Patent Publication Number: US-2007098728-A1

Title: Novel compositions and methods in cancer

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS  
      The present application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 09/962,916, filed Sep. 24, 2001. The present application is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 09/962,854, filed Sep. 24, 2001. The present application is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 09/962,929, filed Sep. 24, 2001. The present application is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 11/365,889, filed Mar. 1, 2006 which is a divisional of U.S. Ser. No. 09/963,131, filed Sep. 24, 2001. The present application is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 09/962,855, filed Sep. 24, 2001. Each of the preceding applications is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION  
      This invention is in the field of cancer-associated genes. Specifically it relates to methods for detecting cancer or the likelihood of developing cancer based on the presence of differential expression cancer-associated genes or their gene products. The invention also provides methods and molecules for detecting, diagnosing and treating cancer by modulating these cancer-associated genes.  
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
      Oncogenes are genes that can cause cancer. Carcinogenesis can occur by a wide variety of mechanisms, including infection of cells by viruses containing oncogenes, activation of protooncogenes (normal genes that have the potential to become an oncogene) in the host genome, and mutations of protooncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Carcinogenesis is fundamentally driven by somatic cell evolution (i.e. mutation and natural selection of variants with progressive loss of growth control). The genes that serve as targets for these somatic mutations are classified as either protooncogenes or tumor suppressor genes, depending on whether their mutant phenotypes are dominant or recessive, respectively.  
      There are a number of viruses known to be involved in human as well as animal cancer. Of particular interest here are viruses that do not contain oncogenes themselves; these are slow-transforming retroviruses. Such viruses induce tumors by integrating into the host genome and affecting neighboring protooncogenes in a variety of ways. Provirus insertion mutation is a normal consequence of the retroviral life cycle. In infected cells, a DNA copy of the retrovirus genome (called a provirus) is integrated into the host genome. A newly integrated provirus can affect gene expression in cis at or near the integration site by one of two mechanisms. Type I insertion mutations up-regulate transcription of proximal genes as a consequence of regulatory sequences (enhancers and/or promoters) within the proviral long terminal repeats (LTRs). Type II insertion mutations located within the intron or exon of a gene can up-regulate transcription of said gene as a consequence of regulatory sequences (enhancers and/or promoters) within the proviral long terminal repeats (LTRs). Additionally, type II insertion mutations can cause truncation of coding regions due to either integration directly within an open reading frame or integration within an intron flanked on both sides by coding sequences, which could lead to a truncated or an unstable transcript/protein product. The analysis of sequences at or near the insertion sites has led to the identification of a number of new protooncogenes.  
      Retroviruses such as AKV murine leukemia virus (MLV) or SL3-3 MLV, are potent inducers of tumors when inoculated into susceptible newborn mice, or when carried in the germline. A number of sequences have been identified as relevant in the induction of cancers including lymphoma and leukemia by analyzing the insertion sites; see Sorensen et al., J. Virology 74:2161 (2000); Hansen et al., Genome Res. 10(2):237-43 (2000); Sorensen et al., J. Virology 70:4063 (1996); Sorensen et al., J. Virology 67:7118 (1993); Joosten et al., Virology 268:308 (2000); and Li et al., Nature Genetics 23:348 (1999); all of which are expressly incorporated by reference herein. With respect to other cancers, especially breast cancer, prostate cancer and cancers with epithelial origin, the mammalian retrovirus, mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) is a potent inducer of tumors when inoculated into susceptible newborn mice, or when carried in the germ line.  Mammary Tumours in the Mouse , edited by J. Hilgers and M. Sluyser; Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press; New York, N.Y.  
      The pattern of gene expression in a particular living cell is characteristic of its current state. Nearly all differences in the state or type of a cell are reflected in the differences in RNA levels of one or more genes. Comparing expression patterns of uncharacterized genes may provide clues to their function. High throughput analysis of expression of hundreds or thousands of genes can help in (a) identification of complex genetic diseases, (b) analysis of differential gene expression over time, between tissues and disease states, and (c) drug discovery and toxicology studies. Increase or decrease in the levels of expression of certain genes correlate with cancer biology. For example, oncogenes are positive regulators of tumourigenesis, while tumor suppressor genes are negative regulators of tumourigenesis. (Marshall, Cell, 64: 313-326 (1991); Weinberg, Science, 254: 1138-1146 (1991)).  
      Immunotherapy or the use of antibodies for therapeutic purposes has been used in recent years to treat cancer. Passive immunotherapy involves the use of monoclonal antibodies in cancer treatments. See for example, Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology, 6th Edition (2001) Chapt. 20 pp. 495-508. Inherent therapeutic biological activity of these antibodies include direct inhibition of tumor cell growth or survival, and the ability to recruit the natural cell killing activity of the body&#39;s immune system. These agents are administered alone or in conjunction with radiation or chemotherapeutic agents. Rituxan® and Herceptin®, approved for treatment of lymphoma and breast cancer, respectively, are two examples of such therapeutics. Alternatively, antibodies are used to make antibody conjugates where the antibody is linked to a toxic agent and directs that agent to the tumor by specifically binding to the tumor. Mylotarg® is an example of an approved antibody conjugate used for the treatment of leukemia. However, these antibodies target the tumor itself rather than the cause.  
      The phosphatidyl inositol 3′-kinases (PI3K, PI3 kinase) represent a ubiquitous family of heterodimeric lipid kinases that are found in association with the cytoplasmic domain of hormone and growth factor receptors and oncogene products. PI3Ks act as downstream effectors of these receptors, are recruited upon receptor stimulation and mediate the activation of second messenger signaling pathways through the production of phosphorylated derivatives of inositol (reviewed in Fry, Biochim. Biophys. Acta., 1226:237-268. 1994). There are multiple forms of PI3K having distinct mechanisms of regulation and different substrate specificities (reviewed in Carpenter et al., Curr. Opin. Biol. 8:153-158, 1996; Zvelebill et al., Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 351:217-223, 1996).  
      The PI3K heterodimers consist of a 110 kD (p110) catalytic subunit associated with an 85 kD (Pik3rl) regulatory subunit, and it is through the SH2 domains of the p85 regulatory subunit that the enzyme associates with membrane-bound receptors (Escobedo et al., Cell 5:75-82, 1991; Skolnik et al., Cell 6533-90, 1991).  
      Pik3rl was originally isolated from bovine brain and shown to exist in two forms, and. In these studies, p85 isoforms were shown to bind to and act as substrates for tyrosine-phosphorylated receptor kinases and the polyoma virus middle T antigen complex (Otsu et al., Cell 65:910104, 1991). Since then, the Pik3rl subunit has been further characterized and shown to interact with a diverse group of proteins including receptor tyrosine kinases such as the erythropoietin receptor, the PDGR-receptor and Tie2, an endothelieum-specific receptor involved in vascular development and tumor angiogenesis (He et al., Blood 82:3530-3538, 1993; Kontos et al., MCB 18:4131-4140, 1998; Escobedo et al., Cell 65:75-82, 1991). Pik3rl also interacts with focal adhesion kinase (FAK), a cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase that is involved in integrin signaling, and is though to be a substrate and effector of FAK. Pik3rl also interacts with profilin, an actin-binding protein that facilitates actin polymerization (Bhagarvi et al., Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. 46:241-248, 1998; Chen et al., PNAS 91:10148-10152, 1994) and the Pik3rl Iprofilin complex inhibits actin polymerization.  
      PI3K has been implicated in the regulation of many cellular activities, including but not limited to survival, proliferation, apoptosis, DNA synthesis, protein transport and neurite extension (reviewed in Fry, supra).  
      A truncated form of Pik3rl including the first 571 amino acids of the native protein (as encoded by nucleotides 43-1755 in SEQ ID NO:3 and at Genbank accession number M61906) fused to an amino acid sequence conserved in the eph family of receptor tyrosine kinases causes constitutive activation of PI3K and contributes to cellular transformation of mammalian fibroblasts.  
      A dominant negative isoform of PI3K which inhibits downstream signaling to PKB (Akt) has been isolated (Burgering et al, Nature 376:599-602, 1995). In addition, a constitutively active form of PI3K has been isolated (Klippel et al., MCB 16:4117-4127, 1996; Mante et al., Curr. Biol. 7:63-70, 1996, Franke et al., Cell 81:727-736, 1995).  
      Many approaches to the inhibition of PI3K activity have focused on the use of inhibitors. Several inhibitors of PI3K activity are known in the literature. These include wortmannin, a fungal metabolite (Ui et al., Trends Biochem. Sci., 20:303-307, 1995), demethoxyviridin, an antifungal agent (Woscholski et al., FEBS Lett. 342:109-114, 1994), quercetin and LY294002 (Vlahos et al., JBC 269:5241-5248, 1994). These inhibitors primarily target the pI10 subunit of PI3k.  
      An additional approach taken to inhibit PI3K activity involves the inhibition of Pik3rl expression, as through the use of antisense oligonucleotides directed to Pik3rl nucleic acid sequence (for example, see U.S. Pat. No. 6,100,090 issued to Monia et al.).  
      As demonstrated herein, GNAS genes are also implicated in lymphomas and leukemias. GNAS is a complex locus encoding multiple proteins, including an a subunit of a stimulatory G protein (G, α). G proteins transduce extracellular signals in signal transduction pathways. Each G protein is a heterotrimer, composed of an α, β and γ subunit. The β and γ subunits anchor the protein to the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane. Upon binding of a ligand, G, α dissociates from the complex, transducing signals from hormone receptors to effector molecules including adenylyl cyclase resulting in hormone-stimulated cAMP generation (Molecular Biology of the Cell, 3d edition, Alberts, B et al., Garland Publishing 1994).  
      Other proteins generated from the GNAS locus, through alternative splicing, include XL αs, a G α isoform with an extended NH, terminal extension, and NESP55, a chromogranin-like neurosecretory protein (Weinstein LS et al., Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2000, 278:F507-14). In mice, Nesp, the mouse homolog of NESP55, is located 15 kb upstream of Gnαsxl, the mouse homolog of Xl αs, which is in turn, 30 kb upstream of Gnas (Wroe et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97:3342 (2000)). NESP55 is processed into smaller peptides, one of which acts as an inhibitor of the serotonergic 5-HT 1B  receptor (Ischia et. al. J. Biol. Chem. 272:11657 (1997). The function of XL αs is not known, but it is also expressed primarily in the neuroendocrine system and may be involved in pseudohypoparathyroidsm type Ia (Hayward et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 95:10038 (1998)). Xlαs and NESP55 have been found to be expressed in opposite parental alleles, as a result of imprinting (Wroe et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97:3342 (2000)).  
      GNAS also plays a role in diseases other than leukemias and lymphomas. Mutations in GNAS1, the human GNAS gene, result in Albright hereditary osteodystrophy (AHO), a disease characterized by short stature and obesity. Studies with the mouse homolog demonstrate that the obesity seen is a consequence of the reduced expression of GNAS. In contrast, other mutations have been shown to result in constitutive activation of G,α, resulting in endocrine tumors and McCune-Albright syndrome, a condition characterized by abnormalities in endocrine function (Aldred M A and Trembath, R C, Hum Mutat 2000, 16:183-9). The mechanism behind this disease as well as fibrous dysplasia, a progressive bone disease, is caused by increased cAMP levels which results in increase IL-6 levels, triggering abnormal osteoblast differentiation and increased osteoclastic activity (Stanton RP et al., J. Bone Miner. Res. 1999, 14:1104-14).  
      As demonstrated herein, a HIPK1 gene is also implicated in lymphomas and leukemias. HIPK1 is a member of a novel family of nuclear protein kinases that act as transcriptional co-repressors for NK class of homeoproteins (Kim Y H et al., J. Biol. Chem. 1998, 273:25875-25879). Homeoproteins are transcription factors that regulate homeobox genes, which are involved in various developmental processes, such as pattern formation and organogenesis (McGinnis, W. and Krumlauf, R., Cell 1992, 68:283-302). Homeoproteins may play a role in human disease. Aberrant expression of the NKX2-5 homeodomain transcription factor has been found to be involved in a congenital heart disease (Schott, J.-J. et al., Science 1998, 281:108-111).  
      Cytokines and Interferons regulate a wide range of cellular functions in the lympho-hematopoietic system. This regulation is mediated, in part, by the Jak-STAT pathway. In this pathway a Cytokine or Interferon initially binds to the extracellular portion of a membrane bound receptor. Binding of a Cytokine or Interferon activates members of the Janus family of Tyrosine Kinases (JAKs), including JAK1. Activated JAKs phosphorylate docking sites on the intracellular portion of the receptor which in turn activate transcription factors known as the signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs). Once activated, STATs dimerize and translocate to the nucleus to bind target DNA sequences resulting in modulation of gene expression.  
      Given the integral role JAKs play in this signal transduction pathway it is not surprising that a number of studies have shown that JAK dysreguation leads to severe disease states. JAK mutations in  Drosophila  termed Tum-1 Tumorous lethal, for example, lead to leukemia in flies. Harrison et al., EMBO J. 14:1412-20 (1995); Luo et al., EMBO J. 14:1412-20 (1995); Luo et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 17:1562-71 (1997). Additionally, constitutive activation of JAKs in mammalian cells has been shown to lead to malignant transformation in several settings. Migone et al., Science 269:79-81 (1995); Zhang et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:9148-53 (1996); Danial et al., Science 269:1875-77 (1995); Meydan et al., Nature 379:645-48 (1996). Accordingly, understanding the various aspects of JAK function, its binding capabilities, catalytic aspects, etc., will give insight into a number of disease states not the least of which being either lymphoma or leukemia.  
      Neurogranin is a neuronal protein thought to play a role in dendritic spine formation and synaptic plasticity. The Neurogranin gene encodes a 78-amino acid protein that functions as a postsynaptic kinase substrate and has been shown to bind calmodulin in the absence of calcium. Martinez de Arrieta et al., Endocrinology 140(1):335-43 (1999). Though little is understood at the present time, dysregulation of Neurogranin gene expression has been implicated in disease states. Recent studies have shown Neurogranin expression is tightly regulated by thyroid hormone. Morte et al., FEBS Lett Dec. 31; 464(3): 179-83 (1999). This regulation may explain the role hypothyroidism has on mental states during development as well as in adult subjects. Additionally, a transactivator overexpressed in prostate cancer, EGR1, has been shown to induce Neurogranin which may explain the neuroendocrine differentiation that often accompanies prostate cancer progression. Svaren et al., J. Biol. Chem. December 8; 275(49):38524-31 (2000). Accordingly, understanding the various aspects of Neurogranin structure and function will likely lead to a clearer view of its role in hypothyroidism and prostate cancer, as well as other diseases such as lymphoma and leukemia.  
      The Nrf2 gene encodes a DNA binding transcriptional regulatory protein (transcription factor) belonging to the “cap “n collar” subfamily of the basic leucine zipper family of transcription factors (Chan et al., PNAS 93:13943-13948, 1996; Moi et al., PNAS 91:9926-9930, 1994). The Nrf2 gene produces a 2.2 kb transcript which predicts a 66 kDa protein (Moi et al., PNAS 91:9926-9930, 1994). The Nrf2 protein binds to a DNase hypersensitive site located in the globin locus control region (Moi et al., PNAS 91:9926-9930, 1994), as well as to the antioxidant response element (ARE) which is found in the regulatory regions of many detoxifying enzyme genes (Venugopal et al., Oncogene, 17:3145-3156, 1998).  
      Nrf2 gene function is not required for normal development, as evidenced by homozygous disruption of the Nrf2 loci in transgenic mice (Chan et al., PNAS 93:13943-13948, 1996). However, loss of Nrf2 gene function compromises the ability of haematopioetic cells to endure oxidative stress (Ishii et al., J. Biol. Chem., 275:16023-16029, 2000; Enomoto et al., Toxicol. Sci., 59:169-177, 2001) and sensitizes cells to the carcinogenic activity of oxidative agents (Ramos-Gomez et al., PNAS, 98:3410-3415, 2001).  
      Nrf2 proteins are capable of interacting with other transcription factors, including Jun proteins (Venugopal et al., Oncogene, 17:3145-3156, 1998) and Maf proteins (Marini et al., J. Biol. Chem., 272-16490-16497, 1997). Jun proteins appear to cooperate with Nrf2 to regulate the transcription of target genes (Venugopal et al., Oncogene, 17:3145-3156, 1998) while Maf proteins appear to antagonize the transcription promoting activity of Nrf2 protein (Nguyen et al., J. Biol. Chem., 275:15466-15473, 2000). In addition, the human cytomegalovirus protein IE-2 has also been found to interact with Nrf2 and to inhibit its transcription promoting activity (Huang et al., J. Biol. Chem., 275:12313-12320,2000).  
      Despite being dispensable for the normal development of lymphoid cells and tissues, which includes the normal processes of B cell and T cell determination, differentiation, proliferation, and death, it is demonstrated herein that dysregulation of the Nrf2 gene leads to lymphoma.  
      Genes identified herein as causing cancer can be monitored to detect the onset of cancer and can then be targeted to treat cancer. Provided herein are novel compositions and methods for the diagnosis, treatment, and prophylaxis of lymphoma. As disclosed herein, alteration and/or dysregulation of the cancer-associated genes disclosed herein leads to lymphoma, leukemia and other cancers. Provided herein are novel compositions and methods for the diagnosis, treatment, and prophylaxis of these and other cancers.  
      Sequence Listing  
      This application incorporates by reference the sequence listing saved as an ASCII text file and identified as “20366-139001.txt”, containing 353 KB of data, and created on May 16, 2006, filed in computer-readable format (CRF) and encoded on the CD-ROM, mailed to the United States Patent and Trademark Office on May 22, 2006.  
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
      In some aspects, the present invention provides methods for treating cancer in a patient comprising modulating the level of an expression product of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2. In some embodiments the cancer is lymphoma or leukemia.  
      In some aspects, the present invention provides methods of treating a cancer in a patient characterized by overexpression of the gene relative to a control. In some embodiments the method comprises modulating gene expression in the patient.  
      In some aspects, the present invention provides methods for diagnosing cancer comprising detecting evidence of differential expression in a patient sample of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2. In some embodiments evidence of differential expression of the gene is diagnostic of cancer.  
      In some aspects, the present invention provides methods for detecting a cancerous cell in a patient sample comprising detecting evidence of an expression product of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2. In some embodiments evidence of expression of the gene in the sample indicates that a cell in the sample is cancerous.  
      In some aspects, the present invention provides methods for assessing the progression of cancer in a patient comprising comparing the level of an expression product of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2 in a biological sample at a first time point to a level of the same expression product at a second time point. In some embodiments a change in the level of the expression product at the second time point relative to the first time point is indicative of the progression of the cancer.  
      In some aspects, the present invention provides methods of diagnosing cancer comprising:  
      (a) measuring a level of mRNA of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2 in a first sample, said first sample comprising a first tissue type of a first individual; and  
      (b) comparing the level of mRNA in (a) to: 
          (1) a level of the mRNA in a second sample, said second sample comprising a normal tissue type of said first individual, or     (2) a level of the mRNA in a third sample, said third sample comprising a normal tissue type from an unaffected individual. In some embodiments at least a two fold difference between the level of mRNA in (a) and the level of the mRNA in the second sample or the third sample indicates that the first individual has or is predisposed to cancer.        

      In some aspects, the present invention provides of screening for anti-cancer activity comprising:  
      (a) contacting a cell that expresses PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2, with a candidate anti-cancer agent; and  
      (b) detecting at least a two fold difference between the level of the gene&#39;s expression in the cell in the presence and in the absence of the candidate anti-cancer agent. In some embodiments at least a two fold difference between the level of the gene&#39;s expression in the cell in the presence and in the absence of the candidate anti-cancer agent indicates that the candidate anti-cancer agent has anti-cancer activity.  
      In some aspects, the present invention provides methods for identifying a patient as susceptible to treatment with an antibody that binds to an expression product of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2, comprising measuring the level of the expression product of the gene in a biological sample from that patient.  
      In some aspects, the present invention provides methods for determining the metastatic potential of a cell. In some embodiments the methods comprise detecting a level of a PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2 gene product in a patient sample; wherein a difference in the level of the gene product in the sample compared to a control level of the gene product indicates that a cell in the patient sample has of high metastatic potential, wherein the control level is a level of the gene product in a normal cell, a non-malignant cancer cell or a low malignant potential cell.  
      In some aspects, the present invention provides kit for the diagnosis or detection of cancer in a mammal. In some embodiments the kit comprises an antibody or fragment thereof, or an immunoconjugate or fragment thereof, according to any one of the proceeding embodiments. In some embodiments the antibody or fragment specifically binds a cancer-associated tumor cell antigen; one or more reagents for detecting a binding reaction between said antibody and said tumor cell antigen. In some embodiments the kits comprise instructions for using the kit.  
      In some aspects, the present invention provides kits for diagnosing cancer comprising a nucleic acid probe that hybridizes under stringent conditions to PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2, and primers for amplifying the gene. In some embodiments the kits comprise instructions for using the kit.  
      In some aspects, the present invention provides compositions comprising one or more antibodies or oligonucleotides specific for an expression product of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2.  
      These and other aspects of the present invention will be elucidated in the following detailed description of the invention. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION  
      Protooncogenes have been identified in humans using a process known as “provirus tagging”, in which slow-transforming retroviruses that act by an insertion mutation mechanism are used to isolate protooncogenes using mouse models. In some models, uninfected animals have low cancer rates, and infected animals have high cancer rates. It is known that many of the retroviruses involved do not carry transduced host protooncogenes or pathogenic transacting viral genes, and thus the cancer incidence must therefore be a direct consequence of proviral integration effects into host protooncogenes. Since proviral integration is random, rare integrants will “activate” host protooncogenes that provide a selective growth advantage, and these rare events result in new proviruses at clonal stoichiometries in tumors. In contrast to mutations caused by chemicals, radiation, or spontaneous errors, protooncogene insertion mutations can be easily located by virtue of the fact that a convenient-sized genetic marker of known sequence (the provirus) is present at the site of mutation. Host sequences that flank clonally integrated proviruses can be cloned using a variety of strategies. Once these sequences are in hand, the tagged protooncogenes can be subsequently identified. The presence of provirus at the same locus in two or more independent tumors is prima facie evidence that a protooncogene is present at or very near the provirus integration sites (Kim et al, Journal of Virology, 2003, 77:2056-2062; Mikkers, H and Berns, A, Advances in Cancer Research, 2003, 88:53-99; Keoko et al. Nucleic Acids Research, 2004, 32:D523-D527). This is because the genome is too large for random integrations to result in observable clustering. Any clustering that is detected is unequivocal evidence for biological selection (i.e. the tumor phenotype). Moreover, the pattern of proviral integrants (including orientations) provides compelling positional information that makes localization of the target gene at each cluster relatively simple. The three mammalian retroviruses that are known to cause cancer by an insertion mutation mechanism are FeLV (leukemia/lymphoma in cats), MLV (leukemia/lymphoma in mice and rats), and MMTV (mammary cancer in mice). Once protooncogenes have been identified in mouse models, human orthologs can be annotated as protooncogenes and further investigations carried out.  
      Thus, the use of oncogenic retroviruses, whose sequences insert into the genome of the host organism resulting in cancer, allows the identification of host genes involved in cancer. These sequences may then be used in a number of different ways, including diagnosis, prognosis, screening for modulators (including both agonists and antagonists), antibody generation (for immunotherapy and imaging), etc. However, as will be appreciated by those in the art, oncogenes that are identified in one type of cancer such as those identified in the present invention, have a strong likelihood of being involved in other types of cancers as well.  
      The invention therefore provides methods for detecting cancerous cells in a biological sample comprising determining the sequence or expression level of one or more (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more) cancer-associated genes.  
      As used herein, the term “cancer-associated genes” refers to the genes disclosed in the present application and the appended sequence listing including, without limitation, PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2. These genes have been identified and validated as proto-oncogenes using the methods described herein.  
      Accordingly, the present invention further provides methods for identifying specific patient subtypes in a population of patients based on the relative expression of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2. A first population may be characterized by overexpression of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2 relative to a control. A second population may be characterized by underexpression of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2 relative to a control. The present invention further provides methods for identifying specific subtypes of cancer in a population of patients based on the relative expression of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2. For example, a first subtype of cancer may be characterized by overexpression of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2 relative to a control. A second subtype of cancer may be characterized by underexpression of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2 relative to a control.  
      In some embodiments the methods include measuring the level of expression of one or more (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more) expression products of the cancer-associated gene, wherein a level of expression that is different to a control level is indicative of disease.  
      In some embodiments the expression product is a protein, although alternatively mRNA expression products may be detected. If a protein is used, the protein is preferably detected by an antibody which preferably binds specifically to that protein. The term “binds specifically” means that the antibodies have substantially greater affinity for their target polypeptide than their affinity for other related polypeptides. As used herein, the term “antibody” refers to intact molecules as well as to fragments thereof, such as Fab, F(ab′)2 and Fv, which are capable of binding to the antigenic determinant in question. By “substantially greater affinity” we mean that there is a measurable increase in the affinity for the target polypeptide of the invention as compared with the affinity for other related polypeptide. In some embodiments, the affinity is at least 1.5-fold, 2-fold, 5-fold, 10-fold, 100-fold, 10 3 -fold, 10 4 -fold, 10 5 -fold, 10 6 -fold or greater for the target polypeptide.  
      In some embodiments, the antibodies bind with high affinity, with a dissociation constant of 10 −4 M or less, 10 −7 M or less, 10 −9 M or less; or subnanomolar affinity (0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1 nM or even less).  
      Where mRNA expression product is used, in some embodiments it is detected by contacting a tissue sample with a probe under conditions that allow the formation of a hybrid complex between the mRNA and the probe; and detecting the formation of a complex. In some embodiments stringent hybridization conditions are used.  
      Cancer associated genes themselves may be detected by contacting a biological sample with a probe under conditions that allow the formation of a hybrid complex between a nucleic acid expression product encoding a cancer-associated gene and the probe; and detecting the formation of a complex between the probe and the nucleic acid from the biological sample. In some embodiments, the absence of the formation of a complex is indicative of a mutation in the sequence of the cancer-associated gene.  
      Methods include comparing the amount of complex formed with that formed when a control tissue is used, wherein a difference in the amount of complex formed between the control and the sample indicates the presence of cancer. In some embodiments the difference between the amount of complex formed by the test tissue compared to the normal tissue is an increase or decrease. In some embodiments a two-fold increase or decrease in the amount of complex formed is indicative of disease. In some embodiments, a 3-fold, 4-fold, 5-fold, 10-fold, 20-fold, 50-fold or even 100-fold increase or decrease in the amount of complex formed is indicative of disease.  
      In some embodiments the biological sample used in the methods of the invention is a tissue sample. Any tissue sample may be used. In some embodiments, however, the tissue is selected from breast tissue, lung tissue, skin tissue, stomach tissue, colon tissue, kidney tissue, colon metastases, prostate tissue, or lymphatic tissue.  
      The invention also provides methods for assessing the progression of cancer in a patient comprising comparing the expression of one or more (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more) expression products of the cancer-associated genes referred to above in a biological sample at a first time point to the expression of the same expression product at a second time point, wherein an increase or decrease in expression, or in the rate of increase or decrease of expression, at the second time point relative to the first time point is indicative of the progression of the cancer.  
      The invention also provides kits useful for diagnosing cancer comprising an antibody that binds to a polypeptide expression product of a cancer-associated gene; and a reagent useful for the detection of a binding reaction between said antibody and said polypeptide. In some embodiments, the antibody binds specifically to the polypeptide product of the cancer-associated gene.  
      Furthermore, the invention provides a kit for diagnosing cancer comprising a nucleic acid probe that hybridizes under stringent conditions to a cancer-associated gene; primers useful for amplifying the cancer-associated gene; and, optionally, instructions for using the probe and primers for facilitating the diagnosis of disease.  
      The invention further provides antibodies, nucleic acids, or proteins suitable for use in modulating the expression of an expression product of one or more (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more) of the cancer-associated genes listed above, for use in treating cancer.  
      Accordingly, the invention provides methods for treating cancer in a patient, comprising modulating the level of one or more (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more) expression products of any one of the cancer-associated genes listed above. In some embodiments the methods comprise administering to the patient a therapeutically-effective amount of an antibody, a nucleic acid, or a polypeptide that modulates the level of said expression product.  
      The invention therefore also provides the use of an antibody, a nucleic acid, or a polypeptide that modulates the level of an expression product of one or more (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more) cancer-associated genes, in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment, detection or diagnosis of cancer. In some embodiments the level of expression is modulated by action on the gene, mRNA or the encoded protein. In some embodiments the expression is upregulated or downregulated. For example, the change in regulation may be 2-fold, 3-fold, 5-fold, 10-fold, 20-fold, 50-fold, or even 100 fold or more.  
      Antibodies suitable for use in accordance with the present invention may be specific for cancer-associated proteins as these are expressed on or within cancerous cells. For example, glycosylation patterns in cancer-associated proteins as expressed on cancerous cells may be different to the patterns of glycosylation in these same proteins as these are expressed on non-cancerous cells. In some embodiments antibodies according to the invention are specific for cancer-associated proteins as expressed on cancerous cells only. This is of particular value for therapeutic antibodies. Anti-target antibodies may also bind to splice variants, deletion, addition and/or substitution mutants of the target.  
      Antibodies suitable for therapeutic use in accordance with the present invention elicit antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). ADCC refers to the cell-mediated reaction wherein non-specific cytotoxic cells that express Fc receptors recognize bound antibody on a target cell and subsequently cause lysis of the target cell (Raghavan et al., 1996, Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 12:181-220; Ghetie et al., 2000, Annu Rev Immunol 18:739-766; Ravetch et al., 2001, Annu Rev Immunol 19:275-290). Antibodies suitable for therapeutic use in accordance with the present invention may elicit antibody-dependent cell-mediated phagocytosis (ADCP). ADCP is the cell-mediated reaction wherein nonspecific cytotoxic cells that express Fc receptors recognize bound antibody on a target cell and subsequently cause phagocytosis. These processes are mediated by natural killer (NK) cells, which possess receptors on their surface for the Fc portion of IgG antibodies. When IgG is made against epitopes on “foreign” membrane-bound cells, including cancer cells, the Fab portions of the antibodies react with the cancerous cell. The NK cells then bind to the Fc portion of the antibody.  
      In embodiments where it is desirable to modify the antibody of the invention with respect to effector function, e.g. so as to enhance antigen-dependent cell-mediated cyotoxicity (ADCC) and/or complement dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) of the antibody, one or more amino acid substitutions can be introduced into an Fc region of the antibody. Alternatively or additionally, cysteine residue(s) may be introduced in the Fc region, thereby allowing interchain disulfide bond formation in this region (For review: Weiner and Carter (2005) Nature Biotechnology 23(5): 556-557). The homodimeric antibody thus generated may have improved internalization capability and/or increased complement-mediated cell killing and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). See Caron et al., J. Exp Med. 176:1191-1195 (1992) and Shopes, B. J. Immunol. 148:2918-2922 (1992). Homodimeric antibodies with enhanced anti-tumor activity may also be prepared using heterobifunctional cross-linkers as described in Wolff et al. Cancer Research 53:2560-2565 (1993). Alternatively, an antibody can be engineered which has dual Fc regions and may thereby have enhanced complement lysis and ADCC capabilities. See Stevenson et al. Anti-Cancer Drug Design 3:219-230 (1989). Antibodies can be produced with modified glycosylation within the Fc region. For example, lowering the fucose content in the carbohydrate chains may improve the antibody&#39;s intrinsic ADCC activity (see for example BioWa&#39;s Potillegent™ ADCC Enhancing Technology, described in WO0061739). Alternately, antibodies can be produced in cell lines that add bisected non-fucosylated oligosaccharide chains (see U.S. Pat. No. 6,602,684). Both these technologies produce antibodies with an increased affinity for the Fcgammallla receptor on effector cells which results in increased ADCC efficiency. The Fc region can also be engineered to alter the serum half life of the antibodies of the invention. Abdegs are engineered IgGs with an increased affinity for the FcRn salvage receptor, and so have shorter half life than conventional IgGs (see Vaccaro et al, (2005) Nature Biotechnology 23(10): 1283-1288). To increase serum half life, specific mutations can be introduced into the Fc region that appear to decrease the affinity with FcRn (see Hinton et al, (2004) J Biol Chem 297(8): 6213-6216). Antibodies of the invention can also be modified to use other mechanisms to alter serum half life, such as including a serum albumin binding domain (dAb) (see WO05035572 for example). Engineered Fc domains (see for example XmAB™, WO05077981) may also be incorporated into the antibodies of the invention to lead to improved ADCC activity, altered serum half life or increased antibody protein stability.  
      In some embodiments, antibodies for therapeutic use in accordance with the invention are effective to elicit ADCC, and modulates the survival of cancerous cells by binding to target and having ADCC activity. Antibodies can be engineered to heighten ADCC activity (see, for example, US 20050054832A1, Xencor Inc. and the documents cited therein).  
      In some embodiments the nucleic acid type used in such methods is an antisense construct, a ribozyme or RNAi, including, for example, siRNA.  
      The cancer may be treated by the inhibition of tumor growth or the reduction of tumor volume or, alternatively, by reducing the invasiveness of a cancer cell. In some embodiments, the methods of treatment described above are used in conjunction with one or more of surgery, hormone ablation therapy, radiotherapy or chemotherapy. For example, if a patient is already receiving chemotherapy, a compound of the invention that modulates the level of an expression product as listed above may also be administered. The chemotherapeutic, hormonal and/or radiotherapeutic agent and compound according to the invention may be administered simultaneously, separately or sequentially.  
      In some embodiments the cancer being detected or treated according to one of the methods described above is lymphoma or leukemia.  
      The invention provides methods for diagnosing cancer comprising detecting evidence of differential expression in a patient sample of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2.  
      Evidence of differential expression of the gene is diagnostic of cancer. In some embodiments the cancer is lymphoma or leukemia. In some embodiments, evidence of differential expression of the gene is detected by measuring the level of an expression product of the gene. In some embodiments the expression product is a protein or mRNA. In some embodiments the level of expression of protein is measured using an antibody which binds specifically to the protein. In some embodiments the antibody is linked to an imaging agent. In some embodiments the level of expression product of the gene in the patient sample is compared to a control. In some embodiments the control is a known normal tissue of the same tissue type as in the patient sample. In some embodiments the level of the expression product in the sample is increased relative to the control.  
      The invention also provides methods for detecting a cancerous cell in a patient sample comprising detecting evidence of an expression product of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2. Evidence of expression of the gene in the sample indicates that a cell in the sample is cancerous. In some embodiments the cell is a breast cell, colon cell, kidney cell, colon metastasis cell, prostate cell, or cell of the lymphatic system. In some embodiments evidence of the expression product is detected using an antibody linked to an imaging agent.  
      The invention provides methods for assessing the progression of cancer in a patient comprising comparing the level of an expression product of one or more of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2 in a biological sample at a first time point to a level of the same expression product at a second time point. A change in the level of the expression product at the second time point relative to the first time point is indicative of the progression of the cancer.  
      The invention also provides methods of diagnosing cancer comprising (a) measuring a level of a mRNA of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2 in a first sample wherein the first sample comprises a first tissue type of a first individual; and (b) comparing the level of mRNA in (a) to a control. Detection of at least a two fold difference between the level of mRNA in (a) and the level of the mRNA in the second sample or the third sample indicates that the first individual has or is predisposed to cancer. In some embodiments the control sample comprises a normal tissue type of the first individual. In some embodiments the control sample comprises a normal tissue type from an unaffected individual. In some embodiments, at least a three fold difference between the level of mRNA in the first sample and the control indicates tat the first individual has or is predisposed to cancer.  
      The invention provides methods of screening for anti-cancer activity comprising (a) contacting a cell that expresses PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2 with a candidate anti-cancer agent; and (b) detecting at least a two fold difference between the level of gene expression in the cell in the presence and in the absence of the candidate anti-cancer agent. At least a two fold difference between the level of gene expression in the cell in the presence compared to the level of gene expression in the cell in the absence of the candidate anti-cancer agent indicates that the candidate anti-cancer agent has anti-cancer activity. In some embodiments at least a three fold difference between the level of gene expression in the cell in the presence and in the absence of the candidate anti-cancer agent indicates that the candidate anti-cancer agent has anti-cancer activity. In some embodiments the candidate anti-cancer agent is an antibody, small organic compound, small inorganic compound, or polynucleotide. In some embodiments the candidate anti-cancer agent is a monoclonal antibody. In some embodiments the candidate anti-cancer agent is a human or humanized antibody. In some embodiments the polynucleotide is an antisense oligonucleotide. In some embodiments the polynucleotide is an oligonucleotide.  
      The invention also provides kits for the diagnosis or detection of cancer in a mammal. In some embodiments the kit comprises an antibody or fragment thereof, or an immunoconjugate or fragment thereof. In some embodiments the antibody or fragment is capable of specifically binding a tumor cell antigen wherein said tumor cell antigen is PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2. The kits further comprise one or more reagents for detecting a binding reaction between the antibody and the tumor cell antigen. In some embodiments the kit comprises instructions for using the kit.  
      The invention also provides kits for diagnosing cancer. In some embodiments the kits comprise a nucleic acid probe that hybridizes under stringent conditions to PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2. The kits also comprise primers for amplifying the cancer-associated gene. In some embodiments the kits comprise instructions for using the kit.  
      The invention provides methods for treating cancer in a patient. In some embodiments the methods comprises modulating the level of an expression product of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2. In some embodiments the methods comprise administering to the patient an antibody, a nucleic acid, or a polypeptide that modulates the level of the expression product. In some embodiments the level of the expression product is upregulated or downregulated by at least a 2-fold change. In some embodiments the cancer is treated by the inhibition of tumor growth or the reduction of tumor volume. In some embodiments the cancer is treated by reducing the invasiveness of a cancer cell. In some embodiments the expression product is a protein or mRNA. In some embodiments the expression level of the expression product at a first time point is compared to the expression level of the same expression product at a second time point, wherein an increase or decrease in expression at the second time point relative to the first time point is indicative of the progression of cancer.  
      The invention also provides methods for treating cancer in a patient comprising modulating a cancer-associated gene-activity. In some embodiments the cancer-associated gene-activity is cell proliferation, cell growth, cell motility, metastasis, cell migration, cell survival, or tumorigenicity. In some embodiments the methods comprise administering to the patient an antibody, a nucleic acid, or a polypeptide that inhibits the cancer-associated gene activity. In some embodiments the antibody is a neutralizing antibody. In some embodiments the antibody is a monoclonal antibody. In some embodiments the monoclonal antibody binds to an cancer-associated polypeptide with an affinity of at least 1×10 8  Ka. In some embodiments the monoclonal antibody inhibits one or more of cancer cell growth, tumor formation, cell survival and cancer cell proliferation. In some embodiments the antibody is a monoclonal antibody, a polyclonal antibody, a chimeric antibody, a human antibody, a humanized antibody, a single-chain antibody, a bi-specific antibody, a multi-specific antibody, or a Fab fragment.  
      The invention also provides methods of treating a cancer in a patient characterized by overexpression of a cancer-associated gene relative to a control. In some embodiments the methods comprise modulating a cancer-associated gene activity in the patient. In some embodiments the cancer-associated gene activity is selected from the group consisting of cell proliferation, cell growth, cell motility, metastasis, cell migration, cell survival, gene expression and tumorigenicity. In some embodiments the cancer is lymphoma or leukemia. In some embodiments the methods comprise administering to the patient an antibody, a nucleic acid, or a polypeptide that inhibits the cancer-associated gene activity.  
      The present invention also provides methods for identifying a patient as susceptible to treatment with an antibody that binds to an expression product of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2, comprising measuring the level of the expression product of the gene in a biological sample from that patient.  
      The invention also provides compositions for treating, diagnosing or detecting cancer. In some embodiments the compositions comprise an antibody or oligonucleotide specific for an expression product of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2. In some embodiments the compositions further comprise a conventional cancer medicament. In some embodiments the compositions are pharmaceutical compositions. In some embodiments the compositions are sterile injectables.  
      The invention further provides assays for identifying a candidate agent that modulates the growth of a cancerous cell, comprising a) detecting the level of expression of one or more (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more) expression product of a cancer-associated gene as listed in any of the above-described embodiments of the invention in the presence of the candidate agent; and b) comparing that level of expression with the level of expression in the absence of the candidate agent, wherein a difference in expression indicates that the candidate agent modulates the level of expression of the expression product of the cancer-associated gene.  
      The invention also provides methods for identifying an agent that modifies the expression level of a cancer-associated gene, comprising: a) contacting a cell expressing a cancer-associated gene as listed in any of the above-described embodiments of the invention with a candidate agent, and b) determining the effect of the candidate agent on the cell, wherein a change in expression level indicates that the candidate agent is able to modulate expression.  
      In some embodiments the candidate agent is a polynucleotide, a polypeptide, an antibody or a small organic molecule.  
      The invention also provides methods for detecting lymphoma or leukemia in a biological sample comprising determining the sequence or expression level of one or more cancer-associated genes of the present invention which are correlated to lymphoma and leukemia.  
      Definitions  
      The present invention identifies genes (PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2) which are related to cancer (e.g. “cancer-associated genes”). Thus, polypeptides encoded by these genes are referred to as “cancer-associated polypeptides” or “cancer-associated proteins”. Nucleic acid sequences that encode these cancer-associated polypeptides are referred to as “cancer-associated polynucleotides”. Cells which encode and/or express a cancer-associated gene are referred to as “cancer-associated cells”. Cells which encode a cancer-associated gene are said to have a “cancer-associated genotype”. Cells which express a cancer-associated protein are said to have a “cancer-associated phenotype”. “Cancer-associated sequences” refers to both polypeptide and polynucleotide sequences derived from cancer-associated genes. “Cancer-associated nucleic acids” includes the DNA comprising the cancer-associated gene, as well as mRNA and cDNA derived from that gene.  
      “Associated” in this context means that the nucleotide or protein sequences are differentially expressed, activated, inactivated or altered in cancers as compared to normal tissue. As outlined below, cancer-associated sequences include those that are up-regulated (i.e. expressed at a higher level), as well as those that are down-regulated (i.e. expressed at a lower level), in cancers. Cancer-associated sequences also include sequences that have been altered (i.e., truncated sequences or sequences with substitutions, deletions or insertions, including point mutations) and show either the same expression profile or an altered profile. Generally, the cancer-associated sequences are from humans; however, as will be appreciated by those in the art, cancer-associated sequences from other organisms may be useful in animal models of disease and drug evaluation; thus, other cancer-associated sequences may be identified, from vertebrates, including mammals, including rodents (rats, mice, hamsters, guinea pigs, etc.), primates, and farm animals (including sheep, goats, pigs, cows, horses, etc). In some cases, prokaryotic cancer-associated sequences may be useful. Cancer-associated sequences from other organisms may be obtained using the techniques outlined below.  
      Cancer-associated sequences include recombinant nucleic acids. By the term “recombinant nucleic acid” herein is meant nucleic acid, originally formed in vitro, in general, by the manipulation of nucleic acid by polymerases and endonucleases, in a form not normally found in nature. Thus a recombinant nucleic acid is also an isolated nucleic acid, in a linear form, or cloned in a vector formed in vitro by ligating DNA molecules that are not normally joined, are both considered recombinant for the purposes of this invention. It is understood that once a recombinant nucleic acid is made and reintroduced into a host cell or organism, it will replicate using the in vivo cellular machinery of the host cell rather than in vitro manipulations; however, such nucleic acids, once produced recombinantly, although subsequently replicated in vivo, are still considered recombinant or isolated for the purposes of the invention. As used herein a “polynucleotide” or “nucleic acid” is a polymeric form of nucleotides of any length, either ribonucleotides or deoxyribonucleotides. This term refers only to the primary structure of the molecule. Thus, this term includes double- and single-stranded DNA and RNA. It also includes known types of modifications, for example, labels which are known in the art, methylation, “caps”, substitution of one or more of the naturally occurring nucleotides with an analog, internucleotide modifications such as, for example, those with uncharged linkages (e.g., phosphorothioates, phosphorodithioates, etc.), those containing pendant moieties, such as, for example proteins (including e.g., nucleases, toxins, antibodies, signal peptides, poly-L-lysine, etc.), those with intercalators (e.g., acridine, psoralen, etc.), those containing chelators (e.g., metals, radioactive metals, etc.), those containing alkylators, those with modified linkages (e.g., alpha anomeric nucleic acids, etc.), as well as unmodified forms of the polynucleotide.  
      As used herein, a polynucleotide “derived from” a designated sequence refers to a polynucleotide sequence which is comprised of a sequence of approximately at least about 6 nucleotides, at least about 8 nucleotides, at least about 10-12 nucleotides, and at least about 15-20 nucleotides corresponding to a region of the designated nucleotide sequence. “Corresponding” means homologous to or complementary to the designated sequence. In some embodiments, the sequence of the region from which the polynucleotide is derived is homologous to or complementary to a sequence that is unique to a cancer-associated gene.  
      A “recombinant protein” is a protein made using recombinant techniques, i.e. through the expression of a recombinant nucleic acid as depicted above. A recombinant protein is distinguished from naturally occurring protein by at least one or more characteristics. For example, the protein may be isolated or purified away from some or all of the proteins and compounds with which it is normally associated in its wild type host, and thus may be substantially pure. For example, an isolated protein is unaccompanied by at least some of the material with which it is normally associated in its natural state, constituting at least about 0.5%, or at least about 5% by weight of the total protein in a given sample. A substantially pure protein comprises about 50-75%, at least about 80%, or at least about 90% by weight of the total protein. The definition includes the production of a cancer-associated protein from one organism in a different organism or host cell. Alternatively, the protein may be made at a significantly higher concentration than is normally seen, through the use of an inducible promoter or high expression promoter, such that the protein is made at increased concentration levels. Alternatively, the protein may be in a form not normally found in nature, as in the addition of an epitope tag or amino acid substitutions, insertions and deletions, as discussed below.  
      As used herein, the term “tag,” “sequence tag” or “primer tag sequence” refers to an oligonucleotide with specific nucleic acid sequence that serves to identify a batch of polynucleotides bearing such tags therein. Polynucleotides from the same biological source are covalently tagged with a specific sequence tag so that in subsequent analysis the polynucleotide can be identified according to its source of origin. The sequence tags also serve as primers for nucleic acid amplification reactions.  
      A “microarray” is a linear or two-dimensional array of preferably discrete regions, each having a defined area, formed on the surface of a solid support. The density of the discrete regions on a microarray is determined by the total numbers of target polynucleotides to be detected on the surface of a single solid phase support, at least about 50/cm 2 , at least about 100/cm 2 , at least about 500/cm 2 , or at least about 1,000/cm 2 . As used herein, a DNA microarray is an array of oligonucleotide primers placed on a chip or other surfaces used to amplify or clone target polynucleotides. Since the position of each particular group of primers in the array is known, the identities of the target polynucleotides can be determined based on their binding to a particular position in the microarray.  
      A “linker” is a synthetic oligodeoxyribonucleotide that contains a restriction site. A linker may be blunt end-ligated onto the ends of DNA fragments to create restriction sites that can be used in the subsequent cloning of the fragment into a vector molecule.  
      The term “label” refers to a composition capable of producing a detectable signal indicative of the presence of the target polynucleotide in an assay sample. Suitable labels include radioisotopes, nucleotide chromophores, enzymes, substrates, fluorescent molecules, chemiluminescent moieties, magnetic particles, bioluminescent moieties, and the like. As such, a label is any composition detectable by spectroscopic, photochemical, biochemical, immunochemical, electrical, optical, chemical, or any other appropriate means. The term “label” is used to refer to any chemical group or moiety having a detectable physical property or any compound capable of causing a chemical group or moiety to exhibit a detectable physical property, such as an enzyme that catalyzes conversion of a substrate into a detectable product. The term “label” also encompasses compounds that inhibit the expression of a particular physical property. The label may also be a compound that is a member of a binding pair, the other member of which bears a detectable physical property.  
      The term “support” refers to conventional supports such as beads, particles, dipsticks, fibers, filters, membranes, and silane or silicate supports such as glass slides.  
      The term “amplify” is used in the broad sense to mean creating an amplification product which may include, for example, additional target molecules, or target-like molecules or molecules complementary to the target molecule, which molecules are created by virtue of the presence of the target molecule in the sample. In the situation where the target is a nucleic acid, an amplification product can be made enzymatically with DNA or RNA polymerases or reverse transcriptases.  
      As used herein, a “biological sample” refers to a sample of tissue or fluid isolated from an individual, including but not limited to, for example, blood, plasma, serum, spinal fluid, lymph fluid, skin, respiratory, intestinal and genitourinary tracts, tears, saliva, milk, cells (including but not limited to blood cells), tumors, organs, and also samples of in vitro cell culture constituents.  
      The term “biological sources” as used herein refers to the sources from which the target polynucleotides are derived. The source can be of any form of “sample” as described above, including but not limited to, cell, tissue or fluid. “Different biological sources” can refer to different cells/tissues/organs of the same individual, or cells/tissues/organs from different individuals of the same species, or cells/tissues/organs from different species.  
      Cancer-Associated Genes  
      Cancer-associated genes of the present invention include PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2. In some embodiments, the present invention provides PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2 sequences having at least about 90%, at least about 92%, at least about 94%, at least about 95%, at least about 97%, at least about 98%, and at least about 99% identity to the nucleotide sequences disclosed herein. Further discussion of each of the genes including accession numbers and regions of particular cancer-associated genes and gene products is provided in the applications listed in the table below. Each application is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.  
                                               SEQ ID NOS for nucleotide/       Gene   Application Ser. No.   amino acid sequences*                  Pik3r1   09/962,929; 09/963,131;   178, 179, 180, 181           09/668,644       GNAS   09/963,131; 09/668,644   182, 183, 191, 192, 193, 194       NESP5   09/963,131   187, 188, 189, 190       JAK1   09/962,854; 09/963,131;   200, 201, 202, 203, 204           09/668,644       neurogranin   09/962,916; 09/963,131;   205, 206, 207, 208, 209           09/668,644       HIPK1   09/963,131; 09/668,644   195, 196, 197, 198, 199       Nrf2   09/962,855; 09/963,131;   210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215           09/668,644                 *additional related sequences can be found in Tables 1, 2 and 3 of Ser. No. 09/963,131             
 
      The presence or absence of expression of one of these genes alone may be sufficient to cause cancer. Alternatively an increase or decrease in expression of one of these genes (whether the expression of the gene is increased or decreased in cancer is dependent, in some embodiments on the gene and the cancer type) may be sufficient to cause cancer. In a further alternative, cancer may be induced when the expression of one or both of these genes reaches or exceeds a threshold level. The threshold level may be represented as a percentage increase or decrease in expression of the gene when compared with that in a “normal” control level of expression.  
      In some embodiments, differential expression or amplification of the genes of the invention may be evaluated using an in vivo diagnostic assay, e.g. by administering a molecule (such as an antibody) which binds the molecule to be detected and is tagged with a detectable label (e.g. a radioactive isotope) and externally scanning the patient for localization of the label.  
      In some embodiments, genes or gene expression products are selected for targeting by comparison of the expression level of the gene or gene expression product in comparison with neighboring healthy tissue or with pooled normal tissue. In some embodiments there is at least a 1.5 fold (150%), 2 fold (200%), 3 fold (300%), or 4 fold (400%) increased expression relative to normal tissue and/or control. In some embodiments the increase is seen in comparison with a majority of pooled, commercially available normal tissue samples. Screening can also be carried out using laser capture microscopy to dissect cancerous tissues from normal adjacent ones, followed by expressional microarray analysis utilizing standard commercially available chips such as the standard Affimetrix chip U133 (cat#900370) (see for example, Yang et al, (2005) Oncogene, 10-31). In some embodiments, custom chips containing nucleic acid samples derived from pools of patient tissue samples grouped by cancer type can be made and probed to analyze expression profiles (see for example Makino et al, Dis Esophagus. 2005;18(1):37-40).  
      The invention also allows the use of homologs, fragments, and functional equivalents of the above-referenced cancer-associated genes. Homology can be based on the full gene sequence referenced above and is generally determined as outlined below, using homology programs or hybridization conditions. A homolog of a cancer-associated gene has at least about 75% (i.e. at least 80, at least 85, at least 90, at least 92, at least 94, at least 95, at least 96, at least 97, at least 98, at least 99% or more) homology with the cancer-associated gene. Such homologs may include splice variants, deletion, addition and/or substitution mutants and generally have functional similarity.  
      Homology in this context means sequence similarity or identity. One comparison for homology purposes is to compare the sequence containing sequencing errors to the correct sequence. This homology will be determined using standard techniques known in the art, including, but not limited to, the local homology algorithm of Smith &amp; Waterman, Adv. Appl. Math. 2:482 (1981), by the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman &amp; Wunsch, J. Mol. Biol. 48:443 (1970), by the search for similarity method of Pearson &amp; Lipman, PNAS USA 85:2444 (1988), by computerized implementations of these algorithms (GAP, BESTFIT, FASTA, and TFASTA in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package, Genetics Computer Group, 575 Science Drive, Madison, Wis.), the Best Fit sequence program described by Devereux et al., Nucl. Acid Res. 12:387-395 (1984), in some embodiments using the default settings, or by inspection.  
      One example of a useful algorithm is PILEUP. PILEUP creates a multiple sequence alignment from a group of related sequences using progressive, pairwise alignments. It can also plot a tree showing the clustering relationships used to create the alignment. PILEUP uses a simplification of the progressive alignment method of Feng &amp; Doolittle, J. Mol. Evol. 35:351-360 (1987); the method is similar to that described by Higgins &amp; Sharp CABIOS 5:151-153 (1989). Useful PILEUP parameters include a default gap weight of 3.00, a default gap length weight of 0.10, and weighted end gaps.  
      Another example of a useful algorithm is the BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) algorithm, described in Altschul et al., J. Mol. Biol. 215, 403-410, (1990) and Karlin et al., PNAS USA 90:5873-5787 (1993). A particularly useful BLAST program is the WU-BLAST-2 program which was obtained from Altschul et al., Methods in Enzymology, 266: 460-480 (1996); internet website=blast.wustl.edu/]. WU-BLAST-2 uses several search parameters, most of which are set to the default values. The adjustable parameters are set with the following values: overlap span=1, overlap fraction=0.125, word threshold (T)=11. The HSP S and HSP S2 parameters are dynamic values and are established by the program itself depending upon the composition of the particular sequence and composition of the particular database against which the sequence of interest is being searched; however, the values may be adjusted to increase sensitivity. A percent amino acid sequence identity value is determined by the number of matching identical residues divided by the total number of residues of the “longer” sequence in the aligned region. The “longer” sequence is the one having the most actual residues in the aligned region (gaps introduced by WU-Blast-2 to maximize the alignment score are ignored).  
      The alignment may include the introduction of gaps in the sequences to be aligned. In addition, for sequences which contain either more or fewer nucleotides than those of the cancer-associated genes, it is understood that the percentage of homology will be determined based on the number of homologous nucleosides in relation to the total number of nucleosides. Thus homology of sequences shorter than those of the sequences identified herein will be determined using the number of nucleosides in the shorter sequence.  
      In some embodiments of the invention, polynucleotide compositions are provided that are capable of hybridizing under moderate to high stringency conditions to a polynucleotide sequence provided herein, or a fragment thereof, or a complementary sequence thereof. Hybridization techniques are well known in the art of molecular biology. For purposes of illustration, suitable moderately stringent conditions for testing the hybridization of a polynucleotide of this invention with other polynucleotides include prewashing in a solution of 5×SSC (“saline sodium citrate”; 9 mM NaC], 0.9 mM sodium citrate), 0.5% SDS, 1.0 mM EDTA (pH 8.0); hybridizing at 50-60° C., 5×SSC, overnight; followed by washing twice at 65° C. for 20 minutes with each of 2×, 0.5× and 0.2×SSC containing 0.1% SDS. One skilled in the art will understand that the stringency of hybridization can be readily manipulated, such as by altering the salt content of the hybridization solution and/or the temperature at which the hybridization is performed. For example, in some embodiments, suitable highly stringent hybridization conditions include those described above, with the exception that the temperature of hybridization is increased, e.g., to 60-65° C., or 65-70° C. Stringent conditions may also be achieved with the addition of destabilizing agents such as formamide.  
      Thus nucleic acids that hybridize under high stringency to the nucleic acids identified throughout the present application and sequence listing, or their complements, are considered cancer-associated sequences. High stringency conditions are known in the art; see for example Maniatis et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd Edition, 1989, and Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, ed. Ausubel, et al., both of which are hereby incorporated by reference. Stringent conditions are sequence-dependent and will be different in different circumstances. Longer sequences hybridize specifically at higher temperatures. An extensive guide to the hybridization of nucleic acids is found in Tijssen, Techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology—Hybridization with Nucleic Acid Probes, “Overview of principles of hybridization and the strategy of nucleic acid assays” (1993). Generally, stringent conditions are selected to be about 5-10° C. lower than the thermal melting point (T m ) for the specific sequence at a defined ionic strength pH. The T m  is the temperature (under defined ionic strength, pH and nucleic acid concentration) at which 50% of the probes complementary to the target hybridize to the target sequence at equilibrium (as the target sequences are present in excess, at T m , 50% of the probes are occupied at equilibrium). Stringent conditions will be those in which the salt concentration is less than about 1.0 M sodium ion, typically about 0.01 to 1.0 M sodium ion concentration (or other salts) at pH 7.0 to 8.3 and the temperature is at least about 30° C. for short probes (e.g. 10 to 50 nucleotides) and at least about 60° C. for longer probes (e.g. greater than 50 nucleotides). In another embodiment, less stringent hybridization conditions are used; for example, moderate or low stringency conditions may be used, as are known in the art; see Maniatis and Ausubel, supra, and Tijssen, supra.  
      Detection of Cancer-Associated Gene Expression  
      The cancer-associated gene may be cloned and, if necessary, its constituent parts recombined to form the entire cancer-associated nucleic acid. Once isolated from its natural source, e.g., contained within a plasmid or other vector or excised therefrom as a linear nucleic acid segment, the recombinant cancer-associated nucleic acid can be further used as a probe to identify and isolate other cancer-associated nucleic acids, for example additional coding regions. It can also be used as a “precursor” nucleic acid to make modified or variant cancer-associated nucleic acids and proteins. The nucleotide sequence of the cancer-associated gene can also be used to design probes specific for the cancer-associated gene.  
      The cancer-associated nucleic acids may be used in several ways. Nucleic acid probes hybridizable to cancer-associated nucleic acids can be made and attached to biochips to be used in screening and diagnostic methods, or for gene therapy and/or antisense applications. Alternatively, the cancer-associated nucleic acids that include coding regions of cancer-associated proteins can be put into expression vectors for the expression of cancer-associated proteins, again either for screening purposes or for administration to a patient.  
      One such system for quantifying gene expression is kinetic polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Kinetic PCR allows for the simultaneous amplification and quantification of specific nucleic acid sequences. The specificity is derived from synthetic oligonucleotide primers designed to preferentially adhere to single-stranded nucleic acid sequences bracketing the target site. This pair of oligonucleotide primers forms specific, non-covalently bound complexes on each strand of the target sequence. These complexes facilitate in vitro transcription of double-stranded DNA in opposite orientations. Temperature cycling of the reaction mixture creates a continuous cycle of primer binding, transcription, and re-melting of the nucleic acid to individual strands. The result is an exponential increase of the target dsDNA product. This product can be quantified in real time either through the use of an intercalating dye or a sequence specific probe. SYBR® Greene I, is an example of an intercalating dye, that preferentially binds to dsDNA resulting in a concomitant increase in the fluorescent signal. Sequence specific probes, such as used with TaqMan® technology, consist of a fluorochrome and a quenching molecule covalently bound to opposite ends of an oligonucleotide. The probe is designed to selectively bind the target DNA sequence between the two primers. When the DNA strands are synthesized during the PCR reaction, the fluorochrome is cleaved from the probe by the exonuclease activity of the polymerase resulting in signal dequenching. The probe signaling method can be more specific than the intercalating dye method, but in each case, signal strength is proportional to the dsDNA product produced. Each type of quantification method can be used in multi-well liquid phase arrays with each well representing primers and/or probes specific to nucleic acid sequences of interest. When used with messenger RNA preparations of tissues or cell lines, an array of probe/primer reactions can simultaneously quantify the expression of multiple gene products of interest. See Germer, S., et al., Genome Res. 10:258-266 (2000); Heid, C. A., et al., Genome Res. 6, 986-994 (1996).  
      Recent developments in DNA microarray technology make it possible to conduct a large scale assay of a plurality of target cancer-associated nucleic acid molecules on a single solid phase support. U.S. Pat. No. 5,837,832 (Chee et al.) and related patent applications describe immobilizing an array of oligonucleotide probes for hybridization and detection of specific nucleic acid sequences in a sample. Target polynucleotides of interest isolated from a tissue of interest are hybridized to the DNA chip and the specific sequences detected based on the target polynucleotides&#39; preference and degree of hybridization at discrete probe locations. One important use of arrays is in the analysis of differential gene expression, where the profile of expression of genes in different cells, often a cell of interest and a control cell, is compared and any differences in gene expression among the respective cells are identified. Such information is useful for the identification of the types of genes expressed in a particular cell or tissue type and diagnosis of cancer conditions based on the expression profile.  
      Typically, RNA from the sample of interest is subjected to reverse transcription to obtain labeled cDNA. See U.S. Pat. No. 6,410,229 (Lockhart et al.) The cDNA is then hybridized to oligonucleotides or cDNAs of known sequence arrayed on a chip or other surface in a known order. The location of the oligonucleotide to which the labeled cDNA hybridizes provides sequence information on the cDNA, while the amount of labeled hybridized RNA or cDNA provides an estimate of the relative representation of the RNA or cDNA of interest. See Schena, et al. Science 270:467-470 (1995). For example, use of a cDNA microarray to analyze gene expression patterns in human cancer is described by DeRisi, et al. (Nature Genetics 14:457-460 (1996)).  
      Nucleic acid probes corresponding to cancer-associated nucleic acids may be made. Typically, these probes are synthesized based on the disclosed cancer-associated genes. The nucleic acid probes attached to the biochip are designed to be substantially complementary to the cancer-associated nucleic acids, i.e. the target sequence (either the target sequence of the sample or to other probe sequences, for example in sandwich assays), such that specific hybridization of the target sequence and the probes of the present invention occurs. As outlined below, this complementarity need not be perfect, in that there may be any number of base pair mismatches that will interfere with hybridization between the target sequence and the single stranded nucleic acids of the present invention. It is expected that the overall homology of the genes at the nucleotide level will be about 40% or greater, about 60% or greater, or about 80% or greater; and in addition that there will be corresponding contiguous sequences of about 8-12 nucleotides or longer. However, if the number of mutations is so great that no hybridization can occur under even the least stringent of hybridization conditions, the sequence is not a complementary target sequence. Thus, by “substantially complementary” herein is meant that the probes are sufficiently complementary to the target sequences to hybridize under normal reaction conditions, particularly high stringency conditions, as outlined herein. Whether or not a sequence is unique to a cancer-associated gene according to this invention can be determined by techniques known to those of skill in the art. For example, the sequence can be compared to sequences in databanks, e.g., GenBank, to determine whether it is present in the uninfected host or other organisms. The sequence can also be compared to the known sequences of other viral agents, including those that are known to induce cancer.  
      A nucleic acid probe is generally single stranded but can be partly single and partly double stranded. The strandedness of the probe is dictated by the structure, composition, and properties of the target sequence. In general, the oligonucleotide probes range from about 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30 to about 100 bases long, from about 10 to about 80 bases, or from about 30 to about 50 bases. In some embodiments entire genes are used as probes. In some embodiments, much longer nucleic acids can be used, up to hundreds of bases. The probes are sufficiently specific to hybridize to complementary template sequence under conditions known by those of skill in the art. The number of mismatches between the probes sequences and their complementary template (target) sequences to which they hybridize during hybridization generally do not exceed 15%, 10% or 5%, as determined by FASTA (default settings).  
      Oligonucleotide probes can include the naturally-occurring heterocyclic bases normally found in nucleic acids (uracil, cytosine, thymine, adenine and guanine), as well as modified bases and base analogues. Any modified base or base analogue compatible with hybridization of the probe to a target sequence is useful in the practice of the invention. The sugar or glycoside portion of the probe can comprise deoxyribose, ribose, and/or modified forms of these sugars, such as, for example, 2′-O-alkyl ribose. In some embodiments, the sugar moiety is 2′-deoxyribose; however, any sugar moiety that is compatible with the ability of the probe to hybridize to a target sequence can be used.  
      The nucleoside units of the probe may be linked by a phosphodiester backbone, as is well known in the art. In some embodiments, internucleotide linkages can include any linkage known to one of skill in the art that is compatible with specific hybridization of the probe including, but not limited to phosphorothioate, methylphosphonate, sulfamate (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,470,967) and polyamide (i.e., peptide nucleic acids). Peptide nucleic acids are described in Nielsen et al. (1991) Science 254: 1497-1500, U.S. Pat. No. 5,714,331, and Nielsen (1999) Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 10:71-75.  
      The probe can be a chimeric molecule; i.e., can comprise more than one type of base or sugar subunit, and/or the linkages can be of more than one type within the same primer. The probe can comprise a moiety to facilitate hybridization to its target sequence, as are known in the art, for example, intercalators and/or minor groove binders. Variations of the bases, sugars, and internucleoside backbone, as well as the presence of any pendant group on the probe, will be compatible with the ability of the probe to bind, in a sequence-specific fashion, with its target sequence. A large number of structural modifications, both known and to be developed, are possible within these bounds. Advantageously, the probes according to the present invention may have structural characteristics such that they allow the signal amplification, such structural characteristics being, for example, branched DNA probes as those described by Urdea et al. (Nucleic Acids Symp. Ser., 24:197-200 (1991)) or in the European Patent No. EP-0225,807. Moreover, synthetic methods for preparing the various heterocyclic bases, sugars, nucleosides and nucleotides that form the probe, and preparation of oligonucleotides of specific predetermined sequence, are well-developed and known in the art. A method for oligonucleotide synthesis incorporates the teaching of U.S. Pat. No. 5,419,966.  
      Multiple probes may be designed for a particular target nucleic acid to account for polymorphism and/or secondary structure in the target nucleic acid, redundancy of data and the like. In some embodiments, where more than one probe per sequence is used, either overlapping probes or probes to different sections of a single target cancer-associated gene are used. That is, two, three, four or more probes, with three being preferred, are used to build in a redundancy for a particular target. The probes can be overlapping (i.e. have some sequence in common), or specific for distinct sequences of a cancer-associated gene. When multiple target polynucleotides are to be detected according to the present invention, each probe or probe group corresponding to a particular target polynucleotide is situated in a discrete area of the microarray.  
      Probes may be in solution, such as in wells or on the surface of a micro-array, or attached to a solid support. Examples of solid support materials that can be used include a plastic, a ceramic, a metal, a resin, a gel and a membrane. Useful types of solid supports include plates, beads, magnetic material, microbeads, hybridization chips, membranes, crystals, ceramics and self-assembling monolayers. Some embodiments comprise a two-dimensional or three-dimensional matrix, such as a gel or hybridization chip with multiple probe binding sites (Pevzner et al., J. Biomol. Struc. &amp; Dyn. 9:399-410, 1991; Maskos and Southern, Nuc. Acids Res. 20:1679-84, 1992). Hybridization chips can be used to construct very large probe arrays that are subsequently hybridized with a target nucleic acid. Analysis of the hybridization pattern of the chip can assist in the identification of the target nucleotide sequence. Patterns can be manually or computer analyzed, but it is clear that positional sequencing by hybridization lends itself to computer analysis and automation. Algorithms and software, which have been developed for sequence reconstruction, are applicable to the methods described herein (R. Drmanac et al., J. Biomol. Struc. &amp; Dyn. 5:1085-1102, 1991; P. A. Pevzner, J. Biomol. Struc. &amp; Dyn. 7:63-73, 1989).  
      As will be appreciated by those in the art, nucleic acids can be attached or immobilized to a solid support in a wide variety of ways. By “immobilized” herein is meant the association or binding between the nucleic acid probe and the solid support is sufficient to be stable under the conditions of binding, washing, analysis, and removal as outlined below. The binding can be covalent or non-covalent. By “non-covalent binding” and grammatical equivalents herein is meant one or more of electrostatic, hydrophilic, and hydrophobic interactions. Included in non-covalent binding is the covalent attachment of a molecule, such as streptavidin, to the support and the non-covalent binding of the biotinylated probe to the streptavidin. By “covalent binding” and grammatical equivalents herein is meant that the two moieties, the solid support and the probe, are attached by at least one bond, including sigma bonds, pi bonds and coordination bonds. Covalent bonds can be formed directly between the probe and the solid support or can be formed by a cross linker or by inclusion of a specific reactive group on either the solid support or the probe or both molecules. Immobilization may also involve a combination of covalent and non-covalent interactions.  
      Nucleic acid probes may be attached to the solid support by covalent binding such as by conjugation with a coupling agent or by, covalent or non-covalent binding such as electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonds or antibody-antigen coupling, or by combinations thereof. Typical coupling agents include biotin/avidin, biotin/streptavidin,  Staphylococcus aureus  protein A/IgG antibody Fc fragment, and streptavidin/protein A chimeras (T. Sano and C. R. Cantor, Bio/Technology 9:1378-81 (1991)), or derivatives or combinations of these agents. Nucleic acids may be attached to the solid support by a photocleavable bond, an electrostatic bond, a disulfide bond, a peptide bond, a diester bond or a combination of these sorts of bonds. The array may also be attached to the solid support by a selectively releasable bond such as 4,4′-dimethoxytrityl or its derivative. Derivatives which have been found to be useful include 3 or 4 [bis-(4-methoxyphenyl)]-methyl-benzoic acid, N-succinimidyl-3 or 4 [bis-(4-methoxyphenyl)]-methyl-benzoic acid, N-succinimidyl-3 or 4 [bis-(4-methoxyphenyl)]-hydroxymethyl-benzoic acid, N-succinimidyl-3 or 4 [bis-(4-methoxyphenyl)]-chloromethyl-benzoic acid, and salts of these acids.  
      Probes may be attached to biochips in a wide variety of ways, as will be appreciated by those in the art. As described herein, the nucleic acids can either be synthesized first, with subsequent attachment to the biochip, or can be directly synthesized on the biochip.  
      Biochips comprise a suitable solid substrate. By “substrate” or “solid support” or other grammatical equivalents herein is meant any material that can be modified to contain discrete individual sites appropriate for the attachment or association of the nucleic acid probes and is amenable to at least one detection method. The solid phase support of the present invention can be of any solid materials and structures suitable for supporting nucleotide hybridization and synthesis. In some embodiments, the solid phase support comprises at least one substantially rigid surface on which the primers can be immobilized and the reverse transcriptase reaction performed. The substrates with which the polynucleotide microarray elements are stably associated may be fabricated from a variety of materials, including plastics, ceramics, metals, acrylamide, cellulose, nitrocellulose, glass, polystyrene, polyethylene vinyl acetate, polypropylene, polymethacrylate, polyethylene, polyethylene oxide, polysilicates, polycarbonates, Teflon®, fluorocarbons, nylon, silicon rubber, polyanhydrides, polyglycolic acid, polylactic acid, polyorthoesters, polypropylfumerate, collagen, glycosaminoglycans, and polyamino acids. Substrates may be two-dimensional or three-dimensional in form, such as gels, membranes, thin films, glasses, plates, cylinders, beads, magnetic beads, optical fibers, woven fibers, etc. One form of array is a three-dimensional array. One type of three-dimensional array is a collection of tagged beads. Each tagged bead has different primers attached to it. Tags are detectable by signaling means such as color (Luminex, Illumina) and electromagnetic field (Pharmaseq) and signals on tagged beads can even be remotely detected (e.g., using optical fibers). The size of the solid support can be any of the standard microarray sizes, useful for DNA microarray technology, and the size may be tailored to fit the particular machine being used to conduct a reaction of the invention. In general, the substrates allow optical detection and do not appreciably fluoresce.  
      The surface of the biochip and the probe may be derivatized with chemical functional groups for subsequent attachment of the two. Thus, for example, the biochip is derivatized with a chemical functional group including, but not limited to, amino groups, carboxy groups, oxo groups and thiol groups, with amino groups being particularly preferred. Using these functional groups, the probes can be attached using functional groups on the probes. For example, nucleic acids containing amino groups can be attached to surfaces comprising amino groups, for example using linkers as are known in the art; for example, homo- or hetero-bifunctional linkers as are well known (see 1994 Pierce Chemical Company catalog, technical section on cross-linkers, pages 155-200, incorporated herein by reference). In addition, in some cases, additional linkers, such as alkyl groups (including substituted and heteroalkyl groups) may be used.  
      The oligonucleotides may be synthesized as is known in the art, and then attached to the surface of the solid support. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, either the 5′ or 3′ terminus may be attached to the solid support, or attachment may be via an internal nucleoside. In an additional embodiment, the immobilization to the solid support may be very strong, yet non-covalent. For example, biotinylated oligonucleotides can be made, which bind to surfaces covalently coated with streptavidin, resulting in attachment.  
      Arrays may be produced according to any convenient methodology, such as preforming the polynucleotide microarray elements and then stably associating them with the surface. Alternatively, the oligonucleotides may be synthesized on the surface, as is known in the art. A number of different array configurations and methods for their production are known to those of skill in the art and disclosed in WO 95/25116 and WO 95/35505 (photolithographic techniques), U.S. Pat. No. 5,445,934 (in situ synthesis by photolithography), U.S. Pat. No. 5,384,261 (in situ synthesis by mechanically directed flow paths); and U.S. Pat. No. 5,700,637 (synthesis by spotting, printing or coupling); the disclosure of which are herein incorporated in their entirety by reference. Another method for coupling DNA to beads uses specific ligands attached to the end of the DNA to link to ligand-binding molecules attached to a bead. Possible ligand-binding partner pairs include biotin-avidin/streptavidin, or various antibody/antigen pairs such as digoxygenin-antidigoxygenin antibody (Smith et al., “Direct Mechanical Measurements of the Elasticity of Single DNA Molecules by Using Magnetic Beads,” Science 258:1122-1126 (1992)). Covalent chemical attachment of DNA to the support can be accomplished by using standard coupling agents to link the 5′-phosphate on the DNA to coated microspheres through a phosphoamidate bond. Methods for immobilization of oligonucleotides to solid-state substrates are well established. See Pease et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91(11):5022-5026 (1994). One method of attaching oligonucleotides to solid-state substrates is described by Guo et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 22:5456-5465 (1994). Immobilization can be accomplished either by in situ DNA synthesis (Maskos and Southern, Nucleic Acids Research, 20:1679-1684 (1992) or by covalent attachment of chemically synthesized oligonucleotides (Guo et al., supra) in combination with robotic arraying technologies.  
      Expression Products  
      The term “expression products” as used herein refers to both nucleic acids, including, for example, mRNA, and polypeptide products produced by transcription and/or translation of PI3KR1, GNAS, NESP5, JAK1, neurogranin, HIPK1, or Nrf2.  
      The polypeptides may be in the form of a mature protein or may be a pre-, pro- or prepro-protein that can be activated by cleavage of the pre-, pro- or prepro-portion to produce an active mature polypeptide. In such polypeptides, the pre-, pro- or prepro-sequence may be a leader or secretory sequence or may be a sequence that is employed for purification of the mature polypeptide sequence. Such polypeptides are referred to as “cancer-associated polypeptides”.  
      The term “cancer-associated polypeptides” also includes variants such as fragments, homologs, fusions and mutants. Homologous polypeptides have at least 80% or more (i.e. at least 85, at least 90, at least 91, at least 92, at least 93, at least 94, at least 95, at least 96, at least 97, at least 98, at least 99%) sequence identity with a cancer-associated polypeptide as referred to above, as determined by the Smith-Waterman homology search algorithm using an affine gap search with a gap open penalty of 12 and a gap extension penalty of 2, BLOSUM matrix of 62. The Smith-Waterman homology search algorithm is taught in Smith and Waterman, Adv. Appl. Math. (1981) 2: 482-489. The variant polypeptides can be naturally or non-naturally glycosylated, i.e., the polypeptide has a glycosylation pattern that differs from the glycosylation pattern found in the corresponding naturally occurring protein.  
      Mutants can include amino acid substitutions, additions or deletions. The amino acid substitutions can be conservative amino acid substitutions or substitutions to eliminate non-essential amino acids, such as to alter a glycosylation site, a phosphorylation site or an acetylation site, or to minimize misfolding by substitution or deletion of one or more cysteine residues that are not necessary for function. Conservative amino acid substitutions are those that preserve the general charge, hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity, and/or steric bulk of the amino acid substituted. Variants of these products can be designed so as to retain or have enhanced biological activity of a particular region of the protein (e.g., a functional domain and/or, where the polypeptide is a member of a protein family, a region associated with a consensus sequence). Such variants may then be used in methods of detection or treatment. Selection of amino acid alterations for production of variants can be based upon the accessibility (interior vs. exterior) of the amino acid (see, e.g., Go et al, Int. J. Peptide Protein Res. (1980) 15:211), the thermostability of the variant polypeptide (see, e.g., Querol et al., Prot. Eng. (1996) 9:265), desired glycosylation sites (see, e.g., Olsen and Thomsen, J. Gen. Microbiol. (1991) 137:579), desired disulfide bridges (see, e.g., Clarke et al., Biochemistry (1993) 32:4322; and Wakarchuk et al., Protein Eng. (1994) 7:1379), desired metal binding sites (see, e.g., Toma et al., Biochemistry (1991) 30:97, and Haezerbrouck et al., Protein Eng. (1993) 6:643), and desired substitutions within proline loops (see, e.g., Masul et al., Appl. Env. Microbiol. (1994) 60:3579). Cysteine-depleted muteins can be produced as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,959,314.  
      Variants also include fragments of the polypeptides disclosed herein, particularly biologically active fragments and/or fragments corresponding to functional domains. Fragments of interest will typically be at least about 8 amino acids (aa) 10 aa, 15 aa, 20 aa, 25 aa, 30 aa, 35 aa, 40 aa, to at least about 45 aa in length, usually at least about 50 aa in length, at least about 75 aa, at least about 100 aa, at least about 125 aa, at least about 150 aa in length, at least about 200 aa, at least about 300 aa, at least about 400 aa and can be as long as 500 aa in length or longer, but will usually not exceed about 1000 aa in length, where the fragment will have a stretch of amino acids that is identical to a polypeptide encoded by a polynucleotide having a sequence of any one of the polynucleotide sequences provided herein, or a homolog thereof. The protein variants described herein are encoded by polynucleotides that are within the scope of the invention. The genetic code can be used to select the appropriate codons to construct the corresponding variants.  
      Altered levels of expression of the polypeptides encoded by cancer-associated genes may indicate that the gene and its products play a role in cancers. In some embodiments, a two-fold increase or decrease in the amount of complex formed is indicative of disease. In some embodiments, a 3-fold, 4-fold, 5-fold, 10-fold, 20-fold, 50-fold or even 100-fold increase or decrease in the amount of complex formed is indicative of disease.  
      Cancer-associated polypeptides may be shorter or longer than the wild type amino acid sequences, and the equivalent coding mRNAs may be similarly modified as compared to the wild type mRNA. Thus, included within the definition of cancer-associated polypeptides are portions or fragments of the wild type sequences herein. In addition, as outlined above, the cancer-associated genes may be used to obtain additional coding regions, and thus additional protein sequence, using techniques known in the art.  
      In some embodiments, the cancer-associated polypeptides are derivative or variant cancer-associated polypeptides as compared to the wild-type sequence. That is, as outlined more fully below, the derivative cancer-associated polypeptides will contain at least one amino acid substitution, deletion or insertion. The amino acid substitution, insertion or deletion may occur at any residue within the cancer-associated polypeptides.  
      Also included are amino acid sequence variants of cancer-associated polypeptides. These variants fall into one or more of three classes: substitutional, insertional or deletional variants. These variants ordinarily are prepared by site-specific mutagenesis of nucleotides in the DNA encoding the cancer associated protein, using cassette or PCR mutagenesis or other techniques well known in the art, to produce DNA encoding the variant, and thereafter expressing the DNA in recombinant cell culture as outlined above. However, variant cancer-associated polypeptide fragments having up to about 100-150 residues may be prepared by in vitro synthesis using established techniques. Amino acid sequence variants are characterized by the predetermined nature of the variation, a feature that sets them apart from naturally occurring allelic or interspecies variation of the cancer-associated polypeptide amino acid sequence. The variants typically exhibit the same qualitative biological activity as the naturally occurring analogue, although variants can also be selected which have modified characteristics as will be more fully outlined below.  
      While the site or region for introducing an amino acid sequence variation is predetermined, the mutation per se need not be predetermined. For example, in order to optimize the performance of a mutation at a given site, random mutagenesis may be conducted at the target codon or region and the expressed cancer-associated polypeptide variants screened for the optimal combination of desired activity. Techniques for making substitution mutations at predetermined sites in DNA having a known sequence are well known, for example, M13 primer mutagenesis and LAR mutagenesis. Screening of the mutants is done using assays of cancer-associated protein activities.  
      Amino acid substitutions are typically of single residues, though, of course may be of multiple residues; insertions usually will be on the order of from about 1 to 20 amino acids, although considerably larger insertions may be tolerated. Deletions range from about 1 to about 20 residues, although in some cases deletions may be much larger.  
      Substitutions, deletions, insertions or any combination thereof may be used to arrive at a final derivative. Generally these changes are done on a few amino acids to minimize the alteration of the molecule. However, larger changes may be tolerated in certain circumstances. When small alterations in the characteristics of the cancer-associated polypeptide are desired, substitutions are generally made in accordance with the following table:  
                           TABLE 1                                   Original Residue   Exemplary Substitutions                          Ala   Ser           Arg   Lys           Asn   Gln, His           Asp   Glu           Cys   Ser           Gln   Asn           Glu   Asp           Gly   Pro           His   Asn, Gln           Ile   Leu, Val           Leu   Ile, Val           Lys   Arg, Gln, Glu           Met   Leu, Ile           Phe   Met, Leu, Tyr           Ser   Thr           Thr   Ser           Trp   Tyr           Tyr   Trp, Phe           Val   Ile, Leu                      
 
      Substantial changes in function or immunological identity occur when substitutions are less conservative than those shown in Table 1. For example, substitutions may be made full length to more significantly affect one or more of the following: the structure of the polypeptide backbone in the area of the alteration (e.g., the alpha-helical or beta-sheet structure); the charge or hydrophobicity of the molecule at the target site; and the bulk of the side chain. The substitutions which in general are expected to produce the greatest changes in the polypeptide&#39;s properties are those in which (a) a hydrophilic residue, e.g. seryl or threonyl is substituted for (or by) a hydrophobic residue, e.g. leucyl, isoleucyl, phenylalanyl, valyl or alanyl; (b) a cysteine or proline is substituted for (or by) any other residue; (c) a residue having an electropositive side chain, e.g. lysyl, arginyl, or histidyl, is substituted for (or by) an electronegative residue, e.g. glutamyl or aspartyl; or (d) a residue having a bulky side chain, e.g. phenylalanine, is substituted for (or by) one not having a side chain, e.g. glycine.  
      The variants typically exhibit the same qualitative biological activity and will elicit the same immune response as the naturally-occurring analogue, although variants may also have modified characteristics.  
      The cancer-associated polypeptides may be themselves expressed and used in methods of detection and treatment. They may be further modified in order to assist with their use in such methods.  
      Covalent modifications of cancer-associated polypeptides may be utilized, for example in screening. One type of covalent modification includes reacting targeted amino acid residues of a cancer-associated polypeptide with an organic derivatizing agent that is capable of reacting with selected side chains or the N-or C-terminal residues of a cancer-associated polypeptide. Derivatization with bifunctional agents is useful, for instance, for crosslinking cancer-associated polypeptides to a water-insoluble support matrix or surface for use in the method for purifying anti-cancer-associated antibodies or screening assays, as is more fully described below. Commonly used crosslinking agents include, e.g., 1,1-bis(diazoacetyl)-2-phenylethane, glutaraldehyde, N-hydroxysuccinimide esters, for example, esters with 4-azidosalicylic acid, homobifunctional imidoesters, including disuccinimidyl esters such as 3,3′-dithiobis(succinimidylpropionate), bifunctional maleimides such as bis-N-maleimido-1,8-octane and agents such as methyl-3-[(p-azidophenyl)dithio]propioimidate.  
      Other modifications include deamidation of glutaminyl and asparaginyl residues to the corresponding glutamyl and aspartyl residues, respectively, hydroxylation of proline and lysine, phosphorylation of hydroxyl groups of seryl, threonyl or tyrosyl residues, methylation of the a-amino groups of lysine, arginine, and histidine side chains (T. E. Creighton, Proteins: Structure and Molecular Properties, W.H. Freeman &amp; Co., San Francisco, pp. 79-86 (1983)), acetylation of the N-terminal amine, and amidation of any C-terminal carboxyl group.  
      Another type of covalent modification of the cancer-associated polypeptide included within the scope of this invention comprises altering the native glycosylation pattern of the polypeptide. “Altering the native glycosylation pattern” is intended for purposes herein to mean deleting one or more carbohydrate moieties found in native sequence cancer-associated polypeptide, and/or adding one or more glycosylation sites that are not present in the native sequence cancer-associated polypeptide.  
      Addition of glycosylation sites to cancer-associated polypeptides may be accomplished by altering the amino acid sequence thereof. The alteration may be made, for example, by the addition of, or substitution by, one or more serine or threonine residues to the native sequence cancer-associated polypeptide (for O-linked glycosylation sites). The cancer-associated amino acid sequence may optionally be altered through changes at the DNA level, particularly by mutating the DNA encoding the cancer-associated polypeptide at preselected bases such that codons are generated that will translate into the desired amino acids.  
      Another means of increasing the number of carbohydrate moieties on the cancer-associated polypeptide is by chemical or enzymatic coupling of glycosides to the polypeptide. Such methods are described in the art, e.g., in WO 87/05330 published 11 Sep. 1987, and in Aplin and Wriston, LA Crit. Rev. Biochem., pp. 259-306 (1981).  
      Removal of carbohydrate moieties present on the cancer-associated polypeptide may be accomplished chemically or enzymatically or by mutational substitution of codons encoding for amino acid residues that serve as targets for glycosylation. Chemical deglycosylation techniques are known in the art and described, for instance, by Hakimuddin, et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 259:52 (1987) and by Edge et al., Anal. Biochem., 118:131 (1981). Enzymatic cleavage of carbohydrate moieties on polypeptides can be achieved by the use of a variety of endo-and exo-glycosidases as described by Thotakura et al., Meth. Enzymol., 138:350 (1987).  
      Another type of covalent modification of cancer-associated comprises linking the cancer-associated polypeptide to one of a variety of nonproteinaceous polymers, e.g., polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, or polyoxyalkylenes, in the manner set forth in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,640,835; 4,496,689; 4,301,144; 4,670,417; 4,791,192 or 4,179,337.  
      Cancer-associated polypeptides may also be modified in a way to form chimeric molecules comprising a cancer-associated polypeptide fused to another, heterologous polypeptide or amino acid sequence. In some embodiments, such a chimeric molecule comprises a fusion of a cancer-associated polypeptide with a tag polypeptide that provides an epitope to which an anti-tag antibody can selectively bind. The epitope tag is generally placed at the amino- or carboxyl-terminus of the cancer-associated polypeptide, although internal fusions may also be tolerated in some instances. The presence of such epitope-tagged forms of a cancer-associated polypeptide can be detected using an antibody against the tag polypeptide. Also, provision of the epitope tag enables the cancer-associated polypeptide to be readily purified by affinity purification using an anti-tag antibody or another type of affinity matrix that binds to the epitope tag. In an alternative embodiment, the chimeric molecule may comprise a fusion of a cancer-associated polypeptide with an immunoglobulin or a particular region of an immunoglobulin. For a bivalent form of the chimeric molecule, such a fusion could be to the Fc region of an IgG molecule.  
      Various tag polypeptides and their respective antibodies are well known in the art. Examples include poly-histidine (poly-his) or poly-histidine-glycine (poly-his-gly) tags; the flu HA tag polypeptide and its antibody 12CA5 (Field et al., Mol. Cell. Biol., 8:2159-2165 (1988)); the c-myc tag and the 8F9, 3C7, 6E10, G4, B7 and 9E10 antibodies thereto (Evan et al., Molecular and Cellular Biology, 5:3610-3616 (1985)); and the Herpes Simplex virus glycoprotein D (gD) tag and its antibody (Paborsky et al., Protein Engineering, 3(6):547-553 (1990)). Other tag polypeptides include the Flag-peptide (Hopp et al., BioTechnology, 6:1204-1210 (1988)); the KT3 epitope peptide (Martin et al., Science, 255:192-194 (1992)); tubulin epitope peptide (Skinner et al., J. Biol. Chem., 266:15163-15166 (1991)); and the T7 gene 10 protein peptide tag (Lutz-Freyermuth et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 87:6393-6397 (1990)).  
      Alternatively, other cancer-associated proteins of the cancer-associated protein family, and cancer-associated proteins from other organisms, may be cloned and expressed as outlined below. Thus, probe or degenerate polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primer sequences may be used to find other related cancer-associated proteins from humans or other organisms. As will be appreciated by those in the art, particularly useful probe and/or PCR primer sequences include the unique areas of the cancer-associated nucleic acid sequence. As is generally known in the art, PCR primers may be from about 15 to about 35 or from about 20 to about 30 nucleotides in length, and may contain inosine as needed. The conditions for the PCR reaction are well known in the art.  
      In addition, as is outlined herein, cancer-associated proteins can be made that are longer than those encoded by cancer-associated genes, for example, by the elucidation of additional sequences, the addition of epitope or purification tags, the addition of other fusion sequences, etc.  
      Cancer-associated proteins may also be identified as being encoded by cancer-associated nucleic acids. Thus, cancer-associated proteins are encoded by nucleic acids that will hybridize to the cancer-associated genes listed above, or their complements, as outlined herein.  
      Expression of Cancer Associated Polypeptides  
      Nucleic acids derived from cancer-associated genes encoding cancer-associated proteins may be used to make a variety of expression vectors to express cancer-associated proteins which can then be used in screening assays, as mentioned above. The expression vectors may be either self-replicating extrachromosomal vectors or vectors which integrate into a host genome. Generally, these expression vectors include transcriptional and translational regulatory nucleic acid operably linked to the nucleic acid encoding the cancer-associated protein. The term “control sequences” refers to DNA sequences necessary for the expression of an operably linked coding sequence in a particular host organism. The control sequences that are suitable for prokaryotes, for example, include a promoter, optionally an operator sequence, and a ribosome binding site. Eukaryotic cells are known to utilize promoters, polyadenylation signals, and enhancers.  
      Nucleic acid is “operably linked” when it is placed into a functional relationship with another nucleic acid sequence. For example, DNA for a presequence or secretory leader is operably linked to DNA for a polypeptide if it is expressed as a preprotein that participates in the secretion of the polypeptide; a promoter or enhancer is operably linked to a coding sequence if it affects the transcription of the sequence; or a ribosome binding site is operably linked to a coding sequence if it is positioned so as to facilitate translation. Generally, “operably linked” means that the DNA sequences being linked are contiguous, and, in the case of a secretory leader, contiguous and in reading phase. However, enhancers do not have to be contiguous. Linking is accomplished by ligation at convenient restriction sites. If such sites do not exist, synthetic oligonucleotide adaptors or linkers are used in accordance with conventional practice. The transcriptional and translational regulatory nucleic acid will generally be appropriate to the host cell used to express the cancer-associated protein; for example, transcriptional and translational regulatory nucleic acid sequences from  Bacillus  are preferably used to express the cancer-associated protein in  Bacillus . Numerous types of appropriate expression vectors, and suitable regulatory sequences are known in the art for a variety of host cells.  
      In general, the transcriptional and translational regulatory sequences may include, but are not limited to, promoter sequences, ribosomal binding sites, transcriptional start and stop sequences, translational start and stop sequences, and enhancer or activator sequences. In some embodiments, the regulatory sequences include a promoter and transcriptional start and stop sequences.  
      Promoter sequences encode either constitutive or inducible promoters. The promoters may be either naturally occurring promoters or hybrid promoters. Hybrid promoters, which combine elements of more than one promoter, are also known in the art, and are useful in the present invention.  
      In addition, the expression vector may comprise additional elements. For example, the expression vector may have two replication systems, thus allowing it to be maintained in two organisms, for example in mammalian or insect cells for expression and in a prokaryotic host for cloning and amplification. Furthermore, for integrating expression vectors, the expression vector contains at least one sequence homologous to the host cell genome, and preferably two homologous sequences that flank the expression construct. The integrating vector may be directed to a specific locus in the host cell by selecting the appropriate homologous sequence for inclusion in the vector. Constructs for integrating vectors are well known in the art.  
      In some embodiments, the expression vector contains a selectable marker gene to allow the selection of transformed host cells. Selection genes, including antibiotic resistance genes are well known in the art and will vary depending on the host cell used.  
      The cancer-associated proteins may be produced by culturing a host cell transformed with an expression vector containing nucleic acid encoding a cancer-associated protein, under the appropriate conditions to induce or cause expression of the cancer-associated protein. The conditions appropriate for cancer-associated protein expression will vary with the choice of the expression vector and the host cell, and will be easily ascertained by one skilled in the art through routine experimentation. For example, the use of constitutive promoters in the expression vector will require optimizing the growth and proliferation of the host cell, while the use of an inducible promoter requires the appropriate growth conditions for induction. In addition, in some embodiments, the timing of the harvest is important. For example, the baculoviral systems used in insect cell expression are lytic viruses, and thus harvest time selection can be crucial for product yield.  
      Appropriate host cells include yeast, bacteria, archaebacteria, fungi, and insect, plant and animal cells, including mammalian cells. Of particular interest are  Drosophila melanogaster  cells,  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  and other yeasts,  E. coli, Bacillus subtilis , Sf9 cells, C129 cells, 293 cells,  Neurospora , BHK, CHO, COS, HeLa cells, THP1 cell line (a macrophage cell line) and human cells and cell lines.  
      In some embodiments cancer-associated proteins are expressed in mammalian cells. Mammalian expression systems are also known in the art, and include retroviral systems. A preferred expression vector system is a retroviral vector system such as is generally described in WO97/27212 (PCT/US97/01019) and WO97/27213 (PCT/US97/01048), both of which are hereby expressly incorporated by reference. Of particular use as mammalian promoters are the promoters from mammalian viral genes, since the viral genes are often highly expressed and have a broad host range. Examples include the SV40 early promoter, mouse mammary tumor virus LTR promoter, adenovirus major late promoter, herpes simplex virus promoter, and the CMV promoter. Typically, transcription termination and polyadenylation sequences recognized by mammalian cells are regulatory regions located 3′ to the translation stop codon and thus, together with the promoter elements, flank the coding sequence. Examples of transcription terminator and polyadenylation signals include those derived form SV40.  
      The methods of introducing exogenous nucleic acid into mammalian hosts, as well as other hosts, are well known in the art, and will vary with the host cell used. Techniques include dextran-mediated transfection, calcium phosphate precipitation, polybrene mediated transfection, protoplast fusion, electroporation, viral infection, encapsulation of the polynucleotide(s) in liposomes, and direct microinjection of the DNA into nuclei.  
      In some embodiments, cancer-associated proteins are expressed in bacterial systems. Bacterial expression systems are well known in the art. Promoters from bacteriophage may also be used and are known in the art. In addition, synthetic promoters and hybrid promoters are also useful; for example, the tac promoter is a hybrid of the trp and lac promoter sequences. Furthermore, a bacterial promoter can include naturally occurring promoters of non-bacterial origin that have the ability to bind bacterial RNA polymerase and initiate transcription. In addition to a functioning promoter sequence, an efficient ribosome binding site is desirable. The expression vector may also include a signal peptide sequence that provides for secretion of the cancer-associated protein in bacteria. The protein is either secreted into the growth media (Gram-positive bacteria) or into the periplasmic space, located between the inner and outer membrane of the cell (Gram-negative bacteria). The bacterial expression vector may also include a selectable marker gene to allow for the selection of bacterial strains that have been transformed. Suitable selection genes include genes that render the bacteria resistant to drugs such as ampicillin, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, kanamycin, neomycin and tetracycline. Selectable markers also include biosynthetic genes, such as those in the histidine, tryptophan and leucine biosynthetic pathways. These components are assembled into expression vectors. Expression vectors for bacteria are well known in the art, and include vectors for  B. subtilis, E. coli, S. cremoris , and  S. lividans , among others. The bacterial expression vectors are transformed into bacterial host cells using techniques well known in the art, such as calcium chloride treatment, electroporation, and others.  
      Cancer-associated proteins may be produced in insect cells. Expression vectors for the transformation of insect cells, and in particular, baculovirus-based expression vectors, are well known in the art.  
      In some embodiments, cancer-associated proteins may be produced in yeast cells. Yeast expression systems are well known in the art, and include expression vectors for  S. cerevisiae, C. albicans  and  C. maltosa, H. polymorpha, K. fragilis, K. lactis, P. guillerimondii, P. pastoris, S. pombe , and  Y. lipolytica.    
      The cancer-associated protein may also be made as a fusion protein, using techniques well known in the art. Thus, for example, for the creation of monoclonal antibodies. If the desired epitope is small, the cancer-associated protein may be fused to a carrier protein to form an immunogen. Alternatively, the cancer-associated protein may be made as a fusion protein to increase expression, or for other reasons. For example, when the cancer-associated protein is a cancer-associated peptide, the nucleic acid encoding the peptide may be linked to other nucleic acid for expression purposes.  
      Cancer  
      In some embodiments, the cancer detected, diagnosed or treated by the methods of the invention is lymphoma or leukemia.  
      Antibodies  
      In some embodiments the invention uses antibodies that specifically bind to cancer-associated polypeptides expressed by the cancer-associated genes. The term “specifically binds” means that the antibodies have substantially greater affinity for their target cancer-associated polypeptide than their affinity for other related polypeptides. As used herein, the term “antibody” refers to intact molecules as well as to fragments thereof, such as Fab, F(ab′)2 and Fv, which are capable of binding to the antigenic determinant in question. By “substantially greater affinity” we mean that there is a measurable increase in the affinity for the target cancer-associated polypeptide of the invention as compared with the affinity for other related polypeptide. In some embodiments, the affinity is at least 1.5-fold, 2-fold, 5-fold 10-fold, 100-fold, 10 3 -fold, 10 4 -fold, 10 5 -fold, 10 6 -fold or greater for the target cancer-associated polypeptide.  
      In some embodiments, the antibodies bind with high affinity with a dissociation constant of 10 −4 M or less, 10 −7 M or less, 10 −9 M or less or with subnanomolar affinity (0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1 nM or even less).  
      When the cancer-associated polypeptides are to be used to generate antibodies, for example for immunotherapy, in some embodiments the cancer-associated polypeptide should share at least one epitope or determinant with the full-length protein. By “epitope” or “determinant” herein is meant a portion of a protein that will generate and/or bind an antibody or T-cell receptor in the context of MHC. Thus, in some instances, antibodies made to a smaller cancer-associated polypeptide will be able to bind to the full-length protein. In some embodiments, the epitope is unique; that is, antibodies generated to a unique epitope show little or no cross-reactivity.  
      Polypeptide sequence encoded by the cancer-associated genes may be analyzed to determine certain preferred regions of the polypeptide. Regions of high antigenicity are determined from data by DNASTAR analysis by choosing values that represent regions of the polypeptide that are likely to be exposed on the surface of the polypeptide in an environment in which antigen recognition may occur in the process of initiation of an immune response. For example, the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide encoded by a cancer-associated gene sequence may be analyzed using the default parameters of the DNASTAR computer algorithm (DNASTAR, Inc., Madison, Wis.; see the internet web site at dnastar.com).  
      In some embodiments, the antibodies of the present invention bind to orthologs, homologs, paralogs or variants, or combinations and subcombinations thereof, of cancer-associated polypeptides. In some embodiments, the antibodies of the present invention bind to orthologs of cancer-associated polypeptides. In some embodiments, the antibodies of the present invention bind to homologs of cancer-associated polypeptides. In some embodiments, the antibodies of the present invention bind to paralogs of cancer-associated polypeptides. In some embodiments, the antibodies of the present invention bind to variants of cancer-associated polypeptides. In some embodiments, the antibodies of the present invention do not bind to orthologs, homologs, paralogs or variants, or combinations and subcombinations thereof, of cancer-associated polypeptides.  
      Polypeptide features that may be routinely obtained using the DNASTAR computer algorithm include, but are not limited to, Garnier-Robson alpha-regions, beta-regions, turn-regions, and coil-regions (Garnier et al. J. Mol. Biol., 120: 97 (1978)); Chou-Fasman alpha-regions, beta-regions, and turn-regions (Adv. in Enzymol., 47:45-148 (1978)); Kyte-Doolittle hydrophilic regions and hydrophobic regions (J. Mol. Biol., 157:105-132 (1982)); Eisenberg alpha- and beta-amphipathic regions; Karplus-Schulz flexible regions; Emini surface-forming regions (J. Virol., 55(3):836-839 (1985)); and Jameson-Wolf regions of high antigenic index (CABIOS, 4(1):181-186 (1988)). Kyte-Doolittle hydrophilic regions and hydrophobic regions, Emini surface-forming regions, and Jameson-Wolf regions of high antigenic index (i.e., containing four or more contiguous amino acids having an antigenic index of greater than or equal to 1.5, as identified using the default parameters of the Jameson-Wolf program) can routinely be used to determine polypeptide regions that exhibit a high degree of potential for antigenicity. One approach for preparing antibodies to a protein is the selection and preparation of an amino acid sequence of all or part of the protein, chemically synthesizing the sequence and injecting it into an appropriate animal, typically a rabbit, hamster or a mouse. Oligopeptides can be selected as candidates for the production of an antibody to the cancer-associated protein based upon the oligopeptides lying in hydrophilic regions, which are thus likely to be exposed in the mature protein. Additional oligopeptides can be determined using, for example, the Antigenicity Index, Welling, G. W. et al., FEBS Lett. 188:215-218 (1985), incorporated herein by reference.  
      The term “antibody” as used herein includes antibody fragments, as are known in the art, including Fab, Fab2, single chain antibodies (Fv for example), chimeric antibodies, etc., either produced by the modification of whole antibodies or those synthesized de novo using recombinant DNA technologies.  
      The invention also provides antibodies that are SMIPs or binding domain immunoglobulin fusion proteins specific for target protein. These constructs are single-chain polypeptides comprising antigen binding domains fused to immunoglobulin domains necessary to carry out antibody effector functions. See e.g., WO03/041600, U.S. Patent publication 20030133939 and US Patent Publication 20030118592.  
      Methods of preparing polyclonal antibodies are known to the skilled artisan. Polyclonal antibodies can be raised in a mammal, for example, by one or more injections of an immunizing agent and, if desired, an adjuvant. Typically, the immunizing agent and/or adjuvant will be injected in the mammal by multiple subcutaneous or intraperitoneal injections. The immunizing agent may include a protein encoded by a nucleic acid of the figures or fragment thereof or a fusion protein thereof. It may be useful to conjugate the immunizing agent to a protein known to be immunogenic in the mammal being immunized. Examples of such immunogenic proteins include but are not limited to keyhole limpet hemocyanin, serum albumin, bovine thyroglobulin, and soybean trypsin inhibitor. Examples of adjuvants that may be employed include Freund&#39;s complete adjuvant and MPL-TDM adjuvant (monophosphoryl Lipid A, synthetic trehalose dicorynomycolate). The immunization protocol may be selected by one skilled in the art without undue experimentation.  
      In some embodiments the antibodies are monoclonal antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies may be prepared using hybridoma methods, such as those described by Kohler and Milstein, Nature, 256:495 (1975). In a hybridoma method, a mouse, hamster, or other appropriate host animal, is typically immunized with an immunizing agent to elicit lymphocytes that produce or are capable of producing antibodies that will specifically bind to the immunizing agent. Alternatively, the lymphocytes may be immunized in vitro. The immunizing agent will typically include a cancer-associated polypeptide, or fragment thereof or a fusion protein thereof. Generally, either peripheral blood lymphocytes (“PBLs”) are used if cells of human origin are desired, or spleen cells or lymph node cells are used if non-human mammalian sources are desired. The lymphocytes are then fused with an immortalized cell line using a suitable fusing agent, such as polyethylene glycol, to form a hybridoma cell (Goding, Monoclonal Antibodies: Principles and Practice, Academic Press, (1986) pp. 59-103). Immortalized cell lines are usually transformed mammalian cells, particularly myeloma cells of rodent, bovine and human origin. Usually, rat or mouse myeloma cell lines are employed. The hybridoma cells may be cultured in a suitable culture medium that preferably contains one or more substances that inhibit the growth or survival of the unfused, immortalized cells. For example, if the parental cells lack the enzyme hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT or HPRT), the culture medium for the hybridomas typically will include hypoxanthine, aminopterin, and thymidine (“HAT medium”), which substances prevent the growth of HGPRT-deficient cells.  
      Monoclonal antibody technology is used in implementing research, diagnosis and therapy. Monoclonal antibodies are used in radioimmunoassays, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, immunocytopathology, and flow cytometry for in vitro diagnosis, and in vivo for diagnosis and immunotherapy of human disease. Waldmann, T. A. (1991) Science 252:1657-1662. In particular, monoclonal antibodies have been widely applied to the diagnosis and therapy of cancer, wherein it is desirable to target malignant lesions while avoiding normal tissue. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,753,894 to Frankel, et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 4,938,948 to Ring et al.; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,956,453 to Bjorn et al. The antibodies may be bispecific antibodies. In some embodiments, one of the binding specificities is for a cancer-associated polypeptide, or a fragment thereof, the other one is for any other antigen, and preferably for a cell-surface protein or receptor or receptor subunit, preferably one that is tumor specific.  
      In some embodiments, the antibodies to cancer-associated polypeptides are capable of reducing or eliminating the biological function of cancer-associated polypeptides, as is described below. That is, the addition of anti-cancer-associated polypeptide antibodies (either polyclonal or preferably monoclonal) to cancer-associated polypeptides (or cells containing cancer-associated polypeptides) may reduce or eliminate the cancer-associated polypeptide activity. In some embodiments the antibodies of the present invention cause a decrease in activity of at least 25%, at least about 50%, or at least about 95-100%.  
      In some embodiments the antibodies to the cancer-associated polypeptides are humanized antibodies. “Humanized” antibodies refer to a molecule having an antigen binding site that is substantially derived from an immunoglobulin from a non-human species and the remaining immunoglobulin structure of the molecule based upon the structure and/or sequence of a human immunoglobulin. The antigen binding site may comprise either complete variable domains fused onto constant domains or only the complementarity determining regions (CDRs) grafted onto appropriate framework regions in the variable domains. Antigen binding sites may be wild type or modified by one or more amino acid substitutions, e.g., modified to resemble human immunoglobulin more closely. Alternatively, a humanized antibody may be derived from a chimeric antibody that retains or substantially retains the antigen-binding properties of the parental, non-human, antibody but which exhibits diminished immunogenicity as compared to the parental antibody when administered to humans. The phrase “chimeric antibody,” as used herein, refers to an antibody containing sequence derived from two different antibodies (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567) that typically originate from different species. Typically, in these chimeric antibodies, the variable region of both light and heavy chains mimics the variable regions of antibodies derived from one species of mammals, while the constant portions are homologous to the sequences in antibodies derived from another. Most typically, chimeric antibodies comprise human and murine antibody fragments, generally human constant and mouse variable regions. Humanized antibodies are made by replacing the complementarity determining regions (CDRs) of a human antibody (acceptor antibody) with those from a non-human antibody (donor antibody) such as mouse, rat or rabbit having the desired specificity, affinity and capacity. In some instances, Fv framework residues of the human “acceptor” antibody are replaced by corresponding non-human residues from the “donor” antibody. Humanized antibodies may also comprise residues that are found neither in the recipient antibody nor in the imported CDR or framework sequences. In general, the humanized antibody will comprise substantially all of at least one, and typically two, variable domains, in which all or substantially all of the CDR regions correspond to those of a non-human immunoglobulin and all or substantially all of the framework residues (FR) regions are those of a human immunoglobulin consensus sequence. The humanized antibody optimally also will comprise at least a portion of an immunoglobulin constant region (Fc), typically that of a human immunoglobulin (Jones et al., Nature, 321:522-525 (1986); Riechmann et al., Nature, 332:323-329 (1988); and Presta, Curr. Op. Struct. Biol., 2:593-596 (1992)). One clear advantage to such chimeric forms is that, for example, the variable regions can conveniently be derived from presently known sources using readily available hybridomas or B cells from non human host organisms in combination with constant regions derived from, for example, human cell preparations. While the variable region has the advantage of ease of preparation, and the specificity is not affected by its source, the constant region being human, is less likely to elicit an immune response from a human subject when the antibodies are injected than would the constant region from a non-human source. However, the definition is not limited to this particular example.  
      Because humanized antibodies are far less immunogenic in humans than the parental mouse monoclonal antibodies, they can be used for the treatment of humans with far less risk of anaphylaxis. Thus, these antibodies may be preferred in therapeutic applications that involve in vivo administration to a human such as, e.g., use as radiation sensitizers for the treatment of neoplastic disease or use in methods to reduce the side effects of, e.g., cancer therapy. Methods for humanizing non-human antibodies are well known in the art. Generally, a humanized antibody has one or more amino acid residues introduced into it from a source that is non-human. These non-human amino acid residues are often referred to as import residues, which are typically taken from an import variable domain. Humanization can be essentially performed following the method of Winter and co-workers (Jones et al., Nature 321:522-525 (1986); Riechmann et al., Nature 332:323-327 (1988); Verhoeyen et al., Science 239:1534-1536 (1988)), by substituting rodent CDRs or CDR sequences for the corresponding sequences of a human antibody. Accordingly, such humanized antibodies are chimeric antibodies (U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567), wherein substantially less than an intact human variable domain has been substituted by the corresponding sequence from a non-human species. In practice, humanized antibodies are typically human antibodies in which some CDR residues and possibly some FR residues are substituted by residues from analogous sites in rodent antibodies.  
      A number of “humanized” antibody molecules comprising an antigen-binding site derived from a non-human immunoglobulin have been described, including chimeric antibodies having rodent V regions and their associated CDRs fused to human constant domains (Winter et al. (1991) Nature 349:293-299; Lobuglio et al. (1989) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 86:4220-4224; Shaw et al. (1987) J. Immunol. 138:4534-4538; and Brown et al. (1987) Cancer Res. 47:3577-3583), rodent CDRs grafted into a human supporting FR prior to fusion with an appropriate human antibody constant domain (Riechmann et al. (1988) Nature 332:323-327; Verhoeyen et al. (1988) Science 239:1534-1536; and Jones et al. (1986) Nature 321:522-525), and rodent CDRs supported by recombinantly veneered rodent FRs (European Patent Publication No. 519,596, published Dec. 23, 1992).  
      Human antibodies can also be produced using various techniques known in the art, including phage display libraries [Hoogenboom and Winter, J. Mol. Biol., 227:381 (1991); Marks et al., J. Mol. Biol., 222:581 (1991)]. The techniques of Cole et al. and Boemer et al. are also available for the preparation of human monoclonal antibodies (Cole et al., Monoclonal Antibodies and Cancer Therapy, Alan R. Liss, p. 77 (1985) and Boerner et al., J. Immunol., 147(1):86-95 (1991)). Humanized antibodies may be achieved by a variety of methods including, for example: (1) grafting the non-human complementarity determining regions (CDRs) onto a human framework and constant region (a process referred to in the art as “humanizing”), or, alternatively, (2) transplanting the entire non-human variable domains, but “cloaking” them with a human-like surface by replacement of surface residues (a process referred to in the art as “veneering”). In the present invention, humanized antibodies will include both “humanized” and “veneered” antibodies. Similarly, human antibodies can be made by introducing human immunoglobulin loci into transgenic animals, e.g., mice in which the endogenous immunoglobulin genes have been partially or completely inactivated. Upon challenge, human antibody production is observed, which closely resembles that seen in humans in all respects, including gene rearrangement, assembly, and antibody repertoire. This approach is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,545,807; 5,545,806; 5,569,825; 5,625,126; 5,633,425; 5,661,016, and in the following scientific publications: Marks et al., Bio/Technology 10, 779-783 (1992); Lonberg et al., Nature 368 856-859 (1994); Morrison, Nature 368, 812-13 (1994); Fishwild et al., Nature Biotechnology 14, 845-51 (1996); Neuberger, Nature Biotechnology 14, 826 (1996); Lonberg and Huszar, Intem. Rev. Immunol. 13 65-93 (1995); Jones et al., Nature 321:522-525 (1986); Morrison et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, U.S.A., 81:6851-6855 (1984); Morrison and Oi, Adv. Immunol., 44:65-92 (1988); Verhoeyer et al., Science 239:1534-1536 (1988); Padlan, Molec. Immun. 28:489-498 (1991); Padlan, Molec. Immunol. 31(3):169-217 (1994); and Kettleborough, C. A. et al., Protein Eng. 4(7):773-83 (1991) each of which is incorporated herein by reference. Antibodies of the present invention can also be produced using human engineering techniques as discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,766,886, which is incorporated herein by reference.  
      The phrase “complementarity determining region” refers to amino acid sequences which together define the binding affinity and specificity of the natural Fv region of a native immunoglobulin binding site. See, e.g., Chothia et al., J. Mol. Biol. 196:901-917 (1987); Kabat et al., U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services NIH Publication No. 91-3242 (1991). The phrase “constant region” refers to the portion of the antibody molecule that confers effector functions. In the present invention, mouse constant regions are substituted by human constant regions. The constant regions of the subject humanized antibodies are derived from human immunoglobulins. The heavy chain constant region can be selected from any of the five isotypes: alpha, delta, epsilon, gamma or mu. One method of humanizing antibodies comprises aligning the non-human heavy and light chain sequences to human heavy and light chain sequences, selecting and replacing the non-human framework with a human framework based on such alignment, molecular modeling to predict the conformation of the humanized sequence and comparing to the conformation of the parent antibody. This process is followed by repeated back mutation of residues in the CDR region that disturb the structure of the CDRs until the predicted conformation of the humanized sequence model closely approximates the conformation of the non-human CDRs of the parent non-human antibody. Such humanized antibodies may be further derivatized to facilitate uptake and clearance, e.g, via Ashwell receptors. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,530,101 and 5,585,089 which are incorporated herein by reference.  
      Humanized antibodies to cancer-associated polypeptides can also be produced using transgenic animals that are engineered to contain human immunoglobulin loci. For example, WO 98/24893 discloses transgenic animals having a human Ig locus wherein the animals do not produce functional endogenous immunoglobulins due to the inactivation of endogenous heavy and light chain loci. WO 91/10741 also discloses transgenic non-primate mammalian hosts capable of mounting an immune response to an immunogen, wherein the antibodies have primate constant and/or variable regions, and wherein the endogenous immunoglobulin-encoding loci are substituted or inactivated. WO 96/30498 discloses the use of the Cre/Lox system to modify the immunoglobulin locus in a mammal, such as to replace all or a portion of the constant or variable region to form a modified antibody molecule. WO 94/02602 discloses non-human mammalian hosts having inactivated endogenous Ig loci and functional human Ig loci. U.S. Pat. No. 5,939,598 discloses methods of making transgenic mice in which the mice lack endogenous heavy chains, and express an exogenous immunoglobulin locus comprising one or more xenogeneic constant regions.  
      Using a transgenic animal described above, an immune response can be produced to a selected antigenic molecule, and antibody-producing cells can be removed from the animal and used to produce hybridomas that secrete human monoclonal antibodies. Immunization protocols, adjuvants, and the like are known in the art, and are used in immunization of, for example, a transgenic mouse as described in WO 96/33735. The monoclonal antibodies can be tested for the ability to inhibit or neutralize the biological activity or physiological effect of the corresponding protein.  
      In some embodiments, cancer-associated polypeptides as recited above and variants thereof may be used to immunize a transgenic animal as described above. Monoclonal antibodies are made using methods known in the art, and the specificity of the antibodies is tested using isolated cancer-associated polypeptides. Methods for preparation of the human or primate cancer-associated or an epitope thereof include, but are not limited to chemical synthesis, recombinant DNA techniques or isolation from biological samples. Chemical synthesis of a peptide can be performed, for example, by the classical Merrifeld method of solid phase peptide synthesis (Merrifeld, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 85:2149, 1963 which is incorporated by reference) or the FMOC strategy on a Rapid Automated Multiple Peptide Synthesis system (E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company, Wilmington, Del.) (Caprino and Han, J. Org. Chem. 37:3404, 1972 which is incorporated by reference).  
      Polyclonal antibodies can be prepared by immunizing rabbits or other animals by injecting antigen followed by subsequent boosts at appropriate intervals. Alternative animals include mice, rats, chickens, guinea pigs, sheep, horses, monkeys, camels and sharks. The animals are bled and sera assayed against purified cancer-associated proteins usually by ELISA or by bioassay based upon the ability to block the action of cancer-associated proteins. When using avian species, e.g., chicken, turkey and the like, the antibody can be isolated from the yolk of the egg. Monoclonal antibodies can be prepared after the method of Milstein and Kohler by fusing splenocytes from immunized mice with continuously replicating tumor cells such as myeloma or lymphoma cells. (Milstein and Kohler, Nature 256:495-497, 1975; Gulfre and Milstein, Methods in Enzymology: Immunochemical Techniques 73:1-46, Langone and Banatis eds., Academic Press, 1981 which are incorporated by reference). The hybridoma cells so formed are then cloned by limiting dilution methods and supernates assayed for antibody production by ELISA, RIA or bioassay.  
      The unique ability of antibodies to recognize and specifically bind to target proteins provides an approach for treating an overexpression of the protein. Thus, in some embodiments the present invention provides methods for preventing or treating diseases involving overexpression of a cancer-associated polypeptide by treatment of a patient with specific antibodies to the cancer-associated protein.  
      Specific antibodies, either polyclonal or monoclonal, to the cancer-associated proteins can be produced by any suitable method known in the art as discussed above. For example, murine or human monoclonal antibodies can be produced by hybridoma technology or, alternatively, the cancer-associated proteins, or an immunologically active fragment thereof, or an anti-idiotypic antibody, or fragment thereof can be administered to an animal to elicit the production of antibodies capable of recognizing and binding to the cancer-associated proteins. Such antibodies can be from any class of antibodies including, but not limited to IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE or in the case of avian species, IgY and from any subclass of antibodies.  
      In some embodiments the antibodies of the present invention are neutralizing antibodies. In some embodiments the antibodies are targeting antibodies. In some embodiments, the antibodies are internalized upon binding a target. In some embodiments the antibodies do not become internalized upon binding a target and instead remain on the surface.  
      The antibodies of the present invention can be screened for the ability to either be rapidly internalized upon binding to the tumor-cell antigen in question, or for the ability to remain on the cell surface following binding. In some embodiments, for example in the construction of some types of immunoconjugates, the ability of an antibody to be internalized may be desired if internalization is required to release the toxin moiety. Alternatively, if the antibody is being used to promote ADCC or CDC, it may be more desirable for the antibody to remain on the cell surface. A screening method can be used to differentiate these type behaviors. For example, a tumor cell antigen bearing cell may be used where the cells are incubated with human IgG1 (control antibody) or one of the antibodies of the invention at a concentration of approximately 1 μg/mL on ice (with 0.1% sodium azide to block internalization) or 37° C. (without sodium azide) for 3 hours. The cells are then washed with cold staining buffer (PBS+1% BSA+0.1% sodium azide), and are stained with goat anti-human IgG-FITC for 30 minutes on ice. Geometric mean fluorescent intensity (MFI) is recorded by FACS Calibur. If no difference in MFI is observed between cells incubated with the antibody of the invention on ice in the presence of sodium azide and cells observed at 37° C. in the absence of sodium azide, the antibody will be suspected to be one that remains bound to the cell surface, rather than being internalized. If however, a decrease in surface stainable antibody is found when the cells are incubated at 37° C. in the absence of sodium azide, the antibody will be suspected to be one which is capable of internalization.  
      Antibody Conjugates  
      In some embodiments, the antibodies of the invention are conjugated. In some embodiments, the conjugated antibodies are useful for cancer therapeutics, cancer diagnosis, or imaging of cancerous cells.  
      For diagnostic applications, the antibody typically will be labeled with a detectable moiety. Numerous labels are available which can be generally grouped into the following categories:  
      (a) Radionuclides such as those discussed infra. The antibody can be labeled, for example, with the radioisotope using the techniques described in Current Protocols in Immunology, Volumes 1 and 2, Coligen et al., Ed. Wiley-Interscience, New York, N.Y., Pubs. (1991) for example and radioactivity can be measured using scintillation counting.  
      (b) Fluorescent labels such as rare earth chelates (europium chelates) or fluorescein and its derivatives, rhodamine and its derivatives, dansyl, Lissamine, phycoerythrin and Texas Red are available. The fluorescent labels can be conjugated to the antibody using the techniques disclosed in Current Protocols in Immunology, supra, for example. Fluorescence can be quantified using a fluorimeter.  
      (c) Various enzyme-substrate labels are available and U.S. Pat. No. 4,275,149 provides a review of some of these. The enzyme generally catalyzes a chemical alteration of the chromogenic substrate which can be measured using various techniques. For example, the enzyme may catalyze a color change in a substrate, which can be measured spectrophotometrically. Alternatively, the enzyme may alter the fluorescence or chemiluminescence of the substrate. Techniques for quantifying a change in fluorescence are described above. The chemiluminescent substrate becomes electronically excited by a chemical reaction and may then emit light which can be measured (using a chemiluminometer, for example) or donates energy to a fluorescent acceptor. Examples of enzymatic labels include luciferases (e.g., firefly luciferase and bacterial luciferase; U.S. Pat. No. 4,737,456), luciferin, 2,3-dihydrophthalazinediones, malate dehydrogenase, urease, peroxidase such as horseradish peroxidase (HRPO), alkaline phosphatase, beta.-galactosidase, glucoamylase, lysozyme, saccharide oxidases (e.g., glucose oxidase, galactose oxidase, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase), heterocyclic oxidases (such as uricase and xanthine oxidase), lactoperoxidase, microperoxidase, and the like. Techniques for conjugating enzymes to antibodies are described in O&#39;Sullivan et al., Methods for the Preparation of Enzyme-Antibody Conjugates for use in Enzyme Immunoassay, in Methods in Enzym. (ed J. Langone &amp; H. Van Vunakis), Academic press, New York, 73:147-166 (1981).  
      The antibodies may also be used for in vivo diagnostic assays. In some embodiments, the antibody is labeled with a radionuclide so that the tumor can be localized using immunoscintiography. As a matter of convenience, the antibodies of the present invention can be provided in a kit, i.e., a packaged combination of reagents in predetermined amounts with instructions for performing the diagnostic assay. Where the antibody is labeled with an enzyme, the kit may include substrates and cofactors required by the enzyme (e.g., a substrate precursor which provides the detectable chromophore or fluorophore). In addition, other additives may be included such as stabilizers, buffers (e.g., a block buffer or lysis buffer) and the like. The relative amounts of the various reagents may be varied widely to provide for concentrations in solution of the reagents which substantially optimize the sensitivity of the assay. Particularly, the reagents may be provided as dry powders, usually lyophilized, including excipients which on dissolution will provide a reagent solution having the appropriate concentration.  
      In some embodiments, antibodies are conjugated to one or more maytansine molecules (e.g. about 1 to about 10 maytansine molecules per antibody molecule). Maytansine may, for example, be converted to May-SS-Me which may be reduced to May-SH3 and reacted with modified antibody (Chari et al. Cancer Research 52: 127-131 (1992)) to generate a maytansinoid-antibody immunoconjugate. In some embodiments, the conjugate may be the highly potent maytansine derivative DM1 (N2′-deacetyl-N2′-(3-mercapto-1-oxopropyl)-maytansine) (see for example WO02/098883 published Dec. 12, 2002) which has an IC 50  of approximately 10 −11  M (review, see Payne (2003) Cancer Cell 3:207-212) or DM4 (N2′-deacetyl-N2′(4-methyl--4-mercapto-1-oxopentyl)-maytansine) (see, for example, WO2004/103272 published Dec. 2, 2004).  
      In some embodiments the antibody conjugate comprises an anti-tumor cell antigen antibody conjugated to one or more calicheamicin molecules. The calicheamicin family of antibiotics is capable of producing double-stranded DNA breaks at sub-picomolar concentrations. Structural analogues of calicheamicin which may be used include, but are not limited to, gamma 1 I, alpha 2 I, alpha 3 I, N-acetyl-gamma 1 I, PSAG and thetaI 1  (Hinman et al. Cancer Research 53: 3336-3342 (1993) and Lode et al. Cancer Research 58: 2925-2928 (1998)). See, also, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,714,586; 5,712,374; 5,264,586; and 5,773,001, each of which is expressly incorporated herein by reference.  
      In some embodiments the antibody is conjugated to a prodrug capable of being release in its active form by enzymes overproduced in many cancers. For example, antibody conjugates can be made with a prodrug form of doxorubicin wherein the active component is released from the conjugate by plasmin. Plasmin is known to be over produced in many cancerous tissues (see Decy et al, (2004) FASEB Journal 18(3): 565-567).  
      In some embodiments the antibodies are conjugated to enzymatically active toxins and fragments thereof. In some embodiments the toxins include, without limitation, diphtheria A chain, nonbinding active fragments of diphtheria toxin, exotoxin A chain (from  Pseudomonas aeruginosa ),  Pseudomonas  endotoxin, ricin A chain, abrin A chain, modeccin A chain, alpha-sarcin,  Aleurites fordii  proteins, dianthin proteins,  Phytolaca americana  proteins (PAPI, PAPII, and PAP-S), Ribonuclease (Rnase), Deoxyribonuclease (Dnase), pokeweed antiviral protein,  momordica charantia  inhibitor, curcin, crotin, sapaonaria officinalis inhibitor, gelonin, mitogellin, restrictocin, phenomycin, neomycin and the tricothecenes. See, for example, WO 93/21232 published Oct. 28, 1993. In some embodiments the toxins have low intrinsic immunogenicity and a mechanism of action (e.g. a cytotoxic mechanism versus a cytostatic mechanism) that reduces the opportunity for the cancerous cells to become resistant to the toxin.  
      In some embodiments conjugates made between the antibodies of the invention and immunomodulators. For example, in some embodiments immunostimulatory oligonucleotides can be used. These molecules are potent immunogens that can elicit antigen-specific antibody responses (see Datta et al, (2003) Ann N.Y. Acad. Sci 1002: 105-111). Additional immunomodulatory compounds can include stem cell growth factor such as “SI factor”, lymphotoxins such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF), hematopoietic factor such as an interleukin, colony stimulating factor (CSF) such as granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) or granulocyte macrophage-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interferon (IFN) such as interferon alpha, beta or gamma, erythropoietin, and thrombopoietin.  
      In some embodiments radioconjugated antibodies are provided. In some embodiments such antibodies can be made using  32 P,  33 P,  47 Sc,  59 Fe,  64 Cu,  67 Cu,  75 Se,  77 As,  89 Sr,  90 Y,  99 Mo,  105 Rh,  109 Pd,  125 I,  131 I,  142 Pr,  143 Pr,  149 Pm,  153 Sm, 161Th,  166 Ho,  169 Er,  177 Lu,  186 Re,  188 Re,  189 Re,  194 Ir,  198 Au,  199 Au,  211 Pb,  212 Pb,  213 Bi,  58 Co,  67 Ga,  80m Br,  99m Tc,  103m Rh,  109 Pt,  161 Ho,  189m Os,  192 Ir,  152 Dy,  211 At,  212 Bi,  223 Ra,  219 Rn  215 Po,  211 Bi,  225 Ac,  221 Fr,  217 At,  213 Bi,  255 Fm and combinations and subcombinations thereof. In some embodiments, boron, gadolinium or uranium atoms are conjugated to the antibodies. In some embodiments the boron atom is  10 B, the gadolinium atom is  157 Gd and the uranium atom is  235 U.  
      In some embodiments the radionuclide conjugate has a radionuclide with an energy between 20 and 10,000 keV. The radionuclide can be an Auger emitter, with an energy of less than 1000 keV, a P emitter with an energy between 20 and 5000 keV, or an alpha or ‘a’ emitter with an energy between 2000 and 10,000 keV.  
      In some embodiments diagnostic radioconjugates are provided which comprise a radionuclide that is a gamma-, beta-, or positron-emitting isotope. In some embodiments the radionuclide has an energy between 20 and 10,000 keV. In some embodiments the radionuclide is selected from the group of  8 F,  51 Mn,  52m Mn,  52 Fe,  55 Co,  62 Cu,  64 Cu,  68 Ga,  72 As,  75 Br,  76 Br,  82m Rb,  83 Sr,  86 Y,  89 Zr,  94m Tc,  51 Cr,  57 Co,  58 Co,  59 Fe,  67 CU,  67 Ga,  75 Se,  97 Ru,  99m Tc,  114m In,  123 I,  125 I,  13 Li and  197 Hg.  
      In some embodiments the antibodies of the invention are conjugated to diagnostic agents that are photoactive or contrast agents. Photoactive compounds can comprise compounds such as chromagens or dyes. Contrast agents may be, for example a paramagnetic ion, wherein the ion comprises a metal selected from the group of chromium (III), manganese (II), iron (III), iron (II), cobalt (II), nickel (II), copper (II), neodymium (III), samarium (III), ytterbium (III), gadolinium (III), vanadium (II), terbium (III), dysprosium (III), holmium (III) and erbium (III). The contrast agent may also be a radio-opaque compound used in X-ray techniques or computed tomography, such as an iodine, iridium, barium, gallium and thallium compound. Radioopaque compounds may be selected from the group of barium, diatrizoate, ethiodized oil, gallium citrate, iocarmic acid, iocetamic acid, iodamide, iodipamide, iodoxamic acid, iogulamide, iohexol, iopamidol, iopanoic acid, ioprocemic acid, iosefamic acid, ioseric acid, iosulamide meglumine, iosemetic acid, iotasul, iotetric acid, iothalamic acid, iotroxic acid, ioxaglic acid, ioxotrizoic acid, ipodate, meglumine, metrizamide, metrizoate, propyliodone, and thallous chloride. In some embodiments, the diagnostic immunoconjugates may contain ultrasound-enhancing agents such as a gas filled liposome that is conjugated to an antibody of the invention. Diagnostic immunoconjugates may be used for a variety of procedures including, but not limited to, intraoperative, endoscopic or intravascular methods of tumor or cancer diagnosis and detection.  
      In some embodiments antibody conjugates are made using a variety of bifunctional protein coupling agents such as N-succinimidyl-3-(2-pyridyldithiol) propionate (SPDP), succinimidyl-4-(N-maleimidomethyl) cyclohexane-1-carboxylate, iminothiolane (IT), bifunctional derivatives of imidoesters (such as dimethyl adipimidate HCL), active esters (such as disuccinimidyl suberate), aldehydes (such as glutareldehyde), bis-azido compounds (such as bis (p-azidobenzoyl) hexanediamine), bis-diazonium derivatives (such as bis-(p-diazoniumbenzoyl)-ethylenediamine), diisocyanates (such as tolyene 2,6-diisocyanate), and bis-active fluorine compounds (such as 1,5-difluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene). For example, a ricin immunotoxin can be prepared as described in Vitetta et al. Science 238: 1098 (1987). Carbon-14-labeled 1-isothiocyanatobenzyl-3-methyldiethylene triaminepentaacetic acid (MX-DTPA) is an exemplary chelating agent for conjugation of radionucleotide to the antibody. See WO94/11026. The linker may be a “cleavable linker” facilitating release of the cytotoxic drug in the cell. For example, an acid-labile linker, peptidase-sensitive linker, dimethyl linker or disulfide-containing linker (Chari et al. Cancer Research 52: 127-131 (1992)) may be used. Agents may be additionally be linked to the antibodies of the invention through a carbohydrate moiety.  
      In some embodiments fusion proteins comprising the antibodies of the invention and cytotoxic agents may be made, e.g. by recombinant techniques or peptide synthesis. In some embodiments such immunoconjugates comprising the anti-tumor antigen antibody conjugated with a cytotoxic agent are administered to the patient. In some embodiments the immunoconjugate and/or tumor cell antigen protein to which it is bound is/are internalized by the cell, resulting in increased therapeutic efficacy of the immunoconjugate in killing the cancer cell to which it binds. In some embodiments, the cytotoxic agent targets or interferes with nucleic acid in the cancer cell. Examples of such cytotoxic agents include maytansinoids, calicheamicins, ribonucleases and DNA endonucleases.  
      In some embodiments the antibodies are conjugated to a “receptor” (such as streptavidin) for utilization in tumor pretargeting wherein the antibody-receptor conjugate is administered to the patient, followed by removal of unbound conjugate from the circulation using a clearing agent and then administration of a “ligand” (e.g. avidin) which is conjugated to a cytotoxic agent (e.g. a radionucleotide).  
      In some embodiments the antibodies are conjugated to a cytotoxic molecule which is released inside a target cell lysozome. For example, the drug monomethyl auristatin E (MMAE) can be conjugated via a valine-citrulline linkage which will be cleaved by the proteolytic lysozomal enzyme cathepsin B following internalization of the antibody conjugate (see for example WO03/026577 published Apr. 3, 2003). In some embodiments, the MMAE can be attached to the antibody using an acid-labile linker containing a hydrazone functionality as the cleavable moiety (see for example WO02/088172 published Nov. 11, 2002). Antibody Dependent Enzyme Mediated Prodrug Therapy (ADEP™)  
      In some embodiments the antibodies of the present invention may also be used in ADEPT by conjugating the antibody to a prodrug-activating enzyme which converts a prodrug (e.g. a peptidyl chemotherapeutic agent, see WO81/01145) to an active anti-cancer drug. See, for example, WO 88/07378 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,975,278.  
      In some embodiments the enzyme component of the immunoconjugate useful for ADEPT includes any enzyme capable of acting on a prodrug in such a way so as to covert it into its more active, cytotoxic form.  
      Enzymes that are useful in ADEPT include, but are not limited to, alkaline phosphatase useful for converting phosphate-containing prodrugs into free drugs; arylsulfatase useful for converting sulfate-containing prodrugs into free drugs; cytosine deaminase useful for converting non-toxic 5-fluorocytosine into the anti-cancer drug, 5-fluorouracil; proteases, such as  serratia  protease, thermolysin, subtilisin, carboxypeptidases and cathepsins (such as cathepsins B and L), that are useful for converting peptide-containing prodrugs into free drugs; D-alanylcarboxypeptidases, useful for converting prodrugs that contain D-amino acid substituents; carbohydrate-cleaving enzymes such as .beta.-galactosidase and neuraminidase useful for converting glycosylated prodrugs into free drugs; beta-lactamase useful for converting drugs derivatized with .beta.-lactams into free drugs; and penicillin amidases, such as penicillin V amidase or penicillin G amidase, useful for converting drugs derivatized at their amine nitrogens with phenoxyacetyl or phenylacetyl groups, respectively, into free drugs. In some embodiments antibodies with enzymatic activity, also known in the art as “abzymes”, can be used to convert the prodrugs of the invention into free active drugs (see, e.g., Massey, Nature 328: 457-458 (1987)). Antibody-abzyme conjugates can be prepared as described herein for delivery of the abzyme to a tumor cell population.  
      In some embodiments the ADEPT enzymes can be covalently bound to the antibodies by techniques well known in the art such as the use of the heterobifunctional crosslinking reagents discussed above. In some embodiments, fusion proteins comprising at least the antigen binding region of an antibody of the invention linked to at least a functionally active portion of an enzyme of the invention can be constructed using recombinant DNA techniques well known in the art (see, e.g., Neuberger et al., Nature, 312: 604-608 (1984).  
      In some embodiments identification of an antibody that acts in a cytostatic manner rather than a cytotoxic manner can be accomplished by measuring viability of a treated target cell culture in comparison with a non-treated control culture. Viability can be detected using methods known in the art such as the CellTiter-Blue® Cell Viability Assay or the CellTiter-Glo® Luminescent Cell Viability Assay (Promega, catalog numbers G8080 and G5750 respectively). In some embodiments an antibody is considered as potentially cytostatic if treatment causes a decrease in cell number in comparison to the control culture without any evidence of cell death as measured by the means described above.  
      In some embodiments an in vitro screening assay can be performed to identify an antibody that promotes ADCC using assays known in the art. One exemplary assay is the In Vitro ADCC Assay. To prepare chromium 51-labeled target cells, tumor cell lines are grown in tissue culture plates and harvested using sterile 10 mM EDTA in PBS. The detached cells are washed twice with cell culture medium. Cells (5×10 6 ) are labeled with 200 μCi of chromium 51 (New England Nuclear/DuPont) at 37° C. for one hour with occasional mixing. Labeled cells were washed three times with cell culture medium, then are resuspended to a concentration of 1×10 5  cells/mL. Cells are used either without opsonization, or are opsonized prior to the assay by incubation with test antibody at 100 ng/mL and 1.25 ng/mL in PBMC assay or 20 ng/mL and 1 ng/mL in NK assay. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells are prepared by collecting blood on heparin from normal healthy donors and diluted with an equal volume of phosphate buffered saline (PBS). The blood is then layered over LYMPHOCYTE SEPARATION MEDIUM® (LSM: Organon Teknika) and centrifuged according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Mononuclear cells are collected from the LSM-plasma interface and are washed three times with PBS. Effector cells are suspended in cell culture medium to a final concentration of 1×10 7  cells/mL. After purification through LSM, natural killer (NK) cells are isolated from PBMCs by negative selection using an NK cell isolation kit and a magnetic column (Miltenyi Biotech) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Isolated NK cells are collected, washed and resuspended in cell culture medium to a concentration of 2×10 6  cells/mL. The identity of the NK cells is confirmed by flow cytometric analysis. Varying effector:target ratios are prepared by serially diluting the effector (either PBMC or NK) cells two-fold along the rows of a microtiter plate (100 μL final volume) in cell culture medium. The concentration of effector cells ranges from 1.0×10 7 /mL to 2.0×10 4 /mL for PBMC and from 2.0×10 6 /mL to 3.9×10 3 /mL for NK. After titration of effector cells, 100 μL of  51 Cr-labeled target cells (opsonized or nonoponsonized) at 1×10 5  cells/mL are added to each well of the plate. This results in an initial effector:target ratio of 100:1 for PBMC and 20:1 for NK cells. All assays are run in duplicate, and each plate contains controls for both spontaneous lysis (no effector cells) and total lysis (target cells plus 100 μL 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate, 1 N sodium hydroxide). The plates are incubated at 37° C. for 18 hours, after which the cell culture supernatants are harvested using a supernatant collection system (Skatron Instrument, Inc.) and counted in a Minaxi auto-gamma 5000 series gamma counter (Packard) for one minute. Results are then expressed as percent cytotoxicity using the formula: % Cytotoxicity=(sample cpm-spontaneous lysis)/(total lysis-spontaneous lysis)×100.  
      To identify an antibody that promotes CDC, the skilled artisan may perform an assay known in the art. One exemplary assay is the In Vitro CDC assay. In vitro, CDC activity can be measured by incubating tumor cell antigen expressing cells with human (or alternate source) complement-containing serum in the absence or presence of different concentrations of test antibody. Cytotoxicity is then measured by quantifying live cells using ALAMAR BLUES (Gazzano-Santoro et al., J. Immunol. Methods 202 163-171 (1997)). Control assays are performed without antibody, and with antibody, but using heat inactivated serum and/or using cells which do not express the tumor cell antigen in question. Alternatively, red blood cells can be coated with tumor antigen or peptides derived from tumor antigen, and then CDC may be assayed by observing red cell lysis (see for example Karjalainen and Mantyjarvi, Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand [C]. 1981 October; 89(5):315-9).  
      To select for antibodies that induce cell death, loss of membrane integrity as indicated by, e.g., PI, trypan blue or 7AAD uptake may be assessed relative to control. One exemplary assay is the PI uptake assay using tumor antigen expressing cells. According to this assay, tumor cell antigen expressing cells are cultured in Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (D-MEM):Ham&#39;s F-12 (50:50) supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated FBS (Hyclone) and 2 mM L-glutamine. (Thus, the assay is performed in the absence of complement and immune effector cells). The tumor cells are seeded at a density of 3×10 6  per dish in 100×20 mm dishes and allowed to attach overnight. The medium is then removed and replaced with fresh medium alone or medium containing 10 μg/mL of the appropriate monoclonal antibody. The cells are incubated for a 3 day time period. Following each treatment, monolayers are washed with PBS and detached by trypsinization. Cells are then centrifuged at 1200 rpm for 5 minutes at 4° C., the pellet resuspended in 3 mL ice cold Ca 2+  binding buffer (10 mM Hepes, pH 7.4, 140 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM CaCl 2 ) and aliquoted into 35 mm strainer-capped 12×75 tubes (1 mL per tube, 3 tubes per treatment group) for removal of cell clumps. Tubes then receive PI (10 μg/mL). Samples may be analyzed using a FACSCAN™ flow cytometer and FACSCONVER™. CellQuest software (Becton Dickinson). Those antibodies that induce statistically significant levels of cell death as determined by PI uptake may be selected as cell death-inducing antibodies.  
      Antibodies can also be screened in vivo for apoptotic activity using  18 F-annexin as a PET imaging agent. In this procedure, Annexin V is radiolabeled with  18 F and given to the test animal following dosage with the antibody under investigation. One of the earliest events to occur in the apoptotic process in the eversion of phosphatidylserine from the inner side of the cell membrane to the outer cell surface, where it is accessible to annexin. The animals are then subjected to PET imaging (see Yagle et al, J Nucl Med. 2005 April;46(4):658-66). Animals can also be sacrificed and individual organs or tumors removed and analyzed for apoptotic markers following standard protocols.  
      While in some embodiments cancer may be characterized by overexpression of a gene expression product, the present application further provides methods for treating cancer which is not considered to be a tumor antigen-overexpressing cancer. To determine tumor antigen expression in the cancer, various diagnostic/prognostic assays are available. In some embodiments, gene expression product overexpression can be analyzed by IHC. Paraffin embedded tissue sections from a tumor biopsy may be subjected to the IHC assay and accorded a tumor antigen protein staining intensity criteria as follows:  
      Score 0: no staining is observed or membrane staining is observed in less than 10% of tumor cells.  
      Score 1+: a faint/barely perceptible membrane staining is detected in more than 10% of the tumor cells. The cells are only stained in part of their membrane.  
      Score 2+: a weak to moderate complete membrane staining is observed in more than 10% of the tumor cells.  
      Score 3+: a moderate to strong complete membrane staining is observed in more than 10% of the tumor cells.  
      Those tumors with 0 or 1+ scores for tumor antigen overexpression assessment may be characterized as not overexpressing the tumor antigen, whereas those tumors with 2+ or 3+ scores may be characterized as overexpressing the tumor antigen.  
      Alternatively, or additionally, FISH assays such as the INFORM™ (sold by Ventana, Ariz.) or PATHVISION™ (Vysis, Ill.) may be carried out on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tumor tissue to determine the extent (if any) of tumor antigen overexpression in the tumor.  
      Additionally, antibodies can be chemically modified by covalent conjugation to a polymer to increase their circulating half-life, for example. Each antibody molecule may be attached to one or more (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more) polymer molecules. Polymer molecules are preferably attached to antibodies by linker molecules. The polymer may, in general, be a synthetic or naturally occurring polymer, for example an optionally substituted straight or branched chain polyalkene, polyalkenylene or polyoxyalkylene polymer or a branched or unbranched polysaccharide, e.g. homo- or hetero-polysaccharide. In some embodiments the polymers are polyoxyethylene polyols and polyethylene glycol (PEG). PEG is soluble in water at room temperature and has the general formula: R(O—CH 2 —CH 2 ) n  O—R where R can be hydrogen, or a protective group such as an alkyl or alkanol group. In some embodiments, the protective group has between 1 and 8 carbons. In some embodiments the protective group is methyl. The symbol n is a positive integer, between 1 and 1,000, or 2 and 500. In some embodiments the PEG has an average molecular weight between 1000 and 40,000, between 2000 and 20,000, or between 3,000 and 12, 000. In some embodiments, PEG has at least one hydroxy group. In some embodiments the hydroxy is a terminal hydroxy group. In some embodiments it is this hydroxy group which is activated to react with a free amino group on the inhibitor. However, it will be understood that the type and amount of the reactive groups may be varied to achieve a covalently conjugated PEG/antibody of the present invention. Polymers, and methods to attach them to peptides, are shown in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,766,106; 4,179,337; 4,495,285; and 4,609,546 each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.  
      Labeling and Detection  
      In some embodiments, the cancer-associated nucleic acids, proteins and antibodies of the invention are labeled. It is noted that many of the examples of conjugates discussed supra are also relevant to non-antibodies. To the extent such examples and relevant they are incorporated herein.  
      By “labeled” herein is meant that a compound has at least one element, isotope or chemical compound attached to enable the detection of the compound. In general, labels fall into three classes: a) isotopic labels, which may be radioactive or heavy isotopes; b) immune labels, which may be antibodies or antigens; and c) colored or fluorescent dyes. The labels may be incorporated into the cancer-associated nucleic acids, proteins and antibodies at any position. For example, the label should be capable of producing, either directly or indirectly, a detectable signal. The detectable moiety may be a radioisotope, such as  3 H,  14 C,  32 P,  35 S, or  125 I, a fluorescent or chemiluminescent compound, such as fluorescein isothiocyanate, rhodamine, or luciferin, or an enzyme, such as alkaline phosphatase, beta-galactosidase or horseradish peroxidase. Any method known in the art for conjugating the antibody to the label may be employed, including those methods described by Hunter et al., Nature, 144:945 (1962); David et al., Biochemistry, 13:1014 (1974); Pain et al., J. Immunol. Meth., 40:219 (1981); and Nygren, J. Histochem. and Cytochem., 30:407 (1982).  
      Detection of the expression product of interest can be accomplished using any detection method known to those of skill in the art. “Detecting expression” or “detecting the level of” is intended to mean determining the quantity or presence of a biomarker protein or gene in the biological sample. Thus, “detecting expression” encompasses instances where a biomarker is determined not to be expressed, not to be detectably expressed, expressed at a low level, expressed at a normal level, or overexpressed. In some embodiments, in order to determine the effect of an anti-tumor cell antigen therapeutic, a test biological sample comprising tumor cell antigen-expressing neoplastic cells is contacted with the anti-tumor cell antigen therapeutic agent for a sufficient time to allow the therapeutic agent to exert a cellular response, and then expression level of one or more biomarkers of interest in that test biological sample is compared to the expression level in the control biological sample in the absence of the anti-tumor cell antigen therapeutic agent. In some embodiments, the control biological sample of neoplastic cells is contacted with a neutral substance or negative control. For example, in some embodiments, a non-specific immunoglobulin, for example IgG1, which does not bind to tumor cell antigen serves as the negative control. Detection can occur over a time course to allow for monitoring of changes in expression products over time. Detection can also occur with exposure to different concentrations of the anti-tumor cell antigen therapeutic agent to generate a “dose-response” curve for any given biomarker of interest.  
      Detection of Cancer Phenotype  
      Once expressed and, if necessary, purified, the cancer-associated proteins and nucleic acids are useful in a number of applications. In some embodiments, the expression levels of genes are determined for different cellular states in the cancer phenotype; that is, the expression levels of genes in normal tissue and in cancer tissue (and in some cases, for varying severities of lymphoma that relate to prognosis, as outlined below) are evaluated to provide expression profiles. An expression profile of a particular cell state or point of development is essentially a “fingerprint” of the state; while two states may have any particular gene similarly expressed, the evaluation of a number of genes simultaneously allows the generation of a gene expression profile that is unique to the state of the cell. By comparing expression profiles of cells in different states, information regarding which genes are important (including both up- and down-regulation of genes) in each of these states is obtained. Then, diagnosis may be done or confirmed: does tissue from a particular patient have the gene expression profile of normal or cancer tissue.  
      “Differential expression,” or equivalents used herein, refers to both qualitative as well as quantitative differences in the temporal and/or cellular expression patterns of genes, within and among the cells. Thus, a differentially expressed gene can qualitatively have its expression altered, including an activation or inactivation, in, for example, normal versus cancer tissue. That is, genes may be turned on or turned off in a particular state, relative to another state. As is apparent to the skilled artisan, any comparison of two or more states can be made. Such a qualitatively regulated gene will exhibit an expression pattern within a state or cell type which is detectable by standard techniques in one such state or cell type, but is not detectable in both. Alternatively, the determination is quantitative in that expression is increased or decreased; that is, the expression of the gene is either up-regulated, resulting in an increased amount of transcript, or down-regulated, resulting in a decreased amount of transcript. The degree to which expression differs need only be large enough to quantify via standard characterization techniques as outlined below, such as by use of Affymetrix GeneChip (expression arrays, Lockhart, Nature Biotechnology, 14:1675-1680 (1996), hereby expressly incorporated by reference. Other techniques include, but are not limited to, quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR, Northern analysis and RNase protection. As outlined above, the change in expression (i.e. upregulation or downregulation) is at least about 2-fold, 3-fold, 5-fold, 10-fold, 20-fold, 50-fold, or even 100 fold or more.  
      As will be appreciated by those in the art, this may be done by evaluation at either the gene transcript, or the protein level; that is, the amount of gene expression may be monitored using nucleic acid probes to the DNA or RNA equivalent of the gene transcript, and the quantification of gene expression levels, or, alternatively, the final gene product itself (protein) can be monitored, for example through the use of antibodies to the cancer-associated protein and standard immunoassays (ELISAs, etc.) or other techniques, including mass spectroscopy assays, 2D gel electrophoresis assays, etc. Thus, the proteins corresponding to cancer-associated genes, i.e. those identified as being important in a particular cancer phenotype, i.e., lymphoma, can be evaluated in a diagnostic test specific for that cancer.  
      In some embodiments, gene expression monitoring is performed and a number of genes are monitored simultaneously. However, multiple protein expression monitoring can be done as well to prepare an expression profile. Alternatively, these assays may be done on an individual basis.  
      In some embodiments, the cancer-associated nucleic acid probes may be attached to biochips as outlined herein for the detection and quantification of cancer-associated sequences in a particular cell. The assays are done as is known in the art. As will be appreciated by those in the art, any number of different cancer-associated sequences may be used as probes, with single sequence assays being used in some cases, and a plurality of the sequences described herein being used in other embodiments. In addition, while solid-phase assays are described, any number of solution based assays may be done as well.  
      In some embodiments, both solid and solution based assays may be used to detect cancer-associated sequences that are up-regulated or down-regulated in cancers as compared to normal tissue. In instances where the cancer-associated sequence has been altered but shows the same expression profile or an altered expression profile, the protein will be detected as outlined herein.  
      In some embodiments nucleic acids encoding the cancer-associated protein are detected. Although DNA or RNA encoding the cancer-associated protein may be detected, of particular interest are methods wherein the mRNA encoding a cancer-associated protein is detected. The presence of mRNA in a sample is an indication that the cancer-associated gene has been transcribed to form the mRNA, and suggests that the protein is expressed. Probes to detect the mRNA can be any nucleotide/deoxynucleotide probe that is complementary to and base pairs with the mRNA and includes but is not limited to oligonucleotides, cDNA or RNA. Probes also should contain a detectable label, as defined herein. In one method the mRNA is detected after immobilizing the nucleic acid to be examined on a solid support such as nylon membranes and hybridizing the probe with the sample. Following washing to remove the non-specifically bound probe, the label is detected. In another method detection of the mRNA is performed in situ. In this method permeabilized cells or tissue samples are contacted with a detectably labeled nucleic acid probe for sufficient time to allow the probe to hybridize with the target mRNA. Following washing to remove the non-specifically bound probe, the label is detected. For example a digoxygenin labeled riboprobe (RNA probe) that is complementary to the mRNA encoding a cancer-associated protein is detected by binding the digoxygenin with an anti-digoxygenin secondary antibody and developed with nitro blue tetrazolium and 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indoyl phosphate.  
      Any of the three classes of proteins as described herein (secreted, transmembrane or intracellular proteins) may be used in diagnostic assays. The cancer-associated proteins, antibodies, nucleic acids, modified proteins and cells containing cancer-associated sequences are used in diagnostic assays. This can be done on an individual gene or corresponding polypeptide level, or as sets of assays.  
      As described and defined herein, cancer-associated proteins find use as markers of cancers, including carcinoma leukemia and lymphomas such as, but not limited to, Hodgkin&#39;s and non-Hodgkin&#39;s lymphoma. Detection of these proteins in putative cancer tissue or patients allows for a determination or diagnosis of the type of cancer. Numerous methods known to those of ordinary skill in the art find use in detecting cancers.  
      Antibodies may be used to detect cancer-associated proteins. One method separates proteins from a sample or patient by electrophoresis on a gel (typically a denaturing and reducing protein gel, but may be any other type of gel including isoelectric focusing gels and the like). Following separation of proteins, the cancer-associated protein is detected by immunoblotting with antibodies raised against the cancer-associated protein. Methods of immunoblotting are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. The antibodies used in such methods may be labeled as described above.  
      In some methods, antibodies to the cancer-associated protein find use in in situ imaging techniques. In this method cells are contacted with from one to many antibodies to the cancer-associated protein(s). Following washing to remove non-specific antibody binding, the presence of the antibody or antibodies is detected. In some embodiments the antibody is detected by incubating with a secondary antibody that contains a detectable label. In another method the primary antibody to the cancer-associated protein(s) contains a detectable label. In another method, each one of multiple primary antibodies contains a distinct and detectable label. This method finds particular use in simultaneous screening for a plurality of cancer-associated proteins. As will be appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art, numerous other histological imaging techniques are useful in the invention.  
      The label may be detected in a fluorometer that has the ability to detect and distinguish emissions of different wavelengths. In addition, a fluorescence activated cell sorter (FACS) can be used in the method.  
      Antibodies may be used in diagnosing cancers from blood samples. As previously described, certain cancer-associated proteins are secreted/circulating molecules. Blood samples, therefore, are useful as samples to be probed or tested for the presence of secreted cancer-associated proteins. Antibodies can be used to detect the cancer-associated proteins by any of the previously described immunoassay techniques including ELISA, immunoblotting (Western blotting), immunoprecipitation, BIACORE technology and the like, as will be appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art.  
      In situ hybridization of labeled cancer-associated nucleic acid probes to tissue arrays may be carried out. For example, arrays of tissue samples, including cancer-associated tissue and/or normal tissue, are made. In situ hybridization as is known in the art can then be done.  
      It is understood that when comparing the expression fingerprints between an individual and a standard, the skilled artisan can make a diagnosis as well as a prognosis. It is further understood that the genes that indicate diagnosis may differ from those that indicate prognosis.  
      As noted above, the cancer-associated proteins, antibodies, nucleic acids, modified proteins and cells containing cancer-associated sequences can be used in prognosis assays. As above, gene expression profiles can be generated that correlate to cancer severity, in terms of long term prognosis. Again, this may be done on either a protein or gene level. As above, the cancer-associated probes may be attached to biochips for the detection and quantification of cancer-associated sequences in a tissue or patient. The assays proceed as outlined for diagnosis.  
      Screening Assays  
      Any of the cancer-associated gene sequences as described herein may be used in drug screening assays. The cancer-associated proteins, antibodies, nucleic acids, modified proteins and cells containing cancer-associated gene sequences are used in drug screening assays or by evaluating the effect of drug candidates on a “gene expression profile” or expression profile of polypeptides. In some embodiments, the expression profiles are used in conjunction with high throughput screening techniques to allow monitoring for expression profile genes after treatment with a candidate agent, Zlokarnik, et al., Science 279, 84-8 (1998), Heid, et al., Genome Res., 6:986-994 (1996).  
      In some embodiments, the cancer associated proteins, antibodies, nucleic acids, modified proteins and cells containing the native or modified cancer associated proteins are used in screening assays. That is, the present invention provides novel methods for screening for compositions that modulate the cancer phenotype. As above, this can be done by screening for modulators of gene expression or for modulators of protein activity. Similarly, this may be done on an individual gene or protein level or by evaluating the effect of drug candidates on a “gene expression profile”. In an embodimentsome embodiments, the expression profiles are used, sometimes in conjunction with high throughput screening techniques, to allow monitoring for expression profile genes after treatment with a candidate agent, see Zlokarnik, supra.  
      A variety of assays to evaluate the effects of agents on gene expression may be performed. In some embodiments, assays may be run on an individual gene or protein level. That is, candidate bioactive agents may be screened to modulate the gene&#39;s regulation. “Modulation” thus includes both an increase and a decrease in gene expression or activity. The amount of modulation will depend on the original change of the gene expression in normal versus tumor tissue, with changes of at least 10%, at least 50%, at least 100-300%, and at least 300-1000% or greater. Thus, if a gene exhibits a 4-fold increase in tumor compared to normal tissue, a decrease of about four fold may be desired; a 10-fold decrease in tumor compared to normal tissue gives a 10-fold increase in expression for a candidate agent is desired, etc. Alternatively, where the cancer-associated sequence has been altered but shows the same expression profile or an altered expression profile, the protein will be detected as outlined herein.  
      As will be appreciated by those in the art, this may be done by evaluation at either the gene or the protein level; that is, the amount of gene expression may be monitored using nucleic acid probes and the quantification of gene expression levels, or, alternatively, the level of the gene product itself can be monitored, for example through the use of antibodies to the cancer-associated protein and standard immunoassays. Alternatively, binding and bioactivity assays with the protein may be done as outlined below.  
      In some embodiments, a number of genes are monitored simultaneously, i.e. an expression profile is prepared, although multiple protein expression monitoring can be done as well.  
      In some embodiments, the cancer-associated nucleic acid probes are attached to biochips as outlined herein for the detection and quantification of cancer-associated sequences in a particular cell. The assays are further described below.  
      In some embodiments a candidate bioactive agent is added to the cells prior to analysis. Moreover, screens are provided to identify a candidate bioactive agent that modulates a particular type of cancer, modulates cancer-associated proteins, binds to a cancer-associated protein, or interferes between the binding of a cancer-associated protein and an antibody.  
      The term “candidate bioactive agent” or “drug candidate” or grammatical equivalents as used herein describes any molecule, e.g., protein, oligopeptide, small organic or inorganic molecule, polysaccharide, polynucleotide, etc., to be tested for bioactive agents that are capable of directly or indirectly altering either the cancer phenotype, binding to and/or modulating the bioactivity of a cancer-associated protein, or the expression of a cancer-associated sequence, including both nucleic acid sequences and protein sequences. In some embodiments, the candidate agent suppresses a cancer-associated phenotype, for example to a normal tissue fingerprint. Similarly, the candidate agent may suppress a severe cancer-associated phenotype. In some embodiments a plurality of assay mixtures are run in parallel with different agent concentrations to obtain a differential response to the various concentrations. Typically, one of these concentrations serves as a negative control, i.e., at zero concentration or below the level of detection.  
      In some embodiments a candidate agent will neutralize the effect of a cancer-associated protein. By “neutralize” is meant that activity of a protein is either inhibited or counter acted against so as to have substantially no effect on a cell and hence reduce the severity of cancer, or prevent the incidence of cancer.  
      Candidate agents encompass numerous chemical classes, though typically they are organic or inorganic molecules, in some embodiments small organic compounds having a molecular weight of more than 100 and less than about 2,500 Daltons. In some embodiments small molecules are less than 2000, less than 1500, less than 1000, or less than 500 Da. Candidate agents comprise functional groups necessary for structural interaction with proteins, particularly hydrogen bonding, and typically include at least an amine, carbonyl, hydroxyl or carboxyl group, preferably at least two of the functional chemical groups. The candidate agents often comprise cyclical carbon or heterocyclic structures and/or aromatic or polyaromatic structures substituted with one or more of the above functional groups. Candidate agents are also found among biomolecules including peptides, saccharides, fatty acids, steroids, purines, pyrimidines, derivatives, structural analogs or combinations thereof.  
      Candidate agents are obtained from a wide variety of sources including libraries of synthetic or natural compounds. For example, numerous means are available for random and directed synthesis of a wide variety of organic compounds and biomolecules, including expression of randomized oligonucleotides. In some embodiments libraries of natural compounds in the form of bacterial, fungal, plant and animal extracts are available or readily produced. Additionally, natural or synthetically produced libraries and compounds are readily modified through conventional chemical, physical and biochemical means. Known pharmacological agents may be subjected to directed or random chemical modifications, such as acylation, alkylation, esterification, or amidification to produce structural analogs.  
      In some embodiments, the candidate bioactive agents are proteins. By “protein” herein is meant at least two covalently attached amino acids, which includes proteins, polypeptides, oligopeptides and peptides. The protein may be made up of naturally occurring amino acids and peptide bonds, or synthetic peptidomimetic structures. Thus “amino acid”, or “peptide residue”, as used herein means both naturally occurring and synthetic amino acids. For example, homo-phenylalanine, citrulline and norleucine are considered amino acids for the purposes of the invention. “Amino acid” also includes imino acid residues such as proline and hydroxyproline. The side chains may be in either the (R) or the (S) configuration. In some embodiments, the amino acids are in the (S) or L-configuration. If non-naturally occurring side chains are used, non-amino acid substituents may be used, for example to prevent or retard in vivo degradations.  
      In some embodiments, the candidate bioactive agents are naturally occurring proteins or fragments of naturally occurring proteins. Thus, for example, cellular extracts containing proteins, or random or directed digests of proteinaceous cellular extracts, may be used. In this way libraries of prokaryotic and eukaryotic proteins may be made for screening in the methods of the invention. In some embodiments the libraries are of bacterial, fungal, viral, and mammalian proteins. In some embodiments the library is a human protein library.  
      In some embodiments, the candidate bioactive agents are peptides of from about 5 to about 30 amino acids, from about 5 to about 20 amino acids, or from about 7 to about 15 amino acids. The peptides may be digests of naturally occurring proteins as is outlined above, random peptides, or “biased” random peptides. By “randomized” or grammatical equivalents herein is meant that each nucleic acid and peptide consists of essentially random nucleotides and amino acids, respectively. Since generally these random peptides (or nucleic acids, discussed below) are chemically synthesized, they may incorporate any nucleotide or amino acid at any position. The synthetic process can be designed to generate randomized proteins or nucleic acids, to allow the formation of all or most of the possible combinations over the length of the sequence, thus forming a library of randomized candidate bioactive proteinaceous agents.  
      In some embodiments, the library is fully randomized, with no sequence preferences or constants at any position. In some embodiments, the library is biased. That is, some positions within the sequence are either held constant, or are selected from a limited number of possibilities. For example, in some embodiments, the nucleotides or amino acid residues are randomized within a defined class, for example, of hydrophobic amino acids, hydrophilic residues, sterically biased (either small or large) residues, towards the creation of nucleic acid binding domains, the creation of cysteines, for cross-linking, prolines for SH-3 domains, serines, threonines, tyrosines or histidines for phosphorylation sites, etc., or to purines, etc.  
      In some embodiments, the candidate bioactive agents are nucleic acids. As described generally for proteins, nucleic acid candidate bioactive agents may be naturally occurring nucleic acids, random nucleic acids, or “biased” random nucleic acids. In another embodiment, the candidate bioactive agents are organic chemical moieties, a wide variety of which are available in the literature.  
      In assays for testing alteration of the expression profile of one or more cancer-associated genes, after the candidate agent has been added and the cells incubated for some period of time, a nucleic acid sample containing the target sequences to be analyzed is prepared. The target sequence is prepared using known techniques (e.g., converted from RNA to labeled cDNA, as described above) and added to a suitable microarray. For example, an in vitro reverse transcription with labels covalently attached to the nucleosides is performed. In some embodiments the nucleic acids are labeled with a label as defined herein, especially with biotin-FITC or PE, Cy3 and Cy5.  
      As will be appreciated by those in the art, these assays can be direct hybridization assays or can comprise “sandwich assays”, which include the use of multiple probes, as is generally outlined in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,681,702, 5,597,909, 5,545,730, 5,594,117, 5,591,584, 5,571,670, 5,580,731, 5,571,670, 5,591,584, 5,624,802, 5,635,352, 5,594,118, 5,359,100, 5,124,246 and 5,681,697, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference. In some embodiments, the target nucleic acid is prepared as outlined above, and then added to the biochip comprising a plurality of nucleic acid probes, under conditions that allow the formation of a hybridization complex.  
      A variety of hybridization conditions may be used in the present invention, including high, moderate and low stringency conditions as outlined above. The assays are generally run under stringency conditions that allow formation of the label probe hybridization complex only in the presence of target. Stringency can be controlled by altering a step parameter that is a thermodynamic variable, including, but not limited to, temperature, formamide concentration, salt concentration, chaotropic salt concentration, pH, organic solvent concentration, etc. These parameters may also be used to control non-specific binding, as is generally outlined in U.S. Pat. No. 5,681,697. Thus, in some embodiments certain steps are performed at higher stringency conditions to reduce non-specific binding.  
      The reactions outlined herein may be accomplished in a variety of ways, as will be appreciated by those in the art. Components of the reaction may be added simultaneously, or sequentially, in any order, with suggested embodiments outlined below. In addition, the reaction may include a variety of other reagents in the assays. These include reagents like salts, buffers, neutral proteins, e.g. albumin, detergents, etc which may be used to facilitate optimal hybridization and detection, and/or reduce non-specific or background interactions. Also reagents that otherwise improve the efficiency of the assay, such as protease inhibitors, nuclease inhibitors, anti-microbial agents, etc., may be used, depending on the sample preparation methods and purity of the target. In addition, either solid phase or solution based (i.e., kinetic PCR) assays may be used.  
      Once the assay is run, the data are analyzed to determine the expression levels, and changes in expression levels as between states, of individual genes, forming a gene expression profile.  
      In some embodiments, as for the diagnosis and prognosis applications, having identified the differentially expressed gene(s) or mutated gene(s) important in any one state, screens can be run to test for alteration of the expression of the cancer-associated genes individually. That is, screening for modulation of regulation of expression of a single gene can be done. Thus, for example, in the case of target genes whose presence or absence is unique between two states, screening is done for modulators of the target gene expression.  
      In addition, screens can be done for novel genes that are induced in response to a candidate agent. After identifying a candidate agent based upon its ability to suppress a cancer-associated expression pattern leading to a normal expression pattern, or modulate a single cancer-associated gene expression profile so as to mimic the expression of the gene from normal tissue, a screen as described above can be performed to identify genes that are specifically modulated in response to the agent. Comparing expression profiles between normal tissue and agent treated cancer-associated tissue reveals genes that are not expressed in normal tissue or cancer-associated tissue, but are expressed in agent treated tissue. These agent specific sequences can be identified and used by any of the methods described herein for cancer-associated genes or proteins. In some embodiments these sequences and the proteins they encode find use in marking or identifying agent-treated cells. In addition, antibodies can be raised against the agent-induced proteins and used to target novel therapeutics to the treated cancer-associated tissue sample.  
      Thus, in some embodiments, a candidate agent is administered to a population of cancer-associated cells that thus have an associated cancer-associated expression profile. By “administration” or “contacting” herein is meant that the candidate agent is added to the cells in such a manner as to allow the agent to act upon the cell, whether by uptake and intracellular action, or by action at the cell surface. In some embodiments, nucleic acid encoding a proteinaceous candidate agent (i.e. a peptide) may be put into a viral construct such as a retroviral construct and added to the cell, such that expression of the peptide agent is accomplished; see PCT US97/01019, hereby expressly incorporated by reference.  
      Once the candidate agent has been administered to the cells, the cells can be washed if desired and are allowed to incubate under preferably physiological conditions for some period of time. The cells are then harvested and a new gene expression profile is generated, as outlined herein.  
      Thus, for example, cancer-associated tissue may be screened for agents that reduce or suppress the cancer-associated phenotype. A change in at least one gene of the expression profile indicates that the agent has an effect on cancer-associated activity. By defining such a signature for the cancer-associated phenotype, screens for new drugs that alter the phenotype can be devised. With this approach, the drug target need not be known and need not be represented in the original expression screening platform, nor does the level of transcript for the target protein need to change.  
      In some embodiments, as outlined above, screens may be done on individual genes and gene products (proteins). That is, having identified a particular differentially expressed gene as important in a particular state, screening of modulators of either the expression of the gene or the gene product itself can be done. The cancer-associated protein may be a fragment, or alternatively, be the full-length protein to the fragment encoded by the cancer-associated genes recited above. In some embodiments, the sequences are sequence variants as further described above.  
      In some embodiments the cancer-associated protein is a fragment approximately 14 to 24 amino acids in length. In some embodiments the fragment is a soluble fragment. In some embodiments, the fragment includes a non-transmembrane region. In some embodiments, the fragment has an N-terminal Cys to aid in solubility. In some embodiments, the C-terminus of the fragment is kept as a free acid and the N-terminus is a free amine to aid in coupling, e.g., to a cysteine.  
      In some embodiments the cancer-associated proteins are conjugated to an immunogenic agent as discussed herein. In some embodiments the cancer-associated protein is conjugated to BSA.  
      In some embodiments, screening is done to alter the biological function of the expression product of the cancer-associated gene. Again, having identified the importance of a gene in a particular state, screening for agents that bind and/or modulate the biological activity of the gene product can be run as is more fully outlined below.  
      In some embodiments, screens are designed to first find candidate agents that can bind to cancer-associated proteins, and then these agents may be used in assays that evaluate the ability of the candidate agent to modulate the cancer-associated protein activity and the cancer phenotype. Thus, as will be appreciated by those in the art, there are a number of different assays that may be run; binding assays and activity assays.  
      In some embodiments, binding assays are performed. In general, purified or isolated gene product is used; that is, the gene products of one or more cancer-associated nucleic acids are made. In general, this is done as is known in the art. For example, antibodies are generated to the protein gene products, and standard immunoassays are run to determine the amount of protein present. In some embodiments, cells comprising the cancer-associated proteins can be used in the assays.  
      Thus, in some embodiments, the methods comprise combining a cancer-associated protein and a candidate bioactive agent, and determining the binding of the candidate agent to the cancer-associated protein. Some embodiments utilize the human or mouse cancer-associated protein, although other mammalian proteins may also be used, for example for the development of animal models of human disease. In some embodiments, as outlined herein, variant or derivative cancer-associated proteins may be used.  
      In some embodiments of the methods herein, the cancer-associated protein or the candidate agent is non-diffusably bound to an insoluble support having isolated sample receiving areas (e.g. a microtiter plate, an array, etc.). The insoluble support may be made of any composition to which the compositions can be bound, is readily separated from soluble material, and is otherwise compatible with the overall method of screening. The surface of such supports may be solid or porous and of any convenient shape. Examples of suitable insoluble supports include microtiter plates, arrays, membranes and beads. These are typically made of glass, plastic (e.g., polystyrene), polysaccharides, nylon or nitrocellulose, Teflon®, etc. Microtiter plates and arrays are especially convenient because a large number of assays can be carried out simultaneously, using small amounts of reagents and samples.  
      The particular manner of binding of the composition is not crucial so long as it is compatible with the reagents and overall methods of the invention, maintains the activity of the composition and is nondiffusable. Some methods of binding include the use of antibodies (which do not sterically block either the ligand binding site or activation sequence when the protein is bound to the support), direct binding to “sticky” or ionic supports, chemical crosslinking, the synthesis of the protein or agent on the surface, etc. Following binding of the protein or agent, excess unbound material is removed by washing. The sample receiving areas may then be blocked through incubation with bovine serum albumin (BSA), casein or other innocuous protein or other moiety.  
      In some embodiments, the cancer-associated protein is bound to the support, and a candidate bioactive agent is added to the assay. In some embodiments, the candidate agent is bound to the support and the cancer-associated protein is added. Novel binding agents include specific antibodies, non-natural binding agents identified in screens of chemical libraries or peptide analogs. Of particular interest are screening assays for agents that have a low toxicity for human cells. A wide variety of assays may be used for this purpose, including labeled in vitro protein-protein binding assays, electrophoretic mobility shift assays, immunoassays for protein binding, functional assays (phosphorylation assays, etc.) and the like.  
      The determination of the binding of the candidate bioactive agent to the cancer-associated protein may be done in a number of ways. In some embodiments, the candidate bioactive agent is labeled, and binding determined directly. For example, this may be done by attaching all or a portion of the cancer-associated protein to a solid support, adding a labeled candidate agent (for example a fluorescent label), washing off excess reagent, and determining whether the label is present on the solid support. Various blocking and washing steps may be utilized as is known in the art.  
      In some embodiments, only one of the components is labeled. For example, the proteins (or proteinaceous candidate agents) may be labeled at tyrosine positions using  125 I, or with fluorophores. Alternatively, more than one component may be labeled with different labels; using  125 I for the proteins, for example, and a fluorophore for the candidate agents.  
      In some embodiments, the binding of the candidate bioactive agent is determined through the use of competitive binding assays. In some embodiments, the competitor is a binding moiety known to bind to the target molecule (i.e. cancer-associated protein), such as an antibody, peptide, binding partner, ligand, etc. Under certain circumstances, there may be competitive binding as between the bioactive agent and the binding moiety, with the binding moiety displacing the bioactive agent.  
      In some embodiments, the candidate bioactive agent is labeled. Either the candidate bioactive agent, or the competitor, or both, is added first to the protein for a time sufficient to allow binding, if present. Incubations may be performed at any temperature which facilitates optimal activity, typically between 4 and 40° C. Incubation periods are selected for optimum activity, but may also be optimized to facilitate rapid high throughput screening. Typically between 0.1 and 1 hour will be sufficient. Excess reagent is generally removed or washed away. The second component is then added, and the presence or absence of the labeled component is followed, to indicate binding.  
      In some embodiments, the competitor is added first, followed by the candidate bioactive agent. Displacement of the competitor is an indication that the candidate bioactive agent is binding to the cancer-associated protein and thus is capable of binding to, and potentially modulating, the activity of the cancer-associated protein. In some embodiments, either component can be labeled. Thus, for example, if the competitor is labeled, the presence of label in the wash solution indicates displacement by the agent. In some embodiments, if the candidate bioactive agent is labeled, the presence of the label on the support indicates displacement.  
      In some embodiments, the candidate bioactive agent is added first, with incubation and washing, followed by the competitor. The absence of binding by the competitor may indicate that the bioactive agent is bound to the cancer-associated protein with a higher affinity. Thus, if the candidate bioactive agent is labeled, the presence of the label on the support, coupled with a lack of competitor binding, may indicate that the candidate agent is capable of binding to the cancer-associated protein.  
      In some embodiments, the methods comprise differential screening to identity bioactive agents that are capable of modulating the activity of the cancer-associated proteins. In this embodiment, the methods comprise combining a cancer-associated protein and a competitor in a first sample. A second sample comprises a candidate bioactive agent, a cancer-associated protein and a competitor. The binding of the competitor is determined for both samples, and a change, or difference in binding between the two samples indicates the presence of an agent capable of binding to the cancer-associated protein and potentially modulating its activity. That is, if the binding of the competitor is different in the second sample relative to the first sample, the agent is capable of binding to the cancer-associated protein.  
      In some embodiments utilizes differential screening to identify drug candidates that bind to the native cancer-associated protein, but cannot bind to modified cancer-associated proteins. The structure of the cancer-associated protein may be modeled, and used in rational drug design to synthesize agents that interact with that site. Drug candidates that affect cancer-associated bioactivity are also identified by screening drugs for the ability to either enhance or reduce the activity of the protein.  
      Positive controls and negative controls may be used in the assays. In some embodiments all control and test samples are performed in at least triplicate to obtain statistically significant results. Incubation of all samples is for a time sufficient for the binding of the agent to the protein. Following incubation, all samples are washed free of non-specifically bound material and the amount of bound, generally labeled agent determined. For example, where a radiolabel is employed, the samples may be counted in a scintillation counter to determine the amount of bound compound.  
      A variety of other reagents may be included in the screening assays. These include reagents like salts, neutral proteins, e.g. albumin, detergents, etc which may be used to facilitate optimal protein-protein binding and/or reduce non-specific or background interactions. Also reagents that otherwise improve the efficiency of the assay, such as protease inhibitors, nuclease inhibitors, anti-microbial agents, etc., may be used. The mixture of components may be added in any order that provides for the requisite binding.  
      Screening for agents that modulate the activity of cancer-associated proteins may also be done. In some embodiments, methods for screening for a bioactive agent capable of modulating the activity of cancer-associated proteins comprise adding a candidate bioactive agent to a sample of cancer-associated proteins, as above, and determining an alteration in the biological activity of cancer-associated proteins. “Modulating the activity of a cancer-associated protein” includes an increase in activity, a decrease in activity, or a change in the type or kind of activity present. Thus, in some embodiments, the candidate agent should both bind to cancer-associated proteins (although this may not be necessary), and alter its biological or biochemical activity as defined herein. The methods include both in vitro screening methods, as are generally outlined above, and in vivo screening of cells for alterations in the presence, distribution, activity or amount of cancer-associated proteins.  
      Thus, in some embodiments, the methods comprise combining a cancer-associated sample and a candidate bioactive agent, and evaluating the effect on cancer-associated activity. By “cancer-associated activity” or grammatical equivalents herein is meant one of the cancer-associated protein&#39;s biological activities, including, but not limited to, its role in tumorigenesis, including cell division, cell proliferation, tumor growth, cancer cell survival and transformation of cells. In some embodiments, cancer-associated activity includes activation of or by a protein encoded by a nucleic acid derived from a cancer-associated gene as identified above. An inhibitor of cancer-associated activity is the inhibitor of any one or more cancer-associated activities.  
      In some embodiments, the activity of the cancer-associated protein is increased; in some embodiments, the activity of the cancer-associated protein is decreased. Thus, bioactive agents are antagonists in some embodiments, and bioactive agents are agonists in some embodiments.  
      In some embodiments, the invention provides methods for screening for bioactive agents capable of modulating the activity of a cancer-associated protein. The methods comprise adding a candidate bioactive agent, as defined above, to a cell comprising cancer-associated proteins. The cells contain a recombinant nucleic acid that encodes a cancer-associated protein. In some embodiments, a library of candidate agents is tested on a plurality of cells.  
      In some embodiments, the assays are evaluated in the presence or absence or previous or subsequent exposure of physiological signals, for example hormones, antibodies, peptides, antigens, cytokines, growth factors, action potentials, pharmacological agents including chemotherapeutics, radiation, carcinogenics, or other cells (i.e. cell-cell contacts). In some embodiments, the determinations are determined at different stages of the cell cycle process.  
      In this way, bioactive agents are identified. Compounds with pharmacological activity are able to enhance or interfere with the activity of the cancer-associated protein.  
      Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer  
      Methods of inhibiting cancer cell division are provided by the invention. In some embodiments, methods of inhibiting tumor growth are provided. In some embodiments, methods of treating cells or individuals with cancer are provided.  
      The methods may comprise the administration of a cancer inhibitor. In some embodiments, the cancer inhibitor is an antisense molecule, a pharmaceutical composition, a therapeutic agent or small molecule, or a monoclonal, polyclonal, chimeric or humanized antibody. In some embodiments, a therapeutic agent is coupled with an antibody. In some embodiments the therapeutic agent is coupled with a monoclonal antibody.  
      Methods for detection or diagnosis of cancer cells in an individual are also provided. In some embodiments, the diagnostic/detection agent is a small molecule that preferentially binds to a cancer-associated protein according to the invention. In some embodiments, the diagnostic/detection agent is an antibody  
      In some embodiments of the invention, animal models and transgenic animals are provided, which find use in generating animal models of cancers wherein the cancer is lymphoma or leukemia.  
      (a) Antisense Molecules  
      The cancer inhibitor used may be an antisense molecule. Antisense molecules as used herein include antisense or sense oligonucleotides comprising a single-stranded nucleic acid sequence (either RNA or DNA) capable of binding to target mRNA (sense) or DNA (antisense) sequences for cancer molecules. Antisense or sense oligonucleotides, according to the present invention, comprise a fragment generally of from about 14 to about 30 nucleotides. The ability to derive an antisense or a sense oligonucleotide, based upon a cDNA sequence encoding a given protein is described in, for example, Stein and Cohen, Cancer Res. 48:2659, (1988) and van der Krol et al., BioTechniques 6:958, (1988).  
      Antisense molecules can be modified or unmodified RNA, DNA, or mixed polymer oligonucleotides. These molecules function by specifically binding to matching sequences resulting in inhibition of peptide synthesis (Wu-Pong, November 1994, BioPharm, 20-33) either by steric blocking or by activating an RNase H enzyme. Antisense molecules can also alter protein synthesis by interfering with RNA processing or transport from the nucleus into the cytoplasm (Mukhopadhyay &amp; Roth, 1996, Crit. Rev. in Oncogenesis 7, 151-190). In addition, binding of single stranded DNA to RNA can result in nuclease-mediated degradation of the heteroduplex (Wu-Pong, supra). Backbone modified DNA chemistry which have thus far been shown to act as substrates for RNase H are phosphorothioates, phosphorodithioates, borontrifluoridates, and 2′-arabino and 2′-fluoro arabino-containing oligonucleotides.  
      Antisense molecules may be introduced into a cell containing the target nucleotide sequence by formation of a conjugate with a ligand binding molecule, as described in WO 91/04753. Suitable ligand binding molecules include, but are not limited to, cell surface receptors, growth factors, other cytokines, or other ligands that bind to cell surface receptors. In some embodiments, conjugation of the ligand binding molecule does not substantially interfere with the ability of the ligand binding molecule to bind to its corresponding molecule or receptor, or block entry of the sense or antisense oligonucleotide or its conjugated version into the cell. In some embodiments, a sense or an antisense oligonucleotide may be introduced into a cell containing the target nucleic acid sequence by formation of an oligonucleotide-lipid complex, as described in WO 90/10448. It is understood that the use of antisense molecules or knock out and knock in models may also be used in screening assays as discussed above, in addition to methods of treatment.  
      (b) RNA Interference  
      RNA interference refers to the process of sequence-specific post transcriptional gene silencing in animals mediated by short interfering RNAs (siRNA) (Fire et al., Nature, 391, 806 (1998)). The corresponding process in plants is referred to as post transcriptional gene silencing or RNA silencing and is also referred to as quelling in fungi. The presence of dsRNA in cells triggers the RNAi response though a mechanism that has yet to be fully characterized. This mechanism appears to be different from the interferon response that results from dsRNA mediated activation of protein kinase PKR and 2′,5′-oligoadenylate synthetase resulting in non-specific cleavage of mRNA by ribonuclease L. (reviewed in Sharp, P. A., RNA interference-2001, Genes &amp; Development 15:485-490 (2001)).  
      Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are powerful sequence-specific reagents designed to suppress the expression of genes in cultured mammalian cells through a process known as RNA interference (RNAi). Elbashir, S. M. et al. Nature 411:494-498 (2001); Caplen, N. J. et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:9742-9747 (2001); Harborth, J. et al. J. Cell Sci. 114:4557-4565 (2001). The term “short interfering RNA” or “siRNA” refers to a double stranded nucleic acid molecule capable of RNA interference “RNAi”, (see Kreutzer et al., WO 00/44895; Zemicka-Goetz et al. WO 01/36646; Fire, WO 99/32619; Mello and Fire, WO 01/29058). As used herein, siRNA molecules are limited to RNA molecules but further encompasses chemically modified nucleotides and non-nucleotides. siRNA gene-targeting experiments have been carried out by transient siRNA transfer into cells (achieved by such classic methods as liposome-mediated transfection, electroporation, or microinjection).  
      Molecules of siRNA are 15- to 30-, 18- to 25-, or 21- to 23-nucleotide RNAs, with characteristic 2- to 3-nucleotide 3′-overhanging ends resembling the RNase III processing products of long double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) that normally initiate RNAI. When introduced into a cell, they assemble with yet-to-be-identified proteins of an endonuclease complex (RNA-induced silencing complex), which then guides target mRNA cleavage. As a consequence of degradation of the targeted mRNA, cells with a specific phenotype characteristic of suppression of the corresponding protein product are obtained. The small size of siRNAs, compared with traditional antisense molecules, prevents activation of the dsRNA-inducible interferon system present in mammalian cells. This avoids the nonspecific phenotypes normally produced by dsRNA larger than 30 base pairs in somatic cells.  
      Intracellular transcription of small RNA molecules is achieved by cloning the siRNA templates into RNA polymerase III (Pol III) transcription units, which normally encode the small nuclear RNA (snRNA) U6 or the human RNase P RNA III. Two approaches have been developed for expressing siRNAs: in the first, sense and antisense strands constituting the siRNA duplex are transcribed by individual promoters (Lee, N. S. et al. Nat. Biotechnol. 20, 500-505 (2002); Miyagishi, M. &amp; Taira, K. Nat. Biotechnol. 20, 497-500 (2002).); in the second, siRNAs are expressed as fold-back stem-loop structures that give rise to siRNAs after intracellular processing (Paul, C. P. et al. Nat. Biotechnol. 20:505-508 (2002)). The endogenous expression of siRNAs from introduced DNA templates is thought to overcome some limitations of exogenous siRNA delivery, in particular the transient loss of phenotype. U6 and HI RNA promoters are members of the type III class of Pol III promoters. (Paule, M. R. &amp; White, R. J. Nucleic Acids Res. 28, 1283-1298 (2000)).  
      Co-expression of sense and antisense siRNAs mediate silencing of target genes, whereas expression of sense or antisense siRNA alone do not greatly affect target gene expression. Transfection of plasmid DNA, rather than synthetic siRNAs, may appear advantageous, considering the danger of RNase contamination and the costs of chemically synthesized siRNAs or siRNA transcription kits. Stable expression of siRNAs allows new gene therapy applications, such as treatment of persistent viral infections. Considering the high specificity of siRNAs, the approach also allows the targeting of disease-derived transcripts with point mutations, such as RAS or TP53 oncogene transcripts, without alteration of the remaining wild-type allele. Finally, by high-throughput sequence analysis of the various genomes, the DNA-based methodology may also be a cost-effective alternative for automated genome-wide loss-of-function phenotypic analysis, especially when combined with miniaturized array-based phenotypic screens. (Ziauddin, J. &amp; Sabatini, D. M. Nature 411:107-110 (2001)).  
      The presence of long dsRNAs in cells stimulates the activity of a ribonuclease III enzyme referred to as dicer. Dicer is involved in the processing of the dsRNA into short pieces of dsRNA known as short interfering RNAs (siRNA) (Berstein et al., 2001, Nature, 409:363 (2001)). Short interfering RNAs derived from dicer activity are typically about 21-23 nucleotides in length and comprise about 19 base pair duplexes. Dicer has also been implicated in the excision of 21 and 22 nucleotide small temporal RNAs (stRNA) from precursor RNA of conserved structure that are implicated in translational control (Hutvagner et al., Science, 293, 834 (2001)). The RNAi response also features an endonuclease complex containing a siRNA, commonly referred to as an RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which mediates cleavage of single stranded RNA having sequence homologous to the siRNA. Cleavage of the target RNA takes place in the middle of the region complementary to the guide sequence of the siRNA duplex (Elbashir et al., Genes Dev., 15, 188 (2001)).  
      The present invention provides expression systems comprising an isolated nucleic acid molecule comprising a sequence capable of specifically hybridizing to the cancer-associated sequences. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid molecule is capable of inhibiting the expression of the cancer-associated protein. A method of inhibiting expression of cancer-associated gene expression inside a cell by a vector-directed expression of a short RNA which short RNA can fold in itself and create a double strand RNA having cancer-associated mRNA sequence identity and able to trigger posttranscriptional gene silencing, or RNA interference (RNAi), of the cancer-associated gene inside the cell. In some embodiments a short double strand RNA having a cancer-associated mRNA sequence identity is delivered inside the cell to trigger posttranscriptional gene silencing, or RNAi, of the cancer-associated gene. In various embodiments, the nucleic acid molecule is at least a 7 mer, at least a 10 mer, or at least a 20 mer.  
      (c) Pharmaceutical Compositions  
      Pharmaceutical compositions encompassed by the present invention include as active agent, the polypeptides, polynucleotides, antisense oligonucleotides, or antibodies of the invention disclosed herein in a therapeutically effective amount. An “effective amount” is an amount sufficient to effect beneficial or desired results, including clinical results. An effective amount can be administered in one or more administrations. For purposes of this invention, an effective amount of an adenoviral vector is an amount that is sufficient to palliate, ameliorate, stabilize, reverse, slow or delay the progression of the disease state.  
      The compositions can be used to treat cancer as well as metastases of primary cancer. In addition, the pharmaceutical compositions can be used in conjunction with conventional methods of cancer treatment, e.g., to sensitize tumors to radiation or conventional chemotherapy. The terms “treatment”, “treating”, “treat” and the like are used herein to generally refer to obtaining a desired pharmacologic and/or physiologic effect. The effect may be prophylactic in terms of completely or partially preventing a disease or symptom thereof and/or may be therapeutic in terms of a partial or complete stabilization or cure for a disease and/or adverse effect attributable to the disease. “Treatment” as used herein covers any treatment of a disease in a mammal, particularly a human, and includes: (a) preventing the disease or symptom from occurring in a subject which may be predisposed to the disease or symptom but has not yet been diagnosed as having it; (b) inhibiting the disease symptom, i.e., arresting its development; or (c) relieving the disease symptom, i.e., causing regression of the disease or symptom.  
      Where the pharmaceutical composition comprises an antibody that specifically binds to a gene product encoded by a differentially expressed polynucleotide, the antibody can be coupled to a drug for delivery to a treatment site or coupled to a detectable label to facilitate imaging of a site comprising cancer cells, such as prostate cancer cells. Methods for coupling antibodies to drugs and detectable labels are well known in the art, as are methods for imaging using detectable labels.  
      In some embodiments pharmaceutical compositions are provided comprising an antibody according to the present invention and a pharmaceutically suitable carrier, excipient or diluent. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises a second therapeutic agent. In still another embodiment, the second therapeutic agent is a cancer chemotherapeutic agent.  
      A “patient” for the purposes of the present invention includes both humans and other animals, particularly mammals, and organisms. Thus the methods are applicable to both human therapy and veterinary applications. In some embodiments the patient is a mammal, and preferably the patient is human. One target patient population includes all patients currently undergoing treatment for cancer, particularly the specific cancer types mentioned herein. Subsets of these patient populations include those who have experienced a relapse of a previously treated cancer of this type in the previous six months and patients with disease progression in the past six months.  
      The term “therapeutically effective amount” as used herein refers to an amount of a therapeutic agent to treat, ameliorate, or prevent a desired disease or condition, or to exhibit a detectable therapeutic or preventative effect. The effect can be detected by, for example, chemical markers or antigen levels. Therapeutic effects also include reduction in physical symptoms, such as decreased body temperature. The precise effective amount for a subject will depend upon the subject&#39;s size and health, the nature and extent of the condition, and the therapeutics or combination of therapeutics selected for administration. The effective amount for a given situation is determined by routine experimentation and is within the judgment of the clinician. For purposes of the present invention, an effective dose will generally be from about 0.01 mg/kg to about 5 mg/kg, from about 0.01 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg, or about 0.05 mg/kg to about 10 mg/kg of the compositions of the present invention in the individual to which it is administered.  
      A pharmaceutical composition can also contain a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” refers to a carrier for administration of a therapeutic agent, such as antibodies or a polypeptide, genes, and other therapeutic agents. The term refers to any pharmaceutical carrier that does not itself induce the production of antibodies harmful to the individual receiving the composition, and which can be administered without undue toxicity. Suitable carriers can be large, slowly metabolized macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, polylactic acids, polyglycolic acids, polymeric amino acids, amino acid copolymers, and inactive virus particles. Such carriers are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers in therapeutic compositions can include liquids such as water, saline, glycerol and ethanol. Auxiliary substances, such as wetting or emulsifying agents, pH buffering substances, and the like, can also be present in such vehicles. In some embodiments, the therapeutic compositions are prepared as injectables, either as liquid solutions or suspensions; solid forms suitable for solution in, or suspension in, liquid vehicles prior to injection can also be prepared. Liposomes are included within the definition of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts can also be present in the pharmaceutical composition, e.g., mineral acid salts such as hydrochlorides, hydrobromides, phosphates, sulfates, and the like; and the salts of organic acids such as acetates, propionates, malonates, benzoates, and the like. A thorough discussion of pharmaceutically acceptable excipients is available in Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy (1995) Alfonso Gennaro, Lippincott, Williams, &amp; Wilkins.  
      The pharmaceutical compositions can be prepared in various forms, such as granules, tablets, pills, suppositories, capsules, suspensions, salves, lotions and the like. Pharmaceutical grade organic or inorganic carriers and/or diluents suitable for oral and topical use can be used to make up compositions containing the therapeutically-active compounds. Diluents known to the art include aqueous media, vegetable and animal oils and fats. Stabilizing agents, wetting and emulsifying agents, salts for varying the osmotic pressure or buffers for securing an adequate pH value, and skin penetration enhancers can be used as auxiliary agents.  
      The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention comprise a cancer-associated protein in a form suitable for administration to a patient. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are in a water soluble form, such as being present as pharmaceutically acceptable salts, which is meant to include both acid and base addition salts. “Pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salt” refers to those salts that retain the biological effectiveness of the free bases and that are not biologically or otherwise undesirable, formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid and the like, and organic acids such as acetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid, salicylic acid and the like. “Pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salts” include those derived from inorganic bases such as sodium, potassium, lithium, ammonium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, aluminum salts and the like. Particularly preferred are the ammonium, potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium salts. Salts derived from pharmaceutically acceptable organic non-toxic bases include salts of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, substituted amines including naturally occurring substituted amines, cyclic amines and basic ion exchange resins, such as isopropylamine, trimethylamine, diethylamine, triethylamine, tripropylamine, and ethanolamine.  
      The pharmaceutical compositions may also include one or more of the following: carrier proteins such as serum albumin; buffers; fillers such as microcrystalline cellulose, lactose, corn and other starches; binding agents; sweeteners and other flavoring agents; coloring agents; and polyethylene glycol. Additives are well known in the art, and are used in a variety of formulations.  
      The compounds having the desired pharmacological activity may be administered in a physiologically acceptable carrier to a host, as previously described. The pharmaceutical compositions may be administered in a variety of routes including, but not limited to, intravenous, intramuscular, intra-arterial, intramedullary, intrathecal, intraventricular, transdermal or transcutaneous applications (for example, see WO98/20734), subcutaneous, intraperitoneal, intranasal, enteral, topical, sublingual, intravaginal or rectal means. Depending upon the manner of introduction, the compounds may be formulated in a variety of ways. The concentration of therapeutically active compound in the formulation may vary from about 0.1-100% wgt/vol. Once formulated, the compositions contemplated by the invention can be (1) administered directly to the subject (e.g., as polynucleotide, polypeptides, small molecule agonists or antagonists, and the like); or (2) delivered ex vivo, to cells derived from the subject (e.g., as in ex vivo gene therapy). Direct delivery of the compositions will generally be accomplished by parenteral injection, e.g., subcutaneously, intraperitoneally, intravenously or intramuscularly, intratumoral or to the interstitial space of a tissue. Other modes of administration include oral and pulmonary administration, suppositories, and transdermal applications, needles, and gene guns (see the worldwideweb site at powderject.com) or hyposprays. Dosage treatment can be a single dose schedule or a multiple dose schedule.  
      Methods for the ex vivo delivery and reimplantation of transformed cells into a subject are known in the art and described in e.g., WO 93/14778. Examples of cells useful in ex vivo applications include, for example, stem cells, particularly hematopoetic, lymph cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, or tumor cells. Generally, delivery of nucleic acids for both ex vivo and in vitro applications can be accomplished by, for example, dextran-mediated transfection, calcium phosphate precipitation, polybrene mediated transfection, protoplast fusion, electroporation, encapsulation of the polynucleotide(s) in liposomes, and direct microinjection of the DNA into nuclei, all well known in the art.  
      Once differential expression of a gene corresponding to a cancer-associated polynucleotide described herein has been found to correlate with a proliferative disorder, such as neoplasia, dysplasia, and hyperplasia, the disorder can be amenable to treatment by administration of a therapeutic agent based on the provided polynucleotide, corresponding polypeptide or other corresponding molecule (e.g., antisense, ribozyme, etc.). In other embodiments, the disorder can be amenable to treatment by administration of a small molecule drug that, for example, serves as an inhibitor (antagonist) of the function of the encoded gene product of a gene having increased expression in cancerous cells relative to normal cells or as an agonist for gene products that are decreased in expression in cancerous cells (e.g., to promote the activity of gene products that act as tumor suppressors).  
      The dose and the means of administration of the inventive pharmaceutical compositions are determined based on the specific qualities of the therapeutic composition, the condition, age, and weight of the patient, the progression of the disease, and other relevant factors. For example, administration of polynucleotide therapeutic compositions agents includes local or systemic administration, including injection, oral administration, particle gun or catheterized administration, and topical administration. In some embodiments, the therapeutic polynucleotide composition contains an expression construct comprising a promoter operably linked to a polynucleotide of at least 12, 22, 25, 30, or 35 contiguous nt of the polynucleotide disclosed herein. Various methods can be used to administer the therapeutic composition directly to a specific site in the body. For example, a small metastatic lesion is located and the therapeutic composition injected several times in several different locations within the body of tumor. Alternatively, arteries that serve a tumor are identified, and the therapeutic composition injected into such an artery, in order to deliver the composition directly into the tumor. A tumor that has a necrotic center is aspirated and the composition injected directly into the now empty center of the tumor. An antisense composition is directly administered to the surface of the tumor, for example, by topical application of the composition. X-ray imaging is used to assist in certain of the above delivery methods.  
      Targeted delivery of therapeutic compositions containing an antisense polynucleotide, subgenomic polynucleotides, or antibodies to specific tissues can also be used. Receptor-mediated DNA delivery techniques are described in, for example, Findeis et al., Trends Biotechnol. (1993) 11:202; Chiou et al., Gene Therapeutics: Methods and Applications Of Direct Gene Transfer (J. A. Wolff, ed.) (1994); Wu et al., J. Biol. Chem. (1988) 263:621; Wu et al., J. Biol. Chem. (1994) 269:542; Zenke et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) (1990) 87:3655; Wu et al., J. Biol. Chem. (1991) 266:338. Therapeutic compositions containing a polynucleotide are administered in a range of about 100 ng to about 200 mg of DNA for local administration in a gene therapy protocol. Concentration ranges of about 500 ng to about 50 mg, about 1 μg to about 2 mg, about 5 μg to about 500 μg, and about 20 μg to about 100 μg of DNA can also be used during a gene therapy protocol. Factors such as method of action (e.g., for enhancing or inhibiting levels of the encoded gene product) and efficacy of transformation and expression are considerations that will affect the dosage required for ultimate efficacy of the antisense subgenomic polynucleotides. Where greater expression is desired over a larger area of tissue, larger amounts of antisense subgenomic polynucleotides or the same amounts re-administered in a successive protocol of administrations, or several administrations to different adjacent or close tissue portions of, for example, a tumor site, may be required to effect a positive therapeutic outcome. In all cases, routine experimentation in clinical trials will determine specific ranges for optimal therapeutic effect.  
      The therapeutic polynucleotides and polypeptides of the present invention can be delivered using gene delivery vehicles. The gene delivery vehicle can be of viral or non-viral origin (see generally, Jolly, Cancer Gene Therapy (1994) 1:51; Kimura, Human Gene Therapy (1994) 5:845; Connelly, Human Gene Therapy (1995) 1:185; and Kaplitt, Nature Genetics (1994) 6:148). Expression of such coding sequences can be induced using endogenous mammalian or heterologous promoters. Expression of the coding sequence can be either constitutive or regulated.  
      Viral-based vectors for delivery of a desired polynucleotide and expression in a desired cell are well known in the art. Exemplary viral-based vehicles include, but are not limited to, recombinant retroviruses (see, e.g., WO 90/07936; WO 94/03622; WO 93/25698; WO 93/25234; U.S. Pat. No. 5,219,740; WO 93/11230; WO 93/10218; U.S. Pat. No. 4,777,127; GB Patent No. 2,200,651; EP 0 345 242; and WO 91/02805), alphavirus-based vectors (e.g., Sindbis virus vectors, Semliki forest virus (ATCC VR-67; ATCC VR-1247), Ross River virus (ATCC VR-373; ATCC VR-1246) and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (ATCC VR-923; ATCC VR-1250; ATCC VR 1249; ATCC VR-532)), and adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors (see, e.g., WO 94/12649, WO 93/03769; WO 93/19191; WO 94/28938; WO 95/11984 and WO 95/00655). Administration of DNA linked to killed adenovirus as described in Curiel, Hum. Gene Ther. (1992) 3:147 can also be employed.  
      Non-viral delivery vehicles and methods can also be employed, including, but not limited to, polycationic condensed DNA linked or unlinked to killed adenovirus alone (see, e.g., Curiel, Hum. Gene Ther. (1992) 3:147); ligand-linked DNA (see, e.g., Wu, J. Biol. Chem. (1989) 264:16985); eukaryotic cell delivery vehicles cells (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,814,482; WO 95/07994; WO 96/17072; WO 95/30763; and WO 97/42338) and nucleic charge neutralization or fusion with cell membranes. Naked DNA can also be employed. Exemplary naked DNA introduction methods are described in WO 90/11092 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,580,859. Liposomes that can act as gene delivery vehicles are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,422,120; WO 95/13796; WO 94/23697; WO 91/14445; and EP 0524968. Additional approaches are described in Philip, Mol. Cell. Biol. (1994) 14:2411, and in Woffendin, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (1994) 91:1581.  
      Further non-viral delivery suitable for use includes mechanical delivery systems such as the approach described in Woffendin et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1994) 91(24): 11581. Moreover, the coding sequence and the product of expression of such can be delivered through deposition of photopolymerized hydrogel materials or use of ionizing radiation (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,206,152 and WO 92/11033). Other conventional methods for gene delivery that can be used for delivery of the coding sequence include, for example, use of hand-held gene transfer particle gun (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,149,655); use of ionizing radiation for activating transferred gene (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,206,152 and WO 92/11033).  
      In some embodiments, cancer-associated proteins and modulators are administered as therapeutic agents, and can be formulated as outlined above. Similarly, cancer-associated genes (including the full-length sequence, partial sequences, or regulatory sequences of the cancer-associated coding regions) can be administered in gene therapy applications, as is known in the art. These cancer-associated genes can include antisense applications, either as gene therapy (i.e. for incorporation into the genome) or as antisense compositions, as will be appreciated by those in the art.  
      Thus, in some embodiments, methods of modulating cancer-associated gene activity in cells or organisms are provided. In some embodiments, the methods comprise administering to a cell an anti-cancer-associated antibody that reduces or eliminates the biological activity of an endogenous cancer-associated protein. In some embodiments, the methods comprise administering to a cell or organism a recombinant nucleic acid encoding a cancer-associated protein. As will be appreciated by those in the art, this may be accomplished in any number of ways. In some embodiments, for example when the cancer-associated sequence is down-regulated in cancer, the activity of the cancer-associated expression product is increased by increasing the amount of cancer-associated expression in the cell, for example by overexpressing the endogenous cancer-associated gene or by administering a gene encoding the cancer-associated sequence, using known gene-therapy techniques. In some embodiments, the gene therapy techniques include the incorporation of the exogenous gene using enhanced homologous recombination (EHR), for example as described in PCT/US93/03868, hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. In some embodiments, for example when the cancer-associated sequence is up-regulated in cancer, the activity of the endogenous cancer-associated gene is decreased, for example by the administration of a cancer-associated antisense nucleic acid.  
      (d) Vaccines  
      In some embodiments, cancer-associated genes are administered as DNA vaccines, either single genes or combinations of cancer-associated genes. Naked DNA vaccines are generally known in the art. Brower, Nature Biotechnology, 16:1304-1305 (1998).  
      In some embodiments, cancer-associated genes of the present invention are used as DNA vaccines. Methods for the use of genes as DNA vaccines are well known to one of ordinary skill in the art, and include placing a cancer-associated gene or portion of a cancer-associated gene under the control of a promoter for expression in a patient with cancer. The cancer-associated gene used for DNA vaccines can encode full-length cancer-associated proteins, but more preferably encodes portions of the cancer-associated proteins including peptides derived from the cancer-associated protein. In some embodiments a patient is immunized with a DNA vaccine comprising a plurality of nucleotide sequences derived from a cancer-associated gene. Similarly, it is possible to immunize a patient with a plurality of cancer-associated genes or portions thereof. Without being bound by theory, expression of the polypeptide encoded by the DNA vaccine, cytotoxic T-cells, helper T-cells and antibodies are induced that recognize and destroy or eliminate cells expressing cancer-associated proteins.  
      In some embodiments, the DNA vaccines include a gene encoding an adjuvant molecule with the DNA vaccine. Such adjuvant molecules include cytokines that increase the immunogenic response to the cancer-associated polypeptide encoded by the DNA vaccine. Additional or alternative adjuvants are known to those of ordinary skill in the art and find use in the invention.  
      (e) Antibodies  
      The cancer-associated antibodies described above find use in a number of applications. For example, the cancer-associated antibodies may be coupled to standard affinity chromatography columns and used to purify cancer-associated proteins. The antibodies may also be used therapeutically as blocking polypeptides, as outlined above, since they will specifically bind to the cancer-associated protein.  
      The present invention further provides methods for detecting the presence of and/or measuring a level of a polypeptide in a biological sample, which cancer-associated polypeptide is encoded by a cancer-associated polynucleotide that is differentially expressed in a cancer cell, using an antibody specific for the encoded polypeptide. The methods generally comprise: a) contacting the sample with an antibody specific for a polypeptide encoded by a cancer-associated polynucleotide that is differentially expressed in a prostate cancer cell; and b) detecting binding between the antibody and molecules of the sample.  
      Detection of specific binding of the antibody specific for the encoded cancer-associated polypeptide, when compared to a suitable control is an indication that encoded polypeptide is present in the sample. Suitable controls include a sample known not to contain the encoded cancer-associated polypeptide or known not to contain elevated levels of the polypeptide; such as normal tissue, and a sample contacted with an antibody not specific for the encoded polypeptide, e.g., an anti-idiotype antibody. A variety of methods to detect specific antibody-antigen interactions are known in the art and can be used in the method, including, but not limited to, standard immunohistological methods, immunoprecipitation, an enzyme immunoassay, and a radioimmunoassay. In general, the specific antibody will be detectably labeled, either directly or indirectly. Direct labels include radioisotopes; enzymes whose products are detectable (e.g., luciferase, B3-galactosidase, and the like); fluorescent labels (e.g., fluorescein isothiocyanate, rhodamine, phycoerythrin, and the like); fluorescence emitting metals, e.g., 152Eu, or others of the lanthanide series, attached to the antibody through metal chelating groups such as EDTA; chemiluminescent compounds, e.g., luminol, isoluminol, acridinium salts, and the like; bioluminescent compounds, e.g., luciferin, aequorin (green fluorescent protein), and the like. The antibody may be attached (coupled) to an insoluble support, such as a polystyrene plate or a bead. Indirect labels include second antibodies specific for antibodies specific for the encoded polypeptide (“first specific antibody”), wherein the second antibody is labeled as described above; and members of specific binding pairs, e.g., biotin-avidin, and the like. The biological sample may be brought into contact with and immobilized on a solid support or carrier, such as nitrocellulose, that is capable of immobilizing cells, cell particles, or soluble proteins. The support may then be washed with suitable buffers, followed by contacting with a detectably-labeled first specific antibody. Detection methods are known in the art and will be chosen as appropriate to the signal emitted by the detectable label. Detection is generally accomplished in comparison to suitable controls, and to appropriate standards.  
      In some embodiments, the methods are adapted for use in vivo, e.g., to locate or identify sites where cancer cells are present. In some embodiments, a detectably-labeled moiety, e.g., an antibody, which is specific for a cancer-associated polypeptide is administered to an individual (e.g., by injection), and labeled cells are located using standard imaging techniques, including, but not limited to, magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography scanning, and the like. In this manner, cancer cells are differentially labeled.  
      (f) Other Methods for the Detection and Diagnosis of Cancers  
      Without being bound by theory, the various cancer-associated sequences disclosed herein appear to be important in cancers. Accordingly, disorders based on mutant or variant cancer-associated genes may be determined. In some embodiments, the invention provides methods for identifying cells containing variant cancer-associated genes comprising determining all or part of the sequence of at least one endogenous cancer-associated genes in a cell. As will be appreciated by those in the art, this may be done using any number of sequencing techniques. In some embodiments, the invention provides methods of identifying the cancer-associated genotype of an individual comprising determining all or part of the sequence of at least one cancer-associated gene of the individual. This is generally done in at least one tissue of the individual, and may include the evaluation of a number of tissues or different samples of the same tissue. The method may include comparing the sequence of the sequenced cancer-associated gene to a known cancer-associated gene, i.e., a wild-type gene. As will be appreciated by those in the art, alterations in the sequence of some cancer-associated genes can be an indication of either the presence of the disease, or propensity to develop the disease, or prognosis evaluations.  
      The sequence of all or part of the cancer-associated gene can then be compared to the sequence of a known cancer-associated gene to determine if any differences exist. This can be done using any number of known homology programs, such as Bestfit, etc. In some embodiments, the presence of a difference in the sequence between the cancer-associated gene of the patient and the known cancer-associated gene is indicative of a disease state or a propensity for a disease state, as outlined herein.  
      In some embodiments, the cancer-associated genes are used as probes to determine the number of copies of the cancer-associated gene in the genome. For example, some cancers exhibit chromosomal deletions or insertions, resulting in an alteration in the copy number of a gene.  
      In some embodiments cancer-associated genes are used as probes to determine the chromosomal location of the cancer-associated genes. Information such as chromosomal location finds use in providing a diagnosis or prognosis in particular when chromosomal abnormalities such as translocations and the like are identified in cancer-associated gene loci.  
      The present invention provides methods of using the polynucleotides described herein for detecting cancer cells, facilitating diagnosis of cancer and the severity of a cancer (e.g., tumor grade, tumor burden, and the like) in a subject, facilitating a determination of the prognosis of a subject, and assessing the responsiveness of the subject to therapy (e.g., by providing a measure of therapeutic effect through, for example, assessing tumor burden during or following a chemotherapeutic regimen). Detection can be based on detection of a polynucleotide that is differentially expressed in a cancer cell, and/or detection of a polypeptide encoded by a polynucleotide that is differentially expressed in a cancer cell. The detection methods of the invention can be conducted in vitro or in vivo, on isolated cells, or in whole tissues or a bodily fluid e.g., blood, plasma, serum, urine, and the like).  
      In some embodiments, methods are provided for detecting a cancer cell by detecting expression in the cell of a transcript that is differentially expressed in a cancer cell. Any of a variety of known methods can be used for detection, including, but not limited to, detection of a transcript by hybridization with a polynucleotide that hybridizes to a polynucleotide that is differentially expressed in a cancer cell; detection of a transcript by a polymerase chain reaction using specific oligonucleotide primers; in situ hybridization of a cell using as a probe a polynucleotide that hybridizes to a gene that is differentially expressed in a prostate cancer cell. The methods can be used to detect and/or measure mRNA levels of a gene that is differentially expressed in a cancer cell. In some embodiments, the methods comprise: a) contacting a sample with a polynucleotide that corresponds to a differentially expressed gene described herein under conditions that allow hybridization; and b) detecting hybridization, if any.  
      Detection of differential hybridization, when compared to a suitable control, is an indication of the presence in the sample of a polynucleotide that is differentially expressed in a cancer cell. Appropriate controls include, for example, a sample that is known not to contain a polynucleotide that is differentially expressed in a cancer cell, and use of a labeled polynucleotide of the same “sense” as the polynucleotide that is differentially expressed in the cancer cell. Conditions that allow hybridization are known in the art, and have been described in more detail above. Detection can also be accomplished by any known method, including, but not limited to, in situ hybridization, PCR (polymerase chain reaction), RT-PCR (reverse transcription-PCR), TMA, bDNA, and Nasbau and “Northern” or RNA blotting, or combinations of such techniques, using a suitably labeled polynucleotide. A variety of labels and labeling methods for polynucleotides are known in the art and can be used in the assay methods of the invention. Specificity of hybridization can be determined by comparison to appropriate controls.  
      Polynucleotides generally comprising at least 10 nt, at least 12 nt or at least 15 contiguous nucleotides of a polynucleotide provided herein, are used for a variety of purposes, such as probes for detection of and/or measurement of, transcription levels of a polynucleotide that is differentially expressed in a prostate cancer cell. As will be readily appreciated by the ordinarily skilled artisan, the probe can be detectably labeled and contacted with, for example, an array comprising immobilized polynucleotides obtained from a test sample (e.g., mRNA). Alternatively, the probe can be immobilized on an array and the test sample detectably labeled. These and other variations of the methods of the invention are well within the skill in the art and are within the scope of the invention.  
      Nucleotide probes are used to detect expression of a gene corresponding to the provided polynucleotide. In Northern blots, mRNA is separated electrophoretically and contacted with a probe. A probe is detected as hybridizing to an mRNA species of a particular size. The amount of hybridization can be quantitated to determine relative amounts of expression, for example under a particular condition. Probes are used for in situ hybridization to cells to detect expression. Probes can also be used in vivo for diagnostic detection of hybridizing sequences. Probes are typically labeled with a radioactive isotope. Other types of detectable labels can be used such as chromophores, fluorophores, and enzymes. Other examples of nucleotide hybridization assays are described in WO92/02526 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,124,246.  
      PCR is another means for detecting small amounts of target nucleic acids (see, e.g., Mullis et al., Meth. Enzymol. (1987) 155:335; U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,195; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,202). Two primer oligonucleotides that hybridize with the target nucleic acids are used to prime the reaction. The primers can be composed of sequence within or 3′ and 5′ to the cancer-associated polynucleotides disclosed herein. Alternatively, if the primers are 3′ and 5′ to these polynucleotides, they need not hybridize to them or the complements. After amplification of the target with a thermostable polymerase, the amplified target nucleic acids can be detected by methods known in the art, e.g., Southern blot. mRNA or cDNA can also be detected by traditional blotting techniques (e.g., Southern blot, Northern blot, etc.) described in Sambrook et al., “Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual” (New York, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1989) (e.g., without PCR amplification). In general, mRNA or cDNA generated from mRNA using a polymerase enzyme can be purified and separated using gel electrophoresis, and transferred to a solid support, such as nitrocellulose. The solid support is exposed to a labeled probe, washed to remove any unhybridized probe, and duplexes containing the labeled probe are detected.  
      Methods using PCR amplification can be performed on the DNA from a single cell, although it is convenient to use at least about 10 5  cells. The use of the polymerase chain reaction is described in Saiki et al. (1985) Science 239:487, and a review of current techniques may be found in Sambrook, et al. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, CSH Press 1989, pp. 14.2-14.33. A detectable label may be included in the amplification reaction. Suitable detectable labels include fluorochromes, (e.g. fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), rhodamine, Texas Red, phycoerythrin, allophycocyanin, 6-carboxyfluorescein (6-FAM), 2′,7′-dimethoxy-4′,5′-dichloro-6-carboxyfluorescein, 6-carboxy-X-rhodamine (ROX), 6-carboxy-2′,4′,7′,4,7-hexachlorofluorescein (HEX), 5-carboxyfluorescein (5-FAM) or N,N,N′,N′-tetramethyl-6-carboxyrhodamine (TAMRA)), radioactive labels, (e.g. 32P, 35S, 3H, etc.), and the like. The label may be a two stage system, where the polynucleotides is conjugated to biotin, haptens, etc. having a high affinity binding partner, e.g. avidin, specific antibodies, etc., where the binding partner is conjugated to a detectable label. The label may be conjugated to one or both of the primers. Alternatively, the pool of nucleotides used in the amplification is labeled, so as to incorporate the label into the amplification product.  
      The reagents used in detection methods can be provided as part of a kit. Thus, the invention further provides kits for detecting the presence and/or a level of a polynucleotide that is differentially expressed in a cancer cell (e.g., by detection of an mRNA encoded by the differentially expressed gene of interest), and/or a polypeptide encoded thereby, in a biological sample. Procedures using these kits can be performed by clinical laboratories, experimental laboratories, medical practitioners, or private individuals. The kits of the invention for detecting a polypeptide encoded by a polynucleotide that is differentially expressed in a cancer cell may comprise a moiety that specifically binds the polypeptide, which may be an antibody that binds the polypeptide or fragment thereof. The kits of the invention used for detecting a polynucleotide that is differentially expressed in a prostate cancer cell may comprise a moiety that specifically hybridizes to such a polynucleotide. The kit may optionally provide additional components that are useful in the procedure, including, but not limited to, buffers, developing reagents, labels, reacting surfaces, means for detection, control samples, standards, instructions, and interpretive information.  
      The present invention further relates to methods of detecting/diagnosing a neoplastic or preneoplastic condition in a mammal (for example, a human). “Diagnosis” as used herein generally includes determination of a subject&#39;s susceptibility to a disease or disorder, determination as to whether a subject is presently affected by a disease or disorder, prognosis of a subject affected by a disease or disorder (e.g., identification of pre-metastatic or metastatic cancerous states, stages of cancer, or responsiveness of cancer to therapy), and therametrics (e.g., monitoring a subject&#39;s condition to provide information as to the effect or efficacy of therapy).  
      An “effective amount” is an amount sufficient to effect beneficial or desired results, including clinical results. An effective amount can be administered in one or more administrations.  
      A “cell sample” encompasses a variety of sample types obtained from an individual and can be used in a diagnostic or monitoring assay. The definition encompasses blood and other liquid samples of biological origin, solid tissue samples such as a biopsy specimen or tissue cultures or cells derived therefrom, and the progeny thereof. The definition also includes samples that have been manipulated in any way after their procurement, such as by treatment with reagents, solubilization, or enrichment for certain components, such as proteins or polynucleotides. The term “cell sample” encompasses a clinical sample, and also includes cells in culture, cell supernatants, cell lysates, serum, plasma, biological fluid, and tissue samples.  
      As used herein, the terms “neoplastic cells”, “neoplasia”, “tumor”, “tumor cells”, “cancer” and “cancer cells”, (used interchangeably) refer to cells which exhibit relatively autonomous growth, so that they exhibit an aberrant growth phenotype characterized by a significant loss of control of cell proliferation (i.e., de-regulated cell division). Neoplastic cells can be malignant or benign.  
      The terms “individual,” “subject,” “host,” and “patient,” are used interchangeably herein and refer to any mammalian subject for whom diagnosis, treatment, or therapy is desired, particularly humans. Other subjects may include cattle, dogs, cats, guinea pigs, rabbits, rats, mice, horses, and so on. Examples of conditions that can be detected/diagnosed in accordance with these methods include cancers. Polynucleotides corresponding to genes that exhibit the appropriate expression pattern can be used to detect cancer in a subject. For a review of markers of cancer, see, e.g., Hanahan et al. Cell 100:57-70 (2000).  
      In some embodiments detection/diagnostic methods comprise: (a) obtaining from a mammal (e.g., a human) a biological sample, (b) detecting the presence in the sample of a cancer-associated protein and (c) comparing the amount of product present with that in a control sample. In some embodiments, the presence in the sample of elevated levels of a cancer associated gene product indicates that the subject has a neoplastic or preneoplastic condition.  
      Biological samples suitable for use in this method include biological fluids such as serum, plasma, pleural effusions, urine and cerebro-spinal fluid, CSF, tissue samples (e.g., mammary tumor or prostate tissue slices) can also be used in the method of the invention, including samples derived from biopsies. Cell cultures or cell extracts derived, for example, from tissue biopsies can also be used.  
      In some embodiments the compound is a binding protein, e.g., an antibody, polyclonal or monoclonal, or antigen binding fragment thereof, which can be labeled with a detectable marker (e.g., fluorophore, chromophore or isotope, etc). Where appropriate, the compound can be attached to a solid support such as a bead, plate, filter, resin, etc. Determination of formation of the complex can be effected by contacting the complex with a further compound (e.g., an antibody) that specifically binds to the first compound (or complex). Like the first compound, the further compound can be attached to a solid support and/or can be labeled with a detectable marker.  
      The identification of elevated levels of cancer-associated protein in accordance with the present invention makes possible the identification of subjects (patients) that are likely to benefit from adjuvant therapy. For example, a biological sample from a post primary therapy subject (e.g., subject having undergone surgery) can be screened for the presence of circulating cancer-associated protein, the presence of elevated levels of the protein, determined by studies of normal populations, being indicative of residual tumor tissue. Similarly, tissue from the cut site of a surgically removed tumor can be examined (e.g., by immunofluorescence), the presence of elevated levels of product (relative to the surrounding tissue) being indicative of incomplete removal of the tumor. The ability to identify such subjects makes it possible to tailor therapy to the needs of the particular subject. Subjects undergoing non-surgical therapy, e.g., chemotherapy or radiation therapy, can also be monitored, the presence in samples from such subjects of elevated levels of cancer-associated protein being indicative of the need for continued treatment. Staging of the disease (for example, for purposes of optimizing treatment regimens) can also be effected, for example, by biopsy e.g. with antibody specific for a cancer-associated protein.  
      (g) Animal Models and Transgenics  
      The cancer-associated genes also find use in generating animal models of cancers wherein the cancer is carcinoma, melanoma, breast cancer, lymphoma, leukemia, colon cancer, kidney cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, ovary cancer, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, uterine cancer, cervical cancer, bladder cancer, stomach cancer or skin cancer. In some embodiments the cancer is carcinoma, breast cancer, lymphoma or leukemia. As is appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art, when the cancer-associated gene identified is repressed or diminished in cancer-associated tissue, gene therapy technology wherein antisense RNA directed to the cancer-associated gene will also diminish or repress expression of the gene. An animal generated as such serves as an animal model of cancer-associated that finds use in screening bioactive drug candidates. Similarly, gene knockout technology, for example as a result of homologous recombination with an appropriate gene targeting vector, will result in the absence of the cancer-associated protein. When desired, tissue-specific expression or knockout of the cancer-associated protein may be necessary.  
      It is also possible that the cancer-associated protein is overexpressed in cancer. As such, transgenic animals can be generated that overexpress the cancer-associated protein. Depending on the desired expression level, promoters of various strengths can be employed to express the transgene. Also, the number of copies of the integrated transgene can be determined and compared for a determination of the expression level of the transgene. Animals generated by such methods find use as animal models of cancer-associated and are additionally useful in screening for bioactive molecules to treat cancer.  
      Combination Therapy  
      In some embodiments the invention provides compositions comprising two or more cancer-associated gene antibodies to provide still improved efficacy against cancer. Compositions comprising two or more cancer-associated gene antibodies may be administered to persons or mammals suffering from, or predisposed to suffer from, cancer. One or more cancer-associated gene antibodies may also be administered with another therapeutic agent, such as a cytotoxic agent, or cancer chemotherapeutic. Concurrent administration of two or more therapeutic agents does not require that the agents be administered at the same time or by the same route, as long as there is an overlap in the time period during which the agents are exerting their therapeutic effect. Simultaneous or sequential administration is contemplated, as is administration on different days or weeks.  
      In some embodiments the methods provide of the invention contemplate the administration of combinations, or “cocktails”, of different antibodies. Such antibody cocktails may have certain advantages inasmuch as they contain antibodies which exploit different effector mechanisms or combine directly cytotoxic antibodies with antibodies that rely on immune effector functionality. Such antibodies in combination may exhibit synergistic therapeutic effects.  
      A cytotoxic agent refers to a substance that inhibits or prevents the function of cells and/or causes destruction of cells. The term is intended to include radioactive isotopes (e.g.,  131 I,  125 I,  90 Y and  186 Re), chemotherapeutic agents, and toxins such as enzymatically active toxins of bacterial, fungal, plant or animal origin or synthetic toxins, or fragments thereof. A non-cytotoxic agent refers to a substance that does not inhibit or prevent the function of cells and/or does not cause destruction of cells. A non-cytotoxic agent may include an agent that can be activated to be cytotoxic. A non-cytotoxic agent may include a bead, liposome, matrix or particle (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publications 2003/0028071 and 2003/0032995 which are incorporated by reference herein). Such agents may be conjugated, coupled, linked or associated with an antibody according to the invention.  
      In some embodiments, conventional cancer medicaments are administered with the compositions of the present invention. Conventional cancer medicaments include:  
      a) cancer chemotherapeutic agents.  
      b) additional agents.  
      c) prodrugs.  
      Cancer chemotherapeutic agents include, without limitation, alkylating agents, such as carboplatin and cisplatin; nitrogen mustard alkylating agents; nitrosourea alkylating agents, such as carmustine (BCNU); antimetabolites, such as methotrexate; folinic acid; purine analog antimetabolites, mercaptopurine; pyrimidine analog antimetabolites, such as fluorouracil (5-FU) and gemcitabine (Gemzarg); hormonal antineoplastics, such as goserelin, leuprolide, and tamoxifen; natural antineoplastics, such as aldesleukin, interleukin-2, docetaxel, etoposide (VP-16), interferon alfa, paclitaxel (Taxol®), and tretinoin (ATRA); antibiotic natural antineoplastics, such as bleomycin, dactinomycin, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, daunomycin and mitomycins including mitomycin C; and vinca alkaloid natural antineoplastics, such as vinblastine, vincristine, vindesine; hydroxyurea; aceglatone, adriamycin, ifosfamide, enocitabine, epitiostanol, aclarubicin, ancitabine, nimustine, procarbazine hydrochloride, carboquone, carboplatin, carmofur, chromomycin A3, antitumor polysaccharides, antitumor platelet factors, cyclophosphamide (Cytoxin®), Schizophyllan, cytarabine (cytosine arabinoside), dacarbazine, thioinosine, thiotepa, tegafur, dolastatins, dolastatin analogs such as auristatin, CPT-11 (irinotecan), mitozantrone, vinorelbine, teniposide, aminopterin, carminomycin, esperamicins (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,675,187), neocarzinostatin, OK-432, bleomycin, furtulon, broxuridine, busulfan, honvan, peplomycin, bestatin (Ubenimex®), interferon-β, mepitiostane, mitobronitol, melphalan, laminin peptides, lentinan,  Coriolus versicolor  extract, tegafur/uracil, estramustine (estrogen/mechlorethamine).  
      Additonal agents which may be used as therapy for cancer patients include EPO, G-CSF, ganciclovir; antibiotics, leuprolide; meperidine; zidovudine (AZT); interleukins 1 through 18, including mutants and analogues; interferons or cytokines, such as interferons α, β, and γ hormones, such as luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) and analogues and, gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH); growth factors, such as transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), nerve growth factor (NGF), growth hormone releasing factor (GHRF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), fibroblast growth factor homologous factor (FGFHF), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), and insulin growth factor (IGF); tumor necrosis factor-α &amp; β (TNF-α &amp; β); invasion inhibiting factor-2 (IIF-2); bone morphogenetic proteins 1-7 (BMP 1-7); somatostatin; thymosin-α-1; γ-globulin; superoxide dismutase (SOD); complement factors; anti-angiogenesis factors; antigenic materials; and pro-drugs.  
      Prodrug refers to a precursor or derivative form of a pharmaceutically active substance that is less cytotoxic or non-cytotoxic to tumor cells compared to the parent drug and is capable of being enzymatically activated or converted into an active or the more active parent form. See, e.g., Wilman, “Prodrugs in Cancer Chemotherapy” Biochemical Society Transactions, 14, pp. 375-382, 615th Meeting Belfast (1986) and Stella et al., “Prodrugs: A Chemical Approach to Targeted Drug Delivery,” Directed Drug Delivery, Borchardt et al., (ed.), pp. 247-267, Humana Press (1985). Prodrugs include, but are not limited to, phosphate-containing prodrugs, thiophosphate-containing prodrugs, sulfate-containing prodrugs, peptide-containing prodrugs, D-amino acid-modified prodrugs, glycosylated prodrugs, b-lactam-containing prodrugs, optionally substituted phenoxyacetamide-containing prodrugs or optionally substituted phenylacetamide-containing prodrugs, 5-fluorocytosine and other 5-fluorouridine prodrugs which can be converted into the more active cytotoxic free drug. Examples of cytotoxic drugs that can be derivatized into a prodrug form for use herein include, but are not limited to, those chemotherapeutic agents described above.  
      Methods for Delivering a Cytotoxic Agent or a Diagnostic Agent to a Cell  
      The present invention also provides methods for delivering a cytotoxic agent or a diagnostic agent to one or more cells that express a cancer-associated gene. In some embodiments the methods comprise contacting an antibody, polypeptide or nucleotide of the present invention conjugated to a cytotoxic agent or diagnostic agent with the cell. Such conjugates are discussed above.  
      Affinity Purification  
      In some embodiments the invention provides methods and compositions for affinity purification. In some embodiments, antibodies of the invention are immobilized on a solid phase such a Sephadex resin or filter paper, using methods well known in the art. The immobilized antibody is contacted with a sample containing the tumor cell antigen protein (or fragment thereof) to be purified, and thereafter the support is washed with a suitable solvent that will remove substantially all the material in the sample except the tumor cell antigen protein, which is bound to the immobilized antibody. Finally, the support is washed with another suitable solvent, such as glycine buffer, pH 5.0, that will release the tumor cell antigen protein from the antibody.  
      All publications, patents and patent applications cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patent application were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.  
      It will be understood that the invention has been described by way of example only and modifications may be made whilst remaining within the scope and spirit of the invention.