Patent Publication Number: US-2021171988-A1

Title: Biological Production of Multi-Carbon Compounds from Methane

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application is continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/648,920, filed Jul. 13, 2017, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,876,137, issued Dec. 29, 2020; which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/192,290, filed Jun. 24, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,745,603, issued Aug. 29, 2017; which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/989,859, filed Jan. 7, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,399,783, issued Jul. 26, 2016; which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/206,835, filed Mar. 12, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,267,158, issued Feb. 23, 2016; which claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/782,830, filed Mar. 14, 2013, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. 
    
    
     REFERENCE TO SEQUENCE LISTING 
     This application includes a “Sequence Listing.ascii.txt,” 331,569 bytes, created on Mar. 12, 2014, and submitted electronically via EFS-Web, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Field of the Invention 
     The present invention is generally related to the fields of molecular biology and and methods of producing metabolically engineered microorganisms which utilize methane feedstocks for the biological production of bio-fuels and bio-chemicals such as 1-butanol, isobutanol, fatty alcohols, fatty acid esters, 2,3-butanediol and the like. 
     Background Art 
     Traditional fossil fuels (e.g., gasoline, diesel, kerosene and the like) and numerous chemicals (e.g., for use in pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, plastics and the like) are derived (and refined from) non-renewable petroleum (oil) resources. Current estimates suggest that the world&#39;s supply of non-renewable petroleum will likely be exhausted somewhere between the years 2045 and 2065 (U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey World Petroleum Assessment, 2000), with concomitant extensions or reductions of these estimates dependent on variables such as increased (or reduced) global demand, more efficient petroleum refining processes, more efficient use of energy and products derived from petroleum and the discovery of new petroleum sources/reserves. 
     Independent of any current or future methods contemplated to mitigate petroleum consumption, there is no debate that the world&#39;s supply of petroleum is a finite and a constantly diminishing (non-renewable) energy source. Thus, to meet the ever increasing global demands for energy consumption, renewable, biologically produced fuels (i.e., “bio-fuels” and “bio-diesel”) have become an area of intense research, capital investment and government intervention. 
     For example, the U.S. “Energy Policy Act” of 2005 (42 USC, Title XV “Ethanol and Motor Fuels”, § 1501-§ 1533; enacted into law Aug. 8, 2005), sets forth parameters and definitions of “renewable fuels”, and established the “minimum ethanol” volume to gasoline volume blending requirements (presently E10: 10% ethanol:90% gasoline), with E15 (15% ethanol:85% gasoline) enacted as law and being “phased-in” across the U.S. The Energy Policy Act defines “renewable fuel” as a “motor vehicle fuel produced from grain, starch, oil-seeds, vegetable, animal, or fish materials including fats, greases, and oils, sugarcane, sugar beets, sugar components, tobacco, potatoes, or other biomass; or a natural gas produced from a biogas source, including a landfill, sewage waste treatment plant, feedlot, or other place where decaying organic material is found; and is used to replace or reduce the quantity of fossil fuel present in a fuel mixture used to operate a motor vehicle. The term “renewable fuel” includes (a) cellulosic biomass ethanol and waste derived ethanol; and (b) biodiesel, and any blending components derived from renewable fuel”. 
     In addition to the current E10 ethanol/gasoline blends and ongoing adoption of E15 ethanol/gasoline blends, ethanol volumes of up to E85 (i.e., 85% ethanol:15% gasoline) are also presently being utilized in “flex-fuel” vehicles (i.e., vehicles with engines and fuel systems capable of combusting and delivering, respectively, 85% ethanol blended gasoline) and it is estimated that the production of E85 fuel will only continue to increase as the supply (i.e., production) of “flex-fuel” vehicles increase. However, an inherent limitation of “ethanol” blended fuels (due to the decreased or lower “energy content” of ethanol relative to gasoline) is that increasing the percentage of ethanol blended into gasoline reduces the overall fuel economy of the vehicle (e.g., fuel economy of vehicles operating on E85 is about 25-30% less than vehicles operating on E10 gasoline blends). This limitation of ethanol&#39;s total energy content has further facilitated research and development of alternative bio-fuel blending additives (e.g., terpenoid hydrocarbons, n-butanol, isobutanol and the like) to replace bio-ethanol. Also predicated on the assumption of a finite, diminishing supply of non-renewable petroleum resources, research in the areas of biologically derived (hereinafter, “bio-based”) chemicals (e.g., for use in pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, plastics and the like) are being pursued, wherein these “bio-based” chemicals are contemplated as a means for reducing or eliminating their equivalents traditionally derived from petroleum feed stocks. 
     A considerable topic of ongoing debate is whether the ethanol fuel provisions of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (and similar policies of other countries) have reduced (or will reduce) dependence on foreign oil/petroleum sources and/or have mitigated (or will mitigate) greenhouse gas emissions (two perceived benefits of the Act). For example, bio-fuels such as ethanol were initially seen as a solution to energy and environmental problems (i.e., considered carbon neutral) because the carbon dioxide emitted when ethanol is combusted is equivalent to the carbon dioxide absorbed from the atmosphere when the ethanol feed stock crop is grown (e.g., corn ethanol, sugarcane ethanol, cellulosic ethanol from switchgrass, etc.). 
     A recent study by economists at Oregon State University (Jaeger &amp; Egelkraut, 2011) suggests however, that once additional factors/consequences are considered, such as (a) the use of fossil fuels to produce bio-fuel feedstocks and transport bio-fuels, (b) the use of nitrogen fertilizers to grow bio-fuel feedstocks and (c) that growing bio-fuel feedstock crops often pushes food production onto previously unfarmed land (which typically requires clearing tress and heavy tilling of the land), the perceived environmental benefits of ethanol derived bio-fuels may be lost. Likewise, another recent study on the environmental impact of bio-fuel production concludes that high corn and soybean prices, prompted largely by the demand for bio-fuel feedstocks (and partly by government incentives to use them as fuels instead of food), are driving one of the most important land cover/land use change events in recent US history; the accelerated conversion of grassland to cropland in the US Corn Belt (Wright and Wimberly, 2013). 
     The shift from petroleum based diesel fuel as a (transportation) energy source (e.g., used in automobiles, trucks and other heavy equipment) to renewable bio-diesel fuels is another source of scientific and policy disagreement similar to the arguments set forth above with regard to ethanol bio-fuels. Bio-diesel is generally made from plant oils or animal fats (triacylglycerides) by transesterification with methanol or ethanol, resulting in fatty acid methyl esters and fatty acid ethyl esters. However, the limited supply of bioresources to obtain triacylglycerides has become a major bottleneck for bio-diesel production, the primary reason being that vegetable oil feedstocks are also food sources and their planting is geographically limited. 
     There is therefore a pressing need in the art for novel methods of producing bio-fuel, bio-diesel and bio-based chemical compositions which reduce the world&#39;s dependence/utilization of petroleum products, ameliorate ongoing depletion of arable food source “farmland” currently being diverted to grow bio-fuel feedstocks and generally improve the environmental footprint of future bio-fuel, bio-diesel and bio-based chemical compositions. 
     As mentioned previously above, ethanol is currently the most abundant bio-fuel produced, but due to certain limitations (e.g., low energy content, high water solubility, incompatibility/corrosive with many fuel systems), ethanol based bio-fuels may not be the best option to meet future energy demands. Butanol, in comparison, has several advantages over ethanol as a bio-fuel, such as its high blending compatibility with gasoline, its low solubility in water allow it to be stored and distributed using the existing petrochemical infrastructure, it has a much higher energy content than ethanol (thereby improving fuel economy) and has a lower vapor pressure than ethanol blends, which is important in reducing evaporative hydrocarbon emissions. Isobutanol has the same advantages as butanol, with the additional advantage of having a higher octane number due to its branched carbon chain, and it is also useful as a commodity chemical. 
     Various methods for producing renewable bio-fuel, bio-diesel and other bio-based chemicals are known and described in the art. For example, traditional fermentation and distillation methods for producing and extracting bio-ethanol from starch or sugar rich biomass (e.g., corn) and the hydrolysis, fermentation and distillation methods of producing bio-ethanol from ligno-cellulosic biomass are well known in the art (Rudolph et al., 2009; Kim et al, 2013; Philips et al., 2013). The production of bio-diesel via extraction and esterification of vegetable oils, used cooking oils and animal fats using alcohols is also well known in the art (Saka &amp; Kusdiana, 2001). 
     In more recent efforts, researchers have started to look at alternative methods for producing bio-fuels, bio-diesel and bio-based chemicals. For example, methods for producing bio-fuels such as butanol and isobutanol in various microorganisms such as  Escherichia coli  (Atsumi et al., 2010),  Clostridium acetobutylicum  (Jang et al., 2012) and  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  (Avalos et al., 2013) have been described in the art. Furthermore, the complete biosynthetic pathway for isobutanol production has been engineered in yeast (see, U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,232,089; 7,993,889) and bacteria (see, U.S. Patent Publication No. 2011/0301388). Similarly, de novo biosynthesis of bio-diesel using genetically engineered  E. coli  has been described in the art (Xingye et al., 2011; Yangkai et al., 2011). 
     However, each of the methods set forth above (i.e., traditional biomass fermentation methods and engineered biological/microorganism methods) for producing bio-fuel, bio-diesel, bio-based chemicals and the like, are limited by the choice of feedstock (or substrate) used to produce the end product (e.g., bio-ethanol, bio-butanol, bio-diesel, etc.). For example, the growth substrates utilized by each of the microorganisms set forth above (i.e.,  E. coli, C. acetobutylicum  and  S. cerevisiae ) are dependent, in one way or another, on substrate feedstocks derived from crop-based food sources (e.g., glucose (growth) substrates fed to microorganisms are derived from plant sources). 
     Thus, as set forth previously, there is an ongoing need in the art for novel methods of producing bio-fuel, bio-diesel and bio-based chemical compositions, which not only reduce dependence/utilization of petroleum products, but also ameliorate the ongoing depletion of arable food source “farmland” currently being diverted to grow bio-fuel feedstocks and generally improve the environmental footprint of future bio-fuel, bio-diesel and bio-based chemical compositions. 
     Methane (CH 4 ) has great value as a chemical feedstock for the production of chemicals and food additives, due to its widespread availability, abundant supply and low price (Kidnay et al., 2011). Methane, in the form of natural gas, can be obtained from shale gas, oil drilling, municipal solid waste, biomass gasification/conversion, and methanogenic archaea. Wellhead natural gas varies in composition from about 40% to 95% methane, wherein the other components include ethane, propane, butane, pentane, and heavier hydrocarbons, along with hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, helium and nitrogen. The proportion of methane in the gas feedstock can be increased by gas conditioning, which can produce natural gas consisting of 85-95% (v/v) methane (U.S. Pat. No. 4,982,023). 
     Current industrial methods for utilizing methane from natural gas include the Fischer-Tropsch process for converting methane into ethylene, steam-methane reforming from methane synthesis gas, as well as direct conversion from methane to methanol using inorganic catalysts (Veazey, 2012; Alayon et al., 2012; U.S. Pat. No. 4,982,023). Although the economics of syngas-to-liquids and methanol-to-gasoline from natural gas have become more favorable, these thermochemical methods for methane conversion still suffer from serious drawbacks (Arakawa et al., 2001). For example: (1) industrial plant construction requires high capital expenditure, (2) operating costs are high, (3) thermochemical conversion plants require elevated temperatures (150° C. to 300° C.) and high pressures (tens of atmospheres), which add to capital and operational costs, (4) the gas-to-liquids process is not always selective in producing liquid fuel and chemical products, further requiring expensive distillation costs and (5) the inorganic catalysts required for producing methanol and other products are susceptible to poisoning by contaminants in the process stream, and therefore the gas streams must be cleaned and the catalysts periodically replaced. 
     Certain embodiments of the present invention, as set forth below (see, “Detailed Description”), are directed to methods for biosynthetic production of multi-carbon compounds such as fuels (bio-fuels) and chemicals (bio-based) from methane. It is contemplated herein that the methods according to the present invention, using biological catalysts or biocatalysts (e.g., a genetically modified host microorganism) provide a number of economic advantages over current “industrial” methods for utilizing methane from natural gas. These advantages include (1) lower processing temperatures and pressures; (2) high selectivity for the reactions and (3) renewability, all of which lead to substantially lower capital and operational expenses. 
     A number of microorganisms, including bacteria and yeast, use single-carbon (C1) substrates as their sole source of carbon. These methylotrophs or C1-metabolizers can convert carbon compounds that do not contain carbon-carbon bonds, such as methane (CH 4 ) or methanol (CH 3 OH) into biomass (Gellissen et al., 2005; Trotsenko &amp; Murrell, 2008; Chistoserdova et al., 2009; Schrader et al., 2009; Chistoserdova, 2011). With regard to methane utilization, one particularly important group of bacteria known as the methanotrophs, the “obligate” members of which convert methane into methanol (CH 3 OH), formaldehyde (H 2 C═O), formic acid (HCOOH) and ultimately CO 2  by sequential enzymatic oxidation (Hanson &amp; Hanson, 1996; Trotsenko &amp; Murrell, 2008; Rosenzweig &amp; Ragsdale, 2011(a); Rosenzweig &amp; Ragsdale 2011(b)). Certain “facultative” methanotrophs (e.g., from the genus  Methylocella ) can also be cultivated using methane, methanol or methylamines as growth substrates (Dunfield et al., 2003; Rosenzweig &amp; Ragsdale, 2011(a); Rosenzweig &amp; Ragsdale 2011(b); Semrau et al., 2011). 
     The initial step of methane oxidation to methanol in methanotrophs is carried out by the enzyme methane monooxygenase (MMO) (Hakemian &amp; Rosenzweig, 2007; Rosenzweig &amp; Ragsdale, 2011(b)). Methane monooxygenase (MMO) activity is expressed in two different forms: a particulate form (pMMO), which contains copper and is membrane-bound (Culpepper &amp; Rosenzweig, 2012), and a soluble form (sMMO), which contains iron and is expressed when copper becomes limiting (Murrel et al., 2000; Hakemian &amp; Rosenzweig, 2007; Tinberg &amp; Lippard, 2007). The second step of converting methanol to formaldehyde is catalyzed by the enzyme methanol dehydrogenase (MDH), another membrane-bound enzyme (Anthony &amp; Williams, 2003). From this point, the formaldehyde can be dissimilated into formate (by formaldehyde dehydrogenase) and carbon dioxide (by formate dehydrogenase). The dissimilation reactions generate reducing equivalents for the cell, but do not directly contribute to the production of biomass or other multi-carbon products, since the carbon is released as CO 2 . In some methanotrophs, however, carbon dioxide can be fixed through the serine pathway and/or the Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle (see below), both of which depend on methane consumption to support growth (Stanley &amp; Dalton, 1982; Chistoserdova et al., 2005). Among the oxidized Cl products that can be generated in the above described reactions, formaldehyde is the most important product (or imtermediate), as it serves as a metabolite that can be “fixed” into multi-carbon compounds via its introduction (or assimilation) into a central metabolism pathway of the host microorganism. 
     For example, the assimilation of the carbon in the formaldehyde formed can occur via various metabolic routes (Hanson &amp; Hanson, 1996; Yurimoto et al., 2005; Yurimoto et al., 2009; Trotsenko &amp; Murrell, 2008; Rosenzweig &amp; Ragsdale, 2011(a); Rosenzweig &amp; Ragsdale, 2011(b)). For example, the Type I methanotrophs, which are members of the Gammaproteobacteria, use the ribulose monophosphate (RuMP) pathway (see, Hanson &amp; Hanson, 1996). The Type II methanotrophs, which are members of the Alphaproteobacteria, utilize the serine pathway (Hanson &amp; Hanson, 1996). The bacterium  Methylococcus capsulatus , strain Bath, however, uses elements of both these pathways, and is sometimes referred to as a “Type X” methanotroph (Hanson &amp; Hanson, 1996; Chistoserdova et al., 2005).  Methylococcus capsulatus  (Bath), also expresses the enzymes needed to fix carbon dioxide via the Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle (Chistoserdova et al., 2005). 
     Turnover of these pathways (i.e., Type I, Type II or Type X) ultimately supplies multi-carbon intermediates for other pathways of central metabolism. For example, the 3-phospho-glyceraldehyde generated by the RuMP cycle can be converted into pyruvate, and the 2-phospho-glycerate generated by the serine cycle can eventually be converted into phosphoenolpyruvate, oxaloacetate and acetyl-CoA, among other intermediates. 
     Substantial efforts have been expended over the past 40 years to exploit methanotrophs for chemical production and transformations on an industrial scale. However, to date there are still significant deficiencies and unmet needs in the art for improved host microorganisms which can utilize “non-traditional” carbon sources such as oxidized single-carbon compounds (e.g., methane, methanol or formaldehyde) and produce industrial, commercially relevant, multi-carbon compounds such as ethanol, n-butanol, sec-butanol, isobutanol, tert-butanol, fatty alcohols, fatty acid methyl esters, 2,3-butanediol and the like. 
     The present invention fulfills a need in the art for improved host microorganisms (which can utilize methane as a sole-carbon source in the production of multi-carbon compounds) for use in the biological production of bio-fuels and bio-based chemical compositions. The metabolically engineered host microorganisms and methods of producing the same, as set forth in the present invention, further address a long felt need in the art to reduce dependence/consumption of petroleum products and mitigate the depletion of farmland currently being diverted to grow bio-fuel and bio-based chemical feedstocks. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention provides metabolically engineered host microorganisms which metabolize methane (CH 4 ) as their sole carbon source to produce multi-carbon compounds for use in fuels (e.g., bio-fuel, bio-diesel) and bio-based chemicals. Furthermore, use of the metabolically engineered host microorganisms of the invention (which utilize methane as the sole carbon source) mitigate current industry practices and methods of producing multi-carbon compounds from petroleum or petroleum-derived feedstocks, and ameliorate much of the ongoing depletion of arable food source “farmland” currently being diverted to grow bio-fuel feedstocks, and as such, improve the environmental footprint of future bio-fuel, bio-diesel and bio-based chemical compositions. 
     Thus, in certain embodiments, the invention is directed to a method for producing isobutanol from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O); (b) introducing into the methanotroph host and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a polypeptide that catalyzes a reaction in an isobutanol pathway; and (c) feeding the methanotroph host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to pyruvate by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce isobutanol. In certain embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode an isobutanol pathway polypeptide selected from an Enzyme Class (EC) comprising EC 2.2.1.6, EC 1.1.1.86, EC 4.2.1.9, EC 4.1.1.72 and EC 1.1.1.1. In other embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode an isobutanol pathway polypeptide selected from the group consisting of acetolactate synthase (ALS), ketol-acid reductoisomerase (KARI), dihydroxy-acid dehydratase (DHAD), ketoacid decarboxylase (KDC) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). In yet other embodiments, the ALS polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of pyruvate to acetolactate; the KARI polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of acetolactate to 2,3-dihydroxyisovalerate; the DHAD polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2,3-dihydroxyisovalerate to ketoisovalerate; the KDC polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of ketoisovalerate to isobutryaldehyde and ADH polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of isobutyraldehyde to isobutanol. In another embodiment, the ALS polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:2, the KARI polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:4, the DHAD polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:6, the KDC polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:8 and the ADH polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:10. In other embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode the complete isobutanol pathway comprising an ALS polypeptide, a KARI polypeptide, a DHAD polypeptide, a KDC polypeptide and an ADH polypeptide. In other embodiments a method for producing isobutanol from a methane substrate further comprises the step of recovering the isobutanol produced. 
     In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for producing isobutanol from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a non-methanotroph host microorganism which has been genetically engineered to express a methane monooxygenase (MMO), (b) introducing into the host and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a polypeptide that catalyzes a reaction in an isobutanol pathway, and (c) feeding the host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the MMO polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methane to methanol, an endogenous methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methanol to formaldehyde and the formaldehyde produced is converted to pyruvate through an endogenous RuMP or serine pathway, wherein the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce isobutanol. In certain embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode an isobutanol pathway polypeptide selected from an Enzyme Class (EC) comprising EC 2.2.1.6, EC 1.1.1.86, EC 4.2.1.9, EC 4.1.1.72 and EC 1.1.1.1. In other embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode an isobutanol pathway polypeptide selected from the group consisting of acetolactate synthase (ALS), ketol-acid reductoisomerase (KARI), dihydroxy-acid dehydratase (DHAD), ketoacid decarboxylase (KDC) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). In yet other embodiments, the ALS polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of pyruvate to acetolactate; the KARI polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of acetolactate to 2,3-dihydroxyisovalerate; the DHAD polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2,3-dihydroxyisovalerate to ketoisovalerate; the KDC polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of ketoisovalerate to isobutryaldehyde and ADH polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of isobutyraldehyde to isobutanol. In certain other embodiments, the ALS polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:2, the KARI polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:4, the DHAD polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:6, the KDC polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:8 and the ADH polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:10. In another embodiment, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode the complete isobutanol pathway comprising an ALS polypeptide, a KARI polypeptide, a DHAD polypeptide, a KDC polypeptide and an ADH polypeptide. In other embodiments, the methane monooxygenase (MMO) is a soluble MMO of Enzyme Class EC 1.14.13.25 or a particulate MMO of Enzyme Class 1.14.18.3. In certain embodiments, the MMO comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to a particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:12, SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO:18, SEQ ID NO:20 and SEQ ID NO:22 or at least 90% sequence homology to a soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:24, SEQ ID NO:26, SEQ ID NO:28, SEQ ID NO:30, SEQ ID NO:32 and SEQ ID NO:34. In other embodiments a method for producing isobutanol from a methane substrate further comprises the step of recovering the isobutanol produced. 
     In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for producing 1-butanol from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O), (b) introducing into the methanotroph host and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a polypeptide that catalyzes a reaction in a 1-butanol pathway, and (c) feeding the methanotroph host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to pyruvate by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce 1-butanol. In certain embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode a 1-butanol pathway polypeptide selected from an Enzyme Class (EC) comprising EC 4.3.1.19, EC 2.3.3.6, EC 4.2.1.33, EC 4.1.1.72, and EC 1.1.1.1. In yet other embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode a 1-butanol pathway polypeptide selected from the group consisting of L-threonine ammonia lyase, 2-ethylmalate synthase, isopropylmalate isomerase, 3-isopropylmalate dehydratase, 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase, 2-ketoacid decarboxylase (KDC) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). In another embodiment, the L-threonine ammonia lyase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of L-threonine to 2-oxybutanoate and ammonia; the 2-ethylmalate synthase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2-oxybutanoate and acetyl-CoA to 2-ethylmalate; the isopropylmalate isomerase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2-ethylmalate to 3-ethylmalate; the 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 3-ethylmalate to 2-ketovalerate, CO 2  and NADH; the KDC catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2-ketovalerate to butryaldehyde and the ADH catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of butyraldehyde to 1-butanol. In another embodiment, the L-threonine ammonia lyase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:56, the 2-ethylmalate synthase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:58, the isopropylmalate isomerase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:60 and SEQ ID NO:62, a 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:64, the KDC comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:8 and the ADH comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:10. In certain other embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode the complete 1-butanol pathway comprising L-threonine ammonia lyase, 2-ethylmalate synthase, isopropylmalate isomerase, 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase, 2-ketoacid decarboxylase (KDC) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). In other embodiments a method for producing 1-butanol from a methane substrate further comprises the step of recovering the 1-butanol produced. 
     In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for producing 1-butanol from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a non-methanotroph host microorganism which has been genetically engineered to express a methane monooxygenase (MMO), (b) introducing into the host and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a polypeptide that catalyzes a reaction in a 1-butanol pathway, and (c) feeding the host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the MMO polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methane to methanol, an endogenous methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methanol to formaldehyde and the formaldehyde produced is converted to pyruvate through an endogenous RuMP or serine pathway, wherein the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce 1-butanol. In certain embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode an 1-butanol pathway polypeptide selected from an Enzyme Class (EC) comprising EC 4.3.1.19, EC 2.3.3.6, EC 4.2.1.33, EC 1.1.1.85, EC 4.1.1.72, and EC 1.1.1.1. In another embodiment, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode a 1-butanol pathway polypeptide selected from the group consisting of L-threonine ammonia lyase, 2-ethylmalate synthase, isopropylmalate isomerase, 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase, 2-ketoacid decarboxylase (KDC) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). In yet other embodiments, the L-threonine ammonia lyase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of L-threonine to 2-oxybutanoate and ammonia; the 2-ethylmalate synthase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2-oxybutanoate and acetyl-CoA to 2-ethylmalate; the isopropylmalate isomerase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2-ethylmalate to 3-ethylmalate; the 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 3-ethylmalate to 2-ketovalerate, CO 2  and NADH; the KDC catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2-ketovalerate to butryaldehyde and the ADH catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of butyraldehyde to 1-butanol. In other embodiments, the L-threonine ammonia lyase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:56, the 2-ethylmalate synthase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:58, the isopropylmalate isomerase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:60 and SEQ ID NO:62, a 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:64, the KDC comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:8 and the ADH comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:10. In another embodiment, the methane monooxygenase (MMO) is a soluble MMO of Enzyme Class EC 1.14.13.25 or a particulate MMO of Enzyme Class 1.14.18.3. In certain other embodiments, the MMO comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to a particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:12, SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO:18, SEQ ID NO:20 and SEQ ID NO:22 or at least 90% sequence homology to a soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:24, SEQ ID NO:26, SEQ ID NO:28, SEQ ID NO:30, SEQ ID NO:32 and SEQ ID NO:34. In other embodiments a method for producing 1-butanol from a methane substrate further comprises the step of recovering the 1-butanol produced. 
     In certain other embodiments, the invention is directed to a method for producing fatty alcohols from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O), (b) introducing into the methanotroph host and expressing a polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the polynucleotide ORF encodes a fatty-acyl-CoA reductase (FAR), and (c) feeding the methanotroph host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to acetyl-CoA by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes acetyl-CoA to produce a fatty alcohol. In one embodiment, the FAR polypeptide is further defined as a polypeptide from Enzyme Class EC 1.2.1.50. In another embodiment, the FAR polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of fatty acetyl-CoA to a fatty alcohol. In yet other embodiments, the FAR polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:66. In other embodiments a method for producing fatty alcohols from a methane substrate further comprises the step of recovering the fatty alcohol produced. 
     In certain other embodiments, the invention is directed to a method for producing a fatty alcohol from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a non-methanotroph host microorganism which has been genetically engineered to express a methane monooxygenase (MMO), (b) introducing into the host microorganism and expressing a polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the polynucleotide ORF encodes a fatty-acyl-CoA reductase (FAR), and (c) feeding the host microorganism of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to acetyl-CoA by means of an endogenous RuMP or serine pathway and the host metabolizes acetyl-CoA to produce a fatty alcohol. In certain embodiments, the FAR polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of fatty acetyl-CoA to a fatty alcohol. In certain other embodiments, the FAR polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:66. In another embodiment, the methane monooxygenase (MMO) is a soluble MMO of Enzyme Class EC 1.14.13.25 or a particulate MMO of Enzyme Class 1.14.18.3. In other embodiments, the MMO comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:12, SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO:18, SEQ ID NO:20 and SEQ ID NO:22 or at least 90% sequence homology to a soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:24, SEQ ID NO:26, SEQ ID NO:28, SEQ ID NO:30, SEQ ID NO:32 and SEQ ID NO:34. In other embodiments a method for producing fatty alcohols from a methane substrate further comprises the step of recovering the fatty alcohol produced. 
     In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for producing a fatty acid ester from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O), (b) introducing into the methanotroph host and expressing a polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the polynucleotide ORF encodes a wax ester synthase (WES) and (c) feeding the methanotroph host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to acetyl-CoA by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes fatty acyl-CoA and alcohols to produce a fatty acid ester. In certain embodiments, the WES polypeptide is further defined as a polypeptide from Enzyme Class EC 2.3.1.75. In another embodiment, the WES polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of fatty acyl-CoA and alcohols to fatty acid esters. In other embodiments, the WES polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a WES polypeptide selected from SEQ ID NO:68, SEQ ID NO: 70, SEQ ID NO: 72, SEQ ID NO:74, SEQ ID NO: 76 and SEQ ID NO: 78. In other embodiments a method for producing fatty acid esters from a methane substrate further comprises the step of recovering the fatty acid esters produced. 
     In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for producing a fatty acid ester from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a non-methanotroph host microorganism which has been genetically engineered to express a methane monooxygenase (MMO), (b) introducing into the host microorganism and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a wax ester synthase (WES) and (c) feeding the host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the MMO polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methane to methanol, an endogenous MDH polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methanol to formaldehyde, the formaldehyde produced is converted to acetyl-CoA through an endogenous RuMP or serine pathway and the host metabolizes fatty acyl-CoA and alcohols to produce a fatty acid ester. In certain embodiments, the WES polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of fatty acyl-CoA and alcohols to fatty acid esters. In certain other embodiments, the WES polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a WES polypeptide selected from SEQ ID NO:68, SEQ ID NO: 70, SEQ ID NO: 72, SEQ ID NO:74, SEQ ID NO: 76 and SEQ ID NO: 78. In another embodiment, the methane monooxygenase (MMO) is a soluble MMO of Enzyme Class EC 1.14.13.25 or a particulate MMO of Enzyme Class 1.14.18.3. In other embodiments, the MMO comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:12, SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO:18, SEQ ID NO:20 and SEQ ID NO:22 or at least 90% sequence homology to a soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:24, SEQ ID NO:26, SEQ ID NO:28, SEQ ID NO:30, SEQ ID NO:32 and SEQ ID NO:34. In other embodiments a method for producing fatty acid esters from a methane substrate further comprises the step of recovering the fatty acid esters produced. 
     In certain other embodiments, the invention is directed to a method for producing 2,3-butanediol from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O), (b) introducing into the host and expressing a polynucleotide ORF, under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the ORF encodes a (2R,3R)-2,3-butanediol dehydrogenase (BDH1), and (c) feeding the host microorganism of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to pyruvate by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce (R)-acetoin and the BDH1 catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of (R)-acetoin to 2,3-butanediol. In certain embodiments, the (2R,3R)-2,3-butanediol dehydrogenase (BDH1) has at least 90% sequence homology to a BDH1 polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:157. In other embodiments, the polynucleotide ORF comprises a nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO:156. In other embodiments a method for producing 2,3-butanediol from a methane substrate further comprises the step of recovering the 2,3-butanediol produced. 
     In certain embodiments, a methanotroph host microorganism of the invention is selected from genus consisting of  Methylobacter, Methylomicrobium, Methylomonas, Methylocaldum, Methylococcus, Methylosoma, Methylosarcina, Methylothermus, Methylohalobius, Methylogaea, Methylovulum, Crenothrix, Clonothrix, Methylosphaera, Methylocapsa, Methylocella, Methylosinus, Methylocystis , and  Methyloacidophilum . In other embodiments, the methanotroph host microorganism is selected from the phylum Verrucomicrobia. In another embodiment, the methanotroph host is  Methylococcus capsulatus , strain Bath. 
     In certain other embodiments, a non-methanotroph host microorganism of the invention is a yeast microorganism or bacterial microorganism. In certain embodiments, the non-methanotroph yeast microorganism is selected from  Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Hansenuela polymorpha, Pichia pastoris  and  Kluyveromyces lactis . In one particular embodiment, the yeast microorganism is  Pichia pastoris.    
     In certain other embodiments, a non-methanotrophic bacterial microorganism of the invention is  Pseudomonas putida, Cupriavidus metallidurans  or  Rhodobacter sphaeroides.    
     In other embodiments, recovering the isobutanol produced according to the methods of the invention is a process selected from distillation, liquid extraction, flash evaporation, membrane separation and phase separation. 
     In other embodiments, recovering the 1-butanol produced according to the methods of the invention is a process selected from distillation, liquid extraction, flash evaporation, membrane separation and phase separation. 
     In another embodiment, recovering the fatty alcohol produced according to the methods of the invention is a process selected from flash evaporation, membrane separation, centrifugation and phase separation. 
     In certain other embodiments, recovering the fatty acid ester produced according to the methods of the invention is a process selected from flash evaporation, membrane separation, centrifugation and phase separation. 
     In another embodiment, recovering the 2,3-butanediol produced according to the methods of the invention is a process selected from steam stripping, solvent extraction, aqueous two-phase extraction, reactive extraction and pervaporation. 
     In certain other embodiments, a methane substrate is provided as a dry natural gas, as a wet natural gas or as a biogas. 
     In other embodiments, the host microorganism is grown by a batch process, a fed-batch process or a continuous perfusion process. 
     In another embodiment, the fatty alcohol composition produced according to the methods of the invention comprises a carbon chain of about 5 to about 40 carbon atoms. In certain embodiments, the fatty alcohol comprises a carbon chain of 8 to 22 carbon atoms. 
     In another embodiment, the fatty acid ester composition produced according to the methods of the invention has a fatty acid moiety comprising a carbon chain of about 5 to about 40 carbon atoms. In one particular embodiment, the fatty acid moiety comprises a carbon chain of 8 to 22 carbon atoms. 
     In yet other embodiments, the fatty acid ester composition produced according to the methods of the invention has an alcohol moiety comprising a carbon chain of about 5 to about 40 carbon atoms. In one particular embodiment, the alcohol moiety comprises a chain of 8 to 22 carbon atoms. 
     In yet other embodiments, a non-methanotroph host microorganism of the invention is further engineered to express an exogenous methanol dehydrogenase (MDH). In certain embodiments, the MDH is a polypeptide from Enzyme Class 1.14.18.3. In other embodiments, the MDH comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a MDH polypeptide selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:36, SEQ ID NO:38, SEQ ID NO:40, SEQ ID NO:42, SEQ ID NO:44, SEQ ID NO:46, SEQ ID NO:48, SEQ ID NO:50, SEQ ID NO:52 and SEQ ID NO:54. 
     In other embodiments, the invention is directed to a substantially purified isobutanol composition produced according to the methods of the invention. 
     In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a substantially purified 1-butanol composition produced according to the methods of the invention. 
     In other embodiments, the invention is directed to a substantially purified fatty alcohol composition produced according to the methods of the invention. 
     In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a substantially purified fatty acid ester composition produced according to the methods of the invention. 
     In other embodiments, the invention is directed to a substantially purified 2,3-butanediol composition produced according to the methods of the invention. 
     In yet other embodiments, the invention is directed to an isobutanol producing methanotroph host microorganism manufactured according to the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O), (b) introducing into the methanotroph host and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a polypeptide that catalyzes a reaction in an isobutanol pathway, and (c) feeding the methanotroph host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to pyruvate by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce isobutanol. 
     In another embodiment, the invention is directed to an isobutanol producing non-methanotroph host microorganism manufactured according to the steps of (a) providing a non-methanotroph host microorganism which has been genetically engineered to express a methane monooxygenase (MMO), (b) introducing into the host and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a polypeptide that catalyzes a reaction in an isobutanol pathway, and (c) feeding the host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the MMO polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methane to methanol, an endogenous methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methanol to formaldehyde and the formaldehyde produced is converted to pyruvate through an endogenous RuMP or serine pathway, wherein the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce isobutanol. 
     In yet other embodiments, the invention is directed to a 1-butanol producing methanotroph host microorganism manufactured according to the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O), (b) introducing into the methanotroph host and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a polypeptide that catalyzes a reaction in a 1-butanol pathway, and (c) feeding the methanotroph host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to pyruvate by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce 1-butanol. 
     In other embodiments, the invention is directed to a 1-butanol producing non-methanotroph host microorganism manufactured according to the steps of (a) providing a non-methanotroph host microorganism which has been genetically engineered to express a methane monooxygenase (MMO), (b) introducing into the host and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a polypeptide that catalyzes a reaction in a 1-butanol pathway, and (c) feeding the host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the MMO polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methane to methanol, an endogenous methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methanol to formaldehyde and the formaldehyde produced is converted to pyruvate through an endogenous RuMP or serine pathway, wherein the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce 1-butanol. 
     In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a fatty alcohol producing methanotroph host microorganism manufactured according to the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O), (b) introducing into the methanotroph host and expressing a polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the polynucleotide ORF encodes a fatty-acyl-CoA reductase (FAR), and (c) feeding the methanotroph host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to acetyl-CoA by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes acetyl-CoA to produce a fatty alcohol. 
     In other embodiments, the invention is directed to a fatty alcohol producing non-methanotroph host microorganism manufactured according to the steps of (a) providing a non-methanotroph host microorganism which has been genetically engineered to express a methane monooxygenase (MMO), (b) introducing into the host microorganism and expressing a polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the polynucleotide ORF encodes a fatty-acyl-CoA reductase (FAR), and (c) feeding the host microorganism of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to acetyl-CoA by means of an endogenous RuMP or serine pathway and the host metabolizes acetyl-CoA to produce a fatty alcohol. 
     In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a fatty acid ester producing methanotroph host microorganism manufactured according to the the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O), (b) introducing into the methanotroph host and expressing a polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the polynucleotide ORF encodes a wax ester synthase (WES) and (c) feeding the methanotroph host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to acetyl-CoA by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes fatty acyl-CoA and alcohols to produce a fatty acid ester. 
     In certain other embodiments, the invention is directed to a fatty acid ester producing non-methanotroph host microorganism manufactured according to the steps of (a) providing a non-methanotroph host microorganism which has been genetically engineered to express a methane monooxygenase (MMO), (b) introducing into the host microorganism and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a wax ester synthase (WES) and (c) feeding the host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the MMO polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methane to methanol, an endogenous MDH polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methanol to formaldehyde, the formaldehyde produced is converted to acetyl-CoA through an endogenous RuMP or serine pathway and the host metabolizes fatty acyl-CoA and alcohols to produce a fatty acid ester. 
     In certain other embodiments, the invention is directed to a 2,3-butanediol producing methanotroph host microorganism manufactured according to the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O), (b) introducing into the host and expressing a polynucleotide ORF, under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the ORF encodes a (2R,3R)-2,3-butanediol dehydrogenase (BDH1), and (c) feeding the host microorganism of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to pyruvate by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce (R)-acetoin and the BDH1 catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of (R)-acetoin to 2,3-butanediol. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Certain embodiments of the invention are illustrated in the drawings, in which: 
         FIG. 1  depicts five pathways for the biosynthetic production of n-butanol (1-butanol) and one pathway for the biosynthetic production of isobutanol. 
         FIG. 2  depicts a vector map of the broad host range expression plasmid pCM 132. The vector map shows the following components: (1) an origin of replication that is functional in  E. coli  (colE1); (2) an oriV/IncP origin of replication for the non- E. coli  microbial host; (3) an oriT/IncP origin of transfer, which is needed for transferring a bacterial plasmid from a bacterial host such as  E. coli  to the recipient during bacterial conjugation; (4) a traJ gene, which codes for a transcriptional activator that initiates production of the proteins needed for conjugative transfer; (5) a trfA gene, the replication initiation protein gene of plasmid RK2 which binds to and activates oriV; (6) a lacZ (beta-galactosidase) gene for identifying plasmids with DNA inserts based on colony color using indolyl-galactoside-based substrates; and (7) a kanamycin resistance gene (kan). Genes of interest are inserted into the polylinker region that lies between the rrnB transcription terminator and the 5′-end of the lacZ gene. 
         FIG. 3  shows a schematic diagram of component DNA arrangements for cloning into an expression vector. 
         FIG. 4  shows the optimization of the 2-ketoisovalerate (2-KIV) concentration fed to various engineered host strains expressing the two-gene (isobutanol) pathway. 
         FIG. 5  shows the measured production of isobutanol in an  M. capsulatus  strain expressing plasmid pGMV145 (containing: promoter J23115, the gene for  M. capsulatus  (Bath) 2-ketoisovalerate decarboxylase (CapKDC) and the gene for  S. cerevisiae  alcohol dehydrogenase (ScADH6)), harvested at different time intervals after 2-KIV addition. 
         FIG. 6  is a comparison of isobutanol production after 2-KIV feeding in various engineered host strains expressing different combinations of two genes (i.e., isobutanol pathway genes) and with different promoters. 
         FIG. 7  compares production of isobutanol in the wild-type  M. capsulatus  str. Bath (no plasmid) and an engineered strain (pJS041) expressing the five-gene (isobutanol) pathway. 
         FIG. 8  is a gas chromatography (GC) analysis of fatty acid alcohol production by various engineered strains of  M. capsulatus  (Bath). The GC peak at about 5.2 minutes corresponds to a C16:0 fatty alcohol standard. 
         FIG. 9  shows an engineered pathway for 2,3-butanediol production from methane using a heterologously expressed BDH1 enzyme from  Saccharomyces cerevisiae.    
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure pertains. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice of the disclosed methods and compositions, the exemplary methods, devices and materials are described herein. 
     In certain embodiments, the present invention is directed to host microorganisms metabolically engineered to produce multi-carbon compounds. Multi-carbon compounds such as ethanol, n-butanol, sec-butanol, isobutanol, tert-butanol, fatty (or aliphatic long chain) alcohols, fatty acid methyl esters, 2,3-butanediol and the like, are important industrial commodity chemicals with a variety of applications, including, but not limited to their use in fuels (e.g., bio-fuel, bio-diesel) and bio-based chemicals. The present invention addresses a number of commercial, industrial and environmental needs in the art related to the production of multi-carbon compounds. 
     As set forth herein, the metabolically engineered host microorganisms of the present invention utilize methane (CH 4 ) as their sole carbon source (i.e., the host microorganism does not require plant based feedstocks for growth and energy) and ameliorate much of the ongoing depletion of arable food source “farmland” currently being diverted to grow bio-fuel feedstocks, and as such, improve the environmental footprint of future bio-fuel, bio-diesel and bio-based chemical compositions. Furthermore, use of the metabolically engineered host microorganisms set forth in the present invention (which utilize methane as the sole carbon source) mitigate current industry practices and methods of producing multi-carbon compounds from petroleum or petroleum-derived feedstocks. 
     Thus, in certain embodiments of the invention, a host microorganism is genetically engineered to produce multi-carbon compounds. As is known in the art, methanotrophic organisms are able to metabolize methane as their primary source of carbon and energy, can grow aerobically or anaerobically, and require single-carbon compounds (e.g., methane, CH 4 ; methanol, CH 3 OH and/or formaldehyde, H 2 C═O) to survive. In particular embodiments, a host microorganism of the invention is a methanotroph. As defined herein, a “methanotroph”, a “methanotrophic” or a “methanophile” host microorganism of the invention is a “prokaryotic microorganism which can metabolize methane as its primary source of carbon and energy”. 
     In other embodiments, the host microorganism of the invention is a non-methanotrophic microorganism genetically engineered to metabolize methane as its only source of carbon and energy. As defined herein, a “non-methanotroph” host microorganism of the invention is a host microorganism which “cannot metabolize (or utilize) methane as its sole carbon source”, until the “non-methanotroph” host microorganism has been genetically modified or engineered according to the methods of the present invention. As further defined herein, a “non-methanotroph” host microorganism of the invention includes any prokaryotic and eukaryotic microbial species which comprise a complete or partial “endogenous ribulose monophosphate (RuMP) pathway, a serine pathway or a mixed RuMP/serine pathway” (e.g., see RuMP, serine and mixed (Type X) pathways described below). In certain embodiments, a “non-methanotroph” host microorganism of the invention includes prokaryotic and eukaryotic microbial species from the Domains Archaea, Bacteria and Eucarya, wherein the Domain Eucarya includes yeast, filamentous fungi, protozoa, algae or higher Protista. The terms “microbial” and “microbes” are used interchangeably with the term “microorganism”. 
     As defined herein, the phrase “providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane to methanol and metabolizes methanol to formaldehyde” refers to an “endogenous enzymatic activity encoded by one or more endogenous genes of the methanotroph host microorganism”. For example, an endogenous enzyme (or polypeptide) encoded by one or more endogenous genes of a methanotroph host microorganism include a methane monooxygenase (MMO) enzyme (which metabolizes (or converts) methane to methanol) and a methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) enzyme (which metabolizes (or converts) methanol to formaldehyde). Stated another way, the phrase “providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane to methanol and metabolizes methanol to formaldehyde” does not require the introduction of exogenous (or heterologous) genes encoding single-carbon (C1) oxidizing enzymes (or polypeptides), as such enzymes and the activity thereof are inherent (endogenous) attributes of a methanotrophic host microorganism of the invention. 
     Furthermore, as is known in the art, a “methanotrophic host microorganism” of the invention comprises endogenous genes encoding at least a Type I methanotroph RuMP pathway and/or a Type II methanotroph serine pathway. In general, Type I methanotrophs (e.g.,  Methylomonas, Methylomicrobium, Methylobacter, Methylocaldum, Methylosphaera ) assimilate formaldehyde produced (i.e., from the oxidation of methane to methanol and methanol to formaldehyde), using the ribulose monophosphate pathway (RuMP), whereas Type II methanotrophs (e.g.,  Methylocystis  and  Methylosinus ) assimilate formaldehyde produced (i.e., from the oxidation of methane to methanol and methanol to formaldehyde), using the serine pathway. Lastly, the genus  Methylococcus  are known to comprise a combination of characteristics of both Type I methanotroph (RuMP) pathway and Type II methanotroph (serine) pathway. 
     The ribulose monophosphate pathway (RuMP) was originally identified in methanotrophic bacteria, as described above. However, more recent genome sequence analysis of various microorganisms have revealed that the key enzymes of the RuMP pathway (e.g., 3-hexulose-6-phosphate (HPS), 6-phsopho-3-hexuloisomerase (PHI)) are widely distributed (i.e., endogenous) among “non-methanotrophic” bacteria and archaeal genomes (Orita et al., 2006). 
     As defined herein, the phrases “recombinant host microorganism”, “genetically engineered host microorganism”, “engineered host microorganism” and “genetically modified host microorganism” may be used interchangeably and refer to host microorganisms that have been genetically modified to (a) express one or more exogenous polynucleotides, (b) over-express one or more endogenous and/or one or more exogenous polynucleotides, such as those included in a vector, or which have an alteration in expression of an endogenous gene or (c) knock-out or down-regulate an endogenous gene. In addition, certain genes may be physically removed from the genome (e.g., knock-outs) or they may be engineered to have reduced, altered or enhanced activity. 
     The terms “engineer”, “genetically engineer” or “genetically modify” refer to any manipulation of a microorganism that results in a detectable change in the microorganism, wherein the manipulation includes, but is not limited to, introducing non-native metabolic functionality via heterologous (exogenous) polynucleotides or removing native-functionality via polynucleotide deletions, mutations or knock-outs. The term “metabolically engineered” generally involves rational pathway design and assembly of biosynthetic genes (or ORFs), genes associated with operons, and control elements of such polynucleotides, for the production of a desired metabolite. “Metabolically engineered” may further include optimization of metabolic flux by regulation and optimization of transcription, translation, protein stability and protein functionality using genetic engineering and appropriate culture condition including the reduction of, disruption, or knocking out of, a competing metabolic pathway that competes with an intermediate leading to a desired pathway. 
     As defined herein, the term “introducing”, as used in phrases such as “introducing into the methanotroph host” or “introducing into the non-methanotroph host” at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF) or a gene thereof or a vector thereof includes methods known in the art for introducing polynucleotides into a cell, including, but not limited to transformation (e.g., calcium chloride, electroporation), transduction, transfection, conjugation and the like. 
     The phrases “metabolically engineered microorganism” and “modified microorganism” are used interchangeably herein, and refer not only to the particular subject host cell, but to the progeny or potential progeny of such a cell. Because certain modifications may occur in succeeding generations due to either mutation or environmental influences, such progeny may not, in fact, be identical to the parent cell, but are still included within the scope of the term as used herein. 
     The term “mutation” as used herein indicates any modification of a nucleic acid and/or polypeptide which results in an altered nucleic acid or polypeptide (i.e., relative to the wild-type nucleic acid or polypeptide sequence). Mutations include, for example, point mutations, substitutions, deletions, or insertions of single or multiple residues in a polynucleotide (or the encoded polypeptide), which includes alterations arising within a protein-encoding region of a gene as well as alterations in regions outside of a protein-encoding sequence, such as, but not limited to, regulatory or promoter sequences. A genetic alteration may be a mutation of any type. For instance, the mutation may constitute a point mutation, a frame-shift mutation, an insertion, or a deletion of part or all of a gene. In certain embodiments, a portion of a genetically modified microorganism&#39;s genome may be replaced with one or more heterologous (exogenous) polynucleotides. In some embodiments, the mutations are naturally-occurring. In other embodiments, the mutations are the results of artificial selection pressure. In still other embodiments, the mutations in the microorganism genome are the result of genetic engineering. 
     The term “expression” or “expressed” with respect to a gene sequence, an ORF sequence or polynucleotide sequence, refers to transcription of the gene, ORF or polynucleotide and, as appropriate, translation of the resulting mRNA transcript to a protein. Thus, as will be clear from the context, expression of a protein results from transcription and translation of the open reading frame sequence. The level of expression of a desired product in a host microorganism may be determined on the basis of either the amount of corresponding mRNA that is present in the host, or the amount of the desired product encoded by the selected sequence. For example, mRNA transcribed from a selected sequence can be quantitated by PCR or by northern hybridization (see Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1989). Protein encoded by a selected sequence can be quantitated by various methods (e.g., by ELISA, by assaying for the biological activity of the protein, or by employing assays that are independent of such activity, such as western blotting or radioimmunoassay, using antibodies that are recognize and bind reacting the protein). 
     The term “endogenous”, as used herein with reference to polynucleotides (and the polypeptides encoded therein), indicates polynucleotides and polypeptides that are expressed in the organism in which they originated (i.e., they are innate to the organism). In contrast, the terms “heterologous” and “exogenous” are used interchangeably, and as defined herein with reference to polynucleotides (and the polypeptides encoded therein), indicates polynucleotides and polypeptides that are expressed in an organism other than the organism from which they (i.e., the polynucleotide or polypeptide sequences) originated or where derived. 
     The term “feedstock” is defined as a raw material or mixture of raw materials supplied to a microorganism, or fermentation process, from which other products can be made. For example, as set forth in the present invention, a methane carbon source or a methanol carbon source or a formaldehyde carbon source, either alone or in combination, are feedstocks for a microorganism that produces a bio-fuel or bio-based chemical in a fermentation process. However, in addition to a feedstock (e.g., a methane substrate) of the invention, the fermentation media contains suitable minerals, salts, cofactors, buffers and other components, known to those skilled in the art, suitable for the growth of the cultures and promotion of the enzymatic pathways necessary for multi-carbon compound production. 
     The term “substrate” refers to any substance or compound that is converted, or meant to be converted, into another compound by the action of an enzyme. The term includes not only a single compound, but also combinations of compounds, such as solutions, mixtures and other materials which contain at least one substrate, or derivatives thereof. Further, the term “substrate” encompasses not only compounds that provide a carbon source suitable for use as a starting material (e.g., methane), but also intermediate and end product metabolites used in a pathway associated with a metabolically engineered microorganism as described herein. 
     The term “fermentation” or “fermentation process” is defined as a process in which a host microorganism is cultivated in a culture medium containing raw materials, such as feedstock and nutrients, wherein the microorganism converts raw materials, such as a feedstock, into products. 
     The term “polynucleotide” is used herein interchangeably with the term “nucleic acid” and refers to an organic polymer composed of two or more monomers including nucleotides, nucleosides or analogs thereof, including but not limited to single stranded or double stranded, sense or antisense deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of any length and, where appropriate, single stranded or double stranded, sense or antisense ribonucleic acid (RNA) of any length, including siRNA. The term “nucleotide” refers to any of several compounds that consist of a ribose or deoxyribose sugar joined to a purine or a pyrimidine base and to a phosphate group, and that are the basic structural units of nucleic acids. The term “nucleoside” refers to a compound (as guanosine or adenosine) that consists of a purine or pyrimidine base combined with deoxyribose or ribose and is found especially in nucleic acids. The term “nucleotide analog” or “nucleoside analog” refers, respectively, to a nucleotide or nucleoside in which one or more individual atoms have been replaced with a different atom or with a different functional group. Accordingly, the term polynucleotide includes nucleic acids of any length, including DNA, RNA, ORFs, analogs and fragments thereof. 
     As defined herein, the term “open reading frame” (hereinafter, “ORF”) means a nucleic acid or nucleic acid sequence (whether naturally occurring, non-naturally occurring, or synthetic) comprising an uninterrupted reading frame consisting of (i) an initiation codon, (ii) a series of two (2) of more codons representing amino acids, and (iii) a termination codon, the ORF being read (or translated) in the 5′ to 3′ direction. 
     It is understood that the polynucleotides described herein include “genes” and that the nucleic acid molecules described herein include “vectors” or “plasmids”. Accordingly, the term “gene”, refers to a polynucleotide that codes for a particular sequence of amino acids, which comprise all or part of one or more proteins or enzymes, and may include regulatory (non-transcribed) DNA sequences, such as promoter sequences, which determine for example the conditions under which the gene is expressed. The transcribed region of the gene may include untranslated regions, including introns, 5′-untranslated region (UTR), and 3′-UTR, as well as the coding sequence. 
     The term “promoter” refers to a nucleic acid sequence capable of controlling the expression of a coding sequence or functional RNA. In general, a coding sequence is located 3′ to a promoter sequence. Promoters may be derived in their entirety from a native gene, or be composed of different elements derived from different promoters found in nature, or even comprise synthetic nucleic acid segments. It is understood by those skilled in the art that different promoters may direct the expression of a gene in different tissues or cell types, or at different stages of development, or in response to different environmental or physiological conditions. Promoters which cause a gene to be expressed in most cell types at most times are commonly referred to as “constitutive promoters”. It is further recognized that since in most cases the exact boundaries of regulatory sequences have not been completely defined, DNA fragments of different lengths may have identical promoter activity. 
     The term “operably linked” refers to the association of nucleic acid sequences on a single nucleic acid fragment so that the function of one is affected by the other. For example, a promoter is operably linked with a coding sequence when it is capable of effecting the expression of that coding sequence (i.e., that the coding sequence is under the transcriptional control of the promoter). Coding sequences can be operably linked to regulatory sequences in sense or antisense orientation. 
     The term “codon-optimized” as it refers to genes or coding regions of nucleic acid molecules (or ORFs) for transformation of various hosts, refers to the alteration of codons in the gene or coding regions of the nucleic acid molecules to reflect the typical codon usage of the host organism without altering the polypeptide encoded by the DNA. 
     The term “operon” refers to two or more genes which are transcribed as a single transcriptional unit from a common promoter. In certain embodiments, the genes, polynucleotides or ORFs comprising the operon are contiguous genes. It is understood that transcription of an entire operon can be modified (i.e., increased, decreased, or eliminated) by modifying the common promoter. Alternatively, any gene, polynucleotide or ORF, or any combination thereof in an operon can be modified to alter the function or activity of the encoded polypeptide. The modification can result in an increase or a decrease in the activity or function of the encoded polypeptide. Further, the modification can impart new activities on the encoded polypeptide. 
     A “vector” is any means by which a nucleic acid can be propagated and/or transferred between organisms, cells, or cellular components. Vectors include viruses, bacteriophage, pro-viruses, plasmids, phagemids, transposons, and artificial chromosomes such as YACs (yeast artificial chromosomes), BACs (bacterial artificial chromosomes), and PLACs (plant artificial chromosomes), and the like, that are “episomes”, that is, that replicate autonomously or can integrate into a chromosome of a host microorganism. A vector can also be a naked RNA polynucleotide, a naked DNA polynucleotide, a polynucleotide composed of both DNA and RNA within the same strand, a poly-lysine-conjugated DNA or RNA, a peptide-conjugated DNA or RNA, a liposome-conjugated DNA, or the like, that are not episomal in nature, or it can be an organism which comprises one or more of the above polynucleotide constructs such as an  agrobacterium  or a bacterium. 
     The term “homolog”, as used with respect to an original enzyme, polypeptide, gene or polynucleotide (or ORF encoding the same) of a first family or species, refers to distinct enzymes, genes or polynucleotides of a second family or species, which are determined by functional, structural or genomic analyses to be an enzyme, gene or polynucleotide of the second family or species, which corresponds to the original enzyme or gene of the first family or species. Most often, “homologs” will have functional, structural or genomic similarities. Techniques are known by which homologs of an enzyme, gene or polynucleotide can readily be cloned using genetic probes and PCR. Identity of cloned sequences as “homologs” can be confirmed using functional assays and/or by genomic mapping of the genes. 
     A polypeptide (or protein or enzyme) has “homology” or is “homologous” to a second polypeptide if the nucleic acid sequence that encodes the polypeptide has a similar sequence to the nucleic acid sequence that encodes the second polypeptide. Alternatively, a polypeptide has homology to a second polypeptide if the two proteins have “similar” amino acid sequences. Thus, the terms “homologous proteins” or “homologous polypeptides” is defined to mean that the two polypeptides have similar amino acid sequences. In certain embodiments of the invention, polynucleotides and polypeptides homologous to one or more polynucleotides and/or polypeptides set forth in Table 1 may be readily identified using methods known in the art for sequence analysis and comparison. 
     A homologous polynucleotide or polypeptide sequence of the invention may also be determined or identified by BLAST analysis (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) or similar bioinformatic tools, which compare a query nucleotide or polypeptide sequence to a database of known sequences. For example, a search analysis may be done using BLAST to determine sequence identity or similarity to previously published sequences, and if the sequence has not yet been published, can give relevant insight into the function of the DNA or protein sequence. 
     Bioconversion of Methane to Multi-Carbon Compounds 
     In general, the conversion of methane (CH 4 ) to multi-carbon compounds such as isobutanol ((CH 3 ) 2 CHCH 2 OH), 1-butanol or n-butanol (CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 OH), ethanol (CH 3 CH 2 OH), fatty alcohols, fatty acid esters, 2,3-butanediol and the like, using a “methanotrophic host microorganism”, requires at least the following three steps, all of which are innate (or endogenous) with respect to methanotrophic organisms: (1) a methane (CH 4 ) substrate is oxidized to methanol (CH 3 OH) via a methane monooxygenase (MMO) (e.g., particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) or soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO)), (2) the methanol (CH 3 OH) is oxidized to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O) via methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) and (3) the formaldehyde (H 2 C═O) produced in step (2) above is assimilated into a central metabolism pathway (e.g., see type I (RuMP) and type II (serine) pathways described below). 
     In certain embodiments of the invention, a host microorganism is a methanotroph, which endogenously expresses a methane monooxygenase (MMO) enzyme and a methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) enzyme. In other embodiments of the invention, a host microorganism of the invention is a “non-methanotrophic” prokaryotic microorganism (e.g., a non-methanotrophic bacteria or archaea) or a eukaryotic microorganism (e.g., fungi and algae) engineered to utilize a methane substrate (as sole carbon source) for growth and energy. Thus, in certain embodiments of the invention, a “non-methanotrophic” microorganism is engineered to express (or over-express) an exogenous methane monooxygenase (MMO), an enzyme requisite to metabolize methane to methanol. The non-methanotroph host microorganisms of the invention comprise an endogenous dehydrogenase (MDH) enzyme, which converts methanol to formaldehyde. However, in certain embodiments, the “non-methanotroph” microorganism is further engineered to express an exogenous methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) enzyme, which converts methanol to formaldehyde. The expression of the exogenous MDH enzyme in a non-methanotroph host is not a strict requirement for the utilization of the methane substrate, but it is contemplated in certain embodiments, that the introduction and expression of an exogenous MDH in a non-methanotroph host thereof may facilitate, under certain growth conditions, the production of one or more multi-carbon compounds of the invention. 
     As mentioned briefly above with regard to methanotrophic host organisms, there are at least two known pathways (i.e., the ribulose monophosphate (RuMP) pathway and the serine pathway; Hanson &amp; Hanson, 1996) for the assimilation of formaldehyde into central metabolism. In the Type I methanotroph RuMP pathway, formaldehyde combines with ribulose-5-phosphate to form hexulose-6-phosphate (catalyzed via hexulose-6-phosphate synthase), the hexulose-6-phosphate is then isomerized to fructose-6-phosphate (catalyzed via hexulose phosphate isomerase), which is an intermediate of a central metabolic pathway (i.e., glycolysis pathway). In the type II methanotroph serine pathway, formaldehyde reacts with tetrahydrofolate (THF) to form methylene-THF, the methylene-THF is then transferred to L-glycine to form L-serine, and finally the L-serine is transferred to glyoxylate to form hydroxypyruvate. The hydroxypyruvate formed is subsequently converted to 2-phosphoglycerate (catalyzed via hydroxypruvate reductase), which is an central metabolism intermediate of the glycolytic pathway. 
     Likewise, as mentioned briefly above, an endogenous pathway, which functions similarly (or analogous) to the ribulose monophosphate (RuMP) pathway in methanotrophs is also present in “non-methanotrophic” prokaryotes (Orita et al., 2006), wherein formaldehyde is fixed with ribulose 5-phosphate to form hexulose-6-phosphate (catalyzed via hexulose-6-phosphate synthase (HPS)) and then isomerized to fructose-6-phosphate (catalyzed via hexulose phosphate isomerase (PHI)), which is an intermediate of a central metabolic pathway. Thus, in certain preferred embodiments, a “non-methanotrophic” host microorganism of the invention comprises an endogenous RuMP pathway or an endogenous pathway analogous to the RuMP pathway. As defined herein, a pathway analogous to the RuMP pathway comprises at least a gene, polynucleotide or ORF encoding an enzyme having hexulose-6-phosphate synthase (HPS) activity from enzyme class EC 4.1.2.43 and at least a gene, polynucleotide or ORF encoding a an enzyme having hexulose phosphate isomerase (PHI) activity from enzyme class 5.3.1.27. 
     In other embodiments, wherein a “non-methanotrophic” host microorganism genome does not encode endogenous enzymes having HPS and PHI activity, the non-methanotroph host microorganism is genetically modified to express HPS and PHI enzymes. Thus, in certain embodiments, a gene, polynucleotide or ORF encoding a hexulose-6-phosphate synthase (HPS) is provided, wherein the gene, polynucleotide or ORF encodes a HPS polypeptide of enzyme class EC 4.1.2.43. In other embodiments, a gene, polynucleotide or ORF encoding a hexulose-6-phosphate synthase (HPS) is provided, wherein the gene, polynucleotide or ORF encodes a HPS polypeptide having at least 90% sequence homology to a  M. capsulatus  (Bath) HPS polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:173. In other embodiments, a gene, polynucleotide or ORF encoding a hexulose phosphate isomerase (PHI) is provided, wherein the gene, polynucleotide or ORF encodes a PHI polypeptide of enzyme class EC 5.3.1.27. In other embodiments, a gene, polynucleotide or ORF encoding a hexulose phosphate isomerase (PHI) is provided, wherein the gene, polynucleotide or ORF encodes a  M. capsulatus  (Bath) PHI polypeptide having at least 90% sequence homology to a PHI (also referred to as a sugar isomerase (SIS) domain) polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:175. 
     Once the formaldehyde has been assimilated into a central metabolic pathway of the methanotroph or non-methanotroph host organism (as described above), the fourth and final step for producing multi-carbon compounds from a methane substrate as described in steps (1)-(3) above, is the introduction of one or more nucleic acids into the host microorganism, wherein the one or more nucleic acids introduced encode one or more enzymes of a relevant multi-carbon compound pathway. Independent of the compound to be produced according to the present invention (e.g., isobutanol, 1-butanol, ethanol, fatty alcohols, fatty acid methyl esters, 2,3-butanediol and the like), any multi-carbon pathway introduced into a host microorganism must utilize a central metabolic molecule (e.g., pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, methionine and oxobutyrate) previously assimilated and introduced into the metabolic pathway through steps (1)-(3) described above. Stated another way, a salient feature of the present invention is the ability of the host microorganism to utilize methane (as a sole carbon source for growth and energy) and to produce multi-carbon compounds (via engineered metabolic pathways introduced therein), without the need for additional or supplemental carbon sources such as carbohydrates. 
     As defined herein, a relevant “multi-carbon compound pathway”, includes, but is not limited to, a 1-butanol pathway (which includes, but is not limited to, a fermentative 1-butanol pathway, a thiobutanoate pathway, a ketoacid pathway and a methylmalate pathway), an isobutanol pathway, a fatty alcohol pathway, a fatty acid methyl ester pathway and a 2,3-butanediol pathway. A “multi-carbon compound pathway” as further defined herein, may include one specific enzyme from the pathway, multiple enzymes from the pathway or all of the enzymes of the pathway. It will be understood by a person of skill in the art, that the selection of one or more specific pathway enzymes (and nucleic acids encoding the same) may be dependent on the host microorganism (e.g., certain methanotroph hosts or “non-methanotroph” hosts may endogenously encode and express one or more enzymes of a given pathway). 
     For example,  FIG. 1  depicts five representative 1-butanol (i.e., n-butanol) pathways (pathways 1-5), wherein one or more nucleic acids encoding one or more enzymes of any of these pathways may be introduced into a methanotroph (or non-methanotroph) host microorganism and be expressed (or over-expressed) therein to yield 1-butanol. Similarly,  FIG. 1  depicts an isobutanol pathway (pathway 6), wherein one or more nucleic acids encoding one or more enzymes of the isobutanol pathway may be introduced into a methanotroph (or non-methanotroph) host microorganism and expressed (or over expressed) therein to yield isobutanol. Further contemplated herein, is the introduction into a methanotroph (or non-methanotroph) host microorganism a combination of nucleic acids encoding one or more enzymes from a 1-butanol pathway and one or more enzymes from an isobutanol pathway. 
     As depicted in  FIG. 1 , at least five pathways are known to exist for converting one or more of these metabolic precursors into n-butanol (i.e., 1-butanol). The first synthesis pathway is the classical fermentative n-butanol pathway. Beginning with acetyl-CoA, this six step pathway requires three NADH and one NADHPH, but loses no carbon atoms to by-products formed. The second n-butanol synthesis pathway is the fermentative pathway, but using NADPH instead of NADH as the electron donor for the final conversion of butanal to n-butanol. The third potential n-butanol pathway is the thiobutanoate pathway, which begins with L-methionine, which is subsequently deaminated and then converted to n-butanol in two additional steps that involve loss of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and a sulfur (S) atom by an unknown mechanism. The fourth n-butanol pathway is the ketoacid pathway, which starting from L-threonine, n-butanol is synthesized in four steps, involving both reduction of NAD +  and oxidation of NADH, while losing two CO 2 . The fifth n-butanol synthesis pathway is the methylmalate pathway, which begins by combining pyruvate with acetyl-CoA to form citramalate (methylmalate), a reaction known to be catalyzed by LeuA in many bacteria, followed by conversion to butanoyl-CoA, which is then converted to n-butanol using the final two reactions of the fermentative pathway. Likewise, as depicted in  FIG. 1 , at least one isobutanol pathway is known in the art for synthesizing isobutanol from pyruvate, wherein the five-step pathway loses two carbon atoms as CO 2  per molecule of isobutanol synthesized. 
     Thus, in certain embodiments, the present invention is directed to a method for producing isobutanol from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O); (b) introducing into the methanotroph host and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a polypeptide that catalyzes a reaction in an isobutanol pathway; (c) feeding the methanotroph host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to pyruvate by means of an endogenous RuMP pathway or a serine pathway and the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce isobutanol, and (d) optionally recovering the isobutanol produced. 
     In one particular embodiment, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode an isobutanol pathway polypeptide thereof selected from an Enzyme Class (EC) comprising EC 2.2.1.6, EC 1.1.1.86, EC 4.2.1.9, EC 4.1.1.72 and EC 1.1.1.1. In other embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode an isobutanol pathway polypeptide selected from the group consisting of acetolactate synthase (ALS), ketol-acid reductoisomerase (KARI), dihydroxy-acid dehydratase (DHAD), ketoacid decarboxylase (KDC) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). In certain embodiments, the ALS polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of pyruvate to acetolactate; the KARI polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of acetolactate to 2,3-dihydroxyisovalerate; the DHAD polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2,3-dihydroxyisovalerate to ketoisovalerate; the KDC polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of ketoisovalerate to isobutryaldehyde and ADH polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of isobutyraldehyde to isobutanol. In other embodiments, the ALS polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:2, the KARI polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:4, the DHAD polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:6, the KDC polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:8 and the ADH polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:10. In yet other embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode the complete isobutanol pathway comprising an ALS polypeptide, a KARI polypeptide, a DHAD polypeptide, a KDC polypeptide and an ADH polypeptide. In certain embodiments, the ORFs encoding the complete isobutanol pathway are comprised in one operon, two operons or three operons, wherein each operon may comprise the same promoter or a different promoter, wherein the same or different promoters may be constitutive or inducible. 
     In certain embodiments, a methanotroph host microorganism is modified or genetically engineered to express one or more enzymes of a metabolic pathway capable of producing n-butanol, isobutanol, fatty (or aliphatic long chain) alcohols, fatty acid methyl esters and the like. In particular embodiments, a methanotroph of the invention is selected from genera consisting of  Methylobacter, Methylomicrobium, Methylomonas, Methylocaldum, Methylococcus, Methylosoma, Methylosarcina, Methylothermus, Methylohalobius, Methylogaea, Methylovulum, Crenothrix, Clonothrix, Methylosphaera, Methylocapsa, Methylocella, Methylosinus, Methylocystis  and  Methyloacidophilum . In other embodiments, the methanotroph is from the phylum Verrucomicrobia. Previously published work has shown that several species within these taxa can be genetically transformed by introducing DNA constructs on plasmid vectors (Stafford et al., 2003), or by integrating them into the bacterial chromosome (Welander &amp; Summons, 2012). Thus, a vector construct of the invention will typically comprise the pathway genes or polynucleotide ORFs, which are initially constructed and cloned into  E. coli  to generate sufficient quantities of the vector, and then the vectors are subsequently transformed into the host microorganism for expression. 
     In other embodiments, the invention is directed to a method for producing isobutanol from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a “non-methanotroph” host microorganism which has been genetically engineered to express a methane monooxygenase (MMO) (and optionally a methanol dehydrogenase (MDH)) and wherein the non-methanotroph host comprises either an endogenous RuMP pathway or an endogenous serine pathway, (b) introducing into the host and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a polypeptide that catalyzes a reaction in an isobutanol pathway; (c) feeding the host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the MMO polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methane to methanol, an endogenous MDH polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methanol to formaldehyde, the formaldehyde produced is converted to pyruvate through an endogenous RuMP or serine pathway and the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce isobutanol, and (d) optionally recovering the isobutanol produced. Methods for heterologous expression of pMMO genes have been described in Gou et al. (2006). Methods for heterologous expression of sMMO genes have been described in Lloyd et al. (1999). Suitable microbial hosts for heterologous expression include microorganisms that have the ability to process methanol and formaldehyde, that have multiple heterotrophic growth modes, and/or that can assemble complex membranes and metalloprotein complexes. Such organisms include methylotrophic yeasts (e.g.,  Pichia pastoris ) as well as bacteria such as  Pseudomonas putida, Cupriavidus metallidurans  and  Rhodobacter sphaeroides.    
     In certain embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) above, encode an isobutanol pathway polypeptide selected from an Enzyme Class (EC) comprising EC 2.2.1.6, EC 1.1.1.86, EC 4.2.1.9, EC 4.1.1.72 and EC 1.1.1.1. In other embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode an isobutanol pathway polypeptide selected from the group consisting of acetolactate synthase (ALS), ketol-acid reductoisomerase (KARI), dihydroxy-acid dehydratase (DHAD), ketoacid decarboxylase (KDC) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). In yet other embodiments, the ALS polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of pyruvate to acetolactate; the KARI polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of acetolactate to 2,3-dihydroxyisovalerate; the DHAD polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2,3-dihydroxyisovalerate to ketoisovalerate; the KDC polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of ketoisovalerate to isobutryaldehyde and ADH polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of isobutyraldehyde to isobutanol. 
     In one particular embodiment, the ALS polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:2, the KARI polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:4, the DHAD polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:6, the KDC polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:8 and the ADH polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:10. In certain other embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode the complete isobutanol pathway comprising an ALS polypeptide, a KARI polypeptide, a DHAD polypeptide, a KDC polypeptide and an ADH polypeptide. In another embodiment, the methane monooxygenase (MMO) is a soluble MMO of Enzyme Class EC 1.14.13.25 or a particulate MMO of Enzyme Class 1.14.18.3. In other embodiments, the MMO comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) of operon 1 comprising pmoCl subunit 1 (SEQ ID NO:12), pmoA subunit 1 (SEQ ID NO:14), pmoB subunit 1 (SEQ ID NO: 16) or a pMMO of operon 2 comprising pmoC subunit 2 (SEQ ID NO:18), pmoA subunit 2 (SEQ ID NO:20), pmoB subunit 2 (SEQ ID NO:22). In other embodiments, the MMO comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) selected from mmoX (SEQ ID NO:24), mmoY (SEQ ID NO:26), mmoB (SEQ ID NO:28), mmoZ (SEQ ID NO:30), mmoD (SEQ ID NO:32) or mmoC (SEQ ID NO:34). 
     In certain embodiments where an exogenous methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) is optionally provided and expressed in a host microorganism, the MDH is a polypeptide from Enzyme Class 1.14.18.3. In certain other embodiments, the MDH comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to mxaF (SEQ ID NO:36), mxaJ (SEQ ID NO:38), mxaG (SEQ ID NO:40), mxal (SEQ ID NO:42), mxaR (SEQ ID NO:44), mxaA (SEQ ID NO:46), mxaC (SEQ ID NO:48), mxaK (SEQ ID NO:50), mxaL (SEQ ID NO:52) or mcaD (SEQ ID NO:54). 
     In other embodiments, the invention is directed to a method for producing 1-butanol from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O), (b) introducing into the methanotroph host and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a polypeptide that catalyzes a reaction in a 1-butanol pathway; (c) feeding the methanotroph host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to pyruvate by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce 1-butanol, and (d) optionally recovering the 1-butanol produced. In certain embodiments, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode a 1-butanol pathway polypeptide selected from an Enzyme Class (EC) comprising EC 4.3.1.19, EC 2.3.3.6, EC 4.2.1.33, EC 1.1.1.85, EC 4.1.1.72, and EC 1.1.1.1. In another embodiment, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode a 1-butanol pathway polypeptide selected from the group consisting of L-threonine ammonia-lyase, 2-ethylmalate synthase (or 2-isopropylmalate synthase), isopropylmalate isomerase (or 3-isopropylmalate dehydratase), 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase, 2-ketoacid decarboxylase (KDC) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). In certain other embodiments, L-threonine ammonia-lyase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of L-threonine to 2-oxybutanoate (2-ketobutyrate) and ammonia; the 2-ethylmalate synthase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2-oxybutanoate and acetyl-CoA to 2-ethylmalate; the isopropylmalate isomerase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2-ethylmalate to 3-ethylmalate; the 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 3-ethylmalate to 2-ketovalerate, CO 2  and NADH; the KDC catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2-ketovalerate to butryaldehyde and the ADH catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of butyraldehyde to 1-butanol. 
     In certain embodiments, a L-threonine ammonia-lyase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:56, a 2-ethylmalate synthase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:58, a isopropylmalate isomerase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:60 and SEQ ID NO:62, a 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:64, the KDC comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:8 and the ADH comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:10. In one particular embodiment, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode the complete 1-butanol pathway comprising an L-threonine ammonia-lyase, a 2-ethylmalate synthase, an isopropylmalate isomerase, a 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase, a KDC and an ADH. 
     In other embodiments, the invention is directed to a method for producing 1-butanol from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a “non-methanotroph” host microorganism which has been genetically engineered to express a methane monooxygenase (MMO) (and optionally a methanol dehydrogenase (MDH)) and wherein the non-methanotroph host comprises either an endogenous RuMP pathway or an endogenous serine pathway, (b) introducing into the host and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a polypeptide that catalyzes a reaction in a 1-butanol pathway; (c) feeding the host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the MMO polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methane to methanol, an endogenous MDH polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methanol to formaldehyde, the formaldehyde produced is converted to pyruvate through an endogenous RuMP or serine pathway and the host metabolizes pyruvate to produce 1-butanol, and (d) optionally recovering the 1-butanol produced. 
     In certain embodiments, the non-methanotroph host microorganism is genetically modified to express an exogenous methane monooxygenase (MMO). In one embodiment, the methane monooxygenase is a soluble MMO (sMMO) of Enzyme Class EC 1.14.13.25 or a particulate MMO (pMMO) of Enzyme Class 1.14.18.3. In other embodiments, the MMO comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) of operon 1 comprising pmoCl subunit 1 (SEQ ID NO:12), pmoA subunit 1 (SEQ ID NO:14), pmoB subunit 1 (SEQ ID NO: 16) or a pMMO of operon 2 comprising pmoC subunit 2 (SEQ ID NO:18), pmoA subunit 2 (SEQ ID NO:20), pmoB subunit 2 (SEQ ID NO:22). In other embodiments, the MMO comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) selected from mmoX (SEQ ID NO:24), mmoY (SEQ ID NO:26), mmoB (SEQ ID NO:28), mmoZ (SEQ ID NO:30), mmoD (SEQ ID NO:32) or mmoC (SEQ ID NO:34). 
     In certain embodiments where an exogenous methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) is optionally provided and expressed in a host microorganism, the MDH is a polypeptide from Enzyme Class 1.14.18.3. In certain other embodiments, the MDH comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to mxaF (SEQ ID NO:36), mxaJ (SEQ ID NO:38), mxaG (SEQ ID NO:40), mxal (SEQ ID NO:42), mxaR (SEQ ID NO:44), mxaA (SEQ ID NO:46), mxaC (SEQ ID NO:48), mxaK (SEQ ID NO:50), mxaL (SEQ ID NO:52) or mcaD (SEQ ID NO:54). 
     In one particular embodiment, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode a 1-butanol pathway polypeptide selected from an Enzyme Class (EC) comprising EC 4.3.1.19, EC 2.3.3.6, EC 4.2.1.33, EC 1.1.1.85, EC 4.1.1.72, and EC 1.1.1.1. In another embodiment, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode a 1-butanol pathway polypeptide selected from the group consisting of L-threonine ammonia-lyase, 2-ethylmalate synthase (or 2-isopropylmalate synthase), isopropylmalate isomerase (or 3-isopropylmalate dehydratase), 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase, 2-ketoacid decarboxylase (KDC) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). In certain other embodiments, L-threonine ammonia-lyase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of L-threonine to 2-oxybutanoate (2-ketobutyrate) and ammonia; the 2-ethylmalate synthase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2-oxybutanoate and acetyl-CoA to 2-ethylmalate; the isopropylmalate isomerase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2-ethylmalate to 3-ethylmalate; the 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 3-ethylmalate to 2-ketovalerate, CO 2  and NADH; the KDC catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of 2-ketovalerate to butryaldehyde and the ADH catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of butyraldehyde to 1-butanol. 
     In certain embodiments, a L-threonine ammonia-lyase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:56, a 2-ethylmalate synthase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:58, a isopropylmalate isomerase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:60 and SEQ ID NO:62, a 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:64, the KDC comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:8 and the ADH comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:10. In one particular embodiment, the one or more polynucleotide ORFs introduced in step (b) encode the complete 1-butanol pathway comprising an L-threonine ammonia-lyase, a 2-ethylmalate synthase, an isopropylmalate isomerase, a 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase, a KDC and an ADH. 
     In certain other embodiments, the invention is directed to a method for producing fatty alcohols from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O), (b) introducing into the methanotroph host and expressing a polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the polynucleotide ORF encodes a fatty-acyl-CoA reductase (FAR); (c) feeding the methanotroph host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to acetyl-CoA by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes acetyl-CoA to produce a fatty alcohol, and (d) recovering the fatty alcohol produced. In certain embodiments, the FAR polypeptide is further defined as a polypeptide from Enzyme Class EC 1.2.1.50. In yet other embodiments, the FAR polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of fatty acetyl-CoA to a fatty alcohol. In another embodiment, a FAR polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to SEQ ID NO:66. 
     In still other embodiments, the invention is directed to a method for producing a fatty alcohol from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a “non-methanotroph” host microorganism which has been genetically engineered to express a methane monooxygenase (MMO) (and optionally a methanol dehydrogenase (MDH)) and wherein the non-methanotroph host comprises either an endogenous RuMP pathway or an endogenous serine pathway, (b) introducing into the host microorganism and expressing a polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the polynucleotide ORF encodes a fatty-acyl-CoA reductase (FAR), (c) feeding the host microorganism of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to acetyl-CoA by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes acetyl-CoA to produce a fatty alcohol, and (d) optionally recovering the fatty alcohol produced. 
     In certain embodiments, the non-methanotroph host microorganism is genetically modified to express an exogenous methane monooxygenase (MMO). In one embodiment, the methane monooxygenase is a soluble MMO (sMMO) of Enzyme Class EC 1.14.13.25 or a particulate MMO (pMMO) of Enzyme Class 1.14.18.3. In other embodiments, the MMO comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) of operon 1 comprising pmoCl subunit 1 (SEQ ID NO:12), pmoA subunit 1 (SEQ ID NO:14), pmoB subunit 1 (SEQ ID NO: 16) or a pMMO of operon 2 comprising pmoC subunit 2 (SEQ ID NO:18), pmoA subunit 2 (SEQ ID NO:20), pmoB subunit 2 (SEQ ID NO:22). In other embodiments, the MMO comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) selected from mmoX (SEQ ID NO:24), mmoY (SEQ ID NO:26), mmoB (SEQ ID NO:28), mmoZ (SEQ ID NO:30), mmoD (SEQ ID NO:32) or mmoC (SEQ ID NO:34). 
     In certain embodiments, where an exogenous methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) is optionally provided and expressed in a host microorganism, the MDH is a polypeptide from Enzyme Class 1.14.18.3. In certain other embodiments, the MDH comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to mxaF (SEQ ID NO:36), mxaJ (SEQ ID NO:38), mxaG (SEQ ID NO:40), mxaI (SEQ ID NO:42), mxaR (SEQ ID NO:44), mxaA (SEQ ID NO:46), mxaC (SEQ ID NO:48), mxaK (SEQ ID NO:50), mxaL (SEQ ID NO:52) or mcaD (SEQ ID NO:54). 
     In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for producing a fatty acid ester from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a methanotrophic host microorganism that metabolizes methane (CH 4 ) to methanol (CH 3 OH) and methanol to formaldehyde (H 2 C═O), (b) introducing into the methanotroph host and expressing a polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the polynucleotide ORF encodes a wax ester synthase (WES); (c) feeding the methanotroph host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the host metabolizes methane to formaldehyde as set forth in step (a), wherein the formaldehyde is converted to acetyl-CoA by means of an endogenous type I RuMP pathway or a type II serine pathway and the host metabolizes fatty-acyl-CoA and alcohols to produce a fatty acid ester, and (d) recovering the fatty acid ester produced. In one particular embodiment, the WES polypeptide is further defined as a polypeptide from Enzyme Class EC 2.3.1.75. In another embodiment, the WES polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of a fatty acid to a fatty acid esters. In another embodiment, the WES polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of fatty alcohol and acyl-CoA to fatty acid esters. In one particular embodiment, the WES polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a WES polypeptide selected from SEQ ID NO:68, SEQ ID NO: 70, SEQ ID NO: 72, SEQ ID NO:74, SEQ ID NO: 76 and SEQ ID NO: 78. 
     In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for producing a fatty acid ester from a methane substrate comprising the steps of (a) providing a “non-methanotroph” host microorganism which has been genetically engineered to express a methane monooxygenase (MMO) (and optionally a methanol dehydrogenase (MDH)) and wherein the non-methanotroph host comprises either an endogenous RuMP pathway or an endogenous serine pathway, (b) introducing into the host microorganism and expressing at least one polynucleotide open reading frame (ORF), under the control of suitable regulatory sequences, wherein the at least one polynucleotide ORF encodes a wax ester synthase; (c) feeding the host of step (b) a methane substrate under suitable growth conditions, wherein the MMO polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methane to methanol, an endogenous MDH polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of methanol to formaldehyde, wherein the formaldehyde is converted to acetyl-CoA by means of an endogenous RuMP or serine pathway and the host metabolizes fatty-acyl-CoA and alcohols to produce a fatty acid ester, and (d) recovering the fatty acid ester produced. 
     In one particular embodiment, the WES polypeptide is further defined as a polypeptide from Enzyme Class EC 2.3.1.75. In another embodiment, the WES polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of a fatty acid to a fatty acid ester. In another embodiment, the WES polypeptide catalyzes the substrate to product conversion of fatty alcohol and acyl-CoA to fatty acid esters. In one particular embodiment, the WES polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a WES polypeptide selected from SEQ ID NO:68, SEQ ID NO: 70, SEQ ID NO: 72, SEQ ID NO:74, SEQ ID NO: 76 and SEQ ID NO: 78. 
     In certain embodiments, the non-methanotroph host microorganism is genetically modified to express an exogenous methane monooxygenase (MMO). In one embodiment, the methane monooxygenase is a soluble MMO (sMMO) of Enzyme Class EC 1.14.13.25 or a particulate MMO (pMMO) of Enzyme Class 1.14.18.3. In other embodiments, the MMO comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) of operon 1 comprising pmoCl subunit 1 (SEQ ID NO:12), pmoA subunit 1 (SEQ ID NO:14), pmoB subunit 1 (SEQ ID NO: 16) or a pMMO of operon 2 comprising pmoC subunit 2 (SEQ ID NO:18), pmoA subunit 2 (SEQ ID NO:20), pmoB subunit 2 (SEQ ID NO:22). In other embodiments, the MMO comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence homology to a soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) selected from mmoX (SEQ ID NO:24), mmoY (SEQ ID NO:26), mmoB (SEQ ID NO:28), mmoZ (SEQ ID NO:30), mmoD (SEQ ID NO:32) or mmoC (SEQ ID NO:34). 
     In certain embodiments, where an exogenous methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) is optionally provided and expressed in a host microorganism, the MDH is a polypeptide from Enzyme Class 1.14.18.3. In certain other embodiments, the MDH comprises an amino acid sequence comprising at least 90% sequence homology to mxaF (SEQ ID NO:36), mxaJ (SEQ ID NO:38), mxaG (SEQ ID NO:40), mxaI (SEQ ID NO:42), mxaR (SEQ ID NO:44), mxaA (SEQ ID NO:46), mxaC (SEQ ID NO:48), mxaK (SEQ ID NO:50), mxaL (SEQ ID NO:52) or mcaD (SEQ ID NO:54). 
     In certain other embodiments, the invention is directed to methods of producing 2,3-butanediol from a methane substrate. The compound 2,3-butanediol (a four-carbon diol) is an important intermediate for the chemical industry. At the commercial scale, 2,3-butanediol is mainly produced or generated from petroleum, where it serves as a precursor for the production of various commodity and specialty chemicals, such as the solvent methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) and 1,3-butadiene. The biological production of 2,3-butanediol from methane requires engineering the native (or endogenous) metabolism of methanotrophs to take advantage of their endogenous production of (R)-acetoin ( FIG. 9 ). The compound (R)-acetoin is produced in methanotrophs from two molecules of pyruvate, which are ultimately derived from methane. By introducing and expressing a single gene (SEQ ID NO:156) encoding a (2R,3R)-2,3-butanediol dehydrogenase (BDH1) from  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  in a suitable microbial expression host (such as  M. capsulatus  (Bath)), the (R)-acetoin is converted into 2,3-butanediol. Thus, in certain embodiments, a host microorganism of the invention is genetically modified to express an exogenous (2R,3R)-2,3-butanediol dehydrogenase (BDH1) having at least 90% sequence homology to a BDH1 polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:157. 
     General methods for gene synthesis and DNA cloning, as well as vector and plasmid construction, are well known in the art, and are described in a number of publications (Lipps, 2008; Peccoud, 2012; Ausubel et al., 2002). More specifically, techniques such as digestion and ligation-based cloning, as well as in vitro and in vivo recombination methods, can be used to assemble DNA fragments encoding a polypeptide that catalyzes a substrate to product conversion into a suitable vector. These methods include restriction digest cloning, sequence- and ligation-independent Cloning (SLIC) (Li &amp; Elledge, 2012), Golden Gate cloning (Engler et al., 2009), Gibson assembly (Gibson et al., 2009), and the like (Merryman &amp; Gibson, 2012; Wang et al., 2012). Some of these methods can be automated and miniaturized for high-throughput applications (Yehezkel et al., 2011; Ma et al., 2012). 
     In certain embodiments, the cloning procedures use in vitro homologous recombination, to insert DNA fragments into a vector (e.g., the In-Fusion kit from Clontech Laboratories, Inc. (Mountain View, Calif.)). For example, (1) the recipient vector is linearized by a restriction digest and purified; (2) PCR primers that are complementary to the fragment to be cloned and that are complementary (with 15-base pair extensions) to the ends of the linearized vector are used to amplify the insert, using high-fidelity polymerase; (3) the size of the PCR amplicon is verified by agarose gel electrophoresis; (4) the PCR product is purified by a spin-column; (5) the In-Fusion reaction is run according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions; (6) competent  E. coli  cells are transformed with 2.5 μL of the reaction products; (7) positive transformants are selected from colonies grown on antibiotic selection medium and transferred to individual liquid cultures with the appropriate antibiotic; (8) the cells are harvested after overnight growth at 37° C. with 200 rpm shaking and (9) the plasmid DNA is extracted and analyzed for the correct insert. 
     The plasmid vector is chosen so that it will be capable of replicating in both an  E. coli  host (for cloning and amplification) and a methanotrophic or non-methanotrophic host microorganism (for metabolic pathway expression). The plasmid can be transferred from the  E. coli  donor cell to the recipient cell via bacterial conjugation. In addition, the vector contains a promoter sequence upstream of the one or more polynucleotide ORFs that are to be expressed. The promoter sequence can be included as part of the insert so that it can be adjusted and tested for each new construct. Broad-host-range (bhr) vectors for different gram-negative bacterial hosts have been described in the literature (Marx &amp; Lidstrom, 2001). These vectors typically contain the following components: (1) an origin of replication that is functional in  E. coli  (colE1); (2) an oriV/IncP origin of replication for the non- E. coli  host; (3) an oriT/IncP origin of transfer, which is needed for transferring a bacterial plasmid from a bacterial host such as  E. coli  to the recipient during bacterial conjugation; (4) a traJ′ gene, which codes for a transcriptional activator that initiates production of the proteins needed for conjugative transfer; and (5) a trfA, the replication initiation protein gene of plasmid RK2 which binds to a activates oriV. 
     In one embodiment, the conjugative bhr plasmid is based on pCM132 (GenBank Accession No. AF327720, SEQ ID NO:79) (Marx &amp; Lidstrom, 2001), which has been engineered to contain a kanamycin resistance gene for plasmid selection and a lacZ (beta-galactosidase) gene for identifying plasmids with DNA inserts based on colony color using indolyl-galactoside-based substrates. Genes (or polynucleotide ORFs thereof) of interest can be inserted into the polylinker region that lies between the rrnB transcription terminator and the 5′-end of the lacZ gene (e.g., see,  FIG. 2 ). 
     Typical gene cassettes for expressing an engineered metabolic pathway in a host microorganism such as a methanotroph are shown in  FIG. 3 . The cassette comprises one or more open reading frames (ORFs) which encode the enzymes of the introduced pathway, a promoter for directing transcription of the downstream ORF(s) within the operon, ribosome binding sites for directing translation of the mRNAs encoded by the individual ORF(s), and a transcriptional terminator sequence. Due to the modular nature of the various components of the expression cassette, one can create combinatorial permutations of these arrangements by substituting different components at one or more of the positions. One can also reverse the orientation of one or more of the ORFs to determine whether any of these alternate orientations improve the product yield. 
     In one embodiment, the plasmids generated as part of the present invention are based on the broad-host-range expression vector pCM132 (Marx &amp; Lidstrom, 2001). In this embodiment, the use of the Clontech (catalog no. 639647) InFusion HD Cloning System kit is one example of how to construct plasmids, but is not meant to limit or exclude other methods that are known in the art, including Gibson assembly, yeast in vivo recombination, PCR Splicing by Overlap Extension, or any combination of these with standard molecular biology techniques. 
     In certain embodiments of the invention, the plasmids of interest are generated in a modular fashion such that various modules, including suitable regulatory sequences, can be easily assembled or replaced as needed and are amenable to scaled-up, high-throughput assembly. The plasmids are designed to consist of multiple linear modules: a vector backbone and one or more vector inserts. The 5′ and 3′ ends of individual modules have overlapping sequence homology to the ends of adjacent modules within the designed plasmid. The overlapping homology between the modules allows them to be assembled into a circular plasmid using the Clontech InFusion HD Cloning System kit or other assembly method known in the art. Primers were designed to introduce homologous ends to the PCR-amplified products to facilitate assembly. 
     Vector backbones of the invention contain the components of the plasmid that will remain constant. In certain embodiments, the broad-host range vector pCM132 is modified to produce vector backbones for the plasmids (vectors) of the invention. The pCM132 vector, further described below in the Examples section, consists of the following components: trrnB terminator, kanamycin resistance gene, trfA, IncP oriT, IncP oriV, colE1 ori, and lacZ. This parental vector was modified to replace lacZ with a vector insert that contains promoter sequence(s) to produce plasmids pJSvec (SEQ ID NO: 80) and pMZT3 (SEQ ID NO: 81). In certain embodiments of the invention, vector backbones were PCR-amplified with the NEB Phusion master mix (M0531L) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions, unless specified otherwise. 
     The general rationale or procedure for selecting the appropriate ORFs for a given pathway was to examine a list of pathway-relevant genes as specified in the literature. Using this set of pathway-relevant genes as a target, BLAST searches were run, looking for genes in three groups: (1) similar genes found in microbial hosts that are phylogenetically close to the ones already listed in the literature, (2) similar genes found in microbes that are phylogenetically distant from the microbial host of the targeted gene, and (3) homologs that are similar to the target gene but that are found in the wild-type methanotroph or non-methanotroph organism that is to be used as the expression host. An example of the above strategy would be to target the kivD gene (encoding alpha-ketoisovalerate decarboxylase) from  Lactococcus lactis : the first group would contain genes from species similar to  L. lactis , including  Lactococcus  itself; the second group would be genes similar to kivD, but found in organisms phylogenetically distant from  L. lactis ; and finally the last group would include a kivD gene in a microbe of interest, specifically,  Methylococcus capsulatus  (Bath). Thus, in certain embodiments of the invention, the exemplary polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences set forth in Table 1 are used to identify similar or homologous polynucleotide, genes, ORFs and polypeptides found in microbial hosts that are (1) phylogenetically close to the ones already listed, (2) found in microbes that are phylogenetically distant from the microbial host of the targeted sequence, and (3) homologs that are similar to the target gene but that are found in the wild-type methanotroph or non-methanotroph organism that is to be used as the expression host. 
     For example, genes encoding similar proteins or polypeptides to those of the invention may isolated directly by using all or a portion of a nucleic acid (e.g., see Table 1, below) or a primer sequence (e.g., see Table 2, below) as DNA hybridization probes to screen libraries from any desired microorgansim using methodology well known to those skilled in the art. Specific oligonucleotide probes based upon these nucleic acid sequences can be designed and synthesized by methods known in the art (Sambrook et al., 1989; Ausubel et al., 1987). Moreover, the entire sequence can be used directly to synthesize DNA probes by methods known to the skilled artisan such as random primers, DNA labeling, nick translation, or end-labeling techniques, or RNA probes using available in vitro transcription systems. In addition, specific primers can be designed and used to amplify a part of or the full-length of the instant sequence. The resulting amplification products can be labeled directly during amplification reactions or labeled after amplification reactions, and used as probes to isolate full-length DNA fragments under conditions of appropriate stringency. 
     Alternatively a nucleic acid sequence of the invention may be employed as a hybridization reagent for the identification of homologs. The basic components of a nucleic acid hybridization test include a probe, a sample suspected of containing the gene or gene fragment of interest, and a specific hybridization method. Probes are typically single stranded nucleic acid sequences which are complementary to the nucleic acid sequences to be detected. Probes are “hybridizable” to the nucleic acid sequence to be detected. The probe length can vary from 5 bases to tens of thousands of bases, and will depend upon the specific test to be done. Typically a probe length of about 15 bases to about 30 bases is suitable. Only part of the probe molecule need be complementary to the nucleic acid sequence to be detected. In addition, the complementarity between the probe and the target sequence need not be perfect. base. Hybridization methods are well defined and know in the art. 
     An important component of these engineered operons is the promoter sequence. The promoter must be chosen based on its compatibility with the transcriptional machinery of the host organism, as well as its ability to tune the desired level of gene expression (e.g., high or low). For example, one may introduce the strong pmxaF or pmmoX promoters from a methanotroph to generate high expression levels in a methanotrophic or non-methanotroph host. Alternatively, one can introduce a promoter from the Anderson promoter collection, which is a library of constitutive sigma70 bacterial promoters (http://partsregistry.org/Promoters/Catalog/Anderson; Registry of Standard Biological Parts), such as J23100 (strong) or J23115 (weak), to modulate expression of different ORFs or combinations of ORFs. Inducible promoters, whose activity is controlled by the addition of exogenous small molecule activators, such as IPTG, arabinose or salicylate, can also be used to provide temporal control of gene expression. However, regardless of the choice of promoter, its effect on host expression must be empirically tested in vivo to be certain of its effectiveness for achieving the desired level of expression. 
     These different combinatorial permutations of the cassette can be synthesized, cloned and expressed in the target host organism (via chemical transformation, electroporation, or conjugation of the DNA) so that the production of a multi-carbon product can be compared. The best candidate or candidates can then be further engineered to provide additional improvements in product yield by repeating the design-build-test cycle. 
     In one embodiment, the host microorganism for expressing the plasmid is a methanotroph, and plasmid vector(s) containing the metabolic pathway expression cassettes are readily mobilized into these organisms via conjugation. Various methods for bacterial conjugation are known in the art, and one of the most widely used methods takes advantage of a strain of  E. coli  S17-1, which has an RP4 plasmid (with the RK2 tra genes for transfer of genetic material) inserted into the chromosome for mobilizing oriT(RP4)-carrying plasmids (Simon et al. 1983; Simon, 1984). 
     The transfer of plasmid containing RP4-mob from  E. coli  to methanotrophs, as further described in the Examples section, was based on the conjugation methods described previously (Martin &amp; Murrell, 1995; Ali, 2006). A 10 ml overnight  E. coli  S17-1λ, pir culture, containing RP4-mob plasmid, was collected on a 0.2 μm pore-size nitrocellulose filter (Millipore). The  E. coli  donor strain was washed twice with 50 ml NMS. A 50 ml methanotroph culture grown to mid exponential phase (A 540  of 0.2-0.5) was also collected on the same filter and washed again with 50 mL NMS medium. The filter was placed on an NMS agar plate containing 0.02% (w/v) proteose peptone and incubated for 24 hours at 30° C. with methane except for  M. capsulatus , which was incubated at 37° C. for 24 hours. 
     Following incubation, the cells were washed with 10 ml NMS and collected by centrifugation (7,000×g for 10 min) before re-suspending the cells in 1 ml NMS. Aliquots (50-100 μl) of the cells were spread onto NMS plates containing selective antibiotics and incubated at the appropriate temperature. Colonies typically formed on the plates after 8-12 days. (Note: the  E. coli  S17-1λ, pir strain has chromosomally integrated conjugal transfer functions, thus allowing transfer of plasmid to occur by means of a bi-parental mating without a helper plasmid). Transconjugants can also be purified by serial cultivation in liquid medium containing the appropriate antibiotics for selection, followed by plating onto selective NMS agar plates to obtain single colonies. 
     In an alternative method for expressing metabolic pathway genes in a microbial host, the biosynthetic pathway genes are inserted directly into the chromosome. Methods for chromosomal modification include both non-targeted and targeted deletions and insertions. For example, non-targeted insertions can be achieved by using transposon mutagenesis to make insertion mutants or gene “knockouts” in vitro using the EZ-Tn5 &lt;KAN-2&gt; Insertion Kit (Epicentre). Briefly, the procedure is as follows, according to the manufacturer: Preparation: prepare 0.2 μg of recombinant DNA for the EZ-Tn5&lt;KAN-2&gt; insertion reaction. Day 1: perform the 2-hour in vitro EZ-Tn5&lt;KAN-2&gt; insertion reaction; transform competent recA- E. coli  with 1 μl of the reaction mix and select for kanamycin-resistant transposon insertion clones on kanamycin plates overnight. Day 2: prepare DNA from kanamycin-resistant colonies, (and optionally map the EZ-Tn5 &lt;KAN-2&gt; Transposon insertion sites and optionally (DNA) sequence chosen clones bi-directionally using the unlabeled forward and reverse transposon-specific primers supplied in the kit. 
     For targeted modifications, various methods have been developed based on RecA-dependent homologous recombination (Hamilton et al., 1989; Link et al., 1997; Posfai et al., 1999). However, using antibiotic resistance markers for deletion/insertion is limited by the number of different antibiotics that can be used in a given target organism. For this reason, markerless insertion methods have been developed. For example, Yu et al. (2008) describe a deletion procedure in which expression of the λ-Red recombinase genes (gam, bet and exo) and the I-SceI endonuclease gene are controlled by tightly regulated promoters ParaB and PrhaB. Arabinose and rhamnose added to cultures to induce ParaB and PrhaB are used and depleted by the bacteria. Thus, by changing the carbon source in the medium from arabinose to rhamnose in bacteria that contain the pREDI plasmid, one can replace a targeted genomic region with a markerless deletion cassette and subsequently delete the selection markers that were introduced. 
     Sun et al. (2008) also describe methods for sequence-specific insertion or deletion of genes within a bacterial genome. This method permits multiple markerless insertions and scarless deletions in the targeted genome. In the Sun et al. method, a target gene can be deleted in two steps. In the first step, a linear DNA fragment is created that carries the cat (chloramphenicol resistance) gene and sacB (a levansucrase gene that confers sensitivity to sucrose). The fragment is flanked by long (500 bp) regions of DNA that are homologous to the regions that flank the targeted deletion site. The DNA fragment is electroporated into the host cell, which already contains plasmid pKD46, a vector containing the genes for λ Red recombination. Homologous recombination then directs the replacement of the targeted gene. Medium containing chloramphenicol is used to select for cells that contain the desired insertion or deletion. In the second step, a second DNA fragment that contains the desired deletion or insertion is electroporated into host cells that contain the pKD46 plasmid. By plating the resulting cells on medium containing sucrose, one can select for transformants in which the cat-sacB cassette has been replaced. These candidates are also screened for sensitivity to chloramphenicol, and the deletion can be confirmed by PCR and sequencing. By repeating the process, multiple deletions and/or insertions can be achieved. The pKD46 plasmid can then be removed by culturing the cells at 37 C. Thus, by using various genes encoding the isobutanol, butanol, fatty alcohol and fatty acid ester biosynthetic pathways, these pathways can be inserted into the genome of a methanotroph (or non-methanotroph), and unwanted genes (e.g., genes that encode for enzymes that produce competing products) can be removed. 
     U.S. Patent Publication No. 2006/0057726 describes using sacB gene and the pGP704 suicide vector to engineer markerless insertions into single carbon (C1) metabolizing bacteria. Yomantas et al. (2010) describes methods for markerless substitutions in the genome of the methylotrophic bacterium  Methylophilus methylotrophus.    
     Several methanotroph strains were evaluated according to the present invention as potential hosts for pathway engineering. Of the well characterized methanotroph strains,  Methylosinus trichosporium  OB3b (NCIMB 11131) and  Methylococcus capsulatus  str. Bath (NCIMB 11853) were examined for their ease of transformability (via conjugation), growth rate, and suitability for industrial fermentation. Both strains can be cultivated in liquid or agar containing Nitrate Mineral Salts (NMS) medium (Whittenbury et al., 1970; Bowman, 2000). Although both strains were found to transform with approximately equal efficiency,  Methylococcus capsulatus  (Bath) has the advantage of growing about twice as fast as  M. trichosporium  (ca. 24-30 to reach saturation in shake flask growth). In addition, the ability of  M. capsulatus  (Bath) to grow more readily at 45° C. is an advantage in industrial cultivation, since this relatively high temperature will impede the growth of other potentially contaminating microorganisms. Furthermore, the complete genome sequence of  M. capsulatus  (Bath) has been published (Ward et al., 2004), and as such, manipulation of its genome via genetic engineering is readily available to one of skill in the art. Thus, in certain embodiments,  M. capsulatus  (Bath) is used as a model organism for further development of genetically modified host microorganisms. 
     Following conjugation, positive methanotroph trans-conjugants were purified on NMS agar containing the appropriate antibiotic selection (e.g., 15 μg/ml kanamycin for selecting the plasmid and counter-selecting the untransformed methanotroph host cells, and 10 μg/ml for counter-selecting the  E. coli  donor cells). Alternatively, transconjugants can be purified by serial cultivation in liquid medium containing the appropriate antibiotics for selection, followed by plating onto selective NMS agar plates to obtain single colonies. Colonies were used to inoculate small (5-10 ml) starter cultures in liquid NMS medium containing, for example, 15 μg/ml kanamycin in 125-ml flasks. The flasks were stoppered with tight-fitting Suba Seals to create a closed atmosphere inside the flasks. A volume of gas corresponding to 20% of the total volume of the flask and composed of 95% methane and 5% carbon dioxide was injected via a sterile syringe and 23-gauge needle into each flask. Flasks were shaken at 200 rpm and 45° C. When these cultures achieved an optical density of A 540 &gt;0.5 (after about 24 hours), a 1:100 dilution of these cells was used to inoculate 125 ml (or larger volume) cultures, and the same growth protocol was followed. Growth in shake flasks is most robust when the liquid volume is maintained at about 5-10% of the nominal volume of the flask so that good aeration of the liquid is achieved. These flasks were then used for the subsequent assays of product formation. In certain examples related to 2-KIV feeding experiments, only the ketoacid intermediate was added along with the methane and CO 2  at the zero time point. 
     After approximately 72 hours of growth, the cultures were harvested for analysis by gas chromatography. The sealed flasks were first chilled for at least 1 hour on ice, to concentrate any volatile organic compounds from the vapor phase into the liquid phase. After opening the flasks, an aliquot of the culture was diluted 1:2 with ethyl acetate in a clean 50 ml tube to extract and concentrate the isobutanol, butanol, fatty alcohols or fatty acid esters. After vortexing or shaking (and centrifugation to separate the phases), a small volume of the organic layer (approximately 1 ml) was filtered through a 0.2 μm PTFE filter, and 1 μl of the purified extract was then injected into an Agilent 7890A GC equipped with a Leap Technologies (Carrboro, N.C.) CombiPAL autosampler for analysis. Appropriate purified standards were included to generate a standard curve and determine the concentration of the targeted product. Each measurement included a positive control and a negative control (e.g., a wild-type sample or other appropriate background control) with each sample set. Additional details of the methods used for the specific products are given in the Examples section. Strains with the highest levels of production were designated for further scale-up in 1-10 liter fermentors. 
     During the analysis of the engineered host strains, unexpectedly high levels of isobutanol and butanol consumption (up to 30 mM after 72 hours of growth) was observed even in wild-type cultures of  M. capsulatus  (Bath), and therefore it was important to find mutant strains that can produce these products at a rate that is greater than their inherent rate of consumption. In certain embodiments of the invention, the competing alcohol dehydrogenase and alcohol oxidase activities are identified, and reduced or eliminated by gene knockouts, as described above. 
     For initial fermentation scale-up in the 1-10 liter range, methods similar to those described in Theisen et al. (2005) and U.S. Pat. No. 4,594,324 can be used, with specific modifications for  M. capsulatus  (Bath). A fermentation system such as the Sartorius-Stedim Biostat A plus system (Goettingen, Germany) can be used, or other equivalent fermentation systems and methods for methanotroph fermentation (e.g., see Jiang et al., 2010). An Applikon ADI 1030 Bio Controller and ADI 1035 BioConsole (Applikon Biotechnology Inc., Foster City, Calif.) can also be used for the 10 liter vessel. 
     The starting inoculum is created by inoculating a large colony of  M. capsulatus  (Bath) containing the desired plasmid from a plate culture into 10 ml of sterile NMS medium containing kanamycin, as described above. After 24 to 48 hours, when the optical density (A 540 ) of the culture is greater than 0.5, five starter flasks of NMS medium are inoculated at 1:100 dilution. The liquid volumes in these starter inocula can range in size from 20 ml each for a 1 liter fermentor to 200 ml each for a 10 liter fermentor (i.e., about a 10% inoculum). 
     After autoclaving the NMS medium in the fermentor vessel, the phosphate salts portion of the NMS medium and the kanamycin (both sterilized) are added to the vessel. The same inlet can be used to inject the starter cultures. Air is supplied as oil-free compressor air, and the methane carbon source is supplied from a pre-mixed tank (Airgas) containing 95% methane and 5% CO 2 . The air and methane are mixed to 15-20% methane using equipment that is rated intrinsically safe or explosion proof to eliminate the possibility of sparking or static electricity, which could lead to an explosion. The gas flow rate depends on the fermentor size and culture density, but a value of 0.75 liters per minute for 10 liters is typical. The gas mixture is fed into the fermentor, and the entire culture is mixed with an impeller rotating at approximately 200 rpm for agitation, the rate of which may be increased during growth. For maintenance of the culture pH at 6.8, 0.1 M HCl or 1 M NaOH is added as needed. The temperature is maintained at 45° C. by a thermostatic jacket. The effluent gas is fed through a water-jacketed condenser to reduce liquid loss at 45° C., and vented to a fume hood. 
     The fermentation is monitored (via pH and dissolved oxygen probes) and controlled using Sartorius BioPAT MFCS bioprocess control software (Sartorius Corp, Bohemia, N.Y.). A dissolved oxygen concentration below 1% saturation with air (typically 0.2-0.3%) is desirable to avoid wasting methane. Periodically, small samples of the fermentation broth are removed by sterile transfer and used to measure the optical density of the culture. These samples can also be used to monitor product formation using the methods described above and in the Examples section. Purity of the culture can also be checked by plating a small sample onto R2A agar, which allows most organisms other than methanotrophs to grow. Cultures achieve an optical density (A 540 ) of greater than 9 after about 48 hours. For  M. capsulatus  (Bath), 1 ml of culture with A 540  equal to 1 corresponds to about 0.23-0.25 mg of dry weight of biomass. When the maximum cell density or product concentration is achieved, the culture can be harvested and analyzed. 
     For large-scale commercial fermentation, a system based on the fermentor design employed by Norferm (Norefem, AS; Stavanger, Norway) for production of single-cell protein can be used (Bothe et al., 2002; EP 1419234; U.S. Publication No. 2009/0263877). The largest system has a total volume of 300 m 3  (300,000 liters) and an annual production capacity of 10,000 tons of biomass (van Laere et al., 2005). Publications such as EP 1419234, U.S. Publiccation No. 2009/0263877 and Villadsen (2012), and references therein, describe a loop reactor and bioprocess methods for culturing methanotrophs at the commercial scale. The advantage of this design is that nutrient gases such as methane and oxygen are supplied to the system in such a way that exposure of the cells to nutrient-depleted culture medium or to unduly high concentrations of nutrient gases is minimized. 
     However, when using “wet” natural gas as a nutrient feedstock, the problem of acetate and propionate toxicity (resulting from the oxidation of ethane and propane, respectively) may need to be addressed (Bothe et al., 2002; Eiteman &amp; Altman, 2006). A genetic approach is to eliminate (knock-out) or knock-down the ethanol and propanol dehydrogenases and acetaldehyde/propionaldehyde dehydrogenases that convert the ethanol and propanol to the corresponding acids. Another approach is to introduce the genes for acetate assimilation from an organism that can use it as a carbon source, such as  E. coli  (Wolfe, 2005). For example, AMP-ACS (acetate:CoA ligase [AMP forming]; EC 6.2.1.1) catalyzes the conversion of acetate and ATP to an enzyme-bound acetyladenylate (acetyl-AMP) and pyrophosphate. In a subsequent step, it reacts the acetyl-AMP with CoASH (CoenzymeA-SH) to acetyl-CoA and free AMP. Similarly, AMP-ACS can activate and assimilate propionate (Wolfe, 2005). In this way, the two potentially harmful organic acids are converted into the useful intermediate, acetyl-CoA. These genes can be cloned and expressed in a methanotroph host by the methods described above. 
     Another aspect of the commercial production of multicarbon compounds from methane using the present invention involves recovering and purifying the desired product from the fermentation broth. The method to be used depends on the physico-chemical properties of the product and the nature and composition of the fermentation medium and cells. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 8,101,808 describes methods for recovering C3-C6 alcohols from fermentation broth using continuous flash evaporation and phase separation processing. Thus, the biologically produced multi-carbon compounds of the invention may be isolated from the fermentation medium using methods known in the art for Acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) fermentations For example, solids may be removed from the fermentation medium by centrifugation, filtration, decantation, wherein the multi-carbon compounds of the invention may be isolated from the fermentation medium using methods such as distillation, azeotropic distillation, liquid-liquid extraction, adsorption, gas stripping, membrane evaporation, or pervaporation. 
     In certain embodiments the invention, the fermentation process produces greater than about 7% (v/v) concentration of the desired multi-carbon product in the fermentation broth, and the product is separated from the rest of the medium using membrane separation technology to achieve about a 12% or greater concentration of the product, at which point relatively small molecules (such as isobutanol) can be further purified by phase separation in an integrated system (Hickey &amp; Slater, 1990; Neel, 1995; Hagg, 1998; Liu et al., 2011). Continuous recovery of the product from the fermentation medium has the advantage of possibly reducing the toxicity effects of the multi-carbon products. 
     For longer-chain alcohols, such as fatty alcohols, U.S. Pat. No. 8,268,599 describes methods for separating these components from the aqueous phase of the fermentation by bi-phasic separation, whereby the immiscibility of the product compounds with the fermentation broth allows the organic phase to be collected and removed. This separation can also reduce the toxic effects of the product on the host microbial cells. 
     U.S. Publication No. 2007/0251141 describes methods for recovering fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) from a liquid suspension by adding urea and creating a phase separation whereby the saturated and unsaturated FAMEs can be recovered separately. Membrane separation methods can also be applied to purifying fatty acid ester products such as biodiesel (Saleh, 2011). 
     In certain embodiments, a methane substrate of the invention is provided or obtained from a natural gas source, wherein the natural gas is “wet” natural gas or “dry” natural gas. Natural gas is referred to as “dry” natural gas when it is almost pure methane, having had most of the other commonly associated hydrocarbons removed. When other hydrocarbons are present, the natural gas is referred to as “wet”. Wet natural gas typically comprises about 70-90% methane, about 0-20% ethane, propane and butane (combined total), about 0-8% CO 2 , about 0-5% N2, about 0-5% H 25  and trace amounts of oxygen, helium, argon, neon and xenon. In certain other embodiments, a methane substrate of the invention is provided or obtained from methane emissions, or methane off-gases, which are generated by a variety of natural and human-influenced processes, including anaerobic decomposition in solid waste landfills, enteric fermentation in ruminant animals, organic solids decomposition in digesters and wastewater treatment operations, and methane leakage in fossil fuel recovery, transport, and processing systems. 
     Table 1 below, provides exemplary polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences for implementing various embodiments of the present invention. These sequences are not meant to limit or exclude the use of other polynucleotide sequences encoding polypeptides or enzymes useful for producing multi-carbon compounds according to the present invention. For example, one of skill in the art can search gene sequence databases (or genome databases) and/or protein sequence databases (e.g., via BLAST or other sequence search algorithms) to identify homologous polynucleotides encoding one or more enzyme activities based on the reference sequences set forth in Table 1. Alternatively, a homologous polynucleotide may be isolated directly by using all or a portion of a nucleic acid sequence set forth in Table 1 (or a primer sequence set forth below in Table 2) as DNA hybridization probes to screen libraries from any desired microorgansim and/or PCR amplify a desired polynucleotide sequence using methodology well known to those skilled in the art. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Exemplary Nucleic Acid and Polypeptide Sequences Described in the Invention 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Pathway or 
                   
                 Nucleic acid 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Reaction 
                 Gene Name 
                 SEQ 
                 Enzyme Name 
                 Polypeptide SEQ ID 
                 Organism 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 isobutanol 
                 MCA1837 
                 SEQ ID NO: 1 
                 ALS 
                 SEQ ID NO: 2 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 isobutanol 
                 MCA2272 
                 SEQ ID NO: 3 
                 KARI 
                 SEQ ID NO: 4 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 isobutanol 
                 MCA2082 
                 SEQ ID NO: 5 
                 DHAD 
                 SEQ ID NO: 6 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 isobutanol 
                 MCA0996 
                 SEQ ID NO: 7 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 8 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 isobutanol 
                 YMR318C 
                 SEQ ID NO: 9 
                 ADH 
                 SEQ ID NO: 10 
                 
                   S. cerevisiae 
                 
               
               
                 isobutanol 
                 MtKDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 82 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 162 
                 
                   M. trichosporium 
                 
               
               
                 isobutanol 
                 MtADH 
                 SEQ ID NO: 83 
                 ADH 
                 SEQ ID NO: 163 
                 
                   M. trichosporium 
                 
               
               
                 isobutanol 
                 McADH-2a 
                 SEQ ID NO: 84 
                 ADH 
                 SEQ ID NO: 164 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 isobutanol 
                 McADH-2b 
                 SEQ ID NO: 85 
                 ADH 
                 SEQ ID NO: 165 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 Isobutanol 
                 LlkivD 
                 SEQ ID NO: 86 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 166 
                 
                   L. lactis 
                 
               
               
                 Isobutanol 
                 ScPDC6 
                 SEQ ID NO: 87 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 167 
                 
                   S. cerevisiae 
                 
               
               
                 Isobutanol 
                 ScARO10 
                 SEQ ID NO: 88 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 168 
                 
                   S. cerevisiae 
                 
               
               
                 Isobutanol 
                 ScADH2 
                 SEQ ID NO: 89 
                 ADH 
                 SEQ ID NO: 169 
                 
                   S. cerevisiae 
                 
               
               
                 Isobutanol 
                 ScPDC1 
                 SEQ ID NO: 90 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 170 
                 
                   S. cerevisiae 
                 
               
               
                 isobutanol 
                 CaPDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 91 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 171 
                 
                   C. acetobutylicum 
                 
               
               
                 CH 4  to CH 3 OH 
                 MCA1798 
                 SEQ ID NO: 11 
                 pmoC subunit 1 
                 SEQ ID NO: 12 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 4  to CH 3 OH 
                 MCA1797 
                 SEQ ID NO: 13 
                 pmoA subunit 1 
                 SEQ ID NO: 14 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 4  to CH 3 OH 
                 MCA1796 
                 SEQ ID NO: 15 
                 pmoB subunit 1 
                 SEQ ID NO: 16 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 4  to CH 3 OH 
                 MCA2855 
                 SEQ ID NO: 17 
                 pmoC subunit 2 
                 SEQ ID NO: 18 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 4  to CH 3 OH 
                 MCA2854 
                 SEQ ID NO: 19 
                 pmoA subunit 2 
                 SEQ ID NO: 20 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 4  to CH 3 OH 
                 MCA2853 
                 SEQ ID NO: 21 
                 pmoB subunit 2 
                 SEQ ID NO: 22 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 4  to CH 3 OH 
                 MCA1194 
                 SEQ ID NO: 23 
                 mmoX 
                 SEQ ID NO: 24 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 4  to CH 3 OH 
                 MCA1195 
                 SEQ ID NO: 25 
                 mmoY 
                 SEQ ID NO: 26 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 4  to CH 3 OH 
                 MCA1196 
                 SEQ ID NO: 27 
                 mmoB 
                 SEQ ID NO: 28 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 4  to CH 3 OH 
                 MCA1198 
                 SEQ ID NO: 29 
                 mmoZ 
                 SEQ ID NO: 30 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 4  to CH 3 OH 
                 MCA1199 
                 SEQ ID NO: 31 
                 mmoD 
                 SEQ ID NO: 32 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 4  to CH 3 OH 
                 MCA1200 
                 SEQ ID NO: 33 
                 mmoC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 34 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 3 OH to H 2 CO 
                 MCA0779 
                 SEQ ID NO: 35 
                 mxaF 
                 SEQ ID NO: 36 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 3 OH to H 2 CO 
                 MCA0780 
                 SEQ ID NO: 37 
                 mxaJ 
                 SEQ ID NO: 38 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 3 OH to H 2 CO 
                 MCA0781 
                 SEQ ID NO: 39 
                 mxaG 
                 SEQ ID NO: 40 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 3 OH to H 2 CO 
                 MCA0782 
                 SEQ ID NO: 41 
                 mxaI 
                 SEQ ID NO: 42 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 3 OH to H 2 CO 
                 MCA0783 
                 SEQ ID NO: 43 
                 mxaR 
                 SEQ ID NO: 44 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 3 OH to H 2 CO 
                 MCA0785 
                 SEQ ID NO: 45 
                 mxaA 
                 SEQ ID NO: 46 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 3 OH to H 2 CO 
                 MCA0786 
                 SEQ ID NO: 47 
                 mxaC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 48 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 3 OH to H 2 CO 
                 MCA0787 
                 SEQ ID NO: 49 
                 mxaK 
                 SEQ ID NO: 50 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 3 OH to H 2 CO 
                 MCA0788 
                 SEQ ID NO: 51 
                 mxaL 
                 SEQ ID NO: 52 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 CH 3 OH to H 2 CO 
                 MCA0789 
                 SEQ ID NO: 53 
                 mxaD 
                 SEQ ID NO: 54 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 MCA0354 
                 SEQ ID NO: 55 
                 Threonine- 
                 SEQ ID NO: 56 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 ammonia-lyase 
                   
                   
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 MCA2275 
                 SEQ ID NO: 57 
                 2-ethylmalate 
                 SEQ ID NO: 58 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 synthase 
                   
                   
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 MCA2065 
                 SEQ ID NO: 59 
                 Isopropyl malate 
                 SEQ ID NO: 60 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 dehydratase, 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 large subunit 
                   
                   
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 MCA2064 
                 SEQ ID NO: 61 
                 Isopropyl malate 
                 SEQ ID NO: 62 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 dehydratase, 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 small subunit 
                   
                   
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 VIMSS17191 
                 SEQ ID NO: 160 
                 tdcB 
                 SEQ ID NO: 161 
                 
                   E. coli 
                 
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 MCA0996 
                 SEQ ID NO: 7 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 8 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 YMR318C 
                 SEQ ID NO: 9 
                 ADH 
                 SEQ ID NO: 10 
                 
                   S. cerevisiae 
                 
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 MtKDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 82 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 162 
                 
                   M. trichosporium 
                 
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 MtADH 
                 SEQ ID NO: 83 
                 ADH 
                 SEQ ID NO: 163 
                 
                   M. trichosporium 
                 
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 McADH-2a 
                 SEQ ID NO: 84 
                 ADH 
                 SEQ ID NO: 164 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 McADH-2b 
                 SEQ ID NO: 85 
                 ADH 
                 SEQ ID NO: 165 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 LlkivD 
                 SEQ ID NO: 86 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 166 
                 
                   L. lactis 
                 
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 ScPDC6 
                 SEQ ID NO: 87 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 167 
                 
                   S. cerevisiae 
                 
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 ScARO10 
                 SEQ ID NO: 88 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 168 
                 
                   S. cerevisiae 
                 
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 ScADH2 
                 SEQ ID NO: 89 
                 ADH 
                 SEQ ID NO: 169 
                 
                   S. cerevisiae 
                 
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 ScPDC1 
                 SEQ ID NO: 90 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 170 
                 
                   S. cerevisiae 
                 
               
               
                 1-butanol 
                 CaPDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 91 
                 KDC 
                 SEQ ID NO: 171 
                 
                   C. acetobutylicum 
                 
               
               
                 Fatty alcohol 
                 FAR 
                 SEQ ID NO: 65 
                 FAR 
                 SEQ ID NO: 66 
                 
                   M. algicola 
                 
               
               
                 Fatty acid ester 
                 Ab-wax-dgaT 
                 SEQ ID NO: 67 
                 wax-dgaT 
                 SEQ ID NO: 68 
                 
                   A. baylyi 
                 
               
               
                 Fatty acid ester 
                 Psyc_0223 
                 SEQ ID NO: 69 
                 PaWES 
                 SEQ ID NO: 70 
                 
                   P. arcticus 
                 
               
               
                 Fatty acid ester 
                 ROP_02100 
                 SEQ ID NO: 71 
                 RoWES1 
                 SEQ ID NO: 72 
                 
                   R. opacus 
                 
               
               
                 Fatty acid ester 
                 ROP_13050 
                 SEQ ID NO: 73 
                 RoWES2 
                 SEQ ID NO: 74 
                 
                   R. opacus 
                 
               
               
                 Fatty acid ester 
                 ROP_54550 
                 SEQ ID NO: 75 
                 RoWES3 
                 SEQ ID NO: 76 
                 
                   R. opacus 
                 
               
               
                 Fatty acid ester 
                 ROP_26950 
                 SEQ ID NO: 77 
                 RoWES4 
                 SEQ ID NO: 78 
                 
                   R. opacus 
                 
               
               
                 2,3-butanediol 
                 YAL060W 
                 SEQ ID NO: 156 
                 Bdh1 
                 SEQ ID NO: 157 
                 
                   S. cerevisiae 
                 
               
               
                 RuMP 
                 MCA3049 
                 SEQ ID NO: 160 
                 HPS 
                 SEQ ID NO: 161 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                 RuMP 
                 MCA3050 
                 SEQ ID NO: 162 
                 HPS/PHI 
                 SEQ ID NO: 163 
                   M. capsulatus , Bath 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Plasmid, Primer, Promoter and Gene Fragment 
               
               
                 Sequences Described in the Invention 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Name 
                 Nucleic acid SEQ ID 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 pCM132 
                 SEQ ID NO: 79 
               
               
                   
                 pJSvec 
                 SEQ ID NO: 80 
               
               
                   
                 pMZT3 
                 SEQ ID NO: 81 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00082 
                 SEQ ID NO: 92 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00031 
                 SEQ ID NO: 93 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00032 
                 SEQ ID NO: 94 
               
               
                   
                 GMV257 
                 SEQ ID NO: 95 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00118 
                 SEQ ID NO: 96 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00119 
                 SEQ ID NO: 97 
               
               
                   
                 ESG00087 
                 SEQ ID NO: 98 
               
               
                   
                 GMV251 
                 SEQ ID NO: 99 
               
               
                   
                 rnpB 
                 SEQ ID NO: 100 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00161 
                 SEQ ID NO: 101 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00162 
                 SEQ ID NO: 102 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00163 
                 SEQ ID NO: 103 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00164 
                 SEQ ID NO: 104 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00172 
                 SEQ ID NO: 105 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00173 
                 SEQ ID NO: 106 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00174 
                 SEQ ID NO: 107 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00176 
                 SEQ ID NO: 108 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00177 
                 SEQ ID NO: 109 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00157 
                 SEQ ID NO: 110 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00178 
                 SEQ ID NO: 111 
               
               
                   
                 Me-AM1 PmxaF 
                 SEQ ID NO: 112 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00169 
                 SEQ ID NO: 113 
               
               
                   
                 GMV00251 
                 SEQ ID NO: 114 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00170 
                 SEQ ID NO: 115 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00171 
                 SEQ ID NO: 116 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00153 
                 SEQ ID NO: 117 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00151 
                 SEQ ID NO: 118 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00154 
                 SEQ ID NO: 119 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00183 
                 SEQ ID NO: 120 
               
               
                   
                 JPS00185 
                 SEQ ID NO: 121 
               
               
                   
                 J23100 
                 SEQ ID NO: 122 
               
               
                   
                 J23100 hybrid 
                 SEQ ID NO: 123 
               
               
                   
                 J23115 
                 SEQ ID NO: 124 
               
               
                   
                 GMV00233 
                 SEQ ID NO: 125 
               
               
                   
                 GMV00235 
                 SEQ ID NO: 126 
               
               
                   
                 GMV00433 
                 SEQ ID NO: 127 
               
               
                   
                 GMV00434 
                 SEQ ID NO: 128 
               
               
                   
                 GMV00435 
                 SEQ ID NO: 129 
               
               
                   
                 GMV00436 
                 SEQ ID NO: 130 
               
               
                   
                 GMV00437 
                 SEQ ID NO: 131 
               
               
                   
                 GMV00438 
                 SEQ ID NO: 132 
               
               
                   
                 GMV00439 
                 SEQ ID NO: 133 
               
               
                   
                 GMV00440 
                 SEQ ID NO: 134 
               
               
                   
                 GMV00441 
                 SEQ ID NO: 135 
               
               
                   
                 GMV00442 
                 SEQ ID NO: 136 
               
               
                   
                 ESG00084 
                 SEQ ID NO: 137 
               
               
                   
                 ESG00088 
                 SEQ ID NO: 138 
               
               
                   
                 pMZT37 
                 SEQ ID NO: 139 
               
               
                   
                 MaFAR-g1 
                 SEQ ID NO: 140 
               
               
                   
                 MaFAR-g2 
                 SEQ ID NO: 141 
               
               
                   
                 MaFAR-g3 
                 SEQ ID NO: 142 
               
               
                   
                 MaFAR-g4 
                 SEQ ID NO: 143 
               
               
                   
                 GMV410 
                 SEQ ID NO: 144 
               
               
                   
                 GMV411 
                 SEQ ID NO: 145 
               
               
                   
                 GMV412 
                 SEQ ID NO: 146 
               
               
                   
                 GMV413 
                 SEQ ID NO: 147 
               
               
                   
                 GMV414 
                 SEQ ID NO: 148 
               
               
                   
                 GMV415 
                 SEQ ID NO: 149 
               
               
                   
                 GMV416 
                 SEQ ID NO: 150 
               
               
                   
                 GMV417 
                 SEQ ID NO: 151 
               
               
                   
                 GMV418 
                 SEQ ID NO: 152 
               
               
                   
                 GMV419 
                 SEQ ID NO: 153 
               
               
                   
                 GMV420 
                 SEQ ID NO: 154 
               
               
                   
                 GMV421 
                 SEQ ID NO: 155 
               
               
                   
                 GMV422 
                 SEQ ID NO: 158 
               
               
                   
                 GMV423 
                 SEQ ID NO: 159 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     EXAMPLES 
     The present invention is further defined in the following Examples. It should be understood that these examples, while indicating certain embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only. From the above discussion and these Examples, one skilled in the art can ascertain the essential characteristics of this invention, and without departing from the spirit and scope thereof, can make various changes and modifications of the invention to adapt it to various uses and conditions. 
     Example 1 
     Biosynthetic Production of Isobutanol from Methane 
     Initial experiments were performed to confirm and validate enzymatic activity of isobutanol pathway enzymes at the relatively high temperatures (i.e., 45° C.) requisite for growth of one preferred methanotroph host organism,  Methylococcus capsulatus  (Bath). Thus, in this example, the methanotroph  M. capsulatus  was engineered in the first series of experiments to overexpress two isobutanol pathway enzymes, ketoacid decarboxylase (KDC) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), prior to introducing the full complement of five isobutanol pathway enzymes (Atsumi et al., 2010) into  M. capsulatus . Following the functional validation of KDC and ADH activity in  M. capsulatus  (set forth below), the complete five-gene isobutanol pathway was introduced into  M. capsulatus , the results of which are set forth below. 
     Gene Selection, Synthesis and Cloning 
     For the two-gene (isobutanol) pathway experiments (and for the downstream section of the five-gene isobutanol pathway set forth below), ketoacid decarboxylase (KDC) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) genes were amplified by colony PCR from  Methylosinus trichosporium  (strain: OB3b, National Collection of Industrial, Food and Marine Bacteria (NCIMB) Accession No: 11131) and  Methylococcus capsulatus  (Bath). The  Methylosinus trichosporium  gene, MtKDC, encoding KDC is set forth in SEQ ID NO:82,  Methylosinus trichosporium  gene, MtADH, encoding ADH is set forth in SEQ ID NO:83. The  Methylococcus capsulatus  (Bath) gene, McKDC, encoding KDC is set forth in SEQ ID NO:7, the  Methylococcus capsulatus  (Bath) genes, McADH-2a and McADH-2b, encoding two ADH2 homologs, are set forth in SEQ ID NO:84 and SEQ ID NO:85, respectively. 
     Other KDC and ADH genes such as L1KIVD:  Lactococcus lactis  KDC (SEQ ID NO:86); ScPDC6:  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  PDC6 (SEQ ID NO:87); ScARO10:  S. cerevisiae  AR010 (SEQ ID NO:88); ScADH2:  S. cerevisiae  ADH2 (SEQ ID NO:89); ScPDC1:  S. cerevisiae  PDC1 (SEQ ID NO:90); CaPDC:  Clostridium acetobutylicum  PDC (SEQ ID NO:91) were codon optimized for expression in  M. capsulatus  and de novo synthesized by GenScript (Piscataway, N.J.). Various KDC and ADH combinations were cloned with a constitutive promoter (J23115) or inducible (Ptrc) promoter into plasmid pCM132 (Accession No. AF327720; SEQ ID NO:79) with the Clontech In-Fusion kit (Mountain View, Calif.). A gene for the ds-Red protein was used as a control. Plasmids were transformed into  E. coli S 17-1 for conjugation. 
     Vector Inserts 
     Vector inserts contain the DNA fragments that are to be carried in the plasmid. The vector inserts were designed as exchangeable parts to the vector backbone described above. In one embodiment of the 2-gene pathway example, the plasmids were designed to contain two inserts made up of  Methylococcus capsulatus  KDC (MCA0996; SEQ ID NO:7) and  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  ADH6 (YMR318C; SEQ ID NO:9) genes. Both genes were amplified from genomic DNA of their respective hosts, with the primers described above in Tables 2 and below in Table 3. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Plasmid insert modules, templates and primers 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Modules 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Plasmid 
                 PCR rxn:  
                 Vector Backbone 
                 Insert 1 
                 Insert 2 
                 Insert3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 pJS0025 
                 template 
                 pJSvec 
                 MCA0996 ( M.   
                 YMR318C ( S.   
                 — 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   capsulatus  DNA) 
                   cerevisiae  DNA) 
                   
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 JPS0082 
                 JPS0032 
                 JPS00118 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 JPS0031 
                 GMV00257 
                 JPS00119 
                 — 
               
               
                 pGMV145 
                 template 
                 pMZT3 
                 MCA0996 ( M.   
                 YMR318C ( S.   
                 — 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   capsulatus  DNA) 
                   cerevisiae  DNA) 
                   
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 JPS0082 
                 GMV00251 
                 JPS00118 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00087 
                 GMV00257 
                 JPS00119 
                 — 
               
               
                 pJS034 
                 template 
                 pGMV145 
                 IDT gBlock 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 synthesized rnpB DNA 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 JPS00161 
                 JPS00163 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 JPS00162 
                 JPS00164 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 pJS041 
                 template 
                 pJS034 
                 MCA1837 ( M.   
                 MCA2272 ( M.   
                 MCA2082 
               
               
                 pJS041n 
                   
                   
                   capsulatus  DNA) 
                   capsulatus  DNA) 
                 ( M.   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   capsulatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DNA) 
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 JPS00162 
                 JPS00173 
                 JPS00176 
                 JPS00157 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 JPS00172 
                 JPS00174 
                 JPS00177 
                 JPS00178 
               
               
                 pJS048 
                 template 
                 pJS034 
                 IDT gBlock 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 synthesized Me-AM1 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 PmxaF DNA 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 JPS00169 
                 JPS00170 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 GMV251 
                 JPS00171 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 pJS038 
                 template 
                 pGMV145 
                 MCA1837 ( M.   
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   capsulatus  DNA) 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 JPS00153 
                 JPS00151 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 GMV251 
                 JPS00154 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 pJS042 
                 template 
                 pJS048 
                 pJS038 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 pJS042n 
                 primer 1 
                 JPS00162 
                 JPS00173 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 JPS00172 
                 JPS00178 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 pJS050 
                 template 
                 pJS041n 
                 pJS041n 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 JPS00183 
                 JPS00174 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 JPS00176 
                 JPS00185 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The modular parts (i.e., vector backbone and vector inserts) were PCR amplified (as listed in Table 3) with NEB Phusion master mix (New England Biolabs; Ipswich, Mass.) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions and in vitro assembled with the Clontech InFusion HD Cloning System kit (Clontech; Mountain View, Calif.) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions to generate circular plasmid listed below. 
     The in vitro assembled plasmids (2 μl of the InFusion reaction) were transformed into chemically competent NEB Turbo  E. coli  cells, screened by colony PCR, purified, and subsequently sequence verified. 
     The plasmid pJSvec (SEQ ID NO:80) served as the template for the vector backbone with an inducible promoter and consisted of the pCM132 cloning vector (SEQ ID NO:79), lacIq, and the IPTG-inducible pTrc promoter. 
     The plasmid pMZT3 (SEQ ID NO:81) served as the template for the vector backbone with a constitutive promoter and consisted of the pCM132 (SEQ ID NO:79) cloning vector and  E. coli  J23115 promoter (SEQ ID NO:124). 
     The plasmid pJS0025 was designed to express  M. capsulatus  KDC (MCA0996; SEQ ID NO:7) and  S. cerevisiae  ADH6 (YMR 318C; SEQ ID NO:9) from the inducible promoter. 
     The plasmid pGMV145 was designed to express  M. capsulatus  KDC (MCA0996; SEQ ID NO:7) and  S. cerevisiae  ADH6 (YMR 318C; SEQ ID NO:9) from the constitutive promoter. 
     The plasmid pJS034 introduced a second terminator sequence into pGMV145. The pGMV145 vector backbone was PCR amplified with primers JPS00161 (SEQ ID NO:101)/JPS00162 (SEQ ID NO:102) and KOD mastermix. The insert contained DNA sequence for rnpB (SEQ ID NO:100) synthesized as a gBlock from Integrated DNA Technologies (Coralville, Iowa) and amplified with JPS00163 (SEQ ID NO:103)/JPS00164 (SEQ ID NO:104) primers. 
     Expression of the Full Five-Gene Pathway for Methane-to-Isobutanol Conversion 
     In order to synthesize isobutanol from methane (i.e., via pyruvate), without the need to exogenously supply a ketoacid intermediate, the pJS041 and pJS041n plasmids were designed to express all five isobutanol pathway genes: (1)  M. capsulatus  KDC (MCA0996; SEQ ID NO:7) and (2)  S. cerevisiae  ADH6 (YMR318C; SEQ ID NO:9) from the J23115 constitutive promoter (SEQ ID NO:124), and (3)  M. capsulatus  ilvK (MCA1837; SEQ ID NO:1), (4)  M. capsulatus  ilvC (MCA2272; SEQ ID NO:3), and (5)  M. capsulatus  ilvD (MCA2082; SEQ ID NO:5) from the J23100 constitutive promoter (see,  FIG. 3 ). Plasmid pJS041n contains the canonical J23100 promoter sequence (5′-TTGACGGCTAGCTCAGTCCTAGGTACAGTGCTAGC-3′; SEQ ID NO:122), and plasmid pJS041 contains a modified J23100 promoter sequence (5′-TTGACGGCTAGCTCAGCCCTTGGTACAATGCTAGC-3′; SEQ ID NO:123), which represents a hybrid fusion of the J23100 and J23115 (SEQ ID NO:124) promoters that arose during the process of cloning and generating the plasmid in  E. coli  (Table 3). This mutated construct was retained and tested to see whether the promoter mutations might impart improved production of isobutanol in the microbial expression host (e.g.,  M. capsulatus  (Bath)). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Sequence comparison between the 
               
               
                 “hybrid” promoters in plasmids  
               
               
                 pJS041 and pJS042 and the canonical 
               
               
                 promoters J23115 and J23100 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 J23115 
                 TTTATAGCTAGCTCAGCC  
               
               
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO: 124) 
                 CTTGGTACAATGCTAGC 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 pJS041-hybrid 
                 TTGACGGCTAGCTCAGCC  
               
               
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO: 123)  
                 CTTGGTACAATGCTAGC 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 J23100 
                 TTGACGGCTAGCTCAGTC  
               
               
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO: 122) 
                 CTAGGTACAGTGCTAGC 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The pJS048 plasmid replaced the J23100 promoter with the MxaF promoter (SEQ ID NO:112) from  Methlyobacterium extorquens  AM-1 in pJS034. 
     The pJS050 plasmid was designed to express five genes:  M. capsulatus  KDC (MCA0996; SEQ ID NO:7) and  S. cerevisiae  ADH6 (YMR318C; SEQ ID NO:9) from the J23115 constitutive promoter and  M. capsulatus  ilvK (MCA1837; SEQ ID NO:1),  M. capsulatus  ilvC (MCA2272; SEQ ID NO:3), and  M. capsulatus  ilvD (MCA2082; SEQ ID NO:5) from the J23115 constitutive promoter. 
     Conjugations 
     The method for conjugal transfer of RP4-mob-containing plasmids into  M. trichosporium  and  M. capsulatus  (Bath) was based on the method described previously (Martin &amp; Murrell, 1995; Stafford et. al., 2003). Briefly, 10 ml of a 16 hour culture of  E. coli S 17-1 carrying the plasmid was collected on a sterile 47 mm, 0.2 μm pore-size, nitrocellulose filter (Millipore). The cells were washed with 50 ml NMS medium without antibiotic. A fresh 50 ml culture of the  M. trichosporium  or  M. capsulatus  (Bath) recipient grown to an optical density (A 540 ) of 0.2-0.4 (mid-exponential phase of growth) was collected on the same filter as the  E. coli  S17-1 host cells. The cells were washed with 50 ml NMS and the filter was placed on an NMS agar plate supplemented with 0.02% (w/v) Proteose Peptone (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, Mich.) and incubated for 24 hours at 30° C. (for  M. trichosporium ) or 37° C. ( M. capsulatus  (Bath)) in the presence of 20-25% methane (CH 4 ) (v/v) in air. After incubation, the cells from the conjugation plate were washed from the filter with 10 ml of NMS, pelleted by centrifugation at 7,000×g, and re-suspended in 1 ml of NMS. 150 μl aliquots were spread onto selective NMS plates containing 10 μg/ml nalidixic acid to select against  E. coli  and 15 μg/ml kanamycin for plasmid selection and incubated at 30° C. or 45° C. for  M. trichosporium  or  M. capsulatus , respectively. The remaining cells were grown in NMS liquid containing 10 μg/ml nalidixic acid and 15 μg/ml kanamycin (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.) as a secondary selection process. Cells grown in liquid selection were serially passaged three times, before spreading onto selective NMS plates for clone isolation. 
       M. capsulatus  Growth Conditions 
     From a saturated starter culture,  M. capsulatus  (Bath) cells were diluted 1:100 into 10 ml of fresh NMS containing 15 μg/ml kanamycin in a 125-ml shake flask. For ketoacid feeding experiments, cultures were treated with 1 g/L 2-ketovalerate (CAS #1821-02-9) or 8 g/L 2-ketoisovalerate (CAS #3715-19-5) with or without the inducer, 0.1 mM isopropylthiogalactoside (IPTG). The flasks were closed with Suba-seals, injected with 20-25% CH 4  (v/v) in air, and incubated at 45° C. for 0-120 hours. 
     Extraction of Alcohols from the Growth Medium 
     1. Isobutanol production: The shake-flask samples were prepared for extraction by cooling them on ice for 1 hour, which ensures that the volatile organic compounds (VOC&#39;s) in the vapor phase were not lost to the atmosphere after the Suba-seal is opened. 
     2. If extracting from a 9-10 ml culture, all of the culture was transferred to a 50 ml tube. For samples with high isobutanol productions (e.g., pGMV 145), 10 ml of ethyl acetate was added for extraction. For samples with low isobutanol production, only 3 ml of ethyl acetate was used. Once ethyl acetate was added to the cultures, they were subjected to either vortexing (1-2 minutes) or shaking at room temperature (for 1 hour) for efficient extraction. 
     3. The tubes were then centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 20 minutes in an Eppendorf 5810 centrifuge equipped with an A-4-81 rotor. 
     4. One (1) ml of the organic layer was then filtered (0.2 μm PTFE membrane) and transferred to 2 ml glass Agilent gas chromatography vials for analysis. 
     GC-FID Analysis for Isobutanol 
     The extracted alcohol compounds were quantified with the Agilent 7890A gas chromatograph (GC) with flame ionization detector and PAL auto-sampler. An HP InnoWax capillary column (30 m, 0.32-mm internal diameter, 0.25-mm film thickness; Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, Calif.) was used to separate the alcohols. The GC oven temperature was initially set at 35° C. for 1 minute and ramped at rate of 10° C./minute until 85° C. was reached and held for 1 minute. A second temperature ramp of 80° C./minute up to 240° C. was performed and held for 2 minutes. Hydrogen gas was the carrier gas used with 9.3 psi constant inlet pressure. The inlet and detector were maintained at 240° C. A 1 μl sample was injected in split injection mode with a 25:1 split ratio. 
     When the two-gene KDC/ADH pathway was expressed in  M. capsulatus  and the isobutanol production was measured (using exogenous 2-KIV feeding), the following results were observed. A concentration of 2-KIV greater than about 4 g/L had a toxic effect on growth, wherein a 2-KIV concentration of about 2 g/L yielded the best results ( FIG. 4 ). Peak isobutanol production occurred about 48-72 hours after 2-KIV feeding ( FIG. 5 ).  E. coli  promoters function in  M. capsulatus , but not equally well. Constitutive promoters yielded better results than inducible promoters, but the optimal constitutive promoter will typically depend on the individual construct to be used. For example, J23115 was observed to work best for  M. capsulatus  KDC and  M. capsulatus  ADH (data not shown). Lastly, different host strains require slightly different concentrations of 2-KIV to maximize isobutanol production. 
     The best two-gene combination with a constitutive promoter (J23115; SEQ ID NO:124) was  M. capsulatus  KDC and  S. cerevisiae  ADH6 (plasmid pGMV145), wherein harvesting after 48-72 hours produced the most isobutanol ( FIG. 7 ). The vector construct using pGMV145, having constitutive promoter J23115, a CapKDC gene (MCA0996; SEQ ID NO:7), and a ScADH6 gene (YMR318C; SEQ ID NO:9), produced the most isobutanol after 2-KIV feeding, which was about 3 mM (or about 0.22 g/L). 
     When the complete five-gene isobutanol pathway was introduced into a host strain, plasmid pJS041 yielded the highest levels of isobutanol production, with a measured titer of about 0.001 g/liter ( FIG. 7 ), compared to no detectable production in the wild-type strain. 
     In certain embodiments, the production of isobutanol from methane substrate in a host strain (i.e., expressing the five-gene isobutanol pathway, e.g. via plasmid pJS041) is further optimized by genetic manipulations described above, as well as by cultivating the host strain in a fermentor culture with continuous CH 4  perfusion, instead of batch addition of CH 4  to the culture medium (as was done for the shake flasks experiments). In other embodiments, the production of increased isobutanol titers from methane in a host strain is further optimized via manipulations to the fermentation process (batch fed or perfusion), such as feeding additional media components as they are depleted (phosphate, nitrate, etc.) and maintaining the pH by continuously adding acid or base. 
     Example 2 
     Biosynthetic Production of 1-Butanol from Methane 
     A ketoacid pathway analogous to that described in Example 1, but designed to produce 1-butanol (n-butanol) is engineered in a single carbon (C1) metabolizing microbial host, such as  M. capsulatus  (Bath). In this example, L-threonine (which is ultimately generated from methane via phospoenolpyruvate) is first de-aminated to 2-ketobutyrate (2-oxobutanoate) by the action of threonine dehydratase (also referred to in the art as threonine ammonia-lyase (EC 4.3.1.19) encoded by the genes ilvA or tdcB) (Shen &amp; Liao, 2008). The tdcB gene product has the biotechnological advantage that the enzyme is a catabolic enzyme, and is not feedback inhibited by L-valine or L-isoleucine (Guillouet et al., 1999). 
     In the second reaction step, the reaction catalyzed by leuA (encoding isopropylmalate synthase/2-ethylmalate synthase (EC 2.3.3.6)) combines 2-ketobutyrate, acetyl-CoA, and H 2 O to create (R)-2-ethylmalate. In the third reaction step, the gene product of leuC and leuD (encoding the two subunits of isopropylmalate isomerase) converts 2-ethylmalate into 3-ethylmalate. In the fourth reaction step, the gene product of leuB (encoding the enzyme 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase) converts 3-ethylmalate into 2-ketovalerate). At this stage, the same two enzymes used in the previous example, KDC (acting as a 2-ketovalerate decarboxylase) and ADH2 (alcohol dehydrogenase), are used to convert 2-ketovalerate into 1-butanol. 
     An alternate pathway (the citramalate pathway) from phosphoenolpyruvate and pyruvate to 2-ketobutyrate has also been described for making 1-butanol (Atsumi &amp; Liao, 2008). 
     As described, above, the plasmids generated in this study are based on the broad-host-range pCM132 (Accession No. AF327720, SEQ ID NO:79) cloning vector described by Marx &amp; Lidstrom (2001). In this embodiment, the use of the Clontech (catalog no. 639647) InFusion HD Cloning System kit is one example of how to construct plasmids, but is not meant to limit or exclude other methods that are known in the art. 
     Vector Backbones 
     Vector backbones contain the components of the plasmid that will remain constant. The broad-host range pCM132 vector was modified to produce vector backbones for the plasmids in this study. The pCM132 vector consisted of the following components: trrnB terminator, kanamycin resistance gene, trfA, IncP oriT, IncP oriV, colE1 ori, and lacZ. This parental vector was modified to replace lacZ with a vector insert that contains promoter sequence to produce plasmids pMZT3 (SEQ ID NO:81) and pMZT37 (SEQ ID NO:139). 
     Vector Inserts 
     Vector inserts contain DNA to be added to a vector backbone. The inserts were designed as exchangeable (modular) parts to the vector and in this example consist of  Methylococcus capsulatus  KDC (MCA0996; SEQ ID NO:7), leuA (MCA2275; SEQ ID NO:57), leuCDB (MCA2063; SEQ ID NO:63, MCA2064; SEQ ID NO:61 and MCA2065; SEQ ID NO:59),  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  ADH6 (YMR318C; SEQ ID NO:9), and  M. capsulatus  ilvA (MCA0354; SEQ ID NO:55) or  E. coli  tdcB (SEQ ID NO:160) genes. The genes were amplified from genomic DNA of their respective hosts with the primers described in Table 5. 
     The modular parts (vector backbone and vector insert) were PCR amplified as listed in Table 4 with NEB Phusion master mix according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions and in vitro assembled with the Clontech InFusion HD Cloning System kit according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions to generate circular plasmid. The in vitro assembled plasmids (2 ul of the InFusion reaction) were transformed into chemically competent NEB Turbo  E. coli  cells, screened for by colony PCR, purified, and subsequently sequence verified. 
     The pGMV145 plasmid was designed to express  M. capsulatus  KDC (MCA0996; SEQ ID NO:7) and  S. cerevisiae  ADH6 (YMR318C; SEQ ID NO:9) from the constitutive promoter. 
     The pJS034 plasmid introduced a second terminator sequence into pGMV145. The pGMV145 vector backbone was PCR amplified with primers JPS00161 (SEQ ID NO:101)/JPS00162 (SEQ ID NO:102) and KOD mastermix. The insert was rnpB DNA synthesized as a gBlock from IDT and amplified with JPS00163 (SEQ ID NO:103)/JPS00164 (SEQ ID NO:104) primers. 
     The pGMV165 plasmid was designed to express 3 genes:  M. capsulatus  ilvA (MCA0354; SEQ ID NO:55),  M. capsulatus  KDC (MCA0996; SEQ ID NO:7) and  S. cerevisiae  ADH6 (YMR318C; SEQ ID NO:9) from the J23115 (SEQ ID NO:124) constitutive promoter. 
     The pGMV166 plasmid was designed to express 3 genes:  E. coli  tdcB (SEQ ID NO:160),  M. capsulatus  KDC (MCA0996; SEQ ID NO:7) and  S. cerevisiae  ADH6 (YMR318C; SEQ ID NO:9) from the J23115 (SEQ ID NO:124) constitutive promoter. 
     The pGMV167 plasmid was designed to express 7 genes:  M. capsulatus  ilvA (MCA0354; SEQ ID NO:55),  M. capsulatus  KDC (MCA0996; SEQ ID NO:7) and  S. cerevisiae  ADH6 (YMR318C; SEQ ID NO:9) from the J23115 (SEQ ID NO:124) constitutive promoter and  M. capsulatus  leuCDB (MCA2063; SEQ ID NO:63, MCA2064; SEQ ID NO:61 and MCA2065; SEQ ID NO:59) and  M. capsulatus  leuA (MCA2275; SEQ ID NO:57) from second J23115 (SEQ ID NO:124) constitutive promoter. 
     The pGMV168 plasmid was designed to express 7 genes:  E. coli  tdcB (SEQ ID NO:160),  M. capsulatus  KDC (MCA0996; SEQ ID NO:7) and  S. cerevisiae  ADH6 (YMR318C; SEQ ID NO:9) from the J23115 constitutive promoter and  M. capsulatus  leuCDB (MCA2063; SEQ ID NO:63, MCA2064; SEQ ID NO:61 and MCA2065; SEQ ID NO:59) and leuA (MCA2275; SEQ ID NO:57) from a second J23115 constitutive promoter. 
     Host strains modified with these plasmids were grown on methane as described in the examples above, harvested, extracted, and analyzed for 1-butanol production. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Insert Modules, Templates and Primers for 1-Butanol Production 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Modules 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 PCR 
                 Vector 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Plasmid 
                 rxn:  
                 backbone 
                 Insert 1 
                 Insert 2 
                 Insert3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 pGMV145 
                 template 
                 pMZT3 
                 MCA0996 ( M.   
                 YMR318C ( S.   
                 — 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   capsulatus  DNA) 
                   cerevisiae  DNA) 
                   
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 JPS0082 
                 GMV00251 
                 JPS00118 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00087 
                 GMV00257 
                 JPS00119 
                 — 
               
               
                 pJS034 
                 template 
                 pGMV145 
                 IDT gBlock 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 synthesized rnpB 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 DNA 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 JPS00161 
                 JPS00163 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 JPS00162 
                 JPS00164 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 pGMV165 
                 template 
                 pJS034 
                 pJS034 
                 MCA0354 ( M.   
                 — 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   capsulatus  DNA) 
                   
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 GMV435 
                 GMV433 
                 GMV431 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG000087 
                 GMV434 
                 GMV432 
                 — 
               
               
                 pGMV166 
                 template 
                 pJS034 
                 pJS034 
                 tdcB ( E. coli  DNA) 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 GMV435 
                 GMV433 
                 GMV436 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG000087 
                 GMV434 
                 GMV437 
                 — 
               
               
                 pGMV167 
                 template 
                 pGMV165 
                 pGMV165 
                 MCA2063-2065 ( M.   
                 MCA2275 ( M.   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   capsulatus  DNA) 
                 
                   capsulatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DNA) 
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 JPS163 
                 GMV235 
                 GMV439 
                 GMV441 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 GMV233 
                 GMV438 
                 GMV440 
                 GMV442 
               
               
                 pGMV168 
                 template 
                 pGMV166 
                 pGMV166 
                 MCA2063-2065 ( M.   
                 MCA2275 ( M.   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   capsulatus  DNA) 
                 
                   capsulatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 DNA) 
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 JPS163 
                 GMV235 
                 GMV439 
                 GMV441 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 GMV233 
                 GMV438 
                 GMV440 
                 GMV442 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 3 
     Biosynthetic Production of Fatty Alcohols from Methane 
     Conversion of methane to diesel components requires engineering the native metabolism of methanotrophs. The two principal native pathways that can be engineered for increased production of diesel components are the fatty acid pathway and isoprenoid pathway. In the current example, the invention describes the use of the fatty acid pathway for synthesis of diesel (wax ester) components. 
     Fatty acids are an important source of energy and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for many cellular organisms. Excess fatty acids, glucose, and other nutrients can be stored efficiently as fat. All cell membranes are built up of phospholipids, each of which contains fatty acids. Fatty acids are also used for protein modification. Fatty acid synthesis is the creation of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA precursors through action of enzymes called fatty acid synthases. Fatty acid chain length and degree of saturation depends on the host microorganism. With regard to  M. capsulatus  (Bath), the primary fatty acids are C16 with saturated or mono unsaturated carbon chains. 
     The conversion of methane to diesel components requires the over-expression of specific heterologous (exogenous) enzymes within a methanotroph (or non-methanotroph) host microorganism, wherein the over-expression of specific heterologous (exogenous) enzymes can divert the flux from native fatty acid synthesis to compounds of interest. Key intermediates of the fatty acid pathway are the fatty acyl-ACP molecules. Thus, the over-expression of specific heterologous enzymes in a host microorganism divert the flux from acyl-ACP to diesel components such as fatty acids, fatty alcohols, fatty esters and derivatives thereof. Thus, in certain embodiments, a host microorganism has been engineered to over-express specific enzymes such as a fatty acyl ACP reductase (FAR), a fatty acyl CoA reductase (CAR) and wax ester synthases (WES) for diverting flux from native compounds to compounds of interest. Active expression of these enzymes results in the conversion of methane to diesel components via FARs, CARs and WES enzymes cloned and expressed in a host microorganism (e.g.,  M. capsulatus  (Bath)). 
     A biosynthetic pathway analogous to that described in Example 1, but designed to produce fatty alcohols can be engineered in a (C1) metabolizing host microorganism, such as  M. capsulatus . In this example, fatty acyl-CoA (which is ultimately generated from methane via pyruvate) is converted directly into fatty alcohols by the heterologous overexpression of a fatty-acyl-CoA reductase (FAR). 
     Construction of Methanotroph Plasmids for Fatty Alcohol Production 
     As described, above, the plasmids generated in this study are based on the broad-host-range pCM132 (Accession No. AF327720) cloning vector (SEQ ID NO:79) described by Marx &amp; Lidstrom (2001). In this embodiment, the use of the Clontech (catalog no. 639647) InFusion HD Cloning System kit is one example of how to construct plasmids, but is not meant to limit or exclude other methods that are known in the art. 
     Vector Backbones 
     Vector backbones contain the components of the plasmid that will remain constant. The broad-host range pCM132 vector was modified to produce vector backbones for the plasmids in this study. The pCM132 vector consisted of the following components: trrnB terminator, kanamycin resistance gene, trfA, IncP oriT, IncP oriV, colE1 ori, and lacZ. This parental vector was modified to replace lacZ with a vector insert that contains promoter sequence to produce plasmids pMZT3 (SEQ ID NO:81) and pMZT37 (SEQ ID NO:139). 
     Vector Inserts 
     Vector inserts contain DNA to be added to the vector backbone. The inserts were designed as exchangeable (modular) parts to the vector and in this embodiment consist of the following components. In this example, the plasmids were designed to contain one insert:  Marinobacter algicola  fatty acid reductase (MaFAR; SEQ ID NO:65), also known as a fatty acyl-CoA reductase. The MaFAR gene was codon optimized and synthesized as a series of 4 gBlocks from Integrated DNA Technologies (Coralville, Iowa). The synthesized DNA was designed to include pivot regions to allow proper assembly by InFusion. 
     Assembly of the Constructs 
     The modular parts (vector backbone and vector insert) were PCR amplified as listed in Table 4 with NEB Phusion master mix according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions and in vitro assembled with the Clontech InFusion HD Cloning System kit according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions to generate circular plasmid. The in vitro assembled plasmids (2 μl of the InFusion reaction) were transformed into chemically competent NEB Turbo  E. coli  cells, screened for by colony PCR, purified, and subsequently sequence verified. 
     Plasmid pMZT3 (SEQ ID NO:81) served as the template for the vector backbone with a constitutive promoter and consisted of the pCM132 cloning vector,  E. coli  J23115 promoter. The vector backbone was PCR amplified from the pMZT3 template with primers ESG00084 (SEQ ID NO:137)/ESG00087 (SEQ ID NO:98). 
     Plasmid pMZT37 (SEQ ID NO:139) served as the template for the vector backbone with a constitutive promoter and consisted of the pCM132 cloning vector,  E. coli  J23100 promoter. The vector backbone was PCR amplified from the pMZT3 template with primers ESG00084 (SEQ ID NO:137)/ESG00088 (SEQ ID NO:138). 
     The pGMV147 plasmid was designed to express  M. algicola  FAR gene (SEQ ID NO:65) from the J23115 constitutive promoter (SEQ ID NO:124). The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and four synthesized DNA gene fragments from IDT (MaFAR-g1; SEQ ID NO:140, MaFAR-g2; SEQ ID NO:141, MaFAR-g3; SEQ ID NO:142 and MaFAR-g4; SEQ ID NO:143). 
     The pGMV148 plasmid was designed to express  M. algicola  FAR gene (SEQ ID NO:65) from the J23110 constitutive promoter (SEQ ID NO:122). The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT37 vector backbone and four synthesized DNA gene fragments from IDT (MaFAR-g1; SEQ ID NO:140, MaFAR-g2; SEQ ID NO:141, MaFAR-g3; SEQ ID NO:142 and MaFAR-g4; SEQ ID NO:143). 
     Gas chromatography results after various host strains were grown on methane in shake flasks, extracted, and analyzed as described above, are set forth in  FIG. 8 . The results indicate that the host strain containing plasmid pGMV148 produced C16:0 alcohol (a fatty alcohol) when grown on methane. The host strain containing plasmid pGMV147 produced only a trace amount of fatty alcohol. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Insert Modules, Templates and Primers for Fatty Alcohol Production 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Modules 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Plasmid 
                 PCR rxn: 
                 Vector backbone 
                 Insert 1 
                 Insert 2 
                 Insert 3 
                 Insert 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 pGMV147 
                 template 
                 pMZT3 
                 MaFAR-g1 
                 MaFAR-g2 
                 MaFAR-g3 
                 MaFAR-g4 
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00087 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                 pGMV148 
                 template 
                 pMZT37 
                 MaFAR-g1 
                 MaFAR-g2 
                 MaFAR-g3 
                 MaFAR-g4 
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00088 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
                 — 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 4 
     Biosynthetic Production of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters from METHANE 
     Construction of Methanotroph Plasmids for Fatty Acid Ester (Wax Ester) Production 
     The plasmids generated in this example are based on the broad-host-range pCM132 (Accession no. AF327720, SEQ ID NO: 79) cloning vector described by Marx &amp; Lidstrom (2001). In this embodiment, the use of the Clontech (catalogue no. 639647) InFusion HD Cloning System kit is one example of how to construct plasmids, but is not meant to limit or exclude other methods that are known in the art. 
     Vector Backbones 
     Vector backbones contain the components of the plasmid that will remain constant. The broad-host range pCM132 vector was modified to produce vector backbones for the plasmids in this study. The pCM132 vector consisted of the following components: trrnB terminator, kanamycin resistance gene, trfA, IncP oriT, IncP oriV, colE1 ori, and lacZ. This parental vector was modified to replace lacZ with a vector insert that contains promoter sequence to produce plasmids and pMZT3 and pMZT37. 
     Vector Inserts 
     Vector inserts contain DNA to be added to a vector backbone. The inserts were designed as exchangeable (modular) parts to the vector and in this embodiment consist of a wax ester synthase (WES) derived from  Acinetobacter  sp. ADP1 (SEQ ID NO:67),  Psychrobacter arcticum  273-4 (SEQ ID NO:69) or  Rhodococcus opcaus  B4 (SEQ ID NO:71, SEQ ID NO:73, SEQ ID NO:75 or SEQ ID NO:77). The WES genes were codon-optimized and synthesized by GenScript. 
     Assembly of the Constructs 
     The modular parts (vector backbone and vector insert) were PCR amplified as listed in Table 7 with NEB Phusion master mix according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions and in vitro assembled with the Clontech InFusion HD Cloning System kit according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions to generate circular plasmid. The in vitro assembled plasmids (2 ul of the InFusion reaction) were transformed into chemically competent NEB Turbo  E. coli  cells, screened for by colony PCR, purified, and subsequently sequence verified. 
     Plasmid pMZT3 (SEQ ID NO:81) served as the template for the vector backbone with a constitutive promoter and consisted of the pCM132 cloning vector,  E. coli  J23115 promoter. The vector backbone was PCR amplified from the pMZT3 template with primers ESG00084 (SEQ ID NO:137)/ESG00087 (SEQ ID NO:98). 
     Plasmid pMZT37 (SEQ ID NO:139) served as the template for the vector backbone with a constitutive promoter and consisted of the pCM132 cloning vector,  E. coli  J23100 promoter. The vector backbone was PCR amplified from the pMZT3 template with primers ESG00084 (SEQ ID NO:137)/ESG00088 (SEQ ID NO:138). 
     The pGMV153 plasmid was designed to express  Acinetobacter  sp. ADP1 WES gene (wax-dgaT; SEQ ID NO:67) from the J23115 constitutive promoter. The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and the codon-optimized synthesized gene. 
     The pGMV154 plasmid was designed to express  Psychrobacter arcticum  273-4 WES gene (Psyc_0223; SEQ ID NO:69) from the J23115 constitutive promoter. The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and the codon-optimized synthesized gene. 
     The pGMV155 plasmid was designed to express  Rhodococcus opcaus  B4 WES gene (ROP_02100; SEQ ID NO:71) from the J23115 constitutive promoter. The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and the codon-optimized synthesized gene. 
     The pGMV156 plasmid was designed to express  Rhodococcus opcaus  B4 WES gene (ROP_13050; SEQ ID NO:73) from the J23115 constitutive promoter. The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and the codon-optimized synthesized gene. 
     The pGMV157 plasmid was designed to express  Rhodococcus opcaus  B4 WS gene (ROP_26950; SEQ ID NO:77) from the J23115 constitutive promoter. The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and the codon-optimized synthesized gene. 
     The pGMV158 plasmid was designed to express  Rhodococcus opcaus  B4 WES gene (ROP_54550; SEQ ID NO:75) from the J23115 constitutive promoter. The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and the codon-optimized synthesized gene. 
     The pGMV159 plasmid was designed to express  Acinetobacter  sp. ADP1 WES gene (wax-dgaT; SEQ ID NO:67) from the J23100 constitutive promoter. The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and the codon-optimized synthesized gene. 
     The pGMV160 plasmid was designed to express  Psychrobacter arcticum  273-4 WES gene (Psyc_0223; SEQ ID NO:69) from the J23100 constitutive promoter. The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and the codon-optimized synthesized gene. 
     The pGMV161 plasmid was designed to express  Rhodococcus opcaus  B4 WES gene (ROP_02100; SEQ ID NO:71) from the J23100 constitutive promoter. The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and the codon-optimized synthesized gene. 
     The pGMV162 plasmid was designed to express  Rhodococcus opcaus  B4 WES gene (ROP_13050; SEQ ID NO:73) from the J23100 constitutive promoter. The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and the codon-optimized synthesized gene. 
     The pGMV163 plasmid was designed to express  Rhodococcus opcaus  B4 WES gene (ROP_26950; SEQ ID NO:77) from the J23100 constitutive promoter. The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and the codon-optimized synthesized gene. 
     The pGMV164 plasmid was designed to express  Rhodococcus opcaus  B4 WES gene (ROP_54550; SEQ ID NO:75) from the J23100 constitutive promoter. The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and the codon-optimized synthesized gene. 
     Strains modified with these plasmids are grown on methane as described in the examples above, harvested, extracted, and analyzed for fatty acid ester production. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Insert Modules, Templates and Primers for Fatty Acid Ester Production 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Modules 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 Vector 
                   
               
               
                 Plasmid 
                 PCR rxn:  
                 backbone 
                 Insert 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 template 
                 pMZT3 
                 pUC57-AbWS (WS-dgaT) 
               
               
                 pGMV153 
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 GMV410 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00087 
                 GMV416 
               
               
                 pGMV154 
                 template 
                 pMZT3 
                 pUC57-PaWS (Psyc_0223) 
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 GMV411 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00087 
                 GMV417 
               
               
                   
                 template 
                 pMZT3 
                 pUC57-RoWS (ROP_02100) 
               
               
                 pGMV155 
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 GMV412 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00087 
                 GMV418 
               
               
                 pGMV156 
                 template 
                 pMZT3 
                 pUC57-RoWS (ROP_13050) 
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 GMV413 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00087 
                 GMV419 
               
               
                   
                 template 
                 pMZT3 
                 pUC57-RoWS (ROP_26950) 
               
               
                 pGMV157 
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 GMV414 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00087 
                 GMV420 
               
               
                 pGMV158 
                 template 
                 pMZT3 
                 pUC57-RoWS (ROP_54550) 
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 GMV415 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00087 
                 GMV421 
               
               
                   
                 template 
                 pMZT37 
                 pUC57-AbWS (WS-dgaT) 
               
               
                 pGMV159 
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 GMV410 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00088 
                 GMV416 
               
               
                 pGMV160 
                 template 
                 pMZT37 
                 pUC57-PaWS (Psyc_0223) 
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 GMV411 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00088 
                 GMV417 
               
               
                   
                 template 
                 pMZT37 
                 pUC57-RoWS (ROP_02100) 
               
               
                 pGMV161 
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 GMV412 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00088 
                 GMV418 
               
               
                 pGMV162 
                 template 
                 pMZT37 
                 pUC57-RoWS (ROP_13050) 
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 GMV413 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00088 
                 GMV419 
               
               
                   
                 template 
                 pMZT37 
                 pUC57-RoWS (ROP_26950) 
               
               
                 pGMV163 
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 GMV414 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00088 
                 GMV420 
               
               
                 pGMV164 
                 template 
                 pMZT37 
                 pUC57-RoWS (ROP_54550) 
               
               
                   
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 GMV415 
               
               
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00088 
                 GMV421 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 5 
     Biosynthetic Production of 2,3-Butanediol from Methane 
     The four-carbon (C4) diol 2,3-butanediol is an important intermediate for the chemical industry. At the commercial scale, it is mostly generated from petroleum. It serves as a precursor for the production of various commodity and specialty chemicals, such as the solvent methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), and 1,3-butadiene. The potential production of these downstream commercial products amounts to about 32 million tons per year, with a value of about $43 billion (Köpke et al., 2011). 
     Biological production of 2,3-butanediol from methane requires engineering the native (or endogenous) metabolism of methanotrophs to take advantage of their endogenous production of (R)-acetoin ( FIG. 9 ). (R)-acetoin is produced in methanotrophs from two molecules of pyruvate, which are ultimately derived from methane. By introducing and expressing the gene (SEQ ID NO:156) encoding (2R,3R)-2,3-butanediol dehydrogenase (BDH1) from  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  in a suitable microbial expression host (such as  M. capsulatus  (Bath)), (R)-acetoin is converted into 2,3-butanediol. 
     Construction of Methanotroph Plasmids for 2,3-butanediol Production 
     As described, above, the plasmids generated in this study are based on the broad-host-range pCM132 (Accession no. AF327720, SEQ ID NO: 79) cloning vector described by Marx &amp; Lidstrom (2001). In this embodiment, the use of the Clontech (catalogue 639647) InFusion HD Cloning System kit is one example of how to construct plasmids, but is not meant to limit or exclude other methods that are known in the art. Sequences for the ORF and PCR primers are presented below in Table 1. 
     Vector Backbones 
     Vector backbones contain the components of the plasmid that will remain constant. The broad-host range pCM132 vector was modified to produce vector backbones for the plasmids in this example. The pCM132 vector consists of the following components: trrnB terminator, kanamycin resistance gene, trfA, IncP oriT, IncP oriV, colE1 ori, and lacZ. This parental vector has been modified to replace lacZ with a vector insert that contains promoter sequence to produce plasmid pMZT3, which was used for this example. 
     Vector Inserts 
     Vector inserts contain DNA to be added to the vector backbone. The inserts were designed as exchangeable (modular) parts to the vector, and in this embodiment consists of the components listed in Table 1 and Table 8. In this example, the plasmids were designed to contain one insert:  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  (R, R)-butanediol dehydrogenase (Standard name: Bdh1p (EC 1.1.1.4); SEQ ID NO:156; Systematic gene name: YAL060W). 
     The BDH1 gene (SEQ ID NO:156) was codon optimized and synthesized by Integrated DNA Technologies (Coralville, Iowa). 
     Assembly of the Constructs 
     The modular parts (vector backbone and vector insert) were PCR amplified as listed in Table 8 with NEB Phusion master mix according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions and in vitro assembled with the Clontech InFusion HD Cloning System kit according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions to generate circular plasmid. The in vitro assembled plasmids (2 μl of the InFusion reaction) were transformed into chemically competent NEB Turbo  E. coli  cells, screened for by colony PCR, purified, and subsequently sequence verified. 
     Plasmid pMZT3 served as the template for the vector backbone with a constitutive promoter and consisted of the pCM132 cloning vector,  E. coli  J23115 promoter. The vector backbone was PCR amplified from the pMZT3 template with primers ESG00084 (SEQ ID NO:137)/ESG00087 (SEQ ID NO:98). 
     The pGMV111 plasmid was designed to express the  S. cerevisiae  BDH1 gene (SEQ ID NO:156) from the J23115 constitutive promoter. The modules of this plasmid included the PCR amplified pMZT3 vector backbone and the ScBDH1 insert amplified from the shuttle vector pUC57-ScBDH1 template using primers GMV268 (SEQ ID NO:158)/GMV271 (SEQ ID NO:159). The plasmid was conjugated from  E. coli  donor strain S17-1 into the  M. capsulatus  (Bath) recipient as described above Example 1. The transconjugant strain was purified by repeated rounds of antibiotic selection using kanamycin and naladixic acid to remove the parent cells, as described in Example 1 above. 
     Cells expressing the pGMV111 plasmid were cultivated in liquid NMS medium in sealed shake flasks in the presence of 20% methane at 45° C. as described above in Example 1, for about 72 hours with 200 rpm shaking. For UPLC analysis, proteins and other debris were separated from the 2,3-butanediol in the growth medium using 2% (wt/vol.) 5-sulfosalicylic acid and centrifugation as described in Köpke et al. (2011). Extracted samples can be analyzed using a BioRad (Hercules, Calif.) Fast Acid column on a Waters (Milford, Mass.) Acquity H-class UPLC equipped with a #2414 Refractive Index Detector. Other conditions are as follows: the mobile phase is 5 mM H 2 SO 4 , the flow rate is 0.4 ml/min, the column is maintained at 40 C, and the product is detected at 410 nm. 
     Methods for the processing of biologically produced 1,3-propanediol and 2,3-butanediol are further described by Xiu &amp; Zeng, 2008. 
     For GC analysis, the 2,3-butanediol can be extracted from the culture medium with ethyl acetate, as described in Xiao et al., (2012). The extracted sample is analyzed on an Agilent (Santa Clara, Calif.) 7890A GC equipped with a Leap Technologies CombiPAL autosampler and a flame ionization detector. Either an Agilent HP-INNOWax or HP-5MS GC column can be used to separate the components according to the method of Xiao et al. (2012). Alternatively, the samples can be analyzed on a Waters Acquity H-Class UPLC equipped with a Waters 2414 Refractive Index detector using a method similar to that of Köpke et al. (2011). A BioRad (Hercules, Calif.) Fast Acid Column operated at 40° C. with a flow rate of 0.4 ml/minute and a 5 mM H 2 SO 4  mobile phase can be used to perform the separation. Samples for either GC or UPLC can be quantitated against a series of known concentrations of purified (D-(−)-, L-(+)-, and meso-) 2,3-butanediol standards (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.). 
     At the industrial fermentation scale, the 2,3-butanediol product can be extracted from the fermentation medium using one of the following methods: steam stripping, solvent extraction, aqueous two-phase extraction, reactive extraction, and pervaporation. These methods are described in Xiu &amp; Zeng (2008). 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 8 
               
             
            
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Modules 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Vector 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Plasmid 
                 PCR reaction:  
                 backbone 
                 Insert 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 pGMV111 
                 template 
                 pMZT3 
                 pUC57- 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ScBDH1 
               
               
                   
                   
                 primer 1 
                 ESG00084 
                 GMV268 
               
               
                   
                   
                 primer 2 
                 ESG00087 
                 GMV271 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Following is a list of citations for application.
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