Patent Publication Number: US-9893385-B1

Title: Battery management systems for energy storage devices

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/151,974, filed Apr. 23, 2015, which is entirely incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     A battery is a device capable of converting chemical energy into electrical energy. Batteries are used in many household and industrial applications. In some instances, batteries are rechargeable such that electrical energy, which may be converted from non-electrical energy (e.g., mechanical energy), is capable of being stored in the battery as chemical energy. 
     There are generally two types of batteries: disposable batteries (primary batteries), which are designed to be used once and discarded, and rechargeable batteries (secondary batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times. There are various shapes and sizes of batteries, such as, for example, miniature cells used to power small electronic devices, and large batteries, which may be used to provide power for computer data centers. 
     Various devices can be configured for use at elevated temperatures (e.g., greater than about 100° C. or 300° C.). Examples of such devices include liquid metal batteries (e.g., comprising liquid metal electrodes), which are devices capable of converting stored chemical energy into electrical energy. 
     Energy storage devices (e.g., batteries) may be used within an electric power grid or as part of a standalone system. Batteries may be used in many household and industrial applications. Batteries can be charged from an electric power source (e.g., electric power produced by a renewable energy resource such as wind or solar) for later discharge when there is a demand for electrical energy consumption. 
     SUMMARY 
     While batteries are presently available, recognized herein are various limitations associated with such batteries. For example, rechargeable batteries may not be able to retain a given energy density after a certain number of charge/discharge cycles, making the long term use of these devices practically infeasible. While some batteries may have longer operating lifetimes than others, such batteries may not have an energy density that is suited for commercial use. 
     Recognized herein is the need for improved batteries and systems for operating such batteries. Also recognized herein is a need for methods for detecting a failure or fault condition in an electrochemical energy storage device, such as a liquid metal battery. The failure condition can be a breach. The breach can include a fault in the seal of the electrochemical cell which allows a gas from an atmosphere to contact the materials inside the housing of the electrochemical cell. 
     Provided herein are methods for detecting a failure or fault condition in an electrochemical energy storage device, such as a seal breach, using an electrical signature. In some cases, a breached cell is inactivated, cooled, discharged and/or replaced. 
     The present disclosure also provides energy storage systems comprising energy storage devices (e.g., electrochemical systems and/or high temperature energy storage devices such as, for example, liquid metal batteries) and battery management systems for monitoring and/or regulating the energy storage devices (e.g., liquid metal batteries). A liquid metal battery can include one or more electrochemical cells (“cells”) in a parallel and/or serial configuration. A battery management system can be programmed or otherwise configured to regulate the operation (e.g., charging, discharging, cell balancing, routing current) of the energy storage device (e.g., liquid metal battery). The battery management system can regulate the charging and discharging of the cells in tandem (or substantially in tandem) when the cells are connected together in series or parallel. The battery management system can monitor the operation of the energy storage device. The battery management system can be programmed or otherwise configured to use dynamic impedance control. 
     For serial operation, the battery management system can include voltage sensing of cells and ballasting provisions that are connected to the battery management system through ballasting lines. In some examples, the ballasting lines are electrical wires. The impedance of the ballasting lines, however, can impact the amount of voltage drop across the lines. The impedance of these lines can vary with temperature and in accordance with the material used in the lines. Because the impedance of the ballasting lines can vary with temperature, and because the temperature of an electrochemical system (e.g., a liquid metal battery) can vary during use, the impedance of the ballasting lines can vary during operation of the liquid metal battery. In some situations, algorithms of the battery management system that regulate the operation of the liquid metal battery using an assumed impedance of the ballasting lines (e.g., an impedance at room temperature) may arrive at erroneous results at higher operating temperatures. A battery management system can include hardware and software to dynamically compensate for variations in impedance. The software can be fixed in a non-volatile storage medium, such as a memory location. This can advantageously enable algorithms of the battery management system that regulate cell balancing to have a reliable metric of impedance on the sensing lines, and to thereby control balancing current appropriately. 
     An aspect of the present disclosure provides a system for storing energy, comprising an energy storage device comprising an electrochemical cell having a negative electrode, a positive electrode and an electrolyte between the negative and positive electrodes, wherein at least one of the negative electrode, the electrolyte and the positive electrode of the electrochemical cell is in a liquid state at an operating temperature of the electrochemical cell that is at least about 250° C. The system further comprises a controller in electrical communication with the energy storage device, wherein the controller includes (i) a central processing unit (CPU) that is programmed to monitor and control an operating state of the electrochemical cell, (ii) a terminal block that receives power from an auxiliary power source, and (iii) a filter that receives the power from the terminal block, steps down the power to about 12 Volts direct current (VDC), 5 VDC or 3.3 VDC, and transmits the power to the CPU. 
     Additional aspects and advantages of the present disclosure will become readily apparent to those skilled in this art from the following detailed description, wherein only illustrative embodiments of the present disclosure are shown and described. As will be realized, the present disclosure is capable of other and different embodiments, and its several details are capable of modifications in various obvious respects, all without departing from the disclosure. Accordingly, the drawings and description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive. 
     INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE 
     All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings or figures (also “FIG.” and “FIGs.” herein), of which: 
         FIG. 1  is an illustration of an electrochemical cell (A) and a compilation (e.g., battery) of electrochemical cells (B and C); 
         FIG. 2  is a schematic cross-sectional illustration of a housing having a conductor in electrical communication with a current collector passing through an aperture in the housing; 
         FIG. 3  is a cross-sectional side view of an electrochemical cell or battery; 
         FIG. 4  is a cross-sectional side view of an electrochemical cell or battery with an intermetallic layer; 
         FIG. 5  is a schematic cross-sectional illustration of an electrochemical cell having feed-throughs that are electrically insulated from a housing with dielectric seal components; 
         FIG. 6  shows an example of a cell pack; 
         FIG. 7  shows an example of a stack of cell packs, also referred to as a core; 
         FIG. 8  shows an energy storage system comprising an energy storage device and a battery management system; 
         FIG. 9  shows an example of a computer system for implementing the methods of the disclosure, such as a battery management system programmed or otherwise configured to control or regulate one or more process parameters of an energy storage device; 
         FIG. 10  shows an example of a battery management system (BMS); 
         FIG. 11  in an example of battery management system (BMS) and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system architecture and communication wiring; 
         FIG. 12A  provides an example of a battery management system board; 
         FIG. 12B  is a detailed view of a left portion of the battery management system board in  FIG. 12A ; 
         FIG. 12C  is a detailed view of a right portion of the battery management system board in  FIG. 12A ; 
         FIG. 13  shows an example of an electrochemical cell that is breached; 
         FIG. 14  shows an example of a cell that is operated with a constant current charge followed by a constant voltage float; and 
         FIG. 15  shows an example of chemical reactions that can lead to an electrical signature of cell breach. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     While various embodiments of the invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions may occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed. It shall be understood that different aspects of the invention can be appreciated individually, collectively, or in combination with each other. 
     The term “cell,” as used herein, generally refers to an electrochemical cell. A cell can include a negative electrode of material ‘A’ and a positive electrode of material ‘B’, denoted as A∥B. The positive and negative electrodes can be separated by an electrolyte. A cell can also include a housing, one or more current collectors, and a high temperature electrically isolating seal. In some cases, a cell can be about 4 inches wide, about 4 inches deep and about 2.5 inches tall. In some cases, a cell can be about 8 inches wide, about 8 inches deep and about 2.5 inches tall. In some examples, any given dimension (e.g., height, width or depth) of an electrochemical cell can be at least about 1, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 or 20 inches. In an example, a cell (e.g., each cell) can have dimensions of about 4 inches×4 inches×2.5 inches. In another example, a cell (e.g., each cell) can have dimensions of about 8 inches×8 inches×2.5 inches. In some cases, a cell may have about at least about 70 Watt-hours of energy storage capacity. In some cases, a cell may have at least about 300 Watt-hours of energy storage capacity. 
     The term “module,” as used herein, generally refers to cells that are attached together in parallel by, for example, mechanically connecting the cell housing of one cell with the cell housing of an adjacent cell (e.g., cells that are connected together in an approximately horizontal packing plane). In some cases, the cells are connected to each other by joining features that are part of and/or connected to the cell body (e.g., tabs protruding from the main portion of the cell body). A module can include a plurality of cells in parallel. A module can comprise any number of cells, e.g., at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, or more cells. In some cases, a module comprises at least about 4, 9, 12, or 16 cells. In some cases, a module is capable of storing about 700 Watt-hours of energy and/or delivering at least about 175 Watts of power. In some cases, a module is capable of storing at least about 1080 Watt-hours of energy and/or delivering at least about 500 Watts of power. In some cases, a module is capable of storing at least about 1080 Watt-hours of energy and/or delivering at least about 200 Watts (e.g., about 500 Watts) of power. In some cases, a module can include a single cell. 
     The term “pack,” as used herein, generally refers to modules that are attached through different electrical connections (e.g., vertically). A pack can comprise any number of modules, e.g., at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, or more modules. In some cases, a pack comprises at least about 3 modules. In some cases, a pack is capable of storing at least about 2 kilo-Watt-hours of energy and/or delivering at least about 0.4 kilo-Watts (e.g., at least about 0.5 kilo-Watts or 1.0 kilo-Watts) of power. In some cases, a pack is capable of storing at least about 3 kilo-Watt-hours of energy and/or delivering at least about 0.75 kilo-Watts (e.g., at least about 1.5 kilo-Watts) of power. In some cases, a pack comprises at least about 6 modules. In some cases, a pack is capable of storing about 6 kilo-Watt-hours of energy and/or delivering at least about 1.5 kilo-Watts (e.g., about 3 kilo-Watts) of power. 
     The term “core,” as used herein generally refers to a plurality of modules or packs that are attached through different electrical connections (e.g., in series and/or parallel). A core can comprise any number of modules or packs, e.g., at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 45, 50, or more packs. In some cases, the core also comprises mechanical, electrical, and thermal systems that allow the core to efficiently store and return electrical energy in a controlled manner. In some cases, a core comprises at least about 12 packs. In some cases, a core is capable of storing at least about 25 kilo-Watt-hours of energy and/or delivering at least about 6.25 kilo-Watts of power. In some cases, a core comprises at least about 36 packs. In some cases, a core is capable of storing at least about 200 kilo-Watt-hours of energy and/or delivering at least about 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 or 100 kilo-Watts or more of power. 
     The term “core enclosure” or “CE,” as used herein, generally refers to a plurality of cores that are attached through different electrical connections (e.g., in series and/or parallel). A CE can comprise any number of cores, e.g., at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, or more cores. In some cases, the CE contains cores that are connected in parallel with appropriate bypass electronic circuitry, thus enabling a core to be disconnected while continuing to allow the other cores to store and return energy. In some cases, a CE comprises at least 4 cores. In some cases, a CE is capable of storing at least about 100 kilo-Watt-hours of energy and/or delivering about 25 kilo-Watts of power. In some cases, a CE comprises 4 cores. In some cases, a CE is capable of storing about 100 kilo-Watt-hours of energy and/or delivering about 25 kilo-Watts of power. In some cases, a CE is capable of storing about 400 kilo-Watt-hours of energy and/or delivering at least about 80 kilo-Watts, e.g., at least or about 80, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180 or 200 kilo-Watts or more of power. 
     The term “system,” as used herein, generally refers to a plurality of cores or CEs that are attached through different electrical connections (e.g., in series and/or parallel). A system can comprise any number of cores or CEs, e.g., at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, or more cores. In some cases, a system comprises 20 CEs. In some cases, a system is capable of storing about 2 mega-Watt-hours of energy and/or delivering at least about 400 kilo-Watts (e.g., about 500 kilo-Watts or about 1000 kilo-Watts) of power. In some cases, a system comprises 5 CEs. In some cases, a system is capable of storing about 2 mega-Watt-hours of energy and/or delivering at least about 400 kilo-Watts, e.g., at least about 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000 kilo-Watts or more of power. 
     A group of cells (e.g., a core, a CE, a system, etc.) with a given energy capacity and power capacity (e.g., a CE or a system capable of storing a given amount of energy) may be configured to deliver at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or about 100% of a given (e.g., rated) power level. For example, a 1000 kW system may be capable of also operating at 500 kW, but a 500 kW system may not be able to operate at 1000 kW. In some cases, a system with a given energy capacity and power capacity (e.g., a CE or a system capable of storing a given amount of energy) may be configured to deliver less than about 100%, less than about 110%, less than about 125%, less than about 150%, less than about 175%, or less than about 200% of a given (e.g., rated) power level, and the like. For example, the system may be configured to provide more than its rated power capacity for a period of time that is less than the time it may take to consume its energy capacity at the power level that is being provided (e.g., provide power that is greater than the rated power of the system for a period of time corresponding to less than about 1%, less than about 10% or less than about 50% of its rated energy capacity). 
     The term “battery,” as used herein, generally refers to one or more electrochemical cells connected in series and/or parallel. A battery can comprise any number of electrochemical cells, modules, packs, cores, CEs or systems. A battery may undergo at least one charge/discharge or discharge/charge cycle (“cycle”). 
     The term “charge cut-off voltage” or “CCV,” as used herein, generally refers to the voltage at which a cell is fully or substantially fully charged, such as a voltage cut-off limit used in a battery when cycled in a constant current mode. 
     The term “discharge cut-off voltage,” as used herein, generally refers to the voltage at which a cell is fully or substantially fully discharged, such as a minimum voltage cut-off limit used in a battery when discharged in a constant current cycling mode. 
     The term “open circuit voltage” or “OCV,” as used herein, generally refers to the voltage of a cell (e.g., fully or partially charged) when it is disconnected from any circuit or external load (i.e., when no current is flowing through the cell). 
     The term “voltage” or “cell voltage,” as used herein, generally refers to the voltage of a cell (e.g., at any state of charge or charging/discharging condition). In some cases, voltage or cell voltage may be the open circuit voltage. In some cases, the voltage or cell voltage can be the voltage during charging or during discharging. 
     Voltages of the present disclosure may be taken or represented with respect to reference voltages, such as ground (0 volt (V)), or the voltage of the opposite electrode in an electrochemical cell. 
     The term “state of charge or discharge,” “state of charge” or “SOC,” as used herein, is generally directly related to the voltage of a cell. In some cases, the state of charge or discharge, state of charge or SOC may refer to the voltage of the cell with respect to another voltage, such as, for example, cell voltage after charging or cell voltage upon commencement of discharging. 
     The term “direct metal-to-metal joining” or “direct metal-to-metal joint,” as used herein, generally refers to an electrical connection where two metal surfaces are brought into contact (e.g., by forming a braze or a weld). In some examples, direct metal-to-metal joints do not include wires. 
     The term “interconnect,” as used herein, generally refers to any electrical connection other than a direct metal-to-metal joint. Interconnects can include wires or bent sheet metal components designed to pass current. Interconnects may be compliant (e.g., flexible). 
     The term “wire,” as used herein, generally refers to any cord, strip, or elongated electrical conduit. Wires can be flexible. As used herein, a braided metal strip is a wire. In some cases, a busbar is a wire. 
     The term “electronically,” as used herein, generally refers to a situation in which electrons can readily flow between two or more components with little resistance. Components that are in electronic communication with one another can be in electrical communication with one another. 
     The term “vertical,” as used herein, generally refers to a direction that is parallel to the gravitational acceleration vector. 
     Electrochemical Cells, Devices and Systems 
     The present disclosure provides electrochemical energy storage devices (e.g., batteries) and systems. In some examples, an electrochemical cell is a liquid metal battery cell. In some examples, a liquid metal battery cell can include a liquid electrolyte arranged between a negative liquid (e.g., molten) metal electrode and a positive liquid (e.g., molten) metal, metalloid and/or non-metal electrode. In some cases, a liquid metal battery cell has a molten alkaline earth metal (e.g., magnesium, calcium) or alkali metal (e.g., lithium, sodium, potassium) negative electrode, an electrolyte, and a molten metal positive electrode. The molten metal positive electrode can include, for example, one or more of tin, lead, bismuth, antimony, tellurium and selenium. For example, the positive electrode can include Pb or a Pb—Sb alloy. The positive electrode can also include one or more transition metals or d-block elements (e.g., Zn, Cd, Hg) alone or in combination with other metals, metalloids or non-metals, such as, for example, a Zn—Sn alloy or Cd—Sn alloy. In some examples, the positive electrode can comprise a metal or metalloid that has only one stable oxidation state (e.g., a metal with a single or singular oxidation state). Any description of a metal or molten metal positive electrode, or a positive electrode, herein may refer to an electrode including one or more of a metal, a metalloid and a non-metal. The positive electrode may contain one or more of the listed examples of materials. In an example, the molten metal positive electrode can include lead and antimony. In some examples, the molten metal positive electrode may include an alkali or alkaline earth metal alloyed in the positive electrode. 
     In some cases, an electrochemical cell is a high temperature battery that utilizes a liquid metal negative electrode (e.g., Na, Li), and a solid ion-conducting (e.g., β″-alumina ceramic) electrolyte. In some instances, the solid ion-conducting electrolyte operates above about 100° C., above about 150° C., above about 200° C., above about 250° C., above about 300° C., or above about 350° C. The electrolyte may comprise molten chalcogenide (e.g., S, Se, Te) and/or a molten salt comprising a transition metal halide (e.g., NiCl 3 , FeCl 3 ). The electrolyte may include other supporting electrolyte compounds (e.g., NaCl, NaF, NaBr, NaI). 
     An energy storage device of the disclosure (e.g., a battery) may include a Li-ion battery, a flow battery, a lead acid battery, a nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) battery, or any combination thereof. The energy storage device (e.g., electrochemical energy storage device) may comprise one or more electrochemical cells. An electrochemical cell or device may be a low or intermediate temperature battery (e.g., operating at ambient temperature, or operating at a temperature equal to or less than about 100° C., 75° C., 50° C. or 25° C.). The electrochemical energy storage device may comprise one or more electrochemical cells of a given type. For example, the electrochemical energy storage device may comprise one or more battery cells (or batteries) of Li-ion, flow battery, lead acid, and/or NiMH type. 
     Any description of a metal or molten metal positive electrode, or a positive electrode, herein may refer to an electrode including one or more of a metal, a metalloid and a non-metal. The positive electrode can contain one or more of the listed examples of materials. In an example, the molten metal positive electrode can include lead and antimony. In some examples, the molten metal positive electrode can include an alkali or alkaline earth metal alloyed in the positive electrode. 
     An electrochemical energy storage device can include a liquid metal negative electrode, a liquid metal positive electrode, and a liquid salt electrolyte separating the liquid metal negative electrode and the liquid metal positive electrode. The negative electrode can include an alkali or alkaline earth metal, such as lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, magnesium, barium, calcium, or combinations thereof. The positive electrode can include elements selected from transition metals or d-block elements (e.g., Group 12), Group IIIA, IVA, VA and VIA of the periodic table of the elements, such as zinc, cadmium, mercury, aluminum, gallium, indium, silicon, germanium, tin, lead, pnicogens (e.g., arsenic, bismuth and antimony), chalcogens (e.g., sulfur, tellurium and selenium), or combinations thereof. In some examples, the positive electrode comprises a Group 12 element of the periodic table of the elements, such as one or more of zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg). In some examples, the positive electrode comprises one or more of Zn, Cd, Hg, or such material(s) in combination with other metals, metalloids or non-metals, such as, for example, a Zn—Sn alloy, Zn—Sn alloy, Cd—Sn alloy, Zn—Pb alloy, Zn—Sb alloy, or Bi. 
     The electrolyte can include a salt (e.g., molten salt), such as an alkali or alkaline earth metal salt. The alkali or alkaline earth metal salt can be a halide, such as a fluoride, chloride, bromide, or iodide of the active alkali or alkaline earth metal, or combinations thereof. In an example, the electrolyte (e.g., in Type 1 or Type 2 chemistries) includes lithium chloride. In some examples, the electrolyte can comprise sodium fluoride (NaF), sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium bromide (NaBr), sodium iodide (NaI), lithium fluoride (LiF), lithium chloride (LiCl), lithium bromide (LiBr), lithium iodide (LiI), potassium fluoride (KF), potassium chloride (KCl), potassium bromide (KBr), potassium iodide (KI), calcium fluoride (CaF 2 ), calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ), calcium bromide (CaBr 2 ), calcium iodide (CaI 2 ), or any combination thereof. In another example, the electrolyte includes magnesium chloride (MgCl 2 ). As an alternative, the salt of the active alkali metal can be, for example, a non-chloride halide, a hydroxide, or a combination thereof. The electrolyte may exhibit low (e.g., minimal) electronic conductance (e.g., electronic shorting may occur through the electrolyte via valence reactions of PbCl 2   PbCl 3  which increases electronic conductance). For example, the electrolyte can have an electronic transference number (i.e., percentage of electrical (electronic and ionic) charge that is due to the transfer of electrons) of less than or equal to about 0.03% or 0.3%. 
     In some cases, the negative electrode and the positive electrode of an electrochemical energy storage device are in the liquid state at an operating temperature of the energy storage device. To maintain the electrodes in the liquid states, the battery cell may be heated to any suitable temperature. In some examples, the battery cell is heated to and/or maintained at a temperature of about 100° C., about 150° C., about 200° C., about 250° C., about 300° C., about 350° C., about 400° C., about 450° C., about 500° C., about 550° C., about 600° C., about 650° C., or about 700° C. The battery cell may be heated to and/or maintained at a temperature of at least about 100° C., at least about 150° C., at least about 200° C., at least about 250° C., at least about 300° C., at least about 350° C., at least about 400° C., at least about 450° C., at least about 500° C., at least about 550° C., at least about 600° C., at least about 650° C., at least about 700° C., at least about 800° C., or at least about 900° C. In such a case, the negative electrode, electrolyte and/or positive electrode can be in a liquid (or molten) state. In some situations, the battery cell is heated to between about 200° C. and about 600° C., between about 500° C. and about 550° C., or between about 450° C. and about 575° C. 
     The operating temperature can be selected such that it is sufficient to induce at least some of the electrode materials to liquefy. In some cases, the operating temperature is selected to liquefy the material of the negative electrode, electrolyte and the positive electrode. However, in some cases, at least one of the electrodes and the electrolyte may not be liquefied during operation of the cell. For instance, as an alternative, the operating temperature is selected to liquefy the material of the negative electrode and electrolyte, but not the positive electrode. As another alternative, the operating temperature is selected to liquefy the material of the positive electrode and electrolyte, but not the negative electrode. 
     In some implementations, the electrochemical cell or energy storage device may be at least partially or fully self-heated. For example, a battery may be sufficiently insulated, charged, discharged and/or conditioned at sufficient rates, and/or cycled a sufficient percentage of the time to allow the system to generate sufficient heat through inefficiencies of the cycling operation that cells are maintained at a given operating temperature (e.g., a cell operating temperature above the freezing point of at least one of the liquid components) without the need for additional energy to be supplied to the system to maintain the operating temperature. 
     Electrochemical cells of the disclosure may be adapted to cycle between charged (or energy storage) modes and discharged modes. In some examples, an electrochemical cell can be fully charged, partially charged or partially discharged, or fully discharged. The state of charge can be determined by the operating voltage of the electrochemical cell. In a discharged state, the operating voltage can be at a minimum, and in a charged state the operating voltage can be at a maximum. During charging, the operating voltage can increase and approach a maximum. 
     In some implementations, during a charging mode of an electrochemical energy storage device, electrical current received from an external power source (e.g., a generator or an electric power grid) may cause metal atoms in the metal positive electrode to release one or more electrons, dissolving into the electrolyte as a positively charged ion (i.e., cation). Simultaneously, cations of the same species can migrate through the electrolyte and may accept electrons at the negative electrode, causing the cations to transition to a neutral metal species, thereby adding to the mass of the negative electrode. The removal of the active metal species from the positive electrode and the addition of the active metal to the negative electrode stores electrochemical energy. In some cases, the removal of a metal from the positive electrode and the addition of its cation to the electrolyte can store electrochemical energy. In some cases, electrochemical energy can be stored through a combination of removal of the active metal species from the positive electrode and its addition to the negative electrode, and the removal of one or more metals (e.g., different metals) from the positive electrode and their addition to the electrolyte (e.g., as cations). During an energy discharge mode, an electrical load is coupled to the electrodes and the previously added metal species in the negative electrode can be released from the metal negative electrode, pass through the electrolyte as ions, and deposit as a neutral species in the positive electrode (and in some cases alloy with the positive electrode material), with the flow of ions accompanied by the external and matching flow of electrons through the external circuit/load. In some cases, one or more cations of positive electrode material previously released into the electrolyte can deposit as neutral species in the positive electrode (and in some cases alloy with the positive electrode material), with the flow of ions accompanied by the external and matching flow of electrons through the external circuit/load. This electrochemically facilitated metal alloying reaction discharges the previously stored chemical energy to the electrical load. 
     In a charged state, the negative electrode can include negative electrode material and the positive electrode can include positive electrode material. During discharging (e.g., when the battery is coupled to a load), the negative electrode material yields one or more electrons, and cations of the negative electrode material. In some implementations, the cations migrate through the electrolyte to the positive electrode material and react with the positive electrode material (e.g., to form an alloy). In some implementations, ions of the positive metal species (e.g., cations of the positive electrode material) accept electrons at the positive electrode and deposit as a metal on the positive electrode. During charging, in some implementations, the alloy at the positive electrode disassociates to yield cations of the negative electrode material, which migrate through the electrolyte to the negative electrode. In some implementations, one or more metal species at the positive electrode disassociates to yield cations of the negative electrode material in the electrolyte. In some examples, ions can migrate through an electrolyte from an anode to a cathode, or vice versa. In some cases, ions can migrate through an electrolyte in a push-pop fashion in which an entering ion of one type ejects an ion of the same type from the electrolyte. For example, during discharge, an alkali metal anode and an alkali metal chloride electrolyte can contribute an alkali metal cation to a cathode by a process in which an alkali metal cation formed at the anode interacts with the electrolyte to eject an alkali metal cation from the electrolyte into the cathode. The alkali metal cation formed at the anode in such a case may not necessarily migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode. The cation can be formed at an interface between the anode and the electrolyte, and accepted at an interface of the cathode and the electrolyte. 
     An electrochemical cell of the present disclosure can be a Type 1 or Type 2 cell, which can vary based on, and be characterized by, the composition of the active components (e.g., negative electrode, electrolyte and positive electrode), and based on the mode of operation of the cells (e.g., low voltage mode versus high voltage mode). Such modes of operation and related chemistries are described in, for example, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/286,369, which is entirely incorporated herein by reference. 
     In Type 1 mode (also “low voltage operation” mode herein), operation of a liquid metal battery cell can involve the utilization of symmetric or substantially symmetric electrode reactions in the form of an alloying/de-alloying electrochemical reaction. In some cases, in Type 1 mode a cell is operated at a voltage from about 0.4 V to 1.5 V. Here, there may be one active metal species which is present in the negative electrode, and/or the same active metal species may be present as an alloyed species in the positive electrode, and there is the only metal species that dissolves in or is extracted from the electrolyte during cell discharging and charging, respectively. The composition of the electrolyte therefore may not substantially change during the low voltage operation mode. Such mode of operation may provide a relatively low cell voltage, resulting in a relatively low energy density. 
     In an example Type 1 cell, upon discharging, cations formed at the negative electrode can migrate into the electrolyte. Concurrently, the electrolyte can provide a cation of the same species (e.g., the cation of the negative electrode material) to the positive electrode, which can reduce from a cation to a neutrally charged metallic species, and alloy with the positive electrode. In a discharged state, the negative electrode can be depleted (e.g., partially or fully) of the negative electrode material (e.g., Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca). During charging, the alloy at the positive electrode can disassociate to yield cations of the negative electrode material (e.g., Li + , Na + , K + , Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ ), which migrates into the electrolyte. The electrolyte can then provide cations (e.g., the cation of the negative electrode material) to the negative electrode, where the cations accept one or more electrons from an external circuit and are converted back to a neutral metal species, which replenishes the negative electrode to provide a cell in a charged state. A Type 1 cell can operate in a push-pop fashion, in which the entry of a cation into the electrolyte results in the discharge of the same cation from the electrolyte. 
     In some examples, a Type 1 cell includes a negative electrode comprising an alkali or alkaline earth metal (e.g., lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium), and a positive electrode comprising a poor metal, or alloys of such metals, such as one or more of tin, lead, bismuth, antimony, tellurium and selenium. The negative electrode and positive electrode can be in a liquid (or molten) state at an operating temperature of the cell. The negative and positive electrodes can be separated by a salt electrolyte (e.g., alkali or alkaline earth metal halide salts). 
     In Type 2 mode (also “high voltage operation” mode herein), operation of a liquid metal battery cell involves a non-symmetric or substantially non-symmetric reaction where one metal species is electrochemically active at one electrode and a second metal species is electrochemically active at the other electrode, resulting in a net change in the composition of the electrolyte at different states of charge. This mode of operation can initiate new chemical reactions compared to the Type 1 mode of operation, in some cases resulting in, or otherwise utilizing, a relatively higher cell voltage (e.g., 1 V to 3 V). Type 2 mode of operation can offer the possibility of using a wider variety of active materials, and combination of such materials, as the electrochemistry of the cell. 
     In an example Type 2 cell, in a discharged state the electrolyte comprises cations of the negative electrode material (e.g., Li + , Na + , K + , Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ ), and the positive electrode comprises positive electrode material (e.g., Sb, Pb, Sn, Zn, Hg). During charging, a cation of the negative electrode material from the electrolyte accepts one or more electrons (e.g., from a negative current collector) to form the negative electrode comprising the negative electrode material. In some examples, the negative electrode material is liquid and wets into a foam (or porous) structure of the negative current collector. In some examples, negative current collector may not comprise foam (or porous) structure. In some examples, the negative current collector may comprise a metal, such as, for example, tungsten (e.g., to avoid corrosion from Zn), tungsten carbide or molybdenum negative collector not comprising Fe—Ni foam. Concurrently, positive electrode material from the positive electrode sheds electrons (e.g., to a positive current collector) and dissolves into the electrolyte as cations of the positive electrode material (e.g., Sb 3+ , Pb 2+ , Sn 2+ , Zn 2+ , Hg 2+ ). The concentration of the cations of the positive electrode material can vary in vertical proximity within the electrolyte (e.g., as a function of distance above the positive electrode material) based on the atomic weight and diffusion dynamics of the cation material in the electrolyte. In some examples, the cations of the positive electrode material are concentrated in the electrolyte near the positive electrode. 
     Although electrochemical cells of the present disclosure have been described, in some examples, as operating in a Type 1 mode or Type 2 mode, other modes of operation are possible. Type 1 mode and Type 2 mode are provided as examples and are not intended to limit the various modes of operation of electrochemical cells disclosed herein. 
     Batteries and Housings 
     Electrochemical cells of the disclosure can include housings that may be suited for various uses and operations. A housing can include one cell or a plurality of cells. A housing can be configured to electrically couple the electrodes to a switch, which can be connected to the external power source and/or the electrical load. The cell housing may include, for example, an electrically conductive container that is electrically coupled to a first pole of the switch and/or another cell housing, and an electrically conductive container lid (e.g., cell cap) that is electrically coupled to a second pole of the switch and/or another cell housing. The cell can be arranged within a cavity of the container. A first one of the electrodes of the cell (e.g., positive electrode) can contact and be electrically coupled with an endwall of the container. A second one of the electrodes of the cell (e.g., negative electrode) can contact and be electrically coupled with a conductive feed-through or conductor (e.g., negative current lead) on the container lid (collectively referred to herein as “cell lid assembly,” “lid assembly” or “cap assembly” herein). An electrically insulating seal (e.g., bonded ceramic ring) may electrically isolate negative potential portions of the cell from positive portions of the container (e.g., electrically insulate the negative current lead from the positive current lead). In an example, the negative current lead and the container lid (e.g., cell cap) can be electrically isolated from each other, where a dielectric sealant material can be placed between the negative current lead and the cell cap. In some instances, the container lid is electrically isolated from the container. The cell lid may or may not be electrically isolated from the negative current lead in such instances. As an alternative, a housing includes an electrically insulating sheath (e.g., alumina sheath) or corrosion resistant and electrically conductive sheath or crucible (e.g., graphite sheath or crucible). In some cases, a housing and/or container may be a battery housing and/or container. 
     A cell can have any cell and seal configuration disclosed herein. For instance, the active cell materials can be held within a sealed steel/stainless steel container with a high temperature seal on the cell lid. A negative current lead can pass through the cell lid (and be sealed to the cell lid by the dielectric high temperature seal), and connect with a porous negative current collector (e.g., metal foam) suspended in an electrolyte. In some cases, the cell can use a graphite sheath, coating, crucible, surface treatment or lining (or any combination thereof) on the inner wall of the cell crucible. In other cases, the cell may not use a graphite sheath, coating, crucible, surface treatment or lining on an inner wall of the cell crucible. The container or container lining material may be electrically conductive. 
     A battery, as used herein, can comprise one or more (e.g., a plurality of) electrochemical cells. The cell(s) can include housings. Individual cells can be electrically coupled to one another in series and/or in parallel. In series connectivity, the positive terminal of a first cell is connected to a negative terminal of a second cell. In parallel connectivity, the positive terminal of a first cell can be connected to a positive terminal of a second, and/or additional, cell(s). Similarly, cell modules, packs, cores, CEs and systems can be connected in series and/or in parallel in the same manner as described for cells. 
     With reference to  FIG. 1 , an electrochemical cell (A) is a unit comprising an anode and a cathode. The cell may comprise an electrolyte and be sealed in a housing. In some cases, the electrochemical cells can be stacked (B) to form a battery (i.e., a compilation of one or more electrochemical cells). The cells can be arranged in parallel, in series, or both in parallel and in series (C). Further, cell modules, packs, cores, CEs and/or systems can be connected in series and/or in parallel. Interconnections  101  may connect individual cells and/or groups of cells. 
     Further, as described in greater detail elsewhere herein, the cells can be arranged in groups (e.g., modules, packs, cores, CEs, systems, or any other group comprising one or more electrochemical cells). In some cases, such groups of electrochemical cells may allow a given number of cells to be controlled or regulated together at the group level (e.g., in concert with or instead of regulation/control of individual cells). 
     Electrochemical cells of the disclosure (e.g., Type 1 cell operated in Type 2 mode, Type 1 cell operated in Type 1 mode, or Type 2 cell) may be capable of storing and/or receiving input of (“taking in”) a suitably large amount of energy (e.g., substantially large amounts of energy). In some instances, a cell is capable of storing and/or taking in and/or discharging about 1 watt-hour (Wh), about 5 Wh, 25 Wh, about 50 Wh, about 100 Wh, about 250 Wh, about 500 Wh, about 1 kilo-Watt-hour (kWh), about 1.5 kWh, about 2 kWh, about 3 kWh, about 5 kWh, about 10 kWh, about 15 kWh, about 20 kWh, about 30 kWh, about 40 kWh, or about 50 kWh. In some instances, the battery is capable of storing and/or taking in and/or discharging at least about 1 Wh, at least about 5 Wh, at least about 25 Wh, at least about 50 Wh, at least about 100 Wh, at least about 250 Wh, at least about 500 Wh, at least about 1 kWh, at least about 1.5 kWh, at least about 2 kWh, at least about 3 kWh, at least about 5 kWh, at least about 10 kWh, at least about 15 kWh, at least about 20 kWh, at least about 30 kWh, at least about 40 kWh, or at least about 50 kWh. It is recognized that the amount of energy stored in an electrochemical cell and/or battery may be less than the amount of energy taken into the electrochemical cell and/or battery (e.g., due to inefficiencies and losses). A cell can have such energy storage capacities upon operating at any of the current densities herein. 
     A cell can be capable of providing a current at a current density of at least about 10 milliamperes per square centimeter (mA/cm 2 ), 20 mA/cm 2 , 30 mA/cm 2 , 40 mA/cm 2 , 50 mA/cm 2 , 60 mA/cm 2 , 70 mA/cm 2 , 80 mA/cm 2 , 90 mA/cm 2 , 100 mA/cm 2 , 200 mA/cm 2 , 300 mA/cm 2 , 400 mA/cm 2 , 500 mA/cm 2 , 600 mA/cm 2 , 700 mA/cm 2 , 800 mA/cm 2 , 900 mA/cm 2 , 1 A/cm 2 , 2 A/cm 2 , 3 A/cm 2 , 4 A/cm 2 , 5 A/cm 2 , or 10 A/cm 2 , where the current density is determined based on the effective cross-sectional area of the electrolyte and where the cross-sectional area is the area that is orthogonal to the net flow direction of ions through the electrolyte during charge or discharging processes. In some instances, a cell can be capable of operating at a direct current (DC) efficiency of at least about 10%, 20%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 90%, 95% and the like. In some instances, a cell can be capable of operating at a charge efficiency (e.g., Coulombic charge efficiency) of at least about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%, 99.95%, 99.99%, and the like. 
     In a charged state, electrochemical cells of the disclosure (e.g., Type 1 cell operated in Type 2 mode, Type 1 cell operated in Type 1 mode, or Type 2 cell) can have (or can operate at) a voltage of at least about 0.5 V, 0.6 V, 0.7 V, 0.8 V, 0.9 V, 1.0 V, 1.1 V, 1.2 V, 1.3 V, 1.4 V, 1.5 V, 1.6 V, 1.7 V, 1.8 V, 1.9 V, 2.0 V, 2.1 V, 2.2 V, 2.3 V, 2.4 V, 2.5 V, 2.6 V, 2.7 V, 2.8 V, 2.9 V, or 3.0 V. In some cases, a cell can have an open circuit voltage (OCV) of at least about 0.5 V, 0.6 V, 0.7 V, 0.8 V, 0.9 V, 1.0 V, 1.1 V, 1.2 V, 1.3 V, 1.4 V, 1.5 V, 1.6 V, 1.7 V, 1.8 V, 1.9 V, 2.0 V, 2.1 V, 2.2 V, 2.3 V, 2.4 V, 2.5 V, 2.6 V, 2.7 V, 2.8 V, 2.9 V, or 3.0 V. In an example, a cell has an open circuit voltage greater than about 0.5 V, greater than about 1 V, greater than about 2 V, or greater than about 3 V. In some cases, a charge cut-off voltage (CCV) of a cell is from about 0.5 V to 1.5 V, 1 V to 3 V, 1.5 V to 2.5 V, 1.5 V to 3 V, or 2 V to 3 V in a charged state. In some cases, a charge cut-off voltage (CCV) of a cell is at least about 0.5 V, 0.6 V, 0.7 V, 0.8 V, 0.9 V, 1.0 V, 1.1 V, 1.2 V, 1.3 V, 1.4 V, 1.5 V, 1.6 V, 1.7 V, 1.8 V, 1.9 V, 2.0 V, 2.1 V, 2.2 V, 2.3 V, 2.4 V, 2.5 V, 2.6 V, 2.7 V, 2.8 V, 2.9 V or 3.0 V. In some cases, a voltage of a cell (e.g., operating voltage) is between about 0.5 V and 1.5 V, 1 V and 2 V, 1 V and 2.5 V, 1.5 V and 2.0 V, 1 V and 3 V, 1.5 V and 2.5 V, 1.5 V and 3 V, or 2 V and 3 V in a charged state. A cell can provide such voltage(s) (e.g., voltage, OCV and/or CCV) upon operating at up to and exceeding about 10 cycles, 20 cycles, 30 cycles, 40 cycles, 50 cycles, 100 cycles, 200 cycles, 300 cycles, 400 cycles, 500 cycles, 600 cycles, 700 cycles, 800 cycles, 900 cycles, 1,000 cycles, 2,000 cycles, 3,000 cycles, 4,000 cycles, 5,000 cycles, 10,000 cycles, 20,000 cycles, 50,000 cycles, 100,000 cycles, or 1,000,000 or more cycles (also “charge/discharge cycles” herein). The cell can operate at various operating temperatures. Upon discharging, the cell can discharge to a voltage of about 0.6 V, 0.5 V, 0.4 V, 0.3 V, 0.2 V, 0.1 V or less. 
     An electrochemical cell of the present disclosure can have a response time of any suitable value (e.g., suitable for responding to disturbances in the power grid). In some instances, the response time is about 100 milliseconds (ms), about 50 ms, about 10 ms, about 1 ms, and the like. In some cases, the response time is at most about 100 milliseconds (ms), at most about 50 ms, at most about 10 ms, at most about 1 ms, and the like. 
     A compilation or array of cells (e.g., battery) can include any suitable number of cells, such as at least about 2, at least about 5, at least about 10, at least about 50, at least about 100, at least about 500, at least about 1000, at least about 5000, at least about 10000, and the like. In some examples, a battery includes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 2000, 5000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000, 100,000, 500,000, or 1,000,000 cells. 
     Batteries of the disclosure may be capable of storing and/or taking in a suitably large amount of energy (e.g., a substantially large amount of energy) for use with a power grid (i.e., a grid-scale battery) or other loads or uses. In some instances, a battery is capable of storing and/or taking in and/or discharging about 5 kilo-Watt-hour (kWh), about 25 kWh, about 50 kWh, about 100 kWh, about 500 kWh, about 1 mega-Watt-hour (MWh), about 1.5 MWh, about 2 MWh, about 3 MWh, about 5 MWh, about 10 MWh, about 25 MWh, about 50 MWh, or about 100 MWh. In some instances, the battery is capable of storing and/or taking in at least about 1 kWh, at least about 5 kWh, at least about 25 kWh, at least about 50 kWh, at least about 100 kWh, at least about 500 kWh, at least about 1 MWh, at least about 1.5 MWh, at least about 2 MWh, at least about 3 MWh, at least about 4 MWh, at least about 5 MWh, at least about 10 MWh, at least about 25 MWh, at least about 50 MWh, or at least about 100 MWh. 
     In some instances, the cells and cell housings are stackable. Any suitable number of cells can be stacked. Cells can be stacked side-by-side, on top of each other, or both. In some instances, at least about 3, 6, 10, 50, 100, or 500 cells are stacked. In some cases, a stack of 100 cells is capable of storing and/or taking in at least about 50 kWh of energy. A first stack of cells (e.g., 10 cells) can be electrically connected to a second stack of cells (e.g., another 10 cells) to increase the number of cells in electrical communication (e.g., 20 in this instance). In some instances, the energy storage device comprises a stack of 1 to 10, 11 to 50, 51 to 100, or more electrochemical cells. 
     An electrochemical energy storage device can include one or more individual electrochemical cells. An electrochemical cell can be housed in a container, which can include a container lid (e.g., cell cap) and seal component. The device can include at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 1000, 10,000, 100,000 or 1,000,000 cells. The container lid may utilize, for example, a seal (e.g., annular dielectric gasket) to electrically isolate the container from the container lid. Such a component may be constructed from an electrically insulating material, such as, for example, glass, oxide ceramics, nitride ceramics, chalcogenides, or a combination thereof. The seal may be made hermetic by one or more methods. 
       FIG. 2  schematically illustrates a battery that comprises an electrically conductive housing  201  and a conductor  202  in electrical communication with a current collector  203 . The battery of  FIG. 2  can be a cell of an energy storage device. The conductor can be electrically isolated from the housing and can protrude through the housing through an aperture in the housing such that the conductor of a first cell is in electrical communication with the housing of a second cell when the first and second cells are stacked. 
     In some cases, a cell comprises a negative current collector, a negative electrode, an electrolyte, a positive electrode and a positive current collector. The negative electrode can be part of the negative current collector. As an alternative, the negative electrode is separate from, but otherwise maintained in electrical communication with, the negative current collector. The positive electrode can be part of the positive current collector. As an alternative, the positive electrode can be separate from, but otherwise maintained in electrical communication with, the positive current collector. 
     A cell housing can comprise an electrically conductive container and a conductor in electrical communication with a current collector. The conductor may protrude through the housing through an aperture in the container and may be electrically isolated from the container. The conductor of a first housing may contact the container of a second housing when the first and second housings are stacked. 
       FIG. 3  is a cross-sectional side view of an electrochemical cell or battery  300  comprising a housing  301 , an electrically conductive feed-through (e.g., conductor, such as a conductor rod)  302  that passes through an aperture in the housing and is in electrical communication with a liquid metal negative electrode  303 , a liquid metal positive electrode  305 , and a liquid salt electrolyte  304  between the liquid metal electrodes  303 ,  305 . The cell or battery  300  can be configured for use with cell chemistries operated under a low voltage mode (“Type 1 mode”) or high voltage mode (“Type 2 mode”), as disclosed elsewhere herein. The conductor  302  may be electrically isolated from the housing  301  (e.g., using electrically insulating seals). The housing  301  can also include a first (e.g., negative) current collector or lead  307  and a second (e.g., positive) current collector  308 . The negative current collector  307  may comprise foam material  303  that behaves like a sponge, and the negative electrode liquid metal soaks into the foam. The positive current collector  308  may be configured as part of the housing  301 ; for example, the bottom end wall of the housing may be configured as the positive current collector  308 , as illustrated in  FIG. 3 . The liquid metal negative electrode  303  is in contact with the molten salt electrolyte  304 . The liquid salt electrolyte is also in contact with the positive liquid metal electrode  305 . The positive liquid metal electrode  305  can be in electrical communication with the housing  301  along the side walls and/or along the bottom end wall of the housing. 
     The housing  301  can comprise a housing interior  306 . The housing interior  306  may include, but is not limited to, a sheath (e.g., a graphite sheath), a coating, a crucible (e.g., a graphite crucible), a surface treatment, a lining, or any combination thereof). In one example, the housing interior  306  is a sheath. In another example, the housing interior  306  is a crucible. In yet another example, examples, the housing interior  306  is a coating or surface treatment. The housing interior  306  may be thermally conductive, thermally insulating, electrically conductive, electrically insulating, or any combination thereof. In some cases, the housing interior  306  may be provided for protection of the housing (e.g., for protecting the stainless steel material of the housing from corrosion). In some cases, the housing interior can be anti-wetting to the liquid metal positive electrode. In some cases, the housing interior can be anti-wetting to the liquid electrolyte. Viewed from a top or bottom direction, as indicated respectively by “TOP VIEW” and “BOTTOM VIEW” in  FIG. 3 , the cross-sectional geometry of the cell or battery  300  can be circular, elliptical, square, rectangular, polygonal, curved, symmetric, asymmetric or any other compound shape based on design requirements for the battery. In an example, the cell or battery  300  is axially symmetric with a circular or square cross-section. Components of cell or battery  300  (e.g., component in  FIG. 3 ) may be arranged within the cell or battery in an axially symmetric fashion. In some cases, one or more components may be arranged asymmetrically, such as, for example, off the center of the axis  309 . 
     In some cases, a cell can include one or more alloyed products that are liquid, semi-liquid (or semi-solid), or solid. The alloyed products can be immiscible (or, in some cases, soluble) with the negative electrode, positive electrode and/or electrolyte. The alloyed products can form from electrochemical processes during charging or discharging of a cell. 
     An alloyed product can include an element constituent of a negative electrode, positive electrode and/or electrolyte. An alloyed product can have a different density than the negative electrode, positive electrode or electrolyte, or a density that is similar or substantially the same. The location of the alloyed product can be a function of the density of the alloyed product compared to the densities of the negative electrode, electrolyte and positive electrode. The alloyed product can be situated in the negative electrode, positive electrode or electrolyte, or at a location (e.g., interface) between the negative electrode and the electrolyte or between the positive electrode and the electrolyte, or any combination thereof. In an example, an alloyed product is an intermetallic between the positive electrode and the electrolyte (see, for example,  FIG. 4 ). In some cases, some electrolyte can seep in between the intermetallic and the positive electrode. In other examples, the alloyed product can be at other locations within the cell and be formed of a material of different stoichiometries/compositions, depending on the chemistry, temperature, and/or charge state of the cell. 
       FIG. 4  is a cross-sectional side view of an electrochemical cell or battery  400  with an intermetallic layer  410 . The intermetallic layer  410  can include a mutual reaction compound of a material originating from the negative electrode  403  and positive electrode material  405 . For example, a negative liquid metal electrode  403  can comprise an alkali or alkaline earth metal (e.g., Na, Li, K, Mg, or Ca), the positive liquid metal electrode  405  can comprise one or more of transition metal, d-block (e.g., Group 12), Group IIIA, IVA, VA or VIA elements (e.g., lead and/or antimony and/or bismuth), and the intermetallic layer  410  can comprise a mutual reaction compound or product thereof (e.g., alkali plumbide, antimonide or bismuthide, e.g., Na 3 Pb, Li 3 Sb, K 3 Sb, Mg 3 Sb 2 , Ca 3 Sb 2 , or Ca 3 Bi 2 ). An upper interface  410   a  of the intermetallic layer  410  is in contact with the electrolyte  404 , and a lower interface  410   b  of the intermetallic layer  410  is in contact with the positive electrode  405 . The mutual reaction compound may be formed during discharging at an interface between a positive liquid metal electrode (liquid metal cathode in this configuration)  405  and a liquid salt electrolyte  404 . The mutual reaction compound (or product) can be solid or semi-solid. In an example, the intermetallic layer  410  can form at the interface between the liquid metal cathode  405  and the liquid salt electrolyte  404 . In some cases, the intermetallic layer  410  may exhibit liquid properties (e.g., the intermetallic may be semi-solid, or it may be of a higher viscosity or density than one or more adjacent phases/materials). 
     The cell  400  comprises a first current collector  407  and a second current collector  408 . The first current collector  407  is in contact with the negative electrode  403 , and the second current collector  408  is in contact with the positive electrode  405 . The first current collector  407  is in contact with an electrically conductive feed-through  402 . A housing  401  of the cell  400  can include a thermally and/or electrically insulating sheath  406 . In an example, the negative liquid metal electrode  403  includes magnesium (Mg), the positive liquid metal electrode  405  includes antimony (Sb), and the intermetallic layer  410  includes Mg and Sb (Mg x Sb, where ‘x’ is a number greater than zero), such as, for example, magnesium antimonide (Mg 3 Sb 2 ). Cells with a Mg∥Sb chemistry may contain magnesium ions within the electrolyte as well as other salts (e.g., MgCl 2 , NaCl, KCl, or a combination thereof). In some cases, in a discharged state, the cell is deficient in Mg in the negative electrode and the positive electrode comprises and alloy of Mg—Sb. In such cases, during charging, Mg is supplied from the positive electrode, passes through the electrolyte as a positive ion, and deposits onto the negative current collector as Mg. In some examples, the cell has an operating temperature of at least about 550° C., 600° C., 650° C., 700° C., or 750° C., and in some cases between about 650° C. and about 750° C. In a charged state, all or substantially all the components of the cell can be in a liquid state. Alternative chemistries exist, including Ca-Mg∥Bi comprising a calcium halide constituent in the electrolyte (e.g., CaF 2 , KF, LiF, CaCl 2 , KCl, LiCl, CaBr 2 , KBr, LiBr, or combinations thereof) and operating above about 500° C., Ca-Mg∥Sb-Pb comprising a calcium halide constituent in the electrolyte (e.g., CaF 2 , KF, LiF, CaCl 2 , KCl, LiCl, CaBr 2 , KBr, LiBr, or combinations thereof) and operating above about 500° C., Li∥Pb-Sb cells comprising a lithium-ion containing halide electrolyte (e.g., LiF, LiCl, LiBr, or combinations thereof) and operating between about 350° C. and about 550° C., and Na∥Pb cells comprising a sodium halide as part of the electrolyte (e.g., NaCl, NaBr, NaI, NaF, LiCl, LiF, LiBr, LiI, KCl, KBr, KF, KI, CaCl 2 , CaF 2 , CaBr 2 , CaI 2 , or combinations thereof) and operating above about 300° C. In some cases, the product of the discharge reaction may be an intermetallic compound (e.g., Mg 3 Sb 2  for the Mg∥Sb cell chemistry, Li 3 Sb for the Li∥Pb-Sb chemistry, Ca 3 Bi 2  for the Ca-Mg∥Bi chemistry, or Ca 3 Sb 2  for the Ca-Mg∥Pb-Sb chemistry), where the intermetallic layer may develop as a distinct solid phase by, for example, growing and expanding horizontally along a direction x and/or growing or expanding vertically along a direction y at the interface between the positive electrode and the electrolyte. The growth may be axially symmetrical or asymmetrical with respect to an axis of symmetry  409  located at the center of the cell or battery  400 . In some cases, the intermetallic layer is observed under Type 1 mode of operation but not Type 2 mode of operation. For example, the intermetallic layer (e.g., the intermetallic layer in  FIG. 4 ) may not form during operation of a Type 2 cell. 
     Cell lid assemblies can use adhesive seals to achieve a gas tight and electrically insulating seal. As seen in  FIG. 5 , a conductive feed-through  501  can be electrically isolated from the housing and the housing can be sealed by an adhesive sealing material  502  disposed between the feed-through and the housing. The adhesive sealing material can include any sealant material capable of adhering to the components of the cell lid assembly that are to be sealed. 
     The seal can retain the reactive material (e.g., vapors of the reactive material) in the device. For example, the seal can retain the reactive metal vapors and/or molten salt vapors in the device. In some cases, the seal surrounds an electrically conductive feed-through (and can electrically isolate the feed-through from the housing of the device), a thermocouple or a voltage sensor. 
     Electrical Control of Energy Storage Devices 
     The present disclosure provides energy storage systems comprising electrochemical energy storage devices (e.g., batteries) and battery management systems. An electrochemical energy storage device can include at least one electrochemical cell, also “cell” and “battery cell” herein, sealed (e.g., hermetically sealed) within a housing. A cell can be configured to deliver electrical energy (e.g., electrons under potential) to a load, such as, for example, an electronic device, another energy storage device or a power grid. A cell can include a negative electrode, an electrolyte adjacent to the negative electrode, and a positive electrode adjacent to the electrolyte. The negative electrode can be separated from the positive electrode by the electrolyte. The negative electrode can be an anode during discharge. The positive electrode can be a cathode during discharge. One or more of the negative electrode, electrolyte and positive electrode can be in a liquid state (e.g., molten), as described elsewhere herein. 
     In some examples, an energy storage device comprises a plurality of cells. Individual cells of the plurality can be electrically coupled to one another in series and/or in parallel. In serial connectivity, the positive terminal of a first cell can be connected to a negative terminal of a second cell. In parallel connectivity, the positive terminal of a first cell can be connected to a positive terminal of a second, and/or additional, cell(s). 
     A battery management system can be programmed or otherwise configured to determine a state of charge or discharge of one or more energy storage cells of the electrochemical energy storage device. The battery management system can include a computer processor or other logic that executes code to determine the state of charge and other operational characteristics, such as voltage, current, temperature, etc., of the one or more energy storage cells. The battery management system can be operatively coupled to one or more electrochemical energy storage cells of the energy storage system. The battery management system can include a current control device, such as, for example, metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), circuit breakers or relays. The current control device can be configured to turn ON or OFF or be in partial ON/OFF state to control the amount of current that is bypassed around (or bled) from a cell for balancing purposes. The partial ON/OFF state can vary the amount of current that is passed from a cell from 0% to 100% of the maximum current that can be passed from the cell, such as, for example, at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or 99% of the maximum. 
     Reference will now be made to the figures, wherein like numerals refer to like parts throughout. It will be appreciated that the figures and features therein are not necessarily drawn to scale. 
       FIG. 8  shows an energy storage system  800  comprising an electrochemical energy storage device  801  with individual electrochemical energy storage cells (or groups of electrochemical cells)  801   a ,  801   b  and  801   c . In some cases, each of  801   a - 801   c  can comprise or represent a parallel string of cells. In some examples, each of  801   a - 801   c  can comprise one or more liquid metal battery cells, as described elsewhere herein. Any aspects of the disclosure described in relation to cells  801   a - 801   c  may equally apply to groups of cells  801   a - 801   c  at least in some configurations. The device  801  has a positive terminal  802  and a negative terminal  803  that can be electrically coupled to a load, such as a power grid, in some cases through one or more intermediary elements. The cells  801   a - 801   c  in the illustrated example are in a serial configuration, but in other examples, cells can be in either a serial or parallel configuration. In some cases, some cells can be in a serial configuration, while other cells can be in a parallel configuration. For instance, cells can be in a parallel configuration to provide for redundancy or increase the overall charge capacity of the electrochemical energy storage device. 
     While the device  801  comprises three cells  801   a - 801   c , the device  801  can include any number of cells. The device  801  can include at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 1000, 10,000, 100,000 or 1,000,000 cells, or between about 1 and about 100,000 or between about 10 and about 1,000 cells. 
     The system  800  further comprises a battery management system  804  that is operatively coupled to the device  801  through a ballasting member  805 . The ballasting member  805  can include one or more ballasting lines, which can include sensing lines and current flow lines. The ballasting member  805  can be used to divert at least some of the current through the cells  801   a - 801   c  through the ballasting member, which can aid in cell balancing. 
     Battery management systems can include various configurations of ballasting circuits. A ballasting circuit can be coupled to an energy storage device and used to estimate the state of charge of the energy storage device, and to aid in balancing individual cells of the energy storage device. 
     Battery Management System 
     An energy storage system (also “system” herein), such as, for example, a battery, may be charged and discharged by flowing electric current across negative and positive terminals of the battery, which can comprise parallel and/or series-connected cells. The direction and intensity of the flow of current may be controlled by power electronics. As a cell is charged and approaches a full state of charge (SOC), the cell voltage may increase and may serve as an electrical signature that can be used to inform a control system that the cell can stop being charged. As a cell is discharged and approaches a zero SOC, the cell voltage may decrease and may serve as an electrical signature that can be used to inform a control system that the cell can stop being discharged. During operation, batteries exhibit a self-discharge current which may not be identical in every cell. The self-discharge current can reduce the state of charge (SOC) of the cell; the process can be reversible and the discharged capacity can be regained during charging. 
     The SOC of a cell can be directly related to the voltage of the cell. Cells connected in parallel can have the same terminal voltage. In some cases, parallel-connected cells can remain at a similar SOC as long as the difference in the self-discharge current is relatively small, for example, less than about 50 mA/cm 2 , 40 mA/cm 2 , 30 mA/cm 2 , 20 mA/cm 2 , 10 mA/cm 2 , 5 mA/cm 2 , 1 mA/cm 2 , 0.5 mA/cm 2 , 0.1 mA/cm 2 , 0.05 mA/cm 2 , or 0.01 mA/cm 2 . However, cells connected in series (or parallel strings of cells connected in series) may result in series-connected cells (or series-connected parallel strings of cells) becoming electrically ‘unbalanced’, namely, that their SOC can become increasingly different over time due to the differences in the self-discharge current. During charging and discharging, the charge capacity may be limited by the cell with the highest state of charge (in some cases, the cell with the lowest self-discharge current) and the discharge capacity may be limited by the cell with the lowest state of charge (in some cases, the cell with the highest self-discharge current). In some cases, the SOC of a cell module is the average of the SOCs of all of the cells within the cell module and the self-discharge rate of the cell module is the sum of the self-discharge rates of all of the cells within the cell module, and the charge capacity of a series-connected string of cell modules may be limited by the cell module with the highest state of charge (in some cases, the cell module with the lowest self-discharge current) and the discharge capacity of a series-connected string of cell modules may be limited by the cell module with the lowest state of charge (in some cases, the cell module with the highest self-discharge current). Thus, during normal operation of series-connected cells (or series-connected cell modules) with different self-discharge currents, the apparent capacity of the system can reduce over time, limited by the cells (or cell modules) with the highest and lowest self-discharge rates. Furthermore, a cell (or a cell module) may be damaged if the voltage applied to the cell (or cell module) exceeds the charge cut-off limit or drops below the discharge cut-off limit. Accordingly, a control system may be included as part of a functioning battery system. The control system can monitor cell voltages to ensure that cells are operated within safe voltage limits and/or provide the capability to electrically balance the cells to ensure that the accessible charge and discharge capacity of the battery does not decrease over time due to, for example, the unbalancing mechanisms driven by differences in the self-discharge currents of cells. 
     A battery management system (BMS) may be provided to manage an energy storage system, such as, for example, one or multiple rechargeable batteries. A BMS can include a computer processor and other electrical components, as described elsewhere herein. In some examples, a BMS manages a battery by protecting it from operating outside its safe or permissible operating range(s), by monitoring its state of charge and state of health, calculating secondary data, reporting the secondary data, controlling its environment, authenticating it and/or balancing it. In some cases, the BMS manages (e.g., monitor and/or control) an energy storage device (e.g., a battery) by monitoring a first parameter (e.g., voltage, temperature) of the energy storage device (e.g., of an electrochemical cell in the energy storage device) and determining a second parameter based on the first parameter (e.g., state of charge, state of health, impedance value, etc.). The second parameter can be derived from the first parameter. The BMS may control the operating state of the energy storage device (e.g., an individual electrochemical cell or a group of electrochemical cells thereof) in response to the first parameter, the second parameter, or both. For example, the BMS can control the operating state of an electrochemical cell in response to the second parameter. 
     A BMS may comprise one or more electrical circuit boards (also “BMS circuit boards” or “BMS board” herein). The electrical circuit board(s) may be provided at the battery (e.g., connected to individual cells or groups of cells) and/or separately from the battery (e.g., electrically connected to individual cells or groups of cells from a remote location). In some examples, a core may comprise one BMS electrical circuit board that is connected to and manages all of the cells or cell modules within the core. In other examples, the BMS system may include multiple electrical circuit boards that are distributed throughout the core (e.g., one connected to each cell pack). Each separate electrical circuit board can be connected to and control its own set of cells, cell modules or one or more cell packs. Each separate electrical circuit board can communicate information to another electrical circuit board. For example, each separate electrical circuit board can communicate information to an electrical circuit board that coordinates information flow to and from all of the separate distributed electrical circuit boards. 
       FIG. 12A ,  FIG. 12B  and  FIG. 12C  are block diagrams of an example of a BMS circuit board  1200 . The BMS board may be a controller. The BMS board may comprise a chip and/or board comprising a circuit. The BMS board may comprise a central processing unit (CPU). The CPU may make the circuit operational by, for example, gathering different inputs and making logic-based decisions, as described in greater detail elsewhere herein. The CPU may process data/information from the BMS board and/or from one or more other portions of a system (e.g., the CPU may be operated as CPU  901  of system  900  in  FIG. 9 ). The CPU may be, for example, a general microprocessor or a readymade platform. The CPU may comprise a single-board computer (e.g., commercial beagle bone device or ready-made platform) as opposed to a general microprocessor. Adopting a ready-made platform as opposed to engineering one may in some cases provide cost and time savings. The readymade platform may be a computer on board, computer on chip or computer on module, such as, for example, a single-board computer (e.g., a single-board computer based on low-power processor(s)). For example, the single-board computer may be a beagle bone device (also “beaglebone device” or “beaglebone” herein; e.g., a commercial “BeagleBone” device) or a beagle board (also “beagleboard” herein; e.g., a commercial “BeagleBoard”). Any aspects of the disclosure described in relation to a single-board computer may equally apply to any computer on chip or computer on board at least in some configurations. 
     The block diagrams in  FIG. 12A ,  FIG. 12B  and  FIG. 12C  show examples of architectural-level views of the BMS (circuit) board  1200 . The BMS board  1200  in  FIG. 12A  may be divided into sections  1200   a  and  1200   b , detailed in  FIG. 12B  and  FIG. 12C . The BMS board  1200  comprises a single-board computer (e.g., beagle bone computer on board)  1205 . The single-board computer  1205  may be equivalent to the CPU. The single-board computer (e.g., beagle bone)  1205  may be central to operation of the circuit  1200 . 
     The BMS or controller board comprises a terminal block  1220  (top left in  FIG. 12A  and  FIG. 12B ). The terminal block can comprise a mechanism to facilitate connection (e.g., electrical and/or mechanical connection) between two or more different areas of a system (e.g., two or more different areas of system  900  in  FIG. 9 ). The terminal block can comprise a connector. The terminal block may receive power from an auxiliary power source (e.g., the terminal block can comprise a connector that electrically connects the auxiliary power source with the controller). The power from the auxiliary source (also “auxiliary power” herein) can be transmitted (e.g., via a filter  1221 ) to the CPU and/or to one or more other components of the controller  1200 . The CPU can be powered by the auxiliary power when the electrochemical cell(s) do not provide power to the controller. The auxiliary power may, for example, power the controller to keep the single-board computer (or CPU) operational (e.g., alive) when electrochemical cell(s) do not provide power to the controller (e.g., when electrochemical cell(s) are at a voltage of 0 Volts). The auxiliary power may provide power to any component/integrated circuit (IC) of the controller (e.g., to the single-board computer (or CPU) and every other component/IC that needs to be energized) to operate the board. The different components/ICs may be powered at different voltage levels (e.g., 12 Volts direct current (VDC), 5 VDC, 3.3 VDC, or another suitable voltage). The single-board computer  1205  may receive power at, for example, 5 V. 
     The terminal block  1220  may comprise or be coupled with a filter  1221  that receives the power from the terminal block. The different voltage levels may be provided, for example, via the filter  1221 . The filter can step down the power to, for example, about 12 VDC, 5 VDC or 3.3 VDC. The filter can transmit the power to the single-board computer (or CPU) and/or to one or more other components of the controller. 
     The filter may be further coupled to a load switcher  1222  and/or buck regulator(s)  1223 . The load switched and/or the buck regulator may be interconnected with each other and/or with a low drop out (LDO) regulator  1224 . In an example, the load switcher outputs 12 V, a first of the buck regulators outputs 3V at 3 A, and a second of the buck regulators outputs 5 V. The output from the second of the buck regulators is further conditioned in the LDO to 3V at 3 A. Thus, in an example, a terminal block is provided on the board, incoming power (e.g., auxiliary power) is routed from the terminal block through a filter, stepped down to 12 VDC, 5 VDC and 3.3 VDC, and the 12 VDC, 5 VDC and 3.3 VDC routed to components in the circuit. 
     The BMS or controller board  1200  comprises an isothermal block (also “isothermal terminal block”)  1210 . The isothermal block  1210  can be a termination location (e.g., a connector) for, for example, one or more (e.g., multiple) thermocouples  1215  for monitoring temperature. The thermocouple(s)  1215  may be, for example, from one or more electrochemical cells and/or from one or more power networks. The isothermal block  1210  can comprise a thermistor inter-integrated circuit (I 2 C) bus. The isothermal block may be coupled to an analog multiplexer, a temperature monitor, a real-time clock (RTC) (e.g., powered by a coin cell). The analog multiplexer may further be coupled to an analog to digital converter (ADC). The isothermal block may be in communication with the single-board computer via one or more connections (e.g., directly via an inter-integrated circuit (I 2 C) connection and/or via a serial peripheral interface (SPI) from the ADC). 
     A plug terminal block  1270  may be provided. The plug terminal block  1270  may be configured for auxiliary input and/or output, 5 Volt or 12 V signaling, or any combination thereof. The plug terminal block  1270  may be coupled to a buffer (e.g., 12 V in), a driver (e.g., 1.5 A lo-side driver) and/or a solid-state relay. 
     One or more (e.g., different) electrical isolation detection schemes (e.g., Bender devices comprising, or combined with, ground fault detectors, relays, etc.)  1225  may be connected to the circuit  1200  (middle left in  FIG. 12A  and  FIG. 12B ). Such devices may be connected with the board  1200  via one or more (plug) terminal blocks  1230 . 
     The BMS or controller board  1200  comprises a header or panel interface  1235 . The header may be coupled to one or more human interface light emitting diodes (LEDs)  1240   a  configured to show, for example, a status condition of one or more electrochemical cells (or any energy storage device monitored or controlled by the BMS) such as fault, offline, warming up, active (e.g., charging or discharging), or any combination thereof. Further, the header may be coupled to one or more human interface buttons  1240   b  (e.g., power-off, power-on). 
     A port expander (also “TO expander” herein)  1245  may be electrically connected to an inter-integrated circuit (I 2 C) port  1250  of the single-board computer  1205 . One or more relay drives (not shown) may be electrically connected to the port expander  1245  (e.g., provision can be made in the circuit for expanding if additional relay drive(s) are required). 
     One or more components  1255  (e.g., an assembly of one or more relays and/or fault relays, such as, for example, Drager Polytron 7000 with relay module) can be configured to, for example, connect a chemical sensor to the circuit  1200 , detect and/or take corrective actions against a cell breach, or a combination thereof (bottom left in  FIG. 12A  and  FIG. 12B ). The component(s) or assembly  1255  can be connected to the board via a (plug) terminal block  1260 . The terminal block  1260  may output, for example, alarm and/or fault signals (e.g., chem-alarm, chem-fault), and the signals may be communicated to the single-board computer  1205 . 
     One or more (e.g., different) communication interfaces  1265   a - c  to the single-board computer  1205  may be provided on the BMS or controller board  1200  (bottom edge in  FIG. 12A ,  FIG. 12B  and  FIG. 12C ). For example, an ethernet jack  1265   a , a universal serial bus (USB) device connector  1265   b  and/or a USB host connector  1265   c  may be provided. One or more of the USB devices may be connected via a USB hub. The USB hub may be in communication with one or more bridges. A bridge may be in communication with a charger (e.g., float charger) or a controller (e.g., furnace controller). 
     In section  1275  of the BMS or controller board  1200 , one or more (e.g., different) universal asynchronous receivers/transmitters (UARTs) for connecting, for example, one or more tilt sensors, relays, current sensors, etc., or any combination thereof to the single-board computer may be provided (bottom right in  FIG. 12A  and  FIG. 12C ). One or more sensors (e.g., tilt sensors), relays, current sensors, and/or other suitable components may be physically placed on separate board(s) and connected to the board  1200  to UARTs (e.g., through DB9 connectors). 
     Contactor(s)  1280  (e.g., 12 V) may be configured to disrupt power path(s). For example, precharge, main positive and main negative contactors maybe provided. The contactors may be connected to the controller board via plug terminal block  1281 . The plug terminal block may be in electrical communication with coil driver(s) (e.g., 12 V in). 
     Voltages (e.g., cell voltage, fuse voltage, core voltage, stack level voltage inputs, etc.)  1285  may be provided to the controller via a plug terminal block  1286 . The plug terminal block may be (e.g., sequentially) coupled to a filter, an ADC and a bus isolator. Power isolation (e.g., 12 V in, V isol  out) may be provided. The bus isolator may be connected to the single-board computer by, for example, a serial peripheral interface (SPI) bus. 
     Voltage sense circuitry  1290  may include cell voltage inputs  1290   a  and a balancing scheme (also “balance taps” herein)  1290   b  (top right in  FIG. 12A  and  FIG. 12C ). As described in greater detail elsewhere herein, an energy storage device  1292  may be coupled to the controller by a ballasting member comprising one or more ballasting lines, which can include sensing lines and current flow lines. As shown in  FIG. 12A  and  FIG. 12C , the balancing portion  1290   b  may be connected to the energy storage device  1292  using a heavy-gauge wire  1291   b , and the cell voltage inputs from the energy storage device  1292  may be connected to the controller using a light-gauge wire  1291   a.    
     The voltage sense circuitry  1290   a  (cell voltage inputs) may comprise one or more analog front-end (AFE) devices  1293   a - c  (e.g., Linear Technology LTC6804 integrated circuit). For example, the wire(s)  1291   a  may be connected to the controller via pluggable terminal blocks. Power isolation  1294   a - c  may be provided for at least a portion of the AFE devices (e.g., 12 V in, individual voltages out for each individual AFE device). For example, power (e.g., 12 V) may be routed to an AFE device (also “AFE” herein) through a power isolator device (also “power isolator” herein). Transformer(s)  1295  may be provided between at least a portion of the AFE devices to enable transformer isolation between AFEs. At least a portion of the AFE devices may be connected to the single-board computer  1205  by a serial peripheral interface (SPI) bus  1296   a . A bus isolator  1296   b  can be provided on the SPI bus  1296   a  between an AFE and the single-board computer. An AFE can comprise an integrated circuit. 
     In an example, the BMS or controller board  1200  comprises the power isolator  1294   a  and the first AFE  1293   a . The power isolator  1294   a  is between the CPU (e.g., single-board computer)  1205  and the first AFE  1293   a . The power isolator can transmit power between the CPU and the first AFE at a voltage level of, for example, about 12 Volts. A second AFE  1293   b  can be isolated from the first AFE by one of the transformers  1295 . The first AFE  1293   a  is connected to the CPU (e.g., single-board computer) by a serial peripheral interface (SPI) bus  1296   a . The SPI bus comprises (or is coupled to) the bus isolator device (also “bus isolator” herein)  1296   b . The second and third AFEs  1293   b  and  1293   c  may also be connected to the CPU (e.g., single-board computer) by the serial peripheral interface (SPI)  1296   a  and bus isolator  1296   b . In some examples, this single connection interface is enabled by the use of the transformers  1295 . 
     The balancing scheme  1290   b  can be achieved, for example, by providing an IO expander  1299   b  (also “port expander” herein) to an inter-integrated circuit (I 2 C) port  1299   a  of the single-board computer device  1205  and connecting one or more relay drives  1298  to the IO expander. The balancing scheme can be implemented through relays  1297  (e.g., 36 relays). For example, the wire(s)  1291   b  may be connected to the controller via a connector (e.g., Anderson PP45). A relay driver  1298  may be coupled to the relays, and the IO expander  1299   b  may electronically connect the relay driver to the single-board computer (e.g., via the I 2 C port  1299   a ). The relay drive(s) can be configured to allow the controller to control the operating state of the electrochemical cell to enable cell balancing between two or more electrochemical cells of an energy storage device. 
     The CPU  1205  and one or more of the AFEs  1293   a - c  can be part of an integrated circuit. The CPU  1205 , terminal block  1220  and filter  1221  can be part of an integrated circuit. Isolated input power may be provided to the BMS or controller board. Board ground may be chassis/earth/frame ground. Dotted lines in  FIG. 12A ,  FIG. 12B  and  FIG. 12C  can in some cases represent boundaries of galvanic isolation. 
     A BMS may monitor the state of a battery as represented by one or more parameters, such as, for example: voltage (e.g., total voltage, voltages of individual cells, voltage of cell modules, voltage across interconnections such as, for example, across busbars and other cell-to-cell or pack-to-pack wiring, minimum and maximum cell voltage, voltage of periodic taps, differential voltage between two points a circuit, or sporadic fluctuations in cell voltage), temperature (e.g., average temperature, coolant intake temperature, coolant output temperature, temperatures of individual cells, temperature of battery management system components on circuit board(s) and/or mounted outside circuit boards, or temperature of surrounding environment), state of charge (SOC) (e.g., the charge level of the battery), leakage current (e.g., an estimate of the leakage current in a given cell or cell module), balancing current (e.g., the current applied by and/or controlled by the BMS to a cell module to keep cell the module electrically and charge balanced with other cell modules connected in series to the cell module), balancing charge capacity (e.g., charge capacity required to keep a cell or cell module balanced with other cells or cell modules), state of health (SOH) (e.g., a variously-defined measurement of the overall condition of the battery), coolant flow (e.g., fluid flow in batteries cooled by air or other fluid(s)), and/or current (e.g., current in or out of the battery). 
     The BMS (e.g., a controller thereof) may obtain power to operate circuit components (e.g., computer processor(s) and/or peripheral devices) from the cell(s) (e.g., the cell(s) monitored by the BMS) and/or from secondary power that may be delivered to the BMS through a local power distribution system. The local power distribution system may be a low voltage DC distribution (e.g., 12 VDC, 24 VDC, 48 VDC) or AC distribution (e.g., 110 VAC to 240 VAC). In some cases, the BMS does not draw power from cell(s) (e.g., the BMS derives power to operate solely from an external power distribution network). In some cases, the BMS may use a power distribution network to start and maintain operation (e.g., when cells have zero voltage). The power distribution system may comprise a secondary dedicated back-up battery system to prevent the BMS system from abruptly shutting down in the event of a power loss to the power distribution network. In some cases, the BMS (e.g., the controller) receives power from an auxiliary power source. The auxiliary power source may, for example, maintain or keep BMS electronics operational (also “alive” or “powered” herein) when cells have zero voltage (e.g., such that cells may be monitored when they have zero voltage). The auxiliary power source may be, for example, an electric power grid and/or the back-up battery system. In some cases, the controller is predominantly powered from the auxiliary power source. For example, greater than or equal to about 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 100% of the power of the controller is provided by the auxiliary power source. In some implementations, the BMS may receive auxiliary power from the auxiliary power source as described in relation to  FIG. 12A ,  FIG. 12B  and  FIG. 12C . For example, the auxiliary power may be routed as shown in  FIG. 12A ,  FIG. 12B  and  FIG. 12C  (e.g., routed to components to keep them alive when cells are at zero volts). 
     A BMS may monitor and control the temperature of the battery to ensure that cells are operated within operating parameters, such as, for example, within given temperature limits. For example, the operating temperature may be at and/or maintained between about 250° C. and 750° C. In some examples, the operating temperature may be at and/or maintained between about 300° C. and 750° C., between about 350° C. and 750° C., between about 400° C. and 750° C., between about 450° C. and 750° C., between about 500° C. and 750° C., between about 550° C. and 750° C., between about 600° C. and 750° C., between about 440° C. and 500° C., between about 440° C. and 480° C., between about 440° C. and 460° C., between about 460° C. and 480° C., or between about 650° C. and 750° C. In other examples, the operating temperature may be at and/or maintained between about 250° C. and 700° C., between about 250° C. and 650° C., between about 250° C. and 600° C., between about 250° C. and 550° C., between about 250° C. and 500° C., between about 250° C. and 450° C., between about 250° C. and 400° C., between about 350° C. and 400° C., or between about 250° C. and 350° C. 
     A cell or a battery operating under (e.g., below) the minimum operating temperature limit may have low charging capacity. In some cases, the battery is not able to charge or discharge at a useful rate (e.g., the battery may charge or discharge at about 0% of its rated charge/discharge capacity) when it is operated below the minimum operating temperature limit. The BMS may be configured to keep the cell or battery operating over (e.g., above) a minimum temperature of at least about 250° C., 300° C., 350° C., 400° C., 450° C., 500° C., 550° C., 600° C. or 650° C. In some cases, a cell or a battery operating over the maximum operating temperature limit may cause damage to the battery. For example, the BMS may keep the cell or battery operating under (e.g., below) a maximum temperature of at most about 350° C., 400° C., 450° C., 500° C., 550° C., 600° C., 650° C., 700° C., or 750° C. Temperature variations among individual cells and/or cell packs may cause a decrease in battery performance. 
     The temperature(s) of a cell or a battery may be measured by contact-based or non-contact thermal sensors suitable for the operating temperature of the liquid battery (e.g., between about 250° C. and 750° C.). The temperature may be measured by the battery management system. In some cases, the temperature of the cell is measured by contacting the probes of a thermocouple with the liquid metal negative electrode, liquid salt electrolyte, and/or liquid metal positive electrode in a cell. Two metal probes of the thermocouple can produce a voltage which is communicated to a local daughter board via a wire or a wireless connection. The voltage produced by the thermocouple can be compared with a reference voltage on the daughter board and converted into temperature information. In some cases, the temperature of the cell is measured by an infrared (IR) thermometer located on or connected to the daughter board and thermally insulated from a cell. A laser on the IR sensor can aim at one or more cell bodies. By measuring the amount of infrared energy emitted by the one or more cell bodies, the IR thermometer can measure the temperature of a cell or a group of cells (e.g., cell pack) from a distance. 
     A BMS may calculate one or more parameters based on the measurements from one or more cells or a group of cells (e.g., a cell module), such as, for example: average (e.g., nominal) charge voltage during a full or partial charge, average (e.g., nominal) discharge voltage during a full or partial discharge, maximum charge current as a charge current limit, maximum discharge current as a discharge current limit, energy (e.g., in kWh) delivered during the last full or partial discharge, energy (e.g., in kWh) accepted (also “taken in” herein) during the last full or partial charge, energy efficiency after the cells are brought back to a previously recorded SOC (e.g., full SOC) after one or more full or partial charges/discharges (e.g., the total energy (e.g., in kWh) provided to the battery during one or more (e.g., one or multiple, such as, for example, at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 300 or more) charging steps divided by the total energy (e.g., in kWh) provided by the battery during one or more (e.g., one or multiple, such as, for example, at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 300 or more) discharging steps), discharge capacity (e.g., in Ah) delivered during the last full or partial discharge cycle, charge capacity (e.g., in Ah) accepted (also “taken in” herein) during the last full or partial charge, Coulombic efficiency after the cells are brought back to a previously recorded SOC (e.g., full SOC) after one or more full or partial charges/discharges (e.g., the total capacity (e.g., in Ah) provided to the battery during one or more (e.g., one or multiple, such as, for example, at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 300 or more) charging steps divided by the total capacity (e.g., in Ah) provided by the battery during one or more (e.g., one or multiple, such as, for example, at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 300 or more) discharging steps), internal impedance of a cell (e.g., to determine open circuit voltage), change in discharge or charge capacity (e.g., in Ah) from a complete discharge over time, total energy delivered since first use, total operating time since first use, time at operating temperature since first use, time at various temperatures above standard operating temperature or at various temperature ranges above standard operating temperature, total number of thermal cycles (e.g., number of times the system is heated up to operating temperature and cooled to a temperature less than the operating temperature (e.g., room temperature)), and/or total number of charge/discharge cycles. In some examples, the BMS can estimate the SOC of a battery by counting Coulombs (i.e., by counting number of electrons) that flow through one or more cells. In other examples, the BMS can estimate the state of charge of a battery by receiving the number of Coulombs that have been provided to the battery by separate charging circuitry (e.g., power electronics such as a bi-directional inverter). 
     While charging, upon reaching the maximum charge current (e.g., highest allowable charge current) and/or maximum charge voltage (e.g., highest allowable voltage, such as, for example, a pre-defined maximum voltage cut-off limit), the BMS (e.g., the controller) may provide a signal to the power electronics system to slow or stop charging the battery (e.g., to slow or stop a charging rate). While discharging, upon reaching the maximum discharge current (e.g., highest allowable discharge current) and/or minimum discharge voltage (e.g., lowest allowable voltage, such as, for example, a pre-defined minimum voltage cut-off limit), the BMS (e.g., the controller) may provide a signal to the power electronics to stop discharging (e.g., to slow or stop a discharging rate). In some cases, while charging or discharging, the BMS (e.g., the controller) may provide a signal to the power electronics system to slow or stop charging or discharging the battery (e.g., to slow or stop a charging or discharging rate) when a pre-defined temperature limit is exceeded. The BMS may provide such signals directly to the power electronics, to one or more intermediate control electronic systems which in turn may provide such information to the power electronics, or a combination thereof. Further examples of management of operating conditions of the battery include, for example, a BMS controller configured to open relays or contactors in response to a measured current that exceeds a pre-determined value during charging, discharging or idling; or to start, stop or pause operation or alter operating parameters of the battery (or a system comprising the battery) in response to one or more signals received from one or more higher order controller (or other controllers) or from one or more remotely located control stations. A control station may be in communication with the BMS through a communication network such as, for example, a communication network in a computer system comprising the BMS (e.g., system  900  in  FIG. 9 ). 
     The BMS may report one or more (e.g., all) such measured or calculated data to an external device (e.g., a server or remote computer), using a communication links, such as, for example: serial communications (e.g., a CAN bus, SPI bus, isolated SPI bus or a MODBUS), direct wiring, DC-BUS (e.g., serial communication over power line), and/or wireless communications. In some examples, the (BMS) system reports measured or calculated data to higher order controller(s) through serial, direct wiring, power line and/or wireless communications. In some examples, the BMS comprises a plurality of controllers. The controllers can communicate with one another and/or with other controllers outside a system (e.g., BMS system) boundary (e.g., boundary  1105 ,  1110  or  1115  in  FIG. 11 ) through CAN bus, MODBUS, SPI or isolated SPI bus using wired or wireless connections. 
     The BMS may communicate internally by use of a smart battery system. The smart battery system communication may take place via an Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C) bus, System Management Bus (SMBus) or a Power Management Bus (PMBus). The SMBus can define a set of protocols for inter-device communications. PMBus can be a variant of an SMBus and can provide additional protocols for power management. In some examples, the BMS may communicate internally by use of a smart battery system via the SMBus. In other examples, the BMS may communicate internally by use of a smart battery system via the PMBus. The smart battery system can use a special integrated circuit in the battery to monitor the battery, report information and/or perform power management operations via a smart battery charger (e.g., based on estimated remaining charge on the battery). In some cases, the BMS may use one or more specific integrated circuits (ICs) that provide voltage sensing, current sensing, and/or fuel (e.g., active material) gauging functions. In other cases, the BMS may use one or more specific integrated circuits that provide voltage and/or current isolation across different areas of the circuit or provide isolated communication links (e.g., isolated voltage and/or current communication links) between different parts of the system. 
     The BMS may protect an energy storage system (e.g., battery) by preventing it from operating outside given operating conditions (e.g., its safe operating conditions), such as, for example: over-current (e.g., can be different in charging and discharging modes), over-voltage (e.g., during charging), under-voltage (e.g., during discharging), over-temperature, under-temperature, and/or over-pressure (e.g., for NiMH or lead-acid batteries). In some examples, the BMS can detect ground fault or leakage current conditions in cells. When a battery is found to be operating outside its safe operating conditions, the BMS can prevent such operation by implementing one or more actions or features. In some examples, the BMS may include an internal switch (e.g., relay or solid state device) that is activated (e.g., opened) if the battery is operated outside its safe operating conditions. In some examples, the BMS may request the devices (e.g., loads) to which the battery is connected to reduce or even terminate using the battery (e.g., power electronics are signaled to stop flow of current through the battery). In other examples, a BMS may actively control the environment, such as, for example, through heaters, fans, lift-gates, valves, air conditioning and/or fluid coolant(s). 
     The BMS may provide the capability to monitor cell temperatures to ensure that the accessible charge and discharge capacities of the battery do not decrease over time due to the unbalancing of temperatures among cells or batteries. In some examples, the BMS may monitor the temperatures of individual cells. In some examples, the BMS may monitor the temperature of groups of cells (e.g., individual cell modules, cell packs, or some cell packs within a core). In some cases, the BMS can monitor temperature of heat intake and/or heat output (e.g., temperature of dissipated heat) of individual cells, groups of cells or batteries. In some cases, the BMS can monitor temperature of coolant intake and/or coolant output of a group of cells (e.g., a pack, a core, a CE, or a system). 
     A BMS board may control the cell temperatures using a variety of approaches. When a cell temperature is below the minimum operating temperature, the control system or BMS may increase the charging or discharging rate for the individual cell, and/or turn on a heating source (e.g., resistive heating elements located within the thermal enclosure of a core) for a cell, a cell module, a cell pack, multiple cell packs, portions of a core or a complete core, until its temperature exceeds the minimum operating temperature (e.g., 450° C.). When a cell temperature is above the maximum operating temperature, the control system or BMS may decrease or stop the charging or discharging of the cell or group of cells (e.g., cell pack), turn on a cooling fan, open vents to allow for convective cooling, and/or turn on a liquid coolant for the individual cell, until its temperature drops below the (e.g., pre-set) maximum operating temperature (e.g., 550° C.). 
     The BMS may also measure and/or control cell voltage (e.g., potential difference between the positive and negative terminals, or components that are electrically connected to the positive and negative terminals, respectively) of parallel strings of cells. The BMS may provide feedback to the power electronics as a means to ensure that the cells do not exceed a given (e.g., pre-defined) cell charge cut-off voltage limit. In some examples, the pre-defined cell charge cut-off voltage limit is about 0.9 V, 1.0 V, 1.1 V, 1.2 V, 1.3 V, 1.4 V, 1.5 V, 1.6 V, 1.7 V, 1.8 V, 1.9 V, or 2.0 V. The BMS may ensure that the cells do not drop below a given (e.g., pre-defined) cell discharge cut-off voltage limit. In some examples, the pre-defined cell discharge cut-off voltage limit is about 0.6 V, 0.5 V, 0.4 V, 0.3 V, 0.2 V, 0.1 V, or 0 V. 
     The BMS may also provide voltage isolation to prevent cell voltages from interfering with sensitive analog and digital measurements. Voltage isolation may be achieved by using a combination of components that are rated for at least about 60V, 100V, 150V, 300V, 600V, 800V, 1000V, 1500V of DC isolation, by using isolated power sources and electrical grounds in BMS circuits, by isolating communications links through isolation transformers (galvanic and electromagnetic isolation) or opto-couplers (optical isolation), by using dedicated isolated communications transceivers and integrated circuits, by physically spacing high and low voltage components, by using special features and geometries for parts, interconnects and/or traces on circuit boards, or any combination thereof. 
     In some implementations, the BMS can comprise a pre-charge system. The pre-charge system can allow the battery to be connected to different loads in a safe way, and/or eliminate excessive inrush currents to load capacitors. The connection from battery to loads may normally be controlled through electromagnetic relays (e.g., contactors). In some examples, the pre-charge circuit can include power resistors that are connected in series with the loads until the capacitors are charged. In some examples, a switched mode power supply connected in parallel to loads can be used to charge the voltage of the load circuit up to a level close enough to battery voltage in order to allow closing of the contactors between the battery and the load circuit. The BMS may include a circuit that can check whether a relay is already closed before pre-charging (e.g., due to welding) to prevent inrush currents to occur. 
     The BMS may actively ensure (e.g., through electrochemical balancing) that at least a portion of the cells (or groups of cells, such as, for example, cell modules) in the battery are at and/or maintained at a similar voltage or state of charge (e.g., in order to maximize the battery&#39;s useful capacity, and/or to prevent localized under-charging or over-charging). In some cases, the BMS can balance the cells (or groups of cells, such as, for example, cell modules) by releasing energy and/or charge from the most charged cells by connecting them to a load (e.g., through passive regulators). For example, the system can balance the SOC of individual electrochemical cells or groups of electrochemical cells of a plurality by selectively depleting and dissipating charge from one or more electrochemical cells with excess SOC, thereby equalizing the SOC of the electrochemical cells with excess SOC with the remaining electrochemical cells of the plurality. In some cases, the BMS can balance the cells (or groups of cells, such as, for example, cell modules) by reducing or stopping the charging current to a sufficiently low level such that current may be bypassed around cells that have reached a pre-defined SOC level. For example, the system can balance (e.g., equalize) the SOC of individual electrochemical cells or groups of electrochemical cells of a plurality by bypassing charging current around one or more electrochemical cells that are at full SOC, thereby providing the bypassed charging current to one or more electrochemical cells that are SOC deficient (e.g., allowing them to reach full charge status). 
     In some cases, the BMS board is outside the thermally enclosed chamber of a group of cells (e.g., the core), and the wires used for balancing pass through the thermal insulation (e.g., of the core) to connect the positive and/or negative terminals of a cell module with the BMS board. In some cases, the BMS system is not designed to disconnect a cell or cell module from its series or parallel connection with other cells or cell modules. Rather, the BMS system may be capable of closing a circuit and providing a path for current to flow around the cell rather than through the cell, or independently discharging or charging one cell or group of cells (e.g., cell module) within an array of series-connected cells or groups of cells (e.g., cell modules). 
     Balancing by releasing energy from the most charged cells by connecting them to a load may be accomplished by closing a circuit on a BMS board that is connected by wires to the positive and negative terminals of the cell or a group of cells (e.g., cell module) that is highly charged, and allowing current to pass from the negative terminal of the cell or group of cells (e.g., cell module) through a resistor, then back to the positive terminal of the same cell or cell module, thereby reducing the SOC of that cell or group of cells (e.g., cell module or cell pack). 
     In some implementations, balancing may be achieved by reducing the charging current passed through a cell or a group of cells (e.g., cell module) that is about fully charged. For example, balancing by reducing the charging current passed through a cell or a cell module that is about fully charged may be accomplished by lowering the current applied by the main power supply (e.g., power electronics such as a bi-directional inverter) to the pack and/or system to an acceptably low level (e.g., about 0.1%, about 1%, or about 10% of maximum system current capability), and closing a circuit on a BMS board that allows electrons to flow from the negative terminal of the cell or cell module to the positive terminal of the same cell or cell module. The electron flow that is allowed to flow through this external circuit path can be about equal to the current being applied by the power supply to the series-connected cell packs and/or cell modules. When the electron flow is allowed to pass through this external circuit instead of passing through the cell or the cell module, the cell or the cell module may be considered to be ‘bypassed’ and may remain at about the same state of charge (e.g., about a fully charged state) during this bypass process. This method can allow electrons to continue to flow through and charge other cells or groups of cells (e.g., cell packs) that are not yet fully charged and are not being bypassed, thereby increasing their state of charge while the bypassed cells are held at about the same state of charge (e.g., at about a fully charged state). Once a cell or a group of cells (e.g., cell module) reaches a given (e.g., pre-defined) voltage cut-off limit to signify that it has reached a given SOC (e.g., it is about fully charged), the BMS can close a circuit to allow this cell or cell module to be bypassed. The battery management system may measure the current that is routed through the bypass to further refine SOC estimates for the cells. This process may continue until all cells are bypassed, at which point, they may have about the same SOC (e.g., all about fully charged) and the balancing process is complete. The circuits on the BMS boards that enabled the cell bypassing can be opened and the power supply can stop applying current, or go back into a normal operating mode. The normal operating mode may include first discharging and then charging and/or discharging. 
     A BMS of the disclosure may be implemented in various topologies. In some examples, the BMS can be configured in a centralized topology: for example, a single controller can be connected to the battery cells through a plurality of wires (e.g., the controller can be connected to each battery cell via an individual wire). In some examples, the BMS can be configured in a distributed topology: for example, a BMS battery controller board can be installed at each cell, module or pack (or other group of cells), with communication cables connecting multiple battery controller boards to each other and/or to a higher order master controller. In some instances, the master controller may then be connected to other higher order controllers. In some instances, the master controller may be connected to other master controllers from different battery strings. In some examples, the BMS can be configured in a modular topology: for example, a few controllers can be provided, each controller handling a certain number of cells, with communication between the controllers. Among these topologies, centralized BMSs may in some cases be most economical, least expandable, and/or plagued by a multitude of wires. Distributed BMSs may in some cases be most expensive, simplest to install, and/or offer cleanest assembly. Modular BMSs may in some cases offer a compromise of the features and problems of the other two topologies. 
     A BMS system may comprise a subsystem (or be in communication with another system) dedicated for voltage measurement of cells. Such a (sub)system may be non-operational under given conditions (e.g., until cells are within less than about 1° C., 5° C., 10° C., 25° C., 50° C., 100° C. or 200° C. of cell operating temperature). The voltage measurement (sub)system may be rendered non-operational by preventing specific controllers, portions of controllers or specific circuit components from being powered (e.g., until cells are not within about 50° C. of cell operating temperature). In some examples, the voltage measurement (sub)system may be powered up and energized, but may be commanded through software not to make any voltage measurements. In other examples, the voltage measurement (sub)system may be powered up and energized, and may proceed to make voltage measurements, but the measurements may be disregarded and not made available for system control functions. For example, the measurements are disregarded when the cell temperature is at least about 50° C., 55° C., 60° C., 65° C., 70° C., 80° C., 90° C., or 100° C. less than the operating temperature of the battery (e.g., at least about 250° C.). In some situations, the BMS may be programmed to power down and de-energize when the operating temperature is at least about 50° C., 55° C., 60° C., 65° C., 70° C., 80° C., 90° C., or 100° C. less than the operating temperature of the battery. In yet other examples, such as, for example, upon failure or breach of one or more cells, the voltage measurement sub(system) may remain operational (e.g., remain powered up and continue measuring voltage) as cell conditions change upon the failure/breach (e.g., rapidly decreasing temperature), or may become non-operational (e.g., be powered down as controlled by a system controller) at one or more given conditions (e.g., temperature at least about 50° C., 55° C., 60° C., 65° C., 70° C., 80° C., 90° C., or 100° C. lower than expected or last recorded cell operating temperature; voltage at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 25% or 50% below (i) a voltage as last recorded for the cell or (ii) one or more voltage(s) of other cells, such as, for example, other cells in the same group of cells or other cells in communication with the same controller or BMS board; or current at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 25% or 50% below (i) a current as last recorded for the cell or (ii) one or more current(s) of other cells, such as, for example, other cells in the same group of cells or other cells in communication with the same controller or BMS board). 
     A BMS system may provide a human machine interface implemented either through visual indicators (e.g., LEDs or LED arrays, LCD displays, touch screens or similar). The interface can enable communication of information to and/or from, and/or interaction with, a user, operator (e.g., system operator), technician, a hardware/software developer, etc (collectively referred to as “users” herein). The interface may allow information to be output to the user. The interface may in some cases allow information to be input by the user. In some cases, the human machine interface comprises a user interface (e.g., a graphical user interface). Additionally, the BMS system may have a dedicated service access port as part of its communications interface to which an operator, user or service technician or a hardware/software developer can connect diagnostic or display devices (e.g., approved diagnostic or display devices). In some cases, access can be given to an operator, user, technician or developer to connect to the controller and monitor it for compliance to design requirements during development. In some cases, access can be given to an operator, user, technician or developer to connect to the controller and monitor the operation of the controller during deployed lifetime. The service access ports can also be used to implement software/firmware upgrades to correct bugs or update system performance (e.g., over time). In some instances, the BMS may comprise dedicated port(s) (e.g., one or more of the service access ports) that allow code updates for part of or all of the system. The BMS (e.g., in distributed topology) may be capable of distributing software updates for at least a portion or all connected systems through a service access port. 
     The BMS and/or the service access port(s) may restrict access to different levels of the system (e.g., to different layers of functionality) to maintain system security through use of access restrictions, passwords, token-based authentication or other encryption methods. Such authentication-based access can be implemented via the human machine interface (e.g., via input of an access code, personal information, fingerprint, etc.). In some cases, users can access the different layers of functionality based on job function and/or responsibility. For example, an operator may access multiple levels of functionality while a technician may access a limited set of functions. 
     The BMS or a related control system may track (or monitor) the discharge capacity of the battery and/or the time it takes to electrically balance the cells, and provide signals to operators or automated operating systems that may flag underperforming or failed cells for further monitoring and/or signal the need for replacement of one or more cells or groups of cells (e.g., cell/module/pack/core replacement). 
     Provided herein are examples of implementations of a BMS.  FIG. 10  shows an example of a BMS. The BMS comprises a board  1001  programmed or otherwise configured to control or regulate one or more distributed daughter boards. The BMS can receive (e.g., at the BMS board  1001 ) input from a server or from a remote computer system via a network. In some situations, the system includes a single BMS board. In other situations, the system includes multiple BMS boards that may or may not be interconnected with one another. The BMS board  1001  can control and receive input from one or more daughter boards, as illustrated in  FIG. 10 . The BMS can be connected (e.g., via one or more daughter boards) to each terminal point of a cell or cell module (e.g., to the top of every cell and to the bottom on every cell). In an example, 4 connections are provided for 3 cells in series. In another example, 4 connections are provided for 3 series-connected 4-parallel-cell modules. The number of connections may equal the number of cell modules plus 1. 
     In an example of a distributed topology, a daughter board  1010  (e.g., a cell or module controller) is installed at each cell or cell module (e.g., parallel connection of individual cells). The daughter board  1010  can be directly connected to each cell (or cell module), as indicated by connections  1011  and  1012  (e.g., of negative and positive polarity, respectively, where the connection  1011  can be a negative current lead). Cells within a module may be connected via their cell bodies, so cell modules may only need one connection on the cell body and one on the negative current lead. The daughter boards can compute and control their individual cell or cell module status(es) locally. The daughter board  1010  can monitor and control each cell or cell module individually. During charging or discharging modes, the current may be provided using additional electrical connections to connect to the positive and negative terminals of the individual cell, the series connected string of cells, or the series connected string of cell modules (not shown in  FIG. 10 ). 
     In an example of a modular topology, one daughter board  1020  (e.g., pack controller) can control a number of cells or cell modules that are stacked together in a pack. The daughter board  1020  can be directly connected to each cell module in a pack, as indicated by connections  1021  and  1022  (e.g., of negative and positive polarity, respectively). The daughter board  1020  can monitor and control voltage, current and/or temperature of cells that are connected to it (e.g., through connections  1022 ). 
     In an example of a centralized topology (or a modular topology when part of a larger system), one daughter board  1020  (e.g., pack controller) can control multiple cells in parallel, in series or both in parallel and in series (e.g., a pack or a core). The daughter board  1020  can be directly connected to each cell module in a pack or a core, as indicated by a connection  1031  and individual connections  1032  (e.g., of negative and positive polarity, respectively). In some cases, negative current leads on the top module can be connected via a busbar  1033 , and the busbar can be connected to the connection  1031 . The daughter board  1020  can monitor and control voltage, current and temperature of cells that are connected to it (e.g., through connections  1032 ). The BMS board  1001  may be used for balancing packs (e.g., for balancing between a first module of a pack and a second module of a pack), estimating state of charge of a pack, controlling charge and discharge status of a pack and/or communicating status to higher controllers in the system. 
     In an example of a system configured in a distributed and/or modular architecture, the daughter board connects to series and parallel combinations of cells (e.g., packs). Multiple packs, each with similar configuration of series and parallel cells, may be suitably (e.g., optimally) arranged (e.g., spatially) and daughter boards for each pack may communicate to the BMS board  1001 . 
     In some examples, the daughter boards can monitor one or more parameters (e.g., voltage, current, temperature, state of charge, state of health, etc.) from a cell, a cell module, a pack, a core, or a system, and communicate these parameters back to the BMS board  1001 . For example, voltage, current and temperature measurements made by a daughter board can be aggregated and communicated to the BMS board  1001 , where state of charge estimates can be computed and decisions made regarding continuation of charge or discharge. The BMS board  1001  (e.g., core controller) can communicate with both daughter boards and higher level controller(s) in the system through I2C bus, MODBUS, CAN bus, SPI bus, isolated SPI bus or similar communication line. The BMS board  1001  can send control commands to the daughter boards. Based on the commands, the daughter boards can perform actions that control one or more cells such as, for example, increasing or decreasing temperatures of cells, balancing the voltages and/or SOC of cells or groups of cells (e.g., cell modules), and so on. 
     In some implementations, the BMS board may be located some distance away from the cells, enabling the cells to operate at operating temperature (e.g., about 460° C.) and the BMS board to operate near ambient temperature (e.g., from about −50° C. to about +80° C.). The daughter boards, which can be thermally isolated from the cells, can be located closely to each cell or group of cells (e.g., cell pack) so that the daughter board is able to measure and/or track the voltage, current, temperature, state of charge (SOC) and/or state of health (SOH) of an individual cell, a group of cells or a battery. The BMS may have a transition zone or panel that provides thermal isolation between the cells, groups of cells or batteries, and the BMS, and allows wires (e.g., wire(s) that are used to monitor and manage cells) coming out of a hot zone in the immediate vicinity of the cells, groups of cells or battery (e.g., hot zone of the core) to cool and establish a thermal gradient along their length such that the end contacting the BMS is at an acceptably low temperature (e.g., less than about 80° C.). 
       FIG. 11  in an example of a system  1100  that comprises a BMS and a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system and associated communication wiring. In some cases, the BMS may have a first boundary (e.g., BMS system boundary)  1105 . In some cases, the BMS may have a second boundary  1110 . In some cases, the BMS may have a third boundary  1115 . In some cases, the system boundary may extend between the system boundaries  1105  and  1110 . The BMS may be located within an energy storage system (e.g., comprising one or more cores  1170 ) and/or separately from the energy storage system. For example, BMS controllers (or boards) may be provided within or attached to cells, modules, packs, cores, systems or batteries. Alternatively, or in addition, stand-alone components may be provided. 
     The system may comprise one or more pack controllers  1120 . The pack controllers may communicate with each other via pack-to-pack communication wires  1130 . The pack controllers may communicate with a core controller  1125  via pack-to-core controller communication wires  1135 . The system may comprise one or more core controllers  1125 . The core controllers may communicate with each other via core-controller-to-core-controller communication wires  1140 . One or more of the core controllers (e.g., a master controller) may communicate with a SCADA controller  1145  via a core-controller-to-SCADA system communication wire  1150 . The SCADA controller  1145  may be provided with user-controlled input and/or market signal (e.g., electrical power grid) input  1155 . In some cases, the SCADA controller may determine or by instructed to determine (e.g., via control software) the operating mode (also “operation mode” herein) of the system  1100  (or any portion thereof) with or without external user-controlled input or market input/signals. The SCADA controller  1145  may communicate with power electronics  1160  via a power electronics-to-SCADA controller communication wire  1165 . In some cases, a utility may connect to the power electronics (e.g., a bi-directional inverter). In some examples of DC distribution systems, a bi-directional inverter can not only link a DC-BUS to an AC grid, but can adjust its current commands and operation modes to balance power flow and regulate the DC-BUS voltage. The DC-BUS may provide current/voltage from the energy system to a load (e.g., a power grid or utility). 
     Current may be measured at one or more locations in the battery and/or the BMS system. In some cases, the BMS (e.g., the pack controller  1020 ) may not measure current. In some cases, charge/discharge current and/or balancing current may be measured by a device (e.g., ampere-meter) on one or more terminals of a cell or group of cells. Such a measurement may be communicated to one or more BMS boards. In some cases, power electronics can determine the current (e.g., the current in a string of cores). 
     Capacitors of the disclosure may be used to aid in cell balancing (e.g., of series-connected cells) and may be combined with or modified by other devices, systems and/or methods. Such capacitors may be employed for use in floating capacitor balancing described in Chuang, Y.-C., “Floating Capacitor Active Charge Balancing for PHEV Applications,” Undergraduate Thesis, The Ohio State University (2010), and cell balancing in pack cooling systems described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,643,500 (“APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR DIAGNOSING ABNORMALITY IN CELL BALANCING CIRCUIT”) and U.S. Pat. No. 7,612,537 (“GALVANICALLY ISOLATED CHARGE BALANCE SYSTEM”), each of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     Failure Condition Detection 
     The present disclosure provides methods for detecting a failure condition in an electrochemical energy storage system or device (e.g., a liquid metal battery). A failure condition can be a breach in a seal of an electrochemical cell of the electrochemical energy storage device. In some cases, an electrochemical energy storage system comprises a seal that is the weakest point of an electrochemical cell. In the event of a breach of the seal, the environment near the cell can experience damage. A breach can render the system inoperable or reduce the performance of the system. The methods and devices described herein can permit reliable detection of a breach through electrical and/or chemical signatures, thereby increasing the speed and reliability of breach detection. The methods for reliable breach detection described herein can result in quicker system-wide responses, thereby increasing safety and reliability of deployed systems. 
     A breach at the top of the cell can occur in an area that is in contact with the portion of the cell that is the headspace above the liquid cell components; thus, the breach may occur in an area of the cell that comprises active materials in a gaseous form (e.g., only in a gaseous form). For example, the active chemistry materials can be primarily or only in gaseous form in the vicinity of the seal (e.g., the breach is not in contact with a molten metal or a molten salt). In some cases, the molten metal and/or the molten salt gases may condense and form a thin layer of liquid on the seal, thus exposing the seal to the liquid state of the cell active components. 
     Detection systems of the disclosure can include chemical sensor input/measurements, electrical measurements and/or input/measurements from non-chemical sensors (e.g., thermocouples). Such failure detection mechanisms can include analog and digital signals. In some implementations, failure detection may be implemented with the aid of a control system (e.g., system  900  in  FIG. 9 ). The control system can be a battery management system. The detection systems herein may include one or more inputs and/or measurements. In some cases, the inputs and/or measurements can be at least partially processed and/or implemented at the control system. For example, the detection systems herein can be distributed across the control system (e.g., distributed between a controller/server  901  and the energy storage system  935  in  FIG. 9 ). 
     In some cases, cell chemistry provides an electrical signature in the event of a breach. Some cell chemistries can provide a signal that is indicative of an air leak (e.g., failure of a seal in an external environment) through an increase in a leakage current of the cell, reduction in charge/discharge Coulombic efficiency, shorting of the cell, eventual failure of the cell as an open circuit (i.e., current is unable to pass through the cell), noisy voltage signals (e.g., sporadic fluctuations in cell voltage during constant current charging, discharging or resting over a period of milliseconds, seconds, and/or minutes), a sudden drop in cell voltage, a sudden change in cell internal resistance, reduced discharge capacity (e.g., in Ah), or any combination thereof. The systems and methods described herein can detect such signals (e.g., the higher self-discharge rate) as represented by, for example, more charge required during cell balancing, reduced discharge capacity, increased charge capacity, or a suppressed cell voltage during charging or discharging. Systems and methods described herein can determine (e.g., based on these parameters) that a cell breach has occurred. In some cases, the breached electrochemical cell (and in some cases cells adjacent to the breached cell) are inactivated, discharged and/or cooled down. The breached cell (in some cases including adjacent cells) can be replaced (e.g., by a human operator or robot). 
     In some implementations, the electrical signature may comprise a charge/discharge Coulombic efficiency value that is decreasing over time and/or is below a baseline Coulombic efficiency value associated with an unbreached cell or an unbreached group of cells. The baseline Coulombic efficiency value may in some cases be associated with an unbreached cell or an unbreached group of cells operated at a similar temperature (e.g., to within less than about 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% or 30%) or at substantially the same temperature (e.g., operating temperature) as the cell monitored for cell breach or as a group of cells comprising the monitored cell (e.g., in configurations where the cell is part of a group of cells). For example, the baseline Coulombic efficiency value may be associated with an unbreached cell or group of cells operated at a similar or substantially the same temperature (e.g., operating temperature) as the cell or group of cells suspected of comprising a breached cell. 
     In some cases, breach of an electrochemical cell is detected by a chemical signature. For example, the system can include a detection system for hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydrofluoric acid (HF), hydroiodic acid (HI), chlorine gas (Cl 2 ), bromine gas (Br 2 ), fluorine gas (F 2 ), iodine gas (I 2 ), and/or stibine gas (H 3 Sb). The detection system can include one or more sensors, such as vapor sensors that are sensitive to such gases. In some cases, the detection system can include other sensor(s) capable of detecting the gases described herein and/or other substances associated with (e.g., intermediate products of) materials inside the cell and/or in a cell seal. 
     In some implementations, a chemical signature may give rise to an electrical signature. For example, a chemical sensor can produce an electronic signal upon detecting a given condition (e.g., normal condition, breach condition, etc.). In some cases, a baseline (e.g., normal or constant) signal is measured and/or monitored. For example, an analog signal from a chemical sensor may be converted to a digital signal that is monitored by a control system (e.g., system  900  in  FIG. 9 ). In such situations, a deviation from the baseline signal (e.g., rate of change, increase with respect to the baseline, etc.) may trigger a breach condition. In some cases, only a given signal level may trigger a breach condition. For example, a given absolute or relative value (or range of values) of a concentration of a chemical component (e.g., HCl, Cl 2 ) may trigger a breach condition. The breach condition may produce an electronic signal that is communicated to a control system (e.g., system  900  in  FIG. 9 ). Other sensor(s), such as, for example, temperature sensors, may be used. For example, a temperature sensor may comprise a thermocouple. An analog signal from the thermocouple may be converted to a digital signal that is monitored (e.g., by a control system, such as system  900  in  FIG. 9 ). In some instances, a given decrease in the measured temperature may indicate a breach condition. 
     Baseline signals, signal changes and/or given absolute or relative values of sensor signals may be used to produce an audible alarm, an automated response with or without the aid of a control system (e.g., a mechanical switch), and/or may be communicated to the control system. The control system may receive analog and/or digital signal(s) from the sensor(s). The control system may analyze the signal(s). The signal(s) and/or their processing/analysis may trigger a response from the control system. For example, the control system may disconnect a load. In some cases, analog signals can be converted to digital signals (e.g., at a digital acquisition (DAQ) board of the control system). The electronic signal may be recorded and/or processed at the control system. The control system may react in response to the electronic signal. 
     The disclosure provides methods for detecting a breach of an electrochemical cell. The method comprises providing an electrochemical cell having a negative electrode, an electrolyte and a positive electrode, where at least one, two or all of the negative electrode, the electrolyte and the positive electrode is/are in a liquid state at an operating temperature of the electrochemical cell. The electrochemical cell can have a seal that isolates the negative electrode, the electrolyte and the positive electrode from an environment external to the electrochemical cell (e.g., air). In some cases, the operating temperature of the electrochemical cell is at least about 250° C. The method can include monitoring the electrochemical cell for an electrical signature that is indicative of a breach of the seal and exposure of at least one of the positive electrode, the electrolyte, and the negative electrode to the environment. In response to the electrical signature, the electrochemical cell can be inactivated, cooled and/or discharged. 
     In some implementations, the disclosure provides an energy storage system that comprises an electrochemical cell having a negative electrode, an electrolyte and a positive electrode, where at least one of the negative electrode, the electrolyte and the positive electrode is in a liquid state at an operating temperature of the electrochemical cell. A seal can isolate the negative electrode, the electrolyte and the positive electrode from an environment external to the electrochemical cell. The operating temperature of the electrochemical cell can be at least about 250° C. The energy storage system can have a controller that monitors the electrochemical cell for an electrical signature that is indicative of a failure (e.g., breach) of the seal and/or exposure of at least one of the positive electrode, the electrolyte, and the negative electrode to the environment, and in response to the electrical signature, inactivates the electrochemical cell, flags/provides notice to system operator(s) that a cell needs to be replaced, cools the electrochemical cell, and/or discharges the electrochemical cell. In some cases, the electrochemical cell is first discharged, then cooled (e.g., to ambient temperature or to a temperature at which the molten electrodes solidify). In some instances, the electrochemical cell is simultaneously inactivated and cooled. Upon inactivating the electrochemical cell, the temperature of the electrochemical cell can decrease from the operating temperature. 
     In some cases, an electrical signature (e.g., the electrical signature that is indicative of a failure, such as, for example, a breach of the seal) indicates that a cell or a group of cells (e.g., pack, core) may need to be replaced. This information may be communicated to a user or system operator (e.g., notification can be provided to a user or system operator of a system comprising an energy storage system (e.g., an energy storage device such as a battery, or a plurality of electrochemical cells) and a battery management system, or a user or system operator of the battery management system). In some cases, the notification may include a prompt to schedule a procedure to cool the electrochemical cell, to cool at least a portion of the plurality of electrochemical cells (or the energy storage system), and/or to replace a group of electrochemical cells among the plurality of electrochemical cells (or in the energy storage system). In some cases, the notification may include information that a replacement may be needed but may not include a prompt; in such cases, the user or system operator may decide whether to schedule such a procedure. In some examples, a procedure can be scheduled at a future time point to cool the system (e.g., the energy storage system) or to cool at least a portion of the plurality of electrochemical cells. In some cases, the procedure includes replacing a group of cells. 
     In some cases, the electrochemical cell is one of a plurality of electrochemical cells connected in parallel and/or in series and the plurality of electrochemical cells are inactivated, cooled and/or discharged in response to an electrical signature (e.g., an electrical signature that is indicative of a breach). The electrochemical cell can be part of a battery and the electrochemical cell can be replaced in the battery by another electrochemical cell that is not breached. In some cases, a group of electrochemical cells are replaced in the battery by another group (e.g., replacement group) of electrochemical cells that are not breached. The group of electrochemical cells can be, for example, a module, pack, core, CE or system. In some cases, the plurality or group of electrochemical cells are connected in series and parallel. 
     In some cases, the electrical signature comprises a leakage current that is increased relative to a baseline leakage current associated with an unbreached cell. The increased leakage current can be determined, for example, based on an increased time required to charge and/or balance a group of cells (e.g., a cell module) with the breached cell. In some cases, a breached cell cannot be charged. 
       FIG. 13  shows an example of an electrochemical cell that is breached as indicated  1300 . In this example, the cell fails to charge after the breach. The cell voltage decreases  1305  while the cell is being charged at a constant current  1310 . This decrease in cell voltage under constant current can indicate increased leakage current and/or a short (e.g., increasing conductance or decreasing resistance). 
       FIG. 14  shows an example of a cell that is operated with a constant current (CC) charge  1405  followed by a constant voltage (CV) float  1410 . During a constant voltage float, the current normally decays down to very low levels  1415  (e.g., less than about 100 mA). Following a seal breach, the current can be much higher and fluctuate greatly  1420 . 
     In some cases, the electrical signature comprises a self-discharge rate of the electrochemical cell that is increased relative to a baseline self-discharge rate associated with an unbreached cell. In some instances, the electrical signature comprises a voltage during charging or discharging of the electrochemical cell that is decreased relative to a baseline charge/discharge voltage associated with an unbreached cell. The electrical signature can be further indicative of shorting of the negative electrode with the positive electrode. 
     The electrical signature can be created upon breach by any suitable mechanism. An example of the mechanism is schematically illustrated for an electrochemical cell comprising a metal anode ‘A’ (e.g., Na, Li, K, Mg, Ca) and a metal cathode ‘B’ (e.g., Pb, Bi, Sn, Sb, Zn) active materials in  FIG. 15 . Here, an electrochemical cell has an anode  1500 , a cathode  1505  and an electrolyte  1510  contained in a housing  1515  having a seal  1520 . The anode  1500  can be a negative electrode during discharge and the cathode  1505  can be a positive electrode during discharge. The seal isolates the headspace  1525  in the cell from an atmosphere  1530 . Upon breach of the seal, components of the atmosphere  1530  (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, water vapor, etc.) can enter the cell. For example, upon breach of the seal, nitrogen (N 2 ) from the atmosphere enters the headspace of the electrochemical cell through a breach in the seal and contacts the anode ( 1535 ). The nitrogen can react with ‘A’ to produce a nitride compound ‘A x N i ’ (e.g., Na 3 N, Li 3 N, K 3 N, Mg 3 N 2 , Ca 3 N 2 ), which can diffuse through the electrolyte to contact the cathode ( 1540 ). In an example, A can be lithium and the nitride compound Li 3 N can be formed via the reaction ½ N 2 +3Li→Li 3 N. At the cathode, the nitride compound can react with the cathode metal to produce compounds having anode and cathode components (e.g., compounds having the formula A x B y  where x and y are variables, or compounds having the formula A v B w , where v and w are variables and where x/y=v/w, such as, for example, Na 3 Pb, Li 3 Sb 2 , K 3 Pb, Mg 3 Sb 2 , Ca 3 Sb 2 ) and nitrogen gas (N 2 ). In the example where A is lithium, the anode and cathode materials can form LiSb via the reaction Li 3 N+3Sb→3LiSb+½ N 2 . In another example, lithium antimonide (Li 3 Sb) may be formed. In some cases, T can equal ‘y’. The nitrogen gas can bubble back up to and/or diffuse back to the anode ( 1545 ). The introduction of water vapor (e.g., steam, moist air) into the cell can result in the oxidation of the anode metal and the release of hydrogen gas (e.g., 2Li+H 2 O→Li 2 O+H 2 ). The presence of hydrogen gas can result in a chemical short process similar to the one that is generated by the presence of nitrogen gas as described herein. 
     Control Systems 
     Provided herein are computer control systems that are programmed to implement methods of the disclosure.  FIG. 9  shows an example of a system  900  that is programmed or otherwise configured to control or regulate one or more process parameters of an energy storage system of the present disclosure. The system  900  can includes a computer server (“server”)  901  that is programmed to implement methods disclosed herein. In some cases, the system  900  is or comprises a battery management system that comprises the server or controller  901  that is programmed or otherwise configured to implement various battery management functions, including estimating cell state of charge and cell balancing. The battery management system (also “system” or “control system” herein)  900  can be programmed or otherwise configured to regulate one or more process parameters of an energy storage device and a circuit coupled to the energy storage device. 
     The controller or server  901  includes a central processing unit (CPU, also “processor” and “computer processor” herein)  905 , which can be a single-core or multi-core processor, a plurality of processors for parallel processing, or other logic. The controller or server  901  also includes memory  910  (e.g., random-access memory, read-only memory, flash memory), electronic storage unit  915  (e.g., hard disk), communication interface  920  (e.g., network adapter) for communicating with one or more other systems, and peripheral devices  925 , such as cache, other memory, data storage and/or electronic display adapters. The memory  910 , storage unit  915 , interface  920  and peripheral devices  925  are in communication with the CPU  905  through a communication bus (solid lines), such as a motherboard. The storage unit  915  can be a data storage unit (or data repository) for storing data. The controller or server  901  can be operatively coupled to a computer network (“network”)  930  with the aid of the communication interface  920 . The network  930  can be the Internet, an internet and/or extranet, or an intranet and/or extranet that is in communication with the Internet. The network  930  in some cases is a telecommunication and/or data network. The network  930  can include one or more computer servers, which can enable distributed computing, such as cloud computing. The network  930 , in some cases with the aid of the controller or server  901 , can implement a peer-to-peer network, which may enable devices coupled to the controller or server  901  to behave as a client or a server. The controller or server  901  can be coupled to an energy storage system  935  either directly or through the network  930 . For example, the controller  901  can be coupled to an energy storage device, such as the energy storage device  801  of  FIG. 8 . The energy storage device can be provided within the energy storage system  935 . The network  930  can enable remote control and/or access of the controller  901 . 
     The system  900  may comprise a battery management system that is operatively coupled to the energy storage system  935  through, for example, a ballasting member (e.g., electronics designed to balance the electrochemical state-of-charge of cells or cell modules in a series string). The battery management system can be implemented, for example, at the server or controller  901 . The ballasting member can include one or more ballasting lines, which can include sensing lines and current flow lines. The ballasting member can be used to divert at least some of the current through the cells through the ballasting member, which can aid in cell balancing. The sensing lines can be configured to enable the battery management system to sense, for example, operating temperature and voltage of one or more cells of the energy storage device of the energy storage system  935 . In some implementations, the sensing lines can be non-current carrying lines. The battery management system may comprise a management system board. The battery management system board can have data acquisition capabilities. For example, the battery management system board can include a data acquisition board. The battery management system board may be able to store and/or process data (e.g., the acquired data). For example, the battery management system board may be able to store and/or process the data rather than (or in addition to) converting inputs into digital signals. 
     The process parameters can include charging and discharging parameters. For example, the storage unit  915  can store process parameters and/or look-up tables of the energy storage device (and/or other portions of the energy storage system  935 ). The process parameters can include operational parameters based on values of various ballasting members (e.g., sensing lines, ballasting lines, such as, for example, impedance values of various ballasting members as a function of temperature. The memory  910  or storage unit  915  can include an algorithm (implemented by way of software) for estimating the stage of charge of an energy storage device. 
     The server  901  in some cases can include one or more additional data storage units that are external to the server  901 , such as located on a remote server that is in communication with the server  901  through an intranet or the Internet. The server  901  can communicate with one or more remote computer systems through the network  930 . In the illustrated example, the server  901  is in communication with a remote computer system  940 . The remote computer system  940  can be, for example, a personal computers (e.g., portable PC), slate or tablet PC (e.g., Apple® iPad, Samsung® Galaxy Tab), telephone, Smart phone (e.g., Apple® iPhone, Android-enabled device, Blackberry®), or personal digital assistant. 
     In some situations, the system  900  includes a single controller or server  901 . In other situations, the system  900  includes multiple controllers or servers in communication with one another through direction connection, an intranet and/or the Internet. 
     Methods as described herein can be implemented by way of machine (or computer processor) executable code (or software) stored on an electronic storage location of the controller or server  901 , such as, for example, on the memory  910  or electronic storage unit  915 . During use, the code can be executed by the processor  905 . In some cases, the code can be retrieved from the storage unit  915  and stored on the memory  910  for ready access by the processor  905 . In some situations, the electronic storage unit  915  can be precluded, and machine-executable instructions are stored on memory  910 . Alternatively, the code can be executed on the second computer system  940 . 
     The code can be pre-compiled and configured for use with a machine, have a processer adapted to execute the code, or can be compiled during runtime. The code can be supplied in a programming language that can be selected to enable the code to execute in a pre-compiled or as-compiled fashion. 
     Aspects of the systems and methods provided herein, such as the controller or server  901 , can be embodied in programming. Various aspects of the technology may be thought of as “products” or “articles of manufacture” typically in the form of machine (or processor) executable code and/or associated data that is carried on or embodied in a type of machine readable medium. Machine-executable code can be stored on an electronic storage unit, such memory (e.g., read-only memory, random-access memory, flash memory) or a hard disk. “Storage” type media can include any or all of the tangible memory of the computers, processors or the like, or associated modules thereof, such as various semiconductor memories, tape drives, disk drives and the like, which may provide non-transitory storage at any time for the software programming. All or portions of the software may at times be communicated through the Internet or various other telecommunication networks. Such communications, for example, may enable loading of the software from one computer or processor into another, for example, from a management server or host computer into the computer platform of an application server. Thus, another type of media that may bear the software elements includes optical, electrical and electromagnetic waves, such as used across physical interfaces between local devices, through wired and optical landline networks and over various air-links. The physical elements that carry such waves, such as wired or wireless links, optical links or the like, also may be considered as media bearing the software. As used herein, unless restricted to non-transitory, tangible “storage” media, terms such as computer or machine “readable medium” refer to any medium that participates in providing instructions to a processor for execution. 
     Hence, a machine readable medium, such as computer-executable code, may take many forms, including but not limited to, a tangible storage medium, a carrier wave medium or physical transmission medium. Non-volatile storage media include, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as any of the storage devices in any computer(s) or the like, such as may be used to implement the databases, etc. shown in the drawings. Volatile storage media include dynamic memory, such as main memory of such a computer platform. Tangible transmission media include coaxial cables; copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that comprise a bus within a computer system. Carrier-wave transmission media may take the form of electric or electromagnetic signals, or acoustic or light waves such as those generated during radio frequency (RF) and infrared (IR) data communications. Common forms of computer-readable media therefore include for example: a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, any other magnetic medium, a CD-ROM, DVD or DVD-ROM, any other optical medium, punch cards paper tape, any other physical storage medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a ROM, a PROM and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, any other memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave transporting data or instructions, cables or links transporting such a carrier wave, or any other medium from which a computer may read programming code and/or data. Many of these forms of computer readable media may be involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to a processor for execution. 
     Various parameters of an energy storage system can be presented to a user on a user interface (UI) of an electronic device of the user. Examples of UI&#39;s include, without limitation, a graphical user interface (GUI) and web-based user interface. The UI (e.g., GUI) can be provided on a display of an electronic device of the user. The display can be a capacitive or resistive touch display. Such displays can be used with other systems and methods of the disclosure. 
     Interconnections 
     Wired or wire-less (e.g., direct metal-to-metal) interconnections may be formed between individual electrochemical cells and/or between groups of electrochemical cells (e.g., modules, packs, cores, CEs, systems, or any other group comprising one or more electrochemical cells). In some cases, groups of cells may be joined via one or more cell-to-cell interconnections. In some cases, groups of cells may be joined via a group-level interconnection. The group-level interconnection may further comprise one or more interconnections with one or more individual cells of the group. The interconnections may be structural and/or electrical. Cells and/or groups of cells may be assembled (or stacked) horizontally or vertically. Such assembled cells and/or groups of cells may be arranged in series or parallel configurations. Further, groups of cells may be supported by various frames. The frames may provide structural support and/or participate or aid in forming the interconnections (e.g., frames on groups of cells may mate or be connected). Groups of cells utilized for assembly purposes may or may not be the same as groups of cells utilized for regulation/control purposes. 
     In some implementations, electrochemical cells or groups thereof are connected using interconnects. In some instances, an interconnect is a wire. In some implementations, direct connection of cells to each other (e.g., by brazing) can be used to connect cells or groups of cells, in some cases reducing or eliminating the use of wires to connect electrochemical cells. For example, a positive current collector of a first electrochemical cell can be direct metal-to-metal joined (e.g., brazed or welded) to a negative current collector of a second electrochemical cell. In some instances, the negative current collector comprises a negative current lead or conductor. In some instances, the first and second electrochemical cells are not connected by wires. In another example, the conductor can protrude through an electrically conductive housing of the first cell through an aperture in the electrically conductive housing and can be electrically isolated from the electrically conductive housing with a seal. A plurality of electrochemical cells can be stacked in series with the conductor of the first cell in electrical contact with the electrically conductive housing of a second cell. A plurality of non-gaseous spacers can be disposed between the electrochemical cells. In some cases, the electrically conductive housings are part of a current conducting pathway (e.g., as in a parallel connection of cells). In some implementations, one or more busbars and/or interconnects can be used to create a connection between any two groups of cells. 
     A battery can comprise electrochemical cells connected in series and in parallel. The number of electrochemical cell modules (or parallel-connected modules) that are connected in series can be any suitable number, such as, for example, at least 3, at least 5, at least 6, at least 10, at least 12, at least 15, at least 16, at least 20, at least 32, at least 48, at least 54, at least 64, at least 108, at least 128, at least 216, or at least 256. In an example, the number of electrochemical cell modules (or parallel-connected modules) that are connected in series is 3 (e.g., for a battery comprising a pack), 6 (e.g., for a battery comprising a pack), or 216 (e.g., for a battery comprising a core). 
       FIG. 6  shows an example of a cell pack  600  comprising 3 modules  605 . Each of the modules comprises 12 cells  630  that are connected in parallel  610 . The modules are held in place with cell pack framing (also “frame” herein)  615  that includes a top component of the frame  620 . The cells are stacked directly on top of each other with the negative current terminal of one cell  625  contacted directly with the housing of another cell (e.g., the cell above it). The negative current terminals of the top layer of cells may have no housing of another cell directly above, and may instead be contacted (e.g., brazed to) a negative busbar  635 . 
     Cell packs can be attached in series and parallel in various configurations to produce cores, CEs, or systems. The number and arrangement of various groups of electrochemical cells can be chosen to create the desired system voltage and energy storage capacity. The packs, cores, CEs, or systems can then be enclosed together in high temperature insulation to create a system that can heat itself using the energy created from cells charging and discharging. 
       FIG. 7  is an example of how these packs can be configured, indicating that the cell packs in a given plane are connect to one another in parallel  705 , while the packs connected directly atop one another are connected in series  710 . 
     The packs themselves can be connected vertically and horizontally to one another through busbars (e.g., unlike the cell-to-cell connections within a pack which can generally be direct connections such as brazes or welds). In some cases, the busbar is flexible or comprises a flexible section (e.g., to accommodate non-isothermal expansion of the system throughout heat up and operation). 
     A busbar can be used to make an electrical connection with cells in a parallel string (e.g., a parallel string of cells, a parallel string of packs, etc.). In some examples, a busbar can be used to configure a set of cells or cell modules into a parallel string configuration by being electrically connected with the same terminal on all of the cells or cell modules (e.g., the negative terminals of all of the cells or cell modules, or the positive terminals of all of the cell or cell modules). For example, a positive busbar and/or a negative busbar may be used. The positive busbar can be connected to the housing and may or may not need to be flexible. In some cases, the positive busbar may not be used. The negative busbar can be joined to features in (or on) one or more of the cell bodies (e.g., the cell bodies of individual cells in a pack) to provide a strong electrical connection. In some cases, the negative busbar can be attached to conductive feed-throughs (e.g., negative current leads), which may require some compliance for thermal expansion. For example, a flexible connection between a relatively rigid busbar core and the feed-through may be achieved using a compliance feature between the feed-through and the busbar (e.g., a spiral pattern, such as spiral arm(s), that may be created by cutting away and/or removing material from a flat busbar in the desired pattern). In some cases, the busbar may be sufficiently compliant such that the compliance feature is not needed. 
     The busbar and/or interconnect components can comprise a conductive material. For example, the busbar and/or interconnect components can comprise (e.g., be made of) stainless steel, nickel, copper, aluminum-copper based alloy. 
     The battery can include a common single point connector. The single point connector can be used to electrically connect to an electrochemical cell or to a group of electrochemical cells (e.g., modules, packs, cores, CEs, or systems). Multiple wires (e.g., ends of the wires) can be connected to the common single point connector (i.e., several wires can be connected to a common connector, which can connect to other portions of the battery at a single point). The battery can include a plurality of wires having a first end and a second end. The first end can be connected to at least one of the electrochemical cells (e.g., directly or indirectly). In some cases, the first end can be connected to a common single point connector, and the common single point connector can be connected to at least one of the electrochemical cells (e.g., to a busbar that is in electrical communication with at least one of the electrochemical cells, to a cell body, to a feature in a cell body such as a tab protruding from the cell body, etc.). The second end can be connected, for example, to control circuitry (e.g., directly or indirectly) or to another common single point connector. In some cases, the second end can be connected to a common single point connector, and the common single point connector can be connected to control circuitry. For example, the single point connector on the second end (or the second end itself) can be connected to control circuitry located outside the thermally insulated zone containing cell packs, such as, for example, to a battery management system (e.g., to a battery management system board). In some cases, the first ends of a set of wires can be connected to a single point connector, the second ends of a subset of the wires can be connected to another single point connector, and the remaining wire or wires (e.g., the remaining second ends of the wires) can be separately connected to another part of the battery (e.g., voltage sense line input port of a battery management system). 
     In some cases, the single point connector forms an electrical connection with another plurality (group) of electrochemical cells (e.g., to connect together modules, packs, cores, CEs, or systems). For example, the first end of the wire can be connected (e.g., via a single point connector such as an adapter plate) to a busbar (e.g., a negative busbar) that is in electrical communication with at least one of the electrochemical cells in a group of electrochemical cells (e.g., in a pack). 
     An adapter plate can create a single point connection for multiple wires to a busbar in a module, pack, core, or CE. The wires can be welded or brazed to the back of the adapter plate to facilitate single point separation of a large quantity of wires connecting to a busbar. In order to effectively balance and monitor cells within a cell module, multiple wire connections may need to be created. The connection point can be a potential point of failure and can add to the cost and complexity of assembly. In some implementations, a terminal that has the wires connected to it can be pre-fabricated. The plate can be bolted, welded or brazed wherever the connection is required. Wires connected in this manner can remain static through many uses and disconnections, thus reducing wire wear-tear and embrittlement effects. Thus, single point connectors can in some cases enable more facile module interchanges. 
     Any number of wires can be connected to a common single point connector. In some examples, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 35, or 40 wires are connected to the single point connector. In some cases, at least 1, at least 2, at least 3, at least 4, at least 5, at least 6, at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 11, at least 12, at least 13, at least 14, at least 15, at least 16, at least 17, at least 18, at least 19, at least 20, at least 22, at least 24, at least 26, at least 28, at least 30, at least 35, or at least 40 wires are connected to the single point connector. 
     The single point connector can be made of any conductive metal, such as, for example, nickel, stainless steel, copper-aluminum alloy, or of any other conductive material described herein. In some implementations, the single point connector can comprise a bent metal piece. The first ends of the wires can be passed through holes in the bent metal piece and/or welded to the bent metal piece. The wires can be any wire, including, but not limited to, American Wire Gauge (AWG) 18 wires or AWG 10 wires. In some cases, one or more wires may be used to sense voltage and therefore may be able to be thin (e.g., less than about 2 mm in diameter, or AWG 18). In some cases, one or more wires may be thicker (e.g., greater than about 2 mm in diameter, or AWG 18 gauge) and may be used to carry current to and from the cell or cell module (e.g., as required for cell balancing). The sensing line(s) (e.g., voltage sense line(s)) may be provided separately from the current flow line(s) (also “current carrying line(s)” or “high current line(s)” herein. In some cases, first ends of the current carrying wires and the voltage sense wire may be connected to a single point connector that is connected to the cells or a busbar, while the other (second) ends of the wires are separately connected to the battery management system (e.g., the voltage sense wire is connected to a voltage input port on the battery management system and the current wires are connected to a single point connector which is connected to a current input/output port on the battery management system). This arrangement may enable voltage drop across the current flow lines to be separated from the operational characteristics sensed by the sensing lines. As previously described, the sensing and current flow paths may be in electronic communication with the battery management system. 
     Devices, systems and methods of the present disclosure may be combined with or modified by other devices, systems and/or methods, such as, for example, electrochemical cells, batteries and battery components described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,663,295 (“STORAGE BATTERY ELECTROLYTE”), U.S. Pat. No. 3,775,181 (“LITHIUM STORAGE CELLS WITH A FUSED ELECTROLYTE”), U.S. Pat. No. 8,268,471 (“HIGH-AMPERAGE ENERGY STORAGE DEVICE WITH LIQUID METAL NEGATIVE ELECTRODE AND METHODS”), U.S. Patent Publication No. 2011/0014503 (“ALKALINE EARTH METAL ION BATTERY”), U.S. Patent Publication No. 2011/0014505 (“LIQUID ELECTRODE BATTERY”), U.S. Patent Publication No. 2012/0104990 (“ALKALI METAL ION BATTERY WITH BIMETALLIC ELECTRODE”), U.S. Patent Publication No. 2014/0099522 (“LOW-TEMPERATURE LIQUID METAL BATTERIES FOR GRID-SCALED STORAGE”), and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2015/0015210 (“VOLTAGE-ENHANCED ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES”), each of which is entirely incorporated herein by reference. 
     A person of skill in the art will recognize that the battery housing components may be constructed from materials other than the examples provided herein. One or more of the electrically conductive battery housing components, for example, may be constructed from metals other than steel and/or from one or more electrically conductive composites. In another example, one or more of the electrically insulating components may be constructed from dielectrics other than the aforementioned glass, mica and vermiculite. The present invention therefore is not limited to any particular battery housing materials. 
     Any aspects of the disclosure described in relation to cathodes can equally apply to anodes at least in some configurations. Similarly, one or more battery electrodes and/or the electrolyte may not be liquid in alternative configurations. In an example, the electrolyte can be a polymer or a gel. In a further example, at least one battery electrode can be a solid or a gel. Furthermore, in some examples, the electrodes and/or electrolyte may not include metal. Aspects of the disclosure are applicable to a variety of energy storage/transformation devices without being limited to liquid metal batteries. 
     Energy storage devices of the disclosure may be used in grid-scale settings or stand-alone settings. Energy storage devices of the disclosure can be used as stationary systems or mobile systems. In some cases, energy storage devices of the disclosure can be used to power vehicles, such as scooters, motorcycles, cars, trucks, trains, helicopters, airplanes, and other mechanical devices, such as robots. 
     It is to be understood that the terminology used herein is used for the purpose of describing specific embodiments, and is not intended to limit the scope of the present invention. It should be noted that as used herein, the singular forms of “a”, “an” and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. In addition, unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. 
     It should be understood from the foregoing that, while particular implementations have been illustrated and described, various modifications can be made thereto and are contemplated herein. It is also not intended that the invention be limited by the specific examples provided within the specification. While the invention has been described with reference to the aforementioned specification, the descriptions and illustrations of the preferable embodiments herein are not meant to be construed in a limiting sense. Furthermore, it shall be understood that all aspects of the invention are not limited to the specific depictions, configurations or relative proportions set forth herein which depend upon a variety of conditions and variables. Various modifications in form and detail of the embodiments of the invention will be apparent to a person skilled in the art. It is therefore contemplated that the invention shall also cover any such modifications, variations and equivalents. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the invention and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby.