Patent Publication Number: US-2020289216-A1

Title: Motion capture controls for robotic surgery

Description:
BACKGROUND 
     Surgical systems often incorporate an imaging system, which can allow the clinician(s) to view the surgical site and/or one or more portions thereof on one or more displays such as a monitor. The display(s) can be local and/or remote to a surgical theater. An imaging system can include a scope with a camera that views the surgical site and transmits the view to a display that is viewable by a clinician. Imaging systems can be limited by the information that they are able to recognize and/or convey to the clinician(s). For example, certain concealed structures, physical contours, and/or dimensions within a three-dimensional space may be unrecognizable intraoperatively by certain imaging systems. Additionally, certain imaging systems may be incapable of communicating and/or conveying certain information to the clinician(s) intraoperatively. 
     Robotic systems can be actuated or remotely-controlled by one or more clinicians positioned at control consoles. Input motions at the control console(s) can correspond to actuations of a robotic arm and/or a robotic tool coupled thereto. In various instances, the robotic system and/or the clinician(s) can rely on views and/or information provided by an imaging system to determine the desired robotic actuations and/or the corresponding suitable input motions. The inability of certain imaging systems to provide certain visualization data and/or information may present challenges and/or limits to the decision-making process of the clinician and/or the controls for the robotic system. 
     SUMMARY 
     In various aspects, a control system for a robotic surgical tool is disclosed, the control system including an untethered handpiece including a body, a joystick extending from the body, a rotatable shaft extending from the body, and a plurality of sensors including a body sensor embedded in the body and configured to detect motion of the body in three-dimensional space, a multi-axis force sensor configured to detect forces applied to the joystick, and a shaft sensor configured to detect rotary displacement of the shaft relative to the body. The control system further includes a control circuit communicatively coupled to the plurality of sensors and a proximity detection system. The control circuit is configured to receive proximity signals from the proximity detection system, receive input control signals from the plurality of sensors, switch between a gross motion mode and a precision motion mode in response to receiving a proximity signal indicating the proximity being reduced to less than a threshold value, provide gross motion control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the multi-axis force sensor in the gross motion mode, and provide precision motion control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the body sensor and the shaft sensor in the precision motion mode. The proximity signals are indicative of a proximity of the robotic surgical tool to tissue. 
     In various aspects, a control system for a robotic surgical tool is disclosed, the control system including an untethered handpiece including a body, an actuator extending from the body, a rotatable shaft extending from the body, and a plurality of sensors including a body sensor embedded in the body and configured to detect motion of the body in three-dimensional space, a force sensor configured to detect forces applied to the actuator, and a shaft sensor configured to detect rotary displacement of the shaft relative to the body. The control system further includes a proximity detection system configured to detect a proximity of the robotic surgical tool to tissue and a control circuit communicatively coupled to the plurality of sensors and the proximity detection system. The control circuit is configured to receive proximity signals from the proximity detection system, receive input control signals from the plurality of sensors, switch between a first mode and a second mode in response to receiving a proximity signal indicating the proximity being reduced to less than a threshold value, provide first motion control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the force sensor in the first mode, and provide second motion control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the body sensor and the shaft sensor in the second mode. The proximity signals are indicative of the proximity of the robotic surgical tool to tissue and the first motion control signals are scaled based on the proximity signal. 
     In various aspects, a control system for a robotic surgical tool is disclosed, the control system including an untethered handpiece including a body, an actuation arm extending proximally from the body, a shaft extending distally from the body, and a plurality of sensors including a body sensor embedded in the body and configured to detect motion of the body in three-dimensional space, an arm sensor configured to detect forces applied to the actuation arm, and a shaft sensor configured to detect rotary displacement of the shaft relative to the body. The control system further includes a control circuit communicatively coupled to the plurality of sensors and a proximity detection system. The control circuit is configured to receive proximity signals from the proximity detection system, receive input control signals from the plurality of sensors, switch between a gross motion mode and a precision motion mode in response to receiving a proximity signal indicating the proximity being reduced to less than a threshold value, provide output control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the arm sensor in the gross motion mode, and provide output control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the body sensor and the shaft sensor in the precision motion mode. The proximity signals are indicative of a proximity of the robotic surgical tool to tissue. 
     In various aspects, a control system for a robotic surgical tool is disclosed, the control system including an untethered handpiece including a gross motion controller including a multi-axis sensor, a precision motion controller including an embedded motion sensor, and a control circuit communicatively coupled to the multi-axis sensor, the embedded motion sensor, and a proximity detection system. The control circuit is configured to receive proximity signals from the proximity detection system indicative of a proximity of the robotic surgical tool to tissue and switch between a gross motion mode, in which input control signals from the gross motion controller are utilized to control the robotic surgical tool, and a precision motion mode, in which input control signals from the precision motion controller are utilized to control the robotic surgical tool, in response to receiving a proximity signal indicating the proximity being reduced to less than a threshold value. 
    
    
     
       FIGURES 
       The novel features of the various aspects are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. The described aspects, however, both as to organization and methods of operation, may be best understood by reference to the following description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: 
         FIG. 1  is a plan view of a robotic surgical system being used to perform a surgery, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 2  is a perspective view of a surgeon&#39;s control console of the robotic surgical system of  FIG. 1 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 3  is a diagram of a robotic surgical system, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 4  is a perspective view of a surgeon&#39;s control console of a robotic surgical system, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 5  is a perspective view of a user input device at a surgeon&#39;s control console, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 6  is a perspective view of a user input device for a robotic surgical system, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 7  is a plan view of the user input device of  FIG. 6 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 8  is a rear elevation view of the user input device of  FIG. 6 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 9  is a side elevation view of the user input device of  FIG. 6 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 10  is a perspective view of a user&#39;s hand engaged with the user input device of  FIG. 6 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 11  is a rear elevation view of a user&#39;s hand engaged with the user input device of  FIG. 6 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 11A  is a control logic flowchart for the user input device of  FIG. 6 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 11B  is a table depicting control parameters for operational modes of the user input device of  FIG. 6 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 11C  illustrates a control circuit configured to control aspects of the user input device of  FIG. 6 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 11D  illustrates a combinational logic circuit configured to control aspects of the user input device of  FIG. 6 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 11E  illustrates a sequential logic circuit configured to control aspects of the user input device of  FIG. 6 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 12  is a perspective view of an end effector of a surgical tool operably controllable by control motions supplied to the user input device of  FIG. 6 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 12A  is a perspective view of the end effector of  FIG. 12 , depicting the end effector in an articulated configuration, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIGS. 13A and 13B  depict an end effector of a surgical tool and the user input device of  FIG. 6  in corresponding open configurations, wherein  FIG. 13A  is a plan view of the end effector and  FIG. 13B  is a plan view of the user input device, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIGS. 14A and 14B  depict the end effector and the user input device of  FIGS. 13A and 13B  in corresponding partially-closed configurations, wherein  FIG. 14A  is a plan view of the end effector and  FIG. 14B  is a plan view of the user input device, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIGS. 15A and 15B  depict the end effector and the user input device of  FIGS. 13A and 13B  in corresponding closed configurations, wherein  FIG. 15A  is a plan view of the end effector and  FIG. 15B  is a plan view of the user input device, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 16  is a perspective view of a workspace including two of the user input devices of  FIG. 6  positioned on a surface, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 17  is another perspective view of the workspace of  FIG. 16 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 17A  is a detail view of a portion of the workspace of  FIG. 17 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 18  is an exploded perspective view of an input device including first and second board members, a light shield, a stop arrangement, and a cap, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 19  is an exploded top perspective view of the first and second board members and the light shield of  FIG. 18 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 20  is an exploded bottom perspective view of the first and second board members and the light shield of  FIG. 19 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 21  is a plan view of pin members of the stop arrangement of  FIG. 18  positioned in openings in the second board member of  FIG. 18  in a rotated configuration, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 22  is cross-sectional elevation view of the first and second board members, the light shield, the stop arrangement, and the cap of  FIG. 18  in a tilted configuration, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 23  is a cross-sectional elevation view of a user input device, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 24  is a schematic of a surgical visualization system including an imaging device and a surgical device, the surgical visualization system configured to identify a critical structure below a tissue surface, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 25  is a schematic of a control system for a surgical visualization system configured to receive inputs from a user input device, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 26  illustrates a control circuit configured to control aspects of a surgical visualization system, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 27  illustrates a combinational logic circuit configured to control aspects of a surgical visualization system, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 28  illustrates a sequential logic circuit configured to control aspects of a surgical visualization system, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 29  is a schematic depicting triangularization to determine a depth d A  of a critical structure below the tissue surface, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 30  is a schematic of a surgical visualization system configured to identify a critical structure below a tissue surface, wherein the surgical visualization system includes a pulsed light source for determining a depth d A  of the critical structure below the tissue surface, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 31  is a schematic of a surgical visualization system including a three-dimensional camera, wherein the surgical visualization system is configured to identify a critical structure that is embedded within tissue, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIGS. 32A and 32B  are views of the critical structure taken by the three-dimensional camera of  FIG. 31 , in which  FIG. 32A  is a view from a left-side lens of the three-dimensional camera and  FIG. 32B  is a view from a right-side lens of the three-dimensional camera, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 33  is a schematic of the surgical visualization system of  FIG. 31 , in which a camera-to-critical structure distance d w  from the three-dimensional camera to the critical structure can be determined, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 34  is a schematic of a surgical visualization system utilizing two cameras to determine the position of an embedded critical structure, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 35A  is a schematic of a surgical visualization system utilizing a camera that is moved axially between a plurality of known positions to determine a position of an embedded critical structure, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 35B  is a schematic of the surgical visualization system of  FIG. 35A , in which the camera is moved axially and rotationally between a plurality of known positions to determine a position of the embedded critical structure, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 36  is a schematic of a control system for a surgical visualization system, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 37  is a schematic of a structured light source for a surgical visualization system, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIGS. 38-40  depict illustrative hyperspectral identifying signatures to differentiate anatomy from obscurants, wherein  FIG. 38  is a graphical representation of a ureter signature versus obscurants,  FIG. 39  is a graphical representation of an artery signature versus obscurants, and  FIG. 40  is a graphical representation of a nerve signature versus obscurants, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 41  is a schematic of a near infrared (NIR) time-of-flight measurement system configured to sense distance to a critical anatomical structure, the time-of-flight measurement system including a transmitter (emitter) and a receiver (sensor) positioned on a common device, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 42  is a schematic of an emitted wave, a received wave, and a delay between the emitted wave and the received wave of the NIR time-of-flight measurement system of  FIG. 41 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 43  illustrates a NIR time-of-flight measurement system configured to sense a distance to different structures, the time-of-flight measurement system including a transmitter (emitter) and a receiver (sensor) on separate devices, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 44  is a perspective view of an input control device for a robotic surgical system, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 45  is another perspective view of the input control device of  FIG. 44 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 46  is a front elevation view of the input control device of  FIG. 44 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 47  is a side elevation view of the input control device of  FIG. 44  in a first configuration illustrated with solid lines and further depicting the input control device in a second configuration illustrated with dashed lines, wherein a lower portion, or base, of the input control device remains stationary and an upper portion of the input control device is displaced along a longitudinal axis between the first configuration and the second configuration, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 48  is a perspective view of a user&#39;s hand and forearm engaged with the input control device of  FIG. 44 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 49  is a front elevation view of a user&#39;s hand and forearm engaged with the input control device of  FIG. 44 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 50  is a logic diagram for a control circuit utilized in connection with the input control device of  FIG. 44 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 51  is a perspective view of an input control device for a robotic surgical system, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 52  is a rear elevation view of the input control device of  FIG. 51 , according to one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 53  is a perspective view an input control device for a robotic surgical system, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 54  is a side elevation view of the input control device of  FIG. 53 , in a first configuration illustrated with solid lines and further depicting the input control device in a second configuration illustrated with dashed lines, wherein a lower portion, or base, of the input control device remains stationary and an upper portion of the input control device is displaced along a longitudinal axis between the first configuration and the second configuration, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 55  is a perspective view of a user&#39;s hand and forearm engaged with the input control device of  FIG. 53 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 56  is a side elevation view of a user&#39;s hand and forearm engaged with the input control device of  FIG. 53 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 57  is a perspective view of an input control device, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 58  is another perspective view of the input control device of  FIG. 57 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 59  is an elevation view of the input control device of  FIG. 57 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 59A  is another elevation view of the input control device of  FIG. 57  with certain features removed for clarity and schematically depicting a control circuit therein, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 60  is a perspective view of a user&#39;s hand engaged with the input control device of  FIG. 57  and positioned to delivery input control motions to the various input controllers thereof, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 61  is an elevation view of a user&#39;s hand engaged with the input control device of  FIG. 57  and positioned to deliver input control motions to the various input controllers thereof, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 62  is a hypothetical graphical representation of input control sensitivity relative to tissue proximity for the input control device of  FIG. 57 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 63  is a perspective view of an input control device positioned in a home position within a gross motion zone, according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 64  is another perspective view of the input control device of  FIG. 63 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 65  is a perspective view of a user&#39;s hand engaged with the input control device of  FIG. 63 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 66  is another perspective view of a user&#39;s hand engaged with the input control device of  FIG. 63 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 67  is an elevation view of a user&#39;s hand engaged with the input control device of  FIG. 63 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 68  is a hypothetical graphical representation of robotic tool speed relative to displacement of the input control device of  FIG. 63  within the gross motion zone of  FIG. 63 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION 
     Applicant of the present application owns the following U.S. Patent Applications, filed on Mar. 15, 2019, each of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety:
         Attorney Docket No. END9052USNP1/180620-1, titled INPUT CONTROLS FOR ROBOTIC SURGERY;   Attorney Docket No. END9052USNP2/180620-2, titled DUAL MODE CONTROLS FOR ROBOTIC SURGERY;   Attorney Docket No. END9053USNP1/180621-1, titled ROBOTIC SURGICAL SYSTEMS WITH MECHANISMS FOR SCALING SURGICAL TOOL MOTION ACCORDING TO TISSUE PROXIMITY;   Attorney Docket No. END9053USNP2/180621-2, titled ROBOTIC SURGICAL SYSTEMS WITH MECHANISMS FOR SCALING CAMERA MAGNIFICATION ACCORDING TO PROXIMITY OF SURGICAL TOOL TO TISSUE;   Attorney Docket No. END9053USNP3/180621-3, titled ROBOTIC SURGICAL SYSTEMS WITH SELECTIVELY LOCKABLE END EFFECTORS;   Attorney Docket No. END9053USNP4/180621-4, titled SELECTABLE VARIABLE RESPONSE OF SHAFT MOTION OF SURGICAL ROBOTIC SYSTEMS;   Attorney Docket No. END9054USNP1/180622-1, titled SEGMENTED CONTROL INPUTS FOR SURGICAL ROBOTIC SYSTEMS;   Attorney Docket No. END9055USNP1/180623-1, titled ROBOTIC SURGICAL CONTROLS HAVING FEEDBACK CAPABILITIES;   Attorney Docket No. END9055USNP2/180623-2, titled ROBOTIC SURGICAL CONTROLS WITH FORCE FEEDBACK; and   Attorney Docket No. END9055USNP3/180623-3, titled JAW COORDINATION OF ROBOTIC SURGICAL CONTROLS.       

     Applicant of the present application also owns the following U.S. Patent Applications, filed on Sep. 11, 2018, each of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety:
         U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,179, titled SURGICAL VISUALIZATION PLATFORM;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,180, titled CONTROLLING AN EMITTER ASSEMBLY PULSE SEQUENCE;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,198, titled SINGULAR EMR SOURCE EMITTER ASSEMBLY;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,207, titled COMBINATION EMITTER AND CAMERA ASSEMBLY;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,176, titled SURGICAL VISUALIZATION WITH PROXIMITY TRACKING FEATURES;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,187, titled SURGICAL VISUALIZATION OF MULTIPLE TARGETS;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,192, titled VISUALIZATION OF SURGICAL DEVICES;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,163, titled OPERATIVE COMMUNICATION OF LIGHT;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,197, titled ROBOTIC LIGHT PROJECTION TOOLS;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,164, titled SURGICAL VISUALIZATION FEEDBACK SYSTEM;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,193, titled SURGICAL VISUALIZATION AND MONITORING;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,195, titled INTEGRATION OF IMAGING DATA;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,170, titled ROBOTICALLY-ASSISTED SURGICAL SUTURING SYSTEMS;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,183, titled SAFETY LOGIC FOR SURGICAL SUTURING SYSTEMS;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,172, titled ROBOTIC SYSTEM WITH SEPARATE PHOTOACOUSTIC RECEIVER; and   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,185, titled FORCE SENSOR THROUGH STRUCTURED LIGHT DEFLECTION.   Applicant of the present application also owns the following U.S. Patent Applications, filed on Mar. 29, 2018, each of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety:   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/940,627, titled DRIVE ARRANGEMENTS FOR ROBOT-ASSISTED SURGICAL PLATFORMS;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/940,676, titled AUTOMATIC TOOL ADJUSTMENTS FOR ROBOT-ASSISTED SURGICAL PLATFORMS;   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/940,711, titled SENSING ARRANGEMENTS FOR ROBOT-ASSISTED SURGICAL PLATFORMS; and   U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/940,722, titled CHARACTERIZATION OF TISSUE IRREGULARITIES THROUGH THE USE OF MONO-CHROMATIC LIGHT REFRACTIVITY.       

     Before explaining various aspects of a robotic surgical platform in detail, it should be noted that the illustrative examples are not limited in application or use to the details of construction and arrangement of parts illustrated in the accompanying drawings and description. The illustrative examples may be implemented or incorporated in other aspects, variations, and modifications, and may be practiced or carried out in various ways. Further, unless otherwise indicated, the terms and expressions employed herein have been chosen for the purpose of describing the illustrative examples for the convenience of the reader and are not for the purpose of limitation thereof. Also, it will be appreciated that one or more of the following-described aspects, expressions of aspects, and/or examples, can be combined with any one or more of the other following-described aspects, expressions of aspects, and/or examples. 
     Robotic Systems 
     An exemplary robotic system  110  is depicted in  FIG. 1 . The robotic system  110  is a minimally invasive robotic surgical (MIRS) system typically used for performing a minimally invasive diagnostic or surgical procedure on a patient  112  who is lying down on an operating table  114 . The robotic system  110  includes a surgeon&#39;s console  116  for use by a surgeon  118  during the procedure. One or more assistants  120  may also participate in the procedure. The robotic system  110  can further include a patient side cart  122 , i.e. a surgical robot, and an electronics cart  124 . The surgical robot  122  can manipulate at least one removably coupled tool assembly  126  (hereinafter referred to as a “tool”) through a minimally invasive incision in the body of the patient  112  while the surgeon  118  views the surgical site through the console  116 . An image of the surgical site can be obtained by an imaging device such as a stereoscopic endoscope  128 , which can be manipulated by the surgical robot  122  to orient the endoscope  128 . Alternative imaging devices are also contemplated. 
     The electronics cart  124  can be used to process the images of the surgical site for subsequent display to the surgeon  118  through the surgeon&#39;s console  116 . In certain instances, the electronics of the electronics cart  124  can be incorporated into another structure in the operating room, such as the operating table  114 , the surgical robot  122 , the surgeon&#39;s console  116 , and/or another control station, for example. The number of robotic tools  126  used at one time will generally depend on the diagnostic or surgical procedure and the space constraints within the operating room among other factors. If it is necessary to change one or more of the robotic tools  126  being used during a procedure, an assistant  120  may remove the robotic tool  126  from the surgical robot  122  and replace it with another tool  126  from a tray  130  in the operating room. 
     Referring primarily to  FIG. 2 , the surgeon&#39;s console  116  includes a left eye display  132  and a right eye display  134  for presenting the surgeon  118  with a coordinated stereo view of the surgical site that enables depth perception. The console  116  further includes one or more input control devices  136 , which in turn cause the surgical robot  122  to manipulate one or more tools  126 . The input control devices  136  can provide the same degrees of freedom as their associated tools  126  to provide the surgeon with telepresence, or the perception that the input control devices  136  are integral with the robotic tools  126  so that the surgeon has a strong sense of directly controlling the robotic tools  126 . To this end, position, force, and tactile feedback sensors may be employed to transmit position, force, and tactile sensations from the robotic tools  126  back to the surgeon&#39;s hands through the input control devices  136 . The surgeon&#39;s console  116  can be located in the same room as the patient  112  so that the surgeon  118  may directly monitor the procedure, be physically present if necessary, and speak to an assistant  120  directly rather than over the telephone or other communication medium. However, the surgeon  118  can be located in a different room, a completely different building, or other remote location from the patient  112  allowing for remote surgical procedures. A sterile field can be defined around the surgical site. In various instances, the surgeon  118  can be positioned outside the sterile field. 
     Referring again to  FIG. 1 , the electronics cart  124  can be coupled with the endoscope  128  and can include a processor to process captured images for subsequent display, such as to a surgeon on the surgeon&#39;s console  116 , or on another suitable display located locally and/or remotely. For example, when the stereoscopic endoscope  128  is used, the electronics cart  124  can process the captured images to present the surgeon with coordinated stereo images of the surgical site. Such coordination can include alignment between the opposing images and can include adjusting the stereo working distance of the stereoscopic endoscope. As another example, image processing can include the use of previously-determined camera calibration parameters to compensate for imaging errors of the image capture device, such as optical aberrations, for example. In various instances, the robotic system  110  can incorporate a surgical visualization system, as further described herein, such that an augmented view of the surgical site that includes hidden critical structures, three-dimensional topography, and/or one or more distances can be conveyed to the surgeon at the surgeon&#39;s console  116 . 
       FIG. 3  diagrammatically illustrates a robotic surgery system  150 , such as the MIRS system  110  ( FIG. 1 ). As discussed herein, a surgeon&#39;s console  152 , such as the surgeon&#39;s console  116  ( FIGS. 1 and 2 ), can be used by a surgeon to control a surgical robot  154 , such as the surgical robot  122  ( FIG. 1 ), during a minimally invasive procedure. The surgical robot  154  can use an imaging device, such as a stereoscopic endoscope, for example, to capture images of the surgical site and output the captured images to an electronics cart  156 , such as the electronics cart  124  ( FIG. 1 ). As discussed herein, the electronics cart  156  can process the captured images in a variety of ways prior to any subsequent display. For example, the electronics cart  156  can overlay the captured images with a virtual control interface prior to displaying the combined images to the surgeon via the surgeon&#39;s console  152 . The surgical robot  154  can output the captured images for processing outside the electronics cart  156 . For example, the surgical robot  154  can output the captured images to a processor  158 , which can be used to process the captured images. The images can also be processed by a combination of the electronics cart  156  and the processor  158 , which can be coupled together to process the captured images jointly, sequentially, and/or combinations thereof. One or more separate displays  160  can also be coupled with the processor  158  and/or the electronics cart  156  for local and/or remote display of images, such as images of the surgical site, or other related images. 
     The reader will appreciate that various robotic tools can be employed with the surgical robot  122  and exemplary robotic tools are described herein. Referring again to  FIG. 1 , the surgical robot  122  shown provides for the manipulation of three robotic tools  126  and the imaging device  128 , such as a stereoscopic endoscope used for the capture of images of the site of the procedure, for example. Manipulation is provided by robotic mechanisms having a number of robotic joints. The imaging device  128  and the robotic tools  126  can be positioned and manipulated through incisions in the patient so that a kinematic remote center or virtual pivot is maintained at the incision to minimize the size of the incision. Images of the surgical site can include images of the distal ends of the robotic tools  126  when they are positioned within the field-of-view (FOV) of the imaging device  128 . Each tool  126  is detachable from and carried by a respective surgical manipulator, which is located at the distal end of one or more of the robotic joints. The surgical manipulator provides a moveable platform for moving the entirety of a tool  126  with respect to the surgical robot  122 , via movement of the robotic joints. The surgical manipulator also provides power to operate the robotic tool  126  using one or more mechanical and/or electrical interfaces. In various instances, one or more motors can be housed in the surgical manipulator for generating controls motions. One or more transmissions can be employed to selectively couple the motors to various actuation systems in the robotic tool. 
     The foregoing robotic systems are further described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/940,627, titled DRIVE ARRANGEMENTS FOR ROBOT-ASSISTED SURGICAL PLATFORMS, filed Mar. 29, 2018, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Alternative robotic systems are also contemplated. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 4 , a surgeon&#39;s console, or control unit,  250  is shown. The surgeon&#39;s console  250  can be used in connection with a robotic system to control any two surgical tools coupled to the robotic system. The surgical tools can be controlled by the handle assemblies  256  of the surgeon&#39;s console  250 . For example, the handle assemblies  256  and robotic arms have a master-slave relationship so that movement of the handle assemblies  256  produces a corresponding movement of the surgical tools. A controller  254  receives input signals from the handle assemblies  256 , computes a corresponding movement of the surgical tools, and provides output signals to move the robotic arms and the surgical tools. 
     The handle assemblies  256  are located adjacent to a surgeon&#39;s chair  258  and coupled to the controller  254 . The controller  254  may include one or more microprocessors, memory devices, drivers, etc. that convert input information from the handle assemblies  256  into output control signals which move the robotic arms and/or actuate the surgical tools. The surgeon&#39;s chair  258  and the handle assemblies  256  may be in front of a video console  248 , which can be linked to an endoscope to provide video images of the patient. The surgeon&#39;s console  250  may also include a screen  260  coupled to the controller  254 . The screen  260  may display graphical user interfaces (GUIs) that allow the surgeon to control various functions and parameters of the robotic system. 
     Each handle assembly  256  includes a handle/wrist assembly  262 . The handle/wrist assembly  262  has a handle  264  that is coupled to a wrist  266 . The wrist  266  is connected to a forearm linkage  268  that slides along a slide bar  270 . The slide bar  270  is pivotally connected to an elbow joint  272 . The elbow joint  272  is pivotally connected to a shoulder joint  274  that is attached to the controller  254 . The surgeon sitting at the surgeon&#39;s console  250  can provide input control motions to the handle assemblies  256  to effect movements and/or actuations of a surgical tool communicatively coupled thereto. For example, the surgeon can advance the forearm linkage  268  along the slide bar  270  to advance the surgical tool toward a surgical site. Rotations at the wrist  266 , elbow joint  272 , and/or shoulder joint  274  can effect rotation and/or articulation of the surgical tool about the corresponding axes. The robotic system and surgeon&#39;s console  250  are further described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,951,535, titled TELE-MEDICINE SYSTEM THAT TRANSMITS AN ENTIRE STATE OF A SUBSYSTEM, which issued Oct. 4, 2005, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein. 
     A handle assembly for use at a surgeon&#39;s console is further depicted in  FIG. 5 . The handle assembly of  FIG. 5  includes a control input wrist  352  and a touch sensitive handle  325 . The control input wrist  352  is a gimbaled device that pivotally supports the touch sensitive handle  325  to generate control signals that are used to control a robotic surgical manipulator and the robotic surgical tools. A pair of control input wrists  352  and touch sensitive handles  325  can be supported by a pair of control input arms in a workspace of the surgeon&#39;s console. 
     The control input wrist  352  includes first, second, and third gimbal members  362 ,  364 , and  366 , respectively. The third gimbal member  366  can be rotationally mounted to a control input arm. The touch sensitive handle  325  include a tubular support structure  351 , a first grip  350 A, and a second grip  350 B. The first grip  350 A and the second grip  350 B are supported at one end by the tubular support structure  351 . The touch sensitive handle  325  can be rotated about axis G. The grips  350 A,  350 B can be squeezed or pinched together about the tubular support structure  351 . The “pinching” or grasping degree of freedom in the grips is indicated by arrows Ha and Hb. 
     The touch sensitive handle  325  is rotatably supported by the first gimbal member  362  by means of a rotational joint  356   g . The first gimbal member  362  is in turn, rotatably supported by the second gimbal member  364  by means of the rotational joint  356   f . Similarly, the second gimbal member  364  is rotatably supported by the third gimbal member  366  using a rotational joint  356   e . In this manner, the control input wrist  352  allows the touch sensitive handle  325  to be moved and oriented in the workspace using three degrees of freedom. 
     The movements in the gimbals  362 ,  364 ,  366  of the control input wrist  352  to reorient the touch sensitive handle  325  in space can be translated into control signals to control a robotic surgical manipulator and the robotic surgical tools. The movements in the grips  350 A and  350 B of the touch sensitive handle  325  can also be translated into control signals to control the robotic surgical manipulator and the robotic surgical tools. In particular, the squeezing motion of the grips  350 A and  350 B over their freedom of movement indicated by arrows Ha and Hb, may be used to control the end effectors of the robotic surgical tools. 
     To sense the movements in the touch sensitive handle  325  and generate controls signals, sensors can be mounted in the handle  325  as well as the first gimbal member  362  of the control input wrist  352 . Exemplary sensors may be a pressure sensor, Hall Effect transducer, a potentiometer, and/or an encoder, for example. The robotic surgical systems and handle assembly of  FIG. 5  are further described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,224,484, titled METHODS OF USER INTERFACE WITH ALTERNATIVE TOOL MODE FOR ROBOTIC SURGICAL TOOLS, which issued Jul. 17, 2012, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein. 
     Existing robotic systems can incorporate a surgical visualization system, as further described herein. In such instances, additional information regarding the surgical site can be determined and/or conveyed to the clinician(s) in the surgical theater, such as to a surgeon positioned at a surgeon&#39;s console. For example, the clinician(s) can observe an augmented view of reality of the surgical site that includes additional information such as various contours of the tissue surface, hidden critical structures, and/or one or more distances with respect to anatomical structures. In various instances, proximity data can be leveraged to improve one or more operations of the robotic surgical system and or controls thereof, as further described herein. 
     Input Control Devices 
     Referring again to the robotic system  150  in  FIG. 3 , the surgeon&#39;s console  152  allows the surgeon to provide manual input commands to the surgical robot  154  to effect control of the surgical tool and the various actuations thereof. Movement of an input control device by a surgeon at the surgeon&#39;s console  152  within a predefined working volume, or work envelope, results in a corresponding movement or operation of the surgical tool. For example, referring again to  FIG. 2 , a surgeon can engage each input control device  136  with one hand and move the input control devices  136  within the work envelope to provide control motions to the surgical tool. Surgeon&#39;s consoles (e.g. the surgeon&#39;s console  116  in  FIGS. 1 and 2  and the surgeon&#39;s console  250  in  FIG. 4 ) can be expensive and require a large footprint. For example, the working volume of the user input device (e.g. the handle/wrist assembly  262  in  FIG. 4  and the control input wrist  352  and touch sensitive handle  325  in  FIG. 5 ) at the surgeon&#39;s consoles can necessitate a large footprint, which impacts the usable space in the operating room (OR), training modalities, and cooperative procedures, for example. For example, such a large footprint can preclude the option of having multiple control stations in the OR, such as additional control stations for training or use by an assistant. Additionally, the size and bulkiness of a surgeon&#39;s console can be cumbersome to relocate within an operating room or move between operating rooms, for example. 
     Ergonomics is an important consideration for surgeons who may spend many hours each day in surgery and/or at the surgeon&#39;s console. Excessive, repetitive motions during surgical procedures can lead to fatigue and chronic injury for the surgeon. It can be desirable to maintain a comfortable posture and/or body position while providing inputs to the robotic system. However, in certain instances, the surgeon&#39;s posture and/or position may be compromised to ensure proper positioning of a surgical tool. For example, surgeons are often prone to contort their hands and/or extend their arms for long durations of time. In one instance, a gross control motion to move the surgical tool to the surgical site may result in the surgeon&#39;s arms being uncomfortably too outstretched and/or cramped uncomfortably close upon reaching the surgical site. In certain instances, poor ergonomic posturing achieved during the gross control motion may be maintained during a subsequent fine control motion, e.g. when manipulating tissue at the surgical site, which can further exasperate the poor ergonomics for the surgeon. Existing input control devices propose a one-size-fits-all approach regardless of the surgeon&#39;s anthropometrics; however, the ergonomic impact to a surgeon can vary and certain body types may be more burdened by the architecture of existing input control devices. 
     In certain instances, an input control device can be restrained within the work envelope that defines its range of motion. For example, the structure of the surgeon&#39;s console and/or the linkages on the input control device can limit the range of the motion of the input control device. In certain instances, the input control device can reach the end of its range of motion before the surgical tool is appropriately positioned. In such instances, a clutching mechanism can be required to reposition the input control device within the work envelope to complete the positioning of the surgical tool. A hypothetical work envelope  280  is shown in  FIG. 4 , for example. In various instances, the surgeon can be required to actuate a clutch (often in the form of a foot pedal or additional button on the handle of the input control device) to temporarily disengage the input control device from the surgical tool while the input control device is relocated to a desired position within the work envelope. This non-surgical motion by the surgeon can be referred to as a “rowing” motion to properly reposition the user input device within the work envelope because of the arm motion of the surgeon at the surgeon&#39;s console. Upon release of the clutch, the motions of the input control device can again control the surgical tool. 
     Clutching the input control device to maintain a suitable position within the work envelope poses an additional cognitive burden to the surgeon. In such instances, the surgeon is required to constantly monitor the position and orientation of his/her hands relative to the boundaries of the work envelope. Additionally, the clutching or “rowing” motion can be tedious to the surgeon and such a monotonous, repetitive motion does not match the analogous workflow of a surgical procedure outside the context of robotic surgery. Clutching also requires the surgeon to match a previous orientation of the handle when reengaging the system. For example, upon completion of a complex range of motion in which the surgeon “rows” or clutches the input control device back to a comfortable, home position, the surgeon and/or surgical robot must match the orientation of the handle of the input control device in the home position to the previous orientation of the handle in the extended position, which can be challenging and/or require complex logic and/or mechanics. 
     Requiring a clutch mechanism also limits the availability of controls on the handle of the input control device. For example, a clutch actuator can take up valuable real estate on the handle, which cognitively and physically limits the availability of other controls on the handle. In turn, the complexity of other subsystems, such as a peddle board, is increased and the surgeon may be required to utilize multiple input systems to complete a simple task. 
     Non-clutched alternatives to such input control devices can reduce the footprint and cost of the surgeon&#39;s console, improve the surgeon&#39;s ergonomic experience, eliminate the physical and cognitive burdens associated with clutching, and/or provide additional real estate on the input control device for additional input controls, for example. Exemplary non-clutched input control devices are further described herein. Such non-clutched input control devices can be employed with a variety of robotic systems. Moreover, as further described herein, the non-clutched input control devices can leverage information from various distance determining subsystems also disclosed herein. For example, real-time structured light and three-dimensional shape modeling can inform the logic of such non-clutched input control devices such that a first mode and/or first collection of controls are enabled outside a predefined distance from an anatomical surface and/or critical structure and a second mode and/or second collection of controls are enabled within a predefined distance of the anatomical structure and/or critical structure. Various tissue proximity applications are further described herein. 
     Referring now to  FIGS. 6-11 , an input control device  1000  is shown. The input control device  1000  is a clutchless input control device, as further described herein. The input control device  1000  can be utilized at a surgeon&#39;s console or workspace for a robotic surgical system. For example, the input control device  1000  can be incorporated into a surgical system, such as the surgical system  110  ( FIG. 1 ) or the surgical system  150  ( FIG. 3 ), for example, to provide control signals to a surgical robot and/or surgical tool coupled thereto. The input control device  1000  includes input controls for moving the robotic arm and/or the surgical tool in three-dimensional space. For example, the surgical tool controlled by the input control device  1000  can be configured to move and/or rotate relative to X, Y, and Z axes. 
     An exemplary surgical tool  1050  is shown in  FIG. 12 . The surgical tool  1050  is a grasper that includes an end effector  1052  having opposing jaws  1054 , which are configured to releasably grab tissue. The surgical tool  1050  can be maneuvered in three dimensional space by translating the surgical tool  1050  along the X t , Y t , and Z t  axes thereof. The surgical tool  1050  also includes a plurality of joints such that the surgical tool can be rotated and/or articulated into a desired configuration. The surgical tool  1050  can be configured to rotate or roll about the X t  axis defined by the longitudinal shaft of the surgical tool  1050 , rotate or articulate about a first articulation axis parallel to the Y t  axis, and rotate or articulate about a second articulation axis parallel to the Z t  axis. Rolling about the X t  axis corresponds to a rolling motion of the end effector  1052  in the direction R t , articulation about the first articulation axis corresponds to a pitching motion of the end effector  1052  in the direction P t , and articulation about the second articulation axis corresponds to a yawing or twisting motion in the direction T t . 
     An input control device, such as the input control device  1000 , for example, can be configured to control the translation and rotation of the end effector  1052 . To control such motion, the input control device  1000  includes corresponding input controls. For example, the input control device  1000  includes at least six degrees of freedom of input controls for moving the surgical tool  1050  in three dimensional space along the X t , Y t , and Z t  axes, for rolling the end effector  1052  about the X t  axis, and for articulating the end effector  1052  about the first and second articulation axes. Additionally, the input control device  1000  includes an end effector actuator for actuating the opposing jaws of the end effector  1052  to manipulate or grip tissue. Additional features of the input control device  1000  with respect to a surgical tool, such as the surgical tool  1050 , for example, are further described herein. 
     Referring again to  FIGS. 6-11 , the input control device  1000  includes a multi-dimensional space joint  1006  having a central portion  1002  supported on a base  1004 . The base  1004  is structured to rest on a surface, such as a desk or work surface at a surgeon&#39;s console/workspace or at the patient&#39;s bedside, for example. The base  1004  defines a circular base with a contoured edge; however, alternative geometries are contemplated. The base  1004  can remain in a fixed, stationary position relative to an underlying surface upon application of the input controls thereto. In certain instances, the base  1004  can be releasably secured and/or clamped to the underlying surface with fasteners, such as threaded fasteners, for example. In other instances, fasteners may not be required to hold the base  1004  to the underlying surface. In various instances, the base  1004  can include a sticky or tacking bottom surface and/or suction features (e.g. suction cups or magnets) for gripping an underlying surface. In certain instances, the base  1004  can include a ribbed and/or grooved bottom surface for engaging a complementary underlying support surface. 
     The space joint  1006  is configured to receive multi-dimensional manual inputs from a surgeon (e.g. the surgeon&#39;s hand or arm) corresponding to control motions for the surgical tool in multi-dimensional space. The central portion  1002  of the space joint  1006  is configured to receive input forces in multiple directions, such as forces along and/or about the X, Y, and Z axes. The central portion  1002  can include a raising, lowering, and rotating cylinder, shaft, or hemisphere, for example, projecting from the base  1004 . The central portion  1002  is flexibly supported relative to the base  1004  such that the cylinder, shaft, and/or hemisphere is configured to move or float within a small predefined zone upon receipt of force control inputs thereto. For example, the central portion  1002  can be a floating shaft that is supported on the base  1004  by one or more elastomeric members such as springs, for example. The central portion  1002  can be configured to move or float within a predefined three-dimensional volume. For example, elastomeric couplings can permit movement of the central portion  1002  relative to the base  1004 ; however, restraining plates, pins, and/or other structures can be configured to limit the range of motion of the central portion  1002  relative to the base  1004 . In one aspect, movement of the central portion  1002  from a central or “home” position relative to the base  1004  can be permitted within a range of about 1.0 mm to about 5.0 mm in any direction (up, down, left, right, backwards and forwards). In other instances, movement of the central portion  1002  relative to the base  1004  can be restrained to less than 1.0 mm or more than 5.0 mm. In certain instances, the central portion  1002  can move about 2.0 mm in all directions relative to the base  1004 . In various instances, the space joint  1006  can be similar to a multi-dimensional mouse, or space mouse. An exemplary space mouse is provided by 3Dconnexion Inc. and described at www.d3connexion.com, for example. 
     In various instances, the space joint  1006  includes a multi-axis force and/or torque sensor arrangement  1048  (see  FIGS. 8 and 9 ) configured to detect the input forces and moments applied to the central portion  1002  and transferred to the space joint  1006 . The sensor arrangement  1048  is positioned on one or more of the surfaces at the interface between the central portion  1002  and the base  1004 . In other instances, the sensor arrangement  1048  can be embedded in the central portion  1002  or the base  1004 . In still other instances, the sensor arrangement  1048  can be positioned on a floating member positioned intermediate the central portion  1002  and the base  1004 . 
     The sensor arrangement  1048  can include one or more resistive strain gauges, optical force sensors, optical distance sensors, miniature cameras in the range of about 1.0 mm to about 3.0 mm in size, and/or time of flight sensors utilizing a pulsed light source, for example. In one aspect, the sensor arrangement  1048  includes a plurality of resistive strain gauges configured to detect the different force vectors applied thereto. The strain gauges can define a Wheatstone bridge configuration, for example. Additionally or alternatively, the sensor arrangement  1048  can include a plurality of optoelectronic sensors, such as measuring cells comprising a position-sensitive detector illuminated by a light-emitting element, such as an LED. Alternative force-detecting sensor arrangements are also contemplated. Exemplary multi-dimensional input devices and/or sensor arrangements are further described in the following references, which are incorporated by reference herein in their respective entireties:
         U.S. Pat. No. 4,785,180, titled OPTOELECTRIC SYSTEM HOUSED IN A PLASTIC SPHERE, issued Nov. 15, 1988;   U.S. Pat. No. 6,804,012, titled ARRANGEMENT FOR THE DETECTION OF RELATIVE MOVEMENTS OR RELATIVE POSITION OF TWO OBJECTS, issued Oct. 12, 2004;   European patent application Ser. No. 1,850,210, titled OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICE FOR DETERMINING RELATIVE MOVEMENTS OR RELATIVE POSITIONS OF TWO OBJECTS, published Oct. 31, 2007;   U.S. patent application Ser. Publication No. 2008/0001919, titled USER INTERFACE DEVICE, published Jan. 3, 2008; and   U.S. Pat. No. 7,516,675, titled JOYSTICK SENSOR APPARATUS, issued Apr. 14, 2009.       

     Referring again to the input control device  1000  in  FIGS. 6-11 , a joystick  1008  extends from the central portion  1002 . Forces exerted on the central portion  1002  via the joystick  1008  define input motions for the sensor arrangement  1048 . For example, the sensor arrangement  1048  ( FIGS. 8 and 9 ) in the base  1004  can be configured to detect the input forces and moments applied by a surgeon to the joystick  1008 . The joystick  1008  can be spring-biased toward a central, or home, position, in which the joystick  1008  is aligned with the Z axis, a vertical axis through the joystick  1008 , central portion  1002 , and the space joint  1006 . Driving (e.g. pushing and/or pulling) the joystick  1008  away from the Z axis in any direction can be configured to “drive” an end effector of an associated surgical tool in the corresponding direction. When the external driving force is removed, the joystick  1008  can be configured to return to the central, or home, position and motion of the end effector can be halted. For example, the central portion  1002  and joystick  1008  can be spring-biased toward the home position. 
     In various instances, the space joint  1006  and the joystick  1008  coupled thereto define a six degree-of-freedom input control. Referring again now to the end effector  1052  of the surgical tool  1050  in  FIG. 12 , the forces on the joystick  1008  of the input control device  1000  in the X direction correspond to displacement of the end effector  1052  along the X t  axis thereof (e.g. longitudinally), forces on the joystick  1008  in the Y direction correspond to displacement of the end effector  1052  along the Y t  axis thereof (e.g. laterally), and forces on the joystick  1008  in the Z direction correspond to displacement of the end effector  1052  along the Z t  axis (e.g. vertically/up and down). Additionally, forces on the joystick  1008  about the X axis (the moment forces R) result in rotation of the end effector  1052  about the X t  axis (e.g. a rolling motion about a longitudinal axis in the direction R t ), forces on the joystick  1008  about the Y axis (the moments forces P) result in articulation of the end effector  1052  about the Y t  axis (e.g. a pitching motion in the direction P t ), and forces on the joystick  1008  about the Z axis (the moment forces T) result in articulation of the end effector  1052  about the Z t  axis of the end effector (e.g. a yawing or twisting motion in the direction T i ). In such instances, the input control device  1000  comprises a six-degree of freedom joystick, which is configured to receive and detect six degrees-of-freedom—forces along the X, Y, and Z axes and moments about the X, Y, and Z axes. The forces can correspond to translational input and the moments can correspond to rotational inputs for the end effector  1052  of the associated surgical tool  1050 . Six degree-of-freedom input devices are further described herein. Additional degrees of freedom (e.g. for actuating the jaws of an end effector or rolling the end effector about a longitudinal axis) can be provided by additional joints supported by the joystick  1008 , as further described herein. 
     In various instances, the input control device  1000  includes a wrist or joint  1010  that is offset from the space joint  1006 . The wrist  1010  is offset from the space joint  1006  by a shaft, or lever,  1012  extending along the shaft axis S that is parallel to the axis X in the configuration shown in  FIG. 6 . For example, the joystick  1008  can extend upright vertically from the central portion  1002  and the base  1004 , and the joystick  1008  can support the shaft  1012 . 
     As further described herein, the space joint  1006  can define the input control motions for multiple degrees of freedom. For example, the space joint  1006  can define the input control motions for translation of the surgical tool in three-dimensional space and articulation of the surgical tool about at least one axis. Rolling motions can also be controlled by inputs to the space joint  1006 , as further described herein. Moreover, the wrist  1010  can define input control motions for at least one degree of freedom. For example, the wrist  1010  can define the input control motions for the rolling motion of the end effector. Moreover, the wrist  1010  can support an end effector actuator  1020 , which is further described herein, to apply open and closing motions to the end effector. 
     In certain instances, the rolling, yawing, and pitching motions of the input control device  1000  are translatable motions that define corresponding input control motions for the related end effector. In various instances, the input control device  1000  can utilize adjustable scaling and/or gains such that the motion of the end effector is scalable in relationship to the control motions delivered at the wrist  1010 . 
     In one aspect, the input control device  1000  includes a plurality of mechanical joints, which can be elastically-coupled components, sliders, journaled shafts, hinges, and/or rotary bearings, for example. The mechanical joints include a first joint  1040  (at the space joint  1006 ) intermediate the base  1004  and the central portion  1002 , which allows rotation and tilting of the central portion  1002  relative to the base  1004 , and a second joint  1044 , which allows rotation of the wrist  1010  relative to the joystick  1008 . In various instances, six degrees of freedom of a robotic end effector (e.g. three-dimensional translation and rotation about three different axes) can be controlled by user inputs at only these two joints  1040 ,  1044 , for example. Wth respect to motion at the first joint  1040 , the central portion  1002  can be configured to float relative to the base  1004  at elastic couplings, as further described herein. With respect to the second joint  1044 , the wrist  1010  can be rotatably coupled to the shaft  1012 , such that the wrist  1010  can rotate in the direction R ( FIG. 6 ) about the shaft axis S. Rotation of the wrist  1010  relative to the shaft  1012  can correspond to a rolling motion of an end effector about a central tool axis, such as the rolling of the end effector  1052  about the X t  axis. Rotation of the wrist  1010  by the surgeon to roll an end effector provides control of the rolling motion at the surgeon&#39;s fingertips and corresponds to a first-person perspective control of the end effector (i.e. from the surgeon&#39;s perspective, being “positioned” at the jaws of the remotely-positioned end effector at the surgical site). As further described herein, such placement and perspective can be utilized to supply precision control motions to the input control device  1000  during portions of a surgical procedure (e.g. a precision motion mode). 
     The various rotary joints of the input control device can include a sensor arrangement configured to detect the rotary input controls applied thereto. The wrist  1010  can include a rotary sensor (e.g. the sensor  1049  in  FIG. 25 ), which can be a rotary force/torque sensor and/or transducer, rotary strain gauge and/or strain gauge on a spring, rotary encoder, and/or an optical sensor to detect rotary displacement at the joint, for example. 
     In certain instances, the input control device  1000  can include one or more additional joints and/or hinges for the application of rotational input motions corresponding to articulation of an end effector. For example, the input control device  1000  can include a hinge along the shaft  1012  and/or between the shaft  1012  and the joystick  1008 . In one instance, hinged input motions at such a joint can be detected by another sensor arrangement and converted to rotary input control motions for the end effector, such as a yawing or pitching articulation of the end effector. Such an arrangement requires one or more additional sensor arrangements and would increase the mechanical complexity of the input control device. 
     The input control device  1000  also includes the end effector actuator  1020 . The end effector actuator  1020  includes opposing fingers  1022  extending from the wrist  1010  toward the joystick  1008  and the central portion  1002  of the space joint  1006 . The opposing fingers  1022  extend distally beyond the space joint  1006 . In such instances, the wrist  1010  is proximal to the space joint  1006 , and the distal ends  1024  of the opposing fingers  1022  are distal to the space joint  1006 , which mirrors the jaws being positioned distal to the articulation joints of a robotic tool, for example. Applying an actuation force to the opposing fingers  1022  comprises an input control for a surgical tool. For example, referring again to  FIG. 12 , applying a pinching force to the opposing fingers  1022  can close and/or clamp the jaws  1054  of the end effector  1052  (see arrows C in  FIG. 12 ). In various instances, applying a spreading force can open and/or release the jaws  1054  of the end effector  1052 , such as for a spread dissection task, for example. The end effector actuator  1020  can include at least one sensor for detecting input control motions applied to the opposing fingers  1022 . For example, the end effector actuator can include a displacement sensor and/or a rotary encoder for detecting the input control motions applied to pivot the opposing fingers  1022  relative to the shaft  1012 . 
     In various instances, the end effector actuator  1020  can include one or more loops  1030 , which are dimensioned and positioned to receive a surgeon&#39;s digits. For example, referring primarily to  FIGS. 10 and 11 , the surgeon&#39;s thumb T is positioned through one of the loops  1030  and the surgeon&#39;s middle finger M is positioned through the other loop  1030 . In such instances, the surgeon can pinch and/or spread his thumb T and middle finger M to actuate the end effector actuator  1020 . In other instances, the loops  1030  can be structured to receive more than one digit and, depending on the placement of the loops  1030 , different digits may engage the loops. In various instances, the finger loops  1030  can facilitate spread dissection functions and/or translation of the robotic tool upward or downward (i.e. the application of a vertical force at the space joint  1006 , for example). In certain instances, the loops  1030  can define complete loops; however, in other instances, partial loops (e.g. half-circles) can be utilized. In still other instances, the end effector actuator  1020  may not include the loops  1030 . For example, the end effector actuator  1020  can be spring-biased outwardly such that loops are not needed to draw the opposing fingers  1022  apart, such as for spread dissection functions. 
     The opposing fingers  1022  of the end effector actuator  1020  define a line of symmetry that is aligned with the longitudinal shaft axis S along which the shaft  1012  extends when the fingers  1022  are in unactuated positions. The line of symmetry is parallel to the axis X through the multi-dimensional space joint  1006 . Moreover, the central axis of the joystick  1008  is aligned with the line of symmetry. In various instances, the motion of the opposing fingers  1022  can be independent. In other words, the opposing fingers  1022  can be displaced asymmetrically relative to the longitudinal shaft axis S during an actuation. The displacement of the opposing fingers  1022  can depend on the force applied by the surgeon, for example. Wth certain surgical tools, the jaws of the end effector can pivot about an articulation axis such that various closed positions of the jaws are not longitudinally aligned with the shaft of the surgical tool. Moreover, in certain instances, it can be desirable to hold one jaw stationary, such as against fragile tissue and/or a critical structure, and to move the other jaw relative to the non-moving jaw. To accommodate such closure motions, the range of motion of the opposing fingers  1022  on the input control device  1000  can be larger than the range of motion of the jaws of the end effector, for example. For example, referring to  FIG. 12A , the surgical tool  1050 ′ is shown in an articulated configuration in which the jaws can be clamped together out of alignment with a longitudinal shaft axis of the surgical tool  1050 ′. In such instances, the jaws and, thus the fingers  1022  on the input control device  1000  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) would be actuated asymmetrically to move the jaws of the end effector  1052  to a closed configuration. 
     Referring now to  FIGS. 13A-15B , various control motions applied to the end effector actuator  1020  and corresponding actuations of an end effector  1062  are shown. The end effector  1062  includes opposing jaws  1064  that are movable between an open configuration ( FIG. 13A ), an intermediate configuration ( FIG. 14A ), and a closed configuration ( FIG. 15A ) as the opposing fingers  1022  of the end effector actuator  1020  move between an open configuration ( FIG. 13B ), an intermediate configuration ( FIG. 14B ), and a closed configuration ( FIG. 15B ), respectively. 
     The input control device  1000  also includes at least one additional actuator, such as the actuation buttons  1026 ,  1028 , for example, which can provide additional controls at the surgeon&#39;s fingertips. For example, the actuation buttons  1026 ,  1028  are positioned on the joystick  1008  of the input control device  1000  such that the surgeon can access the buttons  1026 ,  1026  with a digit, such as an index finger I. The actuation buttons  1026 ,  1028  can correspond to buttons for activating the surgical tool, such as firing, extending, activating, translating, and/or retracting a knife, energizing one or more electrodes, adjusting an energy modularity, affecting diagnostics, biopsy sampling, ablation, and/or other surgical tasks, for example. In other instances, the actuation buttons  1026 ,  1028  can provide inputs to an imaging system to adjust a view of the surgical tool, such as zooming in/out, panning, tracking, titling and/or rotating, for example. In certain instance the actuators can be positioned in different locations than the actuation buttons  1026 ,  1028 , such as positioned for use by a thumb or another digit, for example. Additionally or alternatively, the actuators can be provided on a touch screen and/or foot pedal, for example. 
     Referring primarily now to  FIGS. 10 and 11 , a user is configured to position his or her hand relative to the input control device  1000  such that the wrist  1010  is proximal to the space joint  1006 . More specifically, the user&#39;s palm is positioned adjacent to the wrist  1010  and the user&#39;s fingers extend distally toward the joystick  1008  and the central portion  1002  of the space joint  1006 . Distally-extending fingers  1022  (for actuation of the jaws) and the actuation buttons  1026 ,  1028  (for actuation of a surgical function at the jaws) are distal to the space joint  1006  and wrist  1010 . Such a configuration mirrors the configuration of a surgical tool in which the end effector is distal to a more-proximal articulation joint(s) and/or rotatable shaft and, thus, provides an intuitive arrangement that facilitates a surgeon&#39;s training and adoption of the input control device  1000 . 
     In various instances, a clutch-less input control device including a six degree-of-freedom input control, an end effector actuator, and additional actuation buttons can define alternative geometries to the input control device  1000 . Stated differently, a clutch-less input control device does not prescribe the specific form of the joystick assembly of the input control device  1000 . Rather, a wide range of interfaces may be designed based on formative testing and user preferences. In various instances, a robotic system can allow for users to choose from a variety of different forms to select the style that best suits his/her needs. For example, a pincher, pistol, ball, pen, and/or a hybrid grip, among other input controls, can be supported. Alternative designs are further described herein and in various commonly-owned patent applications that have been incorporated by reference herein in their respective entireties. 
     In various instances, the input controls for the input control device  1000  are segmented between first control motions and second control motions. For example, first control motions and/or parameters therefor can be actuated in a first mode and second control motions and/or parameters therefor can be actuated in a second mode. The mode can be based on a factor provided by the surgeon and/or the surgical robot control system and/or detected during the surgical procedure. For example, the mode can depend on the proximity of the surgical tool to tissue, such as the proximity of the surgical tool to the surface of tissue and/or to a critical structure. Various distance determining systems for determining proximity to one or more exposed and/or at least partially hidden critical structures are further described herein. 
     In one instance, referring now to  FIG. 25 , the input control device  1000  can be communicatively coupled to a control circuit  832  of a control system  833 , which is further described herein. In the control system  833 , the control circuit  832  can receive input signals from the input control device  1000 , such as feedback detected by the various sensors therein and related to control inputs at the joystick  1008  and/or wrist  1010  and/or outputs from the various sensors thereon (e.g. the sensor arrangement  1048  and/or the rotary sensor  1049  at the wrist  1010 . For example, signals detected by the sensor arrangement  1048 , i.e. the multi-axis force and torque sensor of the space joint  1006 , can be provided to the control circuit  832 . Additionally, signals detected by the sensor  1049 , i.e., the rotary sensor of the wrist  1010 , can be provided to the control circuit  832 . A memory  834  for the control system  833  also includes control logic for implementing the input controls provided to the input control device  1000  and detected by the various sensors (e.g. the sensors  1048  and  1049 ). 
     Referring now to  FIG. 11A , control logic  1068  for the input control device  1000  can implement a first mode  1070  if the distance determined by a distance determining subsystem is greater than or equal to a critical distance and can implement a second mode  1072  if the distance determined by the distance determining subsystem is less than the critical distance. The control logic can be utilized in the control circuit  832 , a control circuit  1400  ( FIG. 11C ), a combinational logical circuit  1410  ( FIG. 11D ), and/or a sequential logic circuit  1420  ( FIG. 11E ), for example, where an input is provided from inputs to the input control device  1000  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) and/or a surgical visualization system or distance determining subsystem thereof, as further described herein. 
     For example, turning to  FIG. 11C , the control circuit  1400  can be configured to control aspects of the input control device  1000 , according to at least one aspect of this disclosure. The control circuit  1400  can be configured to implement various processes described herein. The control circuit  1400  may comprise a microcontroller comprising one or more processors  1402  (e.g., microprocessor, microcontroller) coupled to at least one memory circuit  1404 . The memory circuit  1404  stores machine-executable instructions that, when executed by the processor  1402 , cause the processor  1402  to execute machine instructions to implement various processes described herein. The processor  1402  may be any one of a number of single-core or multicore processors known in the art. The memory circuit  1404  may comprise volatile and non-volatile storage media. The processor  1402  may include an instruction processing unit  1406  and an arithmetic unit  1408 . The instruction processing unit  1406  may be configured to receive instructions from the memory circuit  1404  of this disclosure. 
       FIG. 11D  illustrates the combinational logic circuit  1410  that can be configured to control aspects of the input control device  1000 , according to at least one aspect of this disclosure. The combinational logic circuit  1410  can be configured to implement various processes described herein. The combinational logic circuit  1410  may comprise a finite state machine comprising a combinational logic  1412  configured to receive data associated with the input control device  1000  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) and a surgical visualization system and/or distance determining subsystem thereof from an input  1414 , process the data by the combinational logic  1412 , and provide an output  1416 . 
       FIG. 11E  illustrates a sequential logic circuit  1420  configured to control aspects of the input control device  1000  ( FIGS. 6-11 ), according to at least one aspect of this disclosure. For example, the sequential logic circuit  1420  or the combinational logic  1422  can be configured to implement various processes described herein. The sequential logic circuit  1420  may comprise a finite state machine. The sequential logic circuit  1420  may comprise a combinational logic  1422 , at least one memory circuit  1424 , and a clock  1429 , for example. The at least one memory circuit  1424  can store a current state of the finite state machine. In certain instances, the sequential logic circuit  1420  may be synchronous or asynchronous. The combinational logic  1422  is configured to receive data associated with the input control device  1000  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) and a surgical visualization system and/or distance determining subsystem thereof from an input  1426 , process the data by the combinational logic  1422 , and provide an output  1428 . In other aspects, the circuit may comprise a combination of a processor (e.g., processor  1402  in  FIG. 11C ) and a finite state machine to implement various processes herein. In other aspects, the finite state machine may comprise a combination of a combinational logic circuit (e.g., combinational logic circuit  1410  in  FIG. 11D ) and the sequential logic circuit  1420 . Control circuits similar to the control circuits  1400 ,  1410 , and  1420  can also be utilized to control various aspects of a surgical robot and/or surgical visualization system, as further described herein. 
     In various instances, the input control device  1000  is configured to operate in different modes, such as a gross mode and a precision mode, for example. The variation in control motions in the different modes can be accomplished by selecting a preset scaling profile. For example, control motions with the multi-dimensional space joint  1006  can be scaled up for gross mode such that small forces on the space joint  1006  result in significant displacements of the end effector. Moreover, the control motions with the wrist  1010  can be scaled down for precision mode such that large moments at the wrist  1010  result in fine rotational displacements of the end effector. The preset scaling profile can be user-selected and/or depend on the type and/or complexity of a surgical procedure and/or the experience of the surgeon, for example. Alternative operational modes and settings are also contemplated. 
     Referring again to  FIG. 11A , in certain instances, the first mode 1070  can correspond to a gross control mode and the second mode  1072  can correspond to a precision control mode. One or more user inputs to the space joint  1006  can correspond to control inputs to affect gross motion of the surgical tool in the first mode  1070 , such as the large displacements of the surgical tool toward the surgical site. One or more inputs to the wrist  1010  can define the rotational displacements of the surgical tool, such as the rolling rotary displacement of the surgical end effector at the surgical site. The segmented controls can be selectively locked out, such that rolling rotational inputs at the wrist  1010  are disabled during portions of a surgical procedure and one or more inputs at the space joint  1006  are disabled during other portions of the surgical procedure. For example, it can be desirable to lock out the rolling rotational inputs during the first mode  1070 , such as when the surgical end effector is positioned outside a threshold proximity zone around a surgical site and/or critical structure. Moreover, in various instances, the control motions for the space joint  1006  and/or the wrist  1010  can be scaled up or down based on input from the distance determining system. The scaling parameters for the control motions provided to the space joint  1006  and the wrist  1010  can be different in the first mode  1070  and the second mode  1072 . For example, the velocity of the robotic tool can be slowed down during a precision motion mode and sped up during a gross motion mode. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 11B , a table depicting scaling scenarios in various operational modes is depicted. An input control device, such as the input control device  1000  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) can be configured to receive at least six different inputs (e.g. Input A, Input B, etc.) corresponding to six degrees of freedom of a surgical tool coupled thereto. The inputs can be scaled based on the operational mode (e.g. the first mode  1070 , the second mode  1072 , etc.), which is determined by an input to the control circuit, such as proximity data from a distance determining subsystem of a surgical visualization system, for example. A first list of rules  1074  comprises first control parameters for controlling the surgical tool based on input from the input control device  1000 . A second list of rules  1076  comprise second control parameters for controlling the surgical tool based on input from the input control device  1000 . In certain instances, such as when an input is “locked out”, the variable value in the list of rules  1074 ,  1076  can be zero. Additional modes and additional rules/control parameters are contemplated. 
     In various aspects, the gross motions described in the present disclosure are gross translational motions characterized by speeds selected from a range of about 3 inches/second to about 4 inches/second. In at least one example, a gross translational motion, in accordance with the present disclosure, is about 3.5 inches/second. In various aspects, by contrast, the fine motions described in the present disclosure can be fine translational motions characterized by speeds less than or equal to 1.5 inch/second. In various aspects, the fine motions described in the present disclosure can be fine translational motions characterized by speeds selected from a range of about 0.5 inches/second to about 2.5 inches/second. 
     In various aspects, the gross motions described in the present disclosure are gross rotational motions characterized by speeds selected from a range of about 10 radians/second to about 14 radians/second. In at least one example, a gross rotational motion, in accordance with the present disclosure, is about 12.6 radians/second. In various aspects, by contrast, the fine motions described in the present disclosure can be fine rotational motions characterized by speeds selected from a range of about 2 radians/second to about 4 radians/second. In at least one example, a fine rotational motion, in accordance with the present disclosure, is about 2.3 radians/second. 
     In various aspects, the gross motions of the present disclosure are two to six times greater than the fine motions. In various aspects, the gross motions of the present disclosure are three to five times greater than the fine motions. 
     As described herein, the space joint  1006  can define input control motions for six degrees of freedom. For example, the space joint  1006  can define the input control motions for non-rotational translation of the surgical tool in three-dimensional space and rotation of the surgical tool about three different axes. In such instances, the joystick  1008  is configured to receive inputs in three-dimensional space and about three axes of rotation. Moreover, the end effector actuator  1020  (e.g. a jaw closure mechanism) is built into a six degree-of-freedom joystick assembly comprising the joystick  1008  and associated sensors in the base  1004 . The input control motions from the space joint  1006  can be selectively locked out and/or scaled during different portions of a surgical procedure. 
     An exemplary six-degree of freedom input control device  1100  is depicted in  FIGS. 18-22 . In various instances, such an input device can be incorporated into a user input device for a surgical robot, such as the input control device  1000  ( FIGS. 6-11 ), for example. The input control device  1100  includes a frame or base  1101 , which typically remains stationary on a surface such as a desk or table during use, and a cap  1102 , which is movably mounted on the base  1101  and forms the input mechanism by which a user may input movements that are detected and interpreted by the input control device  1100 . In particular, the cap  1102  of the input control device  1100  is designed to be grasped by the user and manipulated relative to the base  1101  to generate the desired input. To determine the relative movements or positions of the cap  1102  and base  1101 , the input control device  1100  includes a first board member  1110  fixed relative to the base  1101  of the input control device  1100 , a second board member  1120  resiliently mounted in spaced relation to the first board member  1110  and adapted for movement or displacement relative thereto, and a plurality of optoelectronic measuring cells  1118  for determining relative movements or displacements between the first and second board members  1110 ,  1120 . The second board member  1120  is elastically connected to the first board  1110  by a plurality of equally-spaced coil spring elements  1106 . 
     Each of the measuring cells  1118  for determining the relative movements and/or positions of the first and second boards  1110 ,  1120  comprises a light emitting element in the form of an infrared light-emitting diode (I LED)  1113  ( FIGS. 18 and 19 ) projecting from on an upper side the first board  1110  and a position-sensitive infrared detector (PSID)  1123  ( FIG. 20 ) mounted on an underside of the second board  1120  and facing the first board  1110 . Furthermore, a light shield housing  1130  is provided between the first board  1110  and the second board  1120  for effectively housing the I LEDs  1113  and for shielding the PSI Ds  1123  from any unwanted or extraneous light that might otherwise affect the accuracy of the readings the PSIDs  1123  provide. 
     The light shield housing  1130  has a generally hollow structure with a number of cavities  1131  defined therein that form individual light-path channels between each ILED  1113  on the first board  1110  and its respective PSID  1123  mounted on the second board  1120 . Furthermore, as shown in  FIG. 19 , the light shield housing  1130  includes slit diaphragms  1132  formed in a top wall  1133  thereof such that each of the slit diaphragms  1132  is arranged in the light-path between an ILED  1113  and the respective PSID  1123  that the ILED  1113  is intended to illuminate. 
     The light shield housing  1130  is thus configured to define a plurality of light beam paths between the ILEDs  1113  on the first board  1110  and the PSIDs  1123  on the second board  1120 , such that each of the light beam paths is arranged to extend at an angle in the range of about 30° to about 60° (and preferably at about 45°) relative to the plane of the first board  1110 , i.e. relative to a base reference plane for the input control device  1100 . Furthermore, the light beam paths which are defined by the light-path channels  1131  formed along each side of the light shield housing  1130  thereby extend in three separate, intersecting planes corresponding to the planes of the housing sides. That is, the light beam paths of the two measuring cells  1118  having a common PSID  1123  may be considered to lie within the same plane. The light shield housing  1130  is thereby designed to form a three-dimensional array of light beam paths between the ILEDs  1113  and the PSI Ds  1123 . This, in turn, provides for a particularly compact optoelectronic device  1100 , while also affording great flexibility in modifications to the shape of the light shield housing  1130 . 
     Wth further reference to  FIG. 20 , because each of the PSIDs  1123  is illuminated by two separate ILEDs  1113 , each of the sides of the generally three-sided light shield housing  1130  is divided into two separate light-path channels  1131  by a central dividing wall  1114 . In this way, each PSID  1123  is illuminated by its two separate ILEDs  1113  via two separate slit diaphragms  1132 . Each of the slits  1132  provides optical communication with the associated PSI D for only one of the I LEDs  1113 . That is, each I LED  1113  is provided with its own dedicated slit diaphragm  1132 . The slit diaphragms  1132  of each pair are arranged substantially parallel and extend generally perpendicular to a light-sensitive part of the associated PSID  1123 . 
     Referring primarily to  FIG. 18 , the optoelectronic device  1100  further includes a stop arrangement  1140 , which is designed to provide a physical barrier to movement or displacement of the second board  1120  relative to the first board  1110  beyond a specific predetermined limit. The stop arrangement  1140  thereby prevents any inadvertent overloading of the input control device  1100  during use. The stop arrangement  1140  includes a plate-like connecting member  1142  and pin member  1141 . 
     Openings or holes  1124  formed through the second board  1120  have a diameter substantially larger than the diameter of the pin members  1141  they receive. In the neutral position of the second board  1120  relative to the first board  1110 , each of the pin members  1141  can be positioned substantially centrally in its respective hole  1124  through the second board  1120 . By virtue of the resilient deformability of the three coil spring elements  1106  connecting the board members  1110 ,  1120 , the second board  1120  is able to move laterally and rotationally in a plane parallel to the first board  1110  within the limits defined by the holes  1124  and the sides of the pin members  1141 . As shown in  FIG. 21 , as the second board  1120  is rotated counterclockwise from its neutral position relative to the first board  1110  against the bias of the coil spring elements  1106 , the edges of the holes  1124  eventually engage the lateral sides of the pin members  1141 , which in turn act as a stop and prevent further rotation of the second board  1120 . The same effect naturally also occurs for clockwise rotations or lateral translations of the second board  1120 . In various instances, elastomeric elements  1107  in the form of foam blocks, for example, can form a cushion for the pin members  1141  of the stop arrangement  1140 . 
     Wth particular reference to  FIG. 22 , when a tilting (i.e. rotational) movement is applied to the second board  1120  (via the cap  1102 ) as shown, the second board  1120  will deflect until, after a predetermined amount of tilting has occurred, the second board  1120  engages the plate-like connecting member  1142  in an angled peripheral region  1143 . The contact or engagement with the angled peripheral region  1143  of the fixed plate-like connecting member  1142  acts to stop further relative movement of the second board  1120  in that direction. Simultaneously, or even alternatively, an upper inside surface of the cap  1102  may engage a corresponding angled peripheral region  1143  of the plate-like connecting member  1142  as indicated in  FIG. 22 . The first board  1110 , the light shield housing  1130  and the stop arrangement  1140  can all remain stationary relative to the frame of the input control device  1100 , while the cap  1102  and the second board  1120  are moved relative thereto during operation of the device. The input control device  1100  as well as various alternative designs and/or features thereof are further described in European Patent Application No. 1,850,210, titled OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICE FOR DETERMINING RELATIVE MOVEMENTS OR RELATIVE POSITIONS OF TWO OBJECTS, published Oct. 31, 2007, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
     Certain input control devices, such as the input devices at the surgeon&#39;s console  116  in  FIGS. 1 and 2  can be bulky and require a large footprint within an operating room. Additionally, the surgeon can be required to stay in a predefined location (e.g. sitting at the surgeon&#39;s console  116 ) as long as the surgeon remains actively involved in the surgical procedure. Additionally, the ergonomics of the input control devices may be less than desirable for many surgeons and can be difficult to adjust and/or customize, which can take a toll on the health and longevity of the surgeon&#39;s career and/or lead to fatigue within a surgical case. 
     A compact input control device, which requires a smaller footprint, can be incorporated into an adjustable workspace rather than the surgeon&#39;s console  116 . The adjustable workspace can allow a range of positioning of the input control device. In various instances, one or more compact input control devices can be positioned and/or moved around the operating room, such as near a patient table and/or within a sterile field, such that the surgeon can select a preferred position for controlling the robotic surgical procedure without being confined to a predefined location at a bulky surgeon&#39;s console. Moreover, the adaptability of the compact input control device can allow the input control device to be positioned at an adjustable workspace. 
     For example, referring now to  FIGS. 16-17A , the input control device  1000  is incorporated into an adjustable workspace  1080  for a surgeon. The adjustable workspace  1080  includes a surface or desk  1082  and a monitor  1088  for viewing the surgical procedure via the endoscope. The desk  1082  and/or the monitor  1088  can be repositioned at different heights. In various instances, a first height can be selected such that the surgeon can stand at the desk  1082  and, at a different time, a second height can be selected such that the surgeon can sit at the desk  1082 . Additionally or alternatively, the sitting and standing heights can be adjusted for different surgeons. Moreover, the desk  1082  can be moved relative to the monitor  1088  and the monitor  1088  can be moved relative to the desk  1082 . For example, the desk  1082  and/or the monitor  1088  can be supported on releasably lockable wheels or casters. Similarly, a chair can be moved relative to the desk  1082  and the monitor  1088 . In such instances, the X, Y, and Z positions of the various components of the adjustable workspace  1080  can be customized by the surgeon. 
     The desk  1082  includes a foot pedal board  1086 ; however, in other instances, a foot pedal board  1086  may not be incorporated into the desk  1082 . In certain instances, the foot pedal board  1086  can be separate from the desk  1082 , such that the position of the foot pedal board  1086  relative to the desk  1082  and/or chair can be adjustable as well. 
     In various instances, the adjustable workspace  1080  can be modular and moved toward the patient table or bedside. In such instances, the adjustable workspace  1080  can be draped with a sterile barrier and positioned within the sterile field. The adjustable workspace  1080  can house and/or support the processors and/or computers for implementing the teleoperation of the surgical robot from inputs to the input control device  1000  at the adjustable workspace  1080 . Moreover, the desk  1082  includes a platform or surface  1084  that is suitable for supporting the arm(s)/wrist(s) of the surgeon with limited mechanical adjustments thereto. 
     Owing to the smaller size and reduced range of motion of the input control device  1000 , as well as the adjustability of the workspace  1080 , the surgeon&#39;s console can define a low profile and require a smaller footprint in the operating room. Smaller consoles can provide more space in the operating room. Additionally, the smaller footprint can allow multiple users (e.g. an experienced surgeon and less experienced surgeon or trainee, such as a medical student or resident) to cooperatively perform a surgical procedure in close proximity, which can facilitate training. The small input control devices can be utilized in a stimulator or real system, for example, and can be remote to the surgical theater and/or at the robotic surgical system. 
     Referring primarily to  FIGS. 16 and 17A , the adjustable workspace  1080  also supports additional axillary devices. For example, a keyboard  1090  and a touchpad  1092  are supported on the surface  1084  of the desk  1082 . Alternative axillary devices are also contemplated, such as a traditional computer mouse and other imaging and diagnostic equipment such as registered magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computerized tomography (CT) scan data, images, and medical histories, for example. The axillary devices can control the graphical user interface on the monitor  1088 , and the input control devices  1000  can control the teleoperation of the surgical robot. In such instances, the two distinct control inputs allow the surgeon to control teleoperation functions using the clutch-less, input control device(s)  1000  while engaging with the graphical user interface on the monitor  1088  with more conventional techniques. As a result, the user can interact with applications on the monitor  1088  concurrently with the teleoperation of the surgical robot. Moreover, the dual, segregated control input creates a clear cognitive distinction between the teleoperation environment and the graphical user interface environment. 
     In various instances, an adjustable workspace for the surgeon can be desired. For example, the surgeon may want to be free and/or untethered and/or unconfined to a predefined location at the surgeon&#39;s console, as further described herein. In certain instances, a surgeon may want to relocate during a surgical procedure. For example, a surgeon may want to “scrub in” quickly during a surgical procedure and enter the sterile field in order to view the surgical procedure and/or the patient in-person, rather than on a video monitor. Moreover, a surgeon may not want to give up control of the surgical robot as the surgeon relocates. 
     A mobile input control device can allow the surgeon to relocate and even enter the sterile field during a surgical procedure. The mobile input control device can be modular, for example, and compatible with different docking stations within an operating room. In various instances, the mobile portion of the input control device can be a single-use device, which can be sterilized for use within the sterile field. 
     As an example, referring now to  FIG. 23 , an input control device  1200  is shown. The input control device  1200  includes a base  1204 , which is similar to the base  1004  of the input control device  1000  in many respects. The input control device  1200  can include a multi-axis force and torque sensor  1203 , as described herein, which is configured to detect forces and moments applied to the base  1204  by a modular joystick component  1208 , which is similar to the joystick  1008  in many respects. The modular joystick component  1208  can be releasably docked in the base  1204  to apply forces for detection by the sensor  1203  housed therein. A shaft  1212 , which is similar to the shaft  1012  in many respects, extends from the joystick  1208  and supports at least one movable finger  1222 , which is similar to the fingers  1022  in many respects. Similar to the input control device  1000 , the input control device  1200  can also include a wrist rotatably coupled to the modular joystick component  1208 , which can be rotated to supply control motions such as a rolling control motion for a surgical end effector. For example, the shaft  1212  can include a wrist component at a proximal end  1225  thereof. 
     In operation, the input control device  1200  can be engaged by the hand of a surgeon. Forces applied by the surgeon&#39;s hand are detected and corresponding signals are conveyed to a control unit for controlling a robotic surgical tool in signal communication with the input control device  1200 . In such instances, forces applied in the X, Y, and Z directions can correspond to translation of the end effector of the surgical tool in the X, Y, and Z directions, and moments about the X, Y, and Z axes can correspond to rotation of the end effector about the X, Y, and Z axes. In various instances, controls by the input control device  1200  can be segmented based on the detected input and/or position of the end effector at the surgical site (e.g. proximity to an anatomical and/or critical structure). 
     The input control device  1200  includes separable components including the base  1204 , which is separable from the modular joystick component  1208 . In certain instances, the modular joystick component  1208  can nest and/or fit within an opening  1205  in the base  1204 . In various instances, the joystick  1208  and the base  1204  can mechanically and electrically couple. In various instances, the opening  1205  in the base  1204  can include a registration key, which allows the joystick component  1208  to be received within the opening  1205  at a set angular orientation, such that the position of the modular joystick component  1208  relative to the base  1204  is known. 
     In various instances, the modular joystick component  1208  and the base  1204  can include communication modules that enable communication therebetween. Because the communication does not require high powered signals, near-field communication protocols can be utilized in various instances. A sterile barrier  1230  can extend between the modular components of the input control device  1200 . The sterile barrier  1230  is a thin and flexible sheet positioned between the modular components, for example. Near-field communication signals can travel through such a layer of material. The sterile barrier  1230  can define a drape or sheet that covers the base  1204 , for example. In one aspect, the drape can include a thin element of plastic or elastomeric material for positioning, location, and transference of forces. 
     In certain instances, the base  1204  can be positioned in the sterile field during a surgical procedure. For example, the base  1204  can be mounted onto a bedrail  1232  and/or table adjacent to the patient. In certain instances, the base  1204  can be a reusable or multi-use component of the input control device  1200 . A plurality of bases  1204  can be positioned around a surgical theater, such as a remote surgeon&#39;s console outside the sterile field and on the patient table within the sterile field, among other locations, for example. 
     The joystick component  1208  can be compatible with each base  1204 . In various instances, the joystick component  1208  can be a disposable and/or single-use component. In other instances, the joystick component  1208  can be re-sterilized between uses. For example, the joystick component  1208  can be sterilized (e.g. low-temperature sterilization) and sealed prior to use. When the surgeon moves into the sterile field during a surgical procedure, the sealed joystick component  1208  can be unsealed and ready to use. After the use, the joystick component  1208  can be disposed and/or sterilized for a subsequent use. 
     Visualization Systems 
     “Digital surgery” can embrace robotic systems, advanced imaging, advanced instrumentation, artificial intelligence, machine learning, data analytics for performance tracking and benchmarking, connectivity both inside and outside of the operating room (OR), and more. Although various surgical platforms described herein can be used in combination with a robotic surgical system, such surgical platforms are not limited to use with a robotic surgical system. In certain instances, advanced surgical visualization can occur without robotics, without the telemanipulation of robotic tools, and/or with limited and/or optional robotic assistance. Similarly, digital surgery can occur without robotics, without the telemanipulation of robotic tools, and/or with limited and/or optional robotic assistance. 
     In one instance, a surgical visualization system can include a first light emitter configured to emit a plurality of spectral waves, a second light emitter configured to emit a light pattern, and one or more receivers, or sensors, configured to detect visible light, molecular responses to the spectral waves (spectral imaging), and/or the light pattern. The surgical visualization system can also include an imaging system and a control circuit in signal communication with the receiver(s) and the imaging system. Based on output from the receiver(s), the control circuit can determine a geometric surface map, i.e. three-dimensional surface topography, of the visible surfaces at the surgical site and one or more distances with respect to the surgical site. In certain instances, the control circuit can determine one more distances to an at least partially concealed structure. Moreover, the imaging system can convey the geometric surface map and the one or more distances to a clinician. In such instances, an augmented view of the surgical site provided to the clinician can provide a representation of the at least partially concealed structure within the relevant context of the surgical site. For example, the imaging system can virtually augment the concealed structure on the geometric surface map of the concealing and/or obstructing tissue similar to a line drawn on the ground to indicate a utility line below the surface. Additionally or alternatively, the imaging system can convey the proximity of one or more surgical tools to the visible and obstructing tissue and/or to the at least partially concealed structure and/or the depth of the concealed structure below the visible surface of the obstructing tissue. For example, the visualization system can determine a distance with respect to an augmented line on the surface of the visible tissue and convey the distance to the imaging system. In various instances, the surgical visualization system can gather data and convey information intraoperatively. 
       FIG. 24  depicts a surgical visualization system  500  according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. The surgical visualization system  500  may be incorporated into a robotic surgical system, such as a robotic system  510 . The robotic system  510  can be similar to the robotic system  110  ( FIG. 1 ) and the robotic system  150  ( FIG. 3 ) in many respects. Alternative robotic systems are also contemplated. The robotic system  510  includes at least one robotic arm, such as the first robotic arm  512  and the second robotic arm  514 . The robotic arms  512 ,  514  include rigid structural members and joints, which can include servomotor controls. The first robotic arm  512  is configured to maneuver a surgical device  502 , and the second robotic arm  514  is configured to maneuver the imaging device  520 . A robotic control unit can be configured to issue control motions to the robotic arms  512 ,  514 , which can affect the surgical device  502  and an imaging device  520 , for example. The surgical visualization system  500  can create a visual representation of various structures within an anatomical field. The surgical visualization system  500  can be used for clinical analysis and/or medical intervention, for example. In certain instances, the surgical visualization system  500  can be used intraoperatively to provide real-time, or near real-time, information to the clinician regarding proximity data, dimensions, and/or distances during a surgical procedure. 
     In certain instances, a surgical visualization system is configured for intraoperative, real-time identification of one or more critical structures, such as critical structures  501   a ,  501   b  in  FIG. 24  and/or to facilitate the avoidance of the critical structure(s)  501   a ,  501   b  by a surgical device. In other instances, critical structures can be identified preoperatively. In this example, the critical structure  501   a  is a ureter and the critical structure  501   b  is a vessel in tissue  503 , which is an organ, i.e. the uterus. Alternative critical structures are contemplated and numerous examples are provided herein. By identifying the critical structure(s)  501   a ,  501   b , a clinician can avoid maneuvering a surgical device too close to the critical structure(s)  501   a ,  501   b  and/or into a region of predefined proximity to the critical structure(s)  501   a ,  501   b  during a surgical procedure. The clinician can avoid dissection of and/or near a vein, artery, nerve, and/or vessel, for example, identified as the critical structure, for example. In various instances, the critical structures can be determined on a procedure-by-procedure basis. The critical structures can be patient specific. 
     Critical structures can be structures of interest. For example, critical structures can include anatomical structures such as a ureter, an artery such as a superior mesenteric artery, a vein such as a portal vein, a nerve such as a phrenic nerve, and/or a tumor, among other anatomical structures. In other instances, a critical structure can be a foreign structure in the anatomical field, such as a surgical device, surgical fastener, clip, tack, bougie, band, and/or plate, for example. Critical structures can be determined on a patient-by-patient and/or a procedure-by-procedure basis. Example critical structures are further described herein and in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,192, titled VISUALIZATION OF SURGICAL DEVICES, filed Sep. 11, 2018, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
     Referring again to  FIG. 24 , the critical structures  501   a ,  501   b  may be embedded in tissue  503 . Stated differently, the critical structures  501   a ,  501   b  may be positioned below the surface  505  of the tissue  503 . In such instances, the tissue  503  conceals the critical structures  501   a ,  501   b  from the clinician&#39;s view. The critical structures  501   a ,  501   b  are also obscured from the view of the imaging device  520  by the tissue  503 . The tissue  503  can be fat, connective tissue, adhesions, and/or organs, for example. In various instances, the critical structures  501   a ,  501   b  can be partially obscured from view. 
       FIG. 24  also depicts the surgical device  502 . The surgical device  502  includes an end effector having opposing jaws extending from the distal end of the shaft of the surgical device  502 . The surgical device  502  can be any suitable surgical device such as, for example, a dissector, a stapler, a grasper, a clip applier, and/or an energy device including mono-polar probes, bi-polar probes, ablation probes, and/or an ultrasonic end effector. Additionally or alternatively, the surgical device  502  can include another imaging or diagnostic modality, such as an ultrasound device, for example. In one aspect of the present disclosure, the surgical visualization system  500  can be configured to achieve identification of one or more critical structures and the proximity of the surgical device  502  to the critical structure(s). 
     The surgical visualization system  500  includes an imaging subsystem that includes an imaging device  520 , such as a camera, for example, configured to provide real-time views of the surgical site. The imaging device  520  can include a camera or imaging sensor that is configured to detect visible light, spectral light waves (visible or invisible), and/or a structured light pattern (visible or invisible), for example. In various aspects of the present disclosure, the imaging system can include an imaging device such as an endoscope, for example. Additionally or alternatively, the imaging system can include an imaging device such as an arthroscope, angioscope, bronchoscope, choledochoscope, colonoscope, cytoscope, duodenoscope, enteroscope, esophagogastro-duodenoscope (gastroscope), laryngoscope, nasopharyngo-neproscope, sigmoidoscope, thoracoscope, ureteroscope, or exoscope, for example. In other instances, such as in open surgery applications, the imaging system may not include a scope. 
     The imaging device  520  of the surgical visualization system  500  can be configured to emit and detect light at various wavelengths, such as, for example, visible light, spectral light wavelengths (visible or invisible), and a structured light pattern (visible or invisible). The imaging device  520  may include a plurality of lenses, sensors, and/or receivers for detecting the different signals. For example, the imaging device  520  can be a hyperspectral, multispectral, or selective spectral camera, as further described herein. The imaging device  520  can also include a waveform sensor  522  (such as a spectral image sensor, detector, and/or three-dimensional camera lens). For example, the imaging device  520  can include a right-side lens and a left-side lens used together to record two two-dimensional images at the same time and, thus, generate a three-dimensional image of the surgical site, render a three-dimensional image of the surgical site, and/or determine one or more distances at the surgical site. Additionally or alternatively, the imaging device  520  can be configured to receive images indicative of the topography of the visible tissue and the identification and position of hidden critical structures, as further described herein. For example, the field of view of the imaging device  520  can overlap with a pattern of light (structured light) formed by light arrays  530  projected on the surface  505  of the tissue  503 , as shown in  FIG. 24 . 
     Views from the imaging device  520  can be provided to a clinician and, in various aspects of the present disclosure, can be augmented with additional information based on the tissue identification, landscape mapping, and the distance sensor system  504 . In such instances, the surgical visualization system  500  includes a plurality of subsystems—an imaging subsystem, a surface mapping subsystem, a tissue identification subsystem, and/or a distance determining subsystem, as further described herein. These subsystems can cooperate to intraoperatively provide advanced data synthesis and integrated information to the clinician(s) and/or to a control unit. For example, information from one or more of these subsystems can inform a decision-making process of a clinician and/or a control unit for an input control device of the robotic system. 
     The surgical visualization system  500  can include one or more subsystems for determining the three-dimensional topography, or surface maps, of various structures within the anatomical field, such as the surface of tissue. Exemplary surface mapping systems include Lidar (light radar), Structured Light (SL), three-dimensional (3D) stereoscopy (stereo), Deformable-Shape-from-Motion (DSfM), Shape-from-Shading (SfS), Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM), and Time-of-Flight (ToF). Various surface mapping systems are further described herein and in L. Maier-Hein et al., “Optical techniques for 3D surface reconstruction in computer-assisted laparoscopic surgery”, Medical Image Analysis 17 (2013) 974-996, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety and is available at www.sciencedirect.com/science (last accessed Jan. 8, 2019). The surgical visualization system  500  can also determine proximity to various structures within the anatomical field, including the surface of tissue, as further described herein. 
     In various aspect of the present disclosure, the surface mapping subsystem can be achieved with a light pattern system, as further described herein. The use of a light pattern (or structured light) for surface mapping is known. Known surface mapping techniques can be utilized in the surgical visualization systems described herein. 
     Structured light is the process of projecting a known pattern (often a grid or horizontal bars) on to a surface. U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2017/0055819, titled SET COMPRISING A SURGICAL INSTRUMENT, published Mar. 2, 2017, and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2017/0251900, titled DEPICTION SYSTEM, published Sep. 7, 2017, disclose a surgical system comprising a light source and a projector for projecting a light pattern. U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2017/0055819, titled SET COMPRISING A SURGICAL INSTRUMENT, published March 2, 2017, and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2017/0251900, titled DEPICTION SYSTEM, published Sep. 7, 2017, are incorporated by reference herein in their respective entireties. 
       FIG. 37  illustrates a structured (or patterned) light system  700 , according to at least one aspect of the present disclosure. As described herein, structured light in the form of stripes or lines, for example, can be projected from a light source and/or projector  706  onto the surface  705  of targeted anatomy to identify the shape and contours of the surface  705 . A camera  720 , which can be similar in various respects to the imaging device  520  ( FIG. 24 ), for example, can be configured to detect the projected pattern of light on the surface  705 . The way that the projected pattern deforms upon striking the surface  705  allows vision systems to calculate the depth and surface information of the targeted anatomy. 
     In certain instances, invisible (or imperceptible) structured light can be utilized. The structured light can be used without interfering with other computer vision tasks for which the projected pattern may be confusing. For example, the frames with the light pattern can be isolated from the frames that are shown (e.g. augmented out). In still other instances, infrared light or extremely fast frame rates of visible light that alternate between two exact opposite patterns can be utilized to prevent interference. Structured light is further described at en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_light. 
     Referring again to  FIG. 24 , in one aspect, the surgical visualization system  500  includes an emitter  506 , which is configured to emit a pattern of light, such as stripes, grid lines, and/or dots, to enable the determination of the topography or landscape of the surface  505  of the tissue  503 . For example, projected light arrays  530  can be used for three-dimensional scanning and registration on the surface  505  of the tissue  503 . The projected light arrays  530  can be emitted from the emitter  506  located on the surgical device  502  and/or the robotic arm  512 ,  514  and/or the imaging device  520 , for example. In one aspect, the projected light array  530  is employed to determine the shape defined by the surface  505  of the tissue  503  and/or the motion of the surface  505  intraoperatively. The imaging device  520  is configured to detect the projected light arrays  530  reflected from the surface  505  to determine the topography of the surface  505  and various distances with respect to the surface  505 . One or more additional and/or alternative surface mapping techniques may also be employed. 
     In various aspects of the present disclosure, a tissue identification subsystem can be achieved with a spectral imaging system. The spectral imaging system can rely on hyperspectral imaging, multispectral imaging, or selective spectral imaging, for example. Hyperspectral imaging of tissue is further described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,274,047, titled METHODS AND APPARATUS FOR IMAGING OF OCCLUDED OBJECTS, issued Mar. 1, 2016, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
     In various instances, the imaging device  520  is a spectral camera (e.g. a hyperspectral camera, multispectral camera, or selective spectral camera), which is configured to detect reflected spectral waveforms and generate a spectral cube of images based on the molecular response to the different wavelengths. Spectral imaging is further described herein. 
     In various instances, hyperspectral imaging technology, can be employed to identify signatures in anatomical structures in order to differentiate a critical structure from obscurants. Hyperspectral imaging technology may provide a visualization system that can provide a way to identify critical structures such as ureters and/or blood vessels, for example, especially when those structures are obscured by fat, connective tissue, blood, or other organs, for example. The use of the difference in reflectance of different wavelengths in the infrared (IR) spectrum may be employed to determine the presence of key structures versus obscurants. Referring now to  FIGS. 38-40 , illustrative hyperspectral signatures for a ureter, an artery, and nerve tissue with respect to obscurants such as fat, lung tissue, and blood, for example, are depicted. 
       FIG. 38  is a graphical representation  950  of an illustrative ureter signature versus obscurants. The plots represent reflectance as a function of wavelength (nm) for wavelengths for fat, lung tissue, blood, and a ureter.  FIG. 39  is a graphical representation  952  of an illustrative artery signature versus obscurants. The plots represent reflectance as a function of wavelength (nm) for fat, lung tissue, blood, and a vessel.  FIG. 40  is a graphical representation  954  of an illustrative nerve signature versus obscurants. The plots represent reflectance as a function of wavelength (nm) for fat, lung tissue, blood, and a nerve. 
     Referring again to  FIG. 24 , the imaging device  520  may include an optical waveform emitter  523  that is configured to emit electromagnetic radiation  524  (NIR photons) that can penetrate the surface  505  of the tissue  503  and reach the critical structures  501   a ,  501   b . The imaging device  520  and the optical waveform emitter  523  thereon can be positionable by the robotic arm  512 ,  514 . A corresponding waveform sensor  522  (an image sensor, spectrometer, or vibrational sensor, for example) on the imaging device  520  is configured to detect the effect of the electromagnetic radiation  524  received by the waveform sensor  522 . The wavelengths of the electromagnetic radiation  524  emitted by the optical waveform emitter  523  can be configured to enable the identification of the type of anatomical and/or physical structure, such as the critical structures  501   a ,  501   b . In one aspect, the wavelengths of the electromagnetic radiation  524  may be variable. The waveform sensor  522  and optical waveform emitter  523  may be inclusive of a multispectral imaging system and/or a selective spectral imaging system, for example. 
     The identification of the critical structures  501   a ,  501   b  can be accomplished through spectral analysis, photo-acoustics, and/or ultrasound, for example. In certain instances, the waveform sensor  522  and optical waveform emitter  523  may be inclusive of a photoacoustic imaging system, for example. In various instances, the optical waveform emitter  523  can be positioned on a separate surgical device from the imaging device  520 . Alternative tissue identification techniques are also contemplated. In certain instances, the surgical visualization system  500  may not be configured to identify hidden critical structures. 
     In one instance, the surgical visualization system  500  incorporates tissue identification and geometric surface mapping in combination with a distance determining subsystems, such as the distance sensor system  504 . The distance sensor system  504  is configured to determine one or more distances at the surgical site. The distance sensor system  504  is a time-of-flight system that is configured to determine the distance to one or more anatomical structures. Alternative distance determining subsystems are also contemplated. In combination, the tissue identification systems, geometric surface mapping, and the distance determining subsystem can determine a position of the critical structures  501   a ,  501   b  within the anatomical field and/or the proximity of a surgical device  502  to the surface  505  of the visible tissue  503  and/or to the critical structures  501   a ,  501   b.    
     In various aspects of the present disclosure, the distance determining system can be incorporated into the surface mapping system. For example, structured light can be utilized to generate a three-dimensional virtual model of the visible surface and determine various distances with respect to the visible surface. In other instances, a time-of-flight emitter can be separate from the structured light emitter. 
     In various instances, the distance determining subsystem can rely on time-of-flight measurements to determine one or more distances to the identified tissue (or other structures) at the surgical site. In one aspect, the distance sensor system  504  may be a time-of-flight distance sensor system that includes an emitter, such as the emitter  506 , and a receiver  508 , which can be positioned on the surgical device  502 . In one general aspect, the emitter  506  of the distance sensor system  504  may include a very tiny laser source and the receiver  508  of the distance sensor system  504  may include a matching sensor. The distance sensor system  504  can detect the “time of flight,” or how long the laser light emitted by the emitter  506  has taken to bounce back to the sensor portion of the receiver  508 . Use of a very narrow light source in the emitter  506  can enable the distance sensor system  504  to determine the distance to the surface  505  of the tissue  503  directly in front of the distance sensor system  504 . 
     Referring still to  FIG. 24 , d e  is the emitter-to-tissue distance from the emitter  506  to the surface  505  of the tissue  503  and d t  is the device-to-tissue distance from the distal end of the surgical device  502  to the surface  505  of the tissue. The distance sensor system  504  can be employed to determine the emitter-to-tissue distance d e . The device-to-tissue distance d t  is obtainable from the known position of the emitter  506  on the shaft of the surgical device  502  relative to the distal end of the surgical device  502 . In other words, when the distance between the emitter  506  and the distal end of the surgical device  502  is known, the device-to-tissue distance d t  can be determined from the emitter-to-tissue distance d e . 
     In various instances, the receiver  508  for the distance sensor system  504  can be mounted on a separate surgical device instead of the surgical device  502 . For example, the receiver  508  can be mounted on a cannula or trocar through which the surgical device  502  extends to reach the surgical site. In still other instances, the receiver  508  for the distance sensor system  504  can be mounted on a separate robotically-controlled arm (e.g. the robotic arm  512 ,  514 ), on a movable arm that is operated by another robot, and/or to an operating room (OR) table or fixture. In certain instances, the imaging device  520  includes the time-of-flight receiver  508  to determine the distance from the emitter  506  to the surface  505  of the tissue  503  using a line between the emitter  506  on the surgical device  502  and the imaging device  520 . For example, the distance d e  can be triangulated based on known positions of the emitter  506  (e.g, on the surgical device  502 ) and the receiver  508  (e.g. on the imaging device  520 ) of the distance sensor system  504 . The three-dimensional position of the receiver  508  can be known and/or registered to the robot coordinate plane intraoperatively. 
     In certain instances, the position of the emitter  506  of the distance sensor system  504  can be controlled by the first robotic arm  512  and the position of the receiver  508  of the distance sensor system  504  can be controlled by the second robotic arm  514 . In other instances, the surgical visualization system  500  can be utilized apart from a robotic system. In such instances, the distance sensor system  504  can be independent of the robotic system. 
     In certain instances, one or more of the robotic arms  512 ,  514  may be separate from a main robotic system used in the surgical procedure. At least one of the robotic arms  512 ,  514  can be positioned and registered to a particular coordinate system without servomotor control. For example, a closed-loop control system and/or a plurality of sensors for the robotic arms  512 ,  514  can control and/or register the position of the robotic arm(s)  512 ,  514  relative to the particular coordinate system. Similarly, the position of the surgical device  502  and the imaging device  520  can be registered relative to a particular coordinate system. 
     Referring still to  FIG. 24 , d e  is the camera-to-critical structure distance from the optical waveform emitter  523  located on the imaging device  520  to the surface of the critical structure  501   a , and d A  is the depth of the critical structure  501   b  below the surface  505  of the tissue  503  (i.e., the distance between the portion of the surface  505  closest to the surgical device  502  and the critical structure  501   b ). In various aspects, the time-of-flight of the optical waveforms emitted from the optical waveform emitter  523  located on the imaging device  520  can be configured to determine the camera-to-critical structure distance d w . The use of spectral imaging in combination with time-of-flight sensors is further described herein. 
     In one aspect, the surgical visualization system  500  is configured to determine an emitter-to-tissue distance d e  from an emitter  506  on the surgical device  502  to a surface  505  of the uterus via structured light. The surgical visualization system  500  is configured to extrapolate a device-to-tissue distance d t  from the surgical device  502  to the surface  505  of the uterus based on the emitter-to-tissue distance d e . The surgical visualization system  500  is also configured to determine a tissue-to-ureter distance d A  from the critical structure (the ureter)  501   a  to the surface  505  and a camera-to ureter distance d e  from the imaging device  520  to the critical structure (the ureter)  501   a . As described herein, the surgical visualization system  500  can determine the distance d w  with spectral imaging and time-of-flight sensors, for example. In various instances, the surgical visualization system  500  can determine (e.g. triangulate) the tissue-to-ureter distance d A  (or depth) based on other distances and/or the surface mapping logic described herein. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 29 , in various aspects of the present disclosure, in a surgical visualization system  800 , the depth d A  of a critical structure  801  relative to a surface  805  of a tissue  803  can be determined by triangulating from the distance d w  and known positions of an emitter  806  and an optical waveform emitter  823  and detector  823  (and, thus, the known distance d x  therebetween) to determine the distance d y , which is the sum of the distance d e  and the depth d A . 
     Additionally or alternatively, time-of-flight from the optical waveform emitter  823  can be configured to determine the distance from the optical waveform emitter  823  to the surface  805  of the tissue  803 . For example, a first waveform (or range of waveforms) can be utilized to determine the camera-to-critical structure distance d w  and a second waveform (or range of waveforms) can be utilized to determine the distance to the surface  805  of the tissue  803 . In such instances, the different waveforms can be utilized to determine the depth of the critical structure  801  below the surface  805  of the tissue  803 . Spectral time-of-flight systems are further described herein. 
     Additionally or alternatively, in certain instances, the distance d A  can be determined from an ultrasound, a registered magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computerized tomography (CT) scan. In still other instances, the distance d A  can be determined with spectral imaging because the detection signal received by the imaging device can vary based on the type of material. For example, fat can decrease the detection signal in a first way, or a first amount, and collagen can decrease the detection signal in a different, second way, or a second amount. 
     Referring now to a surgical visualization system  860  in  FIG. 30 , in which a surgical device  862  includes the optical waveform emitter  823 ′ and the waveform sensor  822 ′ that is configured to detect the reflected waveforms. The optical waveform emitter  823 ′ can be configured to emit waveforms for determining the distances d t  and d w  from a common device, such as the surgical device  862 , as further described herein. In such instances, the distance d A  from the surface  805  of the tissue  803  to the surface of the critical structure  801  can be determined as follows: 
         d   A   =d   w   −d   t . 
     As disclosed herein, various information regarding visible tissue, embedded critical structures, and surgical devices can be determined by utilizing a combination approach that incorporates one or more time-of-flight distance sensors, spectral imaging, and/or structured light arrays in combination with an image sensor configured to detect the spectral wavelengths and the structured light arrays. Moreover, an image sensor can be configured to receive visible light and, thus, provide images of the surgical site to an imaging system. Logic or algorithms are employed to discern the information received from the time-of-flight sensors, spectral wavelengths, structured light, and visible light and render three-dimensional images of the surface tissue and underlying anatomical structures. In various instances, the imaging device  520  can include multiple image sensors. 
     The camera-to-critical structure distance d w  can also be detected in one or more alternative ways. In one aspect, a fluoroscopy visualization technology, such as fluorescent indosciedine green (ICG), for example, can be utilized to illuminate a critical structure  3201 , as shown in  FIGS. 31-33 . A camera  3220  can include two optical waveforms sensors  3222 ,  3224 , which take simultaneous left-side and right-side images of the critical structure  3201  ( FIG. 32A and 32B ). In such instances, the camera  3220  can depict a glow of the critical structure  3201  below the surface  3205  of the tissue  3203 , and the distance d w  can be determined by the known distance between the sensors  3222  and  3224 . In certain instances, distances can be determined more accurately by utilizing more than one camera or by moving a camera between multiple locations. In certain aspects, one camera can be controlled by a first robotic arm and a second camera by another robotic arm. In such a robotic system, one camera can be a follower camera on a follower arm, for example. The follower arm, and camera thereon, can be programmed to track the other camera and to maintain a particular distance and/or lens angle, for example. 
     In still other aspects, the surgical visualization system  500  may employ two separate waveform receivers (i.e. cameras/image sensors) to determine d w . Referring now to  FIG. 34 , if a critical structure  3301  or the contents thereof (e.g. a vessel or the contents of the vessel) can emit a signal  3302 , such as with fluoroscopy, then the actual location can be triangulated from two separate cameras  3320   a ,  3320   b  at known locations. 
     In another aspect, referring now to  FIGS. 35A and 35B , a surgical visualization system may employ a dithering or moving camera  440  to determine the distance d w . The camera  440  is robotically-controlled such that the three-dimensional coordinates of the camera  440  at the different positions are known. In various instances, the camera  440  can pivot at a cannula or patient interface. For example, if a critical structure  401  or the contents thereof (e.g. a vessel or the contents of the vessel) can emit a signal, such as with fluoroscopy, for example, then the actual location can be triangulated from the camera  440  moved rapidly between two or more known locations. In  FIG. 35A , the camera  440  is moved axially along an axis A. More specifically, the camera  440  translates a distance d 1  closer to the critical structure  401  along the axis A to the location indicated as a location  440 ′, such as by moving in and out on a robotic arm. As the camera  440  moves the distance d 1  and the size of view change with respect to the critical structure  401 , the distance to the critical structure  401  can be calculated. For example, a 4.28 mm axial translation (the distance d 1 ) can correspond to an angle θ 1  of 6.28 degrees and an angle θ 2  of 8.19 degrees. 
     Additionally or alternatively, the camera  440  can rotate or sweep along an arc between different positions. Referring now to  FIG. 35B , the camera  440  is moved axially along the axis A and is rotated an angle θ 3  about the axis A. A pivot point  442  for rotation of the camera  440  is positioned at the cannula/patient interface. In  FIG. 35B , the camera  440  is translated and rotated to a location  440 ″. As the camera  440  moves and the edge of view changes with respect to the critical structure  401 , the distance to the critical structure  401  can be calculated. In  FIG. 35B , a distance d 2  can be 9.01 mm, for example, and the angle θ 3  can be 0.9 degrees, for example. 
       FIG. 25  is a schematic diagram of the control system  833 , which can be utilized with the surgical visualization system  500  and the input control device  1000 , for example. The control system  833  includes a control circuit  832  in signal communication with a memory  834 . The memory  834  stores instructions executable by the control circuit  832  to determine and/or recognize critical structures (e.g. the critical structures  501   a ,  501   b  in  FIG. 24 ), determine and/or compute one or more distances and/or three-dimensional digital representations, and/or to communicate certain information to one or more clinicians, among other things. For example, the memory  834  stores surface mapping logic  836 , imaging logic  838 , tissue identification logic  840 , or distance determining logic  841  or any combinations of the logic  836 ,  838 ,  840 , and  841 . The memory  834  can also include input control device logic for implementing the input controls provided to the input control device  1000 , including scaling and/or locking out certain controls in certain circumstances and/or switching between operational modes based on real-time, intraoperative tissue proximity data, for example. The control system  833  also includes an imaging system  842  having one or more cameras  844  (like the imaging device  520  in  FIG. 24 ), one or more displays  846 , or one or more controls  848  or any combinations of these elements. The camera  844  can include one or more image sensors  835  to receive signals from various light sources emitting light at various visible and invisible spectra (e.g. visible light, spectral imagers, three-dimensional lens, among others). The display  846  can include one or more screens or monitors for depicting real, virtual, and/or virtually-augmented images and/or information to one or more clinicians. 
     In various aspects, the heart of the camera  844  is the image sensor  835 . Generally, modern image sensors  835  are solid-state electronic devices containing up to millions of discrete photodetector sites called pixels. The image sensor  835  technology falls into one of two categories: Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) and Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) imagers and more recently, short-wave infrared (SWIR) is an emerging technology in imaging. Another type of image sensor  835  employs a hybrid CCD/CMOS architecture (sold under the name “sCMOS”) and consists of CMOS readout integrated circuits (ROICs) that are bump bonded to a CCD imaging substrate. CCD and CMOS image sensors  835  are sensitive to wavelengths from approximately 350-1050 nm, although the range is usually given from 400-1000 nm. CMOS sensors are, in general, more sensitive to IR wavelengths than CCD sensors. Solid state image sensors  835  are based on the photoelectric effect and, as a result, cannot distinguish between colors. Accordingly, there are two types of color CCD cameras: single chip and three-chip. Single chip color CCD cameras offer a common, low-cost imaging solution and use a mosaic (e.g. Bayer) optical filter to separate incoming light into a series of colors and employ an interpolation algorithm to resolve full color images. Each color is, then, directed to a different set of pixels. Three-chip color CCD cameras provide higher resolution by employing a prism to direct each section of the incident spectrum to a different chip. More accurate color reproduction is possible, as each point in space of the object has separate RGB intensity values, rather than using an algorithm to determine the color. Three-chip cameras offer extremely high resolutions. 
     The control system  833  also includes a spectral light source  850  and a structured light source  852 . In certain instances, a single source can be pulsed to emit wavelengths of light in the spectral light source  850  range and wavelengths of light in the structured light source  852  range. Alternatively, a single light source can be pulsed to provide light in the invisible spectrum (e.g. infrared spectral light) and wavelengths of light on the visible spectrum. The spectral light source  850  can be a hyperspectral light source, a multispectral light source, and/or a selective spectral light source, for example. In various instances, the tissue identification logic  840  can identify critical structure(s) via data from the spectral light source  850  received by the image sensor  835  portion of the camera  844 . The surface mapping logic  836  can determine the surface contours of the visible tissue based on reflected structured light. Wth time-of-flight measurements, the distance determining logic  841  can determine one or more distance(s) to the visible tissue and/or a critical structure. One or more outputs from the surface mapping logic  836 , the tissue identification logic  840 , and the distance determining logic  841 , can be provided to the imaging logic  838 , and combined, blended, and/or overlaid to be conveyed to a clinician via the display  846  of the imaging system  842 . 
     The description now turns briefly to  FIGS. 26-28  to describe various aspects of the control circuit  832  for controlling various aspects of the surgical visualization system  500 . Turning to  FIG. 26 , there is illustrated a control circuit  400  configured to control aspects of the surgical visualization system  500 , according to at least one aspect of this disclosure. The control circuit  400  can be configured to implement various processes described herein. The control circuit  400  may comprise a microcontroller comprising one or more processors  402  (e.g., microprocessor, microcontroller) coupled to at least one memory circuit  404 . The memory circuit  404  stores machine-executable instructions that, when executed by the processor  402 , cause the processor  402  to execute machine instructions to implement various processes described herein. The processor  402  may be any one of a number of single-core or multicore processors known in the art. The memory circuit  404  may comprise volatile and non-volatile storage media. The processor  402  may include an instruction processing unit  406  and an arithmetic unit  408 . The instruction processing unit may be configured to receive instructions from the memory circuit  404  of this disclosure. 
       FIG. 27  illustrates a combinational logic circuit  410  configured to control aspects of the surgical visualization system  500 , according to at least one aspect of this disclosure. The combinational logic circuit  410  can be configured to implement various processes described herein. The combinational logic circuit  410  may comprise a finite state machine comprising a combinational logic  412  configured to receive data associated with the surgical instrument or tool at an input  414 , process the data by the combinational logic  412 , and provide an output  416 . 
       FIG. 28  illustrates a sequential logic circuit  420  configured to control aspects of the surgical visualization system  500 , according to at least one aspect of this disclosure. The sequential logic circuit  420  or the combinational logic  422  can be configured to implement various processes described herein. The sequential logic circuit  420  may comprise a finite state machine. The sequential logic circuit  420  may comprise a combinational logic  422 , at least one memory circuit  424 , and a clock  429 , for example. The at least one memory circuit  424  can store a current state of the finite state machine. In certain instances, the sequential logic circuit  420  may be synchronous or asynchronous. The combinational logic  422  is configured to receive data associated with a surgical device or system from an input  426 , process the data by the combinational logic  422 , and provide an output  428 . In other aspects, the circuit may comprise a combination of a processor (e.g., processor  402  in  FIG. 26 ) and a finite state machine to implement various processes herein. In other aspects, the finite state machine may comprise a combination of a combinational logic circuit (e.g., combinational logic circuit  410 ,  FIG. 27 ) and the sequential logic circuit  420 . 
     Referring now to  FIG. 36 , where a schematic of a control system  600  for a surgical visualization system, such as the surgical visualization system  500 , for example, is depicted. The control system  600  is a conversion system that integrates spectral signature tissue identification and structured light tissue positioning to identify critical structures, especially when those structures are obscured by other tissue, such as fat, connective tissue, blood, and/or other organs, for example. Such technology could also be useful for detecting tissue variability, such as differentiating tumors and/or non-healthy tissue from healthy tissue within an organ. 
     The control system  600  is configured for implementing a hyperspectral imaging and visualization system in which a molecular response is utilized to detect and identify anatomy in a surgical field of view. The control system  600  includes a conversion logic circuit  648  to convert tissue data to surgeon usable information. For example, the variable reflectance based on wavelengths with respect to obscuring material can be utilized to identify the critical structure in the anatomy. Moreover, the control system  600  combines the identified spectral signature and the structural light data in an image. For example, the control system  600  can be employed to create of three-dimensional data set for surgical use in a system with augmentation image overlays. Techniques can be employed both intraoperatively and preoperatively using additional visual information. In various instances, the control system  600  is configured to provide warnings to a clinician when in the proximity of one or more critical structures. Various algorithms can be employed to guide robotic automation and semi-automated approaches based on the surgical procedure and proximity to the critical structure(s). 
     A projected array of lights is employed to determine tissue shape and motion intraoperatively. Alternatively, flash Lidar may be utilized for surface mapping of the tissue. 
     The control system  600  is configured to detect the critical structure(s) and provide an image overlay of the critical structure and measure the distance to the surface of the visible tissue and the distance to the embedded/buried critical structure(s). In other instances, the control system  600  can measure the distance to the surface of the visible tissue or detect the critical structure(s) and provide an image overlay of the critical structure. 
     The control system  600  includes a spectral control circuit  602 . The spectral control circuit  602  can be a field programmable gate array (FPGA) or another suitable circuit configuration as described herein in connection with  FIGS. 26-28 , for example. The spectral control circuit  602  includes a processor  604  to receive video input signals from a video input processor  606 . The processor  604  can be configured for hyperspectral processing and can utilize C/C++code, for example. The video input processor  606  receives video-in of control (metadata) data such as shutter time, wavelength, and sensor analytics, for example. The processor  604  is configured to process the video input signal from the video input processor  606  and provide a video output signal to a video output processor  608 , which includes a hyperspectral video-out of interface control (metadata) data, for example. The video output processor  608  provides the video output signal to an image overlay controller  610 . 
     The video input processor  606  is coupled to a camera  612  at the patient side via a patient isolation circuit  614 . As previously discussed, the camera  612  includes a solid state image sensor  634 . The patient isolation circuit can include a plurality of transformers so that the patient is isolated from other circuits in the system. The camera  612  receives intraoperative images through optics  632  and the image sensor  634 . The image sensor  634  can include a CMOS image sensor, for example, or may include any of the image sensor technologies discussed herein in connection with  FIG. 25 , for example. In one aspect, the camera  612  outputs images in 14 bit/pixel signals. It will be appreciated that higher or lower pixel resolutions may be employed without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. The isolated camera output signal  613  is provided to a color RGB fusion circuit  616 , which employs a hardware register  618  and a Nios2 co-processor  620  to process the camera output signal  613 . A color RGB fusion output signal is provided to the video input processor  606  and a laser pulsing control circuit  622 . 
     The laser pulsing control circuit  622  controls a laser light engine  624 . The laser light engine  624  outputs light in a plurality of wavelengths (λ 1 , λ 2 , λ 3 . . . λ n ) including near infrared (NIR). The laser light engine  624  can operate in a plurality of modes. In one aspect, the laser light engine  624  can operate in two modes, for example. In a first mode, e.g. a normal operating mode, the laser light engine  624  outputs an illuminating signal. In a second mode, e.g. an identification mode, the laser light engine  624  outputs RGBG and NIR light. In various instances, the laser light engine  624  can operate in a polarizing mode. 
     Light output  626  from the laser light engine  624  illuminates targeted anatomy in an intraoperative surgical site  627 . The laser pulsing control circuit  622  also controls a laser pulse controller  628  for a laser pattern projector  630  that projects a laser light pattern  631 , such as a grid or pattern of lines and/or dots, at a predetermined wavelength (λ) on the operative tissue or organ at the surgical site  627 . The camera  612  receives the patterned light as well as the reflected light output through the camera optics  632 . The image sensor  634  converts the received light into a digital signal. 
     The color RGB fusion circuit  616  also outputs signals to the image overlay controller  610  and a video input module  636  for reading the laser light pattern  631  projected onto the targeted anatomy at the surgical site  627  by the laser pattern projector  630 . A processing module  638  processes the laser light pattern  631  and outputs a first video output signal  640  representative of the distance to the visible tissue at the surgical site  627 . The data is provided to the image overlay controller  610 . The processing module  638  also outputs a second video signal  642  representative of a three-dimensional rendered shape of the tissue or organ of the targeted anatomy at the surgical site. 
     The first and second video output signals  640 ,  642  include data representative of the position of the critical structure on a three-dimensional surface model, which is provided to an integration module  643 . In combination with data from the video out processor  608  of the spectral control circuit  602 , the integration module  643  can determine the distance d A  ( FIG. 24 ) to a buried critical structure (e.g. via triangularization algorithms  644 ), and the distance d A  can be provided to the image overlay controller  610  via a video out processor  646 . The foregoing conversion logic can encompass the conversion logic circuit  648  intermediate video monitors  652  and the camera  612 , the laser light engine  624 , and laser pattern projector  630  positioned at the surgical site  627 . 
     Preoperative data  650  from a CT or MRI scan can be employed to register or align certain three-dimensional deformable tissue in various instances. Such preoperative data  650  can be provided to the integration module  643  and ultimately to the image overlay controller  610  so that such information can be overlaid with the views from the camera  612  and provided to the video monitors  652 . Registration of preoperative data is further described herein and in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/128,195, titled INTEGRATION OF IMAGING DATA, filed Sep. 11, 2018, for example, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
     The video monitors  652  can output the integrated/augmented views from the image overlay controller  610 . A clinician can select and/or toggle between different views on one or more monitors. On a first monitor  652   a , the clinician can toggle between (A) a view in which a three-dimensional rendering of the visible tissue is depicted and (B) an augmented view in which one or more hidden critical structures are depicted over the three-dimensional rendering of the visible tissue. On a second monitor  652   b , the clinician can toggle on distance measurements to one or more hidden critical structures and/or the surface of visible tissue, for example. 
     The control system  600  and/or various control circuits thereof can be incorporated into various surgical visualization systems disclosed herein. 
     In various instances, select wavelengths for spectral imaging can be identified and utilized based on the anticipated critical structures and/or obscurants at a surgical site (i.e. “selective spectral” imaging). By utilizing selective spectral imaging, the amount of time required to obtain the spectral image can be minimized such that the information can be obtained in real-time, or near real-time, and utilized intraoperatively. In various instances, the wavelengths can be selected by a clinician or by a control circuit based on input by the clinician. In certain instances, the wavelengths can be selected based on machine learning and/or big data accessible to the control circuit via a cloud, for example. 
     The foregoing application of spectral imaging to tissue can be utilized intraoperatively to measure the distance between a waveform emitter and a critical structure that is obscured by tissue. In one aspect of the present disclosure, referring now to  FIGS. 41 and 42 , a time-of-flight sensor system  2104  utilizing waveforms  2124 ,  2125  is shown. The time-of-flight sensor system  2104  can be incorporated into the surgical visualization system  500  ( FIG. 24 ) in certain instances. The time-of-flight sensor system  2104  includes a waveform emitter  2106  and a waveform receiver  2108  on the same surgical device  2102 . The emitted wave  2124  extends to the critical structure  2101  from the emitter  2106  and the received wave  2125  is reflected back to the receiver  2108  from the critical structure  2101 . The surgical device  2102  is positioned through a trocar  2110  that extends into a cavity  2107  in a patient. 
     The waveforms  2124 ,  2125  are configured to penetrate obscuring tissue  2103 . For example, the wavelengths of the waveforms  2124 ,  2125  can be in the NIR or SWIR spectrum of wavelengths. In one aspect, a spectral signal (e.g. hyperspectral, multispectral, or selective spectral) or a photoacoustic signal can be emitted from the emitter  2106  and can penetrate the tissue  2103  in which the critical structure  2101  is concealed. The emitted waveform  2124  can be reflected by the critical structure  2101 . The received waveform  2125  can be delayed due to the distance d between the distal end of the surgical device  2102  and the critical structure  2101 . In various instances, the waveforms  2124 ,  2125  can be selected to target the critical structure  2101  within the tissue  2103  based on the spectral signature of the critical structure  2101 , as further described herein. In various instances, the emitter  2106  is configured to provide a binary signal on and off, as shown in  FIG. 42 , for example, which can be measured by the receiver  2108 . 
     Based on the delay between the emitted wave  2124  and the received wave  2125 , the time-of-flight sensor system  2104  is configured to determine the distance d ( FIG. 41 ). A time-of-flight timing diagram  2130  for the emitter  2106  and the receiver  2108  of  FIG. 41  is shown in  FIG. 42 . The delay is a function of the distance d and the distance d is given by: 
     
       
         
           
             d 
             = 
             
               
                 
                   c 
                    
                   t 
                 
                 2 
               
               · 
               
                 
                   q 
                   2 
                 
                 
                   
                     q 
                     1 
                   
                   + 
                   
                     q 
                     2 
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     where:
         c=the speed of light;   t=length of pulse;   q 1 =accumulated charge while light is emitted; and   q 2 =accumulated charge while light is not being emitted.       

     As provided herein, the time-of-flight of the waveforms  2124 ,  2125  corresponds to the distance d in  FIG. 41 . In various instances, additional emitters/receivers and/or pulsing signals from the emitter  2106  can be configured to emit a non-penetrating signal. The non-penetrating tissue can be configured to determine the distance from the emitter to the surface  2105  of the obscuring tissue  2103 . In various instances, the depth of the critical structure  2101  can be determined by: 
         d   A   =d   w   −d   t . 
     where:
         d A =the depth of the critical structure  2101  below the surface  2105  of the obscuring tissue  2103 ;   d w =the distance from the emitter  2106  to the critical structure  2101  (din  FIG. 41 ); and   d t, =the distance from the emitter  2106  (on the distal end of the surgical device  2102 ) to the surface  2105  of the obscuring tissue  2103 .       

     In one aspect of the present disclosure, referring now to  FIG. 43 , a time-of-flight sensor system  2204  utilizing waves  2224   a ,  2224   b ,  2224   c ,  2225   a ,  2225   b ,  2225   c  is shown. The time-of-flight sensor system  2204  can be incorporated into the surgical visualization system  500  ( FIG. 24 ) in certain instances. The time-of-flight sensor system  2204  includes a waveform emitter  2206  and a waveform receiver  2208 . The waveform emitter  2206  is positioned on a first surgical device  2202   a , and the waveform receiver  2208  is positioned on a second surgical device  2202   b . The surgical devices  2202   a ,  2202   b  are positioned through their respective trocars  2210   a ,  2210   b , respectively, which extend into a cavity  2207  in a patient. The emitted waves  2224   a ,  2224   b ,  2224   c  extend toward a surgical site from the emitter  2206  and the received waves  2225   a ,  2225   b ,  2225   c  are reflected back to the receiver  2208  from various structures and/or surfaces at the surgical site. 
     The different emitted waves  2224   a ,  2224   b ,  2224   c  are configured to target different types of material at the surgical site. For example, the wave  2224   a  targets the obscuring tissue  2203 , the wave  2224   b  targets a first critical structure  2201   a  (e.g. a vessel), and the wave  2224   c  targets a second critical structure  2201   b  (e.g. a cancerous tumor). The wavelengths of the waves  2224   a ,  2224   b ,  2224   c  can be in the visible light, NIR, or SWIR spectrum of wavelengths. For example, visible light can be reflected off a surface  2205  of the tissue  2203  and NIR and/or SWIR waveforms can be configured to penetrate the surface  2205  of the tissue  2203 . In various aspects, as described herein, a spectral signal (e.g. hyperspectral, multispectral, or selective spectral) or a photoacoustic signal can be emitted from the emitter  2206 . In various instances, the waves  2224   b ,  2224   c  can be selected to target the critical structures  2201   a ,  2201   b  within the tissue  2203  based on the spectral signature of the critical structures  2201   a ,  2201   b , as further described herein. 
     The emitted waves  2224   a ,  2224   b ,  2224   c  can be reflected off the targeted material (i.e. the surface  2205 , the first critical structure  2201   a , and the second structure  2201   b , respectively). The received waveforms  2225   a ,  2225   b ,  2225   c  can be delayed due to the distances d 1a , d 2a , d 3a , d 1b , d 2b , d 3b  indicated in  FIG. 43 . 
     In the time-of-flight sensor system  2204 , in which the emitter  2206  and the receiver  2208  are independently positionable (e.g., on separate surgical devices  2202   a ,  2202   b  and/or controlled by separate robotic arms), the various distances d 1a , d 2a , d 3a , d 1b , d 2b , d 3b  can be calculated from the known position of the emitter  2206  and the receiver  2208 . For example, the positions can be known when the surgical devices  2202   a ,  2202   b  are robotically-controlled. Knowledge of the positions of the emitter  2206  and the receiver  2208 , as well as the time of the photon stream to target a certain tissue and the information received by the receiver  2208  of that particular response can allow a determination of the distances d 1a , d 2a , d 3a , d 1b , d 2b , d 3b . In one aspect, the distance to the obscured critical structures  2201   a ,  2201   b  can be triangulated using penetrating wavelengths. Because the speed of light is constant for any wavelength of visible or invisible light, the time-of-flight sensor system  2204  can determine the various distances. 
     Referring still to  FIG. 43 , in various instances, in the view provided to the clinician, the receiver  2208  can be rotated such that the center of mass of the target structure in the resulting images remains constant, i.e., in a plane perpendicular to the axis of a select target structures  2203 ,  2201   a , or  2201   b . Such an orientation can quickly communicate one or more relevant distances and/or perspectives with respect to the critical structure. For example, as shown in  FIG. 43 , the surgical site is displayed from a viewpoint in which the first critical structure  2201   a  is perpendicular to the viewing plane (i.e. the vessel is oriented in/out of the page). In various instances, such an orientation can be the default setting; however, the view can be rotated or otherwise adjusted by a clinician. In certain instances, the clinician can toggle between different surfaces and/or target structures that define the viewpoint of the surgical site provided by the imaging system. 
     In various instances, the receiver  2208  can be mounted on a trocar or cannula, such as the trocar  2210   b , for example, through which the second surgical device  2202   b  is positioned. In other instances, the receiver  2208  can be mounted on a separate robotic arm for which the three-dimensional position is known. In various instances, the receiver  2208  can be mounted on a movable arm that is separate from the robot that controls the first surgical device  2202   a  or can be mounted to an operating room (OR) table that is intraoperatively registerable to the robot coordinate plane. In such instances, the position of the emitter  2206  and the receiver  2208  can be registerable to the same coordinate plane such that the distances can be triangulated from outputs from the time-of-flight sensor system  2204 . 
     Combining time-of-flight sensor systems and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), termed TOF-NIRS, which is capable of measuring the time-resolved profiles of NIR light with nanosecond resolution can be found in the article titled TIME-OF-FLIGHT NEAR-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE MEASUREMENT OF INTERNAL QUALITY IN GRAPEFRUIT, in the Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, May 2013 vol. 138 no. 3 225-228, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety, and is accessible at journal.ashspublications.org/content/138/3/225.full. 
     In various instances, time-of-flight spectral waveforms are configured to determine the depth of the critical structure and/or the proximity of a surgical device to the critical structure. Moreover, the various surgical visualization systems disclosed herein include surface mapping logic that is configured to create three-dimensional rendering of the surface of the visible tissue. In such instances, even when the visible tissue obstructs a critical structure, the clinician can be aware of the proximity (or lack thereof) of a surgical device to the critical structure. In one instance, the topography of the surgical site is provided on a monitor by the surface mapping logic. If the critical structure is close to the surface of the tissue, spectral imaging can convey the position of the critical structure to the clinician. For example, spectral imaging may detect structures within 5 or 10 mm of the surface. In other instances, spectral imaging may detect structures 10 or 20 mm below the surface of the tissue. Based on the known limits of the spectral imaging system, the system is configured to convey that a critical structure is out-of-range if it is simply not detected by the spectral imaging system. Therefore, the clinician can continue to move the surgical device and/or manipulate the tissue. When the critical structure moves into range of the spectral imaging system, the system can identify the structure and, thus, communicate that the structure is within range. In such instances, an alert can be provided when a structure is initially identified and/or moved further within a predefined proximity zone. In such instances, even non-identification of a critical structure by a spectral imaging system with known bounds/ranges can provide proximity information (i.e. the lack of proximity) to the clinician. 
     Various surgical visualization systems disclosed herein can be configured to identify intraoperatively the presence of and/or proximity to critical structure(s) and to alert a clinician prior to damaging the critical structure(s) by inadvertent dissection and/or transection. In various aspects, the surgical visualization systems are configured to identify one or more of the following critical structures: ureters, bowel, rectum, nerves (including the phrenic nerve, recurrent laryngeal nerve [RLN], promontory facial nerve, vagus nerve, and branches thereof), vessels (including the pulmonary and lobar arteries and veins, inferior mesenteric artery [IMA] and branches thereof, superior rectal artery, sigmoidal arteries, and left colic artery), superior mesenteric artery (SMA) and branches thereof (including middle colic artery, right colic artery, ilecolic artery), hepatic artery and branches thereof, portal vein and branches thereof, splenic artery/vein and branches thereof, external and internal (hypogastric) ileac vessels, short gastric arteries, uterine arteries, middle sacral vessels, and lymph nodes, for example. Moreover, the surgical visualization systems are configured to indicate proximity of surgical device(s) to the critical structure(s) and/or warn the clinician when surgical device(s) are getting close to the critical structure(s). 
     Various aspects of the present disclosure provide intraoperative critical structure identification (e.g., identification of ureters, nerves, and/or vessels) and instrument proximity monitoring. For example, various surgical visualization systems disclosed herein can include spectral imaging and surgical instrument tracking, which enable the visualization of critical structures below the surface of the tissue, such as 1.0-1.5 cm below the surface of the tissue, for example. In other instances, the surgical visualization system can identify structures less than 1.0 cm or more the 1.5 cm below the surface of the tissue. For example, even a surgical visualization system that can identify structures only within 0.2 mm of the surface, for example, can be valuable if the structure cannot otherwise be seen due to the depth. In various aspects, the surgical visualization system can augment the clinician&#39;s view with a virtual depiction of the critical structure as a visible white-light image overlay on the surface of visible tissue, for example. The surgical visualization system can provide real-time, three-dimensional spatial tracking of the distal tip of surgical instruments and can provide a proximity alert when the distal tip of a surgical instrument moves within a certain range of the critical structure, such as within 1.0 cm of the critical structure, for example. 
     Various surgical visualization systems disclosed herein can identify when dissection is too close to a critical structure. Dissection may be “too close” to a critical structure based on the temperature (i.e. too hot within a proximity of the critical structure that may risk damaging/heating/melting the critical structure) and/or based on tension (i.e. too much tension within a proximity of the critical structure that may risk damaging/tearing/pulling the critical structure). Such a surgical visualization system can facilitate dissection around vessels when skeletonizing the vessels prior to ligation, for example. In various instances, a thermal imaging camera can be utilized to read the heat at the surgical site and provide a warning to the clinician that is based on the detected heat and the distance from a tool to the structure. For example, if the temperature of the tool is over a predefined threshold (such as 120 degrees F., for example), an alert can be provided to the clinician at a first distance (such as 10 mm, for example), and if the temperature of the tool is less than or equal to the predefined threshold, the alert can be provided to the clinician at a second distance (such as 5 mm, for example). The predefined thresholds and/or warning distances can be default settings and/or programmable by the clinician. Additionally or alternatively, a proximity alert can be linked to thermal measurements made by the tool itself, such as a thermocouple that measures the heat in a distal jaw of a monopolar or bipolar dissector or vessel sealer, for example. 
     Various surgical visualization systems disclosed herein can provide adequate sensitivity with respect to a critical structure and specificity to enable a clinician to proceed with confidence in a quick but safe dissection based on the standard of care and/or device safety data. The system can function intraoperatively and in real-time during a surgical procedure with minimal ionizing radiation risk to a patient or a clinician and, in various instances, no risk of ionizing radiation risk to the patient or the clinician. Conversely, in a fluoroscopy procedure, the patient and clinician(s) may be exposed to ionizing radiation via an X-ray beam, for example, that is utilized to view the anatomical structures in real-time. 
     Various surgical visualization system disclosed herein can be configured to detect and identify one or more desired types of critical structures in a forward path of a surgical device, such as when the path of the surgical device is robotically controlled, for example. Additionally or alternatively, the surgical visualization system can be configured to detect and identify one or more types of critical structures in a surrounding area of the surgical device and/or in multiple planes/dimensions, for example. 
     Various surgical visualization systems disclosed herein can be easy to operate and/or interpret. Moreover, various surgical visualization systems can incorporate an “override” feature that allows the clinician to override a default setting and/or operation. For example, a clinician can selectively turn off alerts from the surgical visualization system and/or get closer to a critical structure than suggested by the surgical visualization system such as when the risk to the critical structure is less than risk of avoiding the area (e.g. when removing cancer around a critical structure the risk of leaving the cancerous tissue can be greater than the risk of damage to the critical structure). 
     Various surgical visualization systems disclosed herein can be incorporated into a surgical system and/or used during a surgical procedure with limited impact to the workflow. In other words, implementation of the surgical visualization system may not change the way the surgical procedure is implemented. Moreover, the surgical visualization system can be economical in comparison to the costs of an inadvertent transection. Data indicates the reduction in inadvertent damage to a critical structure can drive incremental reimbursement. 
     Various surgical visualization systems disclosed herein can operate in real-time, or near real-time, and far enough in advance to enable a clinician to anticipate critical structure(s). For example, a surgical visualization system can provide enough time to “slow down, evaluate, and avoid” in order to maximize efficiency of the surgical procedure. 
     Various surgical visualization systems disclosed herein may not require a contrast agent, or dye, that is injected into tissue. For example, spectral imaging is configured to visualize hidden structures intraoperatively without the use of a contrast agent or dye. In other instances, the contrast agent can be easier to inject into the proper layer(s) of tissue than other visualization systems. The time between injection of the contrast agent and visualization of the critical structure can be less than two hours, for example. 
     Various surgical visualization systems disclosed herein can be linked with clinical data and/or device data. For example, data can provide boundaries for how close energy-enabled surgical devices (or other potentially damaging devices) should be from tissue that the surgeon does not want to damage. Any data modules that interface with the surgical visualization systems disclosed herein can be provided integrally or separately from a robot to enable use with stand-alone surgical devices in open or laparoscopic procedures, for example. The surgical visualization systems can be compatible with robotic surgical systems in various instances. For example, the visualization images/information can be displayed in a robotic console. 
     Various surgical visualization systems disclosed herein can provide enhanced visualization data and additional information to the surgeon(s) and/or the control unit for a robotic system and/or controller therefor to improve, enhance, and/or inform the input control device and/or controls for the robotic system. 
     Additional Control Systems 
     Certain surgeons may be accustomed to using handheld surgical instrument in which a displacement of the handle portion of the surgical instrument effects a corresponding displacement of the end effector portion of the surgical instrument. For example, advancing the handle of a surgical instrument one inch can cause the end effector of the surgical instrument to be advanced a corresponding one inch. Such one-to-one correlations between inputs and outputs can be preferred by certain surgeons utilizing robotic applications as well. For example, when moving a robotic surgical end effector around tissue, one-to-one correlations between input motions and output motions can provide an intuitive control motion. Though one-to-one correlations can be desirable in certain instances, without the assistance of a clutching mechanism, such input motions may not be feasible or practical when displacing a surgical tool across large distances. Moreover, one-to-one correlations may not be necessary or desired in certain instances; however, a surgeon can prefer a displacement input motion (translating and/or rotating) when controlling a robotic surgical tool in certain instances, such as during a precision motion mode. 
     A clutchless input control device can allow limited translation of a portion thereof during a precision motion mode and can rely on force sensing technology, such as the space joint  1006  and the sensor arrangement  1048  ( FIGS. 8 and 9 ) during a gross motion mode. Tissue proximity data can toggle the input control device between the precision motion mode and the gross motion mode. In such instances, the surgeon can utilize force sensors to drive a surgical end effector large distances toward tissue and, upon reaching a predefined proximity to the tissue, can utilize the limited translation of the portion of the clutchless input control device to provide displacement input motions to control the robotic surgical tool. 
     Referring now to  FIGS. 44-49 , an input control device  4000  is shown. The input control device  4000  is a clutchless input control device, as further described herein. The input control device  4000  can be utilized at a surgeon&#39;s console or workspace for a robotic surgical system. For example, the input control device  4000  can be incorporated into a surgical system, such as the surgical system  110  ( FIG. 1 ) or the surgical system  150  ( FIG. 3 ), for example, to provide control signals to a surgical robot and/or surgical tool coupled thereto. The input control device  4000  includes manual input controls for moving the robotic arm and/or the surgical tool in three-dimensional space. For example, the surgical tool controlled by the input control device  4000  can be configured to move in three-dimensional space and rotate or articulate about multiple axes (e.g. roll about a longitudinal tool axis and articulate about one or more articulation axes). 
     The input control device  4000  includes a multi-dimensional space joint  4006  having a central portion  4002  supported on a base  4004 , similar to the multi-dimensional space joint  1006 , the central portion  1002 , and the base  1004  of the input control device  1000  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) in many respects. For example, the base  4004  is structured to rest on a surface, such as a desk or work surface at a surgeon&#39;s console or workspace and can remain in a fixed, stationary position relative to an underlying surface upon application of the input control motions to the input control device  4000 . The space joint  4006  is configured to receive multi-dimensional inputs corresponding to control motions for the surgical tool in multi-dimensional space. A power cord  4032  extends from the base  4004 . The input control device  4000  also include a multi-axis force and/or torque sensor arrangement  4048  ( FIG. 46 ), similar to the sensor arrangement  1048  ( FIGS. 8 and 9 ) in many respects. For example, the sensor arrangement  4048  is configured to detect forces and moments at the space joint  4006 , such as forces applied to the central portion  4002 . Multi-dimensional space joints and sensor arrangements therefor are further described herein. 
     The central portion  4002  is flexibly supported relative to the base  4004 . In such instances, the central portion  4002  can be configured to move or float within a small predefined zone upon receipt of force control inputs thereto. For example, the central portion  4002  can be a floating shaft that is supported on the base  4004  by one or more elastomeric members such as springs, for example. The central portion  4002  can be configured to move or float within a predefined three-dimensional volume. For example, elastomeric couplings can permit movement of the central portion  4002  relative to the base  4004 ; however, restraining plates, pins, and/or other structures can be configured to limit the range of motion of the central portion  4002  relative to the base  4004 . In one aspect, movement of the central portion  4002  from a central or “home” position relative to the base  4004  can be permitted within a range of about 1.0 mm to about 5.0 mm in any direction (up, down, left, right, backwards and forwards). In other instances, movement of the central portion  4002  relative to the base  4004  can be restrained to less than 1.0 mm or more than 5.0 mm. In certain instances, the central portion  4002  can move about 2.0 mm in all directions relative to the base  4004  and, in still other instances, the central portion  4002  can remain stationary or fixed relative to the base  4004 . 
     In various instances, the central portion  4002  of the space joint  4006  can be spring-biased toward the central or home position, in which the central portion  4002  is aligned with the Z axis, a vertical axis through the central portion  4002  and the space joint  4006 . Driving (e.g. pushing and/or pulling) the central portion  4002  away from the Z axis in any direction can be configured to “drive” an end effector of an associated surgical tool in the corresponding direction. When the external driving force is removed, the central portion  4002  can be configured to return to the central or home position and motion of the end effector can be halted. Controlling the robotic surgical tool by forces applied to the sensor arrangement  4048  at the space joint  4006  can be permitted during portions of a surgical procedure, such as during a gross motion mode, as further described herein. 
     In various instances, the space joint  4006  and the central portion  4002  coupled thereto define a six degree-of-freedom input control. Referring again to the end effector  1052  of the surgical tool  1050  in  FIG. 12 , the forces on the central portion  4002  of the input control device  4000  in the X direction correspond to displacement of the end effector  1052  along the X t  axis thereof (e.g. longitudinally), forces on the central portion  4002  in the Y direction correspond to displacement of the end effector  1052  along the Y t  axis thereof (e.g. laterally), and forces on the central portion  4002  in the Z direction correspond to displacement of the end effector  1052  along the Z t  axis (e.g. vertically/up and down). Additionally, forces on the central portion  4002  about the X axis (the moment forces R) result in rotation of the end effector  1052  about the X t  axis (e.g. a rolling motion about a longitudinal axis in the direction R t ), forces on the central portion  4002  about the Y axis (the moments forces P) result in articulation of the end effector  1052  about the Y t  axis (e.g. a pitching motion in the direction P t ), and forces on the central portion  4002  about the Z axis (the moment forces T) result in articulation of the end effector  1052  about the Z t  axis of the end effector (e.g. a yawing or twisting motion in the direction T t ). In such instances, the input control device  4000  includes a six-degree of freedom joystick, for example, which is configured to receive and detect six degree-of-freedom—forces along the X, Y, and Z axes and moments about the X, Y, and Z axes. The forces can correspond to translational input and the moments can correspond to rotational inputs for the end effector  1052  of the associated surgical tool  1050 . Six degree-of-freedom input devices are further described herein. 
     Referring again to the input control device  4000  in  FIGS. 44-49 , a forearm support  4008  is movably coupled to the base  4004 . For example, a mechanical joint  4042  incorporated into the central portion  4002  can hold or support the forearm support  4008  such that the forearm support  4008  is movable at the mechanical joint  4042  relative to the base  4004 . Referring primarily now to  FIG. 47 , the forearm support  4008  is shown in a first configuration (solid lines) and in a second configuration (dashed lines). The base  4004  of the input control device  4000  remains stationary as an upper portion (e.g. a collective unit  4011  described herein) of the input control device  4000  is displaced along a longitudinal shaft axis S, which extends parallel to the longitudinal X axis, between the first configuration and the second configuration. In certain instances, the mechanical joint  4042  can permit movement of the forearm support  4008  relative to the base  4004  in multiple directions. For example, the forearm support  4008  can be moveable relative to the base  4004  along one, two or three different axes. 
     The forearm support  4008  can be movable within a range of motion defined by a travel zone  4050  ( FIG. 47 ) surrounding a forearm home position. For example, the travel zone  4050  can define a one-dimensional path from the forearm home position, wherein the one-dimensional path extends along a longitudinal axis between 2.0 cm and 6.0 cm from the forearm home position. Referring again to  FIG. 47 , in the first configuration (indicated as input control device  4000  in solid lines), the input control device  4000  has been moved proximally along the longitudinal shaft axis S to the proximal end or limit of the travel zone  4050  and, in the second configuration (indicated as input control device  4000 ′ in dashed lines), the input control device  4000  has been moved distally along the longitudinal shaft axis S to the distal end or limit of the travel zone  4050 . In various instances, the travel zone  4050  can define a two-dimensional space extending between 2.0 cm and 6.0 cm in two dimensions from the forearm home position. In still other instances, the travel zone  4050  can define a three-dimensional space extending between 2.0 cm and 6.0 cm in three dimensions from the forearm home position. The type and/or arrangements of joints at the mechanical joint  4042  can determine the degrees of freedom of the forearm support  4008  relative to the base  4004 . The mechanical joint  4042 , which is supported and/or built on the central portion  4002  of the space joint  4006  can include elastically-coupled components, sliders, journaled shafts, hinges, and/or rotary bearings, for example. 
     The degrees of freedom and the dimensions of the travel zone  4050  can be selected to provide the surgeon with first-person perspective control of the end effector (i.e. from the surgeon&#39;s perspective, being “positioned” at the jaws of the remotely-positioned end effector at the surgical site). In various instances, motion of a handpiece  4020  on the input control device  4000  can correspond to one-to-one corresponding motion of the surgical end effector. For example, moving the handpiece  4020  distally along the shaft axis S a distance of 1.0 cm can correspond to a distal displacement of the end effector a distance of 1.0 cm along the longitudinal shaft axis S of the surgical tool. Similarly, rotating the handpiece  4020  at a wrist or joint  4010  counterclockwise five degrees can correspond to a rotational displacement of the end effector by five degrees in the counterclockwise direction. In various instances, the input control motions to the control input device  4000  can be scaled, as further described herein and in various co-owned applications that have been incorporated by reference herein. 
     The input control device  4000  also includes a shaft  4012  extending distally from the forearm support  4008  and the handpiece  4020  extending distally from the shaft  4012 . The forearm support  4008 , the shaft  4012 , and the handpiece  4020  form a collective unit  4011 , which is movable together as the forearm support  4008  is moved relative to the base  4004  within the travel zone  4050  defined by the mechanical joint  4042 . A displacement sensor is configured to detect movement of the collective unit  4011 . The handpiece  4020  defines an end effector actuator having at least one jaw, as further described herein. The shaft  4012  includes a linear portion extending along the shaft axis S that is parallel to the axis X in the configuration shown in  FIG. 6 . The shaft  4012  also includes a contoured “gooseneck” portion  4018  that curves away from the shaft axis S to position the handpiece  4020  in a comfortable position and orientation for the surgeon relative to the forearm support  4008 . For example, the contoured portion  4018  defines a curvature of about 90 degrees. In other instances, the curvature can be less than 90 degrees or more than 90 degrees and can be selected based on the surgeon&#39;s preference(s) and/or anthropometrics, for example. 
     The shaft  4012  supports the wrist  4010  intermediate the linear portion and the contoured portion  4018 . For example, the wrist  4010  can be positioned at the distal end of the linear portion, such that the contoured portion  4018  is configured to rotate relative to the linear portion upon application of manual control motions thereto. The wrist  4010  is longitudinally offset from the space joint  4006 . The wrist  4010  defines a mechanical joint to facilitate rotary motion. The wrist  4010  can include elastically-coupled components, sliders, journaled shafts, hinges, and/or rotary bearings, for example. The wrist  4010  can also include a rotary sensor (e.g. the sensor  1049  in  FIG. 25 ), which can be a rotary force/torque sensor and/or transducer, rotary strain gauge, strain gauge on a spring, rotary encoder, and/or an optical sensor to detect rotary displacement at the joint, for example. 
     The wrist  4010  can define input control motions for at least one degree of freedom. For example, the wrist  4010  can define the input control motions for the rolling motion of a robotic end effector controlled by the input control device  4000 . Rotation of the wrist  4010  by the surgeon to roll an end effector provides control of the rolling motion at the surgeon&#39;s fingertips and corresponds to a first-person perspective control of the end effector (i.e. from the surgeon&#39;s perspective, being “positioned” at the jaws of the remotely-positioned end effector at the surgical site). As further described herein, such placement and perspective can be utilized to supply precision control motions to the input control device  4000  during portions of a surgical procedure (e.g. a precision motion mode). 
     In certain instances, the input control device  4000  can include additional wristed joints. For example, the shaft  4012  can include one or more additional rotary joints along the length thereof, such as ata juncture or junction  4014  ( FIG. 44 ) along a linear portion of the shaft  4012  and/or at a juncture or junction  4016  at the distal end of the contoured portion  4018  of the shaft  4012 . For example, a mechanical joint at the junction  4016  can permit articulation of the handpiece  4020  relative to the shaft  4012  about at least one axis. In various instances, the handpiece  4020  can be articulated about at least two axes (e.g. the axis Z 1  that is parallel to the axis Z in  FIG. 45  and the axis Y 1  that is parallel to the axis Y in  FIG. 45 ). The additional joints can provide additional degrees of freedom for the input control device  4000 , which can detected by a sensor arrangement and converted to rotary input control motions for the end effector, such as a yawing or pitching articulation of the end effector. Such an arrangement requires one or more additional sensor arrangements to detect the rotary input at the junction  4016 , for example. 
     As further described herein, the space joint  4006  can define the input control motions for multiple degrees of freedom. For example, the space joint  4006  can define the input control motions for translation of the surgical tool in three-dimensional space and rotation of the surgical tool about at least one axis. Rolling motions can be controlled by inputs to the space joint  4006  and/or the wrist  4010 . Whether a rolling control motion is provided by the wrist  4010  or the space joint  4006  of the input control device  4000  can depend on the actions of the surgeon and/or the operational mode of the input control device  4000 , as further described herein. Articulation motions can be controlled by inputs to the space joint  4006  and/or the junction  4016 . Whether an articulation control motion is provided by the junction  4016  or the space joint  4006  of the input control device  4000  can depend on the actions of the surgeon and/or the operational mode of the input control device  4000 , as further described herein. 
     The handpiece  4020  includes an end effector actuator having opposing fingers  4022  extending distally from the shaft  4012 . The opposing fingers  4022  can be similar to the fingers  1022  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) in many respects. Applying an actuation force to the opposing fingers  4022  comprises an input control motion for a surgical tool. For example, referring again to  FIG. 12 , applying a pinching force to the opposing fingers  4022  can close and/or clamp the jaws  1054  of the end effector  1052  (see arrows C in  FIG. 12 ). In various instances, applying a spreading force can open and/or release the jaws  1054  of the end effector  1052 , such as for a spread dissection task, for example. The fingers  4022  also includes loops  4030 , which are similar to the loops  1030  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) in many respects. The opposing fingers  4022  can be displaced symmetrically or asymmetrically relative to the longitudinal shaft axis S during an actuation. The displacement of the opposing fingers  4022  can depend on the force applied by the surgeon, for example, and a desired surgical function. The input control device  4000  includes at least one additional actuator, such as the actuation buttons  4026 ,  4028 , for example, which can provide additional controls at the surgeon&#39;s fingertips, e.g. the surgeon&#39;s index finger I, similar to the actuation buttons  1026 ,  1028  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) in many respects. The reader will appreciate that the actuation buttons  4026 ,  4028  can have different geometries and/or structures, and can include a trigger, a button, a switch, a lever, a toggle, and combinations thereof. 
     Referring primarily to  FIGS. 48 and 49 , during use, a surgeon can position a portion of his or her arm on the forearm support  4008  and can provide forces to the space joint  4006  via inputs at the forearm support  4008 . The surgeon&#39;s forearm can be positioned on the lower portion of the forearm support  4008  and a cuff or sleeve of the forearm support  4008  can at least partially surround the surgeon&#39;s arm in certain instances. For example, the forearm support  4008  forms a partial loop having a curvature of more than 180 degrees. In certain instances, the curvature can define an arc of approximately 270 degrees, for example. In other instances, the cuff or sleeve can form an enclosed loop through which the surgeon can position his or her arm. Alternative geometries for the forearm support are envisioned. The surgeon&#39;s thumb T is positioned through one of the loops  4030  and the surgeon&#39;s middle finger M is positioned through the other loop  4030 . In such instances, the surgeon can pinch and/or spread his thumb T and middle finger M to actuate the opposing fingers  4022 . The distally-extending fingers  4022  (for actuation of the jaws) and the actuation buttons  4026 ,  4028  (for actuation of a surgical function at the jaws) are distal to the space joint  4006  and wrist  4010 . Such a configuration mirrors the configuration of a surgical tool in which the end effector is distal to the more-proximal articulation joint(s) and/or rotatable shaft and, thus, provides an intuitive arrangement that facilitates a surgeon&#39;s training and adoption of the input control device  4000 . 
     In various instances, the input controls for the input control device  4000  are segmented between first control motions and second control motions, similar in many aspects to the operational modes described with respect to the input control device  1000  ( FIGS. 6-11 ). Control logic for the input control device  4000  can be utilized in the control circuit  832  ( FIG. 25 ), the control circuit  1400  ( FIG. 11C ), the combinational logical circuit  1410  ( FIG. 11D ), and/or the sequential logic circuit  1420  ( FIG. 11E ), for example, where an input is provided from inputs to the input control device  4000  and/or a surgical visualization system or distance determining subsystem thereof, as further described herein. Inputs from the input control device  4000  include feedback from the various sensors thereof and related to control inputs at the space joint  4006 , the wrist  4010 , and/or the handpiece  4020 , for example. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 50 , control logic  4068  for the input control device  4000  can activate or maintain a gross motion mode at a block  4082  if the distance (d t ) determined by a distance determining subsystem is greater than or equal to a threshold distance (D critical ) and can deactivate the gross motion mode at a block  4076  if the distance (d t ) is less than the threshold distance (D critical ). More specifically, when a force is initially applied to the forearm support  4008  to move the forearm support  4008  to the end of its constrained travel zone (e.g. a boundary of the travel zone  4050  in  FIG. 47 ) at a block  4070 , the robotic surgical tool is controlled to move at a surgical site relative to relevant tissue at a block  4072 . In various instances, the force required to input control motions via the sensor arrangement  4048  ( FIG. 46 ) can be greater than the force required to move the forearm support  4008  to the end of its travel zone. In other words, the surgeon can move the forearm support  4008  to the ends of its travel zone before effecting control motions with the sensor arrangement  4048 . 
     As the robotic surgical tool is moved relative to tissue, the control logic checks proximity data provided by a tissue proximity detection system to determine if the distance (d t ) is greater than or equal to a threshold distance (D critical ) at a block  4074 . The control logic  4068  can periodically and/or continuously compare the distance (d t ) to the threshold distance (D critical ) during the surgical procedure (e.g. intraoperatively and/or in real-time). The threshold distance (D critical ) can be set by the surgeon in certain instances. Moreover, the surgeon may selectively override the default rules and conditions of the control logic  4068 , such as the rules related to the comparison at a block  4074  and/or adjustments to the threshold distance (D critical ), for example. 
     If the distance (d t ) is greater than or equal to the threshold distance (D critical ), the gross motion mode can be activated at a block  4082 . As a force continues to be applied to the forearm support  4008  to move the forearm support  4008  to the end of its constrained travel zone (the block  4070 ) and moves the tool relative to tissue (the block  4072 ), the control circuit can continue to monitor the distance (d t ) (the block  4074 ) and maintain the gross motion mode (block  4082 ) while the distance (dt) is greater than or equal to the threshold distance (D critical ). 
     If the distance (dt) becomes less than the threshold distance (D critical ), the gross motion mode can be deactivated at a block  4076 . Wth the gross motion mode deactivated, control motions for the robotic tool can be controlled with limited translation of the forearm support  4008  within the travel zone at a block  4078  (e.g. the travel zone  4050  in  FIG. 47 ) and/or with the actuations to the wrist(s) (e.g. the wrist  4010  and/or the junction  4016 ) and/or to the handpiece  4020  at a block  4080 . The control circuit can continue to monitor the distance (d t ) (the block  4074 ) and deactivate the gross motion mode (the block  4076 ) as long as the distance (d t ) is less than the threshold distance (D critical ). 
     During the gross motion mode, the surgical tool and end effector thereof can be driven in the directions detected by the forces at the space joint  4006  and applied by the forearm support  4008  until the forces are removed and the central portion  4002  is biased back to the home position. Upon removal of the forces to the space joint  4006  during the gross motion mode, the driving forces supplied to the end effector can terminate as well. 
     Referring again to  FIGS. 44-49 , the input control device  4000  has been described as having a mechanical joint  4042  intermediate the space joint  4006  and the forearm support  4008 , which permits movement of the forearm support  4008  (and the entire collective unit  4011 ) relative to the base  4004  within the travel zone  4050 . The travel zone  4050  can provide a precision control zone for the surgeon to move the handpiece  4020  to supply precision control motions to an end effector. In other instances, similar to the input control device  1000 , for example, the input control device  4000  may not include the additional mechanical joint  4042  intermediate the space joint  4006  and the forearm support  4008 . In such instances, precision control motions can be applied to the space joint  4006 ; however, such control motions can be scaled according to data from a tissue proximity detection system as further described herein. Scaling algorithms can also be applied to the input control device  4000 , for example. 
     Referring now to  FIGS. 51 and 52 , an input control device  4100  is shown. The input control device  4100  is similar to the input control device  4000  ( FIGS. 44-49 ) in many respects. For example, the input control device  4100  includes a base  4104 , a central portion  4102  supported relative to the base  4104 , and a space joint  4106  therebetween. A power cord  4132  extends from the base  4104 . Moreover, a collective unit  4111  is supported by the central portion  4102  and includes a forearm support  4108 , a distally-extending shaft  4112 , and a distally-ending handpiece  4120  includes a pair of opposing jaws  4122  and actuation buttons  4126 ,  4128 . The collective unit  4111  can further include at least one wristed joint along the shaft  4112  as described herein with respect to the input control device  4000 . However, the input control device  4100  does not include a mechanical joint that allows the collective unit  4111  to move within a travel zone relative to the base  4104 . Moreover, unlike the forearm support  4008 , the forearm support  4108  forms a partial loop having a curvature of less than  180  degrees. The reader will readily appreciate that a wide range of input control devices incorporating various features of the input control devices  4000  and  4100  may be designed based on formative testing and user preferences. A robotic system can allow for users to choose from a variety of different forms to select the style that best suits his/her needs. 
     Referring now to  FIGS. 53-56 , an input control device  4200  is shown. The input control device  4200  is a clutchless input control device, as further described herein. The input control device  4200  can be utilized at a surgeon&#39;s console or workspace for a robotic surgical system. For example, the input control device  4200  can be incorporated into a surgical system, such as the surgical system  110  ( FIG. 1 ) or the surgical system  150  ( FIG. 3 ), for example, to provide control signals to a surgical robot and/or surgical tool coupled thereto. The input control device  4200  includes manual input controls for moving the robotic arm and/or the surgical tool in three-dimensional space. For example, the surgical tool controlled by the input control device  4200  can be configured to move in three-dimensional space and rotate or articulate about multiple axes (e.g. roll about a longitudinal tool axis and articulate about one or more articulation axes). 
     The input control device  4200  includes a multi-dimensional space joint  4206  having a central portion  4202  supported on a base  4204 , similar to the multi-dimensional space joint  1006 , the central portion  1002 , and the base  1004  of the input control device  1000  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) in many respects. The base  4204  is structured to rest on a surface, such as a desk or work surface at a surgeon&#39;s console or workspace and can remain in a fixed, stationary position relative to an underlying surface upon application of the input control motions to the input control device  4200 . The base  4204  includes a wide curved foot portion  4203 , which can provide stability to the balanced and gravity compensated geometry of the input control device. The base  4204  also includes an upright portion  4205  for suspending or hanging the central portion  4202  above the foot portion  4203 . The space joint  4206  is configured to receive multi-dimensional inputs corresponding to control motions for the surgical tool in multi-dimensional space. The input control device  4200  also include a multi-axis force and/or torque sensor arrangement  4248  ( FIG. 54 ), similar to the sensor arrangement  1048  ( FIGS. 8 and 9 ) in many respects. For example, the sensor arrangement  4248  is configured to detect forces and moments at the space joint  4206 , such as forces applied to the central portion  4202 . Multi-dimensional space joints and sensor arrangements therefor are further described herein. 
     The central portion  4202  can be flexibly supported relative to the base  4204 . In such instances, the central portion  4202  can be configured to move or float within a small predefined zone upon receipt of force control inputs thereto. For example, the central portion  4202  can be a floating shaft that is supported on the base  4204  by one or more elastomeric members such as springs, for example. The central portion  4202  can be configured to move or float within a predefined three-dimensional volume. For example, elastomeric couplings can permit movement of the central portion  4202  relative to the base  4204 ; however, restraining plates, pins, and/or other structures can be configured to limit the range of motion of the central portion  4202  relative to the base  4204 . In one aspect, movement of the central portion  4202  from a central or “home” position relative to the base  4204  can be permitted within a range of about 1.0 mm to about 5.0 mm in any direction (up, down, left, right, backwards, and forwards). In other instances, movement of the central portion  4202  relative to the base  4204  can be restrained to less than 1.0 mm or more than 5.0 mm. In certain instances, the central portion  4202  can move about 2.0 mm in all directions relative to the base  4204  and, in still other instances, the central portion  4202  can remain stationary or fixed relative to the base  4204 . 
     In various instances, the central portion  4202  of the space joint  4206  can be spring-biased toward the central or home position, in which the central portion  4202  is aligned with the X axis, a horizontal axis through the central portion  4202  and the space joint  4206 . Driving (e.g. pushing and/or pulling) the central portion  4202  away from the X axis in any direction can be configured to “drive” an end effector of an associated surgical tool in the corresponding direction. When the external driving force is removed, the central portion  4202  can be configured to return to the central or home position and motion of the end effector can be halted. 
     In various instances, the space joint  4206  and the central portion  4202  coupled thereto define a six degree-of-freedom input control. Referring again now to the end effector  1052  of the surgical tool  1050  in  FIG. 12 , the forces on the central portion  4202  of the input control device  4200  in the X direction correspond to displacement of the end effector  1052  along the X t  axis thereof (e.g. longitudinally), forces on the central portion  4202  in the Y direction correspond to displacement of the end effector  1052  along the Y t  axis thereof (e.g. laterally), and forces on the central portion  4202  in the Z direction correspond to displacement of the end effector  1052  along the Z t  axis (e.g. vertically/up and down). Additionally, forces on the central portion  4202  about the X axis (the moment forces R) result in rotation of the end effector  1052  about the X t  axis (e.g. a rolling motion about a longitudinal axis in the direction R t ), forces on the central portion  4202  about the Y axis (the moments forces P) result in articulation of the end effector  1052  about the Y t  axis (e.g. a pitching motion in the direction P t ), and forces on the central portion  4202  about the Z axis (the moment forces T) result in articulation of the end effector  1052  about the Z t  axis of the end effector (e.g. a yawing or twisting motion in the direction T t ). In such instances, the input control device  4200  includes a six-degree of freedom joystick, for example, which is configured to receive and detect six degree-of-freedom—forces along the X, Y, and Z axes and moments about the X, Y, and Z axes. The forces can correspond to translational input and the moments can correspond to rotational inputs for the end effector  1052  of the associated surgical tool  1050 . Six degree-of-freedom input devices are further described herein. 
     Referring again to the input control device  4200  in  FIGS. 53-56 , a handpiece  4220  including a shaft  4212  is movably coupled to the base  4204  by a mechanical linkage assembly  4208 . The mechanical linkage assembly  4208  includes three arms  4208   a ,  4208   b ,  4208   c  and each arm  4208   a ,  4208   b ,  4208   c  includes a series of linkages and joints therebetween. The arms  4208   a ,  4208   b ,  4208   c  are rotationally or radially symmetric about the X axis. Each arm  4208   a ,  4208   b , and  4208   c  includes two linkages and three joints. The reader will appreciate that alternative configurations and geometries for the mechanical linkage assembly  4208  are envisioned. For example, the mechanical linkage assembly  4208  can include less than three or more than three arms and each arm can includes a different number of linkages and joints. Moreover, the types of joints can be selected to further constrain and/or permit types and/or degrees of rotational movement. 
     Referring primarily now to  FIG. 54 , the mechanical linkage assembly  4208  is shown in a first configuration (solid lines) and in a second configuration (dashed lines). The base  4204  of the input control device  4200  remains stationary as an upper portion (a collective unit  4211 ) of the input control device  4200  is displaced along a longitudinal shaft axis S, which extends parallel to the longitudinal X axis in  FIG. 54 , between the first configuration and the second configuration. In certain instances, the mechanical linkage assembly  4208  can permit movement of the shaft  4212  and the handpiece  4220  relative to the base  4204  in multiple directions. For example, the mechanical linkage assembly  4208  can be moveable relative to the base  4204  along one, two or three different axes. 
     The mechanical linkage assembly  4208  can be movable within a range of motion defined by a travel zone surrounding a linkage home position shown in  FIG. 53 , for example. In certain instances, the travel zone can define a one-dimensional path from the linkage home position, wherein the one-dimensional path extends along the longitudinal shaft axis X between 2.0 cm and 6.0 cm from the linkage home position. Referring again to  FIG. 54 , in the first configuration (solid lines), the input control device  4200  has been moved proximally along the longitudinal axis to the proximal end or limit of the travel zone and, in the second configuration (dashed lines), the input control device  4200  has been moved distally along the longitudinal axis to the distal end or limit of the travel zone. In other instances, the travel zone can define a two-dimensional space extending between 2.0 cm and 6.0 cm in two dimensions from the linkage home position. In still other instances, the travel zone can define a three-dimensional space extending between 2.0 cm and 6.0 cm in three dimensions from the linkage home position. The type and/or arrangements of joints and linkages in the mechanical linkage assembly  4208  can determine the degrees of freedom of the handpiece  4220  and shaft  4212  relative to the base  4204 . The mechanical linkage assembly  4208 , which is supported and/or built on the central portion  4202  of the space joint  4206 , can include elastically-coupled components, sliders, journaled shafts, hinges, and/or rotary bearings, for example. 
     The degrees of freedom and the dimensions of the travel zone can be selected to provide the surgeon with first-person perspective control of the end effector (i.e. from the surgeon&#39;s perspective, being “positioned” at the jaws of the remotely-positioned end effector at the surgical site). In various instances, motion of the shaft  4212  can correspond to one-to-one corresponding motion of the surgical end effector. For example, moving the shaft  4212  distally along the shaft axis S a distance of 1.0 cm can correspond to a distal displacement of the end effector a distance of 1.0 cm along the longitudinal shaft axis of the surgical tool. Similarly, rotating the handpiece  4220  at a wrist or joint  4210  in the shaft  4212  counterclockwise five degrees can correspond to a rotational displacement of the end effector by five degrees in the counterclockwise direction. In various instances, the input control motions to the input control device  4200  can be scaled, as further described herein and in various co-owned applications that have been incorporated by reference herein. 
     The shaft  4212  extends proximally from the mechanical linkage assembly  4208  and the handpiece  4220  extends proximally from the shaft  4212 . The mechanical linkage assembly  4208 , the shaft  4212 , and the handpiece  4220  form the collective unit  4211 , which is movable together as the mechanical linkage assembly  4208  is moved relative to the base  4204  within the travel zone. A displacement sensor is configured to detect movement of the collective unit  4211 . The handpiece  4220  defines an end effector actuator having at least one jaw, as further described herein. 
     The shaft  4212  supports the wrist  4210  along the length thereof. The wrist  4210  is longitudinally offset from the space joint  4206  and defines a mechanical joint to facilitate rotary motion. The wrist  4210  can include elastically-coupled components, sliders, journaled shafts, hinges, and/or rotary bearings, for example. The wrist  4210  can also include a rotary sensor (e.g. the sensor  1049  in  FIG. 25 ), which can be a rotary force/torque sensor and/or transducer, rotary strain gauge and/or strain gauge on a spring, and/or an optical sensor to detect rotary displacement at the joint, for example. 
     The wrist  4210  can define input control motions for at least one degree of freedom. For example, the wrist  4210  can define the input control motions for the rolling motion of a robotic end effector controlled by the input control device  4200 . Rotation of the wrist  4210  by the surgeon to roll an end effector provides control of the rolling motion at the surgeon&#39;s fingertips and corresponds to a first-person perspective control of the end effector (i.e. from the surgeon&#39;s perspective, being “positioned” at the jaws of the remotely-positioned end effector at the surgical site). As further described herein, such placement and perspective can be utilized to supply precision control motions to the input control device  4200  during portions of a surgical procedure (e.g. a precision motion mode). 
     In certain instances, the input control device  4200  can include additional wristed joints, as described with respect to the input control device  4000  ( FIGS. 44-49 ), for example, and sensor arrangements to detect the rotary input motions thereto. In other instances, the mechanical linkage assembly  4208  can provide sufficient degrees of freedom to precisely control a robotic surgical tool at a surgical site. Sensor arrangements on the mechanical linkage assembly  4208  can be employed to detect rotary user input motions thereto. 
     As further described herein, the space joint  4206  can define the input control motions for multiple degrees of freedom. For example, the space joint  4206  can define the input control motions for translation of the surgical tool in three-dimensional space and rotation of the surgical tool about at least one axis. Rolling motions can be controlled by inputs to the space joint  4206  and/or the wrist  4210 . Whether a rolling control motion is provided by the wrist  4210  or the space joint  4206  of the input control device  4200  can depend on the actions of the surgeon and/or the operational mode of the input control device  4200 , as further described herein. Articulation motions can be controlled by inputs to the space joint  4206  and/or the mechanical linkage assembly  4208 . Whether an articulation control motion is provided by the mechanical linkage assembly  4208  or the space joint  4206  of the input control device  4200  can depend on the actions of the surgeon and/or the operational mode of the input control device  4200 , as further described herein. 
     The handpiece  4220  includes an end effector actuator having opposing fingers  4222  extending distally from the shaft  4212 . The opposing fingers  4222  can be similar to the fingers  1022  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) in many respects. Applying an actuation force to the opposing fingers  4222  comprises an input control motion for a surgical tool. For example, referring again to  FIG. 12 , applying a pinching force to the opposing fingers  4222  can close and/or clamp the jaws  1054  of the end effector  1052  (see arrows C in  FIG. 12 ). In various instances, applying a spreading force can open and/or release the jaws  1054  of the end effector  1052 , such as for a spread dissection task, for example. The fingers  4222  also includes loops  4230 , which are similar to the loops  1030  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) in many respects. The opposing fingers  4222  can be displaced symmetrically or asymmetrically relative to the longitudinal shaft axis S during an actuation. The displacement of the opposing fingers  4222  can depend on the force applied by the surgeon, for example, and a desired surgical function. The input control device  4200  includes at least one additional actuator, such as the actuation buttons  4226 ,  4228 , for example, which can provide additional controls at the surgeon&#39;s fingertips, similar to the actuation buttons  1026 ,  1028  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) in many respects. 
     Referring primarily to  FIGS. 55 and 56 , during use, a surgeon can position his or her hand relative to the handpiece  4220  to reach the fingers  4222  and the actuation buttons  4226 ,  4228 . The surgeon&#39;s thumb T is positioned through one of the loops  4230  and the surgeon&#39;s middle finger M is positioned through the other loop  4230 . In such instances, the surgeon can pinch and/or spread his thumb T and middle finger M to actuate the fingers  4222 . 
     In various instances, the input controls for the input control device  4200  are segmented between first control motions and second control motions, similar in many aspects to the operational modes described with respect to the input control device  1000  ( FIGS. 6-11 ). Control logic for the input control device  4200  can be utilized in the control circuit  832  ( FIG. 25 ), the control circuit  1400  ( FIG. 11C ), the combinational logical circuit  1410  ( FIG. 11D ), and/or the sequential logic circuit  1420  ( FIG. 11E ), for example, where an input is provided from inputs to the input control device  4200  and/or a surgical visualization system or distance determining subsystem thereof, as further described herein. Inputs from the input control device  4200  include feedback from the various sensors thereof and related to control inputs at the space joint  4206 , the mechanical linkage assembly  4208 , the wrist  4210 , and/or the handpiece  4220 , for example. 
     In certain instances, the input control device  4200  can operate the control logic  4068  of  FIG. 50 . In such instances, input control motions in the gross motion mode (activated at block  4082 ) can be applied when the mechanical linkage assembly  4208  is positioned in the Mode B zone shown in  FIG. 54 . In such a position, the user input forces can be supplied to the space joint  4206  and detected by the multi-axis force and torque sensor arrangement  4248  ( FIG. 54 ). Upon deactivation of the gross motion mode, precision control input motions can be applied via inputs to the handpiece  4220  when the mechanical linkage assembly  4208  is in the Mode A zone shown in  FIG. 54 . For example, a surgeon can utilized one-to-one movements of the handpiece  4220  to control operation of the surgical end effector position in close proximity to tissue. 
     Wth certain robotic surgical systems and/or input control devices therefor, a surgeon may need to remain at the surgeon&#39;s console or workspace as long as he or she remains involved in the surgical procedure and/or actively controlling a robotic surgical tool. Because the surgeon&#39;s console can be fixed at a particular location (e.g. within the operating room but outside of the sterile field), the surgeon may be unable to move around the surgical theater and/or move in and out of the sterile field. When the mobility of the surgeon is restricted, the surgeon may be unable to obtain first-hand information regarding the patient and/or status of the patient and/or other conditions within the operating room (e.g. the status of supplies, condition of the assistants, etc.). 
     To increase the mobility of the surgeon, an input control device can be ungrounded or untethered from a surgeon&#39;s console. Such an input control device can be wireless handpiece that is movable in three-dimensional space. In such instances, the input control device may not utilize a base or docking station to detect and/or deliver input control motions supplied to the handpiece. A motion capture system can detect movement of the handpiece with respect to multiple degrees of freedom. For example, the motion capture system can detect input control motions by the user to the handpiece in three-dimensional space including rotational displacements of the handpiece. In such instances, the input control device can be a clutchless input control device in that the handpiece does not require use of a clutch mechanism to electronically disengage from control of the robotic surgical tool in order to maintain the handpiece within a work envelope that is defined by the position and structure of the input control device and the surgeon at a surgeon&#39;s console therefor. 
     The wireless handpiece for the input control device can also include a rolling input component (e.g. a rotary shaft and rotary sensor) and one or more actuation buttons or inputs for receiving control inputs from the surgeon. The rolling input component can supply rolling control input motions, which correspond to rolling motions for an end effector of the robotic surgical tool controlled by the input control device. Additional actuation buttons can actuate a surgical function of the end effector, such as a firing motion, energizing function, cooling function, irrigation function, and/or adjustment to a clamping pressure and/or tissue gap, for example. Additional surgical functions for a robotic surgical tool are further described herein. In certain instances, the handpiece can also include an additional input control actuator on the handpiece, such as a pivotable arm or lever, to which a surgeon can supply control motions for moving the surgical tool in three-dimensional space. For example, the pivotable arm can define a joystick operably coupled to a multi-axis force sensor, as further described herein. 
     The controls for such an input control device can be segmented in different operational modes. For example, first input control motions can be utilized in a first mode, e.g. a gross motion mode, and second input control motions can be utilized in a second mode, e.g. a precision motion mode. The non-utilized input control motions can be selectively locked out or ignored by a control circuit when they are not being utilized to control the robotic surgical tool. 
     In one aspect, a control unit can toggle the input control device between the gross motion mode and the precision motion mode based on intraoperative tissue proximity data from a proximity detection system, as further described herein. In the first mode, control input motions can be provided by the joystick and multi-axis force sensor coupled thereto, for example. Movement of the joystick can provide gross motion control inputs to the robotic surgical tool in the gross motion mode. For example, the joystick can be moved relative to X, Y, and/or Z axes, which corresponds to control motions for moving the robotic surgical tool in the X, Y, and/or Z axes thereof. Forces supplied by the joystick can correspond to displacements of the robotic surgical tool enabling the clutchless functionality of the input control device. 
     In certain instances, the sensitivity of inputs to the joystick can decrease as the surgical tool approaches tissue and, in certain instances, can be deactivated or locked out upon detecting a tissue proximity of less than or equal to a threshold distance. For example, the handpiece can include a mechanical and/or electronic lock for the joystick. The lock can be movable from an unlocked position to a locked position in response to switching from the gross motion mode to the precision motion mode. 
     In the precision motion mode, the motion capture system can detect motion of the handpiece and provide precision motion control inputs to the robotic surgical tool based on the detected motion. For example, the handpiece can be moved relative to the X, Y, and/or Z axes and/or articulated with respect to one or more different articulation axes, which corresponds to control motions for moving and/or articulating the robotic surgical tool accordingly. Additional features and variations to untethered, ungrounded input control devices are further described herein. 
     When the surgeon involved in the surgical procedure is not required to remain at a surgeon&#39;s console or predetermined location, as provided by the untethered, ungrounded input control device further described herein, the surgeon can move around the surgical theater and/or move in and out of the sterile field, for example. The increased mobility allowance for the surgeon can allow the surgeon to relocate in order to obtain first-hand information regarding the patient and/or a status within the operating room, rather than relying on information provided at the surgeon&#39;s console (e.g. obtained by cameras and relayed to an imaging system) and/or second-hand information provided by assistants and/or others within the operating room. Additionally, the untethered or ungrounded input control device allows the surgeon to select a comfortable ergonomic position from a wide range of postures, including sitting, kneeling, and standing postures without consideration for a support surface for the input control device. Because the surgeon can select a comfortable posture for him/herself and adjust his/her posture throughout the surgical procedure, the ergonomic effects on the surgeon are improved. Additionally, a clutching mechanism is not required to utilize such an input control device. 
     Referring now to  FIGS. 57-61 , an input control device  5000  is shown. The input control device  5000  can be incorporated into a surgical system, such as the surgical system  110  ( FIG. 1 ) or the surgical system  150  ( FIG. 3 ), for example, to provide control signals to a surgical robot and/or surgical tool coupled thereto. The input control device  5000  includes manual input controls for moving the robotic arm and/or the surgical tool in three-dimensional space. The input control device  5000  includes sufficient degrees of freedom to control the robotic surgical tool  1050  shown in  FIG. 12 , for example. The input control device  5000  includes a handpiece  5002  that is configured to be held by the surgeon. For example, a surgeon can hold the handpiece  5002  as shown in  FIGS. 60 and 61 . The handpiece  5002  is untethered or ungrounded. Moreover, the handpiece  5002  is a wireless handpiece  5002 . Referring primarily to  FIG. 59A , the handpiece  5002  can includes a power source  5054  and a control circuit  5048  having wireless communication capabilities with external components. For example, the handpiece  5002  can include one or more communication modules. Because the communication does not require high powered signals, near-field communication protocols can be utilized in various instances. 
     The handpiece  5002  includes an elongate body  5004 . The surgeon can grasp the elongate body  5004  between his or her palm and fingers to hold the handpiece  5002 . The elongate body  5004  can be dimensioned and structured for comfortable grasping by the surgeon and can include contoured edges and a generally cylindrical shape, for example. 
     The handpiece  5002  also includes a joystick  5006 , which extends proximally from the elongate body  5004 . The joystick  5006  can define a circular ring and/or a looped structure  5008 , which can permit engagement with a surgeon&#39;s digits, such as the surgeon&#39;s thumb. A surgeon&#39;s thumb (T) engaged with the ring  5008  is shown in  FIGS. 60 and 61 . The joystick  5006  is operably coupled to a multi-axis force sensor  5010  ( FIG. 59A ), which can be similar to the multi-axis force and torque sensor  1048  ( FIGS. 8 and 9 ) in many respects. The joystick  5006  can be flexibly supported at a space joint  5012 , which can be similar to the space joint  1006  ( FIGS. 6-11 ) in many respects. In various instances, the joystick  5006  can be spring-biased toward a home position. In other instances, the joystick  5006  may be essentially fixed relative to the handpiece  5002 . 
     The surgeon can be configured to supply input control forces to the joystick  5006 , which are detected by the multi-axis force sensor  5010 . For example, the multi-axis force sensor  5010  can be configured to detect input forces in multiple dimensions, such as forces along the X, Y, and Z axes shown in  FIG. 57 . In certain instances, the multi-axis force sensor  5010  can also be configured to detect input moments in multiple dimensions, such as the moments R, P and T about the axes X, Y, and Z, respectively, in  FIG. 57 . However, as further described herein, in at least one aspect of the present disclosure, the rotation or articulation of the robotic surgical tool can be controlled by different inputs and, in such instances, the multi-axis force sensor  5010  may not detect and/or utilize moments applied to the joystick  5006 . Moreover, in certain instances, a sensor for the joystick  5006  can be configured to detect displacement of the joystick  5006  instead of and/or in addition to detecting the forces applied to the joystick  5006 . 
     The handpiece  5002  also includes a shaft  5016  extending distally from the elongate body  5004 . The shaft  5016  is rotatably coupled to the elongate body  5004 . For example, a rotary joint  5018  intermediate the elongate body  5004  and the shaft  5016  can permit rotation of the shaft  5016  in the directions R s  shown in  FIG. 57 . The rotary joint  5018  can include journaled shafts and/or rotary bearings, for example. The elongate body  5004  also includes a rotary sensor  5020  ( FIG. 59A ), which is configured to detect rotary displacement of the shaft  5016  relative to the elongate body  5004 . The rotary sensor  5020  can be a rotary force/torque sensor and/or transducer, rotary strain gauge, strain gauge on a spring, rotary encoder, and/or an optical sensor to detect rotary displacements at the rotary joint  5018 , for example. 
     The shaft  5016  also includes a radial sensor  5022  ( FIG. 59A ), which is configured to detect radial input forces to the shaft  5016 . For example, the radial sensor  5022  can detect squeezing or pinching forces applied to the shaft  5016  in the directions S s1  and S s2  depicted in  FIG. 57 . As further described herein, the forces detected by the radial sensor  5022  can correspond to input control motions to manipulate one or more jaws of a robotic surgical tool controlled by the input control device  5000 . For example, applying a pinching force in the directions S s1  and S s2  can be configured to applying a jaw clamping motion at the jaws of the robotic surgical tool, such as to close the opposing jaws  1054  of the robotic surgical tool  1050  ( FIG. 12 ). 
     Additionally or alternatively, the handpiece  5002  can include an actuation trigger pivotably coupled to the elongate body  5004 . The actuation trigger can be movable between an unactuated position and one or more actuated positions. The handpiece  5002  can also include a trigger sensor configured to detect the actuation of the trigger. In various instances, actuation of the trigger can correspond to closure motions for one or more jaws of the robotic surgical tool  1050  ( FIG. 12 ), for example. For example, the trigger sensor can be communicatively coupled to the control circuit  5048  for the input control device  5000 . Output control signals can be relayed to the robotic surgical system based on the actuation of the trigger as detected by the trigger sensor. A pivotable trigger on the input control device  5000  can provide an intuitive mechanism for certain surgeons who are accustomed to using handheld surgical instruments having a trigger for closing the jaws of the end effector. 
     The handpiece  5002  also includes a body sensor  5030  ( FIG. 59A ), which is embedded in the elongate body  5004  and configured to detect motion of the elongate body  5004  in three-dimensional space. The body sensor  5030  is a motion sensor. For example, the body sensor  5030  can be an inertia sensor, for example. The inertia sensor can include an accelerometer and/or gyroscope, for example, to detect the effect of gravity on the moving elongate body  5004 . In other instances, the body sensor  5030  can be an electromagnetic tracking receiver, which is configured to detect electromagnetic forces emitted from a source in the vicinity of the handpiece  5002  (e.g. an emitter within the operating room or surgical theater). The body sensor  5030  can be configured to detect input motions in multiple dimensions, such as displacement along the X, Y, and Z axes in  FIG. 57  and input rotations in multiple dimensions, such as the moments R, P and T about the X, Y, and Z axes, respectively, in  FIG. 57 . 
     The handpiece  5002  also includes a button  5026  on the elongate body  5004 . The button  5026  can be positioned and dimensioned such that a surgeon holding the elongate body  5004  can manipulate the button  5026  with one of his or her fingers, such as a middle finger (M), ring finger (R), and/or littler finger (L) in the position shown in  FIG. 60 . In various instances, the button  5026  can selectively unlock or unlock certain input control motions via the input control device  5000 . For example, upon activation of the button  5026 , input control motions detected by the body sensor  5030  can be utilized to control the robotic surgical tool. In certain instances, the input control motions detected by the body sensor  5030  can only be output to control the robotic surgical tool while a series of requisite conditions are met, including the activation of the button  5026 . In other instances, activation of the button  5026  can override the default operational mode conditions and corresponding input control functions of the input control device  5000 . For example, activation of the button  5026  can enable a precision motion mode though a requisite condition has not yet been met, such as before the proximity detection system detects the surgical tool being positioned within the threshold proximity of tissue. The button  5026  can be activated by depressing the button  5026  toward the elongate body  5004 , which may be spring-loaded away from the elongate body  5004 . A sensor  5032  ( FIG. 59A ) in the elongate body  5004  can be configured to detect the activation and deactivation of the button  5026 . 
     Although one actuation button  5026  is shown on the handpiece  5002 , the reader will appreciate that additional actuation buttons can be positioned on the elongate body  5004 . Each actuation button can correspond to different functions, such as different control functions for suppling input control motions via the input control device  5000  and/or different surgical functions performed by the end effector, for example. Moreover, the reader will appreciate that the actuation button  5026  and/or additional actuation buttons on the handpiece  5002  can have a different geometry and/or structure, and can include a trigger, a button, a switch, a lever, a toggle, and combinations thereof. 
     Control logic for the input control device  5000  can be utilized in the control circuit  5048 , which is schematically depicted in  FIG. 59A . The reader will appreciate that the control circuit  832  ( FIG. 25 ), the control circuit  1400  ( FIG. 11C ), the combinational logical circuit  1410  ( FIG. 11D ), and/or the sequential logic circuit  1420  ( FIG. 11E ), for example, can also be configured to implement control logic for the input control device  5000  in certain instances. Referring again to the control circuit  5048 , a processor  5050 , a memory  5052 , and the power source  5054  are included within the housing of the handpiece  5002 . The power source  5054  can be a battery or battery pack, which can be replaceable and/or rechargeable in certain instances. The power source  5054  is configured to supply current to the various powered components in the handpiece  5002 . The memory  5052  stores instructions, which are executable by the processor  5050 , to implement the control logic for the input control device  5000 . For example, the memory  5052  can store the threshold proximity value and/or incremental proximity values for implementing the control logic further described herein. 
     The control circuit  5048  also includes the communication module  5056  coupled to the processor  5050 . The communication module  5056  can communicatively couple the processor  5050  to a proximity detection system  5060 , which is configured to detect a proximity between the robotic surgical tool controlled by the input control device  5000  and tissue. The proximity detection system  5060  includes a structured light source, such as the structured light source  852  in  FIG. 25 , for example. In other instances, the proximity detection system  5060  can rely on Lidar and/or time-of-flight distance determining systems to determine the proximity between the robotic surgical tool and the tissue. Alternative proximity detection systems that are compatible with the control circuit  5048  are further described herein. 
     The processor  5050  is configured to receive proximity signals from the proximity detection system  5060  and receive input control signals from the sensors of the input control device  5000 , including the multi-axis force sensor  5010 , the rotary sensor  5020 , the radial sensor  5022 , the body sensor  5030  and the sensor  5032  for the button  5026 , for example. In response to the processor  5050  receiving a proximity signal indicating that the proximity to tissue has been reduced to less than a threshold value, the processor is configured to switch the input control device  5000  between a first mode, which can be the gross motion mode, and a second mode, which can be the precision motion mode (see, e.g. the control logic  1068  in  FIG. 11A ) 
     In the gross motion mode, the processor  5050  is configured to provide output control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control forces supplied to the joystick  5006  and detected by the multi-axis force sensor  5010 . For example, the surgeon can apply forces to the joystick  5006  with his or her thumb (T) ( FIGS. 60 and 61 ), which can correspond to input control motions for moving the robotic surgical tool in three-dimensional space. In certain instances, control motions applied to the joystick  5006  and detected by the multi-axis force sensor  5010  in the gross motion mode can drive the robotic surgical tool in the desired direction. In such instances, the input control device  5000  can drive the robotic surgical tool toward tissue and across large distances without requiring displacements of the input control device  5000  and without requiring a clutch to maintain the input control device within a work envelope. In various instances, rotation and/or articulation functions of the robotic surgical tool can be selectively locked out during the gross motion mode. 
     In the precision motion mode, the processor  5050  can provide output control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control motions applied to the elongate body  5004  and detected by the body sensor  5030 . For example, the surgeon can move the handpiece  5002  in three-dimensional space and the motion can be detected by the body sensor  5030 , which can correspond to input control motions for moving the robotic surgical tool in three-dimensional space. In various instances, displacement of the robotic surgical tool and articulation of the surgical tool in three-dimensional space (e.g. pitching and yaw motions of the end effector) can be activated by the detection of such rotational movement by the body sensor  5030  during the precision motion mode. In the precision motion mode, the joystick  5006  and/or the multi-axis force sensor  5010  can be deactivated and/or the input control forces detected by the multi-axis force sensor  5010  can be ignored. Furthermore, in the precision motion mode, rolling motions of the end effector (e.g. rolling about the longitudinal shaft axis of the robotic surgical tool) can be generated by rolling the shaft  5016  in the directions R s  ( FIG. 57 ), for example, and actuations of the end effector (e.g. closing of the jaws) can be generated by pinching forces applied to the shaft  5016  in the directions S s1  and S s2 , for example. 
     In various aspects, the input control motions applied to the input control device  5000  in the precision motion mode can correspond to equal motions of the robotic surgical tool. For example, displacement of the handpiece  5002  in three-dimensional space can correspond to an equal displacement of the robotic surgical tool. In other words, the control input motions can have a one-to-one correlation to the robotic surgical tool motions, which can provide an intuitive control system for the surgeon. In other instances, the control motions in the precision mode can be scaled. 
     In certain instances, input motions applied to the handpiece  5002  can be selectively ignored by the processor  5050  and/or not converted to output control signals for controlling the robotic surgical tool. For example, before the proximity detected by the proximity detection system  5060  reaches the threshold proximity (i.e. when operating in the gross motion mode), the body sensor  5030  can be deactivated and/or the input control motions detected by the body sensor  5030  can be ignored. To control the robotic surgical tool in the gross motion mode, the surgeon can apply input control forces to the joystick  5006 . In other instances, the surgeon can utilize the body sensor  5030  to supply control motions to the robotic surgical tool even in the gross motion mode and before reaching the threshold proximity by selectively activating the button  5026  to override the default rules of the control logic. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 62 , a hypothetical graphical representation  5070  of input control sensitivity relative to tissue proximity for the input control device  5000  is shown. The control logic for the input control device  5000  can be configured to scale the output control signals in the gross motion mode in response to the proximity signals received from the proximity detection system  5060 . For example, in a gross motion mode  5071 , forces detected by the multi-axis force sensor  5010  can be scaled in response to approaching the threshold proximity (D critical ). More specifically, the gross motion mode  5071  can enable the robotic surgical tool to selectively move at relatively high speeds in a region  5072 , in which the multi-axis force sensor  5010  is highly sensitive to input control forces applied by the surgeon. 
     Upon reaching a first distance with respect to tissue (D 1 ), the sensitivity of the multi-axis force sensor  5010  can begin to decrease, which can reduce the speed of the robotic surgical tool as it approaches tissue. In certain instance, the decrease in sensitivity with respect to tissue proximity can define one or more curved and/or linear relationships. In still other instances, the decrease can define an incremental and/or stepped profile. The sensitivity can decrease in the region  5074  until the threshold proximity (D critical ) is met, at which time the input control device  5000  enters the precision motion mode  5075  and the sensitivity is zero. According to the default rules of the control logic, in the precision motion mode  5075 , input control forces at the multi-axis force sensor  5010  do not control displacement of the robotic surgical tool. 
     In certain instances, the joystick  5006  and the multi-axis force sensor  5010  ( FIG. 59A ) can be disabled throughout the surgical procedure, including during a gross motion mode, for example. In such instances, the surgeon can selectively operate the input control device  5000  by relying entirely on the body sensor  5030  ( FIG. 59A ) when the joystick  5006  and/or multi-axis force sensor  5010  are disabled. 
     In various instances, the surgeon can supply rolling input control motions to the shaft  5016  in the gross motion mode and the precision motion mode. In other instances, rotation of the shaft  5016  can be selectively locked out and/or rolling input control motions to the shaft  5016  can be selectively ignored by the control circuit  5048  during one or more portions of a surgical procedure, such as during the gross motion mode, for example. Additionally or alternatively, in certain instances, applying opening and/or closing motions to the jaws of a surgical end effector can be selectively locked out and/or ignored by the control circuit  5048  during one or more portions of the surgical procedure, such as during the gross motion mode, for example. 
     In various aspects of the present disclosure, an untethered, ungrounded input control device can utilize a motion capture system to control a robotic surgical tool, such as the robotic surgical tool  1050  ( FIG. 12 ), in multiple operational modes including a precision motion mode and a gross motion mode. Moreover, in certain aspects of the present disclosure, an input control device may not include a gross mode actuator and sensor, like the joystick  5006  and the multi-axis force sensor  5010 , for example. In such instances, the surgeon can selectively operate the input control device  5000  by relying entirely on a motion capture system, as further described herein. 
     Referring now to  FIGS. 63-67 , an untethered, ungrounded input control device  5100  is shown. The input control device  5100  can be incorporated into a surgical system, such as the surgical system  110  ( FIG. 1 ) or the surgical system  150  ( FIG. 3 ), for example, to provide control signals to a surgical robot and/or surgical tool coupled thereto. The input control device  5100  includes manual input controls for moving the robotic arm and/or the surgical tool in three-dimensional space. The input control device  5100  is similar to the input control device  5000  in many respects. For example, the input control device  5100  includes sufficient degrees of freedom to control the robotic surgical tool  1050  shown in  FIG. 12 . The input control device  5100  also includes a handpiece  5102  that is similar to the handpiece  5002  in many respects. For example, the handpiece  5102  is wireless and includes a power source and a control circuit having wireless communication capabilities with external components, similar to the control circuit  5048  ( FIG. 59A ) in many respects. The handpiece  5102  includes an elongate body  5104  that the surgeon can comfortably grasp during use. The input control device  5100  includes the shaft  5016 , which is rotatably coupled to the elongate body  5104 , at the rotary joint  5018  and includes a rotary sensor (e.g. the rotary sensor  5020  in  FIG. 59A ) configured to detect rotary displacement of the shaft  5016  relative to the elongate body  5104 . Additionally, the shaft  5016  can include a radial sensor (e.g. the radial sensor  5022  in  FIG. 59A ). In other instances, the input control device  5100  can include an actuation trigger and corresponding trigger sensor for applying opening and/or closing motions to jaws of the robotic surgical tool, as further described herein with respect to  FIGS. 57-61 . 
     Unlike the input control device  5000 , the input control device  5100  does not include a joystick and multi-axis force sensor coupled thereto. Rather, control input motions for moving a robotic surgical tool in three-dimensional space are controlled by a motion capture system in the gross motion mode and the precision motion mode. The handpiece  5102  includes a body sensor, like the body sensor  5030  in  FIG. 59A , which is embedded in the elongate body  5104  and configured to detect motion of the elongate body  5104  in three-dimensional space. The handpiece  5102  also includes a button  5126  on the elongate body  5104  and a button sensor, which are similar to the button  5026  ( FIGS. 57-61 ) and the sensor  5032  ( FIG. 59A ) in many respects. 
     The control functions of the input control device  5100  can depend on the position of the input control device  5100  relative to a home position and a zone surrounding the home position. The position of the input control device  5100  relative to the home position and the surrounding zone can be determined by the motion capture system thereof. A hypothetical gross motion zone  5140  is shown in  FIG. 63 . The gross motion zone  5140  is a three-dimensional volume having a boundary or edge  5142  therearound. The gross motion zone  5140  can be defined with respect to the home position. The home position can be set or established by the surgeon&#39;s input (e.g. by actuating the button  5126  or another actuator on the handpiece  5102 ). The home position of the input control device  5100  can be a central position equidistantly-spaced from all of the boundaries  5142  of the gross motion zone  5140 . In various instances, from the home position, the boundaries  5142  can be positioned about 2 inches to about 6 inches from the home position. In other instances, the boundaries  5142  can be positioned less than 2 inches or more than 6 inches from the home position in at least one direction. Although the gross motion zone in  FIG. 63  defines a cylindrical shape, the reader will appreciate that alternative geometries can be employed. 
     In various instances, in the gross motion mode, the surgeon can drive a robotic surgical tool in a particular direction by moving the input control device  5100  in the corresponding direction away from the home position. As the input control device  5100  approaches the boundary or edge of the gross motion zone  5140 , the speed of the robotic surgical tool driven by the input control device  5100  can increase. The gross motion mode can be maintained by holding down the button  5126 , for example. In various instances, to initiate the gross motion mode, the surgeon can engage the button  5126  which defines or sets the home position within the gross motion zone, and can drive the robotic surgical tool in the gross motion mode as long as the button  5126  remains engaged and/or actuated. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 68 , the input control device  5100  can utilize control logic that correlates the distance of the input control device  5100  from the home position with respect to the speed of the robotic surgical tool driven by the input control device  5100 . Control logic for the input control device  5100  can be utilized in the control circuit  832  ( FIG. 25 ), the control circuit  1400  ( FIG. 11C ), the combinational logical circuit  1410  ( FIG. 11D ), and/or the sequential logic circuit  1420  ( FIG. 11E ), for example, where an input is provided from inputs to the input control device  4000  and/or a surgical visualization system or distance determining subsystem thereof, as further described herein. As the distance of the input control device  5100  from the home position increases in  FIG. 68 , the speed of the robotic surgical tool driven by the input control device  5100  can be increasingly scaled toward the maximum speed. When the input control device  5100  meets and/or exceeds the boundary  5142  of the gross motion zone  5140  (e.g. leaves the gross motion zone  5140 ), the high speed of the robotic surgical tool can be maintained in the gross motion mode. In various instances, retracting the input control device  5100  toward the home position within the gross motion zone  5140  can correspondingly decrease the speed of the robotic surgical tool. 
     When the proximity of the robotic surgical tool meets the threshold or critical proximity stored in the memory and accessible to the control logic, the input control device  5100  can switch from the gross motion mode to the precision motion mode. In the precision motion mode, movement of the robotic surgical tool can be controlled by the same input controls described herein with respect to  FIGS. 57-62 . For example, input control motions detected by the body sensor of the motion capture system can control three-dimensional displacement of the robotic surgical tool and pivoting of the robotic surgical tool in three-dimensional space, such a pitching and yaws articulation motions of the end effector. Additionally, rotation of the shaft  5016  can control the rolling motion of the end effector, and pinching forces to the shaft  5016  can control the opening and/or closing of one or more jaws of the end effector. 
     In various aspects, the input control motions applied to the input control device  5100  in the precision motion mode can correspond to equal motions of the robotic surgical tool. For example, displacement of the handpiece  5102  in three-dimensional space can correspond to an equal displacement of the robotic surgical tool. In other words, the control input motions can have a one-to-one correlation to the robotic surgical tool motions, which can provide an intuitive control system for the surgeon. In other instances, the control motions in the precision mode can be scaled. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Various aspects of the subject matter described herein are set out in the following numbered examples. 
     A list of Examples follows:
         Example 1—A control system for a surgical robot, the control system comprising a base, a central portion flexibly supported by the base, a wrist longitudinally offset from the central portion and rotationally coupled to the central portion, a multi-axis sensor arrangement configured to detect user input forces applied to the central portion, a rotary sensor configured to detect user input motions applied to the wrist, a memory, and a processor communicatively coupled to the memory. The processor is configured to receive a plurality of first input signals from the multi-axis sensor arrangement, provide a plurality of first output signals to the surgical robot based on the plurality of first input signals, receive a plurality of second input signals from the rotary sensor, and provide a plurality of second output signals to the surgical robot based on the plurality of second input signals.   Example 2—The control system of Example 1, wherein the plurality of first input signals correspond to forces and moments applied to the central portion in three-dimensional space.   Example 3—The control system of Examples 1 or 2, wherein the plurality of first output signals correspond to translation and rotation of a surgical tool coupled to the surgical robot.   Example 4—The control system of any one of Examples 1-3, wherein the plurality of second input signals correspond to rotational displacement of the wrist relative to the base in three-dimensional space.   Example 5—The control system of Examples 3 or 4, wherein the plurality of second output signals correspond to a rolling motion of the surgical tool.   Example 6—The control system of any one of Examples 1-5, wherein the central portion comprises a joystick. A shaft extends between the joystick and the wrist.   Example 7—The control system of any one of Examples 1-6, further comprising a jaw movably supported on the wrist and a jaw sensor configured to detect movement of the jaw. The jaw is movable between an open configuration and a clamped configuration. The processor is further configured to receive a plurality of third input signals from the jaw sensor and provide a plurality of third output signals to the surgical robot indicative of an actuation motion of a jaw member of a surgical tool coupled to the surgical robot.   Example 8—A control system for a surgical robot, the control system comprising a first control input comprising a flexibly-supported joystick, a memory, and a control circuit communicatively coupled to the memory. The memory stores instructions executable by the control circuit to switch the control system between a first mode and a second mode, receive a plurality of first input signals from the first control input, scale the plurality of first input signals by a first multiplier in the first mode, and scale the plurality of first input signals by a second multiplier in the second mode. The second multiplier is different than the first multiplier.   Example 9—The control system of Example 8, wherein the flexibly-supported joystick is operably coupled to a multi-axis force and torque sensor configured to detect forces and moments applied to the flexibly-supported joystick. The plurality of first input signals correspond to output signals from the multi-axis force and torque sensor.   Example 10—The control system of Examples 8 or 9, wherein the first mode corresponds to a gross motion mode and the second mode corresponds to a precision motion mode.   Example 11—The control system of any one of Examples 8-10, wherein the control circuit is communicatively coupled to a proximity detection system. The control circuit is further configured to receive a proximity signal from the proximity detection system and switch the control system from the first mode to the second mode when the proximity signal corresponds to a proximity less than a threshold value.   Example 12—The control system of any one of Examples 8-11, further comprising a second control input comprising a rotatable wrist. The control circuit is further configured to receive a plurality of second input signals from the second control input, scale the plurality of second input signals by a third multiplier in the first mode, and scale the plurality of second input signals by a fourth multiplier in the second mode. The fourth multiplier is different than the third multiplier.   Example 13—The control system of Example 12, further comprising a rotary sensor configured to detect rotation of the rotatable wrist. The plurality of second input signals correspond to output signals from the rotary sensor.   Example 14—The control system of Examples 12 or 13, further comprising a shaft extending from the flexibly-supported joystick. The rotatable wrist is configured to rotate on the shaft.   Example 15—The control system of Example 14, further comprising a pair of opposing actuators pivotably supported on the shaft and a sensor configured to detect pivoting movement of the pair of opposing actuators.   Example 16—A control system for a surgical robot, the control system comprising a first input comprising a flexibly-supported joystick and a multi-axis force and torque sensor arrangement configured to detect user input forces and torques applied to the flexibly-supported joystick, a second input comprising a rotary joint and a rotary sensor configured to detect user input motions applied to the rotary joint, and a control unit. The control unit is configured to provide a first plurality of output signals to the surgical robot based on actuation of the first input and provide a second plurality of output signals to the surgical robot based on actuation of the second input.   Example 17—The control system of Example 16, wherein the flexibly-supported joystick is spring-biased to an upright position.   Example 18—The control system of Examples 16 or 17, wherein the control unit is communicatively coupled a proximity detection system. The control unit is further configured to receive a proximity signal from the proximity detection system, scale the user input forces and torques detected by the multi-axis force and torque sensor arrangement by a first factor when the proximity signal is greater than a threshold value, and scale the user input forces and torques detected by the multi-axis force and torque sensor arrangement by a second factor when the proximity signal is equal to or less than the threshold value. The second factor is different than the first factor.   Example 19—The control system of Example 18, wherein the second factor is less than the first factor.   Example 20—The control system of Examples 18 or 19, wherein the control unit is further configured to ignore the user input motions applied to the rotary joint when the proximity signal is greater than a critical value.       

     Another list of Examples follows:
         Example 1—A control system comprising a robotic surgical tool, a tissue proximity detection system configured to intraoperatively detect a distance between the robotic surgical tool and an anatomical structure, and a user input device. The user input device comprises a base comprising a force sensor, a forearm support movably coupled to the base, a shaft extending distally from the forearm support, a handpiece extending distally from the shaft, and a jaw sensor configured to detect pivotal movement of the jaw. The forearm support is movable relative to the base within a travel zone and the handpiece comprises a jaw. The forearm support, the shaft, and the handpiece are movable together as a collective unit as the forearm support moves relative to the base within the travel zone. The user input device further comprises a displacement sensor configured to detect movement of the collective unit. The control system further comprises a control circuit communicatively coupled to the force sensor, the displacement sensor, and the jaw sensor. The control circuit is configured to receive first input signals from the force sensor, receive second input signals from the displacement sensor, receive third input signals from the jaw sensor, and switch the user input device from a first mode to a second mode in response to input from the tissue proximity detection system indicative of the distance between the robotic surgical tool and the anatomical structure being reduced to less than a threshold distance. The first input signals control movements of the robotic surgical tool in the first mode and the second input signals and the third input signals control movements of the robotic surgical tool in the second mode.   Example 2—The control system of Example 1, wherein the travel zone comprises a three-dimensional space surrounding a forearm home position. The forearm support is spring-biased toward the forearm home position and the three-dimensional space extends in all directions between 2.0 cm and 6.0 cm from the forearm home position.   Example 3—The control system of Examples 1 or 2, wherein the forearm support comprises a curved arc forming a cuff and the cuff is dimensioned to at least partially surround a surgeon&#39;s arm.   Example 4—The control system of any one of Examples 1-3, wherein the tissue proximity detection system comprises a structured light source on the robotic surgical tool.   Example 5—A control system comprising a tissue proximity detection system and a user input device. The user input device comprises a base, a forearm support movably coupled to the base, a shaft extending distally from the forearm support, a handpiece extending distally from the shaft, and a plurality of sensors. The forearm support is movable relative to the base within a travel zone and the handpiece comprises a jaw configured to pivot relative to the shaft. The plurality of sensors comprises a first sensor arrangement configured to detect user input forces to the base, a second sensor arrangement configured to detect displacement of the forearm support, and a third sensor arrangement configured to detect pivotal motion of the jaw. The control system further comprises a control circuit configured to receive proximity data signals from the tissue proximity detection system, receive first input signals from the first sensor arrangement, receive second input signals from the second sensor arrangement, receive third input signals from the third sensor arrangement, and switch the user input device from a first mode to a second mode in response to proximity data signals from the tissue proximity detection system indicating a predefined tissue proximity. The first input signals control movements of the robotic surgical tool in the first mode and the second input signals and the third input signals control movements of the robotic surgical tool in the second mode.   Example 6—A user input device for controlling a robotic surgical tool, the user input device comprising a base comprising a first sensor arrangement and a forearm support movably coupled to the base. The forearm support is movable relative to the base within a travel zone and the forearm support comprises a second sensor arrangement. The user input device further comprises a control circuit configured to receive first input signals from the first sensor arrangement, receive second input signals from the second sensor arrangement, and switch the user input device between a first mode, in which the first input signals control movements of the robotic surgical tool, and a second mode, in which the second input signals control movements of the robotic surgical tool.   Example 7—The user input device of Example 6, wherein the control circuit is communicatively coupled to a tissue proximity detection system. The control circuit is configured to switch the user input device between the first mode and the second mode in response to input from the tissue proximity detection system.   Example 8—The user input device of Example 7, wherein the first mode comprises a gross motion mode and the second mode comprises a precision motion mode. The control circuit is configured to switch the user input device between the gross motion mode and the precision motion mode when the tissue proximity detection system provides a proximity signal indicative of the robotic surgical tool being positioned less than a threshold distance from an anatomical structure.   Example 9—The user input device of any one of Examples 6-8, wherein the first sensor arrangement comprises a six degree-of-freedom force and torque sensor.   Example 10—The user input device of any one of Examples 6-9, wherein the first sensor arrangement comprises a joystick movable in a three-dimensional space around an input home position. The three-dimensional space extends in all directions between 1.0 mm and 5.0 mm from the input home position and the joystick is spring-biased toward the input home position.   Example 11—The user input device of any one of Examples 6-10, wherein the second sensor arrangement comprises a displacement sensor.   Example 12—The user input device of any one of Examples 6-11, wherein the travel zone comprises a three-dimensional space surrounding a forearm home position and the forearm support is spring-biased toward the forearm home position.   Example 13—The user input device of Example 12, wherein the three-dimensional space extends in all directions between 2.0 cm and 6.0 cm from the forearm home position.   Example 14—The user input device of any one of Examples 6-13, wherein the forearm support comprises a curved arc forming a sleeve and the sleeve is dimensioned to at least partially surround a surgeon&#39;s arm.   Example 15—The user input device of any one of Examples 6-14, further comprising a shaft extending distally from the forearm support, a handpiece extending distally from the shaft and comprising a first jaw and a second jaw, and a jaw sensor arrangement configured to detect pivotal motion of the first jaw and the second jaw within the range of motion. The first jaw and the second jaw are pivotable relative to the shaft within a range of motion,   Example 16—The user input device of Example 15, wherein the jaw sensor arrangement is communicatively coupled to the control circuit. The control circuit is further configured to receive third input signals from the jaw sensor arrangement and provide output signals to the robotic surgical tool to control actuation of one or more jaws of an end effector of the robotic surgical tool.   Example 17—The user input device of Examples 15 or 16, further comprising a first finger loop on the first jaw positioned and dimensioned to receive at least one digit of a surgeon&#39;s hand and a second finger loop on the second jaw positioned and dimensioned to receive at least one digit of the surgeon&#39;s hand.   Example 18—The user input device of any one of Examples 15-17, further comprising a rotary joint intermediate the handpiece and the shaft and a rotary sensor configured to detection rotary motion of the handpiece relative to the shaft.   Example 19—The user input device of any one of Examples 15-18, wherein the handpiece further comprises an actuator communicatively coupled to the control circuit. The control circuit is further configured to receive input actuation signals from the actuator and provide output actuation signals to the robotic surgical tool to actuate a surgical function.   Example 20—The user input device of Example 19, wherein the actuator is selected from a group consisting of a trigger, a button, a switch, a lever, a toggle, and combinations thereof.       

     Another list of Examples follows:
         Example 1—A control system for a robotic surgical tool, the control system comprising an untethered handpiece comprising a body, a joystick extending from the body, a rotatable shaft extending from the body, and a plurality of sensors comprising a body sensor embedded in the body and configured to detect motion of the body in three-dimensional space, a multi-axis force sensor configured to detect forces applied to the joystick, and a shaft sensor configured to detect rotary displacement of the shaft relative to the body. The control system further comprises a control circuit communicatively coupled to the plurality of sensors and a proximity detection system. The control circuit is configured to receive proximity signals from the proximity detection system, receive input control signals from the plurality of sensors, switch between a gross motion mode and a precision motion mode in response to receiving a proximity signal indicating the proximity being reduced to less than a threshold value, provide gross motion control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the multi-axis force sensor in the gross motion mode, and provide precision motion control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the body sensor and the shaft sensor in the precision motion mode. The proximity signals are indicative of a proximity of the robotic surgical tool to tissue.   Example 2—The control system of Example 1, wherein the joystick comprises a loop dimensioned and positioned to receive a user&#39;s thumb.   Example 3—The control system of Examples 1 or 2, wherein the body sensor is selected from a group consisting of an inertial sensor and an electromagnetic tracking receiver.   Example 4—The control system of any one of Examples 1-3, wherein the shaft sensor is selected from a group consisting of a rotary transducer, strain gauge, and an optical sensor.   Example 5—A control system for a robotic surgical tool, the control system comprising an untethered handpiece comprising a body, an actuator extending from the body, a rotatable shaft extending from the body, and a plurality of sensors comprising a body sensor embedded in the body and configured to detect motion of the body in three-dimensional space, a force sensor configured to detect forces applied to the actuator, and a shaft sensor configured to detect rotary displacement of the shaft relative to the body. The control system further comprises a proximity detection system configured to detect a proximity of the robotic surgical tool to tissue and a control circuit communicatively coupled to the plurality of sensors and the proximity detection system. The control circuit is configured to receive proximity signals from the proximity detection system, receive input control signals from the plurality of sensors, switch between a first mode and a second mode in response to receiving a proximity signal indicating the proximity being reduced to less than a threshold value, provide first motion control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the force sensor in the first mode, and provide second motion control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the body sensor and the shaft sensor in the second mode. The proximity signals are indicative of the proximity of the robotic surgical tool to tissue and the first motion control signals are scaled based on the proximity signal.   Example 6—The control system of Example 5, wherein the proximity detection system comprises a structured light source and an optical receiver.   Example 7—The control system of Examples 5 or 6, wherein the shaft further comprises a radial sensor configured to detect radial forces applied to the shaft. The control circuit is further configured to receive input control signals from the radial sensor and provide output control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the radial sensor. The output control signals are configured to apply closure motions to one or more jaws of the robotic surgical tool.   Example 8—A control system for a robotic surgical tool, the control system comprising an untethered handpiece comprising a body, an actuation arm extending proximally from the body, a shaft extending distally from the body, and a plurality of sensors comprising a body sensor embedded in the body and configured to detect motion of the body in three-dimensional space, an arm sensor configured to detect forces applied to the actuation arm, and a shaft sensor configured to detect rotary displacement of the shaft relative to the body. The control system further comprises a control circuit communicatively coupled to the plurality of sensors and a proximity detection system. The control circuit is configured to receive proximity signals from the proximity detection system, receive input control signals from the plurality of sensors, switch between a gross motion mode and a precision motion mode in response to receiving a proximity signal indicating the proximity being reduced to less than a threshold value, provide output control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the arm sensor in the gross motion mode, and provide output control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the body sensor and the shaft sensor in the precision motion mode. The proximity signals are indicative of a proximity of the robotic surgical tool to tissue.   Example 9—The control system of Example 8, wherein the actuation arm comprises a joystick movably coupled to the body at a space joint.   Example 10—The control system of Example 9, wherein the joystick comprises a ring dimensioned and positioned to receive a user&#39;s thumb.   Example 11—The control system of Examples 9 or 10, wherein the arm sensor comprises a multi-axis force sensor positioned at the space joint.   Example 12—The control system of any one of Examples 8-11, wherein the body sensor comprises an inertial sensor.   Example 13—The control system of any one of Examples 8-11, wherein the body sensor comprises an electromagnetic tracking receiver.   Example 14—The control system of any one of Examples 8-13, wherein the proximity detection system comprises a structured light source.   Example 15—The control system of any one of Examples 8-14, wherein the control circuit is further configured to scale the output control signals based on the input control signals received by the arm sensor in the gross motion mode in response to the proximity signals received from the proximity detection system.   Example 16—The control system of Example 15, wherein the control circuit is further configured to reduce the output control signals in the gross motion mode in response to the proximity signals indicating the robotic surgical tool is approaching tissue.   Example 17—The control system of any one of Examples 8-16, wherein the untethered handpiece further comprises a lock for the actuation arm. The lock is movable from an unlocked position to a locked position in response to receiving the proximity signal indicating the proximity being reduced to less than the threshold value.   Example 18—The control system of any one of Examples 8-17, wherein the body further comprises a spring-loaded actuation button movable between an initial position and a depressed position. The output control signals based on the input control signals detected by the body sensor in the gross motion mode are only provided to the robotic surgical tool when the spring-loaded actuation button is moved to the depressed position.   Example 19—The control system of any one of Examples 8-18, wherein the shaft further comprises a radial sensor configured to detect radial forces applied to the shaft. The control circuit is further configured to receive input control signals from the radial sensor and provide output control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the radial sensor to apply closure motions to one or more jaws of the robotic surgical tool.   Example 20—The control system of any one of Examples 8-19, wherein the untethered handpiece further comprises a trigger and a trigger sensor configured to detect an actuation of the trigger. The control circuit is further configured to receive input control signals from the trigger sensor and provide output control signals to the robotic surgical tool based on the input control signals from the trigger sensor to apply closure motions to one or more jaws of the robotic surgical tool.   Example 21—A control system for a robotic surgical tool, the control system comprising an untethered handpiece comprising a gross motion controller comprising a multi-axis sensor, a precision motion controller comprising an embedded motion sensor, and a control circuit communicatively coupled to the multi-axis sensor, the embedded motion sensor, and a proximity detection system. The control circuit is configured to receive proximity signals from the proximity detection system indicative of a proximity of the robotic surgical tool to tissue and switch between a gross motion mode, in which input control signals from the gross motion controller are utilized to control the robotic surgical tool, and a precision motion mode, in which input control signals from the precision motion controller are utilized to control the robotic surgical tool, in response to receiving a proximity signal indicating the proximity being reduced to less than a threshold value.       

     While several forms have been illustrated and described, it is not the intention of Applicant to restrict or limit the scope of the appended claims to such detail. Numerous modifications, variations, changes, substitutions, combinations, and equivalents to those forms may be implemented and will occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. Moreover, the structure of each element associated with the described forms can be alternatively described as a means for providing the function performed by the element. Also, where materials are disclosed for certain components, other materials may be used. It is therefore to be understood that the foregoing description and the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications, combinations, and variations as falling within the scope of the disclosed forms. The appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications, variations, changes, substitutions, modifications, and equivalents. 
     The foregoing detailed description has set forth various forms of the devices and/or processes via the use of block diagrams, flowcharts, and/or examples. Insofar as such block diagrams, flowcharts, and/or examples contain one or more functions and/or operations, it will be understood by those within the art that each function and/or operation within such block diagrams, flowcharts, and/or examples can be implemented, individually and/or collectively, by a wide range of hardware, software, firmware, or virtually any combination thereof. Those skilled in the art will recognize that some aspects of the forms disclosed herein, in whole or in part, can be equivalently implemented in integrated circuits, as one or more computer programs running on one or more computers (e.g., as one or more programs running on one or more computer systems), as one or more programs running on one or more processors (e.g., as one or more programs running on one or more microprocessors), as firmware, or as virtually any combination thereof, and that designing the circuitry and/or writing the code for the software and or firmware would be well within the skill of one of skill in the art in light of this disclosure. In addition, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the mechanisms of the subject matter described herein are capable of being distributed as one or more program products in a variety of forms, and that an illustrative form of the subject matter described herein applies regardless of the particular type of signal bearing medium used to actually carry out the distribution. 
     Instructions used to program logic to perform various disclosed aspects can be stored within a memory in the system, such as dynamic random access memory (DRAM), cache, flash memory, or other storage. Furthermore, the instructions can be distributed via a network or by way of other computer readable media. Thus a machine-readable medium may include any mechanism for storing or transmitting information in a form readable by a machine (e.g., a computer), but is not limited to, floppy diskettes, optical disks, compact disc, read-only memory (CD-ROMs), and magneto-optical disks, read-only memory (ROMs), random access memory (RAM), erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), magnetic or optical cards, flash memory, or a tangible, machine-readable storage used in the transmission of information over the Internet via electrical, optical, acoustical or other forms of propagated signals (e.g., carrier waves, infrared signals, digital signals, etc.). Accordingly, the non-transitory computer-readable medium includes any type of tangible machine-readable medium suitable for storing or transmitting electronic instructions or information in a form readable by a machine (e.g., a computer). 
     As used in any aspect herein, the term “control circuit” may refer to, for example, hardwired circuitry, programmable circuitry (e.g., a computer processor including one or more individual instruction processing cores, processing unit, processor, microcontroller, microcontroller unit, controller, digital signal processor (DSP), programmable logic device (PLD), programmable logic array (PLA), or field programmable gate array (FPGA)), state machine circuitry, firmware that stores instructions executed by programmable circuitry, and any combination thereof. The control circuit may, collectively or individually, be embodied as circuitry that forms part of a larger system, for example, an integrated circuit (IC), an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a system on-chip (SoC), desktop computers, laptop computers, tablet computers, servers, smart phones, etc. Accordingly, as used herein “control circuit” includes, but is not limited to, electrical circuitry having at least one discrete electrical circuit, electrical circuitry having at least one integrated circuit, electrical circuitry having at least one application specific integrated circuit, electrical circuitry forming a general purpose computing device configured by a computer program (e.g., a general purpose computer configured by a computer program which at least partially carries out processes and/or devices described herein, or a microprocessor configured by a computer program which at least partially carries out processes and/or devices described herein), electrical circuitry forming a memory device (e.g., forms of random access memory), and/or electrical circuitry forming a communications device (e.g., a modem, communications switch, or optical-electrical equipment). Those having skill in the art will recognize that the subject matter described herein may be implemented in an analog or digital fashion or some combination thereof. 
     As used in any aspect herein, the term “logic” may refer to an app, software, firmware and/or circuitry configured to perform any of the aforementioned operations. Software may be embodied as a software package, code, instructions, instruction sets and/or data recorded on non-transitory computer readable storage medium. Firmware may be embodied as code, instructions or instruction sets and/or data that are hard-coded (e.g., nonvolatile) in memory devices. 
     As used in any aspect herein, the terms “component,” “system,” “module” and the like can refer to a computer-related entity, either hardware, a combination of hardware and software, software, or software in execution. 
     As used in any aspect herein, an “algorithm” refers to a self-consistent sequence of steps leading to a desired result, where a “step” refers to a manipulation of physical quantities and/or logic states which may, though need not necessarily, take the form of electrical or magnetic signals capable of being stored, transferred, combined, compared, and otherwise manipulated. It is common usage to refer to these signals as bits, values, elements, symbols, characters, terms, numbers, or the like. These and similar terms may be associated with the appropriate physical quantities and are merely convenient labels applied to these quantities and/or states. 
     A network may include a packet switched network. The communication devices may be capable of communicating with each other using a selected packet switched network communications protocol. One example communications protocol may include an Ethernet communications protocol which may be capable permitting communication using a Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). The Ethernet protocol may comply or be compatible with the Ethernet standard published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) titled “IEEE 802.3 Standard”, published in December, 2008 and/or later versions of this standard. Alternatively or additionally, the communication devices may be capable of communicating with each other using an X.25 communications protocol. The X.25 communications protocol may comply or be compatible with a standard promulgated by the International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T). Alternatively or additionally, the communication devices may be capable of communicating with each other using a frame relay communications protocol. The frame relay communications protocol may comply or be compatible with a standard promulgated by Consultative Committee for International Telegraph and Telephone (CCITT) and/or the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Alternatively or additionally, the transceivers may be capable of communicating with each other using an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) communications protocol. The ATM communications protocol may comply or be compatible with an ATM standard published by the ATM Forum titled “ATM-MPLS Network Interworking 2.0” published August 2001, and/or later versions of this standard. Of course, different and/or after-developed connection-oriented network communication protocols are equally contemplated herein. 
     Unless specifically stated otherwise as apparent from the foregoing disclosure, it is appreciated that, throughout the foregoing disclosure, discussions using terms such as “processing,” “computing,” “calculating,” “determining,” “displaying,” or the like, refer to the action and processes of a computer system, or similar electronic computing device, that manipulates and transforms data represented as physical (electronic) quantities within the computer system&#39;s registers and memories into other data similarly represented as physical quantities within the computer system memories or registers or other such information storage, transmission or display devices. 
     One or more components may be referred to herein as “configured to,” “configurable to,” “operable/operative to,” “adapted/adaptable,” “able to,” “conformable/conformed to,” etc. Those skilled in the art will recognize that “configured to” can generally encompass active-state components and/or inactive-state components and/or standby-state components, unless context requires otherwise. 
     The terms “proximal” and “distal” are used herein with reference to a clinician manipulating the handle portion of the surgical instrument. The term “proximal” refers to the portion closest to the clinician and the term “distal” refers to the portion located away from the clinician. It will be further appreciated that, for convenience and clarity, spatial terms such as “vertical”, “horizontal”, “up”, and “down” may be used herein with respect to the drawings. However, surgical instruments are used in many orientations and positions, and these terms are not intended to be limiting and/or absolute. 
     Those skilled in the art will recognize that, in general, terms used herein, and especially in the appended claims (e.g., bodies of the appended claims) are generally intended as “open” terms (e.g., the term “including” should be interpreted as “including but not limited to,” the term “having” should be interpreted as “having at least,” the term “includes” should be interpreted as “includes but is not limited to,” etc.). It will be further understood by those within the art that if a specific number of an introduced claim recitation is intended, such an intent will be explicitly recited in the claim, and in the absence of such recitation no such intent is present. For example, as an aid to understanding, the following appended claims may contain usage of the introductory phrases “at least one” and “one or more” to introduce claim recitations. However, the use of such phrases should not be construed to imply that the introduction of a claim recitation by the indefinite articles “a” or “an” limits any particular claim containing such introduced claim recitation to claims containing only one such recitation, even when the same claim includes the introductory phrases “one or more” or “at least one” and indefinite articles such as “a” or “an” (e.g., “a” and/or “an” should typically be interpreted to mean “at least one” or “one or more”); the same holds true for the use of definite articles used to introduce claim recitations. 
     In addition, even if a specific number of an introduced claim recitation is explicitly recited, those skilled in the art will recognize that such recitation should typically be interpreted to mean at least the recited number (e.g., the bare recitation of “two recitations,” without other modifiers, typically means at least two recitations, or two or more recitations). Furthermore, in those instances where a convention analogous to “at least one of A, B, and C, etc.” is used, in general such a construction is intended in the sense one having skill in the art would understand the convention (e.g., “a system having at least one of A, B, and C” would include but not be limited to systems that have A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, and/or A, B, and C together, etc.). In those instances where a convention analogous to “at least one of A, B, or C, etc.” is used, in general such a construction is intended in the sense one having skill in the art would understand the convention (e.g., “a system having at least one of A, B, or C” would include but not be limited to systems that have A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, and/or A, B, and C together, etc.). It will be further understood by those within the art that typically a disjunctive word and/or phrase presenting two or more alternative terms, whether in the description, claims, or drawings, should be understood to contemplate the possibilities of including one of the terms, either of the terms, or both terms unless context dictates otherwise. For example, the phrase “A or B” will be typically understood to include the possibilities of “A” or “B” or “A and B.” 
     With respect to the appended claims, those skilled in the art will appreciate that recited operations therein may generally be performed in any order. Also, although various operational flow diagrams are presented in a sequence(s), it should be understood that the various operations may be performed in other orders than those which are illustrated, or may be performed concurrently. Examples of such alternate orderings may include overlapping, interleaved, interrupted, reordered, incremental, preparatory, supplemental, simultaneous, reverse, or other variant orderings, unless context dictates otherwise. Furthermore, terms like “responsive to,” “related to,” or other past-tense adjectives are generally not intended to exclude such variants, unless context dictates otherwise. 
     It is worthy to note that any reference to “one aspect,” “an aspect,” “an exemplification,” “one exemplification,” and the like means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the aspect is included in at least one aspect. Thus, appearances of the phrases “in one aspect,” “in an aspect,” “in an exemplification,” and “in one exemplification” in various places throughout the specification are not necessarily all referring to the same aspect. Furthermore, the particular features, structures or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more aspects. 
     Any patent application, patent, non-patent publication, or other disclosure material referred to in this specification and/or listed in any Application Data Sheet is incorporated by reference herein, to the extent that the incorporated materials is not inconsistent herewith. As such, and to the extent necessary, the disclosure as explicitly set forth herein supersedes any conflicting material incorporated herein by reference. Any material, or portion thereof, that is said to be incorporated by reference herein, but which conflicts with existing definitions, statements, or other disclosure material set forth herein will only be incorporated to the extent that no conflict arises between that incorporated material and the existing disclosure material. 
     In summary, numerous benefits have been described which result from employing the concepts described herein. The foregoing description of the one or more forms has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or limiting to the precise form disclosed. Modifications or variations are possible in light of the above teachings. The one or more forms were chosen and described in order to illustrate principles and practical application to thereby enable one of ordinary skill in the art to utilize the various forms and with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated. It is intended that the claims submitted herewith define the overall scope.