Patent Publication Number: US-11661343-B2

Title: Process for the preparation of a porous carbon material using an improved carbon source

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a U.S. National Phase filing of International Patent Application No. PCT/EP2018/079457 filed on Oct. 26, 2018, which claims the priority of European Patent Application No. 17001779.2 filed on Oct. 27, 2017. The disclosures of these applications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. 
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present invention relates to a process for the preparation of a porous carbon material using an improved carbon source. The invention further relates to a porous carbon material, devices comprising the porous carbon material, a use of an improved carbon source for the preparation of a porous carbon material and a use of a porous carbon material. 
     BACKGROUND 
     There exists a demand for porous carbon materials, especially for use in applications where both electrical conductivity and material permeability are required in the same substance. Such applications are for instance ion transfer cells, in which an electrode material interacts with charge carriers at a solid-liquid boundary. 
     A porous carbon material which is known in the prior art is carbon black. Carbon black is produced by incomplete combustion of heavy petroleum products such as fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) tar, coal tar, ethylene cracking tar, and a small amount from vegetable oil. Such a process for the production of carbon black is for example disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,655,209. The applications of porous carbon are generally based on the properties of the pore structure. Known applications are electrodes, such as in lithium ion cells in which simultaneous transport of ions and electrons through the electrode material is required; catalysts, in which a high active surface area and pore accessibility are required; and fuel cells, in which transport of fuel and electrical conductivity are required. 
     Processes for producing a porous carbon material using a template acting as a negative to shape the carbon are known in the prior art. Therein, the carbon material is characterized by a pore structure which is substantially predetermined by the structure of the template material. (By “predetermined” is meant determined beforehand, so that the predetermined characteristic must be determined, i.e., chosen or at least known, in advance of some event.) The template can for example be made from a silicon oxide. A process for producing a silicon oxide template known in the prior art is the so-called sol-gel process. The sol-gel route to preparation of silicon oxide is well known to the skilled person. For example, producing a monolithic silica body via the sol gel process is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,514,454. 
     Methods for preparing a porous carbon material without using a solid template are described in U.S. Patent Application Publications No. 2005/214539 and No. 2015/0274921. There, a prolonged polymerization step is required prior to firing. 
     There persists a need to provide improved methods for making porous carbon materials, in particular, by a polymerization-type process without employing a solid template and with a short polymerization step. There also exists a need for porous carbon materials with improved properties. 
     SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE 
     Generally, it is an object of the present invention to at least partly overcome a disadvantage arising from the prior art. 
     It is an object of the present invention to provide a process for preparing a porous carbon material, wherein the process has a reduced duration. 
     It is an object of the present invention to provide a process for preparing a porous carbon material, wherein the process involves less steps. 
     It is an object of the present invention to provide a process for preparing a porous carbon material, wherein the porous carbon material has improved properties. 
     It is an object of the present invention to provide a process for preparing a porous carbon material, wherein the porous carbon material has a modal pore size in the macro-pore range. 
     It is an object of the present invention to provide a process for preparing a porous carbon material, wherein the porous carbon material has a modal pore size above 50 mu. 
     It is an object of the present invention to provide a process for preparing a porous carbon material, wherein no cross-linking agent is required. 
     It is an object of the present invention to provide an environmentally friendly process for preparing a porous carbon material. 
     It is a particular object of the present invention to provide a process for preparing a porous carbon material which is environmentally friendly. 
     It is a particular object of the invention to provide a process for preparing a porous carbon material without the need for an extensive mixing step. 
     It is a particular object of the invention to provide a process for preparing a porous carbon material having improved ion transport. 
     It is an object of the invention to provide a process for the preparation of a porous carbon product with low impurity concentration. 
     It is an object of the invention to provide a Li-ion cell with a high calendar lifetime. 
     It is an object of the invention to provide a Li-ion cell with a high cycle lifetime. 
     It is an object of the invention to provide a Li-ion cell with a reduced defect rate. 
     A contribution to achieving at least one of the above objects is made by one or more of the thirty-one embodiments disclosed below. 
     |1| A process for preparing a porous carbon material comprising the process steps:
         a. providing a carbon source;   b. providing an amphiphilic species;   c. contacting the carbon source and the amphiphilic species to obtain a precursor; and   d. heating the precursor to obtain the porous carbon material;   wherein the carbon source comprises a carbon source compound, wherein the carbon source compound comprises the following:
           i. an aromatic ring having 1 or more attached OH groups, preferably 2 or more, more preferably 3 or more, even more preferably 4 or more OH groups; and   ii. an ester link, preferably 2 or more, more preferably 3 or more, even more preferably 4 or more ester groups.   
               

     In one aspect of this embodiment, the aromatic ring has a first OH group and a second OH group and the first and second OH groups are adjacent to each other in the aromatic ring. It is preferred for 3 or more OH groups to each be adjacent to another OH group, preferably 4 or more OH groups, most preferably all OH groups. 
     In one aspect of this embodiment, the carbon source compound comprises 2 or more aromatic rings, preferably 3 or more, more preferably 4 or more, even more preferably 5 or more. 
     In one aspect of this embodiment one or more of the OH groups may be present in de-protonated form. 
     In one aspect of this embodiment, the carbon source compound is present as a salt, preferably comprising an organic anion and a metal cation. 
     In one aspect of this embodiment, the aromatic ring is a 6-member ring. 
     In one aspect of this embodiment, the aromatic ring is a carbon ring. 
     In one aspect of this embodiment, the aromatic ring is a 6-member carbon ring. 
     |2| The process according to embodiment ≡1|, wherein the aromatic ring is a 6-member ring. In one aspect of this embodiment, the aromatic ring is a carbon ring. In another aspect of this embodiment, the aromatic ring is a heterocycle comprising carbon and at least one other element, preferably selected form the group consisting of P, N, O, S, and B. 
     |3| The process according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the aromatic ring is a carbon ring. In one aspect of this embodiment, the aromatic ring has 5 to 20 members. In another aspect of the embodiment, the aromatic ring has 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 16 or 18 members, preferably 6, 10, 13, 14, 16 or 18, more preferably 6 or 10, most preferably 6 members. 
     |4| The process according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon source compound satisfies one or more of the following features:
         a. a molecular weight in the range from 500 to 4,000 g/mol, preferably in the range from 500 to 3,000 g/mol, more preferably in the range from 1,000 to 2,500 g/mol, most preferably in the range from 1,500 to 2.000 g/mol;   b. a total number of hydroxyl groups attached to an aromatic carbon ring of more than 12, preferably from 12 to 100, more preferably from 15 to 50, even more preferably from 20 to 35;   c. from 5 to 7 aromatic carbon rings per 1,000 g/mol of molecular weight.       

     |5| The process according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon source compound comprises a gallic acid structural unit or an ellagic acid structural unit or both. 
     In one aspect of this embodiment, the carbon source compound comprises a gallic acid structural unit, preferably from 2 to 12, more preferably from 5 to 11, most preferably 3 to 10 gallic acid structural units. It is preferred in this aspect for the carbon source compound not to contain ellagic acid. 
     In one aspect of this embodiment, the carbon source compound comprises an ellagic acid structural unit, preferably from 2 to 12, more preferably from 5 to 11, most preferably 3 to 10 ellagic acid structural units. It is preferred in this aspect for the carbon source compound not to contain gallic acid. 
     In one aspect of this embodiment, the carbon source compound comprises both an ellagic acid structural unit and a gallic acid structural unit, preferably from 2 to 12, more preferably from 5 to 11, most preferably 3 to 10 ellagic acid and gallic acid structural units in total. 
     |6| The process according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon source comprises a polyalcohol structural unit. 
     In one aspect of this embodiment, the polyalcohol structural unit has 2 or more, more preferably 2 to 10, most preferably 4 to 7 carbon atoms. 
     In one aspect of this embodiment, the polyalcohol structural unit has 2 or more, more preferably 2 to 10, even more preferably 3 to 7, most preferably 4 to 6 OH groups. 
     In one aspect of this embodiment, the polyalcohol structural unit is a sugar. Preferred sugars are glucose and quinic acid. 
     |7| The process according to the any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the amphiphilic species comprises a compound, wherein the compound comprises two or more ethylene oxide-based repeating units, preferably 5 or more, more preferably 10 or more, most preferably 20 or more ethylene oxide-based repeating units. In this context, compounds having as many as 1,000 ethylene oxide-based repeating units might be employed. 
     In one aspect of this embodiment, the compound is a block co-polymer comprising at least one ethylene oxide-based section and at least one section based on a monomer different from ethylene oxide. 
     |8| The process according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the first amphiphilic compound comprises more than 20 wt. % of ethylene oxide-based repeating units, based on the total weight of the first amphiphilic compound, preferably more than 40 wt. %, more preferably more than 50 wt.  9 , most preferably more than 60 wt. %. In some cases, the compound may comprise up to 90 wt. % of ethylene oxide-based repeating units. In one aspect of this embodiment, the first amphiphilic compound comprises from 20 to 90 wt. % of ethylene oxide-based repeating units, based on the total weight of the first amphiphilic species, preferably from 30 to 85 wt. %, more preferably from 40 to 80 wt. %, most preferably from 45 to 75 wt. %. 
     |9| The process according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the carbon source and the amphiphilic species together are at least 90 wt. % of the precursor, preferably at least 95 wt. %, more preferably at least 99 wt. % of the precursor. Most preferably, the precursor is a combination of just the carbon source and the amphiphilic species. 
     |10| The process according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the ratio of the amount by weight of carbon source to the amount by weight of the amphiphilic species is in the range from 5:1 to 1:10, preferably in the range from 3:1 to 1:5, more preferably in the range from 2:1 to 1:3. 
     |11| The process according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein heating step d. is started within 1 hour of the contacting step c., preferably within 20 minutes, more preferably within 10 minutes, even more preferably within 1 minute. 
     |12| The process according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the heating step d. is performed at a temperature in the range from 700 to 3,000° C., preferably in the range from 725 to 2,800° C., more preferably in the range from 750 to 2,500° C. 
     |13| A porous carbon material can be obtained by the process of any of the preceding embodiments. The porous carbon material preferably has one or more of the features of the below-described embodiments |14| or |15|. 
     |14| A porous carbon material having a pore diameter distribution with a mode in the range from 50 to 280 nm, preferably in the range from 60 to 270 nm, more preferably in the range from 70 to 260 nm, even more preferably in the range from 80 to 250 nm, most preferably in the range from 90 to 200 nm. 
     The features of embodiment |14| preferably also apply to the porous carbon material of the above process and the porous carbon material obtained by any of the preceding process embodiments. Furthermore, the features of embodiment |14| are combined with any feature of the above porous carbon material embodiments and process embodiments. Each of these combinations constitutes a single aspect of the invention. 
     |15| A porous carbon material having at least one of the following features:
         a. A total pore volume in the range from 0.4 to 2.8 cm3/g, preferably in the range from 0.65 to 2 cm3/g, more preferably in the range from 0.7 to 1.75 cm3/g, for pores having a diameter in the range from 10 to 10,000 run;   b. A BETTOTAL in the range 10 to 1,000 m2/g, preferably in the range from 20 to 1,000 m2/g, also preferably in the range from 20 to 900 m2/g, more preferably in the range from 2.5 to 800 m2/g;   c. A BETMICRO in the range from 0 to 650 m2/g, preferably in the range from 5 to 600 m2.1 g, more preferably in the range from 5 to 550 m2.1 g;   d. A skeletal density in the range from 1.8 to 2.3 g/cm3, preferably in the range from 1.83 to 2.25 g/cm3, more preferably in the range from 1.85 to 2.2 g/cm3; and   e. A d50 for primary particle diameter in the range from 300 nm to 300 nm, preferably in the range from 400 nm to 200 nm, more preferably in the range from 500 urn to 100 μm.       

     The features of embodiment |15| preferably also apply to the porous carbon material of the above process and the porous carbon material obtained by any of the preceding process embodiments. Furthermore, the features of embodiment |15| are combined with any feature of the above porous carbon material embodiments and process embodiments. Each of these combinations constitutes a single aspect of the invention. 
     |16| A device comprising the porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|. Preferred devices are capacitors and electrochemical cells. Preferred capacitors are double-layer capacitors. Preferred electrochemical cells are lead-acid cells, fuel cells and lithium ion cells. 
     |17| A use of a carbon source for the preparation of a porous carbon material, wherein the carbon source comprises a carbon source compound, wherein the carbon source compound comprises the following:
         i. an aromatic ring having 1 or more attached OH groups; and   ii. ii. an ester link.
 
The carbon source of this embodiment preferably has the features introduced in the embodiments of the process.
       

     |18| A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|, for improving the properties of an electrical device. Preferred electrical devices in this context are electrochemical cells, capacitors, electrodes and fuel cells. 
     |19| A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|, for improving ion transport in an electrical device. Preferred electrical devices in this context are electrochemical cells, capacitors, electrodes and fuel cells. 
     |20| A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|, for improving power density by enhancing ion diffusivity in electrodes of lithium ion batteries. 
     |21| A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |131 to |15|, for improving energy density by enabling increased electrode thickness in lithium ion batteries. 
     |22| A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|, for reducing the drying time of electrodes to be used in lithium ion batteries. 
     |23| A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|, for reducing the electrolyte filling time of electrodes in lithium ion batteries. 
     |24|A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|, for improving power density by enhancing ion diffusivity in electrodes of electric capacitors. 
     |25| A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|, for improving energy density by enabling increased electrode thickness in electric capacitors. 
     |26| A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|, for improving cycle life in lead acid batteries. 
     |27| A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|, for improving deep-discharge capacity in lead acid batteries. 
     |28| A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|, for improving dynamic charge acceptance in lead acid batteries. 
     |29| A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|, for improving cycle life in fuel cells. 
     |30| A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|, for improving the low-temperature conductivity of electrolytes in lithium ion batteries. 
     |13| A use of a porous carbon material according to any of the embodiments |13| to |15|, for improving the water transport in fuel cells. 
     It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary, but are not restrictive, of the disclosure. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
       The invention is now further elucidated with reference to the figures. The figures and figure descriptions are exemplary and are not to be considered as limiting the scope of the invention. 
         FIG.  1    shows a schematic representation of a process for preparing a porous carbon material; 
         FIG.  2    shows an SEM image of the surface of a material prepared according to the invention; 
         FIG.  3    shows an SEM image of the surface of a cross-sectional cut through a material prepared according to the invention; 
         FIG.  4    shows an SEM image of the surface of a material prepared according to the invention; 
         FIG.  5    shows an SEM image of the surface of a material prepared according to a comparative example; 
         FIG.  6    shows an SEM image of the surface of a material prepared according to a comparative example; and 
         FIG.  7    shows the mercury porosimetry intrusion curve for a material prepared according to the invention. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Throughout this document disclosures of ranges are to be understood to include both end points of the range. Furthermore, each disclosure of a range in the description is to be understood as also disclosing preferred sub-ranges in which one end point is excluded or both end points are excluded. For example, disclosure of the range from 5 to 10 kg is to be understood as disclosing a range including the end points 5 kg and 10 kg. Furthermore, it is to be understood as also disclosing a range including the end point 5 kg but excluding the end point 10 kg, a range excluding the end point 5 kg but including the end point 10 kg and a range excluding both end points 5 kg and 10 kg. 
     Throughout this document, phrases in the form “A comprises only B” or “A is B” are to be understood as meaning that A comprises B and is essentially free of any other constituents. Preferably A in such case comprises less than 10 wt. %, more preferably less than 1 wt. %, even more preferably less than 0.1 wt. % of other constituents, based on the total weight of A. It is most preferred for A to be free of any constituents other than B. This concept generalizes to an A having two or more constituents, such as in phrases of the general form “A comprises only B and C” and “A is B and C.” In such a case, A preferably comprises less than 10 wt. %, more preferably less than 1 wt. %, even more preferably less than 0.1 wt. % of constituents other than B and C, based on the total weight of A. It is most preferred for A to be free of any constituents other than B or C. 
     Similarly, phrases of the general form “A does not comprise B” are to be understood as meaning that A is essentially free of B. Preferably A in such case comprises less than 10 wt. %, more preferably less than 1 wt. %, even more preferably less than 0.1 wt. % of B, based on the total weight of A. It is most preferred for A to be free of B. This concept generalizes to an A which comprises none of a group of two or more specified constituents, such as a group of the general form “B and C.” Preferably A in such a case comprises a total amount of B and C of less than 10 wt. %, more preferably less than 1 wt. %, even more preferably less than 0.1 wt. %, based on the total weight of A. It is most preferred for A to be free either B or C or both, preferably both. 
     The precursor of the present invention may comprise a solvent or a dispersant or both. In this document, the term solvent is used as a general term and, in particular, can refer to a solvent itself or to a dispersant or to both. In particular, preferred features described in the context of a solvent are also preferred features for a dispersant. 
     Compounds in the context of the present document preferably are describable as a stoichiometric combination of elements. Preferred compounds may be molecules or ions or molecular ions. 
     Process 
     One aspect of the invention is a process for preparing a porous carbon material comprising the process steps:
         a. providing a carbon source;   b. providing an amphiphilic species;   c. contacting the carbon source and the amphiphilic species to obtain a precursor; and   d. heating the precursor to obtain the porous carbon material;   wherein the carbon source comprises a carbon source compound, wherein the carbon source compound comprises the following:
           i. an aromatic ring having 1 or more attached OH groups; and   ii. an ester link.   
               

     The precursor comprises the carbon source and the amphiphilic species. In one embodiment, the precursor comprises one or more further constituents other than the carbon source and the amphiphilic species. In another embodiment, the precursor comprises just the carbon source and the amphiphilic species. 
     Further constituents for the precursor may be any which the skilled person considers appropriate in the context of the invention. Preferred further constituents are one or more selected from the group consisting of a solvent and a cross-linking agent. 
     Where further constituents are present in the precursor, they are considered to be separate from the carbon source and from the amphiphilic species, for example for the purposes of calculating proportions by mass. For example, where a carbon source is prepared in a solvent and introduced to the other constituent or other constituents of the precursor as a solution, the solvent is considered in the context of this disclosure to be a further constituent and does not count as part of the carbon source. 
     Amphiphilic Species 
     The amphiphilic species of the present invention preferably serves to direct the formation of a three-dimensional structure from the carbon source. The amphiphilic species is preferably present in the precursor in the form of micelles and three-dimensional structures and preferably lead to the formation of pores in the resulting porous carbon material. 
     The amphiphilic species preferably comprises a first amphiphilic compound, the first amphiphilic compound comprising two or more adjacent ethylene oxide-based repeating units. In one embodiment of the invention, the amphiphilic species comprises the first amphiphilic compound only. In another embodiment, the amphiphilic species comprises the first amphiphilic compound and one or more further amphiphilic compounds, or two or more, or three or more, or four or more further amphiphilic compounds. It is preferred that the further amphiphilic compounds each comprise two or more adjacent ethylene oxide-based repeating units. Herein, preferred features disclosed in relation to the amphiphilic compound are preferred features for the first amphiphilic compound. Where one or more further amphiphilic compounds are present in the amphiphilic species, the preferred features disclosed in relation to the amphiphilic compound or to the first amphiphilic compound are also preferred features for one or more of, preferably all of, the further amphiphilic compounds. 
     Preferred amphiphilic compounds possess both hydrophilic and lipophilic behavior. 
     Hydrophilic Behavior 
     One preferred hydrophilic group is the ethylene oxide based-repeating unit. Other preferred hydrophilic groups are one or more selected from the group consisting of a charged group and a polar uncharged group. Preferred polar uncharged groups comprise one or more selected from the group consisting of O, S, N, P F, Cl, Br and I. More preferred polar uncharged groups comprise O. Examples of preferred polar uncharged groups are hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, aldehyde, ester, ether, peroxy, haloformyl, carbonate ester, hydroperoxyl, hemiacetal, hemiketal, acetal, ketal, orthoester, methylenedioxy, orthocarbonate ester, sulfhydryl, sulphide, disulphide, sulphinyl, sulphonyl, sulphino, sulpho, thiocyanate, isothiocyanate, carbonothioyl, phosphino, phosphono, phosphate, carboxamide, amine, ketamine, adimine, imide, azide, azo, cyanate, isocyanate, nitrate, nitrile, isonitrile, nitrosooxy, nitro, nitroso, oxime, pyridyl, chloro, bromo and iodo. Preferred polar uncharged groups are hydroxyl and ester, more preferably hydroxyl. Preferred charged groups can be cationic or anionic. Examples of preferred anionic groups are carboxylate, sulphate, sulphonate and phosphate, more preferably carboxylate. Preferred cationic groups are ammonium. 
     The lipophilic behavior of the amphiphilic compound is preferably provided by one or more hydrocarbon moieties or one or more poly-ether moieties different from poly ethylene oxide or one or more of each. 
     Preferred hydrocarbon moieties may be saturated or unsaturated. A preferred saturated hydrocarbon is an alkane. Preferred alkanes may be linear, branched, cyclic or a mixture thereof. Preferred unsaturated hydrocarbon moieties comprise one or more carbon-carbon double bonds or one or more aromatic rings or one or more of each. A preferred hydrocarbon comprises a carbon chain or two or more carbon chains, each carbon chain preferably having 5 or more carbon atoms, more preferably 10 or more carbon atoms, most preferably 20 or more carbon atoms. The carbon chain preferably comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of a straight carbon chain, a branched carbon chain and a carbon ring. The carbon chain preferably comprises a straight carbon chain, preferably is a straight carbon chain. Preferred carbon chains this context may comprise one or more selected form the group consisting of an alkane unit, an alkene unit, and an alkyne unit. The carbon chain preferably comprises an alkane unit, more preferably is an alkane. 
     Repeating Units 
     The amphiphilic compound may comprise ethylene oxide-based repeating units, preferably adjacent. The ethylene oxide-based repeating unit preferably has the formula —(CH 2 CH 2 O)—. The amphiphilic compound preferably comprises two or more, preferably 5 or more, more preferably 10 or more, even more preferably 20 or more, most preferably 50 or more ethylene oxide-based repeating units. In one aspect of this embodiment, the amphiphilic compound comprises one or more blocks of ethylene oxide-based repeating units, each block comprising two or more, preferably 5 or more, more preferably 10 or more, even more preferably 20 or more, most preferably 50 or more ethylene oxide-based repeating units connected directly in a chain. 
     In one embodiment, a preferred amphiphilic compound comprises more than 20 wt. % of ethylene oxide-based repeating units, based on the total weight of the first amphiphilic compound, preferably more than 40 wt. %, more preferably more than 50 wt. %, most preferably more than 60 wt. %. In some cases, the compound may comprise up to 90 wt. % of ethylene oxide-based repeating units. In one aspect of this embodiment, the amphiphilic compound comprises from 20 to 90 wt. % of ethylene oxide-based repeating units, based on the total weight of the first amphiphilic species, preferably from 30 to 85 wt. %, more preferably from 40 to 80 wt. %, most preferably from 45 to 75 wt. %. 
     In one embodiment, it is preferred for the amphiphilic compound to comprise one or more of a further repeating unit, the further repeating unit being different from an ethylene oxide-based repeating unit. 
     The further repeating unit is preferably a propylene oxide-based repeating unit. The propylene oxide-based repeating unit preferably has the formula —(CHCH 3 CH 2 O)—. The amphiphilic compound preferably comprises two or more, preferably 5 or more, more preferably 10 or more, even more preferably 20 or more, most preferably 50 or more of the further repeating unit. In one aspect of this embodiment, the amphiphilic compound comprises one or more blocks of the further repeating unit, each block comprising two or more, preferably 5 or more, more preferably 10 or more, even more preferably 20 or more, most preferably 50 or more of the further repeating unit connected directly in a chain. 
     The amphiphilic compound may comprise a butylene oxide-based repeating unit, preferably two or more, more preferably 5 or more, still more preferably 10 or more, even more preferably 20 or more, most preferably 50 or more of the butylene oxide-based repeating unit. In one aspect of this embodiment, the amphiphilic compound comprises one or more blocks of the butylene oxide-based repeating unit, each block comprising two or more, preferably 5 or more, more preferably 10 or more, even more preferably 20 or more, most preferably 50 or more of the butylene oxide-based repeating unit connected directly in a chain. 
     In one embodiment, it is preferred for the amphiphilic compound to comprise one or more ethylene oxide-based repeating units and one or more of a further repeating unit, the further repeating unit being different from an ethylene oxide-based repeating unit. The further repeating unit is preferably a propylene oxide-based repeating unit. The propylene oxide-based repeating unit preferably has the formula —(CHC 3 CH 2 O)—. The amphiphilic compound preferably comprises two or more, more preferably 5 or more, still more preferably 10 or more, even more preferably 20 or more, most preferably 50 or more ethylene oxide-based repeating units. In one aspect of this embodiment, the amphiphilic compound comprises one or more blocks of ethylene oxide-based repeating units, each block comprising two or more, preferably 5 or more, more preferably 10 or more, even more preferably 20 or more, most preferably 50 or more ethylene oxide-based repeating units connected directly in a chain. The amphiphilic compound preferably comprises two or more, more preferably 5 or more, still more preferably 10 or more, even more preferably 20 or more, most preferably 50 or more of the further repeating unit. In one aspect of this embodiment, the amphiphilic compound comprises one or more blocks of the repeating unit, each block comprising two or more, preferably 5 or more, more preferably 10 or more, even more preferably 20 or more, most preferably 50 or more of the further repeating unit connected directly in a chain. In a preferred aspect of this embodiment, the amphiphilic compound comprises one or more blocks of ethylene oxide-based repeating units and one or more blocks of the further repeating unit. In one aspect of this embodiment, the amphiphilic compound comprises one or more ethylene oxide-based repeating units and two or more further repeating units. One of the two or more further repeating units is preferably a propylene oxide-based repeating unit. It is particularly preferred that the amphiphilic compound comprises one or more blocks of each of the ethylene oxide-based repeating unit and the two or more further repeating units. 
     In one preferred embodiment the amphiphilic compound is a block copolymer comprising one or more hydrophilic blocks and one or more hydrophobic blocks. The preferred hydrophilic block is an ethylene oxide-based repeating unit. Preferred hydrophobic blocks are a propylene oxide-based block, a butylene oxide-based block, or a hydrocarbon block, preferably a propylene oxide-based block or a hydrocarbon block. Preferred block copolymers are diblock copolymers of the form AB or triblock copolymers of the form ABA or BAB. 
     In one embodiment, the amphiphilic compound is a triblock copolymer of the form ABA, wherein A is an ethylene oxide-based block and B is either a propylene oxide-based block or a hydrocarbon. 
     In one embodiment, the amphiphilic compound is a triblock copolymer of the form BAB, wherein A is an ethylene oxide-based block and B is either a propylene oxide-based block or a hydrocarbon. 
     In one embodiment, the amphiphilic compound is a diblock copolymer of the form AB, wherein A is an ethylene oxide-based block and B is either a propylene oxide-based block or a hydrocarbon. 
     In one embodiment, the amphiphilic compound is a mixed triblock copolymer of the form BAC, wherein A is an ethylene oxide-based block, B and C are different and each chosen from the group consisting of a propylene oxide-based block and a hydrocarbon. 
     In one embodiment, the amphiphilic compound is a block copolymer, preferably as above, with one or more terminal groups, preferably selected from the group consisting of a hydrocarbon, sulphate, phosphate, an amine, carboxylate and an ammonium salt. 
     In one embodiment, the amphiphilic species may be provided in a solvent. In this case, the solvent is separate from the amphiphilic species for the purposes of calculating properties of the amphiphilic species, such as content by weight in the precursor. 
     In one embodiment, a preferred amphiphilic compound has an HLB (hydrophile-lipophile balance) value measured by the Griffin Method in the range from 1 to 19, preferably in the range from 2 to 19, more preferably in the range from 4 to 19, even more preferably in the range from 6 to 17, most preferably in the range from 8 to 15. In one embodiment, preferred amphiphilic compounds have an HLB measured by the Griffin Method of 1 or more, or more than 1 or 2 or more, or more than 2 or 4 or more, or more than 4. 
     In one embodiment, a preferred amphiphilic compound has an HLB value measured by the Reference Method described in the test methods in the range from 1 to 19, preferably in the range from 2 to 19, more preferably in the range from 4 to 19, even more preferably in the range from 6 to 17, most preferably in the range from 8 to 15. In one embodiment, preferred amphiphilic compounds have an HLB measured by the Reference Method described in the test methods of 1 or more; or more than 1; or 2 or more; or more than 2; or 4 or more: or more than 4. 
     In one embodiment, a preferred amphiphilic compound has an HLB value measured by the Davies Method of 1 or more; or more than 1; or 2 or more; or more than 2; or 4 or more; or more than 4; or 6 or more; or more than 6; or 8 or more; or more than 8. Some amphiphilic compounds can have an HLB value measured by the Davies Method of up to 100. 
     In one embodiment, a preferred amphiphilic compound has an HLB value measured by the Effective Chain Length Method (Guo et al., Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 298, 441-50 (2006)) of 1 or more; or more than 1; or 2 or more; or more than 2; or 4 or more; or more than 4; or 6 or more; or more than 6; or 8 or more; or more than 8. Some amphiphilic compounds can have an HLB value measured by the Effective Chain Length Method of up to 100. 
     In one embodiment, 0.5 g of the amphiphilic species satisfies one or more of the following criteria immediately after shaking in 10 ml of distilled water, preferably determined according to the test method described herein:
         a. gas bubbles are present;   b. only one non-gas phase is present; and   c. only one non-gas phase is present and this phase is liquid and clear.       

     Clear in this context preferably means producing an obscuration of less than 0.1% according to the method given herein. In the various aspects of this embodiment, the following combinations are satisfied: a, b, c, b+c, a+b, a+c or a+b+c. It is preferred for at least c to be satisfied. 
     Gas bubbles can be present within the body of another phase or may accumulate at the top of another phase to form a foam. 
     In one embodiment, 0.5 g of the amphiphilic species satisfies one or more of the following criteria 5 minutes after shaking in 10 ml of distilled water, preferably determined according to the test method described herein:
         a. only one non-gas phase is present; and   b. only one non-gas phase is present and this phase is liquid and clear.       

     Clear in this context preferably means producing an obscuration of less than 0.1% according to the method given herein. It is preferred for at least b to be satisfied. 
     In one embodiment, 0.5 g of the amphiphilic species satisfies one or more of the following criteria 10 minutes after shaking in 10 ml of distilled water, preferably determined according to the test method described herein:
         a. only one non-gas phase is present; and   b. only one non-gas phase is present and this phase is liquid and clear.       

     Clear in this context preferably means producing an obscuration of less than 0.1% according to the method given herein. It is preferred for at least b to be satisfied. 
     In one embodiment, 0.5 g of the amphiphilic species satisfies one or more of the following criteria 1 hour after shaking in 10 ml of distilled water, preferably determined according to the test method described herein:
         a. only one non-gas phase is present; and   b. only one non-gas phase is present and this phase is liquid and clear.       

     Clear in this context preferably means producing an obscuration of less than 0.1% according to the method given herein. It is preferred for at least b to be satisfied. 
     In one embodiment, 0.5 g of the amphiphilic species satisfies one or more of the following criteria 1 day after shaking in 10 ml of distilled water, preferably determined according to the test method described herein:
         a. only one non-gas phase is present; and   b. only one non-gas phase is present and this phase is liquid and clear.       

     Clear in this context preferably means producing an obscuration of less than 0.1% according to the method given herein. It is preferred for at least b to be satisfied. 
     Carbon Source 
     The carbon source of the present invention preferably provides the carbon material for the formation of a three-dimensional structure. This three-dimensional structure preferably has open pores and also preferably channels, preferably built by connecting open pores. 
     The carbon source of the present invention comprises a carbon source compound which comprises following:
         i. an aromatic ring having 1 or more attached OH groups; and   ii. an ester link.       

     The carbon sources compound may comprise more than one aromatic ring. In one aspect of this embodiment, the carbon source compound comprises 2 or more aromatic rings, preferably 3 or more, more preferably 4 or more, even more preferably 5 or more. Where two or more aromatic rings are present in the carbon source compound, the aromatic rings may be the same or different. It is preferred for the aromatic rings within the same carbon source compound to be the same. 
     The aromatic ring preferably comprises adjacent OH groups. Adjacent OH groups in the aromatic ring are connected to adjacent ring members. In one aspect of this embodiment, the aromatic ring has a first OH group and a second OH group and the first and second OH groups are adjacent to each other in the aromatic ring. It is preferred for 3 or more OH groups to each be adjacent to another OH group, preferably 4 or more OH groups, most preferably all OH groups. 
     The OH groups in the aromatic ring may be in protonated or de-protonated form. In one aspect of this embodiment, the carbon source compound is present as a salt, preferably comprising an organic anion and a metal cation. 
     Preferred aromatic rings have from 5 to 20 ring members. In one embodiment, the aromatic ring has 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 16 or 18 members, preferably 6, 10, 13, 14, 16 or 18, more preferably 6 or 10, most preferably 6 members. 
     In one embodiment, the aromatic ring is a carbon ring. In another embodiment, the aromatic ring is a heterocycle comprising carbon and at least one other element, preferably selected form the group consisting of P, N, O, S, and B. Carbon rings are preferred. 
     In the following, the aromatic ring is described in terms of its base without substituents. For example, phenol is described as benzene because it is equivalent to a benzene ring having an attached OH group. 
     Preferred carbon rings in this context are the following: benzene, naphthalene, anthracene and pyrene. 
     Preferred aromatic rings comprising oxygen are the following: furan, benzofuran and isobenzofuran. Preferred aromatic rings comprising one nitrogen atom are the following: pyrrole, indole, isoindole, imidazole, benzimidazole, purine, pyrazole, indazole, pyridine, quinoline, isoquinoline, pyrazine, quinoxaline, acridine, pyrimidine, quinazoline, pyridazine, cinnoline, phthalazine 1,2,3-triazine, 1,2,4-triazine, and 1,3,5-thiazine. Preferred aromatic rings comprising sulphur are the following: thiophene, benzothiophene and benzo[c]thiophene. Preferred aromatic rings comprising both nitrogen and oxygen are the following: oxazole, benzoxazole, isoxazole, and benzisoxazole. Preferred aromatic rings comprising both nitrogen and sulphur are the following: thiazole and benzothiazole. 
     The carbon source compound preferably comprises a polyalcohol structural unit. The polyalcohol structural unit preferably provides an anchoring point for further constituents of the compound, which are preferably linked to the polyalcohol via ester links. 
     In one embodiment, the polyalcohol structural unit has 2 or more, more preferably 2 to 10, most preferably 4 to 7 carbon atoms. In one aspect of this embodiment, the polyalcohol structural unit has 2 or more, more preferably 2 to 10, even more preferably 3 to 7, most preferably 4 to 6 OH groups. In one aspect of this embodiment, the polyalkanol structural unit is a sugar. Preferred sugars are mono-saccharides, preferably having a chemical formula of the general form C n H 2n O n , wherein n is a whole number, preferably at least 3, more preferably 6. Preferred sugars are glucose, ribose, arabinose, xylose, lyxose, allose, altrose, mannonse, gulose, iodose, galactose and talose, preferably glucose. In one embodiment, the polyalcohol structural unit is glucose. In another embodiment, the polyalcohol structural unit is quinic acid. 
     Preferred carbon source compounds are polyphenols. In one embodiment, the carbon source is a polyphenol according to the White-Bate-Smith-Swain-Haslam (WBSSH) scheme. 
     In one embodiment, the carbon source compound satisfies one or more of the following features:
         a. a molecular weight in the range from 500 to 4,000 g/mol, preferably in the range from 500 to 3,000 g/mol, more preferably in the range from 1,000 to 2,500 g/mol, most preferably in the range from 1,500 to 2.000 g/mol;   b. a total number of hydroxyl groups attached to an aromatic carbon ring of more than 12, preferably from 12 to 100, more preferably from 15 to 50, even more preferably from 20 to 35; and   c. from 5 to 7 aromatic carbon rings per 1,000 g/mol of molecular weight.       

     Preferred carbon source compounds are tannins. Preferred tannins comprise one or more gallic acid structural units or one or more ellagic acid structural units or one or more gallic acid structural units and one or more ellagic acid structural units. Preferred tannins are the gallotannins and ellagitannins. Preferred tannins are hydrolysable tannins. Preferred hydrolysable tannins comprise one or more ester structural units. Preferred hydrolysable tannins release gallic acid or ellagic acid when hydrolyzed. Preferred tannins comprise one or more sugar structural units, preferably a single sugar structural unit. The preferred sugars in this context are glucose and quinic acid. In one embodiment, the carbon source compound comprises a gallic acid structural unit, preferably from 2 to 12, more preferably from 5 to 11, most preferably 3 to 10 gallic acid structural units. In one embodiment, the carbon source compound comprises an ellagic acid structural unit, preferably from 2 to 12, more preferably from 5 to 11, most preferably 3 to 10 ellagic acid structural units. In one embodiment, the carbon source compound comprises both an ellagic acid structural unit and a gallic acid structural unit, preferably from 2 to 12, more preferably from 5 to 11, most preferably 3 to 10 ellagic acid and gallic acid structural units in total. 
     Tannic acid is the preferred carbon source compound. In one embodiment, the carbon source compound is a galloyl glucose. Preferred galloyl glucoses are the following: digalloyl glucose, trigalloyl glucose, tetragalloyl glucose, pentagalloyl glucose, hexagalloyl glucose, heptagalloyl glucose, octagalloyl glucose, nonagalloyl glucose, decagalloyl glucose, endecagalloyl glucose, and dodecagalloyl glucose. In one embodiment, the carbon source compound is a galloyl quinic acid. Preferred galloyl quinic acids are the following: digalloyl quinic acid, trigalloyl quinic acid, tetragalloyl quinic acid, pentagalloyl quinic acid, hexagalloyl quinic acid, heptagalloyl quinic acid, octagalloyl quinic acid, nonagalloyl quinic acid, decagalloyl quinic acid, endecagalloyl quinic acid, and dodecagalloyl quinic acid. In one embodiment, the carbon source compound is an ellagyl glucose. Preferred ellagyl glucoses are the following: diellagyl glucose, triellagyl glucose, tetraellagyl glucose, pentaellagy glucose, hexaellagyl glucose, heptaellagyl glucose, octaellagyl glucose, nonaellagyl glucose, decaellagyl glucose, and endecaellagyl glucose, dodecaellagyl glucose. In one embodiment, the carbon source compound is an ellagyl quinic acid. Preferred ellagyl quinic acids are the following: diellagyl quinic acid, triellagyl quinic acid, tetraellagyl quinic acid, pentaellagyl quinic acid, hexaelagyl quinic acid, heptaellagyl quinic acid, octaellagyl quinic acid, nonsellagyl quinic acid, decaellagyl quinic acid, endecaellagyl quinic acid, and dodecaellagyl quinic acid. In one embodiment, the carbon source comprises a single carbon source compound selected form the above. In another embodiment, the carbon source comprises a mixture of two or more carbon source compounds selected from the above. The preferred tannic acid is decagalloyl glucose and has the chemical formula C 76 H 52 O 46 . 
     Solvent/Dispersant 
     One or more solvents or dispersants may be present in the precursor. Solvents and dispersants are preferably liquids. Solvents and dispersants in this context preferably dissolve or disperse one or more of the constituents of the precursor, either prior to or after formation of the precursor. Preferred features of the solvent are described herein and these features are also preferred features of a dispersant. A solvent may be introduced to the other constituents of the precursor as such or as a solvent for one or more of the other constituents of the precursor prior to formation of the precursor. If one or more solvents are employed, they are considered to be separate from other constituents of the precursor for the purpose of calculating content by weight, even if they are employed as a solvent therefor prior to formation of the precursor. For example, if the carbon source is introduced to the other constituents of the precursor in the form of a solution or dispersion of the carbon source in a carbon source solvent, the content of the carbon source in the precursor is calculated excluding the content of the carbon source solvent. This also applies, in particular, for the amphiphilic species and the co-ordinating species where one is present. 
     Solvents may be any solvent known to the skilled person and which the artisan considers appropriate in the context of the invention, in particular solvents which are selected for their capability to dissolve or disperse one or more of the constituents of the precursor. Solvents may be organic or inorganic. A preferred solvent has a boiling point. Solvents preferably vaporize without leaving a residue when heated to above their boiling point. The preferred inorganic solvent is water. Preferred organic solvents are alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, esters or ketones, preferably alcohols. Preferred alcohols are methanol, ethanol or propanol, preferably ethanol. Another preferred organic solvent is acetone. 
     In one embodiment, the precursor does not comprise a solvent. 
     Cross-Linking Agent 
     One or more cross-linking agents may be present in the precursor. Preferred cross-linking agents serve the purpose of facilitating the joining together of the carbon source into a three-dimensional structure in the porous carbon material. A cross-linking agent can be a catalyst, preferably a polymerization catalyst for the carbon source. 
     Cross-linking agents may be any compound known to the skilled person which the artisan considers appropriate in the context of the invention, in particular compounds which are selected for their capability for facilitating the joining together of the carbon source. 
     Preferred cross-linking agents comprise two or more functional groups. Preferred functional groups are able to form a link to the carbon source. 
     Preferred cross-linking agents are one or more selected from the group consisting of para toluene sulphonic acid, hexamethylenetetramine, hexamethoxymethylmelamine and 2-nitro-2-methyl-1-propanol. 
     In one embodiment, the cross-linking agent is a methylene donor. 
     In one embodiment of the invention, the precursor comprises a cross-linking agent, preferably in the range from 1 to 20 parts by weight, more preferably in the range from 2 to 15 parts by weight, even more preferably in the range from 5 to 10 parts by weight, based on 100 parts of carbon source. In a preferred aspect of this embodiment, the cross-linking agent is a cross-linking agent for the carbon source. In one aspect of this embodiment, the cross-linking agent is a catalyst for polymerizing the carbon source. In a preferred embodiment, the precursor does not comprise a cross-linking agent. In one embodiment, the precursor does not comprise more than 10 parts by weight of cross-linking agent, more preferably not more than 1 part, even more preferably not more than 0.1 part, most preferably not more than 0.01 parts based on 100 parts of carbon source. In particular, for a desired pore volume it is preferred to have less than 10 parts, preferably less than 1 part, more preferably less than 0.1 parts, even more preferably less than 0.01 parts, or even no cross-linking agent present, based on 100 parts of carbon source. 
     Process Conditions 
     The process of the invention preferably comprises a heating step. The heating step preferably serves to obtain a porous carbon material from the precursor, preferably through linking together of the carbon source. 
     In the heating step, one or more constituents other than the carbon source, preferably all constituents other than the carbon source, are removed from the precursor so as not to remain in the porous carbon material. Preferably one or more selected from the following group, preferably all of the members of the following group which are present in the precursor, are removed from the precursor during the heating step so as not to remain in the porous carbon material: the amphiphilic species; the solvent, if present; the cross-linking agent, if present; further constituents other than the carbon source, if present. Constituents removed from the precursor during the heating step can exit the precursor whole, for example by evaporation or sublimation, or can decompose inside the precursor whereupon the decomposition products exit the precursor. 
     The heating step preferably comprises a high-temperature firing. The high-temperature firing is preferably performed at a temperature in the range from 700 to 3,000° C. The purpose of the high-temperature firing step preferably serves to carbonize and potentially graphitize the carbon source, thereby obtaining the porous carbon material. 
     The precursor preferably does not require pre-polymerization before the heating step. In one embodiment of the invention, the heating step of the precursor does not comprise a low-temperature holding step of 10 minutes or more at a holding temperature in the range from 30° C. to 150° C., preferably no low-temperature holding step of 1 minute or more at a holding temperature in the range from 30° C. to 150° C. 
     The process of the invention may comprise a mixing step, in which two or more constituents of the precursor, or the precursor itself, is mixed. In one embodiment, the process of the invention comprises a mixing step. In another embodiment, the process of the invention does not comprise a mixing step. In one embodiment, no longer than 1 hour is spent mixing, preferably no longer than 10 minutes, more preferably no longer than 1 minute. Where the process comprises a mixing step, it is preferably completed before the heating step. Where the process comprises a high-temperature heating step, a low-temperature heating step and a mixing step, the mixing step is preferably performed prior to the low-temperature heating step and the low-temperature heating step is preferably completed before the high-temperature heating step. 
     A particular contribution made by the present invention is process simplicity. In particular, the present invention can obviate the need for additional steps prior to firing, in particular low-temperature heating steps or lengthy mixing steps. In one embodiment, the time between first contact between the carbon source and the amphiphilic species and the start of a firing step is less than 10 hours, preferably less than 5 hours, more preferably less than 1 hour, even more preferably less than 20 minutes, most preferably less than 5 minutes. In one aspect of this embodiment, the start of a firing step is the first time the precursor is raised to a temperature above 200° C., or above 300° C. or above 400° C., or above 500° C., or above 600° C. 
     The process may comprise a graphitization step, designed to modify the properties of the porous carbon material. In one embodiment, the process comprises a graphitization step following a firing step. The graphitization step is preferably performed at a higher temperature than the firing step. In another embodiment, the process does not comprise separate firing and graphitization steps. In one aspect of this embodiment, a high-temperature step is employed for both carbonization of the carbon source and graphitization of the resultant porous carbon material. 
     Preferred temperatures for the graphitization step are in the range from 1,200 to 3,000° C., more preferably in the range from 1,500 to 2,800° C., most preferably in the range from 1,700 to 2,500° C. Where the process comprises a graphitization step, the graphitization step is preferably performed after the heating step. 
     Porous Carbon Material 
     A contribution to achieving at least one of the above-mentioned objects is made by a porous carbon material according to the present invention. It is preferred according to the invention that the carbon source is carbonized in the heating step and the porous carbon material is obtained. The porous carbon material differs from the precursor in one or more, preferably all, of the following ways: constituents of the precursor other than the carbon source are removed from the precursor during heating and are no longer present in the porous carbon material; some atoms other than carbon are removed from the carbon source during heating and are no longer present in the porous carbon material, whereby the porous carbon material has a lower proportional content of atoms other than carbon than the carbon source: the porous carbon material is a contiguous solid, in contrast to the precursor which comprises a mixture of liquids and non-contiguous solids; and the porous carbon material has a lower density than the carbon source or than the precursor or than both. 
     The term “contiguous solid” is used in reference to the porous carbon material to indicate that the carbon atom constituents of the porous carbon material are linked in collections of atoms which are immoveable relative to each other, wherein those collections are larger than the molecular scale, preferably having a largest dimension more than 100 Angstroms, more preferably more than 500 Angstroms, further more preferably more than 1,000 Angstroms, still further more preferably more than 5,000 Angstroms, most preferably more than 10,000 Angstroms. In one embodiment, the porous carbon material is present as a body having a largest dimension of at least 1 mm, preferably at least 1 cm, more preferably at least 5 cm. In another embodiment, the porous carbon material is present as a collection of particles, preferably following a step in which a single body is split into two or more bodies. 
     The porous carbon material preferably has the features described in the embodiments disclosed above in the summary of the disclosure. 
     Technology Applications 
     The porous carbon material can be employed in a number of technical applications. Preferred applications are the following: an electrochemical cell; a fuel cell, in particular a hydrogen fuel cell, and there in particular in proton exchange membrane; a capacitor, an electrode; and a catalyst. Preferred electrochemical cells in this context are lead acid cells and lithium ion cells. Preferred fuel cells in this context are hydrogen cells. Preferred capacitors in this context are electric double-layer capacitors. 
     Process conditions and individual constituents can be selected to achieve desired properties of the porous carbon material while still working within the scope of the invention. For example, a graphitization step following firing can be employed for decreasing the Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) surface area of the porous carbon material. 
     The porous carbon material preferably has the properties described in the embodiments section. 
     In one embodiment, the porous carbon material has one or more, preferably all of the following features:
         a. BET TOTAL  of less than 300 m 2 /g, preferably less than 200 m 2 /g, more preferably less than 150 m 2 /g; most preferably less than 100 m 2  g;   b. BET MICRO  of less than 100 m 2 /g, preferably less than 60 m 2 /g, more preferably less than 30 m 2 /g   c. Mean pore size above 40 m, preferably above 50 nm, more preferably above 60 nm and, in some cases, the mean pore size may be up to about 280 nm;   d. Modal pore size above 40 nm, preferably above 50 m, more preferably above 60 nm and, in some cases, the modal pore size may be up to about 280 nm;   e. A ratio of modal pore size to mean pore size in the range from 0.2 to 1.1, preferably in the rage from 0.4 to 1.05, more preferably in the range from 0.6 to 1;   f. Total pore volume greater than 0.5 cm/g, preferably greater than 0.7 cm 3 /g, more preferably greater than 1.0 cm/g, for pores having a pore size in the range from 10 nm to 10,000 nm and, in some cases, the total pore volume may be up to 2.0 cm 3 /g;   g. Particle diameter do below 7 μm, preferably below 5 μm, more preferably below 3 μm and, in some cases, the particle size do can be as low as 100 nm;   h. Less than 25 ppm impurities other than carbon, preferably less than 20 ppm, more preferably less than 18 ppm;   i. Fe content less than 25 ppm, preferably less than 20 ppm, more preferably less than 15 ppm; and   j. Conductivity greater than 2 S/cm, preferably greater than 4 S/cm, more preferably greater than 6 S/cm.       

     In one aspect of this embodiment, it is preferred for one or more of the features a. b. d. f. g. b. i. and j. to be fulfilled. 
     In another aspect of this embodiment, it is preferred for at least features c. and d. to be fulfilled. 
     Porous carbon materials of this embodiment are particularly suitable for use in lithium ion cells, in particular, as a cathode additive. A contribution is made towards at least one of the above-mentioned objects by a lithium ion cell comprising the porous carbon material of the invention, preferably according to this embodiment. 
     In one embodiment, the porous carbon material has one or more, preferably all of the following features:
         a. BET TOTAL  of less than 100 m 2 /g, preferably less than 80 m 2 /g, more preferably less than 70 m 2 /g, most preferably less than 60 m 2  g;   b. BET MICRO  of less than 20 m 2 /g, preferably less than 15 m 2 /g, more preferably less than 10 m 2 /g;   c. Mean pore size above 40 nm, preferably above 50 nm, more preferably above 60 nm and, in some cases, the mean pore size can be as high as 280 nm;   d. Modal pore size above 40 nm, preferably above 50 nm, more preferably above 60 nm and, in some cases, the modal pore size can be as high as 280 nm;   e. A ratio of modal pore size to mean pore size in the range from 0.2 to 1.1. preferably in the range from 0.4 to 1.05, more preferably in the range from 0.6 to 1;   f. Total pore volume greater than 0.5 cm 3 /g, preferably greater than 0.8 cm 3 /g, more preferably greater than 1.1 cm 3 /g, for pores having a pore size in the range from 10 nm to 10,000 nm and, in some cases, the total pore volume may be up to 2.0 cm 3 /g:   g. Particle size (d90) below 7 m, preferably below 5 μm, more preferably below 3 μm and, in some cases, the particle size d90 can be as low as 100 nm;   b. Less than 25 ppm impurities other than carbon, preferably less than 20 ppm, more preferably less than 18 ppm;   i. Fe content less than 25 ppm, preferably less than 20 ppm, more preferably less than 15 ppm; and   j. Conductivity greater than 0.5 S/cm, preferably greater than 0.7 S/cm, more preferably greater than 1 S/cm.       

     In one aspect of this embodiment, it is preferred for one or more of the features a. b. d. f. g. h. i. and j. to be fulfilled. 
     In another aspect of this embodiment, it is preferred for at least features c. and d. to be fulfilled. 
     Porous carbon materials of this embodiment are particularly suitable for use in lithium ion cells, in particular, as an anode additive. A contribution is made towards at least one of the above-mentioned objects by a lithium ion cell comprising the porous carbon material of the invention, preferably according to this embodiment. 
     In one embodiment, the porous carbon material has one or more, preferably all, of the following features:
         a. BET TOTAL  greater than 200 m 2 /g, preferably greater than 300 m 2 /g, more preferably greater than 400 m 2 /g and, in some cases, the BET TOTAL  may be up to 1,000 m 2 /g;   b. BET MICRO  greater than 150 m 2 /g, preferably greater than 200 m 2 /g, more preferably greater than 250 m 2 /g and, in some cases, the BET MICRO  may be up to 1000 m/g;   c. Mean pore size above 40 nm, preferably above 50 nm, more preferably above 60 nm and, in some cases, the mean pore size can be as high as 280 nm;   d. Modal pore size above 40 nm, preferably above 50 nm, more preferably above 60 nm and, in some cases, the modal pore size can be as high as 280 nm;   e. A ratio of modal pore size to mean pore size in the range from 0.2 to 1.1, preferably in the range from 0.4 to 1.05, more preferably in the range from 0.6 to 1;   f. Total pore volume greater than 0.7 cm 3 /g, preferably greater than 1.0 cm 3 /g, more preferably greater than 1.3 cm 3 /g, for pores having a pore size in the range from 10 nm to 10,000 nm and, in some cases, the total pore volume may be up to 2.0 cm/g;   g. Particle size (d 50 ) greater than 25 μm, preferably greater than 30 μm, more preferably greater than 35 μm and, in some cases, the d 50  particle size may be up to about 200 μm;   h. Less than 4,000 ppm impurities other than carbon, preferably less than 2,500 ppm, more preferably less than 1,500 ppm;   i. Fe content less than 250 ppm, preferably less than 200 ppm, more preferably less than 150 ppm; and   j. Conductivity greater than 0.1 S/cm, preferably greater than 0.2 S/cm, more preferably greater than 0.3 S/cm.       

     In one aspect of this embodiment, it is preferred for one or more of the features a. b. d. f. g. h. i. and j. to be fulfilled. 
     In another aspect of this embodiment, it is preferred for at least features c. and d. to be fulfilled. 
     Porous carbon materials of this embodiment are particularly suitable for use in lead acid electrochemical cells. A contribution is made towards at least one of the above-mentioned objects by a lead acid electrochemical cell comprising the porous carbon material of the invention, preferably according to this embodiment. 
     In one embodiment, the porous carbon material has one or more, preferably all, of the following features:
         a. BET TOTAL  of greater than 400 m 2 /g, preferably greater than 450 m 2 /g, more preferably greater than 500 m 2 /g and, in some cases, the BET TOTAL  may be up to 2,000 m 2 /g;   b. BET MICRO  greater than 200 m 2 /g, preferably greater than 250 m 2 /g, more preferably greater than 300 m 2 /g and, in some cases, the BET MICRO  may be up to 1,000 m 2 /g; c. Mean pore size above 40 nm, preferably above 50 nm, more preferably above 60 nm and, in some cases the mean pore size may be up to about 250 nm;   d. Modal pore size above 40 nm, preferably above 50 nm, more preferably above 60 nm and, in some cases, the modal pore size may be up to about 250 nm;   e. A ratio of modal pore size to mean pore size in the range from 0.2 to 1.1, preferably in the range from 0.4 to 1.05, more preferably in the range from 0.6 to 1;   f. Total pore volume less than 1.2 cm 2 /g, preferably less than 1 cm/g, more preferably less than 0.8 cm 2 /g, for pores having a pore size in the range from 10 nm to 10,000 nm;   g. Particle size do below 7 μm, preferably below 5 μm, more preferably below 3 nm and, in some cases, the particle size d 90  can be as low as 100 nm;   h. Less than 25 ppm impurities other than carbon, preferably less than 20 ppm, more preferably less than 18 ppm;   i. Fe content less than 25 ppm, preferably less than 20 ppm, more preferably less than 15 ppm; and   j. Conductivity greater than 2 S/cm, preferably greater than 6 S/cm, more preferably greater than 10 S/cm.       

     In one aspect of this embodiment, it is preferred for one or more of the features a. b. d. f. g. h. i. and j. to be fulfilled. 
     In another aspect of this embodiment, it is preferred for at least features c. and d. to be fulfilled. 
     Porous carbon materials of this embodiment are particularly suitable for use in electric capacitors, preferably electric double-layer capacitors. A contribution is made towards at least one of the above-mentioned objects by a capacitor, preferably an electric double-layer capacitor, comprising the porous carbon material of the invention, preferably according to this embodiment. 
     In one embodiment, the porous carbon material has one or more, preferably all, of the following features:
         a. BET TOTAL  of greater than 150 m 2 /g, preferably greater than 200 m 2 /g, more preferably greater than 250 m 2 /g and, in some cases, the BET TOTAL  may be up to 900 m 2 /g;   b. BET MICRO  less than 200 m 2 /g, preferably less than 175 m 2 /g, more preferably less than 150 m 2 /g and, in some cases, the BET MICRO  may be as low as 10 m 2 /g;   c. Mean pore size above 40 nm, preferably above 50 m, more preferably above 60 nm and, in some cases, the mean pore size may be up to about 280 nm;   d. Modal pore size above 40 nm, preferably above 50 nm, more preferably above 60 nm and, in some cases, the modal pore size may be up to about 280 nm;   e. A ratio of modal pore size to mean pore size in the range from 0.2 to 1.1, preferably in the range from 0.4 to 1.05, more preferably in the range from 0.6 to 1;   f. Total pore volume more than 0.5 cm 2 /g, preferably more than 0.75 cm 2 /g, more preferably more than 1.0 cm 2 /g, for pores having a pore size in the range from 10 m to 10,000 nm;   g. Particle size do below 7 μm, preferably below 5 μm, more preferably below 3 μm and, in some cases, the particle size d 90  can be as low as 200 nm;   h. Less than 25 ppm impurities other than carbon, preferably less than 20 ppm, more preferably less than 18 ppm;   i. Fe content less than 25 ppm, preferably less than 20 ppm, more preferably less than 15 ppm; and   j. Conductivity greater than 2 S/cm, preferably greater than 4 S/cm, more preferably greater than 5 S/cm.       

     In one aspect of this embodiment, it is preferred for one or more of the features a. b. d. f. g. h. i. and j. to be fulfilled. 
     In another aspect of this embodiment, it is preferred for at least features c. and d. to be fulfilled. 
     Porous carbon materials of this embodiment are particularly suitable for use in electrochemical cells, preferably fuel cells, more preferably proton exchange membrane fuel cells. A contribution is made towards at least one of the above-mentioned objects by a fuel cell, preferably a proton exchange membrane fuel cell, comprising the porous carbon material of the invention, preferably according to this embodiment. 
     A further aspect of this disclosure relates to a porous carbon product having a specified distribution of particle size, preferably of particle diameter, preferably as determined by the test method presented herein. A preferred particle size, preferably particle diameter, is preferably a particle size of contiguous bodies. 
     A contribution towards overcoming at least one of the above described technical objects is made by a porous carbon material |Y1| having a particle distribution d50 in the range from 10 to 250 μm, preferably 20 to 220 μm, more preferably 25 to 200 μm, further more preferably 40 to 160 μm, still further more preferably in the range from 60 to 130 μm, most preferably in the range from 70 to 110 μm. In one embodiment, the porous carbon material has a particle size d50 above 10 μm, preferably above 20 μm, more preferably above 25 μm, further more preferably above 40 μm, still further preferably above 50 μm, most preferably above 60 μm. In one embodiment, the porous carbon material has a particle size d50 below 250 μm, preferably below 220 μm, more preferably below 200 un, further more preferably below 160 μm, still further more preferably below 130 μm, most preferably below 110 μm. In some cases, the particle size d50 may be up to about 280 μm. In one embodiment, it is preferred for the porous carbon material to satisfy one or more of the features described generally for porous carbon materials in this disclosure. In one embodiment, it is preferred for the porous carbon material to be obtainable, preferably obtained, by a process disclosed herein. 
     A contribution towards overcoming at least one of the above described technical objects is made by a process |Y2| comprising the following steps:
         a. Providing a porous carbon material; and   b. Adapting the particle distribution d 50  of the porous carbon material to a value in the range from 10 to 250 μm, preferably 20 to 220 μm, more preferably 25 to 200 μm, further more preferably 40 to 160 μm, still further more preferably in the range from 60 to 130 μm, most preferably in the range from 70 to 110 μm.       

     In one embodiment, the porous carbon material has a particle size d50 above 10 μm, preferably above 20 μm, more preferably above 25 μm, further more preferably above 40 μm, still further more preferably above 50 μm, most preferably above 60 μm. In one embodiment, the porous carbon material has a particle size d50 below 250 μm, preferably below 220 μm, more preferably below 200 μm, further more preferably below 160 μm, still further more preferably below 130 μm, most preferably below 110 μm. In some cases, the particle size d50 may be up to about 280 μm. In one embodiment, it is preferred for the porous carbon material to satisfy one or more of the features described generally for porous carbon materials in this disclosure. In one embodiment, it is preferred for the porous carbon material to be obtainable, preferably obtained, by a process disclosed herein. 
     A contribution towards overcoming at least one of the above-described technical objects is made by a device comprising the porous carbon material according to |Y1| or obtainable by the process according to |Y2|. A preferred device in this context is a cell, preferably a cell comprising lead or an acid or both. The porous carbon material is preferably employed in or at an electrode, preferably an anode. In one embodiment, the device comprises an acid. A preferred acid is sulfuric acid. In one embodiment, the device comprises water. In one embodiment, the device comprises PbSO4. In one embodiment, the device comprises an electrolyte. Preferred constituents of the electrolyte are H2SO4 and H2O. A preferred concentration of H2SO4 in the electrolyte is in the range from 1 to 1.5 g/cm3, preferably in the range from 1.05 to 1.45 g/cm3, more preferably in the range from 1.1 to 1.4 g/cm3. 
     A contribution towards overcoming at least one of the above-described technical objects is made by a use of a porous carbon material according to |Y1| or obtainable by the process according to |Y2| in a device. A preferred device in this context is a cell, preferably a cell comprising lead or an acid or both. The porous carbon material is preferably employed in or at an electrode, preferably an anode. In one embodiment, the device comprises an acid. A preferred acid is sulfuric acid. In one embodiment, the device comprises water. In one embodiment, the device comprises PbSO4. In one embodiment, the device comprises an electrolyte. Preferred constituents of the electrolyte are H2SO4 and H2O. A preferred concentration of H2SO4 in the electrolyte is in the range from 1 to 1.5 g/cm3, preferably in the range from 1.05 to 1.45 g/cm3, more preferably in the range from 1.1 to 1.4 g/cm3. The use is preferably for improving cell performance. In one aspect, the use is for reducing water loss. In one aspect the use is for increasing charge acceptance. 
     Test Methods 
     The following test methods are used in the invention. In the absence of a test method, the International Standards Organization (ISO) test method for the feature to be measured published most recently before the earliest filing date of the present application applies. In the absence of distinct measuring conditions, standard ambient temperature and pressure (SATP) as a temperature of 298.15 K (25 C, 77 F) and an absolute pressure of 100 kPa (14.504 psi, 0.986 atm) apply. 
     Skeletal Density (Also Referred to as Material Density or Backbone Density) 
     The skeletal density measurements were performed according to DIN 66137-2. Between 0.49 g and 0.51 g of the powder sample were weighed in the sample cell and dried at 200° C. under vacuum for 1 hour prior to the measurement. The mass after drying was used for the calculation. A Pycnomatic ATC Helium Pycnometer from Themo Fisher Scientific. Inc. was used for the measurement, employing the “small” sample volume and the “small” reference volume. The pycnometer is calibrated monthly using the “extra small” sphere with a well-known volume of around 3 cm3. Measurements were performed using Helium with a purity of 4.6, at a temperature of 20.00° C., and a gas pressure of approximately 2 bar, according to the DIN standard and the standard operating procedure (SOP) of the device. 
     Mercury Porosimetry (ore size and pore volume) 
     The specific pore volume for different pore sizes, the cumulative pore volume, and the porosity were measured by mercury porosimetry. The mercury porosimetry analysis was performed according to ISO15901-1 (2005). A ThermoFisher Scientific PASCAL 140 (low pressure up to 4 bar) und a PASCAL 440 (high pressure up to 4,000 bar) and SOLID Version 1.6.3 (Nov. 26, 2015) software (all from Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.) were calibrated with porous glass spheres with a modal pore diameter of 140.2 m and pore volume of 924.4 mm3/g (ERM-FD122 Reference material from BAM). During measurements the pressure was increased or decreased continuously and controlled automatically by the instrument running in the PASCAL mode and speed set to 8 for intrusion and 9 for extrusion. The Washbum method was employed for the evaluation and the density of Hg was corrected for the actual temperature. The value for surface tension was 0.48 N/m and contact angle 140°. The sample size was between about 25 and 80 mg. Before starting a measurement, samples were heated to 150° C. in vacuum for 1 hour. 
     Gas Adsorption (Total, External and Micropore Specific Surface Area, BET TOTAL , BET external  and 
     BET measurements to determine the specific surface area of particles were made in accordance with DIN ISO 9277:2010. A NOVA 3000 (from Quantachrome) which works according to the SMART method (Sorption Method with Adaptive dosing Rate), was used for the measurement. As reference material Quantachrome Alumina SARM Catalog No. 2001 (13.92 m2/g on multi-point BET method), and SARM Catalog No. 2004 (214.15 m 2 /g on multi-point BET method) available from Quantachrome were used. Filler rods were added to the reference and sample cuvettes in order to reduce the dead volume. The cuvettes were mounted on the BET apparatus. The saturation vapour pressure of nitrogen gas (N2 4.0) was determined. A sample was weighed into a glass cuvette in such an amount that the cuvette with the filler rods was completely filled and a minimum of dead volume was created. The sample was kept at 200° C. for 1 hour under vacuum in order to dry it. After cooling the weight of the sample was recorded. The glass cuvette containing the sample was mounted on the measuring apparatus. To degas the sample, it was evacuated at a pumping speed selected so that no material was sucked into the pump to a final pressure of 10 mbar. 
     The mass of the sample after degassing was used for the calculation. For data analysis the NovaWin 11.04 Software was used. A multi-point analysis with 5 measuring points was performed and the resulting total specific surface area (BETtotal) given in m2/g. The dead volume of each sample cell was determined once prior to the measurement using Helium gas (He 4.6, humidity 30 ppmv). The glass cuvettes were cooled to 77° K using a liquid nitrogen bath. For the adsorptive, N2 4.0 with a molecular cross-sectional area of 0.162 nm2 at 77° K was used for the calculation. 
     The empirical t-plot methodology was used according to ISO15901-3:2007 to discriminate between contributions from micropores and remaining porosity at relative pressures of more than 0.1 (i.e., mesoporosity, macroporosity and external surface area contributions) and to calculate the micropore surface (BETmicro) and micropore volume. The low-pressure isotherm data points up to a cut-off p/p0, typically up to 0.1 p/p0, were selected to determine the linear section of the t-plot. Data point selection was validated by obtaining a positive C constant. The micropore volume was determined from the ordinate intercept. The micropore specific surface area (BETmicro) can be calculated from the slope of the t-plot. 
     The external specific surface area BETexternal is defined by subtracting the micropore specific surface area from the total specific surface area, BETexternal=BETtotal−BETmicro. 
     Particle Size Distribution 
     Laser Diffraction (D 10 , D 50 , D 90 ): 
     For particle size determination of the particles a laser diffraction method was used according to ISO Standard 13320. A Mastersizer 3000 from Malvern equipped with a He—Ne Laser (wave length of 632.8 nm with a maximum power of 4 mW) and a blue LED (wave length of 470 nm with a maximum power of 10 mW) and wet dispersing unit (Hydro MV) was employed for the measurements performed at ambient temperature of 23° C. A mixture of isopropanol and deionized water (50%/50%) was used as a measurement medium. The mixture was degassed in the dispersing unit by using the built-in stirrer at 3.500 rpm and ultrasonicated at maximum power for 10 seconds. The sample material was prepared as a concentrated dispersion in 100% isopropanol (40 mL). The quantity of material was sufficient to create a homogeneous mixture after the ultrasonic finger mixing for 30 seconds. The sample was added to the dispersing unit drop-wise with a pipette until the obscuration value was between 3-7%. The values of D10, D50 and D90 (volume based) were determined using the Malvern software Mastersizer 3000 Software 3.30, and a form factor of 1. The Fraunhofer theory was used for samples where the particles were &gt;10 μm and the Mie theory was applied to materials where the particles were &lt;10 μm. 
     Sieving (weight fraction having particle size of more than 315 μm): 
     Sieving for weight fractions with particles having a size larger than 315 μm was performed carefully with a sieve with an Air Jet RHEWUM LPS 200 MC sieving machine (RHEWUM GmbH) equipped with a sieve with 315 μm openings from Haver und Böcker (HAVER &amp; BOECKER OHG). 
     Dispersability of Amphiphilic Molecule in Water 
     Samples of 0.5 g of amphiphilic molecule and 10 mL of deionized water were introduced into a 20 mL glass container with a screw top lid. The closed container was vigorously shaken for 25 seconds. This 25-second shaking was repeated 10 further times separated by 10-minute intervals. After a 1-day interval, the closed container was again vigorously shaken for 25 seconds and the 25-second shaking was repeated 10 further times separated by 10-minute intervals. The container was inspected visually immediately after the final shaking. The dispersability was characterized by the following three features:
         a. whether gas bubbles were present,   b. whether one non-gas phase was or more than one non-gas phases were present, and   c. where a single non-gas phase was present, whether the phase was milky or clear.       

     Clear in this context preferably means producing an obscuration of less than 0.1% according to the method given herein. The container was also inspected after the following periods of time following the final shaking: 5 minutes, 10 minutes, one hour and one day. In each further inspection, the dispersibility was characterized according to features b, and c. 
     Gas bubbles can be present within the body of another phase or may accumulate at the top of another phase to form a foam. 
     Powder Conductivity 
     The powder test sample was compacted using uniaxial mechanical pressing with a pressure of 75 kg/cm 2 . An electrical current was applied to the compacted test sample using gold plated electrodes and the potential difference across the voltage drop measured. From this measurement the electrical resistance and thus the conductivity in S/cm were calculated. A value of more than 1 S/cm is classed as being electrically conductive. 
     Obscuration Determination for Solution Clarity 
     The clarity of a solution was determined by laser obscuration using the Malvern Mastersizer 3000 instrument equipped with a He—Ne Laser (632.8 un wavelength) and a blue LED and wet dispersing unit (Hydro MV) and measurements were performed at ambient temperature of 23° C. A mixture containing 5 g of amphiphilic molecule in 100 mL of deionized water were introduced into a 250 mL glass container with a screw top lid. The Hydro MV dispersing unit was automatically filled with deionized water by the Malvern software Mastersizer 3000 Software 3.30 and the background measurement was measured. The built-in stirrer was set at 500 rpm and the solution was continuously stirred. An aliquot of 5 mL was pipetted out of the 100 mL water/5 g amphiphilic molecule solution and added to the Hydro MV dispersing unit. The unit was stirred at 500 rpm for 2 minutes. Three measurements were taken, each of 10 seconds, and the average obscuration of the He—Ne laser was determined for each measurement by the software and reported as a percent. The path length of light through the sample was 2.6 mm. An obscuration (I 0 −I)/I 0  of less than 0.1% is considered to be clear. 
     Ethylene Oxide Content Determination in Polyols by NMR 
     The determination of the ethylene oxide (EO) content was determined using the ASTM standard test method (D4875-05). The test method B with carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ( 13 C NMR) was used. A Bruker AC 300 spectrometer was used with deuterated acetone (NMR-grade with tetramethylsilane (TMS) as the internal standard) and NMR sample tubes with a diameter of 5 mm. Samples were prepared with 3 mL of amphiphilic molecules with 2 mL of deuterated acetone, and mixtures were vigorously shaken for 25 seconds. The shaking was repeated 10 times at 10-minute intervals. The appropriate sample amount was transferred to an NMR tube. 
     The spectrometer parameters were set as in the ASTM method with: the lock on acetone d-6, pulse angle 90° acquisition time of 2 seconds, pulse delay of 5 seconds, spectral width of 100 ppm, and 32 k data point acquisition and the H-1 decoupler on. The signal was acquired with 2,000 transients and Fourier transformed from a weighted free induction decay signal to the frequency domain spectrum. The integrated areas of the PO (propylene oxide) methane and methylene carbon peaks (from 76.6 to 72.8 and 67.0 to 65.2 ppm (TMS reference)) and the EO carbon resonances (from 72.6 to 68.3 and 62.0 to 61.0 ppm) were obtained. For EO-capped polyols, the resonance at 73.1 ppm corresponds to the beta carbon of the terminal EO block and was subtracted from the PO peak area and added to the EO peak area. The PO and EO ratio was obtained by: 
     
       
         
           
             
               PO 
               / 
               EO 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   B 
                   ′ 
                 
                 + 
                 
                   C 
                   ′ 
                 
                 - 
                 F 
               
               
                 B 
                 + 
                 C 
                 + 
                 F 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     Where: 
     B′=area of the PO resonances, 
     B=area of the EO carbons. 
     C′=area of PO terminal methane carbon, 
     C=total area of terminal EO carbons, and 
     F=area of terminal EO carbon of an EO block. 
     (Areas C and F are only significant for EO-capped polyols.) 
     The weight percent of EO was calculated from the PO/EO ratio (calculated above) by: 
     
       
         
           
             EO 
             = 
             
               
                 
                   4 
                   ⁢ 
                   4 
                 
                 
                   
                     58 
                     ⁢ 
                     
                       ( 
                       
                         PO 
                         / 
                         EO 
                       
                       ) 
                     
                   
                   + 
                   
                     4 
                     ⁢ 
                     4 
                   
                 
               
               × 
               100 
             
           
         
       
     
     Where the molecular mass for EO is 44 g/mol EO and for PO is 58 g/mol PO. The EO percent was reported to the nearest tenth percent. 
     Adjacent Ethylene Oxide Unit Determination by Coupled LC and MALDI-TOF MS 
     The method of S. M. Weidner et al. (Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 2007; 21: 2,750-58) was employed. The ions were detected with a micro-channel plate (MCP) detector. The mass spectrum was analyzed to determine the presence of spectral features separated by 44 nm units which correspond to adjacent EO units. 
     Determination of Effective HLB Value of Amphiphilic Molecules—Reference Method 
     An Effective HLB value was determined from the stability determination of an oil and water emulsion made with various blends to surfactants. The emulsion was made with a canola oil [CAS 120962-03-0] and deionized water. If the unblended surfactant to be tested made a two-phase dispersion or anon-clear dispersion in the water dispersability test immediately after shaking, it was considered a low HLB value dispersant and was blended with Tween20 (HLB value from Griffin Method of 16.7 and available from CrodaGmb [CAS 9005-64-5]). If the surfactant to be tested made single non-s-phase dispersion with a clear phase in the water dispersability test, it was considered a high HLB value dispersant and was blended with Span® 80 (HLB value from Griffin Method of 4.3 and available from Croda GmbH, [CAS 1338-43-8]). 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Blend number 
                 Low HLB value surfactants 
                 High HLB value surfactants 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 100 wt. % surfactant to be 
                 100 wt. % Span 80/0 wt. % 
               
               
                   
                 tested/0 wt. % Tween 20 
                 surfactant to be tested 
               
               
                 2 
                 90 wt. % surfactant to be 
                 90 wt. % Span 80/10 wt. % 
               
               
                   
                 tested/10 wt. % Tween 20 
                 surfactant to be tested 
               
               
                 3 
                 80 wt. % surfactant to be 
                 80 wt. % Span 80/20 wt. % 
               
               
                   
                 tested/20 wt. % Tween 20 
                 surfactant to be tested 
               
               
                 4 
                 70 wt. % surfactant to be 
                 70 wt. % Span 80/30 wt. % 
               
               
                   
                 tested/30 wt. % Tween 20 
                 surfactant to be tested 
               
               
                 5 
                 60 wt. % surfactant to be 
                 60 wt. % Span 80/40 wt. % 
               
               
                   
                 tested/40 wt. % Tween 20 
                 surfactant to be tested 
               
               
                 6 
                 50 wt. % surfactant to be 
                 50 wt. % Span 80/50 wt. % 
               
               
                   
                 tested/50 wt. % Tween 20 
                 surfactant to be tested 
               
               
                 7 
                 40 wt. % surfactant to be 
                 40 wt. % Span 80/60 wt. % 
               
               
                   
                 tested/60 wt. % Tween 20 
                 surfactant to be tested 
               
               
                 8 
                 30 wt. % surfactant to be 
                 30 wt. % Span 80/70 wt. % 
               
               
                   
                 tested/70 wt. % Tween 20 
                 surfactant to be tested 
               
               
                 9 
                 20 wt. % surfactant to be 
                 20 wt. % Span 80/80 wt. % 
               
               
                   
                 tested/80 wt. % Tween 20 
                 surfactant to be tested 
               
               
                 10 
                 10 wt. % surfactant to be 
                 10 wt. % Span 80/90 wt. % 
               
               
                   
                 tested/90 wt. % Tween 20 
                 surfactant to be tested 
               
               
                 11 
                 0 wt. % surfactant to be 
                 0 wt. % Span 80/100 wt. % 
               
               
                   
                 tested/100 wt. % Tween 20 
                 surfactant to be tested 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The emulsions each made with 10 mL of oil and 10 mL of deionized water were added to a glass vial with a screw top lid. In each case, a 1 g sample of the blend of surfactants was added to the oil and water mixture. The closed vial containing the mixture was vigorously shaken for 25 seconds. The 25-second shaking was repeated 10 times at 10-minute intervals. After a 1-day interval the closed vial was again vigorously shaken for 25 seconds and the 25-second shaking was repeated 10 further times separated by 10-minute intervals. The stability of the emulsions was characterized by the height of the water component in the dispersions as measured with a ruler in centimeters. The stability was measured after 7 days from the last shaking. The two blends which produced the water component with smallest height were identified. Further blends at 2.5 wt. % increments were made and tested in the range between the two identified blends. The blend which yielded the smallest height of the water component matches the required HLB of canola oil of 7. The effective HLB can be calculated from the weight ratio in the blend and the known HLB of the Span® 80 or Tween® 20 in the blend assuming the blend has a combined HLB of 7. 
     Transport of Solvent in an Electrode 
     Ethanol was added to the carbon material powder to be tested until a homogeneous wetted mass was obtained (typical ratio of carbon:ethanol of 1:3 by weight). A suspension of 60 wt. % of PTFE in water (purchased from Sigma Aldrich GmbH, CAS: 9002-84-0) was employed as a binder. A minimum amount of binder was employed sufficient for forming a dough-like mass later (typically binder in the range 5-30% wt. % was required with respect to the carbon in the mixture). While mixing for one hour, the slurry transformed into a dough-like mass. The moist electrode was rolled out with a rolling pin to a layer thickness of 250 μm when wet, and dried for 12 hours at 120° C. If the dried electrode exhibited cracking, the test procedure was restarted employing a higher content of binder. 
     An 8 mm×15 mm rectangle sample from the prepared dried electrode sheet was cut. A clip sample holder (SH0601 sample holder from Kratss GmbH) was used to hang the electrode sample. A force tensiometer K100 from Krüss GmbH was used in the contact angle measurement mode and using a glass vessel (SV20 from Krüss GmbH, diameter of 70 mm) containing 2-propanol CAS number 67-63-0). The measurement was controlled by the Krüss Laboratory Desktop software, Version 3.2.2.3068, provided by Krüss GmbH and performed at ambient temperature of 23° C. The sample was suspended above the solvent which was raised at a 6 mm/min rate to detect the surface of the liquid (sensitivity for detection was 0.01 g). The electrode sample was further dipped in the solvent by raising the solvent vessel at a rate of 3 mm/mm. If the electrode bent or curled during the dipping procedure, the test was restarted with a new electrode sample. The mass was recorded every 0.2 mm from a depth of 1 mm to a final depth of 6 mm. The electrode sample was held at 6 mm depth for 45 seconds, after which the mass was again recorded. The electrode was removed from the solvent at a rate of 3 mm/min with data measurements every 0.2 mm. The mass of the absorbed solvent during the 45-seconds hold at 6 mm was determined by subtraction. The measurement was repeated three times and the average solvent uptake mass was determined. The absorbed solvent mass is directly related to the transport efficiency in the electrode. 
     DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURE 
       FIG.  1    shows a process  100  for preparing a porous carbon material  106 . A carbon source  101 , in this case Tanex 31 (hydrolysable tannic acid mixture); an amphiphilic species  102 , in this case Synperonic PE/F127 (nonionic high HLB emulsifier); and optionally other constituents  103 , in this case no further ingredients, were contacted in a contacting step  104  thereby obtaining a precursor  105 . A heating step  106  is performed to obtain a porous carbon material  107  from the precursor  105 . 
       FIG.  2    shows an SEM image of the surface of a material prepared according to the invention using Tanex 31 and Synperonic PE/F127 as starting materials. It can be seen that the carbon structure is formed of interconnected beads with hollow pores in between. 
       FIG.  3    shows an SEM image of the surface of a cross-sectional cut through a material prepared according to the invention using Tanex 31 and Synperonic PE/F127 as starting materials. Here also the bead structure and pores of the carbon body are evident. 
       FIG.  4    shows an SEM image of the surface of a material prepared according to the invention using Tanex 31 and Synperonic PEF127 as starting materials. Here also the long-range porous structure of the carbon body is evident. 
       FIG.  5    shows an SEM image of the surface of a material prepared according to a comparative example using OmniVin 10R (condensed tannin) and Synperonic PE/F127 as starting materials. It can be seen that no long-range porous structure in the carbon is formed. 
       FIG.  6    shows an SEM image of the surface of a material prepared according to a comparative example using Tanal QW (condensed tannin) and Synperonic PEF127 as starting materials. It can be seen that no long-range porous structure in the carbon is formed. 
       FIG.  7    shows the mercury porosimetry intrusion curve for the materials prepared according to the invention using Tanex 31 and Syperonic PF127 as starting materials. 
     The invention is now further elucidated with the aid of examples. These examples are for illustrative purposes and are not to be considered as limiting the scope of the invention. Commercial sources for materials employed are presented in Table 0 below. 
     Example 1 
     5 g of tannic acid carbon source (according to Table 1) and a corresponding amount of an amphiphilic species (also according to Table 1) were introduced into a reaction vessel in proportions as indicated in Table 1. The reaction vessel and contents were immediately heated to 900° C., and maintained at that temperature for 3 hours. The properties of the resulting porous carbon material are also shown in Table 1. 
     Example 1 was repeated with the Synperonic PE/F127 amphiphilic species and the Tanex 20 carbon source, except that the reaction vessel also contained water. The weight ratio of amphiphilic species:carbon source:water was 1:1:2. The properties of the resulting porous carbon material are shown in Table 2. 
     Example 3 
     Example 1 was repeated with the Genapol X-100 amphiphilic species and the Silvatech C carbon source. The weight ratio of amphiphilic species:carbon source is shown in Table 3. The properties of the resulting porous carbon material are shown in Table 3. 
     Example 4 (Comparative) 
     Example 1 was repeated with the Synperonic PE/F127 but with a condensed tannin in place of the tannic acid of the invention. Both OmniVin 10R and Tanal QW were employed as condensed tannin. No porous carbon product was formed. The weight ratio of carbon source:amphiphilic species and the results are shown in Table 4. 
     Carbon Black Material (Comparative) 
     Hydrogen evolution tests and dynamic charge acceptance tests in a lead acid battery were performed using Lamp Black 101 (LB 101) carbon black, available from Orion Engineered Carbons. The carbon black had a d 50  of 95 nm and a BET (NSA) value of 29 m 2 /g. Results are shown in Table 6. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 0 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Manufacturer 
                 Product name 
                 Material type 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Croda GmbH 
                 Synperonic ™PE/F127 
                 Amphiphilic molecule 
               
               
                 Croda GmbH 
                 Synperonic ™PE/P84 
                 Amphiphilic molecule 
               
               
                 Clariant 
                 Genapol ® PF10 
                 Amphiphilic molecule 
               
               
                 International LTD 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Clariant 
                 Genapol ® PF20 
                 Amphiphilic molecule 
               
               
                 Internalional LTD 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Clariant 
                 Genapol ® PF40 
                 Amphiphilic molecule 
               
               
                 International LTD 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Clariant 
                 Genapol ® X-080 
                 Amphiphilic molecule 
               
               
                 International LTD 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Clariant 
                 Genapol ® X-100 
                 Amphiphilic molecule 
               
               
                 International LTD 
                   
                   
               
               
                 BASF SE (purchased 
                 Pluronic ® F-68 
                 Amphiphilic molecule 
               
               
                 from Sigma Aldrich 
                   
                   
               
               
                 GmbH) 
                   
                   
               
               
                 BASF SE (purchased 
                 Pluronic ® 10R5 
                 Amphiphilic molecule 
               
               
                 from Sigma Aldrich 
                   
                   
               
               
                 GmbH) 
                   
                   
               
               
                 BASF SE (purchased 
                 Pluronic ® L-35 
                 Amphiphilic molecule 
               
               
                 from Sigma Aldrich 
                   
                   
               
               
                 GmbH) 
                   
                   
               
               
                 BASF SE (purchased 
                 Pluronic ® P123 
                 Amphiphilic molecule 
               
               
                 from Sigma Aldrich 
                   
                   
               
               
                 GmbH) 
                   
                   
               
               
                 SA Ajinomoto 
                 Tanex 20 
                 Gallotannin/gallic tannin 
               
               
                 OmniChem NV 
                   
                   
               
               
                 SA Ajinomoto 
                 Tanex 31 
                 Gallotannin/gallic tannin 
               
               
                 OmniChem NV 
                   
                   
               
               
                 SA Ajinomoto 
                 Tanex 40 
                 Gallotannin/gallic tannin 
               
               
                 OmniChem NV 
                   
                   
               
               
                 SA Ajinomoto 
                 OnmiVin 10R 
                 Condensed tannin 
               
               
                 OmniChem NV 
                   
                   
               
               
                 SA Ajinomoto 
                 Tanal QW 
                 Condensed tannin 
               
               
                 OmniChem NV 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Silvateam s.p.a. 
                 Silvatech GC 
                 Gallotannin/gallic tannin 
               
               
                 Silvateam s.p.a. 
                 Silvatech FNG 
                 Gallotannin/gallic tannin 
               
               
                 Silvateam s.p.a. 
                 Silvatech T80 
                 Gallotannin/gallic tannin 
               
               
                 Silvateam s.p.a. 
                 Silvatech C 
                 Ellagitannin/ellagic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 tannin 
               
               
                 Extract Dongen B.V. 
                 Chestnut KPN 
                 Ellagitannin/ellagic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 tannin 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weight 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ratio 
                   
                   
                 Lead 
                 Mean 
                 Modal 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Amphi- 
                   
                   
                   
                 carbon 
                 Carbon 
                 Tannic 
                 acid 
                 pore 
                 pore 
                 pore 
                 BET 
                 BET 
                 BET 
                 skeletal 
               
               
                 philic 
                 HLB 
                 MW 
                   
                 source:am- 
                 source 
                 acid 
                 battery 
                 size 
                 size 
                 volume 
                 total 
                 micro 
                 external 
                 density 
               
               
                 molecule 
                 value* 
                 [g/mol] 
                 % EO 
                 phiphile 
                 compound 
                 core 
                 material 
                 [nm] 
                 [nm] 
                 [cm3/g] 
                 [m2/g] 
                 [m2/g] 
                 [m2/g] 
                 [g/cm3] 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Genapol  
                 2 
                 1900 
                 10 
                 1:1 
                 Tanex 20 
                 glucose 
                   
                 183 
                 4046 
                 0.6 
                 5 
                 0 
                 5 
                 1.78 
               
               
                 PF10 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 2 
                 1900 
                 10 
                 1:1 
                 Tanex 40 
                 Quinic 
                   
                 21 
                 2520 
                 0.1 
                 30 
                 20 
                 10 
                 1.77 
               
               
                 PF10 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 acid 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 4 
                 2500 
                 20 
                 1:1 
                 Tanex 20 
                 glucose 
                   
                 875 
                 2403 
                 1.1 
                 113 
                 96 
                 17 
                 1.90 
               
               
                 PF20 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 4 
                 2500 
                 20 
                 1:1 
                 Silvatech 
                 glucose 
                   
                 193 
                 2400 
                 1 
                 95 
                 75 
                 19 
                 1.86 
               
               
                 PF20 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 GC 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 4 
                 2500 
                 20 
                 1:1 
                 Silvatech 
                 glucose 
                   
                 234 
                 2254 
                 0.7 
                 8 
                 7 
                 1 
                 1.85 
               
               
                 PF20 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 FNG 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 4 
                 2500 
                 20 
                 1:1 
                 Tanex 40 
                 Quinic 
                   
                 1641 
                 2220 
                 0.5 
                 1 
                 0.3 
                 1 
                 1.73 
               
               
                 PF20 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 acid 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 4 
                 2500 
                 20 
                 1:1 
                 Silvatech 
                 Quinic 
                   
                 223 
                 2219 
                 0.8 
                 102 
                 83 
                 19 
                 1.77 
               
               
                 PF20 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 T80 
                 acid 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 8 
                 2800 
                 40 
                 1:1 
                 Tanex 20 
                 glucose 
                   
                 635 
                 2219 
                 1.8 
                 295 
                 206 
                 90 
                 1.93 
               
               
                 PF40 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 8 
                 2800 
                 40 
                 1:1 
                 Tanex 31 
                 mixture 
                   
                 107 
                 1410 
                 1.5 
                 328 
                 242 
                 85 
                 1.94 
               
               
                 PF40 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (glucose 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 and 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 quinic 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 acid) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 8 
                 2800 
                 40 
                 1:1 
                 Tanex 40 
                 Quinic 
                   
                 1034 
                 2362 
                 0.6 
                 83 
                 61 
                 22 
                 1.89 
               
               
                 PF40 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 acid 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 13 
                 550 
                 64 
                 1:1 
                 Silvatech 
                 Quinic 
                   
                 1409 
                 3944 
                 0.6 
                 274 
                 196 
                 78 
                 1.90 
               
               
                 X-080 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 T80 
                 acid 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 13 
                 550 
                 64 
                 1:1 
                 Tanex 31 
                 mixture 
                   
                 179 
                 317 
                 1.4 
                 218 
                 76 
                 142 
                 1.85 
               
               
                 X-080 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (glucose 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 and 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 quinic 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 acid) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 13 
                 550 
                 64 
                 1:1 
                 Tanex 20 
                 glucose 
                   
                 211 
                 303 
                 1.5 
                 172 
                 43 
                 129 
                 1.87 
               
               
                 X-080 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 13 
                 550 
                 64 
                 1:1 
                 glucose 
                 glucose 
                   
                 715 
                 1072 
                 1.4 
                 191 
                 120 
                 71 
                 1.89 
               
               
                 X-080 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 tannic 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 acid 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (purchased 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 from 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Sigma 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Aldrich 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 GmbH) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 13 
                 550 
                 64 
                 5:3 
                 glucose 
                 glucose 
                   
                 376 
                 3177 
                 1.3 
                 162 
                 101 
                 61 
                 1.90 
               
               
                 X-080 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 tannic 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 acid 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (purchased 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 from 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Sigma 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Aldrich 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 GmbH) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 13 
                 550 
                 64 
                 5:8 
                 glucose 
                 glucose 
                   
                 186 
                 1411 
                 1.5 
                 185 
                 132 
                 53 
                 1.85 
               
               
                 X-080 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 tannic 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 acid 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (purchased 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 from 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Sigma 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Aldrich 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 GmbH) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Synperonic 
                 18.5 
                 4200 
                 40 
                 1:1 
                 Silvatech 
                 glucose 
                   
                 915 
                 2400 
                 1.8 
                 254 
                 174 
                 79 
                 1.86 
               
               
                 PE/P84 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 GC 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Synperonic 
                 22 
                 12600 
                 70 
                 1:1 
                 Tanex 20 
                 glucose 
                 Mat. 1 
                 215 
                 253 
                 1.5 
                 385 
                 297 
                 88 
                 1.88 
               
               
                 PE/F127 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Synperonic 
                 22 
                 12600 
                 70 
                 5:1 
                 Tanex 20 
                 glucose 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 239 
                 177 
                 62 
                   
               
               
                 PE/F127 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Synperonic 
                 22 
                 12600 
                 70 
                 2:1 
                 Tanex 20 
                 glucose 
                   
                 198 
                 470 
                 0.6 
                 456 
                 384 
                 72 
                 2.17 
               
               
                 PE/F127 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Synperonic 
                 22 
                 12600 
                 70 
                 1:2 
                 Tanex 20 
                 glucose 
                   
                 201 
                 302 
                 0.7 
                 274 
                 196 
                 78 
                 2.06 
               
               
                 PE/F127 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Synperonic 
                 22 
                 12600 
                 70 
                 1:1 
                 Tanex 31 
                 mixture 
                 Mat. 2 
                 139 
                 189 
                 1.1 
                 370 
                 254 
                 115 
                 1.88 
               
               
                 PE/F127 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (glucose 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 and 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 quinic 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 acid) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Synperonic 
                 22 
                 12600 
                 70 
                 1:1 
                 Tanex 40 
                 Quinic 
                 Mat. 3 
                 80 
                 198 
                 1.1 
                 275 
                 157 
                 118 
                 1.91 
               
               
                 PE/F127 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 acid 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Pluronic  
                 &gt;24 
                 8400 
                 80 
                 1:1 
                 Silvatech 
                 glucose 
                   
                 131 
                 781 
                 1.6 
                 328 
                 265 
                 63 
                 1.89 
               
               
                 F-68 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 GC 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Pluronic  
                 12 
                 2000 
                 50 
                 1:1 
                 Tanex 31 
                 mixture 
                   
                 1603 
                 3943 
                 0.6 
                 294 
                 170 
                 124 
                 1.89 
               
               
                 10R5 
                 to 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (glucose 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 18 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 and 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 quinic 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 acid) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Genapol  
                 13-14 
                 640 
                 69 
                 1:1 
                 Silvatech 
                 glucose 
                   
                 880 
                 2985 
                 1.4 
                 264 
                 201 
                 63 
                 1.8 
               
               
                 X-100 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 GC 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Pluronic  
                 18-23 
                 1900 
                 50 
                 1:1 
                 Silvatech 
                 glucose 
                   
                 1691 
                 2401 
                 1.1 
                 46 
                 0 
                 46 
                 1.81 
               
               
                 L-35 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 GC 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Pluronic  
                 7 
                 5800 
                 30 
                 1:1 
                 Silvatech 
                 Quinic 
                   
                 100 
                 110 
                 0.8 
                 298 
                 206 
                 92 
                 1.86 
               
               
                 P123 
                 to 
                   
                   
                   
                 T80 
                 acid 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 9 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Pluronic  
                 7 
                 5800 
                 30 
                 1:1 
                 Silvatech 
                 glucose 
                   
                 737 
                 2364 
                 1.8 
                 243 
                 185 
                 58 
                 1.91 
               
               
                 P123 
                 to 
                   
                   
                   
                 GC 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 9 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *values given by providers of the amphiphilic molecule 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weight 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ratio 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 carbon 
                 Carbon 
                 Tannic 
                 BET 
                 BET 
                 BET 
               
               
                 Amphiphilic 
                 HLB 
                 MW 
                 %  
                 source:amphi- 
                 source 
                 acid 
                 total 
                 micro 
                 external 
               
               
                 molecule 
                 value 
                 [g/mol] 
                 EO 
                 phile:water 
                 compound 
                 core 
                 [m2/g] 
                 [m2/g] 
                 [m2/g] 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Synperonic 
                 22 
                 12600 
                 70 
                 1:1:2 
                 Tanex 20 
                 glucose 
                 343 
                 165 
                 178 
               
               
                 PE/F127 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weight 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ratio 
                   
                   
                 Mean 
                 Modal 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 carbon 
                 Carbon 
                 Tannic 
                 pore 
                 pore 
                 pore 
                 BET 
                 BET 
                 BET 
                 Skeletal 
               
               
                 Amphiphilic 
                 HLB 
                 MW 
                 %  
                 source:amphi- 
                 source 
                 acid 
                 size 
                 size 
                 volume 
                 total 
                 micro 
                 external 
                 density 
               
               
                 molecule 
                 value 
                 [g/mol] 
                 EO 
                 phile 
                 compound 
                 type 
                 [nm] 
                 [nm] 
                 [cm3/g] 
                 [m2/g] 
                 [m2/g] 
                 [m2/g] 
                 [g/cm3] 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Genapol X-100 
                 13-14 
                 640 
                 69 
                 1:1 
                 Silvatech 
                 Ellagitannin 
                 41 
                 28 
                 0.5 
                 158 
                 45 
                 113 
                 1.87 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 C 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weight 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ratio 
                   
                   
                 Mean 
                 Modal 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 carbon 
                 Carbon 
                 Tannic 
                 pore 
                 pore 
                 pore 
                   
               
               
                 Amphiphilic 
                 HLB 
                 MW 
                 %  
                 source:amphi- 
                 source 
                 acid 
                 size 
                 size 
                 volume 
                   
               
               
                 molecule 
                 value 
                 [g/mol] 
                 EO 
                 phile 
                 compound 
                 type 
                 [nm] 
                 [nm] 
                 [cm3/g] 
                 Comments 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Synperonic 
                 22 
                 12600 
                 70 
                 1:1 
                 Tanal QW 
                 Condensed 
                 19 
                 9 
                 0.3 
                 Material 
               
               
                 PE/F127 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 tannin 
                   
                   
                   
                 collapses 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 during 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 porosimetry 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 measurement; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 No modal 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 pore peak 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 observed 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 between 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50-300 nm 
               
               
                 Synperonic 
                 22 
                 12600 
                 70 
                 1:1 
                 OmniVin 
                 Condensed 
                 56 
                 570 
                 0.3 
                 Material 
               
               
                 PE/F127 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 10R 
                 tannin 
                   
                   
                   
                 collapses 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 during 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 porosimetry 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 measurement; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 No modal 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 pore peak 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 observed 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 between 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 50-300 nm 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 5 
     Materials were prepared according to the recipes labelled as material 1 to 3 in Table 1. The obtained porous carbon material was resized to obtain particles having a particle size d 50  as given for the examples X1 to X7 in Table 6. The charge acceptance I d  and the hydrogen evolution current I HER  measured at −1.5 V were determined according to the test method herein. The particle sizing was performed as follows: 
     For particles with d 50  below 10 μm 
     A coarse powder was obtained by crushing the material with a mortar and pestle to break the material mechanically to particles with a maximum diameter of 5 mm. Then, the coarse powder was processed to the target size using an Alpine Multi-processing system 50 ATP with a turboplex classifier (diameter 50 mm, Al2O3 material) and an Alpine Fluidised Bed Opposed Jet Mill 100 AFG from Hosokawa Alpine AG. The multi-processing system included a cyclone (GAZ 120) and a filter. The nitrogen gas used in the air jets of the mill had 6 bar of pressure and the feed rate of the material was 1 kg/hour. The sifter speed was 16,000 rpm. The material collected was in the cyclone fraction. The particle size was measured using the method described herein. 
     For particles with d 50  greater than 10 μm 
     A coarse powder was obtained by crushing the material with a mortar and pestle to break the material mechanically to particles with a maximum diameter of 10 mm. Then, the coarse powder was processed using a planetary ball mill such as the PM-400 mill from Retsch GmbH with 500 mL grinding jars (type “comfort”) of zirconium oxide and 10 grinding balls, each ball with a 20 mm diameter made from zirconium oxide (yttrium stabilized). The milling pots were filled with 40 mL of the coarse powder. The planetary ball mill was operated in “Manual mode” using the following parameters. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Revolution 
                 Milling 
                   
                 Sieving 
               
               
                   
                 speed 
                 time 
                 Repe- 
                 steps, mesh 
               
               
                 Desired d50 
                 [rpm] 
                 [minutes] 
                 titions 
                 size of sieves 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 10-35 μm 
                 300 
                 5 
                 Twice 
                 1.6 mm, 400 μm 
               
               
                 35-70 μm 
                 300 
                 3 
                 Once 
                 1.6 mm, 400 μm 
               
               
                 70-150 μm  
                 250 
                 2 
                 Once 
                 1.6 mm, 500 μm 
               
               
                 150-300 μm  
                 200 
                 2 
                 Once 
                 1.6 mm, 500 μm 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The bead mills were removed from the material by using the first mesh size in the sieving step. The oversize particles in the material were subsequently removed by a second sieving step with the given mesh size. Both sieving steps were done manually with the sieve placed on top of a bottom collecting pan, both with a diameter of 200 mm and a height of 50 mm. The material and balls were placed on top of the appropriate 1.6 mm sieve and slowly shaken in a rotary fashion until the material was collected in the collecting pan. The material was transferred from the collecting pan to another vessel, the sieve was changed to the given smaller mesh size and the material was again placed on the sieve and slowly shaken in a rotary fashion. The desired material was collected from the collecting pan and the particle size was measured using the method described herein. 
     Lead Acid Battery Testing 
     Pastes for the negative electrode were prepared following the method described in the article by J. Settelein et al. (Journal of Energy Storage 15 (2018) 196-204) with the recipe given in Table 5. 2 V laboratory test cells were prepared following the procedure in the same reference. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Weight percent 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 in mixture 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 [wt. %] based 
               
               
                   
                 Manu- 
                   
                 on 100 g 
               
               
                 Material 
                 facturer 
                 CAS-Number 
                 of lead dust 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Lead dust 
                   
                 Ph: 7439-92-1 
                   
               
               
                 (40% Pb/60% PbO) 
                   
                 PbO: 1317-36-8 
                   
               
               
                 Distilled Water 
                   
                 7732-18-5 
                 12 
               
               
                 Dilated sulfuric 
                   
                 H 2 SO 4 : 
                 8 
               
               
                 acid density 
                   
                 7664-93-9 
                   
               
               
                 of 1.43 
                   
                 H 2 O: 7732-18-5 
                   
               
               
                 Barium Sulfate 
                 Merck 
                 7727-43-7 
                 0.8 
               
               
                 Vanisperse A 
                 Borregaard 
                   
                 0.2 
               
               
                   
                 LignoTech 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Polymer fibers 
                   
                 9003-07-0 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 (polypropylene) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Carbon additive 
                 See Table 6 
                   
                 1.0 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     After construction of the batteries, the formation cycle was conducted also following the procedure as described in the same reference. The current at −1.5V versus Ag/Ag 2 SO 4  gives an indication for the hydrogen evolution reaction and hence an indication for the water loss in the final battery. The measurements of the hydrogen evolution reaction were conducted as described in the article by J. Settelein et al. (Journal of Energy Storage 15 (2018) 196-204). 
     The DCA test protocol was adapted from EN-Norm 50342-6:2015 according to the DCA protocol and following the method described in the same reference. Voltages in EN-Norm 50342-6 were scaled by a factor of ⅙ as is appropriate for a 2V cell, and currents were downscaled to a 1 Ah test cell regime. The values shown in Table 6 are the charging current I d  after discharge as described in the reference. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Hydrogen 
                 Hydrogen 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Charge 
                 evolution 
                 evolution 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 acceptance 
                 current at −1.5 
                 current at −1.5 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Material 
                 Particle size 
                 (discharge) Id 
                 V I HER   
                 V ratio with 
                   
               
               
                 Example 
                 used 
                 d 50  [μm] 
                 [A/Ah] 
                 [mA/Ah] 
                 LB 101 
                 Performance 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 X1 
                 Mat. 1 
                 5 
                   
                   
                   
                 −− 
               
               
                 X2 
                 Mat. 1 
                 58 
                 1.07 
                 −64 
                 1.42 
                 ++ 
               
               
                 X3 
                 Mat. 1 
                 302 
                   
                   
                   
                 − 
               
               
                 X4 
                 Mat. 2 
                 30 
                   
                   
                   
                 ++ 
               
               
                 K5 
                 Mat. 2 
                 267 
                   
                   
                   
                 0 
               
               
                 X6 
                 Mat. 2 
                 345 
                   
                   
                   
                 − 
               
               
                 X7 
                 Mat. 3 
                 5 
                   
                   
                   
                 −− 
               
               
                 X7 
                 Mat. 3 
                 159 
                   
                   
                   
                 + 
               
               
                 Control 
                 LB 101 
                 0.095 
                 0.7 
                 −45 
                   
                 −− 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 +++ = excellent, 
               
               
                 ++ = very good, 
               
               
                 + = good, 
               
               
                 0 = fair, 
               
               
                 − = poor, 
               
               
                 −− = poorer 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Although illustrated and described above with reference to certain specific embodiments and examples, the present disclosure is nevertheless not intended to be limited to the details shown. Rather, various modifications may be made in the details within the scope and range of equivalents of the claims and without departing from the spirit of the disclosure. Itis expressly intended, for example, that all ranges broadly recited in this document include within their scope all narrower ranges which fall within the broader ranges.