Patent Publication Number: US-2007118934-A1

Title: Chimeric toxin receptor proteins and chimeric toxin receptor proteins for treatment and prevention of anthrax

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS  
      This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/493,909, filed Oct. 25, 2002, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/047,542, filed Oct. 26, 2001, each of the foregoing which is hereby incorporated by reference. This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/704,829, filed Aug. 2, 2005, the foregoing which is hereby incorporated by reference.  
      Each of these applications is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety, including all figures, drawings, and sequence listings. 
    
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT  
      Federal research support was provided in the form of federal research grant IR43AI053005-01A1. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION  
      The present invention relates to chimeric toxin receptor proteins, immunoadhesins, their production from plants, and their use in the treatment and prevention of toxicity and pathogen-mediated ailments.  
     BACKGROUND  
      Soluble receptors and binding proteins that act as decoys for toxins and pathogen components that mediate infection and pathogenesis are a promising means to treat and prevent toxicity and other pathogen-mediated effects.  
      One example of a condition treatable with a receptor decoy is anthrax infection. Two cell-surface receptors for PA (protective antigen, a component of anthrax toxin) have been identified: tumor endothelial marker 8 (TEM8) and capillary morphogenesis protein 2 (CMG2) (30, 31). Soluble forms of the extracellular domains of both of these proteins have been shown to inhibit intoxication of cells expressing endogenous toxin receptors. The soluble form of TEM8 inhibited lethal toxin action by 50% at 80 nM (IC50=80 nM) (Bradley, K. A., Mogridge, J., Mourez, M., Collier, R. J. &amp; Young, J. A. Identification of the cellular receptor for anthrax toxin. Nature 414, 225-9 (2001)). CMG2-derived protein had an affinity for PA of 170 pM, and an IC50 in the macrophage protection assay of 3.1 nM (67 ng/ml), making it a potentially potent inhibitor of anthrax toxin action (Scobie, H. M., Rainey, G. J., Bradley, K. A. &amp; Young, J. A. Human capillary morphogenesis protein 2 functions as an anthrax toxin receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100, 5170-4 (2003); Wigelsworth, D. J., Krantz, B. A., Christensen, K. A., Lacy, D. B., Juris, S. J. &amp; Collier, R. J. Binding stoichiometry and kinetics of the interaction of a human anthrax toxin receptor, CMG2, with protective antigen. J Biol Chem 279, 23349-56 (2004)). In cell culture assays, soluble CMG2 extracellular domain neutralized 50% of lethal toxin activity at a 3:1 molar ratio with PA (Scobie et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100, 5170-4 (2003)). However, the high concentration of bacilli in blood during an active infection suggests that the concentration of PA may be quite high, requiring high doses of antitoxin to provide protection.  
      Another example of a condition treatable with a receptor decoy is the common cold. The common cold is generally a relatively mild disease. However, significant complications resulting from colds, such as otitis media, sinusitis and asthma exacerbations are common. Human rhinoviruses (HRV) cause up to 50% of all adult colds and 25% of colds in children (Bella and Rossmann, J Struct Biol. 128:69-74, 1999, and Sperber and Hayden, Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 32:409-19, 1988). The cost to society runs into billions of dollar per year. These small, nonenveloped RNA viruses represent a subgroup of picornavirus (Rueckert, Virology, pp. 507-548, eds. Fields, et al., Raven Press, Ltd. New York, 1990) X-ray crystallography of rhinovirus identified a capsid 300 angstrom in diameter (1 angstrom=0.1 nm) with icosahedral symmetry, constructed from sixty copies each of the viral coat proteins VP1, VP2, and VP3 (Rossmann, Nature 317:145-153, 1985). A surface depression or “canyon” on HRV was suggested as the receptor binding site (Colonno, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 85:5449-5453, 1985; Rossmann, et al. Nature 317:145-153, 1985). Of the 102 characterized HRV serotypes, 91 (known as the major group) share as their receptor a cell surface glycoprotein known as intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) (Greve, et al., Cell 56:839-847, 1989; Staunton, et al., Cell 56:849-853, 1989); the binding site is located within N-terminal domain 1 (Greve, et al., J Virol. 65:6015-6023, 1991; Staunton, et al., Cell 61:243-254, 1990).  
      ICAM-1 is a membrane protein with five extracellular domains, a hydrophobic transmembrane domain, and a short cytoplasmic domain. ICAM-1 is expressed on many cells important in immune and inflammatory responses, and is inducible on others (Casasnovas, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 95:4134-9, 1998). ICAM-1 functions as a ligand for the leukocyte integrins LFA-1 and Mac-1 (Springer, Cell 76:301-14, 1994; Staunton et al., Cell 61:243-254, 1990). On the cell surface, ICAM-1 is primarily a dimer due to association of the transmembrane domains (Miller, et al., J Exp Med. 182:1231-41, 1995; Reilly, et al J Immunol. 155:529-32, 1995).  
      Recombinant, soluble forms of ICAM-1 (sICAM-1) consisting of the five extracellular domains were shown to be effective in blocking rhinovirus infection of human cells in vitro (Greve, et al., J Virol. 65:6015-6023, 1991; Marlin, et al., Nature. 344:70-2, 1990). Evaluation of sICAM-1 activity against a spectrum of laboratory strains and field isolates showed that all major strains of HRV are sensitive to sICAM-1. Minor strains, which do not use ICAM as a receptor, were unaffected by sICAM-1 (Crump et al., Antiviral Chem Chemother. 4:323-327, 1993; Ohlin, et al., Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 38:1413-5, 1994).  
      The anti-viral activity of soluble ICAM-1 in vitro appears to be mediated by more than one mechanism. These mechanisms include competition with cell-surface ICAM-1 for binding sites, interference with virus entry or uncoating, and direct inactivation by premature release of viral RNA and formation of empty capsids (Arruda, et al., Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 36:1186-1191, 1992; Greve, et al., J Virol. 65:6015-6023, 1991; Marlin, et al., Nature 344:70-2, 1990; Martin et al., J Virol. 67:3561-8, 1993).  
      The host range of HRV is restricted to primates. A recent study showed that soluble ICAM-1 was effective in preventing rhinovirus infection in chimpanzees (Huguenel, et al., Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 155:1206-10, 1997). Although chimpanzees do not show clinical symptoms, infection was demonstrated by measuring seroconversion and virus shedding. A single dose of 10 mg of soluble ICAM-1 as an intranasal spray was effective at preventing infection by HRV-16 when co-administered with HRV, or when the virus was administered ten minutes later.  
      A human clinical trial with soluble ICAM-1 showed that it reduced the severity of experimental HRV colds (Turner, et al., JAMA 281:1797-804, 1999). In this trial a total of 196 subjects received either soluble ICAM-1 or placebo in various formulations. Some subjects were given soluble ICAM-1 or placebo starting seven hours before inoculation with HRV 39 and others were started twelve hours after virus inoculation. Medications were administered as either an intranasal solution or powder, given in six daily doses for seven days (a total of 4.4 mg per day). In this study, soluble ICAM-1 did not prevent infection, as measured by either virus isolation or seroconversion (infection rate of 92% for placebo-treated vs. 85% of soluble ICAM-1 treated). However, soluble ICAM-1 did have an impact on all measures of illness. The total symptom score was reduced by 45%, the proportion of subjects with clinical colds was reduced 23% and nasal mucus weight was reduced by 56%. There was not a significant difference between the use of powder or solution formulations, or between pre- and post-inoculation groups. Treatment with soluble ICAM-1 did not result in any adverse effects or evidence of absorption through the nasal mucosa. Also, there was no inhibition of the development of anti-HRV type-specific antibodies.  
      As discussed, ICAM-1 is dimeric on the cell surface. Martin et al., in J Virol. 67:3561-8, (1993) first proposed that multivalent binding to HRV by a multimeric soluble ICAM might result in a higher effective affinity, termed avidity, and thus facilitate uncoating of the virus. They constructed multivalent, ICAM-1/immunoglobulin molecules, postulating that these would be more effective than monovalent soluble ICAM-1 in neutralizing HRV and thus would have increased therapeutic utility. These ICAM-1/immunoglobulin molecules included ICAM-1 amino-terminal domains 1 and 2 fused to the hinge and constant domains of the heavy chains of IgA1 (IC1-2D/IgA), IgM (IC1-2D/IgM) and IgG1(IC1-2D/IgG). In addition, five extracellular domains were fused to IgA1 (IC1-5D/IgA). These ICAM-1/immunoglobulin molecules were compared with soluble forms of ICAM-1 having two (sIC1-2D) and five (sIC1-5D) domains in assays of HRV binding, infectivity and conformation. The ICAM-1/IgA immunoglobulin (IC1-5D/IgA) was 200 times, and the ICAM-1/IgM immunoglobulin (IC1-2D/IgM) and ICAM-1/IgG immunoglobulin molecules (IC1-2D/IgG) were 25 and 10 times, more effective than soluble ICAM-1. These molecules were highly effective in inhibiting rhinovirus binding to cells and disrupting the conformation of the virus capsid. The ICAM-1/IgA immunoglobulin molecules were effective in the nanomolar concentration range. Comparison of IC1-2D/IgA and IC1-2D/IgG showed that the class of Ig constant region used had a large impact on efficacy.  
      A subsequent study compared the inhibitory activities of soluble ICAM-1 and IC1-5D/IgA against nine major HRV serotypes and a variant of HRV-39 selected for moderate resistance to soluble ICAM-1 (Crump, et al., Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 38:1425-7, 1993). IC1-5D/IgA was more potent than monomeric soluble ICAM-1 by 50 to 143 times on a weight basis and by 60 to 170 times on a molar basis against the standard serotypes. The HRV-39 variant was 38-fold more resistant to soluble CAM-1 than the wild-type, and it was only 5-fold more resistant to IC1-5D/IgA. This is consistent with the hypothesis that virus escape from inhibition by multivalent molecules would be expected to occur at lower frequency than virus escape from inhibition by monomeric soluble receptor (Martin, et al., J Virol. 67:3561-8, 1993). An assay designed to measure viral inactivation showed that HRV-39 and HRV-13 were not directly inactivated to a significant extent by soluble ICAM-1 (&lt;0.5 log.sub.10 reduction in infectivity). However, incubation with IC1-5D/IgA resulted in a reduction of infectivity of these same viruses by about 1.0 log 10  (Crump, et al., Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 38:1425-7, 1994). Results by Martin et al. (J Virol. 67:3561-8, 1993) suggest that the greater the valence, the greater the effectiveness of the molecules. Dimeric and decameric forms of IC1-2/IgM were separable by sucrose gradient sedimentation. The decameric form was five times more effective than the dimeric form at blocking binding of HRV to HeLa cells.  
      To minimize the amount of receptor decoy protein needed to ensure efficacy, it would be desirable to increase the specific activity or potency of the receptor decoys even further. Thus, there remains a need for potent decoys with higher activity and improved pharmacokinetics.  
      The receptor decoys that have been described suffer from several drawbacks, including laborious production techniques and high costs associated with those production methods. In addition, these receptor decoys have limited stability as multimers in the harsh environment in which the molecule may need to inactivate pathogens. Thus, there is a need for decoy technologies with increased stability to increase yield and which can be produced in commercially feasible volumes at a reasonable cost.  
     BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
      The present invention contemplates chimeric toxin receptor proteins where a toxin receptor is associated with an immunoglobulin complex having least a portion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain and at least a portion of an immunoglobulin light chain. A toxin receptor can be any polypeptide which binds toxin or proteins which lead to or exert a pathogenic effect. Such chimeric toxin receptor proteins have improved stability as compared to chimeric toxin receptor proteins lacking the light chain. The association between the toxin receptor and the immunoglobulin complex may be via a covalent linkage between the toxin receptor and the heavy chain or a covalent linkage between the toxin receptor and the light chain. The covalent linkage is typically a linker, for example, the flexible polypeptide sequence (Gly3Ser)3. In preferred embodiments, the chimeric toxin receptor protein includes a covalent linkage between a first toxin receptor and a heavy chain as well as a covalent linkage between a second toxin receptor and a light chain. In some embodiments, the first and second toxin receptors have the same amino acid sequence, but in other embodiments, the receptors have different sequences.  
      The immunoglobulin heavy chain in the described chimeric toxin receptor proteins can any type of heavy chain, for example, IgA, IgA 1 , IgA 2 , IgG 1 , IgG 2 , IgG 3 , IgG 4 , IgD, IgE, IgM, or a chimeric immunoglobulin heavy chain. When the heavy chain is an IgA, IgD, or IgG heavy chain, the portion of the heavy chain may be constant regions 2 and 3. Alternatively, when the heavy chain is an IgM or IgE heavy chain, the portion of the heavy chain may be constant regions 2, 3, and 4.  
      The immunoglobulin light chain preferably includes the light chain constant domain and can be either a kappa or lambda chain.  
      In preferred embodiments, the chimeric toxin receptor proteins are expressed in plants, including monocotyledonous plants and dicotyledonous plants as a part of the plants&#39; genome. Tobacco is a preferred plant for expression. Expression in plants, as opposed to expression in cultured mammalian cells, allows for a significant reduction in the cost of producing the chimeric toxin receptor proteins.  
      In a preferred embodiment, all proteins used to make the chimeric toxin receptor proteins of the present invention are human proteins. In addition to production in plants or plant cells, the present invention contemplates chimeric toxin receptor proteins expressed in heterologous cells derived from plants, vertebrates or invertebrates such as mammalian cells, hairy root cells, or plant tissue culture cells.  
      In another aspect, the invention provides immunoadhesins including the chimeric toxin receptors described herein. In some embodiments, the immunoadhesin is a multimer, including at least two chimeric toxin receptor proteins. In other embodiments, the immunoadhesin includes chimeric toxin receptor protein associated with J chain. In another embodiment, the composition comprising the immunoadhesin associated with J chain is further associated with secretory component.  
      In one embodiment, the present invention contemplates a chimeric toxin receptor protein having plant-specific glycosylation. A gene coding for a polypeptide having within its amino acid sequence the glycosylation signal asparagine-X-serine/threonine, where X can be any amino acid residue, is glycosylated via oligosaccharides linked to the asparagine residue of the sequence when expressed in a plant cell. See Marshall, Ann. Rev. Biochem., 41:673 (1972) and Marshall, Biochem. Soc. Symp., 40:17 (1974) for a general review of the polypeptide sequences that function as glycosylation signals. These signals are recognized in both mammalian and in plant cells. At the end of their maturation, proteins expressed in plants or plant cells have a different pattern of glycosylation than do proteins expressed in other types of cells, including mammalian cells and insect cells. Detailed studies characterizing plant-specific glycosylation and comparing it with glycosylation in other cell types have been performed, for example, in studies described by Cabanes-Macheteau et al., Glycobiology 9(4):365-372 (1999), and Altmann, Glycoconjugate J. 14:643-646 (1997). These groups and others have shown that plant-specific glycosylation generates glycans that have xylose linked β(1,2) to mannose, but xylose is not linked β(1,2) to mannose as a result of glycosylation in mammalian and insect cells. Plant-specific glycosylation results in a fucose linked α(1,3) to the proximal GlcNAc, while glycosylation in mammalian cells results in a fucose linked α(1,6) to the proximal GlcNAc. Furthermore, plant-specific glycosylation does not result in the addition of a sialic acid to the terminus of the protein glycan, whereas in glycosylation in mammalian cells, sialic acid is added.  
      In another embodiment, the foregoing compositions are additionally associated with plant material. The plant material present may be plant cell walls, plant organelles, plant cytoplasms, intact plant cells, plant seeds, viable plants, and the like. The particular plant materials or plant macromolecules that may be present include ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase, light harvesting complex, pigments, secondary metabolites or chlorophyll and fragments thereof. Compositions of the present invention may have a chimeric toxin receptor protein concentration of between 0.001% and 99.9% mass excluding water. In other embodiments, the chimeric toxin receptor protein is present in a concentration of 0.01% to 99% mass excluding water. In other embodiments, the compositions of the present invention have plant material or plant macromolecules present at a concentration of 0.01% to 99% mass excluding water.  
      In another aspect, the invention provides methods for reducing binding of a pathogen antigen wherein the pathogen may be a pathogenic molecule, pathogenic virus or pathogenic cellular organism to a host cell by contacting the pathogen antigen with the chimeric toxin receptor protein. Other aspects feature methods for reducing morbidity and mortality of a pathogen and morbidity and mortality due to pathogenic molecules such as toxins. The pathogen antigen may or may not be capable of stimulating the formation of antibodies as the term is used herein.  
      In another aspect, the invention provides pharmaceutical compositions including the chimeric toxin receptor proteins described herein and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.  
      In yet another aspect, the invention provides expression vector systems including a first nucleotide sequence encoding a portion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain; a second nucleotide sequence encoding a portion of an immunoglobulin light chain; and a third nucleotide sequence encoding a first toxin receptor protein, where upon expression in a cellular host, the immunoglobulin heavy chain, the immunoglobulin light chain, and the first toxin receptor protein form a chimeric toxin receptor protein.  
      In still yet another aspect, the invention provides methods for producing a chimeric toxin receptor protein including providing one or more expression vectors, together which express an immunoglobulin complex, where the immunoglobulin complex has a portion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain associated with a portion of an immunoglobulin light chain; and a first toxin receptor protein, wherein the first toxin receptor protein is associated with the immunoglobulin complex; introducing the one or more expression vectors into a cellular host; and expressing the immunoglobulin complex and the first toxin receptor protein to form a chimeric toxin receptor protein.  
      The present invention also contemplates Anthrax chimeric toxin receptor proteins where Anthrax toxin receptor is associated with an immunoglobulin complex having least a portion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain.  
      In a preferred embodiment, the anthrax toxin receptor will have the Von Willebrand Factor Type A/integrin inserted (VW/I) domain. Typically, anthrax toxin receptor will have the extra-cellular domain of the receptor molecule. The anthrax toxin receptor can be any polypeptide which binds protective antigen, including the known receptors tumor endothelial market 8 (TEM8) and capillary morphogenesis protein 2 (CMG2).  
      In preferred embodiments, the Anthrax toxin receptor lacks protease-sensitive amino acid sequences. For example, if the Anthrax toxin receptor is the CMG2 protein, it preferably lacks the amino acid sequence TEILELQPSSVCVG (SEQ ID NO: 102).  
      In some embodiments, immunoglobulin heavy chain is an IgA, IgD, or IgG heavy chain with all heavy chain constant regions 1, 2, and 3. In other embodiments, the heavy chain only has heavy chain constant regions 2 and 3.  
      The covalent linkage between the Anthrax toxin receptor protein and the portion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain can be an immunoglobulin hinge or any type of linker, preferably one with a (Gly3Ser)3 amino acid sequence.  
      Preferred embodiments of Anthrax chimeric toxin receptors include the following: 1) Anthrax toxin receptor protein with a VWA/I domain of a CMG2 receptor and a portion of the immunoglobulin heavy chain with heavy chain constant regions 1, 2 and 3 covalently joined by a linker; 2) Anthrax toxin receptor protein with a VWA/I domain of a CMG2 receptor and a portion of the immunoglobulin heavy chain having heavy chain constant regions 2 and 3 covalently joined by a linker and an immunoglobulin hinge; 3) Anthrax toxin receptor protein having a VWA/I domain of a CMG2 receptor and a portion of a immunoglobulin heavy chain having heavy chain constant regions 2 and 3 covalently joined by an immunoglobulin hinge; 4) Anthrax toxin receptor protein having a VWA/I domain of a CMG2 receptor and a portion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain having heavy chain constant regions 1, 2 and 3 covalently joined by a linker; 5) Anthrax toxin receptor protein having a VWA/I domain of a CMG2 receptor and a portion of the immunoglobulin heavy chain having heavy chain constant regions 2 and 3 covalently linked by an immunoglobulin hinge and a linker; and 6) Any portion of the extracellular domain of said Anthrax toxin receptor protein and an immunoglobulin heavy chain having at least a portion of an IgA2 heavy chain.  
      In another aspect, the Anthrax chimeric toxin receptor proteins also include an immunoglobulin light chain in association with the immunoglobulin heavy chain in the immunoglobulin complex. As described above, the association between the toxin receptor and the immunoglobulin complex may be via a covalent linkage between the toxin receptor and the heavy chain or a covalent linkage between the toxin receptor and the light chain. In certain embodiments, the chimeric toxin receptor protein includes a covalent linkage between a first toxin receptor and a heavy chain as well as a covalent linkage between a second toxin receptor and a light chain. In some embodiments, the first and second toxin receptors have the same amino acid sequence, but in other embodiments, the receptors have different sequences.  
      Alterations and modifications to the receptor protein or portion thereof are also contemplated, provided such modifications do not destroy the ability of the receptor to bind the toxin, toxicant, pathogen, or pathogen component.  
      As described above for all types of chimeric toxin receptor proteins, the Anthrax chimeric toxin receptor proteins can be expressed in plants and a variety of heterologous cells. In a preferred embodiment, all proteins used to make the chimeric toxin receptor proteins of the present invention are human proteins.  
      In another aspect, the invention provides immunoadhesins including the Anthrax chimeric toxin receptors described herein, such as multimers with at least two Anthrax chimeric toxin receptor proteins, Anthrax chimeric toxin receptor protein associated with J chain, and Anthrax chimeric toxin receptor protein associated with J chain and secretory component.  
      In other embodiments, the present invention contemplates an Anthrax chimeric toxin receptor protein having plant-specific glycosylation and the foregoing compositions additionally associated with plant material.  
      In another aspect, the invention features a method for reducing or preventing the binding of protective antigen (PA) of  Bacillus anthracis  to host cells by contacting PA with the Anthrax chimeric toxin receptors described herein. Other aspects feature methods for reducing morbidity and mortality of anthrax and morbidity and mortality due to protective antigen.  
      In other aspects, the invention provides pharmaceutical compositions including Anthrax chimeric toxin receptors, expression vectors for such receptors, and methods for making such receptors.  
      In another distinct aspect, the invention provides chimeric  botulinum  toxin receptor proteins where an immunoglobulin complex has at least a portion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain associated with a  botulinum  toxin receptor protein. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       FIG. 1  illustrates pSSPHuA2, vector in which DNAs encoding a chimeric ICAM-1 molecule containing the first five domains of human ICAM-1 and the Fc region of human IgA2m(2) were fused [SEQ ID NO:9, 48]. This vector contains the SuperMas promoter for driving the expression of a signal peptide and the constant regions of the human IgA2m(2) heavy-chain. Sequences encoding ICAM domains 1-5 were amplified by PCR to contain convenient restriction sites (5′ SpeI and 3′ SpeI) for insertion between the signal peptide and the Cα1 domain. DNA encoding an ER retention signal (RSEKDEL) [SEQ ID NO:5] was appended to the 3′ end of the heavy-chain in order to boost the expression level of the construct.  
       FIG. 2  illustrates a chimeric ICAM molecule.  2 A shows the DNA expression cassette from which the chimeric ICAM-1 molecule was produced.  2 B shows the amino acid sequence, after signal peptide cleavage, of the mature form of the fusion protein [SEQ ID NO:8]. Amino acids introduced by the cloning procedure are underlined and mark the junction between the five extracellular domains of ICAM-1 and the Cα1-Cα3 domains of the IgA2m(2) heavy chain. The bolded N&#39;s indicate the fifteen potential glycosylation sites.  
       FIG. 3  illustrates the expression of the immunoadhesin in independently transformed tobacco calli.  3 A shows immunoblots of non-reducing SDS-polyacrylamide gels on which samples containing different transformed tobacco calli (C) and aqueous extracts (Aq) were run and probed for the presence of human ICAM. The molecular weight markers are indicated, and the reference standard (R) was a mixture (˜75 ng each) of human ICAM (˜75 kD) and human SigA (&gt;&gt;250 kD).  3 B shows immunoblots of nonreducing SDS-polyacrylamide gels containing various fractions of partially purified immunoadhesin from callus Rhi107-11. The purification fractions analyzed were juice (3), G-100 fraction (G), sterile filtered G-100 fraction (SG), and a mixture of reference standards of human SigA (75 ng) and human ICAM-1 (75 ng) (RS). Blots were probed with antibodies against human ICAM (˜ICAM), human IgA heavy chain (˜α), human secretory component (˜SC) and human J chain (˜J). Secondary, enzyme-conjugated antibodies were employed as necessary to label immuno-positive bands with alkaline phosphatase.  
       FIG. 4  illustrates the results of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) showing competition between plant extract and soluble ICAM-1 for binding to an anti-ICAM mAb. For the assay, 96-well plates were coated with 0.25 μg soluble ICAM-1/ml. The squares represent the increasing concentrations of sICAM and the circles represent the increasing amounts of callus extract (sterile filtered fraction from G-100) used to compete with the adhered ICAM for a constant amount of a mouse (anti-human ICAM) antibody.  
       FIG. 5  illustrates the results of an assay showing the ability of an immunoadhesin to inhibit human rhinovirus killing of HeLa cells (cytopathic effect, or CPE, assay).  5 A shows the results of an assay comparing the CPE of human rhinovirus on HeLa cells in the presence of partially purified extracts containing either the immunoadhesin in the ICAM-Fc fusion (IC1-5D/IgA) or containing an antibody against doxorubicin. (The right side-up and upside-down triangles represent two extracts derived from Rhi107-11, containing the immunoadhesin.)  5 B shows the results of an assay comparing the CPE of human rhinovirus on HeLa cells in the presence of soluble human ICAM-1 or an extract from the immunoadhesin in the ICAM-Fc fusion (IC1-5D/IgA). The Inset shows scale expansion in the range of the IC50 for soluble ICAM (1.35 μg/ml) and for IC1-5D/IgA (0.12 μg/ml; 11.3 fold-less).  
       FIG. 6  shows an evaluation of the production necessities for making 1 gram of finished immunoadhesin. In this diagram, the number of plants needed for 1 g of immunoadhesin, at 20% yield, at expected levels of expression and plant weight is illustrated. At different levels of immunoadhesin expression (mg/kg fresh weight) and overall recovery (set at 20%), the weight of each plant, and so the total number of plants, may be determined for a specified production target (1 g/harvest) within a window (dotted square) of reasonable possibilities. The number of required plants decreases, inversely, with the number of specified growth and re-growth periods. The expected biomass production, a function of time and growth conditions, influences the time to harvest and the time between harvests. These growth periods can be adjusted to the realities of the purification schedule by staggering planting and harvesting dates.  
       FIG. 7  shows the coding and amino acid sequences of each of the immunoglobulin genes and proteins listed in Table 2 [SEQ ID NO:15 through 47 and SEQ ID NO:52 through 62].  
       FIG. 8  shows the sequences of plasmids used to transform plants, as described in Example 2, for use in studies of the expression of immunoadhesins of the present invention.  
       FIG. 8A  shows the nucleotide [SEQ ID NO:9] and protein [SEQ ID NO:48] sequences for plasmids PSSpICAMHuA2  
       FIG. 8B  shows the nucleotide [SEQ ID NO:10] sequence for the bean legumin signal peptide.  
       FIG. 8C  shows the nucleotide [SEQ ID NO:11] and amino acid [SEQ ID NO:50] sequence of the protein coding region of pSHuJ.  
       FIG. 8D  shows the nucleotide [SEQ ID NO:12] and amino acid [SEQ ID NO:51] sequence of protein coding region of pSHuSC.  
       FIG. 8E  shows the nucleotide sequence [SEQ ID NO:13] of plasmid pBMSP-1.  
       FIG. 8F  shows the nucleotide sequence [SEQ ID NO:14] of plasmid pBMSP-1spJSC.  
       FIG. 9  contains nucleotide and protein sequences SEQ ID NO: 1; SEQ ID NO:2; SEQ ID NO:3; SEQ ID NO:4; SEQ ID NO:5; SEQ ID NO:6; SEQ ID NO:7; SEQ ID NO:8, for ICAM-1, and human IgA2 and other nucleotide sequences.  
       FIG. 10  shows the full nucleotide (SEQ ID NO: 98) and amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 99) of the ATR-IgA2 fusion (an immunoadhesin).  
       FIG. 11  shows the sequence (SEQ ID NO: 100) between the T-DNA borders of the plasmid pGPTV-kan-ocs-ATR-IgA2.  
       FIG. 12  shows the sequence (SEQ ID NO: 101) between the T-DNA borders of the plasmid pGPTV-hpt-ocs-35SJ/SC.  
       FIG. 13  shows a cytopathic effect assay. ICAM-1/IgA2 (diamonds) and soluble ICAM-1 (squares) were mixed at various concentrations with human rhinovirus, and then added to HeLa cells. Inhibition of cell death was quantitated at 4 days.  
       FIG. 14  shows the amino acid sequence of CMG2-IgG construct and variants. The cysteine in bold type (Cys185 of the sequence above, and Cys218 of the published CMG2 sequence 31 ) is the last amino acid of the VWA/I domain. The following 14 amino acids (italicized) are part of CMG2, but not the VWA/I domain. Labels above the sequence indicate the beginnings of IgG1 Cγ1, Cγ2 and Cγ3. Underlined sequence is the IgG1 hinge region. Sequences of variants (V1, V2a, V2b and V3) are indicated, with dashes representing deleted amino acids. Numbers over amino acids in bold type indicate amino termini of sequenced fragments (described in the text).  
       FIG. 15  is a silver-stained gel of protein-A purified CMG2-IgG and 1H IgG. Lanes 1 and 4, protein size standards; lane 2, reduced CMG2-IgG; lane 3, reduced 1H; lanes 5 &amp; 6, non-reduced CMG2-IgG from two separate preparations; lane 7, non-reduced 1H. Recombinant protein samples contain 50 ng of protein per lane. Cartoon representation of CMG2-IgG immunoadhesins and possible degradation products shown to the right.  
       FIG. 16  is a Coomassie-stained SDS-PAGE of CMG2-IgG and variants. Lanes 1-7 run under non-reducing conditions. Lanes 8-13 run under reducing conditions (100 mM DTT). Lanes 1 and 8, original CMG2-IgG; Lanes 2 and 9, V1; Lanes 3 and 10, V2a; Lanes 4 and 11, V2b, Lanes 5 and 12, V3; Lanes 6 and 13, CMG2-IgG+kappa chain; Lane 7, molecular weight markers.  
       FIG. 17  is an elution profile of the plant-derived CMG2-IgG V2b, fractionated by size exclusion chromatography. Protein-A-purified CMG2-IgG V2b from tobacco plants was applied to a Tosoh G4000SW column and eluted with PBS. Protein was monitored by absorbance at 280 nm. The column was calibrated with molecular weight standards prior to the run. Retention times and calculated molecular weights are indicated on the profiles. The internal standard p-aminobenzoic acid (peak with a retention time of 15.3 minutes) was added to the sample prior to separation.  
       FIG. 18  shows the neutralization of Lethal Toxin cytotoxicity by CMG2-IgG variants. RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage-like cells are exposed to PA+LF plus increasing concentrations (0 to 1.25 μg/ml) of either original CMG2-IgG (squares), CMG2-IgG V2b (diamonds), or an irrelevant plant-made IgG (circles). Each point is the mean of three replicates.  
       FIG. 19  is a model of CMG2-IgG V2b. Hypothetical depiction of a homodimer of the antitoxin, with one molecule of PA bound. The antitoxin is depicted as held together by non-covalent interactions between Cγ3 domains, although there may be a disulfide bond in the hinge region (between CMG2 and Cγ2) in a portion of the molecules. Bar indicates scale. Structure files are from the Protein Data Base, and molecular graphics images were produced using the UCSF Chimera package from the Resource for Biocomputing, Visualization, and Informatics at the University of California, San Francisco (supported by NIH P41 RR-01081). 54    
       FIG. 20  shows CMG2-kappa variants. CMG2-kappa was expressed in  N. benthamiana  with either CMG2-IgG V1 or CMG2-IgG V3 and proteins purified by Protein A were subject to SDS-PAGE and stained with Coomassie. Lanes 1 &amp; 2 run under non-reducing conditions. Lanes 3 &amp; 4 run under reducing conditions (100 mM DTT); Lane 5, molecular weight markers. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE TABLES  
      Table 1 lists the boundaries for five extracellular domains of ICAM-1.  
      Table 2 shows the GenBank Accession numbers of immunoglobulin heavy chain genes and the proteins encoded by the genes.  
      Table 3 provides a list of the examples of molecules having ICAM-1 homology that can be used to create other chimeric rhinovirus toxin receptor proteins.  
      Table 4 shows the known  botulinum  receptors and putative binding domains.  
      Table 5 shows the study design for the randomized rhinovirus challenge studies performed in Example 9.  
      Table 6 shows chimeric anthrax toxin receptor production in transiently transfected  N. benthamiana  leaves as described in Example 16.  
      Table 7 shows the calculated IC 50  and molar ratio of antitoxin to PA at the IC 50  for Example 18.  
      Table 8 describes the structure of the various CMG-IgG chimera variants in Example 19.  
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION  
      Definitions  
      As used herein, the following abbreviations and terms include, but are not necessarily limited to, the following definitions.  
      The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of immunology, molecular biology, microbiology, cell biology and recombinant DNA, which are within the skill of the art. See, e.g., Sambrook, et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd edition (1989); Current Protocols In Molecular Biology (F. M. Ausubel, et al. eds., (1987)); the series Methods In Enzymology (Academic Press, Inc.); M. J. MacPherson, et al., eds. Pcr 2: A Practical Approach (1995); Harlow and Lane, eds, Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual (1988), and H. Jones, Methods In Molecular Biology vol. 49, “Plant Gene Transfer And Expression Protocols” (1995).  
      Immunoadhesin: A complex containing a chimeric toxin receptor protein molecule fused to a portion of an immunoglobulin constant region, and optionally containing secretory component and J chain.  
      Chimeric toxin receptor protein: A toxin receptor-based protein having at least a portion of its amino acid sequence derived from a toxin receptor and at least a portion derived from an immunoglobulin complex.  
      Toxin receptor: As used herein, the term refers to any polypeptide that binds pathogen antigens as defined herein, toxins, or any proteins, lipoproteins, glycoproteins, polysaccharides or lipopolysaccharides that exert or lead to exertion of a pathogenic effect with an affinity and avidity sufficient to allow a chimeric toxin receptor protein to act as a receptor decoy. For example, a toxin receptor may be a viral attachment receptor such as ICAM-1, a receptor for human rhinovirus, or a receptor for a bacterial toxin, such as one of the receptors for anthrax protective antigen or  botulinum  toxin. The toxin receptors as used herein shall at a minimum contain the functional elements for binding of toxins/pathogen components but may optionally also include one or more additional polypeptides.  
      Immunoglobulin molecule or Antibody: A polypeptide or multimeric protein containing the immunologically active portions of an immunoglobulin heavy chain and immunoglobulin light chain covalently coupled together and capable of specifically combining with antigen. The immunoglobulins or antibody molecules are a large family of molecules that include several types of molecules such as IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, secretory IgA (SIgA), and IgE.  
      Immunoglobulin complex: A polypeptide complex that can include a portion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain or both a portion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain and an immunoglobulin light chain. The two components can be associated with each other via a variety of different means, including covalent linkages such as disulfide bonds.  
      Portion of an Immunoglobulin heavy chain: As used herein, the term refers to that region of a heavy chain which is necessary for conferring at least one of the following properties on the chimeric toxin receptor proteins as described herein: ability to multimerize, effector functions, ability to be purified by Protein G or A, or improved pharmacokinetics. Typically, this includes at least a portion of the constant region.  
      Portion of an Immunoglobulin light chain: As used herein, the term refers to that region of a light chain which is necessary for increasing stability of the described chimeric toxin receptor protein and thus increasing production yield. Typically, this includes at least a portion of the constant region.  
      Heavy chain constant region: A polypeptide that contains at least a portion of the heavy chain immunoglobulin constant region. Typically, in its native form, IgG, IgD and IgA immunoglobulin heavy chain contain three constant regions joined to one variable region. IgM and IgE contain four constant regions joined to one variable region. As described herein, the constant regions are numbered sequentially from the region proximal to the variable domain. For example, in IgG, IgD, and IgA heavy chains, the regions are named as follows: variable region, constant region 1, constant region 2, constant region 3. For IgM and IgE, the regions are named as follows: variable region, constant region 1, constant region 2, constant region 3 and constant region 4.  
      Chimeric immunoglobulin heavy chain: An immunoglobulin derived heavy chain having at least a portion of its amino acid sequence derived from an immunoglobulin heavy chain of a different isotype or subtype or some other peptide, polypeptide or protein. Typically, a chimeric immunoglobulin heavy chain has its amino acid residue sequence derived from at least two different isotypes or subtypes of immunoglobulin heavy chain.  
      J chain: A polypeptide that is involved in the polymerization of immunoglobulins and transport of polymerized immunoglobulins through epithelial cells. See, The Immunoglobulin Helper: The J Chain in Immunoglobulin Genes, at pg. 345, Academic Press (1989). J chain is found in pentameric IgM and dimeric IgA and typically attached via disulfide bonds. J chain has been studied in both mouse and human.  
      Secretory component (SC): A component of secretory immunoglobulins that helps to protect the immunoglobulin against inactivating agents thereby increasing the biological effectiveness of secretory immunoglobulin. The secretory component may be from any mammal or rodent including mouse or human.  
      Linker: As used herein, the term refers to any polypeptide sequence used to facilitate the folding and stability of a recombinantly produced polypeptide. Preferably, this linker is a flexible linker, for example, one composed of a polypeptide sequence such as (Gly3Ser)3 or (Gly4Ser)3.  
      Transgenic plant: Genetically engineered plant or progeny of genetically engineered plants. The transgenic plant usually contains material from at least one unrelated organism, such as a virus, another plant or animal.  
      Monocots: Flowering plants whose embryos have one cotyledon or seed leaf. Examples of monocots are: lilies; grasses; corn; grains, including oats, wheat and barley; orchids; irises; onions and palms.  
      Dicots: Flowering plants whose embryos have two seed halves or cotyledons. Examples of dicots are: tobacco; tomato; the legumes including alfalfa; oaks; maples; roses; mints; squashes; daisies; walnuts; cacti; violets and buttercups.  
      Glycosylation: The modification of a protein by oligosaccharides. See, Marshall, Ann. Rev. Biochem., 41:673 (1972) and Marshall, Biochem. Soc. Symp., 40:17 (1974) for a general review of the polypeptide sequences that function as glycosylation signals. These signals are recognized in both mammalian and in plant cells.  
      Plant-specific glycosylation: The glycosylation pattern found on plant-expressed proteins, which is different from that found in proteins made in mammalian or insect cells. Proteins expressed in plants or plant cells have a different pattern of glycosylation than do proteins expressed in other types of cells, including mammalian cells and insect cells. Detailed studies characterizing plant-specific glycosylation and comparing it with glycosylation in other cell types have been performed by Cabanes-Macheteau et al., Glycobiology 9(4):365-372 (1999), Lerouge et al., Plant Molecular Biology 38:31-48 (1998) and Altmann, Glycoconjugate J. 14:643-646 (1997). Plant-specific glycosylation generates glycans that have xylose linked .beta.(1,2) to mannose. Neither mammalian nor insect glycosylation generate xylose linked .beta.(1,2) to mannose. Plants do not have a sialic acid linked to the terminus of the glycan, whereas mammalian cells do. In addition, plant-specific glycosylation results in a fucose linked .alpha.(1,3) to the proximal GlcNAc, while glycosylation in mammalian cells results in a fucose linked .alpha.(1,6) to the proximal GlcNAc.  
      Pathogen antigen: Any molecule, e.g., toxin, that exerts or leads to exertion of a pathogenic effect. The pathogen antigen may or may not be capable of stimulating the formation of antibodies.  
      Anthrax toxin receptor: As used herein, the term refers to any polypeptide which binds protective antigen (PA), one of the three interacting proteins used by  Bacillus anthracis  to destroy host cells, with an affinity and avidity sufficient to act to allow a chimeric anthrax toxin receptor protein to act as a receptor decoy. Two endogenous cellular anthrax toxin receptors have been identified in the art: Anthrax toxin receptor/Tumor endothelial marker 8 (ATR/TEM8) (Bradley et al., 2001) and Capillary morphogenesis factor 2 (CMG2) (Scobie et al., 2001). The extracellular domain of these ATRs contains a VWA/I domain, which is described below. The anthrax toxin receptor as used herein shall at a minimum contain the functional elements for binding of PA but may optionally also include one of more additional polypeptides (for example, ones that improve use of the anthrax toxin receptor as a receptor decoy) which may be generated by splicing the coding sequences for the one of more additional polypeptides into the anthrax toxin receptor coding sequences.  
      VWA/I domain: As used herein, the term refers to a Van Willebrand Factor type A domain (VWA domain), also commonly named integrin inserted domain (I domain), which is a domain in the extracellular domain of the two known anthrax toxin receptors, TEM8 and CMG2 and believed to contain a metal ion-dependent adhesion site (MIDAS) essential for proper PA binding to the receptor.  
      Chimeric Anthrax toxin receptor protein: An anthrax toxin receptor-based protein having at least a portion of its amino acid sequence derived from an anthrax toxin receptor and at least a portion derived from an immunoglobulin complex. The immunoglobulin complex may contain only a portion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain or it may contain both a portion of a heavy chain and a portion of a light chain.  
       Botulinum  toxin receptor: Any polypeptide which binds a  botulinum  toxin with an affinity and avidity sufficient to allow a chimeric anthrax toxin receptor protein to act as a receptor decoy. Examples include SV2 and synaptotagmin.  
      Effective amount: An effective amount of an immunoadhesin of the present invention is sufficient to detectably inhibit viral or bacterial infection (as the case may be), cytotoxicity or replication; or to reduce the severity or length of infection.  
      Construct or Vector: An artificially assembled DNA segment to be transferred into a target plant tissue or cell. Typically, the construct will include the gene or genes of a particular interest, a marker gene and appropriate control sequences. The term “plasmid” refers to an autonomous, self-replicating extrachromosomal DNA molecule. Plasmid constructs containing suitable regulatory elements are also referred to as “expression cassettes.” In a preferred embodiment, a plasmid construct also contains a screening or selectable marker, for example an antibiotic resistance gene.  
      Selectable marker: A gene that encodes a product that allows the growth of transgenic tissue on a selective medium. Non-limiting examples of selectable markers include genes encoding for antibiotic resistance, e.g., ampicillin, kanamycin, or the like. Other selectable markers will be known to those of skill in the art.  
      Chimeric Toxin Receptor Proteins with Improved Stability  
      The chimeric toxin receptor proteins described herein have toxin receptor associated with an immunoglobulin complex containing an immunoglobulin heavy chain and an immunoglobulin light chain. A toxin receptor protein may be associated with the heavy chain, the light chain, or both. In some embodiments, a J chain, either alone or associated with secretory component is associated with the chimeric toxin receptor protein to form an immunoadhesin. In other embodiments, the chimeric toxin receptor protein has plant-specific glycosylation.  
      Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the chimeric toxin receptor proteins described herein will have significant advantages over existing monoclonal antibody or receptor decoy-based prophylactics or therapies including higher activity due to multivalency of the receptor, the effector functions of the immunoglobulin Fc, improved pharmacokinetics due to the Fc, and lower production cost when made in plants.  
      The advantage of multivalency has been demonstrated by fusions of the extracellular domains of human ICAM-1 with immunoglobulin heavy chains (Martin, S., Casasnovas, J. M., Staunton, D. E. &amp; Springer, T. A. Efficient neutralization and disruption of rhinovirus by chimeric ICAM-1/immunoglobulin molecules. J Virol 67, 3561-8 (1993)). ICAM-1 is the cell-surface receptor for human rhinovirus (HRV), a common cold virus. Chimeric immunoadhesins are much more effective than soluble ICAM-1 in inhibiting HRV binding to cells and disrupting the conformation of the virus capsid (Martin et al. J Virol 67, 3561-8 (1993)). An ICAM-1/IgA2 chimera (RhinoRx) that has more than 10 times the specific activity of soluble ICAM-1 in protecting cells from the cytopathic effect of HRV has been expressed in transgenic tobacco.  
      The presence of a Fc region should confer immunoglobulin effector functions, such as the ability to mediate the specific lysis of cells in the presence of complement. The heavy chain constant region domains of the immunoglobulins confer various properties known as antibody effector functions on a particular molecule containing that domain. Example effector functions include complement fixation, placental transfer, binding to staphyloccal protein, binding to streptococcal protein G, binding to mononuclear cells, neutrophils or mast cells and basophils. The association of particular domains and particular immunoglobulin isotypes with these effector functions is well known and for example, described in Immunology, Roitt et al., Mosby St. Louis, Mo. (1993 3rd Ed.)  
      In addition, binding of the Fc to the FcRn should allow the immunoadhesins to persist in the circulation much longer (Ober, R. J., Martinez, C., Vaccaro, C., Zhou, J. &amp; Ward, E. S. Visualizing the Site and Dynamics of IgG Salvage by the MHC Class I-Related Receptor, FcRn. J Immunol 172, 2021-2029 (2004)). This may allow the antitoxin to be used as a prophylactic.  
      The increase in productivity of the chimeric toxin receptor protein and the immunoadhesin molecule or complex when produced in the host cell, host tissue or host organism, plant cell, plant tissue or intact plant, leads to higher yields of the molecules and lower production cost when processed. Such greater productivity may be the result of greater efficiency in producing the constituent chains of the chimeric toxin receptor protein and immunoadhesin or immunoadhesin complex and/or greater efficiency of assembly of the immunoadhesin complex. In the case especially of a chimeric toxin receptor protein or immunoadhesin comprising both a portion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain and a portion of a light chain, increases in apparent level of activity of the purified or partially purified immunoadhesin may be due to an increase in availability of constituent chains and/or greater efficiency in assembly of the complex, and/or multivalency of the receptor or a combination of all of the foregoing.  
      One of skill will understand that the chimeric toxin receptor proteins described herein can be modified as necessary to remove protease-sensitive domains and to include linkers when necessary to improve function and stability. Methods for introducing such modifications are well known in the art; however, the exact nature of such modifications (for example, which domains to remove, length and location of linkers) is not known apriori.  
      Toxin Receptor  
      A toxin receptor is any polypeptide that binds pathogen antigens, toxins or any proteins that exert or lead to exertion of a pathogenic effect with an affinity and avidity sufficient to allow a chimeric toxin receptor protein to act as a receptor decoy. For example, in antiviral or antibacterial embodiments, one or more receptor proteins effective to bind a virus, bacterium or bacteria of interest or subcomponent thereof, such as a protein produced by the virus or bacteria and required for the virus or bacteria to initiate processes that exert or lead to exertion of its pathogenic effect, are used. Many such receptor proteins are known and can be implemented for use in appropriate aspects of the invention by those of ordinary skill in the art without exercising undue experimentation.  
      An example of a toxin receptor is ICAM-1, a receptor for human rhinovirus. The nucleotide sequence for ICAM-1 has been determined and characterized by Staunton, et al., Cell 52:925-933 (1988); Greve, et al. Cell 56:839-847 (1989); Greve, et al. J. Virology 65:6015-6023 (1991); Staunton, et al., Cell, 61:243-254 (1990) and described in SEQ ID NO: 3 and GenBank accession no. M24283. The ICAM-1 molecule is a membrane protein (SEQ ID NOS: 1 and 2) that has 5 extracellular domains, a hydrophobic transmembrane domain and a short cytoplasmic domain. These features have been described by Casasnovas, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 95:4134-4139 (1998) and Staunton, et al, Cell 52:925-933 (1988).  
      The toxin receptors used in the described chimeric toxin receptor proteins may be the entire toxin receptor or only the portions sufficient to confer affinity and avidity sufficient to act to allow a chimeric toxin receptor protein to act as a receptor decoy.  
      For example, if the toxin receptor is ICAM-1, then of particular use in appropriate aspects of the present invention are the domains of the ICAM-1 molecule that are responsible for the binding of human rhinoviruses which have been localized to the N-terminal domains 1 and 2 (Greve, et al., J Virol., 65:6015-6023 1991, and Staunton, et al., Cell, 61:243-245 1990. Also contemplated are rhinovirus recepter protein portions which include any combination of extracellular domains 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 of the ICAM-1 molecule. In particular preferred embodiments, the rhinovirus receptor protein portion includes domains 1 and 2 of the ICAM-1 molecule and in other preferred embodiments domains 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 of the ICAM-1 molecule are present.  
      The boundaries of the 5 extracellular domains of ICAM-1 are well known in the art and described in Staunton, et al., Cell 52:925-933 (1988). The approximated domain boundaries for SEQ ID NO: 2 are shown in Table 1 below:  
                           TABLE 1                                   ICAM-1 Domains   Amino Acids                          1    1-88           2    89-105           3   106-284           4   285-385           5   386-453                      
 
      As used in some aspects and embodiments of the present invention, the ICAM-1 domain 1 is from about residue 88; domain 2 is from about residue 89 to about residue 105; domain 3 is from about residue 106 to about residue 284; domain 4 is from about residue 285 to about 385; and domaind 5 is from about residue 386 to 453. One of skill in the art will understand that the exact boundareis of these domains may vary.  
      Anthrax receptors and sutable domains for use in this invention are described in more details in the section entitle “Anthrax Chimeric Toxin Receptors”.  
       Botulinum  receptors and suitable domains for use in this invention are described in more details in the section entitled “ Botulinum  Chimeric Toxin Receptors”.  
      Immunoglobulin Complex  
      The immunoglobulin complex can include a portion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain or a portion of both an immunoglobulin heavy chain and a light chain. The two components can be associated with each other via a variety of different means, including covalent linkages such as disulfide bonds. The immunoglobulin complexes are associated with at least one toxin receptor protein. The association can be via a covalent bond, an ionic interaction, a hydrogen bond, an ionic bond, a van der Waals force, a metal-ligand interaction, or any other type of interaction.  
      Immunoglobulin Heavy Chain  
      The chimeric toxin receptor proteins contain at least a portion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain sufficient to confer either the ability to multimerize the attached anthrax receptor protein, confer antibody effector functions, stabilize the chimeric protein in the plant, confer the ability to be purified by Protein A or G, or to improve pharmacokinetics.  
      These properties are conferred by the constant regions of the heavy chains. If the chimeric toxin receptor protein contains only an immunoglobulin heavy chain, the portion of the heavy chain in the immunoglobulin complex preferably contains at least domains CH2 and CH3 and more preferably, only CH2 and CH3. If the chimeric toxin receptor protein contains both a heavy chain and a light chain, the portion of the heavy chain in the immunoglobulin complex preferably also contains a CH1 domain.  
      One of skill in the art will readily be able to identify immunoglobulin heavy chain constant region sequences. For example, a number of immunoglobulin DNA and protein sequences are available through GenBank. Table 2 shows the GenBank Accession numbers of immunoglobulin heavy chain genes and the proteins encoded by the genes.  
                       TABLE 2                       GENBANK               ACCESSION   HUMAN IMMUNOGLOBULIN       NO.   SEQUENCE NAME   SEQ NO. ID                  J00220   Ig α 1 Heavy Chain Constant Region   15, 52           Coding Sequence       J00220   Ig α 1 Heavy Chain Constant Region   16           Amino Acid Sequence       J00221   IgA 2  Heavy Chain Constant Region   17, 53           Coding Sequence       J00221   IgA 2  Chain Constant Region Amino   18           Acid Sequence       J00228   Ig γ 1 Heavy Chain Constant Region   19, 54           Coding Sequence       J00228   Ig γ 1 Heavy Chain Constant Region   20           Amino Acid Sequence       J00230   IgG 2  Heavy Chain Constant Region   21, 55           Coding       V00554   Sequence       J00230   IgG 2  Heavy Chain Constant Region   22           Amino       V00554   Acid Sequence       X03604   IgG 3  Heavy Chain Constant Region   23, 57           Coding       M12958   Sequence       X03604   IgG 3  Heavy Chain Constant Region   24           Amino       M12958   Acid Sequence       K01316   IgG 4  Heavy Chain Constant Region   25           Coding Sequence       K01316   IgG 4  Heavy Chain Constant Region   26           Amino Acid Sequence       K02876   IgD Heavy Chain Constant Region   27           Coding Sequence       K02876   IgD Heavy Chain Constant Region   28, 30, 32           Amino Acid Sequence       K02877   IgD Heavy Chain Constant Region   29           Coding Sequence       K02877   IgD Heavy Chain Constant Region   28, 30, 32           Amino Acid Sequence       K02878   Germline IgD Heavy Chain Coding   31           Sequence       K02878   Germline IgD Heavy Chain Amino   28, 30, 32           Acid Sequence       K02879   Germline IgD Heavy Chain C-δ-3   33           Domain Coding Sequence       K02879   Germline IgD Heavy Chain C-δ-3   28, 30, 32           Amino Acid Sequence       K01311   Germline IgD Heavy Chain J-δ   58           Region: C-δ           CH1 Coding Sequence       K01311   Germline IgD Heavy Chain J-δ   28, 30, 32           Region: C-δ           CH1 Amino Acid Sequence       K02880   Germline IgD Heavy Chain Gene,   36           C-Region, Secreted Terminus           Coding Sequence       K02880   Germline IgD Heavy Chain Gene,   28, 30, 32           C-Region, Secreted Terminus           Amino Acid Sequence       K02881   Germline IgD-Heavy Chain Gene,   38           C-Region, First Domain of           Membrane Terminus Coding Sequence       K02881   Germline IgD-Heavy Chain Gene,   28, 30, 32           C-Region, First Domain of Membrane           Terminus Amino Acid Sequence       K02882   Germline IgD Heavy Chain Coding   40           Sequence       K02882   Germline IgD Heavy Chain Amino   28, 30, 32           Acid Sequence       K02875   Germline IgD Heavy Chain Gene,   42           C-Region, C-δ-1 Domain Coding           Sequence       K02875   Germline IgD Heavy Chain Gene,   28, 30, 32           C-Region, C-δ-1 Domain Amino           Acid Sequence       L00022   IgE Heavy Chain Constant Region   59           Coding       J00227   Sequence       V00555       L00022   IgE Heavy Chain Constant Region   60           Amino       J00227   Acid Sequence       V00555       X17115   IgM Heavy Chain Complete Sequence   61           Coding Sequence       X17115   IgM Heavy Chain Complete Sequence   62           Amino Acid Sequence                  
 
      Therefore, in certain embodiments, the portion of the chimeric molecule derived from immunoglobulin heavy chain may contain less than an entire heavy chain as long as it still contains the portion sufficient to confer the properties described above.  
      The immunoglobulin heavy chain can be from any type of immunoglobulin, such as IgA, IgA 1 , IgA 2 , IgG 3 , IgG 2 , IgG 3 , IgG 4 , IgD, IgE, IgM, or a chimeric immunoglobulin heavy chain. The portion of the immunoglobulin heavy chain can contain CH1, CH2, or CH3 of the IgA, IgG, or IgD heavy chains or CH1, CH2, CH3, or CH4 of the IgM or IgE heavy chain. Various combinations and subcombinations of these constant domains are also contemplated.  
      In preferred embodiments, the portion of the heavy chain is portion of an IgM or IgA heavy chain which allows that immunoglobulin heavy chain to bind to J chain and thereby binds to the secretory component. It is contemplated that the portion of the chimeric anthrax toxin receptor protein derived from the immunoglobulin heavy chain may be comprised of individual domains selected from the IgA heavy chain or the IgM heavy chain or from some other isotype of heavy chain. It is also contemplated that an immunoglobulin domain derived from an immunoglobulin heavy chain other than IgA or IgM or from an immunoglobulin light chain may be molecularly engineered to bind J chain and thus may be used to produce immunoglobulins and immunoadhesins of the present invention.  
      In preferred embodiments, the chimeric toxin receptor proteins contain at least the CH1, CH2, CH3, domain of mouse or human IgA1, IgA2 or IgM. Other preferred embodiments of the present invention contain immunoglobulin domains that include at least the Cμ1, Cv2, Cμ3, or Cμ4 domains of IgM.  
      One skilled in the art will understand that immunoglobulins consist of domains which are approximately 100-110 amino acid residues. These various domains are well known in the art and have known boundaries. The removal of a single domain and its replacement with a domain of another antibody molecule is easily achieved with modern molecular biology. The domains are globular structures which are stabilized by intrachain disulfide bonds. This confers a discrete shape and makes the domains a self-contained unit that can be replaced or interchanged with other similarly shaped domains.  
      Heavy Chain Chimeric Immunoglobulins  
      Various aspects and embodiments contemplate a chimeric toxin receptor molecule in which the immunoglobulin domains comprising the heavy chain are derived from different isotypes of heavy chain immunoglobulins. One skilled in the art will understand that using molecular techniques, these domains can be substituted for a similar domain and thus produce an immunoglobulin that is a hybrid between two different immunoglobulin molecules. These chimeric immunoglobulins allow immunoadhesins to be constructed that contain a variety of different and desirable properties that are conferred by different immunoglobulin domains.  
      In certain embodiments, chimeric toxin receptor molecules contain domains from two different isotypes of human immunoglobulin heavy chains.  
      In some embodiments, the chimeric heavy chain immunoglobulin contains the portion of IgA or IgM responsible for the association of J chain with the IgA and IgM. Thus, by using a chimeric immunoglobulin in the chimeric toxin receptor molecule, the J chain may associate with a chimeric immunoglobulin that is predominantly of an isotype that does not bind J chain or secretory component.  
      Chimeric heavy chain immunoglobulins derived from species such as human, mouse or other mammals are contemplated. The present invention contemplates chimeric heavy chain immunoglobulin that contain immunoglobulin domains derived from at least two different isotypes of mammalian immunoglobulins. Generally, any of the mammalian immunoglobulins can be used in the preferred embodiments, such as the following isotypes: any isotype of IgG, any isotype of IgA, IgE, IgD or IgM. The present invention also contemplates chimeric molecules that contain immunoglobulin domains derived from two different isotypes of rodent or primate immunoglobulin. The isotypes of rodent or primate immunoglobulin are well known in the art.  
      The chimeric molecules of the present invention may contain immunoglobulin derived heavy chains that include at least one of the following immunoglobulin domains: the CH1, CH2, or CH3 domains of a mouse IgG, IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b, IgG3, IgA, IgE, or IgD; the CH1, CH2, CH3 or CH4 domain of mouse IgE or IgM; the CH1 domain of a human IgG, IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, IgA1, IgA2, or IgD; the CH1, CH2, CH3, CH4 domain of human IgM or IgE; the CH1, CH2, or CH3 domain of an isotype of mammalian IgG, an isotype of IgA, IgE, or IgD; the CH1, CH2, CH3 or CH4 domain of a mammalian IgE or IgM; the CH1, CH2, or CH3 domain of an isotype of rodent IgG, IgA, IgE, or IgD; the CH1, CH2, CH3 or CH4 domain of a rodent IgE or IgM; the CH1, CH2, or CH3 domain of an isotype of animal IgG, an isotype of IgA, IgE, or IgD; and the CH1, CH2, CH3, or CH4 domain of an animal IgE or IgM.  
      The present invention also contemplates the replacement or addition of protein domains derived from molecules that are members of the immunoglobulin superfamily into the chimeric molecules. The molecules that belong to the immunoglobulin superfamily have amino acid residue sequence and nucleic acid sequence homology to immunoglobulins. The molecules that are part of the immunoglobulin superfamily can be identified by amino acid or nucleic acid sequence homology. See, for example, p. 361 of Immunoglobulin Genes, Academic Press (1989).  
      Light Chain Immunoglobulins  
      The portion of an immunoglobulin light chain described herein is that portion of the immunoglobulin light chain sufficient to increase stability of the expressed chimeric toxin receptors. Preferably, the light chains of this invention include at least a constant domain or at least a portion of a constant domain sufficient to become associated with any of the heavy chains described herein. Thus the chain can contain less than an entire domain. The light chain may either a lambda or kappa chain.  
      The identity of the toxin receptor covalently linked to the light chain can be adjusted to affect the affinity and avidity of the chimeric toxin receptor protein/immunoadhesin. For example, if the toxin receptor covalently linked to the light chain is the same toxin receptor as that associated with the heavy chain, the same toxin receptor but with a different amino acid sequence due to the presence of different receptor domains, or an alternative receptor for the same toxin, it can increase the avidity of the chimeric toxin receptor protein. Alternatively, the light chain can be covalently linked to a receptor for another toxin, thus creating a chimeric toxin receptor protein suitable for use as a decoy for multiple toxins.  
      The association between the domains of the light chains and the variable domain can be via any sort of linkage. For example, the linkage can be a flexible polypeptide linker, such as a (Gly3Ser)3 linker.  
      It is contemplated that the light chains as described herein can also occur in similar variations as those described for heavy chains of this invention. For example, the light chain constant domains may be derived from different organisms or species.  
      Linkage between Toxin Receptor and Immunoglobulin Complex  
      The linkage between the immunoglobulin complex and the toxin receptor can either be via an association between the light chain and a toxin receptor, more preferably an association between the heavy chain and the toxin receptor, and most preferably both associations. These associations can be via any type of linkage that provides enough flexibility for the immunoadhesins described herein to act as receptor decoys. Preferably, the linkage is covalent, for example, a covalent peptide bond.  
      For example, the linkage can be a native amino acid sequence, an immunoglobulin hinge as found between the CH2 and CH3 or IgG, IgD, and IgA or a flexible synthetic polypeptide linker, such as a (Gly3Ser)3 linker or a (Gly4Ser)3. One chimeric toxin receptor can contain any number of different types of linkers.  
      Immunoadhesins  
      This invention also includes immunoadhesins, which are polypeptides including at least one chimeric toxin receptor protein. In some embodiments, the immunoadhesins described herein also include a J chain and/or a secretory component. In other embodiments, the immunoadhesins include more than one chimeric toxin receptor protein.  
      J Chain  
      The immunoadhesins of the present invention may, in addition to the chimeric toxin receptor proteins, contain J chain bound to the immunoglobulin derived heavy chains. In preferred embodiments, the immunoadhesin of the present invention comprises two or four chimeric anthrax toxin receptor proteins and an J chain bound to at least one of the chimeric proteins. The J chain is described and known in the art. See, for example, M. Koshland, The Immunoglobulin Helper: The J Chain, in Immunoglobulin Genes, Academic Press, London, pg. 345, (1989) and Matsuuchi et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 83:456-460 (1986). The sequence of the J chain is available on various databases in the United States.  
      Secretory Component  
      The immunoadhesin can have also a secretory component associated with the chimeric toxin receptor protein. This association may occur by hydrogen bonds, disulfide bonds, covalent bonds, ionic interactions or combinations of these various bonds.  
      The present invention contemplates the use of secretory component from a number of different species, including human, rat, rabbit, bovine and the like. The nucleotide sequences for these molecules are well known in the art. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,046,037 contains many of the sequences and this patent is incorporated herein by reference. The immunoadhesins of the present invention containing the secretory component, the chimeric anthrax receptor protein and J chain are typically bonded together by one of the following: hydrogen bonds, disulfide bonds, covalent bonds, ionic interactions or combinations of these bonds.  
      Multimeric Immunoadhesins  
      The present invention also contemplates immunoadhesins which comprise more than one receptor protein molecule, for example, they may contain chimeric toxin receptor molecules that are monomeric units and not disulfide bonded to other chimeric toxin receptor molecules. In preferred embodiments, the immunoadhesin does contain chimeric toxin receptor molecules that are in association with other chimeric toxin receptor molecules to form dimers and other multivalent molecules. Typically, the chimeric toxin receptor molecule is present as a dimer because of the association of the immunoglobulin portion of the chimeric molecule. The immunoglobulin portion of the chimeric toxin receptor molecule allows the association of two chimeric Anthrax toxin receptor molecules to form a dimeric molecule having two active binding portions made up of the toxin receptor protein portion. In preferred embodiments, dimerization occurs via the disulfide bonding that normally occurs between the immunoglobulin domains as part of a naturally-occurring immunoglobulin molecule. One of skill in the art will understand that these disulfide bonds that are normally present in the native immunoglobulin molecule can be modified, moved and removed while still maintaining the ability to form a dimer of the chimeric toxin receptor molecules.  
      In some preferred embodiment the multimeric form of the immunoadhesin will have four chimeric toxin receptor molecules, wherein two of the chimeric toxin receptor molecules, derived from the fusion of the toxin receptor and immunoglobulin heavy chain, are disulfide bonded to each other, and each such disulfide bonded chimeric toxin molecule is likewise disulfide bonded to another chimeric toxin receptor molecule derived from the fusion of the toxin receptor and an immunoglobulin light chain, thus forming a tetrameric structure. If the immunoglobulin heavy chain of such tetrameric chimeric toxin receptor molecules is derived from the IgA molecule, the addition of J chain allows the formation of a complex containing two of each of the tetrameric structures described above and a complex having eight chimeric toxin receptor molecules.  
      In other preferred embodiments, the immunoadhesin contains multimeric forms of the chimeric toxin receptor molecule due to the association of J chain with the immunoglobulin portion of the chimeric toxin receptor molecule. The association of J chain with the dimer of two chimeric toxin receptor molecules allows the formation of tetrameric forms of the immunoadhesin. In a preferred embodiment, the immunoglobulin portion of the chimeric toxin receptor molecule is derived from the IgA molecule, and the addition of J chain allows the formation of a tetrameric complex containing four chimeric toxin receptor molecules and four binding sites. In other preferred embodiments, the immunoglobulin heavy-chain portion of the chimeric molecule is derived from IgM and multivalent complexes containing ten or twelve molecules may be formed. In other preferred embodiments, in which the chimeric toxin receptor molecule uses a chimeric immunoglobulin heavy-chain, the chimeric toxin receptor molecule may form dimers or other higher order multivalent complexes through the domains from either IgA or IgM that are responsible for J chain binding. In other chimeric immunoglobulin molecules the portions of the immunoglobulin responsible for the disulfide bonding between the two immunoglobulin heavy-chains and/or the disulfide bonding between an immunoglobulin light-chain and heavy-chain may be placed in the chimeric immunoglobulin molecule to allow the formation of dimers or other high order multivalent complexes.  
      Plant-Specific Glycosylation  
      In certain embodiments of the present invention, the immunoadhesins and chimeric toxin receptor proteins described above are expressed by methods that generate proteins having plant-specific glycosylation. It is well-known in the art that glycosylation is a major modification of proteins in eukaryotic cells, including plant, mammalian and insect cells (Lerouge et al., Plant Molecular Biology 38:31-48, 1998). The glycosylation process starts in the endoplasmic reticulum by the co-translational transfer of a precursor oligosaccharide to specific residues of the nascent polypeptide chain. Processing of this oligosaccharide into different types of glycans, which differ in the types of residues present and the nature of the linkages between the residues, occurs in the secretory pathway as the glycoprotein moves from the endoplasmic reticulum to its final destination. One of skill in the art will understand that at the end of their maturation, proteins expressed in plants or plant cells have a different pattern of glycosylation than do proteins expressed in other types of cells, including mammalian cells and insect cells. Detailed studies characterizing plant-specific glycosylation and comparing it with glycosylation in other cell types have been performed, for example, in studies described by Cabanes-Macheteau et al., Glycobiology 9(4):365-372 (1999), and Altmann, Glycoconjugate J. 14:643-646 (1997). These groups and others have shown that plant-specific glycosylation generates glycans that have xylose linked β(1,2) to mannose, but xylose is not linked β(1,2) to mannose as a result of glycosylation in mammalian and insect cells. Plant-specific glycosylation results in a fucose linked α(1,3) to the proximal GlcNAc, while glycosylation in mammalian cells results in a fucose linked α(1,6) to the proximal GlcNAc. Furthermore, plant-specific glycosylation does not result in the addition of a sialic acid to the terminus of the protein glycan, whereas in glycosylation in mammalian cells, sialic acid is added.  
      The amino acid sequences of the all of the polypeptides forming the immunoadhesins and chimeric toxin receptor protein of this invention are known. One of skill in the art will know that the glycosylation sites are the tripeptide Asn-X-Ser/Thr where X can be any amino acid except proline and aspartic acid (Kornfeld and Kornfeld, Annu Rev Biochem 54:631-664, 1985). It will therefore be known to one of skill in the art that which amino acids of the polypeptides forming the proteins described herein will have plant-specific glycosylation.  
      In other preferred aspects and embodiments of the present invention, the immunoadhesin having plant-specific glycosylation further comprises a J chain and secretory component associated with said chimeric molecule. As was true with respect to the chimeric molecule, one of skill in the art will be able to identify the sites for plant-specific glycosylation in the J chain and secretory component sequences.  
      If desired, plant specific glycosylation may be modified by the addition of sequences that direct the post-translational processing of the plant-produced polypeptide forming the chimeric toxin receptor proteins and immunoadhesins to sites other than the endoplasmic reticulum leading to a modified post-translational glycosylation in which xylose and fucose linkages are substantially reduced or eliminated. The addition of KDEL to the sequence encoding the C-terminus of the immunoglobulin leads to this type of modified glycosylation.  
      In other preferred aspects and embodiments of the invention it may be desirable to eliminate either N-linked or O-linked glycosylation or both of these forms of glycosylation, especially if Fc receptor interaction is not required for a functional chimeric toxin receptor protein/immunoadhesin product to prevent, or provide therapy for, the pathological effects of a virus, bacteria, fungus or a toxic molecule produced thereby or otherwise present in the subject to which the product is administered.  
      Functional Derivatives  
      Also provided herein are immunoadhesin and chimeric toxin receptor protein functional derivatives. By “functional derivative” is meant a “chemical derivative,” “fragment,” or “variant,” of the polypeptide or nucleic acid of the invention which retains at least a portion of the function of the protein, for example reactivity with an antibody specific for the protein, enzymatic activity or binding activity, which permits its utility in accordance with the present invention. It is well known in the art that due to the degeneracy of the genetic code numerous different nucleic acid sequences can code for the same amino acid sequence. It is also well known in the art that conservative changes in amino acid can be made to arrive at a protein or polypeptide that retains the functionality of the original. In both cases, all permutations are intended to be covered by this disclosure.  
      The derivatives may also be engineered according to routine methods to include an affinity purification tag such that large quantities and/or relatively pure or isolated quantities of immunoadhesin may be produced. Many different versions of tag exist that can be incorporated into one or more components of the immunoadhesin, preferably not destroying the desired binding activity of the immunoadhesin in the absence of tag. Such tags can be engineered as expressible encoded nucleic acid sequence fused with nucleic acid sequences encoding the immunoadhesins of the invention. The tags may further be engineered to be removable, e.g., with a commercially available enzyme.  
      Further, it is possible to delete codons or to substitute one or more codons with codons other than degenerate codons to produce a structurally modified polypeptide, but one which has substantially the same utility or activity as the polypeptide produced by the unmodified nucleic acid molecule. As recognized in the art, the two polypeptides can be functionally equivalent, as are the two nucleic acid molecules that give rise to their production, even though the differences between the nucleic acid molecules are not related to the degeneracy of the genetic code.  
      Manipulations of this sort, and post-production chemical derivatization may be implemented, e.g., to improve stability, solubility, absorption, biological or therapeutic effect, and/or biological half-life. Moieties capable of mediating such effects are disclosed, for example, in Remington&#39;s Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th ed., Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa. (1990). A functional derivative intended to be within the scope of the present invention is a “variant” polypeptide which either lacks one or more amino acids or contains additional or substituted amino acids relative to the native polypeptide. The variant may be derived from a naturally occurring complex component by appropriately modifying the protein DNA coding sequence to add, remove, and/or to modify codons for one or more amino acids at one or more sites of the C-terminus, N-terminus, and/or within the native sequence. It is understood that such variants having added, substituted and/or additional amino acids retain one or more characterizing portions of the native protein, as described above.  
      A functional derivative of a protein with deleted, inserted and/or substituted amino acid residues may be prepared using standard techniques well-known to those of ordinary skill in the art. For example, the modified components of the functional derivatives may be produced using site-directed mutagenesis techniques (as exemplified by Adelman et. al., 1983, DNA 2:183) wherein nucleotides in the DNA coding sequence are modified such that a modified coding sequence is produced, and thereafter expressing this recombinant DNA in a prokaryotic or eukaryotic host cell, using techniques such as those described above. Alternatively, proteins with amino acid deletions, insertions and/or substitutions may be conveniently prepared by direct chemical synthesis, using methods well-known in the art. The functional derivatives of the proteins typically exhibit the same qualitative biological activity as the native proteins.  
      In addition, the immunoadhesins of the invention may be not just chimeric receptor protein/Ig immunoadhesins, but may also embrace other native receptor protein family members, isotypes, and/or other homologous amino acid sequences, e.g., human, primate, rodent, canine, feline, bovine, avian, etc. Furthermore, the Ig type used in the immunoadhesins can vary, e.g., may assume a different Ig family member identity, within or without a given species. Igs are diverse and have well-known sequences that one of ordinary skill can exploit to create different immunoadhesins having more or less different utility in a given organism to undergo treatment. For example, illustrative, nonexhaustive list of examples of molecules having ICAM-1 homology that can be used to create other chimeric rhinovirus receptor proteins include those in the following table.  
                       TABLE 3                       ACCESSION NO.   ICAM NAME   SPECIES                  NP000192   Intercellular Adhesion   [SEQ ID NO: 63]           Molecule-1 (CD54)     Homo sapiens         AAH03097   Intercellular Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 64]           Molecule ICAM-2     Homo sapiens         NP002153   Intercellular Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 65]           Molecule 3 Precursor     Homo sapiens         BAB20325   TCAM-1   [Seq ID NO: 66]                 Homo sapiens         NP003250   Intercellular Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 67]           Molecule 5 (Telencephalin)     Homo sapiens         NM007164   Mucosal Vascular Address   [Seq ID NO: 68]           in Cell Adhesion Molecule     Homo sapiens             (MADCAM1)       NM001078   Vascular Cell Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 69]           Molecule 1 (VCAM 1)     Homo sapiens         AAA37875   MALA-2   [Seq ID NO: 70]                 Mus musculus         AAA37876   Intercellular Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 71]           Molecule-1 Precursor     Mus musculus         AAG30280   Intercellular Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 72]           Molecule 1     Cricetulus griseus         AAB39264   Intercellular Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 73]           Molecule-3     Bos taurus         AAF80287   Intercellular Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 74]           Molecule-1 Precursor     Sus scrofa         AAA18478   Telecephalin   [Seq ID NO: 75]                 Oryctolagus cimiculus         NP032345   Intercellular Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 76]           Molecule 5, telencephalin     Mus musculus         BAB41106   Cell adhesion molecule   [Seq ID NO: 77]           TCAM-1     Mus musculus         NP067705   Testicular Cell Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 78]           Molecule 1     Rattus norvegicus         AAG35584   Nectin-Like Protein 1   [Seq ID NO: 79]                 Mus musculus         AAC18956   CD22 Protein   [Seq ID NO: 80]                 Homo sapiens         AAA35415   Intercellular Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 81]           Molecule 1     Pan troglodytes         AAA83206   89 kDa Protein   [Seq ID NO: 82]                 Mus musculus         AAA92551   Intercellular Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 83]           Molecule-1     Canis familiaris         AAB06749   Intercellular Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 84]           Molecule-1     Bos taurus         AAD13617   Intercellular Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 85]           Molecule-1 Precursor     Ovis aries         NP037099   Intercellular Adhesion   [Seq ID NO: 86]           Molecule-1     Rattus norvegicus         AAE22202   ICAM-4   [Seq ID NO: 87]                 Rattus norvegicus         AAA60392   cell surface glycoprotein   [Seq ID NO: 88]                 Homo sapiens         AAF91086   Nephrin   [Seq ID NO: 89]                 Rattus norvegicus         AAF91087   Nephrin   [Seq ID NO: 90]                 Mus musculus                    
 
 Anthrax Chimeric Toxin Receptor Proteins and Immunoadhesins 
 
      The invention also includes chimeric anthrax toxin receptor proteins having an anthrax toxin receptor associated with an immunoglobulin complex containing an immunoglobulin heavy chain. Optionally, an immunoglobulin light chain is included in the complex to improve stability. Alternatively, an anthrax toxin receptor associated with an immunoglobulin light chain or fragment of such immunoglobulin light chain, in either case preferably at the N-terminus thereof, is included in the complex to improve stability and/or provide additional anthrax toxin receptors to improve binding to anthrax toxin.  
      An anthrax toxin receptor protein may be associated with the heavy chain, the light chain, or both. In some embodiments, a J chain and secretory component is associated with the chimeric anthrax toxin receptor protein to form an immunoadhesin. In other embodiments, the chimeric toxin receptor protein has plant-specific glycosylation.  
      Chimeric Anthrax Toxin Receptor Protein  
      The chimeric anthrax toxin receptor proteins described herein contain at least one anthrax toxin receptor protein associated with an immunoglobulin complex containing an immunoglobulin heavy chain.  
      Anthrax Toxin Receptor  
      The Anthrax toxin receptor is any polypeptide which binds protective antigen (PA) with an affinity sufficient to allow a chimeric anthrax toxin receptor protein to act as a receptor decoy.  
      The Anthrax toxin receptor as described herein can be one of the two endogenous cellular anthrax toxin receptors have been identified in the art: Anthrax toxin receptor/Tumor endothelial marker 8 (ATR/TEM8) (Bradley et al., 2001) and Capillary morphogenesis factor 2 (CMG2) (Scobie et al., 2001). Both receptors function as type 1 transmembrane proteins and share common features such as a signal peptide, an extracellular domain and a single-pass transmembrane region. Several protein isoforms have been predicted through alternative splicing including soluble variants.  
      The Anthrax toxin receptor described herein shall at a minimum contain the functional elements for binding of PA and may optionally also include one of more additional polypeptides (for example, ones that improve use of the anthrax toxin receptor as a receptor decoy). The domains which mediate binding of the ATR to PA have been well characterized (32-27). The Van Willebrand Factor type A domain (VWA domain), also known as the integrin inserted domain (I domain), contains a metal ion-dependent adhesion site (MIDAS) that appears to be essential for proper PA binding to this receptor. See Scobie H M, Rainey G J, Bradley K A, Young J A (2003) Human capillary morphogenesis protein 2 functions as an anthrax toxin receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100: 5170-5174. Bradley K A, Mogridge J, Mourez M, Collier R J, Young J A (2001) Identification of the cellular receptor for anthrax toxin. Nature 414: 225-229. In preferred embodiments, the Anthrax toxin receptor protein includes the entire extracellular domain of the receptor.  
      In preferred embodiments, the Anthrax toxin receptor has been engineered to remove protease-sensitive sites. For example, if the Anthrax toxin receptor is a CMG2 protein, then it preferably lacks the 14 amino acids which are not part of the VWA/I domain. This 14 amino acid sequence and its corresponding nucleotide sequence are provided below:  
                              TEILELQPSSVCVG   (SEQ ID NO: 102)                   act gaa atc cta gaa ttg cag ccc   (SEQ ID NO: 103)       tca agt gtc tgt gtg ggg          
 
  Botulinum  Chimeric Toxin Receptor Proteins and Immunoadhesins 
 
      The invention also includes chimeric  botulinum  toxin receptor proteins having a  botulinum  toxin receptor associated with an immunoglobulin complex containing an immunoglobulin heavy chain. Optionally, an immunoglobulin light chain is included in the complex to improve stability. Alternatively, a  botulinum  toxin receptor associated with an immunoglobulin light chain or fragment of such immunoglobulin light chain, in either case preferably at the N-terminus thereof, is included in the complex to improve stability and/or provide additional  botulinum  toxin receptors to improve binding to  botulinum  toxin.  
      A  botulinum  toxin receptor protein may be associated with the heavy chain, the light chain, or both. In some embodiments, a J chain and secretory component is associated with the chimeric  botulinum  toxin receptor protein to form an immunoadhesin. In other embodiments, the chimeric toxin receptor protein has plant-specific glycosylation.  
      Chimeric  Botulinum  Toxin Receptor Protein  
      The chimeric  botulinum  toxin receptor proteins described herein contain at least one  botulinum  toxin receptor protein associated with an immunoglobulin complex containing an immunoglobulin heavy chain.  
       Botulinum  Toxin Receptor  
      The  Botulinum  toxin receptor is any polypeptide which binds  botulinum  toxin with an affinity and avidity sufficient to allow a chimeric  botulinum  toxin receptor protein to act as a receptor decoy.  
      There are seven  botulinum  toxins (BoNT/A-G). Receptors and putative binding domains have yet to be identified for all  botulinum  toxins, but one of skill in the art will understand that once such receptors are identified, they can be modified to produce the chimeric  botulinum  toxin receptors described herein.  
      Known receptors and putative binding domains are provided in the table below:  
                               TABLE 4                       Botulinum   Proteina-                   neurotoxin   ceous   Putative Binding           serotype   receptor   Domain   References                  A   SV2A   Amino acids   Dong, M, et               SV2B   529-536 (mouse   al. (2003) J           SV2C   SV2C numbering)   Cell Biol               SV2A:   162(7):               NTFFRNCTFINTVFYN   1293-1303               TDLFEYKFVNSRLVNS               TFLHNK               (SEQ ID NO: 104)                       SV2B:               DTYFKNCTIESTTFYN               TDLYKHKFIDCRFINS               TFLEQK               (SEQ ID NO: 105)                       SV2C:               NTYFKNCTFIDTLF E NT               DFEPYKFIDSEFQNCSF               LHNK               (SEQ ID NO: 106)               B,G   Synapto-   Syt I   Nishiki, et           tagmin I   GEGKEDAFSKLKQKFM   al. (1996).               NELHK   FEBS Lett               (SEQ ID NO: 107)   378:253-               (Amino acids   257;               40-60 of human   Nishiki, et               Syt I)   al. (1994). J                   Biol Chem           Synapto-   Syt II   269(14):           tagmin II   GE SQ ED M F A KLK E KF F     10498-10503;               NE IN KC   Dong, et al.               (SEQ ID NO: 108)   J Cell Biol               (Amino acids   162(7):               32-52 of human   1293-1303;               SytII)   Rummel, et                   al. (2004). J                   Biol Chem                   279(29):                   30865-30870                  
 
      Although some of the putative binding domain boundaries described above are for non-human proteins, a person of skill in the art would readily be able to use sequence comparison techniques to identify the analogous residues for the human protein.  
      The  botulinum  toxin receptor described herein shall at a minimum contain the functional elements for binding of  botulinum  toxin and may optionally also include one of more additional polypeptides (for example, ones that improve use of the  botulinum  toxin receptor as a receptor decoy).  
      Additional references relating to  botulinum  toxin and its receptors are provided below and incorporated for all that they teach:  
      BoNT or Bipartite Toxins:  
     
         
          Ahnert-Hilger, G and Bigalke, H (1995). Molecular Aspects of Tetanus and Botulinum Neurotoxin Poisoning. Prog Neurobiol 46: 83-96.  
          Amon, S S, Schecter, R, Inglesby, T V, Henderson, D A, Bartlett, J G, Ascher, M S, Eitzen, E, Fine, A D, Hauer, J, Layton, M, Lillibridge, S, Osterholm, M T, O&#39;Toole, T, Parker, G, Perl, T M, Russell, P K, Swerdlow, D L and Tonat, K (2001) Botulism toxin as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. JAMA 283(8):1059-1070. Also at: http://jama.amaassn.org/cgi/content/full/285/8/1059?maxtoshow=&amp;HITS=10&amp;hits=10&amp;RESUL TFORMAT=&amp;fulltext=botulism&amp;searchid=1049721556467 1604&amp; stored search=&amp;FIRSTIND EX=0&amp;journalcode=jama  
          Blasi, J, Chapman, E R, Link, E, Binz, T, Yamasaki, S, De Camilli, P, Südhof, T C, Niemann, H and Jahn, R (1993).  Botulinum  neurotoxin A selectively cleaves the synaptic protein SNAP-25. Nature 365:160-163.  
          Dolly, O J, Black, J, Williams, R S and Melling, J (1984). Acceptors for  botulinum  neurotoxin reside on motor nerve terminals and mediate its internalization. Nature 307(2):457-460.  
          Falnes, PØ and Sanvig, K (2000). Penetration of protein toxin into cells. Curr Opin Cell Biol 12:407-419.  
          Johnson, E A (1999). Clostridial toxins as therapeutic agents: benefits of nature&#39;s most toxic proteins. Annu Rev Microbiol 53:551-575.  
          Keller, J E, Cai, F and Neale, E A (2004). Uptake of  botulinum  neurotoxin into cultured neurons. Biochemistry 43:526-532.  
          Montecucco, C (1986). How do tetanus and  botulinum  toxins bind to neuronal membranes? TIBS 11:314-317.  
          Montecucco, C, Rossetto, O and Schiavo, G (2004). Presynaptic receptor arrays for clostridial neurotoxins. Trends Microbiol 12(10):442-446.  
          Schiavo, G, Santucci, A, Dasgupta, B R, Mehta, P P, Jontes, J, Benfenati, F, Wilson, M C and Montecucco, C (1993).  Botulinum  neurotoxins serotypes A and E cleave SNAP-25 at distinct COOH-terminal peptide bonds. FEBS 335(1):99-103.  
          Schiavo, G, Matteoli, M and Montecucco, C (2000). Neurotoxins affecting neuroexocytosis. Physiol Rev 80(2):717-766.  
          Schiavo, G, Benfenati, F, Poulain, B, Rosetto, O Polverino de Laureto, P, DasGuptal, B and Montecucco, C (1992). Tetanus and botulinum-B neurotoxins block neurotransmitter release by proteolytic cleavage of synaptobrevin. Nature 359:832-835.  
          Jahn, R (2006). A neuronal receptor for  botulinum  toxin. Science 312:540-541.  
          Südhof, T C (2004). The synaptic vesicle cycle. Annu Rev Neurosci 27:509-547. 
 
 Gangliosides: 
 
          Bullens, R W M, O&#39;Hanlon, G M, Wagner, E, Molenaar, P C, Furukawa, K, Furukawa, K, Plomp, J J and Wilson, H (2002). Complex gangliosides at the neuromuscularjunction are membrane receptors for autoantibodies and  botulinum  neurotoxin but redundant for normal synaptic function. J Neurosci 22(16):6876-6884.  
          Kitamura, M, Iwamori, M and Nagai, Y (1980). Interaction between  Clostridium botulinum  neurotoxin and gangliosides. Biochim BioPhys Acta 628:328-335.  
          Kitamura, M, Takamiya, K, Aizawa, S, Furukawa, K and Furukawa, K (1999). Gangliosides are the binding substances in neural cells for tetanus and  botulinum  toxins in mice. Biochim Biophys Acta 1441:1-3.  
          Rummel, A, Mahrhold, S, Bigalke, H and Binz, T (2004). The Hcc-domain of botulinum neurotoxins A and B exhibits a singular ganglioside binding site displaying serotype specific carbohydrate interaction. Mol Microbiol 51(3):631-643.  
          Yowler, B C and Schengrund, C-L (2004).  Botulinum  neurotoxin A changes conformation upon binding to ganglioside GTlb. Biochemistry 43:9725-9731.  
          Yowler, B C, Kensinger, R D and Schengrund, C-L (2002).  Botulinum  neurotoxin A activity is dependent upon the presence of specific gangliosides in neuroblastoma cells expressing synaptotagmin I. J Biol Chem 277(36):32815-32819. 
 
 S V2: 
 
          Bajjalieh, S M, Frantz, G D, Weimann, J M, McConnell, S K and Scheller, R H (1994). Differential expression of synaptic vesicle protein 2 (S V2) isoforms. J Neurosci 14(9):5223-5235.  
          Buckley, K and Kelly, R B (1985). Identification of a transmembrane glycoprotein specific for secretory vesicles of neuronal and endocrine cells. J Cell Biol 100:1284-1294.  
          Crowder, K M, Gunther, J M, Jones, T A, Hale, B D, Zhang, H Z, Peterson, M R, Scheller, R H,  
          Chavkin, C and Bajjalieh, S M (1999). Abnormal neurotransmission in mice lacking synaptic vesicle protein 2A (S V2A). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96(26):15268-15273.  
          Custer, K, Austin, N S, Sullivan, J M and Bajjalieh, S M (2006). Synaptic vesicle protein 2 enhances release probability at quiescent synapses. J Neurosci 26(4):1303-1313.  
          Janz, R and Südhof, T C (1999). S V2C is a synaptic vesicle protein with an unusually restricted localization: anatomy of a synaptic vesicle protein family. Neurosci 94(4):1279-1290.  
          Janz, R, Goda, Y, Geppert, M Missler, M and Sudhof, T C (1999). SV2A and SV2B function as redundant Ca 2+  regulators in neurotransmitter release. Neuron 24:1003-1016.  
          Lynch, B A, Lambeng, N, Nocka, K, Kensel-Hammes, P, Bajjalieh, S M, Matagne, A and Fuks, B (2004). SV2A: more than just a new target for AEDs. Proc Natl Aced Sci 101:9861-9866.  
          Lynch, B A, Lambeng, N, Nocka, K, Kensel-Hammes, P, Bajjalieh, S M, Matagne, A and Fuks, B (2004). The synaptic vesicles protein S V2A is the binding site for the antiepileptic drug levetiracetam. Proc Natl Acad Sci 101(26):9861-9866.  
          Dong, M, Yeh, F, Tepp, W H, Dean, C, Johnson, E A, Janz, R and Chapman, E R (2006). SV2 is the protein receptor for  botulinum  neurotoxin A. Science 312:592-596. 
 
 Synaptotagmins: 
 
          Dong, M, Richards, D A, Goodnough, M C, Tepp, W H, Johnson, E A and Chapman, E R (2003). Synaptotagmins I and II mediate entry of  botulinum  neurotoxin B into cells. J Cell Biol 162(7):1293-1303.  
          Matteoli, M, Takei, K, Perin, M S, Südhof, T C and De Camilli, P (1992). Exo-endocytotic recycling of synaptic vesicles in developing processes of cultured hippocampal neurons. J Cell Biol 117(4):849-861.  
          Nishiki, T-i, Tokuyama, Y, Kamata, Y, Nemoto, Y, Yoshida, A, Sato, K, Sekiguchi, M, Takahashi, M and Kozaki, S (1996). The high-affinity binding of  Clostridium botulinum  type B neurotoxin to synaptotagmin II associated with gangliosides G Tlb /G Dla . FEBS Lett 378:253-257.  
          Nishiki, T-i, Kamata, Y, Nemoto, Y, Omori, A, Ito, T, Takahashi, and Kozaki, S (1994). Identification of protein receptor for  Clostridium botulinum  type B neurotoxin in rat brain synaptosomes. J Biol Chem 269(14):10498-10503.  
          Rummel, A, Karnath, T, Henke, T, Bigalke, H and Binz (2004). Synaptotagmins I and II act as nerve cell receptors for  botulinum  neurotoxin G. J Biol Chem 279(29):30865-30870. 
 
 Vectors, Cells and Plants Containing Chimeric Toxin Receptor Proteins and Immunoadhesins 
 
       
    
      The present invention also contemplates expression and cloning vectors, cells and plants containing the chimeric toxin receptors and immunoadhesins of the present invention. Technology for isolating the genes encoding the various portions of the proteins are well-known to one of skill in the art and can be applied to insert the various required genes into expression vectors and cloning vectors such as those vectors can be introduced into eukaryotic cells including plant cells, plants and transgenic plants.  
      The present invention contemplates a method of assembling an immunoadhesin comprising the steps of: introducing into an organism a DNA segment encoding a chimeric receptor protein molecule, J chain, and introducing into the same organism a DNA encoding a secretory component. The preferred secretory component contains at least a segment of the amino acid residues 1 to residue about 606 of the human polyimmunoglobulin receptor (pIgR) amino acid residue sequence or analogous amino acid residues from other species (Mostov, Ann Dev. Immu. 12:63-84 1994). Among the secretory component sequences that may be used in addition to the foregoing human pIgR are those containing at least a segment of the amino acid residue 1 to about 627 of the human pIgR.  
      The present invention contemplates eukaryotic cells, including plant cells, containing chimeric toxin receptors and immunoadhesins of the present invention. The present invention also contemplates plant cells that contain nucleotide sequences encoding the various components of the chimeric toxin receptors and immunoadhesins of the present invention. One skilled in the art will understand that the nucleotide sequences that encode the secretory component protection protein and the chimeric receptor protein molecule and J chain will typically be operably linked to a promoter and present as part of an expression vector or cassette. Typically, if the eukaryotic cell used is a plant cell then the promoter used will be a promoter that is able to operate in a plant cell. After the chimeric receptor protein genes, secretory component genes and J chain genes are isolated, they are typically operatively linked to a transcriptional promoter in an expression vector. The present invention also contemplates expression vectors containing a nucleotide sequence encoding a chimeric receptor protein molecule which has been operatively linked to a regulatory sequence for expression. These expression vectors place the nucleotide sequence to be expressed in a particular cell 3′ of a promoter sequence which causes the nucleotide sequence to be transcribed and expressed. The expression vector may also contain various enhancer sequences which improve the efficiency of this transcription. In addition, such sequences as terminators, polyadenylation (poly A) sites and other 3′ end processing signals may be included to enhance the amount of nucleotide sequence transcribed within a particular cell.  
      Expression of the components in the organism of choice can be derived from an independently replicating plasmid, or from a permanent component of the chromosome, or from any piece of DNA which may transiently give rise to transcripts encoding the components. Organisms suitable for transformation can be either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Introduction of the components of the complex can be by direct DNA transformation, by biolistic delivery into the organism, or mediated by another organism as for example by the action of recombinant  Agrobacterium  on plant cells. Expression of proteins in transgenic organisms usually requires co-introduction of an appropriate promoter element and polyadenylation signal. In one embodiment of the invention, the promoter element potentially results in the constitutive expression of the components in all of the cells of a plant. Constitutive expression occurring in most or all of the cells will ensure that precursors can occupy the same cellular endomembrane system as might be required for assembly to occur.  
      Expression Vectors  
      Expression vectors compatible with the host cells, preferably those compatible with plant cells are used to express the genes of the present invention. Typical expression vectors useful for expression of genes in plants are well known in the art and include vectors derived from the tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid of  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  described by Rogers et al., Meth. in Enzymol., 153:253-277 (1987). However, several other expression vector systems are known to function in plants. See for example, Verma et al., PCT Publication No. W087/00551; and Cocking and Davey, Science, 236:1259-1262 (1987).  
      The expression vectors described above contain expression control elements including the promoter. The genes to be expressed are operatively linked to the expression vector to allow the promoter sequence to direct RNA polymerase binding and synthesis of the desired polypeptide coding gene. Useful in expressing the genes are promoters which are inducible, viral, synthetic, constitutive, and regulated. The choice of which expression vector is used and ultimately to which promoter a nucleotide sequence encoding part of the immunoadhesin of the present invention is operatively linked depends directly, as is well known in the art, on the functional properties desired, e.g. the location and timing of protein expression, and the host cell to be transformed, these being limitations inherent in the art of constructing recombinant DNA molecules. However, an expression vector useful in practicing the present invention is at least capable of directing the replication, and preferably also the expression of the polypeptide coding gene included in the DNA segment to which it is operatively linked.  
      In preferred embodiments, the expression vector used to express the genes includes a selection marker that is effective in a plant cell, preferably a drug resistance selection marker. A preferred drug resistance marker is the gene whose expression results in kanamycin resistance, i.e., the chimeric gene containing the nopaline synthase promoter, Tn5 neomycin phosphotransferase II and nopaline synthase 3′ nontranslated region described by Rogers et al., in Methods For Plant Molecular Biology, a Weissbach and H. Weissbach, eds., Academic Press Inc., San Diego, Calif. (1988). A useful plant expression vector is commercially available from Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J. Expression vectors and promoters for expressing foreign proteins in plants have been described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,188,642; 5,349,124; 5,352,605, and 5,034,322 which are hereby incorporated by reference.  
      Construction of Expression Vectors  
      A variety of methods have been developed to operatively link DNA to vectors via complementary cohesive termini. For instance, complementary homopolymer tracks can be added to the DNA segment to be inserted into the vector DNA. The vector and DNA segment are then joined by hydrogen bonding between the complementary homopolymeric tails to form recombinant DNA molecules. Alternatively, synthetic linkers containing one or more restriction endonuclease sites can be used to join the DNA segment to the expression vector. The synthetic linkers are attached to blunt-ended DNA segments by incubating the blunt-ended DNA segments with a large excess of synthetic linker molecules in the presence of an enzyme that is able to catalyze the ligation of blunt-ended DNA molecules, such as bacteriophage T4 DNA ligase. Thus, the products of the reaction are DNA segments carrying synthetic linker sequences at their ends. These DNA segments are then cleaved with the appropriate restriction endonuclease and ligated into an expression vector that has been cleaved with an enzyme that produces termini compatible with those of the synthetic linker. Synthetic linkers containing a variety of restriction endonuclease sites are commercially available from a number of sources including New England BioLabs, Beverly, Mass.  
      The nucleotide sequences encoding the secretory component, J chain, and the chimeric receptor protein molecule of the present invention are introduced into the same plant cell either directly or by introducing each of the components into a plant cell and regenerating a plant and cross-hybridizing the various components to produce the final plant cell containing all the required components.  
      Expression of Chimeric Toxin Receptors and Immunoadhesins  
      Any method may be used to introduce the nucleotide sequences encoding the components of the chimeric toxin receptors and immunoadhesins of the present invention into a eukaryotic cell. For example, methods for introducing genes into plants include  Agrobacterium -mediated plant transformation, protoplast transformation, gene transfer into pollen, injection into reproductive organs and injection into immature embryos. Each of these methods has distinct advantages and disadvantages. Thus, one particular method of introducing genes into a particular eukaryotic cell or plant species may not necessarily be the most effective for another eukaryotic cell or plant species.  
      Plants  
      For example, methods for introducing genes into plants include  Agrobacterium -mediated plant transformation, protoplast transformation, gene transfer into pollen, injection into reproductive organs and injection into immature embryos. Each of these methods has distinct advantages and disadvantages. Thus, one particular method of introducing genes into a particular eukaryotic cell or plant species may not necessarily be the most effective for another eukaryotic cell or plant species.  
      Genes can be introduced into plant cells in a transient manner designed to rapidly produce a protein of interest without permanently or stably altering the genome of a plant or its offspring. One example of how this transient expression can be accomplished is through the infiltration of the intercellular air spaces in leaves of an intact plant with a suspension of  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  containing the gene or genes of interest in a binary vector, and harvesting said leaves for extraction of protein at some later time. Voinnet O Rivas S, Mestre P, Baulcombe D (2003) An enhanced transient expression system in plants based on suppression of gene silencing by the p19 protein of tomato bushy stunt virus. The Plant Journal 33: 949-956.  
       Agrobacterium tumefaciens -mediated transfer is a widely applicable system for introducing genes into plant cells because the DNA can be introduced into whole plant tissues, bypassing the need for regeneration of an intact plant from a protoplast. The use of  Agrobacterium -mediated expression vectors to introduce DNA into plant cells is well known in the art. See, for example, the methods described by Fraley et al., Biotechnology, 3:629 (1985) and Rogers et al., Methods in Enzymology, 153:253-277 (1987). Further, the integration of the Ti-DNA is a relatively precise process resulting in few rearrangements. The region of DNA to be transferred is defined by the border sequences and intervening DNA is usually inserted into the plant genome as described by Spielmann et al., Mol. Gen. Genet., 205:34 (1986) and Jorgensen et al., Mol. Gen. Genet., 207:471 (1987). Modem  Agrobacterium  transformation vectors are capable of replication in  Escherichia coli  as well as  Agrobacterium , allowing for convenient manipulations as described by Klee et al., in Plant DNA Infectious Agents, T. Hohn and J. Schell, eds., Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 179-203 (1985). Further recent technological advances in vectors for  Agrobacterium -mediated gene transfer have improved the arrangement of genes and restriction sites in the vectors to facilitate construction of vectors capable of expressing various polypeptide coding genes. The vectors described by Rogers et al., Methods in Enzymology, 153:253 (1987), have convenient multi-linker regions flanked by a promoter and a polyadenylation site for direct expression of inserted polypeptide coding genes and are suitable for present purposes.  
      In those plant species where  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation is efficient, it is the method of choice because of the facile and defined nature of the gene transfer.  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation of leaf disks and other tissues appears to be limited to plant species that  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  naturally infects. Thus,  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation is most efficient in dicotyledonous plants.  
      Few monocots appear to be natural hosts for  Agrobacterium , although transgenic plants have been produced in asparagus using  Agrobacterium  vectors as described by Bytebier et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 84:5345 (1987). Therefore, commercially important cereal grains such as rice, corn, and wheat must be transformed using alternative methods. Transformation of plant protoplasts can be achieved using methods based on calcium phosphate precipitation, polyethylene glycol treatment, electroporation, and combinations of these treatments. See, for example, Potrykus et al., Mol. Gen. Genet., 199:183 (1985); Lorz et al., Mol. Gen. Genet., 199:178 (1985); Fromm et al., Nature, 319:791 (1986); Uchimiya et al., Mol. Gen. Genet., 204:204 (1986); Callis et al., Genes and Development, 1:1183 (1987); and Marcotte et al., Nature, 335:454 (1988).  
      Application of these methods to different plant species depends upon the ability to regenerate that particular plant species from protoplasts. Illustrative methods for the regeneration of cereals from protoplasts are described in Fujimura et al., Plant Tissue Culture Letters, 2:74 (1985); Toriyama et al., Theor Appl. Genet., 73:16 (1986); Yamada et al., Plant Cell Rep., 4:85 (1986); Abdullah et al., Biotechnology, 4:1087 (1986).  
      To transform plant species that cannot be successfully regenerated from protoplasts, other ways to introduce DNA into intact cells or tissues can be utilized. For example, regeneration of cereals from immature embryos or explants can be effected as described by Vasil, Biotechnology, 6:397 (1988). In addition, “particle gun” or high-velocity microprojectile technology can be utilized. Using such technology, DNA is carried through the cell wall and into the cytoplasm on the surface of small (0.525 μm) metal particles that have been accelerated to speeds of one to several hundred meters per second as described in Klein et al., Nature, 327:70 (1987); Klein et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 85:8502 (1988); and McCabe et al., Biotechnology, 6:923 (1988). The metal particles penetrate through several layers of cells and thus allow the transformation of cells within tissue explants. Metal particles have been used to successfully transform corn cells and to produce fertile, stably transformed tobacco and soybean plants. Transformation of tissue explants eliminates the need for passage through a protoplast stage and thus speeds the production of transgenic plants.  
      DNA can also be introduced into plants by direct DNA transfer into pollen as described by Zhou et al., Methods in Enzymology, 101:433 (1983); D. Hess, Intern Rev. Cytol., 107:367 (1987); Luo et al., Plant Mol. Biol. Reporter, 6:165 (1988). Expression of polypeptide coding genes can be obtained by injection of the DNA into reproductive organs of a plant as described by Pena et al., Nature, 325:274 (1987). DNA can also be injected directly into the cells of immature embryos and the rehydration of desiccated embryos as described by Neuhaus et al., Theor. Appl. Genet., 75:30 (1987); and Benbrook et al., in Proceedings Bio Expo 1986, Butterworth, Stoneham, Mass., pp. 27-54 (1986).  
      The regeneration of plants from either single plant protoplasts or various explants is well known in the art. See, for example, Methods for Plant Molecular Biology, A. Weissbach and H. Weissbach, eds., Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, Calif. (1988). This regeneration and growth process includes the steps of selection of transformant cells and shoots, rooting the transformant shoots and growth of the plantlets in soil.  
      The regeneration of plants containing the foreign gene introduced by  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  from leaf explants can be achieved as described by Horsch et al., Science, 227:1229-1231 (1985). In this procedure, transformants are grown in the presence of a selection agent and in a medium that induces the regeneration of shoots in the plant species being transformed as described by Fraley et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 80:4803 (1983). This procedure typically produces shoots within two to four weeks and these transformant shoots are then transferred to an appropriate root-inducing medium containing the selective agent and an antibiotic to prevent bacterial growth. Transformant shoots that rooted in the presence of the selective agent to form plantlets are then transplanted to soil to allow the production of roots. These procedures will vary depending upon the particular plant species employed, such variations being well known in the art.  
      The immunoadhesins of the present invention may be produced in any plant cell including plant cells derived from plants that are dicotyledonous or monocotyledonous, solanaceous, alfalfa, legumes, oil seeds such as safflower, or tobacco.  
      Transgenic plants of the present invention can be produced from any sexually crossable plant species that can be transformed using any method known to those skilled in the art. Useful plant species are dicotyledons including tobacco, tomato, the legumes, alfalfa, oaks, and maples; monocotyledons including grasses, corn, grains, oats, wheat, and barley; and lower plants including gymnosperms, conifers, horsetails, club mosses, liverworts, hornworts, mosses, algaes, gametophytes, sporophytes or pteridophytes.  
      Eukaryotic Cells  
      The present invention also contemplates expressing the chimeric toxin receptors and immunoadhesins within eukaryotic cells including mammalian cells. One of skill in the art will understand the various systems available for expression in mammalian cells and can readily modify those systems to express the immunoadhesins and chimeric protein receptor molecules, e.g., ICAM-1 molecules, in those cells. In preferred ICAM embodiments, the chimeric ICAM-1, J chain and secretory component molecules of the present invention are placed in a vector pCDM8 which has been previously described by Aruffo, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 84:8573-8577 (1987). The use of the PCDM8 construct is by no means unique and numerous other eukaryotic expression systems are available that do not utilize the cog cell expression system and that may be used with the chimeric ICAM-1 and other molecules of the immunoadhesin.  
      Compositions Containing Chimeric Toxin Receptors and Immunoadhesins  
      The present invention also contemplates compositions containing a chimeric toxin receptor or immunoadhesin of the present invention together with plant macromolecules or material. Typically these plant macromolecules or plant materials are derived from any plant useful in the present invention. The plant macromolecules are present together with a chimeric toxin receptor or immunoadhesin of the present invention for example, in a plant cell, in an extract of a plant cell, or in a plant. Typical plant macromolecules in a composition are ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase, light harvesting complex pigments (LHCP), secondary metabolites or chlorophyll. The compositions of the present invention have plant material or plant macromolecules in a concentration of between 0.01% and 99% mass excluding water. Other compositions include compositions having the chimeric toxin receptors or immunoadhesins of the present invention present at a concentration of between 1% and 99% mass excluding water. Other compositions include chimeric toxin receptors or immunoadhesins at a concentration of 50% to 90% mass excluding water.  
      The compositions of the present invention may contain plant macromolecules at a concentration of between 0.1% and 5% mass excluding water. Typically the mass present in the composition will consist of plant macromolecules and chimeric toxin receptors or immunoadhesins of the present invention. When the proteins of the present invention are present at a higher or lower concentration the concentration of plant macromolecules present in the composition will vary inversely. In other embodiments the composition of plant macromolecules are present in a concentration of between 0.12% and 1% mass excluding water.  
      The present invention contemplates a composition of matter comprising all or part of the following: a chimeric protein receptor molecule, a J chain or a secretory component. These components form a complex and are associated as was previously described. Typically, the composition also contains molecules derived from a plant. This composition may also be obtained after an extraction process yielding functional chimeric toxin receptor or immunoadhesin and plant-derived molecules.  
      The extraction method comprises the steps of applying a force to a plant containing the complex whereby the apoplastic compartment of the plant is ruptured releasing said complex. The force involves shearing as the primary method of releasing the apoplastic liquid. The whole plant or plant extract contains an admixture of chimeric toxin receptor/immunoadhesin and various other macromolecules of the plant. Among the macromolecules contained in the admixture is ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (RuBisCo) or fragments of RuBisCo. Another macromolecule is LHCP. Another molecule is chlorophyll. Other useful methods for preparing compositions include extraction with various solvents and application of vacuum to the plant material. The compositions of the present invention may contain plant macromolecules in a concentration of between about 0.1% and 5% mass excluding water.  
      The present invention also contemplates that the relative proportion of plant-derived molecules and animal-derived molecules can vary. Quantities of specific plant proteins, such as RuBisCo or chlorophyll may be as little as 0.01% of the mass or as much as 99.9% of the mass of the extract, excluding water.  
      The present invention also contemplates therapeutic compositions which may be used in the treatment of a patient or animal. Administration of the therapeutic composition can be before or after extraction from the plant or other transgenic organism. Once extracted the chimeric toxin receptors/immunoadhesins may also be further purified by conventional techniques such as size exclusion, ion exchange, or affinity chromatography. Plant molecules may be co-administered with the complex.  
      The present invention also contemplates the direct use of the therapeutic plant extract containing chimeric toxin receptors/immunoadhesins without any further purification of the specific therapeutic component. Administration may be by topical application, oral ingestion, nasal spray or any other method appropriate for delivering the chimeric toxin receptors/immunoadhesins to the mucosal target pathogen.  
      Pharmaceutical Compositions, Formulations, and Routes of Administration  
      The chimeric toxin receptors/immunoadhesins described herein can be administered to a patient, preferably in the form of a suitable pharmaceutical composition. Such composition may include components in addition to, or in lieu of, those described above. The composition preferably exhibits either or both of a therapeutic and prophylactic property when administered. The preparation of such compositions can be done according to routine methodologies in the art, and may assume any of a variety of forms, e.g., liquid solutions, suspensions or emulsifications, and solid forms suitable for inclusion in a liquid prior to ingestion. Techniques for the formulation and administration of polypeptides and proteins may be found in Remington&#39;s Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa., latest edition. Using these procedures, one of ordinary skill can utilize the immunoadhesins of the invention to achieve success without undue experimentation.  
      Administration Routes  
      Suitable routes of administration for the invention include, e.g., oral, nasal, inhalation, intraocular, pharyngeal, bronchial, transmucosal, intravenous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal or intestinal administration. Alternatively, one may administer the compound in a local manner, e.g., via injection or other application of the compound to a preferred site of action.  
      Formulations  
      The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention may be manufactured in a manner that is itself known, e.g., by means of conventional mixing, dissolving, granulating, dragee-making, levigating, emulsifying, encapsulating, entrapping or lyophilizing processes. One or more physiologically acceptable carriers comprising excipients and/or other auxiliaries can be used to facilitate processing of the active compounds into pharmaceutical preparations. Proper formulation is dependent upon the particular route of administration chosen.  
      For injection, the agents of the invention may be formulated in aqueous solutions, preferably in physiologically compatible buffers such as Hanks&#39;s solution, Ringer&#39;s solution, or physiological saline buffer.  
      For transmucosal administration, penetrants appropriate to the barrier to be permeated are used in the formulation. Such penetrants are generally known in the art.  
      For oral administration, the compounds can be formulated readily by combining the active compounds with pharmaceutically acceptable carriers well known in the art. Such carriers enable the compounds of the invention to be formulated as tablets, pills, dragees, capsules, liquids, gels, syrups, slurries, suspensions and the like, for oral ingestion by a patient to be treated. Suitable carriers include excipients such as, e.g., fillers such as sugars, including lactose, sucrose, mannitol, and/or sorbitol; cellulose preparations such as, e.g., maize starch, wheat starch, rice starch, potato starch, gelatin, gum tragacanth, methyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, and/or polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). If desired, disintegrating agents may be added, such as the cross-linked polyvinyl pyrrolidone, agar, or alginic acid or a salt thereof such as sodium alginate.  
      Dragee cores are provided with suitable coatings. For this purpose, concentrated sugar solutions may be used, which may optionally contain gum arabic, talc, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, carbopol gel, polyethylene glycol, and/or titanium dioxide, lacquer solutions, and suitable organic solvents or solvent mixtures. Dyestuffs or pigments may be added to the tablets or dragee coatings for identification or to characterize different combinations of active compound doses.  
      Pharmaceutical preparations which can be used orally include push-fit capsules made of gelatin, as well as soft, sealed capsules made of gelatin and a plasticizer, such as glycerol or sorbitol. The push-fit capsules can contain the active ingredients in admixture with filler such as lactose, binders such as starches, and/or lubricants such as talc or magnesium stearate and, optionally, stabilizers. In soft capsules, the active compounds may be dissolved or suspended in suitable liquids, such as fatty oils, liquid paraffin, or liquid polyethylene glycols. In addition, stabilizers may be added. All formulations for oral administration should be in dosages suitable for such administration.  
      For buccal administration, the compositions may take the form of tablets or lozenges formulated in conventional manner or in the form of a water soluble gel.  
      For administration by inhalation, the compounds for use according to the present invention may be conveniently delivered in the form of an aerosol spray presentation from pressurized packs or a nebuliser, with the use of a suitable propellant, e.g., dichlorodifluoromethane, trichlorofluoromethane, dichlorotetrafluoroethane, carbon dioxide or other suitable gas. In the case of a pressurized aerosol the dosage unit may be determined by providing a valve to deliver a metered amount. Capsules and cartridges of e.g. gelatin for use in an inhaler or insufflator may be formulated containing a powder mix of the compound and a suitable powder base such as lactose or starch.  
      Alternatively, the active ingredient may be in powder form for constitution with a suitable vehicle, e.g., sterile pyrogen-free water, before use.  
      In addition, the compounds may also be formulated as a depot preparation. Such long acting formulations may be administered by implantation (for example subcutaneously or intramuscularly) or by intramuscular injection. Thus, for example, the compounds may be formulated with suitable polymeric or hydrophobic materials (for example as an emulsion in an acceptable oil) or ion exchange resins, or as sparingly soluble derivatives, for example, as a sparingly soluble salt.  
      Additionally, the compounds may be delivered using a sustained-release system, such as semipermeable matrices of solid hydrophobic polymers containing the therapeutic agent. Various sustained-release materials have been established and are well known by those skilled in the art. Sustained-release capsules may, depending on their chemical nature, release the compounds for a few weeks up to over 100 days. Depending on the chemical nature and the biological stability of the therapeutic reagent, additional strategies for protein stabilization may be employed.  
      The pharmaceutical compositions also may comprise suitable solid or gel phase carriers or excipients. Examples of such carriers or excipients include but are not limited to calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, various sugars, starches, cellulose derivatives, gelatin, and polymers such as polyethylene glycols.  
      Pharmaceutically compatible salts may be formed with many acids, including but not limited to hydrochloric, sulfuric, acetic, lactic, tartaric, malic, succinic, citric, etc. Salts tend to be more soluble in aqueous or other protonic solvents that are the corresponding free base forms. In solutions, manipulation of pH is also routinely employed for optimizing desired properties.  
      Determining Effective Dosages and Dosage Regimens  
      Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for use in the present invention include compositions where the active ingredients are contained in an amount effective to achieve an intended purpose, e.g., a therapeutic and/or prophylactic use. A pharmaceutically effective amount means an amount of compound effective to prevent, alleviate or ameliorate symptoms of disease or prolong the survival of the subject being treated. Determination of a pharmaceutically effective amount is well within the capability of those skilled in the art, and will typically assume an amount of between about 0.5 pg/kg/day and about 500 g/kg/day, with individual dosages typically comprising between about 1 nanogram and several grams of immunoadhesin.  
      For any compound used in the methods of the invention, the therapeutically effective dose can be estimated initially from cell culture assays. For example, varying dosages can be administered to different animals or cell cultures and compared for effect. In this way, one can identify a desired concentration range, and prepare and administer such amount accordingly. Optimization is routine for one of ordinary skill in the art.  
      The person of skill, in addition to considering pharmaceutical efficacy, also considers toxicity according to standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals, e.g., for determining the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED 50  (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population). The dose ratio between toxic and therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index and it can be expressed as the ratio between LD 50  and ED 50 . Compounds which exhibit high therapeutic indices are preferred. The data obtained from these cell culture assays and animal studies can be used in formulating a range of dosage for use in humans. The dosage of such compounds lies preferably within a range of concentrations that include the ED 50  with little or no toxicity. The dosage may vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized. The exact formulation, route of administration and dosage can be chosen by the individual physician in view of the patient&#39;s condition. (See e.g., Fingl et al., 1975, in “The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics,”.Ch. 1 p. 1).  
      Dosage amount and frequency may be adjusted to provide circulatory levels of a chimeric toxin receptor or immunoadhesin sufficient to maintain or provide a pharmaceutical effect, e.g., therapeutic and/or prophylactic. The minimal effective concentration (MEC) will vary for each formulation, but can be estimated from in vitro and/or in vivo data. Dosages necessary to achieve MEC will depend on individual characteristics and route of administration. However, assays as described herein can be used to determine circulatory concentrations, which can then be further optimized in amount and precise formulation.  
      Dosage intervals can also be determined using MEC value. Compounds can be administered using a regimen which maintains circulatory levels above the MEC for 10-90% of the time, 30-90% of the time, or, most preferably, 50-90% of the time.  
      The compositions may, if desired, be presented in a pack or dispenser device which may contain one or more unit dosage forms containing the active ingredient. The pack may for example comprise metal or plastic foil, such as a blister pack. The pack or dispenser device may be accompanied by instructions for administration. The pack or dispenser may also be accompanied with a notice associated with the container in form prescribed by a governmental agency regulating the manufacture, use, or sale of pharmaceuticals, which notice is reflective of approval by the agency of the form of the immunoadhesin for human or veterinary administration. Such notice, for example, may be the labeling approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for prescription drugs, or the approved product insert. Compositions comprising a compound of the invention formulated in a compatible pharmaceutical carrier may also be prepared, placed in an appropriate container, and labeled for treatment of an indicated condition, e.g. treatment or prophylaxis of a disease mediated by host organism/patient protein receptor molecules.  
      Methods of Treatment and Prevention of Infection  
      A patient in need of therapeutic and/or prophylactic chimeric toxin receptors/immunoadhesins of the invention, e.g., to counter anthrax infection, can be administered a pharmaceutically effective amount of desired chimeric toxin receptors/immunoadhesin, preferably as part of a pharmaceutical composition determined, produced, and administered as described above. These formulations and delivery modalities can vary widely. Described following are preliminary procedures that can be used to deduce effective amounts and toxicity, and which can then be conveniently used to determine treatment and prophylaxis parameters and regimens, both in humans and other animals. These procedures are illustrative only and are not intended to be limiting of the invention. Further, these procedures are routine for one of ordinary skill in the art.  
      Ability of the Chimeric Toxin Receptor/Immunoadhesin to Reduce Infectivity in Humans: Dose Escalation Tolerance Study  
      Chimeric toxin receptors/immunoadhesins of the invention may be tested, e.g., using randomized controlled trials to determine the effect of administration, e.g., intravenous or intramuscular on infection. Other administration routes can be used. Various assays exist that can be used to monitor effect. These studies can evaluate the extent to which chimeric toxin receptors/immunoadhesin taken by a patient subjects can treat or prevent infection. For example, infected and exposed but uninfected subjects can be administered the chimeric toxin receptors/immunoadhesin and evaluated over a time course to assess illness progression as compared to similar infected or exposed but untreated subjects.  
      The chimeric toxin receptors/immunoadhesin of the present invention may be formulated as a buffered saline with varying amounts of chimeric toxin receptors/immunoadhesin within and administered at various intervals to a patient. Single ascending dose and multiple ascending dose studies can be used to evaluate the safety of the immunoadhesin. In each case, one or more subjects may be evaluated at each dosage level, some receiving the immunoadhesin and one or more optionally receiving placebo. In either study, multiple dosage levels may be evaluated. Dosage levels can vary, but are typically in the nanogram to gram range.  
      Dosages may be administered over seconds, minutes, hours, weeks, and months, and evaluated for toxicity and/or pharmaceutical effect.  
      Safety and toxicity may be assessed, e.g., by visual examination of the nasal mucosa for signs of irritation or inflammation. Blood safety evaluations can also be employed according to routine methods and using sensitive assays such as ELISA to determine various blood components, including circulating immunoadhesin and rhinovirus quantities. Nasal lavage testing may similarly be done according to routine methodologies.  
      Routine statistical analyses and calculations may be employed to determine efficacy and toxicity predicted over time courses for single patients and/or for populations of patient-recipients.  
      If the pathogen targeted by the chimeric toxin receptor protein, e.g., anthrax bacteria and anthrax spores, cannot be ethically administered to human subjects in a controlled clinical trial, projected dose efficacy in human beings can be experimentally determined in appropriate animal species which may include primate species exposed to anthrax bacterial or spores. Effective dose can be determined by survival of treated and control animals at various concentrations and routes of chimeric toxin receptor protein administration. Serum, mucus, and/or tissue samples can be taken from the subject to determine the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the administered chimeric toxin receptor protein and from this data the minimum effective concentration and route of administration of the chimeric toxin receptor protein protective of the animal subject can be determined. To establish the minimum effective concentration for human subjects, normal male and female subjects can be dosed with the chimeric toxin receptor protein by the same route of administration determined to be effective in the animal subject trial described above and serum, mucus and or tissue samples would be taken from these human subjects. The concentration of administered chimeric toxin receptor protein in the human subject can be adjusted to obtain the same concentration previously shown to be effective or protective in the animal tests and samples.  
      Guidelines for animal and human trials the establishment of safety and efficacy of products for the treatment and/or prevention of life-threatening exposure to pathogens such as anthrax,  Botulinum  toxin, tularemia and the like, have been promulgated by the United States Food and Drug Administration and are available to the public in various publications including Federal Register: May 31, 2002 (Volume 67, Number 105), Rules and Regulations, Page 37988-37998. This rule is available from the Federal Register Online via GPO Access [wais.access.gpo.gov and may be found in the Code of Federal regulations, Food and Drug Administration, 21 CFR Parts 314 and 601.  
      The following examples illustrate various aspects and embodiments of the disclosed invention. These examples in no way limit the scope of the claimed invention.  
     EXAMPLES  
     Example 1  
     Construction of ICAM-1 Immunoadhesin Expression Cassettes  
      A cassette encoding ICAM-1 extracellular domains D1 through D5 was prepared by PCR cloning. Specifically, a fragment containing all five extracellular Ig-like domains of ICAM-1 was amplified from plasmid pCDIC1-5D/IgA (Martin, et al. J. Virol. 67:3561-8, 1993) using the following oligonucleotide primers:  
                              5′-TCTGTTCCCAGGAACTAGTTTGGCACAGACATC   (SEQ ID NO: 6)           TGTGTCCCCCTCAAAAGTC-3′               5′-CATACCGGGGACTAGTCACATTCACGGTCACCT   (SEQ ID NO: 7)       CGCGG-3′          
 
      These two primers were designed to introduce SpeI sites at the 5′ and 3′ ends of the PCR fragment (underlined nucleotides). PCR was performed with Pfu polymerase (Stratagene) to reduce accumulation of errors. The PCR fragment was cloned into the vector PCRScript (Stratagene), and sequenced before fusing to the human IgA2 cassettes (with and without SEKDEL [SEQ ID NO:4] at the carboxy-terminus).  
      Constructs for the expression in plants of human J chain and secretory component, as well as a human IgA2 heavy chain, were developed. A heavy chain expression cassette vector was made and called pSSpHuA2 (See  FIG. 1 ). It contains sequence encoding a bean legumin signal peptide (Baumlein et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 14 (6), 2707-2720, 1986). The sequence of bean legumin is provided as GenBank Accession No. X03677, and the sequence of the bean legumin signal peptide is SEQ ID NO: 10 (also see  FIG. 8 ) and the IgA2m(2) constant region with SpeI and SacI sites in between, and the SuperMas promoter for driving the expression of a signal peptide and the constant regions of the human IgA2m(2) heavy-chain.  
      The amplified DNAs encoding the first five domains of human ICAM-1, and the Fc region of human IgA2m(2) were fused in a plant-expression cassette to make a chimeric ICAM-1 molecule expression construct, shown in  FIG. 2A . This was done by cloning the fragment encoding the five extracellular domains of ICAM-1 into vector pSSPHuA2 to generate pSSPICAMHuA2. The convenient restriction sites (5′ SpeI and 3′ Spe I) allowed the amplified fragment to be inserted between the signal peptide and the Cα1 domain. In the resulting construct, expression of the chimeric ICAM-1 molecule is under the control of the constitutive promoter “superMAS” (Ni et. al., 1995) and the nos 3′ terminator region.  
      The resulting chimeric ICAM-1 molecule construct contains no variable region. Upon translation of the mRNA, signal peptide cleavage is predicted to deposit the ICAM-1-heavy chain fusion into the plant cell&#39;s endoplasmic reticulum (ER). DNA encoding an ER retention signal (RSEKDEL, SEQ ID NO: 5) was appended to the 3′ end of the heavy-chain in order to boost the expression level of the construct. The amino acid sequence SEKDEL (SEQ ID NO: 4) is the consensus signal sequence for retention of proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum in plant cells. This sequence has been shown to enhance accumulation levels of antibodies in plants (Schouten et al., Plant Molecular Biology 30:781-793, 1996). The amino acid sequence of the chimeric ICAM-1 molecule construct is shown in  FIG. 2B . The DNA sequence and translational frame of the construct was verified before it was used for particle bombardment.  
      It has been shown recently that assembly of J chain with IgA takes place in the Golgi apparatus (Yoo et al., J. Biol. Chem. 274:33771-33777, 1999), and so constructions of heavy chain without SEKDEL (SEQ ID NO: 4) have been made as well. The ICAM-1 fragment was cloned into an expression cassette containing the IgA2m(2) constant region without SEKDEL (SEQ ID NO: 4).  
     Example 2  
     Expression of Assembled ICAM-1 Immunoadhesin in Plants  
      A. Immunoadhesin Expression Vectors  
      The plasmid pSSPICAMHuA2 [SEQ ID NO:9 and  FIG. 8A ] is 6313 bp in length. Nucleotides 49-1165 represent the Superpromoter (Ni et al., Plant Journal 7:661-676, 1995). Nucleotides 1166-3662 comprise a sequence encoding a human ICAM-1/human IgA2m(2) constant hybrid with linker sequences. A consensus Kozak sequence (Kozak, Cell 44(2):283-92, 1986) is included (nt 1186-1192) to enhance translation initiation, as well as the signal peptide from  V. faba  legumin (nt 1189-1257; Bäumlein et al., Nucleic Acids Reg. 14(6):2707-2720 (1986). The sequence of the human IgA2m(2) constant region (nt 3663-3633) has been previously published (Chintalacharuvu, et al., J. Imm. 152: 5299-5304, 1994). A sequence encoding the endoplasmic reticulum retention signal SEKDEL [SEQ ID NO:4] is appended to the end of the heavy chain (nt 3634-3654). Nucleotides 3663-3933 derive from the nopaline synthase 3′ end (transcription termination and polyadenylation signal; Depicker et al., 1982). The remainder of the plasmid derives from the vector pSP72 (Promega).  
      The plasmid pSHuJ ( FIG. 8C ) is 4283 bp in length. Nucleotides 14-1136 represent the Superpromoter (Ni et al., Plant Journal 7:661-676, 1995) and nucleotides 1137-1648 are shown in  FIG. 8  [SEQ ID NO:11] and comprise a sequence encoding the human J Chain including the native signal peptide (Max and Korsmeyer, J Imm. 152:5299-5304, 1985) along with linker sequences. A consensus Kozak sequence (Kozak, Cell 44(2):283-92, 1986) is included (nt 1162-1168) to enhance translation initiation. Nucleotides 1649-1902 derive from the nopaline synthase 3′ end (transcription termination and polyadenylation signal; Depicker et al., J Mol Appl Genet 1(6):561-73, 1982). The remainder of the plasmid derives from the vector pSP72 (Promega).  
      The plasmid pSHuSC ( FIG. 8D ) is 5650 bp in length. Nucleotides 13-1136 are derived from the Superpromoter (Ni et al., Plant Journal 7:661-676, 1995), and nucleotides 1137-2981 comprise a sequence encoding the human Secretory Component including the native signal peptide (Krajci, et al., Biochem. and Biophys. Res. Comm 158:783, 1994) along with linker sequences [SEQ ID NO: 12]. A consensus Kozak sequence (Kozak, Cell 44(2):283-92, 1986) is included (nt 1151-1157) to enhance translation initiation. Nucleotides 2982-3236 derive from the nopaline synthase 3′ end, providing a transcription termination and polyadenlyation signal, described in Depicker et al., J Mol Appl Genet 1(6):561-73 (1982). The remainder of the plasmid derives from the vector pSP72 (Promega).  
      The plasmid pBMSP-1 [SEQ ID NO:13 and  FIG. 8E ] is derived from pGPTV-KAN. Becker et al., in Plant Molecular Biology 20, 1195-1197, (1992), describe new plant binary vectors with selectable markers located proximal to the left T-DNA border, and the sequences outside of the left and right borders. Nucleotides 18-187 of pBMSP-1 represent the right T-DNA border, and nucleotides 1811-775 represent the superMAS promoter. Nucleotides 2393-2663 represent the NOS promoter (Depicker et al., J Mol Appl Genet 1(6):561-73, 1982), nucleotides 2698-3492 encode the NPTII gene (conferring resistance to kanamycin), and nucleotides 3511-3733 are the polyadenylation signal from  A. tumefaciens  gene 7 (Gielen et al., Embo J 3:835-46, 1984). Nucleotides 1768-976 encode the NPTII gene, and nucleotides 4317-4464 represent the left T-DNA border.  
      The plasmid pBMSP-1 spJSC [SEQ ID NO: 14 and  FIG. 8F ] is a derivative of pBMSP, containing both J and SC under control of superpromoter. In this plasmid, nucleotides 1-149 represent the left T-DNA border. Nucleotides 955-733 are the polyadenylation signal from  A. tumefaciens  gene, nucleotides 1768-976 encode the NPTII gene (conferring resistance to kanamycin), and nucleotides 2073-1803 represent the NOS promoter. Nucleotides 2635-3768 represent the superMAS promoter, nucleotides 3774-5595 encode the Human Secretory component, and nucleotides 5603-5857 represent the NOS polyadenylation signal. Nucleotides 5880-6991 represent the superMAS promoter, nucleotides 7007-7490 encode the Human Joining Chain, and nucleotides 7504-7757 represent the NOS polyadenylation signal. Nucleotides 7886-8057 represent the right T-DNA border.  
      The plasmid pGPTV-HPT, encoding the enzyme conferring hygromycin resistance, is available commercially from the Max-Planck-Institut für Zuchtungsforschung (Germany). It is described by Becker in Plant Molecular Biology 20, 1195-1197 (1992).  
      B. Plant Transformation and ICAM-1 Immunoadhesin Expression in Plants  
      The expression cassettes described above were used to produce the assembled immunoadhesin in plants. Plasmids pSSPICAMHuA2, pSHuJ, pSHuSC and pBMSP-1 were co-bombarded into tobacco leaf tissue ( N. tabacum  cultivar Xanthi) and transformed microcalli were selected on nutrient agar in the presence of kanamycin. Individual microcalli, indicative of independent transformation events, were dissected from the parent tissue and propagated on nutrient agar with kanamycin.  
      The callus tissues were screened for transgene expression. Callus #7132 was shown to express a chimeric ICAM-1 immunoadhesin and J chain by immunoblotting and PCR (data not shown). This callus did not possess DNA encoding the SC. The callus grew well in culture and, upon accumulation of sufficient mass, #7132 was bombarded again, this time with two of the plasmids described above, PBMSP-1 SpJSC, containing expression cassettes for both the J chain and SC and pGPTV-HPT, containing an expression cassette for the hpt I gene which confers hygromycin resistance. After a period of selection and growth on nutrient agar, several independent transformants were identified, by immunoblotting that expressed the chimeric ICAM-1 molecule, the J chain and SC in several states of assembly.  
       FIG. 3  illustrates the expression of the chimeric ICAM-1 molecule in independently transformed tobacco calli.  FIG. 3A  shows immunoblots of non-reducing SDS-polyacrylamide gels on which samples containing different transformed tobacco calli (C) and aqueous extracts (Aq) were run and probed for the presence of human ICAM. The solubility of the immunoadhesin assured us that extraction could be easily performed, and the similarity of signals leads us to believe in the reproducibility of expression.  FIG. 3B  shows immunoblots of nonreducing SDS-polyacrylamide gels containing various fractions of partially purified immunoadhesin from callus Rhi107-11. The blots were probed with antibodies against human ICAM (˜ICAM), human IgA heavy chain (˜α), human secretory component (˜SC) and human J chain (˜J). Secondary, enzyme-conjugated antibodies were employed as necessary to label immuno-positive bands with alkaline phosphatase. The specificity of immuno-blotting was further verified by a failure to detect immuno-positive bands in extracts of non-expressing calli (not shown). The expected MW for a dimerized chimeric ICAM-1 molecule, without glycosylation, is 173,318; this form is likely present in the band migrating just below the 250 kD marker since it is immuno-positive for ICAM-1 and heavy-chain. This band is also immuno-positive for SC (total expected MW of ˜248 kD) but not for J chain which is somewhat unexpected given the canonical pathway for SIgA assembly, which involves 2 cell types (in mammalian) and requires the presence of J chain prior to assembly of SC. A tetrameric immunoadhesin, containing a single molecule of J chain and a single molecule of SC, has an expected MW of ˜440 kD, prior to glycosylation. Several species with molecular weights well in excess of 200 kD, immuno-positive with all four probes, are readily apparent.  
      Bombardment with DNA-coated microprojectiles is used to produce stable transformants in both plants and animals (reviewed by Sanford et al., Meth. Enz. 217:483-509,1993). Particle-mediated transformation with the vectors encoding the immunoadhesin of the present invention was performed using the PDS-1000/He particle acceleration device, manufactured by Bio-Rad. The PDS-1000/He particle acceleration device system uses Helium pressure to accelerate DNA-coated microparticles toward target cells. The physical nature of the technique makes it extremely versatile and easy to use. We have successfully transformed tobacco with all four components of a secretory IgA simultaneously.  
      The basic biolistic procedure was performed as follows: A stock suspension of microprojectiles was prepared by mixing 60 mg of particles in 1 ml of absolute ethanol. This suspension was vortexed and 25-50 μl was removed and added to a sterile microcentrifuge tube. After microcentrifuging for 30 seconds the ethanol was removed and the pellet resuspended in 1 ml sterile water and centrifuged for 5 minutes. The water was then removed and the pellet resuspended in 25-50 μl of DNA solution containing a mixture of plasmid DNAs, usually, but not always in equimolar amounts. The amount of plasmid added varied between 0.5 ng and 1 μg per preparation. The following were added sequentially: 220 μl of sterile water, 250 μl of 2.5 M CaCl2, and 50 μl of 0.1 M spermidine. This mixture was vortexed for at least 10 min and then centrifuged for 5 min. The supernatant was removed and the DNA/microprojectile precipitated in 600 μl of absolute ethanol, mixed and centrifuged 1 min. The ethanol was removed and the pellet resuspended in 36 μl of ethanol. Ten μl of the suspension was applied as evenly as possible onto the center of a macrocarrier sheet made of Kapton (DuPont) and the ethanol was evaporated. The macrocarrier sheet and a rupture disk were placed in the unit. A petri dish containing surface-sterilized tobacco leaves was placed below the stopping screen. The chamber was evacuated to 28-29 mm Hg and the target was bombarded once. The protocol has been optimized for tobacco, but is optimized for other plants as well by varying parameters such as He pressure, quantity of coated particles, distance between the macrocarrier and the stopping screen and flying distance from the stopping screen to the tissue.  
      Expression cassettes for chimeric ICAM-1 molecules were also assembled in binary vectors for use in  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation. An  Agrobacterium  binary vector designed for expression of both human J chain and human secretory component, as well as kanamycin resistance, was introduced into  A. tumefaciens  strain LBA4404. The chimeric ICAM/IgA molecule in another binary vector was also used to transform LBA4404. Overnight cultures of both strains were used for simultaneous “co-cultivation” with leaf pieces of tobacco, according to a standard protocol (Horsch et al., Science 227:1229-1231, 1985).  
      A standard protocol for regeneration of both bombarded and  Agrobacterium -transformed tobacco leaf disks was used (Horsch et al., Science 227:1229-1231, 1985). Because transformed plants, regenerated from bombarded tissue, frequently undergo gene-silencing upon maturation, transgenic tobacco plants were prepared via  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation, which gives a higher yield of expressing, mature plants.  
     Example 3  
     Purification of Assembled ICAM-1 Immunoadhesin  
      The immunoadhesin expressed according to Example 2 was purified. Calli were grown in large amounts to facilitate the development of extraction procedures. A partial purification schedule provided a stable concentrate, available in a variety of buffer conditions, for investigation of subsequent chromatographic techniques for the further purification of the immunoadhesin (See  FIG. 3 ). Calli were extracted in a juicer, which crushes tissue between two stainless-steel gears, while bathed in a buffer containing sodium citrate (0.6M, pH 7.4) and urea (final concentration of 2M). The juice (˜1 ml/g fresh weight) was precipitated, after coarse filtration through cheesecloth, with 0.67 volumes of saturated ammonium sulfate. A green pellet was collected after centrifugation and thoroughly extracted, in a small volume of 50 mM sodium citrate (pH 6.6), with a Dounce homogenizer. After additional centrifugation, a clear brown supernatant was collected and partially purified, during buffer exchange in a de-salting mode, by passage through a Sephadex G-100 column. The desalting/buffer exchange step has allowed preparation of a partially purified concentrate (˜0.2 ml/g fresh weight callus) in a desirable buffer; the G-100 column was eluted with 0.25× phosphate buffered saline. This eluate appeared to be stable for at least 10 days at 2-8° C.  
     Example 4  
     The ICAM-1 Immunoadhesin Inhibits Human Rhinovirus Infectivity  
      The infectivity of cells by human rhinovirus was demonstrated to be inhibited by the immunoadhesin prepared according to Example 3. Callus extract prepared according to Example 3 successfully competed for binding of an anti-ICAM monoclonal antibody to soluble ICAM-1.  FIG. 4  shows the data from an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). For the assay, 96-well plates were coated with 0.25 μg soluble ICAM-1/ml. The squares represent the increasing concentrations of sICAM and the circles represent the increasing amounts of callus extract (sterile filtered fraction from G-100) used to compete with the adhered ICAM for a constant amount of a mouse (anti-human ICAM) antibody. After washing the wells, adherent mouse antibody was detected with an anti-mouse antibody conjugated to horseradish peroxidase. Adherent enzyme activity was measured at 490 nm, with ortho-phenylene diamine as a substrate. The data (squares, sICAM; circles, Extract) are well described by siginoids of the form OD490=y=y0+a/[1+e−{(x−x0)/b}], where a=y max, y0=y min, b=the slope of the rapidly changing portion of the curve and x0˜the value of x at the 50% response level. Relative to soluble ICAM-1, the immunoadhesin extract tested here contains the equivalent of 250 μg ICAM/ml; this is an overestimate due to expected avidity effects of the dimeric and tetrameric assemblies of the ICAM-1-heavy-chain fusions. Thus, this ELISA demonstrated that the immunoadhesin competes with soluble ICAM-1 for binding to an anti-ICAM mAb.  
      The competitive ELISA allows for quantitative assessment of the recovery of activity by comparing the normalized amounts of various fractions required to give a 50% response. Upon purification, the titer of an immunoadhesin preparation may be expressed as a reciprocal dilution, or the number of milliliters to which a milligram of immunoadhesin must be diluted in order to give a 50% response. This ELISA will facilitate the development of a purification process for the immunoadhesin.  
      A cytopathic effect assay (CPE) demonstrated the specific ability of the partially purified immunoadhesin to inhibit the infectivity of human cells by human rhinovirus ( FIG. 5 ). Rhinovirus serotype HRV-39 was pre-incubated with human ICAM-1, an ICAM/IgA fusion (gift of Dr. Tim Springer), or with extracts from calli either expressing our ICAM-1/SIgA immunoadhesin or another, different, antibody before plating each of the mixtures with HeLa S3 cells at 33° C. After 3 days, viable cells were fixed and stained with a methanolic solution of Crystal Violet; the optical density at 570 nm provides a proportional measure of cell viability.  
      Two extracts derived from Rhi107-11, containing the immunoadhesin, clearly inhibited the virus&#39; ability to infect and kill HeLa S3 cells ( FIG. 5A , right side-up and upside-down triangles). Because the extracts were only partially purified, we also assayed a similarly prepared extract that contained a human IgA2m(2) directed against Doxorubicin, a chemotherapeutic agent. That extract, containing a similar immunoglobulin with an unrelated binding specificity, was unable to inhibit the infectivity of the rhinovirus and demonstrates that expression of the ICAM-1-heavy-chain fusion confers specificity to the inhibition. The CPE assay demonstrated, as expected, the differential ability of soluble ICAM-1 and an (IC1-5/IgA; Martin, et al., 1993) to inhibit viral infectivity ( FIG. 5B ). The insert in  FIG. 5B  is the scale expansion in the range of the IC 50  for soluble ICAM-1 (1.35 μg/ml) and for the IC1-5/IgA (0.12 μg/ml; 11.3 fold less).  
     Example 5  
     Production and Purification of Immunoadhesins for Clinical and Toxicological Studies  
      Production of sufficient immunoadhesin for the proposed clinical and toxicological needs is performed by making transgenic tobacco plants. The transgenic plants which express the immunoadhesin (without an ER retention signal) are generated by  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation. The absence of an ER retention signal is anticipated to enhance assembly since the nascent SIGA is processed through the entire Golgi apparatus, including, in particular, the trans-Golgi, where SC is covalently linked to dIgA as suggested by pulse-chase experiments (Chintalacharuvu &amp; Morrison, Immunotechnology 4:165-174, 1999). Because  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation is much more likely to generate plants with consistent levels of transgene expression, it is likely that progeny of these plants will be used for the production of clinical grade immunoadhesin.  
      In order to maximize expression levels, and create a true-breeding line, it is desirable to create homozygous plants. The highest producing plants (generation T0) can self-fertilize in the greenhouse before seed is collected. One quarter of the T1 plants are expected to be homozygous. These are grown in the greenhouse and seed samples from several plants are separately germinated on medium containing kanamycin. All the progeny (T2) from homozygous positive plants are expected to be green. Some of the progeny of heterozygous plants are expected to be white or yellowish. Homozygosity is confirmed by back-crossing to wild-type and immunoblotting extracts of the progeny.  
      Harvesting and processing may be continuously meshed during a production campaign, especially since multiple harvests may be obtained from a single planting, i.e. plants cut to soil level for one harvest are regrown for subsequent harvests. In developing a sense of scale for the production of immunoadhesin it is necessary to decide on the required amount of finished immunoadhesin, account for expression levels (mg immunoadhesin present/kg fresh weight tobacco), know the growth rate of the plants and the expected weight of the average plant, and the overall yield of the purification schedule (set at 20%). Setting the overall need at 3 g of finished immunoadhesin requires preparing for 4 harvests, each with an expected yield of 1 g of finished immunoadhesin.  
      Given these targets and parameters, the necessary number of plants and hence the space requirements for plant growth is determined.  FIG. 6  shows an evaluation of the production necessities for making 1 gram of finished immunoadhesin. In this diagram, the number of plants needed for 1 g of immunoadhesin, at 20% yield, at expected levels of expression and plant weight is illustrated. At different levels of immunoadhesin expression (mg/kg fresh weight) and overall recovery (set at 20%), the weight of each plant, and so the total number of plants, may be determined for a specified production target (1 g/harvest) within a window (dotted square) of reasonable possibilities. The number of required plants decreases, inversely, with the number of specified growth and re-growth periods. The expected biomass production, a function of time and growth conditions, influences the time to harvest and the time between harvests. These growth periods can be adjusted to the realities of the purification schedule by staggering planting and harvesting dates. For example, 1 g of finished immunoadhesin from plants with a reasonable expression level, of 100 mg of immunoadhesin/kg fresh weight, require 250 plants when harvested at a weight of 200 g/plant (˜80 days post germination). At this scale, these plants require about 10 m 2  of growing space and are harvested twice over 150 days.  
      Processing 50+kg of biomass at a time requires several moderately large-scale operations which all have counter-parts in the food-processing industry. These include bulk materials handling, size reduction, juicing and filtration. A Vincent Press and a Durco filtration system are used to efficiently process these quantities. The juicing step employs a proven and simple buffer of sodium citrate and urea. These components buffer the extract, help prevent the oxidation of phenolics and their association with proteins (Gegenheimer, Methods in Enzymology 182:174-193, 1990; Loomis, Methods in Enzymology, 31:528-544, 1974; Van Sumere, et al., The Chemistry and Biochemistry of Plant Proteins, 1975.) and ensure the solubility of the immunoadhesin during a subsequent acid precipitation.  
      Filtration of acid-insoluble lipid and protein (˜90% of the total) is followed by tangential flow ultrafiltration to concentrate the immunoadhesin and to remove small proteins, especially phenolics. Diafiltration enhances the removal of small molecules and exchanges the buffer in preparation for short-term storage and subsequent chromatography. Either SP-Sepharose (binding at pH 5.0 or below) or Q-Sepharose (binding at pH 5.5 or above) are among the ion-exchanges that can be used for filtering immunoadhesin. They are readily available, scalable, robust and have high capacities. In particular, they are available for expanded-bed formats, which reduce the stringency of prior filtration steps. Cation-exchange chromatography, which can be more selective than anion-exchange chromatography, is used first. The immunoadhesin is purified from the several species of protein potentially present, to the point where at least 95% of the protein. is in the form of ICAM-1/IgA, ICAM-1/dIgA or ICAM-1/SIgA, as the presence of di- and tetra-valent ICAM-1 domains are critical for potent anti-viral activity. Purified immunoadhesin is then tested for acceptable levels of endotoxin, alkaloids such as nicotine and for bio-burden. In addition, potency levels (defined by ELISA and CPE assays), protein concentration, pH and appearance are monitored. Subsequently, the stability of the clinical lots of immunoadhesin is determined, to ensure that patients receive fully potent immunoadhesin. Even partially purified extracts have been found to be stable for 10 days when refrigerated. The titer and potency of clinically formulated immunoadhesin (in phosphate-buffered saline), when stored at −20° C., 2-8° C., and at 37° C., over a period of 3 to 6 months, is also tested.  
     Example 6  
     The Immunoadhesins Have Plant-Specific Glycosylation  
      The immunoadhesins produced are analyzed to determine the pattern of glycosylation present. Cabanes-Macheteau et al., Glycobiology 9(4):365-372 (1999), demonstrated the presence of several glycosyl moieties, typical of plants, on a plant-expressed antibody construct. Their methods are used to demonstrate that the immunoadhesins produced according to Example 1, 2 and 3 have a plant-specific glycosylation pattern. We anticipate that this diversity will also be a source of variability for immunoadhesin. Since crude extracts have been shown to have anti-viral activity in vitro (data not shown), glycosylation, as such, does not appear to affect potency. N-linked glycosylation ( FIG. 2  shows that there are fifteen potential sites on the chimeric ICAM-1 molecule alone) probably contributes to the diversity of bands seen in immuno-blots. Immunoadhesin preparations are digested with N-Glycosidase A, before blotting, showing that the difference in banding patterns collapse into fewer, discrete bands. In this way, glycoforms are initially characterized with reducing and non-reducing polyacrylamide gels. In addition, digested and mock-digested fractions are tested in the CPE assay and competition ELISA, demonstrating the effect of N-linked glycosylation on potency and titer in vitro.  
     Example 7  
     The ICAM-1 Immunoadhesin Inactivates Human Rhinovirus  
      The immunoadhesin prepared according to Examples 1, 2 and 3 is assayed for its ability and to inactivate HRV by binding to the virus, blocking virus entry, and inducing the formation of empty virus capsids. To measure binding of the immunoadhesin to HRV, the immunoadhesin is incubated with [ 3 H]leucine-labeled HRV-39 for 30 min and then added to HeLa cells for 1 hr. After washing, cells and bound virus are detached with Triton X-100 and [ 3 H] measured in a scintillation counter.  
      Inactivation of HRV-39 by incubation with the immunoadhesin is compared with HRV inactivation by sICAM-1. HRV-39 is not directly inactivated to a significant extent (&lt;0.5 log10 reduction in infectivity) by incubation with monomeric sICAM-1, while incubation with IC1-5D/IgA reduced infectivity approximately 1.0 log10 (Arruda, et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 36:1186-1191, 1992; Crump, et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38:1425-7, 1994). In order to test the ability of the immunoadhesin to inactivate HRV-39, 106 50% tissue culture infective doses (TCID 50 ) of HRV-39 are incubated in medium containing a concentration of sICAM-1 or immunoadhesin equal to ten times the IC50 of each molecule for that virus, or in plain medium, for 1 hr at 33° C. on a rocker platform. Each virus-immunoadhesin or virus-medium mixture are then diluted serially in ten-fold dilutions, and the titer determined on HeLa cells in 96-well plates.  
      The effect of the immunoadhesin on HRV attachment to host cells is tested by inoculating HeLa cells with HRV-39 at a MOI of 0.3 in the presence or absence of the immunoadhesin. Absorbance proceeds for one hour at 4° C., the cells are washed, and media is replaced plus or minus the immunoadhesin. Cells are incubated for ten hours at 33° C. (to allow one round of replication), and virus are harvested by freeze/thawing the cells. The virus is titered on HeLa cells.  
      ICAM-IGA (IC1-5D/IgA) is more efficient than Sicam-1 at inducing conformational changes in HRV, leading to the formation of empty, non-infectious viral particles (Martin, et al. J. Virol. 67:3561-8, 1993). To examine the ability of the immunoadhesin produced according to Examples 1, 2 and 3 to induce conformational changes in HRV, causing release of viral RNA, purified immunoadhesin is incubated with [ 3 H]leucine-labeled HRV-39 for 30 min and then the virus is overlayed onto a 5 to 30% sucrose gradient. Following centrifugation for 90 min at 40,000 rpm, fractions are collected, [ 3 H] measured, and fractions assessed for infectivity. (Intact HRV sediments at 149S on a sucrose gradient while empty capsids lacking RNA sediments at 75S (Martin, et al. J. Virol. 67:3561-8, 1993)). Due to its increased valence, we expect the ICAM/SIgA immunoadhesin is more efficient at inducing empty non-infectious particles than ICAM-IgA.  
      The inhibitory effect of purified immunoadhesin on a panel of both major and minor (that do not use ICAM-1 as a receptor) HRV serotypes will be examined using the CPE assay. The ability of ICAM-1 to inhibit HRV infection varies among viral isolates. It has been shown (Crump, et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38:1425-7, 1994) that the EC 50  for sICAM-1 varies from 0.6 μg/ml to &gt;32 μg/ml when tested on a panel of HRV major receptor serotypes assay using HeLa cells. Our panel includes nine major serotypes (HRV-3, -13, -14, -16, -23, -39, -68, -73, and -80) and the minor receptor serotype HRV-1A.  
     Example 8  
     Clinical Studies Demonstrating the Ability of the ICAM-1 Immunoadhesin to Reduce Infectivity in Humans: Dose Escalation Tolerance Study  
      The immunoadhesin of the present invention is tested in two randomized controlled trials to determine the effect of intranasal administration of the immunoadhesin on infection, IL-8 response, and illness in experimental rhinovirus colds. These two studies evaluate the immunoadhesin taken by subjects before or after rhinovirus inoculation. The clinical protocols used here are based on protocols previously used by in evaluation of a recombinant soluble ICAM-1 molecule for efficacy against rhinovirus infection (Turner, et al., JAMA 281:1797-804, 1999).  
      A. Subjects  
      Subjects are recruited from university communities at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville. Subjects are required to be in good health, non-smokers, and between the ages of 18 and 60 years. Subjects are excluded if they have a history of allergic disease or nonallergic rhinitis, abnormal nasal anatomy or mucosa, or a respiratory tract infection in the previous 2 weeks. Pregnant or lactating women or women not taking medically approved birth control are also excluded. In the experimental virus challenge study (Phase I/II, see below), subjects are required to be susceptible to the study virus as evidenced by a serum neutralizing antibody titer of 1:4 or less to the virus, determined within 90 days of the start of the trial.  
      B. Study Medication  
      The immunoadhesin of the present invention is formulated as a phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) spray solution containing 2.6 mg/ml. The placebo consists of PBS and is identical in appearance to the active preparation. The solutions are administered using a medication bottle equipped with a metered nasal spray pump. The pump delivers 70 μl of solution containing 183 μg of the immunoadhesin with each spray. The medication is administered as two sprays per nostril, six times daily (at 3-hour intervals) for a total daily dose of 4.4 mg. This is the same dose, in mg protein/day, as was used for soluble ICAM-1 in the tremacamra study infection (Turner, et al., JAMA 281:1797-804, 1999). A mole of the immunoadhesin has about twice the mass as a mole of sICAM-1. However, given the differences in in vitro activity between sICAM-1 and ICAM/IgA fusions, the immunoadhesin is many-fold more effective on a molar basis than sICAM-1. Thus, this amount is a conservative calculation of what is necessary. This amount is used, except in the event that the dose escalation study reveals problems at this dose.  
      C. Study Design  
      Single ascending dose and multiple ascending dose studies are used to evaluate the safety of the immunoadhesin. In each case, three subjects are evaluated at each dosage level, two receiving the immunoadhesin and one receiving placebo. In the single ascending dose study, four dosage levels are evaluated. The lowest individual dose is half the anticipated dose to be used in the challenge study, and the highest individual dose is twice the anticipated challenge study dose. The dosage levels are as follows: one spray in each nostril (366 μg total), two sprays in each nostril (732 μg total), three sprays in each nostril (1098 μg total), four sprays in each nostril (1464 μg total).  
      The same dosage levels are used in the multiple ascending dose study. Subjects receive doses every three hours (six times per day) for five days. In both studies subjects are evaluated at each dosage level, staggering the start of each subsequent level until it is clear that there is no acute toxicity at the previous level. All subjects return for a single dose 21 days after the first dose, and then for a follow-up at six weeks (for determination of serum antibody against the immunoadhesin).  
      A separate group of twelve subjects is given one dose of two sprays in each nostril (732 μg total), and nasal lavage is done at 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 hours (two subjects at each time point). Washings are assayed at Panorama Research by ELISA for the immunoadhesin in order to calculate its in vivo half-life. The total amount of the immunoadhesin to be used in the dose escalation and half-life determination studies (on a total of 28 subjects) will be approximately 270 mg.  
      D. Safety Evaluations  
      In addition to routine adverse event recording, the safety of the immunoadhesin is assessed in three ways. First, prior to the first dose and after the last dose the investigators perform a visual examination of the nasal mucosa, in particular looking for signs of irritation or inflammation. Any visible changes are noted. Second, standard blood safety evaluations are done on samples collected prior to treatment and after the last dose on study days 1, 4, and 8 (and 21 in the multiple ascending dose study). Third, serum samples are saved, frozen, and used to determine if the immunoadhesin is able to pass through the nasal mucosa into the blood. This is accomplished in two ways. First, the presence the immunoadhesin in serum samples is measured by ELISA. In this assay, anti-human IgA antibodies adsorbed to microtiter plates capture any the immunoadhesin in the serum, which are detected by an anti-ICAM antibody. The sensitivity of the assay is determined using normal human serum samples spiked with known concentrations of the immunoadhesin. Alternatively, anti-ICAM antibodies can be adsorbed to plates to capture the immunoadhesin in the serum that would be detected by anti-IgA. Second, the presence of an immune response to the immunoadhesin is assayed with an ELISA method that uses the immunoadhesin adsorbed to microtiter plates. Any anti-immunoadhesin antibodies in the serum bind, and are detected with anti-human IgG or anti-human IgM. Pre-treatment and post-treatment serum samples are compared, and any change in titer is considered evidence of uptake of the immunoadhesin. If there is any positive evidence of anti-immunoadhesin antibodies, additional assays will be done to distinguish between anti-ICAM-1 and anti-IgA activity.  
      Patients are screened for the development of an allergic reaction to the immunoadhesin. (In previous studies, there were no episodes of adverse reactions with soluble ICAM applied topically in the nose or plantibodies applied topically in the oral cavity.) Individuals exhibiting symptoms of nasal allergy are tested for anti-immunoadhesin-specific IgE antibodies in nasal lavage fluids using a sensitive two-step ELISA (R &amp; D Systems).  
      E. Statistical Analysis.  
      The sample size for these studies is based on previous studies using the rhinovirus challenge model. The sample size planned for the protection studies should be adequate to detect a reduction in the incidence of clinical colds from 75% in the placebo groups to 25% in the active treatment groups at 1-sided levels of α=0.05 and 1−β=0.80. In addition, the sample size should be adequate to detect a change in the total symptom score of 5 units assuming an SD of 5.8 units.  
     Example 9  
     Clinical Studies Demonstrating the Ability of the Immunoadhesin to Reduce Infectivity in Humans: Challenge Studies  
      Challenge studies are used to demonstrate that treatment with the immunoadhesin of the present invention protect against clinical colds or reduce cold symptoms after viral challenge.  
      A. Challenge Virus  
      The challenge virus used for this study is rhinovirus 39 (HRV-39). Rhinovirus type 39 is a major group of rhinovirus that requires ICAM-1 for attachment to cells. The challenge virus pool is safety-tested according to consensus guidelines (Gwaltney, et al., Prog. Med. Virol. 39:256-263, 1992). All subjects are inoculated with approximately 200 median tissue culture infective dose (TCID 50 ). The virus are administered as drops in two inocula of 250 μl per nostril given approximately 15 minutes apart while the subjects are supine.  
                       TABLE 5                                      Day                                                         0   1   2   3   4   5   6   7-14   21                         Pre-inoculation study timetable                                                     Medica-       6   6   6   6   6                   tions       doses   doses   doses   doses   doses       Inocula-       hour       tion       4       Symptom       m/e   m/e   m/e   m/e   m/e   m/e   e       scores       Nasal       m   m   m   m   m   m       lavage       Serum       X                           X       sample                 Pre-inoculation study timetable                                                     Medica-       6   6   6   6   6                   tions       doses   doses   doses   doses   doses       Inocula-       hour       tion       0       Symptom       m/e   m/e   m/e   m/e   m/e   m/e   e       scores       Nasal       m   M   m   m   m   m       lavage       Serum       X                           X       sample                 Note            In both studies on days 1-5, doses are given hours 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15            m = morning            e = evening             
 
      B. Study Design  
      Two randomized rhinovirus challenge studies are performed (see Table 5). The same formulation of the immunoadhesin of the present invention is evaluated in pre-inoculation and post-inoculation studies. In both studies, medication is administered as six doses each day for five days. Subjects are randomly assigned to receive either the immunoadhesin or matching placebo at the time of enrollment into each study. The study is blinded and all clinical trial personnel, subjects, and employees of Panorama Research remain blinded until all data are collected.  
      In the pre-inoculation study, medications are started four hours (two doses) prior to viral challenge. The virus challenge is administered one hour after the second dose of the immunoadhesin (or placebo) and the four remaining doses of study medication for the first day are given as scheduled. In this study eighteen subjects receive the active treatment and eighteen subjects receive placebo.  
      In the post-inoculation study, medications begin 24 hours after virus challenge. This timepoint was chosen because it has been used in other studies of protection from virus challenge, and because cold symptoms are clearly present (Harris &amp; Gwaltney, Clin. Infect. Dis. 23:1287-90, 1996). Virus challenge in this study is administered in the morning of study day 0 approximately 24 hours prior to the first dose of study medication on the morning of study day 1. In this study, 36 subjects receive the active treatment and 18 subjects receive placebo.  
      Subjects are isolated in individual hotel rooms from study day 0 (the day of virus challenge) to study day 6. On each of these days a symptom score and a nasal lavage for virus isolation are done in the morning prior to the first dose of medication and a second symptom score is done each evening. On study day 6, subjects are released from isolation but continue to record symptom scores each evening through day 14. The subjects return to the study site on study day 21, when a final serum sample for detection of anti-immunoadhesin antibodies will be collected. The total amount of immunoadhesin to be used in the two virus challenge studies (on a total of 54 subjects) is approximately 1200 mg.  
      C. Viral Isolation  
      Virus shedding is detected by virus isolation in cell culture. Nasal wash specimens are collected by instillation of 5 ml of 0.9% saline into each nostril. This wash is then expelled into a plastic cup and kept chilled for one to two hours until it is processed for viral cultures. Immunoadhesin is removed from the specimens by treatment with anti-ICAM-1 antibody adsorbed to an agarose support (Affi-Gel 10, Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, Calif.). A portion of each processed specimen is stored at −80° C., and another portion is inoculated into two tubes of HeLa-1 cells, a HeLa cell line enriched for the production of ICAM-1 Arruda, et al., J. Clin. Microb. 34:1277-1279, 1996). Rhinovirus are identified by the development of typical cytopathic effect. Subjects with a positive viral culture on any of the postchallenge study days are considered infected. Viral titers in the specimens stored at −80° C. are determined by culturing serial ten-fold dilutions in microtiter plates of HeLa-1 cells.  
      Antibody to the challenge virus are detected by serum neutralizing titers done using standard methods Gwaltney, et al, Diagnostic Procedures for Viral Rickettsial and Chlamydial Infections, p. 579-614, American Public Health Association). Serum specimens for antibody testing are collected during screening, immediately prior to virus challenge (acute), and again 21 days later (convalescent). Subjects with at least a four-fold rise in antibody titer to the challenge virus when the convalescent serum sample is compared with the acute serum sample are considered infected.  
      D. Evaluation of Illness Severity  
      Illness severity is assessed as previously described (Turner, et al., JAMA 281:1797-804, 1999). Symptom scores are recorded prior to virus challenge (baseline) and twice each day at approximately twelve-hour intervals for the next 6 days. On study days 7 through 14 each subject records his/her symptom score once per day in the evening. At each evaluation, subjects are asked to judge the maximum severity of the following eight symptoms in the interval since the last symptom evaluation: sneezing, rhinorrhea, nasal obstruction, sore throat, cough, headache, malaise, and chilliness. Each symptom is assigned a severity score of 0 to 3 corresponding to a report of symptom severity of absent, mild, moderate, or severe. If symptoms are present at baseline, the baseline symptom score will be subtracted from the reported symptom score. The higher of the two daily evaluations are taken as the daily symptom score for each symptom. The daily symptom scores for the eight individual symptoms are summed to yield the total daily symptom score. The total daily symptom scores for the first 5 days after virus challenge (study days 1-5) are summed and on the evening of study day 5, all subjects are asked, “Do you feel you have had a cold?” Subjects who had a total symptom score of at least 6 and either at least three days of rhinorrhea or the subjective impression that they had a cold are defined as having a clinical cold.  
      The weight of expelled nasal secretions is determined on days 1-7 by providing all subjects with packets of preweighed nasal tissues. After the tissues are used they are stored in an airtight plastic bag. Each morning the used tissues, together with any unused tissues from the original packet, are collected and weighed.  
      E. IL-8 Assay  
      Recent studies have suggested that the host inflammatory response, particularly interleukin 8 (IL-8), may play a role in the pathogenesis of common cold symptoms due to rhinovirus infection. Concentrations of IL-8 in nasal lavage are determined with a commercially available ELISA (R&amp;D Systems, Minneapolis, Minn.) as previously described (Turner, et al., JAMA 281:1797-804, 1999).  
      F. Safety Evaluations  
      The same evaluations are, done in the challenge study as in the dose escalation study described in Example 8.  
      G. Statistical Analysis  
      Statistical analysis is performed similarly as to that described for the dose escalation study described in Example 8.  
      The foregoing examples and discussion, while predominantly addressed to ICAM-1 immunoadhesins, can be readily adapted by one of skill to achieve and implement the use of other types of immunoadhesins active against other types or subtypes of virus and bacterial pathogens. The following examples illustrate anti-bacterial immunoadhesin embodiments making use of the anthrax toxin receptor (ATR) as receptor protein.  
     Example 10  
     Construction of ATR Immunoadhesin Expression Cassettes  
      A cassette encoding a portion of the extracellular domains of human anthrax toxin receptor (ATR) is prepared by PCR cloning. Specifically, a fragment of 523 bp, encoding amino acids 44-216 (the so-called von Willebrand factor type A domain) is amplified from plasmid ATR (Bradley et al., 2001), or from plasmid TEM8 (St Croix et al., 2000) using the following oligonucleotide primers:  
                              5′- GACCTGTACTTCATTTTGGAC AAATCAG   (SEQ ID NO: 91)           G-3′               5′- GAGCTC AAAATTGAGTGGATGATGCCT   (SEQ ID NO: 92)       TGCAGAG-3′          
 
      The second primer (SEQ ID NO: 92) is designed to introduce a Sac 1 site at the 3′ end of the coding region of the ATR extracellular domain (solid underline). PCR is performed with Pfu polymerase (Stratagene) to reduce accumulation of errors. A second fragment of 124 bp, which includes a 5′ untranslated region and a plant signal peptide, is amplified from plasmid 8ATG-TOPO#4 (which is a PCR clone of a plant-optimized 5′ untranslated region and signal peptide in the Invitrogen cloning vector pCR4-TOPO), using the following oligonucleotide primers:  
                              5′- GGTACC ACTTCTCTCAATCCAACTTTC-3′   (SEQ ID NO: 93)                   5′- GTCCAAAATGAAGTACAGGTC AGCCAA   (SEQ ID NO: 94)       ACTAGTAGAGGTGAACAAAAGC-3′          
 
      The first primer (SEQ ID NO: 93) is designed to introduce a Kpn I site at the 5′ end of the PCR fragment (solid underline). The two PCR fragments have 20 nt of complementary sequence (dotted underlines). The two PCR fragments are mixed together, and a fragment of 626 bp is amplified using SEQ ID NO: 93 and SEQ ID NO: 92. The resulting PCR fragment is cloned into the vector PCRScript (Stratagene), and sequenced before cloning between Kpn I and Sac I sites in the vector pMSP-coICAM, resulting in plasmid pMSP-ATR-IgA2. This results in a genetic fusion of the extracellular domain of ATR and the constant region of human IgA2. This human IgA2 constant region has been synthesized to use codons optimal for expression in tobacco cells. The full nucleotide and amino acid sequence of the ATR-IgA2 fusion (the immunoadhesin) is shown in  FIG. 10 . In the resulting construct, expression of the chimeric ATR-IgA2 molecule is under the control of the constitutive promoter “superMAS” (Ni et al., 1995) and the ags 3′ terminator region.  
      The entire expression cassette (promoter+ATR-IgA2+terminator) is removed from pMSP-ATR-IgA2 with the restriction enzyme Asc I, and cloned into the binary  Agrobacterium  Ti plasmid vector pGPTV-kan-ocs, resulting in plasmid pGPTV-kan-ocs-ATR-IgA2. The vector pGPTV-kan-ocs is derived from pGPTV-kan (Becker et al., 1992), which was modified in the following manner. The sequence between the Eco RI and Hind III sites of pGPTV-kan, including the entire uid A gene, was removed and replaced with the ocs 3′ terminator region (MacDonald et al., 1991) oriented toward the npt II gene, plus the restriction sites for Asc I and Sac I. The purpose of this terminator adjacent to the right border of the T-DNA is to eliminate transcriptional interference with the transgene due to transcription originating in the plant DNA outside of the right border (Ingelbrecht et al., 1991).  
      Sequence between the T-DNA borders of the plasmid pGPTV-kan-ocs-ATR-IgA2 is shown in  FIG. 11 . Sequence outside the left and right borders are as described (Becker et al., 1992). Nucleotides 18-187 represent the right T-DNA border. Nucleotides 311-630 represent the ocs 3′ terminator region. Nucleotides 927-1976 represent the superMAS promoter. Nucleotides 1990-2017 represent a 5′ untranslated region from the  Nicotiana sylvestris  psaDb gene (Yamamoto et al., 1995). The context around the initiation ATG (nucleotides 2012-2026) was designed to match that found in highly expressed plant genes (Sawant et al., 1999). Nucleotides 2018-2086 comprise a sequence encoding a modified version of the signal peptide of  Vicia faba  legumin (Baumlein et al., 1986). Nucleotides 2087-2605 comprise a sequence encoding the von Willebrand factor type A domain of ATR (Bradley et al., 2001). Nucleotides 2606-3631 comprise a sequence encoding the human IgA2m(2) constant region (Chintalacharuvu et al., 1994). Nucleotides 3794-4108 derive from the agropine synthase (ags) terminator. Nucleotides 4530-4800 represent the NOS promoter (Depicker et al., 1982). Nucleotides 4835-5626 encode the npt II gene (conferring resistance to kanamycin). Nucleotides 5648-5870 are the polyadenylation signal from  A. tumefaciens  gene 7 (Gielen et al., 1984). Nucleotides 6454-6602 represent the left T-DNA border.  
      A construct for the expression in plants of human J chain and secretory component has also been developed. This construct, pGPTV-hpt-ocs-35SJ/SC, is based on the vector pGPTV-hpt-ocs, derived from pGPTV-hpt in the same manner as described for pGPTV-kan-ocs above. Sequence between the T-DNA borders of the plasmid pGPTV-hpt-ocs-35SJ/SC is shown in  FIG. 12 . Sequence outside the left and right borders are as described (Becker et al., 1992). Nucleotides 1-149 represent the left T-DNA border. Nucleotides 733-955 (complement) represent the polyadenylation signal from  A. tumefaciens  gene 7 (Gielen et al., 1984). Nucleotides 980-2002 (complement) represent the hpt gene (conferring resistance to hygromycin). Nucleotides 2049-2318 (complement) represent the NOS promoter (Depicker et al., 1982). Nucleotides 2898-3230 represent the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter driving expression of the human secretory component gene including its native signal peptide (nucleotides 3236-5056), and nucleotides 5060-5445 represent the polyadenylation signal from the pea rbcS-E9 gene (Mogen et al., 1992). Nucleotides 5457-5788 represent a second copy of the CaMV 35S promoter driving expression of the human Joining (J) chain gene including its native signal peptide (nucleotides 5797-6273), and nucleotides 6281-6494 represent the gene 7 terminator. Nucleotides 6501-6819 (complement) represent the ocs 3′ terminator region. Nucleotides 6944-7113 represent the right T-DNA border.  
     Example 11  
     Plant Transformation and ATR Immunoadhesin Expression in Plants  
      The expression cassettes described above are used to produce the assembled immunoadhesin in plants, via  Agrobacterium -mediated transformation. Plasmids pGPTV-hpt-ocs-35SJ/SC and pGPTV-kan-ocs-ATR-IgA2 are introduced separately into  A tumefaciens  strain LBA4404. Overnight cultures of both strains are used for simultaneous “co-cultivation” with leaf pieces of tobacco, according to a standard protocol (Horsch et al., 1985). Transformed plant tissue is selected on regeneration medium containing both kanamycin (100 μg/mL) and hygromycin (25 μg/mL).  
      Plantlets that regenerate in the presence of antibiotic are screened for transgene expression. This is accomplished by preparing extracts of leaf tissue in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and spotting clarified extracts on nitrocellulose paper. These “dot” blots are probed with alkaline-phosphatase-conjugated antisera specific for human IgA, J chain or secretory component. Plants that test positive on this first screen are subjected for further screens involving western blotting and PCR. The ATR-IgA2 immunoadhesin is expected to have a subunit MW of 59 kDa. Due to natural dimerization of the heavy chain constant region, dimers of ˜118 kDa are also expected to form. These dimers further dimerize within the plant cell in the presence of J chain, forming a molecule of ˜252 kDa. With the addition of secretory component, a molecular species of ˜320 kDa is observed.  
      The presence of a signal peptide in the chimeric heavy chain, J chain and secretory component constructs is important for assembly into a multimeric immunoadhesin. Upon translation of the mRNAs, signal peptide cleavage is predicted to deposit the each protein into the plant cell&#39;s endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Assembly into a multimeric immunoadhesin is expected to take place in the ER and golgi bodies, and the assembled molecule is then secreted from the cell.  
     Example 12  
     Purification of Assembled ATR Immunoadhesin  
      Purification of Assembled ATR Immunoadhesin can be accomplished essentially as described for the ICAM-1 immunoadhesin of Example 3, supra.  
     Example 13  
     The ATR Immunoadhesin Inhibits Toxin Action on Mammalian Cells  
      The expression cassettes described above are used to produce the assembled immunoadhesin, which is purified from plant extracts. The purified immunoadhesin is used to protect CHO-K1 cells from being killed in a simple bioassay. CHO-K1 cells have the receptor to which PA binds on their cell surfaces, but they are not sensitive to the toxin. They are killed when challenged with PA and LFN-DTA, a fusion protein composed of the N-terminal 255 amino acids of LF linked to the catalytic A chain of diptheria toxin. This recombinant toxin exploits the same LF-PA-receptor interactions that are required for the binding and entry of the native LF and OF proteins. To test the protective effect of the immunoadhesin, CHO-K1 cells are mixed with an increasing amount of ATR-IgA2 in the presence of a constant (toxic) amount of PA and LF N -DTA, and the subsequent effect on protein synthesis is measured. ATR-IgA2 is an effective inhibitor of toxin action, inhibiting toxin action at a lower molar concentration than soluble ATR.  
     Example 14  
     The ATR Immunoadhesin Inhibits Toxin Action in Human Subjects  
      The purified immunoadhesin is prepared in a pharmaceutically acceptable buffer and is administered to human subjects infected with Anthrax. The route of administration may be either as an inhaled aerosol or as an injection. Subjects in late stages of infection who would normally die are protected from toxin action by the immunoadhesin.  
     Example 15  
     Construction of an Alternative ATR Immunoadhesin Expression Cassette  
      A cassette encoding the entire extracellular portion of human ATR (amino acids 24-320) is prepared by PCR cloning. Specifically, a fragment of 878 bp is amplified from plasmid ATR (Bradley et al., 2001), or from plasmid TEM8 (St Croix et al., 2000) using the following oligonucleotide primers:  
                              5′- GGGGGACGCAGGGAGGAT GGGGGTCCAG-3′   (SEQ ID NO: 95)                   5′- GAGCTC CCGTCAGAACAGTGTGTGGTGGT   (SEQ ID NO: 96)       G-3′          
 
      The second primer (SEQ ID NO: 96) is designed to introduce a Sac I site at the 3′ end of the coding region of the ATR extracellular domain (solid underline). PCR is performed with Pfu polymerase (Stratagene) to reduce accumulation of errors. A second fragment of 121 bp, which includes a 5′ untranslated region and a plant signal peptide, is amplified from plasmid delta. ATG-TOPO#4, using the following oligonucleotide primers:  
                              5′- GGTACC ACTTCTCTCAATCCAACTTTC-3′   (SEQ ID NO: 93)                   5′- ATCCTCCCTGCGTCCCCC AGCCAAACTAGTA   (SEQ ID NO: 97)       GAGGTGAACAAAAGC-3′          
 
      The first primer (SEQ ID NO: 93) is designed to introduce a Kpn I site at the 5′ end of the PCR fragment (solid underline). The two PCR fragments have 20 nt of complementary sequence (dotted underlines). The two PCR fragments are mixed together, and a fragment of 981 bp is amplified using SEQ ID NO: 93 and SEQ ID NO: 96. The resulting PCR fragment is cloned into a plant expression cassette to form˜a genetic fusion with human IgA2 in the same manner as the partial ATR extracellular domain (Example 1).  
      An alternate construction using this same method would amplify amino acids 41-227.  
     Example 16  
     Production of an Anthrax Chimeric Toxin Receptor Protein: CMG2-IgG and High Affinity Anti-PA Antibody  
      Construction of CMG2 Fused to IgG (CMG2-IgG) and High Affinity Anti-PA Antibody  
      Briefly, DNA fragments encoding codon-optimized anti-PA heavy and light chain Variable regions, and a fragment encoding a portion of the extracellular domain of a human anthrax toxin receptor (CMG2) were synthesized. The CMG2 and anti-PA heavy-chain Variable region sequences were separately ligated to DNA fragments encoding human IgG1 heavy constant region domains in an  Agrobacterium  binary vector under the control of a constitutive plant promoter (CaMV35S) and a plant 3′ polyadenylation signal sequence. A similar kappa chain vector was prepared for the 1 H light-chain V region. Construction of these vectors is described in detail below.  
      The program “Signal IP” was used to predict the signal peptide cleavage site of CMG2 as being between amino acids 33 and 3445. Using a codon-usage table derived from highly-expressed plant genes, we designed and synthesized a DNA fragment of 697 bp that included a short 5′ untranslated region, the signal peptide of the 2S2 albumin storage protein of  Arabidopsis thaliana   46  and amino acids 34-232 of CMG2 ( FIG. 14 ). The encoded portion of CMG2 corresponded to that used by Scobie et al. as a soluble protein. 31  After confirming the sequence, this fragment was cloned between Kpn I and Sac I sites in the vector pMSP-IgG, which already contains the constant region of human IgG1, resulting in plasmid pMSP-CMG2-IgG. This resulted in a genetic fusion of the extracellular domain of CMG2 and the constant region of human IgG1. This human IgG1 constant region had also been synthesized to use codons optimal for expression in tobacco. In the resulting construct, expression of the chimeric CMG2-IgG1 molecule was under the control of the highly expressed constitutive promoter CaMV35S47 and the ags 3′ terminator region. The expected amino acid sequence of the mature protein is shown in  FIG. 14 .  
      The entire expression cassette (promoter+CMG2-IgG1+ terminator) was subcloned from pMSP-CMG2-IgG into the binary  Agrobacterium  Ti plasmid vector pGPTV-kan-ocs, resulting in plasmid pGPTV-kan-ocs-CMG2-IgG. The vector pGPTV-kan-ocs is derived from pGPTV-kan, which was itself derived from the more common binary vector pBIN19. 48  The expression cassette uses a 5′ untranslated region from the  Nicotiana sylvestris  psaDb gene, which has characteristics of a translational enhancer. 49  The context around the initiation ATG was designed to match that found in highly expressed plant genes. 50    
      For expression of the anti-PA antibody, a DNA fragment encoding the heavy chain variable region of 1H, using plant-optimal codons, was synthesized with a Sac I site at the 3′ end for ligation to our codon-optimized human IgG1 constant region sequence. Similarly, a sequence encoding the Vk region of antibody 1H, with a Hind III at the 3′ end for ligation to our codon-optimized human kappa constant region, was also synthesized. These sequences incorporated the same 5′ UTR and signal peptide as was used with the CMG2 gene. Both variable regions were cloned into separate expression vectors under the control of the CaMV35S promoter, in frame with the corresponding heavy and light chain constant regions.  
      Protein Production in Tobacco Using an  Agrobacterium tumefaciens -mediated Transient Expression System  
      Two  Agrobacterium  strains carrying cassettes for expression of 1H heavy and light chains were co-infiltrated into leaves of  Nicotiana benthamiana , which were harvested 7 days later and immediately processed for purification of antibody. 51  Similarly, an  Agrobacterium  strain carrying the CMG2-IgG expression cassette was infiltrated into leaves. Leaf extracts from transiently transfected tobacco plants were prepared and fractionated by Protein A chromatography. Using this rapid, high capacity and reproducible approach we purified small samples of 1H and CMG2-IgG. Table 6 shows the results of a typical experiment.  
               TABLE 6                          Isolation and purification of protein from transiently       transfected  N. benthamiana  leaves                                         grams   μg/gm   μg   μg/gm yield           Protein   leaves   (ELISA)   recovered   (OD280)   nmoles               1H IgG   100   18   1740   17.4   11.6       CMG2-IgG    74   No data   1140   15.4    9.8                  
 
      The purified proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE under reducing and non-reducing conditions and subjected to silver staining ( FIG. 15 ). The 1H IgG preparation contained a single band of 150 kDa, which reduced to two bands at 50 and 26 kDa. Western blotting confirmed these two bands as human gamma heavy and kappa light chain (not shown). The CMG2-IgG preparation that eluted from protein A was a heterogeneous mixture of proteins, with the major band at 45 kDa under non-reducing conditions and 29 kDa under reducing conditions. The expected size, based on amino acid sequence, of a CMG2-IgG monomer is 58 kDa. Under reducing conditions, there is a small amount of a 53 kDa band, which probably represents intact CMG2-IgG monomer. More rapidly migrating bands are proteolytic degradation products that are missing the VWA/I domain plus all or part of Cγ1. All bands reacted with anti-IgG1 antiserum (data not shown).  
      The CMG2-IgG preparation was again run under reducing conditions on SDS-PAGE, and the gel was blotted onto PVDF and stained with Coomassie. Three slices, containing the 53, 34 and 29 kDa fragments ( FIG. 15 ) were sent to the Molecular Structure Facility at UC Davis for Edman degradation (N-terminal amino acid sequencing). No sequence could be recovered from the 53 kDa band. This suggested the presence of a “blocked” residue, which is consistent with the Gln expected for the amino terminus of CMG2. The amino termini of the 34 and 29 kDa fragments were at amino acids 268 and 297 respectively (bold amino acids numbered 1 and 2 in  FIG. 14 ). These results are consistent with the cartoon models in  FIG. 15 .  
     Example 17  
     Testing for In Vitro Anti-anthrax Toxin Activity of Anthrax Chimeric Toxin Receptor Protein  
      This Example demonstrates methods to test the anti-anthrax toxin activity of the chimeric toxin receptor proteins and immunoadhesins described herein.  
      The purified 1H IgG plantibody and the CMG2-IgG1 antitoxin were tested for the ability to neutralize PA in a mouse macrophage assay employing lethal toxin. Survival of RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage-like cells after administration of PA plus lethal factor (100 ng/ml PA, 50 ng/ml LF) together with different concentrations of plant-made 1H IgG or CMG2-IgG1 was determined. 25  Antitoxin proteins were pre-incubated with toxin for 30 minutes before adding to macrophages. After three hours of exposure to toxin, an indirect viability assay was performed. Titration of plant-made 1H IgG determined that the antibody had an IC 50  of ˜0.3 μg/ml, very similar to that of the same antibody made in animal cells (not shown). The CMG2-IgG preparation also protected macrophages in the concentration range 1-10 μg/ml. This suggested that CMG2-IgG was a potent anti-toxin.  
     Example 18  
     Anthrax Toxin Receptor Protein Immunoadhesin CMG2-IgG Variants  
      This Example demonstrates representative modifications that were made to improve stability and yield of the chimeric toxin receptor proteins and immunoadhesins described herein.  
      Production and Expression of Variants  
      Using PCR, modifications were introduced around the Sac I site at the junction between the CMG2 and IgG coding regions of the CMG2-IgG construct. Fourteen amino acids that were not part of the VWA/I domain as defined by crystal structure 34  were removed in variant 1 (V1 in  FIG. 14 ). The removed amino acid sequence and the corresponding nucleotide sequence is provided below:  
                              TEILELQPSSVCVG   (SEQ ID NO: 102)                   act gaa atc cta gaa ttg cag ccc   (SEQ ID NO: 103)       tca agt gtc tgt gtg ggg          
 
      For variant 2a (V2a in  FIG. 14 ) the Cγ1 domain was removed, since the analysis above suggested that there were protease-sensitive sites in this region. In variant 2b both the 14 amino acids and the Cγ1 domain were removed. In variant 3, the Cγ1 remains, but the 14 amino acids have been replaced by a flexible linker (Gly 3 Ser) 3 .  
      All four of these variants and the original CMG2-IgG were expressed transiently in  N. benthamiana  and purified from leaf extracts by Protein A chromatography. In addition, the original CMG-IgG was expressed along with a human kappa chain. Equal quantities of each protein were subjected to SDS-PAGE under non-reducing and reducing conditions, and the gel was stained with Coomassie blue ( FIG. 16 ). All of the variants contain significantly more of the highest molecular weight form than did the original CMG2-IgG. Variants V1 and V3 appear to have the same degradation fragments (30 and 33 kDa) as the original CMG2-IgG, while variant V2a has two different fragments of approximately 30 kDa. Amino terminal sequencing of these fragments (surrounded by a box and identified by the numbers 4 and 5 in  FIG. 16 ) revealed that they begin just before the hinge region of V2a ( FIG. 15 ).  
      Variant V2b, comprising just the VWA/I domain of CMG2 plus Cγ2/Cγ3 of IgG, was more stable than the others. Under reducing conditions (lane 11,  FIG. 16 ) most of the protein appears in a 50 kDa band, with very little apparent degradation (expected size of this protein, based on aa sequence, is 46.5 kDa). Under non-reducing conditions ( FIG. 16 , lane 5) there are major bands at ˜40 kDa and at ˜97 kDa. Both of these bands reduce to the 50 kDa monomer, indicating that they correspond to monomer and disulfide-bonded dimer forms (data not shown). Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) of the V2b protein shows a single peak at 75 kDa ( FIG. 17 ). The combination of SDS-PAGE and SEC.suggests that the protein is a mixture of disulfide-linked dimers and non-covalently associated dimers, probably held together by interactions between Cγ3 domains.  
      Expression of CMG2-IgG in Presence of Kappa Light Chain  
      Also of interest is what happens to CMG2-IgG expressed in the presence of kappa chain. It forms a ladder of bands starting at approximately 137 kDa and going up in units of 35 kDa (lane 6,  FIG. 16 ). When reduced, this ladder resolves into three bands of 60, 40 and 28 kDa (lane 13). The 28 kDa band is kappa chain, and the 60 kDa band is full-length CMG2-IgG. The 40 kDa band from this lane (number 3 in  FIG. 16 ) was subjected to Edman degradation, which showed that its amino terminus was at V196. This demonstrated that kappa chain was able to prevent cleavage in Cγ1, but not in the extra 14 amino acid sequence from CMG2.  
      Testing for Anti-toxin Activity  
      The original CMG2-IgG and CMG2-IgG V2b were tested for anti-toxin activity in the macrophage protection assay, along with a negative control antibody ( FIG. 18 ). CMG2-IgG V2b was superior to the original, with the other variants having intermediate activity (data not shown). The concentration of CMG2-IgG V2b required to neutralize anthrax toxin activity by 50% (the IC 50 ) was 35 ng/ml (mean of two assays, Table 2). This compares favorably with anti-PA antibodies being developed by Human Genome Sciences (IC 50 =50 ng/ml), 52  Elusys (IC 50 =80 ng/ml), 27  and Avanir (IC 50 =30 to 70 ng/ml). 23  The molar ratio of CMG2-IgG V2b to PA at the IC 50  is 0.38, meaning that each molecule of CMG2-IgG V2b can neutralize almost three molecules of anthrax Lethal Toxin.  
      Structural Analysis  
      By overlaying three crystal structures—IgG Fc (1E4K in the Protein Data Base 53 ), the VWA/I domain of CMG2 (with internal disulfide bond, 1SHU 34 ), and CMG2 bound to PA (1T6B 36 ) a predicted model of what the CMG-IgG V2b structure might look like and how it might bind to PA was derived ( FIG. 19 ). Size exclusion c all of the CMG2-IgG Var2b is in the dimeric form, but SDS-PAGE analysis suggests that at least 50% of the dimers are non-covalently bound. This may be due to the shape of the CMG2 VWA/I domain, which is more globular than the more elongated immunoglobulin Cγ1 domain ( FIG. 19 ). Steric hindrance may prevent the cysteines in the hinge regions of the IgG Fc from approaching close enough to form disulfide bonds efficiently.  
      Expression of CMG2-IgG in Presence of CMG2-kappa  
      A construct comprised of the first 199 amino acids of CMG2 and a human kappa chain constant domain (CMG2-kappa) was assembled. CMG2-kappa was transiently expressed together with Variant 1 or Variant 3 (both of which contain intact Cγ1 domains), and the resulting proteins were purified using Protein A Sepharose. In both cases the dominant molecular species were a pair of bands at approximately 180 and 160 kDa ( FIG. 20 ). Under reducing conditions there were bands at 57 kDa, 34 kDa and 13 kDa. Immuno-blots (not shown) demonstrated that the 57 kDa band contained IgG heavy chain, while the smaller bands reacted with kappa-chain specific antiserum. The size of the smallest band would be consistent with cleavage in the 14 amino acids between the CMG2 VWA/I domain and the kappa constant region. The major non-reduced bands reacted with both anti-IgG and anti-kappa antisera, and probably represent assembled tetrameric molecules with two “heavy chains” and two “light chains”. These molecules were tested in the RAW macrophage protection assay. The IC 50  was 44 ng/ml for V1/k and 32 ng/ml for V3/k (Table 2). Because of their larger size, the molar ratio of antitoxin:PA at the IC50 was much lower for both of the new proteins: 0.25 for V1/k and 0.18 for V3/k.  
               TABLE 7                          Calculated IC 50  (ng/mL) and molar ratio of antitoxin to PA at       the IC 50 . Preparations of Original CMG2-IgG and variant       were mixed with 80 ng/ml of PA and 80 ng/ml of LF in the RAW       macrophage protection assay (for protocol see D.1.5).       Results are from assays on three different days.                                 Assay   Assay   Assay           Jul. 20, 2005   Jul. 27, 2005   Jul. 28, 2005                                                 Molar       Molar       Molar       Variant   IC50   ratio   IC50   ratio   IC50   ratio               Original   242   2.16   —   —   224   2.00       CMG2-IgG       V1   —   —   —   —   197   1.80       V2a   —   —   —   —    67   0.72       V2b    41   0.45   —   —    28   0.31       V3   —   —   —   —   100   0.91       V1/K   —   —   44   0.25   —   —       V3/K   —   —   32   0.18   —   —                 IgG Clearance via the FcγR and the effect of N-glycan             
 
      The mechanisms involved in the in vivo neutralization and clearance of anthrax toxin and/or  B. anthracis  infection by the various antitoxins currently being developed are poorly understood. In the case of antibodies and immunoadhesins, in vivo neutralization of toxin:antitoxin complexes may depend on interactions with the FcγR. Many types of leucocytes have cell surface receptors for Fc regions on IgG, known as FcγR. Binding of antigen-antibody complexes to these cells through the Fc-FcγR interaction may result in a number of responses, including antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) and internalization of the receptor-ligand complexes.  
      Crystal structures show that FcγR binds to the lower hinge region of Cγ2 of the heavy chain Fc region. 55  Genetic and biochemical approaches have identified amino acid residues that modulate this interaction, as well as the role of the N-linked glycan on IgG Fc. N-linked glycans are oligosaccharide structures that are covalently attached to certain asparagine residues of glycoproteins. Crystal structure analysis suggests that the N-glycan at Asn 297  of human IgG stabilizes a specific conformation of the Fc region that promotes FcγR binding 55, 56  ( FIG. 21 ). Elimination of this N-glycan dramatically reduces the affinity of IgG for the three major FcγR isoforms in vitro, but does not affect in vivo half-life. 57, 58, 59    
      It is not yet known what effect glycosylation or lack thereof will have on the in vivo protective effect of CMG2-IgG against anthrax lethal toxin, or  B. anthracis  infection. If efficient clearance/destruction of antitoxin-PA complexes is affected by binding to FcγR, it may be affected by the glycosylation status of the antitoxin. Scientists at Avanir Pharmaceuticals compared the in vivo activity of glycosylated and aglycosyl forms of two of their anti-PA antibodies, and found very little difference in protective efficacy. 23  From this they concluded that lethal toxin neutralization is not Fc effector mediated. However, this was just one experiment, and there was a reduced efficacy with one of the aglycosyl antibodies. For this reason, aglycosyl (the form tested in these Examples) and glycosylated forms of the CMG2-IgG immunoadhesin will be tested.  
      There are subtle differences in the N-glycans of animal and plant glycoproteins, and some have raised concerns about the potential immunogenicity/allergenicity of plant glycoproteins. 60, 61  The 1H IgG and the CMG2-IgG in these Examples was made using an aglycosyl heavy chain constant region. It is believed that immunogenicity will not be a major issue for an anthrax neutralization therapy based on a plant-made immunoadhesin, even if it is glycosylated. Should immunogenicity turn out to be a significant problem, it should be possible to genetically modify plants to “humanize” their N-glycans. 62-67    
      Conclusion  
      A plant-made immunoadhesin, consisting of the extracellular domain of the human anthrax toxin receptor CMG2 fused to the Fc region of human IgG1 (CMG2-IgG), was able to protect mouse macrophages from the lethal effects of anthrax Lethal Toxin at nanomolar concentrations. The specific activity of the immunoadhesin appears to be comparable to the best available monoclonal antibodies.  
     Example 19  
     Additional CMG2-IgG Chimera Variants  
      This Example demonstrates representative modifications that can be made to improve stability and yield of the chimeric toxin receptor proteins and immunoadhesins described herein.  
      Variant 2b will be modified to further increase yield. The introduction of a flexible (Gly 3 Ser) 3  linker between the VWA/I and Cγ2 domains (see structure in  FIG. 19 ), will result in a variant with contain a higher percentage of disulfide-bonded dimers, making it more stable and/or active in vivo. The 14 amino acids between the CMG2 VWA/I domain and Cκ in the CMG2-kappa construct will also be replaced with a (Gly 3 Ser) 3  linker. These two new proteins will be produced in transiently transfected tobacco and purified them using Protein A-Sepharose chromatography. They will be tested for proper assembly and stability. Binding constants will be determined by surface plasmon resonance. Their activity will be compared to that of the existing immunoadhesins in the RAW macrophage protection assay. Glycosylation is not anticipated to affect activity in this cell-based assay. However, glycosylation may affect in vivo activity, so after selecting the most potent immunoadhesin antitoxin the glycosylation site in the Cγ2 domain will be re-introduced. Both glycosyl and aglycosyl versions will be tested in vivo.  
      Molecular Constructs for Expression of CMG2-IgG in Tobacco  
      Variant 4 will be identical to variant 2b with the addition of a flexible linker, and will be constructed by ligating a DNA fragment encoding the VWA/I domain plus the (Gly 3 Ser) 3  linker from variant 3 (amino acids 1-196,  FIG. 14 ) to a DNA fragment encoding the IgG hinge and constant domains Cγ2-Cγ3 from variant 2b (amino acids 298-531,  FIG. 14 ).  
      In addition, CMG2-kappa will be modified by replacing the extra 14 amino acids with a flexible (Gly 3 Ser) 3  linker. Each variant will be placed in an expression cassette under the control of a constitutive plant promoter (CaMV35S, or another promoter of our choosing) and a plant 3′ polyadenylation signal sequence. The expression cassette will be cloned into the binary vector pGPTV, 48  and the resulting plasmid transformed into  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  strain EHA105.  
                           TABLE 8                               Expected #           Immuno-   Domain   of PA       adhesin   Arrangement   binding sites                  V2b   CMG2-Cγ2-Cγ3   2                   V4   CMG2-(G 3 S) 3 -Cγ2-Cγ3   2           VWA/I-GGGSGGGSGGGS-           EPKSCDKTHTCP-           CH2—CH3               V3/CMG-   CMG2-(G 3 S) 3 -Cγ1-Cγ2-Cγ3/   4       kappa   CMG2-(G 3 S) 3 -Cκ                  
 
      After selecting the most potent antitoxin (using the macrophage protection assay) site-directed mutagenesis will be performed to convert a codon for Gln (at position 381 in  FIG. 14 ) to Asn, using a commercially available kit.  
      Tobacco Transient Expression System  
      Strains of  Agrobacterium tumefaciens  carrying a binary vector for expression of Variant 2b, 4, 5 or 6, or two  Agrobacterium  strains carrying Variant 3 plus the new CMG2-kappa, will be infiltrated into leaves of  Nicotiana benthamiana  (approximately 100), along with an additional strain carrying a binary vector (P19) encoding a viral suppressor of silencing. The silencing suppressor is used to achieve high levels of expression. After infiltration, each  Agrobacterium  transfers its T-DNA (containing the expression cassettes) from the binary vector into the plant cells, where it is integrated and transcribed. The immunoadhesin then accumulates to high levels in the leaves, which are harvested 7 days after infiltration and processed for purification of immunoadhesin. Small amounts of each of these five chimeric proteins (&lt;5 mg), sufficient for in vitro and cell culture analysis, as well as for rat in vivo toxin neutralization studies, can be produced in a short time using this tobacco transient expression system. 51    
      Small-Scale Immunoadhesin Purification and Biophysical Characterization  
      Tobacco leaves ( N. tabacum  or  N. benthamiana ) will be homogenized and extracted in an aqueous buffer, centrifuged and filtered to remove solids, and proteins with intact IgG-Fc regions will be purified by Protein A-Sepharose chromatography, dialyzed against PBS, and filter sterilized. The purified protein will be characterized by Coomassie staining and by immuno-blotting using antibodies against human IgG1 (or kappa chain). Four criteria will be used to evaluate success at this stage. First, a chimeric protein purified by Protein A will consist primarily of one size species. Second, it will have an apparent molecular weight consistent with the encoded protein sequence(s). Third, it will react with anti-IgG antisera. Fourth, it will have higher activity in the RAW macrophage protection assay than the current CMG-IgG V2b. We will measure the binding kinetics of the immunoadhesins to Protective Antigen (List Biological Labs) by surface plasmon resonance in a BIAcore (Pharmacia Biosensor), which will be used to calculate the K d .  
      Protection of Mouse Macrophages Against Toxin Challenge.  
      Survival of RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage-like cells (ATCC #TIB-71) after administration of CMG2-IgG along with toxin will be determined essentially as described. 68  CMG2-IgG will be titrated from 10-1000 ng/ml and pre-incubated with toxin (80 ng/ml PA, 80 ng/ml LF) for 30 min before addition to cells. After three hours of exposure to toxin, an indirect viability assay will be performed using MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide). Cells will be incubated with medium containing 2 mg/ml MTT for 30 min, solubilized with acidic isopropanol (40 mM HCl, 0.5% SDS in 90% isopropyl alcohol) and the absorbance measured at A 595 . The percentage of cells surviving toxin challenge at a specified reagent dose, as compared with sham-treated cells, will be reported as measured by MTT assay ((average test well—average of eight toxin-only wells)×100%/average of eight no-toxin wells). From the dose response curve, IC 50  values (concentration of antitoxin at which 50% of activity is neutralized) will be estimated. The effective molar ratio, or the ratio of antitoxin to toxin at the IC 50 , will also be determined for each chimeric protein.  
      Addition of the flexible (Gly 3 Ser) 3  linker will lead to a measurable improvement in disulfide bonding of dimers, or in vitro neutralizing activity, or both.  
     Example 20  
     Antitoxin Activity of CMG2-IgG in Animal Models of Anthrax Infection  
      This Example demonstrates animal testing that can be performed to identify chimeric toxin receptor proteins and immunoadhesins of this invention.  
      The presence or absence of N-glycan on the Fc of the selected immunoadhesin may affect the in vivo efficacy against toxin, or against a  B.anthracis  spore challenge, because of differences in interactions with Fe receptors and/or serum half-life of the antitoxin. Both aglycosyl and glycosylated forms of CMG2-IgG will be tested in a Fischer rat toxin neutralization assay. This will be followed by tests of the in vivo half-life of both forms in rabbits, followed by efficacy in a rabbit spore challenge assay. The rat in vivo toxin neutralization assays will require approximately 3 mg of each antitoxin, which will be easily supplied from transient tobacco transfections. The rabbit pharmacokinetic and spore challenge studies will require about 200 mg of each antitoxin, which will be purified from stably transformed tobacco.  
      Fischer rat In Vivo Anthrax Toxin Neutralization  
      The in vivo anthrax toxin neutralization experiments will be performed, using the glycosylated and aglycosyl forms of CMG2-IgG, essentially as described by Ivins. 69  Male Fischer 344 rats with jugular vein catheters, weighing between 200 and 250 g (Charles River Laboratories), will be anaesthetized in an Isofluorane EZ-anesthesia chamber (Euthanex Corp, PA) following manufacturer&#39;s guidelines. A dose of antitoxin (0.25 and 0.12 nmols/rat, corresponding to 1× and 0.5× molar equivalent to the lethal toxin) will be administered via the catheter in 0.2 ml PBS/0.1% BSA pH 7.4. Five minutes later lethal toxin (PA 20 μg/LF 4 μg in 0.2 ml/200 g rat) will be administered. The negative control will be an unrelated plant-made human IgG1 (our lab). Five animals will be used in each test group (5 animals/group×2 doses×2 antitoxins=20 animals), and four animals in each control (4 animals/group×2 doses control IgG=8 animals). Animals will be monitored for discomfort and time of death versus survival, as assessed by cessation of breathing and heartbeat. Rats will be maintained under anesthesia for 5 hr after exposure to lethal toxin, or until death, to minimize discomfort. Rats that survive 5 hours will be monitored for a longer period of time (up to 72 hours). Serum samples will be collected from surviving rats at 5 hour intervals and assayed for the concentration of antitoxin by ELISA. In a similar study, one antibody produced by Avanir Pharmaceuticals protected all animals against this dose of lethal toxin at 0.5× molar equivalent to the toxin. 23  We would expect our plant-made immunoadhesin to perform as well. If necessary, experiments will be repeated with immunoadhesin at even lower molar ratio to the lethal toxin. The minimum effective dose will be determined for each of the two antitoxin forms.  
      Pharmacokinetic Parameters in Rabbits  
      To establish the pharmacokinetics (PK) of CMG2-IgG injected by the intravenous (i.v.) route, Dutch banded rabbits (three per group, 1.5 to 2.0 kg) will be injected with CMG2-IgG at 10 mg/rabbit i.v. via the medial ear artery. Blood samples will be collected from the ear artery of each animal at 1 h pre-injection and 1, 4, and 8 hours, and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 17, 19 and 21 days post-injection. Sera will be obtained after clotting and centrifugation and stored frozen at −80° C. until analysis.  
      The concentration of CMG2-IgG in rabbit serum samples will be measured by a functional ELISA. Purified CMG2-IgG will be used as a standard. Protective antigen (List Biological Labs) at a concentration of 1 μg/ml is coated onto wells (100 μl/well) of microtiter plates (Costar Corp.) and incubated overnight at 4° C. The unbound antigen is washed out, and the wells are blocked with PBS+5% non-fat dry milk for 1 h at room temperature. The blocking solution is then aspirated. The samples and standard are applied to the PA-coated plate for 1 h at 37° C. followed by three washes. This process is followed by addition of goat anti-human IgG horseradish peroxidase (HRP) conjugate for 1 h at 37° C. and washing again three times. Antibody complexes are detected by adding HRP substrate and incubating 30 minutes at room temperature. Color development (absorbance at 405 nm) is determined using a Benchmark Microplate Reader. The ELISA will be tested for rabbit serum interference and nonspecific binding.  
      Descriptive PK parameters will be determined by standard model-independent methods 70  based on individual serum concentration-time data for CMG2-IgG. The pre-dose time point for i.v. administration will be assigned the concentration value of the first time point for PK calculations. The maximal serum concentration (C max ), time taken to reach C max , area under the curve, systemic clearance, volume of distribution at steady state, terminal half-life, and absolute bioavailability (F) will be analyzed for each rabbit.  
      Aerosol Challenge of Rabbits with  Bacillus anthracis  Spores  
      Animal models have been developed to study passive protection against anthrax infection in guinea pigs, 29, 71, 72  mice 9, 73-75  and rabbits. 76  One advantage of the mouse models is that they require much less antitoxin. However the best protection with anti-PA antibodies has been in rabbits, 24, 27  so we plan to use this same model to test our CMG2-IgG.  
      Starting about month 16, both glycosyl and aglycosyl chimeric toxin receptor proteins will be tested in a pre-exposure prophylaxis study. If rabbits are successfully protected (100% at the highest dose of antitoxin) in this study, we will then perform a post-exposure treatment study, starting about month 21. Dutch banded rabbits (1.5 to 2 kg) will be randomized into groups containing four male and four female animals. For pre-exposure prophylaxis, rabbits on day 0 will receive a single dose of CMG2-IgG administered i.v. (1, 2, or 4 mg of CMG2-IgG/rabbit via the medial ear artery) or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) administered i.v. as a control 30 to 45 min before anthrax spore challenge. To evaluate post-exposure efficacy, rabbits will be challenged with spores on day 0 and then given single i.v. injections of 4 mg of CMG2-IgG/rabbit at 24, 36, or 48 h post-challenge or PBS i.v. at 48 h post-challenge. Rabbits will be challenged via a muzzle-only exposure system according to standard protocols. The target aerosol exposure for the challenge is 200 times the 50% lethal dose (LD 50 ) of the Ames strain (Ames LD 50 =1.05 ×10 5  spores 76 ). Actual challenge doses will be determined from the starting concentration and a cumulative minute volume gathered throughout the exposure. All animals will be observed twice daily for 28 days post-challenge. Blood and serum will be collected pre-challenge and on days 1, 2, 7, 10, 14, 21, and 28 post-challenge. When possible, blood and serum samples will be collected from animals that are moribund or recently dead (“at death”) and analyzed for the presence of  B. anthracis . On day 28, all survivors will be euthanized, and the lungs, spleens, and intrathoracic lymph nodes will be harvested and cultured. Serum samples will be sterile filtered and deemed noninfectious by culturing prior to sending to Planet Biotechnology for ELISA analysis to determine serum CMG2-IgG levels (as in D.2.3) and rabbit anti-PA titers (described below).  
      Measurement of Rabbit Anti-PA Antibody Response to Immunoadhesins  
      Previous studies have found that rabbits protected from inhalational anthrax by anti-PA monoclonal antibodies developed protective titers of their own anti-PA antibodies. An ELISA, similar to that used to quantitate CMG2-IgG in serum, will be used to measure the immune response against PA in the rabbits challenged with anthrax spores. In this assay microtiter plates are coated with PA at a concentration of 1 μg/ml and incubated overnight at 4° C. The unbound antigen is washed out, and the wells are blocked. The blocking solution is then aspirated. Dilutions of serum samples are incubated on the plate for 1 hour at 37° C. A goat anti-rabbit IgG HRP conjugate (Santa Cruz Biotech) is added for 30 min at 37° C., and color is developed by adding HRP substrate and incubating 30 minutes at room temperature. Color development (absorbance at 405 nm) is determined using a Benchmark Microplate Reader. The serum dilution that results in an optical density signal of 1.0 will be used as a measure of the response (titer).  
     Example 21  
       Botulinum  Chimeric Toxin Receptor Proteins  
      Chimeric  botulinum  toxin receptor proteins are constructed by fusing a botulinum toxin receptor to heavy chain constant regions. Synaptotagmin I (STI)  botulinum  chimeric toxin receptor proteins and SV2  botulinum  chimeric toxin receptor proteins are constructed.  
       Botulinum  Toxin Receptor Fused to Heavy Chain  
      Portions of STI (fragSTI) and SV2 (fragSV2), those amino acid sequences sufficient for toxin binding, are fused to the heavy chain constant region with additional proteinaceous sequence(s) as is necessary for accumulation, solubility, purification, protease resistance, subsequent modification to alter immunogenicity or to increase the half-life in the patient and targeting, such as the ability to favorably interact with gangliosides such as Gt1b and Gd1a. Polypeptide linkers, such as ((Gly)×Ser)n, are also included to insulate the folding requirements and functionality of these sequences. The nucleic acid sequences encoding these polypeptides are optimized to include the use of synonomous codons to avoid recombination during cloning and transformation and to avoid small RNA-mediated inhibition of expression.  
      The  botulinum  toxin receptor portions fused to the heavy chain constant region can also be homo- and hetero-multimers of fragSTI or fragSV2. For the homo-multimer, the  botulinum  toxin receptor portion fused to the heavy chain constant region is a single polypeptide chain where the sequence of either fragSTI or fragSV2 is present two or more times, i.e. the fragment&#39;s sequence is present in series in a single primary amino acid sequence. Multimerized binding fragments are expected to increase apparent binding affinities by an avidity effect and therefore increase potency. For the hetero-multimer, the  botulinum  toxin receptor portion fused to the heavy chain constant region is a single polypeptide chain where the sequences of both fragSTI and fragSV2 are present one or more times, i.e. the fragments&#39; sequences are present in series in a single primary amino acid sequence. The position of repeated fragment sequences in the linear array is varied to increase binding avidity and thus increase potency.  
      Chimeric  Botulinum  Toxin Receptor Protein  
      Each of the above described  botulinum  toxin receptor portions is fused to the Fc region of IgG or IgA, in particular to the amino or carboxy terminus of heavy chain constant regions 1, 2 and 3 (α1, α2, α3 and γ1, γ2 and γ3) or to heavy chain constant regions 2 and 3 (α2 and α3 or γ2 and γ3). Chimeras of the heavy chain constant regions may also be constructed. For example, a chimera of the constant heavy regions γ1, γ2, α2 and α3 can be employed to facilitate purification by Protein G affinity chromatography.  
      Improved Chimeric  Botulinum  Toxin Receptor Protein with Light Chain Constant Region  
      Each of the above described  botulinum  toxin receptor portions is fused to the Fc region of IgG or IgA as above and, in separate polypeptide chains, also fused to the constant region of the light chain (κ orλ), at either the amino or carboxy termini. The antibody constant regions are assembled during synthesis and cellular maturation into tetramers where the heavy and light chain constant regions are assembled in canonical fashion by virtue of covalent and non-covalent protein-protein interactions between the various constant regions.  
      Improved Chimeric  Botulinum  Toxin Receptor Protein with Light Chain Constant Region and an Antibody Variable Domain  
      An antibody variable domain with a binding specificity that improves decoy performance is incorporated into a complex with the  botulinum  toxin receptor portion and a constant region of a light chain. The following types of variable domain specificities may be used to improve decoy performance: an anti-ganglioside binding specificity to direct the decoy to synaptic membranes, where  botulinum  toxin is known to concentrate; a binding specificity that directs the decoy away from the synaptic membranes to other serum or cellular components, such as those which participate in Fc-mediated clearance, to ensure rapid destruction of the bound toxin; an anti-toxin specificity to increase toxin binding or broaden toxin recognition by having variable regions recognize other toxin amino acid sequences which may be chosen to encourage toxin cross-linking as well as increased binding.  
      Higher Order Multimers  
      Higher order multimer sIgA-like fusions are formed by fusing the polypeptides described above to the heavy chain constant regions α2 and α3, which directs the further assembly of Joining chain (J chain) and Secretory Component (SC) or Protection Protein (PP).  
      Higher order multimers are also formed by fusing the polypeptides described above to the heavy-chain constant regions of IgM, which allows the assembly of J chain and several (five) antibody-like fusions into an IgM-like decoy receptor.  
     ADDITIONAL REFERENCES  
      The following references are hereby incorporated by reference for all that they teach. 
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      The foregoing examples are not limiting and merely representative of various aspects and embodiments of the present invention. All documents cited are indicative of the levels of skill in the art to which the invention pertains. The disclosure of each document is incorporated by reference herein to the same extent as if each had been incorporated by reference in its entirety individually, although none of the documents is admitted to be prior art.  
      One skilled in the art will readily appreciate that the present invention is well adapted to carry out the objects and obtain the ends and advantages mentioned, as well as those inherent therein. The methods and compositions described illustrate preferred embodiments, are exemplary, and are not intended as limitations on the scope of the invention. Certain modifications and other uses will occur to those skilled in the art, and are encompassed within the spirit of the invention, as defined by the scope of the claims.  
      It will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art that varying substitutions and modifications may be made to the invention without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Thus, such additional embodiments are within the scope of the invention and the following claims.  
      The invention illustratively described herein suitably may be practiced in the absence of any element or elements, limitation or limitations which is not specifically disclosed herein. The terms and expressions which have been employed are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention in the use of such terms and expressions of excluding any equivalents of the features shown and described, or portions thereof. It is recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the invention claimed. Thus, it should be understood that although the present invention has been specifically disclosed by preferred embodiments, optional features, modifications and variations of the concepts herein disclosed may be resorted to by those skilled in the art, and that such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of this invention as defined by the description and the appended claims.  
      In addition, where features or aspects of the invention are described in terms of Markush groups or other grouping of alternatives, those skilled in the art will recognize that the invention is also thereby described in terms of any individual member or subgroup of members of the Markush group or other group, and exclusions of individual members as appropriate.  
      Other embodiments are within the following claims.