Patent Publication Number: US-9851458-B2

Title: Body wearable radiation detector having a ribbed scintillator

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a continuation in part of, and claims the benefit of and priority to, U.S. application Ser. No. 14/089,352, filed on Nov. 25, 2013, entitled RADIATION DETECTOR HAVING A RIBBED SCINTILLATOR, which is a continuation of, and claims the benefit of and priority to, U.S. application Ser. No. 12/913,715, filed on Oct. 27, 2010, entitled RADIATION DETECTOR HAVING A RIBBED SCINTILLATOR and now U.S. Pat. No. 8,592,775. This application is also related to, and claims the benefit of, U.S. application Ser. No. 12/880,505, filed Sep. 13, 2010, entitled NEUTRON DETECTOR HAVING ENHANCED ABSORPTION AND BIFURCATED DETECTION ELEMENTS and now U.S. Pat. No. 8,796,636, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     The technical field generally relates to radiation detection sensors, and more specifically but not exclusively to neutron detectors. Neutron detection depends upon having materials available that provide the ability to detect neutron events. Where neutron detection is required, the use of materials that have a high thermal neutron capture cross-section is highly desirable for neutron detectors. Where the neutron detection distinct from other background radiation types is desired, for example gamma radiation, the use of materials that also have a lower gamma ray interaction cross section is also desirable. Accordingly, a relatively small number of materials are particularly suitable for neutron detection. Enhancements to neutron absorption efficiency in neutron detectors allow the use of otherwise marginal materials, or allow improved performance from presently utilized materials. Therefore, further technological developments are desirable in this area. 
     Current demand is for more convenient, passive detection systems that do not require special attention or handling by the operator. Examples include radiation badges as wells as dosimeters that are worn in the pocket or belt-worn detectors and dosimeters. While the existing devices are very helpful for many applications, there is currently no wearable neutron detector which gives immediate, real-time annunciation of an increase in the neutron field in which the operator is working. 
     SUMMARY 
     One embodiment is a unique body wearable neutron detector having a ribbed scintillator and wavelength shifting fibers positioned between each pair of ribs. Further embodiments, forms, objects, features, advantages, aspects, and benefits shall become apparent from the following description and drawings. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is an illustration of a radiation scintillator and a number of sets of wavelength shifting fibers. 
         FIG. 2  is a schematic diagram of a system for high efficiency radiation detection. 
         FIG. 3 a    is an end view of a radiation scintillator positioned around a cylindrical moderator. 
         FIG. 3 b    is a perspective view of the radiation scintillator positioned around the cylindrical moderator. 
         FIG. 4  is a schematic diagram of an alternate radiation scintillator and a number of sets of wavelength shifting fibers. 
         FIG. 5  illustrates a body wearable neutron detector. 
         FIG. 6  is a block diagram illustrating components of the wearable neutron detector. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF THE ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS 
     For the purposes of promoting an understanding of the principles of the invention, reference will now be made to the embodiments illustrated in the drawings and specific language will be used to describe the same. It will nevertheless be understood that no limitation of the scope of the invention is thereby intended, any alterations and further modifications in the illustrated embodiments, and any further applications of the principles of the invention as illustrated therein as would normally occur to one skilled in the art to which the invention relates are contemplated herein. 
     Referencing  FIG. 1 , an apparatus  100  includes a scintillator body  118  having a number of parallel ribs  102   a,    102   b,    102   c,    102   d  (first ribs  102 ) on a first side  104 . The first ribs  102  are parallel but need not be vertical and may be curvilinear (either vertically or axially); however straight, vertical ribs may be easier to manufacture. Parallel, in the sense used herein, indicates that the ribs  102  do not intersect over the axial length (perpendicular to the view of  FIG. 1 ) of the scintillator body  118 , and that a wavelength shifting fiber  114  positioned between the ribs  102   a,    102   b  maintains a similar geometrical distance relative to the ribs  102   a,    102   b  over the axial length of the scintillator body  118 . A similar geometrical distance is a distance that, in the absence of interfering features, provides similar optical communication between the ribs  102   a,    102   b  and the wavelength shifting fiber  114  over the axial length of the scintillator body  118 . The scintillator body  118  may be a single continuous piece as illustrated, or it may be formed from multiple discontinuous pieces. 
     Referencing  FIG. 4 , a scintillator body  400  is formed from a first piece  418   a  stacked with a second piece  418   b.  The scintillator body  400  is provided with square fibers  414   a,    414   b,    416   a,    416   b  positioned between the ribs, which improves the packing fraction of the scintillator body  400 . It can be seen that, by providing a number of stacked pieces  418   a,    418   b  of the scintillator body  400 , the scintillator body  400  can be structured such that an incident radiation particle (or wave) passes through a selectable amount of the scintillator material to provide the desired detection efficiency. In one example, the protrusion height of the first ribs is provided by the combined protrusion height of ribs from the stacked scintillator body portions  418   a,    418   b.    
     Returning to  FIG. 1 , the number of ribs  102  provided is a function of the desired surface area of the scintillator body  118  in the relevant view for detecting radiation—for example in the illustration of  FIG. 1 , the relevant view is normal to radiation passing through the scintillator body vertically. The thickness  112  of the ribs  102  is selectable, with the limitation that ribs  102  that are too thick will have some re-absorption of cascading photons before they reach the neighboring fibers  114 ,  116 , and ribs  102  that are too thin will result more fibers and related light converters than are necessary to provide the desired surface area of the scintillator body  118 , increasing the cost of the apparatus  100 . A rib thickness  112  between 0.5 mm to 1.0 mm is typical, but any thickness  112  may be utilized. 
     Any number of ribs  102 ,  108  that is three or greater is contemplated herein. In one example, where the scintillator body  118  is 10 cm wide, the rib thickness  112  is 1.0 mm, and the fibers are 0.3 mm O.D., the scintillator body  118  includes about 75 ribs  102 . In a second example, a set of fibers (not shown) includes two columns of fibers side-by-side, with a first column of fibers adjacent to one of the two adjacent ribs, and a second column of fibers adjacent to the second of the two adjacent ribs. Where the scintillator body  118  is 10 cm wide, the rib thickness  112  is 1.0 mm, and the fibers are 0.3 mm O.D., the scintillator body  118  in the second example includes about 60 ribs  102 . In a third example, where the scintillator body is 25.4 cm wide, the rib thickness  112  is 0.2 mm, and the fibers are 0.2 mm O.D. and positioned in a single column between each rib. The scintillator body  118  in the third example includes about 575 ribs. 
     In certain embodiments, an exemplary thickness of the first ribs and/or the second ribs is 0.2 mm, 0.22 mm, at least 0.5 mm, or about 1.0 mm. An exemplary protrusion height of the first ribs and/or the second ribs is 0.5 mm, 0.55 mm, or at least 0.6 mm. An exemplary set of the wavelength shifting fibers is at least two wavelength shifting fibers. Exemplary wavelength shifting fiber diameters include 0.2 mm or 0.3 mm. The described dimensions for ribs, scintillator body, and fiber diameters are illustrative and non-limiting. 
     An exemplary set of embodiments include the apparatus  100  having a neutron scintillator  118  formed with a number of protruding parallel ribs on a first side (first ribs  102 ) and a second number of protruding parallel ribs on a second side (second ribs  108 ). The number of protruding parallel ribs includes at least three ribs on each side, but may be any number of ribs according to the size of the neutron scintillator  118 . In certain embodiments, the neutron scintillator  118  includes more than six ribs, more than 20 ribs, and/or more than 100 ribs. In certain embodiments, the neutron scintillator  118  includes at least 1 rib on each side per 2.0 mm of width of the neutron scintillator  118 , where the ribs are wider than 0.5 mm each. In certain further embodiments, the neutron scintillator  118  includes about 1 rib on each side for each 1.6 mm of width, or about 1 rib for each 1.3 mm of width. Any embodiments including ribs to provide absorption coverage for the neutron scintillator as described herein is contemplated herein. 
     As is known in the art, the scintillator body  118  includes a radiation absorption material, a scintillating material, and a binder. The radiation absorption material is selected to absorb the desired type of radiation, for example neutron radiation. In certain embodiments, without limitation, the scintillator body  118  includes  6 Li,  10 B,  6 LiF:ZnS/Ag, a P47 phosphor, and/or ( 6 LiF:Y 2 SiO 5 :Ce). 
     Positioned between each pair of the first ribs  102 , the apparatus  100  includes at least one wavelength shifting fiber. Two adjacent wavelength shifting fibers  114 ,  116  are illustrated between the ribs  102   a,    102   b.  The number of fibers between particular ribs  102  comprises a set of wavelength shifting fibers. The wavelength shifting fibers are fiber optic cables doped with a material that absorbs photons emitted from the scintillator body  118  and re-emits photons, a percentage of which travel down the fiber to a light converter (not shown). The light converter generates an electrical signal from the light. Exemplary light converters include a photomultiplier diode or a photomultiplier tube. A percentage of radiation incident to the scintillator body  118  is absorbed, and the scintillating material releases a cascade of photons. Some of the photons from the cascade reach a nearby fiber, and the incident radiation is thereby detected. 
     The apparatus  100  further includes a number of parallel ribs  108   a,    108   b,    108   c,    108   d,    108   e  on a second side (second ribs  108 ) of the scintillator body  118 . The apparatus  100  also include wavelength shifting fiber(s) positioned between the second ribs  108 . At the ends of the scintillator body  118 , wavelength shifting fibers may optionally be provided on the outer edge of the scintillator body  118 . One of skill in the art will understand the tradeoffs of detecting radiation incident to the outer rib of the scintillator body  118 , the mechanical integrity of the scintillator body  118 , and the exposure to shock or impact of fibers positioned on the outer rib of the scintillator body  118  to determine whether a particular embodiment should include fibers  114 , 116  on the outer rib or only between the ribs  102 ,  108 . 
     The apparatus  100  includes the first ribs  102  parallel to the second ribs  108 . In certain embodiments, the second ribs  108  may be positioned at a rotated azimuthal angle relative to the first ribs  102 . The rotation of the second ribs  108  relative to the first ribs  102  may provide benefits to the mechanical integrity of the scintillator body  118 , and/or may provide for easier mechanical construction of a device including the scintillator body  118  by allowing the fibers  114 ,  116  to exit the second ribs  108  at a selectable angle relative to the first ribs  102 . However, areal coverage of radiation absorption to radiation perpendicular to the plane of the scintillator body  118  (i.e. radiation travelling vertically in the illustration of  FIG. 1 ) is increased when the first ribs  102  and second ribs  108  are parallel and offset, as shown. The decision whether to use the second ribs  108 , whether to offset the second ribs  108 , and to what extent to offset the second ribs  108  from the first ribs  102  have implications for the overall absorption efficiency of the apparatus  100 , and the decision is a mechanical step for one of skill in the art having the benefit of the disclosures herein. 
     Where the scintillator body  118  is described as having a plane herein, the plane of the scintillator body  118  may be only locally planar, where the scintillator body  118  as a whole forms a curved surface. Locally planar, as used herein, indicates that the curvature of the scintillator body  118  in the space of several of the ribs  102 ,  108  is approximately planar, or has a very high radius of curvature relative to the protrusion height  110  of a rib  102 ,  108  (e.g. radius of curvature is at least 3×, 5×, 10×, or greater than the protrusion height  110 ). In certain embodiments, the scintillator body  118  may not be planar, or may be planar only in certain portions of the scintillator body  118 . 
     For example, referencing  FIG. 3   a,  an end view of an apparatus  300  including a curved scintillator body  118  is illustrated having first ribs  102  on an outer side and second ribs  108  on an inner side. An illustrative radiation particle  304  is shown incident to the scintillator body  118 . In the example, the particle  304  is a moderated thermal neutron emitted by the moderator  302  positioned within the scintillator body  118 . Because the first ribs  102  and second ribs  108  are parallel and offset, the particle  304  cannot pass through the scintillator body  118  without passing through at least one rib from either the first ribs or the second ribs, even where the particle  304  passes perpendicularly (relative to the local plane at the position of contact) through the scintillator body  118 . 
     Referencing  FIG. 2 , apparatus  200  is shown in a perspective view. The apparatus  200  includes two light converters  202 ,  204 . The fibers are routed to the light converters  202 ,  204  such that no two adjacent fibers  114 ,  116  pass to the same light converter  202 ,  204 . For clarity of illustration, just a few fibers are shown being optically coupled to the light converters  202 ,  204 . However, the apparatus  200  includes each fiber routed to a light converter  202 ,  204 , and the number of light converters  202 ,  204  may be any number, two or more, as described herein. Additionally, each light converter  202 ,  204  may be optically coupled to any number of fibers as described herein. In one form, the light converters  202 ,  204  may comprise photo multiplier tubes (“PMTs”) and in other forms the light converters  202 ,  204  may comprise charge coupled devices (“CCDs”). 
     An apparatus  300  such as that illustrated in  FIGS. 3 a  and 3 b    may be optionally utilized in a directional radiation detector. In one example, the moderator  302  is a material that interacts with high energy neutrons and re-emits thermal neutrons as understood in the art. The scintillator  118  forms a cylindrical portion, as shown in  FIG. 3 , and the moderator  302  is positioned within the scintillator  118 . The cylindrical form of the scintillator  118  and moderator  302  may be of any cross-section, including circular as illustrated in  FIG. 3 , and further the cross-section may be varied in shape or size in the axial direction to form whatever desired overall shape for the detector. A shield material (not shown) partially encloses the moderator  302 , such that neutrons are substantially blocked from reaching the moderator  302  except from a desired detection direction. Thereby, a neutron detector may be constructed to detect a neutron source and to determine a direction of the neutron source. Exemplary shield materials include, for example, gadolinium, but any shield material understood in the art is sufficient. 
     The offset of the first ribs  102  and the second ribs  108  may be complete, as shown in  FIG. 1 , where a radiation particle (or wave) passing perpendicular to the plane of the scintillator body  118  must pass through either one of the first ribs  102  or the second ribs  108 . Where the ribs  102 ,  108  are not vertical, the ribs  102 ,  108  may nevertheless be parallel in a projected angle (e.g. 30 degrees off of vertical), and offset in the projected angle, such that a radiation particle (or wave) must pass through one of the first ribs  102  or second ribs  108  regardless of the angle of the incident radiation. 
     The ribs  102 ,  108  include a protrusion height  110  from the scintillator body  118  base. The selection of the protrusion height  110 , combined with the known absorption efficiency of the scintillator body  118 , allows for selection of an arbitrarily high absorption efficiency of incident radiation. For example, a mean radiation absorption distance is determined according to the desired absorption efficiency and the required travel distance through the scintillator body  118  material to achieve the desired absorption efficiency. Then, a rib protrusion height  110  is selected that is at least equal to the mean radiation absorption distance. Finally, a number of wavelength shifting fibers are positioned between the ribs to provide optical detection coverage over at least the mean radiation absorption distance. The selection of the number of ribs  102 ,  108  is provided to cover the desired surface area of the scintillator body  118  normal to the expected radiation source (which may be a moderator in the case of thermal neutron detection). 
     Referencing  FIG. 2 , a system  200  is shown having a scintillator body  118 , first ribs  102  on a first side, and second ribs  108  on a second side. The system  200  includes three wavelength shifting fibers between each pair of the ribs  102 ,  108 , although any number of wavelength shifting fibers may be present as described in the section referencing  FIG. 1 . The system  200  further includes the fibers  114 ,  116  passing to light converters  202 ,  204 . Adjacent fibers pass to different light converters  202 ,  204  in the example. For example, with three fibers, a high and low fiber pass to a first converter  202  and the middle fiber passes to the second converter  204 . The converters  202 ,  204  may accept any number of fibers from between the various ribs  102 ,  108 . However, for reasons described as follows, the number of fibers passing to each converter  202 ,  204  may be limited to enhance the detection capability of the system  200 . 
     The system  200  includes a controller  206  that functionally executes certain operations for detecting radiation. In certain embodiments, the controller  206  forms a portion of a processing subsystem including one or more computing devices having memory, processing, and communication hardware. The controller may be a single device or a distributed device, and the functions of the controller may be performed by hardware or software. The controller  206  interprets two distinct electrical signals, one provided by each of two adjacent wavelength shifting fibers. Interpreting, as utilized herein, includes receiving values by any method known in the art, including at least receiving values from a datalink or network communication, receiving an electronic signal (e.g. a voltage, frequency, current, or PWM signal) indicative of the value, receiving a software parameter indicative of the value, reading the value from a memory location on a computer readable medium, receiving the value as a run-time parameter by any means known in the art, and/or by receiving a value by which the interpreted parameter can be calculated, and/or by referencing a default value that is interpreted to be the parameter value. 
     For example, a fiber  114  is optically coupled to a first light converter  202  that provides a first electrical signal, and a fiber  116  is optically coupled to a second light converter  204 . The first light converter  202  and second light converter  204  provide distinct electrical signals to the controller  206 . The signals are from each of two adjacent wavelength shifting fibers positioned between one of the adjacent pairs of the ribs  102 . In the example of  FIG. 2 , the light converters  202 ,  204  are optically coupled to fibers from a number of the rib  102  grooves, although in certain embodiments the light converters  202 ,  204  may be optically coupled to fibers from only one of the rib  102  grooves, and/or only from a single fiber. 
     The number of light converters  202 ,  204  utilized is a design choice. A low ratio of fibers per light converter provides costs and benefits. Increasing the number of light converters increase the cost of the system  200 . Light converters may be photo-multiplier tubes, which are highly capable but very expensive. Where the light converters are solid state photo sensors, the costs are greatly reduced, rendering a lower fiber to light converter ratio more economical. A large number of light converters also increases the processing burden of the controller  206 , and thus increases the cost of hardware and software for the controller  206  and the communications between the controller  206  and the light converters. 
     Decreasing the number of light converters, with the same number of fibers, increases the number of events that each light converter is experiencing. Where the controller  206  distinguishes that a neutron radiation event has occurred, rather than a gamma radiation event, in response to simultaneous signals from two adjacent fibers, there is a greater chance that two independent events will occur within a short enough time span to complicate or even prevent proper detection of neutron events if the number of fibers optically coupled to each light converter is high. For example, background gamma radiation causes photons to hit individual fibers. Where a single light converter services too many fibers, the light converter will see an amplitude excursion for a high percentage of the time that is not related to neutron events, preventing the detection of neutron events and/or causing a significant number of simultaneous amplitude excursions in other light converters potentially causing false neutron detections. Certain operations and apparatus to distinguish a neutron radiation event from a gamma radiation event using simultaneous signals from two adjacent fibers in the presence of a neutron scintillator are described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/888,505 entitled “Neutron detector having enhanced absorption and bifurcated detection elements” filed on Sep. 13, 2010, and which is incorporated herein by reference in the entirety. 
     In certain embodiments, the ratio of fibers to light converters is between 1:1 and 9:1, inclusive. The higher limit of the ratio of fibers is limited by the background radiation flux, the size of the fiber end face, and the size of the light converter receiving face. In certain embodiments, the ratio of fibers to light converters is between 2:1 and 40:1, or between 10:1 and 40:1. In certain further embodiments, the ratio of fibers to light converters is between 10:1 and 100:1. The higher values of fiber ratios may be useful in a very low flux environment where gamma background radiation is infrequent. 
     The operational descriptions which follow provide an illustrative embodiment of a procedure for high absorption efficiency radiation detection. Operations illustrated are understood to be exemplary only, and operations may be combined or divided, and added or removed, as well as re-ordered in whole or part, unless stated explicitly to the contrary herein. Certain operations illustrated may be implemented by a computer executing a computer program product on a computer readable medium, where the computer program product comprises instructions causing the computer to execute one or more of the operations, or to issue commands to other devices to execute one or more of the operations. 
     An exemplary procedure for high efficiency absorption and detection of radiation includes an operation to determine a neutron absorption efficiency per linear distance through a selected neutron scintillator material, and an operation to determine a desired neutron absorption efficiency for the neutron detector. The procedure further includes an operation to determine a neutron mean absorption distance in response to the neutron absorption efficiency and the desired neutron absorption efficiency, and an operation to provide a neutron scintillator having protruding ribs on each side, with first ribs on a first side and second ribs on a second side. The neutron mean absorption distance is the required linear distance for a neutron to pass through the selected neutron scintillator material before an average neutron will have a likelihood of absorption equal to the neutron absorption efficiency. For example, where the neutron absorption efficiency per linear distance is 30% of neutrons absorbed with 1.0 mm, and the desired neutron absorption efficiency is 60%, the neutron mean absorption distance is about 2.6 mm—which can be approximated by solving equation 1. 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
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                               1 
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                                 η 
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                             nmad 
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     In equation 1, η d  is the desired neutron absorption efficiency, η ld  is the neutron absorption efficiency per linear distance ld, and nmad is the neutron mean absorption distance. The neutron mean absorption distance may also readily be determined empirically, and in one example the term ld, or the standardized distance at which the absorption efficiency is known, may be equal to the neutron mean absorption distance. Where equation 1 is utilized, any converging or iterative solution for nmad known in the art may be utilized. The distance and efficiency values described are exemplary, and are readily determined for a specific material by one of skill in the art having the benefit of the disclosures herein. The procedure includes an operation to provide the protruding ribs with a protrusion height of at least the neutron mean absorption distance. The protrusion height of the ribs may be a combined protrusion height of ribs from stacked layers of scintillator body portions, for example as illustrated in  FIG. 4 . 
     The exemplary procedure further includes an operation to provide the neutron scintillator with the selected neutron scintillator material, and an operation to provide the neutron scintillator to be at least locally planar, with the first ribs offset from the second ribs such that a particle passing through the neutron scintillator perpendicular to the neutron scintillator plane must pass through at least one rib from the first ribs and the second ribs. The procedure further includes providing a set of wavelength shifting fibers positioned between each adjacent pair of the first ribs and each adjacent pair of the second ribs. Each set of wavelength shifting fibers is in optical proximity to the adjacent pair of the ribs that the set of wavelength shifting fiber is positioned between. Each set of wavelength shifting fibers further includes a sufficient number of fibers to optically cover the adjacent pair of the ribs to a height of at least the neutron mean absorption distance. For example, where the neutron mean absorption distance is 0.6 mm, and the fibers have an O.D. of 0.2 mm, then a set of three fibers in a column are provided between each pair of ribs in the set of ribs. 
     Further detailed embodiments of the procedure are described following. An exemplary procedure further includes an operation to provide the neutron scintillator formed from  6 Li,  10 B,  6 LiF:ZnS/Ag, a P47 phosphor, and/or ( 6 LiF:Y 2 SiO 5 :Ce). Exemplary values of the desired neutron absorption efficiency include at least 30% absorption of incident neutrons, at least 50% absorption of incident neutrons, at least 80% absorption of incident neutrons, and about 83% absorption of incident neutrons. 
     In certain further embodiments, the procedure includes an operation to determine a number of electrical signals in response to light emissions from the set of wavelength shifting fibers positioned between each adjacent pair of the first ribs and each adjacent pair of the second ribs. The procedure further includes an operation to determine the number of electrical signals by determining distinct electrical signals from any two adjacent wavelength shifting fibers, and distinguishing a neutron radiation event from a gamma radiation event in response to two adjacent wavelength shifting fibers providing simultaneous electrical signals. 
     As is evident from the figures and text presented above, a variety of embodiments according to the present invention are contemplated. 
     An exemplary set of embodiments include a system having a neutron scintillator formed with a multiplicity of protruding parallel ribs on a first side (first ribs) and a second multiplicity of protruding parallel ribs on a second side (second ribs). The multiplicity of protruding parallel ribs includes at least three ribs on each side, but may be any number of ribs according to the size of the neutron scintillator. In certain embodiments, the neutron scintillator includes more than six ribs, more than 20 ribs, and/or more than 100 ribs. In certain embodiments, the neutron scintillator includes more than 1 rib on each side per 2.0 mm of width of the neutron scintillator, where the ribs are wider than 0.5 mm each. In certain further embodiments, the neutron scintillator includes about 1 rib on each side for each 1.6 mm of width, or about 1 rib for each 1.3 mm of width. Any embodiments including ribs to provide absorption coverage for the neutron scintillator as described herein is contemplated herein. 
     The system includes a set of wavelength shifting fibers positioned between each adjacent pair of the first ribs and each adjacent pair of the second ribs. Accordingly, in an exemplary embodiment, each two ribs of the first side include at least two wavelength shifting fibers positioned therebetween, and each two ribs of the second side include at least two wavelength shifting fibers positioned therebetween. The outside ribs of the first ribs and the second ribs may optionally include wavelength shifting fibers at the outside position of the outside ribs. Each wavelength shifting fiber is in optical proximity to the adjacent pair of the ribs that the wavelength shifting fiber is between. In certain embodiments, two sets of wavelength shifting fibers are positioned side-by-side between one or more of the first and second ribs, and the wavelength shifting fibers are each in optical proximity to the closest rib. 
     In certain embodiments, the first ribs are parallel to the second ribs, and additionally the first ribs may be offset from the second ribs. In a further embodiment, the neutron scintillator is at least locally planar at the position of the first ribs and the second ribs, and the first ribs are offset from the second ribs such that a particle passing through the neutron scintillator perpendicular to the neutron scintillator plane must pass through at least one rib from the first ribs and the second ribs. Locally planar indicates that a span of the neutron scintillator having a small number of the first ribs and the second ribs is planar or includes a small enough radius of curvature, combined with appropriate shaping of the first ribs or second ribs as necessary, such that a perpendicular incident particle or wave to the span of the neutron scintillator must pass through at least one rib from the first ribs and the second ribs. 
     In certain embodiments, the width and spacing of the first ribs and second ribs is such that a particle may pass through the neutron scintillator perpendicular to the neutron scintillator plane at sonic positions that do not pass through at least one of the first ribs and second ribs. It will be understood that such a design reduces the overall absorption efficiency of the detector, but allows certain advantages such as potentially reduced manufacturing costs, or the insertion of supportive material within the neutron scintillator. In one example, if the ribs are 0.4 mm wide, and are spaced 1.0 mm center-to-center, then each rib will have an average 0.1 mm gap on each side (depending upon the selected offset between the first ribs and the second ribs). It is a mechanical step for one of skill in the art, having the benefit of the disclosures herein, to select rib widths, spacing, and protrusion height such that manufacturing cost, part reliability, and absorption efficiency are tailored to the specific application. 
     In certain further embodiments, the neutron scintillator is made from a material including  6 Li,  6 LiF:ZnS/Ag, a P47 phosphor, and/or ( 6 LiF:Y 2 SiO 5 :Ce). An exemplary thickness of the first ribs and/or the second ribs is at least 0.5 mm. An exemplary protrusion height of the first ribs and/or the second ribs is at least 0.6 mm. An exemplary set of the wavelength shifting fibers is at least two wavelength shifting fibers. 
     Another exemplary set of embodiments includes an apparatus for high efficiency radiation absorption and detection. The apparatus includes a scintillator body having a radiation absorptive material, a scintillating material, and a binder. The scintillator body is formed with a multiplicity of protruding parallel ribs on a first side, and at least one wavelength shifting fiber positioned between each adjacent pair of ribs. Each wavelength shifting fiber is in optical proximity to the adjacent pair of the ribs that the wavelength shifting fiber is positioned between. An exemplary apparatus includes the radiation absorptive material being a neutron absorptive material. 
     In certain embodiments, a number of the wavelength shifting fibers are positioned between each adjacent pair of the protruding parallel ribs. In a further embodiment, the apparatus includes a controller structured to functionally execute certain operations for radiation detection. The controller interprets two distinct electrical signals, one signal from each of two adjacent wavelength shifting fibers positioned between one of the adjacent pairs of the protruding parallel ribs, and the controller distinguishes a neutron radiation event from a gamma radiation event in response to detecting a simultaneous response from each of the two distinct electrical signals. 
     In certain embodiments, the apparatus further includes the scintillator body formed with a second multiplicity of protruding parallel ribs formed on a second side, and with a wavelength shifting fiber positioned between each adjacent pair of the second multiplicity of ribs. Each of the wavelength shifting fibers on the second side is in optical proximity to the adjacent pair of the second multiplicity of the ribs that the wavelength shifting fiber is positioned between. In certain embodiments, the second multiplicity of ribs are parallel to the multiplicity of ribs formed on the first side of the scintillator body, and the second multiplicity of ribs are further offset from the multiplicity of ribs on the first side. A further embodiment includes the scintillator body being at least locally planar, where the second multiplicity of ribs are offset from the multiplicity of ribs on the first side such that a particle passing through the scintillator body perpendicular to the scintillator body plane must pass through at least one rib, either a rib from the first side or a rib from the second side. The multiplicity of ribs in a single layer may be stacked for an arbitrary number of layers, either parallel or alternately offset to increase the amount of scintillator material intercepted by the neutrons, thereby increasing the probability of an interaction. 
     A further exemplary embodiment includes a number of the wavelength shifting fibers positioned between each adjacent pair of the protruding parallel ribs. The apparatus further includes a controller that interprets two distinct electrical signals from two adjacent wavelength shifting fibers positioned between one of the adjacent pairs of the protruding parallel ribs, and the controller distinguishes a neutron radiation event from a gamma radiation event in response to detecting a simultaneous response from the two distinct electrical signals. 
     Yet another exemplary set of embodiments includes a method for high efficiency absorption and detection of radiation. The method includes determining a neutron absorption efficiency per linear distance through a selected neutron scintillator material, and determining a desired neutron absorption efficiency for the neutron detector. The method further includes determining a neutron mean absorption distance in response to the neutron absorption efficiency and the desired neutron absorption efficiency, and providing a neutron scintillator having protruding ribs on each side, first ribs on a first side and second ribs on a second side, where the protruding ribs have a protrusion height of at least the neutron mean absorption distance. The method further includes providing the neutron scintillator with the selected neutron scintillator material, and providing the neutron scintillator to be at least locally planar and with the first ribs offset from the second ribs such that a particle passing through the neutron scintillator perpendicular to the neutron scintillator plane must pass through at least one rib from the first ribs and the second ribs. The method further includes providing a set of wavelength shifting fibers positioned between each adjacent pair of the first ribs and each adjacent pair of the second ribs, where each set of wavelength shifting fibers is in optical proximity to the adjacent pair of the ribs that set of the wavelength shifting fiber is positioned between, and where each set of wavelength shifting fibers includes a sufficient number of fibers to optically cover the adjacent pair of the ribs to a height of at least the neutron mean absorption distance. 
     Further detailed embodiments of the method are described following. An exemplary method includes providing the neutron scintillator formed from  6 Li,  10 B,  6 LiF:ZnS/Ag, a P47 phosphor, and/or ( 6 LiF:Y 2 SiO 5 :Ce). Exemplary values of the desired neutron absorption efficiency is at least 30% absorption of incident neutrons, at least 50% absorption of incident neutrons, at least 80% absorption of incident neutrons, and/or about 83% absorption of incident neutrons. In certain further embodiments, the method includes determining a number of electrical signals in response to light emissions from the set of wavelength shifting fibers positioned between each adjacent pair of the first ribs and each adjacent pair of the second ribs. The method further includes determining the number of electrical signals by determining distinct electrical signals from any two adjacent wavelength shifting fibers, and distinguishing a neutron radiation event from a gamma radiation event in response to two adjacent wavelength shifting fibers providing simultaneous electrical signals. 
     Referring to  FIG. 5 , a wearable neutron detector  500  is illustrated that may incorporate any of the apparatuses and systems  100 ,  200 ,  300 , and  400  disclosed herein. The wearable neutron detector  500  includes a body attachment portion  502  that allows the neutron detector  500  to he attached to a human body  504 . In the illustrated form, the wearable neutron detector  500  is attached to an arm, but in other forms, the wearable neutron detector  500  could be attached to the human body  504  at various locations such as on the waist by a belt, a leg, or in a backpack. As used herein, the term body attachment portion  502  should be broadly construed to mean anything that allows the wearable neutron detector  500  to be attached to the human body unless otherwise specifically claimed. 
     As illustrated, the wearable neutron detector  500  includes a first strap  506  and a second strap  508  that are used to secure the wearable neutron detector  500  to a forearm of a user. A central portion  510  is positioned between the straps  506 ,  508  and runs along the arm of the user. In one form, the central portion  510  contains the electrical components of the wearable neutron detector  500 . An enunciator  512  is located on the second strap  512  for generating alerts that may be enunciated to the user of the wearable neutron detector  500  detects an increase in neutron detection. 
     Referring to  FIG. 6 , the wearable neutron detector  500  includes a ribbed scintillator  550  that is connected with one or more light converters  552 . The output of the one or more light converters  552  is connected with a detection circuit  554 . The output of the detection circuit  554  is connected with a control unit  556 . The control unit  556  is connected with an annunciator  558 . A power supply  560  is connected with the light converters  552 , the detection circuit  554 , the control unit  556 , and the annunciator  558 . In one form, the power supply  560  is operable to generate a high voltage output that is supplied to the light converters  552 . 
     As previously set forth, in one form, the light converters  552  can comprise charge-coupled devices (CCDs). In another form, the light converters  552  can comprise photo-multiplier tubes (PMTs). In yet another form, the light converters  552  can comprise any type of electro-optical sensor that is capable of detecting light emitted from the wave length shifting optical fibers. The detection circuit  554  can comprise a stereo detection circuit such as that disclosed in commonly owned U.S. Pat. No. 9,116,247, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety as if fully set forth herein. 
     The detection circuit  554  is operable to generate an output that is indicative of the detection of a neutron event (e.g.,—the detection of a threshold level of neutrons). The control unit  556  is connected with the output of the detection circuit  554  and is operable to receive signals from the detection circuit  554 . Once a neutron event is detected, the control unit  556  is configured and operable to generate an output that is directed to the annunciator  558 . 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 6 , the annunciator  558  is configured to generate an announcement of a neutron event. In one form, the annunciator  558  comprises a display, such as an LCD display, for example. In this form, the control unit  556  is operable to generate an output signal that is sent to the display causing the display to generate a graphical representation of the neutron event. In another form, the annunciator  558  comprises a speaker or buzzer. In this form, the control unit is configured to generate an output signal that causes the speaker to generate one or more audible alarms or alerts. In yet another form, the annunciator  558  can comprise a wireless transmitter. In this form, the control unit  556  is operable to cause the wireless transmitter to transmit a wireless signal that could be received by an external device, such as a smartphone, for example. 
     While the invention has been illustrated and described in detail in the drawings and foregoing description, the same is to be considered as illustrative and not restrictive in character, it being understood that only certain exemplary embodiments have been shown and described and that all changes and modifications that come within the spirit of the inventions are desired to be protected. In reading the claim, it is intended that when words such as “a,” “an,” “at least one,” or “at least one portion” are used there is no intention to limit the claim to only one item unless specifically stated to the contrary in the claim. When the language “at least a portion” and/or “a portion” is used the item can include a portion and/or the entire item unless specifically stated to the contrary.