Patent Publication Number: US-11047004-B2

Title: Thiolated nucleotide analogues for nucleic acid synthesis

Description:
This application is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/937,211, filed Nov. 10, 2015. U.S. application Ser. No. 14/937,211 claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/078,323, filed on Nov. 11, 2014. All applications referenced in this section are incorporated by reference; each in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     The synthesis of nucleic acid polymers involves the enzyme-mediated incorporation of individual nucleotides to form and extend a nucleic acid polymer. Nucleotides that are typically used in this process are nucleoside polyphosphates, such as deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs) which can be incorporated in the synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA), and ribonucleotide triphosphates (NTPs) which can be incorporated in the synthesis of ribonucleic acids (RNA). When incorporated, nucleotides undergo hydrolysis of one or more of its phosphodiester bonds, thus providing the thermodynamic driving force for the overall reaction. For example, extension of a DNA strand with a single dNTP can result in the DNA extended by the single nucleotide and the release of pyrophosphate (PPi). 
     SUMMARY 
     This application relates to sulfur-containing (i.e., thiolated) analogues of nucleotides that are useful for nucleic acid synthesis, and methods for using thiolated analogues of nucleotides. 
     In some embodiments, the present teachings provide systems, compositions, methods, reagents, kits and products for extending a nucleic acid that includes incorporating a nucleotide residue at a terminus of a nucleic acid using a polymerase enzyme and at least one nucleotide, wherein the at least one nucleotide includes a thiophosphate moiety, and wherein the at least one nucleotide is resistant to hydrolysis by phosphatase. In some embodiments, the incorporation of the nucleotide residue is template-directed. In some embodiments, the thiolated nucleotide is resistant to pyrophosphatase. 
     In some embodiments, the thiolated nucleotide is a deoxyribonucleotide. In some embodiments, the thiolated nucleotide is a deoxyribonucleotide thio-triphosphate. In some embodiments, the thiolated nucleotide is a deoxyribonucleotide-5′-γ[gamma]-thio-triphosphate. 
     In some embodiments, the incorporation of the nucleotide residue is performed in the presence of a phosphatase. In some embodiments, the polyphosphate leaving group produced upon incorporation of the nucleotide residue in the extended nucleic acid is hydrolyzed. In some embodiments, the pyrophosphate leaving group is a thio-pyrophosphate. In some embodiments, the polyphosphate leaving group is a thio-triphosphate. In some embodiments, the polyphosphate leaving group is a thio-tetraphosphate. 
     In the some embodiments, the present teachings provide systems, compositions, methods, reagents, kits and products in which the specific rate of incorporation of the nucleotide with the thiophosphate moiety is at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 97.5%, or at least 99% of the specific rate of incorporation of the analogous nucleotide without the thiophosphate moiety. In some embodiments, the rate of incorporation is based on the rate of incorporation of the polymerase enzyme which is a Bst polymerase. 
     In the some embodiments, the present teachings provide systems, compositions, methods, reagents, kits and products in which the incorporation of the nucleotide residue is performed in the presence of at least one chelation moiety, wherein the chelation moiety is configured to bind an orthophosphate moiety. In some embodiments, the chelation moiety is configured to bind an orthophosphate moiety, wherein the orthophosphate moiety is a monobasic orthophosphate, a dibasic orthophosphate, a tribasic orthophosphate, a monobasic thiophosphate, a dibasic thiophosphate, or a tribasic thiophosphate. 
     In the some embodiments, the present teachings provide systems, compositions, methods, reagents, kits and products for identifying a base at a position in a target nucleic acid, including incorporating a nucleotide residue at a terminus of an extension primer that is hybridized to the target nucleic acid using a polymerase enzyme and at least one nucleotide, and identifying the position in a target nucleic acid based on the incorporation of the nucleotide residue, wherein the at least one nucleotide includes a thiophosphate moiety, and wherein the nucleotide is resistant to hydrolysis by phosphatase, wherein the nucleotide residue is incorporated when the nucleotide includes a base that is complementary to the corresponding position in the target nucleic acid. 
     In the some embodiments, the present teachings provide systems, compositions, methods, reagents, kits and products that include a composition that includes a polymerase enzyme, at least one nucleotide, wherein the nucleotide includes a thiophosphate moiety and is resistant to hydrolysis by phosphatase. In some embodiments, the composition includes a phosphatase, such as pyrophosphatase or alkaline phosphatase. In some embodiments, the composition includes a nucleic acid and an extension primer complementary to at least a portion of the nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the composition includes at least one chelation moiety, wherein the chelation moiety is configured to bind an orthophosphate moiety. 
     In the some embodiments, the present teachings provide systems, compositions, methods, reagents, kits and products that include a compound that includes a nucleotide that includes a thiophosphate moiety and which is resistant to hydrolysis by phosphatase. In some embodiments, the nucleotide is resistant to hydrolysis by pyrophosphatase. In some embodiments, the nucleotide is a deoxyribonucleotide. In some embodiments, the nucleotide is a deoxyribonucleotide thio-triphosphate. In some embodiments, the nucleotide is a deoxyribonucleotide-5′-γ[gamma]-thio-triphosphate. In some embodiments, the polymerase-mediated specific rate of incorporation of the nucleotide with the thiophosphate moiety is at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 97.5%, or at least 99% of the polymerase-mediated specific rate of incorporation of the analogous nucleotide without the thiophosphate moiety. In some embodiments, the specific rate of incorporation of the nucleotide with the thiophosphate moiety is the same or greater than the specific rate of incorporation of the analogous nucleotide without the thiophosphate moiety. In some embodiments, the rate of incorporation is based on the polymerase enzyme which is a Bst polymerase. 
     The present disclosure provides methods, systems, compositions, reagents, kits and products for identifying a base at a position in a target nucleic acid, comprising: (a) incorporating a nucleotide at a terminus of an extension primer that is hybridized to the target nucleic acid using a polymerase enzyme and at least one nucleotide, wherein the terminal phosphate of the at least one nucleotide includes a thio-phosphate moiety, wherein the at least one nucleotide is resistant to hydrolysis by a phosphatase enzyme, and wherein the nucleotide incorporation produces a thio-pyrophosphate and a hydrogen ion or a proton; and (b) identifying the nucleotide that is incorporated at the terminus of the extension primer. In some embodiments, the at least one nucleotide is resistant to hydrolysis by a pyrophosphatase enzyme. In some embodiments, the nucleotide incorporating step is performed in the presence of a phosphatase enzyme and/or in the presence of a pyrophosphatase enzyme. In some embodiments, the at least one nucleotide comprises a deoxyribonucleotide-5′-γ[gamma]-thio-triphosphate. In some embodiments, the methods, systems, compositions, reagents, kits and products further comprises hydrolyzing the thio-pyrophosphate in the presence of the phosphatase, thereby producing an orthophosphate. In some embodiments, the methods, systems, compositions, reagents, kits and products further comprises identifying the nucleotide that is incorporated at the terminus of the extension primer by detecting the hydrogen ion or the proton. In some embodiments, the nucleotide incorporation step is conducted in the presence of at least one chelation moiety, wherein the chelation moiety is configured to bind the orthophosphate moiety. In some embodiments, the methods, systems, compositions, reagents, kits and products further comprises binding the at least one chelation moiety to the orthophosphate. In some embodiments, the orthophosphate is selected from a monobasic orthophosphate, a dibasic orthophosphate, a tribasic orthophosphate, a monobasic thiophosphate, a dibasic thiophosphate, and a tribasic thiophosphate. In some embodiments, the specific rate of incorporation of the nucleotide with the thiophosphate moiety is at least 95% of the specific rate of incorporation of the analogous nucleotide without the thiophosphate moiety. In some embodiments, the polymerase enzyme is a wild-type or mutant Bst polymerase enzyme. In some embodiments, the incorporating the nucleotide is conducted in a reaction chamber that is operatively coupled at least one ion sensor that detects hydrogen ions or protons. In some embodiments, the at least one ion sensor comprises and ISFET. In some embodiments, the incorporating the nucleotide in step (a) is conducted on an array of reaction chambers, wherein individual reaction chambers in the array are operatively coupled to at least one ion sensor that detects hydrogen ions or protons. In some embodiments, the individual reaction chambers in the array are operatively coupled to at least one ISFET. 
    
    
     
       DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  depicts schematically an exemplary nucleotide extension reaction involving the incorporation of a nucleotide in the presence of an enzyme having nucleic acid polymerase activity. 
         FIG. 2  depicts schematically an exemplary nucleotide extension reaction involving the incorporation of a nucleotide in the presence of an enzyme having nucleic acid polymerase activity and an enzyme having phosphatase activity. 
         FIG. 3  depicts schematically an exemplary nucleotide extension reaction involving the incorporation of a nucleotide with a thiophosphate moiety in the presence of an enzyme having nucleic acid polymerase activity and an enzyme having phosphatase activity. 
         FIG. 4  depicts an exemplary phosphatase resistance assay of nucleotide triphosphate and nucleotide gamma-S-triphosphate. 
         FIG. 5  depicts schematically an exemplary phosphate complexing agent. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The extension of nucleic acid polymers by the incorporation of individual nucleotides is a key feature of many processes in molecular biology, both in natural and artificial contexts. Examples of the latter which entail steps of nucleic acid extension include nucleic acid amplification, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and nucleic acid sequencing. Nucleic acid extension involves the incorporation of a nucleotide residue by a polymerase into the nucleic acid that is being extended. This incorporation and extension is typically mediated by an enzyme, such as a nucleic acid polymerase, and uses an activated version of the nucleotide to be incorporated. An activated nucleotide typically includes one or more high-energy chemical bonds, at least one of which is broken and/or reformed as a lower energy bond, thus providing the free energy to drive the extension reaction. In certain embodiments, the activated chemical bond include, but are not limited to, phosphodiester bonds, phosphoramidite bonds, phosphothioester bonds, phosphoramine bonds, and the like. 
     A particular application of nucleic acid extension reactions is in the field of nucleic acid sequencing. In nearly all sequencing platforms, whether it be chemical degradation, chain-termination, sequence-by-synthesis, pyrosequencing, massively parallel, ion-sensitive, or single molecule platforms, the key step in determining the sequence of a target nucleic acid involves the extension of nucleic acid by incorporation of one or more nucleotides. 
     As shown in  FIG. 1 , an exemplary polymerase-mediated nucleic acid extension reaction is shown. A nucleotide triphosphate in the presence of magnesium ion, polymerase enzyme, and the terminal end of a nucleic acid is incorporated at the terminus of the nucleic acid. The incorporation reaction typically results in a release of a pyrophosphate moiety and a hydrogen ion or proton. This reaction is a net exergonic reaction as a result of the free energy contribution by the hydrolysis of a phosphate diester bond. 
     As depicted in the schematic of the extension reaction, certain by-products are produced as a result of this extension reaction, specifically an equivalent each of hydrogen ion and pyrophosphate. In certain embodiments, one or more of the products of the reaction can be used to detect or measure the extension reaction. For example, as described herein, ion-based nucleic acid sequencing methods and platforms include the Ion Torrent PGM™ or Proton™ sequencer (Ion Torrent™ Systems, Life Technologies Corporation) the released hydrogen ion can result in a pH change in the reaction environment, which can be detected by an ion sensor. In certain embodiments, the extension reaction is performed in a microwell, to which the ion sensor is coupled. Advantages of performing the extension reaction in a defined space such as a microwell include the ability to control the influx and efflux of reagents and by-products. Another advantage is the ability to perform a multiplicity of extension reaction equivalents in the same defined space, which can produce a corresponding increase in equivalents of reaction products. Particularly if the multiple extension reactions are extensions of a homogenous population of template nucleic acids, such as would be performed in a sequencing reaction, the multiple parallel reactions will additively produce a larger signal to be detected and measured. 
     One manner in which sequencing technology continuously advances is miniaturization. For example, by decreasing the physical footprint in which the nucleic acid extension reactions occurs, such as by decreasing the size and/or volume of the microwell containing the extension reaction, one can increase the number of reactions that can be performed within a given space or area on a platform or substrate. However, one disadvantage that can arise from reducing the size in this manner is that the quantity of extension reactions (e.g. the absolute number of extension reactions) in each microwell can be reduced. In embodiments in which detection or measurement of the extension reaction is based on detection or measurement of one or more by-products of the reaction, then this reduction can result in a decreased total signal to measure the progress of the extension reactions. 
     A further effect of this reduced signal can be a reduction in the effective read-length of each sequencing reaction. In embodiments in which each reaction involves sequential extension reaction, the efficiency and yield of each extension can decrease with each nucleotide that is incorporated. As a result of the decreased efficiency, in conjunction with the decreased signal due to the reduced amount of the reaction, the effective read-length measured in each well can also be reduced. 
     Thus, one strategy to counter this decrease in total efficiency resulting from a decreased number of reactions is to increase the efficiency of the extension reactions. In some embodiments, such as the extension reaction shown in  FIG. 1 , the schematically-depicted extension reaction results in hydrogen ion and pyrophosphate as by-products. However, this extension reaction can be driven further exergonically by hydrolysis of a second high-energy diester bond in the pyrophosphate by-product, thereby increasing the net favorable free energy, and hence the efficiency, of each nucleotide incorporation. An exemplary embodiment of this reaction is shown in  FIG. 2 . As shown in this exemplary schematic reaction, the nucleotide incorporation reaction shown in  FIG. 1  is performed in the presence of an additional enzyme having phosphatase and/or pyrophosphatase activity, which results in the hydrolysis of a second phosphodiester bond. This second hydrolysis increases the net free energy of the reaction and can result in an increased yield and efficiency of the first nucleotide incorporation step. 
     Although the exemplary reaction depicted in  FIG. 2  can result in an extension reaction having a higher efficiency of the overall nucleotide incorporation reaction, in certain contexts and embodiments this approach can have certain disadvantages. For example, sequencing methods that measure or detect the hydrogen ion by-product can be hindered by the additional hydrolysis step as the orthophosphates produced as by-products in this reaction can act as conjugate bases, thus neutralizing any net production of hydrogen ions. 
     The schematic exemplary reaction of  FIG. 2  also has other potential disadvantages in certain embodiments and contexts. For example, although the hydrolysis by the phosphatase and/or pyrophosphatase activity can increase the efficiency of the reaction as described above, the nucleotide polyphosphate starting reagent, such as the commonly used nucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs or NTPs), can also be susceptible to hydrolysis by the same phosphatase and/or pyrophosphatase activity. Thus, without isolating the nucleotide polyphosphates from the subsequent phosphatase and/or pyrophosphatase activity, or modifying the nucleotide polyphosphate to render it resistant to said activity, the reaction as shown may not be able to be performed in a single reaction environment with all reagents and enzymes present simultaneously. Moreover, attempts to mitigate this problem by modification of the nucleotide polyphosphate to render it resistant to phosphatase and/or pyrophosphatase activity, such as by the addition of a protecting group, can also result in a nucleotide that may be a poorer substrate for the polymerase enzyme. 
     In certain embodiments, the present disclosure relates to compounds, compositions, methods, systems, apparatus and kits that include a nucleotide that includes at least one thiophosphate moiety. In certain embodiments, a thiophosphate moiety includes a molecular substructure having the formula of PS 4-x O x   3− . In certain embodiments, a thiophosphate moiety includes a molecular substructure having the formula of PSO 3   3− , PS 2 O 2   3− , PS 3 O 3− , PS 3 O 3− , or phosphate-based derivatives of any of the foregoing, including phosphoesters, phosphodiesters, phosphotriesters, phosphoamides, or phosphodiamides. In some embodiments, the thiophosphate can include or be substituted with any one or more of the following, or any suitable combination thereof: one or more alkyl groups, one or more cycloalkyl groups, one or more aryl groups, one or more heteroaryl groups, one or more halogen groups, one or more amino groups, one or more alkylamino groups, one or more dialkylamino groups, one or more mercapto or thio groups, one or more alkylthio groups, or one or more cyclic derivatives of the foregoing (e.g., cycloalkyl groups), or any suitable combination thereof. 
     In certain embodiments, the thiolated nucleotide having a thiophosphate moiety is a nucleoside polyphosphate, such as a nucleotide diphosphate, a nucleoside triphosphate, a nucleoside tetraphosphate, a nucleoside pentaphosphate, or nucleotides having 6, 7, 8, 9 10 or more phosphates, or higher-order polyphosphates, in which one or more of the phosphate moieties is a thiophosphate moiety. In certain embodiments, the sulfur of the thiophosphate moiety is connected only to the phosphate and optionally a hydrogen. In certain embodiments, the sulfur of the thiophosphate moiety bridges two phosphate centers. 
     In certain embodiments, the sulfur is bonded to the phosphate most proximate to the nucleoside, thus forming part of the α (alpha)-thiophosphate of the nucleoside polyphosphate. In certain embodiments, the sulfur is bonded to the phosphate that is second-most proximate to the nucleoside, thus forming part of the β (beta)-thiophosphate of the nucleoside polyphosphate. In certain embodiments, the sulfur is bonded to the phosphate that is third-most proximate to the nucleoside, thus forming part of the γ (gamma)-thiophosphate of the nucleoside polyphosphate. In certain embodiments, the sulfur is bonded to the phosphate that is fourth-most proximate to the nucleoside, thus forming part of the δ (delta)-thiophosphate of the nucleoside polyphosphate. In certain embodiments, the sulfur is bonded to the phosphate that is fifth-most proximate to the nucleoside, thus forming part of the ε (epsilon)-thiophosphate of the nucleoside. polyphosphate. 
     In certain embodiments, the sulfur is bonded to the phosphate that is the terminal phosphate of the nucleoside polyphosphate. 
     In certain embodiments, the sulfur is bonded to the phosphate that is third-most proximate to the nucleoside, thus forming part of the γ (gamma)-thiophosphate of the nucleoside polyphosphate, and which is also the terminal phosphate of the nucleoside thiophosphate. An example of this species is depicted in  FIG. 3  in the form of a nucleoside γ (gamma)-thiophosphate 
     Without intending to be bound by theory, the thiolated nucleotides of the present disclosure are resistant to hydrolysis by enzymes having phosphatase and/or pyrophosphatase activity. In certain embodiments, thiolated nucleotides in which the sulfur is bonded to the terminal polyphosphate of a nucleoside polyphosphate are resistant to phosphatase or pyrophosphatase activity. 
     As an example of this resistant, representative results from an exemplary experiment are depicted in  FIG. 4 . This figure shows the normalized fluorescence intensity over time of two different nucleoside polyphosphates, γ-S-thymidinyl-triphosphate (“gamma STTP) and thymidinyl-triphosphate (“TTP”) in the presence or absence of calf intestinal alkaline phosphatase (“CIP”). Phosphatase-mediated hydrolysis is reflected as a non-increasing level of fluorescence, whereas phosphatase resistance is reflected as an increase in normalized fluorescence intensity. Therefore, as depicted in this exemplary experiment, the thiolated nucleotide showed a resistance to phosphatase that was not reflected in the analogous non-thiolated nucleotide, TTP. 
     In certain embodiments, the thiolated nucleotides of the present disclosure are incorporated in nucleic acid extension reactions by polymerase enzymes at the same or substantially the same rate and/or affinity. In some embodiments, the polymerase-mediated specific rate of incorporation of the nucleotide with the thiophosphate moiety is at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 97.5%, or at least 99% of the polymerase-mediated specific rate of incorporation of the analogous nucleotide without the thiophosphate moiety. In some embodiments, the specific rate of incorporation of the nucleotide with the thiophosphate moiety is the same or greater than the specific rate of incorporation of the analogous nucleotide without the thiophosphate moiety. In some embodiments, the rate of incorporation is based on the polymerase enzyme which is a Bst polymerase. Without intending to be bound by theory, thiolated nucleotides of the present disclosure are incorporated at the same or substantially the same rate as their non-thiolated counterpart because the substitution of an oxygen atom for a sulfur atom is relatively non-disruptive with respect to steric and polarity properties. Moreover, the thiolated nucleotides in which the sulfur is present at the terminal (e.g., gamma) position of the polyphosphate would mean that this substitution is the most distal from the alpha-phosphate where the incorporation reaction is concerned. 
     In some embodiments, the present teachings provide systems, compositions, methods, reagents, kits and products for extending a nucleic acid that includes incorporating a nucleotide residue at a terminus of a nucleic acid using a polymerase enzyme and at least one nucleotide, wherein the at least one nucleotide includes a thiophosphate moiety, and wherein the at least one nucleotide is resistant to hydrolysis by phosphatase. In some embodiments, the incorporation of the nucleotide residue is template-directed. In some embodiments, the thiolated nucleotide is resistant to pyrophosphatase. 
     In some embodiments, the thiolated nucleotide is a deoxyribonucleotide. In some embodiments, the thiolated nucleotide is a deoxyribonucleotide thio-triphosphate. In some embodiments, the thiolated nucleotide is a deoxyribonucleotide-5′-γ[gamma]-thio-triphosphate. 
     In some embodiments, the incorporation of the nucleotide residue is performed in the presence of a phosphatase. In some embodiments, the polyphosphate leaving group produced upon incorporation of the nucleotide residue in the extended nucleic acid is hydrolyzed. In some embodiments, the pyrophosphate leaving group is a thio-pyrophosphate. 
     In the some embodiments, the present teachings provide systems, compositions, methods, reagents, kits and products in which the specific rate of incorporation of the nucleotide with the thiophosphate moiety is at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 97.5%, or at least 99% of the specific rate of incorporation of the analogous nucleotide without the thiophosphate moiety. In some embodiments, the rate of incorporation is based on the rate of incorporation of the polymerase enzyme which is a Bst polymerase. 
     In the some embodiments, the present teachings provide systems, compositions, methods, reagents, kits and products in which the incorporation of the nucleotide residue is performed in the presence of at least one chelation moiety, wherein the chelation moiety is configured to bind an orthophosphate moiety. In some embodiments, the chelation moiety is configured to bind preferentially to an orthophosphate moiety compared to a pyrophosphate or thiopyrophosphate moiety. In some embodiments, the chelation moiety is configured to bind an orthophosphate moiety, wherein the orthophosphate moiety is a monobasic orthophosphate, a dibasic orthophosphate, a tribasic orthophosphate, a monobasic thiophosphate, a dibasic thiophosphate, or a tribasic thiophosphate. 
     In the some embodiments, the present teachings provide systems, compositions, methods, reagents, kits and products for identifying a base at a position in a target nucleic acid, including incorporating a nucleotide residue at a terminus of an extension primer that is hybridized to the target nucleic acid using a polymerase enzyme and at least one nucleotide, and identifying the position in a target nucleic acid based on the incorporation of the nucleotide residue, wherein the at least one nucleotide includes a thiophosphate moiety, and wherein the nucleotide is resistant to hydrolysis by phosphatase, wherein the nucleotide residue is incorporated when the nucleotide includes a base that is complementary to the corresponding position in the target nucleic acid. 
     In the some embodiments, the present teachings provide systems, compositions, methods, reagents, kits and products that include a composition that includes a polymerase enzyme, at least one nucleotide, wherein the nucleotide includes a thiophosphate moiety and is resistant to hydrolysis by phosphatase. In some embodiments, the composition includes a phosphatase, such as pyrophosphatase. In some embodiments, the composition includes a nucleic acid and an extension primer complementary to at least a portion of the nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the composition includes at least one chelation moiety, wherein the chelation moiety is configured to bind an orthophosphate moiety. 
     In the some embodiments, the present teachings provide systems, compositions, methods, reagents, kits and products that include a compound that includes a nucleotide that includes a thiophosphate moiety and which is resistant to hydrolysis by phosphatase. In some embodiments, the nucleotide is resistant to hydrolysis by pyrophosphatase. In some embodiments, the nucleotide is a deoxyribonucleotide. In some embodiments, the nucleotide is a deoxyribonucleotide thio-triphosphate. In some embodiments, the nucleotide is a deoxyribonucleotide-5′-γ[gamma]-thio-triphosphate. In some embodiments, the polymerase-mediated specific rate of incorporation of the nucleotide with the thiophosphate moiety is at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 97.5%, or at least 99% of the polymerase-mediated specific rate of incorporation of the analogous nucleotide without the thiophosphate moiety. In some embodiments, the specific rate of incorporation of the nucleotide with the thiophosphate moiety is the same or greater than the specific rate of incorporation of the analogous nucleotide without the thiophosphate moiety. In some embodiments, the rate of incorporation is based on the polymerase enzyme which is a Bst polymerase 
     In certain embodiments, the present description relates to other improvements to enhance the efficiency of the nucleotide incorporation reactions used in, for example, nucleic acid extension reactions used in nucleic acid sequencing analysis as described herein. In certain embodiments, such improvements can be used independently or in conjunction with other improved described herein or known in the art. 
     As discussed herein, the efficiency of a nucleotide incorporation reaction, such as when used as part of a nucleic acid extension reaction, can be enhanced by removing by-products of the reaction, such as by hydrolysis of the pyrophosphate or thiopyrophosphate by-products. In this manner, the net favorable energetics of the overall reaction are increased by the additional hydrolysis step. Another analogous approach is to sequester or otherwise remove one or more by-products of the reaction. Without intending to be bound by theory, sequestration of by-products may improve the overall reaction efficiency by shifting the equilibrium of the reaction towards completion by decreasing the concentration of the sequestered by-products. Moreover, sequestration of one or more by-products can also prevent or limit the participation of the by-product in side-reactions that would otherwise diminish the detection or measurement of other by products. For example, as described herein, certain sequencing technologies rely on detection or measurement of the hydrogen ions generated during the nucleic acid extension reaction. However, as described herein, the generation of orthophosphate or thiophosphate moieties, particularly those having basic equivalents, may absorb the hydrogen ions produced during the reaction. Without intending to be bound by theory, by sequestering orthophosphate or thiophosphate moieties, particularly when such moieties are in their basic forms, can limit or prevent their neutralization of the hydrogen ions by their basic phosphate or thiophosphate equivalents. 
     As an example of these embodiments, the present disclosure includes the use of one or more complexing moieties that is configured to bind a phosphate moiety, a thiophosphate moiety, or analogues thereof. For example, as depicted in  FIG. 5 , an exemplary complexing molecule that is capable of binding a phosphate or thiophosphate moiety. 
     In certain embodiments, complexing agents of the present disclosure have preferred affinities for monobasic, dibasic, or tribasic orthophosphate. In certain preferred embodiments, complexing agents have preferred affinities for tribasic orthophosphate (PO 4   3− ), which may release the highest number of equivalents of hydrogen ions. 
     In certain embodiments, complexing agents of the present disclosure have preferred affinities for monobasic, dibasic, or tribasic thiophosphate. In certain preferred embodiments, complexing agents have preferred affinities for tribasic orthophosphate (PSO 3   3− ), which may release the highest number of equivalents of hydrogen ions. 
     In certain embodiments, complexing agents of the present disclosure are able to bind their preferred orthophosphate or thiophosphate species at a pH at which the nucleotide extension reaction is performed. In this manner, the sequestration of the phosphate or thiophosphate species can occur in substantially real-time with the generation of the phosphate or thiophosphate from the reaction. 
     In certain embodiments, complexing agents of the present disclosure have a low affinity for the nucleoside polyphosphate or nucleoside thiolated polyphosphate, or a lower affinity for the nucleoside polyphosphate or nucleoside thiolated polyphosphate as compared to orthophosphate or thiophosphate. 
     A nucleotide comprises any compound that can bind selectively to, or can be polymerized by, a polymerase. Typically, but not necessarily, selective binding of the nucleotide to the polymerase is followed by polymerization of the nucleotide into a nucleic acid strand by the polymerase; occasionally however the nucleotide may dissociate from the polymerase without becoming incorporated into the nucleic acid strand, an event referred to herein as a “non-productive” event. A nucleotide polymerization reaction (also called a “nucleotide incorporation” reaction) can include primer extension reactions, nucleic acid amplification reactions, or sequence-by-synthesis reactions. Nucleotides include not only naturally occurring nucleotides but also any analogs, regardless of their structure, that can bind selectively to, or can be polymerized by, a polymerase. While naturally occurring nucleotides typically comprise base, sugar and phosphate moieties, the nucleotides of the present disclosure can include compounds lacking any one, some or all of such moieties. In some embodiments, the nucleotide can optionally include a chain of phosphorus atoms comprising three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten or more phosphorus atoms. In some embodiments, the phosphorus chain can be attached to any carbon of a sugar ring, such as the 5′ carbon. The phosphorus chain can be linked to the sugar with an intervening O or S. In some embodiments, one or more phosphorus atoms in the chain can be part of a phosphate group having P and O. In some embodiments, the phosphorus atoms in the chain can be linked together with intervening O, NH, S, methylene, substituted methylene, ethylene, substituted ethylene, CNH 2 , C(O), C(CH 2 ), CH 2 CH 2 , or C(OH)CH 2 R (where R can be a 4-pyridine or 1-imidazole). In some embodiments, the phosphorus atoms in the chain can have at least one side group including O, BH 3 , or S. In the phosphorus chain, a phosphorus atom with a side group other than O can be a substituted phosphate group. In the phosphorus chain, phosphorus atoms with an intervening atom other than O can be a substituted phosphate group. Some examples of nucleotide analogs are described in 
     Some examples of nucleotides that can be used in the disclosed methods and compositions include, but are not limited to, ribonucleotides, deoxyribonucleotides, modified ribonucleotides, modified deoxyribonucleotides, ribonucleotide polyphosphates, deoxyribonucleotide polyphosphates, modified ribonucleotide polyphosphates, modified deoxyribonucleotide polyphosphates, peptide nucleotides, modified peptide nucleotides, metallonucleosides, phosphonate nucleosides, and modified phosphate-sugar backbone nucleotides, analogs, derivatives, or variants of the foregoing compounds. In some embodiments, the nucleotide can comprise non-oxygen moieties such as, for example, thio- or borano-moieties, in place of the oxygen moiety bridging the alpha phosphate and the sugar of the nucleotide, or the alpha and beta phosphates of the nucleotide, or the beta and gamma phosphates of the nucleotide, or between any other two phosphates of the nucleotide, or any combination thereof. 
     In some embodiments, a nucleotide can include a purine or pyrimidine base, including adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine or uracil. In some embodiments, a nucleotide includes dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dTTP and dUTP. 
     In some embodiments, the nucleotide is unlabeled. In some embodiments, the nucleotide comprises a label and referred to herein as a “labeled nucleotide”. In some embodiments, the label can be attached to any portion of a nucleotide including a base, sugar or any intervening phosphate group or a terminal phosphate group, i.e., the phosphate group most distal from the sugar. 
     In some embodiments, a nucleotide (or analog thereof) can be attached to a label. In some embodiments, a label comprises a detectable moiety. In some embodiments, a label can generate, or cause to generate, a detectable signal. A detectable signal can be generated from a chemical or physical change (e.g., heat, light, electrical, pH, salt concentration, enzymatic activity, or proximity events). For example, a proximity event can include two reporter moieties approaching each other, or associating with each other, or binding each other. A detectable signal can be detected optically, electrically, chemically, enzymatically, thermally, or via mass spectroscopy or Raman spectroscopy. A label can include compounds that are luminescent, photoluminescent, electroluminescent, bioluminescent, chemiluminescent, fluorescent, phosphorescent or electrochemical. A label can include compounds that are fluorophores, chromophores, radioisotopes, haptens, affinity tags, atoms or enzymes. In some embodiments, the label comprises a moiety not typically present in naturally occurring nucleotides. For example, the label can include fluorescent, luminescent or radioactive moieties. 
     By way of a non-limiting example of nucleotide incorporation (e.g., DNA polymerization), the steps or events of nucleotide incorporation are well known and generally comprise: (1) complementary base-pairing a template DNA molecule with a DNA primer molecule having a terminal 3′ OH (the terminal 3′ OH provides the polymerization initiation site for DNA polymerase); (2) binding the base-paired template/primer duplex with a DNA-dependent polymerase to form a complex; (3) a candidate nucleotide binds with the DNA polymerase which interrogates the candidate nucleotide for complementarity with the template nucleotide on the template DNA molecule; (4) the DNA polymerase may undergo a conformational change (e.g., from an open to a closed complex if the candidate nucleotide is complementary); (5) the polymerase catalyzes nucleotide incorporation. 
     In one embodiment, the polymerase catalyzes nucleotide incorporation by forming a bond between the candidate nucleotide and the nucleotide at the terminal end of the polymerization initiation site. The polymerase can catalyze the terminal 3′ OH of the primer exerting a nucleophilic attack on the bond between the α and β phosphates of the candidate nucleotide to mediate a nucleotidyl transferase reaction resulting in phosphodiester bond formation between the terminal 3′ end of the primer and the candidate nucleotide (i.e., nucleotide incorporation in a template-dependent manner), and concomitant cleavage to form a cleavage product. The polymerase can liberate the cleavage product. In some embodiments, where the polymerase incorporates a nucleotide having phosphate groups, the cleavage product includes one or more phosphate groups. In some embodiments, where the polymerase incorporates a nucleotide having substituted phosphate groups, the cleavage product may include one or more substituted phosphate groups. In some embodiments, nucleotide incorporation reactions produce one or more cleavage products (e.g., byproducts) including polyphosphate compounds (pyrophosphates), hydrogen ions, or protons. 
     The candidate nucleotide may or may not be complementary to the template nucleotide on the template molecule. The candidate nucleotide can bind the polymerase and then dissociate from the polymerase. If the nucleotide dissociates from the polymerase (e.g., it is not incorporated), it can be liberated and typically carries intact polyphosphate groups. 
     In some embodiments, nucleotide incorporation can be a reverse transcriptase reaction which includes a nucleic acid template (RNA or DNA), primers, nucleotides (or analogs thereof) and reverse transcriptase enzyme. In some embodiments, nucleotide incorporation can be a transcription reaction which includes an RNA template, nucleotides (or analogs thereof) and a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzyme. Nucleotide incorporation events involving reverse transcriptase or DNA-dependent RNA polymerase are well known in the art. 
     In some embodiments, a nucleotide incorporation reaction can include natural nucleotides, nucleotide analogs, or a combination of both. 
     A polymerase comprises any enzyme that can catalyze the polymerization of nucleotides (including analogs thereof) into a nucleic acid strand. Typically but not necessarily such nucleotide polymerization can occur in a template-dependent fashion. Such polymerases can include without limitation naturally occurring polymerases and any subunits and truncations thereof, mutant polymerases, variant polymerases, recombinant, fusion or otherwise engineered polymerases, chemically modified polymerases, synthetic molecules or assemblies, and any analogs, derivatives or fragments thereof that retain the ability to catalyze such polymerization. Optionally, the polymerase can be a mutant polymerase comprising one or more mutations involving the replacement of one or more amino acids with other amino acids, the insertion or deletion of one or more amino acids from the polymerase, or the linkage of parts of two or more polymerases. The term “polymerase” and its variants, as used herein, also refers to fusion proteins comprising at least two portions linked to each other, where the first portion comprises a peptide that can catalyze the polymerization of nucleotides into a nucleic acid strand and is linked to a second portion that comprises a second polypeptide, such as, for example, a reporter enzyme or a processivity-enhancing domain. In some embodiments, a polymerase can be a high fidelity polymerase. Typically, the polymerase comprises one or more active sites at which nucleotide binding and/or catalysis of nucleotide polymerization can occur. In some embodiments, a polymerase includes or lacks other enzymatic activities, such as for example, 3′ to 5′ exonuclease activity, 5′ to 3′ exonuclease activity, or strand displacement activity. In some embodiments, a polymerase can be isolated from a cell, or generated using recombinant DNA technology or chemical synthesis methods. In some embodiments, a polymerase can be expressed in prokaryote, eukaryote, viral, or phage organisms. In some embodiments, a polymerase can be post-translationally modified proteins or fragments thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the polymerase can include any one or more polymerases, or biologically active fragment of a polymerase, which are described in any of: U.S. published application No. 2011/0262903, published Oct. 27, 2011; International PCT Publication No. WO 2013/023176, published Feb. 14, 2013; International PCT Publication No. WO 2013/023176, published Feb. 14, 2013; U.S. 61/884,921, filed Sep. 30, 2013; U.S. published application No. 2011/0262903, published Oct. 27, 2011; U.S. published application No. 2011/0301041, published Dec. 8, 2011; U.S. published application No. 2012/0202276; U.S. Ser. No. 13/035,177, filed Feb. 25, 2011, and published as U.S. published application No. 2011/0318748 on Dec. 29, 2011; U.S. Ser. No. 13/572,488, filed Aug. 10, 2012; and U.S. 61/884,921, filed Sep. 30, 2013. 
     In some embodiments, a polymerase can be a DNA polymerase and include without limitation bacterial DNA polymerases, eukaryotic DNA polymerases, archaeal DNA polymerases, viral DNA polymerases and phage DNA polymerases. 
     In some embodiments, a polymerase can be a replicase, DNA-dependent polymerase, primases, RNA-dependent polymerase (including RNA-dependent DNA polymerases such as, for example, reverse transcriptases), a thermo-labile polymerase, or a thermo-stable polymerase. In some embodiments, a polymerase can be any Family A or B type polymerase. Many types of Family A (e.g.,  E. coli  Pol I), B (e.g.,  E. coli  Pol II), C (e.g.,  E. coli  Pol III), D (e.g., Euryarchaeotic Pol II), X (e.g., human Pol beta), and Y (e.g.,  E. coli  UmuC/DinB and eukaryotic RAD30/xeroderma pigmentosum variants) polymerases are described in Rothwell and Watsman 2005 Advances in Protein Chemistry 71:401-440. In some embodiments, a polymerase can be a T3, T5, T7, or SP6 RNA polymerase. 
     In some embodiments, nucleotide incorporation reactions can be conducted with one type or a mixture of different types of polymerases. In some embodiments, nucleotide incorporation reactions can be conducted with a low fidelity or high fidelity polymerase. 
     In some embodiments, an archaeal DNA polymerase can be, without limitation, an A family DNA polymerase; a B family DNA polymerase; a mixed-type polymerase; an unclassified DNA polymerase and RT family polymerase; and variants and derivatives thereof. 
     In some embodiments, nucleic acid amplification reactions can be catalyzed by heat-stable or heat-labile polymerases. 
     In some embodiments, an archaeal DNA polymerase can be, without limitation, a thermostable or thermophilic DNA polymerase such as, for example: a  Bacillus subtilis  (Bsu) DNA polymerase I large fragment; a  Thermus aquaticus  (Taq) DNA polymerase; a  Thermus filiformis  (Tfi) DNA polymerase; a Phi29 DNA polymerase; a  Bacillus stearothermophilus  (Bst) DNA polymerase; a  Thermococcus  sp. 9° N-7 DNA polymerase; a  Bacillus smithii  (Bsm) DNA polymerase large fragment; a  Thermococcus litoralis  (Tli) DNA polymerase or Vent™ (exo-) DNA polymerase (from New England Biolabs); or “Deep Vent” (exo-) DNA polymerase (New England Biolabs). 
     In some embodiments, the DNA polymerase is an A family DNA polymerase selected from the group consisting of a Pol I-type DNA polymerase such as  E. coli  DNA polymerase, the Klenow fragment of  E. coli  DNA polymerase, Bst DNA polymerase, Taq DNA polymerase, Platinum Taq DNA polymerase series, T7 DNA polymerase, and Tth DNA polymerase. In some embodiments, the DNA polymerase is Bst DNA polymerase. In other embodiments, the DNA polymerase is  E. coli  DNA polymerase. In some embodiments, the DNA polymerase is the Klenow fragment of  E. coli  DNA polymerase. In some embodiments, the polymerase is Taq DNA polymerase. In some embodiments, the polymerase is T7 DNA polymerase. 
     In other embodiments, the DNA polymerase is a B family DNA polymerase selected from the group consisting of Tli polymerase, Pfu polymerase, Pfutubo polymerase, Pyrobest polymerase, Pwo polymerase, KOD polymerase, Sac polymerase, Sso polymerase, Poc polymerase, Pab polymerase, Mth polymerase, Pho polymerase, ES4 polymerase, VENT polymerase, DEEPVENT polymerase, phage Phi29 polymerase, and phage B103 polymerase. In some embodiments, the polymerase is phage Phi29 DNA polymerase. In some embodiments the polymerase is phage B103 polymerase, including, for example, the variants disclosed in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2011/0014612. 
     In other embodiments, the DNA polymerase is a mixed-type polymerase selected from the group consisting of EX-Taq polymerase, LA-Taq polymerase, Expand polymerase series, and Hi-Fi polymerase. In yet other embodiments, the DNA polymerase is an unclassified DNA polymerase selected from the group consisting of Tbr polymerase, Tfl polymerase, Tru polymerase, Tac polymerase, Tne polymerase, Tma polymerase, Tih polymerase, and Tfi polymerase. 
     In other embodiments, the DNA polymerase is an RT polymerase selected from the group consisting of HIV reverse transcriptase, M-MLV reverse transcriptase and AMV reverse transcriptase. In some embodiments, the polymerase is HIV reverse transcriptase or a fragment thereof having DNA polymerase activity. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to methods, as well as related, systems, compositions, kits and apparatuses for incorporating one or more nucleotides (e.g., nucleotide analogs), comprising: providing a template nucleic acid hybridized to a primer and bound to a polymerase; synthesizing a new nucleic acid strand by incorporating one or more nucleosides (e.g., any of the nucleotide analogs described in the present teachings) sequentially at the 3′ end of the primer; and detecting such incorporation at the 3′ end of the primer. The incorporation nucleotide can be detected by measuring a concentration of a hydrogen ion byproduct generated if the incorporated nucleoside is complementary to the corresponding nucleotides in the template nucleic acid. 
     In some embodiments, the polymerase can include any one or more of the amino acid substitutions described herein. In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions can be a conservative amino acid substitution. In some embodiments, each of the one or more amino acid substitutions is a conservative amino acid substitution. 
     In some embodiments, the polymerase includes any one of the modified polymerases described herein. In some embodiments, the polymerase is a bufferless polymerase. For example, the polymerase can have reduced buffering capacity relative to the corresponding unsubstituted polymerase. 
     In some embodiments, the polymerase includes one or more amino acid substitutions that substantially remove the buffering capacity of the polymerase within the pH range of about 4 to about 10 relative to the corresponding unsubstituted polymerase. The unsubstituted polymerase can be the wild-type version of the polymerase. 
     In some embodiments, the one or more amino acid substitutions in the polymerase substantially remove the buffering capacity of the polymerase relative to the corresponding unsubstituted polymerase within the range of about pH 7 to about pH 9. The unsubstituted polymerase can be the wild-type version of the polymerase. 
     In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions in the polymerase is a conservative amino acid substitution that is selected from the group consisting of histidine to arginine, glutamic acid to glutamine, aspartic acid to asparagine, lysine to arginine, and tyrosine to phenylalanine. 
     In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions includes a substitution of an amino acid residue having a pKa within the range of about 4.0 to about 10.0 with another amino acid residue. In some embodiments, the pKa of the amino acid residue is a solution pKa of the amino acid residue. In other embodiments, the pKa of the amino acid residue is a pKa of the amino acid residue in the context of the corresponding wild-type protein. 
     In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions includes a substitution of an amino acid residue having a pKa within the range of about 7 to about 9 with another amino acid residue. In some embodiments, the pKa of the amino acid residue is a solution pKa of the amino acid residue. In other embodiments, the pKa of the amino acid residue is a pKa of the amino acid residue in the context of the corresponding wild-type protein. 
     In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more conservative amino substitutions includes a substitution of an amino acid residue having a pKa of between about 4.0 and about 10.0 with an amino acid residue having a pKa that is greater than about 10.0 or less than about 4.0. In further embodiments the amino acid residue having a pKa that is greater than about 10.0 or less than about 4.0 is selected from the group consisting of: Arg, Asp, Gln, Lys, Ile, Leu, Norleucine (Nle), Met, Phe, Ser, Thr, Trp, Val and N-terminal Formylmethionine (N-fMet). 
     In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more conservative amino substitutions includes a substitution of an amino acid residue having a pKa of between about 7 and about 9 with an amino acid residue having a pKa that is greater than about 9 or less than about 7. In further embodiments the amino acid residue having a pKa that is greater than about 9 or less than about 7 is selected from the group consisting of: Arg, Asp, Gln, ly, Ile, Leu, Norleucine (Nle), Met, Phe, Ser, Thr, Trp, Val and N-terminal Formylmethionine (N-fMet). 
     In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions includes a substitution of an amino acid residue having a pKa within the range of about 6.0 to about 8.0 with another amino acid residue. 
     In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions includes a substitution of an amino acid residue having a pKa of between about 6.0 and about 8.0 with an amino acid residue having a pKa that is greater than about 8.0 or less than about 6.0. 
     In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions includes a substitution of an amino acid residue having a pKa within the range of about 7.0 to about 9.0 with another amino acid residue. 
     In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions includes a substitution of an amino acid residue having a pKa of between about 7.0 and about 9.0 with an amino acid residue having a pKa that is greater than about 9.0 or less than about 7.0. 
     In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions includes a substitution of an amino acid residue selected from the group consisting of His, Glu, Asp, Tyr, and Lys with another amino acid residue. 
     In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions is a substitution of an amino acid residue with an alanine residue. 
     In some embodiments, the polymerase comprises one or more conservative amino acid substitutions that reduce the buffering capacity of the protein relative to the corresponding wild-type protein within the range of about pH 4 to about pH 10, about pH 5.5 to about pH 9.5, or about pH 7 to about pH 9. In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions includes a substitution of an amino acid residue that is at least 20%, at least 25%, at least 30%, at least 35% or at least 40% solvent exposed in the corresponding wild-type protein with another amino acid residue. 
     In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions is a substitution of an amino acid residue with an alanine residue. 
     In some embodiments, the polymerase comprises one or more amino acid conservative amino acid substitutions that reduce the buffering capacity of the protein relative to the corresponding wild-type protein within the range of about pH 4 to about pH 10, about pH 5.5 to about pH 9.5, or about pH 7 to about pH 9. In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions includes a substitution of an amino acid residue that is at least 20%, at least 25%, at least 30%, at least 35% or at least 40% solvent exposed in the corresponding wild-type protein with another amino acid residue. 
     In some embodiments, the polymerase comprises one or more conservative amino acid substitutions that substantially remove the buffering capacity of the polymerase within the range of about pH 4 to about pH 10, about pH 5.5 to about pH 9.5, or about pH 7 to about pH 9. 
     In some embodiments, the DNA polymerase is a Bst DNA polymerase comprising one or more amino acid substitutions that substantially reduce its buffering capacity within the range of about pH 4 to about pH 10. In some embodiments, the one or more amino acid substitutions substantially remove the buffering capacity of the polymerase within the range of about pH 4 to about pH 10. For example, see Table 3. 
     In some embodiments, the one or more amino acid substitutions in the Bst DNA polymerase substantially reduce the buffering capacity of the polymerase relative to the corresponding unsubstituted polymerase within the range of about pH 7 to about pH 9. In some embodiments, the one or more amino acid substitutions substantially remove the buffering capacity of the Bst polymerase within the range of about pH 7 to about pH 9. In some embodiments, the one or more amino acid substitutions substantially reduce the buffering capacity of the Bst polymerase relative to the corresponding unsubstituted Bst polymerase within the range of about pH 7 to about pH 9. In some embodiments, the unsubstituted polymerase can be the wild-type version of the Bst polymerase. 
     In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more amino acid substitutions in the Bst DNA polymerase is a conservative amino acid substitution. In further embodiments, the at least one conservative amino acid substitution is selected from the group consisting of histidine to arginine, glutamic acid to glutamine, aspartic acid to asparagine, lysine to arginine, and tyrosine to phenylalanine. 
     In some embodiments, the one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are of one or more amino acid residues shown in Table 2. In some embodiments, the one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are selected from the group consisting of H46R, H273R, H281R, E446Q, H473R, H528R, H572R and Y477F, the numbering of amino acid residues being in accordance with that of SEQ ID NO: 1. 
     In some embodiments, the one or more amino acid substitutions includes a substitution of alanine at position 2 with Met, Asn, Gln, Leu, Ile, Phe, or Trp, the numbering of amino acid residues being in accordance with that of SEQ ID NO:2. 
     In some embodiments, the Bst DNA polymerase comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 2, SEQ ID NO: 3 and SEQ ID NO: 4, or a variant thereof having one or more conservative amino acid substitutions. In some embodiments, the Bst DNA polymerase comprises the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2. In some embodiments, the Bst DNA polymerase is a variant of a protein comprising the amino acid sequence shown in SEQ ID NO: 2, wherein the variant comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 91%, at least 92%, at least 93%, at least 94%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, or at least 99% identical to SEQ ID NO: 2. 
     In some embodiments, the Bst DNA polymerase comprises the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3. In some embodiments, the Bst DNA polymerase is a variant of a protein comprising the amino acid sequence shown in SEQ ID NO: 3, wherein the variant comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 91%, at least 92%, at least 93%, at least 94%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, or at least 99% identical to SEQ ID NO: 3. 
     In some embodiments, the Bst DNA polymerase comprises the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4. In other embodiments, the Bst polymerase is a variant of a protein comprising the amino acid sequence shown in SEQ ID NO: 4, wherein the variant comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 91%, at least 92%, at least 93%, at least 94%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, or at least 99% identical to SEQ ID NO: 4. 
     In some embodiments, the DNA polymerase is a Therminator™ DNA polymerase comprising one or more conservative amino acid substitutions that substantially reduce its buffering capacity relative to the corresponding unsubstituted polymerase within the range of about pH 7 to about pH 9. The unsubstituted polymerase can be the wild-type version of the polymerase. The one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are optionally selected from the group consisting of: histidine to arginine, glutamic acid to glutamine, lysine to arginine and tyrosine to phenylalanine. In some embodiments, the one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are of one or more amino acid residues shown in Table 5. 
     In some embodiments, the DNA polymerase is a Therminator™ DNA polymerase comprising one or more conservative amino acid substitutions that substantially remove its buffering capacity within the range of about pH 7 to about pH 9, wherein the one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are selected from the group consisting of: histidine to arginine, glutamic acid to glutamine, lysine to arginine and tyrosine to phenylalanine. In some embodiments, the one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are of one or more amino acid residues shown in Table 5. 
     In some embodiments, the DNA polymerase is a KOD DNA polymerase comprising one or more conservative amino acid substitutions that substantially reduce its buffering capacity relative to the corresponding unsubstituted polymerase within the range of about pH 7 to about pH 9. The unsubstituted polymerase can be the wild-type version of the polymerase. The one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are optionally selected from the group consisting of: histidine to arginine, glutamic acid to glutamine, lysine to arginine and tyrosine to phenylalanine. In some embodiments, the one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are of one or more amino acid residues shown in Table 6. 
     In some embodiments, the DNA polymerase is a KOD DNA polymerase comprising one or more amino acid substitutions that substantially remove its buffering capacity within the range of about pH 7 to about pH 9. The one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are optionally selected from the group consisting of: histidine to arginine, glutamic acid to glutamine, lysine to arginine and tyrosine to phenylalanine. In some embodiments, the one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are of one or more amino acid residues shown in Table 6. 
     In some embodiments, the DNA polymerase is a B103 DNA polymerase comprising one or more conservative amino acid substitutions that substantially reduce its buffering capacity relative to the corresponding unsubstituted polymerase within the range of about pH 7 to about pH 9. The unsubstituted polymerase can be the wild-type version of the polymerase. The one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are optionally selected from the group consisting of: histidine to arginine, glutamic acid to glutamine, lysine to arginine and tyrosine to phenylalanine. In some embodiments, the one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are of one or more amino acid residues shown in Table 7. 
     In some embodiments, the DNA polymerase is a B103 DNA polymerase comprising one or more conservative amino acid substitutions that substantially reduce its buffering capacity relative to the corresponding unsubstituted polymerase within the range of about pH 4 to about pH 10. The unsubstituted polymerase can be the wild-type version of the polymerase. The one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are optionally selected from the group consisting of: histidine to arginine, glutamic acid to glutamine, lysine to arginine and tyrosine to phenylalanine. In some embodiments, the one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are of one or more amino acid residues shown in Table 7. 
     In other embodiments of the method, the DNA polymerase is a B103 DNA polymerase comprising one or more conservative amino acid substitutions that substantially remove its buffering capacity within the range of about pH 7 to about pH 9. The one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are optionally selected from the group consisting of: histidine to arginine, glutamic acid to glutamine, lysine to arginine and tyrosine to phenylalanine. In some embodiments, the one or more conservative amino acid substitutions are of one or more amino acid residues shown in Table 7. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a method for performing a nucleotide polymerization reaction comprising contacting a modified polymerase or a biologically active fragment thereof with a nucleic acid template in the presence of one or more nucleotides (e.g., any of the nucleotide analogues described herein), where the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof includes one or more amino acid modifications relative to a reference polymerase and where the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof has an increased dissociation time constant relative to the reference polymerase, and polymerizing at least one of the one or more nucleotides using the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof. In some embodiments, the method includes polymerizing at least one of the one or more nucleotides using the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof in the presence of a high ionic strength solution. In some embodiments, the method can further include polymerizing the at least one nucleotide in a template-dependent fashion. In some embodiments, the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof comprises or consists of at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 23, SEQ ID NO: 24, SEQ ID NO: 25, SEQ ID NO: 36, SEQ ID NO: 39, SEQ ID NO: 40, SEQ ID NO: 41 or SEQ ID NO: 45. In some embodiments, the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof comprises at least 25 contiguous amino acids from the polymerase catalytic domain. In some embodiments, the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof comprises at least 25 contiguous amino acids from the polymerase DNA binding domain. In some embodiments, the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof comprises or consists of at least 100 amino acid residues having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 23, SEQ ID NO: 24, SEQ ID NO: 25, SEQ ID NO: 40, SEQ ID NO: 41 or SEQ ID NO: 45. In some embodiments, the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof comprises or consists of at least 150 amino acid residues of the polymerase catalytic domain having at least 90% identity to SEQ ID NO: 23, SEQ ID NO: 24, SEQ ID NO: 25, SEQ ID NO: 40, SEQ ID NO: 41 or SEQ ID NO: 45. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to a polymerase or a biologically active fragment thereof having DNA polymerase activity and at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 22, SEQ ID NO: 36, SEQ ID NO: 37, or SEQ ID NO: 39. 
     In some embodiments, disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising or consisting of a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 22 or biologically active fragment thereof comprises any one or more mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 22 selected from the group consisting of: N31R, N31K, D77K, D77H, D113N, D114R, D130A, D130H, D144M, D144K, L212A, E220K, N234R, N234K, V241K, V251K, D264Q, D264S, D264K, Y272R, H273R, L280R, H281A, H281M, E294S, E294F, E294G, E294K, V299K, V299H, V299F, D303R, I331Q, E325R, L335T, E336P, I354W, I354F, I370A, Q409R, G416K, V418M, V418I, G420K, D423S, D423K, D423N, D423R, D423T, D423G, D423I, D423K, G425R, Q428W, N429R, N429K, E446Q, F448K, N457T, A462T, H473R, Y477F, D480R, D480F, D480H, D480A, D480S, D480N, D480Q, N485W, N485Y, N487H, N487W, N487F, N487I, V488R, E493Q, M495Q, H528A, H528R, H528K, V533I, H572R, W577Y and D579F. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 22 selected from H46R, and where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of E446Q, H572R, H273R, H281A, H473R, Y477F, D480R, or H528A. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 22 selected from E446Q, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of H46R, H572R, H273R, H281A, H473R, Y477F, D480R, or H528A. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 22 selected from H572R, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of E446Q, H572R, H273R, H281A, H473R, Y477F, D480R, or H528A. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a C93 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a Q238 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a H273 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a H281 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a H473 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 22 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a H528 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising or consisting of at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 23 and having one or more amino acid mutations selected from the group consisting of N31R, N31K, D77K, D77H, D113N, D114R, D130A, D130H, D144M, D144K, L212A, E220K, N234R, N234K, V241K, V251K, D264Q, D264S, D264K, Y272R, H273R, L280R, H281A, E294S, E294F, E294G, E294K, V299K, V299H, V299F, D303R, I331Q, E325R, L335T, E336P, I354W, I354F, I370A, Q409R, G416K, V418M, V418I, G420K, D423S, D423K, D423N, D423R, D423T, D423G, D423I, D423K, G425R, Q428W, N429R, N429K, F448K, N457T, A462T, H473R, Y477F, D480R, D480F, D480H, D480A, D480S, D480N, D480Q, N485W, N485Y, N487H, N487W, N487F, N487I, V488R, E493Q, M495Q, H528A, V533I, W577Y and D579F. 
     In some embodiments, disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising or consisting of at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 36 and having one or more amino acid mutations selected from the group consisting of E471K, N485R, R492K, D513K, A675K, D732R, S739W, V740R and E745Q. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 36 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 36 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 36 selected from E471K, wherein the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: N485R, R492K, D513K, A675K, D732R, S739W, V740R and E745Q. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 36 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 36 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 36 selected from V740R, wherein the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: E471K, N485R, D513K and E745Q. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 36 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 36 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a N485 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 36 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 36 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 36 selected from a D513 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 36 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 36 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 36 selected from a D732 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 36 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 36 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 36 selected from an E745 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, the reference polymerase has or comprises the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 36, and the modified polymerase has or comprises the amino acid sequence of the reference polymerase. In some embodiments, the modified polymerase comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 91%, at least 92%, at least 93%, at least 94%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, or at least 99% identical to the amino acid sequence of the reference polymerase. In some embodiments, the modified polymerase further includes any one or more amino acid mutations selected from the group consisting of: N326R, N326K, D372K, D372H, D408N, D409R, D425A, D425H, D439M, D439K, L507A, E515K, N529R, N529K, V536K, V546K, D559Q, D559S, Y567R, L575R, E589S, E589F, E589G, V594K, V594H, V594F, D598R, I626Q, L630T, E631P, I649W, I649F, I665A, Q704R, G711K, V713M, V713I, G715K, D718S, D718K, D718N, D718R, D718T, D718G, D718I, D718K, G720R, Q723W, N724R, N724K, F743K, N752T, A757T, D775R, D775F, D775H, D775A, D775S, D775N, D775Q, N780W, N780Y, N782H, N782W, N782F, N782I, E782Q, V783R, E788Q, M790Q, V828I, W872Y and D874F, wherein the numbering is relative of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 37. 
     In some embodiments, the reference polymerase has or comprises the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 37, and the modified polymerase has or comprises the amino acid sequence of the reference polymerase. In some embodiments, the modified polymerase comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 91%, at least 92%, at least 93%, at least 94%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, or at least 99% identical to the amino acid sequence of the reference polymerase. In some embodiments, the modified polymerase further includes any one or more amino acid mutations selected from the group consisting of: N326R, N326K, H341R, D372K, D372H, C388R, D408N, D409R, D425A, D425H, D439M, D439K, L507A, E515K, N529R, N529K, V536K, V546K, Q533C, D559Q, D559S, Y567R, H568R, L575R, H576A, E589S, E589F, E589G, V594K, V594H, V594F, D598R, I626Q, L630T, E631P, I649W, I649F, I665A, Q704R, G711K, V713M, V713I, G715K, D718S, D718K, D718N, D718R, D718T, D718G, D718I, D718K, G720R, Q723W, N724R, N724K, E741Q, F743K, N752T, A757T, H768R, Y772F, D775R, D775F, D775H, D775A, D775S, D775N, D775Q, N780W, N780Y, N782H, N782W, N782F, N782I, E782Q, V783R, E788Q, M790Q, H823A, V828I, C845Q, H867R, W872Y and D874F, wherein the numbering is relative of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 37. 
     In some embodiments, disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising or consisting of at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 39 and having one or more amino acid mutations selected from the group consisting of E245K, S259R, T266K, E290K, A448K, D505R, A512W, R513R and E518Q. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 39 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 39 or a biologically fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 39 selected from E245K, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: S259R, T266K, E290K, A448K, D505R, A512W, R513R and E518Q. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 39 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 39 or a biologically fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 39 selected from D505R, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: E245K, S259R, T266K, E290K, A448K, A512W, R513R and E518Q. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 39 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 39 or a biologically fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises an E290 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 39 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 39 or a biologically fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises an 5259 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 39 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 39 or a biologically fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises an R513 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 39 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 39 or a biologically fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises an A512 mutation. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a method for performing a nucleotide polymerization reaction comprising or consisting of contacting a modified polymerase or a biologically active fragment thereof with a nucleic acid template in the presence of one or more nucleotides (e.g., any of the nucleotide analogues described herein), where the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof includes one or more amino acid modifications relative to a reference polymerase and where the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof has a lowered systematic error, decreased strand bias, increased raw read accuracy and/or increased total sequencing throughput as compared to the reference polymerase, and polymerizing at least one of the one or more nucleotides using the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof. 
     In some embodiments, the isolated or modified polymerases as disclosed herein can include a fusion of a first naturally occurring polymerase domain (e.g., a catalytic domain) with a first genetically engineered polymerase domain (e.g., a binding domain). In some embodiments, the isolated or modified polymerases disclosed herein can include a fusion of a first genetically engineered polymerase domain (e.g., a catalytic domain) to a second genetically engineered polymerase domain (e.g., a binding domain), thereby forming an isolated or modified polymerase retaining polymerase activity. 
     In some embodiments, the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof comprises or consists of at least 80% identity, or at least 90% identity, or at least 95% identity, or at least 98% identity, or at least 99% identity to SEQ ID NO: 47, SEQ ID NO: 48, SEQ ID NO: 49, SEQ ID NO: 64, SEQ ID NO: 65, SEQ ID NO: 69, SEQ ID NO: 70, SEQ ID NO: 71, SEQ ID NO: 72, SEQ ID NO: 73, SEQ ID NO: 74, SEQ ID NO: 75, SEQ ID NO: 76, SEQ ID NO: 77, SEQ ID NO: 78, SEQ ID NO: 79, SEQ ID NO: 80, SEQ ID NO: 81 or SEQ ID NO: 82. 
     In some embodiments, the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof comprises at least 25 contiguous amino acids from the polymerase catalytic domain. In some embodiments, the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof comprises at least 25 contiguous amino acids from the polymerase DNA binding domain. In some embodiments, the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof comprises or consists of at least 100 amino acid residues having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 47, SEQ ID NO: 48, SEQ ID NO: 49, SEQ ID NO: 64, SEQ ID NO: 65, SEQ ID NO: 69, SEQ ID NO: 70, SEQ ID NO: 71, SEQ ID NO: 72, SEQ ID NO: 73, SEQ ID NO: 74, SEQ ID NO: 75, SEQ ID NO: 76, SEQ ID NO: 77, SEQ ID NO: 78, SEQ ID NO: 79, SEQ ID NO: 80, SEQ ID NO: 81 or SEQ ID NO: 82. In some embodiments, the modified polymerase or the biologically active fragment thereof comprises or consists of at least 150 amino acid residues of the polymerase catalytic domain having at least 90% identity to SEQ ID NO: 47, SEQ ID NO: 48, SEQ ID NO: 49, SEQ ID NO: 64, SEQ ID NO: 65, SEQ ID NO: 69, SEQ ID NO: 70, SEQ ID NO: 71, SEQ ID NO: 72, SEQ ID NO: 73, SEQ ID NO: 74, SEQ ID NO: 75, SEQ ID NO: 76, SEQ ID NO: 77, SEQ ID NO: 78, SEQ ID NO: 79, SEQ ID NO: 80, SEQ ID NO: 81 or SEQ ID NO: 82. 
     In some embodiments, the method includes amplifying conditions having a high ionic strength solution. In some embodiments, amplifying conditions having a high ionic strength solution include at least 120 mM salt. In some embodiments, amplifying conditions having a high ionic strength solution include 125 mM salt. In some embodiments, amplifying conditions having a high ionic strength solution include 125 mM to 200 mM salt. In some embodiments, the salt can include KCl and/or NaCl. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising or consisting of at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 46 or a biologically active fragment thereof and having one or more amino acid mutations (e.g., substitutions) selected from the group consisting of N31R, N31K, H46R, D77K, D77H, D113N, D114R, D130A, D130H, D144M, D144K, L212A, E220K, N234R, N234K, V241K, V251K, A263K, D264A, D264R, D264Q, D264S, D264K, Y272R, H273N, H273R, L280R, H281A, H281M, E294S, E294F, E294G, E294K, V299K, V299H, V299F, D303R, I331Q, E325R, L335T, E336P, I354W, I354F, I370A, Q409R, G416K, V418M, V418I, G420K, D423S, D423K, D423N, D423R, D423T, D423G, D423I, D423K, G425R, Q428W, N429R, N429K, E446Q, F448K, N457T, A462T, H473R, Y477F, D480R, D480F, D480H, D480A, D480S, D480N, D480Q, N485K N485W, N485Y, N487H, N487R N487W, N487F, N487I, V488R, E493Q, E493R, M495Q, H528A, H528F, H528S, V533I, H572R, W577Y and D579F, wherein the numbering is relative to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 46. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising or consisting of at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 47 or a biologically active fragment thereof and having one or more amino acid mutations (e.g., substitutions) selected from the group consisting of N31R, N31K, D77K, D77H, D113N, D114R, D130A, D130H, D144M, D144K, L212A, E220K, N234R, N234K, V241K, V251K, D264A, D264R, D264Q, D264S, D264K, Y272R, H273N, H273R, L280R, H281A, H281M, E294S, E294F, E294G, E294K, V299K, V299H, V299F, D303R, I331Q, E325R, L335T, E336P, I354W, I354F, I370A, Q409R, G416K, V418M, V418I, G420K, D423S, D423K, D423N, D423R, D423T, D423G, D423I, D423K, G425R, Q428W, N429R, N429K, F448K, N457T, A462T, H473R, Y477F, D480R, D480F, D480H, D480A, D480S, D480N, D480Q, N485K N485W, N485Y, N487H, N487R N487W, N487F, N487I, V488R, E493Q, E493R, M495Q, H528A, H528F, H528S, V533I, W577Y and D579F, wherein the numbering is relative to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 47. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide having at least 90% identity to SEQ ID NO: 47 and includes an amino acid substitution at one or more positions corresponding to positions selected from the group consisting of: N487, N485, E493, A263, D264, H528, H273, D423, D480, H281, E220 and N234, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 47. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising or consisting of at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 60 or a biologically active fragment thereof and having one or more amino acid mutations selected from the group consisting of E471K, N485R, R492K, D513K, A675K, D732R, S739W, V740R and E745Q, wherein the numbering is relative to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 60. 
     In some embodiments, the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 60, comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 60 selected from any one or more of: E471K, N485R, R492K, D513K, A675K, D732R, S739W, V740R and E745Q. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising or consisting of at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 61 or a biologically active fragment thereof and having one or more amino acid mutations (e.g., substitutions) selected from any one or more of: N782R, N780K, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, H568N, D718K, D775R, H576M, E515K and N529R, wherein the numbering is relative to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 61. 
     In some embodiments, the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 61, comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 61 selected from any one or more of: H341R, C388R, Q533C, H568R, H576A, E741Q, H768R, Y772F, H823A, C845Q, H867R, N782R, N780K, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, H568N, D718K, D775R, H576M, E515K and N529R, wherein the numbering is relative to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 61. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising or consisting of at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 63 or a biologically active fragment thereof and having one or more amino acid mutations selected from the group consisting of E245K, S259R, T266K, E290K, A448K, D505R, A512W, R513R and E518Q, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 63. 
     In some embodiments, the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 63, comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 63 selected from any one of more of: E245K, S259R, T266K, E290K, A448K, D505R, A512W, and E518Q, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 63. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising or consisting of at least 90% identity to SEQ ID NO: 70 and includes an amino acid substitution at one or more positions corresponding to positions selected from the group consisting of: N780K, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, H568N, D718K, D775R, H576M, E515K and N529R, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 70. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising or consisting of at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 71 or a biologically active fragment thereof and having one or more amino acid mutations selected from the group consisting of N780K, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, D775R, H576M, H568N, E515K and N529R, wherein the numbering is relative to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 71. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising or consisting of at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 72 or a biologically active fragment thereof and having one or more amino acid mutations selected from the group consisting of N780K, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, D775R, H576M, E515K and N529R, wherein the numbering is relative to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 72. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising at least 90% identity to SEQ ID NO: 73 and includes an amino acid substitution at one or more positions corresponding to positions selected from the group consisting of: N780K, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, D718K, D775R, H568N, E515K and N529R, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 73. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising or consisting of at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 74 or a biologically active fragment thereof and having one or more amino acid mutations selected from the group consisting of N780K, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, D718K, D775R, H576M, H568N, E515K and N529R, wherein the numbering is relative to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 74. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to an isolated and purified polypeptide comprising at least 90% identity to SEQ ID NO: 82 and includes an amino acid substitution at one or more positions corresponding to positions selected from the group consisting of: N485, E493, A263, D264, H528, H273, D423 and D480, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 82. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 46 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 46 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 46 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 46 selected from H46R, and where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of E446Q, H572R, H273R, H281A, H473R, Y477F, D480R, or H528A, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 46. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 46 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 46 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 46 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 1 selected from E446Q, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of H46R, H572R, H273R, H281A, H473R, Y477F, D480R, or H528A, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 46. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 46 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 46 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 46 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 46 selected from H572R, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of H46R, E446Q, H572R, H273R, H281A, H473R, Y477F, D480R, or H528A, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 46. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 47 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 47 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 47 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 47 selected from N487R, and where the recombinant polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of H281M, D423K, H273N, E493R, and D264A, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 47. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 47 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 47 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 47 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 47 selected from H281M, where the recombinant polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of N487R, D264A, H273N and E493R, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 47. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 47 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 47 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 47 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 47 selected from E493R where the recombinant polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of N487R, H281M, D423K, D264A, or H273N, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 47. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 60 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 60 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 60 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 60 selected from E471K, wherein the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: N485R, R492K, D513K, A675K, D732R, S739W, V740R and E745Q, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 60. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 60 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 60 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 60 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 60 selected from V740R, wherein the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: E471K, N485R, D513K and E745Q, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 60. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 61 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 61 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 61 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 61 selected from N782R, and where the recombinant polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of N780K, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, H568N, D718K, D775R, E515K, N529R, or H576M, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 61. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 61 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 61 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 61 selected from N780K, where the recombinant polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of N782R, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, H568N, D718K, D775R, E515K, N529R, or H576M, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 61. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 61 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 61 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 61 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 61 selected from E788R where the recombinant polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of N782R, N780K, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, H568N, D718K, D775R, E515K, N529R, or H576M, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 61. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 63 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 63 or a biologically fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 63 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 63 selected from E245K, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: S259R, T266K, E290K, A448K, D505R, A512W, R513R and E518Q, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 63. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 63 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 63 or a biologically fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 63 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 63 selected from E245K, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: S259R, T266K, E290K, A448K, D505R, A512W, R513R and E518Q, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 63. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 63 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 63 or a biologically fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 63 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 63 selected from D505R, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: E245K, S259R, T266K, E290K, A448K, A512W, R513R and E518Q, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 63. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 70 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 70 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 70 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 70 selected from D718K, wherein the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: N780K, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, H568N, D775R, and H576M, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 70. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 70 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 70 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 70 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 70 selected from H568N, wherein the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: N780K, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, D718K, D775R, or H576M, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 70. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 71 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 71 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 71 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 71 selected from H568N, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of N780K, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, D775R, or H576M, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 71. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 73 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 73 or a biologically fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 73 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 73 selected from D718K, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: A558K, H823S, H823F, D559A, D559R, D568N, D775R, E788R, N780K, E515K and N529R, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 73. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure is generally related to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 74 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 74 or a biologically fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 74 selected from D718K, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: A558K, D559A, D559R, D568N, D775R, E788R, H576M, N780K, E515K and N529R, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 74. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 75 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 75 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 75 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 75 selected from N782R, wherein the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, H568N, and H576M, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 75. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 75 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 75 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 75 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 75 selected from H568N, wherein the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of: N780K, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, D775R, or H576M, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 75. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 76 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 76 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 76 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 76 selected from H568N, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of N780K, E788R, A558K, D559A, D559R, H823S, H823F, D775R, or H576M, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 76. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a composition comprising a recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 77 or a biologically active fragment thereof having at least 80% identity to SEQ ID NO: 77 or a biologically active fragment thereof and where the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 77 comprises a mutation or combination of mutations relative to SEQ ID NO: 77 selected from D718K, where the polymerase further includes a mutation at one or more of N780K, A558K, H823S, H823F, or D775R, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 77. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to an isolated and purified polypeptide (e.g., a fusion polypeptide) comprising or consisting of at least 90% identity to SEQ ID NO: 70, SEQ ID NO: 71, SEQ ID NO: 72, SEQ ID NO: 73, SEQ ID NO: 74, SEQ ID NO: 75, SEQ ID NO: 76, SEQ ID NO: 77, SEQ ID NO: 78, SEQ ID NO: 79, SEQ ID NO: 80, SEQ ID NO: 81 or SEQ ID NO: 82, or a biologically active fragment thereof and can optionally further include one or more amino acid mutations selected from the group consisting of E515K and N529R, wherein the numbering is relative to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 61. In some embodiments, the recombinant polymerase homologous to SEQ ID NO: 61, SEQ ID NO: 70, SEQ ID NO: 71, SEQ ID NO: 72, SEQ ID NO: 73, SEQ ID NO: 74, SEQ ID NO: 75, SEQ ID NO: 76, or SEQ ID NO: 77 can optionally further include one or more mutations selected from the group consisting of E515K and N529R, wherein the numbering is relative to SEQ ID NO: 61. 
     In some embodiments, a template nucleic acid is hybridized to a primer and bound to a polymerase, where the template nucleic acid comprises a single-stranded or double-stranded polynucleotide, or a mixture of both. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide includes a plurality of polynucleotides having the same or different sequences. In some embodiments, the plurality of polynucleotides have the same or different lengths. In some embodiments, the plurality of polynucleotides comprises about 2-10, or about 10-50, or about 50-100, or about 100-500, or about 500-1,000, or about 1,000-5,000, or about 10 3 -10 6 , or about 10 6 -10 10 , or more different polynucleotides. In some embodiments, a plurality of polynucleotides comprises polymers of deoxyribonucleotides, ribonucleotides, and/or analogs thereof. In some embodiments, a plurality of polynucleotides comprises naturally-occurring, synthetic, recombinant, cloned, amplified, unamplified or archived (e.g., preserved) forms. In some embodiments, a plurality of polynucleotides comprises DNA, cDNA RNA or chimeric RNA/DNA, and nucleic acid analogs. 
     In some embodiments, a template nucleic acid comprises any nucleic acid, including DNA, cDNA, RNA, or RNA/DNA hybrids. The template nucleic acid can be single-stranded or double-stranded nucleic acids, and can have any length. The template nucleic acid can be chromosomal, genomic, transcriptomic, organellar, methylated, chromatin-linked, cloned, unamplified, amplified, natural or synthetic, and can be isolated from any source (for example, from an organism, normal or diseased cells or tissues, body fluids, archived tissue (e.g., tissue archived in formalin and/or in paraffin). In some embodiments, the template nucleic acid can be isolated from any source including prokaryotes, eukaryotes (e.g., humans, plants and animals), fungus, and viruses; cells; tissues; normal or diseased cells or tissues or organs, body fluids including blood, urine, serum, lymph, tumor, saliva, anal and vaginal secretions, amniotic samples, perspiration, and semen; environmental samples; culture samples; or synthesized nucleic acid molecules prepared using recombinant molecular biology or chemical synthesis methods. In some embodiments, the template nucleic acid can be isolated from a formalin-fixed tissue, or from a paraffin-embedded tissue, or from a formalin-fix paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue. In some embodiments, a template molecule can be about 100 bp-1000 bp, or about 1 kb-50 kb, or about 50 kb-100 kb, or longer. 
     In some embodiments, the template nucleic acid includes at least one primer binding site. The template nucleic acid can be generated by joining together an initial polynucleotide (from any source) to a nucleic acid adaptor having a primer binding sequence. For example, the initial polynucleotide and adaptor can be joined by ligation, hybridization or primer extension methods. An adapter can be joined to at least one end of a linear template, or within the body of a linear or circular initial polynucleotide. Optionally, the template can be circularized after the adapter is joined. 
     In some embodiments, primers comprise polymers of deoxyribonucleotides, ribonucleotides, and/or analogs thereof. In some embodiments, primers comprise naturally-occurring, synthetic, recombinant, cloned, amplified, or unamplified forms. In some embodiments, primers comprise DNA, cDNA RNA, chimeric RNA/DNA, or nucleic acid analogs. In some embodiments, primers comprise single-stranded or double-stranded forms. 
     In some embodiments, at least a portion of a primer can hybridize with a portion of at least one strand of a template polynucleotide in the reaction mixture. In some embodiments, at least a portion of a primer can be partially or fully complementary to a portion of the template polynucleotide. A template polynucleotide can include a polynucleotide sequence of interest, or a nucleic acid adaptor sequence joined to the polynucleotide sequence of interest. 
     In some embodiments, a primer can include or lack a terminal 3′OH which can serve as an initiation site for nucleotide incorporation. In some embodiments, a primer can include a terminal 3′ blocking group that does not serve as an initiation site for nucleotide incorporation. 
     In some embodiments, primers can be any length, including about 5-20 nucleotides, or about 20-40 nucleotides, or about 40-60 nucleotides, or about 60-80 nucleotides, or longer. 
     In some embodiments, a primer can have a 5′ or 3′ overhang tail (tailed primer) that does not hybridize with a portion of at least one strand of a template polynucleotide. In some embodiments, a non-complementary portion of a tailed primer can be any length, including 1-50 or more nucleotides in length. 
     In some embodiments, a plurality of primers includes individual primers that are essentially the same or are different. For example, primers in the plurality can have essentially the same sequences or different sequences, or can have essentially the same length or different lengths, or can include natural or synthetic forms or a mixture of both. 
     In some embodiments, a reaction mixture can contain at least one reagent for conducting a nucleotide incorporation reaction. For example, a reaction mixture can include any one or any combination of reagents: at least one nucleotide, one or more polymerases, at least one template molecule, at least one primer, at least one divalent cation. Optionally, a reaction mixture can include other enzymes, including at least one phosphatase. Optionally, a reaction mixture can include at least one accessory protein that can: bind single-stranded or double-stranded nucleic acids; mediate loading other protein onto a nucleic acid; unwind nucleic acid substrates; relax nucleic acids; resolve nucleic acid structures; disassemble complexes of nucleic acids and proteins, or disassemble nucleic acid structures; or hydrolyze nucleic acids. In some embodiments, an accessory protein comprises a sliding clamp protein. In some embodiments, an accessory protein comprises a multimeric protein complex. In some embodiments, a multimeric protein complex comprises 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or more subunits. In some embodiments, a multimeric accessory protein complex comprises a homo-meric or hetero-meric protein complex. 
     Optionally, a reaction mixture includes one or more additives for enhancing nucleotide incorporation, including betaine, DMSO, proline, trehalose, MMNO (4-methylmorpholine N-oxide) or a PEG-like compound. 
     In some embodiments, methods for nucleotide incorporation reactions can be conducted under conditions that are suitable for: binding a nucleotide to a polymerase (where the polymerase is bound to a duplex that includes a template molecule and primer); incorporating the nucleotide into the primer; generating at least one cleavage products from nucleotide incorporation; detecting one or more cleavage products, or one or any combination of these steps. 
     In some embodiments, suitable conditions include well known parameters, such as: time, temperature, pH, buffers, reagents, cations, salts, co-factors, nucleotides, nucleic acids, and enzymes. In some embodiments, a reagent or buffer can include a source of ions, such as KCl, K-acetate, NH 4 -acetate, K-glutamate, NH 4 Cl, or ammonium sulfate. In some embodiments, a reagent or buffer can include a source of divalent ions, such as Mg 2+  or Mn 2+ , MgCl 2 , MnCl 2 , or Mg-acetate. In some embodiments, a reagent or buffer can include magnesium, manganese and/or calcium. In some embodiments, a buffer can include Tris, Tricine, HEPES, MOPS, ACES, MES, or inorganic buffers such as phosphate or acetate-based buffers which can provide a pH range of about 4-12. In some embodiments, a buffer can include chelating agents such as EDTA or EGTA. In some embodiments, a buffer can include dithiothreitol (DTT), glycerol, spermidine, and/or BSA (bovine serum albumin). In some embodiments, a buffer can include ATP. 
     In some embodiments, suitable conditions include conducting a nucleotide incorporation reaction in a liquid phase, including an aqueous fluid or immiscible fluid. In some embodiments, a nucleotide incorporation reaction can be conducted in a continuous aqueous phase, or in a hydrophilic phase of an emulsion having a discontinuous hydrophilic phase and a continuous hydrophobic phase. In some embodiments, an aqueous fluid can be water-based. In some embodiments, a hydrophobic phase can be oil-based. In some embodiments, different nucleotide incorporation reactions can be conducted in separate compartments (e.g., droplets) forming part of a hydrophilic phase of an emulsion having a discontinuous hydrophilic phase and a continuous hydrophobic phase. 
     In some embodiments, suitable conditions include conducting a nucleotide incorporation reaction with a polymerase enzyme and one or more nucleotides. 
     In some embodiments, suitable conditions include cyclical temperature changes, or essentially isothermal temperature conditions, or a combination of both. In some embodiments, a reaction can be conducted at a temperature range of about 0-10° C., or about 10-20° C., or about 20-30° C., or about 30-40° C., or about 40-50° C., or about 50-60° C., or about 60-70° C., or about 70-80° C., or about 80-90° C., or about 90-100° C., or high temperatures. 
     In some embodiments, suitable conditions include conducting a reaction for a time, such as about 10-30 seconds, or about 30-60 seconds, or about 1-3 minutes, or about 3-5 minutes, or about 5-6 minutes, or about 6-7 minutes, or about 7-8 minutes, or about 8-9 minutes, or about 9-10 minutes, or about 10-11 minutes, or about 11-12 minutes, or about 12-13 minutes, or about 13-14 minutes, or about 14-15 minutes, or about 15-20 minutes, or about 20-30 minutes, or about 30-45 minutes, or about 45-60 minutes, or about 1-3 hours, or about 3-6 hours, or about 6-10 hours, or longer. 
     In some embodiments, suitable conditions include conducting a reaction in a volume of about 1-10 uL, or about 10-25 uL, or about 25-50 uL, or about 50-75 uL, or about 75-100 uL, or about 100-125 uL, or about 125-150 uL, or about 150-200 uL, or more. 
     In some embodiments, suitable conditions include conducting a reaction in a tube or well. In some embodiments, the well can be a part of a 96-well plate. 
     In some embodiments, methods for nucleotide incorporation comprise one or more surfaces. In some embodiments, a surface can be attached with a plurality of first primers, the first primers of the plurality sharing a common first primer sequence. In some embodiments, a surface can be attached with a plurality of first and second primers, where the first and second primers have different sequences. 
     In some embodiments, a surface can be an outer or top-most layer or boundary of an object. In some embodiments, a surface can be interior to the boundary of an object. 
     In some embodiments, a surface can be porous, semi-porous or non-porous. In some embodiments, a surface can be a planar surface, as well as concave, convex, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, a surface can be a bead, particle, microparticle, sphere, filter, flowcell, well, groove, channel reservoir, gel or inner wall of a capillary. In some embodiments, a surface includes the inner walls of a capillary, a channel, a well, groove, channel, reservoir. In some embodiments, a surface can include texture (e.g., etched, cavitated, pores, three-dimensional scaffolds or bumps). 
     In some embodiments, particles can have a shape that is spherical, hemispherical, cylindrical, barrel-shaped, toroidal, rod-like, disc-like, conical, triangular, cubical, polygonal, tubular, wire-like or irregular. 
     In some embodiments, a surface can be made from any material, including glass, polymers, borosilicate glass, silica, quartz, fused quartz, mica, polyacrylamide, plastic polystyrene, polycarbonate, polymethacrylate (PMA), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), silicon, germanium, graphite, ceramics, silicon, semiconductor, high refractive index dielectrics, crystals, gels, polymers, or films (e.g., films of gold, silver, aluminum, or diamond). 
     In some embodiments, a surface can be magnetic or paramagnetic bead (e.g., magnetic or paramagnetic nanoparticles or microparticles). In some embodiments, paramagnetic microparticles can be paramagnetic beads attached with streptavidin (e.g., Dynabeads™ M-270 from Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). Particles can have an iron core, or comprise a hydrogel or agarose (e.g., Sepharose™). 
     In some embodiments, the surface can be attached with a plurality of a first primer. A surface can be coated with an acrylamide, carboxylic or amine compound for attaching a nucleic acid (e.g., a first primer). In some embodiments, an amino-modified nucleic acid (e.g., primer) can be attached to a surface that is coated with a carboxylic acid. In some embodiments, an amino-modified nucleic acid can be reacted with EDC (or EDAC) for attachment to a carboxylic acid coated surface (with or without NHS). A first primer can be immobilized to an acrylamide compound coating on a surface. Particles can be coated with an avidin-like compound (e.g., streptavidin) for binding biotinylated nucleic acids. 
     In some embodiments, the surface comprises the surface of a bead. In some embodiments, a bead comprises a polymer material. For example, a bead comprises a gel, hydrogel or acrylamide polymers. A bead can be porous. Particles can have cavitation or pores, or can include three-dimensional scaffolds. In some embodiments, particles can be Ion Sphere™ particles. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosed methods (as well as related compositions, systems and kits) include immobilizing one or more nucleic acid templates onto one or more supports. Nucleic acids may be immobilized on the solid support by any method including but not limited to physical adsorption, by ionic or covalent bond formation, or combinations thereof. A solid support may include a polymeric, a glass, or a metallic material. Examples of solid supports include a membrane, a planar surface, a microtiter plate, a bead, a filter, a test strip, a slide, a cover slip, and a test tube. A support includes any solid phase material upon which a oligomer is synthesized, attached, ligated or otherwise immobilized. A support can optionally comprise a “resin”, “phase”, “surface” and “support”. A support may be composed of organic polymers such as polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyfluoroethylene, polyethyleneoxy, and polyacrylamide, as well as co-polymers and grafts thereof. A support may also be inorganic, such as glass, silica, controlled-pore-glass (CPG), or reverse-phase silica. The configuration of a support may be in the form of beads, spheres, particles, granules, a gel, or a surface. Surfaces may be planar, substantially planar, or non-planar. Supports may be porous or non-porous, and may have swelling or non-swelling characteristics. A support can be shaped to comprise one or more wells, depressions or other containers, vessels, features or locations. A plurality of supports may be configured in an array at various locations. A support is optionally addressable (e.g., for robotic delivery of reagents), or by detection means including scanning by laser illumination and confocal or deflective light gathering. An amplification support (e.g., a bead) can be placed within or on another support (e.g., within a well of a second support). 
     In an embodiment the solid support is a “microparticle,” “bead” “microbead”, etc., (optionally but not necessarily spherical in shape) having a smallest cross-sectional length (e.g., diameter) of 50 microns or less, preferably 10 microns or less, 3 microns or less, approximately 1 micron or less, approximately 0.5 microns or less, e.g., approximately 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, or 0.4 microns, or smaller (e.g., under 1 nanometer, about 1-10 nanometer, about 10-100 nanometers, or about 100-500 nanometers). Microparticles (e.g., Dynabeads from Dynal, Oslo, Norway) may be made of a variety of inorganic or organic materials including, but not limited to, glass (e.g., controlled pore glass), silica, zirconia, cross-linked polystyrene, polyacrylate, polymehtymethacrylate, titanium dioxide, latex, polystyrene, etc. Magnetization can facilitate collection and concentration of the microparticle-attached reagents (e.g., polynucleotides or ligases) after amplification, and can also facilitate additional steps (e.g., washes, reagent removal, etc.). In certain embodiments of the invention a population of microparticles having different shapes sizes and/or colors can be used. The microparticles can optionally be encoded, e.g., with quantum dots such that each microparticle can be individually or uniquely identified. 
     In some embodiments, a bead surface can be functionalized for attaching a plurality of a first primer. In some embodiments, a bead can be any size that can fit into a reaction chamber. For example, one bead can fit in a reaction chamber. In some embodiments more than one bead can fit in a reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the smallest cross-sectional length of a bead (e.g., diameter) can be about 50 microns or less, or about 10 microns or less, or about 3 microns or less, approximately 1 micron or less, approximately 0.5 microns or less, e.g., approximately 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, or 0.4 microns, or smaller (e.g., under 1 nanometer, about 1-10 nanometer, about 10-100 nanometers, or about 100-500 nanometers). In some embodiments, a bead can be attached with a plurality of one or more different primer sequences. In some embodiments, a bead can be attached with a plurality of one primer sequence, or can be attached a plurality of two or more different primer sequences. In some embodiments, a bead can be attached with a plurality of at least 1,000 primers, or about 1,000-10,000 primers, or about, 10,000-50,000 primers, or about 50,000-75,000 primers, or about 75,000-100,000 primers, or more. 
     In some embodiments, nucleotides can be compatible for use in any type of sequencing platform including chemical degradation, chain-termination, sequence-by-synthesis, pyrophosphate, massively parallel, ion-sensitive, and single molecule platforms. 
     In some embodiments, nucleotides can be used in any nucleic acid sequencing workflow, including sequencing by oligonucleotide probe ligation and detection (e.g., SOLiD™ from Life Technologies, WO 2006/084131), probe-anchor ligation sequencing (e.g., Complete Genomics™ or Polonator™), sequencing-by-synthesis (e.g., Genetic Analyzer and HiSeq™, from Illumina), pyrophosphate sequencing (e.g., Genome Sequencer FLX from 454 Life Sciences), ion-sensitive sequencing (e.g., Personal Genome Machine (PGM™) and Ion Proton™ Sequencer, both from Ion Torrent Systems, Inc.), and single molecule sequencing platforms (e.g., HeliScope™ from Helicos™). 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to compositions, as well as related methods, systems, kits and apparatuses, for nucleotide incorporation reactions comprising nucleic acid sequencing methods that detect one or more byproducts of nucleotide incorporation. The detection of polymerase extension by detecting physicochemical byproducts of the extension reaction, can include polyphosphate, pyrophosphate, hydrogen ion, charge transfer, heat, and the like, as disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 7,948,015 to Rothberg et al.; and Rothberg et al, U.S. Patent Publication No. 2009/0026082, hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. Other examples of methods of detecting polymerase-based extension can be found, for example, in Pourmand et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 103: 6466-6470 (2006); Purushothaman et al., IEEE ISCAS, IV-169-172; Anderson et al, Sensors and Actuators B Chem., 129: 79-86 (2008); Sakata et al., Angew. Chem. 118:2283-2286 (2006); Esfandyapour et al., U.S. Patent Publication No. 2008/01666727; and Sakurai et al., Anal. Chem. 64: 1996-1997 (1992). 
     Reactions involving the generation and detection of ions are widely performed. The use of direct ion detection methods to monitor the progress of such reactions can simplify many current biological assays. For example, template-dependent nucleic acid synthesis by a polymerase can be monitored by detecting hydrogen ions that are generated as natural byproducts of nucleotide incorporations catalyzed by the polymerase. Ion-sensitive sequencing (also referred to as “pH-based” or “ion-based” nucleic acid sequencing) exploits the direct detection of ionic byproducts, such as hydrogen ions, that are produced as a byproduct of nucleotide incorporation. In one exemplary system for ion-based sequencing, the nucleic acid to be sequenced can be captured in a microwell, and nucleotides can be flowed across the well, one at a time, under nucleotide incorporation conditions. The polymerase incorporates the appropriate nucleotide into the growing strand, and the hydrogen ion that is released can change the pH in the solution, which can be detected by an ion sensor that is coupled with the well. This technique does not require labeling of the nucleotides or expensive optical components, and allows for far more rapid completion of sequencing runs. Examples of such ion-based nucleic acid sequencing methods and platforms include the Ion Torrent PGM™ or Proton™ sequencer (Ion Torrent™ Systems, Life Technologies Corporation). 
     In some embodiments, target polynucleotides produced using the methods, systems and kits of the present teachings can be used as a substrate for a biological or chemical reaction that is detected and/or monitored by a sensor including a field-effect transistor (FET). In various embodiments the FET is a chemFET or an ISFET. A “chemFET” or chemical field-effect transistor, is a type of field effect transistor that acts as a chemical sensor. It is the structural analog of a MOSFET transistor, where the charge on the gate electrode is applied by a chemical process. An “ISFET” or ion-sensitive field-effect transistor, is used for measuring ion concentrations in solution; when the ion concentration (such as H+) changes, the current through the transistor will change accordingly. A detailed theory of operation of an ISFET is given in “Thirty years of ISFETOLOGY: what happened in the past 30 years and what may happen in the next 30 years,” P. Bergveld, Sens. Actuators, 88 (2003), pp. 1-20. 
     In some embodiments, the FET may be a FET array. As used herein, an “array” is a planar arrangement of elements such as sensors or wells. The array may be one or two dimensional. A one dimensional array can be an array having one column (or row) of elements in the first dimension and a plurality of columns (or rows) in the second dimension. The number of columns (or rows) in the first and second dimensions may or may not be the same. The FET or array can comprise 10 2 , 10 3 , 10 4 , 10 5 , 10 6 , 10 7  or more FETs. 
     In some embodiments, one or more microfluidic structures can be fabricated above the FET sensor array to provide for containment and/or confinement of a biological or chemical reaction. For example, in one implementation, the microfluidic structure(s) can be configured as one or more wells (or microwells, or reaction chambers, or reaction wells, as the terms are used interchangeably herein) disposed above one or more sensors of the array, such that the one or more sensors over which a given well is disposed detect and measure analyte presence, level, and/or concentration in the given well. In some embodiments, there can be a 1:1 correspondence of FET sensors and reaction wells. 
     Microwells or reaction chambers are typically hollows or wells having well-defined shapes and volumes which can be manufactured into a substrate and can be fabricated using conventional microfabrication techniques, e.g. as disclosed in the following references: Doering and Nishi, Editors, Handbook of Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology, Second Edition (CRC Press, 2007); Saliterman, Fundamentals of BioMEMS and Medical Microdevices (SPIE Publications, 2006); Elwenspoek et al, Silicon Micromachining (Cambridge University Press, 2004); and the like. Examples of configurations (e.g. spacing, shape and volumes) of microwells or reaction chambers are disclosed in Rothberg et al, U.S. patent publication 2009/0127589; Rothberg et al, U.K. patent application GB24611127. 
     In some embodiments, the biological or chemical reaction can be performed in a solution or a reaction chamber that is in contact with, operatively coupled, or capacitively coupled to a FET such as a chemFET or an ISFET. The FET (or chemFET or ISFET) and/or reaction chamber can be an array of FETs or reaction chambers, respectively. 
     In some embodiments, a biological or chemical reaction can be carried out in a two-dimensional array of reaction chambers, wherein each reaction chamber can be coupled to a FET, and each reaction chamber is no greater than 10 μm 3  (i.e., 1 pL) in volume. In some embodiments each reaction chamber is no greater than 0.34 pL, 0.096 pL or even 0.012 pL in volume. A reaction chamber can optionally be no greater than 2, 5, 10, 15, 22, 32, 42, 52, 62, 72, 82, 92, or 102 square microns in cross-sectional area at the top. Preferably, the array has at least 10 2 , 10 3 , 10 4 , 10 5 , 10 6 , 10 7 , 10 8 , 10 9 , or more reaction chambers. In some embodiments, at least one of the reaction chambers is operatively coupled to at least one of the FETs. 
     FET arrays as used in various embodiments according to the disclosure can be fabricated according to conventional CMOS fabrications techniques, as well as modified CMOS fabrication techniques and other semiconductor fabrication techniques beyond those conventionally employed in CMOS fabrication. Additionally, various lithography techniques can be employed as part of an array fabrication process. 
     Exemplary FET arrays suitable for use in the disclosed methods, as well as microwells and attendant fluidics, and methods for manufacturing them, are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010/0301398; U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010/0300895; U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010/0300559 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,546,128); U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010/0197507 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,306,757); U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010/0137143; U.S. Patent Publication No. 2009/0127589 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,948,015); and U.S. Patent Publication No. 2009/0026082 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,262,900), which are incorporated by reference in their entireties. 
     In one aspect, the disclosed compositions, methods, systems, apparatuses and kits can be used for carrying out label-free nucleic acid sequencing, and in particular, ion-based nucleic acid sequencing. The concept of label-free detection of nucleotide incorporation has been described in the literature, including the following references that are incorporated by reference: Rothberg et al, U.S. patent publication 2009/0026082; Anderson et al, Sensors and Actuators B Chem., 129: 79-86 (2008); and Pourmand et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 103: 6466-6470 (2006). Briefly, in nucleic acid sequencing applications, nucleotide incorporations are determined by measuring natural byproducts of polymerase-catalyzed extension reactions, including hydrogen ions, polyphosphates, PPi, and Pi (e.g., in the presence of phosphatase or pyrophosphatase). Examples of such ion-based nucleic acid sequencing methods and platforms include the Ion Torrent PGM™ or Proton™ sequencer (Ion Torrent™ Systems, Life Technologies Corporation). 
     In some embodiments, the present teachings provide nucleotides employed in a nucleic acid sequencing method. In one exemplary embodiment, the disclosure relates generally to a method for obtaining sequence information from template polynucleotides, comprising: performing template-dependent nucleic acid synthesis using any one, or a combination of any, of the nucleotides described herein. 
     In some embodiments, the template-dependent synthesis includes incorporating one or more nucleotides in a template-dependent fashion into a newly synthesized nucleic acid strand. 
     Optionally, the methods can further include producing one or more ionic byproducts of such nucleotide incorporation. 
     In some embodiments, the methods can further include detecting the incorporation of the one or more nucleotides into the sequencing primer. Optionally, the detecting can include detecting the release of hydrogen ions. 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to a method for sequencing a nucleic acid, comprising: (a) disposing template polynucleotides into a plurality of reaction chambers, wherein one or more of the reaction chambers are in contact with at least one field effect transistor (FET). Optionally, the method further includes contacting template polynucleotides, which are disposed into one of the reaction chambers, with a polymerase thereby synthesizing a new nucleic acid strand by sequentially incorporating one or more nucleotides into a nucleic acid molecule. Optionally, the method further includes generating one or more hydrogen ions as a byproduct of such nucleotide incorporation. Optionally, the method further includes detecting the incorporation of the one or more nucleotides by detecting the generation of the one or more hydrogen ions using the FET. 
     In some embodiments, the detecting includes detecting a change in voltage and/or current at the at least one FET within the array in response to the generation of the one or more hydrogen ions. 
     In some embodiments, the FET can be selected from the group consisting of: ion-sensitive FET (isFET) and chemically-sensitive FET (chemFET). 
     One exemplary system involving sequencing via detection of ionic byproducts of nucleotide incorporation is the Ion Torrent PGM™ or Proton™ sequencer (Life Technologies), which is an ion-based sequencing system that sequences nucleic acid templates by detecting hydrogen ions produced as a byproduct of nucleotide incorporation. Typically, hydrogen ions are released as byproducts of nucleotide incorporations occurring during template-dependent nucleic acid synthesis by a polymerase. The Ion Torrent PGM™ or Proton™ sequencer detects the nucleotide incorporations by detecting the hydrogen ion byproducts of the nucleotide incorporations. The Ion Torrent PGM™ or Proton™ sequencer can include a plurality of nucleic acid templates to be sequenced, each template disposed within a respective sequencing reaction well in an array. The wells of the array can each be coupled to at least one ion sensor that can detect the release of H +  ions or changes in solution pH produced as a byproduct of nucleotide incorporation. The ion sensor comprises a field effect transistor (FET) coupled to an ion-sensitive detection layer that can sense the presence of H +  ions or changes in solution pH. The ion sensor can provide output signals indicative of nucleotide incorporation which can be represented as voltage changes whose magnitude correlates with the H +  ion concentration in a respective well or reaction chamber. Different nucleotide types can be flowed serially into the reaction chamber, and can be incorporated by the polymerase into an extending primer (or polymerization site) in an order determined by the sequence of the template. Each nucleotide incorporation can be accompanied by the release of H +  ions in the reaction well, along with a concomitant change in the localized pH. The release of H +  ions can be registered by the FET of the sensor, which produces signals indicating the occurrence of the nucleotide incorporation. Nucleotides that are not incorporated during a particular nucleotide flow may not produce signals. The amplitude of the signals from the FET can also be correlated with the number of nucleotides of a particular type incorporated into the extending nucleic acid molecule thereby permitting homopolymer regions to be resolved. Thus, during a run of the sequencer multiple nucleotide flows into the reaction chamber along with incorporation monitoring across a multiplicity of wells or reaction chambers can permit the instrument to resolve the sequence of many nucleic acid templates simultaneously. Further details regarding the compositions, design and operation of the Ion Torrent PGM™ or Proton™ sequencer can be found, for example, in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2009/0026082 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,262,900); U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010/0137143; and U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010/0282617 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,349,167), all of which applications are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. 
     In various exemplary embodiments, the methods, systems, and computer readable media described herein may advantageously be used to process and/or analyze data and signals obtained from electronic or charged-based nucleic acid sequencing. In electronic or charged-based sequencing (such as, pH-based sequencing), a nucleotide incorporation event may be determined by detecting ions (e.g., hydrogen ions) that are generated as natural by-products of polymerase-catalyzed nucleotide extension reactions. This may be used to sequence a sample or template nucleic acid, which may be a fragment of a nucleic acid sequence of interest, for example, and which may be directly or indirectly attached as a clonal population to a solid support, such as a particle, microparticle, bead, etc. The sample or template nucleic acid may be operably associated to a primer and polymerase and may be subjected to repeated cycles or “flows” of nucleotide addition (which may be referred to herein as “nucleotide flows” from which nucleotide incorporations may result) and washing. The primer may be annealed to the sample or template so that the primer&#39;s 3′ end can be extended by a polymerase whenever nucleotides complementary to the next base in the template are added. Then, based on the known sequence of nucleotide flows and on measured output signals of the chemical sensors indicative of ion concentration during each nucleotide flow, the identity of the type, sequence and number of nucleotide(s) associated with a sample nucleic acid present in a reaction region coupled to a chemical sensor can be determined. 
     In a typical embodiment of ion-based nucleic acid sequencing, nucleotide incorporations can be detected by detecting the presence and/or concentration of hydrogen ions generated by polymerase-catalyzed extension reactions. In one embodiment, templates, optionally pre-bound to a sequencing primer and/or a polymerase, can be loaded into reaction chambers (such as the microwells disclosed in Rothberg et al, cited herein), after which repeated cycles of nucleotide addition and washing can be carried out. In some embodiments, such templates can be attached as clonal populations to a solid support, such as particles, bead, or the like, and said clonal populations are loaded into reaction chambers. 
     In another embodiment, the templates, optionally bound to a polymerase, are distributed, deposited or positioned to different sites of the array. The sites of the array include primers and the methods can include hybridizing different templates to the primers within different sites. 
     In each addition step of the cycle, the polymerase can extend the primer by incorporating added nucleotide only if the next base in the template is the complement of the added nucleotide. If there is one complementary base, there is one incorporation, if two, there are two incorporations, if three, there are three incorporations, and so on. With each such incorporation there is a hydrogen ion released, and collectively a population of templates releasing hydrogen ions changes the local pH of the reaction chamber. The production of hydrogen ions is monotonically related to the number of contiguous complementary bases in the template (as well as the total number of template molecules with primer and polymerase that participate in an extension reaction). Thus, when there are a number of contiguous identical complementary bases in the template (i.e. a homopolymer region), the number of hydrogen ions generated, and therefore the magnitude of the local pH change, can be proportional to the number of contiguous identical complementary bases. If the next base in the template is not complementary to the added nucleotide, then no incorporation occurs and no hydrogen ion is released. In some embodiments, after each step of adding a nucleotide, an additional step can be performed, in which an unbuffered wash solution at a predetermined pH is used to remove the nucleotide of the previous step in order to prevent misincorporations in later cycles. In some embodiments, the after each step of adding a nucleotide, an additional step can be performed wherein the reaction chambers are treated with a nucleotide-destroying agent, such as apyrase, to eliminate any residual nucleotides remaining in the chamber, which may result in spurious extensions in subsequent cycles. 
     In one exemplary embodiment, different kinds of nucleotides are added sequentially to the reaction chambers, so that each reaction can be exposed to the different nucleotides one at a time. For example, nucleotides can be added in the following sequence: dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP, dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP, and so on; with each exposure followed by a wash step. The cycles may be repeated for 50 times, 100 times, 200 times, 300 times, 400 times, 500 times, 750 times, or more, depending on the length of sequence information desired. 
     In some embodiments, sequencing can be performed according to the user protocols supplied with the PGM™ or Proton™ sequencer. Example 3 provides one exemplary protocol for ion-based sequencing using the Ion Torrent PGM™ sequencer (Ion Torrent™ Systems, Life Technologies, Calif.). 
     In some embodiments, the disclosure relates generally to methods for sequencing a population of template polynucleotides, comprising: (a) generating a plurality of amplicons by clonally amplifying a plurality of template polynucleotides onto a plurality of surfaces, wherein the amplifying is performed within a single continuous phase of a reaction mixture and wherein at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or 95% of the resulting amplicons are substantially monoclonal in nature. In some embodiments, a sufficient number of substantially monoclonal amplicons are produced in a single amplification reaction to generate at least 100 MB, 200 MB, 300 MB, 400 MB, 500 MB, 750 MB, 1 GB or 2 GB of AQ20 sequencing reads on an Ion Torrent PGM™ 314, 316 or 318 sequencer. The term “AQ20 and its variants, as used herein, refers to a particular method of measuring sequencing accuracy in the Ion Torrent PGM™ sequencer. Accuracy can be measured in terms of the Phred-like Q score, which measures accuracy on logarithmic scale that: Q10=90%, Q20=99%, Q30=99.9%, Q40=99.99%, and Q50=99.999%. For example, in a particular sequencing reaction, accuracy metrics can be calculated either through prediction algorithms or through actual alignment to a known reference genome. Predicted quality scores (“Q scores”) can be derived from algorithms that look at the inherent properties of the input signal and make fairly accurate estimates regarding if a given single base included in the sequencing “read” will align. In some embodiments, such predicted quality scores can be useful to filter and remove lower quality reads prior to downstream alignment. In some embodiments, the accuracy can be reported in terms of a Phred-like Q score that measures accuracy on logarithmic scale such that: Q10=90%, Q17=98%, Q20=99%, Q30=99.9%, Q40=99.99%, and Q50=99.999%. In some embodiments, the data obtained from a given polymerase reaction can be filtered to measure only polymerase reads measuring “N” nucleotides or longer and having a Q score that passes a certain threshold, e.g., Q10, Q17, Q100 (referred to herein as the “NQ17” score). For example, the 100Q20 score can indicate the number of reads obtained from a given reaction that are at least 100 nucleotides in length and have Q scores of Q20 (99%) or greater. Similarly, the 200Q20 score can indicate the number of reads that are at least 200 nucleotides in length and have Q scores of Q20 (99%) or greater. 
     In some embodiments, accuracy can also be calculated based on proper alignment using a reference genomic sequence, referred to herein as the “raw” accuracy. This is single pass accuracy, involving measurement of the “true” per base error associated with a single read, as opposed to consensus accuracy, which measures the error rate from the consensus sequence which is the result of multiple reads. Raw accuracy measurements can be reported in terms of “AQ” scores (for aligned quality). In some embodiments, the data obtained from a given polymerase reaction can be filtered to measure only polymerase reads measuring “N” nucleotides or longer having a AQ score that passes a certain threshold, e.g., AQ10, AQ17, AQ100 (referred to herein as the “NAQ17” score). For example, the 100AQ20 score can indicate the number of reads obtained from a given polymerase reaction that are at least 100 nucleotides in length and have AQ scores of AQ20 (99%) or greater. Similarly, the 200AQ20 score can indicate the number of reads that are at least 200 nucleotides in length and have AQ scores of AQ20 (99%) or greater. 
     Embodiments of the present teachings can be further understood in light of the following examples, which should not be construed as limiting the scope of the present teachings in any way. 
     Example 1 
     Polymerase Incorporation of γ-S-TTP: Effect of Alkaline Phosphatase Pre-Treatment: 
     This experiment was conducted to demonstrate that γ-S-TTP is resistant to degradation by calf intestinal phosphatase. 
     Two solutions were prepared as follows in 20 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.5, 20 mM NaCl, 10 mM MgCl 2 : (A) 80 μM of TTP, and (B) 200 μM of γ-S-TTP. 
     To both solution was added 1.5 μL of 10 u/μL of calf intestinal phosphatase (CIP), and the solutions were incubated at 37° C. for 20 min. The phosphatase was then removed by passing the solutions through a 10,000 molecular weight cut-off ultrafiltration membrane. The resulting solutions were then used for the polymerase extension reactions. 
     For the polymerase extension assays, a fluorescein-labeled oligonucleotide substrate was designed, and used in an assay to detect nucleotide incorporation. The labeled oligonucleotide is a hairpin-type oligonucleotide with a T-fluorescein residue located at the third position from the 3′ end. The 5′ end of the labeled oligonucleotide is a single stranded sequence 3′-AGGGGGG-5′. Thus, the first nucleotide to be inserted by a polymerase onto the 3′ end of the substrate is a TTP. The 5′ and 3′ ends of the hairpin oligonucleotide is shown below. A fluorescein is attached to the T residue, which is underlined and bolded:
     TGC 3′   ACGAGGGGGG 5′ (SEQ ID NO:83)   

     Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is postulated that when the third base from the 3′ end is labeled with a fluorphore (in this case the labeled nucleotide is a T), and when the 3′ terminal base is a cytosine or guanosine, then the fluorphore is in a stacked position with the 3′ terminal base, resulting in quenching the fluorescence from the fluorphore. When a thymidine is incorporated at the terminal 3′ end (e.g., via polymerase-mediated nucleotide incorporation), the fluorphore is un-quenched. This assay can be performed with the hairpin molecule described herein, or with two annealed single-strands that mimic the linear ends of this hairpin molecule. 
     A solution was prepared in the same buffer as above containing 250 nM of the hairpin oligonucleotide, 16 μM of a short oligonucleotide (5′-CCCCCC-3′, acting as a signal amplifier), and 2 nM of Bst polymerase. Then 50 μL aliquots of this solution were placed in individual wells of a microtiter plate. In separate wells of the same plate were placed 50 μL aliquots of the CIP-treated solutions from above, as well as identical solutions that had not been treated with CIP. The plate was equilibrated at 37° C. in a fluorescence microplate reader, and then the dNTP solutions were mixed with the solutions of polymerase and fluorogenic hairpin oligonucleotide. The polymerase catalyzed incorporation reactions were followed by recording the fluorescence intensity changes using 490 nm for excitation and 525 nm for the emission. When a polymerase reaction occurred, an increase in the fluorescence intensity over time was detected (see  FIG. 4 ). There was no change in fluorescence when no nucleotide incorporation reaction occurred (see  FIG. 4 ). 
       FIG. 4  shows that no incorporation reaction takes place with a CIP-treated TTP. On the other hand when a γ-S-TTP was used, polymerase reactions can be detected with both CIP treated and non-treated solutions. This demonstrates that the γ-S-TTP is resistant to the alkaline phosphatase activity. A treatment of synthetically prepared γ-S-TTP with CIP can be used to remove any traces of contaminating dTTP that may be present in the preparation of γ-S-TTP. 
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Some Typical pKa Values For Free Amino Acids In Solution 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Amino Acid 
                 α-carboxylic acid 
                 α-amino 
                 Side chain 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Alanine 
                 2.35 
                 9.87 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Arginine 
                 2.01 
                 9.04 
                 12.48 
               
               
                   
                 Asparagine 
                 2.02 
                 8.80 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Aspartic Acid 
                 2.10 
                 9.82 
                 3.86 
               
               
                   
                 Cysteine 
                 2.05 
                 10.25 
                 8.00 
               
               
                   
                 Glutamic Acid 
                 2.10 
                 9.47 
                 4.07 
               
               
                   
                 Glutamine 
                 2.17 
                 9.13 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Glycine 
                 2.35 
                 9.78 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Histidine 
                 1.77 
                 9.18 
                 6.10 
               
               
                   
                 Isoleucine 
                 2.32 
                 9.76 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Leucine 
                 2.33 
                 9.74 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Lysine 
                 2.18 
                 8.95 
                 10.53 
               
               
                   
                 Methionine 
                 2.28 
                 9.21 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Phenylalanine 
                 2.58 
                 9.24 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Proline 
                 2.00 
                 10.60 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Serine 
                 2.21 
                 9.15 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Threonine 
                 2.09 
                 9.10 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Tryptophan 
                 2.38 
                 9.39 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Tyrosine 
                 2.20 
                 9.11 
                 10.07 
               
               
                   
                 Valine 
                 2.29 
                 9.72 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Candidate amino acid residues for modification in Bst DNA polymerase 
               
               
                 (including pKa values for amino acid residues calculated using PropKa) 
               
               
                 Table 2 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Amino Acid 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Residue 
                 pKa 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 GLU-277 
                 4.64 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-372 
                 4.7 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-15 
                 4.71 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-206 
                 4.71 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-426 
                 4.71 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-493 
                 4.71 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-456 
                 4.76 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-131 
                 4.78 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-349 
                 4.78 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-446 
                 4.85 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-522 
                 4.85 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-558 
                 4.85 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-26 
                 4.92 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-294 
                 4.92 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-363 
                 5.08 
                   
               
               
                   
                 HIS-534 
                 5.12 
                   
               
               
                   
                 HIS-572 
                 6.17 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 HIS-473 
                 6.29 
                 B 
               
               
                   
                 HIS-46 
                 6.43 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 HIS-273 
                 6.51 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 LYS-510 
                 7.29 
                 B 
               
               
                   
                 N+ 
                 7.86 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 TYR-477 
                 7.98 
                 B 
               
               
                   
                 LYS-73 
                 8.55 
                   
               
               
                   
                 CYS-550 
                 8.87 
                   
               
               
                   
                 CYS-93 
                 9.57 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Candidate amino acid residues for modification in Bst DNA polymerase 
               
               
                 (including pKa values for amino acid residues calculated using H++) 
               
               
                 Table 3 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Amino Acid 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Residue 
                 pKa 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 GLU-461 
                 4.533 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-206 
                 4.555 
                   
               
               
                   
                 ASP-113 
                 4.57 
                   
               
               
                   
                 HIS-273 
                 4.662 
                   
               
               
                   
                 HIS-534 
                 4.747 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-277 
                 4.806 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-456 
                 4.902 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-544 
                 4.972 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-54 
                 5.037 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-30 
                 5.149 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-349 
                 5.158 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-522 
                 5.221 
                   
               
               
                   
                 HIS-151 
                 5.26 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-558 
                 5.361 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-220 
                 5.423 
                   
               
               
                   
                 GLU-446 
                 5.911 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 NTA 
                 6.465 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 HIS-46 
                 7.653 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 HIS-572 
                 8.056 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 HIS-308 
                 8.333 
                   
               
               
                   
                 HIS-473 
                 8.397 
                   
               
               
                   
                 LYS-411 
                 9.494 
                   
               
               
                   
                 LYS-543 
                 9.72 
                   
               
               
                   
                 LYS-287 
                 9.815 
                   
               
               
                   
                 TYR-419 
                 10.041 
                   
               
               
                   
                 LYS-253 
                 10.077 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Candidate amino acids for modification in  E. coli  SSB 
               
               
                 Table 4 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Amino Acid 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Residue 
                 pKa 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 HIS-55 
                 3.968 
               
               
                   
                 ASP-90 
                 4.251 
               
               
                   
                 ASP-17 
                 4.298 
               
               
                   
                 ASP-42 
                 4.449 
               
               
                   
                 GLU-50 
                 4.738 
               
               
                   
                 GLU-65 
                 4.856 
               
               
                   
                 GLU-47 
                 4.878 
               
               
                   
                 GLU-19 
                 4.896 
               
               
                   
                 GLU-53 
                 5.046 
               
               
                   
                 ASP-95 
                 5.143 
               
               
                   
                 GLU-69 
                 5.214 
               
               
                   
                 GLU-38 
                 5.606 
               
               
                   
                 NTALA-1 
                 5.851 
               
               
                   
                 GLU-80 
                 5.898 
               
               
                   
                 LYS-7 
                 7.276 
               
               
                   
                 LYS-49 
                 8.791 
               
               
                   
                 GLU-100 
                 9.033 
               
               
                   
                 ARG-3 
                 9.069 
               
               
                   
                 LYS-87 
                 9.453 
               
               
                   
                 LYS-62 
                 9.754 
               
               
                   
                 LYS-43 
                 10.399 
               
               
                   
                 TYR-22 
                 10.427 
               
               
                   
                 TYR-97 
                 10.483 
               
               
                   
                 TYR-70 
                 10.619 
               
               
                   
                 LYS-73 
                 10.898 
               
               
                   
                 ARG-56 
                 11.169 
               
               
                   
                 ARG-96 
                 11.176 
               
               
                   
                 ARG-86 
                 11.257 
               
               
                   
                 ARG-84 
                 11.296 
               
               
                   
                 ARG-41 
                 11.381 
               
               
                   
                 ARG-115 
                 11.804 
               
               
                   
                 ARG-21 
                 12.035 
               
               
                   
                 ARG-72 
                 12.671 
               
               
                   
                 TYR-78 
                 16.412 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Candidate amino acids for substitution 
               
               
                 in Therminator ™ DNA polymerase 
               
               
                 Table 5 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Amino Acid 
                 pKa 
                 pKa 
               
               
                   
                 Residue 
                 (calc) 
                 (model) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 ASP 4 
                 7.85 
                   
               
               
                   
                 ASP 6 
                 5.95 
                   
               
               
                   
                 ASP 31 
                 2.11 
                   
               
               
                   
                 ASP 44 
                 2.53 
                   
               
               
                   
                 ASP 45 
                 3.60 
                   
               
               
                   
                 ASP 50 
                 2.82 
                   
               
               
                   
                 ASP 92 
                 4.14 
                   
               
               
                   
                 ASP 98 
                 3.43 
                   
               
               
                   
                 ASP 108 
                 4.05 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 113 
                 3.10 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 123 
                 4.09 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 132 
                 3.64 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 164 
                 1.56 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 177 
                 3.87 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 182 
                 3.79 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 202 
                 3.47 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 204 
                 2.82 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 212 
                 2.14 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 215 
                 7.23 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 235 
                 2.59 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 246 
                 3.29 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 259 
                 6.50 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 315 
                 5.97 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 343 
                 3.69 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 373 
                 3.18 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 398 
                 4.52 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 404 
                 6.10 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 421 
                 4.42 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 432 
                 2.60 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 444 
                 3.20 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 455 
                 3.97 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 472 
                 3.03 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 480 
                 3.21 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 540 
                 3.92 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 542 
                 4.89 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 552 
                 2.69 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 598 
                 3.40 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 614 
                 3.89 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 635 
                 2.78 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 712 
                 3.83 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 718 
                 3.80 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 10 
                 4.05 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 22 
                 4.12 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 25 
                 3.60 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 29 
                 4.26 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 35 
                 2.57 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 49 
                 3.85 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 69 
                 4.56 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 81 
                 4.38 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 111 
                 4.60 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 130 
                 4.51 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 133 
                 3.91 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 134 
                 4.91 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 148 
                 5.27 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 150 
                 5.08 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 151 
                 4.10 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 167 
                 4.42 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 187 
                 4.70 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 189 
                 3.57 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 200 
                 4.18 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 224 
                 4.29 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 225 
                 4.55 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 238 
                 4.49 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 251 
                 4.60 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 276 
                 4.43 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 280 
                 4.75 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 288 
                 3.94 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 293 
                 4.71 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 294 
                 3.67 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 300 
                 4.26 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 303 
                 4.59 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 306 
                 4.72 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 314 
                 5.00 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 321 
                 4.64 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 325 
                 4.87 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 330 
                 7.31 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 354 
                 5.67 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 366 
                 6.07 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 374 
                 4.64 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 376 
                 3.89 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 391 
                 4.65 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 393 
                 3.42 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 426 
                 4.46 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 430 
                 4.75 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 436 
                 4.54 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 458 
                 4.49 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 459 
                 3.84 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 475 
                 4.11 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 508 
                 4.65 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 511 
                 3.78 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 519 
                 4.91 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 522 
                 4.09 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 527 
                 2.97 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 529 
                 4.67 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 530 
                 4.53 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 554 
                 4.84 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 562 
                 4.46 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 576 
                 5.03 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 578 
                 3.64 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 580 
                 4.99 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 599 
                 5.35 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 600 
                 6.04 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 609 
                 5.62 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 617 
                 4.45 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 621 
                 4.96 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 628 
                 4.02 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 637 
                 5.22 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 638 
                 4.75 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 645 
                 4.50 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 664 
                 4.36 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 719 
                 4.28 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 730 
                 4.72 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 734 
                 4.98 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 742 
                 3.65 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 C− 750 
                 3.25 
                 3.20 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 59 
                 6.13 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 89 
                 4.69 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 103 
                 7.00 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 147 
                 7.17 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 257 
                 4.01 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 416 
                 5.54 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 439 
                 6.77 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 545 
                 2.90 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 633 
                 6.96 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 663 
                 5.84 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 679 
                 6.64 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 CYS 223 
                 11.84 
                 9.00 
               
               
                   
                 CYS 428 
                 99.99 
                 99.99 
               
               
                   
                 CYS 442 
                 99.99 
                 99.99 
               
               
                   
                 CYS 506 
                 99.99 
                 99.99 
               
               
                   
                 CYS 509 
                 99.99 
                 99.99 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 7 
                 10.59 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 30 
                 10.26 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 37 
                 17.23 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 39 
                 14.20 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 86 
                 10.20 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 110 
                 11.95 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 112 
                 10.49 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 120 
                 13.12 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 146 
                 11.21 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 162 
                 11.82 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 180 
                 11.47 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 209 
                 13.47 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 218 
                 11.91 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 261 
                 10.23 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 273 
                 9.77 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 279 
                 11.96 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 291 
                 10.52 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 311 
                 14.21 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 320 
                 10.89 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 362 
                 11.49 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 384 
                 11.17 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 388 
                 12.23 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 402 
                 14.32 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 409 
                 14.74 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 431 
                 10.05 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 481 
                 10.52 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 494 
                 12.59 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 496 
                 16.00 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 497 
                 14.40 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 499 
                 11.49 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 505 
                 11.27 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 520 
                 11.38 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 538 
                 13.52 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 566 
                 11.47 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 579 
                 11.62 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 583 
                 11.55 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 594 
                 12.23 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 701 
                 14.24 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 731 
                 10.99 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 732 
                 11.88 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 750 
                 10.81 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 13 
                 10.18 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 20 
                 11.10 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 21 
                 10.56 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 27 
                 11.24 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 43 
                 10.25 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 52 
                 11.08 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 53 
                 10.63 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 57 
                 10.28 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 64 
                 10.26 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 66 
                 10.51 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 70 
                 11.41 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 73 
                 9.02 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 74 
                 10.47 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 84 
                 10.64 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 118 
                 10.50 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 124 
                 10.20 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 174 
                 10.01 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 175 
                 10.42 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 188 
                 10.15 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 192 
                 11.36 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 201 
                 12.01 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 220 
                 10.65 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 221 
                 10.80 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 229 
                 10.54 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 240 
                 10.09 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 253 
                 11.39 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 285 
                 10.22 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 287 
                 11.74 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 289 
                 9.16 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 317 
                 10.31 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 360 
                 8.91 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 363 
                 10.27 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 371 
                 9.91 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 390 
                 10.38 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 429 
                 10.64 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 440 
                 10.41 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 443 
                 10.92 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 462 
                 11.52 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 464 
                 8.83 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 466 
                 10.69 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 468 
                 10.07 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 476 
                 10.26 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 477 
                 10.91 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 487 
                 10.75 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 501 
                 10.22 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 507 
                 10.64 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 531 
                 11.77 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 535 
                 10.87 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 557 
                 10.51 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 558 
                 10.76 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 559 
                 10.31 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 561 
                 10.04 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 565 
                 10.25 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 591 
                 10.45 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 592 
                 10.20 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 593 
                 9.74 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 602 
                 10.54 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 620 
                 10.49 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 632 
                 10.36 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 644 
                 10.24 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 684 
                 10.40 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 692 
                 10.25 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 705 
                 9.57 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 746 
                 11.49 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 17 
                 12.25 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 32 
                 13.03 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 58 
                 12.29 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 67 
                 14.10 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 78 
                 12.36 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 97 
                 11.98 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 99 
                 12.16 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 101 
                 14.07 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 119 
                 16.80 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 169 
                 13.55 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 193 
                 12.78 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 196 
                 12.44 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 199 
                 12.34 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 222 
                 13.63 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 234 
                 12.80 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 243 
                 12.36 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 247 
                 12.27 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 255 
                 10.00 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 265 
                 13.14 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 266 
                 11.19 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 307 
                 12.83 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 310 
                 13.21 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 324 
                 12.66 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 335 
                 12.16 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 346 
                 13.10 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 359 
                 10.29 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 364 
                 11.85 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 375 
                 12.65 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 379 
                 12.22 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 380 
                 12.33 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 381 
                 12.44 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 394 
                 12.45 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 406 
                 12.99 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 425 
                 11.45 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 460 
                 11.44 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 465 
                 12.42 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 482 
                 10.68 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 484 
                 12.31 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 503 
                 13.11 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 518 
                 13.62 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 526 
                 12.48 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 585 
                 12.11 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 606 
                 13.59 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 612 
                 12.73 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 613 
                 12.46 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 625 
                 12.48 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 641 
                 12.85 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 685 
                 13.07 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 689 
                 13.04 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 694 
                 12.46 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 713 
                 12.20 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 743 
                 12.30 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 N+ 1 
                 7.38 
                 8.00 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Candidate amino acids for substitution in KOD DNA polymerase 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Amino Acid 
                 pKa 
                 pKa 
               
               
                   
                 Residue 
                 (calc) 
                 (model) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 ASP 4 
                 7.06 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 6 
                 −1.72 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 11 
                 3.94 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 31 
                 1.79 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 44 
                 3.94 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 45 
                 2.58 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 92 
                 2.18 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 98 
                 3.41 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 108 
                 3.11 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 113 
                 −0.42 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 123 
                 1.89 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 132 
                 3.23 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 141 
                 15.80 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 164 
                 3.36 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 177 
                 3.87 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 182 
                 3.31 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 202 
                 −1.29 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 204 
                 1.17 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 212 
                 −3.07 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 215 
                 4.76 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 235 
                 −0.47 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 246 
                 4.01 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 259 
                 4.82 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 315 
                 3.17 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 343 
                 3.50 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 373 
                 2.82 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 404 
                 3.03 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 421 
                 3.55 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 432 
                 3.68 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 444 
                 3.15 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 455 
                 3.74 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 472 
                 2.98 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 480 
                 3.62 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 540 
                 3.09 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 542 
                 8.78 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 552 
                 3.53 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 598 
                 3.43 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 614 
                 −1.00 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 633 
                 3.59 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 635 
                 3.18 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 718 
                 −2.60 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 721 
                 −4.20 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 728 
                 −5.80 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 ASP 754 
                 −7.40 
                 3.80 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 10 
                 4.03 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 22 
                 3.47 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 25 
                 4.06 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 29 
                 3.91 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 35 
                 3.43 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 49 
                 3.79 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 50 
                 4.50 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 57 
                 4.71 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 69 
                 3.54 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 81 
                 3.98 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 102 
                 4.78 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 111 
                 2.22 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 130 
                 4.78 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 133 
                 4.36 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 134 
                 4.50 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 143 
                 9.42 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 148 
                 4.64 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 150 
                 5.76 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 151 
                 15.70 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 154 
                 4.10 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 165 
                 3.26 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 166 
                 4.35 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 187 
                 0.05 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 189 
                 4.21 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 200 
                 4.43 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 224 
                 4.64 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 238 
                 3.49 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 251 
                 4.31 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 276 
                 0.56 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 280 
                 4.78 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 288 
                 4.61 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 293 
                 4.50 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 294 
                 3.98 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 300 
                 4.85 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 303 
                 4.57 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 306 
                 4.69 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 314 
                 3.66 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 321 
                 3.37 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 325 
                 4.50 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 330 
                 6.95 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 354 
                 3.49 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 363 
                 1.46 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 366 
                 4.66 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 374 
                 4.36 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 376 
                 3.83 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 385 
                 4.50 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 391 
                 4.64 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 393 
                 3.84 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 398 
                 3.91 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 426 
                 2.90 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 430 
                 4.57 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 458 
                 4.50 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 459 
                 4.53 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 475 
                 4.54 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 508 
                 3.90 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 511 
                 4.19 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 519 
                 4.57 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 527 
                 4.04 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 529 
                 3.93 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 530 
                 4.05 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 554 
                 4.60 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 562 
                 4.64 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 576 
                 4.47 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 578 
                 5.53 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 580 
                 4.12 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 599 
                 4.05 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 600 
                 4.64 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 609 
                 14.10 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 617 
                 12.50 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 621 
                 10.90 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 628 
                 4.47 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 637 
                 4.50 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 645 
                 4.50 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 648 
                 4.50 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 654 
                 4.50 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 658 
                 3.94 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 664 
                 9.30 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 719 
                 7.70 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 730 
                 6.10 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 734 
                 4.50 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 742 
                 2.90 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 GLU 753 
                 1.30 
                 4.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 59 
                 6.43 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 89 
                 4.54 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 103 
                 6.15 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 147 
                 6.36 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 257 
                 4.00 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 416 
                 2.74 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 439 
                 7.09 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 663 
                 6.50 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 679 
                 6.50 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 HIS 725 
                 6.50 
                 6.50 
               
               
                   
                 CYS 223 
                 10.07 
                 9.00 
               
               
                   
                 CYS 428 
                 99.99 
                 9.00 
               
               
                   
                 CYS 442 
                 99.99 
                 9.00 
               
               
                   
                 CYS 506 
                 6.50 
                 9.00 
               
               
                   
                 CYS 509 
                 16.78 
                 9.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 7 
                 10.67 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 30 
                 10.00 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 37 
                 17.98 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 39 
                 12.92 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 86 
                 13.65 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 110 
                 12.67 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 112 
                 10.84 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 120 
                 13.53 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 146 
                 10.06 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 162 
                 10.41 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 180 
                 10.00 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 209 
                 11.28 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 218 
                 7.75 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 261 
                 9.34 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 273 
                 9.22 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 279 
                 13.15 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 291 
                 10.00 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 311 
                 16.84 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 320 
                 14.28 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 362 
                 12.68 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 384 
                 10.00 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 388 
                 10.00 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 402 
                 17.93 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 409 
                 12.25 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 431 
                 9.81 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 481 
                 11.76 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 493 
                 12.60 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 494 
                 9.46 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 496 
                 14.11 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 497 
                 15.66 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 499 
                 9.84 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 505 
                 8.20 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 520 
                 11.19 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 532 
                 11.04 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 538 
                 12.70 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 566 
                 13.34 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 579 
                 10.65 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 583 
                 13.57 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 594 
                 10.60 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 653 
                 9.87 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 701 
                 10.00 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 TYR 750 
                 10.24 
                 10.00 
               
               
                   
                 N+ 
                 17.37 
                 8.00 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 13 
                 10.15 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 20 
                 10.22 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 21 
                 9.87 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 27 
                 10.36 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 43 
                 10.43 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 52 
                 10.08 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 53 
                 10.08 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 66 
                 10.01 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 70 
                 9.94 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 73 
                 10.06 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 74 
                 10.50 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 84 
                 9.60 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 99 
                 10.50 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 118 
                 11.22 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 124 
                 9.94 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 174 
                 10.43 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 192 
                 10.36 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 199 
                 8.13 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 201 
                 9.94 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 220 
                 10.29 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 221 
                 10.22 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 225 
                 10.50 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 240 
                 10.01 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 253 
                 12.95 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 287 
                 14.68 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 289 
                 11.48 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 317 
                 10.23 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 324 
                 10.08 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 360 
                 11.55 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 371 
                 9.51 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 375 
                 10.50 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 429 
                 10.50 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 443 
                 10.22 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 462 
                 10.50 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 466 
                 10.22 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 468 
                 10.29 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 477 
                 10.50 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 487 
                 10.24 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 507 
                 11.91 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 526 
                 10.22 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 531 
                 10.15 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 535 
                 10.36 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 557 
                 10.01 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 565 
                 10.50 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 570 
                 10.36 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 592 
                 10.50 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 602 
                 10.43 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 632 
                 10.36 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 638 
                 10.15 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 LYS 726 
                 9.87 
                 10.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 17 
                 15.49 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 32 
                 12.15 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 58 
                 11.45 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 67 
                 11.73 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 78 
                 11.94 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 97 
                 12.43 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 101 
                 12.08 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 119 
                 17.00 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 169 
                 12.15 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 188 
                 11.94 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 193 
                 13.69 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 196 
                 12.29 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 222 
                 14.49 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 234 
                 14.17 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 243 
                 12.50 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 247 
                 12.01 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 255 
                 9.85 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 265 
                 12.01 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 266 
                 10.80 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 307 
                 12.15 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 310 
                 12.22 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 335 
                 8.74 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 346 
                 11.16 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 359 
                 9.85 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 364 
                 11.90 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 379 
                 12.08 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 380 
                 11.96 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 381 
                 12.15 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 394 
                 12.50 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 406 
                 12.39 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 425 
                 11.45 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 440 
                 12.50 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 460 
                 11.45 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 476 
                 12.22 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 482 
                 11.15 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 484 
                 12.22 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 501 
                 12.22 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 503 
                 13.21 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 518 
                 11.94 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 585 
                 11.66 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 606 
                 12.29 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 612 
                 12.50 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 613 
                 12.50 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 625 
                 12.29 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 641 
                 12.15 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 685 
                 12.50 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 713 
                 12.50 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 743 
                 12.50 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 746 
                 11.94 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 751 
                 12.50 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
                 ARG 756 
                 12.01 
                 12.50 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                 Candidate amino acids for modification in B103-type polymerases 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
            
               
                   
                 Table 7 
                 Substituted 
               
               
                   
                 Amino Acid Residue 
                 Amino Acid 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 H58 
                 R 
               
               
                   
                 H73 
                 R 
               
               
                   
                 H74 
                 R 
               
               
                   
                 H103 
                 R 
               
               
                   
                 H146 
                 R 
               
               
                   
                 H153 
                 R 
               
               
                   
                 H336 
                 R 
               
               
                   
                 H370 
                 R 
               
               
                   
                 H458 
                 R 
               
               
                   
                 H482 
                 R 
               
               
                   
                 E11 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E28 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E43 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E50 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E72 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E81 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E148 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E154 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E158 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E159 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E161 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E168 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E216 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E236 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E238 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E241 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E273 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E276 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E288 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E290 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E293 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E311 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E319 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E322 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E331 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E335 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E338 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E343 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E352 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E359 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E371 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E405 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E416 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E417 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E463 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E466 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E483 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E505 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E512 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 E517 
                 A 
               
               
                   
                 C7 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 C19 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 C103 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 C445 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 C452 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 C513 
                 S 
               
               
                   
                 C527 
                 S