Patent Publication Number: US-11387278-B2

Title: Electronic devices and methods of manufacturing the same

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims priority to and the benefit of, under 35 U.S.C. § 119, Korean Patent Application No. 10-2016-0178267 filed in the Korean Intellectual Property Office on Dec. 23, 2016, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. 
     BACKGROUND 
     1. Field 
     Electronic devices and methods of manufacturing the same are disclosed. 
     2. Description of the Related Art 
     Photoelectric devices may convert light into one or more electrical signals based on utilizing photoelectric effects. An individual photoelectric device may include a photodiode, a phototransistor, and the like. An individual photoelectric device may be applied to (“included in”) an electronic device, where an electronic device may include an image sensor, a solar cell, an organic light emitting diode, and the like. 
     Miniaturization (“down-sizing”) of electronic devices is desirable to enable improved compactness, portability, integration, and/or utility of electronic devices. Recently, research on new processes and structures for down-sizing electronic devices and thereby realizing high integration of electronic devices has been made. 
     SUMMARY 
     Some example embodiments provide an electronic device having a novel structure by using a novel process. 
     Some example embodiments provide a method of manufacturing the electronic device. 
     According to some example embodiments, an electronic device may include a plurality of pixel electrodes, an active layer on the plurality of pixel electrodes, an opposed electrode on the active layer and covering an entirety of an upper surface of the active layer, and a first encapsulation film on the opposed electrode. The opposed electrode and the first encapsulation film may have a common planar shape. 
     A vertical area of the opposed electrode may be larger than a vertical area of the active layer. 
     A gap between one edge of the opposed electrode and one edge of the active layer may be about 1 μm to about 100 μm. 
     The opposed electrode may cover the upper surface of the active layer and a plurality of side surfaces of the active layer. 
     The first encapsulation film may include a material that is one material of an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride. The material may include at least one element of aluminum, titanium, zirconium, hafnium, tantalum, and silicon. 
     The first encapsulation film may have a thickness of about 2 nm to about 30 nm. 
     The electronic device may include a second encapsulation film on the first encapsulation film. The second encapsulation film may have a common planar shape as the opposed electrode and the first encapsulation film. The second encapsulation film may include a common material in relation to the first encapsulation film. The second encapsulation film may have a different film quality in relation to a film quality of the first encapsulation film. The second encapsulation film may have a greater film density than a film density of the first encapsulation film. The second encapsulation film may include a different material from a material of the first encapsulation film. 
     The first encapsulation film may include one material of an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride, the one material included in the first encapsulation film including at least one element of aluminum, titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and tantalum, and the second encapsulation film may include one material of an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride, the one material included in the second encapsulation film including silicon. 
     The second encapsulation film may be thicker than the first encapsulation film, and the second encapsulation film has a thickness of about 10 nm to about 200 nm. 
     The electronic device may include a third encapsulation film covering the second encapsulation film. The third encapsulation film may include one material of an oxide, a nitride, an oxynitride, an organic material, or an organic/inorganic composite. 
     The active layer may be a light-absorbing layer that is configured to selectively absorb light in one wavelength spectrum of light of a red wavelength spectrum of light, a green wavelength spectrum of light, and a blue wavelength spectrum of light. 
     The electronic device may include a semiconductor substrate under the plurality of pixel electrodes. The semiconductor substrate may include a plurality of photo-sensing devices vertically overlapping with the plurality of pixel electrodes. 
     The electronic device may include a color filter layer between the plurality of pixel electrodes and the semiconductor substrate. 
     An electronic apparatus may include the electronic device. 
     According to some example embodiments, a method of manufacturing an electronic device may include forming a pixel electrode, forming an active layer on the pixel electrode, forming a conductive layer associated with an opposed electrode on the active layer, forming a thin film associated with a first encapsulation film on the conductive layer associated with the opposed electrode, and simultaneously or sequentially etching the thin film associated with the first encapsulation film and the conductive layer associated with the opposed electrode to form the first encapsulation film and the opposed electrode, such that the first encapsulation film and the opposed electrode have a common planar shape. 
     The etching may be performed based on at least one process of photolithography and dry etching. 
     The method may include forming a thin film associated with a second encapsulation film subsequently to forming the thin film associated with the first encapsulation film. 
     The thin film associated with the second encapsulation film, the thin film associated with the first encapsulation film, and the conductive layer associated with the opposed electrode may be simultaneously or sequentially etched to form the second encapsulation film, the first encapsulation film, and the opposed electrode such that the second encapsulation film, the first encapsulation film, and the opposed electrode have the common planar shape. 
     The second encapsulation film may be formed at a higher temperature than the first encapsulation film. 
     The first encapsulation film may be formed at less than or equal to about 110° C., and the second encapsulation film may be formed at less than or equal to about 220° C. 
     The method may include forming a third encapsulation film on the second encapsulation film. 
     According to some example embodiments, an electronic device may include a semiconductor substrate, a plurality of photo-sensing devices integrated into the semiconductor substrate, and a photoelectric device on the semiconductor substrate, the photoelectric device including a plurality of pixel electrodes on the semiconductor substrate, each pixel electrode vertically overlapping a separate set of one or more photo-sensing devices of the plurality of photo-sensing devices, an active layer on the plurality of pixel electrodes, and an opposed electrode on the active layer and covering an entirety of an upper surface of the active layer. The electronic device may further include a first encapsulation film on the opposed electrode, wherein the opposed electrode and the first encapsulation film have a common planar shape. 
     The electronic device may include a color filter layer on the semiconductor substrate, the color filter layer including a plurality of color filters, each color filter of the plurality of color filters vertically overlapping a separate photo-sensing device of the plurality of photo-sensing devices. 
     The photoelectric device may be between the color filter layer and the plurality of photo-sensing devices. The active layer may be a light-absorbing layer that is configured to selectively absorb light in one wavelength spectrum of light of a red wavelength spectrum of light, a green wavelength spectrum of light, and a blue wavelength spectrum of light. Adjacent color filters of the plurality of color filters may be configured to selectively transmit different wavelength spectra of mixed light of a plurality of wavelength spectra of mixed light, the different wavelength spectra of mixed light including both the one wavelength spectrum of light and different additional wavelength spectra of light, respectively. 
     A vertical area of the opposed electrode may be larger than a vertical area of the active layer. 
     The first encapsulation film may include an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride. 
     The first encapsulation film may have a thickness of about 2 nm to about 30 nm. 
     The electronic device may include a second encapsulation film on the first encapsulation film. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic top plan view showing an electronic device according to some example embodiments, 
         FIG. 2  is a schematic cross-sectional view showing the electronic device of  FIG. 1  taken along cross-sectional view line II-II′ according to some example embodiments, 
         FIG. 3 ,  FIG. 4 ,  FIG. 5 ,  FIG. 6 , and  FIG. 7  are cross-sectional views sequentially showing methods of manufacturing electronic devices of  FIGS. 1 and 2 , 
         FIG. 8  is a schematic top plan view showing an electronic device according to some example embodiments, 
         FIG. 9  is a schematic cross-sectional view showing the electronic device of  FIG. 8  taken along cross-sectional view line IX-IX′, 
         FIG. 10 ,  FIG. 11 ,  FIG. 12 ,  FIG. 13 , and  FIG. 14  are cross-sectional views sequentially showing methods of manufacturing electronic devices of  FIG. 8  and  FIG. 9 , 
         FIG. 15  is a photograph showing a particle distribution of an active layer in the electronic device of Example 1, and 
         FIG. 16  is a photograph showing a particle distribution of an active layer in the electronic device of Comparative Example 1, 
         FIG. 17  is a diagram illustrating an electronic device according to some example embodiments, 
         FIG. 18  is a cross-sectional view showing a solar cell according to some example embodiments, 
         FIG. 19  is a sectional view of an organic light-emitting display apparatus according to some example embodiments, 
         FIG. 20  is a view showing a sensor according to some example embodiments, 
         FIG. 21  is a schematic cross-sectional view showing the electronic device of  FIG. 1  taken along cross-sectional view line II-II′ according to some example embodiments, and 
         FIG. 22  is a schematic cross-sectional view showing the electronic device of  FIG. 1  taken along cross-sectional view line II-II′ according to some example embodiments. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Hereinafter, some example embodiments of the present disclosure will be described in detail so that a person skilled in the art would understand the same. 
     This disclosure may, however, be embodied in many different forms and is not construed as limited to the example embodiments set forth herein. 
     In the drawings, the thickness of layers, films, panels, regions, etc., are exaggerated for clarity. Like reference numerals designate like elements throughout the specification. It will be understood that when an element such as a layer, film, region, or substrate is referred to as being “on” another element, it can be directly on the other element or intervening elements may also be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly on” another element, there are no intervening elements present. Furthermore, when an element is referred to as being “on” another element, it will be understood that the element may be above or below the other element. 
     When the terms “about” or “substantially” are used in this specification in connection with a numerical value, it is intended that the associated numerical value include a tolerance of ±10% around the stated numerical value. When ranges are specified, the range includes all values therebetween such as increments of 0.1%. 
     Hereinafter, an electronic device according to some example embodiments is described. 
     As an example of an electronic device, an image sensor is described but is not limited thereto. 
     An electronic device according to some example embodiments may be a stack-type electronic device, for example a stack-type image sensor. 
     For example, a stack-type image sensor may have a stack structure where a lower structure and an upper structure are stacked in a vertical direction, for example a structure where at least one of a first photodetector, a second photodetector, and a third photodetector sensing light in a different wavelength spectrum of light is disposed in a upper structure. For example, each of the first photodetector, the second photodetector, and the third photodetector may selectively sense one of light in a red wavelength spectrum of light (hereinafter, ‘red light’), light in a green wavelength spectrum of light (hereinafter, ‘green light’), and light in a blue wavelength spectrum of light (hereinafter, ‘blue light’). For example, each of the first photodetector, the second photodetector, and the third photodetector may selectively sense red light, blue light, and green light. For example each of the first photodetector, the second photodetector, and the third photodetector may selectively sense blue light, green light, and red light. For example each of the first photodetector, the second photodetector, and the third photodetector may selectively sense green light, red light, and blue light. 
     For example, a stack-type image sensor may consist of a lower structure including a first photodetector and a second photodetector and an upper structure including a third photodetector. The lower structure may include a first pixel including a first photodetector and a second pixel including a second photodetector which are alternately arranged along a row and/or a column, but arrangement orders and manners may be diverse. For example, the lower structure may include a substrate integrated with a first photodetector and a second photodetector and the upper structure may include a photoelectric device including a third photodetector. 
       FIG. 1  is a schematic top plan view showing an electronic device according to some example embodiments and  FIG. 2  is a schematic cross-sectional view of the electronic device of  FIG. 1  taken along a cross-sectional view line II-II′ according to some example embodiments. 
     Referring to  FIGS. 1 and 2 , an electronic device according to some example embodiments includes a substrate  110 , a lower insulation layer  62 , an upper insulation layer  64 , a color filter layer  70 , a photoelectric device  10 , an encapsulation film  50 , and a set of lenses  90  (the set of lenses  90  may be referred to herein as simply an individual lens  90 ). In some example embodiments, the color filter layer  70  is absent. 
     The substrate  110  may be, for example, a semiconductor substrate, a silicon substrate, a silicon wafer, some combination thereof, or the like. As shown in at least  FIG. 2 , the substrate  110  may be integrated with photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , a transmission transistor (not shown), and a charge storage  55 , such that the photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , transmission transistor, and charge storage  55  are encompassed (partially or entirely) within a volume defined by the outer surfaces of the substrate. Each photo-sensing device of the photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b  may be a photodiode. The photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , the transmission transistor, and the charge storage  55  may be integrated in each pixel. 
     The photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b  may sense light and sensed information may be transferred by the transmission transistor. The charge storage  55  may electrically be connected to the photoelectric device  10  that will be described later and information of the charge storage  55  may be transferred by the transmission transistor. In some example embodiments, a photo-sensing device, including one or more of the photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , may be configured to sense a particular wavelength spectrum of light. Separate photo-sensing devices (e.g., photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b ) may be configured to sense different wavelength spectra of light. One or more photo-sensing devices may be configured to sense a particular wavelength spectrum of light (e.g., red wavelength spectrum of light, blue wavelength spectrum of light, green wavelength spectrum of light, mixed wavelength spectrum of light, etc.) in an absence of the color filter layer  70 . For example, the one or more photo-sensing devices may be configured to sense a limited portion of the entire wavelength spectrum of light that is received at (“incident on”) the one or more photo-sensing devices. 
     A metal wire (not shown) and a pad (not shown) are formed under the photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b . In order to decrease signal delay, the metal wire and pad may be made of (“at least partially comprise”) a metal having low resistivity, for example, aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and alloys thereof, but are not limited thereto. Further, it is not limited to the structure, and the metal wire and pad (not shown) may be disposed at various positions, for example on the substrate  110 . 
     A lower insulation layer  62  may be formed on the substrate  110 . The lower insulation layer  62  may be made of an inorganic insulating material such as a silicon oxide and/or a silicon nitride, or a low dielectric constant (low K) material such as SiC, SiCOH, SiCO, and SiOF. 
     A color filter layer  70  may be formed on the lower insulation layer  62 . The color filter layer  70  may include a first color filter  70   a  formed in a first pixel P 1  and a second color filter  70   b  in a second pixel P 2 . For example, when a red photodetector configured to selectively sense red light and a blue photodetector configured to selectively sense blue light are included in a first pixel P 1  and a second pixel P 2 , respectively, the first color filter  70   a  may be a red filter and the second color filter  70   b  may be a blue filter. The color filter layer  70  may be omitted as needed, and one or more of the photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b  may be configured to sense a particular wavelength spectrum of light, and thus be configured to selectively sense a particular wavelength spectrum of light (e.g., red light, blue light, green light, mixed light, etc.) in the absence of the color filter layer  70 . 
     As referred to herein, “red light” or light in a “red wavelength spectrum of light” may include light having a wavelength spectrum with a maximum absorption wavelength (λ max ) in a range of greater than about 600 nm to less than or equal to about 700 nm. For example, color filter  70   a  and/or color filter  70   b  may be a red filter configured to selectively transmit red light having a wavelength spectrum with a maximum absorption wavelength (λ max ) in a range of greater than about 600 nm to less than or equal to about 700 nm. 
     As referred to herein, “blue light” or light in a “blue wavelength spectrum of light” may include light having a wavelength spectrum with a maximum absorption wavelength (λ max ) in a range of greater than or equal to about 400 nm to less than or equal to about 500 nm. For example, color filter  70   a  and/or color filter  70   b  may be a blue filter configured to selectively transmit blue light having a wavelength spectrum with a maximum absorption wavelength (λ max ) in a range of greater than or equal to about 400 nm to less than or equal to about 500 nm. 
     As referred to herein, “green light” or light in a “green wavelength spectrum of light” may include light having a wavelength spectrum with a maximum absorption wavelength (λ max ) in a range of about 500 nm to about 600 nm. For example, color filter  70   a  and/or color filter  70   b  may be a green filter configured to selectively transmit green light having a wavelength spectrum with a maximum absorption wavelength (λ max ) in a range of about 500 nm to about 600 nm. 
     An upper insulation layer  64  is formed on the color filter layer  70 . The formation of the upper insulation layer  64  may eliminate a step of smoothing an upper surface caused by forming the color filter layer  70 , as the forming of the upper insulation layer  64  may cause the formation of a smooth upper surface  64   a . The upper insulation layer  64  and the lower insulation layer  62  may include a contact hole (not shown) exposing a pad, and a trench  85  exposing the charge storage  55 . The trench  85  may be filled with a filler. In some example embodiments, one of the lower insulation layer  62  and the upper insulation layer  64  may be omitted, such that the electronic device includes an individual insulation layer (that is one of layers  62  and  64 ) on substrate  110 . 
     A photoelectric device  10  may be formed on the upper insulation layer  64 . 
     The photoelectric device  10  includes a plurality of pixel electrodes  20 , an active layer  30 , and an opposed electrode  40 . 
     One of the pixel electrode  20  and the opposed electrode  40  is an anode and the other is a cathode. At least one of the pixel electrode  20  and the opposed electrode  40  may be a light-transmitting electrode, and the light-transmitting electrode may be made of for example a transparent conductor such as indium tin oxide (ITO) or indium zinc oxide (IZO), or a metal thin film of a monolayer or a plural layer. For example, the pixel electrode  20  and the opposed electrode  40  may be light-transmitting electrodes. 
     The pixel electrode  20  is separated and arranged in each pixel and may be arranged along a row and/or a column in an active region (A). As shown in  FIG. 2 , each separate pixel electrode  20  may vertically overlap a separate one or more photo-sensing devices  58   a  and/or  58   b  of the plurality of photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , such that the plurality of pixel electrodes  20  vertically overlap with the plurality of photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b.    
     The active layer  30  covers an entire surface of (e.g., an entirety of an upper surface s) the active region (A) and may be a single layer or a plural layer. 
     The active layer  30  may be a light-absorbing layer configured to selectively absorb light in one wavelength spectrum of light of a red wavelength spectrum of light, a green wavelength spectrum of light, and a blue wavelength spectrum of light. The active layer  30  may be a photoelectric conversion layer including a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor to form a pn junction. The active layer  30  may be an organic photoelectric conversion layer. The active layer  30  absorbs light flowed from outside to generate excitons and separate generated excitons into holes and electrons. 
     The active layer  30  includes a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor to form a pn junction and at least one of the p-type semiconductor and the n-type semiconductor may include an organic material selectively absorbing (“configured to selectively absorb”) one wavelength spectrum of light of a red wavelength spectrum of light, a green wavelength spectrum of light, and a blue wavelength spectrum of light. For example, the organic material may have for example maximum absorption wavelength (λ max ) of about 500 nm to about 600 nm (“a green wavelength spectrum of light”) and an energy bandgap of about 2.0 eV to about 2.5 eV. 
     The active layer  30  may include a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor in various ratios, and may include for example a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor in a volume ratio of about 1:9 to about 9:1, about 2:8 to about 8:2, about 3:7 to about 7:3, about 4:6 to about 6:4 or about 5:5. 
     For example, the active layer  30  may include a plurality of regions having a different composition ratio of a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor along a thickness direction. Herein, the composition ratio of the p-type semiconductor and the n-type semiconductor may be defined as a volume of the p-type semiconductor relative to a volume of the n-type semiconductor and may be expressed as p/n. 
     For example, the active layer  30  may include a first region, a second region, and a third region having a different composition ratio of a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor along a thickness direction, and a composition ratio (p 2 /n 2 ) of a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor of the second region may be greater or smaller than a composition ratio (p 1 /n 1 ) of a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor of the first region and a composition ratio (p 3 /n 3 ) of a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor of the third region. 
     For example, the active layer  30  may include a first region and a second region having a different composition ratio of a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor along a thickness direction and the first region may be a p-type rich layer where a p-type semiconductor is included in a greater amount than a n-type semiconductor and the second region may have a smaller composition ratio of a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor than the first region. For example, within the ranges, the composition ratio (p 1 /n 1 ) of the p-type semiconductor and the n-type semiconductor of the first region may be in the range: 1.0&lt;p 1 /n 1 ≤3.5 and the composition ratio (p 2 /n 2 ) of the p-type semiconductor and the n-type semiconductor of the second region may be in the range: 0.5≤p 2 /n 2 ≤1.2, and within the ranges the composition ratio (p 1 /n 1 ) of the p-type semiconductor and the n-type semiconductor of the first region may be in the range: 1.2≤p 1 /n 1 ≤3.5 and the composition ratio (p 2 /n 2 ) of the p-type semiconductor and the n-type semiconductor of the second region may be in the range: 0.8≤p 2 /n 2 &lt;1.2. 
     The active layer  30  may be for example various combinations such as an intrinsic layer (I layer), a p-type layer/I layer, an I layer/n-type layer, a p-type layer/I layer/n-type layer, a p-type layer/n-type layer, and the like. 
     In some example embodiments, the active layer  30  is configured to absorb (and thus the photoelectric device  10  may be configured to sense) light in an infrared and/or ultraviolet wavelength spectrum of light. Thus, the photoelectric device  10  may be an infrared sensor and/or ultraviolet sensor. 
     The opposed electrode  40  may be a common electrode. 
     As shown in  FIG. 2 , the opposed electrode  40  may have a larger vertical area and/or horizontal area than that of the active layer  30 . For example, as shown in  FIG. 1 , opposed electrode  40  may have longer horizontal and vertical direction lengths than those of the active layer  30 . For example, a gap (d) between one edge of the opposed electrode  40  and one edge of the active layer  30  may be less than or equal to about 100 μm, for example, about 1 μm to about 100 μm or about 5 μm to about 80 μm. According to this structure, and as shown in  FIG. 2 , the opposed electrode  40  may cover the entire upper surface  30   a  of the active layer  30  (“an entirety of an upper surface  30   a  of the active layer  30 ”), for example, may cover upper surface  30   a  and a plurality of side surfaces  30   b  of the active layer  30 . In this way, the opposed electrode  40  entirely covering upper and side surfaces of the active layer  30  may prevent a direct exposure of the active layer  30  to heat, light, and/or a chemical liquid during a subsequent process and thus degradation of an organic material included in the active layer  30 . 
     The opposed electrode  40  may be electrically connected to a pad and a wire through an opposed electrode-connecting layer  41   a  shown in  FIG. 1 . 
     A charge auxiliary layer (not shown) may be further included between the pixel electrode  20  and the active layer  30  and/or between the active layer  30  and the opposed electrode  40 . The charge auxiliary layer may facilitate transfer of the separated holes and electrons in the active layer  30  and increase efficiency. 
     The charge auxiliary layer may include at least one of a hole injection layer for facilitating hole injection, a hole transport layer for facilitating hole transport, an electron blocking layer for preventing electron transport, an electron injection layer for facilitating electron injection, an electron transport layer for facilitating electron transport, and a hole blocking layer for preventing hole transport, but is not limited thereto. 
     The charge auxiliary layer may include for example an organic material, an inorganic material, or an organic/inorganic material. The organic material may be an organic compound having hole or electron characteristics, and the inorganic material may be, for example, a metal oxide such as molybdenum oxide, tungsten oxide, nickel oxide, and the like. 
     An encapsulation film  50  is formed on the photoelectric device  10 . 
     The encapsulation film  50  may protect the photoelectric device  10  thereon and may block or prevent inflow of oxygen and/or moisture from outside. 
     The encapsulation film  50  includes a lower encapsulation film  51  (“first encapsulation film”) and an upper encapsulation film  52  (“second encapsulation film”). 
     As shown in  FIG. 2 , the lower encapsulation film  51  may be directly on the opposed electrode  40  and may be etched with the same pattern as the opposed electrode  40 . As a result, and as shown in  FIG. 2 , the lower encapsulation film  51  and the opposed electrode  40  may have a common or substantially common “planar shape” (e.g., a common planar shape within manufacturing tolerances and/or material tolerances). In some example embodiments, including the example embodiments shown in  FIG. 2 , both the lower encapsulation film  51  and the opposed electrode  40  may both have a common “C” planar shape. As shown in  FIG. 2 , for example, side (vertical) portions of each the lower encapsulation film  51  and the opposed electrode  40  extend over the respective elements on which the lower encapsulation film  51  and the opposed electrode  40  are disposed, and central (horizontal) portions of the lower encapsulation film  51  and the opposed electrode  40  each extend over an entirety of an upper surface of the respective elements on which the lower encapsulation film  51  and the opposed electrode  40  are disposed. 
     The lower encapsulation film  51  may include for example an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride, for example a material that is one material of an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride, the material including at least one element of aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr), hafnium (Hf), tantalum (Ta), and silicon (Si). 
     The lower encapsulation film  51  may have for example a thickness of about 2 nm to about 30 nm, for example about 5 nm to about 25 nm. When it has a thin thickness within the ranges, close contacting properties between the lower encapsulation film  51  and the opposed electrode  40  may be increased and damage may be reduced or prevented during a simultaneous sequential etching process of the lower encapsulation film  51  and the opposed electrode  40 . 
     The upper encapsulation film  52  that is on the lower encapsulation film  51  may cover the upper surface and/or a plurality of side surfaces of the lower encapsulation film  51  and the photoelectric device  10 . As shown in  FIG. 2 , the upper encapsulation film  52  may have a common planar shape as the opposed electrode  40  and the lower encapsulation film  51 . The upper encapsulation film  52  may have a different film quality in relation to a film quality of the lower encapsulation film  51 . The upper encapsulation film  52  may have a greater film density than a film density of the lower encapsulation film  51 . The upper encapsulation film  52  may include a different material from a material of the lower encapsulation film  51 . The upper encapsulation film  52  may include for example an inorganic material, an organic material, an organic/inorganic material or combination thereof, for example an oxide, a nitride, an oxynitride, an organic material, or an organic/inorganic composite, or for example an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride including at least one of aluminum, titanium, zirconium, hafnium, tantalum, and silicon. 
     The lower encapsulation film  51  may include one material of an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride, the one material included in the lower encapsulation film  51  including at least one element of aluminum, titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and tantalum, and the upper encapsulation film  52  may include one material of an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride, the one material included in the upper encapsulation film  52  including silicon. 
     The upper encapsulation film  52  may be thicker than the lower encapsulation film  51 , and the upper encapsulation film  52  may have a thickness of about 10 nm to about 200 nm. 
     A focusing lens  90  is formed on the encapsulation film  50 . 
     The focusing lens  90  may control a direction of incident light, may gather the light in one region and may be disposed in a pixel area (A). The focusing lens  90  may have, for example, a shape of a cylinder or a hemisphere, but is not limited thereto. 
     As shown in  FIGS. 1-2 , multiple pixels P 1  to PN may be included in the pixel area (A), wherein each pixel P 1  to P 2  includes a separate one of the photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , separate portions of the substrate  110 , the lower insulation layer  62 , the upper insulation layer  64 , the color filter layer  70 , the photoelectric device  10 , the encapsulation film  50 , and a separate lens  90 . As shown in  FIG. 2 , the boundaries between separate pixels may be a boundary that is equidistant between separate, adjacent photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , a boundary that is equidistant between separate, adjacent pixel electrodes  20 , a boundary that is equidistant between separate, adjacent color filters  70   a  and  70   b , some combination thereof, or the like. 
     In some example embodiments, including the example embodiments shown in  FIG. 2 , adjacent color filters  70   a  and  70   b  in adjacent pixels may be configured to selectively transmit different wavelength spectra of light. In some example embodiments, including the example embodiments shown in  FIG. 2 , adjacent photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b  in adjacent pixels may be configured to sense different wavelength spectra of light. 
     Hereinafter, referring to  FIGS. 3 to 7 , methods of manufacturing electronic devices of  FIGS. 1 and 2  are for example described. 
       FIG. 3 ,  FIG. 4 ,  FIG. 5 ,  FIG. 6 , and  FIG. 7  are cross-sectional views sequentially showing methods of manufacturing electronic devices of  FIGS. 1 and 2 . 
     First, referring to  FIG. 3 , a substrate  110  integrated with photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , a transmission transistor (not shown), and a charge storage  55  is prepared. The substrate  110  may be for example a semiconductor substrate, for example a silicon wafer. 
     Subsequently, a lower insulation layer  62  and a color filter layer  70  are sequentially formed on the substrate  110 . 
     Then, referring to  FIG. 4 , an upper insulation layer  64  is formed on the color filter layer  70  and a plurality of trenches  85  penetrating the upper insulation layer  64  and the lower insulation layer  62  are formed. The trenches  85  are filled with fillers. 
     Subsequently, still referring to  FIG. 4 , a plurality of pixel electrodes  20  are formed on a surface of the upper insulation layer  64 . The pixel electrode  20  may be for example made of a transparent conductor such as indium tin oxide (ITO) or indium zinc oxide (IZO), or a metal thin film of a monolayer or a plural layer, and may be for example formed by sputtering. 
     Subsequently, still referring to  FIG. 4 , an active layer  30  is formed on a plurality of pixel electrodes  20 . The active layer  30  may be deposited on an entire surface of the active region (A) and may be for example by thermal deposition or chemical vapor deposition (CVD), for example thermal deposition or chemical vapor deposition (CVD) using a shadow mask. 
     Next, referring to  FIG. 5 , a conductive layer  40 ′ for an opposed electrode (“associated with an opposed electrode”) is formed on the active layer  30 . The conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode may be made of a transparent conductor such as indium tin oxide (ITO) or indium zinc oxide (IZO), or a metal thin film of a monolayer or a plural layer. The conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode may be for example formed by thermal deposition, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atomic layer deposition, or sputtering, and may be formed on entire surfaces of the active layer  30  and the upper insulation layer  64  without using a separate shadow mask. 
     Subsequently, still referring to  FIG. 5 , a thin film  51 ′ for a lower encapsulation film (“associated with a lower encapsulation film”) is formed on the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode. The thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film may include for example an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride including at least one of aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr), hafnium (Hf), tantalum (Ta), and silicon (Si). The thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film may be for example formed by thermal deposition, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atomic layer deposition, or sputtering, and may be formed on entire surfaces of the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode without using a separate shadow mask. 
     Next, referring to  FIG. 6 , the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode and the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film are simultaneously or sequentially etched. The etching  601  may be for example based on at least one process of and/or may be photolithography and/or dry etching, and is not particularly limited. The etching  601  may be performed by various methods and may be for example formed by once etching the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film and the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode using one etching mask, or formed by for example etching the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film using one etching mask to form a lower encapsulation film  51  and etching the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode using the lower encapsulation film  51  as a mask to form an opposed electrode  40 . By such methods, the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode and the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film are etched together to form the opposed electrode  40  and the lower encapsulation film  51  having the substantially same planar shape. As shown in  FIG. 6 , performing the etching  601  to form the opposed electrode  40  and the lower encapsulation film  51  having the substantially same planar shape (e.g., a “C” shape as shown in  FIG. 6 ) may include removing stacked edge portions  602   a  and  602   b  of the conductive layer  40 ′ and thin film  51 ′ such that only central respective portions thereof remain on the upper insulation layer  64  to form the opposed electrode  40  and the lower encapsulation film  51 , wherein the outer sidewalls  40   a  of the opposed electrode  40  and the outer sidewalls  51   a  of the lower encapsulation film, formed by the etching  601 , are coplanar or substantially coplanar (e.g., coplanar within manufacturing tolerances and/or material tolerances). 
     Next, referring to  FIG. 7 , a thin film (not shown) for an upper encapsulation film (“associated with an upper encapsulation film”) is formed on the lower encapsulation film  51  and is patterned to form an upper encapsulation film  52 . The thin film for the upper encapsulation film may include for example an oxide, a nitride, an oxynitride, an organic material, or an organic/inorganic composite. The thin film for the upper encapsulation film may be for example formed by thermal deposition or chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and is not particularly limited thereto. As shown in  FIG. 7 , the upper encapsulation film  52  may be formed to cover upper and side surfaces of the lower encapsulation film  51 . 
     Next, referring to  FIG. 2 , a focusing lens  90  is formed on the upper encapsulation film  52 . 
     As described above, an electronic device according to some example embodiments effectively protects the active layer by forming the opposed electrode  40  without using a shadow mask and simultaneously or sequentially etching the opposed electrode  40  and the lower encapsulation film  51 , and thereby performance degradation of the electronic device may be prevented. 
     When a conventional method of forming the active layer  30  and the opposed electrode  40  by using a shadow mask is adopted, an electrode material attached on the shadow mask due to repetitive uses of the shadow mask may be deposited as particles along with the active layer  30  during formation of the active layer  30  and thus deteriorate performance of the active layer  30 . In addition, a shadow effect due to use of the shadow mask may decrease uniformity of center and edge parts of a pattern and thus deteriorate performance of an electronic device. 
     In some example embodiments, the active layer  30  and the opposed electrode  40  may be separately formed and thus prevent performance degradation of the active layer  30  and the electronic device according to use of the shadow mask and simultaneously, freely determined to have each size and area and thus effectively disposed in a limited space. In addition, the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode is formed to entirely cover upper and side surfaces of the active layer  30  and thus may prevent a direct exposure of the active layer  30  to heat, light, and/or a chemical liquid in a subsequent process. 
     Furthermore, the opposed electrode  40  and the lower encapsulation film  51  may be simultaneously or sequentially etched to form a satisfactory pattern without an additional process. 
     Hereinafter, referring to  FIGS. 8 and 9 , an electronic device according to some example embodiments is described. 
       FIG. 8  is a schematic top plan view showing an electronic device according to some example embodiments and  FIG. 9  is a schematic cross-sectional view of the electronic device of  FIG. 8  taken along cross-sectional view line IX-IX′. 
     Referring to  FIGS. 8 and 9 , an electronic device according to some example embodiments includes a substrate  110  integrated with photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , a transmission transistor (not shown), and a charge storage  55 ; a lower insulation layer  62 ; an upper insulation layer  64 ; a color filter layer  70 ; a photoelectric device  10 ; and an encapsulation film  50 , like some example embodiments. 
     However, in the electronic device according to some example embodiments, the encapsulation film  50  includes a lower encapsulation film  51 , an intermediate encapsulation film  53 , and an upper encapsulation film  52 , unlike the electronic device according to some example embodiments. 
     The lower encapsulation film  51  and the intermediate encapsulation film  53  may include the same material or a different material. 
     For example, the lower encapsulation film  51  and the intermediate encapsulation film  53  may include the same material. 
     For example, the lower encapsulation film  51  and the intermediate encapsulation film  53  may be formed of the same material under a different process condition. 
     The lower encapsulation film  51  and the intermediate encapsulation film  53  may include for example an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride, for example an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride including at least one of aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr), hafnium (Hf), tantalum (Ta), and silicon (Si). 
     The lower encapsulation film  51  and the intermediate encapsulation film  53  may be formed at a different process temperature. 
     For example, the lower encapsulation film  51  may be deposited at a temperature where an organic material included in the active layer  30  is not degraded, for example a temperature that is lower than a glass transition temperature (T g ) or a thermal deposition temperature (T d ) of an organic material. 
     The lower encapsulation film  51  may be for example deposited at about 110° C. or less or at a temperature of about 50° C. to about 110° C. The lower encapsulation film  51  may be for example formed by an atomic layer deposition method or a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method within the temperature ranges. 
     Because the intermediate encapsulation film  53  is formed on the lower encapsulation film  51 , a process temperature may be controlled regardless of degradation of the organic material included in the active layer  30 . Therefore, a process margin of the intermediate encapsulation film  53  may be increased and an encapsulation film having a good quality may be formed without a limitation of a process temperature. 
     For example, the intermediate encapsulation film  53  may be deposited at a higher temperature than the lower encapsulation film  51 , for example about 220° C. or less. Within the ranges, the intermediate encapsulation film  53  may be deposited at a temperature of about 80° C. to about 220° C. or about 100° C. to about 200° C. In this way, the intermediate encapsulation film  53  is deposited at a relatively high temperature and thereby a thin film having a desirable condition is formed and inflow of moisture and oxygen from outside may be effectively blocked. 
     In this way, since the lower encapsulation film  51  and the intermediate encapsulation film  53  are deposited at a different process temperature, thin films having a different film quality are formed. For example, the lower encapsulation film  51  and the intermediate encapsulation film  53  have different film density, roughness, and/or film color, and a difference of such film qualities may be confirmed by a transmission electron microscope (TEM). 
     For example, the intermediate encapsulation film  53  may have higher film density than the lower encapsulation film  51 . For example, when the lower encapsulation film  51  and the intermediate encapsulation film  53  are formed of an aluminum oxide, the lower encapsulation film  51  may have film density of about 2.5 or greater and the intermediate encapsulation film  53  may have film density of about 2.8 or greater. However, the film density may be changed according to process conditions but is not limited thereto. For example, the intermediate encapsulation film  53  may include fewer impurities than the lower encapsulation film  51 . 
     In this way, the lower encapsulation film  51  is first formed on one surface of the photoelectric device  10  under no strong condition such as a relatively low temperature and thus may prevent degradation of the active layer  30  in a subsequent process, and simultaneously, an intermediate encapsulation film  53  is formed without a temperature limit in the subsequent process and may effectively block or decrease an inflow of moisture and oxygen from outside. Accordingly, degradation of the active layer  30  may be prevented in the subsequent process, and simultaneously, encapsulation performance of the electronic device may be enhanced. 
     The lower encapsulation film  51  may have for example a thickness of about 2 nm to about 30 nm. 
     The intermediate encapsulation film  53  may be for example thicker than the lower encapsulation film  51 , and may have for example a thickness of about 10 nm to about 200 nm. 
     The lower encapsulation film  51  and the intermediate encapsulation film  53  may be etched with the same pattern as the opposed electrode  40  and thereby the lower encapsulation film  51 , the intermediate encapsulation film  53 , and the opposed electrode  40  may have the substantially same planar shape. 
     The upper encapsulation film  52  is the same as above and may cover upper and side surfaces of the lower encapsulation film  51 , the intermediate encapsulation film  53 , and the photoelectric device  10 . The upper encapsulation film  52  may include for example an inorganic material, an organic material, organic/inorganic material or combination thereof, for example an oxide, a nitride, an oxynitride, an organic material, or an organic/inorganic composite, for example an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride including at least one of aluminum, titanium, zirconium, hafnium, tantalum, and silicon, but is not limited thereto. 
     Hereinafter, referring to  FIGS. 10 to 14 , methods of manufacturing electronic devices of  FIGS. 8 and 9  are for example described. 
       FIG. 10 ,  FIG. 11 ,  FIG. 12 ,  FIG. 13 , and  FIG. 14  are cross-sectional views sequentially showing methods of manufacturing electronic devices of  FIG. 8  and FIG.  9 . 
     First, referring to  FIG. 10 , a substrate  110  integrated with photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , a transmission transistor (not shown), and a charge storage  55  is prepared. The substrate  110  may be for example a semiconductor substrate, for example a silicon wafer. 
     Subsequently, a lower insulation layer  62  and a color filter layer  70  are sequentially formed on the substrate  110 . 
     Then, referring to  FIG. 11 , an upper insulation layer  64  is formed on the color filter layer  70  and a plurality of trenches  85  penetrating the upper insulation layer  64  and the lower insulation layer  62  are formed. The trenches  85  may be filled with fillers. 
     Subsequently, still referring to  FIG. 11 , a plurality of pixel electrodes  20   s  are formed on the upper insulation layer  64 . The pixel electrode  20  may be for example made of a transparent conductor such as indium tin oxide (ITO) or indium zinc oxide (IZO) or a metal thin film of a monolayer or a plural layer and may be for example formed by sputtering. 
     Subsequently, still referring to  FIG. 11 , an active layer  30  is formed on a plurality of pixel electrodes  20 . The active layer  30  may be deposited on an entire surface of the active region and may be for example by thermal deposition or chemical vapor deposition (CVD), for example thermal deposition or chemical vapor deposition (CVD) using a shadow mask. 
     Next, referring to  FIG. 12 , the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode (“associated with the opposed electrode”) is formed on the active layer  30 . The conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode may be made of (“may at least partially comprise”) a transparent conductor such as indium tin oxide (ITO) or indium zinc oxide (IZO), or a metal thin film of a monolayer or a plural layer. The conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode may be for example formed by thermal deposition, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atomic layer deposition, or sputtering, and may be formed on entire surfaces of the active layer  30  and the upper insulation layer  64  without using a separate shadow mask. 
     Subsequently, still referring to  FIG. 12 , a thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film and a thin film  53 ′ for an intermediate encapsulation film (“associated with an intermediate encapsulation film”) are sequentially formed on the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode. The thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film and the thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film may be for example formed by thermal deposition, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atomic layer deposition, or sputtering, and may be formed on entire surfaces of the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode without using a separate shadow mask. 
     For example, the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film and the thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film may be formed of the same material (“a common material”) or a different material. 
     For example, the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film and the thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film may be formed of the same material. For example, the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film and the thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film may be formed of the same material by a different process. For example, the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film and the thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film may be for example formed by depositing an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride including at least one of aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr), hafnium (Hf), tantalum (Ta), and silicon(Si) at a different temperature from each other. For example, the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film may be deposited at about 110° C. or less, for example a temperature of about 50° C. to about 110° C. The thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film may be for example formed by an atomic layer deposition method or a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method within the temperature ranges, but is not limited thereto. The thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film may be deposited at a higher temperature than the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film, and may be for example deposited at about 220° C. or less. The thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film may be deposited at a temperature of about 80° C. to about 220° C., for example about 100° C. to about 200° C. The thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film may be for example formed by an atomic layer deposition method or a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method, but is not limited thereto. 
     For example, the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film and the thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film may be formed a different material. For example, the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film may include an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride including at least one of aluminum, titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and tantalum and the thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film may include an oxide, a nitride, or an oxynitride including silicon. For example, the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film may include aluminum oxide and the thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film may include SiO 2 , SiN x  (1≤x≤2), or SiON. 
     Next, referring to  FIG. 13 , the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode, the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film and the thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film are simultaneously or sequentially etched. The etching  1301  may be for example photolithography and/or dry etching, but is not particularly limited. 
     The etching may be based on and/or may be, for example, photolithography and/or dry etching, but is not particularly limited. The etching may be performed by various methods. For example, the thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film, the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film, and the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode may be simultaneously etched using one etching mask. For example, the thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film is etched using an etching mask to form an intermediate encapsulation film  53 , and then the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film and the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode are etched using the intermediate encapsulation film  53  as a mask to form a lower encapsulation film  51  and an opposed electrode  40 . For example, the thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film and the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film are etched using an etching mask to form an intermediate encapsulation film  53  and a lower encapsulation film  51  and then the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode is etched to form an opposed electrode  40  using the intermediate encapsulation film  53  and the lower encapsulation film  51  as a mask. As shown in  FIG. 13 , performing the etching  1301  to form the opposed electrode  40 , the lower encapsulation film  51 , and the intermediate encapsulation film  53  having the substantially same planar shape (e.g., a “C” shape as shown in  FIG. 13 ) may include removing stacked edge portions  1302   a  and  1302   b  of the conductive layer  40 ′, thin film  51 ′, and thin film  53 ′ such that only central respective portions thereof remain on the upper insulation layer  64  to form the opposed electrode  40 , the lower encapsulation film  51 , and the intermediate encapsulation film  53 , wherein the outer sidewalls  40   a  of the opposed electrode  40 , the outer sidewalls  51   a  of the lower encapsulation film, and the outer sidewalls  53   a  of the intermediate encapsulation film  53 , formed by the etching  1301 , are coplanar or substantially coplanar (e.g., coplanar within manufacturing tolerances and/or material tolerances). 
     By such methods, the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode, the thin film  51 ′ for the lower encapsulation film, and the thin film  53 ′ for the intermediate encapsulation film are etched together to form the opposed electrode  40 , the lower encapsulation film  51 , and the intermediate encapsulation film  53  having the substantially same planar shape. 
     Next, referring to  FIG. 14 , the thin film  52 ′ for the upper encapsulation film (“associated with the upper encapsulation film”) is formed on the intermediate encapsulation film  52  and is patterned to form an upper encapsulation film  52 . The thin film  52 ′ for the upper encapsulation film may include for example an oxide, a nitride, an oxynitride, an organic material, or an organic/inorganic composite. The thin film  52 ′ for the upper encapsulation film may be for example formed by thermal deposition or chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and is not particularly limited thereto. The upper encapsulation film  52  may be formed to cover upper and side surfaces of the intermediate encapsulation film  53 , the lower encapsulation film  51 , and the opposed electrode  40 . 
     Next, referring to  FIG. 9 , a focusing lens  90  is formed on the upper encapsulation film  52 . 
     As described above, an electronic device according to some example embodiments is configured to effectively protect the active layer by forming the opposed electrode  40  without using a shadow mask and simultaneously or sequentially etching the opposed electrode  40 , the lower encapsulation film  51 , and the intermediate encapsulation film  53 , and thereby performance degradation of the electronic device may be prevented. 
     A conventional method of forming the active layer  30  and the opposed electrode  40  by using a shadow mask may deteriorate performance of the active layer  30  due to an electrode material attached on shadow mask due to its repetitive use and deposited along as a particle during formation of the active layer  30 . In addition, uniformity of center and edge parts of a pattern may be reduced by a shadow effect according to use of the shadow mask, and thus performance of an electronic device may be deteriorated. 
     In some example embodiments, the active layer  30  and the opposed electrode  40  may be separately formed and thus prevent performance degradation of the active layer  30  and the electronic device according to use of the shadow mask and simultaneously, freely determined to have each size and area and thus effectively disposed in a limited space. In addition, the conductive layer  40 ′ for the opposed electrode may be formed to entirely cover upper and side surfaces of the active layer  30  and thus may prevent a direct exposure of the active layer  30  to heat, light, and/or a chemical liquid in a subsequent process. 
     Furthermore, the opposed electrode  40  and the lower encapsulation film  51  may be simultaneously or sequentially etched to form a satisfactory pattern without an additional process. 
     In addition, encapsulation performance may be further improved by forming the lower encapsulation film  51  and the intermediate encapsulation film  52 . 
     An image sensor is illustrated above as one example of the electronic device, but the electronic device is not limited thereto but may be for example any electronic device having a structure including an electrode, an active layer, and an encapsulation film. For example, the electronic device may be a photoelectric device, an organic light emitting diode, a solar cell, a photosensor, and the like, but is not limited thereto. 
     The electronic device may be various electronic apparatuses, for example a mobile phone, a digital camera, a solar cell, an organic light emitting diode (OLED) display, and the like, but is not limited thereto. 
     Hereinafter, the embodiments are illustrated in more detail with reference to examples. However, these embodiments are examples, and the present disclosure is not limited thereto. 
     Example 1 
     A 150 nm-thick pixel electrode is formed by sputtering ITO on a substrate. Subsequently, a 5 nm-thick charge auxiliary layer is formed by disposing a shadow mask on a pixel electrode and depositing a compound represented by Chemical Formula A, and a 130 nm-thick active layer is formed by codepositing a compound represented by Chemical Formula B as a p-type semiconductor and C60 as an n-type semiconductor in a volume ratio of 1:1. Then, a 7 nm-thick conductive layer for an opposed electrode is formed by removing the shadow mask and depositing ITO on the active layer and the substrate. On the conductive layer for an opposed electrode, a 30 nm-thick thin film for a lower encapsulation film is formed by atomic layer-depositing aluminum oxide. Subsequently, an opposed electrode and a lower encapsulation film having a common planar shape are formed by disposing an etching mask on the thin film for a lower encapsulation film and sequentially dry-etching the thin film for a lower encapsulation film and the conductive layer. The dry etching is performed under a condition such as power of 250 W, vacuum of 75 mtorr, used gas and its gas flow rate of BCl 3 :Cl 2 :Ar=65:25:15 sccm, and etching time of 850 seconds. Subsequently, a 145 nm-thick upper protective layer is formed by depositing silicon oxynitride (SiON) on the lower encapsulation film at 160° C. to manufacture an electronic device. 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Example 2 
     A 150 nm-thick pixel electrode is formed by sputtering ITO on a substrate. Subsequently, a 5 nm-thick charge auxiliary layer is formed by disposing a shadow mask on the pixel electrode and depositing a compound represented by Chemical Formula A, and a 130 nm-thick active layer is formed by codepositing a compound represented by Chemical Formula B as a p-type semiconductor and C60 as an n-type semiconductor in a volume ratio of 1:1. Then, a 7 nm-thick conductive layer for an opposed electrode is formed by removing shadow mask and the depositing ITO on the active layer and the substrate. On the conductive layer for an opposed electrode, a 30 nm-thick lower encapsulation film is formed by atomic layer-depositing aluminum oxide, and a 145 nm-thick thin film for an intermediate encapsulation film is formed by depositing silicon oxynitride (SiON) at 160° C. Subsequently, an opposed electrode, a lower encapsulation film, and an intermediate encapsulation film having a common planar shape are formed by disposing an etching mask on the thin film for an intermediate encapsulation film and sequentially dry-etching the thin film for an intermediate encapsulation film, the thin film for a lower encapsulation film, and the conductive layer for an opposed electrode. The dry etching of the thin film for an intermediate encapsulation film is performed under a condition such as power of 250 W, vacuum of 80 mtorr, used gas of CF4 and a gas flow rate of 80 sccm, and etching time of 220 seconds, and the dry etching of the thin film for a lower encapsulation film and the conductive layer for an opposed electrode is performed under a condition such as a power of 250 W, a vacuum of 75 mtorr, used gases and gas flow rates of BCl 3 :Cl 2 :Ar=65:25:15 sccm, and an etching time of 850 seconds. Subsequently, a 145 nm-thick upper protective layer is formed on the intermediate encapsulation film by depositing silicon oxynitride (SiON) at 160° C. in order to manufacture an electronic device. 
     Comparative Example 1 
     A 150 nm-thick pixel electrode is formed by sputtering ITO on a substrate. Subsequently, a charge auxiliary layer is formed by disposing a shadow mask on the pixel electrode and depositing a compound represented by Chemical Formula A, a 130 nm-thick active layer is formed by codepositing a compound represented by Chemical Formula B as a p-type semiconductor and C60 as an n-type semiconductor in a volume ratio of 1:1, and a 7 nm-thick opposed electrode is formed by depositing ITO. 
     Subsequently, A 30 nm-thick thin film for a lower encapsulation film is formed by atomic layer-depositing aluminum oxide on the opposed electrode, and a 145 nm-thick thin film for an intermediate encapsulation film is formed by depositing silicon oxynitride (SiON) at 160° C. Subsequently, a lower encapsulation film and an intermediate encapsulation film are formed by disposing an etching mask on the thin film for an intermediate encapsulation film and sequentially dry-etching the thin film for an intermediate encapsulation film and the thin film for a lower encapsulation film. The dry etching of the thin film for an intermediate encapsulation film is performed under a condition such as a power of 250 W, a vacuum of 80 mtorr, used gases of CF4 and gas flow rates of 80 sccm, and an etching time of 220 seconds, and the dry etching of the thin film for a lower encapsulation film is performed under a condition such as a powder of 250 W, a vacuum of 75 mtorr, used gases and gas flow rates of BCl 3 :Cl 2 :Ar=65:25:15 sccm, and an etching time of 850 seconds. Subsequently, a 145 nm-thick upper protective layer is formed on the intermediate encapsulation film by depositing silicon oxynitride (SiON) at 160° C. to manufacture an electronic device. 
     Evaluation 
     Evaluation 1 
     A contamination degree of each active layer in the electronic devices according to Example 1 and Comparative Example 1 is evaluated. 
     The contamination degree of the active layers is evaluated by using AIT UV™ (KLA-TENCOR Corporation) in a particle counter method. 
     The results are shown in  FIGS. 15 and 16 . 
       FIG. 15  is a photograph showing a particle distribution of the active layer of the electronic device of Example 1 and  FIG. 16  is a photograph showing a particle distribution of the active layer of the electronic device of Comparative Example 1. 
     Referring to  FIGS. 15 and 16 , the electronic device of Example 1 using no shadow mask during manufacture of an opposed electrode showed the remarkably reduced number of particles compared with the electronic device of Comparative Example 1 using a shadow mask during manufacture of an opposed electrode. Herein, since a particle having a relatively large size of greater than or equal to about 1 μm is examined, about 86 particles per unit area are found in the electronic device of Example 1, while about 1144 particles per unit area are found in the electronic device of Comparative Example 1. Accordingly, the electronic device using no shadow mask and instead includes an opposed electrode and a lower encapsulation film having a common planar shape according to Example 1 showed sharply decreased contamination degrees of an active layer, and thus improved performance of the electronic device of Example 1 and/or improved performance of an electronic apparatus including the electronic device of Example 1, compared with the electronic device using a shadow mask according to Comparative Example 1. 
     Evaluation 2 
     External quantum efficiency (EQE) and a leakage current of the electronic devices of Examples 1 and 2 and Comparative Example 1 are evaluated. 
     The external quantum efficiency (EQE) is evaluated at 3 V in a wavelength spectrum of light (λ max =550 nm) of 400 nm to 720 nm in an Incident Photon to Current Efficiency (IPCE) method. 
     The leakage current is evaluated from dark current density, and the dark current density may be measured from a current when a reverse bias of −3 V is applied. 
     The results are shown in Table 1. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 EQE 550 nm   
                 Dark current density 
               
               
                   
                 (%) 
                 (h/s/μm 2 ) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Example 1 
                 64.6 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 Example 2 
                 64.7 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                 Comparative Example 1 
                 64.1 
                 5 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Referring to Table 1, the electronic devices of Examples 1 and 2 show equivalent external quantum efficiency to the electronic device of Comparative Example 1 but a largely reduced leakage current of about ⅕ compared with the electronic device of Comparative Example 1. Accordingly, the electronic devices of Examples 1 and 2 are expected to show (“exhibit”) a much decreased leakage current due to much decreased contamination degree of an active layer. As a result, the electronic devices of Examples 1 and 2 are expected to show (“exhibit”) a much improved performance and thus functionality. 
       FIG. 17  is a diagram illustrating an electronic device  1700  according to some example embodiments. 
     Referring to  FIG. 17 , the electronic device  1700  includes a memory  1720 , a processor  1730 , a device  1740 , and a communication interface  1750 . The device  1740  may include any of the electronic devices illustrated and described herein. 
     The electronic device  1700  may be included in one or more various electronic devices, including, for example, a mobile phone, a digital camera, a sensor device, a biosensor device, and the like. In some example embodiments, the electronic device  1700  may include one or more of an image providing server, a mobile device, a computing device, an image outputting device, and an image capturing device. A mobile device may include a mobile phone, a smartphone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), some combination thereof, or the like. A computing device may include a personal computer (PC), a tablet computer, a laptop computer, a netbook, some combination thereof, or the like. An image outputting device may include a TV, a smart TV, some combination thereof, or the like. An image capturing device may include a camera, a camcorder, some combination thereof, or the like. 
     The memory  1720 , the processor  1730 , the device  1740 , and the communication interface  1750  may communicate with one another through a bus  1710 . 
     The communication interface  1750  may communicate data from an external device using various Internet protocols. The external device may include, for example, an image providing server, a display device, a mobile device such as, a mobile phone, a smartphone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a tablet computer, and a laptop computer, a computing device such as a personal computer (PC), a tablet PC, and a netbook, an image outputting device such as a TV and a smart TV, and an image capturing device such as a camera and a camcorder. 
     The processor  1730  may execute a program and control the electronic device  1700 . A program code to be executed by the processor  1730  may be stored in the memory  1720 . An electronic system may be connected to an external device through an input/output device (not shown) and exchange data with the external device. 
     The memory  1720  may store information. The memory  1720  may be a volatile or a nonvolatile memory. The memory  1720  may be a non-transitory computer readable storage medium. The memory may store computer-readable instructions that, when executed, cause the execution of one or more methods, functions, processes, etc. as described herein. In some example embodiments, the processor  1730  may execute one or more of the computer-readable instructions stored at the memory  1720 . 
     In some example embodiments, the communication interface  1750  may include a USB and/or HDMI interface. In some example embodiments, the communication interface  1750  may include a wireless communication interface. 
       FIG. 18  is a cross-sectional view showing a solar cell  1800  according to some example embodiments. Referring to  FIG. 18 , a solar cell  1800  includes a first electrode  1802  and a second electrode  1810 , and a photoactive layer  1806  positioned between the first electrode  1802  and the second electrode  1810 . 
     A substrate (not shown) may be positioned at the first electrode  1802  or the second electrode  1810 , and may include a light-transmitting material. The light-transmitting material may include, for example, an inorganic material (e.g., glass), or an organic material (e.g., polycarbonate, polymethylmethacrylate, polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene naphthalate, polyamide, polyethersulfone, or a combination thereof). 
     One of the first electrode  1802  and the second electrode  1810  is an anode and the other is a cathode. At least one of the first electrode  1802  and second electrode  1810  may be a light-transmitting electrode, and light may enter toward the light-transmitting electrode. The light-transmitting electrode may be made of, for example, a conductive oxide (e.g., indium tin oxide (ITO)), indium doped zinc oxide (IZO), tin oxide (SnO 2 ), aluminum-doped zinc oxide (AZO), and/or gallium-doped zinc oxide (GZO), or a transparent conductor of a conductive carbon composite (e.g., carbon nanotubes (CNT) or graphenes). At least one of the first electrode  1802  and the second electrode  1810  may be an opaque electrode, which may be made of an opaque conductor, for example, aluminum (Al), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and/or lithium (Li). 
     The photoactive layer  1806  may include an electronic device according to some example embodiments as described herein. 
     First and second auxiliary layers  1804  and  1808  may be positioned between the first electrode  1802  and the photoactive layer  1806  and between the second electrode  1810  and the photoactive layer  1806 , respectively. The first and second auxiliary layers  1804  and  1808  may increase charge mobility between the first electrode  1802  and the photoactive layer  1806  and between the second electrode  1810  and the photoactive layer  1806 . The first and second auxiliary layers  1804  and  1806  may be at least one selected from, for example, an electron injection layer (EIL), an electron transport layer, a hole injection layer (HIL), a hole transport layer, and a hole blocking layer, but are not limited thereto. One or both of the first and second auxiliary layers  1804  and  1808  may be omitted. 
     The photoactive layer  1806  may have a tandem structure where at least two thereof are stacked. 
       FIG. 19  is a sectional view of an organic light-emitting display apparatus  1900  according to some example embodiments. 
     Referring to  FIG. 19 , a first electrode  1903   a  and a second electrode  1903   b  are positioned on a substrate  1901 , a first emission layer  1905   a  is positioned on the first electrode  1903   a , and a second emission layer  1905   b  is positioned under the second electrode  1903   b.    
     The substrate  1901  may include a material selected from the group consisting of glass, quartz, silicon, a synthetic resin, a metal, and a combination thereof. The synthetic resin may include polyethylene naphthalate (PEN), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polycarbonate, polyvinyl alcohol, polyacrylate, polyimide, polynorbornene and/or polyethersulfone (PES), etc. The metal plate may include a stainless steel foil and/or an aluminum foil, etc. 
     The first electrode  1903   a  may include a material having a work function of about 4.3 eV to about 5.0 eV, about 4.3 eV to about 4.7 eV, or about 4.3 eV to about 4.5 eV. According to example embodiments, the material may include aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), magnesium (Mg), molybdenum (Mo) and/or an alloy thereof, etc. In addition, these metals may be laminated to provide a first electrode. The first electrode  1903   a  may have a thickness of about 190 to about 190 nm. 
     The second electrode  1903   b  may include a material having a work function of about 19.3 eV to about 19.7 eV or about 19.5 eV to about 19.7 eV. According to some example embodiments, the second electrode  1903   b  may include Ba:Al. The second electrode  1903   b  may have a thickness of about 190 to about 190 nm. 
     The first emission layer  1905   a  and the second emission layer  1905   b  may include an electronic device according to some example embodiments as described herein. 
     A middle electrode  1904  is positioned between the first emission layer  1905   a  and the second emission layer  1905   b . The middle electrode  1904  may include a material having a work function of about 5.0 eV to about 5.2 eV. According to some example embodiments, the material may include a conductive polymer. The conductive polymer may include polythiophene, polyaniline, polypyrrole, polyacene, polyphenylene, polyphenylenevinylene, a derivative thereof, a copolymer thereof, or a mixture thereof. 
     A buffer layer  1907  may be positioned between the first emission layer  1905   a  and the middle electrode  1904 , and may include a material selected from the group consisting of a metal oxide, a polyelectrolyte, and combinations thereof. The combination thereof refers to the metal oxide and polyelectrolyte being mixed or laminated to provide a multi-layer. In addition, the different kinds of metal oxide or polyelectrolyte may be laminated. 
       FIG. 20  is a view showing a sensor  2000  according to some example embodiments. 
     Referring to  FIG. 20 , a sensor  2000  (for example a gas sensor, light sensor, energy sensor, but example embodiments are not limited thereto) includes at least one electrode  2020  configured to output a signal to a processor  2030 . The processor  2030  may include a microprocessor, but example embodiments are not limited thereto. The electrode  2020  may include an electronic device according to some example embodiments as described herein. 
       FIG. 21  is a schematic cross-sectional view of the electronic device of  FIG. 1  taken along a cross-sectional view line II-II′ according to some example embodiments. 
       FIG. 21  includes elements having common reference labels as elements shown in  FIG. 2 ; to the extent that these elements in  FIG. 21  are the same as elements shown in  FIG. 2 , the elements are not further described in detail and the description of the elements as shown in  FIG. 2  is incorporated into the description of the elements in  FIG. 21 . 
     In some example embodiments, an electronic device  2100  includes the substrate  110  in which the photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , a transmission transistor (not shown) and charge storages  55  are integrated, at least one of a lower insulation layer  62  and an upper insulation layer  64 , a photoelectric device  10 , an encapsulation film  50 , and a lens  90 . As shown, color filter layer  70  is omitted. 
     In some example embodiments, as shown in  FIG. 21 , each pixel P 1  to PN includes both the photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , where the photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b  are stacked in a vertical direction, but the color filter layer  70  is omitted. The photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b  may be electrically connected to charge storage  55  and may be transferred by the transmission transistor. The photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b  may selectively absorb light in separate, respective wavelength spectra of light depending on a stacking depth in the substrate  110 . 
     As described above, the substrate  110  and the photoelectric device  10  have a stack structure and the photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b  have a stack structure and thereby the size of an electronic device may be reduced to realize a down-sized electronic device  2100 . In  FIG. 21 , the photoelectric device  10  of  FIG. 2  is for example included, but it is not limited thereto. 
     While both the lower insulation layer  62  and the upper insulation layer  64  are shown in  FIG. 21 , it will be understood that, in some example embodiments of the electronic device  2100 , one of the lower insulation layer  62  and the upper insulation layer  64  is omitted, such that the electronic device  2100  includes an individual insulation layer between the photoelectric device  10  and the substrate  110 , the individual insulation layer being one of the lower insulation layer  62  and the upper insulation layer  64 . 
       FIG. 22  is a schematic cross-sectional view of the electronic device of  FIG. 1  taken along a cross-sectional view line II-II′ according to some example embodiments. 
       FIG. 22  includes elements having common reference labels as elements shown in  FIG. 2 ; to the extent that these elements in  FIG. 22  are the same as elements shown in  FIG. 2 , the elements are not further described in detail and the description of the elements as shown in  FIG. 2  is incorporated into the description of the elements in  FIG. 22 . 
     In some example embodiments, an electronic device  2200  includes the substrate  110  in which the photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , a transmission transistor (not shown) and charge storages  55  are integrated, at least one of a lower insulation layer  62  and an upper insulation layer  64 , a photoelectric device  10 , an encapsulation film  50 , a color filter layer  70 , and a lens  90 . 
     In some example embodiments, as shown in  FIG. 22 , the color filter layer  70  may be on the photoelectric device  10  and distal from the photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b , such that the photoelectric device  10  is between the color filter layer  70  and the photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b . As shown in  FIG. 22 , the color filters  70   a  and  70   b  of the color filter layer  70  may be formed on an upper surface of the lower encapsulation film  51  and the upper encapsulation film  52  may be formed on the lower encapsulation film  51  and color filter layer  70 , such that the upper encapsulation film  52  covers upper and side surfaces of the color filters  71  and  70   b , in addition to covering upper and side surfaces of the lower encapsulation film  51  that are exposed by the color filter layer  70 , and the upper encapsulation film  52  may further present a smooth upper surface over the color filter layer  70 . In some example embodiments, the color filter layer  70  may be integrated with the upper encapsulation film  52  such that upper surfaces of the color filters  70   a  and  70   b  are co-planar or substantially co-planar with an upper surface (“top surface”) of the upper encapsulation film  52 . 
     In some example embodiments, one or more of the first color filter  70   a  and the second color filter  70   b  may be configured to selectively transmit a wavelength spectrum of mixed light of at least two colors out of three primary colors (e.g., red light, blue light, and/or green light). The mixed wavelength spectra of light selectively transmitted by each of the color filters  70   a  and  70   b  may include a wavelength spectrum of light that the photoelectric device  10  is configured to selectively absorb (“sense”). 
     For example, in the example embodiments shown in  FIG. 22 , the active layer  30  may be configured to selectively absorb a first wavelength spectrum of visible light, and the color filter  70   a  may be configured to selectively pass light in a first mixed wavelength spectrum (hereinafter, referred to “first mixed light”) that is different from the first visible light but includes the first wavelength spectrum of visible light, and the color filter  70   b  may be configured to selectively pass light in a second mixed wavelength spectrum (hereinafter, referred to “second mixed light”) that is different from the first visible light and the first mixed light but includes the first wavelength spectrum of visible light. 
     The first mixed light and the second mixed light may each be a different mixed light of at least two selected from blue light, green light, and red light. For example, mixed light of blue light and green light may be cyan light, mixed light of red light and green light may be yellow light, and mixed light of red light and blue light may be magenta light, and mixed light of red light, blue light, and green light may be white light. A color filter configured to selectively transmit mixed light may thus be configured to selectively transmit one light (wavelength spectrum of light) of cyan light, yellow light, magenta light, or white light. 
     For example, in the example embodiments shown in  FIG. 22 , if and/or when the active layer  30  is configured to selectively absorb (“sense”) green light, the color filter  70   a  may be a cyan filter that is configured to selectively transmit cyan light (a first mixed light of blue light and green light) and the color filter  70   b  may be a yellow filter that is configured to selectively transmit yellow light (a second, different mixed light of red light and green light). Photo-sensing device  58   a  may sense the blue light that passes from color filter  70   a  and through the photoelectric device  10  while the green light passing from the color filter  70   a  is absorbed by the active layer  30  of the photoelectric device  10 . Photo-sensing device  58   b  may sense the red light that passes from color filter  70   b  and through the photoelectric device  10  while the green light passing from the color filter  70   b  is absorbed by the active layer  30  of the photoelectric device  10 . 
     In some example embodiments, including the example embodiments shown in  FIG. 22 , adjacent color filters  70   a  and  70   b  in adjacent pixels may be configured to selectively transmit different wavelength spectra of mixed light. In some example embodiments, including the example embodiments shown in  FIG. 22 , adjacent photo-sensing devices  58   a  and  58   b  in adjacent pixels may be configured to sense different wavelength spectra of light. For example, color filter  70   a  may be a cyan filter (i.e., configured to selectively transmit cyan light) and color filter  70   b  may be a yellow filter (i.e., configured to selectively transmit yellow light), while photo-sensing device  58   a  may be a blue photo-sensing device (i.e., configured to sense blue light) and photo-sensing device  58   b  may be a red photo-sensing device (i.e., configured to sense red light). Thus, if and/or when the active layer  30  is configured to selectively absorb light in one wavelength spectrum of light (e.g., green light), adjacent color filters  70   a  and  70   b  of the color filter layer  70  may be configured to selectively transmit different wavelength spectra of mixed light of a plurality of wavelength spectra of mixed light, the different wavelength spectra of mixed light including both the one wavelength spectrum of light (e.g., green light) and different additional wavelength spectra of light, respectively (e.g., blue or red light). 
     While both the lower insulation layer  62  and the upper insulation layer  64  are shown in  FIG. 22 , it will be understood that, in some example embodiments of the electronic device  2200 , one of the lower insulation layer  62  and the upper insulation layer  64  is omitted, such that the electronic device  2200  includes an individual insulation layer between the photoelectric device  10  and the substrate  110 , the individual insulation layer being one of the lower insulation layer  62  and the upper insulation layer  64 . 
     It should be understood that example embodiments described herein should be considered in a descriptive sense only and not for purposes of limitation. Descriptions of features or aspects within each device or method according to example embodiments should typically be considered as available for other similar features or aspects in other devices or methods according to example embodiments. While some example embodiments have been particularly shown and described, it will be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that variations in form and detail may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the claims.