3 ), or a combination thereof, which may be thermally decomposed within the reactor  100  to generate/release a hydrogen gas. The hydride fuel  102  may have a high gravimetric and/or volumetric density. For example, the hydride fuel  102  may have a gravimetric and/or volumetric density from about 30 kg/m 3  (on a material basis) to about 200 kg/m 3 , about 40 kg/m 3  to about 175 kg/m 3 , or about 50 kg/m 3  to about 150 kg/m 3 . In another implementation, the hydride fuel  102  may have a gravimetric and/or volumetric density from about 50 kg/m 3  to about 100 kg/m 3 , about 100 kg/m 3  to about 150 kg/m 3 , or about 150 kg/m 3  to about 200 kg/m 3 . For example, LiAlH 4  may have a hydrogen material density of about 78 kg/m 3 , and AlH 3  may have a hydrogen material density of about 148 kg/m 3 . These ranges are based on the known hydrogen material density from reference material(s). 
     The reactor  100  may include a tank (also referred to as a reservoir or hopper)  110  that is configured to receive and/or store the hydride fuel  102  therein. The tank  110  may be made from a polymer (e.g., polycarbonate), which is durable, air-tight, and optically-transparent. An upper portion of the tank  110  may include top seal  112 , which may serve as a loading area when adding the hydride fuel  102  into the tank  110  in an inert atmosphere (e.g., a glove box). The top seal  112  may include a top flange and cap with a compression clamp. The top cap may be coupled to the flange, and may also include a pressure release valve  113 , which may be configured to actuate into an open position to release pressure when the pressure reaches or exceeds a predetermined threshold (e.g., 10 PSI). 
     A lower portion of the tank  110  may include a bottom seal  114 , which may include a flange and cap with a compression clamp. The tank  110  may also include a filter  116  that is configured to separate/remove particles (e.g., powder) from a gas flowing therethrough. This may prevent particles from clogging the pressure release valve  113 . A substantially conical gravity feed adapter  118  may be coupled to and/or positioned below the tank  110 . Although the hydride fuel  102  is shown as being transferred from the hopper  110  via a gravity feed, in other implementations, the hydride fuel  102  may also or instead be transferred from the tank  110  using a linear actuator (e.g., a pneumatic or hydraulic piston or plunger, an electrically-powered screw, etc.), or a vibratory-type delivery system (e.g., a vibratory feeder and/or vibratory hopper). 
     The reactor  100  may also include a tubular member  120  that is configured to receive the hydride fuel  102  from the tank  110 . The tubular member  120  may include an inlet tee joint  122  and an outlet tee joint  124 . For example, the hydride fuel  102  may flow from the tank  110 , through the feed adapter  118  (e.g., due to gravity), through the inlet tee joint  122 , and into the tubular member  120 . In one implementation, the reactor  100  (e.g., the tank  110  and the tubular member  120 ) may be hermetically sealed to exclude ambient air, as the hydride reactants and/or byproducts may be air-sensitive and/or moisture-sensitive. 
     The reactor  100  may also include a motor  130 . The motor  130  may be or include a variable speed motor. A chain  132  may be coupled to the motor  130  and configured to translate rotational motion from the motor  130 . A rotary feedthrough  134  may be coupled to the chain  132 . A rigid shaft coupler  136  may be coupled to the rotary feed through  134 . 
     The reactor  100  may also include a transporter  140  that is positioned at least partially within the tubular member  120 . As shown, the transporter  140  may extend at least partially through the inlet tee joint  122  and/or the outlet tee joint  124 . The transporter  140  may be coupled to the shaft coupler  136 . The motor  130 , the chain  132 , the rotary feedthrough  134 , the shaft coupler  136 , or a combination thereof may be configured to cause the transporter  140  to move (e.g., rotate) to transport the hydride fuel  102  through the tubular member  120  (e.g., to the right as shown in  FIG. 1 ). In one example, the transporter  140  may be or include a powder feed auger. 
     The transporter  140  may have a lubricant (e.g., molybdenum disulfide: MoS 2 ) applied thereto. The lubricant may include a binder material, such as mineral oil or a similar paraffin-based material. After the lubricant is applied, the transporter  140  and/or lubricant may be heated to bake out and remove the binder material from the lubricant. The transporter  140  may have a graphite paint applied thereto, which may aid in measuring the temperature of the transporter  140 . 
     The reactor  100  may also include a heater  150 . The heater  150  may be positioned at least partially around the tubular member  120  and/or the transporter  140 . The heater  150  may be configured to heat the hydride fuel  102  to a temperature from about 100° C. to about 300° C., about 150° C. to about 250° C., or about 175° C. to about 225° C., at which temperature the hydride fuel  102  generates/releases hydrogen gas and a reacted byproduct. The reacted byproduct may be, for example, aluminum metal and lithium hydride when the hydride fuel  102  is LiAlH 4 . In another example, the reacted byproduct may be aluminum metal when the hydride fuel  102  is AlH 3 . In one example, the heater  150  may initially heat the reaction zone  156  to a temperature from about 70° C. to about 150° C., about 80° C. to about 130° C., or about 90° C. to about 110° C., and the heater  150  may gradually increase the temperature in the reaction zone  156  to about 160° C. to about 300° C., about 180° C. to about 275° C., or about 200° C. to about 250° C. over a time period from about 1 minute to about 10 minutes, about 1 minute to about 5 minutes, or about 1 minute to about 3 minutes. 
     In one example, the heater  150  may be or include a resistive heating coil that may serve as a conductive heater. The heater  150  (e.g., the wire coil) may be coated with an enamel and/or resin (e.g., a PAC resin). In another example, the heater  150  may be or include an inductive heating coil. The heating coil may be wrapped helically around the tubular member  120  and/or the transporter  140 . The reactor  100  may also include an induction heater circuit  152  and a DC power supply  154  (e.g., when the heater  150  is an inductive heating coil). Induction heating may improve the response time of on-demand hydrogen gas generation when compared to conventional heat conduction techniques. The heater  150  may be configured to heat the hydride fuel  102  within the tubular member  120 . This may be referred to herein as a reaction zone  156  because the heat causes the hydride fuel  102  to react and convert into a hydrogen gas and a reacted byproduct. 
     In one implementation, the heater  150  may be at least partially surrounded by an insulation  158 . The insulation  158  may direct the heat from the heater  150  inwards toward the reaction zone  156 . The insulation  158  may also or instead reduce the amount of heat lost to the surrounding environment, thereby increasing the efficiency of the reactor  100 . The insulation  158  may be or include a synthetic porous material (e.g., aerogel), a polyimide film (e.g., poly (4,4′-oxydiphenylene-pyromellitimide), or a combination thereof. 
     One or more temperature sensors (e.g., thermocouples)  160  may be configured to measure the temperature in the reaction zone  156 . The temperature sensor(s)  160  may be positioned inside the tubular member  120  or outside the tubular member  120 . When located outside of the tubular member  120 , the temperature sensor(s)  160  may be positioned at least partially between coil windings of the heater  150 . When located outside of the tubular member  120 , the measurements from the temperature sensor(s)  160  may be used to estimate the temperature in the reaction zone  156 . 
     The outlet tee joint  124  may be or include a phase separator that is configured to separate two phases from one another. For example, the phase separator may be configured to separate the hydrogen gas from the reacted byproduct. 
     The reactor  100  may also include a gas outlet  170  through which the hydrogen gas may flow. The gas outlet  170  may be coupled to or integral with an upper portion of the outlet tee joint  124 . The gas outlet  170  may include a filter  172  that is configured to separate/remove particles from the hydrogen gas as the hydrogen gas flows through the gas outlet  170 . The gas outlet  170  may also include a pressure release valve  174 , which may be configured to actuate into an open position to release pressure when the pressure reaches or exceeds a predetermined threshold (e.g., 10 PSI). In one implementation, the gas outlet  170  may include a flow meter  176  that is configured to measure the rate at which the hydrogen gas flows through the gas outlet  170 . 
     The reactor  100  may also include one or more pressure sensors (one is shown:  178 ) that is/are configured to measure the pressure within the reactor  100 . As shown, the pressure sensor  178  is coupled to and/or proximate to the gas outlet  170 . In another implementation, the pressure sensor  178  (or another pressure sensor) may be coupled to and/or proximate to the tank  110 . The pressure release valve(s)  113 ,  174  may be actuated in response to the pressure measurements from the pressure sensor(s)  178 . 
     The rate at which the hydrogen gas is produced may depend at least partially upon the feed rate of the hydride fuel  102  from the tank  110  into the tubular member  120 . For example, as the feed rate varies (e.g., increases), the rate at which the hydrogen gas is produced may also vary (e.g., increase). The rate at which the hydrogen gas is produced may also or instead depend at least partially upon the rate at which the transporter  140  moves the hydride fuel  102  through the tubular member  120 . For example, as the rate at which the transporter  140  moves (e.g., rotates) varies, the rate at which the hydrogen gas is produced may also vary. The rate at which the hydrogen gas is produced may also or instead depend at least partially upon the temperature in the reaction zone  156 . For example, as the temperature varies (e.g., increases), the rate at which the hydrogen gas is produced may also vary (e.g., increase). 
     The reactor  100  may also include a collector  180  that is configured to receive/store the reacted byproduct. The collector  180  may be coupled to or integral with a lower portion of the outlet tee joint  124 . 
     A fuel cell  190  may be configured to receive and/or store the hydrogen gas produced by the reactor  100 . The reactor  100 , the hydrogen gas, and/or the fuel cell  190  may be configured to achieve a specific energy of up to about 250 Wh/kg, up to about 500 Wh/kg, about 1000 Wh/kg, or about 1500 Wh/kg. In another embodiment, the reactor  100 , the hydrogen gas, and/or the fuel cell  190  may be configured to achieve a specific energy from about 500 Wh/kg to about 750 Wh/kg, about 750 Wh/kg to about 1000 Wh/kg, about 1000 Wh/kg to about 1500 Wh/kg, or more. 
     In one implementation, the reactor  100  may be coupled to and/or positioned within a vehicle  192 , and the vehicle  192  may use the hydrogen gas discharged from the outlet  170  as a fuel. The vehicle  192  may be or include an electric and/or hybrid-electric vehicle. For example, the vehicle  192  may be or include an aircraft such as an airplane, a helicopter, an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), a spacecraft, or the like. The vehicle  192  may also or instead include a car, a train, a boat, an underwater vehicle, or the like. 
       FIG. 2A  illustrates a cross-sectional side view of the reaction zone  156  of the reactor  100 , according to an implementation. In this implementation, the tubular member  120  is made from a metal (e.g., steel), and the transporter  140  is made from a metal (e.g., steel). The heater  150  is a resistive heating coil, and the insulation  158  is positioned at least partially around the heater  150 . 
       FIG. 2B  illustrates a cross-sectional side view of the reaction zone  156  of the reactor  100 , according to an implementation. In this implementation, the tubular member  120  is made from a metal (e.g., steel), and the transporter  140  is made from a polymer (e.g., polyether ether ketone). Switching the transporter  140  from metal to polymer may reduce friction and binding because the polymer is chemically dissimilar from the metallic tubular member  120 . In addition, switching the transporter  140  from metal to polymer may reduce the weight and/or density (e.g.,  5 x less) of the transporter  140 . The heater  150  is a resistive heating coil, and the insulation  158  is positioned at least partially around the heater  150 . 
       FIG. 2C  illustrates a cross-sectional side view of the reaction zone  156  of the reactor  100 , according to an implementation. In this implementation, the tubular member  120  is made from a polymer (e.g., polyether ether ketone), and the transporter  140  is made from a metal (e.g., steel). Switching the tubular member  120  from metal to polymer may reduce friction and binding because the polymer is chemically dissimilar from the metallic transporter  140 . The heater  150  is an inductive heating coil, and the insulation  158  is omitted. The inductive heater  150  may heat the metallic transporter  140 , but may not directly heat the tubular member  120 , which is made of polymer. The heat from the metallic transporter  140  may be transferred to the hydride fuel  102 . Because this heat is occurring from inside the tubular member  120 , and the polymer has a relatively low thermal conductivity, heat losses may be reduced, and heating efficiency may be increased. The weight/density of the polymer is also less than that of the metal. 
     In an example, hydrogen dehydrogenation is performed in the reactor  100  where the tubular member  120  is made from a polymer, and the transporter  140  is made from metal. The process is performed in an argon-filled glove box. The tubular member  120  is 6 inches long with a 0.56 inch inner diameter and a 0.75 inch outer diameter. The transporter  140  is a metallic auger that is 3 inches long. The region around the auger is filled with 1.436 g of LiAlH 4  hydride catalyzed with 0.03 mol % TiF 3 . A 7 turn, 3.75 inch diameter induction heating coil  150  is placed around the section of the polymeric tubular member  120  containing the auger  140  and the hydride. The top of the tubular member  120  is sealed and held in place with a plastic syringe using a metal clamp. The plastic syringe is used to avoid any additional metal being proximate to the heating coil  150 . The heating coil  150  is powered with the inductive heating circuit  152 , which in turn is powered by a 24 VDC power supply  154 . 
       FIG. 2D  illustrates a cross-sectional side view of the reaction zone  156  of the reactor  100 , according to an implementation. In this implementation, the tubular member  120  is made from a polymer (e.g., polyether ether ketone), and the transporter  140  is made from a polymer (e.g., polyether ether ketone). The heater  150  is an inductive heating coil, and the insulation  158  is omitted. In this example, induction heating is used to directly heat the hydride fuel  102 . The hydride fuel  102  is (at least initially) non-metallic and may not be heated by induction. However, electrically conductive additives may be added to the hydride powder  102 . For example, the electrically conductive additive may be or include from about 1 wt % to about 30 wt %, about 5 wt % to about 25 wt %, or about 10 wt % to about 20 wt % carbon powder, where wt % refers to weight of total solids. In another example, the electrically conductive additive may be or include from about 1 wt % to about 30 wt %, about 5 wt % to about 25 wt %, or about 10 wt % to about 20 wt % metallic (e.g., iron) powder, where wt % refers to weight of total solids. The additive may transfer heat to the hydride fuel  102  within the flowing powder bed to enable efficient heating. 
       FIG. 3  illustrates a graph  300  showing the flow rate and temperature of the hydride fuel  102  in the reaction zone  156  versus time, according to an implementation. The transporter (e.g., auger)  140  may rotate from about 1 revolution to about 20 revolutions, about 2 revolutions to about 15 revolutions, or about 3 revolutions to about 15 revolutions. The rate of rotation may be from about 0.5 RPM to about 5 RPM, about 1 RPM to about 4 RPM, or about 2 RPM to about 3 RPM. This may move the hydride fuel  102  from about 2 cm to about 20 cm, about 3 cm to about 15 cm, or about 4 cm to about 10 cm within the tubular member  120 , which may be the length of the reaction zone  156 . The reaction zone  156  may include from about 0.5 g to about 5 g, about 1 g to about 4 g, or about 1.5 g to about 3 g of the hydride fuel  102  therein. The residence time of the hydride fuel  102  in the reaction zone  156  may be from about 30 seconds to about 5 minutes, about 1 minute to about 4 minutes, or about 2 minutes to about 3 minutes. The reactor  100  may run from about 30 minutes to about 5 hours, about 1 hour to about 4 hours, or about 2 hours to about 3 hours. 
     In an example, given a hydrogen content of 7.2 wt % (e.g., for catalyzed LiAlH 4 ) and 90% decomposition, the hydrogen gas flow rate may be about 1 liter for every 5 rotations of the auger  140 . At about 2 RPM, this translates to a flow rate from about 0.1 L/min to about 2 L/min, about 0.2 L/min to about 1.5 L/min, or about 0.3 L/min to about 1 L/min. As shown, the reactor  100  may be started with a temperature of about 200° C., and the flow rate immediately increases to about 0.4 L/min, indicating about 90% hydrogen gas recovery. 
       FIG. 4  illustrates another graph  400  showing the flow rate and temperature of the hydride fuel  102  in the reaction zone  156  versus time, according to an implementation. In this example, 115 g of LiAlH 4  (catalyzed with 3 mol % TiF 3 ) is introduced into the reactor  100 . The reactor  100  runs for about 2 hours with an average flow rate from about 0.1 L/min to about 1 L/min, about 0.15 L/min to about 0.75 L/min, or about 0.2 L/min to about 0.5 L/min at a rate from about 0.5 RPM to about 5 RPM, about 1 RPM to about 4 RPM, or about 2 RPM to about 3 RPM. The hydrogen recovery is from about 30% to about 70%, about 40% to about 60%, or about 45% to about 55%. 
       FIG. 5  illustrates another graph  500  showing the flow rate of hydrogen gas and temperature of the hydride fuel  102  in the reaction zone  156  versus time, according to an implementation. During the early stages of the run, the power required to turn the motor  130  is relatively low (e.g., from about 0.1 W to about 1 W, about 0.2 W to about 0.5 W, or about 0.25 W to about 0.35 W). After time (e.g., about 85 minutes), the power increases to between about 1 W and about 3 W, about 1.5 W and about 2.5 W, or about 1.75 W and about 2 W with relatively no change in motor speed or reaction temperature. About 58 g of the hydride fuel  102  passed through the reactor  100 , and the remaining 57 g is left unreacted. 
     In another embodiment, the flow rate of the hydride fuel  102  and/or the hydrogen gas through the reactor  100  (e.g., the tubular member  120 ) may be from about 0.1 L/min to about 1 L/min, about 0.2 L/min to about 0.8 L/min, or about 0.3 L/min to about 0.5 L/min. As will be appreciated, larger systems may evolve more hydrogen per unit time. For automotive applications, the fuel may be depleted in about 1 hour to about 10 hours, about 2 hours to about 8 hours, or about 3 hours to about 5 hours. This may be normalized to the amount of total fuel stored in the fuel cell  190 . For example, the fuel cell may release from about 10% to about 100% of the stored hydrogen per hour, from about 20% to about 80% of the stored hydrogen per hour, or from about 20% to about 50% of the stored hydrogen per hour. 
       FIG. 6  illustrates a graph  600  showing temperatures of three differently-sized heaters  150  versus time, according to an implementation. In  FIG. 6 , the heating coils are helical, and the term “diameter” refers to the diameter of the helix, not the diameter of the coil itself. The heater (e.g., heating coil)  150  with the 3.75 inch diameter provided an optimal heating profile for dehydrogenation of the LiAlH 4  hydride fuel  102 . As shown, a temperature of about 150° C. is reached in about 5 minutes, and a temperature of about 200° C. is reached in about 10 minutes. Larger diameter heater coils (e.g., 4.5 inches and 6.4 inches) heat too slowly while smaller coils (data not shown) heat too quickly. Power measurements with and without the transporter (e.g., auger)  140  in the heater  150  indicate that the heating power to the heater  150  increases with decreasing coil diameter: from 3 W at 6.5 inches, to 9 W at 4.5 inches, to 17 W at 3.75 inches. The temperature is measured with an optical pyrometer. Heating is performed in air with the transporter  140 , not in the polymer tubular member  120 , positioned vertically in the center of the heater  150 . 
       FIG. 7  illustrates a graph  700  showing flow rate and integrated flow versus time, according to an implementation. In the example shown in  FIG. 7 , the metallic transporter (e.g., auger)  140  is inductively heated inside the polymeric tubular member  120 . The flow rate begins to rise at about 3.5 minutes and about 135° C. The flow rate peaks at about 0.17 liters/minute and then decreases to about 0.03 liters per minute at about 15 minutes. The integrated flow is about 0.82 liters, which corresponds to about 0.033 mole-H 2  or 0.067 g-H 2 . As used herein, “integrated flow” refers to the total amount of evolved hydrogen gas. The measured weight loss of the assembled polymeric tubular member  120  is 0.088 g. From the weight of the hydride fuel  102  added (1.436 g), and assuming a capacity of about 7 wt % for the LiAlH 4 +0.03 TiF 3  mixture, the theoretical weight of hydrogen is about 0.100 g. These values indicate that a significant dehydrogenization of the hydride (e.g., about 67%) is achieved by inductively heating the transporter  140 . 
     The induction heating of the hydride fuel  102  in the reactor  100  with the metallic transporter  140  is performed a second time. The flow rate increases to about 0.12 L/minute within less than a minute after showing signs of positive pressure outward on the flow meter  176 . At this point, the heater  150  is shut off. The flow rate starts to decrease a few seconds later, indicating a quick response time and strong correlation to the inductive heating energy going into the transporter  140 . 
       FIG. 8  illustrates a flowchart of a method  800  for converting the hydride fuel  102  into hydrogen gas, according to an implementation. An illustrative order of the method  800  is provided below; however, one or more steps of the method  800  may be performed in a different order, performed simultaneously, repeated, or omitted. 
     The method  800  may include introducing an additive to the hydride fuel  102 , as at  802 . As discussed above, the additive may be or include a carbon powder or a metallic powder. The method  800  may also include applying a lubricant to the transporter (e.g., the auger)  140 , as at  804 . The method  800  may also include increasing a temperature of the transporter  140  and/or the lubricant to cause a binder material in the lubricant to at least partially evaporate, as at  806 . This may leave behind the lubricant with little or no binder material. 
     The method  800  may include introducing the hydride fuel  102  into the tank  110 , as at  808 . The method  800  may also include transferring the hydride fuel  102  from the tank into the tubular member  120 , as at  810 . The method  800  may also include moving the hydride fuel  102  within the tubular member  120  using the transporter  140 , as at  812 . For example, the transporter  140  may be or include an auger that is rotated by the motor  130 , which moves the hydride fuel  102  within the tubular member  120 . The method  800  may also include heating the reaction zone  156  using the heater  150  to convert the hydride fuel  102  into hydrogen gas and a reacted byproduct, as at  814 . The method  800  may also include discharging the hydrogen gas through the outlet  170 , as at  816 . The method  800  may also include receiving/storing the hydrogen gas in the fuel cell  190 , as at  817 . The method  800  may also include powering the vehicle  192  using the hydrogen gas, as at  818 . The hydrogen gas may be supplied to the vehicle  190  directly from the outlet  170  or from the fuel cell  190 . The method  800  may also include collecting the reacted byproduct in the collector  180 , as at  820 . 
     As used herein, the terms “inner” and “outer”; “up” and “down”; “upper” and “lower”; “upward” and “downward”; “upstream” and “downstream”; “above” and “below”; “inward” and “outward”; and other like terms as used herein refer to relative positions to one another and are not intended to denote a particular direction or spatial orientation. The terms “couple,” “coupled,” “connect,” “connection,” “connected,” “in connection with,” and “connecting” refer to “in direct connection with” or “in connection with via one or more intermediate elements or members.” Similarly, the terms “bonded” and “bonding” refer to “directly bonded to” or “bonded to via one or more intermediate elements, members, or layers.” 
     Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forth the broad scope of the disclosure are approximations, the numerical values set forth in the specific examples are reported as precisely as possible. Any numerical value, however, inherently contains certain errors necessarily resulting from the standard deviation found in their respective testing measurements. Moreover, all ranges disclosed herein are to be understood to encompass any and all sub-ranges subsumed therein. 
     While the present teachings have been illustrated with respect to one or more implementations, alterations and/or modifications can be made to the illustrated examples without departing from the spirit and scope of the appended claims. In addition, while a particular feature of the present teachings may have been disclosed with respect to only one of several implementations, such feature may be combined with one or more other features of the other implementations as may be desired and advantageous for any given or particular function. As used herein, the terms “a”, “an”, and “the” may refer to one or more elements or parts of elements. As used herein, the terms “first” and “second” may refer to two different elements or parts of elements. As used herein, the term “at least one of A and B” with respect to a listing of items such as, for example, A and B, means A alone, B alone, or A and B. Those skilled in the art will recognize that these and other variations are possible. Furthermore, to the extent that the terms “including,” “includes,” “having,” “has,” “with,” or variants thereof are used in either the detailed description and the claims, such terms are intended to be inclusive in a manner similar to the term “comprising.” Further, in the discussion and claims herein, the term “about” indicates that the value listed may be somewhat altered, as long as the alteration does not result in nonconformance of the process or structure to the intended purpose described herein. Finally, “exemplary” indicates the description is used as an example, rather than implying that it is an ideal. 
     It will be appreciated that variants of the above-disclosed and other features and functions, or alternatives thereof, may be combined into many other different systems or applications. Various presently unforeseen or unanticipated alternatives, modifications, variations, or improvements therein may be subsequently made by those skilled in the art which are also intended to be encompasses by the following claims.