Patent Publication Number: US-2021179868-A1

Title: Three-Dimensional Printing System Employing A Thermally Conductive Polymer Composition

Description:
RELATED APPLICATION 
     The present application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/948,862, filed on Dec. 17, 2019, which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference thereto. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Additive manufacturing, also called three-dimensional or 3D printing, is generally a process in which a three-dimensional structure is selectively formed from a digital model. Various types of three-dimensional printing techniques may be employed, such as fused deposition modeling, ink jetting, powder bed fusion (e.g., selective laser sintering), powder/binder jetting, electron-beam melting, electrophotographic imaging, and so forth. In a fused deposition modeling system, for instance, a build material may be extruded through an extrusion tip carried by a print nozzle of the system, and then deposited as a sequence of layers on a substrate. The extruded material fuses to previously deposited material, and solidifies upon a drop in temperature. The position of the print nozzle relative to the substrate may be incremented along an axis (perpendicular to the build plane) after each layer is formed, and the process may then be repeated to form a printed part resembling the digital representation. If desired, supporting layers or structures can also be built underneath overhanging portions or in cavities of printed parts under construction, which are not supported by the build material itself. The support structure adheres to the part material during fabrication, and is removable from the completed printed part when the printing process is complete. Regardless of the particular technique, three-dimensional printing has been more commonly employed to form plastic parts. Unfortunately, its use has still been somewhat limited in advanced product applications that require a higher level of material performance, such as a high degree of heat resistance. One reason for this limitation is that the polymeric materials commonly employed in three-dimensional printing systems, such as polylactic acid and polyethylene, generally lack high thermal conductivity. 
     As such, a need exists for a thermally conductive polymer composition that can be readily employed in a three-dimensional printing system. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, a three-dimensional printing method is disclosed that comprises selectively forming a three-dimensional structure from a polymer composition. The polymer composition comprises a thermally conductive particulate material distributed within a thermoplastic polymer matrix. The polymer composition exhibits a through-plane thermal conductivity of about 0.10 W/m-K or more. 
     In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, a printer cartridge for use in a three-dimensional printing system is disclosed that comprises a filament that is formed from a polymer composition, such as described above. In accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention, a three-dimensional printing system is disclosed that comprises a supply source containing a polymer composition, such as described above, and a nozzle that is configured to receive the polymer composition from the supply source and deposit the composition onto a substrate. In accordance with still another embodiment of the present invention, a three-dimensional printing system is disclosed that comprises a powder supply comprising a plurality of particles formed from a polymer composition, such as described above; a powder bed configured to receive the powder supply; and an energy source for selectively fusing the powder supply when present within the powder bed. 
     Other features and aspects of the present invention are set forth in greater detail below. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
       A full and enabling disclosure of the present invention, including the best mode thereof to one skilled in the art, is set forth more particularly in the remainder of the specification, including reference to the accompanying figures, in which: 
         FIG. 1  is a front view of one embodiment of a fused deposition modeling system that may be employed in the present invention; 
         FIG. 2  is a perspective view of one embodiment of a three-dimensional structure that may be formed from the polymer composition of the present invention; 
         FIGS. 3A-3C  are cross-sectional views of  FIG. 2  taken along a line  3 A- 3 A, depicting a process for forming a three-dimensional structure; 
         FIG. 4  is an exploded perspective view of one embodiment of a printer cartridge that may be employed in the present invention; and 
         FIG. 5  is a schematic view of one embodiment of a powder bed fusion system that may be employed in the present invention. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     It is to be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that the present discussion is a description of exemplary embodiments only, and is not intended as limiting the broader aspects of the present invention. 
     Generally speaking, the present invention is directed to a three-dimensional printing system and method that employs a thermally conductive polymer composition that contains a thermally conductive particulate material distributed within a thermoplastic polymer matrix. By selectively controlling the specific nature of the aspects of the composition, the present inventors have discovered that the resulting composition can achieve certain unique properties that enable the composition to be readily employed in a three-dimensional printing system. Further, the composition is capable of creating a thermal pathway for heat transfer away from a part so that “hot spots” can be quickly eliminated and the overall temperature of the part can be lowered during use. More particularly, the composition exhibits a through-plane thermal conductivity of about 0.10 W/m-K or more, in some embodiments about 0.20 W/m-K or more, in some embodiments about 0.35 W/m-K or more, in some embodiments about 0.40 W/m-K or more, and in some embodiments, from about 0.50 to about 1.0 W/m-K, as determined in accordance with ASTM E 1461-13. The composition may also exhibit an in-plane thermal conductivity of about 2.0 W/m-K or more, in some embodiments about 3.0 W/m-K or more, in some embodiments about 3.5 W/m-K or more, and in some embodiments, from about 3.5 to about 10.0 W/m-K, as determined in accordance with ASTM E 1461-13. 
     Despite having a relatively high degree of thermal conductivity, the polymer composition may nevertheless still possess a low melt viscosity at high shear rates. For example, the polymer composition may exhibit a melt viscosity of about 250 Pa-s or less, in some embodiments about 200 Pa-s or less, in some embodiments from about 0.5 to about 150 Pa-s, and in some embodiments, from about 1 to about 100 Pa-s, as determined in accordance with ISO Test No. 11443:2005 at a shear rate of 1,000 s −1  and temperature 15° C. above the melting temperature of the composition. 
     Conventionally, it was believed that polymer compositions that possesses a high degree of thermal conductivity and low melt viscosity would not also possess sufficiently good mechanical properties to enable their use in three-dimensional printing systems. Contrary to conventional thought, however, the tensile and flexural mechanical properties are also good. For example, the composition may exhibit a tensile strength of from about 20 to about 500 MPa, in some embodiments from about 50 to about 400 MPa, and in some embodiments, from about 60 to about 350 MPa; a tensile break strain of about 0.5% or more, in some embodiments from about 0.6% to about 10%, and in some embodiments, from about 0.8% to about 3.5%; and/or a tensile modulus of from about 5,000 MPa to about 20,000 MPa, in some embodiments from about 8,000 MPa to about 20,000 MPa, and in some embodiments, from about 9,000 MPa to about 15,000 MPa. The tensile properties may be determined in accordance with ISO Test No. 527:2012 (technically equivalent to ASTM D638-14) at 23° C. The composition may also exhibit a flexural strength of from about 20 to about 500 MPa, in some embodiments from about 50 to about 400 MPa, and in some embodiments, from about 80 to about 350 MPa; a flexural break strain of about 0.5% or more, in some embodiments from about 0.6% to about 10%, and in some embodiments, from about 0.8% to about 3.5%; and/or a flexural modulus of from about 5,000 MPa to about 20,000 MPa, in some embodiments from about 8,000 MPa to about 20,000 MPa, and in some embodiments, from about 9,000 MPa to about 15,000 MPa. The flexural properties may be determined in accordance with ISO Test No. 178:2010 (technically equivalent to ASTM D790-10) at 23° C. The composition may also exhibit a deflection temperature under load (DTUL) of about 200° C. or more, and in some embodiments, from about 200° C. to about 280° C., as measured according to ASTM D648-07 (technically equivalent to ISO Test No. 75-2:2013) at a specified load of 1.8 MPa. 
     Various embodiments of the present invention will now be described in more detail. 
     I. Polymer Composition 
     A. Polymer Matrix 
     The polymer matrix typically constitutes from about 20 wt. % to about 90 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 30 wt. % to about 80 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 35 wt. % to about 60 wt. % of the polymer composition. Any of a variety of thermoplastic polymers or combinations of polymers may generally be employed in the polymer matrix. For example, the polymer may be semi-crystalline or crystalline in nature. In one embodiment, the polymer may be semi-crystalline. In another embodiment, the polymer may be crystalline. In addition, in one embodiment, the polymer may be an aromatic polymer. Alternatively, in another embodiment, the polymer may be an aliphatic polymer. For example, suitable polymers may include, for instance, polyolefins (e.g., ethylene polymers, propylene polymers, etc.), polyamides (e.g., aliphatic, semi-aromatic, or aromatic polyamides), polyesters (e.g., polyethylene terephthalate, polybutylene terephthalate, liquid crystalline polymers), polyarylene sulfides, polyetherimides, polyacetals (e.g., polyoxymethylene), polyphenylene oxides, polyarylketones (e.g., polyetheretherketone, polyetherketoneketone, etc.), polycarbonates, etc., as well as blends thereof. 
     Particularly suitable polymers, however, are high performance polymers that have a relatively high glass transition temperature and/or high melting temperature. Such high performance polymers can thus provide a substantial degree of heat resistance to the polymer composition. For example, the polymer may have a glass transition temperature of about 30° C. or more, in some embodiments about 40° C. or more, in some embodiments from about 50° C. to about 250° C., in some embodiments from about 60° C. to about 150° C. The polymer may also have a melting temperature of about 180° C. or more, in some embodiments about 200° C. or more, in some embodiments from about 210° C. to about 400° C., in some embodiments from about 220° C. to about 380° C. The glass transition and melting temperatures may be determined as is well known in the art using differential scanning calorimetry (“DSC”), such as determined by ISO Test No. 11357-2:2013 (glass transition) and 11357-3:2011 (melting). 
     One example of a suitable semi-crystalline aromatic polymer, for instance, is an aromatic polyester that is a condensation product of an aromatic dicarboxylic acid having 8 to 14 carbon atoms and at least one diol. Suitable diols may include, for instance, neopentyl glycol, cyclohexanedimethanol, 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-propane diol and aliphatic glycols of the formula HO(CH 2 ) n OH where n is an integer of 2 to 10. Suitable aromatic dicarboxylic acids may include, for instance, isophthalic acid, terephthalic acid, 1,2-di(p-carboxyphenyl)ethane, 4,4′-dicarboxydiphenyl ether, etc., as well as combinations thereof. Fused rings can also be present such as in 1,4- or 1,5- or 2,6-naphthalene-dicarboxylic acids. Particular examples of such aromatic polyesters may include, for instance, poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), poly(1,4-butylene terephthalate) (PBT), poly(1,3-propylene terephthalate) (PPT), poly(1,4-butylene 2,6-naphthalate) (PBN), poly(ethylene 2,6-naphthalate) (PEN), poly(1,4-cyclohexylene dimethylene terephthalate) (PCT), and copolymers and mixtures of the foregoing. 
     In one particular embodiment, the polymer may include a polybutylene terephthalate. The polybutylene terephthalate may have a crystallinity of about 38% or more, in some embodiments about 40% or more, and in some embodiments about 45% or more. The crystallinity of the polybutylene terephthalate polymer may generally be about 70% or less, in some embodiments about 65% or less, and in some embodiments about 60% or less. The percent crystallinity may be determined using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Such analysis may be performed using a Pyris 6 DSC from PerkinElmer instruments. A detailed description of the calculation is available from Sichina, W. J. “DSC as problem solving tool: measurement of percent crystallinity of thermoplastics.” Thermal Analysis Application Note (2000). 
     In addition, modified or copolymers of polyethylene terephthalate polymers and/or polybutylene terephthalate polymers may also be used. For instance, in one embodiment, a modifying acid or a modifying diol may be used to produce modified polyethylene terephthalate polymers and/or modified polybutylene terephthalate polymers. As used herein, the terms “modifying acid” and “modifying diol” are meant to define compounds, which can form part of the acid and diol repeat units of a polyester, respectively, and which can modify a polyester to reduce its crystallinity or render the polyester amorphous. Of course, the polyesters may be non-modified and do not contain a modifying acid or a modifying diol. In any event, examples of modifying acid components may include, but are not limited to, isophthalic acid, phthalic acid, 1,3-cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid, 1,4-cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid, 2,6-naphthaline dicarboxylic acid, succinic acid, glutaric acid, adipic acid, sebacic acid, suberic acid, 1,12-dodecanedioic acid, etc. In practice, it is often preferable to use a functional acid derivative thereof such as the dimethyl, diethyl, or dipropyl ester of the dicarboxylic acid. The anhydrides or acid halides of these acids also may be employed where practical. Examples of modifying diol components may include, but are not limited to, neopentyl glycol, 1,4-cyclohexanedimethanol, 1,2-propanediol, 1,3-propanediol, 2-methy-1,3-propanediol, 1,4-butanediol, 1,6-hexanediol, 1,2-cyclohexanediol, 1,4-cyclohexanediol, 1,2-cyclohexanedimethanol, 1,3-cyclohexanedimethanol, 2,2,4,4-tetramethyl 1,3-cyclobutane diol, Z,8-bis(hydroxymethyltricyclo-[5.2.1.0]-decane wherein Z represents 3, 4, or 5; 1,4-bis(2-hydroxyethoxy)benzene, 4,4′-bis(2-hydroxyethoxy) diphenylether [bis-hydroxyethyl bisphenol A], 4,4′-Bis(2-hydroxyethoxy)diphenylsulfide [bis-hydroxyethyl bisphenol S] and diols containing one or more oxygen atoms in the chain, e.g., diethylene glycol, triethylene glycol, dipropylene glycol, tripropylene glycol, etc. In general, these diols contain 2 to 18, and in some embodiments 2 to 8 carbon atoms. Cycloaliphatic diols can be employed in their cis- or trans-configuration or as mixtures of both forms. 
     In some examples, at least one polyester or copolyester present in the polymer composition may have an intrinsic viscosity (IV) of from about 0.5 to about 0.9 dL/g, such as from about 0.5 to about 0.8 dL/g. In one embodiment, for instance, the intrinsic viscosity of the polyester is from about 0.65 to about 0.8 dL/g. 
     Polyarylene sulfides are also suitable semi-crystalline aromatic polymers. The polyarylene sulfide may be homopolymers or copolymers. For instance, selective combination of dihaloaromatic compounds can result in a polyarylene sulfide copolymer containing not less than two different units. For instance, when p-dichlorobenzene is used in combination with m-dichlorobenzene or 4,4′-dichlorodiphenylsulfone, a polyarylene sulfide copolymer can be formed containing segments having the structure of formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     and segments having the structure of formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     or segments having the structure of formula: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     The polyarylene sulfide may be linear, semi-linear, branched or crosslinked. Linear polyarylene sulfides typically contain 80 mol % or more of the repeating unit —(Ar—S)—. Such linear polymers may also include a small amount of a branching unit or a cross-linking unit, but the amount of branching or cross-linking units is typically less than about 1 mol % of the total monomer units of the polyarylene sulfide. A linear polyarylene sulfide polymer may be a random copolymer or a block copolymer containing the above-mentioned repeating unit. Semi-linear polyarylene sulfides may likewise have a cross-linking structure or a branched structure introduced into the polymer a small amount of one or more monomers having three or more reactive functional groups. By way of example, monomer components used in forming a semi-linear polyarylene sulfide can include an amount of polyhaloaromatic compounds having two or more halogen substituents per molecule which can be utilized in preparing branched polymers. Such monomers can be represented by the formula R′X n , where each X is selected from chlorine, bromine, and iodine, n is an integer of 3 to 6, and R′ is a polyvalent aromatic radical of valence n which can have up to about 4 methyl substituents, the total number of carbon atoms in R′ being within the range of 6 to about 16. Examples of some polyhaloaromatic compounds having more than two halogens substituted per molecule that can be employed in forming a semi-linear polyarylene sulfide include 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene, 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene, 1,3-dichloro-5-bromobenzene, 1,2,4-triiodobenzene, 1,2,3,5-tetrabromobenzene, hexachlorobenzene, 1,3,5-trichloro-2,4,6-trimethylbenzene, 2,2′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl, 2,2′,5,5′-tetra-iodobiphenyl, 2,2′,6,6′-tetrabromo-3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbiphenyl, 1,2,3,4-tetrachloronaphthalene, 1,2,4-tribromo-6-methylnaphthalene, etc., and mixtures thereof. 
     Another example of a suitable semi-crystalline polymer may be a polyamide. For instance, the polyamide may be an aromatic polyamide in one embodiment. In this regard, the aromatic polyamide may have a relatively high melting temperature, such as about 200° C. or more, in some embodiments about 220° C. or more, and in some embodiments from about 240° C. to about 320° C., as determined using differential scanning calorimetry according to ISO Test No. 11357. The glass transition temperature of the aromatic polyamides is likewise generally from about 110° C. to about 160° C. In another embodiment, the aromatic polyamide may be an aliphatic polyamide. In this regard, the aliphatic polyamide may also have a relatively high melting temperature, such as about 180° C. or more, in some embodiments about 200° C. or more, and in some embodiments from about 210° C. to about 320° C., as determined using differential scanning calorimetry according to ISO Test No. 11357. The glass transition temperature of the aliphatic polyamides is likewise generally from about 30° C. to about 170° C. 
     Aromatic polyamides typically contain repeating units held together by amide linkages (NH—CO) and are synthesized through the polycondensation of dicarboxylic acids (e.g., aromatic dicarboxylic acids), diamines (e.g., aliphatic diamines), etc. For example, the aromatic polyamide may contain aromatic repeating units derived from an aromatic dicarboxylic acid, such as terephthalic acid, isophthalic acid, 2,6-naphthalenedicarboxylic acid, 2,7-naphthalenedicarboxylic acid, 1,4-naphthalenedicarboxylic acid, 1,4-phenylenedioxy-diacetic acid, 1,3-phenylenedioxy-diacetic acid, diphenic acid, 4,4′-oxydibenzoic acid, diphenylmethane-4,4′-dicarboxylic acid, diphenylsulfone-4,4′-dicarboxylic acid, 4,4′-biphenyldicarboxylic acid, etc., as well as combinations thereof. Terephthalic acid is particularly suitable. Of course, it should also be understood that other types of acid units may also be employed, such as aliphatic dicarboxylic acid units, polyfunctional carboxylic acid units, etc. 
     Aliphatic polyamides also typically contain repeating units held together by amide linkages (NH—CO). These polyamides can be synthesized through various techniques. For example, the polyamide may be formed by a ring-opening polymerization, such as a ring-opening polymerization of caprolactam. These polyamides may also be synthesized through the polycondensation of dicarboxylic acids (e.g., aliphatic dicarboxylic acids), diamines, etc. For example, the aromatic polyamide may contain aliphatic repeating units derived from an aliphatic dicarboxylic acid, such as adipic acid, suberic acid, azelaic acid, sebacic acid, undecanedioic acid, dodecanedioic acid, brassylic acid, tetradecanedioic acid, pentadecanedioic acid, hexadecanedioic acid, octadecanedioic acid, dimeric acid, the cis- and/or trans-cyclohexane-1,4-dicarboxylic acid, the cis- and/or trans-cyclohexane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid, etc. as well as combinations thereof. Adipic acid is particularly suitable. 
     The polyamide may also contain aliphatic repeating units derived from an aliphatic diamine, which typically has from 4 to 14 carbon atoms. Examples of such diamines include linear aliphatic alkylenediamines, such as 1,4-tetramethylenediamine, 1,6-hexanediamine, 1,7-heptanediamine, 1,8-octanediamine, 1,9-nonanediamine, 1,10-decanediamine, 1,11-undecanediamine, 1,12-dodecanediamine, etc.; branched aliphatic alkylenediamines, such as 2-methyl-1,5-pentanediamine, 3-methyl-1,5 pentanediamine, 2,2,4-trimethyl-1,6-hexanediamine, 2,4,4-trimethyl-1,6-hexanediamine, 2,4-dimethyl-1,6-hexanediamine, 2-methyl-1,8-octanediamine, 5-methyl-1,9-nonanediamine, etc.; as well as combinations thereof. Repeating units derived from 1,9-nonanediamine and/or 2-methyl-1,8-octanediamine are particularly suitable. Of course, other diamine units may also be employed, such as alicyclic diamines, aromatic diamines, etc. 
     Particularly suitable aromatic polyamides may include poly(nonamethylene terephthalamide) (PA9T), poly(nonamethylene terephthalamide/nonamethylene decanediamide) (PA9T/910), poly(nonamethylene terephthalamide/nonamethylene dodecanediamide) (PA9T/912), poly(nonamethylene terephthalamide/11-aminoundecanamide) (PA9T/11), poly(nonamethylene terephthalamide/12-aminododecanamide) (PA9T/12), poly(decamethylene terephthalamide/11-aminoundecanamide) (PA 10T/11), poly(decamethylene terephthalamide/12-aminododecanamide) (PA10T/12), poly(decamethylene terephthalamide/decamethylene decanediamide) (PA10T/1010), poly(decamethylene terephthalamide/decamethylene dodecanediamide) (PA10T/1012), poly(decamethylene terephthalamide/tetramethylene hexanediamide) (PA10T/46), poly(decamethylene terephthalamide/caprolactam) (PA10T/6), poly(decamethylene terephthalamide/hexamethylene hexanediamide) (PA10T/66), poly(dodecamethylene lerephthalamide/dodecamelhylene dodecanediamide) (PA12T/1212), poly(dodecamethylene terephthalamide/caprolactam) (PA12T/6), poly(dodecamethylene terephthalamide/hexamethylene hexanediamide) (PA12T/66), polyphthalamide (PPA), and so forth. Particularly suitable aliphatic polyamides may include polyamide 4,6, polyamide 5,10, polyamide 6, polyamide 6,6, polyamide 6,9, polyamide 6,10, polyamide 6,12, polyamide 11, polyamide 12, and so forth. Yet other examples of suitable aromatic polyamides are described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,324,307 to Harder, et al. 
     Another suitable semi-crystalline aromatic polymer that may be employed in the present invention is a polyaryletherketone. Polyaryletherketones are semi-crystalline polymers with a relatively high melting temperature, such as from about 300° C. to about 400° C., in some embodiments from about 310° C. to about 390° C., and in some embodiments from about 330° C. to about 380° C. The glass transition temperature may likewise be from about 110° C. to about 200° C. Particularly suitable polyaryletherketones are those that primarily include phenyl moieties in conjunction with ketone and/or ether moieties. Examples of such polymers include polyetheretherketone (“PEEK”), polyetherketone (“PEK”), polyetherketoneketone (“PEKK”), polyetherketoneetherketoneketone (“PEKEKK”), polyetheretherketoneketone (“PEEKK”), polyether-diphenyl-ether-ether-diphenyl-ether-phenyl-ketone-phenyl, etc., as well as blends and copolymers thereof. 
     In addition to the polymers referenced above, crystalline polymers may also be employed in the polymer composition. For example, liquid crystalline polymers may be employed. Liquid crystalline polymers are generally classified as “thermotropic” to the extent that they can possess a rod-like structure and exhibit a crystalline behavior in their molten state (e.g., thermotropic nematic state). The liquid crystalline polymers employed in the polymer composition typically have a melting temperature within the ranges noted above. Such polymers may be formed from one or more types of repeating units as is known in the art. A liquid crystalline polymer may, for example, contain one or more aromatic ester repeating units generally represented by the following Formula (I): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein, 
     ring B is a substituted or unsubstituted 6-membered aryl group (e.g., 1,4-phenylene or 1,3-phenylene), a substituted or unsubstituted 6-membered aryl group fused to a substituted or unsubstituted 5- or 6-membered aryl group (e.g., 2,6-naphthalene), or a substituted or unsubstituted 6-membered aryl group linked to a substituted or unsubstituted 5- or 6-membered aryl group (e.g., 4,4-biphenylene); and 
     Y 1  and Y 2  are independently O, C(O), NH, C(O)HN, or NHC(O). 
     Typically, at least one of Y 1  and Y 2  are C(O). Examples of such aromatic ester repeating units may include, for instance, aromatic dicarboxylic repeating units (Y 1  and Y 2  in Formula I are C(O)), aromatic hydroxycarboxylic repeating units (Y 1  is O and Y 2  is C(O) in Formula I), as well as various combinations thereof. 
     Aromatic hydroxycarboxylic repeating units, for instance, may be employed that are derived from aromatic hydroxycarboxylic acids, such as, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid; 4-hydroxy-4′-biphenylcarboxylic acid; 2-hydroxy-6-naphthoic acid; 2-hydroxy-5-naphthoic acid; 3-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid; 2-hydroxy-3-naphthoic acid; 4′-hydroxyphenyl-4-benzoic acid; 3′-hydroxyphenyl-4-benzoic acid; 4′-hydroxyphenyl-3-benzoic acid, etc., as well as alkyl, alkoxy, aryl and halogen substituents thereof, and combination thereof. Particularly suitable aromatic hydroxycarboxylic acids are 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (“HBA”) and 6-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid (“HNA”). When employed, repeating units derived from hydroxycarboxylic acids (e.g., HBA and/or HNA) typically constitute about 40 mol. % or more, in some embodiments about 50 mole % or more, in some embodiments from about 55 mol. % to 100 mol. %, and in some embodiments, from about 60 mol. % to about 95 mol. % of the polymer. 
     Aromatic dicarboxylic repeating units may also be employed that are derived from aromatic dicarboxylic acids, such as terephthalic acid, isophthalic acid, 2,6-naphthalenedicarboxylic acid, diphenyl ether-4,4′-dicarboxylic acid, 1,6-naphthalenedicarboxylic acid, 2,7-naphthalenedicarboxylic acid, 4,4′-dicarboxybiphenyl, bis(4-carboxyphenyl)ether, bis(4-carboxyphenyl)butane, bis(4-carboxyphenyl)ethane, bis(3-carboxyphenyl)ether, bis(3-carboxyphenyl)ethane, etc., as well as alkyl, alkoxy, aryl and halogen substituents thereof, and combinations thereof. Particularly suitable aromatic dicarboxylic acids may include, for instance, terephthalic acid (“TA”), isophthalic acid (“IA”), and 2,6-naphthalenedicarboxylic acid (“NDA”). When employed, repeating units derived from aromatic dicarboxylic acids (e.g., IA, TA, and/or NDA) typically constitute from about 1 mol. % to about 40 mol. %, in some embodiments from about 2 mol. % to about 30 mol. %, and in some embodiments, from about 5 mol. % to about 25% of the polymer. 
     Other repeating units may also be employed in the polymer. In certain embodiments, for instance, repeating units may be employed that are derived from aromatic diols, such as hydroquinone, resorcinol, 2,6-dihydroxynaphthalene, 2,7-dihydroxynaphthalene, 1,6-dihydroxynaphthalene, 4,4′-dihydroxybiphenyl (or 4,4′-biphenol), 3,3′-dihydroxybiphenyl, 3,4′-dihydroxybiphenyl, 4,4′-dihydroxybiphenyl ether, bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethane, etc., as well as alkyl, alkoxy, aryl and halogen substituents thereof, and combinations thereof. Particularly suitable aromatic diols may include, for instance, hydroquinone (“HQ”) and 4,4′-biphenol (“BP”). When employed, repeating units derived from aromatic diols (e.g., HQ and/or BP) typically constitute from about about 1 mol. % to about 40 mol. %, in some embodiments from about 2 mol. % to about 30 mol. %, and in some embodiments, from about 5 mol. % to about 25% of the polymer. Repeating units may also be employed, such as those derived from aromatic amides (e.g., acetaminophen (“APAP”)) and/or aromatic amines (e.g., 4-aminophenol (“AP”), 3-aminophenol, 1,4-phenylenediamine, 1,3-phenylenediamine, etc.). When employed, repeating units derived from aromatic amides (e.g., APAP) and/or aromatic amines (e.g., AP) typically constitute from about 0.1 mol. % to about 20 mol. %, in some embodiments from about 0.5 mol. % to about 15 mol. %, and in some embodiments, from about 1 mol. % to about 10% of the polymer. It should also be understood that various other monomeric repeating units may be incorporated into the polymer. For instance, in certain embodiments, the polymer may contain one or more repeating units derived from non-aromatic monomers, such as aliphatic or cycloaliphatic hydroxycarboxylic acids, dicarboxylic acids, diols, amides, amines, etc. Of course, in other embodiments, the polymer may be “wholly aromatic” in that it lacks repeating units derived from non-aromatic (e.g., aliphatic or cycloaliphatic) monomers. 
     Although by no means required, the liquid crystalline polymer may be a “high naphthenic” polymer in certain embodiments to the extent that it contains a relatively high content of repeating units derived from naphthenic hydroxycarboxylic acids and naphthenic dicarboxylic acids, such as NDA, HNA, or combinations thereof. That is, the total amount of repeating units derived from naphthenic hydroxycarboxylic and/or dicarboxylic acids (e.g., NDA, HNA, or a combination of HNA and NDA) is typically about 40 mol. % or more, in some embodiments about 45 mol. % or more, in some embodiments about 50 mol. % or more, in some embodiments, in some embodiments about 55 mol. % or more, and in some embodiments, from about 60 mol. % to about 95 mol. % of the polymer. For instance, the repeating units derived from HNA may constitute from about 40 mol. % or more, in some embodiments about 50 mol. % or more, in some embodiments about 55 mol. % or more, and in some embodiments, from about 55 mol. % to about 85 mol. % of the polymer. In such embodiments, the liquid crystalline polymer may contain the naphthenic monomers (e.g., HNA and/or NDA) in the amounts specified above in combination with various other monomers, such as aromatic hydroxycarboxylic acid(s) (e.g., HBA) in an amount of from about 5 mol. % to about 50 mol. %, and in some embodiments, from about 10 mol. % to about 40 mol. %; aromatic dicarboxylic acid(s) (e.g., IA and/or TA) in an amount of from about 1 mol. % to about 40 mol. %, and in some embodiments, from about 5 mol. % to about 25 mol. %; and/or aromatic diol(s) (e.g., BP and/or HQ) in an amount of from about 1 mol. % to about 40 mol. %, and in some embodiments, from about 5 mol. % to about 25 mol. %. 
     B. Thermally Conductive Particulate Material 
     The thermally conductive particulate material employed in the polymer composition typically has an average size (e.g., diameter) of about 1 to about 100 micrometers, in some embodiments from about 10 to about 90 micrometers, in some embodiments from about 20 to about 80 micrometers, and in some embodiments, from about 30 to about 60 micrometers, such as determined using laser diffraction techniques in accordance with ISO 13320:2009 (e.g., with a Horiba LA-960 particle size distribution analyzer). The thermally conductive particulate material may also have a narrow size distribution. That is, at least about 70% by volume of the particles, in some embodiments at least about 80% by volume of the particles, and in some embodiments, at least about 90% by volume of the particles may have a size within the ranges noted above. The specific surface area of the material may also be relatively high, such as about 0.5 m 2 /g or more, in some embodiments about 1 m 2 /g or more, and in some embodiments, from about 2 to about 40 m 2 /g. The specific surface area can be determined according to standard methods such as by the physical gas adsorption method (B.E.T. method) with nitrogen as the adsorption gas, as is generally known in the art and described by Brunauer, Emmet, and Teller (J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 60, February, 1938, pp. 309-319). The particulate material may also have a powder tap density of from about 0.2 to about 1.0 g/cm 3 , in some embodiments from about 0.3 to about 0.9 g/cm 3 , and in some embodiments, from about 0.4 to about 0.8 g/cm 3 , such as determined in accordance with ASTM B527-15. 
     Further, the thermally conductive particulate material may have a high intrinsic thermal conductivity, such as about 5 W/m-K or more, in some embodiments about 20 W/m-K or more, in some embodiments about 50 W/m-K or more, in some embodiments about 100 W/m-K or more, and in some embodiments, about 150 W/m-K or more. Examples of such materials may include, for instance, boron nitride (BN), aluminum nitride (AlN), magnesium silicon nitride (MgSiN 2 ), graphite (e.g., expanded graphite), silicon carbide (SiC), carbon nanotubes, carbon black, metal oxides (e.g., zinc oxide, magnesium oxide, beryllium oxide, zirconium oxide, yttrium oxide, etc.), metallic powders (e.g., aluminum, copper, bronze, brass, etc.), silicates (e.g., talc, mica, etc.), and so forth, as well as combinations thereof. Boron nitride and/or graphite are particularly suitable for use in the polymer composition of the present invention. 
     As noted above, the particulate material has an average size (e.g., diameter) of about 1 to about 100 micrometers, in some embodiments from about 10 to about 90 micrometers, in some embodiments from about 20 to about 80 micrometers, and in some embodiments, from about 30 to about 60 micrometers. In certain embodiments, the thermally conductive particulate material may be in the form of individual platelets having the desired size. Nevertheless, the present inventors have discovered that agglomerates of the thermally conductive material having the desired average size noted above tends to achieve a polymer composition having better properties. Such agglomerates generally contain individual particles that are aggregated together with no particular orientation or in a highly ordered fashion, for instance via weak chemical bonds such as Van der Waals forces. Examples of suitable hexagonal boron nitride agglomerates, for instance, include those commercially under the designations UHP-2 (Showa Denko) and PT-450 (Momentive Performance Materials). 
     The thermally conductive particulate material is typically employed in the polymer composition in an amount of from about 25 to about 250 parts, in some embodiments from about 40 to about 200 parts, and in some embodiments, from about 50 to about 150 parts by weight per 100 parts of the aromatic polymer. For example, the thermally conductive particulate material may constitute from about 1 wt. % to about 70 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 2 wt. % to about 60 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 5 wt. % to about 40 wt. % of the polymer composition. 
     C. Other Optional Components 
     A wide variety of additional additives can also be included in the polymer composition, such as fillers (e.g., fibers, particulate fillers, etc.), lubricants, impact modifiers, flow modifiers, pigments, antioxidants, stabilizers, surfactants, waxes, flame retardants, anti-drip additives, and other materials added to enhance properties and processability. 
     For instance, a filler may be employed for improving certain properties of the polymer composition. When employed, the filler may be employed in the polymer composition in an amount of from about 10 to about 95 parts, in some embodiments from about 20 to about 90 parts, and in some embodiments, from about 50 to about 85 parts by weight per 100 parts of the polymer(s) employed in the polymer composition. For instance, the filler may constitute from about 10 wt. % to about 70 wt. %, in some embodiments from about 20 wt. % to about 60 wt. %, and in some embodiments, from about 30 wt. % to about 60 wt. % of the polymer composition. The nature of the filler may vary, such as particles, fibers, etc. Fibrous fillers, for instance, may be employed to help improve strength. Examples of such fibrous fillers may include those formed from glass, carbon, ceramics (e.g., alumina or silica), aramids (e.g., Kevlar® marketed by E.I. DuPont de Nemours, Wilmington, Del.), polyolefins, polyesters, etc., as well as mixtures thereof. Glass fibers are particularly suitable, such as E-glass, A-glass, C-glass, D-glass, AR-glass, R-glass, S1-glass, S2-glass, etc., and mixtures thereof. Particulate fillers may also be employed. Clay minerals may be particularly suitable for use in the present invention. Examples of such clay minerals include, for instance, talc (Mg 3 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 2 ), halloysite (Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 ), kaolinite (Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 ), illite ((K, H 3 O)(Al, Mg, Fe) 2 (Si,Al) 4 O 10 [(OH) 2 ,(H 2 O)]), montmorillonite (Na, Ca) 0.33 (Al, Mg) 2 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 2 .nH 2 O), vermiculite ((MgFe, Al) 3 (Al, Si) 4 O 10 (OH) 2 .4H 2 O), palygorskite ((Mg, Al) 2 Si 4 O 10 (OH). 4 (H 2 O)), pyrophyllite (Al 2 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 2 ), etc., as well as combinations thereof. In lieu of, or in addition to, clay minerals, still other particulate fillers may also be employed. For example, other suitable silicate fillers may also be employed, such as calcium silicate, aluminum silicate, mica, diatomaceous earth, wollastonite, and so forth. 
     The polymer matrix and other optional additives may be melt processed or blended together. The components may be supplied separately or in combination to an extruder that includes at least one screw rotatably mounted and received within a barrel (e.g., cylindrical barrel) and may define a feed section and a melting section located downstream from the feed section along the length of the screw. The extruder may be a single screw or twin screw extruder. The speed of the screw may be selected to achieve the desired residence time, shear rate, melt processing temperature, etc. For example, the screw speed may range from about 50 to about 800 revolutions per minute (“rpm”), in some embodiments from about 70 to about 150 rpm, and in some embodiments, from about 80 to about 120 rpm. The apparent shear rate during melt blending may also range from about 100 seconds −1  to about 10,000 seconds −1 , in some embodiments from about 500 seconds −1  to about 5000 seconds −1 , and in some embodiments, from about 800 seconds −1  to about 1200 seconds −1 . The apparent shear rate is equal to 4Q/πR 3 , where Q is the volumetric flow rate (“m 3 /s”) of the polymer melt and R is the radius (“m”) of the capillary (e.g., extruder die) through which the melted polymer flows. 
     II. Three-Dimensional Printing 
     As noted above, the unique properties of the polymer composition are particularly well-suited for forming structures by three-dimensional printing. Various types of three-dimensional printing techniques may be employed, such as extrusion-based systems (e.g., fused deposition modeling), powder bed fusion, electrophotography, etc. When employed in a fused deposition modeling system, for instance, the polymer composition may be employed as the build material that forms the three-dimensional structure and/or the support material that is removed from the three-dimensional structure after it is formed. Referring to  FIG. 1 , for example, one embodiment of an extrusion-based, three-dimensional printer system  10  is shown that may be employed to selectively form a precursor object containing a three-dimensional build structure  30  and a corresponding support structure  32 . In the particular embodiment illustrated, the system includes a build chamber  12  and supply sources  22  and  24 . As noted above, the polymer composition of the present invention may be used to form the build structure  30  and/or support structure  32 . In those embodiments in which the polymer composition is only employed in the build structure or the support structure, it should be understood any other conventional material can be employed for the other structure. For example, in certain embodiments, the polymer composition of the present invention may be used to form the build structure  30 . In such embodiments, suitable materials for the support structure  32  may include conventional materials that are soluble or at least partially soluble in water and/or an aqueous alkaline solution, which is suitable for removing support structure  32  in a convenient manner without damaging build structure  24 . Examples of such materials may include those described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,070,107 to Lombardi et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,228,923 to Lombardi et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,790,403 to Priedeman et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 7,754,807 to Priedeman et al. 
     The material for the build structure  30  may be supplied to a nozzle  18  from the supply source  22  via a feed line  26  and the support material for the support structure  32  may be supplied to the nozzle  18  from supply source  24  via a feed line  28 . The build chamber  12  likewise contains a substrate  14  and substrate frame  16 . The substrate  14  is a platform on which the build structure  30  and support structure  32  are built. The substrate is supported by a substrate frame  16 , which is configured to move the substrate  14  along (or substantially along) a vertical z-axis. Likewise, the nozzle  18  is supported by a head frame  20 , which is configured to move the nozzle  18  in (or substantially in) a horizontal x-y plane above chamber  12 . The nozzle  18  is configured for printing the build structure  30  and the support structure  32  on the substrate  14  in a layer-by-layer manner, based on signals provided from the controller  34 . In the embodiment shown in  FIG. 1 , for example, the nozzle  18  is a dual-tip extrusion nozzle configured to deposit build and support materials from the supply source  22  and the supply source  24 , respectively. Examples of such extrusion nozzles are described in more detail in U.S. Pat. No. 5,503,785 to Crump, et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 6,004,124 to Swanson, et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 7,604,470 to LaBossiere, et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 7,625,200 to Leavitt. The system  10  may also include other print nozzles for depositing build and/or support materials from one or more tips. During a print operation, the frame  16  moves the nozzle  18  in the horizontal x-y plane within the build chamber  12 , and drive mechanisms are directed to intermittently feed the build and support materials from supply sources  22  and  24 . In alternative embodiments, the nozzle  18  may function as a screw pump, such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,764,521 to Batchelder, et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 7,891,964 to Skubic, et al. 
     The system  10  may also include a controller  34 , which may include one or more control circuits configured to monitor and operate the components of the system  10 . For example, one or more of the control functions performed by controller  34  can be implemented in hardware, software, firmware, and the like, or a combination thereof. The controller  34  may communicate over communication line  36  with chamber  12  (e.g., with a heating unit for chamber  12 ), the nozzle  18 , and various sensors, calibration devices, display devices, and/or user input devices. The system  12  and/or controller  34  may also communicate with a computer  38 , which is one or more computer-based systems that communicates with the system  12  and/or controller  34 , and may be separate from system  12 , or alternatively may be an internal component of system  12 . The computer  38  includes computer-based hardware, such as data storage devices, processors, memory modules, and the like for generating and storing tool path and related printing instructions. The computer  38  may transmit these instructions to the system  10  (e.g., to controller  34 ) to perform printing operations so that the three-dimensional structure are selectively formed. 
     As shown in  FIG. 2 , the build structure  30  may be printed onto the substrate  14  as a series of successive layers of the build material, and the support structure  32  may likewise be printed as a series of successive layers in coordination with the printing of the build structure  30 . In the illustrated embodiment, the build structure  30  is shown as a simple block-shaped object having a top surface  40 , four lateral surfaces  44  ( FIG. 3A ), and a bottom surface  46  ( FIG. 3A ). Although by no means required, the support structure  32  in this embodiment is deposited to at least partially encapsulate the layers of build structure  30 . For example, the support structure  32  may be printed to encapsulate the lateral surfaces and the bottom surface of build structure  30 . Of course, in alternative embodiments, the system  10  may print three-dimensional objects having a variety of different geometries. In such embodiments, the system  10  may also print corresponding support structures, which optionally, at least partially encapsulate the three-dimensional objects. 
       FIGS. 3A-3C  illustrate the process of for printing the three-dimensional build structure  24  and support structure  32  in the manner described above. As shown in  FIG. 3A , each layer of the build structure  30  is printed in a series of layers  42  to define the geometry of the build structure  30 . In this embodiment, each layer of the support structure  32  is printed in a series of layers  48  in coordination with the printing of layers  42  of the three-dimensional build structure  30 , where the printed layers  48  of the support structure  32  encapsulate the lateral surfaces  44  and the bottom surface  46  of the build structure  30 . In the illustrated embodiment, the top surface  40  is not encapsulated by the layers  48  of the support structure  32 . After the print operation is complete, the support structure  32  may be removed from the build structure  30  to create a three-dimensional object  27 . For example, in embodiments in which the support material is at least partially soluble in water or an aqueous alkaline solution, the resulting object may be immersed in water and/or an aqueous alkaline solution bath to dissolve the support structure  32 . 
     The polymer composition may be supplied to the three-dimensional printer in a variety of different forms, such as in the form of a sheet, film, fiber, filament, pellet, powder, etc. In one particular embodiment, such as when a fused deposition modeling technique is employed, the polymer composition may be supplied in the form of a filament as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,923,634 to Swanson, et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 7,122,246 to Comb, et al. The filament may, for example, have an average diameter of from about 0.1 to about 20 millimeters, in some embodiments from about 0.5 to about 10 millimeters, and in some embodiments, from about 1 to about 5 millimeters. The filament may be included within a printer cartridge that is readily adapted for incorporation into the printer system. The printer cartridge may, for example, contains a spool or other similar device that carries the filament. For example, the spool may have a generally cylindrical rim about which the filament is wound. The spool may likewise define a bore or spindle that allows it to be readily mounted to the printer during use. 
     Referring to  FIG. 4 , for example, one embodiment of a spool  186  is shown that contains an outer rim about which a filament  188  is wound. A generally cylindrical bore  190  is also defined within a central region of the spool  186  about which multiple spokes  225  are axially positioned. Although not required, the printer cartridge may also contain a housing structure that encloses the spool and thus protects the filaments from the exterior environment prior to use. In  FIG. 4 , for instance, one embodiment of such a cartridge  184  is shown that contains a canister body  216  and a lid  218  that are mated together to define an interior chamber for enclosing the spool  186 . In this embodiment, the lid  218  contains a first spindle  227  and the canister body  216  contains a second spindle (not shown). The spool  186  may be positioned so that the spindles of the canister body and/or lid are positioned within the bore  190 . Among other things, this can allow the spool  186  to rotate during use. A spring plate  222  may also be attached to the inside of the lid  218  that has spiked fingers, which are bent to further enhance rotation of the spool  186  in only the direction that will advance filament out of the cartridge  184 . Although not shown, a guide block may be attached to the canister body  216  at an outlet  224  to provide an exit path for the filament  188  to the printer system. The guide block may be fastened to the canister body  216  by a set of screws (not shown) that can extend through holes  232 . If desired, the cartridge  184  may be sealed prior to use to help minimize the presence of moisture. For example, a moisture-impermeable material  223  (e.g., tape) may be employed to help seal the lid  218  to the canister body  216 . Moisture can be withdrawn from the interior chamber of the canister body  216  through a hole  226 , which can thereafter be sealed with a plug  228 . A moisture-impermeable material  230  may also be positioned over the plug  228  to further seal the hole  226 . Before sealing the cartridge  184 , it may be dried to achieve the desired moisture content. For example, the cartridge  184  may be dried in an oven under vacuum conditions. Likewise, a desiccant material may also be placed within the cartridge  184 , such as within compartments defined by the spokes  225  of the spool  186 . Once fully assembled, the cartridge  184  may optionally be sealed within a moisture-impermeable package. 
     In addition to being supplied in the form of a filament, the polymer composition may also be supplied to the fused deposition modeling system of  FIG. 1  in other forms. In one embodiment, for instance, the polymer composition may be supplied in the form of pellets. For instance, the pellets may be supplied via a hopper (not shown) to a viscosity pump (not shown) that deposits the polymer composition onto the substrate  14 . Such techniques are described, for instance, in U.S. Pat. No. 8,955,558 to Bosveld, et al., which is incorporated herein by reference. The viscosity pump may be an auger-based pump or extruder configured to shear and drive successive portions of received pellets and may be supported by a head frame  20  that can move the viscosity pump and/or hopper in the horizontal x-y plane. 
     Of course, the three-dimensional printing system is by no means limited to fused deposition modeling. For instance, a powder bed fusion system may likewise be employed in certain embodiments of the present invention. In such embodiments, the polymer composition is generally provided in the form of a powder containing a plurality of particles. The size of the particles may be selectively controlled to help facilitate three-dimensional printing. The volume-based median particle size may, for example, range from about 0.5 to about 200 micrometers, in some embodiments from about 1 to about 100 micrometers, and in some embodiments, from about 2 to about 80 micrometers. The particle size distribution may be relatively narrow such that at least 90% by volume of the microparticles have a size within the ranges noted above. Further, the particles may also be generally spherical to help improve processability. Such particles may, for example, have an aspect ratio (ratio of length to diameter) of from about 0.7 to about 1.3, in some embodiments from about 0.8 to about 1.2, and in some embodiments, from about 0.9 to about 1.1 (e.g., about 1). 
     Generally speaking, powder bed fusion involves selectively fusing the powder within a powder bed to form the three-dimensional structure. The fusion process may be initiated by an energy source, such as a laser beam (e.g., laser sintering), electron beam, acoustic energy, thermal energy, etc. Examples of such systems are described, for instance, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,863,538; 5,132,143; 5,204,055; 8,221,858; and 9,895,842. Referring to  FIG. 5 , for example, one embodiment of a lasering sintering system is shown. As shown, the system includes a powder bed  301  for forming a three-dimensional structure  303 . More particularly, the powder bed  301  has a substrate  305  from which extends sidewalls  302  that together define an opening. During operation, a powder supply  311  is deposited on the substrate  305  in a plurality of layers to form a build material. A frame  304  is moveable in a vertical direction (e.g., parallel to the sidewall of the powder bed  301 ) to position the substrate  305  in the desired location. A printer head  310  is also provided to deposit the powder supply  311  onto the substrate  305 . The printer head  310  and powder bed  301  may both be provided within a machine frame  301 . After the powder supply is deposited, an irradiation device  307  (e.g., laser) emits a light beam  308  onto a work plane  306 . This light beam  308  is directed as deflected beam  308 ′ towards the work plane  306  by a deflection device  309 , such as a rotating mirror. Thus, the powder supply  311  may be deposited layer-by-layer onto the working surface  305  or a previously fused layer, and thereafter fused at the positions of each powder layer corresponding by the laser beam  8 ′. After each selective fusion of a layer, the frame  304  may be lowered by a distance corresponding to the thickness of the powder layer to be subsequently applied. If desired, a control system  340  may also be employed to control the formation of the three-dimensional structure on the working surface  305 . The control system  305  may include a distributed control system or any computer-based workstation that is fully or partially automated. For example, the control system  340  may be any device employing a general-purpose computer or an application-specific device, which may generally include processing devices (e.g., microprocessor), memory (e.g., CAD designs), and/or memory circuitry for storing one or more instructions for controlling operation of the printer head  310 , powder bed  301 , frame  304 , and/or deflection device  309 . 
     The following test methods may be employed to determine certain of the properties described herein. 
     Test Methods 
     Thermal Conductivity: In-plane and through-plane thermal conductivity values are determined in accordance with ASTM E1461-13. 
     Melt Viscosity: The melt viscosity (Pa-s) may be determined in accordance with ISO Test No. 11443:2005 at a shear rate of 1000 s −1  and temperature 15° C. above the melting temperature (e.g., 350° C.) using a Dynisco LCR7001 capillary rheometer. The rheometer orifice (die) had a diameter of 1 mm, length of 20 mm, L/D ratio of 20.1, and an entrance angle of 180°. The diameter of the barrel was 9.55 mm+0.005 mm and the length of the rod was 233.4 mm. 
     Melting Temperature: The melting temperature (“Tm”) may be determined by differential scanning calorimetry (“DSC”) as is known in the art. The melting temperature is the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) peak melt temperature as determined by ISO Test No. 11357-2:2013. Under the DSC procedure, samples were heated and cooled at 20° C. per minute as stated in ISO Standard 10350 using DSC measurements conducted on a TA Q2000 Instrument. 
     Deflection Temperature Under Load (“DTUL”): The deflection under load temperature may be determined in accordance with ISO Test No. 75-2:2013 (technically equivalent to ASTM D648-07). More particularly, a test strip sample having a length of 80 mm, thickness of 10 mm, and width of 4 mm may be subjected to an edgewise three-point bending test in which the specified load (maximum outer fibers stress) was 1.8 Megapascals. The specimen may be lowered into a silicone oil bath where the temperature is raised at 2° C. per minute until it deflects 0.25 mm (0.32 mm for ISO Test No. 75-2:2013). 
     Tensile Modulus, Tensile Stress, and Tensile Elongation: Tensile properties may be tested according to ISO Test No. 527:2012 (technically equivalent to ASTM D638-14). Modulus and strength measurements may be made on the same test strip sample having a length of 80 mm, thickness of 10 mm, and width of 4 mm. The testing temperature may be 23° C., and the testing speeds may be 1 or 5 mm/min. 
     Flexural Modulus and Flexural Stress: Flexural properties may be tested according to ISO Test No. 178:2010 (technically equivalent to ASTM D790-10). This test may be performed on a 64 mm support span. Tests may be run on the center portions of uncut ISO 3167 multi-purpose bars. The testing temperature may be 23° C. and the testing speed may be 2 mm/min. 
     These and other modifications and variations of the present invention may be practiced by those of ordinary skill in the art, without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. In addition, it should be understood that aspects of the various embodiments may be interchanged both in whole or in part. Furthermore, those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the foregoing description is by way of example only, and is not intended to limit the invention so further described in such appended claims.