Patent Publication Number: US-2022227240-A1

Title: Energy unit cells for primary vehicle structure

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S) 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 63/139,293, entitled “ENERGY UNIT CELLS FOR PRIMARY VEHICLE STRUCTURE” and filed on Jan. 19, 2021, the disclosure of which is expressly incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Field 
     The present disclosure generally relates to energy unit cells, and more particularly, to techniques for optimization of energy unit cells for primary vehicle structure(s). 
     INTRODUCTION 
     Three-dimensional (3-D) printing, also referred to as additive manufacturing (AM), presents new opportunities to more efficiently build structures, such as automobiles, aircraft, boats, motorcycles, busses, trains and the like. Applying AM processes to industries that produce these products has proven to produce a structurally more efficient transport structure. For example, an automobile produced using 3-D printed components can be made stronger, lighter, and consequently, more fuel efficient. Moreover, AM enables manufacturers to 3-D print parts that are much more complex and that are equipped with more advanced features and capabilities than parts made via traditional machining and casting techniques. 
     Despite these recent advances, a number of obstacles remain with respect to the practical implementation of AM techniques in transport structures and other mechanized assemblies. For instance, regardless of whether AM is used to produce various components of such devices, manufacturers typically rely on labor-intensive and expensive techniques such as welding, riveting, etc., to join components together, such as nodes used in a transport structure. The deficiencies associated with welding and similar techniques are equally applicable to components, such as a vehicle gear case, that are currently too large to 3-D print in a single AM step. A given 3-D printer is usually limited to rendering objects having a finite size, often dictated by the available surface area of the 3-D printer&#39;s build plate and the allowable volume the printer can accommodate. In these instances, manufacturers are often relegated to building the component using the traditional, expensive and time-consuming machining techniques. Alternatively, manufacturers may 3-D print a number of subcomponents and combine them to form a complete, functional component or assembly. 
     Furthermore, vehicles (e.g., passenger vehicles, cargo vehicles, surface transport vehicles, aircrafts, space crafts, and the like) include onboard energy storage systems. For certain types of vehicles, onboard energy storage systems can account for significant amount of the vehicle&#39;s total mass. For example, for electrical vehicles, onboard energy storage systems can account for almost 40-50% of the electric vehicle&#39;s total mass. Additionally, conventional manufacturing techniques cause the onboard energy storage systems to be placed into large energy storage housings which generally do not share any load paths with the rest of the vehicle and also cause redundant extensive support structures to be added to the vehicle to safely hold and/or support the onboard energy storage systems. These energy storage systems do not contribute to stiffness and/or strength of vehicle primary structure, and increase the total mass of the vehicle. The increase in the mass of the vehicle reduces the efficiency and performance of the vehicle and it requires larger energy storage systems to be included in the vehicle for a desired range and/or performance than would be needed if the vehicle was lighter. 
     Accordingly, the conventional manufacturing techniques exacerbate and do not resolve the efficiency and performance issues of vehicles. 
     SUMMARY 
     The following presents a simplified summary of one or more aspects in order to provide a basic understanding of such aspects. This summary is not an extensive overview of all contemplated aspects, and is intended to neither identify key or critical elements of all aspects nor delineate the scope of any or all aspects. Its sole purpose is to present some concepts of one or more aspects in a simplified form as a prelude to the more detailed description that is presented later. 
     Additive manufacturing (AM) processes involve the use of a stored geometrical model for accumulating layered materials on a “build plate” to produce three-dimensional (3-D) objects having features defined by the model. AM techniques are capable of printing complex components using a wide variety of materials. A 3-D object is fabricated based on a computer aided design (CAD) model. The AM process can create a solid three-dimensional object using the CAD model. 
     One such method is called Direct Metal Deposition (DMD). DMD is an AM technology that uses a laser to melt metallic powder and thereby transform it into a solid metal object. DMD is not based on a powder bed. Instead, DMD uses a feed nozzle to propel the powder into the laser beam. The powdered metal is then fused by the laser. While supports or a freeform substrate may in some cases be used to maintain the structure being built, almost all the powder in DMD is transformed into solid metal and consequently little waste powder is left to recycle. Using a layer-by-layer strategy, the print head, composed of the laser beam and the feed nozzle, can scan the substrate to deposit successive layers. All kinds of metallic materials can be processed using this technology including, for example, steel, aluminum, nickel alloys, titanium, cobalt, copper, and the like. 
     Other AM processes, such as powder bed fusion (PBF), may use energy beams (for example, laser) to sinter or melt metallic powder deposited in a powder bed, which then bonds the powder particles together in targeted areas to produce a 3-D structure having the desired geometry. For example, selective laser sintering (SLS) uses a laser to sinter metallic powder as the surface of a powder bed is scanned across. The laser is directed at specific points defined by a CAD model, and the metallic powder is bound together at the specific points to create a solid structure. Similar to SLS, selective laser melting (SLM) uses a high power-density laser to melt and fuse metallic powder. In SLM, however, the metallic powder may be fully melted into a solid 3-D part. 
     In yet other AM processes, such as binder jetting, a layer of powder may be spread and printheads may strategically deposit a binder into the powder bed. The binder binds the powder in the specific areas that create a layer of the build piece. A printing plate may lower and another layer of powder is spread. Such a process is repeated until the part is completely printed. With powders of certain materials, such as metallic powders, subsequent post-processing steps may be required such as sintering and infiltration. In other AM processes, such as electron beam melting, a powder is placed under a vacuum and a high-powered electron beam is utilized to generate energy needed for high melting capacity and high productivity. The powder is fused together using the energy generated by the electron beam. 
     The metallic powders used in various AM processes, such as SLS, SLM, binder jetting, and/or electron beam melting may be necessarily within a well-defined size distribution—e.g., 1 micrometers (μm) to 150+μm. For example, for an SLM process, the AM equipment may be configured to use powder between 20 to 63 micrometers. Similarly, AM equipment for PBF process may be configured to use powder between 15 to 45 micrometers, and AM equipment for EBM process may be configured to use powder between 45 to 105 micrometers. In addition, such AM processes may use metallic powders with a specific shape—e.g., substantially spherical metal powder, and/or a specific texture—e.g., substantially smooth powder particles. However, generating powder with such characteristics is difficult, and may result in 50 percent to 70 percent of the powder being wasted. 
     The present disclosure describes various techniques and solutions for determining and/or optimizing energy unit cells for one or more primary structures of a vehicle. According to the techniques and solutions described herein, a method comprises obtaining enclosure criteria of an enclosure space (e.g., compartments for the placement of energy storage cells in the primary structure), where the enclosure space is configured to contain an energy storage device. The method further includes obtaining a load case of a primary structure of a vehicle. The method further includes determining a primary structure design based on the enclosure criteria and the load case, where the primary structure design incorporates the enclosure space. 
     In certain aspects, the method includes obtaining energy system criteria of an energy system of the vehicle, the energy system configured to include the energy storage device. In certain aspects, determining the primary structure design is further based on the energy system criteria. 
     In certain aspects, the method includes determining a connection path configured to connect the energy storage device to the energy system, based on the enclosure space. In certain aspects, determining connection path includes determining a connection path space within the primary structure. 
     In certain aspects, the connection path space is configured to route one or more wires. 
     In certain aspects, determining the updated primary structure design includes designating the connection path space as a non-design space. 
     In certain aspects, the energy system criteria is based on at least vehicle range, vehicle mass, vehicle stiffness, vehicle durability, or vehicle cost. In certain aspects, the method includes determining the energy system criteria. 
     In certain aspects, the energy system comprises electrical circuit, conductive path, wire path length, wire thickness, wire material, electrical circuit components, or electric motors. In certain aspects, determining the updated primary structure design includes designating the enclosure space as a non-design space. In certain aspects, determining the updated primary structure design includes performing topology optimization based on the load case. 
     In certain aspects, the method includes determining an opening in the primary structure design, the opening configured to allow access to the energy storage device. In certain aspects, the primary structure design is configured to allow at least a portion of the energy storage device to protrude from the opening. In certain aspects, determining the primary structure design includes determining a hollow portion configured to enclose at least a portion of the energy storage device. 
     In certain aspects, the enclosure space is arranged fully within the primary structure. 
     In certain aspects, the enclosure space is based on a shape of the energy storage device. In certain aspects, the shape of the energy storage device includes a prismatic shape. 
     In certain aspects, determining the enclosure space based on the enclosure criteria. In certain aspects, determining the enclosure space includes selecting the energy storage device from a plurality of different energy storage devices. In certain aspects, the energy storage device includes at least a battery or a fuel tank. 
     In certain aspects, the enclosure criteria indicates a set of dimensions for the enclosure space, a minimum wall thickness of the enclosure space, energy storage device characteristics, or a minimum size of the enclosure space to enclose the energy storage device. 
     The foregoing techniques and approaches may be enabled through various apparatuses, systems, methods, and/or computer-readable media described herein. 
     It will be understood that other aspects of determining and/or optimizing energy unit cells for primary structures will become readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, wherein it is shown and described in several embodiments by way of illustration. As will be realized by those skilled in the art, the disclosed subject matter is capable of other and different embodiments and its several details are capable of modification in various other respects, all without departing from the present disclosure. Accordingly, the drawings and detailed description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature and not as restrictive. To the accomplishment of the foregoing and related ends, the one or more aspects comprise the features hereinafter fully described and particularly pointed out in the claims. The following description and the annexed drawings set forth in detail certain illustrative features of the one or more aspects. These features are indicative, however, of but a few of the various ways in which the principles of various aspects may be employed, and this description is intended to include all such aspects and their equivalents. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Various aspects of apparatuses and methods for joining nodes and subcomponents with adhesive will now be presented in the detailed description by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the accompanying drawings, wherein: 
         FIG. 1  illustrates an exemplary embodiment of certain aspects of a Direct Metal Deposition (DMD) three-dimensional (3-D) printer; 
         FIG. 2  illustrates a conceptual flow diagram of a 3-D printing process using a 3-D printer; 
         FIGS. 3A-D  illustrate exemplary powder bed fusion (PBF) systems during different stages of operation; 
         FIG. 3E  illustrates a functional block diagram of a 3-D printer system, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIG. 4  illustrates a flowchart of an example method for determining and/or optimizing energy unit cells for primary structures, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; 
         FIGS. 5A-5I  illustrate an exemplary process of determining and/or optimizing energy unit cells for primary structures, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. 
         FIG. 6  illustrates a flowchart of an example method for determining and/or optimizing energy unit cells for primary structures, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; and 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The detailed description set forth below in connection with the appended drawings is intended to provide a description of various exemplary embodiments and is not intended to represent the only embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. The term “exemplary” used throughout this disclosure means “serving as an example, instance, or illustration,” and should not necessarily be construed as preferred or advantageous over other embodiments presented in this disclosure. The detailed description includes specific details for the purpose of providing a thorough and complete disclosure that fully conveys the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. However, the invention may be practiced without these specific details. In some instances, well-known structures and components may be shown in block diagram form, or omitted entirely, in order to avoid obscuring the various concepts presented throughout this disclosure. In addition, the figures may not be drawn to scale and instead may be drawn in a way that attempts to most effectively highlight various features relevant to the subject matter described. 
     Vehicle construction is generally a tradeoff of function and cost. Energy storage enclosures and structures for other functional elements are generally attached to primary structure (and are essentially parasitic mass with respect to primary structure), and the primary structure of the vehicle is designed to accept safety and operational loads of a vehicle, which may include, but are not limited to, crash loads, structural loads, operational loads, and the like. As describe herein, vehicles may include, but are not limited to, passenger surface transport, cargo surface transport, aircraft, and space craft, and the like. Primary structure of a vehicle generally serves as the backbone to attach all of the vehicle&#39;s subsystems to the vehicle, including propulsion (e.g., drivetrain, transmission, electric motors, and the like) and energy storage (e.g., battery, and the like). Since electric vehicles use electric charge to generate motive power, they need to store the electric charge in onboard energy storage systems. 
     Due to the low gravimetric energy density (e.g., (&lt;230 Wh/kg for energy-type cells) of these energy storage systems, electric vehicles require a significant quantity of energy storage media and/or energy storage cells. As a result, a significant mass of electric vehicles is generally associated with energy storage masses that need to be transported in addition to the payload. However, due to the limitations of the conventional manufacturing techniques, the total mass of the vehicle is further increased. 
     For example, due to limitations of conventional manufacturing processes and/or techniques, an energy storage enclosure structure (e.g., a battery housing) is required to hold the energy storage cells and furthermore the energy storage enclosure structure is manufactured separately from a primary structure using a discrete and different manufacturing process from the primary structure generally. The discrete and different manufacturing process of the primary structure prevents successful functional integration of an energy storage system into a primary structure of the vehicle. The failure to integrate the energy storage system into primary structure results in large enclosure structures for holding the energy storage systems to be added to the vehicles. These enclosure structures have their own mass and fail to contribute to the stiffness and/or strength of the primary structure of the vehicle. Furthermore, these enclosure structures fail to share any loads of the vehicles and require additional support structures to be added in the vehicle for supporting the enclosure structures. Thus, the total mass of further increases which further reduces the efficiency and performance of the vehicle. 
     Accordingly, the present disclosure is generally directed to manufacturing techniques that allow for energy unit cells to be functionally integrated into primary structure of a vehicle. The manufacturing techniques disclosed herein allow for energy unit cells of an energy storage system of a vehicle to be subdivided and integrated into one or more locations of a primary structure of the vehicle. Additionally, the present disclosure provides techniques and solutions for determining and/or optimizing location of energy storage cells within a primary structure for a vehicle criteria and/or enclosure criteria. 
     Additive Manufacturing (3-D Printing). AM is advantageously a non-design specific manufacturing technique. AM provides the ability to create complex structures within a part. For example, nodes can be produced using AM. A node is a structural member that may include one or more interfaces used to connect to spanning components such as tubes, extrusions, panels, other nodes, and the like. Using AM, a node may be constructed to include additional features and functions, depending on the objectives. For example, a node may be printed with one or more ports that enable the node to secure two parts by injecting an adhesive rather than welding multiple parts together, as is traditionally done in manufacturing complex products. Alternatively, some components may be connected using a brazing slurry, a thermoplastic, a thermoset, or another connection feature, any of which can be used interchangeably in place of an adhesive. Thus, while welding techniques may be suitable with respect to certain embodiments, additive manufacturing provides significant flexibility in enabling the use of alternative or additional connection techniques. 
     A variety of different AM techniques have been used to 3-D print components composed of various types of materials. Numerous available techniques exist, and more are being developed. For example, Directed Energy Deposition (DED) AM systems use directed energy sourced from laser or electron beams to melt metal. These systems utilize both powder and wire feeds. The wire feed systems advantageously have higher deposition rates than other prominent AM techniques. Single Pass Jetting (SPJ) combines two powder spreaders and a single print unit to spread metal powder and to print a structure in a single pass with apparently no wasted motion. As another illustration, electron beam additive manufacturing processes use an electron beam to deposit metal via wire feedstock or sintering on a powder bed in a vacuum chamber. Single Pass Jetting is another exemplary technology claimed by its developers to be much quicker than conventional laser-based systems. Atomic Diffusion Additive Manufacturing (ADAM) is still another recently developed technology in which components are printed, layer-by-layer, using a metal powder in a plastic binder. After printing, plastic binders are removed and the entire part is sintered at once into a desired metal. 
     One of several such AM techniques, as noted, is DMD.  FIG. 1  illustrates an exemplary embodiment of certain aspects of a DMD 3-D printer  100 . DMD printer  100  uses feed nozzle  102  moving in a predefined direction  120  to propel powder streams  104   a  and  104   b  into a laser beam  106 , which is directed toward a workpiece  112  that may be supported by a substrate. Feed nozzle may also include mechanisms for streaming a shield gas  116  to protect the welded area from oxygen, water vapor, or other components. 
     The powdered metal is then fused by the laser  106  in a melt pool region  108 , which may then bond to the workpiece  112  as a region of deposited material  110 . The dilution area  114  may include a region of the workpiece where the deposited powder is integrated with the local material of the workpiece. The feed nozzle  102  may be supported by a computer numerical controlled (CNC) robot or a gantry, or other computer-controlled mechanism. The feed nozzle  102  may be moved under computer control multiple times along a predetermined direction of the substrate until an initial layer of the deposited material  110  is formed over a desired area of the workpiece  112 . The feed nozzle  102  can then scan the region immediately above the prior layer to deposit successive layers until the desired structure is formed. In general, the feed nozzle  102  may be configured to move with respect to all three axes, and in some instances to rotate on its own axis by a predetermined amount. 
       FIG. 2  is a flow diagram  200  illustrating an exemplary process of 3-D printing. A data model of the desired 3-D object to be printed is rendered (operation  210 ). A data model is a virtual design of the 3-D object. Thus, the data model may reflect the geometrical and structural features of the 3-D object, as well as its material composition. The data model may be created using a variety of methods, including CAE-based optimization, 3D modeling, photogrammetry software, and camera imaging. CAE-based optimization may include, for example, cloud-based optimization, fatigue analysis, linear or non-linear finite element analysis (FEA), and durability analysis. 
     3-D modeling software, in turn, may include one of numerous commercially available 3-D modeling software applications. Data models may be rendered using a suitable computer-aided design (CAD) package, for example in an STL format. STL is one example of a file format associated with commercially available stereolithography-based CAD software. A CAD program may be used to create the data model of the 3-D object as an STL file. Thereupon, the STL file may undergo a process whereby errors in the file are identified and resolved. 
     Following error resolution, the data model can be “sliced” by a software application known as a slicer to thereby produce a set of instructions for 3-D printing the object, with the instructions being compatible and associated with the particular 3-D printing technology to be utilized (operation  220 ). Numerous slicer programs are commercially available. Generally, the slicer program converts the data model into a series of individual layers representing thin slices (e.g., 100 microns thick) of the object be printed, along with a file containing the printer-specific instructions for 3-D printing these successive individual layers to produce an actual 3-D printed representation of the data model. 
     The layers associated with 3-D printers and related print instructions need not be planar or identical in thickness. For example, in some embodiments depending on factors like the technical sophistication of the 3-D printing equipment and the specific manufacturing objectives, etc., the layers in a 3-D printed structure may be non-planar and/or may vary in one or more instances with respect to their individual thicknesses. 
     A common type of file used for slicing data models into layers is a G-code file, which is a numerical control programming language that includes instructions for 3-D printing the object. The G-code file, or other file constituting the instructions, is uploaded to the 3-D printer (operation  230 ). Because the file containing these instructions is typically configured to be operable with a specific 3-D printing process, it will be appreciated that many formats of the instruction file are possible depending on the 3-D printing technology used. 
     In addition to the printing instructions that dictate what and how an object is to be rendered, the appropriate physical materials necessary for use by the 3-D printer in rendering the object are loaded into the 3-D printer using any of several conventional and often printer-specific methods (operation  240 ). In DMD techniques, for example, one or more metal powders may be selected for layering structures with such metals or metal alloys. In SLM, SLS, and other PBF-based AM methods (see below), the materials may be loaded as powders into chambers that feed the powders to a build platform. Depending on the 3-D printer, other techniques for loading printing materials may be used. 
     The respective data slices of the 3-D object are then printed based on the provided instructions using the material(s) (operation  250 ). In 3-D printers that use laser sintering, a laser scans a powder bed and melts the powder together where structure is desired, and avoids scanning areas where the sliced data indicates that nothing is to be printed. This process may be repeated thousands of times until the desired structure is formed, after which the printed part is removed from a fabricator. In fused deposition modelling, as described above, parts are printed by applying successive layers of model and support materials to a substrate. In general, any suitable 3-D printing technology may be employed for purposes of this disclosure. 
     Another AM technique includes PBF. Like DMD, PBF creates “build pieces” layer-by-layer. Each layer or “slice” is formed by depositing a layer of powder and exposing portions of the powder to an energy beam. The energy beam is applied to melt areas of the powder layer that coincide with the cross-section of the build piece in the layer. The melted powder cools and fuses to form a slice of the build piece. The process can be repeated to form the next slice of the build piece, and so on. Each layer is deposited on top of the previous layer. The resulting structure is a build piece assembled slice-by-slice from the ground up. 
       FIGS. 3A-D  illustrate respective side views of an exemplary PBF system  300  during different stages of operation. As noted above, the particular embodiment illustrated in  FIGS. 3A-D  is one of many suitable examples of a PBF system employing principles of this disclosure. It should also be noted that elements of  FIGS. 3A-D  and the other figures in this disclosure are not necessarily drawn to scale, but may be drawn larger or smaller for the purpose of better illustration of concepts described herein. PBF system  300  can include a depositor  301  that can deposit each layer of metal powder, an energy beam source  303  that can generate an energy beam, a deflector  305  that can apply the energy beam to fuse the powder, and a build plate  307  that can support one or more build pieces, such as a build piece  309 . PBF system  300  can also include a build floor  311  positioned within a powder bed receptacle. The walls of the powder bed receptacle  312  generally define the boundaries of the powder bed receptacle, which is sandwiched between the walls  312  from the side and abuts a portion of the build floor  311  below. Build floor  311  can progressively lower build plate  307  so that depositor  301  can deposit a next layer. The entire mechanism may reside in a chamber  313  that can enclose the other components, thereby protecting the equipment, enabling atmospheric and temperature regulation and mitigating contamination risks. Depositor  301  can include a hopper  315  that contains a powder  317 , such as a metal powder, and a leveler  319  that can level the top of each layer of deposited powder. 
     Referring specifically to  FIG. 3A , this figure shows PBF system  300  after a slice of build piece  309  has been fused, but before the next layer of powder has been deposited. In fact,  FIG. 3A  illustrates a time at which PBF system  300  has already deposited and fused slices in multiple layers, e.g., 150 layers, to form the current state of build piece  309 , e.g., formed of 150 slices. The multiple layers already deposited have created a powder bed  321 , which includes powder that was deposited but not fused. 
       FIG. 3B  shows PBF system  300  at a stage in which build floor  311  can lower by a powder layer thickness  323 . The lowering of build floor  311  causes build piece  309  and powder bed  321  to drop by powder layer thickness  323 , so that the top of the build piece and powder bed are lower than the top of powder bed receptacle wall  312  by an amount equal to the powder layer thickness. In this way, for example, a space with a consistent thickness equal to powder layer thickness  323  can be created over the tops of build piece  309  and powder bed  321 . 
       FIG. 3C  shows PBF system  300  at a stage in which depositor  301  is positioned to deposit powder  317  in a space created over the top surfaces of build piece  309  and powder bed  321  and bounded by powder bed receptacle walls  312 . In this example, depositor  301  progressively moves over the defined space while releasing powder  317  from hopper  315 . Leveler  319  can level the released powder to form a powder layer  325  that has a thickness substantially equal to the powder layer thickness  323  (see  FIG. 3B ). Thus, the powder in a PBF system can be supported by a powder support structure, which can include, for example, a build plate  307 , a build floor  311 , a build piece  309 , walls  312 , and the like. It should be noted that the illustrated thickness of powder layer  325  (i.e., powder layer thickness  323  ( FIG. 3B )) is greater than an actual thickness used for the example involving 350 previously-deposited layers discussed above with reference to  FIG. 3A . 
       FIG. 3D  shows PBF system  300  at a stage in which, following the deposition of powder layer  325  ( FIG. 3C ), energy beam source  303  generates an energy beam  327  and deflector  305  applies the energy beam to fuse the next slice in build piece  309 . In various exemplary embodiments, energy beam source  303  can be an electron beam source, in which case energy beam  327  constitutes an electron beam. Deflector  305  can include deflection plates that can generate an electric field or a magnetic field that selectively deflects the electron beam to cause the electron beam to scan across areas designated to be fused. In various embodiments, energy beam source  303  can be a laser, in which case energy beam  327  is a laser beam. Deflector  305  can include an optical system that uses reflection and/or refraction to manipulate the laser beam to scan selected areas to be fused. 
     In various embodiments, the deflector  305  can include one or more gimbals and actuators that can rotate and/or translate the energy beam source to position the energy beam. In various embodiments, energy beam source  303  and/or deflector  305  can modulate the energy beam, e.g., turn the energy beam on and off as the deflector scans so that the energy beam is applied only in the appropriate areas of the powder layer. For example, in various embodiments, the energy beam can be modulated by a digital signal processor (DSP). 
       FIG. 3E  illustrates a functional block diagram of a 3-D printer system in accordance with an aspect of the present disclosure. In an aspect of the present disclosure, control devices and/or elements, including computer software, may be coupled to PBF system  300  to control one or more components within PBF system  300 . Such a device may be a computer  350 , which may include one or more components that may assist in the control of PBF system  300 . Computer  350  may communicate with a PBF system  300 , and/or other AM systems, via one or more interfaces  351 . The computer  350  and/or interface  351  are examples of devices that may be configured to implement the various methods described herein, that may assist in controlling PBF system  300  and/or other AM systems. Although computer  350  is shown in this example connected to a 3D printer, PBF system  300 , it should be appreciated that in various aspects, computer  350  may operate independently, e.g., not connected to a 3D printer, to perform any of the methods disclosed herein by executing corresponding computer code. The results may be, for example, a CAD drawing/design, printer instructions, etc., that may be transmitted to a 3D printer for printing, another computer for further processing, etc. 
     In an aspect of the present disclosure, computer  350  may comprise at least one processor unit  352 , memory  354 , signal detector  356 , a digital signal processor (DSP)  358 , and one or more user interfaces  360 . Computer  350  may include additional components without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. 
     The computer  350  may include at least one processor unit  352 , which may assist in the control and/or operation of PBF system  300 . Additionally, the processor unit  352  may be configured to execute instructions to perform operations for determining and/or optimizing energy unit cells for primary structures as described herein. For example, the processor unit  352  may be configured to execute and perform operations for the techniques, methods, and/or processes described herein with respect to  FIGS. 4-6 . 
     The processor unit  352  may also be referred to as a central processing unit (CPU). 
     Memory  354 , which may include both read-only memory (ROM) and random access memory (RAM), may provide instructions and/or data to the processor  504 . A portion of the memory  354  may also include non-volatile random access memory (NVRAM). The processor  352  typically performs logical and arithmetic operations based on program instructions stored within the memory  354 . The instructions in the memory  354  may be executable (by the processor unit  352 , for example) to implement the methods described herein. 
     The processor unit  352  may comprise or be a component of a processing system implemented with one or more processors. The one or more processors may be implemented with any combination of general-purpose microprocessors, microcontrollers, digital signal processors (DSPs), floating point gate arrays (FPGAs), programmable logic devices (PLDs), controllers, state machines, gated logic, discrete hardware components, dedicated hardware finite state machines, or any other suitable entities that can perform calculations or other manipulations of information. 
     The processor unit  352  may also include machine-readable media for storing software. Software shall be construed broadly to mean any type of instructions, whether referred to as software, firmware, middleware, microcode, hardware description language, or otherwise. Instructions may include code (e.g., in source code format, binary code format, executable code format, RS-274 instructions (G-code), numerical control (NC) programming language, and/or any other suitable format of code). The instructions, when executed by the one or more processors, cause the processing system to perform the various functions described herein. 
     The computer  350  may also include a signal detector  356  that may be used to detect and quantify any level of signals received by the computer  350  for use by the processing unit  352  and/or other components of the computer  350 . The signal detector  356  may detect such signals as energy beam source  303  power, deflector  305  position, build floor  311  height, amount of powder  317  remaining in depositor  301 , leveler  319  position, and other signals. The computer  350  may also include a DSP  358  for use in processing signals received by the computer  350 . The DSP  358  may be configured to generate instructions and/or packets of instructions for transmission to PBF system  300 . 
     The computer  350  may further comprise a user interface  360  in some aspects. The user interface  360  may comprise a keypad, a pointing device, and/or a display. The user interface  360  may include any element or component that conveys information to a user of the computer  350  and/or receives input from the user. 
     The various components of the computer  350  may be coupled together by a bus system  351 . The bus system  351  may include a data bus, for example, as well as a power bus, a control signal bus, and a status signal bus in addition to the data bus. Components of the computer  350  may be coupled together or accept or provide inputs to each other using some other mechanism. 
     Although a number of separate components are illustrated in  FIG. 3E , one or more of the components may be combined or commonly implemented. For example, the processor unit  352  may be used to implement not only the functionality described above with respect to the processor unit  352 , but also to implement the functionality described above with respect to the signal detector  356 , the DSP  358 , and/or the user interface  360 . Further, each of the components illustrated in  FIG. 3E  may be implemented using a plurality of separate elements. 
     By way of example, an element, or any portion of an element, or any combination of elements may be implemented as a “processing system” that includes one or more processors. Examples of processors include microprocessors, microcontrollers, graphics processing units (GPUs), central processing units (CPUs), application processors, digital signal processors (DSPs), reduced instruction set computing (RISC) processors, systems on a chip (SoC), baseband processors, field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), programmable logic devices (PLDs), state machines, gated logic, discrete hardware circuits, and other suitable hardware configured to perform the various functionality described throughout this disclosure. One or more processors in the processing system may execute software. Software shall be construed broadly to mean instructions, instruction sets, code, code segments, program code, programs, subprograms, software components, applications, software applications, software packages, routines, subroutines, objects, executables, threads of execution, procedures, functions, etc., whether referred to as software, firmware, middleware, microcode, hardware description language, or otherwise. 
     In one or more aspects, the functions described may be implemented in hardware, software, firmware, or any combination thereof. If implemented in software, the functions may be stored on or transmitted over as one or more instructions or code on a computer-readable medium. Computer-readable media includes both computer storage media and communication media including any medium that facilitates transfer of a computer program from one place to another. A storage media may be any available media that can be accessed by a computer. By way of example, and not limitation, such computer-readable media can comprise RAM, ROM, EEPROM, compact disc (CD) ROM (CD-ROM) or other optical disk storage, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium that can be used to carry or store desired program code in the form of instructions or data structures and that can be accessed by a computer. Also, any connection is properly termed a computer-readable medium. For example, if the software is transmitted from a website, server, or other remote source using a coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, twisted pair, digital subscriber line (DSL), or wireless technologies such as infrared, radio, and microwave, then the coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, twisted pair, DSL, or wireless technologies such as infrared, radio, and microwave are included in the definition of medium. Disk and disc, as used herein, includes CD, laser disc, optical disc, digital versatile disc (DVD), floppy disk and Blu-ray disc where disks usually reproduce data magnetically, while discs reproduce data optically with lasers. Thus, computer readable medium comprises a non-transitory computer readable medium (e.g., tangible media). 
     Accordingly, in one or more example embodiments, the functions described may be implemented in hardware, software, or any combination thereof. If implemented in software, the functions may be stored on or encoded as one or more instructions or code on a computer-readable medium. Computer-readable media includes computer storage media. Storage media may be any available media that can be accessed by a computer. By way of example, and not limitation, such computer-readable media can comprise a random-access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), an electrically erasable programmable ROM (EEPROM), optical disk storage, magnetic disk storage, other magnetic storage devices, combinations of the aforementioned types of computer-readable media, or any other medium that can be used to store computer executable code in the form of instructions or data structures that can be accessed by a computer. 
     Turning now to  FIG. 4 , illustrates a method  400  for determining and/or optimizing energy unit cells for a primary structure of a vehicle or for parts of a primary structure of a vehicle. The method  400  may be implemented by a computing system (e.g., computer  350 ). In some implementations, one or more of the illustrated operations may be transposed, omitted, and/or contemporaneously performed. 
     Initially, design volume and/or performance targets of a vehicle may be defined by the computing system (operation  402 ). The computing system may be configured to define design volumes and/or performance targets of a vehicle based on user inputs. In some implementations, a user may provide as an input to the computing system, design and non-design volumes within an initial design of a vehicle and/or an initial design of a primary structure, and/or an initial design of one or more parts of a primary structure. In some implementations, a design volume may be a portion of primary structure that may be modified from an current space and/or structure into a new space, volume, and/or structure. In some implementations, the non-design volume may be portion of a primary structure that cannot be further modified from its current space, volume, and/or structure by the computing system (e.g., computer  350 ). In some implementations, a user may indicate a type of a vehicle (e.g., passenger vehicle, cargo vehicle, passenger sedan vehicle, passenger sports utility vehicle, surface transport vehicle, aircraft, space craft, and the like). 
     The computing system may receive and/or obtain performance targets of a vehicle. For example, a user may also provide performance targets as an input to the computing system. Performance targets may include, but are not limited to, range of the vehicle (e.g., 600 miles on a single full charge of the total energy storage of the vehicle), maximum speed of the vehicle, acceleration requirements (e.g., 0-60 miles per hour in 3 seconds or less), and the like. Similarly, the computing system may receive and/or obtain operational and/or safety load cases of a vehicle and/or of the primary structure(s) of the vehicle. For example, a user may also provide operational and/or safety load cases of a vehicle and/or of the primary structure(s) of the vehicle. 
     As part of defining design volumes and/or performance targets, the computing system may be configured to create and/or determine an initial (e.g., seed) design of the vehicle, which can include an initial primary structure of the vehicle and an initial power system, e.g., a number of energy cells with a given capacity and power output (e.g., as described below with respect to the example embodiment of  FIGS. 5A-I ). In some implementations, the computing system may be configured to retrieve and select designs from a communicatively coupled data storage device configured to store a set of predetermined designs for vehicle and/or primary structures. The predetermined designs of the vehicles and/or primary structures may be stored in association with a vehicle type, performance requirements, safety and/or operational loads of the vehicle and/or primary structure of the vehicle, and the like. 
     In some implementations, the set of predetermined designs of a vehicle and/or primary structure(s) may include designs previously created, modified, and/or optimized by the computing system. For example, in response to a previous request to determine and/or optimize energy unit cells for a primary structure, the computing system may be configured to store (e.g., in a communicatively coupled storage device) all of the optimized designs generated by the computing system or the optimized designs generated by the computing system and selected by a user. The computing system may be configured to store such optimized designs in association with one or more performance requirements, energy storage requirements, safety and/or operational load cases, vehicle types, and the like. 
     The computing system may be configured to determine whether the initially determined and/or received designs of the vehicle and/or primary structure(s) satisfies the structural requirements of the vehicle (operation  404 ), e.g., requirements of the primary structure such as crash load requirements, operational load requirements, etc. Requirements of the vehicle may include, but are not limited to, vehicle performance requirements, total vehicle mass requirements, vehicle stiffness requirements, vehicle durability requirements, vehicle impact performance, and the like. 
     Each determined and/or received design of the vehicle and/or primary structure(s) may indicate a value for one or more of the requirements of the vehicle. For example, each determined and/or received initial design of the vehicle may indicate a minimum total mass of a vehicle if the vehicle is constructed using the initial design. The computing system may determine whether the initial design satisfies the total vehicle mass requirement by determining whether the indicated minimum mass of the vehicle satisfies the total vehicle mass requirement. 
     Similarly, the computing system may determine whether the initial design satisfies performance requirements of a vehicle. For example, the computing system may determine whether a total range of the vehicle, maximum speed of the vehicle, and/or an acceleration of the vehicle indicated by the initial design satisfies corresponding total range, maximum speed, and/or acceleration requirements of the vehicle. Similarly, the computing system may be configured to determine whether other vehicle requirements (e.g., vehicle stiffness requirements, vehicle durability requirements, vehicle impact performance, vehicle electrical performance, positions of energy storage devices in the vehicle, and the like) are satisfied by the initial design. 
     The computing system may optimize design(s) of one or more aspects of the energy system of the vehicle comprising the energy storage module and/or design of the vehicle (referred to herein as the “inner loop,” which in this embodiment includes operations  406  and  408 ), by modifying the design(s) of the energy storage module(s). In response to determining that the initial design does not satisfy the vehicle requirements, the method  400  proceeds to the operation  406 . The computing system may determine whether one or more energy modules of the vehicle satisfy the performance requirements of the energy modules (operation  406 ). An energy module as described herein may be a set a of energy storage devices (e.g., energy unit cells) within an enclosure space in a primary structure. The energy module may not be defined by a physical structural module and/or structure. For example, a set of energy storage devices within an enclosure space of a primary structure may be considered an energy module. The set of energy storage devices of the energy module may be connected (e.g., series connected, parallel connected, and the like) via conductive paths (e.g., bus bars, and the like) with each other and/or other components of the vehicle. 
     The computing system may determine whether an energy module satisfies performance requirement by determining whether a number of energy storage devices of the vehicle satisfy a threshold number of energy storage devices (e.g., a maximum number) in an energy module. In some implementations, the computing system may determine the threshold number of energy storage devices in an energy module based on energy system criteria of an energy system of the vehicle. The computing system may determine the energy system criteria of the energy system of the vehicle based on the performance requirements of the vehicle. In some implementations, the threshold number of energy storage devices may be provided by a user. 
     The computing system may also be configured to determine whether an energy module satisfies performance requirement and/or targets by determining whether the performance of the energy module satisfies other threshold performance requirements. For example, the computing system may determine whether a total thermal exertion or temperature of the energy module exceeds a threshold thermal exertion or temperature of the vehicle, and the computing system may determine that the threshold thermal performance of the energy module is not satisfied when total thermal exertion or temperature of the energy module exceeds the threshold thermal exertion or temperature of the vehicle. 
     In response to determining that the energy module does not satisfy the performance requirement of the energy module, the method proceeds to operation  408 . The computing system may be configured to optimize the one or more energy modules by iterating over various energy module designs (operation  408 ). The computing system may be configured to optimize the one or more energy modules using one or more optimization methods (e.g., known optimization methods). The computing system may be configured to optimize for performance of energy system of the vehicle, performance of the energy module (e.g., a number of batteries, a connection architecture, etc.), mass of energy system of the vehicle, mass of energy module, cost of the energy system of the vehicle, and/or cost of energy module of the vehicle. 
     The computing system may optimize energy module by modifying and/or changing a number of energy storage devices in the energy module, layout of energy storage devices in the energy module, total voltage of the energy storage devices, heat transfer characteristics of the energy storage devices, conductive paths (e.g., bus bars, and the like) of the energy module. 
     For each optimized energy module design, the method may proceed back to operation  406 , and the computing system may determine whether the modified, iterated, and/or optimized energy module satisfy the performance requirements (operation  406 ). In response to determining that the optimized energy module design satisfies the performance requirements, the computing system may store one or more energy module designs and/or any associated configurations in a storage device (operation  410 ). 
     The computing system may optimize design(s) of one or more portions of primary structure of the vehicle comprising the energy storage module and/or design of the vehicle (referred to herein as the “outer loop,” which in this embodiment includes operations  410 ,  412 ,  414 , and  404 ), by modifying the design(s) of the one or more portions of primary structure. In some implementations, the outer loop may be performed first, followed by the inner loop (as shown in the example implementation of  FIGS. 5A-I ). The computing system may select an optimized energy module from the one or more optimized energy module designs (operation  412 ). In some implementations, the computing system may provide the one or more optimized energy module designs to a user for selection. For example, the computing system may cause the optimized energy module designs to be displayed to a display screen communicatively coupled to the computing system and/or a remote display screen. The user may select one of the optimized energy module designs and provide the selected design as an input to the computing system. In some implementations, the computing system may be configured to select one of the optimized energy module designs. 
     The computing system may be configured to modify the design of the one or more portions of primary structure by changing the size, shape, position, material, material density, thickness, and the like, of one or more portions, as well as the size, shape, position, etc., of the energy cell enclosures (i.e., compartments for the placement of energy storage cells in the primary structure) (operation  414 ). For example, the computing system may iterate the topology of the primary structure, including the energy cell enclosures within the primary structure. For example, the computing system may increase or decrease the size of the one or more portions of the primary structure based on changes, if any, of energy storage module included in the enclosure space of one or more portions. The computing system may be configured to modify the designs of the one or more portions of primary structure of the vehicle while optimizing for one or more requirements of the vehicle as constraints. For example, the computing system may be configured to modify the designs of the one or more portions of primary structure, while optimizing for total mass of the vehicle, stiffness, durability, and the like. In this way, operation  414  can generate an optimized design. 
     The method  400  may proceed back to operation  404 , and the computing system may determine whether the optimized design of the one or more portions of the primary structure and/or each of the one or more optimized designs of vehicle satisfy performance requirements of the vehicle (operation  404 ). In response to determining that the optimized design satisfies performance requirements of the vehicle, the computing system may store the optimized design in a communicatively coupled storage device (operation  416 ). 
     In some implementations, the computing system may provide one or more optimized designs of the one or more portions of the primary structure and/or one or more optimized designs of vehicle to a user for selection. For example, the computing system may cause the optimized designs to be displayed to a display screen communicatively coupled to the computing system and/or a remote display screen. The user may select one of the optimized energy module designs and provide the selected design as an input to the computing system. In some implementations, the computing system may be configured to select one of the one or more optimized designs. 
     Turning now to  FIGS. 5A-5I , there is illustrated a process for determining and/or optimizing energy unit cells for primary structures, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. In  FIG. 5A , there is shown an initial design of a portion of a vehicle. The initial design of a portion of the vehicle illustrated in  FIG. 5A , there are shown two initial primary structures,  502 ,  504  of a vehicle, and a set of energy storage devices (e.g., energy unit cells)  506   a - 506   n , collectively referred to herein as energy storage devices  506 . The energy storage devices  506  may be connected via conductive path  508 . 
     The computing system (e.g., computer  350 ) may be configured to optimize initial designs illustrated in  FIG. 5A  based on the operations described above with the respect to  FIG. 4 , including the inner loop and the outer loop as described above. The computing system may be configured to optimize the initial designs, by modifying the arrangement of the energy storage devices  506 , for example, by performing operations in the outer loop described above. For example, the computing system may rearrange one or more energy storage devices  506   e ,  506   f ,  506   g ,  506   h ,  506   i , and  506   n  as shown in  FIG. 5B , with respect to the primary structure. In this example, energy storage devices  506  can be repositioned closer to the initial primary structure in a first step in incorporating the energy device enclosures into the primary structure. In the example of  FIG. 5B , the outer loop operation does not reposition conductive path  508 , therefore, the conductive path is shown as a dashed line for the purpose of illustration. 
     The arrangement of primary structure, energy storage devices, and conductive path shown in  FIG. 5B  may be transferred to an inner loop operation as shown in  FIG. 5C , which shows the same configuration as  FIG. 5B , but because the inner loop operate to optimize the energy system, conductive path  508  is shown as a solid line, and energy storage modules  506  are shown as dashed lines. In the inner loop, in response to the modified arrangement of the energy storage devices  506 , the computing system may optimize the conductive path  508  for the modified arrangement energy storage devices  506  as shown in  FIG. 5D , including determining whether the modified arrangement of energy storage devices  506  and conductive path  508  satisfy the performance requirements of the vehicle. In response to determining that the modified arrangement of energy storage devices  506  satisfies the performance requirements of the vehicle, the computing system may output the arrangement shown in  FIG. 5D  to the outer loop, which is illustrated in  FIG. 5E  with conductive path  508  shown as a dashed line. 
     The computing system can further modify the primary structure by modifying the arrangement of energy storage devices  506  as shown in  FIG. 5F , in which all of the energy storage devices have now been arranged within primary structure  502  and  504 . The computing system may also modify the shape, size, and/or the like of the primary structures  502 ,  504 . For example, as shown in  FIG. 5F , the size of the primary structures  502 ,  504  is increased so that the enclosure spaces within the primary structures is increased for the storage devices  506  to be included into the primary structures  502 ,  504 . 
     The arrangement shown in  FIG. 5F  may be output to the inner loop, as shown in  FIG. 5G . In  FIG. 5G , the computing system may be configured to further modify the conductive path  508  for the modified arrangement of the energy storage devices  506 . The further modified conductive path  508  for the modified arrangement of the energy storage devices  506  is shown in  FIG. 5H . 
     The computing system can determine that the configuration shown in  FIG. 5H  satisfies the requirements for primary structure and energy system of the vehicle, and  FIG. 5I  illustrates the final optimized design of the primary structures  502  and  504  and the optimized energy storage devices  506 . 
     Turning now to  FIG. 6 , there is shown a method  600  for determining and/or optimizing energy unit cells for primary structures, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. The method  600  may be implemented by a computing system (e.g., computer system  350 ). According to various embodiments, one or more of the illustrated operations may be transposed, omitted and/or contemporaneously preformed. 
     Initially, the computing system obtains an enclosure criteria of an enclosure space (operation  602 ). As described above, the enclosure criteria may be received by the computing system. The enclosure space may be configured to contain an energy storage device. The computing system obtains a load case of a primary structure of a vehicle (operation  604 ). As described above, the load case of a primary structure of the vehicle may include, but is not limited to, safety and/or operational loads of the primary structure. 
     The computing system determines a primary structure design based on the enclosure criteria and the load case, where the primary structure design incorporates the enclosure space (operation  606 ). As described above, in some implementations, the computing system may receive the primary structure design from a user. In some implementations, the computing system may be configured to determine the primary structure design by selecting a primary structure design that includes enclosure space that satisfies the enclosure criteria and can support the obtained load case. For example, the enclosure criteria may indicate a certain volume of space within a primary structure, and the computing system may be configured to select a first set of primary structure designs that satisfy the enclosure space, and then select a primary structure design from the first set of primary structure designs that support the obtained load case. 
     The computing system may be configured to obtain energy system criteria of an energy system of the vehicle. The energy system of the vehicle may be configured to include the energy storage device. The computing system may determine the primary structure further based on the energy system criteria. For example, the computing system may select the primary structure design that supports the load from the energy system and the selected primary structure also satisfies the enclosure criteria and supports the load case. The energy system criteria may be based on at least vehicle range, vehicle mass, vehicle stiffness, vehicle durability, vehicle cost, and the like. The energy system of the vehicle may include electrical circuit, conducive path, wire path length, wire thickness, wire material, electrical circuit components, electric motors, and the like. 
     The computing system may be configured to determine a connection path (e.g., conductive path, bus bars, and the like) that is configured to connect the energy storage device to the energy system. The computing system may determine a connection path space within the primary structure as part of determining the connection path configured to connect the energy storage device to the energy system of the vehicle. The computing system may be configured to route one or more wires (e.g., bus bars, conductive paths) through the connection path space. 
     In some implementations, the computing system may designate the connection path space as a non-design space. In some implementations, the computing system may refrain from modifying the connection path space during the optimization of the designs of the primary structures, and/or designs of one or more portions of the primary structures. 
     In some implementations, the computing system may designate the enclosure space as non-design space to refrain from modifying the enclosure space during an optimization of the primary structure design. As described above, the computing system may be configured to determine the updated primary structure design by performing topology optimization based on the load case. The computing system may determine an opening in the primary structure design, where the opening is configured to allow access to the energy storage device. In some implementations, the primary structure design is configured to allow at least a portion of the energy storage device to protrude from the opening. 
     In some implementations, as described above, the computing system may determine the primary structure design by determining a hollow portion configured to enclose at least a portion of the energy storage device. In some implementations, the enclosure space is arranged fully within the primary structure. In some implementations, the enclosure space is further based on a prismatic shape of the energy storage device. In some implementations, the shape of the energy storage device includes a prismatic shape. 
     In some implementations, the computing system determines the enclosure space by selecting the energy storage device from a plurality of different energy storage devices. In some implementations, the energy storage device includes at least a battery or a fuel tank. In some implementations, the enclosure criteria indicates a set of dimensions for the enclosure space, a minimum wall thickness of the enclosure space, energy storage device characteristics, or a minimum size of the enclosure space to completely enclose the energy storage device. 
     It is understood that the specific order or hierarchy of blocks in the processes/flowcharts disclosed is an illustration of example approaches. Based upon design preferences, it is understood that the specific order or hierarchy of blocks in the processes/flowcharts may be rearranged. Further, some blocks may be combined or omitted. The accompanying method claims present elements of the various blocks in a sample order, and are not meant to be limited to the specific order or hierarchy presented. 
     The previous description is provided to enable any person skilled in the art to practice the various aspects described herein. Various modifications to these aspects will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art, and the generic principles defined herein may be applied to other aspects. Thus, the claims are not intended to be limited to the aspects shown herein, but is to be accorded the full scope consistent with the language claims, wherein reference to an element in the singular is not intended to mean “one and only one” unless specifically so stated, but rather “one or more.” Terms such as “if,” “when,” and “while” should be interpreted to mean “under the condition that” rather than imply an immediate temporal relationship or reaction. That is, these phrases, e.g., “when,” do not imply an immediate action in response to or during the occurrence of an action, but simply imply that if a condition is met then an action will occur, but without requiring a specific or immediate time constraint for the action to occur. The word “exemplary” is used herein to mean “serving as an example, instance, or illustration.” Any aspect described herein as “exemplary” is not necessarily to be construed as preferred or advantageous over other aspects. Unless specifically stated otherwise, the term “some” refers to one or more. Combinations such as “at least one of A, B, or C,” “one or more of A, B, or C,” “at least one of A, B, and C,” “one or more of A, B, and C,” and “A, B, C, or any combination thereof” include any combination of A, B, and/or C, and may include multiples of A, multiples of B, or multiples of C. Specifically, combinations such as “at least one of A, B, or C,” “one or more of A, B, or C,” “at least one of A, B, and C,” “one or more of A, B, and C,” and “A, B, C, or any combination thereof” may be A only, B only, C only, A and B, A and C, B and C, or A and B and C, where any such combinations may contain one or more member or members of A, B, or C. All structural and functional equivalents to the elements of the various aspects described throughout this disclosure that are known or later come to be known to those of ordinary skill in the art are expressly incorporated herein by reference and are intended to be encompassed by the claims. Moreover, nothing disclosed herein is intended to be dedicated to the public regardless of whether such disclosure is explicitly recited in the claims. The words “module,” “mechanism,” “element,” “device,” and the like may not be a substitute for the word “means.” As such, no claim element is to be construed as a means plus function unless the element is expressly recited using the phrase “means for.”