Patent Publication Number: US-2023132967-A1

Title: Method, System, and Computer Program Product for Parallax Estimation for Sensors for Autonomous Vehicles

Description:
BACKGROUND 
     1. Field 
     This disclosed subject matter relates generally to methods, systems, and products for parallax estimation between sensors and, in some particular embodiments or aspects, to a method, system, and computer program product for parallax estimation for sensors (e.g., camera and LiDAR) for autonomous vehicles. 
     2. Technical Considerations 
     Object detection (and, more generally, automated perception algorithms) rely on inputs from sensors. For example, autonomous vehicles, robotics, and/or the like may rely on multiple (potentially heterogeneous) sensors looking at the same point in the world to infer information about the environment or objects therein. 
     However, because sensors have size (e.g., volume) and/or other physical limitations, it may not be possible for two or more sensors to be collocated in the same or substantially similar position and/or orientation. For example, two sensors that are placed side-by-side may have some distance between them due to their physical size. Additionally or alternatively, it may be desirable to place sensors in different areas of an autonomous vehicle, such as the roof of the vehicle for some sensors and the front or rear end of the vehicle for other sensors. This inability to collocate sensors can result in parallax. In some situations, parallax may be beneficial or desirable (e.g., for calculating stereo disparity between images from two cameras in multi-view computer vision). However, in many other situations, parallax may be undesirable, as different sensors may detect the same object from vantage points that are different enough that matching or fusing the object and/or data associated therewith may be challenging. For example, two different types of sensors may each detect the same object, but the vantage points of such sensors may be different enough that the system (e.g., an autonomous vehicle) cannot determine that the detections from the different sensors are actually the same object. As such, it may be desirable to reduce parallax, but such reduction may be difficult because of challenges in quantifying parallax. For example, two-dimensional and/or graphic-based techniques for estimating parallax may not adequately be used to quantify parallax in a three-dimensional environment. Additionally, such techniques may not completely or adequately explore the tradespace (e.g., the tradeoffs of different arrangements in a playspace of arrangements). Moreover, such techniques may rely on manual inputs from engineers. 
     As such, there is a need for an improved technique to estimate (e.g., quantify) parallax in order to evaluate and/or select sensor placement (e.g., for autonomous vehicles, to reduce parallax and therefore facilitate autonomous driving operations based on data from such sensors). 
     SUMMARY 
     Accordingly, it is an object of the presently disclosed subject matter to provide methods, systems, and computer program products for parallax estimation for sensors (e.g., camera and LiDAR) for autonomous vehicles, that overcome some or all of the deficiencies identified above. 
     According to non-limiting embodiments or aspects, provided is a method for parallax estimation for sensors (e.g., camera and LiDAR) for autonomous vehicles. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, a method for parallax estimation for sensors (e.g., camera and LiDAR) for autonomous vehicles may include generating a two-dimensional grid based on a field of view of a first sensor of an autonomous vehicle, and the grid may include a plurality of points. For each respective point of the plurality of points, a three-dimensional position of a respective intersection point between a first respective ray from the first sensor to the respective point of the plurality of points and a second respective ray from a second sensor of the autonomous vehicle may be determined, and a plurality of intersection points may include each respective intersection point for each respective point of the plurality of points. For each respective intersection point of the plurality of intersection points, a respective solid angle may be determined based on a first three-dimensional vector from the first sensor to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a second three-dimensional vector from the second sensor to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point. A matrix may be generated based on a first distance from the first sensor to each respective intersection point, a second distance from the second sensor to each respective intersection point, and the solid angle for each respective intersection point. At least one metric may be extracted from the matrix. An arrangement of the first sensor and the second sensor may be adjusted based on the at least one metric. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the first sensor may include an image capture system and the second sensor may include a ray casting system. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the image capture system may include a camera and the ray casting system may include a LiDAR. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, first sensor parameters for the first sensor, first position data associated with a first position of the first sensor, first orientation data associated with a first orientation of the first sensor, second sensor parameters for the second sensor, second position data associated with a second position of the second sensor, and second orientation data associated with a second orientation of the second sensor may be received. The first sensor parameters may include the field of view of the first sensor. The second sensor parameters may include ray data associated with a plurality of rays cast by the second sensor. Adjusting the arrangement may include adjusting at least one of the first position of the first sensor, the first orientation of the first sensor, the second position of the second sensor, the second orientation of the second sensor, or any combination thereof. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, generating the two-dimensional grid may include generating a plurality of horizontal lines across the field of view and/or generating a plurality of vertical lines across the field of view. Each respective intersection between a respective horizontal line of the plurality of horizontal lines and a respective vertical line of the plurality of vertical lines may include a respective point of the plurality of points. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the first respective ray from the first sensor to each respective point of the plurality of points may be determined based on an azimuth and an elevation for each respective point with respect to the first sensor. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the first sensor may include a camera and the azimuth and the elevation for each respective point are with respect to a center of a lens of the camera. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the second respective ray may include a worst-case ray of a plurality of rays cast by the second sensor. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the second sensor may include a LiDAR, and the worst-case ray may include a lowest beam having a lowest elevation if the LiDAR is positioned above the first sensor or a highest beam having a highest elevation if the LiDAR is positioned below the first sensor. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, boundary data associated with at least one boundary condition may be received. A first intersection point of the plurality of intersection points may be determined to not satisfy the at least one boundary condition. The first intersection point may be replaced with a replacement intersection point between the first respective ray from the first sensor and a lowest remaining beam having a lowest remaining elevation if the LiDAR is positioned above the first sensor or a highest remaining beam having a highest remaining elevation if the LiDAR is positioned below the first sensor, and the replacement intersection point may satisfy the at least one boundary condition. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the at least one boundary condition may include at least one of a first minimum range for the first sensor, a second minimum range for the second sensor, a first maximum range for the first sensor, a second maximum range for the second sensor, a ground surface position of a ground surface upon which the autonomous vehicle is located, or any combination thereof. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the first three-dimensional vector may be generated based on the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a first three-dimensional position of the first sensor. The second three-dimensional vector may be generated based on the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a second three-dimensional position of the second sensor. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, determining the respective solid angle may include generating a first unit vector based on the first three-dimensional vector, generating a second unit vector based on the second three-dimensional vector, and calculating the solid angle based on the first unit vector and the second unit vector. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, generating the matrix may include generating a 3×n matrix, wherein n is a number of intersection points of the plurality of intersection points. Each respective column of the 3×n matrix may be populated with the first distance from the first sensor to the respective intersection point, the second distance from the second sensor to the respective intersection point, and the solid angle for the respective intersection point. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, extracting the at least one metric from the matrix may include at least one of determining a minimum solid angle based on the matrix, determining a maximum solid angle based on the matrix, determining a minimum range of solid angles based on the matrix, determining a maximum range of solid angles based on the matrix, determining a spread of solid angles based on the matrix, determining an average of solid angles based on the matrix, determining a standard deviation of solid angles based on the matrix, determining a three-sigma range of solid angles based on the matrix, determining a minimum first distance based on the matrix, determining a maximum first distance based on the matrix, determining a minimum range of first distances based on the matrix, determining a maximum range of first distances based on the matrix, determining a spread of first distances based on the matrix, determining an average of first distances based on the matrix, determining a standard deviation of first distances based on the matrix, determining a three-sigma range of first distances based on the matrix, determining a minimum second distance based on the matrix, determining a maximum second distance based on the matrix, determining a minimum range of second distances based on the matrix, determining a maximum range of second distances based on the matrix, determining a spread of second distances based on the matrix, determining an average of second distances based on the matrix, determining a standard deviation of second distances based on the matrix, determining a three-sigma range of second distances based on the matrix, or any combination thereof. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the two-dimensional grid may be interpolated based on the at least one metric. A visual representation may be displayed based on interpolating the two-dimensional grid. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, displaying the visual representation may include displaying a gradient of at least one of shades or colors based on the at least one metric across a two-dimensional image. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, potential arrangement data associated with a plurality of potential arrangements of the first sensor and the second sensor may be received. The plurality of potential arrangements may include a first potential arrangement and a second potential arrangement. The first sensor and the second sensor may be initially in the first potential arrangement. Adjusting the arrangement may include adjusting the arrangement from the first potential arrangement to the second potential arrangement based on the at least one metric satisfying a threshold and repeating generating of the two-dimensional grid, determining of the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point for each respective point of the plurality of points, determining the respective solid angle for each respective intersection point, generating the matrix, and extracting the at least one metric from the matrix based on the first sensor and the second sensor being in the second potential arrangement. 
     According to non-limiting embodiments or aspects, provided is a system for parallax estimation for sensors (e.g., camera and LiDAR) for autonomous vehicles. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, a system for parallax estimation for sensors (e.g., camera and LiDAR) for autonomous vehicles may include an autonomous vehicle, a first sensor of the autonomous vehicle, a second sensor of the autonomous vehicle, and a parallax estimation and sensor placement system. The parallax estimation and sensor placement system may be configured to generate a two-dimensional grid based on a field of view of the first sensor of the autonomous vehicle, and the grid may include a plurality of points. For each respective point of the plurality of points, the parallax estimation and sensor placement system may be configured to determine a three-dimensional position of a respective intersection point between a first respective ray from the first sensor to the respective point of the plurality of points and a second respective ray from the second sensor of the autonomous vehicle, and a plurality of intersection points may include each respective intersection point for each respective point of the plurality of points. For each respective intersection point of the plurality of intersection points, the parallax estimation and sensor placement system may be configured to determine a respective solid angle based on a first three-dimensional vector from the first sensor to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a second three-dimensional vector from the second sensor to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point. The parallax estimation and sensor placement system may be configured to generate a matrix based on a first distance from the first sensor to each respective intersection point, a second distance from the second sensor to each respective intersection point, and the solid angle for each respective intersection point. The parallax estimation and sensor placement system may be configured to extract at least one metric from the matrix. An arrangement of the first sensor and the second sensor may be adjusted based on the at least one metric. Additionally or alternatively, the parallax estimation and sensor placement system may be configured to perform any of the methods described herein. 
     According to non-limiting embodiments or aspects, provided is a computer program product for parallax estimation for sensors (e.g., camera and LiDAR) for autonomous vehicles. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, a computer program product may include at least one non-transitory computer-readable medium comprising one or more instructions that, when executed by at least one processor, cause the at least one processor to generate a two-dimensional grid based on a field of view of the first sensor of the autonomous vehicle, the grid comprising a plurality of points; for each respective point of the plurality of points, determine a three-dimensional position of a respective intersection point between a first respective ray from the first sensor to the respective point of the plurality of points and a second respective ray from the second sensor of the autonomous vehicle, wherein a plurality of intersection points may include each respective intersection point for each respective point of the plurality of points; for each respective intersection point of the plurality of intersection points, determine a respective solid angle based on a first three-dimensional vector from the first sensor to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a second three-dimensional vector from the second sensor to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point; generate a matrix based on a first distance from the first sensor to each respective intersection point, a second distance from the second sensor to each respective intersection point, and the solid angle for each respective intersection point; and extract at least one metric from the matrix. An arrangement of the first sensor and the second sensor is adjusted based on the at least one metric. Additionally or alternatively, the instruction(s), when executed by the processor(s), may cause the processor(s) to perform any of the methods described herein. 
     Further embodiments or aspects are set forth in the following numbered clauses: 
     Clause 1: A method for parallax estimation for sensors for autonomous vehicles, comprising: generating a two-dimensional grid based on a field of view of a first sensor of an autonomous vehicle, the grid comprising a plurality of points; for each respective point of the plurality of points, determining a three-dimensional position of a respective intersection point between a first respective ray from the first sensor to the respective point of the plurality of points and a second respective ray from a second sensor of the autonomous vehicle, wherein a plurality of intersection points comprises each respective intersection point for each respective point of the plurality of points; for each respective intersection point of the plurality of intersection points, determining a respective solid angle based on a first three-dimensional vector from the first sensor to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a second three-dimensional vector from the second sensor to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point; generating a matrix based on a first distance from the first sensor to each respective intersection point, a second distance from the second sensor to each respective intersection point, and the solid angle for each respective intersection point; extracting at least one metric from the matrix; and adjusting an arrangement of the first sensor and the second sensor based on the at least one metric. 
     Clause 2: The method of clause 1, wherein the first sensor comprises an image capture system and the second sensor comprises a ray casting system. 
     Clause 3: The method of any preceding clause, wherein the image capture system comprises a camera and the ray casting system comprises a LiDAR. 
     Clause 4: The method of any preceding clause, further comprising receiving first sensor parameters for the first sensor, first position data associated with a first position of the first sensor, first orientation data associated with a first orientation of the first sensor, second sensor parameters for the second sensor, second position data associated with a second position of the second sensor, and second orientation data associated with a second orientation of the second sensor, wherein the first sensor parameters comprise the field of view of the first sensor, wherein the second sensor parameters comprise ray data associated with a plurality of rays cast by the second sensor, and wherein adjusting the arrangement comprises adjusting at least one of the first position of the first sensor, the first orientation of the first sensor, the second position of the second sensor, the second orientation of the second sensor, or any combination thereof. 
     Clause 5: The method of any preceding clause, wherein generating the two-dimensional grid comprises: generating a plurality of horizontal lines across the field of view; and generating a plurality of vertical lines across the field of view, wherein each respective intersection between a respective horizontal line of the plurality of horizontal lines and a respective vertical line of the plurality of vertical lines comprises a respective point of the plurality of points. 
     Clause 6: The method of any preceding clause, further comprising determining the first respective ray from the first sensor to each respective point of the plurality of points based on an azimuth and an elevation for each respective point with respect to the first sensor. 
     Clause 7: The method of any preceding clause, wherein the first sensor comprises a camera and the azimuth and the elevation for each respective point are with respect to a center of a lens of the camera. 
     Clause 8: The method of any preceding clause, wherein the second respective ray comprises a worst-case ray of a plurality of rays cast by the second sensor. 
     Clause 9: The method of any preceding clause, wherein the second sensor comprises a LiDAR, and wherein the worst-case ray comprises a lowest beam having a lowest elevation if the LiDAR is positioned above the first sensor or a highest beam having a highest elevation if the LiDAR is positioned below the first sensor. 
     Clause 10: The method of any preceding clause, further comprising: receiving boundary data associated with at least one boundary condition; determining that a first intersection point of the plurality of intersection points does not satisfy the at least one boundary condition; and replacing the first intersection point with a replacement intersection point between the first respective ray from the first sensor and a lowest remaining beam having a lowest remaining elevation if the LiDAR is positioned above the first sensor or a highest remaining beam having a highest remaining elevation if the LiDAR is positioned below the first sensor, wherein the replacement intersection point does satisfy the at least one boundary condition. 
     Clause 11: The method of any preceding clause, wherein the at least one boundary condition comprises at least one of a first minimum range for the first sensor, a second minimum range for the second sensor, a first maximum range for the first sensor, a second maximum range for the second sensor, a ground surface position of a ground surface upon which the autonomous vehicle is located, or any combination thereof. 
     Clause 12: The method of any preceding clause, further comprising: generating the first three-dimensional vector based on the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a first three-dimensional position of the first sensor; and generating the second three-dimensional vector based on the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a second three-dimensional position of the second sensor. 
     Clause 13: The method of any preceding clause, wherein determining the respective solid angle comprises: generating a first unit vector based on the first three-dimensional vector; generating a second unit vector based on the second three-dimensional vector; and calculating the solid angle based on the first unit vector and the second unit vector. 
     Clause 14: The method of any preceding clause, wherein generating the matrix comprises: generating a 3×n matrix, wherein n is a number of intersection points of the plurality of intersection points; populating each respective column of the 3×n matrix with the first distance from the first sensor to the respective intersection point, the second distance from the second sensor to the respective intersection point, and the solid angle for the respective intersection point. 
     Clause 15: The method of any preceding clause, wherein extracting the at least one metric from the matrix comprises at least one of: determining a minimum solid angle based on the matrix; determining a maximum solid angle based on the matrix; determining a minimum range of solid angles based on the matrix; determining a maximum range of solid angles based on the matrix; determining a spread of solid angles based on the matrix; determining an average of solid angles based on the matrix; determining a standard deviation of solid angles based on the matrix; determining a three-sigma range of solid angles based on the matrix; determining a minimum first distance based on the matrix; determining a maximum first distance based on the matrix; determining a minimum range of first distances based on the matrix; determining a maximum range of first distances based on the matrix; determining a spread of first distances based on the matrix; determining an average of first distances based on the matrix; determining a standard deviation of first distances based on the matrix; determining a three-sigma range of first distances based on the matrix; determining a minimum second distance based on the matrix; determining a maximum second distance based on the matrix; determining a minimum range of second distances based on the matrix; determining a maximum range of second distances based on the matrix; determining a spread of second distances based on the matrix; determining an average of second distances based on the matrix; determining a standard deviation of second distances based on the matrix; determining a three-sigma range of second distances based on the matrix; or any combination thereof. 
     Clause 16: The method of any preceding clause, further comprising: interpolating the two-dimensional grid based on the at least one metric; and displaying a visual representation based on interpolating the two-dimensional grid. 
     Clause 17: The method of any preceding clause, wherein displaying the visual representation comprises displaying a gradient of at least one of shades or colors based on the at least one metric across a two-dimensional image. 
     Clause 18: The method of any preceding clause, further comprising: receiving potential arrangement data associated with a plurality of potential arrangements of the first sensor and the second sensor, the plurality of potential arrangements comprising a first potential arrangement and a second potential arrangement, wherein the first sensor and the second sensor are initially in the first potential arrangement, and wherein adjusting the arrangement comprises: adjusting the arrangement from the first potential arrangement to the second potential arrangement based on the at least one metric satisfying a threshold; and repeating generating of the two-dimensional grid, determining of the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point for each respective point of the plurality of points, determining the respective solid angle for each respective intersection point, generating the matrix, and extracting the at least one metric from the matrix based on the first sensor and the second sensor being in the second potential arrangement. 
     Clause 19. A system for parallax estimation for sensors for autonomous vehicles, comprising: an autonomous vehicle; a first sensor of the autonomous vehicle; a second sensor of the autonomous vehicle; and a parallax estimation and sensor placement system configured to: generate a two-dimensional grid based on a field of view of the first sensor of the autonomous vehicle, the grid comprising a plurality of points; for each respective point of the plurality of points, determine a three-dimensional position of a respective intersection point between a first respective ray from the first sensor to the respective point of the plurality of points and a second respective ray from the second sensor of the autonomous vehicle, wherein a plurality of intersection points comprises each respective intersection point for each respective point of the plurality of points; for each respective intersection point of the plurality of intersection points, determine a respective solid angle based on a first three-dimensional vector from the first sensor to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a second three-dimensional vector from the second sensor to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point; generate a matrix based on a first distance from the first sensor to each respective intersection point, a second distance from the second sensor to each respective intersection point, and the solid angle for each respective intersection point; and extract at least one metric from the matrix, wherein an arrangement of the first sensor and the second sensor is adjusted based on the at least one metric. 
     Clause 20. A computer program product for parallax estimation for a first sensor and a second sensor of an autonomous vehicle, the computer program product comprising at least one non-transitory computer-readable medium comprising one or more instructions that, when executed by at least one processor, cause the at least one processor to: generate a two-dimensional grid based on a field of view of the first sensor of the autonomous vehicle, the grid comprising a plurality of points; for each respective point of the plurality of points, determine a three-dimensional position of a respective intersection point between a first respective ray from the first sensor to the respective point of the plurality of points and a second respective ray from the second sensor of the autonomous vehicle, wherein a plurality of intersection points comprises each a respective intersection point for each respective point of the plurality of points; for each respective intersection point of the plurality of intersection points, determine a respective solid angle based on a first three-dimensional vector from the first sensor to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a second three-dimensional vector from the second sensor to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point; generate a matrix based on a first distance from the first sensor to each respective intersection point, a second distance from the second sensor to each respective intersection point, and the solid angle for each respective intersection point; and extract at least one metric from the matrix, wherein an arrangement of the first sensor and the second sensor is adjusted based on the at least one metric. 
     These and other features and characteristics of the presently disclosed subject matter, as well as the methods of operation and functions of the related elements of structures and the combination of parts and economies of manufacture, will become more apparent upon consideration of the following description and the appended claims with reference to the accompanying drawings, all of which form a part of this specification, wherein like reference numerals designate corresponding parts in the various figures. It is to be expressly understood, however, that the drawings are for the purpose of illustration and description only and are not intended as a definition of the limits of the disclosed subject matter. As used in the specification and the claims, the singular forms of “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Additional advantages and details of the disclosed subject matter are explained in greater detail below with reference to the exemplary embodiments or aspects that are illustrated in the accompanying figures, in which: 
         FIG.  1    is a diagram of a non-limiting embodiment or aspect of an environment in which methods, systems, and/or computer program products, described herein, may be implemented according to the principles of the presently disclosed subject matter; 
         FIG.  2    is an illustration of an illustrative architecture for a vehicle according to the principles of the presently disclosed subject matter; 
         FIG.  3    is an illustration of an illustrative architecture for a LiDAR system according to the principles of the presently disclosed subject matter; 
         FIG.  4    is an illustration of an illustrative computing device according to the principles of the presently disclosed subject matter; 
         FIG.  5    is a flowchart of a non-limiting embodiment or aspect of a process for parallax estimation for sensors (e.g., camera and LiDAR) for autonomous vehicles according to the principles of the presently disclosed subject matter; 
         FIG.  6 A  is a diagram of an exemplary implementation of a non-limiting embodiment or aspect of the process shown in  FIG.  5    according to the principles of the presently disclosed subject matter; 
         FIG.  6 B  is a diagram of an exemplary grid of a camera field of view according to the principles of the presently disclosed subject matter; 
         FIGS.  6 C- 6 E  are diagrams of exemplary visual representations of a metric according to the principles of the presently disclosed subject matter; and 
         FIG.  7    is a flowchart of an exemplary implementation of a non-limiting embodiment or aspect of the process shown in  FIG.  5    according to the principles of the presently disclosed subject matter. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION 
     For purposes of the description hereinafter, the terms “end,” “upper,” “lower,” “right,” “left,” “vertical,” “horizontal,” “top,” “bottom,” “lateral,” “longitudinal,” and derivatives thereof shall relate to the disclosed subject matter as it is oriented in the drawing figures. However, it is to be understood that the disclosed subject matter may assume various alternative variations and step sequences, except where expressly specified to the contrary. It is also to be understood that the specific devices and processes illustrated in the attached drawings, and described in the following specification, are simply exemplary embodiments or aspects of the disclosed subject matter. Hence, specific dimensions and other physical characteristics related to the embodiments or aspects disclosed herein are not to be considered as limiting unless otherwise indicated. 
     No aspect, component, element, structure, act, step, function, instruction, and/or the like used herein should be construed as critical or essential unless explicitly described as such. Also, as used herein, the articles “a” and “an” are intended to include one or more items and may be used interchangeably with “one or more” and “at least one.” Furthermore, as used herein, the term “set” is intended to include one or more items (e.g., related items, unrelated items, a combination of related and unrelated items, and/or the like) and may be used interchangeably with “one or more” or “at least one.” Where only one item is intended, the term “one” or similar language is used. Also, as used herein, the terms “has,” “have,” “having,” or the like are intended to be open-ended terms. Further, the phrase “based on” is intended to mean “based at least partially on” unless explicitly stated otherwise. 
     As used herein, the terms “communication” and “communicate” may refer to the reception, receipt, transmission, transfer, provision, and/or the like of information (e.g., data, signals, messages, instructions, commands, and/or the like). For one unit (e.g., a device, a system, a component of a device or system, combinations thereof, and/or the like) to be in communication with another unit means that the one unit is able to directly or indirectly receive information from and/or transmit information to the other unit. This may refer to a direct or indirect connection (e.g., a direct communication connection, an indirect communication connection, and/or the like) that is wired and/or wireless in nature. Additionally, two units may be in communication with each other even though the information transmitted may be modified, processed, relayed, and/or routed between the first and second unit. For example, a first unit may be in communication with a second unit even though the first unit passively receives information and does not actively transmit information to the second unit. As another example, a first unit may be in communication with a second unit if at least one intermediary unit (e.g., a third unit located between the first unit and the second unit) processes information received from the first unit and communicates the processed information to the second unit. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, a message may refer to a network packet (e.g., a data packet and/or the like) that includes data. It will be appreciated that numerous other arrangements are possible. 
     The term “vehicle” refers to any moving form of conveyance that is capable of carrying either one or more human occupants and/or cargo and is powered by any form of energy. The term “vehicle” includes, but is not limited to, cars, trucks, vans, trains, autonomous vehicles, aircraft, aerial drones and the like. An “autonomous vehicle” is a vehicle having a processor, programming instructions, and drivetrain components that are controllable by the processor without requiring a human operator. An autonomous vehicle may be fully autonomous in that it does not require a human operator for most or all driving conditions and functions, or it may be semi-autonomous in that a human operator may be required in certain conditions or for certain operations, or that a human operator may override the vehicle&#39;s autonomous system and may take control of the vehicle. 
     As used herein, the term “computing device” may refer to one or more electronic devices configured to process data. A computing device may, in some examples, include the necessary components to receive, process, and output data, such as a processor, a display, a memory, an input device, a network interface, and/or the like. A computing device may be a mobile device. As an example, a mobile device may include a cellular phone (e.g., a smartphone or standard cellular phone), a portable computer, a wearable device (e.g., watches, glasses, lenses, clothing, and/or the like), a personal digital assistant (PDA), and/or other like devices. A computing device may also be a desktop computer or other form of non-mobile computer. 
     As used herein, the term “server” may refer to one or more computing devices (e.g., processors, storage devices, similar computer components, and/or the like) that communicate with client devices and/or other computing devices over a network (e.g., a public network, the Internet, a private network, and/or the like) and, in some examples, facilitate communication among other servers and/or client devices. It will be appreciated that various other arrangements are possible. As used herein, the term “system” may refer to one or more computing devices or combinations of computing devices (e.g., processors, servers, client devices, software applications, components of such, and/or the like). Reference to “a device,” “a server,” “a processor,” and/or the like, as used herein, may refer to a previously-recited device, server, or processor that is recited as performing a previous step or function, a different server or processor, and/or a combination of servers and/or processors. For example, as used in the specification and the claims, a first server or a first processor that is recited as performing a first step or a first function may refer to the same or different server or the same or different processor recited as performing a second step or a second function. 
     As used herein, the term “user interface” or “graphical user interface” may refer to a generated display, such as one or more graphical user interfaces (GUIs) with which a user may interact, either directly or indirectly (e.g., through a keyboard, mouse, touchscreen, etc.). 
     Some non-limiting embodiments or aspects are described herein in connection with thresholds. As used herein, satisfying a threshold may refer to a value being greater than the threshold, more than the threshold, higher than the threshold, greater than or equal to the threshold, less than the threshold, fewer than the threshold, lower than the threshold, less than or equal to the threshold, equal to the threshold, etc. 
     Non-limiting embodiments or aspects of the disclosed subject matter are directed to systems, methods, and computer program products for parallax estimation for sensors (e.g., camera and LiDAR) for autonomous vehicles. For example, non-limiting embodiments or aspects of the disclosed subject matter provide generating a grid on a field of view of a first sensor (e.g., camera), determining intersections between rays from the first sensor to point in the grid and rays from a second sensor (e.g., LiDAR), determining a solid angle based on three-dimensional vectors from each sensor to each intersection point, and generating a matrix based thereon so that metrics associated with parallax can be extracted from the matrix and used to adjust the arrangement of the sensors. Such embodiments or aspects provide techniques and systems that provide accurate metrics indicative of parallax across a three-dimensional space so that potential sensor arrangements can be evaluated and compared. As such, in situations in which reduced parallax is desirable such as heterogeneous sensors deployed on an autonomous vehicle, sensor arrangements can be selected to reduce parallax and therefore facilitate autonomous driving operations based on data from such sensors. Additionally or alternatively, in situations in which increased parallax is desirable such as multi-view computer vision, sensor (e.g., camera) arrangements can be selected to increase parallax. Moreover, the disclosed embodiments or aspects provide techniques and systems that allow for evaluating sensor arrangements to reduce parallax between sensors (e.g., for an autonomous vehicle), and therefore, allow for different sensors that detect the same object from different vantage points to match the object and/or data associated therewith (e.g., because parallax is reduced, the distance, angle, and/or three-dimensional vector to the object may be sufficiently close when measured from each of the different sensors that matching within a tolerance may occur such that the object is correctly identified as the same object as detected from each sensor). Furthermore, the disclosed embodiments or aspects provide techniques and systems that enable accurate estimation of parallax (e.g., quantification of metrics indicative of parallax) in three-dimensional space. In addition, the disclosed embodiments or aspects provide techniques and systems that enable automated estimation of parallax for multiple different potential arrangements of sensors, thus allowing for the tradespace to be adequately explored in order to identify a desirable (e.g., most desirable, optimal, and/or the like) selection of the arrangement of sensors. 
     For the purpose of illustration, in the following description, while the presently disclosed subject matter is described with respect to methods, systems, and computer program products for parallax estimation, e.g., for camera and LiDAR of an autonomous vehicle, one skilled in the art will recognize that the disclosed subject matter is not limited to the illustrative embodiments or aspects. For example, the methods, systems, and computer program products described herein may be used with a wide variety of settings, such as parallax estimation in any setting in which multiple sensors are being deployed but such sensors cannot occupy the same exact physical space, such as robotics, object detection, computer vision, and/or the like. 
     Referring now to  FIG.  1   ,  FIG.  1    is a diagram of a non-limiting embodiment or aspect of an environment  100  in which systems, products, and/or methods, as described herein, may be implemented. As shown in  FIG.  1   , environment  100  may include autonomous vehicle  102 , parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 , first sensor  104   a,  second sensor  104   b,  and/or communication network  108 . 
     Autonomous vehicle  102  may include a vehicle, as described herein. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, autonomous vehicle  102  may include one or more devices capable of receiving information from and/or communicating information to parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 , first sensor  104   a,  and/or second sensor  104   b  (e.g., directly, indirectly via communication network  108 , and/or any other suitable communication technique). Additionally or alternatively, each autonomous vehicle  102  may include a device capable of receiving information from and/or communicating information to other autonomous vehicles  102  (e.g., directly, indirectly via communication network  108 , and/or any other suitable communication technique). In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, autonomous vehicle  102  may include at least one computing device, such as a vehicle on-board computing device, a portable and/or handheld device (e.g., a computer, a laptop, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a smartphone, a tablet, and/or the like), a server, and/or other like devices. For example, the vehicle may include at least one computing device (e.g., a vehicle on-board computing device) and at least one sensor (e.g., a first sensor  104   a  and/or a second sensor  104   b ), such as an image capture system (e.g., a camera and/or the like), a ray casting system (e.g., a LiDAR, a laser scanner, a radar, any combination thereof, and/or the like), any combination thereof, and/or the like, as described herein. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, autonomous vehicle  102  (e.g., the computing device thereof and/or the like) may be configured to generate map data based on the sensor(s). In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, autonomous vehicle  102  may use map data and/or data from the sensor(s) to facilitate at least one autonomous driving operation of the autonomous vehicle  102 , as described herein. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, autonomous vehicle  102  may detect at least one object using the sensor(s) onboard the vehicle. 
     First sensor  104   a  and second sensor  104   b  each may include at least one sensor, such as an object detection sensor (e.g., one or more image capture devices such as a camera, a LiDAR, a radar, a sonar, a laser scanner, any combination thereof, and/or the like), as described herein. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, first sensor  104   a  and/or second sensor  104   b  may include one or more devices capable of receiving information from and/or communicating information to autonomous vehicle  102  (e.g., a vehicle on-board computing device thereof) and/or parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  (e.g., directly, indirectly via communication network  108 , and/or any other suitable communication technique). Additionally or alternatively, each sensor (e.g., first sensor  104   a  and second sensor  104   b ) may include a device capable of receiving information from and/or communicating information to other sensors (e.g., directly, indirectly via communication network  108 , and/or any other suitable communication technique). In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, first sensor  104   a  and/or second sensor  104   b  may be part of autonomous vehicle  102 . 
     Parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may include one or more devices capable of receiving information from and/or communicating information to autonomous vehicle  102 , first sensor  104   a,  and/or second sensor  104   b  (e.g., directly, indirectly via communication network  108 , and/or any other suitable communication technique). In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may include at least one computing device, such as a server, a group of servers, a desktop computer, a laptop, a portable and/or handheld device (e.g., a computer, a PDA, a smartphone, a tablet, and/or the like), and/or other like devices. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may include a system (e.g., at least one computing device, such as at least one server and/or the like). In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may be in communication with a data storage device, which may be local or remote to parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 . In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may be capable of receiving information from, storing information in, communicating information to, or searching information stored in the data storage device. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may be part of autonomous vehicle  102 . 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may generate a two-dimensional grid based on a field of view of first sensor  104   a  of autonomous vehicle  102 , as described herein. For example, the grid may include a plurality of points. Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may determine, for each respective point of the plurality of points, a three-dimensional position of a respective intersection point between a first respective ray from first sensor  104   a  to the respective point of the plurality of points and a second respective ray from second sensor  104   b  of autonomous vehicle  102 , as described herein. Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may determine, for each respective intersection point, a respective solid angle based on a first three-dimensional vector from first sensor  104   a  to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a second three-dimensional vector from second sensor  104   b  to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point, as described herein. Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may generate a matrix based on a first distance from first sensor  104   a  to each respective intersection point, a second distance from second sensor  104   b  to each respective intersection point, and the solid angle for each respective intersection point, as described herein. Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may extract at least one metric from the matrix, as described herein. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, an arrangement of first sensor  104   a  and second sensor  104   b  may be adjusted based on the metric(s), as described herein. 
     Communication network  108  may include one or more wired and/or wireless networks. For example, communication network  108  may include a cellular network (e.g., a long-term evolution (LTE) network, a third generation (3G) network, a fourth generation (4G) network, a fifth generation (5G) network, a code division multiple access (CDMA) network, and/or the like), a public land mobile network (PLMN), a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), a metropolitan area network (MAN), a telephone network (e.g., the public switched telephone network (PSTN)), a private network (e.g., a private network associated with a transaction service provider), an ad hoc network, an intranet, the Internet, a fiber optic-based network, a cloud computing network, and/or the like, and/or a combination of these or other types of networks. 
     The number and arrangement of systems, sensors, and/or networks shown in  FIG.  1    are provided as an example. There may be additional systems, sensors, and/or networks; fewer systems, sensors, and/or networks; different systems, sensors, and/or networks; and/or differently arranged systems, sensors, and/or networks than those shown in  FIG.  1   . Furthermore, two or more systems or sensors shown in  FIG.  1    may be implemented within a single system or sensor, or a single system or sensor shown in  FIG.  1    may be implemented as multiple, distributed systems or sensors. Additionally or alternatively, a set of systems (e.g., one or more systems) or a set of sensors (e.g., one or more sensors) of environment  100  may perform one or more functions described as being performed by another set of systems or another set of sensors of environment  100 . 
     Referring now to  FIG.  2   ,  FIG.  2    is an illustration of an illustrative system architecture  200  for a vehicle. Autonomous vehicle  102  may include a same or similar system architecture as that of system architecture  200  shown in  FIG.  2   . 
     As shown in  FIG.  2   , system architecture  200  may include engine or motor  202  and various sensors  204 - 218  for measuring various parameters of the vehicle. In gas-powered or hybrid vehicles having a fuel-powered engine, the sensors may include, for example, engine temperature sensor  204 , battery voltage sensor  206 , engine rotations per minute (RPM) sensor  208 , and/or throttle position sensor  210 . In an electric or hybrid vehicle, the vehicle may have an electric motor, and may have sensors such as battery monitoring sensor  212  (e.g., to measure current, voltage, and/or temperature of the battery), motor current sensor  214 , motor voltage sensor  216 , and/or motor position sensors  218 , such as resolvers and encoders. 
     System architecture  200  may include operational parameter sensors, which may be common to both types of vehicles, and may include, for example: position sensor  236  such as an accelerometer, gyroscope and/or inertial measurement unit; speed sensor  238 ; and/or odometer sensor  240 . System architecture  200  may include clock  242  that the system  200  uses to determine vehicle time during operation. Clock  242  may be encoded into the vehicle on-board computing device  220 , it may be a separate device, or multiple clocks may be available. 
     System architecture  200  may include various sensors that operate to gather information about an environment in which the vehicle is operating and/or traveling. These sensors may include, for example: location sensor  260  (e.g., a Global Positioning System (GPS) device); object detection sensors such as one or more cameras  262 ; LiDAR sensor system  264 ; and/or radar and/or sonar system  266 . The sensors may include environmental sensors  268  such as a precipitation sensor and/or ambient temperature sensor. The object detection sensors may enable the system architecture  200  to detect objects that are within a given distance range of the vehicle in any direction, and the environmental sensors  268  may collect data about environmental conditions within an area of operation and/or travel of the vehicle. 
     During operation of system architecture  200 , information is communicated from the sensors of system architecture  200  to on-board computing device  220 . Vehicle on-board computing device  220  analyzes the data captured by the sensors and optionally controls operations of the vehicle based on results of the analysis. For example, vehicle on-board computing device  220  may control: braking via a brake controller  222 ; direction via steering controller  224 ; speed and acceleration via throttle controller  226  (e.g., in a gas-powered vehicle) or motor speed controller  228  such as a current level controller (e.g., in an electric vehicle); differential gear controller  230  (e.g., in vehicles with transmissions); and/or other controllers such as auxiliary device controller  254 . 
     Geographic location information may be communicated from location sensor  260  to vehicle on-board computing device  220 , which may access a map of the environment including map data that corresponds to the location information to determine known fixed features of the environment such as streets, buildings, stop signs and/or stop/go signals. Captured images from cameras  262  and/or object detection information captured from sensors such as LiDAR sensor system  264  and/or radar and/or sonar system  266  is communicated from those sensors to vehicle on-board computing device  220 . The object detection information and/or captured images are processed by on-board computing device  220  to detect objects in proximity to the vehicle. Any known or to be known technique for making an object detection based on sensor data and/or captured images can be used in the embodiments disclosed in this document. Vehicle on-board computing device  220  may generate new map data (e.g., based on object detection data captured from sensors such as LiDAR  264 , captured images from cameras  262 , the map data, and/or the like). Additionally or alternatively, vehicle on-board computing device  220  may communicate sensor data (e.g., object detection data captured from sensors such as LiDAR  264 , captured images from cameras  262 , and/or the like) to a remote system (e.g., mapping system  106 ), which may generate new map data based on the sensor data. 
     Referring now to  FIG.  3   ,  FIG.  3    is an illustration of an illustrative LiDAR system  300 . LiDAR system  264  of  FIG.  2    may be the same as or substantially similar to LiDAR system  300 . 
     As shown in  FIG.  3   , LiDAR system  300  may include housing  306 , which may be rotatable 360° about a central axis such as hub or axle  316 . Housing  306  may include an emitter/receiver aperture  312  made of a material transparent to light. Although a single aperture is shown in  FIG.  3   , non-limiting embodiments or aspects of the present disclosure are not limited in this regard. In other scenarios, multiple apertures for emitting and/or receiving light may be provided. Either way, LiDAR system  300  can emit light through one or more of aperture(s)  312  and receive reflected light back toward one or more of aperture(s)  312  as housing  306  rotates around the internal components. In an alternative scenario, the outer shell of housing  306  may be a stationary dome, at least partially made of a material that is transparent to light, with rotatable components inside of housing  306 . 
     Inside the rotating shell or stationary dome is a light emitter system  304  that is configured and positioned to generate and emit pulses of light through aperture  312  or through the transparent dome of housing  306  via one or more laser emitter chips or other light emitting devices. Emitter system  304  may include any number of individual emitters (e.g., 8 emitters, 64 emitters, 128 emitters, etc.). The emitters may emit light of substantially the same intensity or of varying intensities. The individual beams emitted by light emitter system  304  may have a well-defined state of polarization that is not the same across the entire array. As an example, some beams may have vertical polarization and other beams may have horizontal polarization. LiDAR system  300  may include light detector  308  containing a photodetector or array of photodetectors positioned and configured to receive light reflected back into the system. Emitter system  304  and light detector  308  may rotate with the rotating shell, or emitter system  304  and light detector  308  may rotate inside the stationary dome of housing  306 . One or more optical element structures  310  may be positioned in front of light emitting unit  304  and/or light detector  308  to serve as one or more lenses and/or waveplates that focus and direct light that is passed through optical element structure  310 . 
     One or more optical element structures  310  may be positioned in front of a mirror to focus and direct light that is passed through optical element structure  310 . As described herein below, LiDAR system  300  may include optical element structure  310  positioned in front of a mirror and connected to the rotating elements of LiDAR system  300  so that optical element structure  310  rotates with the mirror. Alternatively or in addition, optical element structure  310  may include multiple such structures (e.g., lenses, waveplates, etc.). In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, multiple optical element structures  310  may be arranged in an array on or integral with the shell portion of housing  306 . 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, each optical element structure  310  may include a beam splitter that separates light that the system receives from light that the system generates. The beam splitter may include, for example, a quarter-wave or half-wave waveplate to perform the separation and ensure that received light is directed to the receiver unit rather than to the emitter system (which could occur without such a waveplate as the emitted light and received light should exhibit the same or similar polarizations). 
     LiDAR system  300  may include power unit  318  to power the light emitting unit  304 , motor  316 , and electronic components. LiDAR system  300  may include an analyzer  314  with elements such as processor  322  and non-transitory computer-readable memory  320  containing programming instructions that are configured to enable the system to receive data collected by the light detector unit, analyze the data to measure characteristics of the light received, and generate information that a connected system can use to make decisions about operating in an environment from which the data was collected. Analyzer  314  may be integral with the LiDAR system  300  as shown, or some or all of analyzer  314  may be external to LiDAR system  300  and communicatively connected to LiDAR system  300  via a wired and/or wireless communication network or link. 
     Referring now to  FIG.  4   ,  FIG.  4    is an illustration of an illustrative architecture for a computing device  400 . Computing device  400  can correspond to one or more devices of (e.g., one or more devices of a system of) autonomous vehicle  102 , sensor  104   a,  sensor  104   b,  and/or one or more devices of parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 . In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, one or more devices of (e.g., one or more devices of a system of) autonomous vehicle  102 , sensor  104   a,  sensor  104   b,  and/or parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may include at least one computing device  400  and/or at least one component of computing device  400 . 
     The number and arrangement of components shown in  FIG.  4    are provided as an example. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, computing device  400  may include additional components, fewer components, different components, or differently arranged components than those shown in  FIG.  4   . Additionally, or alternatively, a set of components (e.g., one or more components) of computing device  400  may perform one or more functions described as being performed by another set of components of device  400 . 
     As shown in  FIG.  4   , computing device  400  comprises user interface  402 , Central Processing Unit (CPU)  406 , system bus  410 , memory  412  connected to and accessible by other portions of computing device  400  through system bus  410 , system interface  460 , and hardware entities  414  connected to system bus  410 . User interface  402  can include input devices and output devices, which facilitate user-software interactions for controlling operations of the computing device  400 . The input devices may include, but are not limited to, physical and/or touch keyboard  450 . The input devices can be connected to computing device  400  via a wired and/or wireless connection (e.g., a Bluetooth® connection). The output devices may include, but are not limited to, speaker  452 , display  454 , and/or light emitting diodes  456 . System interface  460  is configured to facilitate wired and/or wireless communications to and from external devices (e.g., network nodes such as access points, etc.). 
     At least some of hardware entities  414  may perform actions involving access to and use of memory  412 , which can be a Random Access Memory (RAM), a disk drive, flash memory, a Compact Disc Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) and/or another hardware device that is capable of storing instructions and data. Hardware entities  414  can include disk drive unit  416  comprising computer-readable storage medium  418  on which is stored one or more sets of instructions  420  (e.g., software code) configured to implement one or more of the methodologies, procedures, or functions described herein. Instructions  420 , applications  424 , and/or parameters  426  can also reside, completely or at least partially, within memory  412  and/or within CPU  406  during execution and/or use thereof by computing device  400 . Memory  412  and CPU  406  may include machine-readable media. The term “machine-readable media,” as used herein, may refer to a single medium or multiple media (e.g., a centralized or distributed database, and/or associated caches and server) that store the one or more sets of instructions  420 . The term “machine readable media,” as used herein, may refer to any medium that is capable of storing, encoding or carrying a set of instructions  420  for execution by computing device  400  and that cause computing device  400  to perform any one or more of the methodologies of the present disclosure. 
     Referring now to  FIG.  5   ,  FIG.  5    is a flowchart of a non-limiting embodiment or aspect of a process  500  for parallax estimation for sensors (e.g., camera and LiDAR) for autonomous vehicles. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, one or more of the steps of process  500  may be performed (e.g., completely, partially, and/or the like) by parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  (e.g., one or more devices of parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ). In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, one or more of the steps of process  500  may be performed (e.g., completely, partially, and/or the like) by another system, another device, another group of systems, or another group of devices, separate from or including parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 , such as autonomous vehicle  102 , sensor  104   a,  sensor  104   b,  and/or the like. 
     As shown in  FIG.  5   , at step  502 , process  500  may include generating a two-dimensional grid of the field of view of a first sensor. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may generate a two-dimensional grid based on a field of view of first sensor  104   a  of autonomous vehicle  102 . In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the grid comprising a plurality of points. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, first sensor  104   a  may include an image capture system. Additionally or alternatively, second sensor  104   b  may include a ray casting system. For example, first sensor  104   a  may include a camera and second sensor  104   b  may include a LiDAR. 
     Referring now to  FIGS.  6 A and  6 B , and with continued reference to  FIG.  5   ,  FIG.  6 A  is a diagram of an exemplary implementation  600   a  of a non-limiting embodiment or aspect of process  500 . As shown in  FIG.  6 A , implementation  600   a  may include autonomous vehicle  602 , camera  604   a,  LiDAR  604   b,  parallax estimation/sensor placement system  606 , rays  610   a  and  610   b,  beams  612   a  and  612   b,  and intersection points A-D. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, autonomous vehicle  602  may be the same as or similar to autonomous vehicle  102 . In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, camera  604   a  may be the same as or similar to first sensor  104   a  and/or camera  262 . In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, LiDAR  604   b  may be the same as or similar to second sensor  104   b,  LiDAR  264 , and/or LiDAR system  300 . In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  606  may be the same as or similar to parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 .  FIG.  6 B  is a diagram of an exemplary grid of a field of view  600   b  (e.g., of first sensor  104 a and/or camera  604   a ). 
     For the purpose of illustration, as shown in  FIG.  6 B , field of view  600   b  may be two-dimensional. For example, field of view  600   b  may include a horizontal dimension (e.g., an x dimension) and a vertical dimension (e.g., a y dimension). 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, generating a two-dimensional grid on field of view  600   b  may include generating a plurality of horizontal lines and/or generating a plurality of vertical lines across field of view  600   b.  For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may generate a plurality of horizontal lines and a plurality of vertical lines across field of view  600   b.  As shown in  FIG.  6 B , parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may generate three horizontal lines at y 1 , y 2 , and y 3  and four vertical lines at x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , and x 4 . In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, each respective intersection between a respective horizontal line and a respective vertical line may include a respective point of the plurality of points of the grid. For example, as shown in  FIG.  6 B , the following  12  points are shown in the grid: (x 1 , y 1 ), (x 2 , y 1 ), (x 3 , y 1 ), (x 4 , y 1 ), (x 1 , y 2 ), (x 2 , y 2 ), (x 3 , y 2 ), (x 4 , y 2 ), (x 1 , y 3 ), (x 2 , y 3 ), (x 3 , y 3 ), (x 4 , y 3 ). The number of horizontal lines, the number of vertical lines, and the number of points shown in  FIG.  6 B  are provided as an example. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the number of horizontal and/or vertical lines (and therefore the resulting number of points) may be selected based on the resolution of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ). For example, the number of horizontal lines may be any number from one to the number of horizontal pixels of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), and the number of vertical lines may be any number from one to the number of vertical pixels of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ). In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the number of horizontal and/or vertical lines (and therefore the resulting number of points) may be selected based on a tradeoff between computational resources required (e.g., more lines may result in more points in the grid for which calculations must be performed, which may consume additional resources, while less lines may result in fewer resources and faster completion of calculations) and granularity (e.g., more lines may result in a finer level of detail, while less lines may result in a coarser level of detail). For example, the number of horizontal and vertical lines may be selected to have sufficient granularity to meaningfully compare metrics indicative of parallax between different arrangements of sensors while avoiding wastefulness of computational resources and delays due to longer processing time. As such, the number of horizontal and vertical lines and/or the resulting number or points in the grid may be selected as a tradeoff of computational resources and/or processing time with accuracy (e.g., greater accuracy may be desired for some sensors than others, based on the characteristics of the sensors and/or functions performed based on data from the sensors). In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the number of horizontal lines may be the same as the number of vertical lines. Additionally or alternatively, the ratio of the number of horizontal lines to the number of vertical lines may be the same as the ratio of the number of horizontal pixels to the number of vertical pixels. 
     With continued reference to  FIG.  5   , in some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, each point in the grid may be associated with an azimuth (e.g., azimuth angle) and an elevation (e.g., elevation angle) with respect to first sensor  104   a  (e.g., with respect to a center of a lens of camera  604   a ). For example, a first point may have a first azimuth and a first elevation, a second point may have a second azimuth and a second elevation, etc. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may determine the respective azimuth and the respective elevation for each point of the grid (e.g., with respect to first sensor  104   a  and/or the center of the lens of camera  604   a ). 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, before generating the grid, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may receive at least one of first sensor parameters for first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), first position data associated with a first position of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), first orientation data associated with a first orientation of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), second sensor parameters for second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), second position data associated with a second position of second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), second orientation data associated with a second orientation of second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), any combination thereof, and/or the like. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the first sensor parameters may include the field of view of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), the resolution of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), the azimuth and elevation of each pixel of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), any combination thereof, and/or the like. Additionally or alternatively, the first position data may include the three-dimensional (e.g., x, y, z) position of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., three-dimensional position of camera  604   a  with respect to autonomous vehicle  602 ). Additionally or alternatively, the first orientation data may include the roll and/or pitch orientation of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., roll and/or pitch orientation of camera  604   a  with respect to autonomous vehicle  602 ). In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the second sensor parameters may include ray data associated with a plurality of rays cast by second sensor  104   b  (e.g., beam data associated with a plurality of beams  612   a,    612   b  cast by LiDAR  604   b ), the beam width of second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), any combination thereof, and/or the like. Additionally or alternatively, the second position data may include the three-dimensional position of second sensor  104   b  (e.g., three-dimensional position of LiDAR  604   b  with respect to autonomous vehicle  602 ). Additionally or alternatively, the second orientation data may include the roll and/or pitch orientation of second sensor  104   b  (e.g., roll and/or pitch orientation of LiDAR  604   b  with respect to autonomous vehicle  602 ). 
     As shown in  FIG.  5   , at step  504 , process  500  may include determining the three-dimensional position of an intersection point between a ray from the first sensor to a respective point in the grid and a respective ray from the second sensor. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may determine (e.g., for each respective point of the plurality of points in the grid) a three-dimensional position of a respective intersection point between a first respective ray from first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) to a respective point of the plurality of points and a second respective ray from second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ). 
     For the purpose of illustration, with reference to  FIG.  6 A  and continued reference to  FIG.  5   , parallax estimation/sensor placement system  606  may determine a three-dimensional position of intersection point A between first ray  610   a  from camera  604   a  and first beam  612   a  from LiDAR  604   b  to be (x a , y a , z a ). Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  606  may determine a three-dimensional position of intersection point B between first ray  610   a  from camera  604   a  and second beam  612   b  from LiDAR  604   b  to be (x b , y b , z b ). Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  606  may determine a three-dimensional position of intersection point C between second ray  610   b  from camera  604   a  and first beam  612   a  from LiDAR  604   b  to be (x c , y c , z c ). Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  606  may determine a three-dimensional position of intersection point D between second ray  610   b  from camera  604   a  and second beam  612   b  from LiDAR  604   b  to be (x d , y d , z d ). 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may determine the first respective ray from first sensor  104   a  to each respective point in the grid based on the azimuth and the elevation for each respective point with respect to first sensor  104   a.  For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  606  may determine first ray  610   a  from camera  604   a  based on the azimuth and the elevation for a first respective point in the grid and/or may determine second ray  610   b  from camera  604   a  based on the azimuth and the elevation for a second respective point in the grid (e.g., with respect to a center of a lens of camera  604   a ). 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may determine that the second respective ray from second sensor  104   b  based on a worst-case ray of a plurality of rays cast by second sensor  104   b.  For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  606  may determine the worst-case ray is a lowest beam (e.g., having a lowest elevation) from LiDAR  604   b  if LiDAR  604   b  is positioned above camera  604   a  or a highest beam (e.g., having a highest elevation) from LiDAR  604   b  if LiDAR  604   b  is positioned below camera  604   a.  For the purpose of illustration, second beam  612   b  may have a lower elevation than beam  612   a  and, therefore, may be selected as the second respective ray (e.g., the worst-case beam). Thus, with respect to first ray  610   a,  second beam  612   b  may be selected as the second respective ray, and intersection point B may be the respective intersection point therebetween (and intersection point A may be ignored, unless intersection point B does not satisfy a boundary condition and intersection point A may be used in lieu of intersection point B, as further described below). Additionally or alternatively, with respect to second ray  610   b,  second beam  612   b  may be selected as the second respective ray, and intersection point D may be the respective intersection point therebetween (and intersection point C may be ignored, unless intersection point D does not satisfy a boundary condition and intersection point C may be used in lieu of intersection point D, as further described below). 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may receive boundary data associated with at least one boundary condition. For example, the boundary condition(s) may include at least one of a first minimum range for first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), a second minimum range for second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), a first maximum range for first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), a second maximum range for second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), a ground surface position of a ground surface upon which autonomous vehicle  102 ,  602  is located, a boundary associated with the self-occlusion of the vehicle to first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) and/or second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), azimuthal and/or elevation boundaries of the field of view of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), azimuthal and/or elevation boundaries of the field of view of second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), boundaries based on a target (e.g., selected) area within the field of view of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) and/or second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), boundaries based on a specific object within the field of view of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) and/or second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), any combination thereof, and/or the like. For the purpose of illustration, as shown in  FIG.  6 A , the ground surface is illustrated as a dashed line below autonomous vehicle  602 . In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may determine that at least one intersection point of the plurality of intersection points does not satisfy at least one of the boundary condition(s). For the purpose of illustration, as shown in  FIG.  6 A , if intersection point C is initially selected as the respective intersection point for second ray  610 , parallax estimation/sensor placement system  606  may determine that intersection point C does not satisfy a boundary condition associated with the ground surface because intersection point C is located below the ground surface. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may replace the initially selected intersection point with a replacement intersection point between the first respective ray from first sensor  104   a  and another beam from second sensor  104   b  (e.g., a lowest remaining beam having a lowest remaining elevation if LiDAR  604   b  is positioned above camera  604   a  or a highest remaining beam having a highest remaining elevation if LiDAR  604   b  is positioned below camera  604   a ), and the replacement intersection point may satisfy the at least one boundary condition. For the purpose of illustration, as shown in  FIG.  6 A , parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may replace intersection point C with intersection point D, since intersection point D does satisfy the boundary condition associated with the ground surface because intersection point D is located above the ground surface. 
     With continued reference to  FIG.  5   , as shown at step  506 , process  500  may include determining a solid angle between a three-dimensional vector from the first sensor to the respective intersection point and a three-dimensional vector from the second sensor to the respective intersection point. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may determine (e.g., for each respective intersection point of the plurality of intersection points) a respective solid angle based on a first three-dimensional vector from first sensor  104   a  to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a second three-dimensional vector from second sensor  104   b  to the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point. 
     For the purpose of illustration, with reference to  FIG.  6 A  and continued reference to  FIG.  5   , parallax estimation/sensor placement system  606  may determine, for intersection point B, a respective solid angle based on a first three-dimensional vector from camera  604   a  to intersection point B and a second three-dimensional vector from LiDAR  604   b  to intersection point B. Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  606  may determine, for intersection point D, a respective solid angle based on a first three-dimensional vector from camera  604   a  to intersection point D and a second three-dimensional vector from LiDAR  604   b  to intersection point D. 
     With continued reference to  FIG.  5   , in some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may generate each respective first three-dimensional vector based on the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point (e.g., (x b , y b , z b ) for intersection point B, (x d , y d , z d ) for intersection point D, and/or the like) and a first three-dimensional position of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., (x camera , y camera , z camera ) for camera  604   a ). Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may generate the second three-dimensional vector based on the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point (e.g., (x b , y b , z b ) for intersection point B, (x d , y d , z d ) for intersection point D, and/or the like) and a second three-dimensional position of second sensor  104   b  (e.g., (x lidar , y lidar , z lidar ) for LiDAR  604   b ). 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may generate a first unit vector based on the first three-dimensional vector and/or generate a second unit vector based on the second three-dimensional vector. Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may calculate the solid angle based on the first unit vector and the second unit vector. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may repeat steps  502 - 506  for every point in the grid. 
     As shown in  FIG.  5   , at step  508 , process  500  may include generating a matrix based on a distance from the first sensor to the respective intersection point, a distance from the second sensor to the respective intersection point, and the respective solid angle for each intersection point. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may generate a matrix based on a first distance from first sensor  104   a  to each respective intersection point, a second distance from second sensor  104   b  to each respective intersection point, and the solid angle determined for each respective intersection point. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, generating the matrix may include generating (e.g., by parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ) a 3×n matrix, wherein n may be the number of (determined and/or selected) intersection points. Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may populate each respective column of the 3×n matrix with the first distance from the first sensor to the respective intersection point (e.g., as the element for the first row of that respective column), the second distance from the second sensor to the respective intersection point (e.g., as the element for the second row of that respective column), and the solid angle for the respective intersection point (e.g., as the element for the third row of that respective column). 
     For the purpose of illustration, with reference to  FIG.  6 A  and continued reference to  FIG.  5   , parallax estimation/sensor placement system  606  may generate a matrix based on a distance from camera  604   a  to intersection point B (e.g., d cam-b ), a distance from LiDAR  604   b  to intersection point B (e.g., d lidar-b ), the solid angle determined for intersection point B (e.g., Ω b ), a distance from camera  604   a  to intersection point D (e.g., d cam-b ), a distance from LiDAR  604   b  to intersection point D (e.g., d lidar-d ), and the solid angle determined for intersection point D (e.g., Ω d ). For example, this matrix may be a 3×2 matrix (e.g., a 3×n matrix wherein n=2) as follows: 
     
       
         
           
             [ 
             
               
                 
                   
                     d 
                     
                       cam 
                       - 
                       b 
                     
                   
                 
                 
                   
                     d 
                     
                       cam 
                       - 
                       d 
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     d 
                     
                       lidar 
                       - 
                       b 
                     
                   
                 
                 
                   
                     d 
                     
                       lidar 
                       - 
                       d 
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     Ω 
                     b 
                   
                 
                 
                   
                     Ω 
                     d 
                   
                 
               
             
             ] 
           
         
       
     
     With continued reference to  FIG.  5   , as shown at step  510 , process  500  may include extracting at least one metric from the matrix (or a portion thereof) and/or interpolating the grid for visual representation (e.g., based on the metric(s)). For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may extract at least one metric from the matrix (or a portion thereof). 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, extracting the at least one metric from the matrix may include determining (e.g., by parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ) a minimum solid angle based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a maximum solid angle based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a minimum range of solid angles based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a maximum range of solid angles based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a spread of solid angles based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), an average of solid angles based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a standard deviation of solid angles based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a three-sigma range of solid angles based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a minimum first distance based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a maximum first distance based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a minimum range of first distances based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a maximum range of first distances based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a spread of first distances based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), an average of first distances based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a standard deviation of first distances based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a three-sigma range of first distances based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a minimum second distance based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a maximum second distance based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a minimum range of second distances based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a maximum range of second distances based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a spread of second distances based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), an average of second distances based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a standard deviation of second distances based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a three-sigma range of second distances based on the matrix (or a portion thereof), a determination of which azimuth and/or elevation of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) and/or second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ) is represented by each respective element in the matrix (or a portion thereof), any combination thereof, and/or the like. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may interpolate the two-dimensional grid based on the metric(s) extracted from the matrix. For example, since each respective point in the grid corresponds to a respective intersection point and a respective solid angle, interpolating may include determining (e.g., by parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ) a value (e.g., pixel value such as color or shade) based on a selected metric of each respective point in the grid. Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may render and/or display a visual representation based on interpolating the two-dimensional grid. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may render and/or display a gradient of at least one of colors or shades based on the values (e.g., pixel values) for each point in the grid as a two-dimensional image. 
     Referring now to  FIGS.  6 C- 6 E , and with continued reference to  FIG.  5   ,  FIGS.  6 C- 6 E  are diagrams of exemplary visual representations of a metric. As shown in  FIGS.  6 C- 6 E , a darker shade may represent a relatively higher value for a selected metric while a lighter shade may represent a relatively higher value for the selected metric (e.g., solid angle). For example, as shown in  FIG.  6 C , a first arrangement of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) and second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ) may result in relatively low values for the metric (e.g., solid angle) at a top left of the image (e.g., corresponding to the top left of the field of view of camera  604   a ) and relatively high values for the metric at a top right and bottom left of the image (e.g., corresponding to the top right and bottom left, respectively, of the field of view of camera  604   a ). As shown in  FIG.  6 D , a second arrangement of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) and second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ) may result in relatively low values for the metric (e.g., solid angle) at a top right of the image (e.g., corresponding to the top right of the field of view of camera  604   a ) and relatively high values for the metric at a top left and bottom right of the image (e.g., corresponding to the top left and bottom right, respectively, of the field of view of camera  604   a ). As shown in  FIG.  6 E , a third arrangement of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) and second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ) may result in relatively low values for the metric (e.g., solid angle) at a center of the image (e.g., corresponding to the center of the field of view of camera  604   a ) and relatively higher values (but not as high as for the first and second arrangements) for the metric at the sides, top, and bottom of the image (e.g., corresponding to the sides, top, and bottom, respectively, of the field of view of camera  604   a ). 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may repeat steps  502 - 510  for each potential arrangement of the sensors. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may receive potential arrangement data associated with a plurality of potential arrangements of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) and second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ). In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, each potential arrangement may include at least one of a respective first potential position of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), a respective first potential orientation of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), a respective second potential position of second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), a respective second potential orientation of second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), any combination thereof, and/or the like. For example, each potential position may be a potential three-dimensional position, and each potential orientation may include a potential roll and/or pitch orientation, as described herein. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may repeat steps  502 - 510  for each potential arrangement of the potential arrangement data. 
     As shown in  FIG.  5   , at step  512 , process  500  may include arranging the sensors of the autonomous vehicle based on the metric(s). For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may automatically adjust an arrangement of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) and second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ) based on the at least one metric (e.g., if at least one of first sensor  104   a/ camera  604   a  and/or second sensor  104   b/ LiDAR  604   b  has an adjustable mount controllable by parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 , directly or indirectly via communication with autonomous vehicle  102 ). Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may recommend an arrangement (e.g., selected from the potential arrangements based on the metric(s)) to a user. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may communicate and/or display at least one message to the user recommending the arrangement. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may select and/or determine (e.g., calculate) an arrangement for first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) and second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  606   a ) based on reducing at least one metric that is (positively) correlated with parallax. For example, higher solid angles and/or higher standard deviation of solid angles may be correlated with higher parallax (and lower solid angles and/or lower standard deviations may be correlated with lower parallax). As such, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may select (e.g., from the plurality of potential arrangements) and/or determine (e.g., calculate) an arrangement for first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) and second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  606   a ) with a lowest average solid angle, a lowest maximum solid angle, a lowest standard deviation, a lowest average solid angle under the condition that standard deviation is below a threshold, a lowest standard deviation under the condition that the average and/or maximum solid angle is below a threshold, any combination thereof, and/or the like. (Alternatively, in situations where higher parallax is desired, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may select and/or determine an arrangement with the highest of the aforementioned metrics.). In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may determine whether the field of view of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) is partially or wholly covered by the field of view of second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ) based on the determination of which azimuth and/or elevation of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) and which azimuth and/or elevation of second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ) is represented by each respective element in the matrix. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, adjusting the arrangement may include adjusting at least one of the first position (e.g., three dimensional position) of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), the first orientation (e.g., roll and/or pitch) of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), the second position of second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), the second orientation of second sensor  604   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), any combination thereof, and/or the like. 
     In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may communicate the metric(s) to autonomous vehicle  102 ,  602  (e.g., an on-board computing device thereof). Additionally or alternatively, autonomous vehicle  102 ,  602  may use the data from the sensors (e.g., first sensor  104   a/ camera  604   a  and/or second sensor  104   b/ LiDAR  604   b ) and/or the metrics to facilitate at least one autonomous driving operation. For example, when the sensors are arranged to reduce parallax, as described herein, autonomous vehicle  102 ,  602  may be more accurate in detecting an object(s) based on data from the sensors and/or controlling autonomous driving operations based thereon. Additionally or alternatively, autonomous vehicle  102 ,  602  may use the metric(s) (e.g., which may be associated with parallax) to generate a confidence score as to whether a first detected object from first sensor  104   a/ camera  604   a  and a second detected object from second sensor  104   b/ LiDAR  604   b  are the same object. For example, when using the metric(s) to generate confidence scores in real time during operation of autonomous vehicle  102 ,  602 , data from the sensor(s) and/or objects detected based on the data from such sensor(s) may be weighted (e.g., by autonomous vehicle  102 ,  602  and/or an on-board computing device thereof) based on the metric(s) associated with parallax. For the purpose of illustration, if the metric is associated with low parallax and a resulting high confidence score, when an object detected by first sensor  104   a/ camera  604   a  to be in a slightly different location than an object detected by second sensor  104   b/ LiDAR  604   b,  then the two objects may be treated as the same object and the slight difference in position may be ignored, but if the metric is associated with high parallax and a resulting low confidence score, the two objects may be treated as separate objects. 
     Referring now to  FIG.  7   ,  FIG.  7    is a flowchart of an exemplary implementation  700  of a non-limiting embodiment or aspect relating to process  500  shown in  FIG.  5   . In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, implementation  700  may be performed (e.g., completely, partially, and/or the like) by parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  (e.g., one or more devices of parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606 ). In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, implementation  700  may be performed (e.g., completely, partially, and/or the like) by another system, another device, another group of systems, or another group of devices, separate from or including parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606 , such as autonomous vehicle  102 ,  602 , first sensor  104   a/ camera  604   a,  and/or second sensor  104   b/ LiDAR  604   b.    
     As shown in  FIG.  7   , at step  702 , implementation  700  may include receiving and/or loading at least one of sensor parameters for each sensor, position data for each sensor, orientation data for each sensor, and/or potential arrangement data, as described herein. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may receive and/or load such data, as described herein. 
     As shown in  FIG.  7   , at step  704 , implementation  700  may include generating a two-dimensional grid (e.g., position grid) of the field of view of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera space of camera  604   a ), as described herein. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may generate a two-dimensional grid based on a field of view of camera  604   a  of autonomous vehicle  602 , as described herein. 
     As shown in  FIG.  7   , at step  706 , implementation  700  may include calculating the three-dimensional position of the intersection point between the worst-case LiDAR beam with a respective ray through the respective point in the two-dimensional grid, as described herein. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may determine (e.g., for each respective point of the plurality of points in the grid) a three-dimensional position of a respective intersection point between a first respective ray from first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) through a respective point of the plurality of points and a second respective ray from second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), as described herein. 
     As shown in  FIG.  7   , at step  708 , implementation  700  may include checking the three-dimensional position of the intersection point against boundary conditions (and adjusting the intersection point if necessary), as described herein. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may receive boundary data associated with at least one boundary condition and/or determine whether the intersection point does not satisfy at least one of the boundary condition(s), as described herein. 
     As shown in  FIG.  7   , at step  710 , implementation  700  may include generating a three-dimensional vector for each of the rays from the first sensor/camera and the second sensor/LiDAR, as described herein. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may generate a first three-dimensional vector based on the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a first three-dimensional position of first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ), as described herein. Additionally or alternatively, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may generate a second three-dimensional vector based on the three-dimensional position of the respective intersection point and a second three-dimensional position of second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ), as described herein. 
     As shown in  FIG.  7   , at step  712 , implementation  700  may include calculating the solid angle between the respective three-dimensional vectors, as described herein. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may determine a respective solid angle based on the first three-dimensional vector from first sensor  104   a/ camera  604   a  (or a first unit vector generated based thereon) and the second three-dimensional vector from second sensor  104   b/ LiDAR  604   b  (or a second unit vector generated based thereon), as described herein. 
     As shown in  FIG.  7   , at step  714 , implementation  700  may include determining whether processing of all points in the two-dimensional grid is complete, as described herein. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may determine that such processing is not yet complete and repeat steps  706 - 712  (e.g., for each point in the grid), as described herein. Once processing of each point in the grid is complete, implementation  700  may continue to step  716 . 
     As shown in  FIG.  7   , at step  716 , implementation  700  may include generating a matrix based on the distance from the first sensor/camera to the respective intersection point, the distance from the second sensor/LiDAR to the respective intersection point, and the solid angle for each respective intersection point, as described herein. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may generate the matrix, as described herein. 
     As shown in  FIG.  7   , at step  718 , implementation  700  may include extracting at least one metric from the matrix, as described herein. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may extract at least one metric from the matrix, as described herein. 
     As shown in  FIG.  7   , at step  720 , implementation  700  may include interpolating the two-dimensional grid for visual representation, as described herein. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may interpolate the two-dimensional grid based on the metric(s) extracted from the matrix to render and/or display a visual representation of the metric(s), as described herein. 
     As shown in  FIG.  7   , at step  722 , implementation  700  may include determining whether processing of all potential arrangements of the sensors is complete, as described herein. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106  may determine that such processing is not yet complete and repeat steps  704 - 720  (e.g., for each potential arrangement), as described herein. Once processing of each potential arrangement is complete, implementation  700  may continue to step  724 . 
     As shown in  FIG.  7   , at step  724 , implementation  700  may include comparing the metric(s) for each potential sensor arrangement, as described herein. For example, parallax estimation/sensor placement system  106 ,  606  may determine if one of the potential sensor arrangements reduces parallax (or, if desired, increases parallax) with respect to the other arrangement(s) based on the metric(s) (e.g., lower metric(s) may be correlated with lower parallax and higher metrics may be correlated with higher parallax), as described herein. 
     As shown in  FIG.  7   , at step  726 , implementation  700  may include arranging the sensors on the autonomous vehicle, as described herein, such as based on a comparison of metrics for sensor arrangements. For example, first sensor  104   a  (e.g., camera  604   a ) and second sensor  104   b  (e.g., LiDAR  604   b ) may be arranged on autonomous vehicle  102 ,  602 , as described herein. In some non-limiting embodiments or aspects, the data from the sensors (e.g., as so arranged) may be used to facilitate at least one autonomous driving operation, as described herein. Additionally or alternatively, the metric(s) determined based on the arrangement of the sensors may be used to facilitate at least one autonomous driving operation, as described herein. 
     Although the disclosed subject matter has been described in detail for the purpose of illustration based on what are currently considered to be the most practical and preferred embodiments or aspects, it is to be understood that such detail is solely for that purpose and that the disclosed subject matter is not limited to the disclosed embodiments or aspects, but, on the contrary, is intended to cover modifications and equivalent arrangements that are within the spirit and scope of the appended claims. For example, it is to be understood that the presently disclosed subject matter contemplates that, to the extent possible, one or more features of any embodiment or aspect can be combined with one or more features of any other embodiment or aspect.