Patent Publication Number: US-7915891-B2

Title: MEMS device with tandem flux concentrators and method of modulating flux

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/088,906 (ARL 08-47) filed Aug. 14, 2008, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/089,385 (ARL 08-52), filed Aug. 15, 2008, both of which are hereby incorporated by reference as though fully rewritten herein. This application also claims priority to nonprovisional U.S. application Ser. No. 12/536,213 (hereby incorporated by reference), entitled “MEMS DEVICE WITH SUPPLEMENTAL FLUX CONCENTRATOR,” filed on Aug. 5, 2009, and nonprovisional U.S. application Ser. No. 12/365,398 (hereby incorporated by reference), entitled “MAGNETIC SENSOR METHOD AND APPARATUS,” filed Feb. 9, 2009. 
    
    
     STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST 
     The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the United States Government. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention relates broadly to sensors and in particular to the detection of magnetic flux-fields. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Magnetic sensor devices can be used in a variety of fields including communications, defense, magnetic field sensors, medical, transportation, homeland security, computers, manufacturing, mineral exploration, underground infrastructure, and transportation. Depending upon the application, there are various requirements, factors, and tradeoffs such sensitivity, cost, and power consumption that must be considered for the various applications. For example, for automotive and high volume applications the prime factor is cost. In neuromagnetism the prime factor is sensitivity. For use in unattended ground sensor networks the prime factors are cost, sensitivity, power consumption, and visibility. For Department of Defense purposes, the Army requires magnetic sensors that can be used in unattended ground sensors (UGS) networks, at choke points, for mine detection, and general situational awareness. The Navy has applications in areas such as anti-submarine warfare (ASW), mine detection, harbor control, and checking demagnetization of ships. The Air Force has related uses. 
     Further examples of uses of magnetic detection devices include identification and financial credit cards, Government facilities protection, airport security, border control, drug control &amp; enforcement, tunnel &amp; underground facilities detection, navigation equipment, traffic light control, and ensuring airplane doors are securely closed (detection). 
     Illustrated in  FIG. 8A  is a chart showing the Tesla sensitivities required for various potential applications; e.g., drug delivery and cardiomagnetism, which requires sensitivity on the order of 10 pT (pico Tesla) and is presently done with SQUIDS. Another application is neuromagnetism which operates around 100 fT (10 −15 ) and is presently done with SQUIDS. 
     As to the types of magnetometers, as illustrated in  FIG. 8B , scalar magnetometers measure the total strength (or total field), i.e., the magnitude of the magnetic field to which they are subjected, and vector magnetometers have the capability to measure the vector component of the magnetic field in a particular direction. The use of three orthogonal vector magnetometers allows the magnetic field strength, inclination and declination to be uniquely defined. Examples of vector magnetometers are fluxgates, and superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs). Other examples of vector sensors are coil based, magnetoresistive, and hall effect sensors. 
       FIG. 8C  shows the approximate Tesla ranges for the basic kinds of magnetic sensors, vector and total field magnetometers, with the frequency range plotted against Tesla sensitivity. Total magnetometers use the field dependence of quantum energy levels. Types of total field magnetometers include proton precession magnetometers, Overhauser magnetometers (which increase nuclear polarization via hyperfine interaction to electron&#39;s moment), and optically pumped magnetometers that usually use Cs or Rb; uncertainty principal limits precision at high sampling rate. 
       FIG. 9  is a graphical illustration of magnetic noise from various weapons and vehicles showing the magnetic anomaly signal versus the range in meters. 
       FIG. 9A  graphically represents the 1/f noise versus frequency. Slow-moving battlefield targets generate anomalies in the low frequency, f&lt;1 Hz, high-noise region (represented by shaded area  10 S). The 1/f noise limits magnetic anomaly detectors. 
       FIG. 8B  is a graphical illustration of the problems associated with the total field and vector magnetometers. 
       FIG. 8B  shows the relative reference distinctions between total field and vector sensors. The advantages and disadvantages are shown in the following table. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Type of Sensor 
                 Advantages 
                 Disadvantages 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
                 Total Field 
                 Sensitive 
                 Costly, best at low 
               
               
                   
                 Sensors 
                 Insensitive to 
                 frequencies 
               
               
                   
                   
                 rotational 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Vibrations 
               
               
                   
                 Fluxgate 
                 Sensitive 
                 Costly, large, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 consumes a lot of 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 power 
               
               
                   
                 Coil based 
                 Sensitive at high 
                 Insensitive at low 
               
               
                   
                   
                 frequencies 
                 frequencies, costly, 
               
               
                   
                 Magnetoresistive 
                 Low cost, small, 
                 large 1/f noise 
               
               
                   
                   
                 potentially 
               
               
                   
                   
                 sensitive 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Vector magnetometers provide more information but are affected by rotational vibrations, which makes them difficult to use on vehicles. Vector magnetometers include SQUID, coil based, Fluxgate and Manetoresistive, and Hall effect. Total field measurements usually does not measure the total field from an object; but generally measures the projection of the total field from an object on earth&#39;s total field. Total field magnetic sensors include optically pumped, Overhauser, proton precession magnetometers and Nuclear precession. Total field magnetometers employ the field dependence of quantum energy levels. 
     Examples of patented MEMS devices include U.S. Pat. No. 6,501,268 to Edelstein, et al., entitled “MAGNETIC SENSOR WITH MODULATING FLUX CONCENTRATOR FOR 1/F NOISE REDUCTION,” U.S. Pat. No. 6,670,809 to Edelstein, et al., also entitled “MAGNETIC SENSOR WITH MODULATING FLUX CONCENTRATOR FOR 1/F NOISE REDUCTION,” and U.S. Pat. No. 7,195,945, to Edelstein, et al., entitled “MINIMIZING THE EFFECT OF 1/F NOISE WITH A MEMS FLUX CONCENTRATOR,” all three of which are hereby incorporated by reference as though fully rewritten herein. An example of a publication disclosing a MEMS device is found in an article entitled “Hybrid Magnetoresistive/microelectromechanical Devices for Static Field Modulation and Sensor 1/f Noise Cancellation,” by A. Guedes et al., Journal of Applied Physics 103, 07E924 (2008). The Guedes article reported that low frequency 1/f noise in magnetoresistive MR spin valve sensors was suppressed by modulating an external dc magnetic field at high frequency microelectromechanical system using a MEMS microcantilever structure with an integrated magnetic flux guide. With this hybrid MR/MEMS device, direct detection of dc magnetic fields in the sensor high frequency thermal noise regime was reportedly achieved. The microcantilever was actuated using a gate electrode by applying an ac voltage with frequency f, causing it to oscillate at 2f. Measurements were reported to show detection of a dc magnetic field at 2f frequency (400 kHz), where sensor 1/f noise is two orders of magnitude lower than dc. 
     There has been a focus on magnetoresistive sensor technology because of the opportunity for producing low cost magnetic sensors. Magnetic sensors or transducers are generally passive sensors with desirable attributes for several types of applications that include insensitivity to weather conditions, the requirement of only a small bandwidth, and the unique ability to “see through” walls and foliage without attenuation. Furthermore, in military applications it is generally difficult to make a weapon or vehicle that does not include ferrous material that can be detected by magnetic sensors. Though the permanent magnetic moment of the ferrous material can be minimized by “deperming,” which is a process of reduction of permanent magnetism, the distortion of the earth&#39;s magnetic field due to the magnetic permeability is typically difficult to hide. Data from magnetic sensors can be combined with the data from other sensor modalities such as acoustic and seismic sensors to characterize or identify and track targets. Specifically, in military applications magnetic sensors can be used for perimeter defense, at check points, as part of a suite of sensors in unattended ground sensor networks, and on unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) and unmanned air vehicles (UAVs). Moreover, magnetic sensors or transducers can also be employed to monitor rooms and passageways that have been cleared by military personnel. 
     The magnetic signals from military targets come from the internal motion of ferromagnetic parts, electrical currents, and the motion of targets containing ferromagnetic material relative to the magnetic sensor. The latter can arise either from the motion of the target or the sensor. All of these magnetic signals often occur at low frequencies, typically less than 100 Hz. Because the earth&#39;s field is usually larger than the field generated by the target, it is generally difficult to detect the magnetic signals that occur at low frequencies, typically less than 100 Hz. Moreover, it is generally difficult to detect the magnetic target without having the field change by relative motion between the target and the sensor. At low frequencies the electric and magnetic fields are decoupled. The magnetic strength from a target at a distance greater than the target size is usually like that of a magnet dipole. Because of the relatively short detection range of magnetic sensors, a large number of magnetic sensors may have to be used if one wants to guarantee detection over a large area. 
     Magnetoresistance sensors are candidate low cost sensors because they can be mass produced by batch processing on silicon wafers and the drive and read out electronics are relatively simple. The resistance of a magnetoresistance sensor is sensitive to the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field. The types of magnetoresistive sensors include anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) sensors, giant magnetoresistance (GMR) sensors, and magnetic tunneling junction (MTJ) sensors. Magnetoresistance values as large as 220% may be observed in CoFe(100)/MgO(100)/CoFe(100) MTJ sensors at room temperature. 
     To detect the relative motion between the target and the magnetic sensor generally requires high sensitivity in the frequency range f≦1 Hz. Unfortunately, most magnetoresistance sensors tend to suffer from 1/f noise. Furthermore, there is generally a tendency for the sensors that have a larger response to magnetic fields to also have more 1/f noise. Thus, 1/f noise is a significant problem in applying magnetic sensors to military applications. 
     Another problem in using magnetoresistive sensors at low frequencies and at low fields is that the induced percentage change in the resistance is generally small. Thus, with a single device one must accurately measure a small change in a large signal. Because of this problem, most magnetoresistive sensors have several sensors that are arranged in bridge circuits to eliminate the DC bias offset. 
     Anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) sensors are probably the most sensitive, commercial, magnetoresistance sensors to use at frequencies of 1 Hz or less. This is true despite the fact that their magnetoresistance, approximately 4%, is relatively small. The reason for this is that AMR sensors have less 1/f noise than other magnetoresistive sensors. However, there remains a need for a device that can eliminate the problem of 1/f noise in small magnetic sensors. 
     When measuring magnetic flux, it is generally advisable to increase the input dimensions of the concentrator in order to provide for greater detection capability. In flux concentrators which move or oscillate, increasing the dimensions generally translates to an increase in mass. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,670,809 describes an approach that, improves the sensitivity of magnetic sensors in general that operate at low frequencies by using flux concentrators that modulate an observed sensed magnetic field with low frequency signals, thereby shifting this observed field to higher frequencies where the 1/f noise of the sensor is smaller. This is accomplished by providing a magnetic flux concentrator deposited on suspended microelectromechanical system(MEMS) structure. Such a combined device is used in a magnetometer. 
     The moving flux concentrators are utilized to periodically increase the sensed magnetic flux density at the position of the sensor  10 . A layered material forming part of the flux concentrator  40  can comprise a thick film of a soft ferromagnetic material with a large magnetic permeability. 
     There are several types of magnetometers (magnetic sensors with external instrumentation) currently used. The least expensive and least sensitive devices have resolution of about 10 −1  Oersted (Oe)/Hz 1/2  and typically are Hall effect devices. These devices work by sensing a voltage change across a conductor or semiconductor placed in a magnetic field. Such devices do not lend themselves for applications requiring greater sensitivity, such as that required in brain scan devices and magnetic anomaly detection devices. Flux gate magnetometers are more sensitive, having resolution of approximately 10 −6  Oe/Hz 1/2 . Flux gate magnetometers use a magnetic core surrounded by an electromagnetic coil and are difficult to microfabricate. Additionally flux gate magnetometers require relatively large amount of power and accordingly do not lend themselves to low-cost, compact, portable design. The most sensitive magnetometers called SQUIDS (superconducting quantum interference devices) have a resolution of about 10 −10  Oe/Hz 1/2 . However, because they include a superconducting element, these apparatus must include cooling means at liquid gas temperatures, making them extremely bulky and expensive to operate. Their size limits their utility because the active superconducting element cannot be placed directly adjacent to the source of the magnetic field, for example the brain. Accordingly, there is need for small, inexpensive, low power magnetometers that have sufficient sensitivity to be useful for a variety of magnetometer applications at low frequencies. Magnetoresistive sensors are suited for low-cost, medium-sensitivity application. 
     A well known way of increasing the sensed magnetic field by a magnetic sensor is by use of a flux concentrator, which can enhance a sensed magnetic field by as much as a factor of 50. An example of such a device is taught in U.S. Pat. No. 5,942,895, entitled “Magnetic field sensor and current and/or energy sensor,” that use Hall sensors with flux concentrator components. 
     Magnetic sensors used to detect objects that move slowly typically possess considerable low frequency 1/f-type noise, an unwanted condition. In general, there is a tendency for such devices that have higher sensitivity to also exhibit higher 1/f-type noise. This generally occurs when using magnetoresistive-type magnetic sensors, as reported in van de Veerdonk et al., “1/f Noise in Anisotropic and Giant Magnetoresistive Elements,” J. Appl. Phys. 82, 6152 (1997). 
     A magnetic sensor (magnetometer) that addresses 1/f-type noise is taught in U.S. Pat. No. 4,864,237. This disclosure teaches of an apparatus for measuring magnetic fields, that change only at extremely low frequencies. The apparatus uses a SQUID magnetometer that includes a superconducting flux transformer that inductively couples a detected signal into a d-c SQUID sensor. This magnetometer can optionally include a device for modulating the detected signal in a frequency range characteristic of low-noise operation of the SQUID. The modulation frequencies are generally above 1 Hz and optionally even above 1-kHz. Limitations of this device include need for cryogenic operation, which inherently do not lend themselves to relatively lost cost, low power use. 
     Thus, there is need, for small, low-cost, low-power-consuming magnetic sensors having sensitivities capable of meeting the varied applications listed above for detecting low frequency signals and minimize 1/f-type noise. There exists a need for a magnetic sensor with flux concentrator having sufficient sensitivity for a variety of applications that minimize the effects of 1/f-type noise. There exists a need for a magnetic sensor with flux concentrator that is inexpensive to manufacture, having a magnetic sensor having high sensitivity, yet not having to be concerned with 1/f-type noise associated with that type of sensor. There also exists a need for increased input dimensions of the concentrator in order to provide for greater detection capability. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     Improved sensitivity of magnetic sensors operating at low frequencies is achieved by using flux concentrators that modulate an observed or sensed magnetic field, thereby shifting this observed field to higher frequencies where the noise of the sensor is smaller to minimize 1/f-type noise. A high resonant frequency is desirable in order to operate at higher frequencies where 1/f noise is small. In accordance with the principles of the present invention, a microelectromechanical modulating device comprises a pair of magnetic flux concentrators, as shown for example in  FIGS. 5-7 , that may move in tandem. In combination with a magnetic sensor, the magnetic field is modulated to minimize 1/f noise. 
     As shown in  FIGS. 5-7 , the flux concentrators  40 B may move “in-phase” in the sense that the separation between the MEMS structures stays constant in time.  FIGS. 5 and 6  illustrate the time where the gap is centered at the sensor  10 . Another position of the flux concentrators  40 B is shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     A preferred embodiment of the present invention provides a magnetic sensor assembly with an optional extended or supplemental flux concentrator that enhances the input of flux. The supplemental flux concentrator has a mass independent of the movable flux concentrators. The supplemental flux concentrator enhances the ability of the flux concentrators to receive flux without affecting the frequency of the movable flux concentrators. A preferred embodiment may also incorporate vacuum packaging to reduce frictional resistance imparted by the air. A preferred embodiment assembly can be produced, for example, by microfabrication MEMS-techniques, producing a small and inexpensive yet extremely sensitive magnetic sensor. The magnetic sensor can be a Hall effect or other type of magnetic sensor. The MEMS flux concentrators  40  may be composed of a soft magnetic material, such as permalloy, deposited on MEMS structures. 
     These and other aspects of the embodiments of the invention will be better appreciated and understood when considered in conjunction with the following description and the accompanying drawings. It should be understood, however, that the following descriptions, while indicating preferred embodiments of the invention and numerous specific details thereof, are given by way of illustration and not of limitation. Many changes and modifications may be made within the scope of the embodiments of the invention without departing from the spirit thereof, and the embodiments of the invention include all such modifications. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The foregoing and other objects, features, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following more detailed description of the preferred embodiments of the invention, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings, wherein: 
         FIG. 1  is an overhead view of a magnetic flux concentrator design concentrator in combination with a magnetic sensor using MEMS fabrication. 
         FIG. 2  is a side view of a magnetic flux concentrator design of  FIG. 1  in cross-section along line A-A. 
         FIG. 3  is a diagrammatic illustration of a vacuum chamber for the MEMS of the present invention, such as the device of  FIGS. 1 and 2 . 
         FIG. 4  is a schematic view of a flux concentrator design employing oval release holes. 
         FIG. 5  is a plan view of a preferred embodiment of the present invention incorporating movable flux concentrators  40   b  and extension or supplemental flux concentrators  40 C forming a compound assembly. 
         FIG. 6  is a side view the preferred embodiment of  FIG. 5 . 
         FIG. 7  is a schematic diagram of a MEMS device according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention with “in phase” motion of flux concentrators. 
         FIG. 8A  is an illustration showing the Tesla sensitivities required for various applications involving magnetic sensing. 
         FIG. 8B  is an illustration showing a comparison of the operative techniques of vector magnetometers versus total field magnetic sensors. 
         FIG. 8C  is a graphical comparison between the vector and total field magnetometers, with the frequency range plotted against Tesla sensitivity and illustrating the problems associated with the total field and vector magnetometers. 
         FIG. 9  is a graphical illustration of “magnetic noise” from various weapons and vehicles showing the magnetic anomaly signal versus the range in meters. 
         FIG. 9A  is a graphical representation demonstrating the advantage achieved by modulating the transducer signal to eliminate 1/f noise. 
         FIG. 10  illustrates graphical representations of the voltage versus magnetic field showing potential enhancement using flux concentrators. 
         FIG. 11  is a graphical representation illustrating that the use of flux concentrators does not substantially impact the magnetic sensing. 
         FIG. 12  is a graphical illustration showing a comparison of the operations of flux concentrators at resonant frequency and off resonant frequency. Sidebands appear around harmonic of resonance frequency. The amplitude of the sidebands on resonance is equal to Q times the amplitude of the sidebands off resonance. 
         FIG. 13  is a diagram of the lines of flux from an applied field as they are concentrated by the flux concentrator  40 . 
         FIG. 14  is a block diagram of the components of a magnetic sensor assembly. 
         FIG. 15  is an illustration of a portion of a preferred embodiment showing the flux concentrators  40 , springs  46 S,  46 A, and the location of the sensor  10 . 
         FIG. 16  is a diagrammatic presentation of an embodiment of a portion of the present invention mounted on a wafer wherein the dimensions are magnified over 10 times. 
         FIG. 17A  is a view of the MEMS structure in motion. 
         FIG. 17  B is the frequency dependence of the amplitude of the device showing the two in-plane normal modes. 
         FIG. 17C  is an illustration of the electrical comb  11  showing the overlap of the teeth used to transfer the ac driving current. 
         FIG. 18  illustrates a perspective view of the flux concentrators. 
         FIG. 19  illustrates an alternative embodiment of the present invention having a movable alternate flux path comprising soft magnets  48  supported by spring(s)  50 S. 
         FIG. 20  illustrates an alternative embodiment of the present invention having a movable alternate flux path comprising soft magnets  48  supported by a lever subassembly  54 . 
         FIG. 21  illustrates an alternative embodiment of the present invention having a stationary alternate flux path  47 . 
         FIG. 22  illustrates the design of a wafer having a plurality of MEMs devices mounted thereon. 
         FIG. 23  illustrates the design of the MEMS devices with a alternate spring configuration  46 S,  46 A with a different resonant frequency. 
         FIG. 24  illustrates a preferred embodiment having a rotating member  60  wherein the members  61  are positioned so that substantially no flux will be transferred to or detected by the magnetic transducer  10 . 
         FIG. 25  illustrates a preferred embodiment as shown in  FIG. 24  wherein the rotating member  60  and members  61  are positioned so that flux will be transferred to or detected by the magnetic transducer  10 . 
         FIG. 26  is a cross sectional view of the embodiment positioned as shown in  FIG. 24 . 
     
    
    
     A more complete appreciation of the invention will be readily obtained by reference to the following Description of the Preferred Embodiments and the accompanying drawings in which like numerals in different figures represent the same structures or elements. The representations in each of the figures are diagrammatic and no attempt is made to indicate actual scales or precise ratios. Proportional relationships are shown as approximates. 
     DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     The embodiments of the invention and the various features and advantageous details thereof are explained more fully with reference to the non-limiting embodiments that are illustrated in the accompanying drawings and detailed in the following description. It should be noted that the features illustrated in the drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale. Descriptions of well-known components and processing techniques are omitted so as to not unnecessarily obscure the embodiments of the invention. The examples used herein are intended merely to facilitate an understanding of ways in which the embodiments of the invention may be practiced and to further enable those of skill in the art to practice the embodiments of the invention. Accordingly, the examples should not be construed as limiting the scope of the embodiments of the invention. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. In the drawings, the dimensions of objects and regions may be exaggerated for clarity. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout. As used herein the term “and/or” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items. 
     The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to limit the full scope of the invention. As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms “comprises” and/or “comprising,” when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. 
     It will be understood that when an element such as an object, layer, region or substrate is referred to as being “on” or extending “onto” another element, it can be directly on or extend directly onto the other element or intervening elements may also be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly on” or extending “directly onto” another element, there are no intervening elements present. It will also be understood that when an element is referred to as being “connected” or “coupled” to another element, it can be directly connected or coupled to the other element or intervening elements may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly connected” or “directly coupled” to another element, there are no intervening elements present. 
     It will be understood that, although the terms first, second, etc. may be used herein to describe various elements, components, regions, layers and/or sections, these elements, components, regions, layers and/or sections should not be limited by these terms. For example, when referring first and second photons in a photon pair, these terms are only used to distinguish one element, component, region, layer or section from another region, layer or section. Thus, a first element, component, region, layer or section discussed below could be termed a second element, component, region, layer or section without departing from the teachings of the present invention. 
     Furthermore, relative terms, such as “lower” or “bottom” and “upper” or “top,” may be used herein to describe one element&#39;s relationship to other elements as illustrated in the Figures. It will be understood that relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in addition to the orientation depicted in the Figures. For example, if the device in the Figures is turned over, elements described as being on the “lower” side of other elements would then be oriented on “upper” sides of the other elements. The exemplary term “lower”, can therefore, encompass both an orientation of “lower” and “upper,” depending of the particular orientation of the figure. Similarly, if the device in one of the figures is turned over, elements described as “below” or “beneath” other elements would then be oriented “above” the other elements. The exemplary terms “below” or “beneath” can, therefore, encompass both an orientation of above and below. Furthermore, the term “outer” may be used to refer to a surface and/or layer that is farthest away from a substrate. 
     Embodiments of the present invention are described herein with reference to cross-section illustrations that are schematic illustrations of idealized embodiments of the present invention. As such, variations from the shapes of the illustrations as a result, for example, of manufacturing techniques and/or tolerances, are to be expected. Thus, embodiments of the present invention should not be construed as limited to the particular shapes of regions illustrated herein but are to include deviations in shapes that result, for example, from manufacturing. For example, a region or object illustrated as a rectangular will, typically, have tapered, rounded or curved features. Thus, the regions illustrated in the figures are schematic in nature and their shapes are not intended to illustrate the precise shape of a region of a device and are not intended to limit the scope of the present invention. 
     Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientific terms) used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. It will be further understood that terms, such as those defined in commonly used dictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their meaning in the context of the relevant art and will not be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein. 
     It will also be appreciated by those of skill in the art that references to a structure or feature that is disposed “adjacent” another feature may have portions that overlap or underlie the adjacent feature. 
     Referring to  FIGS. 1 and 2 , a subassembly is shown that includes a magnetic sensor  10  with two flux concentrators  40 . Each flux concentrator  40  increases the sensed magnetic flux density at the position of the sensor  10 . A layered material forming part of the flux concentrator  40  can comprise a thick film of a soft ferromagnetic material with a large magnetic permeability.  FIG. 13  illustrates the lines of flux within the flux concentrators  40 , and in the region near the flux concentrator.  FIG. 10  illustrates graphically the enhancement of the field using flux concentrators. 
     The flux concentrators  40  enhance the field at the position of the magnetic sensor  10 . In one embodiment, decreasing the separation between the MEMS structures increases the enhancement. At least one (or two) MEMS flux concentrator is forced to oscillate by applying a power source, such as an ac voltage, to a drive, such as an electrostatic comb drives. Because the teeth of the comb are pulled together independently of the sign of the applied voltage, the field at the sensor is modulated at twice the frequency of the applied drive voltage. By tuning the frequency, one can excite the normal mode in which the distance between the MEMS structures oscillates. This is the out-of-phase mode shown in  FIG. 17B . One can also vary the frequency in which the position of the entire MEMS structure oscillates, this is the in-phase mode shown in  FIG. 17B . The resonant frequency for the MEMS structure may, for example, be about 10 kHz. The size of the flux concentrators  40 B may be limited by the need to keep the resonant frequency of the flux concentrators  40 B, comb drives  11 , and springs  46 S,  46 A in the range of several kHz or higher. The values for the enhancement provided by the flux concentrators  40 B are calculated when the separation between the MEMS flux concentrators  40 B is at their planned maximum and minimum displacements. These values may be approximately 1.5 and 3.5, respectively. 
     The oscillation of the MEMS flux concentrators modulates the field at the position of the sensor and, hence, shifts the operating frequency of the sensor above the frequency where 1/f noise dominates. Depending on the type of magnetic sensor used, this shift in operating frequency can preferably increase the sensitivity of magnetometers at 1 Hz by one to three orders of magnitude. The MEMS structures may be connected to one another and to the body of the sensor by silicon springs so that there is an in-plane normal mode for the motion in which the separation between the MEMS flux concentrators is oscillatory. The effectiveness of spin-valve sensors may be enhanced because they have a considerable amount of 1/f noise. 
     In a preferred form, the sensor  10  comprises films deposited on a silicon substrate. As shown in  FIG. 1 , the flux concentrators  40  are deposited on silicon MEMS structures  20 . Modulation of a sensed magnetic signal at the magnetic sensor  10  is accomplished by suspended flux concentrator members  40  so that they move relative to the magnetic sensor or transducer  10 . The silicon MEMS structures  20  are formed using microelectromechanical system (MEMS) fabrication techniques. Also shown is a handle wafer  6 W. 
     In the magnetometer, the flux concentrators  40  on the silicon MEMS structures  20  are driven electrostatically to move at modulating frequency f m . In the in-phase mode, when one of the concentrators  40  is at a position closest to the transducer  10 , the sensed magnetic flux is concentrated at the magnetic sensor  10 . In operation, when the flux concentrators  40  are moved back and forth, the concentrated magnetic field is modulated vis-à-vis the transducer  10 . 
       FIG. 2  is a cross-section along line A-A of  FIG. 1 .  FIG. 2  shows a magnetic field sensor or transducers, which preferably uses a Hall effect device or a magnetoresistive type magnetic sensor, and two magnetic flux concentrators  40  for strengthening a magnetic field at the position of the sensor  10  in the direction B. The dimensions of the flux concentrators  40  in  FIG. 1  typically encompass gross dimensions of 100 by 75 microns, while the thickness of the concentrators is typically around 0.1 to 15 micrometers. 
     Driving the motion from the signal generator requires very little power. This is especially true if the drive frequency is set equal to the mechanical resonant frequency of the suspended structures  20  containing the flux concentrators  40 . By using the resonant frequency, one obtains the largest amplitudes for the oscillations using the least power. The magnetic field generated by the small currents of the exciting electrostatic modulating signal is negligible. 
     The magnetic sensor  10  as shown, can be a Hall-effect device wherein four electrical leads  42  (identified as “electrode leads to magnetic sensor” in  FIG. 1 ) are required. Other types of Hall effect devices, which typically have a rectangular geometry with current or voltage electrodes arranged on each side of a rectangle, may also be used. It is also possible to use Hall devices in which three or all four electrodes are arranged on one side of the rectangle, see U.S. Pat. No. 5,057,890. When a Hall effect device is used, an output voltage from such a device results from the Lorentz force of the magnetic field acting on charge carriers within such a device. Other types of magnetic sensors that can be used other than Hall effect devices include flux gate magnetometers and magnetoresistive sensors that include anisotropic magnetoresistive sensors, giant magnetoresistive sensors, spin dependent tunneling sensors, and bismuth, magnetostrictive sensors, and MEMS sensors. 
     When the magnetic sensor  10  is a magnetoresistive element, a Wheatstone electrical bridge configuration is typically used. When the resistance of the magnetoresistive element changes because of a magnetic field, the bridge output voltage changes. The change in the bridge output is increased by using the flux concentrator. The bridge output voltage is modulated at a frequency f m , typically the resonant frequency of the suspended silicon MEMS structures  20 , by the motion of the MEMS flux concentrators  40 . The signal can then be amplified by a narrow band amplifier and then demodulated. The bandwidth of the amplifier only has to be broad enough to include the low frequencies in the original signal coming into the MEMS flux concentrator. 
     In one form the flux concentrator  40  ( FIGS. 1 and 2 ),  40 B ( FIGS. 5-7 ) or  40 C ( FIGS. 5-7 ) comprises a single layer of a soft ferromagnetic material. There are several other alternatives.  FIG. 4  is a plan view of one of the MEMS structures  20  having release holes  50 . 
     The flux concentrators  40 ,  40 B and  40 C can be constructed in multiple layers: these layers comprise a hard magnetic material (having a coercivity greater than 50 Oersteds) layer and a soft magnetic material (having a coercivity less than 3 Oersteds) layer with equal magnitude magnetizations separated by a spacer layer, as described in more detail in U.S. Pat. No. 6,670,809, hereby incorporated by reference. The spacer layer is a nonmagnetic material, such as aluminum or silicon dioxide the thicknesses of the layers may be, for example, about one micron. In zero applied field, the magnetizations of both the hard material and the soft material should be perpendicular to the field measuring direction B and directed opposite to one another. Thus, in the absence of an applied field, the fields due to the soft and hard material should approximately cancel one another at the position of the sensor. 
     A design can be used wherein the edges of the flux concentrators  40  are modified to decrease the magnetic noise. This can be done by treating the edges of the soft magnetic material of the flux concentrators  40 ,  40 B and  40 C so that they have slightly higher coercivity than the center. This improves the magnetic response. The rest of the flux concentrator preferably includes a similar three-layer structure with similar arrangement of the magnetizations as described above. The directions of the magnetization can be obtained by processing the flux concentrator in a magnetic field. This overall geometry maximizes the response of the flux concentrator to a field that is applied in the field measuring direction B. 
     The invention may be fabricated by MEMS processing techniques. Such techniques are addressed by LIGA (Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung, for “lithography, electroplating molding”) micromachining processing methods that use metals, polymers and even ceramics for the production of varied microstructured devices having extreme precision. These collective microstructures are referred to as MEMS-type devices that are alternatives to conventional discrete electromechanical devices such as relays, actuators, and sensors. When properly designed, MEMS-type devices produce useful forces and displacement, while consuming reasonable amounts of power. 
     Current LIGA processes create features whose top surface is as much as 200-microns above the substrate. Any technology may be used to form the device, whether a LIGA-type process or a bulk plasma micromachining technique such as RIE (reactive ion etching), or a surface micromachining technique using standard photolithography and etching processes yielding the desired configurations. Preferably each flux concentrator  40 ,  40 B is fabricated on a die that in an extreme case might be as large as one square centimeter, but is more likely to be less than one square millimeter in area and about 0.5 to 50 microns thick. 
     As mentioned above, each device may be implemented on a single silicon chip or die, but multiple dies also can be used. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the device is monolithic in its basic configuration. MEMS devices can be readily integrated and interfaced with electronics because they are fabricated much the same way as integrated circuits. The specific MEMS fabrication technique requires only that desired geometries and mechanical and electrical performance characteristics are obtained. The preferred processing steps are as follows and illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 6,670,809. 
     In operation, the MEMS flux concentrators  40 ,  40 B are driven by an electrostatic comb drive. The amplitude of the reciprocation movement is proportional to V 2  where V is the applied voltage. The amplitude of the oscillating motion is obtained by differentiating equation (1) with respect to the overlap to obtain the force. 
                   Energy   =         ɛ   0     ·     (     n   -   1     )     ·   overlap   ·   thickness   ·     V   2         2   ⁢   d               (   1   )               
where n is the number of teeth in the comb drive and d is the separation between the teeth
 
     INCREASING THE Q FACTOR. The Q factor is proportional to the width of the resonance divided by the frequency. To minimize the voltage that must be applied to obtain a sufficient amplitude it is desirable to have a high energy factor. The major limiting factor is air resistance. Air resistance can be minimized either by vacuum packaging the device (as shown in  FIG. 3 ). 
       FIG. 3  shows a plan view of a container  41  for the device of  FIGS. 1 ,  2 ,  5 ,  6  and  7 . The container  41  is a vacuum package which contains the device of  FIG. 1  therein. The electrical leads  42  for the magnetic sensor  10  and the leads for the electrodes  15 ,  25  pass through airtight seals in the container  41 . Methods for vacuum packaging are known in the art. 
     As discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,670,809, it is important to minimize the 1/f noise of the flux concentrator  40 ,  40 B. The MEMS structures  20  in  FIG. 1  may be coated with a soft magnetic material. The 1/f noise may be minimized if the magnetization changes by domain rotation. The magnetization can be forced to change by domain rotation by coating the magnetic material onto the MEMS structures in a special way 
     The technology of the present invention may be used in embodiments where two or more MEMS devices, one of which is shown for example in  FIGS. 5 and 6 , may be utilized in parallel in a variety of geometrical configurations.  FIG. 22  shows a plurality of MEMS structures fabricated on a sensor or MEMS chip. 
     As shown in  FIGS. 5 and 6 , a preferred embodiment of the present invention enables the maintaining of a high resonant frequency while incorporating a large flux concentrator design. 
     A preferred embodiment of the present invention may operate in two modes. The first mode is when the flux concentrators  40 B move out of phase. The motion of the flux concentrators  40 B is out of phase in the sense that the separation between the MEMS structures oscillates in time. The magnetic field at the position of the sensor increases and decreases depending upon the separation. In the second mode, as shown in  FIG. 7 , the motion of the flux concentrators  40 B move in phase. The motion of the flux concentrators  40 B is in phase in the sense that the separation between the MEMS structures stays constant in time.  FIGS. 5 and 6  illustrate the time where the gap is centered at the sensor  10 . Another position of the flux concentrators  40 B is shown in  FIG. 7 . Using the technology of the present invention, Magnetoresistance Based Magnetometers have the potential to become sensitive to 2 pT (pico Tesla), cost less than $100, consume small amounts of energy (&lt;1 mW) and operate at a large bandwidth (0.001 Hz&lt;f&gt;10 Meg Hz. 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 5 , the embodiments of the invention provide a MEMS device comprising pairs of MEMS flux concentrators  40 B,  40 C, positioned on opposite sides of a magnetic sensor  10 . The microelectromechanical modulating magnetic sensor comprises a base; a magnetic transducer or sensor  10  associated with the base that provides an output in response to a magnetic field; and at least one movable flux concentrator  40 B positioned to move relative to the magnetic transducer. The movable flux concentrator  40 B has a region of maximum concentration of flux at a predetermined region associated with the positions of the at least one movable flux concentrator. In otherwords, if there are two flux concentrators, there will be a region of maximum flux concentration at a region located between the two flux concentrators  40 B, generally central to the two flux concentrators. The embodiment of  FIG. 5  further includes at least one flux collector positioned to collect flux for transfer onto at least one movable flux concentrator  40 B. Support structure enables the movable flux concentrators  40 B to move. The support structure may be a spring  46 . The preferred embodiment further includes a power source for causing the movable flux concentrators  40 B to move at a frequency within the predetermined frequency range. As the movable flux concentrators move back and forth from a first position to a second position the region of maximum concentration of flux moves relative to the transducer. The flux in the region of maximum concentration of flux may change due to the motion. As the flux concentrators  40 B move, the output of the transducer  10  is modulated. 
     In the in-phase mode of a preferred embodiment, where two flux concentrators  40 B are separated a fixed distance apart and translate rigidly, the flux concentrators  40 B have a region of maximum flux in the region between the two movable flux concentrators. When the pair of movable flux concentrators is in a first position the region of maximum flux is in a first location, and when the pair of movable flux concentrators is in a second position, the region of maximum flux is in a second position. As the pair of flux concentrators  40 B move in tandem, the location of the region of maximum flux concentration moves relative to the sensor or transducer  10 . As the flux concentrators  40 B move from the first position to the second position the intensity of the flux sensed by the transducer is modulated as the region of maxima approaches and recedes from the location of the transducer. 
     In the out-of-phase mode of a preferred embodiment, where two flux concentrators  40 B no longer are separated a fixed distance apart. Instead they move toward and away from each other. The flux concentrators  40 B have a region of maximum flux in the region between the two movable flux concentrators. However, in the out-of-phase mode, the location of the region of maximum flux concentration does not substantially change; but the intensity of the maximum flux changes. When the pair of movable flux concentrators is in a first position, such as a position where the pair of movable flux concentrators are a maximum distance apart, region of maximum flux intensity is at a minimum. As the flux concentrators  40 B move to a point at which they are closest to each other, the region of maximum flux is at a maximum. Accordingly, as the flux concentrators  40 B move from the first position to the second position the intensity of the flux sensed by the transducer is modulated as the intensity of the flux in the region of maximum flux increases and decreases. 
     Regarding the collector flux concentrator  40 C, which may remain stationary relative to the movable flux concentrators  40 B, the volume of each of the collector flux concentrators is generally greater than the movable flux concentrator  40 B so that more flux lines are drawn in. This is effective in situations where there is a need to detect weaker fields, such as the magnetic field generated by the heart. The sensitivity is enhanced without affecting the weight of the movable flux concentrator  40 B. There is sufficient overlap and close proximity between the collector flux concentrator(s)  40 C and movable flux concentrators  40 B so that collected flux is efficiently transferred to the moving flux concentrator  40 B. Although not all of the flux may not be transfer due to fringing effects, the positioning in close proximity achieves a substantial transfer of flux so as to result in an increase in the overall flux sensing capacity overall. 
     The flux concentrators  40 B,  40 C, coupled with the elements of the present invention, may potentially enhance the magnetic field at the position of the magnetic sensor  10  by a factor ranging from 1.5 to as much as a 100. Preferably, the flux concentrators  40 B,  40 C are comprised of soft magnetic materials such as permalloy. According to the embodiments of the invention, the flux concentrators  40 B are deposited on MEMS structures  51 , as shown in  FIGS. 6 and 7 . The substrate may be a silicon on insulator (SOI) wafer, but other substrates may be used as is well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Preferably, the SOI wafer is used in lieu of a plain silicon wafer because fewer processing steps are required. The SOI wafer may comprise a thin upper device layer of silicon separated from a thick layer (also referred to as the handle layer) of silicon by an approximately 1 to 5 micron silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) layer. There are anchors of SiO 2  (as shown in  FIG. 23 ) that connect one end of the springs  46 A of the MEMS structure  51  to the handle wafer (as shown in  FIG. 23 ). From a different perspective, the support  55  in  FIG. 23  is connected to the handle wafer beneath through the silicon dioxide layer. 
     The MEMS structures  51  and flux concentrators  40 B are driven to oscillate at frequencies on the order of 10 to 30 kHz by electrostatic comb drives  11 . The electrostatic comb drives  11  (as shown in  FIGS. 15 and 16 ) have the advantage that they provide sufficient force to drive the flux concentrators  40 B and springs  46 S (and/or  46 A,  FIG. 15 ) and that, unless the amplitude of the motion is too large, the force is independent of displacement. 
     The flux concentrators  40 B on the MEMS structure may be connected by the springs  46  or the flux concentrators may be rigidly connected to one another so that the flux concentrators  40 B have a common normal mode frequencies. This is a feature of one mode of the embodiments of the invention because if the motion of the two flux concentrators  40 B is not coupled, the relative phase between the motion of the flux concentrators  40 B would tend to drift. When the flux concentrators  40 B oscillate, they modulate the field at the position of the magnetic sensor  10 . This shifts the operating frequency of the MEMS device from the high 1/f noise region at low frequencies to higher frequencies where the sensor noise is orders of magnitude lower. Moreover, the thickness of the springs  46 S (and/or  46 A) and separation of the teeth in each of the comb drives  11  (as shown in  FIG. 17C ) is approximately 2 to 4 μm. 
     In the preferred embodiment shown in  FIGS. 5 and 6 , there is a flux concentrator  40 B on the MEMS structure  51  and a flux concentrator collector  40 C on each side of the magnetic sensor  10 . As described above, the flux concentrators  40 B are driven to move by an ac power source at a frequency f and oscillate in the directions of the arrows shown in  FIG. 5 . The flux concentrator collectors  40 C need not move with the ac power source and overlap the flux concentrators  40 B by a distance X, as shown in  FIG. 6 , which varies according to the movement of flux concentrators  40 B. The flux concentrators  40 B may be each mounted on separate MEMS structures  51  as shown in  FIG. 5  or, in the alternative, may be mounted together on a MEMS structure separated by an area without permalloy. The flux collector/concentrators  40 C, which may be larger, are mounted in association with the upper or sensor chip  52 , which also may support sensor  10 , for fabrication purposes. Because the flux concentrator/collectors  40 C are not attached to the movable flux concentrators  40 B, the additional mass contained in the flux collectors/concentrators  40 C, does not result in the change to the resonant frequency of the movable flux concentrators  40 B that occurs when the mass is increased in the movable flux concentrators  40 B. 
     The overall objective is to maximize the collection of the flux to be measured. There are several geometries that can be used for the flux collector/concentrators  40 C. One improvement realized by the present invention is the increase in lateral size of the flux collector/concentrator  40 C without increasing the mass of the flux concentrator  40 . Flux collector/concentrators  40 C are preferably made of permalloy (80% nickel and 20% iron) or some other material with a high magnetic permability and can be mounted on a sensor chip  52 , as shown in  FIG. 7 , which may be a silicon compound or the like. One of ordinary skill in the art would readily appreciate that several other alloys or compounds could be used in place of permalloy that have magnetism retention characteristics similar to permalloy. The flux collector/concentrator  40 C in  FIG. 5  is shown as having a trapezoidal configuration. However, any configuration that would increase the collection of flux for passage onto the flux concentrator  40 B could be used, including flux/collector concentrators which are trapezoidal in a direction perpendicular to longitudinal axis of the device shown in  FIG. 5 , and extending vertically from the illustration of flux collector/concentrators  40 C (which may be fixed) shown in  FIG. 6 . The flux collector/concentrators  40 C may be mounted on a sensor chip  52  as shown in  FIGS. 6 ,  7 . Since the flux collector/concentrators  40 C are preferably independent from the flux concentrators  40 B, and consequently, do not contribute to the weight of the flux concentrators  40 B, resulting in more flux flowing to the flux concentrators  40 B without the drawback of additional weight considerations that would effect the movement or oscillation of the flux concentrators  40 B. Flux concentrators  40 B may be mounted on portions of MEMS structure  51  as shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     In the simplest form of flux concentrators  40 B,  40 C the permalloy portion consists of a single layer of a soft ferromagnetic material. Alternatively, the flux concentrators  40 B,  40 C can be constructed in multiple layers in which different layers of soft ferromagnetic material or magnetic alloys are separated by non-ferromagnetic layers. 
     The MEMS structure  51  and sensor chip  52  may be silicon or the like. The separation between the two chip layers is 2-8 microns. As the MEMS structures oscillate, the overlap of the flux concentrators shown in  FIG. 5  is always large compared with the separation between the chips. In this case, most of the flux lines will be transferred from the large flux collector/concentrator  40 C to the small flux concentrator  40 B. In a second mode, the motion of the flux concentrators  40  move in phase as shown in  FIG. 7 . In the motion of the in-phase mode, the separation between the flux concentrators stays constant. The motion of the MEMS structure may be either in the in-phase or out-of-phase mode.  FIG. 1  illustrates the time where the gap is centered at the sensor. At this time, the field is maximum. The field is minimum when the flux concentrators have the position shown in  FIG. 6 . In an alternate embodiment of the present invention, both portions of the flux concentrators  40 B are mounted on a single substrate portion which has no permalloy in between the flux concentrators  40 B. 
     As discussed in the foregoing, it is somewhat difficult with large flux concentrators  40 B to get a large, high frequency, modulating magnetic field. The supplemental flux collector/concentrators  40 C achieves more desirable results. The small flux concentrator  40 B can be energized to move at frequencies up to 30 kHz with an amplitude of modulation of a factor of about 5 modulation, with an amplification of the magnetic field by a factor of 2. The large flux collector/concentrator  40 C can have dimensions of 1 mm or more and potentially may concentrate the magnetic field by a factor of about hundred, because of the improve demagnetization factor. Thus, the field at the position of the sensor potentially may be amplified by a factor of about 10 or more instead of a factor of two and it can still be modulated at a high frequency. 
     The flux concentrators  40 B on the MEMS structures  51  may be connected by a spring type supports  46 S,  46 A as shown schematically in  FIG. 16 , which permits movement along the longitudinal axis of the device. The spring type support  46 S is fabricated to support the flux concentrators  40 B and permit the in-plane motion of the MEMS structure in a direction along a line B-B shown in  FIG. 16  when they are driven by the ac power source at frequency f. The ac drive is inputted in the manner shown in  FIG. 1(A)  of U.S. Pat. No. 7,195,945, hereby incorporated by reference. As in the &#39;945 patent, comb drives supply a voltage at a frequency f to drive the flux concentrators  40 . This voltage, independent of its sign, creates a force that tends to increase the overlap of the teeth  11  of the comb drives. Because the force is independent of the sign of the applied voltage, the MEMS motion occurs at a frequency 2f. Thus, the signal is insensitive to pickup at the drive frequency f Alternatively, the motion of the MEMS structure may be driven by applying both an AC and a DC voltage. The voltage across the sensor  10  is amplified by a broadband amplifier (not shown) and demodulated.  FIG. 115  shows the electrostatic comb drives  11  of an embodiment of the present invention. 
     The flux concentrators  40 B can be operated in two modes. In mode 1, the motion of the flux concentrators  40 B is out of phase in the sense that the separation between the MEMS structures oscillates in time. The magnetic field at the position of the sensor increases and decreases depending upon the separation and location, as is well know to those of ordinary skill in the art. 
     One method of making an embodiment of the invention comprises a method of fabricating a MEMS device, wherein one embodiment comprises forming a magnetic sensor over a silicon base, such as a silicon on insulator (SOI) wafer; forming a pair of MEMS flux concentrators sandwiching the magnetic sensor; connecting an electrostatic comb drive to each of the MEMS flux concentrators; and optionally connecting at least one spring to the pair of MEMS flux concentrators and the electrostatic comb drive. The methodology may also comprise performing a plurality of deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) processes on an SOI wafer; and releasing the MEMS flux concentrators, the electrostatic comb drive, and (optionally) at least one spring formed from the device layer of the SOI wafer. (The magnetic sensor may be formed by providing an antiferromagnetic layer; positioning a first ferromagnetic layer over the antiferromagnetic layer; positioning a conducting layer over the first ferromagnetic layer; and positioning a second ferromagnetic layer over the conducting layer.) 
     The plurality of DRIE processes may comprise performing a DRIE process on the device layer of the SOI wafer to define the flux concentrators on the MEMS structures, the electrostatic comb drives, and optionally one or more springs. Moreover, the flux concentrators may comprise a layer of soft ferromagnetic material on a portion of the device layer of the SOI wafer. An HF process may be used to remove the silicon dioxide from beneath the MEMS flux concentrator and thereby release the MEMS structure  51  and electrostatic comb drive  11 . Furthermore, the MEMS flux concentrators preferably comprise a double layer of Cr and permalloy. 
     Moreover, the plurality of processes may comprise performing a process on the device layer of the SOI wafer to define the MEMS flux concentrators  40 ,  40 B, the electrostatic comb drives  11 , and the at least one spring  46 ,  46 S, and/or  46 A. Furthermore, the MEMS flux concentrator preferably comprises a layer of silicon dioxide thereunder, wherein the plurality of release processes may comprise methodology for removing the layer of silicon dioxide from beneath the MEMS flux concentrator and MEMS structure. Additionally, if the insulator is something other than silicon dioxide, such as an epoxy, the releasing of the MEMS flux concentrators and MEMS structure, the electrostatic comb drive, and the at least one spring from the SOl wafer may be performed using oxygen plasma. The intermediate layer may comprise an epoxy layer. Also, the MEMS flux concentrators may comprise a double layer of Cr and permalloy. 
     Another preferred embodiment of the invention provides a method of fabricating a MEMS device, wherein the method comprises forming a first wafer; forming adhesive bumps on the first wafer; forming a magnetic sensor on the first wafer; forming a second wafer; forming a pair of MEMS flux concentrators, a pair of electrostatic comb drives, and at least one spring on the second wafer, wherein the pair of MEMS flux concentrators, the pair of electrostatic comb drives, and the at least one spring are connected to one another, and wherein the pair of MEMS flux concentrators sandwich the magnetic sensor. The method further includes bonding the second wafer to the adhesive bumps; and compressing the adhesive bumps using non-thermal means. 
     Preferably, the adhesive bumps comprise indium. Additionally, the nonthermal means preferably comprises pressure. Preferably, the magnetic sensor is formed by providing an antiferromagnetic layer; positioning a first ferromagnetic layer over the antiferromagnetic layer; positioning a conducting layer or the insulating layer over the first ferromagnetic layer, and positioning a second ferromagnetic layer over the conducting layer or insulating layer. Furthermore, the first wafer preferably comprises a SO wafer and the second wafer preferably comprises silicon or silicon nitride. Also, the MEMS flux concentrators may comprise a double layer of Cr and permalloy. 
     The task of fabricating the device is provided according to the embodiments of the invention by combining two very different technologies, MEMS fabrication technology and magnetic sensor technology. The resulting device may increase the sensitivity of small, low cost, magnetic sensors by one to three orders of magnitude. The device can be fabricated on wafers by low cost, mass production techniques. Moreover, powering the motion of the MEMS structures only requires microwatts of energy. 
     ALTERNATE FLUX PATHS—In the alternate embodiments shown in  FIGS. 19-21 , methods are described for producing alternative magnetic flux paths. 
     For the embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 19 , as the separation between the flux concentrators  40  increases, the separation between the soft magnetic material  48  decreases. This motion will draw flux lines away from the sensor. This will increase the amplitude of the field modulation. Although springs  50 S are used in conjunction with the embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 19 , alternate mechanical/electrical subsystems which move the soft magnets  48  in and out (as illustrated in  FIG. 20 ) as the flux concentrators oscillate, may be used without departing from the scope of the invention. 
       FIG. 20  shows an alternative method of modulating the field at the position of the sensor  10  as the flux concentrators  40  oscillate.  FIG. 20  illustrates using a pivot  53  and lever subsystem  54  to get mechanical gain of the motion of the soft magnetic material  48  that moves as the flux concentrators  40  oscillate. This method has the advantage that there is mechanical gain, i.e., a small amount of motion of the flux concentrators  40  will lead to a large motion of the soft magnetic material. The disadvantage is that is will require more force to produce the oscillation of flux concentrators  40 . Although a lever subassembly is used in conjunction with the embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 20 , alternate mechanical/electrical subsystems which move the soft magnets  48  in and out (as shown by the arrows in  FIG. 20 ) in synchronism with the movement of flux concentrators  40  may be used without departing from the scope of the invention. 
     The embodiment of  FIG. 21  uses an alternative flux path that is stationary. The upper portion of  FIG. 21  shows a schematic picture that includes the alternative path. The alternative flux path may be a layer of a soft magnetic material, such as permalloy, deposited inside a depression made in the bottom of the chip containing the MEMS structure. The depression in the bottom of the chip containing the MEMS structure may be made by deep reactive ion etching (DRIE). If s&lt;&lt;x, most of the flux travels between the MEMS structures. In this case, the sensor “sees” the maximum field. If s&gt;&gt;x, then most of the flux goes around the alternative flux path and the sensor “sees” a smaller field. Thus, the oscillation of the MEMS structures causes an increased modulation of the field at the position of the sensor. In the first method, the alternative flux path changes as the MEMS structures oscillate. 
     The methods in  FIGS. 19 ,  20  and  21  provide a larger field modulation for the same amount of motion of the MEMS structures. It is further noted that the secondary flux concentrators  40 C, which may be mounted on a sensor chip  52 , shown in  FIGS. 6 and 7  can be used in conjunction with the embodiments shown in  FIGS. 19 ,  20 , and  21 . Likewise, the springs  50 S may be used to support the flux concentrators  40  and comb drives  11  (such as that shown in  FIG. 17A ) may be used to power the flux concentrators  40  in  FIGS. 19-21 . Although only the springs of the MEMS structure is illustrated in the embodiments of  FIGS. 19 and 20 , one of ordinary skill in the art would appreciate that the flux concentrators  40  of  FIGS. 19 and 20  could be mounted in conjunction with the MEMS structure  51  as shown in  FIGS. 5 and 6 . Likewise the sensor  10  may be mounted on a sensor chip  52  as shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     During one method of fabrication of the embodiment shown in  FIGS. 5 and 6 , the flux concentrators  40 , comb drives  11 , and springs  46  may be released from the SOL wafer  5  by dipping the MEMS device into hydrofluoric (HF) acid. Substantially the same methods can be utilized for the alternate embodiments shown in  FIGS. 19-21  for like components, but details are omitted for the sake of brevity. Alternatively, one can use HF vapor instead of HF liquid. The HF acid removes portions of the insulating SiO 2  layer. Alternatively, one could use an alternate wafer in which the SiO 2  layer of the SOI wafer (of  FIG. 10C ) is replaced by an approximate 20 m thick epoxy layer as shown in U.S. Pat. No. 7,195,945, incorporated by reference. For example, the type of epoxy material that may be used is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,617,657, the complete disclosure of which, in its entirety, is herein incorporated by reference. Except for the fact that the SiO2 layer is replaced by the epoxy layer, the properties of this alternate wafer are very similar to the wafer shown in, inter alia,  FIG. 7 . This alternative approach has the advantage that the epoxy layer  19  can be removed during the release step by exposing the MEMS device to an oxygen plasma environment. This eliminates the problem of possible  FIG. 24  illustrates a preferred embodiment having a rotating member  60  wherein the members  61  are positioned so that substantially no flux will be transferred to or detected by the magnetic transducer  10 . 
     In addition, another preferred embodiment is illustrated in  FIGS. 24-26 . For  FIGS. 24-26 , the components  10  and  40  are constructed similarly to the components  40 B and  10  of  FIG. 7 . The magnetic sensor  10  is positioned between the two flux concentrators  40  in  FIGS. 24-26 . As the member  60 , which may for example be a disk, rotates, the field at the position of the sensor  10  is modulated. This method provides a large percentage of modulation of the field.  FIG. 25  illustrates the position which provides the maximum filed at the sensor.  FIG. 24  illustrates the position when the rotating member  60  and members  61  are positioned to provide the minimum field at the position of the magnetic transducer or sensor  10 . During the rotation of rotating member  60 , the flux concentrators  40  may be stationary.  FIG. 26  is a cross sectional view of the embodiment positioned as shown in  FIG. 24 . The member  60  is rotatably supported by a support/power source  63  by means of a shaft  62 . 
       FIG. 14  is an overall block diagram of a sensor system of a preferred embodiment of the present invention. The system may utilize off-the-shelf items such as a Tektronix™ TDS 3014 scope, Mag Agilent 33220A signal generator, National Inst. BNC-2090, and Agilent 34401A multimeter. 
     Optimal Magnetic modeling was done using the finite element code Maxwell from Ansoft. This modeling was used to choose the separation between the flux concentrators, the thickness of the ferromagnetic films, and how much motion was required to obtain an adequate modulation. Based on the modeling, it was estimated that ¼ micron thick permalloy flux concentrators separated 45 microns oscillating with a 12 micron amplitude would provide an enhancement of the magnetic field that varies between 6 at the smallest separation and 2 at the largest separation. 
     In the preferred embodiments, the flux concentrators may be driven by electrostatic comb drives. This design provides large displacements and has the further advantage that the force is independent of the displacement. The finite element program ANSYS was used to do the mechanical modeling. In each design, the MEMS structures on each side of the sensor are connected by a MEMS spring so that their motions are correlated. If this spring were omitted, it would by very difficult to maintain the correct phase relationship between the motions of the two MEMS structures. Because of the spring, there are two basic in-plane normal modes. One in which their motion is in phase and the other in which they are 180 degrees out of phase. The latter occurs at a higher frequency because, for this mode, the connecting spring must be compressed. Thus, the higher of the two frequencies for each design is for the 180 degree phase difference normal mode used to modulate the magnetic field. 
     It is preferable that the magnetic sensor  10  is responsible for most of the 1/f noise and not some other part of the sensor system. This feature of the embodiments of the invention greatly reduces the 1/f noise of the magnetic sensor  10 . However, it does not contribute to the reduction of the 1/f noise of the flux concentrators  40 . Thus, it is preferable that the 1/f noise of the flux concentrators  40  be much less than the 1/f noise of the magnetic sensor  10 . This constraint was experimentally verified. Experimentally, the noise power spectrum was measured on spin valves, which is a type of GMR sensor, both with and without flux concentrators  40 . The measurements were repeated with different currents passing through the spin valves. The results of these measurements are shown in FIG. 2 of U.S. Pat. No. 7,195,945. hereby incorporated by reference. The curves are labeled by the value of the resistor in series with the spin valve  2  that limited the current,  1 , through the spin valve  2 . The resistance of the spin valve  2  is approximately 400 ohms. The noise is much higher for lower values of series resistance because the 1/f noise is expected to increase as I 2 . Of more significance, the noise power spectra are substantially similar for different currents passing through the spin valves  10  with and without the flux concentrators  40 . This result implies that 1/f noise of the flux concentrator  3  is much less than the 1/f noise of the spin valve  10 . The likely explanation for the result that 1/f noise of the flux concentrator  40  is much less than the 1/f noise of the spin valve  10  is that the flux concentrator  40  is structurally much larger than the spin valve  10 . Optionally, the flux concentrator  40  may be on the order of approximately 1,500 times larger than the spin valve  10 . 
     During operation, a constant current is sent through the spin valve magnetic sensor  10  and the resulting voltage is sent to the signal processing electronics (not shown). This signal is modulated by the motion of the flux concentrators  40 , comb drives  11 , and springs  46 . A voltage at a predetermined drive frequency is applied to drive the motion of the flux concentrators  40 , comb drives  11 , and springs  46  (or in embodiment of  FIG. 15 ,  46 S,  46 A). This voltage, independent of its sign, creates a force that tends to increase the overlap of the teeth of the comb drives  11 . Because the force is independent of the sign of the applied voltage, the MEMS motion occurs at a frequency double the original predetermined drive frequency. Thus, the signal is insensitive to pickup at the predetermined drive frequency. Alternatively, the drive voltage may be a combination of a DC and an AC voltage. The voltage across the spin valve  2  is amplified by a broadband amplifier (not shown) and demodulated. 
     When the magnetic sensor  10  selected is a magnetoresistive element, a Wheatstone electrical bridge configuration may be used to interface with the magnetic sensor. Accordingly, the resistance of the magnetoresistive element changes because of a magnetic field, the bridge output voltage is modulated at a frequency of f m  typically the resonant frequency of the suspended silicon MEMS structures, by the motion of the MEMS flux concentrators  40 . The signal can then be amplified by a narrow band amplifier and then demodulated. The bandwidth of the amplifier only has to be broad enough to include the low frequencies in the original signal coming into the MEMS flux concentrator. 
     Regarding fabrication processes, one methodology is described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,195,945. As described therein, the first step in the fabrication process of the MEMS device  1  is the deposition of the spin valves on the SOI wafer. For example, spin valves, such as those available from NVE Corporation, Minnesota, USA and having a magnetoresistance of approximately 5%, may be used. Spin valves were chosen as the magnetic sensor  10  in an embodiment of the invention disclosed in the &#39;945 Patent because they then represented a mature technology with a significant amount of 1/f noise. As shown in FIG. 3 of the &#39;945 patent, the spin valve  2  is generally configured as a multi-layered structure comprising a plurality of magnetic films  14 . The magnetic films  14  are preferably deposited on a silicon nitride-covered wafer  13  by radio frequency (RF) diode sputtering. A magnetic field of approximately 20 Oe is applied during the deposition to induce the magnetic easy axes and pinning direction. The magnetic films  14  comprise an antiferromagnetic layer (preferably comprising CrPtMn)  15  and two thin ferromagnetic layers  16 ,  18  separated by a thin conducting layer (preferably comprising Cu)  17 . The rotation of the magnetization of one of the ferromagnetic layers (preferably comprising CoFe)  18 , the pinned layer, is hindered by exchange interactions at the interface with the antiferromagnetic layer  15 . The magnetization of the other ferromagnetic layer; i.e., free layer  16  rotates in response to an applied field. The resistance of the magnetic films  14  has its minimum value when the magnetizations of the two ferromagnetic layers  16 ,  18  are parallel. Following the deposition of magnetic films  14 , the unpatterned sensor wafer  13  is annealed in forming gas at approximately 200° C. for approximately 2 hours. Following the patterning of the device stripes, the sensor wafer  13  undergoes a sequence of annealing steps (temperature up to approximately 265° C.) to establish the magnetization of the pinned layer  18  across the stripe, and the magnetization of the free layer  16  down the stripe. The magnetic sensors are patterned approximately 3 μm wide and approximately 88 μm long. 
     The flux concentrators  40 B,  40 C may, for example, be trapezoidal in shape and may be made by 20 DC magnetron sputtering of two repeats (i.e., double layer) of approximately 40 A Cr/1,500 A permalloy films (Cr films and permalloy films) deposited on photoresist covered SOl wafers  6  as shown in FIG. 4 of the &#39;945 patent. The base pressure is approximately 2×10 −7  Torr. No bias voltage or substrate heating is applied during the deposition. In one method, the Cr is deposited at approximately 1.5 mTorr with approximately 60 W of DC power. The permalloy is deposited at approximately 1.25 mTorr at approximately 300 W of DC power. The deposition conditions are chosen to maximize domain size and to minimize film stress. The intervening Cr films serves to break up the magnetic and structural continuity of the permalloy films and thus suppress the formation of a stripe-like magnetic domain configuration and to achieve high magnetic permeability. The height of the flux concentrator  40 B may be approximately 104 μm. The short side of the trapezoid configuration of the flux concentrator may be approximately 83 μm long and the longer, back side of the trapezoid configuration of the flux concentrator may be approximately 150 μm long. 
     The size of the flux concentrators  40 B may be limited by the need to keep the resonant frequency of the flux concentrators  40 B, comb drives  11 , and springs  46  in the range of several kHz or higher. The values for the enhancement provided by the flux concentrators  40 B are calculated when the separation between the MEMS flux concentrators  40 B is at their planned maximum and minimum displacements. These values may be approximately 1.5 and 3.5, respectively. 
     The mechanical resonant frequencies of seven different MEMS devices  1  are calculated for using mechanical finite element calculations. Table 1 in the &#39;945 Patent (hereby incorporated by reference) shows the results of these calculations. The two low frequency normal modes for in plane motion are for the two concentrators to move in phase with one another or 180 degrees out of phase. Although in the embodiment shown in the &#39;945 the desired mode was when the two MEMS structures  7  were 180 degrees out of phase, a desired mode in the embodiment pictured in  FIG. 1  is for the two concentrators  40  to be in phase. 
     In the &#39;945 Patent, the out-of-phase mode was the desired mode because at higher frequencies because the spring  5  connecting the two MEMS structures  7  was compressed. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention described herein, both flux concentrators  40  are mounted on a single substrate portion and separated by the lack of permalloy. Accordingly, when in the in-phase mode, the flow of flux into the sensor  10  is maximized when the concentrators  40  are in the position shown in  FIG. 5  and minimized when in the position shown in  FIG. 7 . 
     Magnetoresistance based magnetometers constructed in accordance with the principles of the present invention have the potential to have a detectivity of 2 pT (pico tesla) per square root Hz at 1 Hz producible at relatively low cost (&lt;$100), consume small amount of energy (&lt;1 mW), large bandwidth, (0.001 Hz≦f≦10 MegHz). 
     Larger modulation of the magnetic field by amplitude modulation may be limited by the amplitude of the MEMS motion and the magnetic field profile. One may increase the detectivity to approximately 2 picoTesla and amplitude of the motion of the MEMS structure from 5μ to 15μ by vacuum packaging, which will increase the Q from 30 to 300 and lengthening and increasing the number of teeth in comb drive. The magnetic field profile may be changed to increase the field change per micron of displacement. The combined effect of increasing the modulation amplitude and field profile may theoretically result in a detectivity of 2 pT. 
     The following tables include theorectical “Best Compromise” Parameters” for 1 picoTesla/rt(Hz) @ 1 Hz. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Design Parameters 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Junction Voltage 
                 0.1 
                 V 
               
               
                   
                 MTJ&#39;s per leg 
                 20 
               
               
                   
                 Junction Area 
                 30000 
                 um 2   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Tweakable Parameters 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Anisotropy Field Bsat 
                 1.00E−003 
                 T 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Delta-R/R-low &lt; NOTE 
                 100% 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Flux concentrator gain 
                 6 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Amplifier Noise 
                 5 
                 nV/Hz 0.5   
               
               
                   
                 Temperature 
                 300 
                 K 
               
               
                   
                 Junction Resistance Area 
                 1 
                 MOhm · um 2   
               
               
                   
                 Ms 
                 8.00E+005 
                 A/m 
               
               
                   
                 Damping alpha 
                 0.01 
               
               
                   
                 Electronic 1/f noise alpha 
                 1.00E−009 
                 um 2   
               
               
                   
                 Operating frequency 
                 10000 
                 Hz 
               
               
                   
                 Free layer Thickness 
                 1 
                 um 
               
               
                   
                 Magnetic1/f noise alpha 
                 1.84E−15 
                 um3 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Constants 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 e 
                 1.60E−019 
                 As 
               
               
                   
                 kB 
                 1.38E−023 
                 J/K 
               
               
                   
                 Gamma 
                 2.21E+005 
                 mA −1 s −1   
               
               
                   
                 mu zero 
                 1.26E−006 
                 TmA −1   
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Circuit Parameters and Noise Analysis 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Circuit Parameters 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Supply Voltage 
                 4 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Junction Resistance 
                 33.33 
                 Ohms 
                 kT 
                 4.14E−021 J 
               
               
                 Current 
                 3.00E−003 
                 A 
                 gammaMs 
                 1.77E+011 s −1   
               
               
                 Power 
                 0.024 
                 W 
               
               
                 Sensitivity 
                 6666.67 
                 V/T 
               
               
                 tree layer volume 
                 3.00E−014 
                 m 3   
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 Noise Analysis 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Voltage noise power 
                 voltage noise 
                 field noise 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Amplifier Noise 
               
               
                   
                 2.50E−017 V 2 /Hz 
                 5.00E−009 V/Hz 0.5   
                 7.50E−013 T/Hz 0.5   
               
               
                   
                 Johnson/Shot 
               
            
           
           
               
            
               
                 coth arg 1.93E+000 Shot Dominated 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 2.23E−017 V 2 /Hz 
                 4.72E−009 V/Hz 0.5   
                 7.08E−013 T/Hz 0.5   
               
               
                   
                 Electronic 1/f noise 
               
               
                   
                 6.67E−019 V 2 /Hz 
                 8.16E−010 V/Hz 0.5   
                 1.22E−013 T/Hz 0.5   
               
               
                   
                 Thermal Mag noise 
               
               
                   
                 8.72E−024 V 2 /Hz 
                 2.96E−012 V/Hz 0.5   
                 8.86E−015 T/Hz 0.5   
               
               
                   
                 Magnetic 1/f noise 
               
               
                   
                 3.41E−020 V2/Hz 
                 1.85E−010 V/Hz0.5 
                 5.54E−013 T/Hz0.5 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Noise Total 
                 1.18E−012 T/Hz 0.5   
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     As used herein the terminology “flux concentrator” or “flux collector” means an element which can absorb magnetic flux in a manner so either (a) the amount of flux per unit area or density is increased as the magnetic flux traverses the element or (b) the magnetic flux is gathered and inputted through a relatively large cross sectional area and outputted through a cross sectional area that is narrower than the input. 
     As used herein the terminology 1/f-type noise refers to any noise with a power spectral density of the form
 
S(f)∝1/f α 
 
where f is frequency and 0&lt;α&lt;2, with a usually close to 1. Such “1/f-type” noises occur widely in nature and are a source of considerable interest in many fields.
 
     As used herein the terminology “spring mass combination” refers to the interaction between the spring (or spring constant) and mass by which a natural resonant frequency is achieved. Similar to a harmonic oscillator system, when the movable flux concentrator is displaced from its equilibrium position, experiences a restoring force, F, proportional to the displacement, x according to Hooke&#39;s law: F=−kx, where k is a spring constant. If F is the only force acting on the system, the simple harmonic oscillator will undergo simple harmonic motion: sinusoidal oscillations about the equilibrium point, with a substantially constant amplitude and a substantially constant frequency (which does not depend on the amplitude). 
     Obviously, many modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood that, within the scope of the appended claims, the invention many be practiced otherwise than as specifically described.