Patent Publication Number: US-2005118322-A1

Title: Method for enhancing acrylamide decomposition

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS  
      This application is a continuation-in-part of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/929,922 filed on Aug. 30, 2004 and co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/931,021 filed on Aug. 31, 2004, which are continuations-in-part of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/372,738 and co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/372,154, both filed on Feb. 21, 2003. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/372,154 is a continuation-in-part of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/247,504, filed Sep. 19, 2002. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
      1. Technical Field  
      The present invention relates to a method for reducing the amount of acrylamide in thermally processed foods and permits the production of foods having significantly reduced levels of acrylamide. The invention more specifically relates to: a) adding a combination of two or more acrylamide-reducing agents when making a fabricated food product and b) the use of various acrylamide-reducing agents during the production of potato flakes or other intermediate products used in making a fabricated food product.  
      2. Description of Related Art  
      The chemical acrylamide has long been used in its polymer form in industrial applications for water treatment, enhanced oil recovery, papermaking, flocculants, thickeners, ore processing and permanent press fabrics. Acrylamide participates as a white crystalline solid, is odorless, and is highly soluble in water (2155 g/L at 30° C.). Synonyms for acrylamide include 2-propenamide, ethylene carboxamide, acrylic acid amide, vinyl amide, and propenoic acid amide. Acrylamide has a molecular mass of 71.08, a melting point of 84.5° C., and a boiling point of 125° C. at 25 mmHg.  
      In very recent times, a wide variety of foods have tested positive for the presence of acrylamide monomer. Acrylamide has especially been found primarily in carbohydrate food products that have been heated or processed at high temperatures. Examples of foods that have tested positive for acrylamide include coffee, cereals, cookies, potato chips, crackers, french-fried potatoes, breads and rolls, and fried breaded meats. In general, relatively low contents of acrylamide have been found in heated protein-rich foods, while relatively high contents of acrylamide have been found in carbohydrate-rich foods, compared to non-detectable levels in unheated and boiled foods. Reported levels of acrylamide found in various similarly processed foods include a range of 330-2,300 (μg/kg) in potato chips, a range of 300-1100 (μg/kg) in french fries, a range 120-180 (μg/kg) in corn chips, and levels ranging from not detectable up to 1400 (μg/kg) in various breakfast cereals.  
      It is presently believed that acrylamide is formed from the presence of amino acids and reducing sugars. For example, it is believed that a reaction between free asparagine, an amino acid commonly found in raw vegetables, and free reducing sugars accounts for the majority of acrylamide found in fried food products. Asparagine accounts for approximately 40% of the total free amino acids found in raw potatoes, approximately 18% of the total free amino acids found in high protein rye, and approximately 14% of the total free amino acids found in wheat.  
      The formation of acrylamide from amino acids other than asparagine is possible, but it has not yet been confirmed to any degree of certainty. For example, some acrylamide formation has been reported from testing glutamine, methionine, cysteine, and aspartic acid as precursors. These findings are difficult to confirm, however, due to potential asparagine impurities in stock amino acids. Nonetheless, asparagine has been identified as the amino acid precursor most responsible for the formation of acrylamide.  
      Since acrylamide in foods is a recently discovered phenomenon, its exact mechanism of formation has not been confirmed. However, it is now believed that the most likely route for acrylamide formation involves a Maillard reaction. The Maillard reaction has long been recognized in food chemistry as one of the most important chemical reactions in food processing and can affect flavor, color, and the nutritional value of the food. The Maillard reaction requires heat, moisture, reducing sugars, and amino acids.  
      The Maillard reaction involves a series of complex reactions with numerous intermediates, but can be generally described as involving three steps. The first step of the Maillard reaction involves the combination of a free amino group (from free amino acids and/or proteins) with a reducing sugar (such as glucose) to form Amadori or Heyns rearrangement products. The second step involves degradation of the Amadori or Heyns rearrangement products via different alternative routes involving deoxyosones, fission, or Strecker degradation. A complex series of reactions—including dehydration, elimination, cyclization, fission, and fragmentation—results in a pool of flavor intermediates and flavor compounds. The third step of the Maillard reaction is characterized by the formation of brown nitrogenous polymers and co-polymers. Using the Maillard reaction as the likely route for the formation of acrylamide,  FIG. 1  illustrates a simplification of suspected pathways for the formation of acrylamide starting with asparagine and glucose.  
      Acrylamide has not been determined to be detrimental to humans, but its presence in food products, especially at elevated levels, is undesirable. As noted previously, relatively higher concentrations of acrylamide are found in food products that have been heated or thermally processed. The reduction of acrylamide in such food products could be accomplished by reducing or eliminating the precursor compounds that form acrylamide, inhibiting the formation of acrylamide during the processing of the food, breaking down or reacting the acrylamide monomer once formed in the food, or removing acrylamide from the product prior to consumption. Understandably, each food product presents unique challenges for accomplishing any of the above options. For example, foods that are sliced and cooked as coherent pieces may not be readily mixed with various additives without physically destroying the cell structures that give the food products their unique characteristics upon cooking. Other processing requirements for specific food products may likewise make acrylamide reduction strategies incompatible or extremely difficult.  
      By way of example,  FIG. 2  illustrates well-known prior art methods for making fried potato chips from raw potato stock. The raw potatoes, which contain about 80% or more water by weight, first proceed to a peeling step  21 . After the skins are peeled from the raw potatoes, the potatoes are then transported to a slicing step  22 . The thickness of each potato slice at the slicing step  22  is dependent on the desired the thickness of the final product. An example in the prior art involves slicing the potatoes to about 0.053 inches in thickness. These slices are then transported to a washing step  23 , wherein the surface starch on each slice is removed with water. The washed potato slices are then transported to a cooking step  24 . This cooking step  24  typically involves frying the slices in a continuous fryer at, for example, 177° C. for approximately 2.5 minutes. The cooking step generally reduces the moisture level of the chip to less than 2% by weight. For example, a typical fried potato chip exits the fryer at approximately 1.4% moisture by weight. The cooked potato chips are then transported to a seasoning step  25 , where seasonings are applied in a rotation drum. Finally, the seasoned chips proceed to a packaging step  26 . This packaging step  26  usually involves feeding the seasoned chips to one or more weighing devices that then direct chips to one or more vertical form, fill, and seal machines for packaging in a flexible package. Once packaged, the product goes into distribution and is purchased by a consumer.  
      Minor adjustments in a number of the potato chip processing steps described above can result in significant changes in the characteristics of the final product. For example, an extended residence time of the slices in water at the washing step  23  can result in leaching compounds from the slices that provide the end product with its potato flavor, color and texture. Increased residence times or heating temperatures at the cooking step  24  can result in an increase in the Maillard browning levels in the chip, as well as a lower moisture content. If it is desirable to incorporate ingredients into the potato slices prior to frying, it may be necessary to establish mechanisms that provide for the absorption of the added ingredients into the interior portions of the slices without disrupting the cellular structure of the chip or leaching beneficial compounds from the slice.  
      By way of another example of heated food products that represent unique challenges to reducing acrylamide levels in the final products, snacks can also be made from a dough. The term “fabricated snack” means a snack food that uses as its starting ingredient something other than the original and unaltered starchy starting material. For example, fabricated snacks include fabricated potato chips that use a dehydrated potato product as a starting material and corn chips that use masa flour as its starting material. It is noted here that the dehydrated potato product can be potato flour, potato flakes, potato granules, or other forms in which dehydrated potatoes exist. When any of these terms are used in this application, it is understood that all of these variations are included.  
      Referring back to  FIG. 2 , a fabricated potato chip does not require the peeling step  21 , the slicing step  22 , or the washing step  23 . Instead, fabricated potato chips start with, for example, potato flakes, which are mixed with water and other minor ingredients to form a dough. This dough is then sheeted and cut before proceeding to a cooking step. The cooking step may involve frying or baking. The chips then proceed to a seasoning step and a packaging step. The mixing of the potato dough generally lends itself to the easy addition of other ingredients. Conversely, the addition of such ingredients to a raw food product, such as potato slices, requires that a mechanism be found to allow for the penetration of ingredients into the cellular structure of the product. However, the addition of any ingredients in the mixing step must be done with the consideration that the ingredients may adversely affect the sheeting characteristics of the dough as well as the final chip characteristics.  
      It would be desirable to develop one or more methods of reducing the level of acrylamide in the end product of heated or thermally processed foods. Ideally, such a process should substantially reduce or eliminate the acrylamide in the end product without adversely affecting the quality and characteristics of the end product. Further, the method should be easy to implement and, preferably, add little or no cost to the overall process.  
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
      The proposed invention involves the reduction of acrylamide in food products. In the inventive process, a reducing agent is used to magnify the effect of an acrylamide-reducing agent having a free thiol, such as cysteine. In one aspect, cysteine is used as an acrylamide-reducing agent in conjunction with a reducing agent such as ascorbic acid, stannous chloride, sodium sulfite, or sodium meta-bisulfite.  
      The reducing agent can magnify the effectiveness of an acrylamide-reducing agent having a free thiol, thereby minimizing off-flavors that can be apparent with higher levels of acrylamide reducing agents. Hence the present invention provides a means for enhancing the quality and characteristics of the end product. Further, such a method of acrylamide reduction is generally easy to implement. The above as well as additional features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent in the following written detailed description.  
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
      The novel features believed characteristic of the invention are set forth in the appended claims. The invention itself, however, as well as a preferred mode of use, further objectives and advantages thereof, will be best understood by reference to the following detailed description of illustrative embodiments when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein:  
       FIG. 1  illustrates a simplification of suspected pathways for the formation of acrylamide starting with asparagine and glucose.  
       FIG. 2  illustrates well-known prior art methods for making fried potato chips from raw potato stock.  
       FIGS. 3A and 3B  illustrate methods of making a fabricated snack food according to two separate embodiments of the invention.  
       FIG. 4  graphically illustrates the acrylamide levels found in a series of tests in which cysteine and lysine were added.  
       FIG. 5  graphically illustrates the acrylamide levels found in a series of tests in which CaCl 2  was combined with phosphoric acid or citric acid.  
       FIG. 6  graphically illustrates the acrylamide levels found in a series of tests in which CaCl 2  and phosphoric acid were added to potato flakes having various levels of reducing sugars.  
       FIG. 7  graphically illustrates the acrylamide levels found in a series of tests in which CaCI 2  and phosphoric acid were added to potato flakes.  
       FIG. 8  graphically illustrates the acrylamide levels found in a series of tests in which CaCl 2  and citric Acid were added to the mix for corn chips.  
       FIG. 9  graphically illustrates the acrylamide levels found in potato chips fabricated with cysteine, calcium chloride, and either phosphoric acid or citric acid.  
       FIG. 10  graphically illustrates the acrylamide levels found in potato chips when calcium chloride and phosphoric acid are added at either the flakes making step or the chip fabrication step.  
       FIG. 11  graphically illustrates the effect of asparaginase and buffering on acrylamide level in potato chips.  
       FIG. 12  graphically illustrates the acrylamide levels found in potato chips fried in oil containing rosemary.  
       FIG. 13  graphically illustrates the effect of the addition of an oxidizing agent or reducing agent to an acrylamide-reducing agent having a free thiol.  
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION  
      The formation of acrylamide in thermally processed foods requires a source of carbon and a source of nitrogen. It is hypothesized that carbon is provided by a carbohydrate source and nitrogen is provided by a protein source or amino acid source. Many plant-derived food ingredients such as rice, wheat, corn, barley, soy, potato and oats contain asparagine and are primarily carbohydrates having minor amino acid components. Typically, such food ingredients have a small amino acid pool, which contains other amino acids in addition to asparagine.  
      By “thermally processed” is meant food or food ingredients wherein components of the food, such as a mixture of food ingredients, are heated at temperatures of at least 80° C. Preferably the thermal processing of the food or food ingredients takes place at temperatures between about 100° C. and 205° C. The food ingredient may be separately processed at elevated temperature prior to the formation of the final food product. An example of a thermally processed food ingredient is potato flakes, which is formed from raw potatoes in a process that exposes the potato to temperatures as high as 170° C. (The terms “potato flakes”, “potato granules”, and “potato flour” are used interchangeably herein, and are meant to denote any potato based, dehydrated product.) Examples of other thermally processed food ingredients include processed oats, par-boiled and dried rice, cooked soy products, corn masa, roasted coffee beans and roasted cacao beans. Alternatively, raw food ingredients can be used in the preparation of the final food product wherein the production of the final food product includes a thermal heating step. One example of raw material processing wherein the final food product results from a thermal heating step is the manufacture of potato chips from raw potato slices by the step of frying at a temperature of from about 100° C. to about 205° C. or the production of french fries fried at similar temperatures.  
      Effect of Amino Acids on Acrylamide Formation  
      In accordance with the present invention, however, a significant formation of acrylamide has been found to occur when the amino acid asparagine is heated in the presence of a reducing sugar. Heating other amino acids such as lysine and alanine in the presence of a reducing sugar such as glucose does not lead to the formation of acrylamide. But, surprisingly, the addition of other amino acids to the asparagine-sugar mixture can increase or decrease the amount of acrylamide formed.  
      Having established the rapid formation of acrylamide when asparagine is heated in the presence of a reducing sugar, a reduction of acrylamide in thermally processed foods can be achieved by inactivating the asparagine. By “inactivating” is meant removing asparagine from the food or rendering asparagine non-reactive along the acrylamide formation route by means of conversion or binding to another chemical that interferes with the formation of acrylamide from asparagine.  
      I. Effect of Cysteine, Lysine, Glutamine and Glycine on Acrylamide Formation  
      Since asparagine reacts with glucose to form acrylamide, increasing the concentration of other free amino acids may affect the reaction between asparagine with glucose and reduce acrylamide formation. For this experiment, a solution of asparagine (0.176%) and glucose (0.4%) was prepared in pH 7.0 sodium phosphate buffer. Four other amino acids, glycine (GLY), lysine (LYS), glutamine (GLN), and cysteine (CYS) were added at the same concentration as glucose on a molar basis. The experimental design was full factorial without replication so all possible combinations of added amino acids were tested. The solutions were heated at 120° C. for 40 minutes before measuring acrylamide. Table 1 below shows the concentrations and the results.  
               TABLE 1                          Effect of Cysteine, Lysine, Glutamine       and Glycine on Acrylamide Formation                                                 Glucose   ASN   GLY   LYS   GLN   CYS   Acrylamide       Order   %   %   %   %   %   %   ppb                                                     1   0.4   0.176   0   0   0   0   1679       2   0.4   0.176   0   0   0   0.269   4       3   0.4   0.176   0   0   0.324   0   5378       4   0.4   0.176   0   0   0.324   0.269   7       5   0.4   0.176   0   0.325   0   0   170       6   0.4   0.176   0   0.325   0   0.269   7       7   0.4   0.176   0   0.325   0.324   0   1517       8   0.4   0.176   0   0.325   0.324   0.269   7       9   0.4   0.176   0.167   0   0   0   213       10   0.4   0.176   0.167   0   0   0.269   6       11   0.4   0.176   0.167   0   0.324   0   2033       12   0.4   0.176   0.167   0   0.324   0.269   4       13   0.4   0.176   0.167   0.325   0   0   161       14   0.4   0.176   0.167   0.325   0   0.269   4       15   0.4   0.176   0.167   0.325   0.324   0   127       16   0.4   0.176   0.167   0.325   0.324   0.269   26                  
 
      As shown in the table above, glucose and asparagine without any other amino acid formed 1679 ppb acrylamide. The added amino acids had three types of effects. 
          1) Cysteine almost eliminated acrylamide formation. All treatments with cysteine had less than 25 ppb acrylamide (a 98% reduction).     2) Lysine and glycine reduced acrylamide formation but not as much as cysteine. All treatment with lysine and/or glycine but without glutamine and cysteine had less than 220 ppb acrylamide (a 85% reduction).     3) Surprisingly, glutamine increased acrylamide formation to 5378 ppb (200% increase). Glutamine plus cysteine did not form acrylamide. Addition of glycine and lysine to glutamine reduced acrylamide formation.        

      These tests demonstrate the effectiveness of cysteine, lysine, and glycine in reducing acrylamide formation. However, the glutamine results demonstrate that not all amino acids are effective at reducing acrylamide formation. The combination of cysteine, lysine, or glycine with an amino acid that alone can accelerate the formation of acrylamide (such as glutamine) can likewise reduce the acrylamide formation.  
      II. Effect of Cysteine, Lysine, Glutamine, and Methionine at Different Concentrations and Temperatures  
      As reported above, cysteine and lysine reduced acrylamide when added at the same concentration as glucose. A follow up experiment was designed to answer the following questions: 
          1) How do lower concentrations of cysteine, lysine, glutamine, and methionine effect acrylamide formation?    2) Are the effects of added cysteine and lysine the same when the solution is heated at 120° C. and 150° C.?       

      A solution of asparagine (0.176%) and glucose (0.4%) was prepared in pH 7.0 sodium phosphate buffer. Two concentrations of amino acid (cysteine (CYS), lysine (LYS), glutamine (GLN), or methionine (MET)) were added. The two concentrations were 0.2 and 1.0 moles of amino acid per mole of glucose. In half of the tests, two ml of the solutions were heated at 120° C. for 40 minutes; in the other half, two ml were heated at 150° C. for 15 minutes. After heating, acrylamide was measured by GC-MS, with the results shown in Table 2. The control was asparagine and glucose solution without an added amino acid.  
               TABLE 2                          Effect of Temperature and Concentration of Amino Acids on Acrylamide Level                         Acrylamide level                                             Amino                   Amino acid/       Acid @   Percentage   Amino Acid   Percentage       Temperature   Control   Conc. 0.2   Of Control   @ Conc. 1.0   Of Control                                                 LYS-120° C.   1332 ppb   1109 ppb   83%   280   ppb   21%       CYS-120° C.   1332 ppb    316 ppb   24%   34   ppb    3%       LYS-150° C.   3127 ppb   1683 ppb   54%   536   ppb   17%       CYS-150° C.   3127 ppb   1146 ppb   37%   351   ppb   11%       GLN-120° C.   1953 ppb   4126 ppb   211%    6795   ppb   348%        MET-120° C.   1953 ppb   1978 ppb   101%    1132   ppb   58%       GLN-150° C.   3866 ppb   7223 ppb   187%    9516   ppb   246%        MET-150° C.   3866 ppb   3885 ppb   100%    3024   ppb   78%                  
 
      In the tests with cysteine and lysine, a control formed 1332 ppb of acrylamide after 40 minutes at 120° C., and 3127 ppb of acrylamide after 15 minutes at 150° C. Cysteine and lysine reduced acrylamide formation at 120° C. and 150° C., with the acrylamide reduction being roughly proportional to the concentration of added cysteine or lysine.  
      In the tests with glutamine and methionine, a control formed 1953 ppb of acrylamide after 40 minutes at 120° C. and a control formed 3866 ppb of acrylamide after 15 minutes at 150° C. Glutamine increased acrylamide formation at 120° C. and 150° C. Methionine at 0.2 mole/mole of glucose did not affect acrylamide formation. Methionine at 1.0 mole/mole of glucose reduced acrylamide formation by less than fifty percent.  
      III. Effect of Nineteen Amino Acids on Acrylamide Formation in Glucose and Asparagine Solution  
      The effect of four amino acids (lysine, cysteine, methionine, and glutamine) on acrylamide formation was described above. Fifteen additional amino acids were tested. A solution of asparagine (0.176%) and glucose (0.4%) was prepared in pH 7.0 sodium phosphate buffer. The fifteen amino acids were added at the same concentration as glucose on a molar basis. The control contained asparagine and glucose solution without any other amino acid. The solutions were heated at 120° C. for 40 minutes before measuring acrylamide by GC-MS. The results are given in Table 3 below.  
               TABLE 3                          Effect of Other Amino Acids on Acrylamide Formation                             Acrylamide Formed                                     Amino Acid   ppb   % of Control                                             Control   959   100           Histidine   215   22           Alanine   478   50           Methionine   517   54           Glutamic Acid   517   54           Aspartic Acid   529   55           Proline   647   67           Phenylalanine   648   68           Valine   691   72           Arginine   752   78           Tryptophan   1059   111           Threonine   1064   111           Tyrosine   1091   114           Leucine   1256   131           Serine   1296   135           Isoleucine   1441   150                      
 
      As seen in the table above, none of the fifteen additional amino acids were as effective as cysteine, lysine, or glycine in reducing acrylamide formation. Nine of the additional amino acids reduced acrylamide to a level between 22-78% of control, while six amino acids increased acrylamide to a level between 111-150% of control.  
      Table 4 below summarizes the results for all amino acids, listing the amino acids in the order of their effectiveness. Cysteine, lysine, and glycine were effective inhibitors, with the amount of acrylamide formed less than 15% of that formed in the control. The next nine amino acids were less effective inhibitors, having a total acrylamide formation between 22-78% of that formed in the control. The next seven amino acids increased acrylamide. Glutamine caused the largest increase of acrylamide, showing 320% of control.  
               TABLE 4                          Acrylamide Formation in the Presence of 19 Amino Acids                                 Acrylamide produced           Amino Acid   as % of Control                       Control   100%            Cysteine    0%           Lysine   10%           Glycine   13%           Histidine   22%           Alanine   50%           Methionine   54%           Glutamic Acid   54%           Aspartic Acid   55%           Proline   67%           Phenylalanine   68%           Valine   72%           Arginine   78%           Tryptophan   111%            Threonine   111%            Tyrosine   114%            Leucine   131%            Serine   135%            Isoleucine   150%            Glutamine   320%                       
 
      IV. Potato Flakes with 750 ppm of Added L-Cysteine  
      Test potato flakes were manufactured with 750 ppm (parts per million) of added L-cysteine. The control potato flakes did not contain added L-cysteine. Three grams of potato flakes were weighed into a glass vial. After tightly capping, the vials were heated for 15 minutes or 40 minutes at 120° C. Acrylamide was measured by GC-MS in parts per billion (ppb).  
               TABLE 5                          Reduction of Acrylamide over Time with Cysteine                                     Acrylamide   Acrylamide   Acrylamide   Acrylamide           (ppb) 15 Min   Reduction   (ppb) 40 Min   Reduction       Potato Flakes   at 120° C.   15 Min   at 120° C.   40 Min                                         Control   1662   —   9465   —       750 ppm   653   60%   7529   20%       Cysteine                  
 
      V. Baked Fabricated Potato Chips  
      Given the above results, preferred embodiments of the invention have been developed in which cysteine or lysine was added to the formula for a fabricated snack food, in this case baked, fabricated potato chips. The process for making this product is shown in  FIG. 3A . In a dough preparation step  30 , potato flakes, water, and other ingredients are combined to form a dough. (The terms “potato flakes” and “potato flour” are used interchangeably herein and either are intended to encompass all dried flake or powder preparations, regardless of particle size.) In a sheeting step  31 , the dough is run through a sheeter, which flattens the dough, and is then cut into discrete pieces. In a cooking step  32 , the cut pieces are baked until they reach a specified color and water content. The resulting chips are then seasoned in a seasoning step  33  and placed in packages in a packaging step  34 .  
      A first embodiment of the invention is demonstrated by use of the process described above. To illustrate this embodiment, a comparison is made between a control and test batches to which were added either one of three concentrations of cysteine or one concentration of lysine.  
               TABLE 6                          Effect of Lysine and Various Levels of Cysteine on Acrylamide Level                                             Cysteine   Cysteine   Cysteine           Ingredient   Control   #1   #2   #3   Lysine                                             Potato flakes &amp;   5496   5496   5496   5496   5496       modified starch (g)       Sugar (g)   300   300   300   300   300       Oil (g)   90   90   90   90   90       Leavening agents (g)   54   54   54   54   54       Emulsifier (g)   60   60   60   60   60       L-Cysteine   0   1.8   4.2   8.4   0       (dissolved in       water) 1  (g)       L-Lysine   0   0   0   0   42       monohydrochloride (g)       Total Dry (g)   6000   6001.8   6004.2   6008.4   6042       Water (ml)   3947   3947   3947   3947   3947                 Measurements after Cooking Chips                                     H 2 O, %   2.21   1.73%   2.28%   2.57%   2.68%       Oil, %   1.99   2.15%   2.05%   2.12%   1.94%       Acrylamide (ppb)   1030   620   166   104   456                                         Color   L   72.34   76.53   79.02   78.36   73.2           A   1.99   −1.14   −2.02   −2.14   1.94           B   20.31   25.52   23.2   23.0   25.77                   1 It is expected that the D- isomer or a racemic mixture of both the D- and L- isomers of the amino acids would be equally effective, although the L- isomer is likely to be the best and least expensive source             
 
      In all batches, the dry ingredients were first mixed together, then oil was added to each dry blend and mixed. The cysteine or lysine was dissolved in the water prior to adding to the dough. The moisture level of the dough prior to sheeting was 40% to 45% by weight. The dough was sheeted to produce a thickness of between 0.020 and 0.030 inches, cut into chip-sized pieces, and baked.  
      After cooking, testing was performed for moisture, oil, and color according to the Hunter L-A-B scale. Samples were tested to obtain acrylamide levels in the finished product. Table 6 above shows the results of these analyses.  
      In the control chips, the acrylamide level after final cooking was 1030 ppb. Both the addition of cysteine, at all the levels tested, and lysine reduced the final acrylamide level significantly.  FIG. 4  shows the resulting acrylamide levels in graphical form. In this drawing, the level of acrylamide detected in each sample is shown by a shaded bar  402 . Each bar has a label listing the appropriate test immediately below and is calibrated to the scale for acrylamide on the left of the drawing. Also shown for each test is the moisture level of the chip produced, seen as a single point  404 . The values for points  404  are calibrated to the scale for percentage of moisture shown on the right of the drawing. Line  406  connects the individual points  404  for greater visibility. Because of the marked effect of lower moisture on the level of acrylamide, it is important to have a moisture level in order to properly evaluate the activity of any acrylamide-reducing agents. As used herein, an acrylamide-reducing agent is an additive that reduces acylamide content.  
      Adding cysteine or lysine to the dough significantly lowers the level of acrylamide present in the finished product. The cysteine samples show that the level of acrylamide is lowered in roughly a direct proportion to the amount of cysteine added. Consideration must be made, however, for the collateral effects on the characteristics (such as color, taste, and texture) of the final product from the addition of an amino acid to the manufacturing process.  
      Additional tests were also run, using added cysteine, lysine, and combinations of each of the two amino acids with CaCl 2 . These tests used the same procedure as described in the tests above, but used potato flakes having varying levels of reducing sugars and varying amounts of amino acids and CaCl 2  added. In Table 7 below, lot 1 of potato flakes had 0.81% reducing sugars (this portion of the table reproduces the results from the test shown above), lot 2 had 1.0% and lot 3 had 1.8% reducing sugars.  
               TABLE 7                          Effect of Varying Concentration of Cysteine, Lysine, Reducing Sugars                                             CaCl2   Cysteine   Lysine       Finish           Reducing   Wt % of   ppm of   % of   Finish   color   Acrylamide       Sugar %   total dry   total dry   total dry   H2O wt %   value   ppb                                                 0.81   0   0   0   2.21   72.34   1030       0.81   0   300   0   1.73   76.53   620       0.81   0   700   0   2.28   79.02   166       0.81   0   1398   0   2.57   78.36   104       0.81   0   0   0.685   2.68   73.20   456       1.0   0   0   0   1.71   72.68   599       1.0   0   0   0   1.63   74.44   1880       1.0   0   0   0   1.69   71.26   1640       1.0   0   0   0   1.99   71.37   1020       1.0   0   700   0   2.05   75.81   317       1.0   0.646   0   0.685   1.74   73.99   179       1.8   0   0   0   1.80   73.35   464       1.8   0   0   0   1.61   72.12   1060       1.8   0   700   0   1.99   75.27   290       1.8   0   1398   0   1.96   75.87   188       1.8   0   0   0.685   1.90   76.17   105       1.8   0.646   0   0.685   2.14   75.87   47       1.8   0.646   700   0   1.83   77.23   148                  
 
      As shown by the data in this table, the addition of either cysteine or lysine provides significant improvement in the level of acrylamide at each level of reducing sugars tested. The combination of lysine with calcium chloride provided an almost total elimination of acrylamide produced, despite the fact that this test was run with the highest level of reducing sugars.  
      VI. Tests in Sliced, Fried Potato Chips  
      A similar result can be achieved with potato chips made from potato slices. However, the desired amino acid cannot be simply mixed with the potato slices, as with the embodiments illustrated above, since this would destroy the integrity of the slices. In one embodiment, the potato slices are immersed in an aqueous solution containing the desired amino acid additive for a period of time sufficient to allow the amino acid to migrate into the cellular structure of the potato slices. This can be done, for example, during the washing step  23  illustrated in  FIG. 2 .  
      Table 8 below shows the result of adding one weight percent of cysteine to the wash treatment that was described in step  23  of  FIG. 2  above. All washes were at room temperature for the time indicated; the control treatments had nothing added to the water. The chips were fried in cottonseed oil at 178° C. for the indicated time.  
               TABLE 8                          Effect of Cysteine in Wash Water of Potato Slices on Acrylamide                                     Fry Time   Finished   Finished   Finished           (seconds)   H 2 O wt %   oil wt %   Acrylamide                                             Control -   140   1.32%   42.75%   323 ppb       2-3 min wash       1% cysteine -   140   .86%   45.02%   239 ppb       15 min wash       Control -   110   1.72%   40.87%   278 ppb       2-3 min wash       Control -   110   1.68%   41.02%   231 ppb       15 min wash       1% Cysteine -   110   1.41%   44.02%    67 ppb       15 min wash                  
 
      As shown in this table, immersing potato slices of 0.053 inch thickness for 15 minutes in an aqueous solution containing a concentration of one weight percent of cysteine is sufficient to reduce the acrylamide level of the final product on the order of 100-200 ppb.  
      The invention has also been demonstrated by adding cysteine to the corn dough (or masa) for tortilla chips. Dissolved L-cysteine was added to cooked corn during the milling process so that cysteine was uniformly distributed in the masa produced during milling. The addition of 600 ppm of L-cysteine reduced acrylamide from 190 ppb in the control product to 75 ppb in the L-cysteine treated product.  
      Any number of amino acids can be used with the invention disclosed herein, as long as adjustments are made for the collateral effects of the additional ingredient(s), such as changes to the color, taste, and texture of the food. Although all examples shown utilize α-amino acids (where the —NH 2  group is attached to the alpha carbon atom), the applicants anticipate that other isomers, such as β- or γ-amino acids can also be used, although β- and γ-amino acids are not commonly used as food additives. The preferred embodiment of this invention uses cysteine, lysine, and/or glycine. However, other amino acids, such as histidine, alanine, methionine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, proline, phenylalanine, valine, and arginine may also be used. Such amino acids, and in particular cysteine, lysine, and glycine, are relatively inexpensive and commonly used as food additives. These preferred amino acids can be used alone or in combination in order to reduce the amount of acrylamide in the final food product. Further, the amino acid can be added to a food product prior to heating by way of either adding the commercially available amino acid to the starting material of the food product or adding another food ingredient that contains a high concentration level of the free amino acid. For example, casein contains free lysine and gelatin contains free glycine. Thus, when Applicants indicate that an amino acid is added to a food formulation, it will be understood that the amino acid may be added as a commercially available amino acid or as a food having a concentration of the free amino acid(s) that is greater than the naturally occurring level of asparagine in the food.  
      The amount of amino acid that should be added to the food in order to reduce the acrylamide levels to an acceptable level can be expressed in several ways. In order to be commercially acceptable, the amount of amino acid added should be enough to reduce the final level of acrylamide production by at least twenty percent (20%) as compared to a product that is not so treated. More preferably, the level of acrylamide production should be reduced by an amount in the range of thirty-five to ninety-five percent (35-95%). Even more preferably, the level of acrylamide production should be reduced by an amount in the range of fifty to ninety-five percent (50-95%). In a preferred embodiment using cysteine, it has been determined that the addition of at least 100 ppm can be effective in reducing acrylamide. However, a preferred range of cysteine addition is between 100 ppm and 10,000 ppm, with the most preferred range in the amount of about 1,000 ppm. In preferred embodiments using other effective amino acids, such as lysine and glycine, a mole ratio of the added amino acid to the reducing sugar present in the product of at least 0.1 mole of amino acid to one mole of reducing sugars (0.1:1) has been found to be effective in reducing acrylamide formation. More preferably the molar ratio of added amino acid to reducing sugars should be between 0.1:1 and 2:1, with a most preferable ratio of about 1:1.  
      The mechanisms by which the select amino acids reduce the amount of acrylamide found are not presently known. Possible mechanisms include competition for reactant and dilution of the precursor, which will create less acrylamide, and a reaction mechanism with acrylamide to break it down.” Possible mechanisms include (1) inhibition of Maillard reaction, (2) consumption of glucose and other reducing sugars, and (3) reaction with acrylamide. Cysteine, with a free thiol group, acts as an inhibitor of the Maillard reaction. Since acrylamide is believed to be formed from asparagine by the Maillard reaction, cysteine should reduce the rate of the Maillard reaction and acrylamide formation. Lysine and glycine react rapidly with glucose and other reducing sugars. If glucose is consumed by lysine and glycine, there will be less glucose to react with asparagine to form acrylamide. The amino group of amino acids can react with the double bond of acrylamide, a Michael addition. The free thiol of cysteine can also react with the double bond of acrylamide.  
      It should be understood that adverse changes in the characteristics of the final product, such as changes in color, taste, and texture, could be caused by the addition of an amino acid. These changes in the characteristics of the product in accordance with this invention can be compensated by various other means. For example, color characteristics in potato chips can be adjusted by controlling the amount of sugars in the starting product. Some flavor characteristics can be changed by the addition of various flavoring agents to the end product. The physical texture of the product can be adjusted by, for example, the addition of leavening agents or various emulsifiers.  
      Effect of Di- and Trivalent Cations on Acrylamide Formation  
      Another embodiment of the invention involves reducing the production of acrylamide by the addition of a divalent or trivalent cation to a formula for a snack food prior to the cooking or thermal processing of that snack food. Chemists will understand that cations do not exist in isolation, but are found in the presence of an anion having the same valence. Although reference is made herein to the salt containing the divalent or trivalent cation, it is the cation present in the salt that is believed to provide a reduction in acrylamide formation by reducing the solubility of asparagine in water. These cations are also referred to herein as a cation with a valence of at least two. Interestingly, cations of a single valence are not effective in use with the present invention. In choosing an appropriate compound containing the cation having a valence of at least two in combination with an anion, the relevant factors are water solubility, food safety, and least alteration to the characteristics of the particular food. Combinations of various salts can be used, even though they are discussed herein only as individuals salts.  
      Chemists speak of the valence of an atom as a measure of its ability to combine with other elements. Specifically, a divalent atom has the ability to form two ionic bonds with other atoms, while a trivalent atom can form three ionic bonds with other atoms. A cation is a positively charged ion, that is, an atom that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a positive charge. A divalent or trivalent cation, then, is a positively charged ion that has availability for two or three ionic bonds, respectively.  
      Simple model systems can be used to test the effects of divalent or trivalent cations on acrylamide formation. Heating asparagine and glucose in 1:1 mole proportions can generate acrylamide. Quantitative comparisons of acrylamide content with and without an added salt measures the ability of the salt to promote or inhibit acrylamide formation. Two sample preparation and heating methods were used. One method involved mixing the dry components, adding an equal amount of water, and heating in a loosely capped vial. Reagents concentrated during heating as most of the water escaped, duplicating cooking conditions. Thick syrups or tars can be produced, complicating recovery of acrylamide. These tests are shown in Examples 1 and 2 below.  
      A second method using pressure vessels allowed more controlled experiments. Solutions of the test components were combined and heated under pressure. The test components can be added at the concentrations found in foods, and buffers can duplicate the pH of common foods. In these tests, no water escapes, simplifying recovery of acrylamide, as shown in Example 3 below.  
      I. Divalent, Trivalent Cations Decrease Acrylamide, Monovalent Don&#39;t  
      A 20 mL (milliliter) glass vial containing L-asparagine monohydrate (0.15 g, 1 mmole), glucose (0.2 g, 1 mmole) and water (0.4 mL) was covered with aluminum foil and heated in a gas chromatography (GC) oven programmed to heat from 40° to 220° C. at 20°/minute, hold two minutes at 220° C., and cool from 220° to 40° C. at 20°/min. The residue was extracted with water and analyzed for acrylamide using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). Analysis found approximately 10,000 ppb (parts/billion) acrylamide. Two additional vials containing L-asparagine monohydrate (0.13 g, 1 mmole), glucose (0.2 g, 1 mmole), anhydrous calcium chloride (0.1 g, 1 mmole) and water (0.4 mL) were heated and analyzed. Analysis found 7 and 30 ppb acrylamide, a greater than ninety-nine percent reduction.  
      Given the surprising result that calcium salts strongly reduced acrylamide formation, further screening of salts was performed and identified divalent and trivalent cations (magnesium, aluminum) as producing a similar effect. It is noted that similar experiments with monovalent cations, i.e. 0.1/0.2 g sodium bicarbonate and ammonium carbonate (as ammonium carbamate and ammonium bicarbonate) increased acrylamide formation, as seen in Table 9 below.  
                       TABLE 9                           Micro Mole   Micromole Acrylamide       Salt   Salt   after heating, ppb                                            None (control)   0   9857       Sodium bicarbonate   1200   13419       Ammonium carbonate   1250   22027       Ammonium carbonate   2500   47897                  
 
      II. Calcium Chloride and Magnesium Chloride  
      In a second experiment, a similar test to that described above was performed, but instead of using anhydrous calcium chloride, two different dilutions of each of calcium chloride and magnesium chloride were used. Vials containing L-asparagine monohydrate (0.15 g, 1 mmole) and glucose (0.2 g, 1 mmole) were mixed with one of the following: 
          0.5 mL water (control),     0.5 mL 10% calcium chloride solution (0.5 mmole),     0.05 mL 10% calcium chloride solution (0.05 mmole) plus 0.45 mL water,     0.5 mL 10% magnesium chloride solution (0.5 mmole), or     0.05 mL 10% magnesium chloride solution (0.05 mmole) plus 0.45 mL water.        

      Duplicate samples were heated and analyzed as described in Example 1. Results were averaged and summarized in Table 10 below:  
               TABLE 10                          Effect of Calcium Chloride, Magnesium Chloride on Acrylamide                                 Amt added   Acrylamide formed   Acrylamide       Salt ID   Micromoles   Micromoles   reduction                                     None (control)   0   408   0       Calcium chloride   450   293   27%       Calcium chloride   45   864   None       Magnesium chloride   495   191   53%       Magnesium chloride   50   2225   None                  
 
      III. pH and Buffering Effects  
      As mentioned above, this test did not involve the loss of water from the container, but was done under pressure. Vials containing 2 mL of buffered stock solution (15 mM asparagine, 15 mM glucose, 500 mM phosphate or acetate) and 0.1 mL salt solution (1000 mM) were heated in a Parr bomb placed in a gas chromatography oven programmed to heat from 40 to 150° C. at 20°/minute and hold at 150° C. for 2 minutes. The bomb was removed from the oven and cooled for 10 minutes. The contents were extracted with water and analyzed for acrylamide following the GC-MS method. For each combination of pH and buffer, a control was run without an added salt, as well as with the three different salts. Results of duplicate tests were averaged and summarized in Table 11 below:  
               TABLE 11                          Effect of pH and Buffer on Divalent/Trivalent       Cations Reduction of Acrylamide                 Salt with       Divalent or                             Trivalent   Buffer   Mcg Acrylamide   Acrylamide                                     Cation   pH   Used   Salt added   Control   Reduction                                             Calcium   5.5   Acetate   337   550   19%       chloride       Calcium   7.0   Acetate   990   1205   18%       chloride       Calcium   5.5   Phosphate   154   300   49%       chloride       Calcium   7.0   Phosphate   762   855   11%       chloride       Magnesium   5.5   Acetate   380   550   16%       chloride       Magnesium   7.0   Acetate   830   1205   31%       chloride       Magnesium   5.5   Phosphate   198   300   34%       chloride       Magnesium   7.0   Phosphate   773   855   10%       chloride       Potassium   5.5   Acetate   205   550   31%       aluminum       sulfate       Potassium   7.0   Acetate   453   1205   62%       aluminum       sulfate       Potassium   5.5   Phosphate   64   300   79%       aluminum       sulfate       Potassium   7.0   Phosphate   787   855    8%       aluminum       sulfate                  
 
      Across the three salts used, the greatest reductions occurred in pH 7 acetate and pH 5.5 phosphate. Only small reductions were found in pH 5.5 acetate and pH 7 phosphate.  
      IV. Raising Calcium Chloride Lowers Acrylamide  
      Following the model systems results, a small-scale laboratory test was run in which calcium chloride was added to potato flakes before heating. Three ml of a 0.4%, 2%, or 10% calcium chloride solution was added to 3 g of potato flakes. The control was 3 g of potato flakes mixed with 3 ml of de-ionized water. The flakes were mixed to form a relatively uniform paste and then heated in a sealed glass vial at 120° C. for 40 min. Acrylamide after heating was measured by GC-MS. Before heating, the control potato flakes contained 46 ppb of acrylamide. Test results are reflected in Table 4 below.  
               TABLE 12                          Effect of Calcium Chloride Solution       Strength on Acrylamide Reduction                         Mixture ID   Acrylamide, ppb   Acrylamide Reduction                                 Control (water)   2604   None       CaCl 2  0.4% solution   1877   28%       CaCl 2  2% solution   338   76%       CaCl 2  10% solution   86   97%                  
 
      Given the results from above, tests were conducted in which a calcium salt was added to the formula for a fabricated snack food, in this case baked fabricated potato chips. The process for making baked fabricated potato chips consists of the steps shown in  FIG. 3B . The dough preparation step  35  combines potato flakes with water, the cation/anion pair (which in this case is calcium chloride) and other minor ingredients, which are thoroughly mixed to form a dough. (Again, the term “potato flakes” is intended herein to encompass all dried potato flake, granule, or powder preparations, regardless of particle size.) In the sheeting/cutting step  36 , the dough is run through a sheeter, which flattens the dough, and then is cut into individual pieces. In the cooking step  37 , the formed pieces are cooked to a specified color and water content. The resultant chips are then seasoned in seasoning step  38  and packaged in packaging step  39 .  
      In a first test, two batches of fabricated potato chips were prepared and cooked according to the recipe given in Table 13; with the only difference between the batches was that the test batch contained calcium chloride. In both batches, the dry ingredients were first mixed together, then oil was added to each dry blend and mixed. The calcium chloride was dissolved in the water prior to adding to the dough. The moisture level of the dough prior to sheeting was 40% to 45% by weight. The dough was sheeted to produce a thickness of between 0.020 and 0.030 inches, cut into chip-sized pieces, and baked.  
      After cooking, testing was performed for moisture, oil, and color according to the Hunter L-a-b scale. Samples were tested to obtain acrylamide levels in the finished product. Table 13 below also shows the results of these analyses.  
               TABLE 13                          Effect of CaCl 2  on Acrylamide in Chips                         Ingredient   Control   CaCl 2  Test                                 Potato flakes and modified starch (g)   5496   5496       Sugar (g)   300   300       Oil (g)   90   90       Leavening agents (g)   54   54       Emulsifier (g)   60   60       Calcium Chloride (dissolved in water) (g)   0   39       Total Dry Mix (g)   6000   6039       Water (ml)   3947   3947                 Tests Performed after Chips Cooked                         H2O, %   2.21   2.58       Oil, %   1.99   2.08       Acrylamide, ppb   1030   160       L   72.34   76.67       A   1.99   −.67       B   20.31   24.21                  
 
      As these results show, the addition of calcium chloride to the dough in a ratio by weight of calcium chloride to potato flakes of roughly 1 to 125 significantly lowers the level of acrylamide present in the finished product, lowering the final acrylamide levels from 1030 ppb to 160 ppb. Additionally, the percentages of oil and water in the final product do not appear to have been affected by the addition of calcium chloride. It is noted, however, that CaCl 2  can cause changes in the taste, texture, and color of the product, depending on the amount used.  
      The level of divalent or trivalent cation that is added to a food for the reduction of acrylamide can be expressed in a number of ways. In order to be commercially acceptable, the amount of cation added should be enough to reduce the final level of acrylamide production by at least twenty percent (20%). More preferably, the level of acrylamide production should be reduced by an amount in the range of thirty-five to ninety-five percent (35-95%). Even more preferably, the level of acrylamide production should be reduced by an amount in the range of fifty to ninety-five percent (50-95%). To express this in a different manner, the amount of divalent or trivalent cation to be added can be given as a ratio between the moles of cation to the moles of free asparagine present in the food product. The ratio of the moles of divalent or trivalent cation to moles of free asparagine should be at least one to five (1:5). More preferably, the ratio is at least one to three (1:3), and more preferably still, one to two (1:2). In the presently preferred embodiment, the ratio of moles of cations to moles of asparagine is between about 1:2 and 1:1. In the case of magnesium, which has less effect on the product taste than calcium, the molar ratio of cation to asparagine can be as high as about two to one (2:1).  
      Additional tests were run, using the same procedure as described above, but with different lots of potato flakes containing different levels of reducing sugars and varying amounts of calcium chloride added. In Table 14 below, the chips having 0.8% reducing sugars reproduce the test shown above.  
               TABLE 14                          Effect of CaCl 2  Across Varying Levels       of Reducing Sugars &amp; Cation Levels                                 CaCl 2     Reducing       Color L   Acrylamide       (g)   Sugar %   Moisture %   Value   ppb                                         0   0.8   2.21   72.34   1030       39   0.8   2.58   76.67   160       0   1.0   1.80   73.35   464       0   1.0   1.61   72.12   1060       17.5   1.0   1.82   74.63   350       39   1.0   2.05   76.95   80       39   1.0   1.98   75.86   192       0   1.8   1.99   71.37   1020       0   1.8   1.71   72.68   599       0   1.8   1.69   71.26   1640       0   1.8   1.63   74.44   1880       39   1.8   1.89   76.59   148       39   1.8   1.82   75.14   275                  
 
      As seen in this table, the addition of CaCl 2  consistently reduces the level of acrylamide in the final product, even when the weight ratio of added CaCl 2  to potato flakes is lower than 1:250.  
      Any number of salts that form a divalent or trivalent cation (or said another way, produce a cation with a valence of at least two) can be used with the invention disclosed herein, as long as adjustments are made for the collateral effects of this additional ingredient. The effect of lowering the acrylamide level appears to derive from the divalent or trivalent cation, rather than from the anion that is paired with it. Limitations to the cation/anion pair, other than valence, are related to their acceptability in foods, such as safety, solubility, and their effect on taste, odor, appearance, and texture. For example, the cation&#39;s effectiveness can be directly related to its solubility. Highly soluble salts, such as those salts comprising acetate or chloride anions, are most preferred additives. Less soluble salts, such as those salts comprising carbonate or hydroxide anions can be made more soluble by addition of phosphoric or citric acids or by disrupting the cellular structure of the starch based food. Suggested cations include calcium, magnesium, aluminum, iron, copper, and zinc. Suitable salts of these cations include calcium chloride, calcium citrate, calcium lactate, calcium malate, calcium gluconate, calcium phosphate, calcium acetate, calcium sodium EDTA, calcium glycerophosphate, calcium hydroxide, calcium lactobionate, calcium oxide, calcium propionate, calcium carbonate, calcium stearoyl lactate, magnesium chloride, magnesium citrate, magnesium lactate, magnesium malate, magnesium gluconate, magnesium phosphate, magnesium hydroxide, magnesium carbonate, magnesium sulfate, aluminum chloride hexahydrate, aluminum chloride, aluminum hydroxide, ammonium alum, potassium alum, sodium alum, aluminum sulfate, ferric chloride, ferrous gluconate, ferric ammonium citrate, ferric pyrophosphate, ferrous fumarate, ferrous lactate, ferrous sulfate, cupric chloride, cupric gluconate, cupric sulfate, zinc gluconate, zinc oxide, and zinc sulfate. The presently preferred embodiment of this invention uses calcium chloride, although it is believed that the requirements may be best met by a combination of salts of one or more of the appropriate cations. A number of the salts, such as calcium salts, and in particular calcium chloride, are relatively inexpensive and commonly used as food. Calcium chloride can be used in combination with calcium citrate, thereby reducing the collateral taste effects of CaCl 2 . Further, any number of calcium salts can be used in combination with one or more magnesium salts. One skilled in the art will understand that the specific formulation of salts required can be adjusted depending on the food product in question and the desired end-product characteristics.  
      It should be understood that changes in the characteristics of the final product, such as changes in color, taste, and consistency can be adjusted by various means. For example, color characteristics in potato chips can be adjusted by controlling the amount of sugars in the starting product. Some flavor characteristics can be changed by the addition of various flavoring agents to the end product. The physical texture of the product can be adjusted by, for example, the addition of leavening agents or various emulsifiers.  
      Combinations of Agents in Making Dough  
      In the above detailed embodiments of the invention, focus was on the reduction of acrylamide caused by a single agent, such as a divalent or trivalent cation or one of several amino acids, to lower the amount of acrylamide found in cooked snacks. Other embodiments of the invention involve the combination of various agents, such as combining calcium chloride with other agents to provide a significant reduction of acrylamide without greatly altering the flavor of the chips.  
      I. Combinations of Calcium Chloride, Citric Acid, Phosphoric Acid  
      The inventors have found that calcium ions more effectively reduce acrylamide content at acidic pH. In the test shown below, the addition of calcium chloride in the presence of an acid was studied and compared to a sample with just the acid.  
               TABLE 15                          Effect of Combining CaCl 2  with Phosphoric       Acid or Citric Acid on Acrylamide                                             Phosphoric                   Phosphoric   Acid   Citric Acid       Ingredient   Control   Acid   &amp; CaCl 2     &amp; CaCl 2                                           Potato flakes/   5490   5490   5490   5490       modified       starch (g)       Sugar   360   360   360   360       Oil   90   90   90   90       Citric Acid               30       Phosphoric Acid       30   30       CaCl 2             30   30       Sodium   54       bicarbonate &amp;       monocalcium       phosphate       Emulsifier (g)   60   60   60   60       Total Dry   6000   6000   6000   6000       Mix (g)       Water (ml)   3950   3950   3950   3950       Moisture %   2.16   2.34   2.07   1.60                                     Color   L   67.69   71.39   72.70   73.27           A   5.13   3.24   1.62   0.95           B   26.51   26.91   26.05   26.24                                 Acrylamide (ppb)   1191   322   84   83                  
 
      As seen in Table 15 above, the addition of phosphoric acid alone reduced the acrylamide formation by 73% while the addition of CaCl 2  and an acid dropped the acrylamide level by 93%.  FIG. 5  shows these results in graphical form. In this drawing, the acrylamide level  502  of the control is quite high (1191), but drops significantly when phosphoric acid alone is added and even lower when calcium chloride and an acid are added. At the same time, the moisture levels  504  of the various chips stayed in the same range, although it was somewhat lower in the chips with added agents. Thus, it has been demonstrated that calcium chloride and an acid can effectively reduce acrylamide.  
      Further tests were performed using calcium chloride and phosphoric acid as additives to a potato dough. Three different levels of calcium chloride were used, corresponding to 0%, 0.45% and 0.90% by weight of the potato flakes. These were combined with three different levels of phosphoric acid, corresponding to 0%, 0.05%, or 0.1% of the flakes. Additionally, three levels of reducing sugar in the flakes were tested, corresponding to 0.2%, 1.07%, and 2.07%, although not all combinations of these levels are represented. Each test was mixed into dough, shaped, and cooked to form potato chips. The oil fry temperature, fry time, and sheet thickness were maintained constant at 350 F, 16 seconds, and 0.64 mm respectively. For clarity, the results are presented in three separate tables (16A, 16B, and 16C) with each table showing the results for one of the levels of sugar in the potato flakes. Additionally, the tests are arranged so that the controls, with no calcium chloride or phosphoric acid, are on the left-hand side. Within the table, each level of calcium chloride (CC) is grouped together, with variations in the phosphoric acid (PA) following.  
               TABLE 16A                          CaCl 2 /Phosphoric Acid Effect on Acrylamide       Level - 0.2% Reducing Sugars                                             No CC   ↓CC   ↓CC   ↑CC           Cntrl   ↓PA   No PA   ↑PA   ↓PA       Cell   (16)   (5)   (7)   (4)   (8)                                             CaCl2 %   —   —   0.45   0.45   0.90                                     Phosphoric Acid %   —   0.05   —   0.10   0.05       Moisture   2.36   2.36   2.30   2.30   2.42       Oil   22.83   21.77   23.60   22.20   23.75                                         Color   L   69.42   74.39   75.00   75.07   74.39           A   2.69   0.10   −0.02   −0.13   0.10           B   28.00   27.99   27.80   27.64   27.99                                     Acrylamide   171   131   41   46   40                  
 
      In the lowest level of reducing sugars in this test, we can see that the levels of acrylamide produced are normally in the lower range, as would be expected. At this level of sugars, calcium chloride alone dropped the level of acrylamide to less than ¼ of the control, with little additional benefit gained by the addition of phosphoric acid. In the mid-range of reducing sugars, shown in the following table, the combination of calcium chloride reduces the level of acrylamide from 367 ppb in the control to 69 ppb in cell 12. Although some of this reduction may be attributed to the slightly higher moisture content of cell 12 (2.77 vs. 2.66 for the control), further support is shown by the significant reduction in acrylamide even when the levels of calcium chloride and phosphoric acid are halved. This is shown in cell 6, which has a significant reduction in acrylamide and moisture content lower than the control.  
               TABLE 16B                          CaCl 2 /Phosphoric Acid Effect on Acrylamide Level - 1.07% Reducing Sugars                                                         No CC   ↓CC   ↓CC   ↓CC   ↓CC   ↑CC   ↑CC           Cntrl   ↑PA   ↓PA   ↓PA   ↓PA   ↓PA   0 PA   ↑PA       Cell   (15)   (3)   (2a)   (2b)   (6)   (13)   (9)   (12)                                                         CaCl 2     —   —   0.45   0.45   0.45   0.45   0.90   0.90                                                 Phosphoric   —   0.10   0.05   0.05   0.05   0.05   —   0.10       Acid %       Moisture   2.66   2.59   3.16   2.74   2.61   2.56   2.81   2.77       Oil   23.72   24.24   25.24   22.58   23.48   25.12   23.99   24.71                                                     Color   L   69.45   67.69   72.23   70.44   70.58   72.06   72.64   73.59           A   2.73   4.63   0.54   2.32   2.59   2.03   0.84   0.47           B   28.00   28.54   26.51   27.55   27.79   27.64   27.05   26.82                                                 Acrylamide   367   451   96   170   192   207   39   69                  
 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 16C 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 CaCl 2 /Phosphoric Acid Effect on Acrylamide 
               
               
                 Level - 2.07% Reducing Sugars 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 No CC 
                 ↓CC 
                 ↓CC 
                 ↓CC 
                 ↓CC 
                 ↑CC 
               
               
                   
                 ↓PA 
                 No PA 
                 No PA 
                 No PA 
                 ↑PA 
                 ↓PA 
               
               
                 Cell 
                 (11) 
                 (1a) 
                 (1b) 
                 (1c) 
                 (10) 
                 (14) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 CaCl2 % 
                 — 
                 0.45 
                 0.45 
                 0.45 
                 0.45 
                 0.90 
               
               
                 Phosphoric 
                 0.05 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
                 0.10 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 Acid % 
               
               
                 Moisture 
                 2.47 
                 2.68 
                 2.60 
                 3.19 
                 2.80 
                 3.18 
               
               
                 Oil 
                 24.70 
                 25.07 
                 24.48 
                 22.81 
                 24.19 
                 23.25 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Color 
                 L 
                 61.84 
                 62.32 
                 63.86 
                 69.42 
                 69.11 
                 72.61 
               
               
                   
                 A 
                 8.10 
                 5.18 
                 6.70 
                 3.00 
                 3.78 
                 1.28 
               
               
                   
                 B 
                 28.32 
                 26.27 
                 28.00 
                 27.66 
                 27.70 
                 26.78 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Acrylamide 
                 667 
                 431 
                 360 
                 112 
                 150 
                 51 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
      As can be seen from these three tables, the levels of calcium chloride and phosphoric acid necessary to reduce the level of acrylamide increases as the level of reducing sugars increases, as would be expected.  FIG. 6  shows a graph corresponding to the three tables above, with the bars  602  showing acrylamide level and the points  604  demonstrating moisture level. The results are again grouped by the level of reducing sugar available from the potato; within each group there is a general movement downward as first one and then several acrylamide-reducing agents are used to lower the acrylamide level.  
      Several days later, another test with the same protocol as for the three tables above was conducted using only the potato flakes with 1.07% reducing sugars with the same three levels of calcium chloride and with four levels of phosphoric acid (0, 0.025%, 0.05%, and 0.10%). The results are shown below in Table 17.  FIG. 7  graphically shows the results for the table, with acrylamide levels expressed as bars  702  and calibrated to the markings on the left-hand side while percentage moisture is expressed as points  704  and calibrated to the markings on the right-hand side of the drawing. As the amount of calcium chloride increases, e.g. moving from left to right across the whole table, the acrylamide decreases. Likewise, for each level of calcium chloride, e.g. moving left to right within one level of calcium chloride, the level of acrylamide also generally decreases.  
               TABLE 17                          CaCl 2 /Phosphoric Acid Effect on Acrylamide Level - 1.07% Reducing Sugars                                                         No CC   No CC   ↓CC   ↓CC   ↑CC   ↑CC   ↑CC           Cntrl   ↓PA   ↑PA   ↓PA   ↓PA   ↓↓PA   ↓PA   ↑PA       Cell   (1)   (4)   (7)   (3)   (6)   (8)   (2)   (5)                                                         CaCl 2     —   —   —   0.45   0.45   0.90   0.90   0.90                                                 Phosphoric   —   0.050   0.100   0.050   0.050   0.025   0.050   0.100       Acid %       Moisture   2.68   2.52   2.38   2.29   2.55   2.45   2.78   2.61       Oil   23.74   22.57   22.13   24.33   23.84   22.54   24.11   22.73                                                     Color   L   65.97   64.67   64.55   65.18   66.82   68.36   70.23   68.75           A   4.75   5.23   5.53   5.06   4.09   3.17   2.19   2.92           B   27.70   27.83   27.94   27.79   27.64   27.17   26.28   27.06                                                 Acrylamide   454   435   344   188   77   233   80   66                  
 
      II. Calcium Chloride/Citric Acid with Cysteine  
      In some of the previous tests on corn chips performed by the inventors, the amount of calcium chloride and phosphoric acid necessary to bring the level of acrylamide to a desired level produced objectionable flavors. The following test was designed to reveal if the addition to the potato dough of cysteine—which has been shown to lower the levels of acrylamide in the chips—would allow the levels of calcium chloride and acid to be lowered to acceptable taste levels while keeping the level of acrylamide low. In this test, the three agents were added to the masa (dough) at a ratio of (i.) 0.106% Ca/Cl 2 , 0.084% citric acid, and 0.005% L. cysteine in a first experiment; (ii) 0.106% Ca/Cl 2  and 0.084% citric acid, but no cysteine in a second experiment, and 0.053% Ca/Cl 2 , 0.042% citric acid with 0.005% L. cysteine as a third experiment. Each experiment was duplicated and run again, with both results shown below. The masa is about 50% moisture, so the concentrations would approximately double if one translates these ratios to solids only. Additionally, in each test, part of the run was flavored with a nacho cheese seasoning at about 10% of the base chip weight. Results of this test are shown in Table 18 below. In this table, for each category of chip, e.g., plain chip, control, the results of the first-run experiment are given in acrylamide #1; the results of the second experiment are given as acrylamide #2, and the average of the two given as acrylamide average. Only one moisture level was taken, in the first experiment; that value is shown.  
               TABLE 18                          Effect of Cysteine with CaCl 2 /Citric Acid on Acrylamide Level in Corn Chips                             Plain chip   Nacho chip                                                         ↑CC   ↑CC   ↓CC       ↑CC   ↑CC   ↓CC               ↑Citric   ↑Citric   ↓Citric       ↑Citric   ↑Citric   ↓Citric       Cell   Cntrl   0 Cys   Cys   Cys   Cntrl   0 Cys   Cys   Cys                                                         CaCl 2  (%)       0.106   0.106   0.053       0.106   0.106   0.053       Citric acid (%)       0.084   0.084   0.042       0.084   0.084   0.042       Cysteine (%)           0.005   0.005           0.005   0.005       Acrylamide #1   163   154   70   171   90   55   62   77       ppb       Acrylamide #2   102   113   74   103   71   53   50   76       ppb       Acrylamide   132.5   133.5   72   137   80.5   54   56   76.5       average ppb       Moisture %   1.07   0.91   1.07   0.95   1.26   1.49   1.23   1.25                  
 
      When combined with 0.106% CaCl2 and 0.084% citric acid, the addition of cysteine cut the production of acrylamide approximately in half. In the chips flavored with nacho flavoring, the calcium chloride and citric acid alone reduced the production of acrylamide from 80.5 to 54 ppb, although in this set of tests, the addition of cysteine did not appear to provide a further reduction of acrylamide.  
       FIG. 8  graphically presents the same data as the table above. For each type of chip on which the experiment was run (e.g., plain chip, control), two bars  802  show the acrylamide results. Acrylamide results  802   a  from the first experiment are shown on the left for each type chip, with the acrylamide results  802   b  from the second experiment shown on the right. Both acrylamide results are calibrated to the markings on the left of the graph. The single moisture level is shown as a point  804  overlying the acrylamide graph and is calibrated to the markings on the right of the graph.  
      After the above test was completed, fabricated potato chips were similarly tested, using potato flakes containing two different levels of reducing sugars. To translate the concentrations used in the corn chip test to fabricated potato chips, the sum of the potato flakes, potato starch, emulsifiers and added sugar were considered as the solids. The amounts of CaCl 2 , citric acid, and cysteine were adjusted to yield the same concentration as in the corn chips on a solids basis. In this test, however, when higher levels of calcium chloride and citric acid were used, a higher level of cysteine was also used. Additionally, a comparison was made in the lower reducing sugar portion of the test, to the use of calcium chloride in combination with phosphoric acid, with and without cysteine. The results are shown in Table 19.  
      We can see from these that in potato flakes with 1.25% of reducing sugars, the combination of calcium chloride, citric acid, and cysteine at the first level above reduced the formation of acrylamide from 1290 ppb to 594 ppb, less than half of the control figure. Using the higher levels of the combination of agents reduced the formation of acrylamide to 306 ppb, less than half of the control amount.  
      Using the same potato flakes, phosphoric acid and calcium chloride alone reduced the formation of acrylamide from the same 1290 to 366 ppb, while a small amount of cysteine added with the phosphoric acid and calcium chloride reduced the acrylamide still further, to 188 ppb.  
      Finally, in the potato flakes having 2% reducing sugars, the addition of calcium chloride, citric acid, and cysteine reduced the formation of acrylamide from 1420 to 665 ppb, less than half.  
               TABLE 19                          Effect of Cysteine with CaCl 2 /Acid on Acrylamide Level in Potato Chips                             Medium reducing sugars   High reducing           (1.25%)   sugars (2%)                                                     ↓CC   ↑CC               ↓CC               ↓Citric   ↑Citric   CC PhosA   CC PhosA       ↓Citric           Cntrl   ↓Cyst   ↑Cyst   0Cyst   Cyst   Cntrl   ↓Cyst       Cell   (1B)   (2)   (3)   (4)   (4A)   (6)   (7)                                                     Calcium chloride       10.2   20.4   36   36       10.2       Citric acid       8   16               8       Phosphoric acid               4   4       Cysteine       0.48   0.96       0.48       0.48       Acrylamide ppb   1290   594   306   366   188   1420   665       Moisture %   1.82   2.06   2.12   2.06   2.33   2.28   2.23                                                 Color   L   56.84   65.47   69.29   66.88   73.09   61.06   63.50           A   10.20   6.42   4.07   4.42   1.55   9.03   7.93           B   27.53   28.40   28.17   28.10   27.07   28.07   28.00                  
 
       FIG. 9  demonstrates graphically the results of this experiment. Results are shown grouped first by the level of reducing sugars, then by the amount of acrylamide-reducing agents added. As in the previous graphs, bars  902  representing the level of acrylamide are calibrated according to the markings on the left-hand side of the graph, while the points  904  representing the moisture level are calibrated according to the markings to the right-hand side of the graph.  
      The above experiments have shown that the acrylamide-reducing agents do not have to be used separately, but can be combined to provide added benefit. This added benefit can be used to achieve increasingly lower levels of acrylamide in foods or to achieve a low level of acrylamide without producing significant changes to the taste of texture of those foods. Although the specific embodiments shown have disclosed calcium chloride combined with citric acid or phosphoric acid and these with cysteine, one of ordinary skill in the art would realize that the combinations could use other calcium salts, the salts of other divalent or trivalent cations, other food-grade acids, and any of the other amino acids that have been shown to lower acrylamide in a finished food product. Additionally, although this has been demonstrated in potato chips and corn chips, one of ordinary skill in the art would understand that the same use of combinations of agents can be used in other fabricated food products that are subject to the formation of acrylamide, such as cookies, crackers, etc.  
      Agents to Reduce Acrylamide Added in the Manufacture of Potato Flakes  
      The addition of calcium chloride and an acid has been shown to lower acrylamide in fried and baked snack foods formulated with potato flakes. It is believed that the presence of an acid achieves its effect by lowering the pH. It is not known whether the calcium chloride interferes with the loss of the carboxyl group or the subsequent loss of the amine group from free asparagine to form acrylamide. The loss of the amine group appears to require high temperature, which generally occurs toward the end of the snack dehydration. The loss of the carboxyl group is believed to occur at lower temperatures in the presence of water.  
      Potato flakes can be made either with a series of water and steam cooks (conventional) or with a steam cook only (which leaches less from the exposed surfaces of the potato). The cooked potatoes are then mashed and drum dried. Analysis of flakes has revealed very low acrylamide levels in flakes (less than 100 ppb), although the products made from these flakes can attain much higher levels of acrylamide.  
      It was theorized that if either lowering dough pH with acid or adding calcium chloride to the dough interferes with the loss of the carboxylic group, then introducing these additives during the flake production process might either (a) reduce the carboxyl loss thus reducing the rate of amine loss during the snack food dehydration or (b) whatever the mechanism, insure that the intervention additive is well distributed in the dough that is dehydrated into the snack food. The former, if it happens, would be a likely bigger effect on acrylamide than the latter.  
      Another possible additive to reduce the formation of acrylamide in fabricated food products is asparaginase. Asparaginase is known to decompose asparagine to aspartic acid and ammonia. Although it is not possible to utilize this enzyme in making potato chips from sliced potatoes, the process of making flakes by cooking and mashing potatoes (a food ingredient) breaks down the cell walls and provides an opportunity for asparaginase to work. In a preferred embodiment, the asparaginase is added to the food ingredient in a pure form as food grade asparaginase.  
      The inventors designed the following sets of experiments to study the effectiveness of various agents added during the production of the potato flakes in reducing the level of acrylamide in products made with the potato flakes.  
      I. Calcium Chloride and Phosphoric Acid Used in Making Potato Flakes  
      This series of tests were designed to evaluate the reduction in the level of acrylamide when CaCl 2  and/or phosphoric acid are added during the production of the potato flakes. The tests also address whether these additives had the same effect as when they are added at the later stage of making the dough.  
      For this test, the potatoes comprised 20% solids and 1% reducing sugar. The potatoes were cooked for 16 minutes and mashed with added ingredients. All batches received 13.7 gm of an emulsifier and 0.4 gm of citric acid. Four of the six batches had phosphoric acid added at one of two levels (0.2% and 0.4% of potato solids) and three of the four batches received CaCl 2  at one of two levels (0.45% and 0.90% of the weight of potato solids). After the potatoes were dried and ground into flakes of a given size, various measurements were performed and each batch was made into dough. The dough used 4629 gm of potato flakes and potato starch, 56 gm of emulsifier, 162 ml of liquid sucrose and 2300 ml of water. Additionally, of the two batches that did not receive phosphoric acid or CaCl 2  during flake production, both batches received these additives at the given levels as the dough was made. The dough was rolled to a thickness of 0.64 mm, cut into pieces, and fried at 350° F. for 20 seconds. Table 20 below shows the results of the tests for these various batches.  
               TABLE 20                          Effect of CaCl 2 /Phosphoric Acid added to Flakes or Dough on Acrylamide Level                                             0 Ca   ↓Ca   ↓Ca   ↑Ca   ↑Ca   ↑Ca           ↓phos   ↓phos   ↓phos   ↓phos   ↓phos   ↑phos           (C)   (B)   (F)   (A)   (D)   (E)       Batch   in flakes   in flakes   in dough   in flakes   in dough   in flakes                         Added to flakes                                         Wt. (gm) Calcium Chloride   0   24.7   0   49.4   0   49.4       Wt. (gm) Phosphoric Acid   11.0   11.0   0   11.0   0   21.9                 Dried Flake Tests                                         Moisture (%)   6.3   6.5   4.5   6.8   6.2   7.7       Water Absorption Index   8.2   8.3   9.2   8.2   8.1   8.1       (WAI) (%)       On 20 mesh   1.5   1.8   2.0   1.0   1.7   1.6       On 40 mesh   26.6   30.9   32.3   27.2   28.3   24.4       On 60 mesh   35.3   37.1   36.1   38.4   37.5   35.3       On 80 mesh   14.6   13.2   12.0   14.5   14.4   16.0       On 100 mesh   5.7   4.8   4.5   5.4   5.4   6.5       On 200 mesh   11.5   8.8   8.6   10.1   9.3   12.1       Through 200 mesh   4.7   3.3   4.5   3.4   3.3   4.0                 Added to dough                                         Calcium Chloride dihydrate   0   0   23.7   0   47.4   0       Phosphoric Acid   0   0   14.4   0   7.9   0                 Test Results on Chips                                         Moisture   1.87   2.04   2.04   2.07   1.97   2.05       Oil   23.53   23.82   25.12   23.76   24.44   24.98       Color - L   54.63   62.58   67.28   66.89   69.48   66.87       Color - A   13.63   9.23   6.99   6.27   5.61   7.21       Color - B   27.32   28.59   29.54   28.85   29.26   29.37       Acrylamide   1286   344   252   129   191   141                  
 
      As seen in the results above and in the accompanying graph of  FIG. 10 , the acrylamide level was the highest in Test C when only phosphoric acid was added to the flake preparation and was the lowest when calcium chloride and phosphoric acid were used in combination.  
      II. Asparaginase Used in Making Potato Flakes  
      Asparaginase is an enzyme that decomposes asparagine to aspartic acid and ammonia. Since aspartic acid does not form acrylamide, the inventors reasoned that asparaginase treatment should reduce acrylamide formation when the potato flakes are heated.  
      The following test was performed. Two grams of standard potato flakes was mixed with 35 ml of water in a metal drying pan. The pan was covered and heated at 100° C. for 60 minutes. After cooling, 250 units of asparaginase in 5 ml water were added, an amount of asparaginase that is significantly more than the calculated amount necessary. For control, potato flakes and 5 ml of water without enzyme was mixed. The potato flakes with asparaginase were held at room temperature for 1 hour. After enzyme treatment, the potato flake slurry was dried at 60° C. overnight. The pans with dried potato flakes were covered and heated at 120° C. for 40 minutes. Acrylamide was measured by gas chromatograph, mass spectrometry of brominated derivative. The control flakes contained 11,036 ppb of acrylamide, while the asparaginase-treated flakes contained 117 ppb of acrylamide, a reduction of more than 98%.  
      Following this first test, investigation was made into whether or not it was necessary to cook the potato flakes and water prior to adding asparaginase for the enzyme to be effective. To test this, the following experiment was performed:  
      Potato flakes were pretreated in one of four ways. In each of the four groups, 2 grams of potato flakes were mixed with 35 milliliters of water. In the control pre-treatment group (a), the potato flakes and water were mixed to form a paste. In group (b), the potato flakes were homogenized with 25 ml of water in a Bio Homogenizer M 133/1281-0 at high speed and mixed with an additional 10 ml of deionized water. In group (c), the potato flakes and water were mixed, covered, and heated at 60° C. for 60 minutes. In group (d), the potato flakes and water were mixed, covered, and heated at 100° C. for 60 minutes. For each pre-treatment group (a), (b), (c), and (d), the flakes were divided, with half of the pre-treatment group being treated with asparaginase while the other half served as controls, with no added asparaginase.  
      A solution of asparaginase was prepared by dissolving  1000  units in 40 milliliters of deionized water. The asparaginase was from Erwinia chrysanthemi, Sigma A-2925 EC 3.5.1.1. Five milliliters of asparaginase solution (5 ml) was added to each of the test potato flake slurries (a), (b), (c), and (d). Five milliliters of deioninzed water was added to the control potato flake slurry (a). All slurries were left at room temperature for one hour, with all tests being performed in duplicate. The uncovered pans containing the potato flake slurries were left overnight to dry at 60° C. After covering the pans, the potato flakes were heated at 120° C. for 40 minutes. Acrylamide was measured by gas chromatography, mass spectroscopy of brominated derivative.  
      As shown in Table 21 below, asparaginase treatment reduced acrylamide formation by more than 98% for all pretreatments. Neither homogenizing nor heating the potato flakes before adding the enzyme increased the effectiveness of asparaginase. In potato flakes, asparagine is accessible to asparaginase without treatments to further damage cell structure. Notably, the amount of asparaginase used to treat the potato flakes was in large excess. If potato flakes contain 1% asparagine, adding 125 units of asparaginase to 2 grams of potato flakes for 1 hour is approximately a 50-fold excess of enzyme.  
               TABLE 21                          Effect of Pretreatments of Potato Flakes       on Effectiveness of Asparagine                             Acrylamide ppb   Acrylamide                                 Control - No   Test-   as % of       Pre-treatment   Asparaginase   Asparaginase   Control               (a) No pre-treatment   12512   107   0.9       (b) Homogenizing   12216   126   1.0       (c) Heated at 60 C.   12879   105   0.8       (d) Heated at 100 C.   12696   166   1.3                  
 
      Another set of tests was designed to evaluate whether the addition of asparaginase during the production of potato flakes provides a reduction of acrylamide in the cooked product made from the flakes and whether buffering the mashed potatoes used to make the flakes to a preferred pH for enzyme activity (e.g., pH=8.6) increases the effectiveness of the asparaginase. The buffering was done with a solution of sodium hydroxide, made with four grams of sodium hydroxide added to one liter of water to form a tenth molar solution.  
      Two batches of potato flakes were made as controls, one buffered and one un-buffered. Asparaginase was added to two additional batches of potato flakes; again one was buffered while the other was not. The asparaginase was obtained from Sigma Chemical and was mixed with water in a ratio of 8 to 1 water to enzyme. For the two batches in which asparaginase was added, the mash was held for 40 minutes after adding the enzyme, in a covered container to minimize dehydration and held at approximately 36° C. The mash was then processed on a drum dryer to produce the flakes. The potato flakes were used to make potato dough according to the previously shown protocols, with the results shown in Table 22 below.  
               TABLE 22                          Effect of Asparaginase and Buffering on Acrylamide Level       in Potato Chips                                     Unbuffered   Unbuffered   Buffered   Buffered       Measurement   Control   Asparaginase   Control   Asparaginase                                         Moisture   1.56   1.53   1.68   1.61       Oil   22.74   23.12   21.77   21.13       Color - L   61.24   60.70   57.24   57.35       Color - A   6.57   9.30   5.04   7.52       Color - B   28.95   28.29   27.12   27.41       Acrylamide ppb   768   54   1199   111                  
 
      As shown in Table 22, the addition of asparaginase without a buffer reduced the production of acrylamide in the finished chips from 768 to 54 ppb, a reduction of 93%. The use of a buffer did not appear to have the desired effect on the formation of acrylamide; rather the use of the buffered solution allowed a greater amount of acrylamide to form in both the control and the asparaginase experiments. Still, the asparaginase reduced the level of acrylamide from 1199 to 111, a reduction of 91%.  FIG. 11  shows the results from Table 22 in a graphical manner. As in the previous drawings, bars  1102  represent the level of acrylamide for each experiment, calibrated according to the markings on the left-hand side of the graph, while points  1104  represent the moisture level in the chips a, calibrated according to the markings on the right-hand side of the graph.  
      Tests were also run on the samples to check for free asparagine to determine if the enzyme was active. The results are shown below in Table 23.  
               TABLE 23                          Test for Free Asparagine in Enzyme Treated Flakes                                     Control   Asparaginase   Control   Asparaginase           Unbuffered   Unbuffered   Buffered   Buffered                                         Free Asparagine   1.71   0.061   2.55   0.027       Fructose   &lt;0.01   &lt;0.01   &lt;0.01   &lt;0.01       Glucose   &lt;0.02   &lt;0.02   &lt;0.02   &lt;0.02       Sucrose   0.798   0.828   0.720   0.322                  
 
      In the unbuffered group, the addition of asparaginase reduced the free asparagine from 1.71 to 0.061, a reduction of 96.5%. In the buffered group, the addition of asparaginase reduced the free asparagine from 2.55 to 0.027, a reduction of 98.9%.  
      Finally, sample flakes from each group were evaluated in a model system. In this model system, a small amount of flakes from each sample was mixed with water to form an approximate 50% solution of flakes to water. This solution was heated in a test tube for 40 minutes at 120° C. The sample was then analyzed for acrylamide formation, with the results shown in Table 24. Duplicate results for each category are shown side by side. In the model system, the addition of asparaginase to the unbuffered flakes reduced the acrylamide from an average of 993.5 ppb to 83 ppb, a reduction of 91.7%. The addition of asparaginase to the buffered flakes reduced the acrylamide from an average of 889.5 ppb to an average of 64.5, a reduction of 92.7%.  
               TABLE 24                          Model System Effect of Asparaginase on Acrylamide                                     Control   Asparaginase   Control   Asparaginase           Unbuffered   Unbuffered   Buffered   Buffered                                                             Acrylamide   1019   968   84   82   960   819   70   59       ppb                  
 
 Rosemary Extract Added to Frying Oil 
 
      In a separate test, the effect of adding rosemary extract to the frying oil for fabricated potato chips was examined. In this test, identically fabricated potato chips were fried either in oil that had no additives (controls) or in oil that had rosemary extract added at one of four levels: 500, 750, 1,000, or 1,500 parts per million. Table 25 below gives the results of this test.  
               TABLE 25                          Effect of Rosemary on Acrylamide                         Level of Rosemary ppm                                             0   0   500   750   1,000   1,500                                                     Moisture %       2.58           2.64   2.6       Acrylamide ppb   1210   1057   840   775   1211   1608                  
 
      The average acrylamide level in the control chips was 1133.5 ppb. Adding 500 parts per million of rosemary to the frying oil reduced the acrylamide to 840, a reduction of 26%, while increasing the rosemary to 750 parts per million reduced the formation of acrylamide further, to 775, a reduction of 31.6%. However, increasing the rosemary to 1000 parts per million had no effect and increasing rosemary to 1500 parts per million caused the formation of acrylamide to increase to 1608 parts per billion, an increase of 410.9%.  
       FIG. 12  demonstrates the results of the rosemary experiment graphically. As in the previous examples, the bars  1202  demonstrate the level of acrylamide and are calibrated to the divisions on the left-hand side of the graph, while the points  1204  demonstrate the amount of moisture in the chips and are calibrated to the divisions on the right-hand side of the graph.  
      The disclosed test results have added to the knowledge of acrylamide-reducing agents that can be used in thermally processed, fabricated foods. Divalent and trivalent cations and amino acids have been shown to be effective in reducing the incidence of acrylamide in thermally processed, fabricated foods. These agents can be used individually, but can also be used in combination with each other or with acids that increase their effectiveness. The combination of agents can be utilized to further drive down the incidence of acrylamide in thermally processed foods from that attainable by single agents or the combinations can be utilized to attain a low level of acrylamide without undue alterations in the taste and texture of the food product. Asparaginase has been tested as an effective acrylamide-reducing agent in fabricated foods. It has also been shown that these agents can be effective not only when added to the dough for the fabricated food, but the agents can also be added to intermediate products, such as dried potato flakes or other dried potato products, during their manufacture. The benefit from agents added to intermediate products can be as effective as those added to the dough.  
      Effect of Acrylamide-Reducing Agent Having a Free Thiol on Acrylamide Formation  
      Another embodiment of the invention involves reducing the production of acrylamide by the addition of a reducing agent with a free thiol compound to a snack food dough prior to cooking or thermal processing. As used herein, a free thiol compound is an acrylamide reducing agent having a free thiol. As previously discussed, it is believed that the free thiol of cysteine can react with the double carbon bond of acrylamide and act as an inhibitor of the Maillard reaction.  
      A test was conducted to confirm the free thiol is likely responsible for the acrylamide reduction. Five free thiol compounds were prepared in equimolar basis, each compound having a concentration 6.48 mmoles per liter in a 0.5 molar sodium phosphate buffer having pH of 7.0 with 0.4% asparagine (30.3 millimolar) and 0.8% glucose (44.4 millimolars). A control sample having no free thiol compounds was also prepared. The six solutions were each heated at 120° C. for 40 minutes. The solutions were then measured for acrylamide concentrations. The results are shown in Table 26 below:  
               TABLE 26                          Effect of Free Thiol Compounds on Acrylamide Reduction       Through Decomposition                         Compound   Acrylamide (ppb)   As % of Control               Control (No Free Thiol)   4146   100        Cysteine (“L-Cysteine”)   1128   27       N-Acetyl-L-Cysteine   1231   30       N-Acetyl-cysteamine   1204   29       Glutathione Reduced   1153   28       Di-thiothreitol   1462   35                  
 
 The above experiment confirms that it is the free thiol group that reduces acrylamide. The free amino group of cysteine does not contribute to reducing acrylamide because N-acetyl-L-cysteine having a blocked amino group is about as effective as cysteine. The carboxyl group of cysteine does not contribute to reducing acrylamide because N-acetyl-cysteamine, which has no carboxyl group is about as effective as cysteine at reducing acrylamide. Gluthathione, a tripeptide with cysteine in the middle position, was equivalent to cysteine. Although dithiothreitol has two thiol groups, acrylamide with dithiothreitol was similar to the compounds with one thiol group. The two thiol groups in dithiothreitol may react to from disulfides so dithiothreitol was less effective on an equal molar basis than the other thiol containing compounds. 
 
      Experimentation, as exemplified by Table 6 above, has shown that acrylamide reduction is roughly proportional to the concentration of added free thiols, such as cysteine. However, collateral effects on the characteristics, such as color, taste, and texture of the final product from the addition of a free thiol compound as cysteine must be considered. High levels of cysteine, for example, can impart undesirable off-flavors in the final product. Hence, additives that can increase or magnify the effectiveness of a free thiol compound, such as cysteine, are desirable because such additives can permit the same level of acrylamide reduction with a lesser concentration of a thiol compound. It has been discovered that when a reducing agent is added to a free thiol compound such as cysteine, acrylamide reduction is enhanced. Reducing agents are known in oxidation-reduction chemistry to be compounds that are electron donors and oxidizing agents are known to be electron acceptors.  
      Effect of Cysteine+Reducing Agent on Acrylamide Decomposition  
      Simple model systems can be used to test the magnified effectiveness of free thiol compounds with the addition of a reducing agent. A control sample solution comprising a free thiol (1.114 millimolar of cysteine) and acrylamide (0.0352 millimolar) was prepared in a 0.5 molar sodium phosphate buffer having a pH of 7.0. The solution was heated at 120° C. for 40 minutes. The recovery of the added acrylamide was 21%. Hence, the amount of acrylamide reduction for the control sample with no reducing agent was 79%. Even though the molar ratio of cysteine to acrylamide was more than 30, not all of the acrylamide reacted with cysteine.  
      A test was then run with free thiol compounds and a reducing agent. A solution comprising 135 ppm of a free thiol compound (1.114 millimolar of cysteine), 2500 ppb acrylamide (0.0352 millimolars), and about 305 ppm reducing agent (1.35 millimolar of stannuous chloride dihydrate) was prepared in a 0.5 molar sodium phosphate buffer having a pH of 7.0. After heating at 120° C. for 40 minutes, the recovery of added acrylamide was measured to be less than 4%. Hence, the amount of acrylamide reduction with the sample containing a reducing agent was over 96%, an additional 17% over the free thiol alone, or control sample.  
      Effect of Cysteine+Oxidizing Agent on Acrylamide Decomposition  
      A test was then run with the addition of an oxidizing agent instead of a reducing agent. A solution of 135 ppm of a free thiol (1.114 millimolar of cysteine), 2500 ppb of acrylamide (0.0352 millimolars), and a 235 ppm of an oxidizing agent (1.35 millimolars of dehydroascorbic acid) was prepared in a 0.5 molar solution of sodium phosphate buffer having a pH of 7.0. After heating at 120° C. for 40 minutes, the recovery of added acrylamide was measured to be about 27%. Hence, the amount of acrylamide reduction with the sample containing the oxidizing agent was about 73%, which is less then the reduction achieved by the cysteine control sample. Thus, acrylamide decomposition worsened with the addition of the oxidizing agent.  
      Further tests were conducted with other oxidizing and reducing agents with an acrylamide solution having about 2500 ng/ml, or 2500 ppb of acrylamide. The results are provided in Table 27 below.  
               TABLE 27                          Effect of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents With Cysteine on Acrylamide                                     Concentration   Concentration   Recovery of   % Recovery       Compound   (ug/ml)   millimolar   Acrylamide(ng/ml)   of Acrylamide                         Control Sample (Free Thiol Only)                                 Cysteine   135   1.114   534   21%                 Reducing Agent + 135 ppm of Cysteine                                 Ascorbic Acid       11.4       9%       (Vitamin C)       Stannous   304.6   1.350   68   3%       chloride       dihydrate       Sodium sulfite   170.2   1.350   69   3%       Sodium meta-   256.6   1.350   24   1%       bisulfite                 Oxidizing Agent + 135 ppm of Cysteine                                 Dehydroascorbic   235   1.350   673   27%       acid       Gallic acid   253.9   1.350   1111   44%       monohydrate       Catechin hydrate   391.9   1.350   877   35%       Epicatechin   391.9   1.350   827   33%       Rutin hydrate   824.2   1.350   1306   52%                  
 
      Table 27: Effect of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents With Cysteine on Acrylamide  FIG. 13  graphically illustrates the theorized effect of the addition of an oxidizing or reducing agent to an acrylamide-reducing agent. Without being bound to theory, it is believed that the reducing agents  1304  increase or magnify the effectiveness of cysteine by keeping cysteine in the reduced, thiol  1306  form. As discussed above, it is believed that the free thiol of cysteine reacts with the double bond of acrylamide. An oxidizing agent  1302 , such as dehydroascorbic acid, likely converts the cysteine thiol  1306  into an inactive cysteine disulfide (cystine)  1308 . In one embodiment of the invention, the reducing agent having a standard reduction potential (E°) of between about +0.2 and −2.0 volts is used.  
      Enhanced Effect of Thiol with a Reducing Agent with Potato Flakes  
      A test was performed to compare the reduction of acrylamide with a free thiol with and without a reducing agent in the presence of potato flakes. Six vials were prepared having 3 grams of potato flakes mixed with 3 mL of dionized water. Cysteine was added to the vials at concentrations (ug cysteine/g potato flake) of 800 ppm, 400 ppm, 200 ppm, and 100 ppm. Casein, a potential free thiol source, was added to a vial at the 1% level. The six samples were each heated at 120° C. for 40 minutes. The solutions were then measured for acrylamide concentrations. The results are shown in Table 28 below:  
               TABLE 28                          Effect of Various Concentration Levels on Acrylamide Reduction       without a Reducing Agent                                 Added       Acrylamide           Cysteine   Acrylamide   as a %       Sample   (ppm)   (ppb)   of Control               Control Potato Flakes    0   2695   100       Cysteine   800   2220    82       Cysteine   400   2179    81       Cysteine   200   2612    97       Cysteine   100   2832   105       Casein (1%)       2808   104                  
 
      The data again confirms that as the concentration of cysteine increases, the acrylamide reduction also increases. The above test also indicates that 1% Casein without a reducing agent does not reduce acrylamide.  
      As shown in Table 27 above, sodium sulfite (reducing agent) increased the effectiveness of cysteine in decreasing added acrylamide an additional 18% over the free thiol, or control sample. A test was conducted to determine the effect of sodium sulfite on the effectiveness of cysteine and casein in decreasing acrylamide levels in potato flakes. Five vials were prepared having 3 grams of potato flakes mixed with 3 mL of dionized water. Cysteine was added to two vials at a concentration of 400 ppm (ug cysteine/g potato flake). Casein was added to a vial at the 1% level. Sodium sulfite was added at 483 ppm (ug sulfur dioxide per g of potato flake) to the casein vial and one of the cysteine vials. The samples were each heated at 120° C. for 40 minutes. The solutions were then measured for acrylamide concentrations. The results are shown in Table 29 below:  
               TABLE 29                          Effect of Various Concentration Levels on Acrylamide Reduction       of Potato Flakes without a Reducing Agent                                         Acrylamide               Acrylamide   as %       Thiol   Reducing Agent   (ppb)   of Control                0 ppm Cysteine   —   3567   100        (Control)       400 ppm Cysteine   —   2500   70       —   483 ppm sodium sulfite   3004   84       400 ppm cysteine   483 ppm sodium sulfite   2351   66       1% Casein   483 ppm sodium sulfite   2632   74                  
 
 Table 28 indicates that a 1% Casein addition failed to reduce acrylamide levels in potato flakes without a reducing agent. Table 29, however, reveals that the addition of a reducing agent (483 ppm sodium sulfite) results in an additional 10% acrylamide reduction over the sodium sulfite alone. 
 
      The thiol and reducing agent were less effective in reducing acrylamide levels in the potato flakes samples (Table 28 and 29) than in the non-potato flakes solutions. There are several potential reasons that explain this. For example, acrylamide was added in the non-potato flake samples but had to be formed in the potato flake samples. Thus, acrylamide formation was probably more important than decomposition. Further, conditions were not optimized for potato flakes. The pH of the potato flakes was not adjusted to pH 7, which would increase the reactivity of cysteine with acrylamide.  
      In one embodiment, the free thiol compound  1306  is selected from the group consisting of cysteine, N-acetyl-L-cysteine, N-acetyl-cysteamine, glutathione reduced, dithiothreitol, casein, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the reducing agent  1304  is selected from the group consisting of stannous chloride dihydrate, sodium sulfite, sodium meta-bisulfite, ascorbic acid, ascorbic acid derivatives, isoascorbic acid (erythorbic acid), salts of ascorbic acid derivatives, iron, zinc, ferrous ions, and combinations thereof.  
      One advantage of the present invention is that the same reduction of acrylamide can be achieved by using less free thiol when the free thiol compound is mixed with a reducing agent. Thus, undesirable off-flavors can be reduced or eliminated. The acrylamide reduction can be achieved by using free thiol compound and reducing agent in any dough-based snack food. Another benefit of the present invention is the inherent nutritional benefit associated with some reducing agents. Ascorbic acid, for example, is also commonly known as vitamin C.  
      While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to several embodiments, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various other approaches to the reduction of acrylamide in thermally processed foods by use of a free thiol and reducing agent additives may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of this invention. For example, while the process has been disclosed with regard to potato and corn products, the process can also be used in processing of food products made from barley, wheat, rye, rice, oats, millet, and other starch-based grains, as well as other foods containing asparagine and a reducing sugar, such as sweet potatoes, onion, and other vegetables. Further, the process has been demonstrated in potato chips and corn chips, but can be used in the processing of many other fabricated food products, such as other types of snack chips, cereals, cookies, crackers, hard pretzels, breads and rolls, and the breading for breaded meats.