Patent Publication Number: US-11650111-B2

Title: Ribbed force sensor

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS AND PATENTS 
     This application is a continuation of and claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. § 120 to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/087,558, filed on Mar. 31, 2016, which is a continuation of and claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. § 120 to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/100,924, filed on Dec. 9, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,952,107, issued on Apr. 24, 2018, which is a continuation of and claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. § 120 to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/932,128, filed on Jul. 1, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,621,939, issued on Jan. 7, 2014, which is a continuation of and claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. § 120 to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/958,772, filed on Dec. 18, 2007, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,496,647, issued on Jul. 30, 2013, each of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
     This application is related to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/755,108 filed Dec. 30, 2005, U.S. Provisional Application 60/755,157 filed Dec. 30, 2005, and U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,945,095, 8,944,070, 7,752,920, 6,936,042, 6,902,560, 6,879,880, 6,866,671, 6,817,974, 6,783,524, 6,676,684, 6,371,952, 6,331,181, and 5,807,377, the full disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present invention relates generally to surgical robot systems and, more particularly, to an improved system, apparatus, and method for sensing forces applied to a surgical instrument. 
     BACKGROUND 
     In robotically-assisted surgery, the surgeon typically operates a master controller to control the motion of surgical instruments at the surgical site from a location that may be remote from the patient (e.g., across the operating room, in a different room or a completely different building from the patient). The master controller usually includes one or more hand input devices, such as handheld wrist gimbals, joysticks, exoskeletal gloves, handpieces, or the like, which are operatively coupled to the surgical instruments through a controller with servo motors for articulating the instruments&#39; position and orientation at the surgical site. The servo motors are typically part of an electromechanical device or surgical manipulator arm (“the slave”) that includes a plurality of joints, linkages, etc., that are connected together to support and control the surgical instruments that have been introduced directly into an open surgical site or through trocar sleeves (cannulas) inserted through incisions into a body cavity, such as the patient&#39;s abdomen. There are available a variety of surgical instruments, such as tissue graspers, needle drivers, electrosurgical cautery probes, etc., to perform various functions for the surgeon, e.g., retracting tissue, holding or driving a needle, suturing, grasping a blood vessel, dissecting, cauterizing, coagulating tissue, etc. A surgeon may employ a large number of different surgical instruments/tools during a procedure. 
     This new surgical method through remote manipulation has created many new challenges. One such challenge is providing the surgeon with the ability to accurately “feel” the tissue that is being manipulated by the surgical instrument via the robotic manipulator. The surgeon must rely on visual indications of the forces applied by the instruments or sutures. It is desirable to sense the forces and torques applied to the tip of the instrument, such as an end effector (e.g., jaws, grasper, blades, etc.) of robotic minimally invasive surgical instruments, in order to feed the forces and torques back to the surgeon user through the system hand controls or by other means, such as visual display, vibrations, or audible tone. One device for this purpose from the laboratory of G. Hirzinger at DLR Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics is described in “Review of Fixtures for Low-Invasiveness Surgery” by F. Cepolina and R. C. Michelini,  Int&#39;l Journal of Medical Robotics and Computer Assisted Surgery , Vol. 1, Issue 1, page 58, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. However, that design disadvantageously places a force sensor distal to (or outboard of) the wrist joints, thus requiring wires or optic fibers to be routed through the flexing wrist joint and also requiring the yaw and grip axes to be on separate pivot axes. 
     Another problem has been fitting and positioning the necessary wires, rods, or tubes for mechanical actuation of end effectors in as small a space as possible because relatively small instruments are typically desirable for performing surgery. 
     What is needed, therefore, are improved telerobotic systems and methods for remotely controlling surgical instruments at a surgical site on a patient. In particular, these systems and methods should be configured to provide accurate feedback of forces and torques to the surgeon to improve user awareness and control of the instruments. 
     SUMMARY 
     The present invention provides an apparatus, system, and method for improving force and torque feedback to and sensing by a surgeon performing a robotic surgery. In one embodiment, a force sensor includes a tube portion that includes a plurality of radial ribs and a strain gauge positioned over each of the plurality of radial ribs. A proximal part of the tube portion is coupled to a shaft of a surgical instrument that may be operably coupled to a manipulator arm of a robotic surgical system. A distal part of the tube portion is coupled to a wrist joint coupled to an end effector. The couplings may be direct or indirect with an intermediate mechanical component between the coupled parts. 
     Groups of strain gauges are positioned on or near a distal end of an instrument shaft proximal to (i.e., inboard of) a moveable wrist of a robotic surgical instrument via an apparatus that senses forces and torques at the distal tip of the instrument without errors due to changes in the configuration of the tip (such as with a moveable wrist) or steady state temperature variations. 
     Advantageously, the present invention improves the sensing and feedback of forces and/or torques to the surgeon and substantially eliminates the problem of passing delicate wires, or optic fibers through the flexible wrist joint of the instrument. A force sensor apparatus may be manufactured, tested, and calibrated as a separate modular component and brought together with other components in the conventional instrument assembly process. The force sensor apparatus may also be manufactured as an integrated part of the instrument. In addition, it is possible to choose a material for the sensor structural member different from the material of the instrument shaft whose design considerations may compromise the mechanical properties required for the sensor. 
     The scope of the invention is defined by the claims, which are incorporated into this section by reference. A more complete understanding of embodiments of the present invention will be afforded to those skilled in the art, as well as a realization of additional advantages thereof, by a consideration of the following detailed description of one or more embodiments. Reference will be made to the appended sheets of drawings that will first be described briefly. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG.  1 A  is a perspective view of a robotic surgical system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  1 B  is a perspective view of a robotic surgical arm cart system of the robotic surgical system in  FIG.  1 A  in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  1 C  is a front perspective view of a master console of the robotic surgical system in  FIG.  1 A  in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  2    is a perspective view of a surgical instrument including a force sensor apparatus operably coupled proximal (or inboard) to a wrist joint in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  3 A  is a perspective view of a force sensor apparatus in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  3 B  illustrates the force sensor of  FIG.  3 A  operably coupled to a shaft and end portion of a surgical instrument in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  3 C  illustrates the force sensor of  FIG.  3 A  with a protective cover over a portion of the force sensor in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  4 A  is a perspective view of an inner tube of a force sensor apparatus in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  4 B  is a partial cross-sectional view of an outer tube/cover over the inner tube of  FIG.  4 A  of the force sensor apparatus in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  4 C  shows intervening material between the inner and outer tubes of  FIG.  4 B  of the force sensor apparatus and wires or optic fibers operably coupled to the force sensor apparatus in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  4 D  shows a partial cross-sectional view of the force sensor apparatus operably coupled proximal to (or inboard of) a wrist joint of a surgical instrument in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  5 A  is a perspective view of a force sensor apparatus in accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  5 B  illustrates an enlarged perspective view of a section of the force sensor apparatus of  FIG.  5 A . 
         FIG.  5 C  illustrates a cross-sectional view of the force sensor apparatus of  FIG.  5 A  along line  5 C- 5 C, and FIG.  5 C 1  illustrates a magnified section labeled  5 C 1  in  FIG.  5 C . 
         FIG.  5 D  illustrates a cross-sectional view of the force sensor apparatus of  FIG.  5 A  along line  5 D- 5 D. 
         FIG.  5 E  illustrates a strain relief for strain gauge wires or optic fibers in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIGS.  6 A and  6 B  illustrate perspective views of another force sensor apparatus and an enlarged section of the force sensor apparatus in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  6 C  illustrates an end view of the force sensor apparatus of  FIGS.  6 A and  6 B  including radial ribs positioned in non-uniform angles, and FIG.  6 C 1  illustrates a magnified section labeled  6 C 1  in  FIG.  6 C , in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIGS.  7 A and  7 B  illustrate a perspective view and an end view of another force sensor apparatus including radial ribs positioned in non-uniform angles and apertures on the tube surface, and FIG.  7 B 1  illustrates a magnified section labeled  7 B 1  in  FIG.  7 B , in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  8    illustrates an end view of another force sensor apparatus including three radial ribs in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIGS.  9 A and  9 B  illustrate perspective views of another force sensor apparatus and an enlarged section of the force sensor apparatus, respectively, in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG.  9 C  illustrates an end view of the force sensor apparatus of  FIGS.  9 A and  9 B  including radial ribs positioned in non-uniform angles and a central through passage in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. 
       Embodiments of the present invention and their advantages are best understood by referring to the detailed description that follows. It should be appreciated that like reference numerals are used to identify like elements illustrated in one or more of the figures. It should also be appreciated that the figures may not be necessarily drawn to scale. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The present invention provides a multi-component system, apparatus, and method for sensing forces applied to tissue while performing robotically-assisted surgical procedures on a patient, particularly including open surgical procedures, neurosurgical procedures, and minimally invasive procedures, such as laparoscopy, arthroscopy, thoracoscopy, and the like. The apparatus and method of the present invention are particularly useful as part of a telerobotic surgical system that allows the surgeon to manipulate the surgical instruments through a servomechanism from a remote location from the patient. To that end, the manipulator apparatus or slave of the present invention will usually be driven by a kinematically-equivalent master having six or more degrees of freedom (e.g., 3 degrees of freedom for position and 3 degrees of freedom for orientation) to form a telepresence system with force reflection or other scalar force magnitude display. A description of a suitable slave-master system can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 6,574,355, the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. 
     Referring to the drawings in detail, wherein like numerals indicate like elements, a robotic surgical system  10  is illustrated according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown in  FIGS.  1 A through  1 C , robotic system  10  generally includes one or more surgical manipulator assemblies  51  mounted to or near an operating table O and a master control assembly located at a surgeon&#39;s console  90  for allowing the surgeon S to view the surgical site and to control the manipulator assemblies  51 . The system  10  will also include one or more viewing scope assemblies and a plurality of surgical instrument assemblies  54  adapted for being removably coupled to the manipulator assemblies  51  (discussed in more detail below). Robotic system  10  includes at least two manipulator assemblies  51  and preferably at least three manipulator assemblies  51 . The exact number of manipulator assemblies  51  will depend on the surgical procedure and the space constraints within the operating room among other factors. As discussed in detail below, one of the assemblies  51  will typically operate a viewing scope assembly (e.g., in endoscopic procedures) for viewing the surgical site, while the other manipulator assemblies  51  operate surgical instruments  54  for performing various procedures on the patient P. 
     The control assembly may be located at a surgeon&#39;s console  90  which is usually located in the same room as operating table O so that the surgeon may speak to his/her assistant(s) and directly monitor the operating procedure. However, it should be understood that the surgeon S can be located in a different room or a completely different building from the patient P. The master control assembly generally includes a support, a monitor for displaying an image of the surgical site to the surgeon S, and one or more master(s) for controlling manipulator assemblies  51 . Master(s) may include a variety of input devices, such as hand-held wrist gimbals, joysticks, gloves, trigger-guns, hand-operated controllers, voice recognition devices, or the like. Preferably, master(s) will be provided with the same degrees of freedom as the associated surgical instrument assemblies  54  to provide the surgeon with telepresence, the perception that the surgeon is immediately adjacent to and immersed in the surgical site, and intuitiveness, the perception that the master(s) are integral with the instruments  54  so that the surgeon has a strong sense of directly and intuitively controlling instruments  54  as if they are part of or held in his/her hands. Position, force, and tactile feedback sensors (not shown) may also be employed on instrument assemblies  54  to transmit position, force, and tactile sensations from the surgical instrument back to the surgeon&#39;s hands, ears, or eyes as he/she operates the telerobotic system. One suitable system and method for providing telepresence to the operator is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,574,355, which has previously been incorporated herein by reference. 
     The monitor  94  will be suitably coupled to the viewing scope assembly such that an image of the surgical site is provided adjacent the surgeon&#39;s hands on surgeon console. Preferably, monitor  94  will display an image on a display that is oriented so that the surgeon feels that he or she is actually looking directly down onto the operating site. To that end, an image of the surgical instruments  54  appears to be located substantially where the operator&#39;s hands are located even though the observation points (i.e., the endoscope or viewing camera) may not be from the point of view of the image. In addition, the real-time image is preferably transformed into a stereo image such that the operator can manipulate the end effector and the hand control as if viewing the workspace in substantially true presence. By true presence, it is meant that the presentation of an image is a true stereo image simulating the viewpoint of an operator that is physically manipulating the surgical instruments  54 . Thus, a controller (not shown) transforms the coordinates of the surgical instruments  54  to a perceived position so that the stereo image is the image that one would see if the camera or endoscope was located directly behind the surgical instruments  54 . A suitable coordinate transformation system for providing this virtual image is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,631,973, the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. 
     A servo control is provided for transferring the mechanical motion of masters to manipulator assemblies  51 . The servo control may be separate from, or integral with, manipulator assemblies  51 . The servo control will usually provide force and torque feedback from the surgical instruments  51  to the hand-operated masters. In addition, the servo control may include a safety monitoring controller (not shown) to safely halt system operation, or at least inhibit all robot motion, in response to recognized undesirable conditions (e.g., exertion of excessive force on the patient, mismatched encoder readings, etc.). The servo control preferably has a servo bandwidth with a 3 dB cut off frequency of at least 10 Hz so that the system can quickly and accurately respond to the rapid hand motions used by the surgeon and yet to filter out undesirable surgeon hand tremors. To operate effectively with this system, manipulator assemblies  51  have a relatively low inertia, and the drive motors have relatively low ratio gear or pulley couplings. Any suitable conventional or specialized servo control may be used in the practice of the present invention, with those incorporating force and torque feedback being particularly preferred for telepresence operation of the system. 
     Referring to  FIG.  2   , a perspective view is shown of a surgical instrument  54  including a force sensor apparatus  100  operably coupled to a distal end of a rigid shaft  110  and proximal to a wrist joint  121  in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. An end portion  120 , such as a surgical end effector, is coupled to force sensor apparatus  100  via the wrist joint  121 . A housing  150  is operably coupled to a proximal end of the rigid shaft  110  and includes an interface  152  which mechanically and electrically couples instrument  54  to the manipulator  51 . 
     Referring now to  FIGS.  3 A- 3 C  in conjunction with  FIGS.  1 A- 1 C and  2   , an improved apparatus, system, and method for sensing and feedback of forces and/or torques to the surgeon will be described in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.  FIG.  3 A  shows a perspective view of force sensor apparatus  100  including in one embodiment a tube  102  including a number (e.g., 3, 4, 6, or 8) of strain gauges  104  (e.g.,  104   a  and  104   b ) mounted to a surface of tube  102  and oriented axially (parallel to the lengthwise axis z of the tube).  FIG.  3 B  shows the force sensor apparatus  100  of  FIG.  3 A  operably coupled to a shaft  110  and end portion  120  of a surgical instrument in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.  FIG.  3 C  shows a cross-section view of force sensor apparatus  100  including a cover or sleeve  113  over tube  102 . 
     In accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, force sensor apparatus  100  is a separately manufacturable module or part adapted for incorporation as part of the shaft  110  of surgical instrument  54  at a prescribed distance from the tip where there may be an articulated wrist with specialized jaws, cutting devices, or other end portion  120 . In one example, tube  102  may be made of a sufficiently strong material and may be spool shaped, including end portions  102   b ,  102   c  with a depressed portion  102   a  therebetween that is smaller in diameter than end portions  102   b ,  102   c . Strain gauges  104  may be mounted on the surface of depressed portion  102   a . Proximal tube portion  102   c  operably couples to the shaft  110  of surgical instrument  54  and distal tube portion  102   b  operably couples to a wrist joint  121 . In one example, the diameter of the completed force sensor apparatus matches the diameter of the instrument shaft, thus allowing the entire assembly of the instrument (including the coupled force sensor apparatus) to pass through a cannula or a seal without added friction or snagging. 
     Force sensor apparatus  100  includes a through passage  109  for end portion actuation cables or rods. End features  108  of end portion  102   b  insure secure mounting and angular alignment to the main instrument shaft and wrist/jaw/other end portion sub-assembly of the instrument. Wire leads or optic fibers  116  (e.g., shielded twisted pairs, coax, or fiber) from the strain gauges  104  may be inlaid into grooves  112  in proximal tube portion  102   c  of tube  102  and matching grooves in the shaft  110  of the surgical instrument  54 . The wire leads or optic fibers  116  may then be embedded in an adhesive bonding or potting compound such as epoxy. 
     In one embodiment, as illustrated in  FIG.  3 C , cover  113  is positioned over and encapsulates the mounted strain gauges  104  and other circuit elements on the surface of the tube  102 , thereby providing mechanical protection of the sensors. In one example, cover  113  is a mechanically protective woven sleeve potted on depressed portion  102   a  and is comprised of a woven resin impregnated fiberglass or metal braid electrical shielding. 
     As disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/537,241, filed Sep. 29, 2006, the contents of which have been previously incorporated by reference, strain gauges  104  may be spaced in a ring at intervals around the circumference of the tube  102  (e.g., 3 gauges at 120 degrees, 4 gauges at 90 degrees, or 4 gauges at 70 degrees and 110 degrees). The signals from the sensors are combined arithmetically in various sums and differences to obtain measures of three perpendicular forces (e.g., F x , F y , and F z ) exerted upon the instrument tip and the torques about the two axes perpendicular to the shaft axis (i.e., axes x and y). In accordance with the present invention, the measurement of the forces is made independent of the orientation and effective lever arm length of an articulated wrist mechanism at the distal end of the instrument when two axially separated sets or rings of gauges are utilized. Forces exerted against end portion  120  are detected by the force sensing elements via an interrogator, which may be operably coupled to the servo control or to a processor for notifying the surgeon of these forces (e.g., via master(s) or a display). It is understood that by adding a second ring of similarly oriented gauges (e.g., two sets of 3 gauges or two sets of 4 gauges) at a different axial position on the tube, additional applied torque information (e.g., T x  and T y ) may be obtained, and dependence of the force data on instrument wrist length, orientation, and resulting jaw distance may be eliminated. 
     In one example, various strain gauges may be used, including but not limited to conventional foil type resistance gauges, semiconductor gauges, optic fiber type gauges using Bragg grating or Fabry-Perot technology, or others, such as strain sensing surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices. Optic fiber Bragg grating (FBG) gauges may be advantageous in that two sensing elements may be located along one fiber at a known separation, thereby only requiring the provision of four fibers along the instrument shaft. 
     Both fiber technologies require an interrogator unit that decodes the optically encoded strain information into electrical signals compatible with the computer control hardware or display means of the robotic surgical system. A processor may then be used to calculate forces according to the signals from the strain gauges/sensors. 
     Additionally, there may be co-mounted unstrained gauges or Poisson strained gauges oriented in the circumferential direction adjacent to each axial gauge and incorporated in the bridge completion circuits to eliminate temperature effects. The strain gauge bridge circuits are completed in a manner to give the best signal for bending loads due to the lateral forces (F x  and F y ) exerted on the instrument tip jaws. 
     For resistive foil or semiconductor strain gauges, active components such as bare die op-amps and passive components such as secondary resistors or capacitors may be attached adjacent to the strain gauges connected by bond wires or thick film circuit traces in the manner of hybrid circuits to amplify, filter, and/or modulate the gauge output signals to reject noise sources. Such components are not needed for fiber optic gauges. 
     Surgical instrument  54  to which force sensor apparatus  100  couples may include a circumferentially coiled insulated flex circuit style service loop of parallel conductive traces at the proximal end of the instrument shaft  110  permitting the substantially free rotation of the instrument shaft while conducting the input gauge excitation power and output gauge signals to stationary housing  150  of the instrument  54 . 
     Housing  150  operably interfaces with a robotic manipulator arm  51 , in one embodiment via a sterile adaptor interface  152 . Applicable housings, sterile adaptor interfaces, and manipulator arms are disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/314,040 filed on Dec. 20, 2005, and U.S. application Ser. No. 11/613,800 filed on Dec. 20, 2006, the full disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. Examples of applicable shafts, end portions, housings, sterile adaptors, and manipulator arms are manufactured by Intuitive Surgical, Inc. of Sunnyvale, Calif. 
     In a preferred configuration, end portion  120  has a range of motion that includes pitch and yaw motion about the x- and y-axes and rotation about the z-axis (as shown in  FIG.  3 A ). These motions as well as actuation of an end effector are provided via cables and/or rods running through shaft  110  and into housing  150  that transfer motion from the manipulator arm  51 . Embodiments of drive assemblies, arms, forearm assemblies, adaptors, and other applicable parts are described for example in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,331,181, 6,491,701, and 6,770,081, the full disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. 
     It is noted that various surgical instruments may be improved in accordance with the present invention, including but not limited to tools with and without end effectors, such as jaws, scissors, graspers, needle holders, micro-dissectors, staple appliers, tackers, suction irrigation tools, clip appliers, cutting blades, irrigators, catheters, and suction orifices. Alternatively, the surgical instrument may comprise an electrosurgical probe for ablating, resecting, cutting or coagulating tissue. Such surgical instruments are available from Intuitive Surgical, Inc. of Sunnyvale, Calif. 
     For the methods and apparatus mentioned above, it may be advantageous to use a calibration process in which combinations of forces and torques are applied to the instrument tip serially, simultaneously, or in combinations while correction factors and offsets are determined. The correction factors and offsets may then be applied to the theoretical equations for combining the gauge outputs to obtain F x , F y , F z , T x , and T y . Such a calibration process may be done either by directly calculating the correction factors and offsets or by a learning system such as a neural network embedded in the calibration fixture or in the instrument itself. In any calibration method, the calibration data may be programmed into an integrated circuit embedded in the instrument so that the surgical system using the individual instrument can correctly identify and apply its correction factors and offsets while the instrument is in use. 
     Advantageously, force sensor apparatus  100  of the present invention is adaptable to the size and shape constraints of various robotic surgical instruments and is suitable for a variety of instruments. Accordingly, end portions  102   b ,  102   c  may be formed into various applicable shapes and sizes. Furthermore, force sensor apparatus  100  may be manufactured, tested, and calibrated as a separate modular component and brought together with other components in the conventional instrument assembly process. Also, the sensor may be a slip-on module with suitable electrical contacts that mate with contacts on the instrument shaft permitting a higher value sensor to be used with lower cost instruments of limited cycle life. In addition, the sensor structural member  102  may be comprised of an advantageous material, which may be a different material than the instrument shaft  110  whose design considerations may compromise the properties required for the sensor. 
     Referring now to  FIGS.  4 A through  4 D , a force sensor apparatus  200  is illustrated in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. The descriptions of substantially similar parts or elements as those described above with respect to  FIGS.  3 A- 3 C  are applicable in this embodiment with respect to  FIGS.  4 A- 4 D , although redundant descriptions will be omitted. 
       FIG.  4 A  is a perspective view of an inner tube  218  of force sensor apparatus  200  in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Inner tube  218  includes a proximal raised end portion  218   b  and a depressed portion  218   a  smaller in diameter than raised end portion  218   b . Strain gauges, as described above with respect to  FIGS.  3 A- 3 C , may be mounted on the surface of depressed portion  218   a . Raised end portion  218   b  may include grooves  212  for routing of wire leads or optic fibers from strain gauges  204 . 
       FIG.  4 B  is a partial cross-sectional view of an outer tube  214  over the inner tube  218 . In one example, outer tube  214  of force sensor apparatus  200  is a concentric tubular structural member made of sufficiently strong materials that can encapsulate the strain gauges and other electronics within an annular gap between the inner and outer tubes  218  and  214 . In one embodiment, the concentric tubes are joined rigidly at the proximal end adjacent proximal portion  218   b  while a narrow annular gap between the distal ends near a distal portion is filled with an elastomeric material  215  that prevents the high and varying axial forces of the wrist and jaw actuator cable or rods from being transmitted through the inner tube carrying the strain gauges. It is noted that the partially isolated tube carrying the gauges may be either the outer or the inner tube. The non-isolated tube of the pair may carry the entire axial cable load. Preferably, the gauges may be placed on the interior tube to isolate the gauges from the environment. In such an embodiment, the outer tube  214  carries the axial cable forces and also permits the outer tube to provide mechanical protection and potentially act as electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding to the gauges  204  on the inner tube  218 . 
       FIG.  4 C  highlights elastomeric material  215  between the inner tube  218  and outer tube  214  of the force sensor apparatus  200 , and wires or optic fibers  216  operably coupled to gauges  204 .  FIG.  4 D  is a partial cross-sectional view of the force sensor apparatus  200  operably coupled proximal to a wrist joint  221  of a surgical instrument in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Leads  216  (e.g., shielded twisted pairs, coax, or optic fiber) from the strain gauges  204  may be inlaid into grooves  212  in proximal tube portion  218   b  of tube  218  and matching grooves in the shaft  210  of a surgical instrument. The leads  216  may then be embedded in an adhesive potting compound such as an epoxy. 
     In one example, if an outer sensor carrying tube is mounted stationary at the rear mechanism housing, the wire routing may be simplified by not requiring a rotating joint service loop. 
     Advantageously, the relative shear and compressive properties of elastomers enable this design concept. A suitable elastomer  215  with a low shear modulus permits the relative compression and extension of the cable load carrying tube with respect to the sensor carrying tube (which is connected rigidly at only one end of the tubes as mentioned above). Thus, cable loads and load changes do not affect the sensors. On the other hand, an elastomer confined between two relatively rigid surfaces where the gap between the surfaces is small compared to the extent of the surfaces behaves as a nearly incompressible rigid connection in the direction normal to the confining surfaces, in this case the radial direction of the combined annular tube structure. This causes bending moments carried in the axially loaded tube to be transmitted to and shared by the sensor tube. Thus, the sensor tube can advantageously detect the bending moments due to lateral loads on the instrument wrist and jaws without significant interference or “noise” from the higher varying axial cable loads carried by the other tube. Advantageously, the decoupling of the load carrying members in an endoscopic surgical instrument force sensor enables the separation of undesired jaw actuator tendon forces from desired lateral jaw load induced bending moments on the force sensor. 
     Alternatively, the desired effect of axially de-constraining the sensor carrying tube from the cable load carrying tube at one end may be obtained by inserting an annular ring of a more rigid low friction material in the annular gap between the unconnected ends of the tubes machined for a very close fit, thereby permitting the relative axial motion but transmitting the lateral motion associated with bending moments due to the lateral tip forces. Another alternative is to make the tubes with a very close fit and apply a low friction coating to one or both surfaces at the distal end. However, these alternatives may create a small deadband in sensor response depending on how close a fit may be reliably obtained. The expansion thermal coefficients of the inner and outer tubes must also be matched or the required close fit may bind when heated or cooled. 
     It should also be understood that the same decoupling effect achieved with concentric tubes as described above may potentially be achieved with alternating axial finger-like members half (or some number) of which carry the axial cable loads while the alternating (or remaining) ones carry the bending loads. Again, these members may be rigidly connected at the proximal end while they are decoupled in the axial direction at the distal end. 
     Referring now to  FIGS.  5 A- 5 E , views of a surgical instrument including another force sensor apparatus  300  is illustrated in accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention. An end portion  320 , such as a surgical end effector, is coupled to force sensor apparatus  300  via a wrist joint  321 . A housing  150  ( FIG.  5 E ) is operably coupled to a proximal end of a rigid shaft  310 , the housing  150  further including an interface  152  which mechanically and electrically couples the instrument to the manipulator.  FIG.  5 B  is an enlarged perspective view of an aperture and rib section of the force sensor apparatus of  FIG.  5 A .  FIGS.  5 C and  5 D  are cross-sectional views of the force sensor apparatus of  FIG.  5 A  along lines  5 C- 5 C and  5 D- 5 D, respectively, and FIG.  5 C 1  illustrates a magnified section labeled  5 C 1  in  FIG.  5 C .  FIG.  5 E  illustrates an example proximal portion of the surgical instrument including the housing and operably coupling of the instrument to an interrogator  334  and processor  340 . The descriptions of substantially similar parts or elements as those described above with respect to  FIGS.  1 - 4    are applicable in this embodiment with respect to  FIGS.  5 A- 5 E , although redundant descriptions may be omitted. 
     Returning to  FIG.  5 A , force sensor apparatus  300  includes a generally annular tube  306  operably coupled to a distal end of rigid shaft  310  and proximal to wrist joint  321  in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment, tube  306  includes a number of rectangular-shaped apertures  301  cut from tube  306  and a plurality of radial ribs  302  forming through passages  308  for passage of actuation cables, wires, tubes, rods, and/or flushing fluids. Ribs  302  run along and radiate from the z-axis centerline of tube  306 , and a number (e.g., 3, 4, 6, or 8) of strain gauges  304  are oriented parallel to the lengthwise z-axis of the tube and mounted to an outer rib surface  302   a . The strain gauges may be inlaid into grooves or a depressed area  317  on the outer rib surface  302   a  in one example. 
     In the embodiment illustrated in  FIGS.  5 A- 5 D , force sensor apparatus  300  includes two sets of four apertures  301  cut from the wall of tube  306  at separate axial locations along tube  306 . Each of the ribs  302  are separated by 90 degrees measured about the z-axis centerline of tube  306 , which forms a cruciform cross-sectional view of the ribs  302 , as shown in  FIGS.  5 C and  5 D . Ribs  302  form four through passages  308  for passage of actuation cables, wires, tubes, and/or rods. Furthermore, ribs  302  may extend along the entire length of tube  306  thereby forming internal through passages along the entire length of tube  306 , or ribs  302  may extend along a portion(s) of the length of tube  306 , thereby forming internal through passages along a portion or portions of the length of tube  306 . 
     Force sensor apparatus  300  is capable of sensing bending moments applied to its distal end due to lateral forces applied to the wrist joint or its specialized end portion. Advantageously, apertures  301  and ribs  302  provide for regions of controlled stress and strain when subjected to bending moments, which may be measured by fiber optic strain gauges  304  embedded in grooves along an outer surface of the ribs and sensor body parallel to the lengthwise z-axis of tube  306 . Through passages  308  permit cables, wires, tubes, or rigid tendons to pass through the sensor apparatus body to actuate the distal wrist joint(s) and/or control the end portion. 
     In one example, tube  306  and ribs  302  may be made of a sufficiently strong but elastic material to allow sensing of stress and strain without mechanical failure. Tube  306  and ribs  302  are further comprised of material with a sufficiently low modulus of elasticity to give a sufficient strain signal under an applied load, a sufficiently high strain at yield to give adequate safety margin above the maximum design load, and a sufficiently high thermal diffusivity to promote rapid thermal equilibrium (therefore reducing thermal disturbances to sensor output signals) when subject to localized or asymmetric thermal disturbances from tissue contact or endoscope illumination. In particular, the plurality of radial ribs  302  may be comprised of a high thermal diffusivity material, such as an aluminum alloy (e.g., 6061-T6 aluminum) or a copper alloy (e.g., GlidCop® AL-60) to reduce the temperature difference between opposing gauges under transient thermal disturbances while providing a direct thermal pathway between opposing gauges. 
     In one example, tube  306  may be comprised of metal alloys, treated metals, or plated metals, such as of aluminum, copper, or silver, which allow for adequate strain, mechanical failure safety margin, and high thermal diffusivity. In a further example, 6061-T6 aluminum, which is an aluminum alloy that is heat treated and aged, GlidCop® AL-60, which is copper that is dispersion strengthened with ultrafine particles of aluminum oxide, or a dispersion strengthened silver, may be used to form tube  306  and ribs  302 . 
     Advantageously, the present invention allows for a low bending moment of inertia to increase a strain signal to noise signal ratio consistent with a materials choice and rib design meeting the need for high thermal diffusivity and a direct thermal path between opposing strain gauges while also providing passage for actuation cables, wires, tubes, and/or rods. 
     Wire leads or optic fibers  316  (e.g., shielded twisted pairs, coax, or fiber) coupled to the strain gauges  304  may be inlaid into grooves  317  on tube  306 , the outer rib surface  302   a , and matching grooves  319  in shaft  310  of the surgical instrument. The wire leads or optic fibers  316  may then be embedded in an adhesive potting compound such as epoxy. 
     As disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/537,241, filed Sep. 29, 2006, the contents of which have been previously incorporated by reference, strain gauges  304  may be spaced in a ring at intervals around the circumference of the tube  306  mounted on ribs  302  (e.g., 3 gauges at 120 degrees, 4 gauges at 90 degrees, or 4 gauges at 70 and 110 degrees). The signals from the sensors are combined arithmetically in various sums and differences to obtain measures of three perpendicular forces (e.g., F x , F y , and F z ) exerted upon the instrument tip and the torques about the two axes perpendicular to the shaft axis (i.e., axes x and y). In accordance with the present invention, the measurement of the forces is made independent of the orientation and effective lever arm length of an articulated wrist mechanism at the distal end of the instrument as well as wrist friction moments and actuator cable tensions when two axially separated sets or rings of gauges are utilized. Forces exerted against end portion  320  are detected by the force sensing elements, which may be operably coupled to the servo control or surgeon display means via an interrogator  334  or to a processor  340  for notifying the surgeon of these forces (e.g., via master(s) or a display means). It is understood that by adding a second ring of similarly oriented gauges (e.g., two sets of 3 gauges or two sets of 4 gauges) at a different position along the z-axis of the tube, additional applied torque information (e.g., T x  and T y ) can be obtained, and dependence of the force data on instrument wrist length, orientation, and resulting jaw distance and cable tensions, can be eliminated. 
     In one example, various strain gauges may be used, including but not limited to conventional foil type resistance gauges, semiconductor gauges, optic fiber type gauges using Bragg grating or Fabry-Perot technology, or others, such as strain sensing surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices. Optic fiber Bragg grating (FBG) gauges may be advantageous in that two sensing elements may be located along one fiber at a known separation, thereby only requiring the provision of four fibers along the instrument shaft. Fiber optic gauges may also be desirable because of their resistance to disturbance from cautery and other electromagnetic noise. 
     Both fiber technologies require an interrogator unit, such as interrogator unit  334  ( FIG.  5 E ) that decodes the optically encoded strain information into electrical signals compatible with the computer control hardware of the robotic surgical system. A processor  340  ( FIG.  5 E ) operably coupled to the interrogator unit  334  may then be used to calculate forces according to the signals from the strain gauges/sensors. 
     For resistive foil or semiconductor strain gauges, active components such as bare die op-amps and passive components such as secondary resistors or capacitors may be attached adjacent to the strain gauges connected by bond wires or thick film circuit traces in the manner of hybrid circuits to amplify, filter, and/or modulate the gauge output signals to reject noise sources. Such components are not needed for fiber optic gauges. 
     In accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, force sensor apparatus  300  is a separately manufactured module or part adapted for incorporation as part of the shaft  310  of a laparascopic surgical instrument at a prescribed distance from the tip where there may be an articulated wrist with specialized jaws, cutting devices, or other end portion  320 . A proximal portion of tube  306  operably couples to the shaft  310  of the surgical instrument and a distal portion of tube  306  operably couples to wrist joint  321 . In one example, the diameter of the completed force sensor apparatus matches the diameter of the instrument shaft, thus allowing the entire assembly of the instrument (including the coupled force sensor apparatus) to pass through a cannula or a seal without added friction or snagging. In other embodiments, the surgical instrument may be manufactured with a force sensor portion integrated as a part of shaft  310  (i.e., force sensor apparatus  300  is not separable from the shaft). 
     Similar to the embodiments described above, the surgical instrument to which force sensor apparatus  300  couples may also include a service loop  330  ( FIG.  5 E ) of conductive traces or optic fibers at the proximal end of the instrument shaft  310  and a cable swivel mechanism  332  permitting the substantially free rotation of the instrument shaft while conducting the input gauge excitation power or light and electrical or optical output gauge signals to the interrogator unit  334 . 
     Similar to the embodiments described above, the housing  150  operably interfaces with a robotic manipulator arm, in one embodiment via a sterile adaptor interface. Applicable housings, sterile adaptor interfaces, and manipulator arms are disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/314,040 filed on Dec. 20, 2005, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/613,800 filed on Dec. 20, 2006, the full disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. Examples of applicable shafts, end portions, housings, sterile adaptors, and manipulator arms are manufactured by Intuitive Surgical, Inc. of Sunnyvale, Calif. 
     In a preferred configuration, end portion  320  has a range of motion that includes pitch and yaw motion about the x- and y-axes and rotation about the z-axis. These motions as well as actuation of an end effector are provided via cables, wires, tubes, and/or rods running through passages  308  and into the housing that transfer motion from the manipulator arm. Embodiments of drive assemblies, arms, forearm assemblies, adaptors, and other applicable parts are described for example in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,331,181, 6,491,701, and 6,770,081, the full disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. 
     It is noted that various surgical instruments may be improved in accordance with the present invention, including but not limited to tools with and without end effectors, such as jaws, scissors, graspers, needle holders, micro-dissectors, staple appliers, tackers, suction irrigation tools, clip appliers, cutting blades, hooks, sealers, lasers, irrigators, catheters, and suction orifices. Alternatively, the surgical instrument may comprise an electrosurgical probe for ablating, resecting, cutting or coagulating tissue. Such surgical instruments are manufactured by Intuitive Surgical, Inc. of Sunnyvale, Calif. 
     For the sensing methods and apparatus mentioned above, it may be advantageous to use a calibration process in which combinations of forces and torques are applied to the instrument tip serially, simultaneously, or in combinations while correction factors and offsets are determined to apply to the theoretical equations for combining the gauge outputs to obtain F x , F y , F z , T x , and T y . This calibration may be done either by directly calculating the correction factors and offsets or by a learning system such as a neural network embedded in the calibration fixture or in the instrument itself. In any calibration method, the calibration data may be programmed into an integrated circuit embedded in the instrument so that the surgical system using the individual instrument can correctly identify and apply its correction factors and offsets while the instrument is in use. 
     Advantageously, force sensor apparatus  300  of the present invention is adaptable to the size and shape constraints of robotic endoscopic surgical instruments and is suitable for a variety of instruments. Furthermore, force sensor apparatus  300  may be manufactured, tested, and calibrated as a separate modular component and brought together with other components in the conventional instrument assembly process or as an integrated part of the instrument shaft  310 . Also, the sensor may be a slip-on module with suitable electrical contacts that mate with contacts on the instrument shaft permitting a higher value sensor to be used with lower cost instruments of limited cycle life. 
     The present invention is not limited to rib orientation or a certain number of ribs, sets of ribs, strain gauges, or tube apertures, and  FIGS.  6 A - 6 C 1 ,  7 A- 7 B 1 ,  8 , and  9 A- 9 C illustrate force sensor apparatus in accordance with other embodiments of the present invention. The descriptions of substantially similar parts or elements as those described above with respect to  FIGS.  5 A- 5 E  are applicable in these embodiments although redundant descriptions may be omitted. 
     Referring now to  FIGS.  6 A - 6 C 1 , a force sensor apparatus  400  is illustrated, the force sensor apparatus  400  including four ribs  402  paired at skewed angles (e.g., 70 degrees and 110 degrees) about a z-axis centerline of a tube  406 . Ribs  402  extend radially within tube  406  from the z-axis centerline of the tube providing four through passages  408   a  and  408   b  for passage of actuation cables, wires, tubes, and/or rods. 
     Advantageously, a larger through passage  408   a  utilizing skewed angles allows for easier passage of cables, wires, tubes, and/or rods through tube  406  (e.g., three hypodermic tubes may be passed per 110 degree channel). In this embodiment, as can be seen in  FIG.  6 A , tube  406  does not include apertures through the wall of tube  406 . However, the combined stiffness of tube  406  and ribs  402  still allow for a strong strain signal to noise signal ratio consistent with a materials choice and rib design meeting the need for high thermal diffusivity and a direct thermal path between opposing strain gauges while also providing passage for actuation cables, wires, tubes, and/or rods. 
     Similar to the embodiments disclosed above, a number of strain gauges  404  are oriented parallel to the lengthwise z-axis of the tube and mounted to an outer rib surface  402   a . The strain gauges may be inlaid into grooves or a depressed area  417  on the outer rib surface  402   a  in one example. Wire leads or optic fibers  416  (e.g., shielded twisted pairs, coax, or fiber) coupled to the strain gauges  404  may be inlaid into grooves  417  on tube  406 , the outer rib surface  402   a , and matching grooves  417  in a shaft of the surgical instrument. The wire leads or optic fibers  416  may then be embedded in an adhesive potting compound such as epoxy. 
     Referring now in particular to  FIGS.  6 C  and  6 C 1 , an end view of force sensor apparatus  400  and a magnified section labeled  6 C 1  in  FIG.  6 C  are respectively illustrated. A thermal shielding over the strain gauges may be provided in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. In one example, a thermal shunt shell  452  is provided over tube  406  with an insulating fluid filled gap  450  being provided between the outer surface of tube  406  and the inner surface of thermal shunt shell  452 . Thermal shunt shell  452  may be comprised of a high diffusivity material, such as an aluminum alloy (e.g., 6061-T6 aluminum) or a copper alloy (e.g., GlidCop® AL-60). Optionally, a light reflective coating  453  may be provided over thermal shunt shell  452 , which may deflect light and reduce localized heating of the force sensor apparatus. An insulating coating  454  may also be provided over thermal shunt shell  452 , the insulating coating  454  being comprised of a substantially transparent plastic shrink polymer in one example. Advantageously, the thermal shielding over the strain gauges as described above allows for greater heat/thermal diffusion among the sensors, being particularly advantageous for mitigating asymmetric thermal loads upon the instrument. The thermal shielding described above is applicable for various embodiments of the present invention. 
     Referring now to  FIGS.  7 A  thru  7 B 1 , a force sensor apparatus  500  is illustrated, the force sensor apparatus  500  including four ribs  502  paired at skewed angles (e.g., 70 degrees and 110 degrees) about a z-axis centerline of a tube  506 . Ribs  502  extend radially within tube  506  from the z-axis centerline of the tube providing four through passages  508   a  and  508   b  for passage of actuation cables, wires, tubes, and/or rods. Advantageously, a larger through passage  508   a  utilizing skewed angles allows for easier passage of cables, wires, tubes, and/or rods through tube  506  (e.g., three hypodermic tubes may be passed per 110 degree channel). In this embodiment, as can be seen in  FIG.  7 A , tube  506  include apertures  501  provided through the wall of tube  506 . The reduced stiffness of exposed ribs  502  allow for a strong strain signal to noise signal ratio consistent with a materials choice and rib design meeting the need for high thermal diffusivity and a direct thermal path between opposing strain gauges while also providing passage for actuation cables, wires, tubes, and/or rods. 
     Similar to the embodiments disclosed above, a number of strain gauges  504  are oriented parallel to the lengthwise z-axis of the tube and mounted to an outer rib surface  502   a . The strain gauges may be inlaid into grooves or a depressed area  517  on the outer rib surface  502   a  in one example. Wire leads or optic fibers  516  (e.g., shielded twisted pairs, coax, or fiber) coupled to the strain gauges  504  may be inlaid into grooves  517  on tube  506 , the outer rib surface  502   a , and matching grooves  517  in a shaft of the surgical instrument. The wire leads or optic fibers  516  in grooves  517  may then be embedded in an adhesive potting compound such as epoxy. 
       FIG.  8    illustrates a cross-sectional view of another force sensor apparatus which includes three ribs  602  separated by 120 degrees about a z-axis centerline of the force sensor apparatus tube  606 . Ribs  602  provide three through passages  608 . Wire leads or optic fibers  616  (e.g., shielded twisted pairs, coax, or fiber) coupled to strain gauges may be inlaid into grooves  617  on an instrument tube, an outer rib surface, and matching grooves in a shaft of the surgical instrument. 
     Referring now to  FIGS.  9 A- 9 C , a force sensor apparatus  700  is illustrated, the force sensor apparatus  700  including four ribs  702  paired at skewed angles (e.g., 70 degrees and 110 degrees) about a z-axis centerline of a tube  706 . Ribs  702  extend radially within tube  706  from the z-axis centerline of the tube providing through passages  708   a  and  708   b . In this embodiment, force sensor apparatus  700  also includes a central through passage  708   c  along a lengthwise axis of tube  706  in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. The through passages may be used for passage of actuation cables, wires, tubes, rods, and/or fluids. In this embodiment, as can be seen in  FIG.  9 A , tube  706  does not include apertures through the wall of the tube but apertures exposing portions of the interior ribs are within the scope of the present invention. Furthermore, the combined stiffness of tube  706  and ribs  702  still allow for a strong strain signal to noise signal ratio consistent with a materials choice and rib design meeting the need for high thermal diffusivity and a thermal path between opposing strain gauges while also providing passage for actuation cables, wires, tubes, rods, and/or fluids. 
     Similar to the embodiments disclosed above, a number of strain gauges  704  are oriented parallel to the lengthwise z-axis of the tube and mounted to an outer rib surface  702   a . The strain gauges may be inlaid into grooves or a depressed area  717  on the outer rib surface  702   a  in one example. Wire leads or optic fibers  716  (e.g., shielded twisted pairs, coax, or fiber) coupled to the strain gauges  704  may be inlaid into grooves  717  on tube  706 , the outer rib surface  702   a , and matching grooves  717  in a shaft of the surgical instrument. The wire leads or optic fibers  716  may then be embedded in an adhesive potting compound such as epoxy. 
     Embodiments described above illustrate but do not limit the invention. It should also be understood that numerous modifications and variations are possible in accordance with the principles of the present invention. For example, the number of strain gauges and their configuration may vary but must allow for applicable force and torque determinations and noise rejection. Similarly, the number of ribs and angle between ribs may vary from those described above. Furthermore, the embodiments of force sensor apparatus described above may be integrated with a surgical instrument upon manufacture as a non-separable part of the shaft. Accordingly, the scope of the invention is defined only by the following claims.