Patent Publication Number: US-2022224627-A1

Title: Ran transport interface discovery

Description:
RELATED APPLICATION 
     The present application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/845,986, filed May 10, 2019, entitled “RAN TRANSPORT INTERFACE DISCOVERY,” the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     The present disclosure relates generally to communications, and more particularly, to wireless communications and related wireless devices and network nodes. 
       FIG. 1  depicts an example of a wireless communication system  300  represented as a 5G network architecture composed of core network functions (NFs), where interaction between any two NFs is represented by a point-to-point reference point/interface.  FIG. 2  illustrates interfaces between transport nodes ii a core network and a radio access network in more detail. 
     Seen from the access side, the 5G network architecture shown in  FIG. 1  includes a plurality of User Equipment (UEs) connected to either a Radio Access Network (RAN) or an Access Network (AN) by a wireless interface as well as an Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF). Typically, the R(AN) comprises base stations, such as evolved Node Bs (eNBs) or 5G base stations (gNBs) or similar. Seen from the core network side, the 5G core NFs shown in  FIG. 1  include a Network Slice Selection Function (NSSF), an Authentication Server Function (AUSF), a Unified Data Management (UDM), an Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF), a Session Management Function (SMF), a Policy Control Function (PCF), and an Application Function (AF). 
     One of the aims of the 5G core network is to separate the user plane and control plane. The user plane typically carries user traffic while the control plane typically carries signaling in the network. In  FIG. 1 , the UPF is in the user plane and all other NFs (i.e., AMF, SMF, PCF, AF, AUSF, and UDM) are in the control plane. Separating the user and control planes enables each plane resource to be scaled independently. Such separation may also allow UPFs to be deployed separately from control plane functions in a distributed fashion. 
     The current 5G RAN (NG-RAN) architecture is depicted  FIG. 1B , and is described in TS 38.401v15.4.0 as follows. 
     The NG-RAN consists of a set of gNBs connected to the 5GC through the NG. An gNB can support FDD mode, TDD mode or dual mode operation. gNBs can be interconnected through the Xn interface. NG, Xn and F1 are logical interfaces. The NG-RAN is layered into a Radio Network Layer (RNL) and a Transport Network Layer (TNL). The NG-RAN architecture, i.e., the NG-RAN logical nodes and interfaces between them, is defined as part of the RNL. For each NG-RAN interface (NG, Xn, F1) the related TNL protocol and the functionality are specified. The TNL provides services for user plane transport and signalling transport. 
     A gNB may also be connected to an LTE eNB via the X2 interface. Another architectural option is that where an LTE eNB connected to the Evolved Packet Core network is connected over the X2 interface with a so called nr-gNB. The latter is a gNB not connected directly to a CN and connected via X2 to an eNB for the sole purpose of performing dual connectivity. 
     SUMMARY 
     A method of operating a first node in a communication network includes detecting establishment of a new physical communication link with a second node in the communication network, receiving a link layer discovery protocol, LLDP, message from the second node, wherein the LLDP message includes a field that identifies an interface type that is to be supported over the new physical communication link, identifying a service associated with the identified interface type, and activating the identified service. 
     The field in the LLDP message may include an interface type field that identifies the interface type. The interface field may include a type-length-value, TLV, field. The interface type field may identify the interface type as one of an internal network node interface, I-NNI, C2, C5, E5, E6 S1, S2 or radio access node, RAN, operation and management, O&amp;M interface. 
     The TLV field may include a sub-interface type that identifies a type of sub-interface that is carried over the new physical communication link. The sub-interface type may include one of a virtual local area network, VLAN, sub-interface or a multiprotocol label switching, MPLS, sub-interface. Each sub-interface carried on the physical communication link may define a separate logical interface between the first and second nodes. 
     The method may further include establishing a virtual private network connection over the physical communication link using the identified interface type. The interface type may include a user plane interface. 
     The second node may be a radio access network node and/or a transport node. The second node may be a baseband node. 
     The service may include a multiprotocol label switching, MPLS, service, an internet protocol, IP, switching service and/or a dynamic host configuration protocol, DHCP, service. 
     A network node of a radio access network according to some embodiments includes a transceiver configured to provide communications with a user equipment, and a processor coupled to the transceiver and configured to provide network communication through the transceiver. The processor is configured to perform operations of detecting establishment of a new physical communication link with a second node in the communication network, receiving a link layer discovery protocol, LLDP, message from the second node, wherein the LLDP message may include a field that identifies an interface type that is to be supported over the new physical communication link, identifying a service associated with the identified interface type, and activating the identified service. 
     A network node of a radio access network according to some embodiments is adapted to perform operations of detecting establishment of a new physical communication link with a second node in the communication network, receiving a link layer discovery protocol, LLDP, message from the second node, wherein the LLDP message may include a field that identifies an interface type that is to be supported over the new physical communication link, identifying a service associated with the identified interface type, and activating the identified service. 
     Some embodiments provide a computer program product comprising a non-transitory storage medium including program code to be executed by processing circuitry of a network node, whereby execution of the program code causes the network node to perform operations of detecting establishment of a new physical communication link with a second node in the communication network, receiving a link layer discovery protocol, LLDP, message from the second node, wherein the LLDP message may include a field that identifies an interface type that is to be supported over the new physical communication link, identifying a service associated with the identified interface type, and activating the identified service. 
     Using an LLDP TLV according to some embodiments may enable a node in a communication network to identify interface characteristics for an interface supported by a physical link. From this information, the node may be able to determine what the interface can be used for, such as whether the interface is used for operations and management (O&amp;M), user plane communications, cross-connect, etc. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The accompanying drawings, which are included to provide a further understanding of the disclosure and are incorporated in a constitute a part of this application, illustrate certain non-limiting embodiments of inventive concepts. In the drawings: 
         FIG. 1  is a block diagram illustrating an example of a wireless communication system representing 5th Generation Wireless System (5G) network architecture composed of core network functions (NFs); 
         FIG. 2  illustrates interfaces between transport nodes ii a core network and a radio access network; 
         FIG. 3A  illustrates a format of a Link Layer Discovery Protocol TLV according to some embodiments; 
         FIG. 3B  is a flow diagram that illustrates operations of systems/methods according to some embodiments; 
         FIG. 4  is a flowchart that illustrates operations of systems/methods according to some embodiments; 
         FIG. 5  is a block diagram of a network node that is configured to perform operations according to some embodiments; 
         FIG. 6  is a block diagram of a wireless network in accordance with some embodiments; 
         FIG. 7  is a block diagram of a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments 
         FIG. 8  is a block diagram of a virtualization environment in accordance with some embodiments; 
         FIG. 9  is a block diagram of a telecommunication network connected via an intermediate network to a host computer in accordance with some embodiments; 
         FIG. 10  is a block diagram of a host computer communicating via a base station with a user equipment over a partially wireless connection in accordance with some embodiments; 
         FIG. 11  is a block diagram of methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station, and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments; 
         FIG. 12  is a block diagram of methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station, and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments; 
         FIG. 13  is a block diagram of methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station, and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments; and 
         FIG. 14  is a block diagram of methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station, and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Inventive concepts will now be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which examples of embodiments of inventive concepts are shown. Inventive concepts may, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of present inventive concepts to those skilled in the art. It should also be noted that these embodiments are not mutually exclusive. Components from one embodiment may be tacitly assumed to be present/used in another embodiment. 
     The following description presents various embodiments of the disclosed subject matter. These embodiments are presented as teaching examples and are not to be construed as limiting the scope of the disclosed subject matter. For example, certain details of the described embodiments may be modified, omitted, or expanded upon without departing from the scope of the described subject matter. 
     The Link Layer Discovery Protocol (LLDP) is a link layer protocol used by network devices for advertising their identity, capabilities, and neighbors on an IEEE 802 local area network, principally wired Ethernet. Information gathered with LLDP can be stored in the device management information database (MIB) and queried with the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) as specified in RFC 2922. The topology of an LLDP-enabled network can be discovered by crawling the hosts and querying this database. Information that may be retrieved include system name and description, port name and description, VLAN name, IP management address, system capabilities (switching, routing, etc.), and MAC/PHY information. 
     In particular, the LLDP protocol facilitates the identification of stations connected by IEEE 802 LANs, their points of interconnection, and access points for management protocols. This standard defines a protocol that advertises connectivity and management information about the local station to adjacent stations on the same IEEE 802 LAN, receives network management information from adjacent stations on the same IEEE 802 LAN and establishes a network management information schema and object definitions that are suitable for storing connection information about adjacent stations. 
     LLDP specifically defines a standard method for Ethernet network devices such as switches, routers and wireless LAN access points to advertise information about themselves to other nodes on the network and store the information they discover. The protocol runs over the data-link layer only, allowing two systems running different network layer protocols to learn about each other. LLDP Data Units (LLDPDUs) are sent to a predefined destination MAC address that is defined as the “LLDP_Multicast” address. This address is defined within a range of addresses reserved by the IEEE for protocols that are to be constrained to an individual LAN. 
     Using LLDP, device information such as chassis identification, port ID, port description, system name and description, device capability (as router, switch, hub . . . ), IP/MAC address, etc., are transmitted to the neighboring devices. This information is also stored in local Management Information Databases (MIBs), and can be queried with the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). The LLDP-enabled devices have an LLDP agent installed in them, which sends out advertisements from all physical interfaces either periodically or as changes occur. 
     When transport nodes in a radio access network or core network are physically connected to one another, they may perform a discovery process using LLDP to discover what type of device they are connected to. While the LLDP protocol facilitates the discovery of lower-level information about the connected node, such as system name and description, port name and description, VLAN name, IP management address, system capabilities, and MAC/PHY information, higher level information about the connection, such as the logical interface type, must currently be manually configured for the connection. Such manual configuration may be time consuming, expensive and introduce errors into the network configuration. To address these problems, some embodiments described herein provide automated discovery of logical interfaces associated with physical interfaces using the LLDP protocol. 
     In particular, some embodiments provide a new LLDP field that identifies an interface type for the interface. The new LLDP field may be provided as a type-length-value (TLV) field, that defines an interface type. The TLV may also identify a subinterface type that can be used, for example, to identify a type of encapsulation used on a subinterface of the interface, along with a subinterface ID that identifies the subinterface. 
     Using the new LLDP TLV may enable a node in a communication network to identify interface characteristics for an interface supported by a physical link. From this information, the node may be able to determine what the interface can be used for, such as whether the interface is used for operations and management (O&amp;M), user plane communications, cross-connect, etc. In a RAN or core network, the new LLDP TLV may be used to specify the type of interface, such as whether the interface is a X1, S2, E5 or other type of interface. In some embodiments, the LLDP TLV may be used to determine the type of node that is connected over the interface, such as whether the node is a user node (e.g., a customer edge or baseband node), a transport node, or some other type of node. 
     In some embodiments, a node may configure services based on the type of interface that is indicated in the LLDP TLV. For example, a node may enable services that support routed underlay, which provides basic connectivity between nodes, or multi-protocol label switching (MPLS) networking between nodes. In some embodiments, the services activated may include service tunnels that traverse the network as routed overlays for segment routed traffic. 
     For example, if a first node determines based on the LLDP TLV that a connected second node is a transport node, the first node may enable IP services to support basic communication between the nodes. If the first node determines that the second node is an already-provisioned node, the first node may enable MPLS and segment routing over the interface. The first node may in some cases enable DHCP services to support the interface. 
     An example of a TLV format  100  for transport interface identification according to some embodiments is illustrated in  FIG. 3A . As shown therein, the TLV format  100  includes a TLV type field  112 , a TLV information string length field  114 , an organizationally unique identifier (OUI)  116 , an organizationally defined subtype  118 , an interface type  120 , a subinterface type  122  and a subinterface ID  124 . Each of these fields is described in more detail below. 
     The TLV type field  112  is seven bits long and identifies the specific TLV. Two classes of TLVs are defined: a) mandatory TLVs that shall be included in all LLDPDUs and b) optional TLVs that may be included in LLDPDUs. The TLV Type field may have a value of, for example, 127. 
     The TLV information string length field  114  contains the length of the information string, in octets. The TLV Information String Length field is 9 bits in length and in this example has a value of 8. 
     The organizationally unique identifier (OUI) field  116  is three octets in length and contains the organization&#39;s OUI as defined in Clause 9 of IEEE Std 802. In this example, the OUI is 00-01-EC. 
     An organizationally defined subtype (ODS) field  118  is one octet in length and is included along with the OUI. The organizationally defined subtype field contains a unique subtype value assigned by the defining organization, and in this example has a value of 251. 
     The format of the organizationally defined information string field is organizationally specific and can contain either binary or alpha-numeric information that is instance specific for the particular TLV type and/or subtype. The organizationally defined information string field may include one or more information fields with their associated field-type identifiers and field length designators similar to those in the Management Address TLV. 
     An InterfaceType field  120  of 1 octet may have a predefined value, such as a value shown in Table 1. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Interface Type Definitions 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Value 
                 Interface Type 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 0 
                 Reserved 
               
               
                 1 
                 I-NNI 
               
               
                 2 
                 C2 
               
               
                 3 
                 C5 
               
               
                 4 
                 E5 
               
               
                 5 
                 E6 
               
               
                 6 
                 S1 
               
               
                 7 
                 X2 
               
               
                 8 
                 RAN O&amp;M 
               
               
                 9-127 
                 Reserved 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     A SubInterfaceType  122  of 1 octet may have a predefined value, such as a value shown in Table 2. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Subinterface Type Definitions 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Value 
                 Subinterface Type 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 0 
                 0: Reserved 
               
               
                 1 
                 1: No encapsulation 
               
               
                 2 
                 2: 802.1Q VLAN Encapsulation 
               
               
                 3 
                 3: RFC 3031 MPLS Encapsulation 
               
               
                 4-127 
                 4-127: Reserved 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     A SubInterface ID field  124  of 2 octets may include an identifier associated with a particular subinterface, such as a VLAN ID. The subinterface type and ID fields may be used to encode additional subinterfaces when running different interfaces over the same physical connection. A subinterface ID, such as a VLAN ID, is specific to particular sub-interface. Only the outermost encapsulation may be considered. 
     Organizations defining their own Organizationally Specific TLVs may include a subclause that defines any specific usage rules and/or specific conditions that affects how the receiving LLDP agent shall treat the TLV. 
     The Organizationally Specific TLV usage rules should include the following: 
     a) The number of Organizationally Specific TLVs that may be contained in an LLDPDU and any additional information field subtypes that would identify differences between two TLVs with the same OUI and organizationally defined subtype [for example, see E.3.3 a)]. 
     The number of TLVs permitted in an LLDPDU is limited by the maximum length of the LLDPDU, including End Of LLDPDU TLV. 
     The maximum length of the LLDPDU shall be the maximum information field length allowed by the particular transmission rate and protocol. In IEEE 802.3 MACs, for example, the maximum LLDPDU length is the maximum data field length for the basic, untagged MAC frame (1500 octets). 
     b) Any error conditions that are specific to the particular Organizationally Specific TLV and the action that is taken for each defined error condition. 
     Any LLDP TLV received that contains values that are either reserved or illegal should be discarded. 
     Using LLDP, a connected node can discover a type of interface that is supported by the connection. Once the type of interface has been determined, the connected node can initiate appropriate services and/or allocate appropriate resources (such as buffer resources, ports, etc.) to support the interface. Examples of services that the connected node can initiate include DHCP services, IP services, MPLS services, VPN tunnel services, etc. 
       FIG. 3B  is a flow diagram that illustrates operations according to some embodiments. As shown in  FIG. 3 , a first transport node  210 A is connected to a second transport node  210 B. When the nodes are connected, the first transport node  210 A may send an LLDP message  202  with a new TLV field as described herein to the second transport node  210 B according to the LLDP protocol. Upon receipt of the LLDP message, the second transport node  210 B parses the TLV field to determine an interface type (and optionally a subinterface type) for the connection. Based on the determined interface type (or subinterface type) the second transport node  210 B activates one or more services needed for supporting the interface. 
       FIG. 4  is a flowchart that illustrates systems/methods for operating a first node in a communication network. The first node may be a transport node in a radio access network. The method includes detecting establishment of a new physical communication link with a second node in the communication network; receiving a link layer discover protocol, LLDP, message from the second node, wherein the LLDP message comprises a field that identifies an interface type that is to be supported over the new physical communication link; identifying a service associated with the identified interface type; and activating the identified service. 
     The field in the LLDP message may include a type-length-value, TLV, field that identifies the interface type. 
     The TLV field may include an interface type field that identifies the interface type. The interface type field identifies the interface type as one of an internal network node interface, I-NNI, C2, C5, E5, E6 S1, S2 or radio access node, RAN, operation and management, O&amp;M interface. 
     The TLV field may include a sub-interface type that identifies a type of sub-interface that is carried over the new physical communication link. 
     The sub-interface type may include one of a virtual local area network, VLAN, sub-interface or a multiprotocol label switching, MPLS, sub-interface. Each sub-interface carried on the physical communication link defines a separate logical interface between the first and second nodes. 
     The method may further include establishing a virtual private network connection over the physical communication link using the identified interface type. 
     The interface type may include a user plane interface. 
     The second node may include a transport node. In some embodiments, the second node may include a baseband node. 
     The service may include a multiprotocol label switching, MPLS, service, an internet protocol, IP, switching service and/or a dynamic host configuration protocol, DHCP, service. 
       FIG. 5  depicts an example of a RAN node  200  (also referred to as a network node, base station, eNB, eNodeB, gNB, gNodeB, etc.) of a wireless communication network configured to provide cellular communication according to embodiments of inventive concepts. The RAN node  200  may correspond to a central unit, a radio unit or a combination of a central unit and a radio unit in a RAN node. As shown, RAN node  200  may include a transceiver circuit  202  (also referred to as a transceiver) including a transmitter and a receiver configured to provide uplink and downlink radio communications with wireless devices. The RAN node  200  may include a network interface circuit  204  (also referred to as a network interface) configured to provide communications with other nodes (e.g., with other base stations and/or core network nodes) of the wireless communication network. The RAN node  200  may also include a processor circuit  206  (also referred to as a processor) coupled to the transceiver circuit  202 , and a memory circuit  208  (also referred to as memory) coupled to the processor circuit  206 . The memory circuit  208  may include computer readable program code that when executed by the processor circuit  206  causes the processor circuit to perform operations according to embodiments disclosed herein. According to other embodiments, processor circuit  206  may be defined to include memory so that a separate memory circuit is not required. 
     As discussed herein, operations of the RAN node  200  may be performed by processor  206 , network interface  204 , and/or transceiver  202 . For example, processor  206  may control transceiver  202  to transmit downlink communications through transceiver  202  over a radio interface to one or more UEs and/or to receive uplink communications through transceiver  202  from one or more UEs over a radio interface. Similarly, processor  206  may control network interface  204  to transmit communications through network interface  204  to one or more other network nodes and/or to receive communications through network interface from one or more other network nodes. Moreover, modules may be stored in memory  208 , and these modules may provide instructions so that when instructions of a module are executed by processor  206 , processor  206  performs respective operations (e.g., operations discussed below with respect to example embodiments). In addition, a structure similar to that of  FIG. 10  may be used to implement other network nodes, for example, omitting transceiver  202 . Moreover, network nodes discussed herein may be implemented as virtual network nodes. 
     Operations of a RAN node, such as a gNB, will now be discussed with reference to the flow chart of  FIG. 4 . For example, modules may be stored in memory  208  of  FIG. 5  and these modules may provide instructions so that when the instructions of a module are executed by processor  206 , processor  206  performs respective operations of the flow chart of  FIG. 4 . Although  FIG. 4  is described in relation to the RAN node  200  depicted in  FIG. 5 , the process could be executed by any node in a 5G network. 
     Various embodiments describe a network node that includes a processor circuit, a transceiver coupled to the processor circuit, and a memory coupled to the processor circuit. The memory includes machine-readable computer program instructions that, when executed by the processor circuit, cause the processor circuit to perform some of the operations depicted in  FIG. 4 . 
     A network node ( 200 ) of a radio access network includes a transceiver ( 202 ) configured to provide communications with a user equipment; and a processor ( 206 ) coupled to the transceiver and configured to provide network communication through the transceiver, wherein the processor is configured to perform operations of detecting establishment of a new physical communication link with a second node in the communication network; receiving a link layer discover protocol, LLDP, message from the second node, wherein the LLDP message comprises a field that identifies an interface type that is to be supported over the new physical communication link; identifying a service associated with the identified interface type; and activating the identified service. 
     Some embodiments provide a network node ( 200 ) of a radio access network that is adapted to perform operations of detecting establishment of a new physical communication link with a second node in the communication network; receiving a link layer discover protocol, LLDP, message from the second node, wherein the LLDP message comprises a field that identifies an interface type that is to be supported over the new physical communication link; identifying a service associated with the identified interface type; and activating the identified service. 
     Some embodiments provide a computer program product comprising a non-transitory storage medium including program code to be executed by processing circuitry ( 206 ) of a network node ( 200 ), whereby execution of the program code causes the network node to perform operations of detecting establishment of a new physical communication link with a second node in the communication network; receiving a link layer discover protocol, LLDP, message from the second node, wherein the LLDP message comprises a field that identifies an interface type that is to be supported over the new physical communication link; identifying a service associated with the identified interface type; and activating the identified service. 
     LISTING OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS 
     Example Embodiments are discussed below. Reference numbers/letters are provided in parenthesis by way of example/illustration without limiting example embodiments to particular elements indicated by reference numbers/letters. 
     Embodiment 1. A method of operating a first node in a communication network, comprising: 
     detecting ( 302 ) establishment of a new physical communication link with a second node in the communication network; 
     receiving ( 304 ) a link layer discovery protocol, LLDP, message from the second node, wherein the LLDP message comprises a field that identifies an interface type that is to be supported over the new physical communication link; 
     identifying ( 306 ) a service associated with the identified interface type; and 
     activating ( 308 ) the identified service. 
     Embodiment 2. The method of Embodiment 1, wherein the field in the LLDP message comprises a type-length-value, TLV, field that identifies the interface type. 
     Embodiment 3. The method of Embodiment 2, wherein the TLV field includes an interface type field that identifies the interface type. 
     Embodiment 4. The method of Embodiment 3, wherein the interface type field identifies the interface type as one of an internal network node interface, I-NNI, C2, C5, E5, E6 S1, S2 or radio access node, RAN, operation and management, O&amp;M interface. 
     Embodiment 5. The method of any of Embodiments 2 to 4, wherein the TLV field includes a sub-interface type that identifies a type of sub-interface that is carried over the new physical communication link. 
     Embodiment 6. The method of Embodiment 5, wherein the sub-interface type comprises one of a virtual local area network, VLAN, sub-interface or a multiprotocol label switching, MPLS, sub-interface. 
     Embodiment 7. The method of Embodiment 5 or 6, wherein each sub-interface carried on the physical communication link defines a separate logical interface between the first and second nodes. 
     Embodiment 8. The method of any previous embodiment, further comprising establishing a virtual private network connection over the physical communication link using the identified interface type. 
     Embodiment 9. The method of any previous embodiment, wherein the interface type comprises a user plane interface. 
     Embodiment 10. The method of any previous embodiment, wherein the second node comprises a radio access network node. 
     Embodiment 11. The method of Embodiment 10, wherein the second node comprises a transport node. 
     Embodiment 12. The method of any of Embodiments 1 to 9, wherein the second node comprises a baseband node. 
     Embodiment 13. The method of any previous Embodiment, wherein the service comprises a multiprotocol label switching, MPLS, service, an internet protocol, IP, switching service and/or a dynamic host configuration protocol, DHCP, service. 
     Embodiment 14. A network node ( 200 ) of a radio access network, comprising: 
     a transceiver ( 202 ) configured to provide communications with a user equipment; and 
     a processor ( 206 ) coupled to the transceiver and configured to provide network communication through the transceiver, wherein the processor is configured to perform operations according to any of claims  1  to  13 . 
     Embodiment 15. A network node ( 200 ) of a radio access network, wherein the network node is adapted to perform operations according to any of claims  1  to  13 . 
     Embodiment 16. A computer program product comprising a non-transitory storage medium including program code to be executed by processing circuitry ( 206 ) of a network node ( 200 ), whereby execution of the program code causes the network node to perform operations according to any of embodiments 1 to 13. 
     Explanations for abbreviations from the above disclosure are provided below. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Abbreviation 
                 Explanation 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 3GPP 
                 3 rd  Generation Partnership Project 
               
               
                 5G 
                 5 th  Generation Wireless Systems 
               
               
                 NG 
                 Next Generation 
               
               
                 IoT 
                 Internet of Things 
               
               
                 AKA 
                 Authentication and Key Agreement 
               
               
                 UICC 
                 Universal Integrated Circuit Card 
               
               
                 UP 
                 User Plane 
               
               
                 LTE 
                 Long Term Evolution (4 th  Generation Wireless System) 
               
               
                 CP 
                 Control Plane 
               
               
                 AS 
                 Access Stratum 
               
               
                 eNB 
                 Evolved Node B 
               
               
                 UE 
                 User Equipment or End User Device 
               
               
                 SMC 
                 Security Mode Command 
               
               
                 RRC 
                 Radio Resource Control 
               
               
                 PDCP 
                 Packet Data Convergence Protocol 
               
               
                 RAN 
                 Radio Access Network 
               
               
                 CN 
                 Core Network 
               
               
                 PDU 
                 Packet Data Unit 
               
               
                 DRB 
                 Data Radio Bearer 
               
               
                 AN 
                 Access Network 
               
               
                 (R)AN 
                 Both 3GPP and non-3GPP Access Networks 
               
               
                 NAS 
                 Network Access Stratum 
               
               
                 AMF 
                 Access and Mobility Management Function 
               
               
                 NF 
                 Network Function 
               
               
                 UDM 
                 Unified Data Management 
               
               
                 PCF 
                 Policy Control Function 
               
               
                 DRB-IP 
                 Data Radio Bearer Integrity Protected 
               
               
                 IE 
                 Information Element 
               
               
                 QoS 
                 Quality of Service 
               
               
                 gNB 
                 Base Station in 5G 
               
               
                 NEF 
                 Network Exposure Function 
               
               
                 NWDAF 
                 Network Data Analytics Function 
               
               
                 PCF 
                 Policy Control Function 
               
               
                 UDM 
                 Unified Data Management 
               
               
                 UPF 
                 User Plane Function 
               
               
                 DL 
                 Downlink 
               
               
                 UL 
                 Uplink 
               
               
                 PHY 
                 Physical Layer 
               
               
                 MP 
                 Management Plane 
               
               
                 SSM 
                 Synchronization Status Message 
               
               
                 TRX 
                 Transceiver 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     For the purposes of the present document, the following terms and definitions may apply. 
     Further definitions and embodiments are discussed below. 
     In the above-description of various embodiments of present inventive concepts, it is to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of present inventive concepts. Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientific terms) used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which present inventive concepts belong. It will be further understood that terms, such as those defined in commonly used dictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their meaning in the context of this specification and the relevant art and will not be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein. 
     When an element is referred to as being “connected”, “coupled”, “responsive”, or variants thereof to another element, it can be directly connected, coupled, or responsive to the other element or intervening elements may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly connected”, “directly coupled”, “directly responsive”, or variants thereof to another element, there are no intervening elements present. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout. Furthermore, “coupled”, “connected”, “responsive”, or variants thereof as used herein may include wirelessly coupled, connected, or responsive. As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. Well-known functions or constructions may not be described in detail for brevity and/or clarity. The term “and/or” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items. 
     It will be understood that although the terms first, second, third, etc. may be used herein to describe various elements/operations, these elements/operations should not be limited by these terms. These terms are only used to distinguish one element/operation from another element/operation. Thus, a first element/operation in some embodiments could be termed a second element/operation in other embodiments without departing from the teachings of present inventive concepts. The same reference numerals or the same reference designators denote the same or similar elements throughout the specification. 
     As used herein, the terms “comprise”, “comprising”, “comprises”, “include”, “including”, “includes”, “have”, “has”, “having”, or variants thereof are open-ended, and include one or more stated features, integers, elements, steps, components, or functions but does not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, elements, steps, components, functions, or groups thereof. Furthermore, as used herein, the common abbreviation “e.g.”, which derives from the Latin phrase “exempli gratia,” may be used to introduce or specify a general example or examples of a previously mentioned item, and is not intended to be limiting of such item. The common abbreviation “i.e.”, which derives from the Latin phrase “id est,” may be used to specify a particular item from a more general recitation. 
     Example embodiments are described herein with reference to block diagrams and/or flowchart illustrations of computer-implemented methods, apparatus (systems and/or devices) and/or computer program products. It is understood that a block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustrations, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustrations, can be implemented by computer program instructions that are performed by one or more computer circuits. These computer program instructions may be provided to a processor circuit of a general purpose computer circuit, special purpose computer circuit, and/or other programmable data processing circuit to produce a machine, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer and/or other programmable data processing apparatus, transform and control transistors, values stored in memory locations, and other hardware components within such circuitry to implement the functions/acts specified in the block diagrams and/or flowchart block or blocks, and thereby create means (functionality) and/or structure for implementing the functions/acts specified in the block diagrams and/or flowchart block(s). 
     These computer program instructions may also be stored in a tangible computer-readable medium that can direct a computer or other programmable data processing apparatus to function in a particular manner, such that the instructions stored in the computer-readable medium produce an article of manufacture including instructions which implement the functions/acts specified in the block diagrams and/or flowchart block or blocks. Accordingly, embodiments of present inventive concepts may be embodied in hardware and/or in software (including firmware, resident software, micro-code, etc.) that runs on a processor such as a digital signal processor, which may collectively be referred to as “circuitry,” “a module” or variants thereof. 
     It should also be noted that in some alternate implementations, the functions/acts noted in the blocks may occur out of the order noted in the flowcharts. For example, two blocks shown in succession may in fact be executed substantially concurrently or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality/acts involved. Moreover, the functionality of a given block of the flowcharts and/or block diagrams may be separated into multiple blocks and/or the functionality of two or more blocks of the flowcharts and/or block diagrams may be at least partially integrated. Finally, other blocks may be added/inserted between the blocks that are illustrated, and/or blocks/operations may be omitted without departing from the scope of inventive concepts. Moreover, although some of the diagrams include arrows on communication paths to show a primary direction of communication, it is to be understood that communication may occur in the opposite direction to the depicted arrows. 
     Many variations and modifications can be made to the embodiments without substantially departing from the principles of the present inventive concepts. All such variations and modifications are intended to be included herein within the scope of present inventive concepts. Accordingly, the above disclosed subject matter is to be considered illustrative, and not restrictive, and the examples of embodiments are intended to cover all such modifications, enhancements, and other embodiments, which fall within the spirit and scope of present inventive concepts. Thus, to the maximum extent allowed by law, the scope of present inventive concepts are to be determined by the broadest permissible interpretation of the present disclosure including the examples of embodiments and their equivalents, and shall not be restricted or limited by the foregoing detailed description. 
     Additional explanation is provided below. 
     Generally, all terms used herein are to be interpreted according to their ordinary meaning in the relevant technical field, unless a different meaning is clearly given and/or is implied from the context in which it is used. All references to a/an/the element, apparatus, component, means, step, etc. are to be interpreted openly as referring to at least one instance of the element, apparatus, component, means, step, etc., unless explicitly stated otherwise. The steps of any methods disclosed herein do not have to be performed in the exact order disclosed, unless a step is explicitly described as following or preceding another step and/or where it is implicit that a step must follow or precede another step. Any feature of any of the embodiments disclosed herein may be applied to any other embodiment, wherever appropriate. Likewise, any advantage of any of the embodiments may apply to any other embodiments, and vice versa. Other objectives, features and advantages of the enclosed embodiments will be apparent from the following description. 
     Some of the embodiments contemplated herein will now be described more fully with reference to the accompanying drawings. Other embodiments, however, are contained within the scope of the subject matter disclosed herein, the disclosed subject matter should not be construed as limited to only the embodiments set forth herein; rather, these embodiments are provided by way of example to convey the scope of the subject matter to those skilled in the art. 
       FIG. 6 : A wireless network in accordance with some embodiments. 
     Although the subject matter described herein may be implemented in any appropriate type of system using any suitable components, the embodiments disclosed herein are described in relation to a wireless network, such as the example wireless network illustrated in  FIG. 6 . For simplicity, the wireless network of  FIG. 6  only depicts network QQ 106 , network nodes QQ 160  and QQ 160   b , and WDs QQ 110 , QQ 110   b , and QQ 110   c  (also referred to as mobile terminals). In practice, a wireless network may further include any additional elements suitable to support communication between wireless devices or between a wireless device and another communication device, such as a landline telephone, a service provider, or any other network node or end device. Of the illustrated components, network node QQ 160  and wireless device (WD) QQ 110  are depicted with additional detail. The wireless network may provide communication and other types of services to one or more wireless devices to facilitate the wireless devices&#39; access to and/or use of the services provided by, or via, the wireless network. 
     The wireless network may comprise and/or interface with any type of communication, telecommunication, data, cellular, and/or radio network or other similar type of system. In some embodiments, the wireless network may be configured to operate according to specific standards or other types of predefined rules or procedures. Thus, particular embodiments of the wireless network may implement communication standards, such as Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), Long Term Evolution (LTE), and/or other suitable 2G, 3G, 4G, or 5G standards; wireless local area network (WLAN) standards, such as the IEEE 802.11 standards; and/or any other appropriate wireless communication standard, such as the Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax), Bluetooth, Z-Wave and/or ZigBee standards. 
     Network QQ 106  may comprise one or more backhaul networks, core networks, IP networks, public switched telephone networks (PSTNs), packet data networks, optical networks, wide-area networks (WANs), local area networks (LANs), wireless local area networks (WLANs), wired networks, wireless networks, metropolitan area networks, and other networks to enable communication between devices. 
     Network node QQ 160  and WD QQ 110  comprise various components described in more detail below. These components work together in order to provide network node and/or wireless device functionality, such as providing wireless connections in a wireless network. In different embodiments, the wireless network may comprise any number of wired or wireless networks, network nodes, base stations, controllers, wireless devices, relay stations, and/or any other components or systems that may facilitate or participate in the communication of data and/or signals whether via wired or wireless connections. 
     As used herein, network node refers to equipment capable, configured, arranged and/or operable to communicate directly or indirectly with a wireless device and/or with other network nodes or equipment in the wireless network to enable and/or provide wireless access to the wireless device and/or to perform other functions (e.g., administration) in the wireless network. Examples of network nodes include, but are not limited to, access points (APs) (e.g., radio access points), base stations (BSs) (e.g., radio base stations, Node Bs, evolved Node Bs (eNBs) and NR NodeBs (gNBs)). Base stations may be categorized based on the amount of coverage they provide (or, stated differently, their transmit power level) and may then also be referred to as femto base stations, pico base stations, micro base stations, or macro base stations. A base station may be a relay node or a relay donor node controlling a relay. A network node may also include one or more (or all) parts of a distributed radio base station such as centralized digital units and/or remote radio units (RRUs), sometimes referred to as Remote Radio Heads (RRHs). Such remote radio units may or may not be integrated with an antenna as an antenna integrated radio. Parts of a distributed radio base station may also be referred to as nodes in a distributed antenna system (DAS). Yet further examples of network nodes include multi-standard radio (MSR) equipment such as MSR BSs, network controllers such as radio network controllers (RNCs) or base station controllers (BSCs), base transceiver stations (BTSs), transmission points, transmission nodes, multi-cell/multicast coordination entities (MCEs), core network nodes (e.g., MSCs, MMEs), O&amp;M nodes, OSS nodes, SON nodes, positioning nodes (e.g., E-SMLCs), and/or MDTs. As another example, a network node may be a virtual network node as described in more detail below. More generally, however, network nodes may represent any suitable device (or group of devices) capable, configured, arranged, and/or operable to enable and/or provide a wireless device with access to the wireless network or to provide some service to a wireless device that has accessed the wireless network. 
     In  FIG. 6 , network node QQ 160  includes processing circuitry QQ 170 , device readable medium QQ 180 , interface QQ 190 , auxiliary equipment QQ 184 , power source QQ 186 , power circuitry QQ 187 , and antenna QQ 162 . Although network node QQ 160  illustrated in the example wireless network of  FIG. 6  may represent a device that includes the illustrated combination of hardware components, other embodiments may comprise network nodes with different combinations of components. It is to be understood that a network node comprises any suitable combination of hardware and/or software needed to perform the tasks, features, functions and methods disclosed herein. Moreover, while the components of network node QQ 160  are depicted as single boxes located within a larger box, or nested within multiple boxes, in practice, a network node may comprise multiple different physical components that make up a single illustrated component (e.g., device readable medium QQ 180  may comprise multiple separate hard drives as well as multiple RAM modules). 
     Similarly, network node QQ 160  may be composed of multiple physically separate components (e.g., a NodeB component and a RNC component, or a BTS component and a BSC component, etc.), which may each have their own respective components. In certain scenarios in which network node QQ 160  comprises multiple separate components (e.g., BTS and BSC components), one or more of the separate components may be shared among several network nodes. For example, a single RNC may control multiple NodeB&#39;s. In such a scenario, each unique NodeB and RNC pair, may in some instances be considered a single separate network node. In some embodiments, network node QQ 160  may be configured to support multiple radio access technologies (RATs). In such embodiments, some components may be duplicated (e.g., separate device readable medium QQ 180  for the different RATs) and some components may be reused (e.g., the same antenna QQ 162  may be shared by the RATs). Network node QQ 160  may also include multiple sets of the various illustrated components for different wireless technologies integrated into network node QQ 160 , such as, for example, GSM, WCDMA, LTE, NR, WiFi, or Bluetooth wireless technologies. These wireless technologies may be integrated into the same or different chip or set of chips and other components within network node QQ 160 . 
     Processing circuitry QQ 170  is configured to perform any determining, calculating, or similar operations (e.g., certain obtaining operations) described herein as being provided by a network node. These operations performed by processing circuitry QQ 170  may include processing information obtained by processing circuitry QQ 170  by, for example, converting the obtained information into other information, comparing the obtained information or converted information to information stored in the network node, and/or performing one or more operations based on the obtained information or converted information, and as a result of said processing making a determination. 
     Processing circuitry QQ 170  may comprise a combination of one or more of a microprocessor, controller, microcontroller, central processing unit, digital signal processor, application-specific integrated circuit, field programmable gate array, or any other suitable computing device, resource, or combination of hardware, software and/or encoded logic operable to provide, either alone or in conjunction with other network node QQ 160  components, such as device readable medium QQ 180 , network node QQ 160  functionality. For example, processing circuitry QQ 170  may execute instructions stored in device readable medium QQ 180  or in memory within processing circuitry QQ 170 . Such functionality may include providing any of the various wireless features, functions, or benefits discussed herein. In some embodiments, processing circuitry QQ 170  may include a system on a chip (SOC). 
     In some embodiments, processing circuitry QQ 170  may include one or more of radio frequency (RF) transceiver circuitry QQ 172  and baseband processing circuitry QQ 174 . In some embodiments, radio frequency (RF) transceiver circuitry QQ 172  and baseband processing circuitry QQ 174  may be on separate chips (or sets of chips), boards, or units, such as radio units and digital units. In alternative embodiments, part or all of RF transceiver circuitry QQ 172  and baseband processing circuitry QQ 174  may be on the same chip or set of chips, boards, or units. 
     In certain embodiments, some or all of the functionality described herein as being provided by a network node, base station, eNB or other such network device may be performed by processing circuitry QQ 170  executing instructions stored on device readable medium QQ 180  or memory within processing circuitry QQ 170 . In alternative embodiments, some or all of the functionality may be provided by processing circuitry QQ 170  without executing instructions stored on a separate or discrete device readable medium, such as in a hard-wired manner. In any of those embodiments, whether executing instructions stored on a device readable storage medium or not, processing circuitry QQ 170  can be configured to perform the described functionality. The benefits provided by such functionality are not limited to processing circuitry QQ 170  alone or to other components of network node QQ 160 , but are enjoyed by network node QQ 160  as a whole, and/or by end users and the wireless network generally. 
     Device readable medium QQ 180  may comprise any form of volatile or non-volatile computer readable memory including, without limitation, persistent storage, solid-state memory, remotely mounted memory, magnetic media, optical media, random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), mass storage media (for example, a hard disk), removable storage media (for example, a flash drive, a Compact Disk (CD) or a Digital Video Disk (DVD)), and/or any other volatile or non-volatile, non-transitory device readable and/or computer-executable memory devices that store information, data, and/or instructions that may be used by processing circuitry QQ 170 . Device readable medium QQ 180  may store any suitable instructions, data or information, including a computer program, software, an application including one or more of logic, rules, code, tables, etc. and/or other instructions capable of being executed by processing circuitry QQ 170  and, utilized by network node QQ 160 . Device readable medium QQ 180  may be used to store any calculations made by processing circuitry QQ 170  and/or any data received via interface QQ 190 . In some embodiments, processing circuitry QQ 170  and device readable medium QQ 180  may be considered to be integrated. 
     Interface QQ 190  is used in the wired or wireless communication of signalling and/or data between network node QQ 160 , network QQ 106 , and/or WDs QQ 110 . As illustrated, interface QQ 190  comprises port(s)/terminal(s) QQ 194  to send and receive data, for example to and from network QQ 106  over a wired connection. Interface QQ 190  also includes radio front end circuitry QQ 192  that may be coupled to, or in certain embodiments a part of, antenna QQ 162 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 192  comprises filters QQ 198  and amplifiers QQ 196 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 192  may be connected to antenna QQ 162  and processing circuitry QQ 170 . Radio front end circuitry may be configured to condition signals communicated between antenna QQ 162  and processing circuitry QQ 170 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 192  may receive digital data that is to be sent out to other network nodes or WDs via a wireless connection. Radio front end circuitry QQ 192  may convert the digital data into a radio signal having the appropriate channel and bandwidth parameters using a combination of filters QQ 198  and/or amplifiers QQ 196 . The radio signal may then be transmitted via antenna QQ 162 . Similarly, when receiving data, antenna QQ 162  may collect radio signals which are then converted into digital data by radio front end circuitry QQ 192 . The digital data may be passed to processing circuitry QQ 170 . In other embodiments, the interface may comprise different components and/or different combinations of components. 
     In certain alternative embodiments, network node QQ 160  may not include separate radio front end circuitry QQ 192 , instead, processing circuitry QQ 170  may comprise radio front end circuitry and may be connected to antenna QQ 162  without separate radio front end circuitry QQ 192 . Similarly, in some embodiments, all or some of RF transceiver circuitry QQ 172  may be considered a part of interface QQ 190 . In still other embodiments, interface QQ 190  may include one or more ports or terminals QQ 194 , radio front end circuitry QQ 192 , and RF transceiver circuitry QQ 172 , as part of a radio unit (not shown), and interface QQ 190  may communicate with baseband processing circuitry QQ 174 , which is part of a digital unit (not shown). 
     Antenna QQ 162  may include one or more antennas, or antenna arrays, configured to send and/or receive wireless signals. Antenna QQ 162  may be coupled to radio front end circuitry QQ 190  and may be any type of antenna capable of transmitting and receiving data and/or signals wirelessly. In some embodiments, antenna QQ 162  may comprise one or more omni-directional, sector or panel antennas operable to transmit/receive radio signals between, for example, 2 GHz and 66 GHz. An omni-directional antenna may be used to transmit/receive radio signals in any direction, a sector antenna may be used to transmit/receive radio signals from devices within a particular area, and a panel antenna may be a line of sight antenna used to transmit/receive radio signals in a relatively straight line. In some instances, the use of more than one antenna may be referred to as MIMO. In certain embodiments, antenna QQ 162  may be separate from network node QQ 160  and may be connectable to network node QQ 160  through an interface or port. 
     Antenna QQ 162 , interface QQ 190 , and/or processing circuitry QQ 170  may be configured to perform any receiving operations and/or certain obtaining operations described herein as being performed by a network node. Any information, data and/or signals may be received from a wireless device, another network node and/or any other network equipment. Similarly, antenna QQ 162 , interface QQ 190 , and/or processing circuitry QQ 170  may be configured to perform any transmitting operations described herein as being performed by a network node. Any information, data and/or signals may be transmitted to a wireless device, another network node and/or any other network equipment. 
     Power circuitry QQ 187  may comprise, or be coupled to, power management circuitry and is configured to supply the components of network node QQ 160  with power for performing the functionality described herein. Power circuitry QQ 187  may receive power from power source QQ 186 . Power source QQ 186  and/or power circuitry QQ 187  may be configured to provide power to the various components of network node QQ 160  in a form suitable for the respective components (e.g., at a voltage and current level needed for each respective component). Power source QQ 186  may either be included in, or external to, power circuitry QQ 187  and/or network node QQ 160 . For example, network node QQ 160  may be connectable to an external power source (e.g., an electricity outlet) via an input circuitry or interface such as an electrical cable, whereby the external power source supplies power to power circuitry QQ 187 . As a further example, power source QQ 186  may comprise a source of power in the form of a battery or battery pack which is connected to, or integrated in, power circuitry QQ 187 . The battery may provide backup power should the external power source fail. Other types of power sources, such as photovoltaic devices, may also be used. 
     Alternative embodiments of network node QQ 160  may include additional components beyond those shown in  FIG. 6  that may be responsible for providing certain aspects of the network node&#39;s functionality, including any of the functionality described herein and/or any functionality necessary to support the subject matter described herein. For example, network node QQ 160  may include user interface equipment to allow input of information into network node QQ 160  and to allow output of information from network node QQ 160 . This may allow a user to perform diagnostic, maintenance, repair, and other administrative functions for network node QQ 160 . 
     As used herein, wireless device (WD) refers to a device capable, configured, arranged and/or operable to communicate wirelessly with network nodes and/or other wireless devices. Unless otherwise noted, the term WD may be used interchangeably herein with user equipment (UE). Communicating wirelessly may involve transmitting and/or receiving wireless signals using electromagnetic waves, radio waves, infrared waves, and/or other types of signals suitable for conveying information through air. In some embodiments, a WD may be configured to transmit and/or receive information without direct human interaction. For instance, a WD may be designed to transmit information to a network on a predetermined schedule, when triggered by an internal or external event, or in response to requests from the network. Examples of a WD include, but are not limited to, a smart phone, a mobile phone, a cell phone, a voice over IP (VoIP) phone, a wireless local loop phone, a desktop computer, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a wireless cameras, a gaming console or device, a music storage device, a playback appliance, a wearable terminal device, a wireless endpoint, a mobile station, a tablet, a laptop, a laptop-embedded equipment (LEE), a laptop-mounted equipment (LME), a smart device, a wireless customer-premise equipment (CPE). a vehicle-mounted wireless terminal device, etc. A WD may support device-to-device (D2D) communication, for example by implementing a 3GPP standard for sidelink communication, vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), vehicle-to-everything (V2X) and may in this case be referred to as a D2D communication device. As yet another specific example, in an Internet of Things (IoT) scenario, a WD may represent a machine or other device that performs monitoring and/or measurements, and transmits the results of such monitoring and/or measurements to another WD and/or a network node. The WD may in this case be a machine-to-machine (M2M) device, which may in a 3GPP context be referred to as an MTC device. As one particular example, the WD may be a UE implementing the 3GPP narrow band internet of things (NB-IoT) standard. Particular examples of such machines or devices are sensors, metering devices such as power meters, industrial machinery, or home or personal appliances (e.g. refrigerators, televisions, etc.) personal wearables (e.g., watches, fitness trackers, etc.). In other scenarios, a WD may represent a vehicle or other equipment that is capable of monitoring and/or reporting on its operational status or other functions associated with its operation. A WD as described above may represent the endpoint of a wireless connection, in which case the device may be referred to as a wireless terminal. Furthermore, a WD as described above may be mobile, in which case it may also be referred to as a mobile device or a mobile terminal. 
     As illustrated, wireless device QQ 110  includes antenna QQ 111 , interface QQ 114 , processing circuitry QQ 120 , device readable medium QQ 130 , user interface equipment QQ 132 , auxiliary equipment QQ 134 , power source QQ 136  and power circuitry QQ 137 . WD QQ 110  may include multiple sets of one or more of the illustrated components for different wireless technologies supported by WD QQ 110 , such as, for example, GSM, WCDMA, LTE, NR, WiFi, WiMAX, or Bluetooth wireless technologies, just to mention a few. These wireless technologies may be integrated into the same or different chips or set of chips as other components within WD QQ 110 . 
     Antenna QQ 111  may include one or more antennas or antenna arrays, configured to send and/or receive wireless signals, and is connected to interface QQ 114 . In certain alternative embodiments, antenna QQ 111  may be separate from WD QQ 110  and be connectable to WD QQ 110  through an interface or port. Antenna QQ 111 , interface QQ 114 , and/or processing circuitry QQ 120  may be configured to perform any receiving or transmitting operations described herein as being performed by a WD. Any information, data and/or signals may be received from a network node and/or another WD. In some embodiments, radio front end circuitry and/or antenna QQ 111  may be considered an interface. 
     As illustrated, interface QQ 114  comprises radio front end circuitry QQ 112  and antenna QQ 111 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 112  comprise one or more filters QQ 118  and amplifiers QQ 116 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 114  is connected to antenna QQ 111  and processing circuitry QQ 120 , and is configured to condition signals communicated between antenna QQ 111  and processing circuitry QQ 120 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 112  may be coupled to or a part of antenna QQ 111 . In some embodiments, WD QQ 110  may not include separate radio front end circuitry QQ 112 ; rather, processing circuitry QQ 120  may comprise radio front end circuitry and may be connected to antenna QQ 111 . Similarly, in some embodiments, some or all of RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122  may be considered a part of interface QQ 114 . Radio front end circuitry QQ 112  may receive digital data that is to be sent out to other network nodes or WDs via a wireless connection. Radio front end circuitry QQ 112  may convert the digital data into a radio signal having the appropriate channel and bandwidth parameters using a combination of filters QQ 118  and/or amplifiers QQ 116 . The radio signal may then be transmitted via antenna QQ 111 . Similarly, when receiving data, antenna QQ 111  may collect radio signals which are then converted into digital data by radio front end circuitry QQ 112 . The digital data may be passed to processing circuitry QQ 120 . In other embodiments, the interface may comprise different components and/or different combinations of components. 
     Processing circuitry QQ 120  may comprise a combination of one or more of a microprocessor, controller, microcontroller, central processing unit, digital signal processor, application-specific integrated circuit, field programmable gate array, or any other suitable computing device, resource, or combination of hardware, software, and/or encoded logic operable to provide, either alone or in conjunction with other WD QQ 110  components, such as device readable medium QQ 130 , WD QQ 110  functionality. Such functionality may include providing any of the various wireless features or benefits discussed herein. For example, processing circuitry QQ 120  may execute instructions stored in device readable medium QQ 130  or in memory within processing circuitry QQ 120  to provide the functionality disclosed herein. 
     As illustrated, processing circuitry QQ 120  includes one or more of RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122 , baseband processing circuitry QQ 124 , and application processing circuitry QQ 126 . In other embodiments, the processing circuitry may comprise different components and/or different combinations of components. In certain embodiments processing circuitry QQ 120  of WD QQ 110  may comprise a SOC. In some embodiments, RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122 , baseband processing circuitry QQ 124 , and application processing circuitry QQ 126  may be on separate chips or sets of chips. In alternative embodiments, part or all of baseband processing circuitry QQ 124  and application processing circuitry QQ 126  may be combined into one chip or set of chips, and RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122  may be on a separate chip or set of chips. In still alternative embodiments, part or all of RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122  and baseband processing circuitry QQ 124  may be on the same chip or set of chips, and application processing circuitry QQ 126  may be on a separate chip or set of chips. In yet other alternative embodiments, part or all of RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122 , baseband processing circuitry QQ 124 , and application processing circuitry QQ 126  may be combined in the same chip or set of chips. In some embodiments, RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122  may be a part of interface QQ 114 . RF transceiver circuitry QQ 122  may condition RF signals for processing circuitry QQ 120 . 
     In certain embodiments, some or all of the functionality described herein as being performed by a WD may be provided by processing circuitry QQ 120  executing instructions stored on device readable medium QQ 130 , which in certain embodiments may be a computer-readable storage medium. In alternative embodiments, some or all of the functionality may be provided by processing circuitry QQ 120  without executing instructions stored on a separate or discrete device readable storage medium, such as in a hard-wired manner. In any of those particular embodiments, whether executing instructions stored on a device readable storage medium or not, processing circuitry QQ 120  can be configured to perform the described functionality. The benefits provided by such functionality are not limited to processing circuitry QQ 120  alone or to other components of WD QQ 110 , but are enjoyed by WD QQ 110  as a whole, and/or by end users and the wireless network generally. 
     Processing circuitry QQ 120  may be configured to perform any determining, calculating, or similar operations (e.g., certain obtaining operations) described herein as being performed by a WD. These operations, as performed by processing circuitry QQ 120 , may include processing information obtained by processing circuitry QQ 120  by, for example, converting the obtained information into other information, comparing the obtained information or converted information to information stored by WD QQ 110 , and/or performing one or more operations based on the obtained information or converted information, and as a result of said processing making a determination. 
     Device readable medium QQ 130  may be operable to store a computer program, software, an application including one or more of logic, rules, code, tables, etc. and/or other instructions capable of being executed by processing circuitry QQ 120 . Device readable medium QQ 130  may include computer memory (e.g., Random Access Memory (RAM) or Read Only Memory (ROM)), mass storage media (e.g., a hard disk), removable storage media (e.g., a Compact Disk (CD) or a Digital Video Disk (DVD)), and/or any other volatile or non-volatile, non-transitory device readable and/or computer executable memory devices that store information, data, and/or instructions that may be used by processing circuitry QQ 120 . In some embodiments, processing circuitry QQ 120  and device readable medium QQ 130  may be considered to be integrated. User interface equipment QQ 132  may provide components that allow for a human user to interact with WD QQ 110 . Such interaction may be of many forms, such as visual, audial, tactile, etc. User interface equipment QQ 132  may be operable to produce output to the user and to allow the user to provide input to WD QQ 110 . The type of interaction may vary depending on the type of user interface equipment QQ 132  installed in WD QQ 110 . For example, if WD QQ 110  is a smart phone, the interaction may be via a touch screen; if WD QQ 110  is a smart meter, the interaction may be through a screen that provides usage (e.g., the number of gallons used) or a speaker that provides an audible alert (e.g., if smoke is detected). User interface equipment QQ 132  may include input interfaces, devices and circuits, and output interfaces, devices and circuits. User interface equipment QQ 132  is configured to allow input of information into WD QQ 110 , and is connected to processing circuitry QQ 120  to allow processing circuitry QQ 120  to process the input information. User interface equipment QQ 132  may include, for example, a microphone, a proximity or other sensor, keys/buttons, a touch display, one or more cameras, a USB port, or other input circuitry. User interface equipment QQ 132  is also configured to allow output of information from WD QQ 110 , and to allow processing circuitry QQ 120  to output information from WD QQ 110 . User interface equipment QQ 132  may include, for example, a speaker, a display, vibrating circuitry, a USB port, a headphone interface, or other output circuitry. Using one or more input and output interfaces, devices, and circuits, of user interface equipment QQ 132 , WD QQ 110  may communicate with end users and/or the wireless network, and allow them to benefit from the functionality described herein. 
     Auxiliary equipment QQ 134  is operable to provide more specific functionality which may not be generally performed by WDs. This may comprise specialized sensors for doing measurements for various purposes, interfaces for additional types of communication such as wired communications etc. The inclusion and type of components of auxiliary equipment QQ 134  may vary depending on the embodiment and/or scenario. 
     Power source QQ 136  may, in some embodiments, be in the form of a battery or battery pack. Other types of power sources, such as an external power source (e.g., an electricity outlet), photovoltaic devices or power cells, may also be used. WD QQ 110  may further comprise power circuitry QQ 137  for delivering power from power source QQ 136  to the various parts of WD QQ 110  which need power from power source QQ 136  to carry out any functionality described or indicated herein. Power circuitry QQ 137  may in certain embodiments comprise power management circuitry. Power circuitry QQ 137  may additionally or alternatively be operable to receive power from an external power source; in which case WD QQ 110  may be connectable to the external power source (such as an electricity outlet) via input circuitry or an interface such as an electrical power cable. Power circuitry QQ 137  may also in certain embodiments be operable to deliver power from an external power source to power source QQ 136 . This may be, for example, for the charging of power source QQ 136 . Power circuitry QQ 137  may perform any formatting, converting, or other modification to the power from power source QQ 136  to make the power suitable for the respective components of WD QQ 110  to which power is supplied. 
       FIG. 7 : User Equipment in accordance with some embodiments 
       FIG. 7  illustrates one embodiment of a UE in accordance with various aspects described herein. As used herein, a user equipment or UE may not necessarily have a user in the sense of a human user who owns and/or operates the relevant device. Instead, a UE may represent a device that is intended for sale to, or operation by, a human user but which may not, or which may not initially, be associated with a specific human user (e.g., a smart sprinkler controller). Alternatively, a UE may represent a device that is not intended for sale to, or operation by, an end user but which may be associated with or operated for the benefit of a user (e.g., a smart power meter). UE QQ 2200  may be any UE identified by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), including a NB-IOT UE, a machine type communication (MTC) UE, and/or an enhanced MTC (eMTC) UE. UE QQ 200 , as illustrated in  FIG. 7 , is one example of a WD configured for communication in accordance with one or more communication standards promulgated by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), such as 3GPP&#39;s GSM, UMTS, LTE, and/or 5G standards. As mentioned previously, the term WD and UE may be used interchangeable. Accordingly, although  FIG. 7  is a UE, the components discussed herein are equally applicable to a WD, and vice-versa. 
     In  FIG. 7 , UE QQ 200  includes processing circuitry QQ 201  that is operatively coupled to input/output interface QQ 205 , radio frequency (RF) interface QQ 209 , network connection interface QQ 211 , memory QQ 215  including random access memory (RAM) QQ 217 , read-only memory (ROM) QQ 219 , and storage medium QQ 221  or the like, communication subsystem QQ 231 , power source QQ 233 , and/or any other component, or any combination thereof. Storage medium QQ 221  includes operating system QQ 223 , application program QQ 225 , and data QQ 227 . In other embodiments, storage medium QQ 221  may include other similar types of information. Certain UEs may utilize all of the components shown in  FIG. 7 , or only a subset of the components. The level of integration between the components may vary from one UE to another UE. Further, certain UEs may contain multiple instances of a component, such as multiple processors, memories, transceivers, transmitters, receivers, etc. 
     In  FIG. 7 , processing circuitry QQ 201  may be configured to process computer instructions and data. Processing circuitry QQ 201  may be configured to implement any sequential state machine operative to execute machine instructions stored as machine-readable computer programs in the memory, such as one or more hardware-implemented state machines (e.g., in discrete logic, FPGA, ASIC, etc.); programmable logic together with appropriate firmware; one or more stored program, general-purpose processors, such as a microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP), together with appropriate software; or any combination of the above. For example, the processing circuitry QQ 201  may include two central processing units (CPUs). Data may be information in a form suitable for use by a computer. 
     In the depicted embodiment, input/output interface QQ 205  may be configured to provide a communication interface to an input device, output device, or input and output device. UE QQ 200  may be configured to use an output device via input/output interface QQ 205 . An output device may use the same type of interface port as an input device. For example, a USB port may be used to provide input to and output from UE QQ 200 . The output device may be a speaker, a sound card, a video card, a display, a monitor, a printer, an actuator, an emitter, a smartcard, another output device, or any combination thereof. UE QQ 200  may be configured to use an input device via input/output interface QQ 205  to allow a user to capture information into UE QQ 200 . The input device may include a touch-sensitive or presence-sensitive display, a camera (e.g., a digital camera, a digital video camera, a web camera, etc.), a microphone, a sensor, a mouse, a trackball, a directional pad, a trackpad, a scroll wheel, a smartcard, and the like. The presence-sensitive display may include a capacitive or resistive touch sensor to sense input from a user. A sensor may be, for instance, an accelerometer, a gyroscope, a tilt sensor, a force sensor, a magnetometer, an optical sensor, a proximity sensor, another like sensor, or any combination thereof. For example, the input device may be an accelerometer, a magnetometer, a digital camera, a microphone, and an optical sensor. 
     In  FIG. 7 , RF interface QQ 209  may be configured to provide a communication interface to RF components such as a transmitter, a receiver, and an antenna. Network connection interface QQ 211  may be configured to provide a communication interface to network QQ 243   a . Network QQ 243   a  may encompass wired and/or wireless networks such as a local-area network (LAN), a wide-area network (WAN), a computer network, a wireless network, a telecommunications network, another like network or any combination thereof. For example, network QQ 243   a  may comprise a Wi-Fi network. Network connection interface QQ 211  may be configured to include a receiver and a transmitter interface used to communicate with one or more other devices over a communication network according to one or more communication protocols, such as Ethernet, TCP/IP, SONET, ATM, or the like. Network connection interface QQ 211  may implement receiver and transmitter functionality appropriate to the communication network links (e.g., optical, electrical, and the like). The transmitter and receiver functions may share circuit components, software or firmware, or alternatively may be implemented separately. 
     RAM QQ 217  may be configured to interface via bus QQ 202  to processing circuitry QQ 201  to provide storage or caching of data or computer instructions during the execution of software programs such as the operating system, application programs, and device drivers. ROM QQ 219  may be configured to provide computer instructions or data to processing circuitry QQ 201 . For example, ROM QQ 219  may be configured to store invariant low-level system code or data for basic system functions such as basic input and output (I/O), startup, or reception of keystrokes from a keyboard that are stored in a non-volatile memory. Storage medium QQ 221  may be configured to include memory such as RAM, ROM, programmable read-only memory (PROM), erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), magnetic disks, optical disks, floppy disks, hard disks, removable cartridges, or flash drives. In one example, storage medium QQ 221  may be configured to include operating system QQ 223 , application program QQ 225  such as a web browser application, a widget or gadget engine or another application, and data file QQ 227 . Storage medium QQ 221  may store, for use by UE QQ 200 , any of a variety of various operating systems or combinations of operating systems. 
     Storage medium QQ 221  may be configured to include a number of physical drive units, such as redundant array of independent disks (RAID), floppy disk drive, flash memory, USB flash drive, external hard disk drive, thumb drive, pen drive, key drive, high-density digital versatile disc (HD-DVD) optical disc drive, internal hard disk drive, Blu-Ray optical disc drive, holographic digital data storage (HDDS) optical disc drive, external mini-dual in-line memory module (DIMM), synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM), external micro-DIMM SDRAM, smartcard memory such as a subscriber identity module or a removable user identity (SIM/RUIM) module, other memory, or any combination thereof. Storage medium QQ 221  may allow UE QQ 200  to access computer-executable instructions, application programs or the like, stored on transitory or non-transitory memory media, to off-load data, or to upload data. An article of manufacture, such as one utilizing a communication system may be tangibly embodied in storage medium QQ 221 , which may comprise a device readable medium. 
     In  FIG. 7 , processing circuitry QQ 201  may be configured to communicate with network QQ 243   b  using communication subsystem QQ 231 . Network QQ 243   a  and network QQ 243   b  may be the same network or networks or different network or networks. Communication subsystem QQ 231  may be configured to include one or more transceivers used to communicate with network QQ 243   b . For example, communication subsystem QQ 231  may be configured to include one or more transceivers used to communicate with one or more remote transceivers of another device capable of wireless communication such as another WD, UE, or base station of a radio access network (RAN) according to one or more communication protocols, such as IEEE 802.QQ2, CDMA, WCDMA, GSM, LTE, UTRAN, WiMax, or the like. Each transceiver may include transmitter QQ 233  and/or receiver QQ 235  to implement transmitter or receiver functionality, respectively, appropriate to the RAN links (e.g., frequency allocations and the like). Further, transmitter QQ 233  and receiver QQ 235  of each transceiver may share circuit components, software or firmware, or alternatively may be implemented separately. 
     In the illustrated embodiment, the communication functions of communication subsystem QQ 231  may include data communication, voice communication, multimedia communication, short-range communications such as Bluetooth, near-field communication, location-based communication such as the use of the global positioning system (GPS) to determine a location, another like communication function, or any combination thereof. For example, communication subsystem QQ 231  may include cellular communication, Wi-Fi communication, Bluetooth communication, and GPS communication. Network QQ 243   b  may encompass wired and/or wireless networks such as a local-area network (LAN), a wide-area network (WAN), a computer network, a wireless network, a telecommunications network, another like network or any combination thereof. For example, network QQ 243   b  may be a cellular network, a Wi-Fi network, and/or a near-field network. Power source QQ 213  may be configured to provide alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) power to components of UE QQ 200 . 
     The features, benefits and/or functions described herein may be implemented in one of the components of UE QQ 200  or partitioned across multiple components of UE QQ 200 . Further, the features, benefits, and/or functions described herein may be implemented in any combination of hardware, software or firmware. In one example, communication subsystem QQ 231  may be configured to include any of the components described herein. Further, processing circuitry QQ 201  may be configured to communicate with any of such components over bus QQ 202 . In another example, any of such components may be represented by program instructions stored in memory that when executed by processing circuitry QQ 201  perform the corresponding functions described herein. In another example, the functionality of any of such components may be partitioned between processing circuitry QQ 201  and communication subsystem QQ 231 . In another example, the non-computationally intensive functions of any of such components may be implemented in software or firmware and the computationally intensive functions may be implemented in hardware. 
       FIG. 8 : Virtualization environment in accordance with some embodiments 
       FIG. 8  is a schematic block diagram illustrating a virtualization environment QQ 300  in which functions implemented by some embodiments may be virtualized. In the present context, virtualizing means creating virtual versions of apparatuses or devices which may include virtualizing hardware platforms, storage devices and networking resources. As used herein, virtualization can be applied to a node (e.g., a virtualized base station or a virtualized radio access node) or to a device (e.g., a UE, a wireless device or any other type of communication device) or components thereof and relates to an implementation in which at least a portion of the functionality is implemented as one or more virtual components (e.g., via one or more applications, components, functions, virtual machines or containers executing on one or more physical processing nodes in one or more networks). 
     In some embodiments, some or all of the functions described herein may be implemented as virtual components executed by one or more virtual machines implemented in one or more virtual environments QQ 300  hosted by one or more of hardware nodes QQ 330 . Further, in embodiments in which the virtual node is not a radio access node or does not require radio connectivity (e.g., a core network node), then the network node may be entirely virtualized. 
     The functions may be implemented by one or more applications QQ 320  (which may alternatively be called software instances, virtual appliances, network functions, virtual nodes, virtual network functions, etc.) operative to implement some of the features, functions, and/or benefits of some of the embodiments disclosed herein. Applications QQ 320  are run in virtualization environment QQ 300  which provides hardware QQ 330  comprising processing circuitry QQ 360  and memory QQ 390 . Memory QQ 390  contains instructions QQ 395  executable by processing circuitry QQ 360  whereby application QQ 320  is operative to provide one or more of the features, benefits, and/or functions disclosed herein. 
     Virtualization environment QQ 300 , comprises general-purpose or special-purpose network hardware devices QQ 330  comprising a set of one or more processors or processing circuitry QQ 360 , which may be commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) processors, dedicated Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), or any other type of processing circuitry including digital or analog hardware components or special purpose processors. Each hardware device may comprise memory QQ 390 - 1  which may be non-persistent memory for temporarily storing instructions QQ 395  or software executed by processing circuitry QQ 360 . Each hardware device may comprise one or more network interface controllers (NICs) QQ 370 , also known as network interface cards, which include physical network interface QQ 380 . Each hardware device may also include non-transitory, persistent, machine-readable storage media QQ 390 - 2  having stored therein software QQ 395  and/or instructions executable by processing circuitry QQ 360 . Software QQ 395  may include any type of software including software for instantiating one or more virtualization layers QQ 350  (also referred to as hypervisors), software to execute virtual machines QQ 340  as well as software allowing it to execute functions, features and/or benefits described in relation with some embodiments described herein. 
     Virtual machines QQ 340 , comprise virtual processing, virtual memory, virtual networking or interface and virtual storage, and may be run by a corresponding virtualization layer QQ 350  or hypervisor. Different embodiments of the instance of virtual appliance QQ 320  may be implemented on one or more of virtual machines QQ 340 , and the implementations may be made in different ways. 
     During operation, processing circuitry QQ 360  executes software QQ 395  to instantiate the hypervisor or virtualization layer QQ 350 , which may sometimes be referred to as a virtual machine monitor (VMM). Virtualization layer QQ 350  may present a virtual operating platform that appears like networking hardware to virtual machine QQ 340 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 8 , hardware QQ 330  may be a standalone network node with generic or specific components. Hardware QQ 330  may comprise antenna QQ 3225  and may implement some functions via virtualization. Alternatively, hardware QQ 330  may be part of a larger cluster of hardware (e.g. such as in a data center or customer premise equipment (CPE)) where many hardware nodes work together and are managed via management and orchestration (MANO) QQ 3100 , which, among others, oversees lifecycle management of applications QQ 320 . 
     Virtualization of the hardware is in some contexts referred to as network function virtualization (NFV). NFV may be used to consolidate many network equipment types onto industry standard high volume server hardware, physical switches, and physical storage, which can be located in data centers, and customer premise equipment. 
     In the context of NFV, virtual machine QQ 340  may be a software implementation of a physical machine that runs programs as if they were executing on a physical, non-virtualized machine. Each of virtual machines QQ 340 , and that part of hardware QQ 330  that executes that virtual machine, be it hardware dedicated to that virtual machine and/or hardware shared by that virtual machine with others of the virtual machines QQ 340 , forms a separate virtual network elements (VNE). 
     Still in the context of NFV, Virtual Network Function (VNF) is responsible for handling specific network functions that run in one or more virtual machines QQ 340  on top of hardware networking infrastructure QQ 330  and corresponds to application QQ 320  in  FIG. 8 . 
     In some embodiments, one or more radio units QQ 3200  that each include one or more transmitters QQ 3220  and one or more receivers QQ 3210  may be coupled to one or more antennas QQ 3225 . Radio units QQ 3200  may communicate directly with hardware nodes QQ 330  via one or more appropriate network interfaces and may be used in combination with the virtual components to provide a virtual node with radio capabilities, such as a radio access node or a base station. 
     In some embodiments, some signalling can be effected with the use of control system QQ 3230  which may alternatively be used for communication between the hardware nodes QQ 330  and radio units QQ 3200 . 
       FIG. 9 : Telecommunication network connected via an intermediate network to a host computer in accordance with some embodiments. 
     With reference to  FIG. 9 , in accordance with an embodiment, a communication system includes telecommunication network QQ 410 , such as a 3GPP-type cellular network, which comprises access network QQ 411 , such as a radio access network, and core network QQ 414 . Access network QQ 411  comprises a plurality of base stations QQ 412   a , QQ 412   b , QQ 412   c , such as NBs, eNBs, gNBs or other types of wireless access points, each defining a corresponding coverage area QQ 413   a , QQ 413   b , QQ 413   c . Each base station QQ 412   a , QQ 412   b , QQ 412   c  is connectable to core network QQ 414  over a wired or wireless connection QQ 415 . A first UE QQ 491  located in coverage area QQ 413   c  is configured to wirelessly connect to, or be paged by, the corresponding base station QQ 412   c . A second UE QQ 492  in coverage area QQ 413   a  is wirelessly connectable to the corresponding base station QQ 412   a . While a plurality of UEs QQ 491 , QQ 492  are illustrated in this example, the disclosed embodiments are equally applicable to a situation where a sole UE is in the coverage area or where a sole UE is connecting to the corresponding base station QQ 412 . 
     Telecommunication network QQ 410  is itself connected to host computer QQ 430 , which may be embodied in the hardware and/or software of a standalone server, a cloud-implemented server, a distributed server or as processing resources in a server farm. Host computer QQ 430  may be under the ownership or control of a service provider, or may be operated by the service provider or on behalf of the service provider. Connections QQ 421  and QQ 422  between telecommunication network QQ 410  and host computer QQ 430  may extend directly from core network QQ 414  to host computer QQ 430  or may go via an optional intermediate network QQ 420 . Intermediate network QQ 420  may be one of, or a combination of more than one of, a public, private or hosted network; intermediate network QQ 420 , if any, may be a backbone network or the Internet; in particular, intermediate network QQ 420  may comprise two or more sub-networks (not shown). 
     The communication system of  FIG. 9  as a whole enables connectivity between the connected UEs QQ 491 , QQ 492  and host computer QQ 430 . The connectivity may be described as an over-the-top (OTT) connection QQ 450 . Host computer QQ 430  and the connected UEs QQ 491 , QQ 492  are configured to communicate data and/or signaling via OTT connection QQ 450 , using access network QQ 411 , core network QQ 414 , any intermediate network QQ 420  and possible further infrastructure (not shown) as intermediaries. OTT connection QQ 450  may be transparent in the sense that the participating communication devices through which OTT connection QQ 450  passes are unaware of routing of uplink and downlink communications. For example, base station QQ 412  may not or need not be informed about the past routing of an incoming downlink communication with data originating from host computer QQ 430  to be forwarded (e.g., handed over) to a connected UE QQ 491 . Similarly, base station QQ 412  need not be aware of the future routing of an outgoing uplink communication originating from the UE QQ 491  towards the host computer QQ 430 . 
       FIG. 10 : Host computer communicating via a base station with a user equipment over a partially wireless connection in accordance with some embodiments. 
     Example implementations, in accordance with an embodiment, of the UE, base station and host computer discussed in the preceding paragraphs will now be described with reference to  FIG. 10 . In communication system QQ 500 , host computer QQ 510  comprises hardware QQ 515  including communication interface QQ 516  configured to set up and maintain a wired or wireless connection with an interface of a different communication device of communication system QQ 500 . Host computer QQ 510  further comprises processing circuitry QQ 518 , which may have storage and/or processing capabilities. In particular, processing circuitry QQ 518  may comprise one or more programmable processors, application-specific integrated circuits, field programmable gate arrays or combinations of these (not shown) adapted to execute instructions. Host computer QQ 510  further comprises software QQ 511 , which is stored in or accessible by host computer QQ 510  and executable by processing circuitry QQ 518 . Software QQ 511  includes host application QQ 512 . Host application QQ 512  may be operable to provide a service to a remote user, such as UE QQ 530  connecting via OTT connection QQ 550  terminating at UE QQ 530  and host computer QQ 510 . In providing the service to the remote user, host application QQ 512  may provide user data which is transmitted using OTT connection QQ 550 . 
     Communication system QQ 500  further includes base station QQ 520  provided in a telecommunication system and comprising hardware QQ 525  enabling it to communicate with host computer QQ 510  and with UE QQ 530 . Hardware QQ 525  may include communication interface QQ 526  for setting up and maintaining a wired or wireless connection with an interface of a different communication device of communication system QQ 500 , as well as radio interface QQ 527  for setting up and maintaining at least wireless connection QQ 570  with UE QQ 530  located in a coverage area (not shown in  FIG. 10 ) served by base station QQ 520 . Communication interface QQ 526  may be configured to facilitate connection QQ 560  to host computer QQ 510 . Connection QQ 560  may be direct or it may pass through a core network (not shown in  FIG. 10 ) of the telecommunication system and/or through one or more intermediate networks outside the telecommunication system. In the embodiment shown, hardware QQ 525  of base station QQ 520  further includes processing circuitry QQ 528 , which may comprise one or more programmable processors, application-specific integrated circuits, field programmable gate arrays or combinations of these (not shown) adapted to execute instructions. Base station QQ 520  further has software QQ 521  stored internally or accessible via an external connection. 
     Communication system QQ 500  further includes UE QQ 530  already referred to. Its hardware QQ 535  may include radio interface QQ 537  configured to set up and maintain wireless connection QQ 570  with a base station serving a coverage area in which UE QQ 530  is currently located. Hardware QQ 535  of UE QQ 530  further includes processing circuitry QQ 538 , which may comprise one or more programmable processors, application-specific integrated circuits, field programmable gate arrays or combinations of these (not shown) adapted to execute instructions. UE QQ 530  further comprises software QQ 531 , which is stored in or accessible by UE QQ 530  and executable by processing circuitry QQ 538 . Software QQ 531  includes client application QQ 532 . Client application QQ 532  may be operable to provide a service to a human or non-human user via UE QQ 530 , with the support of host computer QQ 510 . In host computer QQ 510 , an executing host application QQ 512  may communicate with the executing client application QQ 532  via OTT connection QQ 550  terminating at UE QQ 530  and host computer QQ 510 . In providing the service to the user, client application QQ 532  may receive request data from host application QQ 512  and provide user data in response to the request data. OTT connection QQ 550  may transfer both the request data and the user data. Client application QQ 532  may interact with the user to generate the user data that it provides. 
     It is noted that host computer QQ 510 , base station QQ 520  and UE QQ 530  illustrated in  FIG. 10  may be similar or identical to host computer QQ 430 , one of base stations QQ 412   a , QQ 412   b , QQ 412   c  and one of UEs QQ 491 , QQ 492  of  FIG. 9 , respectively. This is to say, the inner workings of these entities may be as shown in  FIG. 10  and independently, the surrounding network topology may be that of  FIG. 9 . 
     In  FIG. 10 , OTT connection QQ 550  has been drawn abstractly to illustrate the communication between host computer QQ 510  and UE QQ 530  via base station QQ 520 , without explicit reference to any intermediary devices and the precise routing of messages via these devices. Network infrastructure may determine the routing, which it may be configured to hide from UE QQ 530  or from the service provider operating host computer QQ 510 , or both. While OTT connection QQ 550  is active, the network infrastructure may further take decisions by which it dynamically changes the routing (e.g., on the basis of load balancing consideration or reconfiguration of the network). 
     Wireless connection QQ 570  between UE QQ 530  and base station QQ 520  is in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure. One or more of the various embodiments may improve the performance of OTT services provided to UE QQ 530  using OTT connection QQ 550 , in which wireless connection QQ 570  forms the last segment. More precisely, the teachings of these embodiments may improve the deblock filtering for video processing and thereby provide benefits such as improved video encoding and/or decoding. 
     A measurement procedure may be provided for the purpose of monitoring data rate, latency and other factors on which the one or more embodiments improve. There may further be an optional network functionality for reconfiguring OTT connection QQ 550  between host computer QQ 510  and UE QQ 530 , in response to variations in the measurement results. The measurement procedure and/or the network functionality for reconfiguring OTT connection QQ 550  may be implemented in software QQ 511  and hardware QQ 515  of host computer QQ 510  or in software QQ 531  and hardware QQ 535  of UE QQ 530 , or both. In embodiments, sensors (not shown) may be deployed in or in association with communication devices through which OTT connection QQ 550  passes; the sensors may participate in the measurement procedure by supplying values of the monitored quantities exemplified above, or supplying values of other physical quantities from which software QQ 511 , QQ 531  may compute or estimate the monitored quantities. The reconfiguring of OTT connection QQ 550  may include message format, retransmission settings, preferred routing etc.; the reconfiguring need not affect base station QQ 520 , and it may be unknown or imperceptible to base station QQ 520 . Such procedures and functionalities may be known and practiced in the art. In certain embodiments, measurements may involve proprietary UE signaling facilitating host computer QQ 510 &#39;s measurements of throughput, propagation times, latency and the like. The measurements may be implemented in that software QQ 511  and QQ 531  causes messages to be transmitted, in particular empty or ‘dummy’ messages, using OTT connection QQ 550  while it monitors propagation times, errors etc. 
       FIG. 11 : Methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments. 
       FIG. 11  is a flowchart illustrating a method implemented in a communication system, in accordance with one embodiment. The communication system includes a host computer, a base station and a UE which may be those described with reference to  FIGS. 9 and 10 . For simplicity of the present disclosure, only drawing references to  FIG. 11  will be included in this section. In step QQ 610 , the host computer provides user data. In substep QQ 611  (which may be optional) of step QQ 610 , the host computer provides the user data by executing a host application. In step QQ 620 , the host computer initiates a transmission carrying the user data to the UE. In step QQ 630  (which may be optional), the base station transmits to the UE the user data which was carried in the transmission that the host computer initiated, in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure. In step QQ 640  (which may also be optional), the UE executes a client application associated with the host application executed by the host computer. 
       FIG. 12 : Methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments. 
       FIG. 12  is a flowchart illustrating a method implemented in a communication system, in accordance with one embodiment. The communication system includes a host computer, a base station and a UE which may be those described with reference to  FIGS. 9 and 10 . For simplicity of the present disclosure, only drawing references to  FIG. 12  will be included in this section. In step QQ 710  of the method, the host computer provides user data. In an optional substep (not shown) the host computer provides the user data by executing a host application. In step QQ 720 , the host computer initiates a transmission carrying the user data to the UE. The transmission may pass via the base station, in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure. In step QQ 730  (which may be optional), the UE receives the user data carried in the transmission. 
       FIG. 13 : Methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments. 
       FIG. 13  is a flowchart illustrating a method implemented in a communication system, in accordance with one embodiment. The communication system includes a host computer, a base station and a UE which may be those described with reference to  FIGS. 9 and 10 . For simplicity of the present disclosure, only drawing references to  FIG. 13  will be included in this section. In step QQ 810  (which may be optional), the UE receives input data provided by the host computer. Additionally or alternatively, in step QQ 820 , the UE provides user data. In substep QQ 821  (which may be optional) of step QQ 820 , the UE provides the user data by executing a client application. In substep QQ 811  (which may be optional) of step QQ 810 , the UE executes a client application which provides the user data in reaction to the received input data provided by the host computer. In providing the user data, the executed client application may further consider user input received from the user. Regardless of the specific manner in which the user data was provided, the UE initiates, in substep QQ 830  (which may be optional), transmission of the user data to the host computer. In step QQ 840  of the method, the host computer receives the user data transmitted from the UE, in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure. 
       FIG. 14 : Methods implemented in a communication system including a host computer, a base station and a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments. 
       FIG. 14  is a flowchart illustrating a method implemented in a communication system, in accordance with one embodiment. The communication system includes a host computer, a base station and a UE which may be those described with reference to  FIGS. 9 and 10 . For simplicity of the present disclosure, only drawing references to  FIG. 14  will be included in this section. In step QQ 910  (which may be optional), in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure, the base station receives user data from the UE. In step QQ 920  (which may be optional), the base station initiates transmission of the received user data to the host computer. In step QQ 930  (which may be optional), the host computer receives the user data carried in the transmission initiated by the base station. 
     Any appropriate steps, methods, features, functions, or benefits disclosed herein may be performed through one or more functional units or modules of one or more virtual apparatuses. Each virtual apparatus may comprise a number of these functional units. These functional units may be implemented via processing circuitry, which may include one or more microprocessor or microcontrollers, as well as other digital hardware, which may include digital signal processors (DSPs), special-purpose digital logic, and the like. The processing circuitry may be configured to execute program code stored in memory, which may include one or several types of memory such as read-only memory (ROM), random-access memory (RAM), cache memory, flash memory devices, optical storage devices, etc. Program code stored in memory includes program instructions for executing one or more telecommunications and/or data communications protocols as well as instructions for carrying out one or more of the techniques described herein. In some implementations, the processing circuitry may be used to cause the respective functional unit to perform corresponding functions according one or more embodiments. 
     The term unit may have conventional meaning in the field of electronics, electrical devices and/or electronic devices and may include, for example, electrical and/or electronic circuitry, devices, modules, processors, memories, logic solid state and/or discrete devices, computer programs or instructions for carrying out respective tasks, procedures, computations, outputs, and/or displaying functions, and so on, as such as those that are described herein.