Patent Publication Number: US-11026444-B2

Title: Composition comprising human milk oligosaccharides (HMO) for use in the improvement of short term memory and other cognitive benefits

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     The present application is a National Stage of International Application No. PCT/EP2018/063587, filed on May 24, 2018, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/510,367, filed on May 24, 2017, the entire contents of which are being incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     This invention relates to a composition for use in the improvement of short term memory and/or the development of optimum short term memory and other related cognitive benefits, especially, in infants and young children. 
     The present invention also relates generally to the field of neuronal health, neuronal protection and neuronal development. The invention specifically relates to administration of Human milk oligosaccharides (HMO) for inducing the development of an optimum short term memory, and/or improving the short term memory and/or promoting the healthy establishment of cognitive functions in infants and young children. The invention may be of particular use for fragile or preterm infants. 
     The central nervous system (CNS), and in particular the brain, drives the cognitive functions. The cerebral cortex, which is a sheet of neural tissue that is outermost to the cerebrum of the mammalian brain, plays a key role in attention, perceptual awareness, higher order cognition (executive function) and information integration of sensory input. 
     Central nervous system development and maturation is a highly complex biological phenomenon that involves a number of physiological processes including, for example, neuron and glial cell growth and differentiation, neuronal pathfinding and branching, and establishment of inter neuronal communication (nerve signals) via axon growth and synaptogenesis. 
     Neuronal plasticity, which is defined as the ability of the brain to continuously adapt its functions and structural organization to changing requirements is important in nervous system maturation and adult function. It is essential for the correct functioning of the brain and necessary for cognition, learning and memory. Some of the neuronal markers, including proteins and neurotrophic factors, like Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) required for, or at least, associated with these physiological processes, have been identified in the literature and studied [Huang, E. J. and Reichardt, L. F. (2001); Neurotrophins: Roles in Neuronal Development and Function,  Annu. Rev. Neurosci.,  24: 677-736]; [Musumeci, G. and Minichiello, L. (2011); BDNF-TrkB signalling in fear learning: from genetics to neural networks,  Rev. Neurosci.,  22(3):303-15]; [Xiao, J. et al. (2009); The role of neurotrophins in the regulation of myelin development, Neurosignals, 17: 265-276] and [Von Bohlen and Halbach, O. (2011); Immunohistological markers for proliferative events, gliogenesis, and neurogenesis within the adult hippocampus, Cell Tissue Res., 345(1):1-19]. 
     The central nervous system develops starting early after conception, throughout gestation and continues to mature until early adulthood. In particular, structural maturation is mostly pre-natal while functional network maturation is mostly post-natal. In human fetuses, the cerebral cortex develops quite late and over a protracted period of time. 
     In utero, there is a peak of neuronal/brain maturation and growth from week 30 of gestation in humans. 
     The development of the capacity to temporarily storing and managing information (such as visual signals), referred as short term memory, is a crucial step in the development of the cognitive functions in infants and young children. The development and/or improvement of short term memory is closely linked to the neuronal plasticity. Although such development and improvement of short term memory is of particular importance during the first months/years of life (where the neuronal plasticity is the highest), it also affects older subjects, teenagers and adults. Short-term memory decline in aging population, both healthy elderly as well as elderly suffering from diseases. 
     Premature babies by definition enter the world with a still primitive brain, indeed they exhibit very basic electrical activity in the primary sensory regions of the cerebral cortex—those areas that perceive touch, vision, and hearing, as well as in primary motor regions of the cerebral cortex. For these babies the post-natal gradual maturation of the brain is essential to compensate for their lower brain maturation status at birth, this compensatory maturation is particularly important for the more complex part of the brain that mediates much of their emotional, social and cognitive maturation in the first few years of life [Lubsen, J. et al. (2011); Microstructural and functional connectivity in the developing preterm brain, Seminars in Perinatology, 35, 34-43]. 
     Preterm babies are born at a time that is crucial for structural and functional brain development and maturation and, so, they miss out on in utero brain development. They are at risk for medical conditions after birth, including hemorrhagic and hypoxic-ischemic brain injuries, as well as for development problems later in life, including cognitive deficits. This risk seems to be higher the younger the babies are delivered and the lower their birth weight is. Cognitive deficits in terms of lower IQ, lower attention and working memory abilities, and problems in executive functions may persist into school-age and adolescence [Talge, N. et al. (2010). Late-Preterm Birth and its Association with Cognitive and Socioemotional Outcomes at 6 Years of Age. Pediatrics, 126, 1124-1131; van Baar, A., et al. (2009). Functioning at school age of moderately preterm children born at 32 to 36 weeks&#39; gestational age. Pediatrics, 124, 251-257; Farooqi, A et al. (2011). Impact at age 11 years of major neonatal morbidities in children born extremely preterm. Pediatrics, 127, e1247-1257; Nosarti, C. et al. (2010). Neurodevelopmental outcomes of preterm birth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press]. 
     More generally CNS immaturity or delayed maturation of the CNS, can be observed in infants such as: 
     Preterm infants, low birth weight (&lt;2500 g), very low and extremely low birth weight infants (&lt;1500 g), extremely low birth weight (&lt;1000 g) and in small for gestational age infants [Allen, M. C. (2008); Neurodevelopmental outcomes of preterm infants,  Curr. Opin Neurol.,  21(2): 123-8]. 
     Premature or term-born infants having experienced an intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) that occurred following any adverse events during the gestation (smoking of the mother, medication of the mother, low placenta quality, abnormal placenta positioning, malnutrition of the mother and the foetus, excessive stress/anxiety of the mother, etc); [Gregory, A. et al. (2008); Intrauterine Growth Restriction Affects the Preterm Infant&#39;s Hippocampus,  Pediatric Research,  63(4): 438-443]. 
     Any neonate and young infant showing nervous system growth retardation following, for example, hypoxemia-ischemia at birth, postnatal complications, postnatal steroid treatments or any other adverse event [Barrett, R. D. et al. (2007); Destruction and reconstruction: hypoxia and the developing brain,  Birth Defects Res. C. Embryo Today,  81: 163-76]. 
     Cognitive dysfunctions are reported in these infants, along with dysfunction in their growth and development, indicating that an optimal “catch-up” of the neurodevelopmental process is not achieved. Immaturity or delayed maturation of the cerebral cortex can lead to delayed and/or impaired learning ability, information integration, processing of sensory input, loss of, or poor development of higher reasoning, executive functions, concentration, attention, motor skills and language. This may lead to behavioral problems abnormally low intelligence, and thus, abnormally low mental performance. 
     It has been generally observed that that breastfeeding preterm infants can result in improved neurodevelopment compared to formula feeding. (See for example: Rozé et al. The apparent breastfeeding paradox in very preterm infants: relationship between breast feeding, early weight gain and neurodevelopment based on results from two cohorts, EPIPAGE and LIFT.  BMJ Open  2012; 2:e000834. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2012-000834). 
     According to the inventors, this tends to indicated that some nutrients present in the human breast milk may be missing from synthetic formula or delivered in a sub-optimal amount There is a need to identify the key differences between conventional formula and human breast milk and adapt the synthetic formula accordingly. 
     Behavioral and neurodevelopmental disorders associated with delayed maturation of the cerebral cortex include attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders and autism spectrum disorders. 
     Cognitive function may be measured in humans with clinical tests, that depend on age; many such tests known to pediatricians and child development experts. For babies and infants, development screening and neurodevelopment tests exist such as for example, BSID—Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale, NEPSY—A Developmental NEuroPSYchological Assessment and Griffiths Mental Development Scales. For pre-school and/or school children tests for cognitive abilities include PPVT (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test), TONI-2 (Test of Nonverbal Intelligence-2), WPPSI (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence), and CPM (Raven&#39;s Coloured Progressive Matrices). 
     One aspect of the cognitive development can be tested through testing the short term memory. Such tests are known in the art. They may provide strict reading of the ability to recognize signals (short term) and are also indicators of the general cognitive development of the subject. These tests, known in the art, are able to distinguish the short term memory from other form of memory such as the long-term memory. Testing for memory are conventionally available and are described in particular in Ross-Sheehy, S. et al. (2003); The development of visual short-term memory capacity in infants.  Child Dev,  74(6):1807-22 and Gathercole (1999), Cognitive approaches to the development of short-term memory  TICS,  3(11):410-419. 
     It is known that nutrition plays an important role in neuronal maturation in the brain (reviewed in [Huppi, P. S. (2008); Nutrition for the Brain,  Pediatric Research,  63(3): 229-231 and Cusik and Georgieff (2016) The Role of Nutrition in Brain Development: The Golden Opportunity of the “First 1000 Days”,  Journal of Pediatrics,  175:16-21). 
     The consequences of malnutrition can be irreversible and may include poor cognitive development, poor memory, educability, and thus future economic productivity. [Horton, R; (2008) The Lancet, Vol. 371, Issue 9608, page 179; [Laus, M. F. et al. (2011); Early postnatal protein-calorie malnutrition and cognition: a review of human and animal studies,  Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health.,  8(2): 590-612]. 
     While is it known that breast milk of mothers provide the best nutritional support to the developing brain, when breastfeeding is not possible, there is a need to provide synthetic nutritional composition (such as infant formula or follow on formula) that induce an improvement or promote the development of optimal cognitive functions. 
     Thus, oral interventions are an appropriate way to positively impact on the development of the nervous system, so as to ensure optimal development of cognitive function, memory and mental performance in the preterm or term born neonates, infants, toddlers, children or young adults or young animals. 
     However little is known and has so far been proven, on the capacity of nutritional diets or nutritional compositions to influence the development or the promotion of memory, in particular the short memory, and especially in infants and young children. 
     EP0975235B1 from Abbott Laboratories inc. describes a synthetic nutritional composition comprising one or more human milk oligosaccharides, wherein the HMOs in the composition are chosen among a group of eight HMOs (3-fucosyllactose, lacto-N-fucopentaose III, lacto-N-fucopentaose II, difucosyllactose (diFL), 2′-fucosyllactose, lacto-N-fucopentaose I, lacto-N-neotetraose and lacto-N-fucopentaose V) wherein said composition is intended for cases of normal, healthy infants, children, adults or individuals having specialized needs such as those that accompany certain pathological conditions. This European patent states that, generally speaking, oligosaccharides protect infants from viral and bacterial infections of the respiratory, gastrointestinal and uro-genital tracts. 
     WO2012092160 and US2015231159A1, of the same applicant Abbott laboratories inc., provide a link between HMOs and growth of beneficial bacteria and hypothesizes a link to cognition. 
     There is still a need to promote and support the healthy establishment of cognitive function in general and of short term and long term memory in particular. 
     There is a need to improve such memory functions in young subjects, particularly infants and young children. 
     There is a need to promote the development of such memory functions in infants and young children. 
     There is a need to provide nutritional compositions to infants and young children that improve short term memory and/or enhance and promote the development of short term memory. 
     There is a need to promote and/or improve the short term memory performance independently from the long term memory. 
     There is a need to provide such promotion, improvement, enhancement of short term memory and/or working memory and/or declarative memory, via a nutritional intervention, especially among infants and young children. 
     There is a need to provide such nutritional intervention and/or prophylactic nutritional intervention in a form that is well accepted by the subject population, in particular those of in these populations that are the most fragile or the most in need. There is a further need to not induce disadvantages, side-effects or negatives in such population. 
     There is a need to provide such solutions to the subject populations in the most simple and most cost-effective way, preferably not through the use of actual ingredients considered as drugs or medicaments, and preferably as part of the diet. 
     The present invention applies to all mammals, including animals and humans and in particular in infants and young children for which the brain plasticity is highest. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present inventors have found surprisingly that the administration of a specific oligosaccharide, especially human milk oligosaccharides is particularly effective in the enhancement and/or promotion and/or improvement of the short term memory and/or the declarative memory and/or the working memory, in particular in young subjects such as infants and/or young children. The administration can be done as part of a nutritional intervention. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING 
         FIG. 1  shows the effect of various diets in piglets in a recognition test indicative of the short term memory—Recognition index using 1 h or 2 days inter-trial interval induced by various diets [CON (control); HMO (2FL+LNnT); BMO (Bovine Milk Oligosaccharides); HMO+BMO]. HMO alone results in statistically significant increase in recognition memory with 1 h inter-trial interval but surprisingly failed to improve recognition memory in with the 2d inter-trial interval. This suggests a clear positive effect of HMO (2′FL+LNnT) on short-term recognition memory. HMO+BMO results in numerical increase in recognition memory with 1 h inter-trial interval and statistically significant increase in recognition memory with 24 h inter-trial interval. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS 
     Definitions 
     As used herein, the following terms have the following meanings. 
     The term “infant” means a child under the age of 12 months. 
     The term “young child” means a child aged between one and three years. 
     The term “oligofructose” (abbreviated OF) as used herein refers to a fructose oligomer (i.e. a fructose oligosaccharide) having a degree of polymerization of from 2 to 10, for example a degree of polymerization of from 2 to 8. Oligofructose can also be referred as Fructo-Oligo-Saccharides (abbreviated FOS) or short-chain Fructo-Oligo-Saccharides (abbreviated scFOS). In the present document the terms oligofructose (OF), fructose oligosaccharide (FOS), Fructo-Oligo-saccharide (FOS), short-chain-fructo-oligosaccharide (scFOS) have the same meaning and can be used interchangeably. 
     The Inulin, being polymers of long chains are specifically excluded from the present definition of OF. Oligofructose is distinguishable from Inulin by its degree of polymerization (Inulin having much longer chains). 
     FOS/scFOS/Oligofructose is typically commercially available, for example under the commercial name ORAFTI Oligofructose by Beneo GmbH (Mannheim, Germany) (for example ingredient Orafti® P95). 
     The term “Human Milk Oligosaccharide” is abbreviated HMO and collectively refers to those oligosaccharides that are present in human milk, and falls into the conventional definition adopted by any person in the art. The HMOs comprise but are not limited to, fucosylated oligosaccharides (for example diFL, 2FL), lacto-N-tetraose (LNT), lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT), or sialylated oligosaccharides. 
     The term “Bovine Milk oligosaccharide” (abbreviated BMO) refers to those oligosaccharides that are present in bovine milk, and falls into the conventional definition adopted by any person in the art. The BMOS mixture used in the context of the present invention was derived from bovine milk whey. Briefly, an ultrafiltration permeate of bovine whey including oligosaccharides such as 3′- and 6′-sialyllactose and GOS was demineralised by a combination of electrodialysis and ion exchange, as described in the art. 
     The term “sn-2 palmitate” as used herein refers to palmitic acid in the sn-2 position of the triglyceride to which it is bonded. 
     The term “short term memory” (STM) refers to a system for temporarily storing and managing information required to carry out complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension. The short term memory is essential for the recognition of signals such as visual signals. 
     Short-term memory (STM) allows recalling something for a period of several seconds to an hour without rehearsal. Short-term memory encodes e.g. acoustical information, is supported by transient patterns of neuronal communication, and depends on regions of the frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe, which stores items for transiently. 
     The term “infant formula” means a foodstuff intended for particular nutritional use by infants during the first four to six months of life and satisfying by itself the nutritional requirements of this category of person (Article 1.2 of the European Commission Directive 91/321/EEC of May 14, 1991 on infant formulae and follow-on formulae). 
     The term “follow-on formula” means a foodstuff intended for particular nutritional use by infants aged over four months and constituting the principal liquid element in the progressively diversified diet of this category of person. 
     The term “starter infant formula” means a foodstuff intended for particular nutritional use by infants during the first four months of life. 
     Infant formula follow on formula and starter infant formula can either be in the form of a liquid, ready-to-consumer or concentrated, or in the form of a dry powder that may be reconstituted to form a formula upon addition of water. Such formulae are well-known in the art. 
     The term “baby food” means a foodstuff intended for particular nutritional use by infants during the first years of life. 
     The term “infant cereal composition” means a foodstuff intended for particular nutritional use by infants during the first years of life. 
     The term “growing-up milk” means a milk-based beverage adapted for the specific nutritional needs of young children. 
     The term “weaning period” means the period during which the mother&#39;s milk is substituted by other food in the diet of an infant. 
     The term “nutritional composition” means a composition which nourishes a subject. This nutritional composition is usually to be taken orally or intravenously, and it usually includes a lipid or fat source and a protein source. Preferably the nutritional composition is a complete nutrition mix that fulfils all or most of the nutritional needs of a subject (for example an infant formula). 
     The term “synthetic mixture” means a mixture obtained by chemical and/or biological means, which can be chemically identical to the mixture naturally occurring in mammalian milks. 
     The term “sialylated oligosaccharide” means an oligosaccharide having a sialic acid residue. 
     The term “fucosylated oligosaccharide” means an oligosaccharide having a fucose residue. 
     The term “prebiotic” means non-digestible carbohydrates that beneficially affect the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or the activity of healthy bacteria such as bifidobacteria in the colon of humans (Gibson G R, Roberfroid M B.  Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics. J Nutr.  1995; 125:1401-12). 
     The term “probiotic” means microbial cell preparations or components of microbial cells with a beneficial effect on the health or well-being of the host. (Salminen S, Ouwehand A. Benno Y. et al. “ Probiotics: how should they be defined ” Trends Food Sci. Technol. 1999:10 107-10). 
     All percentages are by weight unless otherwise stated. 
     When the ingredients amounts are provided for as weight of ingredient/weight of powder nutritional composition is also intended that the invention comprises also the corresponding amount by litre taking in to account a dilution factor of the dry powder nutritional composition of 130 g/L (or a specified otherwise in the dilution instructions). 
     Human Milk Oligosaccharides: 
     Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are, collectively, the third largest solid constituents in human milk, after lactose and fat. HMO usually consists of lactose at the reducing end with a carbohydrate core that often contains a fucose or a sialic acid at the non-reducing end. There are approximately one hundred milk oligosaccharides that have been isolated and characterized, however these represent only a very small portion of the total number remaining to be characterized. 
     In the past, infant formulae were developed using HMO ingredients, such as fucosylated oligosaccharides, lacto-N-tetraose, lacto-N-neotetraose, or sialylated oligosaccharides, for different purposes. 
     The composition of the invention may contain 2′-fucosyllactose (2FL also abbreviated 2′FL) and/or a N-acetyl-lactosamine such as lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT) or lacto-N-tetraose (LNT). 
     In one embodiment the nutritional composition according the invention comprises human milk oligosaccharide selected from the list consisting of N-acetyl-lactosamine, sialylated oligosaccharides, fucosylated oligosaccharides, 2FL, LNnT, diFL, LNT or a combination thereof. 
     N-Acetyl-Lactosamine 
     In some embodiments the composition of the invention contains at least one N-acetyl-lactosamine. That is to say that the composition according to the invention contains N-acetyl-lactosamine and/or an oligosaccharide containing N-acetyl-lactosamine. Suitable oligosaccharides containing N-acetyl-lactosamine include lacto-N-tetraose (LNT) and lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT). 
     Thus, according to the invention, the N-acetyl-lactosamine is preferably selected from the group comprising lacto-N-tetraose (LNT) and lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT). 
     LNT and LNnT may be synthesised chemically by enzymatic transfer of saccharide units from donor moieties to acceptor moieties using glycosyltransferases as described for example in U.S. Pat. No. 5,288,637 and WO 96/10086. Alternatively, LNT and LNnT may be prepared by chemical conversion of Keto-hexoses (e.g. fructose) either free or bound to an oligosaccharide (e.g. lactulose) into N-acetylhexosamine or an N-acetylhexosamine-containing oligosaccharide as described in Wrodnigg, T. M.; Stutz, A. E. (1999) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 38:827-828. N-acetyl-lactosamine produced in this way may then be transferred to lactose as the acceptor moiety. 
     Preferably the composition according to the invention contains from 0.1 to 3 g N-acetyl-lactosamine per 100 g of composition on a dry weight basis. Preferably it contains 0.1 to 3 g of LNnT per 100 g of composition on a dry weight basis. 
     In one embodiment the nutritional composition according the invention comprises a N-acetyl-lactosamine, preferably selected from the group comprising lacto-N-tetraose (LNT) and lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT). 
     Sialylated Oligosaccharides 
     The composition according to the invention, in some embodiments, can comprise one or more sialylated oligosaccharides. 
     The sialylated oligosaccharides may be selected from the group comprising 3′-sialyllactose and 6′-sialyllactose. Preferably, both 3′-sialyllactose and 6′-sialyllactose are present in said composition. In this embodiment, the ratio between 3′-sialyllactose and 6′-sialyllactose lies preferably in the range between 5:1 and 1:2. 
     The 3′- and 6′-forms of sialyllactose may be isolated by chromatographic or filtration technology from a natural source such as animal milks. Alternatively, they may be produced by biotechnological means using specific sialyltransferases or sialidases, neuraminidases, either by an enzyme based fermentation technology (recombinant or natural enzymes), by chemical synthesis or by a microbial fermentation technology. In the latter case microbes may either express their natural enzymes and substrates or may be engineered to produce respective substrates and enzymes. Single microbial cultures or mixed cultures may be used. Sialyl-oligosaccharide formation can be initiated by acceptor substrates starting from any degree of polymerisation (DP), from DP=1 onwards. Alternatively, sialyllactoses may be produced by chemical synthesis from lactose and free N′-acetylneuraminic acid (sialic acid). Sialyllactoses are also commercially available for example from Kyowa Hakko Kogyo of Japan. 
     Preferably the composition according to the invention contains from 0.05 to 2 g, more preferably 0.1 to 2 g, of sialylated oligosaccharide(s) per 100 g of composition on a dry weight basis. 
     In one embodiment the nutritional composition according the invention comprises sialylated oligosaccharide, preferably selected from the group comprising 3′-sialyllactose and 6′-sialyllactose. More preferably said composition comprises both 3′-sialyllactose and 6′-sialyllactose, the ratio between 3′-sialyllactose and 6′-sialyllactose lying preferably in the range between 5:1 and 1:2. 
     Fucosylated Oligosaccharide 
     The composition according to the invention may comprise one or more fucosylated oligosaccharides. Preferably the fucosylated oligosaccharides consist or comprises 2′-fucosyllactose (2-FL). 
     The fucosylated oligosaccharide may be selected from the group comprising 2′-fucosyllactose, 3-fucosyllactose, difucosyllactose, lacto-N-fucopentaoses (that is to say lacto-N-fucopentaose I, lacto-N-fucopentaose II, lacto-N-fucopentaose III and lacto-N-fucopentaose V), lacto-N-difucohexaose I, fucosyllacto-N-hexaose, Difucosyllacto-N-hexaose I and Difucosyllacto-N-neohexaose II. A particularly preferred fucosylated oligosaccharide is 2′-fucosyllactose (2-FL). 
     The fucosylated oligosaccharide may be isolated by chromatography or filtration technology from a natural source such as animal milks. Alternatively, it may be produced by biotechnological means using specific fucosyltransferases and/or fucosidase either through the use of enzyme-based fermentation technology (recombinant or natural enzymes) or microbial fermentation technology. In the latter case, microbes may either express their natural enzymes and substrates or may be engineered to produce respective substrates and enzymes. Single microbial cultures and/or mixed cultures may be used. Fucosylated oligosaccharide formation can be initiated by acceptor substrates starting from any degree of polymerization (DP), from DP=1 onwards. Alternatively, fucosylated oligosaccharides may be produced by chemical synthesis from lactose and free fucose. Fucosylated oligosaccharides are also available for example from Kyowa Hakko Kogyo of Japan. 
     Preferably, the composition according to the invention contains from 0.1 to 3 g of fucosylated oligosaccharide(s) per 100 g of composition on a dry weight basis, most preferably being 2FL. 
     In one embodiment the nutritional composition according the invention comprises a fucosylated oligosaccharide, preferably selected from the group comprising 2′-fucosyllactose, 3-fucosyllactose, difucosyllactose, lacto-N-fucopentaoses (that is to say lacto-N-fucopentaose I, lacto-N-fucopentaose II, lacto-N-fucopentaose III and lacto-N-fucopentaose V), lacto-N-difucohexaose I, fucosyllacto-N-hexaose, Difucosyllacto-N-hexaose I and Difucosyllacto-N-neohexaose II, and preferably the fucosylated oligosaccharide is 2′-fucosyllactose (2-FL). 
     Further Prebiotics 
     Additional to the essential oligosaccharides of the present patent claims, the composition of the invention can further comprise at least one or one further prebiotic, usually in an amount between 0.3 and 10% by weight of composition. 
     Prebiotics are usually non-digestible in the sense that they are not broken down and absorbed in the stomach or small intestine and thus remain intact when they pass into the colon where they are selectively fermented by the beneficial bacteria. 
     The composition according to the invention can comprise, in some embodiments, Oligofructose (OF). An example of such OF is the commercial ingredient ORAFTI® by Beneo GmbH (Mannheim, Germany). 
     In some embodiments the prebiotics of the composition of the invention, comprise other fructooligosaccharides (FOS) or/and galactooligosaccharides (GOS). A combination of prebiotics may be used such as 90% GOS with 10% short chain fructooligosaccharides such as in the product by BENEO-Orafti sold under the trademark “Orafti® oligofructose” (see http://www.beneo-orafti.com/Our-Products/Oligofructose) (previously Raftilose®) or 10% inulin such as in the product sold by BENEO-Orafti under the trademark “Orafti® inulin” (see http://www.beneo-orafti.com/Our-Products/Inulin) (previously Raftiline®). Another combination of prebiotics is 70% short chain fructooligosaccharides and 30% inulin, which is a product sold by BENEO-Orafti® under the trademark “Prebio 1”. 
     In one embodiment the nutritional composition according the invention comprises a prebiotic selected from the list bovine milk oligosaccharides, inulin, xylooligosaccharides, polydextrose or any combination thereof. 
     In one embodiment the nutritional composition according the invention comprises a bovine milk oligosaccharide, said bovine milk oligosaccharides being an N-acetylated oligosaccharide, a galacto-oligosaccharide, a sialylated oligosaccharide, a fucosylated oligosaccharide or a combination thereof. 
     Probiotics 
     The composition of the invention can further comprise at least one probiotic bacterial strain, said probiotic bacterial strain preferably being Bifidobacteria and/or Lactobacilli. 
     Suitable probiotic bacterial strains include  Lactobacillus rhamnosus  ATCC 53103 available from Valio Oy of Finland under the trademark LGG,  Lactobacillus rhamnosus  CGMCC 1.3724,  Lactobacillus paracasei  CNCM 1-2116,  Lactobacillus johnsonii  CNCM I-1225,  Streptococcus salivarius  DSM 13084 sold by BLIS Technologies Limited of New Zealand under the designation K12,  Bifidobacterium lactis  CNCM 1-3446 sold inter alia by the Christian Hansen company of Denmark under the trademark Bb 12,  Bifidobacterium longum  ATCC BAA-999 sold by Morinaga Milk Industry Co. Ltd. of Japan under the trademark BB536,  Bifidobacterium breve  sold by Danisco under the trademark Bb-03,  Bifidobacterium breve  sold by Morinaga under the trade mark M-16V,  Bifidobacterium infantis  sold by Procter &amp; Gamble Co. under the trademark Bifantis and  Bifidobacterium breve  sold by Institut Rosell (Lallemand) under the trademark R0070. 
     Preferably, the composition according to the invention contains from 10e3 to 10e12 cfu of probiotic bacterial strain, more preferably between 10e7 and 10e12 cfu, per g of composition on a dry weight basis. 
     In one embodiment the nutritional composition of the comprises a probiotic bacterial strain selected from the list consisting of  Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Lactobacillus paracasei, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus johnsonii, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus lactis, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, Lactobacillus helveticus, Lactobacillus bulgari, Lactococcus lactis, Lactococcus diacetylactis, Lactococcus cremoris, Streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus thermophilus, Bifidobacterium lactis, Bifidobacterium animalis, Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium breve, Bifidobacterium infantis , or  Bifidobacterium adolescentis  or any mixture thereof. 
     Target Population 
     The present invention targets/is infants and young children. 
     In one embodiment the present invention is for young mammals, such as infants (for example 0 to 6 months or 0 to 12 months), young children (for example 1 to 3 years or 1 to 7 years). Without to be bound by the theory the young mammals have a high brain plasticity and brain (or brain connectivity) development and benefit most of the present invention. It is also contemplated that the present invention may target particular windows of nutritional intervention (for example such as children 6 months to 3 years, 3 months to 18 months), subpopulations having particular need (fragile young mammals; senile or semi-senile mammals) or in a recovery phase. 
     According to a preferred embodiment, the composition according to the invention is for use in healthy infants and/or healthy young children. In one embodiment the invention is of particular relevance in fragile infants, preterm infants, and/or infant born with a subnormal birth weight and/or infants subject of intrauterine growth retardation. The preferred period of use is during the period(s) of most rapid development of the memory and/or development of the brain connectivity. 
     The composition of the invention is targeted to infants and/or young children, of age 7 years or less, preferably of age 3 years or less, most preferably age 1 year of less. In one embodiment the composition is intended for infants of 6 months or less. In embodiments of the invention the composition is used during the first 6 months of life, first 1 year of life, first 3 years of life, first 7 years of life, and/or during a period of recovery after sickness or of low development. 
     Nutritional Composition 
     The composition according to the invention is preferably a synthetic nutritional composition. The composition of the invention can for example be a starter infant formula, an infant formula, a baby food, an infant cereal composition, a follow-on formula or a growing-up milk, and said composition is preferably a starter infant formula. The composition according to the invention can also be for use before and/or during a weaning period. In one embodiment the nutritional composition may be a complete nutritional composition or a supplement for aging, elderly or fragile persons. 
     The composition according to the invention can be completed composition provide 100% or a majority of the nutritional needs of the target populations (for example in term of caloric needs; or in terms of vitamin or minerals needs, in in term of protein, lipids or carbohydrate needs). Alternatively the composition of the invention can be a supplement to be consumer in addition to a regular diet). In that case however the dosage and overall consumption of the composition is adapted to provide the claimed benefit on the short term memory (for example proportionally to the caloric load and to the subject caloric needs). 
     The use of composition of the invention can encompass the cases where the composition is a supplement, preferably provided in the form of unit doses. In one embodiment the composition is a supplement to human breast feeding. 
     The composition can be in the form of a powder composition for example intended to be diluted with water or mixed with milk (for example human breast milk), or ingested as a powder. In one embodiment the composition of the invention is in liquid form; either ready-to-drink or to be diluted in water or mixed with milk (for example human breast milk). 
     The composition according to the invention can also contain a protein source, preferably in an amount below 2.5 g/100 kcal or below 2.0 g per 100 kcal, even more preferably in an amount below 1.8 g per 100 kcal. In one embodiment the protein content is below 1.6 g/100 kcal. The type of protein is not believed to be critical to the present invention provided that the minimum requirements for essential amino acid content are met and satisfactory growth is ensured. Thus, protein sources based on whey, casein and mixtures thereof may be used as well as protein sources based on soy. As far as whey proteins are concerned, the protein source may be based on acid whey or sweet whey or mixtures thereof and may include alpha-lactalbumin and beta-lactoglobulin in any desired proportions. 
     The composition according to the present invention generally contains a carbohydrate source. This is particularly preferable in the case where the nutritional composition of the invention is an infant formula. In this case, any carbohydrate source conventionally found in infant formulae such as lactose, saccharose, maltodextrin, starch and mixtures thereof may be used although the preferred source of carbohydrates is lactose. 
     The composition according to the present invention generally contains a source of lipids. This is particularly relevant if the nutritional composition of the invention is an infant formula. In this case, the lipid source may be any lipid or fat which is suitable for use in infant formulae. Preferred fat sources include palm oleic, high oleic sunflower oil and high oleic safflower oil. The essential fatty acids linoleic and α-linolenic acid may also be added as may small amounts of oils containing high quantities of preformed arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid such as fish oils or microbial oils. The fat source preferably has a ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids of about 5:1 to about 15:1; for example about 8:1 to about 10:1. 
     The composition of the invention also contains preferably all vitamins and minerals understood to be essential in the daily diet and in nutritionally significant amounts. Minimum requirements have been established for certain vitamins and minerals. Examples of minerals, vitamins and other nutrients optionally present in the composition of the invention include vitamin A, vitamin B1, vitamin B2, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, vitamin E, vitamin K, vitamin C, vitamin D, folic acid, inositol, niacin, biotin, pantothenic acid, choline, calcium, phosphorous, iodine, iron, magnesium, copper, zinc, manganese, chlorine, potassium, sodium, selenium, chromium, molybdenum, taurine, and L-carnitine. Minerals are usually added in salt form. The presence and amounts of specific minerals and other vitamins will vary depending on the intended population. 
     If necessary, the composition of the invention may contain emulsifiers and stabilisers such as soy, lecithin, citric acid esters of mono- and di-glycerides, and the like. 
     The composition of the invention may also contain other substances which may have a beneficial effect such as lactoferrin, nucleotides, nucleosides, and the like. 
     In one embodiment, the composition of the invention, especially in the form of an infant formula, comprises from about 1.8 to about 2.2 g of total protein per 100 kcal, for example, about from 1.8 to about 2.1 g or from about 1.9 to about 2.1 g protein per 100 kcal, optionally wherein from about 0.3 to about 0.4 g/100 kcal of protein is alpha-lactalbumin. The infant formula and follow-on formula of this invention may be in the form of a ready-to-feed liquid, or may be a liquid concentrate or powdered formula that can be reconstituted into a ready-to-feed liquid by adding an amount of water that results and follow-on formula of this invention includes all the ingredients that are required by law in the US or EU, including but not limited to certain vitamins, minerals, and essential amino acids. It may also include nucleotides, such as CMP, UMP, AMP, GMP and IMP, lutein, zeaxanthin, and other ingredients known in the art. 
     In one embodiment of the invention the nutritional composition is a pet food (for example for dogs or cats or young dogs or young cats). 
     Effect(s) and Use of the Composition of the Invention 
     The present invention relates to the enhancement and/or promotion and/or improvement of the short term memory function of a subject. This can include enhancement and/or promotion and/or improvement of the working memory and/or the declarative memory. By enhancing the short term memory function the composition of the invention can also positively impact the subject&#39;s ability of acquire and process new knowledge (learning skills). 
     One embodiment the invention also enhances long-term memory function. One embodiment selectively enhances short term memory without enhancing long term memory. 
     Without to be bound by the theory, in one aspect of the invention such improvement, enhancement and/or promotion is believed to be linked to the effect of the oligosaccharide of the invention on the gut microbiota. BMO, 2FL or LNnT are only slightly digested in the small intestine, thus the majority becomes available for fermentation by microbiota in the colon. Indeed, BMO or 2FL or LNnT have been shown to promote the growth of intestinal bifidobacteria as reflected by an increase in this family of bacteria in the stools in infants fed Oligosaccharides-supplemented formulas (with BMO, or 2FL and/or LNnT). In short, the present nutritional composition may be used in enhancing memory function via its effect on gut microbiota and gut-brain axis which has been shown in influencing many aspects of brain functioning. One could also contemplate that the improvement in the memory function may be related to an increase the sialic acid (Neu5Ac) concentration in the brain of said individual, mediated by differential metabolic pathways influenced by the gut microbiota. 
     In another aspect the effect of the invention can be linked to the enhancement of the neuroplasticity in the brain of the subject, and/or by enhancing neurodevelopment, neurogenesis, axonal sprouting and/or maturation in the brain of said subject (without to be bound by the theory). 
     The declarative memory, working memory and, more generally, the short-term memory represents essential aspects of the brain function and development and are crucial for the overall cognitive development of the subject. It influences in particular the processing, classification and management of external signals, the learning ability as well as spatial orientation. 
     In one embodiment of the present invention, the declarative memory is recognition memory. Recognition memory is of capital importance in the social and cognitive development, especially of young subjects. 
     In one embodiment the invention present relates to (or is defined by) the use of a nutritional composition comprising a human milk oligosaccharide (for example 2FL and/or LNnT) and/or fructose oligosaccharide (FOS) to improve, enhance or promote declarative memory, short term memory and/or working memory in a mammal. 
     In one embodiment the invention present relates to (or is defined by) the use of the herein described nutritional composition wherein said composition is an infant formula, follow on formula, human milk fortifier, growing up milk, or pet food. 
     In one embodiment the invention present relates to (or is defined by) a Human Milk Oligosaccharide (for example 2FL and/or LNnT) for use in improving, enhancing or promoting short term memory in a mammal wherein said mammal is an infant or a young child. 
     In one embodiment the invention present relates to (or is defined by) a nutritional composition comprising a Human Milk Oligosaccharide (for example 2FL and/or LNnT) for use in improving, enhancing or promoting declarative memory, short term memory and/or working memory in a young human, preferably an infant or young children. The nutritional composition can also comprise one or more of the optional ingredients described herein. 
     In one embodiment the invention present relates to (or is defined by) the use of a Human Milk Oligosaccharide (for example 2FL and/or LNnT) in the manufacture of a nutritional composition for improving, enhancing or promoting declarative memory, short term memory and/or working memory in an infant or young children. 
     Dosage 
     Fructo oligosaccharide/FOS/OF: 
     When present, the nutritional composition of the present invention may contain from 0.1 to 20 g of oligofructose (OF) per 100 g of composition on a dry weight basis, e.g. from 1 to 6 g or from 3 to 5 g of oligofructose (OF) per 100 g of composition on a dry weight basis. 
     The one embodiment of the invention the nutritional composition comprises an amount of fructose oligosaccharide in the following ranges or amount: 
     0.1 to 20 g/L or 0.5 to 10 g/L or 1 to 8 g/L or 2 to 6 g/L or 1.5 g/L or 3 g/L or 5 g/L of nutritional composition, when the composition is in a ready-to-feed liquid form, or 
     0.1 to 20 g/L or 0.5 to 10 g/L or 1 to 8 g/L or 2 to 6 g/L or 1.5 G/L or 3 g/L or 5 g/L (of the liquid diluted form) when the composition is in powder form and intended to be recomposed into a diluted liquid form, or 
     the same as above multiplied by 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 or 100 when the nutritional composition is in the form of a concentrated composition intended to be diluted (respectively 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, or 100 times) into water or human breast milk or intended to be used directly as a concentrated form, or 
     0.4 g to 15 g/100 g of nutrition composition powder, or 0.8 to 10 g/100 g, or 1 to 6 g/100 g, or 2 to 5 g/100 g or 2.1 to 4 g/100 g or 1.2 g/100 g or 2.3 g/100 g or 3.8 g/100 g or 4 g/100 g or 6 g/100 g of nutrition composition powder, when the nutritional composition is in the form of a dry powder. 
     In one embodiment the OF content may be 0.07 g to 3 g/100 kcal of nutrition composition powder, or 0.1 to 2 g/100 kcal, or 0.4 to 1.5 g/100 kcal, or 0.45 to 1 g/100 kcal or 0.45 to 0.75 g/100 kcal or 0.3 g/100 kcal or 0.4 g/100 kcal or 0.5 g/100 kcal or 0.75 g/100 kcal or 1 g/100 kcal of nutrition composition powder, when the nutritional composition is in the form of a dry powder. 
     2FL: 
     The nutritional composition of the present invention may contain from 0.02 to 10 g of 2FL per 100 g of composition on a dry weight basis, e.g. from 0.2 to 0.5 g or from 0.3 to 5 g of 2FL per 100 g of composition on a dry weight basis. 
     The one embodiment of the invention the nutritional composition comprises an amount of 2FL in the following ranges or amount: 
     0.05 to 20 g/L or 0.1 to 5 g/L or 0.2 to 3 g/L or 0.1 to 2 g/L or 0.25 g/L to 1 g/L or 0.25 g/L or 1 g/L of nutritional composition, when the composition is in a ready-to-feed liquid form, or 
     0.05 to 20 g/L or 0.1 to 5 g/L or 0.2 to 3 g/L or 0.1 to 2 g/L or 0.25 g/L to 1 g/L or 0.25 g/L or 1 g/L (of the liquid diluted form) when the composition is in powder form and intended to be recomposed into a diluted liquid form, or 
     the same as above multiplied by 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 or 100 when the nutritional composition is in the form of a concentrated composition intended to be diluted (respectively 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, or 100 times) into water or human breast milk or intended to be used directly as a concentrated form, or 
     0.04 g to 1.5 g/100 g of nutrition composition powder, or 0.08 to 1.2 g/100 g, or 0.1 to 1 g/100 g, or 0.2 to 0.8 g/100 g or 0.2 g/100 g or 0.4 g/100 g or 0.8 g/100 g or 1 g/100 g or 1 g/100 g of nutrition composition powder, when the nutritional composition is in the form of a dry powder. 
     In one embodiment the 2FL content may be 0.01 g to 0.3 or 3 g/100 kcal of nutrition composition powder, or 0.02 to 0.2 g/100 kcal, or 0.04 to 0.15 g/100 kcal, or 0.02 g/100 kcal or 0.04 g/100 kcal or 0.07 g/100 kcal or 0.15 g/100 kcal or 0.3 or 1 or 2 g/100 kcal of nutrition composition powder, when the nutritional composition is in the form of a dry powder. 
     LNnT: 
     The nutritional composition of the present invention may contain from 0.01 to 5 g of LNnT per 100 g of composition on a dry weight basis, e.g. from 0.1 to 0.25 g or from 0.15 to 0.5 g of LNnT per 100 g of composition on a dry weight basis. 
     The one embodiment of the invention the nutritional composition comprises an amount of LNnT in the following ranges or amount: 
     0.02 to 10 g/L or 0.05 to 2.5 g/L or 0.1 to 1.5 g/L or 0.05 to 1 g/L or 0.12 g/L to 0.5 g/L or 0.12 g/L or 0.5 g/L or 1 g/L of nutritional composition, when the composition is in a ready-to-feed liquid form, or 
     0.02 to 10 g/L or 0.05 to 2.5 g/L or 0.1 to 1.5 g/L or 0.05 to 1 g/L or 0.12 g/L to 0.5 g/L or 0.12 g/L or 0.5 g/L or 1 g/L (of the liquid diluted form) when the composition is in powder form and intended to be recomposed into a diluted liquid form, or 
     the same as above multiplied by 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 or 100 when the nutritional composition is in the form of a concentrated composition intended to be diluted (respectively 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, or 100 times) into water or human breast milk or intended to be used directly as a concentrated form, or 
     0.02 g to 0.75 g/100 g of nutrition composition powder, or 0.04 to 0.6 g/100 g, or 0.0.5 to 0.5 g/100 g, or 0.1 to 0.4 g/100 g or 0.1 g/100 g or 0.2 g/100 g or 0.25 g/100 g or 0.5 g/100 g or 1 g/100 g or 3 g/100 g of nutrition composition powder, when the nutritional composition is in the form of a dry powder. 
     In one embodiment the LNnT content may be 0.01 g to 0.3 or 1 or 3 g/100 kcal of nutrition composition powder, or 0.02 to 0.2 g/100 kcal, or 0.04 to 0.15 g/100 kcal, or 0.02 g/100 kcal or 0.04 g/100 kcal or 0.07 g/100 kcal or 0.15 g/100 kcal or 0.3 g/100 kcal of nutrition composition powder, when the nutritional composition is in the form of a dry powder. 
     The composition of the invention, in particular when in the form of an infant formula, can contain at least about 0.4 g of oligofructose of oligofructose per 100 kcal. In some embodiments, it contains from about 0.4 to about 0.9 g, from about 0.4 to about 0.7 g, from about 0.4 to about 0.5 g, from about 0.7 to about 0.8 g, or from about 0.7 to about 0.9 g, oligofructose per 100 kcal. The oligofructose has a degree of polymerization of from 2 to 10. In one embodiment, at least 90% of the oligofructose has a degree of polymerization of from 2 to 8. 
     In one embodiment the nutritional composition comprises 2FL and LNnT, preferably in an amount of 1 g/L 2FL and 0.5 g/L LNnT, or 0.5 g/L 2FL and 0.25 g/L LNnT, or from 0.25 g/L to 2 g/L 2FL and 0.1 to 1 g/L LNnT. 
     Method for Manufacturing the Nutritional Composition 
     The nutritional composition may be prepared in any suitable manner known in the art. For example commercial infant formula of follow-on formula can serve as a base composition to which is added the required amount of oligosaccharides (e.g. OF, 2FL, LNnT or else), preferably in a dry form. Alternatively the oligosaccharide can be added as dry ingredient or liquid ingredient into a liquid premix that will serve as a base to manufacture the nutritional composition of the invention. The liquid mix can then be dried by any conventional means. 
     For example, it may be prepared by blending together a protein source, a carbohydrate source (different from the oligosaccharide combination of the present invention), and a fat source in appropriate proportions. If used, the emulsifiers may be included at this point. The vitamins and minerals may be added at this point but are usually added later to avoid thermal degradation. Any lipophilic vitamins, emulsifiers and the like may be dissolved into the fat source prior to blending. Water, preferably water which has been subjected to reverse osmosis, may then be mixed in to form a liquid mixture. The temperature of the water is conveniently in the range between about 50[deg.]C and about 80[deg.]C to aid dispersal of the ingredients. Commercially available liquefiers may be used to form the liquid mixture. The 3′-Siallylactose (3′-SL) and 6′-Siallylactose (6′-SL) will be added at this stage if the final product is to have a liquid form. If the final product is to be a powder, the 3′-Siallylactose (3′-SL) and 6′-Siallylactose (6′-SL) may likewise be added at this stage if desired. The liquid mixture is then homogenized, for example in two stages. 
     The liquid mixture may then be thermally treated to reduce bacterial loads, by rapidly heating the liquid mixture to a temperature in the range between about 80[deg.]C and about 150[deg.]C for a duration between about 5 seconds and about 5 minutes, for example. This may be carried out by means of steam injection, an autoclave or a heat exchanger, for example a plate heat exchanger. Then, the liquid mixture may be cooled to between about 60[deg.]C and about 85[deg.]C, for example by flash cooling. The liquid mixture may then be again homogenized, for example in two stages between about 10 MPa and about 30 MPa in the first stage and between about 2 MPa and about 10 MPa in the second stage. The homogenized mixture may then be further cooled to add any heat sensitive components, such as vitamins and minerals. The pH and solids content of the homogenized mixture are conveniently adjusted at this point. The homogenized mixture is transferred to a suitable drying apparatus such as a spray dryer or freeze dryer and converted to powder. The powder should have a moisture content of less than about 5% by weight. 
     If a liquid composition is preferred, the homogenized mixture may be sterilized then aseptically filled into suitable containers or may be first filled into the containers and then retorted. 
     Particular Lipids 
     The composition of the invention can comprise selected lipids have particular effects. 
     Those lipids can in particular include DHA, ARA, linoleic acid or Sphingomyelin, preferably in an amount suitable to deliver actual brain health benefits and within the general regulatory requirements for the type of products (for example WHO recommendations for infant formula; CODEX or European directives on infant formula). 
     In some embodiments the composition of the invention comprises a relatively high level of sn2 palmitate or sphingomyelin. Those have been linked to optimum brain performance and development and can act synergistically with essential compounds of the composition of the invention. 
     Although feeding an infant a formula containing a high percentage of sn-2 palmitate (in absence of OF) helps to promote the growth of bifidobacteria in the colon, the combination of high sn-2 palmitate with oligofructose is thought to provide significantly superior growth of bifidobacteria in the colon of formula-fed infants. A significant reduction in the amount of potentially pathogenic bacteria can also be achieved. It has been discovered that feeding an infant a high sn-2 palmitate-containing infant formula containing from about 3 to about 5 g/L, or from about 0.4 to about 0.7 g/100 kcal, of oligofructose is more beneficial than feeding the infant the same formula without oligofructose. Without being bound by the theory such synergistic effect between OF and sn2 palmitate can also promote short term memory though in particular (but most probably not only) its effect on the microbiome of the subject and the population of bifidobacteria. “High Sn2 Palmitate” is to be understood as ingredients having a high % of the fatty acids (preferably more than 33% of the fatty acids) as palmitate in the sn2 position of the Triglycerides. Such ingredients are commercially available under the trade name BETAPOL® (Loders Croklaan, Wormerveer, Netherlands) or INFAT® (Advanced Lipids AB, Karlshamn, Sweden, joint venture of AAK B.V. (Zaandijk, Netherlands) and Enzymotec Inc, Morristown, USA). 
     Recent infant clinical studies have shown that nutritional formulas containing at least one omega 6 fatty acid and at least one omega 3 fatty acid in a ratio of from about 6 to about 1 increased DHA accretion in erythrocytes and plasma. A balanced ratio of about 6:1 of omega 6 fatty acid to omega 3 fatty acid may also provide long term health benefits including optimum brain and neurological development. Such balance will be achieved by formulating the present invention with vegetable oil fat sources that have omega 6 fatty acid content, such as, for example, soybean oil and sunflower oil, and omega 3 fatty acid content, for example, rapeseed, canola, flaxseed, chia, perlla or walnuts. A unique fat blend with 5 different oils will be used to achieve the modified fat blend. 
     The following examples are presented to illustrate certain embodiments and features of the present invention, but should not be construed as limiting the scope of this invention. 
     EXAMPLES 
     Example 1: Nutritional Composition Comprising 2FL and/or LNnT 
     A nutritional composition of the invention comprising Oligofructose (OF) and/or 2FL and/or LNnT is given in Table 1 below. This composition is given by way of illustration only. The composition of table 1 can be an infant formula. Alternatively is can be adapted to be a follow-on formula. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Nutrients 
                 per 100 kcal 
                 per litre 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
                 Energy (kcal) 
                 100 
                 670 
               
               
                   
                 Proteins (g) 
                  1.83 
                  12.3 
               
               
                   
                 Fats (g) 
                  5.3 
                  35.7 
               
               
                   
                 Linoleic acid (g) 
                  0.79 
                  5.3 
               
               
                   
                 α-Linolenic acid (mg) 
                 101 
                 675 
               
               
                   
                 Lactose (g) 
                  11.2 
                  74.7 
               
               
                   
                 Minerals (g) 
                  0.37 
                  2.5 
               
               
                   
                 Na (mg) 
                  23 
                 150 
               
               
                   
                 K (mg) 
                  89 
                 590 
               
               
                   
                 Cl (mg) 
                  64 
                 430 
               
               
                   
                 Ca (mg) 
                  62 
                 410 
               
               
                   
                 P (mg) 
                  31 
                 210 
               
               
                   
                 Mg (mg) 
                  7 
                  50 
               
               
                   
                 Mn (μg) 
                  8 
                  50 
               
               
                   
                 Se (μg) 
                  2 
                  13 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin A (μg RE) 
                 105 
                 700 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin D (μg) 
                  1.5 
                  10 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin E (mg TE) 
                  0.8 
                  5.4 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin K1 (μg) 
                  8 
                  54 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin C (mg) 
                  10 
                  67 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin B1 (mg) 
                  0.07 
                  0.47 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin B2 (mg) 
                  0.15 
                  1.0 
               
               
                   
                 Niacin (mg) 
                  1 
                  6.7 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin B6 (mg) 
                  0.075 
                  0.50 
               
               
                   
                 Folic acid (μg) 
                  9 
                  60 
               
               
                   
                 Pantothenic acid (mg) 
                  0.45 
                  3 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin B12 (μg) 
                  0.3 
                  2 
               
               
                   
                 Biotin (μg) 
                  2.2 
                  15 
               
               
                   
                 Choline (mg) 
                  10 
                  67 
               
               
                   
                 Fe (mg) 
                  1.2 
                  8 
               
               
                   
                 I (μg) 
                  15 
                 100 
               
               
                   
                 Cu (mg) 
                  0.06 
                  0.4 
               
               
                   
                 Zn (mg) 
                  0.75 
                  5 
               
               
                   
                 2FL (g) and/or 
                  0.04 or 0.15 
                  0.25 or 1 
               
               
                   
                 LNnT (g) 
                  0.01 or 0.07 
                  0.1 or 0.5 
               
               
                   
                 Oligofructose (OF) (g) 
                  0.45 or 0.75 
                  3 or 5 
               
               
                   
                 (optional) 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 3′-SL (g) (optional) 
                  0.22 
                  1.46 
               
               
                   
                 6′-SL (g) (optional) 
                  0.05 
                  0.33 
               
               
                   
                 Ratio 3′-SL:6′-SL 
                 4.4:1 
                 4.4:1 
               
               
                   
                 (optional) 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 BMOs (g) (optional) 
                  0.4 or 2 
                  3 or 15 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Example 2: Infant Formula Comprising HMOs (2FL and/or LNnT), Optional BMOs and/or Oligofructose (OF) 
     A nutritional composition of the invention comprising Oligofructose (OF) and optionally 2FL and/or LNnT is given in Table 2 below. This composition is given by way of illustration only. The composition of Table 2 is an infant formula. Alternatively is can be adapted to be a follow-on formula. 
     Another example is based on commercial NAN and/or lactogen Infant formulae (from Nestle, Switzerland) to which the specific oligosaccharides of the invention are added as in the amount stated below. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Nutrient 
                 per 100 kcal 
                 per litre 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
                 Energy (kcal) 
                 100 
                 670 
               
               
                   
                 Protein (g) 
                  1.83 
                  12.3 
               
               
                   
                 Fat (g) 
                  5.3 
                  35.7 
               
               
                   
                 Linoleic acid (g) 
                  0.79 
                  5.3 
               
               
                   
                 α-Linolenic acid (mg) 
                 101 
                 675 
               
               
                   
                 Lactose (g) 
                  11.2 
                  74.7 
               
               
                   
                 Prebiotic (70%OF, 30% 
                  0.64 
                  4.3 
               
               
                   
                 insulin) (g) 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 (For example Beneo- 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Orafti ® P95 and Inulin 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Beneo-Orafti ® 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 (optional) 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 2FL (g) and/or 
                  0.3 
                  2 
               
               
                   
                 LNnT (mg) 
                  30 
                 200 
               
               
                   
                 Minerals (g) 
                  0.37 
                  2.5 
               
               
                   
                 Na (mg) 
                  23 
                 150 
               
               
                   
                 K (mg) 
                  89 
                 590 
               
               
                   
                 Cl (mg) 
                  64 
                 430 
               
               
                   
                 Ca (mg) 
                  62 
                 410 
               
               
                   
                 P (mg) 
                  31 
                 210 
               
               
                   
                 Mg (mg) 
                  7 
                  50 
               
               
                   
                 Mn (μg) 
                  8 
                  50 
               
               
                   
                 Se (μg) 
                  2 
                  13 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin A (μg RE) 
                 105 
                 700 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin D (μg) 
                  1.5 
                  10 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin E (mg TE) 
                  0.8 
                  5.4 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin K1 (μg) 
                  8 
                  54 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin C (mg) 
                  10 
                  67 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin B1 (mg) 
                  0.07 
                  0.47 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin B2 (mg) 
                  0.15 
                  1.0 
               
               
                   
                 Niacin (mg) 
                  1 
                  6.7 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin B6 (mg) 
                  0.075 
                  0.50 
               
               
                   
                 Folic acid (μg) 
                  9 
                  60 
               
               
                   
                 Pantothenic acid (mg) 
                  0.45 
                  3 
               
               
                   
                 Vitamin B12 (μg) 
                  0.3 
                  2 
               
               
                   
                 Biotin (μg) 
                  2.2 
                  15 
               
               
                   
                 Choline (mg) 
                  10 
                  67 
               
               
                   
                 Fe (mg) 
                  1.2 
                  8 
               
               
                   
                 I (pg) 
                  15 
                 100 
               
               
                   
                 Cu (mg) 
                  0.06 
                  0.4 
               
               
                   
                 Zn (mg) 
                  0.75 
                  5 
               
               
                   
                 3′sialyllactose (mg) 
                  30 
                 200 
               
               
                   
                 (optional) 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 6′sialyllactose (mg) 
                  6 
                  40 
               
               
                   
                 (optional) 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 BMOs (g) (optional) 
                  0.9 
                  6 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Experimental Data 
     In a piglet study, we investigated the impact of various oligosaccharides on recognition memory (Human Milk Oligosaccharides, Bovine Milk Oligosaccharides). Forty-eight male piglet (12 per treatment group) were treated from 48 h post-farrowing until 33 days of life with either control (CON, Purina ProNurse Livestock Milk Replacer), Human Milk Oligosaccharide (HMO) (CON+1.5 g/L HMO (composed of 1.0 g/L 2′FL+0.5 g/L LNnT) or Bovine Milk Oligosaccharides (BMO) (6.5 g/L of BMOS) or HMO+BMOS (1.0 g/L 2′FL+0.5 g/L LNnT+6.5 g/L BMOS). All diets contained a formulation space of 8.0 g/L that was reserved for addition of dietary test articles. Piglets were fed at a rate of 285 mL and 325 mL of reconstituted diet per kg BW from PND 2-6 and PND 7-33, respectively. Piglet were tested in the recognition memory between PND 22 and 31, and were scanned in the MRI on day 32 or 33. 
     The BMOS mixture used in the formulae was derived from bovine milk whey. Briefly, an ultrafiltration permeate of bovine whey including oligosaccharides such as 3′- and 6′-sialyllactose and GOS was demineralised by a combination of electrodialysis and ion exchange, as described in the art. 
     Behavioral Testing 
     Novel Object Recognition (NOR): 
     NOR, a perirhinal dependent task, was used to assess recognition memory. Testing consisted of a habituation phase, a sample phase, and a test phase. During the habituation phase, pigs were placed in an empty testing arena for 10 minutes each day for two days leading up to the sample phase. In the sample phase, the pig was placed in the arena containing two identical objects and was given 5 minutes for exploration. After a delay of 1 hour or 2 days (48 hours), the pig was returned to the arena for the test phase. During the test phase, the pig was placed in the arena containing one object from the sample phase as well as a novel object and allowed to explore for 5 minutes. Between trials objects were removed, immersed in hot water with detergent, and rubbed with a towel to mitigate odor, and the arena was sprayed with water and mopped to remove urine and feces. Objects chosen had a range of characteristics (i.e., color, texture, shape, and size), however the novel and sample objects only differed in shape and size. Only objects previously shown to elicit a null preference were used for testing. 
     Task order was counterbalanced between replicates. Habituation trials began at 22 days of age, and samples trials on the NOR task began at 25 days of age. The amount of time exploring objects and distance moved was measured using a combination of automated procedures using Ethovision and manual tracking. Exploratory behavior was broken down into 20 behavioral endpoints to assess effects of diet on behavioral performance. Recognition index was used to measure recognition memory (time spent exploring the new object)/(time spent exploring the new object+time spent exploring the known object). 
     Statistical Analysis 
     All data generated as part of this study were subjected to an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using the MIXED procedure of SAS 9.4 (SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, N.C.). All statistical models employed included replicate as a random effect and data collected at a single time-point (habituation and sample trials) were analyzed by a 2-way ANOVA, and 2) data collected from the same animal on more than one occasion (e.g., multiple test trials etc.) were analyzed as a 3-way repeated-measures ANOVA. Post-hoc comparisons were analyzed for significant interaction effects via adjusted Tukey Test. For some behavioral outcomes (Table 2) a one sample t-test was conducted. In all instances, statistical significant was considered at P&lt;0.05, with trending significance considered at P&lt;0.10 
     Results 
     Recognition Index: 
     The influence of the diets on the recognition index is shown in Table 3 and  FIG. 1 . 
     Results: 
     HMO alone results in statistically significant increase in recognition memory with 1 h inter-trial interval but surprisingly failed to improve recognition memory in with the 2d inter-trial interval. This suggests a clear positive effect of HMO (2′FL+LNnT) on short-term recognition memory. HMO+BMO results in numerical increase in recognition memory with 1 h inter-trial interval and statistically significant increase in recognition memory with 24 h inter-trial interval. 
     In other words, the inventors observed a statistically significant increase of recognition memory, measured by the recognition index, in the group treated with HMO (2′FL+LNnT) with 1 h delay (short term memory) compared to CON. This effect was observed on a background of no change of long-term recognition memory (2-days delay). BMO (bovine milk oligosaccharides) alone, acting as a negative control, had no specific effect on short term memory. The effect on short term memory (1 hour) also appeared to be present in the group of HMO+BMO. Furthermore we also observed a statistically significant increase of recognition memory in the group treated with HMO (2′FL and LNnT)+BMOS with a 2 days delay (long term memory. 
     These results show the effect of the HMO nutritional intervention on short term memory, and HMO+BMO on both short term memory and long term memory 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Effects of oligosaccharide supplementation on recognition memory  
               
               
                 during the test trial of the novel object recognition task 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Recognition 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Delay 
                 Diet 
                 N 
                 Index 
                 SEM 
                 P-Value 3   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 1 
                 Control 
                 10 
                 0.515 
                 0.055 
                 0.397 
               
               
                 Hour 
                 HMO 
                 10 
                 0.619 
                 0.059 
                 0.038 
               
               
                   
                 BMO 
                 10 
                 0.469 
                 0.071 
                 0.663 
               
               
                   
                 HMO + BMO 
                 10 
                 0.593 
                 0.064 
                 0.090 
               
               
                 48 
                 Control 
                 10 
                 0.520 
                 0.085 
                 0.372 
               
               
                 Hours 
                 HMO 
                 11 
                 0.492 
                 0.081 
                 0.540 
               
               
                   
                 BMO 
                 8 
                 0.548 
                 0.091 
                 0.309 
               
               
                   
                 HMO + BMO 
                 10 
                 0.598 
                 0.052 
                 0.045 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   3 P-value from one-tailed t-test for recognition index above 0.50.