Patent Publication Number: US-2020276861-A1

Title: Wheel comprising a non-pneumatic tire

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application 62/268,243 filed on Dec. 16, 2015 and hereby incorporated by reference herein. 
    
    
     FIELD 
     The invention relates generally to wheels comprising non-pneumatic tires (NPTs), such as for vehicles (e.g., all-terrain vehicles (ATVs); industrial vehicles such as construction vehicles; agricultural vehicles; automobiles and other road vehicles; etc.) and/or other devices. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Wheels for vehicles and other devices may comprise non-pneumatic tires (sometimes referred to as NPTs) instead of pneumatic tires. 
     Pneumatic tires have a commanding market share due to several virtues. For example, a pneumatic tire may offer high vertical compliance and the ability to have a large deflection before impact occurs with the wheel, which is usually metallic. The pneumatic tire may develop a large contact area, which is efficient for transferring tangential and longitudinal forces from the tire/road contact area to the vehicle. The pneumatic tire is also able to envelop obstacles. Added to these is the fact that the pneumatic tire, with over 100 years of refinement, is a mature product and therefore inexpensive to produce. 
     In particular, the high compliance and potential for large deflection are major pneumatic tire virtues in the off-road vehicle market. For example, in the ATV industry, a 650 mm (26″) outer diameter tire can be mounted to a 12″ diameter rim. When inflated to 0.08 MPa (12 psi), a design load of 240 kgf (kilogram-force) is reached with 20 mm of deflection, for a vertical stiffness of only 20 kgf/mm. A total deflection of 125 mm is possible, before the tire is pinched between the ground and the rim. Thus, a ratio between the tire deflection and the tire radius is 120 mm to 325 mm, or 0.38:1. The tire deflection is almost 40% the tire radius. 
     Certain vehicles like some ATVs may be capable of speeds in excess of 100 kph. Even at speeds above 50 kph, impacts with rocks or other hard obstacles result in an imposed tire deflection. The suspension cannot react to essentially an instantaneous impact. Thus, the ability of the tire to locally deform and envelop such obstacles is a highly desired trait. 
     Non-pneumatic tires are used in certain applications. They are sometimes used in highly aggressive environments where flats are a problem for pneumatic tires. NPTs are not inflated and have no gas-filled bladder like a pneumatic tire. Examples of use for NPTs would include certain off-road usage like construction job sites and waste management sites. In these sites, NPT disadvantages are outweighed by their damage tolerance. 
     Yet, this damage tolerance usually comes with a trade-off. With reference to the pneumatic tire virtues just mentioned, a non-pneumatic tire may suffer in terms of its ability to sustain a large vertical deflection, and/or to develop a large contact area. Additionally, NPTs may be more complex and expensive to manufacture. 
     For these and other reasons, there is a need to improve wheels comprising non-pneumatic tires. 
     SUMMARY 
     According to various aspects of the invention, there is provided a wheel for a vehicle or other device, in which the wheel comprises a non-pneumatic tire and may be designed to enhance its use and performance and/or use and performance of the vehicle or other device, including, for example, to improve a shock-absorbing capability of the wheel, to improve a lateral stability of the vehicle or other device, and/or to enhance other aspects of its use and performance and/or that of the vehicle or other device. 
     For example, according to an aspect of the invention, there is provided a wheel comprising a non-pneumatic tire. The non-pneumatic tire comprises: an annular beam configured to deflect at a contact patch of the non-pneumatic tire; and an annular support disposed radially inwardly of the annular beam and configured to resiliently deform as the wheel engages the ground. A ratio of a mass of the wheel over an outer diameter of the wheel normalized by a width of the wheel is no more than 0.0005 kg/mm 2 . 
     According to an aspect of the invention, there is provided a wheel comprising a non-pneumatic tire. The non-pneumatic tire comprises: an annular beam configured to deflect at a contact patch of the non-pneumatic tire; and an annular support disposed radially inwardly of the annular beam and configured to resiliently deform as the wheel engages the ground. A ratio of a radial stiffness of the wheel over an outer diameter of the wheel normalized by a width of the wheel is between 0.0001 kgf/mm 3  and 0.0002 kgf/mm 3 . 
     According to an aspect of the invention, there is provided a wheel comprising a non-pneumatic tire. The non-pneumatic tire comprises: an annular beam configured to deflect at a contact patch of the non-pneumatic tire; and an annular support disposed radially inwardly of the annular beam and configured to resiliently deform as the wheel engages the ground. A radial stiffness of the wheel is no more than 15 kgf/mm. 
     According to an aspect of the invention, there is provided a wheel comprising a non-pneumatic tire. The non-pneumatic tire comprises: an annular beam configured to deflect at a contact patch of the non-pneumatic tire; and a plurality of spokes disposed radially inwardly of the annular beam and configured to resiliently deform as the wheel engages the ground. The wheel comprises a hub disposed radially inwardly of the spokes. A ratio of a volume occupied by the spokes over a volume bounded by the annular beam and the hub is no more than 15%. 
     According to an aspect of the invention, there is provided a wheel comprising a non-pneumatic tire. The non-pneumatic tire comprises: an annular beam configured to deflect at a contact patch of the non-pneumatic tire; and an annular support disposed radially inwardly of the annular beam and configured to resiliently deform as the wheel engages the ground. The wheel comprises a hub disposed radially inwardly of the annular support and resiliently deformable as the wheel engages the ground. 
     According to an aspect of the invention, there is provided a wheel comprising a non-pneumatic tire. The non-pneumatic tire comprises: an annular beam configured to deflect at a contact patch of the non-pneumatic tire; and an annular support disposed radially inwardly of the annular beam and configured to resiliently deform as the wheel engages the ground. A lateral stiffness of the wheel is greater than a radial stiffness of the wheel. 
     According to an aspect of the invention, there is provided a wheel comprising a non-pneumatic tire. The non-pneumatic tire comprises: an annular beam configured to deflect at a contact patch of the non-pneumatic tire; and an annular support disposed radially inwardly of the annular beam and configured to resiliently deform as the wheel engages the ground. The wheel comprises a hub disposed radially inwardly of the annular support. The wheel comprises a plurality of modules selectively attachable to and detachable from one another. 
     According to an aspect of the invention, there is provided a wheel comprising a non-pneumatic tire. The non-pneumatic tire comprises: an annular beam configured to deflect at a contact patch of the non-pneumatic tire; and an annular support disposed radially inwardly of the annular beam and configured to resiliently deform as the wheel engages the ground. The wheel comprises a hub disposed radially inwardly of the annular support. The non-pneumatic tire and the hub are selectively attachable to and detachable from one another. 
     According to an aspect of the invention, there is provided a wheel comprising a non-pneumatic tire. The non-pneumatic tire comprises: an annular beam configured to deflect at a contact patch of the non-pneumatic tire; and a plurality of spokes disposed radially inwardly of the annular beam and configured to resiliently deform as the wheel engages the ground. The wheel comprises a damping element configure to dissipate energy when impacted. 
     These and other aspects of the invention will now become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon review of the following description of embodiments of the invention in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       A detailed description of embodiments of the invention is provided below, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: 
         FIGS. 1A and 1B  show an example of a vehicle comprising wheels in accordance with an embodiment of the invention; 
         FIG. 2A  shows a perspective view of a wheel; 
         FIG. 2B  shows a close-up view of part of a non-pneumatic tire of the wheel; 
         FIG. 3  shows a cross-sectional view of the wheel; 
         FIGS. 4 to 7  show representations of the wheel in different conditions; 
         FIG. 8  shows an example of an embodiment in which a hub of the wheel is resiliently deformable; 
         FIGS. 9 and 10  show representations of the wheel of  FIG. 8  in different conditions; 
         FIGS. 11 and 12  show charts that relate radial loading and deflection for the wheel of  FIG. 8 ; 
         FIG. 13  shows deformed and undeformed states of the wheel of  FIG. 8  in various conditions; 
         FIG. 14  shows a variant of the vehicle; 
         FIG. 15  shows lateral loading on the wheels of the vehicle during a maneuver; 
         FIG. 16  shows a lateral load on the wheel; 
         FIG. 17  shows a cornering load on the wheel; 
         FIG. 18  shows an example of a test for determining a lateral stiffness of the wheel; 
         FIGS. 19 to 21  show an example of an embodiment in which the wheel is modular; 
         FIG. 22  shows a plurality of different hubs to which the non-pneumatic tire may be fitted; 
         FIG. 23  shows an attachment mechanism of the wheel of  FIGS. 19 to 21 ; 
         FIG. 24  shows an example of an embodiment in which the non-pneumatic tire and the hub are made integrally as one piece; 
         FIG. 25  shows an example of an embodiment in which the wheel comprises a damping mechanism; 
         FIG. 26  shows an example of an embodiment in which the annular beam comprises a reinforcing layer; 
         FIG. 27  shows an example of an embodiment of the reinforcing layer; 
         FIG. 28  shows an example of another embodiment of the reinforcing layer; 
         FIG. 29  shows an example of an embodiment in which a thickness of the annular beam is increased; 
         FIG. 30  shows an example of another vehicle comprising wheels in accordance with another embodiment of the invention; 
         FIG. 31  shows a wheel of the vehicle of  FIG. 30 ; and 
         FIG. 32  shows an example of another vehicle comprising wheels in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. 
     
    
    
     It is to be expressly understood that the description and drawings are only for the purpose of illustrating certain embodiments of the invention and are an aid for understanding. They are not intended to be a definition of the limits of the invention. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS 
       FIGS. 1A and 1B  show an example of a vehicle  10  comprising wheels  20   1 - 20   4  in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. In this embodiment, the vehicle  10  is an all-terrain vehicle (ATV). The ATV  10  is a small open vehicle designed to travel off-road on a variety of terrains, including roadless rugged terrain, for recreational, utility and/or other purposes. In this example, the ATV  10  comprises a frame  12 , a powertrain  14 , a steering system  16 , a suspension  18 , the wheels  20   1 - 20   4 , a seat  22 , and a user interface  24 , which enable a user of the ATV to ride the ATV  10  on the ground. The ATV  10  has a longitudinal direction, a widthwise direction, and a height direction. 
     In this embodiment, as further discussed later, the wheels  20   1 - 20   4  are non-pneumatic (i.e., airless) and may be designed to enhance their use and performance and/or use and performance of the ATV  10 , including, for example, to improve a shock-absorbing capability of the wheels  20   1 - 20   4 , to improve a lateral stability of the ATV  10 , and/or to enhance other aspects of their use and performance and/or that of the ATV  10 . 
     The powertrain  14  is configured for generating motive power and transmitting motive power to respective ones of the wheels  20   1 - 20   4  to propel the ATV  10  on the ground. To that end, the powertrain  14  comprises a prime mover  26 , which is a source of motive power that comprises one or more motors. For example, in this embodiment, the prime mover  26  comprises an internal combustion engine. In other embodiments, the prime mover  26  may comprise another type of motor (e.g., an electric motor) or a combination of different types of motor (e.g., an internal combustion engine and an electric motor). The prime mover  26  is in a driving relationship with one or more of the wheels  20   1 - 20   4 . That is, the powertrain  14  transmits motive power generated by the prime mover  26  to one or more of the wheels  20   1 - 20   4  (e.g., via a transmission and/or a differential) in order to drive (i.e., impart motion to) these one or more of the wheels  20   1 - 20   4 . 
     The steering system  16  is configured to enable the user to steer the ATV  10  on the ground. To that end, the steering system  16  comprises a steering device  28  that is operable by the user to direct the ATV  10  along a desired course on the ground. In this embodiment, the steering device  28  comprises handlebars. The steering device  28  may comprise a steering wheel or any other steering component that can be operated by the user to steer the ATV  10  in other embodiments. The steering system  16  responds to the user interacting with the steering device  28  by turning respective ones of the wheels  20   1 - 20   4  to change their orientation relative to the frame  12  of the ATV  10  in order to cause the ATV  10  to move in a desired direction. In this example, front ones of the wheels  20   1 - 20   4  are turnable in response to input of the user at the steering device  28  to change their orientation relative to the frame  12  of the ATV  10  in order to steer the ATV  10  on the ground. More particularly, in this example, each of the front ones of the wheels  20   1 - 20   4  is pivotable about a steering axis  30  of the ATV  10  in response to input of the user at the steering device  10  in order to steer the ATV  10  on the ground. Rear ones of the wheels  20   1 - 20   4  are not turned relative to the frame  12  of the ATV  10  by the steering system  16 . 
     The suspension  18  is connected between the frame  12  and the wheels  20   1 - 20   4  to allow relative motion between the frame  12  and the wheels  20   1 - 20   4  as the ATV  10  travels on the ground. For example, the suspension  18  enhances handling of the ATV  10  on the ground by absorbing shocks and helping to maintain traction between the wheels  20   1 - 20   4  and the ground. The suspension  18  may comprise an arrangement of springs and dampers. A spring may be a coil spring, a leaf spring, a gas spring (e.g., an air spring), or any other elastic object used to store mechanical energy. A damper (also sometimes referred to as a “shock absorber”) may be a fluidic damper (e.g., a pneumatic damper, a hydraulic damper, etc.), a magnetic damper, or any other object which absorbs or dissipates kinetic energy to decrease oscillations. In some cases, a single device may itself constitute both a spring and a damper (e.g., a hydropneumatic, hydrolastic, or hydragas suspension device). 
     In this embodiment, the seat  22  is a straddle seat and the ATV  10  is usable by a single person such that the seat  22  accommodates only that person driving the ATV  10 . In other embodiments, the seat  22  may be another type of seat, and/or the ATV  10  may be usable by two individuals, namely one person driving the ATV  10  and a passenger, such that the seat  22  may accommodate both of these individuals (e.g., behind one another or side-by-side) or the ATV  10  may comprise an additional seat for the passenger. For example, in other embodiments, the ATV  10  may be a side-by-side ATV, sometimes referred to as a “utility terrain vehicle” or “utility task vehicle” (UTV). 
     The user interface  24  allows the user to interact with the ATV  10 . More particularly, the user interface  24  comprises an accelerator, a brake control, and the steering device  28  that are operated by the user to control motion of the ATV  10  on the ground. The user interface  24  also comprises an instrument panel (e.g., a dashboard) which provides indicators (e.g., a speedometer indicator, a tachometer indicator, etc.) to convey information to the user. 
     The wheels  20   1 - 20   4  engage the ground to provide traction to the ATV  10 . More particularly, in this example, the front ones of the wheels  20   1 - 20   4  provide front traction to the ATV  10  while the rear ones of the wheels  20   1 - 20   4  provide rear traction to the ATV  10 . 
     Each wheel  20   i  comprises a non-pneumatic tire  34  for contacting the ground and a hub  32  for connecting the wheel  20   i  to an axle  17  of the ATV  10 . The non-pneumatic tire  34  is a compliant wheel structure that is not supported by gas (e.g., air) pressure and that is resiliently deformable (i.e., changeable in configuration) as the wheel  20   i  contacts the ground. 
     With additional reference to  FIGS. 2A to 5 , the wheel  20   i  has an axial direction defined by an axis of rotation  35  of the wheel  20   i  (also referred to as a “Y” direction), a radial direction (also referred to as a “Z” direction), and a circumferential direction (also referred to as a “X” direction). The wheel  20   i  has an outer diameter D W  and a width W W . It comprises an inboard lateral side  54  for facing a center of the ATV  10  in the widthwise direction of the ATV  10  and an outboard lateral side  49  opposite the inboard lateral side  54 . As shown in  FIG. 4 , when it is in contact with the ground, the wheel  20   i  has an area of contact  25  with the ground, which may be referred to as a “contact patch” of the wheel  20   i  with the ground. The contact patch  25  of the wheel  20   i , which is a contact interface between the non-pneumatic tire  34  and the ground, has a dimension L C , referred to as a “length”, in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  and a dimension W C , referred to as a “width”, in the axial direction of the wheel  20   i . 
     The non-pneumatic tire  34  comprises an annular beam  36  and an annular support  41  that is disposed between the annular beam  36  and the hub  32  of the wheel  20   i  and configured to support loading on the wheel  20   i  as the wheel  20   i  engages the ground. In this embodiment, the non-pneumatic tire  34  is tension-based such that the annular support  41  is configured to support the loading on the wheel  20   i  by tension. That is, under the loading on the wheel  20   i , the annular support  41  is resiliently deformable such that a lower portion  27  of the annular support  41  between the axis of rotation  35  of the wheel  20   i  and the contact patch  25  of the wheel  20   i  is compressed (e.g., with little reaction force vertically) and an upper portion  29  of the annular support  41  above the axis of rotation  35  of the wheel  20   i  is in tension to support the loading. 
     The annular beam  36  of the tire  34  is configured to deflect under the loading on the wheel  20   i  at the contact patch  25  of the wheel  20   i  with the ground. For instance, the annular beam  36  functions like a beam in transverse deflection. An outer peripheral extent  46  of the annular beam  36  and an inner peripheral extent  48  of the annular beam  36  deflect at the contact patch  25  of the wheel  20   i  under the loading on the wheel  20   i . In this embodiment, the annular beam  36  is configured to deflect such that it applies a homogeneous contact pressure along the length L C  of the contact patch  25  of the wheel  20   i  with the ground. 
     More particularly, in this embodiment, the annular beam  36  comprises a shear band  39  configured to deflect predominantly by shearing at the contact patch  25  under the loading on the wheel  20   i . That is, under the loading on the wheel  20   i , the shear band  39  deflects significantly more by shearing than by bending at the contact patch  25 . The shear band  39  is thus configured such that, at a center of the contact patch  25  of the wheel  20   i  in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i , a shear deflection of the shear band  39  is significantly greater than a bending deflection of the shear band  39 . For example, in some embodiments, at the center of the contact patch  25  of the wheel  20   i  in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i , a ratio of the shear deflection of the shear band  39  over the bending deflection of the shear band  39  may be at least 1.2, in some cases at least 1.5, in some cases at least 2, in some cases at least 3, and in some cases even more (e.g., 4 or more). For instance, in some embodiments, the annular beam  36  may be designed based on principles discussed in U.S. Patent Application Publication 2014/0367007, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein, in order to achieve the homogeneous contact pressure along the length L C  of the contact patch  25  of the wheel  20   i  with the ground. 
     In this example of implementation, the shear band  39  comprises an outer rim  31 , an inner rim  33 , and a plurality of openings  56   1 - 56   N  between the outer rim  31  and the inner rim  33 . The shear band  39  comprises a plurality of interconnecting members  37   1 - 37   P  that extend between the outer rim  31  and the inner rim  33  and are disposed between respective ones of the openings  56   1 - 56   N . The interconnecting members  37   1 - 37   P  may be referred to as “webs” such that the shear band  39  may be viewed as being “web-like” or “webbing”. The shear band  39 , including the openings  56   1 - 56   N  and the interconnecting members  37   1 - 37   P , may be arranged in any other suitable way in other embodiments. 
     The openings  56   1 - 56   N  of the shear band  39  help the shear band  39  to deflect predominantly by shearing at the contact patch  25  under the loading on the wheel  20   i . In this embodiment, the openings  56   1 - 56   N  extend from the inboard lateral side  54  to the outboard lateral side  49  of the tire  34 . That is, the openings  56   1 - 56   N  extend laterally though the shear band  39  in the axial direction of the wheel  20   i . The openings  56   1 - 56   N  may extend laterally without reaching the inboard lateral side  54  and/or the outboard lateral side  49  of the tire  34  in other embodiments. The openings  56   1 - 56   N  may have any suitable shape. In this example, a cross-section of each of the openings  56   1 - 56   N  is circular. The cross-section of each of the openings  56   1 - 56   N  may be shaped differently in other examples (e.g., polygonal, partly curved and partly straight, etc.). In some cases, different ones of the openings  56   1 - 56   N  may have different shapes. In some cases, the cross-section of each of the openings  56   1 - 56   N  may vary in the axial direction of the wheel  20   i . For instance, in some embodiments, the openings  56   1 - 56   N  may be tapered in the axial direction of the wheel  20   i  such that their cross-section decreases inwardly axially (e.g., to help minimize debris accumulation within the openings  56   1 - 56   N ). 
     In this embodiment, the tire  34  comprises a tread  50  for enhancing traction between the tire  34  and the ground. The tread  50  is disposed about the outer peripheral extent  46  of the annular beam  36 , in this case about the outer rim  31  of the shear band  39 . More particularly, in this example the tread  50  comprises a tread base  43  that is at the outer peripheral extent  46  of the annular beam  36  and a plurality of tread projections  52   1 - 52   T  that project from the tread base  52 . The tread  50  may be implemented in any other suitable way in other embodiments (e.g., may comprise a plurality of tread recesses, etc.). 
     The annular support  41  is configured to support the loading on the wheel  20   i  as the wheel  20   i  engages the ground. As mentioned above, in this embodiment, the annular support  41  is configured to support the loading on the wheel  20   i  by tension. More particularly, in this embodiment, the annular support  41  comprises a plurality of support members  42   1 - 42   T  that are distributed around the tire  34  and resiliently deformable such that, under the loading on the wheel  20   i , lower ones of the support members  42   1 - 42   T  in the lower portion  27  of the annular support  41  (between the axis of rotation  35  of the wheel  20   i  and the contact patch  25  of the wheel  20   i ) are compressed and bend while upper ones of the support members  42   1 - 42   T  in the upper portion  29  of the annular support  41  (above the axis of rotation  35  of the wheel  20   i ) are tensioned to support the loading. As they support load by tension when in the upper portion  29  of the annular support  41 , the support members  42   1 - 42   T  may be referred to as “tensile” members. 
     In this embodiment, the support members  42   1 - 42   T  are elongated and extend from the annular beam  36  towards the hub  32  generally in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i . In that sense, the support members  42   1 - 42   T  may be referred to as “spokes” and the annular support  41  may be referred to as a “spoked” support. 
     More particularly, in this embodiment, the inner peripheral extent  48  of the annular beam  36  is an inner peripheral surface of the annular beam  36  and each spoke  42   i  extends from the inner peripheral surface  48  of the annular beam  36  towards the hub  32  generally in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i  and from a first lateral end  55  to a second lateral end  58  in the axial direction of the wheel  20   i . In this case, the spoke  42   i  extends in the axial direction of the wheel  20   i  for at least a majority of a width W T  of the tire  34 , which in this case corresponds to the width W W  of the wheel  20   i . For instance, in some embodiments, the spoke  42   i  may extend in the axial direction of the wheel  20   i  for more than half, in some cases at least 60%, in some cases at least 80%, and in some cases an entirety of the width W T  of the tire  34 . Moreover, the spoke  42   i  has a thickness T S  measured between a first surface face  59  and a second surface face  61  of the spoke  42   i  that is significantly less than a length and width of the spoke  42   i . 
     When the wheel  20   i  is in contact with the ground and bears a load (e.g., part of a weight of the ATV  10 ), respective ones of the spokes  42   1 - 42   T  that are disposed in the upper portion  29  of the spoked support  41  (i.e., above the axis of rotation  35  of the wheel  20   i ) are placed in tension while respective ones of the spokes  42   1 - 42   T  that are disposed in the lower portion  27  of the spoked support  41  (i.e., adjacent the contact patch  25 ) are placed in compression. The spokes  42   1 - 42   T  in the lower portion  27  of the spoked support  41  which are in compression bend in response to the load. Conversely, the spokes  42   1 - 42   T  in the upper portion  29  of the spoked support  41  which are placed in tension support the load by tension. 
     The tire  34  has an inner diameter D TI  and an outer diameter D TO , which in this case corresponds to the outer diameter D W  of the wheel  20   i . A sectional height H T  of the tire  34  is half of a difference between the outer diameter D TO  and the inner diameter D TI  of the tire  34 . The sectional height H T  of the tire may be significant in relation to the width W T  of the tire  34 . In other words, an aspect ratio AR of the tire  34  corresponding to the sectional height H T  over the width W T  of the tire  34  may be relatively high. For instance, in some embodiments, the aspect ratio AR of the tire  34  may be at least 70%, in some cases at least 90%, in some cases at least 110%, and in some cases even more. Also, the inner diameter D TI  of the tire  34  may be significantly less than the outer diameter D TO  of the tire  34  as this may help for compliance of the wheel  20   i . For example, in some embodiments, the inner diameter D TI  of the tire  34  may be no more than half of the outer diameter D TO  of the tire  34 , in some cases less than half of the outer diameter D TO  of the tire  34 , in some cases no more than 40% of the outer diameter D TO  of the tire  34 , and in some cases even a smaller fraction of the outer diameter D TO  of the tire  34 . 
     The hub  32  is disposed centrally of the tire  34  and connects the wheel  20   i  to the axle  17  of the ATV  10 . In this embodiment, the hub  32  comprises an inner member  62 , an outer member  64  radially outward of the inner member  62 , and a plurality of arms  66   1 - 66   A  joining the inner member  62  and the outer member  64 . The inner member  62  comprises apertures  68   1 - 68   A  defining a bolt pattern of the hub  32 . The apertures  68   1 - 68   A  allow a user to locate therein wheel studs (i.e., threaded fasteners) that typically project from a brake disk or a brake drum of the ATV  10 . A lug nut  75  can be used to secure the hub  32  to each wheel stud in order to establish a fixed connection between the wheel  20   i  and the axle  17  of the ATV  10 . The bolt pattern of the hub  32  (e.g., the number and/or positioning of apertures  68   1 - 68   A  in the inner member  62 ) may be designed in any suitable way (e.g., dependent on the type, model and/or brand of the ATV  10  to which the hub  32  is designed to fit). The hub  32  may be implemented in any other suitable manner in other embodiments (e.g., it may have any other suitable shape or design). 
     The wheel  20   i  may be made up of one or more materials. The non-pneumatic tire  34  comprises a tire material  45  that makes up at least a substantial part (i.e., a substantial part or an entirety) of the tire  34 . The hub  32  comprises a hub material  72  that makes up at least a substantial part of the hub  32 . In some embodiments, the tire material  45  and the hub material  72  may be different materials. In other embodiments, the tire material  45  and the hub material  72  may be a common material (i.e., the same material). 
     In this embodiment, the tire material  45  constitutes at least part of the annular beam  36  and at least part of the spokes  42   1 - 42   T . Also, in this embodiment, the tire material  45  constitutes at least part of the tread  50 . More particularly, in this embodiment, the tire material  45  constitutes at least a majority (e.g., a majority or an entirety) of the annular beam  36 , the tread  50 , and the spokes  42   1 - 42   T . In this example of implementation, the tire material  45  makes up an entirety of the tire  34 , including the annular beam  36 , the spokes  42   1 - 42   T , and the tread  50 . The tire  34  is thus monolithically made of the tire material  45 . In this example, therefore, the annular beam  36  is free of (i.e., without) a substantially inextensible reinforcing layer running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  (e.g., a layer of metal, composite (e.g., carbon fibers, other fibers), and/or another material that is substantially inextensible running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i ). In that sense, the annular beam  36  may be said to be “unreinforced”. 
     The tire material  45  is elastomeric. For example, in this embodiment, the tire material  45  comprises a polyurethane (PU) elastomer. For instance, in some cases, the PU elastomer may be composed of a TDI pre-polymer, such as PET-95A, cured with MCDEA, commercially available from COIM. Other materials that may be suitable include using PET95-A or PET60D, cured with MOCA. Other materials available from Chemtura may also be suitable. These may include Adiprene E500X and E615X prepolymers, cured with C3LF or HQEE curative. Blends of the above prepolymers are also possible. Prepolymer C930 and C600, cured with C3LF or HQEE may also be suitable, as are blends of these prepolymers. 
     Polyurethanes that are terminated using MDI or TDI are possible, with ether and/or ester and/or polycaprolactone formulations, in addition to other curatives known in the cast polyurethane industry. Other suitable resilient, elastomeric materials would include thermoplastic materials, such as HYTREL co-polymer, from DuPont, or thermoplastic polyurethanes such as Elastollan, from BASF. Materials in the 95A to 60D hardness level may be particularly useful, such as Hytrel 5556 and Elastollan 98A. Some resilient thermoplastics, such as plasticized nylon blends, may also be used. The Zytel line of nylons from DuPont may be particularly useful. The tire material  45  may be any other suitable material in other embodiments. 
     In this embodiment, the tire material  45  may exhibit a non-linear stress vs. strain behavior. For instance, the tire material  45  may have a secant modulus that decreases with increasing strain of the tire material  45 . The tire material  45  may have a high Young&#39;s modulus that is significantly greater than the secant modulus at 100% strain (a.k.a. “the 100% modulus”). Such a non-linear behavior of the tire material  45  may provide efficient load carrying during normal operation and enable impact loading and large local deflections without generating high stresses. For instance, the tire material  45  may allow the tire  34  to operate at a low strain rate (e.g., 2% to 5%) during normal operation yet simultaneously allow large strains (e.g., when the ATV  10  engages obstacles) without generating high stresses. This in turn may be helpful to minimize vehicle shock loading and enhance durability of the tire  34 . 
     The tire  34  may comprise one or more additional materials in addition to the tire material  45  in other embodiments (e.g., different parts of the annular beam  36 , different parts of the tread  50 , and/or different parts of the spokes  42   1 - 42   T  may be made of different materials). For example, in some embodiments, different parts of the annular beam  36 , different parts of the tread  50 , and/or different parts of the spokes  42   1 - 42   T  may be made of different elastomers. As another example, in some embodiments, the annular beam  36  may comprise one or more substantially inextensible reinforcing layers running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  (e.g., one or more layers of metal, composite (e.g., carbon fibers, other fibers), and/or another material that is substantially inextensible running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i ). 
     In this embodiment, the hub material  72  constitutes at least part of the inner member  62 , the outer member  64 , and the arms  66   1 - 66   A  of the hub  32 . More particularly, in this embodiment, the hub material  72  constitutes at least a majority (e.g., a majority or an entirety) of the inner member  62 , the outer member  64 , and the arms  66   1 - 66   A . In this example of implementation, the hub material  72  makes up an entirety of the hub  32 . 
     In this example of implementation, the hub material  72  is polymeric. More particularly, in this example of implementation, the hub material  72  is elastomeric. For example, in this embodiment, the hub material  72  comprises a polyurethane (PU) elastomer. For instance, in some cases, the PU elastomer may be PET-95A commercially available from COIM, cured with MCDEA. 
     The hub material  72  may be any other suitable material in other embodiments. For example, in other embodiments, the hub material  72  may comprise a stiffer polyurethane material, such as COIM&#39;s PET75D cured with MOCA. In some embodiments, the hub material  72  may not be polymeric. For instance, in some embodiments, the hub material  72  may be metallic (e.g., steel, aluminum, etc.). 
     The hub  32  may comprise one or more additional materials in addition to the hub material  72  in other embodiments (e.g., different parts of the inner member  62 , different parts of the outer member  64 , and/or different parts of the arms  66   1 - 66   A may be made of different materials). 
     The wheel  20   i  may be manufactured in any suitable way. For example, in some embodiments, the tire  34  and/or the hub  32  may be manufactured via centrifugal casting, a.k.a. spin casting, which involves pouring one or more materials of the wheel  20   i  into a mold that rotates about an axis. The material(s) is(are) distributed within the mold via a centrifugal force generated by the mold&#39;s rotation. In some cases, vertical spin casting, in which the mold&#39;s axis of rotation is generally vertical, may be used. In other cases, horizontal spin casting, in which the mold&#39;s axis of rotation is generally horizontal, may be used. The wheel  20   i  may be manufactured using any other suitable manufacturing processes in other embodiments. 
     The NPT wheel  20   i  may be lightweight. That is, a mass M W  of the wheel  20   i  may be relatively small. For example, in some embodiments, a ratio M normalized  of the mass M W  of the wheel  20   i  over the outer diameter D W  of the wheel  20   i  normalized by the width W W  of the wheel  20   i , 
     
       
         
           
             
               M 
               normalized 
             
             = 
             
               
                 ( 
                 
                   
                     M 
                     w 
                   
                   
                     D 
                     w 
                   
                 
                 ) 
               
               
                 W 
                 w 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     may be no more than 0.0005 kg/mm 2 , in some cases no more than 0.0004 kg/mm 2 , in some cases no more than 0.0003 kg/mm 2 , in some cases no more than 0.0002 kg/mm 2 , in some cases no more than 0.00015 kg/mm 2 , in some cases no more than 0.00013 kg/mm 2 , in some cases no more than 0.00011 kg/mm 2 , and in some cases even less (e.g., no more than 0.0001). 
     For instance, in some embodiments, the outer diameter of the wheel  20   i  may be 690 mm (27″), the width of the wheel  20   i  may be 230 mm (9″), and the mass M W  of the wheel  20   i  may be less than 25 kg, in some cases no more than 22 kg, in some cases no more than 20 kg, in some cases no more than 18 kg, in some cases no more than 16 kg, and in some cases even less. 
     The wheel  20   i , including the tire  34  and the hub  32 , may have various features to enhance its use and performance and/or use and performance of the ATV  10 , including, for example, radial compliance characteristics to improve its shock-absorbing capability, lateral stiffness characteristics to improve the lateral stability of the ATV  10 , and/or other features. This may be achieved in various ways in various embodiments, examples of which will now be discussed. 
     1. Enhanced Radial Compliance for Shock Absorption 
     In some embodiments, a radial compliance C z  of the wheel  20   i  may be significant. That is, a radial stiffness K z  of the wheel  20   i  may be relatively low for shock absorption (e.g., ride quality). The radial stiffness K z  of the wheel  20   i  is a rigidity of the wheel  20   i  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i , i.e., a resistance of the wheel  20   i  to deformation in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i  when loaded. The radial compliance C z  of the wheel  20   i  is the inverse of the radial stiffness K z  of the wheel  20   i  (i.e., C z =1/K z ). 
     For example, in some embodiments, a ratio K z  normalized of the radial stiffness K z  of the wheel  20   i  over the outer diameter D W  of the wheel  20   i  normalized by the width W W  of the wheel  20   i    
     
       
         
           
             
               K 
               
                 Z 
                  
                 
                     
                 
                  
                 normalized 
               
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   K 
                   z 
                 
                 
                   D 
                   W 
                 
               
               
                 W 
                 W 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     may be between 0.0001 kgf/mm 3  and 0.0002 kgf/mm 3 , where the radial stiffness K z  of the wheel  20   i  is taken at a design load F DESIGN  of the wheel  20   i , i.e., a normal load expected to be encountered by the wheel  20   i  in use such that only the tire  34  deflects by a normal deflection. A value of the K z normalized  below this range may result in a tire that has excessive deflection at the design load and therefore suffers in impact absorption, while a value of the K z normalized  above this range may result in a tire suffering in normal ride comfort, as its radial stiffness is too high. Herein, a force or load may be expressed in units of kilogram-force (kgf), but this can be converted into other units of force (e.g., Newtons). 
     The radial stiffness K z  of the wheel  20   i  may be evaluated in any suitable way in various embodiments. 
     For example, in some embodiments, the radial stiffness K z  of the wheel  20   i  may be gauged using a standard SAE J2704. 
     As another example, in some embodiments, the radial stiffness K z  of the wheel  20   i  may be gauged by standing the wheel  20   i  upright on a flat hard surface and applying a downward vertical load F z  on the wheel  20   i  at the axis of rotation  35  of the wheel  20   i  (e.g., via the hub  32 ). The downward vertical load F z  causes the wheel  20   i  to elastically deform from its original configuration (shown in dotted lines) to a biased configuration (show in full lines) by a deflection D z . The deflection D z  is equal to a difference between a height of the wheel  20   i  in its original configuration and the height of the wheel  20   i  in its biased configuration. The radial stiffness K z  of the wheel  20   i  is calculated as the downward vertical load F Z  over the measured deflection D Z . 
     For instance, in some embodiments, the radial stiffness K z  of the wheel  20   i  may be no more than 15 kgf/mm, in some cases no more than 11 kgf/mm, in some cases no more than 8 kgf/mm, and in some cases even less. 
     The radial compliance C z  of the wheel  20   i  is provided at least by a radial compliance C zt  of the non-pneumatic tire  34 . For instance, in this embodiment, the spokes  42   1 - 42   T  can deflect significantly in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i  under the loading on the wheel  20   i . This may allow the wheel  20   i  to have a “pneumatic-like” zone of operation, which is characterized by relatively little strain in the tire  34  and relatively lower radial rigidity. In the pneumatic-like zone, the load from the contact patch to the hub  32  occurs primarily through tension in the spoked support  41  comprising the spokes  42   1 - 42   T . 
     For example, in some embodiments, a volume fraction V fs  of the spoked support  41  comprising the spokes  42   1 - 42   T  may be minimized. The volume fraction V fs  of the spoked support  41  refers to a ratio of a volume occupied by material of the spoked support  41  (i.e., a collective volume of the spokes  42   1 - 42   T ) over a volume bounded by the annular beam  36  and the hub  32 . A high value of the volume fraction V fs  increases the amount of material between the outer diameter D OT  and the inner diameter D IT  of the tire  34 , whereas a low value of the volume fraction V fs  decreases the amount of material between the outer diameter D OT  and the inner diameter D IT  of the tire  34 . At very high deflections, as shown in  FIGS. 6, 7, 10, and 13 , the spokes  42   1 - 42   T  begin to self-contact. This, then, enables load transfer from the ground to the hub  32  via compression. Therefore, when the amount of material in the spoked support  41  is minimized, the pneumatic-like zone of operation of the wheel  20   i  is maximized. Thus, while this may be counterintuitive, minimizing material in the spoked support  41  may be beneficial to robustness of the wheel  20   i  in off-road use. Minimizing impact loading may be accomplished by maximizing the pneumatic-like zone, and this may be aided by minimizing the volume fraction V fs  of the spoked support  41 . 
     For instance, in some embodiments, the volume fraction V fs  of the spoked support  41  may be no more than 15%, in some cases no more than 12%, in some cases no more than 10%, in some cases no more than 8%, in some cases no more than 6%, and in some cases even less. For example, in some embodiments, the volume fraction V fs  of the spoked support  41  may be between 6% and 9%. 
       FIG. 4  shows a finite element model in the XZ plane of a representation of an embodiment of the wheel  20   i  according to the invention.  FIG. 5  shows a normal operating condition. With the hub  32  fixed in the XZ plane, when loaded to the design load F DESIGN , the wheel  20   i  develops the contact patch  25 , whose length L C  corresponds to a design contact patch length L DESIGN , and a radial deflection d Z-DESIGN . These design quantities represent a force, contact patch length, and deflection seen in ordinary vehicle operation. As shown, d Z-DESIGN  is a small percentage of the diameter D W  of the wheel  20   i . 
     The ATV  10  may often encounter obstacles and absorb impacts. Obstacles can be large rocks or tree stumps and the like. Impacts can also come from traversing jumps, or other maneuvers in which the ATV  10  leaves the ground, causing the suspension  18  and the wheels  20   1 - 20   4  to be subjected to impact forces. 
       FIG. 6  shows the wheel  20   i  responding to an impact. The impact force, F IMPACT , causes deflection d Z-IMPACT  and results in the length L C  of the contact patch  25  to become an impact contact path length L IMPACT . Due to the design of the NPT, d Z-IMPACT  can be a significant fraction of the diameter D W  of the wheel  20   i . This may be very beneficial to off-road vehicle performance. The tire  34  represents un-sprung mass; as such, the speed with which it can deform is much faster than the speed with which the suspension  18  can displace the wheel  20   i , or the speed with which a center of gravity of the ATV  10  can change. Thus, the ability of the tire  34  to resiliently deform as shown in  FIG. 6  is a critical improvement in off-road vehicle behavior. 
       FIG. 7  shows the wheel  20   i  being rolled over an obstacle. The obstacle is essentially fully enveloped by the annular beam  36 , similar to the performance of an inflated tire. 
     In some embodiments, the radial compliance C z  of the wheel  20   i  may not be provided solely by the radial compliance C zt  of the tire  34 , but rather may be provided by the radial compliance C zt  of the tire  34  and a radial compliance C zh  of the hub  32 . That is, in addition to the tire  34 , the hub  32  may also be radially compliant. 
     For instance, in some embodiments, as shown in  FIGS. 8 to 13 , the hub  32  may be resiliently deformable such that, in response to a given load on the wheel  20   i , the hub  32  deforms elastically from a neutral configuration (shown in  FIGS. 8 and 9 ) to a biased configuration (shown in  FIGS. 10 and 13 ). The hub  32  being resiliently deformable may be useful in concert with the non-pneumatic tire  34 . For a pneumatic tire, this may not necessarily be the case, as the pneumatic tire/wheel interface needs to remain a secure pressure vessel. With an NPT, this constraint is relaxed, and the hub  32  can be resiliently deformable. 
     The hub  32  which is resiliently deformable allows the wheel  20   i  to undergo two stages of deflection: the pneumatic-like zone of operation and an “impact zone” of operation. As indicated above, the pneumatic-like zone is characterized by relatively little strain in the tire  34  and relatively lower radial rigidity. In this embodiment, in the pneumatic-like zone, the load from the contact patch  25  to the hub  32  occurs primarily through tension in the spoked support  41  comprising the spokes  42   1 - 42   T . The impact zone is characterized by higher stresses and higher radial stiffness. In this impact zone, additional load from the contact patch  25  to the hub  32  occurs through compression of the annular beam  36 , the spoked support  41 , and the hub  32 . 
       FIG. 9  shows the wheel  20   i  with the resiliently deformable hub  32  in a normal design condition. In this case, the resiliently deformable hub  32  does not deform; rather, it acts essentially like a rigid hub (e.g., a metallic hub). 
       FIG. 10  shows the wheel  20   i  with the resiliently deformable hub  32  subjected to an impact load F IMPACT  and a deflection d Z-IMPACT . Now, there is significant additional compliance and deformation, thanks to the resiliently deformable hub  32 . Thus, even very large deflections, in which d Z-IMPACT  is a larger percentage of the diameter D W  of the wheel  20   i , are possible. 
     The hub  32  may be designed in any suitable way to be radially compliant. For instance, in some embodiments, the hub  32  may be made integrally with the tire  34  and comprise a central member  262  and a plurality of arms  266   1 - 266   A  projecting radially outward from the central member  262 . Each arm  266   1  is continuous with the tire  34  such that the tire material  45  is continuous with the hub material  72 . That is, the hub material  72  may be elastomeric and the same as the tire material  45 . 
     In this embodiment, unlike the arms  66   1 - 66   A  of the hub  32  described above, the arms  266   1 - 266   A  of the hub  32  do not project rectilinearly to the tire  34 . Rather, each arm  266   1  is curved such that it deviates from a rectilinear path along the radial direction of the wheel  20   i . The curved shape of the arms  266   1 - 266   A  may allow the arms  266   1 - 266   A  to deform elastically in response to a downward vertical load applied on the wheel  20   i . In particular, the arms  266   1 - 266   A  of the hub  232  behave in a similar manner to the spokes  42   1 - 42   T  of the tire  34 . Notably, the arms  266   1 - 266   A  of the hub  232  may be placed in tension or in compression depending on their position. For instance, the arms  266   1 - 266   A  that are in a lower region of the hub  32  adjacent the contact patch  25  of the wheel  20   i  are placed in compression and bend under the applied load while the arms  266   1 - 266   A  that are in an upper region of the hub  32  (i.e., above the axis of rotation  35  of the wheel  20   i ) are placed in tension to support the applied load. 
     For example, in some embodiments, the pneumatic-like zone deflection may be at least 25%, in some cases at least 30%, and in some cases at least 35% of the diameter D W  of the wheel  20   i  and/or the impact zone deflection may be at least 5%, in some cases 8%, and in some cases at least 10% of the diameter D W  of the wheel  20   i . 
     For example, in some embodiments, for the wheel  20   i  of  FIG. 10  in which the diameter D W  is 300 mm. a pneumatic zone deflection of 115 mm and an impact zone deflection of 20 mm may yield excellent on-vehicle performance for an NPT of this size. 
       FIG. 11  shows an example of a load vs. deflection plot for the FEA model shown in  FIGS. 8, 9, and 10 . The pneumatic-like zone and the impact zone are shown, clearly differentiated by the change in radial stiffness. In the pneumatic-like zone, the radial stiffness is about 12 kgf/mm, whereas in the impact zone, the radial stiffness increases to about 200 kgf/mm.  FIG. 12  shows the large amount of absorbed energy developed within each zone. 
     In  FIG. 11 , the design load for the wheel  20   i  of 230 kgf is achieved at the low deflection of around 18 mm. Therefore, the design deflection is a small fraction of around 16% of the pneumatic-like zone. This may be advantageous to vehicle comfort and stability, as the amount of tire deflection available for use during impacts is maximized. In fact, this dual approach—maximizing the pneumatic-like zone distance and minimizing the design deflection—may give excellent performance. 
     In this embodiment, this may be partially accomplished thanks to two factors: (1) a high counter deflection stiffness and (2) a low volume fraction V fs  of the spoked support  41  comprising the spokes  42   1 - 42   T . 
       FIG. 13  shows a superposition of the undeformed and deformed tire geometries for the loading condition of  FIG. 10 . When the central section of the resiliently deformable hub  32  is fixed, as shown, and the tire is loaded, the whole wheel  20   i  deforms. Load is passed from the contact patch  25  to the hub  32  via tension in the spokes  42   1 - 42   T , as the annular beam  36  is deflected upwards. As shown, the spokes  42   1 - 42   T  become taunt when the tire is loaded, and the annular beam  36  is translated up by a small amount β, known as the “counter deflection”, in the region opposite the contact patch  25 . This counter deflection is parasitic. A high counter deflection reduces the contact patch length for a given load, and reduces the effective deflection of the annular beam  36  in obstacle envelopment. For instance, in some embodiments, a maximum counter deflection for the wheel  20   i  may be about 6 mm to 11 mm, which is about 6% to 11% of the pneumatic-like zone of operation of the NPT. 
     2. Enhanced Lateral Stiffness for Lateral Stability 
     In some embodiments, the wheel  20   i  may improve the lateral stability of the ATV  10 , such as when the ATV  10  performs a maneuver (e.g., a lane change) or during other transient situations in which the wheel  20   i  is subject to lateral loading. 
     To that end, a lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i  may be relatively high. The lateral stiffness of the wheel  20   i  is a rigidity of the wheel  20   i  in the widthwise direction of the wheel  20   i , i.e., a resistance of the wheel  20   i  to deformation in the widthwise direction of the wheel  20   i  when loaded in the widthwise direction of the wheel  20   i . A cornering stiffness K δ  of the wheel  20   i  may also be relatively high. 
     For instance, in some embodiments, the wheel  20   i  may yield better lateral stability than a pneumatic tire without sacrificing ride comfort. For instance, in some cases, this may be because the lateral stiffness of the wheel  20   i  and the cornering stiffness of the wheel  20   i  can be decoupled from the radial stiffness and total radial energy absorption of the wheel  20   i . 
     Poor lateral stiffness and/or cornering stiffness could otherwise result in vehicle terminal oversteer, in which the rear of the ATV  10  could lose traction in a turn and begin to yaw uncontrollably. Then, if the center of gravity of the ATV  10  is high and/or if other causes are present, the ATV  10  could experience a roll-over event. Therefore, having the lateral stiffness and the cornering stiffness that are high may be useful. 
     For example,  FIG. 14  shows a variant of the ATV  10  which is a UTV that has a cargo area  51  in the rear of the ATV  10 . For instance, in this example, the cargo area  51  can carry up to 450 kg, at vehicle speeds of up to 80 kph. Thus, there is a large difference in the per tire load at the rear axle, F Z REAR , when the cargo area  51  is empty and when it is full. F Z REAR  can vary from 230 kg (unloaded) to 450 kg (loaded). This may create challenges for vehicle stability in a lane change maneuver. 
     An aerial view of a lane change maneuver is shown in  FIG. 15 . At the beginning of the lane change, the ATV  10  must develop a large lateral force at the front axle. After the ATV  10  crosses into the adjoining lane, the driver reverses steering angle to center the vehicle in the lane. The vehicle yaw rapidly changes directions. Then, quite critically, the rear axle tires must develop sufficient cornering force to “catch” the vehicle after the lane change, and the rear axle tires must have sufficient lateral stiffness to support the lateral force. 
     With the ATV  10  in the unloaded state, such transient stability may be challenging. With no cargo, the initial vehicle yaw rate can be quite high; yet, the rear axle tires are lightly loaded. This may make it difficult for the rear axle tires to develop sufficient force to decelerate the vehicle yaw and stabilize the vehicle after the lane change is executed. 
       FIG. 16  illustrates the lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i . Here, the wheel  20   i  is loaded to a design load in the Z direction against a flat surface. Then, the ground is deflected in the Y direction, creating a lateral force F y  on the wheel  20   i  which induces a deflection D Y  of the wheel  20   i  in the lateral direction of the wheel  20   i . The lateral stiffness K Y  of the wheel  20   i  is F Y /D Y , in kgf/mm. 
       FIG. 17  illustrates the cornering stiffness K δ  of the wheel  20   i . The rectangular area is the contact patch  25  of the wheel  20   i  as it travels in the X direction, with a slip angle δ. As it does so, a reaction moment M Z  is created. This is the self-aligning torque. A reaction force F Y  is also created. This force is a cornering force. The cornering stiffness K δ  of the wheel  20   i  is F Y /δ, in kgf/degree. 
     Therefore, in some embodiments, in contrast to the radial stiffness K z  of the wheel  20   i  which may be relatively low, the lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i  may be relatively high, notably due to the construction of the non-pneumatic tire  34 . The lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i  may thus be considerably greater than the radial stiffness K z  of the wheel  20   i  in some embodiments. 
     For example, in some embodiments, a ratio K y /K z  of the lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i  over the radial stiffness K z  of the wheel  20   i  measured at the rear axle load of the ATV  10  with no cargo may be at least 1.6, in some cases at least 1.8, in some cases at least 2, and in some cases even more. The ratio K y /K z  may have any other suitable value in other embodiments. 
     The lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i  may be evaluated in any suitable way in various embodiments. 
     For instance, in one example, the lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i  may be gauged using a standard SAE J2718 test. 
     In another example, as shown in  FIG. 18 , the lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i  may be gauged by applying a lateral load F y  on a given one of the outboard lateral side  49  and the inboard lateral side  54  of the tire  34 . The lateral load F y  causes the wheel  20   i , notably the tire  34 , to elastically deform from its original configuration (shown in dotted lines) to a biased configuration (shown in full lines) by a deflection D y  in the lateral direction of the wheel  20   i . The lateral stiffness of the wheel  20   i  is calculated as the lateral load F y  over the measured lateral deflection D y  of the wheel  20   i . 
     For example, in some embodiments, the lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i  may be at least 15 kgf/mm, in some cases at least 20 kgf/mm, in some cases at least 30 kgf/mm, and in some cases even more. 
     The cornering stiffness K δ  of the wheel  20   i  may also be relatively high, notably due to the construction of the non-pneumatic tire  34 . 
     For instance, in some embodiments, a ratio K δ /F z  of the cornering stiffness K δ  of the wheel  20   i  at one degree over the rear axle load F z  of the ATV  10  with no cargo may be at least 0.2, in some cases at least 0.3, in some cases at least 0.4 and in some cases even more. The ratio K δ /F z  may have any other suitable value in other embodiments. 
     The cornering stiffness K δ  of the wheel  20   i  may be evaluated in any suitable way in various embodiments. 
     For instance, in one example, the cornering stiffness K δ  of the wheel  20   i  may be gauged by measurement on an industry standard Flat-Trac machine, such as that used by Smithers Rapra Corporation. 
     For example, in some embodiments, the cornering stiffness K δ  of the wheel  20   i , when measured at a design load, may be at least 40 kgf/deg, in some cases at least 60 kgf/deg, in some cases at least 80 kgf/deg, and in some cases even more. 
     The lateral stiffness K y  and the cornering stiffness K δ  of the wheel  20   i  may be achieved in any suitable way. 
     For example, in some embodiments, a width W s  of the spoked support  41  comprising the spokes  42   1 - 42   T  may be significant in relation to the width W T  of the tire  34 . For instance, in some embodiments, a ratio of the width W s  of the spoked support  41  over the width W T  of the tire  34  may be at least 0.7, in some cases at least 0.8, in some cases at least 0.9, and in some cases even more. For example, in some cases, the spoked support  41  may extend substantially completely across the annular beam  36  in the axial direction of the wheel  20   i . 
     Other design attributes may also increase the lateral stiffness K y  and the cornering stiffness K δ  of the wheel  20   i . For example, in some embodiments, a stiffness of the annular beam  36  in the circumferential direction may increase the lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i . Increasing a stiffness of the spoked support  41 , via an increase in material modulus of elasticity, may increase the lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i . Adding reinforcement materials, such as short or long fiber reinforcements, may also increase the lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i . 
     The enhanced radial compliance C z  (or, inversely, radial stiffness K z ) and the enhanced lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i  as discussed above in sections  1  and  2  may be particularly useful with the wheel  20   i  being lightweight, such as where the mass Mw of the wheel  20   i , including a mass MT of the non-pneumatic tire  34 , may be relatively low as discussed above. 
     Also, the enhanced radial compliance C z  (or, inversely, radial stiffness K z ) and the enhanced lateral stiffness K y  of the wheel  20   i  as discussed above in sections  1  and  2  may be particularly useful as the ATV  10  travels fast, such as at a speed of at least 50 km/h, in some cases at least 70 km/h, in some cases at least 90 km/h, and in some cases even faster. 
     3. Modular Wheel 
     In some embodiments, as shown in  FIGS. 19 to 21 , the wheel  20   i  may be modular in that it may comprise a plurality of modules  67   1 - 67   C  that are assembled and connected to one another. For instance, in some embodiments, respective ones of the modules  67   1 - 67   C  may be detachably connected to one another (i.e., separate components that can be selectively attached to and detached from one another). One or more of the modules  67   1 - 67   C  may be selected from a set of different modules and/or replaceable by a different module. This may be beneficial to allow the wheel  20   i  to be adapted to a variety of different ATVs. 
     In this embodiment, a module  671  comprises the non-pneumatic tire  34  and a module  672  comprises the hub  32 . More particularly, in this embodiment, the hub  32  may be selected from a set of different hubs and/or replaceable by a different hub. Examples of different hubs  132   1 - 132   H  having different characteristics (e.g., different bolt patterns) are illustrated in  FIG. 22 . This may allow the wheel  20   i  to accommodate different ATVs which may require different configurations of the hub  32  (e.g., different bolt patterns). 
     More particularly, in this embodiment, the tire  34  and the hub  32  are detachably connected to one another (i.e., they are selectively attachable to and detachable from one another). The wheel  20   i  comprises an attachment mechanism  70  for connecting the tire  34  and the hub  32 . The attachment mechanism  70  comprises a connector  71  that is part of the hub  32  and a connector  73  that is part of the tire  34  and connectable to the connector  71  of the hub  32 . More particularly, in this embodiment, the connector  71  comprises the outer member  64  of the hub  32  and the connector  73  comprises a flange  74  projecting inwardly from an inner annular member  38  of the tire  34  from which the spokes  42   1 - 42   T  extend radially outwardly. 
     The flange  74  of the tire  34  comprises an inboard surface  78  facing the inboard lateral side  54  of the tire  34  and an outboard surface  80  facing the outboard lateral side  49  of the tire  34 . The flange  74  is positioned such that a distance L 1  measured between the inboard surface  78  and an inboard lateral end  82  of the inner annular member  38  adjacent the inboard lateral side  54  of the tire  34  is greater than half the distance L 2  which is the total lateral distance of the inboard surface  40  from outboard lateral end  84  to the inboard lateral end  82 . For instance, a ratio L 1 /L 2  may be at least 0.5, in some cases at least 0.7, in some cases may approach 1. This positioning of the flange  74  may allow the hub  32  to be spaced from the axle  17  and/or brake mechanism of the ATV  10  that is housed within a space defined by an inner peripheral surface  40  of the inner annular member  38  when the wheel  20   i  is mounted to the ATV  10  such that the hub  32  does not contact the axle  17  and/or brake mechanism of the ATV  10 . 
     In this embodiment, the outer member  64  of the hub  32  comprises a plurality of holes  86   1 - 86   H  that traverse the outer member  64  and the flange  74  of the tire  34  comprises a plurality of holes  96   1 - 96   H  that traverse the flange  74 . The holes  86   1 - 86   H ,  96   1 - 96   H  are configured such that when the hub  32  is disposed on the tire  34 , each hole  86   i  can be aligned with a corresponding hole  96   i . 
     In order to connect the tire  34  to the hub  32 , the hub  32  is disposed on the flange  74  to bring the outer member  64  of the hub  32  into contact with the outboard lateral surface  80  of the flange  74  of the tire  34 . The holes  86   1 - 86   H  of the hub  32  are then aligned with the holes  96   1 - 96   H  of the flange  74 . In this embodiment, the attachment mechanism  70  further comprises a plurality of fastening elements  76   1 - 76   F  (e.g., bolts) to secure to the outer member  64  to the flange  74 . As shown in  FIG. 23 , each fastening element  76   i  is inserted into a holes  86   i  of the outer member  64  of the hub  32  and into a hole  96   i  of the flange  74  of the tire  34  and is secured accordingly via a corresponding fastening element  77   i  (e.g., a nut). In some embodiments, a clamping plate may be provided between a head of the fastening element  76   i  and the outer member  64  to distribute the force applied by the fastening elements  76   i  on the outer member  64  and the flange  74 . 
     The attachment mechanism  70  may be implemented in any other suitable way in other embodiments (e.g., different types of fasteners, a quick-connect system, etc.). 
     Instead of being distinct modules, as shown in  FIG. 24  and as discussed and shown in previous examples of implementation considered above, in some embodiments, the hub  32  and the tire  34  of the wheel  20   i  may be a single-piece construction (i.e., integrally formed with one another as one piece). Thus, in some embodiments, the wheel  20   i  may consist of a single-piece construction. In such embodiments, the tire material  45  and the hub material  72  may be the same material or may be different materials (e.g., by introducing different materials at different times during spin casting). 
     4. Different Energy Absorption Properties 
     In some embodiments, the wheel  20   i  may have different energy absorption properties than that imparted by the compliance of the tire  34  and/or the hub  32 . For instance, while the radial compliance of the wheel  20   i  imparts the wheel  20   i  with spring-like energy absorption properties, in some embodiments, the wheel  20   i  may also include energy damping properties. That is, the wheel  20   i  may have damping properties that allow the wheel  20   i  to dissipate energy. For instance, in some embodiments, the wheel  20   i  may comprise a damping mechanism  90  for providing energy damping properties to the wheel  20   i . The damping mechanism  90  of the wheel  20   i  may be implemented in various ways. 
     With additional reference to  FIG. 25 , in one example of implementation, the damping mechanism  90  is comprised by the tire  34  and comprises a plurality of damping elements  92   1 - 92   D  that are disposed on the inner annular member  38  of the tire  34  and projecting radially outwardly therefrom. More particularly, the damping elements  92   1 - 92   D  are positioned between adjacent ones of the spokes  42   1 - 42   T . The damping elements  92   1 - 92   D  can be affixed to inner annular member  38  in any suitable way. For instance, in this example, the damping elements  92   1 - 92   D  are fastened to the inner annular member  38  via fasteners (e.g., bolts, screws, etc.). 
     Each damping element  92   i  comprises a damping material  94  that dissipates energy when impacted. For example, in this embodiment, the damping material  94  is rubber. The damping material  94  of the damping element  92   i  may be any other suitable material in other embodiments. 
     In use, when the wheel  20   i  deforms radially in response to a load, the annular beam  36  at the contact patch  25  may contact one or more the damping elements  92   1 - 92   D  or may cause certain spokes  42   1 - 42   T  to contact one or more of the damping elements  92   1 - 92   D . This contact with the damping elements  92   1 - 92   D  transfers the load that would otherwise be absorbed by the compliance of the tire  34  to the damping elements  92   1 - 92   D . Due to their damping properties, the damping elements  92   1 - 92   D  dissipate the energy from such an impact. 
     The damping mechanism  90  may be configured in any other suitable way in other embodiments. 
     5. Reinforced Annular Beam 
     In some embodiments, the annular beam  36  may comprise one or more reinforcing layers running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  to reinforce the annular beam  36 , such as one or more substantially inextensible reinforcing layers running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  (e.g., one or more layers of metal, composite (e.g., carbon fibers, other fibers), and/or another material that is substantially inextensible running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i ). For instance, this may reinforce the annular beam  36  by protecting it against cracking and/or by better managing heat generated within it as it deforms in use. 
     For example, in some embodiments, as shown in  FIG. 26 , the annular beam  36  may comprise a reinforcing layer  47  running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i    
     The reinforcing layer  47  is unnecessary for the annular beam  36  to deflect predominantly by shearing, i.e., unnecessary for the shear band  39  to deflect significantly more by shearing than by bending at the contact patch  25  of the wheel  20   i . That is, the annular beam  36  would deflect predominantly by shearing even without the reinforcing layer  47 . In other words, the annular beam  36  would deflect predominantly by shearing if it lacked the reinforcing layer  47  but was otherwise identical. Notably, in this embodiment, this is due to the openings  56   1 - 56   N  and the interconnecting members  37   1 - 37   P  of the shear band  39  that facilitate deflection predominantly by shearing. 
     The annular beam  36  has the reinforcing layer  47  but is free of any equivalent reinforcing layer running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  and spaced from the reinforcing layer  47  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i . That is, the annular beam  36  has no reinforcing layer that is equivalent, i.e., identical or similar in function and purpose, to the reinforcing layer  47  and spaced from the reinforcing layer  47  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i . The annular beam  36  therefore lacks any reinforcing layer that is comparably stiff to (e.g., within 10% of a stiffness of) the reinforcing layer  47  in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  and spaced from the reinforcing layer  47  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i . 
     In this embodiment, the annular beam  36  has the reinforcing layer  47  but is free of any substantially inextensible reinforcing layer running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  and spaced from the reinforcing layer  47  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i . Thus, the reinforcing layer  47  is a sole reinforcing layer of the annular beam  36 . 
     More particularly, in this embodiment, the annular beam  36  has the reinforcing layer  47  located on a given side of a neutral axis  57  of the annular beam  36  and is free of any substantially inextensible reinforcing layer running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  on an opposite side of the neutral axis  57  of the annular beam  36 . That is, the reinforcing layer  47  is located between the neutral axis  57  of the annular beam  36  and a given one of the inner peripheral extent  48  and the outer peripheral extent  46  of the annular beam  36  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i , while the annular beam  36  is free of any substantially inextensible reinforcing layer running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  between the neutral axis  57  of the annular beam  36  and the other one of the inner peripheral extent  48  and the outer peripheral extent  46  of the annular beam  36  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i . 
     The neutral axis  57  of the annular beam  36  is an axis of a cross-section of the annular beam  36  where there is substantially no tensile or compressive stress in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  when the annular beam  36  deflects at the contact patch  25  of the wheel  20   i . In this example, the neutral axis  57  is offset from a midpoint of the annular beam  36  between the inner peripheral extent  48  and the outer peripheral extent  46  of the annular beam  36  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i . More particularly, in this example, the neutral axis  57  is closer to a given one of the inner peripheral extent  48  and the outer peripheral extent  46  of the annular beam  36  than to an opposite one of the inner peripheral extent  48  and the outer peripheral extent  46  of the annular beam  36  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i . 
     In this embodiment, the reinforcing layer  47  is disposed radially inwardly of the neutral axis  57  of the annular beam  36 , and the annular beam  36  is free of any substantially inextensible reinforcing layer running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  radially outwardly of the neutral axis  57  of the annular beam  36 . 
     In this example, the reinforcing layer  47  is disposed between the inner peripheral extent  48  of the annular beam  36  and the openings  56   1 - 56   N  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i , while the annular beam  36  is free of any substantially inextensible reinforcing layer running in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  between the outer peripheral extent  46  of the annular beam  36  and the openings  56   1 - 56   N  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i . 
     The reinforcing layer  47  may be implemented in any suitable way in various embodiments. 
     For example, in some embodiments, as shown in  FIG. 27 , the reinforcing layer  47  may include a layer of elongate reinforcing elements  62   1 - 62   E  that reinforce the annular beam  36  in one or more directions in which they are elongated, such as the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  and/or one or more directions transversal thereto. 
     For instance, in some embodiments, the elongate reinforcing elements  62   1 - 62   E  of the reinforcing layer  47  may include reinforcing cables  63   1 - 63   C  that are adjacent and generally parallel to one another. For instance, the reinforcing cables  63   1 - 63   C  may extend in the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i  to enhance strength in tension of the annular beam  36  along the circumferential direction of the wheel  20   i . In some cases, a reinforcing cable may be a cord or wire rope including a plurality of strands or wires. In other cases, a reinforcing cable may be another type of cable and may be made of any material suitably flexible longitudinally (e.g., fibers or wires of metal, plastic or composite material). 
     In some embodiments, the elongate reinforcing elements  62   1 - 62   E  of the reinforcing layer  47  may include constitute a layer of reinforcing fabric  65 . Reinforcing fabric comprises pliable material made usually by weaving, felting, knitting, interlacing, or otherwise crossing natural or synthetic elongated fabric elements, such as fibers, filaments, strands and/or others. For instance, as one example, in some embodiments such as that of  FIG. 27 , the elongate reinforcing elements  62   1 - 62   E  of the reinforcing layer  47  that include the reinforcing cables  63   1 - 63   C  may also include transversal fabric elements  73   1 - 73   T  that extend transversally (e.g., perpendicularly) to and interconnect the reinforcing cables  63   1 - 63   C . Thus, in this example, the reinforcing layer  47 , including its reinforcing cables  63   1 - 63   C  and its transversal fabric elements  73   1 - 73   T , can be viewed as a reinforcing fabric or mesh (e.g., a “tire cord” fabric or mesh). As another example, in some embodiments, as shown in  FIG. 28 , the reinforcing fabric  47  may include textile  75  (e.g., woven or nonwoven textile). 
     In other examples of implementation, the reinforcing layer  47  may include a reinforcing sheet (e.g., a thin, continuous layer of metallic material, such as steel or aluminum that extends circumferentially). 
     The reinforcing layer  47  may be made of one or more suitable materials. A material  77  of the reinforcing layer  47  may be stiffer and stronger than the elastomeric material  45  of the annular beam  36  in which it is disposed. For instance, in some embodiments, the material  77  of the reinforcing layer  47  may be a metallic material (e.g., steel, aluminum, etc.). In other embodiments, the material  77  of the reinforcing layer  47  may be a stiff polymeric material, a composite material (e.g., a fiber-reinforced composite material), etc. 
     In this example of implementation, the reinforcing layer  47  comprises the reinforcing mesh or fabric that includes the reinforcing cables  63   1 - 63   C  and the transversal fabric elements  73   1 - 73   T  which are respectively 3 strands of steel wire of 0.28 mm diameter, wrapped together to form a cable, and high tenacity nylon cord of 1400×2. 
     In some embodiments, the reinforcing layer  47  may allow the elastomeric material  45  (e.g., PU) of the annular beam  36  to be less stiff, and this may facilitate processability in manufacturing the tire  34 . For example, in some embodiments, the modulus of elasticity (e.g., Young&#39;s modulus) of the elastomeric material  45  of the annular beam  36  may be no more than 200 MPa, in some cases no more than 150 MPa, in some cases no more than 100 MPa, in some cases no more than 50 MPa, and in some cases even less. 
     The reinforcing layer  47  may be provided in the annular beam  36  in any suitable way. In this embodiment, the reinforcing layer  47  may be formed as a hoop and placed in the mold before the elastomeric material  45  of the tire  34  is introduced in the mold. As the elastomeric material  45  is distributed within the mold via the centrifugal force generated by the mold&#39;s rotation, the reinforcing layer  47  is embedded in that portion of the elastomeric material  45  that forms the annular beam  36 . 
     The reinforcing layer  47  may provide various benefits to the wheel  20   i  in various embodiments. 
     For example, in this embodiment, the reinforcing layer  47  may help to protect the annular beam  36  against cracking. More particularly, in this embodiment, as it reinforces the annular beam  36  proximate to the inner peripheral extent  48  of the annular beam  36  that experiences tensile stresses when the annular beam  36  deflects in use, the reinforcing layer  47  may help the annular beam  36  to better withstand these tensile stresses that could otherwise increase potential for cracking to occur in the elastomeric material  45  of the annular beam  36 . 
     As another example, in this embodiment, the reinforcing layer  47  may help to better manage heat generated within the annular beam  36  as it deforms in use. A thermal conductivity of the material  77  of the reinforcing layer  47  may be greater than a thermal conductivity of the elastomeric material  45  of the annular beam  36 , such that the reinforcing layer  47  can better conduct and distribute heat generated within the tire  34  as it deforms in use. This may allow a highest temperature of the elastomeric material  45  to remain lower and therefore allow the wheel  20   i  to remain cooler and/or run faster at a given load than if the reinforcing layer  47  was omitted. 
     More particularly, in this embodiment, a ratio of the thermal conductivity of the material  77  of the reinforcing layer  47  over the thermal conductivity of the elastomeric material  45  of the annular beam  36  may be at least 50, in some cases at least 75, in some cases at least 100, and in some cases even more. For instance, in some embodiments, the thermal conductivity of the material  77  of the reinforcing layer  47  may be at least 10 W/m/° C., in some cases at least 20 W/m/° C., in some cases at least 30 W/m/° C., in some cases at least 40 W/m/° C., and in some cases even more. 
     A thermal conductivity of a unidirectional composite layer can be calculated by the following equation: 
         K   i   =V   c   K   c +(1 −V   c ) K   m    (10)
         Where: Ki=thermal conductivity of the ply in direction i   V C =cable volume fraction in direction i   K C =cable thermal conductivity   K M =matrix thermal conductivity       

     From Equation (10) the thermal conductivity of a composite is orthotropic; i.e., it is different in different directions. The tire designer can thus tune the composite layer to have the desired conductivity in the circumferential direction (say, the “1” direction) independently of the lateral direction (say, the “2”) direction. 
     Most elastomers, such as rubber and polyurethane, are good thermal insulators. The inventors have found that even a fairly low cable volume fraction is sufficient to raise the thermal conductivity to a level that adequately evacuates heat. With a steel cable, Equation (10) shows that a cable volume fraction of 0.10 gives a composite layer thermal conductivity of 5.2 W/m/° C. This value, or even a value as low as 2.0 W/m/° C. may be sufficient to improve thermal performance. 
     In some embodiments, steel may be used as the reinforcing material in both the circumferential and lateral directions. For example, to better dissipate heat and homogenize temperature, a steel cable of 3 strands of 0.28 mm diameter at a pace of 1.8 mm could be used in both the vertical and lateral directions. Such a composite layer has an average thickness of about 1.0 mm, and a steel volume fraction of about 0.10 in both vertical and lateral directions. As previously stated, this yields a thermal conductivity of about 5.2 W/m/° C. for the composite layer. 
     In some embodiments, in addition to or instead of including the reinforcing layer  47 , as shown in  FIG. 29 , a thickness Tb of the annular beam  36  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i  may be increased in order to reinforce the annular beam  36 . More particularly, in this embodiment, the inner rim  33  may be increased in thickness. For instance, the inner rim  33  of the annular beam  36  may be thicker than the outer rim  31  of the annular beam  36  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i . This may help the annular beam  36  to better withstand tensile stresses proximate to the inner peripheral extent  48  of the annular beam  36  when the annular beam  36  deflects in use. 
     For example, in this embodiment, a ratio of a thickness T ib  of the annular beam  36  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i  over the outer diameter D W  of the wheel  20   i  may be at least 0.05, in some cases at least 0.07, in some cases as least 0.09, and in some cases even more. 
     As another example, in this embodiment, a ratio of a thickness T ib  of the inner rim  33  of the annular beam  36  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i  over a thickness T ob  of the outer rim  31  of the annular beam  36  in the radial direction of the wheel  20   i  may be at least 1.2, in some cases at least 1.4, in some cases as least 1.6, and in some cases even more. 
     While in embodiments considered above the wheel  20   i  is part of the ATV  10 , a wheel constructed according to principles discussed herein may be used as part of other vehicles or other devices in other embodiments. 
     For example, with additional reference to  FIGS. 30 and 31 , in some embodiments, an industrial vehicle  210  may comprise wheels  220   1 - 220   4  constructed according to principles discussed herein in respect of the wheel  20   i . The industrial vehicle  210  is a heavy-duty vehicle designed to travel off-road to perform industrial work using a work implement  298 . In this embodiment, the industrial vehicle  210  is a construction vehicle. More particularly, in this embodiment, the construction vehicle  210  is a loader (e.g., a skid-steer loader). The construction vehicle  210  may be a bulldozer, a backhoe loader, an excavator, a dump truck, or any other type of construction vehicle in other embodiments. 
     The construction vehicle  210  comprises a frame  212 , a powertrain  214 , the wheels  220   1 - 220   4 , the work implement  298 , and an operator cabin  284 , which enable an operator to move the construction vehicle  210  on the ground and perform construction work using the work implement  298 . The operator cabin  284  is where the operator sits and controls the construction vehicle  210 . More particularly, the operator cabin  284  comprises a user interface that allows the operator to steer the construction vehicle  210  on the ground and perform construction work using the working implement  298 . 
     The working implement  298  is used to perform construction work. In this embodiment where the construction vehicle  210  is a loader, the working implement  298  is a dozer blade that can be used to push objects and shove soil, debris or other material. In other embodiments, depending on the type of construction vehicle, the working implement  298  may be a backhoe, a bucket, a fork, a grapple, a scraper pan, an auger, a saw, a ripper, a material handling arm, or any other type of construction working implement. 
     Each wheel  220   1  of the construction vehicle  210  may be constructed according to principles described herein in respect of the wheels  20   1 - 20   4 , notably by comprising a non-pneumatic tire  234  and a hub  232  that may be constructed according to principles described herein in respect of the non-pneumatic tire  34  and the hub  32 . The non-pneumatic tire  234  comprises an annular beam  236  and an annular support  241  that may be constructed according principles described herein in respect of the annular beam  36  and the annular support  41 . For instance, the annular beam  236  comprises a shear band  239  comprising openings  256   1 - 256   B  and the annular support  41  comprises spokes  242   1 - 242   J  that may be constructed according to principles described herein in respect of the shear band  39  and the spokes  42   1 - 42   T . In this embodiment, the shear band  239  comprises intermediate rims  251 ,  253  between an outer rim  231  and an inner rim  233  such that the openings  256   1 - 256   N  and interconnecting members  237   1 - 237   P  are arranged into three circumferential rows between adjacent ones of the rims  231 ,  251 ,  253 ,  233 . 
       FIG. 31  shows an example of a finite element model of the wheel  220   i , which in this case is an equivalent of a 20.5×25 pneumatic tire used in the construction industry. The wheel  220   i  is 1.53 meters in diameter, 0.5 meters in width, and carries a design load of 10 metric tons (10,000 kgf). In this embodiment, an inner diameter of the non-pneumatic tire  34  is 0.62 meters. Like the wheel  20   i  described above, in this embodiment, a pneumatic-like zone of deflection is greater than 37% of the wheel&#39;s diameter, and a volume fraction V fs  of the annular support  241  of the tire  234  is less than about 9%. 
     As another example, in some embodiments, with additional reference to  FIG. 32 , a motorcycle  410  may comprise a front wheel  420   1  and a rear wheel  420   2  constructed according to principles discussed herein in respect of the wheel  20   i . 
     As another example, in some embodiments, a wheel constructed according to principles discussed herein in respect of the wheel  20   i  may be used as part of an agricultural vehicle (e.g., a tractor, a harvester, etc.), a forestry vehicle, a material-handling vehicle, or a military vehicle. 
     As another example, in some embodiments, a wheel constructed according to principles discussed herein in respect of the wheel  20   i  may be used as part of a road vehicle such as an automobile or a truck. 
     As another example, in some embodiments, a wheel constructed according to principles discussed herein in respect of the wheel  20   i  may be used as part of a lawnmower (e.g., a riding lawnmower or a walk-behind lawnmower). 
     Certain additional elements that may be needed for operation of some embodiments have not been described or illustrated as they are assumed to be within the purview of those of ordinary skill in the art. Moreover, certain embodiments may be free of, may lack and/or may function without any element that is not specifically disclosed herein. 
     Any feature of any embodiment discussed herein may be combined with any feature of any other embodiment discussed herein in some examples of implementation. 
     In case of any discrepancy, inconsistency, or other difference between terms used herein and terms used in any document incorporated by reference herein, meanings of the terms used herein are to prevail and be used. 
     Although various embodiments and examples have been presented, this was for the purpose of describing, but not limiting, the invention. Various modifications and enhancements will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art and are within the scope of the invention, which is defined by the appended claims.