Patent Publication Number: US-2023160707-A1

Title: Systems and methods for eco-approach and departure at a signalized intersection using vehicle dynamics and powertrain control with multiple horizon optimization

Description:
GOVERNMENT LICENSE RIGHTS 
     This invention was made with government support under the DE-AR0000794 contract awarded by United States Department of Energy, Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA-E). The government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This disclosure relates to vehicle energy usage optimization, and in particular to systems and methods for eco-approach and departure at a signalized intersection using vehicle dynamics and powertrain control with multiple horizon optimization. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Vehicles, such as cars, trucks, sport utility vehicles, crossovers, mini-vans, commercial vehicles, military vehicles, or other suitable vehicles, include a powertrain system that includes, for example, a propulsion unit, a transmission, drive shafts, wheels, and other suitable components. The propulsion unit may include an internal combustion engine, a fuel cell, one or more electric motors, and the like. A hybrid vehicle may include a powertrain system comprising more than one propulsion unit. For example, a hybrid vehicle may include an internal combustion engine and an electric motor that cooperatively operate to propel the vehicle. The vehicle may also include a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) or a battery electric vehicle (BEV). 
     An operator of the vehicle may interact with a computing device, such as personal computing device, a mobile computing device, or a computing device integrated into the vehicle, to select a route between the vehicle’s current location (e.g., or other starting or initial location) and a desired destination location. For example, the operator may provide information (e.g., an address, global positioning coordinates, and the like) to the computing device indicating a starting location (e.g., or initial location or origin) and a desired destination. Additionally, or alternatively, the current location of the vehicle may be determined by the computing device and the desired destination may be suggested or provided by the computing device (e.g., based on travel history, time of day, etc.) or the operator may provide the desired destination. The computing device may identify routes between a starting location or the vehicle’s current location (e.g., determined using a global position system or other suitable system) and the desired destination and present the identified routes to the operator. 
     SUMMARY 
     This disclosure generally relates to eco-approach and departure systems and methods at a signalized intersection. 
     An aspect of the disclosed embodiments is a method for controlling vehicle propulsion. The method includes receiving signal data corresponding to a signaled intersection of a route being traversed by a vehicle. The method further includes determining an intersection propulsion profile for the signaled intersection based on at least a current vehicle speed and the signal data. The method further includes determining, based on the intersection propulsion profile, whether to deviate from a vehicle energy consumption profile corresponding to the route being traversed by the vehicle. The method further includes, in response to a determination to deviate from the vehicle energy consumption profile, selectively controlling vehicle propulsion of the vehicle according to the intersection propulsion profile. The method further includes, in response to traversing the intersection, selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile. 
     Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments is a system for controlling vehicle propulsion. The system includes a memory and a processor. The memory includes instructions executable by the processor to: receive signal data corresponding to a signaled intersection of a route being traversed by a vehicle; determine an intersection propulsion profile for the signaled intersection based on at least a current vehicle speed and the signal data; determine, based on the intersection propulsion profile, whether to deviate from a vehicle energy consumption profile corresponding to the route being traversed by the vehicle; in response to a determination to deviate from the vehicle energy consumption profile, selectively control vehicle propulsion of the vehicle according to the intersection propulsion profile; and in response to traversing the intersection, selectively control vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile. 
     Another aspect of the disclosed embodiments is an apparatus for controlling vehicle propulsion. The apparatus includes a memory and a processor. The memory includes instructions executable by the processor to: receive signal data corresponding to a signaled intersection of a route being traversed by a vehicle; determine an intersection propulsion profile for the signaled intersection based on at least a current vehicle speed and the signal data; determine, based on the intersection propulsion profile, whether to deviate from a vehicle energy consumption profile corresponding to the route being traversed by the vehicle; in response to a determination to deviate from the vehicle energy consumption profile, selectively control vehicle propulsion of the vehicle according to the intersection propulsion profile; in response to traversing the intersection, modify, based on at least one of the signal data and the intersection propulsion profile, the vehicle energy consumption profile; and selectively control vehicle propulsion according to the modified vehicle energy consumption profile. 
     These and other aspects of the present disclosure are provided in the following detailed description of the embodiments, the appended claims, and the accompanying figures. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The disclosure is best understood from the following detailed description when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. It is emphasized that, according to common practice, the various features of the drawings are not to-scale. On the contrary, the dimensions of the various features are arbitrarily expanded or reduced for clarity. 
         FIG.  1    generally illustrates a vehicle according to the principles of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  2    generally illustrates a block diagram of a vehicle system according to the principles of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  3    generally illustrates a vehicle approaching a signalized intersection according to the principles of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  4    generally illustrates a block diagram of the integration of a pass-in-green environment (PiG-e) with a vehicle dynamics and powertrain (VD&amp;PT) optimizer according to the principles of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  5    is a diagram generally illustrating the modes and scenarios in the PiG-e according to the principles of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  6    is a diagram generally illustrating the kinematic speed constraints in Mode 1 according to the principles of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  7    is a diagram generally illustrating the kinematic speed constraints in Mode 2 according to the principles of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  8    generally illustrates a flow diagram of the interaction of possible scenarios in Mode 1 and Mode 2 of the PiG-e according to the principles of the present disclosure. 
         FIG.  9    is a flow diagram generally illustrating an eco-approach and departure method at a signalized intersection according to the principles of the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The following discussion is directed to various embodiments of the invention. Although one or more of these embodiments may be preferred, the embodiments disclosed should not be interpreted, or otherwise used, as limiting the scope of the disclosure, including the claims. In addition, one skilled in the art will understand that the following description has broad application, and the discussion of any embodiment is meant only to be exemplary of that embodiment, and not intended to intimate that the scope of the disclosure, including the claims, is limited to that embodiment. 
     As described, vehicles, such as cars, trucks, sport utility vehicles, crossovers, mini-vans, commercial vehicles, military vehicles, or other suitable vehicles, include a powertrain system that includes, for example, a propulsion unit, a transmission, drive shafts, wheels, and other suitable components. The propulsion unit may include an internal combustion engine, a fuel cell, one or more electric motors, and the like. A hybrid vehicle may include a powertrain system comprising more than one propulsion unit. For example, a hybrid vehicle may include an internal combustion engine and an electric motor that cooperatively operate to propel the vehicle. The vehicle may also include a PHEV or a BEV. Additionally, or alternatively, the vehicle may include one or more fuel cells associated with propulsion system of the vehicle. 
     An operator of the vehicle may interact with a computing device, such as personal computing device, a mobile computing device, or a computing device integrated into the vehicle, to select a route between the vehicle’s current location (e.g., or other starting or initial location) and a desired destination location. For example, the operator may provide information (e.g., an address, global positioning coordinates, and the like) to the computing device indicating a starting (e.g., or initial location or origin) and the desired destination. Additionally, or alternatively, the current location of the vehicle may be determined by the computing device and the desired destination may be suggested or provided by the computing device (e.g., based on travel history, time of day, etc.) or the operator may provide the desired destination. The computing device may identify routes between a starting location or the vehicle’s current location (e.g., determined using a global position system or other suitable system) and the desired destination and present the identified routes to the operator. 
     In order to reduce energy consumption in a vehicle, processes have been developed that optimize the operation of the vehicle over a route, based on enhanced route information (including speed limits, traffic and stop signs, grade and road curvature, roads intersection angle information, what is commonly known as route characteristic information, which may include cloud computing-based navigation information and/or other suitable characteristics or information, as described herein), by determining and providing optimized control inputs to the vehicle control systems. For example, systems have been developed, which aim to minimize energy consumption and travel time using look-ahead route characteristics between two designated locations. This may be achieved by co-optimizing the vehicle speed trajectory and propulsion system control strategy using various techniques. 
     One key challenge for determining the optimal vehicle speed trajectory and propulsion system control strategy over the full route is that the signal phase of the traffic signals or indicators at intersections or elsewhere along the route cannot be known during an initial analysis of the route (e.g., when the initial route optimization is performed at the start of the trip). Further, the signal phase and timing (SPaT) information of the traffic signals can be adaptive to the traffic flow, which may make it difficult to predict the SPaT information of the traffic signals. For traffic signals on a fixed schedule, the uncertainty associated with the actual travel time to a particular signaled intersection limits the ability to accurately predict the signal phase of the traffic signal at the beginning of the trip. These limitations can result in the reduction of potential energy consumption benefit. With increasing connectivity, automation and electrification, vehicles have access to larger data streams as well as the higher potential to improve the energy consumption by using efficient energy management strategies. 
     Accordingly, systems and methods, such as those described herein, configured to optimize vehicle speed trajectory and propulsion systems control strategy at signaled intersections, may be desirable. 
     In some embodiments, the systems and methods described herein may be configured to jointly optimize the vehicle speed trajectory and propulsion system control using an eco-approach and departure (EAD) strategy at signaled intersections. Further, in some embodiments, the EAD strategy at signaled intersection may be integrated with a multi-horizon optimization framework, with the availability of SPaT information (e.g., through vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication or other suitable communication or communication protocol). In some embodiments, the systems and methods described herein may be configured to use the EAD strategy, which may utilize suitable connectivity mechanisms, to obtain information that maximizes the possibility of passing the signal in green, and/or allows for an energy-efficient stop when passing in green is not possible. 
     In some embodiments, systems and methods described herein may be configured to use a heuristic strategy configured to ensure that the vehicle can pass-in-green at a signaled intersection by using SPaT information to generate distance-based speed constraints. The distance-based speed constraints can be used by a vehicle dynamics and powertrain (VD&amp;PT) optimizer configured to compute an optimal speed profile and energy management strategy, which may effectively ensure that the vehicle approaches and departs from a signalized intersection in an energy-efficient manner, while minimizing stop times. The systems and methods described herein may be configured to, when the pass-in-green scenario is not possible, stop the vehicle in an optimum manner based on vehicle energy consumption. 
     In some embodiments, the vehicle may include or be equipped with a vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication mechanism. The V2X communication mechanism may be configured to receive information from signalized intersections. In some embodiments, the vehicle may include an electronic control module configured to control various operations of the vehicle. The vehicle may include a driver assistance system that may be configured to communicate an optimal vehicle velocity to the driver or directly control the vehicle speed (e.g., such as a driver advisory system, cruise control, adaptive cruise control, and the like). 
     In some embodiments, the systems and methods described herein may be configured to integrate information from V2I communication into a VD&amp;PT control framework that uses look-ahead optimization. In some embodiments, the systems and methods described herein may be configured to, using the V2I-augmented control framework, update the optimal solution periodically in response to the occurrence of real-world events along a route, such as traffic, signal phase at signaled intersections, dynamic speed limits, and the like. The systems and methods described herein may be configured to use SPaT information of an upcoming signaled intersection (e.g., which may be broadcasted through V2I communication to the vehicle) to generate feasible speed limit constraints that, once incorporated into the VD&amp;PT controller, may induce the vehicle to either pass-in-green or efficiently stop in red. 
     In some embodiments, the systems and methods described herein may be configured to provide one or more safety constraints that ensure safe operation of the vehicle while maximizing a possibility of passing the signaled intersection in green (e.g., while accounting for the presence of preceding traffic, where suitable). 
     The systems and methods described herein may be configured to reduce travel times by increasing chances of arriving at the intersection within the green window and/or reduce traffic congestions at signalized intersections by avoiding long queues at the red light. The systems and methods described herein may be configured to improve energy consumption due in part to the vehicle, in some scenarios, not having to come to a complete stop at the signalized intersection. The systems and methods described herein may be configured to pave the way for evolution of speed advisories for advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). 
     In some embodiments, the systems and methods described herein may be configured, using the EAD strategy, namely the PiG-e), (e.g. which may include a modular, deterministic algorithm) to determine kinematically feasible vehicle velocity constraints when the vehicle is within the communication range (s DSRC )  305  of a signalized intersection, as is generally illustrated in  FIG.  3   . 
     In some embodiments, systems and methods described herein may be configured to categorize the approach of a vehicle to a traffic light  302  into two operating modes (e.g., a first mode, mode 1  600 , and a second mode, mode 2  700 ). It should be understood that the systems and methods described herein may be configured to categorize the approach of the vehicle to the traffic light  302 , or other suitable traffic light or signaled intersection, into any suitable number of modes. 
     In some embodiments, the systems and method described herein may be configured to receive signal data corresponding to a signaled intersection of a route being traversed by a vehicle. The signal data may include SPaT data, other suitable data, or a combination thereof. The signal data may correspond to cloud-computing based navigation information, traffic information, weather information, road condition information, other suitable information, or a combination thereof. The systems and methods described herein may be configured to receive the signal data via various communication protocols or sources, such as via vehicle-to-infrastructure communication, via vehicle-to-vehicle communication, via vehicle-to-everything communication, via one or more onboard sources (e.g., sources in or on the vehicle, such as sensors, processors, modules, controllers, and the like), via other suitable forms of communication or sources, or a combination thereof. The systems and methods described herein may be configured to use the signal data to indicate the current state of a traffic signal associated with the signaled intersection, signal timing of the traffic signal associated with the signaled intersection, other suitable information, or a combination thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the systems and methods described herein may also be configured to determine an intersection propulsion profile for the signaled intersection based on at least a current vehicle speed and the signal data. The systems and methods described herein may also be configured to determine an intersection propulsion profile for the signaled intersection based on current vehicle speed, signal data traffic data, weather conditions data, road condition data, other suitable data or information, or a combination thereof. The systems and methods described herein may be configured to determine the intersection propulsion profile, at least in part by multi-horizon optimization techniques, other suitable techniques, or a combination thereof. 
     The systems and methods described herein may also be configured to determine, based on the intersection propulsion profile, whether to deviate from a vehicle energy consumption profile corresponding to the route being traversed by the vehicle. The systems and methods described herein may also be configured, in response to a determination to deviate from the vehicle energy consumption profile, to selectively control vehicle propulsion of the vehicle according to the intersection propulsion profile. The systems and methods described herein may also be configured, in response to traversing the intersection, to selectively control vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile. 
     The systems and methods described herein may be configured to selectively control vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile, in response to traversing the signaled intersection, and may include: selectively adjusting the vehicle energy consumption profile based on intersection propulsion profile; and selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the adjusted vehicle energy consumption profile. 
     The systems and methods described herein may be configured to selectively control vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile, in response to traversing the signaled intersection, and may include: selectively adjusting the vehicle energy consumption profile based on at least signal data corresponding to at least one other signaled intersection; and selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the adjusted vehicle energy consumption profile. 
       FIG.  1    generally illustrates a vehicle  10  according to the principles of the present disclosure. The vehicle  10  may include any suitable vehicle, such as a car, a truck, a sport utility vehicle, a mini-van, a crossover, any other passenger vehicle, any suitable commercial vehicle, any suitable military vehicle, or any other suitable vehicle. While the vehicle  10  is illustrated as a passenger vehicle having wheels and for use on roads, the principles of the present disclosure may apply to other vehicles, such as planes, boats, trains, drones, or other suitable vehicles. The vehicle  10  includes a vehicle body  12  and a hood  14 . A portion of the vehicle body  12  defines a passenger compartment  18 . Another portion of the vehicle body  12  defines the engine compartment  20 . The hood  14  may be moveably attached to a portion of the vehicle body  12 , such that the hood  14  provides access to the engine compartment  20  when the hood  14  is in a first or open position and the hood  14  covers the engine compartment  20  when the hood  14  is in a second or closed position. 
     The passenger compartment  18  may be disposed rearward of the engine compartment  20 . The vehicle  10  may include any suitable propulsion system including an internal combustion engine, one or more electric motors (e.g., an electric vehicle), one or more fuel cells, a hybrid (e.g., a hybrid vehicle) propulsion system comprising a combination of an internal combustion engine, one or more electric motors, and/or any other suitable propulsion system. In some embodiments, the vehicle  10  may include a petrol or gasoline fuel engine, such as a spark ignition engine. In some embodiments, the vehicle  10  may include a diesel fuel engine, such as a compression ignition engine. The engine compartment  20  houses and/or encloses at least some components of the propulsion system of the vehicle  10 . Additionally, or alternatively, propulsion controls, such as an accelerator actuator (e.g., an accelerator pedal), a brake actuator (e.g., a brake pedal), a steering wheel, and other such components are disposed in the passenger compartment  18  of the vehicle  10 . The propulsion controls may be actuated or controlled by an operator of the vehicle  10  and may be directly connected to corresponding components of the propulsion system, such as a throttle, a brake, a vehicle axle, a vehicle transmission, and the like, respectively. In some embodiments, the propulsion controls may communicate signals to a vehicle computer (e.g., drive by wire) which in turn may control the corresponding propulsion component of the propulsion system. 
     In some embodiments, the vehicle  10  includes a transmission in communication with a crankshaft via a flywheel, clutch, or fluid coupling. In some embodiments, the transmission includes a manual transmission. In some embodiments, the transmission includes an automatic transmission. The vehicle  10  may include one or more pistons, in the case of an internal combustion engine or a hybrid vehicle, which cooperatively operate with the crankshaft to generate force, which is translated through the transmission to one or more axles, which turns wheels  22 . 
     When the vehicle  10  includes one or more electric motors, a vehicle battery, and/or fuel cell provides energy to the electric motors to turn the wheels  22 . In cases where the vehicle  10  includes a vehicle battery to provide energy to the one or more electric motors, when the battery is depleted, it may be connected to an electric grid (e.g., using a wall socket) to recharge the battery cells. Additionally, or alternatively, the vehicle  10  may employ regenerative braking which uses the one or more electric motors of the vehicle  10  as a generator to convert kinetic energy lost due to decelerating back into stored energy in the battery. In some embodiments, the vehicle  10  may include an electric vehicle configured to receive energy directly from a suitable electric grid (e.g., using a pantograph or other suitable mechanism or technique). 
     The vehicle  10  may include automatic vehicle propulsion systems, such as a cruise control, an adaptive cruise control module or mechanism, automatic braking control, other automatic vehicle propulsion systems, or a combination thereof. The vehicle  10  may be an autonomous or semi-autonomous vehicle, or other suitable type of vehicle. The vehicle  10  may include additional or fewer features than those generally illustrated and/or disclosed herein. 
       FIG.  2    generally illustrates a block diagram of a vehicle system  100  according to the principles of the present disclosure. The system  100  may be disposed within a vehicle, such as the vehicle  10 . The system  100  may be configured to selectively control propulsion of the vehicle  10  and, in some embodiments, the system  100  is configured to determine profiles for a target vehicle speed and/or a target vehicle torque split based on various input information (e.g., route information, vehicle characteristic information, traffic information, other suitable information, or a combination thereof). The profiles of the target vehicle speed and/or the target vehicle torque split correspond to a vehicle speed at which the vehicle  10  achieves an optimum energy consumption efficiency with respect to a portion of a route being traversed by the vehicle  10 . 
     In some embodiments, the system  100  may include a vehicle propulsion controller (VPC)  102 , human machine interface (HMI) controls  104 , vehicle sensors  108 , a torque controller  110 , a brake controller  112 , a torque split controller  116 , a brake system  118 , a propulsion system  120 , and a display  122 . In some embodiments, the display  122  may include a portion of a dash or console of the vehicle  10 , a navigation display of the vehicle  10 , or other suitable displays of the vehicle  10 . In some embodiments, the display  122  may be disposed on a computing device, such as a mobile computing device used by the operator. In some embodiments, the system  100  may include a propulsion adjustment controller (PAC)  124 , a global position system (GPS)  126  antenna in communication with a mapping characteristics module (not shown), advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) modules  128 , and a vehicle to other systems (V2X) communication module  130 . The V2X communication module  130  may be configured to communicate with other vehicles, other infrastructure (e.g., such as traffic infrastructure, mobile computing devices, and/or other suitable infrastructure), a remote computing device (e.g., the remote computing device  132 ), other suitable systems, or a combination thereof. 
     As will be described, in some embodiments, the system  100  may be in communication with one or more remote computing devices  132 . In some embodiments, at least some of the components of the system  100  may be disposed in a propulsion control module (PCM) or other onboard vehicle-computing device. For example, at least the PAC  124  and the VPC  102  may be disposed within the PCM. In some embodiments, the system  100  may be at least partially disposed within the PCM while other components of the system  100  are disposed on a standalone computing device having a memory that stores instructions that when executed by a processor cause the processor to carry out the operations of the components. For example, the PAC  124  may be disposed on a memory and executed by a processor. It should be understood that the system  100  may include any combination of computing devices, either disposed locally in the vehicle  10  and/or disposed remotely, including mobile computing devices, as will be described. 
     In some embodiments, the VPC  102  may include an automatic vehicle propulsion system. For example, the VPC  102  may include a cruise control mechanism, an adaptive cruise control mechanism, an automatic braking system, other suitable automatic vehicle propulsion system, or a combination thereof. Additionally, or alternatively, the VPC  102  may include or be a portion of an autonomous vehicle system that controls all or a portion of vehicle propulsion, steering, braking, safety, route management, other autonomous features, or a combination thereof. It should be understood that, while only limited components of the system  100  are illustrated, the system  100  may include additional autonomous components or other suitable components. 
     The VPC  102  is in communication with one or more human to machine interfaces (HMI)  104 . The HMI controls  104  may include any suitable HMI. For example, the HMI controls  104  may include a plurality of switches disposed on a steering wheel of the vehicle  10 , on the dash or console of the vehicle  10 , or any other suitable location on the vehicle  10 . In some embodiments, the HMI controls  104  may be disposed on a mobile computing device, such as a smart phone, tablet, laptop computer, or other suitable mobile computing device. In some embodiments, the operator of the vehicle  10  may interface with the HMI controls  104  to use the VPC  102  to control vehicle propulsion and/or other features of the VPC  102 . For example, the operator may actuate an HMI switch of the HMI controls  104  disposed on the steering wheel of the vehicle  10 . The HMI controls  104  may communicate a signal to the VPC  102 . 
     The signal may indicate a desired vehicle speed selected by the operator. The VPC  102  generates a torque demand corresponding to the desired vehicle speed and communicates the torque demand to a torque controller  110 . The torque controller  110  is in communication with the propulsion system  120  and/or other vehicle propulsion systems of the vehicle  10 . The torque controller  110  selectively controls the propulsion system  120  and/or the other vehicle propulsion systems using the torque demand to achieve the desired vehicle speed. The operator may increase or decrease the desired vehicle speed by actuating additional switches of the HMI controls  104 . The VPC  102  may adjust the torque demand to achieve the increase or decrease in the desired vehicle speed. 
     The VPC  102  may continuously adjust the torque demand in order to maintain the desired vehicle speed. For example, the VPC  102  may be in communication with the vehicle sensors  108 . The vehicle sensors  108  may include cameras, speed sensors, proximity sensors, other suitable sensors as will be described, or a combination thereof. The VPC  102  may receive a signal from the vehicle sensors  108  that indicates a current vehicle speed. The VPC  102  may adjust the torque demand to adjust the vehicle speed when the signal indicates that the current vehicle speed is different from the desired vehicle speed. For example, the vehicle  10  may traverse an incline that causes the vehicle  10  to reduce current vehicle speed (e.g., because the torque demand applied by the torque controller  110  is insufficient to maintain vehicle speed while on the incline). The VPC  102  may increase the torque demand in order adjust the current vehicle speed, thereby achieving the desired vehicle speed. 
     In some embodiments, such as when the VPC  102  includes an adaptive cruise control mechanism, the VPC  102  may adjust the torque demand based on the proximity of a lead vehicle (e.g., a vehicle immediately in front of the vehicle  10 ). For example, the VPC  102  may receive information from the vehicle sensors  108  indicating the presence of a lead vehicle. The information may be captured by the vehicle sensors  108  using cameras, proximity sensors, radar, the V2X communication module  130 , other suitable sensors or input devices, or a combination thereof. The VPC  102  may determine whether to maintain the desired vehicle speed or increase or decrease the torque demand in order to increase or decrease the current vehicle speed. For example, the operator may indicate, using the HMI controls  104 , to maintain pace with the lead vehicle while keeping a safe stopping distance between the vehicle  10  and the lead vehicle. The VPC  102  may selectively increase the torque demand if the lead vehicle is traveling faster than the vehicle  10  and may selectively decrease the torque demand if the lead vehicle is traveling slower relative to the vehicle  10 . 
     The VPC  102  may bring the vehicle  10  to a complete stop when the lead vehicle comes to a complete stop. For example, the VPC  102  may be in communication with the brake controller  112  to send a plurality of signals over a period indicating to the brake controller  112  to control vehicle braking (e.g., the VPC  102  may bring the vehicle to a stop over a period so as not to suddenly stop the vehicle, however, in the case of a sudden stop of the lead vehicle, the VPC  102  brings the vehicle  10  to a sudden stop to avoid collision with the lead vehicle). The brake controller  112  may be in communication with the brake system  118 . The brake system  118  may include a plurality of brake components that are actuated in response to the brake controller  112  implementing braking procedures based on the plurality of signals from the VPC  102 . 
     In some embodiments, the VPC  102  may implement engine braking and/or braking via one or more electric motors through a regenerative braking system by adjusting the torque demand to allow the vehicle  10  to come to a stop without use of the brake system  118  or the VPC  102  may use a combination of regenerative braking and the brake system  118  to bring the vehicle  10  to a complete stop. In order to resume vehicle propulsion control, the operator indicates to resume vehicle propulsion control using the HMI controls  104  (e.g., the VPC  102  is not configured to resume vehicle propulsion control without interaction from the operator). In some embodiments, the vehicle  10  may include a higher level of automation including a higher level of propulsion control, as described, and may include suitable controls for bringing the vehicle  10  to a complete stop without interaction with the operator of the vehicle  10 . 
     In some embodiments, the VPC  102  may provide the torque demand to the torque split controller  116 . The torque split controller  116  may determine a torque split in order to utilize a first propulsion unit  120 - 1  and a second propulsion unit  120 - 2 . In some embodiments, the first propulsion unit  120 - 1  may include an electric motor and the second propulsion unit  120 - 2  may include an internal combustion engine. It should be understood that while only an internal combustion engine and an electric motor are described, the vehicle  10  may include any hybrid combination of any suitable vehicle engines and motors. The torque split indicates a portion of the torque demand to be applied to the first propulsion unit  120 - 1  and a portion of the torque demand to be applied to the second propulsion unit  120 - 2 . For example, the electric motor may be used alone for vehicle propulsion when the torque demand is below a threshold. However, the internal combustion engine may provide at least a portion of vehicle propulsion in order to assist the electric motor. The torque split controller  116  is in communication with the propulsion system  120 , and accordingly, with the first propulsion unit  120 - 1  and the second propulsion unit  120 - 2 , to apply the torque split. 
     In some embodiments, the VPC  102  includes a plurality of safety controls. For example, the VPC  102  may determine whether to increase or decrease the torque demand, thereby increasing or decreasing the desired vehicle speed or current vehicle speed, based on input from the safety controls. The safety controls may receive input from the vehicle sensors  108 . For example, the safety controls may receive proximity sensor information, camera information, other information, or a combination thereof and may generate a safety signal that indicates to the VPC  102  to perform one or more safety operations. For example, in the case of a lead vehicle coming to a sudden stop, the safety controls may generate a safety signal, based on proximity information from the vehicle sensors  108 , indicating to the VPC  102  to immediately bring the vehicle  10  to a complete stop. 
     In some embodiments, the VPC  102  may determine whether to apply the desired vehicle speed set by the operator using the HMI controls  104  based on the signal from the safety controls. For example, the operator may increase the desired vehicle speed, which may bring the vehicle  10  closer to the lead vehicle (e.g., the vehicle  10  would travel faster than the lead vehicle if the desired vehicle speed were achieved). The VPC  102  may determine not to apply the desired vehicle speed, and instead may provide an indication to the display  122  indicating to the operator that increasing the desired vehicle speed may be unsafe or the VPC  102  may ignore the increase in the desired vehicle speed. In some embodiments, the VPC  102  may be in communication with a transmission controller module (TCM). The VPC  102  may receive information from the TCM (e.g., an automatically selected gear) and may determine and/or adjust the total torque demand based on the information received from the TCM. 
     In some embodiments, the system  100  includes a personal computing device  150 . The personal computing device  150  may include any suitable computing device, such as a mobile computing device (e.g., smart phone, tablet, laptop, and the like), a computing device integrated into the vehicle  10  (e.g., such as a computing device integrated with other various electronic or computing infrastructure of the vehicle  10  and/or another controller disposed within the vehicle 0) or any other suitable computing device. The personal computing device  150  may include at least one processor and at least one memory. The at least one memory may include instructions that, when executed by the at least one processor, cause the processor to perform various functions, such as those described herein. 
     The personal computing device  150  may be configured to receive various input information, such as vehicle input information, vehicle starting location, vehicle desired destination, route characteristic information, energy cost information, operator labor cost information, other suitable input information, or any combination thereof. The personal computing device  150  is configured to determine a plurality of routes corresponding to the starting location and the desired destination location and provide the plurality of routes as selectable options to the operator of the vehicle  10 . The plurality of routes may include additional information, such as a total route distance, a total route driving time, a total route energy cost, a total route labor cost, other suitable information, or a combination thereof, as will be described. While personal computing device  150  is described as being configured to generate the plurality of routes and provide the plurality of routes to the operator of the vehicle, the PAC  124  may be configured to generate the plurality of routes and provide the plurality of routes to the operator, the personal computing device  150  may cooperatively operate with the PAC  124  to receive the various input information and to generate the plurality of routes, or any other suitable computing device, vehicle component, or any combination thereof may receive the various inputs and provide the plurality of routes to the operator. 
     In some embodiments, the personal computing device  150  receives route characteristics (e.g., road grade characteristics, route distance, and route directions), vehicle parameters, traffic characteristics, weather characteristics, vehicle-to-vehicle parameters, other information or characteristics, or a combination thereof. The personal computing device  150  may receive at least some of the route characteristics from a mapping characteristics module based on location information from the GPS antenna  126 . The mapping characteristics module may be disposed within the vehicle  10  (e.g., within the system  100 ) or may be disposed on a remote computing device, such as the remote computing device  132 . In some embodiments, the mapping characteristics module or other suitable module may be disposed on the personal computing device  150 . The GPS antenna  126  may be disposed within the vehicle  10  or within the personal computing device  150  and may capture various global positioning signals from various global positioning satellites or other mechanisms. The GPS antenna  126  may communicate the captured signals to the mapping characteristics module. The mapping characteristics module may generate the route characteristics based on the signals received from the GPS antenna  126  or based on route characteristic information provided by the operator. For example, the personal computing device  150  may receive route characteristics corresponding to the starting location (e.g., or current location) of the vehicle  10  and a desired destination location of the vehicle  10 . The route characteristics may include a route distance, route directions, road grade information of the route, other route characteristics, or a combination thereof. The personal computing device  150  may receive the route characteristics from the remote computing device  132 . In some embodiments, the PAC  124  may receive traffic signal location information, traffic stop sign location information, posted speed limit information, lane shift information, other route characteristics or information, or a combination thereof, from the mapping characteristics module based on location information from the GPS antenna  126 . The PAC  124  may communicate the information to the personal computing device  150 . 
     The personal computing device  150  may receive at least some of the route characteristics from the ADAS modules  128 . The ADAS modules  128  may assist the operator of the vehicle  10  to improve safety. The ADAS modules  128  may be configured to automate and/or adapt and enhance vehicle systems for safety and better driving. The ADAS modules  128  may be configured to alert the operator of the vehicle  10  of upcoming traffic conditions or disabled vehicles and/or to alert the vehicle  10  of a vehicle proximate to the vehicle  10  in order to avoid collisions and accidents. Further, the ADAS modules  128  may autonomously avoid collisions by implementing safeguards and taking over control of the vehicle  10 , such as, by automatic lighting, initiating adaptive cruise control (e.g., via the VPC  102 ) and collision avoidance (e.g., by controlling a trajectory of the vehicle  10  or bringing the vehicle  10  to a complete stop either using the VPC  102  or directly using the brake controller  112 ). The PAC  124  may receive information, such as traffic characteristics, vehicle proximity information, disabled vehicle information, other suitable information, or a combination thereof, from the ADAS modules  128  and communicate the received route characteristics to the personal computing device  150 . In some embodiments, the personal computing device  150  may omit receiving route characteristics from the ADAS modules  128 . 
     The personal computing device  150  may receive, at least, some of the route characteristics from the V2X communication module  130 . The V2X communication module  130  is configured to communicate with other systems proximate or remotely located from the vehicle  10 , as described, to obtain, and share information, such as, traffic information, vehicle speed information, construction information, other information, or a combination thereof. The PAC  124  may receive other vehicle speed information, other vehicle location information, other traffic information, construction information, other suitable information, or a combination thereof, from the V2X communication module  130  and may communicate the information to personal computing device  150 . In some embodiments, the personal computing device  150  may omit receiving the route characteristics from the V2X communication module  130 . 
     The personal computing device  150  may receive further vehicle parameters from the vehicle sensors  108 . For example, the vehicle sensors  108  may include an energy level sensor (e.g., a fuel level sensor or a battery charge sensor), an oil sensor, a speed sensor, a weight sensor, other suitable sensors, or a combination thereof. The PAC  124  may receive an energy level of the vehicle  10 , a current weight of the vehicle  10 , an oil condition of the vehicle  10 , tire inflation information of the vehicle  10 , a current vehicle speed, engine temperature information, other suitable vehicle parameters of the vehicle  10 , or a combination thereof from the vehicle sensors  108  and may communicate the received information to the personal computing device  150 . In some embodiments, the vehicle sensors  108  may include weather sensors, such as, a precipitation sensor or moisture sensor, a barometric pressure sensor, an ambient temperature sensor, other suitable sensors, or a combination thereof. The PAC  124  may receive current weather information, such as precipitation information, barometric pressure information, ambient temperature information, other suitable weather information, or a combination thereof, from the vehicle sensors  108  and may communicate the received information to the personal computing device  150 . In some embodiments, the personal computing device  150  may omit receiving information from the vehicle sensors  108 . 
     The personal computing device  150  may receive, at least, some of the route characteristics from the remote computing device  132 . For example, the personal computing device  150  may receive information regarding route distance, route directions, road grade information of the route, traffic information, construction information, other vehicle location information, other vehicle speed information, vehicle maintenance information of the vehicle  10 , other route characteristics, or a combination thereof, from the remote computing device  132 . Additionally, or alternatively, the personal computing device  150  may receive vehicle parameters from the remote computing device  132 , such as, a make of the vehicle  10 , model of the vehicle  10 , propulsion configuration of the vehicle  10 , manufacturer provided energy consumption efficiency of the vehicle  10 , a weight of the vehicle  10 , other vehicle parameters, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the personal computing device  150  may receive traffic signal location information, stop sign location information, posted speed limit information, lane shift information, other route characteristics or information, or a combination thereof, from the remote computing device  132 . The remote computing device  132  may include any suitable computing device or devices, such as a cloud computing device or system, a remotely located server or servers, a remotely or proximately located mobile computing device or application server that provides information to the personal computing device  150 . The remote computing device  132  is remotely located from the vehicle  10 , such as in a datacenter or other suitable location. 
     The personal computing device  150  may receive route characteristics, vehicle parameters, and/or energy cost information from an operator of the vehicle  10 . For example, the operator may interact with an interface of the personal computing device  150 , such as using the display of the personal computing device  150  or using the display  122  of the vehicle, to provide vehicle parameters of the vehicle  10 , such as, vehicle weight, vehicle make and model, vehicle age, vehicle maintenance information, vehicle identification number, a number of passengers, load information (e.g., an amount of luggage or other load information), other vehicle parameters, or a combination thereof. Additionally, or alternatively, the operator may provide route characteristics, such as a route map, route distance, other route characteristics, or a combination thereof, to the personal computing device  150 . 
     In some embodiments, the personal computing device  150  learns behavior of the operator of the vehicle  10 . For example, the personal computing device  150  monitors the operator’s vehicle speed relative to posted speed limits. In some embodiments, the operator may provide a labor cost associated with the operator. For example, the operator may provide the operator’s hourly wage or salary. Additionally, or alternatively, the operator may provide a personal value of time or other suitable representation of per unit time cost. As will be described, the personal computing device  150  may determine a time cost for a route of the vehicle  10  using the operator’s labor cost. 
     In some embodiments, the personal computing device  150  may learn traffic patterns for known routes traversed by the vehicle  10 . For example, the PAC  124  may track traffic conditions while the vehicle  10  traverses one or more routes on a routine or regular basis. The personal computing device  150  may determine traffic patterns for the routes based on the monitored traffic conditions. In some embodiments, the personal computing device  150  receives traffic patterns for a route the vehicle  10  is traversing from the remote computing device  132 , or from the mapping characteristics module based on the signals from the GPS antenna  126 , as described 
     It should be understood that the personal computing device  150  may receive any characteristics or information associated with routes, traffic, signage and signals, other vehicles, vehicle parameters of the vehicle  10 , any other suitable characteristics or information, including those described or not described here, from any of the components described or not described herein. Additionally, or alternatively, the personal computing device  150  may be configured to learn any suitable characteristics or information described or not described herein. 
     Typically, vehicles, such as the vehicle  10 , include an infotainment system, such as a vehicle infotainment system  160  (e.g., integrated into the vehicle dash, an application on a mobile computing device, or a combination thereof). The infotainment system  160  may be configured to provide infotainment services, such as navigation services, entertainment services (e.g., movie or music playback, access to the Internet, and so on), or other suitable infotainment services. The infotainment system  160  may be configured to display the infotainment services to the display  122  or other suitable display within the vehicle  10 . 
     In some embodiments, the infotainment system  160  may be configured to provide the operator of the vehicle  10  with the ability to select between route alternatives for a desired destination location (e.g., a destination the operator of the vehicle  10  provides to the infotainment system  160  or the personal computing device  150  as an input). Such route alternatives are typically displayed with a travel time and/or a travel distance, such that, the operator of the vehicle  10  may select a route based on how long it will take to traverse the route, the total traversable distance of the route, or a combination of both. Additionally, or alternatively, the operator of the vehicle  10  may be able to provide preference information, such that the personal computing device  150  may provide route alternatives based on the preferences (e.g., to avoid toll roads, use highways where available, and the like). In some embodiments, the personal computing device  150  may communicate with the infotainment system  160  and may provide the route alternatives to the operator using the infotainment system  160 , the display of the personal computing device  150 , or a combination thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the PAC  124  may receive signal data corresponding to a signaled intersection  350 , as is generally illustrated in  FIG.  3   , of a route being traversed by the vehicle  10  from a signal  302  at the signalized intersection  350 , or otherwise as described. The signal data may include SPaT data, other suitable data, or a combination thereof. The signal data may correspond to route characteristic information (e.g., including cloud computing-based navigation information and the like) traffic information, weather information, road condition information, other suitable information, or a combination thereof. 
     The PAC  124  may receive the signal data via vehicle-to-infrastructure communication, vehicle-to-vehicle communication, vehicle-to-everything communication, other suitable forms of communication, or a combination thereof. The PAC  124  may use the signal data to indicate the current state of the traffic signal  302  associated with the signaled intersection  350 , signal timing of the traffic signal  302  associated with the signaled intersection  350 , other suitable information, or a combination thereof. 
     The PAC  124  may determine an intersection propulsion profile for the signaled intersection  350  based on at least a current vehicle speed and the signal data. The PAC  124  may determine an intersection propulsion profile for the signaled intersection  350  based on current vehicle speed, signal data traffic data, weather conditions data, road condition data, other suitable data or information, or a combination thereof. The PAC  124  may determine the intersection propulsion profile, at least in part by multi-horizon optimization, other suitable programming or multi-horizon techniques, or a combination thereof. 
     The PAC  124  may determine, based on the intersection propulsion profile, whether to deviate from a vehicle energy consumption profile corresponding to the route being traversed by the vehicle  10 . The PAC  124  may, in response to a determination to deviate from the vehicle energy consumption profile, selectively control vehicle propulsion of the vehicle  10  according to the intersection propulsion profile. The PAC  124  may, in response to traversing the intersection  350 , selectively control vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile. 
     In some embodiments, the PAC  124  selectively control vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile and may include selectively adjusting the vehicle energy consumption profile based on intersection propulsion profile, selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the adjusted vehicle energy consumption profile, selectively adjusting the vehicle energy consumption profile based on at least signal data corresponding to at least one other signaled intersection  350 , selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the adjusted vehicle energy consumption profile, other suitable control aspects of the vehicle  10  based on the vehicle energy consumption profile, or a combination thereof. 
       FIG.  3    generally illustrates a vehicle, such as the vehicle  10 , approaching a signalized intersection  350  according to the principles of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the EAD strategy namely, PiG-e  423  is a modular, deterministic algorithm that determines kinematically feasible vehicle velocity constraints when the vehicle is within a communication range (s DSRC )  305  of a signaled intersection  350 . The signaled intersection  350  may be an intersecting road or street, a railroad crossing, a crosswalk, any other type of signaled intersection, and the like. 
     In some embodiments, the GPS  126 , the V2X module  130 , the vehicle sensors  108 , the remote computing device  132 , the personal computing device  150 , other suitable devices, or a combination thereof may be configured to determine a distance to the traffic light,  
     
       
         
           
             
               s 
               
                 v 
                 e 
                 h 
               
               
                 T 
                 L 
               
             
           
         
       
     
       304  and a critical breaking distance, s cr   303 . The distance to the traffic light,  
     
       
         
           
             
               s 
               
                 v 
                 e 
                 h 
               
               
                 T 
                 L 
               
             
           
         
       
     
       304  and the critical breaking distance, s cr   303 , may be communicated to the propulsion adjustment controller using the GPS  126 , the V2X module  130 , the vehicle sensors  108 , the remote computing device  132 , the personal computing device  150 , other suitable devices, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, when the phase of the traffic light is yellow, the critical breaking distance  303 , s cr  =  
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   v 
                   
                     v 
                     e 
                     h 
                   
                   2 
                 
               
               
                 2 
                 
                   a 
                   
                     m 
                     i 
                     n 
                   
                 
               
             
             , 
           
         
       
     
     is compared with the distance to the traffic light  304 . In some embodiments, when the distance to the traffic light  304  is greater than the critical breaking distance  303 , the systems and methods described herein may be configured to use the PAC  124  to selectively control the vehicle propulsion causing the vehicle  10  to come to a stop at the signaled intersection  350 . In some embodiments, when the distance to the traffic light  304  is less than the critical breaking distance  303 , the systems and methods described herein may be configured to use the PAC  124  to selectively control the vehicle propulsion causing the vehicle  10  to continue and pass through the signaled intersection  350 . 
       FIG.  4    generally illustrates a block diagram of the integration of a PiG-e module  423  with a VD&amp;PT optimizer  420  according to the principles of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the integration of a PiG-e module  423  with a VD&amp;PT optimizer  420  may include an ADAS system  430 , a demonstration vehicle  10 , controls  402 , and an on-board unit  440 . In some embodiments, the ADAS system  430  may include a navigation system  430 . In some embodiments, a velocity controller  412 , and an electronic control unit (ECU)  411  may be disposed in the vehicle  10 . In some embodiments the controls  402  may include a pass-in-green environment (PiG-e) module  423 , a short-term optimization module  422 , and a base heuristic module  421 . In some embodiments the on-board unit (OBU)  440  may include a V2I modem  440 . 
     In some embodiments, the PAC  124  may be configured to use the base heuristic module  421  to receive route characteristics from the navigation system  430  such as terrain information, speed limits, distance to intersections, other information or characteristics, or a combination thereof. The PAC  124  may use the PiG-e module  423  to receive SPaT information from the V2I modem  440 . The PAC  124  may use the short-term optimization module  422  to receive information from the base heuristic module  421  and the PiG-e module  423 , and to determine, based on at least that information, a short-term optimal policy. 
     In some embodiments, the PAC  124  may receive the short-term optimal policy from the short-term optimization module  422 . The PAC  124  may use the ECU  411  to receive a powertrain torque request and the velocity controller to receive a speed reference from the short-term optimization module  422 . 
     In some embodiments, the PAC  124  may be configured to extend the look-ahead energy optimization framework to incorporate deterministic and statistically relevant information on traffic and SPaT conditions from V2I communication. Additionally, or alternatively, the PAC  124  may use the PiG-e  423  as a bridge between the vehicle on-board unit (OBU) and the VD&amp;PT optimizer. The main inputs to the PiG-e  423  are the current phase and timing (e.g., the SPaT information) for a corresponding signaled intersection (e.g., including the time remaining in a current phase of the signal). The PAC  124  may use a dedicated short-range communication (DSRC) modem to receive the current phase and timing (e.g., the SPaT information) for the corresponding signaled intersection (e.g., including the time remaining in the current phase of the signal) using V2I communication. The PAC  124  may use the PiG-e to determine the kinematically feasible speed limit constraints for the VD&amp;PT optimizer based on the current phase and timing (e.g., the SPaT information) for the corresponding signaled intersection (e.g., including the time remaining in the current phase of the signal)and the current vehicle velocity. Additionally, or alternately, in some embodiments, the PAC  124  may use the PiG-e to provide the scenario as an output, and dictate if the vehicle  10  needs to stop at an upcoming traffic light or (attempt to) pass-in-green. 
     In some embodiments, in the hierarchical multi-horizon optimization framework shown in  FIG.  4   , the PAC  124  may use the short-term MPC  422  to solve the optimization problem, while enforcing distance, velocity, torque limit and acceleration constraints. The PAC  124  may use the information of the upcoming signaled intersection to reshape the speed limit constraints to ensure the vehicle  10  passes through the upcoming signalized intersection in the green phase. 
       FIG.  5    is a diagram generally illustrating the modes and scenarios in the PiG-e according to the principles of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the modes may include a mode 1  600  and a mode 2  700 . The scenarios may include scenario 1  510 , scenario 2  520 , scenario 3  511 , and scenario 4  521 . Mode 1 may correspond to a green or yellow current state of the traffic light  302 . Mode 2 may correspond to a red or yellow current state of the traffic light  302 . Scenario 1 and scenario 3 may correspond to a pass-in-green strategy under Mode 1 and 2 respectively at the signaled intersection  350 . Scenario 2 and scenario 4 may correspond to a stop-at-red strategy under Mode 1 and 2 respectively at the signaled intersection  350 . 
       FIG.  6    is a diagram generally illustrating the kinematic speed constraints in mode 1  600  according to the principles of the present disclosure. Mode 1  600  may be activated when the current phase of the traffic light  302  is green or yellow. Mode 1  600  may include a time period of acceleration, t a   630 , corresponding to the acceleration region  610  and a time period of cruising, t c   640 , corresponding to the cruising region  620 . Mode 1  600  may include the time remaining in the current green and yellow phase, t GR,rem   650 . 
     Mode 1  600  may be activated when the current phase of the traffic light  302  is green or yellow. The vehicle  10  may, given the time remaining in the current green or yellow phase, t GR,rem   650  and distance to the traffic light,  
     
       
         
           
             
               s 
               
                 v 
                 e 
                 h 
               
               
                 T 
                 L 
               
             
           
         
       
     
       304 , arrive at the intersection within t GR,rem   650 . The approach of the vehicle  10  to the intersection may be divided into two different maneuvers: (1) an acceleration region  610  (shaded region 1) where the vehicle  10  accelerates to a higher velocity if necessary to pass-in-green, and (2) a cruising region  620  (shaded region 2) where the vehicle  10  cruises to ensure it passes-in-green. 
     In some embodiments, the PAC  124  may use a tunable tolerance (∈ 1  ≤ 1) to control how aggressively the vehicle  10  maneuvers to the intersection. For example, if (∈ 1  = 1), the PAC  124  will target having the vehicle  10  arrive just before the light turns red, while if (∈ 1  &lt; 1), the PAC  124  will target having the vehicle  10  pass through in green or yellow with some time to spare before the light turns red. Additionally, or alternatively, the PAC  124  may use the value of (∈ 1 ) as a parameter that can be tuned by the driver, based on a desired aggressiveness or other driving style. Additionally, or alternatively, the PAC  124  may learn (e.g., using any suitable technique, such as machine learning and the like), various behaviors of the operator of the vehicle  10  at signalized intersections. The PAC  124  may tune the parameter based on the various learned behaviors. 
     In some embodiments, the time spent in the two regions of  FIG.  6   , t a   630  and t c   640  may be constrained by t GR,rem   650  as: 
     
       
         
           
             
               t 
               a 
             
             + 
             
               t 
               c 
             
             = 
             
               ε 
               1 
             
             ⋅ 
             
               t 
               
                 G 
                 R 
                 , 
                 r 
                 e 
                 m 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, the vehicle  10  may accelerate with a maximum acceleration, a max . The PAC  124  may determine the value of the maximum allowed acceleration, which may be made a parameter available to be tuned by control calibrations, based on a desired aggressiveness for this maneuver. Additionally, or alternatively, the PAC  124  may adapt the maximum allowed acceleration based on information about lead vehicles, for example, from V2V communications, camera or radar systems, to avoid the vehicle  10  accelerating and then having to slow down when encountering a lead vehicle. The PAC  124  may, integrated with a level 1 automation (e.g., or higher) application, use the vehicle speed controller unit to override the optimized vehicle speed target according its own safety and convenience criteria. 
     In some embodiments, the sum of the acceleration region  610  (shaded region 1  FIG.  6   ) and the cruising region  620  (shaded region 2  FIG.  6   ) provides the total distance traveled during the maneuver until reaching the intersection, which must be equal to the distance to the intersection at any time instant: 
     
       
         
           
             
               s 
               
                 v 
                 e 
                 h 
               
               
                 T 
                 L 
               
             
             = 
             
               v 
               
                 v 
                 e 
                 h 
               
             
             ⋅ 
             
               t 
               a 
             
             + 
             
               1 
               2 
             
             
               a 
               
                 m 
                 a 
                 x 
               
             
             ⋅ 
             
               t 
               a 
               2 
             
             + 
             
               v 
               c 
             
             ⋅ 
             
               t 
               c 
             
           
         
       
     
      The constant velocity may be obtained by using kinematic equation of motion: 
     
       
         
           
             
               v 
               c 
             
             = 
             
               v 
               
                 v 
                 e 
                 h 
               
             
             + 
             
               a 
               
                 max 
               
             
             
               t 
               a 
             
           
         
       
     
      Solving the above set of equations, t a   630  can be determined in a closed form explicitly as: 
     
       
         
           
             
               t 
               a 
             
             = 
             
               ε 
               1 
             
             ⋅ 
             
               t 
               
                 G 
                 R 
                 , 
                 r 
                 e 
                 m 
               
             
             − 
             
               
                 
                   
                     
                       
                         
                           ε 
                           1 
                         
                         ⋅ 
                         
                           t 
                           
                             G 
                             R 
                             , 
                             r 
                             e 
                             m 
                           
                         
                       
                     
                   
                   2 
                 
                 + 
                 2 
                 ⋅ 
                 
                   
                     
                       
                         
                           v 
                           
                             v 
                             e 
                             h 
                           
                         
                         ⋅ 
                         
                           ε 
                           1 
                         
                         ⋅ 
                         
                           t 
                           
                             G 
                             R 
                             , 
                             r 
                             e 
                             m 
                           
                         
                         − 
                         
                           s 
                           
                             v 
                             e 
                             h 
                           
                           
                             T 
                             L 
                           
                         
                       
                       
                         
                           a 
                           
                             m 
                             a 
                             x 
                           
                         
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
      In some embodiments, depending upon the existence of the t a   630 , two sub-cases or scenarios are possible. In scenario 1  510  (Im(t a ) = 0), where lm(▪) denotes the imaginary part of the argument, the vehicle  10  may accelerate or cruise at the same speed to arrive at the traffic light within the green window, (t GR,rem  &gt; 0). This may be done by raising the minimum speed limit during the maneuver in a kinematically feasible manner while ensuring no violation of the route speed limits. In scenario 2  520  (Im(t a ) ≠ 0), where lm(▪) denotes the imaginary part of the argument, based on the route constraints and SPaT information, there is no feasible velocity trajectory that allows the vehicle  10  to pass through the signaled intersection in the current green window, so the vehicle may maneuver smoothly to a stop at the signalized intersection. 
       FIG.  7    is a diagram generally illustrating the kinematic speed constraints in Mode 2 according to the principles of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, Mode 2  700  may be activated when the current phase of the traffic light  302  is yellow or red. In some embodiments, Mode 2  700  may include a time period of deceleration, t d   730 , corresponding to the deceleration region  710  and a time period of cruising, t c   640 , corresponding to the cruising region  620 . In some embodiments, Mode 2  700  may include the time remaining in the current red phase, t RG,rem   750 . 
     In some embodiments, mode 2  700  may be activated when the current phase of the traffic light  302  is yellow or red. In some embodiments, given the time remaining in the current yellow or red phase, t Rc,rem   750  and distance to the traffic light,  
     
       
         
           
             
               s 
               
                 v 
                 e 
                 h 
               
               
                 T 
                 L 
               
             
           
         
       
     
       304 , the PAC  124  may control the vehicle  10  to arrive at the intersection after t RG,rem   750 . The approach of the vehicle  10  to the intersection may be divided into two different maneuvers: a deceleration region  710  (shaded region 1  FIG.  7   ) where the vehicle  10  may decelerates to a lower velocity and a cruising region  620  (shaded region 2  FIG.  7   ) where the vehicle  10  cruises to ensure it passes-in-green. In some embodiments, the PAC  124  may use a tunable tolerance (∈ 2  ≥ 1) to control how aggressively the vehicle  10  maneuvers to the intersection; if (∈ 2  = 1), the PAC  124  targets having the vehicle  10  arrive just after the light turns green, while if (∈ 2  &gt; 1), the PAC  124  targets having the vehicle  10  pass through in green with some time after the light changes from red. The PAC  124  may use the value of (∈ 2 ) as a parameter that can be tuned by the driver, based on a desired aggressiveness or other suitable driving style. 
     In some embodiments, the time spent in the two regions of  FIG.  7   , t d   730  and t c   640  may be constrained by t RG,rem   750  as: 
     
       
         
           
             
               t 
               d 
             
             + 
             
               t 
               c 
             
             = 
             
               ε 
               2 
             
             ⋅ 
             
               t 
               
                 R 
                 G 
                 , 
                 r 
                 e 
                 m 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     It may be assumed that the vehicle  10  can decelerate with a maximum deceleration, a min . The value of the maximum allowed deceleration may be made a parameter available to be tuned by control calibrations, based on a desired aggressiveness for this maneuver. The maximum allowed deceleration may be adapted based on information about trailing vehicles, for example, from V2V, camera or radar systems, to promote a smooth passage of traffic. 
     In some embodiments, the sum of the deceleration region  710  (shaded region 1  FIG.  7   ) and the cruising region  620  (shaded region 2  FIG.  7   ) provides the total distance traveled in the maneuver until the intersection which must be equal to the distance to the intersection at any time instant: 
     
       
         
           
             
               s 
               
                 v 
                 e 
                 h 
               
               
                 T 
                 L 
               
             
             = 
             
               v 
               
                 v 
                 e 
                 h 
               
             
             ⋅ 
             
               t 
               d 
             
             − 
             
               1 
               2 
             
             
               a 
               
                 m 
                 i 
                 n 
               
             
             ⋅ 
             
               t 
               d 
               2 
             
             + 
             
               v 
               c 
             
             ⋅ 
             
               t 
               c 
             
           
         
       
     
      The constant velocity may be obtained by using kinematic equation of motion: 
     
       
         
           
             
               v 
               c 
             
             = 
             
               v 
               
                 v 
                 e 
                 h 
               
             
             − 
             
               a 
               
                 m 
                 i 
                 n 
               
             
             
               t 
               d 
             
           
         
       
     
      Solving the above set of equations, t d   730  can be determined in a closed form explicitly as: 
     
       
         
           
             
               t 
               d 
             
             = 
             
               ε 
               2 
             
             ⋅ 
             
               t 
               
                 R 
                 G 
                 , 
                 r 
                 e 
                 m 
               
             
             − 
             
               
                 
                   
                     
                       
                         
                           ε 
                           2 
                         
                         ⋅ 
                         
                           t 
                           
                             R 
                             G 
                             , 
                             r 
                             e 
                             m 
                           
                         
                       
                     
                   
                   2 
                 
                 − 
                 2 
                 ⋅ 
                 
                   
                     
                       
                         
                           v 
                           
                             v 
                             e 
                             h 
                           
                         
                         ⋅ 
                         
                           ε 
                           2 
                         
                         ⋅ 
                         
                           t 
                           
                             R 
                             G 
                             , 
                             r 
                             e 
                             m 
                           
                         
                         − 
                         
                           s 
                           
                             v 
                             e 
                             h 
                           
                           
                             T 
                             L 
                           
                         
                       
                       
                         
                           a 
                           
                             m 
                             i 
                             n 
                           
                         
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     In some embodiments, depending upon the existence of the t d   730 , two sub-cases are possible. In scenario 3  511  (Im(t d ) = 0), where lm(▪) denotes the imaginary part of the argument, the vehicle  10  may decelerate to a lower velocity (ensuring following traffic is not impeded) or cruise to arrive at the signalized intersection after the red window has elapsed. This may involve lowering the maximum route speed limit constraints in a kinematically feasible manner. In scenario 4  521  (Im(t d ) ≠ 0), where lm(▪) denotes the imaginary part of the argument, based on the route constraints and SPaT information, there is no feasible velocity trajectory that allows the vehicle  10  to pass through the signalized intersection in the upcoming green window without coming to a stop, so the vehicle  10  may maneuver smoothly to a stop at the signalized intersection. 
     In some embodiments, when the current phase of the traffic light  302  is yellow, the distance to the traffic light  
     
       
         
           
             
               s 
               
                 v 
                 e 
                 h 
               
               
                 T 
                 L 
               
             
           
         
       
     
       304  may be compared with the critical braking distance, s cr   303 , where  
     
       
         
           
             
               s 
               
                 c 
                 r 
               
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   v 
                   
                     v 
                     e 
                     h 
                   
                   2 
                 
               
               
                 2 
                 
                   a 
                   
                     m 
                     i 
                     n 
                   
                 
               
             
             . 
           
         
       
     
     If the vehicle  10  is outside the critical braking zone  313   
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   s 
                   
                     v 
                     e 
                     h 
                   
                   
                     T 
                     L 
                   
                 
                 ≥ 
                 
                   s 
                   
                     c 
                     r 
                   
                 
               
             
             , 
           
         
       
     
     the PAC  124  may use scenario 4  521  and the traffic light may be treated as a stop sign. If the vehicle  10  is within the critical braking zone  313  when the traffic light  302  is in the yellow phase (i.e. 
     
       
         
           
             
               s 
               
                 v 
                 e 
                 h 
               
               
                 T 
                 L 
               
             
             ≥ 
           
         
       
     
      s cr ), it cannot safely come to a stop without obstructing the upcoming intersection, the PAC  124  may use scenario 1  510  in an attempt to pass the intersection. In some embodiments, PiG-e  423  may contain two calibration terms (∈ 1 , ∈ 2 ) that define how aggressively a driver would brake or accelerate to arrive at a signaled intersection. 
     In scenario 1  510  and scenario 3  511 , the maneuver may be split into regions of constant acceleration-constant velocity and constant deceleration-constant velocity respectively, ensuring that the speed constraints change in a kinematically feasible manner and meet the safety-critical applications of approach and departure at a signalized intersection. 
       FIG.  8    generally illustrates a flow diagram of the interaction of different modes and scenarios in the PiG-e  423  according to the principles of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, at  810 , the PAC  124  may use the PiG-e  423  to generate a time remaining to transition for the upcoming traffic light on SPaT information. At  820 , the PAC  124  may use the PiG-e  423  to check the time remaining before the green-yellow to red or red to green transition. At  830 , the PAC  124  may use the PiG-e to check the feasibility of making it through the intersection  350  in the “green window.” At  840 , the PAC  124  may use the PiG-e to determine if it is feasible. 
     At scenario 2  520 , before a green-yellow to red transition, the PAC  124  may use the PiG-e to pass through base route speed limit constraints. At scenario 1  510 , before a green-yellow to red transition, the PAC  124  may use the PiG-e to modify speed limit constraints for passing in green at the upcoming signalized intersection. At scenario 4  520 , before a red to green transition, the PAC  124  may use the PiG-e to pass through base route speed limit constraints. At scenario 3  510 , before a red to green transition, the PAC  124  may use the PiG-e to modify speed limit constraints for passing in green. 
     In some embodiments, the system  100  and/or the PAC  124  may perform the methods described herein. However, the methods described herein as performed by the personal computing device are not meant to be limiting, and any type of software executed on a controller can perform the methods described herein without departing from the scope of this disclosure. For example, a controller, such as a processor executing software within a computing device onboard the vehicle  10 , can perform the methods described herein. 
       FIG.  9    is a flow diagram generally illustrating an eco-approach and departure method  900  at a signalized intersection according to the principles of the present disclosure. At  901 , the method  900  receives signal data corresponding to a signaled intersection  350  being traversed by vehicle  10 . For example, the PAC  124  may use the personal computing device  150  to receive SPaT information, location and positioning information, other types of suitable information, or any combination thereof. The PAC  124  may use the personal computing device  150  to receive signal data from any component or source described herein. 
     At  902 , the method  900  determines an intersection propulsion profile for the signaled intersection based on at least a current vehicle speed and the signal data. For example, the PAC  124  may use the vehicle sensors  108  and the remote computing device  132  to provide the current vehicle speed and the signal data to the PAC  124 . The PAC  124  may use the propulsion adjustment controller to determine an intersection propulsion profile for the signaled intersection. 
     At  903 , the method  900  determines, based on at least the intersection propulsion profile, whether or not to deviate from the vehicle energy consumption profile. For example, the PAC  124  may use the personal computing device  150  to determine whether or not to deviate from the vehicle energy consumption profile based on the intersection propulsion profile, the vehicle energy consumption profile, various route characteristics, such as road grades, traffic, speed limits, stop signs, traffic signals, other route characteristics, or a combination thereof. 
     At  904 , the method  900  selectively controls vehicle propulsion of the vehicle  10  according to the intersection propulsion profile. For example, the PAC  124  may use the VPC  102  to selectively control vehicle propulsion of the vehicle  10 . 
     At  905 , the method  900  selectively controls vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile. For example, the PAC  124  may use the VPC  102  to selectively control vehicle propulsion of the vehicle  10 . 
     In some embodiments, a method for controlling vehicle propulsion includes receiving signal data corresponding to a signaled intersection of a route being traversed by a vehicle. The method also includes determining an intersection propulsion profile for the signaled intersection based on at least a current vehicle speed and the signal data. The method also includes determining, based on the intersection propulsion profile, whether to deviate from a vehicle energy consumption profile corresponding to the route being traversed by the vehicle. The method also includes, in response to a determination to deviate from the vehicle energy consumption profile, selectively controlling vehicle propulsion of the vehicle according to the intersection propulsion profile. The method also includes, in response to traversing the intersection, selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile. 
     In some embodiments, the signal data includes SPaT data. In some embodiments, the signal data corresponds to cloud computing-based navigation information. In some embodiments, the intersection propulsion profile is determined at least in part by multi-horizon optimization. In some embodiments, the signal data is received via at least one of a vehicle-to-infrastructure communication, a vehicle-to-vehicle communication, and a vehicle-to-everything communication. In some embodiments, the signal data indicates at least one of a current state of a traffic signal associated with the signaled intersection and a signal timing of the traffic signal associated with the signaled intersection. In some embodiments, selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile, in response to traversing the signaled intersection, includes: selectively adjusting the vehicle energy consumption profile based on intersection propulsion profile; and selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the adjusted vehicle energy consumption profile. In some embodiments, selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile, in response to traversing the signaled intersection, includes: selectively adjusting the vehicle energy consumption profile based on at least signal data corresponding to at least one other signaled intersection; and selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the adjusted vehicle energy consumption profile. 
     In some embodiments, a system for controlling vehicle propulsion includes a memory and a processor. The memory includes instructions executable by the processor to: receive signal data corresponding to a signaled intersection of a route being traversed by a vehicle; determine an intersection propulsion profile for the signaled intersection based on at least a current vehicle speed and the signal data; determine, based on the intersection propulsion profile, whether to deviate from a vehicle energy consumption profile corresponding to the route being traversed by the vehicle; in response to a determination to deviate from the vehicle energy consumption profile, selectively control vehicle propulsion of the vehicle according to the intersection propulsion profile; and in response to traversing the intersection, selectively control vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile. In some embodiments, the signal data includes SPaT data. In some embodiments, the signal data corresponds to cloud computing-based navigation information. In some embodiments, the intersection propulsion profile is determined at least in part by multi-horizon optimization. 
     In some embodiments, the signal data is received via at least one of a vehicle-to-infrastructure communication, vehicle-to-vehicle communication, and a vehicle-to-everything communication. In some embodiments, the signal data indicates at least one of a current state of a traffic signal associated with the signaled intersection and a signal timing of the traffic signal associated with the signaled intersection. In some embodiments, selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile, in response to traversing the signaled intersection, includes: selectively adjusting the vehicle energy consumption profile based on intersection propulsion profile; and selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the adjusted vehicle energy consumption profile. In some embodiments, selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the vehicle energy consumption profile, in response to traversing the signaled intersection, includes: selectively adjusting the vehicle energy consumption profile based on at least signal data corresponding to at least one other signaled intersection; and selectively controlling vehicle propulsion according to the adjusted vehicle energy consumption profile. 
     In some embodiments, an apparatus for controlling vehicle propulsion includes a memory and a processor. The memory includes instructions executable by the processor to: receive signal data corresponding to a signaled intersection of a route being traversed by a vehicle; determine an intersection propulsion profile for the signaled intersection based on at least a current vehicle speed and the signal data; determine, based on the intersection propulsion profile, whether to deviate from a vehicle energy consumption profile corresponding to the route being traversed by the vehicle; in response to a determination to deviate from the vehicle energy consumption profile, selectively control vehicle propulsion of the vehicle according to the intersection propulsion profile; in response to traversing the intersection, modify, based on at least one of the signal data and the intersection propulsion profile, the vehicle energy consumption profile; and selectively control vehicle propulsion according to the modified vehicle energy consumption profile. 
     In some embodiments, the signal data includes SPaT data. The signal data is received via at least one of a vehicle-to-infrastructure communication, vehicle-to-vehicle communication, and a vehicle-to-everything communication. In some embodiments, the intersection propulsion profile is determined at least in part by multi-horizon optimization; and the signal data is received via at least one of a vehicle-to-infrastructure communication, vehicle-to-vehicle communication, and a vehicle-to-everything communication. In some embodiments, the signal data indicates at least one of a current state of a traffic signal associated with the signaled intersection and a signal timing of the traffic signal associated with the signaled intersection. 
     The above discussion is meant to be illustrative of the principles and various embodiments of the present invention. Numerous variations and modifications will become apparent to those skilled in the art once the above disclosure is fully appreciated. It is intended that the following claims be interpreted to embrace all such variations and modifications. 
     The word “example” is used herein to mean serving as an example, instance, or illustration. Any aspect or design described herein as “example” is not necessarily to be construed as preferred or advantageous over other aspects or designs. Rather, use of the word “example” is intended to present concepts in a concrete fashion. As used in this application, the term “or” is intended to mean an inclusive “or” rather than an exclusive “or.” That is, unless specified otherwise, or clear from context, “X includes A or B” is intended to mean any of the natural inclusive permutations. That is, if X includes A; X includes B; or X includes both A and B, then “X includes A or B” is satisfied under any of the foregoing instances. In addition, the articles “a” and “an” as used in this application and the appended claims should generally be construed to mean “one or more” unless specified otherwise or clear from context to be directed to a singular form. Moreover, use of the term “an implementation” or “one implementation” throughout is not intended to mean the same embodiment or implementation unless described as such. 
     Implementations the systems, algorithms, methods, instructions, etc., described herein can be realized in hardware, software, or any combination thereof. The hardware can include, for example, computers, intellectual property (IP) cores, application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), programmable logic arrays, optical processors, programmable logic controllers, microcode, microcontrollers, servers, microprocessors, digital signal processors, or any other suitable circuit. In the claims, the term “processor” should be understood as encompassing any of the foregoing hardware, either singly or in combination. The terms “signal” and “data” are used interchangeably. 
     As used herein, the term module can include a packaged functional hardware unit designed for use with other components, a set of instructions executable by a controller (e.g., a processor executing software or firmware), processing circuitry configured to perform a particular function, and a self-contained hardware or software component that interfaces with a larger system. For example, a module can include an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), a circuit, digital logic circuit, an analog circuit, a combination of discrete circuits, gates, and other types of hardware or combination thereof. In other embodiments, a module can include memory that stores instructions executable by a controller to implement a feature of the module. 
     Further, in one aspect, for example, systems described herein can be implemented using a general-purpose computer or general-purpose processor with a computer program that, when executed, carries out any of the respective methods, algorithms, and/or instructions described herein. In addition, or alternatively, for example, a special purpose computer/processor can be utilized which can contain other hardware for carrying out any of the methods, algorithms, or instructions described herein. 
     Further, all or a portion of implementations of the present disclosure can take the form of a computer program product accessible from, for example, a computer-usable or computer-readable medium. A computer-usable or computer-readable medium can be any device that can, for example, tangibly contain, store, communicate, or transport the program for use by or in connection with any processor. The medium can be, for example, an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, or a semiconductor device. Other suitable mediums are also available. 
     The above-described embodiments, implementations, and aspects have been described in order to allow easy understanding of the present invention and do not limit the present invention. On the contrary, the invention is intended to cover various modifications and equivalent arrangements included within the scope of the appended claims, which scope is to be accorded the broadest interpretation to encompass all such modifications and equivalent structure as is permitted under the law.