Patent Publication Number: US-2020281946-A1

Title: Treatments and diagnostics for cancers

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a divisional of co-pending U.S. Utility application Ser. No. 15/764,837, filed Mar. 29, 2018, which is the U.S. National Phase of International Application No. PCT/US2016/057210, filed Oct. 14, 2016, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/241,574 filed Oct. 14, 2015, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/259,426 filed Nov. 24, 2015, each of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety as if fully set forth herein. 
    
    
     SEQUENCE LISTING 
     The Sequence Listing associated with this application is provided in text format in lieu of a paper copy, and is hereby incorporated by reference into the specification. The name of the text file containing the Sequence Listing is 2AG7217.TXT. The text file is about 44 KB, was created on May 4, 2020, and is being submitted electronically via EFS-Web. 
     FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE 
     The present disclosure provides treatments and diagnostics for cancers. The treatments utilize a combination therapy of Galeterone and a proteasome inhibitor. The diagnostics can measure androgen receptor (AR) cleavage products including AR-variant 7 (AR-V7) cleavage products, Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage products, and/or Spectrin α2 cleavage products or inhibition of DUB activities from a blood sample to monitor treatment efficacy for castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) or multiple myeloma (MM). 
     BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE 
     Cancer (neoplasia) is characterized by deregulated cell growth and cell division. There are numerous types of cancers. As one example, prostate cancer, as its name indicates, is a cancer that develops in the prostate gland of the male reproductive system. Prostate cancer can be aggressive, in which cancer cells metastasize and move from the prostate gland to other parts of the body, such as the lymph nodes and the bones. It is the second leading cause of cancer-related death in men in the US, and its prevalence is increasing in developing countries. 
     More than 200,000 new cases of prostate cancer are diagnosed in the US each year. Of these, roughly 88% or 176,000 have localized disease that can be treated with surgery, radiation, cryotherapy or watchful waiting. 
     Prostate cancer growth is often driven by male sex hormones called androgens, which include testosterone. Because of this, a common treatment option for the 22% or 35,200 patients that cannot be treated with surgery, radiation, cryotherapy or watchful waiting is to lower the levels of androgens in the man&#39;s body. Androgen levels can be lowered by surgically removing the testicles or with drugs that stop the testicles, and to a lesser extent adrenal glands, from making androgens or block how they affect the body. This type of treatment is called hormone therapy or androgen-deprivation therapy. 
     Unfortunately, about 40,000 patients each year begin to fail hormone therapy or become hormone refractory. That is, they develop castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) or hormone refractory prostate cancer (HRPC). 
     Treatment options for prostate cancer are very limited once the disease becomes resistant to hormonal therapy. In the past few years, docetaxel was the only treatment option for patients with CRPC. 
     Recently, the FDA approved a chemotherapeutic drug, cabazitaxel, for clinical management of CRPC. Cabazitaxel has shown survival benefits for patients with CRPC. The drug is used to treat men with advanced prostate cancer after treatment with other anticancer agents, including docetaxel, have failed to curtail cancer progression. Thus, cabazitaxel is mostly administered to patients when docetaxel is no longer effective. 
     Although cabazitaxel has been shown to increase the overall survival of prostate cancer patients, it has serious adverse side effects. These include low white blood cell count, low red blood cell count, low blood platelet count, nausea, vomiting, constipation and diarrhea, and decreased appetite, shortness of breath, tiredness and hair loss. 
     Galeterone also named TOK-001 or VN/124-1, is a small molecule, oral drug that is capable of disrupting androgen receptor signaling. In preclinical studies, Galeterone has been shown to selectively inhibit cytochrome C 17 α-hydroxylase/C 17 -20-lyase (CYP17) lyase to prevent biosynthesis of androgens, antagonize testosterone binding to the androgen receptor (AR), and degrade the AR protein. Galeterone is the first drug in development that has been shown to have all three properties. At the time of this application&#39;s filing, Galeterone is undergoing a Phase III clinical trial for the treatment of metastatic CRPC. 
     SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE 
     The current disclosure provides compositions and methods to potentiate treatment with Galeterone for a variety of cancers. The compositions and methods utilize administration of proteasome inhibitors, which, as disclosed herein, can be used to potentiate the beneficial anti-cancer effects of Galeterone and/or to reduce toxicity (e.g., lower the required dose) of administered Galeterone. Without being bound by theory, administration of proteasome inhibitors sensitizes cancer cells to the beneficial anti-cancer effects of Galeterone. 
     The current disclosure also provides systems and methods to monitor anti-cancer effects of CRPC treatments (e.g., Galeterone administration) by measuring blood levels of cleavage products of androgen receptor (AR), Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), and/or Spectrin α2, and more particularly, in particular embodiments, AR-variant 7 (AR-V7) cleavage products including 53 kDa and 41 kDa AR-V7 fragments, PARP cleavage products including 89 kDa and 65 kDa PARP fragments, and Spectrin α2 cleavage products including 120 kDa and 150 kDa Spectrin α2 fragments. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
         FIG. 1A . Western blotting with anti-N20/AR antibody to examine levels of AR and AR-V7 proteins in various prostate cancer cell lines.  FIG. 1B . Inhibition of calpain or caspase could rescue AR-V7 degradation induced by Gal. Lanes 1-4, 22Rv1 cells were treated with 20 μM of Gal (DMSO as a control) without or with a calpain inhibitor, 40 μM of calpeptin or PD 156060 (PD) for 66 h. Lanes 5-8, 22Rv1 cells treated with 20 μM of Gal (DMSO as a control) without or with 50 μM of the calpain inhibitor ALLM or a pan-caspase inhibitor for up to 72 h. This was followed by Western blotting with specific AR-V7 antibody, with Actin as a loading control. 
         FIGS. 2A and 2B : Gal induces activation of caspase-3 and calpain followed by AR-V7 degradation. 22Rv1 cells were treated with 20 μM Gal for up to 72 h.  FIG. 2A . Western blotting. (a, b) AR-V7 and AR protein levels determined by AR-V7 specific antibody and N20 antibody, respectively. (c) PARP/p89 is a caspase-3 cleavage fragment while PARP/p65 is a calpain cleavage product. (d) Caspase-3 cleavage fragment of Spectrin α2/p120, and a 150 fragment by either caspase-3 or calpain cleavage. (e) Autolysis of calpain small subunit (Cal Sm) to p28 fragment. (f) Calpain cleavage fragment of Calpastatin/p70.  FIG. 2B . Caspase-3 activity assay. 
         FIGS. 3A-3D : Proteasome Inhibition could not block, instead increase Gal-Induced AR-V7 degradation and PARP cleavage. 22Rv1 cells were treated with 20 μM Gal with or without BTZ at indicated concentrations (DMSO as a control) for 72 h ( FIG. 3A, 3B ) or 48 h ( FIG. 3C, 3D ), followed by Western blotting with specific AR-V7 mAb and PARP ( FIG. 3A, 3C ) and proteasome activity ( FIG. 3B, 3D ). 
         FIGS. 4A-4D : Gal inhibits the proteasomal activities in CRPC cells. 22Rv1 cells were treated with 5-20 μM Gal for 24 h ( FIG. 4A ) or 48 h ( FIG. 4B ), or VCaP cells treated with 5-20 μM Gal for 72 h ( FIG. 4C ), with 100 nM BTZ as a control, followed by assaying proteasomal CT-like, PGPH-like, and T-like activities. ( FIG. 4D ) 22Rv1 cells were treated with 20 μM Gal for up to 72 h, followed by assaying CT-like activity. 
         FIGS. 5A-5D :  FIG. 5A —Cellular localizations of AR and AR-V7 as well as calpain/caspase substrate proteins and their cleavage fragments in Gal-treated R22v1. 22Rv1 cells were treated with 20 μM Gal for up to 72 h, followed by isolating nuclear (Nuc) and cytosolic (Cyto) fractions and analysis in Western blotting (35 μg/lane) using below antibodies: (a, b) Anti-AR-V7 monoclonal antibody, shorter and longer exposures, respectively; (c) Anti-AR (N20); (d) Anti-PARP; (e) Anti-Spectrin α2; (f) Anti-calpain small subunit; (g) Anti-Calpastatin; (h) Anti-actin. ( FIG. 5B-D ) Nuclear AR-V7 cleavage fragment(s) and effects of calpain/caspase inhibitors in Gal-treated 22Rv1 cells. B, Cleavage of AR-V7 in nuclei. 22 Rv1 cells, with androgen starvation for 24 h, were treated with 20 μM of Gal for indicated hours, followed by isolation of nuclear (Nu) and cytosolic (Cyto) fractions and Western blotting with specific antibodies indicated. The 53 kDa fragment was detected by the AR-V7-specific monoclonal antibody. (C, D) Inhibitors of calpain and caspases block the nuclear AR-V7 degradation in Gal-treated CRPC cells. 22 Rv1 cells, without (C) or with androgen starvation for 24 h (D), were treated with 20 μM of Gal in the absence or presence of 40 μM of calpain inhibit calpeptin (CAPT) (C, D), 40 μM of pan-caspase inhibitor IV (Cas IV) (C), or 20 μM of caspase inhibitor Z-VAD (D) for different time points. Nuclear fractions were isolated and separated by Western blotting to determine AR-V7 levels. Actin was used as a loading control. 
         FIG. 6  provides an exemplary human AR sequence (SEQ ID NO: 1). 
         FIG. 7  provides an exemplary human AR variant sequence (SEQ ID NO: 2) (ref. 66). 
         FIG. 8  provides an exemplary human Spectrin α2 sequence (SEQ ID NO: 3). 
         FIG. 9  provides an exemplary human PARP sequence (SEQ ID NO: 4). 
         FIGS. 10A-10E . Gal inhibits 19S proteasome-associated DUB, but not 20S proteasomal catalytic activities. Purified 20S proteasome ( FIG. 10A ), purified 26S proteasome ( FIG. 10B ), or protein extract of 22Rv1 cells ( FIG. 10C ) was incubated with Gal (μM) or BTZ (nM) at indicated concentrations for 15 min, and the proteasome activities were determined. ( FIG. 10D  and  FIG. 10E ) Purified 26S proteasome was incubated with Gal (20 μM or as indicated) for 15 min, and then Ub-AMC substrate was added to determine DUBs activity. Purified 20S proteasome was used a control; BG, background ( 10 D). 
         FIGS. 11A-11D . Gal induces DUB inhibition and protein oxidization in castrate-resistant prostate cancer cells. 22Rv1 cells were treated with 20 μM galeterone (Gal) for up to 72 h, followed by measuring levels of DUB activity ( FIG. 11A ), proteasomal CT-like activity ( FIG. 11B ), Western blotting ( FIG. 11C ) and caspase-3 activity ( FIG. 11D ). In C, (a) Cell lysates were derivatized with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH), followed by Western blotting to determine the levels of oxidized proteins (Oxi-P). Actin was used a load control (b). AR-V7 levels were determined by AR-V7 specific antibody (c). PARP/p89 is caspase-3 cleavage fragment while PARP/p65 is calpain cleavage product (d). (e) Autolysis of calpain small subunit (Cal Sm) to p28 fragment. (t) Actin, loading control. 
         FIGS. 12A-E . Gal and BTZ combination induced greater levels of growth inhibition and cell death in CRPC cells. ( FIG. 12A ) 22Rv1 cells were treated with Gal at indicated concentrations in the presence of different concentrations of bortezomib (BTZ) for 24 h, cell proliferation was determined by MTT. ( FIG. 12B-C ) Morphological changes after bortezomib and Gal combination treatment for 24 h. 22Rv1 cells were treated with Gal (20 μM) in the presence of indicated concentrations (nM) of bortezomib (BTZ) for 24 h, morphological changes ( 12 B) and crystal violet staining ( 12 C) were determined. In  12 C, cells were fixed with formalin, and then stained with violet overnight. ( FIG. 12D-E ) 22Rv1 cells were treated with Gal (20 μM) in the presence of indicated concentrations (nM) of bortezomib (BTZ) for 48 h, morphological changes ( 12 D) and crystal violet staining ( 12 E) were determined. 
         FIGS. 13A-C . Gal overcomes BTZ resistance in MM. BTZ-resistant MM 8826 cells were treated with Gal (10-20 μM) in combination with BTZ (2.5-40 nM) for 24 h ( FIG. 13A ,  FIG. 13B  from two independent experiments). Cell proliferation was determined by MTS. ( FIG. 13C ) Multiple myeloma 8826 cells were treated with 0.5-4 nM bortezomib (BTZ) in the presence of 10 μM of Gal for 24 h. Cell death was demined by detection of PARP cleavage. Increased levels of PARP cleavage were seen in the combination treated cells. Actin was used as loading control. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Cancer (neoplasia) is characterized by deregulated cell growth and cell division. There are numerous types of cancers. Examples of cancers include acoustic neuroma, adenocarcinoma, astrocytoma, basal cell cancer, bile duct cancer, bladder cancer, brain cancer, breast cancer, bronchogenic cancer, central nervous system cancer, cervical cancer, chondrosarcoma, choriocarcinoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, colon cancer, craniopharyngioma, ependymoma, Ewing&#39;s tumor, fibrosarcoma, glandular cancer, glioma, hairy cell leukemia, hemangioblastoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, hepatoma, kidney cancer, leiomyosarcoma, liver cancer, liposarcoma, lung cancer, melanoma, medulloblastoma, medullary cancer, medullary thyroid cancer, menangioma, mesothelioma, multiple myeloma (MM), myxosarcoma, neuroblastoma, non-Hodgkin&#39;s lymphoma, oligodendroglioma, osteogenic sarcoma, ovarian cancer, papillary adenocarcinomas, papillary thyroid cancer, pancreatic cancer, pheochromocytomas papillary cancer, pineal cancer, prolymphocytic leukemia, prostate cancer (including castration-resistant prostate cancer), renal cell cancer, retinoblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, sarcoma, sebaceous gland cancer, seminoma, skin cancer, squamous cell cancer, sweat gland cancer, synovioma, testicular cancer, and/or Wilms&#39; tumor. 
     As one example, multiple myeloma (MM) is a cancer of plasma cells, a type of white blood cell normally responsible for producing antibodies. In multiple myeloma, collections of abnormal plasma cells accumulate in the bone marrow, where they interfere with the production of normal blood cells. Most cases of multiple myeloma also feature the production of a paraprotein—an abnormal antibody which can cause kidney problems. Bone lesions and hypercalcemia (high blood calcium levels) are also often encountered. Multiple myeloma is considered to be incurable but treatable. Remissions may be induced with steroids, chemotherapy, proteasome inhibitors, immunomodulatory drugs such as thalidomide or lenalidomide, and stem cell transplants. Radiation therapy is sometimes used to reduce pain from bone lesions. 
     Another example of a cancer is prostate cancer. Prostate cancer, as its name indicates, is a cancer that develops in the prostate gland of the male reproductive system. Prostate cancer can be aggressive, in which cancer cells metastasize and move from the prostate gland to other parts of the body, such as the lymph nodes and the bones. It is the second leading cause of cancer-related death in men in the US, and its prevalence is increasing in developing countries. 
     More than 200,000 new cases of prostate cancer are diagnosed in the US each year. Of these, roughly 88% or 176,000 have localized disease that can be treated with surgery, radiation, cryotherapy or watchful waiting. 
     Prostate cancer growth is often driven by male sex hormones called androgens, which include testosterone. Because of this, a common treatment option for the 22% or 35,200 patients that cannot be treated with surgery, radiation, cryotherapy or watchful waiting is to lower the levels of androgens in the man&#39;s body. Androgen levels can be lowered by surgically removing the testicles or with drugs that stop the testicles from making androgens or block how they affect the body. This type of treatment is called hormone therapy or androgen-deprivation therapy. 
     Unfortunately, about 40,000 patients each year begin to fail hormone therapy or become hormone refractory. That is, they develop castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) or hormone refractory prostate cancer (HRPC). CRPC is particularly prostate cancer that continues to grow despite the suppression of male hormones that fuel the growth of prostate cancer cells. 
     Androgen receptors (AR), also known as NR3C4 (nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group C, member 4), are a type of nuclear receptor that are activated by binding either of the androgenic hormones, testosterone, or dihydrotestosterone in the cytoplasm. Upon binding, AR translocates into the cell nucleus. The AR is most closely related to the progesterone receptor, and progestins in higher dosages can block AR. 
     The AR contains a N-terminal domain (NTD), a DNA binding domain (DBD), a hinge region (H) and a C-terminal domain (CTD). The CTD contains the Ligand Binding Domain (LBD) and the Transcriptional Activation Function 2 Domain (AF2). Androgen Receptor Variants (ARVs) lack the LBD and are constituently active in the absence of ligand (AR-V3, AR-V4, AR-V5, AR-V7 and AR-V12). A human AR sequence can be found at, for example, Accession: AAA51772.1 and this sequence is provided in  FIG. 6 . A human variant AR sequence can be found at Accession: ACN39559.1 and this sequence is provided in  FIG. 7 . 
     Among the contributors to CRPC are AR splice variants that lack the LBD. Instead, AR splice variants have small amounts of unique sequences derived from cryptic exons or from out of frame translation. Androgen Receptor Variant 7 (AR-V7) is constitutively active and is expressed under conditions consistent with CRPC. AR-V7 is reported to regulate a transcriptional program that is similar but not identical to that of AR. However, it is unknown whether these differences are due to the unique sequences in AR-V7, or simply to loss of the LBD. 
     Galeterone, also named TOK-001 and VN/124-1, is a small molecule, oral drug that is capable of disrupting androgen receptor signaling. In preclinical studies, Galeterone has been shown to selectively inhibit CYP17 lyase to prevent biosynthesis of androgens, antagonize testosterone binding to the androgen receptor (AR), and degrade the AR protein. Galeterone is the first drug in development that has been shown to have all three properties. At the time of this application&#39;s filing, Galeterone is undergoing a Phase III clinical trial for the treatment of metastatic CRPC. 
     Galeterone has been shown to be effective against the full length AR (fAR) and AR-V7, causing tumor regression in preclinical models. Activities are shown by reductions in Prostate-specific antigen (PSA), Transmembrane protease, serine 2 (TMPRSS2) and Homeobox protein Nkx-3.1 (NKX3.1). 
     Particular embodiments of Galeterone have a molecular formula of C 26 H 32 N 2 O and a molecular weight of about 388.55 g/mol. Particular embodiments of Galeterone include (3S,8R,9S,10R,13S,14S)-17-(benzimidazol-1-yl)-10,13-dimethyl-2,3,4,7,8,9,11,12,14,15-decahydro-1H-cyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-ol. Particular embodiments of Galeterone include 3-β-Hydroxy17-(1H-benzimidazol-1-yl)androsta-5,16-diene). 
     Particular embodiments of Galeterone include compounds of formula (I) 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     Particular embodiments of Galeterone include analogs which include pharmaceutically acceptable salts, N-oxides, active metabolites, prodrugs, or solvates of Formula 1. 
     Particular embodiments of Galeterone include analogs which include compounds of formula (II) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, N-oxide, active metabolite, prodrug, or solvate thereof 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein R 1  is H or acetyl; and R 2  is pyridyl or benzimidazolyl. Additional embodiments of Galeterone analogs are disclosed in US 2014/0288037. 
     The current disclosure provides compositions and methods to potentiate the anti-cancer effects of Galeterone. Potentiating the anti-cancer effects of Galeterone means that at least one anti-cancer effect of Galeterone is increased, and in particular embodiments is statistically-significantly increased. The potentiation can be used to increase the anti-cancer effect of Galeterone, or, in particular embodiments, to lower the required dose of Galeterone to reduce potential side effects or toxicities of drug administration or allow for more Galeterone to be tolerated for greater drug concentration and subsequently greater efficacy. 
     The compositions and methods that potentiate the anti-cancer effects of Galeterone utilize administration of proteasome inhibitors in combination with Galeterone. Without being bound by theory, administration of proteasome inhibitors sensitizes cancer cells to the beneficial anti-cancer effects of Galeterone because Galeterone itself is a proteasome inhibitor. Galeterone also inhibits deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs). 
     The 19S proteasome subunit (PA700/19S) plays essential roles in processing ubiquitylated substrates; it can bind, deubiquitylate, and unfold ubiquitylated proteins, which then translocate into the proteolytic chamber of the 20S proteasome for degradation. The 20S proteasome subunit (20S) is a 700-kDa proteasome that has multiple peptidase activities that function through a new type of proteolytic mechanism involving a threonine active site. The 26S proteasome degrades ubiquitylated proteins. It includes the 20S proteasome and the PA700/19S complex. 
     Deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) are also known as deubiquitinating peptidases, deubiquitinating isopeptidases, deubiquitinases, ubiquitin proteases, ubiquitin hydrolases, and ubiquitin isopeptidases. DUBs are a large group of proteases that cleave ubiquitin from proteins and other molecules. Ubiquitin is attached to proteins in order to regulate the degradation of proteins via the proteasome and lysosome; coordinate the cellular localization of proteins; activate and inactivate proteins; and modulate protein-protein interactions. DUBs can reverse these effects by cleaving the peptide or isopeptide bond between ubiquitin and its substrate protein. In humans there are nearly 100 DUB genes, which can be classified into two main classes: cysteine proteases and metalloproteases. The cysteine proteases include ubiquitin-specific proteases (USPs), ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolases (UCHs), Machado-Josephin domain proteases (MJDs) and ovarian tumor proteases (OTU). The metalloprotease group includes the Jab1/Mov34/Mpr1 Pad1 N-terminal+(MPN+) (JAMM) domain proteases. 
     Proteasome inhibitors are molecules that block the activity of proteasomes, which are proteolytic complexes that degrade cytosolic and nuclear proteins into small peptide units. Examples of proteasome inhibitors include lactacystin, bortezomib, disulfiram, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, salinosporamide A, carfilzomib, oprozomib (ONX 0912), CEP-18770, laxomib (MLN9708), epoxomicin, β-lapachone, and MG132. Bortezomib is a first-generation proteasome inhibitor. Examples of second-generation proteasome inhibitors include MLN9708, CEP-18770, carfilzomib, salinosporamide A (NPI-0052, marizomib), oprozomib (ONX 0912) and immunoproteasome inhibitors (e.g., UK-101, IPSI-001, YU-102, ONX 0914, PR-924 (IPSI)). Bortezomib has been approved in the US for the treatment of multiple myeloma. Moreover, proteasomal inhibitors such as Bortesamide, MG132, and β-lapachone inhibit the 20S proteasome. Therefore, these drugs inhibit the entire proteasomal activity including the 26S (which includes the 20S and 19S) and the 20S proteasomal complexes. 
     In particular embodiments, cancer cells (e.g., CRPC cells, MM cells) are sensitized to the beneficial anti-cancer effects of Galeterone due to activation of calpains/caspases. For example, in CRPC cells, calpains/caspases cleave AR and the variant AR (e.g., AR-V7), resulting in cancer cell death. 
     Calpains belong to a family of calcium-dependent, non-lysosomal cysteine proteases (proteolytic enzymes) expressed ubiquitously in mammals and many other organisms. Amongst protein substrates, tertiary structure elements rather than primary amino acid sequences are likely responsible for directing cleavage to a specific substrate. Amongst peptide and small-molecule substrates, the most consistently reported specificity is for small, hydrophobic amino acids (e.g. leucine, valine and isoleucine) at the P2 position, and large hydrophobic amino acids (e.g. phenylalanine and tyrosine) at the P1 position. Calpains have been implicated in necrotic and apoptotic cell death. 
     The calpain family includes two major isoforms, calpain I and calpain II which require μM and mM Ca 2+  concentrations to initiate activity. An increase in intracellular Ca 2+  level is thought to trigger a cascade of biochemical processes including calpain activation. Once activated, calpains degrade membrane, cytoplasmic and nuclear substrates, leading to the breakdown of cellular architecture and finally apoptosis. 
     Like calpains, caspases are cysteine proteases. Caspases are a family of cysteine aspartic proteases or cysteine-dependent aspartate-directed proteases that play an important role in apoptosis, necrosis, and inflammation. Caspases are essential in cellular processes including apoptosis, in development and in stages of adult life. Some caspases are also required in the immune system for the maturation of lymphocytes. Failure of apoptosis has been shown to contribute to tumor development, chemoresistance and autoimmune diseases. It has been shown that caspases and calpains interact with each other to increase or decrease apoptosis. 
     There are two types of apoptotic caspases, the initiator (apical) caspases and the effector (executioner) caspases. The initiator caspases cleave inactive pro-forms of effector caspases, thereby activating them. The effector caspases subsequently cleave other protein substrates within the cell to trigger the apoptotic process. The initiation of this caspase cascade is regulated by caspase inhibitors. 
     Examples of initiator caspases include Caspase-2 (CASP2), Caspase-8 (CASP8), Caspase-9 (CASP9), and Caspase-10 (CASP10). Examples of effector caspases include Caspase-3 (CASP3), Caspase-6 (CASP6), and Caspase-7 (CASP7). Other caspases that are not classified as an initiator or effector caspases include Caspase-4 (CASP4), Caspase-5 (CASP5), and Caspase-1 (CASP1). CASP4 and CASP5 are inflammatory enzymes and together with CASP1 are involved in T-cell maturation. Other names for these exemplary caspases include the following: “ICE” for CASP1; “ICH-1” for CASP2; “CPP32,” “Yama,” and “apopain” for CASP3; “ICE(rel)II,” “TX,” and “ICH-2” for CASP4; “ICE(rel)III,” and “TY” for CASP5; “Mch2” for CASP6; “Mch3,” “ICE-LAP3,” and “CMH-1” for CASP7; “FLICE,” “MACH,” and “Mch5” for CASP8; “ICE-LAP6,” and “Mch6” for CASP9; and “Mch4,” and “FLICE-2” for CASP10. 
     As suggested, the current disclosure describes a combination therapy of Galeterone and a proteasome inhibitor. A combination therapy refers to those situations in which two or more different active ingredients are administered in overlapping regimens so that the subject is simultaneously exposed to both agents in therapeutically effective amounts. 
     Combination therapies can be used to treat subjects (humans, veterinary animals (dogs, cats, reptiles, birds, etc.) livestock (horses, cattle, goats, pigs, chickens, etc.) and research animals (monkeys, rats, mice, fish, etc.). 
     Therapeutically effective amounts of combination therapies disclosed herein have an anti-cancer effect. Cancer (medical term: malignant neoplasm) refers to a class of diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled growth (division beyond the normal limits), invasion (intrusion on and destruction of adjacent tissues), and sometimes metastasis. “Metastasis” refers to the spread of cancer cells from their original site of proliferation to another part of the body. For solid tumors, the formation of metastasis is a very complex process and depends on detachment of malignant cells from the primary tumor, invasion of the extracellular matrix, penetration of the endothelial basement membranes to enter the body cavity and vessels, and then, after being transported by the blood or lymph, infiltration of target organs. Finally, the growth of a new tumor, i.e. a secondary tumor or metastatic tumor, at the target site depends on angiogenesis. Tumor metastasis often occurs even after the removal of the primary tumor because tumor cells or components may remain and develop metastatic potential. 
     A “tumor” is a swelling or lesion formed by an abnormal growth of cells (called neoplastic cells or tumor cells). A “tumor cell” is an abnormal cell that divides by a rapid, uncontrolled cellular proliferation and continues to divide after the stimuli that initiated the new division cease. Tumors show partial or complete lack of structural organization and functional coordination with the normal tissue, and usually form a distinct mass of tissue, which may be either benign, pre-malignant or malignant. 
     As used herein, an anti-cancer effect refers to a biological effect, which can be manifested by a decrease in tumor volume, a decrease in the number of cancer cells, a decrease in the number of metastases, an increase in life expectancy, or a decrease of various physiological symptoms associated with the cancerous condition. An anti-cancer effect can also be manifested by a decrease in recurrence or an increase in the time before recurrence. In particular embodiments, an anti-cancer effect also includes a statistically-significant up-regulation in AR cleavage products (e.g., 53 kDa and 41 kDa AR-V7 fragments) in a subject following administration of an active ingredient. 
     For administration, therapeutically effective amounts (also referred to herein as doses) can be initially estimated based on results from in vitro assays and/or animal model studies. Such information can be used to more accurately determine useful doses in subjects of interest. Particularly useful pre-clinical tests include measure of calpain activation, caspase activation, cell growth, and/or cell viability. 
     Calpain activation can be assessed by increased calpain activity using its substrates Ac-LLY-AFC and N-succinyl-LY-AMC (abcam; 28) in a cell-free activity assay and by the production of specific calpain substrate cleavage fragments, e.g., calpain small subunit/p28 (17), Calpastatin/p70 (18), 65-kDa fragment of PARP (19), and fragments of the microtubule-associated protein Tau in Western blotting (29). 
     Caspase activation can be measured by increased activities using specific substrates to caspase-9, -8 and 3 (cell-free activity assays), increased levels of the active caspases/decreased levels of pro-caspases (Western blotting and immunostaining), and the production of specific caspase substrate cleavage fragments, e.g., PARP/p89 (12-13, 21-27), and 120-kDa fragments of α-spectrin (Western blotting) (16). 
     Cell growth can be determined by MTT and colony formation assays. Cell counting as a golden standard can be performed routinely to determine cell doubling times and growth rates (12-13, 21-27). Cell viability can be determined by trypan blue exclusion and LDH release assays (30). 
     Spectrin α2 and PARP are caspase cleavage substrates. Spectrin α2 (all-spectrin) is a 285 kDa scaffolding protein expressed in most eukaryotic cells. The Spectrin heterodimer comprising all-Spectrin and any of five β-Spectrins have been found to play various roles in cellular processes including formation and maintenance of specialized plasma membrane domains, structural support of the plasma membrane and the maintenance of cell shape, and as a tumor-suppressor protein involved in TGF-β-SMAD regulation, a scaffold upon which calcium-mediated and tyrosine-phosphatase signal transduction pathways converge. An exemplary human Spectrin α2 amino acid sequence can be found at UniProtKB-Q13813 and this sequence is provided in  FIG. 8 . 
     Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) is a family of proteins involved in a number of cellular processes involving mainly DNA repair and programmed cell death. PARP is found in the cell&#39;s nucleus. PARPs detect and signal single-strand DNA breaks (SSB) to the enzymatic machinery involved in the SSB repair. PARP activation is an immediate cellular response to metabolic, chemical, or radiation-induced DNA SSB damage. 
     PARP is composed of four domains of interest: a DNA-binding domain, a caspase-cleaved domain (see below), an auto-modification domain, and a catalytic domain. The DNA-binding domain is composed of two zinc finger motifs. PARP binds sites with single-strand breaks through its N-terminal zinc fingers and recruits other proteins such as XRCC1, DNA ligase III, DNA polymerase beta, and a kinase to the site to repair the break. 
     Examples of proteins of the PARP family include: PARP1, PARP2, VPARP (PARP4), Tankyrase-1 and -2 (PARP-5a or TNKS, and PARP-5b or TNKS2, respectively) which are confirmed to have PARP activity; and PARP3, PARP6, TIPARP (or “PARP7”), PARP8, PARP9, PARP10, PARP11, PARP12, PARP14, PARP15, and PARP16. An exemplary human PARP1 amino acid sequence can be found at Accession: NP_001609.2, and this sequence is provided in  FIG. 9 . 
     The actual dose amount administered to a particular subject can be determined by a physician, veterinarian, or researcher taking into account parameters such as physical, physiological and psychological factors including target, body weight, stage of prostate cancer, type of prostate cancer, previous or concurrent therapeutic interventions, idiopathy of the subject, and route of administration. 
     Exemplary doses can include 0.05 mg/kg to 5.0 mg/kg of Galeterone and/or a proteasome inhibitor. For certain indications, the total daily dose can be 0.05 mg/kg to 30.0 mg/kg Galeterone and/or a proteasome inhibitor administered to a subject one to three times a day, including administration of total daily doses of about 0.05-3.0, 0.1-3.0, 0.5-3.0, 1.0-3.0, 1.5-3.0, 2.0-3.0, 2.5-3.0, and 0.5-3.0 mg/kg/day of administration forms of Galeterone and/or a proteasome inhibitor using 60-minute oral, intravenous or other dosing. In one particular example, doses can be administered QD or BID to a subject with, e.g., total daily doses of 1.5 mg/kg, 3.0 mg/kg, or 4.0 mg/kg of a composition with up to 92-98% wt/v of Galeterone and/or a proteasome inhibitor. 
     Additional useful doses can often range from 0.1 to 5 μg/kg or from 0.5 to 1 μg/kg. In other examples, a dose can include 1 μg/kg, 5 μg/kg, 10 μg/kg, 15 μg/kg, 20 μg/kg, 25 μg/kg, 30 μg/kg, 35 μg/kg, 40 μg/kg, 45 μg/kg, 50 μg/kg, 55 μg/kg, 60 μg/kg, 65 μg/kg, 70 μg/kg, 75 μg/kg, 80 μg/kg, 85 μg/kg, 90 μg/kg, 95 μg/kg, 100 μg/kg, 150 μg/kg, 200 μg/kg, 250 μg/kg, 350 μg/kg, 400 μg/kg, 450 μg/kg, 500 μg/kg, 550 μg/kg, 600 μg/kg, 650 μg/kg, 700 μg/kg, 750 μg/kg, 800 μg/kg, 850 μg/kg, 900 μg/kg, 950 μg/kg, 1000 μg/kg, 0.1 to 5 mg/kg or from 0.5 to 1 mg/kg. In other examples, a dose can include 1 mg/kg, 5 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg, 15 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg, 25 mg/kg, 30 mg/kg, 35 mg/kg, 40 mg/kg, 45 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg, 55 mg/kg, 60 mg/kg, 65 mg/kg, 70 mg/kg, 75 mg/kg, 80 mg/kg, 85 mg/kg, 90 mg/kg, 95 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg, 150 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg, 250 mg/kg, 350 mg/kg, 400 mg/kg, 450 mg/kg, 500 mg/kg, 550 mg/kg, 600 mg/kg, 650 mg/kg, 700 mg/kg, 750 mg/kg, 800 mg/kg, 850 mg/kg, 900 mg/kg, 950 mg/kg, 1000 mg/kg, or more. 
     Doses referred to herein can include Galeterone and a proteasome inhibitor collectively or individually. 
     Therapeutically effective amounts can be achieved by administering single or multiple doses during the course of a treatment regimen (e.g., hourly, every 2 hours, every 3 hours, every 4 hours, every 6 hours, every 9 hours, every 12 hours, every 18 hours, daily, every other day, every 3 days, every 4 days, every 5 days, every 6 days, weekly, every 2 weeks, every 3 weeks, or monthly). 
     Galeterone and a proteasome inhibitor can be administered simultaneously or within a selected time window, such as within 10 minutes, 1 hour, 3 hour, 10 hour, 15 hour, 24 hour, or 48 hour time windows or when the complementary active ingredient is within a clinically-relevant therapeutic window. 
     In particular embodiments, Galeterone and a proteasome inhibitor can be used in conjunction with other cancer treatments. For example, Galeterone and a proteasome inhibitor can be administered in combination with, for example, a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist or antagonist (e.g., Lupron, Zoladex (Goserelin), Degarelix, Ozarelix, ABT-620 (Elagolix), TAK-385 (Relugolix), EP-100 or KLH-2109); a phosphoinositide 3-kinase (P13K) inhibitor, a TORC inhibitor, or a dual PI3K/TORC inhibitor (e.g., BEZ-235, BKM120, BGT226, BYL-719, GDC0068, GDC-0980, GDC0941, GDC0032, MK-2206, OSI-027, CC-223, AZD8055, SAR245408, SAR245409, PF04691502, WYE125132, GSK2126458, GSK-2636771, BAY806946, PF-05212384, SF1126, PX866, AMG319, ZSTK474, Ca1101, PWT33597, LY-317615 (enzastaurin hydrochloride), CU-906, or CUDC-907); a CYP17 inhibitor in addition to Galeterone (e.g., abiraterone acetate (Zytiga), TAK-700 (orteronel), or VT-464); prednisone; an osteoprotective agent; a radiation therapy; a kinase inhibitor (e.g. MET, VEGFR, EGFR, MEK, SRC, AKT, RAF, FGFR, CDK4/6); Provenge, Prostvac, Ipilimumab, a PD-1 inhibitor; a taxane or tubulin inhibitor; an anti-STEAP-1 antibody; a heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) or heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) pathway modulator; an anti-androgen (e.g. bicalutamide); and/or immunotherapy. 
     As suggested, the active ingredients of combination therapies disclosed herein can be formulated into compositions. Each active ingredient can be formulated into its own composition for administration or active ingredients can be formulated into the same composition. 
     For injection, compositions can be formulated as aqueous solutions, such as in buffers including Hanks&#39; solution, Ringer&#39;s solution, or physiological saline. The aqueous solutions can contain formulatory agents such as suspending, stabilizing, and/or dispersing agents. Examples of suitable aqueous and non-aqueous carriers, which may be employed in the injectable formulations include water, ethanol, polyols (such as glycerol, propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, and the like), and suitable mixtures thereof, vegetable oils, such as olive oil, and injectable organic esters, such as ethyloleate. Proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of coating materials, such as lecithin, by the maintenance of selected particle size in the case of dispersions, and by the use of surfactants. 
     Injectable formulations may also contain adjuvants such as preservatives, wetting agents, emulsifying agents, and dispersing agents. Prevention of the action of microorganisms may be ensured by the inclusion of various antibacterial and antifungal agents, for example, paraben, chlorobutanol, phenol sorbic acid, and the like. It may also be desirable to include isotonic agents, such as sugars, sodium chloride, and the like in the compositions. 
     Alternatively, the composition can be in lyophilized form and/or provided in powder form for constitution with a suitable vehicle, e.g., sterile pyrogen-free water, before use. Lyophilized compositions can include less than 5% water content; less than 4.0% water content; or less than 3.5% water content. 
     In particular embodiments, the composition can be in a unit dosage form, such as in a suitable diluent in sterile, hermetically sealed ampoules or sterile syringes. 
     In particular embodiments, in order to prolong the effect of a composition, it is desirable to slow the absorption of the active ingredient(s) following injection. Compositions can be formulated as sustained-release systems utilizing semipermeable matrices of solid polymers containing at least one administration form. Various sustained-release materials have been established and are well known by those of ordinary skill in the art. Sustained-release systems may, depending on their chemical nature, release active ingredients following administration for a few weeks up to over 100 days. 
     In particular embodiments, delayed absorption can be accomplished by dissolving or suspending the active ingredient(s) in an oil vehicle. In particular embodiments, administration forms can be formulated as depot preparations. Depot preparations can be formulated with suitable polymeric or hydrophobic materials (for example as an emulsion in an acceptable oil) or ion exchange resins, or as sparingly soluble derivatives, for example, as a sparingly soluble salts. In addition, prolonged absorption of the injectable composition may be brought about by the inclusion of agents which delay absorption such as aluminum monostearate and gelatin. 
     Injectable depot forms can be made by forming microencapsule matrices of administration forms in biodegradable polymers such as polylactide-polyglycolide. Depending on the ratio of administration form to polymer, and the nature of the particular polymer employed, the rate of administration form release can be controlled. Examples of other biodegradable polymers include poly(orthoesters) and poly(anhydrides). Injectable depot formulations are also prepared by entrapping the active ingredient(s) in liposomes or microemulsions which are compatible with body tissue. 
     Alternatively, delayed absorption of a composition can be accomplished by the use of a liquid suspension of crystalline or amorphous material having poor water solubility. The rate of absorption of the active ingredient(s) then depends upon its rate of dissolution which, in turn, may depend upon crystal size and crystalline form. 
     Compositions can also be administered with anesthetics including ethanol, bupivacaine, chloroprocaine, levobupivacaine, lidocaine, mepivacaine, procaine, ropivacaine, tetracaine, desflurane, isoflurane, ketamine, propofol, sevoflurane, codeine, fentanyl, hydromorphone, marcaine, meperidine, methadone, morphine, oxycodone, remifentanil, sufentanil, butorphanol, nalbuphine, tramadol, benzocaine, dibucaine, ethyl chloride, xylocaine, and/or phenazopyridine. 
     Compositions can also be formulated for oral administration. For ingestion, compositions can take the form of tablets, pills, lozenges, sprays, liquids, and capsules formulated in conventional manners. Ingestible compositions can be prepared using conventional methods and materials known in the pharmaceutical art. For example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,215,754 and 4,374,082 relate to methods for preparing swallowable compositions. U.S. Pat. No. 6,495,177 relates to methods to prepare chewable supplements with improved mouthfeel. U.S. Pat. No. 5,965,162, relates to compositions and methods for preparing comestible units which disintegrate quickly in the mouth. 
     Ingestible compositions may have a shape containing no sharp edges and a smooth, uniform and substantially bubble free outer coating. Coatings of ingestible compositions can be derived from a polymeric film. Such film coatings reduce the adhesion of the compositions to the inner surface of the mouth and can aid in masking potential unpleasant tastes. Coatings can also protect the compositions from atmospheric degradation. Exemplary polymeric films include vinyl polymers, cellulosics, acrylates and methacrylates, natural gums and resins such as zein, gelatin, shellac and acacia. Other common excipients used in ingestible compositions include sucrose, fructose, lactose, glucose, lycasin, xylitol, lactitol, erythritol, mannitol, isomaltose, dextrose, polydextrose, dextrin, compressible cellulose, compressible honey, compressible molasses, fondant or gums, vegetable oils, animal oils, alkyl polysiloxanes, corn starch, potato starch, pre-gelatinized starches, stearic acid, calcium stearate, magnesium stearate, zinc stearate, benzoic acid, and colorants 
     For administration by inhalation (e.g., nasal or pulmonary), the compositions can be formulated as aerosol sprays for pressurized packs or a nebulizer, with the use of suitable propellants, e.g. dichlorodifluoromethane, trichlorofluoromethane, or dichlorotetra-fluoroethane. 
     As suggested, nanoparticle formulations for a variety of administration routes can also be used. 
     Any composition disclosed herein can advantageously include any other pharmaceutically acceptable carriers which include those that do not produce significantly adverse, allergic, or other untoward reactions that outweigh the benefit of administration, whether for research, prophylactic, and/or therapeutic treatments. Exemplary pharmaceutically acceptable carriers and formulations are disclosed in Remington&#39;s Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th Ed. Mack Printing Company, 1990. Moreover, formulations can be prepared to meet sterility, pyrogenicity, general safety, and purity standards as required by U.S. FDA Office of Biological Standards and/or other relevant foreign regulatory agencies. 
     Exemplary generally used pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include any and all bulking agents or fillers, solvents or co-solvents, dispersion media, coatings, surfactants, antioxidants (e.g., ascorbic acid, methionine, vitamin E), preservatives, isotonic agents, absorption delaying agents, salts, stabilizers, buffering agents, chelating agents (e.g., EDTA), gels, binders, disintegration agents, and/or lubricants. Fillers and excipients are commercially available from companies such as Aldrich Chemical Co., FMC Corp, Bayer, BASF, Alexi Fres, Wtco, Mallinckrodt, Rhodia, ISP, and others. 
     In particular embodiments, the compositions can include, for example, 25 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 50 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 100 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 150 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 200 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 250 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 300 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 350 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 400 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 450 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 500 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 550 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 600 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 650 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 700 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 750 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 800 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 850 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 900 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 950 μg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 1 mg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 1.5 mg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 2 mg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 2.5 mg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 3 mg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 3.5 mg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 4 mg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 4.5 mg/mL or mg-5 mg/mL or mg, 25 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 50 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 100 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 150 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 200 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 250 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 300 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 350 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 400 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 450 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 500 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 550 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 600 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 650 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 700 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 750 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 800 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 850 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 900 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 950 μg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 1 mg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 1.5 mg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 2 mg/mL or mg-2.5 mg/mL or mg, 25 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 50 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 100 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 150 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 200 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 250 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 300 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 350 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 400 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 450 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 500 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 550 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 600 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 650 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 700 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 750 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 800 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 850 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 900 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 950 μg/mL or mg-1 mg/mL or mg, 25 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 50 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 100 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 150 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 200 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 250 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 300 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 350 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 400 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 450 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 500 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 550 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 600 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg L, 650 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 700 μg/mL or mg-750 μg/mL or mg, 25 μg/mL or mg-500 μg/mL or mg, 50 μg/mL or mg-500 μg/mL or mg, 100 μg/mL or mg-500 μg/mL or mg, 150 μg/mL or mg-500 μg/mL or mg, 200 μg/mL or mg-500 μg/mL or mg, 250 μg/mL or mg-500 μg/mL or mg, 300 μg/mL or mg-500 μg/mL or mg, 350 μg/mL or mg-500 μg/mL or mg, 400 μg/mL or mg-500 μg/mL or mg, 450 μg/mL or mg-500 μg/mL or mg, 25 μg/mL or mg-250 μg/mL or mg, 50 μg/mL or mg-250 μg/mL or mg, 100 μg/mL or mg-250 μg/mL or mg, 150 μg/mL or mg-250 μg/mL or mg, 200 μg/mL or mg-250 μg/mL or mg, 25 μg/mL or mg-100 μg/mL or mg, or 50 μg/mL or mg-100 μg/mL or mg of one or more of the active ingredients. 
     In particular embodiments, ratios of active ingredients can include: (Galeterone:proteasome inhibitor (and whether in the same or different compositions)): 1:0.0001; 1:0.001; 1:0.005; 1:0.0075; 1:0.01; 1:0.05; 1:0.075; 1:0.1; 1:0.5; 1:0.75; 1:1; 1:1.25; 1:1.5; 1:1.75; 1:8; 1:1.2; 1:1.25; 1:1.3; 1:1.35; 1:1.4; 1:1.5; 1:1.75; 1:2; 1:3; 1:4; 1:5; 1:6; 1:7; 1:8; 1:9; 1:10; 1:15; 1:20; 1:30; 1:40; 1:50; 1:60; 1:70; 1:80; 1:90; 1:100; 1:200; 1:300; 1:400; 1:500; 1:600; 1:700; 1:800; 1:900; 1:1000. 
     The current disclosure also provides diagnostics for CRPC treatment efficacy including systems and methods to monitor the anti-cancer effects of a CRPC therapeutic. As described herein, therapeutically effective doses of active ingredients, such as Galeterone and/or Galeterone in combination with a proteasome inhibitor results in the anti-cancer effect of cleavage of androgen receptors (ARs), including the AR-V7 variant. Detection of AR cleavage products, therefore, is indicative of an anti-cancer effect following active ingredient(s) administration. In particular embodiments, the diagnostics disclosed herein detect (e.g., measure and/or determine) levels of AR-V7 fragments, including 53 kDa and 41 kDa AR-V7 fragments. An up-regulation of AR fragments demonstrates (e.g., is indicative of) an anti-cancer effect. 
     In particular embodiments, the diagnostics disclosed herein detect PARP fragments and/or Spectrin α2 fragments in addition to or instead of AR fragments. The PARP fragments can be 65 kDa (p65) and 89 kDa (p89), and the Spectrin α2 fragments can be 120 kDa (p120) and 150 kDa (p150i or p150). Without being bound by theory, Galeterone treatment activates caspase-3 which produces PARP fragments of 89 kDa (PARP/p89) and Spectrin α2 fragments of 120 kDa (Spectrin α2/p120). Galeterone treatment activates caspase-3 and calpain which produces Spectrin α2 fragments of 150 kDa (Spectrin α2/p150i or p150). Galeterone treatment also activates calpain which produces PARP fragments of 65 kDa (p65). Thus, an up-regulation of these fragments is indicative of and can be used to monitor treatment efficacy. 
     The diagnostics disclosed herein include detecting AR fragments, PARP fragments, and/or spectrin α2 from subject samples. The detection can be qualitative or quantitative. Detected AR cleavage products can be compared to a reference level. 
     Methods of detecting AR, PARP and Spectrin α2 cleavage products (e.g. fragments) are well known in the art. In particular embodiments, the fragments levels can be detected using techniques for measuring and determining the serum levels of proteins. Such methods are well-known in the art and include, e.g., immunoassays based on antibodies to proteins encoded by the genes, aptamers, or molecular imprints (e.g., Western blots and ELISA). Alternatively, a suitable method can be selected to determine the activity of proteins. Such assays include protease assays, kinase assays, phosphatase assays, and reductase assays, among many others. 
     In embodiments, the detection of the cleavage products of AR, PARP, and/or Spectrin α2 in circulating tumor cells (in blood) can be used as to predict resistance to enzalutamide, abiraterone, and other AR-targeted agents. A Western blot assay can be used to detect the blood levels of AR or AR-V7 cleavage fragments, PARP, and/or Spectrin α2 that could then be used in selection criteria to monitor and select patients in a clinical trial as well as to monitor the activity of Gal and proteasome inhibitor. 
     In particular embodiments, a “reference level” can refer to a standardized value for AR, AR-V (e.g., AR-V7), PARP, and/or Spectrin α2 cleavage product biomarkers which represents a level not associated with any disease; a level associated with a particular stage of the disease (i.e., hormone dependent or hormone refractory (CRPC)); or a level associated with a particular subject at the time of diagnosis, at the beginning of treatment, or at a time point during a treatment, such as at a time point following Galeterone and proteasome inhibitor administration. The reference level can be a universal reference level which is useful across a variety of testing locations or can be a reference level specific for the testing location and specific assay used to measure the cleavage product biomarkers. In particular embodiments, the reference level is derived from (i) an individual who does not have prostate cancer; (ii) a group of individuals who do not have prostate cancer; (iii) a subject before diagnosis of prostate cancer; or (iv) a subject at the time of diagnosis, at the beginning of a treatment regimen for prostate cancer or at particular time points during a treatment. Reference levels for a subject can also be related to time points of a subject not undergoing treatments to monitor the natural progression or regression of the disease. 
     In particular embodiments, the levels of AR, AR-V (e.g., AR-V7), PARP, and/or Spectrin α2 cleavage product biomarkers, can be determined sequentially over time. In particular embodiments, the cleavage product biomarker levels can be determined 1 time, 2 times, 3 times, 4 times, 5 times, 6 times, 7 times, 8 times, 9 times, 10 times and every remaining integer up to 100 times or more. In a subject at risk of having CRPC, the cleavage product biomarkers, levels can be determined weekly, monthly, every 2 months, every 3 months, every 4 months, every 5 months, every 6 months, every 7 months, every 8 months, every 9 months, every 10 months, or every 11 months, or yearly to determine if the subject has prostate cancer or to determine if a treatment has been effective or ineffective, or a prostate cancer is progressing or regressing (i.e., each measure can provide an intra-subject reference level). 
     In a subject undergoing treatment for prostate cancer, the AR, AR-V (e.g., AR-V7), PARP, and/or Spectrin α2 cleavage product biomarker levels can be determined weekly, monthly, every 2 months, every 3 months, every 4 months, every 5 months, every 6 months, every 7 months, every 8 months, every 9 months, every 10 months, or every 11 months, or yearly to determine if the prostate cancer in the subject has progressed, has regressed, or has been successfully or unsuccessfully treated. In particular embodiments, a single determination of AR and/or AR-V7 cleavage product, PARP, and/or Spectrin α2 biomarkers is used in the disclosed methods. 
     Diagnostics disclosed herein may be particularly useful to predict when a subject may become refractory to hormone treatments. 
     In particular embodiments, the biomarkers are measured and determined from a biological sample such as blood, plasma, or serum. The blood sample could contain peripheral blood. 
     Reductions in the described measures can also indicate spontaneous remission of the disease and/or the effectiveness of a treatment regimen. 
     As used herein, “unchanged” measures are evaluated in relation to a previous comparison in the same subject and denote a failure to achieve a statistically significant change in a score towards or away from a reference level in the particular subject. 
     The present disclosure further provides for kits including one or more treatment options (e.g., combination therapies) and/or diagnostic assays for practicing any of the methods disclosed herein. The kits may include a notice in the form prescribed by a governmental agency regulating the manufacture, use or sale of pharmaceuticals, biological products, lab developed tests, etc., which notice reflects approval by the agency of the manufacture, use or sale for human administration and/or testing. Treatment portions of the kits may include active ingredient(s) in a ready-to-use form and/or a form that requires preparation before administration (e.g., lyophilized). Diagnostic portions of the kits may utilize any necessary or appropriate polypeptides, conjugates, antibodies, polynucleotides, expression vectors, cells, methods, compositions, systems, and/or apparatuses useful for the detection of AR or AR-V fragments such as the 53 kDa and/or the 41 kDa fragment of AR-V7, PARP, and/or Spectrin α2. The kits may also include syringes, pipettes, antiseptics, tubing, gloves, diluents, etc. as well as instructions for practicing any method described herein which may include relevant reference levels. Optionally reference levels are determined using the detection kits. 
     In particular embodiments of the kits, the kit includes one of more diagnostic assays for detecting intact AR-V7 and AR-V7 fragments such as the 53 kDa and/or the 41 kDa fragments. In particular embodiments of the kits, the kit includes one of more diagnostic assays for detecting PARP cleavage products including 89 kDa and 65 kDa PARP fragments, and Spectrin α2 cleavage products including 120 kDa and 150 kDa Spectrin α2 fragments. 
     In particular embodiments, the kit includes three or more diagnostic assays, four or more diagnostic assays, five or more diagnostic assays, six or more diagnostic assays, seven or more diagnostic assays, or eight or more diagnostic assays. 
     The Exemplary Embodiments and Example below are included to demonstrate particular embodiments of the disclosure. Those of ordinary skill in the art should recognize in light of the present disclosure that many changes can be made to the specific embodiments disclosed herein and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. 
     Exemplary Embodiments 
     1. A method of providing an anti-cancer effect in a subject having cancer (e.g., castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) or multiple myeloma (MM)) comprising administering therapeutically effective amounts of Galeterone and a proteasome inhibitor to the subject, thereby providing an anti-cancer effect in the subject.
 
2. A method of embodiment 1 wherein Galeterone has the structure
 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     3. A method of embodiment 1 or 2 wherein the proteasome inhibitor is selected from β-lapachone, bortezomib, bortesamide, carfilzomib, CEP-18770, disulfiram, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, epoxomicin, lactacystin, laxomib (MLN9708), MG132, MLN9708, oprozomib (ONX 0912), salinosporamide A (NPI-0052, marizomib), or an immunoproteasome inhibitor.
 
4. A method of embodiment 3 wherein the proteasome inhibitor is bortezomib.
 
5. A method of potentiating the anti-cancer effect of Galeterone comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a proteasome inhibitor in combination with a therapeutically effective amount of Galeterone to a subject in need thereof.
 
6. A method of embodiment 5 wherein the subject in need thereof has castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) or multiple myeloma (MM).
 
7. A method of embodiment 5 or 6 wherein Galeterone has the structure
 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     8. A method of any of embodiments 5-7 wherein the proteasome inhibitor is selected from β-lapachone, bortezomib, bortesamide, carfilzomib, CEP-18770, disulfiram, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, epoxomicin, lactacystin, laxomib (MLN9708), MG132, MLN9708, oprozomib (ONX 0912), salinosporamide A (NPI-0052, marizomib), or an immunoproteasome inhibitor.
 
9. A method of embodiment 8 wherein the proteasome inhibitor is bortezomib.
 
10. A composition comprising Galeterone and a proteasome inhibitor.
 
11. A composition of embodiment 10 wherein Galeterone has the structure
 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     12. A composition of embodiment 10 or 11 wherein the proteasome inhibitor is selected from β-lapachone, bortezomib, bortesamide, carfilzomib, CEP-18770, disulfiram, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, epoxomicin, lactacystin, laxomib (MLN9708), MG132, MLN9708, oprozomib (ONX 0912), salinosporamide A (NPI-0052, marizomib), or an immunoproteasome inhibitor.
 
13. A composition of embodiment 12 wherein the proteasome inhibitor is bortezomib.
 
14. A method of monitoring an anti-cancer effect of a castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) therapeutic composition following its administration to a subject comprising detecting an androgen receptor (AR, e.g. SEQ ID NOs: 1-2) cleavage product, a Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP, e.g. SEQ ID NO: 4) cleavage product, and/or a Spectrin all (e.g. SEQ ID NO: 3) cleavage product in a sample obtained from the subject following the administration wherein presence of the AR cleavage product, PARP cleavage product, and/or Spectrin all cleavage product is indicative of the anti-cancer effect.
 
15. A method of embodiment 14 wherein the AR cleavage product is an AR variant (e.g. SEQ ID NO: 2) cleavage product.
 
16. A method of embodiment 15 wherein the AR variant cleavage product is an AR-variant 7 (AR-V7) cleavage product.
 
17. A method of embodiment 16 wherein the AR-V7 cleavage product is a 53 kDa or a 41 kDa AR-V7 fragment.
 
18. A method of any of embodiments 14-17 wherein the PARP cleavage product is PARP/p65 and/or PARP/p89.
 
19. A method of any of embodiments 14-18 wherein the Spectrin αII cleavage product is Spectrin αII/p120 and/or Spectrin αII/p150 or 150i.
 
20. A method of monitoring an anti-cancer effect of a castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) therapeutic composition following its administration to a subject comprising detecting a PARP cleavage product (e.g. cleavage product of SEQ ID NO: 4) and/or a Spectrin α2 cleavage product (e.g. cleavage product of SEQ ID NO: 3) in a sample obtained from the subject following the administration wherein presence of the PARP cleavage product and/or Spectrin α2 cleavage product is indicative of the anti-cancer effect.
 
21. The method of embodiment 20, wherein the PARP cleavage product is PARP/p65 and/or PARP/p89.
 
22. The method of embodiment 20 or 21, wherein the Spectrin α2 cleavage product is Spectrin α2/p120 and/or Spectrin α2/p150 or p150i.
 
23. A kit for practicing a method of any of embodiments 1-9 or 14-22, alone or in combination.
 
24. A kit comprising a composition of any of embodiments 10-13, alone or in combination.
 
25. A method to target 19S proteasome-associated DUBs and 20s proteasome comprising administering therapeutically effective amounts of Galeterone and a proteasome inhibitor in vivo or in vitro thereby targeting 19S proteasome-associated DUBs with Galeterone and 20s proteasome with the proteasome inhibitor.
 
26. A method of embodiment 25 wherein Galeterone has the structure
 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     27. A method of embodiment 25 or 26 wherein the proteasome inhibitor is selected from β-lapachone, bortezomib, bortesamide, carfilzomib, CEP-18770, disulfiram, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, epoxomicin, lactacystin, laxomib (MLN9708), MG132, MLN9708, oprozomib (ONX 0912), salinosporamide A (NPI-0052, marizomib), or an immunoproteasome inhibitor.
 
28. A method of embodiment 27 wherein the proteasome inhibitor is bortezomib.
 
29. A method to target DUBs in solid and/or liquid tumors comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of Galeterone to a subject in need thereof thereby targeting DUBs in solid and/or liquid tumors.
 
30. A method of embodiment 29 wherein the targeting provides an anti-cancer effect.
 
31. A method of embodiment 29 or 30 wherein Galeterone has the structure
 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     32. A method of any of embodiments 29-31 further comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a proteasome inhibitor.
 
33. A method of embodiment 32 wherein the proteasome inhibitor is selected from β-lapachone, bortezomib, bortesamide, carfilzomib, CEP-18770, disulfiram, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, epoxomicin, lactacystin, laxomib (MLN9708), MG132, MLN9708, oprozomib (ONX 0912), salinosporamide A (NPI-0052, marizomib), or an immunoproteasome inhibitor.
 
34. A method of embodiment 33 wherein the proteasome inhibitor is bortezomib.
 
     Example 1 
     Background: Abiraterone (Abi) acetate and Enzalutamide (Enz) are two newly FDA-approved antiandrogen receptor (anti-AR) agents for treating castrate-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) (1-3). 
     Abiraterone (Abi) is a steroidal antiandrogen, specifically an androgen synthesis inhibitor, used in combination with prednisone in metastatic CRPC. After an expedited six-month review, abiraterone acetate was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in April 2011. In phase III clinical trials, it extended median survival to 14.8 months versus 10.9 months placebo, and the trial was stopped early because of the successful outcome. 
     Abi acetate, an orally active agent, is converted in vivo to Abi, a specific and irreversible inhibitor of CYP17, resulting in significant decrease in testosterone levels (1-3). This is because CYP17 catalyzes two sequential reactions: (a) the conversion of pregnenolone and progesterone to their 17α-hydroxy derivatives by its 17α-hydroxylase activity, and (b) the subsequent formation of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and androstenedione, respectively, by its 17,20-lyase activity. DHEA and androstenedione are androgens and precursors of testosterone. Inhibition of CYP17 activity by abiraterone thus decreases circulating levels of androgens such as DHEA, testosterone, and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). 
     Enzalutamide (Enz) is a synthetic, non-steroidal pure antiandrogen which was developed by the pharmaceutical company Medivation for the treatment of metastatic CRPC. It was FDA-approved in August, 2012. PSA level decreased more than 50% in 40/65 chemo-naive patients and 38/75 chemotherapy-treated patients. In November 2011, this trial was stopped early after an interim analysis revealed that patients given the drug lived for approximately 5 months longer than those taking placebo. 
     Although both Abi and Enz have shown impressive results, resistance in CRPC patients has already been observed (1-3). One of the major resistance mechanisms is related to constitutively active forms of ARs with C-terminal loss or lacking of a functional LBD (4). AR-V7 is the most common form of C-terminal loss (4). 
     Galeterone (TOK-001 or VN/124-1) is a novel steroidal antiandrogen under development by Tokai Pharmaceuticals for the treatment of prostate cancer. Galeterone acts by disrupting the androgen receptor signaling pathway. This pathway is activated by the binding of male hormones (also known as androgens), such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) to androgen receptors in prostate cancer cells. Galeterone disrupts the activation of the androgen receptor pathway in three ways: Androgen receptor degradation, CYP17 enzyme inhibition and inhibition of androgen binding to the androgen receptor. 
     Galeterone has been tested in a Phase 2 clinical trial (ARMOR2) as a treatment for patients with CRPC (6-7). It has been found that Abi- and Enz refractory CRPC patients with C-terminal AR loss remain responsive to Gal (6-7). A Gal Phase 3 trial, the first precision medicine-based trial in AR-V7-positive metastatic CRPC patients started in the summer of 2015. 
     Gal has been shown to induce degradation of AR and AR-V7 proteins under preclinical conditions (8). Further, it was suggested that Gal-induced AR-V7 (and AR) protein depletion was through degradation by proteasomes (9), for which one of the supporting evidence is that Gal-induced AR-V7 degradation could be inhibited by 5 μM of MG132 (9). However, MG132 at 5 μM can inhibit both proteasome (IC 50 =100 nM) and calpain (IC 50 =1.2 μM) activities (10-11). Therefore Gal&#39;s mechanism of action requires careful investigation. 
     The medicinal compound Celastrol, which has a chemical structure related to that of Gal, is a potent proteasome inhibitor which suppresses human PC growth in nude mice, associated with decreased AR protein (12; the Cancer Res Cover Story). Celastrol and other proteasome inhibitors can decrease levels of AR protein in prostate cancer cells via activation of a calpain-like activity (13). In the study described below, the effect of Gal on the proteasome, calpain and AR-V7 protein in CRPC cells was examined. 
     It was first confirmed that VCaP and 22Rv1 CRPC cells express high AR-V7 protein (14-15), compared to LNCaP and C4-2B cells ( FIG. 1A ) and that treatment of 20 μM Gal for 66-72 h decreased AR-V7 protein expression ( FIG. 1B , lanes 2 vs. 1, and 6 vs. 5) (8-9). 
     Gal treatment causes activation of calpains and caspases prior to the decrease in AR-V7 protein expression. Detailed kinetics of Gal-induced AR-V7 protein depletion ( FIG. 2A ) was investigated next. 22Rv1 cells were treated with 20 μM of Gal for up to 72 h, followed by Western blotting with specific anti-AR-V7 monoclonal antibody (Precision, AG10008, that can selectively detect AR-V7 protein) and anti-AR N20 antibody (that can recognize both full length AR, AR-V7 and other AR-V proteins). Levels of full length AR (AR-FL) protein were decreased after 48 h; however, AR-V7 protein expression remained high after up to 56 h and decreased significantly between 64-68 h, and became undetectable at 72 h ( FIG. 2A , a). 
     Possible activation of caspases and calpains in these CRPC cells during Gal treatment was investigated. As shown in  FIG. 2B , caspase-3 activity was increased after 24 h and reached to the highest after 48 h. Consistently, the production of caspase-3-specific cleavage substrates, PARP fragment of 89 kDa (PARP/p89) and Spectrin α2/p120 (16) were detected along with caspase-3 activation ( FIG. 2B , c-d). Both caspase-3 and calpain can also cleave Spectrin α2 into fragments with a similar size, 150 kDa (p150i or p150) ( FIG. 2A , d; 16). 
     Calpain activation is associated with the production of a 28 kDa cleavage fragment (p28) of calpain small subunit (17). It was found that in Gal-treated cells, a p28 fragment appeared between 48 and 72 h, as detected by a specific antibody to the 30 kDa calpain small subunit ( FIG. 2A , e). Consistently, another calpain cleavage product, Calpastatin/p70 (18) was detected at the same time points ( FIG. 2A , f). It has been shown that calpain cleaves PARP into a 65 kDa fragment (19); two peaks of PARP/p65, at approximately 4 and 68 hours, respectively ( FIG. 2A , c) were found, which suggests early and late calpain activations. These results show that Gal induces activation of both caspase-3 and (early) calpain prior to AR-V7 depletion. 
     Gal-induced AR-V7 loss can be blocked by a specific inhibitor to calpain or caspases. Whether calpains and/or caspases are involved in Gal-induced AR-V7 degradation was further determined. As shown in  FIG. 1B , addition of any one of the three specific calpain inhibitors, calpeptin (Z-Leu-Nle-CHO), PD150606 or N-acetyl-L-leucyl-L-leucyl-L-methioninal (ALLM), was able to rescue AR-V7 loss partially ( FIG. 1B , lanes 1-7). Furthermore, a pan-caspase inhibitor was able to suppress Gal-induced AR-V7 decrease ( FIG. 1B ; lanes 8 vs. 6). These results support the contribution of calpains &amp; caspases to AR-V7 protein depletion by Gal treatment. 
     The FDA-approved, specific 20S proteasome inhibitor Bortezomib is unable to block, rather increasing Gal-induced AR-V7 degradation. To confirm the involvement of proteasomes in Gal-induced AR-V7 protein degradation (8-9), Bortezomib (BTZ), the first FDA approved specific 20S proteasome inhibitor (20) was used. Reproducibly, 72 h treatment with 20 μM Gal caused loss of AR-V7 protein in 22Rv1 cells ( FIG. 3A , lanes 2 vs. 1; also see  FIGS. 1B, 2A ). However, addition of BTZ at up to 40 nM did not rescue the loss of AR-V7 protein by Gal ( FIG. 3A , lanes 3-6 vs. 2 vs. 1); as a control, BTZ alone caused a dose-dependent inhibition of proteasomal chymotrypsin (CT)-like activity ( FIG. 3B , DMSO bars). In addition to the inability to inhibit Gal-mediated AR-V7 protein degradation, BTZ alone (without Gal) caused a dose-dependent decrease in AR-V7 protein expression ( FIG. 3A , lanes 7-10 vs. 1), demonstrating that specific proteasome inhibition leads to AR-V7 protein depletion. 
       FIG. 2A  shows that Gal treatment induced AR-V7 protein depletion after 64h, but not 48 h or earlier. It was then investigated, under such a condition, whether BTZ could sensitize the CRPC cells to Gal by increasing AR-V7 protein degradation. While again Gal treatment for 48 h was not sufficient to decrease expression of AR-V7 protein ( FIG. 3C , lanes 2 vs. 1), addition of BTZ, especially at 20 nM to Gal-treated cells resulted in a dose-dependent AR-V7 protein depletion ( FIG. 3C , lanes 3-6 vs. 2 vs. 1). As a control, BTZ treatment for 48 h caused proteasomal CT-like inhibition ( FIG. 3D , DMSO bars). Therefore, the proteasome inhibitor BTZ not only caused AR-V7 depletion but also increased Gal-induced AR-V7 degradation, suggesting the beneficial use of combination therapies of Gal and second generation proteasome inhibitors for CRPC patients. Consistently, in the same experiment, increased levels of PARP cleavage were detected in the combination treated groups, 
     Gal treatment of CRPC cells causes a reduction in levels of all three proteasome activities. Since both Gal and BTZ decrease levels of AR-V7 protein expression ( FIGS. 1-3 ; refs. 8-9), whether Gal treatment alone affects levels of cellular proteasome activities in CRPC cells was examined. Exposure of 22Rv1 cells to 5-20 μM Gal for 24 h resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in levels of proteasomal CT-like and peptidyl-glutamyl peptidehydrolyzing (PGPH)-like, but not trypsin (T)-like activities ( FIG. 4A ; 100 nM BTZ as a control); after 48 h treatment, all three proteasomal activities were decreased in a Gal dose-dependent fashion ( FIG. 4B ). When VCaP cells were treated with 5-20 μM Gal for 72 h, a dose-dependent inhibition of the three proteasomal activities was again observed ( FIG. 4C ). To study how early Gal causes proteasome inhibition, a detailed kinetic experiment in 22Rv1 cells was performed, and it was found that addition of Gal caused a time-dependent proteasome CT inhibition: 10% between 2-24 h, 30% at 48 h and &gt;50% after 64 h ( FIG. 4D ). Therefore, Gal-induced proteasome inhibition occurs prior to activation of calpain/caspases and loss of AR-V7 protein ( FIG. 4  vs.  2 ). 
     Because both Gal and BTZ cause proteasome inhibition ( FIG. 4 ;  20 ), it was then determined the effect of their combination on CRPC cellular proteasome activities. It was found that the combination of Gal and BTZ resulted in a further inhibition of the proteasomal CT-like activity, compared to each drug alone ( FIG. 3B , D), supporting the idea that both Gal and BTZ inhibit the proteasome activity independently. 
     Cleavage of nuclear AR-V7 protein into fragments of 53 kDa and 41 kDa after Gal treatment: Cellular localizations of AR-V7/AR proteins, calpain/caspase substrate proteins and their cleavage fragments was also examined using cytosolic and nuclear fractions isolated from Gal-treated R22v1 cells ( FIG. 5A ). By using AR-V7 specific monoclonal antibody, it was observed that, prior to Gal addition, most of AR-V7 protein was in the nuclear fraction ( FIG. 5A , a, b, lanes 1 vs. 6). After 8-24 h treatment with Gal, AR-V7 band decreased, associated with an appearance of at least two lower bands of 53 kDa and 41 kDa, both of which were increased at 48 h ( FIG. 5A , a, b, lanes 2-4). At 72 h, the nuclear ARV7 was decreased significantly, while mainly the 53 kDa fragment was detected ( FIG. 5A , a, b, lane 5). The levels of cytosolic AR-V7 protein were decreased only at 72 h ( FIG. 5A , a, b, lanes 6-10). When anti-AR amino terminal (N20) antibody was used ( FIG. 5A , c), a decrease in both cytosolic and nuclear AR-FL protein expression was detected after Gal treatment. Anti-N20 antibody also detected several potential AR-Vs in both fractions, all of which were decreased at 72 h ( FIG. 5A , c). The caspase 3-specific product PARP/p89 was found in nuclear fraction ( FIG. 5A , d), while the calpain cleavage product Calpastatin/p70 was found mainly in the cytosolic fraction ( FIG. 5A , g). Spectrin α2 fragments of 150 kDa (caspase-3 or calpain cleavage fragment) and 120 kDa (caspase-3 cleavage product) as well as calpain small/p28 (calpain cleavage product) were detected in both cytosolic and nuclear fractions (between 24-72 h) ( FIG. 5A , e-f). ( FIG. 5B-D ). 
     22Rv1 cells were first androgen-starved for 24 h, followed by Gal treatment for up to 56 h and preparation of cellular fractions ( FIG. 5B ). Consistent with previous report (20), androgen starvation did not change AR-V7 primary nuclear localization ( FIG. 5B , a). Nuclear AR-V7 was again decreased in the time-dependent manner. A cleaved band of −53 kDa was again detected in the nuclear fraction after 24-48h treatment ( FIG. 5B , a). A similar fragment was also detected by using the anti-AR (N20) antibody between 8 and 48 h ( FIG. 5B , b). Along with nuclear AR-V7 decrease was activation of nuclear calpain, evidenced by increased levels of its specific cleavage substrates, Cal Sm/p28 and Calpastatin/p70 ( FIG. 5B , d-e). These calpain cleavage fragments were also found in the cytosolic fraction ( FIG. 2A , d-e). The caspase-3-specific cleavage fragment PARP/p89 was found only in the nuclear fraction ( FIG. 5B , c). These results indicate that calpain and caspase activation are correlated with cleavage of AR-V7 protein in CRPC nuclei. 
     Inhibitors of calpain and caspases block the nuclear AR-V7 degradation in Gal-treated CRPC cells. Then we tested whether an inhibitor of calpain or caspase could rescue AR-V7 degradation induced by Gal treatment. 22Rv1 cells were treated with Gal in the absence or presence of the specific calpain inhibitor calpeptin or a pan-caspase inhibitor, followed by isolation of cytosolic and nuclear fractions. As shown in  FIG. 5C , Gal induced the nuclear AR-V7 depletion after 56 h or 72 h, which could be blocked by addition of calpeptin, a calpain inhibitor at both time points (lanes 4-5 vs. 1-3; a pan-caspase inhibitor IV was able to rescue Gal-induced nuclear AR-V7 loss significantly at 56 h, but only slightly at 72 h ( FIG. 5C , lanes 6-7). Similarly, when androgen-starved 22Rv1 cells were used for another inhibitor experiment, Gal treatment decreased levels of nuclear AR-V7 protein after 40, 48 and 64 h ( FIG. 5D , lanes 1-4). Addition of Calpeptin partially rescued AR-V7 loss by Gal ( FIG. 5D , lanes 5-7), while another pan-caspase inhibitor Z-VAD was able to block the Gal-induced AR-V7 depletion ( FIG. 5D , lanes 8-10). The inhibitor experiments further support the involvement of calpain and caspases in the depletion of AR-V7 protein during Gal treatment. 
     The described results show that Gal treatment of CRPC cells: (i) decreased cellular proteasome activity ( FIGS. 3-4 ); (ii) activated calpains and caspases ( FIGS. 1-2 ); (iii) caused AR-V7 degradation ( FIGS. 1-3 ; consistent with Refs. 8-9); (iv) Gal-induced AR-V7 depletion is likely due to degradation by calpains and caspases but not 20S proteasome; (v) BTZ sensitizes CRPC cells to Gal-induced AR-V7 degradation, associated with increased proteasome inhibition; (vi) For the first time, specific AR-V7 fragments of 53 kDa and 41 kDa were detected, associated with AR-V7 decrease in the nuclei of R22v1 cells after Gal treatment ( FIG. 5 ); (vii) Nuclear AR-V7 cleavage was accompanied by activation of caspase-3 and calpain ( FIG. 5 ). 
     Example 2 
     Galeterone inhibits activities of 19S proteasome-associated Deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) in castrate resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) cells and sensitizes bortezomib-resistant multiple myeloma (MM) cells. 
     Previously it was found that Gal inhibits the chymotrypsin-like (CT-like) activity of the proteasome in prostate cancer cells. Whether Gal is a direct inhibitor of the proteasome was of interest. All of the three proteasomal activities of purified 20S or 26S proteasomes in the presence of Gal were determined. As shown in  FIGS. 10A and 10B , Gal was unable to block all the three proteasomal activities (CT, PGPH and T-like activities) when purified 20S or 26S proteasomes were used. When a protein extract of 22Rv1 cells was used, Gal could inhibit the CT-like activity of the proteasome at high concentrations (50 or 100 μM) ( FIG. 10C ). These results suggest that Gal might target the 19S proteasome rather than the 20S proteasome. Then deubiquitinase (DUBs) activity associated with the 19S proteasome was determined by using the purified 26S proteasome. As a control, purified 20S proteasome showed no DUBs activity ( FIG. 10D ). In comparison, the purified 26S proteasome showed 3-fold DUBs activity, which was suppressed when incubated with Gal ( FIG. 10D ). When this experiment was repeated, it was shown that Gal inhibited DUBs activity of the purified 26S proteasome in a dose-dependent fashion; Gal at a low dose (10 μM) could efficiently inhibit DUBs activity ( FIG. 10E ). 
     It was next determined whether DUBs activity could be inhibited in cultured CRPC cells after Gal treatment. As shown in  FIG. 11A , DUBs activity was inhibited by Gal at as early as 2 h after Gal treatment. Sustained DUBs inhibition was detected for up to 48 h ( FIG. 11A ). The levels of proteasomal CT-like activities were inhibited in a time-dependent fashion, but later than DUBs inhibition ( FIG. 11B ). Oxidized proteins were accumulated by Gal treatment before 2 h, and sustained accumulation was detected up to 72 h ( FIG. 11C , a). AR-V7 protein level remained subtle changes up to 56 h and decreased after 64-68 h, and completely depleted after 72 h ( FIG. 11C , c). Caspase-3 activity was increased after 24 h treatment with Gal and reached to 5-fold activation after 48 h ( FIG. 11D ). Consistently, caspase-3-specific cleavage fragments, 89 kD fragment of PARP (PARP/p89) were also detected between 48 and 72 h ( FIG. 11C , d). Calpain activation is associated with self-autolysis of its small subunit. A cleaved fragment (28 kD) of calpain small subunit (Cal Sm/p28) was detected during 48-72 h treatment with Gal ( FIG. 11C , e). The above results suggest that Gal is an inhibitor of DUBs associated with the 19S proteasomes in CRPC cells. This finding has important clinical significance. 
     It was next determined if the combinational treatment of Gal and BTZ would induce greater growth inhibition and cell death in CRPC cells. Gal treatment alone for 24 h did not inhibit cell proliferation in 22Rv1 cells. In the presence of bortezomib, cell growth was greatly inhibited by Gal at 20 μM (MTT assay;  FIG. 12A ). Gal at 20 μM in combination with bortezomib 5 or 10 nM generated greater inhibitory effects on cell proliferation compared to each drug alone ( FIG. 12A ). Consistently, Bortezomib in combination with Gal induced greater morphological changes (indicator of cell death) as shown by more detached cells or apoptotic cells in co-treatment compared to each drug alone ( FIGS. 12B and 12D  for 24 and 48 h, respectively). Synergistic effects of Gal in combination with bortezomib were shown. After 24 h ( FIG. 12B ) and 48 h ( FIG. 12D ) treatment, bortezomib (2.5 or 5 nM) or Gal alone did not cause apparent morphological changes, but their combination caused apparent or complete cell death. These synergistic effects were reflected in violet staining, showing less staining cells in the combination compared to each drug alone ( FIGS. 12C and 12E  for 24 and 48 h, respectively). 
     The combination of Gal and BTZ causes greater proteasome inhibition, more AR-V7 depletion and more CRPC cell death, compared to each drug alone. It was then determined whether Gal could sensitize BTZ-resistant multiple myeloma cells. BTZ-resistant MM cells were sensitive to Gal treatment alone at 10 or 20 μM ( FIG. 13A-B ); Combination of Gal and BTZ showed greater inhibition on BTZ-resistant MM cells than each drug alone in both Gal dose- and BTZ dose-dependent manners, as evident in two independent experiments ( FIG. 13A-B ). Next we determined whether Gal and BTZ combination could increase higher levels of cell death in the resistant MM cells. 8826-7BR is a multiple myeloma cell line developed resistance to bortezomib. Gal in combination with bortezomib induced more cell death as shown by stronger cleaved PARP bands generated by cotreatment ( FIG. 13C , lanes 7-10) compared with each alone (lane 2 or lanes 3-6). Therefore, Gal is able to overcome bortezomib resistance in MM. This finding has high translational potential to clinics. 
     In brief, the disclosed studies indicate that Gal acts as an inhibitor of the 19S proteasome-associated DUBs, which can be used to overcome the resistance of 20S inhibitor BTZ for the treatment of MM and other liquid tumors. 
     As will be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art, while exemplary sequences of proteins described herein are provided, additional homologous and/or variant sequences can be obtained from publicly available databases. Such sequences are included within the teachings of the current disclosure. Homologous sequences are those with shared ancestry. Shared ancestry can occur based on a speciation event (orthologs) or a duplication event (paralogs). Variant sequences include sequences having one or more amino acid additions, deletions, stop positions, or substitutions, as compared to a protein sequence disclosed elsewhere herein. Variants can include allelic forms, representing minor changes in amino acid composition. Homologous sequences and variant sequences will typically exhibit the same qualitative biological activity and elicit a substantially similar response as reference proteins provided herein. Screening of homologues and variants can be performed using assays described elsewhere herein. 
     Homologous sequences and variant sequences included within the scope of the disclosure can have at least 80% sequence identity; at least 85% sequence identity; at least 90% sequence identity; at least 95% sequence identity or at least 99% sequence identity with an exemplary reference sequence disclosed herein. “Percent (%) amino acid sequence identity” with respect to the sequences identified herein is defined as the percentage of amino acid residues in a candidate sequence that are identical with the amino acid residues in the reference sequence after aligning the sequences and introducing gaps, if necessary, to achieve the maximum percent sequence identity. Alignment for purposes of determining percent amino acid sequence identity can be achieved in various ways that are within the skill in the art, for instance, using publicly available computer software such as BLAST, BLAST-2, ALIGN, or ALIGN-2. Those skilled in the art can determine appropriate parameters for measuring alignment, including any algorithms needed to achieve maximal alignment over the full-length of the sequences being compared. 
     As will be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art, each embodiment disclosed herein can comprise, consist essentially of or consist of its particular stated element, step, ingredient or component. Thus, the terms “include” or “including” should be interpreted to recite: “comprise, consist of, or consist essentially of.” The transition term “comprise” or “comprises” means includes, but is not limited to, and allows for the inclusion of unspecified elements, steps, ingredients, or components, even in major amounts. The transitional phrase “consisting of” excludes any element, step, ingredient or component not specified. The transition phrase “consisting essentially of” limits the scope of the embodiment to the specified elements, steps, ingredients or components and to those that do not materially affect the embodiment. A material effect would cause a statistically-significant reduction in a combination therapy&#39;s ability to cause an anti-CRPC or MM effect or to detect 53 kDa and 41 kDa AR-V7 fragments in a blood sample from a subject. 
     Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of ingredients, properties such as molecular weight, reaction conditions, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about.” Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the specification and attached claims are approximations that may vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the present invention. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit the application of the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims, each numerical parameter should at least be construed in light of the number of reported significant digits and by applying ordinary rounding techniques. When further clarity is required, the term “about” has the meaning reasonably ascribed to it by a person skilled in the art when used in conjunction with a stated numerical value or range, i.e. denoting somewhat more or somewhat less than the stated value or range, to within a range of ±20% of the stated value; ±19% of the stated value; ±18% of the stated value; ±17% of the stated value; ±16% of the stated value; ±15% of the stated value; ±14% of the stated value; ±13% of the stated value; ±12% of the stated value; ±11% of the stated value; ±10% of the stated value; ±9% of the stated value; ±8% of the stated value; ±7% of the stated value; ±6% of the stated value; ±5% of the stated value; ±4% of the stated value; ±3% of the stated value; ±2% of the stated value; or ±1% of the stated value. 
     Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forth the broad scope of the invention are approximations, the numerical values set forth in the specific examples are reported as precisely as possible. Any numerical value, however, inherently contains certain errors necessarily resulting from the standard deviation found in their respective testing measurements. 
     The terms “a,” “an,” “the” and similar referents used in the context of describing the invention (especially in the context of the following claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context. Recitation of ranges of values herein is merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within the range. Unless otherwise indicated herein, each individual value is incorporated into the specification as if it were individually recited herein. All methods described herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”) provided herein is intended merely to better illuminate the invention and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the invention otherwise claimed. No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element essential to the practice of the invention. 
     Groupings of alternative elements or embodiments of the invention disclosed herein are not to be construed as limitations. Each group member may be referred to and claimed individually or in any combination with other members of the group or other elements found herein. It is anticipated that one or more members of a group may be included in, or deleted from, a group for reasons of convenience and/or patentability. When any such inclusion or deletion occurs, the specification is deemed to contain the group as modified thus fulfilling the written description of all Markush groups used in the appended claims. 
     Certain embodiments of this invention are described herein, including the best mode known to the inventors for carrying out the invention. Of course, variations on these described embodiments will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon reading the foregoing description. The inventor expects skilled artisans to employ such variations as appropriate, and the inventors intend for the invention to be practiced otherwise than specifically described herein. Accordingly, this invention includes all modifications and equivalents of the subject matter recited in the claims appended hereto as permitted by applicable law. Moreover, any combination of the above-described elements in all possible variations thereof is encompassed by the invention unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. 
     Furthermore, numerous references have been made to patents, printed publications, journal articles and other written text throughout this specification (referenced materials herein). Each of the referenced materials are individually incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for their referenced teaching. 
     In closing, it is to be understood that the embodiments of the invention disclosed herein are illustrative of the principles of the present invention. Other modifications that may be employed are within the scope of the invention. Thus, by way of example, but not of limitation, alternative configurations of the present invention may be utilized in accordance with the teachings herein. Accordingly, the present invention is not limited to that precisely as shown and described. 
     The particulars shown herein are by way of example and for purposes of illustrative discussion of the preferred embodiments of the present invention only and are presented in the cause of providing what is believed to be the most useful and readily understood description of the principles and conceptual aspects of various embodiments of the invention. In this regard, no attempt is made to show structural details of the invention in more detail than is necessary for the fundamental understanding of the invention, the description taken with the drawings and/or examples making apparent to those skilled in the art how the several forms of the invention may be embodied in practice. 
     Definitions and explanations used in the present disclosure are meant and intended to be controlling in any future construction unless clearly and unambiguously modified in the examples or when application of the meaning renders any construction meaningless or essentially meaningless. In cases where the construction of the term would render it meaningless or essentially meaningless, the definition should be taken from Webster&#39;s Dictionary, 3 rd  Edition or a dictionary known to those of ordinary skill in the art, such as the Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (Ed. Anthony Smith, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004). 
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