Patent Publication Number: US-10320013-B2

Title: Hydrophobized gas diffusion layers and method of making the same

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims priority to and is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/372,824 filed on Jul. 17, 2014, which is a 371 Application of PCT/US2013/022036 filed on Jan. 18, 2013, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/591,357 filed on Jan. 27, 2012, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
     This invention was made with government support under Grant No. EFRI-1038234 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING JOINT RESEARCH AGREEMENT 
     Not applicable. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to gas diffusion layers (“GLDs”), such as those which may be useful in the manufacture of fuel cells. 
     BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention is directed to a gas diffusion layer for use in a gas diffusion device, such as a proton exchange membrane fuel cell. The gas diffusion layers are designed to be positioned adjacent to a catalyst layer in the fuel cell. The gas diffusion layer exhibits electron conductivity and gas diffusibility. The gas diffusion layer has a first major surface and a second major surface which is positioned opposite to the first major surface and having an interior between the first and second major surfaces. The gas diffusion layer comprises a porous carbon substrate which is directly fluorinated in the interior and is substantially free of fluorination on at least one of the first major surfaces or said second major surfaces. 
     In one aspect, at least 50 percent of the surface area of the major surface that is designed to be in contact with the catalyst layer is not fluorinated. For example, at least about 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 92, 94, 96, 98, or 100% (or some range therebetween) of the surface area of the major surface that is designed to be in contact with the catalyst layer is not fluorinated. As another example, at least about 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 92, 94, 96, 98, or 100% (or some range therebetween) of the surface area of both major surfaces is not fluorinated. 
     In another aspect, the gas diffusion layer contains less than about 2 at % fluorine. For example, the amount of fluorine in the gas diffusion layer is less than about 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, or 0.3 at % (or some range therebetween). 
     In another aspect, the gas diffusion layer contains less than about 2 wt % fluorine. For example, the amount of fluorine in the gas diffusion layer is less than about 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, or 0.3 wt % (or some range therebetween). 
     In another aspect, the gas diffusion layer has a mean pore size after direct fluorination of about 100 microns or less (e.g., about 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10 microns or less). 
     In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a fuel cell or device containing the gas diffusion layers of the present invention. The fuel cell comprises a membrane-electrode assembly including a hydrogen ion conductive polymer electrolyte membrane; a pair of catalyst layers sandwiching the polymer electrolyte membrane; and a pair of gas diffusion layers of the present invention disposed on the outer surfaces of the catalyst layers. 
     In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for making the gas diffusion layer. The method comprises the steps of providing a porous carbon substrate having a first major surface and a second major surface which is positioned opposite to the first major surface and having an interior between the first and second major surfaces; protecting at least one of the first major surface and the second major surface by contacting at least one surface with a protective layer; directly fluorinating the porous carbon substrate with fluorine gas; and removing the protective layer from at least one surface. The interior of the gas diffusion device is fluorinated and at least one major surface (preferably both major surfaces) is not substantially fluorinated. 
     In still another aspect, the direct fluorinating step occurs at a temperature of about 300 to 500° C. (e.g., about 300, 310, 320, 330, 340, 350, 360, 370, 380, 390, 400, 410, 420, 430, 440, 450, 460, 470, 480, 490, or 500° C. or some range therebetween). 
     In yet another aspect, the direct fluorinating step occurs using a mixture of fluorine gas and an inert gas. The inert gas is preferably selected from the group consisting of argon and nitrogen. The amount of fluorine in the gaseous mixture is preferably between about 1 and 50% (e.g., about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, or 50% or some range therebetween). In one aspect, the direction fluorinating step includes using a mixture of about 10 to 20% fluorine and 80 to 90% argon. 
     In a further aspect, the direct fluorinating step occurs at atmospheric pressure or an elevated pressure. Exemplary pressures include 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 atm. 
     In another aspect, the direct fluorinating step occurs for about 10 minutes to 5 hours (e.g., about 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270, or 300 minutes or some range therebetween). 
     In yet another aspect, during the direct fluorinating step, the first major surface is protected by contacting the first major surface with a first protective layer and the second major surface is protected by contacting the second major surface with a second protective layer such that the porous carbon substrate is sandwiched between the first protective layer and the second protective layer. 
     In another aspect, during the direct fluorinating step, the protective layer(s) are comprised of the same material comprising the porous carbon substrate. The protective layers may also be comprised of a different material, provided that protective layers are capable of contacting substantially all of the first or second major surfaces and are gas permeable. Theoretically, any porous materials that can withstand the temperature and fluorination environment, like porous glass, quartz, or Teflon, may be used. 
     In an alternative embodiment, the major surface(s) of the porous carbon substrate are not protected during the direct fluorination step. Thus, during the direct fluorination process, the outer carbon atomic layer of the carbon fibers are fluorinated. In this embodiment, the outer carbon atomic layers of the carbon fibers forming at least one of first and second major surfaces (preferably both surfaces) are removed such that the interior of the gas diffusion device is fluorinated and at least one major surface (preferably both major surfaces) is not substantially fluorinated. The removing step may be performed by physical or chemical methods, for example sanding, physical plasma etching with an argon plasma, or reactive ion etching. 
     In another aspect, the gas diffusion layer may be comprised of a single layer of material or a plurality of layers. In one aspect, the gas diffusion layer is a bilayer comprising a macroporous substrate and a microporous substrate. For example, the gas diffusion layer may comprise a macroporous carbon substrate adjacent to a microporous carbon substrate (which is typically comprised of carbon powder mixed with polytetrafluoroethylene (“PTFE”)). The gas diffusion bilayer may be directly fluorinated using the methods discussed herein (e.g., a sandwich method or physical/chemical removal of the outer carbon atomic layers, such as by sanding). In such an embodiment, the gas diffusion layer is a bilayer having a first major surface comprised of the microporous carbon substrate and a second major surface comprised of the macroporous carbon substrate which is positioned opposite to the first major surface and having an interior between the first and second major surfaces. The gas diffusion layer comprises a porous carbon substrate which is directly fluorinated in the interior and is substantially free of fluorination on at least one of the first major surfaces or second major surfaces. In another aspect, at least 50 percent of the surface area of the major surface of the microporous carbon substrate that is designed to be in contact with the catalyst layer is not fluorinated. For example, at least about 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 92, 94, 96, 98, or 100% (or some range therebetween) of the surface area of the major surface of the microporous layer is not fluorinated. As another example, at least about 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 92, 94, 96, 98, or 100% (or some range therebetween) of the surface area of both major surfaces (macroporous and microporous substrates) is not fluorinated. 
     Additional aspects of the invention, together with the advantages and novel features appurtenant thereto, will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of the following, or may be learned from the practice of the invention. The objects and advantages of the invention may be realized and attained by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a cross-sectional view of an internal structure of a typical proton exchange membrane fuel cell (“PEMFC”). 
         FIG. 2  illustrates the three-layer sandwich and one-layer setup for making the gas diffusion layer of the present invention. 
         FIG. 3  is a schematic view, illustrating the experimental apparatus used to make the gas diffusion layer of the present invention using direct fluorination. 
         FIG. 4  is a photograph of the sandwich apparatus used to make the gas diffusion layer of the present invention using direct fluorination. 
         FIG. 5  are photographs illustrating the contact angle of the gas diffusion layer of the present invention. A higher contact angle generally means higher hydrophobicity. 
         FIG. 6  shows the contact angle as a function of treatment temperature. The first number shown is the treatment temperature and the second number is the water droplet contact angle. 
         FIG. 7  shows the EDX results of a gas diffusion layer of the present invention using material which has been crushed for analysis. 
         FIG. 8  illustrates an experimental set up for measuring the capillary pressure of the gas diffusion layer of the present invention. 
         FIG. 9  is an SEM of a gas diffusion layer comprising a bilayer of a macroporous carbon substrate and a microporous carbon substrate that has been fluorinated in accordance with the present invention. 
         FIG. 10  illustrates the test results of two fuel cells in which the one is made of a commercial bilayer gas diffusion material and that the other is made of a directly fluorinated bilayer gas diffusion material in accordance with the present invention. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENT 
     A fuel cell is basically a generator apparatus that uses the reverse reaction of the water electrolysis to convert chemical energy into electric energy. Since the fuel cell has the advantages of low operation temperature, quick start, high energy density, low pollution, and a wide range of applications, the fuel cell has a high commercial value. It has become a successively developed and promoted technology all over the world. The commonly seen fuel cell includes the phosphoric acid fuel cell, direct methanol fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell, solid oxide fuel cell, and proton exchange membrane fuel cell. 
       FIG. 1  is a cross-sectional view of an internal structure of a typical proton exchange membrane fuel cell (“PEMFC”). As shown in  FIG. 1 , the PEMFC mainly includes a proton exchange membrane  100 , catalyst layers  102 , gas diffusion layers  104 , and bipolar plates  106 . During the PEMFC operation, the oxidation reaction of H2 is taking place at the anode  110 , and the reduction reaction of O2 is taking place at the cathode  112 . The reactant gas H2 at the anode  110  is decomposed into hydrogen ions (H+) and electrons (e−) in the presence of a catalyst. The electrons (e−) escape from the anode  110 , flow through the cell external circuit  114  and load  115 , then reach the cathode  112 . Meanwhile, the hydrogen ions (H+) are transferred from the anode  110  to the cathode  112  through the proton exchange membrane  100 . The hydrogen ions (H+) and the electrons (e−) combine with the oxygen molecules (O2) at the cathode  112  to produce water (H2O). 
     During the fuel cell reaction, the H2O molecules will be continuously transferred from the anode  110  to the cathode  112  by electroosmotic drag. If the water cannot be supplied at adequate amount to the anode, the proton exchange membrane  100  will become excessively dry, the H+ conducting capability of the membrane will be reduced, and the power output of the fuel cell will be significantly reduced. Meanwhile, a great amount of water (H2O) will be produced by the oxygen reduction reaction (“ORR”) at the cathode  112 . If the water transferred from the anode to the cathode by electroosmotic drag and produced by ORR cannot be adequately discharged from the cell, the catalyst layer  102  and the gas diffusion layer  104  at the cathode  112  will be flooded with water. The gas diffusion layer filled with water becomes a diffusion barrier of oxygen. It retards the oxygen getting into the catalyst layer and the cell output power is significantly reduced. Therefore, controlling and maintaining the water balance in the cathode  112  and the anode  110  and keeping the gas transferring freely inside the electrodes, are critical for maintaining the performance of the PEMFC at its optimal condition. 
     The gas diffusion layer  104  is located between the catalyst layer  102  and the gas flow path. At the catalytic sites on each electrode, it is the gas diffusion layer  104  that provides both a path of electrical conduction and passage for reactants and products, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and water. That is, the gas diffusion layer is required to have high reaction gas permeability, high water permeability, and high electron conductivity. 
     The gas diffusion layer  104  must be porous in nature. The word porous generally refers to the volume of interstices of a material relative to the volume of the mass of the material. Porosity effects the state of permeability of a material, that is the property of a porous material that is the measure of the amount (rate or volume) at which a fluid (liquid or gas) passes through a unit of cross-section of material at a given viscosity, under a unit of gradient pressure. Therefore, at fixed gradient pressure, and viscosity, the permeability of a given material is directly related to its porosity. For purposes of this application, therefore, the terms porosity and permeability may be used interchangeably with the understanding that an increase in porosity (interstitial volume) will normally result in an increase in permeability, and vice versa. 
     Any suitable gas diffusion layer material may be used in the practice of the present invention. Typically the gas diffusion layer is comprised of sheet or roll good material comprising carbon fibers. Typically, the gas diffusion layer is a carbon fiber construction selected from woven and non-woven carbon fiber constructions. Carbon fiber constructions which may be useful in the practice of the present invention may include: Toray™ Carbon Paper, SpectraCarb™ Carbon Paper, Zoltek™ Carbon Cloth, AvCarb™ P50 carbon fiber paper, and the like. The gas diffusion layer may be provided in sheets, as a roll good, or in any suitable form. 
     As shown in  FIGS. 1 and 2 , the gas diffusion layer  104  has a first major surface  140  and an opposite second major surface  150 . The thickness of the gas diffusion layer is typically between about 10 and 500 microns, more preferably between about 30 and 300 microns (e.g., about 30, 50, 70, 100, 130, 150, 200, 250, or 300 microns). 
     In order to prevent the gas diffusion layer from becoming flooded with liquid water in the present invention, the gas diffusion layer material is made more hydrophobic by direct fluorination. However, it has been shown that fluorination increases the ohmic resistance of carbon materials, mainly due to the C—F product on the surface (see Table 1). Thus, if the surface of the gas diffusion layer is in contact with other components like the catalyst layers and flow distributor plates, the resistive C—F surface may lead to higher ohmic resistance in the cell and poorer performance. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Electronic conductivity of different graphite fluorides 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Starting 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Composition 
                 graphite 
                 CF (HT) 
                 CF 0.8 I 0.02   
                 CF 0.65 I 0.05   
                 CF 0.52 I 0.06   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Electrical 
                 360 
                 &lt;10 −12   
                 ~10 −7   
                 ~10 −6   
                 ~10 −1   
               
               
                 conductivity 
               
               
                 σ: Ω −1 cm −1   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Note: 
               
               
                 HT denotes high temperature. 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     In the present invention, the conductivity of the gas diffusion layer  104  is maintained because at least one of the first major surface  140  and the second major surface  150  is substantially free of fluorination. As used therein, the term “substantially free” means that at least 50 percent of the surface area of the major surfaces (e.g., the surface  140  designed to be in contact with the catalyst layer) is not fluorinated. For example, at least about 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 92, 94, 96, 98, or 100% of the surface area of the major surface (e.g., the surface  140  that is designed to be in contact with the catalyst layer) is not fluorinated. Most preferably, both major surfaces  140 ,  150  of the gas diffusion layer  104  are substantially free of fluorination. The degree to which the major surfaces  140 ,  150  of the gas diffusion layer  104  are fluorinated may be the same or different. 
     In one aspect, the first and/or second major surfaces  140 ,  150  of the gas diffusion layer  104  are protected from direct fluorination during the fluorination process. The surfaces may be protected by contacting the surface with a protective layer during the fluorination process. In an exemplary aspect, the first and second major surfaces  140 ,  150  are protected by sandwiching the gas diffusion layer  104  between two protective layers  160 ,  170  as generally shown in  FIG. 2  (left panel). In a preferred aspect, the protective layers are comprised of the same material used to form the gas diffusion layer  104 . That is, the gas diffusion layer  104  is sandwiched between two protective porous carbon substrates  160 ,  170 . In one aspect, the contact involves a compressive force, although that is not required. The porous protective gas diffusion layers  160 ,  170  on the top and bottom of the gas diffusion layer  104  permit the fluorine gas to penetrate and react with the gas diffusion layer  104  in the middle while protecting its outside major surfaces  140 ,  150 . The fluorination may be performed in either a batch or continuous process. In a continuous process, the protective layers  160 ,  170  continuously contact the gas diffusion layer  104 , and may be under compression. 
     In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a one-layer method for forming the gas diffusion layer. In this method, the gas diffusion layer  104  is directly fluorinated by exposure to fluorine gas, as generally shown in  FIG. 2  (right panel). In general, the gas diffusion layer  104  is typically comprised of carbon fibers having tens of thousands of carbon atomic layers (i.e., typically micron-sized carbon fibers). Direct fluorination results in a C—F covalent bond at the top atomic layer of the carbon atoms (i.e., the internal carbons of the carbon fiber are not fluorinated). If this upper/top atomic C—F layer is removed, the underlying carbon substrate of the carbon fibers may be exposed. Thus, in this embodiment, the fluorinated outside major surfaces  140 ,  150  of the gas diffusion layer  104  are removed by a physical or chemical method, for example by sanding, physical plasma etching, or chemical reactive ion etching. Physical etching is typically done using an argon plasma. The energetic argon atoms in the plasma remove both the fluorine and carbon atoms on the upper/top atomic C—F layer. The extent of the removal will depend upon the power level and the duration of the etching, and can be readily determined by one skilled in the art. Likewise, chemical reaction ion etching uses plasma and reactive gases like SF6 which can etch the upper/top atomic C—F layer by both physical etching and by reacting with the surface to from a gaseous product. Thus, in one aspect, the upper/top C—F layer is removed by an etching method selected from the group consisting of ion etching, ion beam etching, reactive ion etching, reactive ion beam etching, and combinations thereof. The plasma excitation can for example be performed by supplying microwave electric power, radio frequency electric power, or DC electric power. 
     The one-layer approach may be used as a batch or continuous process in which there can be two stages. In the first stage, the porous gas diffusion materials  104  can be fed continuously from a roll into a direct fluorinating reactor chamber. After the material comes out of the first stage, it can be fed continuously into the second stage in which the C—F layers of the outer major surfaces  140 ,  150  can be removed. This alternative method may be more economical than the sandwich approach, which is generally more suitable for batch processes. 
     EXAMPLE 1 
     Experimental Setup: 
     Pure fluorine gas (F2) was used to react with the gas diffusion layers at temperatures ranging from 400° C. to 550° C. A schematic view of the experimental setup is shown in  FIG. 3 . The fluorine gas 10 (preferably about 85% argon and 15% fluorine) is introduced into a temperature-controlled nickel reactor 20 at about 1 atm. Prior to and following the fluorination, sufficient nitrogen is supplied as purge gas to flush the air and fluorine out of the nickel reactor. To prevent corrosion of the thermocouple, nickel coated thermocouples are used. Two three-way valves  30  are used to select the flowing gas at different stages of the experiment. A mass flow controller controls the fluorine flow rate. Nickel is preferably used for all parts in contact with fluorine at high temperatures. Other parts of the connections under ambient temperature can be stainless steel. Monel is inert in fluorine below 550° C. 
     Fluorination is preferably carried out at temperatures above about 350° C., for example about 400° C., 450° C., 500° C., and 550° C. and pressures of about 1 to 5 atm. 
     Bubbling the exhaust gas through sodium hydroxide solution  40  before it is released into the air captures the un-reacted fluorine gas, by which the highly toxic gas is fully absorbed. The sodium hydroxide solution reacts with fluorine according to the following reactions:
 
2F 2 +2NaOH→OF 2 +2NaF+H 2 O
 
Oxygen difluoride slowly reacts with water to form fluoric acid:
 
OF 2 (aq)+H 2 O(aq)→2HF(aq)+O 2 (g)
 
In a basic solution, the fluoric acid is immediately neutralized by the sodium hydroxide.
 
HF+NaOH→NaF+H 2 O
 
Thus, the overall reaction may be rewritten as:
 
2F 2 +4NaOH→4NaF+2H 2 O+O 2  
 
In this way, the sodium hydroxide prevents the corrosive fluorine gas from being emitted directly into the air. Alternatively, a closed fluorine recirculation loop (i.e., essentially a semi-batch process) could be used to eliminate fluorine emission during operation, and effluent treatment is only needed at the beginning and at the end of the experiment when the gas in the reactor is purged.
 
     Experimental Procedure: 
     Direct fluorination is carried out according to the following steps: (1) Flush the nickel reactor with an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen or argon) for about one hour to replace the air in the reacting chamber; (2) Raise the oven temperature to desired value (typically about 300 to 450° C.) until stabilized while continuously flowing the nitrogen to the nickel reactor; (3) Flow fluorine gas into the nickel reactor for about one to three hours to fluorinate the gas diffusion layer in the reactor, and stop heating the nickel reactor when the fluorination reaction is completed; (4) Turn off heater and allow the reactor to cool to room temperature; (5) Switch to the inert gas (e.g., nitrogen or argon) to flush the remaining fluorine from the reactor; and (6) Allow to cool to room temperature before removing the gas diffusion layer from the oven and disassembled to remove the samples. 
     An exemplary three-layer gas diffusion sandwich apparatus  50  is illustrated in  FIG. 4 . The gas diffusion layer is placed between two stainless steel plates  60 ,  62  with slots or openings  66  machined into the plates to distribute the fluorine gas. The edges are sealed with a copper gasket  68 . 
     Gas Diffusion Layers: 
     Commercially available gas diffusion layers with different properties from two different companies (SGL and Toray) will be used in the experiment. See Table 2. These gas diffusion layers are often used in PEM fuel cells. The gas diffusion layer with 0% PTFE will be treated with direct fluorination to validate the hypothesis that making a porous medium hydrophobic by modifying its surface property will cause the capillary pressure (defined here to be the gas pressure, P gas , minus the liquid pressure, P liquid ) to move downward, as compared to moving leftward when it is treated by the pore-filling physical coating method. It will also allow the quantifying separately the effect of the surface treatment on the capillary pressure curve. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Gas diffusion layers to be evaluated in the experiment 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Thickness 
                   
                 PTFE 
               
               
                   
                 Company 
                 GDLs 
                 (μm) 
                 Porosity 
                 (wt. %) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 SGL Group a   
                 24 AA 
                 200 
                 0.84 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                   
                 24 BA 
                 200 
                 0.84 
                 5 
               
               
                   
                   
                 24 CA 
                 200 
                 0.84 
                 10 
               
               
                   
                   
                 24 DA 
                 200 
                 0.84 
                 20 
               
               
                   
                   
                 24 DC* 
                 200 
                 0.84 
                 20 
               
               
                   
                   
                 24 EA 
                 200 
                 0.84 
                 30 
               
               
                   
                   
                 24 EC* 
                 200 
                 0.84 
                 30 
               
               
                   
                 Toray b   
                 TGP-H-060 
                 190 
                 0.8 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                   
                 TGP-H-060 
                 190 
                 0.8 
                 10 
               
               
                   
                   
                 TGP-H-060 
                 190 
                 0.8 
                 20 
               
               
                   
                   
                 TGP-H-060 
                 190 
                 0.8 
                 30 
               
               
                   
                   
                 TGP-H-060 
                 190 
                 0.8 
                 40 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   a From SGL Group product data sheets. 
               
               
                   
                   b From Toray Industries, Inc. product data sheets. 
               
               
                   
                 *With microporous layer (MPL) on one side 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Characterization Methods: 
     Contact Angles 
     The gas diffusion layers were tested by measuring its outer hydrophobicity using the water contact angle formed between a liquid water droplet and the treated sample outer surface. High hydrophobicity is represented by high contact angle as shown in  FIG. 5 . The temperature and time that result in the highest contact angle (highest hydrophobicity) are selected. While this test cannot measure the hydrophobicity or contact angle inside the sample, the method is suitable because since all exposed carbon surface reacts with fluorine the inner exposed carbon surface should have the same property as the exposed outer surface. 
     As shown in  FIG. 6 , from the contact angle results obtained at different temperatures and reaction times, the optimal temperature range and time for the fluorine gas composition and pressure used was determined to be about 350 to 400° C. and about one hour. While shorter or longer times are possible, a one hour reaction time is currently selected to ensure all exposed carbon surfaces are fluorinated. 
     SEM 
     Gas diffusion layers with physical coating will be cross-sectioned and examined by SEM to determine the distribution characteristics of the PTFE phase in the porous structures. Of special interest is the interconnectivity and continuity of the PTFE phase needed for optimal gas transport. After fluorination, the surface structure of carbon substrate will be examined by SEM to determine the coating characteristics. Note that the carbon fibers in the gas diffusion media (“GDM”), are in the order of tens of micrometers making their surface easily observable by high resolution SEM. 
     As shown in  FIG. 7 , SEM and EDX (Energy Dispersion X-Ray Spectroscopy) were used to analyze the samples to see whether there were any physical changes in the surface and fluorine on the carbon surface that could be detected. The results show that direct fluorination does not change the physical dimensions or shape of the materials. Since the amount of fluorine is quite small, one fluorine atom per carbon on the surface of the carbon fibers which is a tiny fraction of the total carbon in the material, it is not detectable by EDX. However, as shown in the Table 3 below, when the material is crushed to expose the surface inside the substrate the amount of fluorine in the sample is detectable. However, the amount is very small, about 0.2 atomic percent. 
                     TABLE 3                  Elemental Analogs of GDL       (inventive)                                 Elements   Wt %   At %                                             C   98.05   98.56           O   01.63   01.23           F   00.33   00.21                        
For comparison, the results of a commercially PTFE treated carbon gas diffusion material are shown in Table 4 below. Note that amount of fluorine is as much as 25 atomic-percent or 35 weight-percent in this material.
 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Elemental Analogs of GDL 
               
               
                 (prior art) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Elements 
                 Wt % 
                 At % 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 C 
                 64.95 
                 74.56 
               
               
                   
                 F 
                 35.05 
                 25.44 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Porosity and Pore Size Distribution 
     The porosity and pore size distribution of the physically treated, chemically treated, and physically and chemically treated GDM will be measured by mercury intrusion porosimetry. Although mercury is non-wetting to carbon fibers, it penetrates into the porous GDM when pressure is applied. Pore size information may be extracted from the capillary data using the Young-Laplace equation: 
             r   =       2   ⁢     σ     Hg   ⁢     -     ⁢   Air       ⁢   cos   ⁢           ⁢     θ     Hg   ⁢     -     ⁢   Air           p     c   ,     Hg   ⁢     -     ⁢   Air                 
where r is the pore radius, σ Hg-Air  the surface tension of the mercury-air interface, θ Hg-Air  the contact angle of mercury on the carbon graphite, and p c,Hg-Air  the capillary pressure, respectively. This technique will give the total porosity of the sample. A schematic for performing this test is shown in  FIG. 8 .
 
     To get the hydrophilic porosity, water porosimetry, which is very similar to the method used for capillary pressure curve measurement, can be used. In this technique, water instead of mercury is used as the intrusion fluid. Once the hydrophilic porosity is known, the hydrophobic porosity may be calculated by ε phobic =ε total −ε philic . 
     Neutron Imaging 
     Neutron imaging will also be used during hydrophilic porosity and capillary pressure measurements to elucidate how water imbibes and drains from these samples and whether continuous gas pathways were created in the samples by the hydrophobic phase. Note that since neutron penetrates carbon and PTFE but not water one would be able to see continuous gas channels from the region unoccupied by liquid water. The neutron imaging facility at NIST is capable of carrying out the task described here. 
     Spectroscopy Analysis 
     Various spectroscopy techniques can be used to analyze the fluorinated carbon materials. These include infrared, Fourier-transform infrared, electron spin resonance, X-ray photoelectron, and Raman spectroscopy. Due to the nature of the sample, we will attempt to apply two major techniques: X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (“XPS”) and laser Raman spectroscopy (“RS”). 
     X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, also known as electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (“ESCA”), is an ultra-high-vacuum (“UHV”) technique for surface chemical compositions analysis. With XPS, it is possible to identify the nature and the amount of fluorine containing groups attached to the surface of the carbon substrates (carbon fibers in GDL) because of the fluorination processes. The fluorine content in the GDL can be calculated based on the difference in weight before and after fluorination. However, this fluorine content is actually the ratio of fluorine to total carbon, which may depart significantly from the surface composite. The XPS result will directly reveal the surface elemental and chemical information of the coating. The fluorine to carbon ratios could be obtained by integrating the intensities of XPS C 1s and F 1s features. XPS spectra for a carbon sample before and after treatment by direct fluorination shown in  FIG. 8  clearly illustrate the formation of the CF species on the carbon surface. The F/C ratio could be determined by the areas covered by F 1s and C 1s peaks. Assuming the fluorine species are chemically bonded to carbon, this will change the energy of the core electrons of the bonded carbon, resulting in a chemical shift. For example, chemical shifts of 4.7, 6.7, and 9.0 eV of C 1s peak (about 285 eV) can be attributed to the surface group of CF, CF 2 , and CF 3 , respectively. With the current state of the art XPS system, an energy resolution of 0.5 eV can be achieved. High resolution XPS spectra will be collected to investigate the chemical nature of carbon fluorine bond. 
     Raman Spectroscopy (“RS”) is an increasingly popular analytical technique because extensive sample preparation and high vacuum environment are not required. A Raman spectrum can also be used to identify the surface functional groups of the carbon materials. Typically, two classical bands, D mode (disorder) and G mode (graphite), result from defects on the carbon and the carbon-carbon stretching mode. The ratio (“R”) of the intensities of the D band to that of the G band represents the structure and the degree of disorder of the carbon surface. For fluorinated carbon materials, R increases with the fluorination temperature, which directly correlates with the extent of fluorine compound formation on the carbon surface. For the un-treated carbon nano fibers (“CNFs”), the defects come mainly from the disordered edges of the nanotubes, which have a very small R ratio (small I D /I G ). 
     Raman analysis for most material-of-interest is relatively easy and straightforward, requiring almost zero sample preparation. However, in the practical Raman analysis of fine carbon powders and carbon fibers, sample burning is a major concern. This is because the fine carbon materials exposed under a focused laser spot for extended period of time will tend to heat up and burn. Laser attenuation and forced sample cooling will be applied if necessary to circumvent this issue. 
     Fuel Cell Performance &amp; Water Transport Across the Membrane 
     Electrodes with a catalyst loading of about 0.3-0.5 mg/cm 2  will be made using GDM that were physically treated, chemically treated, and both physically and chemically treated. To prepare a membrane electrolyte assembly (“MEA”) the electrodes will be hot-pressed onto a Nafion® 112 membrane (1100 equivalent weight &amp; 2 mil thickness) at 135° C. for 5 minutes with a pressure of 33 lb/cm 2 . The MEA will be tested in a fuel cell with serpentine flow fields 60° C. with hydrogen and air fully humidified at high stoichiometric flow rates to 1) magnify the liquid water flooding effect and 2) minimize the effect of variation in the gas relative humidity along the flow channels. 
     To determine the effectiveness of the liquid water pressure generation capability of the modified gas diffusion materials at the cathode on the back transport rate of water from the cathode to the anode, the water content in the cathode and anode feed streams and effluents will be carefully controlled and accurately measured. Based on the water-balance measurements we can determine the net water transport rate across the membrane. An experimental setup similar to the one used by Karan et al. will be used. 
     GDM (GDL &amp; MPL) Durability 
     Running the fuel cell performance testing continuously for a week or longer could test the durability of the GDMs in fuel cells. However, the fuel cell itself may complicate the problem because the other parts of the fuel cell, particularly the catalyst layer (“CL”), may age over time. Since the capillary pressure curve is probably the most important property of the GDM, this property will be selected as the indicator of the GDM durability. In a PEM fuel cell, the three parameters that have the greatest impacts on the durability of a GDM are temperature, water, and acidity (due to the leaching of the ionic groups from the membrane). To simulate the conditions in a PEM fuel cell and to shorten the testing time, the GDM will be soaked in a 1 M sulfuric acid solution at 80° C. Samples will be removed at some fixed time intervals, washed in DI water, dried, and measured for changes in the capillary pressure property. 
     Safety Issues 
     The fluorine content in the air is controlled because of its toxicity even in trace amounts. In this experiment, the un-reacted fluorine will be consumed by the sodium hydroxide solution. The operation will be carried out in a hood with sufficient venting. Since fluorine is inert to nickel up to 650° C. a nickel reactor will be safe for operational temperatures up to 550° C. Fluorine recirculation will be used during treatment to minimize the use of fluorine and need for fluorine treatment in the effluent. During nitrogen purge, sufficient time will be used to ensure that fluorine is completely removed from the reactor before the reactor is open and samples removed. An experiment will also be conducted to determine the amount and concentration of sodium hydroxide and the residence time of the effluent gas in the scrubber needed to completely treat all the fluorine gas. 
     EXAMPLE 2 
     Those skilled in the art will appreciate that a gas diffusion layer may be comprised of a dense hydrophobic microporous layer added to the surface of the macroporous layer. The microporous layer is in contact with the catalyst layer in order to keep the CL/GDL interface free of liquid water and/or create a high capillary pressure boundary to drive liquid water back to the anode. As with the macroporous layer, the microporous layer is conventionally made wet-proof by adding PTFE. However, the microporous is conventionally made differently from the macroporous layer. While the macroporous layer is made of carbon fibers, which is later made wet-proof by coating the carbon fibers with PTFE, the microporous layer is made of carbon powder mixed with PTFE. The PTFE phase in the micro-porous layer is used both as a binder and as a wet-proofing material. In this approach, complete carbon surface coverage with PTFE is not possible because it will render this layer non-electrically conductive. 
     In this example, the gas diffusion layer was a bilayer comprising a macroporous substrate  104   a  and a microporous substrate  104   b  as shown in  FIG. 9 . More specifically, the gas diffusion layer comprised an untreated macroporous carbon substrate adjacent a microporous carbon substrate comprised of carbon powder mixed with PTFE commercially available from SGL Carbon (Product No. SGL 35AC). The mean pore size for the macroporous layer was about 15 to 30 microns, and the mean pore size for the microporous layer was about 1-3 microns. The gas diffusion bilayer was directly fluorinated at about 350 to 450° C. using the methods discussed herein. The F2-treated bilayer was then placed on a high grade sandpaper (grade 1500) and lightly rotated a few times over the sandpaper. This sanding step was repeated for the other side of the gas diffusion bilayer. The major surfaces were then wiped with isopropanol to clean the surfaces. The resulting gas diffusion layer was thus a bilayer having a first major surface comprised of the microporous carbon substrate and a second major surface comprised of the macroporous carbon substrate. The gas diffusion layer was directly fluorinated in the interior and was substantially free of fluorination on the first major surfaces and second major surfaces. 
     Test results for two fuel cells in which the cathode in one is made of a commercial bilayer gas diffusion material and that in the other is made of directly fluorinated bilayer gas diffusion material are shown in  FIG. 10 . The commercial bilayer material consisted of a macroporous layer treated by the conventional PTFE coating process and a microporous layer consisting of a mixture of carbon powder and PTFE. The commercial bilayer was obtained from SGL Carbon (Product No. SGL 35BC). The results show that the fuel cell that had the cathode made of direct fluorination bilayer gas diffusion material delivered much better performance (more than 50% higher peak power) than that with conventional material. 
     All publications, patents, patent applications, databases, and other references cited in this application are incorporated by reference in their entirety as if each individual publication, patent, patent application, database, or other reference were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.
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     From the foregoing it will be seen that this invention is one well adapted to attain all ends and objectives herein-above set forth, together with the other advantages which are obvious and which are inherent to the invention. Since many possible embodiments may be made of the invention without departing from the scope thereof, it is to be understood that all matters herein set forth or shown in the accompanying drawings are to be interpreted as illustrative, and not in a limiting sense. While specific embodiments have been shown and discussed, various modifications may of course be made, and the invention is not limited to the specific forms or arrangement of parts and steps described herein, except insofar as such limitations are included in the following claims. Further, it will be understood that certain features and subcombinations are of utility and may be employed without reference to other features and subcombinations. This is contemplated by and is within the scope of the claims.