Patent Publication Number: US-2020277613-A1

Title: Nanoparticles and biotemplates with tunable length and methods of manufacturing the same

Description:
PRIORITY 
     This application is related to and claims priority benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/811,756 to Solomon et al. filed Feb. 28, 2019. The entire content of the aforementioned priority application is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety into this disclosure. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     A nanoparticle is a nano-object or particle between 1 and 100 nanometers (nm) in size. These structures are of scientific interest because of their beneficial physical, chemical, and electronic properties which lead to great potential for a broad range of applications in various fields, such as biomedicine, materials science, electronics, consumer products, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, transportation, and energy. Of particular interest in the optoelectrical, electrical, biochemical, and medical fields are metal nanoparticles or metallized nanoparticles due to their unique properties. 
     The properties and functions of nanoparticles and nanostructures are often closely correlated with the size, shape, structure, surface area, and/or composition thereof. However, achieving the synthesis of nanoparticles having controllable dimensions and morphology, as well as high purity, quantity and quality remains a challenge. One type of bottom-up nanofabrication called biotemplating has proven to be viable means to easily and inexpensively produce nanomaterials on a large scale. More specifically, biotemplating is the use of naturally occurring biomolecules to develop nanomaterials of similar morphology, hierarchical complexity, and nanometric precision. Naturally occurring biomolecules, such as viruses, DNA, proteins, and RNA, offer highly ordered morphologies and well-defined architectures and organizations and, thus, provide the ability to generate uniform and monodisperse nanomaterials. 
     Viruses specifically are attractive scaffolds for the construction of hierarchical complex nanomaterials due to their unique advantages for applications in catalysis, nanocircuitry, chemical sensing, biocatalysis, memory devices, and light harvesting. Plant viruses, in particular, are small in size, display structural symmetry, ease of functionalization, and monodispersity, and spontaneously self-assemble into uniform nanoscale structures. Additionally, they often have wide range of stabilities to temperature, pH, salt, chemicals, and protease degradation. Plant viruses are relatively easy to purify as they lack membranes and have one or two protein capsid assemblies that are structurally defined. In addition to allowing for the production of novel nanomaterials in a very precise and controlled fashion, the ability to genetically and chemically modify plant viruses also allows for the insertion or replacement of selected amino acids on virus capsids for uses ranging from bioconjugation to mineralization. 
     The M13 bacteriophage, the Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), and their engineered variants remain the prevalent biotemplates employed in conventional nanowire and nanorod synthesis. TMV, in particular, has been exploited as a biotemplate in various applications, including battery electrodes, memory devices, catalysts, and chemical sensors, which are coated with metals such as silver, platinum, aluminum, palladium, gold and gold/palladium alloy. The Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV) has also been utilized for production of organic-metal nanorods, but to a lesser degree and such methods are limited to in-planta production, which limits its development. 
     Conventional nanoparticle synthesis platforms face certain drawbacks, especially with respect to viral systems produced in-planta. In addition to limiting development, the genomes of in-planta-synthesized viruses are subject to evolutionary pressures that may remove engineered modifications designed to enhance biotemplating functionality if such removal benefits viral fitness. As these viruses are plant pathogens, virus-producing plants must also be grown in specialized facilities to control and/or prevent the spread of the pathogen to wild plants. Furthermore, the viral replication cycle in plants requires between 2-3 weeks, which results in a long and complicated process to extract a relatively small quantity of viruses. Finally, the conventional production of metal nanoparticles in particular requires varying conditions (e.g., pHs, temperatures, etc.) that may destabilize the produced nanoparticles. Accordingly, there is a need for an alternative approach that is inexpensive, highly precise, robust, efficient, and ideally tunable for particular applications. 
     BRIEF SUMMARY 
     Novel methods for manufacturing nanoparticle biotemplates are provided. In at least one embodiment, such methods comprise introducing into a host a nucleic acid sequence encoding a Barley stripe mosaic virus coat protein (BSMV-CP) comprising one or both of: (a) an origin of self-assembly (OAS) derived from a virus operatively linked with the BSMV-CP, and (b) at least one site-directed mutation on the BSMV-CP to strengthen an interaction between at least two BSMV-CP subunits. The nucleic acid sequence is then expressed in an expression system (microbial-based or otherwise) to allow expression of the BSMV-CP, which produces self-assembled BSMV viral-like particles (BSMV VLPs). The method further comprises isolating the BSMV VLPs from the expression system. 
     In at least one embodiment, the OAS is derived from Tobacco mosaic virus. Additionally, the OAS may comprise SEQ ID NO: 11 or a functional equivalent thereof. 
     Additionally or alternatively, the step of expressing the nucleic acid sequence may comprise: constructing a plasmid or an expression vector comprising the nucleic acid sequence and transforming the plasmid or expression vector into the host. In certain embodiments, the host may be  Escherichia coli . Furthermore, the step of expressing the nucleic acid sequence may be performed at a neutral pH. In at least one additional embodiment, the BSMV-CP may be fused with a linker region and comprise at least one site-directed mutation on the BSMV-CP to strengthen an interaction between at least two BSMV-CP subunits. 
     In an exemplary embodiment, the BSMV-CP further comprises a fusion of BSMV-CP, a linker region, and the OAS. There, the method may further comprise selecting a length of the linker region based on a desired length in the resulting BSMV VLPs such that the VLPs themselves are tunable and/or customizable. 
     Methods of the present disclosure may further comprise the step of synthesizing one or more nanoparticles using the resulting VLPs. Optionally, the method may comprise coating at least a surface of the resulting VLPs with a metal, where desired. Such coating may be performed using adsorption, for example, or via any other modality now known in the art or hereinafter developed. Still further, the methods hereof may comprise the step of performing microbial reduction of the resulting VLPs. 
     As previously noted, embodiments of the presently disclosed methods may comprise BSMV-CP comprising at least one site-directed mutation on the BSMV-CP to strengthen an interaction between at least two BSMV-CP subunits. There, for example and without limitation, the at least one site-directed mutation may be at one or more of the following residues: E37Q, E37R, E62Q, D68N, D70N, D101N, D101R, and D101K. 
     Novel nanoparticles are also described herein, as well as methods for manufacturing the same. In at least one exemplary embodiment, the present disclosure provides a nanoparticle manufactured according to a process comprising the steps of: introducing into a host a nucleic acid sequence encoding a Barley stripe mosaic virus coat protein (BSMV-CP) comprising one or both of: (a) an origin of self-assembly (OAS) derived from a virus operatively linked with the BSMV-CP, and (b) at least one site-directed mutation on the BSMV-CP to strengthen an interaction between at least two BSMV-CP subunits; expressing the nucleic acid sequence in an expression system to allow expression of the BSMV-CP and produce self-assembled BSMV viral-like particles (BSMV VLPs); isolating the BSMV VLPs from the expression system; and synthesizing one or more nanoparticles using the BSMV VLPs as a biotemplate. There, the nucleic acid sequence may be modified such that it further encodes a linker region comprising a length that is fused with at least the BSMV-CP. As the length of the linker region will directly correlate the size shapes of the VLPs produced through the method, the length of the linker region may be specifically selected to customize the dimensions of the resulting nanoparticles. In other words, the length of the linker region may directly correlate with the length of the resulting nanoparticles by function of influencing the size and/or shape of the VLPs biotemplates. 
     Additionally, where the BSMV-CP comprises the at least one site-directed mutation, such site-directed mutation may be at one or more of the following residues thereof: E37Q, E37R, E62Q, D68N, D70N, and D101N. 
     In at least one exemplary embodiment of the nanoparticles provided herein, the step of introducing into a host a nucleic acid sequence may further comprise: constructing a plasmid or expression vector comprising the nucleic acid sequence and transforming the plasmid or expression vector into the host (for example, and without limitation,  Escherichia coli ). Optionally, the OAS comprises SEQ ID NO: 11 or a functional equivalent thereof. The expression system may comprise any non-plant based expression system including a microbial-based, insect-based, or mammalian-based expression system. 
     Novel nucleic acid sequences are also provided herein. In at least one embodiment, a nucleic acid for synthesis of a nanoparticle biotemplate is described, such nucleic acid comprising all or part of a sequence encoding a Barley stripe mosaic virus coat protein (BSMV-CP) operatively linked to a linker region having a length and an origin of self-assembly (OAS) derived from a virus. In at least one exemplary embodiment, the BSMV-CP may comprise a protein sequence selected from a group consisting of: SEQ ID NO: 2, SEQ ID NO: 3; SEQ ID NO: 4, SEQ ID NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 7, SEQ ID NO: 8, SEQ ID NO: 9, SEQ ID NO: 10, or comprise a functional equivalent of one of SEQ ID NOS: 2-10. Additionally or alternatively, a portion of the sequence for encoding the OAS may comprise SEQ ID NO: 11 or a functional equivalent thereof In at least one exemplary embodiment, the sequence comprises SEQ ID NO: 15 or a functional equivalent thereof. 
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEQUENCE LISTINGS 
     SEQ ID NO: 1 is an amino acid sequence of a wild-type Barley stripe mosaic virus coat protein (BSMV-CP): 
     N-MPNVSLTAKGGGHYIEDQWDTQVVEAGVFDDWWVHVEAWNKFLDNLRGINFSVASS RSQVAEYLAALDRDLPADVDRRFAGARGQIGSPNYLPAPKFFRLDKRTIAELTRLSRLTD QPHNNRDIELNRAKRATTNPSPPAQAPSENLTLRDVQPLKDSALHYQYVLIDLQSARLP VYTRKTFERELALEWIIPDAEEA-C; 
     SEQ ID NO: 2 is an artificial amino acid sequence of at least one exemplary embodiment of a BSMV-CP having a point mutation at residue D68N according to the present disclosure: 
     N-MPNVSLTAKGGGHYIEDQWDTQVVEAGVFDDWWVHVEAWNKFLDNLRGINFSVASS RSQVAEYLAALNRDLPADVDRRFAGARGQIGSPNYLPAPKFFRLDKRTIAELTRLSRLTD QPHNNRDIELNRAKRATTNPSPPAQAPSENLTLRDVQPLKDSALHYQYVLIDLQSARLP VYTRKTFERELALEWIIPDAEEA-C; 
     SEQ ID NO: 3 is an artificial amino acid sequence of at least one exemplary embodiment of a BSMV-CP having a point mutation at residue D70N according to the present disclosure: 
     N-MPNVSLTAKGGGHYIEDQWDTQVVEAGVFDDWWVHVEAWNKFLDNLRGINFSVASS RSQVAEYLAALDRNLPADVDRRFAGARGQIGSPNYLPAPKFFRLDKRTIAELTRLSRLTD QPHNNRDIELNRAKRATTNPSPPAQAPSENLTLRDVQPLKDSALHYQYVLIDLQSARLP VYTRKTFERELALEWIIPDAEEA-C; 
     SEQ ID NO: 4 is an artificial amino acid sequence of at least one exemplary embodiment of a BSMV-CP having a point mutation at residue D101K according to the present disclosure: 
     N-MPNVSLTAKGGGHYIEDQWDTQVVEAGVFDDWWVHVEAWNKFLDNLRGINFSVASS RSQVAEYLAALDRDLPADVDRRFAGARGQIGSPNYLPAPKFFRLKKRTIAELTRLSRLTD QPHNNRDIELNRAKRATTNPSPPAQAPSENLTLRDVQPLKDSALHYQYVLIDLQSARLP VYTRKTFERELALEWIIPDAEEA-C; 
     SEQ ID NO: 5 is an artificial amino acid sequence of at least one exemplary embodiment of a BSMV-CP having a point mutation at residue D101N according to the present disclosure, such mutant being verified as capable of self-assembly: 
     N-MPNVSLTAKGGGHYIEDQWDTQVVEAGVFDDWWVHVEAWNKFLDNLRGINFSVASS RSQVAEYLAALDRDLPADVDRRFAGARGQIGSPNYLPAPKFFRLNKRTIAELTRLSRLTD QPHNNRDIELNRAKRATTNPSPPAQAPSENLTLRDVQPLKDSALHYQYVLIDLQSARLP VYTRKTFERELALEWIIPDAEEA-C; 
     SEQ ID NO: 6 is an artificial amino acid sequence of at least one exemplary embodiment of a BSMV-CP having a point mutation at residue D101R according to the present disclosure: 
     N-MPNVSLTAKGGGHYIEDQWDTQVVEAGVFDDWWVHVEAWNKFLDNLRGINFSVASS RSQVAEYLAALDRDLPADVDRRFAGARGQIGSPNYLPAPKFFRLRKRTIAELTRLSRLTD QPHNNRDIELNRAKRATTNPSPPAQAPSENLTLRDVQPLKDSALHYQYVLIDLQSARLP VYTRKTFERELALEWIIPDAEEA-C; 
     SEQ ID NO: 7 is an artificial amino acid sequence of at least one exemplary embodiment of a BSMV-CP having a point mutation at residue E37Q according to the present disclosure: 
     N-MPNVSLTAKGGGHYIEDQWDTQVVEAGVFDDWWVHVQAWNKFLDNLRGINFSVASS RSQVAEYLAALDRDLPADVDRRFAGARGQIGSPNYLPAPKFFRLDKRTIAELTRLSRLTD QPHNNRDIELNRAKRATTNPSPPAQAPSENLTLRDVQPLKDSALHYQYVLIDLQSARLP VYTRKTFERELALEWIIPDAEEA-C; 
     SEQ ID NO: 8 is an artificial amino acid sequence of at least one exemplary embodiment of a BSMV-CP having a point mutation at residue E37R according to the present disclosure: 
     N-MPNVSLTAKGGGHYIEDQWDTQVVEAGVFDDWWVHVRAWNKFLDNLRGINFSVASS RSQVAEYLAALDRDLPADVDRRFAGARGQIGSPNYLPAPKFFRLDKRTIAELTRLSRLTD QPHNNRDIELNRAKRATTNPSPPAQAPSENLTLRDVQPLKDSALHYQYVLIDLQSARLP VYTRKTFERELALEWIIPDAEEA-C; 
     SEQ ID NO: 9 is an artificial amino acid sequence of at least one exemplary embodiment of a BSMV-CP having a point mutation at residue E62Q according to the present disclosure, such mutant being verified as capable of self-assembly: 
     N-MPNVSLTAKGGGHYIEDQWDTQVVEAGVFDDWWVHVEAWNKFLDNLRGINFSVASS RSQVAQYLAALDRDLPADVDRRFAGARGQIGSPNYLPAPKFFRLDKRTIAELTRLSRLT DQPHNNRDIELNRAKRATTNPSPPAQAPSENLTLRDVQPLKDSALHYQYVLIDLQSARL PVYTRKTFERELALEWIIPDAEEA-C; 
     SEQ ID NO: 10 is an artificial amino acid sequence of at least one exemplary embodiment of a BSMV-CP having point mutations at both residues E62Q and D101N according to the present disclosure: 
     N-MPNVSLTAKGGGHYIEDQWDTQVVEAGVFDDWWVHVEAWNKFLDNLRGINFSVASS RSQVAQYLAALDRDLPADVDRRFAGARGQIGSPNYLPAPKFFRLNKRTIAELTRLSRLT DQPHNNRDIELNRAKRATTNPSPPAQAPSENLTLRDVQPLKDSALHYQYVLIDLQSARL PVYTRKTFERELALEWIIPDAEEA-C; 
     SEQ ID NO: 11 is a DNA sequence that encodes a wild-type origin of self-assembly derived from a Tobacco mosaic virus: 
     5′-GTATTGTTTATAGAAATAATATAAAATTAGGTTTGAGAGAGAAGATTACAAACGTG AGAGACGGAGGGCCCATGGAACTTACAGAAGAAGTCGTTGATGAGTTCATGGAAGA TGTCCCTATGTCGATCAGGCTTGCAAAGTTTCGATCTCGAACCGGAAAAAAGAGTGA TGTCCGCAAAGGGAAAAATA-3′; 
     SEQ ID NO: 12 is a DNA sequence that encodes a wild-type BSMV-CP: 
     5′-ATGCCCAACGTATCACTGACAGCGAAAGGGGGAGGTCATTACATCGAAGATCAGTG GGATACGCAAGTCGTCGAAGCAGGAGTGTTCGACGACTGGTGGGTGCATGTAGAGG CCTGGAATAAGTTTCTTGACAATCTGCGCGGCATCAATTTTTCCGTCGCCAGCAGTC GCTCACAAGTAGCAGAGTATTTGGCTGCTTTGGATCGTGACCTTCCGGCTGACGTTG ATCGTCGTTTCGCGGGTGCACGTGGTCAAATCGGCAGCCCCAATTACTTACCAGCAC CTAAATTTTTTCGTCTTGATAAACGTACAATCGCTGAATTGACACGTTTGTCGCGCTT GACGGATCAGCCCCACAACAATCGTGATATCGAGTTAAATCGCGCAAAACGCGCAA CAACAAATCCTAGCCCACCTGCTCAAGCCCCGAGCGAAAACCTTACACTGCGCGAC GTGCAACCCTTAAAGGACTCCGCGTTACATTATCAGTATGTCCTTATTGATCTTCAGT CCGCACGCTTGCCTGTGTATACCCGCAAGACTTTCGAGCGCGAGCTGGCTCTGGAGT GGATCATTCCAGATGCAGAGGAAGCATAA-3′; 
     SEQ ID NO: 13 is an artificial sequence of at least one exemplary embodiment that encodes a linker region according to the present disclosure; 
     SEQ ID NO: 14 is an artificial DNA sequence of at least one exemplary embodiment that encodes a BSMV-CP (SEQ ID NO: 12) fused with an OAS derived from TMV (SEQ ID NO: 11); 
     SEQ ID NO: 15 is an artificial DNA sequence of at least one exemplary embodiment that encodes a BSMV-CP (SEQ ID NO: 12) fused with a linker region and an OAS derived from TMV (SEQ ID NO: 11); 
     SEQ ID NO: 16 is an artificial DNA sequence of a plasmid vector pET21-BSMV-D70N that encodes the protein of SEQ ID NO: 3; 
     SEQ ID NO: 17 is an artificial DNA sequence of a plasmid vector pET21-BSMV-D68N that encodes the protein of SEQ ID NO: 2; 
     SEQ ID NO: 18 is an artificial DNA sequence of a plasmid vector pET21-BSMV-D101K that encodes the protein of SEQ ID NO: 4; 
     SEQ ID NO: 19 is an artificial DNA sequence of a plasmid vector pET21-BSMV-D101R that encodes the protein of SEQ ID NO: 6; 
     SEQ ID NO: 20 is an artificial DNA sequence of a plasmid vector pET21-BSMV-E37Q that encodes the protein of SEQ ID NO: 7; 
     SEQ ID NO: 21 is an artificial DNA sequence of a plasmid vector pET21-BSMV-E37R that encodes the protein of SEQ ID NO: 8; 
     SEQ ID NO: 22 is an artificial DNA sequence of a plasmid vector pET21-BSMV-D101N that encodes the protein of SEQ ID NO: 5; 
     SEQ ID NO: 23 is an artificial DNA sequence of a plasmid vector pET21-BSMV-E62Q that encodes the protein of SEQ ID NO: 9; 
     SEQ ID NO: 24 is an artificial DNA sequence of a plasmid vector pET21-BSMV-E62Q/D101N that encodes the protein of SEQ ID NO: 10; 
     SEQ ID NO: 25 is an artificial DNA sequence of a plasmid vector pET21-BSMV; and SEQ ID NO: 26 is an artificial DNA sequence of a plasmid vector pET21-BSMV-Linker-OAS that encodes a BSMV-CP (SEQ ID NO: 12) fused with a linker region and an OAS derived from TMV (SEQ ID NO: 11). 
     In addition to the foregoing, written Sequence Listings for the above-described sequences are appended hereto and the same Sequence Listing is provided in computer readable form encoded in a file filed herewith and herein incorporated by reference. The information recorded in computer readable form is identical to the written Sequence Listing provided herein, pursuant to 37 C.F.R. § 1.821(f). 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The disclosed embodiments and other features, advantages, and aspects contained herein, and the matter of attaining them, will become apparent in light of the following detailed description of various exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. Such detailed description will be better understood when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein: 
         FIG. 1  shows various views of a graphical model of the structure of the Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV) (PDB:5A7A), with subpart (a) showing a perspective view of a BSMV capsid protein; subpart (b) showing a side view of an assembled BSMV virion; and subpart (c) showing a top-down view of assembled BSMV capsid proteins (images adapted from Clare et al.,  Novel Inter - Subunit Contacts in Barley Stripe Mosaic Virus Revealed by Cryo - Electron Microscopy , Structure, Oct. 6, 2015; 23(10): 1815-1826); 
         FIGS. 2A and 2B  show representations of an exemplary method for producing BSMV-VLPs in a bacterial expression system according to at least one embodiment of the present disclosure, with  FIG. 2A  showing a schematic of the method and  FIG. 2B  showing a flow-chart representative of the method; 
         FIG. 3  shows a schematic interpretation of a TMV coat protein and origin of assembly (OAS) on TMV RNA, with subpart (a) showing a completed self-assembly into a helical structure; subpart (b) showing a partial nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID No. 11 and secondary structure of the OAS on TMV RNA; and subpart (c) showing a schematic interpretation of the structures of a TMV coat protein and OAS and its steps of self-assembly. 
         FIG. 4  represents BSMV-viral capsid protein (BSMV-CP) constructs that include a linker RNA, with subpart (A) showing a BSMV-CP fused to an artificial linker with 1322 base transcript length and no OAS (top) and a BSMV-CP fused with an artificial linker and an OAS sequence from TMV, with 1652 base transcript length, subpart (B) showing a visualization of a BSMV-CP-linker by transmission electronic microscope (TEM), and subpart (C) showing a visualization of BSMV-CP-linker-OAS and resulting self-assembly by TEM; 
         FIG. 5 , subpart (a) shows a schematic representation of tunable BSMV-VLPs-BSMV coat protein fused to a customizable length of linker and an OAS; 
         FIG. 5 , subpart (b) shows a schematic representation that engineered BSMV-VLPs with increased coat protein interaction are less susceptible to extreme pH and low calcium ion concentrations; 
         FIG. 5 , subpart (c) shows a schematic representation of all BSMV protein constructs expressed and produced in a microbial-based chassis; 
         FIG. 6  illustrates various graphical models of interacting residues between BSMV coat protein subunits, with subpart (a) showing that the interacting residues of TMV (PDB:2xea) are D77 and E50 residues of the coat protein subunit; subpart (b) showing likely interacting residues of BSMV (PDB:5a7a) corresponding to that of TMV, which includes E62, D68, D70, and D101 based on the present investigators&#39; data; and subpart (c) showing predicted native interacting residues of BSMV in the literature, which includes E37, D70, and D74; 
         FIG. 7  shows TEM visualization of BSMV-CP-linker carrying a point mutation at E37R (subpart A), a point mutation at E37Q (subpart B), a point mutation D101N (subpart C), a point mutation at E62Q (subpart D), point mutations at both E62Q and D101N (subpart E), a point mutation at D101R (subpart F), and a point mutation at D101K (subpart G), with the self-assembly of rod-shaped VLPs being verified at least in the D101N, E62Q, E62Q/D101N, D101R, and D101K point mutations; 
         FIG. 8  shows PAGE analysis results of a BSMV-CP purification scheme, with Lane 1 indicative of whole cell lysate before IPTG induction; Lane 2 indicative of whole cell lysate after IPTG induction; Lane 3 indicative of whole cell lysate after Bugbuster; Lane 4 indicative of insoluble bacterial pellet; Lane 5 indicative of supernatant after 4.5/5 min before 50 k/30′; Lane 6 indicative of insoluble pellet after 50 k/30 min; Lane 7 indicative of pellet after insoluble pellet removed and 3 k/5 min; and Lane 8 indicative of final resuspension; BSMV-CP is ˜22.5 kDa; 
         FIG. 9  shows PAGE analysis results of BSMV-CP expression conducted at 23° C. and 37° C., respectively, with P representing pellet and S representing supernatant after 92,000×g and 20 min centrifuge and arrow mark indicating BSMV-CP at ˜22.5 kDa; 
         FIG. 10  shows PAGE analysis results of BSMV-CP expression conducted at different inducer agent concentrations, with subpart (a) representing soluble fraction yield at 0.01 mM, 0.05 mM, 0.075 mM, and 0.10 mM, and subpart (b) representing the effect of final pellet resuspension buffers on solubilizing BSMV-CP in water (A), Tris buffer (B), and sodium phosphate buffer (C); arrow marks indicating BSMV-CP protein at ˜22.5 kDa; 
         FIG. 11  are TEM visualizations of BSMV-OAS after 68% sucrose cushion, with subpart (a) showing the top layer supernatant and subpart (b) showing the bottom of the 68% sucrose cushion; 
         FIG. 12  is a length distribution histogram of purified BSMV-VLPs produced according to at least one embodiment of the present disclosure; and 
         FIG. 13  is a TEM image of a palladium coated BMSV-VLP nanorod prepared according to at least one embodiment of the present disclosure. 
     
    
    
     While the present disclosure is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, exemplary embodiments thereof are shown by way of example in the drawings and are herein described in detail. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     For the purposes of promoting an understanding of the principles of the present disclosure, reference will now be made to the embodiments illustrated in the drawings and specific language will be used to describe the same. It will nevertheless be understood that no limitation of scope is intended by the description of these embodiments. On the contrary, this disclosure is intended to cover alternatives, modifications, and equivalents as may be included within the spirit and scope of this application as defined by the appended claims. As previously noted, while this technology may be illustrated and described in one or more preferred embodiments, the compositions, systems and methods hereof may comprise many different configurations, forms, materials, and accessories. 
     In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present disclosure. Particular examples may be implemented without some or all of these specific details and it is to be understood that this disclosure is not limited to particular biological systems, which can, of course, vary. 
     Furthermore, wherever feasible and convenient, like reference numerals are used in the figures and the description to refer to the same or like parts or steps. The drawings are in a simplified form and not to precise scale. It is understood that the disclosure is presented in this manner merely for explanatory purposes and the principles and embodiments described herein may be applied to devices and/or system components that have dimensions/configurations other than as specifically described herein. Indeed, it is expressly contemplated that the size and shapes of the composition and system components of the present disclosure may be tailored in furtherance of the desired application thereof. 
     Various techniques and mechanisms of the present disclosure will sometimes describe a connection or link between two components. Words such as attached, linked, coupled, connected, fused, and similar terms with their inflectional morphemes are used interchangeably, unless the difference is noted or made otherwise clear from the context. These words and expressions do not necessarily signify direct connections, but include connections through mediate components and devices. It should be noted that a connection between two components does not necessarily mean a direct, unimpeded connection, as a variety of other components may reside between the two components of note. Consequently, a connection does not necessarily mean a direct, unimpeded connection unless otherwise noted. 
     Similarly, the phrase “operatively linked” as used herein refers to elements or structures in a nucleic acid sequence or amino acid sequence that are linked by operative ability and not physical location. The elements or structures are capable of, or characterized by, accomplishing a desired operation. It is recognized by one of ordinary skill in the art that it is not necessary for elements or structures in a nucleic acid sequence to be in a tandem or adjacent order to be operatively linked. 
     Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of skill in the relevant arts. Although any methods and materials similar to or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the subject of the present application, the preferred methods and materials are described herein. Additionally, as used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “an RNA” includes a combination of two or more RNAs; reference to “bacteria,” unless otherwise specified, includes mixtures of bacteria, and the like. 
     The term “about,” as used herein, means approximately, in the region of, roughly or around. When the term “about” is used in conjunction with a numerical range, it modifies that range by extending the boundaries above and below the numerical values set forth. In general, the term “about” is used herein to modify a numerical value above and below the stated value by a variance of 10%. Therefore, about 50% means in the range of 45%-55%. Numerical ranges recited herein by endpoints include all numbers and fractions subsumed within that range (e.g., 1 to 5 includes 1, 1.5, 2, 2.75, 3, 3.90, 4, and 5). It is also to be understood that all numbers and fractions thereof are presumed to be modified by the term “about.” 
     The terms “polypeptide,” “peptide,” and “protein” are used interchangeably herein to refer to a polymer of amino acid residues, a polypeptide, or a fragment of a polypeptide, peptide, or fusion polypeptide. The terms apply to amino acid polymers in which one or more amino acid residue is an artificial chemical mimetic of a corresponding naturally occurring amino acid, as well as to naturally occurring amino acid polymers and non-naturally occurring amino acid polymers. 
     The term “amino acid” refers to naturally occurring and synthetic amino acids, as well as amino acid analogs and amino acid mimetics that function in a manner similar to the corresponding naturally occurring amino acids. Naturally occurring amino acids are those encoded by the genetic code, as well as those amino acids that are later modified, e.g., hydroxyproline, γ-carboxyglutamate, and O-phosphoserine. “Amino acid analogs” refer to compounds that have the same basic chemical structure as a naturally occurring amino acid, i.e. a carbon that is bound to a hydrogen, a carboxyl group, an amino group, and an R group (e.g., homoserine, norleucine, methionine sulfoxide, methionine methyl sulfonium). Such analogs have modified R groups (e.g., norleucine) or modified peptide backbones, but retain the same basic chemical structure as a naturally occurring amino acid. Amino acid mimetics refers to chemical compounds that have a structure that is different from the general chemical structure of an amino acid, but that functions in a manner similar to a naturally occurring amino acid. Amino acids may be referred to herein by either their commonly known three letter symbols or by the one-letter symbols recommended by the IUPAC-IUB Biochemical Nomenclature Commission. 
     “Nucleic acid” refers to deoxyribonucleotides or ribonucleotides and polymers thereof in either single- or double-stranded form and complements thereof. The term encompasses nucleic acids containing known nucleotide analogs or modified backbone residues or linkages, that are synthetic, naturally occurring, and non-naturally occurring, have similar binding properties as the reference nucleic acid, and metabolized in a manner similar to the reference nucleotides. Nucleotides may be referred to by their commonly accepted single-letter codes. 
     The term “interaction domain” refers to peptides or proteins (that may be glycosylated or otherwise modified), that are adapted to specifically interact with target regions (or targets) on other molecules differing from themselves. For example, and without limitation, a viral coat protein may comprise an interaction domain that is adapted to specifically interact with an origin of self-assembly (i.e. the target) as defined below. 
     As used herein, the terms “origin of self-assembly,” “origin of assembly,” and “OAS” each refer to an internal RNA stem-loop sequence present in the viral RNA genome that is adapted to interact with viral coat proteins of the virus or other interaction domains to form one or more structures having a substantially defined geometry and including three (3) or more units. An OAS may be the target for disk binding in assembly initiation and may be specifically recognized by the viral coat protein disk aggregate (see  FIG. 3 ). For example, with respect to viruses, and TMV in particular, a TMV coat protein may be the interaction domain and interact/bind with the origin of assembly to spontaneously form an initiation complex to which additional subunits can rapidly bind to create a hairpin loop or other stacking formation. An origin of self-assembly may be connected to the interaction domain by a linker region (also referred to herein as a “linker” or “linker sequence”). 
     The phrase “derived from” refers to a component that is isolated from or made using a specific molecule or organism, or information from a specific molecule or organism. As such, as used herein, the phrase “derived from genetic material encoding” refers to something that includes a peptide or protein which could have been substantially produced by transcription of DNA and/or translation of RNA encoding that peptide or protein, or a larger protein of which it forms a part, followed if necessary by cleavage (natural or unnatural) and/or post-translational modification. It will be apparent that a peptide or protein will be derived from genetic material even if the actual genetic material encoding it differs through degeneracy in the genetic code or conservative substitution or the like. Similarly, a DNA or nucleotide “coding sequence” or “sequence encoding” a particular polypeptide or protein refers to a nucleic acid sequence that is transcribed and translated into a product (e.g., a polypeptide or protein) when placed under the control of appropriate regulatory sequences. 
     As used herein, the term “encodes” refers to any process whereby the information in a polymeric macromolecule or sequence string is used to direct the production of a second molecule or sequence string that is different from the first molecule or sequence string. As used herein, the term is used broadly and can have a variety of applications. For example, as is well known in the art, a DNA molecule can encode an RNA molecule (e.g., by the process of transcription incorporating a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzyme). Also, an RNA molecule can encode a peptide, as in the process of translation. When used to describe the process of translation, the term “encode” also extends to the triplet codon that encodes an amino acid. In some aspects, an RNA molecule can encode a DNA molecule, e.g., by the process of reverse transcription incorporating an RNA-dependent DNA polymerase. In another aspect, a DNA molecule can encode a polypeptide, where it is understood that “encode” as used in that case incorporates both the processes of transcription and translation. 
     As used herein, the term “isolated” means that the material is removed from its original environment, e.g., the natural environment if it is naturally occurring. For example, a naturally occurring polynucleotide or polypeptide present in a living organism is not isolated, but the same polynucleotide or polypeptide separated from some or all of the coexisting materials in the natural system is isolated. Such polynucleotides could be part of a vector and/or such polynucleotides could be part of a composition and remain isolated in that such vector or composition is not part of its natural environment. 
     Unless otherwise expressly stated, the term “purified” and the like does not necessarily require absolute purity has been achieved; rather, it is intended as a relative definition that relates to enrichment of a molecule or compound relative to other components normally associated with the molecule or compound in a native environment. 
     “Plasmids” are designated herein by a lower-case p preceded or followed by capital letters and/or numbers. The starting plasmids described in the present disclosure are commercially available, publicly available on an unrestricted basis, or can be constructed from available plasmids in accordance with published procedures. Additionally, equivalent plasmids to those described herein are known in the art and will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art. For example, while pET21 is used in the examples set forth below, it will be appreciated that any suitable plasmid or other expression vector now-known or hereinafter discovered may be utilized to achieve like results (for example, and without limitation, pETM6, pBAD24, etc.). 
     As used herein, the phrase “a functional equivalent” of a sequence means a nucleic acid or amino acid sequence that has greater than 40% homology with the nucleic acid or amino acid sequences (respectively) referenced and that has essentially the same properties, structure, and/or functionality. Accordingly, with respect to nucleic acid sequences, “functional equivalents” may include codon variants that ultimately produce the same protein. A number of studies have demonstrated that the functional equivalents of nucleic acid sequences can be prepared by maintaining the base pairing of most of the double helical regions even when changes are made to the stems. Changes in the stem sequence does not significantly affect secondary structure and/or the functionality of the underlying structure; therefore, 100% sequence identity is not required in all cases to achieve the desired structure and functionality of the resulting molecule. Similarly, in proteins, amino acid exchange can occur while still preserving protein function, for example if the modifications occur in specific regions within a protein that are not important for its function and/or if positional homology is preserved. Here, preferably, functional equivalents include those sequences having an identity of at least 70%, 75%, 80%, 90%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more and maintains the structure and functionality of the original. Of course, “functional equivalents” also encompasses fragments, in particular individual domains or sequence motifs, of the proteins and polypeptides of the present disclosure which have the desired biological activity such as, for example and without limitation, self-assembly. 
     As used here, the phrase “a structure having substantially defined geometry” means a structure the approximate size and shape of which is consistent when it is formed from the same components under the same conditions. 
     Further, in the context of the present disclosure, a “nanoparticle” is considered to be a particle having at least one dimension less than about 150 nm. For example, a Barley stripe mosaic viron nanoparticle may have a diameter at or about 18 nm, but a length of about 100-150 nm. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticle can be less than 100 nm in every dimension. 
     The term “virus particle” as used herein means any non-enveloped virus particle (VP) whether or not infectious, including virus-like particles that lack nucleic acid content. Exemplary embodiments of suitable VPs in the present disclosure include non-enveloped viruses having a capsid coat (for example, and without limitation, a rod-shaped (helical) capsid). Exemplary examples of rod-shaped viruses include the Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV). 
     As used herein, the terms “virus-like particles” and “VLPs” refer to molecules that closely resemble viruses yet are non-infectious because they contain no viral genetic material as mentioned above. As described below, VLPs can also be used as a nanotemplates, whether they are naturally occurring or synthesized through the individual expression of viral structural proteins, which can then self-assemble into the virus-like structure. Combinations of structural capsid proteins from different viruses can be used to create recombinant VLPs and/or proteins, nucleic acids, or small molecules may be attached to the VLP surface. 
     Metals suitable for use in any process according to the present disclosure include certain salts of metals as well. Particular examples of suitable metals include silver, gold, iron, copper, indium, platinum, palladium, rhodium, manganese, zinc, cobalt, Au/Pd alloy, and the like. Optionally, the metal salts can be salts of silver, gold, iron, copper, indium, platinum, palladium, rhodium, manganese, zinc, cobalt, Au/Pd alloy and the like. 
     The present disclosure provides novel nanoparticles and methods for synthesizing the same using VLPs in a microbial expression system. In at least one embodiment, Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV) coat proteins or capsids (BSMV-CP) are fused to an OAS, optionally via a linker region, and the transcript is inserted into a plasmid or other expression vector/modality that is then transformed into or otherwise expressed in a host bacterial cell. The transformed cells propagate, which produces the rod-shaped BSMV-VLPs of interest that self-assemble due to the presence of the OAS. Following isolation and purification steps, these bacterial produced BSMV-VLPs may then be employed as biotemplates in the synthesis of nanomaterials (e.g., palladium nanomaterials via hydrothermal methods). To date, only in planta production methods for BSMV have been achieved; the present disclosure is the first instance successfully engineering BSMV-CP for production in a microbial expression system which allows for engineering heretofore not possible in-planta due to the evolutionary pressures and constraints of such platforms. 
     In alternative embodiments, instead of (or in addition to) fusing an OAS with the BSMV-CP to initiate self-assembly, the sequence of the BSMV-CP is engineered to optimize the strength of interaction between capsid protein subunits thereon, which notably has been determined to drive spontaneous self-assembly of BSMV-VLPs when fabricated in a microbial-based expression system. The bacteria assembled BSMV-VLPs have since been successfully used as biotemplates to synthesize organic-inorganic nanomaterials of high quality in the absence of external reducing agents. 
     Accordingly, the inventive methods disclosed herein produce non-infectious BSMV VLPs using a bacterial protein expression system without the restrictions of conventional BSMV in planta production. These methods and templates are highly biodiverse and amendable to genetic engineering. Indeed, the BSMV-based biotemplates provide a wide range of chemical interactions afforded by its numerous multifunctional protein surfaces. The presence of various functionalities on a single template allow for the formation of a wide range of inorganic nanoparticles therefrom. Additionally, BSMV in particular allows for a vast array of genetic modifications through which enhanced properties can be imparted to the resulting nanoparticles (e.g., accelerated deposition rates) and opens the door to unique nanosynthesis opportunities. Likewise, the use of the microbial production platform in the biotemplate synthesis methods disclosed herein enables protein engineering that is simply not possible in planta due to the evolutionary pressures. 
     Still further, the biotemplates of the present disclosure (whether BSMV-based or otherwise) exhibit an increased stability over a wider range of conditions than can be achieved using conventionally templates. This is beneficial for numerous applications, particularly in the production of metal and/or metalized nanoparticles and allows for the deposition of new metals with their own distinct properties. Especially when considered with BSMV&#39;s enhanced ability to accommodate more metal coating than other viral platforms, this is commercially significant. (As described below, BSMV can adsorb more than twice the amount of metal relative to the current plant viral standard (TMV), which can lead to thicker coatings.) Further, through the incorporation of customizable linkers into the BSMV-CP transcript, the present methods allow for the lengths of the BSMV-derived VLPs to be specifically tailored pursuant to preference or application. 
     The present disclosure provides an easy and cost-effective solution for biotemplate and high-yield nanoparticle production. When the benefits of the presently disclosed approaches are taken together, it is clear the novel nanoparticles, platforms and methods disclosed herein are a significant advancement in the field. 
     BSMV has recently been proposed as an attractive template for nanomaterial direct synthesis as it shows at least two-fold higher nanoparticle adsorption capability than that of the popular TMV. BSMV virons are rigid rods consisting of a tripartite positive sense ssRNA genome surrounded by virus coat or capsid proteins (CPs) of 23 kDa. The particles (virons) are about 20.8 nm to about 21.4 nm in outer diameter, with an inner central channel of about 4 nm, and between about 110-150 nm long (although particles are known to align end-to-end to produce much longer rods). The BSMV CP tertiary structure, which is shown in subpart (a) of  FIG. 1 , is similar to that of TMV CP in that both have the presence and positioning of major alpha helices and conservation of key amino acid residues. The N- and C-terminals of the BSMV capsid protein 102 (SEQ ID NO: 1) are labeled as N and C, respectively in subpart (a) of  FIG. 1 . BSMV CPs 102 assemble around an interacting RNA 101 to form a viron (or particle) that retains a structural integrity relevant for infectivity up to about 65° C. after about 10 min. Consequently, BSMV can potentially be applied to surface biomineralization, while retaining its mechanical robustness, as has been observed on TMV.  FIG. 1  also shows a side view of an assembled BSMV viron in subpart (b), with six turns around the RNA 101 visible, and a top-down view of a single turn of assembled BSMV capsid proteins (without RNA 101) in subpart (c). Green tubes 120 indicate Alpha helices with N-C terminal direction. Blue wires 122 are protein side chains and the red and blue regions 124 indicated in subpart (c) of  FIG. 1  represent local positively and negatively charged regions of the capsid protein, which are notably on the outside or inner hollow of the virus. The structure shown in  FIG. 1  was obtained by cryo-EM and visualized by pymol and NGL viewer, a web-based molecular graphics for large complexes. 
     BSMV offers alternative biotemplating due to its unique physiochemical properties (e.g., isoelectric point) and other active surface functionalities, which allow for different chemical interactions as compared to TMV. For example, the BSMV-CP 102 consists of two additional long insertions on the outer surface when compared to the TMV-CP. One of these insertions is a sequence of 10 amino acids (residues 1-10), located at the exposed N-terminus, while the other (residues 84-94) is an insertion loop that also protrudes from the outer surface. This second region (residues 84-94) in particular, provides significant opportunity for genetic modifications to incorporate desired properties such as, by way of a non-limiting example, accelerated deposition rate. 
     Recently, the investigators&#39; studies demonstrated successful synthesis of palladium nanorods by using in planta produced BSMV as an alternate template to TMV ( FIG. 1 ). The synthesized nanorods were of similar, if not higher, quality than those produced with TMV and BSMV was shown to adsorb at least twice as much metal as TMV, thus leading to thicker coatings and unique nanosynthesis opportunities. 
     However, conventional approaches to produce BSMV are limited to in-planta production, which necessarily limits the ability to genetically engineer and mass produce the virus. First, as noted above, the genomes of inplanta-synthesized viruses, and BSMV in particular, are associated with mutations and recombination during viral replication due to evolutionary pressures that may remove any desired engineered modification in the interest of viral fitness. Second, conventional BSMV in planta production utilizes infectious plant pathogens that leverage the viral replication cycle in plants, which requires an extended period of time before a relatively small quantity of viruses can be extracted. 
     Unlike conventional in planta methods, the production methods of the present disclosure use microbial expression platforms for nanoparticle production, which are fast, simple and result in high yields. VLP self-assembly of wild type virus coat protein is initiated by the OAS. However, the OAS of BSMV is unknown. Accordingly, heretofore, BSMV-VLPs have not been produced in bacteria due to their inability to self-assemble from wild-type BSMV. The novel methods provided herein provide self-assembly functionality to BSMV-VLPs, thereby allowing for the beneficial use of microbial expression platforms in this context. Furthermore, these methods uniquely offer the ability to tune the length of the VLPs as desired or needed for a particular application. 
     Now referring to  FIGS. 2A and 2B , at least one embodiment of a novel method 200 for producing BSMV-VLPs in a microbial expression system is shown. This method 200 will be first be explained in general terms to aid in understanding, followed by a more detailed descriptions of various aspects and using specific examples. Notably, method 200 is the first method that allows for the length of BSMV-derived VLPs to be specifically tailored as desired, thereby allowing for the ability to produce biotemplates with a customized morphology for use as a biotemplate to synthesis organic-inorganic nanomaterials. 
     Generally, in at least one embodiment, the method 200 comprises the steps of constructing a plasmid or expression vector comprising a fusion of a viral CP and an OAS 302 (step 250), transforming such plasmid or expression vector into a host and expressing the same using an expression system 208 (step 252), and isolating the resulting VLPs 212 from the expression system (step 254). 
     Method 200 may optionally further include the step of nanoparticle synthesis (step 260) using the VLPs 212 produced at step 254 and, where desired, one or more interim steps such as coating at least a surface of the resulting VLPs 212 with a metal using adsorption or the like (step 256) and/or performing microbial reduction of the VLPs (step 258) prior to nanoparticle synthesis (step 260). 
     In at least one embodiment, the expression system 208 is heterologous and may comprise an  Escherichia coli  ( E. coli ) platform. While  E. coli  is the host platform described herein, it will be appreciated that any number of expression systems may be utilized in the present method 200 including, without limitation,  S. cerevisiae  or those non-bacterial expression systems that utilize insect cells and/or mammalian cells. Furthermore, DNA of the novel CP-OAS disclosed herein may be integrated into a genome for expression. 
     Additionally or alternatively, the viral CP/interaction domain may be a BSMV-CP 102 or any other virus strain from which a suitable CP can be produced and assembled into a VLP 212 using the method without the presence of a naturally occurring OAS therein. In at least one embodiment of the present disclosure, the viral CP/interaction domain may be of any viral strain that does not include a native OAS such as, for example, other rigid, rod-shaped viruses in the  Hordeivirus  genus or those in the  Furovirus, Pecluvirus, Pomovirus, Tobamovirus , or  Tobravirus  geneses in the family of Virgaviridae. 
     As previously noted, one of the hurdles to using BSMV is that native BSMV coat protein transcripts lack the ability to self-assemble into VLPs (i.e. initiate the assembly from disk to rod structure). As shown in  FIG. 3 , CP units in certain viruses (like TMV) spontaneously form a disk structure (represented in subparts (a) and (c) of  FIG. 3 ) by the binding of an OAS 302 into the central hole of a two-ring subassembly of the capsid protein 304. More specifically, the interactions of secondary-structured OAS with CP units drive the spontaneous nucleation of disk subassembly, with these “disks” forming in long aggregates that are made up of discrete short helices (corresponding in size to the number of subunits in the disk). This consequently leads to self-assembly of disk structures into a helical rod-shaped particle, with the disks initially stacked in imperfect register, but annealing over time into a helical rod-shaped particle (see subpart (c) of  FIG. 3 ). 
     When a BSMV-CP transcript is expressed alone there is no assembly. To address the inability of native BSMV to self-assemble, at step 250, a plasmid or other expression vector is constructed comprising a fusion of an interaction domain such as a viral CP (e.g., BSMV-CP 102, as shown in  FIG. 2A ) and an OAS 302 (SEQ ID NO: 26). The OAS 302 sequence may be operatively linked to the BSMV-CP sequence such that a resulting product is a BSMV-CP operatively linked with an OAS 302; indeed, in at least one exemplary embodiment, the OAS 302 is introduced downstream into the protein transcript as shown in  FIG. 4 , subpart A. 
     The operative linkage between the interaction domain and the OAS 302 may be direct fusion or via a linker 304 (described in further detail below). In at least one exemplary embodiment, BSMV-CP is prepared with an OAS 302 from TMV at the 3′ end derived from SEQ ID NO: 11. It has been determined that the inclusion of OAS 302 in the construct initiates self-assembly via the RNA/CP interaction with the BSMV-CP. Further, the plasmid and/or expression vector may be optimized for bacterial expression pursuant to protocols known in the art. 
     Now referring to  FIG. 5 , as noted above, the interaction domain (e.g., BSMV-CP 102) may be linked to the OAS 302 via a linker region 304 according to protocols known in the art such as, and without limitation, construction techniques such as DNA synthesis or gene splicing by overlap extension PCR (for example, the linker 304 may comprise a fusion protein). Linker regions 304 may be selected from any number of peptide sequences, nucleic acid sequences, or other suitable materials. In at least one exemplary embodiment, the linker region 304 has a nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 13. The length of a linker region 304 will depend on several factors, including the geometry of the self-assembly units and the desired morphology of the resulting VLPs. It is generally desirable to provide a linker region 304 of sufficient length to allow the interaction domain operatively connected to the self-assembly unit to orient towards its target, thus permitting sufficient binding. In at least one embodiment, the length of a linker region 304 may be selected to allow for maximum target accessibility to the binding sites of the interaction domain. It may further be desirable in certain applications to select linkers for resistance to proteases (e.g., where in vivo applications are contemplated). In at least one exemplary embodiment, the linker region 304 is positioned downstream of the CP, after a stop codon and before the OAS 302 as shown in  FIG. 5 , subpart A. 
     In some instances, it may be desirable to use linkers 304 between about 600 and about 700 nucleic acids in length and in other instances the use of linkers 304 between about 2,200 and about 2,300 nucleic acids in length may be desirable. In at least two exemplary embodiments, the linker region 304 may be 661 or 2,243 nucleic acids in length. It will be appreciated that these linker lengths are provided solely by way of example and in no way limiting; the linker region 304 may comprise any length suitable or desired for a particular application. 
     Linkers 304 may also be used to join a marker (e.g., such as a fluorescently labeled moiety or compound) or a destructive material (e.g., a radioactive material of sufficient activity) to a self-assembly unit. In at least one embodiment, the linker 304 may be secured to the opposite terminus of the self-assembly unit from the interaction domain. 
     Incorporation of a linker region 304 imparts the ability to tune and/or modify the length of the resulting noninfectious VLP 212 and, thus, any nanoparticle subsequently synthesized therewith. Indeed, it has been determined that length of the overall construct directly correlates to the length of any resulting VLP 212 produced at step 252. 
     Subpart A of  FIG. 5  illustrates this concept. Use of a linker 304a having a first, shorter sequence (for example, and without limitation, a 100 amino acid linker), results in VLPs 212a having a corresponding first, shorter length, whereas use of a second, longer linker 304b sequence (for example, and without limitation, a 1322 amino acid linker) results in VLPs 212b having a corresponding second, longer length. This property can be exploited by strategically choosing the linker length to tune the morphology of the VLPs 212 produced. 
     It should also be noted that any desired engineering to BSMV may be performed at or prior to step 250 to take advantage of the transformation and expression step 252. For example, because surface residues of BSMV can be modified, in at least one embodiment, BSMV-VLPs can be conjugated with antigen display for medical applications. There, the resulting BSMV-VLPs would function as a vaccine scaffold to elicit a desired immune response following administration to a subject, such as, for example, the L2 protein fragment from the papillomavirus does when conjugated with TMV. 
     At step 252, the constructs are transformed into a host expression system (such as a microbial-based expression system comprising  E. coli , for example) and grown such that the construct is expressed and VLPs 212 are produced. SEQ ID NO. 26 provides a nucleic acid sequence of one such  E. coli  plasmid carrying a BSMV-CP 102 fused with a linker region 304 and an OAS 302. In at least one embodiment, the  E. coli  transformed with the plasmids or expression vectors were grown at room temperature for 16-20 hours.  FIG. 4 , subparts B and C shows images taken using a 200 kV Tecnai T20 transmission electron microscope (TEM) of lysed BSMV-CP-linkers at step 254, both with (subpart C) and without (subpart B) an OAS 302 fused therewith. As is clearly seen in subpart B of  FIG. 4 , the BSMV-CP-linker without an OAS 302 failed to self-assemble during step 252 (only disks structure formed without OAS 302), whereas the image of the BSMV-CP-linker fused with an OAS 302 indicates the presence of self-assembled, rod-shaped BSMV VLPs indicating that self-assembly did in fact occur at step 252. Accordingly, at step 250, a TMV-OAS 302 is fused to the BSMV-CP 102 transcript using methods known in the art, which imparts self-assembly characteristics into the BSMV-VLPs 212 thereafter produced at step 252 through the expression system 208. 
     Unlike bacteriophage systems such as M13 that infect the bacterial platform and limit options for property customizations, plant viruses can be expressed heterologously without affecting the producing bacteria. In other words, because VLP production is independent of a virus&#39;s ability to infect or alter microbial function, the heterologous expression system 208 utilized at step 252 allows for more opportunities to engineer VLP properties without compromising properties and quality in  E. coli  bacteria by infection. Further, because a heterologous host is employed, the evolutionary pressures on virus replication are reduced as compared to in planta models, which further promotes the capability to genetically engineer the VLP structures. Accordingly, by employing the powerful and unique abilities of synthetic biology, method 200 utilizes a heterologous expression system such as an  E. coli  platform to produce VLPs with genetic modifications that plant hosts are not able to achieve. 
     At step 254, the resulting VLPs 212 are isolated from  E. coli  and purified pursuant to protocols known in the art. The VLPs 212 may be used as biotemplates for the synthesis of nanoparticles at step 260 pursuant to known methods. In the embodiment utilizing BSMV-VLPs 212 as described herein, nanosynthesis results in the production of high quality nanorods having size and dimensions that correlate with those of the VLPs 212. Where a linker region 304 was employed in the construct at step 250, the custom VLPs 212 will have a size and dimension that directly correlates with the length of the customized linker region 304. 
     Optionally, prior to step 256, the VLPs 212 may be coated with metal at step 256. Metal coated biotemplates have numerous commercial uses. For example, as a component in batteries such as electrodes, chemical sensors, and memory devices, as well as catalysts. It has been determined that metal-coated TMV increases the charge capacity of an anode ten-fold via increasing the surface area thereof. Because wild-type BSMV has more than two-fold metal coating ability as compared to TMV, BSMV-VLPs have the potential to further boost the capacity of batteries over conventionally attainable standards. 
     Alternative embodiments of method 200 may utilize BSMV-CP transcripts that do not necessarily contain the OAS 302 at all (native or engineered). Instead, in such embodiments, the transcripts are engineered at step 250 with one or more specific point-mutations in the BSMV-CP to optimize the strength of interaction between the CP subunits thereof to result in a more stable biotemplate/VLP. 
     To stabilize these interactions, one or more individual point-mutations may be made in the BSMV-CP using site-directed mutagenesis or the like to neutralize or change the targeted residue to the opposite charge to strengthen the interaction between subunits (see subpart C of  FIG. 5 ) pursuant to methods known in the art. Based on crystal structures, the present investigators have identified E37Q, E37R, E62Q, D68N, D70N, and D101N on the BSMV-CP as probable sites that, if mutated as described, enhance the stability of BSMV.  FIG. 6 , subparts A-G illustrate the interacting residues that are identified targets for site mutations of the TMV-CP subunit (subpart A), those of the BSMV-CP subunit that correspond to the TMV targets (subpart B), and those of BSMV-CP previously identified in the literature. These sites contain charged residues that may be neutralized, for example, by calcium ions to facilitate neutral assembly/disassembly of the virus during infection. By mutating these residues, the interaction therebetween can be strengthened to achieve self-assembly without an OAS 302. Mutations of D101N (SEQ ID NO: 5), E62Q (SEQ ID NO: 9), both D101N and E62Q (SEQ ID NO: 10), D101R (SEQ ID NO: 6), and D101K (SEQ ID NO: 4) in particular have been tested and validated as increasing stability in this manner and allowing for engineered self-assembly pursuant to the methods and systems described herein without an OAS 302 (see  FIG. 7 ). 
     Further, and importantly, it has been determined that site specific mutations also support the RNA-free (i.e. no OAS) self-assembly of VLPs.  FIG. 7  shows a TEM visualization of BSMV-CP fused to an artificial linker carrying a E37R mutation (subpart A; SEQ ID NO: 8), a E37Q mutation (subpart B; SEQ ID NO: 7), a D101N mutation (subpart C; SEQ ID NO: 5), a E62Q mutation (subpart D; SEQ ID NO: 9), both a D101N mutation and a E62Q mutation (SEQ ID NO: 10), a D101R mutation (SEQ ID NO: 6), and a D101K mutation (SEQ ID NO: 4), with the formation of self-assembled nanorods being verified and clearly visible (see subparts C-G of  FIG. 7 ). It should be noted that the linker region 304 is the residual sequence and, without fusion of an OAS, native BSMV-CP does not form VLPs without one or more of the point mutations described herein. Accordingly, the modified mutants exhibited stronger protein-protein interactions as compared to wild-type that stabilized the VLPs and led to self-assembly. 
     It will be noted that while such BSMV-CP engineering techniques may be used to achieve self-assembly of VLPs 212 without the use of OAS 302 in the construct, it may also be desirable to employ such techniques where an OAS 302 is utilized due to the metal coating benefits associated with such engineering. Indeed, success rates for coating VLPs with metal is largely dependent on environmental parameters such as pH and the presence of cations. These factors can potentially destabilize the template and prevent self-assembly due to the carboxylate interactions between CPs and, thus, lead to random aggregate formation and low yields (see subpart B of  FIG. 5 ). Strengthening the interaction of CP subunits in the interaction domain using the platforms and methods described herein render the resulting VLPs less susceptible to extremes in pH and calcium concentration and allow for effective metal coating under wider processing conditions than as seen with conventional approaches. Thus, the present platforms and methods provide avenues through which BSMV&#39;s superior metal coating ability can be leveraged. Furthermore, the VLPs of the present disclosure that are synthesized pursuant to the methods described herein exhibit enhanced stability as compared to conventional biotemplates thus allowing for the synthesis of more homogenous nanoparticles than has been heretofore achieved. 
     Materials And Methods 
     Cloning of BSMV-CP Expression Plasmid 
     A codon-optimized DNA sequence encoding BSMV-CP, a linker region, and an OAS (BSMV-CP-linker-OAS; SEQ ID NO: 15) was ordered from IDT (Coralville, Iowa) and cloned to pET21-1cys-tmv-cp vector (provided by Professor Culver, University of Maryland, College Park), the original plasmid for which was pET-21a(+), with Ndel and XhoI, generating pET21-BSMV-CP-linker-OAS (SEQ ID NO: 26). pET21-BSMV-CP-linker-OAS was subsequently digested with SalI and XhoI to remove the OAS, blunt-ended with Klenow fragment (NEB, Ipswich, Mass. Cat. No.: M0210S), ligated back to the backbone itself, generating pET21-BSMV-CP-linker. All strains and plasmids used are listed in Table 1. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Strains and plasmids 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Relevant 
                 Vector 
                 Plasmid 
                   
               
               
                 Name 
                 genotype 
                 backbone 
                 origin 
                 Source 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Strains 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 BL21- 
                   E. coli  B F− ompT 
                   
                   
                 Agilent 
               
               
                 CodonPlus(DE3)- 
                 hsdS(rB− mB−) 
                   
                   
                 Tech- 
               
               
                 RIPL strain 
                 dcm+ Tetr gal 
                   
                   
                 nologies 
               
               
                   
                 λ(DE3) endA Hte 
               
               
                   
                 [argU proL Camr] 
               
               
                   
                 [argU ileY 
               
               
                   
                 leuW Strep/Spec 
               
               
                   
                 resistant 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Plasmids 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 pET21-BSMV- 
                 bla 
                 pET21- 
                 pBR322 
                 This 
               
               
                 CP-linker 
                   
                 1cys-tmv-cp 
                   
                 study 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (original 
               
               
                   
                   
                 backbone: 
               
               
                   
                   
                 pET- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 21a(+)) 41   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Further, for making mutants (E37Q, E37R, E62Q, D68N, D70N, and D101N) to have increased stability, pET21-BSMV-CP-linker-OAS was used as a template for site-directed mutagenesis (E37Q-SEQ ID NO: 20, E37R-SEQ ID NO: 21, E62Q-SEQ ID NO: 23, D68N-SEQ ID NO: 17, D70N-SEQ ID NO: 16, and D101N-SEQ ID NO: 22). All plasmids in the pET-21 vector are ampicillin resistant, with the applicable primers listed in Table 2. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Primers used for making BSMV-coat protein expression plasmid 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Primers&#39; 
                   
                   
               
               
                 name 
                 Sequence (5′ &gt; 3′) 
                 Expression plasmids 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 E37Q 5′ 
                 TGGTGGGTGCATGTAcAGGCCTGGAATAAGT 
                 pET21-BSMV-E37Q 
               
               
                 E37Q 3′ 
                 ACTTATTCCAGGCCTgTACATGCACCCACCA 
               
               
                 E37R 5′ 
                 TGGTGGGTGCATGTAcgtGCCTGGAATAAGTTT 
                 pET21-BSMV-E37R 
               
               
                 E37R 3′ 
                 AAACTTATTCCAGGCacgTACATGCACCCACCA 
               
               
                 E62Q 5′ 
                 CGCTCACAAGTAGCAcAGTATTTGGCTGCTT 
                 pET21-BSMV-E62Q, 
               
               
                 E62Q 3′ 
                 AAGCAGCCAAATACTgTGCTACTTGTGAGCG 
                 pET21-BSMV- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 E62Q/D101N 
               
               
                 D68N 5′ 
                 TATTTGGCTGCTTTGaATCGTGACCTTCCGG 
                 pET21-BSMV-D68N 
               
               
                 D68N 3′ 
                 CCGGAAGGTCACGATtCAAAGCAGCCAAATA 
               
               
                 D70N 5′ 
                 GCTGCTTTGGATCGTaACCTTCCGGCTGACG 
                 pET21-BSMV-D70N 
               
               
                 D70N 3′ 
                 CGTCAGCCGGAAGGTtACGATCCAAAGCAGC 
               
               
                 D101N 5′ 
                 AAATTTTTTCGTCTTaATAAACGTACAATCG 
                 pET21-BSMV-D101N, 
               
               
                 D101N 3′ 
                 CGATTGTACGTTTATtAAGACGAAAAAATTT 
                 pET21-BSMV- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 E62Q/D101N 
               
               
                 D101K 5′ 
                 AAATTTTTTCGTCTTaaaAAACGTACAATCGCT 
                 pET21-BSMV-D101K 
               
               
                 D101K 3′ 
                 AGCGATTGTACGTTTtttAAGACGAAAAAATTT 
               
               
                 D101R 5′ 
                 AAATTTTTTCGTCTTcgTAAACGTACAATCGC 
                 pET21-BSMV-D101R 
               
               
                 D101R 3′ 
                 GCGATTGTACGTTTAcgAAGACGAAAAAATTT 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     BSMV-CP Expression Conditions 
     Each BSMV-CP expression plasmid was transformed into  E. coli  BL21-CodonPlus (DE3), streaked on plates and incubated for 16-20 hours at 37° C. Single colonies were inoculated into Luria-Bertani (LB) broth and grown at 37° C. for 16-20 hours with shaking. The overnight liquid cultures were then diluted a hundred-fold in LB broth and grown until OD600=0.5 before induction with 0.1 mM isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) to express BSMV capsid protein. All BL21-CodonPlus (DE3) liquid cultures or plates containing ampicillin (100 μg/ml) and chloramphenicol (25 μg/ml). The culture was then incubated for 16-20 hours at room temperature (23° C.). Cultures were then centrifuged at room temperature (23° C.) for 5 minutes at 6000 rpm. The supernatant was discarded, and the cell pellet was used directly for purification or stored at −80 ° C. for processing later. 
     BSMV-VLP Purification 
     BSMV-VLPs were isolated from  E. coli  transformed with the described plasmids and grown at room temperature for 16-20 hrs. The cells were homogenized in 2.5 or 6 ml Bugbuster® protein isolation solution (MilliporeSigma, Burlington, Mass. Cat. No: 70584) for 10 min at room temperature after which 7.5 μl dithiothreitol was added to 2.5 μl of Lysonase Bioprocessing Reagent Reagent (MilliporeSigma, Burlington, Mass. Cat. No: 70584) was added per manufacturer&#39;s protocol. The homogenate was further incubated for 10 min, then centrifuged at 5,000×g for 10 min to remove insoluble cellular debris. The supernatant was fractionated through a linear gradient of Sucrose (MilliporeSigma, Burlington, Mass. Cat. No: 70584) spun at 19,000×g for 10 min and the top light-scattering band containing the VLPs was collected and further purified by centrifugation at 64,000×g at 4° C. For the sample without doing a gradient, the supernatant was further purified by centrifugation at 10,000×g for 20 min at 4° C. The final pellet was suspended in 0.01 M Tris buffer of pH 7. 
     TEM Imaging 
     In preparation for imaging, a 1.5 μl droplet of the VLP suspension was deposited onto carbon formvar copper grids and was negatively stained by a 1.5 μl droplet of phosphotungstic acid (PTA). Images were taken using a 200 kV Tecnai T20 transmission electron microscope (TEM). 
     Size Measurement by Dynamic Light Scattering 
     The refractive index of purified BSMV-VLPs was detected with 1.3351 by refractometer and the size of BSMV-VLPs was measured with dynamic light scattering by Malvern Zetasizer Nano ZS (Malvern Panalytical Ltd, United Kingdom). The refractive index and viscosity of the Tris resuspension buffer were 1.35 and 1.00037 42 , respectively. 
     Metal Coating Process 
     Metal coating on VLPs was performed in a 100 ml CSTR reactor vessel at a controlled temperature of 57° C. As in a typical nanoparticle synthesis, the precursor sodium tetrachloropalladate (II) (Na 2 PdCl 4 ) (98%, Sigma Aldrich, St Louis, Mo.) aqueous solution (concentration is usually between 0.3 mM and 6 mM) was added into the vessel containing the purified VLPs after heating to the desired reaction temperature. 0.3 mL aliquots of the solution were collected regularly during the course of the reaction for ex-situ study by UV-vis characterization. The solution was immediately placed on ice to quench the reaction for the absorbance measurement by UV-Vis spectrophotometer (Varian Cary 100) at 25° C. Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) plastic cuvettes (VWR Scientific Prod Midwest, Radnor, Pa.) were used for the UV-vis characterization. The nanoparticles were washed repeatedly to remove residual salt and precursor solution by redispersing them in water. Thicker coatings were achieved by reincubating the washed nanorods in Na 2 PdCl 4  solution and recoated multiple times. Millipore water was used in all experiments. 
     Results and Discussion 
     As discussed in detail herein, VLPs self-assemble to due to interactions between RNA and capsid proteins, and interactions between adjacent capsid proteins. BSMV-CP plasmids with and without TMV-OAS that were codon optimized for bacterial expression were designed pursuant to the present disclosure (shown in subpart A of  FIG. 4 ) and, in initial experiments, expressed at 37° C. for 4 hours in  E. coli  before lysing. Crude protein lysate was centrifuged through several rounds to isolate any synthesized VLPs, which were characterized by TEM. 
     In this iteration, TEM images did not show any BSMV rod-shaped VLPs or disk structures (data not shown) suggesting that BSMV CPs were not produced, they failed to self-assemble, or that the isolation procedure was sufficient to capture any produced VLPs. TMV constructs were expressed and purified as positive control and subsequent electron microscopy displayed the presence of TMV VLPs excluding the possibility that the isolation procedure was insufficient. If wildtype CPs are expressed in the host, they form disk-shaped structures. The absence of BSMV disk structures suggests poor soluble CP expression, not necessarily failure to self-assemble. 
     To examine expression, crude protein lysates from  E. coli  with induced CP plasmids were analyzed via SDS-PAGE. As shown in  FIG. 8 , SDS-PAGE analysis revealed a relatively heavy band of BSMV protein in the bacterial insoluble pellet suggesting that the majority of the capsid proteins were misfolded. 
     Because protein aggregation can occur due to the rapid expression and misfolding of proteins at high temperatures, these results support the  E. coli  host is not able to express soluble protein where the protein of interest is from a host living at 37° C. Instead, the results support that the higher temperature lead to the formation of misfolded insoluble proteins and inclusion bodies composed of insoluble protein aggregates. Given that temperature of this plant virus native host in plants is lower than 37° C. (25-28° C.), the BSMV-CP folding appears to be thermodynamically unfavorable at the higher temperature (37° C.). 
     Accordingly, in furtherance of investigations into the occurrence of self-assembly, the expression temperature was reduced to 23° C. and the expression time extended from 4 hours to 16 hours to slow the protein expression rate and enable proper protein folding. Subsequent SDS-PAGE analysis revealed a significant increase in soluble capsid protein see  FIG. 9 ). Subsequent isolation of potential particles and characterization, electron microscopy images demonstrated the presence of self-assembled rod-shaped BSMV VLPs assembly (see subpart C of  FIG. 4 ). This data supports that TMV-OAS was recognized by BSMV-CP and functions to initiate the VLP self-assembly, while only disks structure formed in the BSMV-CP absent of OAS (see subpart B of  FIG. 4 ). Furthermore, these results support that poor protein expression can be improved by adjusting the induction temperature to increase the yield of soluble proteins. Importantly, this is the first time that BSMV-VLPs have been expressed from a microbial-based protein expression system at neutral pH and observed by TEM. 
     Following the favorable results indicating VLP self-assembly in  E. coli , studies were conducted to optimize the expression and purification process. Different concentrations of IPTG inducer from 0.10 mM, 0.075 mM, 0.050 mM to 0.010 mM were tested with respect to induction of expression of BSMV-CPs. There, the expression levels of BSMV-CPs in the soluble fraction was monitored by SDS-PAGE. As shown in subpart (a) of  FIG. 10 , the results support that 0.075 and 0.1 mM IPTG concentrations produced higher yield of soluble CP as compared to the lower concentrations tested. The effect of the addition of resuspension buffer in solubilizing a final pellet was also determined to enhance the yield of soluble fraction. Sodium phosphate buffer is usually used in protein solubilization but it caused precipitate over time. Water and tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (Tris-HCl) were then tested as final resuspension buffers. Subpart (b) of  FIG. 10  supports that both water and Tris buffer prevent precipitation of VLPs. Furthermore, the results support that Tris buffer was superior as it generally stabilized more BSMV protein and gave rise to less cellular proteins. 
     Based on the optimization parameters identified, the cells were further purified with sucrose cushion centrifugation (a technique utilized for purification without resulting in a firm pellet). As shown in  FIG. 11 , electron microscopy displayed the presence of BSMV-VLPs in both top and bottom layers of the sucrose cushion with no significant differences in length or size. The purified BSMV-VLPs yielded variable structure between 20-160 nm length. The majority of the expressed nanotubes were found to be between 70 nm to 90 nm long. (see  FIG. 12 ). 
     Alternative size characterization studies were also performed, with the produced VLPs subjected to dynamic light scattering (DLS). DLS revealed a bimodal distribution with peaks at 476.5 nm (92.3%) (which corresponds with self-assembled VLPs) and incomplete disks at 37.99 nm (7.7%) (see Table 3). Accordingly, the majority of assembled CPs formed complete VLPs that were variable in length. As hydrodynamic radii are inherently larger than the actual size detected by TEM, DLS provides an alternative way to rapidly check the VLPs quality rather than an absolute metric of size. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Hydrodynamic radii obtained by dynamic light scattering (DLS). 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Size 
                   
                 Standard deviation 
                 Coefficient 
               
               
                 (spherical diameter) 
                 Intensity 
                 (diameter) 
                 of variation 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 476.5 nm 
                 92.3% 
                 157.7 nm 
                 33.10% 
               
               
                 37.99 nm 
                 7.7% 
                 6.412 nm 
                 16.88% 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     While spherical diameter is listed in Table 3, it should be noted that the measuring instrument views each rod-shaped VLP as a spherical due to the multiple perspective angles from which measurements are taken. While the VLPs are rod-shaped instead of spherical, the resulting diameter information correlates with the accurate VLP diameter obtained from the TEM. 
     To examine the capability as biotemplates of the bacteria assembled BSMV-VLPs, the VLPs were coated with palladium via hydrothermal synthesis in the absence of extra reducing agent and incubated in a reaction vessel with Na 2 PdCl 4  precursor solution.  FIG. 13  supports that the BSMV-VLPs were fully coated with a uniform layer of palladium nanoparticles. Accordingly, not only were the BSMV-VLPs able to drive surface-mediated mineralization with palladium, but also retained their robust stability during biomineralization reaction. 
     Accordingly, the novel methods disclosed herein provide for the in vivo production of BSMV-VLPs from an expression system that is not plant based. As the microbial-based system in particular offers the capabilities of genetic engineering and rapid protein expression, the present systems and methods allows for the rapid design-build-test cycle for desired characteristics of BSMV-VLPs development. Methods for optimizing protein expression and purification are also provided in connection with such novel systems and methods, for example by adjusting expression temperature and bioprocessing reagent in purification, which results in increased efficiency with respect to cell lysis and higher yield of soluble fraction. The methods hereof are sufficient to produce BSMV-VLPs on a large scale and viable to express, purify and isolate engineered VLPs with similar structural features and, thus, promote the efficiency, quality, and cost-effectiveness of bottom-up nanomaterial synthesis. 
     While various embodiments of nanoparticles, systems, and methods hereof have been described in considerable detail, the embodiments are merely offered by way of non-limiting examples. Many variations and modifications of the embodiments described herein will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art in light of the disclosure. It will therefore be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes and modifications may be made, and equivalents may be substituted for elements thereof, without departing from the scope of the disclosure. Indeed, this disclosure is not intended to be exhaustive or to limiting. The scope of the disclosure is to he defined by the appended claims, and by their equivalents. 
     Further, in describing representative embodiments, the disclosure may have presented a method and/or process as a particular sequence of steps. However, to the extent that the method or process does not rely on the particular order of steps set forth herein, the method or process should not be limited to the particular sequence of steps described. As one of ordinary skill in the art would appreciate, other sequences of steps may be possible. Therefore, the particular order of the steps disclosed herein should not be construed as limitations on the claims. In addition, the claims directed to a method and/or process should not be limited to the performance of their steps in the order written, and one skilled in the art can readily appreciate that the sequences may be varied and still remain within the spirit and scope of the present disclosure. 
     It is therefore intended that this description and the appended claims will encompass, all modifications and changes apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art based on this disclosure.