Patent Publication Number: US-2022215226-A1

Title: Neural network processor

Description:
PRIORITY 
     This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 63/134,867, filed Jan. 7, 2021, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), and autonomous vehicle (AV) systems use cameras and other sensors together with object classifiers, which are designed to detect specific objects in an environment of a vehicle navigating a road. Object classifiers are designed to detect predefined objects and are used within ADAS and AV systems to control the vehicle or alert a driver based on the type of object that is detected its location, etc. Autonomous driving typically involves substantial use of vector processing capabilities. Thus, it is desirable to improve the efficiency of vector processing in autonomous vehicle applications. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The subject matter regarded as the invention is particularly pointed out and distinctly claimed in the concluding portion of the specification. The invention, however, both as to organization and method of operation, together with objects, features, and advantages thereof, may best be understood by reference to the following detailed description when read with the accompanying drawings in which: 
         FIG. 1  is a block diagram representation of a system implemented by one or more of the disclosed embodiments; 
         FIG. 2A  is a diagrammatic side view representation of an exemplary vehicle including a system consistent with the disclosed embodiments; 
         FIG. 2B  is a diagrammatic top view representation of the vehicle and system shown in  FIG. 2A  consistent with the disclosed embodiments; 
         FIG. 2C  is a diagrammatic top view representation of another embodiment of a vehicle including a system consistent with the disclosed embodiments; 
         FIG. 2D  is a diagrammatic top view representation of yet another embodiment of a vehicle including a system consistent with the disclosed embodiments; 
         FIG. 2E  is a diagrammatic representation of exemplary vehicle control systems consistent with the disclosed embodiments; 
         FIG. 3  is a diagrammatic representation of an interior of a vehicle including a rearview mirror and a user interface for a vehicle imaging system consistent with the disclosed embodiments; 
         FIG. 4  illustrates example input values of different layers of a neural network; 
         FIG. 5  illustrates an example of a three-dimensional (3D) kernel; 
         FIG. 6  illustrates a data flow that applies a two-dimensional (2D) kernel on 2D first layer input values obtained from an image; 
         FIG. 7  illustrates a data flow that applies a three-dimensional (3D) kernel on 3D second layer input values obtained from an image; 
         FIG. 8  illustrates an example structure of storage elements in a 3D memory unit; 
         FIG. 9  illustrates an example of a 3D memory unit that is comprised of a two-dimensional array of shift registers; 
         FIGS. 10, 11, and 12  illustrate multiple rows of storage elements in a 3D memory unit, and how read and shift operations operate in at least some of the disclosed embodiments; 
         FIG. 13  is an example of a neural network processor; 
         FIG. 14  illustrates a process of neural network processing; 
         FIG. 15  illustrates a process for neural network processing; and 
         FIG. 16  illustrates a process for neural network processing. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     The following detailed description refers to the accompanying drawings. Wherever possible, the same reference numbers are used in the drawings and the following description to refer to the same or similar parts. While several illustrative embodiments are described herein, modifications, adaptations and other implementations are possible. For example, substitutions, additions, or modifications may be made to the components illustrated in the drawings, and the illustrative methods described herein may be modified by substituting, reordering, removing, or adding steps to the disclosed methods. Accordingly, the following detailed description is not limited to the disclosed embodiments and examples. 
     In the following detailed description, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the invention. However, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that the present invention may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, well-known methods, procedures, and components have not been described in detail so as not to obscure the present invention. 
     Disclosed embodiments provide systems and methods that can be used as part of or in combination with autonomous navigation/driving and/or driver assist technology features. Driver assist technology refers to any suitable technology to assist drivers in the navigation and/or control of their vehicles, such as forward collision warning (FCW), lane departure warning (LDW) and traffic sign recognition (TSR), as opposed to fully autonomous driving. In various embodiments, the system may include one, two or more cameras mountable in a vehicle and an associated processor that monitor the environment of the vehicle. In further embodiments, additional types of sensors can be mounted in the vehicle ad can be used in the autonomous navigation and/or driver assist system. In some examples of the presently disclosed subject matter, the system may provide techniques for processing images of an environment ahead of a vehicle navigating a road for training a neural networks or deep learning algorithms to estimate a future path of a vehicle based on images. In yet further examples of the presently disclosed subject matter, the system may provide techniques for processing images of an environment ahead of a vehicle navigating a road using a trained neural network to estimate a future path of the vehicle. 
     In some embodiments, a pixel is a picture element obtained by a camera. In some embodiments, a pixel is a processed picture element, which has been pre-processing in circuits attached to a camera sensor&#39;s picture element. 
     When processing images captured by a vehicle mounted camera, two-dimensional processing of image data is performed. For example, a two-dimensional image is captured by an on-board imaging sensor. The two-dimensional image encodes the image via a plurality of binary values. However, applying depth-oriented vectors on 2D input values, such as those from the two-dimensional image is highly inefficient. For example, if a 3D memory unit includes 3D data, but that 3D data is to be processed against the 2D input values, only a first row of the 3D data is operated on in any one operation. Thus, in a configuration having 3D data of depth D1, which is processed with 2D input values, a throughput of such calculation will be (1/D1) of the maximal available throughput of the 3D memory unit. 
     To provide for increased efficiency when utilizing depth-oriented vectors, the disclosed embodiments employ a 3D memory element that can be used for both 2D and 3D operations. In particular, the disclosed 3D memory unit provides for shifting of values across rows of the 3D memory element. By providing for an ability to shift data values across rows of the 3D memory element, access to depth-oriented vector data is greatly enhanced, improving utilization of the available computer hardware and thus increasing throughput. 
     Before discussing in detail examples of a 3D memory element utilized in embodiments of this disclosure, there is provided a description of various possible implementations and configurations of a vehicle mountable system that can be used for carrying out and implementing the methods according to examples of the presently disclosed subject matter. In some embodiments, various examples of the system can be mounted in a vehicle, and can be operated while the vehicle is in motion. In some embodiments, the system can implement the methods according to examples of the presently disclosed subject matter. 
       FIG. 1 , to which reference is now made, is a block diagram representation of a system consistent with the disclosed embodiments. System  100  can include various components depending on the requirements of a particular implementation. In some examples, system  100  can include a processing unit  110 , an image acquisition unit  120  and one or more memory units  140 ,  150 . Processing unit  110  can include one or more processing devices. In some embodiments, processing unit  110  can include an application processor  180 , an image processor  190 , or any other suitable processing device. Similarly, image acquisition unit  120  can include any number of image acquisition unit s and components depending on the requirements of a particular application. In some embodiments, image acquisition unit  120  can include one or more image capture devices (e.g., cameras), such as image capture device  122 , image capture device  124 , and image capture device  126 . In some embodiments, system  100  can also include a values interface  128  communicatively connecting the processing unit  110  to image acquisition unit  120 . For example, values interface  128  can include any wired and/or wireless link or links for transmitting image values acquired by image acquisition unit  120  to processing unit  110 . 
     Both the application processor  180  and the image processor  190  can include various types of processing devices. For example, either or both of application processor  180  and image processor  190  can include one or more microprocessors, preprocessors (such as image preprocessors), graphics processors, central processing units (CPUs), support circuits, digital signal processors, integrated circuits, memory, or any other types of devices suitable for running applications and for image processing and analysis. In some embodiments, application processor  180  and/or image processor  190  can include any type of single or multi-core processor, mobile device microcontroller, central processing unit, etc. Various processing devices can be used, including, for example, processors available from manufacturers such as Intel®, AMD®, etc. and can include various architectures (e.g., x86 processor, ARM®, etc.). 
     In some embodiments, application processor  180  and/or image processor  190  can include any of the EyeQ series of processor chips available from Mobileye®. These processor designs each include multiple processing units with local memory and instruction sets. Such processors may include video inputs for receiving image values from multiple image sensors and may also include video out capabilities. In one example, the EyeQ2® uses 90 nm-micron technology operating at 332 Mhz. The EyeQ2® architecture has two floating point, hyper-thread 32-bit RISC CPUs (MIPS32® 34K® cores), five Vision Computing Engines (VCE), three Vector Microcode Processors (VMP®), Denali 64-bit Mobile DDR Controller, 128-bit internal Sonics Interconnect, dual 16-bit Video input and 18-bit Video output controllers, 16 channels DMA and several peripherals. The MIPS34K CPU manages the five VCEs, three VMP® and the DMA, the second MIPS34K CPU and the multi-channel DMA as well as the other peripherals. The five VCEs, three VMP® and the MIPS34K CPU can perform intensive vision computations required by multi-function bundle applications. In another example, the EyeQ3®, which is a third-generation processor and is six times more powerful that the EyeQ2®, may be used in the disclosed examples. In yet another example, the EyeQ4®, the fourth-generation processor, may be used in the disclosed examples. 
     While  FIG. 1  depicts two separate processing devices included in processing unit  110 , more or fewer processing devices can be used. For example, in some examples, a single processing device may be used to accomplish the tasks of application processor  180  and image processor  190 . In other embodiments, these tasks can be performed by more than two processing devices. 
     Processing unit  110  can include various types of devices. For example, processing unit  110  may include various devices, such as a controller, an image preprocessor, a central processing unit (CPU), support circuits, digital signal processors, integrated circuits, memory, or any other types of devices for image processing and analysis. The image preprocessor can include a video processor for capturing, digitizing, and processing the imagery from the image sensors. The CPU can include any number of microcontrollers or microprocessors. The support circuits can be any number of circuits generally well known in the art, including cache, power supply, clock, and input-output circuits. The memory can store software that, when executed by the processor, controls the operation of the system. The memory can include databases and image processing software, including a trained system, such as a neural network, for example. The memory can include any number of random-access memories, read only memories, flash memories, disk drives, optical storage, removable storage, and other types of storage. In one instance, the memory can be separate from the processing unit  110 . In another instance, the memory can be integrated into the processing unit  110 . 
     Each memory  140 ,  150  can include software instructions that when executed by a processor (e.g., application processor  180  and/or image processor  190 ), can control operation of various aspects of system  100 . These memory units can include various databases and image processing software. The memory units can include random access memory, read only memory, flash memory, disk drives, optical storage, tape storage, removable storage, and/or any other types of storage. In some examples, memory units  140 ,  150  can be separate from the application processor  180  and/or image processor  190 . In other embodiments, these memory units can be integrated into application processor  180  and/or image processor  190 . 
     In some embodiments, the system can include a position sensor  130 . The position sensor  130  can include any type of device suitable for determining a location associated with at least one component of system  100 . In some embodiments, position sensor  130  can include a GPS receiver. Such receivers can determine a user position and velocity by processing signals broadcasted by global positioning system satellites. Position information from position sensor  130  can be made available to application processor  180  and/or image processor  190 . 
     In some embodiments, the system  100  can be operatively connectible to various systems, devices and units onboard a vehicle in which the system  100  can be mounted, and through any suitable interfaces (e.g., a communication bus) the system  100  can communicate with the vehicle&#39;s systems. Examples of vehicle systems with which the system  100  can cooperate include: a throttling system, a braking system, and a steering system (e.g., throttling system  220 , braking system  230 , and steering system  240  of  FIG. 2E ). 
     In some embodiments, the system  100  can include a user interface  170 . User interface  170  can include any device suitable for providing information to or for receiving inputs from one or more users of system  100 , including, for example, a touchscreen, microphone, keyboard, pointer devices, track wheels, cameras, knobs, buttons, etc. Information can be provided by the system  100 , through the user interface  170 , to the user. 
     In some embodiments, the system  100  can include a map database  160 . The map database  160  can include any type of database for storing digital map data. In some examples, map database  160  can include values relating to a position, in a reference coordinate system, of various items, including roads, water features, geographic features, points of interest, etc. Map database  160  can store not only the locations of such items, but also descriptors relating to those items, including, for example, names associated with any of the stored features and other information about them. For example, locations and types of known obstacles can be included in the database, information about a topography of a road or a grade of certain points along a road, etc. In some embodiments, map database  160  can be physically located with other components of system  100 . Alternatively, or additionally, map database  160  or a portion thereof can be located remotely with respect to other components of system  100  (e.g., processing unit  110 ). In such embodiments, information from map database  160  can be downloaded over a wired or wireless values connection to a network (e.g., over a cellular network and/or the Internet, etc.). 
     Image capture device  122 , image capture device  124 , and image capture device  126  can each include any type of device suitable for capturing at least one image from an environment. Moreover, any number of image capture devices can be used to acquire images for input to the image processor. Some examples of the presently disclosed subject matter can include or can be implemented with only a single-image capture device, while other examples can include or can be implemented with two, three, or even four or more image capture devices. Image capture device  122 , image capture device  124 , and image capture device  126  will be further described with reference to  FIGS. 2B-2E , below. 
     It would be appreciated that the system  100  can include or can be operatively associated with other types of sensors, including for example: an acoustic sensor, a radio frequency (RF) sensor (e.g., radar transceiver), a LIDAR sensor. Such sensors can be used independently of or in cooperation with the image acquisition unit  120 . For example, the values from the radar system (not shown) can be used for validating the processed information that is received from processing images acquired by the image acquisition unit  120 , e.g., to filter certain false positives resulting from processing images acquired by the image acquisition unit  120 , or it can be combined with or otherwise compliment the image values from the image acquisition unit  120 , or some processed variation or derivative of the image values from the image acquisition unit  120 . 
     System  100 , or various components thereof, can be incorporated into various different platforms. In some embodiments, system  100  may be included on a vehicle  200 , as shown in  FIG. 2A . For example, vehicle  200  can be equipped with a processing unit  110  and any of the other components of system  100 , as described above relative to  FIG. 1 . While in some embodiments the vehicle  200  can be equipped with only a single-image capture device (e.g., camera), in other embodiments, such as those discussed in connection with  FIGS. 2B-2E , multiple image capture devices can be used. For example, either of image capture device  122  or image capture device  124  of vehicle  200 , as shown in  FIG. 2A , can be part of an ADAS (Advanced Driver Assistance Systems) imaging set. 
     The image capture devices included on vehicle  200  as part of the image acquisition unit  120  can be positioned at any suitable location. In some embodiments, as shown in  FIGS. 2A-2E and 3 , image capture device  122  can be located in the vicinity of the rearview mirror. This position may provide a line of sight similar to that of the driver of vehicle  200 , which can aid in determining what is and is not visible to the driver. 
     Other locations for the image capture devices of image acquisition unit  120  can also be used. For example, image capture device  124  can be located on or in a bumper of vehicle  200 . Such a location can be especially suitable for image capture devices having a wide field of view. The line of sight of bumper-located image capture devices can be different from that of the driver. The image capture devices (e.g., image capture device  122 , image capture device  124 , and image capture device  126 ) can also be located in other locations. For example, the image capture devices may be located on or in one or both of the side mirrors of vehicle  200 , on the roof of vehicle  200 , on the hood of vehicle  200 , on the trunk of vehicle  200 , on the sides of vehicle  200 , mounted on, positioned behind, or positioned in front of any of the windows of vehicle  200 , and mounted in or near light figures on the front and/or back of vehicle  200 , etc. The image acquisition unit  120 , or an image capture device that is one of a plurality of image capture devices that are used in an image acquisition unit  120 , can have a field-of-view (FOV) that is different than the FOV of a driver of a vehicle, and not always see the same objects. In one example, the FOV of the image acquisition unit  120  can extend beyond the FOV of a typical driver and can thus image objects which are outside the FOV of the driver. In yet another example, the FOV of the image acquisition unit  120  is some portion of the FOV of the driver. In some embodiments, the FOV of the image acquisition unit  120  corresponding to a sector which covers an area of a road ahead of a vehicle and possibly also surroundings of the road. 
     In addition to image capture devices, vehicle  200  can be include various other components of system  100 . For example, processing unit  110  may be included on vehicle  200  either integrated with or separate from an engine control unit (ECU) of the vehicle. Vehicle  200  may also be equipped with a position sensor  130 , such as a GPS receiver and may also include a map database  160  and memory units  140  and  150 . 
       FIG. 2A  is a diagrammatic side view representation of a vehicle imaging system according to examples of the presently disclosed subject matter.  FIG. 2B  is a diagrammatic top view illustration of the example shown in  FIG. 2A . As illustrated in  FIG. 2B , the disclosed examples can include a vehicle  200  including in its body a system  100  with a first image capture device  122  positioned in the vicinity of the rearview mirror and/or near the driver of vehicle  200 , a second image capture device  124  positioned on or in a bumper region (e.g., one of bumper regions  1210 ) of vehicle  200 , and a processing unit  110 . 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 2C , image capture device  122  and image capture device  124  may both be positioned in the vicinity of the rearview mirror and/or near the driver of vehicle  200 . Additionally, while the image capture device  122  and the image capture device  124  are shown in  FIGS. 2B and 2C , it should be understood that other embodiments may include more than two image capture devices. For example, in the embodiment shown in  FIG. 2D , first, second, and third image capture devices  122 ,  124 , and  126 , are included in the system  100  of vehicle  200 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 2D , image capture devices  122 ,  124 , and  126  may be positioned in the vicinity of the rearview mirror and/or near the driver seat of vehicle  200 . The disclosed examples are not limited to any particular number and configuration of the image capture devices, and the image capture devices may be positioned in any appropriate location within and/or on vehicle  200 . 
     It is also to be understood that disclosed embodiments are not limited to a particular type of vehicle  200  and may be applicable to all types of vehicles including automobiles, trucks, trailers, motorcycles, bicycles, self-balancing transport devices and other types of vehicles. 
     The first image capture device  122  can include any suitable type of image capture device. Image capture device  122  can include an optical axis. In one instance, the image capture device  122  can include an Aptina M9V024 WVGA sensor with a global shutter. In another example, a rolling shutter sensor can be used. Image acquisition unit  120 , and any image capture device which is implemented as part of the image acquisition unit  120 , can have any desired image resolution. For example, image capture device  122  can provide a resolution of 1280×960 pixels and can include a rolling shutter. 
     Image acquisition unit  120 , and any image capture device which is implemented as part of the image acquisition unit  120 , can include various optical elements. In some embodiments one or more lenses can be included, for example, to provide a desired focal length and field of view for the image acquisition unit  120 , and for any image capture device which is implemented as part of the image acquisition unit  120 . In some examples, an image capture device which is implemented as part of the image acquisition unit  120  can include or be associated with any optical elements, such as a 6 mm lens or a 12 mm lens, for example. In some examples, image capture device  122  can be configured to capture images having a desired (and known) field-of-view (FOV). 
     The first image capture device  122  may have a scan rate associated with acquisition of each of the first series of image scan lines. The scan rate may refer to a rate at which an image sensor can acquire image values associated with each pixel included in a particular scan line. 
       FIG. 2E  is a diagrammatic representation of vehicle control systems, according to examples of the presently disclosed subject matter. As indicated in  FIG. 2E , vehicle  200  can include throttling system  220 , braking system  230 , and steering system  240 . System  100  can provide inputs (e.g., control signals) to one or more of throttling system  220 , braking system  230 , and steering system  240  over one or more values links (e.g., any wired and/or wireless link or links for transmitting data). For example, based on analysis of images acquired by image capture devices  122 ,  124 , and/or  126 , system  100  can provide control signals to one or more of throttling system  220 , braking system  230 , and steering system  240  to navigate vehicle  200  (e.g., by causing an acceleration, a turn, a lane shift, etc.). Further, system  100  can receive inputs from one or more of throttling system  220 , braking system  230 , and steering system  240  indicating operating conditions of vehicle  200  (e.g., speed, whether vehicle  200  is braking and/or turning, etc.). 
     As shown in  FIG. 3 , vehicle  200  may also include a user interface  170  for interacting with a driver or a passenger of vehicle  200 . For example, user interface  170  in a vehicle application may include a touch screen  320 , knobs  330 , buttons  340 , and a microphone  350 . A driver or passenger of vehicle  200  may also use handles (e.g., located on or near the steering column of vehicle  200  including, for example, turn signal handles), buttons (e.g., located on the steering wheel of vehicle  200 ), and the like, to interact with system  100 . In some embodiments, microphone  350  may be positioned adjacent to a rearview mirror  310 . Similarly, in some embodiments, image capture device  122  may be located near rearview mirror  310 . In some embodiments, user interface  170  may also include one or more speakers  360  (e.g., speakers of a vehicle audio system). For example, system  100  may provide various notifications (e.g., alerts) via speakers  360 . 
     As will be appreciated by a person skilled in the art having the benefit of this disclosure, numerous variations and/or modifications may be made to the foregoing disclosed embodiments. For example, not all components are essential for the operation of system  100 . Further, any component may be located in any appropriate part of system  100  and the components may be rearranged into a variety of configurations while providing the functionality of the disclosed embodiments. Therefore, the foregoing configurations are examples and, regardless of the configurations discussed above, system  100  can provide a wide range of functionality to analyze the surroundings of vehicle  200  and, in response to this analysis, navigate and/or otherwise control and/or operate vehicle  200 . Navigation, control, and/or operation of vehicle  200  may include enabling and/or disabling (directly or via intermediary controllers, such as the controllers mentioned above) various features, components, devices, modes, systems, and/or subsystems associated with vehicle  200 . Navigation, control, and/or operation may alternately or additionally include interaction with a user, driver, passenger, passerby, and/or other vehicle or user, which may be located inside or outside the vehicle  200 , for example by providing visual, audio, haptic, and/or other sensory alerts and/or indications. 
     As discussed below in further detail and consistent with various disclosed embodiments, system  100  may provide a variety of features related to autonomous driving, semi-autonomous driving and/or driver assist technology. For example, system  100  may analyze image data, position values (e.g., GPS location information), map data, speed data, and/or values from sensors included in vehicle  200 . System  100  may collect the values for analysis from, for example, image acquisition unit  120 , position sensor  130 , and other sensors. Further, system  100  may analyze the collected values to determine whether or not vehicle  200  should take a certain action, and then automatically take the determined action without human intervention. It would be appreciated that in some cases, the actions taken automatically by the vehicle are under human supervision, and the ability of the human to intervene adjust abort or override the machine action is enabled under certain circumstances or at all times. For example, when vehicle  200  navigates without human intervention, system  100  may automatically control the braking, acceleration, and/or steering of vehicle  200  (e.g., by sending control signals to one or more of throttling system  220 , braking system  230 , and steering system  240 ). Further, system  100  may analyze the collected values and issue warnings, indications, recommendations, alerts, or instructions to a driver, passenger, user, or other person inside or outside of the vehicle (or to other vehicles) based on the analysis of the collected data. Additional details regarding the various embodiments that are provided by system  100  are provided below. 
     The term “layer” means a layer of a neural network. 
     The processing unit may include a neural network processor. A neural network processor may be configured to perform neural network operations. The neural network may be of any type (convolutional, non-convolutional, and the like). 
     The neural network may include one or more integrated circuits, may be implemented by one or more integrated circuits, and the like. The one or more integrated circuits may be hardware accelerators, general purpose processors, central processing units, systems on chip, image processors, field programmable gate arrays, application specific integrated circuits, and the like. 
     Neural networks processors may be used in various systems, including but not limited to ADAS systems and AV systems. 
     A neural network may include different layers. Neural network processing maybe executed one layer after the other. 
     Each layer is configured to receive layer input values, apply a kernel (a 2D kernel or 3D kernel) to provide layer output values. The layer output values may be a 3D layer output values or a 2D layer output values. In some cases, the 2D layer output values may be a relevant portion of 3D layer output values. The layer output values of a last (or final) layer of the neural network may be regarded as an output of the neural network. 
     In many neural networks, most of the layers are configured to receive 3D layer input values, and apply a 3D kernel to provide 3D layer output values. The applying of the 3D kernel includes, in at least some embodiments, scanning the 3D layer input values with one or more depth-oriented vectors, whereas a depth-oriented vector is directed along a depth of the 3D kernel. 
     Different layers may apply different kernels. The kernels may differ from each other by one or more of depth, width, length, values of kernel coefficients, shape, and the like. 
     Scanning 2D layer input values with one or more depth-oriented vectors is highly inefficient—as only a first element of each depth vector is relevant to the generation of the 2D layer output values. 
     The disclosed method, integrated circuit, and non-transitory computer readable medium (hereinafter “computer readable medium”) manipulate the kernel and the layer input values to provide an efficient neural network processing scheme. 
     The disclosed method, integrated circuit and computer readable medium may be configured to store layer output values in a 3D memory unit, and retrieve from the 3D memory unit, relevant layer output values. For example, the relevant layer output values may be the first elements of the 3D layer output values, may be some of the elements of the 3D layer output values, or may be all of the 3D layer output values. 
     The disclosed method, integrated circuit and computer readable medium may use the same 3D memory unit to store scalar outputs of 2D and 3D kernel calculations, and by manipulating kernel and/or layer input values, facilitate higher throughput of neural network processing. 
       FIG. 4  illustrates an example of layer input values of different layers of a neural network. A first layer  605  is configured to receive 2D first layer input values  401 . An example depth of the 2D first input values  401  is one. The 2D first layer input values  401  may be included in an image, synthetic information, sensed information of any type, and the like. The first layer  605  is configured to output 2D first layer output values  602 . 
     Although the first layer  605  receives the 2D first layer input values  401 , the first layer  605  is configured to receive, in at least some embodiments, three-dimensional information, including one or more of point cloud data, a range map, a combination of a 2D image and depth information, and the like. 
     3D first layer output values  602  that illustrated to be of a 3D format. A second layer  607  is configured to receive the 3D first layer output values  602  and scan it with a 3D kernel  620  to provide 3D second layer output values  609 . The 3D kernel  620  includes multiple depth-oriented vectors. 
       FIG. 5  illustrates the 3D kernel  522  as including nine depth-oriented vectors  526  arranged in rows and columns (3×3) that have first elements  524 . 
     Applying such depth-oriented vectors on 2D input values (e.g., such as 2D first input values  401  illustrated in  FIG. 4 ) is highly inefficient as only the first elements  524  of each depth-oriented vector will be relevant in such an operation. Assuming that each depth-oriented vector includes D1 elements, then the throughput of such an operation on 2D input data will be (1/D1) of a maximal available throughput provided by the depth-oriented vectors  526 . 
       FIG. 6  illustrates an example data flow  600  when applying a 2D kernel on a vector including 2D first layer input values received from an image  630 A. The data flow  600  illustrates flattening of a 2D kernel  620 A, and flattening of 2D layer input values. In some embodiments, flattening of data includes appending data in a first dimension of a vector to data in a second dimension of a vector. For example, a two dimensional (2D) first vector is flattened, in some embodiments, by generating a one dimensional second vector that includes data in a first dimension of the first vector and then followed by data in a second dimension of the first vector. The example 2D kernel  620 A is shown as a grid of three by three values. 
       FIG. 6  illustrates how input values  631 A-C from the image  630 A are read into a portion of a 3D memory unit, denoted  640 A. 
       FIG. 6  also illustrates how the 2D input values are distributed across multiple rows of the 3D memory unit  640 A. These portions of the 3D memory unit  640 A are also represented as portions  641 A-D in  FIG. 6 . Portion representations  641 A-D illustrate an example distribution of portions of the 2D input values that are distributed across rows of the 3D memory unit  640 A, with a first row distributed as portion  641 A, second row as portion  641 B, third row as portion  641 C, and fourth row as portion  641 D.  FIG. 6  shows that some of the disclosed embodiments are provided with an ability to shift the 2D input values  631 A-C across rows of the 3D memory unit  640 A. For example, in a first shift operation, values stored in portion  641 A are overwritten with values of portion  641 B. Values stored in portion  641 B are overwritten by values stored in portion  641 C. Values stored in portion  641 C are overwritten with values stored in portion  641 D. By providing an ability to shift values across rows of a 3D memory unit, the flattening operation illustrated by  FIG. 6  is facilitated and increased throughput achieved. For example, in some embodiments, the flattening operation reads data from a top row of the 3D memory unit, represented as portion  641 A. After data included in the first row is read, values are shifted across rows of the 3D memory unit  640 A. Thus, data previously occupying a second row, represented by portion  641 B, is shifted into portion  641 A. This shifted data is then read to perform a second flattening operation. This process may iterate for multiple rows of data. 
       FIG. 7  illustrates data flows when applying a 3D kernel  751  on a 3D second layer input values such as input values derived from image  630 B. In  FIG. 7  the example 3D kernel  751  is shown as a grid of five by five values.  FIG. 7  illustrates flattening of the 3D kernel  751  into a kernel vector  643 B.  FIG. 7  also illustrates flattening of 3D input values  632 B- 632 F into an input values vector  642 B.  FIG. 7  illustrates how the data stored in 3D memory  640 B is included in multiple rows of a 3D memory. Each row of the 3D memory is represented by rows  742 A-D. Thus, memory  640 B and  742 A-D represent different views of equivalent memory storage.  FIG. 7  illustrates that data from a top row  742 A is provided to vector  642 B. After a flattening operation completes, data in the rows  742 B-D are each shifted one row towards the top row  742 A. Thus, data stored in row  742 B is shifted to row  742 A. Data stored in row  742 C is shifted to row  742 B. Data stored in row  74 2D is shifted to row  742 C. 
     A number of values per kernel may differ from those illustrated above with respect to  FIGS. 6 and/or 7 . A size of the kernels may depend on the structure of the neural network. Larger kernels may perform more operations in parallel than smaller kernels, but may be inefficient when only a part of the elements on which the kernels are applied are relevant to an operation. 
     Line segments (such as line segments  631 A- 631 C of  FIG. 6  and line segments  632 B- 632 F of  FIG. 7 ) of image  630 A and image  630 B respectively are read to intermediate memories  640 A and  640 B respectively. In some embodiments, intermediate memories  640 A and  640 B are the same physical memory. 
     It should be noted that the intermediate memory  640 A is large enough, in at least some embodiments, to store the entire 2D kernel. Alternatively, in other embodiments, the intermediate memory  640 A may store only a portion of the values of the 2D kernel at any one time. There may be any relationship between a size of the intermediate memory  640 A and a size of the 2D kernel. 
     In  FIG. 6 , three pixels from each one of the three line segments are read from the intermediate memory  640 A into a first register to form layer input values vector  642 A. In  FIG. 7 , five pixels from each of five line segments are read from the intermediate memory  640 B into a first register to form layer input values vector  642 B. 
     In  FIG. 6 , three first values from each one of the three rows of a 2D kernel are read into a second register to form a kernel vector  643 A. In  FIG. 7  five values from each one of the five rows of a 3D kernel  751  (one from each row) are read into a second register to form kernel vector  643 B. 
     With respect to  FIG. 6 , multiplier  650 A multiplies the layer input values vector  642 A by the kernel vector  643 A to provide a result vector  645 A. Adder  652 A sums the elements of result vector  645 A to generate an output scalar  646 A. 
     The data flow  600  may repeat until all line segments of image  630 A are read, thereby scanning the entire image, and generating output scalars from all pixels of image  630 A. 
     Similarly, in  FIG. 7 , multiplier  650 B multiplies the layer input values vector  642 B by the kernel vector  643 B to provide an intermediate result vector  645 B. Adder  652 B sums the elements of intermediate result vector  645 B to provide output scalar  646 B. 
     The data flow  701  may repeat until all line segments of image  630 B are read, thereby scanning the entire image, and generating output scalars from all pixels of image  630 B. 
     Boundary values (in case of a 3×3 kernel—one upmost (e.g., top) row, the lowest (e.g., bottom) row, the leftmost column, the rightmost column) can be calculated in various manners. For example, padding the pixels outside the border by a predefined value, setting the boundary values to a predefined value, or other solutions. 
       FIG. 8  illustrates a 3D memory unit  660  that is configured to store multiple scalar values (for example 8×8×16 scalar values) in a 3D format or array. The 3D memory unit  660  is configured to store scalar values that are at least a portion of layer output values. In some embodiments, the scalar values are further processed (for example by applying a pool operation such as but not limited to maxpool, by applying an averaging function, by summing the values, and the like). 
     The 3D memory unit  660  is configured to store the scalar outputs regardless of the depth of the kernel, and regardless of the desired depth of the layer output values. In some embodiments, the depth of the kernel and the desired depth of the layer output values affect the manner in which the 3D memory unit  660  is read. For example, in case of a 2D kernel, the first scalar outputs are read, while other entries of the 3D memory unit  660  are not read. 
     Assuming a 3D kernel that has a depth that is not smaller than the desired depth of the layer output values, then the desired depth of the layer output values determines which elements are read. 
     The 3D memory unit  660  is configured to provide for the reading of data from any storage elements of the 3D memory unit  660 . This, scalar values stored in the 3D memory unit  660  are read, in various embodiments, from various locations of the 3D memory unit  660 . In some embodiments, scalar values are read from a first row  669  of the 3D memory unit  660 . 
     In some embodiments, reading the scalar outputs from the first upper row  669  may require shifting and/or otherwise moving scalar outputs to the first upper row  669  before the values are read. 
       FIG. 9  illustrates a 3D structure of at least a portion of a 3D memory unit. The 3D structure includes a plurality of storage elements organized in row, column, and depth dimensions. Thus, each value stored in the 3D structure is stored in a storage element having a unique combination of row, column, and depth coordinates. The example 3D structure shown in  FIG. 9  includes an array of shift registers. The example 3D structure shown in  FIG. 9  includes shift registers arranged in eight rows and eight columns. A portion of the shift registers are labeled. A first shift register positioned in a first row and a first column is labeled  660 ( 1 , 1 ). A second shift register positioned in a last row, and first column is labeled  660 ( 8 , 1 ). A third shift register positioned in the first row, last column is labeled  660 ( 1 , 8 ), and a fourth shift register positioned in a last row and the last column is labeled  660 ( 8 , 8 ). While  FIG. 9  shows shift registered organized as eight rows and eight columns, other arrangements are contemplated. For example, some contemplated configurations have an unequal number of rows and columns, or different numbers of rows and/or columns. 
     Each shift register  660 ( 1 , 1 )- 660 ( 8 , 8 ) comprises a plurality of storage elements. Corresponding storage elements are storage elements in multiple shift registers that share the same column and depth coordinates, but are located in different rows. Adjacent and corresponding storage elements are coupled to each other via a data path  661  between the adjacent and corresponding storage elements. The data path  661  facilitates shifting of a value stored in a storage element to an adjacent corresponding storage element. 
     Thus, the 3D memory unit illustrated in  FIG. 9  provides for shifting of values stored in storage elements of the 3D memory unit along at least two dimensions. Values are shiftable in a direction aligned with each of the shift registers. These shift operations move a value from a storage element having a first depth coordinate to a second storage element having a second depth coordinate. Values stored in the 3D structure are also shiftable, via the data paths, in a direction consistent with the column dimension. Thus, shifts in this direction move each value from a storage element having a first row coordinate to a different storage element having a second row coordinate. In some embodiments, a destination row coordinate of a shift operation is a lower order row than a source row coordinate of the shift operation. 
     The number of shift registers of the 3D memory may vary across embodiments. While  FIG. 9  shows 64 shift registers, such a configuration is used, for example, when the 3D memory is configured to output 64 scalar outputs per cycle. Other embodiments employ fewer or a larger number of shift registers to accommodate a different number of scalar outputs per cycle. In various embodiments, arrays of shift registers are arranged in other manners and/or coupled to each other in other manners. 
       FIGS. 10, 11, and 12  illustrate multiple rows of storage elements in a 3D memory unit, and how read and shift operations operate in at least some of the disclosed embodiments. Each of  FIGS. 10, 11, and 12  show an example array of sixty four registers, each with an example depth of sixteen. These example registers store 8×8×16 scalar outputs E( 1 , 1 , 1 )-E( 16 , 8 , 8 )  660 ( 1 , 1 , 1 )- 660 ( 16 , 8 , 8 ).  FIG. 11  illustrates operations that output only the first scalar outputs.  FIG. 12  shows operations that output an entire scalar output. One of skill in the art will understand that the example dimensions discussed above, such as a length of eight, a width of eight and a depth of sixteen are merely examples of numeric values, and that various embodiments are dimensioned differently than these examples. 
     In  FIG. 11 , eight first upper scalar outputs are output per cycle. Thus, to output all of the first sixty four scalar outputs, each output is followed by a shift up operation. The shift operations are facilitated, at least in some embodiments, via use of the data paths  661  between corresponding storage elements of shift registers, as illustrated in  FIG. 9 . For example, in some embodiments, the 3D memory unit is comprised of a two-dimensional array of shift registers. Data paths are provided between corresponding storage elements in the shift registers (e.g., those storage elements oriented in a common position within rows of the three-dimensional structure of the 3D memory unit). Shifting a scalar value from a first storage element to a second storage element via one of the data paths moves the scalar value to an adjacent row of the 3D storage structure. Thus, each shift up operation causes each row of shift registers to receive the scalar values previously stored in a lower row of shift registers. 
     During a first cycle, the outputted scalar values  1205 A are scalar outputs E( 1 , 1 , 1 )-E( 1 , 1 , 8 )  660 ( 1 , 1 , 1 )- 660 ( 1 , 1 , 8 ), and a first UP shift operation occurs. In some embodiments, the UP-shift operation is facilitated by the data paths that couple storage elements within a common column of the 3D structure described above with respect to  FIG. 9 . 
     During a second cycle, the outputted scalar outputs are scalar outputs E( 1 , 2 , 1 )-E( 1 , 2 , 8 )  660 ( 1 , 2 , 1 )- 660 ( 1 , 2 , 8 ), and a second UP shift operation occurs. 
     The process repeats itself eight times, outputting scalar outputs E( 1 , 8 , 1 )-E( 1 , 8 , 8 )  660 ( 1 , 8 , 1 )- 660 ( 1 , 8 , 8 ). 
       FIG. 12  shows an example implementation where eight first upper scalar outputs are outputted per cycle. For example,  FIG. 12  shows that with an example memory configuration  1204 A, scalar values  1205 A are output. With example memory configuration  1204 B, scalar values  1205 B are output. With example memory configuration  1204 C, scalar values  1205 C are output. With example memory configuration  1204 D, scalar values  1205 D are output. With example memory configuration  1204 E, scalar values  1205 E are output. With example memory configuration  1204 F, scalar values  1205 F are output. In order to output all sixty four scalar outputs of all sixteen depths, the content of the upper vectors are read (by performing shift operations of the shift registers located at the upper row of the array). Once the content of the upper vectors are read, a shift up operation in which each row of shift registers receives the scalar outputs previously stored in a lower row of shift registers, and the shifting of the content of the upper vectors are read. 
       FIG. 13  illustrates an example of a neural network processor  700 . In at least some embodiments, the neural network processor  700  includes at least a part of at least one integrated circuit. The neural network processor  700  includes a substrate. 
     The neural network processor  700  includes kernel memory  710 , a first input data memory  720 , a 3D memory unit  750 , a hardware processing unit  730 , a manipulator  740 , and a controller  770 . The controller  770  is configured to control the neural network processor  700 . Kernel memory  710  is configured to store a group of kernels utilized in neural network processing. The first input data memory  720  is configured to store first layer input data, such as the 2D first input values  401  illustrated above with respect to  FIG. 4 . In some embodiments, the 3D memory unit  750  includes the structure illustrated with respect to  FIG. 9 . In these embodiments, the 3D memory unit  750  includes data paths between at least some corresponding storage elements in adjacent rows of the 3D memory unit  750 , as illustrated above with respect to  FIG. 9  and data path  661 . 
     The hardware processing unit  730  is configured to perform neural network processing operations, for example, convolution, maxpool (or any other reduction function), multiplying, adding, subtracting, and the like. The hardware processing unit  730  may include, adder  652 A and multiplier  650 A of  FIG. 6  and addr  652 B and multiplier  650 B of  FIG. 7  in at least some embodiments. 
     In some embodiments, the manipulator  740  is configured to flatten a 2D kernel, and flatten 2D layer input data. The manipulator  740  includes, in some embodiments, a read and write circuit for reading layer input values, writing row segments, reading 2D kernel and/or layer input data and writing the 2D kernel and/or layer input data as a vector. 
     In some embodiments, the first and second registers of  FIGS. 6 and 7  are included in the manipulator  740  and/or the hardware processing unit  730  and/or in other embodiments are included outside both the manipulator  740  and the hardware processing unit  730 . 
       FIG. 14  illustrates a process  1400  for neural network processing. In some embodiments, one or more of the functions discussed below with respect to process  1400  are performed by the hardware processing unit  730  and/or the manipulator  740 , discussed above. 
     Method  1400  may include step  1410  of applying, by a neural network processor, a group of neural network kernels of respective layers of a neural network to provide neural network output results. 
     Step  1410  may be executed one layer after another, starting from a first layer of the neural network. 
     It is assumed that the group of neural network kernels (kernels) includes at least one 2D kernel and at least one 3D kernel. Usually there are more 3D kernels than 2D kernels. 
     Step  1410  may include step  1420  of applying a two dimensional (2D) kernel of the group of kernels on 2D layer input values of a first layer of the neural network to provide first layer output values, wherein the applying comprises scanning the 2D layer input values with the 2D kernel, wherein the scanning comprises flattening the 2D kernel, flattening the 2D layer input values, and storing first layer output values in a three dimensional (3D) memory unit. 
     Step  1410  may also include step  1430  of applying a 3D kernel of the group of kernels, on 3D layer input values of a second layer of the neural network to provide second layer output values, wherein the applying comprises scanning at least one feature vector of the 3D layer input values with at least one vector of the 3D kernel. 
     The 3D memory unit may include an array of shift registers. As discussed above with respect to  FIG. 9 , in some embodiments, corresponding storage elements of shift registers are coupled via a data path to provide for shifting of values between the corresponding storage elements. 
     Step  1420  may include step  1422  of outputting layer output values of a layer of the neural network from the array of shift registers. Step  1430  may include step  1432  of outputting layer output values of a layer of the neural network from the array of shift registers. 
     Steps  1422  and  1432  may include performing shift operations between source shift registers that are parallelly coupled to target shift registers. 
     Step  1432  may include performing shift operations within at least one target shift register. 
     Step  1432  may include performing a certain number of shift operations within at least one target shift register, wherein the certain number is set based on a depth of next layer input values. 
     Step  1422  and  1432  may include outputting values from only some of the shift registers of the array. This may simplify the output port of the array. 
     Step  1420  may include flattening of the 2D kernel by converting the 2D kernel to a kernel vector, wherein the flattening of the 2D layer input values comprises converting the 2D layer input values to a layer input values vector. The scanning may include multiplying the kernel vector by the layer input values vector to provide an intermediate result vector. The multiplying may be followed by summing elements of the intermediate result vector to provide an output scalar. 
     Step  1420  may include reading multiple line segments of the 2D layer input values to intermediate memory unit, and reading 2D segments of the 2D layer input values to a register to provide the 2D layer input values. 
     Step  1430  may include repeating, for each vector of the 3D kernel, scanning the 3D layer input values with a vector of the 3D kernel. 
       FIG. 15  illustrates a process  1500  for neural network processing. In some embodiments, one or more of the functions discussed below with respect to process  1500  are performed by the hardware processing unit  730  and/or the manipulator  740 , discussed above. 
     In operation  1505 , a 2D kernel is applied to 2D input values. For example, as discussed above with respect to  FIG. 6 , the 2D kernel  620 A is flattened into a kernel vector  643 A. Input values from an image, such as image  630 A are read into an input values vector  642 A. In the embodiment of  FIG. 6 , the two vectors, input values vector  642 A and kernel vector  643 A are multiplied to generate the result vector  645 A. Values included in the result vector  645 A are aggregated to generate the scalar value  646 A. 
     In operation  1510 , first layer output values are generated based on the applying performed in operation  1505 . For example, as discussed above with respect to  FIG. 6 , the result vector  645 A is generated by multiplying the flattened 2D kernel  620 A and the 2D input values stored in the vector  642 A. In some embodiments, elements of the result vector  645 A are aggregated, at least in some embodiments, to generate a scalar value (e.g.,  646 A). In some embodiments, the first layer output values are output values for a first layer of a neural network. 
     In operation  1515 , the first layer output values (e.g., the result vector  645 A) are stored in a 3D memory unit. The 3D memory unit is organized, in at least some embodiments, as a three-dimensional array of storage elements. As illustrated above with respect to  FIG. 9 , in some embodiments, the three-dimensional array of storage elements is organized as a two-dimensional array of shift registers. Each of the shift registers includes a plurality of storage elements, and each of the shift registers is configured with data paths between adjacent storage elements. This provides for shifting of values stored in the storage elements to adjacent storage elements. 
     In operation  1520 , a 3D kernel is applied to 3D layer input values. For example, as discussed above with respect to  FIG. 7 , in some embodiments, 3D input values (e.g.,  632 A- 632 F) are obtained from an image (e.g.,  630   b ). A 3D kernel (e.g.,  751 ) is flattened into a kernel vector (e.g.,  643 B). The 3D input values are also flattened into an input vector (e.g.,  642 B). 
     In operation  1525 , second layer output values are generated based on the second applying. For example, as discussed above with respect to  FIG. 7 , two vectors (e.g.,  642 B and  643 B) are then aggregated (e.g., multiplied via operator  650 B) to generate 3D output values (e.g.,  645 B). In some embodiments, the 3D output values are aggregated to generate a scalar value (e.g., scaler value  646 B). In some embodiments, the second layer output values are output values for a second layer of a neural network. 
     In operation  1530 , the second layer output values are stored in the 3D memory. 
     In operation  1535 , scalar values are read from the 3D memory. In some embodiments of operation  1535 , the scalar values are read from a first row of a plurality of 2D rows of the 3D memory. 
     In operation  1540 , scalar values stored in the 3D memory are shifted. For example, as described above, in some embodiments, the 3D memory is comprised of a two-dimensional array of shift registers. Adjacent and corresponding storage elements in different shift registers are linked, in some embodiments, via data paths. These data paths provide for shifting of values stored in the adjacent corresponding storage elements across rows of the 3D structure of the 3D memory. Thus, in some embodiments, operation  1540  is accomplished by shifting values from a source position in a source shift register to a corresponding destination position in a destination shift register. The source and destination shift registers are adjacent. In some embodiments, the destination shift register is in a lower order row of the 3D memory structure than the source shift register. The source position and destination position are corresponding, in that they share column and depth coordinates, and their position differs only in the row coordinate. 
       FIG. 16  illustrates a process  1600  for neural network processing. In some embodiments, one or more of the functions discussed below with respect to process  1600  are performed by the hardware processing unit  730  and/or the manipulator  740 , discussed above. After start operation  1605 , process  1600  moves to operation  1610 , which reads 2D values from a first row of a 3D memory unit. For example, as explained above with respect to  FIG. 6 , in some embodiments, data is read from the first row represented as portion  641 A into a vector  642 A by flattening the data. 
     In operation  1615 , the values are flattened. For example, as explained above with respect to  FIG. 6 , data from the first row, represented by portion  641 A are flattened when read into the vector  642 A. 
     In operation  1620 , the flattened 2D values are applied to a 2D kernel. For example, as discussed above with respect to  FIG. 6 , the flattened data stored in vector  642 A is applied to the 2D kernel  620 A (flattened into the kernel vector  643 A) to generate the result vector  645 A. In operation  1625 , data in a 3D memory unit is shifted along columns. For example, as discussed above with respect to  FIG. 6 , data included in a second row, represented by portion  641 B of a 3D memory unit is shifted into portion  641 A of the 3D memory unit. As discussed above with respect to  FIG. 9 , the disclosed 3D memory unit includes data paths  661  that provide for movement of data between corresponding storage elements in two adjacent rows of the 3D memory unit. Decision operation  1630  evaluates whether additional values stored in the 3D memory unit require processing. If more values exist, processing returns to operation  1610 . Otherwise, process  1600  moves to end operation  1635 . 
     The terms “unit”, “component”, and “module” are used in an interchangeable manner. 
     Any of the mentioned above memory or storage units may be implemented using any known technologies such as a volatile or nonvolatile memory including semiconductor-based memory units such as flash memory, EEPROM, EPROM, ROM; ferromagnetic digital memories; MRAM; volatile storage media including registers, buffers or caches, main memory, RAM, DRAM, SRAM, etc. 
     Any reference to any of the terms “comprise”, “comprises”, “comprising” “including”, “may include” and “includes” may be applied to any of the terms “consists”, “consisting”, “and consisting essentially of”. For example, any method describing steps may include more steps than those illustrated in the figure, only the steps illustrated in the figure or substantially only the steps illustrate in the figure. The same applies to components of a device, processor or system and to instructions stored in any non-transitory computer readable storage medium. 
     The invention may also be implemented in a computer program for running on a computer system, at least including code portions for performing steps of a method according to the invention when run on a programmable apparatus, such as a computer system or enabling a programmable apparatus to perform functions of a device or system according to the invention. The computer program may cause the storage system to allocate disk drives to disk drive groups. 
     A computer program is a list of instructions such as a particular application program and/or an operating system. The computer program may for instance include one or more of: a subroutine, a function, a procedure, an object method, an object implementation, an executable application, an applet, a servlet, a source code, an object code, a shared library/dynamic load library and/or other sequence of instructions designed for execution on a computer system. 
     The computer program may be stored internally on a non-transitory computer readable medium. All or some of the computer program may be provided on computer readable media permanently, removably or remotely coupled to an information processing system. The computer readable media may include, for example and without limitation, any number of the following: magnetic storage media including disk and tape storage media; optical storage media such as compact disk media (e.g., CD-ROM, CD-R, etc.) and digital video disk storage media; nonvolatile memory storage media including semiconductor-based memory units such as flash memory, EEPROM, EPROM, ROM; ferromagnetic digital memories; MRAM; volatile storage media including registers, buffers or caches, main memory, RAM, etc. 
     A computer process typically includes an executing (running) program or portion of a program, current program values and state information, and the resources used by the operating system to manage the execution of the process. An operating system (OS) is the software that manages the sharing of the resources of a computer and provides programmers with an interface used to access those resources. An operating system processes system values and user input, and responds by allocating and managing tasks and internal system resources as a service to users and programs of the system. 
     The computer system may for instance include at least one processing unit, associated memory and a number of input/output (I/O) devices. When executing the computer program, the computer system processes information according to the computer program and produces resultant output information via I/O devices. 
     In the foregoing specification, the invention has been described with reference to specific examples of embodiments of the invention. It will, however, be evident that various modifications and changes may be made therein without departing from the broader spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims. 
     Moreover, the terms “front,” “back,” “top,” “bottom,” “over,” “under” and the like in the description and in the claims, if any, are used for descriptive purposes and not necessarily for describing permanent relative positions. It is understood that the terms so used are interchangeable under appropriate circumstances such that the embodiments of the invention described herein are, for example, capable of operation in other orientations than those illustrated or otherwise described herein. 
     The connections as discussed herein may be any type of connection suitable to transfer signals from or to the respective nodes, units or devices, for example via intermediate devices. Accordingly, unless implied or stated otherwise, the connections may for example be direct connections or indirect connections. The connections may be illustrated or described as a single connection, a plurality of connections, unidirectional connections, or bidirectional connections. Different embodiments may vary the implementation of the connections. For example, separate unidirectional connections may be used rather than bidirectional connections and vice versa. Also, a plurality of connections may be replaced with a single connection that transfers multiple signals serially or in a time multiplexed manner. Likewise, single connections carrying multiple signals may be separated out into various different connections carrying subsets of these signals. Therefore, many options exist for transferring signals. 
     Although specific conductivity types or polarity of potentials have been described in the examples, it will be appreciated that conductivity types and polarities of potentials may be reversed. 
     Each signal described herein may be designed as positive or negative logic. In the case of a negative logic signal, the signal is active low where the logically true state corresponds to a logic level zero. In the case of a positive logic signal, the signal is active high where the logically true state corresponds to a logic level one. Note that any of the signals described herein may be designed as either negative or positive logic signals. Therefore, in alternate embodiments, those signals described as positive logic signals may be implemented as negative logic signals, and those signals described as negative logic signals may be implemented as positive logic signals. 
     Furthermore, the terms “assert” or “set” and “negate” (or “deassert” or “clear”) are used herein when referring to the rendering of a signal, status bit, or similar apparatus into its logically true or logically false state, respectively. If the logically true state is a logic level one, the logically false state is a logic level zero. And if the logically true state is a logic level zero, the logically false state is a logic level one. 
     Those skilled in the art will recognize that the boundaries between logic blocks are merely illustrative and that alternative embodiments may merge logic blocks or circuit elements or impose an alternate decomposition of functionality upon various logic blocks or circuit elements. Thus, it is to be understood that the architectures depicted herein are merely exemplary, and that in fact many other architectures may be implemented which achieve the same functionality. 
     Any arrangement of components to achieve the same functionality is effectively “associated” such that the desired functionality is achieved. Hence, any two components herein combined to achieve a particular functionality may be seen as “associated with” each other such that the desired functionality is achieved, irrespective of architectures or intermediate components. Likewise, any two components so associated can also be viewed as being “operably connected,” or “operably coupled,” to each other to achieve the desired functionality. 
     Furthermore, those skilled in the art will recognize that boundaries between the above described operations merely illustrative. The multiple operations may be combined into a single operation, a single operation may be distributed in additional operations and operations may be executed at least partially overlapping in time. Moreover, alternative embodiments may include multiple instances of a particular operation, and the order of operations may be altered in various other embodiments. 
     In some embodiments, the illustrated examples may be implemented as circuitry located on a single integrated circuit or within a same device. Alternatively, the examples may be implemented as any number of separate integrated circuits or separate devices interconnected with each other in a suitable manner. 
     The examples, or portions thereof, may implemented as soft or code representations of physical circuitry or of logical representations convertible into physical circuitry, such as in a hardware description language of any appropriate type. 
     Also, the invention is not limited to physical devices or units implemented in non-programmable hardware but can also be applied in programmable devices or units able to perform the desired device functions by operating in accordance with suitable program code, such as mainframes, minicomputers, servers, workstations, personal computers, notepads, personal digital assistants, electronic games, automotive and other embedded systems, cell phones and various other wireless devices, commonly denoted in this application as ‘computer systems’. 
     However, other modifications, variations and alternatives are also possible. The specifications and drawings are, accordingly, to be regarded in an illustrative rather than in a restrictive sense. 
     In the claims, any reference signs placed between parentheses shall not be construed as limiting the claim. The word ‘comprising’ does not exclude the presence of other elements or steps then those listed in a claim. Furthermore, the terms “a” or “an,” as used herein, are defined as one or more than one. Also, the use of introductory phrases such as “at least one” and “one or more” in the claims should not be construed to imply that the introduction of another claim element by the indefinite articles “a” or “an” limits any particular claim containing such introduced claim element to inventions containing only one such element, even when the same claim includes the introductory phrases “one or more” or “at least one” and indefinite articles such as “a” or “an.” The same holds true for the use of definite articles. Unless stated otherwise, terms such as “first” and “second” are used to arbitrarily distinguish between the elements such terms describe. Thus, these terms are not necessarily intended to indicate temporal or other prioritization of such elements. The mere fact that certain measures are recited in mutually different claims does not indicate that a combination of these measures cannot be used to advantage. 
     While certain features of the invention have been illustrated and described herein, many modifications, substitutions, changes, and equivalents will now occur to those of ordinary skill in the art. It is, therefore, to be understood that the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications and changes as fall within the true spirit of the invention. 
     The subject matter regarded as the invention is particularly pointed out and distinctly claimed in the concluding portion of the specification. The invention, however, both as to organization and method of operation, together with objects, features, and advantages thereof, may best be understood by reference to the following detailed description when read with the accompanying drawings. 
     It will be appreciated that for simplicity and clarity of illustration, elements shown in the figures have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements may be exaggerated relative to other elements for clarity. Further, where considered appropriate, reference numerals may be repeated among the figures to indicate corresponding or analogous elements. 
     Because the illustrated embodiments of the present invention may for the most part, be implemented using electronic components and circuits known to those skilled in the art, details will not be explained in any greater extent than that considered necessary as illustrated above, for the understanding and appreciation of the underlying concepts of the present invention and in order not to obfuscate or distract from the teachings of the present invention. 
     Any reference in the specification to a method should be applied mutatis mutandis to a system capable of executing the method and should be applied mutatis mutandis to a non-transitory computer readable medium that stores instructions that once executed by a computer result in the execution of the method. 
     Any reference in the specification to a system and any other component should be applied mutatis mutandis to a method that may be executed by the memory device and should be applied mutatis mutandis to a non-transitory computer readable medium that stores instructions that may be executed by the memory device. 
     Any reference in the specification to a non-transitory computer readable medium should be applied mutatis mutandis to a system capable of executing the instructions stored in the non-transitory computer readable medium and should be applied mutatis mutandis to method that may be executed by a computer that reads the instructions stored in the non-transitory computer readable medium. 
     Any combination of any module or unit listed in any of the figures, any part of the specification and/or any claims may be provided. Especially any combination of any claimed feature may be provided. 
     Examples, as described herein, may include, or may operate on, logic or a number of components, modules, or mechanisms. Modules are tangible entities (e.g., hardware) capable of performing specified operations and may be configured or arranged in a certain manner. In an example, circuits may be arranged (e.g., internally or with respect to external entities such as other circuits) in a specified manner as a module. In an example, the whole or part of one or more computer systems (e.g., a standalone, client or server computer system) or one or more hardware processors may be configured by firmware or software (e.g., instructions, an application portion, or an application) as a module that operates to perform specified operations. In an example, the software may reside on a machine readable medium. In an example, the software, when executed by the underlying hardware of the module, causes the hardware to perform the specified operations. 
     The techniques of various embodiments may be implemented using software, hardware and/or a combination of software and hardware. Various embodiments are directed to apparatus, e.g., management entities, e.g., a network monitoring node, routers, gateways, switches, access points, DHCP servers, DNS servers, AAA servers, user equipment devices, e.g., wireless nodes such as mobile wireless terminals, base stations, communications networks, and communications systems. Various embodiments are also directed to methods, e.g., method of controlling and/or operating a communications device or devices, e.g., a network management node, an access point, wireless terminals (WT), user equipment (UEs), base stations, control nodes, DHCP nodes, DNS servers, AAA nodes, Mobility Management Entities (MMEs), networks, and/or communications systems. Various embodiments are also directed to non-transitory machine, e.g., computer, readable medium, e.g., ROM, RAM, CDs, hard discs, etc., which include machine readable instructions for controlling a machine to implement one or more steps of a method. 
     It is understood that the specific order or hierarchy of steps in the processes disclosed are provided as example approaches. Based upon design preferences, it is understood that the specific order or hierarchy of steps in the processes may be rearranged while remaining within the scope of the present disclosure. The accompanying method claims present elements of the various steps in a sample order, and are not meant to be limited to the specific order or hierarchy presented. 
     In various embodiments devices and nodes described herein are implemented using one or more modules to perform the steps corresponding to one or more methods, for example, signal generation, transmitting, processing, analyzing, and/or receiving steps. Thus, in some embodiments various features are implemented using modules. Such modules may be implemented using software, hardware or a combination of software and hardware. In some embodiments each module is implemented as an individual circuit with the device or system including a separate circuit for implementing the function corresponding to each described module. Many of the above described methods or method steps can be implemented using machine executable instructions, such as software, included in a machine readable medium such as a memory device, e.g., RAM, floppy disk, etc. to control a machine, e.g., general purpose computer with or without additional hardware, to implement all or portions of the above described methods, e.g., in one or more nodes. Accordingly, among other things, various embodiments are directed to a machine-readable medium e.g., a non-transitory computer readable medium, including machine executable instructions for causing a machine, e.g., processor and associated hardware, to perform one or more of the steps of the above-described method(s). Some embodiments are directed to a device including a processor configured to implement one, multiple or all of the operations of the disclosed embodiments. 
     In some embodiments, the processor or processors, e.g., CPUs, of one or more devices, e.g., communications devices such as routers, switches, network attached servers, network management nodes, wireless terminals (UEs), and/or access nodes, are configured to perform the steps of the methods described as being performed by the devices. The configuration of the processor may be achieved by using one or more modules, e.g., software modules, to control processor configuration and/or by including hardware in the processor, e.g., hardware modules, to perform the recited steps and/or control processor configuration. Accordingly, some but not all embodiments are directed to a communications device, e.g., user equipment, with a processor which includes a module corresponding to each of the steps of the various described methods performed by the device in which the processor is included. In some but not all embodiments a communications device includes a module corresponding to each of the steps of the various described methods performed by the device in which the processor is included. The modules may be implemented purely in hardware, e.g., as circuits, or may be implemented using software and/or hardware or a combination of software and hardware. 
     Some embodiments are directed to a computer program product comprising a computer-readable medium comprising code for causing a computer, or multiple computers, to implement various functions, steps, acts and/or operations, e.g., one or more steps described above. Depending on the embodiment, the computer program product can, and sometimes does, include different code for each step to be performed. Thus, the computer program product may, and sometimes does, include code for each individual step of a method, e.g., a method of operating a communications device, e.g., a network management node, an access point, a base station, a wireless terminal or node. The code may be in the form of machine, e.g., computer, executable instructions stored on a computer-readable medium such as a RAM (Random Access Memory), ROM (Read Only Memory) or other type of storage device. In addition to being directed to a computer program product, some embodiments are directed to a processor configured to implement one or more of the various functions, steps, acts and/or operations of one or more methods described above. Accordingly, some embodiments are directed to a processor, e.g., CPU, configured to implement some or all of the steps of the methods described herein. The processor may be for use in, e.g., a communications device or other device described in the present application. 
     Numerous additional variations on the methods and apparatus of the various embodiments described above will be apparent to those skilled in the art in view of the above description. Such variations are to be considered within the scope. The methods and apparatus may be, and in various embodiments are, used with IP based and non-IP, wired and wireless such CDMA, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM), Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, BLE, optical and/or various other types of communications techniques which may be used to provide communications links between network attached or associated devices or other devices including receiver/transmitter circuits and logic and/or routines, for implementing the methods.