Patent Publication Number: US-7901654-B2

Title: Synthesis of small diameter single-walled carbon nanotubes

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/678,668, filed on May 5, 2005, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     FIELD OF INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to methods for the synthesis of carbon nanotubes having small diameters and carbon nanostructures. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Carbon nanotubes are hexagonal networks of carbon atoms forming seamless tubes with each end capped with half of a fullerene molecule. They were first reported in 1991 by Sumio Iijima who produced multi-layer concentric tubes or multi-walled carbon nanotubes having up to seven walls by evaporating carbon in an arc discharge. In 1993, Iijima&#39;s group and an IBM team headed by Donald Bethune independently discovered that a single-wall nanotube could be made by vaporizing carbon together with a transition metal such as iron or cobalt in an arc generator (see Iijima et al. Nature 363:603 (1993); Bethune et al., Nature 363: 605 (1993) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,424,054). The original syntheses produced low yields of non-uniform nanotubes mixed with large amounts of soot and metal particles. 
     Presently, there are three main approaches for the synthesis of single- and multi-walled carbon nanotubes. These include the electric arc discharge of graphite rod (Journet et al. Nature 388: 756 (1997)), the laser ablation of carbon (Thess et al. Science 273: 483 (1996)), and the chemical vapor deposition of hydrocarbons (Ivanov et al. Chem. Phys. Lett 223: 329 (1994); Li et al. Science 274: 1701 (1996)). Multi-walled carbon nanotubes can be produced on a commercial scale by catalytic hydrocarbon cracking while single-walled carbon nanotubes are still produced on a gram scale. 
     Generally, single-walled carbon nanotubes are preferred over multi-walled carbon nanotubes because they have fewer defects and are therefore stronger and more conductive than multi-walled carbon nanotubes of similar diameter. Defects are less likely to occur in single-walled carbon nanotubes because multi-walled carbon nanotubes can survive occasional defects by forming bridges between unsaturated carbon valances, while single-walled carbon nanotubes have no neighboring walls to compensate for defects. Defect-free single-walled nanotubes are expected to have remarkable mechanical, electronic and magnetic properties that could be tunable by varying the diameter, and chirality of the tube. 
     Presently, there are two types of chemical vapor deposition for the syntheses of single-walled carbon nanotubes that are distinguishable depending on the form of supplied catalyst. In one, the catalyst is embedded in porous material or supported on a substrate, placed at a fixed position of a furnace, and heated in a flow of hydrocarbon precursor gas. Cassell et al. (1999) J. Phys. Chem. B 103: 6484-6492 studied the effect of different catalysts and supports on the synthesis of bulk quantities of single-walled carbon nanotubes using methane as the carbon source in chemical vapor deposition. They systematically studied Fe(NO 3 ) 3  supported on Al 2 O 3 , Fe(SO 4 ) 3  supported on Al 2 O 3 , Fe/Ru supported on Al 2 O 3 , Fe/Mo supported on Al 2 O 3 , and Fe/Mo supported on Al 2 O 3 —SiO 2  hybrid support. The bimetallic catalyst supported on the hybrid support material provided the highest yield of the nanotubes. Su et al. (2000) Chem. Phys. Lett. 322: 321-326 reported the use of a bimetal catalyst supported on an aluminum oxide aerogel to produce single-walled carbon nanotubes. They reported preparation of the nanotubes is greater than 200% the weight of the catalyst used. In comparison, similar catalyst supported on Al 2 O 3  powder yields approximately 40% the weight of the starting catalyst. Thus, the use of the aerogel support improved the amount of nanotubes produced per unit weight of the catalyst by a factor of 5. In the second type of carbon vapor deposition, the catalyst and the hydrocarbon precursor gas are fed into a furnace using the gas phase, followed by the catalytic reaction in a gas phase. The catalyst is usually in the form of a metalorganic. Nikolaev et al. (1999) Chem. Phys. Lett. 313: 91 disclose a high-pressure CO reaction (HiPCO) method in which carbon monoxide (CO) gas reacts with the metalorganic iron pentacarbonyl (Fe(CO) 5 ) to form single-walled carbon nanotubes. It is claimed that 400 g of nanotubes can be synthesized per day. Chen et al. (1998) Appl. Phys. Lett. 72: 3282 employ benzene and the metalorganic ferrocene (Fe(C 5 H 5 ) 2 ) delivered using a hydrogen gas to synthesize single-walled carbon nanotubes. The disadvantage of this approach is that it is difficult to control particles sizes of the metal catalyst. The decomposition of the organometallic provides the metal catalyst having variable particle size that results in nanotubes having a wide distribution of diameters. Further, the decomposition of the metalorganic precursor forms carbon structures that are not desired. 
     In another method, the catalyst is introduced as a liquid pulse into the reactor. Ci et al. (2000) Carbon 38: 1933-1937 dissolve ferrocene in 100 mL of benzene along with a small amount of thiophene. The solution is injected into a vertical reactor in a hydrogen atmosphere. The technique requires that the temperature of bottom wall of the reactor had to be kept at between 205-230° C. to obtain straight carbon nanotubes. In the method of Ago et al. (2001) J. Phys. Chem. 105: 10453-10456, colloidal solution of cobalt:molybdenum (1:1) nanoparticles is prepared and injected into a vertically arranged furnace, along with 1% thiophene and toluene as the carbon source. Bundles of single-walled carbon nanotubes are synthesized. 
     The properties of the carbon SWNTs, such as the electronic structure, the optical properties, and the like, depend on the diameter of the tube and the structure of the tubes. Thus, the controllable synthesis of carbon SWNTs is important for creating nanostructures. The synthesis of carbon SWNTs with narrow diameter range between 0.8-1.1 nm is disclosed by Maruyama et al. Chem. Phys. Lett. 375: 553-559 (2003), where iron-cobalt bimetallic catalyst particles is supported with zeolite powder and exposed to fullerene vapor in a heated quartz tube furnace. In another method (Jeong et al. Chem. Phys. Lett. 380: 263-268 (2003)), nickel catalyst supported on MgO is used to grow SWNTs at 800° C. using acetylene and hydrogen gases, with the diameter of the SWNTs in the range of 0.7-1.0 nm. Carbon SWNTs with an average diameter of 0.81 nm are synthesized (Bachilo et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125: 11186-11187 (2003)) using the cobalt-molybdenum biocatalyst supported on silica and heated to 750° C. in the presence of hydrogen gas and helium gas, and then exposed to carbon monoxide. In another method (Ciuparu et al. J. Phys. Chem. B. 108(2): 503-507 (2004)), the diameter of the carbon SWNT is controlled between 0.5 and 0.8 nm range by varying the pore diameter of the catalyst (cobalt in MCM-41) between 1.9 and 2.9 nm, and using carbon monoxide as the carbon source. 
     The methods discussed above produce carbon SWNTs in small yields. Thus, there is a need for methods for larger scale synthesis of carbon nanotubes having a narrow diameter range. Preferably, the method allows for the growth of carbon nanotubes of a desired type, such as single-wall nanotubes, and with little or no impurities. 
     SUMMARY 
     The present invention provides methods, apparatuses, and processes for the continuous production of carbon nanostructures, such as single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) having small diameters within a narrow range. In one aspect, metal particles having controlled particle size and/or diameter are supported on non-carbon containing powdered oxide supports. The resulting metal nanoparticles are used as a growth catalyst for the growth of carbon nanotubes. The supported metal nanoparticles are entrained in a gas and delivered into the reaction chamber as an aerosol. Additionally, carbon precursor gas, such as methane, is provided in the reaction chamber. The flow of the reactants and products through the reaction chamber is controlled such that their contact with the reaction vessel walls is minimized. The reactants are heated to a temperature below about 1000° C., and the product is separated. The product is separated by guiding transport gas stream, having carbonaceous material comprising the carbon nanotubes and impurities entrained in it, into one or more cyclone separator; collecting the impurities in the separator; and collecting the outlet gas exiting the separator wherein carbon nanotubes are entrained in the outlet gas. In one aspect, the transport gas can be guided into a plurality of cyclone separators and the solid in each separator can be collected. The plurality of cyclone separators can be attached to each other sequentially and in such a manner that the heavier particles are collected before the lighter particles. 
     These and other aspects of the present invention will become evident upon reference to the following detailed description. In addition, various references are set forth herein which describe in more detail certain procedures or compositions, and are therefore incorporated by reference in their entirety. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  illustrates a reaction chamber for the production of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) having narrow diameter distribution. 
         FIG. 2  depicts an apparatus for the production of carbon SWNTs of the present invention wherein the SWNTs have narrow diameter distribution. 
         FIG. 3  illustrates the TEM images of the as-synthesized carbon SWNTs grown by the methods of the present invention and collected from the first separator. 
         FIG. 4  illustrates the temperature programmed oxidation (TPO) curves.  FIG. 4   a  illustrates the TPO curves of the as-synthesized carbon products grown by the methods of the present invention and collected from the first separator, second separator, and the third separator using approximately 2700 sccm of transport gas flow and, for comparison, the TPO curves for carbon products collected from “horizontal” CVD experimental setup using approximately 500 sccm of transport gas flow.  FIG. 4   a  illustrates TPO profiles of the SWNTs purified from the first separator using the horizontal CVD experimental setup. 
         FIG. 5  illustrates the Raman active breathing modes of as prepared carbon SWNTs collected from the first separator, second separator, and the third separator using laser excitations of 1064, 785, 532, and 488 nm. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     I. Definitions 
     Unless otherwise stated, the following terms used in this application, including the specification and claims, have the definitions given below. It must be noted that, as used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Definition of standard chemistry terms may be found in reference works, including Carey and Sundberg (1992) “Advanced Organic Chemistry 3 rd  Ed.” Vols. A and B, Plenum Press, New York, and Cotton et al. (1999) “Advanced Inorganic Chemistry 6 th  Ed.” Wiley, New York. 
     The terms “single-walled carbon nanotube” or “one-dimensional carbon nanotube” are used interchangeable and refer to cylindrically shaped thin sheet of carbon atoms having a wall consisting essentially of a single layer of carbon atoms, and arranged in an hexagonal crystalline structure with a graphitic type of bonding. 
     The term “multi-walled carbon nanotube” as used herein refers to a nanotube composed of more than one concentric tubes. 
     The terms “metalorganic” or “organometallic” are used interchangeably and refer to co-ordination compounds of organic compounds and a metal, a transition metal or a metal halide. 
     The term “passivating solvent” as used herein refers to an organic solvent that will not co-ordinate with the metal ions, and that is suitable for use in thermal decomposition reactions. 
     The term “halogen” as used herein refers to fluoro, bromo, chloro and/or iodo. 
     The term “lower alkoxy” refers to the oxides of lower alkyl groups. Examples of lower alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, n-hexyl, octyl, dodecyl, and the like. The oxides include methoxide, ethoxide, butoxide, and the like. 
     II. Overview 
     The present invention discloses methods, apparatus, and processes for the large-scale manufacture of carbon nanotubes and structures composed of carbon nanotubes, preferably single-wall nanotubes. 
     The methods, apparatuses, and processes of the present invention are for synthesizing carbon nanotubes, preferably single-walled carbon nanotubes on a large scale. Catalyst particles of controlled particle size and surface area are isolated and injected into a reactor in the form of an aerosol. A carbon precursor gas is concomitantly introduced into the reactor. The flow of the gases within the reactor chamber is controlled such that minimum amount of carbon deposition occurs on the interior walls of the reaction chamber. The carbon nanotubes thus produced are collected and purified. 
     The methods, apparatuses, and processes disclosed herein are advantageous in that the particle size, diameter distribution, and surface area of the catalyst particle can be controlled, thereby providing control over the size, shape, type, and properties of the carbon nanotubes formed during the chemical deposition process. In addition, the metal particles that act as catalysts are supported on well characterized porous powders, such al Al 2 O 3 , instead of supports containing organic materials. Therefore, undesired carbon materials and other impurities are not produced. The invention thus provides for multi-gram synthesis of carbon nanotubes that are substantially free of contaminants. 
     III. The Reaction Vessel 
     In one aspect of the invention, a system for producing carbon nanotubes is provided. The system comprises a reactor capable of maintaining the reaction temperature and having an air-tight chamber where a source of metal catalyst particles as an aerosol, a source of carbon precursor gas and a source of inert gases is provided. The system can additionally comprise an evacuating system connected to the reactor for evacuating gases from the chamber, and/or a collection system for collecting, filtering, and enriching the nanotubes. The system, process and methods of the present invention are described with reference to the accompanying figures, where like reference numerals indicate identical or functionally similar elements. Also in the figures, the left most digit of each reference numeral corresponds to the figure in which the reference numeral is first used. 
     The reaction vessel can be any conventional furnace configured to allow for control over gas flows within a heated reaction chamber. For example, the reaction vessel can be the horizontal reaction vessel, such as the Carbolite model TZF 12/65/550, or it can be a vertical reaction vessel. The reaction vessel is preferably a vertical reaction vessel  100  illustrated in  FIG. 1 . The reaction chamber  110  can be a quartz tube placed inside the furnace having a means of heating  120  the reaction chamber to the desired temperature required for the growth of the carbon nanotubes. The reaction chamber may be maintained at the appropriate temperature by 1) preheating the carbon precursor gases, 2) preheating the inert gases, 3) preheating the metal catalyst particles on powder supports, 4) externally heating the reaction chamber, 5) applying localized heating in the reaction chamber, such as by laser, induction coil, plasma coil, or any combination of the foregoing. Gas inlets  210 ,  220 , and  230  provide flows of the inert and regent gases and the catalyst during operation of the furnace. Downstream recovery of the product produced by this process can be affected by known means such as filtration, centrifugation and the like. For example, the product is collected at the bottom of the furnace and separated using a separator  300 . A plurality of separators can be attached to the apparatus if desired. 
     In one aspect, the metal nanoparticles, in the form of an aerosol, are introduced into the reaction chamber  110  via inlet  210 . The methods and apparatuses for forming the aerosol are described in detail in the commonly owned and co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/727,706 entitled “Dry Powder Injector” and filed on Dec. 3, 2003. The carbon precursor gas, optionally as a mixture with one or more other gases, is introduced into the reaction chamber via inlet  220 . Inlets  210  and  220  are positioned such that the flow of the catalyst and the carbon precursor gas is substantially aligned with the long axis of the reaction chamber. In contrast, the inlet  230 , which provides the means for the introduction of another gas, such as argon, into the reaction chamber, and the inlet is positioned at an angle relative to the long axis of the reaction chamber. The angle of the gas inlet  230  will vary depending on the gas chosen, rate of flow of the gas, the geometry of the reaction chamber, the temperature of the reaction chamber, and the like. The angle between the long axis of the reaction chamber and inlet  230  can be 45° to about 90°, or any angle in between. The angle is preferably about 70° to about 85°, or more preferably about 70° to about 80°. The angle between the inlet  230  and the long axis is chosen such that the gas introduced through the inlet follows a helical path along the interior walls of the reaction chamber as it flows through it. Further, two or more “helical” inlets can be provided. The helical path of the gas results in the reduction of deposition of carbon material on the interior walls of the reaction chamber that normally occurs under chemical vapor deposition conditions. The gas inlet  230  can thus be adjusted to the angle that results in the reduction of carbon deposition. When gas inlet  230  is not properly aligned, the reaction chamber will quickly accumulate a black layer of sooth on the interior walls. Thus, in the reaction chamber composed of a transparent material, such as glass, proper alignment can be verified visually. 
     The components for the delivery system of gas flow can be connected together using standard ½ inch stainless steel tubing. Conventional gas sources, such as pressurized canisters with pressure regulators, can be used for gas sources. The amount of gas delivered to the inlets can typically be controlled using standard mass flow controllers that are commercially available. 
     Downstream recovery of the product produced by this process can be affected by known means such as filtration, centrifugation and the like. 
     V. The Catalyst 
     The method, processes, and apparatuses of the present invention use metal nanoparticles as the metallic catalyst. The metal or combination of metals selected as the catalyst can be processed to obtain the desired particle size and diameter distribution. The metal nanoparticles can then be separated by being supported on a material suitable for use as a support during synthesis of carbon nanotubes using the metal growth catalysts described below. Such materials include powders of crystalline silicon, polysilicon, silicon nitride, tungsten, magnesium, aluminum and their oxides, preferably aluminum oxide, silicon oxide, magnesium oxide, or titanium dioxide, or combination thereof, optionally modified by addition elements, are used as support powders. The metal nanoparticles on the support powders are injected as an aerosol into the reaction vessel. The function of the metallic catalyst in the carbon nanotube growth process is to decompose the carbon precursors and aid the deposition of ordered carbon as nanotubes 
     The metal catalyst can be selected from a Group V metal, such as V or Nb, and mixtures thereof, a Group VI metal including Cr, W, or Mo, and mixtures thereof, VII metal, such as, Mn, or Re, Group VIII metal including Co, Ni, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt, and mixtures thereof, or the lanthanides, such as Ce, Eu, Er, or Yb and mixtures thereof, or transition metals such as Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, Cd, Sc, Y, or La and mixtures thereof. Specific examples of mixture of catalysts, such as bimetallic catalysts, which may be employed by the present invention include Co—Cr, Co—W, Co—Mo, Ni—Cr, Ni—W, Ni—Mo, Ru—Cr, Ru—W, Ru—Mo, Rh—Cr, Rh—W, Rh—Mo, Pd—Cr, Pd—W, Pd—Mo, Ir—Cr, Ir—W, Ir—Mo, Pt—Cr, Pt—W, and Pt—Mo. Preferably, the metal catalyst is iron, cobalt, nickel, molybdenum, or a mixture thereof, such as Fe—Mo, Co—Mo and Ni—Fe—Mo. 
     The metal, bimetal, or combination of metals are used to prepare metal nanoparticles having defined particle size and diameter distribution. The metal nanoparticles can be prepared by thermal decomposition of the corresponding metal salt added to a passivating salt, and the temperature of the solvent adjusted to provide the metal nanoparticles, as described in the co-pending and co-owned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/304,316, or by any other method known in the art. The particle size and diameter of the metal nanoparticles can be controlled by using the appropriate concentration of metal in the passivating solvent and by controlling the length of time the reaction is allowed to proceed at the thermal decomposition temperature. Metal nanoparticles having particle size of about 0.1 nm to about 100 nm, preferably about 1 nm to about 20 nm, more preferably about 2 nm to about 11 nm and most preferably about 3 nm to 7 nm can be prepared. The metal nanoparticles can thus have a particle size of 0.1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 nm, and up to about 20 nm. In another aspect, the metal nanoparticles can have a range of particle sizes. For example, the metal nanoparticles can have particle sizes in the range of about 3 nm and about 7 nm in size, about 5 nm and about 10 nm in size, or about 8 nm and about 16 nm in size. The metal nanoparticles can optionally have a diameter distribution of about 0.5 nm to about 20 nm, preferably about 1 nm to about 15 nm, more preferably about 1 nm to about 5 nm. Thus, the metal nanoparticles can have a diameter distribution of about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or 15 nm. 
     The metal salt can be any salt of the metal, and can be selected such that the melting point of the metal salt is lower than the boiling point of the passivating solvent. Thus, the metal salt contains the metal ion and a counter ion, where the counter ion can be nitrate, nitride, perchlorate, sulfate, sulfide, acetate, halide, oxide, such as methoxide or ethoxide, acetylacetonate, and the like. For example, the metal salt can be iron (II) sulfate heptahydrate, iron acetate (FeAc 2 ), nickel acetate (NiAc 2 ), palladium acetate (PdAc 2 ), molybdenum acetate (MoAc 3 ), ammonium heptamolibdate tetrahydrate, and the like, and combinations thereof. The melting point of the metal salt is preferably about 5° C. to 50° C. lower than the boiling point, more preferably about 5° C. to about 20° C. lower than the boiling point of the passivating solvent. 
     The metal salt can be dissolved in a passivating solvent to give a solution, a suspension, or a dispersion. The solvent is preferably an organic solvent, and can be one in which the chosen metal salt is relatively soluble and stable, and where the solvent has a high enough vapor pressure that it can be easily evaporated under experimental conditions. The solvent can be an alcohol, such as methanol, ethanol, propanol, and the like, or an ether, such as a glycol ether, 2-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethanol, H(OCH 2 CH 2 ) 2 O(CH 2 ) 3 CH 3 , which will be referred to below using the common name dietheylene glycol mono-n-butyl ether, and the like. 
     The relative amounts of metal salt and passivating solvent are factors in controlling the size of nanoparticles produced. A wide range of molar ratios, here referring to total moles of metal salt per mole of passivating solvent, can be used for forming the metal nanoparticles. Typical molar ratios of metal salt to passivating solvent include ratios as low as about 0.0222 (1:45), or as high as about 2.0 (2:1), or any ratio in between. Thus, for example, about 5.75×10 −5  to about 1.73×10 −3  moles (10-300 mg) of FeAc 2  can be dissolved in about 3×10 −4  to about 3×10 −3  moles (50-500 ml) of diethylene glycol mono-n-butyl ether. 
     In another aspect, more than one metal salt can be added to the reaction vessel in order to form metal nanoparticles composed of two or more metals, where the counter ion can be the same or can be different. The relative amounts of each metal salt used can be a factor in controlling the composition of the resulting metal nanoparticles. For the bimetals, the molar ratio of the first metal salt to the second metal salt can be about 1:10 to about 10:1, preferably about 2:1 to about 1:2, or more preferably about 1.5:1 to about 1:1.5, or any ratio in between. Thus, for example, the molar ratio of iron acetate to nickel acetate can be 1:2, 1:1.5, 1.5:1, or 1:1. Those skilled in the art will recognize that other combinations of metal salts and other molar ratios of a first metal salt relative to a second metal salt may be used in order to synthesize metal nanoparticles with various compositions. 
     The passivating solvent and the metal salt reaction solution can be mixed to give a homogeneous solution, suspension, or dispersion. The reaction solution can be mixed using standard laboratory stirrers, mixtures, sonicators, and the like, optionally with heating. The homogenous mixture thus obtained can be subjected to thermal decomposition in order to form the metal nanoparticles. 
     The thermal decomposition reaction is started by heating the contents of the reaction vessel to a temperature above the melting point of at least one metal salt in the reaction vessel. Any suitable heat source may be used including standard laboratory heaters, such as a heating mantle, a hot plate, or a Bunsen burner, and the heating can be under reflux. The length of the thermal decomposition can be selected such that the desired size of the metal nanoparticles can be obtained. Typical reaction times can be from about 10 minutes to about 120 minutes, or any integer in between. The thermal decomposition reaction is stopped at the desired time by reducing the temperature of the contents of the reaction vessel to a temperature below the melting point of the metal salt. 
     The size and distribution of metal nanoparticles produced can be verified by any suitable method. One method of verification is transmission electron microscopy (TEM). A suitable model is the Phillips CM300 FEG TEM that is commercially available from FEI Company of Hillsboro, Oreg. In order to take TEM micrographs of the metal nanoparticles, 1 or more drops of the metal nanoparticle/passivating solvent solution are placed on a carbon membrane grid or other grid suitable for obtaining TEM micrographs. The TEM apparatus is then used to obtain micrographs of the nanoparticles that can be used to determine the distribution of nanoparticle sizes created. 
     The metal nanoparticles, such as those formed by thermal decomposition described in detail above, can then be supported on solid supports. The solid support can be silica, alumina, MCM-41, MgO, ZrO 2 , aluminum-stabilized magnesium oxide, zeolites, or other oxidic supports known in the art, and combinations thereof. For example, Al 2 O 3 —SiO 2  hybrid support could be used. Preferably, the support is aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ) or silica (SiO 2 ). The oxide used as solid support can be powdered thereby providing small particle sizes and large surface areas. The powdered oxide can preferably have a particle size between about 0.01 μm to about 100 μm, more preferably about 0.1 μm to about 10 μm, even more preferably about 0.5 μm to about 5 μm, and most preferably about 1 μm to about 2 μm. The powdered oxide can have a surface area of about 50 to about 1000 m 2 /g, more preferably a surface area of about 200 to about 800 m 2 /g. The powdered oxide can be freshly prepared or commercially available. 
     In one aspect, the metal nanoparticles are supported on solid supports via secondary dispersion and extraction. Secondary dispersion begins by introducing particles of a powdered oxide, such as aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ) or silica (SiO 2 ), into the reaction vessel after the thermal decomposition reaction. A suitable Al 2 O 3  powder with 1-2 μm particle size and having a surface area of 300-500 m 2 /g is commercially available from Alfa Aesar of Ward Hill, Mass., or Degussa, N.J. Powdered oxide can be added to achieve a desired weight ratio between the powdered oxide and the initial amount of metal used to form the metal nanoparticles. Typically, the weight ratio can be between about 10:1 and about 15:1. For example, if 100 mg of iron acetate is used as the starting material, then about 320 to 480 mg of powdered oxide can be introduced into the solution. 
     The mixture of powdered oxide and the metal nanoparticle/passivating solvent mixture can be mixed to form a homogenous solution, suspension or dispersion. The homogenous solution, suspension or dispersion can be formed using sonicator, a standard laboratory stirrer, a mechanical mixer, or any other suitable method, optionally with heating. For example, the mixture of metal nanoparticles, powdered oxide, and passivating solvent can be first sonicated at roughly 80° C. for 2 hours, and then sonicated and mixed with a laboratory stirrer at 80° C. for 30 minutes to provide a homogenous solution. 
     After secondary dispersion, the dispersed metal nanoparticles and powdered oxide can be extracted from the passivating solvent. The extraction can be by filtration, centrifugation, removal of the solvents under reduced pressure, removal of the solvents under atmospheric pressure, and the like. For example, extraction includes heating the homogenized mixture to a temperature where the passivating solvent has a significant vapor pressure. This temperature can be maintained until the passivating solvent evaporates, leaving behind the metal nanoparticles deposited in the pores of the Al 2 O 3 . For example, if diethylene glycol mono-n-butyl ether as the passivating solvent, the homogenous dispersion can be heated to 231° C., the boiling point of the passivating solvent, under an N 2  flow. The temperature and N 2  flow are maintained until the passivating solvent is completely evaporated. After evaporating the passivating solvent, the powdered oxide and metal nanoparticles are left behind on the walls of the reaction vessel as a film or residue. When the powdered oxide is Al 2 O 3 , the film will typically be black. The metal nanoparticle and powdered oxide film can be removed from the reaction vessel and ground to create a fine powder, thereby increasing the available surface area of the mixture. The mixture can be ground with a mortar and pestle, by a commercially available mechanical grinder, or by any other methods of increasing the surface area of the mixture will be apparent to those of skill in the art. 
     Without being bound by any particular theory, it is believed that the powdered oxide serves two functions during the extraction process. The powdered oxides are porous and have high surface area. Therefore, the metal nanoparticles will settle in the pores of the powdered oxide during secondary dispersion. Settling in the pores of the powdered oxide physically separates the metal nanoparticles from each other, thereby preventing agglomeration of the metal nanoparticles during extraction. This effect is complemented by the amount of powdered oxide used. As noted above, the molar ratio of metal nanoparticles to powdered oxide can be between about 1:10 and 1:15. The relatively larger amount of powdered oxide in effect serves to further separate or ‘dilute’ the metal nanoparticles as the passivating solvent is removed. The process thus provides metal nanoparticles of defined particle size. 
     As will be apparent to those of skill in the art, the catalyst thus prepared can be stored for later use. In another aspect, the metal nanoparticles can be previously prepared, isolated from the passivating solvent, and purified, and then added to a powdered oxide in a suitable volume of the same or different passivating solvent. The metal nanoparticles and powdered oxide can be homogenously dispersed, extracted from the passivating solvent, and processed to increase the effective surface area as described above. Other methods for preparing the metal nanoparticle and powdered oxide mixture will be apparent to those skilled in the art. 
     The metal nanoparticles thus formed can be used as a growth catalyst for synthesis of carbon nanotubes, nanofibers, and other one-dimensional carbon nanostructures by a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. 
     VI. Carbon Precursors 
     The carbon nanotubes can be synthesized using carbon precursors, such as carbon containing gases. In general, any carbon containing gas that does not pyrolize at temperatures up to about 1000° C. can be used. Examples of suitable carbon-containing gases include carbon monoxide, aliphatic hydrocarbons, both saturated and unsaturated, such as methane, ethane, propane, butane, pentane, hexane, ethylene, acetylene and propylene; oxygenated hydrocarbons such as acetone, and methanol; aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene, toluene, and naphthalene; and mixtures of the above, for example carbon monoxide and methane. In general, the use of acetylene promotes formation of multi-walled carbon nanotubes, while CO and methane are preferred feed gases for formation of single-walled carbon nanotubes. The carbon-containing gas may optionally be mixed with a diluent gas such as hydrogen, helium, argon, neon, krypton and xenon or a mixture thereof. 
     The specific reaction temperature used depends on the type of catalyst and the type of precursor. Energy balance equations for the respective chemical reactions can be used to analytically determine the optimum CVD reaction temperature to grow carbon nanotubes. This determines the required reaction temperature ranges. The optimum reaction temperature also depends on the flow rates of the selected precursor and the catalyst. In general, the method requires CVD reaction temperatures ranging from 500° C. to 1000° C., more preferably reaction temperatures ranging from 700° C. to 900° C. 
     Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes 
     The metal nanoparticles supported on the oxide powder can be aerosolized and introduced into the reactor maintained at the reaction temperature. Simultaneously, the carbon precursor gas is introduced into the reactor. The flow of reactants within the reactor can be controlled such that the deposition of the carbon products on the walls of the reactor is reduced. The carbon nanotubes thus produced can be collected and separated. 
     The metal nanoparticles supported on the oxide powder can be aerosolized by any of the art known methods. In one method, the supported metal nanoparticles are aerosolized using an inert gas, such as helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, or radon. Preferably argon is used. Typically, argon, or any other gas, is forced through a particle injector, and into the reactor. The particle injector can be any vessel that is capable of containing the supported metal nanoparticles and that has a means of agitating the supported metal nanoparticles. Thus, the catalyst deposited on a powdered porous oxide substrate can be placed in a beaker that has a mechanical stirrer attached to it. The supported metal nanoparticles can be stirred or mixed in order to assist the entrainment of the catalyst in the transporter gas, such as argon. 
     Thus, the nanotube synthesis generally occurs as described below and illustrated in  FIG. 2 . An inert transporter gas  110 , preferably argon gas, is passed through a particle injector  130 . The particle injector  130  can be a beaker or other vessel containing the growth catalyst supported on a powdered porous oxide substrate. The powdered porous oxide substrate in the particle injector can be stirred or mixed in order to assist the entrainment of the powdered porous oxide substrate in the argon gas flow. Optionally, the inert gas can be passed through a drying system  120  to dry the gas. The argon gas, with the entrained powdered porous oxide, can then be passed through a pre-heater to raise the temperature of this gas flow to about 400° C. to about 500° C. The entrained powdered porous oxide is then delivered to the reaction chamber  200 . A flow of methane  140  or another carbon source gas, optionally with hydrogen  150  is also delivered to the reaction chamber. The typical flow rates can be 2700 sccm for argon, 1500 sccm for methane, and 500 sccm for He. Additionally, 2500 sccm of argon can be directed into the helical flow inlets to reduce deposition of carbon products on the wall of the reaction chamber. The reaction chamber can be heated to between about 800° C. and 900° C. during reaction using heaters  210 . The temperature can be 810° C., 820° C., 830° C., 840° C., 850° C., 860° C., 870° C., 880° C., and the like, or any temperature in between. The temperature is preferably kept below the decomposition temperature of the carbon precursor gas. For example, at temperatures above 1000° C., methane is known to break down directly into soot rather than forming carbon nanostructures with the metal growth catalyst. 
     Carbon nanotubes and other carbon nanostructures synthesized in reaction chamber  200  then enter the filtration system  220 . The filtration system can be composed of a single collection vessel or a series of collection vessels that are connected to outlet of the reaction chamber. The collection vessels sort the carbon nanotubes and other outputs by weight. On average, the heaviest reaction products will settle in the first collection vessel. The secondary and tertiary vessels will collect on average lighter products. The carbon nanotubes will be relatively light compared to many of the soot particles generated, so the carbon nanotubes will preferentially collect in the secondary and tertiary collection vessels. 
     The collection vessels permit continuous operation of the reaction chamber, as the chamber does not have to be cooled to harvest the synthesized nanotubes. Instead, the nanotubes can be harvested by changing the collection vessel. The collection vessels can be connected via valves. In order to permit continuous operation, each collection vessel has outlet valves to allow for connection of two additional collection vessels. During typical operation, one outlet valve on each collection vessel will be open. As the reaction products flow down from the reaction chamber, the collection vessels will capture the various reaction products, with lighter reaction products tending to accumulate in the secondary or tertiary collection vessel. To harvest reaction products from a given collection vessel, the first outlet valve is closed and the second outlet valve is opened. This diverts the flow of reaction products into a second collection vessel. The first collection vessel can then be opened for harvesting of the reaction products while still synthesizing additional carbon nanostructures. 
     Separation of Reaction Products 
     The collection vessels permit continuous operation of the reaction chamber as the chamber does not have to be cooled to harvest the synthesized nanotubes. Instead, the nanotubes can be harvested by either emptying the collection vessels or by changing the collection vessel. The collection vessels can be connected via valves. In order to permit continuous operation, each collection vessel has outlet valves to allow for connection of two additional collection vessels. During typical operation, one outlet valve on each collection vessel will be open. As the reaction products flow down from the reaction chamber, the collection vessels will capture the various reaction products, with lighter reaction products tending to accumulate in the secondary or tertiary collection vessel. To harvest reaction products from a given collection vessel, the first outlet valve is closed and the second outlet valve is opened. This diverts the flow of reaction products into a second collection vessel. The first collection vessel can then be opened for harvesting of the reaction products while still synthesizing additional carbon nanostructures. 
     The collection vessels are generally cyclone-type separators. Typically, in the cyclone separators, the transport gasses having the carbon nanotubes and byproducts entrailed therein generally enters a cylindrical chamber tangentially through an upper inlet. The particles in the transport gas spin in a vortex and follow a helical, downwardly inclined path. The heavier particles are forced to the outside wall by centrifugal force, while the lighter particles remain entrailed in the transport gases. The centrifugal forces can be described by the following equation: 
               F   centrifugal     =         m   part     ⁢     V   2       R           
where F is a centrifugal force, m is the mass of the particle, V is the velocity of the particle, and R is the radius of the spiral motion of the particle as it spins down. The heavier particles forced to the wall are then pulled by gravity down the walls and eventually fall to the bottom. The transport gases with the lighter particles still entrailed can exit through a discharge outlet which extends from atop the cyclone separator.
 
     Thus, the cyclone separators utilize centrifugal forces and low pressure caused by spinning motion to separate solid particles of differing density, size and shape. A typical cyclone separator that can be utilized to remove entrained particles from a transport gas, such as may be used in the synthesis of carbon nanotubes, has an inlet pipe and a main body comprising upper cylindrical portion and lower conical portion. The particle laden gas stream is injected through inlet pipe which is positioned tangentially to upper cylindrical portion. The shape of upper cylindrical portion and the conical portion induces the gas stream to spin creating a vortex. Larger or more dense particles are forced outwards to the walls of cyclone separator where the drag of the spinning air as well as the force of gravity causes them to fall down the walls into an outlet or collector. The lighter or less dense particles, as well as the gas medium itself, reverses course and pass outwardly through the low pressure center of separator and exit separator via gas outlet which is positioned in the upper portion of upper cylindrical portion. 
     The efficiency of the cyclone separator in removing particles of different diameters depends on the diameter (D 1 ) of the cyclone, the diameter (D 2 ) of the powder outlet, the diameter (D 3 ) of the inlet, and the diameter (D 4 ) of the gas outlet. These dimensions can be varied to alter the diameter of the particles that may be removed by the cyclone. 
     As will be evident to one of skill in the art, the particles which are suspended or entrained in a transport gas are not homogeneous in their particle size distribution. The fact that particle sizes take on a spectrum of values can necessitate that a plurality of cyclonic separators be used in a series. For example, the first cyclonic separator in a series can separate out large particles. The smaller particles remain entrained in the transport gas and are transported to the second sequential cyclone. The second sequential cyclone is designed to remove the smaller particles which are entrained in the transport gas. If larger particles are carried over into the second cyclone separator, then they will typically not be removed by the cyclone separator but exit the cyclone with the transport gas stream. Accordingly, a plurality of cyclone separators that are attached to the reaction chamber in parallel or in a series can be used to separate carbon nanotubes from the byproducts of the reaction that are entrained in a transport gas stream. 
     The carbon nanotubes and nanostructures produced by the methods and processes described above can be used in applications that include Field Emission Devices, Memory devices (high-density memory arrays, memory logic switching arrays), Nano-MEMs, AFM imaging probes, distributed diagnostics sensors, and strain sensors. Other key applications include: thermal control materials, super strength and light weight reinforcement and nanocomposites, EMI shielding materials, catalytic support, gas storage materials, high surface area electrodes, and light weight conductor cable and wires, and the like. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Below are examples of specific embodiments for carrying out the present invention. The examples are offered for illustrative purposes only, and are not intended to limit the scope of the present invention in any way. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers used (e.g., amounts, temperatures, etc.), but some experimental error and deviation should, of course, be allowed for. 
     Example 1 
     Preparation of the Supported Catalyst 
     Catalysts were prepared by impregnating support materials in metal salt solutions. For the bimetallic iron-molybdenum based catalyst supported on alumina powder (BET surface area of approximately 90 m 2  g −1 ), iron (II) sulphate heptahydrate and ammonium heptamolibdate tetrahydrate were dissolved in methanol and the resulting solution was added to a methanol suspension of aluminum oxide at a molar ratio of Fe:Mo:Al 2 O 3  of 1:0.21:15. The reaction solution was stirred at room temperature while flowing a stream of N 2  over the mixture to remove the solvent. A resultant cake was ground with an agate mortar to obtain a fine powder. The catalyst composition was confirmed by Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis in a scanning electron microscope. 
     Example 2 
     Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes 
     The efficiency of the catalyst for SWNTs growth was tested by CVD method using a conventional horizontal furnace. SWNTs were synthesized by passing a flow of argon diluted with methane over the catalyst at 820° C. fir 30 min. The carbon yield obtained was 32 wt %. The amount of amorphous and other forms of carbon was small as shown by the electron microscope images and by the temperature programmed oxidation (TPO) measurements shown in  FIG. 4 . 
     Carbon nanotubes were synthesized by using the experimental setup shown in  FIG. 2 . Typically, 10 g of the Al 2 O 3 -supported Fe—Mo catalyst was placed in the particle injector mounted with a mechanical stirrer. The catalyst was stirred while argon is passed through the particle injector at a flow rate of 2700 sccm thereby delivering the catalyst at a rate of 40 g h −1 . The argon flow with the entrained particles is passed through a flexible tube that is wrapped around a central heating coil that serves as the pre-heater. The pre-heater was set for 600° C. The pre-heated argon flow with the entrained particles was then passed into the reaction chamber. 
     The reaction chamber was pre-heated to 820° C. Argon, at a rate of 2500 sccm, was injected through the helical flow inlets into the reaction chamber. Argon as a transport gas for catalysts, at the rate of 2700 sccm, was injected through the injector to the chamber. The synthesis was begun by flowing a mixture at CH 4  at a flow rate of 1500 sccm into the reaction chamber. The temperature and gas flows were maintained for 120 minutes in order to form carbon nanostructures. The single-walled carbon nanotubes were collected using the product separators. An accumulation of large quantities of dark black, silver-black and very light grey products were observed in container  1 , container  2 , and the trap respectively. The final product was separated from the Al 2 O 3 -support powder by treatment with hydro fluoric acid (HF). Carbon nanotubes were made with high purity of up to 95 wt %. High resolution transmission electron microscopy images (TEM,  FIG. 3 ) show that SWNTs with an average bundle diameter of approximate 7 nm. 
     The TPO curves for the as-prepared carbon SWNTs collected from the first two containers, and the trap, which is the third container, is shown in  FIG. 3   a . The carbon content of the product varies in the soot collected from container  1 , container  2 , and the trap, with the corresponding carbon yields of approximately 15, 8, and 5 wt. %, respectively, and varying the gas flow rate into the reactor changes the metal content of the resultant samples. 
     Removal of the impurities by HF treatment and selective oxidation, followed by mild acid (HCl) treatment, the oxidation temperature for the SWNTs from container  1  dramatically shifts to approximately 610° C. ( FIG. 3   b ), thereby confirming the high quality of the SWNTs produced. 
     Raman spectroscopy measurement, with laser excitation wavelengths in the range from 488 to 1064 nm, shown in  FIG. 4 , also are consistent with high quality carbon SWNTs being produced. The ratio between the intensities of the G-band (near 1590 cm −1 ) and D-band (1260-1350 cm −1 ) is very high (I G /I D =9-11). The weak D-ban intensity in the Raman spectra is consistent with the presence of very low amounts of disordered sp 2  carbon forms in the sample. The Raman active radial breathing modes (RBM) and their relative intensities are consistent with narrow distribution of SWNTs, ranging from 0.8 to 1.2 nm (190-290 cm −1 ), are present in the trap, while the spectra corresponding to samples from container  1  and container  2  indicate a wider distribution of diameters from about 0.8 to 2 nm (118-290 cm −1 ). Further, according to the TPO results, the synthesis duration is the shortest for the sample collected from the trap, indicating that nucleation of SWNTs with smaller diameters occurred first during the synthesis resulting in carbon SWNTs with smaller diameters. Thus, the methods above are for the large scale product of carbon SWNTs with small diameters and narrow diameter ranges. 
     While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to a preferred embodiment and various alternate embodiments, it will be understood by persons skilled in the relevant art that various changes in form and details can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. All printed patents and publications referred to in this application are hereby incorporated herein in their entirety by this reference.