Patent Publication Number: US-2023136466-A1

Title: Bacterial dna gyrase inhibitors and methods of use thereof

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 63/243,378 filed Sep. 13, 2021, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
    
    
     GOVERNMENT SUPPORT 
     This invention was made with government support under grant number AI125973 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Prokaryotic DNA gyrase is a type II topoisomerase that can introduce (−) supercoils to DNA substrates with the hydrolysis of ATP. This enzyme is composed of two different subunits, gyrA and gyrB that form an active A 2 B 2  complex. Because DNA gyrase only exists in bacteria and is an essential enzyme, it is possible to inhibit DNA gyrase without affecting host human enzymes. Additionally, DNA gyrase can form covalent enzyme-DNA complex intermediates. This property makes gyrase an excellent bactericidal target for developing antibiotics. 
     Fluoroquinolones are among the most successful antibiotics targeting DNA gyrase. The mechanism of antibacterial activities of fluoroquinolones is to stabilize the enzyme-DNA cleavage-complex, which is ultimately responsible for cell death. This gyrase poisoning mechanism makes fluoroquinolones one of the most effective antibiotics. 
     Unfortunately, bacterial resistance to fluoroquinolones has emerged and makes the development of new, more effective antibiotics an urgent issue especially for Gram-negative bacterial infections. Furthermore, since fluoroquinolones have been explored extensively in terms of improving spectrum and potency, and overcoming resistance, the limits of what these compounds can provide likely have been reached. 
     Fluoroquinolones may cause serious adverse effects for certain patients. The adverse effects include tendonitis and tendon rupture, peripheral neuropathy, hyperglycemia, and aortic dissections and aortic aneurysm. As a result, FDA issued several warnings for the use of fluoroquinolones and added black box warnings on all fluoroquinolones. 
     Moreover, DNA gyrase is an essential enzyme in Mtb, and represents a validated and highly vulnerable target for new antibiotics to treat tuberculosis (TB), in particular, multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB). TB, a communicable disease caused by  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  (Mtb), was the world&#39;s deadliest disease from a single infectious agent prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. The alarming increase of drug resistant TB requires the discovery and development of new classes of TB drugs that are effective against the difficult to treat MDR-TB, extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB), and totally drug-resistant TB (TDR-TB). 
     Therefore, there is a need to develop and identify new compounds targeting DNA gyrases, especially, for treating bacterial infections, such as TB. 
     BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The subject invention provides fluorophore-quencher nucleic acid molecules comprising relaxed or supercoiled DNA molecules, and their use in rapid and efficient high-throughput screening (HTS) assays, e.g., an SDFQ-based HTS assay, to identify inhibitors of DNA gyrases from the millions of compounds found in small molecule libraries that potentially target DNA gyrases. 
     The subject invention also provides compounds, compositions and methods for inhibiting DNA gyrases. The subject invention also provides compounds, compositions and methods for treating and/preventing infections caused by pathogens such as bacteria, preferably, via the inhibition of DNA gyrases of the pathogens. Advantageously, because DNA gyrase only exists in bacterial cells and is an essential enzyme, the compounds and compositions of the subject invention can target bacterial DNA gyrase without affecting host human enzymes. 
     In one embodiment, the compounds have activity against bacterial pathogens, including both gram-positive and -negative bacteria. In a further embodiment, the compounds have activity against mycobacteria. In specific embodiments, the compounds have activity against  E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, Enterococcus faecalis, Mycobacterium avium  or  Mycobacterium tuberculosis . In a preferred embodiment, the compounds have activity against  M. tuberculosis  and pulmonary non-tuberculosis mycobacteria (NTM), such as  Mycobacterium abscessus.    
     In one embodiment, the compounds and compositions of the subject invention can be used to inhibit the growth of pathogens by inhibiting DNA gyrases. 
     In one embodiment, the compounds are used as antibacterial drugs in antibacterial therapy. In a specific embodiment, the compounds are used in treatment of infectious diseases, preferably, tuberculosis. In another embodiment, the compounds are bactericidal against drug resistant bacterial pathogens, preferably,  M. tuberculosis  and  Staphylococcus aureus.    
     In one embodiment, the subject invention also provides a method for treating a bacterial infection in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition comprising one or more compounds according to the subject invention, to the subject in need of such treatment. In a preferred embodiment, the subject is a human. 
     In one embodiment, the subject invention provides a method for treating tuberculosis in a subject, comprising administering a compound of the subject invention or an effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition comprising one or more compounds according to the subject invention, to the subject in need of such treatment. In a preferred embodiment, the subject has been diagnosed with tuberculosis, preferably, MDR-TB, XDR-TB or TDR-TB. 
     Further provided herein are kits for screening for inhibitors targeting DNA gyrases using the circular plasmid DNA molecules. The methods, molecules and kits herein described can be used in connection with pharmaceutical, medical, and veterinary applications, as well as fundamental scientific research and methodologies, as would be identifiable by a skilled person upon reading of the present disclosure. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG.  1    shows the supercoiling dependent fluorescence quenching (SDFQ) assay by  E. coli  DNA gyrase in 1× gyrase buffer using plasmid pAB1_FL905. Fluorescence intensity is dependent on the supercoiling status of the plasmid. 
         FIGS.  2 A- 2 E  show SDFQ assays by  E. coli  DNA gyrase in 1× gyrase buffer using different concentrations of pAB1_FL905: 9.63 (A), 6.42, (B), 4.81 (C), and 3.212 (D) ng/μL of pAB1_FL905. (E) Two different concentrations 6.45 and 4.81 ng/μL of pAB1_FL905 were used in the SDFQ assays. Fluorescence was measured using λex=484 nm and λe=520 nm. 
         FIGS.  3 A- 3 C  show SDFQ assays by  E. coli  DNA gyrase in 1× gyrase buffer using pAB1_FL905. (A) Different concentrations of  E. coli  DNA gyrase were used. (B) Time courses in the presence or absence of  E. coli  DNA gyrase. 3.21 ng/μL of pAB1_FL905 was used. (C) DMSO&#39;s effects on SDFQ assays. Fluorescence was measured using λex=484 nm and λe=520 nm. 
         FIG.  4    shows that Novobiocin potently inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities determined by SDFQ gyrase assays in 1× gyrase buffer (2 μL) using 3.21 ng/μL of pAB1_FL905 and 175 ng/μL of  E. coli  DNA gyrase. Fluorescence was measured using λex=484 nm and λe=520 nm. The inhibition IC 50  was determined to be 26 nM. 
         FIGS.  5 A- 5 E  show SDFQ assays by  E. coli  DNA gyrase in 1× gyrase buffer using pAB1_FL924 to determine the optimal conditions for the HTS assays. (A) different concentrations of pAB1_FL924 were used. (B) Different concentrations of  E. coli  DNA gyrase were used. (C) and (D) DMSO&#39;s effects. (E) Novobiocin potently inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities. Fluorescence was measured using λex=531 nm and λem=595 nm. 
         FIG.  6    shows the visualization of the SDFQ assays screening the LOPAC library using different concentrations of compounds. The images were taken using the CCD camera in the instrument. 
         FIGS.  7 A- 7 B  show the screening of the LOPAC library. (A) The pilot screening of the LOPAC library for  E. coli  DNA gyrase inhibitors using the miniaturized, automated SDFQ HTS primary assay in the 1536-well plate format. DMSO and novobiocin were used as negative and positive controls, respectively. The dotted line represents the 40% inhibition. (B) 41 compounds have &gt;40% inhibition activities against  E. coli  DNA gyrase. 
         FIGS.  8 A- 8 C  show the inhibition of  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities by metergoline and chloro-IB-MECA. (A) The SDFQ assays. (B) and (C) The agarose gel-based DNA gyrase assays. The IC 50  of chloro-IB-MECA is less than 5 μM. 
         FIG.  9    shows the chemical structures of chloro-IB-MECA, IB-MECA, AB-MECA, adenosine, and metergoline. 
         FIGS.  10 A- 10 B  show the inhibition of  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities by chloro-IB-MECA, IB-MECA, and AB-MECA. (A) The SDFQ-based DNA gyrase assays. (B) the agarose gel-based DNA gyrase assays. Rx and Sc represent relaxed and supercoiled pAB1. 
         FIG.  11    shows the inhibition of the ATPase activities of  E. coli  DNA gyrase by chloro-IB-MECA and IB-MECA. In contrast, 100 μM of AB-MECA did not inhibit the ATPase activities of  E. coli  DNA gyrase. 
         FIGS.  12 A- 12 D  show effects of chloro-IB-MECA (CIM), IB-MECA (IM), and ABMECA (AM) on Mtb DNA gyrase (A). Chloro-IB-MECA did not inhibit  E. coli  DNA topoisomerase I (B),  E. coli  DNA topoisomerase IV (C, lanes 1-5), and human DNA topoisomerase Iialpha (C, lanes 6-7). (D) Chloro-IB-MECA did not DNA double stranded DNA breaks. All experiments were described in Method. 
         FIG.  13    shows the screen funnel to identify new bacterial DNA gyrase inhibitors. 
         FIGS.  14 A- 14 B  show the screening of the NCATS compound library for  E. coli  DNA gyrase inhibitors. DMSO and novobiocin were used as negative and positive controls, respectively. The data is corrected and zoomed. 531 compounds &gt;250% activities not shown. (A) and (B) are 2- and 3-dimensional views, respectively. 
         FIG.  15    shows chemical structures of novobiocin, chlorobiocin, bithiazoles, and ciprofloxacin. 
         FIG.  16    shows chemical structures of six DNA intercalators. 
         FIG.  17    shows that the fluorescence intensity was significantly increased after DNA intercalator ethacridine intercalated and unwound the sc pAB1_FL905 (black squares). In contrast, ethacridine does not have fluorescence in the presence plasmid pAB1 at the concentrations used in this experiment. 
         FIGS.  18 A- 18 E  show the screening of compounds 1-87 using agarose gel-based DNA gyrase assays in 1× gyrase buffer. 200 μM of compounds were used. Compounds 4, 7, 9, 10, 12, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 53, 58, 60, 62, 63, 64, 70, 79, and 83 completely inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities. Compounds 13, 28, 45, 51, 54, 55, 56, 57, 61, 65, 68, and 82 almost completely inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities. 
         FIGS.  19 A- 19 C  show the screening of compounds 1-87 using agarose gel-based DNA gyrase assays in 1× gyrase buffer. 50 μM of compounds were used. Compounds 7, 9, 12, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 27, 29, 35, 36, 41, 42, 47, and 48 completely inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities. Compounds 14, 25, 49, 53, 62, and 83 almost completely inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities. 
         FIGS.  20 A- 20 F  show the screening of compounds 101-192 using agarose gel-based DNA gyrase assays in 1× gyrase buffer. 50 μM of compounds were used. Compounds 102, 104, 105, 108, 109, 111, 114, 116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 132, 135, 149, 154, 155, 157, 159, 161, 163, 165, 169, 171, 173, 176, 178, 180, 189, and 192 completely inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities. Compounds 106, 110, 112, 122, 129, 130, 131, 141, 144, 167, 168, and 184 potently inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities. 
         FIGS.  21 A- 21 D  show the screening of compounds 201-258 using agarose gel-based DNA gyrase assays in 1× gyrase buffer. 200 μM of compounds were used. Compounds 207, 211, 212, 213, 215, 217, 222, 224, 225, 229, 232, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 253, 255, 256, 257, and 258 completely inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities. Compounds 217, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 246, 247, 248, 249, 255, 257 and 258 are DNA intercalators. Compounds 204, 205, 206, 227, and 228 potently inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities. 
         FIGS.  22 A- 22 B  show the screening of compounds 201-258 using agarose gel-based DNA gyrase assays in 1× gyrase buffer. 50 μM of compounds were used. Compounds 212, 215, 222, 224, 225, 229, and 236 completely inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities. Compound 225 is a known antibiotic mithramycin or variamycin or Plicamycin. Compounds 236 is a DNA intercalator. Compound 207, 211, and 232 inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities. 
         FIG.  23    shows 155 new DNA gyrase inhibitors with an inhibition IC 50  value against  E. coli  DNA gyrase less than 200 μM. Among the 155 gyrase inhibitors, 33 compounds have IC 50  values less than 15 μM; 12 compounds have IC 50  values between 15 and 25 μM; 25 compounds have IC 50  values between 25 and 50 μM; and 78 compounds have IC 50  values between 50 and 200 μM. 
         FIGS.  24 A- 24 L  show agarose gel-based gyrase inhibition assays to determine the inhibition IC 50  of MolPort compounds against  E. coli  DNA gyrase. Agarose gel-based gyrase inhibition assays were described in Methods. Compound # are placed above the gels. (A) to (H). Lanes 1-4 or 5-8 correspond, respectively, to 50, 25, 12.5, and 6.25 μM of the compounds used in the assays. (I) to (L). Lanes 1-4 or 5-8 correspond, respectively, to 12.5, 6.25, 3.13, and 1.56 μM of the compounds used in the assays. All compounds&#39; IC 50  values are less than 50 μM. (A)-(E), (G), (H), and (J)-(L) Lanes 9 and 10 are sc and rx pAB1, respectively. (F) and (I) Lanes 5 and 6 are sc and rx pAB1, respectively. 
         FIGS.  25 A- 25 M  show agarose gel-based gyrase inhibition assays to determine the inhibition IC 50  of MolPort compounds against  E. coli  DNA gyrase. Agarose gel-based gyrase inhibition assays were described in Methods. Compound # are placed above the gels. (A) to (L). Lanes 1-4 correspond, respectively, to 50, 25, 12.5, and 6.25 μM of the compounds used in the assays. (M). Lanes 1′-4′ correspond, respectively, to 12.5, 6.25, 3.125, and 1.56 μM of the compounds used in the assays. All compounds&#39; IC 50  values are less than 50 μM. sc and rx pAB1 are shown. 
         FIGS.  26 A- 26 B  show SDFQ-based gyrase inhibition assays to determine the inhibition IC 50  of MolPort compounds against  E. coli  DNA gyrase. SDFQ-based gyrase inhibition assays were described in Methods. (A) The SDFQ titration assays. (B) The inhibition IC 50  values against  E. coli  DNA gyrase. 
         FIGS.  27 A- 27 F  show agarose gel-based gyrase inhibition assays to determine the inhibition IC 50  of psoralen derivatives against  E. coli  DNA gyrase. Agarose gel-based gyrase inhibition assays were described in Methods. Compound # are placed above the gels. (A) to (D). Lanes 1-4 or 5-8 correspond, respectively, to 50, 25, 12.5, and 6.25 μM of the compounds used in the assays. Lanes 9 and 10 are sc and rx pAB1, respectively. (E) Lanes 1-4 correspond, respectively, to 50, 25, 12.5, and 6.25 μM of the compounds used in the assays. Lanes 5 and 6 are sc and rx pAB1, respectively. (F) Lanes 1-4 or 5-8 correspond, respectively, to 12.5, 6.25, 3.13, and 1.56 μM of the compounds used in the assays. Lanes 9 and 10 are sc and rx pAB1, respectively. 
         FIGS.  28 A- 28 B  show SDFQ-based gyrase inhibition assays to determine the inhibition IC 50  of all psoralen derivatives against  E. coli  DNA gyrase. SDFQ-based gyrase inhibition assays were described in Methods. (A) The SDFQ titration assays. (B) The inhibition IC 50  values against  E. coli  DNA gyrase and MIC of the psoralen derivatives against S. aureus and MRSA. 
         FIG.  29    shows structure-activity relationships. A CH 3  group at R9 improves the in vitro inhibitory activities against  E. coli  DNA gyrase. 
         FIGS.  30 A- 30 C  show structure-activity relationships. (A) A carboxyl group in R6 is required for the in vitro inhibitory activities against  E. coli  DNA gyrase. (B) A large hydrophobic group at R3 position significantly improves the in vitro inhibitory activities against  E. coli  DNA gyrase. (C) A large hydrophobic group at R3 position significantly improves the in vitro inhibitory activities against  E. coli  DNA gyrase. 
         FIGS.  31 A- 31 B  show the inhibition of the ATPase activates of  E. coli  DNA gyrase by psoralen derivatives. 
         FIGS.  32 A- 32 B  show that Psoralen derivative compound 48 is an ATP competitive inhibitor of  E. coli  DNA gyrase. 
         FIG.  33    shows the chemical structures of compound 9 and derivatives. 
         FIGS.  34 A- 34 D  show agarose gel-based gyrase inhibition assays to determine the inhibition IC 50  of compound 9 derivatives against  E. coli  DNA gyrase. Agarose gel-based gyrase inhibition assays were described in Methods. Compound # are placed above the gels. (A), (C), and (D). Lanes 1-4 or 5-8 correspond, respectively, to 50, 25, 12.5, and 6.25 μM of the compounds used in the assays. Lanes 9 and 10 are sc and rx pAB1, respectively. (B) Lanes 1-4 correspond, respectively, to 50, 25, 12.5, and 6.25 μM of the compounds used in the assays. Lanes 5 and 6 are sc and rx pAB1, respectively. 
         FIGS.  35 A- 35 B  show SDFQ-based gyrase inhibition assays to determine the inhibition IC 50  of compound 9 and derivatives against  E. coli  DNA gyrase. SDFQ-based gyrase inhibition assays were described in Methods. (A) The SDFQ titration assays. (B) The inhibition IC 50  values against  E. coli  DNA gyrase and MIC of compound 9 and derivatives against  S. aureus  and MRSA. 
         FIG.  36    shows chemical structures of certain common dyes and natural products that inhibit  E. coli  DNA gyrase potently. 
         FIG.  37    shows chemical structures of 3a,4,5,9b-Tetrahydro-3H-cyclopenta[c]quinoline-4-carboxylic acid and derivatives. Compounds 83, 106, 141, and 144 inhibit  E. coli  DNA gyrase strongly. All derivatives inhibit  E. coli  DNA gyrase at 50 μM. 
         FIG.  38    shows chemical structures of new bacterial DNA gyrase inhibitors that cause DNA nicking (NK) and double stranded DNA breaks (DSDB). 
         FIGS.  39 A- 39 H  show compound 154 as a bacterial DNA gyrase poison. (A) SDFQ-based gyrase assays in the presence of compound 154 (open squares) and novobiocin (solid circles). The IC 50  values against  E. coli  DNA gyrase are 3.1±0.7 μM. The standard deviations are calculated according to three independent experiments. (B) Agarose gel-based gyrase inhibition assays for compound 154. Lanes 3-8 correspond to 1.56, 3.12, 6.25, 12.5, 25, and 50 μM of the compound, respectively. Lanes 1 and 2 are relaxed and supercoiled plasmid pAB1, respectively. (C) Gyrase-mediated DNA cleavage assays were performed as described in Methods using plasmid pBR322. Lanes 1 do not contain a gyrase inhibitor. Lanes 2-5 contain 10, 50, 100, 150, and 200 μM of compound 154, respectively. Lane 7 contains 50 μM of ciprofloxacin (CFX). (D) Agarose gel-based inhibition assays against human DNA topoisomerase 2α for compound 154. Lanes 3-6 correspond to 0, 25, 50, and 100 μM of the compound, respectively. Lanes 1 and 2 are relaxed and supercoiled plasmid pAB1, respectively. (E) Human DNA topoisomerase 2α-mediated DNA cleavage assays were performed as described in Materials and Methods using plasmid pBR322. Lanes 1 do not contain any inhibitors. Lanes 1-3 contain 50, 100, and 200 μM of compound 154, respectively. Lane 4 contain 100 μM of etoposide (ETP). Lanes 5 and 6 contain DNA samples from the assay mixtures in the absence of etoposide and human DNA topoisomerase 2α, respectively. Symbols Rx, Sc, Nk, and Ln represent relaxed, supercoiled, nicked, and linear DNA, respectively. (F) Compound 154 is a gyrase poison that inhibits  E. coli  DNA gyrase and Topoisomerase IV. (G) and (H) show molecular models of compound 154 binding to gyrase-DNA complexes. (G) Compound 154 is shown in space fill model. (H) Compound 154 (stick model) intercalates between DNA base pairs (space fill models). 
         FIGS.  40 A- 40 G  show compound 40 as a bacterial DNA gyrase poison. (A) SDFQ-based gyrase assays in the presence of compound 40 (open squares) and novobiocin (solid circles). The IC 50  values against  E. coli  DNA gyrase are 47.6±3.7 μM. The standard deviations are calculated according to three independent experiments. (B) Agarose gel-based gyrase inhibition assays for compound 40. Lanes 3-9 correspond to 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, 150, and 200 μM of compound 40, respectively. Lanes 1 and 2 are relaxed and supercoiled plasmid pAB1, respectively. (C) Gyrase-mediated DNA cleavage assays were performed as described in Materials and Methods using plasmid pBR322. Lanes 6 and 1 to 4 contain 0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 μM of compound 40, respectively. Lane 5 contains 50 μM of ciprofloxacin (CFX). (D) Agarose gel-based inhibition assays against human DNA topoisomerase 2α for compound 40. Lanes 3-6 correspond to 12.5, 25, 50, and 100 μM of compound 40, respectively. Lanes 1 and 2 are relaxed and supercoiled plasmid pAB1, respectively. (E) Human DNA topoisomerase 2α-mediated DNA cleavage assays were performed as described in Materials and Methods using plasmid pBR322. Lanes and 2 contain 100 and 200 μM of compound 40, respectively. Lane 3 contains 100 μM of etoposide (ETP). Lanes 4 and 5 contain DNA samples from the assay mixtures in the absence of etoposide and human DNA topoisomerase 2α, respectively. Symbols Rx, Sc, Nk, and Ln represent relaxed, supercoiled. (F) and (G) show molecular models of compound 40 binding to gyrase-DNA complexes. (F) Compound 40 is shown in space fill model. (G) Compound 40 (stick model) intercalates between DNA base pairs. 
         FIGS.  41 A- 41 F  show chemical structure of gallic acid derivatives. (A) digallic acid, (B) butyl gallate, (C) octyl gallate, (D) dodecyl gallate, (E) phenyl gallate and (F) bi-phenyl gallate. The inhibition IC 50  values against  E. coli  DNA gyrase were determined by SDFQ or agarose gel-based DNA gyrase assays. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The subject invention provides fluorophore-quencher nucleic acid molecules comprising relaxed or supercoiled DNA molecules, and their use to study DNA topology, and DNA gyrases. The subject invention provides rapid and efficient high-throughput screening (HTS) assays, e.g., in 384-well or 1536-well plates, using these nucleic acid molecules to identify inhibitors of DNA gyrases from millions of compounds in small molecule libraries that potentially target DNA gyrases. Also provided are synthetic entities yielded by screening chemical compound libraries for further development of inhibitors of DNA gyrases. 
     The subject invention also provides compounds, compositions and methods for inhibiting DNA gyrases. The subject invention also provides compounds, compositions and methods for treating and/preventing infections caused by pathogens such as bacteria, preferably, via the inhibition of DNA gyrases of the pathogens. Advantageously, because DNA gyrase only exists in bacterial cells and is an essential enzyme, the compounds and compositions of the subject invention can target bacterial DNA gyrase without affecting host human or other animal enzymes. 
     In one embodiment, the subject invention provides a method to produce fluorescently labeled, relaxed (rx) or supercoiled (sc) DNA molecules to study DNA topoisomerases by supercoiling dependent fluorescence quenching (SDFQ) ( FIG.  1   ). This assay stems from a property of alternating (AT) n  sequences in the closed circular plasmids that undergo rapid cruciform formation-deformation depending on the supercoiling status of the plasmids. The distance between a pair of fluorophore-quencher inserted in the (AT) n  sequence is dramatically changed when the plasmids adopt an sc or rx form, as does the fluorescence intensity of the plasmid. These DNA molecules are excellent tools to examine relaxation/supercoiling kinetics of various DNA topoisomerases and can be configured into HTS assays to identify gyrase inhibitors. 
     In accordance with the subject invention, nucleic acids comprising an adenosine-thymidine repeat (AT) n  sequence comprise at least one fluorophore and at least one quencher conjugated to the same strand when present in a circular double-stranded DNA molecule, which can be used for fast detection of changes in DNA topology. The fluorophore and quencher conjugated to the same DNA strand of a double-stranded (AT) n  sequence quickly interconvert between an extruded and an unextruded conformation upon supercoiling of the circular DNA. In the supercoiled state, the (AT) n  sequence adopts, for example, a hairpin structure that brings the fluorophore and the quencher into close proximity and leads to the quenching of fluorophore fluorescence. In the relaxed circular DNA molecule, where the (AT) n  is in a double-stranded conformation, the fluorophore and quencher are located at a sufficient distance such that no quenching occurs and the fluorophore fluoresces. 
     The instant fluorophore-quencher comprising (AT) n  nucleic acid sequences have advantageous properties. For example, interconversion between the extruded and unextruded conformation of the fluorophore-quencher nucleic acid sequences occurs with fast kinetics allowing rapid detection of changes in fluorescence as the circular DNA undergoes structural changes upon supercoiling and relaxation. The instant fluorophore-quencher (AT) n  nucleic acids can be used to gauge superhelicity of DNA molecules and detect the presence of DNA topology-affecting enzymes. The instant fluorophore-quencher nucleic acids are well-suited for high-throughput analyses of topology changes of DNA because of the speed of change in DNA conformation and the fast kinetics of changes in fluorescence. 
     In specific embodiments, the nucleic acids comprising the repeat (AT) n  sequence are circular double-stranded (ds) DNA molecules, e.g., plasmids, which have the ability to interconvert between a relaxed (rx) configuration and a supercoiled (sc) configuration. 
     In certain embodiments, the circular double-stranded plasmid may comprise, for example, about 1000 base pairs to 100,000 base pairs, about 1000 base pairs to 50,000 base pairs, about 1000 base pairs to 20,000 base pairs, about 1000 base pairs to 10,000 base pairs, about 1000 base pairs to 5000 base pairs, about 1000 base pairs to 4000 base pairs, about 1000 base pairs to 3000 base pairs, about 1500 base pairs to 3000 base pairs, or about 2000 base pairs to 3000 base pairs. 
     In one embodiment, the circular double-stranded plasmid comprises a sequence comprising adenosine-thymidine repeats (AT) n  (n≥2) in each strand. In some embodiments, n≥2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, or 50. In a specific embodiment, in the sc state, the sequence comprising (AT)n adopts, for example, the hairpin/cruciform structures in each strands of the circular double-stranded plasmid, while in the rx circular dsDNA molecule, the sequences comprising (AT)n are in a double-stranded conformation. 
     In specific embodiments, the (AT) n  sequence of the instant fluorophore-quencher nucleic acid can comprise a low of about 12 AT dinucleotides to a high of about 50 AT dinucleotides. For example, the instant fluorophore-quencher nucleic acid can comprise AT dinucleotide sequences from about 12 ATs to about 17 ATs; about 18 ATs to about 25 ATs; about 26 ATs to about 33 ATs; about 34 to about 41 ATs; or about 42 to about 50 ATs. 
     The (AT) n  sequence of the instant nucleic acid can comprise the at least one fluorophore and the at least one quencher conjugated to a deoxythymidine (dT) at a predetermined distance from the 5′ end of the (AT) n  sequence. For example, the quencher can be located at, for example, the 4 th , 5 th , 6 th , 7 th , 8 th , 9 th , 10 th , 11 th , 12 th , 13 th , or 14 th  position from the 5′ start of the (AT) n  sequence. The fluorophore may be located at, for example, the 28 th , 29 th , 30 th , 31 st , 32 nd , 33 rd , 34 th , 35 th , 36 th , 37 th , 38 th , 39 th , or 40 th  position from the 5′ start of the (AT) n  sequence. 
     Many fluorophores can be used to make the instant fluorophore-quencher nucleic acids. For example, the fluorophore can be 6-FAM (fluoroscein), Cy3™, TAMRA™, JOE, Cy5™, Cy5.5™, MAX, TET™, Carboxy-X-Rhodamine, TYE™ 563, TYE™ 665, TYE 705, Yakima Yellow®, Hexachlorofluorescein, TEX 615, Alexa Fluor® 488, Alexa Fluor® 532, Alexa Fluor® 546, Alexa Fluor® 594, Alexa Fluor® 647, Alexa Fluor® 660, Alexa Fluor® 750m 5′ IRDye® 700, 5′IRDye® 800, 5′ IRDye®800CW, ATTO™ 488, ATTO™ 532, ATTO™ 550, ATTO™ 565, ATTO™ Rho101, ATTO™ 590, ATTO™ 633, ATTO™ 647, Rhodamine Green™-X, Rhodamine Red™-X, 5-TAMRA™, WEllRED D2, WellRED D3, WellRED D4, Texas Red®-X, Lightcycler® 640, DY 750, BODIPY FL, EDANS, or IAEDANS. 
     The quenchers used to make the instant fluorophore-quencher nucleic acids can be, for example, Dabcyl, DDQ-I, Eclipse, Iowa Black FQ, BHQ-1, QSY-7, BHQ-2, DDQ-II, Iowa Black RQ, QSY-21, or BHQ-3. 
     In a specific embodiment, the circular double-stranded DNA comprising at least one fluorophore and at least one quencher on the same strand undergoes supercoiling in the presence of a DNA gyrase, wherein the fluorophore-quencher comprising nucleic acid sequence undergoes rapid localized DNA conformation transition, i.e. interconversion from the unextruded conformation in the double-stranded DNA to an extruded conformation in the supercoiled state and quenching of fluorophore fluorescence occurs based on the close proximity of the fluorophore and quencher in the extruded conformation. Thus, the instant circular DNA plasmids comprising fluorophore-quencher containing nucleic acid sequences can be used to detect the presence of, and study the properties of, DNA gyrases, and to screen or identify inhibitors of DNA gyrases. In a specific embodiment, the DNA gyrase is  E. coli  DNA gyrase or Mtb DNA gyrase. 
     In one embodiment, the subject invention provides an SDFQ-based HTS assay to identify inhibitors targeting bacterial DNA gyrase. After screening the NCATS compound library containing 370,620 compounds, 102 new bacterial DNA gyrase inhibitors were identified/discovered. Several new gyrase inhibitors cause the gyrase-mediated double-stranded DNA breaks and DNA nicks, and most likely are new DNA gyrase poisons. 
     Advantageously, because the new DNA gyrase inhibitors are structurally different from fluoroquinolones (FQs), the clinically important antibiotics targeting DNA gyrase, these new gyrase inhibitors use a mechanism of action (MoA) different from FQs and have potential to overcome multidrug resistance and be used as new antibiotics to treat multidrug resistant bacterial infections. These newly discovered DNA gyrase inhibitors provide novel scaffolds for the design and synthesis of bacterial DNA gyrase inhibitors to combat antibacterial resistance. 
     In one embodiment, the subject invention provides methods for HTS to identify inhibitors of DNA gyrase, the method comprising providing a sample carrier, e.g., HTS plates such as a microplate, comprising arrays of individual reservoirs, each reservoir containing a compound of a screening library or a control, adding a circular dsDNA molecule of the subject invention and an DNA gyrase in each reservoir; and determining the inhibitors based on the fluorescence in each reservoir. 
     In one embodiment, the DNA gyrase inhibitor of the subject invention has a general structure of formula (I): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein Y is CR 2 ′R 3 ′, O, S, or NR 4 ′; A and B are each independently CR 5 ′ or N; C is CR 6 ′R 7 ′, O, S or NR 8 ′; D and E are each independently CR 9 ′ or N; F is CR 9 ′ or N; and Z is O or S, wherein R 1 , R 2 ′, R 3 ′, R 5 ′, R 6 ′, R 7 ′, and R 9 ′ are each independently selected from, for example, halogen, hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroalkyl, substituted heteroalkyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, substituted heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, alkenyl substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, haloalkyl, acyl, substituted acyl, alkoxyl, hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, amine, amide, ester, haloaryl, thio, thioamide, urea, and thiourea; and R 4 ′ and R 8 ′ are each independently selected from, for example, hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroalkyl, substituted heteroalkyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, substituted heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, alkenyl substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, acyl, substituted acyl, alkoxyl, hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, amine, amide, ester, haloalkyl, haloaryl, thio, thioamide, urea, and thiourea. 
     In one embodiment, the DNA gyrase inhibitors are psoralen and derivatives having a structure of formula (II): 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein R 3 , R 5 , R 6 , and R 9  are each independently selected from, for example, halogen, hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroalkyl, substituted heteroalkyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, substituted heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, alkenyl substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, haloalkyl, acyl, substituted acyl, alkoxyl, hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, amine, amide, ester, haloaryl, thiol, thioamide, urea, and thiourea. 
     In a specific embodiment, R 9  is H or alkyl, preferably, C1-C3 alkyl, more preferably, methyl. 
     In a specific embodiment, R 5  is alkyl, preferably, C1-C3 alkyl, more preferably, methyl. 
     In a specific embodiment, R 6  is carboxyl, preferably, (CH 2 ) 2 COOH. 
     In specific embodiments, R 3  is alkyl, aryl or substituted aryl. In a preferred embodiment, 
     R 3  is methyl, or 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     wherein R 10 , R 11 , R 12 , R 13 , and R 14  are each independently selected from, for example, halogen, hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroalkyl, substituted heteroalkyl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, and substituted heterocycloalkyl. 
     In a preferred embodiment, R 3  is 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In a specific embodiment, R 3  is selected from 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     In specific embodiments, the DNA gyrase inhibitors are selected from compounds 4, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 82, 83, 102, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 115, 122, 129, 130, 131, 132, 135, 149, 154, 155, 157, 159, 161, 163, 165, 167, 168, 169, 171, 173, 176, 178, 180, 184, 188, 189, 192, 204, 205, 206, 207, 211, 212, 213, 215, 222, 225, 227, 228, 229, 232, 234, 235, 242, 253, and 256. 
     In specific embodiments, the DNA gyrase inhibitors are selected from compounds 10, 13, 15, 17, 22, 28, 31, 33, 38, 40, 44, 45, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 4, 7, 12, 18, 21, 23, 24, 29, 35, 49, 102, 104, 105, 189, 212, 215, 222, 224, 225, 229, 256, 108, 135, 149, 155, 161, 163, 169, 171, 173, 180, 184, 9, 19, 25, 27, 36, 41, 42, 46, 47, 48, 72, 73, 75, 76, 154, 157, 159, 165, 176, 178, 192, 253, and novobiocin. 
     In specific embodiments, the DNA gyrase inhibitors are selected from compounds chloro-IB-MECA, IB-MECA, AB-MECA, adenosine and metergoline. 
     In specific embodiments, the DNA gyrase inhibitors are psoralen and derivatives thereof selected from compounds 25, 46, 48, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, and 125. 
     In specific embodiments, the DNA gyrase inhibitors are selected from compound 9 and derivatives thereof, for example, compounds 109, 111, 114, 115, 116, 126, 127, 128, and 132. 
     In specific embodiments, the DNA gyrase inhibitors are selected from dye molecules and natural products, for example, compounds 75, 82, 242, 253, 256, and 225. 
     In specific embodiments, the DNA gyrase inhibitors are selected from 3a,4,5,9b-Tetrahydro-3H-cyclopenta[c]quinoline-4-carboxylic acid and derivatives, for example, compounds 83, 106, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, and 146. 
     In specific embodiments, the DNA gyrase inhibitors are selected from compounds 154, 40, 173, and 232. 
     In one embodiment, the DNA gyrase inhibitors identified according to the subject invention include, for example, gallic acid and derivatives thereof, such as digallic acid. In specific embodiments, the DNA gyrase inhibitors are selected from digallic acid, butyl gallate, octyl gallate, dodecyl gallate, phenyl gallate and bi-phenyl gallate. 
     In certain embodiments, the DNA gyrase inhibitors are selected from 1) psoralen derivatives, 2) quinazoline derivatives, 3) dihydroxynaphthalene-2-carboxylate and quinolinedione derivatives, 4) Isatin-phenylhydrazone derivatives, 5) amino-benzothiazole derivatives, 6) thiazolo[3,2-a] benzimidazole derivatives, 7) pyrido-thieno-pyrimidine derivatives, 8) compounds containing a rhodamine moiety, and 9) fluorone derivatives. 
     In a specific embodiment, the DNA gyrase inhibitor is a quinazoline derivative, such as compound 154, N-(6-chloro-4-phenylquinazolin-2-yl)guanidine. 
     Advantageously, these bacterial DNA gyrase inhibitors of the subject invention can be used to overcome multidrug resistance and be used as antibiotics to treat bacterial infections, preferably, multidrug resistant bacterial infections. 
     In one embodiment, the compounds have activity against bacterial pathogens. Bacteria include at least 11 distinct groups as follows: (1) Gram-positive (gram+) bacteria, of which there are two major subdivisions: (i) high G+C group (Actinomycetes, Mycobacteria,  Micrococcus , others) (ii) low G+C group ( Bacillus, Clostridia, Lactobacillus, Staphylococci, Streptococci, Mycoplasmas ); (2) Proteobacteria, e.g., Purple photosynthetic+non-photosynthetic Gram-negative bacteria (includes most “common” Gram-negative bacteria); (3) Cyanobacteria, e.g., oxygenic phototrophs; (4) Spirochetes and related species; (5) Planctomyces; (6) Bacteroides, Flavobacteria; (7)  Chlamydia ; (8) Green sulfur bacteria; (9) Green nonsulfur bacteria (also anaerobic phototrophs); (10) Radioresistant Inicrococci and relatives; and (11)  Thermotoga  and  Thermosipho thermophiles.    
     “Gram-negative bacteria” include cocci, nonenteric rods, and enteric rods. The genera of Gram-negative bacteria include, for example,  Neisseria, Spirillum, Pasteurella, Brucella, Yersinia, Francisella, Haemophilus, Bordetella, Escherichia, Salmonella, Shigella, Klebsiella, Proteus, Vibrio, Pseudomonas, Bacteroides, Acetobacter, Aerobacter, Agrobacterium, Azotobacter, Spirilla, Serratia, Vibrio, Rhizobium, Chlamydia, Rickettsia, Treponema , and  Fusobacterium.    
     “Gram-positive bacteria” include cocci, nonsporulating rods, and sporulating rods. The genera of Gram-positive bacteria include, for example,  Actinomyces, Bacillus, Clostridium, Corynebacterium, Erysipelothrix, Lactobacillus, Listeria, Mycobacterium, Myxococcus, Nocardia, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus,  and  Streptomyces.    
     In a further embodiment, the compounds have activity against mycobacteria. In another further embodiment, the compounds have activity against  E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus cereus, Acinetobacter baumanii, Helicobacter pylori, M. smegmatis  and/or  M. tuberculosis , preferably,  M. tuberculosis.    
     In another embodiment, the compounds have activity against drug resistant bacterial pathogens, preferably,  M. tuberculosis  and/or  Staphylococcus aureus . In another embodiment, the compounds have activity against drug resistant biofilms formed by bacterial pathogens such as NTM. 
     In one embodiment, the compounds are used as antibacterial drugs in antibacterial therapy. In a specific embodiment, the compounds are used in treatment of infectious diseases, preferably, tuberculosis. In some embodiments, the compounds can be used in combination with other drugs for infectious diseases to achieve synergistic effects for overcoming the resistance problem and reducing time required for treatment. 
     In one embodiment, the subject invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising one or more of the compounds of the subject invention. The composition further comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, adjuvant, and/or diluent allowing the transport of the compounds to the target within the subject after administration. 
     The carrier and/or diluent can generally be any suitable medium by which the desired purpose is achieved and that does not affect the conjugates&#39; capability to be directed to the desired target and to transport the active agent to this target for the desired effect. Particularly, the carrier and/or diluent should not deteriorate the pharmacological potency of the active agent and the capability of the complex to be directed to a desired target within, or on, the animal body. Preferably, said carrier and/or diluent is/are selected from water, physiologically acceptable aqueous solutions containing salts and/or buffers and any other solution acceptable for administration to an animal. Such carriers and diluents are well known to a person skilled in this field and can be, for example, distilled water, de-ionized water, pure or ultrapure water, saline, phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), solutions containing usual buffers which are compatible with the other components of the drug targeting system etc. 
     In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprising compounds according to the invention, together with a conventional adjuvant, carrier, or diluent, may be placed into the form of solids including tablets, filled capsules, powder and pellet forms, and liquids such as aqueous or non-aqueous solutions, suspensions, emulsions, elixirs, and capsules filled with the same. The composition may further comprise conventional ingredients in conventional proportions, with or without additional active compounds. 
     In a further embodiment, the composition is in a powder form. The pharmaceutically accepted carrier is a finely divided solid that is in a mixture with the finely divided active compounds. In another embodiment, the composition is in a tablet form. The active component is mixed with the pharmaceutically accepted carrier having the necessary binding capacity in suitable proportions and compacted in desired shape and size. Suitable carriers include magnesium carbonate, magnesium stearate, talc, sugar, lactose, pectin, dextrin, starch, gelatin, tragacanth, methylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, a low melting wax, cocoa butter, and the like. 
     In one embodiment, the subject invention provides a method for treating a subject having a bacterial infection, the method comprising administering the compounds of the subject invention or the composition of the subject invention to the subject in need of such treatment. Preferably, the subject has been diagnosed with the bacterial infection. 
     In one embodiment, the current invention also provides methods for treating an infection caused by a pathogen in a subject, comprising administering, to a subject in need of such treatment, an effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to the subject invention. 
     In a specific embodiment, the subject invention provides methods for treating a subject with tuberculosis, comprising the administration of the compound of the subject invention or the pharmaceutical composition comprising the compound of the subject invention. 
     In specific embodiments, the compounds may be administered in the range of from 0.01 mg/kg body weight to 1 g/kg body weight, preferably, 1 mg/kg to 500 mg/kg body weight, more preferably, 50 mg/kg to 500 mg/kg body weight. 
     The effective amount of said pharmaceutical composition can be administered through, for example, oral, rectal, bronchial, nasal, topical, buccal, sub-lingual, transdermal, vaginal, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intravenous, intra-arterial, intracerebral, interaocular administration or in a form suitable for administration by inhalation or insufflation, including powders and liquid aerosol administration, or by sustained release systems such as semipermeable matrices of solid hydrophobic polymers containing the compound(s) of the invention. Administration may be also by way of other carriers or vehicles such as patches, micelles, liposomes, vesicles, implants (e.g., microimplants), synthetic polymers, microspheres, nanoparticles, and the like. 
     In one embodiment, the current invention provides methods for inhibiting a DNA gyrase, in a subject, comprising administering, to a subject in need of such inhibition, an effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to the subject invention. In one embodiment, the subject has been diagnosed with an infection caused by a pathogen, e.g., a bacterium, virus, and fungus. In a further embodiment, the DNA gyrase is a bacterial gyrase, such as  M. tuberculosis  DNA gyrase. In another embodiment, the subject is a human. In a preferred embodiment, the compounds of the subject invention do inhibit the DNA gyrase of pathogens without any effect on the subject. 
     In one embodiment, the composition is formulated for parenteral administration (e.g. by injection, for example bolus injection or continuous infusion). In addition, the composition may be presented in unit dose form in ampoules, pre-filled syringes, and small volume infusion or in multi-dose containers with or without an added preservative. The compositions may be in forms of suspensions, solutions, or emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles. The composition may further contain formulation agents such as suspending, stabilizing and/or dispersing agents. In a further embodiment, the active ingredient of the composition according to the invention may be in powder form, obtained by aseptic isolation of sterile solid or by lyophilization from solution for constitution with a suitable vehicle, e.g. sterile, pyrogen-free water, before use. 
     In one embodiment, the composition may be formulated in an aqueous solution for oral administration. The composition may be dissolved in suitable solutions with added suitable colorants, flavors, stabilizing and thickening agents, artificial and natural sweeteners, and the like. In addition, the composition may further be dissolved in solution containing viscous material, such as natural or synthetic gums, resins, methylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, or other well-known suspending agents. 
     In certain embodiments, the composition is applied topically or systemically or via a combination of both. The composition may be formulated in the forms of lotion, cream, gel and the like. 
     In one embodiment, the composition can be applied directly to the nasal cavity by conventional means, for example with a dropper, pipette or spray. The compositions may be provided in single or multi-dose form. Administration to the respiratory tract may also be achieved by means of an aerosol formulation in which the active ingredient is provided in a pressurized pack with a suitable propellant such as a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) for example dichlorodifluoromethane, trichlorofluoromethane, or dichlorotetrafluoroethane, carbon dioxide, or other suitable gas. The aerosol may conveniently also contain a surfactant such as lecithin. 
     Furthermore, the composition may be provided in the form of a dry powder, for example a powder mix of the compound in a suitable powder base such as lactose, starch, starch derivatives such as hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). Conveniently, the powder carrier will form a gel in the nasal cavity. The powder composition may be presented in unit dose form for example in capsules or cartridges of, e.g., gelatin, or blister packs from which the powder may be administered by means of an inhaler. 
     In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is provided in a unit dosage form, wherein the composition in desired form is divided into unit doses containing appropriate quantities of the active component. The unit dosage form can be a packaged preparation, the package containing discrete quantities such as packaged tablets, capsules, and powders in vials or ampoules. Moreover, the unit dosage form can be a capsule, tablet, cachet, or lozenge itself, or it can be the appropriate number of any of these in packaged form. In a preferred embodiment, tablet or capsule forms are for oral administration and liquid form are for intravenous administration and continuous infusion. 
     Furthermore, it would be understood by those skilled in the art that the methods described in the present invention would not only apply to treatment in a subject, but could be applied to cell cultures, organs, tissues, or individual cells in vivo or in vitro. 
     In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method for inhibiting DNA gyrase in a pathogen, e.g., a bacterium, comprising administering an effective amount of one or more compounds to the pathogen or contacting the pathogen with an effective amount of one or more compounds of the subject invention. 
     In one embodiment, the present invention also provides a method for inhibiting DNA gyrase in a pathogen, e.g., a bacterium, comprising administering an effective amount of the composition comprising one or more compounds of the subject invention to the pathogen or contacting the pathogen with an effective amount of the composition comprising one or more compounds of the subject invention. 
     In one embodiment, the subject invention provides a method for inhibiting the growth of a bacterium, the method comprising contacting the bacterium with one or more compounds of the subject invention or the composition comprising one or more compounds of the subject invention. 
     In a preferred embodiment, the bacterium is  S. aureus  , Mtb, MRSA,  B. subtilis, E. coli  or  E. coli  imp. 
     In one embodiment, the subject invention provides a method for treating tuberculosis, the method comprising administering a compound of the subject invention or a composition of the subject invention to a subject having tuberculosis. In a preferred embodiment, the tuberculosis is MDR-TB, XDR-TB, TDR-TB, or rifampicin-resistant TB (RR-TB). 
     In one embodiment, the method of the subject invention can be used for determining the presence of inhibitors targeting a DNA gyrase in a sample. 
     In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions of the subject invention can also include additional pharmaceutical active compounds. One or more anti-TB drugs may be included in the composition for treating TB. Such anti-TB drugs may include, but are not limited to, ciprofloxacin (CIP), clofazimine (CLZ), bedaquiline (BDQ), verapamil (VER), rifampin (RIF), linezolid, isoniazid (INH), pyrazinamide (PZA), rifapentine (RPT), fluoroquinolones (e.g., moxifloxacin), and ethambutol. One or more additional antibiotics may also be included in the composition. Moreover, the composition may be in a sterile form. 
     In specific embodiments, the antibiotics, include, for example, penicillins (such as penicillin G, penicillin V, ampicillin, amoxicillin, bacampicillin, carbenicillin, carbenicillin indanyl, ticarcillin, azlocillin, mezlocillin, methicillin, piperacillin, and the like), tetracyclines (such as chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, methacycline, doxycycline, minocycline and the like), cephalosporins (such as cefadroxil, cephalexin, cephradine, cephalothin, cephapirin, cefazolin, cefaclor, cefamandole, cefonicid, cefoxitin, cefotetan, cefuroxime, cefuroxime axetil, cefinetazole, cefprozil, loracarbef, ceforanide, cefepime, cefoperazone, cefotaxime, ceftizoxime, ceftriaxone, ceftazidime, cefixime, cefpodoxime, ceftibuten, and the like), fluoroquinolones (e.g., levofloxacin), quinolones (such as nalidixic acid, cinoxacin, ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin and the like), lincomycins (e.g., clindamycin), macrolides (e.g., erythromycin, azithromycin), sulfones (e.g., dapsone), sulfonamides (e.g., sulfanilamide, sulfadiazine, sulfamethoxazole, sulfisoxazole, sulfacetamide, bactrim), lipopeptides (e.g., daptomycin), polypeptides (e.g., bacitracin), glycopeptides (e.g., vancomycin), aminoglycosides (e.g., streptomycin, gentamicin, tobramycin, amikacin, netilmicin, kanamycin, and the like), nitoimidazoles (e.g., metronidazole) and/or carbapenems (e.g., thienamycin). 
     Certain specific examples of antibiotics or anti-infectives according to the subject invention include, but are not limited to, ampicillin, doxycycline, cephalexin, ciprofloxacin, sulfacetamide, clindamycin, metronidazole, erythromycin, azithromycin, sulfamethoxazole, amoxicillin, oxytetracycline, tetracycline, streptomycin, dapsone, methicillin, penicillin, vancomycin, bacitracin, daptomycin, bactrim, tobramycin, p-aminobenzoic acid, diaminopyrimidine, β-lactam, β-lactamase inhibitor, glycopeptide, chloraphenicol, macrolide, corticosteroid, prostaglandin, ciprofloxacin, linomycin, clindamycin, spectinomycin, polymyxin B, colistin, isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, ethionamide, aminosalicylic acid, cycloserine, capreomycin, sulfone, clofazimine, thalidomide, polyene antifungal, flucytosine, imidazole, triazole, griseofulvin, terconazole, butoconazole ciclopirax, ciclopirox olamine, haloprogin, tolnaftate, naftifine, terbinafine, levofloxacin and any combination thereof. 
     Also provided are kits for screening inhibitors of DNA gyrases. The kit can comprise, for example, a circular double-stranded DNA plasmid comprising the fluorophore-quencher nucleic acid on the same strand, a DNA gyrase, wherein the kit is used to detect inhibitors of the DNA gyrase. The kits may further be used in the methods described herein. The kits may also include at least one reagent and/or instructions for their use. 
     Also, the kits may include one or more containers filled with reagent(s) and/or one or more molecules of the invention. The kits may also comprise a control composition. In certain embodiments, the kits may additionally include reagents and means for detecting the labels provided on the molecules of the invention. The means of allowing detection may be by conjugation of detectable labels or substrates, such as fluorescent compounds, enzymes, radioisotopes, heavy atoms, reporter genes, luminescent compounds, etc. As it would be understood by those skilled in the art, additional detection or labeling methodologies may be used in the kits provided. 
     The term “subject” or “patient,” as used herein, describes an organism, including mammals such as primates. Mammalian species that can benefit from the disclosed methods of treatment include, but are not limited to, apes, chimpanzees, orangutans, humans, and monkeys; domesticated animals such as dogs, cats; live stocks such as horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and chickens; and other animals such as mice, rats, guinea pigs, and hamsters. 
     The terms “treatment” or any grammatical variation thereof (e.g., treat, treating, etc.), as used herein, includes but is not limited to, the application or administration to a subject (or application or administration to a cell or tissue from a subject) with the purpose of slowing, stabilizing, curing, healing, alleviating, relieving, remedying, less worsening, ameliorating, or improving the disease or condition. The term “treating” refers to any indication of success in the treatment or amelioration of a pathology or condition, including any objective or subjective parameter such as abatement; remission; lessening of the rate of worsening; lessening severity of the disease; stabilization, diminishing of symptoms or making the pathology or condition more tolerable to the subject; or improving a subject&#39;s physical or mental well-being. 
     As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. Further, to the extent that the terms “including,” “includes,” “having,” “has,” “with,” or variants thereof are used in either the detailed description and/or the claims, such terms are intended to be inclusive in a manner similar to the term “comprising.” The transitional terms/phrases (and any grammatical variations thereof), such as “comprising,” “comprises,” and “comprise,” can be used interchangeably. 
     The transitional term “comprising,” “comprises,” or “comprise” is inclusive or open-ended and does not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps. By contrast, the transitional phrase “consisting of” excludes any element, step, or ingredient not specified in the claim. The phrases “consisting” or “consists essentially of” indicate that the claim encompasses embodiments containing the specified materials or steps and those that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristic(s) of the claim. Use of the term “comprising” contemplates other embodiments that “consist” or “consisting essentially of” the recited component(s). 
     The term “about” or “approximately” means within an acceptable error range for the particular value as determined by one of ordinary skill in the art, which will depend in part on how the value is measured or determined, i.e., the limitations of the measurement system. For example, “about” can mean within 1 or more than 1 standard deviation, per the practice in the art. Alternatively, “about” can mean a range of up to 0-20%, 0 to 10%, 0 to 5%, or up to 1% of a given value. Alternatively, particularly with respect to biological systems or processes, the term can mean within an order of magnitude, preferably within 5-fold, and more preferably within 2-fold, of a value. Where particular values are described in the application and claims, unless otherwise stated the term “about” meaning within an acceptable error range for the particular value should be assumed. In the context of compositions containing amounts of concentrations of ingredients where the term “about” is used, these values include a variation (error range) of 0-10% around the value (X±10%). 
     EXAMPLES 
     Methods 
     SDFQ HTS Assay 
     SDFQ HTS primary assay using pAB1_FL905 was performed in 2 μL of (1× DNA gyrase buffer: 20 mM Tris-Acetate pH 7.9, 50 mM KAc, 10 mM MgCl 2 , 2 mM DTT, 1 mM ATP, 0.1 mg/mL BSA). The following is the procedure: 1) Using the BioRAPTR, dispensed 1μL of  E. coli  DNA Gyrase (350 ng/ μL) with a final conc. in assay 175 ng/μl. 2) Using the BioRAPTR, dispensed 1 μL of DNA pAB1_FL905 (6.425ng/μL) — final cone in assay is 3.2125ng/μL in assay. 3) Spun plate at 800 rpm for 30 seconds. 4) Incubated the plate at 37° C. for 2 hours in the dark and read the plate on the Envision measuring fluorescence (excitation@484 nm, emission@Em520). 
     SDFQ HTS secondary assay using pAB1_FL924 was performed in 2 μL of (1× DNA gyrase buffer: 20 mM Tris-Acetate pH 7.9, 50 mM KAc, 10 mM MgCl 2 , 2 mM DTT, 1 mM ATP, 0.1 mg/mL BSA). The following is the procedure: 1) Using the BioRAPTR, dispensed 1 μL of  E. coli  DNA Gyrase (350 ng/ μL) with a final conc. in assay 175 ng/μl. 2) Using the BioRAPTR, dispensed 1 μL of DNA pAB1_FL924 (6.425 ng/μL)—final conc in assay is 3.2125 ng/μL in assay. 3) Spun plate at 800 rpm for 30 seconds. 4) Incubated the plate at 37° C. for 2 hours in the dark and read the plate on the Envision measuring fluorescence (excitation@531 nm, emission@Em595). 
     SDFQ-Based DNA Gyrase Inhibition Assays 
     SDFQ-based DNA gyrase inhibition assays were performed in 30 μL of 1× gyrase buffer (35 mM Tris-HCl, 24 mM KCl, 4 mM MgCl 2 , 2 mM DTT, 1.75 mM ATP, 0.1 mg/mL BSA, 6.5% glycerol, pH7.5) containing 400 ng of of rx pAB1_FL905 at 37° C. 100 ng of DNA gyrase was used to supercoil the rx pAB1_FL905 in the presence of different concentrations of a gyrase inhibitor. The fluorescence intensity at λ em =521 nm was monitored with λ ex =494 nm in a microplate reader. The IC 50  values were estimated by nonlinear fitting of the following equation: 
     
       
         
           
             F 
             = 
             
               
                 F 
                 min 
               
               + 
               
                 
                   
                     F 
                     max 
                   
                   - 
                   
                     F 
                     min 
                   
                 
                 
                   1 
                   + 
                   
                     10 
                     
                       
                         ( 
                         
                           
                             log 
                             ( 
                             
                               IC 
                               ⁢ 
                               50 
                             
                             ) 
                           
                           - 
                           x 
                         
                         ) 
                       
                       ⁢ 
                       P 
                     
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
     where F is the fluorescence intensity at the x concentration of an inhibitor. F max  and F min  are the maximum and minimum fluorescence of the DNA sample, respectively. P is a slope parameter. 
     Agarose Gel-Based DNA Gyrase Inhibition Assays 
     Agarose gel-based DNA gyrase inhibition assays were performed in 30 μL of 1× gyrase buffer (35 mM Tris-HCl, 24 mM KCl, 4 mM MgCl 2 , 2 mM DTT, 1.75 mM ATP, 0.1 mg/mL BSA, 6.5% glycerol, pH7.5) containing 400 ng of of rx pAB1 at 37° C. 100 ng of DNA gyrase was used to supercoil the rx pAB1 in the presence of different concentrations of a gyrase inhibitor. After 15 minutes of incubation with the inhibitor at 37° C., all reactions were stopped with 1 μL of stop solution (3% SDS and 250 mM EDTA). Samples were analyzed by electrophoresis in 1% w/v agarose gels followed by ethidium bromide staining and photographed under UV light. 
     DNA Gyrase Mediated DNA Cleavage Assay. 
     250 ng of supercoiled pBR322 plasmid were incubated with 50 nM of  E. coli  DNA gyrase in reactions containing 35 mM Tris-HCl, 24 mM KCl, 4 mM MgCl2, 2 mM DTT, 0.1 mg/mL BSA, 6.5% glycerol, and 1.75 mM ATP, in presence of 200 μM of compounds, at 37° C. for 15 min. Then, 0.2% (w/v) of SDS and 0.1 mg/mL proteinase K were added, and samples were incubated at 37° C. for 1 h. Ciprofloxacin (200 μM) was used as a positive control. Samples were examined by electrophoresis in 1% w/v agarose gel containing 0.5 μg/mL ethidium bromide and photographed under UV light. 
     Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations Assays. 
     Antibacterial minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were obtained from three independent experiments using broth microdilution methods in 96-well plates according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. Cells were culture from singles colonies in MHIIB medium for 24 h at 37° C. in agitation (200 RPM). The cultures were then diluted using the same media to reach an OD 600  of 0.1. Then, 50 μL of the diluted cultures were added to the plates holding 50 μL of serially diluted compounds in MHIIB. The plates were incubated at 37° C. for 20 h. The starting inoculum was fixated to 10 5  colony-forming units per ml. The MIC was the lowest dilution of compounds, with no differences in OD 600  values compared to the wells without cells. Strains  S. aureus  (ATCC 14775), MRSA (ATCC BAA44),  B. subtilis  (ATCC 6633),  E. coli  (ATCC 25922) and  E. coli  imp were used to determine the MICs. 
       E. Coli  DNA Gyrase ATPase Assays 
       E. coli  DNA gyrase ATPase assays were performed in 60 μL of 1× gyrase ATPase buffer (10 mM Tris.HCl (pH 7.5), 0.2 mM EDTA, 1 mM magnesium chloride, 1 mM DTT, and 2% (w/v) glycerol) containing 50 nM  E. coli  DNA gyrase, 200 ng rx pAB1, 0.8 mM Phosphoenol pyruvate, 1.2 units of Pyruvate kinase, 1.7 units of lactate dehydrogenase, and 0.4 mM of NADH at 37° C. After the reaction mixtures are incubated on ice for 5 minutes, 2 mM of ATP is added to initiate the reaction. Absorbance at OD340nm is monitored for up to 30 minutes at 37° C. in a spectrophotometer. 
     EXAMPLE 1 
     Establish the SDFQ HTS Assay and Screen the LOPAC Library 
     Optimal conditions were determined for the miniaturized, automated SDFQ HTS primary assay of  E. coli  DNA gyrase in the 1536-well plate format using rx plasmid pAB1_FL905 in 1× DNA gyrase buffer (20 mM Tris-Acetate pH 7.9, 50 mM KAc, 10 mM MgCl 2 , 2 mM DTT, 1 mM ATP, 0.1 mg/mL BSA) ( FIGS.  2  and  3   ). After a series of experiments, 2 μL of a total of volume, 120 min incubation time, 175 ng/μl of  E. coli  DNA gyrase, and 3.21 ng/μL of pAB1_FL905 were chosen for the assay. The fluorescence intensity was measured using excitation wavelength of 484 nm and emission wavelength of 520 nm. The assay tolerated up to 4% DMSO without any significant change in signal. A known bacterial DNA gyrase inhibitor, novobiocin, was used for the positive control. Results in  FIG.  4    clearly demonstrate that novobiocin is a strong inhibitor of  E. coli  DNA gyrase with an IC 50  of 26 nM. Similar conditions were also obtained for the secondary SDFQ assay by which pAB1_FL924 was used as the DNA substrate ( FIG.  5   ). The fluorescence intensity was measured using excitation wavelength of 531 nm and emission wavelength of 595 nm. 
     To validate HTS readiness, the Sigma LOPAC1280 library of 1,280 pharmacologically active compounds were screened.  FIGS.  6  and  7    show the results at 5 μM with the following statistics: Z′=0.70, S/B=2.5, and 41 hits/compounds with more than 40% inhibition activities and a hit rate of ˜3.2% ( FIG.  7   ). The hits include 3 known gyrase inhibitors (lomefloxacin, ofloxacin, and trovafloxacin) and several DNA topoisomerase II inhibitors such as suramin, aurintricarboxylic acid, and emodin. 
     Although the Sigma LOPAC1280 library carries two additional DNA gyrase inhibitors, nalidixic acid and oxolinic acid, their inhibition IC 50  against  E. coli  DNA gyrase is more than 30 μM, it is not surprising that they are not included in the hit list. Some compounds per se have very strong fluorescence, which results in more than 100% inhibition against  E. coli  DNA gyrase ( FIG.  7   ). They are false positives and should be excluded from the hit list. 
     Unexpectedly, two new  E. coli  gyrase inhibitors were found from the pilot screen: chloro-IB-MECA and metergoline. Their inhibition against  E. coli  DNA gyrase were confirmed by agarose gel-based DNA gyrase assays ( FIG.  8   ). Metergoline ( FIG.  9   ) is a dopamine agonist and serotonin antagonist and inhibits gyrase activities at 100 and 200 μM ( FIG.  8   ). Chloro-IB-MECA ( FIG.  9   ) is an adenosine analogue and an antagonist of adenosine A3 receptors. It potently inhibits  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities with an IC 50  of 2.4 μM ( FIG.  10   ). 
     The LOPAC library also contains two similar adenosine analogues: IB-MECA and AB-MECA ( FIG.  9   ). IB-MECA also inhibits  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities with an IC 50  of 50.7 μM ( FIG.  10   ). AB-MECA does not inhibit  E. coli  gyrase activities ( FIG.  10   ). The ATPase assays of  E. coli  DNA gyrase show that chloro-IB-MECA and IB-MECA are the ATP competitive inhibitors of  E. coli  DNA gyrase ( FIG.  11   ). Interestingly, chloro-IB-MECA, IB-MECA, and AB-MECA did not inhibit Mtb DNA gyrase activities. They also did not inhibit  E. coli . DNA topoisomerase I,  E. coli  DNA topoisomerase IV, human DNA topoisomerase I, and human DNA topoisomerase IIα ( FIG.  12   ). The experimental results from the pilot screen of the LOPAC1280 library and the assay statistics demonstrate that our SDFQ-based assay is HTS-ready for an HTS campaign to identify bacterial DNA gyrase inhibitors. 
     EXAMPLE 2 
     Screen the NCATS Compound Library 
     The National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS) compound library was screened using the established SDFQ HTS assay ( FIG.  13   ). The following are the statistics after screening 370,620 compounds in 282 plates at 5 μM: Z′≈0. 81, RZ′≈0.83, and S/B≈2.7. The screening results are shown in  FIG.  14   . 2,891 compounds have more than 40% inhibition activities against  E. coli  DNA gyrase with a hit rate of 0.78. After retesting the 2,891 compounds in the primary and secondary assays, 2,244 compounds have more than 32% inhibition activities against  E. coli  DNA gyrase in both the primary and secondary HTS assays. The fluorescence results show that some compounds have high fluorescence at the wavelengths used for the signal detection which gives more than 100% inhibition activities ( FIG.  14   ). Apparently, these high fluorescent compounds are false positives and should be excluded from the potential DNA gyrase inhibitors. 
     After cheminformatic analysis, 237 CPDs were selected/acquired as potential gyrase inhibitors. The identities of these CPDs were confirmed by mass spectrometry. Their gyrase inhibition activities were examined using agarose gel-based gyrase assays. The initial analysis focuses on the 218 compounds that have the gyrase inhibition activities of less than 120% and more than 50% in both the primary and secondary assays. These compounds include 25 known DNA gyrase inhibitors, such as novobiocin and ciprofloxacin (11.5%;  FIG.  15   ) and 81 DNA intercalators or potential DNA intercalators, such as 9-aminoacridine, echinomycin, and several anthracyclines (37.2%;  FIG.  16   ). DNA intercalation significantly unwinds and relaxes pAB1_FL905 which results in the high fluorescence output even after pAB1_FL905 is supercoiled by  E. coli  DNA gyrase ( FIG.  17   ). These DNA intercalators are also false positives and should be excluded from the potential DNA gyrase inhibitors. 25 known gyrase inhibitors among the 218 top hits demonstrate that the SDFQ HTS campaign was successful. 
     After the analysis of all 2891 compounds, a total of 208 compounds were obtained from MolPort and NCI DTP program. The selection is based on their chemical structures and the screening results. Most of these compounds have similar activities for both the primary and secondary assays. The identities of these compounds were confirmed using mass spectrometry (data not shown). These compounds were then screened for their  E. coli  gyrase inhibition activities using agarose gel-based DNA gyrase assays ( FIGS.  18 - 22   ). The results showed that 155 compounds are  E. coli  DNA gyrase inhibitors with IC 50  values less than 200 μM ( FIG.  23   ). 102 gyrase inhibitors with IC 50  values less than 200 μM are shown in Table 1a. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1a 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Compounds as E. Coli DNA gyrase inhibitors. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Compound #  
                 Structure 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   4 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   7 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   9 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  10 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  12 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  13 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  15 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  17 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  18 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  19 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  21 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  22 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  23 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  24 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  25 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  27 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  28 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  29 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  30 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  31 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  33 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  35 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  36 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  38 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  40 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  41 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  42 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  44 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  45 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  46 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  47 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  48 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  49 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  51 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  53 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  54 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  55 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  56 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  57 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  58 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  60 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  61 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  62 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  63 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  64 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  65 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  68 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  70 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  71 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  72 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  73 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  74 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  75 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  76 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  78 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  79 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  82 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  83 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 102 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 104 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 105 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 106 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 108 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 109 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 110 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 111 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 112 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 115 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 122 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 129 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 130 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 131 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 132 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 135 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 149 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 154 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 155 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 157 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 159 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 161 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 163 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 165 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 167 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 168 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 169 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 171 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 173 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 176 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 178 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 180 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 184 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 188 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 189 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 192 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 204 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 205 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 206 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 207 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 211 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 212 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 213 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 215 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 222 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 225 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 227 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 228 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 229 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 232 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 234 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 235 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 242 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 253 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 256 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Among these 102 new gyrase inhibitors, 54 have an inhibition IC 50  against  E. coli  DNA gyrase less than 50 μM; 33 have an inhibition IC 50  less than 25 μM; and 22 have an inhibition IC 50  less than 15 μM (Table 2). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Compounds as gyrase inhibitors. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 IC50 (50-200 μM) 
                 IC50 (25-50 μM) 
                 IC50 (15-25 μM) 
                 IC50 ( ≤15 μM) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Cpd # 
                 Set 
                 Cpd # 
                 Set 
                 Cpd # 
                 Set 
                 Cpd # 
                 Set 
                 Cpd # 
                 IC50 
                 Set 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 10 
                 1 
                 68 
                 1 
                 4 
                 1 
                 108 
                 2 
                 9 
                 1.69 
                 1 
               
               
                 13 
                 1 
                 70 
                 1 
                 7 
                 1 
                 135 
                 2 
                 19 
                 3.55 
                 1 
               
               
                 15 
                 1 
                 74 
                 1 
                 12 
                 1 
                 149 
                 2 
                 25 
                 10.62 
                 1 
               
               
                 17 
                 1 
                 79 
                 1 
                 18 
                 1 
                 155 
                 2 
                 27 
                 1.74 
                 1 
               
               
                 22 
                 1 
                 82 
                 1 
                 21 
                 1 
                 161 
                 2 
                 36 
                 7.421 
                 1 
               
               
                 28 
                 1 
                 83 
                 1 
                 23 
                 1 
                 163 
                 2 
                 41 
                 1.48 
                 1 
               
               
                 31 
                 1 
                 106 
                 2 
                 24 
                 1 
                 169 
                 2 
                 42 
                 2.18 
                 1 
               
               
                 33 
                 1 
                 110 
                 2 
                 29 
                 1 
                 171 
                 2 
                 46 
                 11.23 
                 1 
               
               
                 38 
                 1 
                 112 
                 2 
                 35 
                 1 
                 173 
                 2 
                 47 
                 1.87 
                 1 
               
               
                 40 
                 1 
                 129 
                 2 
                 49 
                 1 
                 180 
                 2 
                 48 
                 4.28 
                 1 
               
               
                 44 
                 1 
                 130 
                 2 
                 102 
                 2 
                 184 
                 2 
                 72 
                 12.4 
                 1 
               
               
                 45 
                 1 
                 131 
                 2 
                 104 
                 2 
                   
                   
                 73 
                 7.86 
                 1 
               
               
                 51 
                 1 
                 167 
                 2 
                 105 
                 2 
                   
                   
                 75 
                 5.28 
                 1 
               
               
                 53 
                 1 
                 168 
                 2 
                 189 
                 2 
                   
                   
                 76 
                 2.53 
                 1 
               
               
                 54 
                 1 
                 204 
                 NSC29858 
                 212 
                 NSC97270 
                   
                   
                 154 
                 3.125 
                 2 
               
               
                 55 
                 1 
                 205 
                 NSC41098 
                 215 
                 NSC128440 
                   
                   
                 157 
                 10 
                 2 
               
               
                 56 
                 1 
                 206 
                 NSC43585 
                 222 
                 NSC228150 
                   
                   
                 159 
                 6.25 
                 2 
               
               
                 58 
                 1 
                 207 
                 NSC44156 
                 224 
                 NSC265450 
                   
                   
                 165 
                 6.25 
                 2 
               
               
                 60 
                 1 
                 211 
                 NSC83445 
                 225 
                 NSC269146 
                   
                   
                 176 
                 2 
                 2 
               
               
                 61 
                 1 
                 213 
                 NSC111851 
                 229 
                 NSC375161 
                   
                   
                 178 
                 1.56 
                 2 
               
               
                 62 
                 1 
                 227 
                 NSC302964 
                 256 
                 Alizarin 
                   
                   
                 192 
                 8 
                 2 
               
               
                 63 
                 1 
                 228 
                 NSC320207 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 253 
                 3.125 
                 Erythrosin B 
               
               
                 64 
                 1 
                 232 
                 NSC668394 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Novobiocin 
                 1.85 
               
               
                 65 
                 1 
                 242 
                 Emodin 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Additional compounds as  E. coli  DNA gyrase inhibitors with IC 50  values less than 200 μM are shown in Table 1b. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1b 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Additional compounds as E. Coli DNA gyrase inhibitors. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Compound # 
                 Structure 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  67 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  69 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  81 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 101 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 103 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 107 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 113 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 114 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 116 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 117 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 118 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 120 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 121 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 123 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 124 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 125 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 126 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 127 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 128 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 133 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 134 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 141 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 147 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 148 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 151 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 152 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 153 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 156 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 158 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 160 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 162 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 164 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 166 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 170 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 172 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 174 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 175 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 182 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 183 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 191 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 217 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 224 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 236 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 237 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 238 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 239 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 240 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 241 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 243 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 245 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 246 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 247 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 248 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 249 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 255 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 257 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 258 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Agarose gel-based and SDFQ-based titration experiments confirmed the results ( FIGS.  24 ,  25  and  26   ). Interestingly, some new gyrase inhibitors have potent anti-bacterial activities (Tables 3a, 3b and 3c). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3a 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Minimum inhibitory concentration (μM) of new 
               
               
                 gyrase inhibitors against different bacteria. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (μM) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                 
                   E. coli 
                 
                   
                 
                   S. aureus 
                 
                   
               
               
                 Compound 
                 
                   E. coli 
                 
                 imp 
                 
                   S. aureus 
                 
                 MRSA 
                 
                   B. subtilis 
                 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 4 
                 N 
                 N 
                 50 
                 50 
                 100 
               
               
                 9 
                 N 
                 N 
                 3.125 
                 3.125 
                 25 
               
               
                 21 
                 N 
                 100  
                 N 
                 N 
                 100 
               
               
                 25 
                 &gt;200 
                 25 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 25 
               
               
                 36 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 12.5 
               
               
                 40 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200  
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 100 
               
               
                 41 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 6.25 
               
               
                 44 
                 N 
                 25 
                 12.5 
                 25 
                 25 
               
               
                 45 
                 N 
                 100  
                 100 
                 100 
                 100 
               
               
                 46 
                 &gt;200 
                    6.25 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 6.25 
               
               
                 48 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200  
                 3.125 
                 3.125 
                 &gt;200 
               
               
                 55 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 25 
                 N 
               
               
                 58 
                 N 
                 100  
                 100 
                 100 
                 100 
               
               
                 72 
                  100 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
               
               
                 79 
                  200 
                 50 
                 200 
                 200 
                 100 
               
               
                 82 
                 N 
                 N 
                 50 
                 N 
                 50 
               
               
                 87 
                  25 
                   12.5 
                 25 
                 25 
                 6.25 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3b 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Minimum inhibitory concentration (μM) of new 
               
               
                 gyrase inhibitors against different bacteria. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 MIC (μM) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Compound 
                 
                   E. coli 
                 
                   imp 
                 
                   S. aureus 
                 
                 MRSA 
                 
                   B. subtilis 
                 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 104 
                 N 
                 50 
                 100 
                 100 
                 50 
               
               
                 105 
                 N 
                 100 
                 50 
                 100 
                 25 
               
               
                 108 
                 N 
                 200 
                 200 
                 200 
                 N 
               
               
                 111 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 100 
               
               
                 117 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 1.56 
                 1.56 
                 &gt;200 
               
               
                 118 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 200 
                 200 
                 &gt;200 
               
               
                 119 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 0.78 
                 0.78 
                 &gt;200 
               
               
                 120 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 1.56 
                 1.56 
                 &gt;200 
               
               
                 121 
                 &gt;200 
                 100 
                 3.125 
                 3.125 
                 50 
               
               
                 122 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 200 
                 200 
                 &gt;200 
               
               
                 123 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 1.56 
                 1.56 
                 6.25 
               
               
                 124 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 1.56 
                 1.56 
                 50-25 
               
               
                 125 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
               
               
                 126 
                 N 
                 N 
                 100 
                 100 
                 100 
               
               
                 127 
                 N 
                 N 
                 50 
                 50 
                 25 
               
               
                 128 
                 N 
                 50 
                 50 
                 50 
                 25 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3c 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Minimum inhibitory concentration (μM) of new 
               
               
                 gyrase inhibitors against different bacteria. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 MIC (μM) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Compound 
                 
                   E. coli 
                 
                   E. coli  imp 
                 
                   S. aureus 
                 
                 MRSA 
                 
                   B. subtilis 
                 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 134 
                 N 
                 N 
                 200 
                 200 
                 N 
               
               
                 135 
                 200 
                  50 
                  50 
                  50 
                  50 
               
               
                 149 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
               
               
                 154 
                  50 
                 50-100 
                  25 
                  25 
                  25 
               
               
                 155 
                 N 
                 100 
                 100 
                  50 
                  50 
               
               
                 157 
                 N 
                 100 
                 200 
                 200 
                 200 
               
               
                 159 
                 N 
                 200 
                  50 
                 100 
                 200 
               
               
                 161 
                 N 
                 200 
                 N 
                 N 
                 200 
               
               
                 164 
                 N 
                 100 
                 200 
                 200 
                 N 
               
               
                 173 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
                 100 
                 N 
               
               
                 180 
                 N 
                 100 
                 N 
                 N 
                 N 
               
               
                 184 
                 N 
                 N 
                 200 
                 200 
                 N 
               
               
                 189 
                 N 
                 100 
                 N 
                 N 
                 100 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     According to these results, structure activity relationships (SARs) studies of derivatives of several gyrase inhibitors were performed. Below are our results. 
     EXAMPLE 3 
     Psoralen Derivatives as Novel Bacterial DNA Gyrase Inhibitors 
     There are 3 psoralen derivatives among the hits: compounds 25, 46, and 48 that are potent bacterial DNA gyrase inhibitors although psoralen per se is not a gyrase inhibitor. Another 9 psoralen derivatives were tested in anti DNA gyrase assays using the agarose gel-based and SDFQ-based gyrase assays ( FIGS.  27 - 28   ). Table 4 shows the chemical structures of psoralen derivatives used in this invention. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Chemical structures of psoralen derivatives. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                 Compound # 
                 Structure 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  25 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  46 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  48 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 117 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 118 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 119 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 120 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 121 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 122 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 123 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 124 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 125 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     All psoralen derivatives inhibited  E. coli  and Mtb DNA gyrase activities except compounds 118 and 122. Their MICs against  S. aureus  and MRSA were determined ( FIG.  28   b   ). Antibacterial activities against  E. coli, S. aureus,  MRSA, and Mtb are shown in Table 5. Some exhibited potent activities against Mtb, and  S. aureus  (including a MRSA strain) with 46, 119, and 124 being most active for Mtb. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Psoralen derivatives are potent gyrase inhibitors with antibacterial activities. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 CPD 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 IC 50  (μM) 
                 MIC (μM) 
                 %Mtb 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 # 
                 R3 
                 R5 
                 R6 
                 R9 
                 EC  
                 Mtb 
                 SA  
                 MRSA 
                 inhibition 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                  25 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 CH 3   
                 (CH 2 ) 2 COOH 
                 H 
                 11.5 
                 65 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                  0.8 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  46 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 CH 3   
                 (CH 2 ) 2 COOH 
                 H 
                 11.4 
                 75 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 82.3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                  48 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 CH 3   
                 (CH 2 ) 2 COOH 
                 CH 3   
                 4.2 
                 57 
                 3.1 
                 3.1 
                 38.6 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 117 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 CH 3   
                 CH 2 COOH 
                 CH 3   
                 15.7 
                 50 
                 1.6 
                 1.6 
                 24.7 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 118 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 CH 3   
                 CH 3   
                 CH 3   
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 218 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 119 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 CH 3   
                 (CH 2 ) 2 COOH 
                 CH 3   
                 77 
                 16 
                 0.8 
                 0.8 
                 70.4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 120 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 CH 3   
                 (CH 2 ) 2 COOH 
                 CH 3   
                 7.9 
                 33 
                 16 
                 1.6 
                 18.7 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 121 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 CH 3   
                 (CH 2 ) 2 COOH 
                 CH 3   
                 28 
                 58 
                 3.1 
                 3.1 
                 36.7 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 122 
                 CH 3   
                 CH 3   
                 (CH 2 ) 2 COOH 
                 CH 3   
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 15.7 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 123 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 CH 3   
                 (CH 2 ) 2 COOH 
                 CH 3   
                 28.1 
                 34 
                 16 
                 1.6 
                 31.3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 124 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 CH 3   
                 (CH 2 ) 2 COOH 
                 CH 3   
                 5.5 
                 3 
                 16 
                 1.6 
                 80.4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 125 
                 
                   
                     
                     
                         
                         
                     
                   
                 
                 CH 3   
                 (CH 2 ) 2 COOH 
                 CH 3   
                 4.9 
                 55 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
                 10.2 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Interestingly, the results showed that the anti-bacterial activities of these psoralen derivatives are correlated with the anti-DNA gyrase activities ( FIG.  28   b   ). The methyl group at R 9  position enhances the anti-gyrase potency and is required for the anti-bacterial activities against  S. aureus  and MRSA ( FIGS.  28  and  29   ). A bulky hydrophobic group at the 3rd position and a carboxyl group at the 6 th  position are required for the anti-gyrase and anti-bacterial activities ( FIGS.  28  and  30 A -C). Intriguingly, although compound 125 potently inhibited the  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities, it did not inhibit the growth of  S. aureus  and MRSA ( FIG.  28   ). It is possible that the amine in the bulky hydrophobic group at the 3rd position prevented the entry of the compound to the bacterial cells. The ATPase assays showed that all psoralen derivatives are the ATP competitive inhibitors of DNA gyrase ( FIG.  31   ). A further analysis of compound 48 shows that it inhibited the ATPase activities of  E. coli  DNA gyrase with a Ki (the dissociation constant for the inhibitor) value of 150 nM ( FIG.  32   ). 
     The results showed that the psoralen analogs do not bind to DNA tightly and also do not cause the photo-induced interstrand DNA crosslinks. A likely reason is that they (except CPD 118) contain a carboxyl group at the R 6  position. At neutral pH, these CPDs are negatively charged and should not bind to DNA with high affinity. These CPDs contain a bulky hydrophobic group at the R 3  position that prevents them from intercalating into DNA base pairs. They also do not strongly inhibit human DNA Topolla with IC 50  more than 100 μM for all psoralen derivatives. For instance, the results show that the IC 50  of CPDs 119 and 124 against human TopoIIα are 133 and 117 μM, respectively. This yields selectivity index (Mtb gyrase over human TopoIIα) of 8.3 and 39 for these two CPDs. 
     Consistent with this data, psoralen analogs displayed excellent selectivity, with no cytotoxicity evident after treatment of two cell lines (J774, HepG2) with 200 μM of CPDs 46, 119, and 124 (Table 6). The Mtb active hits also include isatin-phenylhydrazones (CPDs 127, 128), pyrido-thieno-pyrimidines (CPD 19), amino-benzothiazoles (CPD 178), and thiazolo[3,2-a]benzimidazoles (CPD 47). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Selective anti-Mtb gyrase inhibitors 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 % inhibition 
                 IC50 (μM) 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Compounds # 
                 (20 μM) 
                 J774 
                 HepG2 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 NSC229 
                 99.3 
                 NT 
                 NT 
               
               
                   
                 46 
                 82.3 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
               
               
                   
                 119 
                 70.4 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
               
               
                   
                 124 
                 80.4 
                 &gt;200 
                 NT 
               
               
                   
                 127 
                 97.8 
                 NT 
                 NT 
               
               
                   
                 128 
                 67.1 
                 NT 
                 NT 
               
               
                   
                 178 
                 84.8 
                 NT 
                 NT 
               
               
                   
                 19 
                 75 
                 &gt;200 
                 &gt;200 
               
               
                   
                 30 
                 82.4 
                 NT 
                 NT 
               
               
                   
                 47 
                 79.3 
                 NT 
                 NT 
               
               
                   
                 54 
                 78.6 
                 NT 
                 NT 
               
               
                   
                 110 
                 100 
                 &gt;200 
                 NT 
               
               
                   
                 NSC212 
                 84.6 
                 NT 
                 NT 
               
               
                   
                 64 
                 88 
                 NT 
                 NT 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 &gt;200: loss of cell viability only at highest [drug] 
               
               
                   
                 NT = no toxicity at highest concentration (200 μM) 
               
            
           
         
       
     
     EXAMPLE 4 
     4-[2-(5,7-Dimethyl-2-oxoindo-3-yl)hydrazinyl]benzoic acid (compound 9) and Derivertives 
     Since 4-[2-(5,7-Dimethyl-2-oxoindo-3-yl)hydrazinyl]benzoic acid (compound 9) is a potent gyrase inhibitor and strongly inhibited the growth of  S. aureus  and MRSA, 9 derivatives of compound 9 were tested to examine their anti-gyrase and anti-bacterial activities ( FIG.  33   ). The carboxyl group at position 1 is required for the anti-bacterial activities against  S. aureus  and MRSA ( FIGS.  34  and  35   ). Changing the carboxyl group to a different group also reduced their anti-gyrase activities ( FIGS.  34  and  35   ). 
     EXAMPLE 5 
     Several Common Dyes Potently Inhibit  E. Coli  DNA Gyrase Activities. 
     Several common dyes including erythrosine B (Red No. 3), alizarin (Mordant Red 11 or Turkey Red), and methyl fluorone black strongly inhibit  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities with IC 50  less than 10 μM ( FIG.  36   ). Emodin and rhein, two anthraquinones with similar structures also potently inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities ( FIG.  36   ). 
     EXAMPLE 6 
     Antibiotic Variamycin is a Potent Gyrase Inhibitor 
     Antibiotic variamycin (mithramycin or plicamycin) is an antitumor antibiotic produced by  Streptomyces plicatus . It strongly inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities ( FIG.  36   ). 
     EXAMPLE 7 
     3a,4,5,9b-Tetrahydro-3H-cyclopenta[c]quinoline-4-carboxylic acid and Derivatives. 
       FIG.  37    shows the chemical structures of 3a,4,5,9b-Tetrahydro-3H-cyclopenta[c]quinoline-4-carboxylic acid and derivatives. They all inhibited  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities. 
     EXAMPLE 8 
     New Gyrase Inhibitors Causing Double Stranded DNA Breaks and DNA Nicking. 
     Several compounds cause DNA gyrase-mediated double stranded DNA breaks and DNA nicking. These compounds are potential DNA gyrase poisons. N-(6-chloro-4-phenylquinazolin-2-yl)guanidine (compound 154,  FIG.  38   ) causes DNA gyrase-mediated double stranded DNA breaks. 1-[(4-carbamoylphenyl)carbamoyl]ethyl 1,4-dihydroxynaphthalene-2-carboxylate (compound 40,  FIG.  38   ) causes DNA gyrase-mediated double stranded DNA breaks and DNA nicking. 3-({4-[(2-carboxyethyl)amino]-9,10-dioxo-9,10-dihydroanthracen-1-yl}amino)propanoic acid (compound173,  FIG.  38   ) and 7-((2-(3,5-Dibromo-4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl)amino)-5,8-quinolinedione (compound 232 , NSC668394,  FIG.  38   ) cause DNA nicking. 
     Compound 154 is a quinazoline derivative and strongly inhibits  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities with an IC 50  of 7 μM ( FIGS.  39 A and  39 B ). Intriguingly, compound 154 also causes the gyrase-mediated DNA double-stranded breaks and single-stranded nicks ( FIG.  39 C ). A likely MoA of this gyrase inhibitor is to stabilize the enzyme-DNA cleavage-complex, which leads to the DNA breaks and nicks. 
     In other words, compound 154 is a bacterial DNA gyrase poison. Although the induced DNA breaks and nicks are generally proportional to the added inhibitor, high concentrations of compound 154 inhibit the formation of the double-stranded DNA breaks (compare lanes 4 to 6 of  FIG.  39 C ). The result shows that compound 154 inhibits human DNA topoisomerase 2α with an estimated IC 50  of ˜50 μM ( FIG.  39 D ). Surprisingly, compound 154 also causes the human topoisomerase 2α-mediated DNA nicks and double-stranded breaks ( FIG.  39 E ). Thus, compound 154 is a human DNA topoisomerase 2α poison as well. 
       FIG.  39 F  shows that compound 154 is a novel gyrase poison that inhibits  E. coli  DNA gyrase and Topoisomerase IV.  FIGS.  39 G and  39 H  show molecular models of compound 154 binding to gyrase-DNA complexes. The molecular modeling results show that compound 154 nicely intercalates into DNA base pairs near the gyrase cleavage sites in the gyrase-DNA-drug complex. 
     Compound 40 also inhibits  E. coli  DNA gyrase activities with an IC 50  of 50 μM ( FIGS.  40 A and  40 B ). Similar to compound 154, it causes gyrase-mediated DNA double-stranded breaks and single-stranded nicks, and is a bacterial DNA gyrase poison ( FIG.  40 C ). Compound 40 causes much more DNA nicks than double-stranded DNA breaks (compare lanes 1 to 4 of  FIG.  40 C ). Compound 40 does not inhibit human DNA topoisomerase 2α ( FIG.  40 D ). It does not cause the human topoisomerase 2α-mediated DNA nicks and double-stranded breaks ( FIG.  40 E ). 
     Compound 154 shows significant antibacterial activities against bacterial strains including the wildtype  E. coli  strain ATCC 25922,  Staphylococcus aureus  ATCC 14775, and MRSA (ATCC 33591) (Table 3c). Compound 40 shows anti Bacillu subtilis activities at 39 μg/mL. Intriguingly, the anti-bacterial activities of these psoralen derivatives are correlated with the anti-DNA gyrase activities. 
     A molecular modeling studies were performed based on a cryoEM structure of  E. coli  DNA gyrase nucleoprotein complex with gepotidacin, an NTBI. The molecular modeling results show that the fused six-member aromatic ring system intercalates into DNA base pairs of the nicking site ( FIGS.  40 F and  40 G ), and the benzamide group lies on the floor of the major groove ( FIGS.  40 F and  40 G ), unlike the binding of gepotidacin to the gyrase nucleoprotein complex likely due to the short linker of compound 40. 
     EXAMPLE 9 
     Digallic Acids and Derivatives as New Gyrase Inhibitors. 
     Digallic acid and derivatives potently inhibit bacterial DNA gyrase and have anti-bacterial activities ( FIG.  41    and Table 7). 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Antimicrobial activity of gallic acid derivatives 
               
            
           
           
               
               
            
               
                   
                 MIC (μg/ml) 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   S. aureus 
                 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 
                   B. subtilis 
                 
                 
                   S. aureus 
                 
                 (MRSA) 
                 
                   E. coli 
                 
               
               
                   
                 ATCC 
                 ATCC 
                 ATCC 
                 ATCC 
                 
                   E. coli 
                 
               
               
                 Compound 
                 6633 
                 14775 
                 BAA44 
                 25922 
                 imp 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Digallic acid 
                 &gt;64 
                 64 
                 64 
                   
                 N/A 
               
               
                 Butyl gallate 
                 &gt;64 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 Octyl gallate 
                 4 
                 56.46 
                 56.46 
                 225.86 
                 14.11 
               
               
                 Dodecyl 
                 8 
                 67.68 
                 67.68 
                 N/A 
                 67.68 
               
               
                 gallate 
               
               
                 Phenyl gallate 
                 &gt;64 
                 64 
                 64 
                 N/A 
                 N/A 
               
               
                 Biphenyl 
                 16 
                 16 
                 16 
                 517.29 
                 36.43 
               
               
                 gallate 
               
               
                 Ciprofloxacin 
                 &lt;2 
                 &lt;2 
                 &lt;2 
                 2  
                 &lt;2   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     All patents, patent applications, provisional applications, and publications referred to or cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety, including all figures and tables, to the extent they are not inconsistent with the explicit teachings of this specification. 
     It should be understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application. 
     In addition, any elements or limitations of any invention or embodiment thereof disclosed herein can be combined with any and/or all other elements or limitations (individually or in any combination) or any other invention or embodiment thereof disclosed herein, and all such combinations are contemplated with the scope of the invention without limitation thereto.