Patent Publication Number: US-6904200-B2

Title: Multidimensional optical gratings

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 09/953,468, filed Sep. 14, 2001. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present invention relates generally to optical gratings and more particularly to new forms of such gratings capable of diffracting one or more light wavelengths concurrently. 
     BACKGROUND ART 
     Optical technology is progressing rapidly. Growing needs, particularly in the telecommunications industry, are driving this progress and there is currently a major impetus to improve existing optical systems and to develop new ones. Unfortunately, several major components still are not completely meeting manufacturing yield, field reliability, and operating capacity requirements. These failings have resulted in high costs in existing systems and are limiting the adoption of future systems. One such component is the optical grating. 
       FIG. 1   a-b  (background art) depict two variations of traditional gratings. As can be seen, the shape of the groove can vary.  FIG. 1   a  shows square steps and  FIG. 1   b  shows blazed triangles, but other shapes are also possible, e.g., sinusoidal shaped grooves, and the physics is essentially the same. 
     Such “traditional gratings” were initially made of glass with grooves, and a few are still produced in this manner today. This, however, has a number of disadvantages. For instance, the density of the grooves is limited by the capability of the ruling engine, and the quality of the grooves produced tends to decrease as elements of the ruling engine wear from usage. Production of this type of gratings is time consuming and difficult, and the cost of such gratings is therefore high. 
     Molded and holographic gratings were invented later on, and their production cost is significantly lower than for glass gratings. Unfortunately, although suitable for many applications, these gratings tend to deteriorate in harsh environments. For example, in fiber optic communications, all optical components must operate for long periods of time in temperatures ranging from sub-zero to over eighty degrees Centigrade, and in humidity ranging from zero to 100 percent (see e.g., GR-468-CORE, Generic Reliability Assurance Requirements for Optoelectronic Devices Used In Telecommunications Equipment). 
     As can also be seen in  FIG. 1   a-b , traditional gratings have the property that light has to shine on the grating surface from above. This limits the useful diffraction effect of such gratings to only one dimension, and multiple units need to be assembled if multiple dimensions (axes of direction) are required. 
     One example of an application where the need to work with multiple wavelengths and axes is common, and growing, is wavelength division multiplexing and de-multiplexing (collectively, WDM) in fiber optic communications. The use of traditional gratings in WDM usually requires either adhesives or mechanical fixtures to keep the assembly intact. Alignment is also needed to make sure that the gratings diffract light in the proper directions. The resulting assemblies formed with such traditional gratings thus tend to be significantly larger than the optical fibers being worked with and mechanical connectors are needed for connection. All of these considerations, and others, increase the cost in a fiber optic communications system. 
     A relatively recent invention is the fiber Bragg grating. The fiber Bragg grating is a periodic perturbation in the refractive index which runs lengthwise in the core of a fiber waveguide. Based on the grating period, a Bragg grating reflects light within a narrow spectral band and transmits all other wavelengths which are present but outside that band. This makes Bragg gratings useful for light signal redirection, and they are now being widely used in WDM. 
     The typical fiber Bragg grating today is a germanium-doped optical fiber that has been exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light under a phase shift mask or grating pattern. The unmasked doped sections undergo a permanent change to a slightly higher refractive index after such exposure, resulting in an interlayer or a grating having two alternating different refractive indices. This permits characteristic and useful partial reflection to then occur when a laser beam transmits through each interlayer. The reflected beam portions form a constructive interference pattern if the period of the exposed grating meets the condition:
 
2 *Λ*n   eff =λ
 
where Λ is the grating spacing, n eff  is the effective index of refraction between the unchanged and the changed indices, and λ is the laser light wavelength.
 
       FIG. 2  (background art) shows the structure of a conventional fiber Bragg grating  1  according to the prior art. A grating region  2  includes an interlayer  3  having two periodically alternating different refractive indices. As a laser beam  4  passes through the interlayer  3  partial reflection occurs, in the characteristic manner described above, forming a reflected beam  5  and a passed beam  6 . The reflected beam  5  thus produced will include a narrow range of wavelengths. For example, if the reflected beam  5  is that being worked with in an application, this separated narrow band of wavelengths may carry data which has been superimposed by modulation. The reflected beam  5  is stylistically shown in  FIG. 2  as a plurality of parts with incidence angles purposely skewed to distinguish the reflected beam  5  from the laser beam  4 . Since the reflected beam  5  is merely directed back in the direction of the original laser beam  4 , additional structure is usually also needed to separate it for actual use. 
     Unfortunately, as already noted, conventional fiber Bragg gratings and the processes used to make them have a number of problems which it is desirable to overcome. For example, the fibers usually have to be exposed one-by-one, severely limiting mass-production. Specialized handling during manufacturing is generally necessary because the dosage of the UV exposure determines the quality of the grating produced. The orientation of the fiber is also critical, and best results are achieved when the fiber is oriented in exactly the same direction as the phase shift mask. The desired period of the Bragg grating will be deviated from if the fiber is not precisely aligned, and accomplishing this, in turn, introduces mechanical problems. Thus, merely the way that the fiber work piece is held during manufacturing may produce stresses that can cause birefringes to form in the fiber and reduce the efficiency of the end product grating. 
     Once in use, conventional fiber Bragg gratings may again require special handling. The thermal expansion coefficient of the base optical fiber is often significant enough that changing environmental conditions can cause the fiber to either expand or shrink to the extent that the period of the grating and its center wavelength shift. 
     From the preceding discussion of traditional and fiber Bragg gratings it can be appreciated that there is a need for optical gratings which are better suited to the growing range of grating applications. 
     Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide optical gratings which are improved with respect to the basic ease of use and range of potential uses, and to robustness and reliability once in use. 
     Briefly, one preferred embodiment of the present invention is an optical grating with a background region of a first material, having a first refractive index, and a grid of cells within the background region. The cells are of a second material having a second refractive index. A plurality of the cells each have at least one incident surface, and also each have opposed surfaces respective to the incident surfaces. The incident surfaces are pitched such that, when the optical grating receives a light beam, first portions thereof may strike the incident surfaces, enter the cell, travel to the opposed surfaces, be reflected there from, travel back to the incident surfaces, and exit the cell as refracted beams. The grid of cells is thus optically two-dimensional by virtue of the cells having at least two of cell-to-cell and surface-to-surface optical separations such that the reflected beams will constructively interfere for a pre-determined light wavelength when it is present in the light beam. Optionally, the grid of cells may be extended from two dimensions into a three dimensional grid or lattice of the cells. 
     An advantage of the present invention is that it provides improved processes to manufacture a variety of optical gratings, particularly including optical gratings able to employ Brat the Bragg effect in multiple dimensions and for up to one light wavelength per such dimension. Thus, for instance a three-dimension or cubical grating according to the present invention may separate light of one, two, or three different wavelengths (or wavelength ranges if “chirping” is also used). 
     Another advantage of the invention is that it separates such light wavelengths in a more useful way then prior art systems, particularly being able to direct separated narrow-band light wavelengths perpendicular to the paths of the entering beam and any exiting beam of non-separated wavelengths. Furthermore, when multiple light wavelengths are separated, their beams are inherently also widely separated apart. 
     Another advantage of the invention is that it may employ already well known and widely used manufacturing processes and materials, adopted from conventional electronic semiconductor integrated circuit (IC) and micro electro-mechanical system (MEMS) manufacturing. Highly desirable attributes of such processes may thus be imparted to the inventive processes and the products produced there with, including mass automated manufacturing, rigorous quality control, high yields, and low cost. 
     Another advantage of the invention, coincident with the above advantage, is that the invention is integratable directly into products by conventional IC and MEMS manufacturing processes. Notable also in this regard, the invention may be constructed of similar size to the devices it may typically be integrated with, and thus avoid the problems attendant with providing and using connectors, adapters, etc. 
     Another advantage of the invention is that it does not use fiber based media, thus eliminating a number of disadvantages in both fiber based manufacturing processes and fiber media based grating products. 
     And another advantage of the invention, coincident with the above advantages, is that the invention is economically in comparison to prior art optical gratings. 
     These and other objects and advantages of the present invention will become clear to those skilled in the art in view of the description of the best presently known mode of carrying out the invention and the industrial applicability of the preferred embodiment as described herein and as illustrated in the several figures of the drawings. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The purposes and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following detailed description in conjunction with the appended figures of drawings in which: 
         FIG. 1   a-b  (background art) are cross sectional views of two traditional gratings, with depictions of light beams arriving incident to and being redirected by the gratings; 
         FIG. 2  (background art) is a cross sectional view of a conventional fiber Bragg grating, including a stylized depiction of a laser beam traveling through the grating; 
         FIG. 3  is a cross sectional view of a one-dimensional (1D) or linear Bragg grating, including a stylized depiction of a laser beam traveling through the grating; 
         FIG. 4   a-p  are a series of views at different stages of manufacture of one embodiment of a 1D Bragg grating, wherein: 
         FIG. 4   a  is a cross section side view of the Bragg grating as a substrate is prepared; 
         FIG. 4   b  is a cross section side view of the Bragg grating as a layer of photoresist is deposited; 
         FIG. 4   c  is a cross section side view of the Bragg grating as it is exposed under a pattern; 
         FIG. 4   d  is a top plan view of the Bragg grating after it is exposed; 
         FIG. 4   e  is a top plan view of the Bragg grating after a transmissive layer is deposited; 
         FIG. 4   f  is a cross section side view of the Bragg grating at the stage in  FIG. 4   e;    
         FIG. 4   g  is a top plan view of the Bragg grating after the exposed photoresist is removed; 
         FIG. 4   h  is a cross section side view of the Bragg grating at the stage in  FIG. 4   g;    
         FIG. 4   i  is a cross section side view of the Bragg grating after a new layer of photoresist is deposited; 
         FIG. 4   j  is a cross section side view of the Bragg grating as it is exposed under a pattern; 
         FIG. 4   k  is a top plan view of the Bragg grating after it is exposed; 
         FIG. 4   l  is a cross section side view of the Bragg grating after the exposed photoresist and portions of the layer below are removed; 
         FIG. 4   m  is a top plan view of the Bragg grating at the stage in  FIG. 4   l;    
         FIG. 4   n  is a cross section side view of the Bragg grating after a material having a different refractive index than the transmissive layer is deposited; 
         FIG. 4   o  is a cross section side view of the Bragg grating after excess material is removed; and 
         FIG. 4   p  is a cross section side view of the Bragg grating after a new transmissive layer is deposited; 
         FIG. 5   a-b  are cross section side views depicting laser beams traveling through the finished Bragg grating of  FIG. 4   a-p , wherein  FIG. 5   a  shows how a beam will travel with minimum loss, and  FIG. 5   b  shows how a beam will encounter constructive interference when the Bragg condition is met; 
         FIG. 6   a-b  are cross section side views at different stages of manufacture of a second embodiment of a Bragg grating, wherein  FIG. 6   a  shows the grating after impurities are diffused into a substrate, and  FIG. 6   b  shows the grating after a mask has been applied and additional impurities diffused into the substrate; 
         FIG. 7  is a flow chart summarizing a process for creating the Bragg grating; 
         FIG. 8  is a flow chart showing application of the process to create the embodiment of the Bragg grating of  FIG. 3 ; 
         FIG. 9  is a flow chart showing application of the process to create the embodiment of the Bragg grating of  FIG. 5   a-b;    
         FIG. 10  is a flow chart showing application of the process to create the embodiment of the Bragg grating of  FIG. 6   a-b;    
         FIG. 11  is a schematic representation summarizing the structure and operation of a one-dimensional (1D) or linear grating, such as the Bragg gratings of  FIG. 3-6   b;    
         FIG. 12  is a perspective view showing that the principles of the linear grating of  FIG. 11  can be extended to a 2D or planar grating; 
         FIG. 13  is a perspective view showing that the principles of the linear grating and the planar grating can be further extended to a 3D or cubical grating; 
         FIG. 14  is a schematic representation of surface-to-surface or intra-cell refraction effects in a grating; 
         FIG. 15  is a schematic representation of cell-to-cell interference between two vertically adjacent cells in a grating; 
         FIG. 16  is a schematic representation of cell-to-cell interference between two horizontally adjacent cells in a grating; 
         FIG. 17  is a schematic representation of general cell-to-cell interference, wherein a grating contains three cells two in adjacent columns; 
         FIG. 18  is a schematic representation of the general case of  FIG. 17  extended to operate in two dimensions, on two wavelengths, by using non symmetrical relationships in a generic grating; 
         FIG. 19  is a schematic representation of the non symmetrical generic grating of  FIG. 18  as it might typically be applied in an actual planar or cubical grating according to the present invention; and 
         FIG. 20  is a perspective view of a three-dimensional (3D) generic grating. 
       In the various figures of the drawings, like references are used to denote like or similar elements or steps. 
     
    
    
     BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION 
     Preferred embodiments of the present invention are multidimensional optical gratings, particularly including a two-dimensional (2D) variation which will herein be termed a “planar grating” and a three-dimensional (3D) variation which will herein be termed a “cubical grating.” 
     A basic narrow bandwidth Bragg type grating, that is a one-dimensional (1D) or a “linear grating,” is used as the primary example for an initial discussion of manufacturing techniques that may be employed for 1D, 2D, and 3D variations of the gratings. Linear gratings and such manufacturing techniques, generally, are the subject of the present inventors&#39; co pending patent application Ser. No. 09/953,468, hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     As illustrated in the various drawings herein, and particularly in the views of  FIG. 12 and 13 , the 2D preferred embodiment of the invention is depicted by the general reference character  600  and the 3D preferred embodiment of the invention is depicted by the general reference character  700 . 
       FIG. 3  is a cross sectional view depicting a one-dimensional (1D) or linear Bragg grating  100 , with a laser beam  102  stylistically represented as traveling through it. The Bragg grating  100  includes a substrate  104 , atop which the major operational elements have been constructed. The substrate  104  may be a material such as silicon wafer, glass plate, etc. A reflective layer  106  has been deposited atop the substrate  104 . Suitable materials for this include inherently reflective ones, such as metallic coatings like gold, silver, or aluminum, as well as materials having a low refractive index relative to the refractive indices of the materials in a grating region (described next). 
     A grating region  108  is provided atop the reflective layer  106 . Various materials and manufacturing techniques may be used to construct this grating region  108  and, in fact, a substantial part of the following discussion covers such variations. For purposes of this introduction, the grating region  108  can be viewed simply as including an interlayer  110  of regions of a first transmissive material  112  and a second transmissive material  114 . The first transmissive material  112  and second transmissive material  114  have different refractive indices and are interspaced by one-quarter of the wavelength of light which the Bragg grating  100  will filter (or by an odd numbered multiple of one-quarter wavelength). 
     An over-fill layer  116  is provided atop the grating region  108 . It may be a material having a different refractive index, relative to the refractive indices of the other materials in the grating region  108 , it may be additional of the transmissive materials  112 ,  114  (as is shown here), or it may be a metallic coating similar to the reflective layer  106  used for similar purposes below the grating region  108 . 
     Operationally, the Bragg grating  100  receives the laser beam  102  in the manner shown in FIG.  3 . [For simplified explanation, “laser beam” is used herein as a generic term to represent all suitable light beams. Although light from laser sources is today predominantly used in applications where the Bragg grating  100  will be widely employed, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that light from other sources may be used as well.] The reflective layer  106  serves to reflect strayed portions of the laser beam  102  back in the original direction. Similarly, the over-fill layer  116  also does this. Here the over-fill layer  116  is of the same material as the second transmissive material  114  and it reflects the laser beam  102  because its index of refraction is substantially higher than that of the surrounding air. 
     As the laser beam  102  passes through the interlayer  110  of the grating region  108  it encounters the boundaries between the first and second transmissive materials  112 ,  114 . In particular, it encounters the respectively different refractive indices there. Partial reflection then occurs as the laser beam  102  passes through each boundary, forming a reflected beam  118  and a passed beam  120 . [The reflected beam  118  is stylistically shown in  FIG. 3  as a plurality of parts with incidence angles purposely skewed to distinguish the reflected beam  118  from the laser beam  102 .] The reflected beam  118  will include a narrow range of wavelengths, formed in the characteristic manner of the Bragg condition by constructive interference in the light that is reflected, and the passed beam  120  includes the light of other wavelengths that were also present in the laser beam  102 . 
       FIG. 4   a-p  are a series of views at different stages of manufacture of one of a presently preferred embodiments of the Bragg grating  100 .  FIG. 4   a  is a side view of a substrate  202 . As already noted, the substrate is of a suitable material upon which the major operational elements are constructed. At this initial stage the substrate  202  is essentially homogeneous.  FIG. 4   b  is a side view after a photoresist layer  204  has been deposited atop the substrate  202 . 
       FIG. 4   c  is a side view as the Bragg grating  100  is exposed. A photomask  206  having a pre-designated pattern  208  is provided and the Bragg grating  100  is exposed through it to light  212  which is appropriate for causing a photochemical reaction in the photoresist layer  204 . This produces an unexposed region  204   a  and an exposed region  204   b .  FIG. 4   d  is a top view of the Bragg grating  100  after exposure, particularly depicting the unexposed region  204   a and the exposed region  204   b . Typically these would be termed to now have negative resist and positive resist, respectively. 
       FIG. 4   e  is a top view of the Bragg grating  100  after a transmissive layer  214  is deposited. As can be seen, some of the unexposed region  204   a  and some of the exposed region  204   b  of the photoresist layer  204  are left uncovered at this stage.  FIG. 4   f  is a side view at this stage. The transmissive layer  214  has a thickness exceeding the height of light beams with which the Bragg grating  100  will later be used. In the inventor&#39;s presently preferred embodiment SiO2 is used for the transmissive layer  214 . This material is easily “worked” as needed and its refractive index, of nominally 1.52, is also good Many other materials may also be used, however. Without limitation, other suitable candidates which are widely used industrially are Al2O3, with a refractive index of 1.63, and MgF2, with a refractive index of 1.38. [Still other candidates include amorphous silicon-hydrate (SiH, SiH2, SiH3, SiH4), B, P, ZnSe, ZnS, GaP, SrTiO3, Si, Ge, InSb, YSZ, AlAs, BaTiO3, BiSiO2O, Bi12GeO2O, AlN, BN, AgGaS2, LiTaO3, CuCaS2, TlI, TlCl, TlBr, AgCl, AgBr, AgI, AgGaSe2, KnbO3, and even some organic materials.] 
     The unexposed region  204   a  remains once the exposed region  204   b  is removed (via any of various conventional means, chemical etching, dry etch techniques, subliming by baking, etc.).  FIG. 4   g  is a top plan view and  FIG. 4   h  is a side view of the Bragg grating  100  after removal. As can particularly be seen in  FIG. 4   h , removing the exposed region  204   b  leaves an air gap  216  between the substrate  202  and the transmissive layer  214 . [Note, the “air gap” here may ultimately contain any gas present in the environment surrounding the Bragg grating  100 . The inert gasses, N2, CO2, air, other gas mixtures, etc. are examples of gases commonly used in electronic equipment today. For that matter, the “air gap” can even be a vacuum. As will be seen in the operational discussion, below, the index of refraction of the air gap is what is key, and not what fills it.] 
       FIG. 4   i  is a side view of the Bragg grating  100  after a new photoresist layer  218  has been deposited, and  FIG. 4   j  is a side view as it is exposed. A photomask  220  having a grating pattern  222  is here provided and the Bragg grating  100  is exposed through it to light  224 . This produces an unexposed region  218   a  and a plurality of exposed regions  218   b .  FIG. 4   k  is a top view of the Bragg grating  100  after it is exposed in this manner, particularly showing the unexposed region  218   a and the exposed regions  218   b.    
       FIG. 4   l  is a side view of the Bragg grating  100  after the exposed regions  218   b  of the photoresist layer  218  and portions of the transmissive layer  214  below it have been removed. In  FIG. 4   l  the unexposed region  218   a  is also shown as having already been removed. A key point to note, for this manufacturing variation, is that portions of the transmissive layer  214  are not removed so deeply that the air gap  216  is reached. The reason for this is provided in an operational discussion, below.  FIG. 4   m  is a top view of the Bragg grating  100  at this stage. From  FIG. 4   l  and  FIG. 4   m  it can be appreciated that an array of open trenches now defines the grating region  226  in the transmissive layer  214 . 
       FIG. 4   n  is a side view of the Bragg grating  100  after an over-fill layer  228  is deposited into the array of trenches. The over-fill layer  228  is of a material having a slightly different refractive index than the transmissive layer  214 , and it fills in the openings grating region  226  so that a linearly extending interlayer array  230  is formed. The material of the over-fill layer  228  may be one of the same set of candidate materials for the transmissive layer  214 , e.g., Si, SiO2, Al2O3, MgF2, etc., but it will either be of a different such material or, if the same, it will be treated to achieve a different refractive index. 
       FIG. 4   o  is a side view of the Bragg grating after excess material from the over-fill layer  228  has been removed. One process suitable for this is polishing. The unexposed region  218   a was shown as having been already removed in  FIG. 4   l  but it could alternately have been left, the over-fill layer  228  applied atop it, and then it and the excess from the over-fill layer  228  removed together. In some manufacturing scenarios this is a matter of mere choice, but in others there may be an incentive to remove the over-fill layer  228  earlier. For instance, in common semiconductor fabrication processes organic photoresist materials are used. These are generally suitable for use here as well, but with early removal desirable to avoid contaminating the over-fill layer  228  as it is later applied. 
     Finally,  FIG. 4   p  is a side view of the Bragg grating  100  after a new transmissive layer  232  is deposited. In this embodiment the inventors prefer that the transmissive layer  214  and the transmissive layer  232  have the same refractive index, and thus that they be of the same material. This is not a requirement, however. The transmissive layer  232  may, for instance, be of the same material and have the same refractive index as the over-fill layer  228 . As will become more clear in the discussion below, it is desirable that the over-fill layer  228  have a refractive index substantially different than that of air (refractive index=1). Thus a material like, say, MgF2 with a refractive index of 1.38, may be quite suitable for use in the over-fill layer  228  but not in the transmissive layer  232 . This completes construction of the Bragg grating  100 . 
       FIG. 5   a-b  are cross section side views depicting a light beam  240  traveling through the finished Bragg grating  100  of  FIG. 4   a-p . In  FIG. 5   a  the light beam  240  has strayed portions  242 , some of which go upward and others of which go downward. The downward traveling of the strayed portions  242  encounter an interface  244  at the juncture of the transmissive layer  214  and the air gap  216 , and are reflected back into the transmissive layer  214 . Similarly, the upward traveling of the strayed portions  242  encounter an interface  246  at the juncture of the transmissive layer  232  and the air above the Bragg grating  100 , and are reflected back into the transmissive layer  232 . Thus the interface  244  created at the air gap  216 , and the disparity between the refractive indices, is used to achieve reflection This is structurally different than the embodiment of  FIG. 3 , where the reflective layer  106  was deposited below the grating region  108 , but it is functionally equivalent The light beam  240  is thus here also able to travel through the Bragg grating  100  with minimum power loss. 
       FIG. 5   b  shows how the main portion of the light beam  240  encounters the interlayer array  230  in the grating region  226 , how a reflected portion  248  (stylistically shown here also as a plurality of parts with purposely skewed incidence angles) is created, and how a passed portion ions  250  is passed. The reflected portion  248  will include a narrow range of wavelengths, formed by constructive interference, and the passed portion  250  will include the light of other wavelengths that are also present in the light beam  240 . 
       FIG. 6   a-b  are side views at different stages of manufacture of a second embodiment of a Bragg grating  100 .  FIG. 6   a  shows the Bragg grating  100  in an early stage of manufacture, after a substrate  302  has had impurities diffused into a grating region  304 .  FIG. 6   b  shows the Bragg grating  100  in a later stage of manufacture, after a mask  306  having a suitable open grating pattern  308  has been applied and additional impurities have been diffused into the grating region  304  below the openings in the grating pattern  308  to form a linearly extending interlayer array  310 . The Bragg grating  100  here can then be finished, in straightforward manner, by removing the mask  306  and applying an over-fill layer (not shown). 
     This approach employs the fact that the refractive indices for certain materials will change when impurities are diffused into them. One well known example is silicon: the refractive index for pure silicon is 3.5 but reduces to as low as 2.1 when a heavy dosage of hydrogen is diffused into it. The refractive index can further be reduced to even lower than 1.5 by incorporating different levels of oxygen. Another example material is silica (SiO2): when it&#39;s diffused with germanium and under exposure of UV light its refractive index increases slightly. The Bragg grating  100  depicted in  FIG. 6   a-b  can thus take advantage of these properties to obtain the desired characteristics in the interlayer array  310 . 
       FIG. 7  is a flow chart summarizing a process  400  for creating the Bragg grating  100 . The process  400  starts in a step  402 , where basic and conventional set up operations can be performed, as needed and as desired. 
     In a step  404  a substrate is provided and prepared. This serves as the basis of a workpiece for the rest of the process  400  and for construction of the Bragg grating  100 . 
     In a step  406  a lower reflective means is constructed 
     In a step  408  a grating region having an interlayer is constructed. In a step  410  an upper reflective means is constructed. 
     Finally, in a step  412  the process  400  ends. This is where basic and conventional wrap up operations can be performed, as needed and as desired. The process  400 , which in deed has been described very generally, is now finished. 
       FIG. 8  is a flow chart showing application of the process  400  to create the Bragg grating  100  of FIG.  3 . The conventional or straightforward step  402  (start) and step  404  (substrate preparation) again occur. The step  406  (constructing a lower reflective means) here includes a single sub-step  422  for providing a reflective layer, such as a metallic coating, onto the (substrate) workpiece. 
     The step  408  (constructing the grating region and interlayer) here includes a number of sub-steps. The first of these is a sub-step  424  to provide a first transitive layer on the workpiece, atop the reflective layer. In a sub-step  426  a first photoresist layer is then provided on the workpiece, atop the firs transmissive layer. In a sub-step  428  the workpiece is exposed under a photomask. The photomask particularly has a pattern as already described, e.g., for a simple Bragg grating a pattern interspaced by one-quarter of the wavelength (or by an odd numbered multiple of that) of the light which will be filtered. 
     In a sub-step  430  the exposed portions of the first photoresist layer are removed. Underlying portions of the first transmissive layer are also removed to a desired depth. 
     In a sub-step  432  a second transmissive layer is applied to the workpiece, atop the unetched portions of the first photoresist layer and filling in the first transmissive layer. The second transmissive layer particularly has a different index of refraction than the first transmissive layer. 
     In a sub-step  434  excess material, that is the upper most material here, is removed from the workpiece. Specifically, the second transmissive layer and unetched portions of the first photoresist layer are removed to a depth at least flush with the top most portions of the first transmissive layer. This completes the step  408  (grating region and interlayer construction). 
     The step  410  (constructing the upper reflective means) here includes a single sub-step  436  for providing a third transmissive layer on the workpiece, atop the remaining first and second transmissive layer portions. This third transmissive layer has the same index of refraction as the first or second transmissive layer. In a final step  412  the process  400  is now finished. 
       FIG. 9  is a flow chart showing application of the process  400  to create the Bragg grating  100  of  FIG. 5   a-b . The conventional or straightforward step  402  (start) and step  404  (substrate preparation) again occur. 
     The step  406  (constructing a lower reflective means) here includes a number of sub-steps. The first of these is a sub-step  438  to provide a first photoresist layer on the (substrate) workpiece. In a sub-step  440  the workpiece is exposed under a first photomask. In a sub-step  442  a first transmissive layer is provided on the workpiece, atop the first photoresist layer. In a sub-step  444  the exposed portion of the first photoresist layer is removed, leaving an air gap between the substrate and the first transmissive layer. 
     The step  408  (constructing the grating region and interlayer) here also includes a number of sub-steps. In fact, in this variation on the process  400  the sub-steps  442 ,  444  are part of both step  406  and step  408 . The rest of the step  408  continues with a sub-step  446  where a second photoresist layer is applied to the workpiece, atop the first transmissive layer. In a sub-step  448  the workpiece is exposed under a second photomask having a suitable pattern. 
     In a sub-step  450  the exposed portions of the second photoresist layer and the underlying first transmissive layer are removed to a desired depth. This leaves an array of openings or trenches. 
     In a sub-step  452  a second transmissive layer is applied to the workpiece, atop the unetched portions of the second photoresist layer and filling in the trench array in the first transmissive layer. This second transmissive layer has a different index of refraction than the first transmissive layer. 
     In a sub-step  454  the upper most material, specifically the second transmissive layer and unetched portions of the second photoresist layer, is removed to a depth at least flush with the top most portions of the first transmissive layer. This completes the step  408  (grating region and interlayer construction). 
     The step  410  (constructing the upper reflective means) here includes the single sub-step  436  for providing a third transmissive layer on the workpiece, atop the remaining first and second transmissive layer portions. This can be essentially the same as the step  410  and sub-step  436  of FIG.  8 . In a final step  412  the process  400  is now finished. 
       FIG. 10  is a flow chart showing application of the process  400  to create the Bragg grating  100  of  FIG. 6   a-b . The conventional or straightforward step  402  (start) and step  404  (substrate preparation) again occur. 
     The step  406  (constructing a lower reflective means) here may be viewed as a variation of the approach used for step  410  in FIG.  8  and  FIG. 9 , or as a variation of the approach used for step  406   FIG. 9. A  lower reflector is formed by the interface of the material of the substrate with air or another material below the substrate. As discussed, below, the grating region need not extend all the way down and through the substrate, and the excess material in the substrate thus can serve as part of the lower reflector. In this regard, step  404  and step  406  are essentially merged. Alternately, a reflective material can be applied, similar to the reflective coating used in sub-step  422  in FIG.  8 . 
     The step  408  (constructing the grating region and interlayer) here includes a number of sub-steps. The first of these is a sub-step  456  to dope a portion of the substrate (or a first transmissive layer atop a substrate) which will ultimately become the grating region with an impurity. In a sub-step  458  a mask is constructed on the workpiece, atop the grating region. In a sub-step  460  an additional or other impurity is doped into the non-masked portions of the grating region. In a sub-step  462  the mask is removed. 
     The step  410  (constructing the upper reflective means) here may include the approach shown in  FIG. 8  for step  406 , using sub-step  422 , or it may include the approach shown in FIG.  8  and  FIG. 9  for step  408 , using sub-step  436 . Finally, in a step  412  the process  400  is finished. It is, however, a straightforward extension of the process  400  to use multiple iterations of the various steps, to construct the sophisticated variations on the Bragg grating  100  which are now described. 
     With reference back to the earlier figures, more than two transmissive materials can be placed into the path a light beam will encounter. In  FIG. 5   b  two materials having two indices of refraction are present in the transmissive layer  214  and in the interlayer array  230 . In  FIG. 6   b , the substrate  302  is one material having one index of refraction, and the interlayer array  310  is effectively of two other materials (after it is doped or has impurity diffused into it). Even variations on the Bragg grating  100  like those in  FIG. 3 ,  FIG. 5   a-b , and  FIG. 6   a-b  are relatively simple, and the true scope of the invention is much broader. It is a straightforward extension of the process  400  to use multiple materials (actual different materials or effectively so by treatment to change the indices of refraction). One reason to do this is to handle multiple frequencies in a light beam, or to broaden the bandwidth of the frequencies filtered. Similarly, the spacing of the regions in the interlayers  110 ,  230 ,  310  can be changed to do this, much in the manner of periodically “chirped” prior art Bragg gratings. 
     One sophisticated manufacturing technique which may be used is to tune the indices of refraction. For instance, amorphous silicon-hydrate (SiH, SiH2, SiH3, SiH4) can be “tuned” by temperature. This can be used to obtain specific desired indices of refraction, or to apply a gradient in the indices in one or more materials. In this manner, the index of refraction is another factor which can be controlled during grating fabrication to achieve chirped or other sophisticated grating types. 
       FIG. 11  is used next to summarize the one-dimensional (1D) or linear grating.  FIG. 12 and 13  then help in an introduction illustrating that the principles of the one-dimensional (1D) or linear grating can be extended to provide a two-dimensional (2D), planar grating, and also a three-dimensional (3D), cubical grating.  FIG. 14-17  support derivations extending the principles to the multidimensional, 2D and 3D cases. And  FIG. 18-20  depict how gratings having multiple dimensions may have different optical properties relative to each such dimension. 
       FIG. 11  depicts the structure and operation of a 1D or linear grating  500  (e.g., any of the variations of the Bragg grating  100  already discussed). The linear grating  500  is made of at least two different transparent materials. One of these serves as a background material  502  and one or more others are interlayer materials, with multiple regions of one interlayer material  504  represented here. 
     The diffraction efficiency in the linear grating  500  depends on the effective refractive index of the particular interlayer material  504  and the background material  502 . The simplest case is depicted in  FIG. 11 , where just two materials are employed having refractive indices of n 1  and n 2 . The background material  502  can have either n 1  or n 2 , depending on manufacturing convenience, and here it has arbitrarily been made n 1 . 
     The regions of the interlayer material  504  (n 2 ) are provided with a thickness  506  such that the phase difference between the reflecting portions of a light beam from both surfaces of a region are multiples of 360 degrees. This insures that constructive interference for a specific wavelength can occur. A similar rational, achieving constructive interference, applies to providing a separation  508  between the regions of the interlayer material  504 . 
     In operation, a light beam  510  may be directed into the linear grating  500 , as shown in  FIG. 11 , to form a reflected beam  512  (shown here skewed for emphasis) and a passed beam  514 . The reflected beam  512  will contain the light of the specific wavelength for which constructive interference occurs, and the passed beam  514  will contain all other wavelengths. Thus, the linear grating  500  can be used as a filter to obtain light of high wavelength purity. Alternately, in the manner of prior art gratings, the thicknesses  506  and the separations  508  of the regions of the interlayer material  504  may be varied to “chirp” the linear grating  500  and thereby broaden the reflected beam  512  to include a range of wavelengths. 
       FIG. 12  is a stylized perspective view showing that the principles of the linear grating  500  of  FIG. 11  can be extended to a 2D or planar grating  600 . The planar grating  600  has a background  602  containing a grid of cells  604 . The background  602  has a refractive index, say, n 1 , and the cells  604  have at least one different refractive index. For simplicity in this discussion, the cells  604  are all of the same material and refractive index, say, n 2 . 
     In  FIG. 12  an XYZ-axes icon  606  shows a standard Cartesian reference scheme used to facilitate this discussion. The cells  604  have a respective thickness  608  and separation  610  along the X-axis, and also a respective thickness  612  and separation  614  along the Y-axis. These can be chosen in much the same manner as the thickness  506  and the separation  508  of the linear grating  500 . Furthermore, if desired, the respective sets of these may be chosen to be different, to obtain constructive interference for different specific wavelengths (discussed in more detail, presently). 
       FIG. 12  also includes stylized representations of a light beam  616 , a diffracted beam  618 , and a passed beam  620 , to depict how the planar grating  600  employs constructive interference in the XY-plane. The light beam  616  may contain a number of light wavelengths, including one which meets the Bragg condition for the thicknesses  608 ,  612 , separations  610 ,  614 , and refractive indices here. The diffracted beam  618  will then contain only light of the wavelength meeting the Bragg condition provided for, while the passed beam  620  will contain the other wavelengths present. 
       FIG. 13  is a stylized perspective view showing that the principles of the linear grating  500  and the planar grating  600  can be further extended to a 3D or cubical grating  700 . The cubical grating  700  has a background  702  containing a grid of cells  704 . The background  702  has a particular refractive index and the cells  704  have one or more other refractive indices. For simplicity, the cells  704  here are all of the same material. 
     In  FIG. 13  an XYZ-axes icon  706  shows a standard Cartesian reference scheme used to facilitate this discussion The cells  704  have respective thicknesses along the X-axis, Y-axis, and Z-axis, and also respective separations along each of these axes. If desired, these respective dimension sets may also be chosen to be different, to obtain constructive interference for different specific wavelengths. That is the case here and two of the three possible sets of thicknesses and separations have been chosen to be different. 
       FIG. 13  also includes stylized representations of a light beam  708 , a first diffracted beam  710 , a second diffracted beam  712 , and a passed beam  714 . The cubical grating  700  here employs one condition of constructive interference in the XY-plane as well as a second condition of constructive interference in the ZX-plane. The light beam  708  may contain a number of light wavelengths, including two which meet the respective Bragg conditions designed for here. The first diffracted beam  710  will thus contain the light wavelength subject to diffraction in the XY-plane, the second diffracted beam  712  will thus contain the light wavelength subject to diffraction in the YZ-plane, and the passed beam  714  will contain the other wavelengths. This is now explained in further detail in a coverage of the principles underlying the inventive planar grating  600  and the inventive cubical grating  700 . 
     Turning now to derivations of how the principles in one dimension extend to multiple dimensions,  FIG. 14  illustrates cell interference (based on intra-cell refraction) in a generic grating  800 . A background  802  is provided having a refractive index n 1 , and is shown here with a single cell  804  (potentially one of many which may be present in embodiments of planar or cubical gratings according to the present invention). The cell  80  is of a material having a different refractive index, n 2 , and it has a thickness  806 ( d ). 
     When a light beam  808  (carrying a wavelength λ) travels through the background  802  (medium n 1 ) and shines on a first surface  810  of the cell  804  at an incidence angle θ 1 , a first reflected portion  812  (of the light beam  808 ) is produced and reflected from the cell  804 , as shown. Concurrently, as similarly occurs in the linear grating, the rest of the light beam  808  transmits into the cell  804  (medium n 2 ) as a first refracted portion  814 . This first refracted portion  814  is refracted at the first surface  810  according to the law of refraction, or Snell&#39;s law:
 
 n   1 *sin θ 1   =n   2 *sin θ 2 ,
 
where θ 2  is the refracted angle in the cell  804 . The first refracted portion  814  then travels through the cell  804  until it encounters a second surface  816  of the cell  804 , where part of it is reflected as a second reflected portion  818  and the rest exits the cell  804  as a transmitted portion  820 .
 
     The second reflected portion  818  travels back to the first surface  810 , where it is refracted back into the background  802  as a second refracted portion  822 . This second refracted portion  822  constructively interferes with the first reflected portion  812  if the thickness  806 ( d ) and the refracted angle θ 2  satisfy the condition (based on Bragg&#39;s law):
 
2 *n   2   *d *cos θ 2   =k*λ,   Eq. 1:
 
where k is an integer.
 
     The transmitted portion  820  simply exits the cell  804  and continues to propagate in the original direction of the light beam  808 , potentially to encounter and interact with another cell, and repeat the phenomenon. 
     It follows that by design with proper values for n 1 , n 2 , d, and the incidence angle θ 1 , that portions of the light beam  808  can be made to constructively interfere and, in a grating constructed accordingly, the cells will behave like scatterers, to scatter light beams in a designated direction. 
     On the other hand, there also exists the possibility of cell-to-cell interference. In order to employ this to also achieve constructive interference between adjacent cells, certain conditions also have to be met.  FIG. 15  depicts cell-to-cell interference between two vertically adjacent cells, and  FIG. 16  depicts cell-to-cell interference between two horizontally adjacent cells. 
     Turning first to  FIG. 15 , it depicts the generic grating  800 , again, with the background  802 , but now containing a lattice of two of the cells  804  which are vertically aligned. The reflected intensity will be maximum if the optical path difference (OPD v ) between the cells  804  meets the condition:
 
OPD v =2*δ 1 =2 *n   1   *b *cos θ 1   =m*λ, 
 
where δ 1  is the distance shown, b is a vertical separation  826  between the two adjacent cells, and m is an integer.
 
     Turning next to  FIG. 16 , it similarly depicts the generic grating  800 , only now with the background  802  containing a lattice of two of the cells  804  which are horizontally aligned. The reflected intensity here will be maximum if the optical path difference (OPD h ) between the cells  804  meets the condition:
 
OPD h =δ 1 −δ 2 =2 *n   1   *a *sin θ 1 =1*λ,
 
where δ 1  and δ 2  are the distances shown, a is a horizontal separation  828  between the two adjacent cells, and 1 is an integer.
 
       FIG. 17  depicts a general case for cell-to-cell interference, wherein the generic grating  800  now contains three cells  804 , in adjacent columns. The reflected intensity will be maximum if the optical path difference (OPD) between these cells  804  meets the condition:
 OPD=δ 1 −δ 2 =2 *n   1 *( a   2   +c   2 ) ½ *cos(φ−θ 1 )= m*λ,   Eq. 2: 
where δ 1  and δ 2  are the distances shown, a is the horizontal separation  828  between two adjacent cells, b is the vertical separation  826  between the two adjacent cells, c=is a vertical separation  830  between two cells in adjacent columns, φ is the angle shown (essentially, a measure of cell-to-cell dis-alignment relative to the incidence surfaces), θ 1  is the angle of light beam incidence, and m is an integer.
 
       FIG. 18  depicts the general case of  FIG. 17  extended to operate two dimensionally, on two wavelengths by using non symmetrical relationships in a grating  850 . A background  852  (having refractive index n 1 ) here contains three cells  854  (having refractive index n 2 ). The cells  854  have a horizontal thickness  856 ( x ), a vertical thickness  858 ( y ), a horizontal separation  860 ( a ), a first vertical separation  862 ( e ), and a second vertical separation  864 ( f ). A light beam, stylistically represented as first portions  866  having a first wavelength λ 1  and second portions  868  having a second wavelength λ 2 , approaches the cells  854 . The first portions  866  are then scattered as shown if Eq. 2 is satisfied with respect to θ 1 . Similarly, the second portions  868 ) are scattered as shown if Eq. 2 is satisfied with respect to θ 2 . 
       FIG. 19  is a diagram of the grating  850  of  FIG. 18  as it might typically be applied in an actual planar or cubical grating according to the present invention. Since the “pitch” of each grating cell-surface determines a “resonance” wavelength, by varying the pitch and the cell spacing in a two-dimensional grating an incoming multiple-wavelength laser beam can be sorted into single-wavelength beams in a spatial domain. Since the parameters of each individual grating unit can be made accurately with semiconductor-like manufacturing process, the directions of each single-wavelength laser beam can be made parallel, for use in ultimate applications. 
       FIG. 20  is a perspective view of a three-dimensional (3D) grating  880 . In the grating  880  a background material (not shown, but of a material having refractive index n 1 ) contains non symmetrical cubic cells  882  (of a material having refractive index n 2 ). An incoming light beam including three wavelengths λ 1 , λ 2 , λ 3 , stylistically represented as first portions  884 , second portions  886 , and third portions  888 , is incident to the cells  882  on their surfaces. With respect to each of the three different incident surfaces and opposed surface sets, the cells  882  each behave like a “scatterer” according to Eq. 1 and 2, above. 
     Firstly, with respect to Eq. 1, the light wavelengths are each respectively scattered by a different set of opposite surfaces if:
 
2 *n   2   *d   i *cos θ i   =m   i *λ i ,
 
where d i  is the respective cell thickness perpendicular to the “scattering” surface, θ i  is the respective refracted angle inside the cell, and m i  is an integer respectively in each dimension. In fact, λ i  can be viewed as the “inter-cell resonant wavelength” for opposite cell surfaces optically separated by d i .
 
     Secondly, with respect to Eq. 2, the light wavelengths are each respectively scattered by a different incident surface if:
 
OPD i =2 *n   1   *a   i *cos(φ i−θ   i )= m   i *λ i ,
 
where OPD i  is the optical path difference between the cell-to-cell incident surfaces, a i  is the cell-to-cell separation, φ i  is the angle of cell-to-cell dis-alignment (relative to the incidence surfaces), θ i  is the angle of light beam incidence to the incidence surfaces, and m i  is an integer.
 
     There are a number of factors which provide the present invention with its novel abilities. For constructing the invention, these may be tailored individually or collectively, and the following, without limitation, now discusses some of these factors. 
     The background material&#39;s index of refraction (n 1 ) can be considered by itself. While many embodiments will intentionally keep this constant throughout the grating, it can also be controlled to craft sophisticated embodiments of the invention. Using micro-fabrication techniques it is a simple matter to make different regions of the background material have different indices of refraction. Conceptually, this is can be viewed as constructing a number of contiguous gratings. It is useful to work with multiple light wavelengths in the gratings. More complex micro-fabrication techniques, however, also permit making all, or one or more parts, of the background material have indices of refraction which vary. For instance, a gradient can be imposed by controlled doping during grating fabrication. This permits constructing gratings that work with a range of light wavelengths (somewhat analogous in effect to conventional chirped gratings). 
     In multi-dimensional contexts such a gradient need not extend merely in a single-dimensional, lengthwise manner, like the light beam  510  progressing through the liner grating  500  in FIG.  11 . For example, if the index of refraction were varied from, say, the top-left corner to the bottom-right corner in the linear grating  850  in  FIG. 19 , the first portions  866  (λ 1 ) and the second portions  868  (λ 2 ) would both contain broadened wavelength response (i.e., each be “chirped”). Similarly, if the index of refraction were varied from corner to corner in the cubical grating  880  of  FIG. 20 , the three respective portions  884 ,  886 ,  888  (λ 1 , λ 2 , λ 3 ) there would each be wavelength broadened. 
     Next the cell material&#39;s index of refraction (n 2 ) can be considered by itself. Again, sophisticated embodiments of the invention can be constructed by working with the index of the material here. Constructing the cells using different single-index materials permits making gratings that work with multiple light wavelengths. Here that capability can be also particularly well integrated into the grating as a whole. FIG.  12  and the planar grating  600  depicted there can help illustrate this. The right-most cells  604  might have index n 2a , the middle-most cells have a different index n 2b , the left-most cells again have index n 2a , (and so forth in the many, many “layers” in most practical embodiments). The diffracted beam  618  will then contain two wavelengths, (λ a , λ b ). Alternately, the cells  604  by index (n 2a , n 2b ) can be arranged other than by layers. They can even be placed randomly. The ratio of cells  604  having index n 2a  to those having index n 2b  can also be varied, to “strongly” separate one wavelength (say, λ a ) and less completely extract the other (λ b ). Of course, the invention is not limited to just cells having two indices (n 2a , n 2b ); a third (n 2c ), fourth (n 2d ), etc. are possible as well. Similarly, once the concept is grasped for two-dimensions, it follows that it can be also be employed in three (consider FIG.  13  and the cubical grating  700  there). 
     Constructing the cells using internally varying material indices is also possible. This is another way to construct gratings that work with ranges of light wavelengths (again, somewhat analogous in effect to conventional chirped gratings, but here potentially with respect to each grating-dimension). 
     Next consider the background and cell material&#39;s indices of refraction together (n 1  and n 2 ). These two indices may be viewed as one factor, an “effective index” or “relative index” that effects the overall efficiency of the grating. Additionally, these indices can be worked with to facilitate construction. If one material (say, n 2 ) is hard to bold constant or to vary the characteristics of during grating fabrication, the other (n 1 ) can be worked with instead. It should also be noted that n 1 &lt;n 2  or n 1 &gt;n 2  can be used. 
     The surface-to-surface dimensions of the cells can also be considered If the cells are made very small, comparable to the wavelength of the light source. Then the surface-to-surface dimensions are not a factor and Bragg&#39;s law can apply directly. Alternately, as has been shown above, the cells can be made larger. In this case, Bragg&#39;s law can still apply if one or more cell “thickness” is made so that the reflected waves constructively interfere. 
     As shown in  FIG. 14 ,  18 , and  20 , the cells can have one, two, or even three different thickness, to effect a corresponding number of light wavelengths differently. Furthermore, in sophisticated embodiments these respective cell thickness can intentionally be different. To help appreciate this further, reconsider the above discussion about varying cell index of refraction. Cell to cell variation can be employed. Finite sets or ranges of thicknesses for the different cells can be used; the cells so constructed can be placed in layers, another ordering, or randomly; and the proportions between the different cells can be equal or otherwise, to purposely work more or less strongly with particular light wavelengths. 
     The cell-to-cell spacings can likewise be considered. As shown in  FIG. 15 , the row-to-row placement of the cells can be controlled (to achieve uniformity or intentional forms of “non-uniformity,” like the examples noted above). Similarly, as shown in  FIG. 16 , the column-to-column placement of the cells can be controlled (again for uniformity or intentional non-uniformity). Furthermore, however, as shown in  FIG. 17 , the cell-to-cell placement can be asymmetric. Either row-to-row asymmetry, column-to-column asymmetry, or both can be used. Still further, although semantically somewhat an oxymoron, this asymmetry can be uniform or non-uniform. For example, any or all of the separations  826 ,  828 ,  830  can be held constant or varied. 
     The cell quantity present is also a factor meriting consideration. If a large grating with may cells is cut into slices, Bragg&#39;s law holds for each. If only two rows, columns, etc. of cells are involved, the transition from constructive to destructive interference is quite gradual. In contrast, if many cells are present, the constructive interference will peak very sharply, with mostly destructive interference in between the peak wavelengths. In fact, this sharpening of the peaks is very similar to the sharpening of diffraction peaks from a diffraction grating as the number of slits increases. Of course, cutting large gratings to produce multiple smaller ones also has obvious manufacturing utility. 
     It should be noted that the examples in the figures herein have shown single gratings with no external components. In use there will, of course, be conventional external components such as a laser light source, and typically much more. Furthermore, in suitable applications considerable benefit can be obtained by using multiple gratings and other components together. One of the particular strengths of micro fabrication type processes, as used by the present invention, is that they can be used to construct large numbers and varieties of components concurrently. Such products can then be used either in operational combination or separately. Thus, for example, multiple linear gratings  500 , planar gratings  600 , or cubical gratings  700  can be constructed together in a linear or other operational arrangement, using different lattice dimensions, doping, etc. to work with different light wavelengths. If desired, other electrical and micro-mechanical components can also be constructed in the same substrate or in the same layer materials, e.g., one or more electro-optical sensors or micro mirrors. The present invention is thus very highly integrateable with IC and MEMS technology. 
     While various embodiments have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not limitation. Thus, the breadth and scope of the invention should not be limited by any of the above described exemplary embodiments, but should be defined only in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents. 
     INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY 
     The present invention is well suited for application in the production of linear, planar, and cubical optical gratings, with the latter, multi-dimensional types being particularly novel and exhibiting potential for application in manners heretofore not possible in the arts 
     The invention may be produced using processes common in mature arts like semiconductor manufacturing. For example, micro fabrication process such as photolithography, etching, thin film deposition, doping, stripping, thermal annealing, chemical mechanical polishing (CMP), planarization, etc., which are common in the production of electronic integrated circuits and micro electro-mechanical systems, may now also be used to produce the inventive optical gratings in or atop substrate materials such as glass plate or silicon wafer. 
     These mass-production process well produce miniature devices with great accuracy, as the two common examples of 256 MB DRAM and high-speed microprocessors illustrate. Such semiconductor type manufacturing process have an amazing dimension control, being able to readily produce devices with line widths as small as 0.1 micron and trench depths of 10 microns. As has been described, above, these semiconductor-type process also allow gratings to be made in a single dimension, two dimensions, and even three dimensions. 
     Accordingly, the invention may employ the many benefits of such generally accepted technology in a field where such are highly desired. The invention provides a marked departure from traditional and fiber-based optical grating technology known today, and particularly from conventional Bragg grating technology. In particular, compared to prior grating technologies, the invention is low cost. The inventive gratings can be economically mass-produced, like integrated circuits presently are. 
     The inventive gratings may be made very compact, and thus they can be easily attached to optical fibers or laser light sources directly. This avoids much of the awkwardness of handling and interfacing, and poor robustness of traditional gratings. Furthermore, the inventive gratings may be highly durable, and thus able to survive broader temperature and humidity ranges than conventional fiber-type Bragg gratings. The inventive gratings are also absolute devices, and since the dimensions are very accurately made, the absolute wavelength that is in “resonance” with the pitch of the grating can be known immediately. As has also been described, the semiconductor-type process used also allow the present inventive gratings to be very highly integrateable with IC and MEMS technology, to construct larger useful systems. 
     For the above, and other reasons, it is expected that the process and products of the present invention will have widespread industrial applicability. Therefore, it is expected that the commercial utility of the present invention will be extensive and long lasting.