Patent Publication Number: US-2013231034-A1

Title: Method and apparatus for processing livestock carcasses to destroy microorganisms

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     The present application is based on and claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/602,970, filed Feb. 24, 2012, the content of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
     None. 
     THE NAMES OF PARTIES TO A JOINT RESEARCH AGREEMENT 
     None. 
     FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE 
     The present disclosure relates to processing livestock carcasses such as poultry and other products to deactivate or destroy microorganisms on the carcasses by a mechanism such as electroporation and/or electrohydraulic shock. In one particular example, the disclosure relates to applying an electrical potential to microorganisms on the surface of a carcass through a liquid delivered to the carcass by an apparatus. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE 
     A typical poultry processing plant includes an overhead conveyor in which live birds are hung by their feet from a shackle and carried by the conveyor through a series of processing stations. For example, the birds are stunned, bled, scalded, defeathered, eviscerated, rinsed and chilled. 
     Carcasses of poultry are typically scalded after slaughter to facilitate removal of feathers. At the scalding station, the bird carcasses are immersed in hot water or steam. After scalding, the carcasses are passed through the picker, which includes a large number of rubber fingers that beat against the carcass to remove the feathers. The carcass is then eviscerated, cleaned and chilled. 
     The various processing steps contaminate the carcasses by release bacteria from the feathers, internal organs and intestines of the carcasses as they pass through the stations. 
     In an effort to reduce the bacterial loads on the carcasses, the carcasses are often passed through one or more rinsing stations between various steps of the process. It has been found that rinsing the carcasses is only partially effective in disinfecting the carcasses. Therefore, chemicals are often used to improve the disinfecting process. For example, the carcasses may be immersed in a bath or sprayed with a liquid containing chlorine or another chemical to improve disinfection. However, this leaves the carcasses with chlorine or other chemical residue, which is considered by the present inventors as being undesirable. Similar problems occur when processing other types of livestock carcasses. 
     SUMMARY 
     An illustrative aspect of the present disclosure is directed to an apparatus, which includes a livestock carcass travel path, at least one liquid dispenser configured to dispense liquid to the carcass travel path, and at least one treatment electrode. A control circuit is configured to cause an alternating electric field to be generated between the electrode and a surface of a carcass along the travel path, through the dispensed liquid. 
     Another illustrative aspect of the present disclosure is directed to a method, which includes receiving a livestock carcass along a travel path. A liquid is dispensed from at least one liquid dispenser to the carcass along the travel path, so as to create an electrically conductive path from the liquid dispenser to the carcass. During the step of dispensing, an alternating electric field is generated through the liquid along the conductive path, wherein the electric field is applied to the liquid with a treatment electrode and is sufficient to destroy at least one microorganism on a surface of the carcass. 
     Another illustrative aspect of the present disclosure is directed to a poultry rinse cabinet. The cabinet includes a poultry carcass travel path extending through the rinse cabinet, and at least one liquid flow path. First and second sets of spray nozzles are positioned on first and second opposing sides of the carcass travel path, each spray nozzle in the first and second sets being coupled to at least one of the liquid flow paths and being oriented to direct a respective spray output toward the carcass travel path. The cabinet also includes a respective treatment electrode for each of the spray nozzles in the first and second sets, wherein each treatment electrode is electrically coupled to at least one of the respective liquid travel path or the respective spray output. A control circuit is configured to cause an alternating electric field to be generated between each of the treatment electrodes and the carcass travel path, through the respective spray outputs, which is sufficient to destroy at least one microorganism on a surface of a carcass along the travel path. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a diagram illustrating a livestock carcass processing system, with a plucker and a rinse cabinet positioned along a conveyor. 
         FIG. 1A  is a top plan, diagrammatic view of the processing system shown in  FIG. 1 . 
         FIG. 2  is a simplified, schematic diagram of the rinse cabinet. 
         FIG. 3  is a waveform diagram illustrating an example of the voltage pattern applied to an electrolysis cell in the rinse cabinet according to an exemplary aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 4  is an exploded view of a nozzle within the rinse cabinet, which has an attached high-voltage electroporation electrode according to an illustrative embodiment of the disclosure. 
         FIG. 5A  is a diagram illustrating an example of conductive paths formed between a spray nozzle and a surface by an electrically charged output spray. 
         FIG. 5B  is a diagram illustrating an example of an electroporation mechanism, whereby a cell suspended in a medium is subjected to an electric field. 
         FIG. 5C  is a diagram illustrating an example of a cell membrane having pores expanded by electroporation. 
         FIG. 6  is an example of a waveform diagram illustrating the voltage pattern applied to an electroporation electrode in the rinse cabinet according to an exemplary aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 7  is a block diagram of an example of a control circuit for controlling electrolysis cell(s) in the rinse cabinet according to an exemplary aspect of the disclosure. 
         FIG. 8  is a block diagram of an example of a control circuit for controlling the electroporation electrode(s) in the rinse cabinet according to an exemplary aspect of the disclosure. 
         FIG. 9A  is a perspective view of an electrolysis cell according to an exemplary aspect of the disclosure, which can be used in the rinse cabinet shown in  FIG. 1 . 
         FIG. 9B  is a cross-sectional view of the electrolysis cell taken along lines  9 B- 9 B of  FIG. 9A . 
         FIG. 10A  is a perspective view of a prototype rinse cabinet according to an exemplary aspect of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 10B  is a side elevation view of the prototype rinse cabinet shown in  FIG. 10A . 
         FIG. 10C  is a partial elevation view of a first side of the prototype rinse cabinet shown in  FIG. 10A . 
         FIG. 10D  is a partial elevation view of a second, opposing side of the prototype rinse cabinet shown in  FIG. 10A . 
         FIG. 10E  is an end elevation view of the prototype rinse cabinet shown in  FIG. 10A . 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS 
     The following is provided as a description of examples of one or more aspects of the present disclosure. The below detailed description and above-referenced figures should not to be read as limiting or narrowing the scope of the invention as will be claimed in issued claims. It will be appreciated that other embodiments of the invention covered by one or more of the claims may have structure and function which are different in one or more aspects from the figures and examples discussed herein, and may embody different structures, methods and/or combinations thereof of making or using the invention as claimed in the claims, for example. 
     Also, the following description is divided into sections with one or more section headings. These sections and headings are provided for ease of reading only and, for example, do not limit one or more aspects of the disclosure discussed in a particular section and/or section heading with respect to a particular example and/or embodiment from being combined with, applied to, and/or utilized in another particular example, and/or embodiment which is described in another section and/or section heading. Elements, features and other aspects of one or more examples may be combined and/or interchangeable with elements, features and other aspects of one or more other examples described herein. 
     An aspect of the present disclosure for example relates to sanitizing livestock carcasses by applying an output fluid (including a liquid stream and/or a gas/liquid mixture, water vapor, gaseous liquid, mist, spray or aerosol mixture for example), which has enhanced sanitizing properties, to the carcass. The sanitizing properties are enhanced, for example, by applying an electric field, such as an alternating electric field, to the surface of the carcass through the output fluid. The electric field applied to the carcass, and thus to cells of microorganisms on a carcass, meets or surpasses a threshold such that the cells become permanently damaged by a process known as irreversible electroporation, for example. If the electric field threshold is reached or surpassed, electroporation will compromise viability of the cells, resulting in irreversible electroporation. Thus, one or more examples of the present disclosure deliver an applied electric field to the carcass through a charged output liquid. 
     In one or more examples, the microorganisms are suspended from the surface of the carcass by liquid dispensed from spray nozzles and through which the electric field is applied. Such suspension can be enhanced, for example by electrochemically activating the output liquid with an electrolysis cell, for example, which alters the oxidation-reduction potential of the liquid to exceed about +/−50 millivolts, for example. The electrolysis cell can, for example, increase the ORP of a liquid to aid in suspension of the microorganisms through the action of charged nanobubbles, for example. Other mechanisms can also be used to alter a liquid&#39;s ORP and/or enhance suspension of particles and microorganisms from a surface. 
     In a particular example, the output fluid is applied to the carcasses at one or more stages in a livestock processing plant as the livestock carcasses are moved along one or more conveyors through the various stages of the plant. 
     1. Example Processing System 
       FIG. 1  is a diagram illustrating a livestock carcass processing system  10  according to an illustrative aspect of the present disclosure in which the livestock carcasses are treated by an electric field applied through an output spray as the carcasses pass through the system. In addition, for example, the output spray has enhanced suspension properties for suspending bacteria and other microorganisms from the surface of the carcasses as the microorganisms are treated by the electric field. 
     In the example shown in  FIG. 1 , the system  10  illustrates a portion of a poultry processing plant, which includes a picker  12  and a rinse cabinet  14 . An overhead conveyor  16  moves poultry carcasses through the various stages of the plant in the direction of arrow  18 . The overhead conveyor  16  carries a plurality of shackles  20  on which the poultry carcasses  22  are hung. In one particular example, the shackles  20  are spaced about 6 inches apart from one another along conveyor  16 , as measured center-to-center. Other distances can also be used. The conveyor can be configured to move the carcasses through picker  12  and rinse cabinet  14  at any suitable rate, such as 50-300 feet per minute, and at 110 feet per minute processes about 13,200 carcasses per hour. 
     Picker  12  can include any suitable picker, such as a picker having a large number of rubber fingers (also called whips) that beat against the carcasses to remove the feathers as the carcasses pass through the picker. For example, the rubber fingers may be mounted on one or more rotating shafts, drums or heads, which are positioned within the cabinet so the fingers strike the carcasses as they pass. For example, the shafts, drums or heads can be positioned on opposite sides of the cabinet and can be counter-rotating. 
     Rinse cabinet  14  can have any length, such as 12-18 feet long, and includes an array of spray nozzles for spraying an output fluid (such as tap water or electrolyzed tap water) onto the carcasses as the carcasses pass through the cabinet. As explained in more detail below, the electrolyzed water applied to the carcasses assists in suspending microorganisms and dirt from the surface of the carcasses. Electrolysis can, for example, increase the ORP of a liquid to aid in suspension of the microorganisms through the action of charged nanobubbles, for example. Other mechanisms, such as an additive, can be used to alter a liquid&#39;s ORP and/or enhance suspension of particles and microorganisms from a surface. 
     In order to enhance the sanitizing properties of the output liquid that is applied to the carcasses, an electric field is applied to carcasses through the output liquid. For example, the electric field may be applied through one or more high voltage “electroporation electrodes”, which makes electrical contact with the output liquid at any suitable location along the liquid flow path. In a particular example, the electrodes are placed as near as possible to the spray output. If the nozzle is electrically conductive, the electrode may be connected directly to the nozzle, for example. A respective electrode may be attached to each of the nozzles in rinse cabinet  14 . In another example, a respective electrode is electrically connected to an electrically-conductive barb that is inserted into the flow path leading to each nozzle. In a further embodiment, an electrode can be positioned within the output spray, itself, following the nozzle. Although the term “electroporation electrode” is used in the description to refer to an electrode that applies an electric field through the output liquid, this term is used for convenience only and is not intended to limit its operation or effect on microorganisms to a process of electroporation. 
     In an example, the various nozzles in rinse cabinet  14  are positioned such that all or substantially all exterior surfaces of each carcass are directly contacted with an output spray and to maintain consistent contact with the various output sprays as the carcasses are moved along the travel path through rinse cabinet  14 . The length of cabinet  14 , the number and location of spray nozzles, their orientations and the travel rate of the carcasses can be adjusted to achieve a desired “contact time” with the output sprays, and thus the applied electric fields, within the rinse cabinet. 
     In one aspect of the present disclosure, rinse cabinet  14  is positioned relative to picker  12  such that the poultry carcasses are treated by in rinse cabinet as soon as possible after the carcasses are plucked by picker  12 . It has been found that bacteria deposited on the skin of a plucked carcass quickly begins to attached and absorb into the skin, thus making it more difficult to sanitize the carcass through a rinse process, even if the rinse process applies a chemical agent, such as chlorine. 
     In one example, the physical spacing of rinse cabinet  14  from picker  10  and the rate of conveyor  16  are set such that each carcass  22  is treated with an applied electric field, through an output spray, within a predetermined time period of exiting picker  12 , such as zero to 30 seconds, or zero to 10 seconds. Other time periods can also be used. This reduces the efficacy requirements of the cleaning and/or sanitizing process performed by rinse cabinet  14 . For example, it may be desirable for a particular processing plant to achieve at least a 1 log 10  bacterial reduction relative to untreated water only in rinse cabinet  14  if the carcasses are treated within a predetermined time of plucking. Based on the rate of advancement and the length of rinse cabinet  14 , each carcass may have a treatment time within cabinet  14  of approximately 6 seconds to 24 seconds, for example. 
     In another example, rinse cabinet  14  is combined with spray cabinet  12 . The spray nozzles may be stationary relative to the rubber fingers, and are positioned to apply the output spray and electric field to the carcasses as the carcasses are beat by the rubber fingers. In another example, the spray nozzles are positioned within picker cabinet  12  before and/or after the rubber fingers, relative to the direction of movement  18  of conveyor  16 . 
     Rinse cabinet  14  may have housing walls, such as shown in  FIG. 1 , which partially enclose, substantially enclose or completely enclose the carcass travel path. In other embodiments, rinse cabinet  14  has no enclosure. 
       FIG. 1A  is a top plan, diagrammatic view of processing system  10 , with plucker  12  and rinse cabinet  14  positioned along conveyor  16 . Rinse cabinet  14  includes a plurality of spray nozzles  38  positioned on opposing sides of the carcass travel path through the cabinet. One or more electrolysis cells  36  feed spray nozzles  38  with electrolyzed liquid (e.g., electrolyzed tap water) for spraying onto the carcasses. As illustrated in greater detail below, one or more of the nozzles  38  includes an electrode for applying an electric field to the carcasses through the spray output. For example, each nozzle  38  includes a respective electrode. 
     The number, arrangement and grouping of nozzles, electrodes and electrolysis cells in rinse cabinet  14  can be selected as desired. The arrangement shown in  FIG. 1A  is provided as a simplified example only. An exemplary commercial embodiment may include a larger number of nozzles, electrodes and electrolysis cells than shown in  FIG. 1A . 
     2. Simplified Block Diagram of Rinse Cabinet 
       FIG. 2  is a simplified, schematic diagram of rinse cabinet  14 . As shown, rinse cabinet  14  includes liquid source  30 , control electronics  32 , pump  34 , one or more electrolysis cells  36 , and one or more liquid dispensers (e.g., nozzles)  38  and associated electroporation electrodes  40 . 
     Liquid source  30  may include a reservoir or a fluid line coupling for containing and/or receiving a feed liquid to be treated and then applied to the livestock carcasses or other products through nozzles  40  as the carcasses are conveyed passed the nozzles by conveyor  16  (shown in  FIG. 1 ) along the direction of arrow  18 . Rinse cabinet  14  may include nozzles  38  positioned on one side, opposite sides, or multiple sides of carcass  22 . In some embodiments, the feed liquid may include one or more additives, such as electrolytic compositions (e.g. salts), which are desirably dissolved or otherwise suspended in the feed liquid. In other embodiments, the feed liquid may consist essentially of tap water. The following discussion of the cleaning systems of the present disclosure (e.g., cleaning system  10 ) is made with reference to water (e.g., tap water) as the feed liquid with the understanding that the cleaning systems of the present disclosure may be used with a variety of different feed liquids. 
     Control electronics  32  may include one or more printed circuit boards containing electronic devices for powering and controlling the operation of pump  34 , electrolysis cells  36 , electroporation electrodes  40 , and other suitable components of rinse cabinet  14 , for example. For example, control electronics  32  may apply electrical power from electrical source  42  to pump  34 , electrolysis cell  36 , and electrodes  40 , respectively over electrical lines  44 ,  46 , and  48  during operation. 
     In one embodiment, control electronics  42  simultaneously applies electrical power to pump  34 , electrolysis cell  36 , and electrodes  40 . This embodiment is beneficial for providing an on-demand activation of pump  34 , electrolysis cell  36 , and electrodes  40 , such as when a plant control system for processing system  10  (shown in  FIG. 1 ) and/or plant operator actuates a control mechanism (such as a switch) to activate control electronics  32  during motion of conveyor  16 . Alternatively, control electronics  32  may apply electrical power independently to pump  34 , electrolysis cell  36 , and/or electrodes  40 . 
     Pump  34  may include one or more liquid pumps operated by control electronics  32  to draw the feed water from liquid source  30  through fluid lines  50  and  52  at a predetermined flow rate and/or pressure. The predetermined flow rate and/or pressure may be based on a fixed pumping rate, or may be adjustable by control electronics  32  over electrical line  44 , thereby allowing the flow rate and/or pressure within line  50  of the feed water to be adjusted. 
     In the shown embodiment, pump  34  is located downstream from liquid source  30  and upstream from electrolysis cell  36  for drawing water from liquid source  30  to electrolysis cell  36 . In alternative embodiments, pump  34  may be positioned at any suitable location along the flow path between liquid source  30  and nozzles  40 . 
     2.1 Electrolysis 
     Rinse cabinet  14  includes one or more electrolysis cells  36 , which receive the pumped feed water from pump  34  over fluid lines  52 , which split into inlet lines  54  and  56  prior to (or after) entering electrolysis cells  36 . In particular example, a first portion of the feed water may flow through inlet line  54 , and is directed into anode chamber  60  of electrolysis cell  36 . Correspondingly, a second portion of the feed water in inlet line  56  is directed into cathode chamber  62  of electrolysis cell  36 . Rinse cabinet  14  may include multiple electrolysis cells  36  arranged serially and/or in parallel with one another. In one particular example, rinse cabinet  14  includes six electrolysis cells  36  connected together in parallel with one another. 
     In one embodiment, each electrolysis cell  36  includes a barrier  70 , an anode electrode  72 , and a cathode electrode  74 , where barrier  70  includes a membrane or other diaphragm that separates anode chamber  60  and cathode chamber  62 . Anode electrode  72  includes one or more electrodes located in anode chamber  60 . Correspondingly, cathode electrode  74  includes one or more electrodes located in cathode chamber  62 . 
     Barrier  70  has pores in a range of about 1 micron to about 200 microns, for example. With small pores sizes, the barrier can act as a selective ion exchange membrane. In embodiments in which barrier  70  includes an ion exchange membrane, barrier  70  can include a cation exchange membrane (i.e., a proton exchange membrane) or an anion exchange membrane. Suitable cation exchange membranes for barrier  70  include partially and fully fluorinated ionomers, polyaromatic ionomers, and combinations thereof. Examples of suitable commercially available ionomers for barrier  70  include sulfonated tetrafluorethylene copolymers available under the trademark “NAFION” from E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Wilmington, Del.; perfluorinated carboxylic acid ionomers available under the trademark “FLEMION” from Asahi Glass Co., Ltd., Japan; perfluorinated sulfonic acid ionomers available under the trademark “ACIPLEX” Aciplex from Asahi Chemical Industries Co. Ltd., Japan; and combinations thereof. 
     In another embodiment, barrier  70  includes a material that does not act as a selective ion exchange membrane, but maintains general separation of the anode and cathode compartments. In one particular example, the barrier material includes pores having diameters of about 100-110 microns, whereas typical pore sizes of a selective ion exchange membrane may be about 1 micron in diameter, for example. These large pores conduct current between the anode and cathode electrodes and facilitate production of bubbles in the output liquid. Exemplary materials for such a barrier include polypropylene, polyester, nylon, PEEK mesh, Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and thermoplastic mesh, for example. In a particular example, the barrier material includes polypropylene having a thickness of 10 mils (0.254 mm). Other materials and material thicknesses can also be used. 
     In a further embodiment, electrolysis cells  36  contain no barrier between the anode and cathode electrodes. This embodiment is believed to reduce the resistance between the cell electrodes and therefore increase the current applied to the liquid passing through the cell. Increasing the applied current is believed to favorably increase the amount of dissolved hydrogen and oxygen in the treated liquid. 
     Electrodes  72  and  74  can be made from any suitable material, such as titanium and/or titanium coated with a precious metal, such as platinum, or any other suitable electrode material. The electrodes and respective chambers can have any suitable shape and construction. For example, electrodes  72  and  74  can be flat plates, coaxial plates, rods, or a combination thereof, and may be solid or mesh (i.e., porous). In one specific example, the mesh is formed of 0.023-inch diameter T316 (or, e.g. 304) stainless steel having a grid pattern of 20×20 grid openings per square inch. In other embodiments the electrodes include titanium with an iridium oxide, platinum or white gold coating, for example. In one specific example, the electrodes are titanium mesh electrodes with an iridium oxide coating and are spaced apart from one another by a gap of about 15-50 thousandths of an inch (0.015 inch to 0.050 inch; or 0.38 mm to 1.27 mm), such as 0.030 inches (0.76 mm). Alternatively, one or both electrodes may be solid. Other dimensions, arrangements and materials can be used in other examples. 
     Electrodes  72  and  74  are electrically connected to opposite terminals of a power supply, such as electrical source  42 , through control electronics  32  and electrical line  46 . During operation, control electronics  32  may apply a voltage potential across anode electrode  72  and cathode electrode  76 . Control electronics  32  can provide a constant DC output voltage, a pulsed or otherwise modulated DC output voltage, and/or a pulsed or otherwise modulated AC output voltage to electrodes  72  and  74 , for example. In the shown embodiment, rinse cabinet  14  may also include current sensor  80  located along electrical line  46  and/or within electrolysis cell  36  to detect the intensity of the current drawn through electrolysis cell  36 . 
       FIG. 3  is a diagram, which illustrates the voltage pattern applied to the anode and cathode of electrolysis cell  36  according to an exemplary aspect of the present disclosure. A substantially constant, relatively positive voltage is applied to the anode, while a substantially constant, relatively negative voltage is applied to the cathode. However, periodically each voltage may be briefly pulsed to a relatively opposite polarity to repel scale deposits. In some examples, there is a desire to limit scale deposits from building on the electrode surfaces. In this example, a relatively positive voltage is applied to the anode and a relatively negative voltage is applied to the cathode from times t 0 -t 1 , t 2 -t 3 , t 4 -t 5  and t 6 -t 7 . During times t 1 -t 2 , t 3 -t 4 , t 5 -t 6  and t 7 -t 8 , the voltage applied to each electrode is reversed. The reversed voltage level can have the same magnitude as the non-reversed voltage level or can have a different magnitude if desired. 
     The frequency of each brief polarity switch can be selected as desired. As the frequency of reversal increases, the amount of scaling decreases. However, the electrodes may lose small amounts of platinum (in the case of platinum coated electrodes) with each reversal. As the frequency of reversals decreases, scaling may increase. In one example, the time period between reversals, as shown by arrow  100 , is in the range of about 1 second to about 600 seconds. Other periods outside this range can also be used. In this example, the time period of normal polarity  103 , such as between times t 2  and t 3 , is at least 900 milliseconds. 
     The time period at which the voltages are reversed can also be selected as desired. In one example, the reversal time period, represented by arrow  102 , is in the range of about 50 milliseconds to about 100 milliseconds. Other periods outside this range can also be used. 
     With these ranges, for example, each anode chamber produces a substantially constant anolyte EA liquid output, and each cathode chamber produces a substantially constant catholyte EA output without requiring valving. 
     In another example, the anode and cathode electrodes are driven at one polarity for a specified period of time (e.g., about 5 seconds) and then driven at the reverse polarity for approximately the same period of time. If the anolyte and cathotlyte liquids are blended at the outlet of the cell, this process produces essentially one part anolyte EA liquid to one part catholyte EA liquid. 
     If the number of anode electrodes is different than the number of cathode electrodes, e.g., a ratio of 3:2, or if the surface area of the anode electrode is different than the surface area of the cathode electrode, then the applied voltage pattern can be used in the above-manner to produce a greater amount of either anolyte or catholyte in the produced liquid. 
     Referring back to  FIG. 2 , the applied voltage induces an electrical current across electrolysis cell  36  to generate an anolyte stream containing acidic water from the feed water flowing through anode chamber  60 . This reaction also generates a catholyte stream containing an alkaline water from the feed water flowing through cathode chamber  62 . The resulting anolyte stream exits anode chamber  60  through output line  90 , and the catholyte stream exits cathode chamber  62  through output line  92 . 
     In the case of a cation exchange membrane for barrier  70 , upon application of a voltage potential across electrodes  72  and  74 , cations originally present in the anode chamber  60  move across barrier  70  towards cathode electrode  74  while anions in anode chamber  60  move towards anode electrode  72 . However, anions present in cathode chamber  62  are not able to pass through barrier  70 , and therefore remain confined within cathode chamber  62 . 
     While the electrolysis continues, the anions in the water bind to the metal atoms (e.g., platinum atoms) at anode electrode  72 , and the cations in the water bind to the metal atoms (e.g., platinum atoms) at cathode electrode  74 . These bound atoms diffuse around in two dimensions on the surfaces of the respective electrodes until they take part in further reactions. Other atoms and polyatomic groups may also bind similarly to the surfaces of electrodes  72  and  74 , and may also subsequently undergo reactions. Molecules such as oxygen (O 2 ) and hydrogen (H 2 ) produced at the surfaces may enter small cavities in the liquid phase of the liquid (i.e., bubbles) as gases and/or may become solvated by the liquid phase of the water. 
     Surface tension at a gas-liquid interface is produced by the attraction between the molecules being directed away from the surfaces of electrodes  72  and  74  as the surface molecules are more attracted to the molecules within the liquid than they are to molecules of the gas at the electrode surfaces. In contrast, molecules of the bulk of the liquid are equally attracted in all directions. Thus, in order to increase the possible interaction energy, surface tension causes the molecules at the electrode surfaces to enter the bulk of the water. As a result of the electrolysis process, electrolysis cell  36  electrochemically activates the feed water by at least partially utilizing electrolysis and produces electrochemically-activated water in the form of the acidic anolyte stream (through anode chamber  60 ) and the basic catholyte stream (through cathode chamber  62 ). 
     Water molecules in contact with anode electrode  72  are electrochemically oxidized to oxygen (O 2 ) and hydrogen ions (H + ) in the anode chamber  60 , while water molecules in contact with the cathode electrode  74  are electrochemically reduced to hydrogen gas (H 2 ) and hydroxyl ions (OH − ) in cathode chamber  62 . The hydrogen ions in anode chamber  60  are allowed to pass through barrier  70  into cathode chamber  62  where the hydrogen ions are reduced to hydrogen gas while the oxygen gas in anode chamber  60  oxygenates the feed water to form the anolyte stream. Furthermore, since regular tap water typically includes sodium chloride and/or other chlorides, the anode electrode  72  oxidizes the chlorides present to form chlorine gas. As a result, a substantial amount of chlorine is produced and the pH of the anolyte stream becomes increasingly acidic over time. 
     As noted, water molecules in contact with cathode electrode  74  are electrochemically reduced to hydrogen gas and hydroxyl ions (OH − ), while cations in the anode chamber  60  pass through barrier  70  into cathode chamber  62  when the voltage potential is applied. These cations are available to ionically associate with the hydroxyl ions produced at the cathode electrode  74 , while hydrogen gas bubbles form in the liquid. Substantial amounts of hydroxyl ions accumulate over time in cathode chamber  62  and react with cations to form basic hydroxides. In addition, the hydroxides remain confined to cathode chamber  62  since barrier  70  (i.e., a cation-exchange membrane) does not allow the negatively charged hydroxyl ions pass through. Consequently, substantial amounts of hydroxides are produced in cathode chamber  62 , and the pH of the catholyte stream becomes increasingly alkaline over time. 
     Accordingly, the electrolysis process in electrolysis cell  36  generates concentrations of reactive species and forms metastable ions and radicals in anode chamber  60  and cathode chamber  62 . The electrochemical activation process typically occurs by either electron withdrawal (at anode electrode  72 ) or electron introduction (at cathode electrode  74 ), which leads to alteration of physiochemical (including structural, energetic and catalytic) properties of the feed water. It is believed that the feed water becomes activated in the immediate proximity of the electrode surfaces where the electric field intensities can reach high levels. 
     In the case of a barrier that is not ion selective, but has significantly larger pore sizes, such as 100 microns in diameter, or in the case of the barrier being eliminated, water (or other liquid) is introduced into the reaction(s) chamber, and a voltage potential is applied between electrodes  72  and  74 . This causes water molecules in contact with or near anode electrode  72  to electrochemically oxidize to oxygen (O 2 ) and hydrogen ions (H + ), while water molecules in contact or near cathode electrode  74  are electrochemically reduce to hydrogen gas (H 2 ) and hydroxyl ions (OH − ). Other reactions can also occur and the particular reactions depend on the components of the water and the electrode materials. The reaction products from both electrodes  72  and  74  are able to mix and form an oxygenated fluid (for example). It has been found that the use of a barrier between the anode and cathode electrodes facilitates generation of bubbles in the output liquid. In certain embodiments, more bubbles are generated when a barrier is used than when a barrier is not used. 
     In addition to electrochemical activation, the electrical current that is induced through electrolysis cell  36  also heats the streams flowing through the anode and cathode chambers of the cell. This heating increases the temperatures of the resulting streams from an initial inlet temperature of the feed water to an elevated temperature, which further increases the cleaning properties of the resulting streams. 
     In particular, the streams are primarily heated due to the electrical resistance of the water (or other liquid) when the electrical current is induced across electrolysis cell  36  (i.e., Joule heating). Pursuant to the Joule effect, the generated heat is proportional to the electrical resistance of the water times the square of the induced electrical current, as illustrated by Equation 1: 
         Q˜I   2   ×R   (Equation 1)
 
     where “Q” is the energy produced, “I” is the induced electrical current across electrolysis cell  36 , and “R” is the electrical resistance of the water (or other liquid) flowing through electrolysis cell  36 . 
     This generated heat accordingly heats the water in a manner that is based on the flow rate of the streams, the specific heat capacity of the water, and the initial temperature of the water, as illustrated by Equation 2: 
         Q˜M×C ×( T   out   −T   initial )  (Equation 2)
 
     where M is proportional to the flow rate of the streams through electrolysis cell  36 , “C” is the specific heat capacity of the feed water (or other liquid), “T out ” is the elevated temperature of the of the resulting outlet streams through outlet lines  90  and  92 , and “T initial ” is the initial temperature of the feed water entering electrolysis cell  36 . Combining Equations 1 and 2 results in the relationship for heating the streams flowing through electrolysis cell  36 , which is illustrated by Equation 3: 
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     
                       T 
                       out 
                     
                     ~ 
                     
                       
                         
                           I 
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     As such, the elevated temperatures of the outlet streams from electrolysis cell  36  are proportional to the current induced through electrolysis cell  36 , and inversely proportional to the flow rate of the streams through electrolysis cell  36 . 
     Examples of suitable flow rates of the feed water into electrolysis cell  36  (or a group of cells  36 ) range from about 0.1 gallons/minute to about 10 gallons/minute, with particularly suitable flow rates ranging from about 3 gallons/minute to about 5 gallons/minute, depending on the number and size of the electrolysis cells, the applied voltage pattern, etc. Other flow rates may also be used. 
     Examples of suitable voltages applied across electrolysis cells  36  range from about 5 volts to about 60 volts, such as 50-60 volts and suitable induced electrical currents include currents of about 0.1 ampere to 10 amperes, such as about 6 amperes. As mentioned above, control electronics  32  can provide a constant DC output voltage, a pulsed or otherwise modulated DC output voltage, or a pulsed or otherwise modulated AC output voltage to electrodes  72  and  74  of electrolysis cell  36 . In one embodiment, control electronics  32  may apply the voltage supplied to electrodes  72  and  74  at a relative steady state. In this embodiment, control electronics  32  and/or electrical source  42  includes a DC/DC converter that uses a pulse-width modulation (PWM) control scheme to control voltage and current output. 
     For example, the DC/DC converter may use a pulse of about 15 kilohertz to produce the desired voltage to electrodes  72  and  74  in the range of about 50 volts to about 60 volts. The duty cycle is dependent on desired voltage and current output. For example, the duty cycle of the DC/DC converter can be 90%. Control electronics  32  and/or electrical source  42  can also be configured, as described above, to alternate the voltage applied to electrolysis cell  36  between a relative steady state voltage at one polarity and then a relative steady state voltage at the opposite polarity for equal time periods, or different time periods to bias towards anolyte or catholyte liquids. 
     In the particular embodiment shown in  FIG. 2 , the output lines  90  and  92  from the anode chamber  60  and the cathode chamber  62  combine at  110  to form a single output line from electrolysis cell  36 . This combination can be made internally or externally to cell  36 . In one exemplary embodiment, all of the anolyte liquid produced in the anode chamber  60  is combined with all of the catholyte liquid produced in the cathode chamber  62  at the outlet of electrolysis cell  36  such that the cell has a single outlet  110 . 
     As described in Field et al. U.S. Patent Publication No. 2007/0186368, it has been found that the anolyte and catholyte streams can be blended together within the distribution system of a cleaning apparatus and/or on the surface or item being cleaned while at least temporarily retaining beneficial cleaning and/or sanitizing properties. Although the anolyte and catholyte streams are blended, they are initially not in equilibrium and therefore temporarily retain their enhanced cleaning and sanitizing properties. 
     In a further embodiment, electrolysis cell  36  is replaced with an electrolysis cell having a single reaction chamber for the anode electrode  72  and cathode electrode  74  (i.e., no barrier  70 ). As such, feed line  52  and outlet line  110  directly connect to a common reaction chamber. During operation, water (or other liquid) is introduced into a common reaction chamber, and a voltage potential is applied between electrodes  72  and  74 . This causes water molecules in contact with or near anode electrode  72  electrochemically oxidize to oxygen (O 2 ) and hydrogen ions (H + ), while water molecules in contact or near cathode electrode  74  are electrochemically reduce to hydrogen gas (H 2 ) and hydroxyl ions (OH − ). Other reactions can also occur and the particular reactions depend on the components of the water. The reaction products from both electrodes  72  and  74  are able to mix and form an oxygenated fluid (for example) since there is no physical barrier separating the reaction products from each other. As mentioned above, removing the barrier is believed to reduce the resistance between the cell electrodes and therefore increase the current applied to the liquid passing through the cell. Increasing the applied current is believed to favorably increase the amount of dissolved hydrogen and oxygen in the treated liquid. 
     In a further embodiment, rinse cabinet  14  has no electrolysis cells. In this embodiment, electrolysis cell(s)  36  are eliminated such that pump  34  feeds liquid directly to nozzles  38 . 
     In a further embodiment, output lines  90  and  92  include one or more valves for selectively applying the anolyte liquid from the anode chamber  60  and/or the catholyte liquid from the cathode chamber  62  singularly, separately or in combination to nozzles  38 . For example, if only one of the anolyte or catholyte liquids is supplied to the nozzles, the other of the anolyte or catholyte liquids may be dispensed to a recovery tank or to a drain of rinse cabinet  14 . In another embodiment, the anolyte and catholyte liquids are fed separately to respective nozzles  38  through separate feed lines. 
     In the example shown in  FIG. 2 , the anolyte and catholyte liquids are entirely combined and fed to nozzles  38  through a liquid distribution system represented by feed lines  112 . 
     In an exemplary embodiment, rinse cabinet  14  dispenses substantially all of the anolyte and catholyte streams upon electrical activation by electrolysis cell  36 , without intermediate storage of either the anolyte stream or catholyte stream, and without feedback of any of the anolyte stream or catholyte stream into electrolysis cell  36 . 
     Dispenser  38  may be any suitable dispenser component, such as a spray nozzle, a spigot, etc. In a particular example, each dispenser  38  include a spray nozzle, which may be selected based on a number of factors such as capacity, spray pattern, maximum and minimum pressure, etc. An example of a suitable nozzle is the 1/8HH-SS1.5Wide Full Jet Standard Spray, Small Capacity nozzle available from Spraying Systems Co. of Wheaton, Ill., USA. This nozzle has a capacity of 0.25 at 10 psi, full cone, a wide spray angle of 120 degrees at 80 psi and is made of 303 stainless steel. Other nozzles having other properties and specifications can also be used. 
     In an exemplary embodiment, pump  34  is operated to maintain a fluid pressure in feed lines  52  and  112  in a range of 25 psi to 60 psi, such as about 40 psi. Other fluid pressures can also be used and may vary depending on the nozzle characteristics, for example. 
     2.2 Spray Arrangement 
     As shown in  FIG. 2 , spray nozzles  38  may be arranged on one or both opposing sides of the carcass travel path  18  so that the nozzles dispense a liquid spray to the carcass surfaces as they pass through rinse cabinet  14 . Nozzles  38  can also be positioned above or below the carcass travel path and oriented to direct a spray output to the tops and/or bottoms of the carcasses. The spray nozzles  38  can be arranged in any suitable pattern and in any suitable number. In a particular embodiment, each spray nozzle is located within a distance  114  (such as 3 inches to 6 inches) from the carcass surface (for a typically sized carcass) in order to maintain consistent contact with the spray output as the carcass passes by the nozzle and to maintain a desired electric field between the nozzle and the carcass surface, as described in more detail below. 
     For simplicity,  FIG. 2  illustrates only one nozzle for each side of the carcass. However, any number of nozzles can be used. In a particular example, described with reference to other figures below, each side of rinse cabinet  14  may include one or more arrays of nozzles oriented to direct several output sprays to each carcass as the carcass passes the arrays of nozzles. In one more particular example, rinse cabinet  14  has a plurality of sets of nozzles on each side of the travel path. Each set contains 10 spray nozzles (or any other suitable number), which are arranged to direct  10  output sprays to a single carcass as that carcass passes the set of nozzles. When the carcass passes a midpoint of the set of nozzles along travel path  18 , the output sprays of all 20 nozzles (10 on each side of the carcass) make contact with the carcass concurrently. For example, individual nozzles can be oriented to maximize the external surface area of the carcass over which concurrent contact is made. For example, in one embodiment, a sufficient number of nozzles are used and arranged such that 100% of the external surface area of each carcass is contacted concurrently, for at least a portion of travel path  18 , by the output sprays of one set of nozzles on each side of the carcass. 
     Multiple sets (or arrays) of these nozzles can be positioned in series with one another along the travel path  18 . This increases the contact time between the spray outputs and the carcasses and therefore the treatment time of each carcass within the rinse cabinet. In addition, the spacing between adjacent sets of nozzles may be set to maintain contact between at least one output spray and the carcass at all times over a predetermined length of travel path  18 . This further increases the treatment time and consistency of the treatment (e.g., applied electric field) over the predetermined length of travel path  18 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 2 , each nozzle  38  is fed by a respective feed line  112 . In another example, a single feed line  112  may be connected to a manifold to which a plurality of distinct nozzles are mounted. Any suitable arrangement of nozzles and feed lines can be used in alternative examples. In one particular example, the nozzles  38  are spaced apart from one another in a linear direction along carcass path  18  of 5-7 inches, such as 6 inches. 
     Any suitable number of electrolysis cells can be used to feed any suitable number of nozzles. In a particular example, six electrolysis cells are used to feed a set of twenty nozzles, ten on each side of the carcass travel path  18 . 
     2.3 High Voltage, Electroporation Electrode 
     In an illustrative embodiment of the present disclosure, an electrical charge can be delivered to the carcass through the liquid dispensed by dispensers  38  by an electrode, electrical conductor, lead, or other electrical component  40 , which is separate and distinct from the electrodes in the electrolysis cells  36 . The separate electrode  40  is positioned to impart, apply, or otherwise induce an electrical potential in the liquid output spray and/or stream. In the example shown in  FIG. 2 , electrode  40  is positioned in the liquid path to cause a separate, greater electrical potential relative to Earth ground, as compared to the potential generated by electrolysis cell  36 , for example. Electrodes  40  can be located at any position along the liquid flow path from liquid source  30  to nozzles  38  (or even after nozzles  38 , within the output spray paths  41 ) or other position as appropriate, e.g., to conduct electrical charge to the liquid dispensed by the nozzles. 
     In a particular embodiment, each dispenser  38  (e.g., nozzle) includes a high voltage electroporation electrode  40 , which is attached to the nozzle by an electrically-conductive washer. If the nozzle  38  is electrically-conductive, the nozzle transfers the applied voltage potential to the liquid passing through the nozzle. 
       FIG. 4  is an exploded view of a nozzle  38  having an attached high-voltage electroporation electrode  40  according to an illustrative embodiment of the disclosure. In this example, electrode  40  is formed by a washer  150  having a terminal  152  for connecting to an electrical lead  48  (not shown in  FIG. 4 ). Nut  154  threads onto a male end of nozzle  38 , thereby securing washer  150 , and thus electrode  40 , in tight electrical contact with nozzle  38 . An electrical lead  48  can be attached to terminal  152  for electrically connecting the terminal with control electronics  32  (shown in  FIG. 2 ). Since washer  150  and nozzle  38  are electrically conductive, the voltage potential applied to electrode  40  is applied to the liquid flowing through the nozzle, relative to the surface being sprayed. 
     In another example, electrode  40  includes an adapter having two opposing ends with male connectors (e.g., barbs) for connecting between two sections of tube along one or more of the output feed lines  112 , for example. The adapter has an internal lumen for passing liquid from one end to the other, along the liquid flow path of the apparatus. The adapter can be formed of or coated by any suitable material, such as an electrically-conductive material, such as copper, brass, and/or silver. 
     In another embodiment, electrode  40  is formed by an electrically conductive spike, which extends through a sidewall of a feed lines, such as one or more of the lines  112  such that the spike makes electrical contact with liquid flowing through the tube. Other configurations can also be used. 
     In another example, feed lines  112  are made at least partially of an electrically conductive material, such as a metal and/or a conductive polymer, which is electrically connected to an electrical lead  48  extending from control electronics  32 . In an exemplary embodiment, the additional electrode  40  is separate from and external to electrolysis cell  36  and has no corresponding return electrode (e.g., an electrode of opposite polarity and/or an electrode representing a circuit ground for the electroporation electrode) on rinse cabinet  14 . In another embodiment, rinse cabinet  14  has a ground electrode representing a circuit ground for one or more of the electrodes  40 . The ground electrode can be positioned at any suitable location within rinse cabinet  14 , such as in the volume of space below the carcasses, near a drain of the cabinet. It will be appreciated that other arrangements in other embodiments may be utilized. 
     Control electronics  32  can use the same or a different power supply as the power supply used to power electrolysis cell  36 . The power supply by control electronics  32  to apply a voltage potential to control electroporation electrodes  40  can be configured to deliver an AC and/or DC voltage (such as a positive voltage) to electrodes  40  and thus to the liquid passing through nozzles  38 . Various voltages and voltage patterns can be used in alternative embodiments. In embodiments in which rinse cabinet  14  does not have a dedicated ground electrode, Earth ground serves to complete the electrical circuit formed by electroporation electrode  40 , the liquid streams delivered by nozzles  38 , and the carcasses to which the streams are applied. 
     2.4 Electroporation Mechanism Example 
     The following discussion is provided as an example only and not intended to limit the present disclosure, operation of examples described herein and/or the scope of any issued claims appended hereto. 
       FIG. 5A  is a diagram illustrating the spray output  200  from one of the spray nozzles  38 , wherein individual droplets may take different paths, e.g., paths “a” and “b” from the nozzle to the surface  202  being treated. Surface  202  may or may not have an electrical conduction path to ground  204 , such as Earth ground. In an example, surface  202  represents the skin of the poultry carcass passing by spray nozzle  38  by the conveyor. Nozzle  38  and surface  202  can have any relative orientation. 
       FIG. 5B  is a diagram illustrating an example of the electroporation mechanism achieved by spraying surface  202  (in  FIG. 5A ) with output spray  200  from spray nozzle  38  shown in  FIG. 2 . The output spray  200  dispensed on surface  202  has been found to form a conducting suspension medium.  FIG. 5B  illustrates the resulting electric field “E” applied to a cell membrane  206  of a microorganism that is suspended from surface  202  by the dispensed liquid from output spray  200 . The output spray  200  and the liquid dispensed on surface  202  together form a conductive path from electrode  40  to surface  202 , for example. In one example, a measurement probe inserted just below the skin of a carcass measured an alternating voltage potential of 3 kV p-p, when the nozzle  38  was positioned 3-6 inches from the surface. Voltage potentials at the skin surface are expected, but are not required, to be in the range of approximately 2 kV to about 15 kV assuming a voltage of 7 kV to 8 kV being applied to the electrode. 
     The addition of an applied alternating potential from electrode  40  to the electrolytic water spray appears to endow the output spray  200  with significantly enhanced sanitizing action. This phenomenon has been associated with irreversible electroporation, for example. In one particular embodiment, the alternating potential appears to be particularly effective at about 30 kHz with a variable effect for different organisms. However, other voltage and frequencies can be used in other embodiments. 
     Electroporation followed by cell death is known to be achievable with a transmembrane potential of at least 0.5 V (where a membrane thickness is typically ˜3 nm, for example). In addition, the presence of cell toxins or additional mechanisms may also help prevent normally reversibly-formed pores from resealing. It should be noted that although electroporation is commonly used as a ‘reversible’ tool at lower potentials, it is recognized that, even under these conditions, often only a small percentage of cells recover. 
     The formation of holes in the cell membranes is generally insufficient in itself to cause cell death, as it is known that cells can survive for relatively long periods with large amounts of membrane missing. 
     Cell death comes because of disruption to the metabolic state of the cells, which can be caused by electrophoretic and electroosmotic (capillary electrophoretic) movement of materials into and out of the cells. Diffusion by itself is generally too slow. To achieve electrophoresis and electroosmosis, sufficient power must be dissipated within the surface, as shown in the diagram of  FIG. 5C . 
     Different microorganisms have different total surface charges and charge distributions and therefore will react differently to each other in terms of cell death. They will also behave differently in the oscillating potential field and will have different resonant frequencies for maximum absorption (and hence maximum movement relative to the aqueous solution, causing the maximum chaos to their metabolism). Movement in and out depends primarily on potential gradients. Increased effects occur when the system is in resonance. 
     When considering the potential gradient delivered to the cell and the power dissipated to the sprayed surface, in one particular example, the spray device delivers a fine spray that may be partially a true aerosol (˜1μ droplets), but mostly a mist with droplet sizes much greater than 10μ. The droplet sizes and velocity profiles can vary between different embodiments. 
     The velocity of the liquid exiting the nozzle is simply calculated from the rate of liquid sprayed divided by the area of the exit orifice. However the subsequent decrease in droplet speed depends on the droplet size (mass to surface area ratio). The terminal velocity of 10μ and 50μ droplets are only about 10 −3  m/s and 10 −1  m/s respectively. 
     Sprayed water droplets descend at different rates, and the time differences will be significant when related to the rapidly alternating potential (e.g., 28 kHz). For example, in  FIG. 5A , pathway (b) will be longer than pathway (a), for example by about 1 cm. The descent velocity (dependent on the drop size, flow rate and nozzle diameter) will determine the difference in time between the drops landing but this is likely to be several to many times the potential cycling time of 36 μs, for example. 
     Cells with open pores are much more prone to the effects of cell toxins in the aqueous solution as they have no barrier to their entry. The potential cell toxins co-delivered with the alternating potential are peroxide, chlorine oxides, and other redox agents such as superoxide, ozone and singlet oxygen, and heavy metal ions such as cupric ions and/or silver ions. 
     Charged nanobubbles will move in the electric fields and will be capable of picking up materials from the surface. As they are surface-active, they may additionally interfere with pore resealing and preferentially deliver their cytotoxic surface active molecules to the pore sites, as shown in  FIG. 5C , for example. 
     In view of the above, the electrolyzed water produced by the electrolysis cell  36 , shown in  FIG. 2 , for example, acts as a cleaning agent due to production of tiny electrically-charged bubbles. These attach themselves to dirt particles/microorganisms and transfer their charge. The charged and coated particles separate one from another due to the repulsion between their similar charges and enter the solution as a suspension. Coating of the dirt by tiny bubbles promotes their pick-up by larger buoyant bubbles that are introduced during cleaning, thus aiding the cleaning process. Simultaneously, microorganisms can be electroporated and killed or otherwise eliminated by the electric potential generated by the additional electrode  40 , thereby reducing the number of live microorganisms on a surface. 
     Thus, to enhance sanitization ability properties, electroporation can be used for example to accomplish a more consistent and effective destruction of microbial action by discharging (in a relative sense) a high-voltage to a ground (such as Earth ground) through an aqueous fluid. In some embodiments, the livestock carcass itself serves as an Earth ground since it has a different charge level than the high voltage electrode. In addition, the carcass may provide an electrical path to ground through the shackle and conveyor materials. 
     It has also been found that the combination of the electrochemically-activated liquid produced by the electrolysis cell and the electric field applied by the electroporation electrode has a synergistic effect. It is believed that as the charged nanobubbles produced in the electrochemically-activated liquid move in the electric fields, they pick up microorganisms and separate them from the surface. By separating the microorganisms from the surface, such that they are suspended in the liquid on the surface, the electric field produced along the surface by the electroporation electrode is applied more easily across the microorganism cells. Whereas, if the microorganism is in contact with the surface, the electric field is more easily discharged into the surface ground and may be less effective in creating irreversible electroporation of the organisms cells. With the cell suspended, the applied alternating field oscillates back and forth causing damage to the cells. 
     In addition, it has been found that the electric field produced through the output spray within the rinse cabinet  14  by the electroporation electrode is effective in killing microorganism cells present in the mist environment surrounding the carcasses as the carcasses are cleaned and sanitized by the spray outputs, which reduces contamination within the rinse cabinet itself and within the processing plant as a whole. 
     2.5 Example Electroporation Voltage Waveform 
     As mentioned above, control electronics  32  apply a voltage potential to electroporation electrodes  40 , which can be configured to deliver an AC and/or DC voltage (such as a positive voltage) to electrodes  40  and thus to the liquid passing through nozzles  38 . 
       FIG. 6  is a waveform diagram illustrating the voltage pattern applied to each electroporation electrode  40  in one particular example. In this example, the shape of the waveform is a combination of a sine wave and a square wave. However, the waveform can have other shapes, such as a sine wave, a square wave, or other waveform. In a particular example, the applied voltage has an AC voltage of 2 kV to 20 kV peak-to-peak, for example, when liquid is flowing through nozzles  38  and has a frequency of about 30 kHz. Other voltages and frequencies can also be used. In this example, the frequency remains substantially constant as the apparatus (e.g., rinse cabinet  14 ) dispenses electrochemically-activated liquid to the livestock carcasses being treated. In another example, the frequency is maintained in a range of about 20 kHz and 100 kHz, between 25 kHz and 50 kHz, and between 28 kHz and 46 kHz. The current between the nozzle and carcass is relatively small, such as between zero to 100 milliamps, for example. 
     In the example shown in  FIG. 6 , the control electronics  32  are configured to generate and apply to the electroporation electrode a voltage having a sinusoidal waveform comprising at least one step  210  on an edge of the waveform, wherein each step comprises a local peak, and wherein the electroporation electrode is arranged and positioned within rinse apparatus  14  to generate an alternating electric field between the electrode and each carcass passing by the electrode, in response to the applied voltage. The inventors of the present application have found that such a discontinuous waveform improves the killing or deactivation of microorganisms achieved through the resulting output spray that is applied to the carcasses. 
     In another example, the frequency varies over a predefined range while the apparatus dispenses electrochemically-activated liquid to the carcasses being treated. For example, the control circuit that drives electroporation electrode  40  can sweep the frequency within a range between a lower frequency limit and an upper frequency limit, such as between 20 kHz and 100 kHz, between 25 kHz and 50 kHz, and between 30 kHz and 60 kHz. The frequency can have any suitable waveform over time, such as a triangular or sawtooth waveform, from a low frequency limit to a high frequency limit and then back down to the low frequency limit over a period of about 0.1 second to about 10 seconds, for example. Since different microorganisms might be susceptible to irreversible electroporation at different frequencies, the killing effect of the applied voltage is swept between different frequencies to potentially increase effectiveness on different microorganisms. For example, sweeping the frequency might be effective in applying the potential at different resonant frequencies of different microorganisms. 
     The following sections describe exemplary control circuit for driving the electrolysis cells  38  and the electroporation electrodes  40  within the systems shown in  FIGS. 1 and 2 , for example. 
     2.6 Example Control Circuit for Electrolysis Cells 
       FIG. 7  is a block diagram of an example of a control circuit  300  within control electronics  32  (shown in  FIG. 2 ) for controlling the electrolysis cell(s) according to an exemplary aspect of the disclosure. The main components of control circuit  300  include a microcontroller  302 , a DC-to-DC converter  304 , and an output driver circuit  306 . 
     Power to the various components is supplied by power supply  42 . A power switch or other control component  308  an output voltage to voltage regulator  310  and to DC-to-DC converter  304 . Any suitable voltage regulator can be used, such as an LM7805 regulator from Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation. In a particular example, voltage regulator  310  provides a 5 volt output voltage for powering the various electrical components within the control circuit. 
     DC-to-DC converter  304  generates an output voltage to be applied across the electrodes of electrolysis cell(s)  36 . The converter is controlled by microcontroller  302  to step the drive voltage up or down in order to achieve a desired current draw through the electrolysis cell. In a particular example, converter  304  steps the voltage up or down between a range of 8 volts to 60 volts, such as between 50 volts and 60 volts, (or greater) to achieve a current draw through electrolysis cell(s)  36  of about 6 amps, as pump  34  pumps water through cell(s)  36  and out nozzle(s)  38  ( FIG. 2 ) at a rate of 4 gallons per minute, for example. The required voltage depends in part on the conductivity of the water between the cell&#39;s electrodes and the geometry of the electrolysis cells. Other voltages, currents and liquid flow rates can be used in other examples. 
     In a particular example, DC-to-DC converter  304  includes a Series A/SM surface mount converter from PICO Electronics, Inc. of Pelham, N.Y., U.S.A. In another example, converter  1004  includes an NCP3064 1.5A Step-Up/Down/Inverting Switching regulator from ON Semiconductor of Phoenix, Ariz., U.S.A, connected in a boost application. Other circuits and/or arrangements can be used in alternative embodiments. 
     Output driver circuit  306  selectively reverses the polarity of the driving voltage applied to electrolysis cell(s)  36  as a function of a control signal generated by microcontroller  302 . For example, microcontroller  302  can be configured to alternate polarity in a predetermined pattern, such that shown and/or described with reference to  FIG. 3 . Output driver  306  can also provide an output voltage to pump  34 . Alternatively, for example, pump  34  can receive its output voltage directly from the output of switch  308 , for example. 
     In a particular example, output driver circuit  306  includes a DRV 8800 full bridge motor driver circuit available from Texas Instruments Corporation of Dallas, Tex., U.S.A. Other circuits and/or arrangements can be used in alternative embodiments. The driver circuit  306  has an H-switch inverter that drives the output voltage to electrolysis cell(s)  36  according to the voltage pattern controlled by the microcontroller. The H-switch also has a current sense output that can be used by the microcontroller to sense the current drawn by cell  36 . Sense resistor R SENSE  develops a voltage that is representative of the sensed current and is applied as a feedback voltage to microcontroller  302 . Microcontroller  302  monitors the feedback voltage and controls converter  304  to output a suitable drive voltage to maintain a desired current draw. 
     Microcontroller  302  also monitors the feedback voltage to verify that electrolysis cell(s)  36  and/or pump  34  is operating properly. Microcontroller  302  can include any suitable controller, processor, and/or circuitry. In a particular embodiment, it includes an MC9S08SH4CTG-ND Microcontroller available from Digi-Key Corporation of Thief River Falls, Minn., U.S.A. 
     The control circuit  300  further includes a control header  312 , which provides an input for programming microcontroller  302 . 
     In one particular example, the elements  302 ,  304 ,  306 ,  308 ,  310  reside on circuit board. 
     2.7 Example Control Circuit for Electroporation Electrodes(s) 
       FIG. 8  is a block diagram of an example of a control circuit  320  within control electronics  32  (shown in  FIG. 2 ) for controlling the electroporation electrode(s)  40  according to an exemplary aspect of the disclosure. 
     Circuit  320  includes a power supply interface  322 , voltage regulator  324 , microcontroller  328 , switching power controller  330 , H-bridge circuits  332  and  334 , transformer  336 , voltage divider  338 , sense resistor  340  and output connector  342 . 
     Input connector  322  receives a supply voltage from a main circuit board, such as that shown in  FIG. 7  for example, and supplies the voltage to voltage regulator  324 , switching power controller  330  and H-bridge circuits  332  and  334 . In a particular example, voltage regulator  324  provides a 5 volt output voltage for powering the various electrical components within the control circuit  320 , such as microcontroller  328  and switching power controller  330 . Any suitable voltage regulator can be used, such as an LM7805 regulator from Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation. 
     In this embodiment microcontroller  328  provides a clock signal (SYNC) and an enable signal (ENABLE) to switching power regulator  330 , and monitors for fault conditions. In one example, microcontroller  328  comprises an ATtiny24 QPN Microcontroller available from ATMEL Corporation. Other controllers can be used in alternative embodiments. 
     The clock signal SYNC provides a reference frequency for switching power controller  330 . Enable signal ENABLE, when active, enables (or turns on) switching power controller  330 . Normally, microcontroller  328  sets ENABLE to an active state and monitors the FAULT signal for a fault condition. When controller  330  indicates a fault condition by activating the signal FAULT, microcontroller  328 , selectively pulses the ENABLE signal to an inactive state and then returns it to the active state to reset switching power controller  330 . If the fault condition clears, microcontroller continues to operate switching power controller normally. If the fault condition remains active, then microcontroller  328  activates a fault indicator (not shown). 
     In one example, switching power controller  330  includes a TPS68000 CCFL Phase Shift Full Bridge CCFL Controller available from Texas Instruments. However, other types of controllers can be used in alternative embodiments. 
     Based on the SYNC signal, switching power controller  330  provides gate control signals to the gates of switching transistors within the H-bridge circuits  332  and  334 . In one example, H-bridge circuits  332  and  334  each include an FDC6561AN Dual N-Channel Logic Level MOSFET (although other circuits can be used), which are connected together to form an H-bridge inverter that drives the primary side of transformer  336  with the desired voltage pattern, such as that shown in  FIG. 6 . Transformer  336  steps the drive voltage from about 10V-13V peak-to-peak up to about 2 kV to 20 kV, for example, when liquid is being dispensed from the apparatus. The output drive voltage is applied to the electroporation electrode  40  through output connector  342 . 
     Voltage divider  338  comprises a pair of capacitors that are connected in series between the primary side of the transformer and ground to develop a voltage that is feed back to switching power controller  330  and represents the voltage developed on the secondary side of the transformer. This voltage level is used to detect an over-voltage condition. If the feedback voltage exceeds a given threshold, switching power controller  330  will activate fault signal FAULT. 
     Sense resistor  340  is connected between the primary side of the transformer and ground to develop a further feedback voltage that is feed back to switching power controller  330  and represents the current flowing through the secondary side of the transformer. This voltage level is used to detect an over-current condition. If the feedback voltage exceeds a given threshold, switching power controller  330  will activate fault signal FAULT, indicating a fault in the transformer. 
     In addition, the source of the bottom transistor in one leg of the H-bridge is fed back to switching power controller  330 , as shown by arrow  344 . This feedback line can be monitored to measure the current in the primary side of the transformer, which can represent the current delivered to the load through electroporation electrode  40 . Again, this current can be compared against a high and/or a low threshold level. The result of the comparison can be used to set the state of fault signal FAULT. 
     2.8 Exemplary Electrolysis Cell 
       FIG. 9A  is a perspective view of an electrolysis cell  36  according to an exemplary aspect of the disclosure, which can be used in the rinse cabinet shown in  FIGS. 1 and 2 . 
     In this non-limiting example, electrolysis cell  36  has a cylindrical shape with a housing  350 , an inlet  402 , and outlet  404 , and electrical terminals  406 . Fluid from feed lines  52  (shown in  FIG. 2 ) enters inlet  402  and exits outlet  404 . Outlet  404  can be coupled to one or more of the outlet feed lines  112 , shown in  FIG. 2 . In this example, electrolysis cell has three cylindrical electrodes arranged coaxially with one another, each of which is electrically coupled to a respective terminal  406 . Depending on the relative polarity of voltages applied to the terminals  406 , the electrolysis cell may include two anode electrodes surrounding a single cathode electrode or may include two cathode electrodes surrounding a single anode electrode. Many other arrangements and numbers of electrodes are also possible. 
       FIG. 9B  is a cross-sectional view of the electrolysis cell  36  taken along lines  9 B- 9 B of  FIG. 9A . Within cylindrical housing  400 , cell  36  includes a liner (such as polyprolylene)  410 , a first, outer electrode  412 , a gap  414  containing a first, outer barrier  416 , a second, middle electrode  418 , a gap  420  containing a second, inner barrier  422 , and an inner electrode  424 . The first gap  414  is positioned between outer electrode  412  and middle electrode  418 , and contains the first barrier  416 . The second gap  420  is positioned between middle electrode  418  and inner electrode  424 , and contains the second barrier  422 . 
     An inner core  426  blocks liquid from passing through the center of cell  36 , and diverts liquid entering inlet  402  along the direction of arrows  430 . This liquid enters the gaps  414  and  420  between the electrodes and passes along the electrodes  412 ,  418 , and  424 , on either side of the barriers  416  and  422 . The liquid then exits outlet  404  along arrows  432 . Anolyte liquid produced in the anode chamber, formed between the anode electrode and a respective barrier, and catholyte liquid produced in the cathode chamber, formed between the cathode electrode and a respective barrier, blend together as the liquid exits single outlet  404 . 
     In a particular example, electrodes  412 ,  418  and  424  are made of a titanium mesh coated with iridium oxide, which are spaced apart from one another by a gap of about 0.030 inches (0.76 mm). The barriers  416  and  422  are constructed of polypropylene sheets having a thickness of 10 mils (0.254 mm). 
     As mentioned above, the barriers  416  and  422  can be removed in an alternative embodiment. 
     3. Prototype Rinse Cabinet 
       FIG. 10A  is a perspective view of a prototype rinse cabinet  500  according to an exemplary aspect of the present disclosure. Rinse cabinet  500  includes a housing  502 , forming a partial enclosure about a carcass travel path  504 . Housing  502  defines first and second opposing sides of the rinse cabinet  500  relative to travel path  504 . Housing  502  has a base  506 , which forms a drain pan for collecting liquid sprayed onto the carcasses. A frame  508  is attached to the housing for supporting an overhead conveyor  510 . Conveyor  510  is configured to carry one or more poultry shackles (shown in  FIG. 10D ) similar to those shown in  FIG. 1  along the travel path  504 . 
     As shown in  FIGS. 10A and 10B , six electrolysis cells  520  are mounted to one side of housing  502 . Electrolysis cells  520  are similar to the electrolysis cell described with reference to  FIGS. 9A and 9B . In this example, cells  520  have electrodes made of a titanium mesh coated with iridium oxide, which are spaced apart from one another by a gap of about 0.030 inches (0.76 mm), and have barriers constructed of polypropylene sheets having a thickness of 10 mils (0.254 mm). 
     Cells  520  are electrically and fluidically coupled together in parallel with one another and are fed by feed lines  522 , which receive a feed liquid from inlet  524  and distribute the feed liquid to the inlet of each cell  520 . Feed lines  522  are formed by ½ inch PVC pipe or flexible tubing, for example. Inlet  524  can be coupled to a liquid source, such as a source of regular tap water, for example. The outlets of cells  520  are coupled to a set of outlet feed lines  526 , which merge together to form a single outlet feed line  528 . Rinse cabinet  500  also includes a pump (not shown) for pumping the feed liquid through the feed lines  522  at the desired rate and pressure. 
     A pair of electrical cables  530  and  532  is connected to terminal blocks  534  for supplying electrical power to the electrolysis cells  520 , provided by a power supply (not shown). Electrical cables  530  and  532  are driven by a control circuit (not shown), such as those shown and described with reference to  FIGS. 2 and 7 . However in one or more tests, the power supply included a conventional test bench power supply that delivered constant DC voltage to the cells. A plurality of electrical cables  536  are connected between terminal blocks  534  and respective terminals of the electrolysis cells  520  (such as terminals  406  shown in  FIG. 9A ). A suitable number of cables  536  can be used depending on the number of terminals  406  and their electrical configuration. 
     Rinse cabinet  500  further includes a high voltage electroporation input cable  538 , which is connected to a high voltage control circuit (not shown), similar to those shown and discussed with respect to  FIGS. 2 and 8 . High voltage input cable  538  is connected to a terminal block  540 , which distributes an applied voltage to the electroporation electrodes of each spray nozzle through a plurality of respective electrical cables  542 . Each cable  542  is electrically connected to a respective nozzle in rinse cabinet  500 . For simplicity, only ten cables  542  are shown in  FIG. 10A . In this particular prototype, the electrical cables  538  and  542  are similar to standard automobile spark plug wires. 
     Outlet feed line  528  feeds electrolyzed liquid to the plurality of nozzles contained in rinse cabinet  500 . Each side of rinse cabinet  500  contains a respective array of spray nozzles  550  directed toward the travel path  504 , although only one set of nozzles  550  is visible in  FIG. 10A . Nozzles  550  are coupled to feed lines  552 , which are fluidically coupled to outlet feed line  528 . As shown in more detail in  FIGS. 10C and 10D , in this particular prototype, each side of rinse cabinet  500  includes an array of ten nozzles  550  oriented to direct an output spray onto a carcass travelling along travel path  504 .  FIG. 10C  is a partial elevation view of a first side of the prototype rinse cabinet shown in  FIG. 10A .  FIG. 10D  is a partial elevation view of a second, opposing side of the prototype rinse cabinet shown in  FIG. 10A . 
     Referring to  FIG. 10C , the nozzles are separated vertically and horizontally from one another relative to the travel path. The middle six nozzles  550  as viewed in the vertical direction, are oriented essentially normal to travel path  504 , and the upper two and lower two nozzles  550  are oriented slightly downward and slightly upward, respectively, in order to direct output sprays toward the top and bottom of the carcass as the carcass passes the spray nozzles. These nozzles are also oriented slightly inward toward one another in order to better contact the leading and trailing surfaces of the carcass as the carcass travels along path  504 . As shown in  FIG. 10D , a similar array of nozzles  550  is positioned on the other side of housing  502 , which oppose the nozzles shown in  FIG. 10C  relative to travel path  504 . Thus, the nozzles  550  in rinse cabinet  500  are positioned to maintain direct and consistent contact between the various spray outputs and substantially the entire external surface of the carcass as the conveyor moves the carcass along the travel path. 
     In the example shown in  FIGS. 10C and 10D , each array includes five rows of nozzles  550  that are vertically separated from one another, with two nozzles in each row. The nozzles in the bottom four rows are separated vertically from one another by a distance  556   a  of about 4 inches, center-to-center. The top, fifth row is separated vertically from the fourth row by a distance  556   b  of about 6 inches, center-to-center. 
     The nozzles in the first, bottom row and the top, fifth row are separated horizontally from the center of the vertical feed line  552  by a distance  556   c  of about 3 inches. The nozzles in the second row and the fourth row are separated horizontally from the center of the vertical feed line  552  by a distance  556   d  of about 6 inches. The nozzles in the third row from the bottom are separated horizontally from the center of the vertical feed line  552  by a distance  556   e  of about 4 inches. The nozzles in the fourth row are separated horizontally from the center of the vertical feed line  552  by about 6 inches. The nozzles in the fifth, top row are separated horizontally from the center of the vertical feed line  552  by about 3 inches. 
     As shown in  FIG. 10E , the nozzles in the first, bottom row extend out toward the travel path by about 4 inches. The nozzles in the second, third and fourth rows extend out toward the travel path by about 1 inch. The nozzles in the fifth rows extend out toward the travel path by about 4 inches. 
     The above-arrangements and spacings are provided as examples only. Other numbers and arrangements of nozzles can be used in other embodiments. 
     As mentioned above, in a commercial embodiment, the rinse cabinet might have a longer carcass travel path and may include further arrays (and/or larger arrays) of nozzles positioned adjacent to one another along the travel path. For example, adjacent arrays may be positioned such that the outer-most nozzles of one array are spaced from the outer-most nozzles of the next, adjacent array along the travel path by a distance of about 3 inches to 12 inches, such as a distance of 6 inches. Other separation distances can also be used. 
     As also shown in  FIG. 10C-10E , each nozzle  550  includes an electroporation electrode  554  connected to the nozzle. The electrodes  554  and nozzles  550  are similar to those shown in  FIG. 4 . Each electrode  554  is connected to the high voltage electroporation input cable  538  through a respective electrical cable  542 . As mentioned above, rinse cabinet  500  has no corresponding return electrode(s) (e.g., an electrode of opposite polarity and/or an electrode representing a circuit ground) for the electroporation electrodes  554 . In another embodiment, rinse cabinet  500  has a ground electrode representing a circuit ground for one or more of the electrodes  554 . The ground electrode can be positioned at any suitable location within rinse cabinet  500  within the spray environment, such as on one of the central, vertical feed lines  552  or in the volume of space below the carcasses, near a drain of the cabinet. The ground electrode can be coupled to the control circuit  320  shown in  FIG. 8  or to earth ground, for example. It will be appreciated that other arrangements in other embodiments may be utilized. 
       FIG. 10E  is an end elevation view of the prototype rinse cabinet  500  shown in  FIGS. 10A-10D . In this figure, the two sets of spray nozzles  550  are visible on opposing sides of the carcass travel path  504  (which is into the page in  FIG. 10E ). A carcass  560  is illustrated hanging from a shackle  562  between the two sets of spray nozzles  550 . Each of the spray nozzles are positioned within 3 inches to 6 inches from the carcass  560 . Also shown in  FIG. 10E  is a measurement electrode  570 , which was inserted just below the skin of the carcass  560 . In one test, when a voltage of about 7 kV was applied to electrodes  550 , measurement electrode  570  measured a voltage of 3.5 kV just under the skin surface. It is estimated that when a voltage of 7 kv to 8 kV is applied to electrodes  550 , the electric field at the skin surface is about 5 kV. In one embodiment, the power supply and control circuit are configured to apply a voltage of 2 kV to 20 kV peak-to-peak to the electrodes  550 , such that the voltage at the skin surface is about 2 kV to about 15 kV. 
     As described above, rinse cabinet  500  applies an output spray from each nozzle  550 , which has enhanced cleaning and sanitizing properties, to the carcass. The cleaning properties are enhanced, for example, by electrolysis cells  520 , which produce tiny electrically-charged bubbles in the liquid sprayed onto the carcass surface. These bubbles attach themselves to dirt particles/microorganisms and transfer their charge. The charged and coated particles separate one from another due to the repulsion between their similar charges and enter the solution as a suspension. Coating of the dirt by tiny bubbles promotes their pick-up by larger buoyant bubbles that are introduced during cleaning, thus aiding the cleaning process. The suspended dirt particles and microorganisms are mechanically removed from the carcass by the rinsing action provided by the spray outputs. 
     Simultaneously, microorganisms on the carcass surface or suspended from the carcass surface can be electroporated and killed or otherwise eliminated by the alternating electric field generated by the electroporation electrodes  554 , thereby reducing the number of live microorganisms on a surface. Thus, the sanitizing properties of the output spray are enhanced, for example, by applying the electric field to the surface of the carcass through the output spray. The electric field applied to the carcass, and thus to cells of microorganisms on a carcass, meets or surpasses a threshold such that the cells become permanently damaged by a process known as irreversible electroporation, for example. If the electric field threshold is reached or surpassed, electroporation will compromise viability of the cells, resulting in irreversible electroporation. Thus, rinse cabinet  500  is configured to deliver an applied electric field to the carcass through the charged output spray, which exceeds the electric field threshold. 
     The microorganisms are suspended from the surface of the carcass by the liquid dispensed from spray nozzles and through which the electric field is applied. Other mechanisms, such as surfactant additives can also be used to alter the liquid&#39;s oxidation reduction potential and/or enhance the suspension of particles and microorganisms from the carcass surface. 
     3.1 Test Results 
     The prototype rinse cabinet  500  shown in  FIGS. 10A-10D  was used to test the efficacy of the rinse cabinet in reducing bacterial counts on test surfaces treated within the rinse cabinet. 
     In the following tests, the electrolysis cells were operated at 50V-60V such that each cell drew about 6 amperes between the electrodes. Regular tap water was pumped through the feed lines at a pressure of about 40 psi, where the flow rate through the combined six cells was about 4 gallons per minute. The high voltage, electroporation electrodes  554  were driven with a sinusoidal voltage waveform from a test bench power supply amplitudes of about 2 kV peak-to-peak and 4 kV peak-to-peak and a frequency of about 30 kHZ, as explained below. 
     3.1.1 Test Vehicle 
     For each test, a test vehicle was prepared by inoculating 1″×1″ pieces of VITRO-SKIN® with bacteria and attaching the piece to the external surface of a small 6-inch to 8-inch section of PVC pipe, which was capped at both ends. The test vehicle was then hung from a shackle attached to the conveyor  510  (shown in  FIG. 10A ) such that the test vehicle would pass between the plurality of spray nozzles  550  in rinse cabinet  500 . 
     The control circuits that drive electrolysis cells  520 , electroporation electrodes  554  and the pump were then activated so that spray nozzles  550  delivered output sprays of electrolyzed water to the travel path within the cabinet, which conducted the applied electric fields from the respective electroporation electrodes  554 . 
     The conveyor  510  was then activated to move the test vehicle along travel path  504 , through the rinse cabinet  500 , at a desired rate. Once the test vehicle had passed through the rinse cabinet  500 , the pieces of VITRO-SKIN® were removed from the test vehicle so that remaining bacterial colonies could be counted. 
     3.1.2 Materials 
     The materials for each test included: 
       S. enterica  ATCC 10708 culture (overnight) 
     Trypticase soy broth (TSB) 
     Trypticase soy agar plates (TSA) 
     VITRO-SKIN® (hydrated overnight) 
     Sterile buffered peptone water (BPW) 
     Sterile forceps 
     125 mm×16 mm sterile tubes 
     Pipettors, tips 
     3×5″ sterile stomacher bags 
     Sterile 5 mL pipette 
     Vortex mixer 
     T-pins 
     Pipet aid 
     Micropipettors 
     Yellow micropipette tips 
     Blue micropipette tips 
     3.1.3 Test Method 
     Day 1 
     
         
         
           
             1. Cut  1 ″×1″ pieces of VITRO-SKIN® 
             2. Dilute 52 g glycerol into 298 g water, mix, and place in the bottom of the Red Lid Hydration Chamber (IMS, Inc.). 
             3. Place pieces of VITRO-SKIN® above the liquid on the tray provided, seal the lid and allow the VITRO-SKIN® to hydrate for 16-24 hours, but not over 24 hours. 
             4. Inoculate a culture of  S. enterica  grown in trypticase soy broth (TSB) to be used the next day (18-24 hours). 
           
         
       
    
     Day 2 (Test Day) 
     
         
         
           
             5. Dilute culture 1:5 in buffered peptone water (BPW)˜[10 7  CFU/mL] to make the inoculum. 
             6. Dilute the inoculum 1:10 in BPW and plate 20 μL of dilutions 4-6 on TSA plates. 
             7. Using a P20 micropipettor, pipette 10 μL of the inoculum on the test samples of VITRO-SKIN®˜[10 6  CFU]. 
             8. Spread bacteria out over the center of the VITRO-SKIN® using the side and tip of the pipette tip. 
             9. Allow bacteria to dry onto the VITRO-SKIN® for 2 hours at 37° C. in a humidified dessicator in the incubator. 
             10. Place 5 mL BPW into each 3″×5″ sterile stomacher bag (labeled with the sample). 
             11. Using sterile T-pins, pin the VITRO-SKIN® samples onto the PVC pipe test vehicle at the prepared spaces using pre-drilled holes in the pipe. 
             12. Take 2 pieces of inoculated VITRO-SKIN® samples and stomach them directly without running them through the cabinet. 
             13. For each test, hang the test vehicle on the shackle of the conveyor. 
             14. Run test article through the cabinet at the desired speed. 
             15. Remove test article from shackle. 
             16. Carefully remove the pins and, using sterile forceps, place VITRO-SKIN® into stomacher bag containing 5 mL sterile BPW. 
             17. Close and massage stomacher bag for 30 seconds by hand. 
             18. Plate either 1.0 mL or 20 μL of stomacher bag contents, with 1:10 dilutions if necessary, on TSA plates. 
             19. Incubate TSA plates overnight for 18-24 hours at 37° C. 
             20. Clean all surfaces and test article 
           
         
       
    
     Day 3 
     21. Enumerate Colonies 
     3.1.4 Test 1 Results 
     In a first test, the above test method was replicated seven times for four different configurations including two different treatment water types and two different conveyor rates. In a first “water only” configuration, the pump was activated but the electrolysis cells and the electroporation electrodes were deactivated. As such, each test piece was rinsed in rinse cabinet  500  by regular tap water delivered by the nozzles  520 . In a second “treated water” configuration, the electrolysis cells and the electroporation electrodes were also activated. As such, each test piece was treated in rinse cabinet  500  by electrochemically-activated water, which also conducted an alternating electric field. 
     Also, for each treatment water type, the conveyor was operated at two different rates: a first rate in which the duration of contact time of the test vehicle with the spray output was 4 seconds, and a second rate in which the duration of contact time of the test vehicle with the spray output was 24 seconds. 
     To conduct the tests, two power supplies were used to drive the control circuit that applied the voltage potential to the electroporation electrodes  554  tap water delivered by the nozzles  520 . As a result, the stepped-up voltage at the transformer output (see  FIG. 8 ) was about 2 kV peak-to-peak. Being a simple bench test, the voltage output had a sinusoidal shape without the local peak discontinuities shown in the waveform of  FIG. 6 . 
     For each of the seven iterations in the first and second configurations, the control pieces of VITRO-SKIN® indicated each test piece contained an average of 4.61 log 10  Colony Forming Units (CFUs) prior to treatment by rinse cabinet  500 . 
     The test results are shown below: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Inoculated 
                   
                   
                 Average Bacterial Count 
               
               
                 Control(log 10 )  
                   
                   
                 Following Treatment (over  
               
               
                 prior to  
                 Itera- 
                 Treatment 
                 7 iterations) ± 1 standard  
               
               
                 treatment 
                 tions 
                 Liquid 
                 deviation 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Spray Time 
                 4 seconds 
                 24 seconds 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 4.61 CFUs 
                 7 
                 Water Only 
                 3.1 
                 ± 0.23 
                 1.97 
                 ± 0.4 
               
               
                 4.61 CFUs 
                 7 
                 Activated Water  
                 3.18  
                 ± 0.20 
                 2.74 
                 ± 0.37 
               
               
                   
                   
                 with E-Field 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Log 10  Reduction Water only vs. Activated 
                 0.08 
                 0.77 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Water 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The above results show that, for a 4 second treatment time, the activated spray output achieved a 0.08 log 10  reduction in bacterial count as compared to plain, untreated water. 
     For a 24 second treatment time, the activated spray output achieved a 0.77 log 10  reduction in bacterial count as compared to plain, untreated water. 
     3.1.5 Test 2 Results 
     A second test was performed on the same day as the first test (Test 1), which was identical as the first test except that four power supplies were connected together in parallel for supplying power to the transformer, which resulted in an output voltage from the transformer of about 4 kV to the electroporation electrodes. 
     The test results are shown below: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Inoculated 
                   
                   
                 Average Bacterial Count 
               
               
                 Control (log 10 )  
                   
                   
                 Following Treatment (over  
               
               
                 prior to 
                 Itera- 
                 Treatment 
                 7 iterations) ± 1 standard 
               
               
                 treatment 
                 tions 
                 Liquid 
                 deviation 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Spray Time 
                 4 seconds 
                 24 seconds 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 4.46 CFUs 
                 7 
                 Water Only 
                 3.41  
                 ± 0.32 
                 2.06 
                 ± 0.25 
               
               
                 4.46 CFUs 
                 7 
                 Activated Water  
                 3.47  
                 ± 0.66 
                 3.58  
                 ± 0.34 
               
               
                   
                   
                 with E-Field 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Log 10  Reduction Water only vs. Activated 
                 0.06 
                 1.52 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Water 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The above results show that, for a 4 second treatment time, the activated spray output achieved a 0.06 log 10  reduction in bacterial count as compared to plain, untreated water. 
     For a 24 second treatment time, the activated spray output achieved a 1.52 log 10  reduction in bacterial count as compared to plain, untreated water. 
     3.1.6 Test 3 Results 
     In a third test, the above test method was replicated fifteen times for two different treatment water types and one conveyor rate. In a first “water only” configuration, the pump was activated but the electrolysis cells and the electroporation electrodes were deactivated. As such, each test piece was rinsed in rinse cabinet  500  by regular tap water delivered by the nozzles  520 . In a second “treated water” configuration, the electrolysis cells and the electroporation electrodes were also activated. As such, each test piece was treated in rinse cabinet  500  by electrochemically-activated water, which also conducted an alternating electric field. 
     Also, for each treatment water type, the conveyor was operated at a rate in which the duration of contact time of the test vehicle with the spray output was 12 seconds. 
     To conduct the tests, four power supplies were used in parallel to drive the control circuit that applied the voltage potential to the electroporation electrodes  554  tap water delivered by the nozzles  520 . As a result, the stepped-up voltage at the transformer output (see  FIG. 8 ) was about 4 kV peak-to-peak. Being a simple bench test, the voltage output had a sinusoidal shape without the local peak discontinuities shown in the waveform of  FIG. 6 . 
     For each of the seven iterations in the first and second configurations, the control pieces of VITRO-SKIN® indicated each test piece contained an average of 6.06 log 10  Colony Forming Units (CFUs) prior to treatment by rinse cabinet  500 . 
     The test results are shown below: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Inoculated 
                   
                   
                 Average Bacterial Count 
               
               
                 Control (log 10 ) 
                   
                   
                 Following Treatment (over  
               
               
                 prior to 
                 Itera- 
                 Treatment 
                 7 iterations) ± 1 standard 
               
               
                 treatment 
                 tions 
                 Liquid 
                 deviation 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Spray Time 
                 12 seconds 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 6.06 CFUs 
                 15 
                 Water Only 
                 2.2  
                 ± 0.27 
               
               
                 6.06 CFUs 
                 15 
                 Activated Water  
                 2.76  
                 ± 0.48 
               
               
                   
                   
                 with E-Field 
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Log 10  Reduction Water only vs. Activated 
                 0.55 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Water 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The above results show that, for a 12 second treatment time, the activated spray output achieved a 0.55 log 10  reduction in bacterial count as compared to plain, untreated water. 
     3.1.7 Test 4 Results 
     In a fourth test, the above test method was identical to that described for Test 3. 
     The test results are shown below: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Inoculated 
                   
                   
                 Average Bacterial Count 
               
               
                 Control (log 10 ) 
                   
                   
                 Following Treatment (over  
               
               
                 prior to 
                 Itera- 
                 Treatment 
                 7 iterations) ± 1 standard 
               
               
                 treatment 
                 tions 
                 Liquid 
                 deviation 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Spray Time 
                 12 seconds 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 6.09 CFUs 
                 15 
                 Water Only 
                 1.70  
                 ± 0.35 
               
               
                 6.09 CFUs 
                 15 
                 Activated Water  
                 2.41  
                 ± 0.85 
               
               
                   
                   
                 with E-Field 
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Log 10  Reduction Water only vs. Activated  
                 0.71 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                 Water 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The above results show that, for a 12 second treatment time, the activated spray output achieved a 0.71 log 10  reduction in bacterial count as compared to plain, untreated water. 
     Because the “water only” and the “activated water” were sprayed onto their respective test strips and the “activated water” achieved a significant log 10  reduction in bacterial count relative to “water only”, it is believed that the properties of the electrolyzed water and the electric field applied through the spray output attributed to the increased cleaning and sanitizing capabilities of rinse cabinet  500 . 
     Although the present disclosure has been described with reference to one or more embodiments, workers skilled in the art will recognize that changes may be made in form and detail without departing from the scope of the disclosure and/or the issued claims appended hereto. Also while certain embodiments and/or examples have been discussed herein, the scope of the invention is not limited to such embodiments and/or examples. One skilled in the art may implement variations of these embodiments and/or examples that will be covered by one or more issued claims appended hereto.