Patent Publication Number: US-2016234494-A1

Title: Restriction on palette block size in video coding

Description:
This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/114,537 filed on Feb. 10, 2015, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This disclosure relates to encoding and decoding content, and more specifically, encoding and decoding content according to a palette-based coding mode. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Digital video capabilities can be incorporated into a wide range of devices, including digital televisions, digital direct broadcast systems, wireless broadcast systems, personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptop or desktop computers, tablet computers, e-book readers, digital cameras, digital recording devices, digital media players, video gaming devices, video game consoles, cellular or satellite radio telephones, so-called “smart phones,” video teleconferencing devices, video streaming devices, and the like. Digital video devices implement video compression techniques, such as those described in the standards defined by MPEG-2, MPEG-4, ITU-T H.263, ITU-T H.264/MPEG-4, Part 10, Advanced Video Coding (AVC), the High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC) standard presently under development, and extensions of such standards. The video devices may transmit, receive, encode, decode, and/or store digital video information more efficiently by implementing such video compression techniques. 
     Video compression techniques perform spatial (intra-picture) prediction and/or temporal (inter-picture) prediction to reduce or remove redundancy inherent in video sequences. For block-based video coding, a video slice (i.e., a video frame or a portion of a video frame) may be partitioned into video blocks. Video blocks in an intra-coded (I) slice of a picture are encoded using spatial prediction with respect to reference samples in neighboring blocks in the same picture. Video blocks in an inter-coded (P or B) slice of a picture may use spatial prediction with respect to reference samples in neighboring blocks in the same picture or temporal prediction with respect to reference samples in other reference pictures. Pictures may be referred to as frames, and reference pictures may be referred to as reference frames. 
     Spatial or temporal prediction results in a predictive block for a block to be coded. Residual data represents pixel differences between the original block to be coded and the predictive block. An inter-coded block is encoded according to a motion vector that points to a block of reference samples forming the predictive block, and the residual data indicates the difference between the coded block and the predictive block. An intra-coded block is encoded according to an intra-coding mode and the residual data. For further compression, the residual data may be transformed from the pixel domain to a transform domain, resulting in residual coefficients, which then may be quantized. The quantized coefficients, initially arranged in a two-dimensional array, may be scanned in order to produce a one-dimensional vector of coefficients, and entropy coding may be applied to achieve even more compression. 
     Content, such as an image, may be encoded and decoded using palette mode. Generally, palette mode is a technique involving use of a palette of color values to represent content. Content may be encoded such that the content is represented by an index map that includes values corresponding to color values in the palette. The index map may be decoded to obtain color values to reconstruct the content. 
     SUMMARY 
     Techniques of this disclosure relate to palette-based content coding. For example, in palette-based content coding, a content coder (e.g., a content coder such as a video encoder or a video decoder) may form a “palette” as a table of colors for representing the video data of the particular area (e.g., a given block). Palette-based content coding may, for example, be especially useful for coding areas of video data having a relatively small number of colors. Rather than coding actual pixel values (or their residuals), the content coder may code palette indices (e.g., index values) for one or more of the pixels that relate the pixels with entries in the palette representing the colors of the pixels. The techniques described in this disclosure may include techniques for various combinations of one or more of signaling palette-based coding modes, transmitting palettes, deriving palettes, deriving the value of non-transmitted syntax elements, transmitting palette-based coding maps and other syntax elements, predicting palette entries, coding runs of palette indices, entropy coding palette information, and various other palette coding techniques. 
     In one example, this disclosure describes a method comprising receiving a block of video data having a size; determining the size of the block of video data; and disabling palette mode encoding for the block of video data based on the determined size of the block of video data. 
     In one example, this disclosure describes a device comprising a memory configured to store the video data; and a video encoder in communication with the memory, the video encoder being configured to: receive a block of video data having a size from the memory; determine the size of the block of video data; and disable palette mode encoding for the block of video data based on the determined size of the block of video data. 
     In one example, this disclosure describes an apparatus comprising means for receiving a block of video data having a size; means for determining the size of the block of video data; and means for disabling palette mode encoding for the block of video data based on the determined size of the block of video data. 
     In one example, this disclosure describes a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium having instructions stored thereon that, when executed, cause one or more processors to: receive a block of video data having a size; determine the size of the block of video data; and disable palette mode encoding for the block of video data based on the determined size of the block of video data. 
     The details of one or more examples of the disclosure are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the disclosure will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a block diagram illustrating an example video coding system that may utilize the techniques described in this disclosure. 
         FIG. 2  is a block diagram illustrating an example video encoder that may perform the techniques described in this disclosure. 
         FIG. 3  is a block diagram illustrating an example video decoder that may perform the techniques described in this disclosure. 
         FIG. 4  is a conceptual diagram illustrating an example of determining palette entries for palette-based video coding, consistent with techniques of this disclosure. 
         FIG. 5  is a conceptual diagram illustrating an example of determining indices to a palette for a block of pixels, consistent with techniques of this disclosure. 
         FIG. 6  is a conceptual diagram illustrating an example of determining maximum copy above run-length, assuming raster scanning order, consistent with techniques of this disclosure. 
         FIG. 7  is a flowchart illustrating an example process for processing video data consistent with techniques for palette-based video coding of this disclosure. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Aspects of this disclosure are directed to techniques for content coding (e.g., video coding) and content data compression (e.g., video data compression). In particular, this disclosure describes techniques for palette-based coding of content data (e.g., video data). In various examples of this disclosure, techniques of this disclosure may be directed to processes of predicting or coding a block in palette mode to improve coding efficiency and/or reduce codec complexity, as described in greater detail below. For example, the disclosure describes techniques related to restricting the palette block size for palette mode. 
     As used herein, instances of the term “content” may be changed to the term “video,” and instances of the term “video” may be changed to the term “content.” This is true regardless of whether the terms “content” or “video” are being used as an adjective, noun, or other part of speech. For example, reference to a “content coder” also includes reference to a “video coder,” and reference to a “video coder” also includes reference to a “content coder.” Similarly, reference to “content” also includes reference to “video,” and reference to “video” also includes reference to “content.” 
     As used herein, “content” refers to any type of content. For example, “content” may refer to video, screen content, image, any graphical content, any displayable content, or any data corresponding thereto (e.g., video data, screen content data, image data, graphical content data, displayable content data, and the like). 
     As used herein, the term “video” may refer to screen content, movable content, a plurality of images that may be presented in a sequence, or any data corresponding thereto (e.g., screen content data, movable content data, video data, image data, and the like). 
     As used herein, the term “image” may refer to a single image, one or more images, one or more images amongst a plurality of images corresponding to a video, one or more images amongst a plurality of images not corresponding to a video, a plurality of images corresponding to a video (e.g., all of the images corresponding to the video or less than all of the images corresponding to the video), a sub-part of a single image, a plurality of sub-parts of a single image, a plurality of sub-parts corresponding to a plurality of images, one or more graphics primitives, image data, graphical data, and the like. 
     In traditional video coding, images are assumed to be continuous-tone and spatially smooth. Based on these assumptions, various tools have been developed such as block-based transforms, filtering, and other coding tools, and such tools have shown good performance for natural content videos. However, in applications like remote desktop, collaborative work and wireless display, computer-generated screen content may be the dominant content to be compressed. This type of screen content tends to have discrete-tone, sharp lines, and high contrast object boundaries. The assumption of continuous-tone and smoothness may no longer apply, and thus, traditional video coding techniques may be inefficient in compressing content (e.g., screen content). 
     In one example of palette-based video coding, a video encoder may encode a block of video data by determining a palette for the block (e.g., coding the palette explicitly, predicting the palette, or a combination thereof), locating an entry in the palette to represent the value of one or more pixels, and encoding both the palette and the block with index values that indicate the entry in the palette used to represent the pixel values of the block. In some examples, the video encoder may signal the palette and/or the index values in an encoded bitstream. In turn, a video decoder may obtain, from an encoded bitstream, a palette for a block, as well as index values for the individual pixels of the block. The video decoder may relate the index values of the pixels to entries of the palette to reconstruct the various pixel values of the block. 
     For example, a particular area of video data may be assumed to have a relatively small number of colors. A video coder (e.g., a video encoder or video decoder) may code (e.g., encode or decode) a so-called “palette” to represent the video data of the particular area. The palette may be expressed as an index (e.g., table) of colors or pixel values representing the video data of the particular area (e.g., a given block). The video coder may code the index, which relates one or more pixel values to the appropriate value in the palette. Each pixel may be associated with an entry in the palette that represents the color of the pixel. For example, the palette may include the most dominant pixel values in the given block. In some cases, the most dominant pixel values may include the one or more pixel values that occur most frequently within the block. Additionally, in some cases, a video coder may apply a threshold value to determine whether a pixel value is to be included as one of the most dominant pixel values in the block. According to various aspects of palette-based coding, the video coder may code index values indicative of one or more of the pixels values of the current block, instead of coding actual pixel values or their residuals for a current block of video data. In the context of palette-based coding, the index values indicate respective entries in the palette that are used to represent individual pixel values of the current block. The description above is intended to provide a general description of palette-based video coding. 
     Palette-based coding, which may be particularly suitable for screen generated content coding or other content where one or more traditional coding tools are inefficient. The techniques for palette-based coding of video data may be used with one or more other coding techniques, such as techniques for inter- or intra-predictive coding. For example, as described in greater detail below, an encoder or decoder, or combined encoder-decoder (codec), may be configured to perform inter- and intra-predictive coding, as well as palette-based coding. 
     In some examples, the palette-based coding techniques may be configured for use with one or more video coding standards. For example, High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC) is a new video coding standard being developed by the Joint Collaboration Team on Video Coding (JCT-VC) of ITU-T Video Coding Experts Group (VCEG) and ISO/IEC Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG). The finalized HEVC standard document is published as “ITU-T H.265, SERIES H: AUDIOVISUAL AND MULTIMEDIA SYSTEMS Infrastructure of audiovisual services—Coding of moving video—High efficiency video coding,” Telecommunication Standardization Sector of International Telecommunication Union (ITU), April 2013. 
     To provide more efficient coding of screen generated content, the JCT-VC is developing an extension to the HEVC standard, referred to as the HEVC Screen Content Coding (SCC) standard. A recent working draft of the HEVC SCC standard, referred to as “HEVC SCC Draft 2” or “WD2,” is described in document JCTVC-S 1005, R. Joshi and J. Xu, “HEVC screen content coding draft text 2,” Joint Collaborative Team on Video Coding (JCT-VC) of ITU-T SG 16 WP 3 and ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 29/WG 11, 19 th  Meeting: Strasbourg, FR, 17-24 Oct. 2014. 
     With respect to the HEVC framework, as an example, the palette-based coding techniques may be configured to be used as a coding unit (CU) mode. In other examples, the palette-based coding techniques may be configured to be used as a prediction unit (PU) mode in the framework of HEVC. Accordingly, all of the following disclosed processes described in the context of a CU mode may, additionally or alternatively, apply to a PU. However, these HEVC-based examples should not be considered a restriction or limitation of the palette-based coding techniques described herein, as such techniques may be applied to work independently or as part of other existing or yet to be developed systems/standards. In these cases, the unit for palette coding can be square blocks, rectangular blocks or even regions of non-rectangular shape. 
     In some examples, a palette may be derived for one or more CUs, PUs, or any region of data (e.g., any block of data). For example, a palette may comprise (and may consist of) the most dominant pixel values in the current CU, where a CU is the region of data for this particular example. The size and the elements of the palette are first transmitted from a video encoder to a video decoder. The size and/or the elements of the palette, for a current CU being coded, can be directly coded or predictively coded using the size and/or the elements of the palette in CUs that neighbor the current CU, i.e., the neighboring CUs (e.g., where neighboring CU&#39;s may include a CU above the current CU and/or to the left of the current CU). After that, the pixel values in the CU are encoded based on the palette according to a certain scanning order. For each pixel location in the CU, a flag, e.g., palette_flag, is first transmitted to indicate whether the pixel value is included in the palette. For those pixel values that map to an entry in the palette, the palette index associated with that entry is signaled for the given pixel location in the CU. For those pixel values that do not exist in the palette, a special index may be assigned to the pixel and the actual pixel value is transmitted for the given pixel location in the CU. These pixels are referred to as “escape pixels.” An escape pixel can be coded using any existing entropy coding method such as fixed length coding, unary coding, etc. 
     Samples in a block of video data may be processed (e.g., scanned) using a horizontal raster scanning order or other scanning order. For example, the video encoder may convert a two-dimensional block of palette indices into a one-dimensional array by scanning the palette indices using a horizontal raster scanning order. Likewise, the video decoder may reconstruct a block of palette indices using the horizontal raster scanning order. Accordingly, this disclosure may refer to a previous sample as a sample that precedes the sample currently being coded in the block in the scanning order. It should be appreciated that scans other than a horizontal raster scan, such as vertical raster scanning order, may also be applicable. The example above, as well as other examples set forth in this disclosure, is intended to provide a general description of palette-based video coding. 
       FIG. 1  is a block diagram illustrating an example video coding system  10  that may utilize the techniques of this disclosure. As used herein, the term “video coder” refers generically to both video encoders and video decoders. In this disclosure, the terms “video coding” or “coding” may refer generically to video encoding or video decoding. Video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  of video coding system  10  represent examples of devices that may be configured to perform techniques for palette-based video coding in accordance with various examples described in this disclosure. For example, video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may be configured to selectively code various blocks of video data, such as CUs or PUs in HEVC coding, using either palette-based coding or non-palette based coding. Non-palette based coding modes may refer to various inter-predictive temporal coding modes or intra-predictive spatial coding modes, such as the various coding modes specified by the HEVC standard. 
     As shown in  FIG. 1 , video coding system  10  includes a source device  12  and a destination device  14 . Source device  12  generates encoded video data. Accordingly, source device  12  may be referred to as a video encoding device or a video encoding apparatus. Destination device  14  may decode the encoded video data generated by source device  12 . Accordingly, destination device  14  may be referred to as a video decoding device or a video decoding apparatus. Source device  12  and destination device  14  may be examples of video coding devices or video coding apparatuses. 
     Source device  12  and destination device  14  may comprise a wide range of devices, including desktop computers, mobile computing devices, notebook (e.g., laptop) computers, tablet computers, set-top boxes, telephone handsets such as so-called “smart” phones, televisions, cameras, display devices, digital media players, video gaming consoles, in-car computers, or the like. 
     Destination device  14  may receive encoded video data from source device  12  via a channel  16 . Channel  16  may comprise one or more media or devices capable of moving the encoded video data from source device  12  to destination device  14 . In one example, channel  16  may comprise one or more communication media that enable source device  12  to transmit encoded video data directly to destination device  14  in real-time. In this example, source device  12  may modulate the encoded video data according to a communication standard, such as a wireless communication protocol, and may transmit the modulated video data to destination device  14 . The one or more communication media may include wireless and/or wired communication media, such as a radio frequency (RF) spectrum or one or more physical transmission lines. The one or more communication media may form part of a packet-based network, such as a local area network, a wide-area network, or a global network (e.g., the Internet). The one or more communication media may include routers, switches, base stations, or other equipment that facilitate communication from source device  12  to destination device  14 . 
     In another example, channel  16  may include a storage medium that stores encoded video data generated by source device  12 . In this example, destination device  14  may access the storage medium via, for example, disk access or card access. The storage medium may include a variety of locally-accessed data storage media such as Blu-ray discs, DVDs, CD-ROMs, flash memory, or other suitable digital storage media for storing encoded video data. 
     In a further example, channel  16  may include a file server or another intermediate storage device that stores encoded video data generated by source device  12 . In this example, destination device  14  may access encoded video data stored at the file server or other intermediate storage device via streaming or download. The file server may be a type of server capable of storing encoded video data and transmitting the encoded video data to destination device  14 . Example file servers include web servers (e.g., for a website), file transfer protocol (FTP) servers, network attached storage (NAS) devices, and local disk drives. 
     Destination device  14  may access the encoded video data through a standard data connection, such as an Internet connection. Example types of data connections may include wireless channels (e.g., Wi-Fi connections), wired connections (e.g., DSL, cable modem, etc.), or combinations of both that are suitable for accessing encoded video data stored on a file server. The transmission of encoded video data from the file server may be a streaming transmission, a download transmission, or a combination of both. 
     Source device  12  and destination device  14  may be configured to perform palette-based coding consistent with this disclosure. The techniques of this disclosure for palette-based coding, however, are not limited to wireless applications or settings. The techniques may be applied to video coding in support of a variety of multimedia applications, such as over-the-air television broadcasts, cable television transmissions, satellite television transmissions, streaming video transmissions, e.g., via the Internet, encoding of video data for storage on a data storage medium, decoding of video data stored on a data storage medium, or other applications. In some examples, video coding system  10  may be configured to support one-way or two-way video transmission to support applications such as video streaming, video playback, video broadcasting, and/or video telephony. 
     Video coding system  10  illustrated in  FIG. 1  is merely an example and the techniques of this disclosure may apply to video coding settings (e.g., video encoding or video decoding) that do not necessarily include any data communication between the encoding and decoding devices. In other examples, data is retrieved from a local memory, streamed over a network, or the like. A video encoding device may encode and store data to memory, and/or a video decoding device may retrieve and decode data from memory. In many examples, the encoding and decoding is performed by devices that do not communicate with one another, but simply encode data to memory and/or retrieve and decode data from memory. 
     In the example of  FIG. 1 , source device  12  includes a video source  18 , a video encoder  20 , and an output interface  22 . In some examples, output interface  22  may include a modulator/demodulator (modem) and/or a transmitter. Video source  18  may include a video capture device, e.g., a video camera, a video archive containing previously-captured video data, a video feed interface to receive video data from a video content provider, and/or a computer graphics system for generating video data, or a combination of such sources of video data. 
     Video encoder  20  may encode video data from video source  18 . In some examples, source device  12  directly transmits the encoded video data to destination device  14  via output interface  22 . In other examples, the encoded video data may also be stored onto a storage medium or a file server for later access by destination device  14  for decoding and/or playback. 
     In the example of  FIG. 1 , destination device  14  includes an input interface  28 , a video decoder  30 , and a display device  32 . In some examples, input interface  28  includes a receiver and/or a modem. Input interface  28  may receive encoded video data over channel  16 . Display device  32  may be integrated with or may be external to destination device  14 . In general, display device  32  displays decoded video data. Display device  32  may comprise a variety of display devices, such as a liquid crystal display (LCD), a plasma display, an organic light emitting diode (OLED) display, or another type of display device. 
     This disclosure may generally refer to video encoder  20  “signaling” or “transmitting” certain information to another device, such as video decoder  30 . The term “signaling” or “transmitting” may generally refer to the communication of syntax elements and/or other data used to decode the compressed video data. Such communication may occur in real- or near-real-time. Alternately, such communication may occur over a span of time, such as might occur when storing syntax elements to a computer-readable storage medium in an encoded bitstream at the time of encoding, which then may be retrieved by a decoding device at any time after being stored to this medium. Thus, while video decoder  30  may be referred to as “receiving” certain information, the receiving of information does not necessarily occur in real- or near-real-time and may be retrieved from a medium at some time after storage. 
     Video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  each may be implemented as any of a variety of suitable circuitry, such as one or more microprocessors, digital signal processors (DSPs), application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), discrete logic, hardware, or any combinations thereof. If the techniques are implemented partially in software, a device may store instructions for the software in a suitable, non-transitory computer-readable storage medium and may execute the instructions in hardware using one or more processors to perform the techniques of this disclosure. Any of the foregoing (including hardware, software, a combination of hardware and software, etc.) may be considered to be one or more processors. Each of video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may be included in one or more encoders or decoders, either of which may be integrated as part of a combined encoder/decoder (CODEC) in a respective device. 
     In some examples, video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  operate according to a video compression standard, such as HEVC standard mentioned above, and described in the HEVC standard. In addition to the base HEVC standard, there are ongoing efforts to produce scalable video coding, multiview video coding, and 3D coding extensions for HEVC. In addition, palette-based coding modes, e.g., as described in this disclosure, may be provided for extension of the HEVC standard. In some examples, the techniques described in this disclosure for palette-based coding may be applied to encoders and decoders configured to operation according to other video coding standards. Accordingly, application of a palette-based coding mode for coding of coding units (CUs) or prediction units (PUs) in an HEVC codec is described for purposes of example. 
     In HEVC and other video coding standards, a video sequence typically includes a series of pictures. Pictures may also be referred to as “frames.” A picture may include three sample arrays, denoted S L , S Cb  and S Cr . S L  is a two-dimensional array (i.e., a block) of luma samples. S Cb  is a two-dimensional array of Cb chrominance samples. S Cr  is a two-dimensional array of Cr chrominance samples. Chrominance samples may also be referred to herein as “chroma” samples. In other instances, a picture may be monochrome and may only include an array of luma samples. 
     To generate an encoded representation of a picture, video encoder  20  may generate a set of coding tree units (CTUs). Each of the CTUs may be a coding tree block of luma samples, two corresponding coding tree blocks of chroma samples, and syntax structures used to code the samples of the coding tree blocks. A coding tree block may be an N×N block of samples. A CTU may also be referred to as a “tree block” or a “largest coding unit” (LCU). The CTUs of HEVC may be broadly analogous to the macroblocks of other standards, such as H.264/AVC. However, a CTU is not necessarily limited to a particular size and may include one or more coding units (CUs). A slice may include an integer number of CTUs ordered consecutively in the raster scan. A coded slice may comprise a slice header and slice data. The slice header of a slice may be a syntax structure that includes syntax elements that provide information about the slice. The slice data may include coded CTUs of the slice. 
     This disclosure may use the term “video unit” or “video block” or “block” to refer to one or more sample blocks and syntax structures used to code samples of the one or more blocks of samples. Example types of video units or blocks may include CTUs, CUs, PUs, transform units (TUs), macroblocks, macroblock partitions, and so on. In the example of HEVC, to generate a coded CTU, video encoder  20  may recursively perform quad-tree partitioning on the coding tree blocks of a CTU to divide the coding tree blocks into coding blocks, hence the name “coding tree units.” A coding block is an N×N block of samples. A CU may be a coding block of luma samples and two corresponding coding blocks of chroma samples of a picture that has a luma sample array, a Cb sample array and a Cr sample array, and syntax structures used to code the samples of the coding blocks. Video encoder  20  may partition a coding block of a CU into one or more prediction blocks. A prediction block may be a rectangular (i.e., square or non-square) block of samples on which the same prediction is applied. A prediction unit (PU) of a CU may be a prediction block of luma samples, two corresponding prediction blocks of chroma samples of a picture, and syntax structures used to predict the prediction block samples. Video encoder  20  may generate predictive luma, Cb and Cr blocks for luma, Cb and Cr prediction blocks of each PU of the CU. 
     Video encoder  20  may use intra prediction or inter prediction to generate the predictive blocks for a PU. If video encoder  20  uses intra prediction to generate the predictive blocks of a PU, video encoder  20  may generate the predictive blocks of the PU based on decoded samples of the picture associated with the PU. 
     If video encoder  20  uses inter prediction to generate the predictive blocks of a PU, video encoder  20  may generate the predictive blocks of the PU based on decoded samples of one or more pictures other than the picture associated with the PU. Video encoder  20  may use uni-prediction or bi-prediction to generate the predictive blocks of a PU. When video encoder  20  uses uni-prediction to generate the predictive blocks for a PU, the PU may have a single motion vector (MV). When video encoder  20  uses bi-prediction to generate the predictive blocks for a PU, the PU may have two MVs. 
     After video encoder  20  generates predictive blocks (e.g., predictive luma, Cb and Cr blocks) for one or more PUs of a CU, video encoder  20  may generate residual blocks for the CU. Each sample in a residual block of the CU may indicate a difference between a sample in a predictive block of a PU of the CU and a corresponding sample in a coding block of the CU. For example, video encoder  20  may generate a luma residual block for the CU. Each sample in the CU&#39;s luma residual block indicates a difference between a luma sample in one of the CU&#39;s predictive luma blocks and a corresponding sample in the CU&#39;s original luma coding block. In addition, video encoder  20  may generate a Cb residual block for the CU. Each sample in the CU&#39;s Cb residual block may indicate a difference between a Cb sample in one of the CU&#39;s predictive Cb blocks and a corresponding sample in the CU&#39;s original Cb coding block. Video encoder  20  may also generate a Cr residual block for the CU. Each sample in the CU&#39;s Cr residual block may indicate a difference between a Cr sample in one of the CU&#39;s predictive Cr blocks and a corresponding sample in the CU&#39;s original Cr coding block. 
     Furthermore, video encoder  20  may use quad-tree partitioning to decompose the residual blocks (e.g., luma, Cb and Cr residual blocks) of a CU into one or more transform blocks (e.g., luma, Cb and Cr transform blocks). A transform block may be a rectangular block of samples on which the same transform is applied. A transform unit (TU) of a CU may be a transform block of luma samples, two corresponding transform blocks of chroma samples, and syntax structures used to transform the transform block samples. Thus, each TU of a CU may be associated with a luma transform block, a Cb transform block, and a Cr transform block. The luma transform block associated with the TU may be a sub-block of the CU&#39;s luma residual block. The Cb transform block may be a sub-block of the CU&#39;s Cb residual block. The Cr transform block may be a sub-block of the CU&#39;s Cr residual block. 
     Video encoder  20  may apply one or more transforms to a transform block to generate a coefficient block for a TU. A coefficient block may be a two-dimensional array of transform coefficients. A transform coefficient may be a scalar quantity. For example, video encoder  20  may apply one or more transforms to a luma transform block of a TU to generate a luma coefficient block for the TU. Video encoder  20  may apply one or more transforms to a Cb transform block of a TU to generate a Cb coefficient block for the TU. Video encoder  20  may apply one or more transforms to a Cr transform block of a TU to generate a Cr coefficient block for the TU. 
     After generating a coefficient block (e.g., a luma coefficient block, a Cb coefficient block or a Cr coefficient block), video encoder  20  may quantize the coefficient block. Quantization generally refers to a process in which transform coefficients are quantized to possibly reduce the amount of data used to represent the transform coefficients, providing further compression. After video encoder  20  quantizes a coefficient block, video encoder  20  may entropy encoding syntax elements indicating the quantized transform coefficients. For example, video encoder  20  may perform Context-Adaptive Binary Arithmetic Coding (CABAC) on the syntax elements indicating the quantized transform coefficients. 
     With respect to CABAC, as an example, video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may select a probability model (also referred to as a context model) to code symbols associated with a block of video data based on context. For example, a context model (Ctx) may be an index or offset that is applied to select one of a plurality of different contexts, each of which may correspond to a particular probability model. Accordingly, a different probability model is typically defined for each context. After encoding or decoding the bin, the probability model is further updated based on a value of the bin to reflect the most current probability estimates for the bin. For example, a probability model may be maintained as a state in a finite state machine. Each particular state may correspond to a specific probability value. The next state, which corresponds to an update of the probability model, may depend on the value of the current bin (e.g., the bin currently being coded). Accordingly, the selection of a probability model may be influenced by the values of the previously coded bins, because the values indicate, at least in part, the probability of the bin having a given value. The context coding process described above may generally be referred to as a context-adaptive coding mode. 
     Hence, video encoder  20  may encode a target symbol using a probability model. Likewise, video decoder  30  may parse a target symbol using the probability model. In some instances, video encoder  20  may code syntax elements using a combination of context adaptive and non-context adaptive coding. For example, video encoder  20  may context code bins by selecting a probability model or “context model” that operates on context to code the bins. In contrast, video encoder  20  may bypass code bins by bypassing, or omitting the regular arithmetic coding process when coding the bins. In such examples, video encoder  20  may use a fixed probability model to bypass code the bins. That is, bypass coded bins do not include context or probability updates. 
     Video encoder  20  may output a bitstream that includes the entropy-encoded syntax elements. The bitstream may also include syntax elements that are not entropy encoded. The bitstream may include a sequence of bits that forms a representation of coded pictures and associated data. The bitstream may comprise a sequence of network abstraction layer (NAL) units. Each of the NAL units includes a NAL unit header and encapsulates a raw byte sequence payload (RBSP). The NAL unit header may include a syntax element that indicates a NAL unit type code. The NAL unit type code specified by the NAL unit header of a NAL unit indicates the type of the NAL unit. A RB SP may be a syntax structure containing an integer number of bytes that is encapsulated within a NAL unit. In some instances, an RBSP includes zero bits. 
     Different types of NAL units may encapsulate different types of RBSPs. For example, a first type of NAL unit may encapsulate an RBSP for a picture parameter set (PPS), a second type of NAL unit may encapsulate an RBSP for a coded slice, a third type of NAL unit may encapsulate an RB SP for supplemental enhancement information (SEI), and so on. NAL units that encapsulate RBSPs for video coding data (as opposed to RBSPs for parameter sets and SEI messages) may be referred to as video coding layer (VCL) NAL units. 
     Video decoder  30  may receive a bitstream generated by video encoder  20 . In addition, video decoder  30  may parse the bitstream to decode syntax elements from the bitstream. Video decoder  30  may reconstruct the pictures of the video data based at least in part on the syntax elements decoded from the bitstream. The process to reconstruct the video data may be generally reciprocal to the process performed by video encoder  20 . For instance, video decoder  30  may use MVs of PUs to determine predictive blocks for the PUs of a current CU. In addition, video decoder  30  may inverse quantize transform coefficient blocks associated with TUs of the current CU. Video decoder  30  may perform inverse transforms on the transform coefficient blocks to reconstruct transform blocks associated with the TUs of the current CU. Video decoder  30  may reconstruct the coding blocks of the current CU by adding the samples of the predictive blocks for PUs of the current CU to corresponding samples of the transform blocks of the TUs of the current CU. By reconstructing the coding blocks for each CU of a picture, video decoder  30  may reconstruct the picture. 
     In some examples, video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may be configured to perform palette-based coding. For example, in palette based coding, rather than performing the intra-predictive or inter-predictive coding techniques described above, video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may code a so-called palette as a table of colors or pixel values representing the video data of a particular area (e.g., a given block). In this way, rather than coding actual pixel values or their residuals for a current block of video data, the video coder may code index values for one or more of the pixels values of the current block, where the index values indicate entries in the palette that are used to represent the pixel values of the current block. 
     For example, video encoder  20  may encode a block of video data by determining a palette for the block, locating an entry in the palette to represent the value of each pixel, and encoding the palette and the index values for the pixels relating the pixel value to the palette. Video decoder  30  may obtain, from an encoded bitstream, a palette for a block, as well as index values for the pixels of the block. Video decoder  30  may match the index values of the individual pixels to entries of the palette to reconstruct the pixel values of the block. In instances where the index value associated with an individual pixel does not match any index value of the corresponding palette for the block, video decoder  30  may identify such a pixel as an escape pixel, for the purposes of palette-based coding. 
     In another example, video encoder  20  may encode a block of video data according to the following operations. Video encoder  20  may determine prediction residual values for individual pixels of the block, determine a palette for the block, and locate an entry (e.g., index value) in the palette having a value representative of the value of one or more of the prediction residual values of the individual pixels. Additionally, video encoder  20  may encode the block with index values that indicate the entry in the palette used to represent the corresponding prediction residual value for each individual pixel of the block. Video decoder  30  may obtain, from an encoded bitstream signaled by source device  12 , a palette for a block, as well as index values for the prediction residual values corresponding to the individual pixels of the block. As described, the index values may correspond to entries in the palette associated with the current block. In turn, video decoder  30  may relate the index values of the prediction residual values to entries of the palette to reconstruct the prediction residual values of the block. The prediction residual values may be added to the prediction values (for example, obtained using intra or inter prediction) to reconstruct the pixel values of the block. 
     As described in more detail below, the basic idea of palette-based coding is that, for a given block of video data to be coded, video encoder  20  may derive a palette that includes the most dominant pixel values in the current block. For instance, the palette may refer to a number of pixel values which are determined or assumed to be dominant and/or representative for the current CU. Video encoder  20  may first transmit the size and the elements of the palette to video decoder  30 . Additionally, video encoder  20  may encode the pixel values in the given block according to a certain scanning order. For each pixel included in the given block, video encoder  20  may signal the index value that maps the pixel value to a corresponding entry in the palette. If the pixel value is not included in the palette (i.e., no palette entry exists that specifies a particular pixel value of the palette-coded block), then such a pixel is defined as an “escape pixel.” In accordance with palette-based coding, video encoder  20  may encode and signal an index value that is reserved for an escape pixel. In some examples, video encoder  20  may also encode and signal the pixel value or a residual value (or quantized versions thereof) for an escape pixel included in the given block. 
     Upon receiving the encoded video bitstream signaled by video encoder  20 , video decoder  30  may first determine the palette based on the information received from video encoder  20 . Video decoder  30  may then map the received index values associated with the pixel locations in the given block to entries of the palette to reconstruct the pixel values of the given block. In some instances, video decoder  30  may determine that a pixel of a palette-coded block is an escape pixel, such as by determining that the pixel is palette-coded with an index value reserved for escape pixels. In instances where video decoder  30  identifies an escape pixel in a palette-coded block, video decoder  30  may receive the pixel value or a residual value (or quantized versions thereof) for an escape pixel included in the given block. Video decoder  30  may reconstruct the palette-coded block by mapping the individual pixel values to the corresponding palette entries, and by using the pixel value or residual value (or quantized versions thereof) to reconstruct any escape pixels included in the palette-coded block. 
     A stated above, in an example palette-coding mode, a palette may include entries numbered by an index. Each entry may represent color component values or intensities (for example, in color spaces such as YCbCr, RGB, YUV, CMYK, or other formats), which can be used as a predictor for a block or as final reconstructed block samples. As described in standard submission document JCTVC-Q0094 (Wei Pu et al., “AHG10: Suggested Software for Palette Coding based on RExt6.0,” JCTVC-Q0094, Valencia, ES, 27 Mar.-4 Apr. 2014) a palette may include entries that are copied from a predictor palette. A predictor palette may include palette entries from blocks previously coded using palette mode or other reconstructed samples. For each entry in the predictor palette, a binary flag is sent to indicate whether that entry is copied to the current palette (indicated by flag=1). This is referred to as the binary palette prediction vector. Additionally the current palette may comprise (e.g., consist of) new entries signaled explicitly. The number of new entries may be signaled as well. 
     As another example, in palette mode, a palette may include entries numbered by an index representing color component values that may be used as predictors for block samples or as final reconstructed block samples. Each entry in the palette may contain, for example, one luma component (e.g., luma value), two chroma components (e.g., two chroma values), or three color components (e.g., RGB, YUV, etc.). Previously decoded palette entries may be stored in a list. This list may be used to predict palette entries in the current palette mode CU, for example. A binary prediction vector may be signaled in the bitstream to indicate which entries in the list are re-used in the current palette. In some examples, run-length coding may be used to compress the binary palate predictor. For example, a run-length value may be coded using 0th order Exp-Golomb code. 
     In this disclosure, it will be assumed that each palette entry specifies the values for all color components of a sample. However, the concepts of this disclosure are applicable to using a separate palette and/or a separate palette entry for each color component. Also, it is assumed that samples in a block are processed using horizontal raster scanning order. However, other scans such as vertical raster scanning order are also applicable. As mentioned above, a palette may contain predicted palette entries, for example, predicted from the palette(s) used to code the previous block(s), and the new entries which may be specific for the current block and are signaled explicitly. The encoder and decoder may know the number of the predicted and new palette entries and a sum of them may indicate the total palette size in a block. 
     As proposed in the example of JCTVC-Q0094 cited above, each sample in a block coded with the palette may belong to one of the three modes, as set forth below:
         Escape mode. In this mode, the sample value is not included into a palette as a palette entry and the quantized sample value is signaled explicitly for all color components. It is similar to the signaling of the new palette entries, although for new palette entries, the color component values are not quantized.   CopyAbove mode (also called CopyFromTop mode or copy mode). In this mode, the palette entry index for the current sample is copied from the sample located directly above the current sample in a block of samples. In other examples, for copy above mode, a block of video data may be transposed so that the sample above the block is actually the sample to the left of the block.   Value mode (also called index mode or run mode). In this mode, the value of the palette entry index is explicitly signaled.       

     As described herein, a palette entry index may be referred as a palette index or simply index. These terms can be used interchangeably to describe techniques of this disclosure. In addition, as described in greater detail below, a palette index may have one or more associated color or intensity values. For example, a palette index may have a single associated color or intensity value associated with a single color or intensity component of a pixel (e.g., a Red component of RGB data, a Y component of YUV data, or the like). In another example, a palette index may have multiple associated color or intensity values. In some instances, palette-based video coding may be applied to code monochrome video. Accordingly, “color value” may generally refer to any color or non-color component used to generate a pixel value. 
     A run value may indicate a run of palette index values that are coded using the same palette-coding mode. For example, with respect to Value mode, a video coder (e.g., video encoder  20  or video decoder  30 ) may code an index value and a run value that indicates a number of consecutive samples in a scan order that have the same index value and that are being coded with the palette index. With respect to CopyAbove mode, the video coder may code an indication that an index value for the current sample value is the same as an index value of an above-neighboring sample (e.g., a sample that is positioned above the sample currently being coded in a block) and a run value that indicates a number of consecutive samples in a scan order that also copy an index value from an above-neighboring sample and that are being coded with the palette index. Accordingly, in the examples above, a run of palette index values refers to a run of palette values having the same value or a run of index values that are copied from above-neighboring samples. 
     Hence, the run may specify, for a given mode, the number of subsequent samples that belong to the same mode. In some instances, signaling an index value and a run value may be similar to run-length coding. In an example for purposes of illustration, a string of consecutive palette index values of an index block corresponding to a block of video data may be 0, 2, 2, 2, 2, 5. In some examples, the index block may include one or more escape pixel values. Each index value in the index block may correspond to a sample in the block of video data. In this example, a video coder may code the second sample (e.g., the first palette index value of “2”) using Value mode. After coding an index value of 2, the video coder may code a run of 3, which indicates that the three subsequent samples also have the same palette index value of 2. In a similar manner, coding a run of four palette indices after coding an index using CopyAbove mode may indicate that a total of five palette indices are copied from the corresponding palette index values in the row above the sample position currently being coded. 
     Using the palette, video encoder  20  and/or video decoder  30  may be configured to code a block of samples (e.g., a block of video data) into an index block, where the index block is a block including index values, e.g., for each sample, that map the samples to one or more palette entries, and, in some examples, including one or more escape pixel values. Every pixel of a block of video data may be coded with the Run mode, Copy mode or Escape mode. In some examples, the pixels in the first row of the block of video data may only be coded using Run mode or Escape mode. 
     The syntax element palette_run_type_flag indicates whether Run mode or Copy mode is used. For example, video encoder  20  may be configured to signal the syntax element palette_run_type_flag by encoding a value corresponding to the palette_run_type_flag syntax element into an encoded bitstream for a sample of a block of video data. Video decoder  20  may be configured to receive the encoded bitstream comprising the encoded value corresponding to the palette_run_type_flag syntax element. Video decoder  20  may be configured to decode the encoded value to determine the value corresponding to the palette_run_type_flag syntax element, and therefore, determine whether Run mode or Copy mode is used for the sample of the block of video data. For example, when the value of palette_run_type_flag is a first value, then Run mode may be used for the sample of the block of video data. As another example, when the value of palette_run_type_flag is a second value, then Copy mode may be used for the sample of the block of video data. 
     In some examples, when run mode or copy mode is used, the palette_index syntax element may be signalled along with the palette_run syntax element. For example, video encoder  20  may be configured to signal the palette_index and palette_run syntax elements by encoding a value (e.g., an index value) corresponding to palette_index and a value (e.g., a run value) corresponding to palette_run into an encoded bitstream. Video decoder may  30  may be configured to receive the encoded bitstream comprising the encoded value corresponding to the palette_index syntax element and the encoded value corresponding to the palette_run syntax element. Video decoder  20  may be configured to decode the encoded value corresponding to palette_index and the encoded value corresponding to palette_run to respectively determine the value (e.g., index value) corresponding to palette_index and the value (e.g., run value) corresponding to palette_run. 
     When run mode is used, the run value indicates the number of pixels that will have the same palette index. However, when copy mode is used, the run value indicates the number of pixels for which the palette index (e.g., index value) is copied from another pixel respective to each pixel (e.g., directly above each respective pixel). 
     In some examples, escape mode is coded within the run mode where a specific palette index may be used to indicate this mode. The palette index used to indicate escape mode is equal to the palette size of the current block according to some examples. In escape mode, the run value may be not coded since escape mode is applied to a single pixel (e.g., a pixel triplet (Y, U, and V)) where the value(s) of the color component(s) for the single pixel are explicitly signalled as palette_escape_val. In some examples, copy mode may not be enabled for the first row in the block since there are no pixels above the first row belonging to the same block. 
     A flag palette_escape_val_present_flag may be signalled per block to indicate the usage of the escape pixels. This flag is equal to 1 indicate that there is at least one escape pixel in the palette coded block, and the flag is equal to 0 otherwise. For example, video encoder  20  may be configured to signal the syntax element palette_escape_val_present_flag by encoding a value corresponding to the palette_escape_val_present_flag syntax element into an encoded bitstream. Video decoder  20  may be configured to receive the encoded bitstream comprising the encoded value corresponding to the palette_escape_val_present_flag syntax element. Video decoder  20  may be configured to decode the encoded value to determine the value corresponding to the palette_escape_val_present_flag syntax element, and therefore, determine whether there is at least one escape pixel in the palette coded block. 
     In some examples, palette size is restricted to be in the range of 0 to max_palette_size with the latter being signalled. For a block coded with palette mode, the palette may, in some examples, be predicted from the palette entries of one or more previously palette coded blocks. The palette may be explicitly signalled for a current block as one or more new entries. In other examples, the palette of a previously coded block may be completely reused (e.g., copied) for the current block, which is called palette sharing mode. In some examples, a flag palette_share_flag may be signalled to indicate that the entire palette of the previous block is reused without modification as-is for the current block. 
     When coding a block of video using palette mode, the pixel scanning pattern (e.g., scan order) may include, for example: vertical traverse or horizontal traverse (snake-like) scanning. The scanning pattern used in the block may be derived according to the flag palette_transpose_flag signalled per block unit. 
     During palette mode coding, a palette index adjustment process may be applied. Starting from the second pixel in the current block, the palette mode of the previous pixel in the scan order may be checked (e.g., determined). In some examples, the maximum palette index size may first be reduced by 1. If the palette mode for the previous pixel in the scan order is equal to run mode (i.e., if the previous pixel in the scan order was or is to be coded using run mode), the palette index (e.g., index value) for the current pixel may be reduced by 1 if the index value is greater than or equal to the index value for the previous pixel in the scan order. Similarly, if the palette mode for the previous pixel in the scan order is equal to copy mode (i.e., if the previous pixel in the scan order was or is to be coded using copy mode), then the palette index (e.g., index value) for the current pixel may be reduced by 1 if the index is greater than the above palette index. 
     Video encoder  20  may be configured to entropy encode the index block to compress the index block. Similarly, video decoder  30  may be configured to entropy decode an encoded index block to generate the index block from which video decoder  30  may generate a block of samples (e.g., the block of video data encoded by encoder  20 ). For example, run-length based entropy coding may be used to compress and decompress the index block. In some examples, video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may be configured to respectively entropy encode and decode the index values in the index block using CABAC. 
     To apply CABAC coding to information (e.g., a syntax element, an index block such as the index values of the index block, or other information), a video coder (e.g., video encoder  20  and video decoder  30 ) may perform binarization on the information. Binarization refers to the process of converting information into a series of one or more bits. Each series of one or more bits may be referred to as “bins.” Binarization is a lossless process and may include one or a combination of the following coding techniques: fixed length coding, unary coding, truncated unary coding, truncated Rice coding, Golomb coding, exponential Golomb coding, Golomb-Rice coding, any form of Golomb coding, any form of Rice coding, and any form of entropy coding. For example, binarization may include representing the integer value of 5 as 00000101 using an 8-bit fixed length technique or as 11110 using a unary coding technique. 
     After binarization, a video coder may identify a coding context. The coding context may identify probabilities of coding bins having particular values. For instance, a coding context may indicate a 0.7 probability of coding a 0-valued bin and a 0.3 probability of coding a 1-valued bin. After identifying the coding context, the video coder may arithmetically code that bin based on the context, which is known as context mode coding. Bins coded using a CABAC context mode coding may be referred to as “context bins.” 
     Further, rather than performing context mode coding on all bins, a video coder (e.g., video encoder  20  and video decoder  30 ) may code some bins using bypass CABAC coding (e.g., bypass mode coding). Bypass mode coding refers to a bypass mode of a CABAC coder, where bypass coding is the process of arithmetically coding a bin without using an adaptive context (e.g., a coding context). That is, the bypass coding engine does not select contexts and may assume a probability of 0.5 for both symbols (0 and 1). Although bypass mode coding may not be as bandwidth-efficient as context mode coding, it may be computationally less expensive to perform bypass mode coding on a bin rather than to perform context mode coding on the bin. Further, performing bypass mode coding may allow for a higher degree of parallelization and throughput. Bins coded using bypass mode coding may be referred to as “bypass bins.” 
     Video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may be configured with a CABAC coder (e.g., a CABAC encoder and a CABAC decoder, respectively). A CABAC coder may include a context mode coding engine to perform CABAC context mode coding and a bypass mode coding engine to perform bypass mode coding. If a bin is context mode coded, the context mode coding engine is used to code this bin. The context mode coding engine may need more than two processing cycles to code a single bin. However, with proper pipeline design, a context mode coding engine may only need n+M cycles to encode n bins, where M is the overhead to start the pipeline. M is usually greater than 0. 
     At the start of the CABAC coding process (i.e., every switch from bypass mode to context mode and vice versa), pipeline overhead is introduced. If a bin is bypass mode coded, the bypass mode coding engine is used to code this bin. The bypass mode coding engine may be expected to need only one cycle to code n-bit information, where n may be greater than one. Thus, the total number of cycles to code a set of bypass bins and context bins may be reduced if all of the bypass bins within the set are coded together (e.g., in sequence without interleaved context-coded bins), and all of the context bins within the set are coded together (e.g., in sequence without interleaved bypass-coded bins). In particular, coding the bypass bins together before or after transitioning to context mode coding can save the overhead required to restart the context mode coding engine. For example, video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may be configured to switch from bypass mode to context mode (or context mode to bypass mode in other examples) a single time, over a series of bypass- and context-coded bins, while respectively encoding or decoding a block of video data using palette mode. In another example, video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may be configured to reduce the number of times the encoding or decoding process switches from bypass mode to context mode (and context mode to bypass mode) when encoding or decoding a block of video data using palette mode. 
     The techniques described in this disclosure may include techniques for various combinations of one or more of signaling palette-based video coding modes, transmitting palettes, deriving palettes, signaling scanning order, deriving scanning order, and transmitting palette-based video coding maps and other syntax elements. For example, techniques of this disclosure may be directed to entropy coding palette information. In some examples, the techniques of this disclosure may, among other things, be used to increase coding efficiency and reduce coding inefficiencies associated with palette-based video coding. Accordingly, as described in greater detail below, the techniques of this disclosure may, in some instances, improve efficiency and improve bitrate when coding video data using a palette mode. 
     The techniques, aspects, and/or examples described herein may be utilized in conjuction with one another in any combination or separately from one another. For instance, video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may be configured to perform any one or any suitable combination of one or more of the techniques, aspects, and/or examples described herein. 
     A problem with the example coding system is described in document Tzu-Der Chuang et al., “CE-1 related: Index Map scan for 64×64 palette coding block,” JCTVC-T0058 version 3, uploaded to the JCT-VC Document Management System on Feb. 10, 2015 (hereinafter “JCTVC-T0058”) is that the palette block size can be as big as 64×64 and with a scanning pattern as big as 64×64, but the biggest transform block size is 32×32 where, for example, coefficient scanning is applied. So, in this case, the pipeline in the implementation will be increased to 64×64 block sizes, which is not required without palette mode and therefore presents a special case for palette mode. JCTVC-T0058 described coding a 64×64 block in palette mode as four 32×32 sub-blocks by altering a 64×64 traverse scan into four 32×32 traverse scans. However, doing so would require a change to palette mode coding, which would be specific only for a 64×64 palette block, and thus introduce, for example, non-uniformity into palette mode coding. 
     In various examples of this disclosure, techniques of this disclosure may be directed to processes of predicting or coding a block in palette mode to improve coding efficiency and/or reduce codec complexity by, for example, addressing how, if at all, a 64×64 block is to be coded using palette mode. 
     In some examples of this disclosure, palette mode coding may be disabled for any palette block having a size of 64×64 or greater. In other examples, palette mode coding may be restricted to palette blocks having a size less than 64×64, meaning that palette mode coding may be enabled or otherwise used for palette blocks having a size less than 64×64. In other examples, the largest palette block size may be normatively restricted based on the largest transform unit size, such as being normatively restricted to the largest transform unit size. Palette mode coding may be disabled for a palette block size that exceeds or is otherwise larger than the largest transform unit size. In such examples, it is understood that the largest palette block size may be based on the largest transform unit size in that the largest palette block size is normatively restricted to the largest transform unit size. For example, video encoder  20  may be configured to normatively restrict the largest palette block size that may be encoded using palette mode to the largest transform unit size. In this example, video encoder  20  may be configured to disable palette mode or otherwise not use palette mode for any palette block having a size larger than the largest transform unit size that video encoder  20  is configured to encode. 
     For example, if the largest transform unit size that video encoder  20  is configured to encode is 32×32, then video encoder  20  may be configured to normatively restrict the largest palette block size to 32×32. In such an example, video encoder  20  may be configured to disable palette mode or otherwise not use palette mode for any palette block having a size larger than 32×32. It is also understood in such an example that video encoder  20  may be configured to enable palette mode or otherwise use palette mode for any palette block having a size less than or equal to 32×32. Examples of palette blocks having a size larger than 32×32 include, for example, 64×64, 64×16, 16×64, 64×32, and 32×64. 
     As another example, if the largest transform unit size that video encoder  20  is configured to encode is 16×16, then video encoder  20  may be configured to normatively restrict the largest palette block size to 16×16. In such an example, video encoder  20  may be configured to disable palette mode or otherwise not use palette mode for any palette block having a size larger than 16×16. It is also understood in such an example that video encoder  20  may be configured to enable palette mode or otherwise use palette mode for any palette block having a size less than or equal to 16×16. 
     In other examples, the largest transform unit size that video encoder  20  is configured to encode may be normatively restricted to a block size of M×N, where M and N are positive integers and may or may not equal each other. In some examples, M and/or N may be based on the largest transform unit size. For example, if the largest transform unit size is 32×32, then M and N would both equal 32. However, in an example where the largest transform unit size is 32×16, then M would equal 32 and N would equal 16. In such an example, examples of palette blocks having a size larger than 32×16 include, for example, 64×64, 64×16, 16×64, 64×32, 32×64, 32×32, and 16×32. 
     In some examples, video encoder  20  may be configured to signal the largest transform unit size for a particular data set. In such examples, video encoder  20  may be configured to disable palette mode or otherwise not use palette mode for any palette block associated with the particular data set that has a block size larger than the signaled largest transform unit size. Accordingly, as used herein, the largest transform unit may refer to the largest transform unit that video encoder  20  is configured to encode, or may refer to a signaled largest transform unit for a particular data set (e.g., one or more blocks of video data). For example, while the largest transform unit size may be 32×32, video encoder  20  may signal, for a particular data set, that the largest transform unit size is 16×16. Therefore, for this particular data set in this example, the largest transform unit size is 16×16. 
     Accordingly, it is understood that video encoder  20  may be configured to dynamically disable palette mode or otherwise be configured not to use palette mode based on the largest transform unit size. Similarly, it is understood that video encoder  20  may be configured to dynamically disable palette mode or otherwise be configured not to use palette mode for any palette block having a size larger than the largest transform unit. It is therefore also understood that video encoder  20  may be configured to dynamically disable palette mode or otherwise be configured not to use palette mode for any palette block having a size that is not equal or less than the largest transform unit. It is therefore further understood that video encoder  20  may be configured to encode a block of video data using palette mode only when the block of video data has a size that does not exceed the largest transform unit that video encoder  20  may be configured to encode. Similarly, video encoder  20  may be configured to enable palette mode coding for a block of video data only when the block of video data has a size that does not exceed the largest transform unit. 
     Likewise, it is therefore understood that video decoder  30  may be configured to dynamically disable palette mode or otherwise be configured not to use palette mode for any palette block having a size that is not equal or less than the largest transform unit. It is therefore further understood that video decoder  30  may be configured to decode a block of video data using palette mode only when the block of video data has a size that does not exceed the largest transform unit that video encoder  20  may be configured to encode and/or that video decoder  30  may be configured to decode. Similarly, video decoder  30  may be configured to enable palette mode coding for a block of video data only when the block of video data has a size that does not exceed the largest transform unit. In other examples, video decoder  30  may be configured to determine whether palette mode is enabled or disable based on a value corresponding to palette mode flag, such as a value for the syntax element of palette_mode_flag. 
     As another example, video decoder  30  may be configured to receive a block of video data. Video decoder  30  may be configured to determine the size of the block video data relative to the largest transform unit size. Video decoder  30  may be configured to determine that the received block of video is not palette mode encoded when the received block of video data is greater than the size of the largest transform unit size. 
     As set forth herein, the largest palette block size may be normatively restricted. For example, the largest palette block size may be based on the largest transform unit size, such as being normatively restricted to the largest transform unit size. In some examples, video encoder  20  may be configured with a conformance bitstream constraint to implement any palette block size restriction described herein resulting in controlling when palette mode is disabled, enabled, or otherwise used. For example, the conformant bitstream constraint may be that a conformant bitstream shall not have a block exceeding a certain size coded with palette mode. As another example, the conformant bitstream constraint may be that a conformant bitstream shall have a block coded with palette mode only where the block equals or is less than a certain size. In both examples, the referenced certain size may be 32×32 or any other M×N size, where M and N are positive integers and may or may not equal each other. However, in other examples, the referenced certain size in both examples above may be based on the largest transform unit size. In such examples, the conformant bitstream constraint may, for example, be that a conformant bitstream shall not have a block exceeding the largest transform unit. As another example, the conformant bitstream constraint may be that a conformant bitstream must comply with one or more normative restrictions described herein. 
     With respect to any conformant bitstream constraint described herein, it is understood that video encoder  20  may be configured with any such constraint(s) in any combination to control when palette mode is disabled, enabled, or otherwise used for a block of video data. 
     In other examples, video encoder  20  may be configured to implement any palette block size restriction described herein by being configured to divide any block of video data to be palette mode coded into M×N sub-blocks such that the entire block of video data is represented by M×N sub-blocks, where M and N are positive integers and may or may not equal each other. Dividing the entire block of video data means that each pixel (e.g., sample) of the block of video data is part of an M×N sub-block. The size of the sub-block may be dependent upon one or more criteria. For example, the size of the M×N sub-block may be dependent upon the size of the block used in transform coefficient coding (e.g., the size of a transform block in a TU) to align palette mode coding with transform coefficient coding. In such an example, if video encoder  20  is configured to transform coefficient code using blocks 4×4 in size, then video encoder  20  may be configured to divide any block of video data to be palette mode coded into 4×4 sub-blocks, where M and N both equal 4. For example, instead of coding a 64×64 block using palette mode, video encoder  20  may be configured to divide the 64×64 block into a plurality of 4×4 sub-blocks resulting in two hundred fifty-six 4×4 sub-blocks in this example, with each sub-block being individually coded using palette mode. 
     In another example, rather than depend upon one or more criteria, the size of the M×N sub-block may be a default size less than 64×64. For example, the default size of the M×N sub-block may be 4×4, 8×8, 16×16, 32×32, or any other size less than 64×64. In this example, video encoder  20  may be configured to implement any palette block size restriction described herein by being configured to divide any block of video data to be palette mode coded into the default size, such as 4×4, 8×8, 16×16, 32×32, or any other size less than 64×64, respectively. 
     In some examples, the M×N sub-blocks may be scanned according to any scan order. For example, video encoder  20  may be configured to scan the M×N sub-blocks using a zigzag scan order, a horizontal scan order, a vertical scan order, a “snake-like” scan order (i.e., a traverse scan order), or any other scan order. 
     In other examples, video encoder  20  may be configured to implement any palette block size restriction described herein by being configured to signal palette mode (e.g., by signaling a value for the syntax element of palette_mode_flag) for blocks having a size of 64×64, but also being configured to signal other palette related information (e.g., reused palette entries, new palette entries, palette table size, etc.) for M×N sub-block sizes being less than 64×64, where M and N are positive integers and may or may not equal each other. For example, the M×N sub-block size may be 32×32. In some examples, the M×N sub-block size may be 32×32 because 32×32 corresponds to the size of the largest transform unit. In such an example, video encoder  20  may be configured to implement any palette block size restriction described herein by being configured to signal palette mode for blocks having a size of 64×64, but also being configured to signal other palette related information in 32×32 sub-block sizes (or any other M×N sub-block size). This is one example described herein where video encoder  20  may be configured to harmonize palette mode block size with transform unit block size. In some examples, M and/or N may be based on the largest transform unit size. For example, if the largest transform unit size is 32×32, then M and N would both equal 32. The scan order for the 64×64 palette block size may be the same as the scan order for each of the M×N blocks. 
     In one example involving a palette block size of 64×64, video encoder may be configured to signal palette mode for this 64×64 sized palette block. Video encoder may then be configured to signal other palette related information for each M×N sub-block. For example, video encoder  20  may be configured to signal max_palette_size for each M×N sub-block. 
     In other examples, video encoder  20  may be configured to implement any palette block size restriction described herein by being configured to restrict the longest run length of index values and/or escape values to be less than a threshold value of T. In such examples, rather than split a 64×64 palette block into sub-blocks, video encoder  20  may be configured to limit the maximum run length to be less than the threshold value of T. By restricting the maximum run length value, video encoder  20  may be configured to implement palette block size restriction without dividing the palette block into sub-blocks. 
     In some examples, T may be equal to the largest transform unit size. For example, if the largest transform unit size is 32×32, then T may be equal to 32×32. An example involving a horizontal traverse scan order for a 64×64 palette block and a T value of 32×32 is now described. Rather than process the palette block in 32×32 quadrants (e.g., an index value followed by a run length less than T, such as 32×32 minus 1) in this example, video encoder  20  may process the 64×64 palette block as-is, but limit the maximum run length to a value less than the value of T, such as 32×32 minus 1. 
     In some examples, video encoder  20  may be configured with a conformance bitstream constraint to implement any palette block size restriction described herein. For example, the conformant bitstream constraint may be that a conformant bitstream shall not include a run length value equal to or greater than the threshold value of T. 
       FIG. 2  is a block diagram illustrating an example video encoder  20  that may implement the techniques of this disclosure.  FIG. 2  is provided for purposes of explanation and should not be considered limiting of the techniques as broadly exemplified and described in this disclosure. For purposes of explanation, this disclosure describes video encoder  20  in the context of HEVC coding. However, the techniques of this disclosure may be applicable to other coding standards or methods. 
     Video encoder  20  represents an example of a device that may be configured to perform techniques for palette-based coding in accordance with various examples described in this disclosure. 
     In the example of  FIG. 2 , video encoder  20  includes a block encoding unit  100 , video data memory  101 , a residual generation unit  102 , a transform processing unit  104 , a quantization unit  106 , an inverse quantization unit  108 , an inverse transform processing unit  110 , a reconstruction unit  112 , a filter unit  114 , a decoded picture buffer  116 , and an entropy encoding unit  118 . Block encoding unit  100  includes an inter-prediction processing unit  120  and an intra-prediction processing unit  126 . Inter-prediction processing unit  120  includes a motion estimation unit and a motion compensation unit (not shown). Video encoder  20  also includes a palette-based encoding unit  122  configured to perform various aspects of the palette-based coding techniques described in this disclosure. In other examples, video encoder  20  may include more, fewer, or different functional components. 
     Video data memory  101  may store video data to be encoded by the components of video encoder  20 . The video data stored in video data memory  101  may be obtained, for example, from video source  18 . Decoded picture buffer  116  may be a reference picture memory that stores reference video data for use in encoding video data by video encoder  20 , e.g., in intra- or inter-coding modes. Video data memory  101  and decoded picture buffer  116  may be formed by any of a variety of memory devices, such as dynamic random access memory (DRAM), including synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM), resistive RAM (RRAM), or other types of memory devices. Video data memory  101  and decoded picture buffer  116  may be provided by the same memory device or separate memory devices. In various examples, video data memory  101  may be on-chip with other components of video encoder  20 , or off-chip relative to those components. 
     Video encoder  20  may receive video data. Video encoder  20  may encode each CTU in a slice of a picture of the video data. Each of the CTUs may be associated with equally-sized luma coding tree blocks (CTBs) and corresponding CTBs of the picture. As part of encoding a CTU, block encoding unit  100  may perform quad-tree partitioning to divide the CTBs of the CTU into progressively-smaller blocks. The smaller block may be coding blocks of CUs. For example, block encoding unit  100  may partition a CTB associated with a CTU into four equally-sized sub-blocks, partition one or more of the sub-blocks into four equally-sized sub-sub-blocks, and so on. 
     Video encoder  20  may encode CUs of a CTU to generate encoded representations of the CUs (i.e., coded CUs). As part of encoding a CU, block encoding unit  100  may partition the coding blocks associated with the CU among one or more PUs of the CU. Thus, each PU may be associated with a luma prediction block and corresponding chroma prediction blocks. Video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may support PUs having various sizes. As indicated above, the size of a CU may refer to the size of the luma coding block of the CU and the size of a PU may refer to the size of a luma prediction block of the PU. Assuming that the size of a particular CU is 2N×2N, video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may support PU sizes of 2N×2N or N×N for intra prediction, and symmetric PU sizes of 2N×2N, 2N×N, N×2N, N×N, or similar for inter prediction. Video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may also support asymmetric partitioning for PU sizes of 2N×nU, 2N×nD, nL×2N, and nR×2N for inter prediction. 
     Inter-prediction processing unit  120  may generate predictive data for a PU by performing inter prediction on each PU of a CU. The predictive data for the PU may include predictive blocks of the PU and motion information for the PU. Inter-prediction unit  121  may perform different operations for a PU of a CU depending on whether the PU is in an I slice, a P slice, or a B slice. In an I slice, all PUs are intra predicted. Hence, if the PU is in an I slice, inter-prediction unit  121  does not perform inter prediction on the PU. Thus, for blocks encoded in I-mode, the predicted block is formed using spatial prediction from previously-encoded neighboring blocks within the same frame. 
     If a PU is in a P slice, the motion estimation unit of inter-prediction processing unit  120  may search the reference pictures in a list of reference pictures (e.g., “RefPicList0”) for a reference region for the PU. The reference region for the PU may be a region, within a reference picture, that contains sample blocks that most closely corresponds to the sample blocks of the PU. The motion estimation unit may generate a reference index that indicates a position in RefPicList0 of the reference picture containing the reference region for the PU. In addition, the motion estimation unit may generate an MV that indicates a spatial displacement between a coding block of the PU and a reference location associated with the reference region. For instance, the MV may be a two-dimensional vector that provides an offset from the coordinates in the current decoded picture to coordinates in a reference picture. The motion estimation unit may output the reference index and the MV as the motion information of the PU. The motion compensation unit of inter-prediction processing unit  120  may generate the predictive blocks of the PU based on actual or interpolated samples at the reference location indicated by the motion vector of the PU. 
     If a PU is in a B slice, the motion estimation unit may perform uni-prediction or bi-prediction for the PU. To perform uni-prediction for the PU, the motion estimation unit may search the reference pictures of RefPicList0 or a second reference picture list (“RefPicList1”) for a reference region for the PU. The motion estimation unit may output, as the motion information of the PU, a reference index that indicates a position in RefPicList0 or RefPicList1 of the reference picture that contains the reference region, an MV that indicates a spatial displacement between a prediction block of the PU and a reference location associated with the reference region, and one or more prediction direction indicators that indicate whether the reference picture is in RefPicList0 or RefPicList1. The motion compensation unit of inter-prediction processing unit  120  may generate the predictive blocks of the PU based at least in part on actual or interpolated samples at the reference region indicated by the motion vector of the PU. 
     To perform bi-directional inter prediction for a PU, the motion estimation unit may search the reference pictures in RefPicList0 for a reference region for the PU and may also search the reference pictures in RefPicList1 for another reference region for the PU. The motion estimation unit may generate reference picture indexes that indicate positions in RefPicList0 and RefPicList1 of the reference pictures that contain the reference regions. In addition, the motion estimation unit may generate MVs that indicate spatial displacements between the reference location associated with the reference regions and a sample block of the PU. The motion information of the PU may include the reference indexes and the MVs of the PU. The motion compensation unit may generate the predictive blocks of the PU based at least in part on actual or interpolated samples at the reference regions indicated by the motion vectors of the PU. 
     In accordance with various examples of this disclosure, video encoder  20  may be configured to perform palette-based coding. With respect to the HEVC framework, as an example, the palette-based coding techniques may be configured to be used at the CU level. In other examples, the palette-based video coding techniques may be configured to be used at the PU level. In other examples, the palette-based coding techniques may be configured to be used at the sub-prediction unit (sub-PU) level (e.g., a sub-block of a prediction unit). Accordingly, all of the disclosed processes described herein (throughout this disclosure) in the context of a CU level may, additionally or alternatively, apply to a PU level or a sub-PU level. However, these HEVC-based examples should not be considered a restriction or limitation of the palette-based video coding techniques described herein, as such techniques may be applied to work independently or as part of other existing or yet to be developed systems/standards. In these cases, the unit for palette coding can be square blocks, rectangular blocks or even regions of non-rectangular shape. 
     Palette-based encoding unit  122 , for example, may perform palette-based decoding when a palette-based encoding mode is selected, e.g., for a CU or PU. For example, palette-based encoding unit  122  may be configured to generate a palette having entries indicating pixel values, select pixel values in a palette to represent pixel values of at least some positions of a block of video data, and signal information associating at least some of the positions of the block of video data with entries in the palette corresponding, respectively, to the selected pixel values. Although various functions are described as being performed by palette-based encoding unit  122 , some or all of such functions may be performed by other processing units, or a combination of different processing units. 
     According to aspects of this disclosure, palette-based encoding unit  122  may be configured to perform any combination of the techniques for palette coding described herein. 
     For example, palette-based encoding unit  122  may be configured to disable palette mode coding for any palette block having a size of 64×64 or greater. In other examples, palette-based encoding unit  122  may be configured to restrict palette mode coding to palette blocks having a size less than 64×64, meaning that palette mode coding may be enabled or otherwise used for palette blocks having a size less than 64×64. In other examples, palette-based encoding unit  122  may be configured to normatively restrict the largest palette block size based on the largest transform unit size. As another example, palette-based encoding unit  122  may be configured to disable palette mode coding for a palette block having a size that exceeds or is otherwise larger than the largest transform unit size. Palette-based encoding unit  122  may be similarly configured to perform any other techniques for palette coding described herein. 
     Intra-prediction processing unit  126  may generate predictive data for a PU by performing intra prediction on the PU. The predictive data for the PU may include predictive blocks for the PU and various syntax elements. Intra-prediction processing unit  126  may perform intra prediction on PUs in I slices, P slices, and B slices. 
     To perform intra prediction on a PU, intra-prediction processing unit  126  may use multiple intra prediction modes to generate multiple sets of predictive data for the PU. Intra-prediction processing unit  126  may use samples from sample blocks of neighboring PUs to generate a predictive block for a PU. The neighboring PUs may be above, above and to the right, above and to the left, or to the left of the PU, assuming a left-to-right, top-to-bottom encoding order for PUs, CUs, and CTUs. Intra-prediction processing unit  126  may use various numbers of intra prediction modes, e.g., 33 directional intra prediction modes. In some examples, the number of intra prediction modes may depend on the size of the region associated with the PU. 
     Block encoding unit  100  may select the predictive data for PUs of a CU from among the predictive data generated by inter-prediction processing unit  120  for the PUs or the predictive data generated by intra-prediction processing unit  126  for the PUs. In some examples, block encoding unit  100  selects the predictive data for the PUs of the CU based on rate/distortion metrics of the sets of predictive data. The predictive blocks of the selected predictive data may be referred to herein as the selected predictive blocks. 
     Residual generation unit  102  may generate, based on the luma, Cb and Cr coding block of a CU and the selected predictive luma, Cb and Cr blocks of the PUs of the CU, a luma, Cb and Cr residual blocks of the CU. For instance, residual generation unit  102  may generate the residual blocks of the CU such that each sample in the residual blocks has a value equal to a difference between a sample in a coding block of the CU and a corresponding sample in a corresponding selected predictive block of a PU of the CU. 
     Transform processing unit  104  may perform quad-tree partitioning to partition the residual blocks associated with a CU into transform blocks associated with TUs of the CU. Thus, in some examples, a TU may be associated with a luma transform block and two chroma transform blocks. The sizes and positions of the luma and chroma transform blocks of TUs of a CU may or may not be based on the sizes and positions of prediction blocks of the PUs of the CU. A quad-tree structure known as a “residual quad-tree” (RQT) may include nodes associated with each of the regions. The TUs of a CU may correspond to leaf nodes of the RQT. 
     Transform processing unit  104  may generate transform coefficient blocks for each TU of a CU by applying one or more transforms to the transform blocks of the TU. Transform processing unit  104  may apply various transforms to a transform block associated with a TU. For example, transform processing unit  104  may apply a discrete cosine transform (DCT), a directional transform, or a conceptually similar transform to a transform block. In some examples, transform processing unit  104  does not apply transforms to a transform block. In such examples, the transform block may be treated as a transform coefficient block. 
     Quantization unit  106  may quantize the transform coefficients in a coefficient block. The quantization process may reduce the bit depth associated with some or all of the transform coefficients. For example, an n-bit transform coefficient may be rounded down to an m-bit transform coefficient during quantization, where n is greater than m. Quantization unit  106  may quantize a coefficient block associated with a TU of a CU based on a quantization parameter (QP) value associated with the CU. Video encoder  20  may adjust the degree of quantization applied to the coefficient blocks associated with a CU by adjusting the QP value associated with the CU. Quantization may introduce loss of information, thus quantized transform coefficients may have lower precision than the original ones. 
     Inverse quantization unit  108  and inverse transform processing unit  110  may apply inverse quantization and inverse transforms to a coefficient block, respectively, to reconstruct a residual block from the coefficient block. Reconstruction unit  112  may add the reconstructed residual block to corresponding samples from one or more predictive blocks generated by block encoding unit  100  to produce a reconstructed transform block associated with a TU. By reconstructing transform blocks for each TU of a CU in this way, video encoder  20  may reconstruct the coding blocks of the CU. 
     Filter unit  114  may perform one or more deblocking operations to reduce blocking artifacts in the coding blocks associated with a CU. Filter unit  114  may perform other filtering operations, including sample adaptive offset (SAO) filtering and/or adaptive loop filtering (ALF). Decoded picture buffer  116  may store the reconstructed coding blocks after filter unit  114  performs the one or more deblocking operations on the reconstructed coding blocks. Inter-prediction processing unit  120  may use a reference picture that contains the reconstructed coding blocks to perform inter prediction on PUs of other pictures. In addition, intra-prediction processing unit  126  may use reconstructed coding blocks in decoded picture buffer  116  to perform intra prediction on other PUs in the same picture as the CU. 
     Entropy encoding unit  118  may receive data from other functional components of video encoder  20 . For example, entropy encoding unit  118  may receive coefficient blocks from quantization unit  106  and may receive syntax elements from block encoding unit  100 . Entropy encoding unit  118  may perform one or more entropy encoding operations on the data to generate entropy-encoded data. For example, entropy encoding unit  118  may perform a context-adaptive coding operation, such as a CABAC operation, a context-adaptive variable length coding (CAVLC) operation, a variable-to-variable (V2V) length coding operation, a syntax-based context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding (SBAC) operation, a Probability Interval Partitioning Entropy (PIPE) coding operation, an Exponential-Golomb encoding operation, or another type of entropy encoding operation on the data. Video encoder  20  may output a bitstream that includes entropy-encoded data generated by entropy encoding unit  118 . For instance, the bitstream may include data that represents a RQT for a CU. 
     In some examples, residual coding is not performed with palette coding. Accordingly, video encoder  20  may not perform transformation or quantization when coding using a palette coding mode. In addition, video encoder  20  may entropy encode data generated using a palette coding mode separately from residual data. 
     According to one or more of the techniques of this disclosure, video encoder  20 , and specifically palette-based encoding unit  122 , may perform palette-based video coding of predicted video blocks. As described above, a palette generated by video encoder  20  may be explicitly encoded and sent to video decoder  30 , predicted from previous palette entries, predicted from previous pixel values, or a combination thereof. 
       FIG. 3  is a block diagram illustrating an example video decoder  30  that is configured to perform the techniques of this disclosure.  FIG. 3  is provided for purposes of explanation and is not limiting on the techniques as broadly exemplified and described in this disclosure. For purposes of explanation, this disclosure describes video decoder  30  in the context of HEVC coding. However, the techniques of this disclosure may be applicable to other coding standards or methods. 
     The details of palette coding described above with respect to encoder  20  are not repeated here with respect to decoder  30 , but it is understood that decoder  30  may perform the reciprocal decoding process relative to any encoding process described herein with respect to encoder  20 . 
     For example, it is understood that video decoder  30  may be configured to dynamically disable palette mode or otherwise be configured not to use palette mode for any palette block having a size that is not equal or less than the largest transform unit. It is further understood that video decoder  30  may be configured to decode a block of video data using palette mode only when the block of video data has a size that does not exceed the largest transform unit that video encoder  20  may be configured to encode and/or that video decoder  30  may be configured to decode. Similarly, video decoder  30  may be configured to enable palette mode coding for a block of video data only when the block of video data has a size that does not exceed the largest transform unit. In other examples, video decoder  30  may be configured to determine whether palette mode is enabled or disable based on a value corresponding to palette mode flag, such as a value for the syntax element of palette_mode_flag. 
     As another example, video decoder  30  may be configured to receive a block of video data. Video decoder  30  may be configured to determine the size of the block video data relative to the largest transform unit size. Video decoder  30  may be configured to determine that the received block of video is not palette mode encoded when the received block of video data is greater than the size of the largest transform unit size. 
     Video decoder  30  represents an example of a device that may be configured to perform techniques for palette-based coding and entropy coding (e.g., CABAC) in accordance with various examples described in this disclosure. 
     In the example of  FIG. 3 , video decoder  30  includes an entropy decoding unit  150 , video data memory  151 , a block decoding unit  152 , an inverse quantization unit  154 , an inverse transform processing unit  156 , a reconstruction unit  158 , a filter unit  160 , and a decoded picture buffer  162 . Block decoding unit  152  includes a motion compensation unit  164  and an intra-prediction processing unit  166 . Video decoder  30  also includes a palette-based decoding unit  165  configured to perform various aspects of the palette-based coding techniques described in this disclosure. In other examples, video decoder  30  may include more, fewer, or different functional components. 
     Video data memory  151  may store video data, such as an encoded video bitstream, to be decoded by the components of video decoder  30 . The video data stored in video data memory  151  may be obtained, for example, from computer-readable medium  16 , e.g., from a local video source, such as a camera, via wired or wireless network communication of video data, or by accessing physical data storage media. Video data memory  151  may form a coded picture buffer (CPB) that stores encoded video data from an encoded video bitstream. Decoded picture buffer  162  may be a reference picture memory that stores reference video data for use in decoding video data by video decoder  30 , e.g., in intra- or inter-coding modes. Video data memory  151  and decoded picture buffer  162  may be formed by any of a variety of memory devices, such as dynamic random access memory (DRAM), including synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM), resistive RAM (RRAM), or other types of memory devices. Video data memory  151  and decoded picture buffer  162  may be provided by the same memory device or separate memory devices. In various examples, video data memory  151  may be on-chip with other components of video decoder  30 , or off-chip relative to those components. 
     A coded picture buffer (CPB) may receive and store encoded video data (e.g., NAL units) of a bitstream. Entropy decoding unit  150  may receive encoded video data (e.g., NAL units) from the CPB and parse the NAL units to decode syntax elements. Entropy decoding unit  150  may entropy decode entropy-encoded syntax elements in the NAL units. Block decoding unit  152 , inverse quantization unit  154 , inverse transform processing unit  156 , reconstruction unit  158 , and filter unit  160  may generate decoded video data based on the syntax elements extracted from the bitstream. 
     Video decoder  30  may be configured to perform a process generally reciprocal to that of video encoder  20  described herein. Similarly, video encoder  20  may be configured to perform a process generally reciprocal to that of video decoder  20  described herein. For example, disclosure that video decoder  30  may be configured to decode an encoded syntax element in a bitstream likewise necessarily discloses that video encoder  20  may be configured to encode the syntax element into the bitstream. 
     As another example, entropy decoding unit  150  may be configured to perform a process generally reciprocal to that of entropy encoding unit  118  described herein. According to aspects of this disclosure, entropy decoding unit  150  may be configured to entropy decode any code words generated by entropy encoding unit  118 . 
     The NAL units of the bitstream may include coded slice NAL units. As part of decoding the bitstream, entropy decoding unit  150  may extract and entropy decode syntax elements from the coded slice NAL units. Each of the coded slices may include a slice header and slice data. The slice header may contain syntax elements pertaining to a slice. The syntax elements in the slice header may include a syntax element that identifies a PPS associated with a picture that contains the slice. 
     In addition to decoding syntax elements from the bitstream, video decoder  30  may perform a reconstruction operation on a non-partitioned CU. To perform the reconstruction operation on a non-partitioned CU, video decoder  30  may perform a reconstruction operation on each TU of the CU. By performing the reconstruction operation for each TU of the CU, video decoder  30  may reconstruct residual blocks of the CU. 
     As part of performing a reconstruction operation on a TU of a CU, inverse quantization unit  154  may inverse quantize, i.e., de-quantize, coefficient blocks associated with the TU. Inverse quantization unit  154  may use a QP value associated with the CU of the TU to determine a degree of quantization and, likewise, a degree of inverse quantization for inverse quantization unit  154  to apply. That is, the compression ratio, i.e., the ratio of the number of bits used to represent original sequence and the compressed one, may be controlled by adjusting the value of the QP used when quantizing transform coefficients. The compression ratio may also depend on the method of entropy coding employed. 
     After inverse quantization unit  154  inverse quantizes a coefficient block, inverse transform processing unit  156  may apply one or more inverse transforms to the coefficient block in order to generate a residual block associated with the TU. For example, inverse transform processing unit  156  may apply an inverse DCT, an inverse integer transform, an inverse Karhunen-Loeve transform (KLT), an inverse rotational transform, an inverse directional transform, or another inverse transform to the coefficient block. 
     If a PU is encoded using intra prediction, intra-prediction processing unit  166  may perform intra prediction to generate predictive blocks for the PU. Intra-prediction processing unit  166  may use an intra-prediction mode to generate the predictive luma, Cb and Cr blocks for the PU based on the prediction blocks of spatially-neighboring PUs. Intra-prediction processing unit  166  may determine the intra prediction mode for the PU based on one or more syntax elements decoded from the bitstream. 
     Block decoding unit  152  may construct a first reference picture list (RefPicList0) and a second reference picture list (RefPicList1) based on syntax elements extracted from the bitstream. Furthermore, if a PU is encoded using inter prediction, entropy decoding unit  150  may extract motion information for the PU. Motion compensation unit  164  may determine, based on the motion information of the PU, one or more reference regions for the PU. Motion compensation unit  164  may generate, based on samples blocks at the one or more reference blocks for the PU, predictive luma, Cb and Cr blocks for the PU. 
     Reconstruction unit  158  may use the luma, Cb and Cr transform blocks associated with TUs of a CU and the predictive luma, Cb and Cr blocks of the PUs of the CU, i.e., either intra-prediction data or inter-prediction data, as applicable, to reconstruct the luma, Cb and Cr coding blocks of the CU. For example, reconstruction unit  158  may add samples of the luma, Cb and Cr transform blocks to corresponding samples of the predictive luma, Cb and Cr blocks to reconstruct the luma, Cb and Cr coding blocks of the CU. 
     Filter unit  160  may perform a deblocking operation to reduce blocking artifacts associated with the luma, Cb and Cr coding blocks of the CU. Video decoder  30  may store the luma, Cb and Cr coding blocks of the CU in decoded picture buffer  162 . Decoded picture buffer  162  may provide reference pictures for subsequent motion compensation, intra prediction, and presentation on a display device, such as display device  32  of  FIG. 1 . For instance, video decoder  30  may perform, based on the luma, Cb, and Cr blocks in decoded picture buffer  162 , intra prediction or inter prediction operations on PUs of other CUs. 
     In accordance with various examples of this disclosure, video decoder  30  may be configured to perform palette-based coding. Palette-based decoding unit  165 , for example, may perform palette-based decoding when a palette-based decoding mode is selected, e.g., for a CU or PU. For example, palette-based decoding unit  165  may be configured to generate a palette having entries indicating pixel values, receive information associating at least some pixel locations in a block of video data with entries in the palette, select pixel values in the palette based on the information, and reconstruct pixel values of the block based on the selected pixel values in the palette. Although various functions are described as being performed by palette-based decoding unit  165 , some or all of such functions may be performed by other processing units, or a combination of different processing units. 
     Palette-based decoding unit  165  may receive palette coding mode information, and perform the above operations when the palette coding mode information indicates that the palette coding mode applies to the block. When the palette coding mode information indicates that the palette coding mode does not apply to the block, or when other mode information indicates the use of a different mode, palette-based decoding unit  165  decodes the block of video data using a non-palette based coding mode, e.g., such as an HEVC inter-predictive or intra-predictive coding mode. The block of video data may be, for example, a CU or PU generated according to an HEVC coding process. The palette-based coding mode may comprise one of a plurality of different palette-based coding modes, or there may be a single palette-based coding mode. 
     According to aspects of this disclosure, palette-based decoding unit  165  may be configured to perform any combination of the techniques for palette coding described herein. The details of palette coding described above with respect to encoder  20  are not repeated here with respect to decoder  30 , but it is understood that decoder  30  may perform the reciprocal palette-based decoding process relative to any palette-based encoding process described herein with respect to encoder  20 . 
       FIG. 4  is a conceptual diagram illustrating an example of determining a palette for coding video data, consistent with techniques of this disclosure. The example of  FIG. 4  includes a picture  178  having a first PAL (palette) coding unit (CU)  180  that is associated with first palettes  184  and a second PAL CU  188  that is associated with second palettes  192 . As described in greater detail below and in accordance with the techniques of this disclosure, second palettes  192  are based on first palettes  184 . Picture  178  also includes block  196  coded with an intra-prediction coding mode and block  200  that is coded with an inter-prediction coding mode. 
     The techniques of  FIG. 4  are described in the context of video encoder  20  ( FIG. 1  and  FIG. 2 ) and video decoder  30  ( FIG. 1  and  FIG. 3 ) and with respect to the HEVC video coding standard for purposes of explanation. However, it should be understood that the techniques of this disclosure are not limited in this way, and may be applied by other video coding processors and/or devices in other video coding processes and/or standards. 
     In general, a palette refers to a number of pixel values that are dominant and/or representative for a CU currently being coded, CU  188  in the example of  FIG. 4 . First palettes  184  (which may also be referred to as indexes  184 ) and second palettes  192  (which may also be referred to as indexes  192 ) are shown as including multiple palettes (which may also be referred to as multiple indexes). In some examples, according to aspects of this disclosure, a video coder (such as video encoder  20  or video decoder  30 ) may code palettes (e.g., indexes) separately for each color component of a CU. For example, video encoder  20  may encode a palette for a luma (Y) component of a CU, another palette for a chroma (U) component of the CU, and yet another palette for the chroma (V) component of the CU. In this example, entries of the Y palette may represent Y values of pixels of the CU, entries of the U palette may represent U values of pixels of the CU, and entries of the V palette may represent V values of pixels of the CU. 
     In other examples, video encoder  20  may encode a single palette for all color components of a CU. In this example, video encoder  20  may encode a palette having an i-th entry that is a triple value, including Yi, Ui, and Vi. In this case, the palette includes values for each of the components of the pixels. Accordingly, the representation of palettes  184  and  192  as a set of palettes having multiple individual palettes is merely one example and not intended to be limiting. 
     In the example of  FIG. 4 , first palettes  184  includes three entries  202 - 206  having entry index value 1, entry index value 2, and entry index value 3, respectively. First palettes  184  relate the index values (e.g., the values shown in the left column of first palettes  184 ) to pixel values. For example, as shown in  FIG. 4 , one of first palettes  184  relates index values 1, 2, and 3 to pixel values A, B, and C, respectively. As described herein, rather than coding the actual pixel values of first CU  180 , a video coder (such as video encoder  20  or video decoder  30 ) may use palette-based coding to code the pixels of the block using the indices 1-3 (which may also be expressed as index values 1-3). That is, for each pixel position of first CU  180 , video encoder  20  may encode an index value for the pixel, where the index value is associated with a pixel value in one or more of first palettes  184 . Video decoder  30  may obtain the index values from a bitstream and reconstruct the pixel values using the index values and one or more of first palettes  184 . Thus, first palettes  184  are transmitted by video encoder  20  in an encoded video data bitstream for use by video decoder  30  in palette-based decoding. 
     In some examples, video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may determine second palettes  192  based on first palettes  184 . For example, video encoder  20  and/or video decoder  30  may locate one or more blocks from which the predictive palettes, in this example, first palettes  184 , are determined. In some examples, such as the example illustrated in  FIG. 4 , video encoder  20  and/or video decoder  30  may locate the previously coded CU such as a left neighboring CU (first CU  180 ) when determining a predictive palette for second CU  188 . 
     In the example of  FIG. 4 , second palettes  192  include three entries  208 - 212  having entry index value 1, entry index value 2, and entry index value 3, respectively. Second palettes  192  relate the index values (e.g., the values shown in the left column of first palettes  192 ) to pixel values. For example, as shown in  FIG. 4 , one of the second palettes  192  relates index values 1, 2, and 3 to pixel values A, B, and D, respectively. In this example, video encoder  20  may code one or more syntax elements indicating which entries of first palettes  184  are included in second palettes  192 . In the example of  FIG. 4 , the one or more syntax elements are illustrated as a vector  216 . Vector  216  has a number of associated bins (or bits), with each bin indicating whether the palette predictor associated with that bin is used to predict an entry of the current palette. For example, vector  216  indicates that the first two entries of first palettes  184  ( 202  and  204 ) are included in second palettes  192  (a value of “1” in vector  216 ), while the third entry of first palettes  184  is not included in second palettes  192  (a value of “0” in vector  216 ). In the example of  FIG. 4 , the vector is a Boolean vector. 
     In some examples, video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may determine a palette predictor list (which may also be referred to as a palette predictor table) when performing palette prediction. The palette predictor list may include entries from palettes of one or more neighboring blocks that are used to predict one or more entries of a palette for coding a current block. Video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may construct the list in the same manner. Video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may code data (such as vector  216 ) to indicate which entries of the palette predictor list are to be included in a palette for coding a current block. 
       FIG. 5  is a conceptual diagram illustrating an example of determining indices to a palette for a block of pixels, consistent with techniques of this disclosure. For example,  FIG. 5  includes an index block  240  (which may also be referred to as map  240  or index map  240 ) including index values (e.g., index values 1, 2, and 3) that relate to respective positions of pixels associated with the index values to an entry of palettes  244 . 
     While index block  240  is illustrated in the example of  FIG. 5  as including an index value for each pixel position, it should be understood that in other examples, not all pixel positions may be associated with an index value relating the pixel value to an entry of palettes  244 . That is, as noted above, in some examples, video encoder  20  may encode (and video decoder  30  may obtain, from an encoded bitstream) an indication of an actual pixel value (or its quantized version) for a position in index block  240  if the pixel value is not included in palettes  244 . 
     In some examples, video encoder  20  and video decoder  30  may be configured to code an additional map indicating which pixel positions are associated with which index values. For example, assume that the (i, j) entry in the index block  240  corresponds to the (i, j) position of a CU. Video encoder  20  may encode one or more syntax elements for each entry of the index block (i.e., each pixel position) indicating whether the entry has an associated index value. For example, video encoder  20  may encode a flag having a value of one to indicate that the pixel value at the (i, j) location in the CU is one of the values in palettes  244 . 
     Video encoder  20  may, in such an example, also encode a palette (shown in the example of  FIG. 5  as  244 ). In instances in which palettes  244  include a single entry and associated pixel value, video encoder  20  may skip the signaling of the index value. Video encoder  20  may encode the flag to have a value of zero to indicate that the pixel value at the (i, j) location in the CU is not one of the values in palettes  244 . In this example, video encoder  20  may also encode an indication of the pixel value for use by video decoder  30  in reconstructing the pixel value. In some instances, the pixel value may be coded in a lossy manner. 
     The value of a pixel in one position of a CU may provide an indication of values of one or more other pixels in other positions of the CU. For example, there may be a relatively high probability that neighboring pixel positions of a CU will have the same pixel value or may be mapped to the same index value (in the case of lossy coding, in which more than one pixel value may be mapped to a single index value). 
     Accordingly, video encoder  20  may encode one or more syntax elements indicating a number of consecutive pixels or index values in a given scan order that have the same pixel value or index value. As noted above, the string of like-valued pixel or index values may be referred to herein as a run. In an example for purposes of illustration, if two consecutive pixels or indices in a given scan order have different values, the run is equal to zero. If two consecutive pixels or indices in a given scan order have the same value but the third pixel or index in the scan order has a different value, the run is equal to one. For three consecutive indices or pixels with the same value, the run is two, and so forth. Video decoder  30  may obtain the syntax elements indicating a run from an encoded bitstream and use the data to determine the number of consecutive locations that have the same pixel or index value. 
     In some examples in accordance with the techniques of this disclosure, entropy encoding unit  118  and entropy decoding unit  150  may be configured to entropy code index block  240 . For example, encoding unit  118  and entropy decoding unit  150  may be configured to entropy code run-lengths (e.g., run-length values or codes) and/or a binary palette prediction vector relating to an index block in palette mode. 
       FIG. 6  is a conceptual diagram illustrating an example of determining maximum copy above run-length, assuming an example of a raster scanning order, consistent with techniques of this disclosure. In the example of  FIG. 6 , if none of the pixels encompassed by dashed lines  280  is coded as an escape sample, the maximum possible run-length is 35 (i.e. the number of unshaded pixel positions). If one or more of the pixels within dashed lines  280  is coded as an escape sample, assuming that the pixel marked as the escape pixel (the pixel position with the “X”) is the first escape pixel within dashed lines  280  in scanning order, then the maximum possible coded copy above run-length is five. 
     In some examples, video decoder  30  may only determine the run mode (e.g., the palette mode in which the pixels are coded) for the pixels within dashed lines  280 . Hence, in the worst case, video decoder  30  makes the determination for BlockWidth-1 pixels. In some examples, video decoder  30  may be configured to implement certain restrictions regarding the maximum of number of pixels for which the run mode is checked. For example, video decoder  30  may only check the pixels within dashed lines  280  if the pixels are in the same row as the current pixel. Video decoder  30  may infer that all other pixels within dashed lines  280  are not coded as escape samples. The example in  FIG. 6  assumes a raster scanning order. The techniques however, may be applied to other scanning orders, such as vertical, horizontal traverse, and vertical traverse. 
       FIG. 7  is a flowchart illustrating an example process for encoding video data consistent with techniques of this disclosure. The process of  FIG. 7  is generally described as being performed by a video encoder (e.g., video encoder  20 ) for purposes of illustration, although a variety of other processors may also carry out the process shown in  FIG. 7 . In some examples, block encoding unit  100 , palette-based encoding unit  122 , and/or entropy encoding unit  118  may perform one or more processes shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     In the example of  FIG. 7 , a video encoder (e.g., video encoder  20 ) may be configured to receive a block of video data having a size ( 700 ). The video encoder may be configured to determine the size of the block of video data ( 702 ). The video encoder may be configured to disable palette mode encoding for the block of video data based on the determined size of the block of video data ( 704 ). 
     In some examples, the video encoder may be configured to restrict palette mode encoding to any block of video data having a first size less than a second size. In some examples, the first size may be 32×32. In some examples, the second size may be 64×64. In such examples, the video encoder may be configured to restrict palette mode to any block of video data having a first size less than 64×64. In some examples, the first size may be 32×32 and the second size may be 64×64. 
     In some examples, the video encoder may be configured to restrict palette mode encoding to any block of video data having a first size less than or equal to a size of a largest transform unit specified for the video data. The size of the largest transform unit may be 32×32. In such an example, the video encoder may be configured to restrict palette mode coding to any block of video data having a first size less than or equal to 32×32. 
     In some examples, the video encoder may be configured to divide the block of video data into a plurality of 4×4 sub-blocks. In such examples, the video encoder may be configured to encode, using palette mode, the plurality of 4×4 sub-blocks. 
     In some examples, the video encoder may be configured to restrict any run length value in palette mode encoding to a maximum run length value such that palette mode encoding is disabled for the block of video data based on the determined size of the block of video data only if any run length value in palette mode encoding is not restricted to the maximum run length value. In one example, the maximum run length value is 32×32 minus 1. In another example, the maximum run length is based on a size of a largest transform unit. In this example, if the size of the largest transform unit is 32×32, then the maximum run length may be less than 32×32, such as 32×32 minus 1. In another example, the maximum run length is based on a number of coefficients in a largest transform unit. 
     It should be understood that all of the techniques described herein may be used individually or in combination. For example, video encoder  20  and/or one or more components thereof and video decoder  30  and/or one or more components thereof may perform the techniques described in this disclosure in any combination. 
     It is to be recognized that depending on the example, certain acts or events of any of the techniques described herein can be performed in a different sequence, may be added, merged, or left out altogether (e.g., not all described acts or events are necessary for the practice of the techniques). Moreover, in certain examples, acts or events may be performed concurrently, e.g., through multi-threaded processing, interrupt processing, or multiple processors, rather than sequentially. In addition, while certain aspects of this disclosure are described as being performed by a single module or unit for purposes of clarity, it should be understood that the techniques of this disclosure may be performed by a combination of units or modules associated with a video coder. 
     Certain aspects of this disclosure have been described with respect to the developing HEVC standard for purposes of illustration. However, the techniques described in this disclosure may be useful for other video coding processes, including other standard or proprietary video coding processes not yet developed. 
     The techniques described above may be performed by video encoder  20  ( FIGS. 1 and 2 ) and/or video decoder  30  ( FIGS. 1 and 3 ), both of which may be generally referred to as a video coder. Likewise, video coding may refer to video encoding or video decoding, as applicable. 
     In accordance with this disclosure, the term “or” may be interrupted as “and/or” where context does not dictate otherwise. Additionally, while phrases such as “one or more” or “at least one” or the like may have been used for some features disclosed herein but not others; the features for which such language was not used may be interpreted to have such a meaning implied where context does not dictate otherwise. 
     While particular combinations of various aspects of the techniques are described above, these combinations are provided merely to illustrate examples of the techniques described in this disclosure. Accordingly, the techniques of this disclosure should not be limited to these example combinations and may encompass any conceivable combination of the various aspects of the techniques described in this disclosure. 
     In one or more examples, the functions described may be implemented in hardware, software, firmware, or any combination thereof. If implemented in software, the functions may be stored on or transmitted over, as one or more instructions or code, a computer-readable medium and executed by a hardware-based processing unit. Computer-readable media may include computer-readable storage media, which corresponds to a tangible medium such as data storage media, or communication media including any medium that facilitates transfer of a computer program from one place to another, e.g., according to a communication protocol. In this manner, computer-readable media generally may correspond to (1) tangible computer-readable storage media which is non-transitory or (2) a communication medium such as a signal or carrier wave. Data storage media may be any available media that can be accessed by one or more computers or one or more processors to retrieve instructions, code and/or data structures for implementation of the techniques described in this disclosure. A computer program product may include a computer-readable medium. 
     By way of example, and not limitation, such computer-readable storage media can comprise RAM, ROM, EEPROM, CD-ROM or other optical disk storage, magnetic disk storage, or other magnetic storage devices, flash memory, or any other medium that can be used to store desired program code in the form of instructions or data structures and that can be accessed by a computer. Also, any connection is properly termed a computer-readable medium. For example, if instructions are transmitted from a website, server, or other remote source using a coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, twisted pair, digital subscriber line (DSL), or wireless technologies such as infrared, radio, and microwave, then the coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, twisted pair, DSL, or wireless technologies such as infrared, radio, and microwave are included in the definition of medium. It should be understood, however, that computer-readable storage media and data storage media do not include connections, carrier waves, signals, or other transient media, but are instead directed to non-transient, tangible storage media. Disk and disc, as used herein, includes compact disc (CD), laser disc, optical disc, digital versatile disc (DVD), floppy disk and Blu-ray disc, where disks usually reproduce data magnetically, while discs reproduce data optically with lasers. Combinations of the above should also be included within the scope of computer-readable media. 
     Instructions may be executed by one or more processors, such as one or more digital signal processors (DSPs), general purpose microprocessors, application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), or other equivalent integrated or discrete logic circuitry. Accordingly, the term “processor,” as used herein may refer to any of the foregoing structure or any other structure suitable for implementation of the techniques described herein. In addition, in some aspects, the functionality described herein may be provided within dedicated hardware and/or software modules configured for encoding and decoding, or incorporated in a combined codec. Also, the techniques could be fully implemented in one or more circuits or logic elements. 
     The techniques of this disclosure may be implemented in a wide variety of devices or apparatuses, including a wireless handset, an integrated circuit (IC) or a set of ICs (e.g., a chip set). Various components, modules, or units are described in this disclosure to emphasize functional aspects of devices configured to perform the disclosed techniques, but do not necessarily require realization by different hardware units. Rather, as described above, various units may be combined in a codec hardware unit or provided by a collection of interoperative hardware units, including one or more processors as described above, in conjunction with suitable software and/or firmware. 
     Various examples have been described herein. Any combination of the described systems, operations, functions, or examples is contemplated. These and other examples are within the scope of the following claims.