Patent Publication Number: US-6669789-B1

Title: Method for producing titanium-bearing microalloyed high-strength low-alloy steel

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The present invention relates to the field of high-strength low-alloy steel, and more particularly to compositions and methods for making high-strength low-alloy steel using titanium as the only, or as a principal, microalloy element for strengthening. 
     BACKGROUND 
     High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels conventionally use the alloying elements of vanadium, niobium, or combinations thereof for precipitation strengthening and grain refinement. Titanium is also used in combination with these elements. Relatively small amounts of the alloying elements, generally up to 0.10% by weight, are used to attain a yield strength of at least 275 MPa (40 ksi) in order for the steel to be considered high-strength. Of these alloying elements, titanium is the least expensive. 
     As known, titanium added to steel serves to limit austenitic grain growth in fully killed steels. Titanium induces precipitation of several compounds that form on cooling of the steel, including titanium nitride, (TiN), titanium carbide (TiC), and titanium carbonitride (Ti(C, N)). The first to form is TiN, which has three effects. The first effect is that precipitation of TiN eliminates free nitrogen from the steel. Free nitrogen in the steel is known to reduce toughness. Second, fine dispersion of TiN in the steel matrix limits grain growth, leading to grain size refinement during reheating. Third, TiN increases impact toughness at heat affected zones that are created through operations such as welding. Precipitation of TiN in liquid steel needs to be minimized, because these precipitates can be relatively coarse and have a size of up to 1 μm or more. Coarse TiN precipitates can have negative impacts on the steel because they are sharp-angled and relatively few in number, limiting the hardening and refining of the microstructure and degrading toughness and ductility. For the purpose of TiN formation, it is conventionally thought that titanium content should not exceed 0.03% by weight in order to minimize TiN precipitation in liquid steel, along with its detrimental effects. 
     Formation of titanium carbides and carbonitrides requires additional titanium in the steel, and because of the limitation placed on the titanium content, are generally not substantially present. Vanadium and niobium carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides are the primary precipitate strengthening agents in microalloyed steel. 
     Also as known, thin slab casting is an improvement over conventional thick slab casting, both of which may be done as continuous casting processes. Thin slabs are cast in thicknesses generally ranging from 25 to 100 mm (1 to 4 inches), while thick slabs are generally from 200 to 300 mm (8 to 12 inches). Both thick and thin slab continuous casting generally involve the steps of smelting the steel in either a Basic Oxygen Furnace or an Electric Arc Furnace, tapping the furnace into a ladle, continuing to heat the steel in the ladle in a Ladle Metallurgy Furnace, where alloys are added to create the desired chemical composition, and transferring the steel from the ladle to a tundish from which the steel flows through a water-cooled mold. The steel begins to solidify by forming a shell as it passes through the mold. Rolls downstream of the mold work with gravity to control and guide the steel strand through the mold. Thin slab casting eliminates an entire stage of processing, the roughing hot work, that is applied to thick slabs. In general after cooling and solidifying, both thick and thin slabs are reheated and hot-rolled, using various processes of controlled rolling. The temperature of the steel may be reduced by a combination of air cooling and quenching with sprayed water. A combination of controlled rolling and accelerated cooling may be performed that is referred to as thermomechanical controlled processing, and such processing may be used to attain desired characteristics and microstructure in the steel. The rolled steel is then coiled. 
     Titanium is conventionally thought to be inadequate to attain higher yield strengths in thin slab casting without being used in combination with vanadium or niobium. In general, such thin slab cast, low carbon microalloy steels have a microstructure of polygonal ferrite combined with pearlite, and sometimes combined with bainite. An additional desirable microstructure that may be achievable through controlled rolling with addition of niobium or vanadium is acicular ferrite. Acicular ferrite, when combined with polygonal ferrite, results in steel with improved strength and toughness. 
     Accordingly, a process is needed to make HSLA steel with titanium, a less expensive alloy for strengthening than either vanadium or niobium, without the expensive processing that is required by conventional thick slab casting. The steel produced should have a microstructure providing desired high strength and other beneficial characteristics. 
     DISCLOSURE OF INVENTION 
     According to the present invention, a composition and method of making a high-strength low-alloy hot-rolled steel sheet, strip, or plate bearing titanium as the principal or only microalloy strengthening element are provided. The steel is substantially ferritic and has a microstructure that is at least 20% acicular ferrite, and has a minimum yield strength of 345 MPa (50 ksi). The steel is continuously cast, hot-rolled carbon steel with high strength and having a chemical composition by percent weight including: 
     0.01≦C≦0.20; 
     0.5≦Mn≦3.0; 
     0.008≦N≦0.03; 
     0:5S≦S0.5; 
     0.01≦Ti eff ≦0.12; 
     0.005≦Al≦0.08; 
     0≦Si≦2.0; 
     0Cr≦1.0; 
     0≦Mo≦1.0; 
     0≦Cu≦3.0; 
     0≦Ni≦1.5; 
     0≦B≦0.1; and 
     0≦P≦0.5, 
     with the balance being iron and incidental impurities. Ti eff  is the effective content of titanium in the cast steel, which is the content of titanium not in the form of nitrides, sulfides, or oxides. Acicular ferrite increases with increases in Ti eff , as does strength. 
     In further accordance with the present invention, a steel is provided that has a tensile strength that exceeds yield strength by 69 MPa (10 ksi) and more. A majority of the acicular ferrite grains have an average grain size less than approximately 4 μm, as measured by x-ray diffraction and calculated by the Scherrer formula based on the {110}, {200}, and {211} Bragg peaks for Fe, and increased by a factor of ten. 
     Steel according to the present invention may further include niobium, vanadium, zirconium, or combinations thereof, in amounts up to 0.15% by weight of each microalloying element. Such addition can result in steel having a yield strength in excess of 621 MPa (90 ksi). 
     In yet further accord with the present invention, a process for manufacturing a hot-rolled carbon steel with high strength is provided that includes desulfurizing and deoxidizing a molten carbon steel, adding titanium, continuously casting the molten steel as a thin slab and having a composition as recited above, hot-rolling the thin slab to an approximate final thickness of from 1.8 mm to 13 mm (0.07-inches to 0.5-inches); and quenching the final thickness of steel. Yet further, specific temperatures and cooling rates are provided in accordance with the present invention. 
     The steel is further provided to have approximate temperatures by reheating of from 1100 to 1180° C. (2000 to 2150° F.) at the start of hot-rolling, and from 14° C. (25° F.) above and 22° C. (40° F.) below the steel&#39;s Ar 3  temperature on completion of hot-rolling. The cooling rate of the steel during hot-rolling may be approximately 60 to 230° C./min (150 to 450° F./min). Hot-rolling further may specifically include the reducing the thickness of the steel through five or six stands of rolls and specified interstand times between reductions. At least one interstand time is inadequate to allow recrystallization of austenite, and the temperature of the steel at one or more stands is less than the temperature at which austenite will recrystallize. Then the steel is quenched at an approximate cooling rate of from 810 to 1370° C./min (1500-2500° F./min) to a temperature of from 560 to 620° C. (1050 to 1150° F.). 
     The slab at the end of reheating preferably has a fine average austenite grain size of approximately up to 25 μm. Addition of vanadium, niobium, or a combination thereof can result in yield strengths exceeding 621 MPa (90 ksi). 
    
    
     Features and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent in light of the following detailed description of some embodiments thereof, as illustrated in the accompanying figures. As will be realized, the invention is capable of modifications in various respects, all without departing from the invention. Accordingly, the drawings and the description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive. 
       
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
     FIG. 1 is a schematic elevation view of a thin-slab casting line for use in the process of the present invention; 
     FIG. 2 is a schematic view of a crystal grain of acicular ferrite; 
     FIG. 3 is a schematic view of a crystal grain of bainite; 
     FIG. 4 is a microphotograph of a steel for reference having a total titanium content of 0.03% by weight; 
     FIG. 5 is a microphotograph of steel of the present invention having a total titanium content of 0.12% by weight; 
     FIG. 6 is an enlarged microphotograph of the reference steel of FIG. 4; 
     FIGS. 7,  8 , and  9  are enlarged microphotographs of the steel of the present invention having a total titanium content of 0.05, 0.07, and, as shown in FIG. 5, 0.12% by weight respectively; and 
     FIG. 10 is a graph of yield strength as a function of effective titanium content for steel of the present invention. 
    
    
     BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION 
     The present invention is directed to a composition and process for manufacturing titanium-bearing high-strength low alloy steel that is substantially ferritic (approximately at least 80% and preferably at least 95% ferrite by volume) including, at least in part, an acicular ferrite microstructure, with or without addition of vanadium, niobium, or a combination thereof, by casting a thin slab and controlled rolling the slab to final thickness. The invention is made possible by the relatively high solidification and cooling rates that are available from thin slab casting. 
     There are three factors primarily responsible for strengthening of the steel of the present invention: grain size refinement, precipitate strengthening, and solid solution strengthening. The largest contributor to strength in the present invention is likely grain size refinement. Factors that help reduce the grain size are: (1) A fine dispersion of TiN, TiC, and Ti(CN); (2) a small (25 μm or less) initial austenite grain size, as permitted by thin slab casting; and (3) having certain critical temperatures in the rolling process. Dispersion of a fine TiN throughout the grain structure of the steel on solidification and a fine TiC and Ti(CN) that precipitate after completion of deformation caused by thermomechanical controlled processing results in steel that includes very small acicular ferrite in its microstructure. 
     Precipitate strengthening by second phase particles in the steel (TiN, TiC, Ti(CN), and (FeTi)) also contributes to strength. The two critical factors for the effectiveness of these precipitates as strengtheners are (1) a very fine size and (2) a relatively large volume fraction, such as one to two percent. 
     Solid solution strengthening is likely the lowest contributor to strength. Solid solution strengthening occurs where elements such as C, Mn, and Ti are dissolved in-the iron in the ferrite grains. 
     FIG. 1 shows a thin-slab casting line  30  used in the present invention. The casting apparatus includes a mold  32  that receives molten steel  34  from a delivery system  36  filled by a ladle  38 . The molten steel  34  passes through the mold  32 , which has cooled plates that cause the molten steel  34  to solidify on the surfaces, forming a skin that contains the strand  40  of solidifying steel. The strand  40  is guided by pinch rollers  42  and cools to solidify for its entire thickness. The strand  40  then travels through a reheat tunnel furnace  50  in preparation for the hot-mill  52 , where the strand  40  is rolled as it passes through multiple roll stands  54 . The strand  40  then cools on a runout table  56 , where it is subject to accelerated cooling with quenching, and is subsequently coiled by a coiler  58 . 
     Opportunity for grain coarsening occurs when the steel is reheated for hot rolling and austenite grains recrystallize. Relative to thick slab casting, however, thin slab casting has significantly more rapid cooling rates, preventing austenitic grain growth by reducing time above the Ar 1  temperature. 
     Molten carbon steel is used in the process according to the present invention. The molten steel may be produced by any one of a variety of methods known to one of ordinary skill in the art. For example, the molten steel may be made in an electric arc furnace by melting a charge of steel scrap and pig iron, or in a Basic Oxygen Furnace from a charge of steel scrap and molten iron. Fluxes are added to form a floating layer of impurities in a slag, some or most of which can be poured off. Alloying may be performed in the steelmaking furnace, but for improved production efficiency and energy savings is usually performed after transferring the molten steel to a ladle that is subsequently moved to a ladle metallurgy furnace (LMF) for alloying. The molten steel is conventionally partially deoxidized in the steelmaking furnace by addition of a reducing element, most commonly aluminum. 
     In the LMF, the molten steel is gently agitated by either electromagnetic stirring or by bubbling of an inert gas, such as argon, through ports in the bottom of the ladle. Major alloying is performed with the addition of elements such as manganese. Deoxidization is completed in the LMF, often by addition of more aluminum, which also serves to desulfurize the steel. Inclusions largely accumulate in a slag that forms on top of the steel, which is then floated out of the LMF. Addition of calcium helps to control the shape of remaining aluminum oxide inclusions. Titanium is then added to the steel. 
     The preferred method of titanium addition is in the form of ferrotitanium wire. The ferrotitanium wire is injected through the slag that forms on top of the steel in the LMF. Addition of titanium prior to desulfurization and deoxidization would result in loss of titanium as titanium oxide in the slag. Bulk titanium could be added, but much of the bulk titanium would similarly be lost in the slag. Using ferrotitanium wire allows injection through the slag inside of refractory tubes. The steel is agitated to distribute the titanium by either inert gas injection or by use of an induction coil that provides electromagnetic stirring. Inert gas injection may result in increased particle agglomeration over electromagnetic stirring, and therefore electromagnetic stirring may be beneficial because titanium nitride particles that form may remain smaller. 
     Steel according to the present invention has a carbon content of between 0.01 and 0.20%, a manganese content of between 0.50 and 3.00%, and an effective titanium content of 0.01 to 0.12%, with all percentages herein being by weight unless otherwise noted. Titanium will first react with oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur in the steel. The steel of the present invention is killed, or deoxidized, prior to addition of titanium. Effective titanium content is therefore titanium available for formation of titanium carbide (TiC) and titanium carbonitride (Ti(C,N)) once titanium nitride (TiN) and titanium sulfide (TiS) have formed. Effective titanium (Ti eff ) is calculated as follows: 
     
       
         Ti eff  %=Ti total  %−(3.4×N %)−(1.5×S %). 
       
     
     Ti eff  is preferably from approximately 0.01 to 0.09%, and the yield strength of steel according to the present invention generally increases proportionally with increase in Ti eff  over this range. 
     Carbon has historically been the most important element for strengthening steel, but is detrimental to weldability and formability, and can require expensive heat treatments such as quenching and tempering to achieve the desired combination of strength and toughness. 
     Therefore, the carbon content in the steel of the present invention is limited to 0.20%. 
     Manganese acts to strengthen the steel through mechanisms including solid solution hardening and grain refinement due to depression of the austenite to ferrite transition temperature. Manganese content is limited, however, because at higher percentages it tends to degrade fatigue and formability performance. 
     The following schedule summarizes the composition of the steel of the present invention, in percent by weight 
     0.01≦C≦0.20; 
     0.5≦Mn≦3.0; 
     0.008≦N≦0.03; 
     0≦S≦0.5; 
     0.01≦Ti eff ≦0.12; 
     0≦Al≦0.08; 
     0≦Si≦2.0; 
     0≦Cr≦1.0; 
     0≦Mo≦1.0; 
     0≦Cu≦3.0; 
     0≦Ni≦1.5; 
     0≦B≦0.1; and 
     0≦P≦0.5, 
     with the balance being iron and incidental impurities. The effective titanium content is preferably from 0.01 to 0.09%. Generally a total titanium content of from 0.03 to 0.15% is required to achieve the cited Ti eff , and Ti total  is preferably from 0.03 to 0.12%. The aluminum is present as the result of standard killing practice, from which aluminum content will be from 0.005 to 0.08%. To attain desired strength and microstructure, the content of carbon and manganese in particular may need to be adjusted, as readily known to one of skill in the art. For example, if carbon content is 0.03%, the steel of the present invention may require approximately 0.7% manganese. The effects of the elements not previously discussed are also consistent with results that would be expected by one of ordinary skill in the art. In addition, the following microalloy elements may be added to the steel individually or in combination to provide further strengthening or other characteristics: 
     0.00≦Nb≦0.15; 
     0.00≦V≦0.15; and 
     0.00≦Zr≦0.15. 
     The molten steel is cast as a slab with an approximate thickness of from 25 to 100 mm (1 to 4-inches), and preferably 50 mm (2-inches). This relatively thin slab is required because in solidification at the mold  36 , the heat extraction rate for the entire volume of the slab is very high. In addition, at the high casting speeds that are in the range of 4 to 6 m/min (13 to 20 ft/min), high post-solidification cooling rates are needed. This combination of rapid heat extraction at solidification and high cooling rates after casting provides a fine distribution of TiN that cannot be obtained in thick slab casting. This creates a fine as-cast austenite structure with a grain size on the order of approximately 25 μm or less. The austenite does not significantly coarsen in the time and temperature ranges seen in the tunnel furnace  50  between the caster  36  and the finish mill  54 . 
     The thin slab strand  40  is transported through the tunnel furnace  50  to the finish mill  56  for hot-rolling. The slab may be expected to have a temperature of approximately 1010 to 1100° C. (1850 to 2000° F.) on entry into the tunnel furnace  50 . The steel is reheated in the tunnel furnace  50  to a temperature approximately between 1100 and 1180° C. (2000 and 2150° F.), providing a substantially homogenized slab with substantially all titanium carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides dissolved before entering the finish mill  56 . There the slab is hot-rolled, including using dynamic recrystallization controlled rolling. In dynamic recrystallization controlled rolling, there is inadequate time between passes through mill stands for static recrystallization to occur. The percent reduction of the slab thickness at each stand along with the time in between each reduction (“interstand times”) are approximately as follows: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Stand 
                 Reduction (%) 
                 Time (in seconds) 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 1 
                 45-55 
                 5-30 
               
               
                 2 
                 35-45 
                 4-25 
               
               
                 3 
                 10-30 
                 4-25 
               
               
                 4 
                 10-30 
                 3-20 
               
               
                 5 
                 10-30 
                 — 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     For the thinnest gauges produced, a sixth stand is sometimes used, with an addition rolling pass reducing the steel from 10 to 30 percent within 3 to 20 seconds of passing through stand  5 . At the initial stand, the temperature of the steel is in a range where austenite would recrystallize if given time prior to the next deformation. At one or more later stands, deformation of the steel occurs below the nonrecrystallization temperature, a temperature that is low enough that the austenite will not recrystallize even given time, leading to a very fine ferrite grain from “pancake,” highly stressed austenite grains. This is most likely to occur in the later stands, such as the fifth or sixth stands, but may occur earlier. 
     Appreciable reduction of the slab thickness at each stand  54  provides strain adequate to initiate dynamic recrystallization during deformation, resulting in very fine austenite grain sizes (on the order of 10 μm or smaller), and consequently very fine polygonal ferrite grain sizes. Moreover, the grain size of acicular ferrite decreases as the titanium content increases. There is a concurrent decrease in polygonal grained ferrite and an increase in acicular ferrite and strength. The acicular ferrite average grain size decreases from approximately 4 μm to 1 μm, from when there is no titanium in the steel to when the effective titanium content is approximately 0.09% by weight. X-Ray diffraction and the Scherrer formula were used to determine the average grain size of the acicular ferrite, based on the {110}, {200}, and {211}Bragg peaks for Fe. This in turn was adjusted up by a factor of ten to account for potential analytical issues, in accordance with standard measurement procedures. 
     The temperature of the steel on exiting the mill  52  is approximately between 14° C. (25° F.) above and 22° C. (40° F.) below the steel&#39;s Ar 3  temperature. The steel has a temperature of between 560 and 620° C. (1050 and 1150° F.) at the coiler, and is preferably 620° C. (1100° F.). The target temperature at the coiler  58  determines the quench rate on the runout table  56 , which is adjusted by selecting the number of cooling sections of the runout table  56  that spray water on the steel, as well as the flow rate of the water. The cooling rates used throughout the process are approximately as follows: 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Preferred 
               
               
                 Time 
                 Cooling Rate Range 
                 Cooling Rate 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                 Immediately after casting 
                 260 to 370° C./min 
                 310° C./min 
               
               
                   
                 (500 to 700° F./min) 
                 (600° F./min) 
               
               
                 Through the finishing mill 
                  60 to 230° C./min 
                  90° C./min 
               
               
                   
                 (150 to 450° F./min) 
                 (200° F./min) 
               
               
                 During quenching between the 
                 810 to 1370° C./min 
                 — 
               
               
                 mill and the coiler 
                 (1500-2500° F./min) 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The final approximate thickness of the steel is from 1.8 mm to 12.7 mm (0.07-inches to 0.5-inches), and preferably between 2.0 mm and 9.3 mm (0.08-inches and 0.365-inches). Through pinning of austenite grain boundaries, the fine TiN dispersion promotes fine grain size in the material through dynamic recrystallization as it is rolled. Further grain refinement is provided by additional precipitation events of TiC and Ti(C,N) in the steel as it is rolled. This results in steel that includes acicular ferrite in its microstructure, preferably at least 20% by volume when Ti eff  is at the low end of the range of the present invention, and increasing as Ti eff  increases up to approximately 80% acicular ferrite by volume. 
     Such a desirable result is difficult to achieve when casting thick slabs without the use of vanadium or niobium. Thick slab operations have higher temperatures in the slab reheat furnace and in the finish mill than in a tunnel furnace used in thin slab casting. The steel In thick slabs is also subject to these higher temperatures for longer periods for example, on the order of two hours in the slab reheat furnace as compared to fifteen or twenty minutes in a thin slab tunnel furnace. Because of the higher temperatures In thick slab casting and the additional time to which the slab is subjected to these high temperatures on being reheated, precipitation of TIC and Ti(C, N) can result in a coarser dispersion of precipitates and significant austenite grain growth that is less likely to occur in thin slabs. 
     The resulting rolled steel plate, sheet, or strip has a minimum yield strength of at least 345 MPa (50 ksi) and up to approximately 620 MPa (90 ksi). No annealing is necessary. This strength is acquired with titanium as the primary strengthening agent, and although other strengthening agents such as vanadium and niobium may be added to the composition, they are not required. Steel may be made in accordance with the method and composition of the present invention to conform to various standards, for example, Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standard J1392, June 1984, grades 050 (X, Y), 060 (X, Y), 070 (X), and 080 (X). The steel may have a minimum tensile strength that exceeds the minimum yield strength by 69 MPa (10 ksi), 103 MPa (15 ksi), or more. The steel may also have relatively high minimum elongation, for example, in excess of 17 percent. With addition of vanadium, niobium, molybdenum, or any combination thereof, the strength of the steel may be increased up to the range of 620 to 760 MPa (90 to 100 ksi). 
     FIG. 2 schematically shows the formation of acicular ferrite  60 , which transforms from austenite similarly to bainite  62 , shown in FIG. 3, but is a different microstructure. Acicular ferrite  60  consists of nonequiaxed ferrite grains. In the formation of acicular ferrite  60 , nucleation occurs at point nucleation sites at non-metallic inclusions within untransformed austenite  64  to create a chaotic basket weave microstructure, rather than in a fine sheaf along prior austenite grain boundaries  66  as in bainite  62 . The tendency of bainite  62  to form in parallel bundles can allow cracks to propagate easily; conversely, the random orientation of acicular ferrite  60  deters cracking. In addition to acicular ferrite, however, the steel of the present invention may potentially include polygonal ferrite, bainite, pearlite (decreases with increase in titanium content), and martensite (martensite formation generally requires relatively high carbon and molybdenum contents). 
     EXAMPLES AND DISCUSSION 
     The following examples and discussion help to further explain the invention, but should be understood to be illustrative and not limiting to the scope of the invention. 
     Table 3 shows the summarized chemical compositions in percent by weight of several produced test grades of titanium-bearing steel. Sample grade T ref  is provided for reference and is not steel of the present invention, and sample grades T1 through T4 are steels of the present invention. Sample V4 is a vanadium-strengthened steel, provided for comparision. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Steel 
                 C 
                 Mn 
                 Al 
                 N 
                 S 
                 Ti total   
                 Ti eff   
                 V 
               
               
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 T ref   
                 0.05 
                 0.90 
                 0.025 
                 0.01 
                 0.006 
                 0.03 
                 0   
                 — 
               
               
                 T1 
                 0.05 
                 0.90 
                 0.025 
                 0.01 
                 0.006 
                 0.05 
                 0.01 
                 — 
               
               
                 T2 
                 0.05 
                 0.90 
                 0.025 
                 0.01 
                 0.006 
                 0.07 
                 0.03 
                 — 
               
               
                 T3 
                 0.05 
                 0.90 
                 0.025 
                 0.01 
                 0.006 
                 0.09 
                 0.05 
                 — 
               
               
                 T4 
                 0.05 
                 0.90 
                 0.025 
                 0.01 
                 0.006 
                 0.12 
                 0.08 
                 — 
               
               
                 V4 
                 0.045 
                 1.60 
                 0.025 
                 0.021 
                 0.006 
                 — 
                 — 
                 0.13 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     For a steel according to the present invention with a carbon content of 0.03 to 0.06% by weight, including sample grades T1, T2, T3, and T4 in Table 3 that are 0.05% carbon by weight, the temperature of the steel is approximately between 840 and 900° C. (1550 and 1650° F.) on leaving the mill, preferably between 860 and 890° C. (1590 and 1630° F.), and more preferably 860° C. (1590° F.). 
     Table 4 summarizes the ranges of the mechanical properties of the reference steel T ref ) the four sample grades of titanium-bearing steel, T1 through T4, and vanadium-bearing steel V4, including the yield strength, tensile strength, and percent elongation. Yield strength is determined herein using the 0.2% offset method. It should be noted that the strength of the steel is influenced by factors other than titanium content, such as carbon and manganese contents, and thermal processing and cooling conditions. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Yield 
                 Tensile 
                 Elongation 
               
               
                   
                 Steel 
                 MPa (ksi) 
                 MPa (ksi) 
                 % 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
                 T ref   
                 290-331 (42-48) 
                 379-414 (55-60) 
                 30-36 
               
               
                   
                 T1 
                 359-414 (50-60) 
                 441-496 (64-72) 
                 25-32 
               
               
                   
                 T2 
                 434-490 (63-71) 
                 517-586 (75-85) 
                 22-26 
               
               
                   
                 T3 
                 490-531 (71-77) 
                 586-655 (85-95) 
                 19-24 
               
               
                   
                 T4 
                 552-621 (80-90) 
                  621-689 (90-110) 
                 15-24 
               
               
                   
                 V4 
                 531-593 (77-86) 
                 607-676 (88-98) 
                 19-23 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     The microphotographs of FIGS. 4 through 9 show increasing amounts of acicular ferrite relative to increases in titanium content for selected sample grades. FIGS. 4 and 6 show T ref  (reference sample, 0% Ti eff ), FIGS. 5 and 9 show grade T4 (0.12% Ti eff ), FIG. 7 shows grade T1 (0.01% Ti eff ), and FIG. 8 shows grade T2 (0.03% Ti eff ). In FIGS. 4 and 6, the T ref  ferrite grains are generally large, equiaxed, and polygonal. As titanium content increases grains are increasingly finer, nonequiaxed, and acicular. The amount of acicular ferrite increases from approximately 20% by volume at a Ti eff  of 0.01% up to approximately 80% at a Ti eff  of 0.09%. Acicular ferrite in excess of approximately 85% by volume can embrittle the steel, and is therefore undesirable. The dark spots in the Figures are pearlite. Pearlite content decreases with increasing titanium content, which is anticipated as titanium increasingly forms TiC. 
     FIG. 10 shows yield strength as a function of titanium content for 49 samples made in 27 heats (some data points overlay each other). Yield strength generally increases proportionally with increasing Ti eff  from 0.01 to 0.09% Ti eff . 
     Carbon, manganese, nitrogen, silicon, and total titanium content of several specific samples of the steel of the present invention are listed in Table 5, and their strengths and elongation are provided in Table 6. The samples&#39; temperature on exit of the mill (finish temperature), entry temperature at the coiler (coiling temperature), and gauge are shown in Table 7. 
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 5 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Sample 
                 C 
                 Mn 
                 N 
                 S 
                 Ti total   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
            
               
                   
                 A 
                 0.052 
                 0.90 
                 0.0094 
                 0.010 
                 0.048 
               
               
                   
                 B 
                 0.051 
                 0.83 
                 0.0077 
                 0.005 
                 0.049 
               
               
                   
                 C 
                 0.054 
                 0.88 
                 0.0096 
                 0.006 
                 0.067 
               
               
                   
                 D 
                 0.048 
                 0.91 
                 0.0120 
                 0.003 
                 0.076 
               
               
                   
                 E 
                 0.048 
                 0.91 
                 0.0120 
                 0.003 
                 0.076 
               
               
                   
                 F 
                 0.048 
                 0.91 
                 0.0120 
                 0.003 
                 0.076 
               
               
                   
                 G 
                 0.055 
                 0.89 
                 0.0117 
                 0.011 
                 0.118 
               
               
                   
                 H 
                 0.051 
                 0.89 
                 0.0102 
                 0.007 
                 0.117 
               
               
                   
                 I 
                 0.046 
                 0.88 
                 0.0095 
                 0.012 
                 0.127 
               
               
                   
                 J 
                 0.044 
                 0.86 
                 0.0099 
                 0.009 
                 0.134 
               
               
                   
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                   
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
            
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Yield 
                   
                 Tensile 
                 Elong. 
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Sample 
                 Ti eff   
                 MPa 
                 ksi 
                 MPa 
                 ksi 
                 % 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 A 
                 0.001 
                 410 
                 59.4 
                 488 
                 70.8 
                 25 
               
               
                 B 
                 0.015 
                 426 
                 61.8 
                 485 
                 70.4 
                 25 
               
               
                 C 
                 0.025 
                 461 
                 66.9 
                 544 
                 78.9 
                 23 
               
               
                 D 
                 0.031 
                 443 
                 64.2 
                 525 
                 76.1 
                 25 
               
               
                 E 
                 0.031 
                 475 
                 68.9 
                 583 
                 84.6 
                 21 
               
               
                 F 
                 0.031 
                 483 
                 70.1 
                 561° 
                 81.3 
                 24 
               
               
                 G 
                 0.062 
                 585 
                 84.8 
                 672 
                 97.5 
                 21 
               
               
                 H 
                 0.072 
                 596 
                 86.4 
                 672 
                 97.5 
                 20 
               
               
                 I 
                 0.077 
                 611 
                 88.6 
                 705 
                 102.2 
                 21 
               
               
                 J 
                 0.087 
                 590 
                 85.6 
                 665 
                 96.5 
                 18 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     
       
         
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
            
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Finish Temp. 
                   
                 Coiler Temp. 
                   
                 Gauge 
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 Sample 
                 C 
                 F 
                 C 
                 F 
                 mm 
                 0.001″ 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
           
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
            
               
                 A 
                 869 
                 1596 
                 591 
                 1096 
                 2.1 
                 84 
               
               
                 B 
                 875 
                 1607 
                 577 
                 1071 
                 2.0 
                 80 
               
               
                 C 
                 866 
                 1590 
                 594 
                 1101 
                 3.3 
                 131 
               
               
                 D 
                 892 
                 1637 
                 579 
                 1074 
                 2.6 
                 104 
               
               
                 E 
                 868 
                 1595 
                 587 
                 1088 
                 3.5 
                 136 
               
               
                 F 
                 865 
                 1589 
                 611 
                 1131 
                 3.5 
                 138 
               
               
                 G 
                 866 
                 1590 
                 593 
                 1100 
                 2.3 
                 90 
               
               
                 H 
                 868 
                 1594 
                 590 
                 1094 
                 3.5 
                 139 
               
               
                 I 
                 866 
                 1591 
                 597 
                 1106 
                 5.0 
                 195 
               
               
                 J 
                 878 
                 1613 
                 595 
                 1103 
                 2.1 
                 83 
               
               
                   
               
            
           
         
       
     
     Although the invention has been shown and described with respect to a best mode embodiment and other embodiments thereof, it should be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes, omissions, and additions may be made to the form and detail of the disclosed embodiments without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention, as recited in the following claims.