Patent Publication Number: US-2023132963-A1

Title: Managing End-To-End Quality Of Service (QoS) In A Multi-Network Communication Path

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/263,495 entitled “Managing End-To-End Quality Of Service (QoS) In A Multi-Network Communication Path” filed Nov. 3, 2021, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     A communication network may be configured to provide a Quality of Service (QoS) for an application, service, or data flow. There is a resource cost in provisioning a network to provide a certain QoS, so to meet a particular QoS requirement network operators typically attempt to provide sufficient network resources without overcommitting or undercommitting network resources. Providing a QoS for an application, service, or data flow that involves communication across two or more networks of different types is even more complex. 
     SUMMARY 
     Various aspects include systems and methods performed by a network element of a communication network for managing end-to-end Quality of Service (QoS) in a communication path spanning at least two communication networks. Various aspects may include determining by a network element of a first communication network an end-to-end QoS requirement for communicating packets from a packet source to a packet destination via a communication path spanning the first communication network and a second communication network, determining by the network element a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path, and configuring the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network. 
     In some aspects, the first communication network may be a 5G network and the second communication network may not be a 5G network (i.e., the second communication network may be a non-5G network). In some aspects, determining by the network element a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path may include determining a packet error rate of the second communication network. In some aspects, configuring the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network may include determining a required packet error rate of the first communication network based on the determined packet error rate of the second communication network. 
     In some aspects, determining by the network element a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path may include determining an available throughput of the second communication network. In some aspects, configuring the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network may include determining a throughput requirement of the first communication network based on the determined available throughput of the second communication network. 
     In some aspects, determining by the network element a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path may include measuring an end-to-end achieved QoS, identifying a QoS provided by the first communication network, and determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network. In some aspects, identifying a QoS provided by the first communication network may include applying to the first communication network a packet delay measurement 5G QoS Identifier (5QI) that corresponds to a constant packet delay in the first communication network. In such aspects, determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network may include determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved packet delay and the constant packet delay in the first communication network. 
     In some aspects, identifying a QoS provided by the first communication network may include applying to the first communication network a packet loss rate 5QI that corresponds to a constant packet loss rate in the first communication network. In such aspects, determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network may include determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved packet loss rate and the constant packet loss rate in the first communication network. 
     In some aspects, identifying a QoS provided by the first communication network may include applying to the first communication network a packet loss rate 5QI associated with a packet loss measurement procedure that excludes packet losses in the first communication network In such aspects, determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network may include determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved packet loss and the packet loss measurement procedure. 
     In some aspects, identifying a QoS provided by the first communication network may include applying to the first communication network an available bandwidth 5QI associated with an available bandwidth measurement procedure that configures resources of the first communication network such that a packet loss of the first communication network is substantially negligible relative to a packet loss of the second communication network. In such aspects, determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network may include determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved available bandwidth and the available bandwidth measurement procedure. 
     In some aspects, identifying a QoS provided by the first communication network may include applying to the first communication network an available bandwidth 5QI associated with an available bandwidth measurement procedure in which data packets are transported in the first communication network back-to-back. In such aspects, determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network may include determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved available bandwidth and the available bandwidth measurement procedure. 
     In some aspects, identifying a QoS provided by the first communication network may include applying to the first communication network a network measurement 5QI associated with a network measurement procedure for performing end-to-end measurements of measurement packets transported along the communication path. In such aspects, determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network may include determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the network measurement procedure. 
     Further aspects include a network element having a processor configured to perform one or more operations of any of the methods summarized above. Further aspects include processing devices for use in a network element configured with processor-executable instructions to perform operations of any of the methods summarized above. Further aspects include a non-transitory processor-readable storage medium having stored thereon processor-executable instructions configured to cause a processor of a network element to perform operations of any of the methods summarized above. Further aspects include a network element having means for performing functions of any of the methods summarized above. Further aspects include a system on chip for use in a network element and that includes a processor configured to perform one or more operations of any of the methods summarized above. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG.  1 A  is a system block diagram illustrating an example communications system  100  suitable for implementing any of the various embodiments. 
         FIGS.  1 B- 1 E  are system block diagrams illustrating example communications systems suitable for implementing any of the various embodiments. 
         FIG.  2    is a component block diagram illustrating an example computing and wireless modem system suitable for implementing any of the various embodiments. 
         FIG.  3    is a component block diagram illustrating a software architecture including a radio protocol stack for the user and control planes in wireless communications suitable for implementing any of the various embodiments. 
         FIG.  4    is a component block diagram illustrating a system configured for managing end-to-end QoS in a communication path spanning a first communication network and a second communication network in accordance with various embodiments. 
         FIG.  5    is a process flow diagram illustrating a method performed by a processor of a network element for enhancing coverage for initial access according to various embodiments. 
         FIGS.  6 A- 6 I  are process flow diagrams illustrating operations  600   a - 600   i  that may be performed by a processor of a network element as part of the method for managing end-to-end QoS in a communication path spanning a first communication network and a second communication network according to various embodiments. 
         FIGS.  6 J and  6 K  are conceptual diagrams illustrating example packet loss measurements. 
         FIG.  6 L  is a conceptual diagram illustrating an example available bandwidth measurement. 
         FIG.  7    is a component block diagram of a network element device suitable for use with various embodiments. 
         FIG.  8    is a component block diagram of a wireless device suitable for use with various embodiments. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Various embodiments will be described in detail with reference to the accompanying drawings. Wherever possible, the same reference numbers will be used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like parts. References made to particular examples and implementations are for illustrative purposes, and are not intended to limit the scope of the claims. 
     Various embodiments include systems and methods for managing end-to-end QoS in a communication path spanning a first communication network and a second communication network. Various embodiments may enable a network element to determine QoS requirements for a first communication network based on the end-to-end QoS requirements and the achieved QoS of a second communication network, such as a communication path that traverses a 5G network and one or more non-5G networks. Various embodiments may enable a network element to determine the achieved QoS of the second communication network(s) (e.g., the one or more non-5G networks). 
     The term “network element” is used herein to refer to any one or all of a computing device that is part of or in communication with a communication network, such as a server, a router, a gateway, a hub device, a switch device, a bridge device, a repeater device, or another electronic device that includes a memory, communication components, and a programmable processor. A wireless device in communication with a network may be considered a network element of such network. 
     As used herein, the terms “network,” “communication network,” and “system” may interchangeably refer to a portion or all of a communications network or internetwork. A network may include a plurality of network elements. A network may include a wireless network, and/or may support one or more functions or services of a wireless network. 
     As used herein, “wireless network,” “cellular network,” and “wireless communication network” may interchangeably refer to a portion or all of a wireless network of a carrier associated with a wireless device and/or subscription on a wireless device. The techniques described herein may be used for various wireless communication networks, such as Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), FDMA, orthogonal FDMA (OFDMA), single carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA) and other networks. In general, any number of wireless networks may be deployed in a given geographic area. Each wireless network may support at least one radio access technology, which may operate on one or more frequency or range of frequencies. For example, a CDMA network may implement Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA) (including Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) standards), CDMA2000 (including IS-2000, IS-95 and/or IS-856 standards), etc. In another example, a TDMA network may implement GSM Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE). In another example, an OFDMA network may implement Evolved UTRA (E-UTRA) (including LTE standards), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 (Wi-Fi), IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX), IEEE 802.20, Flash-OFDM®, etc. Reference may be made to wireless networks that use LTE standards, and therefore the terms “Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access,” “E-UTRAN” and “eNodeB” may also be used interchangeably herein to refer to a wireless network. However, such references are provided merely as examples, and are not intended to exclude wireless networks that use other communication standards. For example, while various Third Generation (3G) systems, Fourth Generation (4G) systems, and Fifth Generation (5G) systems are discussed herein, those systems are referenced merely as examples and future generation systems (e.g., sixth generation (6G) or higher systems) may be substituted in the various examples. 
     The term “wireless device” is used herein to refer to any one or all of wireless router devices, wireless appliances, cellular telephones, smartphones, portable computing devices, personal or mobile multi-media players, laptop computers, tablet computers, smartbooks, ultrabooks, palmtop computers, wireless electronic mail receivers, multimedia Internet-enabled cellular telephones, medical devices and equipment, biometric sensors/devices, wearable devices including smart watches, smart clothing, smart glasses, smart wrist bands, smart jewelry (for example, smart rings and smart bracelets), entertainment devices (for example, wireless gaming controllers, music and video players, satellite radios, etc.), wireless-network enabled Internet of Things (IoT) devices including smart meters/sensors, industrial manufacturing equipment, large and small machinery and appliances for home or enterprise use, wireless communication elements within autonomous and semiautonomous vehicles, wireless devices affixed to or incorporated into various mobile platforms, global positioning system devices, and similar electronic devices that include a memory, wireless communication components and a programmable processor. 
     The term “system on chip” (SOC) is used herein to refer to a single integrated circuit (IC) chip that contains multiple resources or processors integrated on a single substrate. A single SOC may contain circuitry for digital, analog, mixed-signal, and radio-frequency functions. A single SOC also may include any number of general purpose or specialized processors (digital signal processors, modem processors, video processors, etc.), memory blocks (such as ROM, RAM, Flash, etc.), and resources (such as timers, voltage regulators, oscillators, etc.). SOCs also may include software for controlling the integrated resources and processors, as well as for controlling peripheral devices. 
     The term “system in a package” (SIP) may be used herein to refer to a single module or package that contains multiple resources, computational units, cores or processors on two or more IC chips, substrates, or SOCs. For example, a SIP may include a single substrate on which multiple IC chips or semiconductor dies are stacked in a vertical configuration. Similarly, the SIP may include one or more multi-chip modules (MCMs) on which multiple ICs or semiconductor dies are packaged into a unifying substrate. A SIP also may include multiple independent SOCs coupled together via high speed communication circuitry and packaged in close proximity, such as on a single motherboard or in a single wireless device. The proximity of the SOCs facilitates high speed communications and the sharing of memory and resources. 
     Providing a QoS for an application, service, or data flow that involves communication across two or more networks of different types is complex. A communication network may be able to determine information about, and configure the operations of, its own network elements, including devices communicating with or to those network elements (e.g., devices connected to the communication network). However, a communication network may be unable to obtain information about the operations of other communication networks. For example, an application client of a wireless device may communicate over a communication path with another device (e.g., an application server, or another wireless device). The communication path between the two endpoint devices (the “end-to-end” communication path) may span multiple networks. 
     As an example, to provide augmented reality application, wireless smart glasses may communicate with (send signals to and receive signals from) an application server over a communication path that spans multiple communication networks. For instance, the smart glasses may communicate with a smart phone over a Wi-Fi network; the smart phone may communicate with a 5G network base station over a cellular communication link; the 5G network may communicate with an internetwork (e.g., the internet); and the internetwork may communicate with a wired network using Ethernet that includes the application server. In this example, the communication path between the smart glasses and the application server spans a Wi-Fi network, a 5G network, an internetwork, and a wired Ethernet network. The augmented reality application of the smart glasses may require a particular QoS to meet one or more application requirements. One network, e.g., the 5G network, may be able to configure its various network elements according to the QoS requirement of the application. However, the 5G network typically has no control over the configuration or operations of network elements of the Wi-Fi network, the internetwork, or the wired Ethernet network. 
     Various embodiments include methods and network devices configured to perform the methods of managing end-to-end QoS in a communication path spanning a first communication network and a second communication network (which may include one or more other communication networks). For example, the first communication network may include a 5G network, and the second communication network may not be a 5G network. Various operations may be performed by a network element of a communication network functioning as a measurement entity. In various embodiments, a network element of the first communication network may determine an end-to-end QoS requirement for communicating packets from a packet source to a packet destination by the communication path. For example, an application, service, or data flow may request, or may be associated with, a QoS requirement. In various embodiments, the QoS requirement may reflect a performance requirement of the application, service, or data flow. The network element of the first communication network may determine a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path. Based on the QoS provided by the second communication network, the network element of the first communication network may configure the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement. 
     In some embodiments, the network element may determine a packet error rate of the second communication network. In such embodiments, the network element may determine a required packet error rate of the first communication network based on the determined packet error rate of the second communication network. The terms “packet error rate” and “packet loss rate” may be used interchangeably herein. In some embodiments, the network elements may determine an available throughput of the second communication network. In such embodiments, the network elements may determine a throughput requirement of the first communication network based on the determined available throughput of the second communication network. In some embodiments, the network element may measure an end-to-end achieved QoS, identify a QoS provided by the first communication network, and determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network. 
     In some embodiments, the network element may apply to one or more network elements of the first communication network a 5G QoS Identifier (5QI) that is associated with one or more network element configurations, and/or with one or more measurement operations, to configure the network element(s) to perform operations to enable the network element to determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path. In some embodiments, any or all of the 5QIs described herein may be defined in a communication standard or technical standard. In some embodiments, a 5QI may be associated with one or more properties or parameters, including at least one of a constant packet delay, a packet delay budget, a packet error rate, a default priority level, a default maximum data burst volume, or another property or parameter. 
     In some embodiments, the network element may apply a packet delay measurement 5QI that corresponds to a constant packet delay in the first communication network, and may determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved packet delay and the constant packet delay in the first communication network. 
     In some embodiments, the network element may apply a packet loss rate 5QI that corresponds to a constant packet loss rate in the first communication network, and may determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved packet loss rate and the constant packet loss rate in the first communication network. 
     In some embodiments, the network element may apply a packet loss rate 5QI associated with a packet loss measurement procedure that excludes packet losses in the first communication network, and may determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved packet loss and the packet loss measurement procedure. 
     In some embodiments, the network element may apply an available bandwidth 5QI associated with an available bandwidth measurement procedure that configures resources of the first communication network such that a packet loss of the first communication network is substantially negligible relative to a packet loss of the second communication network, and may determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved available bandwidth and the available bandwidth measurement procedure. 
     In some embodiments, the network element may apply an available bandwidth 5QI associated with an available bandwidth measurement procedure in which data packets are transported in the first communication network back-to-back, and may determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved available bandwidth and the available bandwidth measurement procedure. 
     In some embodiments, the network element may apply a network measurement 5QI associated with a network measurement procedure for performing end-to-end measurements of measurement packets transported along the communication path, and may determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the network measurement procedure. 
     Various embodiments may improve the operation of a communication network by enabling the configuration of network elements to provide an QoS that meets a QoS requirement for a device, application, or service. Various embodiments may improve the operation of a first communication network by enabling the determination of a QoS provided by another communication network that may include network elements that are not under the control of, or may not otherwise provide information to, the first communication network. 
       FIG.  1 A  is a system block diagram illustrating an example communications system  100  suitable for implementing any of the various embodiments. The communications system  100  may be a 5G New Radio (NR) network, or any other suitable network such as a Long Term Evolution (LTE) network. While  FIG.  1    illustrates a 5G network, later generation networks may include the same or similar elements. Therefore, the reference to a 5G network and 5G network elements in the following descriptions is for illustrative purposes and is not intended to be limiting. 
     The communications system  100  may include a heterogeneous network architecture that includes a core network  140  and a variety of wireless devices (illustrated as user equipment (UE)  120   a - 120   e  in  FIG.  1   ). The communications system  100  also may include a number of base stations (illustrated as the BS  110   a , the BS  110   b , the BS  110   c , and the BS  110   d ) and other network entities. A base station is an entity that communicates with wireless devices, and also may be referred to as a Node B, an LTE Evolved nodeB (eNodeB or eNB), an access point (AP), a radio head, a transmit receive point (TRP), a New Radio base station (NR BS), a 5G NodeB (NB), a Next Generation NodeB (gNodeB or gNB), or the like. Each base station may provide communication coverage for a particular geographic area. In 3GPP, the term “cell” can refer to a coverage area of a base station, a base station subsystem serving this coverage area, or a combination thereof, depending on the context in which the term is used. The core network  140  may be any type core network, such as an LTE core network (e.g., an EPC network), 5G core network, etc. 
     A base station  110   a - 110   d  may provide communication coverage for a macro cell, a pico cell, a femto cell, another type of cell, or a combination thereof. A macro cell may cover a relatively large geographic area (for example, several kilometers in radius) and may allow unrestricted access by wireless devices with service subscription. A pico cell may cover a relatively small geographic area and may allow unrestricted access by wireless devices with service subscription. A femto cell may cover a relatively small geographic area (for example, a home) and may allow restricted access by wireless devices having association with the femto cell (for example, wireless devices in a closed subscriber group (CSG)). A base station for a macro cell may be referred to as a macro BS. A base station for a pico cell may be referred to as a pico BS. A base station for a femto cell may be referred to as a femto BS or a home BS. In the example illustrated in  FIG.  1   , a base station  110   a  may be a macro BS for a macro cell  102   a , a base station  110   b  may be a pico BS for a pico cell  102   b , and a base station  110   c  may be a femto BS for a femto cell  102   c . A base station  110   a - 110   d  may support one or multiple (for example, three) cells. The terms “eNB”, “base station”, “NR BS”, “gNB”, “TRP”, “AP”, “node B”, “5G NB”, and “cell” may be used interchangeably herein. 
     In some examples, a cell may not be stationary, and the geographic area of the cell may move according to the location of a mobile base station. In some examples, the base stations  110   a - 110   d  may be interconnected to one another as well as to one or more other base stations or network nodes (not illustrated) in the communications system  100  through various types of backhaul interfaces, such as a direct physical connection, a virtual network, or a combination thereof using any suitable transport network 
     The base station  110   a - 110   d  may communicate with the core network  140  over a wired or wireless communication link  126 . The wireless device  120   a - 120   e  may communicate with the base station  110   a - 110   d  over a wireless communication link  122 . 
     The wired communication link  126  may use a variety of wired networks (such as Ethernet, TV cable, telephony, fiber optic and other forms of physical network connections) that may use one or more wired communication protocols, such as Ethernet, Point-To-Point protocol, High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC), Advanced Data Communication Control Protocol (ADCCP), and Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). 
     The communications system  100  also may include relay stations (such as relay BS  110   d ). A relay station is an entity that can receive a transmission of data from an upstream station (for example, a base station or a wireless device) and send a transmission of the data to a downstream station (for example, a wireless device or a base station). A relay station also may be a wireless device that can relay transmissions for other wireless devices. In the example illustrated in  FIG.  1   , a relay station  110   d  may communicate with macro the base station  110   a  and the wireless device  120   d  in order to facilitate communication between the base station  110   a  and the wireless device  120   d . A relay station also may be referred to as a relay base station, a relay base station, a relay, etc. 
     The communications system  100  may be a heterogeneous network that includes base stations of different types, for example, macro base stations, pico base stations, femto base stations, relay base stations, etc. These different types of base stations may have different transmit power levels, different coverage areas, and different impacts on interference in communications system  100 . For example, macro base stations may have a high transmit power level (for example, 5 to 40 Watts) whereas pico base stations, femto base stations, and relay base stations may have lower transmit power levels (for example, 0.1 to 2 Watts). 
     A network controller  130  may couple to a set of base stations and may provide coordination and control for these base stations. The network controller  130  may communicate with the base stations via a backhaul. The base stations also may communicate with one another, for example, directly or indirectly via a wireless or wireline backhaul. 
     The wireless devices  120   a ,  120   b ,  120   c  may be dispersed throughout communications system  100 , and each wireless device may be stationary or mobile. A wireless device also may be referred to as an access terminal, a terminal, a mobile station, a subscriber unit, a station, user equipment (UE), etc. 
     A macro base station  110   a  may communicate with the communication network  140  over a wired or wireless communication link  126 . The wireless devices  120   a ,  120   b ,  120   c  may communicate with a base station  110   a - 110   d  over a wireless communication link  122 . 
     The wireless communication links  122  and  124  may include a plurality of carrier signals, frequencies, or frequency bands, each of which may include a plurality of logical channels. The wireless communication links  122  and  124  may utilize one or more radio access technologies (RATs). Examples of RATs that may be used in a wireless communication link include 3GPP LTE, 3G, 4G, 5G (such as NR), GSM, Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA), Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), and other mobile telephony communication technologies cellular RATs. Further examples of RATs that may be used in one or more of the various wireless communication links within the communication system  100  include medium range protocols such as Wi-Fi, LTE-U, LTE-Direct, LAA, MuLTEfire, and relatively short range RATs such as ZigBee, Bluetooth, and Bluetooth Low Energy (LE). 
     Certain wireless networks (e.g., LTE) utilize orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) on the downlink and single-carrier frequency division multiplexing (SC-FDM) on the uplink. OFDM and SC-FDM partition the system bandwidth into multiple (K) orthogonal subcarriers, which are also commonly referred to as tones, bins, etc. Each subcarrier may be modulated with data. In general, modulation symbols are sent in the frequency domain with OFDM and in the time domain with SC-FDM. The spacing between adjacent subcarriers may be fixed, and the total number of subcarriers (K) may be dependent on the system bandwidth. For example, the spacing of the subcarriers may be 15 kHz and the minimum resource allocation (called a “resource block”) may be 12 subcarriers (or 180 kHz). Consequently, the nominal Fast File Transfer (FFT) size may be equal to 128, 256, 512, 1024 or 2048 for system bandwidth of 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10 or 20 megahertz (MHz), respectively. The system bandwidth also may be partitioned into subbands. For example, a subband may cover 1.08 MHz (i.e., 6 resource blocks), and there may be 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 subbands for system bandwidth of 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10 or 20 MHz, respectively. 
     While descriptions of some implementations may use terminology and examples associated with LTE technologies, some implementations may be applicable to other wireless communications systems, such as a new radio (NR) or 5G network. NR may utilize OFDM with a cyclic prefix (CP) on the uplink (UL) and downlink (DL) and include support for half-duplex operation using Time Division Duplex (TDD). A single component carrier bandwidth of 100 MHz may be supported. NR resource blocks may span 12 sub-carriers with a sub-carrier bandwidth of 75 kHz over a 0.1 millisecond (ms) duration. Each radio frame may consist of 50 subframes with a length of 10 ms. Consequently, each subframe may have a length of 0.2 ms. Each subframe may indicate a link direction (i.e., DL or UL) for data transmission and the link direction for each subframe may be dynamically switched. Each subframe may include DL/UL data as well as DL/UL control data. Beamforming may be supported and beam direction may be dynamically configured. Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) transmissions with precoding also may be supported. MIMO configurations in the DL may support up to eight transmit antennas with multi-layer DL transmissions up to eight streams and up to two streams per wireless device. Multi-layer transmissions with up to 2 streams per wireless device may be supported. Aggregation of multiple cells may be supported with up to eight serving cells. Alternatively, NR may support a different air interface, other than an OFDM-based air interface. 
     Some wireless devices may be considered machine-type communication (MTC) or evolved or enhanced machine-type communication (eMTC) wireless devices. MTC and eMTC wireless devices include, for example, robots, drones, remote devices, sensors, meters, monitors, location tags, etc., that may communicate with a base station, another device (for example, remote device), or some other entity. A wireless computing platform may provide, for example, connectivity for or to a network (for example, a wide area network such as Internet or a cellular network) via a wired or wireless communication link. Some wireless devices may be considered Internet-of-Things (IoT) devices or may be implemented as NB-IoT (narrowband internet of things) devices. The wireless device  120   a - 120   e  may be included inside a housing that houses components of the wireless device  120   a - 120   e , such as processor components, memory components, similar components, or a combination thereof. 
     In general, any number of communications systems and any number of wireless networks may be deployed in a given geographic area. Each communications system and wireless network may support a particular radio access technology (RAT) and may operate on one or more frequencies. A RAT also may be referred to as a radio technology, an air interface, etc. A frequency also may be referred to as a carrier, a frequency channel, etc. Each frequency may support a single RAT in a given geographic area in order to avoid interference between communications systems of different RATs. In some cases, 4G/LTE and/or 5G/NR RAT networks may be deployed. For example, a 5G non-standalone (NSA) network may utilize both 4G/LTE RAT in the 4G/LTE RAN side of the 5G NSA network and 5G/NR RAT in the 5G/NR RAN side of the 5G NSA network. The 4G/LTE RAN and the 5G/NR RAN may both connect to one another and a 4G/LTE core network (e.g., an evolved packet core (EPC) network) in a 5G NSA network. Other example network configurations may include a 5G standalone (SA) network in which a 5G/NR RAN connects to a 5G core network. 
     In some implementations, two or more wireless devices  120   a - 120   e  (for example, illustrated as the wireless device  120   a  and the wireless device  120   e ) may communicate directly using one or more sidelink channels  124  (for example, without using a base station  110   a - 110   d  as an intermediary to communicate with one another). For example, the wireless devices  120   a - 120   e  may communicate using peer-to-peer (P2P) communications, device-to-device (D2D) communications, a vehicle-to-everything (V2X) protocol (which may include a vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) protocol, a vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) protocol, or similar protocol), a mesh network, or similar networks, or combinations thereof. In this case, the wireless device  120   a - 120   e  may perform scheduling operations, resource selection operations, as well as other operations described elsewhere herein as being performed by the base station  110   a - 110   d.    
       FIGS.  1 B- 1 D  are system block diagrams illustrating example communications systems  150 ,  160 ,  170 , and  180  suitable for implementing any of the various embodiments. With reference to  FIGS.  1 A- 1 D , the communications systems  150 ,  160 ,  170 , and  180  illustrate examples end-to-end communication paths between two endpoint devices that span multiple communication networks. It will be understood that the examples illustrated in communications systems  150 ,  160 ,  170 , and  180  are non-limiting, and that other implementations of end-to-end communication paths between two endpoint devices that span multiple communication networks are also possible. 
     Referring to  FIG.  1 B , an application client executing on a UE  152   a  (e.g., the wireless devices  120   a - 120   e ) may communicate with an application client executing on a UE  158  (e.g., the wireless devices  120   a - 120   e ). The communication path between the UE  152   a  and the UE  158  may span two networks, for example, a 5G network  151   a  and a non-5G network  151   b . In some embodiments, the 5G network  151   a  may include the UE  152   a  that may communicate with a gNB  152   b  via a cellular communication link  153 , a 5G core network  152   c , and a user plane function (UPF)  152   d  that may enable communication between the 5G network  151   a  and the non-5G network  151   b . The non-5G network  151   b  may include an internetwork such as the internet  154 , a Wi-Fi access point (AP)  156 , and the wireless device  158 , which may communicate with the Wi-Fi access point  156  via a Wi-Fi wireless communication link  157 . 
     Referring to  FIG.  1 C , an application client executing on a UE  162   a  (e.g., the wireless devices  120   a - 120   e ) may communicate with an application client executing on a UE  168  (e.g., the wireless devices  120   a - 120   e ). The communication path between the UE  162   a  and the UE  168  may span two networks, for example, a 5G network  161   a  and a non-5G network  161 . In some embodiments, the 5G network  161   a  may include the UE  162   a  that may communicate with a gNB  152   b  via a cellular communication link  163 , a 5G core network  162   c , and a user plane function  162   d  that may enable communication between the 5G network  161   a  and the non-5G network  161   b . The non-5G network  161   b  may include an internetwork such as the internet  164 , a 4G network  166   a , a 4G base station such as an eNB  166   b , and a wireless device  168 , which may communicate with the eNB  166   b  via a 4G wireless communication link  167 . 
     Referring to  FIG.  1 D , the communication system  170  may include three networks. An application client executing on a wireless device  174  (illustrated as smart glasses) in a first non-5G network  171   b  may communicate with an application server  176  in a second non-5G network  171   c  via a 5G network  171   a . In this manner, the communication path between the wireless device  174  and the application server  176  may span three communication networks. In some embodiments, the first non-5G network  171   b  may include the wireless device  174 , which may communicate with a wireless device (UE)  172   a  via a Wi-Fi communication link  173 . The 5G network  171   a  may include the UE  172   a  that may communicate with a gNB  172   b  via a cellular communication link  175 , a 5G core network  172   c , and a user plane function  172   d  that may enable communication between the 5G network  171   a  and the second non-5G network  171   c . The second non-5G network  171   c  may include the application server  176 , which may communicate with the 5G network via a wired communication link  177 . 
     Referring to  FIG.  1 E , the communication system  180  may include three networks. An application client executing on a wireless device  184  (illustrated as smart glasses) in a first non-5G network  181   b  may communicate with an application server  188  in a second non-5G network  181   c  via a 5G network  181   a . In this manner, the communication path between the wireless device  184  and the application server  188  may span three communication networks. In some embodiments, the first non-5G network  181   b  may include the wireless device  184 , which may communicate with a wireless device (UE)  182   a  via a Wi-Fi communication link  181   b . The 5G network  181   a  may include the UE  182   a  that may communicate with a gNB  182   b  via a cellular communication link  183 , a 5G core network  182   c , and a user plane function  182   d  that may enable communication between the 5G network  181   a  and the second non-5G network  181   c . The second non-5G network  181   c  may include an internetwork (such as the internet)  186  that may communicate with the 5G network via a wired communication link  185 , and the application server  188 , which may communicate with the internetwork  186  via a wired communication link  187 . 
       FIG.  2    is a component block diagram illustrating an example computing and wireless modem system  200  suitable for implementing any of the various embodiments. Various embodiments may be implemented on a number of single processor and multiprocessor computer systems, including a system-on-chip (SOC) or system in a package (SIP). 
     With reference to  FIGS.  1  and  2   , the illustrated example computing device  200  (which may be a SIP in some embodiments) includes a two SOCs  202 ,  204  coupled to a clock  206 , a voltage regulator  208 , and a wireless transceiver  266  configured to send and receive wireless communications via an antenna (not shown) to/from a wireless device (e.g.,  120   a - 120   e ) or a base station (e.g.,  110   a - 110   d ). In some implementations, the first SOC  202  may operate as central processing unit (CPU) of the wireless device that carries out the instructions of software application programs by performing the arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. In some implementations, the second SOC  204  may operate as a specialized processing unit. For example, the second SOC  204  may operate as a specialized 5G processing unit responsible for managing high volume, high speed (such as 5 Gbps, etc.), and/or very high frequency short wave length (such as 28 GHz mmWave spectrum, etc.) communications. 
     The first SOC  202  may include a digital signal processor (DSP)  210 , a modem processor  212 , a graphics processor  214 , an application processor  216 , one or more coprocessors  218  (such as vector co-processor) connected to one or more of the processors, memory  220 , custom circuitry  222 , system components and resources  224 , an interconnection/bus module  226 , one or more temperature sensors  230 , a thermal management unit  232 , and a thermal power envelope (TPE) component  234 . The second SOC  204  may include a 5G modem processor  252 , a power management unit  254 , an interconnection/bus module  264 , a plurality of mmWave transceivers  256 , memory  258 , and various additional processors  260 , such as an applications processor, packet processor, etc. 
     Each processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260  may include one or more cores, and each processor/core may perform operations independent of the other processors/cores. For example, the first SOC  202  may include a processor that executes a first type of operating system (such as FreeBSD, LINUX, OS X, etc.) and a processor that executes a second type of operating system (such as MICROSOFT WINDOWS 10). In addition, any or all of the processors  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260  may be included as part of a processor cluster architecture (such as a synchronous processor cluster architecture, an asynchronous or heterogeneous processor cluster architecture, etc.). 
     The first and second SOC  202 ,  204  may include various system components, resources and custom circuitry for managing sensor data, analog-to-digital conversions, wireless data transmissions, and for performing other specialized operations, such as decoding data packets and processing encoded audio and video signals for rendering in a web browser. For example, the system components and resources  224  of the first SOC  202  may include power amplifiers, voltage regulators, oscillators, phase-locked loops, peripheral bridges, data controllers, memory controllers, system controllers, access ports, timers, and other similar components used to support the processors and software clients running on a wireless device. The system components and resources  224  and/or custom circuitry  222  also may include circuitry to interface with peripheral devices, such as cameras, electronic displays, wireless communication devices, external memory chips, etc. 
     The first and second SOC  202 ,  204  may communicate via interconnection/bus module  250 . The various processors  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 , may be interconnected to one or more memory elements  220 , system components and resources  224 , and custom circuitry  222 , and a thermal management unit  232  via an interconnection/bus module  226 . Similarly, the processor  252  may be interconnected to the power management unit  254 , the mmWave transceivers  256 , memory  258 , and various additional processors  260  via the interconnection/bus module  264 . The interconnection/bus module  226 ,  250 ,  264  may include an array of reconfigurable logic gates and/or implement a bus architecture (such as CoreConnect, AMBA, etc.). Communications may be provided by advanced interconnects, such as high-performance networks-on chip (NoCs). 
     The first and/or second SOCs  202 ,  204  may further include an input/output module (not illustrated) for communicating with resources external to the SOC, such as a clock  206  and a voltage regulator  208 . Resources external to the SOC (such as clock  206 , voltage regulator  208 ) may be shared by two or more of the internal SOC processors/cores. 
     In addition to the example SIP  200  discussed above, some implementations may be implemented in a wide variety of computing systems, which may include a single processor, multiple processors, multicore processors, or any combination thereof. 
       FIG.  3    is a component block diagram illustrating a software architecture  300  including a radio protocol stack for the user and control planes in wireless communications suitable for implementing any of the various embodiments. With reference to  FIGS.  1 - 3   , the wireless device  320  may implement the software architecture  300  to facilitate communication between a wireless device  320  (e.g., the wireless device  120   a - 120   e ,  200 ) and the base station  350  (e.g., the base station  110   a - 110   d ) of a communication system (e.g.,  100 ). In various embodiments, layers in software architecture  300  may form logical connections with corresponding layers in software of the base station  350 . The software architecture  300  may be distributed among one or more processors (e.g., the processors  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ). While illustrated with respect to one radio protocol stack, in a multi-SIM (subscriber identity module) wireless device, the software architecture  300  may include multiple protocol stacks, each of which may be associated with a different SIM (e.g., two protocol stacks associated with two SIMs, respectively, in a dual-SIM wireless communication device). While described below with reference to LTE communication layers, the software architecture  300  may support any of variety of standards and protocols for wireless communications, and/or may include additional protocol stacks that support any of variety of standards and protocols wireless communications. 
     The software architecture  300  may include a Non-Access Stratum (NAS)  302  and an Access Stratum (AS)  304 . The NAS  302  may include functions and protocols to support packet filtering, security management, mobility control, session management, and traffic and signaling between a SIM(s) of the wireless device (such as SIM(s)  204 ) and its core network  140 . The AS  304  may include functions and protocols that support communication between a SIM(s) (such as SIM(s)  204 ) and entities of supported access networks (such as a base station). In particular, the AS  304  may include at least three layers (Layer 1, Layer 2, and Layer 3), each of which may contain various sub-layers. 
     In the user and control planes, Layer 1 (L1) of the AS  304  may be a physical layer (PHY)  306 , which may oversee functions that enable transmission and/or reception over the air interface via a wireless transceiver (e.g.,  266 ). Examples of such physical layer  306  functions may include cyclic redundancy check (CRC) attachment, coding blocks, scrambling and descrambling, modulation and demodulation, signal measurements, MIMO, etc. The physical layer may include various logical channels, including the Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH) and the Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH). 
     In the user and control planes, Layer 2 (L2) of the AS  304  may be responsible for the link between the wireless device  320  and the base station  350  over the physical layer  306 . In some implementations, Layer 2 may include a media access control (MAC) sublayer  308 , a radio link control (RLC) sublayer  310 , and a packet data convergence protocol (PDCP)  312  sublayer, and a Service Data Adaptation Protocol (SDAP)  317  sublayer, each of which form logical connections terminating at the base station  350 . 
     In the control plane, Layer 3 (L3) of the AS  304  may include a radio resource control (RRC) sublayer  3 . While not shown, the software architecture  300  may include additional Layer 3 sublayers, as well as various upper layers above Layer 3. In some implementations, the RRC sublayer  313  may provide functions including broadcasting system information, paging, and establishing and releasing an RRC signaling connection between the wireless device  320  and the base station  350 . 
     In various embodiments, the SDAP sublayer  317  may provide mapping between Quality of Service (QoS) flows and data radio bearers (DRBs). In some implementations, the PDCP sublayer  312  may provide uplink functions including multiplexing between different radio bearers and logical channels, sequence number addition, handover data handling, integrity protection, ciphering, and header compression. In the downlink, the PDCP sublayer  312  may provide functions that include in-sequence delivery of data packets, duplicate data packet detection, integrity validation, deciphering, and header decompression. 
     In the uplink, the RLC sublayer  310  may provide segmentation and concatenation of upper layer data packets, retransmission of lost data packets, and Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ). In the downlink, while the RLC sublayer  310  functions may include reordering of data packets to compensate for out-of-order reception, reassembly of upper layer data packets, and ARQ. 
     In the uplink, MAC sublayer  308  may provide functions including multiplexing between logical and transport channels, random access procedure, logical channel priority, and hybrid-ARQ (HARD) operations. In the downlink, the MAC layer functions may include channel mapping within a cell, de-multiplexing, discontinuous reception (DRX), and HARQ operations. 
     While the software architecture  300  may provide functions to transmit data through physical media, the software architecture  300  may further include at least one host layer  314  to provide data transfer services to various applications in the wireless device  320 . In some implementations, application-specific functions provided by the at least one host layer  314  may provide an interface between the software architecture and the general purpose processor  206 . 
     In other implementations, the software architecture  300  may include one or more higher logical layer (such as transport, session, presentation, application, etc.) that provide host layer functions. For example, in some implementations, the software architecture  300  may include a network layer (such as Internet Protocol (IP) layer) in which a logical connection terminates at a packet data network (PDN) gateway (PGW). In some implementations, the software architecture  300  may include an application layer in which a logical connection terminates at another device (such as end user device, server, etc.). In some implementations, the software architecture  300  may further include in the AS  304  a hardware interface  316  between the physical layer  306  and the communication hardware (such as one or more radio frequency (RF) transceivers). 
       FIG.  4    is a component block diagram illustrating a system  400  configured for managing end-to-end QoS in a communication path spanning a first communication network and a second communication network in accordance with various embodiments. With reference to  FIGS.  1 - 4   , system  400  may include a network element  402  of a 5G network, such as a wireless device (e.g.,  110   a - 110   d ,  200 ,  320 ), a base station (e.g.,  120   a - 120   e ,  200 ,  350 ), or another network element of a 5G network, including any network element of the core network  140  or the 5G networks  151   a ,  161   a ,  171   a , and  181   a.    
     The network element  402  may be a computing device (e.g., a server or similar computer) including one or more processors  428  coupled to electronic storage  426  and a transceiver  427  (which may be a wired transceiver and/or a wireless transceiver, e.g.,  266 ). In the network element  402 , the transceiver  427  may be configured to receive messages sent in transmissions and pass such message to the processor(s)  428  for processing. Similarly, the processor  428  may be configured to send messages for transmission to the transceiver  427  for transmission. The network element  402  may send or receive messages to or from a communication network  424  via a wired and/or wireless communication link. 
     Referring to the base station  402 , the processor(s)  428  may be configured by machine-readable instructions  406 . Machine-readable instructions  406  may include one or more instruction modules. The instruction modules may include computer program modules. The instruction modules may include one or more of an end-to-end QoS module  408 , a QoS determination module  410 , a network measurement module  412 , a QoS configuration module  414 , or other instruction modules. 
     The end-to-end QoS module  408  may be configured to determine an end-to-end QoS requirement for communicating packets from a packet source to a packet destination by the communication path. 
     The QoS determination module  410  may be configured to determine a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path. The QoS determination module  410  may be configured to determine a packet error rate of the second communication network. The QoS determination module  410  may be configured to determine an available throughput of the second communication network. The QoS determination module  410  may be configured to measure an end-to-end achieved QoS, identify a QoS provided by the first communication network, and determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network. 
     The network measurement module  412  may be configured to apply to the first communication network a packet delay measurement 5QI that corresponds to a constant packet delay in the first communication network, and determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the constant packet delay in the first communication network. In some embodiments, the network measurement module  412  may be configured to apply to the first communication network a packet loss rate 5QI that corresponds to a constant packet loss rate in the first communication network, and determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the constant packet loss rate in the first communication network. In some embodiments, the network measurement module  412  may be configured to apply to the first communication network a packet loss rate 5QI associated with a packet loss measurement procedure that excludes packet losses in the first communication network, and determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the packet loss measurement procedure. 
     In some embodiments, the network measurement module  412  may be configured to apply to the first communication network an available bandwidth 5QI associated with an available bandwidth measurement procedure that configures resources of the first communication network such that a packet loss of the first communication network is substantially negligible relative to a packet loss of the second communication network, and determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the available bandwidth measurement procedure. In some embodiments, the network measurement module  412  may be configured to apply to the first communication network an available bandwidth 5QI associated with an available bandwidth measurement procedure in which data packets are transported in the first communication network back-to-back, and determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the available bandwidth measurement procedure. In some embodiments, the network measurement module  412  may be configured to apply to the first communication network a network measurement 5QI associated with a network measurement procedure for performing end-to-end measurements of measurement packets transported along the communication path, and determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the network measurement procedure. In some aspects, the measurements packets may be test packets, probe packets, or packets of the application between the two end-point devices. 
     The QoS configuration module  414  may be configured to configure the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network. The QoS configuration module  414  may be configured to determine a required packet error rate of the first communication network based on the determined packet error rate of the second communication network. QoS configuration module  414  may be configured to determine a throughput requirement of the first communication network based on the determined available throughput of the second communication network. 
     The electronic storage  426  may include non-transitory storage media that electronically stores information. The electronic storage media of electronic storage  426  may include one or both of system storage that is provided integrally (i.e., substantially non-removable) with the network element  402  and/or removable storage that is removably connectable to the network element  402  via, for example, a port (e.g., a universal serial bus (USB) port, a firewire port, etc.) or a drive (e.g., a disk drive, etc.). Electronic storage  426  may include one or more of optically readable storage media (e.g., optical disks, etc.), magnetically readable storage media (e.g., magnetic tape, magnetic hard drive, floppy drive, etc.), electrical charge-based storage media (e.g., EEPROM, RAM, etc.), solid-state storage media (e.g., flash drive, etc.), and/or other electronically readable storage media. Electronic storage  426  may include one or more virtual storage resources (e.g., cloud storage, a virtual private network, and/or other virtual storage resources). Electronic storage  426  may store software algorithms, information determined by processor(s)  428 , information received from the network element  402 , or other information that enables the network element  402  to function as described herein. 
     Processor(s)  428  may be configured to provide information processing capabilities in the network element  402 . As such, the processor(s)  428  may include one or more of a digital processor, an analog processor, a digital circuit designed to process information, an analog circuit designed to process information, a state machine, and/or other mechanisms for electronically processing information. Although the processor(s)  428  are illustrated as single entities, this is for illustrative purposes only. In some embodiments, the processor(s)  428  may include a plurality of processing units and/or processor cores. The processing units may be physically located within the same device, or processor(s)  428  may represent processing functionality of a plurality of devices operating in coordination. The processor(s)  428  may be configured to execute modules  408 - 414  and/or other modules by software; hardware; firmware; some combination of software, hardware, and/or firmware; and/or other mechanisms for configuring processing capabilities on processor(s)  428 . As used herein, the term “module” may refer to any component or set of components that perform the functionality attributed to the module. This may include one or more physical processors during execution of processor readable instructions, the processor readable instructions, circuitry, hardware, storage media, or any other components. 
     The description of the functionality provided by the different modules  408 - 414  described below is for illustrative purposes, and is not intended to be limiting, as any of modules  408 - 414  may provide more or less functionality than is described. For example, one or more of the modules  408 - 414  may be eliminated, and some or all of its functionality may be provided by other modules  408 - 414 . As another example, the processor(s)  428  may be configured to execute one or more additional modules that may perform some or all of the functionality attributed below to one of the modules  408 - 414 . 
       FIG.  5    is a process flow diagram illustrating a method  500  performed by a processor of a computing device functioning as a network element for enhancing coverage for initial access according to various embodiments. With reference to  FIGS.  1 - 5   , the operations of the method  500  may be performed by a processor (such as the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428 ) of a computing device configured to function as a network element (e.g.,  402 ) of the core network  140  or the 5G networks  151   a ,  161   a ,  171   a , and  181   a , a base station device (such as the base station  110   a - 110   d ,  200 ,  350 , or a wireless device (e.g.,  110   a - 110   d ,  200 ,  320 ) 
     In various embodiments, the processor may perform the operations of blocks  502  and  504  in any order, or substantially simultaneously (indicated by the dashed box). 
     In block  502 , the processor may determine an end-to-end QoS requirement for communicating packets from a packet source to a packet destination via the communication path. In some embodiments, the communication path may span two or more communication networks, such as a first communication network and a second communication network. In some embodiments, the first communication network may include a 5G network and the second communication network may include a non-5G network. In some embodiments, the processor may determine an end-to-end QoS requirement associated with an application or application client executing on an endpoint device (e.g.,  152   a ,  162   a ,  172   a ,  182   a ). In some embodiments, the processor may receive the message from an application or application client including the end-to-end QoS requirement. In some embodiments, the processor may determine the end-to-end QoS requirement based on one or more messages from the application, application client, and/or endpoint device. Means for performing the operations of block  502  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the end-to-end QoS module  408 . 
     In block  504 , the processor may determine a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path. In some embodiments, the processor may determine a packet error rate of the second communication network. In some alignments, the processor may determine an available throughput of the second communication network. In some embodiments, the processor may measure an end-to-end achieved QoS, identify a QoS provided by the first communication network, and determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network. Means for performing the operations of block  504  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the QoS determination module  410 . 
     In block  506 , the processor may configure the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network. In some embodiments, the processor may send one or more messages to one or more network elements of the first communication network to configure operations of the one or more network elements of the first communication network to perform QoS operations to provide sufficient QOS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement. Means for performing the operations of block  506  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the QoS configuration module  414 . 
       FIGS.  6 A- 6 I  are process flow diagrams illustrating operations  600   a - 600   i  that may be performed by a processor of a computing device configured to function as a network element as part of the method  500  for managing end-to-end QoS in a communication path spanning a first communication network and a second communication network according to various embodiments.  FIGS.  6 J and  6 K  are conceptual diagrams illustrating example packet loss measurements.  FIG.  6 L  is a conceptual diagram illustrating an example available bandwidth measurement. With reference to  FIGS.  1 - 6 L , the operations  600   a - 600   i  may be performed by a processor (such as the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428 ) of a network element (e.g.,  402 ) of the core network  140  or the 5G networks  151   a ,  161   a ,  171   a , and  181   a , a base station device (such as the base station  110   a - 110   d ,  200 ,  350 , or a wireless device (e.g.,  110   a - 110   d ,  200 ,  320 ). 
     Referring to  FIG.  6 A , blocks  602  and  604  are examples of operations that may be performed as part of the blocks  502  and  504  in  FIG.  5   , respectively. In various embodiments, the processor may perform the operations of blocks  602  and  604  in any order, or substantially simultaneously (indicated by the dashed box). 
     In block  602 , the processor may determine an end-to-end packet error rate for communicating packets from a packet source to a packet destination via the communication path. In some embodiments, the communication path may span two or more communication networks, such as a first communication network and a second communication network. In some implementations, the first communication network and the second communication network may be different types of networks and/or implement different communication protocols (e.g., a 5G network and a non-5G network). Means for performing the operations of block  602  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the end-to-end QoS module  408 . 
     In block  604 , the processor may determine a packet error rate of the second communication network in block  602 . Means for performing the operations of block  604  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  410 . 
     In block  606 , the processor may determine a required packet error rate of the first communication network based on the determined packet error rate of the second communication network. Means for performing the operations of block  606  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the QoS determination module  410 . 
     The processor may then configure the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network in block  506  of the method  500  as described. 
     Referring to  FIG.  6 B , blocks  610  and  612  are examples of operations that may be performed as part of the blocks  502  and  504  in  FIG.  5   , respectively. In various embodiments, the processor may perform the operations of blocks  610  and  612  in any order, or substantially simultaneously (indicated by the dashed box). 
     In block  610 , the processor may determine an end-to-end throughput requirement for communicating packets from a packet source to a packet destination via the communication path. In some embodiments, the communication path may span two or more communication networks, such as a first communication network and a second communication network. In some implementations, the first communication network and the second communication network may be different types of networks and/or implement different communication protocols (e.g., a 5G network and a non-5G network). Means for performing the operations of block  610  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the end-to-end QoS module  408 . 
     In block  612 , the processor may determine an available throughput of the second communication network in block  610 . Means for performing the operations of block  612  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  410 . 
     In block  614 , the processor may determine a throughput requirement of the first communication network based on the determined available throughput of the second communication network. Means for performing the operations of block  614  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the QoS determination module  410 . 
     The processor may then configure the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network in block  506  of the method  500  as described. 
     Referring to  FIG.  6 C , after determining an end-to-end QoS requirement for communicating packets from a packet source to a packet destination via the communication path in block  502  of the method  500  as described, or determining a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path in block  504  of the method  500  as described, the processor may measure an end-to-end achieved QoS in block  620 . In some embodiments, the processor may perform one or more measurements of packet delay, packet loss, packet departure and arrival time, packet dispersal, and/or another measurement to determine the QoS achieved (provided by) the end-to-end communication path (e.g., from one endpoint to another endpoint) that spans the first communication network and the second communication network. Means for performing the operations of block  620  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  410 . 
     In block  622 , the processor may identify a QoS provided by the first communication network. In some embodiments, the processor may determine the QoS provided by the first communication network. In some embodiments, the processor may select a QoS to be provided by the first communication network. In some embodiments, the processor may identify, select, or set the QoS provided by the first communication network to be substantially constant or substantially invariant. Means for performing the operations of block  622  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the QoS determination module  410 . 
     In block  624 , the processor may determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network. In some embodiments, by configuring operations of one or more network elements of the first communication network to provide a substantially constant or substantially invariant QoS, the processor may determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path as a function of the end-to-end achieved QoS and the substantially constant or substantially invariant QoS provided by the first communication network. Means for performing the operations of block  624  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the QoS determination module  410 . 
     The processor may then configure the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network in block  506  of the method  500  as described. 
     Referring to  FIG.  6 D , after determining an end-to-end QoS requirement for communicating packets from a packet source to a packet destination via the communication path in block  502  of the method  500  as described, or determining a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path in block  504  of the method  500  as described, the processor may apply to the first communication network a packet delay measurement 5G QoS Identifier (5QI) that corresponds to a constant packet delay in the first communication network in block  630 . In some embodiments, a packet delay measurement 5QI may be configured and associated with operations that provide a substantially constant or substantially invariant packet delay to packets processed by and/or transported by the first communication network. In some embodiments, in response to the packet delay measurement 5QI, one or more network elements of the first communication network may be configured to provide substantially constant packet delay to packets processed by and/or transported by the network elements of the first communication network. In some embodiments, the one or more network elements of the first communication network may include a base station (which may include a Medium Access Control (MAC) scheduler, a routing function, etc.), one or more intermediate nodes, and a user plane function. Means for performing the operations of block  630  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the QoS configuration module  414 . 
     In block  632 , the processor may measure an end-to-end achieved packet delay. Means for performing the operations of block  632  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  412 . 
     In block  634 , the processor may determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved packet delay and the constant packet delay in the first communication network. In some embodiments, measurement packets may be sent end-to-end along the communication path that spans multiple communication networks (e.g., the first communication network and the second communication network). In some embodiments, the processor may determine a packet delay of the second communication network based on an end-to-end packet delay and the substantially constant packet delay provided by the first communication network. In some embodiments, the packet delay provided by (incurred by, caused by, related to) the second communication network may be represented as Dn=De2e−Dc, in which Dn represents the packet delay of the second communication network (which may be a non-5G communication network), De2e represents the end-to-end packet delay, and Dc represents the substantially constant packet delay of the first communication network. Means for performing the operations of block  634  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  412 . 
     The processor may then configure the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network in block  506  of the method  500  as described. 
     Referring to  FIG.  6 E , after determining an end-to-end QoS requirement for communicating packets from a packet source to a packet destination via the communication path in block  502  of the method  500  as described, or determining a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path in block  504  of the method  500  as described, the processor may apply to the first communication network a packet loss rate 5QI that corresponds to a constant packet loss rate in the first communication network in block  640 . In some embodiments, a packet loss rate 5QI may be configured and associated with operations that provide a substantially constant or substantially invariant packet loss rate to packets processed by and/or transported by the first communication network. In some embodiments, in response to the packet los rate measurement 5QI, one or more network elements of the first communication network may be configured to provide the substantially constant packet loss rate to packets processed by and/or transported by the network elements of the first communication network. Means for performing the operations of block  640  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the QoS configuration module  414 . 
     In block  642 , the processor may measure an end-to-end achieved packet loss rate. Means for performing the operations of block  642  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  412 . 
     In block  644 , the processor may determine the packet loss rate provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved packet loss rate and the constant packet loss rate in the first communication network. In some embodiments, measurement packets may be sent end-to-end along the communication path that spans multiple communication networks. In some embodiments, the processor may determine a packet loss rate of the second communication network based on an end-to-end packet loss rate and the substantially constant packet loss rate incurred by (caused by, related to, provided by) the first communication network. In some embodiments, the packet loss rate provided by the second communication network may be represented as: 
     
       
         
           
             
               p 
               n 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   p 
                   
                     e 
                     ⁢ 
                     2 
                     ⁢ 
                     e 
                   
                 
                 - 
                 
                   p 
                   c 
                 
               
               
                 1 
                 - 
                 
                   p 
                   c 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     in which Pn represents the packet loss rate of the second communication network (which may be a non-5G communication network), Pe2e represents the end-to-end packet loss rate, and Pc represents the substantially constant packet loss rate provided by the first communication network. Means for performing the operations of block  644  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  412 . 
     The processor may then configure the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network in block  506  of the method  500  as described. 
     Referring to  FIG.  6 F , before measuring an end-to-end achieved QoS in block  620  as described, the processor may apply to the first communication network a packet loss rate 5QI associated with a packet loss measurement procedure that excludes packet losses in the first communication network. In some embodiments, a packet loss rate 5QI may be configured and associated with operations that provide a substantially constant or substantially invariant packet loss rate to packets processed by and/or transported by the first communication network. In some embodiments, in response to the packet los rate measurement 5QI, one or more network elements of the first communication network may be configured to provide the substantially constant packet loss rate to packets processed by and/or transported by the network elements of the first communication network. Means for performing the operations of block  650  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the QoS configuration module  414 . 
     In block  652 , the processor may measure an end-to-end achieved packet loss. Means for performing the operations of block  652  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  412 . 
     In block  654 , the processor may determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved packet loss and the packet loss measurement procedure. In some embodiments, measurement packets may be sent end-to-end along the communication path that spans multiple communication networks. In some embodiments, the processor may measure packet losses at multiple points along the communication path, and may perform one or more operations to exclude packet losses in the first communication network. 
     For example, referring to  FIG.  6 J , an application client  690   a  (e.g., executing on the wireless device)  174  may transmit during a first time period a number of packets N1 addressed to an application server  690   e  (e.g.,  176 ,  188 ). An intermediate device, such as a UE  690   b  (e.g., the UE  172   a ,  182   a ) may receive during a second time period a number of packets N2. The second time period may include the same duration as the first time period and may have a first time offset (e.g., the second time period may be later than the first time period by the first time offset). The first time offset may be based on the delay (e.g., that a packet would experience) from the application client  690   a  to the intermediate device UE  690   b . A network element of the 5G core network, such as a UPF  690   d  (e.g., the UPF  172   d  or another network element of the 5G core network  172   c ) may receive during a third time period a number of packets N3. In some embodiments, the number of packets N3 may reflect packet loss at one or more network elements, such as at a gNB  690   c . The third time period may include the same duration as the first time period and the second time period and may have a second time offset (e.g., the third time period may be later than the second time period by the second time offset). The application server  690   e  may receive during a fourth time period a number of packets N4. The fourth time period may include the same duration as the first, second, and third time periods and may have a third time offset (e.g., the fourth time period may be later than the third time period by the third time offset). In this example, the packet loss incurred by (provided by, related to) the second communication network (or in this example, the second communication networks  171   b  and  171   c ) may be represented as: 
     
       
         
           
             
               p 
               n 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   N 
                   ⁢ 
                   1 
                 
                 - 
                 
                   N 
                   ⁢ 
                   2 
                 
                 + 
                 
                   ( 
                   
                     
                       N 
                       ⁢ 
                       3 
                     
                     - 
                     
                       N 
                       ⁢ 
                       4 
                     
                   
                   ) 
                 
               
               
                 
                   N 
                   ⁢ 
                   1 
                 
                 - 
                 
                   ( 
                   
                     
                       N 
                       ⁢ 
                       2 
                     
                     - 
                     
                       N 
                       ⁢ 
                       3 
                     
                   
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     in which Pn represents the packet loss rate of the second communication network(s). In this manner, the processor may determine the packet loss rate attributable to the second communication network(s) by a packet loss measurement procedure that excludes packet losses in the first communication network. 
     In various embodiments, the packet loss rate at greater or fewer points along the communication path (i.e., greater or fewer Ns may be measured) depending on a network&#39;s configuration. For example, a packet loss rate between two nearby or close network elements (e.g., a UE co-located with a base station) may not be measured. 
     As another example, referring to  FIG.  6 K , a UE  692   a  (e.g., the UE  152   a ,  162   a ,  172   a ,  182   a ) may be co-located with an application client. In some embodiments, the application client may be executing on the UE  692   a  (e.g., the UE  152   a ,  162   a ), and the UE  692   a  may be located proximate to a device executing the application client (e.g., the wireless device  174 ,  184 ). In this example, the UE  692   a  may transmit during a first time period a number of packets N1 addressed to an application server  692   de  (e.g.,  158 ,  168 ). An intermediate device, such as a UPF  692   c  (e.g., the UPF  152   d ,  162   d ) may receive a number of packets N2 during a second time period. The second time period may be the same duration as the first time period and may have a first time offset (e.g., the second time period may be later than the first time period by the first time offset). The first time offset may be based on the delay (e.g., that a packet would experience) from the UE  692   a  to the intermediate device UPF  692   c . In some embodiments, the number of packets N2 may reflect packet loss at one or more network elements, such as at a gNB  692   b . The application server  692   d  may receive during a third time period a number of packets N3. The third time period may be the same duration as the first and second time periods and may have a third time offset (e.g., the third time period may be later than the second time period by the second time offset). In this example, the packet loss incurred by (provided by, related to) the second communication network (or in this example, the second communication networks  171   b  and  171   c ) may be represented as: 
     
       
         
           
             
               p 
               n 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   N 
                   ⁢ 
                   2 
                 
                 - 
                 
                   N 
                   ⁢ 
                   3 
                 
               
               
                 N 
                 ⁢ 
                 2 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     in which Pn represents the packet loss rate of the second communication network(s). In this manner, the processor may determine the packet loss rate attributable to the second communication network(s) by a packet loss measurement procedure that excludes packet losses in the first communication network. Means for performing the operations of block  652  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  412 . 
     The processor may then configure the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network in block  506  of the method  500  as described. 
     Referring to  FIG.  6 G , after determining an end-to-end QoS requirement for communicating packets from a packet source to a packet destination via the communication path in block  502  of the method  500  as described, or determining a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path in block  504  of the method  500  as described, the processor may apply to the first communication network an available bandwidth 5QI associated with an available bandwidth measurement procedure that configures resources of the first communication network such that a packet loss of the first communication network is substantially negligible relative to a packet loss of the second communication network in block  660 . 
     In some embodiments, an available bandwidth 5QI may be configured and associated with operations that provide a substantially negligible packet loss in the first network relative to packets processed by and/or transported by the second communication network. In some embodiments, in response to the available bandwidth measurement 5QI, one or more network elements of the first communication network may be configured to process and/or transport packets in a manner that provides the substantially negligible packet loss. For example, the processor may “overprovision” transport and/or processing resources of the first communication network such that network element(s) of the first communication network provide no bottleneck to the end-to-end communication path relative to the second communication network. In some embodiments, the network elements of the first communication network may be provisioned in this manner for a relatively short period of time, such as for a duration of one or more a measurement operations. Means for performing the operations of block  660  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the QoS configuration module  414 . 
     In block  662 , the processor may measure an end-to-end achieved available bandwidth. Means for performing the operations of block  662  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  412 . 
     In block  664 , the processor may determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved available bandwidth and the available bandwidth measurement procedure. For example, while the network element(s) of the first communication network are configured to provide the substantially negligible packet loss in the first network, the processor may measure an end-to-end available bandwidth, data rate, and/or bit rate. In such embodiments, the processor may determine the bandwidth, data rate, and/or bit rate of the second network to be substantially the same as the measured bandwidth, data rate, and/or bit rate. In some embodiments, this approach may be particularly useful for determining an available bandwidth for User Datagram Protocol (UDP) traffic flows or Transport Control Protocol (TCP) traffic flows. Means for performing the operations of block  664  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  412 . 
     The processor may then configure the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network in block  506  of the method  500  as described. 
     Referring to  FIG.  6 H , after determining an end-to-end QoS requirement for communicating packets from a packet source to a packet destination via the communication path in block  502  of the method  500  as described, or determining a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path in block  504  of the method  500  as described, the processor may apply to the first communication network an available bandwidth 5QI associated with an available bandwidth measurement procedure in which data packets are transported in the first communication network back-to-back in block  670 . 
     In some embodiments, in response to the available bandwidth 5QI, one or more network elements of the first communication network may be configured to process and/or transport packets back-to-back in a manner that introduces substantially negligible packet dispersion between or among transported packets. For example, the available bandwidth 5QI may be associated with a packet dispersion technique such that network elements of the first communication network are configured to transport packets in a manner that does not introduce or increase a time gap between or among transported packets. In some embodiments, network elements of the first communication network may be configured to achieve a substantially negligible time gap between packets using General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) Tunneling Protocol in the user plane (GTP-U) to encapsulate packets (e.g., measurement packets) and transport them via a GTP-U packet in the GTP-U tunnel in the first communication network. In some embodiments, the transported packets may arrive back-to-back at a UPF (e.g.,  152   d ,  162 ,  172   d ,  182   d ) for routing to the second communication network. Means for performing the operations of block  670  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the QoS configuration module  414 . 
     In block  672 , the processor may measure an end-to-end achieved available bandwidth. Means for performing the operations of block  672  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  412 . 
     In block  674 , the processor may determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved available bandwidth and the available bandwidth measurement procedure. In some embodiments, while the network element(s) of the first communication network are configured to transport packets back-to-back in a manner that introduces substantially negligible packet dispersion between or among transported packets, the processor may measure a time gap between packets arriving at an endpoint device (e.g.,  158 ,  168 ,  176 ,  188 ). In such embodiments, the processor may determine the time gap between packets arriving at the endpoint device (e.g., in the second communication network) to be indicative of the bandwidth provided by the second communication network. 
     For example, referring to  FIG.  6 L , a 5G network may include a UE  694   a , a gNB  694   b , and a UPF  694   c . The UE  694   a  (which may include or be proximate to an application client) may send two packets [1] and [2] (e.g., measurement packets) to the gNB  694   b  (e.g.,  152   b ,  162   b ,  172   b ,  182   b ). The gNB  694   b  may encapsulate the packets [1] and [2] in a GTP-U packet, and may send the GTP-U packet to the UPF  694   c  via a GTP-U tunnel (which may be identified by a Tunnel Endpoint Identifier (TEID). The packets [1] and [2] may arrive back-to-back at the UPF  694   c , and the UPF  694   c  may send the packets [1] and [2] to an application server  694   d  in a non-5G network. A time gap between the packets [1] and [2] may be measured at the application server  694   d . The time gap measured by this packet dispersion technique may reflect an available bandwidth of the non-5G network. 
     In such embodiments, the network element may determine the available bandwidth measured via the packet dispersion technique to be the available bandwidth the second communication network. In some embodiments, in a case where the communication path spans two or more second communication networks (e.g., as in the communication systems  170  and  180 ), the network element may perform measurements using, e.g., a packet dispersion technique, for each second communication network, and the network element may determine the minimum of the available bandwidths to be the available bandwidth of all of the second communications. Means for performing the operations of block  674  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  412 . 
     The processor may then configure the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network in block  506  of the method  500  as described. 
     Referring to  FIG.  6 I , after determining an end-to-end QoS requirement for communicating packets from a packet source to a packet destination via the communication path in block  502  of the method  500  as described, or determining a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path in block  504  of the method  500  as described, the processor may apply to the first communication network a network measurement 5QI associated with a network measurement procedure for performing end-to-end measurements of measurement packets transported along the communication path in block  680 . In some embodiments, a network measurement 5QI may be configured and associated with operations that measure dedicated measurement packets (i.e., packets sent for measurement purposes that do not convey other signaling or data). In some embodiments, in response to the packet delay measurement 5QI, one or more network elements of the first communication network may be configured to transport the network measurement packets in a QoS flow exclusively for network measurement purposes. Means for performing the operations of block  680  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the QoS configuration module  414 . 
     In block  682 , the processor may measure an end-to-end achieved QoS. Means for performing the operations of block  682  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  412 . 
     In block  684 , the processor may determine the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the network measurement procedure. In some embodiments the network elements may function as a measurement entity to perform end-to-end measurements of the measurement packets, to determine the QoS provided by the second communication network. Means for performing the operations of block  684  may include the processor  210 ,  212 ,  214 ,  216 ,  218 ,  252 ,  260 ,  428  of a computing device functioning as a network element, the wireless transceiver  266 , the transceiver  427 , and the network measurement module  412 . 
     The processor may then configure the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network in block  506  of the method  500  as described. 
       FIG.  7    is a component block diagram of a network element device suitable for use with various embodiments. Such network element devices (e.g., a network element (e.g.,  402 ) of the core network  140  or the 5G networks  151   a ,  161   a ,  171   a , and  181   a , a base station device (such as the base station  110   a - 110   d ,  200 ,  350 ), and/or the like) may include at least the components illustrated in  FIG.  7   . With reference to  FIGS.  1 - 7   , the network element device  700  may typically include a processor  701  coupled to volatile memory  702  and a large capacity nonvolatile memory, such as a disk drive  708 . The network element device  700  also may include a peripheral memory access device  706  such as a floppy disc drive, compact disc (CD) or digital video disc (DVD) drive coupled to the processor  701 . The network element device  700  also may include network access ports  704  (or interfaces) coupled to the processor  701  for establishing data connections with a network, such as the Internet or a local area network coupled to other system computers and servers. The network element device  700  may include one or more antennas  707  for sending and receiving electromagnetic radiation that may be connected to a wireless communication link. The network element device  700  may include additional access ports, such as USB, Firewire, Thunderbolt, and the like for coupling to peripherals, external memory, or other devices. 
       FIG.  8    is a component block diagram of a wireless device  800  suitable for use with various embodiments. In some embodiments, the wireless device  800  may operate as a network element. With reference to  FIGS.  1 - 8   , various embodiments may be implemented on a variety of wireless devices  800  (for example, the wireless device  120   a - 120   e ,  200 ,  320 ,  404 ), an example of which is illustrated in  FIG.  8    in the form of a smartphone. The wireless device  800  may include a first SOC  202  (for example, a SOC-CPU) coupled to a second SOC  204  (for example, a 5G capable SOC). The first and second SOCs  202 ,  204  may be coupled to internal memory  816 , a display  812 , and to a speaker  814 . Additionally, the wireless device  800  may include an antenna  804  for sending and receiving electromagnetic radiation that may be connected to a transceiver  427  coupled to one or more processors in the first and/or second SOCs  202 ,  204 . Wireless device  800  may include menu selection buttons or rocker switches  820  for receiving user inputs. 
     The wireless device  800  wireless device  800  may include a sound encoding/decoding (CODEC) circuit  810 , which digitizes sound received from a microphone into data packets suitable for wireless transmission and decodes received sound data packets to generate analog signals that are provided to the speaker to generate sound. One or more of the processors in the first and second SOCs  202 ,  204 , wireless transceiver  266  and CODEC  810  may include a digital signal processor (DSP) circuit (not shown separately). 
     The processors of the network element device  700  and the wireless device  800  may be any programmable microprocessor, microcomputer or multiple processor chip or chips that can be configured by software instructions (applications) to perform a variety of functions, including the functions of some implementations described below. In some wireless devices, multiple processors may be provided, such as one processor within an SOC  204  dedicated to wireless communication functions and one processor within an SOC  202  dedicated to running other applications. Software applications may be stored in the memory  702 ,  816  before they are accessed and loaded into the processor. The processors may include internal memory sufficient to store the application software instructions. 
     Various embodiments illustrated and described are provided merely as examples to illustrate various features of the claims. However, features shown and described with respect to any given embodiment are not necessarily limited to the associated embodiment and may be used or combined with other embodiments that are shown and described. Further, the claims are not intended to be limited by any one example embodiment. For example, one or more of the methods and operations  500  and  600   a - 600   i  may be substituted for or combined with one or more operations of the methods and operations  500  and  600   a - 600   i.    
     Implementation examples are described in the following paragraphs. While some of the following implementation examples are described in terms of example methods, further example implementations may include: the example methods discussed in the following paragraphs implemented by a base station including a processor configured with processor-executable instructions to perform operations of the methods of the following implementation examples; the example methods discussed in the following paragraphs implemented by a base station including means for performing functions of the methods of the following implementation examples; and the example methods discussed in the following paragraphs may be implemented as a non-transitory processor-readable storage medium having stored thereon processor-executable instructions configured to cause a processor of a base station to perform the operations of the methods of the following implementation examples. 
     Example 1. A method of managing end-to-end Quality of Service (QoS) in a communication path spanning at least two communication networks, including determining by a network element of a first communication network an end-to-end QoS requirement for communicating packets from a packet source to a packet destination via a communication path spanning the first communication network and a second communication network, determining by the network element a QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path, and configuring the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network. 
     Example 2. The method of example 1, in which the first communication network is a 5G network and the second communication network is not a 5G network. 
     Example 3. The method of either of examples 1 or 2, in which determining by the network element the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path includes determining a packet error rate of the second communication network. 
     Example 4. The method of example 3, in which configuring the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network includes determining a required packet error rate of the first communication network based on the determined packet error rate of the second communication network. 
     Example 5. The method of any of examples 1-4, in which determining by the network element the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path includes determining an available throughput of the second communication network. 
     Example 6. The method of example 5, in which configuring the first communication network to provide sufficient QoS to support the end-to-end QoS requirement based on the QoS provided by the second communication network includes determining a throughput requirement of the first communication network based on the determined available throughput of the second communication network. 
     Example 7. The method of any of examples 1-6, in which determining by the network element the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path includes measuring an end-to-end achieved QoS, identifying a QoS provided by the first communication network, and determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network. 
     Example 8. The method of example 7, in which identifying the QoS provided by the first communication network includes applying to the first communication network a packet delay measurement 5G QoS Identifier (5QI) that corresponds to a constant packet delay in the first communication network, and determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network includes determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved packet delay and the constant packet delay in the first communication network. 
     Example 9. The method of example 7, in which identifying the QoS provided by the first communication network includes applying to the first communication network a packet loss rate 5QI that corresponds to a constant packet loss rate in the first communication network, and determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network includes determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved packet loss rate and the constant packet loss rate in the first communication network. 
     Example 10. The method of example 7, in which identifying the QoS provided by the first communication network includes applying to the first communication network a packet loss rate 5QI associated with a packet loss measurement procedure that excludes packet losses in the first communication network, and determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network includes determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved packet loss and the packet loss measurement procedure. 
     Example 11. The method of example 7, in which identifying the QoS provided by the first communication network includes applying to the first communication network an available bandwidth 5QI associated with an available bandwidth measurement procedure that configures resources of the first communication network such that a packet loss of the first communication network is substantially negligible relative to a packet loss of the second communication network, and determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network includes determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved available bandwidth and the available bandwidth measurement procedure. 
     Example 12. The method of example 7, in which identifying the QoS provided by the first communication network includes applying to the first communication network an available bandwidth 5QI associated with an available bandwidth measurement procedure in which data packets are transported in the first communication network back-to-back, and determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network includes determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved available bandwidth and the available bandwidth measurement procedure. 
     Example 13. The method of example 7, in which identifying the QoS provided by the first communication network includes applying to the first communication network a network measurement 5QI associated with a network measurement procedure for performing end-to-end measurements of measurement packets transported along the communication path, and determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the QoS provided by the first communication network includes determining the QoS provided by the second communication network within the communication path based on the end-to-end achieved QoS and the network measurement procedure. 
     As used in this application, the terms “component,” “module,” “system,” and the like are intended to include a computer-related entity, such as, but not limited to, hardware, firmware, a combination of hardware and software, software, or software in execution, which are configured to perform particular operations or functions. For example, a component may be, but is not limited to, a process running on a processor, a processor, an object, an executable, a thread of execution, a program, or a computer. By way of illustration, both an application running on a wireless device and the wireless device may be referred to as a component. One or more components may reside within a process or thread of execution and a component may be localized on one processor or core or distributed between two or more processors or cores. In addition, these components may execute from various non-transitory computer readable media having various instructions or data structures stored thereon. Components may communicate by way of local or remote processes, function or procedure calls, electronic signals, data packets, memory read/writes, and other known network, computer, processor, or process related communication methodologies. 
     A number of different cellular and mobile communication services and standards are available or contemplated in the future, all of which may implement and benefit from the various embodiments. Such services and standards include, e.g., third generation partnership project (3GPP), long term evolution (LTE) systems, third generation wireless mobile communication technology (3G), fourth generation wireless mobile communication technology (4G), fifth generation wireless mobile communication technology (5G) as well as later generation 3GPP technology, global system for mobile communications (GSM), universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS), 3GSM, general packet radio service (GPRS), code division multiple access (CDMA) systems (e.g., cdmaOne, CDMA1020™), enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EDGE), advanced mobile phone system (AMPS), digital AMPS (IS-136/TDMA), evolution-data optimized (EV-DO), digital enhanced cordless telecommunications (DECT), Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), wireless local area network (WLAN), Wi-Fi Protected Access I &amp; II (WPA, WPA2), and integrated digital enhanced network (iDEN). Each of these technologies involves, for example, the transmission and reception of voice, data, signaling, and/or content messages. It should be understood that any references to terminology and/or technical details related to an individual telecommunication standard or technology are for illustrative purposes only, and are not intended to limit the scope of the claims to a particular communication system or technology unless specifically recited in the claim language. 
     The foregoing method descriptions and the process flow diagrams are provided merely as illustrative examples and are not intended to require or imply that the operations of various embodiments must be performed in the order presented. As will be appreciated by one of skill in the art the order of operations in the foregoing embodiments may be performed in any order. Words such as “thereafter,” “then,” “next,” etc. are not intended to limit the order of the operations; these words are used to guide the reader through the description of the methods. Further, any reference to claim elements in the singular, for example, using the articles “a,” “an,” or “the” is not to be construed as limiting the element to the singular. 
     Various illustrative logical blocks, modules, components, circuits, and algorithm operations described in connection with the embodiments disclosed herein may be implemented as electronic hardware, computer software, or combinations of both. To clearly illustrate this interchangeability of hardware and software, various illustrative components, blocks, modules, circuits, and operations have been described above generally in terms of their functionality. Whether such functionality is implemented as hardware or software depends upon the particular application and design constraints imposed on the overall system. Skilled artisans may implement the described functionality in varying ways for each particular application, but such embodiment decisions should not be interpreted as causing a departure from the scope of the claims. 
     The hardware used to implement various illustrative logics, logical blocks, modules, and circuits described in connection with the embodiments disclosed herein may be implemented or performed with a general purpose processor, a digital signal processor (DSP), an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a field programmable gate array (FPGA) or other programmable logic device, discrete gate or transistor logic, discrete hardware components, or any combination thereof designed to perform the functions described herein. A general-purpose processor may be a microprocessor, but, in the alternative, the processor may be any conventional processor, controller, microcontroller, or state machine. A processor may also be implemented as a combination of receiver smart objects, e.g., a combination of a DSP and a microprocessor, a plurality of microprocessors, one or more microprocessors in conjunction with a DSP core, or any other such configuration. Alternatively, some operations or methods may be performed by circuitry that is specific to a given function. 
     In one or more embodiments, the functions described may be implemented in hardware, software, firmware, or any combination thereof. If implemented in software, the functions may be stored as one or more instructions or code on a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium or non-transitory processor-readable storage medium. The operations of a method or algorithm disclosed herein may be embodied in a processor-executable software module or processor-executable instructions, which may reside on a non-transitory computer-readable or processor-readable storage medium. Non-transitory computer-readable or processor-readable storage media may be any storage media that may be accessed by a computer or a processor. By way of example but not limitation, such non-transitory computer-readable or processor-readable storage media may include RAM, ROM, EEPROM, FLASH memory, CD-ROM or other optical disk storage, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage smart objects, or any other medium that may be used to store desired program code in the form of instructions or data structures and that may be accessed by a computer. Disk and disc, as used herein, includes compact disc (CD), laser disc, optical disc, digital versatile disc (DVD), floppy disk, and Blu-ray disc where disks usually reproduce data magnetically, while discs reproduce data optically with lasers. Combinations of the above are also included within the scope of non-transitory computer-readable and processor-readable media. Additionally, the operations of a method or algorithm may reside as one or any combination or set of codes and/or instructions on a non-transitory processor-readable storage medium and/or computer-readable storage medium, which may be incorporated into a computer program product. 
     The preceding description of the disclosed embodiments is provided to enable any person skilled in the art to make or use the claims. Various modifications to these embodiments will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art, and the generic principles defined herein may be applied to other embodiments without departing from the scope of the claims. Thus, the present disclosure is not intended to be limited to the embodiments shown herein but is to be accorded the widest scope consistent with the following claims and the principles and novel features disclosed herein.