Patent Publication Number: US-2021163217-A1

Title: Packaging for storage of perishable items

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims priority to, and the benefit of, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/717,511, filed Aug. 10, 2018, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE 
     The present disclosure relates to containers and other packaging used to store perishable items such as harvested produce and methods of making and using thereof. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Common agricultural products, such as fresh produce, can be highly susceptible to degradation and decomposition (i.e., spoilage) when exposed to the environment. The degradation of the agricultural products can occur via abiotic means as a result of evaporative moisture loss from an external surface of the agricultural products to the atmosphere, oxidation by oxygen that diffuses into the agricultural products from the environment, mechanical damage to the surface, and/or light-induced degradation (i.e., photodegradation). Biotic stressors such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and/or pests can also infest and decompose the agricultural products. 
     Harvested produce (e.g., fruits, vegetables, berries, etc.) is often stored at high density (i.e., high total volume of produce per unit volume of storage container) for extended periods of time prior to consumption, for example during shipping. During this time, the produce can be susceptible to mass loss, molding, and/or other mechanisms for spoilage if proper storage conditions are not maintained. Equipment and methods for decreasing the rate of spoilage while maintaining high quality produce, with minimal loss in mass/moisture or infestation by fungi during storage and shipping, are therefore desirable. 
     SUMMARY 
     Described herein are packaging (e.g., containers) and methods for storing perishable items. The containers can include a plurality of openings that cause a reduction in in-package relative humidity. The perishable items can be coated with a protective coating to prevent moisture loss from produce during storage. The perishable items can be coated prior to storage in the packaging or after being placed in the packaging. The container and coatings therefore allow the perishable items to be stored at lower relative humidity (e.g., lower than industry standards for shipment and storage, or lower than about 90% relative humidity), which can help delay the growth of biotic stressors such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and/or pests. 
     The protective coatings can be formed by treating the perishable items with a coating mixture that includes a coating agent dissolved or suspended in a solvent. The coating agent can include a plurality of monomers, oligomers, fatty acids, esters, amides, amines, thiols, carboxylic acids, ethers, aliphatic waxes, alcohols, salts, or combinations thereof. The coating agent can be a non-sanitizing coating agent. The solvent in which the coating agent is added to can include water and/or an alcohol. The solvent in which the coating agent is added to can include or be formed of a sanitizing agent. For example, the solvent can include ethanol, methanol, acetone, isopropanol, or ethyl acetate. Sanitizing the produce or edible product can result in a reduction in a rate of fungal growth on the produce or edible product, or in an increase in the shelf life of the produce or edible product prior to fungal growth. In some embodiments, the mixture includes a sanitizing agent such as citric acid. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is an illustration of a container that can be used for storage of perishable items. 
         FIG. 2  is an illustration of another container that can be used for storage of perishable items. 
         FIG. 3  illustrates a process for preparing perishable items (e.g., produce) for storage and subsequently storing the perishable items. 
         FIG. 4  illustrates a process for storing perishable items in a container in which protective coatings are formed over the items while they are in the container. 
     
    
    
     Like numbers in the drawings refer to like elements. 
     Definitions 
     As used herein, the term “relative humidity” (or “RH”) is defined as a ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the partial pressure of water vapor present in air to the equilibrium vapor pressure (i.e., the partial pressure of water vapor needed for saturation) at the same temperature. 
     As used herein, a “coating” or “protective coating” is understood to mean one or more layers of monomers, oligomers, polymers, fatty acids, esters, triglycerides, diglycerides, monoglycerides, amides, amines, thiols, thioesters, carboxylic acids, ethers, aliphatic waxes, alcohols, salts (inorganic salts or organic salts such as fatty acid salts), acids, bases, proteins, enzymes, or combinations thereof disposed over and substantially covering a surface of a perishable item such as a piece of produce. 
     As used herein, a “coating agent” refers to a chemical formulation that can be used to coat the surface of a substrate (e.g., after removal of a solvent in which the coating agent is dispersed) to form a coating (e.g., a protective coating) on the surface of produce. The coating agent can comprise one or more coating components. For example, the coating components can be compounds of Formula I, I-A and/or Formula I-B, or monomers or oligomers of compounds of Formula I, I-A and/or Formula I-B. Coating components can also comprise fatty acids, fatty acid esters, fatty acid amides, amines, thiols, carboxylic acids, ethers, aliphatic waxes, alcohols, salts (inorganic salts or organic salts such as fatty acid salts), or combinations thereof. 
     The term “alkyl” refers to a straight or branched chain saturated hydrocarbon. C 1 -C 6  alkyl groups contain 1 to 6 carbon atoms. Examples of a C 1 -C 6  alkyl group include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, isopropyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl and tert-butyl, isopentyl and neopentyl. 
     The term “alkenyl” means an aliphatic hydrocarbon group containing a carbon-carbon double bond and which may be straight or branched having about 2 to about 6 carbon atoms in the chain. Preferred alkenyl groups have 2 to about 4 carbon atoms in the chain. Branched means that one or more lower alkyl groups such as methyl, ethyl, or propyl are attached to a linear alkenyl chain. Exemplary alkenyl groups include ethenyl, propenyl, n-butenyl, and i-butenyl. A C 2 -C 6  alkenyl group is an alkenyl group containing between 2 and 6 carbon atoms. As defined herein, the term “alkenyl” can include both “E” and “Z” or both “cis” and “trans” double bonds. 
     The term “alkynyl” means an aliphatic hydrocarbon group containing a carbon-carbon triple bond and which may be straight or branched having about 2 to about 6 carbon atoms in the chain. Preferred alkynyl groups have 2 to about 4 carbon atoms in the chain. Branched means that one or more lower alkyl groups such as methyl, ethyl, or propyl are attached to a linear alkynyl chain. Exemplary alkynyl groups include ethynyl, propynyl, n-butynyl, 2-butynyl, 3-methylbutynyl, and n-pentynyl. A C 2 -C 6  alkynyl group is an alkynyl group containing between 2 and 6 carbon atoms. 
     The term “cycloalkyl” means monocyclic or polycyclic saturated carbon rings containing 3-18 carbon atoms. Examples of cycloalkyl groups include, without limitations, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptanyl, cyclooctanyl, norboranyl, norborenyl, bicyclo[2.2.2]octanyl, or bicyclo[2.2.2]octenyl. A C 3 -C 7  cycloalkyl is a cycloalkyl group containing between 3 and 7 carbon atoms. A cycloalkyl group can be fused (e.g., decalin) or bridged (e.g., norbornane). 
     The term “aryl” refers to cyclic, aromatic hydrocarbon groups that have 1 to 2 aromatic rings, including monocyclic or bicyclic groups such as phenyl, biphenyl or naphthyl. Where containing two aromatic rings (bicyclic, etc.), the aromatic rings of the aryl group may be joined at a single point (e.g., biphenyl), or fused (e.g., naphthyl). The aryl group may be optionally substituted by one or more substituents, e.g., 1 to 5 substituents, at any point of attachment. 
     The term “heteroaryl” means a monovalent monocyclic or bicyclic aromatic ring of 5 to 12 ring atoms or a polycyclic aromatic radical, containing one or more ring heteroatoms selected from N, O, or S, the remaining ring atoms being C. Heteroaryl as herein defined also means a bicyclic heteroaromatic group wherein the heteroatom(s) is selected from N, O, or S. The aromatic ring is optionally substituted independently with one or more substituents described herein. 
     As used herein, the term “halo” or “halogen” means fluoro, chloro, bromo, or iodo. 
     As used herein, a “cationic counter ion” is any organic or inorganic positively charged ion associated with a negatively charged ion. Examples of a cationic counter ion include, for example, sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. As used herein, a “cationic moiety” is any organic or inorganic positively charged ion. 
     The following abbreviations are used throughout. Hexadecanoic acid (i.e., palmitic acid) is abbreviated to “PA”. Octadecanoic acid (i.e., stearic acid) is abbreviated to “SA”. Tetradecanoic acid (i.e., myristic acid) is abbreviated to “MA”. (9Z)-Octadecenoic acid (i.e., oleic acid) is abbreviated to “OA”. Dodecanoic acid (e.g., lauric acid) is abbreviated to “LA”. Undecanoic acid (e.g., undecylic acid) is abbreviated to “UA”. Decanoic acid (e.g., capric acid) is abbreviated to “CA”. 1,3-dihydroxypropan-2-yl palmitate (i.e., 2-glyceryl palmitate) is abbreviated to “PA-2G”. 1,3-dihydroxypropan-2-yl octadecanoate (i.e., 2-glyceryl stearate) is abbreviated to “SA-2G”. 1,3-dihydroxypropan-2-yl tetradecanoic acid (i.e., 2-glyceryl myristate) is abbreviated to “MA-2G”. 1,3-dihydroxypropan-2-yl (9Z)-octadecenoate (i.e., 2-glyceryl oleate) is abbreviated to “OA-2G”. 2,3-dihydroxypropan-1-yl palmitate (i.e., 1-glyceryl palmitate) is abbreviated to “PA-1G”. 2,3-dihydroxypropan-1-yl octadecanoate (i.e., 1-glyceryl stearate) is abbreviated to “SA-1G”. 2,3-dihydroxypropan-1-yl tetradecanoate (i.e., 1-glyceryl myristate) is abbreviated to “MA-1G”. 2,3-dihydroxypropan-1-yl (9Z)-octadecenoate (i.e., 1-glyceryl oleate) is abbreviated to “OA-1G”. 2,3-dihydroxypropan-1-yl dodecanoate (i.e., 1-glyceryl laurate) is abbreviated to “LA-1G”. 2,3-dihydroxypropan-1-yl undecanoate (i.e., 1-glyceryl undecanoate) is abbreviated to “UA-1G”. 2,3-dihydroxypropan-1-yl decanoate (i.e., 1-glyceryl caprate) is abbreviated to “CA-1G”. Sodium salt of stearic acid is abbreviated to “SA-Na”. Sodium salt of myristic acid is abbreviated to “MA-Na”. Sodium salt of palmitic acid is abbreviated to “PA-Na”. Potassium salt of stearic acid is abbreviated to “SA-K”. Potassium salt of myristic acid is abbreviated to “MA-K”. Potassium salt of palmitic acid is abbreviated to “PA-K”. Calcium salt of stearic acid is abbreviated to “(SA) 2 -Ca”. Calcium salt of myristic acid is abbreviated to “(MA) 2 -Ca”. Calcium salt of palmitic acid is abbreviated to “(PA) 2 -Ca”. Magnesium salt of stearic acid is abbreviated to “(SA) 2 -Mg”. Magnesium salt of myristic acid is abbreviated to “(MA) 2 -Mg”. Magnesium salt of palmitic acid is abbreviated to “(PA) 2 -Mg”. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) is commonly used for storage of perishable items such as harvested produce, for example on store shelves prior to purchase by consumers, in order to minimize degradation of the items and maintain visual, textural, and nutritional appeal of the items. Through suitable material selection and package design, MAP containers and packages can be optimized to maintain a high internal relative humidity in order to minimize the rate at which the perishable items lose mass and water over time, thereby allowing the items to be of acceptable quality when they are sold after storage and/or shipping. MAP containers and packaging can also be designed in such a way that allows the perishable items to be sufficiently cooled during storage in order to reduce the ripening rate of the items, thereby further delaying the onset of spoilage. 
     Table 1 below is a compilation of recommended industry standard conditions, including recommended relative humidity (RH), for long term storage of produce (e.g., fresh fruits and vegetables). As seen in Table 1, the recommended relative humidity during storage for virtually all types of common produce is at least 85%, and is typically at least 95%. The recommended storage conditions for most types of produce represents a compromise between preventing mass loss from the produce during storage and minimizing the risk of growth of postharvest pathogens. Specifically, most produce items would benefit from nearly saturated environments (e.g., an in-package relative humidity of at least 95%) in order to minimize mass loss during storage. However, such high RH levels can create environments that promote the growth of fungi and other postharvest pathogens (e.g., mold, bacteria), especially should condensation form on the surface of the produce or in any packaging within which the produce is stored, or should the produce experience damage at its surfaces due to high packing densities or handling of the produce. Furthermore, it can be difficult to precisely control the relative humidity at such high levels throughout a storage container, and so local RH variations can further exacerbate the risks of condensation formation. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Properties and Recommended Conditions for Long-Term Storage of Fresh 
               
               
                 Fruits and Vegetables 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Highest 
                 Ethyl- 
                 Ethyl- 
                 Approx- 
                 Observations 
               
               
                   
                 Scientific 
                 Storage 
                 Relative 
                 freezing 
                 ene* 
                 ene** 
                 imate 
                 and beneficial 
               
               
                 Common name 
                 name 
                 temperature 
                 humidity 
                 temperature 
                 
                   
                 
                 
                   
                 
                 
                   
                 
                 
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Acerola; 
                 
                   Malpighia 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 85-90 
                 −1.4  
                 29.4 
                   
                   
                 6-8 
                   
               
               
                 Barbados 
                 
                   glabra 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 African horned 
                 
                   Cucumis 
                 
                 13-15 
                 55-59 
                 90 
                   
                   
                 L 
                 M 
                 3-6 
                   
               
               
                 melon; 
                 
                   metuliferus 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                   
               
               
                 Amaranth; 
                 
                   Amaranthus 
                 
                 0-2 
                 32-36  
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 M 
                 10-14 
                   
               
               
                 Anise; Fennel 
                 
                   Foeniculum 
                 
                 0-2 
                 32-36 
                 90-95 
                 −1.1  
                 30.0 
                   
                   
                 2-3 
                   
               
               
                 Apple 
                 
                   Malus pumila 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2-3% O2 + 1-2% 
               
               
                 not chilling 
                   
                 −1.1-0  
                 30-32 
                 90-95 
                 −1.5  
                 29.3 
                 VH 
                 H 
                 3-6 
                   
               
               
                 chilling 
                 Yellow 
                 4 
                 40 
                 90-95 
                 −1.5 
                 29.3 
                 VH 
                 H 
                 1-2 
                   
               
               
                 sensitive 
                 Newtown 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                   
               
               
                 Apricot 
                 
                   Prunus 
                 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −1.1  
                 30.0 
                 M 
                 M 
                 1-3 
                 2-3% O2 + 2-3% 
               
               
                 Artichoke 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Globe artichoke 
                 
                   Cynara 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −1.2  
                 29.9 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 2-3 
                 2-3% O2 + 3-5% 
               
               
                 Chinese 
                 
                   Stachys affinia 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 VL 
                 1-2 
                   
               
               
                 Jerusalem 
                 
                   Helianthus 
                 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −2.5 
                 27.5 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 4 
                   
               
               
                 Arugula 
                 
                   Eruca vesicaria 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 H 
                 7-10 
                   
               
               
                   
                 var.  sativa   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 days 
                   
               
               
                 Asian pear, 
                 
                   Pyrus serotina; 
                 
                 1 
                 34 
                 90-95 
                 −1.6 
                 29.1 
                 H 
                 H 
                 4-6 
                   
               
               
                 Nashi 
                 
                   P. pyrifolia 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                   
               
               
                 Asparagus, 
                 
                   Asparagus 
                 
                 2.5 
                 36 
                 95-100 
                 −0.6  
                 31.0 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 2-3 
                 5-12% CO2 in 
               
               
                 green, white 
                 
                   officinalis 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 air 
               
               
                 Atemoya 
                 
                   Annona 
                 
                 13 
                 55 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                 H 
                 H 
                 2-4 
                 3-5% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                   
                 
                   squamosa x A. 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 10% CO2 
               
               
                 Avocado 
                 
                   Persea 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 cv Fuerte, Hass 
                   
                 3-7 
                 37-45 
                 85-90 
                 −1.6 
                 29.1 
                 H 
                 H 
                 2-4 
                 2-5% O2 + 3- 
               
               
                 cv. Fuchs, 
                   
                 13 
                 55 
                 85-90 
                 −0.9 
                 30.4 
                 H 
                 H 
                 2 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 cv. Lula, Booth 
                   
                 4 
                 40 
                 90-95 
                 −0.9 
                 30.4 
                 H 
                 H 
                 4-8 
                   
               
               
                 Babaco, Mt. 
                 
                   Carica 
                 
                 7 
                 45 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 1-3 
                   
               
               
                 Banana 
                 
                   Musa 
                 
                 13-15 
                 55-59 
                 90-95 
                 −0.8 
                 30.6 
                 M 
                 H 
                 1-4 
                 2-5% O2 + 2-5% 
               
               
                   
                   paradisiaca  var. 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 CO2 
               
               
                 Barbados cherry 
                 see Acerola 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Beans 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Snap; Wax; 
                 
                   Phaseolus 
                 
                 4-7 
                 40-45 
                 95 
                 −0.7 
                 30.7 
                 L 
                 M 
                 7-10 
                 2-3% O2 + 4-7% 
               
               
                 Fava, Broad 
                 
                   Vicia faba 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 1-2 
                   
               
               
                 Lima beans 
                 
                   Phaseolus 
                 
                 5-6 
                 41-43 
                 95 
                 −0.6 
                 31.0 
                 L 
                 M 
                 5-7 days 
                   
               
               
                 Winged bean 
                 
                   Psophocarpus 
                 
                 10 
                 50 
                 90 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 4 weeks 
                   
               
               
                   
                 
                   tefragonolobus 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Long bean; 
                 
                   Vigna 
                 
                 4-7 
                 40-45 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                 L 
                 M 
                 7-10 
                   
               
               
                 Beet, bunched 
                 
                   Beta vulgaris 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 98-100 
                 −0.4  
                 31.3 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 10-14 
                   
               
               
                 beet, topped 
                   
                 0 
                 32 
                 98-100 
                 −0.9  
                 30.3 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 4 
                   
               
               
                 Berries 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Blackberries 
                   Rubus  spp. 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −0.8 
                 30.6 
                 L 
                 L 
                 3-6 days 
                 5-10% O2 + 15- 
               
               
                 Blueberries 
                 
                   Vaccinium 
                 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −1.3 
                 29.7 
                 L 
                 L 
                 10-18 
                 2-5% O2 + 12- 
               
               
                 Cranberry 
                 
                   Vaccinium 
                 
                 2-5 
                 35-41 
                 90-95 
                 −0.9 
                 30.4 
                 L 
                 L 
                 8-16 
                 1-2% O2 + 0-5% 
               
               
                 Dewberry 
                   Rubus  spp. 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −1.3  
                 29.7 
                 L 
                 L 
                 2-3 days 
                   
               
               
                 Elderberry 
                   Rubus  spp. 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −1.1 
                 30.0 
                 L 
                 L 
                 5-14 
                   
               
               
                 Loganberry 
                   Rubus  spp. 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −1.7  
                 28.9 
                 L 
                 L 
                 2-3 days 
                   
               
               
                 Raspberries 
                 
                   Rubus idaeus 
                 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −0.9  
                 30.4 
                 L 
                 L 
                 3-6 days 
                 5-10% O2 + 15- 
               
               
                 Strawberry 
                   Fragaria  spp. 
                 0 
                 32 
                 90-95 
                 −0.8  
                 30.6 
                 L 
                 L 
                 7-10 
                 5-10% O2 + 15- 
               
               
                 Bittermelon; 
                 
                   Momordica 
                 
                 10-12 
                 50-54 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                 L 
                 M 
                 2-3 
                 2-3% O2 + 5% 
               
               
                 Bitter gourd 
                 
                   charantia 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 CO2 
               
               
                 Black salsify; 
                 
                   Scorzonera 
                 
                 0-1 
                 32-34 
                 95-98 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 L 
                 6 
                   
               
               
                 Bok choy 
                 
                   Brassica 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 H 
                 3 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Breadfruit 
                 
                   Artocarpus 
                 
                 13-15 
                 55-59 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2−4 
                   
               
               
                 Broccoli 
                   B. oleracea  var. 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.6 
                 31.0 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 10-14 
                 1-2% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Brussels sprouts 
                 
                   Brassica 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.8 
                 30.5 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 3-5 
                 1-2% O2 + 5-7% 
               
               
                   
                 
                   oleracea 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 CO2 
               
               
                 Cabbage 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Chinese; 
                 
                   Brassica 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.9 
                 30.4 
                 VL 
                 M-H 
                 2-3  
                 1-2% O2 + 0-5% 
               
               
                 Napa  
                   campesfris  var. 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                 CO2 
               
               
                 Common, early 
                 
                   B. oleracea 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 98-100 
                 −0.9 
                 30.4 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 3-6 
                   
               
               
                 late crop 
                   
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.9  
                 30.4 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 5-6 
                 3-5% O2 + 3-7% 
               
               
                 Cactus pads or 
                   Opuntia  spp. 
                 5-10 
                 41-50 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 M 
                 2-3 
                   
               
               
                 stems, 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Cactus fruit; 
                   Opuntia  spp. 
                 5 
                 41 
                 85-90 
                 −1.8 
                 28.7 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 2-6 
                 2% O2 +  
               
               
                 Prickly pear 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 2-5% CO2 
               
               
                 Caimito 
                 see Sapotes 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Calamondin 
                 see Citrus 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Canistel 
                 see Sapotes 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Carambola, 
                 
                   Averrhoa 
                 
                 9-10 
                 48-50 
                 85-90 
                 −1.2 
                 29.8 
                   
                   
                 3-4 
                   
               
               
                 Carrots, topped 
                 
                   Daucus carota 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 98-100 
                 −1.4  
                 29.5 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 3-6 
                 no CA benefit; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                 ethylene causes 
               
               
                 bunched; 
                   
                 0 
                 32 
                 98-100 
                 −1.4 
                 29.5 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 10-14 
                 ethylene causes 
               
               
                 Cashew apple 
                 
                   Anacardium 
                 
                 0-2 
                 32-36 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 5 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Cassava, 
                 
                   Manihot 
                 
                 0-5 
                 32-41 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 L 
                 1-2 
                 no CA benefit 
               
               
                 Yucca, 
                 
                   esculenta 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                   
               
               
                 Cauliflower 
                 
                   Brassica 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-98 
                 −0.8 
                 30.6 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 3-4 
                 2-5% O2 + 2-5% 
               
               
                   
                   oleracea  var. 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 CO2 
               
               
                 Celeriac 
                 
                   Apium 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 98-100 
                 −0.9 
                 30.4 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 6-8 
                 2-4% O2 + 2- 
               
               
                   
                 
                   graveolens 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                 3% CO2 
               
               
                 Celery 
                 
                   Apium 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 98-100 
                 −0.5 
                 31.1 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 1-2 
                 1-4% O2 + 3- 
               
               
                   
                   graveolens  var. 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                 5% CO2 
               
               
                 Chard 
                 
                   Beta vulgaris 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 H 
                 10-14 
                   
               
               
                 Chayote 
                 
                   Sechium edule 
                 
                 7 
                 45 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 4-6 
                   
               
               
                 Cherimoya; 
                 
                   Annona 
                 
                 13 
                 55 
                 90-95 
                 −2.2 
                 28.0 
                 H 
                 H 
                 2-4 
                 3-5% O2 +  
               
               
                 Custard apple 
                 
                   cherimola 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 5-10% CO2 
               
               
                 Chenies, sour 
                 
                   Prunus cerasus 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 90-95 
                 −1.7 
                 29.0 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 3-7 days 
                 3-10% O2 + 10- 
               
               
                 Cherries, sweet 
                 
                   Prunus avium 
                 
                 −1 to 0 
                 30-32 
                 90-95 
                 −2.1 
                 28.2 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 2-3 
                 10-20% O2 + 20- 
               
               
                 Chicory 
                 see Endive 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Chiles 
                 see Pepper 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Chinese 
                 
                   Brassica 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 H 
                 10-14 
                   
               
               
                 Chinese date 
                 See Jujube 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Chives 
                 
                   Allium 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 H 
                 2-3 
                 5-10% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Cilantro, Chinese  
                 See Herbs 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Citrus 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Calamondin 
                 
                   Citrus reticulta 
                 
                 9-10 
                 48-50 
                 90 
                 −2.0  
                 28.3 
                   
                   
                 2 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 orange 
                 
                   x Fortunella 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Grapefruit 
                 
                   Citrus paradisi 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 3-10% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 CA, AZ, dry 
                   
                 14-15 
                 58-59 
                 85-90 
                 −1.1  
                 30.0 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 6-8 
                   
               
               
                 FL, humid 
                   
                 10-15 
                 50-59 
                 85-90 
                 −1.1 
                 30.0 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 6-8 
                   
               
               
                 Kumquat 
                 
                   Fortunella 
                 
                 4 
                 40 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 M 
                 2-4 
                   
               
               
                 Lemon 
                 
                   Citrus limon 
                 
                 10-13 
                 50-55 
                 85-90 
                 −1.4 
                 29.4 
                   
                   
                 1-6 
                 5-10% O2 + 0- 
               
               
                 Lime, Mexican, 
                 
                   Citrus 
                 
                 9-10 
                 48-50 
                 85-90 
                 −1.6  
                 29.1 
                   
                   
                 6-8 
                 5-10% O2 + 0- 
               
               
                 Tahiti or Persian  
                 
                   aurantifolia; 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 10% CO2 
               
               
                 Orange 
                 
                   Citrus sinensis 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 5-10% O2 + 0- 
               
               
                 CA, AZ, dry 
                   
                 3-9 
                 38-48 
                 85-90 
                 −0.8 
                 30.6 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 3-8 
                   
               
               
                 FL; humid 
                   
                 0-2 
                 32-36 
                 85-90 
                 −0.8  
                 30.6 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 8-12 
                   
               
               
                 Blood orange 
                   
                 4-7 
                 40-44 
                 90-95 
                 −0.8 
                 30.6 
                   
                   
                 3-8 
                   
               
               
                 Seville; Sour 
                 Citrus 
                 10 
                 50 
                 85-90 
                 −0.8  
                 30.6 
                 L 
                 M 
                 12 
                   
               
               
                 Pummelo 
                 
                   Citrus grandis 
                 
                 7-9 
                 45-48 
                 85-90 
                 −1.6  
                 29.1 
                   
                   
                 12 
                   
               
               
                 Tangelo, 
                 
                   C. reticulata x  
                 
                 7-10 
                 45-50 
                 85-95 
                 −0.9 
                 30.3 
                   
                   
                 2-4 
                   
               
               
                 Tangerine, 
                 Citrus 
                 4-7 
                 40-45 
                 90-95 
                 −1.1 
                 30.1 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 2-4 
                   
               
               
                 Coconut 
                 
                   Cocos nucifera 
                 
                 0-2 
                 32-36 
                 80-85 
                 −0.9 
                 30.4 
                   
                   
                 1-2 
                   
               
               
                 Collards 
                   B. oleracea  var. 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.5 
                 31.1 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 10-14 
                   
               
               
                   
                 
                   Acephala 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 days 
                   
               
               
                 Corn, sweet and 
                 
                   Zea mays 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-98 
                 −0.6 
                 30.9 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 5-8 days 
                 2-4% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 baby 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 10% CO2; to 4 
               
               
                 Cowpeas 
                 See Peas 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Cucumber, 
                 
                   Cucumis sativus  
                 
                 10-12 
                 50-54 
                 85-90 
                 −0.5 
                 31.1 
                 L 
                 H 
                 10-14 
                 3-5% O2 + 0-5% 
               
               
                 slicing 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 days 
                 CO2 
               
               
                 pickling 
                   
                 4 
                 40 
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                 L 
                 H 
                 7 days 
                 3-5% O2 + 3-5% 
               
               
                 Currants 
                 
                   Ribes sativum; 
                 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −1.0 
                 30.2 
                 L 
                 L 
                 1-4 
                 CA can extend 
               
               
                   
                 
                   R. nigrum; R. 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 storage life to 3- 
               
               
                 Custard apple 
                 see Cherimoya 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Daikon; Oriental 
                 
                   Raphanus 
                 
                 0-1 
                 32-34  
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 L 
                 4 
                   
               
               
                 Dasheen 
                 see Taro 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Date 
                 Phoenix 
                 −18-0 
                 0-32 
                 75 
                 −15.7 
                 3.7 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 6-12 
                   
               
               
                 Dill 
                 see Herbs 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Durian 
                 
                   Durio 
                 
                 4-6 
                 39-42 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 6-8 
                 3-5% O2 + 5-  
               
               
                 Eggplant 
                 
                   Solanum 
                 
                 10-12 
                 50-54 
                 90-95 
                 −0.8 
                 30.6 
                 L 
                 M 
                 1-2 
                 3-5% O2 + 0% 
               
               
                 Endive, Escarole 
                 
                   Cichorium 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.1 
                 31.7 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 2-4 
                   
               
               
                 Belgian endive; 
                 
                   Cichorium 
                 
                 2-3 
                 36-38 
                 95-98 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 M 
                 2-4 
                 light causes 
               
               
                 Witloof chicory 
                 
                   intybus 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 greening; 
               
               
                 Epazote 
                 See Herbs 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Fava bean 
                 See Beans 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   Feijoa , Pineapple  
                 
                   Feijoa 
                 
                 5-10 
                 41-50 
                 90 
                   
                   
                 M 
                 L 
                 2-3 
                   
               
               
                 Fennel, see anise 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Fig 
                 
                   Ficus carica 
                 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 85-90 
                 −2.4 
                 27.6 
                 M 
                 L 
                 7-10 
                 5-10% O2 + 15- 
               
               
                 Garlic bulb 
                 
                   Allium sativum  
                 
                 −1-0 
                 30-32 
                 65-70 
                 −2.0 
                 28.4 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 6-7 
                 0.5% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Ginger 
                 
                   Zingiber 
                 
                 13 
                 55 
                 65 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 L 
                 6 
                 no CA benefit 
               
               
                 Gooseberry 
                 
                   Ribes 
                 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −1.1 
                 30.0 
                 L 
                 L 
                 3-4 
                   
               
               
                 Granadilla 
                 see Passionfruit 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Grape 
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −2.7 a  
                 27.1 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 1-6 
                 2-5% O2 + 1- 
               
               
                   
                 a = fruit;  
                   
                   
                   
                 −2.0 b  
                 a 
                   
                   
                 months 
                 3% CO2; to 4 
               
               
                   
                 b = stem 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 American grape 
                 
                   Vitis labrusca 
                 
                 −1 to - 
                 30-31 
                 90-95 
                 −1.4 
                 29.4 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 2-8 
                   
               
               
                 Grapefruit 
                 see Citrus 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Guava 
                 
                   Psidium 
                 
                 5-10 
                 41-50 
                 90 
                   
                   
                 L 
                 M 
                 2-3 
                   
               
               
                 Herbs, fresh 
                 See specific 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 5-10% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Basil 
                 
                   Ocimum 
                 
                 10 
                 50 
                 90 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 H 
                 7 days 
                 2% O2 + 0 
               
               
                 Chives 
                 
                   Allium 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.9 
                 30.4 
                 L 
                 M 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Cilantro, 
                 
                   Coriandrum 
                 
                 0-1 
                 32-34  
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 H 
                 2 weeks 
                 3% O2 + 7- 
               
               
                 Chinese 
                 
                   sativum 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 10% CO2; air +  
               
               
                 Dill 
                 
                   Anethum 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.7 
                 30.7 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 1-2 
                 5-10% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Epazote 
                 
                   Chenopodium 
                 
                 0-5 
                 32-41 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 M 
                 1-2 
                   
               
               
                   
                 
                   ambrosioides 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Mint 
                   Mentha  spp. 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 H 
                 2-3 
                 5-10% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Oregano 
                 
                   Origanum 
                 
                 0-5 
                 32-41 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 M 
                 1-2 
                   
               
               
                 Parsley 
                 
                   Pefroselinum 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −1.1 
                 30.0 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 1-2 
                 5-10% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                   Perilla , Shiso 
                 
                   Perilla 
                 
                 10 
                 50 
                 95 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 M 
                 7 days 
                   
               
               
                 Sage 
                 
                   Salvia 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2-3 
                   
               
               
                 Thyme 
                 
                   Thymus 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2-3 
                   
               
               
                 Horseradish 
                 Armoracia 
                 −1 to 0 
                 30-32 
                 98-100 
                 −1.8 
                 28.7 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 10-12 
                   
               
               
                 Husk tomato 
                 see Tomatillo 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Jaboticaba 
                 
                   Myrciaria 
                 
                 13-15 
                 55-59 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2-3 days 
                   
               
               
                   
                   cauliflora  =  
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Jackfruit 
                 
                   Artocarpus 
                 
                 13 
                 55 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                 M 
                 M 
                 2-4 
                   
               
               
                 Jerusalem 
                 see Artichoke 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Jicama, 
                 
                   Pachyrrhizus 
                 
                 13-18 
                 55-65 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 L 
                 1-2 
                   
               
               
                 Jujube; Chinese 
                 
                   Ziziphus jujuba  
                 
                 2.5-10  
                 36-50 
                 85-90 
                 −1.6 
                 29.2 
                 L 
                 M 
                 1 month 
                   
               
               
                 Kaki 
                 see Persimmon 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Kale 
                 
                   Brassica 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.5  
                 31.1 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 10-14 
                   
               
               
                   
                   oleracea  var. 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 days 
                   
               
               
                 Kiwano 
                 see African 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Kiwifruit; 
                 
                   Actinidia 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 90-95 
                 −0.9  
                 30.4 
                 L 
                 H 
                 3-5 
                 1-2% O2 + 3-5% 
               
               
                 Chinese 
                 
                   chinensis 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                 CO2 
               
               
                 Kohlrabi 
                 
                   Brassica 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 98-100 
                 −1.0 
                 30.2 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 2-3 
                 no CA benefit 
               
               
                   
                   oleracea  var. 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                   
               
               
                 Kumquat 
                 See Citrus 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Langsat; 
                   Aglaia  sp.; 
                 11-14 
                 52-58 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Leafy Greens 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Cool season 
                 
                   various genera 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.6 
                 31.0 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 10-14 
                   
               
               
                 Warm season 
                 
                   various genera 
                 
                 7-10 
                 45-50  
                 95-100 
                 −0.6 
                 31.0 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 5-7 days 
                   
               
               
                 Leek 
                 
                   Allium porrum 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.7 
                 30.7 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 2 
                 1-2% O2 + 2-5% 
               
               
                 Lemon 
                 see Citrus 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Lettuce 
                 
                   Lactuca sativa 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 98-100 
                 −0.2  
                 31.7 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 2-3 
                 2-5% O2 + 0% 
               
               
                 Lima bean 
                 see Beans 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Lime 
                 see Citrus 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 LoBok 
                 see Daikon 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Longan 
                 
                   Dimocarpus 
                 
                 4-7 
                 39-45 
                 90-95 
                 −2.4  
                 27.7 
                   
                   
                 2-4 
                   
               
               
                   
                 
                   longan 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Long bean 
                 See Beans 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Loquat 
                 
                   Eriobotrya 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 90-95 
                 −1.9 
                 28.6 
                   
                   
                 3 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Luffa; Chinese 
                   Luffa  spp. 
                 10-12 
                 50-54 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                 L 
                 M 
                 1-2 
                   
               
               
                 Lychee, Litchi 
                 
                   Litchi chinensis 
                 
                 1-2 
                 34-36 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                 M 
                 M 
                 3-5 
                 3-5% O2 + 3-5% 
               
               
                 Malanga, Tania, 
                 
                   Xanthosoma 
                 
                 7 
                 45 
                 70-80 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 L 
                 3 
                   
               
               
                 New cocoyam 
                 
                   sagittifolium 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                   
               
               
                 Mamey 
                 see Sapote 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Mandarin 
                 see Citrus 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Mango 
                 
                   Mangifera 
                 
                 13 
                 55 
                 85-90 
                 −1.4 
                 29.5 
                 M 
                 M 
                 2-3 
                 3-5% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Mangosteen 
                 
                   Garcinia 
                 
                 13 
                 55 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                 M 
                 H 
                 2-4 
                   
               
               
                 Melons 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Cantaloupes 
                 
                   Cucurbita melo 
                 
                 2-5 
                 36-41 
                 95 
                 −1.2 
                 29.9 
                 H 
                 M 
                 2-3 
                 3-5% O2 + 10- 
               
               
                 and other 
                 var. 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 15% CO2 
               
               
                 Casaba 
                 
                   Cucurbita melo 
                 
                 7-10 
                 45-50 
                 85-90 
                 −1.0 
                 30.3 
                 L 
                 L 
                 3-4 
                 3-5% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Crenshaw 
                 
                   Cucurbita melo 
                 
                 7-10 
                 45-50 
                 85-90 
                 −1.1  
                 30.1 
                 M 
                 H 
                 2-3 
                 3-5% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Honeydew, and 
                 
                   Cucurbita melo 
                 
                 5-10 
                 41-50 
                 85-90 
                 −1.1 
                 30.1 
                 M 
                 H 
                 3-4  
                 3-5% O2 +  
               
               
                 Orange- 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 5-10% CO2 
               
               
                 Persian 
                 
                   Cucurbita melo 
                 
                 7-10 
                 45-50 
                 85-90 
                 −0.8 
                 30.6 
                 M 
                 H 
                 2-3 
                 3-5% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Mint 
                 see Herbs 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Mombin 
                 see Spondias 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Mushrooms 
                   Agaricus,  other 
                 0 
                 32 
                 90 
                 −0.9 
                 30.4 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 7-14 
                 3-21% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Mustard greens 
                 
                   Brassica juncea 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 H 
                 7-14 
                   
               
               
                 Nashi 
                 see Asian pear 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Nectarine 
                 
                   Prunus persica 
                 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −0.9 
                 30.3 
                 M 
                 M 
                 2-4 
                 1-2% O2 + 3-5% 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 CO2; internal 
               
               
                 Okra 
                 
                   Abelmoschus 
                 
                 7-10 
                 45-50 
                 90-95 
                 −1.8 
                 28.7 
                 L 
                 M 
                 7-10 
                 air + 4-10% CO2 
               
               
                 Olives, fresh 
                 
                   Olea europea 
                 
                 5-10 
                 41-50 
                 85-90 
                 −1.4 
                 29.4 
                 L 
                 M 
                 4-6 
                 2-3% O2 + 0-1% 
               
               
                 Onions 
                 
                   A llium cepa 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Mature bulbs, 
                   
                 0 
                 32 
                 65-70 
                 −0.8  
                 30.6 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 1-8 
                 1-3% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Green onions 
                   
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.9  
                 30.4 
                 L 
                 H 
                 3 weeks 
                 2-4% O2 + 10- 
               
               
                 Orange 
                 see Citrus 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Papaya 
                 
                   Carica papaya 
                 
                 7-13 
                 45-55 
                 85-90 
                 −0.9 
                 30.4 
                 M 
                 M 
                 1-3 
                 2-5% O2 + 5-8% 
               
               
                 Parsley 
                 see Herbs 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Parsnips 
                 
                   Pastinaca 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.9  
                 30.4 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 4-6 
                 ethylene causes 
               
               
                 Passionfruit 
                   Passiflora  spp. 
                 10 
                 50 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                 VH 
                 M 
                 3-4 
                   
               
               
                 Peach 
                 
                   Prunus persica 
                 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −0.9 
                 30.3 
                 M 
                 M 
                 2-4 
                 1-2% O2 + 3- 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 5% CO2;  
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 internal 
               
               
                 Pear, European 
                 
                   Pyrus 
                 
                 −1.5 to 
                 29-31 
                 90-95 
                 −1.7  
                 29.0 
                 H 
                 H 
                 2-7 
                 Cultivar 
               
               
                   
                 
                   communis 
                 
                 −0.5 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                 variations; 1- 
               
               
                 Pear, Asian 
                 See Asian Pear 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Peas in pods; 
                 
                   Pisum sativum 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 90-98 
                 −0.6  
                 30.9 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 1-2 
                 2-3% O2 + 2-3% 
               
               
                 Snow, Snap &amp; 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 CO2 
               
               
                 Southern peas; 
                 
                   Vigna sinensis 
                   =  
                 
                 4-5 
                 40-41 
                 95 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 6-8 days 
                   
               
               
                 Cowpeas 
                 V. 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Pepino; Melon 
                 
                   Solanum 
                 
                 5-10 
                 41-50 
                 95 
                   
                   
                 L 
                 M 
                 4 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Peppers 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Bell Pepper, 
                 
                   Capsicum 
                 
                 7-10 
                 45-50 
                 95-98 
                 −0.7  
                 30.7 
                 L 
                 L 
                 2-3 
                 2-5% O2 + 2-5% 
               
               
                 Hot peppers, 
                 
                   Capsicum 
                 
                 5-10 
                 41-50 
                 85-95 
                 −0.7  
                 30.7 
                 L 
                 M 
                 2-3 
                 3-5% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Chiles 
                   annuum  and C. 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 10% CO2 
               
               
                 Persimmon; Kaki 
                 
                   Diospyros kaki 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 3-5% O2 + 5-8% 
               
               
                 Fuyu 
                   
                 0 
                 32 
                 90-95 
                 −2.2  
                 28.0 
                 L 
                 H 
                 1-3 
                   
               
               
                 Hachiya 
                   
                 0 
                 32 
                 90-95 
                 −2.2 
                 28.0 
                 L 
                 H 
                 2-3 
                   
               
               
                 Pineapple 
                 
                   Ananas 
                 
                 7-13 
                 45-55 
                 85-90 
                 −1.1 
                 30.0 
                 L 
                 L 
                 2-4 
                 2-5% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Plantain 
                 
                   Musa 
                 
                 13-15 
                 55-59 
                 90-95 
                 −0.8 
                 30.6 
                 L 
                 H 
                 1-5 
                   
               
               
                   
                   paradisiaca  var. 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Plums and 
                 
                   Prunus 
                 
                 −0.5  
                 - 31-32 
                 90-95 
                 −0.8  
                 30.5 
                 M 
                 M 
                 2-5 
                 1-2% O2 + 0- 
               
               
                 Pomegranate 
                 
                   Punica 
                 
                 5-7.2 
                 41-45 
                 90-95 
                 −3.0  
                 26.6 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 2-3 
                 3-5% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Potato, early 
                 
                   Solanum 
                 
                 10-15 
                 50-59 
                 90-95 
                 −0.8 
                 30.5 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 10-14 
                 no CA benefit 
               
               
                 late crop 
                   
                 4-8 
                 40-46 
                 95-98 
                 −0.8  
                 30.5 
                 VL 
                 M 
                 5-10 
                 no CA benefit 
               
               
                 Pumpkin 
                 
                   Cucurbita 
                 
                 12-15 
                 54-59 
                 50-70 
                 −0.8 
                 30.5 
                 L 
                 M 
                 2-3 
                   
               
               
                 Quince 
                 
                   Cydonia 
                 
                 −0.5-0  
                 31-32 
                 90 
                 −2.0 
                 28.4 
                 L 
                 H 
                 2-3 
                   
               
               
                 Radicchio 
                 
                   Cichorium 
                 
                 0-1 
                 32-34  
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 4-8 
                   
               
               
                 Radish 
                 
                   Raphanus 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.7 
                 30.7 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 1-2 
                 1-2% O2 + 2- 
               
               
                 Rambutan 
                 
                   Nephelium 
                 
                 12 
                 54 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                 H 
                 H 
                 1-3 
                 3-5% O2 + 7- 
               
               
                 Rhubarb 
                 
                   Rheum 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.9 
                 30.3 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 2-4 
                   
               
               
                 Rutabaga 
                 
                   Brassica napus 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 98-100 
                 −1.1  
                 30.1 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 4-6 
                   
               
               
                   
                 var. 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                   
               
               
                 Sage 
                 see Herbs 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Salsify; 
                 
                   Trapopogon 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-98 
                 −1.1 
                 30.1 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 2-4 
                   
               
               
                 Sapotes 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Caimito, Star 
                 
                   Chrysophyllum 
                 
                 3 
                 38 
                 90 
                 −1.2  
                 29.9 
                   
                   
                 3 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Canistel, 
                 
                   Pouteria 
                 
                 13-15 
                 55-59 
                 85-90 
                 −1.8 
                 28.7 
                   
                   
                 3 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Black sapote 
                 
                   Diospyros 
                 
                 13-15 
                 55-59 
                 85-90 
                 −2.3 
                 27.8 
                   
                   
                 2-3 
                   
               
               
                 White sapote 
                 
                   Casimiroa 
                 
                 20 
                 68 
                 85-90 
                 −2.0  
                 28.4 
                   
                   
                 2-3 
                   
               
               
                 Mamey sapote 
                 
                   Calocarpum 
                 
                 13-15 
                 55-59 
                 90-95 
                   
                   
                 H 
                 H 
                 2-3 
                   
               
               
                   Sapodilla , 
                 
                   Achras sapota 
                 
                 15-20 
                 59-68 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                 H 
                 H 
                 2 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 
                   Scorzonera 
                 
                 see Black 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Shallots 
                   A llium cepa  var 
                 0-2.5 
                 32-36 
                 65-70 
                 −0.7 
                 30.7 
                 L 
                 L 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 
                   ascalonicum 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Snap bean 
                 see Beans 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Soursop 
                 
                   Annona 
                 
                 13 
                 55 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 1-2 
                 3-5% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 Spinach 
                 
                   Spinacia 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.3 
                 31.5 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 10-14 
                 5-10% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                   Spondias , 
                   Spondias  spp. 
                 13 
                 55 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 1-2 
                   
               
               
                 Mombin, Wi 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Sprouts from 
                 various genera 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 5-9 days 
                   
               
               
                 Alfalfa sprouts  
                 
                   Medicago 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 7 days 
                   
               
               
                 Bean sprouts 
                   Phaseolus  sp. 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 7-9 days 
                   
               
               
                 Radish sprouts 
                   Raphanus  sp. 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 5-7 days 
                   
               
               
                 Squash 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Summer (soft 
                 
                   Cucurbita pepo 
                 
                 7-10 
                 45-50 
                 95 
                 −0.5 
                 31.1 
                 L 
                 M 
                 1-2 
                 3-5% O2 + 5- 
               
               
                 rind); 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                 10% CO2 
               
               
                 Winter (hard 
                 
                   Cucurbita 
                 
                 12-15 
                 54-59 
                 50-70 
                 −0.8 
                 30.5 
                 L 
                 M 
                 2-3 
                 large differences 
               
               
                 rind); 
                 
                   moschata; C. 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                 among varieties 
               
               
                 Star-apple 
                 see Sapotes 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Starfruit 
                 see Carambola 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Strawberry 
                 see Berries 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Sweetpotato, 
                 
                   Ipomea batatas  
                 
                 13-15 
                 55-59 
                 85-95 
                 −1.3 
                 29.7 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 4-7 
                   
               
               
                 Sweetsop; Sugar 
                 
                   Annona 
                 
                 7 
                 45 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                 H 
                 H 
                 4 weeks 
                 3-5% O2 +  
               
               
                 apple; Custard 
                 
                   squamosa; 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 5-10% CO2 
               
               
                 Tamarillo, Tree 
                 
                   Cyphomandra 
                 
                 3-4 
                 37-40 
                 85-95 
                   
                   
                 L 
                 M 
                 10 
                   
               
               
                 tomato 
                 
                   betacea 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Tamarind 
                 
                   Tamarindus 
                 
                 2-7 
                 36-45 
                 90-95 
                 −3.7  
                 25.3 
                 VL 
                 VL 
                 3-4 
                   
               
               
                 Taro, Cocoyam, 
                 
                   Colocasia 
                 
                 7-10 
                 45-50 
                 85-90 
                 −0.9  
                 30.3 
                   
                   
                 4 
                 No CA benefit 
               
               
                 Eddoe, 
                 
                   esculenta 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                   
               
               
                 Thyme 
                 see Herbs 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Tomatillo; Husk 
                 
                   Physalis 
                 
                 7-13 
                 45-55 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                 VL 
                 M 
                 3 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 tomato 
                 
                   ixocarpa 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Tomato, mature- 
                 
                   Lycopersicon 
                 
                 10-13 
                 50-55 
                 90-95 
                 −0.5 
                 31.0 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 2-5 
                 3-5% O2 + 2- 
               
               
                 Tomato, firm-ripe 
                   
                 8-10 
                 46-50 
                 85-90 
                 −0.5 
                 31.1 
                 H 
                 L 
                 1-3 
                 3-5% O2 + 3- 
               
               
                 Turnip root 
                 
                   Brassica 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95 
                 −1.0 
                 30.1 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 4-5 
                   
               
               
                   
                   campestris  var. 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 months 
                   
               
               
                 Water chestnut 
                 
                   Eleocharis 
                 
                 1-2 
                 32-36 
                 85-90 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 2-4 
                   
               
               
                 Watercress; 
                 
                   Lepidium 
                 
                 0 
                 32 
                 95-100 
                 −0.3 
                 31.5 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 2-3 
                   
               
               
                 Garden cress 
                 
                   sativum; 
                 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 weeks 
                   
               
               
                 Watermelon 
                 
                   Cifrullus 
                 
                 10-15 
                 50-59 
                 90 
                 −0.4 
                 31.3 
                 VL 
                 H 
                 2-3 
                 no CA benefit 
               
               
                 Winged bean 
                 See Beans 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Witloof chicory 
                 See Endive 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Yam 
                   Dioscorea  spp. 
                 15 
                 59 
                 70-80 
                 −1.1  
                 30.0 
                 VL 
                 L 
                 2-7 
                   
               
               
                 Yard-long bean 
                 See Beans 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Yucca 
                 see Cassava 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *Ethylene production rate: 
               
               
                 VL = very low (&lt;0.1 μL/kg-hr at 20° C.) 
               
               
                 L = low (0.1 = 1.0 μL/kg-hr) 
               
               
                 M = moderate (1.0-10.0 μL/kg-hr) 
               
               
                 H = high (10-100 μL/kg-hr) 
               
               
                 VH = very high (μL/kg-hr) 
               
               
                 **Ethylene sensitivity (detrimental effects include yellowing, softening, increased decay, abscission or loss of leaves, browning) 
               
               
                 L = low sensitivity 
               
               
                 M = moderately sensitive 
               
               
                 H = highly sensitive 
               
               
                     indicates data missing or illegible when filed 
               
            
           
         
       
     
       FIG. 1  is an illustration of a container  100  for storage of perishable items such as harvested produce at relative humidity levels in accordance with Table 1 above. The container  100  includes an enclosure  102  made up of a material structure  110  and a lid  130 . In some implementations, the material structure  110  is a rigid or semi-rigid structure. The material structure  110  includes a first opening  112  which is sufficiently large to allow any of the perishable items which the container is configured to store (not shown) to be able to pass through, such that the perishable items can be inserted into the container through the first opening. When the perishable items are in the container, the container is closed by affixing (e.g., sealing or fastening) the lid  130  over the first opening  112 . Although  FIG. 1  shows the lid  130  as being detachable from the rest of the container, in some embodiments the lid is attached to the rest of the container and can swing or bend from the open to the closed position. In some embodiments, the lid  130  is formed of a flexible material such as a plastic or foil that can be sealed (e.g., with an adhesive or with heat) over the first opening  112 . In some embodiments, the lid is resealable. In some embodiments, the lid is formed of the same material as the material structure  110 . In some embodiments, the lid is omitted, and the material structure  110  is formed of a flexible material such that the material structure can be folded, deformed or shaped once the perishable items are in the container in such a way that the enclosure surrounds the enclosed perishable items. In some embodiments, the material that forms the material structure  130  includes plastic, polycarbonate (PC), or polyethylene (PET). In some embodiments, the material of the material structure is impermeable to water, oxygen, and/or carbon dioxide. The bottom or footprint of container  100  can be manufactured in a variety of shapes including, but not limited to, circles, ovals, squares, and rectangles. 
     As used herein, a “rigid or semi-rigid” structure is a structure that is sufficiently rigid such that its shape is not substantially modified or deformed while the structure is filled with perishable items and no other external forces are applied to the side of the structure. A mesh sack would therefore not be a rigid or semi-rigid structure, since its shape will change as it is filled with perishable items, whereas a container made of hard plastic may be rigid or semi-rigid if the plastic is sufficiently thick such that the shape of the container does not substantially change when the container is filled with perishable items. 
     The enclosure  102  also includes a plurality of second openings  114 , where each of the second openings  114  is sufficiently small to prevent any of the perishable items that are stored in the container from being able to pass through. Accordingly, while the perishable items are stored in the container  100  with the lid  130  covering the first opening  112 , the perishable items are not able to fall out of the container  100 . Although  FIG. 1  shows the second openings  114  formed entirely in the side of the material structure  110 , second openings can also be formed in the bottom of the material structure or in the lid  130 . 
     As previously described, during storage of perishable items such as harvested produce in the container  100 , it may be beneficial to cool the items in order to reduce their ripening rate, thereby further delaying the onset of spoilage. Cooling of the items can be achieved via convective cooling through the plurality of second openings  114 . That is, cold air or gas can be blown or otherwise taken in through the second openings  114  in order to cool the stored perishable items. In cases where the items are cooled by placing the container  100  in cold storage (e.g., in a refrigeration unit), the relative humidity within the container during cooling typically approaches that of the cold storage environment (e.g., the environment within the refrigeration unit), which can be at least 90% relative humidity. 
     The cooling efficiency of the stored items in container  100  is maximized by maximizing the ratio of the collective area of all of the second openings  114  to the total area of the enclosure  102  (i.e., the total area of the surface enclosing the stored items) in order to improve convective air flow through the region in which the perishable items are stored. However, after the container and the stored perishable items are removed from cold storage and placed in ambient, if the ratio of area of the openings  114  to total enclosure area is large, the relative humidity in the region containing the perishable items will decrease, as water vapor (including vapor escaping from the stored perishable items) is more easily able to escape from inside the container. This in turn causes the stored items to lose mass at a higher rate and degrade more quickly. Accordingly, in the container  100  of  FIG. 1 , the ratio of the collective area of all of the second openings  114  to the total area of the enclosure  102  can be made small, for example less than 0.2, less than 0.18, less than 0.16, less than 0.14, less than 0.12, less than 0.1, less than 0.08, less than 0.05, less than 0.03, less than 0.02, less than 0.01, less than 0.008, less than 0.005, less than 0.003, less than 0.002, less than 0.001, less than 0.0008, or less than 0.0005. 
       FIG. 2  is an illustration of another container  200  suitable for storage of perishable items such as harvested produce. Container  200  is the same as container  100  in  FIG. 1 , except that the collective area of the openings  214  is larger than the collective area of the openings  114  in container  100  (e.g., the total number of openings per unit area of the enclosure is larger and/or individual openings have larger areas). Accordingly, the ratio of the collective area of all of the second openings  214  to the total area of the enclosure  202  in  FIG. 2  is larger than the corresponding ratio for the container  100  of  FIG. 1 . For example, for the container  200 , the ratio of the collective area of all of the second openings  214  to the total area of the enclosure  202  can be greater than 0.002, greater than 0.004, greater than 0.006, greater than 0.008, greater than 0.01, greater than 0.012, greater than 0.014, greater than 0.016, greater than 0.018, greater than 0.02, greater than 0.025, greater than 0.03, greater than 0.035, greater than 0.04, greater than 0.045, greater than 0.05, greater than 0.06, greater than 0.07, greater than 0.08, greater than 0.09, greater than 0.1, greater than 0.11, greater than 0.12, greater than 0.13, greater than 0.14, greater than 0.15, greater than 0.16, greater than 0.17, greater than 0.18, greater than 0.19, greater than 0.2, greater than 0.21, greater than 0.22, greater than 0.23, greater than 0.24, or greater than 0.25. Furthermore, the ratio of the collective area of all of the second openings  214  to the total area of the enclosure  202  can be less than 0.95, less than 0.94, less than 0.93, less than 0.92, less than 0.91, less than 0.9, less than 0.88, less than 0.86, less than 0.84, less than 0.82, less than 0.8, less than 0.78, less than 0.76, less than 0.74, less than 0.72, less than 0.7, less than 0.68, less than 0.66, less than 0.64, less than 0.62, less than 0.6, less than 0.55, or less than 0.5. In some embodiments, the openings  214  are substantially rectangular, circular, or oval. That is, their shape is identical or similar to that of a rectangle, circle, or oval, respectively. 
     If container  200  is used to store conventional perishable items such as produce that are susceptible to degradation by water/mass loss, the in-package relative humidity during storage may be lower than that recommended in Table 1, and thus the perishable items will lose mass at a higher rate and therefore degrade more quickly. For example, depending on the specific ratio of collective area of openings to total package area, the in-package relative humidity during storage may be less than 95%, less than 90%, less than 85%, less than 80%, less than 75%, less than 70%, less than 65%, less than 60%, less than 55%, less than 50%, less than 45%, less than 40%, less than 35%, less than 30%, less than 25%, less than 20%, less than 15%, less than 10%, or less than 5%, or in a range of about 40% to about 90%, about 45% to about 90%, about 50% to about 90%, about 55% to about 90%, about 60% to about 90%, about 65% to about 90%, about 70% to about 90%, about 75% to about 90%, about 80% to about 90%, about 40% to about 85%, about 45% to about 85%, about 50% to about 85%, about 55% to about 85%, about 60% to about 85%, about 65% to about 85%, about 70% to about 85%, about 75% to about 85%, about 80% to about 85%, about 40% to about 80%, about 45% to about 80%, about 50% to about 80%, about 55% to about 80%, about 60% to about 80%, about 65% to about 80%, about 70% to about 80%, about 40% to about 75%, about 45% to about 75%, about 50% to about 75%, about 55% to about 75%, about 60% to about 75%, or about 65% to about 75% relative humidity. 
     While such low in-package relative humidity can have deleterious effects on many conventional perishable items, if the perishable items are coated prior to storage with a protective coating that acts as a barrier to water loss and therefore reduces the mass and/or water loss rate of the perishable items, the coated perishable items can still maintain their mass during storage and may last as long as conventional (uncoated) perishable items that are held at higher relative humidity. In fact, in many cases, the average storage lifetime of coated perishable items stored in container  200  (at lower relative humidity) is greater than that of similar perishable items (either coated or uncoated) stored at the same temperature in container  100 , since the higher humidity conditions can facilitate the growth of pathogens such as mold, fungi, and bacteria, which also cause spoilage of the perishable items, particularly at high packing densities. 
     In some embodiments, produce or other perishable items stored in containers  100  or  200  may not be highly susceptible to degradation via water/mass loss. However, it may be desirable to minimize the respiration rate (i.e., the rate at which CO 2  is produced per unit mass of the items) of the perishable items in order to reduce the ripening rate of the items in order to prolong their lifetime before spoilage. In these cases, if the perishable items are uncoated, having a smaller area of openings in the container (as in container  100 ) results in a lower respiration rate, since more CO 2  remains trapped within the container during storage. However, for the same reasons stated earlier, the relative humidity within the container is also higher when the area of the openings is smaller, which can increase the rate of molding. 
     If the perishable items are coated with a protective coating that reduces the respiration rate of the items (e.g., a coating with a low permeability to CO 2 ), then the lifetime of the items may be maximized by storage in a container with a higher area of openings (as in container  200 ). This is because the respiration rate of the items remains low even though the ambient concentration of CO 2  in the container is lower, since the protective coating keeps the respiration rate of the items low by reducing CO 2  transfer from the items to ambient. Additionally, the higher area of holes decreases the relative humidity within the container, which can decrease the rate of molding. In cases where the perishable items are not highly susceptible to degradation via water/mass loss, the low relative humidity may not substantially impact the rate of spoilage due to water/mass loss, even if the protective coating does not serve as a barrier to water/mass loss. 
     In view of the above, rates of spoilage of perishable items can be reduced by (a) forming a coating on the items that reduces the rate of mass loss of the items, and storing the items in a container such as container  200  that has a large area of openings; (b) forming a coating on the items that reduces the respiration rate of the items, and storing the items in a container such as container  200  that has a large area of openings; or (c) forming a coating on the items that reduces both the respiration rate and the mass loss rate of the items, and storing the items in a container such as container  200  that has a large area of openings. Furthermore, if coated perishable items stored in container  200  are cooled by placing the container  200  with the items in cold storage, the relative humidity in the cold storage environment can be set to be lower than conventional levels, for example less than less than 90%, less than 85%, less than 80%, less than 75%, less than 70%, less than 65%, less than 60%, less than 55%, less than 50%, less than 45%, less than 40%, less than 35%, less than 30%, less than 25%, less than 20%, less than 15%, less than 10%, or less than 5%. Protective coatings that are suitable for applying to perishable items that are stored in container  200 , and methods of applying the coatings, are described in more detail below. 
       FIG. 3  illustrates a process  300  for preparing perishable items (e.g., produce) for storage and subsequently storing the perishable items such that the mass/water loss rate and/or the respiration rate is minimized, and at the same time the spoilage rate via biotic stressors such as mold, fungi, or bacteria is reduced. First, a solid mixture of a coating agent (e.g., a composition of monomer and/or oligomer, and/or polymer units) is dissolved or suspended in a solvent (e.g., ethanol, methanol, acetone, isopropanol, ethyl acetate, water, or combinations thereof) to form a solution or suspension (step  302 ). In some embodiments, a sanitizing agent such as citric acid is include in the solution/suspension. The concentration of the coating agent in the solvent can, for example, be in a range of about 0.1 to 200 mg/mL. Next, the solution/suspension, which includes the coating agent, is applied over the surface of the produce or other perishable item to be coated (step  304 ), for example by spray coating the produce/items or by dipping the produce/items in the solution/suspension. In the case of spray coating, the solution/suspension can, for example, be placed in a spray bottle that generates a fine mist spray. The spray bottle head can then be held an appropriate distance, e.g., approximately three to twelve inches, from the produce/items, and the produce/items then sprayed. In the case of dip coating, the produce/items can, for example, be placed in a bag, the solution/suspension containing the coating agent poured into the bag, and the bag then sealed and its contents lightly tumbled or agitated until the surfaces of the produce/items are entirely wet. After applying the solution/suspension to the produce/items, the produce/items are allowed to dry until the solvent has at least partially evaporated, thereby allowing a protective coating composed of the constituents of the coating agent (e.g., monomer and/or oligomer and/or polymer units) to form over the surface of the produce/items (step  306 ). Finally, the coated produce/items are stored in the container of  FIG. 2  at a reduced relative humidity and/or ambient CO 2  concentration than would otherwise be required to allow for a sufficiently low rate of water/mass loss and/or rate of respiration if the produce/items had not been coated (step  308 ). Optionally, during storage, the perishable items can be cooled. In some embodiments, cooling is achieved via convection through the openings  214  in the container  200  if  FIG. 2 . 
     The process steps  302 ,  304 ,  306 ,  308 , and  310  of process  300  ( FIG. 3 ) and their associated processing agents and resultant coatings are now described in further detail. The coating agent that is added to the solvent (step  302 ) can include a plurality of monomers, oligomers, polymers, fatty acids, esters, triglycerides, diglycerides, monoglycerides, amides, amines, thiols, thioesters, carboxylic acids, ethers, aliphatic waxes, alcohols, salts (inorganic salts or organic salts such as fatty acid salts), acids, bases, proteins, enzymes, or combinations thereof. As such, the resulting protective coating may be formed from components that are not naturally occurring on the perishable items, either individually or in the ratios in which they are combined in the coatings. 
     The specific composition of monomers, oligomers, polymers, fatty acids, esters, triglycerides, diglycerides, monoglycerides, amides, amines, thiols, thioesters, carboxylic acids, ethers, aliphatic waxes, alcohols, salts (inorganic salts or organic salts such as fatty acid salts), acids, bases, proteins, enzymes, or combinations thereof can be formulated such that the resulting coating formed over the perishable items (during step  306 ) mimics or enhances the cuticular layer of the product. The biopolyester cutin forms the main structural component of the cuticle that composes the aerial surface of most land plants. The cuticular layer is formed from a mixture of polymerized mono- and/or polyhydroxy fatty acids and esters, as well as embedded cuticular waxes. The hydroxy fatty acids and esters of the cuticle layer form tightly bound networks with high crosslink density. This crosslinked network in combination with the embedded cuticular waxes acts as a barrier to moisture loss and oxidation, as well as providing protection against other environmental stressors. 
     The monomers, oligomers, polymers, fatty acids, esters, triglycerides, diglycerides, monoglycerides, amides, amines, thiols, thioesters, carboxylic acids, ethers, aliphatic waxes, alcohols, salts (inorganic salts or organic salts such as fatty acid salts), acids, bases, proteins, enzymes, or combinations thereof can be extracted or derived from plant matter, and in particular from cutin obtained from plant matter. Plant matter typically includes some portions that contain cutin and/or have a high density of cutin (e.g., fruit peels, leaves, shoots, etc.), as well as other portions that do not contain cutin or have a low density of cutin (e.g., fruit flesh, seeds, etc.). The cutin-containing portions can be formed from the monomer and/or oligomer and/or polymer units that are subsequently utilized in the formulations described herein for forming the coatings over the surface of the agricultural products. The cutin-containing portions can also include other constituents such as non-hydroxylated fatty acids and esters, proteins, polysaccharides, phenols, lignans, aromatic acids, terpenoids, flavonoids, carotenoids, alkaloids, alcohols, alkanes, and aldehydes, which may be included in the formulations or may be omitted. 
     The monomers, oligomers, polymers, or combinations thereof can be obtained by first separating (or at least partially separating) portions of the plant that include molecules desirable for the coating agents (or molecules that can be readily modified for use in coating agents) from those that do not include the desired molecules. For example, when utilizing cutin as the feedstock for the coating agent composition, the cutin-containing portions of the plant matter are separated (or at least partially separated) from non-cutin-containing portions, and cutin is obtained from the cutin-containing portions (e.g., when the cutin-containing portion is a fruit peel, the cutin is separated from the peel). The obtained portion of the plant (e.g., cutin) is then depolymerized (or at least partially depolymerized) in order to obtain a mixture including a plurality of fatty acid or esterified cutin monomers, oligomers, polymers (e.g., low molecular weight polymers), or combinations thereof. The cutin derived monomers, oligomers, polymers, or combinations thereof can be directly dissolved or suspended in the solvent to form the solution/suspension used in the formation of the coatings, or alternatively can first be activated or chemically modified (e.g., functionalized). Chemical modification or activation can, for example, include esterifying (e.g., glycerating) the monomers, oligomers, polymers, or combinations thereof to form a mixture of 1-monoacylglycerides and/or 2-monoacylglycerides, and the mixture of 1-monoacylglycerides and/or 2-monoacylglycerides is dissolved/suspended in the solvent to form a solution/suspension, thereby resulting in the formulation formed in step  302  of  FIG. 3  for preparation of the protective coating. 
     In some implementations, the coating agent includes fatty acids, esters, triglycerides, diglycerides, monoglycerides (i.e., monoacylglycerides), amides, amines, thiols, thioesters, carboxylic acids, ethers, aliphatic waxes, alcohols, salts (inorganic salts or organic salts such as fatty acid salts), acids, bases, proteins, enzymes, or combinations thereof. In some implementations, the coating agent can be substantially similar to or the same as those described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/330,403 (published as US 2017/0073532) entitled “Precursor Compounds for Molecular Coatings,” filed on Sep. 15, 2016, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirely. In some implementations, the coating agent can include one or more compounds of Formula I: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein: 
     R is selected from —H, -glyceryl, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, —C 3 -C 7  cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl or heteroaryl is optionally substituted with one or more groups selected from halogen (e.g., Cl, BR, or I), hydroxyl, nitro, —CN, —NH 2 , —SH, —SR 15 , —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , C 1 -C 6  alkyl, C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, or C 2 -C 6  alkynyl; 
     R 1 , R 2 , R 5 , R 6 , R 9 , R 10 , R 11 , R 12  and R 13  are each independently, at each occurrence, —H, —(C═O)R 14 , —(C═O)H, —(C═O)OH, —(C═O)OR 14 , —(C═O)—O—(C═O)R 14 , —O(C═O)R 14 , —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , halogen, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, —C 3 -C 7  cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl is optionally substituted with one or more —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , or halogen; 
     R 3 , R 4 , R 7  and R 8  are each independently, at each occurrence, —H, —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , halogen, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, —C 3 -C 7  cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl is optionally substituted with —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , or halogen; or 
     R 3  and R 4  can combine with the carbon atoms to which they are attached to form a C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, a C 4 -C 6  cycloalkenyl, or a 3- to 6-membered ring heterocycle; and/or 
     R 7  and R 8  can combine with the carbon atoms to which they are attached to form a C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, a C 4 -C 6  cycloalkenyl, or a 3 to 6-membered ring heterocycle; 
     R 14  and R 15  are each independently, at each occurrence, —H, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, or —C 2 -C 6  alkynyl; 
     the symbol   represents a single bond or a cis or trans double bond; 
     n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8; 
     m is 0, 1, 2, or 3; 
     q is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; and 
     r is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8. 
     In some embodiments, R is —H, —CH 3 , or —CH 2 CH 3 . 
     In some implementations, the coating agent includes monoacylglyceride (e.g., 1-monoacylglyceride or 2-monoacylglyceride) esters and/or monomers and/or oligomers and/or low molecular weight polymers formed thereof. The difference between a 1-monoacylglyceride and a 2-monoacylglyceride is the point of connection of the glycerol ester. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the coating agent includes compounds of the Formula I-A (e.g., 2-monoacylglycerides): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein: 
     each R a  is independently —H or —C 1 -C 6  alkyl; 
     each R b  is independently selected from —H, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or —OH; 
     R 1 , R 2 , R 5 , R 6 , R 9 , R 10 , R 11 , R 12  and R 13  are each independently, at each occurrence, —H, —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , halogen, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, —C 3 -C 7  cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl is optionally substituted with one or more —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , or halogen; 
     R 3 , R 4 , R 7 , and R 8  are each independently, at each occurrence, —H, —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , halogen, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, —C 3 -C 7  cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl wherein each alkyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl is optionally substituted with one or more —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , or halogen; or 
     R 3  and R 4  can combine with the carbon atoms to which they are attached to form a C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, a C 4 -C 6  cycloalkenyl, or 3- to 6-membered ring heterocycle; and/or 
     R 7  and R 8  can combine with the carbon atoms to which they are attached to form a C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, a C 4 -C 6  cycloalkenyl, or 3- to 6-membered ring heterocycle; 
     R 14  and R 15  are each independently, at each occurrence, —H, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, or —C 2 -C 6  alkynyl; 
     the symbol   represents a single bond or a cis or trans double bond; 
     n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8; 
     m is 0, 1, 2 or 3; 
     q is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; and 
     r is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. 
     In some implementations, the coating agent includes compounds of the Formula I-B (e.g., 1-monoacylglycerides): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein: 
     each R a  is independently —H or —C 1 -C 6  alkyl; 
     each R b  is independently selected from —H, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, or —OH; 
     R 1 , R 2 , R 5 , R 6 , R 9 , R 10 , R 11 , R 12  and R 13  are each independently, at each occurrence, —H, —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , halogen, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, —C 3 -C 7  cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl is optionally substituted with one or more —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , or halogen; 
     R 3 , R 4 , R 7 , and R 8  are each independently, at each occurrence, —H, —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , halogen, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, —C 3 -C 7  cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl wherein each alkyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl is optionally substituted with one or more —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , or halogen; or 
     R 3  and R 4  can combine with the carbon atoms to which they are attached to form a C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, a C 4 -C 6  cycloalkenyl, or 3- to 6-membered ring heterocycle; and/or 
     R 7  and R 8  can combine with the carbon atoms to which they are attached to form a C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, a C 4 -C 6  cycloalkenyl, or 3- to 6-membered ring heterocycle; 
     R 14  and R 15  are each independently, at each occurrence, —H, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, or —C 2 -C 6  alkynyl; 
     the symbol   represents a single bond or a cis or trans double bond; 
     n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8; 
     m is 0, 1, 2 or 3; 
     q is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; and 
     r is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. 
     Any of the coating agents described herein can additionally or alternatively include fatty acid salts such as sodium salts (e.g., SA-Na, PA-Na, or MA-Na), potassium salts (e.g., SA-K, PA-K, MA-K), calcium salts (e.g., (SA) 2 -Ca, (PA) 2 -Ca, or (MA) 2 -Ca) or magnesium salts (e.g., (SA) 2 -Mg, (PA) 2 -Mg, or (MA) 2 -Mg), where. Accordingly, the coating agents herein can include one or more compounds of Formula II or Formula III, wherein Formula II and Formula III are: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein for each formula: 
     X is a cationic moiety; 
     X p+  is a cationic counter ion having a charge state p, and p is 1, 2, or 3; 
     R 1 , R 2 , R 5 , R 6 , R 9 , R 10 , R 11 , R 12  and R 13  are each independently, at each occurrence, —H, —(C═O)R 14 , —(C═O)H, —(C═O)OH, —(C═O)OR 14 , —(C═O)—O—(C═O)R 14 , —O(C═O)R 14 , —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , halogen, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, —C 3 -C 7  cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl is optionally substituted with one or more —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , or halogen; 
     R 3 , R 4 , R 7 , and R 8  are each independently, at each occurrence, —H, —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , halogen, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkynyl, —C 3 -C 7  cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl wherein each alkyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl is optionally substituted with one or more —OR 14 , —NR 14 R 15 , —SR 14 , or halogen; or 
     R 3  and R 4  can combine with the carbon atoms to which they are attached to form a C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, a C 4 -C 6  cycloalkenyl, or 3- to 6-membered ring heterocycle; and/or 
     R 7  and R 8  can combine with the carbon atoms to which they are attached to form a C 3 -C 6  cycloalkyl, a C 4 -C 6  cycloalkenyl, or 3- to 6-membered ring heterocycle; 
     R 14  and R 15  are each independently, at each occurrence, —H, aryl, heteroaryl, —C 1 -C 6  alkyl, —C 2 -C 6  alkenyl, or —C 2 -C 6  alkynyl; 
     the symbol   represents a single bond or a cis or trans double bond; 
     n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8; 
     m is 0, 1, 2 or 3; 
     q is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; and 
     r is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8. 
     In some embodiments, the coating agent includes one or more of the following fatty acid compounds: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, the coating agent includes one or more of the following methyl ester compounds: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, the coating agent includes one or more of the following ethyl ester compounds: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, the coating agent includes one or more of the following 2-glyceryl ester compounds: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, the coating agent includes one or more of the following 1-glyceryl ester compounds: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     The coating agents herein can include one or more of the following fatty acid salts (e.g., compounds of Formula II or Formula III), where X is a cationic counter ion and n represents the charge state (i.e., the number of proton-equivalent charges) of the cationic counter ion: 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, n is 1, 2, or 3. In some embodiments, X is sodium, potassium, calcium, or magnesium. 
     In some embodiments, the coating agent is formed of a combination of at least 2 different compounds. For example, the coating agent can comprise a compound of Formula I-A and an additive. The additive can, for example, include a saturated or unsaturated compound of Formula I-B, a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid, an ethyl ester, or a second compound of Formula I-A which is different from the (first) compound of Formula I-A (e.g., has a different length carbon chain). The compound of Formula I-A can make up at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, or at least about 90% of the mass of the coating agent. A combined mass of the compound of Formula I-A and the additive can be at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, or at least about 90% of the total mass of the coating agent. A molar ratio of the additive to the compound of Formula I-A in the coating agent can be in a range of 0.1 to 5, for example in a range of about 0.1 to about 4, about 0.1 to about 3, about 0.1 to about 2, about 0.1 to about 1, about 0.1 to about 0.9, about 0.1 to about 0.8, about 0.1 to about 0.7, about 0.1 to about 0.6, about 0.1 to about 0.5, about 0.15 to about 5, about 0.15 to about 4, about 0.15 to about 3, about 0.15 to about 2, about 0.15 to about 1, about 0.15 to about 0.9, about 0.15 to about 0.8, about 0.15 to about 0.7, about 0.15 to about 0.6, about 0.15 to about 0.5, about 0.2 to about 5, about 0.2 to about 4, about 0.2 to about 3, about 0.2 to about 2, about 0.2 to about 1, about 0.2 to about 0.9, about 0.2 to about 0.8, about 0.2 to about 0.7, about 0.2 to about 0.6, about 0.2 to about 0.5, about 0.3 to about 5, about 0.3 to about 4, about 0.3 to about 3, about 0.3 to about 2, about 0.3 to about 1, about 0.3 to about 0.9, about 0.3 to about 0.8, about 0.3 to about 0.7, about 0.3 to about 0.6, about 0.3 to about 0.5, about 1 to about 5, about 1 to about 4, about 1 to about 3, or about 1 to about 2. The coating agent can, for example, be formed from one of the combinations of a compound of Formula I-A and an additive listed in Table 2 below. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Exemplary Coating Agent Compositions 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Com- 
                   
                   
               
               
                 pound of 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Formula  
                   
                   
               
               
                 I-A 
                 Additive 
                 Note 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SA-2G 
                 SA-1G 
                 Additive is a saturated compound of Formula I-B 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (1-monoacylglyceride) with the same length 
               
               
                   
                   
                 carbon chain as the compound of Formula I-A 
               
               
                 PA-2G 
                 PA-1G 
                 Additive is a saturated compound of Formula I-B 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (1-monoacylglyceride) with the same length 
               
               
                   
                   
                 carbon chain as the compound of Formula I-A 
               
               
                 PA-2G 
                 MA-1G 
                 Additive is a saturated compound of Formula I-B 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (1-monoacylglyceride) with a shorter length 
               
               
                   
                   
                 carbon chain than the compound of Formula I-A 
               
               
                 PA-2G 
                 OA-1G 
                 Additive is an unsaturated compound of Formula  
               
               
                   
                   
                 I-B (1-monoacylglyceride) with a longer length 
               
               
                   
                   
                 carbon chain than the compound of Formula I-A 
               
               
                 PA-2G 
                 SA-1G 
                 Additive is a saturated compound of Formula I-B 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (1-monoacylglyceride) with a longer length carbon 
               
               
                   
                   
                 chain than the compound of Formula I-A 
               
               
                 PA-2G 
                 PA 
                 Additive is a saturated fatty acid with the same 
               
               
                   
                   
                 length carbon chain as the compound of Formula 
               
               
                   
                   
                 I-A 
               
               
                 PA-2G 
                 OA 
                 Additive is an unsaturated fatty acid with a longer 
               
               
                   
                   
                 length carbon chain than the compound of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Formula I-A 
               
               
                 PA-2G 
                 SA 
                 Additive is a saturated fatty acid with a longer 
               
               
                   
                   
                 length carbon chain than the compound of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Formula I-A 
               
               
                 PA-2G 
                 MA 
                 Additive is a saturated fatty acid with a shorter 
               
               
                   
                   
                 length carbon chain than the compound of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Formula I-A 
               
               
                 PA-2G 
                 OA-2G 
                 Additive is an unsaturated compound of Formula  
               
               
                   
                   
                 I-A (2-monoacylglyceride) with a longer carbon 
               
               
                   
                   
                 chain than PA-2G (Formula I-A) 
               
               
                 PA-2G 
                 EtPA 
                 Additive is an ethyl ester. 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, the coating agent is formed from one of the combinations of compounds listed in Table 3 below. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Exemplary Coating Agent Compositions 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 (Optional)  
               
               
                 Component 1 
                 Component 2 
                 Component 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SA-1G  
                 MA (Fatty acid,  
                   
               
               
                 (Formula I-B) 
                 shorter length carbon 
                   
               
               
                   
                 chain than compound  
                   
               
               
                   
                 of Formula I-B) 
                   
               
               
                 SA-1G  
                 PA (Fatty acid, shorter  
                   
               
               
                 (Formula I-B) 
                 length carbon 
                   
               
               
                   
                 chain than compound  
                   
               
               
                   
                 of Formula I-B) 
                   
               
               
                 SA-1G  
                 SA (Fatty acid,  
                   
               
               
                 (Formula I-B) 
                 same length carbon 
                   
               
               
                   
                 chain as compound  
                   
               
               
                   
                 of Formula I-B) 
                   
               
               
                 PA-1G  
                 MA (Fatty acid,  
                   
               
               
                 (Formula I-B) 
                 shorter length carbon 
                   
               
               
                   
                 chain than compound  
                   
               
               
                   
                 of Formula I-B) 
                   
               
               
                 PA-1G  
                 PA (Fatty acid,  
                   
               
               
                 (Formula I-B) 
                 same length carbon 
                   
               
               
                   
                 chain as compound  
                   
               
               
                   
                 of Formula I-B) 
                   
               
               
                 PA-1G  
                 SA (Fatty acid,  
                   
               
               
                 (Formula I-B) 
                 longer length carbon 
                   
               
               
                   
                 chain than compound  
                   
               
               
                   
                 of Formula I-B) 
                   
               
               
                 MA-1G  
                 MA (Fatty acid,  
                   
               
               
                 (Formula I-B) 
                 same length carbon 
                   
               
               
                   
                 chain as compound  
                   
               
               
                   
                 of Formula I-B) 
                   
               
               
                 MA-1G  
                 PA (Fatty acid,  
                   
               
               
                 (Formula I-B) 
                 longer length carbon 
                   
               
               
                   
                 chain than compound  
                   
               
               
                   
                 of Formula I-B) 
                   
               
               
                 MA-1G  
                 SA (Fatty acid, longer  
                   
               
               
                 (Formula I-B) 
                 length carbon 
                   
               
               
                   
                 chain than compound  
                   
               
               
                   
                 of Formula I-B) 
                   
               
               
                 SA-1G (First  
                 PA-1G (Second  
                   
               
               
                 compound 
                 compound of Formula 
                   
               
               
                 of Formula I-B) 
                 I-B, shorter carbon  
                   
               
               
                   
                 chain than First 
                   
               
               
                   
                 compound of  
                   
               
               
                   
                 Formula I-B) 
                   
               
               
                 SA-1G (First  
                 MA-1G (Second  
                   
               
               
                 compound 
                 compound of 
                   
               
               
                 of Formula I-B) 
                 Formula I-B, shorter  
                   
               
               
                   
                 carbon chain 
                   
               
               
                   
                 than First compound  
                   
               
               
                   
                 of Formula I-B) 
                   
               
               
                 MA-1G (First  
                 PA-1G (Second  
                   
               
               
                 compound 
                 compound of Formula 
                   
               
               
                 of Formula I-B)  
                 I-B, longer carbon  
                   
               
               
                   
                 chain than First 
                   
               
               
                   
                 compound of Formula I-B) 
                   
               
               
                 SA-1G  
                 PA (Fatty acid, shorter  
                 OA (Fatty acid, same 
               
               
                 (Formula I-B) 
                 length carbon  
                 length carbon chain as 
               
               
                   
                 chain than compound  
                 compound of  
               
               
                   
                 of Formula I-B) 
                 Formula I-B) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     As seen in Table 3 above, the coating agent can include a first component and a second component, where the first component is a compound of Formula I-B and the second component is a fatty acid, a fatty acid salt, or a second compound of Formula I-B which is different than the (first) compound of Formula I-B. The compound of Formula I-B can make up at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, or at least about 90% of the mass of the coating agent. A combined mass of the first component and the second component can be at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90% or at least about 95% of the total mass of the coating agent. 
     Referring now to steps  304  and  306  of process  300  ( FIG. 3 ), after adding the coating agent to the solvent to form a solution or suspension, the solution/suspension is applied over the surface of a piece of produce or other agricultural product in order to form a protective coating over the surface, the protective coating being formed from constituents of the coating agent. As previously described, the solution/suspension can, for example, be applied to the surface by dipping the produce or agricultural product in the solution/suspension, or by spraying the solution/suspension over the surface. The solvent is then removed from the surface of the produce or agricultural product, for example by allowing the solvent to evaporate or at least partially evaporate. In some embodiments, the act of at least partially removing of the solvent from the surface of the produce can comprise removing at least 90% of the solvent from the surface of the produce. As the solvent is removed (e.g., evaporated), the coating agent re-solidifies on the surface of the produce or agricultural product to form the protective coating over the surface. In some cases, the monomers, oligomers, polymers (e.g., low molecular weight polymers), or combinations thereof of the coating agent cross-link as the coating is formed while the solvent is removed from the surface. The resulting protective coating can then serve as a barrier to water loss from the agricultural product, as a barrier to oxidation of the agricultural product, and/or can reduce the respiration rate of the agricultural product, and can thereby protect the produce or agricultural product from biotic and/or abiotic stressors. 
     Properties of the coating, such as thickness, cross-link density of monomers/oligomers/polymers, and permeability, can be varied to be suitable for a particular agricultural product by adjusting the specific composition of the coating agent, the specific composition of the solvent, the concentration of the coating agent in the solvent, and conditions of the coating deposition process (e.g., the amount of time the solution is applied to the surface of the produce or agricultural product before the solvent is removed, the temperature during the deposition process, the standoff distance between the spray head and the sample, and the spray angle). For example, too short an application time can result in too thin a protective coating being formed, whereas too long an application time can result in the produce or agricultural product being damaged by the solvent. Accordingly, the solution/suspension can be applied to the surface of the produce or agricultural product for between about 1 and about 3,600 seconds, for example between 1 and 3000 seconds, between 1 and 2000 seconds, between 1 and 1000 seconds, between 1 and 800 seconds, between 1 and 600 seconds, between 1 and 500 seconds, between 1 and 400 seconds, between 1 and 300 seconds, between 1 and 250 seconds, between 1 and 200 seconds, between 1 and 150 seconds, between 1 and 125 seconds, between 1 and 100 seconds, between 1 and 80 seconds, between 1 and 60 seconds, between 1 and 50 seconds, between 1 and 40 seconds, between 1 and 30 seconds, between 1 and 20 seconds, between 1 and 10 seconds, between about 5 and about 3000 seconds, between about 5 and about 2000 seconds, between about 5 and about 1000 seconds, between about 5 and about 800 seconds, between about 5 and about 600 seconds, between about 5 and about 500 seconds, between about 5 and about 400 seconds, between about 5 and about 300 seconds, between about 5 and about 250 seconds, between about 5 and about 200 seconds, between about 5 and about 150 seconds, between about 5 and about 125 seconds, between about 5 and about 100 seconds, between about 5 and about 80 seconds, between about 5 and about 60 seconds, between about 5 and about 50 seconds, between about 5 and about 40 seconds, between about 5 and about 30 seconds, between about 5 and about 20 seconds, between about 5 and about 10 seconds, between about 10 and about 3000 seconds, between about 10 and about 2000 seconds, between about 10 and about 1000 seconds, between about 10 and about 800 seconds, between about 10 and about 600 seconds, between about 10 and about 500 seconds, between about 10 and about 400 seconds, between about 10 and about 300 seconds, between about 10 and about 250 seconds, between about 10 and about 200 seconds, between about 10 and about 150 seconds, between about 10 and about 125 seconds, between about 10 and about 100 seconds, between about 10 and about 80 seconds, between about 10 and about 60 seconds, between about 10 and about 50 seconds, between about 10 and about 40 seconds, between about 10 and about 30 seconds, between about 10 and about 20 seconds, between about 20 and about 100 seconds, between about 100 and about 3,000 seconds, or between about 500 and about 2,000 seconds. 
     Furthermore, the concentration of the coating agent in the solvent can, for example, be in a range of 0.1 to 200 mg/mL or about 0.1 to about 200 mg/mL, such as in a range of about 0.1 to about 100 mg/mL, about 0.1 to about 75 mg/mL, about 0.1 to about 50 mg/mL, about 0.1 to about 30 mg/mL, about 0.1 to about 20 mg/mL, about 0.5 to about 200 mg/mL, about 0.5 to about 100 mg/mL, about 0.5 to about 75 mg/mL, about 0.5 to about 50 mg/mL, about 0.5 to about 30 mg/mL, about 0.5 to about 20 mg/mL, 1 to 200 mg/mL, 1 to 100 mg/mL, 1 to 75 mg/mL, 1 to 50 mg/mL, 1 to 30 mg/mL, about 1 to about 20 mg/mL, about 5 to about 200 mg/mL, about 5 to about 100 mg/mL, about 5 to about 75 mg/mL, about 5 to about 50 mg/mL, about 5 to about 30 mg/mL, or about 5 to about 20 mg/mL. 
     The protective coatings formed from coating agents described herein can be edible coatings. The protective coatings can be substantially undetectable to the human eye, and can be odorless and/or tasteless. The protective coatings can have an average thickness in the range of about about 0.1 microns to about 300 microns, for example in the range of about about 0.5 microns to about 100 microns, about 1 micron to about 50 microns, about 0.1 microns to about 1 micron, about 0.1 microns to about 2 microns, about 0.1 microns to about 5 microns, or about 0.1 microns to about 10 microns. The protective coatings can have a thickness of less than 5 microns, less than 4 microns, less than 3 microns, less than 2 microns, less than 1 micron, less than 0.5 microns, or less than 0.3 microns. In some implementations, the protective coatings are entirely organic (e.g., organic in the agricultural sense rather than the chemistry sense). In some embodiments, the perishable items is one of the types of produce listed in Table 1. In some embodiments, the produce is a thin-skinned fruit or vegetable. For instance, the produce can be a berry or grape. In some embodiments, the produce can include a cut fruit surface (e.g., a cut apple surface). 
     The protective coatings formed from coating agents described herein can serve a number of purposes. For example, the protective coatings can extend the shelf life of the produce or other agricultural products, even in the absence of refrigeration. Furthermore, produce and other agricultural products tend to lose mass (due to water loss) at a higher rate when maintained at lower relative humidity (e.g., lower than 90% relative humidity) as compared to higher relative humidity, as the driving force for water evaporation is increased at the lower relative humidity. As such, the protective coatings can be formulated to reduce the mass loss rate of the produce or agricultural product even at the lower relative humidity. For example, the protective coatings can reduce the mass loss rate of the produce or other agricultural products (as compared to similar uncoated products) by at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 25%, at least 30%, at least 35%, at least 40%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 100%, at least 125%, at least 150%, or at least 200%. Alternatively or in addition, the protective coatings can be formulated to reduce the respiration rate (i.e., the rate at which CO 2  is produced per unit mass of the items) of the produce or agricultural products. For example, the protective coatings can reduce the respiration rate of the produce or other agricultural products (as compared to similar uncoated products) by at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 25%, at least 30%, at least 35%, at least 40%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 100%, at least 125%, at least 150%, or at least 200%. 
     Referring now to step  308  of process  300  (in  FIG. 3 ), after forming the coating over the produce or other perishable items, the coated produce/items are stored in the container  200  of  FIG. 2 , often for extended periods of time. The perishable items can occupy at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 25%, at least 30%, at least 35%, at least 40%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, or at least 70% of the internal volume of the container  200 . As used herein, the percent of the internal volume of a container that one or more items occupy refers to the cumulative volume of all the items in the container divided by the total internal volume of the container (expressed as a percentage). As such, for a container that stores the maximum amount of items that can fit in the container&#39;s internal volume, the items will typically occupy substantially less than 100% of the internal volume of the container due to the space between each of the items. 
     Optionally, during storage, the perishable items are also cooled, for example via convection through the plurality of openings  214  in the container  200  (step  310 ). In some embodiments, while the perishable items are being cooled or after the perishable items have been cooled, the relative humidity in the container is less than 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, or 40%. In some embodiments, the container is configured such that during a time that the perishable items are stored in the container  200  continuously for at least 12 hours, the relative humidity in the container remains at less than 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, or 40%. 
     While the perishable items that are stored in container  200  can be coated prior to placing them in the container  200 , in some embodiments the coatings are formed after the perishable items are placed in the container  200 . For example,  FIG. 4  illustrates a process  400  for storing perishable items in container  200  in which coatings are formed over the items while they are in the container  200 . First, uncoated perishable items are received or placed in the container  200  of  FIG. 2  (step  402 ). Next, a protective coating is formed on each of the perishable items by disposing a coating solution/suspension (e.g., a coating agent in a solvent) on the items, for example by spraying the items with a spray or mist of the solution/suspension, and allowing a coating formed from the coating agent to be formed over the perishable items (step  404 ). In some embodiments, the coating solution/suspension is injected (e.g., as a mist or spray) through one or more of the openings  214  or through opening  212  in the container  200 . The items are then stored in the container  200 , often for extended periods of time (step  406 ). Optionally, during storage, the perishable items are also cooled, for example via convection through the plurality of openings  214  in the container  200  (step  408 ). In some embodiments, for the entire duration of time that the perishable items are being cooled, the relative humidity in the container remains at less than 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, or 40%. In some embodiments, the container is configured such that during a time that the perishable items are stored in the container  200  continuously for at least 12 hours, the relative humidity in the container remains at less than 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, or 40%. 
     Various implementations of the containers and methods of storage have been described above. However, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not limitation. Where methods and steps described above indicate certain events occurring in certain order, those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure would recognize that the ordering of certain steps may be modified and such modifications are in accordance with the variations of the disclosure. The implementations have been particularly shown and described, but it will be understood that various changes in form and details may be made. Accordingly, other implementations are within the scope of the following claims.