Patent Publication Number: US-2018052169-A1

Title: Tsp1 as a marker for cancer

Description:
PRIORITY CLAIM 
     This application claims benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/377,993, filed Aug. 22, 2016, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. 
    
    
     INCORPORATION OF SEQUENCE LISTING 
     The sequence listing that is contained in the file named “UTSDP3139US.txt”, which is 8 kb (as measured in Microsoft Windows®) and was created on Aug. 18, 2017, is filed herewith by electronic submission and is incorporated by reference herein. 
     BACKGROUND 
     1. Field 
     The present disclosure relates generally to the fields of medicine, oncology and immunotherapeutics. More particularly, it concerns novel tumor markers and related reagents for diagnosis of cancer. 
     2. Related Art 
     LncRNAs are a poorly characterized class of RNAs whose functions are just beginning to be understood (Nagano &amp; Fraser, 2011; Rinn &amp; Chang, 2012; Sun and Kraus, 2013). They are primarily RNA polymerase II transcripts, and they are spliced and polyadenylated Rinn &amp; Chang, 2012; Sun and Kraus, 2013). Recent studies have suggested a key role for specific lncRNAs in regulating the expression of protein coding genes, ultimately controlling cell growth and development, and contributing to the proliferation of cancer cells, but the mechanistic details of this regulation are not completely clear (Orom et al., 2010; Rinn &amp; Chang, 2012; Wang &amp; Chang, 2011; Rinn, 2014; Sun &amp; Kraus, 2015). On a genomic scale, the regulatory effects of lncRNAs may be even more profound than the effects of microRNAs. Recent studies identifying lncRNAs in a variety of cells types have revealed a high level of cell type-specific expression (Iyer et al., 2015; Guttman et al., 2009; Cabili et al., 2011; Sun et al., 2013). Many fundamental questions about lncRNAs remain, such as the number of lncRNAs expressed in a given cell type, their role in controlling cellular functions, and how they control cell proliferation. Recent studies have shown that lncRNAs are aberrantly expressed in human cancers (Gibb et al., 2011), functioning to modulate tumor suppressor and oncogenic functions (Sun &amp; Kraus, 2015; Prensner &amp; Chinnaiyan., 2011; Gibb et al., 2011), and have been implicated in the biology and clinical outcomes of breast cancers (Hansji et al., 2014; Vikram et al., 2014). 
     Several studies have explored the molecular functions of lncRNAs, especially with respect to their contributions to the regulation of gene expression programs in the nucleus (Rinn &amp; Chang, 2012; Rinn, 2014; Sun &amp; Kraus, 2015). Recent reviews have summarized four different, but perhaps overlapping, types of activities for lncRNAs: (a) cell type- and developmental stage-specific signals that are transcribed under certain cellular contexts and specific times, (b) decoys, which can bind to protein and microRNA targets to titrate them away, but do not elicit additional outcomes, (c) guides, which can bind to target proteins and direct them to specific targets, and (d) scaffolds, which can nucleate the assembly of protein complexes (Rinn &amp; Chang, 2012; Wang &amp; Chang, 2011; Rinn, 2014; Sun &amp; Kraus, 2015; Hung &amp; Chang, 2010). A particular lncRNA, however, may function through combinations of these mechanisms. Specific effects of lncRNAs on gene expression have been related to (a) effects on chromatin structure and histone modifications by altering the actions of chromatin-modulating enzymes, (b) enhancer-like activity, and (c) the formation of gene loops (Orom et al., 2010; Nagano &amp; Fraser, 2011; Wang &amp; Chang, 2011). Recent studies have described in detail how lncRNAs alter microRNA-dependent gene regulatory effects by functioning as “competing endogenous RNAs” (ceRNAs), or perhaps as decoys, through shared “microRNA response element” (MRE) sequences (Cesana et al., 2011; Salmena et al., 2011; Tay et al., 2014). Thus, lncRNAs present numerous regulatory opportunities to the cell, but how specific lncRNAs function in cell type-specific functions is an ongoing question. 
     Although generally thought to be non-coding, some studies have suggested that lncRNAs may engage ribosomes and produce small polypeptides (Brar et al., 2012; Ingolia et al., 2011). Of course, a lncRNA may code for a polypeptide, but also have coding-independent functions, as shown for the lncRNA SRA, a well-characterized lncRNA involved in nuclear receptor-mediated regulation of gene expression (Lanz et al., 1999). The SRA gene produces a functional non-coding RNA, as well as a protein-coding variant RNA (Chooniedass-Kothari et al., 2004). Interestingly, recent studies in yeast, flies, fish, and humans have suggested that short polypeptides comprising a few to tens of amino acids encoded by short open reading frames, like those found in mammalian lncRNAs, may have cellular functions (Brar et al., 2012; Carvunis et al., 2012; Chng et al., 2013; Kondo et al., 2010; Reinhardt et al., 2013; Pauli et al., 2014; Bazzini et al., 2014; Magny et al., 2013; Anderson et al., 2015). For example, the ELA (a.k.a. Toddler) gene encodes a conserved hormone, ELABELA, of 32 amino acids in zebrafish that acts through the G protein-coupled apelin receptor (Chng et al., 2013; Pauli et al., 2014). ELABELA, which is also expressed in human embryonic stem cells, appears at the onset of zebrafish zygotic transcription and is required for early cardiovascular development (Chng et al., 2013). In addition, the micropeptide myoregulin (MLN), which is encoded by a putative skeletal muscle-specific lncRNA, inhibits SERCA, the membrane pump that controls muscle relaxation, by regulating Ca 2+  uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (Anderson et al., 2015). These examples, coupled with the vast number of lncRNAs, suggest that many more lncRNA-encoded peptides may exist. The extent to which short polypeptides encoded by open reading frames contribute to the function of lncRNAs, however, has yet to be determined. 
     SUMMARY 
     Thus, in accordance with the present disclosure, there is provided a complementary DNA (cDNA) encoding a protein comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1. The cDNA may comprise the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2. The cDNA may be located in a vector, such as a viral vector, a plasmid, a phagemid or a cosmid. The cDNA maybe linked to and under the operable control of a promoter element, such as an inducible promoter element, a prokaryotic promoter element, or a eukaryotic promoter element. The cDNA may further comprise a nucleic acid segment encoding a peptide tag. The cDNA may encode a protein consisting of the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or consisting of the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2. 
     In another embodiment, there is provided an antibody that binds immunologically to a protein comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1. The antibody may be part of a polyclonal sera, or may be a monoclonal antibody produced by a hybridoma. The antibody may be an IgM, IgG, a F(ab′) 2  or Fab. The antibody may be linked to a detectable label, such as a fluorescent label, a chemiluminescent label, a radiolabel, a dye, an enzyme or a ligand. The antibody may be linked to a therapeutic agent. The therapeutic agent may be a radioisotope or a chemotherapeutic. The antibody may be a single chain antibody, a chimeric antibody, a bispecific antibody, a diabody, a duobody, a humanized antibody, or a human antibody. The antibody may be bound to a substrate. 
     In still another embodiment, there is provided a method of detecting cancer in a subject comprising (a) providing a biological sample from a subject; (b) determining the presence or absence of a protein comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 in said sample; and (c) classifying said patient as having cancer when the protein comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 is present in said sample. The method may further comprise treating said subject when the protein comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 is present in said sample. The method may further comprise performing one or more diagnostic tests on said subject when the protein comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 is present in said sample, such as a bone scan or magnetic resonance imaging. The method may further comprise performing steps (a) and (b) at a second time point and comparing the levels of the protein comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 to determine a change in protein levels over time. The biological sample may be a fluid sample, such as blood, serum plasma, sputum, saliva, urine or nipple aspirate. The subject may be is a human subject or a non-human primate. The method subject may be believed to be at a higher risk of developing cancer than populational average. Determining may comprise immunologic detection, such as by use of an antibody that binds to a protein SEQ ID NO: 1, and may comprise ELISA, RIA, FACS or Western blot. Determining may comprise mass spectrometry. The cancer may be breast cancer, prostate cancer, or gastric cancer. The subject may have previously been diagnosed with cancer. 
     In yet another embodiment, there is provided a method of detecting cancer in a subject comprising (a) providing a biological sample from a subject; (b) determining the presence or absence of a transcribed nucleic acid complementary to a strand of a cDNA comprising SEQ ID NO: 2 in said sample; and (c) classifying said patient as having cancer when the transcribed nucleic acid sequence complementary to a strand of a cDNA comprising SEQ ID NO: 2 is present in said sample. The method may further comprise treating said subject when the transcribed nucleic acid complementary to a strand of a cDNA comprising SEQ ID NO: 2 is present in said sample. The method may further comprise performing one or more diagnostic tests on said subject when the transcribed nucleic acid complementary to a strand of a cDNA comprising SEQ ID NO: 2 is present in said sample, such as a bone scan, magnetic resonance imaging. The method may further comprise performing steps (a) and (b) at a second time point and comparing the levels of the transcribed nucleic acid complementary to a strand of a cDNA comprising SEQ ID NO: 2 to determine a change in transcribed nucleic acid levels over time. The biological sample may be a fluid sample, such as blood, serum plasma, sputum, saliva, urine or nipple aspirate. The subject may be is a human subject or a non-human primate. The method subject may be believed to be at a higher risk of developing cancer than populational average. Determining may comprise amplification of said transcribed nucleic acid sequence. Determining may comprise one or more of polymerase chain reaction, ligase chain reaction, nucleic acid sequence based amplification, transcription mediated amplification, or reverse transcription. The cancer may be breast cancer, prostate cancer, or gastric cancer. The subject may have previously been diagnosed with cancer. 
     In a further embodiment, there is provided a method producing an antibody that binds immunologically to a protein comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 comprising (a) introducing a protein comprising the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 into an immunocompetent non-human animal; and (b) obtaining an antibody from said animal. The antibody may be a part of a polyclonal sera, or may be a monoclonal antibody produced from a hybridoma, and said method further comprises the steps of (a′) obtaining a B cell from said antibody after step (a); (a″) fusing said B cell with an immortalized cells; and (a′″) culturing the fusion cell under conditions supporting production of said antibody. The method may further comprise purifying said antibody. The method may further comprise linking said antibody to a diagnostic or therapeutic agent. 
     It is contemplated that any method or composition described herein can be implemented with respect to any other method or composition described herein. 
     The use of the word “a” or “an” when used in conjunction with the term “comprising” in the claims and/or the specification may mean “one,” but it is also consistent with the meaning of “one or more,” “at least one,” and “one or more than one.” The word “about” means plus or minus 5% of the stated number. 
     Other objects, features and advantages of the present disclosure will become apparent from the following detailed description. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating specific embodiments of the disclosure, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the disclosure will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee. 
       The following drawings form part of the present specification and are included to further demonstrate certain aspects of the present disclosure. The disclosure may be better understood by reference to one or more of these drawings in combination with the detailed description of specific embodiments presented herein. 
         FIG. 1 . Structural organization of lncRNA1456 locus, coding region (black boxes), and amino acid sequence of TSP1 (SEQ ID NO: 1). The TSP1 cDNA is spliced together from exons 1 and 2. 
         FIG. 2  Genome browser tracks of RNA-seq data showing the expression of TSP1 (top two tracks/orange) and ChIP-seq data for histone H3 acetylated lysine (H3K27ac) over the same region (bottom two tracks/blue and black) in MCF-7 breast cancer cells and normal mammary epithelial. 
         FIG. 3 . Expression of TSP1-encoding lncRNA1456 in tumors. Box plots comparing the expression as determined by RNA-seq in tumors (red) and benign tissues (gray). 
         FIG. 4 . Western blot showing the expression of TSP1 in infiltrating breast adenocarcinoma using the TSP1-specific rabbit polyclonal antibody. Cell extracts were resolved on a SDS-PAGE gel (12% acrylamide), transferred to nitrocellulose, blotted with the TSP1-specific rabbit polyclonal antibody, and visualized with a chemiluminescent detection system. 
         FIG. 5 . Complete sequence of lncRNA 1456 (SEQ ID NO: 2; the message will contain U&#39;s rather than T&#39;s) and with a schematic of the exon/intron structure. Exons are shown in bold caps, TSP1 coding region (SEQ ID NO: 3) is shown in underline caps, and introns are shown in lower case. 
         FIGS. 6A-D . ( FIG. 6A ) Overview of the computation pipeline used for discovery and characterization of novel lncRNA peptides. ( FIG. 6B ) Distribution of predicted ORF lengths highlighting median length (dotted red line). ( FIG. 6C ) Distribution of longest predicted ORF for each transcript highlighting median length (dotted red line). ( FIG. 6D ) Identification of TSP1 using mass-spectrometric analysis. 
         FIGS. 7A-C . ( FIG. 7A ) Genome browser tracks of Evolutionary Conservation of Genomes (ECR) showing the sequence conservation of TSP1 across different species: annotated genes are depicted as a horizontal blue line above the graph, with strand/transcriptional orientation indicated by arrows. Blue boxes along the line correspond to positions of coding exons, while yellow boxes correspond to UTRs. Peaks within the conservation profile that correspond to these exons are similarly colored within the plot. Peaks within the conservation profile that do not correspond to transcribed sequences are highlighted in red if they are intergenic or salmon if they lie within an intron. Regions colored in green correspond to transposable elements and simple repeats. ( FIG. 7B ) Structural organization of lncRNA1456 locus, coding region (black boxes), and amino acid sequence of TSP1 (shown in the single letter code). The TSP1 cDNA is spliced together from exons 1 and 2. Purification profile of recombinant TSP1 protein. Western blot showing the presence of TSP1 in MCF7 or 293T whole cell extracts using TSP1-specific rabbit polyclonal antibody. ( FIG. 7C ) Genome browser view of TSP1 gene locus (top) showing the annotation of two transcript variants (black), mapped by RACE assays and cloning. These annotations correlate with RNA-seq data showing the expression of TSP1 (middle) (orange) and ChIP-seq data for histone H3 acetylated lysine (H3K27ac) over the same region (bottom) black) in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. 
         FIGS. 8A-E . ( FIG. 8A ) Immufluorescence showing localization of TSP1 in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. ( FIG. 8B ) Heatmap of TSP1 ChIP-seq reads from MCF-7 cells. ( FIG. 8C ) Metaplot analyses showing TSP1 enrichment around called peaks. ( FIG. 8D ) Transcription factors enriched for TSP1 peaks. ( FIG. 8E ) Mass-spectrometric analysis showing TSP1 interaction with PHF8. 
         FIGS. 9A-B . ( FIG. 9A ) Normalized expression (RPKM) of TSP1 in various human tissues. Observed differences are significant as determined by an ANOVA comparison of the means (p-value&lt;2.2 e-16). ( FIG. 9B ) Normalized expression (RPKM) of PHF8 in various human tissues. Observed differences are significant as determined by an ANOVA comparison of the means (p-value&lt;2.2 e-16). 
         FIGS. 10A-F . ( FIG. 10A ) RT-qPCR showing relative expression of TSP1 across different cell lines. ( FIG. 10B ) Western Blot showing doxycycline-dependent expression of TSP1 in MDAMB231 triple negative breast cancer cells. ( FIG. 10C ) Xenograft experiment showing reduction in MDAMB231 tumor weight upon overexpression of TSP1 compared to GFP. ( FIG. 10D ) Xenograft experiment showing the inhibition of the MDAMB231 tumor growth upon overexpression of TSP1 compared to GFP. ( FIG. 10E ) Western blot and RT-qPCR analysis showing the expression of TSP1 and GFP in respective xenograft tumors. ( FIG. 10F ) Box plots of TSP1 (top) and PHF8 (bottom) mRNA expression levels in patient tumor samples confirm enrichment of TSP1 and PHF8 in Her2 and Luminal breast tumor samples (left) and primary tumor (right). Observed differences are significant as determined by an ANOVA comparison of the means. 
         FIG. 11 . Immunohistochemistry analysis of TSP1 in normal tissues (testis, prostate and breast) and breast invasive ductal carcinoma. 
         FIG. 12 . Sequence and structural representation of the 22 Homeodomain proteins and TSP1. Each protein has a conserved Homeodomain (yellow). In addition, 7 proteins contain two zinc finger domains, LIM domain (purple). Lastly, 6 proteins contain the SD domain (green) necessary for protein-protein interactions. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS 
     Cancer results from the outgrowth of a clonal population of cells from tissue. The development of cancer, referred to as carcinogenesis, can be modeled and characterized in a number of ways. The inventors have identified a previously unknown protein encoded by what was believed to be a long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) that is almost exclusively expressed in cancer tissues. This protein, along with its coding RNA, present attractive biomarkers for the diagnosis and monitoring of cancers. Reagents for detecting these biomarkers, and methods for their use, also are disclosed. These and other aspects of the disclosure are described in greater detail below. 
     I. TSP1 
     TSP1 is a 132 amino acid sequence shown in  FIG. 8  (SEQ ID NO: 1). TSP1&#39;s closest homologs are homeobox containing RHOXF2B and ESX1, which are encoded by genes that are different/disrtince from lncRNA1456. 
     II. EXPRESSION OF TSP1 
     Nucleic acids according to the present disclosure will encode TSP1 or antibodies thereto (see below). As used in this application, the term “a nucleic acid encoding TSP1” refers to a nucleic acid molecule that has been isolated free of total cellular nucleic acid. In certain embodiments, the disclosure concerns antibodies that are encoded by any of the sequences set forth herein. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 CODONS 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Amino Acids 
                 Codons 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Alanine 
                 Ala 
                 A 
                 GCA 
                 GCC 
                 GCG 
                 GCU 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Cysteine 
                 Cys 
                 C 
                 UGC 
                 UGU 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Aspartic acid 
                 Asp 
                 D 
                 GAC 
                 GAU 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Glutamic acid 
                 Glu 
                 E 
                 GAA 
                 GAG 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Phenylalanine 
                 Phe 
                 F 
                 UUC 
                 UUU 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Glycine 
                 Gly 
                 G 
                 GGA 
                 GGC 
                 GGG 
                 GGU 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Histidine 
                 His 
                 H 
                 CAC 
                 CAU 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Isoleucine 
                 Ile 
                 I 
                 AUA 
                 AUC 
                 AUU 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Lysine 
                 Lys 
                 K 
                 AAA 
                 AAG 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Leucine 
                 Leu 
                 L 
                 UUA 
                 UUG 
                 CUA 
                 CUC 
                 CUG  
                 CUU 
               
               
                 Methionine 
                 Met 
                 M 
                 AUG 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Asparagine 
                 Asn 
                 N 
                 AAC 
                 AAU 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Proline 
                 Pro 
                 P 
                 CCA 
                 CCC 
                 CCG 
                 CCU 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Glutamine 
                 Gln 
                 Q 
                 CAA 
                 CAG 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Arginine 
                 Arg 
                 R 
                 AGA 
                 AGG 
                 CGA 
                 CGC 
                 CGG  
                 CGU 
               
               
                 Serine 
                 Ser 
                 S 
                 AGC 
                 AGU 
                 UCA 
                 UCC 
                 UCG  
                 UCU 
               
               
                 Threonine 
                 Thr 
                 T 
                 ACA 
                 ACC 
                 ACG 
                 ACU 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Valine 
                 Val 
                 V 
                 GUA 
                 GUC 
                 GUG 
                 GUU 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Tryptophan 
                 Trp 
                 W 
                 UGG 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Tyrosine 
                 Tyr 
                 Y 
                 UAC 
                 UAU 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The DNA segments of the present disclosure include those encoding biologically functional equivalent proteins and peptides of the sequences described above. Such sequences may arise as a consequence of codon redundancy and amino acid functional equivalency that are known to occur naturally within nucleic acid sequences and the proteins thus encoded. Alternatively, functionally equivalent proteins or peptides may be created via the application of recombinant DNA technology, in which changes in the protein structure may be engineered, based on considerations of the properties of the amino acids being exchanged. Changes designed by man may be introduced through the application of site-directed mutagenesis techniques or may be introduced randomly and screened later for the desired function, as described below. 
     Within certain embodiments, expression vectors are employed to express TSP1 in order to produce and isolate the polypeptide expressed therefrom. In other embodiments, the expression vectors are used in gene therapy. Expression requires that appropriate signals be provided in the vectors, and which include various regulatory elements, such as enhancers/promoters from both viral and mammalian sources that drive expression of the genes of interest in host cells. Elements designed to optimize messenger RNA stability and translatability in host cells also are defined. The conditions for the use of a number of dominant drug selection markers for establishing permanent, stable cell clones expressing the products are also provided, as is an element that links expression of the drug selection markers to expression of the polypeptide. 
     Throughout this application, the term “expression construct” is meant to include any type of genetic construct containing a nucleic acid coding for a gene product in which part or all of the nucleic acid encoding sequence is capable of being transcribed. The transcript may be translated into a protein, but it need not be. In certain embodiments, expression includes both transcription of a gene and translation of mRNA into a gene product. In other embodiments, expression only includes transcription of the nucleic acid encoding a gene of interest. 
     The term “vector” is used to refer to a carrier nucleic acid molecule into which a nucleic acid sequence can be inserted for introduction into a cell where it can be replicated. A nucleic acid sequence can be “exogenous,” which means that it is foreign to the cell into which the vector is being introduced or that the sequence is homologous to a sequence in the cell but in a position within the host cell nucleic acid in which the sequence is ordinarily not found. Vectors include plasmids, cosmids, viruses (bacteriophage, animal viruses, and plant viruses), and artificial chromosomes (e.g., YACs). One of skill in the art would be well equipped to construct a vector through standard recombinant techniques, which are described in Sambrook et al. (1989) and Ausubel et al. (1994), both incorporated herein by reference. 
     The term “expression vector” refers to a vector containing a nucleic acid sequence coding for at least part of a gene product capable of being transcribed. In some cases, RNA molecules are then translated into a protein, polypeptide, or peptide. In other cases, these sequences are not translated, for example, in the production of antisense molecules or ribozymes. Expression vectors can contain a variety of “control sequences,” which refer to nucleic acid sequences necessary for the transcription and possibly translation of an operably linked coding sequence in a particular host organism. In addition to control sequences that govern transcription and translation, vectors and expression vectors may contain nucleic acid sequences that serve other functions as well and are described infra. 
     A. Regulatory Elements 
     A “promoter” is a control sequence that is a region of a nucleic acid sequence at which initiation and rate of transcription are controlled. It may contain genetic elements at which regulatory proteins and molecules may bind such as RNA polymerase and other transcription factors. The phrases “operatively positioned,” “operatively linked,” “under control,” and “under transcriptional control” mean that a promoter is in a correct functional location and/or orientation in relation to a nucleic acid sequence to control transcriptional initiation and/or expression of that sequence. A promoter may or may not be used in conjunction with an “enhancer,” which refers to a cis-acting regulatory sequence involved in the transcriptional activation of a nucleic acid sequence. 
     A promoter may be one naturally-associated with a gene or sequence, as may be obtained by isolating the 5′ non-coding sequences located upstream of the coding segment and/or exon. Such a promoter can be referred to as “endogenous.” Similarly, an enhancer may be one naturally associated with a nucleic acid sequence, located either downstream or upstream of that sequence. Alternatively, certain advantages will be gained by positioning the coding nucleic acid segment under the control of a recombinant or heterologous promoter, which refers to a promoter that is not normally associated with a nucleic acid sequence in its natural environment. 
     A recombinant or heterologous enhancer refers also to an enhancer not normally associated with a nucleic acid sequence in its natural environment. Such promoters or enhancers may include promoters or enhancers of other genes, and promoters or enhancers isolated from any other prokaryotic, viral, or eukaryotic cell, and promoters or enhancers not “naturally-occurring,” i.e., containing different elements of different transcriptional regulatory regions, and/or mutations that alter expression. In addition to producing nucleic acid sequences of promoters and enhancers synthetically, sequences may be produced using recombinant cloning and/or nucleic acid amplification technology, including PCR™, in connection with the compositions disclosed herein (see U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,202, U.S. Pat. No. 5,928,906, each incorporated herein by reference). Furthermore, it is contemplated the control sequences that direct transcription and/or expression of sequences within non-nuclear organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the like, can be employed as well. 
     Naturally, it will be important to employ a promoter and/or enhancer that effectively directs the expression of the DNA segment in the cell type, organelle, and organism chosen for expression. Those of skill in the art of molecular biology generally know the use of promoters, enhancers, and cell type combinations for protein expression, for example, see Sambrook et al. (1989), incorporated herein by reference. The promoters employed may be constitutive, tissue-specific, inducible, and/or useful under the appropriate conditions to direct high level expression of the introduced DNA segment, such as is advantageous in the large-scale production of recombinant proteins and/or peptides. The promoter may be heterologous or endogenous. 
     Table 3 lists several elements/promoters that may be employed, in the context of the present disclosure, to regulate the expression of a gene. This list is not intended to be exhaustive of all the possible elements involved in the promotion of expression but, merely, to be exemplary thereof. Table 4 provides examples of inducible elements, which are regions of a nucleic acid sequence that can be activated in response to a specific stimulus. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Promoter and/or Enhancer 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Promoter/Enhancer 
                 References 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Immunoglobulin Heavy Chain 
                 Banerji et al., 1983; Gilles et al., 1983; Grosschedl et 
               
               
                   
                 al., 1985; Atchinson et al., 1986, 1987; Imler et al., 
               
               
                   
                 1987; Weinberger et al., 1984; Kiledjian et al., 1988; 
               
               
                   
                 Porton et al.; 1990 
               
               
                 Immunoglobulin Light Chain 
                 Queen et al., 1983; Picard et al., 1984 
               
               
                 T-Cell Receptor 
                 Luria et al., 1987; Winoto et al., 1989; Redondo et al.; 
               
               
                   
                 1990 
               
               
                 HLA DQ a and/or DQ β 
                 Sullivan et al., 1987 
               
               
                 β-Interferon 
                 Goodbourn et al., 1986; Fujita et al., 1987; 
               
               
                   
                 Goodbourn et al., 1988 
               
               
                 Interleukin-2 
                 Greene et al., 1989 
               
               
                 Interleukin-2 Receptor 
                 Greene et al., 1989; Lin et al., 1990 
               
               
                 MHC Class II 5 
                 Koch et al., 1989 
               
               
                 MHC Class II HLA-DRa 
                 Sherman et al., 1989 
               
               
                 β-Actin 
                 Kawamoto et al., 1988; Ng et al.; 1989 
               
               
                 Muscle Creatine Kinase (MCK) 
                 Jaynes et al., 1988; Horlick et al., 1989; Johnson et 
               
               
                   
                 al., 1989 
               
               
                 Prealbumin (Transthyretin) 
                 Costa et al., 1988 
               
               
                 Elastase I 
                 Ornitz et al., 1987 
               
               
                 Metallothionein (MTII) 
                 Karin et al., 1987; Culotta et al., 1989 
               
               
                 Collagenase 
                 Pinkert et al., 1987; Angel et al., 1987 
               
               
                 Albumin 
                 Pinkert et al., 1987; Tronche et al., 1989, 1990 
               
               
                 α-Fetoprotein 
                 Godbout et al., 1988; Campere et al., 1989 
               
               
                 t-Globin 
                 Bodine et al., 1987; Perez-Stable et al., 1990 
               
               
                 β-Globin 
                 Trudel et al., 1987 
               
               
                 c-fos 
                 Cohen et al., 1987 
               
               
                 c-HA-ras 
                 Triesman, 1986; Deschamps et al., 1985 
               
               
                 Insulin 
                 Edlund et al., 1985 
               
               
                 Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule 
                 Hirsh et al., 1990 
               
               
                 (NCAM) 
               
               
                 α 1 -Antitrypain 
                 Latimer et al., 1990 
               
               
                 H2B (TH2B) Histone 
                 Hwang et al., 1990 
               
               
                 Mouse and/or Type I Collagen 
                 Ripe et al., 1989 
               
               
                 Glucose-Regulated Proteins 
                 Chang et al., 1989 
               
               
                 (GRP94 and GRP78) 
               
               
                 Rat Growth Hormone 
                 Larsen et al., 1986 
               
               
                 Human Serum Amyloid A (SAA) 
                 Edbrooke et al., 1989 
               
               
                 Troponin I (TN I) 
                 Yutzey et al., 1989 
               
               
                 Platelet-Derived Growth Factor 
                 Pech et al., 1989 
               
               
                 (PDGF) 
               
               
                 Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy 
                 Klamut et al., 1990 
               
               
                 SV40 
                 Banerji et al., 1981; Moreau et al., 1981; Sleigh et al., 
               
               
                   
                 1985; Firak et al., 1986; Herr et al., 1986; Imbra et 
               
               
                   
                 al., 1986; Kadesch et al., 1986; Wang et al., 1986; 
               
               
                   
                 Ondek et al., 1987; Kuhl et al., 1987; Schaffner et al., 
               
               
                   
                 1988 
               
               
                 Polyoma 
                 Swartzendruber et al., 1975; Vasseur et al., 1980; 
               
               
                   
                 Katinka et al., 1980, 1981; Tyndell et al., 1981; 
               
               
                   
                 Dandolo et al., 1983; de Villiers et al., 1984; Hen et 
               
               
                   
                 al., 1986; Satake et al., 1988; Campbell and 
               
               
                   
                 Villarreal, 1988 
               
               
                 Retroviruses 
                 Kriegler et al., 1982, 1983; Levinson et al., 1982; 
               
               
                   
                 Kriegler et al., 1983, 1984a, b, 1988; Bosze et al., 
               
               
                   
                 1986; Miksicek et al., 1986; Celander et al., 1987; 
               
               
                   
                 Thiesen et al., 1988; Celander et al., 1988; Choi et al., 
               
               
                   
                 1988; Reisman et al., 1989 
               
               
                 Papilloma Virus 
                 Campo et al., 1983; Lusky et al., 1983; Spandidos and 
               
               
                   
                 Wilkie, 1983; Spalholz et al., 1985; Lusky et al., 
               
               
                   
                 1986; Cripe et al., 1987; Gloss et al., 1987; Hirochika 
               
               
                   
                 et al., 1987; Stephens et al., 1987; Glue et al., 1988 
               
               
                 Hepatitis B Virus 
                 Bulla et al., 1986; Jameel et al., 1986; Shaul et al., 
               
               
                   
                 1987; Spandau et al., 1988; Vannice et al., 1988 
               
               
                 Human Immunodeficiency Virus 
                 Muesing et al., 1987; Hauber et al., 1988; Jakobovits 
               
               
                   
                 et al., 1988; Feng et al., 1988; Takebe et al., 1988; 
               
               
                   
                 Rosen et al., 1988; Berkhout et al., 1989; Laspia et 
               
               
                   
                 al., 1989; Sharp et al., 1989; Braddock et al., 1989 
               
               
                 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) 
                 Weber et al., 1984; Boshart et al., 1985; Foecking et 
               
               
                   
                 al., 1986 
               
               
                 Gibbon Ape Leukemia Virus 
                 Holbrook et al., 1987; Quinn et al., 1989 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
                     TABLE 4                  Inducible Elements                         Element   Inducer   References               MT II   Phorbol Ester (TFA)   Palmiter et al., 1982;           Heavy metals   Haslinger et al., 1985; Searle               et al., 1985; Stuart et al.,               1985; Imagawa et al., 1987,               Karin et al., 1987; Angel et               al., 1987b; McNeall et al.,               1989       MMTV (mouse mammary   Glucocorticoids   Huang et al., 1981; Lee et       tumor virus)       al., 1981; Majors et al.,               1983; Chandler et al., 1983;               Lee et al., 1984; Ponta et al.,               1985; Sakai et al., 1988       β-Interferon   poly(rI)x   Tavernier et al., 1983           poly(rc)       Adenovirus 5 E2   ElA   Imperiale et al., 1984       Collagenase   Phorbol Ester (TPA)   Angel et al., 1987a       Stromelysin   Phorbol Ester (TPA)   Angel et al., 1987b       SV40   Phorbol Ester (TPA)   Angel et al., 1987b       Murine MX Gene   Interferon, Newcastle   Hug et al., 1988           Disease Virus       GRP78 Gene   A23187   Resendez et al., 1988       α-2-Macroglobulin   IL-6   Kunz et al., 1989       Vimentin   Serum   Rittling et al., 1989       MHC Class I Gene H-2κb   Interferon   Blanar et al., 1989       HSP70   ElA, SV40 Large T Antigen   Taylor et al., 1989, 1990a,               1990b       Proliferin   Phorbol Ester-TPA   Mordacq et al., 1989       Tumor Necrosis Factor   PMA   Hensel et al., 1989       Thyroid Stimulating   Thyroid Hormone   Chatterjee et al., 1989       Hormone α Gene                    
The identity of tissue-specific promoters or elements, as well as assays to characterize their activity, is well known to those of skill in the art. Examples of such regions include the human LIMK2 gene (Nomoto et al. 1999), the somatostatin receptor 2 gene (Kraus et al., 1998), murine epididymal retinoic acid-binding gene (Lareyre et al., 1999), human CD4 (Zhao-Emonet et al., 1998), mouse alpha2 (XI) collagen (Tsumaki, et al., 1998), D1A dopamine receptor gene (Lee, et al., 1997), insulin-like growth factor II (Wu et al., 1997), human platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (Almendro et al., 1996).
 
     A specific initiation signal also may be required for efficient translation of coding sequences. These signals include the ATG initiation codon or adjacent sequences. Exogenous translational control signals, including the ATG initiation codon, may need to be provided. One of ordinary skill in the art would readily be capable of determining this and providing the necessary signals. It is well known that the initiation codon must be “in-frame” with the reading frame of the desired coding sequence to ensure translation of the entire insert. The exogenous translational control signals and initiation codons can be either natural or synthetic. The efficiency of expression may be enhanced by the inclusion of appropriate transcription enhancer elements. 
     B. IRES 
     In certain embodiments of the disclosure, the use of internal ribosome entry sites (IRES) elements are used to create multigene, or polycistronic, messages. IRES elements are able to bypass the ribosome scanning model of 5′-methylated Cap dependent translation and begin translation at internal sites (Pelletier and Sonenberg, 1988). IRES elements from two members of the picornavirus family (polio and encephalomyocarditis) have been described (Pelletier and Sonenberg, 1988), as well an IRES from a mammalian message (Macejak and Sarnow, 1991). IRES elements can be linked to heterologous open reading frames. Multiple open reading frames can be transcribed together, each separated by an IRES, creating polycistronic messages. By virtue of the IRES element, each open reading frame is accessible to ribosomes for efficient translation. Multiple genes can be efficiently expressed using a single promoter/enhancer to transcribe a single message (see U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,925,565 and 5,935,819, herein incorporated by reference). 
     C. Multi-Purpose Cloning Sites 
     Vectors can include a multiple cloning site (MCS), which is a nucleic acid region that contains multiple restriction enzyme sites, any of which can be used in conjunction with standard recombinant technology to digest the vector. See Carbonelli et al., 1999, Levenson et al., 1998, and Cocea, 1997, incorporated herein by reference. “Restriction enzyme digestion” refers to catalytic cleavage of a nucleic acid molecule with an enzyme that functions only at specific locations in a nucleic acid molecule. Many of these restriction enzymes are commercially available. Use of such enzymes is widely understood by those of skill in the art. Frequently, a vector is linearized or fragmented using a restriction enzyme that cuts within the MCS to enable exogenous sequences to be ligated to the vector. “Ligation” refers to the process of forming phosphodiester bonds between two nucleic acid fragments, which may or may not be contiguous with each other. Techniques involving restriction enzymes and ligation reactions are well known to those of skill in the art of recombinant technology. 
     D. Splicing Sites 
     Most transcribed eukaryotic RNA molecules will undergo RNA splicing to remove introns from the primary transcripts. Vectors containing genomic eukaryotic sequences may require donor and/or acceptor splicing sites to ensure proper processing of the transcript for protein expression (see Chandler et al., 1997, herein incorporated by reference). 
     E. Termination Signals 
     The vectors or constructs of the present disclosure will generally comprise at least one termination signal. A “termination signal” or “terminator” is comprised of the DNA sequences involved in specific termination of an RNA transcript by an RNA polymerase. Thus, in certain embodiments a termination signal that ends the production of an RNA transcript is contemplated. A terminator may be necessary in vivo to achieve desirable message levels. 
     In eukaryotic systems, the terminator region may also comprise specific DNA sequences that permit site-specific cleavage of the new transcript so as to expose a polyadenylation site. This signals a specialized endogenous polymerase to add a stretch of about 200 A residues (polyA) to the 3′ end of the transcript. RNA molecules modified with this polyA tail appear to more stable and are translated more efficiently. Thus, in other embodiments involving eukaryotes, it is preferred that that terminator comprises a signal for the cleavage of the RNA, and it is more preferred that the terminator signal promotes polyadenylation of the message. The terminator and/or polyadenylation site elements can serve to enhance message levels and/or to minimize read through from the cassette into other sequences. 
     Terminators contemplated for use in the disclosure include any known terminator of transcription described herein or known to one of ordinary skill in the art, including but not limited to, for example, the termination sequences of genes, such as for example the bovine growth hormone terminator or viral termination sequences, such as for example the SV40 terminator. In certain embodiments, the termination signal may be a lack of transcribable or translatable sequence, such as due to a sequence truncation. 
     F. Polyadenylation Signals 
     In expression, particularly eukaryotic expression, one will typically include a polyadenylation signal to effect proper polyadenylation of the transcript. The nature of the polyadenylation signal is not believed to be crucial to the successful practice of the disclosure, and/or any such sequence may be employed. Preferred embodiments include the SV40 polyadenylation signal and/or the bovine growth hormone polyadenylation signal, convenient and/or known to function well in various target cells. Polyadenylation may increase the stability of the transcript or may facilitate cytoplasmic transport. 
     G. Origins of Replication 
     In order to propagate a vector in a host cell, it may contain one or more origins of replication sites (often termed “ori”), which is a specific nucleic acid sequence at which replication is initiated. Alternatively an autonomously replicating sequence (ARS) can be employed if the host cell is yeast. 
     H. Selectable and Screenable Markers 
     In certain embodiments of the disclosure, cells containing a nucleic acid construct of the present disclosure may be identified in vitro or in vivo by including a marker in the expression vector. Such markers would confer an identifiable change to the cell permitting easy identification of cells containing the expression vector. Generally, a selectable marker is one that confers a property that allows for selection. A positive selectable marker is one in which the presence of the marker allows for its selection, while a negative selectable marker is one in which its presence prevents its selection. An example of a positive selectable marker is a drug resistance marker. 
     Usually the inclusion of a drug selection marker aids in the cloning and identification of transformants, for example, genes that confer resistance to neomycin, puromycin, hygromycin, DHFR, GPT, zeocin and histidinol are useful selectable markers. In addition to markers conferring a phenotype that allows for the discrimination of transformants based on the implementation of conditions, other types of markers including screenable markers such as GFP, whose basis is colorimetric analysis, are also contemplated. Alternatively, screenable enzymes such as herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (tk) or chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) may be utilized. One of skill in the art would also know how to employ immunologic markers, possibly in conjunction with FACS analysis. The marker used is not believed to be important, so long as it is capable of being expressed simultaneously with the nucleic acid encoding a gene product. Further examples of selectable and screenable markers are well known to one of skill in the art. 
     I. Viral Vectors 
     The capacity of certain viral vectors to efficiently infect or enter cells, to integrate into a host cell genome and stably express viral genes, have led to the development and application of a number of different viral vector systems (Robbins et al., 1998). Viral systems are currently being developed for use as vectors for ex vivo and in vivo gene transfer. For example, adenovirus, herpes-simplex virus, retrovirus and adeno-associated virus vectors are being evaluated currently for treatment of diseases such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, Gaucher disease, renal disease and arthritis (Robbins and Ghivizzani, 1998; Imai et al., 1998; U.S. Pat. No. 5,670,488). Other viral vectors such as poxvirus; e.g., vaccinia virus (Gnant et al., 1999; Gnant et al., 1999), alpha virus; e.g., sindbis virus, Semliki forest virus (Lundstrom, 1999), reovirus (Coffey et al., 1998) and influenza A virus (Neumann et al., 1999) are contemplated for use in the present disclosure and may be selected according to the requisite properties of the target system. 
     Chimeric or hybrid viral vectors are being developed for use in therapeutic gene delivery and are contemplated for use in the present disclosure. Chimeric poxviral/retroviral vectors (Holzer et al., 1999), adenoviral/retroviral vectors (Feng et al., 1997; Bilbao et al., 1997; Caplen et al., 1999) and adenoviral/adeno-associated viral vectors (Fisher et al., 1996; U.S. Pat. No. 5,871,982) have been described. 
     These “chimeric” viral gene transfer systems can exploit the favorable features of two or more parent viral species. For example, Wilson et al., provide a chimeric vector construct which comprises a portion of an adenovirus, AAV 5′ and 3′ ITR sequences and a selected transgene, described below (U.S. Pat. No. 5,871,983, specifically incorporate herein by reference). 
     The adenovirus/AAV chimeric virus uses adenovirus nucleic acid sequences as a shuttle to deliver a recombinant AAV/transgene genome to a target cell. The adenovirus nucleic acid sequences employed in the hybrid vector can range from a minimum sequence amount, which requires the use of a helper virus to produce the hybrid virus particle, to only selected deletions of adenovirus genes, which deleted gene products can be supplied in the hybrid viral production process by a selected packaging cell. At a minimum, the adenovirus nucleic acid sequences employed in the pAdA shuttle vector are adenovirus genomic sequences from which all viral genes are deleted and which contain only those adenovirus sequences required for packaging adenoviral genomic DNA into a preformed capsid head. More specifically, the adenovirus sequences employed are the cis-acting 5′ and 3′ inverted terminal repeat (ITR) sequences of an adenovirus (which function as origins of replication) and the native 5′ packaging/enhancer domain, that contains sequences necessary for packaging linear Ad genomes and enhancer elements for the E1 promoter. The adenovirus sequences may be modified to contain desired deletions, substitutions, or mutations, provided that the desired function is not eliminated. 
     The AAV sequences useful in the above chimeric vector are the viral sequences from which the rep and cap polypeptide encoding sequences are deleted. More specifically, the AAV sequences employed are the cis-acting 5′ and 3′ inverted terminal repeat (ITR) sequences. These chimeras are characterized by high titer transgene delivery to a host cell and the ability to stably integrate the transgene into the host cell chromosome (U.S. Pat. No. 5,871,983, specifically incorporate herein by reference). In the hybrid vector construct, the AAV sequences are flanked by the selected adenovirus sequences discussed above. The 5′ and 3′ AAV ITR sequences themselves flank a selected transgene sequence and associated regulatory elements, described below. Thus, the sequence formed by the transgene and flanking 5′ and 3′ AAV sequences may be inserted at any deletion site in the adenovirus sequences of the vector. For example, the AAV sequences are desirably inserted at the site of the deleted E1a/E1b genes of the adenovirus. Alternatively, the AAV sequences may be inserted at an E3 deletion, E2a deletion, and so on. If only the adenovirus 5′ ITR/packaging sequences and 3′ ITR sequences are used in the hybrid virus, the AAV sequences are inserted between them. 
     The transgene sequence of the vector and recombinant virus can be a gene, a nucleic acid sequence or reverse transcript thereof, heterologous to the adenovirus sequence, which encodes a protein, polypeptide or peptide fragment of interest. The transgene is operatively linked to regulatory components in a manner which permits transgene transcription. The composition of the transgene sequence will depend upon the use to which the resulting hybrid vector will be put. For example, one type of transgene sequence includes a therapeutic gene which expresses a desired gene product in a host cell. These therapeutic genes or nucleic acid sequences typically encode products for administration and expression in a patient in vivo or ex vivo to replace or correct an inherited or non-inherited genetic defect or treat an epigenetic disorder or disease. 
     I. Non-Viral Transformation 
     Suitable methods for nucleic acid delivery for transformation of an organelle, a cell, a tissue or an organism for use with the current disclosure are believed to include virtually any method by which a nucleic acid (e.g., DNA) can be introduced into an organelle, a cell, a tissue or an organism, as described herein or as would be known to one of ordinary skill in the art. Such methods include, but are not limited to, direct delivery of DNA such as by injection (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,994,624, 5,981,274, 5,945,100, 5,780,448, 5,736,524, 5,702,932, 5,656,610, 5,589,466 and 5,580,859, each incorporated herein by reference), including microinjection (Harland and Weintraub, 1985; U.S. Pat. No. 5,789,215, incorporated herein by reference); by electroporation (U.S. Pat. No. 5,384,253, incorporated herein by reference); by calcium phosphate precipitation (Graham and Van Der Eb, 1973; Chen and Okayama, 1987; Rippe et al., 1990); by using DEAE-dextran followed by polyethylene glycol (Gopal, 1985); by direct sonic loading (Fechheimer et al., 1987); by liposome mediated transfection (Nicolau and Sene, 1982; Fraley et al., 1979; Nicolau et al., 1987; Wong et al., 1980; Kaneda et al., 1989; Kato et al., 1991); by microprojectile bombardment (PCT Application Nos. WO 94/09699 and 95/06128; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,610,042; 5,322,783, 5,563,055, 5,550,318, 5,538,877 and 5,538,880, and each incorporated herein by reference); by agitation with silicon carbide fibers (Kaeppler et al., 1990; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,302,523 and 5,464,765, each incorporated herein by reference); or by PEG-mediated transformation of protoplasts (Omirulleh et al., 1993; U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,684,611 and 4,952,500, each incorporated herein by reference); by desiccation/inhibition-mediated DNA uptake (Potrykus et al., 1985). Through the application of techniques such as these, organelle(s), cell(s), tissue(s) or organism(s) may be stably or transiently transformed. 
     J. Expression Systems 
     Numerous expression systems exist that comprise at least a part or all of the compositions discussed above. Prokaryote- and/or eukaryote-based systems can be employed for use with the present disclosure to produce nucleic acid sequences, or their cognate polypeptides, proteins and peptides. Many such systems are commercially and widely available. 
     The insect cell/baculovirus system can produce a high level of protein expression of a heterologous nucleic acid segment, such as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,871,986 and 4,879,236, both herein incorporated by reference, and which can be bought, for example, under the name MaxBac® 2.0 from Invitrogen® and BacPack™ Baculovirus Expression System From Clontech®. Other examples of expression systems include Stratagene®&#39;s Complete Control™ Inducible Mammalian Expression System, which involves a synthetic ecdysone-inducible receptor, or its pET Expression System, an  E. coli  expression system. Another example of an inducible expression system is available from Invitrogen®, which carries the T-Rex™ (tetracycline-regulated expression) System, an inducible mammalian expression system that uses the full-length CMV promoter. Invitrogen® also provides a yeast expression system called the  Pichia methanolica  Expression System, which is designed for high-level production of recombinant proteins in the methylotrophic yeast  Pichia methanolica . One of skill in the art would know how to express a vector, such as an expression construct, to produce a nucleic acid sequence or its cognate polypeptide, protein, or peptide. 
     Primary mammalian cell cultures may be prepared in various ways. In order for the cells to be kept viable while in vitro and in contact with the expression construct, it is necessary to ensure that the cells maintain contact with the correct ratio of oxygen and carbon dioxide and nutrients but are protected from microbial contamination. Cell culture techniques are well documented. 
     One embodiment of the foregoing involves the use of gene transfer to immortalize cells for the production of proteins. The gene for the protein of interest may be transferred as described above into appropriate host cells followed by culture of cells under the appropriate conditions. The gene for virtually any polypeptide may be employed in this manner. The generation of recombinant expression vectors, and the elements included therein, are discussed above. Alternatively, the protein to be produced may be an endogenous protein normally synthesized by the cell in question. 
     Examples of useful mammalian host cell lines are Vero and HeLa cells and cell lines of Chinese hamster ovary, W138, BHK, COS-7, 293, HepG2, NIH3T3, RIN and MDCK cells. In addition, a host cell strain may be chosen that modulates the expression of the inserted sequences, or modifies and process the gene product in the manner desired. Such modifications (e.g., glycosylation) and processing (e.g., cleavage) of protein products may be important for the function of the protein. Different host cells have characteristic and specific mechanisms for the post-translational processing and modification of proteins. Appropriate cell lines or host systems can be chosen to insure the correct modification and processing of the foreign protein expressed. A number of selection systems may be used including, but not limited to, HSV thymidine kinase, hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase and adenine phosphoribosyltransferase genes, in tk-, hgprt- or aprt-cells, respectively. Also, anti-metabolite resistance can be used as the basis of selection for dhfr that confers resistance to trimethoprim; gpt, that confers resistance to mycophenolic acid; neo, that confers resistance to the aminoglycoside G418; and hygro, that confers resistance to hygromycin. 
     K. Purification 
     In certain embodiments, TSP1 proteins of the present disclosure may be purified. The term “purified,” as used herein, is intended to refer to a composition, isolatable from other components, wherein the protein is purified to any degree relative to its naturally-obtainable state. A purified protein therefore also refers to a protein, free from the environment in which it may naturally occur. Where the term “substantially purified” is used, this designation will refer to a composition in which the protein or peptide forms the major component of the composition, such as constituting about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95% or more of the proteins in the composition. 
     Protein purification techniques are well known to those of skill in the art. These techniques involve, at one level, the crude fractionation of the cellular milieu to polypeptide and non-polypeptide fractions. Having separated the polypeptide from other proteins, the polypeptide of interest may be further purified using chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques to achieve partial or complete purification (or purification to homogeneity). Analytical methods particularly suited to the preparation of a pure peptide are ion-exchange chromatography, exclusion chromatography; polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; isoelectric focusing. Other methods for protein purification include, precipitation with ammonium sulfate, PEG, antibodies and the like or by heat denaturation, followed by centrifugation; gel filtration, reverse phase, hydroxylapatite and affinity chromatography; and combinations of such and other techniques. 
     In purifying an antibody of the present disclosure, it may be desirable to express the polypeptide in a prokaryotic or eukaryotic expression system and extract the protein using denaturing conditions. The polypeptide may be purified from other cellular components using an affinity column, which binds to a tagged portion of the polypeptide. As is generally known in the art, it is believed that the order of conducting the various purification steps may be changed, or that certain steps may be omitted, and still result in a suitable method for the preparation of a substantially purified protein or peptide. 
     Commonly, complete antibodies are fractionated utilizing agents (i.e., protein A) that bind the Fc portion of the antibody. Alternatively, antigens may be used to simultaneously purify and select appropriate antibodies. Such methods often utilize the selection agent bound to a support, such as a column, filter or bead. The antibodies are bound to a support, contaminants removed (e.g., washed away), and the antibodies released by applying conditions (salt, heat, etc.). 
     Various methods for quantifying the degree of purification of the protein or peptide will be known to those of skill in the art in light of the present disclosure. These include, for example, determining the specific activity of an active fraction, or assessing the amount of polypeptides within a fraction by SDS/PAGE analysis. Another method for assessing the purity of a fraction is to calculate the specific activity of the fraction, to compare it to the specific activity of the initial extract, and to thus calculate the degree of purity. The actual units used to represent the amount of activity will, of course, be dependent upon the particular assay technique chosen to follow the purification and whether or not the expressed protein or peptide exhibits a detectable activity. 
     It is known that the migration of a polypeptide can vary, sometimes significantly, with different conditions of SDS/PAGE (Capaldi et al., 1977). It will therefore be appreciated that under differing electrophoresis conditions, the apparent molecular weights of purified or partially purified expression products may vary. 
     III. PRODUCING MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES 
     A. General Methods 
     Antibodies to TSP1 may be produced by standard methods as are well known in the art (see, e.g., Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1988; U.S. Pat. No. 4,196,265). The methods for generating monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) generally begin along the same lines as those for preparing polyclonal antibodies. The first step for both these methods is immunization of an appropriate host or identification of subjects who are immune due to prior natural infection. As is well known in the art, a given composition for immunization may vary in its immunogenicity. It is often necessary therefore to boost the host immune system, as may be achieved by coupling a peptide or polypeptide immunogen to a carrier. Exemplary and preferred carriers are keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) and bovine serum albumin (BSA). Other albumins such as ovalbumin, mouse serum albumin or rabbit serum albumin can also be used as carriers. Means for conjugating a polypeptide to a carrier protein are well known in the art and include glutaraldehyde, m-maleimidobencoyl-N-hydroxysuccinimide ester, carbodiimide and bis-biazotized benzidine. As also is well known in the art, the immunogenicity of a particular immunogen composition can be enhanced by the use of non-specific stimulators of the immune response, known as adjuvants. Exemplary and preferred adjuvants include complete Freund&#39;s adjuvant (a non-specific stimulator of the immune response containing killed  Mycobacterium tuberculosis ), incomplete Freund&#39;s adjuvants and aluminum hydroxide adjuvant. 
     The amount of immunogen composition used in the production of polyclonal antibodies varies upon the nature of the immunogen as well as the animal used for immunization. A variety of routes can be used to administer the immunogen (subcutaneous, intramuscular, intradermal, intravenous and intraperitoneal). The production of polyclonal antibodies may be monitored by sampling blood of the immunized animal at various points following immunization. A second, booster injection, also may be given. The process of boosting and titering is repeated until a suitable titer is achieved. When a desired level of immunogenicity is obtained, the immunized animal can be bled and the serum isolated and stored, and/or the animal can be used to generate MAbs. 
     Following immunization, somatic cells with the potential for producing antibodies, specifically B lymphocytes (B cells), are selected for use in the MAb generating protocol. These cells may be obtained from biopsied spleens or lymph nodes, or from circulating blood. The antibody-producing B lymphocytes from the immunized animal are then fused with cells of an immortal myeloma cell, generally one of the same species as the animal that was immunized or human or human/mouse chimeric cells. Myeloma cell lines suited for use in hybridoma-producing fusion procedures preferably are non-antibody-producing, have high fusion efficiency, and enzyme deficiencies that render then incapable of growing in certain selective media which support the growth of only the desired fused cells (hybridomas). 
     Any one of a number of myeloma cells may be used, as are known to those of skill in the art (Goding, pp. 65-66, 1986; Campbell, pp. 75-83, 1984). For example, where the immunized animal is a mouse, one may use P3-X63/Ag8, X63-Ag8.653, NS1/1.Ag 4 1, Sp210-Ag14, FO, NSO/U, MPC-11, MPC11-X45-GTG 1.7 and S194/5XX0 Bul; for rats, one may use R210.RCY3, Y3-Ag 1.2.3, IR983F and 4B210; and U-266, GM1500-GRG2, LICR-LON-HMy2 and UC729-6 are all useful in connection with human cell fusions. One particular murine myeloma cell is the NS-1 myeloma cell line (also termed P3-NS-1-Ag4-1), which is readily available from the NIGMS Human Genetic Mutant Cell Repository by requesting cell line repository number GM3573. Another mouse myeloma cell line that may be used is the 8-azaguanine-resistant mouse murine myeloma SP2/0 non-producer cell line. More recently, additional fusion partner lines for use with human B cells have been described, including KR12 (ATCC CRL-8658; K6H6/B5 (ATCC CRL-1823 SHM-D33 (ATCC CRL-1668) and HMMA2.5 (Posner et al., 1987). The antibodies in this disclosure were generated using the SP2/0/mIL-6 cell line, an IL-6 secreting derivative of the SP2/0 line. 
     Methods for generating hybrids of antibody-producing spleen or lymph node cells and myeloma cells usually comprise mixing somatic cells with myeloma cells in a 2:1 proportion, though the proportion may vary from about 20:1 to about 1:1, respectively, in the presence of an agent or agents (chemical or electrical) that promote the fusion of cell membranes. Fusion methods using Sendai virus have been described by Kohler and Milstein (1975; 1976), and those using polyethylene glycol (PEG), such as 37% (v/v) PEG, by Gefter et al. (1977). The use of electrically induced fusion methods also is appropriate (Goding, pp. 71-74, 1986). 
     Fusion procedures usually produce viable hybrids at low frequencies, about 1×10 −6  to 1×10 −8 . However, this does not pose a problem, as the viable, fused hybrids are differentiated from the parental, infused cells (particularly the infused myeloma cells that would normally continue to divide indefinitely) by culturing in a selective medium. The selective medium is generally one that contains an agent that blocks the de novo synthesis of nucleotides in the tissue culture media. Exemplary and preferred agents are aminopterin, methotrexate, and azaserine. Aminopterin and methotrexate block de novo synthesis of both purines and pyrimidines, whereas azaserine blocks only purine synthesis. Where aminopterin or methotrexate is used, the media is supplemented with hypoxanthine and thymidine as a source of nucleotides (HAT medium). Where azaserine is used, the media is supplemented with hypoxanthine. Ouabain is added if the B cell source is an Epstein Barr virus (EBV) transformed human B cell line, in order to eliminate EBV transformed lines that have not fused to the myeloma. 
     The preferred selection medium is HAT or HAT with ouabain. Only cells capable of operating nucleotide salvage pathways are able to survive in HAT medium. The myeloma cells are defective in key enzymes of the salvage pathway, e.g., hypoxanthine phosphoribosyl transferase (HPRT), and they cannot survive. The B cells can operate this pathway, but they have a limited life span in culture and generally die within about two weeks. Therefore, the only cells that can survive in the selective media are those hybrids formed from myeloma and B cells. When the source of B cells used for fusion is a line of EBV-transformed B cells, as here, ouabain is also used for drug selection of hybrids as EBV-transformed B cells are susceptible to drug killing, whereas the myeloma partner used is chosen to be ouabain resistant. 
     Culturing provides a population of hybridomas from which specific hybridomas are selected. Typically, selection of hybridomas is performed by culturing the cells by single-clone dilution in microtiter plates, followed by testing the individual clonal supernatants (after about two to three weeks) for the desired reactivity. The assay should be sensitive, simple and rapid, such as radioimmunoassays, enzyme immunoassays, cytotoxicity assays, plaque assays dot immunobinding assays, and the like. 
     The selected hybridomas are then serially diluted or single-cell sorted by flow cytometric sorting and cloned into individual antibody-producing cell lines, which clones can then be propagated indefinitely to provide mAbs. The cell lines may be exploited for MAb production in two basic ways. A sample of the hybridoma can be injected (often into the peritoneal cavity) into an animal (e.g., a mouse). Optionally, the animals are primed with a hydrocarbon, especially oils such as pristane (tetramethylpentadecane) prior to injection. When human hybridomas are used in this way, it is optimal to inject immunocompromised mice, such as SCID mice, to prevent tumor rejection. The injected animal develops tumors secreting the specific monoclonal antibody produced by the fused cell hybrid. The body fluids of the animal, such as serum or ascites fluid, can then be tapped to provide MAbs in high concentration. The individual cell lines could also be cultured in vitro, where the MAbs are naturally secreted into the culture medium from which they can be readily obtained in high concentrations. Alternatively, human hybridoma cells lines can be used in vitro to produce immunoglobulins in cell supernatant. The cell lines can be adapted for growth in serum-free medium to optimize the ability to recover human monoclonal immunoglobulins of high purity. 
     MAbs produced by either means may be further purified, if desired, using filtration, centrifugation and various chromatographic methods such as FPLC or affinity chromatography. Fragments of the monoclonal antibodies of the disclosure can be obtained from the purified monoclonal antibodies by methods which include digestion with enzymes, such as pepsin or papain, and/or by cleavage of disulfide bonds by chemical reduction. Alternatively, monoclonal antibody fragments encompassed by the present disclosure can be synthesized using an automated peptide synthesizer. 
     It also is contemplated that a molecular cloning approach may be used to generate monoclonals. For this, RNA can be isolated from the hybridoma line and the antibody genes obtained by RT-PCR and cloned into an immunoglobulin expression vector. Alternatively, combinatorial immunoglobulin phagemid libraries are prepared from RNA isolated from the cell lines and phagemids expressing appropriate antibodies are selected by panning using viral antigens. The advantages of this approach over conventional hybridoma techniques are that approximately 10 4  times as many antibodies can be produced and screened in a single round, and that new specificities are generated by H and L chain combination which further increases the chance of finding appropriate antibodies. 
     Other U.S. patents, each incorporated herein by reference, that teach the production of antibodies useful in the present disclosure include U.S. Pat. No. 5,565,332, which describes the production of chimeric antibodies using a combinatorial approach; U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567 which describes recombinant immunoglobulin preparations; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,867,973 which describes antibody-therapeutic agent conjugates. 
     B. Engineering of Antibody Sequences 
     In various embodiments, one may choose to engineer sequences of the identified antibodies for a variety of reasons, such as improved expression, improved cross-reactivity, diminished off-target binding or abrogation of one or more natural effector functions, such as activation of complement or recruitment of immune cells (e.g., T cells). In particular, IgM antibodies may be converted to IgG antibodies. The following is a general discussion of relevant techniques for antibody engineering. 
     Hybridomas may be cultured, then cells lysed, and total RNA extracted. Random hexamers may be used with RT to generate cDNA copies of RNA, and then PCR performed using a multiplex mixture of PCR primers expected to amplify all human variable gene sequences. PCR product can be cloned into pGEM-T Easy vector, then sequenced by automated DNA sequencing using standard vector primers. Assay of binding and neutralization may be performed using antibodies collected from hybridoma supernatants and purified by FPLC, using Protein G columns. Recombinant full length IgG antibodies can be generated by subcloning heavy and light chain Fv DNAs from the cloning vector into a Lonza pConIgG1 or pConK2 plasmid vector, transfected into 293 Freestyle cells or Lonza CHO cells, and collected and purified from the CHO cell supernatant. 
     The rapid availability of antibody produced in the same host cell and cell culture process as the final cGMP manufacturing process has the potential to reduce the duration of process development programs. Lonza has developed a generic method using pooled transfectants grown in CDACF medium, for the rapid production of small quantities (up to 50 g) of antibodies in CHO cells. Although slightly slower than a true transient system, the advantages include a higher product concentration and use of the same host and process as the production cell line. Example of growth and productivity of GS-CHO pools, expressing a model antibody, in a disposable bioreactor: in a disposable bag bioreactor culture (5 L working volume) operated in fed-batch mode, a harvest antibody concentration of 2 g/L was achieved within 9 weeks of transfection. 
     pCon Vectors™ are an easy way to re-express whole antibodies. The constant region vectors are a set of vectors offering a range of immunoglobulin constant region vectors cloned into the pEE vectors. These vectors offer easy construction of full length antibodies with human constant regions and the convenience of the GS System™. 
     Antibody molecules will comprise fragments (such as F(ab′), F(ab′) 2 ) that are produced, for example, by the proteolytic cleavage of the mAbs, or single-chain immunoglobulins producible, for example, via recombinant means. Such antibody derivatives are monovalent. In one embodiment, such fragments can be combined with one another, or with other antibody fragments or receptor ligands to form “chimeric” binding molecules. Significantly, such chimeric molecules may contain substituents capable of binding to different epitopes of the same molecule. 
     It may be desirable to “humanize” antibodies produced in non-human hosts in order to attenuate any immune reaction when used in human therapy. Such humanized antibodies may be studied in an in vitro or an in vivo context. Humanized antibodies may be produced, for example by replacing an immunogenic portion of an antibody with a corresponding, but non-immunogenic portion (i.e., chimeric antibodies). PCT Application PCT/US86/02269; EP Application 184,187; EP Application 171,496; EP Application 173,494; PCT Application WO 86/01533; EP Application 125,023; Sun et al. (1987); Wood et al. (1985); and Shaw et al. (1988); all of which references are incorporated herein by reference. General reviews of “humanized” chimeric antibodies are provided by Morrison (1985); also incorporated herein by reference. “Humanized” antibodies can alternatively be produced by CDR or CEA substitution. Jones et al. (1986); Verhoeyen et al. (1988); Beidler et al. (1988); all of which are incorporated herein by reference. 
     In related embodiments, the antibody is a derivative of the disclosed antibodies, e.g., an antibody comprising the CDR sequences identical to those in the disclosed antibodies (e.g., a chimeric, humanized or CDR-grafted antibody). In yet a further embodiment, the antibody is a fully human recombinant antibody. 
     The present disclosure also contemplates isotype modification. By modifying the Fc region to have a different isotype, different functionalities can be achieved. For example, changing to IgG 4  can reduce immune effector functions associated with other isotypes. 
     Modified antibodies may be made by any technique known to those of skill in the art, including expression through standard molecular biological techniques, or the chemical synthesis of polypeptides. Methods for recombinant expression are addressed elsewhere in this document. 
     C. Purification 
     In certain embodiments, the antibodies of the present disclosure may be purified. The term “purified,” as used herein, is intended to refer to a composition, isolatable from other components, wherein the protein is purified to any degree relative to its naturally-obtainable state. A purified protein therefore also refers to a protein, free from the environment in which it may naturally occur. Where the term “substantially purified” is used, this designation will refer to a composition in which the protein or peptide forms the major component of the composition, such as constituting about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95% or more of the proteins in the composition. 
     Protein purification techniques are well known to those of skill in the art. These techniques involve, at one level, the crude fractionation of the cellular milieu to polypeptide and non-polypeptide fractions. Having separated the polypeptide from other proteins, the polypeptide of interest may be further purified using chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques to achieve partial or complete purification (or purification to homogeneity). Analytical methods particularly suited to the preparation of a pure peptide are ion-exchange chromatography, exclusion chromatography; polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; isoelectric focusing. Other methods for protein purification include, precipitation with ammonium sulfate, PEG, antibodies and the like or by heat denaturation, followed by centrifugation; gel filtration, reverse phase, hydroxylapatite and affinity chromatography; and combinations of such and other techniques. 
     In purifying an antibody of the present disclosure, it may be desirable to express the polypeptide in a prokaryotic or eukaryotic expression system and extract the protein using denaturing conditions. The polypeptide may be purified from other cellular components using an affinity column, which binds to a tagged portion of the polypeptide. As is generally known in the art, it is believed that the order of conducting the various purification steps may be changed, or that certain steps may be omitted, and still result in a suitable method for the preparation of a substantially purified protein or peptide. 
     Commonly, complete antibodies are fractionated utilizing agents (i.e., protein A) that bind the Fc portion of the antibody. Alternatively, antigens may be used to simultaneously purify and select appropriate antibodies. Such methods often utilize the selection agent bound to a support, such as a column, filter or bead. The antibodies are bound to a support, contaminants removed (e.g., washed away), and the antibodies released by applying conditions (salt, heat, etc.). 
     Various methods for quantifying the degree of purification of the protein or peptide will be known to those of skill in the art in light of the present disclosure. These include, for example, determining the specific activity of an active fraction, or assessing the amount of polypeptides within a fraction by SDS/PAGE analysis. Another method for assessing the purity of a fraction is to calculate the specific activity of the fraction, to compare it to the specific activity of the initial extract, and to thus calculate the degree of purity. The actual units used to represent the amount of activity will, of course, be dependent upon the particular assay technique chosen to follow the purification and whether or not the expressed protein or peptide exhibits a detectable activity. 
     It is known that the migration of a polypeptide can vary, sometimes significantly, with different conditions of SDS/PAGE (Capaldi et al., 1977). It will therefore be appreciated that under differing electrophoresis conditions, the apparent molecular weights of purified or partially purified expression products may vary. 
     D. Single Chain/Single Domain Antibodies 
     A Single Chain Variable Fragment (scFv) is a fusion of the variable regions of the heavy and light chains of immunoglobulins, linked together with a short (usually serine, glycine) linker. This chimeric molecule, also known as a single domain antibody, retains the specificity of the original immunoglobulin, despite removal of the constant regions and the introduction of a linker peptide. This modification usually leaves the specificity unaltered. These molecules were created historically to facilitate phage display where it is highly convenient to express the antigen binding domain as a single peptide. Alternatively, scFv can be created directly from subcloned heavy and light chains derived from a hybridoma. Single domain or single chain variable fragments lack the constant Fc region found in complete antibody molecules, and thus, the common binding sites (e.g., protein A/G) used to purify antibodies (single chain antibodies include the Fc region). These fragments can often be purified/immobilized using Protein L since Protein L interacts with the variable region of kappa light chains. 
     Flexible linkers generally are comprised of helix- and turn-promoting amino acid residues such as alaine, serine and glycine. However, other residues can function as well. Tang et al. (1996) used phage display as a means of rapidly selecting tailored linkers for single-chain antibodies (scFvs) from protein linker libraries. A random linker library was constructed in which the genes for the heavy and light chain variable domains were linked by a segment encoding an 18-amino acid polypeptide of variable composition. The scFv repertoire (approx. 5×10 6  different members) was displayed on filamentous phage and subjected to affinity selection with hapten. The population of selected variants exhibited significant increases in binding activity but retained considerable sequence diversity. Screening 1054 individual variants subsequently yielded a catalytically active scFv that was produced efficiently in soluble form. Sequence analysis revealed a conserved proline in the linker two residues after the V H  C terminus and an abundance of arginines and prolines at other positions as the only common features of the selected tethers. 
     The recombinant antibodies of the present disclosure may also involve sequences or moieties that permit dimerization or multimerization of the receptors. Such sequences include those derived from IgA, which permit formation of multimers in conjunction with the J-chain. Another multimerization domain is the Gal4 dimerization domain. In other embodiments, the chains may be modified with agents such as biotin/avidin, which permit the combination of two antibodies. 
     In a separate embodiment, a single-chain antibody can be created by joining receptor light and heavy chains using a non-peptide linker or chemical unit. Generally, the light and heavy chains will be produced in distinct cells, purified, and subsequently linked together in an appropriate fashion (i.e., the N-terminus of the heavy chain being attached to the C-terminus of the light chain via an appropriate chemical bridge). 
     Cross-linking reagents are used to form molecular bridges that tie functional groups of two different molecules, e.g., a stablizing and coagulating agent. However, it is contemplated that dimers or multimers of the same analog or heteromeric complexes comprised of different analogs can be created. To link two different compounds in a step-wise manner, hetero-bifunctional cross-linkers can be used that eliminate unwanted homopolymer formation. 
     An exemplary hetero-bifunctional cross-linker contains two reactive groups: one reacting with primary amine group (e.g., N-hydroxy succinimide) and the other reacting with a thiol group (e.g., pyridyl disulfide, maleimides, halogens, etc.). Through the primary amine reactive group, the cross-linker may react with the lysine residue(s) of one protein (e.g., the selected antibody or fragment) and through the thiol reactive group, the cross-linker, already tied up to the first protein, reacts with the cysteine residue (free sulfhydryl group) of the other protein (e.g., the selective agent). 
     It is preferred that a cross-linker having reasonable stability in blood will be employed. Numerous types of disulfide-bond containing linkers are known that can be successfully employed to conjugate targeting and therapeutic/preventative agents. Linkers that contain a disulfide bond that is sterically hindered may prove to give greater stability in vivo, preventing release of the targeting peptide prior to reaching the site of action. These linkers are thus one group of linking agents. 
     Another cross-linking reagent is SMPT, which is a bifunctional cross-linker containing a disulfide bond that is “sterically hindered” by an adjacent benzene ring and methyl groups. It is believed that steric hindrance of the disulfide bond serves a function of protecting the bond from attack by thiolate anions such as glutathione which can be present in tissues and blood, and thereby help in preventing decoupling of the conjugate prior to the delivery of the attached agent to the target site. 
     The SMPT cross-linking reagent, as with many other known cross-linking reagents, lends the ability to cross-link functional groups such as the SH of cysteine or primary amines (e.g., the epsilon amino group of lysine). Another possible type of cross-linker includes the hetero-bifunctional photoreactive phenylazides containing a cleavable disulfide bond such as sulfosuccinimidyl-2-(p-azido salicylamido) ethyl-1,3′-dithiopropionate. The N-hydroxy-succinimidyl group reacts with primary amino groups and the phenylazide (upon photolysis) reacts non-selectively with any amino acid residue. 
     In addition to hindered cross-linkers, non-hindered linkers also can be employed in accordance herewith. Other useful cross-linkers, not considered to contain or generate a protected disulfide, include SATA, SPDP and 2-iminothiolane (Wawrzynczak &amp; Thorpe, 1987). The use of such cross-linkers is well understood in the art. Another embodiment involves the use of flexible linkers. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 4,680,338, describes bifunctional linkers useful for producing conjugates of ligands with amine-containing polymers and/or proteins, especially for forming antibody conjugates with chelators, drugs, enzymes, detectable labels and the like. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,141,648 and 5,563,250 disclose cleavable conjugates containing a labile bond that is cleavable under a variety of mild conditions. This linker is particularly useful in that the agent of interest may be bonded directly to the linker, with cleavage resulting in release of the active agent. Particular uses include adding a free amino or free sulfhydryl group to a protein, such as an antibody, or a drug. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 5,856,456 provides peptide linkers for use in connecting polypeptide constituents to make fusion proteins, e.g., single chain antibodies. The linker is up to about 50 amino acids in length, contains at least one occurrence of a charged amino acid (preferably arginine or lysine) followed by a proline, and is characterized by greater stability and reduced aggregation. U.S. Pat. No. 5,880,270 discloses aminooxy-containing linkers useful in a variety of immunodiagnostic and separative techniques. 
     E. Modified Antibodies 
     1. CARs 
     Artificial T cell receptors (also known as chimeric T cell receptors, chimeric immunoreceptors, chimeric antigen receptors (CARs)) are engineered receptors, which graft an arbitrary specificity onto an immune effector cell. Typically, these receptors are used to graft the specificity of a monoclonal antibody onto a T cell, with transfer of their coding sequence facilitated by retroviral vectors. In this way, a large number of cancer-specific T cells can be generated for adoptive cell transfer. Phase I clinical studies of this approach show efficacy. 
     The most common form of these molecules are fusions of single-chain variable fragments (scFv) derived from monoclonal antibodies, fused to CD3-zeta transmembrane and endodomain. Such molecules result in the transmission of a zeta signal in response to recognition by the scFv of its target. An example of such a construct is 14g2a-Zeta, which is a fusion of a scFv derived from hybridoma 14g2a (which recognizes disialoganglioside GD2). When T cells express this molecule (usually achieved by oncoretroviral vector transduction), they recognize and kill target cells that express GD2 (e.g., neuroblastoma cells). To target malignant B cells, investigators have redirected the specificity of T cells using a chimeric immunoreceptor specific for the B-lineage molecule, CD19. 
     The variable portions of an immunoglobulin heavy and light chain are fused by a flexible linker to form a scFv. This scFv is preceded by a signal peptide to direct the nascent protein to the endoplasmic reticulum and subsequent surface expression (this is cleaved). A flexible spacer allows to the scFv to orient in different directions to enable antigen binding. The transmembrane domain is a typical hydrophobic alpha helix usually derived from the original molecule of the signalling endodomain which protrudes into the cell and transmits the desired signal. 
     Type I proteins are in fact two protein domains linked by a transmembrane alpha helix in between. The cell membrane lipid bilayer, through which the transmembrane domain passes, acts to isolate the inside portion (endodomain) from the external portion (ectodomain). It is not so surprising that attaching an ectodomain from one protein to an endodomain of another protein results in a molecule that combines the recognition of the former to the signal of the latter. 
     Ectodomain. 
     A signal peptide directs the nascent protein into the endoplasmic reticulum. This is essential if the receptor is to be glycosylated and anchored in the cell membrane. Any eukaryotic signal peptide sequence usually works fine. Generally, the signal peptide natively attached to the amino-terminal most component is used (e.g., in a scFv with orientation light chain-linker-heavy chain, the native signal of the light-chain is used 
     The antigen recognition domain is usually an scFv. There are however many alternatives. An antigen recognition domain from native T-cell receptor (TCR) alpha and beta single chains have been described, as have simple ectodomains (e.g., CD4 ectodomain to recognize HIV infected cells) and more exotic recognition components such as a linked cytokine (which leads to recognition of cells bearing the cytokine receptor). In fact almost anything that binds a given target with high affinity can be used as an antigen recognition region. 
     A spacer region links the antigen binding domain to the transmembrane domain. It should be flexible enough to allow the antigen binding domain to orient in different directions to facilitate antigen recognition. The simplest form is the hinge region from IgG1. Alternatives include the CH 2 CH 3  region of immunoglobulin and portions of CD3. For most scFv based constructs, the IgG1 hinge suffices. However the best spacer often has to be determined empirically. 
     Transmembrane Domain. 
     The transmembrane domain is a hydrophobic alpha helix that spans the membrane. Generally, the transmembrane domain from the most membrane proximal component of the endodomain is used. Interestingly, using the CD3-zeta transmembrane domain may result in incorporation of the artificial TCR into the native TCR a factor that is dependent on the presence of the native CD3-zeta transmembrane charged aspartic acid residue. Different transmembrane domains result in different receptor stability. The CD28 transmembrane domain results in a brightly expressed, stable receptor. 
     Endodomain. 
     This is the “business-end” of the receptor. After antigen recognition, receptors cluster and a signal is transmitted to the cell. The most commonly used endodomain component is CD3-zeta which contains 3 ITAMs. This transmits an activation signal to the T cell after antigen is bound. CD3-zeta may not provide a fully competent activation signal and additional co-stimulatory signaling is needed. For example, chimeric CD28 and OX40 can be used with CD3-Zeta to transmit a proliferative/survival signal, or all three can be used together. 
     “First-generation” CARs typically had the intracellular domain from the CD3 ξ-chain, which is the primary transmitter of signals from endogenous TCRs. “Second-generation” CARs add intracellular signaling domains from various costimulatory protein receptors (e.g., CD28, 41BB, ICOS) to the cytoplasmic tail of the CAR to provide additional signals to the T cell. Preclinical studies have indicated that the second generation of CAR designs improves the antitumor activity of T cells. More recent, “third-generation” CARs combine multiple signaling domains, such as CD3z-CD28-41BB or CD3z-CD28-OX40, to further augment potency. 
     Adoptive transfer of T cells expressing chimeric antigen receptors is a promising anti-cancer therapeutic as CAR-modified T cells can be engineered to target virtually any tumor associated antigen. There is great potential for this approach to improve patient-specific cancer therapy in a profound way. Following the collection of a patient&#39;s T cells, the cells are genetically engineered to express CARs specifically directed towards antigens on the patient&#39;s tumor cells, then infused back into the patient. Although adoptive transfer of CAR-modified T-cells is a unique and promising cancer therapeutic, there are significant safety concerns. Clinical trials of this therapy have revealed potential toxic effects of these CARs when healthy tissues express the same target antigens as the tumor cells, leading to outcomes similar to graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). A potential solution to this problem is engineering a suicide gene into the modified T cells. In this way, administration of a prodrug designed to activate the suicide gene during GVHD triggers apoptosis in the suicide gene-activated CAR T cells. This method has been used safely and effectively in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Adoption of suicide gene therapy to the clinical application of CAR-modified T cell adoptive cell transfer has potential to alleviate GVHD while improving overall anti-tumor efficacy. 
     2. ADCs 
     Antibody Drug Conjugates or ADCs are a new class of highly potent biopharmaceutical drugs designed as a targeted therapy for the treatment of people with cancer. ADCs are complex molecules composed of an antibody (a whole mAb or an antibody fragment such as a single-chain variable fragment, or scFv) linked, via a stable chemical linker with labile bonds, to a biological active cytotoxic (anticancer) payload or drug. Antibody Drug Conjugates are examples of bioconjugates and immunoconjugates. 
     By combining the unique targeting capabilities of monoclonal antibodies with the cancer-killing ability of cytotoxic drugs, antibody-drug conjugates allow sensitive discrimination between healthy and diseased tissue. This means that, in contrast to traditional chemotherapeutic agents, antibody-drug conjugates target and attack the cancer cell so that healthy cells are less severely affected. 
     In the development ADC-based anti-tumor therapies, an anticancer drug (e.g., a cell toxin or cytotoxin) is coupled to an antibody that specifically targets a certain tumor marker (e.g., a protein that, ideally, is only to be found in or on tumor cells; in this case TSP1). Antibodies track these proteins down in the body and attach themselves to the surface of cancer cells. The biochemical reaction between the antibody and the target protein (antigen) triggers a signal in the tumor cell, which then absorbs or internalizes the antibody together with the cytotoxin. After the ADC is internalized, the cytotoxic drug is released and kills the cancer. Due to this targeting, ideally the drug has lower side effects and gives a wider therapeutic window than other chemotherapeutic agents. 
     A stable link between the antibody and cytotoxic (anti-cancer) agent is a crucial aspect of an ADC. Linkers are based on chemical motifs including disulfides, hydrazones or peptides (cleavable), or thioethers (noncleavable) and control the distribution and delivery of the cytotoxic agent to the target cell. Cleavable and noncleavable types of linkers have been proven to be safe in preclinical and clinical trials. Brentuximab vedotin includes an enzyme-sensitive cleavable linker that delivers the potent and highly toxic antimicrotubule agent Monomethyl auristatin E or MMAE, a synthetic antineoplastic agent, to human specific CD30-positive malignant cells. Because of its high toxicity MMAE, which inhibits cell division by blocking the polymerization of tubulin, cannot be used as a single-agent chemotherapeutic drug. However, the combination of MMAE linked to an anti-CD30 monoclonal antibody (cAC10, a cell membrane protein of the tumor necrosis factor or TNF receptor) proved to be stable in extracellular fluid, cleavable by cathepsin and safe for therapy. Trastuzumab emtansine, the other approved ADC, is a combination of the microtubule-formation inhibitor mertansine (DM-1), a derivative of the Maytansine, and antibody trastuzumab (Herceptin®/Genentech/Roche) attached by a stable, non-cleavable linker. 
     The availability of better and more stable linkers has changed the function of the chemical bond. The type of linker, cleavable or noncleavable, lends specific properties to the cytotoxic (anti-cancer) drug. For example, a non-cleavable linker keeps the drug within the cell. As a result, the entire antibody, linker and cytotoxic (anti-cancer) agent enter the targeted cancer cell where the antibody is degraded to the level of an amino acid. The resulting complex—amino acid, linker and cytotoxic agent—now becomes the active drug. In contrast, cleavable linkers are catalyzed by enzymes in the cancer cell where it releases the cytotoxic agent. The difference is that the cytotoxic payload delivered via a cleavable linker can escape from the targeted cell and, in a process called “bystander killing,” attack neighboring cancer cells. 
     Another type of cleavable linker, currently in development, adds an extra molecule between the cytotoxic drug and the cleavage site. This linker technology allows researchers to create ADCs with more flexibility without worrying about changing cleavage kinetics. Researchers are also developing a new method of peptide cleavage based on Edman degradation, a method of sequencing amino acids in a peptide. Future direction in the development of ADCs also include the development of site-specific conjugation (TDCs) to further improve stability and therapeutic index and a emitting immunoconjugates and antibody-conjugated nanoparticles. 
     3. BitES 
     Bi-specific T-cell engagers (BiTEs) are a class of artificial bispecific monoclonal antibodies that are investigated for the use as anti-cancer drugs. They direct a host&#39;s immune system, more specifically the T cells&#39; cytotoxic activity, against cancer cells. BiTE is a registered trademark of Micromet AG. 
     BiTEs are fusion proteins consisting of two single-chain variable fragments (scFvs) of different antibodies, or amino acid sequences from four different genes, on a single peptide chain of about 55 kilodaltons. One of the scFvs binds to T cells via the CD3 receptor, and the other to a tumor cell via a tumor specific molecule, in this case TSP1. 
     Like other bispecific antibodies, and unlike ordinary monoclonal antibodies, BiTEs form a link between T cells and tumor cells. This causes T cells to exert cytotoxic activity on tumor cells by producing proteins like perforin and granzymes, independently of the presence of MHC I or co-stimulatory molecules. These proteins enter tumor cells and initiate the cell&#39;s apoptosis. This action mimics physiological processes observed during T cell attacks against tumor cells. 
     BiTEs that were in clinical trials as of July 2010 include Blinatumomab (MT103) for the treatment of non-Hodgkin&#39;s lymphoma and acute lymphoblastic leukemia, directed towards CD19, a surface molecule expressed on B cells; and MT110 for the treatment of gastrointestinal and lung cancers, directed towards the EpCAM antigen. 
     Utilizing the same technology, melanoma (with MCSP specific BiTEs) and acute myeloid leukemia (with CD33 specific BiTEs) can be targeted. Research in this area is currently ongoing. Another avenue for novel anti-cancer therapies is re-engineering some of the currently used conventional antibodies like trastuzumab (targeting HER2/neu), cetuximab and panitumumab (both targeting the EGF receptor), using the BiTE approach. BiTEs against CD66e and EphA2 are being developed as well. 
     F. Antibody Conjugates 
     Antibodies may be linked to at least one agent to form an antibody conjugate. In order to increase the efficacy of antibody molecules as diagnostic or therapeutic agents, it is conventional to link or covalently bind or complex at least one desired molecule or moiety. Such a molecule or moiety may be, but is not limited to, at least one effector or reporter molecule. Effector molecules comprise molecules having a desired activity, e.g., immunosuppression/anti-inflammation. Non-limiting examples of such molecules are set out above. Such molecules are optionally attached via cleavable linkers designed to allow the molecules to be released at or near the target site. 
     By contrast, a reporter molecule is defined as any moiety which may be detected using an assay. Non-limiting examples of reporter molecules which have been conjugated to antibodies include enzymes, radiolabels, haptens, fluorescent labels, phosphorescent molecules, chemiluminescent molecules, chromophores, photoaffinity molecules, colored particles or ligands, such as biotin. 
     Antibody conjugates are generally preferred for use as diagnostic agents. Antibody diagnostics generally fall within two classes, those for use in in vitro diagnostics, such as in a variety of immunoassays, and those for use in vivo diagnostic protocols, generally known as “antibody-directed imaging.” Many appropriate imaging agents are known in the art, as are methods for their attachment to antibodies (see, for e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,021,236, 4,938,948, and 4,472,509). The imaging moieties used can be paramagnetic ions, radioactive isotopes, fluorochromes, NMR-detectable substances, and X-ray imaging agents. 
     In the case of paramagnetic ions, one might mention by way of example ions such as chromium (III), manganese (II), iron (III), iron (II), cobalt (II), nickel (II), copper (II), neodymium (III), samarium (III), ytterbium (III), gadolinium (III), vanadium (II), terbium (III), dysprosium (III), holmium (III) and/or erbium (III), with gadolinium being particularly preferred. Ions useful in other contexts, such as X-ray imaging, include but are not limited to lanthanum (III), gold (III), lead (II), and especially bismuth (III). 
     In the case of radioactive isotopes for therapeutic and/or diagnostic application, one might mention astatine 211 ,  14 carbon,  51 chromium,  36 chlorine,  57 cobalt,  58 cobalt, copper 67 ,  152 Eu, gallium 67 ,  3 hydrogen, iodine 123 , iodine 125 , iodine 131 , indium 111 ,  59 iron,  32 phosphorus, rhenium 186 , rhenium 188 ,  75 selenium,  35 sulphur, technicium 99m  and/or yttrium 90 .  125 I is often being preferred for use in certain embodiments, and technicium 99m  and/or indium 111  are also often preferred due to their low energy and suitability for long range detection. Radioactively labeled monoclonal antibodies may be produced according to well-known methods in the art. For instance, monoclonal antibodies can be iodinated by contact with sodium and/or potassium iodide and a chemical oxidizing agent such as sodium hypochlorite, or an enzymatic oxidizing agent, such as lactoperoxidase. Monoclonal antibodies may be labeled with technetium 99m  by ligand exchange process, for example, by reducing pertechnate with stannous solution, chelating the reduced technetium onto a Sephadex column and applying the antibody to this column. Alternatively, direct labeling techniques may be used, e.g., by incubating pertechnate, a reducing agent such as SNCl 2 , a buffer solution such as sodium-potassium phthalate solution, and the antibody. Intermediary functional groups are often used to bind radioisotopes to antibody and exist as metallic ions are diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) or ethylene diaminetetracetic acid (EDTA). 
     Among the fluorescent labels contemplated for use as conjugates include Alexa 350, Alexa 430, AMCA, BODIPY 630/650, BODIPY 650/665, BODIPY-FL, BODIPY-R6G, BODIPY-TMR, BODIPY-TRX, Cascade Blue, Cy3, Cy5,6-FAM, Fluorescein Isothiocyanate, HEX, 6-JOE, Oregon Green 488, Oregon Green 500, Oregon Green 514, Pacific Blue, REG, Rhodamine Green, Rhodamine Red, Renographin, ROX, TAMRA, TET, Tetramethylrhodamine, and/or Texas Red. 
     Another type of antibody conjugates contemplated are those intended primarily for use in vitro, where the antibody is linked to a secondary binding ligand and/or to an enzyme (an enzyme tag) that will generate a colored product upon contact with a chromogenic substrate. Examples of suitable enzymes include urease, alkaline phosphatase, (horseradish) hydrogen peroxidase or glucose oxidase. Preferred secondary binding ligands are biotin and avidin and streptavidin compounds. The use of such labels is well known to those of skill in the art and are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,817,837, 3,850,752, 3,939,350, 3,996,345, 4,277,437, 4,275,149 and 4,366,241. 
     Yet another known method of site-specific attachment of molecules to antibodies comprises the reaction of antibodies with hapten-based affinity labels. Essentially, hapten-based affinity labels react with amino acids in the antigen binding site, thereby destroying this site and blocking specific antigen reaction. However, this may not be advantageous since it results in loss of antigen binding by the antibody conjugate. 
     Molecules containing azido groups may also be used to form covalent bonds to proteins through reactive nitrene intermediates that are generated by low intensity ultraviolet light (Potter and Haley, 1983). In particular, 2- and 8-azido analogs of purine nucleotides have been used as site-directed photoprobes to identify nucleotide binding proteins in crude cell extracts (Owens &amp; Haley, 1987; Atherton et al., 1985). The 2- and 8-azido nucleotides have also been used to map nucleotide binding domains of purified proteins (Khatoon et al., 1989; King et al., 1989; Dholakia et al., 1989) and may be used as antibody binding agents. 
     Several methods are known in the art for the attachment or conjugation of an antibody to its conjugate moiety. Some attachment methods involve the use of a metal chelate complex employing, for example, an organic chelating agent such a diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid anhydride (DTPA); ethylenetriaminetetraacetic acid; N-chloro-p-toluenesulfonamide; and/or tetrachloro-3α-6α-diphenylglycouril-3 attached to the antibody (U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,472,509 and 4,938,948). Monoclonal antibodies may also be reacted with an enzyme in the presence of a coupling agent such as glutaraldehyde or periodate. Conjugates with fluorescein markers are prepared in the presence of these coupling agents or by reaction with an isothiocyanate. In U.S. Pat. No. 4,938,948, imaging of breast tumors is achieved using monoclonal antibodies and the detectable imaging moieties are bound to the antibody using linkers such as methyl-p-hydroxybenzimidate or N-succinimidyl-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propionate. 
     In other embodiments, derivatization of immunoglobulins by selectively introducing sulfhydryl groups in the Fc region of an immunoglobulin, using reaction conditions that do not alter the antibody combining site are contemplated. Antibody conjugates produced according to this methodology are disclosed to exhibit improved longevity, specificity and sensitivity (U.S. Pat. No. 5,196,066, incorporated herein by reference). Site-specific attachment of effector or reporter molecules, wherein the reporter or effector molecule is conjugated to a carbohydrate residue in the Fc region have also been disclosed in the literature (O&#39;Shannessy et al., 1987). This approach has been reported to produce diagnostically and therapeutically promising antibodies which are currently in clinical evaluation. 
     IV. NUCLEIC ACID-BASED DETECTION METHODS 
     Nucleic acid-based detection methods may be applied to lncRNAs or the DNA encoding them. The following is a discussion of such methods, which are applicable to assessing TSP1 expression through measurement of lncRNA1456. 
     In certain embodiments, the disclosure relates to methods of diagnosing cancer by detecting lncRNA1456, and more particularly, that overexpresses lncRNA1456. Such cancers can be a breast cancer, lung cancer, colon cancer, pancreatic cancer, renal cancer, stomach cancer, liver cancer, bone cancer, hematological cancer (e.g., leukemia or lymphoma), neural tissue cancer, melanoma, ovarian cancer, testicular cancer, prostate cancer, cervical cancer, vaginal cancer, or bladder cancer cell. In addition, the methods of the disclosure can be applied to a wide range of species, e.g., humans, non-human primates (e.g., monkeys, baboons, or chimpanzees), horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, dogs, cats, rabbits, guinea pigs, gerbils, hamsters, rats, and mice. 
     A. Hybridization 
     There are a variety of ways by which one can assess gene expression. These methods either look at protein or at mRNA levels. Methods looking at mRNAs all fundamentally rely, at a basic level, on nucleic acid hybridization. Hybridization is defined as the ability of a nucleic acid to selectively form duplex molecules with complementary stretches of DNAs and/or RNAs. Depending on the application envisioned, one would employ varying conditions of hybridization to achieve varying degrees of selectivity of the probe or primers for the target sequence. 
     Typically, a probe or primer of between 13 and 100 nucleotides, preferably between 17 and 100 nucleotides in length up to 1-2 kilobases or more in length will allow the formation of a duplex molecule that is both stable and selective. Molecules having complementary sequences over contiguous stretches greater than 20 bases in length are generally preferred, to increase stability and selectivity of the hybrid molecules obtained. One will generally prefer to design nucleic acid molecules for hybridization having one or more complementary sequences of 20 to 30 nucleotides, or even longer where desired. Such fragments may be readily prepared, for example, by directly synthesizing the fragment by chemical means or by introducing selected sequences into recombinant vectors for recombinant production. 
     For applications requiring high selectivity, one will typically desire to employ relatively high stringency conditions to form the hybrids. For example, relatively low salt and/or high temperature conditions, such as provided by about 0.02 M to about 0.10 M NaCl at temperatures of about 50° C. to about 70° C. Such high stringency conditions tolerate little, if any, mismatch between the probe or primers and the template or target strand and would be particularly suitable for isolating specific genes or for detecting specific mRNA transcripts. It is generally appreciated that conditions can be rendered more stringent by the addition of increasing amounts of formamide. 
     For certain applications, for example, lower stringency conditions may be used. Under these conditions, hybridization may occur even though the sequences of the hybridizing strands are not perfectly complementary, but are mismatched at one or more positions. Conditions may be rendered less stringent by increasing salt concentration and/or decreasing temperature. For example, a medium stringency condition could be provided by about 0.1 to 0.25 M NaCl at temperatures of about 37° C. to about 55° C., while a low stringency condition could be provided by about 0.15 M to about 0.9 M salt, at temperatures ranging from about 20° C. to about 55° C. Hybridization conditions can be readily manipulated depending on the desired results. 
     In other embodiments, hybridization may be achieved under conditions of, for example, 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.3), 75 mM KCl, 3 mM MgCl 2 , 1.0 mM dithiothreitol, at temperatures between approximately 20° C. to about 37° C. Other hybridization conditions utilized could include approximately 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.3), 50 mM KCl, 1.5 mM MgCl 2 , at temperatures ranging from approximately 40° C. to about 72° C. 
     In certain embodiments, it will be advantageous to employ nucleic acids of defined sequences of the present invention in combination with an appropriate means, such as a label, for determining hybridization. A wide variety of appropriate indicator means are known in the art, including fluorescent, radioactive, enzymatic or other ligands, such as avidin/biotin, which are capable of being detected. In preferred embodiments, one may desire to employ a fluorescent label or an enzyme tag such as urease, alkaline phosphatase or peroxidase, instead of radioactive or other environmentally undesirable reagents. In the case of enzyme tags, colorimetric indicator substrates are known that can be employed to provide a detection means that is visibly or spectrophotometrically detectable, to identify specific hybridization with complementary nucleic acid containing samples. 
     In general, it is envisioned that the probes or primers described herein will be useful as reagents in solution hybridization, as in PCR™, for detection of expression of corresponding genes, as well as in embodiments employing a solid phase. In embodiments involving a solid phase, the test DNA (or RNA) is adsorbed or otherwise affixed to a selected matrix or surface. This fixed, single-stranded nucleic acid is then subjected to hybridization with selected probes under desired conditions. The conditions selected will depend on the particular circumstances (depending, for example, on the G+C content, type of target nucleic acid, source of nucleic acid, size of hybridization probe, etc.). Optimization of hybridization conditions for the particular application of interest is well known to those of skill in the art. After washing of the hybridized molecules to remove non-specifically bound probe molecules, hybridization is detected, and/or quantified, by determining the amount of bound label. Representative solid phase hybridization methods are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,843,663, 5,900,481 and 5,919,626. Other methods of hybridization that may be used in the practice of the present invention are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,849,481, 5,849,486 and 5,851,772. The relevant portions of these and other references identified in this section of the Specification are incorporated herein by reference. 
     B. Amplification of Nucleic Acids 
     Since many mRNAs are present in relatively low abundance, nucleic acid amplification greatly enhances the ability to assess expression. The general concept is that nucleic acids can be amplified using paired primers flanking the region of interest. The term “primer,” as used herein, is meant to encompass any nucleic acid that is capable of priming the synthesis of a nascent nucleic acid in a template-dependent process. Typically, primers are oligonucleotides from ten to twenty and/or thirty base pairs in length, but longer sequences can be employed. Primers may be provided in double-stranded and/or single-stranded form, although the single-stranded form is preferred. 
     Pairs of primers designed to selectively hybridize to nucleic acids corresponding to selected genes are contacted with the template nucleic acid under conditions that permit selective hybridization. Depending upon the desired application, high stringency hybridization conditions may be selected that will only allow hybridization to sequences that are completely complementary to the primers. In other embodiments, hybridization may occur under reduced stringency to allow for amplification of nucleic acids contain one or more mismatches with the primer sequences. Once hybridized, the template-primer complex is contacted with one or more enzymes that facilitate template-dependent nucleic acid synthesis. Multiple rounds of amplification, also referred to as “cycles,” are conducted until a sufficient amount of amplification product is produced. 
     The amplification product may be detected or quantified. In certain applications, the detection may be performed by visual means. Alternatively, the detection may involve indirect identification of the product via chemiluminescence, radioactive scintigraphy of incorporated radiolabel or fluorescent label or even via a system using electrical and/or thermal impulse signals. 
     A number of template dependent processes are available to amplify the oligonucleotide sequences present in a given template sample. One of the best known amplification methods is the polymerase chain reaction (referred to as PCR™) which is described in detail in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,683,195, 4,683,202 and 4,800,159, and in Innis et al., 1988, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. 
     A reverse transcriptase PCR™ amplification procedure may be performed to quantify the amount of mRNA amplified. Methods of reverse transcribing RNA into cDNA are well known (see Sambrook et al., 1989). Alternative methods for reverse transcription utilize thermostable DNA polymerases. These methods are described in WO 90/07641. Polymerase chain reaction methodologies are well known in the art. Representative methods of RT-PCR are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,882,864. 
     Whereas standard PCR usually uses one pair of primers to amplify a specific sequence, multiplex-PCR (MPCR) uses multiple pairs of primers to amplify many sequences simultaneously. The presence of many PCR primers in a single tube could cause many problems, such as the increased formation of misprimed PCR products and “primer dimers”, the amplification discrimination of longer DNA fragment and so on. Normally, MPCR buffers contain a Taq Polymerase additive, which decreases the competition among amplicons and the amplification discrimination of longer DNA fragment during MPCR. MPCR products can further be hybridized with gene-specific probe for verification. Theoretically, one should be able to use as many as primers as necessary. However, due to side effects (primer dimers, misprimed PCR products, etc.) caused during MPCR, there is a limit (less than 20) to the number of primers that can be used in a MPCR reaction. See also European Application No. 0 364 255 and Mueller and Wold (1989). 
     Another method for amplification is ligase chain reaction (“LCR”), disclosed in European Application No. 320 308, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. U.S. Pat. No. 4,883,750 describes a method similar to LCR for binding probe pairs to a target sequence. A method based on PCR™ and oligonucleotide ligase assay (OLA), disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,912,148, may also be used. 
     Alternative methods for amplification of target nucleic acid sequences that may be used in the practice of the present invention are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,843,650, 5,846,709, 5,846,783, 5,849,546, 5,849,497, 5,849,547, 5,858,652, 5,866,366, 5,916,776, 5,922,574, 5,928,905, 5,928,906, 5,932,451, 5,935,825, 5,939,291 and 5,942,391, GB Application No. 2 202 328, and in PCT Application No. PCT/US89/01025, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     Qbeta Replicase, described in PCT Application No. PCT/US87/00880, may also be used as an amplification method in the present invention. In this method, a replicative sequence of RNA that has a region complementary to that of a target is added to a sample in the presence of an RNA polymerase. The polymerase will copy the replicative sequence which may then be detected. 
     An isothermal amplification method, in which restriction endonucleases and ligases are used to achieve the amplification of target molecules that contain nucleotide 5′-[alpha-thio]-triphosphates in one strand of a restriction site may also be useful in the amplification of nucleic acids in the present invention (Walker et al., 1992). Strand Displacement Amplification (SDA), disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,916,779, is another method of carrying out isothermal amplification of nucleic acids which involves multiple rounds of strand displacement and synthesis, i.e., nick translation. 
     Other nucleic acid amplification procedures include transcription-based amplification systems (TAS), including nucleic acid sequence based amplification (NASBA) and 3 SR (Kwoh et al., 1989; Gingeras et al., PCT Application WO 88/10315, incorporated herein by reference in their entirety). European Application No. 329 822 disclose a nucleic acid amplification process involving cyclically synthesizing single-stranded RNA (“ssRNA”), ssDNA, and double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), which may be used in accordance with the present invention. 
     PCT Application WO 89/06700 (incorporated herein by reference in its entirety) disclose a nucleic acid sequence amplification scheme based on the hybridization of a promoter region/primer sequence to a target single-stranded DNA (“ssDNA”) followed by transcription of many RNA copies of the sequence. This scheme is not cyclic, i.e., new templates are not produced from the resultant RNA transcripts. Other amplification methods include “race” and “one-sided PCR” (Frohman, 1990; Ohara et al., 1989). 
     C. Detection of Nucleic Acids 
     Following any amplification, it may be desirable to separate the amplification product from the template and/or the excess primer. In one embodiment, amplification products are separated by agarose, agarose-acrylamide or polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis using standard methods (Sambrook et al., 1989). Separated amplification products may be cut out and eluted from the gel for further manipulation. Using low melting point agarose gels, the separated band may be removed by heating the gel, followed by extraction of the nucleic acid. 
     Separation of nucleic acids may also be effected by chromatographic techniques known in art. There are many kinds of chromatography which may be used in the practice of the present invention, including adsorption, partition, ion-exchange, hydroxylapatite, molecular sieve, reverse-phase, column, paper, thin-layer, and gas chromatography as well as HPLC. 
     In certain embodiments, the amplification products are visualized. A typical visualization method involves staining of a gel with ethidium bromide and visualization of bands under UV light. Alternatively, if the amplification products are integrally labeled with radio- or fluorometrically-labeled nucleotides, the separated amplification products can be exposed to x-ray film or visualized under the appropriate excitatory spectra. 
     In one embodiment, following separation of amplification products, a labeled nucleic acid probe is brought into contact with the amplified marker sequence. The probe preferably is conjugated to a chromophore but may be radiolabeled. In another embodiment, the probe is conjugated to a binding partner, such as an antibody or biotin, or another binding partner carrying a detectable moiety. 
     In particular embodiments, detection is by Southern blotting and hybridization with a labeled probe. The techniques involved in Southern blotting are well known to those of skill in the art (see Sambrook et al., 2001). One example of the foregoing is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,279,721, incorporated by reference herein, which discloses an apparatus and method for the automated electrophoresis and transfer of nucleic acids. The apparatus permits electrophoresis and blotting without external manipulation of the gel and is ideally suited to carrying out methods according to the present invention. 
     Other methods of nucleic acid detection that may be used in the practice of the instant invention are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,840,873, 5,843,640, 5,843,651, 5,846,708, 5,846,717, 5,846,726, 5,846,729, 5,849,487, 5,853,990, 5,853,992, 5,853,993, 5,856,092, 5,861,244, 5,863,732, 5,863,753, 5,866,331, 5,905,024, 5,910,407, 5,912,124, 5,912,145, 5,919,630, 5,925,517, 5,928,862, 5,928,869, 5,929,227, 5,932,413 and 5,935,791, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. 
     D. Nucleic Acid Arrays 
     Microarrays comprise a plurality of polymeric molecules spatially distributed over, and stably associated with, the surface of a substantially planar substrate, e.g., biochips. Microarrays of polynucleotides have been developed and find use in a variety of applications, such as screening and DNA sequencing. One area in particular in which microarrays find use is in gene expression analysis. 
     In gene expression analysis with microarrays, an array of “probe” oligonucleotides is contacted with a nucleic acid sample of interest, i.e., target, such as polyA mRNA from a particular tissue type. Contact is carried out under hybridization conditions and unbound nucleic acid is then removed. The resultant pattern of hybridized nucleic acid provides information regarding the genetic profile of the sample tested. Methodologies of gene expression analysis on microarrays are capable of providing both qualitative and quantitative information. 
     A variety of different arrays which may be used are known in the art. The probe molecules of the arrays which are capable of sequence specific hybridization with target nucleic acid may be polynucleotides or hybridizing analogues or mimetics thereof, including: nucleic acids in which the phosphodiester linkage has been replaced with a substitute linkage, such as phophorothioate, methylimino, methylphosphonate, phosphoramidate, guanidine and the like; nucleic acids in which the ribose subunit has been substituted, e.g., hexose phosphodiester; peptide nucleic acids; and the like. The length of the probes will generally range from 10 to 1000 nts, where in some embodiments the probes will be oligonucleotides and usually range from 15 to 150 nts and more usually from 15 to 100 nts in length, and in other embodiments the probes will be longer, usually ranging in length from 150 to 1000 nts, where the polynucleotide probes may be single- or double-stranded, usually single-stranded, and may be PCR fragments amplified from cDNA. 
     The probe molecules on the surface of the substrates will correspond to selected genes being analyzed and be positioned on the array at a known location so that positive hybridization events may be correlated to expression of a particular gene in the physiological source from which the target nucleic acid sample is derived. The substrates with which the probe molecules are stably associated may be fabricated from a variety of materials, including plastics, ceramics, metals, gels, membranes, glasses, and the like. The arrays may be produced according to any convenient methodology, such as preforming the probes and then stably associating them with the surface of the support or growing the probes directly on the support. A number of different array configurations and methods for their production are known to those of skill in the art and disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,445,934, 5,532,128, 5,556,752, 5,242,974, 5,384,261, 5,405,783, 5,412,087, 5,424,186, 5,429,807, 5,436,327, 5,472,672, 5,527,681, 5,529,756, 5,545,531, 5,554,501, 5,561,071, 5,571,639, 5,593,839, 5,599,695, 5,624,711, 5,658,734, 5,700,637, and 6,004,755. 
     Following hybridization, where non-hybridized labeled nucleic acid is capable of emitting a signal during the detection step, a washing step is employed where unhybridized labeled nucleic acid is removed from the support surface, generating a pattern of hybridized nucleic acid on the substrate surface. A variety of wash solutions and protocols for their use are known to those of skill in the art and may be used. 
     Where the label on the target nucleic acid is not directly detectable, one then contacts the array, now comprising bound target, with the other member(s) of the signal producing system that is being employed. For example, where the label on the target is biotin, one then contacts the array with streptavidin-fluorescer conjugate under conditions sufficient for binding between the specific binding member pairs to occur. Following contact, any unbound members of the signal producing system will then be removed, e.g., by washing. The specific wash conditions employed will necessarily depend on the specific nature of the signal producing system that is employed, and will be known to those of skill in the art familiar with the particular signal producing system employed. 
     The resultant hybridization pattern(s) of labeled nucleic acids may be visualized or detected in a variety of ways, with the particular manner of detection being chosen based on the particular label of the nucleic acid, where representative detection means include scintillation counting, autoradiography, fluorescence measurement, calorimetric measurement, light emission measurement and the like. 
     Prior to detection or visualization, where one desires to reduce the potential for a mismatch hybridization event to generate a false positive signal on the pattern, the array of hybridized target/probe complexes may be treated with an endonuclease under conditions sufficient such that the endonuclease degrades single stranded, but not double stranded DNA. A variety of different endonucleases are known and may be used, where such nucleases include: mung bean nuclease, S1 nuclease, and the like. Where such treatment is employed in an assay in which the target nucleic acids are not labeled with a directly detectable label, e.g., in an assay with biotinylated target nucleic acids, the endonuclease treatment will generally be performed prior to contact of the array with the other member(s) of the signal producing system, e.g., fluorescent-streptavidin conjugate. Endonuclease treatment, as described above, ensures that only end-labeled target/probe complexes having a substantially complete hybridization at the 3′ end of the probe are detected in the hybridization pattern. 
     Following hybridization and any washing step(s) and/or subsequent treatments, as described above, the resultant hybridization pattern is detected. In detecting or visualizing the hybridization pattern, the intensity or signal value of the label will be not only be detected but quantified, by which is meant that the signal from each spot of the hybridization will be measured and compared to a unit value corresponding the signal emitted by known number of end-labeled target nucleic acids to obtain a count or absolute value of the copy number of each end-labeled target that is hybridized to a particular spot on the array in the hybridization pattern. 
     V. PROTEIN-BASED DETECTION METHODS 
     A. Immunodetection 
     In still further embodiments, there are immunodetection methods for binding, purifying, removing, quantifying and otherwise generally detecting TSP1. These methods may, in certain embodiments, be applied to the diagnosis of cancer, such as those discussed above. 
     Some immunodetection methods include enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), radioimmunoassay (RIA), immunoradiometric assay, fluoroimmunoassay, chemiluminescent assay, bioluminescent assay, and Western blot to mention a few. In particular, a competitive assay for the detection and quantitation of TSP1 antibodies also is provided. The steps of various useful immunodetection methods have been described in the scientific literature, such as, e.g., Doolittle and Ben-Zeev (1999), Gulbis and Galand (1993), De Jager et al. (1993), and Nakamura et al. (1987). In general, the immunobinding methods include obtaining a sample and contacting the sample with a first antibody in accordance with embodiments discussed herein, as the case may be, under conditions effective to allow the formation of immunocomplexes. 
     Contacting the chosen biological sample with the antibody under effective conditions and for a period of time sufficient to allow the formation of immune complexes (primary immune complexes) is generally a matter of simply adding the antibody composition to the sample and incubating the mixture for a period of time long enough for the antibodies to form immune complexes with, i.e., to bind to TSP1 present. After this time, the sample-antibody composition, such as a tissue section, ELISA plate, dot blot or Western blot, will generally be washed to remove any non-specifically bound antibody species, allowing only those antibodies specifically bound within the primary immune complexes to be detected. 
     In general, the detection of immunocomplex formation is well known in the art and may be achieved through the application of numerous approaches. These methods are generally based upon the detection of a label or marker, such as any of those radioactive, fluorescent, biological and enzymatic tags. Patents concerning the use of such labels include U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,817,837, 3,850,752, 3,939,350, 3,996,345, 4,277,437, 4,275,149 and 4,366,241. Of course, one may find additional advantages through the use of a secondary binding ligand such as a second antibody and/or a biotin/avidin ligand binding arrangement, as is known in the art. 
     The antibody employed in the detection may itself be linked to a detectable label, wherein one would then simply detect this label, thereby allowing the amount of the primary immune complexes in the composition to be determined. Alternatively, the first antibody that becomes bound within the primary immune complexes may be detected by means of a second binding ligand that has binding affinity for the antibody. In these cases, the second binding ligand may be linked to a detectable label. The second binding ligand is itself often an antibody, which may thus be termed a “secondary” antibody. The primary immune complexes are contacted with the labeled, secondary binding ligand, or antibody, under effective conditions and for a period of time sufficient to allow the formation of secondary immune complexes. The secondary immune complexes are then generally washed to remove any non-specifically bound labeled secondary antibodies or ligands, and the remaining label in the secondary immune complexes is then detected. 
     Further methods include the detection of primary immune complexes by a two step approach. A second binding ligand, such as an antibody that has binding affinity for the antibody, is used to form secondary immune complexes, as described above. After washing, the secondary immune complexes are contacted with a third binding ligand or antibody that has binding affinity for the second antibody, again under effective conditions and for a period of time sufficient to allow the formation of immune complexes (tertiary immune complexes). The third ligand or antibody is linked to a detectable label, allowing detection of the tertiary immune complexes thus formed. This system may provide for signal amplification if this is desired. 
     One method of immunodetection uses two different antibodies. A first biotinylated antibody is used to detect the target antigen, and a second antibody is then used to detect the biotin attached to the complexed biotin. In that method, the sample to be tested is first incubated in a solution containing the first step antibody. If the target antigen is present, some of the antibody binds to the antigen to form a biotinylated antibody/antigen complex. The antibody/antigen complex is then amplified by incubation in successive solutions of streptavidin (or avidin), biotinylated DNA, and/or complementary biotinylated DNA, with each step adding additional biotin sites to the antibody/antigen complex. The amplification steps are repeated until a suitable level of amplification is achieved, at which point the sample is incubated in a solution containing the second step antibody against biotin. This second step antibody is labeled, as for example with an enzyme that can be used to detect the presence of the antibody/antigen complex by histoenzymology using a chromogen substrate. With suitable amplification, a conjugate can be produced which is macroscopically visible. 
     Another known method of immunodetection takes advantage of the immuno-PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) methodology. The PCR method is similar to the Cantor method up to the incubation with biotinylated DNA, however, instead of using multiple rounds of streptavidin and biotinylated DNA incubation, the DNA/biotin/streptavidin/antibody complex is washed out with a low pH or high salt buffer that releases the antibody. The resulting wash solution is then used to carry out a PCR reaction with suitable primers with appropriate controls. At least in theory, the enormous amplification capability and specificity of PCR can be utilized to detect a single antigen molecule. 
     1. ELISAs 
     Immunoassays, in their most simple sense, are binding assays. Certain preferred immunoassays are the various types of enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and radioimmunoassays (MA) known in the art. Immunohistochemical detection using tissue sections is also particularly useful. However, it will be readily appreciated that detection is not limited to such techniques, and western blotting, dot blotting, FACS analyses, and the like may also be used. 
     In one exemplary ELISA, the antibodies of the disclosure are immobilized onto a selected surface exhibiting protein affinity, such as a well in a polystyrene microtiter plate. Then, a test composition suspected of containing the TSP1 is added to the wells. After binding and washing to remove non-specifically bound immune complexes, the bound antigen may be detected. Detection may be achieved by the addition of another anti-TSP1 antibody that is linked to a detectable label. This type of ELISA is a simple “sandwich ELISA.” Detection may also be achieved by the addition of a second anti-TSP1 antibody, followed by the addition of a third antibody that has binding affinity for the second antibody, with the third antibody being linked to a detectable label. 
     In another exemplary ELISA, the samples suspected of containing the TSP1 antigen are immobilized onto the well surface and then contacted with anti-TSP1 antibody. After binding and washing to remove non-specifically bound immune complexes, the bound anti-TSP1 antibodies are detected. Where the initial anti-TSP1 antibodies are linked to a detectable label, the immune complexes may be detected directly. Again, the immune complexes may be detected using a second antibody that has binding affinity for the first anti-TSP1 antibody, with the second antibody being linked to a detectable label. 
     Irrespective of the format employed, ELISAs have certain features in common, such as coating, incubating and binding, washing to remove non-specifically bound species, and detecting the bound immune complexes. These are described below. 
     In coating a plate with either antigen or antibody, one will generally incubate the wells of the plate with a solution of the antigen or antibody, either overnight or for a specified period of hours. The wells of the plate will then be washed to remove incompletely adsorbed material. Any remaining available surfaces of the wells are then “coated” with a nonspecific protein that is antigenically neutral with regard to the test antisera. These include bovine serum albumin (BSA), casein or solutions of milk powder. The coating allows for blocking of nonspecific adsorption sites on the immobilizing surface and thus reduces the background caused by nonspecific binding of antisera onto the surface. 
     In ELISAs, it is probably more customary to use a secondary or tertiary detection means rather than a direct procedure. Thus, after binding of a protein or antibody to the well, coating with a non-reactive material to reduce background, and washing to remove unbound material, the immobilizing surface is contacted with the biological sample to be tested under conditions effective to allow immune complex (antigen/antibody) formation. Detection of the immune complex then requires a labeled secondary binding ligand or antibody, and a secondary binding ligand or antibody in conjunction with a labeled tertiary antibody or a third binding ligand. 
     “Under conditions effective to allow immune complex (antigen/antibody) formation” means that the conditions preferably include diluting the antigens and/or antibodies with solutions such as BSA, bovine gamma globulin (BGG) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS)/Tween. These added agents also tend to assist in the reduction of nonspecific background. 
     The “suitable” conditions also mean that the incubation is at a temperature or for a period of time sufficient to allow effective binding. Incubation steps are typically from about 1 to 2 to 4 hours or so, at temperatures preferably on the order of 25° C. to 27° C., or may be overnight at about 4° C. or so. 
     Following all incubation steps in an ELISA, the contacted surface is washed so as to remove non-complexed material. A preferred washing procedure includes washing with a solution such as PBS/Tween, or borate buffer. Following the formation of specific immune complexes between the test sample and the originally bound material, and subsequent washing, the occurrence of even minute amounts of immune complexes may be determined. 
     To provide a detecting means, the second or third antibody will have an associated label to allow detection. Preferably, this will be an enzyme that will generate color development upon incubating with an appropriate chromogenic substrate. Thus, for example, one will desire to contact or incubate the first and second immune complex with a urease, glucose oxidase, alkaline phosphatase or hydrogen peroxidase-conjugated antibody for a period of time and under conditions that favor the development of further immune complex formation (e.g., incubation for 2 hours at room temperature in a PBS-containing solution such as PBS-Tween). 
     After incubation with the labeled antibody, and subsequent to washing to remove unbound material, the amount of label is quantified, e.g., by incubation with a chromogenic substrate such as urea, or bromocresol purple, or 2,2′-azino-di-(3-ethyl-benzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), or H 2 O 2 , in the case of peroxidase as the enzyme label. Quantification is then achieved by measuring the degree of color generated, e.g., using a visible spectra spectrophotometer. 
     2. Western Blot 
     The Western blot (alternatively, protein immunoblot) is an analytical technique used to detect specific proteins in a given sample of tissue homogenate or extract. It uses gel electrophoresis to separate native or denatured proteins by the length of the polypeptide (denaturing conditions) or by the 3-D structure of the protein (native/non-denaturing conditions). The proteins are then transferred to a membrane (typically nitrocellulose or PVDF), where they are probed (detected) using antibodies specific to the target protein. 
     Samples may be taken from whole tissue or from cell culture. In most cases, solid tissues are first broken down mechanically using a blender (for larger sample volumes), using a homogenizer (smaller volumes), or by sonication. Cells may also be broken open by one of the above mechanical methods. However, it should be noted that bacteria, virus or environmental samples can be the source of protein and thus Western blotting is not restricted to cellular studies only. Assorted detergents, salts, and buffers may be employed to encourage lysis of cells and to solubilize proteins. Protease and phosphatase inhibitors are often added to prevent the digestion of the sample by its own enzymes. Tissue preparation is often done at cold temperatures to avoid protein denaturing. 
     The proteins of the sample are separated using gel electrophoresis. Separation of proteins may be by isoelectric point (pI), molecular weight, electric charge, or a combination of these factors. The nature of the separation depends on the treatment of the sample and the nature of the gel. This is a very useful way to determine a protein. It is also possible to use a two-dimensional (2-D) gel which spreads the proteins from a single sample out in two dimensions. Proteins are separated according to isoelectric point (pH at which they have neutral net charge) in the first dimension, and according to their molecular weight in the second dimension. 
     In order to make the proteins accessible to antibody detection, they are moved from within the gel onto a membrane made of nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF). The membrane is placed on top of the gel, and a stack of filter papers placed on top of that. The entire stack is placed in a buffer solution which moves up the paper by capillary action, bringing the proteins with it. Another method for transferring the proteins is called electroblotting and uses an electric current to pull proteins from the gel into the PVDF or nitrocellulose membrane. The proteins move from within the gel onto the membrane while maintaining the organization they had within the gel. As a result of this blotting process, the proteins are exposed on a thin surface layer for detection (see below). Both varieties of membrane are chosen for their non-specific protein binding properties (i.e., binds all proteins equally well). Protein binding is based upon hydrophobic interactions, as well as charged interactions between the membrane and protein. Nitrocellulose membranes are cheaper than PVDF, but are far more fragile and do not stand up well to repeated probings. The uniformity and overall effectiveness of transfer of protein from the gel to the membrane can be checked by staining the membrane with Coomassie Brilliant Blue or Ponceau S dyes. Once transferred, proteins are detected using labeled primary antibodies, or unlabeled primary antibodies followed by indirect detection using labeled protein A or secondary labeled antibodies binding to the Fc region of the primary antibodies. 
     3. Immunohistochemistry 
     The antibodies may also be used in conjunction with both fresh-frozen and/or formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue blocks prepared for study by immunohistochemistry (IHC). The method of preparing tissue blocks from these particulate specimens has been successfully used in previous IHC studies of various prognostic factors, and is well known to those of skill in the art (Brown et al., 1990; Abbondanzo et al., 1990; Allred et al., 1990). 
     Briefly, frozen-sections may be prepared by rehydrating 50 ng of frozen “pulverized” tissue at room temperature in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) in small plastic capsules; pelleting the particles by centrifugation; resuspending them in a viscous embedding medium (OCT); inverting the capsule and/or pelleting again by centrifugation; snap-freezing in −70° C. isopentane; cutting the plastic capsule and/or removing the frozen cylinder of tissue; securing the tissue cylinder on a cryostat microtome chuck; and/or cutting 25-50 serial sections from the capsule. Alternatively, whole frozen tissue samples may be used for serial section cuttings. 
     Permanent-sections may be prepared by a similar method involving rehydration of the 50 mg sample in a plastic microfuge tube; pelleting; resuspending in 10% formalin for 4 hours fixation; washing/pelleting; resuspending in warm 2.5% agar; pelleting; cooling in ice water to harden the agar; removing the tissue/agar block from the tube; infiltrating and/or embedding the block in paraffin; and/or cutting up to 50 serial permanent sections. Again, whole tissue samples may be substituted. 
     4. Immunodetection Kits 
     In still further embodiments, there are immunodetection kits for use with the immunodetection methods described above. The immunodetection kits will thus comprise, in suitable container means, a first antibody that binds to TSP1 antigen, and optionally an immunodetection reagent. 
     In certain embodiments, the TSP1 antibody may be pre-bound to a solid support, such as a column matrix and/or well of a microtitre plate. The immunodetection reagents of the kit may take any one of a variety of forms, including those detectable labels that are associated with or linked to the given antibody. Detectable labels that are associated with or attached to a secondary binding ligand are also contemplated. Exemplary secondary ligands are those secondary antibodies that have binding affinity for the first antibody. 
     Further suitable immunodetection reagents for use in the present kits include the two-component reagent that comprises a secondary antibody that has binding affinity for the first antibody, along with a third antibody that has binding affinity for the second antibody, the third antibody being linked to a detectable label. As noted above, a number of exemplary labels are known in the art and all such labels may be employed in connection with embodiments discussed herein. 
     The kits may further comprise a suitably aliquoted composition of the TSP1 antigen, whether labeled or unlabeled, as may be used to prepare a standard curve for a detection assay. The kits may contain antibody-label conjugates either in fully conjugated form, in the form of intermediates, or as separate moieties to be conjugated by the user of the kit. The components of the kits may be packaged either in aqueous media or in lyophilized form. 
     The container means of the kits will generally include at least one vial, test tube, flask, bottle, syringe or other container means, into which the antibody may be placed, or preferably, suitably aliquoted. The kits will also include a means for containing the antibody, antigen, and any other reagent containers in close confinement for commercial sale. Such containers may include injection or blow-molded plastic containers into which the desired vials are retained. 
     B. Mass Spectrometry 
     By exploiting the intrinsic properties of mass and charge, mass spectrometry (MS) can resolved and confidently identified a wide variety of complex compounds, including proteins. Traditional quantitative MS has used electrospray ionization (ESI) followed by tandem MS (MS/MS) while newer quantitative methods are being developed using matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) followed by time of flight (TOF) MS. In particular, mass spectrometry has been applied to samples to identify proteins targets therein. 
     ESI is a convenient ionization technique that is used to produce gaseous ions from highly polar, mostly nonvolatile biomolecules, including lipids. The sample is injected as a liquid at low flow rates (1-10 μL/min) through a capillary tube to which a strong electric field is applied. The field generates additional charges to the liquid at the end of the capillary and produces a fine spray of highly charged droplets that are electrostatically attracted to the mass spectrometer inlet. The evaporation of the solvent from the surface of a droplet as it travels through the desolvation chamber increases its charge density substantially. When this increase exceeds the Rayleigh stability limit, ions are ejected and ready for MS analysis. 
     In ESI tandem mass spectroscopy (ESI/MS/MS), one is able to simultaneously analyze both precursor ions and product ions, thereby monitoring a single precursor product reaction and producing (through selective reaction monitoring (SRM)) a signal only when the desired precursor ion is present. When the internal standard is a stable isotope-labeled version of the analyte, this is known as quantification by the stable isotope dilution method. This approach has been used to accurately measure pharmaceuticals and bioactive peptides. Newer methods are performed on widely available MALDI-TOF instruments, which can resolve a wider mass range and have been used to quantify metabolites, peptides, and proteins. Larger molecules such as peptides can be quantified using unlabeled homologous peptides as long as their chemistry is similar to the analyte peptide. Protein quantification has been achieved by quantifying tryptic peptides. Complex mixtures such as crude extracts can be analyzed, but in some instances sample clean up is required. 
     Secondary ion mass spectroscopy, or SIMS, is an analytical method that uses ionized particles emitted from a surface for mass spectroscopy at a sensitivity of detection of a few parts per billion. The sample surface is bombarded by primary energetic particles, such as electrons, ions (e.g., O, Cs), neutrals or even photons, forcing atomic and molecular particles to be ejected from the surface, a process called sputtering. Since some of these sputtered particles carry a charge, a mass spectrometer can be used to measure their mass and charge. Continued sputtering permits measuring of the exposed elements as material is removed. This in turn permits one to construct elemental depth profiles. Although the majority of secondary ionized particles are electrons, it is the secondary ions which are detected and analysis by the mass spectrometer in this method. 
     Laser desorption mass spectroscopy (LD-MS) involves the use of a pulsed laser, which induces desorption of sample material from a sample site—effectively, this means vaporization of sample off of the sample substrate. This method is usually only used in conjunction with a mass spectrometer, and can be performed simultaneously with ionization if one uses the right laser radiation wavelength. 
     When coupled with Time-of-Flight (TOF) measurement, LD-MS is referred to as LDLPMS (Laser Desorption Laser Photoionization Mass Spectroscopy). The LDLPMS method of analysis gives instantaneous volatilization of the sample, and this form of sample fragmentation permits rapid analysis without any wet extraction chemistry. The LDLPMS instrumentation provides a profile of the species present while the retention time is low and the sample size is small. In LDLPMS, an impactor strip is loaded into a vacuum chamber. The pulsed laser is fired upon a certain spot of the sample site, and species present are desorbed and ionized by the laser radiation. This ionization also causes the molecules to break up into smaller fragment-ions. The positive or negative ions made are then accelerated into the flight tube, being detected at the end by a microchannel plate detector. Signal intensity, or peak height, is measured as a function of travel time. The applied voltage and charge of the particular ion determines the kinetic energy, and separation of fragments is due to different size causing different velocity. Each ion mass will thus have a different flight-time to the detector. 
     One can either form positive ions or negative ions for analysis. Positive ions are made from regular direct photoionization, but negative ion formation requires a higher powered laser and a secondary process to gain electrons. Most of the molecules that come off the sample site are neutrals, and thus can attract electrons based on their electron affinity. The negative ion formation process is less efficient than forming just positive ions. The sample constituents will also affect the outlook of a negative ion spectrum. 
     Other advantages with the LDLPMS method include the possibility of constructing the system to give a quiet baseline of the spectra because one can prevent coevolved neutrals from entering the flight tube by operating the instrument in a linear mode. Also, in environmental analysis, the salts in the air and as deposits will not interfere with the laser desorption and ionization. This instrumentation also is very sensitive, known to detect trace levels in natural samples without any prior extraction preparations. 
     Since its inception and commercial availability, the versatility of MALDI-TOF-MS has been demonstrated convincingly by its extensive use for qualitative analysis. For example, MALDI-TOF-MS has been employed for the characterization of synthetic polymers, peptide and protein analysis, DNA oligonucleotide sequencing, and the characterization of recombinant proteins. Recently, applications of MALDI-TOF-MS have been extended to include the direct analysis of biological tissues and single cell organisms with the aim of characterizing endogenous peptide and protein constituents. 
     The properties that make MALDI-TOF-MS a popular qualitative tool—its ability to analyze molecules across an extensive mass range, high sensitivity, minimal sample preparation and rapid analysis times—also make it a potentially useful quantitative tool. MALDI-TOF-MS also enables non-volatile and thermally labile molecules to be analyzed with relative ease. It is therefore prudent to explore the potential of MALDI-TOF-MS for quantitative analysis in clinical settings, for toxicological screenings, as well as for environmental analysis. In addition, the application of MALDI-TOF-MS to the quantification of peptides and proteins is particularly relevant. The ability to quantify intact proteins in biological tissue and fluids presents a particular challenge in the expanding area of proteomics and investigators urgently require methods to accurately measure the absolute quantity of proteins. While there have been reports of quantitative MALDI-TOF-MS applications, there are many problems inherent to the MALDI ionization process that have restricted its widespread use. These limitations primarily stem from factors such as the sample/matrix heterogeneity, which are believed to contribute to the large variability in observed signal intensities for analytes, the limited dynamic range due to detector saturation, and difficulties associated with coupling MALDI-TOF-MS to on-line separation techniques such as liquid chromatography. Combined, these factors are thought to compromise the accuracy, precision, and utility with which quantitative determinations can be made. 
     Because of these difficulties, practical examples of quantitative applications of MALDI-TOF-MS have been limited. Most of the studies to date have focused on the quantification of low mass analytes, in particular, alkaloids or active ingredients in agricultural or food products, whereas other studies have demonstrated the potential of MALDI-TOF-MS for the quantification of biologically relevant analytes such as neuropeptides, proteins, antibiotics, or various metabolites in biological tissue or fluid. In earlier work, it was shown that linear calibration curves could be generated by MALDI-TOF-MS provided that an appropriate internal standard was employed. This standard can “correct” for both sample-to-sample and shot-to-shot variability. Stable isotope labeled internal standards (isotopomers) give the best result. 
     With the marked improvement in resolution available on modern commercial instruments, primarily because of delayed extraction, the opportunity to extend quantitative work to other examples is now possible; not only of low mass analytes, but also biopolymers. Of particular interest is the prospect of absolute multi-component quantification in biological samples (e.g., proteomics applications). 
     The properties of the matrix material used in the MALDI method are critical. Only a select group of compounds is useful for the selective desorption of proteins and polypeptides. A review of all the matrix materials available for peptides and proteins shows that there are certain characteristics the compounds must share to be analytically useful. Despite its importance, very little is known about what makes a matrix material “successful” for MALDI. The few materials that do work well are used heavily by all MALDI practitioners and new molecules are constantly being evaluated as potential matrix candidates. With a few exceptions, most of the matrix materials used are solid organic acids. Liquid matrices have also been investigated, but are not used routinely. 
     VI. EXAMPLES 
     The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodiments. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventors to function well in the practice of embodiments, and thus can be considered to constitute preferred modes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. 
     Example 1—Methods 
     Cell Culture. 
     MCF-7 cells were maintained in MEM medium with Hank&#39;s salts (Sigma; M1018) supplemented with 5% calf serum (Hyclone). 293T cells were maintained in DMEM (Sigma; D6429) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (Sigma). 
     Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP). 
     MCF-7 cells were seeded at ˜5×10 6  cells per 15 cm diameter plate and grown to 90% confluence. ChIP was performed as described previously (Kininis et al., 2007; Krishnakumar et al., 2008), with a few modifications. The cells were cross-linked with 1% formaldehyde in PBS for 10 min at 37° C. and quenched in 125 mM glycine in PBS for 5 min at 4° C. The cells were then collected and lysed in Farnham lysis buffer (5 mM PIPES pH 8.0, 85 mM KCl, 0.5% NP-40, 1 mM DTT, and 1× complete protease inhibitor cocktail (Roche)). A crude nuclear pellet was collected by centrifugation, resuspended in lysis buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.9, 1% SDS, 10 mM EDTA, 1 mM DTT, and 1× complete protease inhibitor cocktail), and incubated on ice for 10 min. The chromatin was sheared at 4° C. by sonication using a Bioruptor UC200 at the highest setting for four 5-minute cycles of 30 seconds on and 60 seconds off to generate chromatin fragments of ˜300 bp in length. The soluble chromatin was diluted 1:10 with dilution buffer (20 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.9, 0.5% Triton X-100, 2 mM EDTA, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM DTT, and 1× complete protease inhibitor cocktail) and pre-cleared with protein A agarose beads. The pre-cleared supernatant was used in immunoprecipitation reactions with antibodies against histone H3 acetylated lysine 27 (abcam; ab4729) or with rabbit IgG as a control. The immunoprecipitated material was washed once with low salt wash buffer (20 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.9, 2 mM EDTA, 125 mM NaCl, 0.05% SDS, 1% Triton X-100, 1 μM aprotinin, and 1 μM leupetin), once with high-salt wash buffer (20 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.9, 2 mM EDTA, 500 mM NaCl, 0.05% SDS, 1% Triton X-100, 1 μM aprotinin, and 1 μM leupetin), once with LiCl wash buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.9, 1 mM EDTA, 250 mM LiCl, 1% NP-40, 1% sodium deoxycholate, 1 aprotinin, and 1 μM leupetin), and once with 1× Tris-EDTA (TE). The immunoprecipitated material was eluted in elution buffer (100 mM NaHCO3, 1% SDS) and was then digested with proteinase K and RNase H to remove protein and RNA, respectively. The immunoprecipitated genomic DNA was then extracted with phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol and precipitated with ethanol. 
     Preparation of ChIP-Seq Libraries. 
     Approximately 50 ng of ChIPed DNA (quantified using a NanoDrop) was used to prepare each ChIP-seq library using methods described previously (Gibson et al., 2016). Briefly, the genomic DNA fragments were end-polished, dA-tailed, and ligated to Y-adaptors containing barcode sequences. After agarose gel-based size selection and purification, the DNA was amplified for 13-15 cycles by PCR using Phusion high-fidelity DNA polymerase (NEB). The final ChIP-seq libraries were subjected to quality control assessment using a Bioanalyzer (Agilent), followed by 50 bp sequencing using an Illumina HiSeq 2000 Sequencing System. 
     Preparation of RNA-Seq Libraries. 
     RNA-seq libraries were generated as previously described (Sun et al., 2015). Briefly, total RNA collected from MCF-7 cells was subjected to enrichment of polyA+ RNA using Dynabeads Oligo(dT)25 (Invitrogen) as described previously (Zhong et al., 2011). Strand-specific RNA-seq libraries were prepared from the polyA+ RNA according to the “deoxyuridine triphosphate (dUTP)” method as described previously (Zhong et al., 2011). The RNA-seq libraries were sequenced using an Illumina HiSeq 2000 using single-end methodology with a length of 100 nt (SE100). 
     Analysis of ChIP-Seq and RNA-Seq in MCF-7 Cells. 
     The raw reads H3K27ac were aligned to the human reference genome (GRCh37/hg19) using Bowtie (v.1.0.0) (Langmead et al., 2009) with default parameters to allow up to two mismatches per read. The inventors generated “-fold enrichment signal” files for uniquely mappable reads from ChIP and matching input-DNA using MACS2 (v2.1.0) (Feng et al., 2012) for visualization in the UCSC genome browser (Speir et al., 2016). 
     RNA-seq reads were aligned to the human genome (NCBI 37, hg19) using TopHat (v2.0.4) (Trapnell et al., 2012) using (default parameters and ‘-no-coverage-search’, ‘-max-multihits 10’). The inventors generated genome wide signal files BEDTools version 2.25.0 (Quinlan, 2014) for visualization in the genome browser. 
     Analysis of lncRNA1456 in Mammary Epithelial Cells. 
     Publically available RNA-seq (ENCSR000CUN, GSM984621) and H3K27ac ChIP-seq (ENCSR000ALW, GSM733660) data sets from mammary epiethelial cells provided by the Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE) Consortium (Sloan et al., 2016) were used to explore the enrichment of histone modifications and transcription at the specific loci. 
     Determination of the lncRNA1456 Expression in Tumors. 
     Nonstrand-specific polyA+ RNA-seq datasets from three tissue types (Breast, Prostate and Gastric) comprising of 52 tumor, and 21 benign tissue samples were obtained from the Michigan Center for Translational Pathology (Kalyana-Sundaram et al., 2012). These RNA-seq reads were aligned to the human reference genome (GRCh37/hg19) using Tophat (v2.0.12) (Trapnell et al., 2012) using (default parameters and ‘-no-coverage-search’, ‘-max-multihits 10’). The inventors generated a guide transcription annotation GTF file by combining annotations for all protein coding and lncRNA genes from RefSeq (GRCh37/hg19), Gencode Comprehensive (v.19), LNCipedia (v3.1) (Volders et al., 2015), and 726 previously unannotated lncRNAs identified by our lab (Sun et al., 2015). These data were collapsed into a set of non-overlapping consensus annotations for all unique gene symbols. Transcripts were assembled using Cufflinks (v.2.2.1) (Trapnell et al., 2012). Cuffdiff (Trapnell et al., 2013) was used to calculate Fragments Per Kilobase of transcript per Million mapped reads (FPKM) for LncRNA1456. A FPKM cutoff of 1 was applied to determine if a LncRNA1456 was expressed in each tissue sample or cell line. 
     Purification of TSP1 Expressed in  E. coli.    
     BL21 (DE3)  E. coli , transformed with a pET19b plasmid encoding TSP1, were grown in LB with ampicillin at 37° C. to a density (OD600 nm) of 0.4. Recombinant protein expression was then induced by addition of IPTG to 1 mM for 3 hours at 37° C. The cells were collected by centrifugation, and the bacterial cell pellets were flash frozen in liquid N2 and stored at −80° C. The cell pellets were thawed on wet ice and lysed by sonication in Lysis Buffer (20 mM Tris.HCl, pH 7.5, 0.3 M KCl, 0.1 mM EDTA, 0.1% NP-40, 20% glycerol, 30 mM imidazole, 1 mM PMSF, 2 mM β-mercaptoethanol). The lysates were clarified by centrifugation. Recombinant TSP1 was purified from the clarified lysate using Ni-NTA affinity chromatography, with washing of the resin using Wash Buffer (20 mM Tris.HCl, pH 7.5, 0.6 M KCl, 0.1% NP-40, 20% glycerol, 30 mM imidazole, 1 mM PMSF) and elution of the TSP1 protein using Elution Buffer (20 mM Tris.HCl, pH 7.5, 0.1 M KCl, 0.1% NP-40, 20% glycerol, 250 mM imidazole, 1 mM PMSF, 1 mM β-mercaptoethanol). The eluates were dialyzed in Dialysis Buffer (20 mM Tris.HCl, pH 7.5, 0.1 M KCl, 20% glycerol, 2 mM PMSF, 1 mM β-mercaptoethanol). The purified TSP1 protein was flash frozen in liquid N2 and stored at −80° C. 
     Generation of Anti-TSP1 Polyclonal Antiserum. 
     Recombinant TSP1 was used to immunize rabbits for the production of a polyclonal antiserum. All steps were performed by Pocono Rabbit Farms and Laboratory, Inc. 
     Detection of TSP1 by Western Blotting. 
     The 50 μg of MCF7 and 293T whole cell extracts, or 25 μg of Normal breast (abcam; ab43510) and tumor (abcam; ab43511) tissue lysates were mixed with 4× SDSPAGE Loading Buffer (200 mM Tris.HCl, pH 6.8, 8% SDS, 40% glycerol, 4% β-mercaptoethanol, 50 mM EDTA, 0.08% bromophenol blue) followed by heating to 100° C. for 5 min. The reaction products were then resolved on a 12% PAGE-SDS gel, transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane, and blotted with TSP1-specific polyclonal antibody against. 
     Immunofluorescent Staining of Cells for TSP1. 
     MCF-7 cells containing chamber slides were fixed with 4% Paraformaldehyde in Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS/pH 7.4) for 15 min at room temperature. They were washed thrice in PBS for 10 min each. The samples were then permeablized in 0.5% Triton X-100 buffer in PBS with 10% FBS for 5 min. They were then washed thrice in 10% FBS (in PBS) for 10 min each. The samples were blocked in 10% FBS for an hour. The samples were incubated with primary TSP1-specific polyclonal antibody for durations of 2 hrs. The primary antibody was then detected by incubation with secondary antibodies tagged with Alexa-488 (1:1000) (Molecular Probes, Life Technologies) for 2 hrs. The cells were then washed twice with PBS and the DNA was counter-stained with ToPro-3 Iodide (1:500). The slides were then mounted with a 24×50, #1.5 coverslip using either Slowfade gold with DAPI (Life Technologies) or Vectashield with DAPI (Vector laboratories). All immunostained slides were visualized using a Leica confocal microscope. 
     Database of ORFs. 
     The inventors started with a comprehensive set of annotated lncRNA from LNCipedia (v.4.0) (Volders et al., 2015) and converted to bed format using UCSC untilities gtfToGenePred and genePredToBed (hgdownload.soe.ucsc.edu/admin/exe/). Extraction of sequences for each annotation was achieved by using getfasta in BEDTools (v2.17.0) (Quinlan, A. R., 2014). All possible open reading frames (ORF) starting with Methionine were determined using the getorf tool in the European Molecular Biology Open Software Suite (Rice et al., 2000). 
     Length of ORFs. 
     Histograms representations were used to assess the median length of all ORF&#39;s and the longest ORF for each transcript. 
     Protein Digest. 
     Maximum theoretical coverage of predicted ORFs and known proteins from UniProt (Apweiler et al., 2004) digested by trypsin and chymotrypsin was determined using the MS Proteomics tools library (github.com/msproteomicstools/msproteomicstools). Histograms representations were used to assess the median coverage of digestion by either enzyme. 
     Peptide Identification. 
     The inventors created a comprehensive protein database by combining our database of ORFs with protein database from UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot (Boutet et al., 2016). Spectra were analyzed using Proteome Discoverer 2.0 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, Mass.) against the combined protein database. 
     Analysis of RNA-Seq Data. 
     The raw reads were aligned to the human reference genome (GRCh37/hg19) using default parameters in STAR (v2.4.2a) (Dobin et al., 2013). The inventors created a repository of annotations by merging the comprehensive gene annotations for reference chromosomes from GENCODE (v.19) and a comprehensive set of annotated lncRNA from LNCipedia (v.4.0) (Volders et al., 2015). Quantification of genes against the comprehensive annotations was done using default parameters in RSEM (v 1.2.31) (Li and Dewey, 2011). 
     Analysis of Domain Family. 
     The inventors downloaded the list of Homeobox family of proteins from the HGNC database (Gray et al., 2015). All 314 Homeobox family proteins and the identified ORF were aligned using Clustal Omega (Sievers et al., 2011). 
     Analysis of ChIP-Seq Data. Quality Control. 
     Quality control for the RNA-seq data was performed using the FastQC tool (world-wide-web at bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk/projects/fastqc/). 
     Read Alignment and Peak Calling. 
     The raw reads were aligned to the human reference genome (GRCh37/hg19) using default parameters in Bowtie (ver. 1.0.0) (Langmead et al., 2009). The aligned reads were subsequently filtered for quality and uniquely mappable reads using Samtools (ver. 0.1.19) (Li et al., 2009) and Picard (ver. 1.127; broadinstitute.github.io/picard/). Library complexity was measured using BEDTools (v2.17.0) (Quinlan, A. R, 2014) and met minimum ENCODE data quality standards [12]. Relaxed peaks were called using MACS (v2.1.0 (Feng et al., 2012) with a p-value=1×10 −2  for each replicate, pooled replicates&#39; reads, and pseudoreplicates. Called peaks from the pooled replicate that were observed in both replicates or in both pseudoreplicates were used for subsequent analyses. 
     Metagene and Heatmap Analysis. 
     The average read densities of reads were calculated for an 20 kb window surrounding peak center (±10 kb) using the plotProfile and plotHeatmap functions in deeptools (ver. 2.5.0.1) (Ramirez et al., 2016). 
     Enriched Transcription Factors. 
     To find enriched transcription factors, peaks were intersected to the ReMap database Griffon et al., 2015 of transcription factor binding sites using the annotation tool. Peaks supplied must have minimum of 10% overlap with the catalogue of binding sites. 
     Analysis of TCGA and GTEx Data. 
     Data from TCGA and GTex was downloaded from the recount2 database (Collado-Torres et al., 2017) that was aligned to the human reference genome (GRCh38/hg38) and gene annotations for reference chromosomes from GENOCDE (v.25). 
     Box Plots. 
     Box plot representations were used to quantitatively assess the expression of genes in normal tissue. Additionally, box plot representations of the mean and standard error were used to assess the expression of genes in normal and cancer tissues. Differential expression of RPKM normalized data was tested by ANOVA, using the aov packaged in R. 
     Example 2—Results 
     The inventors identified a large set of lncRNAs (˜1900) expressed in breast cancer cells. Through a series of functional screens, they narrowed down this set down to a group of six lncRNAs representing different properties or features of the larger set (e.g., nuclear vs. cytoplasmic; estrogen-regulated vs. unregulated; relatively stable vs. unstable) (Sun et al., 2015) Knockdown of any of these six lncRNAs using one of four or more different siRNAs: (1) inhibits the growth of MCF-7 cells and other ERα+ breast cancer cell lines (proliferation assays), (2) affects the expression of cell cycle control genes (RNA-seq and RT-qPCR), and (3) alters the cell cycle (FACS). 
     The inventors identified a primate-specific ( FIG. 7A ) lncRNA in human breast cancer cells, called lncRNA1456 (Sun et al., 2015), which they showed is also expressed in other cancer types as well ( FIGS. 2 and 3 ). They then used computational methods and mass-spectrometric analysis to identify a predicted open reading frame in lncRNA1456 that can code for a polypeptide of 132 amino acids, which they call TSP1 ( FIGS. 1, 5, 6 and 7C ). TSP1 shares homology with homeodomain containing proteins ( FIG. 12 ). They made a cDNA from lncRNA1456 to express His6-tagged recombinant TSP1 in bacteria and purify it using nickel-NTA affinity chromatography ( FIGS. 1 and 7B ). They used the recombinant TSP1 (rTSP1) to generate a polyclonal antiserum in rabbits, which can specifically detect TSP1 in cancer cells and tissues ( FIGS. 4, 7B, 8A and 11 ). Chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled sequencing (ChIP-seq) ( FIGS. 8B , C and D) and TSP1-pulldown complex analysis ( FIG. 8E ) suggest that TSP1 binds to chromatin and interacts with histone demethylase PHF8. In normal tissues TSP1 and PHF8 expression is restricted to pancreas or testis ( FIGS. 9A and 9B ). However, both TSP1 and PHF8 are upregulated in primary and luminal subtype of breast tumors ( FIG. 10F ). Overexpression of TSP1 in MDAMB231 (triple negative metastatic breast cancer cell) inhibited the growth of tumors in xenograft mouse model ( FIG. 10A-E ). 
     All of the compositions and methods disclosed and claimed herein can be made and executed without undue experimentation in light of the present disclosure. While the compositions and methods of this disclosure have been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations may be applied to the compositions and methods and in the steps or in the sequence of steps of the method described herein without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the disclosure. More specifically, it will be apparent that certain agents which are both chemically and physiologically related may be substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similar results would be achieved. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and concept of the disclosure as defined by the appended claims. 
     VII. REFERENCES 
     The following references, to the extent that they provide exemplary procedural or other details supplementary to those set forth herein, are specifically incorporated herein by reference.
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