Patent Publication Number: US-11398606-B2

Title: 2D hybrid perovskite-based optoelectronic material with smooth external surface

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/790,057, filed on Jan. 9, 2019, entitled “SURFACE-IMPROVED OPTICAL DEVICE BASED ON HYBRID PEROVSKITE,” the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Technical Field 
     Embodiments of the subject matter disclosed herein generally relate to a two-dimensional (2D) hybrid perovskite-based optoelectronic material, and more particularly, to such a material that has at least one smooth external surface. 
     Discussion of the Background 
     Organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites have attracted increased attention in the past years due to, among others, their advantageous applications to optoelectronic devices including solar cells, lasers, light-emitting diodes, and photodetectors (PDs). Optoelectronic devices based on hybrid perovskites exhibit promising performance due to their superior optoelectronic properties such as high absorption coefficient, long carrier diffusion length, highly tunable bandgap, extraordinary nonlinear phenomena, and largely adjustable crystal sizes, from quantum dot to single crystal, up to the millimeter scale. For instance, it was found that such materials can achieve a solar conversion efficiency of over 22%, PD detectivity of over 1,014 Jones, and a photostriction as high as 1.25% based on hybrid perovskites. 
     In recent years, optoelectronic devices fabricated on single crystalline (SC) hybrid perovskites have also been extensively studied and the improved device performance associated with these materials is anticipated when compared to those based on polycrystalline perovskites. This is so because the SC hybrid perovskites exhibit longer carrier diffusion lengths and a lower trap density than the polycrystalline ones, and these improved features are expected to result in improved optoelectronic device performance. 
     Despite the remarkable progress of the optoelectronic devices based on the hybrid perovskites, there are significant problems that need to be overcome when comparing to the inorganic semiconductor counterparts such as silicon and GaAs. For example, the hybrid perovskites are well-known to suffer from moisture instability and other problems such as ion migration, halide vacancies, and interstitials, which has largely hindered their development as an alternative to silicon-based materials. This means that the hybrid perovskites, even when exhibiting better properties than the inorganic semiconductor ones, have a stability problem, i.e., they are not stable when exposed to the ambient, which is the case in many applications. 
     In the case of the SC hybrid perovskites, moisture from the ambient environment can lead to the hydration of the perovskite crystal surface, which likely will cause poor contact and performance loss of the optoelectronic devices that use such materials. In addition, it has been reported that the hydrated surface of the SC hybrid perovskites behaves like polycrystalline perovskites, which results in the surface having distinct optoelectronic properties then the bulk of the material. This differential behavior of the same material has been evidenced by the time-resolved photoluminescence measurements. 
     Thus, there is a need for an improved hybrid perovskite material that has all the advantages discussed above, but is also stable when exposed to humidity, and is not prone to ion migration, halide vacancies, and interstitials. 
     BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     According to an embodiment, there is a two-dimensional (2D) hybrid perovskite based opto-electric device that includes first and second 2D perovskite layers extending along a given plane; an organic layer sandwiched between the first and second 2D perovskite layers, and extending along the given plane; an external organic layer formed on the first 2D perovskite layer and configured to directly face an ambient of the opto-electric device and to extend along the given plane; and electrical pads directly formed over the external organic layer. A roughness of the external organic layer is smaller than 10 nm. 
     According to another embodiment, there is a two-dimensional (2D) hybrid perovskite material that includes a first 2D perovskite layer extending along a given plane; an organic layer extending along the first 2D perovskite layer; a second 2D perovskite layer extending along the organic layer so that the organic layer is sandwiched between the first and second 2D perovskite layers; and an external organic layer extending along the first 2D perovskite layer so that the external organic layer directly faces an ambient. A roughness of the external organic layer is smaller than 10 nm. 
     According to still another embodiment, there is a method for making a two-dimensional (2D) hybrid perovskite based opto-electric device, and the method includes dissolving an inorganic material into an acid to form a solution; adding an organic material to the solution to obtain a mixture; cooling down the mixture to obtain plural 2D perovskite layers extending along a given plane and plural organic layers extending along the given plane, the plural 2D perovskite layers being interleaved with the organic layers; and removing by exfoliation a set of 2D perovskite layers and organic layers from the plural 2D perovskite layers and the plural organic layers so that a most external layer is an external organic layer that directly faces an ambient of the material and extends along the given plane. A roughness of the external organic layer is smaller than 10 nm. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       For a more complete understanding of the present invention, reference is now made to the following descriptions taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: 
         FIG. 1  illustrates a rough-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material; 
         FIG. 2  illustrates a smooth-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material; 
         FIG. 3A  illustrates a roughness of the rough-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material and  FIG. 3B  illustrates a roughness of the smooth-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material; 
         FIG. 4  illustrates an opto-electronic device that uses the smooth-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material; 
         FIG. 5  is a flowchart of a method for forming a 2D hybrid perovskite material; 
         FIG. 6A  illustrates the dark current for the rough-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material and  FIG. 6B  illustrates the dark current for the smooth-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material; 
         FIG. 7  illustrates the dark current for the smooth- and rough-surface 2D hybrid perovskite materials over time; 
         FIG. 8A  illustrates the current-voltage characteristics for the smooth- and rough-surface 2D hybrid perovskite materials; 
         FIG. 8B  illustrates the responsivity of the smooth- and rough-surface 2D hybrid perovskite materials; 
         FIG. 8C  illustrates the current versus light intensity of the smooth- and rough-surface 2D hybrid perovskite materials; 
         FIG. 8D  illustrates the transient absorption spectra for the smooth- and rough-surface 2D hybrid perovskite materials; 
         FIG. 9  illustrates the normalized photoresponsivity for the smooth- and rough-surface 2D hybrid perovskite materials; 
         FIG. 10  illustrates the dipole-dipole interaction between the organic layers associated with the smooth-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material; and 
         FIG. 11  is a flowchart of a method for making an opto-electronic device based on the smooth-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The following description of the embodiments refers to the accompanying drawings. The same reference numbers in different drawings identify the same or similar elements. The following detailed description does not limit the invention. Instead, the scope of the invention is defined by the appended claims. The following embodiments are discussed, for simplicity, with regard to an optoelectronic device that uses a specific hybrid perovskite material, in which the organic layers are made of ethanolamine (EA) and the inorganic layers are made of Pbl 4 . However, the embodiments to be discussed next are not limited to such a specific hybrid perovskite material but may be used with other organic and/or inorganic materials. 
     Reference throughout the specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure or characteristic described in connection with an embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the subject matter disclosed. Thus, the appearance of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” in various places throughout the specification is not necessarily referring to the same embodiment. Further, the particular features, structures or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. 
     Because the perovskite materials are promising for the optoelectronic field, and because of their limitations discussed in the Background section, there is a need to adapt or to improve these materials to overcome these limitations. The 2D hybrid perovskite materials have surface properties that are not currently fully explored and understood and it is believed that understanding the effect of the surface condition of the hybrid perovskites on their optoelectronic properties and the device performance is the way for improving these materials [1,2]. The utilization of 2D layered perovskites with bonding organic layers is a promising approach to mitigate the moisture stability issue [3, 4, 5]. Because the organic layers can slow down the penetration of the moisture into the perovskite layers, the optoelectronic devices fabricated based on 2D perovskites with organic layers exhibit improved stability to moisture. 
     Moreover, due to the weak Van der Waals force between the functional organic groups of the organic layers, the 2D layered perovskites can be mechanically exfoliated, which result in an extremely smooth and clean external surface. It is expected that the optoelectronic properties and device performance on the cleaved perovskite, which has a smooth and clean surface, will be different from the perovskites with a rough surface [6]. Thus, the relationship between the surface condition of the 2D layered perovskites and their optoelectronic properties is now investigated. 
     According to an embodiment, a novel optoelectronic device includes 2D hybrid perovskite crystals having a smooth external surface. The smooth external surface is shown to reduce the moisture instability and also to mitigate the other problems currently exhibited by the existing hybrid perovskite materials. In one application, the 2D hybrid perovskite material includes EA as the organic layers and Pbl 4  for the inorganic layers. In one application, the external surface of the 2D hybrid perovskite material has a smoothness in a sub-nanoscale range, i.e., an RMS of the roughness of the given external surface is smaller than 1 nm. 
     According to the embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 1 , the 2D hybrid perovskite material  100  includes plural inorganic layers  102  and plural organic layers  104 . In this embodiment, the inorganic layers  104  are made of Pbl 14  and the organic layers  104  are made of EA, i.e., HOCH 2 CH 2 NH 3     +   . Other inorganic and organic materials may be used for these layers. In this application, a 2D hybrid perovskite material is understood to include crystalline layers  102  of the inorganic material, which extend in a two-dimensional plane, and these crystalline layers sandwich one or more organic layers  104 . Because of the crystalline structure of the inorganic layers  102  and because these layers extend in a 2D plane, the entire material  100  is considered to be 2D, i.e., it includes plural 2D inorganic layers bound together by the interleaved organic layers. 
       FIG. 1  shows that especially the outer inorganic layers have defects  106 , which in this case is a gap. Other type of defects may be present. If the defects  106  are gaps, then water molecules  108  may enter into these defects and negatively alter the structure and the properties of the 2D hybrid perovskite material  100 , as discussed above. 
     The inventors have discovered that if these defects in the external layers of the 2D hybrid perovskite material are removed, the moisture would be prevented from entering the material, and thus the properties of this material would not be negatively be affected by the ambient. Thus, the inventors have processed (e.g., by exfoliation) the 2D hybrid perovskite material to remove one or more external perovskite layers and associated organic layers so that the processed 2D hybrid perovskite material  200 , which is shown in  FIG. 2 , has a reduced number of defects in the external layer  202 . Note that the exfoliation process is performed so that the material has a surface that corresponds to the (100) crystallographic plane. 
       FIG. 2  shows a first perovskite layer  102 - 1  left after a set of perovskite layers and organic layers have been removed by the exfoliation process. The set may include any number of layers.  FIG. 2  also shows the organic layer  104 , a second perovskite layer  101 - 2 , and so on.  FIG. 2  shows that the most external organic layer  202  has no defect, which is also true for the most external perovskite layer  102 - 1 . Note that the most external organic layer  202  is facing directly the ambient and thus, the moisture from the ambient is firstly interacting with this layer. This means that the other layers of perovskite and organic material are shielded from the ambient by this most external organic layer. 
     The exfoliation process applied to the rough-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material  100  for obtaining the smooth-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  may remove less than all the defects. While  FIG. 2  shows plural perovskite layers and plural organic layers having no defects, it is possible to still have some defects in the external layers. After removing by exfoliation the plural layers, in one application it is possible to have only two perovskite layers  102 - 1  and  102 - 2  left, which sandwich a single organic layer  104 . For this specific hybrid perovskite material  200 , the most external organic layer  202  has a minimal number of defects. However, to obtain the most external organic layer  202  having almost no defects, the exfoliation process needs to remove those layers that are plagued by defects. Thus, it is a matter of how many layers are removed from the rough-surface hybrid perovskite material  100  to obtain the smooth-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material  200 . 
     In one application, it is possible to quantify the amount of defects that are removed, or are left, by the exfoliation process in terms of the roughness of the external layer  202 . In this regard,  FIG. 3A  illustrates an atomic force microscopy (AFM) picture of the rough-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material  100  while  FIG. 3B  illustrates the AFM picture of the smooth-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material  200 . More specifically, the RMS roughness of the material  100  in  FIG. 3A  was calculated to be 15.94 nm while the RMS roughness of the material  200  n  FIG. 3B  was calculated to be 0.72 nm. Note that the RMS roughness for  FIG. 3A  is calculated as the root means square of various heights y i  of n points (point  130  is a peak) for a given path or area. Thus, the roughness profile contains n ordered, equally spaced points along a path or trace, and y i  is the vertical distance from a mean line to the i th  data point. Height is assumed to be positive in the up direction, away from the bulk material. The height of the peak  130  is around 580 nm while the height of the peak  230  in  FIG. 3B  is only about 7.3 nm. The inset of  FIG. 3A  shows a detail  140  of the outer layer of the material  100 , which when compared to the detail  240  of the layer  202  of the inset of  FIG. 3B , is very rough. 
     The inset of  FIG. 3A  shows the high-magnification optical microscopy image of an as-grown 2D perovskite crystal in which many defects can be seen. After exfoliation, a fresh ( 100 ) surface of the 2D perovskite is exposed, as shown by the inset of  FIG. 3B . The entire surface  242  of the cleaved 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  shown in the inset of  FIG. 3B  is a relatively continuous single layer, which is extremely clean and smooth and this organic layer can prevent the penetration of moisture into the inner perovskite layers. As will be discussed later, it was found that the as-grown hybrid perovskite  100  and the cleaved hybrid perovskite material  200  have the same bulk crystal structure, demonstrating that they have identical intrinsic material properties, so that the differences in their optoelectronic properties are caused by the surface condition of the smooth-surface 2D hybrid perovskite crystals. 
     In the following, a material is considered to be smooth when an external surface of the material has a RMS roughness in the sub-nano range, i.e., less than 1 nm. In one application, the material is considered to be smooth when the RMS roughness is below 5 nm. In still another application, the material is considered to be smooth when the RMS roughness is below 10 nm. 
     The smooth surface of the material  200  may be obtained through exfoliation. This term is understood herein to include mechanical exfoliation, chemical exfoliation or other types of exfoliation as, for example, laser assisted exfoliation, surfactant-assisted exfoliation, etc. The 2D layered hybrid perovskite material  200  can be mechanically exfoliated due to the weak Van der Waals forces between the organic linker. 
     To examine the surface smoothness effect, a metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) device  400  was fabricated as illustrated in  FIG. 4 . The MSM device  400  has a smooth external surface  202  due to the exfoliation of the 2D hybrid perovskite material  200 . Two electrodes  410  and  412  (for example, made of gold) were deposited on the smooth surface  202  and a voltage source  414  was connected to the two electrodes via wires  416 . If the voltage source  414  applies a certain voltage, the 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  may act as a light emitting device. If the 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  is exposed to light and the voltage source  414  is replaced with a voltage measurement device or an energy storage device, then the device  400  acts as a light detector that transforms light energy into electrical energy. The same configuration may be used to achieve a solar cell. Alternatively, it is possible to add a third electrode  418 , on a side that is opposite to the two electrodes  410  and  412 , and to use the device  400  as a transistor. If the transistor  400  is exposed to light, it may function as a phototransistor. 
     Similarly, a MSM device (not shown) was formed based on the rough-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material  100  having the rough surface with defects  106  and the two devices&#39; optoelectronic properties were investigated in various environments, including an ambient with a relative humidity of over 50%. It was found, as discussed next, that the smooth-surface 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  is less sensitive to the ambient moisture, which can cause the doping of the perovskites. As a result, the MSM device  400  exhibits a considerably low dark current, which results in an improved photodetectivity as compared with the rough-surface hybrid perovskite material  100 . 
     The MSM device shown in  FIG. 4  uses EA as the organic layer between the 2D single crystal (SC) perovskite layers, which can more effectively prevent the moisture from penetrating into the bulk of the material  200 . In this embodiment, a thickness t 1  of the inorganic layer  102  is around 6 Å while a thickness t 2  of the organic layer  104  is about 4 Å. The MSM device  400  exhibits a better moisture stability as compared to a 2D perovskite material that uses the conventional phenylalkylammonium (PEA, C 6 H5(CH 2 ) 2 NH 3     +   ) as the organic layer  104 . This is so due to the stronger Coulomb interactions within the EA organic layer  204 . The better stability of the EA 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  is evidenced by the stable carrier lifetime and surface topology over time as now discussed. 
     The device  400  is made as now discussed with regard to  FIG. 5 . In step  500 , 0.160 g of Pbl 2  was dissolved in 2 ml of 57% hydroiodic acid (HI), in a sample vial. In step  502 , 0.080 g of HOC 2 H 4 NH 2  were added to the solution and the precipitate was dissolved in step  504  by ultrasound at room temperature. In step  506 , the solution was cooled down to 4 degrees Celsius until the 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  was obtained. In step  508 , two 60 nm thick gold electrodes were evaporated on a desired crystallographic plane of the material  200 . In one application, the two electrodes are 500 μm wide, 60 μm thick and they are formed with a gap of 20 μm in between. The numbers in this method are exemplary and one skilled in the art will know that other concentrations and quantities for these substances may be used. 
     To examine the optoelectronic characteristics of the rough and smooth 2D hybrid perovskite materials  100  and  200  under various gas environments, the dark current under a 3 V bias was measured for each material under various gas environments, by flowing gases into a chamber where the materials were held. The gases were flown in the following sequence: air with 57% relative humidity (RH)  600 , dry N 2    602 , N 2  with 57% RH  604 , dry O 2    606 , O 2  with 57% RH  608 , dry air  610 , and again air with 57% RH  612 .  FIG. 6A  shows the dark current for the rough material  100  and  FIG. 6B  shows the dark current for the smooth material  200  under this regimen. For the rough material  100 , the dark current under moisture is about 10 −10  A, which is two orders of magnitude higher than that in the dry environment, which is in the range of 10 −12  A. 
     From  FIG. 6A , it can be seen that the electrical current is only influenced by the presence of the moisture, but not by the type of gas, which implies that the moisture is the cause of the dark current increase. In addition, the dark current for both perovskite materials  100  and  200  were measured under vacuum and similar results were obtained as for the dry gases. The increase of the current in the presence of the H 2 O can be attributed to the electron donating (doping) from the water molecules to the perovskites, which results in the drop of the resistivity of the perovskites. It is also noted that the dark current increase due to the moisture is reversible, as the electrical current goes back to the 10 −12  A range when the subsequent dry gas flows in. Therefore,  FIGS. 6A and 6B  present strong evidence that the influence of the moisture on the materials  100  and  200  is due to the H 2 O molecule absorption on the perovskite surface rather than other mechanisms, such as free ions formation by dissolving perovskites in water. The same trend that the dark current is higher in the presence of the moisture can also be observed in the case of the smooth 2D material  200  in  FIG. 6B . 
     The dark current of the smooth 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  under moisture and without moisture is about 5 and 2 pA, respectively. The difference is apparently much smaller than for the rough perovskite material  100 , which is a two orders of magnitude difference. The result is explained as the surface of the rough 2D hybrid perovskite material contains many discontinued perovskite layers, as shown in  FIG. 1 , which provides a large surface area for chemisorption of the H 2 O molecules and leads to the doping to the perovskites. On the contrary, the surface of the organic layer  202  of the smooth 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  exhibits a relatively continuous surface and thus, this layer exposes less perovskite edges to water molecules. As a result, the smooth perovskite material  200  has a much lower dark current in the ambient environment than the rough perovskite material  100 , as noted when  FIG. 6B  is compared to  FIG. 6A . 
     In addition, it was found that the dark current of the smooth 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  is more stable under the ambient environment over time.  FIG. 7  displays the dark current  700  for the smooth 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  and the dark current  702  for the rough 2D hybrid perovskite material  100  from day 0 to day 30. For the smooth-surface hybrid perovskite material  200 , the initial dark current is 5 pA. The dark current  702  increases with time due to the chemisorption of the moisture and reaches the peak of 14.1 pA on day 12. After day 12, the dark current  702  becomes stabilized and slightly reduced until day 30. In contrast, the dark current  700  of the rough-surface hybrid perovskite material  100  is 61.8 pA at day 0 and increases to 147 pA in just 1 day. The dark current  700  reaches a plateau on day 3, which is 10.0 nA, and becomes stabilized for the remaining days. The dramatic increase of the dark current  700  over time is another evidence of the stronger moisture chemisorption due to the exposed perovskite surfaces in the rough-surface hybrid perovskite material  100 . 
     The behavior of the 2D perovskite materials  100  and  200  were also studied under optical illumination. The photocurrent of both kinds of hybrid perovskite materials were investigated under light illumination having a wavelength from 400-700 nm, under a 3 V bias. The MSM device  400  and a similar device (not shown) for the rough hybrid perovskite material  100  were used to measure the responsivity, detectivity (D*), and the linear dynamic range (LDR), to evaluate the surface effect on the optoelectronic properties of the 2D hybrid perovskite materials  100  and  200 .  FIG. 8A  shows the I-V characteristics of the smooth and rough hybrid perovskite materials for a light intensity of 0.1 mW cm −2  under dark conditions and when exposed to a light having a wavelength of 550 nm. Line  800  shows the current of the smooth hybrid perovskite material  200  with no light and line  802  shows the current for the same material when exposed to the light having the wavelength 550 nm. Line  810  shows the current for the rough hybrid perovskite material  100  with no light illumination and line  812  shows the current for the same material when exposed to the 550 nm light. Although these two materials behave very differently in term of the dark current, their photocurrent (curves  802  and  812 ) are almost the same. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the moisture mostly affects the surface, but not the bulk of the hybrid perovskite materials. Therefore, the absorption of the moisture has a significant influence on the dark current, but not on the photocurrent, which is governed by the intrinsic material properties. 
     The responsivity, which indicates how efficient a material responds to the optical signal, is calculated based on the following equation: 
                     R   =       I     p   ⁢   h         P     l   ⁢   i   ⁢   g   ⁢   h   ⁢   t           ,           (   1   )               
in which I ph  is the photocurrent and P light  is the power of the incident light. Based on this equation, the responsivity  830  of the smooth hybrid perovskite material  200  has been calculated as illustrated in  FIG. 8B . The smooth hybrid perovskite material achieves the highest responsivity of 0.67 A W −1  under the light intensity of 0.1 mW cm −2  at 550 nm.
 
     The detectivity (D*), which is another relevant parameter that indicates the ability of a material to detect a weak optical signal, is given by the following equation, 
                       D   *     =     R       2   ⁢     qI   dark             ,           (   2   )               
in which R is the responsivity, I dark  is the dark current, and q is the elementary charge.
 
     As previously mentioned, the smooth hybrid perovskite material  200  can significantly suppress the dark current. Thus, the detectivity can be largely enhanced as compared to that of the rough perovskite material  100 . In this regard,  FIG. 8B  shows that the smooth hybrid perovskite material  200  achieves the highest value for D*  832 , of about 2.6×1013 Jones at 550 nm, which is 23.6 times higher than the detectivity  834  achieved by the rough hybrid perovskite material  100 , which has a maximum value of 1.1×1012 Jones. 
     Besides responsivity and detectivity, the linear dynamic range (LDR) is another relevant parameter indicating the linear relationship between the photocurrent and incident light intensity and the LDR is given by the following equation:
 
LDR=20log( I   ph   /I   dark ),   (3)l
 
where I ph  is the photocurrent at a specific wavelength, and I dark  is the dark current of the device. From  FIG. 8C , it can be seen that the smooth perovskite material  200  has a LDR  840  of 82 dB, which is benefited by the significantly lower noise level due to the least moisture absorption. The higher LDR of the smooth hybrid perovskite material suggests that it has a linear response to the optical signal over a broader range of light intensity, which is desirable for the practical use of the hybrid perovskite material for a PD application.
 
     Additionally, the carrier lifetime in both kinds of hybrid perovskite materials has been determined using femtosecond transient absorption (TA) spectroscopy.  FIG. 8D  displays the normalized TA decay kinetics probed at 535 nm after 475 nm excitation of the smooth and rough hybrid perovskite materials  200  and  100 . Curve  850  shows the normalized TA decay for the smooth hybrid perovskite material  200  and curve  852  shows the normalized TA decay for the rough hybrid perovskite material  100 . These curves indicate that the photoexcited carriers decay slower in the smooth hybrid perovskite material, implying its longer charge carrier recombination. Particularly, in the TA measurements, the single-photon absorption can only excite the carriers within 200 nm of the thickness under the surface of the hybrid perovskite crystals. Therefore, the discrepancy of the carrier lifetime is the result of the surface effect on the hybrid perovskite crystals. The longer carrier lifetime in the smooth hybrid perovskite material can be attributed to the largely reduced surface traps on the defect-free surface after exfoliation as compared to the rough surface of the hybrid perovskite material  100 . 
     The above results regarding the surface morphology, photodetecting capability, and carrier lifetime of the hybrid perovskite materials reveal the impact of the surface condition onto the optoelectronic properties of a 2D layered hybrid perovskite material. These results indicate that the clean and smooth surface of the 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  can prevent the absorption of the ambient moisture and largely suppresses the dark current, which results in an improved detectivity and LDR of a hybrid perovskite PD device. 
     In addition to enhancing the moisture stability by improving the surface condition of the hybrid perovskite material  200  by smoothing the external organic layer, the layered hybrid perovskite material  200  in the device  400  utilize EA as the organic layer, which further improves the resistance to ambient moisture as compared to the commonly used organic linker PEA. When the photoresponsivities of the MSM devices made with EA and PEA are plotted against the wavelength, it is noted that the photoresponsivity of the EA perovskite material  200  is significantly higher than that of the PEA perovskite material over the entire range of the wavelength. This effect is attributed to the higher carrier mobility of the EA perovskite material due to the enhanced screening effect for charge impurities resulting from the high dielectric constant of the EA organic linker. 
       FIG. 9  illustrates the normalized photoresponsivities against time of the MSM junction devices fabricated based on EA and PEA perovskite materials, respectively. It is noted that the responsivity  902  of the PEA perovskite device drops about 50% after 7 days, while the responsivity  900  of the EA perovskite device remains over 70% of the initial value after the same period of time. This reduced responsivity in both types of perovskites is believed to be due to the drop in the photocurrent. The drop in the photocurrent happens because the hydrated surface of the perovskite with increased roughness degrades the contact with the gold electrode and results in electrical current loss due to the higher resistance. In previous work by the inventors, it has been shown that the aged surface of the 2D PEA layered perovskite material becomes very rough and even porous, which can explain the degradation of the electrical contact and the reduction of the photocurrent over time. 
     The moisture resistance of the EA perovskite material is found to be much better than that of the PEA perovskite material as indicated in  FIG. 9 . In the AFM image of the EA perovskite surface scanned on days 0, 1, 2, and 4, despite the fact that the roughness of the EA perovskite increases with time, it still remains at about 23.44 nm. For the PEA perovskite, the RMS roughness increases from 1.68 nm on day 0 to 52.89 nm on day 4, which are evidenced by the AFM images. 
     The improved moisture stability of the EA perovskite material  200  can be explained by the stronger Coulomb interactions between the organic elements  1010  and  1012  of the organic layer  104 , i.e., dipole-dipole interaction  1000  as illustrated in  FIG. 10 , comparing to the weak Van der Waals force in the PEA perovskite material. As a result, the hydrophilic organic groups of the elements  1010  and  1012  can prevent the penetration of water and oxygen more effectively than other organic elements. The moisture stability of the EA perovskite material  200  has been further evidenced by the TA spectroscopy, which can measure the carrier lifetime of a material. The TA results for the EA and PEA perovskite materials indicate the longer carrier lifetime for the EA perovskite material  200 . 
     It has been reported that when the surface of the perovskite SC is being hydrated, it will transform into a poly-crystalline material and the carrier lifetime is shortened due to the increase of the recombination sites. The inventors have measured the carrier lifetime of the EA perovskite material by TA on days 0, 2, 6, and 21 and the results indicate that the carrier life time show little difference from day 0 to day 21. This finding suggests the good stability of the crystallinity and chemical composition of the EA perovskite material under ambient conditions. The above time-dependent studies including photoresponsivity, surface topology by AFM, and carrier lifetime measurements by TA unveil the improved moisture stability of the EA perovskite material over the traditional 2D perovskite materials with the common PEA organic layer. 
     Based on the above experiments, the inventors have concluded that the organic linker used in the 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  makes a contribution regarding the moisture stability. In addition, the smoothness of the external organic layer  202  of the 2D hybrid perovskite material  200  further enhances the optoelectronic properties of such materials. The embodiments discussed above reveal the strong dependence of the surface condition of the 2D hybrid perovskite crystals on their moisture stability and optoelectronic properties, which are advantageous for the design of practical optoelectronic devices based on hybrid perovskite crystals. 
     According to an embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 11 , a method for making a two-dimensional (2D) hybrid perovskite based opto-electric device  400  includes a step  1100  of dissolving an inorganic material into an acid to form a solution, a step  102  of adding an organic material to the solution to obtain a mixture, a step  1104  of cooling down the mixture to obtain plural 2D perovskite layers  102 - 1 ,  102 - 2  extending in a given plane and plural organic layers  104  extending in the given plane, the plural 2D perovskite layers  102 - 1 ,  102 - 2  being interleaved with the organic layers  104 , and a step  1106  of removing by exfoliation a set of 2D perovskite layers and organic layers from the plural 2D perovskite layers  102 - 1 ,  102 - 2  and the plural organic layers  104  so that a most external layer is an external organic layer  202  that directly faces an ambient of the material  200  and extends in the given plane. A roughness of the external organic layer  202  is smaller than 10 nm. 
     In one application, the roughness is smaller than 5 nm. In still another application, the roughness is smaller than 1 nm. The plural 2D perovskite layers include Pbl 4  and the plural organic layers and the external organic layer each includes ethanolamine. The method may further include a step of forming electrical pads on the external organic layer to form an opto-electric device. The step of removing by exfoliation determines the given plane to be a ( 100 ) crystallographic plane of the perovskite material. 
     The disclosed embodiments provide a 2D hybrid perovskite based opto-electric device. The opto-electric device may be a solar cell, a light emitting diode, a transistor, a photodetector, etc. It should be understood that this description is not intended to limit the invention. On the contrary, the embodiments are intended to cover alternatives, modifications and equivalents, which are included in the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. Further, in the detailed description of the embodiments, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a comprehensive understanding of the claimed invention. However, one skilled in the art would understand that various embodiments may be practiced without such specific details. 
     Although the features and elements of the present embodiments are described in the embodiments in particular combinations, each feature or element can be used alone without the other features and elements of the embodiments or in various combinations with or without other features and elements disclosed herein. 
     This written description uses examples of the subject matter disclosed to enable any person skilled in the art to practice the same, including making and using any devices or systems and performing any incorporated methods. The patentable scope of the subject matter is defined by the claims, and may include other examples that occur to those skilled in the art. Such other examples are intended to be within the scope of the claims. 
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