Patent Publication Number: US-9423301-B2

Title: Method for making wavelength-selective, integrated resonance detector for electromagnetic radiation

Description:
This is a continuation application and claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 13/329,503 filed on Dec. 19, 2011. 
    
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH 
     The invention was supported, in whole or in part, by contracts W31P4Q-09-C-0512 “Nonlinear Plasmonic Devices” from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and FA9550-10-C-0003 “Ponderomotive Field Effect Transistor” from the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, and N00014-09-M-0292 “Electromagnetic Metamaterial Films” from the Office of Naval Research (ONR). The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to the field of wavelength-selective detectors and arrays. More specifically, the invention relates to methods for making and using devices with subwavelength structures having wavelength-selective properties that are integrated with a detector for electromagnetic radiation detection, and the ability to make such devices into a flexible format. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Over the past fifty years, technological advancements in microelectronics and microelectro-optics have proceeded at a rapid pace. As a result of this success, today&#39;s microfabricated devices and sensors are inexpensive, can be produced in large volumes, and can be fabricated with billions of sub-100 nm logic elements as small area microchips. One strong candidate for continued miniaturization is the integration of optical detectors with electronics for both logic processing and electromagnetic radiation detection (Kobrinsky, M., “On-chip optical interconnects”  Intel Technology,  2004. 8, p. 129 and Ozbay, E., “Plasmonics: Merging photonics and electronics at nanoscale dimensions”  Science,  2006, 311, p. 189). Optical signals offer an almost unlimited bandwidth and low loss, and therefore, it is highly desirable to couple optics and electronics at the wafer or device level to develop novel architectures. Pat. App. WO 2011/050272 A3 discloses nanoantenna arrays comprising plasmonic nanostructures or non-plasmonic nanostructures. 
     The inventors have realized a need for a detector that is integrated with a wavelength-selective element that can detect numerous narrow spectral regions over a broad region of the electromagnetic spectrum from ultraviolet to long wave infrared. Such a device can eliminate the existing requirement for multiple detectors and bulky wavelength-selective detection systems, which are expensive, large, and require high power levels to operate. A detector that provides this capability is not known in the art. 
     An array of integrated wavelength-selective detector devices, each having a sub-wavelength structure specific to a particular narrow band of wavelengths, can provide a means to detect a broad range of wavelengths for purposes of multi-spectral imaging. Such a method can provide a means to transduce multi-spectral responses from the ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and microwave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum using a single detector array structure. A method to control the feature dimensions of the sub-wavelength structure can provide a means to readily tune the device structure to interact with a wide range of specific wavelengths. Furthermore, methods for making the integrated wavelength-selective detector into large area detector arrays that are not subject to limitations imposed by single crystal substrates (i.e., inherently flexible or conformable substrates that can lead to curved detector geometries) can be advantageous. Such a device can benefit from the large bandwidth of signals that could be delivered directly from a fiber optic, or from broad wavelength-band (spectral) imagery, e.g., imaging applications such as hyperspectral imaging. Furthermore, large area detectors, with some level of conformability or flexibility, can open new applications in imaging such as device integration into textiles and other fabric material for covert surveillance. Monolithic detectors for broadband electromagnetic radiation detection can simplify and reduce the size, weight and power requirements for multiple mechanical systems required to achieve multi- and hyperspectral imaging today. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The inventors have developed a method for fabricating arrays of detectors with integrated wavelength-selective components. Embodiments of the invention provide a means for the assembly of a broad range of tunable detector structures precisely defined to resonantly couple with specific wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. Each unique detector structure is electrically addressable such that resonantly-coupled electromagnetic radiation is transduced into a quantifiable electric current proportional to the incident power density in that specific spectral region. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The following drawings form part of the present specification and are included to further demonstrate certain aspects of the present invention. The invention may be better understood by reference to one or more of these drawings in combination with the detailed description of specific embodiments presented herein. 
         FIG. 1  is a flow chart diagram depicting the method for making an integrated resonance detector. 
         FIG. 2  shows a cross section view of an integrated resonance detector with current measurement across the structure. 
         FIGS. 3A, 3B, 3C, 3D and 3E  are schematic representations of an array of integrated resonance detectors. 
         FIG. 4  is a cross section diagram of an array of integrated resonance detectors responding to different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. 
         FIG. 5  is a schematic representation of the embodiment comprising a bilayer active layer. 
         FIG. 6  is a schematic representation of the embodiment comprising a composite active layer with two materials. 
         FIG. 7  is a diagram of an array of integrated resonance detectors depicting a thin layer that forms an array of patterned conductor features that are electrically contiguous, but does not interfere with resonance absorption. 
         FIG. 8  is a schematic diagram illustrating an array of integrated resonance detectors in which an integrated resonance detector is interdispersed within the photosensitive elements of a CMOS image sensor bearing a color filter array. 
         FIG. 9  is a photograph illustrating a wafer device structure with details of an integrated resonance detector. 
         FIG. 10  is a plot illustrating the change in peak resonance absorption based on the feature dimensions of the patterned conductor layer of the integrated resonance detector. 
         FIG. 11  is a photograph illustrating fabrication of an array of integrated resonance detectors onto a flexible Kapton® substrate. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     Embodiments of the invention are directed to ultraviolet, visible, and infrared photodetector arrays and methods for fabricating and using integrated resonance detectors, and arrays made thereof, for wide-angle, multi- and hyperspectral imaging. In certain aspects, devices and methods of the invention are useful for spectroscopic detection of electromagnetic radiation in the ultraviolet, visible, near infrared (NIR), short-wave infrared (SWIR), mid-wave infrared (MWIR), and long-wave, or far infrared (LWIR), or millimeter-wave, or microwave or combinations of these. Integrated resonance detector arrays of the invention enable narrow wavelength selection and the generation of electric current that does not depend on the absorptivity of a specific wavelength region by the detector material. Structural features of detectors of the invention can be lithographically patterned such that a resonance condition with sufficient field enhancement in the active layer produces measurable changes in electric current when illuminated with electromagnetic radiation that is in resonance with the structure. 
     Referring to  FIG. 1 , the method for fabricating an integrated resonance detector is illustrated. In this example, a substrate is supplied in step  101 . The substrate may be a semiconductor wafer a ceramic plate or alternatively, the substrate may be a glass or another “transparent” plate that is non-interacting with the full range of spectral bandpass of the integrated resonance detector. The substrate need not be a rigid material such as a wafer or plate; rather, it may be a flexible material, such as a metal foil with a mirror finish, a polymer or other amorphous sheet with a metal mirror layer deposited on the surface using techniques known in the art, such as evaporation, vapor deposition, plasma deposition, vacuum deposition, sputter deposition or electroless deposition. A number of possible flexible substrates are known in the art that could be used to fabricate the integrated resonance detector including metal, ceramic, plastic or biomaterials. 
     In some embodiments, the substrate may consist of a single photodetector, a linear photodetector, or a photodetector array such as a commercial image sensor or focal plane array. Portions of the photodetector array may be modified to accommodate additional detector elements fabricated by methods of the invention. The substrate may also be a portion of a wafer containing pre-fabricated electronic circuits that may or may not be associated with integrated resonance detectors. 
     The area of the conducting mirror layer generally defines the area for an integrated resonance detector. For arrays of integrated resonance detectors, the conducting mirror layer for each integrated resonance detector may be non-contiguous with neighboring integrated resonance detectors in the array. Arrays of electrically isolated conducting mirror layer that form isolated electrodes can be connected to individually addressable electronic circuits that may be present in the substrate. 
     Numerous methods are known in the art for depositing the active layer (step  102 ) comprising dielectric, semi-insulating, or semiconductor materials in the structure, including vacuum deposition and spin-on, or casting methods. In one embodiment, the active layer comprises a single composition such as doped-Si, or environmentally-stable semiconductors e.g. metal oxides such as ZnO, In 2 O 3  or SnO 2 . In other embodiments, the active layer includes a bilayer, or multilayer structure which may include insulating barrier layers such as SiO 2  which can reduce dark current by acting as a tunnel barrier. In other embodiments, the active layer may be a composite mixture of materials that can affect the nonlinearity of the electric-field-induced current, for example, semiconducting nanoparticles mixed with a bulk insulating material that leads to variable range hopping current. 
     Following deposition of the active layer in step  102 , a conducting layer is deposited and patterned with the desired feature dimensions for absorption of a specific wavelength range, in step  103 . Typical dimensions of features of the patterned conducting layer corresponding to absorption in the short wave infrared band are on the order of hundreds of nanometer linewidths with tens to a few hundreds of nanometer gaps. The composition, lateral dimensions, and thickness of the patterned conductor layer together with the active layer thickness define the “resonance structure” that determines the resonance wavelength. The degree of wavelength specificity, or Q factor, is defined by controlling the materials, their dimensions, and the sharpness of the features. The patterned conductor layer is connected to a common electrode and the conducting mirror layer is connected to a separate electrode, in step  104 . A bias voltage applied between the conducting mirror layer and the patterned conductor layer provides an electric field in the active layer, which in some cases causes a “dark current” in the absence of radiation that illuminates the detector. In certain embodiments, this current is low, or effectively zero. When resonance absorption conditions are met by incident external electromagnetic radiation, field enhancement in the active layer causes additional charge carriers to form and flow between the patterned conducting layer and the conducting mirror layer. The salient feature of the active layer is that it has nonlinearity in its current vs. voltage characteristic at the applied bias voltage. The purpose of the applied bias voltage is to maximize the amount of this nonlinearity. The active layer nonlinearity causes an asymmetry in the electromagnetic-wave-induced current oscillations in the active layer, which is subsequently measurable as a change in the time-integrated current. The nonlinearity in the current vs. voltage characteristic of the active layer rectifies the current induced by the incident electromagnetic radiation. The change in rectified current from “dark” to “illuminated” conditions provides a quantifiable indication of the irradiance of the selectively absorbed radiation. 
     In embodiments of the invention, the resonance structure is specifically designed to select a spectral band of electromagnetic radiation. The spectral band is not limited to any particular region of the electromagnetic spectrum, provided that suitable feature dimensions of the resonance structure are fabricated using high-definition patterning such as nanoimprint lithography (i.e., the smallest feature requirement being in the 10s of nanometers for ultraviolet absorption and the largest being in the millimeter range for microwave radiation). Likewise, the device response is not dependent on the absorptivity or band structure of a specific substrate material, rather, the incident radiation is transduced into an electric current in the active layer. Resonance structures that include two or more feature dimensions may be used to absorb multiple wavelengths. Amorphous materials that are deposited by evaporation, chemical vapor deposition, sputter-deposited, plasma-deposited, or spun-on are preferred for flexible substrates for integrated resonance detectors. The ability to fabricate integrated resonance detectors with high sensitivity and tunable wavelength selectivity on a flexible substrate is one of the unique features of the invention and is not known in the art. 
       FIG. 2  illustrates a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of an integrated resonance detector  220 . Substrate  201  is first supplied. Substrate  201  may be either rigid (e.g., a plate or wafer), or flexible (e.g., a metal foil, or metallized film) and may comprise a number of singular materials such as plastic, ceramic, metal, glass, or semiconductor or a composite mixture of any two or more components. Depending on the substrate material, transparency to a particular spectral range may be enabled such that illumination of the detectors can be made either from the top of the structures, or through substrate  201 . In the case of a transparent substrate  201 , it may be advantageous to fabricate the individual layers of the integrated resonance detector in reverse order. Conducting mirror layer  202  is deposited on substrate  201  and active layer  203  is deposited onto conducting mirror layer  202 . Conducting mirror layer  202  may be contiguous, or alternately, may be macroscopically patterned to electrically isolate regions of the device for the purposes of making each detector independently addressable in an array. Conducting mirror layer  202  may comprise any reflective conducting material including, but not limited to, noble metals or refractory metals. Active layer  203  may comprise numerous compositions, for example amorphous semiconductors, homogeneous mixtures of different compounds, alloys, inhomogeneous mixtures of nanomaterials, porous films, allotropic mixtures, or bilayer or multilayer stacks. Bilayer or multilayer stacks may include rectifying junctions such as diodes. The selection of the composition and thickness of the active layer is based on maximizing the nonlinearity in the current vs. voltage characteristic through the thickness of the active layer. Patterned conductor layer  204  is then deposited and patterned atop active layer  203 . Patterned conductor layer  204  is generally metallic; however, the composition need only meet the requirements of resonance coupling and electrical conductivity to support a desired response to incident radiation. Subsequently, patterned conductor layer  204  is processed to form patterned features  205 . Fabrication of patterned conductor layer  204  can be carried out using lithographic techniques, which may include nanoimprint lithography to achieve features small enough to support resonance coupling in the ultraviolet through SWIR regions. 
     In the diagram of  FIG. 2 , individual patterned features  205 , in patterned conductor layer  204 , are illustrated with a specific feature width  206  and pattern pitch  207 . In certain embodiments, individual patterned features  205  are created by etching the full thickness  208  of patterned conductor layer  204  leaving a periodic series of electrically unconnected (isolated) patterned features  205 . However, the etched thickness of patterned features  205  need not extend the full thickness  208  of patterned conductor layer  204 , such as in the case when it is desirable to have a residual conducting plane for purposes of electrically connecting an array of features  205  (illustrated further in  FIG. 7 ). In the case where the patterned features  205  are an array of lines, electrical continuity between all patterned features  205  in patterned conductor layer  204  can be provided with a bridging strip of conducting material  209 . Bridging strip  209  may be part of the pattern, as depicted here, or may occur in a post-processing step. Placement of bridging strip  209  at one edge of patterned features  205  provides a means for all of the patterned features  205  of patterned conductor layer  204  to be electrically connected, but not interfere with the resonance coupling of electromagnetic radiation. A wide variety of techniques for depositing, patterning, etching, forming, and creating specific structures of integrated resonance detector  220  are known in the art. Operation of the novel integrated resonance detectors described here is not sensitive to the techniques used for fabrication, as long as the material characteristics and dimensions of the layers comprising the device are achieved and maintained across the lateral extent of the device. 
     The electrical conductivity of conducting mirror layer  202 , the thickness of active layer  203 , the thickness of patterned conductor layer  204 , and the dimensions of the patterned features  205  of patterned conductor layer  204  are designed to selectively interact with, or absorb specific wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation  210 . Together, these layers and their specific dimensions form the resonance structure  219 . Upon absorption of radiation  210 , resonance-induced field enhancement, represented by electric field lines  211 , occurs between patterned conductor layer  204  and conducting mirror layer  202 . Nonlinearity in the active layer  203  and the electric field enhancement  211  causes a net electric current  212  to flow to current measurement device  218 , which is part of an electronic circuit connected to the resonance structure. In some cases an external voltage bias from an electromotive source  213  in the electronic circuit is applied across patterned conductor layer  204  and conducting mirror layer  202  to maximize the nonlinear characteristics of the active layer  203 . Net current  212  is the result of the nonlinear rectification of the alternating electric field of electromagnetic radiation  210  during resonance coupling, and is the difference between the collective forward currents  214  and reverse currents  215 , integrated over the lateral dimensions of the device. The electric current  212  is coupled to the external electric circuit from conducting mirror layer  202  through electrode terminus  216  on one side and through electrode terminus  217  on the other side which terminates at bridging strip  209 . Bridging strip  209  is common to all the patterned features  205  of patterned conductor layer  204  making the whole layer a contiguous conductor. The magnitude of electric current  212  is measured using external current measuring device  218 . The magnitude of electric current  212  for a given exposure interval can be used to determine the incident irradiance of electromagnetic radiation  210  incident on the detector surface, which could be a transistor amplifier such as a focal plane array, image sensor, bolometer or other electronics, such as that pertaining to, for example, photodetector arrays. Wavelength-selective, integrated detector structures provide a means for direct optical detection, across a wide spectral region, in a large area, flexible device format. Such a format would enable a detector that could accommodate parabolic geometries similar to the human eye. 
     In embodiments of the invention, efficient detection of wavelength-selective components of broadband electromagnetic radiation  210  is realized by the direct detection of resonantly absorbed radiation. This is superior to methods that employ external wavelength filtering elements. Conversely, nanoimprint lithography of integrated resonance detectors  220  enables the fabrication of a conducting mirror layer  202 , active layer  203 , and patterned conductor layer  204  to simultaneously serve as both the resonance coupler and transducer, thereby removing the requirement for a separate absorbing, or filtering layer. 
     In embodiments of the invention, the maximum detector current is obtained when incident electromagnetic radiation  210  is in resonance with the peak of the absorption curve for an integrated resonance detector  220  and therefore generates the largest field enhancement in active layer  203 . Electromagnetic radiation  210  that is not in resonance with the structure does not result in electric field enhancement, and only the background current is measured. The background current is established for each integrated resonance detector  220  and is very small in most structure embodiments, such that the largest differential response is obtained during on-resonance illumination for a given integrated resonance detector  220 . The electric field strength in active layer  203  is thus proportional to the incident field and also to the degree to which resonance occurs in the structure, the resonant bandwidth determined by the sharpness or Q-factor of the structure. The Q-factor is dependent, in turn, upon feature dimensions  205 , the spatial variation of the dimensions, and the fabrication details of the device. 
     The specific resonance wavelength(s) for a given integrated resonance detector  220  depends on the size of the features  206  (i.e., 10 nm to 1 μm) in patterned conductor layer  204 , the spacing of the features  207  (30 nm to 20 μm), the gap between features (10 nm to 20 μm), the thickness  208  of the features in patterned conductor layer  204  (1 nm to 1 μm), the buried conducting mirror reflectance, the active layer thickness (0.3 nm to 500 nm), and the properties of any other material that might be present in regions between features, and on the surface roughness of patterned conductor layer  204 . 
       FIGS. 3A, 3B, 3C, 3D and 3E  are schematic representations of an array of integrated resonance detectors.  FIG. 3A  shows substrate  201 , upon which a 2×2 array of integrated resonance detectors  220 A-D are to be fabricated represented by segmented regions  301 A-D. Substrate  201  may comprise a conventional photodiode detector array that the integrated resonance detectors  220 A-D may be fabricated upon. Substrate  201  may be designed such that all of the photosensitive elements thereon are integrated resonance detectors  220 , or some fraction of the detectors are integrated resonance detectors  220  with the rest composed of photodiode detectors such as silicon photodiodes. For example, a silicon CMOS image sensor may be provided as substrate  201  with its associated read out electronics for each photodiode. A subset of the read out electronics may be directed to connect with integrated resonance detectors  220  that may be patterned and assembled in the method illustrated in  FIG. 3 . Integrated resonance detectors  220  incorporated into existing CMOS photodetector arrays may add functionality such as infrared detection to an existing CMOS device. 
     In another embodiment, substrate  201  may wholly comprise a material with special optical, mechanical, or electrical characteristics such as a glass slide for optical transparency. In still another embodiment, substrate  201  may comprise a large area polymer film. The polymer film may provide a means for making large area sheets of integrated resonance detector arrays using low cost roll-to-roll manufacturing methods. In the embodiment where integrated resonance detectors  220  are deposited directly on a polymer film, patterned electrodes, may be present on the entire array surface or on selected regions of the surface of substrate  201  where the integrated resonance detector  220  array is formed. 
     The two electrode terminals,  216  for conducting mirror layer  202  and  217  for patterned conductor layer  204 , respectively, for each of the four (2×2) segmented regions  301 A-D that will be used to fabricate four integrated resonance detectors  220 A-D are also depicted in  FIG. 3A . The contacts are depicted as buried leads interfacing to some circuitry not visible in the figure. In practice, numerous methods exist in the art for fabricating electrical interconnects and electrode contacts or terminals that provide connectivity to the read out electronics for individual elements in the array. 
       FIG. 3B  shows distinct, arrayed conducting mirror layer segments  202 A-D deposited onto the four segmented regions  301 A-D of substrate  201 . Deposition is carried out such that each conducting mirror layer  202 A-D makes electrical contact with its respective electrode terminal  216 A-D. The electrical connection occurs beneath conducting mirror layer  202 A-D and is not visible in the figure. In this embodiment, the remaining patterned conductor layer terminals  217 A-D are left exposed, or are etched back to form a via, or throughhole, using lithographic processes. Deposition of conducting mirror layers  202 A-D is followed by deposition of active layers  203 A-D,  FIG. 3C . Active layer  203  may consist of a number of materials with electrical properties ranging from insulating, semi-insulating, and semi-conducting and may include bilayer, trilayer, or multilayer structures in order to derive the properties necessary for field enhancement-induced current generation. Depending on the composition of active layer  203 , numerous methods for deposition may be employed. Like deposition of conducting mirror layer  202 , active layer  203  is generally not deposited over electrode terminals  217 A-D.  FIG. 3D  illustrates the deposition and lithographic processing of patterned conductor layer  204 A-D over active layer  203 A-D. Generally, this layer completes the resonance structures  219  that results in the formation of integrated resonance detectors  220 A-D. Patterned conductor layer  204  can be deposited using various deposition techniques described previously for conducting mirror layer  202 . In some embodiments, patterned conductor layer  204  is the same composition as conducting mirror layer  202 , but this is not a requirement. Numerous metal options are useful including high temperature metals and refractory metals such as tungsten and molybdenum for applications such as thermophotovoltaic devices. 
     Lithographic processing of patterned conductor layer  204 A-D is carried out using methods that can achieve the necessary feature dimensions. Long wave infrared devices will have large feature dimensions that are readily attainable with standard lithography methods well known in the art. If feature dimensions commensurate with short wave infrared radiation, near-IR, or visible are desired, then lithographic techniques that can create nanoscale features are necessary. The figure illustrates different sizes and pitches for each segmented region  301 A-D that are formed in patterned conductor layer  204 A-D. In some embodiments, nanoimprint lithography (NIL) is a useful method for creating nanoscale features. NIL provides a means for making integrated resonance detectors that are useful for detecting radiation having short wavelengths. Similarly, methods of roll-to-roll nanoimprint lithography, such as by way of example only, those described by Guo, L. et al., U.S. Patent Appn. No. 2009/0046362, which is hereby incorporated by reference, may be used to manufacture arrays of integrated resonance detectors  220 . 
     In  FIG. 3D , the set of four (2×2) integrated resonance detectors  220 A-D are illustrated. A final connection between patterned conductor layer  204 A-D and patterned conductor electrode terminals  217 A-D is made. This can be performed by a number of different methods well known in the art, including the use of bridging strip  209  depicted previously in  FIG. 2 . This step is not illustrated in  FIG. 3D  for clarity. Electrical connection of integrated resonance detectors  220 A-D to the underlying electrical circuit below segmented regions  301 A-D results in the formation of a 2×2 array of integrated resonance detectors  220 A-D which in this figure represent a “unit cell”  302  of a larger integrated resonance detector array depicted in  FIG. 3E . 
     In some applications, as illustrated in  FIG. 3E , numerous unit cells  302 A-N can be repeated across substrate  201  to form a large array  303  of integrated resonance detectors. An embodiment of large array  303  would consist of a multiple unit cells  302  fabricated on a plate or flexible roll substrate  201 , and need not include regular spacings of integrated resonance detectors  220 . In another embodiment, large array  303  may comprise an entire array of unique integrated resonance detectors  220  in any number of positional assemblies. Using lithographic processes such as NIL, the patterning of the patterned conductor layer  204  for all elements of the entire large array  303  of integrated resonance detectors can be fabricated during a single imprint transfer process. 
     The substrate  201  for an array of integrated resonance detectors  220  may be an array of electric circuits of an image sensor or focal plane array in which integrated resonance detectors  220  are registered to specific areas in the substrate, overall forming a photodetector. In some instances, the photodetector may be a hybrid that includes traditional silicon photodetectors mixed with integrated resonance detectors  220  of the present invention. In other aspects of the invention, the detector may be a silicon, InGaAs, InSb, or HgCdTe focal plane array or image sensor that includes spectral filter mosaic layer elements replaced with integrated resonance detectors  220  in such a fashion that electrical addressability is maintained with the underlying photodetector circuit elements. 
     A large array  303  of integrated resonance detectors  220  that has been designed with different sets of feature dimensions so as to interact with a selected range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation is illustrated in the cross-sectional diagram in  FIG. 4 . Broadband electromagnetic radiation  401  is incident on large array  303 . In  FIG. 4 , three different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation represented by  210 A-C are shown at the bottom of broadband electromagnetic radiation  401  and are meant to illustrate that specific wavelengths are absorbed only by the respective integrated resonance detector  220  with the correct feature dimensions for resonance with that wavelength (A specific example is illustrated later in  FIG. 9 ). In practice, broadband electromagnetic radiation  401  impinges on all of the integrated resonance detectors  220  in the array, but only radiation  210  matching the conditions for resonance, in any given detector  220 , is absorbed. Unabsorbed radiation is either reflected by conducting mirror layer  202  or passes through integrated resonance detector  220 . 
     The cross-sectional diagram of  FIG. 4  illustrates three unique integrated resonance detectors  220 A-C. The feature dimensions  205 A-C of patterned conductor layer  204 A-C and their thicknesses  208 A-C and the thicknesses of the active layers  203 A-C serve to spectroscopically “filter” or “absorb” electromagnetic radiation by virtue of “resonance” with a specific narrow set of wavelengths  210 A-C, respectively, from broad spectrum radiation  401 . The feature width  206 A and feature pitch  207 A of patterned conductor layer  204 A are larger than the corresponding feature width  206 B and feature pitch  207 B which are, in turn, larger than the feature width  206 C and pitch  207 C in this illustration. This progression of feature dimensions  205 A-C is represented in  FIG. 4 . As an example,  FIG. 4  indicates an embodiment where feature dimensions  205 A may be sized to interact with short wave infrared radiation (SWIR)  210 A, the feature dimensions  205 B are sized to interact with near infrared radiation (NIR)  210 B, and the feature dimensions  205 C are sized to interact with visible radiation (VIS)  210 C regions of electromagnetic radiation. Similarly, all three feature dimensions  205 A-C may be sized to resonate with narrow but distinct spectral regions in any given spectral band. In embodiments of the invention, the degree of interaction is defined by the feature dimensions  205  and material composition which are selected for the desired application. In aspects of the invention, detectors and methods for detecting can be broadly applied to any portion of the electromagnetic spectrum provided that patterned conductor layer  204  is patterned with feature dimensions  205  that are selected for interaction with the desired radiation range. 
       FIG. 5  shows an embodiment of integrated resonance detector  220  where active layer  203  is composed of a bilayer structure. In the example, the majority composition  501  of active layer  203  may be a semiconductor or a material with relatively high electrical conductivity that supplies a large number of charge carriers. A secondary layer  502  such as a thin semi-insulating or insulating barrier layer may be provided that serves as a potential barrier or tunnel junction. Barrier layer  502  may provide an initial barrier to electric current flow, but may begin conduction under sufficient electric field achieved via electric field enhancement  211 , thereby enabling the flow of net electric current  212 . In this illustration, only a select few electric field lines  211  are presented for clarity to show the regions of highest electric field strength and the relationship to the geometry of patterned conductor layer  204 . When the optical resonance conditions are met, i.e., when integrated resonance detector  220  absorbs the specific wavelength of electromagnetic radiation intended by resonance feature dimensions  205 , electric current  212  will flow between patterned conductor layer  204  and conducting mirror layer  202  through active layer  203  via electrode terminals  216  and  217 , to be quantified in external circuit  218 . In this embodiment, barrier layer  502  can be thought of as a nonlinear electric-field-actuated switch which provides a means to suppress background or dark current when either no radiation or off-resonance radiation is incident on integrated resonance detector  220 . When resonance conditions are met, field enhancement  211 , in conjunction with any externally-supplied bias voltage  213 , provides sufficient electric field strength to barrier layer  502  to provide a means to induce flow of electric current  212 . Barrier layer  502  is useful to enhance the ratio of the detected electric current  212  to the background electric current and may influence the nonlinearity that produces the difference between forward current  214  and reverse current  215  that leads to net electric current  212  The illustration represented in  FIG. 5  is just one example of a bilayer structure that may be used to enhance the on/off ratio of electric current  212  relative to background and/or active layer nonlinearity. Active layer  203  may comprise bilayer, trilayer, or multilayer structures in various embodiments of the invention. Functionally, the active layer  203  may have the characteristics of one or more of the following: semiconductor junctions, barrier junctions, Frenkel-Poole hopping layers, Fowler-Nordheim tunneling layers, field-emission layers, or ballistic carrier transport layers. 
     In a similar fashion to that illustrated in  FIG. 5 ,  FIG. 6  shows an embodiment of an integrated resonance detector  220  where active layer  203  is composed of a composite mixture of two solid compounds. In this example, the majority, or “bulk” material  601  of active layer  203  could be a semi-insulator that supports zero or small dark current flow under external bias. A secondary component  602 , such as semiconducting or metallic nanoparticles, may be provided for supporting flow of electric current  212  under applied bias  213  in conjunction with sufficient field enhancement  211 . In one embodiment, applied bias  213  polarizes the charge carriers on secondary component  602 , but is not sufficient to lead to flow of net electric current  212  directly. When the optical resonance conditions are met, i.e., when integrated resonance detector  220  interacts with a specific wavelength of electromagnetic radiation as determined by resonance layer feature dimensions  205 , electric current  212  will flow between patterned conductor layer  204  and conducting mirror layer  202  through electrode terminals  216  and  217 , to be quantified in external circuit  218 . The mode of current flow may be variable range hopping between individual particles of secondary component  602  that are mixed with bulk material  601  in some predetermined concentration. This condition would only occur when the combination of the electric field supplied by applied bias  213  plus electric field enhancement  211  is sufficient to enable charge carriers to overcome the potential barrier imposed between individual particles of secondary component  602  in bulk material  601 . Fabrication of any number of ratiometric mixtures of two solid components to achieve the optimum nonlinear current-voltage characteristic are envisioned in various embodiments of the invention, non-limiting examples of ratiometric mixtures include semiconductor nanoparticles such as indium or tin oxide in a polymeric film, or conducting nanoparticles such as gold in a spin-on glass of silicon dioxide. Secondary component  602  and bulk material  601  may comprise ratiometric mixtures of conductors, semiconductors, semi-insulators, or insulators that form a composite active layer  203 . 
     In some aspects of the invention, patterned conductor layer  204  is composed of parallel lines, or “grooves” forming a grating-like structure. This pattern was illustrated previously in  FIG. 2-6  in isometric view. In this embodiment, integrated resonance detector  220  may respond to specific polarizations of electromagnetic radiation in addition to specific wavelengths. The ability to intersperse polarization-dependent integrated resonance detectors of different orientations into the distribution of wavelength-selective components is one of the compelling features of the invention. Spectro-polarization or polarization images may be useful in applications such as surveillance where man-made objects are known to reflect polarized light differently than natural objects. An important feature of the groove, or “strip” structure is that a single, common bridging strip  209  that traverses all of the resonance lines can connect all the resonance lines to a common electrode terminal  217 . Bridging strip  209  can be positioned so as not to interfere with the optical resonance and serves only to enable electrical continuity between patterned features  205  of patterned conductor layer  204 . 
     An alternative method to create electrical continuity between the patterned features  205  of patterned conductor layer  204  is to leave a thin continuous film  701  below the features,  FIG. 7 . Thin continuous film  701  is sufficiently thin so as to not interfere with optical resonance, but is sufficient to carry current from patterned conductor layer  204  to the external circuit in a similar fashion to bridging strip  209 . This method is amenable to all feature shapes including the set of parallel lines shown in  FIG. 2 , or for example, a cross-hatch, or array of squares or pillars, hexagonal arrangements and other two dimensional geometries. Devices fabricated with cross-hatched patterned conductor layers  204  may provide polarization-independent absorption, thus functioning solely as a wavelength-selective detector or detector array. 
       FIG. 8  shows a schematic representation of one example in which integrated resonance detector  220  is incorporated as a subcomponent at the pixel level of a silicon CMOS image sensor  801  acting as substrate  201 . In the figure, four active silicon CMOS detection regions, or “pixels” are represented by  802 A-D. Each pixel comprises a filter layer  803 , a photoactive area  804  and a detector circuit  805  that is manufactured to be addressable by an external multiplexer and read-out amplifier circuit. In the embodiment depicted in  FIG. 8 , one of the silicon CMOS sensor pixels  802 D is replaced by an integrated resonance detector  220 D.  FIG. 8  depicts patterned conductor layer  204  in registration with a single pixel  802 D in the detector array. One-to-one registration of integrated resonance detector  220  with underlying detector array pixel  802  is not required. Integrated resonance detector  220 D can be designed to selectively absorb SWIR or MWIR radiation, for example, which would not otherwise be detected by silicon CMOS image sensor photoactive areas  802 A-C. Integrated resonance detector  220 D could be interfaced to detector circuit  805 D in the same manner pixels  802 A-C are interfaced to detector circuits  805 A-C. This could be accomplished during manufacturing or possibly included in a retrofit application of an existing CMOS image sensor. In either embodiment, the principle of increasing the wavelength range of detection by inclusion of integrated resonance detectors applies. Numerous embodiments exist for the arrangement of detector pixels  801  and integrated resonance detectors  220  that would enable a monolithic UV, VIS, NIR, and SWIR detector array. 
       FIG. 9  shows photograph  901  with specific examples of integrated resonance detectors  220 . Photograph  901  illustrates multiple dies  902  (total of fifty-two) on the wafer of large arrays  303  of integrated resonance detectors  220 . In this example, large array  303  was fabricated using lithographic processing techniques. As part of the process, nanoscale patterning techniques such as nanoimprint lithography were used to define the patterned features  205  in patterned conductor layer  204 . Nanoimprint-patterned conductor layer  204  appears bright in photo inset  903  due to diffraction of room lighting. When feature dimensions  205  of patterned conductor layer  204  in integrated resonance detector  220  are smaller than the wavelength of visible light, they appear dark in the photograph, for example in the region indicated by  904 . Different shadings (colors) are observed in photo inset  903  for different sizes of patterned features  205 . 
     Scanning electron micrograph (SEM)  905  illustrates a specific example of an integrated resonance detector  220 . In this example, a silicon wafer is used as substrate  201 . Conducting mirror layer  202  is a trilayer metal stack consisting of chromium (1.5 nm)-gold (97 nm)-chromium (1.5 nm). Chromium is used as an adhesion promoter, or tie layer for bonding gold to inorganic layers and is well known in the art. Active layer  203  consists of a single indium oxide (In 2 O 3 ) 100 nm thick layer. Active layer deposition is followed by deposition of patterned conductor layer  204  which, like the mirror layer, is composed of a chromium (1.5 nm) tie layer and a final 100 nm of gold. Nanoimprint lithography is employed to create the patterned features  205  in patterned conductor layer  204 . Nanoimprint lithography provides a means to define features using a quartz template that has been defined using an electron beam lithography processing step and is described by Sreenivasan et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,900,881, which is hereby incorporated by reference. Nanoimprint lithography can be used to stamp and repeat the entire die pattern  902  during a single imprint processing step. This process enables an entire large array  303  of integrated resonance detectors to be fabricated in a batch step. In the example in  FIG. 9 , the feature width  206  is 230 nm and feature pitch  207  is 315 nm. The feature gap  906 , defined as the width of the area that is voided of patterned conductor layer  204 , is a pronounced feature of SEM micrograph  905  in the specific example. Definition of patterned conductor layer  204  completes the formation of resonance structure  219  which becomes integrated resonance detector  220  (not shown) when connected to an external electric circuit. 
       FIG. 10  shows a plot of the absorption vs. wavelength measured with an infrared (IR) spectrometer for a series of integrated resonance detectors  220 . The absorption curves demonstrate that for any specified patterned feature dimensions  205 , there exists a peak absorption wavelength when the integrated resonance detector  220  is irradiated with linearly-polarized radiation with an electric field orientation that is perpendicular to the long axis of patterned features  205 . A second set of curves illustrates that no peak absorption occurs when linearly-polarized light is parallel to the long axis of patterned features  205  of patterned conductor layer  204 . For linearly-polarized light perpendicular to the long axis of patterned features  205 , the wavelength of peak absorption changes when patterned feature dimensions  205  of patterned conductor layer  204  are changed. Data graph  1001  shows both sets of curves for each of the five different feature dimensions  205  included in array die  902  for an example large array  303  of integrated resonance detectors  220 . For the data set, the feature dimensions are defined as the feature width (W)  206  and feature pitch (L)  207 . The five curves for linearly-polarized light perpendicular to the long axis include line  1011  (L=300 nm, W=230 nm, λ max =1.40 μm); line  1012  (L=315 nm, W=250 nm, λ max =1.62 μm); line  1013  (L=330 nm, W=250 nm, λ max =1.74 μm); line  1014  (L=450 nm, W=350 nm, λ max =2.00 μm); and line  1015  (L=450 nm, W=375 nm, λ max =2.25 μm). Likewise, the respective curves for linearly-polarized light parallel to the long axis are line  1031  (L=300 nm, W=230 nm); line  1032  (L=315 nm, W=250 nm); line  1033  (L=330 nm, W=250 nm); line  1034  (L=450 nm, W=350 nm); and line  1035  (L=450 nm, W=375 nm), and are plotted over the same range of wavelengths. However, absorption of linearly-polarized light parallel to the long axis is low compared to perpendicular linearly-polarized light indicating that the light is non-interacting with the resonance structure  219 . The absorption data are demonstrated without connection to an external circuit  218 . Connection of resonance structure  219  to an external circuit would produce integrated resonance detector  220 . In the event the devices are connected to an external circuit  218 , analogous peaks in electric current  212  vs. wavelength  209  curves would be observed. The sharpness, or Q-factor for the absorption width and peak absorption are dependent on a number of physical variables including the number of consecutive patterned conducting layers  204  that are deposited and patterned. 
     Another embodiment of a large array  303  of integrated resonance detectors  220  is illustrated in  FIG. 11 . The composition of substrate  201  consists of a metalized (aluminum) Kapton® film  1102  that is coated with a thin active layer (In 2 O 3 )  203  followed by deposition of the imprinted photoresist that is used to pattern patterned conducting layer  204 . In this example, large array  303  with individual integrated resonance detectors  220  are not connected to external circuits  218 . As was demonstrated in  FIG. 9 , some of integrated resonance detectors  220  appear as bright spots due to room light diffraction and others  904 , have feature dimensions  205  that are too small to cause diffraction of visible light. Fabrication of integrated resonance detectors  220  onto flexible substrates opens new manufacturing possibilities for photodetector arrays that are not possible when rigid wafer substrates are employed. Numerous possibilities exist for flexible substrates and material compositions that could comprise substrate  201 . 
     Large arrays  303  of integrated resonance detectors  220  may be used in a number of optical detection applications. One embodiment, such as that depicted previously in  FIG. 8 , is to enable near infrared and short wave infrared detection with visible detection using a monolithic image sensor as the substrate. In this embodiment, broad wavelength detection will not require secondary focal plane arrays such as InGaAs, InSb, or HgCdTe which have cost ratios&gt;1000 times that of silicon detectors. Infrared focal plane arrays are manufactured for different regions of the infrared from near infrared (NIR) to long-wave infrared (LWIR). Infrared focal plane arrays are commercially available (e.g., Goodrich; Princeton, N.J., USA and FLIR Systems Inc.; Boston, Mass., USA). 
     In another embodiment, a silicon CMOS image sensor could be designed to include integrated resonance detectors  220  and the image sensor color filter array would be redesigned to accommodate the infrared “pixels” composed of integrated resonance detectors  220  via elimination of select color filter elements and/or expansion of the traditional 2×2 Bayer filter pattern for color analysis (U.S. Pat. No. 3,971,065). A Bayer CFA comprises an alternating pattern composed of one red, two green, and one blue filter, each in registration with a single image detector pixel. This type of pattern is referred to as a 2×2 pixel pattern, because the pattern has 4 pixels in a 2×2 arrangement. 
     In one embodiment disclosed herein, a silicon CMOS image sensor is made to have a variety of CFA patterns including a 2×2 pixel pattern such as that used by a Bayer color filter array that incorporates at least some fraction of integrated resonance detectors  220  in place of CFA elements. The degree of incorporation depends on the desired application. Embodiments can be conceived where only a single element is replaced to accommodate infrared detection. Conversely, embodiments can be conceived where all but one color element is incorporated in the infrared array. 
     In other aspects of the invention, image sensor arrays with at least one integrated resonance detector  220  are made to have 3×3 pixel patterns, 4×4 pixel patterns, 5×5 pixel patterns and/or up to N×N pixel patterns, where N is limited by the number of electrically addressable pixels in the array. In still other aspects of the invention, image sensor arrays with at least one integrated resonance detector comprise one or more different pixel patterns. Expanding the size of the pixel pattern from a typical 2×2 pattern to a 3×3, 4×4, 5×5, or higher pixel patterns enables expansion of a spectroscopic mosaic set beyond the standard RGB and CMYK patterns currently used in visible filtering systems for cameras and other optics. The expanded mosaic may include any number of integrated resonance detectors  220  that absorb light in the NIR or SWIR regions designed by changing the feature dimensions  205  of the patterned conductor layer  204 . Furthermore, array dimensions may be asymmetric, for example a repeated 2×3, 2×4, 2×5, 2×7, 2×10, 2×17, 2×51, 2×200, 2×1000, 3×4, 3×9, 3×300, 10×100 may be created. This can enable higher spectral definition, accommodate higher color fidelity, and can provide for the resolution of spectroscopically similar wavelengths of ultraviolet, visible and infrared radiation in applications such as combined photography and thermography and laser threat detection identification, to name a few. Array dimensions need not be square, or rectangular and may take the form of any repeatable geometric shape. 
     An array of integrated resonance detectors may also be fabricated on a substrate that contains electric circuits, for the purposes of amplifying, digitizing, or otherwise converting the currents from the array of integrated resonance detectors into electrical signals. In some cases, it is useful for the substrate electric circuits to be connected to a combination of photodetectors with spectral responses inherent to the materials comprising the photodetectors, and integrated resonance detectors provided in the present invention. For example, it may be advantageous to provide an array of integrated resonance detectors with dimensions designed to detect radiation in the mid-wave infrared band, on a substrate that contains an array of silicon photodetectors, which are primarily sensitive to radiation in the visible and near-infrared bands. The combination of detection capability across the visible, near-infrared, and mid-wave infrared bands afforded by a single device that combines certain embodiments of the present invention with conventional photodetectors known in the art solves a difficult problem of utility in the formation of spectrally-resolved imaging of scenes. As a particular, non-limiting example, an array of integrated resonance detectors of the present invention, with dimensions designed to provide detection of radiation in a number of wavelength intervals across the short-wavelength infrared band (0.9 μm-2.1 μm), fabricated on a silicon photodetector array with a Bayer filter mosaic (RGB) and electronic amplification circuitry for both the individual silicon photodetectors and the individual integrated resonance detectors, can be used as a focal-plane detector for a hyperspectral imaging system. 
     In the present invention, instances where the integrated resonance detectors are combined with photodetectors may include a color filter array as part of the system. The color filter mosaic may be present only on the photodetector elements, or it may be included on both the photodetector elements and on the integrated resonance detectors. In the case where the color filter element is deposited on an integrated resonance detector, the layer would serve to pre-filter light to a specific spectroscopic region which would then be further spectroscopically narrowed by virtue of the resonance interaction with the incident light. This may be useful, for example, in background rejection or enhancing the dynamic range of detection for specific imaging applications or laser threat detection. 
     An integrated resonance detector array may contain many regions of wavelength selectivity. In various aspects of the invention, groupings of detection pixels may occur to increase the wavelength spectral range, the dynamic range of detection, or the sensitivity of the response for a given narrow range of wavelengths. An example of narrow wavelength selectivity would be wavelength division multiplexing. In other embodiments of the invention, detector array  303  provides for a broad detection capability ranging from the ultraviolet through far infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. In other embodiments, selected broad ranges of wavelengths may be used for solar radiation detection, energy conversion or collection. The integrated resonance detector array of the present invention would provide for both a monolithic detector array or an arrangement of individual sensor elements in an array, each embodiment possessing a mosaic of individual detector elements specific to a given wavelength of resonance coupling. Broad wavelength detector arrays capable of spanning a large spectroscopic range as a monolithic detector (i.e., not requiring stitching of multiple detection systems from visible to far infrared) are not known in the art. 
     In some embodiments, the resonance structure in an integrated resonance detector can be designed specifically to retain its wavelength-selective characteristics over a broad range of incident angles. This feature provides an advantage over some other methods of wavelength selectivity used in the art. For example, thin-film interference or Fabry-Perot filters have narrow angular acceptance for a given center selected wavelength (S.-W. Han, et al. “Multilayer Fabry-Perot microbolometers for infrared detection” Infrared and Millimeter Waves and 13th International Conference on Terahertz Electronics, 2, p. 646, 2005). Wide angle selectivity of the integrated resonance structures has been demonstrated in the literature (Avitzour, Y. et al., “Wide-angle infrared absorber based on a negative-index plasmonic metamaterial”  Phys. Rev. B  79(4) p. 045131, 2009 and Chihhui, W. et al., “Ultra-thin wide-angle perfect absorber for infrared frequencies”  SPIE—The Intl. Soc. For Optical Eng.  7029, p. 70290W-7015, 2010). 
     Several specific applications are enabled by embodiments of the invention including electromagnetic sensor arrays, energy collection such as solar energy, and logic circuits that can spatially and spectrally resolve incident light by virtue of fabricating a large number of detectors, each detector having feature dimensions tailored to be resonant within a narrow, but different band of wavelengths. Such a device architecture could be useful, for example, in the fabrication of a hyperspectral detector that is used as a focal plane array in an imaging system, spectral encoding of optical logic circuitry that provides a means for dense logic element packaging, and wavelength division multiplexing of narrow optical communication bands. Furthermore, the material composition of the device could be selected for high temperature operation, making possible applications such as thermophotovoltaic energy conversion. 
     It is understood that modifications to the invention may be made as might occur to one skilled in the field of the invention within the scope of the appended claims. All embodiments contemplated hereunder which achieve the objects of the invention have not been shown in complete detail. Other embodiments may be developed without departing from the spirit of the invention or from the scope of the appended claims. Although the present invention has been described with respect to specific details, it is not intended that such details should be regarded as limitations on the scope of the invention, except to the extent that they are included in the accompanying claims.