Patent Publication Number: US-2023133093-A1

Title: Dual function current collector

Description:
RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/436,574 filed on Feb. 17, 2017, entitled “DUAL FUNCTION CURRENT COLLECTOR,” which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/279,294 filed on Feb. 19, 2016, entitled “DUAL FUNCTION CURRENT COLLECTOR,” the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The subject matter described herein relates generally to battery technologies and more specifically to current collectors. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Lithium (e.g., lithium-ion) batteries typically include an electrode formed from lithium metal. For instance, lithium metal may be used to form the anode (e.g., negative electrode) of a lithium battery cell. Lithium metal may be an ideal material for the anode of a lithium battery cell due to the high specific capacity of lithium metal. Notably, at approximately 4400 milliampere-hours per gram (mAh/g), the specific capacity of lithium metal is more than ten times higher than that of graphite, which has a specific capacity of only 372 mAh/g. 
     SUMMARY 
     Systems, methods, and articles of manufacture, including batteries and battery components, are provided. In some implementations of the current subject matter, there is provided a battery. The battery can include a separator, a first current collector, a protective layer, and a first electrode. The first current collector and the protective layer can be disposed on one side of the separator. The first electrode can be disposed on an opposite side of the separator as the first current collector and the protective layer. Subjecting the battery to an activation process can cause metal to be extracted from the first electrode and deposited between the first current collector and the protective layer. The metal can be deposited to at least form a second electrode between the first current collector and the protective layer. 
     In some variations, one or more features disclosed herein including the following features can optionally be included in any feasible combination. The activation process can include charging the battery. The activation process can include charging the battery at less than ½C rate and/or greater than 2 volts. The first current collector can be copper (Cu) and/or plated copper. The first current can be copper foil, stainless steel foil, titanium (Ti) foil, nickel (Ni) plated copper foil, aluminum (Al) plated copper foil, and/or titanium plated copper foil. The first current collector can have a thickness of 10 microns. The first electrode can be formed from a metal oxide, a metal fluoride, a metal sulfide, and/or a doped salt. The first electrode can be formed from a lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO 2 ), lithium nickel cobalt oxide (LiNiCoO 2 ), lithium manganese nickel cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO 2 ), lithium manganese silicon oxide (Li 2 MnSiO 4 ), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO 4 ), lithium fluoride (LiF), and/or lithium sulfide (Li 2 S). The metal extracted from the first electrode can be lithium metal. 
     In some variations, the protective layer can be formed from a polymer. The protective layer can be formed from a crosslinked polymer and/or a non-crosslinked polymer. The protective layer can be formed from a polymer composite that includes a plurality of different polymers. The polymer composite can further include one or more additives, the one or more additives comprising ceramic particles, metal salt particles, and metal stabilizers. 
     In some variations, the battery can further include an electrolyte. The electrolyte can be a liquid electrolyte, the liquid electrolyte including metal ions, and the liquid electrolyte further including one or more organic solvents. The metal irons can include lithium ions, and wherein the one or more organic solvents comprise ethylene carbonate ((CH 2 O) 2 CO) and/or lithium hexafluorophosphate (Li 1 PF 6 ). The electrolyte can be a solid-state electrolyte. The solid-state electrolyte can be a glass-ceramic binary sulfide electrolyte and/or a polymer electrolyte. 
     In some variations, the battery can further include a second current collector, the second current collector being coupled with the first electrode. The battery can further include a safety layer, the safety layer being deposited on the second current collector, and the safety layer being configured to respond to a temperature trigger and/or a voltage trigger. 
     In some variations, the metal extracted from the first electrode and deposited between the first current collector and the protective layer can include dendrites. The protective layer can be configured to prevent the dendrites from penetrating the separator and causing an internal short within the battery. 
     In some variations, the activation process can cause a reduction at the first electrode, the reduction extracting metal from the first electrode, and the metal extracted from the first electrode being deposited between the first current collector and the protective layer to form the second electrode in situ between the first current collector and the protective layer. 
     The details of one or more variations of the subject matter described herein are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features and advantages of the subject matter described herein will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
       The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, show certain aspects of the subject matter disclosed herein and, together with the description, help explain some of the principles associated with the disclosed implementations. In the drawings, 
         FIG.  1 A  depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  1 B  depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter 
         FIG.  2    depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  3    depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  4    depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  5    depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  6    depicts a flowchart illustrating a process for forming a lithium metal electrode in situ consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  7 A  depicts a flowchart illustrating a process for forming a protective layer consistent with some implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  7 B  depicts a flowchart illustrating a process for forming a cathode consistent with some implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  7 C  depicts a flowchart illustrating a process for assembling a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  8 A  depicts a line graph illustrating a charge profile and a discharge profile of a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  8 B  depicts a line graph illustrating a charge profile and a discharge profile of a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  8 C  depicts a line graph illustrating a charge profile and a discharge profile of a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  8 D  depicts a line graph illustrating a charge profile and a discharge profile of a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  8 E  depicts a line graph illustrating a charge profile and a discharge profile of a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
         FIG.  8 F  depicts a scatter plot illustrating a cycle life performance of a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; and 
         FIG.  8 G  depicts a line graph illustrating a charge profile of a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter; 
     
    
    
     When practical, similar reference numbers denote similar structures, features, or elements. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Lithium metal may be an ideal material for battery electrodes (e.g., anodes) due to the very high specific capacity (e.g., approximately 4440 mAh/g) of lithium metal. However, forming battery electrodes from lithium metal tends to be challenging in part because the low density of lithium metal renders the material especially fragile and difficult to handle during the production process. For instance, lithium has a density of approximately 0.534 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm 3 ) while copper has a density of approximately 8.7 g/cm 3 . As such, a large amount of lithium metal may be required in producing lithium batteries. In particular, the lithium foil used to form battery electrodes is typically much thicker (e.g., more than 100 microns (μm)) than copper foil, which may be as thin as 6 microns. But including a large volume of lithium metal in a battery cell may incur unnecessary cost and compromise battery performance. For example, the positive electrode (e.g., cathode) in a battery may be unable to match the capacity of a negative electrode (e.g., anode) formed from a large amount of lithium metal. Here, an excess of lithium metal may occupy space within the battery cell without providing any additional capacity, thereby limiting the overall energy density of the battery cell. This excess lithium metal may further promote the formation of lithium dendrites within the battery cell (e.g., during charging of the battery cell). The presence of lithium dendrites within a battery cell may reduce the Coulombic efficiency as well as the cycle life of the battery cell. Moreover, the presence of lithium dendrites may further give rise to significant safety risks including, for example, internal shorts that may escalate into thermal runaway and explosions. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, a battery cell may include a current collector that is configured to enable an electrode (e.g., anode) to be formed from lithium metal in situ. For example, the current collector may be formed from copper (e.g., copper foil), plated copper (e.g., nickel plated copper foil, aluminum plated copper foil, and/or titanium plated copper foil), stainless steel (e.g., stainless steel foil), and/or titanium (e.g., titanium foil). According to some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell may be subject to an activation process during which lithium metal may be deposited on the surface of the current collector (e.g., the copper foil and/or the plated copper foil), thereby forming a lithium metal electrode (e.g., anode) in situ. For example, the cathode of the battery cell may be formed from a metal oxide (e.g., lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel cobalt oxide, lithium manganese nickel cobalt oxide), a doped salt (e.g., lithium iron phosphate), a metal fluoride (e.g., lithium fluoride (LiF)), a metal sulfide (e.g., lithium sulfide), and/or the like. The activation process may include charging the battery cell, thereby reducing the cathode of the battery cell. Metal that is extracted through the reduction of the cathode of the battery cell may be deposited at the anode of the battery cell (e.g., on the surface of the current collector). 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, a battery cell may be subject to an activation process during which an electrode (e.g., anode) in the battery cell may be formed from lithium metal in situ. The lithium metal forming the electrode may be lithium dendrites, which may be filaments of lithium metal capable of penetrating a separator (e.g., between the anode and the cathode) in the battery cell and causing an internal short. As such, according to some implementations of the current subject matter, a current collector (e.g., the copper foil) may be further coated with a protective layer, which may also be formed in situ. This protective layer may be formed from, for example, a polymer and/or a polymer composite. Meanwhile, the lithium metal (e.g., lithium dendrites) that is extracted from the lithium metal oxide at the cathode of the battery cell may be deposited between the current collector (e.g., the copper foil) and the protective layer. The protective layer may prevent internal shorts by at least preventing the lithium dendrites forming the anode of the battery cell from penetrating the separator between the anode and the cathode of the battery cell. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, a lithium metal electrode (e.g., anode) can be formed in situ between a current collector (e.g., a copper foil and/or a plated copper foil) and a protective layer (e.g., a polymer and/or a polymer composite) of a battery cell. For example, a lithium metal anode may be formed by at least depositing, between the current collector and the protective layer, lithium metal extracted from a cathode of the battery cell during an activation process (e.g., charging of the battery cell). Forming the lithium metal electrode in situ obviates the highly inert environment required for manipulating highly reactive lithium metal (e.g., during lithium battery production). For instance, coating the surface of a lithium metal electrode with a protective layer (e.g., to prevent internal shorts) is typically performed in a dry room (e.g., with less than 2% relative humidity) in order to prevent the lithium metal from reacting with moisture present in the air. By contrast, forming a lithium metal electrode in situ eliminates these costly limitations associated with conventional lithium battery production techniques. In fact, various implementations of the current subject matter obviate the handling of highly reactive lithium metal during the production of lithium batteries. Moreover, a sufficiently thin layer of lithium metal may be deposited between the current collector and the protective layer such that the capacity of the lithium metal anode matches that of the corresponding cathode and no excess lithium metal is present in the battery cell. Producing lithium batteries in this manner can be less costly while the resulting lithium batteries can exhibit optimal overall energy density. 
     For clarity and conciseness, various implementations of the current subject matter are described with respect to the production of lithium batteries having electrodes formed from lithium metal. However, it should be appreciated that various implementations of the current subject matter can also be applied to the production of other types of metal batteries including, for example, sodium (Na) batteries, potassium (K) batteries, and/or the like. Thus, the techniques disclosed herein may be used to form other metal electrodes in situ, thereby obviating the handling of reactive metals during the production of metal batteries. 
       FIG.  1 A  depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell  100  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIG.  1 B , the battery cell  100  may include a dual function current collector  110 , a protective layer  120 , a separator  130 , a first electrode  140 , and a current collector  150 . 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the dual function current collector  110  can be formed from copper (Cu) and/or plated copper. For example, the dual function collector  110  may be formed from copper foil, stainless steel foil, titanium foil, nickel (Ni) plated copper foil, aluminum (Al) plated copper foil, titanium (Ti) plated copper foil, and/or the like. The foil may have a thickness of approximately 10 microns. Meanwhile, the current collector  150  may be formed from aluminum (Al) (e.g., aluminum foil) and/or the like. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  can be formed from a polymer and/or a polymer composite. For instance, the protective layer  120  may be formed from a crosslinked polymer (e.g., containing crosslinking agents such as polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), methacrylate, and/or the like), a non-crosslinked polymer, a stiff polymer (e.g., polyamide imide (PAI)), a block polymer, a composite of different polymers, and/or the like. Alternately and/or additionally, the protective layer  120  may be formed from a composite of one or more polymers and at least one additive including, for example, conductive and/or nonconductive ceramic particles, lithium salt particles (e.g., lithium fluoroborate (LiBF 4  and/or LiPF 6 ), lithium nitrate (LiNO 3 ), lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, and/or lithium bis(perfluoroethanesulfonyl)imide), lithium metal stabilizers (e.g., vinyl carbonate), and ether solvents, and/or the like. As shown in  FIG.  1   , the protective layer  120  may be applied directly to the surface of the dual function current collector  110 . According to some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  can be formed in situ. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell  100  may be filled with a liquid electrolyte containing lithium ions. The liquid electrolyte may further contain one or more organic solvents including, for example, ethylene carbonate ((CH 2 O) 2 CO) and/or lithium hexafluorophosphate (Li 1 PF 6 ). The protective layer  120  may become ionically conductive by at least absorbing the liquid electrolyte. Alternately and/or additionally, the battery cell  100  may include a solid state electrolyte such as, for example, a lithium solid state electrolyte (e.g., lithium lanthanum titanates (LLTO), garnet-type zirconates (LLZO), lithium phosphate oxynitride (LiPON), glass-ceramics, binary lithium sulfide/diphosphorus pentasulfide (Li 2 S—P 2 S 5 ), lithium oxides (Li 2 O—Al 2 O 3 —TiO 2 —P 2 O 5 )), and/or a polymer electrolyte. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the separator  130  may be formed from a porous polyethylene film. The protective layer  120  can be configured to protect the separator  130  from being penetrated by lithium dendrites forming on the surface of the dual function current collector  110 , when the battery cell  100  is subject to an activation process (e.g., charging). Otherwise, an internal short can occur when lithium dendrites forming on the dual function current collector  110  penetrates the separator  130  to make contact with the first electrode  140 . 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the first electrode  140  may be formed from metal oxide, a metal fluoride, a metal sulfide, and/or a doped salt. For instance, the first electrode  140  may be formed from lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO 2 ), lithium nickel cobalt oxide (LiNiCoO 2 ), lithium manganese nickel cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO 2 ), lithium manganese silicon oxide (Li 2 MnSiO 4 ), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO 4 ), lithium sulfide (Li 2 S), and/or the like. The first electrode  140  may be the cathode (e.g., positive electrode) of the battery cell  100 . Here,  FIG.  1    shows the battery cell  100  before the battery cell  100  is filled with an electrolyte and subject to an activation process (e.g., charging) to form a corresponding anode. However, it should be appreciated that lithium metal may be extracted from the first electrode  140  when the lithium metal oxide at the first electrode  140  is reduced during activation of the battery cell  100 . The lithium metal extracted from the first electrode  140  may be deposited between the dual function current collector  110  and the protective layer  120 , thereby forming a lithium metal anode in situ (not shown in  FIG.  1   ). 
       FIG.  1 B  depicts a schematic diagram illustrating the battery cell  100  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIG.  1 B , the battery cell  100  may include a safety layer  160  in addition to the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , the first safety layer  140 , and the current collector  150 . As shown in  FIG.  1 B , the safety layer  160  may be disposed between the current collector  150  and the electrode  140 . The safety layer  160  may be formed from a mixture including lithium carbonate, calcium carbonate, conductive additives (e.g., carbon black), and/or binders (e.g., cross linked and/or non cross-linked binders). It should be appreciated that the safety layer  160  can be configured to respond to one or more temperature and/or voltage triggers (e.g., an excessively high temperature and/or voltage). 
       FIG.  2    depicts a schematic diagram illustrating the battery cell  100  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. As shown in  FIG.  2   , the battery cell  100  can be filled with a liquid electrolyte  200 , which can include lithium ions. The liquid electrolyte  200  can further contain organic solvents such as, for example, ethylene carbonate ((CH 2 O) 2 CO), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), 1,2-dimethoxyethane, and/or lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF 6 ). In some implementations of the current subject matter, the liquid electrolyte  200  may saturate the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , and/or the first electrode  140 . In particular, the liquid electrolyte  200  may be absorbed by the polymer contained within the protective layer  120 , thereby rendering the protective layer  120  and the separator  130  ionically conductive. 
       FIG.  3    depicts a schematic diagram illustrating the battery cell  100  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. As shown in  FIG.  3   , the battery cell  100  (e.g., filled with the liquid electrolyte  200 ) can be further subject to an activation process in order to form a second electrode  300  in situ. For example, the battery cell  100  can be charged, thereby extracting lithium metal from the first electrode  140  by at least reducing the lithium metal oxide at the first electrode  140 . The lithium metal extracted from the first electrode  140  may be deposited between the protective layer  120  and the dual function current collector  110 . This lithium metal may form the second electrode  300 , which may serve as the cathode of the battery cell  100 . 
       FIG.  4    depicts a schematic diagram illustrating the battery cell  100  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIGS.  1 - 4   , the battery cell  100  can include a solid state electrolyte  400  instead of and/or in addition to the liquid electrolyte  200 . In some implementations of the current subject matter, the solid state electrolyte  400  can be a lithium solid state electrolyte (e.g., lithium lanthanum titanates (LLTO), garnet-type zirconates (LLZO), lithium phosphate oxynitride (LiPON), glass-ceramics, binary lithium sulfide/diphosphorus pentasulfide (Li 2 S—P 2 S 5 ), lithium oxides (Li 2 O—Al 2 O 3 —TiO 2 —P 2 O 5 )). Alternately and/or additionally, the solid state electrolyte  400  can be a polymer electrolyte, which may contain one or more crosslinking agents such as, for example, polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and/or the like. The solid state electrolyte  400  can be deposited on top the protective layer  120 . According to some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell  100  can be subject to an activation process (e.g., charging) during which lithium metal may be extracted from the first electrode  140  (e.g., cathode). This lithium metal can be deposited between the dual function current collector  110  and the protective layer  120 , thereby forming the second electrode  300  in situ. 
       FIG.  5    depicts a schematic diagram illustrating the battery cell  100  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIGS.  1 - 5   , the battery cell  100  can include the solid state electrolyte  400  (e.g., instead of and/or in addition to the liquid electrolyte  200 ) and an additional protective layer  500  deposited on top of the solid state electrolyte  400 . The additional protective layer  500  can be formed from a polymer and/or a polymer composite. For instance, the additional protective layer  500  may be formed from a crosslinked polymer (e.g., containing crosslinking agents such as polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and/or the like), a non-crosslinked polymer, a stiff polymer (e.g., polyamide imide (PAI)), a block polymer, and/or a composite of different polymers. Alternately and/or additionally, the additional protective layer  500  may be formed from a composite of one or more polymers and at least one additive including, for example, conductive and/or nonconductive ceramic particles, lithium salt particles (e.g., LiPF 4  and/or LiPF 6 ), lithium metal stabilizers, and/or the like. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell  100  can be subject to an activation process (e.g., charging) during which lithium metal may be extracted from the first electrode  140  (e.g., cathode). This lithium metal can be deposited between the dual function current collector  110  and the protective layer  120 , thereby forming the second electrode  300  in situ. The lithium metal forming the second electrode  300  can be lithium dendrites, which are capable of penetrating the separator  130  and giving rise to internal shorts. As such, the presence of the protective layer  120 , the solid state electrolyte  400 , and/or the additional protective layer  500  may prevent the lithium dendrites from penetrating the separator  130  and causing an internal short. Furthermore, the protective layer  120  and the additional protective layer  500  can also prevent the solid state electrolyte  400  from coming in contact with both the first electrode  140  and/or the second electrode  300 , thereby thwarting any potential interface reaction between the solid state electrolyte  400  and the first electrode  140  and/or the second electrode  300 . 
       FIG.  6    depicts a flowchart illustrating a process  600  for forming a lithium metal electrode in situ consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIGS.  1 - 6   , the process  400  may be performed to form the second electrode  300  in the battery cell  100 . 
     The battery cell  100  can be formed to include the dual function current collector  110  and the protective layer  120  ( 602 ). For instance, the battery cell  100  can include the dual function current collector  110 , which can be formed from copper (Cu) foil and/or plated copper foil (e.g., aluminum (Al) plated copper foil, nickel (Ni) plated copper foil, titanium (Ti) plated copper foil, and/or the like). The battery cell  100  can further include the protective layer  120 , which may be formed from a crosslinked polymer (e.g., containing crosslinking agents such as polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and/or the like), a non-crosslinked polymer, a stiff polymer (e.g., polyamide imide (PAI)), a block polymer, and/or a composite of different polymers. Alternately and/or additionally, the protective layer  120  may be formed from a composite of one or more polymers and at least one additive including, for example, conductive and/or nonconductive ceramic particles, lithium salt particles (e.g., LiPF 4  and/or LiPF 6 ), lithium metal stabilizers, and/or the like. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell  100  can further include the first electrode  140 , which may serve as the cathode of the battery cell  100 . The first electrode  140  can be formed from a lithium metal oxide (e.g., lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO 2 ), lithium nickel cobalt oxide (LiNiCoO 2 ), lithium manganese nickel cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO 2 )). As shown in  FIGS.  2 - 5   , the battery cell  100  can include the liquid electrolyte  200  and/or the solid state electrolyte  400 . Moreover, the battery cell  100  can include the current collector  150 , which may be formed from aluminum (Al) foil and/or the like. 
     The battery cell  100  can be subject to an activation process to at least form a lithium metal electrode in situ ( 604 ). For example, the battery cell  100  can be charged at a low rate (e.g., &lt; 1/10 C rate and/or 10 hours charging to its fully charged state) and a high voltage (e.g., &gt;4.2 volts). Charging the battery cell  100  in this manner can cause the lithium metal oxide at the first electrode  140  to reduce, thereby extracting lithium metal from the first electrode  140 . This lithium metal can be deposited between the dual function current collector  110  and the protective layer  120 , thereby forming the second electrode  300  in situ. This second electrode  300  may serve as the anode of the battery cell  100 . As noted above, the lithium metal deposited on the dual function current collector  110  to form the second electrode  300  may be lithium dendrites that are capable of penetrating the separator  130  to cause an internal short. As such, the battery cell  100  can include the protective layer  120  to prevent the lithium dendrites from penetrating the separator  130  and causing an internal short. 
       FIG.  7 A  depicts a flowchart illustrating a process  700  for forming a protective layer consistent with some implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIGS.  7 A , the process  700  may be performed to form the protective layer  120 . For instance, the process  700  can be performed to form protective layer  120  from any polymer, such as, for example, a crosslinked polymer (e.g., containing crosslinking agents such as polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and/or the like), a non-crosslinked polymer, a stiff polymer (e.g., polyamide imide (PAI)), a block polymer, a composite of different polymers, and/or the like. Alternately and/or additionally, the process  700  can be performed to form the protective layer  120  from any combination of polymers and additives including, for example, conductive and/or nonconductive ceramic particles, lithium salt particles (e.g., LiPF 4  and/or LiPF 6 ), lithium metal stabilizers, and/or the like. 
     As shown in  FIG.  7 A , a binder solution can be formed by at least dissolving a binder into a solvent ( 702 ). A slurry can be formed by adding, to the binder solution, one or more conductive additives, ceramic powders, and/or dielectric material ( 704 ). It should be appreciated that operation  702  may be optional. 
     The surface of a dual function current collector can be coated with the slurry ( 706 ). For example, the slurry can be used to coat the surface of the dual function current collector  110 , which may be formed from copper (Cu) foil and/or coated copper foil. A protective layer can be formed on the surface of the dual function current collector by at least drying the slurry ( 708 ). For instance, drying the slurry can form the protective layer  102  on the surface of the dual function current collector  110 . It should be appreciated that the protective layer  120 , the solid state electrolyte  400 , and/or the additional protective layer  500  shown in  FIG.  5    can be coated onto the copper foil surface at once by a slot die coating system configured with a slot die with three outputs. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer can be further subject to thermal treatment and/or light treatment ( 710 ). For example, the protective layer  120  may be formed from a crosslinked polymer containing, for example, crosslinking agents such as polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and/or the like. As such, the protective layer  120  may be subject to thermal treatment and/or ultraviolet (UV) light treatment. 
       FIG.  7 B  depicts a flowchart illustrating a process  720  for forming a cathode consistent with some implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIGS.  1 - 6  and  7 A -B, the process  720  can be performed to form the first electrode  140 . For instance, the process  720  can be performed to form the first electrode  140  from any metal oxide including, for example, a lithium metal oxide such as lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO 2 ), lithium nickel cobalt oxide (LiNiCoO 2 ), lithium manganese nickel cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO 2 ), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO 4 ), lithium sulfide (Li 2 S), and/or the like. 
     As shown in  FIG.  7 B , a binder solution can be formed by at least dissolving a binder into a solvent ( 722 ). A first slurry can be formed by adding, to the binder solution, one or more conductive additives ( 724 ). A second slurry can be formed by adding, to the first slurry, cathode material ( 726 ). The surface of a current collector can be coated with the second slurry ( 728 ). For example, the second slurry (e.g., the electrode slurry) can be used to coat the surface of the current collector  150 , thereby forming the first electrode  140  directly on the surface of the current collector  150 . The electrode can be compressed to a specific thickness ( 730 ). For instance, the first electrode  140  can be compressed to a thickness that conforms to the dimensional and/or performance specifications of the battery cell  100 . 
       FIG.  7 C  depicts a flowchart illustrating a process  750  for assembling a battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIGS.  1 - 6    and  FIGS.  7 A-C , the process  750  can be performed to assemble the battery cell  100 . For example, the process  750  can be performed to assemble, into the battery cell  100 , the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150 . It should be appreciated that the process  700 , the process  720 , and/or the process  750  may implement operation  602  of the process  600 . 
     As shown in  FIG.  7 C , a cathode can be dried ( 752 ). For example, the first electrode  140  (e.g., metal oxide formed on top of the current collector  150  by the process  720 ) can be dried at 125° C. for 10 hours. A dual function current collector and protective layer can be dried ( 754 ). For instance, the dual function current collector  110  (e.g., copper foil and/or copper plated foil) and the protective layer  120  (e.g., polymer and/or polymer composite), both of which may be formed by performing the process  700 , can also be dried at 125° C. for 10 hours. The cathode, the dual function collector, and the protective layer can be punched into pieces with an electrode tab ( 756 ). 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, a jelly roll can be formed by laminating the cathode with a separator, the protective layer, and the dual function current collector ( 758 ). For instance, the first electrode  140  can be laminated first with the separator  130  (e.g., porous polyethylene) followed by the protective layer  120  and the dual function current collector  110 . The jelly roll can be inserted into a battery cell casing ( 760 ). For example, the resulting jelly roll can be inserted into a composite bag formed from, for example, aluminum (Al). As used herein, jelly roll may refer to a structure formed by at least layering, for example, the cathode, the separator, the protective layer, and the dual function current collector. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell casing can be filled with an electrolyte ( 762 ). For instance, the battery cell  100  can be filled with the liquid electrolyte  200 , which can saturate at least the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , and/or the first electrode  140 . The liquid electrolyte  200  may contain metal ions such as, for example, lithium ions. Thus, filling the battery cell  100  with the liquid electrolyte  200  can render the protective layer  120  and the separator  130  ionically conductive. The battery cell casing can be sealed ( 764 ) and the battery cell can be aged ( 766 ). For example, the battery cell  100  can be sealed and aged for 16 hours. The aged battery cell  100  can subsequently be subject to an activation process (e.g., operation  604  of the process  600 ), during which the battery cell  100  can be charged at a low rate (e.g., &lt; 1/10 C rate or charging to its fully charged state in ten hours) and a high voltage (e.g., &gt;4.2 volts). The aged battery cell  100  can be activated in this manner to at least form, in situ, the second electrode  300  (e.g., anode) from lithium metal extracted from the first electrode  140 . 
     The following sample cells, sample lithium composite films, and sample protective layers are provided for illustrative purposes only. It should be appreciated that different cells, lithium composite films, and protective layers may be formed in accordance with the present disclosure. 
     Control Sample Cell 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the dual function current collector  110  is formed without the protective layer  120 . For instance, copper (Cu) foil having a thickness of 9 microns is used to form the dual function current collector  110  without the protective layer  120 . 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the first electrode  140  (e.g., cathode) is formed on top of the current collector  150  by at least performing the process  720 . For instance, the first electrode  140  is formed from a lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 ). Here, 3 grams of a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder and 0.2 grams of a binder BM700 (e.g., manufactured by from Zeon Corporation of Tokyo, Japan) is dissolved into 37.5 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) to form a binder solution. Thereafter, 2.8 grams of carbon black and 1.8 grams of graphite is added to this binder solution and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute to form a first slurry. A flowable second slurry can then be formed by adding 560.4 grams of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 ) to this first slurry and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Here, additional amounts of N-methylpyrrolidone may be added to adjust the viscosity of the second slurry. The resulting second slurry (e.g., electrode slurry) is coated onto the current collector  150 , which may be aluminum (Al) foil having a thickness of 15 microns. The coating may be performed using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and the second heat zone set to approximately 130° C. to remove the liquid solvent (e.g., N-methylpyrrolidone) present in the second slurry. When dried, the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  can have a combined thickness of approximately 300 microns. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the first electrode  140  is coated with an additional layer containing polyvinylidene fluoride LBG-1 from Arkema Inc. Thus, a third slurry is formed by mixing 50 grams of polyvinylidene fluoride and 50 grams of a silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) nano powder into 500 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone, and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. The first electrode  140  is coated with a 5 micron thick layer of this third slurry. Once dried, the first electrode  140  is compressed to a thickness of approximately 225 microns. 
     The dual function current collector  110  and the first electrode  140  is punched into pieces using an electrode tab that measures approximately 0.6 centimeters wide and 1 centimeter long. For example, the dual function current collector  110  (e.g., copper foil) is punched into pieces measuring 4.85 centimeters in length and 6.2 centimeters in width. Meanwhile, the first electrode  140  is punched into pieces measuring 4.7 centimeters in length and 6.0 centimeters in width. Both the dual function current collector  110  and the first electrode  140  is dried at 125° C. for 16 hours. A jelly roll is formed by laminating the dual function current collector  110 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150  on opposite sides of the separator  130 , which may be approximately 40 microns thick. As such, the resulting jelly roll may have the dual function current collector  110  on one side of the separator  130  while the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  may be on the opposite side of the separator  130 . 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the jelly roll is inserted into an aluminum composite bag, which has been dried in a vacuum oven set to 70° C. for 16 hrs. The aluminum composite bag can then be filled with an organic carbonate based liquid electrolyte containing lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF 6 ) before the aluminum composite bag is sealed, at 190° C., to form the battery cell  100 . The sealed aluminum composite bag is allowed to rest for 16 hours before being charged, at room temperature, to 4.6V at a rate of 1/70 C rate or 70 hours to its fully charged state. The battery cell  100  is allowed to rest for 7 additional days at which point the battery cell  100  is punctured, under vacuum, to release any gases before being resealed. According to some implementations of the current subject matter, the resulting battery cell  100  can serve as a control sample. 
       FIG.  8 A  depicts a line graph  800  illustrating a charge profile and a discharge profile of the battery cell  100  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIG.  8 A , the line graph  800  illustrates the capacity of the battery cell  100  relative to the charge voltage and the discharge voltage of the battery cell  100 , as measured at room temperature. As shown in  FIG.  8 A , when the battery cell  100  is configured as a control sample having no protective layer on the surface of the copper foil current collector, the ratio of discharge capacity relative to charge capacity is approximately 38.75%. 
     Sample Cell 1 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed on the surface of the dual function current collector  110  by at least performing the process  700 . For instance, the protective layer  120  is formed from polyethylene oxide (PEO) while the dual function current collector  110  is formed from copper (Cu) foil. As such, a binder solution is formed by dissolving the 46.5 grams of polyethylene oxide binder into 465 grams of water. Thereafter, 13.95 grams of carbon black (e.g., Super-P) is added into the binder solution and mixed for 120 minutes at 5000 revolutions per minute (RPM) to from a slurry. Here, 39.5 grams of styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) is further added to the slurry and mixed for 30 minutes at 5000 revolutions per minute. This resulting slurry is coated onto the surface of copper (Cu) foil having a thickness of 9 microns. The coating is performed using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to approximately 130° C. and the second heat zone set to approximately 180° C. to remove the water present in the slurry. When dried, the protective layer  120  can have an average thickness of approximately 2-15 microns. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the first electrode  140  (e.g., cathode) is formed on top of the current collector  150  by at least performing the process  720 . For instance, the first electrode  140  is formed from a lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 ). Here, 3.2 grams of a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder is dissolved into 250 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute to form a binder solution. Thereafter, 1.8 grams of graphite is added to this binder solution and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute to form a first slurry. A flowable second slurry can then be formed by adding 560.4 grams of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 ) to this first slurry and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Here, additional amounts of N-methylpyrrolidone may be added to adjust the viscosity of the second slurry. The resulting second slurry (e.g., electrode slurry) is coated onto the current collector  150 , which may be aluminum (Al) foil having a thickness of 15 microns. The coating may be performed using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and the second heat zone set to approximately 130° C. to remove the N-methylpyrrolidone present in the second slurry. When dried, the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  can have a combined thickness of approximately 300 microns, which is further compressed to a thickness of approximately 225 microns. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell  100  is formed by performing the process  750 . Thus, forming the battery cell  100  can include drying the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , and the first electrode  140  at 125° C. for 16 hours. The dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , and the first electrode  140  is further punched into pieces using an electrode tab. A jelly roll is formed from the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150 . For instance, the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150  is laminated such that the dual function current collector  110  and the protective layer  120  are on one side of the separator  130  while the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  are on the opposite side of the separator  130 . Here, the separator  130  can have a thickness of approximately 20 microns. 
     This jelly roll is inserted flat into an aluminum (Al) composite bag that has been dried for 16 hours in a vacuum oven set to 70° C. The aluminum composite bag is filed with an organic carbonate based liquid electrolyte containing lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF 6 ) before the aluminum composite bag is sealed to form the battery cell  100 . The battery cell  100  may be allowed to rest for approximately 16 hours before being subject to an activation process that includes charging, at room temperature, the battery cell  100  to 4.6 volts at a rate of 1/70 C rate. The activated battery cell  100  is allowed to rest for 7 additional days at which point the battery cell  100  is punctured, under vacuum, to release any gases before being resealed. 
     Sample Cell 2 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed on the surface of the dual function current collector  110  by at least performing the process  700 . For instance, the protective layer  120  is formed from polyethylene oxide (PEO) while the dual function current collector  110  is formed from copper (Cu) foil. As such, a binder solution is formed by dissolving the 100 grams of polyethylene oxide binder into 1000 grams of deionized water and mixing for 120 minutes at 5000 revolutions per minute (RPM) to from a slurry. This slurry is coated onto the surface of copper (Cu) foil having a thickness of 9 microns. The coating is performed using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to approximately 130° C. and the second heat zone set to approximately 180° C. to remove the water present in the slurry. When dried, the protective layer  120  can have an average thickness of approximately 2-15 microns. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the first electrode  140  (e.g., cathode) is formed on top of the current collector  150  by at least performing the process  720 . For instance, the first electrode  140  is formed from a lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 CO 0.2 O 2 ). Here, 3.2 grams of a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder is dissolved into 250 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute to form a binder solution. Thereafter, 1.8 grams of graphite is added to this binder solution and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute to form a first slurry. A flowable second slurry can then be formed by adding 560.4 grams of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 ) to this first slurry and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Here, additional amounts of N-methylpyrrolidone may be added to adjust the viscosity of the second slurry. The resulting second slurry (e.g., electrode slurry) is coated onto the current collector  150 , which may be aluminum (Al) foil having a thickness of 15 microns. The coating may be performed using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and the second heat zone set to approximately 130° C. to remove the N-methylpyrrolidone present in the second slurry. When dried, the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  can have a combined thickness of approximately 300 microns, which is further compressed to a thickness of approximately 225 microns. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell  100  is formed by performing the process  750 . Thus, forming the battery cell  100  can include drying the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , and the first electrode  140  at 125° C. for 16 hours. The dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , and the first electrode  140  is further punched into pieces using an electrode tab. A jelly roll is formed from the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150 . For instance, the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150  is laminated such that the dual function current collector  110  and the protective layer  120  are on one side of the separator  130  while the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  are on the opposite side of the separator  130 . Here, the separator  130  can have a thickness of approximately 40 microns. 
     This jelly roll is inserted flat into an aluminum (Al) composite bag that has been dried for 16 hours in a vacuum oven set to 70° C. The aluminum composite bag is filed with an organic carbonate based liquid electrolyte containing lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF 6 ) before the aluminum composite bag is sealed to form the battery cell  100 . The battery cell  100  may be allowed to rest for approximately 16 hours before being subject to an activation process that includes charging, at room temperature, the battery cell  100  to 4.6 volts at a rate of 1/70 C rate. The activated battery cell  100  is allowed to rest for 7 additional days at which point the battery cell  100  is punctured, under vacuum, to release any gases before being resealed. 
       FIG.  8 B  depicts a line graph  810  illustrating a charge profile and a discharge profile of the battery cell  100  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIG.  8 B , the line graph  810  illustrates the capacity of the battery cell  100  relative to the charge voltage and the discharge voltage of the battery cell  100 , as measured at room temperature. As shown in  FIG.  8 B , when the battery cell  100  is configured as the sample cell 2, the ratio of discharge capacity relative to charge capacity is approximately 71.2%. 
     Sample Cell 3 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed on the surface of the dual function current collector  110  by at least performing the process  700 . For instance, the protective layer  120  is formed from polyethylene oxide (PEO) while the dual function current collector  110  is formed from copper (Cu) foil. As such, a binder solution is formed by dissolving the 100 grams of polyethylene oxide binder into 1000 grams of deionized water and mixing for 120 minutes at 5000 revolutions per minute (RPM) to from a slurry. This slurry is coated onto the surface of copper (Cu) foil having a thickness of 9 microns. The coating is performed using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to approximately 130° C. and the second heat zone set to approximately 180° C. to remove the deionized water present in the slurry. When dried, the protective layer  120  can have an average thickness of approximately 2-15 microns. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the first electrode  140  (e.g., cathode) is formed on top of the current collector  150  by at least performing the process  720 . For instance, the first electrode  140  is formed from a lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 ). Here, 3 grams of a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder having a high molecular weight and 2.8 grams of carbon is dissolved into 37.5 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute to form a binder solution. Thereafter, 1.8 grams of graphite is added to this binder solution and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute to form a first slurry. A flowable second slurry can then be formed by adding 92.2 grams of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 ) to this first slurry and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Here, additional amounts of N-methylpyrrolidone may be added to adjust the viscosity of the second slurry. The resulting second slurry (e.g., electrode slurry) is coated onto the current collector  150 , which may be aluminum (Al) foil having a thickness of 15 microns. The coating may be performed using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and the second heat zone set to approximately 130° C. to remove the N-methylpyrrolidone present in the second slurry. When dried, the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  can have a combined thickness of approximately 300 microns, which is further compressed to a thickness of approximately 225 microns. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell  100  is formed by performing the process  750 . Thus, forming the battery cell  100  can include drying the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , and the first electrode  140  at 125° C. for 16 hours. The dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , and the first electrode  140  is further punched into pieces using an electrode tab. A jelly roll is formed from the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150 . For instance, the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150  is laminated such that the dual function current collector  110  and the protective layer  120  are on one side of the separator  130  while the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  are on the opposite side of the separator  130 . Here, the separator  130  can have a thickness of approximately 25 microns. 
     This jelly roll is inserted flat into an aluminum (Al) composite bag that has been dried for 16 hours in a vacuum oven set to 70° C. The aluminum composite bag is filed with an organic carbonate based liquid electrolyte containing lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF 6 ) before the aluminum composite bag is sealed to form the battery cell  100 . The battery cell  100  may be allowed to rest for approximately 16 hours before being subject to an activation process that includes charging, at room temperature, the battery cell  100  to 4.6 volts at a rate of 1/70 C rate. The activated battery cell  100  is allowed to rest for 7 additional days at which point the battery cell  100  is punctured, under vacuum, to release any gases before being resealed. 
       FIG.  8 C  depicts a line graph  820  illustrating a charge profile and a discharge profile of the battery cell  100  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIG.  8 C , the line graph  820  illustrates the capacity of the battery cell  100  relative to the charge voltage and the discharge voltage of the battery cell  100 , as measured at room temperature. As shown in  FIG.  8 C , when the battery cell  100  is configured as the sample cell 3, the ratio of discharge capacity relative to charge capacity is approximately 74.2%. It should be appreciated that the discharge of the battery cell  100  is suspended at approximately 1.4 ampere-hour, thereby causing the voltage dip observed at around 1.4 ampere-hour. 
     Sample Cell 4 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed on the surface of the dual function current collector  110  by at least performing the process  700 . For instance, the protective layer  120  is formed from polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF LBG-1) (e.g., manufactured by Arkema Inc. of King of Prussia, Pa.) while the dual function current collector  110  is formed from copper (Cu) foil. As such, a binder solution is formed by dissolving the 10 grams of the polyvinylidene fluoride binder into 125 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) and mixing for 120 minutes at 5000 revolutions per minute (RPM) to from a slurry. This slurry is coated onto the surface of copper (Cu) foil having a thickness of 9 microns. The coating is performed using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to approximately 130° C. and the second heat zone set to approximately 180° C. to remove the N-methylpyrrolidone present in the slurry. When dried, the protective layer  120  can have an average thickness of approximately 2-15 microns. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the first electrode  140  (e.g., cathode) is formed on top of the current collector  150  by at least performing the process  720 . For instance, the first electrode  140  is formed from a lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 ). Here, 3 grams of a high molecular weight polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF (high molecular weight)) binder and 2.8 grams of carbon is dissolved into 37.5 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute to form a binder solution. Thereafter, 1.8 grams of graphite is added to this binder solution and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute to form a first slurry. A flowable second slurry can then be formed by adding 92.2 grams of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 ) to this first slurry and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Here, additional amounts of N-methylpyrrolidone may be added to adjust the viscosity of the second slurry. The resulting second slurry (e.g., electrode slurry) is coated onto the current collector  150 , which may be aluminum (Al) foil having a thickness of 15 microns. The coating may be performed using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and the second heat zone set to approximately 130° C. to remove the N-methylpyrrolidone present in the second slurry. When dried, the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  can have a combined thickness of approximately 300 microns, which is further compressed to a thickness of approximately 225 microns. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell  100  is formed by performing the process  750 . Thus, forming the battery cell  100  can include drying the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , and the first electrode  140  at 125° C. for 16 hours. The dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , and the first electrode  140  is further punched into pieces using an electrode tab. A jelly roll is formed from the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150 . For instance, the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150  is laminated such that the dual function current collector  110  and the protective layer  120  are on one side of the separator  130  while the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  are on the opposite side of the separator  130 . Here, the separator  130  can have a thickness of approximately 25 microns. 
     This jelly roll is inserted flat into an aluminum (Al) composite bag that has been dried for 16 hours in a vacuum oven set to 70° C. The aluminum composite bag is filed with an organic carbonate based liquid electrolyte containing lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF 6 ) before the aluminum composite bag is sealed to form the battery cell  100 . The battery cell  100  may be allowed to rest for approximately 16 hours before being subject to an activation process that includes charging, at room temperature, the battery cell  100  to 4.6 volts at a rate of 1/70 C rate. The activated battery cell  100  is allowed to rest for 7 additional days at which point the battery cell  100  is punctured, under vacuum, to release any gases before being resealed. 
       FIG.  8 D  depicts a line graph  830  illustrating a charge profile and a discharge profile of the battery cell  100  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIG.  8 D , the line graph  830  illustrates the capacity of the battery cell  100  relative to the charge voltage and the discharge voltage of the battery cell  100 , as measured at room temperature. As shown in  FIG.  8 D , when the battery cell  100  is configured as the sample cell 4, the ratio of discharge capacity relative to charge capacity is approximately 80%. It should be appreciated that the discharge of the battery cell  100  is suspended at approximately 1.3 ampere-hour, thereby causing the voltage dip observed at around 1.3 ampere-hour. 
     Sample Cell 5 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed on the surface of the dual function current collector  110  by at least performing the process  700 . For instance, the protective layer  120  is formed from polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF LBG-1) (e.g., manufactured by Arkema Inc. of King of Prussia, Pa.) while the dual function current collector  110  is formed from copper (Cu) foil. As such, a binder solution is formed by dissolving the 10 grams of the polyvinylidene fluoride binder into 125 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) and mixing for 120 minutes at 5000 revolutions per minute (RPM) to from a slurry. This slurry is coated onto the surface of copper (Cu) foil having a thickness of 9 microns. The coating is performed using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to approximately 130° C. and the second heat zone set to approximately 180° C. to remove the N-methylpyrrolidone present in the slurry. When dried, the protective layer  120  can have an average thickness of approximately 2-15 microns. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the first electrode  140  (e.g., cathode) is formed on top of the current collector  150  by at least performing the process  720 . For instance, the first electrode  140  is formed from a lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.4 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 ). Here, 2.1 grams of a high molecular weight polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF (high molecular weight)), 0.2 grams of BM700 (e.g., manufactured by Zeon Corporation of Tokyo Japan) dissolved in 2 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), and 2.8 grams of carbon black is dissolved into 26.25 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute to form a binder solution. Thereafter, 1.8 grams of graphite is added to this binder solution and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute to form a first slurry. A flowable second slurry can then be formed by adding 93.1 grams of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.4 Mn 0.3 Co 0.3 O 2 ) (NMC433) to this first slurry and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Here, additional amounts of N-methylpyrrolidone may be added to adjust the viscosity of the second slurry. The resulting second slurry (e.g., electrode slurry) is coated onto the current collector  150 , which may be aluminum (Al) foil having a thickness of 15 microns. The coating may be performed using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and the second heat zone set to approximately 130° C. to remove the N-methylpyrrolidone present in the second slurry. When dried, the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  can have a combined thickness of approximately 300 microns, which is further compressed to a thickness of approximately 225 microns. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell  100  is formed by performing the process  750 . Thus, forming the battery cell  100  can include drying the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , and the first electrode  140  at 125° C. for 16 hours. The dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , and the first electrode  140  is further punched into pieces using an electrode tab. A jelly roll is formed from the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150 . For instance, the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150  is laminated such that the dual function current collector  110  and the protective layer  120  are on one side of the separator  130  while the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  are on the opposite side of the separator  130 . Here, the separator  130  can have a thickness of approximately 40 microns. 
     This jelly roll is inserted flat into an aluminum (Al) composite bag that has been dried for 16 hours in a vacuum oven set to 70° C. The aluminum composite bag is filed with an organic carbonate based liquid electrolyte containing lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF 6 ) before the aluminum composite bag is sealed to form the battery cell  100 . The battery cell  100  may be allowed to rest for approximately 16 hours before being subject to an activation process that includes charging, at room temperature, the battery cell  100  to 4.6 volts at a rate of 1/70 C rate. The activated battery cell  100  is allowed to rest for 7 additional days at which point the battery cell  100  is punctured, under vacuum, to release any gases before being resealed. 
       FIG.  8 E  depicts a line graph  840  illustrating a charge profile and a discharge profile of the battery cell  100  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIG.  8 E , the line graph  840  illustrates the capacity of the battery cell  100  relative to the charge voltage and the discharge voltage of the battery cell  100 , as measured at room temperature. As shown in  FIG.  8 E , when the battery cell  100  is configured as the sample cell 5, the ratio of discharge capacity relative to charge capacity is approximately 90%. 
       FIG.  8 F  depicts a scatter plot  850  illustrating a cycle life performance of the battery cell  100  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIG.  8 F , the scatter plot  850  illustrates the cycle life of the battery cell  100  (e.g., measured in the number of complete charge and discharge cycles supported by the battery cell  100  prior to depletion) relative to the capacity of the battery cell  100 , when the battery cell is configured as the sample cell 5. 
     Sample Cell 6 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed on the surface of the dual function current collector  110  by at least performing the process  700 . For instance, the protective layer  120  is formed from polyethylene oxide (PEO) and the crosslinking agent carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) while the dual function current collector  110  is formed from copper (Cu) foil. As such, a binder solution is formed by dissolving the 50 grams of polyethylene oxide and 50 grams of carboxymethyl cellulose into 1000 grams of deionized water. The resulting mixture may be mixed for 120 minutes at 5000 revolutions per minute (RPM) to from a slurry. This slurry can then be coated onto the surface of copper (Cu) foil having a thickness of 9 microns. The coating is performed using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to approximately 130° C. and the second heat zone set to approximately 180° C. to remove the deionized water present in the slurry. When dried, the protective layer  120  can have an average thickness of approximately 2-15 microns. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the first electrode  140  (e.g., cathode) is formed on top of the current collector  150  by at least performing the process  720 . For instance, the first electrode  140  is formed from a lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.4 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 ). Here, 2.1 grams of a high molecular weight polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF (high molecular weight), 0.2 grams of BM700 (e.g., manufactured by Zeon Corporation of Tokyo, Japan) dissolved in 2 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), and 2.8 grams of carbon black is dissolved into 26.25 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute to form a binder solution. Thereafter, 1.8 grams of graphite is added to this binder solution and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute to form a first slurry. A flowable second slurry can then be formed by adding 93.1 grams of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi 0.4 Mn 0.3 Co 0.3 O 2 ) (NMC433) to this first slurry and mixing for 30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. Here, additional amounts of N-methylpyrrolidone may be added to adjust the viscosity of the second slurry. The resulting second slurry (e.g., electrode slurry) is coated onto the current collector  150 , which may be aluminum (Al) foil having a thickness of 15 microns. The coating may be performed using an automatic coating machine with the first heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and the second heat zone set to approximately 130° C. to remove the N-methylpyrrolidone present in the second slurry. When dried, the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  can have a combined thickness of approximately 300 microns, which is further compressed to a thickness of approximately 225 microns. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell  100  is formed by performing the process  750 . Thus, forming the battery cell  100  can include drying the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , and the first electrode  140  at 125° C. for 16 hours. The dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , and the first electrode  140  is further punched into pieces using an electrode tab. A jelly roll is formed from the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150 . For instance, the dual function current collector  110 , the protective layer  120 , the separator  130 , the first electrode  140 , and the current collector  150  is laminated such that the dual function current collector  110  and the protective layer  120  are on one side of the separator  130  while the first electrode  140  and the current collector  150  are on the opposite side of the separator  130 . 
     This jelly roll is inserted flat into an aluminum (Al) composite bag that has been dried for 16 hours in a vacuum oven set to 70° C. The aluminum composite bag is filed with an organic carbonate based liquid electrolyte containing lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF 6 ) before the aluminum composite bag is sealed to form the battery cell  100 . The battery cell  100  may be allowed to rest for approximately 16 hours before being subject to an activation process that includes charging, at room temperature, the battery cell  100  to 4.6 volts at a rate of 1/70 C rate. The activated battery cell  100  is allowed to rest for 7 additional days at which point the battery cell  100  is punctured, under vacuum, to release any gases before being resealed. 
       FIG.  8 G  depicts a line graph  860  illustrating a charge profile of the battery cell  100  consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referring to  FIG.  8 G , the line graph  860  illustrates the capacity of the battery cell  100  relative to the charge voltage voltage of the battery cell  100 , as measured at room temperature. 
     Sample Protective Layer 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from polyamideimides, polyimides, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), and/or mixtures thereof. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from a polyimide. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from a carboxymethyl cellulose. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from a crosslinkable polymer. Suitable crosslinkable polymers can include, for example, polybenzophenones, polyacrylates, polyvinyls, polystyrenes, polysulfones, 2,3-dihydrofurancontaining polymers, carboxymethyl celluloses (CMC), polyamideimides, polyimides, styrene-containing copolymers, and mixtures thereof. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the crosslinkable polymer is a polyamideimide. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the crosslinkable polymer is a polyimide. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the crosslinkable polymer is a carboxymethyl cellulose. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from a crosslinked polymer. Suitable crosslinked polymers can include, for example, polybenzophenones, polyacrylates, polyvinyls, polystyrenes, polysulfones, 2,3-dihydrofuran-containing polymers, carboxymethyl celluloses (CMC), polyamideimides, polyimides, styrene-containing copolymers, and/or mixtures thereof. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the crosslinked polymer is a polyamideimide. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the crosslinked polymer is a polyimide. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the crosslinked polymer is a carboxymethyl cellulose. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from a thermally crosslinkable polymer. Suitable thermally crosslinkable polymers can include, for example, polybenzophenones, polyacrylates, polyvinyls, polystyrenes, polysulfones, 2,3-dihydrofuran-containing polymers, carboxymethyl celluloses (CMC), polyamideimides, polyimides, styrene-containing copolymers, and/or mixtures thereof. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the thermally crosslinkable polymer is a polyamideimide. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the thermally crosslinkable polymer is a polyimide. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the thermally crosslinkable polymer is a carboxymethyl cellulose. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from a photo crosslinkable polymer. Suitable photo crosslinkable polymers can include, for example, polybenzophenones, polyacrylates, polyvinyls, polystyrenes, polysulfones, 2,3-dihydrofurancontaining polymers, styrene-containing copolymers, and/or mixtures thereof. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from its precursors via polymerization on the surface of the core of the coated electroactive particle (e.g., the dual function current collector  110 ) provided herein. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the precursors of a polymer is monomers of the polymer. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the precursors of a polymer is crosslinkable polymers. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the polyamideimide forming the protective layer  120  is formed from a polyamideimide via crosslinking on the surface of the core of the coated electroactive particle (e.g., the dual function current collector  110 ) provided herein. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the polyimide forming the protective layer  120  is formed from a polyimide via crosslinking on the surface of the core of the coated electroactive particle provided herein (e.g., the dual function current collector  110 ). 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from a polyamideimide, polyimide, and/or a mixture thereof. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the polyamideimide is aromatic, aliphatic, cycloaliphatic, and/or a mixture thereof. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the polyamideimide is an aromatic polyamideimide. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the polyamideimide is an aliphatic polyamideimide. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the polyamideimide is a cycloaliphatic polyamideimide. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the polyimide is aromatic, aliphatic, cycloaliphatic, and/or a mixture thereof. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the polyimide is an aromatic polyimide. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the polyimide is an aliphatic polyimide. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the polyimide is a cycloaliphatic polyimide. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from TORLON® AI-30, TORLON® AI-50, TORLON® 4000, or TORLON® 4203L (e.g., manufactured by Solvay Advanced Polymers, L.L.C. of Augusta, Ga.). Alternately and/or additionally, the protective layer  120  is formed from U-VARNISH® (e.g., manufactured by UBE American Inc. of New York, N.Y.). In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from TORLON® AI-30. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from TORLON® AI-50. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from TORLON® 4000. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from TORLON® 4203L. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from U-VARNISH®. It should be appreciated that other suitable polyamideimide and polyimides can include those described in Loncrini and Witzel,  Journal of Polymer Science Part A -1 : Polymer Chemistry  1969, 7, 2185-2193; Jeon and Tak,  Journal of Applied Polymer Science  1996, 60, 1921-1926; Seino et al.,  Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry  1999, 37, 3584-3590; Seino et al.,  High Performance Polymers  1999, 11, 255-262; Matsumoto,  High Performance Polymers  2001, 13, S85-S92; Schab-Balcerzak et al.,  European Polymer Journal  2002, 38, 423-430; Eichstadt et al.,  Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics  2002, 40, 1503-1512; and Fang et al.,  Polymer  2004, 45, 2539-2549. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from a polyamideimide and a polyamine via polymerization on the surface of the core of the coated electroactive particle provided herein (e.g., the dual function current collector  110 ). 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from an aromatic, aliphatic, and/or cycloaliphatic polyimide via a condensation reaction of an aromatic, aliphatic, or cycloaliphatic polyanhydride. For instance, a dianhydride is combined with an aromatic, aliphatic, and/or cycloaliphatic polyamine to form a polyamic acid. Alternately, the dianhydride is combined with a diamine and/or a triamine to form the polyamic acid. The polyamic acid can subsequently be subject to chemical and/or thermal cyclization to form the polyimide. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the protective layer  120  is formed from a polyanhydride and a polyamine via polymerization on the surface of the core of the coated electroactive particle provided herein (e.g., the dual function current collector  110 ). 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, suitable polyanhydrides, polyamines, polyamideimide, and/or polyimides can include, for example, those described in Eur. Pat. App. Pub. Nos. EP 0450549 and EP 1246280; U.S. Pat. No. 5,504,128; and U.S. Pat. App. Pub. Nos. 2006/0099506 and 2007/0269718, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, suitable polyanhydrides can include, for example, butanetetracarboxylic dianhydride, meso-1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic dianhydride, dl-1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic dianhydride, cyclobutane tetracarboxylic dianhydride, 1,2,3,4-cyclopentane tetracarboxylic dianhydride, cyclohexane tetracarboxylic dianhydride, 1,2,3,4-cyclohexanetetracarboxylic dianhydride, cis-1,2,3,4-cyclohexanetetracarboxylic dianhydride, trans-1,2,3,4-cyclohexanetetracarboxylic dianhydride, bicyclo[2.2.2]octane-2,3,5,6-tetracarboxylic 2,3:5,6-dianhydride, bicyclo[2.2.2]oct-7-ene-2,3,5,6-tetracarboxylic dianhydride, bicyclo[2.2.1]-heptane-2,3,5,6-tetracarboxylic 2,3:5,6-dianhydride, (4arH, 8acH)-decahydro-1,t,4t:5c,4-cyclohexene-1,1,2,2-tetracarboxylic 1,2:1,2-dianhydride, bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane-2-exo-3-exo-5-exo-tricarboxyl-5-endo-acetic dianhydride, bicyclo[4.2.0]oxetane-1,6,7,8-tetracarboxylic acid intramolecular dianhydride, 3,3′,4,4′-diphenyl sulfonetetracarboxylic dianhydride, 4,4′-hexafluoropropylidene bisphthalic dianhydride, 1,3-bis(3,4-dicarboxyphenyl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyldisiloxane, and/or combinations thereof. 
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, suitable polyamines can include, for example, 4,4′-methylenebis(2,6-dimethylaniline), 4,4′-oxydianiline, m-phenylenediamine, p-phenylenediamine, benzidene, 3,5-diaminobenzoic acid, o-dianisidine, 4,4′-diaminodiphenyl methane, 4,4′-methylenebis(2,6-dimethylaniline), 1,4-diaminobutane, 1,6-diaminohexane, 1,7-diaminoheptane, 1,9-diaminononane, 1,10-diaminodecane, 1,12-diaminododecane, 5-amino-1,3,3-trimethylcyclohexanemethylamine, 2,5-bis(aminomethyl)bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane, 2,6-bis(aminomethyl)bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane, 2,4-diaminotoluene, 1,4-diamino-2-methoxybenzene, 1,4-diamino-2-phenylbenzene and 1,3-diamino-4-chlorobenzene, 4,4′-diaminobiphenyl, 2,2-bis(4-aminophenyl)propane, 2,2-bis[4-(4-aminophenoxy)phenyl]propane, 2,2-bis(4-aminophenyl)-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoropropane, 2,2-bis(4-aminophenoxyphenyl)hexafluoropropane, 4,4′-diaminodiphenyl ether, 3,4-diaminodiphenyl ether, 1,3-bis(3-aminophenoxy)benzene, 1,3-bis(4-aminophenoxy)benzene, 1,4-bis(4-aminophenoxy)benzene, 4,4′-bis(4-aminophenoxy)biphenyl, 4,4′-bis(3-aminophenoxy)biphenyl, 2,2-bis[4-(4-aminophenoxy)phenyl]propane, 2,2-bis[4-(4-aminophenoxy)phenyl]propane, 2,2-bis[4-(4-aminophenoxy)phenyl]-1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoropropane, 4,4′-diaminodiphenyl thioether, 4,4′-diaminodiphenyl sulfone, 2,2′-diaminobenzophenone, 3,3′-diaminobenzophenone, naphthalene diamines (including 1,8-diaminonaphthalene and 1,5-diaminonaphthalene), 2,6-diaminopyridine, 2,4-diaminopyrimidine, 2,4-diamino-s-triazine, 1,8-diamino-4-(aminomethyl)octane, bis[4-(4-aminophenoxy)-phenyl]sulfone, 3,3′-dihydroxy-4,4′-diaminobiphenyl, 2,2-bis(3-amino-4-hydroxyphenyl)hexafluoropropane, 2,2-bis(3-hydroxy-4-aminophenyl)propane, and/or combinations thereof.
     In some implementations of the current subject matter, the polyimide is poly(4,4′-phenyleneoxyphenylene pyromellitic imide) and/or poly(4,4′-phenyleneoxyphenylene-co-1,3-phenylenebenzophenonetetracarboxylic diimide).   

     In the descriptions above and in the claims, phrases such as “at least one of” or “one or more of” may occur followed by a conjunctive list of elements or features. The term “and/or” may also occur in a list of two or more elements or features. Unless otherwise implicitly or explicitly contradicted by the context in which it used, such a phrase is intended to mean any of the listed elements or features individually or any of the recited elements or features in combination with any of the other recited elements or features. For example, the phrases “at least one of A and B;” “one or more of A and B;” and “A and/or B” are each intended to mean “A alone, B alone, or A and B together.” A similar interpretation is also intended for lists including three or more items. For example, the phrases “at least one of A, B, and C;” “one or more of A, B, and C;” and “A, B, and/or C” are each intended to mean “A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, or A and B and C together.” Use of the term “based on,” above and in the claims is intended to mean, “based at least in part on,” such that an unrecited feature or element is also permissible. 
     The implementations set forth in the foregoing description do not represent all implementations consistent with the subject matter described herein. Instead, they are merely some examples consistent with aspects related to the described subject matter. Although a few variations have been described in detail herein, other modifications or additions are possible. In particular, further features and/or variations can be provided in addition to those set forth herein. For example, the implementations described above can be directed to various combinations and sub-combinations of the disclosed features and/or combinations and sub-combinations of one or more features further to those disclosed herein. In addition, the logic flows depicted in the accompanying figures and/or described herein do not necessarily require the particular order shown, or sequential order, to achieve desirable results. The scope of the following claims may include other implementations or embodiments.