Patent Publication Number: US-2023144908-A1

Title: Method for mobile service chaining via hybrid network resources switching

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a divisional of, and claims priority to, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/893,977, filed Jun. 5, 2020, which is a continuation of, and claims priority to, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/383,719, filed Dec. 19, 2016 (now U.S. Pat. No. 10,716,150). The contents of each of the foregoing are hereby incorporated by reference into this application as if set forth herein in full. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This disclosure relates generally to network management and, more specifically, to assigning and configuring general purpose hardware to support virtual network functions. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Communication networks have migrated from using specialized networking equipment executing on dedicated hardware, like routers, firewalls, and gateways, to software defined networks (SDNs) executing as virtualized network functions (VNF) in a cloud infrastructure. To provide a service, a set of VNFs may be instantiated on the general purpose hardware. Each VNF may require one or more virtual machines (VMs) to be instantiated. In turn, VMs may require various resources, such as memory, virtual computer processing units (vCPUs), and network interfaces or network interface cards (NICs). Determining how to assign these resources among VMs in an efficient manner may be unbearably complex. 
     This disclosure is directed to solving one or more of the problems in the existing technology. A service chain in LTE/LTE-A networks may involve a combination of hybrid physical network functions (PNF)/VNF based network application functions that are interconnected together via multiple control plane interfaces to form a service based session construct prior to delivering service specific user data. The hybrid PNF/VNF network functions and their distinctive network management systems, as well as their deployment in a vertically pooled resource configuration, presents a complex network architecture that needs to be managed effectively. 
     SUMMARY 
     The present disclosure includes a method including receiving a request for a communication session from a user device, identifying a first resource from a plurality of first resources, wherein the first resource is associated with a first service control layer for a radio access network and wherein the plurality of resources includes at least one virtual network function (VNF), identifying a second resource from the plurality of second resources, wherein the second resource is associated with a second service control layer for LTE core functions, identifying a third resource from the plurality of third resources, wherein the third resource is associated with a third service control layer for content, allocating a virtual machine to be used to instantiate the at least one VNF, instantiating the at least one VNF, establishing the communication session using the first resource, the second resource and the third resource by facilitating communications between the first service control layer, the second service control layer and the third service control layer. The method may further wherein the plurality of second resources comprises a combination of virtual network functions and physical network functions chained together in communication with each other. The method may further include wherein the second service control layer for LTE core functions allocates the plurality of second resources to provide LTE services and may further include tracking a performance metric for the communication and adjusting the plurality of second resources to provide LTE services. 
     In an aspect, the method may further include Identifying virtual machines (VMs) to be used to instantiate the at least one VNF, identifying hardware resources to be consumed by the VMs, determining a session capacity for a hardware platform based on the hardware resources and performance requirements, and assigning the hardware resources of the hardware platform to at least one of the VMs. The hardware resources may include a virtual computer processing unit (vCPU), a network interface card (NIC), and computer memory. In an aspect, the performance requirements may change during the communication session and the determining step may include determining a second session capacity for the hardware platform and the assigning step may include dynamically adjusting the hardware resources assigned to support the second session capacity. 
     In an aspect, the receiving step comprises receiving the request for a communication session from an application service layer and the request for a communication includes performance metrics for the communication. The method may further include tracking a performance of the communication and dynamically adjusting a capacity of the second resource based on the tracking step 
     The disclosure is also directed to a system including an access network having a first service control layer associated therewith, a combination of virtual network resources and physical network resources, wherein the virtual network resources and physical network resources are communicatively chained to provide a dynamically configurable set of resources and wherein the combination matrix has a second service control layer associated therewith, a content network having a third service control layer associated therewith; and a master service orchestration layer in communication with the first service control layer, the second service control layer and the third service control layer, the service orchestration layer having a processor and a memory comprising executable instructions, wherein the executable instructions cause the processor to effectuate operations, the operations including receiving a request for a communication session, receiving a set of performance metrics for the communication session, sending to the first service control layer a request to allocate network access resources to support the communication session, sending to the second service control layer a request to allocate virtual network resources or physical network resources to support the communication session, sending to the third service control layer a request to aggregate content to be provided during the communication session and monitoring the communication session. 
     In an aspect the operations may further include sending a request to the first service control layer to dynamically adjust the allocation of network access resources based on the monitoring step. The method may further include sending a request to the second service control layer to dynamically adjust the allocation of virtual network functions or physical network functions based on the monitoring step. 
     In an aspect, the service orchestration layer is in communications with an application service layer and wherein the request for a communication session and the set of performance metrics is received from the application service layer. The request for communication is request for one of a broadcast, multicast and unicast communication. In an aspect wherein the communication is a broadcast communication, the allocated network resources, the allocated virtual network functions and physical network functions support multiple user equipment participating in the communication session. The performance metrics may include end user quality of service and network throughput associated with the communication session. The operations further include coordinating dynamically reallocation of resources during the communication session. The operations may further include receiving from the third service control layer additional content generated during the communication session and sending a second request to the second control layer to dynamically reallocate resources to support the communication session. In an aspect, the operations may further include maintaining a mapping table of connected user equipment and contexts associated with the communication session. The operations further include providing coordination between the first service control layer, the second service control layer and the third service control layer during the communication session. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       In the following description, for purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide an understanding of the variations in implementing the disclosed technology. However, the instant disclosure may take many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the examples set forth herein. Where practical, like numbers refer to like elements throughout. 
         FIG.  1   a    is a representation of an exemplary network. 
         FIG.  1   b    is a representation of an exemplary hardware platform for a network. 
         FIG.  2   a    is a representation of an exemplary embodiment in accordance with the present disclosure; 
         FIG.  2   b    is a representation of an exemplary embodiment illustrating the chaining of VNF in accordance with the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  3   a    is an exemplary flow diagram showing the allocation of hardware resources to support virtual machines in accordance with the present invention. 
         FIG.  3   b    is an exemplary flow diagram showing the allocation of resources in accordance with the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  3   c    is an exemplary flow diagram showing the dynamic allocation of resources in accordance with the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  4    depicts an exemplary communication system that provide wireless telecommunication services over wireless communication networks that may be at least partially implemented as an SDN. 
         FIG.  5    depicts an exemplary diagrammatic representation of a machine in the form of a computer system. 
         FIG.  6    is an exemplary diagrammatic representation of a cellular communications network. 
         FIG.  7    is an example system including RAN and core network functions. 
         FIG.  8    depicts an overall block diagram of an example packet-based mobile cellular network environment. 
         FIG.  9    illustrates an architecture of a typical GPRS network 
         FIG.  10    illustrates a PLMN block diagram view of an example architecture that may be replaced by a telecommunications system 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     This disclosure is directed to the efficient management of a hybrid PNF/VNF network in a vertically pooled resource configuration. Dynamic switching of these network functions across hybrid PNF/VNF resource pools is disclosed to maintain session constructs and for efficient services delivery. The digital mobile service and media experience in such a hybrid environment is influenced by various factors including content computing infrastructure (creation, aggregation and distribution), network infrastructure (data transport, connectivity, end user service delivery options) and digital experience (use of smartphones, PDAs, digital home equipment, mobility, convergence etc.). 
     The disclosure includes an intelligent tiered service orchestration layer for such a massive cloud centric network infrastructure with hybrid PNF/VNF components across multiple networking domains. The tiered orchestration layer works vertically across the network infrastructure chain (PNF/VNF) and horizontally across the networking/applications domain within an end to end service delivery path can help in designing and developing an end-to-end service chain that is effective for tracking user level services consumption, preferences and use such information via integrated closed loop monitoring method within the service layer to personalize the end users mobile services experience. Such an approach could lead to targeted new revenue generation, management and dynamic pricing for digital mobile services. This disclosure provides a method to provide such a service layer orchestrator that can work both vertically and horizontally across the VNFs, service domains, chaining them for a given service type, monitoring the status and utilize the pooled VNF resources effectively to deliver a robust service to end user 
       FIG.  1   a    is a representation of an exemplary network  100 . Network  100  may comprise an SDN—that is, network  100  may include one or more virtualized functions implemented on general purpose hardware, such as in lieu of having dedicated hardware for every network function. That is, general purpose hardware of network  100  may be configured to run virtual network elements to support communication services, such as mobility services, including consumer services and enterprise services. These services may be provided or measured in sessions. 
     A virtual network functions (VNFs)  102  may be able to support a limited number of sessions. Each VNF  102  may have a VNF type that indicates its functionality or role. For example,  FIG.  1     a.  illustrates a gateway VNF  102   a  and a policy and charging rules function (PCRF) VNF  102   b.  Additionally or alternatively, VNFs  102  may include other types of VNFs. Each VNF  102  may use one or more virtual machines (VMs)  104  to operate. Each VM  104  may have a VM type that indicates its functionality or role. For example,  FIG.  1   a    illustrates a MCM VM  104   a,  an ASM VM  104   b,  and a DEP VM  104   c.  Additionally or alternatively, VMs  104  may include other types of VMs. Each VM  104  may consume various network resources from a hardware platform  106 , such as a resource  108 , a virtual central processing unit (vCPU)  108   a,  memory  108   b,  or a network interface card (NIC)  108   c.  Additionally or alternatively, hardware platform  106  may include other types of resources  108 . 
     While  FIG.  1   a    illustrates resources  108  as collectively contained in hardware platform  106 , the configuration of hardware platform  106  may isolate, for example, certain memory  108   c  from other memory  108   c.    FIG.  1   b    provides an exemplary implementation of hardware platform  106  which will be discussed in more detail below. 
     With respect to  FIG.  2   , there is shown a hybrid network system  200  having both VNFs and physical hardware functions PNFs which may, for example, include hardware and software from a plurality of vendors. There is shown a box  220  representing hardware platform(s)  106 , which may, for example, include one or more hardware platforms. The hardware platforms  106  may be generic hardware servers capable of being configured using software to provide processing for one or more VNFs. As such, one or more VNFs may be instantiated on one or more hardware platform(s)  106  dynamically as needed for supplying network functionality for communications involving user elements  211 . 
     The hardware platform(s)  106  may be in communication with virtual switches  218  which in turn are in communication with a pool of VMs  214 , which, as shown in this example, include VM 1   214   a,  VM 2   214   b,  and VMn  214  n where n can represent any number of virtual machines. The virtual switches  218  assist in the mapping of one or more entities in the pool of VMs  214  to the hardware platform(s)  106  that are represented by box  220 . For example, an MIME function may be instantiated as a VNF on both VM 1   214   a  and VM 2   214   b  and therefore require switching capability during a communication session. Using virtual switches  218  for this functionality may provide more flexibility in dynamically configuring the VNFs used to support the various communication sessions. 
     Also shown is a radio access network (RAN) function  212  which nay, for example, comprise RAN hardware from one or more vendors. The RAN function  212  is in communication with the RAN service control lawyer  206  which may, for example, include the setup and allocation of RAN resources for a particular LTE communication requested by user equipment  211 . While  FIG.  2    shows a RAN network function  212 , the network may be any type of access network, including but not limited to 5G, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, WAN, LAN, or any other type of network. The term access network function and RAN network function as used herein are interchangeable. 
     There is also shown a content network  216  which may, for example, include the functions to create, aggregate, and distribute content for a communication requested by UE  211 . The RAN function  212  is in communication with the content network  216  through the pool of virtual machines  214  as indicated by a series of arrow(s)  213 . The series of arrows  213  are shown passing through the pool of VMs  214  to indicate that the network functionality to support the communication session, including by not limited to MME, HSS, gateways, and other network functionality is provided by one or more hardware or software defined network elements. 
     There is also shown a series of service control layers. There is a network access service control layer  206  associated with the access network function  212 . The network access control layer  206  may be a middleware layer that provides secure access to the. RAN function  212 , including, but not limited to, configuring RAN resources to enable the LTE bearer and service establishment in a UE context. The network access service control layer  206  may control both the physical network access resources as well as SDN controlled access network resources and provides the vertical chaining of resources to establish a UE context for the provision of services. 
     Another control layer is the LTE core service control layer  208 . This LTE core service control layer  208  provides instantiation, access and control to the various virtual functions running on virtual machines VM 1   214   a  through VMn  214   n.  There may also be physical network functions (PNFs) under the control of the LTE core service control layer. As such, the LTE core service control layer is configured to manage a hybrid matrix of VNFs and PNFs comprising the LTE core network functionality. Finally, there is a content service control layer  210  which provides APIs to access the content network  216 . Each of the LTE core service control layer  208  and the content service control layer  210  provides the vertical chaining of resources associated therewith. 
     In order to control the horizontal chaining of resources, there is shown a master service orchestrator layer  202 . The master service orchestrator layer  202  coordinates resource allocation and management across disparate access network and LTE core network functions. This provides dynamic and agile in-field end to end services testing utilizing hybrid network functions, 
     The master service orchestrator layer  202  also allows for quick turn-around times for completion of new services by providing an access point to UE  211 . The master service orchestrator layer  202  may interwork directly with UE  211 , via integrated software agents where necessary, on demand for a given application or service to extract certain critical performance metrics that may be used in the cross-layer correlation with the access network control layer  206  and the content service control layer  210  for customization or personalization based on network and user dynamics when interacting with the customers&#39; UE  211  for a given mobile service that was chained in a certain manner. 
     With reference to  FIG.  2   b   , there is shown a functional matrix  314  of hybrid VNFs and PNFs that comprise the LTE core functions. For example, MME pools  320  comprising VNFs and PNFs from multiple vendors A and B ma be included, Likewise, HSS pools  322  comprising VNFs and PNFs from multiple vendors A and B may be included. S/PGW pools  324  comprising VNFs and PNFs from multiple vendors A and B may be included. MOW pools  326  comprising VNFs and PNFs from multiple vendors A and B may be included. Finally, broadcast/multicast service center (BMSC) pools  328  comprising VNFs and PNFs from multiple vendors A and B may be included. Note that these LTE core functions represented in  FIG.  2   b    are exemplary and non-limiting and other LTE core network functions, either virtual or physical, are included within the scope of the present disclosure. 
     The master service orchestrator layer  202  may also provide instructions and feedback to the LTE core service control layer  208  to enable the dynamic instantiation of the functional matrix  314  of VNF/PNF LTE core elements. Based on feedback from the master service orchestrator layer  202 , the LTE core service control layer  208  may dynamically instantiate a number of VNF elements such as encoders of a given type, perform rate adaptation to meet a given service profile. invoke compression or acceleration schemes, or any other adaptations for faster packet processing in the network or to meet other class of service requirements. As shown in  FIG.  2   b   , the functional matrix  314  may be dynamically modified to change the boundaries between physical and virtual network elements. The LTE core service control layer  208  maintains the state tables required to synchronize the UE mobility context and hearer management across the functional matrix  314  for any particular communication session or sessions. 
     The master service orchestrator layer  202  also interfaces with the application service layer  201  on a per service chain or application basis and extracts the relevant network requirements as well as the application service layer  201  performance metrics that are important to cross-layer correlation at the master service orchestrator layer  202 . The application service layer  201  may provide the master service orchestrator layer  202  with source content metrics used a baseline reference for certain applications for proactive evaluation and event handling. 
     The application service layer  201  may also interact directly with UE  211  to develop performance metrics that may be used on the cross-layer correlation through the master service orchestration layer  202  with the access network layer  206 , the content layer  210  and the LTE core service layer  208 . This permits the customization or personalization based on network and user dynamics when interacting with a customer for any given mobile service. 
     Additionally, the architecture shown in  FIGS.  2   a  and  2   b    permit the dynamic and agile in-field end-to-end services testing utilizing the hybrid physical/virtual network functions that demand quick turnaround for completion. This is useful for preparation and launch of commercial services, including applications relating to the machine to machine communications, the Internet of Things (IoT), services provided by multiple providers, device and network state determination and other applications. 
       FIG.  3   a    shows an exemplary flow chart of how the virtual network elements identified in  FIG.  2   b    may be assigned. At  330 , the VMs to be used to instantiate VNF&#39;s are identified. At  331 , the hardware resources to be consumed by the VMs are identified. At  332 , the session requirements are identified. Finally, at  333 , the hardware resources are assigned to the VMs. 
     Use Cases. The tiered master service orchestrator  202  at the network control layer works across the horizontal and vertical resource pools in an end-to-end call setup during critical resources allocation phase and chains an end user or group of users for proper session/associated bearer establishments associated with any cast mobility service, including, for example, unicast, broadcast and multicast services. 
     As an example for the broadcast service scenario, the content network  216  has its own content service control layer  210  for the creation, aggregation and distribution of content. A user through the UE  211  may have previously established a request a particular type of broadcast service to be provided by the content network  216 . As part of the start of the broadcast, there is a request passed through either the application service lawyer  201  or directly to the master service orchestrator  202 . In either case, the request for service is passed to the master service orchestrator layer  202  which then may interwork with the LTE core service control layer  208  and the access network service control layer  206  to determine the specific content type, audio/video encoding and/or compression schemes, algorithms and acceleration mechanisms that may be needed for preparing the content format to be delivered via broadcast to the end users based on available network capacity, user demand, service offering, subscription and geographic location needs, Based on the feedback received from service orchestrator, the VNF service control layer  208  can dynamically instantiate the required type and number of PNF/VNF elements  320 ,  322 ,  324 ,  326 ,  32 . 8  such as encoders of a given type, perform rate adaptation to meet a given service profile or class of service and/or invoke compression/acceleration schemes for faster packet processing in the network. The master services orchestration layer  201  and the application service layer  202  may work in tandem on a per service chain or per application basis to extracts the relevant network requirements and assign and/or instantiate the PNF/sVNFs to support the communication request. The application service layer  201  provides the master service orchestrator layer  202  with source content metrics that are used as a baseline reference for certain applications for proactive evaluation and event handling for customization. 
     A similar process occurs in the case in which a UE  211  initiates a request for service which may, for example, include a request for content. With reference to  FIG.  3   a   , there is shown an exemplary method for providing a service requested by a UE  211 . At  350 , there is a request from the UE  211  to establish a communication session. That request may be sent to the application service layer  201  or directly to the master service orchestrator layer  202 . At  351 , the access network resources are determined. As set forth earlier, access network resources may include RAN resources from one or more vendors as well as other resources for other access network types including, for example, Wi-Fi or Bluetooth. These network resources may be determined in communication with the access network services control layer  206 . At  352 , the LTE core resources are determined. The LTE core resources may be a hybrid of PNFs/VNFs to provide the core resources for processing the communication and may, for example, be determined by the LTE core service control layer  208 . At  353 . the content delivery resources are identified. These resources are based on specific content requested by the UE  211  or, in the case of broadcast, by the content requested to be broadcast to a plurality of UEs  211 . The content resources may be determined by the content service control layer  210 . At each of steps  351 ,  352  and  353 , the application service layer  201 , which monitors the end user experience, including any personalization, QoS considerations or any other aspects of the user experience, in conjunction with the master service orchestrator layer  202 , which monitors the use of all access network, LTE core functions, and content determines the requirements for the communication and communicates with the lower service control layers to allocate the resources identified. At  354 , the identified resources are assigned and VNFs, if any, are instantiated. At  355 , the communication is established. 
     For any particular communication, for example, a communication associated with IoT, the resources required for the delivery of the communication services may change over time. As such, the master service level orchestrator  202 , which is monitoring the state of the chained resources both vertically and horizontally, is able to dynamically control the allocation/deallocation of the resources used for the communication. 
     Another example of a process flow is shown in  FIG.  3   c    in which content is to be delivered to a user or multiple users. At  360 , the content type is determined, which may, for example be content that can be monetized for particular applications. At  361 , the QoS and other performance requirements may be determined by the application service control layer  201  and passed to the master services orchestration layer  202 . At  362 . The current state of network resources, including access network resources, LTE core network resources and content network resources which are monitored by the master services orchestration layer  202 , are determined. At  363 , a request for additional resources for delivery of the content is requested by the master service orchestration layer to each of the access network service control layer  206 , the LTE core service control layer  208  and the content service control layer  210  as may be needed. At  364 , the requested resources are allocated and at  365  the communication is established and monitored. At  366 , a decision is made as to whether more resources are needed to meet performance metrics. If yes, the process returns to  362  to start the process of dynamically allocating more resources. If no more resources are needed at  366 , the decision as to whether less resources are needed to continue to meet the performance metrics. If yes, resources are deallocated at  368 . If no more resources are needed or if resources are deallocated, then the process returns to  365  to continue to monitor the communication session to enable the allocation of resources acceptable to meet the performance metrics. 
     It should be understood that these process flows are exemplary only and are not intended to limit the disclosure or the scope of the appended claims in any way. 
     By tracking the hybrid PNF/VNF network resources, their connectivity mappings between the mobility access and core network elements as well as between the mobility core and content delivery network functions in a service chain that are pooled in a matrix configuration, the two tiers layered orchestrators comprising the application service layer  201  and the master service level orchestrator  202  can determine the best possible means of sharing such resource pools for the specific mobile service chain based on the aggregate services offering, network conditions, health of the service chain and end users&#39; service commitments and needs, in such a mobile service chained environment that uses a structured and tiered orchestrator, customer experience and service personalization could be significantly improved. 
     To complete the description of the operating environment, with respect to  FIG.  1   b   , there is shown a hardware platform  106  comprising one or more chasses  110 . Chassis  110  may refer to the physical housing or platform for multiple servers or other network equipment. In an aspect, chassis  110  may also refer to the underlying network equipment. Chassis  110  may include one or more servers  112 . Server  112  may comprise general purpose computer hardware or a computer. In an aspect, chassis  110  may comprise a metal rack, and. servers  112  of chassis  110  may comprise blade servers that are physically mounted in or on chassis  110 , 
     Each server  112  may include one or more network resources  108 , as illustrated. Servers  112  may be communicatively coupled together (not shown) in any combination or arrangement. For example, all servers  112  within a given chassis  110  may be communicatively coupled. As another example, servers  112  in different chasses  110  may be communicatively coupled. Additionally or alternatively, chasses  110  may be communicatively coupled together (not shown) in any combination or arrangement. 
     The characteristics of each chassis  110  and each server  112  may differ. For example,  FIG.  1   b    illustrates that the number of servers  112  within two chasses  110  may vary. Additionally or alternatively, the type or number of resources  110  within each server  112  may vary. In an aspect, chassis  110  may be used to group servers  112  with the same resource characteristics. In another aspect, servers  112  within the same chassis  110  may have different resource characteristics. 
     Given hardware platform  106 , the number of sessions that may be instantiated may vary depending upon how efficiently resources  108  are assigned to different VMs  104 . For example, assignment of VMs  104  to particular resources  108  may be constrained by one or more rules, For example, a first rule may require that resources  108  assigned to a particular VM  104  be on the same server  112  or set of servers  112 . For example, if VM  104  uses eight vCPUs  108   a,  1 GB of memory  108   b,  and 2 NICs  108   c,  the rules may require that all of these resources  108  be sourced from the same server  112 . Additionally or alternatively, VM  104  may require splitting resources  108  among multiple servers  112 , but such splitting may need to conform with certain restrictions, For example, resources  108  for VM  104  may be able to be split between two servers  112 . Default rules may apply. For example, a default rule may require that all resources  108  for a given VM  104  must come from the same server  112 . 
     An affinity rule may restrict assignment of resources  108  for a particular VM  104  (or a particular type of VM  104 ). For example, an affinity rule may require that certain VMs  104  be instantiated on (that is, consume resources from) the same server  112  or chassis  110 . For example, if VNF  102  uses six MCM VMs  104   a,  an affinity rule may dictate that those six MCM VMs  104   a  be instantiated on the same server  112  (or chassis  110 ). As another example, if VNF  102 . uses MCM VMs  104   a,  ASM VMs  104   b,  and a third type of VMs  104 , an affinity rule may dictate that at least the MEM VMs  104   a  and the ASM VMs  104   b  be instantiated on the same server  112  (or chassis  110 ). Affinity rules may restrict assignment of resources  108  based on the identity or type of resource  108 , VNF  102 , VM  104 , chassis  110 , server  112 , or any combination thereof. 
     An anti-affinity rule may restrict assignment of resources  108  for a particular VM  104  (or a particular type of VM  104 ). in contrast to an affinity rule which may require that certain VMs  104  be instantiated on the same server  112  or chassis  110  an anti-affinity rule requires that certain VMs  104  be instantiated on different servers  112  (or different chasses  110 ). For example, an anti-affinity rule may require that MCM VM  104   a  be instantiated on a particular server  112  that does not contain any ASM VMs  104   b.  As another example, an anti-affinity rule may require that MCM VMs  104   a  for a first VNF  102  be instantiated on a different server  112  (or chassis  1101  than MCM VMs  104   a  for a second VNF  102 . Anti-affinity rules may restrict assignment of resources  108  based on the identity or type of resource  108 , VNF  102 , VM  104 , chassis  110 , server  112 , or any combination thereof. 
     Within these constraints, resources  108  of hardware platform  106  may be assigned to be used to instantiate VMs  104 , which in turn may be used to instantiate VNFs  102 , which in turn may be used to establish sessions. The different combinations for how such resources  108  may be assigned may vary in complexity and efficiency. For example, different assignments may have different limits of the number of sessions that can be established given a particular hardware platform  106 . 
     For example, consider a session that may require gateway VNF  102   a  and PCRF VNF  102   b.  Gateway VNF  102   a  may require five VMs  104  instantiated on the same server  112 , and PCRF VNF  102   b  may require two VMs  104  instantiated on the same server  112 . (Assume, for this example, that no affinity or anti-affinity rules restrict whether VMs  104  for PCRF VNF  102   b  may or must be instantiated on the same or different server  112  than VMs  104  for gateway VNF  102   a .) In this example, each of two servers  112  may have sufficient resources  108  to support 10 VMs  104 . To implement sessions using these two servers  112 , first server  112  may be instantiated with 10 VMs  104  to support two instantiations of gateway VNF  102   a,  and second server  112  may be instantiated with 9 VMs: five VMs  104  to support one instantiation of gateway VNF  102   a  and four VMs  104  to support two instantiations of PCRF VNF  102   b . This may leave the remaining resources  108  that could have supported the tenth VM  104  on second server  112  unused (and unusable for an instantiation of either a gateway VNF  102   a  or a PCRF VNF  102   b ). Alternatively, first server  112  may be instantiated with 10 VMs  104  for two instantiations of gateway VNF  102   a  and second server  112  may be instantiated with 10 VMs  104  for five instantiations of PCRF VNF  102   b,  using all available resources  108  to maximize the number of VMs  104  instantiated. 
     Consider, further, how many sessions each gateway VNF  102   a  and each PCRF VNF  102   b  may support. This may factor into which assignment of resources  108  is more efficient. For example, consider if each gateway VNF  102   a  supports two million sessions, and if each PCRF VNF  102   b  supports three million sessions. For the first configuration—three total gateway VNFs  102   a  (which satisfy the gateway requirement for six million sessions) and two total PCRF VNFs  102   b  (which satisfy the PCRF requirement for six million sessions)—would support a total of six million sessions. For the second configuration—two total gateway VNFs  102   a  (which satisfy the gateway requirement for four million sessions) and five total PCRF VNFs  102   b  (which satisfy the PCRF requirement for 15 million sessions)—would support a total of four million sessions. Thus, while the first configuration may seem less efficient looking only at the number of available resources  108  used (as resources  108  for the tenth possible VM  104  are unused), the second configuration is actually more efficient from the perspective of being the configuration that can support more the greater number of sessions. 
     To solve the problem of determining a capacity (or, number of sessions) that can be supported by a given hardware platform  105 , a given requirement for VNFs  102  to support a session, a capacity for the number of sessions each VNF  102  (e.g., of a certain type) can support, a given requirement for VMs  104  for each VNF  102  (e.g., of a certain type), a give requirement for resources  108  to support each VM  104  (e.g., of a certain type), rules dictating the assignment of resources  108  to one or more VMs  104  (e.g., affinity and anti-affinity rules), the chasses  110  and servers  112 . of hardware platform  106 , and the individual resources  108  of each chassis  110  or server  112  (e.g., of a certain type), an integer programming problem may be formulated. 
     First, a plurality of index sets may be established. For example, index set L may include the set of chasses  110 . For example, if a system allows up to 6 chasses  110 , this set may be:
         L={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6},
 
where l is an element of L.
       

     Another index set J may include the set of servers  112 . For example, if a system allows up to 16 servers  112  per chassis  110 , this set may be:
         J={1, 2, 3, . . . , 16},
 
where j is an element of J.
       

     As another example, index set K having at least one element k may include the set of VNFs  102  that may be considered. For example, this index set may include all types of VNFs  102  that may be used to instantiate a service. For example, let
         K={GW, PCRF}
 
where GW represents gateway VNFs  102   a  and PCRF represents PCRF VNFs  102   b.  
       

     Another index set I(k) may equal the set of VMs  104  for a VNF  102  k. Thus, let 
     I(GW)={MCM, ASM, IOM, WSM, CCM, DCM} 
     represent VMs  104  for gateway VNF  102   a,  where MCM represents MCM VM  104   a,  ASM represents ASM VM  104   b,  and each of IOM, WSM, CCM, and DCM represents a respective type of VM  104 . Further, let
         I(PCRF)={DEP, DIR, POL, SES, MAN}
 
represent VMs  104  for PCRF VNF  102   b,  where DEP represents DEP VM  104   c  and each of DIR, POL, SES, and MAN represent a respective type of VM  104 .
       

     Another index set V may include the set of possible instances of a given VM  104 . For example, if a system allows up to 20 instances of VMs  102 , this set may be:
         V={1, 2, 3, . . . , 20},
 
where v is an element of V.
       

     In addition to the sets, the integer programming problem may include additional data. The characteristics of VNFs  102 , VMs  104 , chasses  110 , or servers  112  may be factored into the problem. This data may be referred to as parameters. For example, for given VNF  102  k, the number of sessions that VNF  102  k can support may be defined as a function S(k). In an aspect, for an element k of set K, this parameter may be represented by
         S(k)&gt;=0;
 
is a measurement of the number of sessions k can support. Returning to the earlier example where gateway VNF  102   a  may support 2 million sessions, then this parameter may be
   S(GW)=2,000,000.       

     VM  104  modularity may be another parameter in the integer programming problem. VM  104  modularity may represent the VM  104  requirement for a type of VNF  102 . For example, for k that is an element of set K and i that is an element of set I, each instance of VNF k may require M(k, i) instances of VMs  104 . For example, recall the example where
         I(GW)={MCM, ASM, IOM, WSM, CCM, DCM}.
 
In an example, M(GW, I(GW)) may be the set that indicates the number of each type of VM  104  that may be required to instantiate gateway VNF  102   a.  For example,
   M(GW, I(GW))={2, 16, 4, 4, 2, 4}
 
may indicate that one instantiation of gateway VNF  102   a  may require two instantiations of MCM VMs  104   a,    16  instantiations of ACM VM  104   b,  four instantiations of TOM VM  104 , four instantiations of WSM VM  104 , two instantiations of CCM VM  104 , and four instantiations of DCM VM  104 .
       

     Another parameter may indicate the capacity of hardware platform  106 . For example, a parameter C may indicate the number of vCPUs  108   a  required for each VM  104  type i and for each VNF  102  type k. For example, this may include the parameter C(k, i). 
     For example, if MCM VM  104   a  for gateway VNF  102   a  requires  20  vCPUs  108   a,  this may be represented as
         C(GW, MCM)=20.       

     However, given the complexity of the integer programming problem—the numerous variables and restrictions that must be satisfied—implementing an algorithm that may be used to solve the integer programming problem efficiently, without sacrificing optimality, may be difficult. 
       FIG.  4    illustrates a functional block diagram depicting one example of an LTE-EPS network architecture  400  that may be at least partially implemented as an SDN. Network architecture  400  disclosed herein is referred to as a modified LTE-EPS architecture  400  to distinguish it from a traditional LTE-EPS architecture. 
     An example modified LTE-EPS architecture  400  is based at least in part on standards developed by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), with information available at www.3gpp.org. LTE-EPS network architecture  400  may include an access network  402 , a core network  404 , e.g., an EPC or Common BackBone (CBB) and one or more external networks  406 , sometimes referred to as PDN or peer entities. Different external networks  406  can be distinguished from each other by a respective network identifier, e.g., a label according to DNS naming conventions describing an access point to the PDN. Such labels can be referred to as Access Point Names (APN). External networks  406  can include one or more trusted and non-trusted external networks such as an internet protocol (IP) network  408 , an IP multimedia subsystem (IMS) network  410 , and other networks  412 , such as a service network, a corporate network, or the like. In an aspect, access network  402 , core network  404 , or external network  405  may include or communicate with network  100 . 
     Access network  402  can include an LTE network architecture sometimes referred to as Evolved Universal mobile Telecommunication system Terrestrial Radio Access (E UTRA) and evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN). Broadly, access network  402  can include one or more communication devices, commonly referred to as UE  414 , and one or more wireless access nodes, or base stations  416   a,    416   b.  During network operations, at least one base station  416  communicates directly with UE  414 . Base station  416  can be an evolved Node B (e-NodeB), with which UE  414  communicates over the air and wirelessly. UEs  414  can include, without limitation, wireless devices, e.g., satellite communication systems, portable digital assistants (PDAs), laptop computers, tablet devices and other mobile devices (e.g., cellular telephones, smart appliances, and so on). UEs  414  can connect to eNBs  416  when UE  414  is within range according to a corresponding wireless communication technology. 
     UE  414  generally runs one or more applications that engage in a transfer of packets between UE  414  and one or more external networks  406 . Such packet transfers can include one of downlink packet transfers from external network  406  to UE  414 , uplink packet transfers from UE  414  to external network  406  or combinations of uplink and downlink packet transfers. Applications can include, without limitation, web browsing, VoIP, streaming media and the like. Each application can pose different Quality of Service (QoS) requirements on a respective packet transfer. Different packet transfers can be served by different bearers within core network  404 , e.g., according to parameters, such as the QoS. 
     Core network  404  uses a concept of bearers, e.g., EPS bearers, to route packets, e.g., IP traffic, between a particular gateway in core network  404  and UE  414 . A bearer refers generally to an IP packet flow with a defined QoS between the particular gateway and UE  414 . Access network  402 , e.g., E UTRAN, and core network  404  together set up and release bearers as required by the various applications. Bearers can be classified in at least two different categories: (i) minimum guaranteed bit rate bearers, e.g., for applications, such as VoIP; and (ii) non-guaranteed bit rate bearers that do not require guarantee bit rate, e.g., for applications, such as web browsing. 
     In one embodiment, the core network  404  includes various network entities, such as MME  418 , SGW  420 , Home Subscriber Server (HSS)  422 , Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF)  424  and PGW  426 . In one embodiment, MME  418  comprises a control node performing a control signaling between various equipment and devices in access network  402  and core network  404 . The protocols running between UE  414  and core network  404  are generally known as Non-Access Stratum (NAS) protocols. 
     For illustration purposes only, the terms MME  418 , SGW  420 , HSS  422  and PGW  426 , and so on, can be server devices, but may be referred to in the subject disclosure without the word “server.” It is also understood that any form of such servers can operate in a device, system, component, or other form of centralized or distributed hardware and software. It is further noted that these terms and other terms such as bearer paths and/or interfaces are terms that can include features, methodologies, and/or fields that may be described in whole or in part by standards bodies such as the 3GPP. It is further noted that some or all embodiments of the subject disclosure may in whole or in part modify, supplement, or otherwise supersede final or proposed standards published and promulgated by 3GPP. 
     According to traditional implementations of LTE-EPS architectures, SGW  420  routes and forwards all user data packets. SGW  420  also acts as a mobility anchor for user plane operation during handovers between base stations, e.g., during a handover from first eNB  416   a  to second eNB  416   b  as may be the result of UE  414  moving from one area of coverage, e.g., cell, to another. SGW  420  can also terminate a downlink data path, e.g., from external network  406  to UE  414  in an idle state, and trigger a paging operation when downlink data arrives for UE  414 . SGW  420  can also be configured to manage and store a context for UE  414 , e.g., including one or more of parameters of the IP bearer service and network internal routing information. In addition, SGW  420  can perform administrative functions, e.g., in a visited network, such as collecting information for charging (e.g., the volume of data sent to or received from the user), and/or replicate user traffic, e.g., to support a lawful interception. SGW  420  also serves as the mobility anchor for interworking with other 3GPP technologies such as universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS). 
     At any given time, UE  414  is generally in one of three different states: detached, idle, or active. The detached state is typically a transitory state in which UE  414  is powered on but is engaged in a process of searching and registering with network  402 . In the active state, UE  414  is registered with access network  402  and has established a wireless connection, e.g., radio resource control (RRC) connection, with eNB  416 . Whether UE  414  is in an active state can depend on the state of a packet data session, and whether there is an active packet data session. In the idle state, UE  414  is generally in a power conservation state in which UE  414  typically does not communicate packets. When UE  414  is idle, SGW  420  can terminate a downlink data path, e.g., from one peer entity  406 , and triggers paging of UE  414  when data arrives for UE  414 . If UE  414  responds to the page, SGW  420  can forward the IP packet to eNB  416   a.    
     HSS  422  can manage subscription-related information for a user of UE  414 . For example, tHSS  422  can store information such as authorization of the user, security requirements for the user, quality of service (QoS) requirements for the user, etc. HSS  422  can also hold information about external networks  406  to which the user can connect, e.g., in the form of an APN of external networks  406 . For example, MME  418  can communicate with HSS  422  to determine if UE  414  is authorized to establish a call, e.g., a voice over IP (VoIP) call before the call is established. 
     PCRF  424  can perform QoS management functions and policy control. PCRF  424  is responsible for policy control decision-making, as well as for controlling the flow-based charging functionalities in a policy control enforcement function (PCEF), which resides in POW  426 . PCRF  424  provides the QoS authorization, QoS class identifier and bit rates that decide how a certain data flow will be treated in the PCEF and ensures that this is in accordance with the user&#39;s subscription profile. 
     POW  426  can provide connectivity between the UE  414  and one or more of the external networks  406 . In illustrative network architecture  400 , POW  426  can be responsible for IP address allocation for UE  414 , as well as one or more of QoS enforcement and flow-based charging, e.g., according to rules from the PCRF  424 . POW  426  is also typically responsible for filtering downlink user IP packets into the different QoS-based bearers. In at least some embodiments, such filtering can be performed based on traffic flow templates. POW  426  can also perform QoS enforcement, e.g., for guaranteed bit rate bearers. PGW  426  also serves as a mobility anchor for interworking with non-3GPP technologies such as CDMA2000. 
     Within access network  402  and core network  404  there may be various bearer paths/interfaces, e.g., represented by solid lines  428  and  430 . Some of the bearer paths can be referred to by a specific label. For example, solid line  428  can be considered an S1-U bearer and solid line  432  can be considered an S5/S8 bearer according to LTE-EPS architecture standards. Without limitation, reference to various interfaces, such as S1, X2, S5, S8, S11 refer to EPS interfaces. in some instances, such interface designations are combined with a suffix, e.g., a “U” or a “C” to signify whether the interface relates to a “User plane” or a “Control plane.” In addition, the core network  404  can include various signaling bearer paths/interfaces, e.g., control plane paths/interfaces represented by dashed lines  430 ,  434 ,  436  and  438 . Some of the signaling bearer paths may be referred to by a specific label. For example, dashed line  430  can be considered as an S1-MME signaling bearer, dashed line  434  can be considered as an S11 signaling bearer and dashed line  436  can be considered as an S6a signaling bearer, e.g., according to LTE-EPS architecture standards. The above bearer paths and signaling bearer paths are only illustrated as examples and it should be noted that additional bearer paths and signaling hearer paths may exist that are not illustrated. 
     Also shown is a novel user plane path/interface, referred to as the S1-U+ interface  466 . in the illustrative example, the S1-U+ user plane interface extends between the eNB  416   a  and POW  426 . Notably, S1-U+ path/interface does not include SOW  420 , a node that is otherwise instrumental in configuring and/or managing packet forwarding between eNB  416   a  and one or more external networks  406  by way of PGW  426 . As disclosed herein, the S1-U+ path/interface facilitates autonomous learning of peer transport layer addresses by one or more of the network nodes to facilitate a self-configuring of the packet forwarding path. In particular, such self-configuring can be accomplished during handovers in most scenarios so as to reduce any extra signaling load on the S/PGWs  420 ,  426  due to excessive handover events. 
     in some embodiments, PGW  426  is coupled to storage device  440 , shown in phantom. Storage device  440  can be integral to one of the network nodes, such as PGW  426 , for example, in the form of internal memory and/or disk drive. It is understood that storage device  440  can include registers suitable for storing address values. Alternatively or in addition, storage device  440  can be separate from PGW  426 , for example, as an external hard drive, a flash drive, and/or network storage. 
     Storage device  440  selectively stores one or more values relevant to the forwarding of packet data. For example, storage device  440  can store identities and/or addresses of network entities, such as any of network nodes  418 ,  420 ,  422 ,  424 , and  426 , eNBs  416  and/or UE  414 . In the illustrative example, storage device  440  includes a first storage location  442  and a second storage location  444 . First storage location  442  can be dedicated to storing a Currently Used Downlink address value  442 . Likewise, second storage location  444  can be dedicated to storing a Default Downlink Forwarding address value  444 . PGW  426  can read and/or write values into either of storage locations  442 ,  444 , for example, managing Currently Used Downlink Forwarding address value  442  and Default Downlink Forwarding address value  444  as disclosed herein. 
     In some embodiments, the Default Downlink Forwarding address for each EPS bearer is the SGW S5-U address for each EPS Bearer. The Currently Used Downlink Forwarding address” for each EPS bearer in PGW  426  can be set every time when PGW  426  receives an uplink packet, e.g., a GTP-U uplink packet, with a new source address for a corresponding EPS bearer. When UE  414  is in an idle state, the “Current Used Downlink Forwarding address” field for each EPS bearer of UE  414  can be set to a “null” or other suitable value. 
     In some embodiments, the Default Downlink Forwarding address is only updated when PGW  426  receives a new SOW S5-U address in a predetermined message or messages. For example, the Default Downlink Forwarding address is only updated when PGW  426  receives one of a Create Session Request, Modify Bearer Request and Create Bearer Response messages from SGW  420 . 
     As values  442 ,  444  can be maintained and otherwise manipulated on a per bearer basis, it is understood that the storage locations can take the form of tables, spreadsheets, lists, and/or other data structures generally well understood and suitable for maintaining and/or otherwise manipulate forwarding addresses on a per hearer basis. 
     It should be noted that access network  402  and core network  404  are illustrated in a simplified block diagram in  FIG.  4   . In other words, either or both of access network  402  and the core network  404  can include additional network elements that are not shown, such as various routers, switches and controllers, In addition. although  FIG.  4    illustrates only a single one of each of the various network elements, it should be noted that access network  402 , and core network  404  can include any number of the various network elements. For example, core network  404  can include a pool (i.e. more than one) of MMEs  418 , SGWs  420  or PGWs  426 . 
     In the illustrative example, data traversing a network path between UE  414 , eNB  416   a,  SGW  420 , PGW  426  and external network  406  may be considered to constitute data transferred according to an end-to-end IP service. However, for the present disclosure, to properly perform establishment management in LTE-EPS network architecture  400 , the core network, data bearer portion of the end-to-end IP service is analyzed, 
     An establishment may be defined herein as a connection set up request between any two elements within LTE-EPS network architecture  400 . The connection set up request may be for user data or for signaling. A failed establishment may be defined as a connection set up request that was unsuccessful. A successful establishment may be defined as a connection set up request that was successful. 
     In one embodiment, a data bearer portion comprises a first portion (e.g., a data radio bearer  446 ) between UE  414  and eNB  416   a,  a second portion (e.g., an S1 data. bearer  428 ) between eNB  416   a  and SGW  420 , and a third portion (e.g., an S5/S8 bearer  432 ) between SGW  420  and PGW  426 , Various signaling bearer portions are also illustrated in  FIG.  4   . For example, a first signaling portion (e.g., a signaling radio bearer  448 ) between UE  414  and eNB  416   a,  and a second signaling portion (e.g., S1 signaling bearer  430 ) between eNB  416   a  and MME  418 . 
     In at least some embodiments, the data bearer can include tunneling, e.g., IP tunneling, by Which data packets can be forwarded in an encapsulated manner, between tunnel endpoints. Tunnels, or tunnel connections can be identified in one or more nodes of network  100 , e.g., by one or more of tunnel endpoint identifiers, an IP address and a user datagram protocol port number. Within a particular tunnel connection, payloads, e.g., packet data, which may or may not include protocol related information, are forwarded between tunnel endpoints. 
     An example of first tunnel solution  450  includes a first tunnel  452   a  between two tunnel endpoints  454   a  and  456   a,  and a second tunnel  452   b  between two tunnel endpoints  454   b  and  456   b.  In the illustrative example, first tunnel  452   a  is established between eNB  416   a  and SGW  420 . Accordingly, first tunnel  452   a  includes a first tunnel endpoint  454   a  corresponding to an S1-U address of eNB  416   a  (referred to herein as the eNB S1-U address), and second tunnel endpoint  456   a  corresponding to an S1-U address of SGW  420  (referred to herein as the SGW S1-U address). Likewise, second tunnel  452   b  includes first tunnel endpoint  454   b  corresponding to an S5-U address of SGW  420  (referred to herein as the SGW S5-U address), and second tunnel endpoint  456   b  corresponding to an S5-U address of PGW  426  (referred to herein as the PGW S5-U address). 
     In at least some embodiments, first tunnel solution  450  is referred to as a two tunnel solution, e.g., according to the GPRS Tunneling Protocol User Plane (GTPv1-U based), as described in 3GPP specification TS 29.281, incorporated herein in its entirety. It is understood that one or more tunnels are permitted between each set of tunnel end points. For example, each subscriber can have one or more tunnels, e.g., one for each PDP context that they have active, as well as possibly having separate tunnels for specific connections with different quality of service requirements, and so on. 
     An example of second tunnel solution  458  includes a single or direct tunnel  460  between tunnel endpoints  462  and  464 . In the illustrative example, direct tunnel  460  is established between eNB  416   a  and PGW  426 , without subjecting packet transfers to processing related to SGW  420 . Accordingly, direct tunnel  460  includes first tunnel endpoint  462  corresponding to the eNB S1-U address, and second tunnel endpoint  464  corresponding to the PGW S5-U address. Packet data received at either end can be encapsulated into a payload and directed to the corresponding address of the other end of the tunnel. Such direct tunneling avoids processing, e.g., by SGW  420  that would otherwise relay packets between the same two endpoints, e.g., according to a protocol, such as the GTP-U protocol. 
     In some scenarios, direct tunneling solution  458  can forward user plane data packets between eNB  416   a  and PGW  426 , by way of SGW  420 . That is, SGW  420  can serve a relay function, by relaying packets between two tunnel endpoints  416   a,    426 . In other scenarios, direct tunneling solution  458  can forward user data packets between eNB  416   a  and PGW  426 , by way of the S1 U+ interface, thereby bypassing SGW  420 . 
     Generally, UE  414  can have one or more bearers at any one time. The number and types of bearers can depend on applications, default requirements, and so on. It is understood that the techniques disclosed herein, including the configuration, management and use of various tunnel solutions  450 ,  458 , can be applied to the bearers on an individual bases. That is, if user data packets of one bearer, say a bearer associated with a VoIP service of UE  414 , then the forwarding of all packets of that hearer are handled in a similar manner. Continuing with this example, the same UE  414  can have another bearer associated with it through the same eNB  416   a.  This other bearer, for example, can be associated with a relatively low rate data session forwarding user data packets through core network  404  simultaneously with the first bearer. Likewise, the user data packets of the other bearer are also handled in a similar manner, without necessarily following a forwarding path or solution of the first bearer. Thus, one of the bearers may be forwarded through direct tunnel  458 ; Whereas, another one of the bearers may be forwarded through a two-tunnel solution  450 . 
       FIG.  5    depicts an exemplary diagrammatic representation of a machine in the form of a computer system  500  within Which a set of instructions, when executed, may cause the machine to perform any one or more of the methods described above. One or more instances of the machine can operate, for example, as processor  302 , UE  414 , eNB  416 , MME  418 , SGW  420 , HSS  422 , PCRF  424 , PGW  426  and other devices of  FIGS.  1 ,  2 , and  4   . in some embodiments, the machine may be connected (e.g., using a network  502 ) to other machines. In a networked deployment, the machine may operate in the capacity of a server or a client user machine in a server-client user network environment, or as a peer machine in a peer-to-peer (or distributed) network environment. 
     The machine may comprise a server computer, a client user computer, a personal computer (PC), a tablet, a smart phone, a laptop computer, a desktop computer, a control system, a network router, switch or bridge, or any machine capable of executing a set of instructions (sequential or otherwise) that specify actions to be taken by that machine. It will be understood that a communication device of the subject disclosure includes broadly any electronic device that provides voice, video or data communication. Further, while a single machine is illustrated, the term “machine” shall also be taken to include any collection of machines that individually or jointly execute a set (or multiple sets) of instructions to perform any one or more of the methods discussed herein. 
     Computer system  500  may include a processor (or controller)  504  (e.g., a central processing unit (CPU)), a graphics processing unit (GPU, or both), a main memory  506  and a static memory  508 , which communicate with each other via a bus  510 . The computer system  500  may further include a display unit  512 . (e.g., a liquid crystal display (LCD), a flat panel, or a solid state display). Computer system  500  may include an input device  514  (e.g., a keyboard), a cursor control device  516  (e.g., a mouse), a disk drive unit  518 , a signal generation device  520  (e.g., a speaker or remote control) and a network interface device  522 . In distributed environments, the embodiments described in the subject disclosure can be adapted to utilize multiple display units  512  controlled by two or more computer systems  500 . In this configuration, presentations described by the subject disclosure may in part be shown in a first of display units  512 , while the remaining portion is presented in a second of display units  512 . 
     The disk drive unit  518  may include a tangible computer-readable storage medium  524  on which is stored one or more sets of instructions (e.g., software  526 ) embodying any one or more of the methods or functions described herein, including those methods illustrated above. Instructions  526  may also reside, completely or at least partially, within main memory  506  static memory  508 , or within processor  504  during execution thereof by the computer system  500 . Main memory  506  and processor  504  also may constitute tangible computer-readable storage media. 
     As shown in  FIG.  6   , telecommunication system  600  may include wireless transmit/receive units (WTRUs)  602 , a RAN  604 , a core network  606 , a public switched telephone network (PSTN)  608 , the Internet  610 , or other networks  612 , though it will be appreciated that the disclosed examples contemplate any number of WTRUs, base stations, networks, or network elements. Each WTRU  602  may be any type of device configured to operate or communicate in a wireless environment. For example, a WTRU may comprise drone  102 , a mobile device, network device  300 , or the like, or any combination thereof. By way of example, WTRUs  602  may be configured to transmit or receive wireless signals and may include a UE, a mobile station, a mobile device, a fixed or mobile subscriber unit, a. pager, a cellular telephone, a PDA, a smartphone, a laptop, a netbook, a personal computer, a wireless sensor, consumer electronics, or the like. WTRUs  602  may be configured to transmit or receive wireless signals over an air interface  614 . 
     Telecommunication system  600  may also include one or more base stations  616 . Each of base stations  616  may be any type of device configured to wirelessly interface with at least one of the WTRUs  602  to facilitate access to one or more communication networks, such as core network  606 , PTSN  608 , Internet  610 , or other networks  612 . By way of example, base stations  616  may be a base transceiver station (BTS), a Node-B, an eNode B, a Home Node B, a Home eNode B, a site controller, an access point (AP), a wireless router, or the like. While base stations  616  are each depicted as a single element, it will be appreciated that base stations  616  may include any number of interconnected base stations or network elements. 
     RAN  604  may include one or more base stations  616 , along with other network elements (not shown), such as a base station controller (BSC), a radio network controller (RNC), or relay nodes. One or more base stations  616  may be configured to transmit or receive wireless signals within a particular geographic region, which may be referred to as a cell (not shown). The cell may further be divided into cell sectors. For example, the cell associated with base station  616  may be divided into three sectors such that base station  616  may include three transceivers: one for each sector of the cell. In another example, base station  616  may employ multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technology and, therefore, may utilize multiple transceivers for each sector of the cell. 
     Base stations  616  may communicate with one or more of WTRUs  602  over air interface  614 , which may be any suitable wireless communication link (e.g., RF, microwave, infrared (IR), ultraviolet (UV), or visible light). Air interface  614  may be established using any suitable radio access technology (RAT). 
     More specifically, as noted above, telecommunication system  600  may be a multiple access system and may employ one or more channel access schemes, such as CDMA, TDMA, FDMA, OFDMA, SC-TDMA, or the like. For example, base station  616  in RAN  604  and WTRUs  602  connected to RAN  604  may implement a radio technology such as Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA) that may establish air interface  614  using wideband CDMA (WCDMA). WCDMA may include communication protocols, such as High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) or Evolved HSPA (HSPA+), HSPA may include High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) or High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA). 
     As another example base station  616  and WTRUs  602  that are connected to RAN  604  may implement a radio technology such as Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA), Which may establish air interface  614  using LTE or LTE-Advanced (LTE-A). 
     Optionally base station  616  and WTRUs  602  connected to RAN  604  may implement radio technologies such as IEEE 602.16 (i.e., Worldwide :Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX)), CDMA2000, CDMA2000 1X, CDMA2000 EV-DO, Interim Standard 2000 (IS-2000), Interim Standard 95 (IS-95), Interim Standard 856 (IS-856), GSM, Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), GSM EDGE (GERAN), or the like. 
     Base station  616  may be a wireless router, Home Node B, Home eNode B, or access point, for example, and may utilize any suitable RAT for facilitating wireless connectivity in a localized area, such as a place of business, a home, a vehicle, a campus, or the like. For example, base station  616  and associated WTRUs  602  may implement a radio technology such as IEEE 602.11 to establish a wireless local area network (WLAN). As another example, base station  616  and associated WTRUs  602  may implement a radio technology such as IEEE 602.15 to establish a wireless personal area network (WPAN). In yet another example, base station  616  and associated WTRUs  602  may utilize a cellular-based RAT (e.g., WCDMA, CDMA2000, GSM, LTE, LTE-A, etc.) to establish a picocell or femtocell. As shown in  FIG.  6   , base station  616  may have a direct connection to Internet  610 . Thus, base station  616  may not be required to access Internet  610  via core network  606 . 
     RAN  604  may be in communication with core network  606 , which may be any type of network configured to provide voice, data, applications, and/or voice over internet protocol (VoIP) services to one or more WTRUs  602 . For example, core network  606  may provide call control, billing services, mobile location-based services, pre-paid calling, Internet connectivity, video distribution or high-level security functions, such as user authentication. Although not shown in  FIG.  6   , it will be appreciated that RAN  604  or core network  606  may be in direct or indirect communication with other RANs that employ the same RAT as RAN  604  or a different RAT. For example, in addition to being connected to RAN  604 , which may be utilizing an E-UTRA radio technology, core network  606  may also be in communication with another RAN (not shown) employing a GSM radio technology. 
     Core network  606  may also serve as a gateway for WTRUs  602  to access PSTN  608 , Internet  610 , or other networks  612 . PSTN  608  may include circuit-switched telephone networks that provide plain old telephone service (POTS). For core networks, core network  606  may use IMS core  614  to provide access to PSTN  608 . Internet  610  may include a global system of interconnected computer networks or devices that use common communication protocols, such as the transmission control protocol (TCP), user datagram protocol (UDP), or IP in the TCP/IP internet protocol suite. Other networks  612  may include wired or wireless communications networks owned or operated by other service providers. For example, other networks  612  may include another core network connected to one or more RAN s, which may employ the same RAT as RAN  604  or a different RAT. 
     Some or all WTRUs  602  in telecommunication system  600  may include multi--mode capabilities. That is, WTRUs  602  may include multiple transceivers for communicating with different wireless networks over different wireless links. For example, one or more WTRUs  602  may be configured to communicate with base station  616 , which may employ a cellular-based radio technology, and with base station  616 , which may employ an IEEE 802 radio technology. 
       FIG.  7    is an example system  100  including RAN  604  and core network  606 . As noted above, RAN  604  may employ an E-UTRA radio technology to communicate with WTRUs  602  over air interface  614 . RAN  604  may also be in communication with core network  606 . 
     RAN  604  may include any number of eNode-Bs  702  while remaining consistent with the disclosed technology. One or more eNode-Bs  702  may include one or more transceivers for communicating with the WTRUs  602  over air interface  614 . Optionally, eNode-Bs  702  may implement MIMO technology. Thus, one of eNode-Bs  702 , for example, may use multiple antennas to transmit wireless signals to, or receive wireless signals from, one of WTRUs  602 . 
     Each of eNode-Bs  702  may be associated with a particular cell (not shown) and may be configured to handle radio resource management decisions, handover decisions, scheduling of users in the uplink or downlink, or the like. As shown in  FIG.  7    eNode-Bs  702  may communicate with one another over an X2 interface. 
     Core network  606  shown in  FIG.  7    may include a mobility management gateway or entity (MME)  704 , a serving gateway  706 , or a packet data network (PDN) gateway  708 . While each of the foregoing elements are depicted as part of core network  606 , it will be appreciated that any one of these elements may be owned or operated by an entity other than the core network operator. 
     MME  704  may be connected to each of eNode-Bs  702  in RAN  604  via an S1 interface and may serve as a control node. For example, MME  704  may be responsible for authenticating users of WTRUs  602 , bearer activation or deactivation, selecting a particular serving gateway during an initial attach of WTRUs  602 , or the like. MME  704  may also provide a control plane function for switching between RAN  604  and other RANs (not shown) that employ other radio technologies, such as GSM or WCDMA. 
     Serving gateway  706  may be connected to each of eNode-Bs  702  in RAN  604  via the S1 interface. Serving gateway  706  may generally route or forward user data packets to or from the WTRUs  602 . Serving gateway  706  may also perform other functions, such as anchoring user planes during inter-eNode B handovers, triggering paging when downlink data is available for WTRUs  602 , managing or storing contexts of WTRUs  602 , or the like. 
     Serving gateway  706  may also be connected to PDN gateway  708 , which may provide WTRUs  602  with access to packet-switched networks, such as Internet  610 , to facilitate communications between WTRUs  602  and IP-enabled devices. 
     Core network  606  may facilitate communications with other networks. For example, core network  606  may provide WTRUs  602  with access to circuit-switched networks, such as PSTN  608 , such as through IMS core  614 , to facilitate communications between WTRUs  602  and traditional land-line communications devices. In addition, core network  606  may provide the WTRUs  602  with access to other networks  612 , which may include other wired or wireless networks that are owned or operated by other service providers. 
       FIG.  8    depicts an overall block diagram of an example packet-based mobile cellular network environment, such as a GPRS network as described herein. In the example packet-based mobile cellular network environment shown in  FIG.  8   , there are a plurality of base station subsystems (BSS)  800  (only one is shown), each of which comprises a base station controller (BSC)  802  serving a plurality of BTSs, such as BTSs  804 ,  806 ,  808 . BTSs  804 ,  806 ,  808  are the access points where users of packet-based mobile devices become connected to the wireless network. In example fashion, the packet traffic originating from mobile devices is transported via an over-the-air interface to BTS  808 , and from BTS  808  to BSC  802 . Base station subsystems, such as BS&#39;S  800 , are a part of internal frame relay network  810  that can include a service GPRS support nodes (SGSN), such as SGSN  812  or SGSN  814 . Each SGSN  812 ,  814  is connected to an internal packet network  816  through Which SGSN  812 ,  814  can route data packets to or from a plurality of gateway GPRS support nodes (GGSN)  818 ,  820 ,  822 . As illustrated, SGSN  814  and GGSNs  818 ,  820 ,  822  are part of internal packet network  816 . GGSNs  818 ,  820 ,  822  mainly provide an interface to external IP networks such as PLMN  824 , corporate intranets/internets  826 , or Fixed-End System (FES) or the public Internet  828 . As illustrated, subscriber corporate network  826  may be connected to GGSN  820  via a firewall  830 . PLMN  824  may be connected to GGSN  820  via a boarder gateway router (BGR)  832 . A Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) server  834  may be used for caller authentication when a user calls corporate network  826 . 
     Generally, there may be a several cell sizes in a network, referred to as macro, micro, pico, femto or umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell is different in different environments. Macro cells can be regarded as cells in which the base station antenna is installed in a mast or a building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level. Micro cells are typically used in urban areas. Pico cells are small cells having a diameter of a few dozen meters. Pico cells are used mainly indoors, Femto cells have the same size as pico cells, but a smaller transport capacity. Femto cells are used indoors, in residential or small business environments. On the other hand, umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells. 
       FIG.  9    illustrates an architecture of a typical GPRS network  900  as described herein. The architecture depicted in  FIG.  9    may be segmented into four groups: users  902 , RAN  904 , core network  906 , and interconnect network  908 . Users  902  comprise a plurality of end users, who each may use one or more devices  910 , Note that device  910  is referred to as a mobile subscriber (MS) in the description of network shown in  FIG.  9   . In an example, device  910  comprises a communications device (e.g., mobile device  102 , mobile positioning center  116 , network device  300 , any of detected devices  500 , second device  508 , access device  604 , access device  606 , access device  608 , access device  610  or the like, or any combination thereof.). Radio access network  904  comprises a plurality of BSSs such as BSS  912 , which includes a BTS  914  and a BSC  916 . Core network  906  may include a host of various network elements. As illustrated in  FIG.  9   , core network  906  may comprise MSC  918 , service control point (SCP)  920 , gateway MSC (GMSC)  922 . SGSN  924 . home location register (HLR)  926 , authentication center (AuC)  928 , domain name system (DNS) server  930 , and GGSN  932 . Interconnect network  908  may also comprise a host of various networks or other network elements. As illustrated in  FIG.  9   , interconnect network  908  comprises a PSTN  934 , an FES/Internet  936 , a firewall  1038 , or a corporate network  940 . 
     An MSC can be connected to a large number of BSCs. At MSC  918 , for instance, depending on the type of traffic, the traffic may be separated in that voice may be sent to PSTN  934  through GMSC  922 , or data may be sent to SGSN  924 , which then sends the data traffic to GGSN  932  for further forwarding. 
     When MSC  918  receives call traffic, for example, from BSC  916 , it sends a query to a database hosted by SCP  920 , which processes the request and issues a response to MSC  918  so that it may continue call processing as appropriate, 
     HLR  926  is a centralized database for users to register to the GPRS network. HLR  926  stores static information about the subscribers such as the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI), subscribed services, or a key for authenticating the subscriber. HLR  926  also stores dynamic subscriber information such as the current location of the MS. Associated with HLR  926  is AuC  928 , which is a database that contains the algorithms for authenticating subscribers and includes the associated keys for encryption to safeguard the user input for authentication, 
     In the following, depending on context, “mobile subscriber” or “MS” sometimes refers to the end user and sometimes to the actual portable device, such as a mobile device, used by an end user of the mobile cellular service. When a mobile subscriber turns on his or her mobile device, the mobile device goes through an attach process by which the mobile device attaches to an SGSN of the GPRS network. In  FIG.  9   , when MS  910  initiates the attach process by turning on the network capabilities of the mobile device, an attach request is sent by MS  910  to SGSN  924 . The SGSN  924  queries another SGSN, to which MS  910  was attached before, for the identity of MS  910 . Upon receiving the identity of MS  910  from the other SGSN, SGSN  924  requests more information from MS  910 . This information is used to authenticate MS  910  together with the information provided by HLR  926 . Once verified, SGSN  924  sends a location update to HLR  926  indicating the change of location to a new SGSN, in this case SGSN  924 . HLR  926  notifies the old SGSN, to which MS  910  was attached before, to cancel the location process for MS  910 . HLR  926  then notifies SGSN  924  that the location update has been performed. At this time, SGSN  924  sends an Attach Accept message to MS  910 , which in turn sends an Attach Complete message to SGSN  924 . 
     Next, MS  910  establishes a user session with the destination network, corporate network  940 , by going through a Packet Data Protocol (PDP) activation process. Briefly, in the process, MS  910  requests access to the Access Point Name (APN), for example, UPS.com, and SGSN  924  receives the activation request from MS  910 . SGSN  924  then initiates a DNS query to learn which GGSN  932  has access to the UPS.com APN. The DNS query is sent to a DNS server within core network  906 , such as DNS server  930 , which is provisioned to map to one or more GGSNs in core network  906 . Based on the APN, the mapped GGSN  932  can access requested corporate network  940 . SGSN  924  then sends to GGSN  932  a Create PDP Context Request message that contains necessary information. GGSN  932  sends a Create PDP Context Response message to SGSN  924 , which then sends an Activate PDP Context Accept message to MS  910 . 
     Once activated, data packets of the call made by MS  910  can then go through RAN  904 , core network  906 , and interconnect network  908 , in a particular :FES/Internet  936  and firewall  1038 , to reach corporate network  940 . 
       FIG.  10    illustrates a PLMN block diagram view of an example architecture that may be replaced by a telecommunications system. In  FIG.  10   , solid lines may represent user traffic signals, and dashed lines may represent support signaling. MS  1002  is the physical equipment used by the PLAIN subscriber. For example, drone  102 , network device  300 , the like, or any combination thereof may serve as MS  1002 . MS  1002  may be one of, but not limited to, a cellular telephone, a cellular telephone in combination with another electronic device or any other wireless mobile communication device. 
     MS  1002  may communicate wirelessly with BSS  1004 . BSS  1004  contains BSC  1006  and a BTS  1008 . BSS  1004  may include a single BSC  1006 /BTS  1008  pair (base station) or a system of BSC/BTS pairs that are part of a larger network. BSS  1004  is responsible for communicating with MS  1002  and may support one or more cells. BSS  1004  is responsible for handling cellular traffic and signaling between MS  1002  and a core network  1010 . Typically, BSS  1004  performs functions that include, but are not limited to, digital conversion of speech channels, allocation of channels to mobile devices, paging, or transmission/reception of cellular signals. 
     Additionally, MS  1002  may communicate wirelessly with RNS  1012 . RNS  1012  contains a Radio Network Controller (RNC)  1014  and one or more Nodes B  1016 . RNS  1012  may support one or more cells. RNS  1012  may also include one or more RNC  1014 /Node B  1016  pairs or alternatively a single RNC  1014  may manage multiple Nodes B  1016 . RNS  1012  is responsible for communicating with MS  1002  in its geographically defined area. RNC  1014  is responsible for controlling Nodes B  1016  that are connected to it and is a control element in a UMTS radio access network. RNC  1014  performs functions such as, but not limited to, load control, packet scheduling, handover control, security functions, or controlling MS  1002  access to core network  1010 . 
     An E-UTRA Network (E-UTRAN)  1018  is a RAN that provides wireless data communications for MS  1002  and UE  1024 . E-UTRAN  1018  provides higher data rates than traditional UMTS. It is part of the LTE upgrade for mobile networks, and later releases meet the requirements of the International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT) Advanced and are commonly known as a 4G networks. E-UTRAN  1018  may include of series of logical network components such as E-UTRAN Node B (eNB)  1020  and E-UTRAN Node. B (eNB)  1022 . E-UTRAN  1018  may contain one or more eNBs. User equipment (LTE)  1024  may be any mobile device capable of connecting to E-UTRAN  1018  including, but not limited to, a personal computer, laptop, mobile device, wireless router, or other device capable of wireless connectivity to E-UTRAN  1018 . The improved performance of the E-UTRAN  1018  relative to a typical UMTS network allows for increased bandwidth, spectral efficiency, and functionality including, but not limited to, voice, high-speed applications, large data transfer or IPTV, while still allowing for full mobility. 
     Typically MS  1002  may communicate with any or all of BSS  1004 , RNS  1012 , or E-UTRAN  1018 . In a illustrative system, each of BSS  1004 , RNS  1012 , and E-UTRAN  1018  may provide MS  1002  with access to core network  1010 . Core network  1010  may include of a series of devices that route data and communications between end users. Core network  1010  may provide network service functions to users in the circuit switched (CS) domain or the packet switched (PS) domain. The CS domain refers to connections in which dedicated network resources are allocated at the time of connection establishment and then released when the connection is terminated. The PS domain refers to communications and data transfers that make use of autonomous groupings of bits called packets. Each packet may be routed, manipulated, processed or handled independently of all other packets in the PS domain and does not require dedicated network resources. 
     The circuit-switched MOW function (CS-MGW)  1026  is part of core network  1010 , and interacts with VLR/MSC server  1028  and GMSC server  1030  in order to facilitate core network  1010  resource control in the CS domain. Functions of CS-MGW  1026  include, but are not limited to, media conversion, bearer control, payload processing or other mobile network processing such as handover or anchoring. CS-MGW  1026  may receive connections to MS  1002  through BSS  1004  or RNS  1012 . 
     SGSN  1032  stores subscriber data regarding MS  1002  in order to facilitate network functionality. SGSN  1032  may store subscription information such as, but not limited to, the IMSI, temporary identities, or PDP addresses. SGSN  1032  may also store location information such as, but not limited to, GGSN address for each GGSN  1034  where an active PDP exists. GGSN  1034  may implement a location register function to store subscriber data. It receives from SGSN  1032  such as subscription or location information. 
     Serving gateway (S-GW)  1036  is an interface which provides connectivity between E-UTRAN  1018  and core network  1010 . Functions of S-GW  1036  include, but are not limited to, packet routing, packet forwarding, transport level packet processing, or user plane mobility anchoring for inter-network mobility. PCRF  1038  uses information gathered from P-GW  1036 , as well as other sources, to make applicable policy and charging decisions related to data flows, network resources or other network administration functions. PDN gateway (PDN-GW)  1040  may provide user-to-services connectivity functionality including, but not limited to, GPRS/EPC network anchoring, bearer session anchoring and control, or IP address allocation for PS domain connections. 
     HSS  1042  is a database for user information and stores subscription data regarding MS  1002  or UE  1024  for handling calls or data sessions. Networks may contain one HSS  1042  or more if additional resources are required. Example data stored by HSS  1042  include, but is not limited to, user identification, numbering or addressing information, security information, or location information. HSS  1042  may also provide call or session establishment procedures in both the PS and CS domains. 
     VLR/MSC Server  1028  provides user location functionality. When MS  1002  enters a new network location, it begins a registration procedure. A MSC server for that location transfers the location information to the VLR for the area. A VLR and MSC server may be located in the same computing environment, as is shown by VLR/MSC server  1028 , or alternatively may be located in separate computing environments. A VLR may contain, but is not limited to, user information such as the IMSI, the Temporary Mobile Station Identity (TMSI), the Local Mobile Station Identity (LMSI), the last known location of the mobile station, or the SGSN where the mobile station was previously registered. The MSC server may contain information such as, but not limited to, procedures for MS  1002  registration or procedures for handover of MS  1002 . to a different section of core network  1010 . GMSC server  1030  may serve as a connection to alternate GMSC servers for other MSs in larger networks. 
     EIR  1044  is a logical element which may store the IMEI for MS  1002 . User equipment may be classified as either “white listed” or “black listed” depending on its status in the network. If MS  1002  is stolen and put to use by an unauthorized user, it may be registered as “black listed” in EIR  1044 , preventing its use on the network. A MME  1046  is a control node Which may track MS  1002  or UE  1024  if the devices are idle. Additional functionality may include the ability of MME  1046  to contact idle MS  1002  or UE  1024  if retransmission of a previous session is required. 
     As described herein, a telecommunications system wherein management and control utilizing a software designed network (SDN) and a simple IP are based, at least in part, on user equipment, may provide a wireless management and control framework that enables common wireless management and control, such as mobility management, radio resource management, QoS, load balancing, etc., across many wireless technologies, e.g. LTE, Wi-Fi, and future 5G access technologies; decoupling the mobility control from data planes to let them evolve and scale independently; reducing network state maintained in the network based on user equipment types to reduce network cost and allow massive scale; shortening cycle time and improving network upgradability; flexibility in creating end-to-end services based on types of user equipment and applications, thus improve customer experience; or improving user equipment power efficiency and battery life especially for simple M2M devices through enhanced wireless management. 
     While examples of a telecommunications system in which emergency alerts can be processed and managed have been described in connection with various computing devices/processors, the underlying concepts may be applied to any computing device, processor, or system capable of facilitating a telecommunications system. The various techniques described herein may be implemented in connection with hardware or software or, where appropriate, with a combination of both. Thus, the methods and devices may take the form of program code (i.e. instructions) embodied in concrete, tangible, storage media having a concrete, tangible, physical structure. Examples of tangible storage media include floppy diskettes, CD-ROMs, DVDs, hard drives, or any other tangible machine-readable storage medium (computer-readable storage medium). Thus, a computer-readable storage medium is not a signal. A computer-readable storage medium is not a transient signal. Further. a computer-readable storage medium is not a propagating signal. A computer-readable storage medium as described herein is an article of manufacture, When the program code is loaded into and executed by a machine, such as a computer, the machine becomes an device for telecommunications. In the case of program code execution on programmable computers, the computing device will generally include a processor, a storage medium readable by the processor (including volatile or nonvolatile memory or storage elements), at least one input device, and at least one output device. The program(s) can be implemented in assembly or machine language, if desired, The language can be a compiled or interpreted language, and may be combined with hardware implementations. 
     The methods and devices associated with a telecommunications system as described herein also may be practiced via communications embodied in the form of program code that is transmitted over some transmission medium, such as over electrical wiring or cabling, through fiber optics, or via any other form of transmission, wherein, when the program code is received and loaded into and executed by a machine, such as an EPROM, a gate array, a programmable logic device (PLD), a client computer, or the like, the machine becomes an device for implementing telecommunications as described herein. When implemented on a general-purpose processor, the program code combines with the processor to provide a unique device that operates to invoke the functionality of a telecommunications system. 
     While example embodiments have been described in connection with various computing devices/processors, the underlying concepts can be applied to any computing device, processor, or system capable of recording events as described herein, The methods and apparatuses for recording and reporting events, or certain aspects or portions thereof, can take the form of program code (i.e., instructions) embodied in tangible storage media having a physical structure, such as floppy diskettes, CD-ROMs, hard drives, or any other machine-readable storage medium having a physical tangible structure (computer-readable storage medium), wherein, when the program code is loaded into and executed by a. machine, such as a computer, the machine becomes an apparatus for distributing connectivity and/or transmission time. A computer-readable storage medium, as described herein is an article of manufacture, and thus, is not to be construed as a transitory signal. In the case of program code execution on programmable computers, which may, for example, include server  40 , the computing device will generally include a processor, a. storage medium readable by the processor (including volatile and non-volatile memory and/or storage elements), at least one input device, and at least one output device. The program(s) can be implemented in assembly or machine language, if desired. The language can be a compiled. or interpreted language, and combined with hardware implementations 
     The methods and systems of the present disclosure may be practiced via communications embodied in the form of program code that is transmitted over some transmission medium, such as over electrical wiring or cabling, through fiber optics, wherein, when the program code is received and loaded into and executed by a machine, such as an EPROM, a gate array, a programmable logic device (PLD), a client computer, a controller, or the like, the machine becomes an apparatus for use in reconfiguration of systems constructed in accordance with the present disclosure. When implemented on a general-purpose processor, the program code combines with the processor to provide a unique apparatus that operates to invoke the functionality described herein. 
     In addition, while a particular feature may have been disclosed with respect to only one of several implementations, such feature may be combined with one or more other features of the other implementations as may be desired and advantageous for any given or particular application. Furthermore, to the extent that the terms “includes,” and “including” and variants thereof are used in either the detailed description or the claims, these terms are intended to be inclusive in a manner similar to the term “comprising.”