Patent Publication Number: US-9896389-B2

Title: Heat-generating multi-compartment microcapsules

Description:
BACKGROUND 
     The present invention relates in general to the field of materials science. More particularly, the present invention relates to multi-compartment microcapsules that produce heat when subjected to a stimulus. 
     SUMMARY 
     A heat-generating multi-compartment microcapsule includes two or more compartments containing reactants that come in contact and react to produce heat when an isolating structure ruptures in response to a stimulus. Aspects of the present invention describe a heat-generating multi-compartment microcapsule, a method of producing a heat-generating multi-compartment microcapsule, and a method of activating a heat-generating multi-compartment microcapsule. 
     According to some embodiments of the present invention, a multi-compartment microcapsule produces heat when subjected to a stimulus (e.g., a compressive force, a magnetic field, ultrasound, or combinations thereof). In some embodiments, the multi-compartment microcapsules have first and second compartments separated by an isolating structure adapted to rupture in response to the stimulus, wherein the first and second compartments contain reactants that come in contact and react to produce heat when the isolating structure ruptures. In some embodiments, the multi-compartment microcapsules are shell-in-shell microcapsules each having an inner shell contained within an outer shell, wherein the inner shell defines the isolating structure and the outer shell does not allow the heat-generating chemistry to escape the microcapsule upon rupture of the inner shell. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Embodiments of the present invention will hereinafter be described in conjunction with the appended drawings, where like designations denote like elements. 
         FIG. 1  illustrates a stage of TFT LCD panel fabrication (i.e., during a process of assembling liquid crystal cells) in which a self-heating sealant is used to seal the periphery of a liquid crystal layer between a TFT array substrate and a color filter substrate according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 2  illustrates a stage of TFT LCD panel fabrication (i.e., during a process of assembling LCD modules) in which a self-heating sealant is used as a terminal sealant according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 3A  depicts a multi-compartment microcapsule having a shell-in-shell architecture with an inner shell contained within an outer shell, wherein the inner shell is adapted to rupture in response to a compressive force according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 3B  depicts a multi-compartment microcapsule having an inner barrier to form compartments, wherein the inner barrier is adapted to rupture in response to a compressive force according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 3C  depicts a multi-compartment microcapsule having a shell-in-shell architecture with an inner shell contained within an outer shell, wherein the inner shell is adapted to rupture in a magnetic field according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 4A  illustrates a multi-compartment microcapsule containing reactants according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 4B  illustrates a multi-compartment microcapsule in which the capsule wall of the inner microcapsule is ruptured according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 4C  illustrates a multi-compartment microcapsule in which a first reactant is dispersed within a second reactant according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 4D  illustrates a multi-compartment microcapsule in which the reactants within the microcapsule have generated heat according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 5  is an enlarged cutaway view of the liquid crystal cell shown in  FIG. 1  in an earlier stage of TFT LCD panel fabrication (i.e., during the LCD module assembly process, but before the LCD panel end-seal sealant is applied), depicting LCD panel main sealant as a self-heating sealant interspersed with multi-compartment microcapsules for heat generation according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 6  is a flow diagram illustrating, through stages  6 ( a )- 6 ( f ), a method of producing a multi-compartment microcapsule having a shell-in-shell architecture with an inner shell contained within an outer shell, wherein the inner shell is adapted to rupture in response to a compressive force and/or a magnetic field according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 7  is a flow diagram illustrating an exemplary method of producing a self-heating sealant or adhesive according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 8  is a flow diagram illustrating an exemplary method of curing a self-heating sealant or adhesive according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 9  is a flow diagram illustrating, through stages  9 ( a )- 9 ( e ), a method of assembling liquid crystal cells during TFT LCD panel fabrication, in which a self-heating sealant is used to seal the periphery of a liquid crystal layer between a TFT array substrate and a color filter substrate according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Aspects of the present disclosure relate to a self-heating sealant or adhesive having multi-compartment microcapsules dispersed within a sealant or adhesive. Other aspects of the present disclosure relate to a method of producing a self-heating sealant or adhesive having multi-compartment microcapsules dispersed within a sealant or adhesive. Still other aspects of the present disclosure relate to a method of curing a self-heating sealant or adhesive having multi-compartment microcapsules dispersed within the sealant or adhesive. Yet other aspects of the present disclosure relate to forming and activating multi-compartment microcapsules for heat generation in sealants, adhesives, or other materials that would benefit from their inclusion such as thermal interface materials (TIMs), coatings, paints, varnishes, encapsulants, and the like. 
     Benefits that may be achieved by inclusion of multi-compartment microcapsules for heat generation in materials such as sealants, adhesives, TIMs, coatings, paints, varnishes, encapsulants, and the like, include, but are not limited to, reduced cure time, reduced viscosity, and increased compliance. Compliance is a measure of the ability of a material to flow. Materials with a lower compliance produce thicker bond lines. Heating a material through activation of multi-component microcapsules including the material for heat generation may increase its compliance and correspondingly produce a thinner bond line. 
     A self-heating sealant or adhesive, in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure, comprises multi-compartment microcapsules dispersed within a sealant or adhesive. The multi-compartment microcapsules produce heat when subjected to a stimulus (e.g., a compressive force, a magnetic field, ultrasound, or combinations thereof). In some embodiments, the multi-compartment microcapsules have first and second compartments separated by an isolating structure adapted to rupture in response to the stimulus, wherein the first and second compartments contain reactants that come in contact and react to produce heat when the isolating structure ruptures. In some embodiments, the multi-compartment microcapsules are shell-in-shell microcapsules each having an inner shell contained within an outer shell, wherein the inner shell defines the isolating structure and the outer shell does not allow the heat-generating chemistry to escape the microcapsule upon rupture of the inner shell. 
     Sealants and adhesives are often pigeon-holed together, but these terms are not always interchangeable. An adhesive is designed to bond two or more items together. A sealant is designed to fill a gap between two or more items to prevent contaminants (e.g., moisture and gases) from infiltrating therebetween. An adhesive is not necessarily a sealant, and visa-versa. 
     Multi-compartment microcapsules are known in the art to be formed in a variety of structural configurations (e.g., concentric, pericentric, innercentric, or acentric). Multi-compartment microcapsules include at least two compartments that are separated from each other. The compartments within a multi-compartment microcapsule may contain various chemical elements or compounds. Multi-compartment microcapsules may be produced using techniques well known to those skilled in the art. 
     In the embodiments that follow, exemplary self-heating sealants and exemplary self-heating adhesives are employed in the context of thin-film transistor (TFT) liquid crystal display (LCD) panel fabrication. These exemplary self-heating sealants and adhesives are set forth for purposes of illustration, not limitation. One skilled in the art will appreciate that a self-heating sealant or adhesive consistent with the spirit of the present disclosure may be used in other contexts. 
     Sealants and adhesives are used in many stages of TFT LCD panel fabrication, including the liquid crystal cell assembly process and the LCD module assembly process. 
     For example, during the process of assembling liquid crystal cells (i.e., also referred to as the liquid crystal cell assembly process), a sealant is used to seal the periphery of a liquid crystal layer between a TFT array substrate and a color filter substrate. The substrates are brought together with the sealant interposed therebetween at the periphery of the substrates while a cell gap between the substrates is maintained by spacers. Two main types of conventional sealants are used during this stage of LCD manufacturing: thermally-cured sealants (e.g., epoxy resin) and UV-cured sealants (e.g., acrylic resin). These conventional sealants are typically applied by screen-printing or through the use of sealant dispensers (e.g., one or more dispensing heads). Unfortunately, these conventional sealants typically impede speeding up production and achieving higher unit-volume throughput because they require the use of heat ovens and/or ultraviolet lamps. 
       FIG. 1  illustrates a stage of TFT LCD panel fabrication (i.e., during a process of assembling a liquid crystal cell  100 ) in which a self-heating sealant (e.g., an LCD panel main sealant  102  and/or an LCD panel end sealant  104 ) is used to seal the periphery of a liquid crystal layer (not shown in  FIG. 1 ) between a TFT array substrate  106  and a color filter substrate  108  according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. In accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure, the LCD panel main sealant  102  may be a self-heating sealant having multi-compartment microcapsules dispersed in a resin (epoxy) based sealant, such as UV- and heat-curable epoxy resins. The multi-compartment microcapsules contained in the LCD panel main sealant  102  may be activated, for example, by a compressive force applied via pressure bonding when the substrates  106 ,  108  are brought together with the LCD panel main sealant  102  interposed therebetween. Similarly, in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure, the LCD panel end sealant  104  may be a self-heating sealant having multi-compartment microcapsules dispersed in a resin (epoxy) based sealant, such as UV- and heat-curable epoxy resins. The multi-compartment microcapsules contained in the LCD panel end sealant  104  may be activated, for example, by a compressive force applied by a sealant dispenser (e.g., a dispensing head used to dispense the LCD panel end sealant  104 ). An exemplary process of assembling a liquid crystal cell during TFT LCD panel fabrication, in which a self-heating sealant is used in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure, is described below with reference to  FIG. 9 . 
       FIG. 2  illustrates a stage of TFT LCD panel fabrication (i.e., during a process of assembling LCD module  200 ) in which a self-heating sealant (e.g., a terminal sealant  202 ) is used to seal the transparent display/backlight electrodes of the LCD module  200  and a self-heating adhesive (e.g., an anisotropically conductive adhesive  204 ) is used to form mechanical bonding and electrical connections between the transparent display/backlight electrodes of the LCD module  200  and a driver flexible printed circuit (FPC)  214  according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
     A transparent, electrically conductive indium tin oxide (ITO) layer  206 , which provides transparent display/backlight panel electrodes of the LCD module  200 , is sputter deposited on a glass substrate  208  of the TFT array substrate  106 . Similarly, an ITO layer  210  is sputter deposited on the glass substrate  212  of the color filter substrate  108 . The anisotropically conductive adhesive  204 , which is used to form mechanical bonding and electrical connections between the transparent display/backlight electrodes and a driver FPC  214 , cures to provide an anisotropically conductive film (ACF)  216 . In accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure, the anisotropically conductive adhesive  204  may be a self-heating adhesive having multi-compartment microcapsules dispersed in an anisotropically conductive adhesive, such as ThreeBond 3370G. Anisotropically conductive adhesives (which are also referred to as “anisotropically conductive pastes”) are typically made of thermoplastic resin in which a conductive filler is dispersed. The multi-compartment microcapsules contained in the anisotropically conductive adhesive  204  may be activated, for example, by a compressive force applied via pressure bonding when the ITO layer  206 /glass substrate  208  and the driver FPC  214  are brought together with the anisotropically conductive adhesive  204  interposed therebetween. 
     The terminal sealant  202 , which seals the display/backlight electrodes of the LCD module  200 , preferably has strong adhesion to the glass substrates  208 ,  212 , the ITO layers  210 ,  206 , the driver FPC  214 , and the ACF  216 . In accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure, the terminal sealant  202  may be a self-heating sealant having multi-compartment microcapsules dispersed in a silicone sealant, such as Dow Corning SE9187 L or Dow Corning EA-3000. The multi-compartment microcapsules contained in the terminal sealant  202  may be activated, for example, by a compressive force applied by a sealant dispenser (e.g., a dispensing head used to dispense the terminal sealant  202 ). 
       FIG. 3A  depicts a multi-compartment microcapsule  300  having a shell-in-shell architecture with an inner shell contained within an outer shell, wherein the inner shell is adapted to rupture in response to a compressive force according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. In  FIG. 3A , the multi-compartment microcapsule  300  is illustrated in a cutaway view. The multi-compartment microcapsule  300  has an outer wall  301  (also referred to herein as the “outer shell”  301  of the multi-compartment microcapsule  300 ) and contains an inner microcapsule  302  and a first reactant  303 . The inner microcapsule  302  has a capsule wall  304  (also referred to herein as the “inner shell”  304  of the multi-compartment microcapsule  300 ) and contains a second reactant  305 . The first reactant  303  within the multi-compartment microcapsule  300  may surround the inner microcapsule  302 , and the first reactant  303  may be prevented from contacting the second reactant  305  by the capsule wall  304  of the inner microcapsule  302 . 
     The capsule wall  304  of the inner microcapsule  302  may be formed to rupture under a particular compressive force and the outer wall  301  of the microcapsule  300  may be formed so as to not rupture under that compressive force. Rupturing the capsule wall  304  of the inner microcapsule  302  may allow the second reactant  305  to contact the first reactant  303  and the reactants may then chemically or physically react. In various embodiments, the reaction may be exothermic. 
       FIG. 3B  depicts a multi-compartment microcapsule  310  having an inner barrier to form compartments, wherein the inner barrier is adapted to rupture in response to a compressive force according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. In  FIG. 3A , the multi-compartment microcapsule  310  is illustrated in a cutaway view. The multi-compartment microcapsule  310  has an outer wall  311  and contains a first reactant  313  and a second reactant  315 . A membrane  314  within the multi-compartment microcapsule  310  may prevent the first reactant  313  and the second reactant  315  from coming into contact. The membrane  314  may be any form of a physical barrier that forms two or more compartments within the microcapsule  310 . 
     The membrane  314  may be formed to rupture under a particular compressive force and the outer wall  311  of the multi-compartment microcapsule  310  may be formed so as to not rupture under that compressive force. Rupturing the membrane  314  may allow the first reactant  313  to contact the second reactant  315  and the reactants may then chemically or physically react. In various embodiments, the reaction may be exothermic. 
     In accordance with some embodiments, the compressive force applied to a self-heating sealant or adhesive may be within the range typical of that applied in the manufacture or repair of electronic assemblies (e.g., during the process of assembling liquid crystal cells, during the process of assembling LCD modules, and the like). In accordance with some embodiments, the inner capsule wall  304  (of the multi-compartment microcapsule  300  shown in  FIG. 3A ), or a membrane  314  (of the multi-compartment microcapsule  310  shown in  FIG. 3B ), may rupture at a force no greater than the lower bound of this range of compressive force. The outer wall  301  (of the multi-compartment microcapsule  300  shown in  FIG. 3A ), or the outer wall  311  (of the multi-compartment microcapsule  310  shown in  FIG. 3B ), may sustain, without rupturing, a force no less than the upper bound of this range of compressive force. 
     Other embodiments may utilize more than two reactants. The multi-compartment microcapsule  300  of  FIG. 3A  may contain a plurality of inner microcapsules, such as  302 , and the inner microcapsules may themselves contain other, inner, microcapsules. The various microcapsules may contain reactants and may rupture under compression to allow the reactants to come into contact. Similarly, the multi-compartment microcapsule  310  of  FIG. 3B  may contain a plurality of compartments formed by a plurality of membranes or barriers, such as  314 , and the compartments may in turn contain one or more membranes or barriers, or may contain microcapsules. The various membranes or barriers may rupture under compression to allow the reactants to come into contact. 
       FIG. 3C  depicts a multi-compartment microcapsule  320  having a shell-in-shell architecture with an inner shell contained within an outer shell, wherein the inner shell is adapted to rupture in a magnetic field according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. In  FIG. 3C , the multi-compartment microcapsule  320  is illustrated in a cutaway view. The multi-compartment microcapsule  320  depicted in  FIG. 3C  is similar to the multi-compartment microcapsule  300  depicted in  FIG. 3A , but one or more magnetic nanoparticles  330  are incorporated into the inner shell of the multi-compartment microcapsule  320 . The multi-compartment microcapsule  320  has an outer wall  321  (also referred to herein as the “outer shell”  321  of the multi-compartment microcapsule  320 ) and contains an inner microcapsule  322  and a first reactant  323 . The inner microcapsule  322  has a capsule wall  324  (also referred to herein as the “inner shell”  324  of the multi-compartment microcapsule  320 ) and contains a second reactant  325 . The first reactant  323  within the multi-compartment microcapsule  320  may surround the inner microcapsule  322 , and the first reactant  323  may be prevented from contacting the second reactant  325  by the capsule wall  324  of the inner microcapsule  322 . 
     With regard to the multi-compartment microcapsule  320  depicted in  FIG. 3C , in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure, a magnetic field generating device generates a magnetic field sufficient to rupture the “inner shell”  324  of the multi-compartment microcapsules  320  dispersed in a sealant or adhesive through magnetic stimulation of the magnetic nanoparticles  330 . Application of a sufficiently strong high-frequency magnetic field causes the magnetic nanoparticles  330  embedded in the “inner shell”  324  of the multi-compartment microcapsules  320  to rotate and/or vibrate at an accelerated rate thereby rupturing the “inner shell”  324  and, in turn, permit the first reactant  323  and the second reactant  325  to contact one another, react, and generate heat. Preferably, the high-frequency magnetic field applied to the self-heating sealant or adhesive by the magnetic field generating device has a frequency of approximately 50-100 kHz and a strength of approximately 2.5 kA/m or 31 Oe. 
     The capsule wall  324  of the inner microcapsule  322  may be formed with one or more magnetic nanoparticles  330  to rupture under a particular magnetic field through magnetic stimulation of the one or more magnetic nanoparticles  330  and the outer wall  321  of the microcapsule  320  may be formed so as to not rupture under that magnetic field. Rupturing the capsule wall  324  of the inner microcapsule  322  may allow the second reactant  325  to contact the first reactant  323  and the reactants may then chemically or physically react. In various embodiments, the reaction may be exothermic. 
       FIG. 4A ,  FIG. 4B ,  FIG. 4C , and  FIG. 4D  illustrate configurations of a microcapsule under a compressive force, and the compression causing the reactants within the microcapsule to mix, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.  FIG. 4A  illustrates a first microcapsule containing reactants and an inner microcapsule.  FIG. 4B  illustrates the first microcapsule of  FIG. 4A  in which the inner microcapsule wall is ruptured.  FIG. 4C  illustrates the first microcapsule of  FIG. 4B  in which a reactant contained in the inner microcapsule is dispersed within a reactant initially surrounding the inner microcapsule.  FIG. 4D  illustrates the first microcapsule of  FIG. 4C  in which the reactants have produced a reaction product within the first microcapsule and generated heat. 
     In more detail,  FIG. 4A  illustrates a microcapsule  400  formed to have a structure similar to that of the multi-compartment microcapsule  300  of  FIG. 3A . Microcapsule  400  may have an outer wall  401  and may contain a first reactant  403  and an inner capsule  402   a . The inner capsule  402   a  may have an outer capsule wall  404   a  and may contain a second reactant  405   a.    
     A compressive force may be applied to the multi-compartment microcapsule  400 , which may cause the capsule wall  404   a  of an inner microcapsule  402   a  to rupture. FIG.  4 B illustrates a second configuration of microcapsule  400  in which the capsule wall  404   b  of the inner microcapsule  402   b  may rupture under compression of the microcapsule  400 , indicated by the broken line of the capsule wall  404   b .  FIG. 4C  illustrates a third configuration of microcapsule  400  in which the second reactant  405   c  may become dispersed within the first reactant  403   c , in response to the inner microcapsule  402   b  having ruptured. The dispersion of the second reactant  405   c  within the first reactant  403   c  may cause them to react. 
       FIG. 4D  illustrates a fourth configuration of microcapsule  400  in which the reactants  403   c  and  405   c  may have come into contact and may have reacted. The fourth configuration of the microcapsule  400  may contain the product  405   d  of the reaction of  403   c  and  405   c  and the outer wall  401  may contain the reaction product  405   d  so as to prevent the reaction product from contacting a material in which microcapsule  400  may be itself dispersed. The reactants  403   c  and  405   c  may have reacted exothermically to produce heat  416 , and the heat may, as illustrated in  FIG. 4D , transfer from the microcapsule  400  to a material in which the microcapsule is dispersed. 
     In accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure, a self-heating sealant or adhesive may utilize a multi-compartment microcapsule containing an oxidizing and a reducing agent to produce an exothermic reaction, such as oxygen and iron, respectively, according to the reaction equation:
 
4Fe(s)+3O 2 (g)===&gt;2Fe 2 O 3 (s)Hrxn=−1.65103 kJ
 
     According to the reaction equation, 4 moles of iron react with 3 moles of oxygen, such that in an embodiment iron may comprise 53% of the combined mass of the two reactants and oxygen may comprise 43% of that combined mass. In an additional embodiment, a multi-compartment microcapsule may contain iron powder and hydrogen peroxide. The iron powder may be mixed with a catalyst such as ferric nitrate, which when in contact with the hydrogen peroxide liberates oxygen to react exothermically with the iron powder. For example, the multi-compartment microcapsule may use 1.5 moles of hydrogen peroxide per mole of iron, for example 0.56 grams of iron powder to 0.51 grams of hydrogen peroxide. The catalytic amount of ferric nitrate may be chosen to achieve a desired reaction rate of heating, in Kilojoules per second. For example, between 0.001 and 0.005 gram equivalents of ferric nitrate per liter of hydrogen peroxide results in a reaction rate producing heat at between 100 and 500 Kilojoules per second. 
     With reference again to the multi-compartment microcapsule  300  of  FIG. 3A , a multi-compartment microcapsule may contain a mixture of iron powder and ferric nitrate in the inner microcapsule  302  as the second reactant  305  and may contain hydrogen peroxide as the first reactant  303  surrounding the inner microcapsule  302 . Alternatively, a multi-compartment microcapsule may contain hydrogen peroxide in the inner microcapsule  302  as the second reactant  305  and may contain a mixture of iron powder and ferric nitrate as the first reactant  303  surrounding the inner microcapsule  302 . In some embodiments, a multi-compartment microcapsule may have a diameter of less than 5.0 microns, or a multi-compartment microcapsule may have a smaller diameter of less than 2.0 microns. A ratio of 0.2 percent of such multi-compartment microcapsules per unit mass of the sealant or adhesive may produce a temperature increase of at least 1.04 degrees C. per gram of sealant or adhesive. 
     A structure similar to multi-compartment microcapsule  310  of  FIG. 3B , including the various embodiments thereof, may operate similarly to the microcapsule  400  of  FIG. 4A  through  FIG. 4D  to rupture the membrane  314 , mix the reactants  313  and  315 , and produce heat from an exothermic reaction  416  of the reactants. It would be further apparent to one of ordinary skill in that art that an exothermic reaction may be produced by more than two reactants, and that more than two reactants within a capsule may be isolated by more than one inner capsule or membrane, or more than one of any other form of barrier isolating the reactants within the capsule. A variety of reactants may be substituted to produce an exothermic reaction, or a variety of reaction rates and total heat produced, in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
       FIG. 5  is an enlarged cutaway view of the liquid crystal cell  100  shown in  FIG. 1  in an earlier stage of TFT LCD panel fabrication (i.e., during the LCD module assembly process, but before the LCD panel end-seal sealant  104  shown in  FIG. 1  is applied), depicting the LCD panel main sealant  102  as a self-heating sealant interspersed with multi-compartment microcapsules  501  for heat generation according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The LCD panel main sealant  102  contacts the TFT array substrate  106  at surface  506  and the color filter substrate  108  at surface  508 , and may have a bond line (i.e., the mass of the sealant  102  between surfaces  506  and  508 ) thickness T 1  at ambient temperatures. The LCD panel main sealant  102  may have dispersed within it a plurality of multi-compartment microcapsules  501  for generating heat in response to a stimulus, such as a compressive force, a magnetic field, and the like. 
     For example, in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure, when the LCD panel main sealant  102  is compressed between the TFT array substrate  106  and the color filter substrate  108 , the multi-compartment microcapsules  501  may initiate a reaction and the reaction may produce heat. Alternatively, in accordance with other embodiments of the present disclosure, when the LCD panel main sealant  102  interposed between the TFT array substrate  106  and the color filter substrate  108  and subjected to a magnetic field, the multi-compartment microcapsules  501  may initiate a reaction and the reaction may produce heat. The heat may be transferred to the LCD panel main sealant  102 , and heating the LCD panel main sealant  102  may cure the LCD panel main sealant  102 . In addition, heating the LCD panel main sealant  102  may increase the compliance of the LCD panel main sealant  102 . Increasing the compliance of the LCD panel main sealant  102  may produce a bond line thickness of the LCD panel main sealant  102  less than T 1 . In the various embodiments, the multi-compartment microcapsules  501  may be a structure similar to the multi-compartment microcapsule  300  or  310  as described in reference to  FIG. 3A  and  FIG. 3B , respectively, or may be a structure similar to the multi-compartment microcapsule  320  as described in reference to  FIG. 3C . Some embodiments of the present disclosure may disperse multi-compartment microcapsules  501 , such as microcapsules  300 ,  310 , or  320 , in an LCD panel main sealant  102 , and an LCD panel main sealant  102  may be an epoxy-based sealant, an acrylic-based sealant, a silicone-based sealant, and combinations thereof. 
       FIG. 6  is a flow diagram illustrating, through stages  6 ( a )- 6 ( f ), a method  600  of producing a multi-compartment microcapsule having a shell-in-shell architecture with an inner shell contained within an outer shell, wherein the inner shell is adapted to rupture in response to a compressive force and/or a magnetic field according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. In the method  600 , the steps discussed below (steps  605 - 625 ) are performed. These steps are set for the in their preferred order. It must be understood, however, that the various steps may occur simultaneously or at other times relative to one another. Moreover, those skilled in the art will appreciate that one or more steps may be omitted. 
     In method  600 , magnetic nanoparticles are used in step  605  for incorporation into the “inner core” CaCO 3  microparticles (shown at stage  6 ( b )) and, optionally, in step  610  for incorporation into the “inner shell” polyelectrolyte multilayer (i.e., the “Polymer” shown at stage  6 ( c )). Magnetic nanoparticles are incorporated into the “inner core” CaCO 3  microparticles for the purpose of subsequently magnetically isolating the product prepared in step  615  (i.e., ball-in-ball CaCO 3  microparticles) from a coproduct (i.e., single core CaCO 3  microparticles). Magnetic nanoparticles are optionally incorporated into the “inner shell” polyelectrolyte multilayer for the purpose of adapting the inner shell of the shell-in-shell microcapsule to rupture in response to a magnetic field. The shell-in-shell microcapsule that results from this optional incorporation of magnetic nanoparticles into the inner shell corresponds to the multi-compartment microcapsule shown in  FIG. 3C . 
     The magnetic nanoparticles may be, for example, Fe 3 O 4  (also referred to as “magnetite”) nanoparticles, cobalt ferrite nanoparticles, or other magnetic nanoparticles known in the art. Preferably, the magnetic nanoparticles have a diameter in the range of approximately 6-25 nm. 
     The magnetic nanoparticles are prepared using conventional techniques known to those skilled in the art. For example, magnetite nanoparticles may be prepared using a conventional technique known as the “coprecipitation method.” See, for example, the discussion of preparing magnetite nanoparticles using the coprecipitation method in the article to M. Yamaura et al., “Preparation and characterization of (3-aminopropyl) triethoxysilane-coated magnetite nanoparticles,” Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Vol. 279, pages 210-217, 2004, which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     An example of a conventional technique of preparing magnetite nanoparticles follows. This conventional example is based on an example set forth in the M. Yamaura et al. article. A 5 mol/l NaOH solution is added into a mixed solution of 0.25 mol/l ferrous chloride and 0.5 mol/l ferric chloride (molar ratio 1:2) until obtaining pH 11 at room temperature. The slurry is washed repeatedly with distilled water. Then, the resulting magnetite nanoparticles are magnetically separated from the supernatant and redispersed in aqueous solution at least three times, until obtaining pH 7. The M. Yamaura et al. article reports that a typical average diameter of the resulting magnetite nanoparticles is 12 nm. 
     In each of the stages  6 ( a )- 6 ( f ), the structure is shown in a cross-sectional side view. The method  600  is a modified version of the shell-in-shell microcapsule concept disclosed in Kreft et al., “Shell-in-Shell Microcapsules: A Novel Tool for Integrated, Spatially Confined Enzymatic Reactions”, Angewandte Chemie International Edition, Vol. 46, 2007, pp. 5605-5608, which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     The method  600  begins by preparing spherical calcium carbonate microparticles in which finely powdered iron and magnetite nanoparticles are immobilized by coprecipitation (step  605 ). Optionally, a catalyst such as ferric nitrate may be immobilized in the spherical calcium carbonate microcapsules as well as the iron powder and the magnetite nanoparticles. For example, 1M CaCl 2  (0.615 mL), 1M Na 2 CO 3  (0.615 mL), 1.4% (w/v) magnetite nanoparticle suspension (50 μL) and deionized water (2.450 mL) containing finely powdered iron (2 mg) and, optionally, Fe(NO 3 ) 3  (0.01 mg) may be rapidly mixed and thoroughly agitated on a magnetic stirrer for 20 s at room temperature. After the agitation, the precipitate may be separated from the supernatant by centrifugation and washed three times with water. One of the resulting CaCO 3  microparticles is shown at stage  6 ( b ). 
     The diameter of the CaCO 3  microparticles produced with a reaction time of 20 s is 4-6 μm. Smaller CaCO 3  microparticles are produced if the reaction time is reduced from 20 s to several seconds. 
     One skilled in the art will appreciate that other metals may be used in lieu of, or in addition to, the iron powder. For example, magnesium or magnesium-iron alloy may also be used. 
     One skilled in the art will appreciate that other magnetic nanoparticles may be used in lieu of, or in addition to, the magnetite. For example, cobalt ferrite nanoparticles may also be used. 
     As noted above, the iron powder may be mixed with a catalyst such as ferric nitrate, which when in contact with the hydrogen peroxide (to be encapsulated in the outer shell) liberates oxygen to react exothermically with the iron powder. One skilled in the art will appreciate that other catalysts may be used in lieu of, or in addition to, the ferric nitrate. For example, sodium iodide (NaI) may also be used. 
     In this example, the fabrication of polyelectrolyte capsules is based on the layer-by-layer (LbL) self-assembly of polyelectrolyte thin films. Such polyelectrolyte capsules are fabricated by the consecutive adsorption of alternating layer of positively and negatively charged polyelectrolytes onto sacrificial colloidal templates. Calcium carbonate is but one example of a sacrificial colloidal template. One skilled in the art will appreciate that other templates may be used in lieu of, or in addition to, calcium carbonate. For example, in accordance with other embodiments of the present disclosure, polyelectrolyte capsules may be templated on melamine formaldehyde and silica. 
     The method  600  continues by LbL coating the CaCO 3  microparticles (step  610 ). In step  610 , a polyelectrolyte multilayer (PEM) build-up may be employed by adsorbing five bilayers of negative PSS (poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate); Mw=70 kDa) and positive PAH (poly(allylamine hydrochloride); Mw=70 kDa) (2 mg/mL in 0.5 M NaCl) by using the layer-by-layer assembly protocol. For example, the CaCO 3  microparticles produced in step  605  may be dispersed in a 0.5 M NaCl solution with 2 mg/mL PSS (i.e., polyanion) and shaken continuously for 10 min. The excess polyanion may be removed by centrifugation and washing with deionized water. Then, 1 mL of 0.5 M NaCl solution containing 2 mg/mL PAH (i.e., polycation) may be added and shaken continuously for 10 min. The excess polycation may be removed by centrifugation and washing with deionized water. This deposition process of oppositely charged polyelectrolyte may be repeated five times and, consequently, five PSS/PAH bilayers are deposited on the surface of the CaCO 3  microparticles. One of the resulting polymer coated CaCO 3  microparticles is shown at stage  6 ( c ). 
     Alternatively, as noted above, in step  610 , magnetic nanoparticles may be used in the polyelectrolyte multilayer (PEM) build-up. That is, magnetic nanoparticles may be incorporated into the “inner shell” polyelectrolyte multilayer for the purpose of adapting the inner shell of the shell-in-shell microcapsule to rupture in responsive to a magnetic field. The shell-in-shell microcapsule that results from this optional incorporation of magnetic nanoparticles into the inner shell corresponds to the multi-compartment microcapsule shown in  FIG. 3C . For example, the CaCO 3  microparticles produced in step  605  may be dispersed in a 0.5 M NaCl solution with Fe 3 O 4  nanoparticles (citric acid modified, 2 mg/mL) and shaken continuously for 10 min. The excess magnetite nanoparticles may be removed by centrifugation and washing with deionized water. Then, 1 mL of 0.5 M NaCl solution containing 2 mg/mL PAH (polycation) may be added and shaken continuously for 10 min. The excess polycation may be removed by centrifugation and washing with deionized water. This deposition process may be repeated five times and, consequently, five Fe 3 O 4 /PAH bilayers are deposited on the surface of the CaCO 3  microparticles. 
     One skilled in the art will appreciate that other magnetic nanoparticles may be used in lieu of, or in addition to, the Fe 3 O 4  nanoparticles. For example, cobalt ferrite nanoparticles may also be used. 
     The thickness of this “inner shell” polyelectrolyte multilayer may be varied by changing the number of bilayers. Generally, it is desirable for the inner shell to rupture while the outer shell remains intact so that the reactants and the reaction products do not contaminate the sealant or adhesive into which the multi-compartment microcapsule may be dispersed. Typically, for a given shell diameter, thinner shells rupture more readily than thicker shells. Hence, in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure, the inner shell is made relatively thin compared to the outer shell. On the other hand, the inner shell must not be so thin as to rupture prematurely. 
     The PSS/PAH-multilayer in step  610 , is but one example of a polyelectrolyte multilayer. One skilled in the art will appreciate that other polyelectrolyte multilayers and other coatings may be used in lieu of, or in addition to, the PSS/PAH-multilayer in step  610 . For example, coating polyelectrolyte multilayer capsules with lipids can result in a significant reduction of the capsule wall permeability. 
     The method  600  continues by preparing ball-in-ball calcium carbonate microparticles in which hydrogen peroxide is immobilized by a second coprecipitation (step  615 ). The ball-in-ball CaCO 3  microparticles are characterized by a polyelectrolyte multilayer that is sandwiched between two calcium carbonate compartments. In step  615 , the polymer coated CaCO 3  microparticles may be resuspended in 1M CaCl 2  (0.615 mL), 1M Na 2 CO 3  (0.615 mL), and deionized water (2.500 mL) containing hydrogen peroxide (1 mg), rapidly mixed and thoroughly agitated on a magnetic stirrer for 20 s at room temperature. After the agitation, the precipitate may be separated from the supernatant by centrifugation and washed three times with water. Unfortunately, the second coprecipitation is accompanied by formation of a coproduct, i.e., single core CaCO 3  microparticles that contain only hydrogen peroxide. Hence, the resulting precipitate represents a mixture of ball-in-ball CaCO 3  microparticles and single core CaCO 3  microparticles. The ball-in-ball CaCO 3  microparticles, which are magnetic due to the immobilized magnetite nanoparticles in the inner compartment, may be isolated by applying an external magnetic field to the sample while all of the nonmagnetic single core CaCO 3  microparticles are removed by a few washing steps. One of the resulting ball-in-ball CaCO 3  microparticles is shown at stage  6 ( d ). 
     One skilled in the art will appreciate that other oxidizers may be used in lieu of, or in addition to, the hydrogen peroxide. For example, water may also be used. 
     The method  600  continues by LbL coating the ball-in-ball CaCO 3  microparticles (step  620 ). In step  620 , a polyelectrolyte multilayer (PEM) build-up may be employed by adsorbing five bilayers of negative PSS (poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate); Mw=70 kDa) and positive PAH (poly(allylamine hydrochloride); Mw=70 kDa) (2 mg/mL in 0.5 M NaCl) by using the layer-by-layer assembly protocol. For example, the ball-in-ball CaCO 3  microparticles produced in step  615  may be dispersed in a 0.5 M NaCl solution with 2 mg/mL PSS (i.e., polyanion) and shaken continuously for 10 min. The excess polyanion may be removed by centrifugation and washing with deionized water. Then, 1 mL of 0.5 M NaCl solution containing 2 mg/mL PAH (i.e., polycation) may be added and shaken continuously for 10 min. The excess polycation may be removed by centrifugation and washing with deionized water. This deposition process of oppositely charged polyelectrolyte may be repeated five times and, consequently, five PSS/PAH bilayers are deposited on the surface of the ball-in-ball CaCO 3  microparticles. One of the resulting polymer coated ball-in-ball CaCO 3  microparticles is shown at stage  6 ( e ). 
     The thickness of this “outer shell” polyelectrolyte multilayer may be varied by changing the number of bilayers. Generally, it is desirable for the inner shell to rupture while the outer shell remains intact so that the reactants and the reaction products do not contaminate the sealant or adhesive into which the multi-compartment microcapsule is dispersed. Typically, for a given shell diameter, thinner shells rupture more readily than thicker shells. Hence, in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure, the outer shell is made relatively thick compared to the inner shell. 
     The PSS/PAH-multilayer in step  620 , is but one example of a polyelectrolyte multilayer. One skilled in the art will appreciate that other polyelectrolyte multilayers and other coatings may be used in lieu of, or in addition to, the PSS/PAH-multilayer in step  620 . As noted above, coating polyelectrolyte multilayer capsules with lipids, for example, can result in a significant reduction of the capsule wall permeability. 
     The method  600  concludes with CaCO 3  extraction (step  625 ). In step  625 , the CaCO 3  core of the ball-in-ball CaCO 3  microparticles may be removed by complexation with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) (0.2 M, pH 7.5) leading to formation of shell-in-shell microcapsules. For example, the ball-in-ball CaCO 3  microparticles produced in step  620  may be dispersed in 10 mL of the EDTA solution (0.2 M, pH 7.5) and shaken for 4 h, followed by centrifugation and re-dispersion in fresh EDTA solution. This core-removing process may be repeated several times to completely remove the CaCO 3  core. The size of the resulting shell-in-shell microcapsules ranges from 8-10 μm and the inner core diameter is 3-5 μm. One of the resulting shell-in-shell microcapsules is shown at stage  6 ( f ). 
     As noted above, the fabrication of polyelectrolyte capsules in method  600  is based on the layer-by-layer (LbL) self-assembly of polyelectrolyte thin films. One skilled in the art will appreciate that a multi-compartment microcapsule for heat generation in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure may be produced by other conventional multi-compartment systems, such as polymeric micelles, hybrid polymer microspheres, and two-compartment vesicles. 
       FIG. 7  is a flow diagram illustrating an exemplary method  700  of producing a self-heating sealant or adhesive according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. In the method  700 , the steps discussed below (steps  710 - 740 ) are performed. These steps are set for the in their preferred order. It must be understood, however, that the various steps may occur simultaneously or at other times relative to one another. Moreover, those skilled in the art will appreciate that one or more steps may be omitted. 
       FIG. 7  exemplifies a method  700  of producing a self-heating sealant or adhesive, particularly in an embodiment using a multi-compartment microcapsule having a shell-in-shell architecture. Various manners of modifying or adapting the method to a variety of embodiments, including other embodiments of a multi-compartment microcapsule to disperse within a sealant or adhesive, will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art. The method  700  should be understood to illustrate one manner of producing a self-heating sealant or adhesive for purposes of understanding the disclosure and should not be considered as limiting the embodiments. 
     The method  700  begins by providing sealant or adhesive (step  710 ). In step  710 , a sealant or adhesive may be chosen with consideration for the application of that sealant or adhesive to a particular substrate or substrates. In one embodiment, a sealant or adhesive may be chosen for application in sealing the periphery of a liquid crystal layer between a TFT array substrate and a color filter substrate and a heat-curable epoxy resin, such as previously disclosed herein, may be selected. In other embodiments, a sealant or adhesive may be chosen for application in sealing or adhering other substrates. For example, a sealant or adhesive may be chosen for an application in adhering and forming electrical connections between the transparent display/backlight electrodes of an LCD module and a driver FPC and an anisotropically conductive adhesive, such as previously disclosed herein, may be selected. 
     Also in step  710 , the curing temperature of the sealant or adhesive may be determined. In addition, a desired thickness, or a desired range of thickness, of a bond line of the sealant or adhesive suitable for the application may be determined in step  710 . For example, the desired thickness may be less than 5 microns or may be less than 2 microns. A desired thickness may be determined in relationship to a particular compliance, or range of compliance, values of the sealant or adhesive, and a temperature of the sealant or adhesive that may produce the compliance may be determined. 
     The method  700  continues by providing multi-compartment microcapsules (step  720 ). Step  720  may, for example, correspond to the method  600  (shown in  FIG. 6 ) of producing a multi-compartment microcapsule having a shell-in-shell architecture with an inner shell contained within an outer shell, wherein the inner shell is adapted to rupture in response to a compressive force and/or magnetic field according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
     At step  720 , exothermic reactants compatible with the materials suitable for forming a microcapsule may be chosen. The exothermic reactants may be chosen to be inert with respect to the selected sealant or adhesive, the material of the microcapsule walls, or an isolating barrier within a microcapsule when the reactants are not in contact. The exothermic reactants also may be chosen to be inert with respect to the sealant or adhesive or the outer microcapsule wall when the reactants are in contact, or such that the chemical products of the reaction are inert with respect to the sealant or adhesive, outer microcapsule wall, and any remnants of the inner microcapsule wall or barrier. 
     Also at step  720 , an amount of the first reactant and an amount of the second reactant may be determined. The amounts may be determined from the total amount of the reactants required to produce a desired amount of heat, the ratio of each reactant according to a reaction equation, the desired dimensions of the microcapsule, and the manner of isolating the reactants within the capsule. For example, a microcapsule may be desired having a maximum dimension less than or equal to a desired final thickness of a sealant or adhesive bond line, such as less than 0.5 microns, and the amount of reactants may be chosen corresponding to the volume available within a microcapsule formed according to that dimension. 
     In addition, at step  720 , one or more inner microcapsules, such as illustrated by microcapsule  302  of  FIG. 3A , may be formed and the inner microcapsules may contain a first or a second reactant. In various embodiments, an inner microcapsule may be formed to contain a mixture of fine iron powder and ferric nitrate, or may be formed to contain hydrogen peroxide. The inner microcapsule(s) may be formed with a capsule wall configured to rupture with application of a compressive force. The force required to rupture an inner microcapsule wall may be determined from within the range of compressive force typical of that applied in the manufacture or repair of electronic assemblies (e.g., during the process of assembling liquid crystal cells, during the process of assembling LCD modules, and the like). 
     Still further, at step  720 , an outer microcapsule may be formed containing the inner microcapsule(s) and one or more other reactants, in the manner of multi-compartment microcapsule  300  in  FIG. 3A . The reactant(s) contained in the outer microcapsule may be inert with respect to each other and the microcapsule walls until in contact with one or more reactants contained in one or more inner microcapsules. In one embodiment, an outer microcapsule may contain hydrogen peroxide, or other oxidizers, where one or more inner microcapsules contain finely powered iron and ferric nitrate, or other reductants. In another embodiment, the outer microcapsule may contain finely powered iron and ferric nitrate, or other reductants, where one or more inner microcapsules may contain hydrogen peroxide or other oxidizers. The capsule wall of the outer microcapsule may be formed to not rupture at the compressive force applied to rupture the capsule wall of the inner microcapsule. 
     Alternatively, an embodiment may utilize a microcapsule having a structure as illustrated by multi-compartment microcapsule  310  in  FIG. 3B . In accordance with this alternative embodiment, at step  720 , an outer microcapsule may be formed having one or more membranes  314 , in the manner of multi-compartment microcapsule  310  in  FIG. 3B , forming two (or more) compartments within the outer microcapsule. The particular reactants described above may be contained within the compartments, and the membrane(s) may be formed to rupture at compressive forces such as described above with respect to the capsule wall of an inner microcapsule. 
     In another alternative, an embodiment may utilize a microcapsule having a structure as illustrated by multi-compartment microcapsule  320  in  FIG. 3C . In accordance with this alternative embodiment, at step  720 , the capsule wall of the inner microcapsule (i.e., the inner shell of the multi-compartment microcapsule  320 ) may be formed with one or more magnetic nanoparticles so as to rupture under a particular magnetic field through magnetic stimulation of the one or more magnetic nanoparticles and the outer wall of the microcapsule (i.e., the outer shell of the multi-compartment microcapsule  320 ) may be formed so as to not rupture under that magnetic field. For example, as described above with reference to  FIG. 6 , for the purpose of adapting the inner shell of the shell-in-shell microcapsule to rupture in responsive to a magnetic field, magnetic nanoparticles may be incorporated into the “inner shell” polyelectrolyte multilayer (i.e., the “Polymer” shown at stage  6 ( c )). The particular reactants described above may be contained within the compartments. 
     The method  700  continues by determining an amount of the multi-compartment microcapsules (i.e., the multi-compartment microcapsules provided in step  720 ) sufficient to increase the temperature of an amount of the sealant or adhesive (i.e., the sealant or adhesive provided in step  710 ) to a curing temperature (step  730 ). At step  730 , a proportional amount of microcapsules may be determined to mix within the sealant or adhesive. The determination may be made according to the amount of heat required to raise a particular amount of sealant or adhesive from the ambient temperature to the temperature required to cure the sealant or adhesive (and/or produce the desired compliance of the sealant or adhesive), considering also the amount of heat produced by compressing (or otherwise activating) a single microcapsule. 
     The method  700  then concludes by dispersing the amount of the multi-compartment microcapsules with the amount of the sealant or adhesive (step  740 ). At step  740 , an amount of sealant or adhesive to apply to substrate or substrates to be sealed or adhered may be determined, and a corresponding amount of multi-compartment microcapsules may be mixed into the sealant or adhesive. For example, a sealant or adhesive may cure at 100° C., i.e., a temperature of the sealant or adhesive approximately 75 degrees C. above room ambient temperature. This example, utilizing the reactants and reaction described in reference to  FIG. 4A  through  FIG. 4D , may require at least 0.6 grams of the combined amounts of the reactants dispersed within 30 grams of the sealant or adhesive. 
     In this example, if we assume 30 g of sealant or adhesive is used for a typical application, and further assume a 2 wt % loading of the multi-compartment microcapsules, this yields 0.6 g of the multi-compartment microcapsules. Also, in this example, to achieve a suitable stoichiometry, 57% of the multi-compartment microcapsules will be loaded with finely divided iron powder; 43% with an oxidizer yielding 0.342 g Fe. This mass of iron particles will liberate 2.518 kJ. As a first approximation, 30 g (0.03 kg) of sealant or adhesive requires 0.03 kJ to raise its temperature 1° C. (1.00 kJ/kg C·0.03 kJ/C). Assuming in this example that the heat capacity of the sealant or adhesive is equivalent to that of epoxy cast resin, the heat of reaction in this example would be sufficient to raise the temperature of the 30 g of sealant or adhesive almost 84° C. (2.518 kJ/0.03 kJ/C=83.9° C.). Depending on the desired temperature boost, the loading level and/or stoichiometry can be adjusted. 
       FIG. 8  is a flow diagram illustrating an exemplary method  800  of curing a self-heating sealant or adhesive according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. In the method  800 , the steps discussed below (steps  810 - 830 ) are performed. These steps are set for the in their preferred order. It must be understood, however, that the various steps may occur simultaneously or at other times relative to one another. Moreover, those skilled in the art will appreciate that one or more steps may be omitted. 
     The method  800  begins by providing a self-heating sealant or adhesive (step  810 ). Step  810  may, for example, correspond to the method  700  (shown in  FIG. 7 ) of producing a self-heating sealant or adhesive according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. 
     In step  810 , a self-heating TIM may be selected. The selection may consider particular properties of the sealant or adhesive and the substrate or substrates to be sealed or adhered. The particular properties considered may include the thermal and/or electrical conductivity of the sealant or adhesive, the durability of the sealant or adhesive, the shear strength of the sealant or adhesive, the chemical or physical suitability of the sealant or adhesive with the substrate or substrates to be sealed or adhered, the compliance of the sealant or adhesive at the ambient temperature, or the initial and desired final thickness of the sealant or adhesive bond line between the substrates. Other considerations may apply to a particular assembly, devices, manufacturing process, or field repair process and will be evident to one of ordinary skill in the art. 
     The method  800  continues by applying the self-heating sealant or adhesive to the substrate or substrates to be sealed or adhered (step  820 ). At step  820 , a selected self-heating sealant or adhesive may be applied in the initial bond line thickness. 
     Also at step  820 , an amount of the sealant or adhesive may be determined that produces an initial bond line thickness between the substrates to be sealed or adhered. The compliance of the sealant or adhesive at the ambient temperature of manufacture or repair may determine the initial thickness of the sealant or adhesive. For example, in an embodiment, an initial thickness of a sealant or adhesive may be 5.0 microns or more, and a final thickness of the bond line after heating the sealant or adhesive may be desired to be less than 2.0 microns 
     The method  800  then concludes by activating the self-heating sealant or adhesive by applying a stimulus (e.g., a compressive force, a magnetic field, ultrasound, or a combination thereof) to the self-heating sealant or adhesive (step  830 ). In some embodiments, at step  820 , the substrates may be joined together at the bond line of the sealant or adhesive and joining the substrates may compress the sealant or adhesive. In other embodiments, at step  820 , the substrates may be pressed together to compress the sealant or adhesive, until the sealant or adhesive may cure, at the bond line of the sealant or adhesive. Accordingly, the compressive force applied to the sealant or adhesive may vary within a range typical of the manufacture of electronic or mechanical assemblies, or within a range of mechanical pressure applied to join the substrates until the sealant or adhesive has cured or otherwise had effect to seal or adhere the substrates. 
     Also at step  820 , compressing the self-heating sealant or adhesive may produce an exothermic reaction acting to heat the sealant or adhesive, and the increased temperature of the sealant may produce a second compliance of the sealant or adhesive, and the second compliance of the sealant or adhesive may produce a desired final thickness of the sealant or adhesive bond line. 
     In addition, at step  820 , the sealant or adhesive and the substrates may be cooled to ambient temperature or to a temperature corresponding to normal operation. 
       FIG. 9  is a flow diagram illustrating, through stages  9 ( a )- 9 ( e ), a method  900  of assembling liquid crystal cells during thin-film transistor (TFT) liquid crystal display (LCD) panel fabrication, in which a self-heating sealant is used to seal the periphery of a liquid crystal layer between a TFT array substrate and a color filter substrate according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. In the method  900 , the steps discussed below (steps  905 - 920 ) are performed. These steps are set for the in their preferred order. It must be understood, however, that the various steps may occur simultaneously or at other times relative to one another. Moreover, those skilled in the art will appreciate that one or more steps may be omitted. 
     In each of the stages  9 ( a )- 9 ( e ), the structure is shown in a cross-sectional side view and a top view. 
     Stage  9 ( a ). As is conventional, the method  900  of assembling liquid crystal cells begins by printing a polyimide alignment film  920  on both a TFT array substrate  922  and a color filter substrate ( 928  shown in stage  9 ( d )). These substrates are typically sized so that multiple (e.g., six, eight, nine, or twelve) cells can be produced simultaneously. Only one cell is shown in  FIG. 9  for the sake of clarity. The surface of each polyimide alignment film is then rubbed (e.g., with a piece of cloth wound on a roller) to orient the polyimide molecules in one direction. 
     Stage  9 ( b ). After completing the rubbing process, a self-heating sealant  924  is applied to the periphery of the TFT array substrate  920  (step  905 ). The self-heating sealant  924  corresponds with the LCD panel main sealant  102  shown in  FIGS. 1 and 2 . The self-heating sealant  924  may be, for example, a heat-curable epoxy resin in which the multi-compartment microcapsules are dispersed. Alternatively, the self-heating sealant may be, for example, a UV+heat-curable epoxy resin, such as LOCTITE ECCOBOND DS 6601, in which the multi-compartment microcapsules are dispersed. In addition, the TFT array substrate  920  may be coated with a conducting paste (not shown) around its periphery to form electrical connections between electrodes on the color filter substrate and electrodes on the TFT array substrate. Alternatively, the self-heating sealant  924  may be applied to the periphery of the color filter substrate. 
     Stage  9 ( c ). The method  900  continues by spreading one or more spacers (step  910 ). Spacers control the cell gap and are sprayed onto the TFT array substrate  922 . Alternatively, the spacers may be sprayed onto the color filter substrate  928 . 
     Stage  9 ( d ). The TFT array substrate  922  and the color filter substrate  928  are brought together, aligned, and subjected to pressure bonding to activate the self-heating sealant  924  (step  915 ). For example, a conventional UV press (typically utilized to cure conventional UV-curing resins) or a conventional hot press (typically utilized to cure heat-curing resins) may be employed to exert a compressive force on the self-heating sealant  924  sufficient to rupture the isolating structures of the multi-compartment microcapsules. If the self-heating sealant  924  is a heat-curable epoxy resin in which the multi-compartment microcapsules are dispersed, the multi-compartment microcapsules may generate the heat necessary for heat-curing. If the self-heating sealant  924  is a UV+heat-curable epoxy resin in which the multi-compartment microcapsules are dispersed, the multi-compartment microcapsules may generate the heat necessary for post cure (i.e., subsequent to UV-curing). The substrate assembly may then be scribed (e.g., using a diamond wheel) and separated into individual cells (each cell corresponds to a TFT LCD panel). Once separated, the empty cells are filled with liquid crystal material by vacuum injection. 
     Stage  9 ( e ). An end-seal sealant  930  is then used to seal the cell (step  920 ). The end-seal sealant  930  may be a self-heating sealant. The end-seal sealant  930  corresponds with the LCD panel end sealant  104  shown in  FIGS. 1 and 2 . The end-seal sealant  930  may be, for example, a heat-curable epoxy resin in which the multi-compartment microcapsules are dispersed. If the end-seal sealant  930  is a heat-curable epoxy resin in which the multi-compartment microcapsules are dispersed, the multi-compartment microcapsules may generate the heat necessary for heat-curing. Alternatively, the end-seal sealant  930  may be, for example, a UV+heat-curable epoxy resin, such as LOCTITE ECCOBOND DS 6601, in which the multi-compartment microcapsules are dispersed. If the end-seal sealant  930  is a UV+heat-curable epoxy resin in which the multi-compartment microcapsules are dispersed, the multi-compartment microcapsules may generate the heat necessary for post cure (i.e., subsequent to UV-curing). The multi-compartment microcapsules contained in the end-seal sealant  930  may be activated, for example, by a compressive force applied by a sealant dispenser (e.g., a dispensing head used to dispense the end-seal sealant  930 ). 
     One skilled in the art will appreciate that many variations are possible within the scope of the present invention. Thus, while the present invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to particular embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that these and other changes in form and detail may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention.