Patent Publication Number: US-2021171369-A1

Title: Methods of removing contaminants from a solution,  and related systems

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/944,176, pending, filed Dec. 5, 2019, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein in its entirety by this reference. 
    
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
     This invention was made with government support under Contract Number DE-AC07-05-1D14517 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     Embodiments of the disclosure relate generally to systems and methods of removing contaminants from a solution. More particularly, embodiments of the disclosure relate to methods of removing contaminants, such as ammonia, from a solution, such as wastewater, brine, or seawater, using a flowing electrode capacitive deionization system, and to related systems for removing the contaminants from a solution. 
     BACKGROUND 
     As the global population continues to increase and as human activity continues to emit pollution that affects water quality across the globe, the shortage of freshwater is an ever increasing concern. One mode of generating freshwater is the desalination of seawater or other brackish salt-containing water. Current methods of water desalination include, among other methods, distillation, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, stripping, and membrane purification. Due to the large volumes of water that are generally desired, low cost and low capital expense for water purification are of importance. 
     In addition to salt, water may be contaminated with other materials, such as ammonia, heavy metals, and other contaminants. For example, wastewater treatment facilities, steel production facilities, and industrial wastewaters, such as wastewater from oil refineries and sludge digesters, include water streams that are contaminated with ammonia. Other sources of contaminated water include agricultural runoff, which may be contaminated with ammonia absorbed from fertilizers. Other sources of ammonia contamination in water include landfill leachate. Methods of removing ammonia from wastewater include, among other methods, anaerobic-aerobic treatment of ammonia, biological nitrification and denitrification processes, chemical precipitation, ammonia stripping, evaporation of ammonia, and electrodeionization (EDI). However, methods of anaerobic-aerobic treatment of ammonia and ammonia stripping processes require significant amounts of energy. In addition, anaerobic methods of ammonia removal may only be suitable for effluents with low ammonia concentrations and often require addition of external carbon sources, such as when the ammonia containing-wastewater has a low ratio of chemical oxygen demand to nitrogen content (COD/N). Biological nitrification processes are slow and do not facilitate the recovery of the embedded ammonia. 
     Other methods of removal of contaminants from water include capacitive deionization (CDI). In the CDI process, solutions to be purified are passed through a cell that includes stationary electrodes configured to adsorb ions from the solution by the application of an electric potential between the stationary electrodes. Electrode materials for CDI systems include carbon-based materials, such as activated carbon, carbon aerogels, mesoporous carbon, and graphene. The electrode materials are generally coated over a substrate. Once the electrodes become saturated with ions from the solution, the ionic impurities adsorbed onto the electrodes must be stripped from the electrodes. This is generally accomplished by flushing the electrodes with a stripping solution and reversing the polarity of the CDI cell, which reverses the ionic flow (pushes the adsorbed ions away from the electrode surfaces) and displaces the adsorbed ions. However, changing the solution in the CDI cell may lead to cross contamination between the solution from which impurities are to be removed and the stripping solution. In addition, switching between the solution to be purified and the stripping solution reduces the throughput of the CDI cell since the adsorption of the ionic contaminants and the regeneration of the electrodes take place in the same cell and are mutually exclusive processes. 
     BRIEF SUMMARY 
     Embodiments disclosed herein include methods of removing contaminants from a solution, and related systems. For example, in accordance with one embodiment, a method of removing contaminants from a solution comprises passing a solution including one or more contaminants through a first cell comprising a first anode chamber and a first cathode chamber, passing a slurry comprising a flowing electrode material through the first anode chamber and the first cathode chamber while applying an electric potential between the first anode chamber and the first cathode chamber to transport anions from the solution to the first anode chamber and to transport cations from the solution to the first cathode chamber and remove the one or more contaminants from the solution, the flowing electrode material comprising a MXene material, wherein M is a metal and X is one or both of carbon and nitrogen, and passing the slurry through a second cell to desorb the anions and cations from the flowing electrode material. 
     Additional embodiments are directed to a system for removing one or more contaminants from a solution comprising a first cell comprising a first anode chamber electrically coupled to a first cathode chamber, a flow channel between the first anode chamber and the first cathode chamber, a second cell comprising a second anode chamber and a second cathode chamber, a first electrode flow circuit comprising a flowing electrode material comprising a MXene material connecting the first anode chamber and the second cathode chamber, wherein M is a metal and X is one or both of carbon and nitrogen, and a second electrode flow circuit comprising the flowing electrode material connecting the first cathode chamber to the second anode chamber. 
     In accordance with additional embodiments of the disclosure, a method of removing contaminants from a solution comprises flowing a solution including contaminants therein through a first flow channel between a first pair of electrodes in a first cell, flowing a slurry comprising a flowing electrode material comprising particles of a two dimensional material through the first pair of electrodes to adsorb the contaminants from the solution onto the flowing electrode material, and flowing the slurry through a second flow channel between a second pair of electrodes in a second cell to regenerate the flowing electrode material. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a simplified schematic of a system for purifying a solution, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure; 
         FIG. 2  is a graph illustrating the removal efficiency of a flowing electrode material comprising Ti 3 C 2 T x  compared to the removal efficiency of a flowing electrode material comprising activated carbon; and 
         FIG. 3  is a graph illustrating the removal efficiency of the flowing electrode comprising Ti 3 C 2 T x  compared to the removal efficiency of the flowing electrode material comprising activated carbon over several cycles. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Illustrations presented herein are not meant to be actual views of any particular material, component, or system, but are merely idealized representations that are employed to describe embodiments of the disclosure. 
     The following description provides specific details, such as material types, dimensions, and processing conditions in order to provide a thorough description of embodiments of the disclosure. However, a person of ordinary skill in the art will understand that the embodiments of the disclosure may be practiced without employing these specific details. Indeed, the embodiments of the disclosure may be practiced in conjunction with conventional fabrication techniques employed in the industry. In addition, the description provided below does not form a complete process flow, system, or method for removing contaminants from a material. Only those process acts and structures necessary to understand the embodiments of the disclosure are described in detail below. Additional acts to remove contaminants from a material may be performed by conventional techniques. Further, any drawings accompanying the present application are for illustrative purposes only and, thus, are not drawn to scale. Additionally, elements common between figures may retain the same numerical designation. 
     According to embodiments described herein, a method of removing one or more contaminants (impurities) from a solution includes flowing the solution through a flowing electrode capacitive deionization (FE-CDI) system. In some embodiments, the system comprises a dual cell capacitive deionization system. The system includes a first cell separated from a second cell, the first cell including a first flow channel between a first anode chamber and a first cathode chamber and the second cell including a second flow channel between a second anode chamber and a second cathode chamber. A first anion exchange membrane may be between the first anode chamber and the first flow channel and a first cation exchange membrane may be between the first cathode chamber and the first flow channel. A second cation exchange membrane is between the second anode chamber and the second flow channel and a second anion exchange membrane is between the second cathode chamber and the second flow channel. A first slurry comprising a flowing electrode material dispersed in a solution is circulated in a first flowing electrode circuit connecting the first anode chamber with the second anode chamber. A second slurry comprising the flowing electrode material dispersed in another solution is circulated in a second flowing electrode circuit connecting the first cathode chamber with the second cathode chamber. 
     A solution including one or more impurities is passed through the first cell in the first flow channel while an electric potential is applied between the first anode chamber and the first cathode chamber. As the solution passes through the first flow channel, the first slurry and the second slurry are flowed through the respective first flowing electrode circuit and the second flowing electrode circuit. Responsive to the electric potential, anions and cations within the solution are transferred through the respective anion exchange membrane and cation exchange membrane and adsorbed onto the flowing electrode material in the first cathode chamber and the first anode chamber. As the solution passes through the first flow channel, contaminants are adsorbed therefrom and a purified material is formed. 
     The first slurry in the first flowing electrode circuit and the second slurry in the second flowing electrode circuit are loaded with adsorbed ions in the first cell. Thus, the flowing electrode material of each of the first flowing electrode circuit and the second flowing electrode circuit are loaded with ions of the solution in the first cell. The slurries are flowed to the second cell, where an electric potential is applied between the second anode chamber and the second cathode chamber to desorb the ions from the flowing electrode material of the slurries and regenerate the flowing electrode material prior to circulating back to the first cell. In other words, in the second cell, the loaded flowing electrode material of each of the first flowing electrode circuit and the second flowing electrode circuit loaded is regenerated and the ions are separated from the flowing electrode materials. Accordingly, separation of the first cell from the second cell may facilitate concurrent removal of impurities from the solution to adsorb ions onto the flowing electrode material and regeneration of the loaded flowing electrode material, facilitating continuous operation of the flowing electrode capacitive deionization system. The methods and systems provide advantages over conventional methods of purification. For example, the methods and systems do not require separate cycles for loading the electrode materials with contaminants followed by a separate stripping cycle to regenerate the electrode materials. Rather, the flowing electrode material is loaded with contaminants from the solution concurrently with stripping of the loaded flowing electrode materials in the continuous system. 
       FIG. 1  is a simplified schematic illustrating a system  100  for purifying a solution  102 , in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure. In some embodiments, the system  100  comprises a flowing electrode capacitive deionization system, which may also be referred to as a flow-electrode capacitive deionization (FCDI) (also FE-CDI) system. 
     The solution  102  may comprise an ionic solution, a salt solution, or another solution including one or more contaminants (e.g., heavy metals, such as mercury, cadmium, arsenic, chromium, thallium, lead, antimony, cobalt, nickel, selenium, zinc, tin, copper, or other metals). In some embodiments, the solution  102  comprises ammonia-containing wastewater. For example, the solution  102  may include wastewater from refining operations. In other embodiments, the solution  102  comprises brackish water, such as seawater or a brine solution. 
     The system  100  may comprise a first cell  104  and a second cell  106  fluidly separated from the first cell  104  (except as described below with respect to a first flowing electrode circuit  136  and a second flowing electrode circuit  138 ). The first cell  104  may be referred to herein as an adsorption cell since contaminants within the solution  102  may be adsorbed onto a flowing electrode material. The second cell  106  may be referred to herein as a stripping cell since the adsorbed contaminants on the flowing electrode material may be effectively stripped from the flowing electrode material within the second cell  106 . The solution  102  may flow through a first flow channel  108  within the first cell  104  and one or more contaminants may be removed from the solution  102  as the solution  102  flows through the first flow channel  108  to form a purified material  110 . In some embodiments, the purified material  110  comprises desalinated water or deionized water. By way of nonlimiting example, the purified material  110  may comprise less than about 1 ppm of one or more contaminants (e.g., less than about 1 ppm of salt, ammonia, heavy metals, etc.). 
     The first cell  104  includes a first electrode pair comprising a first cathode chamber  112  and a first anode chamber  114  through which a slurry comprising the flow electrode material (also referred to simply as an electrode) flows. A first cation exchange membrane  118  may be in contact with the first cathode chamber  112  and may be located between the first cathode chamber  112  and the first flow channel  108 . A first anion exchange membrane  120  may be in contact with the first anode chamber  114  and may be located between the first anode chamber  114  and the first flow channel  108 . 
     The first cation exchange membrane  118  may be formulated and configured to transfer cations from the solution  102  in the first flow channel  108  to the first cathode chamber  112  including the flowing electrode material. In some embodiments, the first cation exchange membrane  118  is substantially impermeable to anions. By way of nonlimiting example, the first cation exchange membrane  118  may comprise a tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) material incorporating sulfonate groups, such as Nafion (a sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymer-copolymer) commercially available from Chemours Company of Wilmington, Del. In other embodiments, the first cation exchange membrane  118  comprises a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) reinforced membrane, such as those commercially available under the name of Fumasep® by the Fuel Cell Store of College Station, Tex. However, the disclosure is not so limited and the first cation exchange membrane  118  may comprise materials other than those described above. 
     The first anion exchange membrane  120  may be formulated and configured to transfer anions from the solution  102  in the first flow channel  108  to the first anode chamber  114  including the flowing electrode material. In some embodiments, the first anion exchange membrane  120  is substantially impermeable to cations. By way of nonlimiting example, the first anion exchange membrane  120  may comprise Fumion or Fumasep® FAB or Fumasep® FAAC, commercially available from Fumatech of Bietigheim Bissingen, Germany. However, the disclosure is not so limited and the first anion exchange membrane  120  may comprise materials other than those described above. 
     With continued reference to  FIG. 1 , the second cell  106  may include a second flow chamber  122  through which a stripping solution  124  flows and absorbs ions from the flowing electrode material to regenerate the flowing electrode material and form a concentrated solution  126  including the contaminants removed from the solution  102 . 
     The second cell  106  includes a second electrode pair comprising a second cathode chamber  128  and a second anode chamber  130  through which flow electrode material flows from the first anode chamber  114  and the first cathode chamber  112 , respectively. A second anion exchange membrane  132  may be in contact with the second cathode chamber  128  and a second cation exchange membrane  134  may be in contact with the second anode chamber  130 . The second anion exchange membrane  132  in contact with the second cathode chamber  128  may comprise one or more of the materials described above with reference to the first anion exchange membrane  120 . In some embodiments, the second anion exchange membrane  132  has the same material composition as the first anion exchange membrane  120 . The second cation exchange membrane  134  may comprise one or more of the materials described above with reference to the first cation exchange membrane  118 . In some embodiments, the second cation exchange membrane  134  has the same material composition as the first cation exchange membrane  118 . 
     The system  100  may further include a first flowing electrode circuit  136  and a second flowing electrode circuit  138 . In some embodiments, the first cell  106  is fluidly coupled to the second cell  106  by means of the first flowing electrode circuit  136  and the second flowing electrode circuit  138 , but may otherwise be out of fluid communication with (e.g., fluidly separated from) the second cell  106 . The first flowing electrode circuit  136  may circulate a first slurry including the flowing electrode material from the first cathode chamber  112  of the first cell  104  to the second anode chamber  130  of the second cell  106 . The second flowing electrode circuit  138  may circulate a second slurry including the flowing electrode material from the first anode chamber  114  of the first cell  104  to the second cathode chamber  128  of the second cell  106 . As will be described herein, the flowing electrode material may be loaded with ions in the first cell  104  and may be flowed to the second cell  106  where the adsorbed ions on the flowing electrode material are removed to regenerate the flowing electrode material of each of the first slurry and the second slurry. Accordingly, the only fluid communication between the first flow channel  108  of the first cell  104  and the second flow channel  122  of the second cell  106  may comprise the anions and cations transferred by means of adsorption and desorption from the flowing electrode material. 
     The first slurry and the second slurry may individually comprise a suspension comprising a flowing electrode material suspended in a solution and comprising a two dimensional (2D) material formulated and configured to adsorb one or more contaminants from the solution  102 . The solution may comprise, for example, water. The flowing electrode material may comprise a material formulated and configured to adsorb the anions and cations from the solution  102 . 
     In some embodiments, the flowing electrode material comprises two dimensional transition metal carbides, transition metal nitrides, or transition metal carbonitrides, such as MXene materials, wherein M is a metal and X is one or both of carbon and nitrogen. By way of nonlimiting example, the flowing electrode material may comprise a material having the formula M (n+1) X n  for single metal MXene materials, wherein M is a transition metal and X is carbon or nitrogen. In some embodiments, n is an integer, such as 1, 2, or 3 and the flowing electrode material comprises a material having the formula M 2 X, M 3 X 2 , or M 4 X 3 , respectively. In other embodiments, such as where the flowing electrode comprises a mixed metal MXene material, the flowing electrode material may comprise a material having the formula M′ 2 M″C 2 , M′ 2 M″ 2 C 3 , or M′ 4 M″C 4 , wherein M′ and M″ are different metals, such as transition metals. In some embodiments, the flowing electrode material includes surface terminations, such as one or more of hydroxyl group, oxygen (a double bonded oxygen), chlorine, and fluorine. In some such embodiments, the MXene material may be represented by the general formula M (n+1)  X n T x , M′ 2 M″C 2 T x , M′ 2 M″ 2 C 3 T x , or M′ 4 M″C 4 T x  wherein T is the surface termination group (e.g., ═O, —F, —Cl, —OH). In some embodiments, the MXene material comprises a divacancy MXene material, such as a MXene material with the formula Mo 1.33 CT x  or W 1.33 CT x , wherein T is a surface termination group. In some embodiments, the surface terminations include fluorine and hydroxyl groups. In other embodiments, the surface termination groups comprise one or both of hydroxyl groups and oxygen. 
     In some embodiments, the flowing electrode material includes n+1 layers of the one or more transition metals and n layers of the carbon and/or nitrogen. In some embodiments, a total spacing between neighboring repeating layers of the flowing electrode material (e.g., between a layer of the one or more transition metals and a neighboring layer of the one or more transition metals) may be within a range from about 4 Å to about 10 Å, such as from about 4 Å to about 6 Å, from about 6 Å to about 8 Å, or from about 8 Å to about 10 Å. In some embodiments, the spacing is about 4.40 Å. However, the disclosure is not so limited and the spacing may be different than that described. 
     The transition metal may include, for example, one or more of scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, osmium, or iridium. In some embodiments, the transition metal comprises one or more of titanium, vanadium, chromium, scandium, and niobium. In some embodiments, the transition metal comprises titanium. In other embodiments, the transition metal comprises vanadium. 
     By way of nonlimiting example, the flowing electrode material may comprise one or more of a titanium carbide (Ti 3 C 2 , Ti 2 C), vanadium carbide (V 2 C), chromium carbide (Cr 2 C), scandium carbide (Sc 2 C), or niobium carbide (Nb 2 C). In some embodiments, the flowing electrode material comprises titanium carbide. In other embodiments, the flowing electrode material comprises vanadium carbide. In some embodiments, the flowing electrode material comprises a mixed metal MXene, such as, for example, M′ 2 M″C 2 T x , M′ 2 M″ 2 C 3 T x , or M′ 4 M″C 4 T x . In some embodiments, the flowing electrode material comprises a solid solution MXene material, such as, for example, Ti (2-y) Nb y CT x , Ti (2-y) V y CT x , and V (2-y) Nb y CT x , wherein y is a number between 0 (e.g., about 0.01) and about 2 (e.g., about 1.99), and T x  represents surface termination groups (e.g., ═O, —F, —Cl, —OH). In some embodiments, the flowing electrode material comprises a divacancy MXene material, such as, for example, one or both of Mo 1.33 CT x  and W 1.33 CT x . 
     In some embodiments, the flowing electrode material comprises particles having a substantially plate-like shape. In other words, particles of the flowing electrode material may have (e.g., exhibit) a flake shape. Particles of the flowing electrode material may have a size (e.g., a particle size, such as a Stokes Diameter, as measured by dynamic light scattering or a length and/or width) within a range from about 2 μm to about 50 μm, such as from about 2 μm to about 10 μm, from about 10 μm to about 20 μm, from about 20 μm to about 40 μm, or from about 40 μm to about 50 μm. In some embodiments, the average hydrodynamic diameter of the flowing electrode material may be within a range from about 1.0 μm to about 10.0 μm, such as from about 1.0 μm to about 2.0 μm, from about 2.0 μm to about 5.0 μm, or from about 5.0 μm to about 10.0 μm. In some embodiments, the average hydrodynamic diameter of the flowing electrode material is within a range from about 1.0 μm to about 2.0 μm, such as about 1.2 μm. However, the disclosure is not so limited and the size of the flowing electrode material may be different than those described above. 
     A concentration of the flowing electrode material within the slurry may be within a range from about 0.01 weight percent to about 10.0 weight percent, such as from about 0.01 weight percent to about 0.1 weight percent, from about 0.1 weight percent to about 0.2 weight percent, from about 0.2 weight percent to about 0.5 weight percent, from about 0.5 weight percent to about 1.0 weight percent, from about 1.0 weight percent to about 1.5 weight percent, from about 1.5 weight percent to about 2.0 weight percent, from about 2.0 weight percent to about 5.0 weight percent, or from about 5.0 weight percent to about 10.0 weight percent. In some embodiments, the flowing electrode material within each of the first slurry and the second slurry may constitute from about 0.1 weight percent to about 1.0 weight percent of the respective slurry. However, the disclosure is not so limited and the concentration of the flowing electrode material within the slurries may be different than those described above. 
     In some embodiments, a viscosity of each the first slurry and the second slurry is individually within a range from about 1 centipoise (cP) to about 2.0 cP, such as from about 1.0 cP to about 1.2 cP, from about 1.2 cP to about 1.4 cP, from about 1.4 cP to about 1.6 cP, from about 1.6 cP to about 1.8 cP, or from about 1.8 cP to about 2.0 cP at 25° C. In some embodiments, the viscosity of the first slurry and the second slurry is individually about 1.4 cP at about 25° C. 
     In some embodiments, the flowing electrode material in the first flowing electrode circuit  136  has the same material composition as the flowing electrode material in the second flowing electrode circuit  138 . In other embodiments, the flowing electrode material in the first flowing electrode circuit  136  has a different material composition than the flowing electrode material in the second flowing electrode circuit  138 . 
     In use and operation, the solution  102  including one or more contaminants is introduced into the first flow channel  108 . An electric potential may be applied between the first cathode chamber  112  and the first anode chamber  114  of the first cell  104  to induce movement of cations within the solution  102  toward the first cathode chamber  112  and anions within the solution  102  toward the first anode chamber  114 . For example, responsive to application of the electric potential between the first cathode chamber  112  and the first anode chamber  114 , cations may flow from the solution  102  through the first cation exchange membrane  118  and into the first cathode chamber  112  where they are adsorbed onto surfaces of the flowing electrode material of the first slurry flowing through the first cathode chamber  112 . Concurrently therewith, anions may flow from the solution  102  through the first anion exchange membrane  120  and into the first anode chamber  114  where they are adsorbed onto surfaces of the flowing electrode material of the second slurry flowing through the first anode chamber  114 . 
     The electric potential may be within a range from about 0.5 V to about 2.0, such as from about 0.5 V to about 0.6 V, from about 0.6 V to about 0.8 V, from about 0.8 V to about 1.0 V, from about 1.0 V to about 1.2 V, from about 1.2 V to about 1.5 V, or from about 1.5 V to about 2.0 V. In some embodiments, the electrical potential has a magnitude less than a voltage at which water is electrolyzed, such as less than about 1.23 V. In some embodiments, the electric potential is about 1.2 V. In other embodiments, the kinetic rate of electrolysis of water at voltages greater than about 1.23 V is relatively low and the electric potential may be greater than about 1.23 V. However, the disclosure is not so limited and the electric potential may be different than those described above. 
     In some embodiments, such as where the solution  102  comprises ammonia-containing wastewater, the cations comprise ammonium (NH 4   + ). In other embodiments, such as where the solution  102  comprises heavy metals, the cations include ions of heavy metals. In yet other embodiments, such as where the solution  102  comprises a salt solution (e.g., seawater, brackish water), the cations comprise sodium and the anions comprise chloride. 
     Removal of the anions and cations from the solution  102  may form the purified material  110 . In some embodiments, the purified material  110  comprises less than about 1 ppm of the contaminants of the solution  102 , such as less than 1 ppm of the ions. In some embodiments, the purified material  100  comprises less than about 1 ppm ammonia, less than about 1 ppm salt, or less than about 1 ppm of heavy metals. 
     With continued reference to  FIG. 1 , the flowing electrode material of the first slurry within the first flowing electrode circuit  136  may be loaded with anions as the solution  102  passes through the first flow channel  108 . The first slurry may circulate from the first anode chamber  114  to the second cathode chamber  128  of the second cell  106 . In the second cathode chamber  128 , the anions loaded on the flowing electrode material may transfer through the second anion exchange membrane  132  and into the second flow channel  122  to regenerate the flowing electrode material in the first flowing electrode circuit  136 . In other words, the flowing electrode material may be regenerated as it passes through the second cathode chamber  128  of the second cell  106 . The first slurry comprising the regenerated flowing electrode material may be circulated back to the first cell  102  and proximate the first anode chamber  114  to repeat the process and load the flowing electrode material with the anions passing through the first anion exchange membrane  120  from the first flow channel  108 . 
     The flowing electrode of the second slurry within the second flowing electrode circuit  138  may be loaded with cations as the solution  102  passes through the first flow channel  108 . The second slurry may circulate from the first cathode chamber  112  to the second anode chamber  130  of the second cell  106 . In the second anode chamber  130 , the cations loaded on the flowing electrode material may transfer through the second cation exchange membrane  134  and pass into the second flow channel  122  to regenerate the flowing electrode material in the second flowing electrode circuit  138 . In other words, the flowing electrode material may be regenerated as it passes through the second anode chamber  130  of the second cell  106 . The second slurry comprising the regenerated flowing electrode material may be circulated back to the first cell  102  and proximate the first cathode chamber  112  to repeat the process and load the flowing electrode material with the cations passing through the first cation exchange membrane  118  from the first flow channel  108 . 
     In some embodiments, an electric potential is applied between the second cathode chamber  128  and the second anode chamber  130  of the second cell  106  to drive the respective anions and cations from the flow electrode material to the second flow channel  122 . The electric potential may exhibit an opposite polarity as the electric potential applied between the first anode chamber  112  and the first cathode chamber  114  and the magnitude of the electric potential may be the same as those described above with reference to the electric potential applied between the first anode chamber  112  and the first cathode chamber  114 . In some embodiments, the electric potential between the second cathode chamber  128  and the second anode chamber  130  may have substantially the same magnitude and the opposite polarity as the electric potential applied between the first anode chamber  112  and the first cathode chamber  114 . In some embodiments, the electric potential between the second cathode chamber  128  and the second anode chamber  130  may be within a range from about 0 V to about 1.2 V. In other embodiments, the anions and cations from the loaded flowing electrode material may be removed therefrom spontaneously due to the separation of the anions and the cations in the second cell  106 . Stated another way, the relatively lower concentration of anions and cations in the stripping solution  124  of the second flow chamber  122  relative to the concentration of the anions in the second cathode chamber  128  and the concentration of the cations in the second anode chamber  130  may provide a driving force for transfer of the anions and cations from the respective second cathode chamber  128  and second anode chamber  130 . 
     The anions and cations driven into the second flow channel  122  are removed from the system  100  by the stripping solution  124  to form the concentrated solution  126 . The stripping solution  124  may include any solution into which the anions from the flowing electrode of the second cathode chamber  128  and cations from the flowing electrode of the second anode chamber  130  may be dissolved. In some embodiments, the stripping solution  124  comprises water. In other embodiments, stripping solution includes one or more of an alkali hydroxide (e.g., lithium hydroxide (LiOH), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH,) rubidium hydroxide (RbOH), cesium hydroxide (CsOH)), magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH) 2 ), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2 ), and strontium hydroxide (Sr(OH) 2 ). 
     In some embodiments, the stripping solution  124  comprises water and the concentrated solution  126  comprises ions that were present in the solution  102 . In some embodiments, the concentrated solution  126  comprises concentrated ammonium. In such embodiments, a solution  140  may be mixed with the concentrated solution  126  to remove (e.g., precipitate) the contaminant. In some embodiments, the solution  140  comprises a hydroxide, which reacts with the concentrated solution  126  and forms ammonia. 
     The concentrated solution  126  may include a concentrated amount of dissolved ions that were present in the solution  102 . In some embodiments, the concentrated solution  126  may be used for energy recovery, such as in a fuel cell, conversion into hydrogen gas, or other treatment method. 
     In some embodiments, a flow rate of the solution  102  may be from about 1 time to about 100 times a flow rate of the stripping solution  124 , such as from about 1 time to about 5 times, from about 5 times to about 10 times, from about 10 times to about 25 times, from about 25 times to about 50 times, from about 50 times to about 75 times, or from about 75 times to about 100 times the flow rate of the stripping solution  124 . 
     The system  100  may facilitate removal of impurities from solutions  102  having a concentration of impurities within a range from about greater than about 1 ppm to about 1.0 M. However, the disclosure is not so limited and the system  100  may be configured to purify solutions  102  having a greater concentration of impurities than the concentrations described above. 
     Accordingly, the system  100  may be configured to continuously remove contaminants from the solution  102  and absorb the contaminants on the flowing electrode material within the first cell  104  to load the flowing electrode material within the first cell  104  with ions and cations while concurrently regenerating the loaded flowing electrode material in the second cell  106 . In other words, by separating the first flow channel  108  from which the contaminants in the solution  102  are removed and loaded onto the flowing electrode material from the second flow channel  122  from which the loaded flowing electrode material is regenerated, the system  100  may continuously remove the contaminants from the solution  102 . Stated another way, contaminants may be removed from the solution  102  to load the flowing electrode material in the first cell  104  while simultaneously regenerating the flowing electrode material in the second cell  106 . By way of comparison, conventional capacitive deionization systems include fixed (stationary) electrodes that require regeneration after they become loaded with the contaminants. However, regeneration of electrodes in conventional CDI systems requires stopping a flow of the solution to be purified and flowing a stripping solution through the CDI cell to regenerate the electrodes. In addition, to reduce the risk of contamination, conventional CDI systems may require flowing one or more rinsing solutions through the CDI cell between cycles of loading the electrodes and stripping the loaded electrodes. The system  100  and method disclosed herein does not require separate adsorption cycles and stripping/regeneration cycles, along with rinsing cycles, as required in conventional CDI systems. 
     In addition, conventional CDI systems require significant numbers of adsorption and regeneration cycles when the solution  102  includes a relatively high concentration of contaminants. By way of contrast, the system  100  may remove contaminants from solutions  102  including high concentrations of contaminants by, for example, increasing the contact time between the flowing electrode material and the solution  102  (such as by decreasing the flow rate of the slurry), increasing the concentration of the flowing electrode material in the slurry, and increasing a surface area of the contact between the flowing electrode material and the solution  102  (e.g., increasing the surface area of the anion exchange membranes and the cation exchange membranes). 
     The use of the flowing electrode materials described herein facilitates reduction in the amount of the flowing electrode materials for removal of a particular amount of contaminants compared to conventional electrode materials such as activated carbon. Accordingly, the flowing electrode materials described herein may remove more contaminants than conventional electrode materials. In addition, use of the flowing electrode materials described herein facilitates use of a desired amount of the flowing electrode material (which, in turn, facilities more efficient and/or effective removal of the contaminants) without being limited to the surface of an electrode substrate as in conventional CDI systems. 
     Accordingly, in some embodiments, contaminants may be removed from the solution  102  by using the system  100  including the first cell  104  that is fluidly isolated from the second cell  106 . In other words, the solution  102  to be purified is out of fluid communication with the stripping solution  124  (except through the flowing electrode materials of the first flowing electrode circuit  136  and the second flowing electrode circuit  138 ). The contaminants that are adsorbed onto the flowing electrode material within the first cell  104  are removed and captured in the second cell  106  by means of the flowing electrode materials in the first flowing electrode circuit  136  and the second flowing electrode circuit  138 . The continuous flow of the flowing electrode materials facilitates continuous removal of contaminants from the solution  102  without requiring separate loading and reservation cycles for the flowing electrode materials. 
     EXAMPLE 
     The removal efficiency of a flowing electrode material comprising Ti 3 C 2 T x  was compared to the removal efficiency of activated carbon, wherein T x  represents terminal groups of the Ti 3 C 2  MXene material, as described above. Each of the Ti 3 C 2 T x  and the activated carbon were used as a flowing electrode material in a single cell flowing electrode capacitive deionization cell. The cell including the Ti 3 C 2 T x  flowing electrode material and the cell including the activated carbon flowing electrode material were substantially the same other than the composition and weight percent of the flowing electrode material in the flowing electrode slurries of the respective cells. The cells each included opposing current collectors comprising titanium and serpentine flow channels for the flow of a slurry comprising the flowing electrode material. The current collectors were separated by a layer of vitreous (glassy) carbon adjacent to one of the current collectors, a carbon cloth, a rubber gasket, an anion exchange membrane, a spacer, a polyester filter felt, a cation exchange membrane, another rubber gasket, another carbon cloth, and another layer of vitreous carbon adjacent to the other current collector. The spacer and the polyester filter paper allowed for a feed solution to pass therethrough and from one side of the cell (e.g., one current collector) to the other side of the cell (e.g., to the other current collector). The effective contact area of the cell was about 10 cm 2 . 
     A total of about 20 ml of a feed solution comprising about 0.5 g/L NH 4 Cl was introduced into each cell at a rate of about 2 ml/min. The cell including the Ti 3 C 2 T x  flowing electrode material included about 1 mg Ti 3 C 2 T x  per ml slurry within the flowing electrode slurry of each current collector and the cell including the activated carbon included about 10 weight percent activated carbon within the flowing electrode slurry of each current collector. The flowing electrode slurries of each cell was circulated at a rate of about 3 ml/min and had a total volume of about 6 ml. In other words, in each cell, a first flowing electrode slurry was flowed through a first current collector at a rate of about 3 ml/min with a total volume of about 6 ml while a second flowing electrode slurry was flowed through the second current collector at a rate of about 3 ml/min with a total volume of about 6 ml. The cells were operated in batch mode including one cycle for loading the flowing electrode material with ions from the feed solution, followed by a second cycle for removing (e.g., stripping) ions from the loaded flowing electrode material. During the first cycle, a voltage of about 1.2 V was applied between the first current collector and the second current collector to drive cations of the feed solution (e.g., NH 4   + ) through the cation exchange membrane and to the flowing electrode material of the current collector most proximate the cation exchange membrane and to drive anions of the feed solution (e.g., Cl − ) through the anion exchange membrane and to the flowing electrode material of the current collector most proximate the anion exchange membrane. After loading the flowing electrode materials, the polarity of the cell was reversed by applying a polarity of about −1.2 V between the current collectors to drive the cations and anions from the loaded flowing electrode material to a stripping solution flowed through the cell. 
       FIG. 2  is a graph illustrating the removal efficiency of each of the Ti 3 C 2 T x  and the activated carbon. In  FIG. 2 , C 0  represents the conductivity of the feed solution and C f  represents the conductivity of the effluent. The ratio of C f /C 0  is representative of the extent of ion capture from the ammonia-containing solution and the subsequent release of the ions from the flowing electrode materials during regeneration of the flowing electrode materials. A lower C f /C 0  ratio indicates a relatively greater amount of removal of ions from the feed solution (corresponding to a decrease in conductivity of the effluent). As can be seen in the graph, even though the system including the Ti 3 C 2 T x  flowing electrolyte included less than 0.1 weight percent of the flowing electrode material, the system including the Ti 3 C 2 T x  flowing electrode material removed more than double the amount of ammonium as the flowing electrode material comprising activated carbon, which included about 10 weight percent (about 100 times more) of the flowing electrode material compared to the system including Ti 3 C 2 T x . 
       FIG. 3  is a graph representing the ratio of the conductivity of the effluent solution relative to the conductivity of the original ammonia-containing solution, wherein C 0  and C f  are the same as described above. As can be seen in the graph of  FIG. 3 , the saturation time of the Ti 3 C 2 T x  flowing electrode material was about 115 minutes, significantly less than (e.g., nearly half as much as) the saturation time of about 223 minutes for the system including the activated carbon flowing electrode material. Accordingly, the flowing electrode material comprising Ti 3 C 2 T x  exhibited shorter charge-discharge times relative to the flowing electrode material comprising activated carbon. Thus, over a 30 hour run time, the system including the Ti 3 C 2 T x  flowing electrode material completed ten cycles, whereas the system including the activated carbon flowing electrode material only completed five cycles. 
     The average deionization capacity of the Ti 3 C 2 T x  flowing electrode material was about 460 mg/g (meaning that the Ti 3 C 2 T x  flowing electrode material removed about 460 mg of ammonium for every about one gram of the flowing electrode material), while the average deionization capacity of the activated carbon flowing electrode was about 4.2 mg/g, about two orders of magnitude less than the average deionization capacity of the Ti 3 C 2 T x  flowing electrode material. The system including the Ti 3 C 2 T x  flowing electrode material consumed about 0.45 kWh/kg of the processed ammonia-containing solution, significantly lower than the power required for conventional wastewater treatment. 
     While embodiments of the disclosure may be susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments have been shown by way of example in the drawings and have been described in detail herein. However, it should be understood that the disclosure is not limited to the particular forms disclosed. Rather, the disclosure encompasses all modifications, variations, combinations, and alternatives falling within the scope of the disclosure as defined by the following appended claims and their legal equivalents.