Patent Publication Number: US-2022230084-A1

Title: Method and System for a Reduced Computation Hidden Markov Model in Computational Biology Applications

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.: 14/811,836, filed on Jul. 29, 2015; which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/188,443, filed on Jul. 2, 2015, the contents of which are incorporated by reference in their entirety. 
    
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
     Not Applicable 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Field of the Invention 
     The present invention generally relates to variant calling. 
     Description of the Related Art 
     The human genome is comprised of approximately 3.1 billion base pairs, and each sequence fragment is typically only from 100 to 500 nucleotides in length. The time and effort that goes into building such full length genomic sequences and determining the variants therein is quite extensive, often requiring the use of several different computer resources applying several different algorithms over prolonged periods of time. 
     In a particular instance, thousands to millions of fragments of DNA sequences are generated, aligned, and merged in order to construct a genomic sequence that approximates a chromosome in length. A step in this process may include comparing the DNA fragments to a reference sequence to determine where in the genome the fragments align. 
     A number of such steps are involved in building chromosome length sequences and in determining the variants of the sampled sequence. Accordingly, a wide variety of methods have been developed for performing these steps. For instance, there exist commonly used software implementations for performing one or a series of such steps in a bioinformatics system. However, a common characteristic of such software based bioinformatics methods and systems is that they are labor intensive, take a long time to execute on general purpose processors, and are prone to errors. 
     Manual or automated DNA sequencing may be employed to determine the sequence of nucleotide bases in a sample of DNA, such as a sample obtained from a subject. Using various different bioinformatics techniques these sequences may then be assembled together to generate the genomic sequence of the subject, and/or mapped and aligned to genomic positions relative to a reference genome. This sequence may then be compared to a reference genomic sequence to determine how the genomic sequence of the subject varies from that of the reference. Such a process involves determining the variants in the sampled sequence and presents a central challenge to bioinformatics methodologies. Genomic data includes sequences of the DNA bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T). Genomic data includes sequences of the RNA bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and uracil (U). Genomic data also includes epigenetic information such as DNA methylation patterns, histone deacetylation patterns, and the like. 
     Variant calling is a process of taking the “pileup” of reads covering a given reference genome region, and making a determination of what the most likely actual content of the sampled individual&#39;s DNA is within that region. The determined content is reported as a list of differences (“variations” or “variants”) from the reference genome, each with an associated confidence level and other metadata. 
     The most common variants are single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs, pronounced “snips”), in which a single base differs from the reference. SNPs occur at about 1 in 1000 positions in a human genome. Next most common are insertions (into the reference) and deletions (from the reference), or “indels” collectively. These are more common at shorter lengths, but can be arbitrarily long. More complex variants include multi-base substitutions (MNPs), and combinations of indels and substitutions which can be thought of as length-altering substitutions. Standard variant callers identify all of these, with some limits on variant lengths. Specialized variant callers are used to identify longer variations, and many varieties of exotic “structural variants” involving large alterations of the chromosomes. 
     Most of the human genome is diploid, meaning there are two non-identical copies of each chromosome 1-22 in each cell nucleus, one from each parent. The sex chromosomes X and Y are haploid (single copy), with some caveats, and the mitochondrial “chromosome” ChrM is haploid. For diploid regions, each variant can be homozygous, meaning it occurs in both copies, or heterozygous; meaning it occurs in only one. Rarely, two heterozygous variants can occur at the same locus. 
     Aside from these baseline complexities, there are various noise and error sources to deal with: The collection of sequenced segments (“reads”) is random, so some regions will have deeper coverage than others; Each read also comes from a random “strand” in diploid regions; PCR amplification (cloning) of the DNA sample can lead to multiple exact duplicate DNA segments getting sequenced; which can throw off VC statistics. Often a tool is used to mark duplicates before VC, so extra copies can be ignored; Indels and SNPs can be introduced by PCR or other sample prep steps; The sequencer makes mistakes, with an error model varying from one technology to another; Illumina sequencing errors are primarily SNPs; Ion Torrent (LifeTech/Thermo Fisher) errors are primarily homopolymer length inaccuracies, appearing as indels. The likelihood of a sequencer error at a given base is estimated in an associated base quality score, on a logarithmic “phred” scale; Mapping errors occur, in which reads are aligned to the wrong place in the reference genome. The likelihood of a mapping error on a given read is estimated in an associated map quality score “MAPQ” on a logarithmic “phred” scale; Alignment errors occur, in which reads mapped to the correct position are reported with untrue detailed alignments (CIGAR strings). Commonly, an actual indel may be reported instead as one or more SNPs, or vice versa. Also; alignments may be clipped, such that it is not explained how bases near one end align, or if they align at all in this location; There is natural ambiguity about the positions of indels in repetitive sequences. 
     Given all these complexities, variant calling is a subtle art. Modern variant callers come up with a set of hypothesis genotypes (content of the one or two chromosomes at a locus), use Bayesian calculations to estimate the posterior probability that each genotype is the truth given the observed evidence, and report the most likely genotype along with its confidence level. 
     Simpler variant callers look only at the column of bases in the aligned read pileup at the precise position of a call being made. More advanced VC&#39;s are “haplotype based callers”, which take into account context in a window around the call being made. A “haplotype” is particular DNA content (nucleotide sequence, list of variants, etc.) in a single common “strand”, e.g. one of two diploid strands in a region, and a haplotype based caller considers the Bayesian implications of which differences are linked by appearing in the same read. 
     BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     One aspect of the present invention is a method for a reduced computation hidden markov model (HMM) in computational biology applications. The method includes receiving a haplotype sequence at a HMM pre-filter engine. The method also includes receiving a read sequence at the HMM pre-filter engine. The method also includes performing a correlation between the haplotype sequence and the read sequence at the HMM pre-filter engine. The method also includes generating a plurality of control parameters based on the correlation. The method also includes receiving the plurality of control parameters, the read sequence and the haplotype sequence at a HMM computation engine. The method also includes selecting a reduced number of cells of a HMM matrix structure based on the plurality of control parameters at the HMM computation engine. The method also includes computing a HMM metric from the reduced number of cells at the HMM computation engine. 
     Another aspect of the present invention is a system for analyzing genetic sequence data. The system includes an electronic data source and an integrated circuit. The electronic data source comprises a plurality of reads of genomic data. Each of the plurality of reads of genomic data comprises a sequence of nucleotides. The integrated circuit comprises a plurality of mask-programmed, hardwired digital logic circuits mask-configured as a plurality of processing engines comprising a variant calling module, a plurality of physical electrical interconnects comprising an input to the integrated circuit, and an output from the integrated circuit. The input to the integrated circuit is connected to the electronic data source to receive the plurality of reads of genomic data. The variant calling module is configured to perform a correlation between the haplotype sequence and the read sequence at a HMM pre-filter engine to generate a plurality of control parameters based on the correlation. The variant calling module is configured to receive the plurality of control parameters, the read sequence and the haplotype sequence at a HMM computation engine. The variant calling module is configured to select a reduced number of cells of a HMM matrix structure based on the plurality of control parameters at the HMM computation engine. The variant calling module is configured to compute a HMM metric from the reduced number of cells at the HMI computation engine. The output from the integrated circuit is configured to communicate result data from the variant calling module. 
     Yet another aspect of the present invention is a method for a reduced computation hidden markov model (HMM) in computational biology applications. The method includes identifying a new haplotype that is similar to a previously read haplotype that is stored in a memory. The method also includes comparing the new haplotype to the previously read haplotype. The method also includes defining a divergence point where a plurality of cell values for the new haplotype diverge from the previously read haplotype. The method also includes commencing a HMM matrix calculation for the new haplotype from the divergence point. The method also includes generating a HMM metric from the HMM matrix calculation and a plurality of HMM matrix calculations from a previously read haplotype up to the divergence point. 
     Having briefly described the present invention, the above and further objects, features and advantages thereof will be recognized by those skilled in the pertinent art from the following detailed description of the invention when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  illustrates a HMM matrix structure of a HMM computation of the prior art. 
         FIG. 2  illustrates a flow chart of a method of the prior art. 
         FIG. 3  illustrates a flow chart of a method for reduced computation HMM in computational biology applications. 
         FIG. 4  illustrates a reduced computation HMM matrix structure with cells relevant to a final sum circled and computed HMM cells shaded. 
         FIG. 5  illustrates a reduced computation HMM matrix structure with cells relevant to a final sum circled and computed HMM cells shaded. 
         FIG. 6  illustrates a reduced computation HMM matrix structure with cells relevant to a final sum circled and computed HMM cells shaded. 
         FIG. 7  is an example of a correlation-like operation performed in a HMM pre-filter engine. 
         FIG. 8  is a graph of match count versus offset for an output from a correlator-like sliding match count. 
         FIG. 9  illustrates a reduced computation HMM matrix structure with cells relevant to a final sum circled and computed HMM cells shaded. 
         FIG. 10  is a block diagram of a hardware processor architecture. 
         FIG. 11  is a block diagram of a hardware processor. 
         FIG. 12  is a block diagram of a hardware processor architecture. 
         FIG. 13  illustrates an apparatus in accordance with an implementation. 
         FIG. 14  illustrates an apparatus in accordance with an alternative implementation. 
         FIG. 15  illustrates a genomics processing system in accordance with an implementation. 
         FIG. 16  is a block diagram of a chip illustrating the HMM interface structure. 
         FIG. 17  is a block diagram of a HMM accelerator. 
         FIG. 18  is an illustration of programmable interconnects and programmable logic blocks for a field programmable gate array. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     An accelerated variant caller is modeled on the Broad institute&#39;s GATK HaploypeCaller. In brief, the HaplotypeCaller operates in these major steps: active region identification; localized haplotype assembly; haplotype alignment; read likelihood calculation; and genotyping. 
     In the active region identification step, places where multiple reads disagree with the reference are identified, and windows around them (“active regions”) are selected for processing. 
     In the localized haplotype assembly step, in each active region, all the overlapping reads are assembled into a “de Bruijn graph” (DBG), a directed graph based on overlapping K-mers (length K subsequences) in each read or multiple reads. When all reads are identical, the DBG is linear; where there are differences, the graph forms “bubbles” of multiple paths diverging and re-joining, if the local sequence is too repetitive and K is too small, cycles can form, which invalidate the graph here; K=10 and 25 are tried by default, and K=35, 45, 55, 65 if necessary to achieve a cycle-free graph. From this DBG, various paths are extracted, which are candidate haplotypes, i.e. hypotheses for what the true DNA sequence may be on at least one strand. 
     In the haplotype alignment step, each extracted haplotype is Smith-Waterman aligned back to the reference genome, to determine what variation(s) from the reference it implies. 
     In the read likelihood calculation step, each read is tested against each haplotype, to estimate a probability of observing the read assuming the haplotype was the true original DNA sampled. This calculation is by evaluating a “pair hidden Markov model” (HMM), which models the various possible ways the haplotype might have been modified by PCR or sequencing errors into the read observed. The HMM evaluation uses a dynamic programming method to calculate the total probability of any series of Markov state transitions arriving at the observed read. 
     In the genotyping step, the possible diploid combinations of the candidate haplotypes are formed, and for each of them, a conditional probability of observing the entire read pileup is calculated, using the constituent probabilities of observing each read given each haplotype from the pair HMM evaluation. These feed into the Bavesian formula to calculate an absolute probability that each genotype is the truth, given the entire read pileup observed. 
     In this process, by far the most resource extensive operation is the pair HMM evaluation (˜8 Haswell core hours, optimized with AVX2 instructions). The present invention accelerates the HMM stage with custom hardware. 
     The “pair hidden Markov model” is an approximate model for how a true haplotype in the sampled DNA may transform into a possibly different observed read. It is assumed that this transformation is a combination of SNPs and indels, introduced by PCR or other sample prep steps, or by sequencing errors. An underlying 3-state base model is assumed, {M=alignment match, I=insertion, D=deletion}, where any transition is possible except I&lt;-&gt;D. 
     The state transitions here are not in a time sequence, but rather in sequence of progression through the haplotype and read sequences, beginning at position 0 in each sequence, where the first base is position 1. A transition to M implies position +1 in both sequences; a transition to I implies position +1 in the read sequence only; and a transition to D implies position +1 in the haplotype sequence only, The same 3-state model underlies Smith-Waterman Needleman-Wunsch alignment, allowing for affine gap (indel) scoring, in which gap opening (entering the I or D state) is assumed less likely than gap extension (remaining in the I or D state). So abstractly, the pair HMM can be seen as alignment, and a CIGAR string encodes a sequence of state transitions. 
     For example, given haplotype sequence “ACGTCACATTTC” and read sequence “ACGTCACTTC”, they are aligned with CIGAR string “4M2D6M” (state sequence MMMMDDMMMMMM), as follows: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 ACGTCACATT 
               
               
                   
                 ||||| ||x||| 
               
               
                   
                 ACGT-CACT 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Observe that the SNP (haplotype ‘T’ to read ‘C’) is considered an alignment “match”, meaning only that the two bases line up; there is no separate state for a nucleotide mismatch. 
     In practice, the haplotype is often longer than the read, and the assumption is that the read does not necessarily represent the entire haplotype transformed by SNPs and indels, but only a portion of the haplotype transformed by SNPs and indels. So, state transitions may actually begin at a haplotype position greater than zero, and terminate at a position before the haplotype end. By contrast, state transitions must always run from zero to the end of the read sequence. 
     Now, though, the 3-state base model is complicated by allowing the transition probabilities to vary by position. For one thing, probabilities of all M transitions are multiplied by prior probabilities of observing the next read base given its base quality score and the corresponding next haplotype base. The base quality score translates to a probability of a sequencing SNP error, When the two bases match, the prior probability is taken as one minus this error probability, and when they mismatch, it is taken as the error probability divided by 3, since there are 3 possible SNP results. At this point, the 3 states are no longer a true Markov model, both because transition probabilities from a given state do not sum to 1, and because the dependence on sequence position, which implies a dependence on previous state transitions, violates the Markov property of dependence only on the current state. The Markov property can be salvaged if you instead consider the Markov model to have 3(N+1)(M+1) states, where N and M are the haplotype and read lengths, and there are distinct M, I, and D states for each haplotype/read coordinate. The sum of probabilities to I can be salvaged if an additional “FAIL” state is assumed, with transition probability from each other state of (1−MPriorProb)(MTransProb). 
     Furthermore, the relative balance of M transitions vs. I and D transitions also varies by position in the read. This is according to an assumed PCR error model, in which PCR indel errors are more likely in tandem repeat regions. Thus, there is a preprocessing of the read sequence, examining repetitive material surrounding each base, and deriving a local probability for M-&gt;I and M&gt;D transitions; M-&gt;M transitions get the remainder (one minus the sum of these two), times the M prior. 
     The above discussion is regarding the abstract Markov-ish model. Now follows the practical question of what to do with it. One thing you can do is find the maximum-likelihood transition sequence. This is what we call alignment, and is pretty much the action of Needleman-Wunsch using a dynamic programming algorithm. But for this variant calling application, we are not concerned with the maximum likelihood alignment, or any particular alignment. Rather, we want to compute the total probability of observing the read given the haplotype, which is the sum of the probabilities of all possible transition paths through the graph, from read position zero at any haplotype position, to the read end position at any haplotype position, each component path probability being simply the product of constituent transition probabilities 
     Finding this sum of path probabilities is preferably performed by a dynamic programming algorithm. In each cell of a (0 . . . N)×(0 . . . M) matrix, there are three probability, values calculated, corresponding to M, D, and I states. (Or equivalently; there are 3 matrices.) The top row (read position zero) of the matrix is initialized to probability 1.0 in the D states, and 0.0 in the I and M states; and the rest of the left column (haplotype position zero) is initialized to all zeros. 
     Setting D probability 1 in the top row has the effect of allowing the alignment to begin anywhere in the haplotype. It also forces an initial M transition into the second row, rather than permitting I transitions into the second row. 
     Each other cell has its 3 probabilities computed from 3 neighboring cells: above, left, and above-left. These 9 input probabilities contribute to the 3 result probabilities according to the state transition probabilities, and the sequence movement rules: transition to D horizontally, to I vertically, and to M diagonally. This 3-to-1 computation dependency restricts the order that cells may be computed. They can be computed left to right in each row, progressing through rows from top to bottom, or top to bottom in each column, progressing rightward. 
     The bottom row of the matrix, at the final read position, represents completed alignments. HaplotypeCaller works by summing the 1 and M probabilities of all bottom row cells. 
     Each HMM evaluation operates on a sequence pair, haplotype and read. Within a given active region, each of a set of haplotypes is HMM-evaluated vs. each of a set of reads. 
     The haplotype input includes length and bases. The read input includes length, and for each position the base, Phred quality, insGOP (gap open penalty), delGOP, insCiCP (gap continuation penalty) and delGCP. The GOP and GCP values are preferably 6-bit Phred integers. The result output is Log scale probability of observing the read given the haplotype. 
     HaplotypeCaller preferably performs the pair HMM calculation with double precision floating point arithmetic. 
     The longest pole in computing the M, I, and D probabilities for a new cell is M. 
     Match cell=prior[i][j]*(mm[i−1][j−1]*transition[i][MtoM]+im[i−1][j−1]*transition[i][IToM]+dm[i−1][j−1]*transition[i][DToM]) 
     The pipeline preferably requires seven input probabilities from already computed neighboring cells (M&amp;D from the left, M&amp;I from above, and M&amp;I&amp;D from above-left), each cycle. It also preferably requires one haplotype base, and one read base with associated parameters each cycle. 
     To keep the pipeline full, L independent cell calculations should be in progress at any one time, which could come from separate matrices. 
     One idea is for a single cell pipeline to paint a horizontal swath one row high for each pipeline stage. The pipeline follows an anti-diagonal within the swath, wrapping from the bottom to top of the swath, and wrapping the swath itself when the right edge of the matrix is reached. 
       FIG. 1  illustrates that all read length x haplotype length cells, each containing an M, I and D state, in the HMM matrix are populated in an implementation of the prior art. However, in many instances, the actual cells in the bottom row of the HMM matrix that contribute materially to the final sum value is a small subset of the total number of cells in the bottom row. 
       FIG. 2  shows the basic inputs (haplotype sequence and read sequence information) and output (the final sum value used as the HMM metric) for a HMM method of the prior art. 
     The present invention identifies which cells of the HMM matrix will impact the final sum value before the HMM cells are actually computed. 
       FIG. 3  illustrates a flow chart of a method for reduced computation HMM in computational biology applications. Notably, a new engine is inserted in front of the MINI Computations engine  30 . This new engine, the “HMM Pre-Filter” engine  31 , receives the same inputs as the HMM Computations engine  30  of  FIG. 2 . The HMM Pre-Filter engine  31  performs a correlation of sorts between the read and haplotype sequence, and, based on this correlation, generates control parameters to send to the downstream HMM Computations engine  30 , suggesting which cells of the HMM matrix  20  should be computed to obtain the desired final sum value with fewer operations. The HMM pre-filter engine  31  receives a haplotype sequence and a read sequence. The HMM pre-filter engine  31  performs a correlation between the haplotype sequence and the read sequence. HMM pre-filter engine  31  generates a plurality of control parameters. The HMM computation engine  30  receives the plurality of control parameters, the read sequence and the haplotype sequence. The HMM computation engine  30  selects a reduced number of cells of a HMM matrix structure  20  based on the plurality of control parameters. The HMM computation engine  30  computes a HMM metric from the reduced number of cells. 
     The control parameters communicate a starting center point on a first row  21  (the first row may be the top row of the HMM matrix structure  20  or another row. Those skilled in the pertinent art will recognize that the invention is not limited to the first row being the top row of the HMM matrix structure  20 ) of the HMM matrix  20  and a desired width (in the haplotype dimension) that should be computed. Equivalently, a starting left edge on the first row  21  and a starting right edge on the first row  21  could be communicated in place of a starting center point and width. The effect of this invention on the computations associated with generating the final sum value for the HMM matrix of  FIG. 1  is seen in  FIGS. 4-6  for different starting center points (all with a width of seven cells in the haplotype dimension). The cells  22  are used for the final sum. 
     In  FIGS. 4-6 , the shaded cells represent those cells of the HMM matrix structure  20  that are actually computed. Compared to  FIG. 1 , and the potential computational savings of the present invention are evident. A pseudo-code is as follows: 
     Let W=3 
     H startpoint=value_delivered_from_prefilter 
     for read_index=0 to (read length−1) 
     H_left=min(haplotype_length−1, max(0,H_startpoint−W)) 
     H_right=min(haplotype_length−1, H_startpoint+W) 
     for haplotype_index=H_left to H_right 
     Update M, I, and D state values for (haplotype_index,read_index) base pairing 
     End 
     H_startpoint=H_startpoint+1 
     End 
     In the example above, W is the number of cells to the left and right of the center point that will be evaluated in each row of the HMM matrix structure  20  and is related to the width parameter discussed above. A start point and width parameters could be replaced simply with a starting left and right edge for the first HMM row, in which case the pseudo code is as follows: 
     Let H_left be initialized to 6 
     Let H_right be initialized to 12 
     for read_index=0 to (read_length−1) 
     for haplotype_index=H_left to H_right 
     Update M, I, and I) state values for (haplotype_index,read_index) base pairing 
     End 
     H_left=min(haplotype_length−1, H_left+1) 
     H_right=min(haplotype_length−1, H_right+1) 
     End 
       FIG. 7  illustrates an example of the correlation  50  performed at the HMM pre-filter engine  31 . The offset value of 0 is defined in  FIG. 7  as the offset where the first base of the read sequence overlaps (is compared against) the first base of the haplotype sequence. By defining offset 0 in this manner, if there is a maximum correlation value at offset X, then the starting center point for the first top row of the HMM matrix operations is set equal to offset X. 
       FIG. 8  illustrates a graph  55  of an example of an output from a sliding match count correlation operation. The match count spans offsets from −(read length−1) to +(haplotype length) on the x axis. The match count, shown on the v-axis may take on a value from 0 to read length. A match count value equal to read length would imply that the read sequence exactly, matches some contiguous portion of the haplotype sequence without SNPs or indels. A sliding match count output with two pronounced peaks might indicate strong correlation between the read and haplotype sequence, but with an indel in the read sequence. 
     Other correlation-like operations in addition to the sliding match count correlation-like operations may be used to obtain a starting center point and width parameters from the read and haplotype data. For example, a fast Fourier transform (FFT) may be used, where the base sequences A, C, G and T are set to values of, for example, +1, −1, +j, and −j (where j is the square root of −1). After FFT-based fast correlation, the imaginary and negative outputs are discarded (as non-physical) and ratios similar to those previously discussed between the maximum correlation value and other metrics are derived for confidence and with derivation. 
     Logic, implemented either in hardware or software, following the sliding match count correlation-like operations examines the match count output to determine if there is high enough confidence to narrow the HMM matrix operations, or not, and, if so, what the width and starting center point of the narrowed path should be. These decisions may be based on, among other values, the following: (1) the position (offset) of the max match count value; (2) the ratio of the max match count value to the read length; (3) the ratio of the max match count value to the second (and/or third, or fourth, or Nth) highest value. 
     The present invention is not limited from dynamically steering the HMM operations to obtain better final sum accuracy with the same or similar computational resources. For example, as shown in  FIG. 9 . the present invention is still applicable where the path of the HMM computations may not follow a simple diagonal path, but may move horizontally to the right or vertically down, as needed, depending on the metrics contained in previously-computed cells of the HMM matrix structure  20 . 
     More specifically, in various embodiments, an apparatus of the disclosure may be a chip, such as a chip that is configured for processing genomics data, such as by employing a pipeline of data analysis modules. According, as shown in  FIG. 10 , a genomics pipeline processor chip  100  is provided along with associated hardware of a genomics pipeline processor system  101 . The chip  100  preferably has one or more connections to external memory  102  (at “DDR3 Mem Controller”), and a connection  104  (e.g., “PCIe Interface”) to the outside world, such as a host computer  106 , for example. A crossbar  108  (e.g., switch) provides access to the memory interfaces to various requesters. DMA engines  110  transfer data at high speeds between the host and the processor chip&#39;s  100  external memories  102  (via the crossbar  108 ), and/or between the host and a central controller  112 . The central controller  112  controls chip operations, especially coordinating the efforts of multiple processing engines. The processing engines are formed of a set of hardwired digital logic circuits that are interconnected by physical electrical interconnects, and are organized into engine clusters  114 . In some implementations, the engines in one cluster share one crossbar port, via an arbiter. The central controller  112  has connections to each of the engine dusters. Each engine duster  114  has a number of processing engines for processing genomic data, including a mapper  120  (or mapping module), an aligner  122  (or aligning module), and a sorter  124  (or sorting module). An engine cluster  114  can include other engines or modules, as well. 
     In accordance with one data flow model consistent with implementations described herein, the host sends commands and data via the DMA engines  110  to the central controller  112 , which load-balances the data to the processing engines. The processing engines return processed data to the central controller  112 , which streams it back to the host via the DMA engines  110 . This data flow model is suited for mapping and alignment. 
     In accordance with an alternative data flow mod&amp; consistent with implementations described herein, the host streams data into the external memory, either directly via DMA engines  110  and the crossbar  108 , or via the central controller  112 . The host sends commands to the central controller  112 , which sends commands to the processing engines, which instruct the processing engines as to what data to process. The processing engines access input data from the external memory, process it, and write results back to the external memory, reporting status to the central controller  112 . The central controller  112  either streams the result data back to the host from the external memory, or notifies the host to fetch the result data itself via the DMA engines  110 . 
       FIG. 11  illustrates a genomics pipeline processor system  200 , showing a full complement of processing engines inside an engine cluster  214 . The pipeline processor system  20  may include one or more engine clusters  214 . In some implementations, the pipeline processor system  200  includes four our more engine clusters  214 . The processing engines or processing engine types can include, without limitation, a mapper, an aligner, a sorter, a local realigner, a base quality recalibrater, a duplicate marker, a variant caller, a compressor and/or a decompressor. In some implementations, each engine cluster  214  has one of each processing engine type. Accordingly, all processing engines of the same type can access the crossbar  208  simultaneously, through different crossbar ports, because they are each in a different engine cluster  214 . Not every processing engine type needs to be formed in every engine cluster  214 . Processing engine types that require massive parallel processing or memory bandwidth, such as the mapper (and attached aligner(s)) and sorter, may appear in every engine cluster of the pipeline processor system  200 . Other engine types may appear in only one or some of the engine clusters  214 , as needed to satisfy their performance requirements or the performance requirements of the pipeline processor system  200 . 
       FIG. 12  illustrates a genomics pipeline processor system  300 , showing, in addition to the engine clusters described above, one or more embedded central processing units (CPUs). Examples of such embedded CPUs include Snapdragons® or standard ARM® cores. These CPUs execute fully programmable bio-IT algorithms, such as advanced variant calling. Such processing is accelerated by computing functions in the engine clusters, which can be called by the CPU cores  302  as needed. Furthermore, even engine-centric processing, such as mapping and alignment, can be managed by the CPU cores  302 , giving them heightened programmability. 
     The previous drawings illustrate hardware implementation of a sequence analysis pipeline, which can be done in a number of different ways such as an FPGA or ASIC or structured ASIC implementation. The input to the hardware realization can be a FASTQ file, but is not limited to this format. In addition to the FASTQ file, the input to the FPGA or ASIC or structured ASIC consists of side information, such as Flow Space Information from technology such as the ion Torrent. The blocks or modules illustrate the following blocks: Error Control, Mapping, Alignment, Sorting, Local Realignment, Duplicate Marking, Base Quality Recalibration, BAM and Side Information reduction and variant calling. 
     These blocks or modules can be present inside, or implemented by, the hardware, but some of these blocks may be omitted or other blocks added to achieve the purpose of realizing a sequence analysis pipeline. The sequence analysis pipeline platform comprising an FPGA or ASIC or structured ASIC and software assisted by a host (i.e., PC, server, cluster or cloud computing) with cloud and/or cluster storage. The interface can be a PCIe or QPI interface, but is not limited to a PCIe or QPI interface. The hardware (FPGA or ASIC or structured ASIC) can be directly integrated into a sequencing machine. The integration of the hardware sequence analysis pipeline integrated into a host system such as a PC, server cluster or sequencer. Surrounding the hardware FPGA or ASIC or structured ASIC are multiple DDR3 memory elements and a PCIe interface. The board with the FPGA/ASIC/sASIC connects to a host computer, consisting of a host CPU, that could be either a low power CPU such as an ARM®, Snapdragon®, or any other processor. 
     Accordingly, in various embodiments, an apparatus of the disclosure may include a computing architecture, such as embedded in a silicon application specific integrated circuit (ASIC)  100  as seen in  FIGS. 13 and 14 . The ASIC  100  can be integrated into a printed circuit board (PCB)  104 , such as a Peripheral Component Interface—Express (PCIe) card, that can be plugged into a computing platform. In various instances, as shown in  FIG. 6 , the PCIe card  104  may include a single ASIC  100 , which ASIC may be surrounded by local memories  105 , however, in various embodiments, the PCIe card  104  may include a plurality of ASICs  100 A,  1001  and  100 C. In various instances, the PCI card may also include a PCIe bus. This PCIe card  104  can be added to a computing platform to execute algorithms on extremely large data sets. Accordingly, in various instances, the overall work flow of genomic sequencing involving the ASIC may include the following: Sample preparation, Alignment (including mapping and alignment), Variant analysis, Biological Interpretation, and/or Specific Applications. 
       FIG. 15  illustrates a system  500  for executing a sequence analysis pipeline on genetic sequence data. The system  500  includes a configuration manager  502  that includes a computing system. The computing system of the configuration manager  502  can include a personal computer or other computer workstation, or can be implemented by a suite of networked computers. The configuration manager  502  can further include one or more third party applications connected with the computing system by one or more APIs, which, with one or more proprietary applications, generate a configuration for processing genornics data from a sequencer or other genomics data source. The configuration manager  502  further includes drivers that load the configuration to the genomics pipeline processor system  10 . The genomics pipeline processor system  10  can output result data to, or be accessed via, the Web  504  or other network, for storage of the result data in an electronic health record  506  or other knowledge database  508 . 
     In some implementations, the chip implementing the genomics pipeline processor can be connected or integrated in a sequencer. The chip can also be connected or integrated on an expansion card, e.g. PCIe, and the expansion card can by connected or integrated in a sequencer. In other implementations, the chip can be connected or integrated in a server computer that is connected to a sequencer, to transfer genomic reads from the sequencer to the server. In yet other implementations, the chip can be connected or integrated in a server in a cloud computing cluster of computers and servers. A system can include one or more sequencers connected (e.g. via Ethernet) to a server containing the chip, where genomic reads are generated by the multiple sequencers, transmitted to the server, and then mapped and aligned in the chip. 
     The memory architecture can consist of M memory modules that interface with an ASIC. The ASIC may be implemented using many different technologies, including FPGAs (Field Programmable Gate Arrays) or structured ASIC, standard cells, or full custom logic. Within the ASIC are a Memory Subsystem (MSS) and Functional Processing Units (FPUs). The MSS contains M memory controllers (MCs) for the memory modules, N system memory interfaces (SMIs) for the FPUs, and an N×M crossbar that allows any SMI to access any MC. Arbitration is provided in the case of contention. 
       FIG. 16  illustrates a chip comprising the HMM interface structure. The chip  60  comprises a HMM accelerator  61 , multiple HMM clusters  64 , a distributor module  63  and a PCIe interface to CPU  62 . A CPU communicates with the chip  60  over the PCIe interface  62 . The distributor module  63  is positioned between the PCIe interface  62  and the HMM clusters  64 . Each HMM. cluster may contain multiple HMM accelerator engine instances. The cluster approach is designed to efficiently distribute the high-speed incoming data that arrives via the PCIe interface  62 . It is preferred that the Pete interface  62  is able to provide data at a rate that can keep all of the HMM accelerator instances within all of the HMM clusters  64  busy all of the time, whilst also maintaining the output HMM data. that is sent back over the PCIe interface  62 . 
       FIG. 17  is a block diagram of a preferred embodiment of an HMM accelerator  61 . The HMM accelerator  61  preferably comprises a control logic  61   a,  a MID calculator  61   b,  a transition probabilities and priors calculation and/or Look-Up-Tables and matching delay FIFO  61   c,  a scratch RAM  61   d,  a result output interface  61   e,  an HMEM  61   f,  a RMEM  61   g  and a input bus interface  61   h.  The HMEM  61   f  is used to hold the reference haplotype base identifier information and related information, including a haplotype ID. The haplotype ID is a value that can be generated by the SW-controlled CPU that will be included with the final output sum that is fed back to the CPU; this “Hap ID” is used by SW to associate a final HMM sum output with a specific reference haplotype (different jobs may take different amounts of time, so there is no guarantee that the order in which SW issues the jobs is the order in which it will receive the results from those jobs). The RMEM  61   g  holds the data associated with the read sequence(s) associated with an HMM job. 
       FIG. 18  is an illustration of programmable interconnects  72  and programmable logic blocks  71  for a field programmable gate array  70 , 
     A more detailed description is set forth in van Rooyen et al., U.S. Patent Publication Number 20140371110 for Bioinformatics Systems, Apparatuses, and Methods Executed On An Integrated Circuit Processing Platform, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. A more detailed description is set forth in van Rooyen et al., U.S. Patent Publication Number 20140309944 for Bioinformatics Systems, Apparatuses, and Methods Executed On An integrated Circuit :Processing Platform, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. A more detailed description is set forth in van Rooyen et al., U.S. Patent Publication Number 20140236490 for Bioinformatics Systems, Apparatuses, and Methods Executed On An Integrated Circuit Processing Platform, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. A more detailed description is set forth in van Rooyen et al., U.S. Patent Publication Number 20140200166 for Bioinformatics Systems, Apparatuses, and Methods Executed On An Integrated Circuit Processing PlatiOrtn, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. A more detailed description is set forth in McMillen et al., U.S. Provisional Patent Application Number 62127232, filed on Mar. 2, 2015, for Bioinformatics Systems, Apparatuses, And Methods Executed On An Integrated Circuit Processing Platform, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. A more detailed description is set forth in van Rooyen et al., U.S. Provisional Patent Application Number 62119059, filed on Feb. 20, 2015, for Bioinformatics Systems, Apparatuses, And Methods Executed On An integrated Circuit Processing Platform, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. A more detailed description is set forth in van Rooyen et at, U.S. Provisional Patent Application Number 61988128, filed on May 2, 2014, for Bioinformatics Systems, Apparatuses, And Methods Executed On An Integrated Circuit Processing Platform, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. A more detailed description of a GFET is set forth in van Rooyen, U.S. Provisional Patent Application Number 62094016, filed on Dec. 18, 2014, for Graphene FET Devices, Systems, And Methods Of Using The Same For Sequencing Nucleic Acids, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. A more detailed description of a GFET is set forth in Hoffman et al., U.S. Provisional Patent Application Number 62130594, filed on Mar. 9, 2015, for Chemically Sensitive Field Effect Transistor, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. A more detailed description of a GFET is set forth in Hoffman et al., U.S. Provisional Patent Application Number 62130598, filed on Mar. 9, 2015, for Method And System For Analysis Of Biological And Chemical Materials, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. A more detailed description of a method and system for growing and transferring a 2D material for a FET is set forth in Hoffman et al., U.S. Provisional Patent Application Number 62175351, filed on Jun. 14, 2015, for System And Method For Growing And Transferring Graphene For Use As A FET, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     From the foregoing it is believed that those skilled in the pertinent art will recognize the meritorious advancement of this invention and will readily understand that while the present invention has been described in association with a preferred embodiment thereof, and other embodiments illustrated in the accompanying drawings, numerous changes modification and substitutions of equivalents may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of this invention which is intended to be unlimited by the foregoing except as may appear in the following appended claim. Therefore, the embodiments of the invention in which an exclusive property or privilege is claimed are defined in the following appended claims.