Patent Publication Number: US-11047816-B2

Title: High resolution, nanomembrane-based, thermal diffusivity biosensor for living cells

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a U.S. National Stage Application of International Application No. PCT/IB2017/050269, filed on Jan. 18, 2017, which claims priority and benefit from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/280,224, filed Jan. 19, 2016, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to a method for making high-resolution measurements of biological (and non biological) thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity. The resolution is such that measurement of the thermal diffusivities/conductivities of individual biological cells is feasible (Resolution can also reach sub-cell resolution (cell organelles)). The present invention also relates to an associated biosensor. In addition, the present invention relates to an associated kit facilitating performance of the method. 
     With a 90% mortality rate, cancer metastasis, or the spread of cancerous cells from a primary tumor to seed secondary tumors, accounts for the majority of deaths among cancer patients 9,10 . Surgery, chemo-therapy and radiation-therapy, are ineffective in treating disseminated metastatic cells 5 ; however recent progress in functionalized magnetic and plasmonic nanoparticles has led photothermal 3,4  and magneto-thermal 2  therapies to potentially target only cancerous cells throughout the body. Because the cellular response to overheating is highly dependent on both the temperature and the exposure time, and effects range from improved diffusion rate across the cellular membrane to irreversible damage and protein denaturation 11 , precise information regarding the transient thermal energy distribution within the cell is required to efficiently target cancerous cells without affecting adjacent healthy cells. In addition to cancer therapies, several imaging techniques, such as photoacoustic 6,7  and photothermal 8  imaging, require the generation of confined heat pulses using pulsed laser sources. Thus, cellular thermal diffusivity, as a measure of the transient thermal response of a cell to a change in temperature, becomes a fundamental property to calculate the required exposure time and intensity based on the requirements of the applications. Although there are standard techniques for measuring thermal diffusivity, such as the transient plane or line sources and laser flashing methods, they currently lack the spatial resolution needed to measure diffusivity at the micron scale. Moreover, due to the irregular cellular curvilinear shapes, single-cell thermal diffusivity measurement requires a flexible sensor that is capable of following their contours. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The ability to manipulate low dimensional physics phenomena within nanostructures has always led to innovative techniques in determining physical properties of living cells, such as electrical 12 , optical 13  and mechanical 14,15 . Among the different nanostructures, 2D nanostructures, such as nanomembranes (NMs), are unrivalled in their scalability for high-yield manufacture and, with the current transfer techniques, are less challenging in their manipulation compared with lower-dimensional nanostructures 16 . Furthermore, due to their extremely small flexural rigidity, NMs are highly flexible and can follow curvilinear surfaces 17,18 . The operation principle of our novel technique relies on the ability to spectrally shift the bandgap photoluminescence (PL) emission of gallium nitride (GaN) NMs through laser-induced heating due to the increased phonons-boundary-scattering rate. GaN NMs are just used for demonstration, other nanostructures or materials can be engineered to perform the same functionality. 
     A method for measuring thermal diffusivity comprises, in accordance with the present invention, (i) providing a microscale biological sample, (ii) placing a metallic disk atop the biological sample, (iii) disposing a nanomembrane over the biological sample and over the metallic disc so that the nanomembrane, the metallic disk and the biological sample are in thermal equilibrium with one another, (iv) directing a laser beam to fall onto the nanomembrane over the biological sample, (v) operating a radiation sensor to detect photoluminescent radiation emitted by the nanomembrane in response to the laser beam, (vi) determining a spectral shift in the detected photoluminescent radiation emitted by the nanomembrane, and (vii) calculating thermal diffusivity/conductivity from the determined spectral shift of the photoluminescence. 
     Pursuant to a feature of the invention, the metallic disk is pre-attached to the nanomembrane. The placing of the metallic disk and the disposing of the nanomembrane comprise positioning the nanomembrane and the metallic disk together atop the biological sample. Typically, the nanomembrane is provided with the metallic disk lying thereon, so that the method further contemplates flipping the nanomembrane so that the disk is underneath. The positioning of the nanomembrane and the metallic disk is performed after the flipping of the nanomembrane. 
     Another feature of the invention is without the usage of a metallic disk. In this case, the NM is formed from a material which can be excited with a wavelength that is not absorbed by the underlying biological (or non-organic) material. 
     Pursuant to another feature of the invention, a kit for use in making measurements of thermal diffusivity of microscale biological material comprises at least one nanomembrane having a maximum edge dimension in a microscale range and at least one metallic disk having a maximum dimension substantially less than a smallest dimension of the nanomembrane. The term “microscale” is used herein to denote sizes on the same order as that of living cells and clumps of cells. The nanomembranes are typically so small that a microscope is required to enable manipulation by a user. 
     The kit preferably comprises a plurality of nanomembranes each having a maximally sized edge dimension in a microscale range and further comprises a plurality of metallic disks each having a maximum dimension substantially less than a smallest dimension of each of the nanomembranes. Where the metallic disks are circular, they may have a diameter of between one half and one-twentieth that of an edge of a square nanomembrane. 
     The disks are preferably made of a material taken from the group consisting of gold, a gold alloy, platinum, and a platinum alloy, Aluminum, Silver (many of the metals will function at different wavelengths) and are each fastened to a respective one of the nanomembranes. 
     The present invention provides a method and apparatus for measuring single-cell thermal diffusivity. Here, the present approach of measuring the thermal diffusivity of single-cells has only a 2.2% error rate. We base our technique on increasing the diffusive phonon-boundary-scattering rate in nanomembranes to induce a considerable spectral dependence of the excitonic-bandgap emission over excitation-laser intensity. We further demonstrate that once in contact with organic or inorganic material, the nanomembranes&#39; emission spectral-shift functions as an indicator of the material&#39;s thermal diffusivity. Due to the prior absence of a single-cell thermal diffusivity sensor, we anticipate our novel technique to enable an efficient single-cell targeting using nanoheaters, allow better modeling of thermal distribution within cells and potentially enable novel diagnostic techniques based on variations of single-cell thermal diffusivities. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic perspective view of a biosensor assembly for measuring single-cell thermal diffusivity. Schematic representation of a cell attached to a substrate and covered with a GaN NM. A laser beam is focused on the NM to induce local heating as well as PL emission. Because heat spontaneously diffuses from the NM to the cell, the temperature of the NM depends on the cell thermal diffusivity. Consequently, based on the measured temperature-dependent PL emission from the NM, we can estimate the cell thermal diffusivity. The magnified region represents the focused excitation beam (dashed arrow), which simulates spontaneous bandgap emission (straight solid arrows) as well as local heat energy which diffuses away from the source (zigzagged arrows). 
         FIGS. 2 a  through 2 e    pertain to intensity-dependent PL emissions from NMs.  FIG. 2 a    is a band diagram of the photo-excited free-excitons in GaN showing laser excitation, phonon-assisted relaxation and PL emission.  FIG. 2 b    is a schematic perspective view showing a nanomembrane disposed on a copper grid and exposed to a laser beam, to measure the laser-induced local heating.  FIG. 2 c    is an optical image of the structure shown in  FIG. 2 b   .  FIG. 2 d    is a pair of graphs showing that, with increasing laser excitation intensity, PL signals measured from 40 and 10 nm thick GaN NMs exhibited spectral redshifts of different magnitudes because of the decrease of the thermal conductivity with NM thickness.  FIG. 2 e    is a graph showing thermal conductivity simulation results of the laser-induced heating within the NMs. Circles, squares and triangles represent the mean measured peak emission energy from the 40, 20 and 10 nm thick NMs, respectively. The simulation results are indicated by solid black curves. An inset 3D plot shows the simulated steady-state heat distribution across the NM. 
         FIGS. 3 a  through 3 d    show COMSOL Multiphysics simulation results of the temperature profile due to a 100 μs long excitation laser pulse.  FIG. 3 a    is a schematic two-dimensional diagram of temperature distribution within a cell when the NM is in direct contact with the cell.  FIG. 3 b    is a schematic two-dimensional diagram of temperature distribution within a cell when a 250 nm thick Au film is inserted under the NM.  FIG. 3 c    is a schematic two-dimensional diagram of temperature distribution within a cell when the Au film is reduced to a 3 μm wide microdisk. The insertion of an Au film causes rapid lateral diffusion of the heat energy within the film. When the film is reduced to a disk, lateral heat diffusion is suppressed and heat diffuses vertically from the NM to the cell.  FIG. 3 d    is a graph showing a simulated temperature depth profile for the three cases of  FIGS. 3 a -3 c    due to a 100 μs long excitation pulse, with the lowest curve corresponding to  FIG. 3 a    (no gold), the middle curve corresponding to  FIG. 3 b    (gold film) and the upper curve corresponding to  FIG. 3 c    (gold microdisk). While the Au film caused a severe drop in the temperature, due to the enhanced lateral diffusion, temperature depth profile for the direct contact and the Au disk cases are similar. Ambient temperature was taken as 37° C. in these simulations. 
         FIGS. 4 a  through 4 e    show experimental measurements of thermal diffusivity.  FIG. 4 a    is an optical microscope image of the GaN NMs with the Au microdisk attached while resting on their original GaN substrate.  FIG. 4 b    is an image showing a 10 μm wide tungsten tip used in picking up individual NMs from the GaN substrate, flipping them, transferring them to different materials.  FIG. 4 c    shows an NM as transferred onto a substrate. With the NM facing downwards, the Au microdisk was sandwiched between the NM and the foreign substrate.  FIG. 4 d    is an SEM micrograph of a cancer cell covered by a 35 nm thick NM. The micrograph is imaged under high KV mode to make the Au microdisk apparent in the image.  FIG. 4 e    is a plot of the temperature difference ratios of the NM of several materials versus their thermal diffusivities (black dots). The solid curve is the same ratio constructed from the analytical solution to the heat diffusion equation 2. The positively sloped linear plot is the calculated measurement resolution. 
         FIG. 5  is a diagram of an experimental setup used to measure thermal diffusivities. The diagram depicts an beam optical path for an excitation 325 nm laser as well as PL emission from target NMs. 
         FIG. 6  is a pair of graphs showing PL emission from a nanomembrane attached to a cell. Collected PL emissions from a single NM attached to a cell at an increasing laser excitation intensity for long (top graph) and short (bottom graph) pulse widths. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 1 , a pulsed, focused laser beam  12  from a laser source  14  locally heats a gallium nitride nanomembrane (NM)  16  that is in direct contact with a cancer cell CC disposed on a substrate  17 . The generated heat energy spontaneously diffuses to the cancer cell CC at a rate proportional to the cell&#39;s thermal diffusivity. The temperature of the NM  16  thus depends on the cell&#39;s thermal diffusivity. A light sensor  18  such as a photocell or solid state camera (charge coupled device or CCD) detects photoluminescent (PL) light emission  19  from the nanomembrane NM. Knowledge of the nanomembrane&#39;s temperature, obtained by measuring the spectral-shift in its PL emission, yields information of the thermal diffusivity of the cancer cell CC. A gold microdisk  20  is disposed between and in thermal contact with the NM  16  and the cancer cell CC. The function of the gold (Au) microdisk  20  is to block unabsorbed laser radiation to prevent it from being absorbed within the underlying cell CC as further explained below. Because GaN is a robust, chemically stable and biocompatible 19  material we selected GaN material for the NM  16 . Although fabrication of GaN NMs of different dimensions and crystalline properties has been demonstrated by several groups 20-22 , there is no published work on employing their properties for biomedical applications. 
     Laser-Induced Heating in GaN NMs 
     Prior to demonstrating thermal diffusivity measurements of single-cells with the GaN NMs, it is imperative to study the effect of laser-induced local heating on the PL emission from NMs. Once excited by a 325 nm (3.81 eV) continuous-wave laser, photo-excited free-excitons emit a series of optical and acoustic phonons while relaxing towards their energy band minimum to conserve energy and momentum simultaneously ( FIG. 2 a   ) 23 . Thus, a local non-equilibrium density of phonons (a non-equilibrium temperature gradient) is established, causing the phonons to spontaneously diffuse away from the excitation region into the surrounding crystal. Due to its long phonon mean free path, or average distance travelled before scattering, (Λ ph ˜100 nm) 24 , GaN thermal conductivity is sufficiently high (κ GaN =227 W/m·K) 25  which enables rapid phonon diffusion. Therefore, no steady-state local increase in temperature occurs, and the GaN PL peak emission energy (3.42 eV) exhibits no spectral dependence over increasing excitation laser intensity (up to 4.84 mW/μm 2 ). Although phonon scattering in bulk GaN crystal at room temperature is dominated by Umklapp processes 26 , once the crystal is reduced to a NM structure, with a thickness of less than Λ ph , diffusive phonon-boundary-scattering becomes dominant and causes a reduction in Λ ph  to approximately the NM thickness (W NM ) 27 . Consequently, the GaN NM thermal conductivity (Λ NM ∝Λ ph ) significantly reduces as it scales down with W NM   28 . Therefore, thermal energy is not dissipated rapid enough, and a steady-state increase in local temperature is established, which causes the GaN PL peak emission to redshift with increasing laser excitation intensity. 
     To measure the PL emission from the GaN NMs, we transferred the GaN NMs  16  to a copper grid  22 , and focused a 325 nm laser beam  12  onto the NMs to a 3 μm spot size, as schematically presented in  FIG. 2 b    and optically imaged in  FIG. 2 c   . The normalized PL emissions from 40 and 10 nm thick GaN NMs at increasing laser excitation intensities were measured and plotted in  FIG. 2 d   . At low-excitation intensity (3.3 μW/μm 2 ), all NMs, regardless of thicknesses, emitted at the same energy (3.42 eV), indicating the absence of laser-induced local heating. However, at increasing excitation intensities, thinner NMs exhibited longer red-shifts as well as wider full width at half maximums (FWHMs), which is ascribed to an increase in the local temperature due to the increased probability of phonon-boundary-scattering 29,30    
     To quantitatively estimate κ NM  based on the spectral shift, we numerically solved the steady-state heat equation using MATLAB and then fitted the experimental data. Using the following equation:
 
−κ NM   W   NM ∇ 2   T+h   tot ( T−T   a )+ϵσ SB ( T   4   −T   a   4 )= Q   exc ( x,y ),  (1)
 
where T and T a  are the NM and ambient temperatures, respectively. h tot , ϵ and σ SB  are the convection heat transfer coefficient, the GaN emissivity and the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, respectively. Finally, Q exc (x,y) is the heat generated within the NM due to excitation laser, modelled by a Gaussian distribution. The simulated steady-state heat distribution across the NM, plotted in the inset of  FIG. 2 e   , indeed showed a steady-state accumulation of heat energy centred on the excitation laser spot. The PL emission energy from the NM was calculated from the local temperature based on Varshni&#39;s equation 31 . The mean measured peak emission energies were plotted with increasing excitation intensities in  FIG. 2 e    for 40, 20 and 10 nm thick NMs, presented by circles, squares and triangles, respectively. κ NM  of 20.5, 15.4 and 9 W/m·K gave the best simulation fit to the experimental data for the 40, 20 and 10 nm thick NMs, respectively.
 
Thermal Diffusivity Sensing Design
 
     In our attempt to establish a solid theoretical foundation for our novel NM-based thermal diffusivity sensing technique, we first find an analytical solution to the heat diffusion equation. We simplified our NM/cell system to a semi-infinite homogenous medium which had an adiabatic surface and was heated by a Gaussian heat source. The rise in peak temperature at the heating source (at the NM) is then given by, 
                       Δ   ⁢           ⁢     T   ⁡     (   t   )         -     A   ⁢       σ   2       κ   coll       ×     (       1   σ     -     1         σ   2     +     2   ⁢     α   cell     ⁢   t             )         ,           (   2   )               
where A and σ are the Gaussian heat source (laser) amplitude and standard deviation, respectively; κ cell  and α cell  n are the cell thermal conductivity and diffusivity, respectively; and t represents the heating time 32 . It is apparent from the above solution that the NM emission, as a function of ΔT, depends on both κ cell  and α cell  which should not be the case for a thermal diffusivity measurement technique. However, the ratio of the temperature changes due to different heating periods, R t     1     /t     2   =ΔT(t 1 )/ΔT(t 2 ), cancels the time-independent term outside the bracket and is only a function of α cell . Thus, instead of using a continuous laser source, the laser was pulsed at two different time periods (t 1  and t 2 ), and the ratio between the rise in local temperatures was calculated. This technique also allowed the measurement to be independent from the laser amplitude, which yielded a more controlled experiment.  FIG. 3 a    shows the COMSOL Multiphysics simulation results of the heat diffusion equation within the NM/cell system due to a 100 μs long laser pulse, with the temperature depth profile plotted in  FIG. 3 b   . As demonstrated from the depth profile, a 100 μs long pulse width limited the heat diffusion to within the cell boundaries, thus allowing for the infinite medium approximation.
 
     Because the NM thickness used in this study (35 nm) was much less than the penetration depth of 325 nm radiation in GaN (˜85 nm), approximately 50% of the optical energy was transmitted through the NM. This transmitted energy, depending on the underlying cell&#39;s optical properties, was absorbed, transmitted or reflected back to the NM. Therefore, the generated heat energy, and hence the observed PL energy shift, became functions of the cell&#39;s optical properties. To address this issue, we inserted a 250 nm thin layer of Au under the NM to prevent UV radiation from reaching the cancer cell, while at the same time, due to its high thermal diffusivity (170 mm 2 /s), does not interfere with heat diffusion from the NM to the cancer cell. Unfortunately, as demonstrated by the simulation results ( FIG. 3 b    and  FIG. 3 d   ), the insertion of an Au film significantly enhanced lateral thermal diffusion, which delocalized the generated heat energy and rendered the measurements prone to boundary effects (such as cell dimensions and surrounding medium). To suppress lateral thermal diffusion, the Au film was reduced to a 4 μm wide microdisk ( FIG. 3 c   ). The modified temperature profile became similar to the direct contact case with a considerable increase in temperature due to the absorbed laser energy within the Au microdisk. 
     Thermal Diffusivity Measurement 
     To verify the ability of the described experimental design to measure thermal diffusivity, we first transferred the NMs to several materials of known thermal diffusivities (α material ) and recorded R t     1     /t     2   . Through several lithography, metal evaporation and plasma etching techniques, we fabricated 40 μm wide, 35 nm thick GaN NMs with 3 μm wide, 250 nm thick Au microdisks attached to them ( FIG. 4 a    and Methods). With the aid of a 10 μm tungsten tip attached to a micrometre probe positioner, we picked up the NMs ( FIG. 4 b   ), flipped them (so that the Au microdisk is facing down) and transferred them to several materials with different α material  ( FIG. 4 c   ). To eliminate any structural or morphological variations within the NMs and the attached Au microdisks, which would induce errors within the measurements, we only transferred adjacent NMs from an area of 0.5×0.5 mm 2 . A 325 nm pulsed laser was focused onto the Au microdisk and the PL emission was measured at increasing laser intensities. The increase in the NM local temperature was then calculated from the PL shift using Varshni&#39;s equation. Finally, the measurement was repeated at two different laser pulse widths (100 and 6 μs), and R 100/6  was calculated for the NMs on the different materials (R 100/6  is plotted versus α material    FIG. 4 e   ). The solid hyperbolic curve in  FIG. 4 e    represents the analytical solution (equation 2) using the current experimental conditions (Methods). Although, similar dependence of R 100/6  over α material  is observed at both the experimental and analytical solutions, higher R 100/6  values are analytically calculated than experimentally measured at lower α material . This discrepancy arose because the analytical solution did not account any heat loss from the NM surface, whether convection or radiation. 
     Next we demonstrate the applicability of our technique to biological cells. First, we constructed a calibration curve ( FIG. 4 e   ) from the experimental data to estimate α cell  given R 100,6 . We observe a clear nonlinearity in the sensitivity of our measuring technique, given by the slope of the calibration curve (δR t     1     ,t     2   /δα, where δ denotes the minimum resolution of the quantity), with the sensitivity improving with decreasing α material . We then plated an MCF-7 breast cancer cell line onto a glass slide (Methods), and with the aid of a tungsten tip, we performed multiple transfers of NMs on top of several cells ( FIG. 4 d   ). From several cells of the same cell line, we measured an average R 100/6  equal to 2.05, which yielded α cell  equal to 0.123 mm 2 /s. Interestingly, the measured α cell  was slightly less than that of water (0.143 mm 2 /s), which is consistent with the fact that water normally accounts for approximately 80% of the cell&#39;s weight. Furthermore, the water content within living cells harbors a large composition of macromolecules, such as proteins, having calculated thermal conductivities less than water 33,34 , thereby contributing to a lower thermal conductivity of living cells 35 . 
     The measurement resolution of our thermal diffusivity measuring technique (δα) is limited by experimental setup as well as by measured sample properties. Over the range of 3.33 eV to 3.42 eV, the average spectral resolution of the 2400 lines grating (δE GR ) used in the above measurements is 0.137 meV, which yields a value of 0.25° C. for δT. Because δR t     1     ,tX     2   =R t     1     ,t     2   √{square root over ((δT/ΔT 1 ) 2 +(δT/ΔT 2 ) 2 )}, we observe that higher temperature shifts, which depend on κ material , A laser  and σ laser , result in smaller δR t     1     ,t     2   . Based on the optics and materials used, we plot the calculated δR t     1     ,t     2    ( FIG. 4 e   ). As α material  decreases, δR t     1     ,t     2    decreases from 0.026 (for silicon) to 0.014 (for parylene) with a value of 0.019 for the MFC-7 cancer cells. Using δR t     1     ,t     2   /δα, we obtain δα cell =0.0026 mm 2 /s, which is only 2.2% of the measured α cell . Increasing the laser intensity or the pulse width lowers this error but on the expense of generating more heat which will affect the cancer cells. On the other hand, using materials with optical emissions which have higher spectral dependence over temperature than GaN, will increase the measuring resolution of the technique. 
     In conclusion, we developed a novel thermal diffusivity measuring technique based on the transient response of GaN NMs to laser-induced heating. We also successfully measured, for the first time, the thermal diffusivity of cancerous cells to enable high-precision single-cell targeting using nanoparticles based hyperthermia treatment. Moreover, measuring the thermal diffusivities yields a more controllable experimental design for therapeutic or imaging techniques dealing with transient temperature variations within the cells. While we measured diffusivity for single cells, the spatial resolution can be increased or decreased, with a shorter or longer pulse width, respectively, to measure the diffusivity of subcellular regions or cell clusters and whole tissues. Finally, as demonstrated, the presented technique is not limited to biomedical applications and can also be employed in non-biological samples. 
     Methods 
     NM fabrication. Using a VEECO GEN930 plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy (PAMBE) system, a 35 nm thick indium gallium nitride (InGaN) sacrificial layer was grown at 560° C., followed by 40 nm thick GaN grown at 640° C., on a 500 nm GaN on a sapphire template wafer. The wafer was then cleaved into 1 cm 2  pieces, which were subsequently degreased in acetone and isopropanol (IPA) for κ mins and then cleaned in nitric acid (HNO 3 ) at 65° C. for 15 mins for surface oxide removal. A thin layer of platinum metal (150 nm) was then deposited near the edge of the top surface. Finally, a layer of AZ resist was spin-coated and patterned into 40 μm wide disks, followed by inductively coupled plasma (ICP) reactive ion etching (RIE) using an Argon (Ar)/Chlorine (Cl)-based recipe to expose the InGaN sacrificial layer. The remaining photoresist was then removed with acetone, and the sample was cleaned in IPA. 
     Au microdisk fabrication. A 250 nm thick layer of Au was evaporated onto the sample, followed by a spin-coated layer of SU8-2000.5 photoresist which was then patterned into 4 μm disks. Using Ar-bombardment in an ICP reactor, 150 nm of Au was removed, followed by 10 seconds immersion in potassium iodide (KI)/iodine (I 2 ) based Au etchant to etch away the remaining 100 nm, leaving behind the intact GaN structure. Finally, oxygen (O 2 ) plasma was used to remove the remaining SU-8 photoresist. 
     NM exfoliation. The samples were immersed in a bath containing CH 3 OH:H 2 O 2 (35%):HF(48%) (1:2:2). Back light illumination was performed by focusing light coming from a 200 W mercury (Hg) arc lamp onto the sample. To selectively etch the InGaN sacrificial layer, any photon energies higher than the GaN bandgap was blocked by placing a polished GaN wafer on top of the etching bath 36 . Once the InGaN was completely etched, the samples were gently cleaned by dipping them in IPA and were then dried using a critical point dryer (CPD) to enable proper exfoliation of the NM. 
     PL measurement. The PL emission from the NM was measured by focusing radiation from a helium-cadmium (He—Cd) gas laser to an average spot of 3 μm in diameter. The PL signal was then collected and sent to a 2400 line diffraction grating for dispersion. We pulsed the laser by passing the beam through a high-speed chopper. 
     Cell culture. Breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7) were purchased from ATCC (Manassas, Va., USA). The MCF-7 cells were cultured in MEM medium supplemented with 10% foetal bovine serum (FBS) and Penicillin/Streptomycin solution (100 units/ml penicillin, 100 μg/ml streptomycin) and maintained in a humidified incubator at 37° C. and 5% CO 2 . In all assays, the cells used were from passages 5-25 and were used in suspension or plated on a glass slide (Fisher Scientific Ltd, UK) pre-coated with attachment factor protein (1×; Fisher Scientific Ltd, UK) for 30 minutes at 37° C. Finally, the MCF-7 cells were seeded at a density of 3×10 5  cells/mL (9×10 4  cells/cm 2 ) and incubated at 37° C. and 5% CO 2  in a humidified incubator for 24 hours before transferring the NMs onto the cells. 
     COMSOL Multiphysics simulation. The cell was modelled as a cylinder with a 5 μm radius and a 10 μm height. Because water normally accounts for approximately 80% of the cell&#39;s weight, we used water thermal conductivity and diffusivity to model the thermal properties of living cells. Because cells have even lower thermal diffusivities than water, heat energy will be further confined in case of cells. Regarding the thermal properties of gallium nitride (GaN) and gold (Au), we used the values available in the COMSOL libraries. The following time-dependent heat diffusion equation was solved for the NM/Au microdisk/cell system: 
                   ∂   T       ∂   t       +     ∇   T       =       ∇     ·     (     u   ⁢     ∇   T       )         +     Q     ρ   ⁢           ⁢     C   p                 
where α, ρ, C p  and Q are the thermal diffusivity, density, specific heat capacity at constant pressure and heat source power per unit volume, respectively. The initial temperature was set at 37° C. Convection cooling from the NM is taken into account by having a column of air on the NM.
 
     Experimental optical setup. As shown in  FIG. 5 , 325 nm laser radiation, originating from a helium-cadmium (He—Cd) laser  50 , was first chopped into 6 μs or 100 μs pulses using a Scitec 310CD high-speed optical chopper  52  with an in-house drilled 400 μm wide hole  54 . The generated pulses  56  had a very low duty cycle (1.27×10 −3 ) to ensure that all of the laser-generated heat energy during one pulse is dissipated before the incoming second heating pulse. A set of optical density filters  58  were used to vary the laser radiation intensity from 0.027 to 1.235 mW/μm 2 . After locating the Au microdisk (not shown), which is attached to the NM  58 , the laser beam pulses  56  were reflected by a beam splitter  60  and focused to a spot of 3 μm in diameter using a 40× UV objective lens  62 . The sample  64  was left on a thermo-electric controller  66 , set at 37° C., long enough to reach thermal equilibrium prior to performing the measurement. The photoluminescence emission  68  from the NM  58 , was then collected by the same objective  62 , transmitted through the beam splitter  60 , filtered at  70  and dispersed by a 2400 line grating  72  onto a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera  74 . Each measurement consisted of collecting the PL emission at different laser radiation intensities and different chopping speeds. 
     Materials Used for Calibration 
     Prior to measuring the thermal diffusivities of cells, we transferred the NMs onto materials of known thermal diffusivities to calibrate the measured signal. Because the fabrication/growth procedure of any material affects its final thermal diffusivity, we could not rely on standard available thermal diffusivities and had to measure the thermal diffusivities ourselves. The measured thermal diffusivities of the materials, which were measured using laser flash technique, are listed in Table 1. 
                                 TABLE 1                           Thermal diffusivity           Material   (mm 2 /s)                                                    Parylene   0.0588           Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)   0.09           Polyether ether ketone (PEEK)   0.178           Soda-lime glass   0.487           Quartz   0.78           Sapphire   8.77           Silicon   80                        
Heating Curves of a Single Cell
 
       FIG. 10  shows a sample of the measured PL emissions from NMs on cells. At both long (100 μs) and short (6 μs) pulse widths, the PL emission from the NM attached to the cancer cell emitted at the same peak emission when the excitation intensity was 0.027 mW/μm 2 . As the excitation intensity increased, the PL emission from the NM got spectrally redshifted due to the laser-induced heating. As observed, the redshift was higher for a 100 μs pulse width than a 6 μs pulse. We then converted the energy shifts into temperature shifts (using Varshni&#39;s equation). Finally, the ratio between the two shifts was calculated and used to estimate the thermal diffusivities (using the calibration curve constructed above,  FIG. 4 ). 
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